STATE OF UTAH DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
DIVISION OF FORESTRY, FIRE AND STATE LANDS
RECORD OF DECISION
GREAT SALT LAKE COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN
RECORD NUMBER: 13-0315-1
Date of Execution: MARCH 27, 2013

INTRODUCTION
Pursuant to UTAH CODE §§ 65A-2-2 and 65A-2-4 and the implementing regulations of Utah
Administrative Code (UTAH ADMIN. CODE) R652-90, the Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands
(FFSL or the division) is empowered to prepare and adopt comprehensive management plans for
sovereign lands and resources. Given this direction, FFSL initiated the Great Salt Lake (GSL)
Comprehensive Management Plan (CMP) revision process with interagency cooperation and
collaboration, and open public participation. For the duration of the planning process, a withdrawal was
ordered on the lakebed from new leasing and permitting until the completion of the CMP. The withdrawal
did not apply to uses associated with boundary settlements, trails or lake access improvement, or activities
associated with the protection and enhancement of endangered species. Existing leases and permits were
allowed to be renewed or extended in accordance with UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-700.
The primary purpose of the GSL CMP is to guide FFSL, along with other local, state, and federal
partners, in managing, allocating, and appropriately using GSL’s sovereign land resources. The GSL
CMP clearly sets forth defined management goals, objectives, and implementation strategies for guiding
and directing future resource management actions, activities, and recreation uses on GSL.
In compliance with policy, procedures, rules, and statutes for comprehensive management planning,
FFSL has completed the comprehensive management plan for the subject site. Therefore, FFSL issues
this Record of Decision for the GSL CMP.

DESCRIPTION OF LANDS DIRECTLY AFFECTED
The planning unit area encompasses those sovereign lands below the surveyed meander line of GSL (an
elevation range of 4,202–4,212 feet above sea level), located in Box Elder, Weber County, Davis, Salt
Lake, and Tooele counties. The lands below the meander line are represented as owned by the State of
Utah. Some of the sovereign land boundaries have not been settled, but the visions, goals, policies, and
objectives in the GSL CMP will apply to those lands that are judged to be sovereign lands.

PROPOSED ACTION
The Proposed Action associated with this Record of Decision is the adoption and implementation of the
2013 GSL CMP.

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RELEVANT FACTUAL BACKGROUND
The GSL CMP revision process began in March 2010. FFSL initiated the revision to update the decadeold management plan, to assess the current conditions of GSL at low levels (4,193.6 feet in the fall of
2010), and to incorporate research on the lake that had been completed in the last 10 years. FFSL was also
interested in improving management, planning, and research activities of the Utah Department of Natural
Resources (UDNR) and Utah Department of Environmental Quality (UDEQ) divisions on GSL. In
addition to the GSL CMP revision, FFSL concurrently updated the GSL Mineral Leasing Plan (MLP).
Through a rigorous competitive process, SWCA Environmental Consultants (SWCA) was hired to
facilitate the development of the 2013 GSL CMP and MLP.
As part of the GSL CMP revision, FFSL convened the GSL Planning Team comprising UDNR and
UDEQ representatives to provide input and support throughout the revision process. Throughout the
process, the GSL Planning Team represented the long-term collaborative approach necessary to
holistically manage the complex GSL ecosystem. The purposes of the GSL Planning Team were to


provide resource-specific guidance throughout the planning process;



provide the most recent, relevant research and data pertaining to GSL;



provide timely review and comment on the document throughout the revision process; and



offer project updates, milestones, and opportunities for comment to State of Utah agencies and the
general public.

The GSL CMP planning process was designed to achieve a cumulative and linear development of visions,
goals, and management objectives and to encourage public participation throughout the process. The
planning process is illustrated in Figure 1.

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Review Existing Data

Management
Strategies Public
Meeting

Draft Final Public
Meetings

Scoping Meetings

Develop Lake Level
Management
Strategies

Public Comment
Analysis and
Response

Update Baseline
Conditions

Draft CMP Public
Meetings

Finalize CMP

Draft Lake Level
Matrix

Lake Level Matrix
Stakeholder Meetings

Issue Record of
Decision

Figure 1.

Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan planning process.

Public Involvement
The GSL CMP revision comprised a two-year public involvement process. FFSL submitted a notice of
intent to initiate the GSL CMP revision process to the Resource Development Coordinating Committee
(RDCC) in March 2010. Following that submittal, FFSL and SWCA conducted three rounds of public
involvement meetings: 1) at scoping, 2) at the release of the draft GSL CMP, and 3) at the release of the
final GSL CMP. During the development of the GSL Lake Level Matrix and Lake Levelâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Specific
Management Strategies, FFSL held two rounds of stakeholder meetings to get feedback on a range of
resource-specific lake level impacts. A summary of the GSL CMP public involvement opportunities is
provided below.
1. In August 2010, FFSL and SWCA conducted one scoping meeting in each of the five affected
counties to solicit public and agency concerns and comments (Table 1).

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Table 1.

Record of Decision 13-0315-1

Scoping Meeting Dates, Times, and Locations

Date

Time

City, State

Address

August 10, 2010

10:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2380 Washington Blvd

August 17, 2010

10:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m.

Farmington, Utah

28 East State Street

August 17, 2010

4:00–7:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

2001 South State Street

August 24, 2010

3:00–6:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

August 31, 2010

9:00 a.m.–Noon

Brigham City, Utah

01 South Main Street

2. In May 2011, FFSL and SWCA conducted one public meeting in each of the five counties that
surround GSL to solicit public and agency feedback on the draft GSL CMP (Table 2).
Table 2.
Draft Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan Meeting Dates, Times,
and Locations
Date

Time

City, State

Address

May 12, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Brigham City, Utah

01 South Main Street

May 17, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2380 Washington Blvd.

May 18, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Farmington, Utah

28 East State Street

May 19, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

May 24, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

1594 West North Temple

3. In March 2012, FFSL and SWCA conducted one public meeting in each of the five counties that
surround the GSL to solicit public and agency feedback on the draft final GSL CMP (Table 3).
Table 3.
Draft Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan Meeting Dates,
Times, and Locations
Date

Time

City, State

Address

March 20, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Clearfield, Utah

562 South 1000 East

March 21, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

March 22, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

1575 West 1000 North

March 27, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Brigham City, Utah

26 East Forest Street

March 28, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2464 Jefferson Avenue

Meeting Design
The public involvement meetings combined formal presentation and open house formats. At each
meeting, SWCA’s project manager provided a brief project overview or presentation. Following this
informational session, an open house meeting was conducted in a meeting space within the same building.
Attendees were greeted and asked to sign in, as well as informed about the meeting format and given the
option of taking a business card with the project website and contact information and/or a scoping

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comment form. Attendees were informed about ways to submit comments and encouraged to ask
questions of SWCA’s public involvement staff and resource specialists from the GSL Planning Team.
Informational display boards were also arranged around the meeting room to provide the following
background information:


Explanation of the plan revision process and the general timeline and sequence of events



Description of the general need for a plan revision and responsible entities



Definition of sovereign lands, public trust, and multiple-use/sustainable yield



Map and list of potential resource issues



Opportunities for public comment and a description of available comment methods



Description of the mineral leasing process



Lake Level Matrix

Meeting Advertising
Pursuant to FFSL requirements, public involvement meetings were advertised in a variety of formats
(Table 4) prior to their scheduled dates. In each format, the advertisements provided logistics, explained
the purpose of the scoping meetings, gave the schedule for the public and agency comment period,
outlined additional ways to comment, and provided methods of obtaining additional information.
Table 4.

Advertising of Public Meetings

Media Notices and Other Forms of Advertising
Media notice releases for the scoping period were emailed on July 30, 2010, to the following:





Meeting information was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on July 30, 2010.
The draft GSL CMP was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on May 2, 2011.
The final GSL CMP was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on March 7, 2012.

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Table 4.

Record of Decision 13-0315-1

Advertising of Public Meetings

Postcards and Other Invitations
Postcards announcing the scoping meetings were sent to those on the mailing list on August 2, 2010.
These comprised the following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

A meeting invitation for the scoping meetings was emailed to those on the project mailing list for whom email
addresses were provided or were obtainable on August 2, 2010.
A scoping meeting announcement was posted on the following listserves:




GSL Technical Team
Jordan River Watershed Council
South Shore Cooperative Weed Management Area

A project poster was displayed at the FRIENDS of GSL Issues Forum April 28–30, 2010.
A meeting invitation for the draft GSL CMP was emailed to the 416 individuals on the project mailing list for whom
email addresses were provided or were obtainable as of April 19, 2011.
Postcards announcing the draft GSL CMP meetings were sent to the 567 individuals on the project mailing list for
whom mailing addresses were provided or were obtainable as of April 19, 2011. These comprised the following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

A meeting invitation for the draft final GSL CMP was emailed to the 416 individuals on the project mailing list for
whom email addresses were provided or were obtainable as of March 7, 2012.
Postcards announcing the draft final GSL CMP meetings were sent to the 638 individuals on the project mailing list
for whom mailing addresses were provided or were obtainable as of March 7, 2012. These comprised the
following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





6

Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Record of Decision 13-0315-1

Stakeholder Meetings
During the revision process, two rounds of stakeholder meetings also took place (one in January 2011 and
one in November 2011). The stakeholders invited to the meeting consisted of industry, recreation, and
environmental advocacy groups. The GSL Planning Team members were also invited to the stakeholder
meetings. The objective of the first stakeholder meeting was to preview and gather comment on the GSL
Lake Level Matrix. The objective of the second meeting was to preview and comment on the draft
management strategies. The comments gathered at the stakeholder meetings were incorporated into the
document, as appropriate. A summary of the public meetings held to date is provided in Table 5.
Table 5.

Meeting Dates, Times, and Locations

Date

Time

City, State

Address

January 4, 2011

2:00–4:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

January 6, 2011

2:00–4:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

November 1, 2011

10:00 a.m.–Noon

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

November 3, 2011

1:00–3:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

PUBLIC TRUST
FFSL acknowledges its responsibility to the Public Trust and obligation to multiple-use, sustained yield
management. As stated in the GSL CMP, “the overarching management objectives of FFSL are to protect
and sustain the trust resources and to provide for reasonable beneficial uses of those resources, consistent
with their long-term protection and conservation. This means that FFSL will manage GSL and its
resources under multiple-use, sustained yield principles (UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1) by implementing
legislative policies (UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8) and accommodating public and private uses to the extent
that those policies and uses do not substantially impair Public Trust resources and or the lake’s
sustainability. Any beneficial use of Public Trust resources is subsidiary to long-term conservation of
resources.”
The 2013 GSL CMP was designed to facilitate FFSL’s management of GSL and its resources under
multiple-use, sustained-yield principles, as stated in UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1. In particular, the
management strategies highlight the range of multiple uses under FFSL’s jurisdiction. Together with the
Lake Level Matrix, the management strategies outline how FFSL will ensure the sustained yield of GSL
resources.
Further, according to UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8, FFSL is required to “prepare and maintain a
comprehensive plan for the lake that … develop[s] strategies to deal with a fluctuating lake level.” Lake
level planning that occurred as part of this 2013 GSL CMP is a fundamental statutory responsibility of
FFSL. As part of the revision process, FFSL and the GSL Planning Team developed a management
approach that more fully adheres to the management responsibilities outlined in UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8.
Because the Public Trust resources of GSL are differently impacted at different lake levels, FFSL must
have the ability to modify their management strategies to avoid substantial impairment of GSL resources
as lake levels rise and fall.

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INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
During the GSL CMP planning process, FFSL recognized the importance of maintaining the
communication that was occurring between the GSL Planning Team over the course of the revision..
Cross-agency coordination and communication are required because GSL resources are complex and
because multiple government agencies are involved with various aspects of GSL. As required in UTAH
CODE § 65A-2-2, FFSL is interested in maintaining support across state agencies as it implements the
2013 GSL CMP. Chapter 4 of the GSL CMP outlines the proposed Coordinating Framework intended to
be carried out by FFSL and other state agencies tasked with research, management, and permitting on
GSL. The GSL CMP management strategies allow numerous opportunities for coordination with respect
to GSL resources, a fundamental responsibility of FFSL according to UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8.

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT: NOTIFICATION, COMMENT, AND REVIEW
Public involvement was essential to the GSL CMP planning process. As illustrated in the Public
Involvement section above, there were numerous opportunities for the public to play a role in the revision
of the GSL CMP. As required by UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-500, FFSL began the planning process
with a notification to RDCC in March 2010 on the Project Management System website for 30 days
(Exhibit A). Notifications of each GSL CMP draft were also noticed to RDCC. State, federal, local
governments, and stakeholders were notified numerous times throughout the planning process, requesting
attendance at public meetings and comment response. Notification for each round of public meetings and
the announcement of this ROD were sent by postcard to 567 addresses and 416 email addresses (Exhibit
B: Notice to Interested Parties). Fifteen public meetings and four stakeholder meetings were held
throughout the planning process. A public comment period followed each public and stakeholder meeting;
each comment period was 30 days, except the final comment period, which was 75 days. Comments were
accepted by comment response forms at public meetings, project website, email, and postal mail.
Comments received throughout the planning process were numerous. FFSL received 225 public comment
submissions on the draft final GSL CMP and MLP. From the 225 comment letters, 1,211 individual
comments were extracted for review of acceptance or non-acceptance. Comments for each phase of the
planning process were acknowledged and addressed, as appropriate, by FFSL. As required by rule and
statute UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-600 (1)(b-d) and UTAH CODE § 65-A-2-4, comment responses were
provided in the final GSL CMP (CMP Appendix B).

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS, STATUTES, AND ADMINISTRATIVE
RULES
Utah Constitution Article XX, Section 1
All lands of the state that have been, or may hereafter be granted to the State by Congress, and
all lands acquired by gift, grant or devise, from any person or corporation, or that may otherwise
be acquired, are hereby accepted, and … are declared to be the public land of the State; and shall
be held in trust for the people, to be disposed of as may be provided by law, for the respective
purposes for which they have been of may be granted, devised or otherwise acquired.
UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1. Administration of state lands - Multiple-use sustained yield management.
The division shall administer state lands under comprehensive land management programs using
multiple-use sustained yield principles.

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UTAH CODE ยง 65A-2-2. State land management planning procedures for natural and cultural
resources - Assistance from other state agencies- Division action.
The division:
(1) shall develop planning procedures for natural and cultural resources on state lands; and
(2) may request other state agencies to generate technical data or other management support
services for the development and implementation of state land management plans.
UTAH CODE ยง 65A-2-4. State land management plans -- Division to adopt rules for notifying and
consulting with interested parties.
(1) The division shall adopt rules for notifying and consulting with interested parties including
the general public, resources users, and federal, state, and local agencies on state land
management plans.
(2) Division rules shall provide:
(a) for reasonable notice and comment periods; and
(b) that the division respond to all commenting parties and give the rationale for the acceptance
or nonacceptance of the comments.
UTAH CODE ยง 65A-10-1. Authority of division to manage sovereign lands.
(1) The division is the management authority for sovereign lands, and may exchange, sell, or
lease sovereign lands but only in the quantities and for the purposes as serve the public interest
and do not interfere with the public trust.
UTAH CODE ยง 65A-10-8. Great Salt Lake -- Management responsibilities of the division.
The division has the following powers and duties:
(1) Prepare and maintain a comprehensive plan for the lake which recognizes the following
policies:
(a) develop strategies to deal with a fluctuating lake level;
(b) encourage development of the lake in a manner which will preserve the lake, encourage
availability of brines to lake extraction industries, protect wildlife, and protect recreational
facilities;
(c) maintain the lake's flood plain as a hazard zone;
(d) promote water quality management for the lake and its tributary streams;
(e) promote the development of lake brines, minerals, chemicals, and petro-chemicals to aid the
state's economy;
(f) encourage the use of appropriate areas for extraction of brine, minerals, chemicals, and petrochemicals;
(g) maintain the lake and the marshes as important to the waterfowl flyway system;
(h) encourage the development of an integrated industrial complex;
(i) promote and maintain recreation areas on and surrounding the lake;
(j) encourage safe boating use of the lake;

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(k) maintain and protect state, federal, and private marshlands, rookeries, and wildlife refuges;
(l) provide public access to the lake for recreation, hunting, and fishing.
(2) Employ personnel and purchase equipment and supplies which the Legislature authorizes
through appropriations for the purposes of this chapter.
(3) Initiate studies of the lake and its related resources.
(4) Publish scientific and technical information concerning the lake.
(5) Define the lake's flood plain.
(6) Qualify for, accept, and administer grants, gifts, or other funds from the federal government
and other sources, for carrying out any functions under this chapter.
(7) Determine the need for public works and utilities for the lake area.
(8) Implement the comprehensive plan through state and local entities or agencies.
(9) Coordinate the activities of the various divisions within the Department of Natural Resources
with respect to the lake.
(10) Perform all other acts reasonably necessary to carry out the purposes and provisions of this
chapter.
(11) Retain and encourage the continued activity of the GSL technical team.
UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-70-200. Classifications of Sovereign Lands.
Sovereign lands may be classified based upon their current and planned uses. A synopsis of
some possible classes and an example of each class follows. For more detailed information,
consult the management plan for the area in question.
1. Class 1: Manage to protect existing resource development uses. The Utah State Park Marinas
on Bear Lake and on GSL are areas where the current use emphasizes development.
2. Class 2: Manage to protect potential resource development options. For example, areas
adjacent to Class 1 areas which have the potential to be developed.
3. Class 3: Manage as open for consideration of any use. This might include areas which do not
currently show development potential but which are not now, or in the foreseeable future, needed
to protect or preserve the resources.
4. Class 4: Manage for resource inventory and analysis. This is a temporary classification
which allows the division to gather the necessary resource information to make a responsible
classification decision.
5. Class 5: Manage to protect potential resource preservation options. Sensitive areas of
wildlife habitat may fall into this class.
6. Class 6: Manage to protect existing resource preservation uses. Cisco Beach on Bear Lake is
an example of an area where the resource is currently being protected.
UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-300. Initiation of Planning Process.
1. A comprehensive planning process is initiated by the designation of a planning unit as
planning priorities are established by the division.

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UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-500. Notification and Public Comment.
1. Once a planning unit is designated for a comprehensive management plan, notice shall be sent
to the Office of Planning and Budget for inclusion on the RDCC agenda and, if appropriate, the
weekly status report.
2. The Division shall conduct at least one public meeting in the vicinity of a planning unit that
has been designated for a comprehensive management plan.
(a) The meeting shall provide an opportunity for public comment regarding the issues to be
addressed in the plan
(b) The public meeting(s) shall be held at least two weeks after notice in a local newspaper.
(c) Notice of public meeting(s) shall be sent directly to lessees of record, local government
official and the Office of Planning and Budget for inclusion in the RDCC agenda packet and
weekly status report. A mailing list shall be maintained by the division.
(d) Additional public meetings may be held.
UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-600. Public Review.
1. Comprehensive management plans shall be published in draft form and sent to persons on the
mailing list established under R652-90-400, the Office of a Planning and Budget, and other
persons upon request.
(a) A public comment period of at least 45 days shall commence upon receipt of the draft in the
Office of Planning and Budget.
(b) All public comment shall be acknowledged pursuant to 65A-2-4(2).
(c) The Division's response to the public comment shall be summarized in the final
comprehensive management plan.
(d) Comments received after the public comment period shall be acknowledged but need not be
summarized in the final plan.
UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90-800. Multiple-Use Framework.
Comprehensive management plans shall consider the following multiple-use factors to achieve
sovereign land-management objectives:
1. The highest and best use(s) for the sovereign land resources in the planning unit.
2. Present and future use(s) for the sovereign land resources in the planning unit;
3. Suitability of the sovereign lands in the planning unit for the proposed uses;
4. The impact of proposed use(s) on other sovereign land resources in the planning unit;
5. The compatibility of possible use(s) as proposed by general public comments, application
from prospective users or division analysis; and
6. The uniqueness, special attributes and availability of resources in the planning unit.

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FINDINGS OF FACT
1. As described herein, FFSL notified the public and local, federal, and state agencies, including the
RDCC, of the GSL CMP planning effort.
2. As described herein, FFSL conducted public meetings in conjunction with the GSL CMP
planning effort.
3. As described herein, FFSL published a draft of the GSL CMP and accepted comments from the
public and other government entities and responded to all comments properly submitted.
4. FFSL considered and implemented legislative directives concerning the content of the GSL CMP.

CONCLUSIONS OF LAW
1. FFSL properly initiated the planning process for a comprehensive plan by designating the
planning unit and planning priorities established by FFSL.
2. FFSL fulfilled its notification requirements to the lessees, to local governments, and to the RDCC
when the project was initiated. FFSL went beyond its required notification by also notifying
upland landowners and stakeholders.
3. The notification requirements for the public meetings have been met or exceeded.
4. The public review requirements have been met or exceeded.
5. FFSL properly responded to comments received in compliance with the applicable law.
6. The GSL CMP fulfills the requirements of applicable statutes, rules, policies, and legal doctrines.
7. The planning process and subsequent GSL CMP complies with the legal requirements for a
comprehensive management plan and specifically complies with the requirements for the GSL
CMP.

DECISION AND ORDER
Based on the foregoing, FFSL hereby adopts the GSL CMP along with Appendix A through F, which
satisfies the requirements of applicable statutes, rules, and policies. The GSL CMP (including Appendix
A through F) becomes the comprehensive management plan that guides decision-making on the sovereign
lands within the planning unit. The GSL CMP supersedes any and all previous management plansâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;
adopted, draft, or otherwiseâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and represents the official position of FFSL.
DATED this 27 day of March 2013.

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ADMINISTRATIVE APPEALS
Parties having an interest in this action may file a petition for administrative review by the division
pursuant to R652-9. Said petition must be in writing and shall contain
1. the statute, rule, or policy with which the division action is alleged to be inconsistent;
2. the nature of the inconsistency of the division action with the statute, rule, or policy;
3. the action the petitioner feels would be consistent under the circumstances with statute, rule, or
policy; and
4. the injury realized by the party that is specific to the party arising from division action. If the
injury identified by the petition is not peculiar to the petitioner as a result of the division action,
the director will decline to undertake consistency review.
Said petition must be received by the division by 5:00 p.m. on April 22, 2013.

Summary of Water Inflow to Great Salt Lake ...................................................................................... 2-14
Great Salt Lake Island Accessibility and Inundation ............................................................................ 2-22

Table 2.5.

Perfected Water Rights for Great Salt Lake in Order of Priority Date as of 9/7/2011 .......................... 2-27

Table 2.6.

Approved but Undeveloped Water Rights on File with the Utah Division of Water Rights as of
09/07/11 .............................................................................................................................................. 2-29
Unapproved Water Rights on File with the Utah Division of Water Rights as of 09/07/11 ................... 2-30

Table 2.7.
Table 2.8.

Elemental Chemical Composition of the Dissolved Salts (in deep and shallow brines) in the
Waters of the South Arm of Great Salt Lake (mg/L) ............................................................................ 2-44

VISION STATEMENT FOR THE GREAT SALT LAKE COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT
PLAN - DECEMBER 2010
The State of Utah, through the Equal Footing doctrine, has fee title ownership of the bed of Great Salt
Lake (GSL). The Utah Department of Natural Resources Division of Forestry, Fire & State Lands (FFSL)
has direct management jurisdiction over lands below the GSL meander line. However, FFSL recognizes
the importance of the GSL ecosystem, including resource values and uses outside of the meander line that
affect or are affected by actions on sovereign lands. Accordingly, FFSL considers it imperative that
management of GSL include coordination in planning and actions by other agencies with jurisdictional
responsibility over these resources.
GSL is a unique and complex ecosystem of regional and hemispherical importance. Sustainable use of
GSL’s natural resources will ensure that the ecological health (e.g., water quality, shoreline condition,
salinity, aquatic organisms, wildlife, wetlands), scenic attributes, extractive industries (e.g., minerals,
brine shrimp, microorganisms), and recreation opportunities (e.g., bird watching, hunting, sailing) will
be maintained into the future. FFSL will coordinate, as necessary, to ensure that the management of these
resources is based on a holistic view of the lake-wide ecosystem—including the use of adaptive
management, as necessary—to ensure long-term sustainability. Responsible stewardship of GSL’s
resources will provide lasting benefit to the Public Trust.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Map 1.1. Great Salt Lake location and reference map.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Utah Department of Natural Resources (UDNR) and the Utah Division of Forestry, Fire & State
Lands (FFSL) are jointly sponsoring the Great Salt Lake (GSL) Comprehensive Management Plan (CMP)
revision to develop a coordinated natural resources management plan for the lands and resources of GSL.
Primary management responsibility for the lake’s resources lies with FFSL, pursuant to Title 65A of the
Utah Code, which governs management of all state lands within the jurisdiction of FFSL. Specifically,
UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8, Great Salt Lake - Management responsibilities of the division, requires the
division to do the following:
(1) Prepare and maintain a comprehensive plan for the lake which recognizes the following
policies:
(a) develop strategies to deal with a fluctuating lake level; (b) encourage development of
the lake in a manner which will preserve the lake, encourage availability of brines to lake
extraction industries, protect wildlife and protect recreation facilities; (c) maintain the
lake’s flood plain as a hazard zone; (d) promote water quality management for the lake
and its tributary streams; (e) promote the development of lake brines, minerals, chemicals
and petro-chemicals to aid the state’s economy; (f) encourage the use of appropriate areas
for the extraction of brines, minerals, chemicals and petro-chemicals; (g) maintain the
lake and the marshes as important to the waterfowl flyway system; (h) encourage the
development of an integrated industrial complex; (i) promote and maintain recreation
areas on and surrounding the lake; (j) encourage safe boating use of the lake; (k) maintain
and protect state, federal and private marshlands, rookeries and wildlife refuges; (l)
provide public access to the lake for recreation, hunting and fishing.
UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1 states that “[t]he division [of Forestry, Fire and State Lands] shall administer state
lands under comprehensive land management programs using multiple-use, sustained-yield principles.”
Briefly stated, the overarching management objectives of FFSL are to protect and sustain the trust
resources and to provide for reasonable beneficial uses of those resources, consistent with their long-term
protection and conservation. This means that FFSL will manage GSL and its resources under multipleuse, sustained yield principles (UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1) by implementing legislative policies (UTAH CODE
§ 65A-10-8) and accommodating public and private uses to the extent that those policies and uses do not
substantially impair Public Trust resources or the lake’s sustainability.
Although primary lake planning and management responsibilities lie with FFSL, the other divisions of
UDNR also have management responsibilities for resources on and around GSL (Map 1.21). The Division
of Wildlife Resources (DWR), for example, has authority for managing wildlife in, on, and around the
lake. The Division of State Parks and Recreation (DSPR) manages Antelope Island, Willard Bay, and
Great Salt Lake Marina (GSL Marina) state parks and coordinates search-and-rescue and boating
enforcement on the lake. The Division of Water Rights (DWRi) regulates the diversion and use of lake
and tributary waters. The Division of Water Resources (DWRe) conducts studies, investigations, and
plans for water use and operates the West Desert Pumping Project (WDPP). UDNR divisions also
1

The following statement is a disclaimer from the Utah Automated Geographic Reference Center (AGRC). It pertains to all maps used in this report that
have used any dataset created or hosted at AGRC. "This product is for informational purposes and may not have been prepared for, or be suitable for
legal, engineering, or surveying purposes. Users of this information should review or consult the primary data and information sources to ascertain the
usability of the information. AGRC [Automated Geographic Reference Center] provides these data in good faith and shall in no event be liable for any
incorrect results, any lost profits and special, indirect or consequential damages to any party, arising out of or in connection with the use or the inability
to use the data hereon or the services provided. AGRC provides these data and services as a convenience to the public. Furthermore, AGRC reserves
the right to change or revise published data and/or these services at any time."

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

regulate mineral extraction activities, conduct hydrologic research, and identify and map geologic hazards
around the lake.
To more specifically articulate UDNR’s management objectives for the resources of GSL and to reconcile
the diverse mandates of the divisions of UDNR, the GSL CMP revision was initiated. This revision
process provides opportunities for increased coordination and collaboration between agencies responsible
for management of the GSL ecosystem.
As determined by FFSL and the GSL Planning Team (see section 1.3.1), the purposes of the GSL CMP
revision process are to


1.1 State Ownership and Trust Responsibilities
Under English common law, the crown held title to all lands underlying navigable waterways, subject to
the Public Trust doctrine. Following the American Revolution, title to such lands in the United States
vested in the 13 original colonies. Under the Equal Footing doctrine, fee title to those lands also vested in
each state subsequently admitted to the Union, upon admission. Utah-owned navigable waterways, known
as “sovereign” lands, lie below the ordinary high water mark of the waterbody. In 1976, the U.S. Supreme
Court determined that the state owns all of the lands, brines, and other minerals within the bed and waters
of the lake and all shore lands located within the officially surveyed meander line.

1.1.1 The Surveyed Meander Line
The surveyed meander line is not a constant elevation around the lake. The elevation of the meander line
generally ranges from approximately 4,202 to 4,212 feet above mean sea level. In some locations, the
meander line runs across topographical features of higher elevation substantially inland of the shoreline.
Regardless of its location relative to the water’s edge and lake level, the officially surveyed meander is
the adjudicated, fixed, and limiting boundary between sovereign land and upland owners (see Map 1.1)
The surveyed meander line is not usually identifiable on the ground without the aid of surveying or global
positioning system equipment. To avoid trespass situations, FFSL requires applicants to provide surveyed
legal descriptions for leases and easements on GSL. Upland owners likewise should have the meander
line located by survey whenever the boundary location between sovereign land and adjoining land is
required.

1.1.2 The Public Trust over Sovereign Lands
Under Roman law and perhaps earlier, the air, sea, and running waters were common to all citizens and
the separate property of none. All rivers and ports were public, and the right of fishing was common to
all. Any person was at liberty to use the seashore to the highest tide, as long as they did not interfere with
the use of the sea or beach by others. The influence of Roman civil law carries forward through English
common law to today’s Public Trust doctrine, which recognizes the special public interest in rivers, lakes,
tidelands, and waters. Thus, sovereign lands are held in trust by the state for the benefit of the public.
The Public Trust doctrine is flexible and accommodates changing demands for Public Trust resources.
FFSL is the management authority for sovereign lands. As such, they may exchange, sell, or lease
sovereign lands, but only in the quantities and for the purposes that serve the public interest and do not
interfere with the public trust (UTAH CODE § 65A-10-1). FFSL administers state lands under
comprehensive land management programs using multiple-use sustained yield principles (UTAH CODE §
65A-2-1). There is no particular hierarchy of uses. Uses at GSL include preservation of the lake;
availability of brines to lake extraction industries; wildlife protection; protection of recreational facilities;
safe boating; availability of appropriate areas for extraction of brine, minerals, chemicals, and
petrochemicals to aid the state’s economy; maintenance and protection of marshlands, rookeries, and
wildlife refuges; and public access to the lake for recreation, hunting, and fishing (UTAH CODE § 65A-108).
Implementation of multiple-use and other legislative polices for GSL are subject to consistency with
Public Trust obligations and must avoid substantial impairment of the Public Trust. As trustee, FFSL
must strive for an appropriate balance among compatible and competing uses. Given the state’s duty to
manage sovereign lands for the public, sale of sovereign lands is generally precluded by the
constitutionally imposed duty of the state to manage sovereign lands for the public. Exceptions to the
prohibition could be made if the disposition itself further enhances the public interest. The Utah

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Legislature has chosen to protect the public interest in hunting, trapping, and fishing when sovereign land
is sold or leased by requiring that “...the lease, contract of sale, or deed shall contain a provision that
provisions be made preserving appropriate public access and use" (UTAH CODE § 23-21-4).
Similarly, under some circumstances, FFSL may authorize through lease provisions a lessee or grantee to
restrict public access on affected sovereign land to fully enjoy the rights granted under a lease, permit, or
sale. Examples include restrictions during mining operations, construction of improvements, harbor
operations, military operations, and access to personal property.

1.1.3 Lake Level Approach
According to UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8, FFSL is required to “prepare and maintain a comprehensive plan
for the lake that … develop[s] strategies to deal with a fluctuating lake level.” Lake level planning is a
fundamental statutory responsibility of FFSL. As part of the 2013 GSL CMP revision process, FFSL and
the GSL Planning Team developed a management approach that more fully adheres to the management
responsibilities outlined in UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8. Because the Public Trust resources of GSL are
differently impacted at different lake levels, FFSL must have the ability to modify their management
strategies to avoid substantial impairment of GSL resources as lake levels rise and fall. Map 1.32 shows
GSL elevations at a range of lake levels.

2

This dataset is an SWCA modified version of the SGID93_WATER_GSLShoreline feature class (1:500,000) from AGRC. In many areas in that
dataset, the elevation contours cross one another. Here, Allen Stutz of SWCA uncrossed these lines with the aid of 7.5-minute USGS topographic
quadrangles, though in many areas the edits were somewhat generalized. In other areas (e.g., Bear River), the lines were not modified, therefore the
scale denominator remains 1:500,000. A portion of the western boundary has been removed because it was not to be included in the analysis. The
4,191-foot contour line was taken from shapefiles from USGS maps of bathymetry for the North (Gunnison) and South (Gilbert and Farmington) portions
of Great Salt Lake (Bashkin and Allen 2005 [http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2005/2894]; and Bashkin and Turner 2006 [http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2006/2954]),
as provided by Robert L Baskin in October 2011.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Map 1.3. Lake levels of Great Salt Lake.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

During public scoping for the 2013 revision, it was clear that a primary concern of the public was low
lake levels. The 2000 GSL CMP highlights the concerns brought about by high lake levels. FFSL can
develop a plan that addresses management issues at a range of lake levels, not just a “one-lake-level-fitsall” management approach. GSL is a complex ecosystem that functions differently at different lake levels,
and it needs a management plan that can adapt to the changing levels. This 2013 GSL CMP revision is
intended to provide FFSL with the following:


A comprehensive look at how the ecosystem, infrastructure, and industry are impacted at varying
lake levels

Important biophysical changes in bay and island connectivity from which management decisions
are based

Through the 2013 GSL CMP revision process, three lake level management zones are proposed to
describe lake resources and develop elevation-specific management strategies: high, medium, and low.
The high, medium, and low lake level zones provide a roadmap to a) better understand the relationship
between resources with one another at different lake levels, b) improve coordination between state
agencies that are responsible for various resources associated with the lake, and c) mitigate impacts
associated with lake level fluctuations. Lake level management strategies are developed around the three
zones. The high and low zones include management strategies for the lake at its most extreme conditions,
whereas the medium zone represents the most typical management condition.

1.1.3.2

LAKE LEVEL RESOURCE MATRIX

The process through which the three zones were derived began with the development of the GSL Lake
Level Matrix (Appendix A). The matrix is a summary of elevation-specific GSL resource characteristics
derived from available literature and input from at least three dozen stakeholders representing multiple
resources and lake characteristics. Most resources outlined in the GSL CMP are characterized by
elevation in the matrix (those that do not vary with lake level were not included). When appropriate,
specific elevations are labeled beneficial or adverse for the resource. Elevation-specific but value-neutral
characteristics are also noted.

government agencies or research specialists], and stakeholder communications). The matrix paints a clear
picture of how resources change with lake level, and the high, medium, and low zones are visually
apparent when examining the matrix. Although statistical frequency was noted during the development of
the zones, it was not the driver for the zone determinations. Rather, the driver was the notable changes
that the resources experienced at certain elevations. The zones were developed to capture the largest
number of resource thresholds or changes across a particular zone. The zones have been determined as
follows:


High: 4,205.0–4,213.0 feet or more



Medium: 4,198.0–4,204.9 feet



Low: 4,188.0–4,197.9 feet or less

Within the high and low zones, there are two 3-foot transition zones immediately before and after the
medium zone (high transition [4,205–4,207 feet] and low transition [4,195–4,197 feet]). The transition
zones are applicable when considering the management strategies at the high and low lake level zones.
The transition zones give FFSL the opportunity to plan for and mitigate impacts to resources prior to the
lake reaching levels adverse to a particular resource. This concept is discussed further in Chapter 3 (GSL
CMP Management Strategies).

1.2 Project History and Background History of Planning and Management
of Great Salt Lake
1.2.1 Great Salt Lake Authority (1963)
In 1963, the Utah Legislature enacted House Bill (HB) 33, creating the GSL Authority and an advisory
council to the authority. The authority was empowered to “coordinate multiple-use of [GSL] property for
such purposes as grazing, fish and game, mining and mineral removal, development and utilization of
water and other natural resources, industrial, and other uses in addition to recreational development, and
adopt such reasonable rules and regulations as the authority may deem advisable to insure the
accomplishment of the objectives and purposes of the act” (Laws of Utah 1963, Chapter 161). The bill
specifies that both the state Department of Fish and Game and the state Land Board would retain the
powers and jurisdiction conferred upon them, subject to such reasonable rules and regulations as the
authority may make to ensure the accomplishment of the objectives of the act (Laws of 1963). The
authority made little progress in discharging its duties, and in 1966, the Utah Supreme Court declared that
the act creating the authority was unconstitutional because it failed to define the authority’s geographical
jurisdiction.

1.2.2 Reestablishment of the Authority (1967)
The legislature cured the jurisdictional defect in 1967 when it re-created the GSL Authority (Laws of
Utah 1967, Chapter 187). With legislation, the authority’s geographical jurisdiction was defined and
consisted of the mainland, peninsulas, islands, and waters within the GSL meander line established by the
U.S. Surveyor General.
The purpose of the re-created authority was to establish and coordinate programs for development of
recreational areas and water conservation in GSL and its environs. The authority was responsible for 1)
providing the development of Antelope Island as a suitable and desirable location for recreational use, 2)
determining the impact of Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation (KUCC) tailings on GSL and its environs,
and 3) providing the restoration and preservation of historical interest points on Antelope Island.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

A preliminary feasibility study for the recreational development of the north end of Antelope Island was
prepared by Snedaker & Budd and Allred & Associates for the GSL Authority and was submitted on June
26, 1964. In 1965, A Preliminary Master Plan for the Development of Great Salt Lake over a Period of
the Next 75 Years was prepared for the GSL Authority. This plan envisions the use of surplus waters from
the Bear River, Weber River, and Jordan River drainage areas and the use of KUCC tailings material for
the construction of dikes, highways, and land reclamation within Farmington Bay (GSL Authority 1965).

1.2.3 Department of Natural Resources (1967)
After the creation of UDNR in 1967, the GSL Authority was abolished, and functions of the authority
were merged into UDNR.

1.2.4 Division of the Great Salt Lake (1975)
The 1975 general session of the Utah Legislature enacted HB 23, which established a board and division
within UDNR to establish and coordinate programs for development of recreation areas, flood control,
wildlife resources, industrial uses, and conservation of GSL. The Division of GSL (DGSL) was given the
responsibility to determine the direction and implementation of all lake-related activities, working
through existing UDNR divisions. In addition, DGSL was given the following powers and duties:
(1) direct the preparation of and adopt a comprehensive plan for the lake in a manner
which will assure the maximum interchange of information, ideas and programs with
affected state, federal and local agencies, private concerns and the general public.
Implement the provisions of the plan by using the existing authority of the various state
and local entities or agencies concerned. Weigh the policies and programs of agencies
that affect the lake to ensure their compatibility with the adopted comprehensive plan.
Revise and update the plan at periodic intervals; (2) employ assistants and advisors
deemed necessary for the purposes of the act; (3) initiate studies of the lake and its related
resources; (4) publish or authorize the publication of scientific information; (5) define the
lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s floodplain; (6) qualify for, accept and administer loan payments, grants, gifts,
loans or other funds for carrying out any functions under the act; (7) determine the need
for and desirability of public works and utilities for the lake area; (8) cooperate with the
state engineer and all upstream entities in considering the water relationship between the
lake and its tributaries; and (9) perform all other acts reasonably necessary to carry out
the purposes and provisions of the act (HB 23, 1975).

1.2.5 Comprehensive Management Plan (1976)
Under the directive of HB 23, DGSL began preparing a CMP in July 1975. The plan was developed by
the interagency technical team, which was established under the terms of the 1975 legislation. The
interagency technical team was made up of representatives from various interests (public and private) and
included representatives from several divisions of UDNR, Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT),
county commissioners of the five counties surrounding the lake, and other representatives who served on
the basic committees.
The GSL CMP was intended to serve as a general statement for use and management of the lake. Goals
and policies based on the concepts set forth in the legislation, and as adopted by the GSL Board, served as
a guide for preparation of the plan. The plan consists of six major sections: minerals, recreation, tourism,
wildlife, hydrology, and transportation. The plan for each section was developed after consideration of the
interrelationships of plan sections and was not intended to be a detailed development plan for private
agencies or for divisions of local, state, or federal government.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

1.2.6 Great Salt Lake Environs Report (1976)
The Great Salt Lake Environs Report was prepared in 1976 as a companion report to the CMP. The
purpose of the report was to summarize and graphically portray the most current, accurate, and reliable
data available concerning land use ownership, soils, vegetation, human-made structures, access ways,
fresh water, and utilities lying between the water’s edge on January 1, 1976 and the upper limits study
line established at approximately 4,212 feet (DGSL 1976).

1.2.7 Division of State Lands and Forestry (1979)
In 1979, DGSL was eliminated, and the staff functions for the management of GSL were transferred to
UDNR. Management of the state’s sovereign lands and school and institutional trust lands was
administratively delegated to the Division of State Lands and Forestry (DSLF).

1.2.8 Great Salt Lake Contingency Plan (1983)
In 1982, the water level of GSL began a rapid rise, which prompted DSLF to draft the Great Salt Lake
Contingency Plan. This plan was designed to meet the legislative mandate for maintaining the water level
of GSL below 4,202 feet, and it deals with background, analysis, and recommendations for influencing
both the high and low levels of GSL. The contingency plan states that “It is anticipated that lake levels
will peak at approximately 4,203 feet in 1983 with potential resultant damages of $20 to $30 million”
(UDNR 1983). The lake peaked at approximately 4,205 feet that year and continued upward to nearly
4,212 feet in 1987, with estimated capital damages exceeding $250 million (FFSL 1999). The Northern
Railroad Causeway was breached in 1984 to lessen flooding impacts occurring in the South Arm. The
WDPP was built in 1986–1987 and operated from April 1987 to June 1989.

1.2.9 Great Salt Lake Advisory Council (1988 and 2010)
In 1988, the GSL Advisory Council (GSLAC) was created by legislative action to advise the Board of
State Lands and Forestry through DSLF, which was designated as manager of the lake. The GSL
Technical Team, discussed below, was given statutory authorization at the same time. The dissolution of
the GSLAC occurred in 1994 with the reorganization of school and institutional trust lands management.
The reestablishment of the GSLAC began in August 2008 when Governor Jon Huntsman signed an
executive order creating the new council. At the time, Governor Huntsman tasked the GSLAC with
“conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the entire Great Salt Lake, specifically looking at the long
term viability of the Lake and its entire ecosystem” (State of Utah 2008). GSLAC was formally
reestablished through the adoption of HB 343 during the 2010 Utah Legislative Session. The elevenmember council, appointed by Governor Gary Herbert, consists of county representatives from the five
counties surrounding the lake, interest groups, and an elected municipal official (or designee). As per HB
343 (GSLAC Act of 2010), the GSLAC advises the governor, UDNR, and UDEQ on the sustainable use,
protection, and development of GSL. They are to assist FFSL in its responsibilities for GSL, as described
in UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8. The GSLAC receives technical support from the technical team and may also
recommend appointments to the technical team.
In January 2012, the GSLAC released two reports pertaining to GSL resources: Definition and
Assessment of Great Salt Lake Health (SWCA Environmental Consultants and Applied Conservation
2012) and Economic Significance of the Great Salt Lake to the State of Utah (Bioeconomics, Inc. 2012).
Due to the timing of the reports’ releases, the findings were not incorporated into the 2013 GSL CMP.
FFSL acknowledges the importance of the documents and will incorporate them into the next GSL CMP
revision. Further, FFSL is interested in using the best available scientific data when making management

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

decisions and will refer to the peer-reviewed research when considering how future proposals would
impact the lake.

1.2.10 Great Salt Lake Technical Team (1988)
The GSL Technical Team was formally established in 1988 to provide guidance and recommendations in
the monitoring, management, and research efforts of the GSL ecosystem. The creation of the technical
team provides a forum for the interchange of information, projects, and programs that affect the GSL
ecosystem and uses. The technical team comprises academic, federal, state, political, and special interest
representatives. As per the GSLAC Act, the technical team provides technical support to GSLAC.

1.2.11 General Management Plan, Great Salt Lake (1988)
As GSL reached its historic high water level of 4,211.85 feet in 1986 and again in 1987, a five-year
General Management Plan, Great Salt Lake was prepared for GSLAC. The general management plan and
the Beneficial Development Area concept developed by the Utah Division of Comprehensive Emergency
Management was a cooperative attempt to outline the best strategies available to avoid flood-related
impacts to those using the lake under its high-water and expected near-future conditions for a variety of
purposes. Both the plan and the Beneficial Development Area concept were delivered to the five counties
bordering the lake for adoption and were adopted by the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA).

1.2.12 Division of Sovereign Lands and Forestry (1994)
In 1994, management responsibilities for school and institutional trust lands were placed with the newly
created School and Institutional Trust Lands Administration through legislative action. The Board of
State Lands and Forestry and the GSLAC were eliminated, and the Sovereign Lands Advisory Council
(SLAC) was created to advise the newly named DSLF. DSLF retained management responsibility for
Public Trust lands and resources and became able to devote more time to planning and managing these
lands as Public Trust lands, with a broader view of how the lake’s many trust resources are interrelated. In
1996, HB 364 changed the name of DSLF to FFSL.

1.2.13 Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan (1995)
Completed in 1995, the Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan: Planning Process and Matrix
was prepared by the GSL Technical Team for FFSL and UDNR. The goal of the plan was to “...provide
needed information and guidance in the form of recommendations to federal, state and local governments,
and recommended legislation to the state legislature to facilitate and enhance management of GSL and its
environs to assure protection of the unique ecosystem of the lake while promoting balanced multipleresource uses” (FFSL 1999).
As described in its goal statement, the 1995 GSL CMP includes analyses of lake management issues and
makes recommendations on those issues to local, state, and federal government. Many of the
recommendations in the 1995 plan were acted on by divisions of UDNR, including development of the
MLP by FFSL. However, recommendations pertaining to the management actions on the WDPP and
development of GSL water quality standards were not acted on. The recommendations involving local
government made in the 1995 GSL CMP were not fully analyzed or reported.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

1.2.14 Mineral Leasing Plan (1996 and 2013)
As an outgrowth of the 1995 plan, FFSL announced the withdrawal of sovereign lands from minerals
leasing as part of a comprehensive planning process for management of minerals on those lands. Included
were GSL, Utah Lake, the Jordan River, Bear Lake, and portions of the Bear River, Colorado River, and
Green River. To accomplish FFSL’s planning and management mandates, they created the GSL MLP.
This document reviews the history of mineral ownership and leasing, inventories mineral resources, and
examines the existing conflicts among resources on the lake. The MLP identifies categories on the lake
bed for mineral commodity production and specifies new mineral leasing procedures.
As part of the 2013 GSL CMP revision process, the MLP has been revised to incorporate management
strategies that allow FFSL to avoid substantial impairment to GSL at a range of lake levels.

1.3 Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan (2000)
In 1997, FFSL began a revision of the 1995 GSL CMP to “more specifically articulate UDNR’s
management objectives for the resources of GSL and to reconcile the diverse mandates of the divisions of
UDNR” (FFSL 1999). As part of the GSL Planning Project, FFSL developed and analyzed four potential
management alternatives. After a two-year process, including two rounds of public meetings, FFSL
selected a preferred management alternative that was implemented through 2013.

1.3.1 Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan Revision (2013)
The primary focus of the 2000 GSL CMP was managing the impacts from the flooding and high lake
levels of the 1980s and 1990s. In the fall of 2010, the lake level reached a near-record low of 4,193.6 feet
(compared to the recorded low of 4,191.4 feet in 1963). To assess the current conditions of GSL at low
lake levels and to simply provide updates to a decade-old management plan, FFSL began the GSL CMP
revision process in 2010. Further, FFSL was interested in incorporating a decade’s worth of GSL research
into a management approach that specifically deals with a fluctuating lake level in a collaborative multiagency manner.
As part of the 2013 GSL CMP revision, FFSL convened the GSL Planning Team comprising UDNR and
UDEQ representatives to provide input and support throughout the revision process. Throughout the
process, the GSL Planning Team represented the long-term collaborative approach necessary to
holistically manage the complex GSL ecosystem. A list of the planning team members is provided in the
introductory pages of the 2013 GSL CMP revision. The purposes of the GSL Planning Team are to


provide resource-specific guidance throughout the planning process;



provide the most recent, relevant research and data pertaining to the project area;



provide timely review and comment on the document throughout the revision process; and



offer project updates, milestones, and opportunities for comment to State of Utah agencies and the
general public.

Public involvement was essential to the GSL CMP planning process. As illustrated in the Public
Involvement section (Appendix B), there were numerous opportunities for the public to play a role in the
revision of the GSL CMP. State, federal, local governments, and stakeholders were notified numerous
times throughout the planning process, and their attendance was requested at public meetings and during
the comment response. Fifteen public meetings and four stakeholder meetings were held throughout the
planning process. A public comment period followed each public and stakeholder meeting; each comment

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

period was 30 days, except the final comment period, which was 75 days. Comments for each phase of
the planning process were acknowledged and addressed, as appropriate, by FFSL.

1.4 Current Department of Natural Resources Management
Responsibilities
1.4.1 Division of Forestry, Fire & State Lands
FFSL is “the executive authority for the management of sovereign lands” in Utah (UTAH CODE § 65A-14), including the sovereign lands of GSL. Title 65A of the Utah Code, entitled State Lands, establishes the
division and the FFSL Advisory Council, and sets forth the powers and responsibilities of the division and
council. UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8 establishes the division’s responsibility to prepare and maintain a
management plan for GSL under paragraph (1) and establishes other responsibilities for the lake as
follows:
(2) Employ personnel and purchase equipment and supplies which the legislature authorizes
through appropriations for the purposes of this chapter.
(3) Initiate studies of the lake and its related resources.
(4) Publish scientific and technical information concerning the lake.
(5) Define the lake’s floodplain.
(6) Qualify for, accept, and administer grants, gifts, or other funds from the federal
government and other sources, for carrying out any functions under this chapter.
(7) Determine the need for public works and utilities for the lake area.
(8) Implement the comprehensive plan through state and local entities or agencies.
(9) Coordinate the activities of the various divisions within the UDNR with respect to the
lake.
(10) Perform all other acts reasonably necessary to carry out the purposes and provisions of
this chapter.
(11) Retain and encourage the continued activity of the Great Salt Lake Technical Team.

1.4.2 Division of Wildlife Resources
Title 23 of the Utah Code establishes DWR and the Wildlife Board and establishes their duties and
powers. UTAH CODE § 23-14-1 states that “The Division of Wildlife Resources is the wildlife authority
for Utah and is vested with the functions, powers, duties, rights and responsibilities provided in this title
and other law.” The section goes on to state that “Subject to the broad policy making authority of the
Wildlife Board, the Division of Wildlife Resources shall protect, propagate, manage, conserve and
distribute protected wildlife throughout the state.”
DWR manages wildlife areas on GSL, regulates hunting, manages all protected wildlife species, and
regulates the commercial harvest of brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana) from the lake. UTAH CODE § 2321-5 authorized DWR to use all or parts of 39 townships of sovereign lands on the lake for the “creation,
operation, maintenance and management of wildlife management areas, fishing waters, and other
recreational activities.”

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1.4.3 Division of State Parks and Recreation
Title 79-4 of the Utah Code establishes DSPR and the Board of Parks and Recreation and sets forth their
responsibilities. DSPR manages Antelope Island State Park, Willard Bay State Park, and the GSL Marina
on the south shore of the lake.
DSPR is also directly responsible for boating enforcement on GSL. DSPR is the lead agency for all
search-and-rescue efforts on the lake. DSPR personnel also work closely with five county sheriff offices
(Box Elder, Davis, Salt Lake, Tooele, Weber) in the coordination of search and rescue as well as law
enforcement on and around the lake.

1.4.4 Division of Water Rights
DWRi regulates the appropriation and distribution of water in the State of Utah, pursuant to Title 73 of
the Utah Code. The State Engineer, who is the director of DWRi, gives approval for the diversion and use
of any water, regulates the alteration of natural streams, and has the authority to regulate dams to protect
public safety. All diversions from the lake for all purposes, including mineral extraction by evaporation,
require the prior approval of the State Engineer. Any dam or dike placed in the lake requires consultation
from DWRi.

1.4.5 Division of Oil, Gas and Mining
The Division of Oil, Gas and Mining (DOGM) is the regulatory agency for mineral exploration,
development, and reclamation on GSL, pursuant to Title 40 of the Utah Code. This regulatory role is
conducted in close coordination with FFSL.

1.4.6 Utah Geological Survey
The Utah Geological Survey (UGS), a nonregulatory agency, is responsible for collecting, preserving,
publishing, and distributing reliable information on geology, brine and mineral resources, and geologic
hazards related to the state, including GSL. UGS is also responsible for assisting, advising, and
cooperating with state and local agencies and state educational institutions on all subjects related to
geology.

1.4.7 Division of Water Resources
The mission of the Utah Water Quality Board and DWRe is to direct the orderly and timely planning,
conservation, development, protection, and preservation of Utahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water resources used to meet the
beneficial needs of Utah citizens. Although the division does not have direct regulatory responsibilities on
GSL, it conducts studies, investigations, and planning for water use and is responsible for maintenance
and operation of the WDPP.

Federal and state laws require prompt reporting of environmental incidents. Depending on the nature of
the incident, reports may be made to specific regulatory agencies, but in all cases, the Division of

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Environmental Response and Remediation may be contacted to forward the report to the appropriate
agency. Follow-up activity often involves preparation of a written report summarizing the incident and
remedial actions taken.

1.5.1.2

DIVISION OF WATER QUALITY

The Utah Water Quality Board and the Division of Water Quality (DWQ) have the responsibility to
maintain, protect, and enhance the quality of Utah’s surface and groundwater resources. Title 19, Chapter
5 of the Utah Code charges the board and division to develop programs for prevention and abatement of
water pollution. The board is also responsible for establishing water quality standards throughout the
state; enforcing technology-based, secondary treatment effluent standards, or establishing and enforcing
other more stringent discharge standards to meet in-stream standards; reviewing plans, specifications, and
other data relative to wastewater disposal systems; and establishing and conducting a continuing planning
process for control of water pollution.
DWQ’s mission is to protect public health and all beneficial uses of water by maintaining and enhancing
the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of Utah’s waters. Objectives designed to achieve this
mission are as follows:


Classify waters according to beneficial use and set water quality standards, including numeric and
narrative criteria, to protect those uses.



Achieve full compliance with treatment and water quality standards by ensuring the adequacy of
planning, design, construction, and operation of municipal and industrial wastewater standards
through appropriate technical assistance, regulation, and enforcement.



Develop and update pertinent regulations, policies, and strategies.



Generate a comprehensive water quality database.



Conduct water quality management planning and continue to implement an effective statewide
nonpoint source control program.



Implement the groundwater quality protection strategy.

1.5.1.3

DIVISION OF AIR QUALITY

The Division of Air Quality (DAQ) and the Air Quality Board address air pollution issues and shape
environmental policy. The following objectives support DAQ’s mission:


Develop state implementation plans (SIP), issue permits, and conduct compliance and other public
process activities.



Partner with other in-state government agencies to develop and implement programs for the protection
of statewide air quality, and achieve and maintain acceptable air quality along the Wasatch Front.

Influence state, regional, and national policy through active involvement with the legislature and
policy-making organizations.



Increase public awareness to educate the general public and businesses on emissions reduction.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

1.6 Federal Agencies
1.6.1 U.S. Air Force
Hill Air Force Base (HAFB) operates the Utah Test and Training Range west of GSL. The range is used
by the military for a range of uses, including a practice bombing and gunnery range for aircraft, rocket
motor test firing, missile storage, and small arms and machine-gun firing ranges.

1.6.2 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (CWA), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is
responsible for regulating placement of fill material and excavation in the nation’s waters, including GSL.
USACE’s management responsibilities under the CWA are to protect the nation’s aquatic resources from
unnecessary adverse impacts.

1.6.3 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Salt Lake Field Office is responsible for the management of
lands along GSL’s western edge. Stansbury Island is primarily managed by the BLM. BLM lands around
GSL are governed by the 1986 Box Elder Resource Management Plan, 1990 Pony Express Management
Plan, and the 1985 Isolated Tracts Planning Analysis. The BLM lands are managed for a range of land
uses, including wild horses, livestock grazing, and recreation.

1.6.4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has partnered with UDEQ to implement CWA and Clear
Air Act programs on and around GSL. The EPA jointly administers the CWA Section 404 permit
program with USACE. The EPA also has direct regulatory responsibilities for the Superfund Program
under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act.

1.6.5 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) manages the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge at the
mouth of the Bear River west of Brigham City. The USFWS is responsible for the protection of migratory
birds as well as threatened and endangered species found in GSL environs (Gwynn 2002).

1.6.6 U.S. Geological Survey
Since 1875, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has measured the elevation of GSL and has conducted
numerous studies on hydrology, salinity, water quality, and lake ecology. In cooperation with DWR and
the Utah State University (USU) Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, USGS is studying the ecology of
brine shrimp on GSL. They currently operate two lake level gages: one gage at the Saltair Beach State
Park (South Arm) and one at the Little Valley boat harbor (North Arm). From October 1986 to September
1999, a third gage was operated at Promontory Point. Lake level elevations are recorded every 15 minutes
from the two current gages, and every four hours, the data are uploaded to a satellite. USGS captures the
data and calculates mean daily elevations, which are made available to the public on their website (USGS
2011a).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

1.6.7 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
The U.S Bureau of Reclamation is responsible for the construction and management of the Arthur V.
Watkins Dam that creates Willard Bay Reservoir. The dam was built in 1964 and is 14.5 miles long. The
reservoir, located on the GSL shores, encloses 215,000 acre-feet and has a surface area of approximately
9,900 acres (Bureau of Reclamation 2006).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

CHAPTER 2

CURRENT CONDITIONS

2.1 Overview
The assessment of current conditions for each GSL resource is fundamental to the development of an
effective management plan. The initial resource inventory compilation was completed during the GSL
CMP 2000 planning process. This GSL CMP revision process, including a public and agency scoping
period, incorporated all new GSL data developed from 2000 through 2010.
This chapter represents a baseline picture of the current conditions and trends of GSL and its resources. It
is organized by resource category and includes ecosystem, water (hydrology and quality), wetlands,
biology, air, land use, minerals, and cultural resources. The utilization trends of GSL resources for
agriculture, recreation, tourism, industry extraction, transportation, law enforcement, and search and
rescue are also provided in this chapter.
This 2013 GSL CMP revision is intended to comprehensively develop strategies to deal with a fluctuating
lake level. Within this Current Conditions chapter, the effects of lake level on each resource are provided.
The Lake Level Effects subsections within each resource section provide a detailed look at how the
ecosystem, infrastructure, and industry are impacted at varying lake levels. The consideration of how
resources are impacted at a range of lake levels allows FFSL to develop management strategies for a
range of lake levels. As discussed in the Introduction and illustrated in the GSL Lake Level Matrix, when
high, medium, and low elevations are discussed throughout this chapter, the range of elevations are as
follows:


High: 4,205–4,213 feet or more



Medium: 4,198–4,204 feet



Low: 4,188–4,197 feet or less

It should be noted that the lake levels referred to throughout the following chapter may refer to the static
lake levels; however, they may also refer to elevations that take into account wind tide and wave action.
Based on weather conditions, the lake level could rise 5–7 feet with wind and wave actions. For example,
at a static lake level of 4,205 feet, water would not overtop the Davis County Causeway; however, with a
3-foot wind tide and 2-foot wave action, that elevation could temporarily increase to 4,210 feet and make
the causeway impassable.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.2 Ecosystem
The GSL ecosystem is of worldwide importance for migratory bird populations as well as for the brine
shrimp and mineral extraction industries. GSL is one of the premier wetland areas of the United States
and is a major recreational and aesthetic resource for Utah (FFSL 1999). Located on the eastern edge of
the Great Basin, GSL is a hypersaline, terminal waterbody and remnant of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville.
Current physical, biological, and socioeconomic parameters reflect natural and anthropogenic processes
occurring within the GSL Basin. The GSL ecosystem, although fundamentally a set of relationships
between the parameters listed above, can be delineated at multiple scales, which may be as expansive as
its watershed or as refined as the open water component of GSL. This GSL CMP revision considers the
GSL ecosystem to be the lake itself as well as surrounding wetlands, including the physical, biological,
and socioeconomic processes that occur in this delineated area. This in turn becomes the unit of
management, but it acknowledges that stressors occur outside the boundaries of the ecosystem, chemical
and biological processes occur at the microlevel within the water column, and FFSL jurisdiction is limited
to those resources below the meander line.
At approximately 34,000 square miles, the GSL Basin contributing surface and groundwater flow to GSL
and surrounding wetlands includes parts of Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (Map 2.1). It spans four
geologic provinces, consisting of the Wasatch Plateau, the Uinta Mountains, the Rocky Mountain thrust
belt, and the Basin and Range (GSL Information System 2011). GSL Basin habitat types include high
elevation alpine systems, mountain streams, and fresh and salt-water wetlands. In a system driven by
snowmelt, the major sources of water entering GSL are the Bear River, Weber River, and Jordan River.
These are also sources of sediment and contaminants, with some pollution point sources discharging
directly into GSL. In addition, land use and water management practices within the watersheds of the
main river systems may affect hydrological processes that in turn may alter the volume and salinity of
GSL. Land cover types within the GSL Basin are described in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1.

Land Cover Types within the Great Salt Lake Basin (square miles)

Land Cover Type

Bear River

Weber River

Jordan River/
Utah Lake

West Desert

Total

Urban

31

85

244

28

388

Forest

1,111

783

1,520

1,996

5,410

Rangeland

4,478

1,304

1,537

10,327

17,646

Agricultural

1,390

180

280

420

2,270

Other

425

124

267

6,193

7,009

Total

7,435

2,476

3,846

18,964

32,723

Source: GSL Information System (2011).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Map 2.1. Great Salt Lake sub-basins.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Population centers around the GSL ecosystem are primarily at the base of the Wasatch Range along the
east side of GSL. Intensive human interaction with the GSL ecosystem occurs here but also extends along
the northern and southern shores.
The GSL ecosystem comprises many subecosystems (FFSL 1999), and each is strongly influenced by
changing lake levels and lake chemistry. Shallow water, wetland areas, and deep water portions of the
lake are spatially heterogeneous and temporally dynamic in response to changing environmental and
management conditions. Variations in precipitation and freshwater inflows together create a dynamic
mosaic of habitat types along the shores of the lake over time. In addition, variations in salinity affect
species community composition and structure, which also vary across all of the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s habitats. There is a
distinct difference in salinity between the North Arm and South Arm of GSL, and this directly influences
species distribution and abundance. There is also a strong east-to-west ecosystem gradient in regard to
GSL habitat and productivity (FFSL 1999). Natural and human-induced inputs and outputs occur by
means of tributary inflow, atmospheric deposition and climate, and other mechanisms (FFSL 1999). GSL
resources are interconnected and human use influences ecosystem response. GSL components and
interactions are closely associated, making the management of GSL ecosystems complex and challenging.

2.2.1 Subsystems of the Great Salt Lake
GSL and its watershed represent a complex web of interacting physical, socioeconomic, and ecological
subsystems (FFSL 1999). A subsystem analysis emphasizes the linkages between these components and
human interactions from a large-scale perspective (Figure 2.1). The subsystems approach can be a
management tool for resource planners and managers to identify issues, limitations, and areas of
uncertainty. In addition, the comprehensive nature of these subsystems and their interlinkages supports
interdisciplinary and interagency management of GSL.

Physical subsystems represent the physical environment or setting and include basin geology,
hydrodynamics, and lake chemistry. The geologic setting and geography of the landscape create this
watershed and terminal basin. Hydrologic processes cause fluctuations of lake volume, lake level, and
salinity. All are strongly influenced by each other and respond to regional and global climatic factors (see
section 2.3.1). Climatic forces drive watershed response and lake level fluctuations at multi-year, decadal,
and longer time scales. Currently, the ability to predict lake level fluctuation can be limited, although
recent work, including research conducted at USU (Wang et al. 2010), is unraveling the relationship
between precipitation, streamflow, water vapor flux, and drought conditions in the Great Basin and the
delayed response in GSL elevation. Resource managers will likely continue to deal with long-term
uncertainty but will be better able to predict lake levels in the short term and understand associated
management implications and ramifications.

2.2.1.2

SOCIOECONOMIC SUBSYSTEMS

Socioeconomic subsystems relate to human interactions that influence the GSL ecosystem; they include
population, economic, and other human-related interactions. Mineral extraction, brine shrimp harvesting,
and oil and gas reserves are also important lake economic resources. Tourism and recreation are
additional important lake uses. Activities within socioeconomic subsystems occur and affect the lake at
seasonal to multi-year time scales.
Rapid urbanization continues to occur in GSL uplands, most notably in areas draining to Bear River and
Farmington bays. These subwatersheds contribute most of the freshwater inflows to GSL. This humaninduced impact changes the amount and temporal distribution of runoff into the lake, as well as the
quality of runoff water. These changes affect lake level, water chemistry, and ultimately other subsystem
components. Management strategies may also influence lake level, lake chemistry, air quality, and water
quality. Upstream and watershed activities such as discharges, development, and water allocation all
interact with other lake ecosystems and the three conceptual GSL subsystems. In 2010, the GSLAC was
formally reestablished through the adoption of HB 343. Among its tasks are to develop a vision for the
future of GSL and make policy recommendations concerning the long-term viability of the entire GSL
ecosystem (HB 343, 2010). Political and economic arenas will continue to drive management actions
within this subsystem.

2.2.1.3

BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL SUBSYSTEMS

These subsystems focus on biological and ecological interactions. Lake level fluctuations, salinity, and
water quality affect the dynamics of the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecosystems, which, as illustrated in the GSL Lake Level
Matrix, has positive, negative, and neutral implications for the areal extent of wetland habitats and the
population dynamics of algae, brine shrimp, brine flies (Ephydra spp.), and birds. There are further
implications for tourism and commercial brine shrimp harvesting. Nutrient availability and air and water
quality have ecological consequences that lake managers have yet to fully understand, although research
on the effect of lake chemistry on biota is currently underway. For example, a model recently refined by
Belovsky et al. (2011) illustrates some of the fundamental biological linkages of GSL (Figure 2.2).
Understanding cause-and-effect chains and their interconnected linkages helps resource managers identify
potential methods of altering conditions or managing a system.

The physical arrangement of the subsystems sets the stage for biological subsystemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to function.
Temperature, light, salinity, nutrients, and many other factors have an effect on both shallow and open
water, which creates dynamic biological systems with respect to their seasonal and annual variability
(FFSL 1999). Recreation and industry make use of and affect physical conditions and biological
populations. For example, as surface-water inputs to GSL increase, salinity decreases; both high and low
salinity levels can negatively affect brine shrimp populations. The eggs or cysts of brine shrimp are
harvested commercially and regulated based on density in the water column.
This GSL CMP revision acknowledges not only that there are significant linkages between subsystems,
but it also acknowledges that linkages can be affected by lake level. The GSL Lake Level Matrix
illustrates the effects the lake level has on physical, socioeconomic, and biological subsystems. Within the
matrix, each subsystem is broken into component resources or parameters and discussed in detail in the
following sections. The matrix is a heuristic tool and will aid in the development of management

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strategies that consider the complex associations between resources and explicitly account for lake level
variation.

2.2.2 Ecosystem Management
The USFWS defines ecosystem management as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;protection or restoration of the function, structure
and species composition of an ecosystem while providing for its sustainable socioeconomic useâ&#x20AC;?
(USFWS 2011). Human needs are dependent on the capacity of an ecosystem to meet those needs in
perpetuity, which is limited by the functionality of the ecosystem. It goes beyond conducting management
activities in an ecosystem, and for this reason, it must include a set of common principles. Table 2.2
outlines the principles of ecosystem management.
Table 2.2.

Principles of Ecosystem Management

Principle

Description

Sustainability

Ecosystem management does not focus primarily on deliverables but rather regards
intergenerational sustainability as a precondition.

Recognizing that change and evolution are inherent in ecosystem sustainability,
ecosystem management avoids attempts to freeze ecosystems in a particular state of
configuration.

Context and Scale

Ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and their
behavior at any given location is greatly affected by surrounding systems. Thus, there is
no single appropriate scale or timeframe for management.

Humans as Ecosystem
Components

Ecosystem management values the active role of humans in achieving sustainable
management goals.

Adaptability and
Accountability

Ecosystem management acknowledges that current knowledge and paradigms of
ecosystem functions are provisional, incomplete, and subject to change. Management
approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by research and monitoring
programs.

Source: Ecological Society of America (2011).

This GSL CMP revision recognizes many of the principles outlined above. Later sections of the plan
explore the development of ecological models that reflect complexity, interconnectedness, dynamism, and
scale of the GSL ecosystem. With regard to ecosystem management and GSL, it is important to note that
FFSL recognizes the human component of the ecosystem as it must for the Public Trust.
Adaptive management, a compliment to ecosystem management, is a process through which partnerships
of managers, scientists, and other stakeholders learn together to create and maintain sustainable
ecosystems (U.S. Department of Interior 2011). It is applicable to GSL and the GSL CMP revision
because it links scientific understanding to management objectives, allows for uncertainties that may
result in a change in management objectives, and takes action to achieve management objectives.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Driving forces behind the GSL ecosystem are lake level and salinity, and both are integral parts of the
lake’s ecosystem. FFSL intends to allow for as much natural lake level fluctuation as reasonably possible
to enhance ecosystem processes. It is also important to recognize when human-induced impacts are
altering or restricting lake hydrodynamics and the lake’s ability to exist as a natural body of saline water.
This planning effort aims to initiate in-house collaborative coordination to resolve long-standing issues,
integrate GSL management policies, and help determine gaps in information that require research or
monitoring for this valuable local, state, and worldwide resource.
This GSL CMP revision provides a framework to help guide this activity. However, initiating more
comprehensive planning efforts for the lake and its watershed will require legislation and financial
backing. Multiagency collaborative efforts are essential to accomplish and support planning research and
ecosystem monitoring objectives and to continue ongoing efforts.
This planning process has improved coordination among the divisions of UDNR. GSL management
requires a coordinated front to address lake management issues. However, many issues transcend the state
and private land boundaries, and post-plan watershed coordination will also help protect long-term
sustainability.
As with watershed-level programs implemented in other areas (e.g., the Great Lakes and Chesapeake
Bay), coordination at this scale can be harnessed in the GSL watershed (Adler 1999). A benefit to
considering watershed-level management is that it focuses on restoration and protection rather than
optimal resource use and development. Also, it considers conditions in which often overlapping or
conflicting laws, regulations, and entities collectively develop comprehensive, science-based, long-range,
and iterative solutions to GSL management.

2.2.2.1

SUBSYSTEMS MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING

Many management issues occur at the interface among the three subsystems. Each subsystem varies
spatially, temporally, and structurally and impacts each of the others. As such, management actions
intended to influence environmental conditions in one subsystem may impact another. For example, high
lake levels in the 1980s and flooding (physical subsystem changes) impacted infrastructure and other
major economic resources (socioeconomic subsystem) around the lake. Physical subsystem changes, such
as fluctuations in lake level and salinity, influence the productivity of lake aquatic organisms
(phytoplankton and brine shrimp populations). These changes also have implications for the quantity of
wetland and riparian habitat available to migratory birds and other wildlife, thus demonstrating that GSL
subsystems have many linkages and are dynamic and interactive (FFSL 1999).

2.2.3 Ecosystem Impacts
There are several types of ecosystem impacts that managers consider in planning and managing for
important natural resources. Managers consider direct and indirect, short- and long-term, immediate, and
site-specific impacts. Direct impacts are the result of circumstances or activities that occur at the same
time and place and hence alter a system. Indirect impacts are further removed but are still reasonably
foreseeable and influence a system. Cumulative impacts occur when there are multiple effects on the
same resources. Gradual impacts occur on resources when combined with past, present, and future actions
(FFSL 1999). There are many direct, indirect, and cumulative impacts to GSL and its environs.
Developed for the 2000 GSL CMP, the following list cites some examples of human-related direct and
indirect GSL impacts:
 Dikes and causeways
 Upstream water allocation
 Brine shrimp harvesting
 Water and air quality

Some GSL impacts have a positive effect on lake resources, such as the creation of state and federal
wildlife management areas and duck club habitat enhancements. These alterations enhance habitat
resources and provide forage and cover for wildlife. Other impacts may cause degradation over time.
Ecosystem threats include population growth, water and air pollution, commercial and industrial
development such as diking, and mineral extraction pond conversion.
The sovereign land multiple-use and sustainable yield management framework requires that lake
managers consider the impacts listed above and others that could affect lake resources. Resource planners
and managers consider impacts in lease permits, management activities, and in protecting resource
sustainability. Better monitoring and research adds to the information base and helps managers make
good management decisions and minimize impacts to the ecosystem.
Cumulative impacts to GSL resources are difficult to identify but will play an increasingly important role
in lake management. As the GSL knowledge base continues to increase through monitoring and research,
the consequences and mitigation measures to avoid cumulative impacts on lake resources will be better
understood.
It is noted that the GSLAC-sponsored report, Definition and Assessment of Great Salt Lake Health,
contains findings that are relevant to this section (and numerous other sections) of the 2013 GSL CMP.
FFSL supports incorporating findings of the GSL health report into management of the lake.
Unfortunately, the findings of the GSL health report could not be incorporated in the 2013 GSL CMP due
to the timing of the health report’s release (January 2012). FFSL will consider the GSL health report and
its updates into future management plans and future management decisions.

2.2.4 Ecosystem Health and Salinity Considerations
A healthy ecosystem is one that existed before significant anthropogenic impact (FFSL 1999); however,
the components of ecosystem health are difficult to define. By using the concept of ecological integrity,
researchers and managers can assess the ability of ecosystems to support and maintain the full suite of
functions, processes, and communities found within a range of natural variation. Although not all human
impacts to the lake degrade ecosystem health, human-induced change to the larger system can degrade
ecological integrity by modifying the range of natural variation and/or by limiting the ability of the
ecosystem to adjust to variation. For example, modifications to the flood regime of GSL tributaries have
truncated the upper extreme of natural flow variation, which has likely reduced the dynamism of wetlands
around the GSL. Similarly, the introduction of invasive, non-native species, such as common reed
(Phragmites australis; hereafter referred to as Phragmites) limits the establishment of native plants when
opportunities for colonization due to variation exist. The effect of current conditions (e.g., low lake level
and high salinity) on the health of brine shrimp populations is a concern for overall ecosystem health.
Brine shrimp are important consumers of algae and are also an important food source for GSL birds.
Brine shrimp are also commercially harvested, which complicates an ecosystem analysis. Brine shrimp
population studies indicate that lower salinity levels in the South Arm can impact algal community

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compositions, specifically Dunaliella virdis, which have lower tolerance for salinity change. These green
algae are a major food source for brine shrimp and have been replaced by larger pennate diatoms
(Belovsky et al. 2011), which are difficult for brine shrimp to digest (Stephens and Gillespie 1976).
Reduced salinity appears to contribute to a higher winter loss of brine shrimp cysts, making it difficult for
the population to restart when conditions are favorable in the spring. Conversely, high salinity impacts
brine shrimp populations by diminishing the Dunaliella virdis crop, which in turn results in lower oxygen
levels that stress the organism during all life stages (Van Leeuwen 2011). Finally, because other
environmental variables (e.g., nutrient inputs and algal species composition and abundance) also impact
brine shrimp population numbers, this organism may not be the best indicator of ecosystem health or of
the overall condition of the lake (FFSL 1999).
The manner in which ecosystem health is evaluated is an important factor to consider. Historical
measurements of lake level and salinity along with paleolimnological studies conducted by USGS, USU,
and DWQ (FFSL 1999) were used to assess the health of GSL ecosystems. An additional method to
eventuate ecosystem health would be to investigate how a community or group of species responds to
ecosystem change; however, historical data of this type are very limited. No single species is a reliable
indicator of GSL ecosystem condition. In 1999, the Science Review Committee (SRC) suggested that
other factors whose interactions and variability are less known (such as nitrogen, water transparency,
temperature, brine shrimp harvesting, algae, diatoms, other primary producers, and invertebrates and their
interactions) should be studied (FFSL 1999). The results of such a study (Belovsky et al. 2011) are
discussed in more detail in section 2.7 (Biology).
Diatoms are often used as bioindicators of environmental change and are well preserved in lake
sediments. They can be used to indicate past environmental conditions (FFSL 1999). Other past
limnological variables can be inferred from the sediment record. This makes diatoms a powerful and
robust tool for ecosystem management. However, this information is either limited or not available at this
time (FFSL 1999).
The physical, socioeconomic, and biological/ecological subsystems and their resulting interactions
describe one approach to investigate the implications of salinity and human impacts on GSL ecosystems.
The economic and political reality in the context of GSL ecosystems planning is that the Northern
Railroad Causeway is a human-induced change that is altering the function of GSL ecosystems. The
Northern Railroad Causeway has restricted natural lake hydrodynamics (lake circulation, lake level, and
lake salinity, or the movement of fluid in the lake) to a point at which environmental conditions have been
noticeably altered. Undoubtedly, the human-induced alterations to GSL provide great challenges to GSL
managers when attempting to define and manage the health of the GSL ecosystem.

2.2.5 Ecosystem Sustainability
Sustainability is “a system’s ability to maintain its structure (organization) and function (vigor) over time
in face of external stress (resilience) … In order to achieve sustainable development, policies must be
based on the precautionary principle. Environmental measures must anticipate, attack, and prevent causes
of environmental degradation where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage; lack of full
scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental
degradation” (FFSL 1999).
Sustainability is achieved by knowing the state of the environment. This is achieved by conducting a
resource inventory and provides the baseline to evaluate monitoring and to identify trends that are useful
for formulating effective management policies. Managing for sustainability assumes that resource
managers understand management actions and their consequences (impacts) on dynamic systems. Precise
cause-and-effect observations are often vague and problematic because scientific information may have

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

several different interpretations. Therefore, research and monitoring objectives must be carefully
designed. Sustainable planning for the GSL ecosystem should include targets or objectives for
determining the effectiveness of sustainable multiple-use and management. Management targets should
be based on a scientific understanding of GSL ecosystems’ limits and tolerances to human-induced
change. Management targets may be established at different scales and levels (FFSL 1999). A few ideas
to evaluate management objectives are as follows:


Identify tradeoffs and determine if acceptable tradeoffs will maintain the integrity of GSL
resources to ensure that each generation should at least inherit a similar natural environment.



Identify environmental quality or performance measures that are reportable and measurable over
time.



Determine a conceptual approach for monitoring and assessing the state of the environment.



Identify information needed to assess the state of the environment.



Identify vigorous monitoring strategies.



Design analysis and reporting strategies.

Sustainable use of GSL ecosystems means limiting the use of renewable natural resources (e.g., resources
that naturally regenerate/replenish themselves) at a pace where they can renew themselves through natural
processes (FFSL 1999). Ecosystem management objectives should include and consider the following:


Allow for reasonable multiple-uses.



Allocate resources wisely to ensure long-term sustainability.



Establish checks and balances to ensure an acceptable level of environmental protection.



Minimize negative impacts on GSL ecosystems.



Engage industry in ensuring sustainable resources by preventing and managing for crises in their
operations and to help in monitoring impacts.

These measures will allow for economic growth that is mindful of the limited natural resource base (FFSL
1999). It will be challenging to balance public needs and ensure long-term resource protection with
projected population growth scenarios. Sustainable management ensures that GSL natural resources will
be available for future uses.

2.2.5.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Capturing the relationship Utahns have with GSL is enigmatic, but most often it is one of indifference.
Other than the occasional odor emanating from the lake under certain weather conditions (Marcarelli et al.
2001), one aspect of GSL that reminds residents of its existence is lake level. It is during periods of high
lake level that personal property and infrastructure are threatened by flood waters, whereas low lake
levels result in access issues for industry, recreationists, and other user groups, which alert the larger
population to this resource of worldwide significance. For example, at elevations above 4,208 feet,
management thresholds for wildlife, infrastructure, and industry are impacted because the system of
dikes, which impounds water for a specific use, becomes inoperable. Conversely at elevations below
approximately 4,195 feet, critical wildlife habitat (e.g., Gunnison Island) may be accessible to predators
by land. Similarly, as lake levels recede, access to brine by the evaporative mining industry and access to
the lake itself by boats is impossible without dredging deeper channels.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

These naturally occurring â&#x20AC;&#x153;extremeâ&#x20AC;? conditions may or may not result in competition for resources by
different user groups. It is at those lake levels in the middle of the historic range of 4,192â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4,212 feet that
the human environment has typically adapted to and manages for.
Lake level fluctuations are a natural component of the GSL ecosystem. Although specific lake levels may
be ideal for industry and recreation uses, there is no one ideal lake level for the ecosystem as a whole.
Rather, the system benefits from natural fluctuations in lake level. Fluctuating lake levels reset the
successional clock, preserve the diversity of habitat around the lake, and reduce the presence of invasive
species (such as Phragmites). At any given lake level, some resources will benefit or be harmed more
than others (see Appendix A. GSL Lake Level Matrix). Even within a resource area, such as wildlife,
there are some species or guilds that may fare better than others. Finally, lake level affects different areas
of the lake in different ways. For example, whereas fringe wetlands may become inundated at higher lake
levels, higher lake levels generally provide isolated habitat for nesting birds on many islands.
As illustrated by the GSL Lake Level Matrix, this GSL CMP revision intends to develop management
strategies that consider lake level effects at a range of elevations and to offer prescriptive solutions to
avoid adverse impacts to resources and mitigate competition among user groups.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3 Water
2.3.1 Natural Properties of Great Salt Lake
2.3.1.1

GREAT SALT LAKE PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION

GSL is a remnant of Pleistocene Lake Bonneville and occupies the lowest point in a 34,000-square mile
drainage basin. Climate, basin configuration, and the result of erosion and deposition determine lake
depth, size, and salinity. At the water elevation of 4,200 feet above sea level, GSL has a surface area of
1,608 square miles, making it the fourth largest terminal lake in the world. The average depth of the lake
is approximately 14 feet when it is at an elevation of 4,200 feet. Because of the broad, shallow nature of
GSL, a small change in lake level results in a large change in lake area. Bear River Bay is the freshest part
of the lake due to inflow from the Bear River and the relatively small outlet to the main body of the lake.
Bear River Bay is bounded by the Promontory Mountains to the west and the Northern Railroad
Causeway to the south. The North Arm of GSL, also known as Gunnison Bay, is naturally more saline
than the rest of the lake because it receives the least amount of freshwater inflow. Since the 1960s,
Gunnison Bay has become hypersaline due to restricted flow between the North and South arms due to
the Northern Railroad Causeway. The South Arm of GSL, including Gilbert Bay and Ogden Bay, is the
largest area of the lake and receives inflow from the Weber River. Farmington Bay, in the southeast of
GSL, receives inflow from the Jordan River and is also fresher than the South Arm. Although salinity
gradients exist naturally in GSL, they have been accentuated by the fragmentation of the lake through
causeway and dike construction (see section 2.3.2). There are several large islands in GSL. From largest
to smallest, these include Antelope Island, Stansbury Island, Fremont Island, and Carrington Island (see
Map 1.1).

2.3.1.2

GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN HYDROLOGY

The GSL Basin is one of many closed basins in the Great Basin and encompasses most of northern Utah,
parts of southern Idaho, western Wyoming, and eastern Nevada. GSL receives approximately 3.5 million
acre-feet of fresh water each year, primarily from the Bear River, direct precipitation, the Weber River,
and the Jordan River (Table 2.3). Groundwater flows are a minor hydrologic contributor to the lake and
occur in the form of subsurface flow. These freshwater additions are incorporated into the tributary values
in Table 2.3 and account for only 3.6% of total inflow (DWRe 2001). The western portion of the basin
includes the West Desert, which does not produce any notable surface-water flows but does contribute a
small amount of groundwater to GSL. The three major rivers to GSL carry water and constituents from
complex watersheds that include diverse land cover types, geomorphic structures, and land uses as well as
a wide range in elevation, slope, and physical and ecological characteristics (see Map 2.1).

The Bear River is the largest tributary to GSL, contributing an average of 1.45 million acre-feet of fresh
water per year (DWRe 2001). The Bear River enters GSL at Bear River Bay and is the main freshwater
source for the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge as well as other wildlife areas along the northeastern
shores of GSL.
The headwaters for the Bear River begin in the Uinta Mountains and travel 500 miles before discharging
into GSL. The Bear River Basin drains approximately 7,118 square miles of northeastern Utah (including
Cache Valley), southwestern Wyoming, and southeastern Idaho. Logan City, Brigham City, Tremonton
City, and many small communities in southern Idaho lie in the Bear River Basin. Precipitation in the Bear
River watershed averages 21 inches per year.
Steep terrain (with slopes as high as 85 degrees) characterizes the mountains surrounding the relatively
flat valleys (including Cache Valley), where soils consist of alluvium and ancient lacustrine sediments.
The Bear River and its tributaries flow through old lake bottoms; this river system consists of a complex
channel with many oxbows, backwaters, eddies, and side channels. Major tributaries to the Bear River
include the Logan River, the Little Bear River, and the Cub River.
The hydrology of the Bear River has been modified significantly over the past century, with six
hydroelectric plants on the main stem and over 450 irrigation companies that own and operate systems in
the basin. In 1911, a canal was constructed to connect the Bear River to Bear Lake, which had been
hydrologically disconnected for approximately 11,000 years. Water released from Bear Lake during hot
summer months supplements the flow of the Bear River during low-flow periods. During the winter,
water from the Bear River is diverted into Bear Lake. Additional diversions and hydrologic modifications

The Weber River is the second largest tributary to GSL, contributing an average of 640,300 acre-feet of
fresh water per year (DWRe 2001). The Weber River enters GSL through the Ogden Bay WMA, the
Harold Crane State WMA, and Willard Bay, which ultimately flows into Bear River Bay and then into the
main body of GSL.
The headwaters for the Weber River begin in the Uinta Mountains and travel 125 miles before
discharging into GSL. The 35-mile-long Ogden River flows into Weber River west of Ogden City. The
Weber River Basin drains approximately 2,476 square miles of northeastern Utah, including most of
Summit County and much of Morgan and Weber counties. Park City and Ogden City lie within the
Weber River Basin. Steep mountain terrain characterizes the upper reaches of the basin, whereas most of
the system flows through flat alluvial valleys that were formed by Lake Bonneville. The major tributaries
to the Weber River are East Canyon Creek and Ogden River. Precipitation in the Weber River Basin
averages 26 inches per year (DWRe 2009).
The hydrology of the Weber River has been modified significantly over the past century, with seven large
reservoirs in the system that primarily retain water for agricultural and recreation uses. Just upstream of
the Weber River Delta, water is diverted from the Weber River into Willard Bay Reservoir (DWRe 2009).
Another diversion includes a pipeline from Rockport Reservoir into Park City; however, most of this
water returns to the Weber River system after being treated at the Silver Creek Water Reclamation
Facility and discharged into Silver Creek.

2.3.1.2.3

Jordan River

The Jordan River contributes an average of 438,000 acre-feet of fresh water per year to GSL, including
surface flow from the Jordan River and surplus canal as well as groundwater recharge (DWRe 2001). The
Jordan River Basin drains approximately 805 square miles, including Salt Lake Valley and its
surrounding mountains. However, the Jordan River also receives water from the upstream Utah Lake
Basin, which encompasses an additional 3,846 square miles (FFSL 2010). From Utah Lake, the Jordan
River flows 44 miles to Farmington and Gilbert Bay.
Steep mountain terrain in the Wasatch, Oquirrh, and Traverse mountains surrounding Salt Lake Valley
characterizes the headwaters of the Jordan River Basin. Six tributaries comprise 80% of the annual
surface-water flow to the Jordan River (excluding Utah Lake and the Provo River) and include City
Creek, Red Butte Creek, Parleys Creek, Mill Creek, Big Cottonwood Creek, and Little Cottonwood
Creek. Precipitation in the Jordan River watershed averages 23 inches per year (DWRe 2010). The Jordan
River itself flows through the relatively flat Salt Lake Valley. The Jordan River Basin is the most
populous in Utah and provides municipal water to the large communities within Salt Lake County.
The hydrology of the Jordan River has been modified significantly over the past century; however,
Mountain Dell and Little Dell reservoirs are the only reservoirs in the basin (DWRe 2010). Jordan River
receives approximately 295,000 acre-feet of water from Utah Lake releases each year. An additional
173,500 acre-feet of surface water is contributed to the Jordan River from Wasatch Mountain streams and
4,500 acre-feet per year from Oquirrh Mountain streams. An estimated 219,000 acre-feet per year enters
the basin as groundwater recharge. Up to 171,000 acre-feet of water can be imported to the basin from
elsewhere. Municipal and industrial water use was 333,700 acre-feet in 2005 (DWRe 2010).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.1.2.4

West Desert Basin

The West Desert Basin covers approximately 11.7 million acres (22% of Utah); however, it is the most
sparsely populated area of the state due to its aridity and remoteness. The West Desert Basin extends
along the Utahâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Nevada state line to the west and by GSL itself to the east. Mountains surrounding desert
valleys within the basin catch precipitation and supply intermittent and ephemeral streams. Tooele is the
largest population area in the basin. All of the populations in the West Desert Basin obtain their water
from groundwater sources. Groundwater recharge areas include the Oquirrh Mountains, South Mountains,
and Stansbury Mountains. The West Desert Basin contributes approximately 54,000 acre-feet of water,
primarily through groundwater flows, to GSL.

2.3.1.3

NATURAL SOURCES OF SALINITY AND MINERALS

The inflow waters to GSL carry natural salinity and minerals from the weathering of the diverse rock
types in the GSL Basin. Lake Bonneville, the larger predecessor to GSL, routinely deposited carbonate
into lake-bottom sediments. Today, the largest mineral inputs come from the three large river systems that
primarily carry calcium bicarbonate, and GSL continues to deposit carbonate on the bottom of the lake. In
addition, each of the large river systems carries unique combinations of secondary constituents, primarily
sodium and carbonate (Jones et al. 2009). The Bear River to the north generally contains a higher portion
of sodium carbonate originating in its upper watershed. The rivers to the south that drain into Utah Lake
and that are eventually drained by the Jordan River contain higher concentrations of sulfate. The Weber
River is typically the most dilute source due to the predominance of silicate rocks in its watershed (Jones
et al. 2009). In addition, springs and groundwater around the lake are characterized by sodium chloride
(Jones et al. 2009). Once deposited in GSL, water evaporation results in increased concentrations of salts.
Because there is no outlet from the lake, these salts stay within the GSL system, and as is the case in
closed basin systems, evaporative effects are the driving forces that affect mineral formation and solute
evolution. The accumulation of salts over a millennia has resulted in the hypersaline conditions in
portions of GSL today.
GSL is one of the most saline waterbodies in the world (Sturm 1980). Prior to segmentation of the lake
through dikes and causeways, lake brines were similar in composition and concentration throughout the
lake (Loving et al. 2000). Today, Gunnison Bay (the North Arm) continues to be hypersaline, with
salinities over 25%. The other bays of GSL typically range in salinity from 5% to 15%, depending on
freshwater inputs, circulation, and lake level (see section 2.3.3.2).

2.3.1.4
2.3.1.4.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Natural Fluctuations of Lake Level

Lake fluctuations are natural, expected, and an integral component to the lake system. The watershed of
GSL responds to global and regional climatic variability, including precipitation, streamflow,
temperature, and other hydrologic processes. Lake hydrology, watershed processes, and regional and
global climatic processes affect lake level. As the lake level goes down, the volume of the lake also goes
down and salinity increases.
Water enters GSL from freshwater rivers (Bear River, Weber River, and Jordan River), groundwater, and
as direct precipitation. At present, natural evaporation from the lake surface and from evaporation ponds
is the only way water leaves GSL. Further, the average, total, annual evaporation roughly equals average
annual inflow, although inflow exceeds evaporation during cooler, wetter weather cycles, and evaporation
exceeds inflow during hotter, dryer cycles. All water that is diverted from the lake is used for mineral

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

extraction by evaporation and is included in the annual evaporation estimates. A GSL evaporation
estimate that does not include diverted water has yet to be determined.
The physical configuration of the lake and its high salinity create a “buffering” effect on the rate of
evaporation of the lake. In general terms, as the lake rises, it increases significantly in surface area and
declines in salinity. These factors contribute to an increase in annual lake water evaporation and tend to
slow the rise of lake level. Conversely, when the lake level drops, the surface area diminishes and the
salinity increases, reducing the total annual evaporation. The lake, therefore, has a natural mechanism to
inhibit drying up and has a tendency to slow its own rate of rise. It has been suggested that a one-time
removal of water from the lake, while noticeable at the time of removal, will eventually “heal” itself
through this buffering effect, returning to pre-removal elevations. Long-term increases in diversions will,
however, produce long-term changes in lake level.
The naturally occurring water level fluctuations of GSL are termed flooding when the level of the lake
begins to adversely affect structures and developments that are located within the floodplain. However
flooding is a natural process and is mostly beneficial to species adapted to this dynamic environment. The
impact of flooding is greatest around the shores of the South Arm where most of the recreational,
industrial, wildlife management, and transportation facilities have been built. To minimize the impact of
flooding, the present and past elevations of the lake and its anticipated short- and long-term fluctuation
(rises and falls) should serve as guides to determine “safe” construction areas. These should also identify
areas that may be subjected to inundation, wind tides, ice damage, or shallow groundwater problems.
An extensive geologic record of prehistoric lake fluctuations is preserved in the form of shorelines and
other geomorphic evidence in the sediments underlying the lake bed and in the lagoons around the
lakeshore. This prehistoric record reveals that GSL has risen twice above the 4,220-foot level in the last
10,000 years and numerous times to elevations between 4,212 and 4,217 feet. The rises above the 4,220foot level are exceptional. They result from significant departures from what is considered normal climate
for the Great Basin in nonglacial times. The rises to the 4,217-foot level occur with climate that is
"normal” for the region. They result from a series of years with precipitation above average, but normal
for the region. An initial high lake level coupled with consecutive years of above-average precipitation
will result in a high lake level.
GSL has historically (defined as the period from 1847 to the present) experienced wide cyclic fluctuations
of its surface elevation (Figure 2.4). Since 1851, the total annual inflow (surface, groundwater, and
precipitation directly on the lake surface) to the lake has ranged from approximately 1.1 to 9.0 million
acre-feet. This wide range of inflow and changes in evaporation have caused the surface elevation to
fluctuate within a 20-foot range. Historically, the surface elevation of the lake reached a high of 4,212 feet
in the early 1870s and a low of 4,191 feet in 1963 (Figure 2.4). The lake reached 4,212 feet again in 1986
and 1987 (FFSL 1999).
Because GSL is a terminal lake, the surface level of the lake changes continuously. Short-term changes
occur in an annual cycle of dry, hot summers and wet, cool winters. The annual high lake level, which
normally occurs between May and July, is caused by spring and summer runoff. The annual low lake
level occurs in October or November at the end of the hot summer evaporation season (Figure 2.5).
The average, annual (pre-1983) fluctuation of the South Arm, between high and low, was approximately
1.48 feet; the North Arm fluctuation averaged 0.99 feet. The difference between the magnitude of the
South and North Arm fluctuations is due mainly to the flow-restrictive influence of the Northern Railroad
Causeway and the lack of tributary inflow to the North Arm.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Long-term climatic changes occur with overlapping periods of approximately 20â&#x20AC;&#x201C;120 years and perhaps
longer. Historically, the magnitude of annual lake level change has been greatest when the lake rises. The
largest recorded annual rise of the South Arm is 4.8 feet (in 1983); whereas, the largest recorded annual
fall is 3.2 feet (in 1989). The 1983 rise was exceptional and was due to high snow pack and above-normal
spring precipitation (FFSL 2000). From 1904 to 2010, the lake rose during a 52-year nonconsecutive
period an average of 1.6 feet per year. During the same period, the lake fell during a 55-year
nonconsecutive period an average of 1.5 feet per year (Figure 2.3). This suggests that outside of the
unusual event in the early 1980s, the magnitude and frequency of lake level fluctuations are roughly equal
for years when it rises versus falls.
6

The historic hydrograph of GSL in Figure 2.4 is based on measurement at a series of lake gages since 1875 and on estimates of the lake level for the
period prior to 1875. These estimates are based largely on interviews with stockmen who moved livestock to and from Antelope and Stansbury islands
from 1847 to 1875. The annual variations shown for this early period are the average of those measured since 1875. Although the major features of the
pre-1875 hydrograph are real, the details are uncertain. For the period since 1875, a small but significant uncertainty exists in the elevation of the
various gages used and thus an uncertainty of several tenths of a foot exists in the absolute elevation of the lake level shown on the hydrograph for
certain periods. Any analysis of the hydrograph should consider the uncertainties in the data upon which it is based.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Figure 2.5. Annual fluctuation in level of Great Salt Lake between water year
1999 and 2010, as measured at Saltair.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.1.4.2

Area and Volume Relationship to Lake Level

Because of the broad, shallow nature of GSL, its surface area expands rapidly as its elevation increases.
Elevations of approximately 4,200 feet and approximately 4,213 feet represent a common lake level and
the historical high lake level, respectively. Between these two elevations, the area of the lake increases
more than 47% from approximately 892,900 to 1,867,900 acres (Figure 2.6). Within this range, flooding
potential exists. Above-normal annual fluctuations, such as those experienced in 1983 and 1984, result in
extensive flooding. At low lake levels, large areas of playa are exposed; at high lake levels, large areas of
lake shoreline can be inundated. Seasonal and long-term fluctuations in lake level produce dramatic
changes in the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shoreline. These fluctuations are an integral part of the lake ecosystem.

Islands are an important component of the habitat of many bird species found at GSL (see section 2.7
[Biology]). As GSL lake levels go down, some islands become accessible from the mainland by
predators, reducing their value as nesting or foraging refuges. Likewise, as lake levels rise, island habitat
becomes scarcer, especially habitat that is located at lower elevations on the islands. This can have
important implications for wildlife management on GSL (see section 2.7 [Biology]).
In general, most island habitats are protected at lake elevations (levels) of 4,199â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4,206 feet, with the
notable example of Stansbury Island, which is landlocked below 4,207 feet. Table 2.4 highlights when
GSL islands are accessible by land and when they are inundated. The information is also highlighted in
the GSL Lake Level Matrix (see Appendix A).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 2.4. Great Salt Lake Island Accessibility and Inundation
Island

Elevation (feet)

Inundated

Accessible by Land
Stansbury

4,207

n/a*

Carrington

4,203

n/a*

Hat

4,199

n/a*

Gunnison

4,195

n/a*

Fremont

4,195

n/a*

Antelope

4,200

n/a*

Dolphin

4,198

n/a*

Mud

4,201

n/a*

Egg

4,195

4,205

White Rock

4,195

4,212

Other small
islands

4,195

4,205

* Inundation occurs at elevations above 4,213 feet.

2.3.1.4.4

Predicting Lake Levels

For planning purposes, it is important to know the maximum movement that might be expected during a
given period of time. Based on historic estimated and measured lake levels, it is estimated that during sixyear blocks of time from 1847 through 1982, the maximum measured one-year upward fluctuation was
approximately 6 feet. A notable exception to this was seen in the 1980s when the level of the lake
increased by more than 12 feet over the course of five years. When the trend is downward, the maximum
one-year downward fluctuation is approximately 2.5 feet.
During the early 1980s when the lake rose to 4,211.85 feet, there was a great deal of interest in
forecasting future levels of GSL (FFSL 1999). With hindsight, some of these forecasts seemed to show
some promise; however, there was a general consensus by researchers and climatologists at the time that
predictions could not be made with any degree of assurance. There still remains a general skepticism by
researchers and climatologists that these forecasts can be made with any assurance. A recent paper
compared four models for forecasting GSL levels and found that Fractional Integral Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (or FIGARCH) to be the best predictive model (Li et al. 2007;
Wang et al. 2010); however, these models are not widely used by the planning community.

2.3.2 Human Modifications to the Natural Lake System
2.3.2.1

FRAGMENTATION OF GREAT SALT LAKE THROUGH CAUSEWAYS AND DIKES

Since the early 1900s, GSL has been fragmented by dikes and causeways constructed for a variety of
purposes. Several of these inhibit the unrestricted movement of lake brines among large areas of the lake
(Map 2.2). Before this fragmentation, there was substantially more exchange of water between bays,
although there was still a salinity gradient from the areas of the lake near river inflows and the North Arm
of GSL.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.2.1.1

IMC Kalium Ogden Corp’s Dike, ca. 1900

Bear River Bay is separated from the main body of the lake by IMC Kalium Ogden Corp.’s dike and the
Bagley Fill, which was constructed around 1900 and extends eastward from Promontory Point to Little
Mountain.

2.3.2.1.2

Northern Railroad Causeway, ca. 1959

Construction on the Northern Railroad Causeway began in 1956 and was completed in 1959. This rockfill causeway separates the main body of the lake between Promontory Point and Lakeside and was
known as the Southern Pacific Railroad (SPRR) Causeway. This causeway includes the Rambo and
Saline fills, which were constructed around 1900. Construction of this rock-filled causeway replaced a
wooden trestle that had been constructed in the early 1900s. The wooden trestle provided more circulation
between the North and South arms of the lake (Gwynn 2002). The causeway created a separation between
Gunnison Bay and the main body of GSL, now referred to as the North and South arms of the lake. The
causeway also separates Bear River Bay from the South Arm. Even with the engineered permeability of
the causeway and the incorporation of two 15-foot-wide × 20-foot-deep box culverts through the
causeway, brine mixing was greatly diminished.

The Northern Railroad Causeway was modified in the mid-1980s to increase circulation between the
North and South arms. During the 1980s, fill material was added to the causeway, and in 1984, a 290foot-wide breach was opened near the western end of the causeway to reduce the elevation difference
between the two arms. Work on the causeway continued to the late 1980s, and the original culverts were
largely plugged, limiting most return exchange of water from the North Arm to the South Arm. In August
1996, the breach in the causeway between Gunnison and Gilbert bays was lowered from 4,200 feet to
4,198 feet (Loving et al. 2000). DWRe was responsible for further decreasing the causeway breach
elevation to 4,193 feet in 2000 (Klotz 2011). Today, Bear River and Gunnison Bay remain largely
separated from the main body of the lake by the rock-fill causeway.

2.3.2.1.4

Antelope Island Causeways, ca. 1952 and 1969

Farmington Bay was part of the main body of the South Arm of GSL until it was isolated by the
construction of two earthen causeways. The first causeway (the Southern Causeway) was built from the
south end of Antelope Island southeastward to the mainland in 1952. This causeway inhibited water
exchange between the main body of the lake and the bay at the south end of the island and channeled the
full flow of the Jordan River into Farmington Bay. The causeway is no longer used and is not visible at
mid-lake levels. There is no public for this causeway.
The second causeway (the Davis County Causeway) extends from the north end of Antelope Island
eastward to the mainland and was constructed in 1969. With the construction of this causeway,
Farmington Bay was essentially isolated from the main South Arm of the lake (with the exception of two
bridged openings) and mixing between the two bodies of water was severely restricted (Gwynn 1998).

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Map 2.2. Causeways and dikes on Great Salt Lake.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.2.2

WATER DIVERSIONS AND WATER RIGHTS

2.3.2.2.1

Administration of Water Rights and Diversions

The diversion of water from GSL is governed by the same Utah water appropriation laws and regulations
as the diversion of water from streams, springs, or wells. Under Utah law, all waters of the state are the
property of the public (UTAH CODE § 73-1-1). A water right secures to an individual or entity the right to
divert the water and place it to a recognized beneficial use. All water rights in the state are administered
by the State Engineer with the assistance of DWRi staff.
A water right is acquired by filing an application with the State Engineer and receiving approval. If the
application is approved, the applicant generally has five years to develop the project, place the water to
beneficial use, and submit proof of the beneficial use to the State Engineer. Extensions of time for filing
proof can be requested. An approved water right is considered to be the property of the applicant. Once
proof of beneficial use is submitted (defining the quantity of water developed and the water uses), the
State Engineer issues a Certificate of Appropriation, which the applicant may file with the local county
recorder. At this point, the water right is said to be perfected and is treated similar to real property. To
maintain a water right, the water must be diverted or physically removed from its natural source. The only
exception to this rule is approved in-stream flow rights, which must be held by either DWRi or DWR.
For an application to be approved for development, the following conditions must exist:


There must be unappropriated water in the proposed source.



The proposed use must not impair existing rights or interfere with a more beneficial use of the
water.



The proposed development must be physically and economically feasible and not prove
detrimental to public welfare.



The applicant must have the financial ability to complete the proposed works.



The application must be filed in good faith and not for speculation or monopoly (UTAH CODE §
73-3-8).

If there is reason to believe that an application will interfere with a more beneficial use, unreasonably
affect public recreation or the natural stream environment, or prove adverse to public welfare, the State
Engineer will reject the application.
There are several reasons a water right may be terminated. An unperfected water right may be terminated
by the State Engineer 1) at the applicant’s request, 2) if the applicant fails to meet the criteria for
appropriation or the conditions of approval, or 3) the applicant fails to develop the project in the time
allotted. Once a water right is perfected, there are two reasons it may be terminated: 1) The water right
holder can file a statement of abandonment and forfeiture with the State Engineer and the local county
recorder, or 2) the courts may terminate the water right as part of a civil proceeding.

2.3.2.2.2

Existing Water Rights in the Great Salt Lake Basin

Tributary Water Rights
Except for the Bear River drainage, the West Desert, and the lake itself, all surface waters of the GSL
Basin are considered to be fully appropriated, except during high water years. On the Bear River,
appropriations are still allowed; however, there are factors that may restrict the amounts available. At
present, the Board of Water Resources, by statute, is considering various alternatives for the development

2-25

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

of Bear River water for use in various locations along the Wasatch Front. Development of the Bear River
is subject to the limitations of the Bear River Compact.
Groundwater Rights
The Jordan River Basin, the upper Weber River Basin, and Tooele Valley are closed to new
appropriations of groundwater. Groundwater is still available in the Bear River Basin, the West Desert
Basin, and on portions of the eastern shore of GSL.
Groundwater withdrawals from Curlew Valley could impact freshwater flows to Locomotive Springs, an
important area for wildlife on the north shore of the lake. The groundwater system in Curlew Valley is the
source of water for Locomotive Springs. The basin is in both Idaho and Utah. Most of the groundwater
withdrawals from this flow system are in Idaho. Due to decreased hydrostatic pressure in this aquifer, the
potential for salt-water intrusion is another concern. The Utah portion of the valley has been closed to
new groundwater applications, except single-family domestic wells, since 1976. The data show that the
discharge from Locomotive Springs has dropped considerably during the last 40 years. The solution to
this matter is complex and potentially very controversialâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;it will most likely take considerable effort to
resolve.
Great Salt Lake Water Rights
For administrative purposes, the State Engineer has divided the GSL Basin into sub-basins. Each subbasin has its own set of policies governing the appropriation and management of its water. GSL itself is
open to appropriation. However, the sitting of diversion facilities is dependent on the applicant securing
the proper easements and/or permits from the responsible regulatory agencies and landowner.
There are currently 13 perfected water rights to divert water from the lake (Table 2.5); all are owned by
companies or individuals in the mineral extraction industry (Map 2.3). The earliest priority date of these
rights is 1940; the latest is 2003. Under these rights, if used to their fullest, it is possible for the rights
holders to divert 416,776 acre-feet per year from GSL. Due to economic limitations, climatic conditions
and the available evaporative surface, only 77,600â&#x20AC;&#x201C;338,000 acre-feet per year are currently diverted. Most
of this water is evaporated, whereas very small amounts return to the lake through pond leakage and
flushing.

2-26

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 2.5. Perfected Water Rights for Great Salt Lake in Order of Priority Date as of 9/7/2011
Water Right Owner
No.

Status

Priority Date

15-306

Salt Point Land
Company, LLC

Certificated

12/21/1940

10.31

3,436*

Salt

15-341

Salt Point Land
Company, LLC

Certificated

09/15/1949

10.31

961*

Salt

15-414

Morton Salt, Inc.

Adjudication decree

05/13/1955

20

14,479*

Salt

13-228

Lake Crystal Salt
Company

Water user’s claim

01/24/1961

12

7,300*

Salt

15-517

Key Minerals

Adjudication decree

07/20/1961

0.1

72*

Salt

13-246

GSL Minerals

Certificated

01/08/1962

134

27,000*

Salt

15-616

US Magnesium

Adjudication decree

03/22/1965

–

54,750

Magnesium

15-2161

US Magnesium

Adjudication decree

05/09/1967

–

54,750

Magnesium

13-2137

Lake Crystal

Water user’s claim

10/19/1967

10

7,240*

Salt

16-727

US Magnesium

Certificated

10/16/1972

–

35,290

Magnesium

16-748

US Magnesium

Certificated

07/21/1986

103

75,000

Magnesium

15-2182

Morton Salt, Inc.

Certificated

03/04/1993

75.2

54,442*

13-3723

North Shore

Certificated

09/03/2003

–

125

Total possible diversions

Cubic Feet
per Second

Acre-feet

Use

Salt
Brine

334,845

*Acre-feet estimates based on water rights for an instantaneous flow (cubic feet per second) assuming the right is exercised during its full period of use.

2-27

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Map 2.3. Mineral extraction operations.

2-28

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Eight water rights applications have been approved for development (Table 2.6). Seven of these rights, all
owned by mineral extractors, represent a possible diversion of 377,768 acre-feet per year for mineral
extraction. The earliest priority date of these rights is 1962; the latest is 2008. Like the perfected rights,
most of the water diverted under these applications would be consumed by evaporation.
Table 2.6. Approved but Undeveloped Water Rights on File with the Utah Division of
Water Rights as of 09/07/11
Water Right
Number

Owner

Priority Date

13-3091

GSL Minerals

01/08/1962

13-3569

GSL Minerals

13-3345

GSL Minerals

Acre-feet

Use

46

67,000

Salt

01/08/1962

50

62,000

Salt

02/20/1981

–

13-3404

GSL Minerals

12/14/1981

13-3457

Colman, W. J.(Solar
Resources)

04/10/1984

Cubic Feet
per Second

49,802*

Salt

†

–

Salt

250

180,992

8,000

‡

Salt

15-3850

Morton International

03/04/1993

24.8

13-3866

Lake Source Minerals

08/30/2007

–

10

Brine

13-3884

Earth's Elements

11/26/2008

–

10

Brine

Total possible diversions for mineral extraction

17,954

‡

Salt

377,768

*This is a mostly nonconsumptive, freshwater right from the Bear River. The nature of the use is for pond flushing.
†

This is a mostly nonconsumptive, freshwater right from the Bear River that is intended for conservation.

‡

Acre-feet estimates based on water rights for an instantaneous flow (cubic feet per second) assuming the right is exercised during its full
period of use.

Under all eight existing, approved rights, an additional 456,000–787,000 acre-feet of water per year could
be diverted from GSL and consumed by evaporation. However, unless this diverted water is evaporated in
ponds constructed outside the lake area, thereby increasing the effective surface area of the lake, such
additional diversions should have no measurable effect on average lake level. The possibility that all the
water approved under existing applications will be diverted and consumed at some time in the near future
is unlikely. It is, however, likely that existing mineral extraction operations will seek to expand their
evaporation ponds and brine diversions.

2.3.2.2.3

Future Depletions

It is expected that depletions to the inflow of GSL from historical sources will continue through water
development on tributaries to the lake and other water uses. In the Jordan and Weber basins, which have
been highly developed by the Weber Basin Water Conservancy District and Central Utah Water
Conservancy District projects, it is expected that already diverted and developed water will be converted
from agricultural uses to meet municipal and industrial demands, rather than large, new water projects
being developed. Another mitigating factor may be the importation of Uinta Basin water (a portion of
Utah’s Colorado River allocation) to the GSL Basin by the Central Utah Project. The amount of water
that could be imported from the Uinta Basin is 321,567 acre-feet per year under rights for the Strawberry
Valley, Provo River, and Central Utah projects. Presently, approximately 180,000 acre-feet per year enter
the GSL Basin from the Uinta Basin. This inflow reduces the impact of depletions within the GSL Basin
to enhance lake level.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Four applications have not been approved for development (Table 2.7). The earliest priority date is 1966;
the latest is 2009. These applications represent a potential additional diversion of 413,000 acre-feet per
year for mineral extraction. The State Engineer has on file one unapproved application that does not
divert water from the lake, but that would have a large impact on it; this application calls for the diking of
Farmington Bay and its use as a freshwater reservoir.
In the Bear River Basin, it is expected that major new water diversions and developments will occur.
Alternatives for development of water resources in the GSL drainage area have been documented in the
Utah state water plans. These plans guide management and development of water resources in the GSL
Basin, but are not for the purposes of managing inflow, level, or surface area of GSL. These plans are
available from DWRe.
Table 2.7. Unapproved Water Rights on File with the Utah Division of Water Rights as
of 09/07/11
Water Right
Number

Owner

Priority Date

Cubic Feet
per Second

Acre-feet

29-1478

DWR

01/24/1966

638

–

13-2130

National Lead

08/22/1967

150

60,000

31-4963

Maughan Family

05/05/1989

–

15,000,000

13-3896

GSL Minerals

05/12/2009

–

353,000

Total possible diversions

Use
Wildlife
Salt
Lake Maughan
Freshwater
Lake
Salt

15,413,000

In 2009, Great Salt Lake Minerals Corporation (a subsidiary of Compass Minerals and hereafter referred
to as GSL Minerals) submitted an application to DWRi to withdraw 353,000 acre-feet of water from GSL.
The water would be diverted into 91,000 acres of new solar ponds. The additional ponds would add to
GSL Minerals’ existing 45,000-acre footprint around GSL. The USACE is in the process of completing
an environmental impact statement (EIS) to analyze the impacts of the proposed expansion on GSL
resources. GSL Minerals is working with regulatory agencies and stakeholders to reduce impacts
associated with this project by implementing adaptive management solutions.

2.3.2.3

MINERAL EXTRACTION

Salt extraction is one of Utah’s oldest industries; salt has been produced from the waters of GSL for over
100 years (Miller 1949). In addition, magnesium metal, potassium sulfate, magnesium chloride, and other
products are harvested through extraction processes. These newer industries began in the 1960s. All major
ions contained in the lake water are extracted by solar evaporation in large pond systems (Trimmer 1998).
Five companies have active mineral extraction operations on the lake; three of the companies produce
sodium chloride salt from the lake: Morton Salt in Tooele County, GSL Minerals in Weber County, and
Cargill Salt in Tooele County. US Magnesium LLC, located 60 miles west of Salt Lake City, produces
magnesium metal sodium chloride and other salable by-products. North Shore Limited
Partnership/Mineral Resources International (Earth’s Elements and Lake Source Minerals) is located in
the North Arm of GSL in Box Elder County and produces nutritional supplements. GSL Minerals
produces potassium sulfate and magnesium chloride from GSL brines in Weber and Box Elder counties
(see section 2.14.4 [Mineral Salt Extraction]).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

The amount of salt ions entering the lake is approximately 2.2 million tons per year (Gwynn 2011a;
Gwynn 2005). However, approximately 1.0 million tons of this is calcium carbonate that precipitates out
of solution leaving 1.2 million tons of salt ions in solution. In recent years, approximately 3.0 million tons
of minerals are extracted from lake water annually (UGS 2011c). Therefore, approximately 1.8 million
more tons of minerals are removed from the lake than enter each year. This equates to approximately
0.04% of the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total salt load of 4.5 billion tons (Gwynn 2011a).

2.3.2.4

FLOODING MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION

To help alleviate the flooding of the 1980s, the Utah State Legislature directed and provided funding to
the DWRe to implement two flood control measures; these achieved minor lake level reductions and
resulted in millions of dollars in saved infrastructure around GSL. In addition, since their original
construction, the conveyance properties of the two largest causeways on GSL (the Northern Railroad
Causeway and Davis County Causeway) have been modified in an attempt to improve circulation within
the lake (Loving et al. 2000). However, the effectiveness of increased circulation through these
causeways is lake level dependent. In spring 2011, Union Pacific Railroad began exploring the possibility
of building a 180-foot bridge along the Northern Railroad Causeway that would replace the existing,
failing 15-foot-wide culverts between the North and South arms. Presumably, this might increase
circulation between the North and South arms. FFSL and USACE are currently evaluating this project. In
January 2012, Union Pacific Railroad plugged the causewayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s west culvert to avoid damage to the
railway.

2.3.2.4.1

Breaching the Northern Railroad Causeway

In August 1984, DWRe created a breach in the Northern Railroad Causeway to reduce the difference in
lake level between the North and South arms (Figure 2.7). The breach consisted of a 300-foot-long
opening near Lakeside to allow faster flow of brine from the South Arm to the North Arm. At the time the
breach was opened, the water elevation of the South Arm was approximately 3.5 feet higher than the
North Arm (Figure 2.7). After the breach was opened, large quantities of less-concentrated South Arm
brine flowed north into the North Arm, whereas large quantities of dense North Arm brine flowed south
into the depths of the South Arm as bidirectional flow (Gwynn and Sturm 1987). This bidirectional
interchange of brine increased the South Arm density and salt load and decreased those of the North Arm.

2-31

2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

1972

1970

1968

1966

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Average Annual Lake Level (feet above MSL)

4,215

4,210

4,205

North Arm Elevation
South Arm Elevation

4,200

4,195

4,190

4.00
Elevation Difference (feet)

3.50
3.00
2.50

2.00
1.50

Elevation Difference

1.00
0.50

0.00
2009

2006

2004

2002

2000

1997

1995

1993

1991

1988

1986

1984

1982

1979

1977

1975

1973

1970

1968

1966

-0.50

Figure 2.7. Average annual lake level differences between the North and South arms of Great Salt Lake
(based on U.S. Geological Survey Gage 100100000 at the Saltair Boat Harbor and U.S. Geological
Survey 10010100 at Great Salt Lake near Saline, Utah).

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Bidirectional flow continued until the end of 1988 when the lake dropped to the point that return flow
through the breach opening ceased. From that time until 1999, flow through the breach opening was
mainly south-to-north. Early in 1999, there was very little bidirectional flow observed moving through the
breach. Later in the year, however, as the level of the lake rose and the head differential across the
causeway decreased, deep north-to-south return flow was again observed within the breach opening.
In 2000, driven by the salt level in the South Arm decreasing to the point where brine shrimp production
was suffering, the state legislature directed and provided funding for the DWRe to deepen the breach to
ensure bidirectional flow to somewhat equalize the salinity levels of each arm. The bottom of the breach
was dredged to an elevation of 4,193 feet, thus allowing increased bidirectional flow of brines at lower
GSL levels. Since the breach was dredged, bidirectional flow has been observed through the breach at
GSL elevations as low as 4,195 feet (Klotz 2011).

2.3.2.4.2

West Desert Pumping Project

During the GSL historic rise between 1982 and 1987 (the GSL rose to a historic peak of 4,211.85 feet in
June 1985), shoreline flooding caused an estimated $240 million in damages to Interstate 80 (I-80),
mineral industries, railway systems, sewage treatment plants, wildlife habitat, recreation areas, and public
and private property. When GSL rises to an elevation of 4,204 feet above sea level, economic damages
begin to occur. Weather experts in the mid-1980s could predict no immediate change in the wet weather
pattern, which led to fears that I-80 would be lost to flooding, requiring a new rerouted freeway. The
Southern Pacific and Union Pacific railroads considered shutting down operations because of flood
damage. Fears grew that the Salt Lake International Airport (SLCIA) would stop flights because runway
drains were starting to fill up and would not function properly. To mitigate these damages, the DWRe was
directed by the Utah State Legislature to develop strategies on how to lower the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s elevation. The
DWRe determined through several studies, including looking at capturing the water upstream of GSL by
building additional storage reservoirs, that pumping GSL water out into the West Desert to increase
surface evaporation would be the best mitigation tactic to solve the short-term flooding impacts. This
measure involved pumping water from the North Arm of the lake out into the West Desert to increase the
total evaporative surface area and to physically remove and evaporate water from the lake. After much
discussion concerning the lake's elevation, a special session of the Utah State Legislation in May 1986
authorized $60 million to the DWRe to construct and operate the WDPP.
The WDPP consists of a 10-mile-long access road along a portion of the Northern Railroad Causeway
(owned by Union Pacific Railroad), a pumping station containing three large natural gasâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;fueled pumps,
canals, trestles, dikes, a 37-mile natural gas pipeline, and a 320,000-acre evaporation pond area in the
desert west of GSL. To accomplish the task of lowering the lake elevation, a short intake canal (4,207foot elevation) exists to deliver North Arm brines south under the railroad line (a small trestle was
constructed) to the West Desert Pumping Plant located on Hogup Ridge (approximately 12 miles west of
Lakeside) (Map 2.4). The water is pumped up by three large natural gas pumps to an elevation of 4,224
feet above sea level and discharged to a 4.1-mile outlet canal that delivers the water by gravity out to the
West Pond. The West Pond has a surface area of 320,000 acres, approximately 508 square miles, and a
volume of 800,000 acre-feet at an elevation of 4,216.5 feet.

2-33

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Map 2.4. West Desert Pumping Project.

2-34

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

A 24.4-mile dike with a maximum height of 6 feet retains the southwest portion of the West Pond and
prevents water from the WDPP from flooding I-80 and the famous Bonneville Speedway. A second dike
8.1 miles long with a maximum height of 7 feet extends southeast from the southern tip of the
Newfoundland Mountains. It is used to contain the water and restrict the surface flooding of the U.S. Air
Force (USAF) Military Test Range. Multiple gates on a weir in this dike are used to regulate the pond's
surface level at approximately 4,217 feet and the return of concentrated brine to GSL. Return flow
through the test range is not confined and flows over the natural topography in an expansive path on its
return to the lake (FFSL 1999).
The WDPP expanded the average surface area available to evaporate the flow into GSL by approximately
26%. The increased evaporation slows lake level increases and accelerates lake level declines during
periods of pump operation. The WDPP is designed to pump approximately 2 million acre-feet of water
per year into the West Pond to evaporate up to 825,000 net acre-feet of water each year (FFSL 1999).
This is in comparison to the average inflow of approximately 2 million acre-feet of water to GSL through
surface streamflows and groundwater.
Excavation of the pumping station began on July 7, 1986, and by June of the following year, the three
pumps were in full operation. The pumps are designed to operate down to 4,205 feet. However, as stated
earlier, the intake canal that brings North Arm water to the pumps will only intake water at 4,207 feet.
The upper limit of the pumps is set at 4,216.5 feet, at which point the engine room floor would be
flooded. The operational range of the WDPP is directly linked to the water surface elevation of GSL.
Other constraints alter the way the project operates. Design features allow pumping down to an elevation
of 4,205 feet (if the intake canal is dredged), but when the WDPP was in operation, the USAF only
allowed pumping to an elevation of approximately 4,208 feet. At a water surface elevation of
approximately 4,217 feet, GSL would naturally flow into the West Pond area and submerge the
Newfoundland Dike Weir. The West Pond would then be an extension of GSL, and pumping would be
unnecessary.
Pumping started on April 10, 1987, and continued until June 30, 1989. During this period, an estimated
2.73 million acre-feet was pumped from GSL. The pumping project was successful in increasing the rate
of decline of GSL, lowering the level of the lake by 15 inches, and causing the lake to recede by
approximately 50,000 acres of shoreline. After pumping ceased, because of a changed weather pattern,
the lake level continued to drop an additional 2 feet through the end of 1989. The WDPP was shut down
on June 30, 1989, after more than two years of successful operation. The shutdown process took
approximately eight weeks, requiring the pumping plant to be secured and dismantling, preserving and
storing tools and system control devices.
The design of the WDPP was modified prior to construction. The original design called for water to be
pumped from the fresher South Arm of GSL. The final plan was a shorter inlet canal from the North Arm,
which reduced the cost of the project and sped construction by pumping brine from the North Arm.
However, the use of more concentrated North Arm brine reduced the evaporation potential of the project
and resulted in more salt being left in the West Pond.
In 1994, USGS published a report called Salt Budget of the West Pond, Utah, April 1987 to June 1989.
The report summarized the salt budget as follows:
During operation of the West Desert pumping Project, April 10, 1987, to June 30, 1989
data were collected as part of a monitoring program to evaluate the effects of pumping
brine from GSL into West Pond in northern Utah. The removal of brine from GSL was
part of an effort to lower the level of GSL when the water level was at a high in 1986.
These data were used to prepare a salt budget that indicates about 695 million tons of salt

2-35

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

or about 14.2 percent of salt contained in GSL was pumped into West Pond. Of the 695
million tons of salt pumped into West Pond, 315 million tons (45 percent) were dissolved
in the pond, 71 million tons (10.2 percent) formed a salt crust at the bottom of the pond,
10 million tons (1.4 percent) infiltrated the subsurface areas inundated by storage in the
pond, 88 million tons (12.7 percent) were withdrawn by US Magnesium and 123 million
tons (17.7 percent) discharged from the pond through the Newfoundland Weir. About 88
million tons (13 percent) of the salt pumped from the lake could not be accounted for in
the salt budget. About 94 million tons of salt (1.9 percent of the total salt in GSL) flowed
back to Great Salt Lake. (USGS 1994)
Therefore, at the end of pumping operations, approximately 484 million tons of salts were either in the
West Pond or infiltrated into the subsurface. Another 211 million tons were withdrawn by US Magnesium
or discharged over the Newfoundland Weir. Approximately 94 million tons of the 211 million tons had
returned to GSL. Therefore approximately 600 million tons (as of 1989) had been pumped but not
returned to the lake (FFSL 1999).
It is believed that some portion of the precipitated salt, approximating 180 million tons, has been redissolved by rainfall and removed from the West Pond by either US Magnesium or by flow over the
Newfoundland Weir. This removal of salt has had an impact on the overall salinity of GSL (FFSL 1999).
In its present configuration, the WDPP is capable of operating only at South Arm lake levels of 4,208 feet
or more (the WDPP operation is referenced to South Arm lake level), due to constraints stated earlier such
as intake canal elevation and prior USAF limits. The current configuration of the WDPP will allow the
pumping of only North Arm brines.
The relationship between lake levels, the pumping of brine from the North and South arms, and the buildup of salts in the West Pond are presented in Figure 2.8. The upper, more densely stippled shading shows
the upper and lower limits of salt precipitation for North Arm brines at varying lake level elevations. The
lower, less densely stippled shading shows the same limits for South Arm brines. Figure 2.8 shows that
the WDPP could operate without precipitation of salts in the West Pond if operation is started only at lake
elevations of 4,210 feet above sea level and higher. Unless the West Pond is significantly reduced in size,
which would significantly reduce the effectiveness of the system, operation of the WDPP in its current
configuration would result in precipitation of additional salts into the West Pond.
Construction and operation of the WDPP was controversial, and it spawned considerable public and
political debate about costs and alternatives to pumping. Project engineers faced and overcame unique
challenges, including the harsh environment of GSL, remoteness of the pumping plant, and difficult
access to construction areas. The WDPP was nominated for the prestigious Outstanding Civil Engineering
Achievement Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers and won the society's Civil
Engineering Achievement of Merit Award.
Since pumping ceased, the DWRe has a continual operation and maintenance program at the pumping
plant. The budget for this work is approximately $9,000 per year. Current maintenance is minimal and
consists of keeping corrosion at bay in the engines at the pumping plant. If the pumps were to be operated
again, a very large financial commitment would need to be made to prepare the pumping plant for
operation once again.

Administrative and Legal Considerations
As part of the WDPP, various rights-of-way, permits, and memoranda of understanding were executed
among the State of Utah, BLM, USAF, and USACE. Several of these were long-term agreements to
operate the WDPP, such as the right-of-way issued by BLM. Others were short-term, temporary
permissions arising out of the emergency nature of the project. USAF never granted an official approval
for the use of the Utah Test and Training Range in operation of the WDPP, but instead issued a letter of
approval for temporary operation for the duration of the flooding emergency. In addition, as stated earlier,
they allowed pumping only at GSL elevations above 4,208 feet. In recent discussions, USAF notified the
state that an environmental baseline study would be required and perhaps an update of the original project
EIS, before HAFB would grant permission to flood parts of the Utah Test and Training Range. HAFB has
indicated that a proposal to use the WDPP would require the state to address several HAFB concerns. Use
of the WDPP raises several safety concerns such as the impact of the West Pond on fog levels and
increased bird use, both of which affect flight safety. Presence of the West Pond will also affect planning
for flying missions, operating of target complexes, and conducting environmental clean-up activities. All
of these concerns would have to be addressed before USAF would allow operation of the WDPP to
resume. HAFB also indicated that any proposal to use the WDPP for lake levels below 4,208 feet may
make it more difficult to obtain USAF approval.
USACE also expressed concern over the impacts the WDPP may have had on the ecology of GSL, such
as the removal of salts from the lake. USACE issued a Section 404 permit for construction of much of the
WDPP, which also covers operations. USACE has indicated that a resumption of pumping or a change in
the use or protocols of the WDPP could trigger an evaluation of the state's performance under the permit
in light of these concerns.
The DWRe has developed an internal procedure that outlines steps the state will need to take based on a
rising lake level. It addresses many of the issues that are discussed above. However, the DWRe has no
long-term management authority of the WDPP. The Utah State Legislature would again have to direct the
DWRe to assess and prepare the WDPP for operation. Funding for this effort would also have to be
provided by the legislature. In addition, recently installed dikes owned by GSL Minerals would have to be
breached in order for the intake canal to bring water to the WDPP.

2.3.2.5
2.3.2.5.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Bay Connectivity and Fragmentation

Fragmentation of GSL, as a result of the dikes and causeways, has resulted in the loss of connectivity
between the main areas of the lake. This is despite the design of semipermeable causeways as well as
breaches, openings, and culverts to encourage exchange of water between fragmented bays. At low lake
levels, below the bottom of culverts and other causeway openings, GSL is especially fragmented, and
bays tend to operate in isolation. However, as lake levels rise, more water is exchanged through openings.
Also, when causeways and dikes are overtopped, there is increased mixing between bays that may have
been isolated from one another for some time. However, even when the causeways are overtopped, these
structures continue to impede mixing and circulation such that pre-causeway levels cannot be achieved.
Bay connectivity and fragmentation has important implications to salinity, circulation, and brine
stratification. For more information, see section 2.3.2 as well as section 2.3.4 (Water Quality).
The connectivity of GSL bays is described here in relation to Gilbert Bay. The three largest bays are
separated from Gilbert Bay by the Northern Railroad Causeway (Gunnison and Bear River bays) and the
Antelope Island Causeways (Farmington Bay). Farmington Bay is dry from the shoreline to Antelope

2-38

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Island below 4,191 feet, and it is isolated from the main lake between lake elevations of 4,191 and 4,195
feet. Farmington Bay becomes connected through bridged openings in the Antelope Island Causeways
between lake elevations of 4,195 and 4,205 feet. When the lake’s elevation rises above 4,211 feet and the
causeway is over topped, the waters of Farmington Bay and the main body are free to mix (Gwynn 1998).
However, when lake levels rise above 4,205 feet (the elevation of the Southern Causeway), there is
partially mixing with the South Arm through the narrow channel between Antelope Island and the
mainland.
Bear River Bay is isolated from the main lake when the lake elevation is below 4,196 feet. Bear River
Bay is connected to Gilbert Bay through two bridges (one in the GSL Minerals dike and one on the
Bagley Fill portion of the causeway). Willard Bay is isolated from the main lake body below a lake
elevation of 4,202 feet and is connected above this elevation. Gunnison Bay is isolated from Gilbert Bay
below 4,193 feet and is connected through a breach and two box culverts above this elevation. When the
GSL lake elevation is above 4,213 feet and the causeway is overtopped, Gunnison Bay is fully connected
to Gilbert Bay (Klotz 2011).
There are several other small bays that become isolated at low lake levels. Carrington Bay is relatively
dry below a 4,189-foot lake elevation. The bay is narrowed when the lake elevation is between 4,190 and
4,199 feet. At this time, Carrington Bay is used by phalarope (Phalaropus spp.) for foraging during
migration. When GSL is at a lake elevation of 4,199 feet or more, Carrington Bay is connected to the
main body of the lake. Ogden Bay is relatively dry when the lake elevation is below 4,191 feet and is
connected above this elevation.

2.3.3 Hydrological and Geochemical Dynamics of Great Salt Lake
2.3.3.1

LAKE STRATIFICATION AND CIRCULATION

Because the density of water is proportional to its salinity, mixing of water between fragmented bays of
varying salinity is limited. At causeway openings and breaches, fresh water flows above more saline
water to create a bidirectional flow. Brine flowing to a bay of less salinity tends to resist mixing with the
fresher water and remains in a fairly coherent “tongue,” which can extend some distance into a fresher
bay. This forms a stratified brine condition within the central, deeper portions of bays (Gwynn 1998). For
instance, deep brine from the North Arm flows to the South Arm as lighter surficial brine flows from the
South Arm to the North Arm simultaneously and in opposite directions. These directions occasionally
reverse due to storm events (DWQ 2010a).
In some cases, a very saline deep brine layer (DBL) periodically forms underneath the less saline water
where waters of two different salinities come into contact as a result of bidirectional flow. This
stratification can remain for several years at a time (Gwynn 2000; Naftz et al. 2005). During these
periods, as a result of limited turnover, the DBL has limited exposure to oxygen, resulting in anoxic
conditions. Anoxic conditions contribute to sulfate reduction, methylation of mercury and phosphorus,
and nitrogen cycling. Brine density stratification occurs in the South Arm, Farmington Bay, and Bear
River Bay (Gwynn 2002). The DBL is hypersaline and turbid. The DBL is generally anoxic and plays an
important role in mercury cycling in the lake (see mercury discussion in section 2.3.4.5).
Today, Bear River Bay is separated from the South Arm by the Bagley Fill that was constructed when the
original Lucin Cutoff was constructed, which extends east and west across the lake. The opening in the
Bagley Fill is approximately 600 feet long. One culvert in the causeway provides for bidirectional flow
between Bear River Bay and the South Arm below the 4,202-foot level. The upper layer of water near the
culvert is relatively fresh, with average salinity values of 1%–2%. The DBL in Bear River Bay is

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approximately 14% salinity, similar to the main body of the South Arm. There is only one opening, an
approximately 50-foot bridge, in the dike north of the causeway; it is managed by GSL Minerals.
From 1966 until approximately mid-1991, the South Arm of the lake was density-stratified into two brine
layers. This stratification was primarily driven by the differences in lake level in the South and North
arms, and secondarily due to differences in brine densities in the two arms (Gwynn 2002). In the South
Arm, a dense and turbid, hydrogen sulfide–laden brine extended from an elevation of approximately
4,180 feet to the bottom of the lake. Less dense, clearer, odor-free brine extended upward from
approximately 4,180 feet in elevation to the surface. The two brines were separated by a relatively sharp
transition zone. From 1991 until recently, brines of the South Arm have been thoroughly mixed from top
to bottom, causing the deeper, denser brine layer to disappear. This disappearance occurred after the highwater years (1983–1987). During the 1980s, the surface elevation of the lake rose from approximately
4,200 feet to approximately 4,212 feet by 1986–1987. The disappearance of South Arm stratification is
probably due to diminished north-to-south return flow through the causeway from the apparent changes in
the hydraulic conductivity (permeability) in the Northern Railroad Causeway. It was recently reported
that a DBL occurs intermittently in the South Arm and Carrington Bay (Naftz et al. 2008a).
Brine stratification was not present in the North Arm of the lake from approximately 1966 to 1983. When
the lake began its rapid rise from approximately 4,200 feet in 1983 to its historic high of 4,211.85 feet in
1986–1987, a layer of less-dense brine formed on top of the very-dense North Arm brine. This could be
due to 1) increased precipitation causing an enormous amount of inflow of less-saline, South Arm water
as the Northern Railroad Causeway was breached in August 1984 and 2) the large, bidirectional exchange
of brines between the North and South arms through the breach opening that followed. By mid-1991, the
level of the lake had dropped below the 4,199.5-foot bottom elevation of the breach opening. Because of
this, the constant flow of South Arm brine into the upper light-brine layer in the North Arm nearly ceased,
and the stratified-brine condition in the North Arm soon disappeared due to vertical mixing (Gwynn
1998). To improve the bidirectional exchange of brines, the bottom of the breach was lowered to 4,198
feet by Union Pacific Railroad in August 1996 (Klotz 2011). DWRe lowered the breach opening to its
current elevation of 4,193 feet in 2000.

2.3.3.2

SALINITY AND SALT BALANCE OF GREAT SALT LAKE

Historically, lake salinity was inversely proportional to lake level and lake volume (FFSL 1999).
However, since 1930, precipitation and re-solution of salts into minerals, primarily halite and mirabilite,
have complicated brine chemistry and dynamics. Prior to completion of the Northern Railroad Causeway
in 1959, the lake was considered to be well mixed from top to bottom with no density stratification
(Gwynn 1998). As lake volume, area, and elevation increased, salinity decreased.
Hypersaline waters are denser than the rest of the lake and periodically result in stratification of portions
of the lake. Stratification typically occurs as North Arm brine flows into the South Arm, sinks to the
bottom, and forms the deep, dense brine layer. Furthermore, the chemistry of precipitation and re-solution
of salts can result in changes to the composition of brines in dissolved form in the lake (Jones et al. 2009).
These patterns have been further complicated by the fragmentation of the lake due to the construction of
dikes and causeways as well as the removal of lake brines by the mineral extraction industry.
The amount of salt currently extracted from GSL annually through mining operations is estimated to be
slightly greater than the amount of salt that is delivered to the lake from freshwater tributaries (See
section 2.3.2.3). The chemical composition of freshwater inflows to the lake and the chemical
composition of extracted salts further change the distribution of salt throughout the lake. The WDPP
removed 0.5 billion tons of salt from the lake in the late 1980s. The USGS has developed a salt balance

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

model that simulates salinity and dissolved solids concentrations in each of the four distinct bays (or
areas) of GSL under different mixing conditions and lake levels (Loving et al. 2000).
Salinity throughout GSL is governed by lake level, freshwater inflows, precipitation and re-solution of
salt, mineral extraction, and circulation and constriction between bays of the lake. Distinct salinity
conditions have developed in the four main areas of the lake as a result of 1) fragmentation of the lake
resulting from causeways and dikes and 2) the fact that 95% of the freshwater inflow to the lake occurs on
the eastern shore south of the causeway (Loving et al. 2000). From freshest to most saline, the largest
bays in GSL today are Bear River Bay, Farmington Bay, Gilbert Bay (the main body of the lake also
referred to as the South Arm) and Gunnison Bay (i.e., the North Arm). Since 1982, the salinity in Bear
River Bay and Farmington Bay ranges from 2% to 9% (Map 2.5), though it typically stays between 3%
and 6%. USACE is currently developing a model of salinity at varying lake levels for use in the GSL
Minerals Corporation EIS (Gibson 2010).
From approximately 1966 to 1982, the salinity of the North Arm remained within the range of 25%–28%.
Due to this high salinity, a layer of sodium chloride precipitated on the lake’s bottom during this time.
North Arm salinity dropped to only 15% in 1987, because evaporation was unable to keep up with
increased, less saline inflows from the South Arm. Since the high-water years, the North Arm salinity has
climbed back into the 290–310 grams per liter range of 25%–26% (Figure 2.9; UGS 2011c).
Bear River Bay receives the most freshwater inflow of any of the bays from the Bear River; as a result, it
is the least saline. At an elevation of 4,200 feet, the maximum depth of water is 8 feet and the average
depth of water is 2 feet (Gwynn 1986). Before reaching GSL, the Bear River flows through the Bear
River Migratory Bird Refuge, managed by the USFWS since 1928. The breach in the Northern Railroad
Causeway in 1984 resulted in a correction in the lake level imbalance between the North and South arms.
Because fresh water flows into the South Arm of the lake, there is a net movement of water and thus brine
to the North Arm. This is reflected in Figure 2.9, which shows the relationship between salinity and lake
level before and after the breach in the causeway. Since the initial causeway breach in 1984 and the
WDPP in 1986, the overall salinity and the total amounts of salts contained in the South Arm have
decreased. Sodium chloride, which continually enters the North Arm from the South Arm, precipitates out
of the brine and forms a layer of salt on the bottom of the North Arm. For example, at a lake level of
4,195 feet, salinity in the lake is currently approximately 15%, whereas before the breach, it would have
been close to 23% (Figure 2.9). There has been a similar shift down in salinity in the North Arm. Because
the North Arm is saturated, this brine effectively precipitates out to bottom sediments.

Unlike the lake’s variable salinity (total grams of dissolved salt per liter of solution), its chemical
composition (ratio of various dissolved ions to one another) is relatively constant throughout the lake. Six
major ions occur in GSL: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++), calcium (Ca++), chloride (Cl-),
and sulfate (SO4--). The combination of natural and human-influenced processes in GSL has resulted in a
brine composition that is dominated by sodium chloride (Na-Cl) (Naftz et al. 2011). This chemical
consistency exists because 1) chemical homogeneity existed throughout the lake prior to the construction
of the railroad and other causeways and 2) continual brine mixing, however limited, occurs among all
portions of the lake. Slight, long-term changes in ion ratios have been observed throughout the lake as a
whole. Table 2.8 shows the average concentrations of multi-element analysis in raw acidified GSL water
samples from the shallow and deep brines (Diaz et al. 2009). Although the volume of dissolved solids
varies between the shallow (139,217 mg/L) and deep brines (315,592 mg/L), the percentage of
concentrations of elemental salts is relatively the same. In addition to the main ions listed above, three
other elements are most abundant in GSL: lithium (Li), bromine (Br), and boron (B). Although historic
data were inaccurate because of salt interferences with analytical methods, recently reported average
concentrations of metals in raw acidified GSL water samples are listed in Table 2.9 (Diaz et al. 2009).

4

Data points are depth-integrated averages for the top 20 feet of the water column. The following UGS sites were used in the analysis: AS2 and FB2 for
the South Arm; LVG4 and RD 2 for the North Arm.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 2.8. Elemental Chemical Composition of the Dissolved Salts (in deep and shallow
brines) in the Waters of the South Arm of Great Salt Lake (mg/L)
Elemental Salt

It has been postulated that the absolute quantities of the ions of magnesium, potassium, calcium, and
sulfates in lake brines is decreasing relative to sodium and chloride. Data collected by UGS since 1966
show a slight decline in the yearly average. South Arm dry-weight percentages of magnesium, potassium,
calcium, and sulfates decrease over time, whereas sodium and chloride show a slight increase (FFSL
1999). This trend is also supported by analyses completed by Diaz et al. (2009). During the low surfaceelevation stages of the lake, from 1935 to 1945 and from 1959 to the mid-1960s, sodium chloride
precipitated in the main body of the lake (South Arm) and in Gunnison Bay (North Arm). Madison (1970)
states that salt precipitated at lake elevations below 4,195 feet, and Whelan (1973) reports that
approximately 1.21 billion metric tons of sodium chloride precipitated throughout the lake at those low
elevations.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Although the precipitated salt in the South Arm had redissolved by mid-1972, it took until approximately
1986 before all the salt in the North Arm had been redissolved (Wold et al. 1996). In 1992, salt again
began to precipitate on the floor of the North Arm during the summer months, and it is believed that
precipitation continued through 1997. Dry-weight percentages of magnesium, potassium, and calcium
were increased during historic low lake levels because sodium chloride is the first salt to precipitate as the
concentration of lake brine increases. Notwithstanding slight fluctuations in relative ion ratios in lake
water with changes in lake level, it is believed that the overall chemistry of lake brines has not changed
greatly. Between 1966 and 1996, the re-solution of sodium chloride that had precipitated on the bottom of
the lake’s North Arm and South Arm resulted in a decline of the dry-weight percentages of potassium,
magnesium, and sulfate in comparison to sodium and chloride (Gwynn 2002).

2.3.3.4
2.3.3.4.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Farmington Bay

Farmington Bay is isolated from the main body of GSL when its level is below the top elevation of the
Davis County Causeway (4,208 feet) and the Southern Causeway fill (4,205 feet). The limited exchange
of flow between Farmington Bay and the South Arm is through two culverts and a bridge. Because of the
inflow of fresh water from the Jordan River and groundwater inflows, the lake brines tend to be “flushed”
from the bay through openings in the Davis County Causeway at lake levels higher than 4,195 feet (the
bottom elevation of the culverts). Brine returning to the bay from bidirectional flow tends to resist mixing
with the fresher water and remains in a fairly coherent “tongue,” which extends some distance to the
south underneath the lighter Jordan River/brine mixture. This forms a stratified brine condition within the
central, deeper portions of Farmington Bay. The salt content of the upper Farmington Bay waters is
maintained through vertical mixing of the tongue of denser, main body brine with the fresher water above
it (Gwynn 1998).
Because of freshwater flows of the Jordan River into the bay, when the lake’s elevation is below 4,208
feet, the salinity of Farmington Bay is approximately half or less than that of the main body of the lake.

2.3.3.4.2

Bear River Bay

Bidirectional flow occurs between Bear River Bay and Gilbert Bay above a lake elevation of 4,196 feet,
which is the bottom elevation of the culvert opening in the Northern Railroad Causeway that separates the
two bays (C. Miller 2011). The DBL in Bear River Bay varies seasonally and annually depending in part
on lake level and wind conditions. Under calm conditions, there is little difference in lake level on either
side of the railroad. There will, however, be a tongue of South Arm water extending into Bear River Bay,
the extent of which depends on the density differential between lake water and Bear River Bay water. As
winds blow strong from the north, water elevation against the north side of the railroad increases, whereas
the elevation on the south side of the railroad decreases. When this occurs, the tongue of water from the
South Arm does not extend as far into Bear River Bay. When there is a strong wind from the south, the
opposite occurs and the tongue extends further than normal (Gwynn 2011b). When the tongue of main
body brine thickens and extends farther into the bay, the overlying fresher brine layer thins (Butts 1998).
This could have important implications to wildlife that use Bear River Bay (see section 2.7 [Biology]).
Salinity in Bear River Bay remains relatively low due to freshwater inflows. However, at a lake level of
4,217 feet, the Northern Railroad Causeway would be overtopped. Mixing with the South Arm would
lead to increased salinity in Bear River Bay.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.3.4.3

Gilbert Bay

The salinity of the South Arm varies inversely with lake level, and since 1984, it has fluctuated from a
high of 16% in 2004 to a low of approximately 5% total salinity in 1985 (Figure 2.10). Average salinity in
the South Arm, as recorded at Saltair since August 1984, is 11% (UGS 2011c; Gwynn 2007).
A DBL has historically developed in the South Arm due to differences in lake level and density between
the South and North arms. This has partially been relieved through a breached opening in the Northern
Railroad Causeway between the two bays. However, when hydraulic conditions are right (head
differential and North and South Arm brine densities), the DBL changes direction and extends into the
North Arm. The bottom elevation of the breach was originally at an elevation of 4,198 feet, but then was
lowered to an elevation of 4,193 feet (Loving et al. 2000; Klotz 2011). When the lake is below the bottom
elevation of the breach opening, there is little exchange of water between the two bays, and the DBL
mixes with the upper less saline waters. Aside from the breach, exchange between the two bays is limited
to two culverts in the Northern Railroad Causeway and to flow through the porous causeway, which has
been sealed to some degree by fine sediment.
35

The salinity of the North Arm also exhibits an inverse relationship with lake level, and since 1984, it has
fluctuated from a high of 26% in 2007 to a low of approximately 15% in 1987 (UGS 2011c). Salinity in
the North Arm stays relatively constant, at saturation (Gwynn 2002), especially when lake elevations are
below 4,203 feet. This is because the North Arm receives insignificant quantities of fresh surface-water

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

inflow and large quantities of salty water inflow from the South Arm. Evaporation from the surface of the
North Arm is sufficient to maintain the North Arm salinity at a high concentration.

2.3.4 Water Quality
Because of the lake’s high salinity and unique aquatic biology, some contaminants that are of great
concern in fresher water systems may not be as problematic in GSL, and some may even help support the
aquatic ecosystem. Others may be rendered harmless by the lake water’s high salinity, but may become
more bioavailable when lake water freshens. GSL’s unique and complex nature, biogeochemistry, and
hydrology have made assessing and establishing water quality criteria difficult. However, several
pollutants of concern (primarily selenium, mercury, and nutrients) have been the focus of water quality
studies from 2000 to present. More monitoring and assessment is needed to address pollutant impacts to
the lake and to identify those that could be affecting the beneficial uses of the lake. Additional water
quality concerns will continue to emerge and be evaluated in the future. For example, pharmaceuticals
and personal care products are an emerging water quality concern around the country (Kolpin et al. 2002).
Although the risks to aquatic organisms and humans are still largely unknown, pharmaceuticals and other
endocrine-disrupting compounds can cause biological effects at very low concentrations (USGS 2011c).

2.3.4.1

GREAT SALT LAKE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

DWQ and the Utah Water Quality Board have been charged by the Utah State Legislature to “protect,
maintain and enhance the quality of Utah's surface and underground waters for appropriate beneficial
uses; and to protect the public health through eliminating and preventing water related health hazards
which can occur as a result of improper disposal of human, animal or industrial wastes while giving
reasonable consideration to the economic impact” (DWQ 2010a). The statutory authorities of the board
and division are located in UTAH CODE § 19-5.
The CWA established the institutional structure for the EPA to regulate discharges of pollutants into
waters of the U.S., establish water quality standards, conduct planning studies, and provide funding for
specific grant projects. The EPA has provided most states with the authority to administer many of the
provisions of the CWA. Accordingly, the DWQ has assigned appropriate beneficial uses for waters of the
state (Utah Administrative Code [UTAH ADMIN. CODE] R317-2) and protects those uses through the
development and enforcement of water quality standards (40 Code of Federal Regulations § 131.11). The
beneficial use classes are as follows:


Class 1: Protected for use as a raw water source for domestic water systems



Class 2: Protected for in-stream and recreational use and aesthetics



Class 3: Protected for in-stream use by aquatic wildlife



Class 4: Protected for agriculture uses including irrigation of crops and stock watering



Class 5: Great Salt Lake

Most of these main classes are divided into subclasses, which address more beneficial uses and the water
quality standards assigned to protect those uses. The State of Utah reclassified the designated uses of GSL
(Class 5) in 2008 into five subclasses (use Classes 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, and 5E) that more accurately reflect
different salinity and hydrologic regimes and the unique ecosystems associated with each of the four
major bays (Gilbert, Gunnison, Bear River, and Farmington) and the transitional water, as described in
Table 2.10 (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2-6). An elevation of 4,208 feet and below was assigned as the
elevation in each bay that is protected for its assigned beneficial use.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 2.10. Beneficial Uses Designated to Great Salt Lake
Class

Geographical Boundary

Beneficial Uses

Class 5A:
Gilbert Bay

All open waters at or below an approximately 4,208foot elevation south of the Southern Railroad
Causeway, excluding all of Farmington Bay south of
the Antelope Island Causeway* and salt
evaporation ponds.

Protected for frequent primary and
secondary contact recreation,
waterfowl, shorebirds and other
water-oriented wildlife, including their
necessary food chain.

Class 5B:
Gunnison Bay

All open waters at or below an approximately 4,208foot elevation north of the Southern Railroad
Causeway and west of the Promontory Mountains,
excluding salt evaporation ponds.

Protected for infrequent primary and
secondary contact recreation,
waterfowl, shorebirds, and other
water-oriented wildlife including their
necessary food chain.

Class 5C:
Bear River Bay

All open waters at or below an approximately 4,208foot elevation north of the Southern Railroad
Causeway and east of the Promontory Mountains,
excluding salt evaporation ponds.

Protected for infrequent primary and
secondary contact recreation,
waterfowl, shorebirds, and other
water-oriented wildlife including their
necessary food chain.

Class 5D:
Farmington Bay

All open waters at or below an approximately 4,208foot elevation east of Antelope Island and south of
the Antelope Island Causeway*, excluding salt
evaporation ponds.

Protected for infrequent primary and
secondary contact recreation,
waterfowl, shorebirds, and other
water-oriented wildlife including their
necessary food chain.

Class 5E:
Transitional waters
along the shoreline
of GSL

All waters below an approximately 4,208-foot
elevation to the current lake level of the open water
of GSL receiving their source water from naturally
occurring springs and streams, impounded
wetlands, or facilities requiring a Utah Pollution
Discharge Elimination System permit. The
geographical areas of these transitional waters
change corresponding to the fluctuation of open
water elevation.

Protected for infrequent primary and
secondary contact recreation,
waterfowl, shorebirds, and other
water-oriented wildlife including their
necessary food chain.

* Referred to as the Davis County Causeway in this plan.

Under the CWA, states are required to develop water quality standards for their surface waters, including
wetlands. The EPA has established numeric standards (toxicity thresholds) for many toxic pollutants;
these standards are refined and used by the states in conjunction with assessments of the beneficial uses
for the various types of waterbodies. The application of national freshwater or marine quality criteria to
GSL may not be applicable because 1) the lake has unique biogeochemical processes that alter the fate
and transport of pollutants and 2) the lake supports unique species different from those on which national
criteria are based. To date, DWQ has established a single numeric water quality criterion for selenium,
which is applicable to Class 5A, Gilbert Bay (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2-14).
Until numeric criteria can be developed, the beneficial uses of GSL are protected with the following narrative
criterion (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2-7.2):
It shall be unlawful, and a violation of these regulations, for any person to discharge or place
any waste or other substance in such a way as will be or may become offensive such as
unnatural deposits, floating debris, oil, scum or other nuisances such as color, odor or taste; or
cause conditions which produce undesirable aquatic life or which produce objectionable
tastes in edible aquatic organisms; or result in concentrations or combinations of substances
which produce undesirable physiological responses in desirable resident fish, or other

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

desirable aquatic life, or undesirable human health effects, as determined by bioassay or other
tests performed in accordance with standard procedures.
The CWA and UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2-3 also provide antidegradation policy and procedures to
protect and maintain existing high-quality waters. Utah's antidegradation policy does not prohibit
degradation of water quality, unless the Water Quality Board has previously considered the water to be of
exceptional recreational or ecological significance (Category 1 or Category 2 waters). Instead the policy
creates a series of rules that together ensure that when degradation of water quality is necessary for social
and economic development, every feasible option to minimize degradation is explored. Also, the policy
requires that alternative management options and the environmental and socioeconomic benefits of
proposed projects are made available to concerned stakeholders.

2.3.4.2

GREAT SALT LAKE WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

DWQ is striving to develop water quality assessments and applicable water quality criteria for GSL that
measure beneficial use support to determine water quality goals and to evaluate management actions. The
unique biogeochemical properties, hydrology, and history of GSL have complicated the establishment of
numeric water quality criteria. Scientific research from other aquatic systems, freshwater and marine, may
not be applicable to GSL, and the lack of comparable reference sites makes it difficult to establish
expected natural conditions (DWQ 2010a). Despite these difficulties, DWQ is committed to establishing
numeric criteria and associated assessment methods for this ecologically and economically unique
ecosystem (DWQ 2010a).
In the absence of numeric criteria, DWQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategy to protect the beneficial uses is to create assessment
frameworks based on biological, physical, and chemical parameters and to use these frameworks to
document if and how the beneficial uses are protected using the narrative standard (DWQ 2010a).
Assessment frameworks have been developed for mercury and nutrients in the open waters of GSL and
are provided in DWQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2008 305(b) integrated reports. In addition, a preliminary Multimetric Index for
GSL impounded wetlands was also developed, which uses multiple lines of evidence to quantify the
physical, chemical, and biological condition of these waters (see section 2.4 [Wetlands]).

2.3.4.3

GREAT SALT LAKE WATER QUALITY MONITORING

Numerous local, state, and federal agencies and academic researchers have and are currently collecting
water quality and chemistry data from GSL. The key state agencies monitoring the open waters of GSL
are the Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Program (DWR), UGS, and DWQ. Key federal agencies include
USGS, USFWS, and EPA. Continued collaboration and coordination among the various agencies that
have management responsibilities, conduct research, and monitor the condition of GSL are essential to
maximize the exchange of knowledge, data, and resources.

2.3.4.3.1

Future Monitoring and Assessment

For water quality monitoring of GSL, DWQ has instituted a strategic monitoring plan designed to address
what the overall condition of the water quality is in the open waters of GSL. More specifically, the
monitoring plan is designed to identify the potential contaminants of concern, the concentration of those
contaminants in the water, and how those concentrations vary spatially, seasonally, and annually.
Constituents that are being measured include total selenium and total mercury in the water, brine shrimp
and bird eggs, trace metals in the water, nutrients, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, conductivity,
Secchi depth, water depth, and depth to the DBL in the water.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

2.3.4.4

PERMITTING DISCHARGE TO GREAT SALT LAKE

Facilities in Utah that produce, treat, dispose of, or otherwise discharge wastewater must obtain a Utah
Pollution Discharge Elimination System (UPDES) discharge permit from DWQ. UPDES permits are
required for all industrial, municipal, and federal facilities, except those located on Native American
lands. After a discharge application is received, a wasteload evaluation is developed to determine specific
discharge limitations, required treatment, and monitoring. Each permit includes effluent limitations and
requirements for monitoring, reporting, and sludge use or disposal requirements. Permit duration is
usually five years or fewer, with a provision for renewal. The most recent permits are available for public
review on DWQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s website (http://www.waterquality.utah.gov/UPDES/CurrentPermits/index.htm).
Permitted discharges to GSL include municipal wastewater treatment facility discharges, stormwater
discharges, mineral extraction facility discharges, and other industrial facility discharges (Table 2.11).
Wastewater treatment facilities improve water quality by treating sewage that historically was discharged
directly to the lake. Nonetheless, discharge from wastewater treatment plants includes organic material,
nutrients, and sediment. Stormwater discharges to the lake include pollutants that wash off of streets and
other urban landscapes as well as pollutants that originate at the SLCIA. These include petroleum
products, deicing fluids, solvents, lubricants, and antifreeze. Mineral (salt) extraction industries produce
bitterns (residual) water from their solar evaporation ponds. These facilities withdraw water from GSL
and then use solar evaporation to precipitate various salts from this water. Specific effluent guidelines and
standards are applicable to discharges from salt extraction industries. The requirement is that the effluent
contain only materials originally present in the intake water. Industrial discharges include effluent from
copper concentration and smelting operations and from oil refineries located in the North Salt Lake area.
The copper mining results in heavy metals and total and suspended solids discharges. Discharges from oil
refineries have limitations on mass biological oxygen demand, total suspended solids, oil and grease,
phenolic compounds, ammonia, sulfide, and chromium. A list of existing permits for discharges directly
to GSL is provided in Table 2.11. Discharge permits in the GSL Basin that have an indirect effect on GSL
are listed in Appendix C. The receiving waters in the GSL Basin have assigned beneficial uses
independent of their influence on GSL (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2). Many of the permit locations are
shown on Map 2.6.

With the proximity of large industrial, transportation, and sewage treatment facilities to GSL, accidental,
unpermitted discharges to the lake and the lake environs have occurred in the past and are likely to occur
in the future. Emergency spill reporting and response is handled by several agencies with different
jurisdictional responsibilities. The unpermitted release of any substance that may pollute surface or
groundwater must be reported immediately to DWQ, followed by a written report summarizing the
incident and remedial actions taken to respond. These include releases greater than 25 gallons of used oil,
damaged radiation sources, lost or stolen radioactive materials spills, releases of radioactive materials to
the environment, or other events causing significant human exposure or property damage. This reporting
is required by both state and federal statutes. If an incident involves potential health or environmental
effects that require immediate action by local authorities, the local emergency response access number
should also be called. Some spills also may require notification of the National Response Center,
depending on the type and amount of the release. In addition, spills, leaks, fires, and other events at oil or
gas drilling or production facilities must be reported to DOGM within 24 hours, followed by a written
report.
DEQ and the Utah Department Public Safety require that releases of substances or wastes that could be
hazardous to human health or the environment must be cleaned up and the wastes disposed of, in
accordance with applicable standards. This requirement includes releases that are below thresholds
requiring notification to local, state, or federal authorities. The conduct of response and cleanup of spills
is governed by contingency plans developed cooperatively among the affected resource management
agencies and depends on the type, extent, and location of the spill. Federal and state agencies respond onsite and consult with the on-scene coordinator.

2.3.4.5
2.3.4.5.1

WATER QUALITY CONCERNS
Selenium

To better understand concerns associated with selenium in GSL, DWQ undertook a four-year research
process in 2004 led by a Selenium Steering Committee comprising prominent stakeholders who were
advised by an international scientific panel of selenium experts. The program culminated in the
development of a water quality standard for selenium in GSL in 2008. The results of this work are
available in a comprehensive report (DWQ 2008) and are summarized in the sections that follow.
Selenium Dynamics in Great Salt Lake
Selenium in lake water is mostly present in the dissolved phase; however, selenium concentrations can be
higher in the particulate fraction of the DBL. Volatilization (i.e., conversion of selenium to a gaseous
state) from surface waters is a major loss process for selenium from the water column and probably
accounts for a net loss of selenium more than four-fold greater than that attributed to sediment burial.
Sediment burial or permanent sedimentation follows as the second most important mechanism for
selenium removal, estimated to be 285â&#x20AC;&#x201C;960 kilograms (kg) per year (Oliver et al. 2009). Other
mechanisms include shallow zone particulate sedimentation, DBL dissolution and resuspension, and brine
shrimp cyst removal. Combined volatilization and sedimentation fluxes out of GSL total approximately
2,628 kg per year based on the geometric means (Johnson et al. 2008). However, when the estimates of
selenium input fluxes were compared with loss fluxes, more selenium was estimated to be lost than was
added to the lake. Naftz et al. (2008b) postulate that the most likely reasons for the discrepancy are
unmeasured loads of selenium to the lake and/or that fluxes from the water column are overestimated.
Three primary components to selenium cycling in the open waters of GSL are 1) selenium in the upper
food web, 2) selenium in the lower food web, and 3) selenium in the water and sediment. Selenium
bioaccumulates in the food web, resulting in exposures to organisms at the top of the food web. Selenium

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in GSL generally originates from selenium in the water and sediment and moves up through the lower
food web and into the upper food web. The lower food web consists primarily of algae and invertebrates
(e.g., brine shrimp). The upper food web consists of resident and migratory birds. Invertebrates are the
most likely food web link for selenium to resident and migratory birds. Some birds (e.g., gulls) are
opportunistic and will eat whatever is available. Other birds (e.g., common goldeneye [Bucephala
clangula] have very specific prey such as brine fly larvae; others (e.g., grebes) feed specifically on brine
shrimp. During the study, to determine the selenium water quality standards, elevated concentrations of
selenium and mercury were found in bird blood and livers. Selenium counteracts the toxic effects of
mercury and may play a role in mercury detoxification for individuals with high mercury levels (Santolo
and Ohlendorf 2008).
Sources
The estimated selenium load to GSL, based on measured and simulated loads from May 2006 through
March 2008, is 1,560 kg per year. Six sources have been identified. These are the Goggin Drain (22%),
KUCC Drain (24%), Bear River (25%), Farmington Bay (20%), Lee Creek (8.5%), and the Weber River
(0.6%). However, other unmeasured sources of selenium could account for at least an additional 1,900 kg
to Gilbert Bay during the same period (Naftz et al. 2008b). In addition, the Jordan Valley Water
Conservancy District has proposed and implemented the development and construction of a groundwater
extraction and treatment project with groundwater remedial functions that may result in an additional 224
kg per year of selenium (UDEQ 2011). However, because the current (unknown) sources of selenium to
the bay likely include the groundwater plume being treated, the load of approximately 1,900 kg per year
may decrease over time as a result of withdrawal and treatment of that water (Naftz et al. 2008b).
Most of the influent selenium occurs in its dissolved phase as selenate. There is the possibility that dry
and wet atmospheric deposition could contribute a significant load of selenium to GSL, but so far, data
have not been available to determine this. However, estimates of atmospheric load are as high as 596 kg
per year based on deposition rates (DWQ 2008) and could therefore be greater than any single tributary.
There is also a flow of selenium from the South Arm to the northern bays, estimated to be 880 kg per year
(Naftz et al. 2008b), at the Northern Railroad Causeway separating the North and South arms of the lake.
Additional sources of selenium could include unmeasured surface flows, submarine groundwater
discharges, lake sediment pore water diffusion into the overlying water column, and wind-blown dust that
is deposited directly on the lake surface.
Thresholds, Standards, and Current Conditions
Selenium is a naturally occurring element that is nutritionally essential. However, excessive
concentrations of selenium are toxic to aquatic life, with aquatic-dependent birds often being the most
vulnerable. Bird reproduction is affected (e.g., reduced hatchability, embryo malformations) at lower
water concentrations than those that would adversely affect algae or brine shrimp. Although some
selenium is taken up directly from the water, most of the exposure for birds comes from diet. Although
selenium accumulates in aquatic organisms, it is not significantly biomagnified. That is, unlike mercury
or polychlorinated biphenyls, concentrations of selenium do not increase significantly in animals at each
level of the food web going from prey to predator.
Due to the unique geochemistry of GSL (see section 2.3.3), existing water quality criteria for selenium are
not applicable. To address this data gap, DWQ convened a Science Panel in 2004 to study selenium in the
open waters of GSL. Based on the recommendations of the Science Panel, the Utah Water Quality Board
promulgated a selenium standard for Gilbert Bay in November 2008. The selenium standard, GSLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first
numeric criterion, is 12.5 milligrams (mg) per kg dry weight in bird eggs (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-214). This standard is intended to be protective for all species of birds and aquatic life in Gilbert Bay.

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EPA is required to review and approve or disapprove all Utah water quality standards as part of Utahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
authorization to implement the CWA. On December 12, 2011, EPA approved the selenium standard for
Gilbert Bay (EPA 2011). Unless changed by the Water Quality Board, the standard remains valid from a
state perspective.
In addition to the 12.5 mg/kg standard for bird eggs, lower selenium concentrations were adopted as
triggers for additional action. The first trigger is at 5.0 mg/kg and requires a review of existing sampling
procedures to determine if collection methods are sufficient. At a selenium concentration of 6.4 mg/kg, an
Antidegradation Level II review (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R317-2-14) will take place for all new permits and
renewals to GSL. At a concentration of 9.8 mg/kg, an initiation of a preliminary total daily maximum load
study to evaluate the relative contribution of selenium sources to GSL will take place. Mean
concentrations greater than 12.5 mg/kg would result in Gilbert Bay being impaired and would require the
finalization and implementation of the preliminary total daily maximum load.
GSL is of vital importance to resident and migratory birds (see section 2.7.8), and birds are sensitive to
selenium exposure. As previously mentioned, birds are exposed to selenium in GSL mainly through their
diet (brine shrimp and/or brine flies). Successful reproduction (egg hatchability) is the most sensitive
endpoint for evaluating bird exposures to selenium. Table 2.12 summarizes the impacts to hatchability as
a result of increased consumption of selenium in a birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diet.
Table 2.12. Summary of Reduced Hatchability for Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) Associated
with Increased Consumption of Selenium in Birds
Diet Selenium
(mg/kg)

Reduction in
Hatchability
(%)

Egg Selenium
(mg/kg)

Reduction in
Hatchability
(%)

3.6

3

6.4

2

4.9

10

12

10

5.7

18

16

21

Source: DWQ (2008).

DWQ intends to annually collect and analyze bird eggs collected from Gilbert Bay for selenium. The
concentration of selenium in shorebird eggs collected from the Lee Drain close to where it enters GSL
averaged 4.32 mg/kg in June 2010, which is below the water quality standard (Cavitt et al. 2010).

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2.3.4.5.2

Mercury

Mercury Dynamics in Great Salt Lake
Mercury is a naturally occurring element in the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust, and because it is an element, it cannot be
destroyed, degraded, or combusted. It can be released to the environment by natural (e.g., volcanic,
geothermal, erosion, or forest fires) or anthropogenic means (e.g., coal fire power plants, incineration
facilities) and is released in the elemental or inorganic nontoxic form. Once it is released, it circulates in
and out of the atmosphere until it is deposited in the waterbody. In the waterbody, sulfur-reducing
bacteria in the sediments can convert the elemental or inorganic mercury to the organic toxic form of
methylmercury. Methylmercury is a neurotoxin that has a strong affinity for lipids, and it has the ability to
pass through the barrier between brain tissues and circulating blood and systems that serve to protect the
central nervous system. Methylmercury can be stored in muscle tissue of aquatic organisms and is not
easily eliminated. Methylmercury bioaccumulates along the food web causing high concentrations in
organisms at the top of the food web. As with selenium, methylmercury in GSL generally originates in
the water and sediment and can move up through the lower food web (algae, brine shrimp, and brine flies)
and into the upper food web (birds).
The process of how mercury is methylated in the water and sediments of GSL has not yet been
researched, yet the geochemical conditions in the DBL are conducive to the methylation of mercury
because of the high sulfate concentration and reducing (as opposed to oxidizing) conditions. When the
shallow brine mixes with the deep brine during storm and wind events, methylmercury can become
available in the biologically active shallow layer.
Sources
The greatest source of inorganic mercury to aquatic ecosystems is through atmospheric deposition (see
section 2.5.4). Atmospheric deposition is the process whereby pollutants are transported from a ground
source, and through atmospheric processes, they are deposited on a distant land or water surface. High
concentrations of chlorine and bromine in GSL may enhance atmospheric deposition of mercury to the
lake surface (Jones et al. 2009).
USGS-modeled, annual total mercury load from six riverine input sources was 6 kg (with almost 50% of
the annual total mercury load from Farmington Bay outflow to GSL), whereas the combined annual wet
and dry atmospheric deposition of mercury to GSL was between 30 kg and 49 kg, exceeding riverine
inputs by a ratio of at least five to one (DWQ 2010b; Lisonbee 2010). For GSL, there are many potential
local sources of atmospheric mercury deposition that could contribute to the mercury values in GSL
(Naftz et al. 2005). Source studies are currently underway at the University Of Utah Department Of
Atmospheric Sciences to determine whether the atmospheric sources are local, regional, or international
(Perry 2011).
Thresholds, Standards, and Current Conditions
In 2003, water column measurements conducted by the USGS reported elevated methylmercury
concentrations exceeding 33 nanograms (ng)/L in the DBL. Although these are some of the highest
recorded methylmercury levels in the United States (Naftz et al. 2008a), these high levels occurred in the
DBL and were not being expressed in the shallow layer of water where most GSL organisms reside. In
addition, the DBL represents a small fraction (typically less than 5%) of the total lake volume. Also, low
concentrations of total mercury in brine shrimp cysts in the main body of the lake indicate that mercury is
not absorbed or retained by the cysts that are harvested from the lake for commercial use. In 2005 and
2006, waterfowl breast muscle tissue was analyzed for total mercury because of the potential for

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methylmercury to accumulate in the GSL food web, from algae, plants, and invertebrates to waterfowl
and local hunters. Testing from three of ten waterfowl species showed mean total mercury concentrations
in the waterfowl breast muscle tissue above the EPA screening value of 0.3 parts per million (ppm) total
mercury (EPA 2000). In response, the Utah Department of Health (2005, 2006) issued the first United
States waterfowl consumption advisory for the three species of waterfowl (cinnamon teal [Anas
cyanoptera], northern shoveler [Anas clypeata], and common goldeneye). In a follow-up study on
wintering waterfowl, Vest et al. (2008) report elevated levels of total mercury in common goldeneye and
northern shoveler. These elevated mercury concentrations in the DBL and in wintering waterfowl were
the impetus for additional investigations into possible toxic exposures to the biota of GSL and to people
who hunt waterfowl.
Through funding provided by an EPA Regional Geographic Initiative Grant and a one-time state
appropriation from the Utah legislature, a comprehensive effort to compile data for mercury
concentrations in the GSL ecosystem began in 2008. The objective of this effort was to 1) provide
baseline information on the timing and extent of mercury concentrations in the GSL ecosystem, including
the water column, sediments, waterfowl, and the waterfowl food chain biota both lake-wide and in the
adjacent wetlands, and 2) compare these concentrations to known literary benchmarks for toxicity to birds
and their food chain.
The DWQ 2008 GSL Mercury Ecosystem Assessment report summarizes the mercury data by providing
an overview of the average mercury concentrations in the biota in the open waters and wetlands compared
to the benchmarks of mercury toxicity chosen from the published literature (Table 2.13) (DWQ 2010b).
Most of the aquatic benchmarks for mercury concentrations in the water column, sediment, and biota
were developed in freshwater or marine systems and may not be applicable. However, the benchmarks
chosen were based on the extensive research that was conducted to formulate them and were evaluated for
applicability by USFWS and EPA scientists.
Key findings of the 2008 GSL Mercury Ecosystem Assessment include the following:


The mean total mercury water concentration in the DBL (46.6 ng/L) was extremely high.
However, the mean concentration of total mercury in the shallow brine layer (5.31 ng/L) was well
below the EPA aquatic life criteria for salt water (12 ng/L).



The mean total mercury breast muscle tissue concentrations in two waterfowl species (cinnamon
teal and northern shoveler) was below the EPA screening value of 0.3 ppm used to calculate
consumption advisories.



The mean methylmercury concentrations in liver tissue for both northern shoveler and cinnamon
teal were below the lowest observed adverse effect level for reproductive health.



At all wetland locations, the mean methylmercury concentration in cinnamon teal eggs was less
than the lowest observed adverse effect level of 0.5 ppm wet weight for reproductive effects.



The mean total mercury concentrations increase with life stage for both brine flies (larvae to
pupae to adults) and brine shrimp (cysts and nauplii to adults). Although, early life stages for both
brine flies (larvae) and brine shrimp (cysts/nauplii) were well below the lowest observed effect
level for mercury concentrations in dietary items for birds.



Total mercury concentrations in wetlands vary diurnally; this needs to be considered when using
water concentrations as a surrogate for estimating exposure.

Many of the results from the 2008 GSL Mercury Ecosystem Assessment report are contrary to earlier
assessments. Mercury concentrations in the breast muscle tissue of both species of waterfowl were much
lower than found in earlier studies that triggered the waterfowl consumption advisories. The mean

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mercury liver concentrations were below the lowest observed adverse effect level for reproductive health
as opposed to the earlier study that saw liver mercury concentrations in the high risk category. The total
mean mercury concentration in the DBL was higher than reported in 2003; however, the shallow brine
layer mercury concentration was low and below the EPA aquatic life criteria. Further research is needed
to rectify the differences in mercury concentrations in the water column and biota between the 2008
assessment and earlier studies, specifically the following:


A laboratory round robin to confirm and compare results from previous studies to the 2008 GSL
Mercury Ecosystem Assessment



Research of mercury concentrations in the parts of the GSL food web (e.g., phytoplankton in the
open waters and vegetation and macroinvertebrates in the wetlands) that were not part of the 2008
GSL Mercury Ecosystem Assessment or other assessments



More information on those bird species that feed primarily on brine flies or on brine shrimp



More information on whether bird species are exposed to mercury at the GSL or elsewhere



Research on the relationship between selenium and mercury in bird species

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Table 2.13. Summary of the Conceptual Model Results from the Division of Water Quality Collaborative Study Comparing Ecological Receptors and Exposure Pathways with Benchmarks of
Mercury Toxicity chosen from Published Literature in the Division of Water Quality Study
Ecological Receptors and
Exposure Routes

Water
Sediment
†

Brine fly

Brine
†
shrimp

Birds

Potential Benchmarks for
Mercury Impairment

Open Waters
of GSL

Bear River Bay
Wetlands

Farmington Bay Wetlands
(Farmington Bay WMA)

Water

EPA Aquatic Life Standard: 12 ng/L

n/a

2.93 ng/L

7.04 ng/L

7.43 ng/L

DBL*

EPA Aquatic Life Standard: 12 ng/L

46.6 ng/L

n/a

n/a

n/a

Shallow brine layer

EPA Aquatic Life Standard: 12 ng/L

5.31 ng/L

n/a

n/a

n/a

Sediment

Washington State Marine Sediment THg Standard: 410 ng/g

182 THg/g dw

17.38 ng/g

141 ng/g

47.6 ng/g

Larvae

Evers Low Risk in Diet: <0.05 meHg ppm

0.0265 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Pupae

Evers Moderate Risk in Diet: 0.05-0.15 meHg ppm

0.0720 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Adult

Evers High Risk in Diet: 0.15-0.30 meHg ppm

0.152 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Nauplii

Evers Low Risk in Diet: <0.05 meHg ppm

0.0071 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Adults

Evers Moderate Risk in Diet: 0.05-0.15 meHg ppm

0.0594 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Cysts

Evers Low Risk in Diet: <0.05 meHg ppm

0.0071 THg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Northern shoveler liver

Low Risk in Liver: <0.89 ppm meHg ww

0.662 meHg ppm ww

n/a

n/a

n/a

Cinnamon teal liver

Low Risk in Liver: <0.89 ppm meHg ww

n/a

0.205 meHg ppm ww

0.497 meHg ppm ww

0.452 meHg ppm ww

Cinnamon teal eggs

Low Risk in Eggs: <0.5 ppm ww

n/a

0.133 meHg ppm ww

0.246 meHg ppm ww

0.135 meHg ppm ww

Source: DWQ (2010b).
Note: The mean mercury concentration is based from samples collected over all seasons and locations in 2008. Numbers in red are measurements that exceeded the EPA Aquatic Life Standard or are at high risk.
ng/L = nanograms per liter; meHg = methylmercury; ww = wet weight THg = total mercury; dw = dry weight.
*The DBL changes annually and represents a small proportion of total lake volume (typically less than 5%).
†

Ogden Bay
Wetlands

Data from Evers et al. (2004).

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2.3.4.5.3

Nutrients

Nitrogen and phosphorous (nutrients) are essential for plant and animal growth, maintenance, and
reproduction. However, elevated nutrient concentrations can contribute to eutrophication or excessive
growth of algae (phytoplankton and periphyton) in most surface waters. General concerns associated with
excessive algal growth include nuisance scums, low dissolved oxygen, elevated pH, and toxins produced
by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). In the South Arm of GSL, algae are the primary source of food for
brine shrimp and brine flies that support the GSL food chain. In Farmington Bay and Bear River Bay
where salinities are lower and brine shrimp and brine flies are not grazing on the algae, elevated nutrients
that lead to excessive algal growth may cause the problems associated with elevated nutrients in most
surface waters.
Nutrient Dynamics in Great Salt Lake
The biological productivity of GSL is largely determined by the concentrations of nutrients in the water.
Most often, nitrogen, phosphorous, or combinations of these two nutrients control plant growth in aquatic
systems. Nitrogen concentrations are the most frequent limiting factor for phytoplankton growth in the
South Arm (Belovsky et al. 2011; Stephens and Gillespie 1976). There is a particularly large difference
between nitrogen concentrations in shallow and deep waters of GSL, although a similar but smaller
difference also occurs for phosphorus (Figure 2.11). The concentrations of nutrients in the water column
of the lake fluctuate with depth, season, and lake level and are controlled primarily by releases of in-lake
pools of nitrogen (stored in deep waters). Nutrients from the watershed, from atmospheric deposition, and
from biological processes (dead algae, brine shrimp excrement, etc.) accumulate in the deepest sections of
GSL (Belovsky et al. 2011; Figure 4.11). When the lake mixes, nutrients are released into the water
column and are used by phytoplankton. Shallow areas of the lake mix as a result of wind and wave action.
Deeper areas of the lake are thermally stratified and only mix during fall and spring turnover, or if wind
and wave action is exceptionally great (Belovsky et al. 2011).

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Jan

Shallow
water (1-4
meters)

Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul

Aug
Sep

Deep water
(4+ meters)

Oct
Nov
Dec

0.00

2.00

4.00

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

Phosphorus (mg/l)

Nitrogen (mg/l)

Figure 2.11. Average monthly nutrient concentrations in shallow and deep portions of
Great Salt Lake between 1994 and 2006 (Belovsky et al. 2011).

Concentrations of nitrogen in shallow waters tend to be highest in the summer and fall when brine shrimp
are present, and lowest during the winter months. This is attributed to nutrient processing by brine shrimp.
Phosphorus concentrations remain relatively constant in the shallow parts of GSL.
In the late 1980s, phosphate, ammonia, and total nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the DBL in
the South Arm were 10â&#x20AC;&#x201C;100 times higher than the overlying, less-saline water (Wurtsbaugh and Berry
1990). However, it is not clear to what extent this difference was due to sedimentation of nutrients from
the overlying water and how much was due to the bidirectional flow transporting nutrients back from the
North Arm. More recent data also indicate that concentrations of nutrients are higher in deeper portions of
GSL than in the shallow areas (Belovsky et al. 2011; see Figure 2.11).
Salinity plays an important role in nutrient dynamics in both Gilbert Bay and Farmington Bay. Salinities
in Farmington Bay range from less than 1% to 6% depending on freshwater inflows, mixing, and
evaporation. When dense underflow of highly saline water occurs, this layer does not mix readily with the
overlying layer. Sedimentation of phytoplankton and zooplankton carries nutrients into the DBL, thus
removing them for months to years from the biological cycle. In both the South Arm and in Farmington
Bay, the nutrient that controls algal growth is mediated by the salinity. At salinities below approximately
5%, cyanobacteria compensate for nitrogen deficiency by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Under these
circumstances, the lake is limited by phosphorus. At higher salinities, cyanobacteria cannot fix
atmospheric nitrogen, and nitrogen is limiting (Marcarelli et al. 2006; Stephens and Gillespie 1976;
Wurtsbaugh 1988).

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There are also important nutrient dynamics between the various bays in GSL. An investigation was
conducted in 2006 to evaluate nutrient fluxes between the bays and the impact of nutrients on brine
shrimp populations in the lake (Wurtsbaugh et al. 2006). Farmington Bay and Bear River Bay receive the
largest loads of nutrients from inflowing rivers. Nutrient fluxes from Bear River Bay to the South Arm
primarily occurred during the spring runoff period and were substantially larger than the fluxes from the
more eutrophic Farmington Bay. During the summer period, nutrient loads from Bear River Bay to the
South Arm decreased but increased from Farmington Bay. Over the study period, Farmington Bay
contributed 45% of the nutrient load to the South Arm and Bear River Bay contributed 55%. This loading
contributes to anoxic conditions in the DBLs throughout the lake, which provide a reducing environment
for the formation of methylmercury. However, nutrient loading also fuels phytoplankton growth, which
stimulates brine shrimp populations in the South Arm. The researchers estimate that approximately 12%
of the phytoplankton consumed by brine shrimp in the South Arm is generated in Farmington Bay during
the summer (Wurtsbaugh et al. 2006).
Sources
The primary sources of nutrients to Farmington Bay are from the Jordan River and from wastewater
treatment plant discharges to the bay. Sources of nutrients to the Jordan River include wastewater
treatment discharges from cities in Salt Lake Valley, stormwater runoff, agricultural return flow, and
other nonpoint sources. The primary sources of nutrients in the Bear River and Weber River basins are
from agricultural return flow and other nonpoint sources.
Anthropogenic factors undoubtedly have a large influence on the total pool of nutrients in GSL; however,
the largest driver of nutrient concentrations in the water column is the release of nutrients from in-lake
stores/pools (Belovsky et al. 2011). When tributary waters pass through wetlands prior to entering the
lake, substantial portions of the nutrients may be removed (Horne and Goldman 1994).
Thresholds, Standards, and Current Conditions
Nutrient Concentrations
No numeric criteria have been established for nutrients in GSL. Generally, a phosphate concentration of
0.01 mg/L will support plankton, whereas concentrations of 0.03â&#x20AC;&#x201C;0.10 mg/L phosphate will typically
trigger blooms (EPA 1986; Dunne and Leopold 1978). However, these thresholds are typical of
freshwater systems and are applicable only to the inlets of Farmington Bay and Bear River Bay.
Additional research is necessary to identify appropriate nutrient criteria for each of the unique bays in
GSL.
Average monthly phosphorus concentrations collected between 1994 and 2006 in GSL ranged from 0.05
to 0.84 mg/L (Belovsky et al. 2011). Concentrations of total dissolved phosphorus in deep and shallow
areas of GSL average 0.59 and 0.31 mg/L, respectively (Belovsky et al. 2011). "In Farmington Bay mean
total phosphorus from May-Nov was 0.67 mg P/Lâ&#x20AC;? (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2006b). Average
monthly phosphorus concentrations collected between 1994 and 2006 in GSL ranged from 0.05 to 0.84
mg/L (Belovsky et al. 2011). Concentrations of phosphorus in deep and shallow areas of GSL average
0.59 and 0.31 mg/L, respectively (Belovsky et al. 2011). In Farmington Bay, total phosphorus in October
2005 was 0.12 mg/L (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2006). Sediment cores collected in Farmington Bay
show that sediment phosphorus concentration are on a gradient from higher concentrations near the
eastern shore to lower concentrations further west. Core data suggest that total phosphorus is relatively
constant in the sediment down to a depth of at least 20 inches. Only a few sites show elevated sediment
phosphorus concentrations in the top 5 inches of sediment (Myers et al. 2006).

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Average monthly nitrogen concentrations collected between 1994 and 2006 in GSL ranged from 0.02 to
8.1 mg/L (Belovsky et al. 2011). Concentrations of nitrogen in deep and shallow areas of GSL average
3.96 mg/L and 0.66 mg/L, respectively (Belovsky et al. 2011). In Farmington Bay, total nitrogen peaked
at 7.4 mg/L in 2005 (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2006).
Collaboration between EPA and DWQ resulted in a nutrient assessment framework for Farmington Bay
that was part of the GSL appendix in the 2008 Integrated Report (DWQ 2010a). Paleolimnological
research is underway to evaluate changes in key water quality parameters and biological assemblages
over the last 200 years. The results of this study will provide preliminary conclusions of nutrient impacts
to Farmington Bay (DWQ 2010a).
Nuisance Algae
Nuisance aquatic growth consisting of both algae (phytoplankton or water column algae and periphyton
or attached algae) and rooted plants (macrophytes) can adversely affect aquatic life and recreational water
uses. Algal blooms occur where nutrient concentrations (nitrogen and phosphorus) are sufficient to
support growth. Available nutrient concentrations, circulation of water temperatures, and penetration of
sunlight in the water column are all factors that influence algae (and macrophyte) growth. When
conditions are appropriate and nutrient concentrations exceed the quantities needed to support algal
growth, excessive blooms may develop. Commonly, these blooms appear as extensive layers or algal
mats on the surface of the water.
Chlorophyll a concentrations are a common surrogate measure of algal growth and density. Chlorophyll a
is the green pigment in plants associated with photosynthesis (the process whereby plants combine light
energy, nutrients, and carbon to grow). A measure of chlorophyll is representative of the amount of
photosynthesizing algae that are in the water column. The World Health Organization has a set of criteria
for moderate to high probabilities of public health risk from nuisance algae when chlorophyll a
concentrations exceed 50 micrograms (µg)/L (World Health Organization 2003); however, concentrations
above 40 µg/L are generally considered to be a nuisance to recreation users (Heiskary and Walker 1995;
Walmsey 1984; Raschke 1994). In the South Arm of GSL between 1994 and 2006, 24% of chlorophyll a
concentrations (average monthly) exceeded 40 µg/L and 8% exceeded 100 µg/L (Belovsky et al. 2011).
However, at other times, summer chlorophyll has been below 5 µg/L because brine shrimp readily graze
the algae to low concentrations. The balance of nutrients, algae concentrations, the density of brine
shrimp, and the benefits of dense brine shrimp populations to waterfowl and shorebirds and other GSL
waterbirds requires further research to determine the presence and/or extent of nutrient-related concerns
in GSL.
Algal blooms in Farmington Bay are more frequent and extensive than the rest of GSL. Thick mats of
Cladophora filamentous algae have been observed in southern portions of Farmington Bay (T. Miller
2011), which is an area that receives high bird usage. In addition, a localized surface mat occurred in
2005 and lasted for three days (T. Miller 2011). The effects of algal mats (both positive and negative) on
the thousands of staging shorebirds in Farmington Bay require more study. In 2005, chlorophyll a
concentrations in Farmington Bay exceeded 100 µg/L (Wurtsbaugh and Macarrelli 2006). Algal blooms
may also be contributing to the decline of submerged aquatic vegetation in the freshwater impoundments
associated with the Farmington Bay area (Miller and Hoven 2007; Hoven and Miller 2009). However,
more recent research points to other factors (including sediment chemistry) that are more likely to
contribute to submerged aquatic vegetation decline (T. Miller 2011).

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Anoxia
Excessive algal growth can also result in diurnal fluctuations in dissolved oxygen. Algae release oxygen
during photosynthesis during the day and consume oxygen during respiration at night. Oxygen released
during the day is offset by continuous oxygen consumption through respiration by and decomposition of
aquatic plants. Further, both photosynthesis and respiration rates are higher in high light environments,
with greater impacts on dissolved oxygen than algae in shaded sites.
On a seasonal basis, when algae die, they sink to the bottom of the water column and collect on the
bottom sediments. The biochemical processes that occur as the algae decompose remove oxygen from the
surrounding water. Because most of the decomposition occurs in the lower levels of the water column,
dissolved oxygen concentrations near the bottom of lakes and reservoirs can be substantially depleted by
a large algal bloom. The DBL resulting from density-stratification in Farmington Bay contributes to
anoxia in Farmington Bay. The DBL in Farmington Bay traps organic matter and produces hydrogen
sulfide through anoxic (reducing) conditions. During wind mixing events, the anoxia from the DBL can
cause the entire bay to be anoxic for up to two days (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004), which could kill
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Dissolved oxygen sondes were deployed in Farmington Bay in 2005 to evaluate whether algal growth
resulted in diurnal swings of dissolved oxygen in water quality. During this time, extreme variation was
recorded in oxygen levels, with nighttime oxygen concentrations reaching anoxic conditions and
supersaturation of oxygen during the day (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004). In addition to diurnal
fluctuations in oxygen, there were also extended periods of anoxia recorded in August 2005. Anoxic
conditions can also contribute to increased mercury methylation rates.
Harmful Algal Blooms
The relative composition of phytoplankton taxa varies in GSL with salinity, water temperature, and
competition (Belovsky et al. 2011). Of all the species in the lake, blue-green algae are concerning because
they can produce toxins that can be harmful to humans and wildlife. Overgrowth of blue-green algae is a
public health and safety concern in recreational waters. Skin contact can result in irritation, rashes, and
hives, whereas swallowing water can lead to severe gastroenteritis and organ toxicity in humans (Center
for Disease Control 2008). The Center for Disease Control (2006) advises against recreating in water that
is potentially contaminated with blue-green algae.
Blue-green algal blooms are an area of concern for Farmington Bay, though potential impacts to
recreational users are still being researched. Nodularia spumigena, a toxic blue-green algal species, has
been found in Farmington Bay especially at low salinity (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004). Typical of
blue-green algae, N. spumigena fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere and thereby contributes to nitrogen
loading to Farmington Bay. This species is rarely seen at the higher salinities typical of Gilbert Bay.
Nitrogen fixation appears to stop at salinities of greater than 5%, resulting in sharp reductions in bluegreen algal species at higher salinities. Nodularin, the cyanotoxin produced by N. spumigena, is a skin and
eye irritant, a hepatotoxin, and promotes tumors in mammals. It has caused mortalities in waterfowl, dogs,
and livestock. Additional research is required to determine whether the cyanotoxins produced by N.
spumigena in GSL are causing harm to humans or wildlife. Its chemical structure is similar to another
well-studied toxin, microcystin. The World Health Organization has set a threshold of 100,000
cyanobacteria cells/mL or chlorophyll a concentrations of 50 µg/L to determine a moderate probability of
adverse health effects in recreational waters (World Health Organization 2003; Wurtsbaugh and
Marcalleli 2004). In addition, the World Health Organization has a guideline for recreation users of 20 µg
microcystin/L, assuming a person swallows 100–200 mL/day of the tainted water. These standards were
developed by taking the highest no-observed-effect level in multiple studies and then reducing it by an

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uncertainty factor of 1,000. Therefore, these thresholds are very protective of human health.
Concentrations of cyanobacteria cells in Farmington Bay exceeded 200,000 cells/mL for most of the
summer in 2007 and exceeded 600,000 cells/mL in the spring (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2006;
unpublished data). Cyanotoxin concentrations in Farmington Bay were measured at 54 ug/L in May 2007
and 663 ug/L in October 2009 (Wurtsbaugh 2011; unpublished data). Monthly average cyanophyte
concentrations in Gilbert Bay have reached concentrations as high as 117 µg/L in GSL, and total
chlorophyll a concentrations have reached 228 µg/L. However, the average monthly concentration of
cyanophytes and chlorophyll a in GSL is 14 and 32 µg/L, respectively (Belovsky et al. 2011). Additional
research is underway to determine the frequency and extent of blue-green algal blooms in Farmington
Bay and to ascertain whether these blooms typically include toxic varieties of blue-green algae. These
additional data are necessary to determine whether blue-green algae pose a risk to recreation users of
Farmington Bay.

2.3.4.5.4

Lake Level Effects on Water Quality

The relationship between lake level and water quality is complex and not yet well understood for GSL.
There are no clear lake level thresholds that relate directly to water quality. However, there are a number
of lake processes that are likely to be influenced by changes in lake level and indirectly through changes
in salinity.
The most obvious effect of lake level on water quality is through dilution. The higher the lake level, the
more dilution there is for pollutants and the lower their concentration. The opposite can be said for lower
lake levels, less dilution, and more concentration of water quality parameters. Because there is no outlet
from the lake, dilution plays an important role in water quality in the lake for parameters that are either
processed and released in gaseous form or are semipermanently trapped in lake sediments or other
ecosystem components.
Connectivity of the lake is also heavily influenced by lake level. Mixing between the North Arm and the
South Arm occurs between lake elevations of 4,199 and 4,205 feet. There is partial mixing between
Farmington Bay and the South Arm between lake elevations of 4,205 and 4,207 feet. There is full mixing
between 4,208 feet and above 4,213 feet. When a bay is isolated from the main lake body, the water
quality conditions in that bay can change without affecting the main lake. As with the conservative major
ions, nutrients are transported to Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay, reducing the availability of
nutrients to algae in the South Arm. Although limited measurements of nutrients have been made in the
North Arm, the limited available data (Sturm 1980) show that nutrients in the North Arm were often
double the concentration of those in the South Arm.
Due to the salinity gradients and head differences between bays separated by the Northern Railroad
Causeway or Davis County Causeway, bidirectional flow occurs at causeway openings, breaches, and
culverts. This bidirectional flow becomes more substantial as lake level goes up and results in the
establishment of brine stratification in GSL. The DBL is the lower part of this stratification and is
generally hypersaline and anoxic. Because the DBL facilitates the transformation of mercury into
methylmercury, increases in the extent and thickness of the DBL could accelerate the process of mercury
methylation. This would occur as lake levels increase up to the point at which the bays are fully
connected and the causeways are overtopped.
As lake levels increase above 4,205 feet, there is partial and full mixing between Farmington Bay and the
South Arm. High salinity concentrations from the South Arm flow into Farmington Bay, causing salinity
concentrations in Farmington Bay to increase. When salinity concentrations are below 5% in Farmington
Bay, a large portion of the algal biomass is often composed of harmful blue-green algae. It has been
demonstrated that the cyanobacterium, N. spumegina, often found in Farmington Bay, survived poorly

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and stopped fixing nitrogen at salinities above 5% and will not survive at all at 8% salinity (Wurtsbaugh
and Marcarelli 2006).
As the lake level goes down, a larger proportion of the lake mixes, and more nutrients are released into
the water column. As the DBL is reduced due to increased salinity, mixing occurs more easily, and
nutrients become mixed into the water column and available for algae in the upper portions of the lake
where there is sufficient light for them to grow. Further, as the lake is reduced, nutrients are concentrated
into a smaller pool of water and concentrations increase (Belovsky et al. 2011).

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2.4 Wetlands
The wetlands surrounding GSL are of international importance, and they are acknowledged for supporting
large populations of migratory birds. As a zone of transition between uplands and the open water of GSL,
they also provide other functions. These include flood control, water quality improvement, and
biogeochemical processing. There are approximately 360,000 acres of wetlands below the GSL meander
line, in addition to 546,697 acres of open water and 3,540 acres of upland (Map 2.7). Wetlands represent
26% of the 1.37 million acres below the meander line.

2.4.1 Wetland Classification
Many wetland classification systems exist to describe different wetland types. These may be based on
vegetation communities such as wet meadows or emergent marsh, or they may be based on
hydrogeomorphic setting such as slope or depressional wetlands. Wetland classes typically apply to a
specific purpose (e.g., wildlife management) where it is useful to have a common definition or description
based on structural or functional characteristics. Cowardin et al. (1979) identify four objectives of a
classification system:


To describe ecological units that have certain homogenous natural attributes



To arrange these units in a unified framework for the characterization and description of wetland
that will aid decisions about resource management



To identify classification units for inventory and mapping



To provide uniformity in concepts and terminology

In their classification system, Cowardin et al. (1979) outline a hierarchical system of classes that
characterizes wetlands based on hydrology, substrate, and vegetation. The USFWS has applied the
Cowardin et al. (1979) classification system to a widely used mapping tool, the National Wetland
Inventory. Alternatively, the hydrogeomorphic classification approach (Brinson 1993) emphasizes
hydrologic and geomorphic controls, which maintain many functional aspects of wetland ecosystems.
Used by the USACE, it is adaptable for regulatory and planning purposes such as the development of
functional assessment methods. In addition, Table 2.14 describes the recent UGS effort to consolidate
current National Wetland Inventory data into five classes that account for geomorphic position,
vegetation, hydrology, and water chemistry. Approximate acreages for each wetland class below the
meander line are included, and descriptions of each class follow Table 2.14.

Emergent: Emergent wetlands have permanent to semipermanent standing fresh water or
saturated soils that support emergent macrophytes such as cattail (Typha spp.), bulrush
(Schoenoplectus spp.), and/or wet meadow species such as grasses, rushes, and sedges.



High Fringe: High fringe wetlands are irregularly inundated and contain standing water only
when lake levels are high. The soils of high fringe wetlands may remain saturated near the
surface over a wide range of lake levels, and develop a crust of bare mineral soil in summer.
During extended periods of low lake level and thus, drier conditions, high fringe wetlands may be
colonized by halophytic (salt-loving) vegetation.



Low Fringe: Low fringe wetlands remain inundated over multiple years and can be considered
transitional between open water portions of GSL and regularly exposed high fringe wetlands.
These wetlands are almost always devoid of rooted vegetation due to yearly inundation by high
salinity water. When inundated by fresh water, reeds, rushes, and other plants may establish small
colonies or create an indistinct boundary between emergent and high fringe wetlands.



Playa: Playas are shallow enclosed basins that accumulate soluble salts often with little or no
vegetation or vegetation that is tolerant of saline conditions.

Finally, for the process of developing wetland water quality standards and assessment methods, DWQ
(2009) uses an additional class of wetland termed impounded wetlands. These form where dikes, berms,
ditches, and culverts have been constructed to control or constrict the inflow into or outflow of water from
the wetlands.

2.4.2 Wetland Mapping
Although there are maps illustrating wetlands in various areas around GSL, few are comprehensive. The
2000 GSL CMP uses a DWR publication (Jensen 1974) to quantify wetland habitat adjacent to GSL.
Subsequent wetland maps or mapping tools include Ducks Unlimited’s Great Salt Lake Wetlands
Assessment Project (2007) and the USFWS’s National Wetland Inventory (2008), which includes the
Wetland Mapper found at http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Data/Mapper.html. The Great Salt Lake
Shorebird Management Plan (Paul et al. 2012 [in press]) uses the former to estimate acreage of migratory
bird habitat. The latter is an interactive mapping tool based on multiple data sources that allows users to
identify the location and extent of wetlands.

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Additional tools that were financially prohibitive in the past are also being applied in Utah to map
wetlands; these tools are based on remote sensing technology and the interpretation of satellite and
infrared images. By analyzing the spectral signatures that reflect off certain vegetation communities or
land surfaces, it is possible to identify and map wetlands by type, such as wet meadow, emergent marsh,
mudflat, and open water. This technology has been applied to two special area management plans
(SAMP) along GSL in northern Tooele and Salt Lake counties and to the Machine Lake Mitigation Bank
in Box Elder County. Similarly, the distinct signature of Phragmites allows for mapping the
establishment and spread of this invasive plant. Dr. Christopher Neale at USU has conducted this type of
remote sensing analysis on the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge.

2.4.3 Wetland Reference Network
Beginning in early 2000s, DWR established a wetland reference network with which to calibrate a
wetland functional assessment tool. This reference network includes approximately 80 sites of different
wetland classes along a continuum of anthropogenic disturbance. DWQ and UGS continue to amend and
improve on this wetland reference tool. As work continues on local and National Wetlands Assessment
methods, the reference wetlands surrounding GSL will be useful to define condition and provide baseline
information for mitigation.

2.4.4 Development and Use of Assessment Methods
Recent initiatives at the national level and the 2008 Wetland Mitigation Rule that emphasize the use of
science-based assessment procedures have resulted in the development of various methods to assess the
condition of wetland resources. The Utah Wetlands Assessment Group, comprising federal and state
agencies and private wetland consultants, evaluated five wetland assessment methods to assist in the
ultimate development of a Utah model. The effort resulted in a white paper titled Utah Wetlands
Assessment Group Review and Evaluation of Five Wetland Assessment Models (Defreese 2005). These
methods range from UDOTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rapid assessment method (Johnson 2007) to a hydrogeomorphic model
developed for slope wetlands in the Great Basin (Jones et al. 2003); both seek to quantify or qualify the
condition of ecological or functional variables associated with wetlands.
To date, the lessons learned from the Utah Wetlands Assessment Group evaluation and other wetland
programs at the national level were incorporated into the Utah Wetland Ambient Assessment Method by
Dr. Heidi Hoven of The Watershed Institute. It is the intention of DWQ and UGS to apply the United
States Rapid Assessment Method as part of the National Wetlands Assessment program. This method was
developed by the EPA, and the National Condition Assessment program can be found at
http://water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/assessment/survey/index.cfm. Relative to sovereign lands in Utah, the
objectives of this method are to help states implement wetland monitoring and assessment programs to
guide policy development and project decision making.

2.4.5 Groundwater Withdrawal Effects on Wetlands
UGS research indicates that wetlands and springs along the eastern and southern shore and Locomotive
Springs along the north shore of GSL are sustained by shallow, unconfined aquifers, which are connected
to deep basin fill aquifers (Burk et al. 2005; Bishop et al. 2009; Yidana et al. 2010). Shallow groundwater
levels are affected by drought, GSL levels, groundwater pumping, and a shift in water use from
agriculture to municipal. Modeling the water budget of fringe wetlands in Salt Lake, Tooele, and Davis
counties suggests that subsurface inflow is most affected by long-term drought (20-year). Municipal and
industrial pumping would further exacerbate the reduction in subsurface inflow during long periods of
drought. Water budgets in acre-feet for these wetland systems are illustrated in Table 2.15.

2.4.6 Water Quality in Wetlands
During the 2000 CMP process, the Scientific Review Committee identified the lack of a comprehensive
database on GSL as a significant impediment to management decisions protective of the lake’s resources.
Since then, DWQ has embarked on a GSL Wetlands Monitoring, Assessment, and Water Quality
Standards Program.
Numeric water quality standards were adopted for the state WMAs and the Bear River Migratory Bird
Refuge for aquatic wildlife beneficial uses. However, DWQ found that applying existing water quality
standards to these wetlands was problematic for two reasons:


The standards that are specifically applied to wetlands are based on the geographical location of
the aquatic resource rather than their ecological characteristics. Numerous wetland classes are
located within WMAs and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, and each class has its own
biota and distinct ecosystem processes. The ecologically distinct character of each of those
wetland classes needs to be considered when developing defensible standards, assessment
methods, and protection practices. Also, the wetland areas described in current standards
represent just a subset of the wetlands around GSL. The quality of some wetlands outside of the
described areas may actually be more at risk because they are not actively managed for wildlife
conservation.



The identification of those criteria that best reflect or characteristic ecosystem/wetland condition
is problematic. For example, the water quality standards for the WMAs had numeric criteria for
dissolved oxygen and pH. Although water quality conditions can exceed the desired criteria
within many "impoundment" class wetlands, including the most pristine, there is evidence
suggesting that most of these wetlands continue to support their designated uses. Wetland biota
have adapted to environmental conditions with wide fluctuations in dissolved oxygen and pH.
These measures are not robust indicators of wetland condition.

To address these issues and in response to stakeholder concerns of excessive algae in GSL impounded
wetlands, DWQ and its partners have expended considerable time and resources to build an ecological
understanding of this wetland class. Research by Gray, L.J. (2005, 2009), CH2M Hill (2008, 2009),
Miller and Hoven, (2007), and Rushforth and Rushforth (2006a–d) has advanced the understanding of the
biogeochemical processes of this wetland class. These findings will inform the development of more
appropriate water quality standards for impounded wetlands for parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH,
and nutrients and will contribute to a Multimetric Index to measure ecological integrity in these wetland
systems.
In December 2009, DWQ developed a preliminary Multimetric Index for GSL impounded wetlands that
includes quantitative indicators of water chemistry, submerged aquatic vegetation, surface mats, and

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benthic macroinvertebrates. These indicators provide multiple lines of evidence that together quantify the
relative condition of GSL’s impounded wetlands. Ongoing data collection and research will focus on
improving and validating the preliminary assessment framework.
Finally, because of the unique biochemistry of the GSL ecosystem, it is likely that numeric criteria for the
protection of biota will have to be applied based on wetland class. Much of the existing research is limited
to impounded wetlands, and the next step is to extend wetland monitoring and assessment to the fringe
(sheet flow) wetlands class.

2.4.7 Regulatory and Jurisdictional Issues
As per State of Utah v. United States 1971, the bed of the lake below the meander line is considered Utah
Sovereign Lands, and FFSL is authorized to manage them. Additional jurisdictional layers also apply. For
example, GSL is considered a traditional navigable water under Section 404 of the CWA, and as such, the
discharge of dredge and fill material is regulated by both the USACE and the EPA. At this time, the
USACE regulates those lands below 4,205 feet, whereas potential waters of the U.S. above this elevation
are considered on a case-by-case basis pending the findings of a delineation and jurisdictional
determination process.
Waters of the U.S. are generally defined as a) those waters that are currently used in interstate or foreign
commerce, b) those waters that were used in the past in interstate or foreign commerce, or c) those waters
that may be susceptible to use in interstate or foreign commerce. In the context of the current regulatory
landscape articulated by the Supreme Court in the Rapanos decision, potential waters of the U.S. between
4,205 feet and the meander line include streams, playas, mudflats, and both adjacent and abutting
wetlands. No mitigation guidance for impacts to sovereign lands that are also considered waters of the
U.S. exists beyond what is required by the USACE.
UDNR agencies generally enforce only USACE permit requirements when issuing land-use
authorizations that affect wetlands. UDNR is considering establishing a policy that goes beyond USACE
requirements. This could include actions such as mitigation requirements, grazing, burning, and herbicide
and pesticide application in jurisdictional and nonjurisdictional wetlands.
FFSL’s statutory mandate also includes defining the lake’s floodplain, and legislative policy maintains
the lake’s floodplain as a hazard zone. UDNR considers the floodplain to extend to the 4,217-foot
elevation. This is based on high lake levels in the 1980s of roughly 4,212 feet, plus 3 feet for wind tide
and 2 feet for wave action.
UDNR has no regulatory authority over land they do not own in the lake’s floodplain. The regulatory
framework is provided by local government planning and zoning, FEMA, and USACE. FEMA has
mapped the floodplain to determine when flood insurance is required and has determined that the 100year floodplain generally lies at 4,217 feet. Adherence to FEMA’s demarcation is required if local
communities want to participate in the National Flood Insurance Program. UDNR satisfies the legislative
mandate and policy by defining the floodplain for planning purposes as lands below 4,217 feet and
discouraging development below that level. If a wetland lies within the floodplain, as determined by
USACE, an additional criterion is added to the permit decision-making process. Agencies do not always
agree on the extent of the floodplain.

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2.4.8 Royalty/Fee Sources and their Potential to Fund Wetland Conservation
FFSL reserves the right to recoup a fee or royalties stemming from leases, bioprospecting (UTAH CODE
§§ 65A-14-201 and 202), and other activities conducted on state lands. At present, all revenue including
fees and royalties goes into the “Restricted Fund” to be allocated by the state legislature (see section
2.14.4 for discussion of recent royalty contributions to the Restricted Fund). No provision in the state
code directs money specifically to GSL wetlands conservation or protection. Through the GSL Technical
Team, grant applications are accepted to fund wetland-related research and projects, as funding is
available through FFSL.

2.4.9 Existing Wetland Management Areas
Map 2.7 illustrates that the approximately 260,000 acres of wetlands or wetland-upland-open water
mosaics are under some form of management or protection by federal, state, municipal, or private
organizations (Table 2.16). Although some of these protected areas fall below the meander line, many
extend above or are adjacent to this jurisdictional boundary. Most are managed specifically for waterfowl
or shorebird habitat, whereas a few function as mitigation areas to offset prior impacts to wetlands
authorized by the CWA. Federal and state properties have management plans that are revised periodically
(e.g., Locomotive Springs, Bear River Access, Public Shooting Grounds, and Harold Crane WMAs were
revised in January 2010) and that address habitat condition and maintenance. State plans receive a
Resources Development Coordinating Committee project number and are reviewed by the DWR Habitat
Council and regional advisory councils.
Table 2.16. Managed or Protected Wetland Areas Above and Below the Meander Line
Management Area

2.4.10 Additional Acreage Brought into Conservation or Protection Status
Since the 2000 GSL CMP, new areas have been brought under conservation and protection as preserves
(e.g., Legacy Nature Preserve [Davis County]) or as mitigation (e.g., Machine Lake Mitigation Bank [Box
Elder County]). In collaborating to produce the Great Salt Lake Shorebird Management Plan, the
USFWS estimates that approximately 26,600 acres of lake bed are not subject to lease and are therefore
protected, 90,500 acres are state WMAs, and 70,400 acres are federally managed as refuge. The Great
Salt Lake Shorebird Conservation Strategy Plan (Paul et al. 2012 [in press]) provides an updated and
comprehensive review of these properties.

2.4.11 Lake Level Effects
Although little work has been done to quantify the change in location and extent of wetlands relative to
GSL elevation, the dynamic process associated with changes in lake level is generally well understood
because hydrology and lake level vary from year to year. As lake levels rise, mudflats become shallow
open water, whereas freshwater wetlands become increasingly saline or contiguous waters of GSL (DWQ
2009). It is estimated that for every 1-foot increase or decrease in lake level, approximately 44,000 acres
of mudflats are inundated or exposed (Aldrich and Paul 2002). As water levels decline, the length of the
open water/mudflat interface decreases, reducing the amount of shorebird habitat. During high water, salt
coming out of solution is deposited in sediments, which are flushed back into the lake by freshwater
tributaries when surface-water levels drop (DWQ 2009). Due to this exposure, channels with perennial or
intermittent flow that are covered during high water now have the potential to support vegetation.
Ultimately, increases and decreases in soil and water salinity drive the establishment of vegetation
communities as they adapt to these changing conditions.

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UGS groundwater models (Yidana et al. 2010; Bishop et al. 2009; Burk et al. 2005) indicate that flow
from basin-filled aquifers to shallow, unconfined aquifers sustains wetlands and springs adjacent to GSL.
Drought and associated declines in lake level have a significant effect on this pathway and therefore the
greatest impact on wetland ecosystems. According to UGS models, impacts can be exacerbated by
groundwater withdrawals. Interagency consideration of the future allocation of groundwater resources
should consider lake level.
Management of wetlands at various lake levels should consider how changes in water chemistry and how
contributions from both surface and groundwater affect vegetation communities. For example, different
plants may tolerate various levels of salinity, depth to groundwater, and depth/duration of surface-water
inundation. In addition, natural disturbance (e.g., variation in lake level) allows for the establishment of
invasive plant species such as Phragmites if not actively managed. Questions remain with regard to
whether extensive/intensive groundwater pumping near the lake could result in intrusion of highly saline
GSL water into shallow aquifers.
As illustrated in the GSL Lake Level Matrix, fringe (unimpounded) wetlands and impounded wetlands
are affected by changes in lake level. Most are subject to inundation at high lake levels, the amount of
which varies with base elevation. Similarly, most are subject to desiccation at low lake levels and the
potential encroachment of invasive species. The magnitude of these effects is dependent on the specific
management goals and infrastructure of each wetland area. For example, high lake levels can cause
erosion of dikes, which is integral to waterfowl management (as seen during the floods in the 1980s).
Conversely, high salinity in a management area can eradicate Phragmites. Low lake levels and drought
conditions require that water is actively moved through wetland management areas. In some years, the
USFWS must prioritize those units that receive water on the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge. This
management decision is based on factors such as the capacity to support waterfowl and the capacity to
control avian botulism.

2.4.12 Wetlands Surveys and Research
A significant local effort for research on GSL wetlands has been the 1995 National Audubon Society’s
Feasibility Study for the South Shore Wetlands Ecological Reserve of the Great Salt Lake. This
investigation has led to restoration of the natural inflow of fresh water to the prehistoric river channel and
delta of the Jordan River. The results of this ecosystem restoration effort have been successful in
providing migration and nesting areas for birds along the south shore of GSL (Sorensen 2010). This is
one example of an effort focusing on improving habitat for waterfowl, shorebirds, and other waterbirds.
Studies of wetland habitats include the following efforts:


Comparison of two rapid methods to assess wetland condition in Bear River Bay (UGS)

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2.5 Air Quality
Air quality is an important consideration for the quality of life of residents of the Wasatch Front and for
the protection of the GSL ecosystem. Planners and resource managers have recognized the importance of
air quality and pollutant transport along the Wasatch Front. This section describes current air quality
concerns along the Wasatch Front and the contribution to these issues from industries dependent on the
GSL ecosystem.

2.5.1 Current Air Quality Concerns
Air quality in Utah is of greatest concern in valley areas that experience temperature inversions associated
with topography. Temperature inversions severely limit the transport and dispersion of pollutants emitted
into the lower layers of the atmosphere (Wasatch Front Regional Council 1980). During inversions, the
Wasatch Front often records the worst air quality in the country. Despite the challenges associated with
topography, Utah has significantly cleaner air today compared to 25 years ago (DAQ 2011). Reductions
in emissions since the 1980s, primarily in motor vehicle and industrial emissions, have resulted in
improved air quality and visibility throughout the state.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 provide the policies regarding areas not currently meeting
federal health standards for certain criteria pollutants. It also requires that comprehensive state air quality
plans be developed that will reduce pollutant concentrations to a safe level. The maximum allowable
concentrations set by EPA for the criteria pollutants are known as the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS). Areas failing to comply with these standards are considered nonattainment areas
and can be classified as marginal, moderate, serious, severe, or extreme. An area with a marginal rating
will have less time to reach attainment than an extreme classification.
Although air quality has improved since the 1980s, the NAAQS have become more protective over time,
challenging states to make further improvements. Currently, Utah has or is in the process of writing SIPs
for several nonattainment areas, including counties and municipalities along the Wasatch Front. These
areas are exceeding or have recently exceeded the following current NAAQS:


Particulate matter (PM10): Salt Lake and Utah counties and the City of Ogden.



Particulate matter (PM2.5): Weber, Davis, Salt Lake, and Utah counties and portions of Box Elder
and Tooele counties based on proximity to other counties in nonattainment.



Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Salt Lake County.



Ozone (O3): Salt Lake and Davis counties have only recently attained the NAAQS for O3 and are
being monitored to ensure that compliance is maintained (designated maintenance status).



Carbon monoxide (CO): Ogden, Salt Lake City, and Provo have recently come into compliance
with CO standards and are currently operating under a maintenance plan to ensure continued
compliance.

Each state is responsible for developing plans to demonstrate how those standards will be achieved,
maintained, and enforced to protect public health, according to the Clean Air Act (42 United States Code
[U.S.C.] § 7401) requirements. These requirements set limits for maximum levels of pollutants in outdoor
air. The SIPs and associated rules are enforced by the state and are subject to federal approval and
compliance. The plans break down specific emission contributions from vehicles, industrial sources, and
human activities and also provide the framework for each state’s program to protect air quality.

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Twenty-five monitoring stations are strategically located across the state and collect representative data to
determine how much of each pollutant is in the air. Air pollutant concentration models are used to assess
area pollution levels and provide information for maintaining air quality standards (DAQ 2011).

2.5.2 Emissions from Industries Dependent on Great Salt Lake
The confining terrain, diurnal wind circulation, and high inversion frequency requires that industrial sites
be very carefully considered along the Wasatch Front (Wasatch Front Regional Council 1980). The
impact of a given industry will depend on the transport properties of its emissions and the dispersion
characteristic of the locality. There are many industrial, mobile, area, and other emissions that contribute
to air quality concerns along the Wasatch Front. However, in this section, the focus is on the emissions
from industries that are directly reliant on GSL and/or are permitted by FFSL.
Four mineral production companies that operate facilities to extract minerals and salts from GSL emit
pollutants. These facilities emit pollutants such as CO, nitrous oxides, PM10, PM2.5, SO2, volatile organic
compounds (VOC), and hazardous air pollutants (HAP). Because the lake is critical to their operations,
changes in operations related to lake management and lake level could change emissions of air pollutants
from these facilities.
O3 is generally not emitted directly, but forms from a chemical reaction between emissions of VOCs and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of heat and sunlight. CO is an odorless, invisible gas usually
formed as the result of incomplete combustion of organic substances. GSL industries emit approximately
2% and 0.3% of the total NOx and VOC emissions in the five counties surrounding GSL, and therefore
contribute a small amount to O3 formation along the Wasatch Front. The largest contributors of NOx
along the Wasatch Front are mobile vehicles. VOCs are primarily emitted from biogenic sources (e.g.,
livestock and vegetation), area sources, and other point sources (e.g., industries other than those
dependent on GSL).
CO is an odorless, invisible gas usually formed as the result of incomplete combustion of organic
substances. SO2 is formed during the combustion of sulfur-bearing materials, such as the sulfur in metal
ores or fossil fuels. GSL industries are not large sources of CO or SO2 emissions in the counties
surrounding GSL, accounting for only 0.1% and 0.5% of the total emissions, respectively. Most CO
emissions are from mobile vehicles, whereas most SO2 emissions are from commercial and industrial
point sources.
PM refers to dust and other particles in the air and is measured either as PM that is 10 micrometers and
smaller (PM10) or fine PM that is 2.5 micrometers in diameter and smaller (PM2.5). PM2.5 is a subset of
PM10. During periods of temperature inversion, especially during the winter months, PM2.5 reaches
unhealthy concentrations. GSL industries contribute 2%â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4% of PM emissions in counties that surround
GSL. Mobile sources represent the largest source of particulate emissions in the area. Nearly half of the
emission for PM10 in the five counties comes from area sources.
HAPs are those pollutants listed in the Clean Air Act that are known or suspected to cause cancer and
other serious health problems. There are hundreds of HAPs monitored and controlled by DAQ. US
Magnesium, one of the four GSL industries, is a significant contributor of HAPs in GSL counties and
accounts for nearly half of the total HAPs emitted. The HAPs emitted by US Magnesium in greatest
quantity are chlorine and hydrochloric acid. US Magnesium emitted approximately 580 tons of chlorine
in 2008. Although this is still the largest emitter of chlorine in the state, it is a 99% reduction from
historic emissions that totaled 44,300 tons in 1988 (FFSL 1999). Other HAPs emitted by GSL industries
are dioxins, lead, polychorlinated biphenyls, acrolein, cadmium, formaldehyde, and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (a summary for 2008 is shown in Table 2.17).

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Table 2.17. Summary of 2008 Air Emissions from Facilities with Forestry, Fire & State Lands Great Salt Lake Leases Compared to Total Emissions in Counties around Great Salt Lake
Facility

2.5.3 Mercury Deposition on Great Salt Lake
GSL sediments and some deep water areas have some of the highest recorded concentrations of mercury
in the country. However, mercury concentrations in the water column and in brine shrimp are generally
below the EPA aquatic life standards. The implications of mercury to the GSL ecosystem are discussed
further in section 2.3.5.2. Because GSL is a terminal lake, it acts as a mercury sink by accumulating
mercury in lake sediments. According to a study completed in 2010, atmospheric deposition of mercury
accounts for 89% of the total mercury influx to GSL each year (Lisonbee 2010). Mercury is deposited to
the lake in three forms: gaseous elemental mercury (GEM), gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM), and
particulate mercury (PBN). Dry deposition of GEM from global background is the largest identified
source (50% of the total influx to the lake), followed by wet deposition (29%), and dry deposition of
GOM, PBN, and local sources of GEM (10%) (Figure 2.12). In 2009â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2010, deposition of GEM peaked
during the winter months.

2.5.4 Lake Level Effects
Approximately 41% of PM emissions in GSL counties comes from diffuse area sources (Figure 2.13),
including windblown dust from exposed lake beds. As the elevation of GSL declines, a large amount of
lake bed becomes exposed, possibly becoming 1) an additional area source of PM10 emissions and 2)
5

There may be additional sources that have not yet been quantified, such as coarse particulate mercury.

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potential sediment-bound contaminants such as mercury. The amount of dust emitted per acre of lake bed
playa exposed is unknown. The characteristics of exposed lake bed are highly variable, and numerous
factors including hydrology (lake level and precipitation), sediment composition, wind direction, and
wind patterns affect the amount of dust emitted as a result of wind erosion (Reynolds et al. 2007). In
general, undisturbed dry playas emit less dust than salt-rich wet playas. Undisturbed dry playas are
defined as playas in which the groundwater table is less than 5 m deep (Reynolds et al. 2007). The
exposed playas around GSL are generally salt-rich, wet playas that are susceptible to wind erosion.

Figure 2.14 illustrates the amount of lake bed exposed under each lake level category. Because of the
relatively shallow depth of the lake, the amount of area exposed increases greatly in response to minor
changes in lake level.

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Figure 2.14.

Lake surface exposed at elevation thresholds.

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2.6 Climate
2.6.1 Global and Regional Climate Change
According to the Climate Change Synthesis Report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change in 2006 (IPCC 2006), the years 1995–2006 rank among the eleven warmest years since 1850. The
report also provides evidence from all continents that many natural systems are being affected by climate
changes, particularly temperature increases. Hydrologically, there is high confidence that the following
effects on hydrological systems are occurring in many river basins: increased runoff and earlier spring
peak discharge in many glacier- and snow-fed rivers, and warming of lakes and rivers in many regions.
The effects of climate change impact the thermal structure and water quality of hydrologic systems (IPCC
2006).
The United States Global Research Program (USGRP) found that climate change is already impacting the
United States, and these impacts are expected to intensify in the future (USGRP 2009). In many areas
where snowpack dominates, the timing of runoff will continue to shift to earlier in the spring, and flows
will be lower in late summer. Floods and droughts are likely to become more common and more intense
as regional and seasonal precipitation patterns change and rainfall becomes more concentrated into heavy
events (with longer, hotter dry periods in between). Precipitation and runoff are likely to decrease in the
West, especially the Southwest, in spring and summer (USGRP 2009).
Specific impacts of climate change in Utah were summarized by the Science Panel of the Governor’s
Blue-Ribbon Advisory Council on Climate Change in 2007 (Steenburgh et al. 2007). The report states
that Utah is “projected to warm more than the average for the entire globe and more than coastal regions
of the contiguous United States. The expected consequences of this warming are fewer frost days, longer
growing seasons, and more heat waves” (Steenburgh et al. 2007:2). These effects have already been
detected in the temperature data. Temperatures in Utah between 1997 and 2007 were more than 2oF
higher than the 100-year average. The report also reports that if greenhouse gas emissions remain at or
above 2007 levels, it is likely that Utah’s mountain snowpack will decline, and severe and prolonged
episodic droughts could result. However, the report clearly states that there is no clear linkage between
recent global warming and precipitation within the GSL Basin. Although mountain snowpack declines
have been observed in the Pacific Northwest and California, there is no evidence yet of clear long-term
trends in mountain snowpack or streamflows in Utah.
Ocean acidification is another well-documented climate change–related concern resulting from the
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increased CO2 in the atmosphere is correlated with the
absorption of CO2 by the oceans. Dissolved CO2 reacts with water to create carbonic acid that reduces
ocean pH and causes the ocean to become more acidic. Since 1990, there has been a clear decline in
ocean pH that is well correlated with CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and ocean water (Feely et al.
2009). As oceans become more acidic, it becomes more difficult for many marine organisms such as
corals and mollusks to build shells and skeletons. USGS's Dr. David Naftz recently began exploring
whether a similar effect could occur in GSL. Preliminary analysis indicates that if dissolved CO2 in GSL
were to increase, bioherms could begin to dissolve. More research is needed to quantify the magnitude of
this threat and the specific biogeochemical pathways between lake pH and bioherm formation. The USGS
is currently developing methods to measure the thickness of bioherm material in GSL in part to be able to
monitor the growth and/or dissolution of these biogenic carbonates in the future (Naftz 2011).

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2.6.2 Lake Effects on Local Climate
The size of GSL and its salinity play a role in the locate climate of the Wasatch Front. A variety of
dynamic feedback mechanisms exists between weather and climate systems and any large lake. The lake
effect occurs when relatively warm lake water enhances the moisture content of storm systems. The
salinity of GSL prevents the lake from freezing, keeping the lake surface exposed for water vapor and
energy transfer to the atmosphere even during winter months. This produces heavy precipitation, which is
deposited on the leeward side of the lake in the Wasatch Mountain range. However, many storms in the
Wasatch Mountains are characterized by orographic precipitation, which occurs when air masses move
over topographic barriers such as mountain ranges and cool due to increasing elevation. Exceptional
skiing conditions in the Wasatch Mountains can be attributed to the geographic coincidence of a large
lake located upwind of a steep mountain front. The lake effect plays a role on snow fall in the Wasatch
Mountains, accounting for approximately 10% of the annual snowfall (Steenburgh et al. 2000; Steenburgh
2011).

2.6.3 Lake Level Effects of Global Climate Change and on Local Climate
The watershed of GSL responds to global and regional climatic variability (annual precipitation,
streamflow, temperature, and other hydrologic processes). Understanding the relationship between local
precipitation and stream hydrology and global climatic drivers is important to understanding changes in
lake volume and salinity. Runoff to the GSL Basin is driven by mountain snowpack and melt. The effect
of climate change on this process in the GSL Basin cannot be predicted due to variation in current climate
conditions and the lack of measurable trends in snowpack as of 2007 (Steenburgh et al. 2007). However,
the Science Panel of the Governor’s Blue-Ribbon Advisory Council on Climate Change found that as
temperature increases, “expected declines in mountain snowpack will likely lead to lower average [GSL]
lake levels and increased average salinity unless winter precipitation increases” (Steenburgh et al.
2007:18–19). The report notes that the timeframe of these changes is unknown.
The size and salinity of the lake influence lake effect storms. As lake level decreases, the salinity of the
lake increases, and high salinity levels can significantly retard the amount of water that evaporates from
the lake’s surface. Therefore, a smaller lake could reduce the contribution of lake effect snow to the
Wasatch Mountains. However, because there is high variability in winter precipitation and the lake only
accounts for approximately 10% of this snowfall, lake levels are unlikely to result in a detectable change
to snowpack.

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2.7 Biology
The GSL ecosystem comprises a large, hypersaline, terminal lake surrounded by a mosaic of wetlands,
uplands, and drainage systems. The GSL Basin encompasses approximately 3,011 square miles between
the Wasatch Range and the western desert. The lake is fed by four large drainage systems (the Jordan,
Ogden, Weber, and Bear rivers) and numerous smaller drainages. This Great Basin cold-desert ecosystem
occurs from lake level (4,200 feet) to approximately 4,500 feet in elevation in surrounding wetlands and
uplands. GSL receives an average of 15 inches of precipitation near the Wasatch Front, less than 10
inches of precipitation on the west side of the lake, and has annual average maximum temperatures of
65.5 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and annual average minimum temperatures of 38.1°F. The surrounding
drainages contribute approximately 3,684,500 acre-feet of fresh water to the lake, with wetland habitats
located primarily along the river channels and deltas and smaller and more isolated wetland complexes
located near drains, small tributaries, and groundwater discharge areas. Precipitation contributes an
additional 1,000,000 acre-feet of fresh water to the lake annually. Sodium and chlorine form the major
components of the lake’s chemistry, and surrounding uplands are dominated by saline and alkaline soils.
GSL is of regional and hemispheric biological importance due to its role as a major North American
migratory bird flyway, as vital shorebird breeding habitat, and due to its enormous size and influence on
the climate and ecology of the area. Because the chemistry of the GSL ecosystem is dominated by sodium
and chlorine, the vegetation communities that are associated with GSL habitats are primarily halophytic
and contain plant species that are uniquely adapted to hypersaline conditions in the lake (e.g., algae) and
saline and alkaline conditions in surrounding wetlands and uplands (e.g., submergent, emergent, and
upland plants). Halophytic algae serve as the primary food for the brine flies and brine shrimp that
support the GSL food chain (see Figure 2.2). The very flat gradient of the lake bottom causes dramatic
fluctuations in the shoreline of approximately 460 feet per foot of lake level change (up to 880 yards
seasonally) and results in a diversity of shoreline habitats, including ephemeral pools, mudflats, vegetated
playas, and sand bars. The transitory nature of GSL water levels and shorelines are a fundamental
component of the biological productivity of the lake and its value to migratory shorebirds and the brine
shrimp industry.
The GSL ecosystem supports a diverse assemblage of plant and animal species in a unique mosaic of
uplands, wetlands, mudflats, river deltas, ephemeral ponds, brackish and freshwater marshes, and other
habitat types. Approximately 250 species of birds, 64 species and subspecies of mammals, 23 species and
subspecies of fish (primarily in impounded freshwater inflow areas), 19 species of reptiles, and eight
species of amphibians have been documented in the GSL environs. These species include the federally
protected peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), the federally protected bald eagle (Haliaeetus
leucocephalus), and 16 Utah state sensitive species, including the American white pelican (Pelecanus
erthrorhynchos) and the long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus). The abundance and diversity of
species associated with GSL varies across habitat types and seasons.
At least five uniquely productive aquatic environments exist in the GSL ecosystem. They provide
abundant and diverse habitat for the numerous wildlife species that use the lake system. They are as
follows:


Open-water environments of varying salinities from freshwater to hypersaline water



Freshwater lacustrine wetlands associated with river and stream deltas



Brackish-water areas of freshwater and saline-water interface



Spring-fed isolated wetlands



Mudflat/playa environments

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The wetlands around the lake are unique in North America because they cover a large expanse of inland,
alkaline, and saline wetlands located in a cold desert. Approximately 400,000 acres of wetlands exist near
the shores of GSL, which represent almost 75% of all wetlands in Utah. Although the focus of this section
is on aquatic habitats and associated wildlife, adjacent upland habitats are also discussed due to their
importance as foraging and breeding habitats for wildlife, and due to their role as corridors between
wetland and other habitat types that contribute to the high productivity of the GSL ecosystem. These
upland habitats are as follows:


Upland areas provide an extraordinary amount of food and opportunities for cover and buffer wetlands
from expanding urban and industrial developments around the south and east sides of the lake. In
addition, the lake is tied to the Wasatch Mountains by ribbons of riparian habitat, which, in the desert
west, are critical migratory and breeding habitats for a variety of wildlife, especially neotropical migrant
songbirds, raptors, and riverine mammals. The latitude of the lake makes it a significant wintering
migratory stopover area for a number of species.
The GSL ecosystem is a complex mosaic of aquatic and terrestrial habitats that support a diversity of
species that often depend on the interaction between upland and wetland systems. Aquatic and terrestrial
vegetation communities are described under their respective systems (aquatic and terrestrial); however,
many groups of organisms, particularly water-associated birds, do not fit neatly under either aquatic or
terrestrial biology. To simplify the presentation of information in this section, bacteria and algae, brine
shrimp, brine flies, corixids, fish, and birds are discussed in section 2.7.1 (Aquatic Biology); plants,
reptiles and amphibians, and mammals are discussed in sections 2.7.9–2.7.12.

2.7.1 Aquatic Biology
The salinity of GSL varies with geographic location, hydrology, geology, disturbance history, and the
presence of human-made structures that increase or decrease the influx of fresh water into the lake (Table
2.18). A variety of plants and invertebrates depends on particular levels of salinity associated with
different aquatic habitats. The range of salinity levels in GSL aquatic habitats provides a diversity of
habitats for plant and animal species. Specifically, halophilic brine shrimp play a significant role in GSL
ecosystems and, along with brine flies, are the keystone species supporting many of the water and
shorebird species that frequent the lake. The abundance of brine shrimp varies in response to the
abundance of the algal prey and predatory corixids in lake habitats. Salinity and nutrient levels as well as
seasonal water temperature fluctuations determine the abundance of brine shrimp and their influence on
predator and prey abundance (Belovsky et al. 2011). A primary reason for the hemispherically important
bird numbers at GSL is the lake’s capacity to produce millions of pounds of this easily accessible protein
source at the appropriate times for seasonal bird migrations.
The salinity of the North Arm (Gunnison Bay) is significantly higher than other areas of the lake. This is
because of limited inflows and the Northern Railroad Causeway between Promontory Point and Lakeside
that effectively separated the North Arm from the South Arm (Gilbert Bay). In their 1979 study, Felix and
Rushforth found significant changes to the phytoplankton flora of GSL as a result of the construction of
the Northern Railroad Causeway due to reduced salinity in the southern areas of the lake. Gunnison Bay
only supports brine shrimp when GSL is at very high elevations (and lower salinities) and is limited to six
phytoplankton species (compared to 20–30 phytoplankton species reported in the South Arm). Brine

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shrimp and cysts are washed into the North Arm from the South Arm and may persist where there are
favorable low saline areas produced by freshwater springs or during periods of high lake levels; however,
brine shrimp generally do not persist in the North Arm due to high water salinity. The productivity of the
South Arm is considerably higher due to lower salinities and greater nutrient and freshwater inputs from
the GSL watershed. Nutrient inputs in the South Arm and Farmington and Bear River bays are used by a
diverse assemblage of algae and bacteria, which in turn support a rich microfauna of benthic invertebrates
and macroinvertebrates. The lake bed is covered with approximately 23% algal bioherms (Wurtsbaugh
2009). These rock-like structures develop as a result of the precipitation of carbonates by algae and are an
important source of algal production and habitat for brine flies. The west and south shores of the lake are
moderately saline and support brine shrimp at high to average lake levels. The northeast, east, and
southeast portions of the lake are less saline and support brine shrimp and other invertebrates during
average and lower lake level years. The east shore of the lake is highly productive due to nutrient and
freshwater inputs from the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers and numerous smaller Wasatch Front streams.
Gilbert Bay supports higher densities of brine shrimp than the eastern portions of the lake (i.e.,
Farmington Bay and shallow, near-shore parts of Ogden Bay).
In addition to natural fluctuations in ecological conditions in GSL, active management of water depth,
temperature, dispersion, and control of nutrient flows in managed wetlands has also produced highly
productive aquatic habitats. Managed wetlands in the GSL ecosystem possess high-quality aquatic
habitats in association with dikes, levies, headgate systems, and diversion structures. Ongoing
management of these created wetland habitats in the GSL ecosystem facilitates high-quality seasonal
habitats for tens of thousands of migrating and breeding shorebirds and waterfowl.

The effect of different lake levels on the aquatic biology of GSL varies across different habitat types and
for different species. One of the most important effects of fluctuating lake levels is the distribution and
extent of mudflats and wetland habitats surrounding GSL. Fluctuations in lake levels also cause
significant changes to salinity levels and other chemical aspects of the lake and associated species
composition and productivity. In addition, significant changes in lake levels strongly influence the
connectivity between islands and the mainland and the extent and distribution of both wetland and upland
habitats in the GSL ecosystem. The impacts of different lake levels on specific aquatic habitat types are
discussed in detail in section 2.7.2. The impacts of different lake levels on terrestrial habitat types are
discussed in general in section 2.7.9 and in detail in section 2.7.10.

2.7.2 Aquatic Habitats
Aquatic habitats associated with the GSL ecosystem consist of open water, mudflats and playas, hemimarsh, and emergent wetlands (Paul et al. 2012 [in press]). These habitat types generally occur as a
mosaic around the shoreline of GSL. The aquatic habitats associated with GSL occur as fringe wetlands
along the lakeshore and as impounded wetlands within embankments and bermed areas in and adjacent to
the lake. These aquatic habitats are often highly variable in species composition, total plant cover, and
community structure in response to water level fluctuations and across elevational gradients; however,
habitat composition and structure can also be strongly influenced by biotic interactions. Invasive plant
species are also discussed in this section due to their potential to disproportionately affect aquatic habitats.
Aggressive invasive plants can alter vegetation community structure, ecological functioning, and the
short- and long-term suitability of a habitat for foraging, nesting, and breeding wildlife. Invasive animal
species are discussed in section 2.7.10 (Terrestrial Habitats). However, it should be noted that invasive
animal species also affect aquatic communities through high levels of predation on nesting and brooding
shorebirds and waterfowl and by exerting top-down effects on the GSL food chain.

Fringe wetlands fall under two categories: high fringe and low fringe wetlands. Natural fluctuations in lake
level dictate the presence and location of fringe wetlands. High fringe wetlands are irregularly inundated and
contain standing water only when lake levels are high. The soils of high fringe wetlands may remain saturated
near the surface over a wide range of lake levels and may develop a crust of bare mineral soil in summer.
During extended periods of low lake level and thus, drier conditions, high fringe wetlands may be colonized by
halophytic (salt-loving) vegetation.
Low fringe wetlands remain inundated over multiple years and can be considered transitional between
open water portions of GSL and regularly exposed high fringe wetlands. These wetlands are almost
always devoid of rooted vegetation due to yearly inundation by high salinity water. When inundated by
fresh water, reeds, rushes, and other plants may establish small colonies or create an indistinct boundary
between emergent and high fringe wetlands.

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2.7.2.3

HEMI-MARSH

Hemi-marsh wetland habitats may be semipermanent due to their association with impoundments and/or
management of water levels. These habitats are created by flooding with sediment-laden water or
flooding benthic environments. Hemi-marsh wetlands contain 25%–50% emergent vegetation that may
include cattails, alkali bulrush, hardstem bulrush, Phragmites, and other emergent plant species.

2.7.2.4

MUDFLATS AND PLAYAS

Mudflat and playa habitats are the most extensive aquatic habitat types in the GSL ecosystem and
dominate the GSL shoreline. These habitat types may have no vegetation cover (mudflats) or vegetation
cover from 5% to 25% (playas) and are created by temporary or seasonal water fluctuations associated
with the lake. Mudflats and playas are further distinguished by characteristic accumulation of salt on the
soil surface in playas and less so in mudflats. These habitats support freshwater and saltwater
macroinvertebrates that provide seasonal food for tens of thousands of migratory shorebirds. Wetland
playas support a community of halophytes that may include iodine bush (Allenrolfea occidentalis),
pickleweed (Salicornia spp.), seepweed (Suaeda spp.), greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), saltgrass
(Distchlis spicata), and saltbush (Atriplex spp.).

2.7.2.5

OPEN WATER

Open water habitats comprise extensive open water bays and ponds, often associated with other wetland
types that contain 15% or less emergent vegetation. These systems have an unconsolidated bottom and are
intermittently, semipermanently, or permanently flooded. They are often dominated by open water during
the winter and early spring inundation periods and by a community of halophytes from late spring
through November. Common plant species found in areas that are intermittently and/or semipermanently
flooded may include duckweed (Lemna spp.), widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima), sago pondweed
(Stuckenia pectinata), and Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum).

2.7.2.6

INVASIVE SPECIES

Plant species of particular concern for aquatic habitats in GSL are Phragmites, purple loosestrife
(Lythrum salicaria), tamarisk (Tamarix spp), and Eurasian watermilfoil. Faunal species of particular
concern in aquatic habitats are raccoon (Procyon lotor), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), bullfrog (Rana
catesbeiana), and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis). Invasive plant and animal species negatively impact
aquatic communities in the GSL ecosystem in one or more ways, as follows:


By reducing the availability of foraging, nesting, and/or breeding habitats



By altering habitat structure and/or functioning in the short or long term



By increasing competition for resources



By increasing habitat disturbance associated with control and eradication efforts.

The specific impacts of several species of particular concern are described in detail below:
Phragmites occurs as both native and non-native strains in the GSL ecosystem. Historic records indicate
that the native strain has been present in Utah wetlands since at least 1875 and that the non-native strain
has a competitive advantage due to its ability to rapidly expand both aboveground and belowground
biomass (Kulmatiski et al. 2010). The distribution of the non-native strain of Phragmites has expanded
rapidly over the last 30–40 years, and it currently dominates at least 34% of wetlands surrounding GSL
(Kulmatiski et al. 2010). In the GSL ecosystem, the current distribution of the non-native strain indicates

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a nearly 200% increase in areal cover over approximately 30 years, whereas the native strain has become
confined to a handful of isolated wetlands.
Phragmites is of limited use as wildlife habitat due to its dense growth. In the GSL ecosystem,
Phragmites displaces native emergent wetlands and their associated species (e.g., Franklin’s gulls [Larus
pipixcan], waterfowl, etc.) by a) blocking sunlight to the soil surface and excluding plant species that are
favorable for forage and nesting habitat and b) providing cover for non-native predators such as raccoons.
This invasive species also alters hydrology by trapping sediments and reducing water movement through
wetland ecosystems. Total eradication of the species is likely infeasible due to the extent of its current
distribution and the difficulty of controlling existing stands. Management actions should target
aggressive, monotypic stands of the non-native strain that threaten to displace other wetland communities
and limit habitat diversity for water-associated birds. The native strain occurs naturally in GSL ecosystem
and contributes to overall habitat diversity and could be reestablished once the non-native strain has been
eradicated.
Eurasian watermilfoil is an aquatic macrophyte that is native to Europe, Asia, and northern Africa
(Jacono and Richerson 2011). It can tolerate a variety of environmental conditions, which has contributed
to its spread. The species was first reported in Utah from Fish Lake and Otter Creek Reservoir in 1993
(FFSL 1999). The species is primarily spread through movement of plant fragments, but can also
reproduce by seed. Watermilfoil negatively affects native vegetation communities by forming dense,
monotypic mats on the water surface that displace other aquatic plant species and reduce the availability
of foraging and breeding habitats. Watermilfoil has little value as a food source and displaces aquatic
invertebrates by excluding their host species.

2.7.2.7

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

The distribution, extent, composition, structure, and diversity of aquatic habitat vary considerably at low
versus high lake levels. At high lake levels, existing emergent wetlands, fringe wetlands, hemi-marsh, and
mudflats and playas are inundated, but new wetland habitats can be created where inundation persists. At
low lake levels, the distribution and extent of emergent wetlands, hemi-marsh, and mudflats and playas
are greatly reduced in areas that are not maintained by control weirs and have proportional effects of the
associated wetland vegetation and aquatic biota. When low lake levels persist for longer periods of time,
salt-tolerant vegetation such as salt grass and pickleweed (Salicornia) colonize the exposed lake bed until
lake levels rise again.
The extent of open water habitats and the abundance of species associated with this habitat type is
reduced at low water levels and increased at high water levels. However, changes to salinity and water
chemistry associated with changes in lake levels can exert disproportionate effects on the biota associated
with all aquatic habitat types. Relatively high or low salinity levels associated with low and high lake
levels, respectively, can limit the potential habitat available to some plant and animal species. In addition,
at low lake levels, invasive plant species, particularly Phragmites, can invade large areas of previously
inundated habitat and significantly alter the structure, composition, and functioning of wetland habitats.

This trophic system is highly productive despite the physiological difficulties posed by the extreme
salinity of the GSL environment (Belovsky et al. 2011).
Phytoplankton (e.g., benthic algae, blue-green algae, green algae, and diatoms) are autotrophic primary
producers in the GSL ecosystem. Phytoplankton are photosynthetically active year-round in the lake;
however, their abundance is limited from early spring through late fall. This is due to shrimp grazing and
reduced nutrient availability when the shrimp population is at its peak in the summer (Belovsky et al.
2011). The lake acquires a green hue in winter when green algae populations increase in the absence of
brine shrimp. Areas of the lake that are dominated by diatoms or blue-green algae may acquire different
hues at different times of the year, depending on nutrient availability and levels of predation. Belovsky et
al. (1995–2003; 2011) found that chlorophyll a (an indicator of photosynthetic levels) was highest
between November and April, with peaks in January and February.
Bacteria assist in the decomposition of dead phytoplankton, zooplankton, and organic wastes entering
GSL via streamflow and by wind deposition and are addressed as part of the phytoplankton flora in this
section. There are few species of bacteria that can survive in the hypersaline water of GSL, relative to the
biota of a freshwater lake. Eleven species of saline-tolerant bacteria inhabit GSL (Flowers and Evans
1966) and can exist in enormous numbers and account for a significant portion of the lake’s biomass
under favorable conditions. The North Arm of the lake supports only two genera of halophilic archaea ,
Halobacterium and Halococcus, which occur in numbers from 1,000,000 to 100,000,000 bacteria per
milliliter, and their abundance is evident in the pink to purple color of this part of the lake (Rushforth and
Rushforth 2006).
Belovsky et al. (2011) identified more than 60 phytoplankton taxa in GSL, and the GSL Ecosystem
Program (GSLEP) has identified approximately 140 species to date (Luft 2010). Both of these datasets
indicate that there is a considerably more diverse phytoplankton flora than the approximately 20–30 taxa
that have been reported previously (Felix and Rushforth 1979; Rushforth and Felix 1982; Wurtsbaugh
and Marcarelli 2004; Table 2.19). Belovsky et al. (2011) did not find any within-year variation in
phytoplankton species composition, only in the relative abundance of individual species. GSL has marked
seasonal trends in the densities of both phytoplankton (and zooplankton), but little is known about the
distribution of these trends (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004). Fluctuations in the abundance of
phytoplankton may be indicators of heavy nutrient loading that changes the abundance of edible
phytoplankton (Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004); however, brine shrimp are the primary determinant of
phytoplankton densities. When brine shrimp are absent during the winter, nutrient loads and salinity are
the primary drivers of phytoplankton densities.

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Table 2.19. Phytoplankton Taxa in Great Salt Lake
Species

Farmington

South Arm

North Arm

Reference

Acanthes exigua

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Acanthes lanceolata

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Amphiprora sp.

–

–

–

Larson and DWR CD

Amphora coffeaeformis

C

A

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Amphora delicatissima

C

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Amphora ovalis

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Anomoeoneis sphaerophora

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Biddulphia levis

R

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Caloneis amphisbaena

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Chaetocerous muelleri

C

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cyclotella oscellata

–

X

–

Phycotech 1/17/2006

Cyclotella meneghiniana

R

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cymatopleura solea

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cymbella minuta

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Diatoma hiemale var. mesodon

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Diatoma tenue var. elongatum

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Diatoma vulgare

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Entomoneis pulchra

R

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Epithemia turgida

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Eunotia incisa

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Fragilaria brevistriata

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Fragilaria construens

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Bacillariophyta (diatoms)

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Table 2.19. Phytoplankton Taxa in Great Salt Lake
Species

Farmington

South Arm

North Arm

Fragilaria construens var. venter

X

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Fragilaria vaucheriae

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Gomphonema angustatum

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Gomphonema olivaceum

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Gyrosigma sp.

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Melosira granulata var. angustissima

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula cryptocephala

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula graciloides

A

A

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula gregarica

X

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula lanceolata

R

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula pygmaea

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula rhynchocephala

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula tripunctata

A

A

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Navicula tripunctata var. schizonemoides

R

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nedium iris

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia acicularis

A

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia epithemioides

C

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia fonticola

C

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia hungarica

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia kutzingiana

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia linearis

X

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia palea

C

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nitzschia sigma

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

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Reference

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Table 2.19. Phytoplankton Taxa in Great Salt Lake
Species

Farmington

South Arm

North Arm

Reference

Nitzschia vermicularis

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Phaedactylum tricornutum

–

–

–

Larson and DWR CD

Pinnularia microstauron

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Pinnularia microstauron var. biundulata

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Pinnularia termitina

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Rhoicosphenia curvata

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Rhopolodia musculus

R

A

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Ropalodia sp.

–

–

–

INVE list

Surirella minuta

–

X

–

Phycotech 1/17/2006

Surirella ovata

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Surirella robusta var. splendida

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Surirella striatula

R

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Synedra acus

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Synedra sp.

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Synedra ulna

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Ankistrodesmus sp.

–

–

–

Larson and DWR CD

Carteria sp.

C

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Characium sp.

–

–

–

Larson and DWR CD

Chlorococcaceae sp

–

R

–

Phycotech 1/17/2006

Cladophora fracta

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cryptomonas sp.

X

–

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Chlorophyta (green algae)

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 2.19. Phytoplankton Taxa in Great Salt Lake
Species

Farmington

South Arm

North Arm

Reference

Dunaliella salina

–

R

A

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Dunaliella viridis

C

A

R

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Enteromorpha intestinalis

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Oocystis parva

A

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Pediastrum sp.

X

–

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Scenedesmus sp.

X

–

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Spermatzopsis exultans

C

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Sphaerellopsis gloeocystiformis

C

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Treubaria triappendiculata

A

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Ulothrix sp.

–

X

–

INVE list

Quadrigula lacustris

–

X

–

Phycotech 1/17/2006

Chroococcus sp.

–

–

–

Larson and DWR CD

Coccochloris elabens

–

C

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cocconeis pediculus

X

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cocconeis placentula

X

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cocconeis placentula var. euglypta

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Microcoleus lyngbyaceus

C

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nodularia heterocyst

X

–

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Nodularia spumigena

A

R

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Nodularia veg

X

X

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Oscillatoria princeps

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)

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Table 2.19. Phytoplankton Taxa in Great Salt Lake
Species

Farmington

South Arm

North Arm

Reference

Pseudoanabaena sp.

X

–

–

Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2005)

Spirulina major

R

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Syechococcus elongatus

–

C

–

Phycotech 1/17/2007

Synechocystis sp.

–

C

–

Rushforth and Rushforth 2006; Belovsky et al. (2011)

Ceratium hirundinella

–

X

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Glenodinium sp.

C

–

–

Felix and Rushforth (1979)

Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates)

Notes: X = Present; A = Abundant; C = Common; R = Rare; species marked with X occurred at very low frequency, low abundance, or did not appear to be viable populations. These may be samples from
freshwater inflows and not established species in GSL.
Source: Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli (2004); Luft (2010).

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Diatoms appear to be more abundant when salinity levels are lower and give the lake water a gold hue.
Pennate diatoms are oblong in shape with a silica covering and are too large for brine shrimp nauplii to
consume (Stephens 1998). Laboratory experiments at USU have shown that brine shrimp populations are
reduced when the lake is dominated by diatoms with low concentrations of green algae (Belovsky 1998).
Recent research by Belovsky et al. (2011) found that salinity and nutrient availability were approximately
equal determinants of phytoplankton densities, and that brine shrimp predation was the primary driver of
phytoplankton densities in GSL. Phytoplankton-brine shrimp trophic interactions have a strong influence
on the abundance of both groups of organisms and have a bottom-up control on corixid and waterbird
densities. Therefore, it appears that brine shrimp densities are controlled by phytoplankton densities and
vice-versa, but phytoplankton abundance is also determined at least in part by nutrient availability and
salinity. Belovsky et al.’s (2011) research demonstrates the increase in importance of prey limitations in
the GSL food chain from the lowest (primary producer) to the highest (secondary or tertiary consumer)
levels.

2.7.3.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

As indicated in Figure 2.2, the food web of GSL is directly controlled by watershed inputs and the
nutrient inflows associated with those inputs. Fluctuations in the abundance of phytoplankton may be the
result of heavy nutrient loading that changes the abundance of edible phytoplankton, or that produces
algal blooms and associated anoxic conditions that reduce the abundance of zooplankton species
(Wurtsbaugh and Marcarelli 2004). Watershed inputs associated with variations in regional climate and
resulting lake levels also strongly influence the diversity and productivity of the biota due to differing
nutrient inputs.

2.7.4 Corixids
Corixids, one of the zooplankton fauna of GSL, are small, predatory, flying aquatic insects that live in and
around the edges of GSL where water salinity is less than 6% (FFSL 1999). Their diet includes, but is not
limited to, brine shrimp. Predation by corixids and copepods on brine shrimp has been reported to
decrease shrimp population densities (Wurtsbaugh 1992). Gliwicz et al. (1995) suggest that salinity levels
similar to those observed in Farmington Bay might allow corixids to decrease the brine shrimp population
in the South Arm of the lake during periods of lower salinity. Recent research by Belovsky et al. (2011)
finds that corixid predation did not reduce brine shrimp populations from March through October and that
corixids have a weak but significantly positive impact on brine shrimp abundance (r2 = 0.09, n = 60, p <
0.02). Belovsky and Mellison (1998) observed that the corixid predation rate was 1–2 orders of
magnitude less than the brine shrimp population growth rate and had a negligible impact on the brine
shrimp population in the South Arm. This supports Belovsky et al’s (2011) recent observations; however,
corixid densities are limited in the South Arm by high salinity levels. At lower salinity levels (high lake
levels), corixids can reduce brine shrimp populations; however, corixid populations have been limited by
the salinity levels in the lake during recent years (1994–2006; Belovsky et al. 2011).
At present salinity levels, the evidence indicates that corixids do not have a significantly negative effect,
if any, on brine shrimp populations in GSL. However, at lower salinity levels, corixids could exert a topdown effect on brine shrimp populations. There is no evidence that current levels of commercial brine
shrimp cyst harvesting reduce brine shrimp density the following year, but commercial harvesting does
reduce brine shrimp cyst densities in spring, which reduces the number of shrimp initiating the
population. As demonstrated by Belovsky et al.’s (2011) study, reduction in shrimp numbers will have
both top-down (on phytoplankton) and bottom-up (on corixids, waterbirds, etc.) effects on the GSL food
chain.

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2.7.4.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Because corixids require water salinity of less than 6% (Belovsky and Mellison 1998), low lake levels
and associated increases in water salinity would be expected to greatly reduce their abundance. In
contrast, corixid abundance would be expected to increase during periods of high lake levels and the
associated increase in shoreline habitats and decrease in water salinity. The study by Gliwicz et al. (1995)
suggests that low water salinity associated with high lake levels would increase corixid abundance and
result in a decrease in the brine shrimp population from corixid predation.

2.7.5 Brine Shrimp
The brine shrimp is a keystone species in the GSL ecosystem due to its abundance and top-down
influence on primary producers (phytoplankton) and bottom-up influence on secondary and tertiary
consumers (corixids, waterbirds) (see Figure 2.2). Brine shrimp occur in all portions of GSL and are most
abundant in saline lakes due to their broad ecological tolerance and the lack of aquatic predators. The
brine shrimp is an anastrocan crustacean zooplankton that reproduces by two pathways: 1) by eggs that
hatch within the adult female and are released as live young into the lake in spring and summer, or 2) by
the release of diapausing cysts that overwinter in the lake in a semidehydrated state and hatch in spring.
Brine shrimp can also reproduce by nondiapausic cysts during periods of extreme stress due to limited
food availability or climatic conditions. Freshwater inflows from snowmelt and rain decrease lake water
salinity, and increases in water temperatures initiate egg (cyst) hatching in late January or early February,
with peak cyst hatching in March or early April. The decrease in lake water salinity associated with spring
snowmelt causes the cyst shell to swell and crack and allows the young brine shrimp (nauplii) to emerge.
The nauplii molt through as many as 12 different juvenile stages before maturing into reproductive adult
brine shrimp. As many as four generations of shrimp may be produced in GSL during a single growing
season. Late season declines in food availability, water temperature, and day length and increasing lake
water salinity due to reduced inputs and evaporation trigger female brine shrimp to start producing cysts.
Brine shrimp start to die when water temperatures drop below 42oF, and no adult brine shrimp survive the
winter. The brine shrimp population is restored each spring from hatching cysts that overwintered in the
water column or washed up on the shoreline during the winter and washed back into the lake in spring
runoff. Cysts deposited on the shoreline also serve as refugia for brine shrimp populations in isolated
playa lakes (Belovsky et al. 2011).
Brine shrimp serve a vital role in the ecology of the GSL ecosystem by providing a mass of readily
accessible protein to migrating waterbirds and shorebirds. The large numbers of migrating waterbirds that
annually stop over at GSL rely on brine shrimp and brine fly larvae to provide energy for breeding and/or
migration to/from other breeding grounds. For this reason, brine shrimp are a key conservation issue for
the GSL ecosystem (Conover and Caudell 2009; Belovsky et al. 2011). GSL annually hosts up to 2.5
million eared grebes (Podiceps nigricollis), up to 50% of the North American population (Paul and
Manning 2008). Waterbirds and shorebirds of hemispheric importance (e.g., eared grebe, American
avocet (Recurvirostra americana), black-necked stilt (Himantopus mexicanus); see additional discussion
in section 2.7 below) rely on brine shrimp as a primary food source for breeding and migration (Aldrich
and Paul 2002). Eared grebes rely on GSL as one of two molting and staging areas used by the North
American population (the other is Mono Lake, California) and feed on brine shrimp nearly exclusively
during their 8- to 10-month stay, during which the birds undergo a flightless molting period (Paul and
Manning 2008).
Commercial harvesting of brine shrimp began in 1952 by the Sanders Brine Shrimp Company for tropical
fish food. Several years later, brine shrimp cyst harvesting was initiated because cysts can be dried,
packaged, and stored for long periods of time and hatched as needed. Commercial harvest of brine shrimp
cysts is used by the aquaculture industry as feed for fish, shrimp, and other crustaceans, which are then

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

used for human consumption. Presently, only cysts are targeted by the harvest operations, but there is a
small market for the adult brine shrimp bycatch. Nevertheless, as discussed in the sections above, there is
no evidence that current levels of commercial brine shrimp cyst harvesting reduce brine shrimp densities
the following year. Commercial harvesting does reduce brine shrimp cyst densities in spring, but the Utah
DWR manages the brine shrimp population and requires that a target level of brine shrimp cysts per liter
of lake water are retained for restarting the population. As demonstrated by Belovsky et al.’s (2011)
study, reduction in shrimp numbers will have both top-down (on phytoplankton) and bottom-up (on
corixids, waterbirds) effects on the GSL food chain.

2.7.5.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Because the brine shrimp population is restored each spring from overwintering cysts on the lake’s
surface or shorelines, periods of reduced watershed runoff and associated lake levels would be expected
to reduce the abundance and productivity of the brine shrimp population. In addition, the algae upon
which brine shrimp feed on require low to moderately saline water conditions and do not thrive in high
saline water during low lake levels. Freshwater inputs from the surrounding watershed also provide
significant nutrient inputs that result in algal growth and the highly productive brine shrimp population of
GSL during average water years. During periods of high lake levels, brine shrimp population could be
negatively affected if salinities are reduced below the species’ tolerances.
In addition, changes in lake levels also affect lake temperatures and diurnal heating and cooling of lake
water. At low lake levels, seasonal and diurnal lake water temperatures would be expected to fluctuate
more with faster heating during the day and cooling at night. Brine shrimp have limited tolerance to
temperatures above 85°F and below 40°F and would be negatively affected during low lake level
conditions that cause water temperatures to approach the brine shrimp’s high and low temperature
tolerance levels.

2.7.6 Brine Flies
There are at least two documented species of brine flies in GSL. Of these, the most common are Ephydra
gracilis, which is smaller and most abundant, and Ephydra hians, the alkali fly, a larger and less abundant
species. Brine flies play an essential role in converting organic material entering the lake into food for
wildlife living along the lake’s shoreline. Brine flies are produced in enormous numbers each spring in
GSL, with reportedly over 370 million flies per mile of sandy beach, for a total of over 110 billion flies
plus 10 billion pupae on approximately 300 miles of beaches around GSL per year (Oldroyd 1964). Brine
fly abundance is variable from year to year and depends on changes in water chemistry and other
environmental conditions, particularly temperature. Rises in lake level create inundated shorelines where
brine flies pupate. Wind direction and velocity and lake currents and substrata seem to have a direct effect
on their distribution. Brine fly populations begin to increase rapidly around the first week of June, peak
during July and August, and then decrease as temperatures begin to drop (Vorhies 1917).
By removing over 120,000 tons of organic matter each year from GSL, brine flies consume great
quantities of algae, bacteria, and organic refuse from brine shrimp and their own life processes. It would
require a 78,000,000-gallon-per-day wastewater treatment facility about the size of the Salt Lake City
municipal treatment plant to remove this much organic waste from the lake.
Brine flies are vital to the ecology of the GSL food chain, but their trophic interactions are only weakly
linked to those of the brine shrimp (see Figure 2.2). Brine fly larvae consume benthic algae, and adult
brine flies serve as important prey for spiders, corixids, small mammals, reptiles, and birds living near the
shores of the lake. Adult and larval brine flies are also consumed by waterbirds. Brine flies serve as an
important food source for many migratory bird species, including the Wilson’s phalarope (Phalaropus

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

tricolor), eared grebe, and common goldeneye. See section 2.7.8 for additional discussion of bird use of
brine flies on GSL.
The life cycle of the brine fly consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Each female lays
approximately 75 eggs on the surface of the water or on floating debris consisting of brine fly pupal
casings, dead brine shrimp, or cysts. The eggs sink to the bottom of the lake before they hatch into larvae.
They obtain oxygen from the water by diffusion and feed on blue-green algae. They become free
swimming after emergence, until they find suitable habitat such as algal bioherms or other stationary
objects in shallow areas of the lake on which to pupate. Larvae and pupae have been found in water
depths of between 1 and 20 feet and can obtain oxygen from the water by use of tracheal gills located in a
long forked anal tube. During warm weather, the larval stage also may pupate on the surface of the lake
on floating masses of algae. The pupal cases split open on the back and the flies emerge out of the cases
and develop into adult flies. Flies emerging from the bottom of the lake float to the surface in a bubble of
air. The life cycle can be completed in 21â&#x20AC;&#x201C;30 days and may extend longer during cooler temperatures.
Adult brine flies only live three to four days, and one or two generations of flies reach maturity each year.
The flies survive the winter in immature stages.

2.7.6.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Lake levels exert a strong influence on brine fly abundance from year to year due to the effects of water
chemistry and other environmental conditions associated with differing water levels. During high lake
level years, the increase in freshwater inputs and inundated shoreline habitats where brine flies pupate
could decrease the brine fly population, whereas the opposite effect could occur during low lake level
years. Figure 2.2 illustrates the importance of brine flies to the trophic ecology of GSL and suggests that
fluctuations in lake levels could result in strong bottom-up impacts to corixids and other primary and
secondary predators that directly or indirectly depend on brine flies. However, there are limited data
regarding the effects of lake level on brine fly densities, and additional work is needed to better
understand these dynamics.

2.7.7 Fish
Fish are of limited importance in the GSL ecosystem due to high salinity levels in both the North and
South arms that exclude fishes. During the spring runoff period when shoreline salinity levels are low,
fish may be carried out into Bear River Bay from adjacent freshwater marshes and waterways. In
addition, strong south winds can push saline water from the south side of the causeway up into Bear River
Bay and cause significant fish kills. In the shallow water areas near freshwater inflows, fish can be
influential components of the food chain, and fish have been known to persist for years during periods of
high lake level. However, there are few studies of fish in the wetlands and bays surrounding the lake.
Species of fish that could be washed into GSL from its tributaries are brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis),
brown trout (Salmo trutta), cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss),
bullhead catfish (Ameiurus melas), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), crappie (Pomoxis
nigromaculatus), green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), walleye
(Sander vitreus), whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni), and yellow perch (Perca flavescens). In addition,
the non-native rainwater killifish (Lucania parva, likely introduced in contaminated stock in surrounding
waterways; Sigler and Miller 1963) and invasive mosquitofish (introduced for mosquito control in Salt
Lake City in 1932; Reese 1934) are known to occupy low salinity waters in wetlands and bays of the lake
(Sigler and Sigler 1996; Billman et al. 2007). Carp and shad (Doroshoma depedianum) are known to
escape from Willard Bay and are also found in wetlands and bays surrounding the lake. Carp can damage
or destroy wetland habitats by scouring shorelines, removing emergent vegetation, and competing with
native species for food and habitat (Sigler and Sigler 1996). Piscivorous bird species such as American
white pelicans, western grebes (Aechmophorus occidentalis), and double-crested cormorants

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(Phalacrocorax auritus) use the bays as foraging areas. Farmington Bay tends to be more saline than Bear
River Bay. Its salinity is often at 3.5%, which is too saline to support freshwater species of fish. The
margins of the bay adjacent to the freshwater marsh outflows are sometimes fresh enough to sustain
temporary populations of fish and the birds that eat them. However, the winds frequently mix the water to
the point that the fish cannot survive. Occasionally, some fish wash out of Farmington Bay through the
Davis County Causeway into the main lake. This phenomenon is not as common as fish from Bear River
Bay, because the populations of fish in Farmington Bay are rarely as abundant. The North Arm does not
support a population of fish because of the salt concentrations.

2.7.7.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

The distribution and diversity of fish species in tributaries to GSL could be reduced during periods of low
lake level due to reduced watershed inputs, concentrated nutrients and pollutants in contributing waters,
and the reduced extent of freshwater wetland habitats and associated prey species. At high lake levels, the
extent of freshwater wetland and other freshwater habitats would be increased with associated increases in
native and non-native fish species.

2.7.8 Birds
2.7.8.1

INTERNATIONAL, HEMISPHERIC, AND NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GREAT SALT LAKE

GSL is highly regarded for its international significance to both migratory and resident birds, and it has
been designated as a regionally and hemispherically important site in the Western Hemispheric Shorebird
Reserve Network. Although nomination as a Wetland of International Significance for the Ramsar
Convention designation was a topic of discussion during the 2000 GSL CMP process, no such
designation is currently being considered. Many locations on GSL provide important habitat for multiple
bird species. The description of GSL from Aldrich and Paul (2002) provides a well-stated assessment of
GSL’s importance:
GSL is one of several terminal lake systems in the Great Basin and is the fourth largest
terminal lake in the world (Stephens, 1997). With its impressive size and extensive
associated wetlands, the presence of GSL, in an otherwise xeric environment,
underscores the “oasis” effect of the system. Consider the lake's position in the western
hemisphere. There is a broad sweep of land that lies between the Cascade Mountains and
the Mississippi River valley extending from the arctic rim to nearly Central America that
receives less than 20 inches (50 cm) of precipitation annually. Except mountain
environments, this is a vast arid region of the Americas. In this setting, productive sites
for feeding, fattening and molting of large numbers of migratory birds are isolated and
often vast distances apart. These sites are always the exception and not the dominant
habitats. From breeding grounds in the arctic, many species of birds travel more than
1,860 miles (3,000 km) by the time they arrive at GSL. Some will need energy to travel
farther south to reach their wintering grounds. An American avocet (Recurvirostra
americana) travels approximately 1,300 miles (2,100 km) to winter on the west coast of
Mexico at Marismas Nacionales. A Wilson’s phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor) doubles its
weight on GSL brine flies (Ephydra cinerea) and brine shrimp (Artemia fransiscana)
before flying nonstop, nearly 5,400 miles (8,800 km), to Laguna mar Chiquita in central
Argentina. Other species migrate as near as the Salton Sea or as far as the Straits of
Magellan from GSL.
Birds associated with the lake and its environs are abundant and diverse. Groups include waterbirds,
shorebirds, waterfowl, diurnal raptors, owls, and marsh and upland-associated songbirds. Over 250

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different bird species have been identified (Paul and Manning 2008). Several million birds use the lake
area during the spring, summer, and fall migration. Some unique winter visitors occur in the area,
including one of the largest concentrations of bald eagles in the 48 contiguous United States.
GSL is located on the eastern edge of the Pacific Flyway and on the western edge of the Central Flyway.
These corridors are the major routes that populations of birds use when migrating north and south. These
flyways were defined for administrative considerations primarily (not biological) and are used in the
analysis of bird banding data. It was discovered that birds typically, although not exclusively, migrate in
north-to-south corridors.
Three species identified in the Utah Partners in Flight Conservation Strategy rely on GSL for most phases
of their life cycle: American avocet, black-necked stilt, and American white pelican (Parrish et al. 2002).
In addition to these three species, many species of waterfowl, shorebirds, and waterbirds are associated
with the habitats within and adjacent to GSL. These species include Brewer’s sparrow (Spizella breweri),
ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis), grasshopper sparrow (Ammodrammus savannarum), greater sagegrouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), Lewis’ woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis), long-billed curlew, sage
sparrow (Amphispiza belli), and sharp-tailed grouse (Tympanuchus phasianellus) (Evans and Martinson
2008).
Salinity varies around the main body of the lake due to geographic location, geology, and the presence of
human-made structures. A variety of plants and invertebrates depends on these differing saline habitats.
Each species has an optimum range of preferred salinity levels, and this wide spectrum of salinities
provides unique and critical habitat for wildlife. Brine shrimp play a significant role in GSL ecosystems
and, along with brine flies, are a keystone species supporting many of the waterbird and shorebird species
that frequent the lake. A primary reason for the hemispherically important bird numbers at GSL is the
lake’s capacity to produce millions of pounds of easily foraged protein at the appropriate times for staging
and molting migratory birds.
Generally, the North Arm (Gunnison Bay) is extremely saline and only supports brine shrimp when GSL
is at very high elevations. The west and south shores are moderately saline and support brine shrimp at
high to average lake levels. The northeast, east, and southeast sides of the lake are less saline and support
brine shrimp and other invertebrates during average and lower lake level years. These open lake and
littoral zones are exceptionally important to phalaropes, common goldeneyes, Franklin’s gulls, California
gulls (Larus californicus), and eared grebes. The east shore of the lake has many productive habitats due
to the freshwater deltas of the Jordan, Weber, and Bear rivers and numerous smaller Wasatch Front
streams. The water from all these drainages has been totally or partially diverted through natural or
managed wetlands adjacent to the lake. The historic Jordan River and the Weber River deltas have been
abandoned and receive little or no natural flow. These are very productive areas for waterfowl, colonial
nesters, and many shorebirds, including dowitchers (Limnodromus spp.), yellowlegs (Tringa spp.),
godwits (Limnosa spp.), American avocets, and black-necked stilts.
Managed wetlands have created unique habitats with dikes, levies, headgate systems, and diversion
structures. These systems enhance the opportunities for active management by changing water depths,
temperature, and water dispersion patterns and by controlling nutrient flows over time. These managed
wetland areas accommodate seasonal use and the needs of migrating and breeding aquatic birds.
Significant waterfowl breeding also occurs in these areas.
The following discussion outlines the research that has been conducted on bird species associated with
GSL since the 2000 GSL CMP was published. Most of the discussion provides recently discovered
information on waterbirds, waterfowl, and shorebirds. This information includes research and data that
have been collected on habitat relationships, breeding, and migration of each of these broad guilds of

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birds. References such as Paul (2010), Vest (2009), The Cadmus Group (2009), SWCA (2009), Jones and
Stokes (2005), Paul and Manning (2008), and Aldrich and Paul (2002) provide a more detailed discussion
of the bird populations that use GSL.

2.7.8.2

WATERFOWL

Many species of waterfowl have been documented on and around GSL. Over 75% of the western
population of tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus) uses the lake as a stopover and foraging area during
their migration. As many as 60,000 individuals have been observed at peak times. They use the large lake
areas within state WMAs and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge. Sago pondweed grows in these units
and is their preferred forage. Trumpeter swans (C. buccinators) also occasionally inhabit the area. As a
means to broaden their wintering range across the west, USFWS and DWR have been transplanting
trumpeter swans to GSL from areas where populations have exceeded the food source.

2.7.8.2.1

Habitat Relationships

Shallowly flooded ponds with water more than 1 foot deep and hemi-marshes characterized by
approximately 50% emergent vegetation and 50% open water are the most commonly used habitat types
for waterfowl (Aldrich and Paul 2002). Wintering waterfowl use any areas that are not covered by ice,
which can be limited in mid-winter (Vest et al. 2009).

2.7.8.2.2

Breeding

Most waterfowl species breeding in the GSL area occupy marshes in the impounded areas adjacent to
GSL. Many waterfowl species prefer to nest in upland sites, then lead their broods of ducklings to the
marshes to rear them. Some of these areas are within the scope of this document, but many are managed
by private and nonprofit organizations such as private duck clubs, The Nature Conservancy, and the
National Audubon Society. Others are areas set aside, restored, or enhanced for mitigation purposes. The
important aspect of the adjacency of these areas is the working partnerships that have been developed to
deal with large-scale effects in land management practices. Table 2.20 provides estimated numbers for
nesting waterfowl in the GSL ecosystem from Aldrich and Paul (2002).

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Table 2.20. Estimated Numbers for Nesting Waterfowl in the Great Salt Lake Ecosystem
Common Name

Latin Name

Number of Breeding Pairs

Cinnamon teal

Anas cyanoptera

40,702

Gadwall

Anas strepera

59,994

Mallard

Anas platyrhynchos

48,099

Northern pintail

Anas acuta

Northern shoveler

Anas clypeata

26,510

Redhead

Aythya americana

29,642

Ruddy duck

Oxyura jamaicensis

16,389

9,436

Source: Aldrich and Paul (2002).
Note: The total number of individuals is double the breeding pair number.

2.7.8.2.3

Migration

Numerous waterfowl use the wetlands around GSL during migration and as wintering populations (Paul
and Manning 2008). Duck populations on GSL observed as part of ground surveys conducted on state and
federal management areas showed average peak populations of over 600,000 individual ducks during
September for the years 1993â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1998 (Aldrich and Paul 2002). Over 75% of the western population of
tundra swans and 25% of the continental northern pintail population use the GSL area. The annual
production of breeding waterfowl from the marshes adjacent to the lake is estimated to exceed 750,000
birds (DWR 2005).
Waterfowl that are produced elsewhere, typically north of Utah, use marshes and lakes as a stopover point
during their migration. Up to 5 million waterfowl migrate through Utah each year. Large numbers of
green-winged teal (Anas crecca) and northern pintail use GSL each summer as a key molting area. They
fly from other areas and use the large open water portion of the lake for security and foraging. During the
waterfowl molt, the birds are flightless for a three- to four-week period. Northern pintail numbers in late
summer have reached approximately 1,000,000 birds. This is approximately 25% of the continental
population of these birds. In the 1990s, northern pintail populations were approximately 250,000 on GSL.
Green-wing teal numbers generally peak at 600,000 during the molting and staging period. Vest (2009)
determined that GSL also hosted the largest inland concentration of wintering common goldeneye, with a
peak winter population of 45,000 or 4% of the combined continental population of Barrowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (Bucephala
islandica) and common goldeneye. Populations of species presented in Table 2.21 also use the lake
during migration periods and peak in the late winter or early spring.

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Table 2.21. Peak Population Numbers of Waterfowl at Great Salt Lake
Common Name

Latin Name

Peak Population

Canada goose

Branta canadensis

50,000

Canvasback

Aythya americana

50,000

Cinnamon teal

Anas cyanoptera

80,000

Common goldeneye

Bucephala clangula

45,000

Gadwall

Anas strepera

100,000

Mallard

Anas platyrhynchos

500,000

Northern shoveler

Anas clypeata

100,000

Redhead

Aythya americana

150,000

Ruddy duck

Oxyura jamaicensis

60,000

Note: 7,000â&#x20AC;&#x201C;11,000 Canada geese annually molt along the west side of Bear River Bay.

2.7.8.2.4

Wintering

Wintering populations of waterfowl are dependent on habitat and climatic conditions, which change
yearly. The amount of water that is not frozen and the availability of food are the primary factors
governing abundance of birds during the winter. If the winter is severe, most of the marshes are frozen
over, and relatively deep snow covers the ground, birds migrate south until more favorable conditions are
encountered. Mid-winter numbers of ducks range from 10,000 to 150,000, depending on weather.
DWR participates with other states and USFWS in the management of migrating waterfowl. Management
of birds that can move in one day from state to state or even between countries requires coordinated
management. Utah conducts several bird surveys each year to determine population numbers. These
counts are coordinated with other states so a continental population can be determined. For example, all
states in wintering areas conduct mid-winter surveys between January 1 and 15 to establish wintering
population data.
Vest et al. (2009) and Conover et al. (2009) looked at trace element concentrations in wintering waterfowl
at GSL and determined that high levels of both selenium and mercury were found in common goldeneye,
northern shoveler, and green-winged teal. These results were confirmed by Peterson and Gustin (2009).
They suggest that further research is needed to determine what the effects of these elements are on GSL
waterfowl and waterbirds. Johnson and Naftz (2010) have postulated that the combination of both
selenium and mercury create a stable form of mercury selenate that limits the toxic effects of these
elements on bird populations.

2.7.8.3

SHOREBIRDS

GSL has one of the largest shorebird concentrations in the world. Over 35 species of shorebirds are found
in the Western Hemisphere (Sorensen 1997), and 28 of them have been observed using GSL habitats
(Paul 2010). Many of these species visit GSL each year and commonly include American avocet, blacknecked stilt, and killdeer (Charadrius vociferous).
Many of these birds undertake extraordinary migrations, with some birds traveling up to 6,000 miles.
Over 50% of the world population of Wilsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s phalaropes (500,000), the largest staging population in the
world, depends on GSL. The largest population of American avocets (250,000) and black-necked stilts

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(65,000) in the Pacific Flyway and over 10% of all red-necked phalaropes (Phalaropus lobatus) (240,000)
stop over on GSL (Aldrich and Paul 2002; Luft and Niell 2011). The lake also hosts the world’s largest
assemblage of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) (3,715) and the only staging area for marbled
godwits (Limosa fedoa) (58,000) in the interior of the United States. Observations of over 30,000
dowitchers have been made on a single occasion (Aldrich and Paul 2002; Luft and Niell 2011).
The GSLEP is cooperating in the development of a Great Salt Lake Shorebird Management Plan (Paul et al.
2012 [in press]). When completed, this plan will be the basis for future shorebird management decisions
involving the lake.

2.7.8.3.1

Habitat Relationships

The most significant aspect of GSL ecosystems is the diversity of habitats created from the integration or
close association of freshwater and salt-water systems, which creates a fluctuating “mosaic” of landforms,
vegetative cover, water, and salinity. Several microhabitats (natural and human-made) are important to
each habitat. Management and conservation efforts must consider each habitat type and the species that
frequent these areas.
Shorebirds use a variety of aquatic and terrestrial habitats for feeding, breeding, and resting in the GSL
area. The most commonly used habitat types are shallowly flooded mudflats and marshes that are along
the fringes of the GSL waterline each year (Paul et al. 2012 [in press]). Shorebirds typically like to nest in
areas that have little or no vegetation, which are common in areas that have been inundated by GSL at one
time or another (Cavitt 2010).
Freshwater and salt-water interfaces are created where flowing fresh water enters directly into the lake,
such as the outflows of several small streams along the east shore. These areas provide important foraging
areas for breeding, brooding, and staging. These areas also stay ice-free in the winter and provide habitat
for waterfowl.
Salt playas, mudflats, and other lake interfaces occur at numerous locations throughout the extremely
shallow, low gradient GSL Basin. These environments shift seasonally and with lake level fluctuations.
These areas are critical to snowy plovers for nesting, and they provide foraging and staging areas for
numerous shorebirds, including tens of thousands of avocets and stilts. The associated shoreline supports
a robust population of brine flies, which are a significant bird food source. The transitory nature of the
shoreline introduces a constant dynamic state; emergent vegetative stands are constantly shifting between
early and late seral stages as water levels advance and recede. A rich mosaic pattern of habitat types
results. Some examples include Farmington Bay, Howard Slough, areas west of existing WMAs, and The
Nature Conservancy’s GSL Shorelands Preserve (formerly known as the Layton Wetlands Preserve).
There are numerous ephemeral pools that are associated with the mudflats and playas. They result from
slight changes in topography and precipitation, overland flow (runoff), wind tides from the main lake, and
receding lake levels. Small pools create critical habitats for waterfowl and shorebirds and create unique
places for food production of invertebrates and vegetation species.

2.7.8.3.2

Breeding

Surveys conducted by Cavitt for nesting shorebirds from 2003 to 2010 determine that predation from
ground-nest predators is one of the most significant limiting factors for success in nesting attempts (Cavitt
2010). Data collected as part of the Legacy Avian Noise Survey Project (UDOT 2009) and Cavitt (2010)
indicate that sites with predator control practices have significantly higher rates of reproduction in
shorebirds.

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Black-necked stilts and American avocets nest on mudflats and playas around the lake and within fringe
wetland associated with runoff from managed wetlands. These sites are adjacent to favored shallow water
feeding areas. Snowy plovers select playas with little vegetation around the lake for nesting sites. Other
shorebirds that have been observed nesting around GSL include Wilsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s phalarope, willet
(Catoptrophorus semipalmatus), and long-billed curlew, all of which typically nest in uplands adjacent to
the lake. Limited data are available on the success of these nesting species, due to the cryptic nature of
their nesting habits and difficulty in observing specific nest locations. More common species, such as
killdeer and Wilsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s snipe (Gallinago delicata), also use habitats adjacent to GSL extensively for
nesting, foraging, and migration.

2.7.8.3.3

Migration

As discussed in the section on the international importance of GSL for bird species, millions of shorebirds
have been observed using GSL on their spring and fall migrations (Aldrich and Paul 2002). Twenty-seven
species of shorebirds are known to regularly use the wetlands, mudflats, and open waters of GSL for
migration (Paul et al. 2012 [in press]). Table 2.22 provides some shorebird migration numbers in the
wetlands and open waters of the GSL ecosystem.

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North America
Population
at GSL (%)

Intermountain West
Joint Venture
Population
at GSL (%)

2

15,000

3,383

7

23

10,000

#

28

37

GSL Peak Count

¶

Intermountain West
Joint Venture
§
Population

50,000

‡

3

Rely

North America
†
Population Size

Pluvialis squatarola

Trend*

Black-bellied plover

Latin Name

Common Name

Table 2.22. Population Sizes of Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Species of Importance

Waterbirds include species that are associated with the aquatic habitats of GSL, but that are not classified
as waterfowl (ducks and geese) or shorebirds (sandpipers and other similar species). GSL has extensive
populations of colonial waterbirds. These species can be found on the lands or marshes adjacent to the
lake, or on the islands and dikes/causeways within the lake. There are three primary habitat types used by
these birds for nesting locations: islands/dikes, emergent vegetation, and areas of woody vegetation.

2.7.8.4.1

Habitat Relationships

Birds that select the interface of open water areas and the beginning of the emergent vegetation (such as
bulrush species) of the exterior marshes include white-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi), Franklin’s gulls, and
tern species (Sterna spp.), which are often found together in nesting colonies around the lake. Eared
grebes also use this habitat type, although they do not necessarily nest alongside the species previously
mentioned. As lake levels fluctuate, the location of the bulrush-open water interface constantly changes.
The dynamic of the GSL shoreline helps maintain pioneering stages in emergent vegetation types, which
are important in developing habitat edge and vegetation density. It allows for periodic open mudflats and
playas important for certain bird species and breeding sites for invertebrates. Changing habitats are the
key to wildlife diversity and abundance in GSL ecosystems.
There is another group of species that uses a relatively rare habitat type around the lake. This habitat is
woody vegetation in the form of trees and large shrubs. These are usually found along the waterways
entering the marshes or planted along dikes and uplands by wildlife managers. All of the trees below a
lake elevation of 4,212 feet were killed by salt water and/or flooding in the mid-1980s. Some of the dead
trees still persist, and new trees have been planted or have naturally reestablished. These woody plants are
excellent nesting sites for such species as great blue herons (Ardea herodias), snowy egrets (Egretta
thula), black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), and double-crested cormorants. Other
species such as raptors use these trees as well.
The open or pelagic areas of the lake are very important to many waterbirds. These areas are primarily
used for either foraging or resting. Eared grebes and red-necked phalaropes feed on brine shrimp in the
open waters of the lake. Gulls are observed there as well. They feed on dead and live brine shrimp and
brine flies that collect in windrows on open water.
Most of the waterbirds of GSL are associated with shallowly flooded marshes for feeding and hemi-marsh
habitats for nesting. These birds include the waders (e.g., egrets, ibis, and herons) that use riparian areas
and marshes, but also include other birds that use uplands, wetlands, and open water (e.g., gulls and terns)
(Aldrich and Paul 2002; Intermountain West Joint Venture 2005).

2.7.8.4.2

Breeding

Waterbird breeding habitat in the GSL area is primarily provided by islands in GSL and marshes adjacent
to GSL. Waterbird species are typically colonial nesters and require a source of fresh water for survival
(Paul 1984). Colonies are deserted occasionally due to human intrusion or predation by small mammals
(Aldrich and Paul 2002). Large colonies of white-faced ibis, Franklin’s gulls, and American white
pelicans have also been observed around GSL (DWR 2005).
One example of a waterbird nester is the California gull. It nests on islands in the lake and on dikes or
causeways that transect the lake. Egg, Hat, and Gunnison islands and dikes at the GSL Minerals operation
in Bear River Bay are sites for gull colonies. The world’s largest breeding population of California gulls
nests at GSL. One of the world’s largest nesting colonies of American white pelicans occurs on Gunnison

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Island. This extremely remote island provides security from disturbance and predators. The pelicans fly
from the island to forage for fish in the freshwater marshes and reservoirs, then return to bring food to the
colony. Adult pelicans leave the colony for anywhere between 18 and 72 hours.
Conover and Vest (2009) examined selenium and mercury in breeding California gulls on GSL and
determined that they had high levels of these elements. However, they found no evidence that health or
reproductive abilities were diminished by the presence of these elements. These results were confirmed
by Peterson and Gustin (2009), again suggesting that the combination of these two elements may
physically bind one to the other in mineral form and lower the chances of abnormalities in birds (Johnson
and Naftz 2010). There is no direct evidence of a synergistic reduction of deleterious effects in GSL
fauna, whereas the interaction of selenium and mercury has been demonstrated to cause increased
mortality in mallard embryos (Heinz and Hoffman 1998). Darnall and Miles (2009) examined mercury
and selenium in eared grebes on GSL and Mono Lake (California) in 2006 and found significantly
elevated levels of methylmercury and selenium in grebe livers during a two-month period. Compared to
levels of liver mercury from 1992 to 2000, there has been an increase in mean liver mercury
concentrations in eared grebes during the past two decades (Darnall and Miles 2009). An increase in
mercury levels has also been documented in brine shrimp, the primary food of eared grebes, from an
average of 0.34 mg/kg to 1.02 mg/kg during the same time period (1992–2006; Darnall and Miles 2009).
Nevertheless, there is currently no evidence of reduced body mass or reproduction in eared grebes due to
concentrations of selenium or mercury in GSL (Conover et al. 2009).

2.7.8.4.3

Migration

Over 1 million eared grebes stage on GSL each autumn and primarily eat brine shrimp in the open water
habitats. Conover and Caudell (2009) determined that grebe populations need to consume 26,500–29,600
adult brine shrimp per day during migratory staging on GSL. They suggest that “commercial brine shrimp
harvest should be curtailed when cyst densities fall below 20,000 cysts/m3 to ensure enough adult brine
shrimp for grebes during the subsequent year” (Caudell and Conover 2009).
Conover and Vest (2009) found that selenium and mercury concentrations in staging grebes on GSL in
2006 were high, but were not inhibiting grebes from increasing or maintaining mass. These results were
confirmed by Peterson and Gustin (2009). Johnson and Naftz (2010) have theorized that the presence of
both selenium and mercury creates a unique condition where a mercury selenide mineral is created,
therefore reducing the adverse impacts of both elements on the birds.

2.7.8.5

PATHOGENS (AVIAN BOTULISM AND AVIAN CHOLERA)

Pathogens such as avian botulism and avian cholera occur in outbreaks in the marshes along the south and
east shores of GSL. Waterfowl losses in the hundreds of thousands have been documented from botulism
in marshes in the Bear River delta before the establishment of water control infrastructure in the Bear
River Migratory Bird Refuge (Gwynn 2002). Barras and Kadlec (2002) found that precipitation and
summer streamflow were the strongest predictors of potential outbreaks of botulism. Avian cholera was
first documented in Utah wetlands in 1944 and has occurred in recent years along the south and east
shores of GSL (Gwynn 2002; Niell 2010). In some locations, the limited areas that are available for
waterfowl foraging and resting have led to increases in the incidence of avian botulism and avian cholera
(Kadlec 2002). Ongoing studies of avian botulism outbreaks will continue to provide essential
information on how to limit these occurrences.

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2.7.8.6

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

The effects of lake level on birds that use GSL habitats are highly variable and are based on the specific
requirements of individual species. One very important aspect of GSL for migratory and nesting birds is
the transitory nature of the shoreline. The flooding and drying of the mudflats and wetlands around GSL
create conditions where new resources become available and foraging areas shift over time.
For this analysis, bird species are grouped into foraging and nesting guilds (Table 2.23). Further
explanation of specific fixed elevation or transitory elevation changes and effects on birds is outlined in
Table 2.24. In an effort to simplify the display of this information in the larger matrix, these guilds are
combined based on similar life requirements. The effect of lake level is also different for each of the
managed areas of GSL, therefore a place-based analysis of effects is detailed in the GSL Lake Level
Matrix (see Appendix A).
The foraging guilds are based on the type of food and habitat bird species use most frequently. For
example, many waders, waterfowl, and shorebirds use shallowly flooded wetlands or shoreline areas for
foraging. These birds would all fall within the wetland foraging guild and are grouped to provide a more
simple explanation for analysis of effects. Nesting guilds are grouped in a similar way, and both guild
analyses have exceptions and some minor overlap in species due to the general habits of many of these
bird species. Foraging guilds are based on habitat affinities (e.g., open water, wetlands, shorelines and
shallow water, and mudflats). Some specific species forage in multiple habitat components, therefore
future analysis could be refined to show additional detail.
Some foraging guilds, such as wetland foragers, have changing effects based on the transition of lake
level, where a slow degradation of conditions occurs over a variable lake level range. An example is
evident in the transitory shoreline that shifts constantly over time, changing the habitat at a specific
location from flooded to completely dry. Other foraging guilds have no transition, such as fish eaters
(piscivores), where there is a complete loss of the fishery at a certain elevation (approximately 4,200
feet). Further detail is provided in Table 2.24.
Nesting guilds also have some overlap among and between species, but some generalities can be stated.
For example, island colonial nesters are found on a few of the islands in GSL. These islands are
connected to the mainland at low lake levels, thus allowing land-based predators to access the nests,
which are on the ground. For these species, high lake levels keep nesting areas isolated. Artificial
structure nesters are defined as either colonial or noncolonial nesting birds that nest on human-made
structures, which are typically dikes or levees. Most of these features are related to wildlife and WMAs or
salt evaporation ponds. At certain lake levels, all of these dikes and levees are inundated and nesting areas
are reduced.

2.7.9 Terrestrial Biology
The GSL ecosystem is floristically diverse due to the interface between freshwater deltas, saline marshes,
alkaline and saline soils, and unique topography. The wetland flora of GSL is dominated by salt-tolerant
emergents and halophytes, whereas the upland flora of the GSL ecosystem is dominated by halophytic,
xeriphytic, and montane plant species. There is often a stark transition from saline wetland habitats to
xeric upland habitats. Shoreline-associated wetlands, such as playas, quickly transition to upland
sagebrush steppe and grassland communities. Human activities on the GSL shoreline have altered the
historic distribution of upland and wetland habitats, with often abrupt transitions between dike uplands
and emergent wetlands. Upland habitats are described here as uplands, which consist of both native and
agricultural upland communities; dunes and sandbars, which are formed by windborn or waterborne
oolitic sand; islands, which comprise a diversity of upland habitats; and dikes, levees, and human-made
structures, which are raised constructions comprising soil, rock, or concrete that can support either upland
or wetland vegetation. Invasive plant and animal species are also discussed in this section due to their
potential to disproportionately affect terrestrial habitats relative to their abundance and distribution.
Aggressive, invasive plants can alter vegetation community structure, ecological functioning, and the
short- and long-term suitability of a habitat for wildlife. Invasive animal species affect terrestrial
communities through high levels of predation on upland-nesting shorebirds and waterfowl and by
exerting top-down effects on the GSL food chain.

2.7.9.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

The effect of different lake levels on the terrestrial biology of GSL is largely due to changes in the
distribution and extent of island and mainland upland habitats. Significant changes in lake levels strongly
influence the connectivity between islands and the mainland, and the extent and distribution of both
wetland and upland habitats in the GSL ecosystem. The impacts of different lake levels on specific
aquatic habitat types are discussed in section 2.7.2. The impacts of different lake levels on terrestrial
habitat types are discussed in section 2.7.9 and section 2.7.10.

2.7.10 Terrestrial Habitats
2.7.10.1 UPLANDS
Upland habitats are found at slightly higher elevations than GSL wetlands and are characterized by dry
ground and grasses, forbs, and shrubs that favor drier soil conditions. The uplands surrounding GSL are
generally outside the GSL meander line and outside the GSL CMP management area boundary. However,
the upland habitats play an important role in connectivity to other GSL-specific habitat types. The GSL
uplands are dominated by shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia)-greasewood associations adjacent to sparsely
vegetated shorelines (Aldrich and Paul 2002), but often occur as a mosaic of shrublands, grasslands, and
barren areas. Upland habitats that are dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and rabbitbrush
(Ericarmeria spp.) serve as winter cover for wildlife and important winter forage for domestic sheep and
deer.
Upland areas historically used for agricultural purposes tend to be dominated by grass species, including
but not limited to, intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium), foxtail barley (Hordeum
jubatum), bluegrass (Poa spp.), and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Grasslands and agricultural areas
provide important upland wildlife habitat and serve as critical habitat when lake levels are high. Upland
habitats also serve as important waterfowl and shorebird nesting habitats that provide dry cover for
nesting sites close to wetlands and open water. One of the most important features of GSL uplands is the

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buffer they provide from human disturbances and development on adjacent lands (Aldrich and Paul
2002).

2.7.10.2 DUNES AND SAND BARS
Dunes and sand bars form along the eastern shore of the lake, along the shores of Antelope and Stansbury
islands, and on the plains and foothills bordering the salt desert. Dunes near the lake are composed of
white, calcareous oolitic sand formed around mineral particles and brine shrimp fecal material.
Vegetation is usually restricted to the upper edges of the shoreline where waves and flooding are
infrequent. However, in some areas, invasive species are populating sand dunes and altering their natural
state. The floras of dunes and sandbars are distinct from surrounding playas and uplands in some areas,
but may contain a mixture of upland-wetland species in others.

2.7.10.3 ISLANDS
Islands in GSL (specifically Antelope, Hat, Carrington, Egg, Fremont, Gunnison, Mud, Stansbury,
Dolphin, Badger, and White Rock) provide valuable nesting and brooding habitats, as well as migratory
resting locations, some of which are protected from land predators and human disturbance. Vegetation on
GSL islands varies from no plant cover to a diversity of upland community types on Antelope and
Stansbury islands. Some islands consist only of bare rock, whereas others possess soils and sparse
vegetation or dense vegetation cover (Aldrich and Paul 2002).

2.7.10.4 DIKES, LEVEES, AND HUMAN-MADE STRUCTURES
Dikes, levees, and other human-made structures have strongly influenced the distribution of upland and
wetland habitats on GSL, and they have become important nesting sites for waterfowl and shorebirds
(Gwynn 2002). Vegetation on these structures varies from bare materials, to a mixture of wetland and
upland species, to upland shrublands and grasslands. Gull populations, in particular, have apparently
increased in response to increased availability of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;artificialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; islands around GSL (Aldrich and Paul 2002).
However, these structures also provide access routes between wetland habitats and isolated nesting sites
for ground predators, which have negatively affected some species that lose large proportions of eggs and
chicks due to predation.

2.7.10.5 INVASIVE SPECIES
Invasive non-native and noxious plant species are also increasingly found in upland sites. For example,
Russian knapweed (Rhaponticum repens) is found at the Inland Sea Shorebird Reserve, Baileyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lake
area, SLCIA wetland mitigation site, and the Legacy Nature Preserve. On the miles of dikes surrounding
many managed areas of the south shore of GSL, upland floral invasive species include tall whitetop
(Cardaria draba), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara),
and several species of thistle (Cirsium spp.)
Low lake levels can create upland corridors between previously isolated wetlands and waterbird breeding
habitats. The creation of these upland areas creates opportunities for both native and non-native predators
to prey on breeding bird colonies and can significantly reduce the number of hatchlings and surviving
offspring in a given year. Faunal species of particular concern in upland habitats are red fox (Vulpes
vulpes), raccoon (Procyon lotor), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and feral domestic cats (Felis catus).
The raccoon was historically rare in the area before the 1970s, but it is currently the primary predator of
wetland bird nests in the GSL ecosystem (Aldrich and Paul 2002). Impacts to terrestrial communities in
the GSL ecosystem associated with invasive weeds and non-native predators include, but are not limited
to habitat reduction, short- and long-term habitat alteration, competition for resources, top-down impacts

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to the food chain and the resulting change in ecosystem structure and function, and increased disturbance
associated with invasive species monitoring, control, and eradication efforts.

2.7.10.6 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
The distribution and extent of terrestrial habitats is considerably greater at low versus high lake levels. At
high lake levels, dunes and sandbars and island habitats may be inundated. Island habitats in GSL are
increasing isolated at higher lake levels. This increases the quality of these habitats for nesting birds due
to the protection they provide from predation and other disturbance. At low lake levels, the distribution
and extent of upland, dune and sandbar, and island habitats is increased, but the increased connectivity
between these habitat types and mainland habitats can significantly reduce their value to nesting birds.
Islands are connected to the mainland at low lake levels, thus allowing land-based predators to access the
nests, which are on the ground. For these species, high lake levels keep nesting areas isolated. At high
lake levels, dikes, levees, and human-made structures are inundated, and ground-nesting areas are
reduced; however, nests may be more productive due to reduced access by land-based predators.

2.7.11 Reptiles and Amphibians
Limited work has been done on the amphibians and reptiles in the GSL ecosystem. Historically, eight
species of amphibians and 19 species of reptiles (two species of turtles, nine species of lizards, and eight
species of snakes) were identified in The Great Salt Lake Biotic System biological resource inventory and
study (Rawley et al. 1974). Currently, the Utah Conservation Data Center (DWR 2011b) database
recognizes 11 species of amphibians (including two introduced frog species) and 21 species of reptiles
(nine species of lizards and twelve species of snakes) in the GSL region (Table 2.25).
Table 2.25. Reptiles and Amphibians of the Great Salt Lake Ecosystem
Common Name

Latin Name

Conservation Status

New Mexico whiptail

Aspidoscelis neomexicana

Not native to Utah

Tiger whiptail

Aspidoscelis tigris

None

Rubber boa

Charina bottae

None

Eastern racer

Coluber constrictor

None

Great Basin rattlesnake

Crotalus oreganus lutosus

None

Great Basin collared lizard

Crotaphytus bicinctores

None

Ring-necked snake

Diadophis punctatus

None

Western skink

Eumeces skiltonianus

None

Long-nose leopard lizard

Gambelia wislizenii

None

Nightsnake

Hypsiglena torquata

None

Sonoran Mountain kingsnake

Lampropeltis pyromelana

None

Milksnake

Lampropeltis triangulum

None

Striped whipsnake

Masticophis taeniatus

None

Smooth green snake

Opheodrys vernalis

Sensitive

Reptiles

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Table 2.25. Reptiles and Amphibians of the Great Salt Lake Ecosystem
Common Name

2.7.11.1 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
In general, the distribution and extent of terrestrial habitats for reptiles would increase during periods of
low lake levels and decrease during periods of high lake levels. Impacts to reptile species would be
minimal due to the predominance of upland habitats in the landscape surrounding GSL. In contrast, the
distribution and extent of amphibian upland habitats that are close to water would be reduced during
periods of low lake levels. During high lake levels, some freshwater habitats may be created or expanded;
however, inundation of existing freshwater habitats by saline waters from GSL could cause a reduction in
available habitats for and populations of amphibians.

2.7.12 Mammals
Sixty-four species or subspecies of mammals (most of which are rodents) have been identified around the
lake and on islands in the main body of the lake. Other species present include bats, rabbits, porcupines,
coyotes, foxes, bobcats, mountain lions, deer, and feral cats. DSPR and DWR have established pronghorn
(Antilocapra americana) and California bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis californiana) on Antelope

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Island. Locations and records of occurrence can be examined in The Great Salt Lake Biotic System
(Rawley et al. 1974).

2.7.12.1 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
In general, the distribution and extent of terrestrial habitats for mammals would increase during periods of
low lake levels and decrease during periods of high lake levels. Impacts to mammal species would be
minimal due to the predominance of upland habitats in the landscape surrounding GSL. In addition,
increased access to the nests of ground-nesting bird species on islands and other shoreline habitats during
periods of low lake levels could increase the abundance of land-based predators, including invasive
species such as the raccoon, striped skunk, red fox, and feral cat.

2.7.13 Biological Surveys and Research
In addition, there is an enormous amount of information and research (published and nonpublished)
available on the flora and fauna of GSL. A complete literature search has been conducted and compiled
by USU and GSLEP. The GSLEP program is also seeking research papers on brine shrimp in natural
systems, limnology of saline lakes, bird ecology of hypersaline lakes in the Western Hemisphere, and
research on GSL. A bibliography may be available in the future.
Ecological sampling has been conducted for 17 years in the South Arm (1990–2006; Belovsky et al.
2011), and this sampling may be one of the most extensive and long-term studies of a large hypersaline
lake ever conducted.
GSL is the largest permanent saline lake in the United States and is a critical habitat area for birds. There
are many bird surveys conducted on and around GSL to answer specific questions such as total numbers
present, peak season use, species use, and habitat relationships. A waterbird survey coordinated by DWR
GSLEP is the most extensive to date. It began in 1997 and is projected to continue. The count examines
total number of waterbirds over time and relates these data to habitats.
The Utah Natural Heritage Program is a central repository for information about Utah’s biodiversity,
including animal and vegetation communities. This program was initiated by The Nature Conservancy in
1988. The program was transferred to the state in 1991 and is currently partially funded by DWR. The
program’s mission is to collect information about Utah species and vegetation communities in a
standardized and easily retrievable way and to provide this information for natural resource management
decision makers.
The Utah Regional Gap Analysis Project (ReGAP) analysis program comprises a geographic information
system that includes map layers of habitat types, vegetation, wildlife distribution, and other resources.
This information can be used to investigate spatial relationships of resources and to track changes or
trends in wildlife distribution and habitat use.
Many master’s theses and doctoral dissertations have been completed on the ecology of GSL and are kept
at the universities where the research was originally funded. These publications are included in the
bibliography prepared by DWR and USU. Recently completed and ongoing ecological and biological
research can be found in Appendix D.

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2.8 Minerals and Hydrocarbons
GSL brines contain chloride, sodium, sulfate, magnesium, potassium, and other ions that can be combined
into valuable minerals or concentrated into useful brines through solar evaporation. Hydrocarbon (oil and
gas) resources are also present at GSL, but are presently undeveloped. The state owns and administers the
minerals located in the bed and waters of GSL below the meander line as Public Trust resources. The
responsibility to manage the minerals of the lake and of all sovereign state lands has been assigned to the
FFSL by statute. The division has specific management responsibilities for minerals of GSL pursuant to
UTAH CODE § 65A-10-18. In 1996, FFSL developed the Great Salt Lake Mineral Leasing Plan. The MLP
provides FFSL with guidance on the long-term management and leasing of GSL mineral resources. The
1996 MLP has been updated in concurrence with this 2013 GSL CMP revision. Please refer to the 2013
MLP for details on the management of GSL’s mineral resources (FFSL 2012).

2.8.1 Mineral Resources and Industries
Although GSL is renowned for its “salt” (sodium chloride or table salt), the lake can be used to produce
sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium salts. GSL salt content comes from a variety of sources.
Rain and snow in the mountains leach sodium, potassium, magnesium, and other ions from soils and
rocks carrying them in solution in streams that eventually flow into the lake (Hem 1989). The high salt
content of GSL may be attributed to its location on the lake bed of Lake Bonneville, where the salt in the
much larger Lake Bonneville has now been concentrated into GSL (Trimmer 1998). In addition, some
believe that the lake’s salts were leached from deposits of oceanic salt of Jurassic age that crop out within
the GSL Basin. Others suggest that salt is brought by wind into the lake from the ocean (Eardley 1970).
Although there is not one universally accepted means by which salt reaches GSL, it is agreed that once
salt is delivered to the lake, it remains in the lake.
Due to the terminal nature of GSL, the only way for salt to be removed from GSL is through mineral
extraction. The water entering the lake escapes by evaporation only. A notable exception occurred when
the West Desert pumps moved water from the GSL lake bed to the West Desert to avoid infrastructure
damage at high lake levels in the late 1980s. From April 1987 to June 1989, the pumps deposited 2.73
million acre-feet of brines (approximately 0.5 billion tons of salt or 14.2% of the GSL salt load) into the
West Pond. GSL presently contains approximately 4.5–4.9 billion tons of salt in its system (UGS 2011b).
Salt extraction is one of Utah’s oldest industries, and salt has been harvested from the waters of GSL for
over 150 years (Gwynn 2002). Beginning in the 1960s, research and development have led to the
economic production of potassium sulfate, magnesium metal, magnesium chloride products, nutritional
supplements (Gwynn 2002), and other products.
Brine-derived products, including salt (sodium chloride), magnesium chloride, and potash, were the
largest contributors to the value of industrial-mineral production in Utah in 2009 (Bon and Krahulec
2010). Currently, the largest operators on GSL are GSL Minerals (a subsidiary of Compass Minerals),
Cargill Salt, Morton Salt, and US Magnesium LLC (Bon and Krahulec 2010). The companies involved in
mineral extraction on GSL are listed in Table 2.26 and highlighted in Map 2.3. For information regarding
the economic impacts of the extractive industries, please see section 2.14 (Economic and Sociological
Trends).

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Table 2.26. Summary of Mineral Companies and Type of Mineral Production
Company

Production

Compass Minerals
Subsidiaries:
GSL Minerals
North American Salt Company

GSL Minerals
Sulfate of potash, magnesium chloride brine and flake (bischofite).
Magnesium chloride is also referred to as Chlori-Mag by GSL Minerals.
Salt for snow and ice removal, animal nutrition, water conditioning, and
swimming pools.
North American Salt Company
Packages, markets, and sells the salt products.

Cargill Salt

Salt and return bitterns (the concentrated brine that remains after
sodium chloride has crystallized).

Magnesium brine and salts are concentrated and then processed into
nutritional supplements by Mineral Resources International.

The brine-derived products from GSL are almost exclusively produced from solar evaporation ponds. The
industries either use salts that have precipitated from the ponds, or brines that have been concentrated as a
result of evaporation. Depending on the product being produced, the salts or brine are used as-is or are
subjected to further processing. Sodium chloride is precipitated in evaporation ponds and is sold primarily
by Morton Salt, Cargill Salt, and North American Salt Company.
Potassium sulfate, also referred to as sulfate of potash, is produced by GSL Minerals for use as fertilizer.
Potassium-bearing salts are produced by solar evaporation of brines, and the salts are purified and
converted to potassium sulfate during processing. GSL Minerals is the only producer of sulfate of potash
in North America and is currently in the permitting process for expansion of their operations. USACE is
in the process of developing an EIS to assess the impacts of the proposed GSL Minerals expansion.
Magnesium chloride is produced and marketed by GSL Minerals in solid and liquid forms. Magnesium
chloride is used in a number of applications, including road dust suppressant, road deicer, and fertilizer.
Concentrated magnesium-chloride brine is also used by US Magnesium to produce magnesium metal.
Magnesium metal was the third-largest contributor to the value of base metals in Utah in 2009 (Bon and
Krahulec 2010). Magnesium metal is produced from the concentrated brines by US Magnesium at its
electrolytic plant at Rowley in Tooele County. This plant is the only active magnesium processing facility
in the United States (Bon and Krahulec 2010) and provides 6% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s magnesium supply (USGS
2011d).
Chlorine is a co-product of magnesium metal production. The chlorine is sold as a liquid. Chlorine
emissions from the magnesium plant have been a point of contention to air and water quality regulators
(GSLEP 2011). However, US Magnesium has done much to reduce chlorine and other emissions in recent
years. For example, they have significantly reduced chlorine emissions from historical levels using
several innovative processes. The electrolyzers used in magnesium production were redesigned in the
early 2000s, which realized significant increases in chlorine collection. In addition to this effort, the
company has installed more efficient chlorine scrubbing equipment and a chlorine conversion unit to

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collect vaporized chlorine as hydrochloric acid. These activities have combined to reduce chlorine
emissions by over 95% since the late 1980s (Gwynn 2011c).
A titanium sponge metal plant, operated by ATI Titanium LLC, began operating adjacent to US
Magnesium in 2010. The plant is located next to US Magnesium on the west shore of GSL because
magnesium metal is a critical processing component for the production of titanium metal. The start-up of
a titanium sponge plant will add incremental demand for magnesium and begin a new era in metal
processing in the state (Bon and Krahulec 2010).
Mirabilite (sodium sulfate) is a naturally occurring mineral that is precipitated from highly concentrated
lake brines during the cold winter months. This salt is not stable and redissolves as the brine warms in the
spring, except where it is enclosed in sediment at the bottom of the lake. Mirabilite-cemented oolite beds
have been found at numerous places around the lake, including near the Northern Railroad Causeway,
Saltair, the South Shore Marina, the Antelope-Island Marina, and the Morton Salt intake canal on the
south end of Stansbury Island. At one time, IMC Kalium-Ogden Corp. produced anhydrous sodium
sulfate or thenardite from winter-precipitated mirabilite; there is no current production of mirabilite.
Epsomite (magnesium sulfate) can be produced by the winter cooling of highly concentrated lake brines,
such as those used by US Magnesium in the production of magnesium metal and chlorine (gas and
liquid). Epsomite is not currently being produced from lake brines.
Oolitic sands are an unusual sediment type found in and around GSL at numerous locations. They are
light-colored calcium carbonate grains that range in shape from nearly spherical to cylindrical. Their
surfaces are usually smooth, like a miniature pearl. The size of oolites ranges from 0.015 to 1.5
millimeters, with the average size being approximately 0.31 millimeters. The chemical composition of the
outer shell consists mainly of calcium carbonate, though some calcium-magnesium carbonate (dolomite)
is also present. The nucleus or central core of the ooid is usually a mineral fragment or a brine-shrimp
fecal pellet.
Some of the areas in which oolites are found include 1) the west side of Stansbury Island in Stansbury
Bay; and the north end of the island extending northward past Badger Island, where beds up to 18 feet
thick have been measured; 2) around Antelope Island and especially in the area of the Bridger Bay
bathing beaches; and 3) the southern shores of the lake.
Oolites were used in the past to neutralize the acidic gases produced during the processing of melting
magnesium chloride into magnesium metal. Oolites have also been used to produce calcium chloride,
which is used in the brine-desulfation process and as an industrial chemical. Oolites are also used as flux
in ore-smelting operations and could also be used in most applications where limestone is used. Small
amounts of oolitic sand are used in drying flowers.

2.8.1.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Changes in lake level have a relatively minor impact on GSL minerals themselves. Mineral extraction is
impacted at high and low lake levels and is discussed in further detail in section 2.14.3.3. At high lake
levels, the brines in GSL become more diluted. The low-lying, unimpounded beds of oolitic sands
(around Antelope Island, for example) would be covered at approximately 4,204 feet. As the lake level
drops, the brines become more concentrated. When the salinity in the North Arm reaches 27%, sodium
chloride precipitates and falls to the bottom of GSL (Gwynn 2011c).

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2.8.2 Oil and Gas
Other geological resources under and around the lake include oil and gas. Oil has been produced at Rozel
and West Rozel Point oil fields, and natural gas has been produced at Farmington Bay and Bear River
Bay; however, economically viable hydrocarbons have not yet been discovered. The oil field in the West
Rozel has substantial quantities of oil in place, but its composition and the costs associated with its offshore production are two limiting factors for production.

2.8.2.1

ROZEL POINT OIL FIELD

Naturally oozing tars have been produced from areas near Rozel Point, probably since pre-settlement
times. Shallow wells drilled near surface oil seeps at Rozel Point beginning in the early 1900s produced a
small amount of oil. The field area lies on mudflats at the edge of the lake and is submerged at times of
high lake levels. There are currently no active wells in the Rozel Point oil field. Cumulative production
(to 1993) is 2,665 barrels of oil (Kendell 1993a). The oil is thick with a high sulfur content (11%â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12%)
making it difficult to produce and refine. Previous research on the Rozel Point field is discussed by
Heylmun (1961b), Eardley (1956, 1963a), and Kendell (1993a).

2.8.2.2

WEST ROZEL POINT OIL FIELD

Amoco Production Company drilled 15 wells in GSL, using a floating barge-mounted drill rig, from mid1978 to 1981. The drilling resulted in the discovery of the West Rozel oil field, a seismically defined
structural feature 3 miles west-southwest of the Rozel Point oil field. The structure is a faulted anticline
approximately 3 miles long and more than 1 mile wide, covering approximately 2,300 acres. The
discovery well produced two to five barrels of oil per hour during production testing from perforations
located 2,280â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2,410 feet below surface in Tertiary basalt. Cumulative production (to 1993) is 33,028
barrels of oil (Kendell 1993b). The oil is very thick and high in sulfur, making it difficult to produce and
refine. Previous research on the West Rozel is discussed by Bortz (1983, 1987), Bortz et al. (1985), and
Kendell (1993b).

2.8.2.3

FARMINGTON GAS FIELD

The Farmington gas field was discovered in 1891 near the shore of GSL approximately 3 miles southwest
of Farmington. One well produced at a rate of 4.9 million cubic feet of gas per day from a depth of 850
feet. In 1895, a pipeline was built from the field to Salt Lake City and provided gas for 19 months until
the gas was depleted or the wells sanded up (Richardson 1905). It is estimated that the field produced 150
million cubic feet of gas at a rate of 8.5 million cubic feet per month. The Farmington gas field is
discussed by Heylmun (1961a).

2.8.2.4

BEAR RIVER GUN CLUB

Natural gas has often been encountered while drilling shallow water wells on the Bear River Delta. A
water well drilled by the Bear River Gun Club was converted to gas production and provided natural gas
for private use for many years until the well blew out. When attempts were made to plug the well, the gas
flow cut away from the well bore and blew out through the soil. It took several days to control the flow,
which was estimated to be as large as 1 million cubic feet a day. There has never been any attempt to
commercially exploit the gas resource from the delta.

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2.8.2.5

ADDITIONAL OIL SHOWS

Additional oil shows were found in samples collected by Amoco Production Company during drilling in
the South Arm of the lake.

2.8.2.6

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Fluctuating lake levels may have an impact on future oil and oil production by making it difficult to drill
and produce. Floating, lake-based, or island-based facilities will be subject to flooding during high-water
periods, and shore-based facilities may be subject to the same problems during high water. Low lake
levels would not likely have impacts on oil production because construction and access to facilities during
low water would not be problematic, and the presence of oil is unrelated to GSL lake levels.

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2.9 Land Use
The state is responsible for the management of the GSL bed, pursuant to the Equal Footing doctrine as
discussed in section 1.12. The boundary line of GSL is the “meander line,” a coarsely surveyed line
established by court order in 1976. The meander line follows no particular topographic contour or
elevation, but is generally located between 4,202 and 4,212 feet above sea level in most places around the
lake. Lands within the meander line are referred to as sovereign lands in this plan. Sovereign lands also
include the unsurveyed islands in GSL: Dolphin, Badger, Egg, and White Rock islands. Hat and
Gunnison islands are owned by DWR. Stansbury, Fremont, Carrington, and Cub islands are federally
and/or privately owned.
In addition to the sovereign lands owned by the state, UDNR has acquired lands in and around GSL,
including Antelope Island (DSPR), wetlands and uplands associated with WMAs, and formerly private
lands needed for the WDPP, all of which are managed for specific purposes.
The management of sovereign lands is the responsibility of FFSL. One of the challenges in managing
sovereign lands is that the biological and physical systems of GSL do not observe property boundaries,
and management decisions on sovereign lands affect and are affected by uses and activities on adjacent
lands.

2.9.1 Land Uses Adjacent to the Great Salt Lake
Land use around GSL consists of a mix of residential, commercial, agricultural, recreational, and
industrial uses common to population centers (Map 2.8). The east side of the lake has the higher
concentration and diversity of land uses. Population growth in Weber, Davis, and Salt Lake counties is
resulting in the conversion of agricultural land to residential and commercial uses. Numerous singlefamily subdivisions have been constructed in the last decade. Residential developments to the east of GSL
have been built on elevations as low as 4,217 feet, which is the FEMA 100-year floodplain elevation. The
100-year floodplain around GSL generally lies at 4,217 feet, based on surveys completed by USACE on
the lake’s eastern edges where residential development is most likely to occur. To prevent damage to
property or to protect public safety, mortgage companies are required to determine if a property they are
financing is located within the 100-year floodplain by reviewing FEMA’s Flood Insurance Rate Maps. As
stated in section 2.9.1.1, development below 4,217 feet is discouraged due to flooding risks.

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Map 2.8. Land uses adjacent to Great Salt Lake.

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To accommodate the increasing northern Wasatch Front population growth and to decrease traffic
congestion for commuters in Weber and Davis counties, the 14-mile Legacy Parkway opened in 2008.
Built at elevations ranging from 4,215 to 4,282 feet, the Legacy Parkway has the potential to be impacted
by and impact GSL. Northwest Quadrant's mixed-use development plan was recently approved by Salt
Lake County. This plan permits development close to the lake's southern edges. Development will be
permitted at 4,215 feet, provided sufficient fill is added to decrease the impacts from potential flooding
(Salt Lake City 2009).
Associated with this changing land use is a shift in water use from agriculture to municipal and industrial
uses, with a resulting reduction in subirrigation groundwater and return flows to lands adjacent to the
lake. As development moves toward the lake, the uplands no longer provide a buffer to the lake wetlands,
and diminishing irrigation return flows affect the wetland ecosystem (Davis County 2001). In addition,
runoff from urban lands introduces water contaminants different from those of agricultural lands.
A number of landowners adjacent to the lake are managing their holdings primarily for habitat protection.
Approximately 150,000 acres of adjacent lands are within state and federal WMAs. In addition,
approximately 10,000 acres of wetland and upland parcels are owned and managed for habitat
preservation by groups like The Nature Conservancy and the National Audubon Society. Private hunting
clubs own and manage over 50,000 additional acres on the east side of the lake, primarily adjacent to Bear
River Bay and south of Farmington Bay.
Grazing and crop production from dry and irrigated acreage are the most common land uses around the
north and west sides of the lake. The notable exceptions are the mineral evaporation ponds of Bear River
and Clyman bays and the bombing and gunnery range, which lies on the western shore of the lake. SLCIA
is located approximately 2 miles southeast of Farmington Bay wetlands and approximately 8 miles from
GSL open waters (Salt Lake City 2009).

2.9.1.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

Land uses around GSL are impacted at a range of lake levels. Residential developments built near the
FEMA 100-year floodplain (4,217 feet) could begin to encounter drainage problems when the lake
reaches 4,215 feet or more. It should be noted that drainage issues for residential developments could
become problematic when the lake level reaches 4,210 feet due to increases in groundwater tables and the
potential for a 5-foot lake level increase by wind and wave action (3 feet for wind tide and 2 feet for wave
action). At higher lake levels, other municipal infrastructure is adversely impacted; for example, at 4,209
feet, I-80 encounters drainage problems and is flooded at 4,211 feet. SLCIA experiences drainage
problems when lake level, including wide tide and wave action, increases to 4,212â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4,216 feet, and
flooding occurs above 4,217 feet. Lake level effects on other land uses are discussed for each resource in
this chapter. Municipal infrastructure is less likely to be impacted by low lake levels. Residents living
closest to GSL would be subject to the greatest amount of fugitive dust (and its particulates) as the lake
level recedes and more lake bed becomes exposed to wind events.

2.9.2 County Zoning Adjacent to Great Salt Lake
As noted throughout this document, FFSL management jurisdiction lies below the meander line of GSL.
Adjacent to the meander line, primarily along the east side of GSL, are large tracks of privately owned
land within county boundaries. Although FEMA discourages development below 4,217 feet, the county
has the authority to authorize land uses up to the meander line. Therefore, it is important to understand
which type of land uses are authorized by each countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general plan or GSL-specific guidance. Given
that the biological and physical systems of GSL are not constrained by the meander line, coordination

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between counties and FFSL regarding future development is crucial for the health and well-being of local
residents and for the lake itself.

2.9.2.1

BOX ELDER COUNTY

GSL covers approximately 800 square miles of Box Elder County, the largest area and the longest
shoreline of the five counties adjoining the lake. Several abandoned industrial ventures abut the lake, but
brine shrimping is the only current lakeshore commercial activity other than mineral production. Only a
portion of the lake shoreline is zoned. The area on the west side of the lake from Kelton to the southern
county line is zoned M-160 (multiple uses with 160-acre minimum lot size). The balance of the shoreline
is not zoned.
In August 1999, Box Elder County completed the Box Elder Comprehensive Wetlands Management Plan
“to conserve and enhance the integrity of [the] GSL wetland ecosystem in Box Elder County,
incorporating provisions for appropriate urban development, infrastructure needs, resident livelihoods and
quality of life, while ensuring perpetuation of these important natural resources” (Box Elder County
1999). One of the goals of this plan was to develop a SAMP to more thoroughly understand wetlands in
the area and to simplify the CWA Section 404 permitting process for impacts to county wetlands and
mitigation for those impacts. The Box Elder SAMP has not been completed due to lack of funding.

2.9.2.2

DAVIS COUNTY

Zoning along the GSL shoreline in Davis County is controlled by three governmental entities: Davis
County, Kaysville City, and Centerville City. Most of the county-controlled land adjacent to the lake is
zoned A-5 (agriculture and farm industry with a 5-acre minimum lot size). The A-5 zone is intended to
promote and preserve agricultural uses and to maintain greenbelt open spaces. Primary uses include
single-family dwellings, farm industry, and agriculture. Several conditional uses include stables and dog
kennels. Kaysville City abuts the lake for only a few hundred feet and is also zoned A-5 with similar uses.
Davis County Council of Governments and others sponsored the development of the Davis County
Shorelands: Comprehensive Land Use and Master Plan (Master Plan) published in July 2001, as a
nonregulatory guidance document that provides each city within Davis County “the tools needed to
manage land use at a local level while preserving regionally important resources of the Great Salt Lake
Shorelands” (Davis County 2001). The purpose of the Master Plan is to take a county-wide, collaborative
approach to recommending proposed land uses along the shores of GSL. The authors of the Master Plan
encouraged local municipalities to adopt “appropriate portions of the Master Plan as an element of their
community’s general plan” (Davis County 2001). Although many of the Master Plan implementation
strategies remain to be completed, the Master Plan establishes a blueprint for land management and use
adjacent to GSL in Davis County.
Centerville City abuts the eastern shoreline of the lake for approximately 2.5 miles immediately to the
east of the Farmington Bay WMA. City zoning in this area is A-1 (agricultural) or I-D (industrial
development). The A-1 zone allows both standard agricultural activities and single-family dwellings on
0.5-acre lots. The I-D zone allows for a variety of industrial and commercial uses.

2.9.2.3

SALT LAKE COUNTY

The shoreline of GSL in Salt Lake County is generally unpopulated and is zoned A-20 (an agricultural
zone with a 20-acre minimum lot size) or CV (a commercial visitor zone). The A-20 zone provides for
standard agricultural uses, but also allows solar evaporation ponds. It typically acts as a large-acre holding

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zone until a specific use is proposed, which can result in rezoning for the use proposed. The CV zone
allows for commercial uses to accommodate the needs of visitors and travelers.
The Salt Lake County Shorelands Plan, completed in 2003, identifies undeveloped county lands near
GSL that are most critical for conservation and areas best suited for development (Salt Lake County
2003). The plan includes wetlands mapping and a functional assessment of the county’s wetlands.
However, the nonregulatory plan suggests that further understanding of the area’s natural resources would
be more fully understood with the development of a SAMP. The Salt Lake County SAMP has yet to be
developed.
Salt Lake City’s Northwest Quadrant borders GSL within the city’s northernmost boundary. The
Northwest Quadrant: Creating a Sustainable Community was completed in 2008 with the intention of
incorporating “new sustainable development and permanently protecting critical areas of the Great Salt
Lake ecosystem” (Salt Lake City 2009). Within Salt Lake City, the GSL shoreline is zoned as an open
space district (OS) and is intended to limit development potential. The land directly west of the OS zone
is zoned as an agricultural district (AG) and is intended to act as a holding zone until final zoning is
determined. This zone allows for single-family development on 10,000 square-foot lots. In September
2011, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints sold 3,100 acres of land to KUCC; this land
comprised a large portion of the Northwest Quadrant. At the time of the sale, KUCC reported no current
development plans for the newly acquired land (Jensen 2011).

2.9.2.4

TOOELE COUNTY

The shoreline of GSL is not specifically zoned in Tooele County, with land uses reviewed and approved
on a case-by-case basis as conditional uses. Current uses include agricultural operations, brine mineral
extraction, industrial and commercial uses, and brine shrimping operations. GSL mineral extraction is
most heavily concentrated in Tooele County when compared to the other four counties surrounding the
lake.
Tooele County and partners began developing a SAMP in 2002. Wetlands mapping and functional
assessment of the area was completed during the SAMP process. By the end of 2005, the project stalled
out largely due to lack of funding.

2.9.2.5

WEBER COUNTY

Fifteen miles of GSL shoreline is in Weber County and is zoned S-1 (farming and recreation). Lands
directly east of GSL around Little Mountain are zoned M-3 (manufacturing). The M-3 zone allows for the
manufacture and testing of jet and missile engines, aircraft and spacecraft parts, similar heavy industry,
and for the extraction and processing of brine minerals. Bordering the S-1 and M-3 zones on the east are
agricultural zones A-1, A-2, and A-3.

2.9.3 Land Uses on Sovereign Lands
The framework for sovereign land management is found in the Utah Constitution (Article XX), state
statute (primarily Chapter 65A-10), and administrative rule (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652).
Constitution accepts sovereign lands to be held in trust for the people and managed for the purposes for
which the lands were acquired. UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1 states that “The division [FFSL] shall administer
state lands under comprehensive land management programs using multiple-use, sustained-yield
principles.” Briefly stated, the overarching management objectives of FFSL are to protect and sustain the
trust resources and to provide for reasonable beneficial uses of those resources, consistent with their long-

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term protection and conservation. This means that FFSL will manage GSL’s sovereign land resources
under multiple-use sustained yield principles, implementing legislative policies and accommodating
public and private uses to the extent that those policies and uses do not compromise Public Trust
obligations (UTAH CODE § 65A-10-1) and economic and environmental sustainability is maintained. Any
beneficial use of Public Trust resources is ancillary to long-term conservation of resources.
Administrative rules address planning (UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-90) and land-use authorizations
including minerals (R652-20), special use lease agreements (R652-30), easements (R652-40), rights-ofentry (R652-41), grazing (R652-50), cultural resources (R652-60), exchanges (R652-80), and offhighway vehicles (OHV) (R652-110).

2.9.3.1

SOVEREIGN LAND CLASSIFICATIONS

Division rule allows for classification of sovereign lands based on current and planned uses (R652-70-200
Classification of Sovereign Lands). The use classifications set forth in UTAH ADMIN. CODE R652-70-200
were applied to GSL in the 1995 GSL CMP and have not been updated since. The current recommended
use classifications for GSL are described below (Map 2.9).

2.9.3.1.1

Class 1: Managed to Protect Existing Resource Development Use

Lands under this classification include the area around Antelope Island delegated to DSPR for recreation
management, the area around Saltair and GSL Marina, existing mineral extraction lease areas, and areas
under special use lease for brine shrimp cyst harvest activities. These lands would be open to oil and gas
leasing, but no surface occupancy would be allowed in the recreation areas.

2.9.3.1.2

Class 2: Managed to Protect Potential Resource Development Options

This area includes the previously explored West Rozel oil field and shoreline areas from the north end of
Stansbury Island south along the west side of the island and then north along the west side of the lake to
the south line of Township 11 North, Salt Lake Base and Meridian. This area has traditionally been open
to mineral leasing, developed recreation, and other kinds of developments.

2.9.3.1.3

Class 3: Managed as Open for Consideration of Any Use

The remainder of the lake is recommended to be placed in Class 3.

2.9.3.1.4

Class 4: Managed for Resource Inventory and Analysis

This is a temporary classification used while resource information is gathered pending a different
classification. There are no Class 4 lands in the lake.

2.9.3.1.5

Class 5: Managed to Protect Potential Resource Preservation Options

This classification includes lands that the legislature has authorized DWR to use for wildlife purposes
under UTAH CODE § 23-21-5 (Map 2.10) and a 1-mile buffer zone around islands in the North Arm. No
surface occupancy for oil and gas exploration will be allowed in established WMAs or in the island buffer
zones. Elsewhere, oil and gas surface occupancy constraints shall be determined in consultation with
DWR. Mitigation strategies for developments not related to wildlife management in these areas shall also
be determined in consultation with DWR.

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Map 2.9. Sovereign land classifications.

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Map 2.10. Wildlife protection areas.

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2.9.3.1.6

Class 6: Managed to Protect Existing Resource Preservation Uses.

This classification covers existing WMAs. Lands would be available for oil and gas leasing with no
surface occupancy.
As stated under the Class 5 use classification, the legislature has authorized DWR to use sovereign land in
all or parts of 39 townships on GSL for the creation, operation, maintenance, and management of WMAs,
fishing waters, and other recreational activities (UTAH CODE § 23-21-5). This geographic area covers
Bear River Bay, Ogden Bay, Farmington Bay, portions of the south shore area, and the north end of
Spring Bay. This statutory authorization is interpreted as establishing wildlife management and wildliferelated recreation as the primary intended land use, except for areas identified for other uses through a
planning process. Land uses with significant adverse impacts on wildlife and recreation values may be
prohibited, even though mitigation strategies are available. Some of this sovereign land is included in
Antelope Island State Park and is managed by DSPR. Some of the land has been sold or exchanged.
In order to guide the orderly allocation of GSL resources, FFSL developed mineral leasing categories for
GSL lands under FFSL jurisdiction. Current sovereign land mineral lease categories are found in the
MLP. The mineral leasing categories (for salt and oil and gas) are illustrated in Maps 2.11 and 2.12.

2.9.4 Existing Uses and Leases
FFSL is responsible for issuing leases, permits, easements, and rights-of-entry on sovereign land. Existing
GSL authorizations include grazing permits, special use leases, rights-of-entry, mineral leases, and
easements (Map 2.13). There are oil, gas, and hydrocarbon leases on GSL. None are producing at this
time. Details of existing uses and leases can be found on FFSL’s website or by contacting the FFSL
offices directly.

2.9.5 Sovereign Land Boundaries
2.9.5.1

UNCERTAINTIES AND DISPUTES

The meander line, which is the legal boundary between sovereign lands and adjacent lands,
was established by a series of surveys over a period of years. A number of the original survey markers
and monuments have been obliterated, and the exact location of the sovereign/private boundary is
uncertain in many areas. Historically, areas where ownership has been uncertain have led to clarifications
and legal disputes with FFSL. The only current land disputes pertain to land in the Bear River Migratory
Bird Refuge, under the jurisdiction of USFWS, and Willard Bay Reservoir, under the jurisdiction of the
Bureau of Reclamation.
Should future land disputes occur, UTAH CODE § 65A-10-3 requires FFSL to consult with the attorney
general and affected state agencies to develop a plan for the resolution of disputes over the location of
sovereign land boundaries.

2.9.5.2

LANDS OWNED OR MANAGED BY OTHER STATE AGENCIES

Within GSL, there are lands that are managed by other UDNR agencies and generally dedicated to
specific uses. These lands are listed in Table 2.27. Badger, Goose, and Egg islands are owned by FFSL.
Stansbury and Carrington islands are managed by the BLM and private land owners. Fremont Island is
under private ownership.

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Table 2.27.

Lands in Great Salt Lake Owned or Managed by Other State Agencies

Agency

Area

Acres

Year

Land Status

DWR

Locomotive Springs

17,937

1931

Fee Title, estimated

DWR

Public Shooting Grounds

13,063

1923

Fee title, lease

DWR

Harold Crane

8,593

1963

Fee Title, dedicated

DWR

Ogden Bay

18,395

1937

Fee Title, dedicated

DWR

Howard Slough

3,300

1958

Fee Title, dedicated

DWR

Layton-Kaysville

25,000

1975

Dedicated

DWR

Farmington Bay

10,772

1935

Fee Title, dedicated

DWR

Hat (Bird) Island

22

1977

Fee title, state withdrawn

DWR

Gunnison/Cub Island

163

1977

Fee title, state withdrawn

DWR

Dolphin Island

624

1977

State withdrawn

DSPR

Antelope Island

28,022

1969/1981

DSPR

South Shore Marina

5,874

1977

Delegation of authority

DSPR

Willard Bay

9,920

1965

Fee title, dedicated

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Map 2.11. Mineral leasing categories (salt).

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Map 2.12. Mineral leasing categories (oil and gas).

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Map 2.13. Existing uses and leases.

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2.9.6 Dikes and Causeways
Dikes and causeways in and around GSL serve many purposes. Dikes are used to impound fresh water
(e.g., Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, WMAs, Willard Bay Reservoir), impound brine pumped from
the lake or trap brine in the lake for brine extraction (e.g., US Magnesium, GSL Minerals, Morton Salt),
and protect facilities from high lake levels (wastewater treatment plants, sewage lagoons, power lines).
Causeways are also used for transportation facilities along the shore or across the lake (I-80, Northern and
Southern railroad causeways, Davis County Causeway).
The Northern Railroad Causeway was originally created in 1906 by the Southern Pacific Transportation
Company to shorten the time required to go north around the lake. In 1959, the wooden trestle across the
lake was replaced with a rock-fill and earthen causeway. The average elevation of the causeway was
4,209–4,210 feet in 1983. During the high water years, the causeway began to slough-off, settle, and
subside into the lake. By spring 1984, very large inflows of fresh water into the South Arm and the
restriction of flows to the north due to the plugged culverts in the causeway caused the water level in the
South Arm to be 3 feet higher than the water in the North Arm. The higher elevation in the South Arm
added greatly to flooding problems on the south and east shores of the lake. A 300-foot-long breach in the
Northern Railroad Causeway was created by the State of Utah in 1984 to minimize flooding impacts. To
repair the erosion damages resulting from the high water, surplus and scrap boxcars were used to create a
“boxcar sea wall” on the north side of the causeway, which allowed the tracks and fill to be raised from
4,206 to 4,217 feet.
The Southern Railroad Causeway, located at the southern end of GSL, is a major rail line to the West
Coast. It presently serves many chemical industries in this region and provides daily passenger service via
Amtrak as part of an east-to-west rail corridor. In 1983, the rising lake began to affect the railroad track
structure. Union Pacific raised the track in this area to protect it from the rising water. The elevation (top
of the rail) through most of this area is 4,221.0 feet, with the subgrade (top of the embankment) at 4,218.5
feet.
Dikes and causeways influence lake level, salinity, habitat, and the surface area of the lake. The influence
of causeways on salinity is evident. Where dikes or causeways constrain the area over which the lake
could expand in high water periods, the water depth along shores may be too deep for shorebird habitat.
Similarly, the formation of wetlands along shoreline areas may be affected. Some dikes and causeways
constrict lake hydrodynamics and tributary flows as the water moves toward the lake, thereby
exacerbating local flooding. For more information on how the dikes and causeways impact GSL, see
section 2.3.
Further research is needed on the impacts of dikes and causeways on the GSL ecosystem. In addition,
proposals to breach causeways should include an analysis of how the GSL ecosystem would be impacted.
With the exception of studies regarding proposed, large freshwater impoundments (e.g., inter-island
diking, Lake Davis, Lake Wasatch), assessments of effects have focused only on the intended purposes of
dikes and causeways. Effects beyond the immediate vicinity of the impoundment have yet to be fully
analyzed.

2.9.6.1

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

As indicated in the paragraphs above, GSL dikes and causeways are affected at higher lake levels. As the
dikes and causeways are overtopped at increasing elevations, the salinity composition in the different
bays begins to shift. The Southern Causeway to Antelope Island, which is no longer operable but impacts
salinity levels between Farmington Bay and Gilbert Bay, begins to spill over at 4,205 feet. A breach in the
Southern Causeway that goes down to approximately 4,200 feet allows water to flow between the bays.

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The Davis County Causeway begins to have drainage problems at 4,205 feet and is overtopped at 4,208
feet. The Northern Railroad Causeway is overtopped at 4,217 feet, and when this occurs, all of the arms
and bays of the lake are connected. At high lake levels, wind and wave action can cause infrastructure
damage or hinder travel at an elevation 3–5 feet lower than the elevation at which the causeways are
overtopped. At low lake elevations, the North Arm and South Arm become totally separated because the
bottom of the 300-foot-long breach has a bottom elevation of approximately 4,193 feet (Klotz 2011).

2.9.7 Geologic Hazards
State law requires FFSL to disclose known geologic hazards affecting leased property. Information on
known hazards is routinely provided to lessees but, in general, there is no follow-up activity.

2.9.7.1

SURFACE FAULTING

Surface faulting may accompany large earthquakes (greater than approximately magnitude 6.5) on active
faults, including those in the bed of GSL. The resulting displacement at the ground surface produces
ground cracking and typically one or more “fault scarps.” The east GSL fault zone trends northwest along
the west side of the Promontory Mountains and Antelope Island. Other faults are present elsewhere
beneath GSL, particularly in the North Arm (Hecker 1993).
Although faults in GSL have generally not been mapped, surface faulting resulting from an earthquake on
one of these faults may affect structures along the shoreline. Surface faulting beneath the lake may
rupture dikes or in-lake structures that straddle the faults and may generate seiches, which could indirectly
damage both in-lake and shoreline structures by flooding.

2.9.7.2

LIQUEFACTION

Liquefaction and liquefaction-induced ground failures are major causes of earthquake damage (Keller and
Blodgett 2006). Upon liquefaction, a soil loses its strength and ability to support the weight of overlying
structures or sediments. Liquefaction chiefly occurs in areas where groundwater is less than or equal to 50
feet deep, when a water-saturated, cohesionless soil is subjected to strong ground shaking (Seed 1979;
Martin and Lew 1999). Cohesionless soils have loose grains that do not readily stick together and are
typically sandy with little clay, although some silty and gravelly soils are also susceptible to liquefaction.
In general, an earthquake of magnitude 5 or greater is necessary to induce liquefaction. Larger
earthquakes are more likely to cause liquefaction and may result in liquefaction at greater distances from
the earthquake epicenter. Four types of ground failure can occur during liquefaction: 1) loss of bearing
strength, 2) ground oscillation, 3) lateral-spread landslides, and 4) flow landslides (Lowe 1990a). The
type and severity of the failure depend greatly on the surface slope.
Anderson et al. (1982, 1986 and 1990) and Lowe (1990a and 1990b) suggest that large areas within Salt
Lake, Davis, and Weber counties east of the lake have a moderate to high potential for liquefaction during
earthquakes. Regarding flooding related to local and distant earthquakes, liquefaction, and wind tides,
Atwood and Mabey (1990) state that “Engineered structures (such as dikes and causeway embankments)
founded on the lake bed, particularly those designed to provide protection from the lake water, pose
special engineering-geology problems.” These problems include settling, flooding, soil compaction, and
erosion.

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2.9.7.3

TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE

In the event of an earthquake within the Salt Lake Valley, the potential exists for the valley floor to drop
relative to the adjacent Wasatch Range. Such movement could occur along the multi-segmented Wasatch
fault zone. Keaton (1986) suggests that displacement could be approximately 5 feet at the fault line. The
zero-subsidence line would be approximately 10â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12 miles west of the fault. A drop and tilt of the valley
floor of this magnitude would cause 1) waters of GSL to move east and 2) a rise in the water table in low
areas near the fault. These effects could vary depending on the surface elevation of the lake at the time
and the amount of displacement along the fault.
Earthquakes could also cause movement along the numerous faults within and adjacent to the lake. Such
movement could cause damage to highways, railroads, dikes, and other existing or proposed structures in
and around the lake.

2.9.7.4

GROUND FAILURE IN SENSITIVE CLAYS

Under some conditions, clays can become unstable by leaching salts. These are referred to as sensitive
clays. During earthquakes, they can lose their strength, resulting in ground failures similar to those
occurring during liquefaction.

2.9.7.5

SHALLOW GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is, by definition, water beneath the surface of the ground, which fills fractures and pore
spaces in rocks and the voids between grains in unconsolidated sediments. Groundwater is considered
shallow when it occurs at depths less than approximately 10 feet. Lowe (1990a and 1990b) suggests that
groundwater adjacent to the lake, at depths less than 10 feet, may cause flooding of basements and other
related problems. In the GSL area, the water table, or the top of saturated soil, fluctuates in response to
the level of the lake. During times of high lake levels, the water table is higher than during times of low
lake levels, and larger areas around the lake will be affected.

2.9.7.6

PROBLEM SOIL AND ROCK

Soil and rock with characteristics that make them susceptible to volumetric change, collapse, subsidence,
or other engineering-geologic problems are classified as problem soil and rock (Mulvey 1992). Geologic
parent material, climate, and depositional processes largely determine the type and extent of problem soil
and rock. Problem soil and rock can be costly factors in construction and land development if they are not
recognized and taken into consideration in the planning process (Shelton and Prouty 1979). Principal
types of problem soil and rock may include 1) expansive soil and rock, 2) collapsible (hydrocompactible)
soil, 3) shallow bedrock, 4) wind-blown sand, 5) caliche, and 6) soils susceptible to piping and erosion.

2.9.7.7

WIND TIDES AND SEICHES

Sustained winds blowing across the surface of GSL push the water to the shore, dike, and/or causeway
where it "piles up," forming what is known as a wind tide or wind setup. The height or magnitude of the
setup depends on the speed, direction, fetch, and water depth at that point and duration of the wind. Wind
setup exceeding 2 feet is not uncommon and can cause localized flooding and subsequent damage. The
combined effects of wind setup and high waves (wave runup) can produce adverse impacts to elevations
5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;7 feet above the static lake level and locally even higher. As these winds cease or diminish, the water
begins to oscillate back and forth in the lake, similar to water sloshing from end to end in a bathtub. This
movement is referred to as a seiche. The period of the oscillation, or the time it takes to move from high

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to low and back to high, is approximately six hours in the South Arm (Lin 1976; Lin and Wang 1978b)
and shorter in the North Arm.
Earthquakes also have the potential to cause large-scale surges and seiches in the lake. During such surges
and seiches, the elevated water may cause repeated, short-term flooding around the lake. The heights of
earthquake-induced surges and seiches are unknown, but may well exceed the heights of wind tides and
seiches. A 1909 earthquake is reported to have generated a surge that sent water over the Northern
Railroad Causeway and the pier at Saltair. The extent of flood damage in an earthquake affecting the lake
would depend on the lake level at the time of the event.

2.9.7.8

WINDBLOWN ICE

During the cold, winter months, fresh water from the major tributaries to the lake flows out and over the
heavier saline water of the South Arm and in Bear River Bay. If this water is not mixed, it freezes and can
form large sheets of ice. As the winds blow, these sheets of ice are pushed around the lake and can
destroy stationary objects (e.g., lake monitoring structures and power transmission poles) within the lake
and at its margins.

2.9.7.9

LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS

The geologic hazards affected by lake level would include wind tides and seiches. As the lake level rises,
the height of the wave runup and seiches increases. Should the elevation of the lake surge 5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;7 feet when
the lake is approximately 4,210 feet, flooding and infrastructure damage would occur in low-lying
residential areas, I-80, and other roadways, causeways, marinas, and the airport.

2.9.7.10 GEOLOGIC-HAZARD PLANNING
The 1995 GSL CMP process recommends that all five counties on the lake establish ordinances requiring
that all structures built in and around the lake be designed for additional short-term lake levels due to
wind tides (and subsequent seiches), earthquake-induced seiches, and waves. Wind tides can raise the
lake an additional 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4 feet. Structures should be built to withstand windblown ice in the southern part of
the lake.
The 1995 plan recommends that site-specific investigations be conducted, prior to development of
proposed structures in and near the lake, to identify sensitive clays, soils susceptible to liquefaction, areas
susceptible to earthquake-induced flooding, and shallow groundwater. UGS recommends retaining a
geotechnical engineering firm to perform a geotechnical/geologic-hazard investigation for all
development, including that within and/or adjacent to GSL. The potential for geologic hazards should be
addressed in these investigations and should establish the type and likelihood of each geologic hazard and
recommend mitigation measures to reduce the hazards (FFSL 1999).
Geologic-hazard investigation reports, prepared by a consultant licensed to practice geology in Utah,
should address all geologic hazards present in the GSL area in accordance with UGS guidelines (UGS
2010). Although the Guidelines for Evaluating Surface-fault-rupture Hazards in Utah (Christenson et al.
2003) do not specifically address underwater faults, they do provide valuable information on assessing
surface-fault-rupture hazards. These guidelines should be reviewed by the local government permitting
authority, and steps should be taken by local governments to ensure that recommended mitigation
measures are implemented. UGS has developed a set of report guidelines and a review checklist for Utah
schools on the UGS website (UGS 2010). Although this document focuses on schools, it is also
applicable to other types of development projects.

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2.9.7.11 GEOLOGIC-HAZARD INFORMATION
The UGS Geologic Hazards Program has developed a website for consultants and design professionals
containing recommended guidelines; published UGS geologic hazard maps, reports, site-specific studies,
geologic maps, and hydrogeology publications; historical aerial photography; important external
publications in the literature; and links to external websites (UGS 2011a). Although this website should
be used during geologic-hazard investigations as a source of current, published information on Utahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
geologic hazards, it is not a complete source for all geologic-hazard information. As a result, a thorough
literature search and review should be performed.
UGS Circular 106 contains geologic-hazard maps for a portion of the east shore of GSL (UGS 2011a).
These maps include surface-fault-rupture, liquefaction, landslide and debris-flow hazards, and indicate
special study zones where specialized geologic hazard investigations are necessary. Geologic hazard
maps of much of the remainder of GSL have not been produced, and detailed, site-specific
geotechnical/geologic hazard investigations will be necessary.

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2.10 Visual Resource Management
GSL is a unique and remarkable visual landscape. The lake’s aesthetic value is a resource that should be
managed much like the lake’s other tangible resources such as biology and minerals. As part of the
FFSL’s multiple-use mandate, visual resources should be balanced with development and other multipleuse management objectives. However, assessing and specifically managing the scenic value of GSL has
yet to be implemented.
Within the last decade, the management of scenic values on public land around the country has become
more structured. The BLM has developed a Visual Resource Management system that provides a
systematic way to identify and evaluate scenic values to determine the appropriate level of management.
Further, it provides a methodology for analyzing potential visual impacts and applies specific design
techniques that mitigate the impacts of surface-disturbing activities (BLM 2011).
The U.S. Forest Service has developed the Scenery Management System as a means to inventory and
analyze aesthetic values of National Forest Lands. The Scenery Management System allows land
managers to create and maintain visual diversity and prevent unacceptable alterations of the natural
landscape (U.S. Forest Service 1995).
Similar to FFSL, the BLM and the U.S. Forest Service have multiple-use mandates with regard to public
land management. Future visual resource inventory and analysis of GSL could be implemented using a
methodology similar to those currently used by federal land management agencies. As appropriate, the
aesthetic impacts of proposed actions on the GSL should be considered.

2.10.1 Lake Level Effects
GSL’s visual resources would be most impacted at low lake levels. As the lake level recedes and larger
amounts of lake bed become exposed, there is a greater potential for blowing dust to obscure the views of
GSL. During a wind event, the increases in dust around GSL would impact basic visual elements like
form, color, and texture.

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2.11 Recreation Opportunities and Sites on Great Salt Lake
Perceptions of GSL vary among local residents. Some find that the lake offers great beauty and quality
recreation and that it significantly enhances the quality of their lives. Others view the lake negatively and
find little value in GSL (Trentelman 2009). Out-of-state tourists often view GSL as one of the most wellknown natural resources in Utah and aspire to visit the lake while visiting northern Utah. The tourism
industry and local residents alike desire greater access to GSL provided in a manner that does not impair
lake resources.
The demand for recreational uses of GSL’s resources is expected to grow in the future. The lake’s
extraordinary numbers of waterbirds, magnificent sunsets and vistas, no-sink swimming, trails, wildlife,
cultural and range resources, development of Antelope Island, and open space next to a growing
metropolitan area all point to growing interest in visiting and recreating at GSL.

2.11.1 Recreational Opportunities on Great Salt Lake
Most of the recreation that occurs on GSL is dispersed in nature, and visitor counts are not well
quantified. Common recreational activities include boating (sailing and motorboats), canoeing, kayaking,
hiking, biking, wildlife viewing, camping, picnicking, OHV use, bird watching, hunting, sightseeing,
swimming, and sunbathing.

2.11.1.1 BOATING
There are two public boat ramps open year-round on the South Arm: GSL Marina and Antelope Island
State Park Marina. Both are managed by DSPR and offer safe mooring sites and are developed for
sailboat, motorboat, and other boating (canoe or kayak) use. The GSL Marina sponsors a large number of
sailing races and festivals in conjunction with the GSL Yacht Club. Motor boating is feasible but not
popular due to the corrosive nature of the lake’s high salinity, which demands extra care and rinsing of
engines and equipment. High salinity levels also curtail fishing and water skiing and also make navigation
more difficult for novice boaters.
Farmington Bay WMA, Ogden Bay WMA, Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, Bear River Bay, and
Willard Spur also have boat ramps suitable for small vessels and air boats but are generally not open to
the public. Antelope Island State Park and the WMAs also provide a popular launch site for kayakers and
canoeists in GSL. The North Arm does not have a public boat ramp.

2.11.1.2 NONMOTORIZED RECREATION
Antelope Island State Park has an extensive backcountry trail system for hiking, biking, and equestrian
use. Other nonmotorized GSL recreation options include a 9-mile hiking and biking trail on Stansbury
Island and cycling on the DWR WMAs’ roads and dike systems as well as on the Bear River Migratory
Bird Refuge 12-mile graveled road. The Davis County Causeway also provides bike lanes in both
directions.
Beach use is dispersed along the southeast shores of GSL, depending on water levels and access. Some of
the more popular locations to visit and swim are Bridger Bay Beach on the north end of Antelope Island
and the beaches from Saltair to the GSL Marina.

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2.11.1.3 CAMPING AND PICKNICKING
Antelope Island State Park provides individual and group camping sites. There are also individual and
group camping sites at Willard Bay State Park, and dispersed camping at several WMAs, in the area of
Monument Point, and on BLM lands on Stansbury Island. Picnicking sites are available at most recreation
locations across GSL.

2.11.1.4 OFF-HIGHWAY VEHICLES
Many of the public roads along the north and west sides of GSL are open to OHV use, including areas
near Monument Point. Sovereign lands surrounding GSL are not open to recreational use by OHVs,
although FFSL has noted that dispersed, illegal OHV use does occur in GSL where and when access and
water levels permits (Zarekarizi 2011).

2.11.1.5 BIRD WATCHING AND WILDLIFE VIEWING
GSL is one of the most renowned bird watching areas in the United States. Nearly all recreation areas
along GSL have been identified for outstanding bird watching opportunities. In addition, GSL supports
small mammals and big game; in particular, Antelope Island State Park supports the third largest publicly
owned bison (Bison bison) herd in the nation, as well as pronghorn, bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), and
mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Based on the USFWS national survey of fishing, hunting, and wildlifeassociated recreation, over 877,000 people participated in wildlife viewing in Utah for a total of 3.9
million viewing days in 2006 (USFWS 2008). Approximately 639,000 of those participants were bird
watchers, and approximately half of bird watchers specifically observed waterfowl and other waterbirds.
GSL bird watching events and programs, such as the GSL Bird Festival, Watchable Wildlife Program,
Utah Bald Eagle Day, and Tundra Swan Day, have received steady attendance ranging from several
hundred to several thousand participants over the past decade (Walters 2011)

2.11.1.6 HUNTING
GSL provides an important source of waterfowl hunting in Utah. The DWR reported an estimated
194,557 waterfowl hunting trips in Utah in 2009. Of this total, approximately 55% of all hunter trips in
Utah came from the GSL area.

2.11.1.7 SIGHTSEEING (AUTO TOURS)
Antelope Island State Park and the Davis County Causeway combined offer a 36-mile round-trip auto
tour, and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge has a 12-mile round-trip auto tour. The Monument Point
area and surrounding lands also have miles of remote dirt roads for auto touring, although the lack of a
public thoroughfare between Lakeside and Hogup Ridge on the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s western shore precludes
circumnavigation of the lake by automobile.

2.11.2 Recreation Sites on Great Salt Lake
Popular recreation sites and opportunities are shown in Map 2.14. A brief description of the sites is
provided below.

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Map 2.14. Recreation sites and marinas on Great Salt Lake.

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2.11.2.1 ANTELOPE ISLAND
As Utah’s largest state park, Antelope Island’s annual visitation (approximately 280,000 in 2010) has
remained steady over the past decade (DSPR 2011). Recreational opportunities on the island include
scenic drives with bicycle lanes, a backcountry trail system, campgrounds and picnic areas, wildlife
viewing, Garr Ranch (a historic ranching home), nature trails, wayside exhibits, interpretive information
and programs, a swimming beach, outdoor amphitheater, and a marina. A private concession business,
food and souvenirs, a small tour boat, and guided horseback rides are located on the island. The park
provides educational talks to thousands of school children per year, and the proximity to universities and
significance of resources allows for a number of outside research projects. The Antelope Island State Park
Marina maintains a paved boat ramp with GSL access for sailboats, kayaks, and powerboats.

2.11.2.2 DAVIS COUNTY CAUSEWAY
The Davis County Causeway is one of the most scenic drives around GSL and is an outstanding bird
watching area. The bike lanes provide one of the most popular cycling tours in northern Utah. When
combined with the new east side road on Antelope Island, it offers a 36-mile round-trip. Davis County has
developed a trailhead parking lot for cyclists and other areas, with interpretive information on GSL.

2.11.2.3 PRIVATE DUCK CLUBS
Over 25 private duck clubs exist around GSL with more than 42,000 acres of managed wetlands for
waterfowl habitat (see section 2.4 [Wetlands]). All of the clubs are used for hunting by members only,
and use is regulated with bylaws. Members also use these areas for wildlife observation and nature study.
Other opportunities include fishing, bird watching, walking, bicycling, ice skating, and photography.

2.11.2.4 BEAR RIVER MIGRATORY BIRD REFUGE
At 70,000 acres, Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge is considered one of the premier bird watching sites
in the United States. The refuge is recognized internationally and included within GSL as a site of
hemispheric importance by the Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network. The refuge is also one
of the finest waterfowl hunting areas in Utah and offers a 12-mile scenic drive that is popular for driving,
bird watching, and bicycling; a 0.5-mile walking trail; a visitor center with interpretive information; an air
boat ramp that is open during hunting season; and expanded access during hunting season. Fishing is
allowed in the Bear River channel. The Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge also offers educational tours
and programs by reservation. The refuge was visited by 42,209 people in 2006, with 9,907 being
waterfowl hunters. In addition, 2006 visitation included 32,000 bird watchers, 612 fishermen, and 500
others (Carver and Caudill 2007). Hunting visitation continued to increase slightly throughout the latter
half of the decade, rising to 10,618 waterfowl hunting trips in 2009 (Dolling 2011).

2.11.2.5 GREAT SALT LAKE STATE MARINA
The GSL Marina is the most popular launching and mooring site on the lake. The marina is highly
developed and supports approximately 320 boats that range from 21 to 40 feet in length. The marina also
provides access to the lake for boaters who do not moor their vessels at the site, as well as swimming
beaches, rowing teams, and picnicking. Two tour boats operate occasionally on the lake—one based at
Antelope Island and the other at the GSL Marina. Visitation to the GSL Marina in 2010 was reported at
approximately 240,000 (DSPR 2011).

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2.11.2.6 SALTAIR/SOUTH SHORE AND LEE CREEK
The recreational complex of the South Shore Beach Area and the Saltair Resort offers access to the lake,
bird watching opportunities, and scenic vistas of the islands and evening sunsets. Saltair Resort also
provides interpretive information, food, souvenirs, a historic site, and special events ranging from
concerts to beach festivals. This site provides the quickest and easiest access to the lake from downtown
Salt Lake City. For a time, the entire South Shore Beach Area and the marina were managed by DSPR as
GSL State Park. Management of the South Shore Beach Area was returned to FFSL in 1997. At that time,
over 600,000 people visited GSL State Park. Updated visitation numbers are not currently available. The
Lee Creek area is approximately 2 miles northeast of Saltair. This 305-acre area managed by the National
Audubon Society is open to the public for wildlife viewing and nature walks.

2.11.2.7 FARMINGTON BAY WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
This 17,000-acre management area is one of the most popular waterfowl hunting areas in Utah and also is
an outstanding bird watching area. In 2010, the Farmington Bay WMA received 95,691 visitors (Hansen
2011). As of 2009, approximately 30% (25,475) of visitors were waterfowl hunters, and the rest were bird
watchers, student groups, or other recreationists (Dolling 2011). DWR identified March 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;August 1 as a
critical wildlife production period. During the critical production period, a 1.5-mile road is opened, with
an overlook and interpretive signing, and an additional 2.5 miles are opened for nonmotorized use. During
the noncritical production period, another 26 miles of dikes are opened to nonmotorized use. An air boat
ramp is opened from two weeks prior to hunting season through the hunting season.

2.11.2.8 OGDEN BAY WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
Ogden Bay WMA is nearly 20,000 acres and is the largest WMA in the state. In 2009, the area hosted
19,497 hunting trips during the fall waterfowl season (Dolling 2011). A portion of the area is open yearround for hosted organized group tours; appointments must be made with the area superintendent. From
April 1 to September 1, the area is closed to the public to protect wildlife habitat values. During the rest of
the year, some portions are open for wildlife viewing, and hunting is allowed during the prescribed
seasons. There are approximately 45 miles of dikes that control water, one air boat launch that allows
access to the Ogden Bay portion of GSL, and several small boat ramps that allow access to interior ponds
of the management area.

2.11.2.9 HOWARD SLOUGH WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
Howard Slough WMA is located along the GSL shoreline between the south boundary of Ogden Bay
WMA and the Davis County Causeway to Antelope Island. This relatively small 3,210-acre area hosted
4% (8,049) of all waterfowl hunting trips in Utah in 2009 (Dolling 2011). Like other WMAs, the area is
closed to the public from April 1 to September 1 to protect wildlife habitat values. When open, the area
supports hunting, bird watching, and other recreational activities. There are approximately 7.5 miles of
dikes and roadways that provide pathways for access, as well as several small boat ramps that provide
access to interior ponds. Limited camping is allowed after the gates open in the fall.

2.11.2.10 STANSBURY ISLAND
There are two areas on Stansbury Island that are open to the public. The south end of Stansbury Island is
used for dispersed recreation, including the Bonneville Nature trail, camping, some OHV use, and chukar
(Alectoris chukar) hunting. The BLM has developed and maintains a 9-mile trail open for nonmotorized
use along the southwest corner of the island. The other publically accessible area is an interpretive site on

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the northwestern side of Stansbury Island developed by Tooele County and partners. It is currently
managed by FFSL.

2.11.2.11 LOCOMOTIVE SPRINGS WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
Locomotive Springs WMA is an isolated wetland at the north end of GSL that provides year-round
fishing, hunting, bird watching, and primitive camping on approximately 18,000 acres. Locomotive
Springs received approximately 351 waterfowl hunting trips in 2009 (Dolling 2011).

2.11.2.12 TIMPIE SPRINGS WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT AREA
Timpie Springs WMA is a 1,440-acre wetland near the southwest corner of the lake. Timpie Springs
supports hunting, bird watching, and general sightseeing; in 2009, the area received approximately 400
waterfowl hunters (Dolling 2011). The WMA contains approximately 3 miles of dikes and dirt roads open
to walking or nonmotorized traffic.

2.11.2.13 MONUMENT POINT
Monument Point offers one of the few OHV riding opportunities close to GSL. The area, located on BLM
land, also offers pedestrian access to the North Arm of the lake, a vista of the lake, and nearby interesting
historic sites. BLM has worked toward developing trail opportunities in this area and has added
interpretive information. However, increasing OHV use around sensitive GSL lands is a concern for
management agencies. The wetlands of Salt Wells Flat (an area identified by the BLM as an Area of
Critical Environmental Concern) and wetlands between Locomotive Springs and Crocodile Mountain
have been impacted by the growing level of OHV use.

2.11.2.14 ROZEL POINT
Rozel Point is one of the few access points to the North Arm of the lake, through the Golden Spike
National Historic Site.
The Spiral Jetty is an â&#x20AC;&#x153;earthwork sculptureâ&#x20AC;? on sovereign land off Rozel Point in the North Arm of GSL.
The jetty was constructed in 1970 by Robert Smithson. In the years following its creation, it received a
wealth of publicity in the national press, making it a classic of modern sculpture and a point of interest by
many visitors.

2.11.2.15 LAYTON WETLANDS PRESERVE
Managed by The Nature Conservancy, the GSL Shorelands Preserve protects approximately 4,500 acres
of shoreline and upland habitat. There is year-round, nonmotorized access to the preserve at the Gailey
Access in Layton, and Nature Conservancy staff can provide educational tours by appointment.

2.11.2.16 PROMONTORY POINT
Promontory Point offers a striking vista and is the only location that can provide access to both the South
and North arms of GSL. The site is currently accessible by a public road, but the surrounding lands are
almost exclusively in private ownership, thus restricting recreation opportunities.

2.11.2.17 WILLARD BAY STATE PARK
Willard Bay Reservoir is a U.S. Bureau of Reclamation project that provides water for irrigation, mineral
and industrial use, flood control, recreation, and fish and wildlife purposes. It is a self-contained

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freshwater waterbody adjacent to GSL. The state park provides a small marina, as well as camping and
picnic sites. Visitation to Willard Bay State Park in 2010 was 349,645 (DSPR 2011).

2.11.2.18 LEGACY NATURE PRESERVE AND THE LEGACY PARKWAY TRAIL
The Legacy Nature Preserve was developed as mitigation for the construction of the Legacy Parkway
project to restore wetland and upland habitat. The site provides approximately 2,225 acres of wildlife
habitat. There is no current public access, although a 14-mile one-way trail adjacent to the Legacy
Parkway provides nonmotorized recreation, bird watching, and interpretative opportunities.

2.11.2.19 OTHER ISLANDS
Gunnison and Fremont islands also occur in GSL. Gunnison Island is a sanctuary for mainly white
pelicans, but it also provides year-round habitat for a large population of California gulls. It is not
available for public access. Fremont Island is privately owned and not available for public access.

2.11.3 Lake Level Effects
2.11.3.1 RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Recreational activities in GSL are best supported by lake levels ranging from 4,198 to 4,204 feet in
elevation; levels above or below that range will influence recreational access and opportunity.
In general, marina access to the lake is significantly reduced at 4,194 feet and effectively eliminated at
4,192 feet, thus restricting motor and sailboat access and opportunities; although canoeists and kayakers
can still use the lake at these lower levels. At the opposite spectrum, higher lake levels ranging upward
from 4,204 feet can result in temporary or long-term flooding of shoreline marinas and other boatingrelated facilities.
Nonmotorized recreation activities, as well as camping and picnicking, are unlikely to be affected at
lower water levels; increased shoreline exposure could be a perceived benefit to some visitors seeking
sunbathing or other beach activities. Starting at approximately 4,208 feet, wave action and flooding could
damage or destroy low elevation recreational facilities, trails, or other sites. When the Davis County
Causeway is overtopped at approximately 4,208 feet, access to recreation opportunities (camping,
picnicking, and mountain biking) on the island would be lost.
Motorized activities, including sightseeing and OHV use, would also not be adversely affected by lower
water levels, although dry shorebeds could reduce some of the aesthetic quality of tours. At lower water
levels (4,194 feet or below), increased shoreline exposure could increase the risk of dispersed,
unauthorized OHV use along sovereign lands in GSL. Higher water level impacts would be similar to
impacts to nonmotorized recreation.
Bird watching and hunting activities can be impacted at both high and low lake levels. As discussed in
section 2.4 (Wetlands), waterfowl commonly use hemi-marshes and habitats with shallowly flooded
ponds with water more than 1 foot deep. At elevations below approximately 4,194 feet, lower elevation
water levels decrease, potentially reducing bird populations and hunting areas in GSL. Access and
navigation to hunting areas by air boats and other small vessels are also restricted at elevations below
4,194 feet. At elevations starting at approximately 4,208 feet, flooding at lower elevations wetlands may
also reduce bird populations and associated hunting areas, as well as damage roads, the dike system, duck
club houses, or other facilities.

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2.11.3.2 RECREATIONAL SITES
Access and use of specific recreation sites can also be affected by lake levels. Impacts to the GSL Marina,
Antelope Island, and the Spiral Jetty are addressed in this section. There are no anticipated lake level
effects to Promontory or Monument Point, Stansbury Island, or Saltair, with the exception of potential
flooding at high (4,212 feet or greater) lake levels. At a lake level elevation of 4,209 feet, road access to
the Great Salt Lake Interpretive Center at the north end of Stansbury Island would be flooded. Lake level
effects to the causeways are discussed in section 2.9 (Land Use) and section 2.16 (Transportation). In
general, recreational site impacts to the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, private duck clubs, and
WMAs would be as discussed above under bird watching and hunting activities. Additional lake level
effects to the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge and WMAs, as well as other identified wetland and
shorebird reserves, are discussed in section 2.4 (Wetlands).

2.11.3.2.1 Great Salt Lake State Marina
The GSL Marina can operate between 4,189 and 4,212 feet; however, below 4,194 feet, user access is
increasingly restricted as illustrated in the Table 2.28.
Table 2.28. Great Salt Lake Elevation Effects on Great Salt Lake State Marina
Lake Elevation
(feet)

4,200
4,198
4,196
4,194
4,193â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4,192

Operable range of marina

4,208

Effects at GSL Marina
Flooding occurs at marina.
Marina is fully functional.
Commercial brine shrimp operations begin to have problems with access.
Fixed keeled sailboats and larger draft boats can no longer use the marina.
Marina is nonaccessible to almost all boats.
Marina is dry. Nonaccessible to boats without dredging marina and 0.5-mile
channel to deep water.

2.11.3.2.2 Antelope Island State Park and Marina
At 4,208 feet, wave action could breach the causeway and lower elevations of Antelope Island, restricting
access to the park and/or use of lower elevation recreation sites. The marina at Antelope Island can
operate between 4,208 and 4,194 feet. At 4,196 feet, fixed keeled sailboats and larger draft boats can no
longer use the marina.

2.11.3.2.3 Spiral Jetty
The spiral jetty is at 4,197.8 feet and would be inundated at lake levels approximately 2 feet higher.
Although access to the site would be possible at higher lake levels, the sculpture would not be visible.

2.11.3.3 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
There are no anticipated lake level effects to interpretive and education opportunities at GSL, other than
potential for loss of interpretive facilities or other structures as a result of flooding at high lake levels.

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2.12 Cultural Resources on the Margins of Great Salt Lake
Protection of cultural resources is an important consideration for planned development located on
sovereign lands surrounding GSL. State law requires the protection of prehistoric and historic cultural
resources and Native American human remains. This section provides a general background of known
cultural resource types located around GSL and state regulations that should be considered in the
management of cultural resources located on sovereign lands.

2.12.1 Prehistoric Resources
Archaeological investigations have identified numerous prehistoric occupations around the margins of
GSL, spanning from the beginning of the Archaic period (8000 B.P) through the Late Prehistoric period
(<650 B.P) (Aikens 1966, 1967; Bright and Loveland 1999; Fry and Dalley 1979; Schmitt et al. 1994;
Shields and Dalley 1978; Simms 1999; Steward 1937). These investigations focused on the northern
portion of the lake, particularly the Bear River marshes and associated tributaries. However, recent
projects have provided information on occupations in the Jordan River delta area (Allison 2000; Allison
et al. 1997; Cannon and Creer 2010; Colman and Colman 1998; Coltrain and Leavitt 2002; Schmitt et al.
1994). Excavated sites include the Salt Lake Airport Site (42SL230; Allison et al. 1997) and Site 42Dv2
(Cannon and Creer 2010), which represent fairly significant occupations that included structures and may
indicate the earliest sedentary or semisedentary lifestyle along the margins of the lake.
In addition to occupation sites, prehistoric human burials from the margins of GSL have been identified;
the greatest number of reported remains was identified along the northeastern shore of the lake (near the
Bear River marshes) following a sudden rise in lake level starting in 1983 and culminating in 1987. The
decline following the flooding exposed more than 60 areas where human remains were visible on the
exposed ground surface (Coltrain and Leavitt 2002; Simms et al. 1991). Although exact dating of the
remains was difficult, the available evidence suggests that most of them were associated with Formative
(Fremont Complex) and Late Prehistoric period populations (spanning from 2100 to 650 B.P.). Most of
the burials were clearly associated with larger, possibly residential, occupations (Simms et al. 1991:22â&#x20AC;&#x201C;
24). The burials included members of both sexes, and a range of ages from children to older adults was
present (Simms et al. 1991:26, 74). Stable isotope analysis of the remains suggests that although maize
was exploited and consumed by the populations, there was significant variation in the levels of maize
consumption depending on sex, social status, and time period (Coltrain and Leavitt 2002). Additional
human remains have been reported from 42SL197 located at the southern end of GSL, on the edge of a
natural levee in the Jordan River delta. Six individuals were identified, and the burials appear to date to
two separate use episodes between A.D. 570 and 1011 (Schmitt et al. 1994:76).
Overall, it appears that exploitation of the wetland margins of GSL and the Jordan River delta area was
common throughout the Prehistoric period. Reported sites range in age from the Archaic period through
the Late Prehistoric period. The greatest intensity of occupation, if reported archaeological sites provide
proxy data, appears to have been from 2100 B.P. to 650 B.P., with a variety of occupation types
represented.

2.12.2 Historic Resources
Historically, the area around GSL attracted a diverse group of surveyors, settlers, and entrepreneurs.
Among the earliest of trappers to pass through the GSL area was Jedediah Smith who, in 1826 and 1827,
explored the region's resources on behalf of the Smith, Jackson, and Sublette Fur Company (DeLafosse
1998). In the early 1840s, the federal government sent several surveyors to develop more accurate and

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comprehensive maps of the territory. Among these surveyors was John C. Frémont who, in 1843 and
1845, issued reports on the Salt Lake Valley and Wasatch Mountain Range. Frémont's reports later served
as a reference for Brigham Young during the Mormon migration westward (Leonard 1999:8).
Also beginning in the early 1840s was ongoing migration westward to California. In 1841, an immigrant
party led by John Bidwell and John Bartleson traveled along the northern boundary of GSL while
searching for an alternate route to California. The establishment of this route to California through the
Great Basin increased the number of travelers through northern Utah and through what would later
become Davis County. Within a few years, five wagon parties used this route. Among these groups was
the ill-fated Donner-Reed party, which passed through the area in 1846. The Donner-Reed party deviated
from the well-known route through Weber Canyon, opting instead to travel through Emigration Canyon.
The route through Emigration Canyon would ultimately be followed by the Mormon pioneers (Leonard
1999:2). Following the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, Brigham Young
dispatched exploration parties to survey and report on the viability of communities in the surrounding
areas, leading to the establishment of numerous settlements in the greater Salt Lake Valley area.
The completion of a series of railroads around GSL in the 1880s increased the availability of imported
goods to Salt Lake Valley residents and provided them opportunities to sell local goods to outside
markets (Leonard 1999:163). In addition to consumer goods, the railroads also carried people to newly
established resorts located on the eastern shores of GSL. As a result, from 1870 through the 1880s, as
GSL reached its highest historical levels, investors saw great opportunity in developing the resort
business along its shores (McCormick and McCormick 1996), which offered swimming, boating, food,
picnicking, and other activities (Leonard 1999:295–296).
In 1875 (Leonard 1999), Simon Bamberger built a spur running from the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad
on the east side of the Salt Lake Valley for a few miles to the west to where he started a "…lovely park
called Lake Park, on the banks of the Great Salt Lake" (Hess 1976:379). Patrons were brought in on the
train from the Salt Lake City and Ogden areas. Lake Park attracted over 50,000 visitors in its second year
of operation and became the most popular of the nineteenth century Salt Lake resorts. For only a 50-cent
admission fee, patrons were offered bathhouses, picnic areas, a shooting gallery, concerts, a racetrack,
footraces, rental cottages, rowboats, and island cruises (Leonard 1996). In 1879, Ephraim Garn and
George O. Chase developed a small bathing resort called Lake Shore, located north and west of
Centerville (McCormick 1996). The Utah Central Railroad provided access to this resort with a spur
branching off its mainline (Strack 1997). Business was brisk for the small resort, which operated for
roughly 10 years.
Once the rail lines reached the south shores of GSL, business increased rapidly, enabling resort owners to
expand their services to include hotels, steamboats, and excursions to Antelope Island (McCormick
1985). Thus, resort businesses began to thrive in this decade, and more lavish and comfortable resorts,
such as Saltair, were constructed into the 1880s (Alexander 1996). Unfortunately, rapidly dropping lake
levels left many of the lakeside resorts stranded by the 1890s, and numerous resorts failed.
In 1918, Morton Salt, a national manufacturer, selected Davis County for the site of one of its facilities.
Within a decade, the company also purchased the locally owned Inland Salt Company.

2.12.3 Regulatory Guidelines
The management of cultural resources on state sovereign lands falls under the jurisdiction of the State
Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). UTAH CODE § 9-8-404 requires state agencies and developers using
state funds to take into account how their expenditures or undertakings will affect historic properties. In
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eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. UTAH CODE ยง 9-8-404 also allows the Public Lands
Policy Coordinating Office authorization to review comments made by SHPO and mediate disputes
between a state agency and SHPO.
Human remains found on state lands are protected by state laws (UTAH CODE ยง 9-9-402; UTAH ADMIN.
CODE R230-1). If human remains are found, they must be left in place; doing otherwise is a third degree
felony in Utah. Should it be determined that the remains are of indigenous people, the Utah State Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act provides a process through which they can be
repatriated and reburied.

2.12.4 Lake Level Effects
The discovery of cultural resources is greatly affected by lake levels. The highest potential for artifact
discovery occurs when lake levels recede, after a rise of greater than average levels. This was the scenario
following the sudden increase in lake levels from 1983 to 1987, when the largest report of remains
occurred during the declining lake levels from this event (Coltrain and Leavitt 2002). SHPO should be
alerted to lake level declines succeeding lake levels that reach the high zone, in order to minimize the
amount of unauthorized access to cultural sites and prevent illegal extractions of artifacts.

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2.13 Paleontological Resources on the Margins of Great Salt Lake
Protection of paleontological resources is a minor but important consideration for planned development
located on sovereign lands surrounding GSL. State law requires the protection of paleontological
resources. This section provides a general background of known resource types located around GSL and
state regulations that should be considered in the management of paleontological resources on sovereign
lands.

2.13.1 Paleozoic Fossils
The mountain ranges surrounding GSL are composed largely of Paleozoic rocks (mostly limestones) that
contain abundant marine invertebrate fossils. Invertebrate fossils are not generally considered significant
paleontological resources, but some rock units have yielded evidence of early fossil fish from localities
near the lake.

2.13.2 Pleistocene Fossil Vertebrates
Ice Age fossil vertebrates have been found in Pleistocene Lake Bonneville shoreline sand and gravel
deposits for over 150 years. A diverse fauna of Ice Age mammals, including mammoths, musk ox, bison,
and bighorn sheep, have been described by many researchers. Although most of the deposits known to
contain these fossils are at a higher elevation and outside the GSL sovereign land holdings, there is still
some potential for new discoveries of Ice Age vertebrates.

2.13.3 Stromatolites
Stromatolites are among the oldest fossil evidence of life on Earth, and they dominated the shallow seas
for billions of years. Still forming today, stromatolites are limited to a few locations around the world that
are inhospitable to other organisms that might otherwise outcompete or consume them. These locations
are typically shallow, warm, hypersaline waters such as closed-basin lakes where there is no outflow,
warm springs, or restricted marine embayments. GSL is ideal for stromatolites, and is home to some of
the most extensive living stromatolites on Earth (Davis 2012). Although these are technically not fossils,
they grow very slowly and some may be thousands of years old. However, even if these are not
considered paleontological resources, they are still a significant resource that should be protected and
preserved in a similar manner to significant paleontological resources.

2.13.4 Regulatory Guidelines
The management of paleontological resources on state sovereign lands falls under the jurisdiction of the
UGS. UTAH CODE ยง 79-3-508 requires state agencies and developers using state funds to take into
account how their expenditures or undertakings will affect paleontological resources. Although the
potential is low for the discovery of significant paleontological resources in the GSL sovereign land
holdings, knowledge of existing resources will streamline the mitigation process in the event of new fossil
discoveries.

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2.14 Economic and Sociological Trends
Adjacent to Salt Lake, Davis, Weber, Box Elder and Tooele counties, GSL is of high-amenity value to
local residents and visitors alike. The area has economically benefitted from the availability of mineral,
brine shrimp, and salvaged and remanufactured railroad causeway wood (trestlewood). Tourism and
recreation are also important contributors to the economic stability of the area; economic benefits are
derived not only from direct spending on food, gas, lodging, etc., but also from sales tax generated from
visitor spending. In addition to economic resources, GSL also offers a diverse landscape that is often a
place of significance for families who have lived in the area for decades, an escape for residents of urban
centers and local communities in the region seeking recreation opportunities, and a place that offers
unique opportunities for scientific research and environmental preservation. The following discussion
focuses on both economic and sociological trends that are connected to GSL, including tourism,
recreation, commercial and industrial uses, law enforcement, and quality of life issues. The study area for
the discussion includes the five counties surrounding the lake.
It is noted that the GSLAC-sponsored report Economic Significance of the Great Salt Lake to the State of
Utah contains findings that are relevant to this section of the 2013 GSL CMP. In principle, FFSL supports
incorporating the findings of the GSL economic report into management of the lake. Unfortunately, the
findings of the GSL economic report could not be incorporated in the 2013 GSL CMP due to the timing
of the economic reportâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s release (January 2012). FFSL will consider the GSL economic report and its
updates into future management plans and future management decisions.

2.14.1 Tourism
Tourism is a major component of the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. Thousands of people visit GSL for a variety of
reasons, including recreational and sight-seeing opportunities. As in the past, visitorship to the area
continues to provide employment to local residents and generate revenue for businesses throughout the
region that, in turn, provide services to visitors.
GSL is a unique tourist destination. A portion of nontraditional resources on GSL is recreational (and to
some degree tourist) and includes such activities as wildlife viewing, boating, hiking, hunting, and
fishing. Moreover, GSL is one of the top areas in the western United States for bird watching. Given these
unsurpassed opportunities, the nontraditional resources found at GSL are important to consider and study.
Some of the bigger attractions on GSL are Antelope Island State Park, Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge,
GSL Marina, and Willard Bay; each has different users. Sailing is popular at the GSL Marina; bird
watching at Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge; hiking, biking, and day picnics at Antelope Island; and
boating and fishing at Willard Bay. Additionally, duck hunting is extremely popular on GSL, accounting
for 60%â&#x20AC;&#x201C;65% of the waterfowl hunting days in the state and approximately 80% of the total ducks
harvested in Utah, according to state waterfowl managers. Expenditures for these activities are
substantial. In 2006, over $800 million was spent on wildlife viewing and hunting in Utah (USFWS and
U.S. Census Bureau 2008; Table 2.29).

The significance of recreation and tourism extends beyond the activities themselves, because they also
translate into spending. Obtaining true amounts of spending is difficult. For direct fees or charges (e.g.,
the fee to use the Davis County Causeway or the fee to moor a boat at the GSL Marina), valuation is
simple: number of visitor units multiplied by the fee or charge. From this point, however, valuation
becomes more complex and less objective. There are existing models that provide estimates for the
amount of money spent per hunter day or spent by a typical angler. Data of this kind can be found in
sources such as the USFWS’s National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife-Associated Recreation
for Utah (USFWS 2008), which provides proxy data for expenditures spent on such activities. However,
these figures are sometimes regional estimates and therefore may not reflect the “true” amount of
spending for a particular city or county. It is often argued that if one particular area is closed, resident
visitors will shift their attention to another recreation area within the state. Thus, the state’s aggregate
spending associated with nonconsumptive use remains the same; a dollar spent at a state park is a dollar
spent regardless of which state park collects the dollar.
Also, out-of-state tourism is very difficult to predict because it depends on a number of variables. Several
of these variables include level of development, tourism promotion, and local amenities. Utah state park
visitation data indicate that 33% of visitation to Antelope Island State Park and the old GSL State Park is
from out of state. The Utah Travel Council indicates that traffic through SLCIA has grown steadily at an
average of 9% per year. State and local tourism agencies and the private tourism industry continue to
promote area attractions. The 2002 Olympic Games may have had a significant and lasting influence on
tourism to GSL. It is safe to project a growing number of out-of-state tourists to GSL attractions,
particularly to sites of national significance or easy access from the interstates. The GSL Marina is also a
highly visited area with an annual visitorship of 240,000 (DSRP 2011); approximately 60% of visitors
come in from out of state, and the remaining 40% from in state. Visitors use the facility for day trips
and/or boating activities. The 2010 visitor survey data for Antelope Island State Park indicate that of the
280,000 annual visitors, almost 75% of visitors to Antelope Island State Park came from out of state
(DSRP 2011).
Ecotourism has evolved as an important resource value in Utah and specifically around the shores of
GSL. Davis County promotes GSL wetlands, birds, and Antelope Island State Park as an ecotourism
resource. The GSL Bird Festival in Davis County was first held in 1999 and was considered a successful
first-year event. The festival, now a multi-day event in its thirteenth year, has been growing in popularity
ever since. Brigham City—the gateway to the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge—hosts a large bird
watching event each year. Ecotourism is an important management consideration as new opportunities are
developed and public awareness of GSL ecotourism resources increases.

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Although outside of the GSL CMP project area, the Wasatch Mountain ski resorts host millions of visitors
annually. In the 2010–2011 winter season, Utah’s 14 ski resorts recorded 4.2 million skier day visits
(skier day is defined as one person visiting a ski area for all or any part of a day or night for the purpose
of skiing or snowboarding) (Ski Utah 2011). Skier spending during the 2010–2011 ski season contributed
$1.1 billion to the state economy (Ski Utah 2011). As noted in section 2.6.2, the lake effect plays a role
(approximately 10%) in annual snow fall in the Wasatch Mountains (Steenburgh et al. 2000, 2011).
Further study is needed to discern whether the lake effect snowfall has an economic impact on visitor
spending.

2.14.2 Economic Values of Great Salt Lake Tourism and Recreation
2.14.2.1 TOURISM SECTORS EMPLOYMENT
With available employment opportunities as a result of tourism, counties in the study area have
experienced population increases. As a result, tourism-related sectors represent a large percentage of the
regional economy. Employment, annual mean wages, and output attributed to tourism-related sectors are
discussed below. To determine impacts on tourism, IMPLAN (Version 3.0) was used. IMPLAN is an
economic modeling tool that can create a detailed social accounting picture and a predictive multiplier
model for a regional economy. Data for IMPLAN are compiled from sources such as the Bureau of
Economic Analysis, Census Bureau, and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. It is important to note that
economic modeling considers a regional economy, which for this project includes Box Elder, Davis, Salt
Lake, Tooele, and Weber counties. Although IMPLAN provides an accurate depiction of relationships
within local industries, it should be noted that these numbers include economic activities that are not
solely attributed GSL; however, GSL provides substantial economic contributions within these sectors.
According to IMPLAN, industry employment for tourism-related sectors in 2008 was 22,884.73, or
2.08% of the five-county area’s employment (Table 2.30). Of the five-county study area, tourism-related
sectors were similar, with Salt Lake County generating the most employment at 16,481.05, or 1.50% of
the regional sector total, followed by Davis County at 2,799.88 and Weber County at 2,707.05. Tooele
County generated the least employment at 411.43, or 0.04% of the regional sector total, followed by Box
Elder County at 485.32. Sectors included in the broader category of tourism for this analysis include food
and beverage stores and drinking locales; gasoline stations; clothing, sporting goods, and general
merchandise stores; lodging; travel arrangement and reservation services; and transportation
(transit/ground passenger and scenic/sightseeing).

2.14.2.2 TOURISM WAGES
Although tourism-related sectors (i.e., sales and related occupations, food preparation, and serving-related
occupations) provide more industry employment than the mining sector in the study area, wages for
employees in these sectors are typically low. According to the Bureau of Labor, the 2010 mean annual
wage for a Utah employee in the food services sector was $20,690. For personal care and services, the
mean annual wage was slightly higher at $24,100 (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011).

2.14.2.3 TOURISM SECTORS OUTPUT
Towns and cities in the study area that are located near GSL profit economically from expenditures made
by visitors to the area. Visitors to the region enjoy thousands of acres of scenery and recreation
opportunities. GSL is a tourist destination and is an ideal area for nature-based activities that are popular
in the region, such as hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, scenic viewing, hunting, and fishing. Towns in
the area benefit from visitors who book hotel rooms, eat, purchase gas, and shop.

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According to IMPLAN, industry output for tourism sectors in the study area in 2008 was $1.56 billion, or
1.0% of the region’s production output. Of the five-county study area, tourism sectors in Salt Lake
County generated the most output at $1.16 billion, or 0.75% of the region’s total production output,
followed by Weber County at $171.99 million and Davis County at $168.16 million. Toole County
generated the least output at $23.74 million, or 0.02% of the region’s total production output, followed by
Box Elder at $31.21 million.

2.14.2.4 ECONOMIC VALUATION OF RECREATION ACTIVITIES
Two important contributions to the GSL economy are bird watching and waterfowling. Economic
contributions associated with bird watching were calculated as an annual value per person participating in
bird watching. These per-person values are multiplied by the number of recreationist per year to get the
annual contribution. Waterfowling values were calculated using a per-day expenditure average multiplied
by the number of active hunting days. Estimates were obtained through contingent valuation surveys
conducted by the USFWS and an independent study of waterfowling on GSL.

2.14.2.5 BIRD WATCHING
In 2008, 639,000 people participated in bird watching in Utah; approximately half (319,500) of these
people viewed waterfowl and other waterbirds (USFWS 2008). Based on USFWS surveys, waterfowl
viewing can be valued at $312 per person annually for resident viewers and $593 for nonresident viewers
(USFWS 2008). Given the 2008 numbers for waterfowl viewing, this provides a value between
$99,684,000 and $189,463,500 for the 2008 viewing year.

2.14.2.6 WATERFOWLING
In 2009, 197,557 waterfowling trips took place in Utah. Of these trips, approximately 55% or 108,656
took place in the GSL area (DWR 2009). In 2010–2011 waterfowl season, the average hunting trip was
calculated as $180 per trip (day) for the public and $563 per trip (day) for club members (Duffield et al.
2011). DWR estimated that duck and goose hunters hunted approximately 210,000 days during the 2010–
2011 waterfowl season. It is estimated that waterfowl hunting–related spending totaled $61.9 million
($26.5 million in direct hunting trip expenditures and $35.4 million in other hunting equipment
expenditures) in the Salt Lake City area (Duffield et al. 2011). In 2010, the estimated spending related to
waterfowl hunting accounted for over $97 million in total economic output, $36.8 million in total job
income, and 1,600 full-time jobs in the Salt Lake City area (Duffield 2011).

2.14.2.7 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Changes in lake levels could have an adverse effect on tourism of GSL because resources that area
visitors seek (e.g., recreational opportunities such as boating) could be impacted. At a high lake level of
4,212 feet or more, flooding of marinas and the shoreline would occur. This would mainly affect boating
activities because access would be reduced. Conversely, boating activities would also be adversely
affected by low levels (4,195 feet or less) because motorized boats and most sailboats could remain
stranded in the marina. As previously mentioned, visitor survey data of the GSL Marina for 2010 indicate
that at least 20% of the 240,000 annual visitors used the facilities for sailboats and other watercraft
activity. A reduction of a minimum of 48,000 visitors annually would result in a loss of revenue and
potentially a decrease in the number of jobs needed to sustain such visitor activity.
For the average recreationist, lake levels of 4,205 feet or more would have a negative effect because there
would be a loss of beach access and, subsequently, a reduction in camping and hiking opportunities. Lake
levels would also impact the hunting industry. Hunting activities would be adversely affected at lake

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levels of 4,208 feet or more because sections of duck clubs would become inundated and inaccessible for
hunters. High lake levels could also result in losses of foraging areas and waterfowl habitat. Such impacts
would result in a loss of industry output for tourism sectors because there could be a reduction in
visitation to the lake. This could also adversely affect tourism-related employment if activities related to
tourism were minimized.

Another impact to tourism would result at high lake levels of 4,208 feet or more, which would cause the
Davis County Causeway to flood. As previously stated, there were 280,000 annual visitors to Antelope
Island State Park in 2010 (DSRP 2011). Without access to the park via the causeway, there would be an
overall decline in tourism, which would result in a negative impact to tourism-related output and
employment sectors.

2.14.3 Research and Education
2.14.3.1 WORLD CLASS RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
Rapid urbanization and population growth is destroying the unusually rich record of earth history
preserved in lake sediments. GSL and its environs have one of the best preserved and easily accessible
earth systems histories of lake processes in the world, as well as a complete climate record extending back
several thousand years. Urbanization and development within the floodplain has destroyed this record at
an alarming and accelerating rate. GSL offers one of the best histories of climate change, and Utah
higher-learning institutions have a great opportunity to contribute to climate change research (FFSL
1999).

2.14.3.2 GREAT SALT LAKE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
GSL educational resources are recognized by state universities, other educational professionals, the
Natural History Museum, Utah Society for Environmental Education, Friends of GSL, the GSL Coalition,
The Nature Conservancy, the National Audubon Society, and others. GSL and its environs provide an
excellent field educational opportunity for Utah’s school children. The complexity and the dynamics of
the lake’s hydrology, chemistry, geology, and biology provide outstanding opportunities to teach several
subjects from kindergarten through high school. Service learning is a new way to teach science subjects at
universities, and GSL provides many hands-on opportunities. An outdoor classroom provides an effective
setting for learning. GSL is an important educational resource, and planners and managers benefit from a
better understanding of the lake’s resources (FFSL 1999).
Facilities that provide interpretative and educational opportunities at GSL include the visitor center on
Lady Finger Point, the Fielding Garr Ranch, Antelope Island, Stansbury Island, the South Shore, the Salt
Lake Convention and Visitors Bureau, and the GSL Nature Center in Farmington Bay WMA. The GSL
Shorelands Preserve, the Legacy Nature Preserve, and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge visitor
center also provide interpretive information.

2.14.3.3 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Because numerous resources ranging from biological to commercial and industrial uses would be affected
by changes in lake levels, research and educational opportunities pertaining to these resources could
simultaneously be affected. For example, at low levels (4,193 feet), foraging areas would be reduced
because of loss of habitat for bird species that migrate to these areas to use lake marshes. Conversely, at
high levels (4,208 feet), nesting bird populations typically move to higher ground, which, due to
residential and commercial development, may not be available. This could result in reducing or displacing
bird population in GSL, thereby affecting research opportunities for those who study bird species. Other
resources of particular interest to researchers may also be affected by varying lake levels. At high levels
of 4,208 or more, natural wetlands such as the Bear River Bay fringe wetlands, the east side GSL
mudflats, the Antelope Island State Park, the Farmington Bay fringe wetlands, and the Gunnison Bay
fringe wetlands would be flooded and inundated, thus hindering access and potentially minimizing
wildlife habitat, which would affect subsequent research opportunities.

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Damages caused to facilities as a result of high lake levels as well as business interruption as a result of
low lake levels could minimize research and educational efforts of the mineral extraction industries. In
addition, changes in salinity as a result of both high and low lake levels would have adverse effects on the
brine shrimp populations, which could also affect research opportunities regarding the resource and
industry.

2.14.4 Mineral Salt Extraction
Mineral production from brines is an important industry in Utah and totals approximately 4.4 million tons
per year with a value of $445 million in 2009; much of that production was from GSL (value excludes
magnesium metal value) (Bon and Krahulec 2010). In 2010, mineral production from GSL totaled nearly
3 million tons (UGS 2011).
Currently, there are five companies and one private individual that have active mineral extraction
operations on the lake. Three of the companies produce salt from the lake: Morton Salt in Tooele County,
GSL Minerals in Weber County, and Cargill Salt in Tooele County. US Magnesium, located 60 miles
west of Salt Lake City, produces magnesium metal and other salable by-products. North Shore Limited
Partnership, in the North Arm of GSL in Box Elder County, produces dietary supplements from GSL
minerals. GSL Minerals also produces potassium sulfate and magnesium chloride. William J. Colman
leases state trust property adjacent to GSL and has an easement and a minimum royalty rate for sodium
chloride production with sovereign lands. However, there has been no production to date (Sullivan 2010).
Employment at each of these companies varies. According to the Utah Department of Workforce
Services, US Magnesium is the largest employer at 250–499 employees for actual extraction and
production and 10–19 for management and administration. This is closely followed by GSL Minerals,
which has 250–499 employees. Morton Salt employs approximately 100–249 employees, and Cargill Salt
employs 50–99 employees. Using these current estimates, employment within the mineral extraction
industry can range from 661 to 1,369 employees. Wages for this industry are typically higher than the
state average. Average annual wages for the state of Utah were $37,272 in 2010. The average annual
wage for chemical manufacturing is $53,292, a 42.9% increase from the state’s average (Utah Department
of Workforce Services 2010).

2.14.4.1 VALUE OF PRODUCTION
Because there are five companies on the lake harvesting various minerals, data on extraction are presented
in aggregate form. Therefore, instead of reporting a unit value of the product, this section emphasizes the
overall value of production of the minerals harvested. Although the dollar amounts of value of production
of minerals extracted is held in confidence by FFSL, general trends can be noted. All revenue received on
state sovereign lands (including rentals, royalties and fees), however, goes to a restricted account, which
is appropriated through the Utah State Legislature.
Solar salt (i.e., salt produced by natural evaporation) produced from GSL represents a significant and
increasing share of total domestic solar salt production. The remainder of solar salt produced in the
United States is primarily from California, with some production from New Mexico. Solar salt competes
in regional markets with rock salt for chemical, industrial, water-conditioning, and agricultural uses.
Nationwide, the consumption of rock salt is four times that of solar salt. However, USGS data show that
these markets are regional and, with respect to road salt, local. Solar salt dominates in Western markets
and appears to be increasing in certain Midwestern markets for certain end uses. FFSL believes that the
growth of regional solar salt markets, in which Utah producers compete, could continue to grow in the
coming decades. Salt production in Utah in 2009 amounted to approximately 3.3 million tons per year,

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with most of that production coming from operators processing brine from the GSL (Bon and Krahulec
2010).
In 2009, magnesium metal was only produced in the United States by US Magnesium, using an
electrolytic process that recovers magnesium from brines in the GSL. Production of magnesium metal in
the United States declined from 1996 to 1998. Production values from 1998 to 2009 have been withheld
by the UGS to avoid disclosing company proprietary data (Kelly and Matos 2010). However, 2010 plant
production capacity for US Magnesium was 57,000 tons per year. Planned plant expansion to 77,000 tons
per year has been delayed due to reduced demand for magnesium in end-use markets and secondary
aluminum products (USGS 2010b).
World magnesium oversupply, variable prices, and changing end-use markets are primarily responsible
for the decline in magnesium production over the past two decades. 1996 marked the first time in 20 years
that the United States imported more magnesium than it exported, and that trend continued through 2009
(Figure 2.15). Magnesium metal is used for aluminum alloying, die casting, and automotive applications.
However, slumping demand for magnesium in automotive applications led to additional closures of
magnesium diecasting capacity; vehicle production in North America for the first three quarters of 2009
was more than 40% lower than production in the comparable period of 2008 (USGS 2010b).

Figure 2.15. United States imports and exports of magnesium metal 1950â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2009
(Kelly and Matos 2010); *not adjusted for inflation.

United States production of magnesium compounds was approximately 243,000 metric tons in 2010, up
slightly from 2008 rates due to increased steel production and capacity in the United States. Magnesium
chloride is used as a chemical intermediate in agricultural, chemical, construction, environmental, and
industrial applications, with magnesium chloride brines used principally for road dust and ice control.
The term potash denotes a variety of mined and manufactured salts, all containing the element potassium
in water-soluble form. Potash is generally produced in two forms: 1) potassium sulfate, also called sulfate
of potash and 2) potassium chloride, also called muriate of potash. GSL is the only place where sulfate of
potash is produced domestically. Sulfate of potash is a unique fertilizer because it is essentially free of
chlorides, making it an essential source of potassium for chloride-sensitive crops, including fruits, nuts,
and turf grasses. Sulfate of potash also acts to increase crop yields and requires less water for crops to
which it is applied. Sulfate of potash produced from GSL is also certified organic. Muriate of potash is

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produced in Michigan, other parts of Utah, and New Mexico. Because it is a source of soluble potassium,
potash is used primarily as an agricultural fertilizer. The worldwide economic downturn caused a
decrease in potash production and trade. United States potash production decreased 23% from 2008 to
2009. However, the long-term potash demand is anticipated to increase steadily over time; potash markets
began to recover slightly in 2010 (USGS 2010a and 2011b).
Currently, GSL Minerals is the only company that produces sulfate of potash domestically, with an
estimated plant production capacity of approximately 550,000 tons of sulfate of potash in 2011 (Compass
Minerals International 2011). All GSL Mineral’s production of sulfate of potash is mined at GSL. Of the
550,000 tons of sulfate of potash, approximately 65% (350,000 tons) is produced from GSL in solar
evaporation ponds. The remaining 35% is produced by importing potassium chloride from a supplier in
Canada and converting it into sulfate of potash (Compass Minerals International 2011). However, the
contract between GSL Minerals and the Canadian supplier expired in 2011. Due to economic reasons,
GSL Minerals will not renew its contract and will instead expand its solar evaporation pond operations
(White 2010). Planned capacity expansions at the GSL facilities would increase sulfate of potash capacity
to 570,000 tons per year by 2015 (Compass Minerals International 2011).

2.14.4.2 ROYALTIES
Royalty rates for mineral leasing and extraction are paid annually to FFSL as per the royalty agreement
between lessee and FFSL. In 2011, the royalty rate for magnesium was 1%–1.5% and potash was 5%
(UTAH ADMIN CODE R652-20). Effective January 1, 2001, the royalty rate for sodium chloride was $0.50.
The royalty rate per ton of sodium chloride is adjusted annually by the Producer Price Index for Industrial
Commodities and is calculated by dividing the Producer Price Index for Industrial Commodities for the
current year by the Producer Price Index for Industrial Commodities for 1997 (UTAH ADMIN CODE R65220). The annual royalty receipts to FFSL are available by request. All royalties received by FFSL are
placed into the State of Utah’s Restricted Fund and must be appropriated by legislature for any use.
Royalty receipts to FFSL totaled $1,759,619 in 2000 and increased steadily over time to $5,320,837 in
2009.

2.14.4.3 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF MINERAL SALT EXTRACTION
The impact of mineral salt extraction from GSL is substantial. The mineral industry not only provides
employment specifically attributable to development and extraction of salts, but also provides other
indirect forms of employment and income in the local economy. These effects are quantified in Table
2.31 using IMPLAN regional economic modeling.
Table 2.31. Economic Impacts of GSL Mineral Extraction Industries
Sector

2.14.4.3.1 Employment and Wages
These sector impacts are estimated to indicate the total employment and total output for the industries that
benefit from GSL's resources. Wholesale trade businesses benefit the most from the salt industries of GSL
with over 262 indirect employees and $44,441,224 in additional economic output. Food services and
drinking places where the employees of these industries dine and spend create an extra 128 jobs and
$7,413,684 in output. Management of companies and enterprises also gains over 64 employees and an
additional $13,140,969 in economic output associated with the salt industry. Transport by truck and
employment services also benefit substantially from the salt extractive industries of GSL. Total direct and
indirect employment is over 1,408 with an economic output of $572,802,754 (IMPLAN 2011).

2.14.4.4 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Economic impacts due to changes in lake levels would vary for each mineral production company. In
general, optimal lake levels for mineral production range between 4,195 and 4,204 feet above sea level.
At levels of approximately 4,210 feet or more, flooding could occur, which would force the relocation of
structures used for production. Such high lake levels could also damage dikes. The cost of repairing,
rebuilding, and reinforcing dike structures can incur a cost of millions of dollars in damage or capital
expenditures. Additional ponding areas would also need to be created to make up for the dilution of brines
at high lake levels.
As lake levels rise, the dilution of the lake brines makes it harder to produce sufficient quantities of
precipitated salt and concentrated brine. For companies that extract minerals, high lake levels would
prove costly because extraction would be difficult with the dilution of previously concentrated feed
brines. Marginal costs would rise, providing less profit for the extractor. As these costs rise, the demand
could decrease and have a negative effect on production. Changes in production for any of the mineral
extraction industries at GSL would also affect employment levels and royalties paid to the state, which
are based on a percentage of the total value of production.
At very low lake levels, intake canals to pumps may need to be dredged and/or extended, and the pumps
may also be repositioned into deeper water to continue extracting minerals. This would result in an
increase in production costs and require additional permits to maintain production activities. At lower
levels, between approximately 4,188 and 4,192 feet, pumping might cease altogether, which would cause
business interruption and, consequently, a loss of revenue. With regard to mineral production, the

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advantage of lower lake levels is that the GSL brine is more concentrated and needs less evaporation time
to produce the desired brines and salt.

2.14.5 Brine Shrimp Harvesting
2.14.5.1 INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
The presence of brine shrimp in GSL is noted as early as 1900. Brine shrimp cysts are harvested from the
lake’s surface in the fall. The cysts are used by commercial aquaculture operations around the world.
Cysts are hatched, and the young brine shrimp are used as feed for fish and shrimp for human
consumption.
Brine shrimp cysts harvested from GSL provide approximately one third of the world’s supply of cysts
used for feeds for aquaculture. That market share diminished from prior decades because of increased
harvests from remote sources in China and Russia (Leonard 2010). GSL brine shrimp cysts are known for
their consistency, small nauplii (the young brine shrimp), low contamination, and quality. Most of the
cysts sold (80%) are used in Thailand, China, Indonesia, and Ecuador in panaeid shrimp (Penaeidae)
hatcheries. Panaeid shrimp are those cultivated for human consumption. The rest are consumed in shrimp
operations in other parts of the world as well as by marine finfish, primarily in Europe, Korea, Japan,
China, and Taiwan (Newman 1998). Harvesting trends from the 1993–1994 harvest season to the 2008–
2009 harvest season are shown in Table 2.32, as reported by the harvest companies to DWR. Note that
many variables influence the total number of pounds harvested. These variables include 1) legal harvest
season rules; 2) number of harvesters; 3) shrimp populations; 4) market demand; 5) processing, selling,
and inventory needs; and 6) area of the lake being harvested (FFSL 1999).
As shown in Table 2.32, the total pounds of biomass harvested varied greatly from the 1993–1994 to
2008–2009 harvest seasons, with harvest season 2008–2009 resulting in the highest pounds of biomass at
19.8 million (DWR 2011a). Harvest season 1999–2000 was the worst harvest year with a total of 2.63
million pounds harvested. However, between harvest seasons 1993–1994 and 2008–2009, the total
number of pounds harvested increased by 121.6%. It is estimated that approximately 10%–15% of the
recently reported harvest weight is sold, whereas the rest is moisture and raw waste (Leonard 2010).

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Table 2.32. Harvest Year and Total Pounds of Brine Shrimp Harvested
Harvest
Year

Number of
Companies

Number of
Certificates
of Registration

Total Harvest
(pounds)*

1993–1994

12

18

8,864,092

1994–1995

14

25

6,485,954

1995–1996

21

63

14,749,596

1996–1997

32

79

14,679,498

1997–1998

32

79

6,113,695

1998–1999

32

79

4,606,352

1999–2000

n/a

79

2,631,853

2000–2001

n/a

79

19,963,087

2001–2002

n/a

79

18,287,569

2002–2003

n/a

79

13,242,343

2003–2004

n/a

79

5,001,959

2004–2005

n/a

79

6,821,295

2005–2006

n/a

79

10,100,948

2006–2007

19

79

17,413,045

2007–2008

19

79

14,795,155

2008–2009

19

79

19,802,788

Source: DWR (2011a).
*Denotes the total pounds (unprocessed) of biomass harvested that year as reported to DWR. Biomass includes cysts, cyst
shells, shrimp, brine fly pupal chambers, and algae.

Seventeen companies harvest brine shrimp cysts from the lake. Since 2006, 16 of them have joined to
form the GSL Brine Shrimp Cooperative to protect the value of the GSL brine shrimp resource against
foreign sources. Ocean Star International Inc. is not part of the cooperative. The cooperative has
approximately 50–99 full-time employees, and Ocean Star International Inc. has approximately 10–19
full-time employees; therefore, the total number of full-time workers in the brine shrimp industry ranges
from 60 to 118 (Utah Department of Workforce Services 2010). During harvest season, these numbers
increase to almost 300 employees.

2.14.5.2 VALUE OF PRODUCTION
In all, 109,798,606 pounds of biomass were harvested from GSL between 1993 and 2009. In the 2008–
2009 harvest season, 19.64 million pounds of biomass were harvested by 19 companies that hold 79
certificates of registration. Recently, the state increased the registration fee from $10,000 to $15,000 per
certificates of registration per year. More than one certificate of registration can be held by a company.
Processed brine shrimp cysts are a value-added product. The industry takes the raw material removed
from the lake, separates out the unprocessed cysts, and through a series of biologically driven processes,
converts the raw product into eggs that hatcheries can hatch out on demand into live feed for early-stage
shrimp and fish.

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The market value of the finished/dry GSL cysts varies based on cyst quality (the percentage hatch rate
and number of nauplii per gram), world supply of cysts, varying levels of capacity of and use by
hatcheries, and other factors. Historically, values have varied dramatically from year to year based
principally on the quality and yield from the raw harvest and also on global supply and demand. These
and other variables created high price volatility. Recently, with improvements in processing technology
and stability in the industry, prices have become slightly less volatile.
Currently, prices for finished product (processed cysts) continue to be based principally on the quality of
the raw product, the yield that can be achieved through processing, the quality of the finished product,
harvest quantities available from foreign sources, world hatchery capacity, end user demand for
aquaculture products, and other factors. Current prices for finished product (cysts) range from $3.63 to
$22.67 per pound (including packaging).

2.14.5.3 ROYALTIES
In 1997, the state enacted the Brine Shrimp Royalty Act, which imposes a royalty to be paid by the brine
shrimp harvesters to compensate the state for the use of the brine shrimp eggs.
“It is the policy of the state that when its natural resources are used, a royalty should be paid to
compensate the state for the use of the natural resource. The state receives royalties on minerals extracted
from GSL. A market has developed for brine shrimp eggs; therefore, the state should be compensated for
the use of this natural resource” (UTAH CODE § 59-23-4).
The 1997–1998 harvest season was the first year the new brine shrimp royalty was imposed. At that time,
the brine shrimp royalty equaled 3.5% of the value of unprocessed brine shrimp eggs (UTAH CODE § 5923-4). Brine shrimp harvesters paid $60,790.81 in royalties for the 1997–1998 harvest season. The Utah
State Tax Commission records harvest years as beginning in February and ending in January of the
following year (to coincide with the October 1–January 31 harvest season). Table 2.33 shows the amount
of royalties collected from brine shrimp harvesting between harvest years 2002–2003 and 2009–2010. On
average, $673,622 in royalties was generated per year between 2002 and 2010.
On February 1, 2004, the Brine Shrimp Royalty Act was amended to require the Utah State Tax
Commission to assess the tax value of brine shrimp by multiplying the total pounds of unprocessed brine
shrimp eggs harvested by 3.75 cents (Utah State Legislature 2004).
In 2010, the Brine Shrimp Royalty Act was amended by the State House of Representatives and the State
Senate and signed by the Utah governor on March 23, 2010, to remove obsolete language. However, the
tax rate per pound remains the same.
The Tax Commission annually collects the brine shrimp royalty. All revenue generated by the royalty is
deposited in the Species Protection Account. These funds can then be appropriated by the legislature for
actions to protect any plant or animal species identified as sensitive by the state or as threatened or
endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq. (UTAH CODE § 63-3414).

2.14.5.4.1 Employment and Wages
Wholesale trade business is the largest sector affected by the brine shrimping industry, with indirect
employment of 118.5 people and economic output of $116,969,624. Transport by truck and food services
and drinking places also benefit from the brine shrimp industry by employing over 41 people and
generating over $4 million in economic output. According to IMPLAN, real estate establishments,

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management companies, professional health care offices, employment services, and transport by rail are
also beneficiaries of this industry. According to the analysis, total employment (indirect and direct)
related to the brine shrimp industry is just over 273.7 people, with an aggregate economic output of
$139,659,196.

2.14.5.5 ACCESS AND IMPACTS
Commercial brine shrimping is regulated by DWR and the Wildlife Board to guard against overharvesting
and to ensure compliance with operational rules. By rule, the shrimping season generally begins on
October 1 of each year and continues until January 31 of the following year. However, DWR may close
the season early if it determines that the harvestable surplus of brine shrimp cysts has been collected. The
1998–1999 harvest season was closed early, and the 1999–2000 season was delayed. “About one-half of
the most recent fourteen (14) harvest seasons have been suspended or closed early by DWR” (Leonard
2011). A sufficient number of cysts are left unharvested to leave an overwintering supply to ensure a
viable brine shrimp population in GSL the following spring and to provide forage for birds. Ongoing
research by DWR focuses on developing a better understanding of the life cycles of, and environmental
stressors on, brine shrimp.
The conduct of commercial brine shrimping requires access to navigable harbors on the lake, an area for
staging, and maintenance and storage of materials. Current access is from the public marina at Antelope
Island as well as a number of privately constructed and operated harbors around the lake. Commercial
access to GSL should be at dispersed strategic locations where water depth is suitable, access is
reasonably available, and conflicts with other Public Trust resources are minimized. The South Arm sites
determined to satisfy these criteria are Black Rock, Stansbury Island/US Magnesium dike, Lakeside,
Promontory Point, and Antelope Island. The Antelope Island Marina is available for commercial uses
until DSPR determines commercial use to be in significant conflict with recreational use of the marina
and that adequate alternative access for brine shrimping exists.

2.14.5.6 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Changes in lake levels would subsequently change salinity in GSL. Such changes in salinity could
adversely impact brine shrimp population. However, it is important to recognize that there are
complicated biotic and abiotic interactions that take place at similar or dissimilar lake elevations and that
are influenced by factors not directly linked to lake elevation. Additionally, long-term trends, such as
multi-year climatic conditions, can exert an over-arching effect on GSL, resulting in ecological conditions
that vary significantly in a temporal manner, yet the elevation is essentially the same as another year. For
example,


the ecological conditions on GSL may differ substantially,



salinity may differ,



bidirectional flow between the North and South Arm may vary,



nutrient loads can vary,



algal composition and abundance can be very different, and



the zooplankton population size and structure may vary widely even though the GSL elevation is
the same as another comparable year (Bosteels 2011).

drastically affect brine shrimp populations, percentages of brine shrimp that could be harvested at varying
levels are unknown. By the time salinity affects brine shrimp reproduction at low levels, predation is
already an issue. At higher salinities, there is not enough oxygen to maintain the survival of the brine
shrimp, which would have a significant impact on brine shrimp industries that generate revenue through
the amount of brine shrimp harvested.
Salinity and lake level also affect nutrients and algal growth. In the harvest year 1997â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1998, the levels of
salinity in the lake allowed brine shrimp to thrive, but nutrients caused diatom blooms that starved brine
shrimp, which do not consume diatoms. As a result, there was no harvest in 1999 in the South Arm.
Inversely, higher levels of salinity create difficult conditions for algae to thrive, which subsequently affect
brine shrimp survival. Similar to mineral extraction and production, any decreases in total brine shrimp
harvested from GSL would result in a reduction of revenue generated and a decrease to royalties paid to
the state.

2.14.6 Salvaged and Manufactured Wood
Salvaged and remanufactured trestlewood from GSL is another resource provided by previous
construction that took place in the lake; its use has spawned its own industry. From 1902 to 1904, the
Southern Pacific Company built the Lucin Cutoff railroad trestle to transport people and materials across
GSL, specifically across Promontory Point. By the beginning of the 1960s, all traffic on the railroad
trestle was replaced with the present-day causeway, leaving millions of feet of unused timber. In the early
1990s, Cannon Structures, Inc. acquired salvage rights to the railroad trestle and has since developed a
new industry of salvaging, remanufacturing, and selling this wood (Trestlewood 2010).

2.14.6.1 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
At high levels (4,213 feet or more) and low levels (4,197 feet or less), it would be difficult to salvage the
trestlewood due to lack of access. With high lake levels, marinas would be flooded, thus adversely
affecting the ability for boats to access the railroad and haul trestlewood to the shore. At low levels, there
would not be enough water for gas-powered motorboats to move safely through the lake without being
stranded. Given these scenarios, Cannon Structures, Inc. would be negatively impacted economically
because the ability to salvage the trestlewood would be minimized or nullified altogether.

2.14.7 Quality of Life
Following is a discussion of the social values and attitudes of various stakeholders who would be affected
by changes in management of GSL. The stakeholder groups include area communities, recreation groups,
resource/environmental groups, economic groups, and local governments. It should be noted that these
discussions generalize from and simplify the membersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; actual values and attitudes. In addition, this
format is not meant to imply that these groups are mutually exclusive, and examples of individuals fitting
into all categories are likely to be present. For instance, recreationists may engage in motorized and
nonmotorized types of recreation and may have high levels of concern about the environment. In addition,
peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitudes and interests may change over time.
The following discussion presents some general ideas on how perspectives are developed and what they
are related to, though there are likely to be any number of reasons people support management
alternatives or oppose them (or some variation in between). This discussion is not intended to be
exhaustive; it is meant to present an overview of potential stakeholder values related to the project.

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2.14.7.1 STAKEHOLDER VALUES, BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND SENSE OF PLACE
Because GSL represents a unique place in the northern Utah landscape, people’s values, beliefs, and
attitudes are shaped by each individual’s sense of place of GSL. The term sense of place refers to how
people see, understand, experience, and connect to places on the landscape (Allen et al. 2009; Farnum et
al. 2005). This sense of place is bound by cultural and historical factors, allowing people from separate
backgrounds to experience the same place in different ways. Individuals’ sense of place cannot be easily
measured because it is the product of emotions and experience (Allen et al. 2009). Four essential qualities
help shape a person’s sense of place: personal memory, community history, physical landscape
appearance, and emotional attachment (Galliano and Loeffler 1999).
Clearly, many people, especially local residents, may be linked to GSL in multiple and overlapping ways.
The nature of people’s linkages strongly influences their values and attitudes toward public lands and
their social and cultural relationships to the land and to other people. These relationships are much more
nuanced than any numbers in a social and economic profile can convey. They involve sentiments and
emotions, attachments to specific special places, and beliefs and traditions developed through contact
with public lands like GSL.
Utah benefits tremendously from the proximity to several state and national parks, GSL, national forests,
and public lands in general. Similar to government agencies, states traditionally have instilled an
institutional culture that does not necessarily dictate a sense of place but rather views parks, national
forests, and public lands as providing resources that could economically benefit the agencies, states, and
respective counties where these lands are located. However, some local governments throughout Utah
view the large amounts of public lands within its border as economically adverse due to the loss of
revenue from property taxes.
Recently, government entities have viewed parks, national forests, and public lands as economic
opportunities for private entities (through resources such as minerals), but also as recreation and tourism
opportunities for the general public. Government agencies have also managed the area to serve the
interest of others. For example, of the five counties in the study area, all but Weber County have
developed and implemented wetland plans (Trentelman 2009). This type of management can serve the
interests of those that use or monitor the lake, such as scientists and environmental groups, and preserve
the sense of place and/or quality of life for other interest groups.
Residents in communities in the study area have both positive and negative perceptions of the lake,
stemming from the availability of recreational opportunities and traditions associated with the lake to
odors and floods from the lake. Positive perceptions were associated with the opportunities provided by
the lake, such as recreational and sightseeing activities as well as economic opportunities. Many families
that have lived in the area for several generations have strong connections to the lake for earning a living
and traditional and subsistence uses. Residents from elsewhere visit these areas for what may be
perceived as a better quality of life attributable to the rural nature of communities along the lake in the
study area, as well as potential recreation opportunities such as hiking, walking, running, bird watching,
waterfowl hunting, and wildlife viewing. The lake is also valued as a landmark and enhances visitors' and
residents' sense of direction. Negative perceptions of the lake are due to reports of pollution, malodor, the
influx of insects present caused by the lake, and floods caused by changes in the water table that have
damaged homes and businesses closest to the lake (Trentelman 2009).
Economically, GSL provides resources from which private entities have been able to capitalize, which
have also benefited the local, regional, and state economies. The local economic contributions of GSL
resources also contribute to the quality of life of those around GSL. Thus, the revenue and employment

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generated from the mineral extraction/production industry and the tourist industry influence the social
conditions of communities connected to GSL.
As previously mentioned, GSL also serves as an important place of recreation for residents near the lake.
The GSL Marina and Antelope Island are two state parks previously mentioned that are located in GSL
and provide recreational opportunities. The importance of these activities can date back to traditions
within the area where many have participated in such activities as children and, as adults, are doing the
same with their own children (Trentelman 2009).
According to recent research by Trentleman (2009), many residents near GSL have chosen to live there
because of the area's natural features. Many of those who live near the GSL visit GSL, such as bird
watchers and day visitors, are there to experience and enjoy “nature.” The lake also draws a number of
visitors who seek to experience the night skies and sunsets on the water (Trentelman 2009). For
environmental and preservation groups, or resource-oriented groups, the primary concern is the
preservation of GSL due to its unique ecosystem with distinctive habitats and species and landscapes full
of scenic views.
For some of the activities available at GSL, suitable replacement sites may not exist. It is also debatable
whether the state’s other waterfowl hunting sites could fully absorb all the duck hunters that typically use
GSL (Trentelman 2009). Therefore, GSL should be respected for its rich, diverse recreational and tourist
resources. The recreation and tourist opportunities are truly a treasure for Utah’s citizens and out-of-state
visitors.
Even more problematic is the method of valuation used to place a price on the loss of a physical system.
Rhetorically the question is posed: How should one assign a value to losing a wetland? Because physical
systems rarely contribute tangible goods or services to the economy (excluding agriculture), their
valuation must be measured in something other than production costs and revenues. Measures can be
made in terms of the spending or expenditures associated with the recreational uses. However, this
considers only one dimension of the equation. The actual loss of an area or system must be accounted for
in and of itself, which is a problem encountered by natural resource economists. Although the GSL
Planning Team would prefer to have estimations on the value of GSL wetlands and other subecosystems,
to do so requires resources beyond our means. Therefore, it is assumed the value and the health of GSL
ecosystems are paramount, and hopefully future methodologies may be developed to assist in this type of
analysis.
Additional nontraditional resources stem from the nonmarket goods and services associated with GSL.
This class of nontraditional resources is exemplified by the natural functions performed by GSL, such as
soil formation, flood and erosion control, biological control of waste and detritus, climate regulation, and
education. These functions have both qualitative and quantitative aspects. Regarding the former, the lake
and its environs contribute to the quality of life along the Wasatch Front because the lake performs such
functions without people having to pay for them. Additionally, people enjoy living near the lake and the
physical and aesthetic amenities it offers. The lake is also a source of distinction and opportunity
unsurpassed in the region. The quantitative aspect of these functions is more problematic to determine. In
the event that humans had to mimic such functions, the cost to do so would be very large. Moreover,
some natural functions like climate regulation could not be supplanted by human means. Wasatch Front
ski areas would be hard pressed to implement snow-making equipment that could duplicate the “lake
effect” on snow storms. In the absence of a rigorous, long-term research analysis to put a value on the
natural services offered by GSL, it can be concluded that they are priceless.

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2.14.7.2 LAKE LEVEL EFFECTS
Changes in lake levels could affect the perceived quality of life for residents and visitors to GSL alike. As
previously discussed, positive perceptions of the lake have largely been a direct result of the availability
of the aforementioned resources. In most respects, changes in lake levels are directly correlated with the
quality of life associated with GSL. For example, areas used for ecotourism, educational research,
recreation, and hunting would be adversely affected by low lake levels because both wetland habitat and
wildlife areas would be reduced. Such low lake levels would result in a reduction of foraging areas and a
subsequent reduction in available opportunities typically offered by the high-amenity area. Low lake
levels also produce lake dust from exposed lake bed. This affects air quality and visibility, and when
blown in strong lake-related winds, it can damage property (e.g., finish on painted items such as cars and
items on porches). As stated in the dissertation by Trentelman (2009), the production of lake dust is a
significant quality of life problem for residents close to GSL. High lake levels would also adversely affect
tourism, research, and recreation opportunities because the higher lake levels would result in a loss of
habitat for numerous species in GSL. Specifically, any changes in waterfowl populations as a result of a
loss of foraging areas or habitat would reduce hunting opportunities.
As previously stated in section 2.11.1, recreation opportunities such as hunting, camping, hiking, and
boating would be largely affected by both low and high water levels. Flooding in certain areas could
affect boating opportunities as well as access to areas such as Antelope Island where recreation
opportunities are abundant. A decrease in recreational resources would diminish the perceived quality of
life that is typically heightened due to the availability of such resources.
Public access to GSL amenities would begin to be restricted at a level of 4,208 feet. As previously stated,
the Davis County Causeway would flood if lake levels were to rise to 4,208 feet or more. Such flooding
and subsequent damage would adversely affect the perceived quality of life for residents because existing
negative perceptions of the lake would be further exacerbated. As a result of specific access restrictions to
Antelope Island State Park due to flooding to the Davis County Causeway, there would be an overall
decrease from the typical high number of visitors, which would result in a reduction in revenue generated
from visitorship. This could have a negative impact on the quality of life for not only those who enjoy the
amenities offered by Antelope Island State Park but are unable to access such amenities, but also local
and regional economies that benefit from visitorship revenue.
For those that view the lake as an economic sourceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;area governments, communities, and specifically
residents who depend on the mineral extraction, brine shrimp, and trestlewood industries at GSL for
employmentâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;changes in lake levels could dramatically alter the quality of life for many. High and low
lake levels that could adversely affect operations of these industries could also result in changes to
employment, revenue, and royalties. In turn, this would negatively impact local, regional, and state
economies.

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2.15 Agriculture
The only current agricultural use of sovereign lands is grazing. There are seven grazing permits on
sovereign lands in Davis County. The permits cover 1,589 acres for a total of 239 animal unit months and
are held by three landowners (two private individuals and The Nature Conservancy). Grazing use on
sovereign lands has declined 15% from the 2000 plan, perhaps due to decreasing water levels and
increasing urban development and population growth in the region.
Issuance of grazing permits by FFSL is usually an over-the-counter land-use authorization. In response to
grazing permit applications for lands within the townships DWR is authorized to use for wildlife
purposes, FFSL consults DWR for inclusion of stipulations to address DWRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concerns. This usually
takes the form of seasonal restrictions and a stipulation to allow early cancellation of the permit.

2.15.1 Lake Level Effects
Current permitted grazing allotments occur below the meander line, which varies from approximately
4,212 to 4,220 feet in elevation in these locations. As the lake level increases, drainage of grazing
allotments becomes problematic. Should the lake level reach 4,211 feet, the allotments would experience
flooding as they did in the mid-1980s. During low lake levels, adequate irrigation to allotments could
prove challenging because surface and groundwater around the lake is reduced.

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2.16 Transportation
Existing transportation uses on sovereign lands include the Northern and Southern railroad causeways and
portions of I-80 along the south shore of the lake. Both railroad causeways are located on easements
granted by the predecessor to FFSL or the legislature for those purposes. Causeway easements vary in
width between 200 and 2,900 feet and allow for construction, operation, and maintenance of structures
within the easement to support and facilitate the transportation uses. The Davis County Causeway is a
county road right-of-way.
The Legacy Parkway (State Road 67) is a 14-mile highway that provides an alternative to I-15 between
Davis and Weber counties. The parkway is at its closest point to the lake at the northern end, when it is
due east of Farmington Bay. Construction was completed on the first phase of the project from North Salt
Lake to Farmington and opened to traffic on September 13, 2008. The Legacy Nature Preserve, a 2,225acre wildlife preserve on the southeastern shore of GSL, was established as an environmental mitigation
effort for the Legacy Parkway (UDOT 2011c).
In 2010, UDOT began an environmental study for the West Davis Corridor Study. In early 2011, the EIS
was in the initial stages of development, including the development of alternatives for highway locations.
Several of the alternatives being considered are located within a couple of miles of GSL near the northern
end of Farmington Bay at an elevation of approximately 4,225 feet. A final decision on the project is
expected to be announced in 2013 (UDOT 2011a).
I-80 crosses the lake bed from approximately mile post 112 to mile post 88. In the 1980s, sections of the
interstate on the GSL lake bed were raised to endure higher lake level elevations. According to UDOTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
Long Range Transportation Plan 2011â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2044 (2011b), there are several projects on I-80 in Toole County,
south of GSL. Plans include construction of interchanges to facilitate traffic flow on the proposed local
government Mid-Valley Highway in Toole County. There is also a planned widening of I-80 in Toole
County to increase carrying capacity of the interstate. I-80 is located directly south of GSL and is on the
lake bed; it would be very vulnerable to higher lake elevations.

2.16.1 Lake Level Effects
The lowest elevation of the Legacy Parkway is approximately 4,215 feet, which is within the meander
line at this location. The parkway is buffered from the lake to the west by the preserve, which acts as a
natural barrier to waves and wind tide effects when the lake reaches the high elevation threshold.
However, if the lake level were to rise to 4,215 feet or more, the parkway risks inundation and possible
damage of transportation structures and facilities.
Throughout the stages of the EIS for the West Davis Corridor Study, it will be necessary to evaluate the
impacts and associated risks to building the corridor close to GSL. Alternatives that include portions of
the highway extending further west will need to be adequately assessed for impacts to infrastructure
during high lake levels.
The lowest elevation of I-80 near the proposed widening occurs at Milepost 94 at 4,214 feet. There is very
little natural protection from the lake to the south in this location, and the interstate is at risk of inundation
or damage during elevations at or above 4,214 feet. The proposed projects in this area will need to address
potential impacts on GSL before construction commences. Lake level during construction of proposed
projects could dictate the degree or magnitude of potential impacts.

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2.17 Law Enforcement and Search and Rescue
Law enforcement for illegal behavior at GSL is enforced through FFSL coordination with county sheriff
offices and the 2009 DSPR Boating Laws and Rules. Any law enforcement officer in the adjacent five
counties is authorized under UTAH CODE § 53-13 (Peace Officer Classifications) to stop and board any
vessel, whether on water or land, to enforce the law’s rules and provisions.
OHV use on sovereign lands has become a management concern in recent years. With receding lake
levels and a region-wide increase in OHV use, current law enforcement efforts by FFSL and state and
county sheriff offices have yet to curtail the illegal activity.
The GSL Marina and Antelope Island provide 24-hour search-and-rescue service to the lake. Salt Lake
City’s search-and-rescue team, the Utah Air Boat Association, brine shrimpers, and DWR may also
provide search-and-rescue support on an as-needed basis. Every major search-and-rescue effort follows
an established five-county operational preplan and action plan for the lake, which are designed to
coordinate search-and-rescue activities in a timely and professional manner with all five counties and
FFSL. In 2011, the preplan and action plan were undergoing revisions and presented before county
commissioners for review and comment.
The GSL Marina receives several hundred search-and-rescue calls per year due to a combination of high
salinity, low water temperatures, rapid water level changes (from storm surges), presence of a living reef
(bioherm), and the overall size of the lake—all of which can produce unpredictable and dangerous
boating conditions for nonexperienced boaters. Response time to most search-and-rescue requests is
usually 30 minutes or less, depending on the time of day, marina access, location of emergency, and staff
availability. Response time to outlying areas, such as the Bear River Bay or the North Arm, can take up to
several hours, however, because boats must be towed to other locations and launched. Higher water
density in the North Arm or emergencies requiring search-and-rescue passage through bioherms (large
deposits of calcium carbonate that form large rock or reef-like formations in the bottom of the lake) also
increase response time. Map 2.14 shows the location of existing marinas potentially available for use by
search and rescue in GSL.

2.17.1 Lake Level Effects
At low lake levels (4,194 feet and below), illegal use of OHVs on the lake bed becomes a law
enforcement issue. Despite the fact the use of all-terrain vehicles is not allowed on sovereign lands, OHV
use increases as the dry lake bed exposes a perceived increase in lands available for off-road use.
As lake levels rise or fall below normal lake thresholds of 4,918–4,204 feet, opportunities to mount
search-and-rescue operations decrease. Although higher lake levels are not usually a concern, at 4,210
feet, the GSL Marina would start to flood; significant wave action could cause temporary flooding at
lower water levels (approximately 4,204 feet). Additionally, at low water levels (below 4,918 feet),
portions of the bioherm would be exposed or would be close to the lake’s surface, creating additional
navigational hazards along the eastern edge of the lake. At 4,192 feet, rescue boats would not be able to
access the lake using the marina and at 4,189 feet, all search-and-rescue operations would cease (Shear
2011).
Other potential search-and-rescue marinas would suffer from similar issues at low lake levels. At
elevations below 4,194 feet, most marinas indentified in Map 2.14 are either nonviable for rescue vehicles
or would result in boat impact to shallow shelves/bioherms or potential grounding outside the marinas.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Sanders and Promontory marinas would be viable down to 4,192 feet, but Sanders does not have a launch
ramp at this time, and Promontory is subject to large wave exposure and would require frequent dredging.
Past experience (GSL Marina 2011) suggests that the number of rescue calls significantly increases below
4,198 feet. Typical rates for mid-summer boat assists are four to five at moderate to high water levels;
during recent low-water years, the GSL Marina reported that rates have increased to 20â&#x20AC;&#x201C;25 assists during
the same time period.

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CHAPTER 3

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

3.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on management strategies that FFSL will implement to meet the needs of GSL
resources described in Chapter 2 of this plan. The management strategies will be integrated as necessary
and appropriate to meet resource issue objectives and to achieve multiple GSL resource benefits,
including management of the lake’s resources at a variety of lake levels. The strategies focus on
management actions that are within FFSL’s jurisdiction. In instances where FFSL does not have direct
management authority over a particular resource, FFSL will endeavor to coordinate with and support
agencies that do have management and/or permitting jurisdiction over the resource in order to achieve the
resource issues objectives. The management strategies allow numerous opportunities for coordination
with respect to GSL resources, a fundamental responsibility of FFSL according to UTAH CODE § 65A-108. Collectively, the following management strategies are designed to facilitate FFSL’s management of
GSL and its resources under multiple-use, sustained-yield principles, as stated in UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1.
The management strategies are organized by resource and follow in the same order as they appear in
Chapter 2 (Current Conditions). Each management strategy is organized in a table that concentrates a
large amount of information into a concise and user-friendly format. An explanation of each of the
sections within the management strategies tables is provided below.

3.2 Resource Issue
Throughout the 2013 GSL CMP planning process, numerous issues regarding each GSL resource were
raised during the public comment periods, stakeholder meetings, and GSL CMP Planning Team meetings.
Relevant issues from the 2000 GSL CMP were also carried forward during this process. Within each
resource, the numerous issues were distilled down into a few substantive resource issues. Most of the
resource issues raised overlap with other resource issues. As a result, obtaining the objective for one
resource issue may require management actions for different resources. The most critical of these
interlinkages has been captured in the management strategies of both resources. The unique objectives
and management strategies that follow each issue were developed to resolve, clarify, alleviate, or improve
the specific GSL resource issue.

3.3 Objective
Each objective states the desired outcome or future condition for the GSL resource issue. The objectives
reflect the intention of FFSL, which is to protect and sustain the trust resources while providing for their
use. Where sustainability of a particular resource is highlighted as an objective, sustainable is defined as
harvesting or using a resource so that it is not permanently depleted or damaged. Further defining what
sustainability means for GSL will be an ongoing process that could outline thresholds, targets, and/or
standards.

3.4 Agency Involvement
Effective coordination and communication with government agencies regarding GSL resources is vital to
ensuring the health and long-term stability of the GSL ecosystem. Coordination between FFSL and other
agencies will vary in timing and intensity based on the resource issue at hand. For the purposes of

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

developing the GSL CMP management strategies, the government agencies involved fall into three
different categories depending on their participation in each unique resource issue:
1. Management Agency: A management agency is directly responsible for the management of a
particular GSL resource. As mandated through Utah Code, administrative rule, or agency objectives,
the agency is responsible for on-the-ground management and/or monitoring. In some instances, the
title Management Entities is used because Union Pacific Railroad (Union Pacific), a private company,
is directly responsible for the management of the Northern Railroad Causeway.
2. Permitting Agency: A permitting agency is responsible for authorizing GSL resource-related
permits. The agency has the potential to impact the resource via permit authorizations including
mitigation. The agency is responsible for monitoring permit compliance.
3. Intersecting Agency: An intersecting agency is an agency that does not have direct responsibility
for managing a particular resource or permitting activities on the lake but is tangentially related. The
decisions of these agencies may directly or indirectly impact a particular GSL resource. FFSL
management decisions have the ability to impact resources managed, influenced, and/or researched
by intersecting agencies. These agencies have the tools, data, and information that could be used by
FSSL to make well-informed management decisions. Intersecting agencies may be responsible for
research and/or monitoring at a broad scale.
By identifying which agency (or agencies) has management, permitting, or other responsibility for a
particular GSL resource, FFSL can ensure that they are coordinating with the appropriate agency to
efficiently address resource concerns. It is important to note that although adjacent private land owners,
businesses, special interest groups, and local universities are not listed as responsible parties within each
resource issue, FFSL is interested and available to discuss resource-specific matters with concerned
entities.
Throughout the Management Strategies section, terms such as participate, coordinate, support, and
promote occur often. These terms are used to highlight FFSL’s responsibility to coordinate activities of
various UDNR revisions under UTAH CODE § 65A-10-8. They are used to promote FFSL’s involvement
with the diverse range of GSL resources within sovereign land boundaries. Further, FFSL is interested in
supporting other agencies and being involved in projects and resource issues that impact (or have the
potential to impact) the GSL ecosystem. The levels to which FFSL will coordinate, support, participate,
and promote depend on the project or resource issue. For example, a right-of-entry permit to host a
photography event on GSL would require less communication between agencies than would an easement
to place a new dike in Gilbert Bay. Ultimately, FFSL is optimistic that participation and communication
between agencies and entities throughout the stages of project planning or while addressing resource
concerns will lead to beneficial outcomes for GSL resources.

3.5 Lake Level–specific Management Strategies
FFSL recognizes that the level of GSL fluctuates naturally and that no agency has the authority or ability
to maintain the lake at a constant level. Rather, FFSL has identified lake level–specific management
strategies to mitigate impacts to GSL resources when the lake is very high or very low. The strategies are
intended to provide guidance for FFSL as the lake levels fluctuate. Each resource issue has a lake level
management strategy section. FFSL will be guided by the lake level–specific strategies when lake level
elevation is within the following three zones:


High: 4,205.0–4,213.0 feet or more



Medium: 4,198.0–4,204.9 feet

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan



Low: 4,188.0–4,197.9 feet or less

In some instances, a transition zone management action is also defined. As highlighted in the GSL Lake
Level Matrix, the transition zones are within the high (4,205–4,208 feet) and low (4,197–4,195 feet)
zones. Within each transition zone, management strategies are provided that will allow FFSL to prepare
for lake level elevations that are trending upward or downward and minimize the possibility of negative
impacts to the resource.

3.6 Management Common to All Lake Levels
The management strategy tables (Tables 3.1–3.16) focus on management actions that FFSL may
implement at any lake level. These management actions are not lake level specific. However, as part of a
management strategy, FFSL may ask that an applicant consider impacts of a proposed project at high,
medium, and low lake levels.
Table 3.1. Ecosystem
Resource Issue: Health and sustainability of GSL
Objective: Understand the components and linkages that define a sustainable GSL ecosystem.
Management Agency: DAQ, DSPR, DWR, DWRi, DWQ, FFSL
Permitting Agency: DAQ, DOGM, DWQ, FFSL, USACE
Intersecting Agencies: DWRe, UGS, USGS
High
(4,205–4,213 feet or more)

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)

Gather research to understand how
high lake levels impact short- and
long-term health and sustainability.

Gather research to understand how
low lake levels impact short- and
long-term health and sustainability.

Management common to all lake levels:


Support agency management and permitting actions that strive to attain key ecological
targets/benchmarks developed in future peer-reviewed research. Support research by and coordinate
efforts with all agencies listed above to better understand the minimum lake level required to support the
GSL ecosystem.

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)
Together with all agencies listed
above, consider how a proposed
project would impact GSL
resources at medium lake levels.

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Together with all the agencies listed
above, consider how a proposed
project would impact GSL
resources at low lake levels.

Management common to all lake levels:


Request site-specific impact analyses, as deemed appropriate by the FFSL Division Director, for a
proposed project. Site-specific analyses required by other permitting agencies may provide FFSL with an
adequate level of project-specific analysis.



Consider the range of ecosystem effects resulting from a proposed project (including cumulative effects)
through consultation with all management and intersecting agencies listed above.



Consider and evaluate the cumulative impacts of past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future
projects on the GSL ecosystem through consultation with all agencies listed above.



When appropriate, upon receipt of a proposed project, identify mitigation efforts in cooperation with all
management and intersecting agencies listed above to reduce impacts to and/or benefit the GSL
ecosystem.

Support DWRe pumping
activities when the lake
reaches 4,208 feet to
mitigate impacts to GSL
resources.

Initiate coordination with
DWRe and legislature to
mitigate impacts to GSL
resources through pumping
if lake is trending upward.

–

–

Coordinate with industry
to monitor and maintain
breach near Strong’s
Knob to facilitate
pumping.

Coordinate with industry to
remove/breach dikes near
Strong’s Knob to facilitate
pumping if lake is trending
upward.

–

–

–

–

Notify new lease
holders that operations
may need to be
suspended if the lake is
trending down and
reaches 4,193* feet in
October.
Requires coordination
with DWRi and USACE
on adaptive
management
strategies.

New leases subject to
suspended operation when
the lake is trending down
and reaches 4,193* feet in
October. Note: existing
operators may not be
subject to this management
strategy.
†
New leases and permits
may not be authorized if the
lake is at 4,193 feet or less
(UTAH CODE 65A-6-5[1])

Transition
(4,197–4,195)

Management common to all lake levels:


Include a term in new and renewal leases stating that operations may be suspended or modified if the
.
lake level reaches 4,193 feet on October 15

* Upon reviewing the GSL Lake Level Matrix and determining the numerous amounts of GSL resources that would be negatively impacted once the
lake reaches 4,193 feet, this threshold has been determined to be an acceptable level at which new mineral extraction operations would cease
pumping activities. GSL resources begin to be adversely impacted at a range of low lake levels, but by the time GSL reaches 4,193 feet, nearly all of
the resources have begun to be impaired. For example, all islands would be accessible by land (leaving nesting birds more vulnerable to predation
and increasing the risk of trespassing); fringe and impounded wetlands would be drying up and vulnerable to Phragmites intrusion; and habitat for
open water, shoreline, and island colonial nesters would decrease. Further, recreation access and opportunities would be minimized, search-andrescue efforts would become more challenging, and several existing mineral extraction operations would be compromised. As stated in section
2.3.1.4, the annual low lake level occurs between September and October. Thus, should the elevation only reach 4,193 feet or less on October 15,
new mineral extraction operations would be required to temporarily cease or modify operations until the lake reaches 4,194 feet or June 15,
whichever is later.
†
A new lease or permit is defined as one that is issued by FFSL subsequent to the Record of Decision adopting this plan. Minor modifications to
permits or leases for maintenance or site improvements would require only an amendment to the existing permit or lease and would not be
considered a new lease or permit. The determination of whether a modification is minor would be made at FFSL Director’s discretion. Renewals of
expiring leases will be considered new leases.

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)
Participate with DWQ to research
water quality implications of
medium lake levels.

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Participate with DWQ to research
water quality implications of low
lake levels.

Management common to all lake levels:


When considering new permits or permit renewals, coordinate leasing with DWQ-required permits
(UPES, general, stormwater, and the associated antidegradation review) where applicable, including
research on negative water quality impacts associated with actions.



Support DWQ to establish numeric criteria for mercury, nutrients, and other contaminants as they are
identified and as they have the potential to impact GSL recreation and aquatic life beneficial uses.



Communicate new project proposals to DWQ to help ensure impacts do not affect compliance with the
existing narrative standard and the numeric selenium standard.



Continue to support DWQ's efforts to assess the water quality condition of the lake and track
contaminants of concern.

Enforce agreement with Union Pacific to maintain or increase circulation through culverts or other
structures.



Together with USACE, consider proposals to increase circulation in the lake in a manner that supports
FFSL’s multiple-use, sustained yield mandate.



Continue and expand GSL salt cycle research by DWRe, UGS, and USGS, including efforts to quantify
volume of salt and other minerals within various parts of the lake at different lake levels (e.g., quantify
volume of precipitated salt and other minerals in the North Arm, quantify volume of salt and other
minerals in solution in various arms of GSL, quantify volume of salts retained in evaporation ponds, etc.).



Support research by DWR, UGS, DWRe, and USGS on the role of lake circulation on the occurrence of
the DBL, brine shrimp populations, bioherms, and water quality at varying lake levels.



Coordinate with Davis County to help ensure safe operation and good maintenance of the Davis County
Causeway.



Continue to support DWQ's efforts to assess the water quality condition of the lake and track
contaminants of concern.

Table 3.3. Wetlands
Resource Issue: Wetland hydrology and connectivity
Objective: Recognize the importance and support the sustainability of a wetland mosaic.
Management Agency: DWR, USFWS
Permitting Agency: FFSL, USACE
Intersecting Agencies: DWRi, DWQ, UDOT, UGS, local cities and counties
High
(4,205–4,213 feet or more)
Collaborate with USFWS, DWR,
and other land managers to
preserve a wetland mosaic around
GSL through water level
management within impoundments.

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)
–

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Collaborate with USFWS, DWR,
and other land managers to
preserve a wetland mosaic around
GSL through water level
management within impoundments

Consider implications to wetland hydrology and connectivity when evaluating permits on sovereign lands.



Support wetland managers as they seek to achieve optimum duration and seasonality of inundation.



Support efforts by DWR in working with DWRi to acquire water rights for specific areas of ecological
importance such as wetlands and WMAs.



Support and encourage wetland protection efforts adjacent to sovereign lands. Assist with development
of a list of priority wetlands that could be protected where protection efforts would benefit the GSL
ecosystem.

Coordinate with other landowners
and managers to support upland
wetland habitats in other nesting
and foraging areas near and
associated with GSL (e.g., Cutler
Reservoir, Utah Lake, Fish Springs
National Wildlife Refuge, and Bear
River).

–

Coordinate with other landowners
and managers to support upland
wetland habitats in other nesting
and foraging areas near and
associated with GSL (e.g., Cutler
Reservoir, Utah Lake, Fish Springs
National Wildlife Refuge, and Bear
River).

Management common to all lake levels:


Coordinate and encourage the maintenance of a diversity of habitats and adequate food supply that
support nesting birds.



Coordinate with DOGM to help ensure compliance with permitting rules that pertain to bird habitat.



Consider the impact of recreational activities (hunting and boating) on nesting bird populations and
coordinate with DWR to minimize impacts to nesting bird habitat.



Support inventory, monitoring, and research of nesting bird populations through DWR.



Support DWQ and USGS research and monitoring of water quality impacts to nesting bird populations.



Support DWQ in maintaining water quality sufficient to protect the waterfowl, shorebird, and wildlife
beneficial uses for GSL.



Minimize disturbance to nesting habitat areas by coordinating permitting and land management activities
with DWR.

Recognize the need for a diversity
of quality foraging and resting
habitats.

Support management actions that
minimize habitat loss.

Coordinate with other landowners
and managers to support upland
wetland habitats in other migratory
stopover areas near and associated
with GSL (e.g., Cutler Reservoir,
Utah Lake, Fish Springs National
Wildlife Refuge, and Bear River).

–

Coordinate with other landowners
and managers to support upland
wetland habitats in other migratory
stopover areas near and associated
with GSL (e.g., Cutler Reservoir,
Utah Lake, Fish Springs National
Wildlife Refuge, and Bear River).

Management common to all lake levels:


Coordinate with DWR to encourage the maintenance of a diversity of habitats and adequate food supply
that support migratory stopover, staging, and wintering birds.



Coordinate with DOGM to help ensure compliance with permitting rules that pertain to bird habitat.



Consider the impact of recreational activities (hunting and boating) on migratory bird populations and
coordinate with DWR to minimize impacts to migratory bird habitat.



Support DWQ in maintaining water quality sufficient to protect the waterfowl, shorebird, and wildlife
beneficial uses for GSL.



Support DWQ and USGS research and monitoring of water quality impacts to migratory bird populations.



Support inventory, monitoring, and research of migrating bird populations through DWR.

Notify new lease holders
that operations may need to
be suspended or modified if
the lake is trending down
and reaches 4,193* feet in
October.

New leases subject to suspended or
modified operation when the lake is
trending down and reaches 4,193*
feet in October.
Note: existing leases and permits may
not be subject to this management
strategy.
†
New leases and permits may not be
authorized if the lake is at 4,193 feet or
lower (UTAH CODE 65A-6-5[1]).

Transition
(4,197–4,195)

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)

Management common to all lake levels:

Follow guidance for mineral leasing process outlined in the MLP.


Include a term in new and renewal leases stating that operations may be suspended or modified if the lake
level reaches 4,193 feet on October 15.



Consider new leasing activities in areas determined to have potential for leasing, as specified by the mineral
leasing categories in the MLP.
Consider how proposed mineral extraction projects would affect GSL resources through review of site-specific
analysis. Site-specific analyses required by other permitting agencies may provide FFSL with an adequate level
of project-specific analysis.
Coordinate with permitting and management agencies to determine the appropriate level of involvement in
processes that consider impacts of future mineral extraction projects.
Coordinate with permitting and intersecting agencies to identify effective lease stipulations and/or mitigation
strategies.
Coordinate with DWQ to help ensure compliance with Utah Water Quality Act regulations (UTAH ADMIN. CODE
R317)







* Upon reviewing the GSL Lake Level Matrix and determining the numerous amounts of GSL resources that would be negatively impacted once the
lake reaches 4,193 feet, this threshold has been determined to be an acceptable level at which new mineral extraction operations would cease
pumping activities. GSL resources begin to be adversely impacted at a range of low lake levels, but by the time GSL reaches 4,193 feet, nearly all of
the resources have begun to be impaired. For example, all islands would be accessible by land (leaving nesting birds more vulnerable to predation
and increasing the risk of trespassing); fringe and impounded wetlands would be drying up and vulnerable to Phragmites intrusion; and habitat for
open water, shoreline, and island colonial nesters would decrease. Further, recreation access and opportunities would be minimized, search-andrescue efforts would become more challenging, and several existing mineral extraction operations would be compromised. As stated in section
2.3.1.4, the average low lake level occurs between September and October. Thus, should the peak elevation only reach 4,193 feet or less on October
15, new mineral extraction operations would be required to temporarily cease or modify operations until the lake reaches 4,194 feet or until June 15 of
the following year, whichever is later.
†

A new mineral lease or permit is defined as one that is issued by FFSL subsequent to the Record of Decision adopting this plan. Minor modifications
to permits or leases for maintenance or site improvements would require only an amendment to the existing permit or lease and would not be
considered a new lease or permit. The determination of whether a modification is minor would be made at FFSL Director’s discretion. Renewals of
expiring leases will be considered new leases.

Any modification to existing leases may require site-specific analysis in coordination with DOGM, DWQ, DWRi,
DWRe, DWR, and DSPR.



Include a term in new mineral leases and renewals stating that operations may be suspended or modified
if the lake level reaches 4,193 feet on October 15.



Consider impacts to lake resources upon the amendment or renewal of existing leases in coordination with
DOGM, DWQ, DWRi, DWRe, DWR, and DSPR.
Align bonding and reclamation provisions upon the amendment or renewal of existing leases to be consistent
with DOGM standards.
Coordinate with DWQ to help ensure compliance with Utah Water Quality Act regulations (UTAH ADMIN. CODE
R317).




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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 3.8.

Land Use

Resource Issue: Changes in land use
Objective: Consider how changes in land use above and below the meander line could have adverse impacts on
GSL resources and development.
Management Agencies: DWR, DWQ, FFSL, local cities and counties, USFWS
Permitting Agencies: FFSL, local cities and counties, USACE
Intersecting Agencies: DSPR, DWRe
High
(4,205–4,213 feet or more)
Consider how proposed
development/infrastructure would
be impacted at high lake levels.

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)
–

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Consider how proposed
development/infrastructure would
be impacted at low lake levels.

Management common to all lake levels:


Coordinate with management agencies listed above to understand how proposed changes in land use
would impact GSL resources and surrounding communities.



Coordinate with local cities, counties, and land managers that have jurisdiction of lands above
the meander line to help ensure future development would not have adverse effect on GSL
resources or that GSL would have adverse effects on future development.



Support FEMA determination* that residential and commercial development should not occur below 4,217
feet; this would be done to minimize impacts to GSL resources and infrastructure during periods of high
lake levels.

*Through FEMA’s National Flood Insurance Program, the agency maintains a set of floodplain maps called Flood Insurance Rate Maps. To prevent
damage to property or to protect public safety, mortgage companies are required to determine if a property they are financing is located within the
100-year floodplain by reviewing the Flood Insurance Rate Maps. The 100-year floodplain around GSL generally lies at 4,217 feet, based on
surveys completed by USACE on the lake’s eastern edges where residential development is most likely to occur.

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Support DSPR, DWR, USFWS, and
local cities and counties in ensuring
high-quality recreation opportunities
at low lake levels.

Management common to all lake levels:


Support and coordinate with DSPR, DWR, DWQ, USFWS, and local cities and counties to provide for
high-quality recreation opportunities, including bird watching and waterfowl hunting opportunities and safe
primary and secondary contact recreation opportunities.

Authorize mineral extraction and oil, gas, and hydrocarbon development, brine shrimp harvesting, and
aquaculture under multiple-use, sustained yield principles under UTAH CODE § 65A-2-1.
Coordinate with USACE, DAQ, DWQ, DWRi, and DOGM to evaluate resource impacts of a proposed use
and identify necessary permits.
Consult with DWRe, DWR, local cities, and counties to minimize resource impacts associated with permit
authorization.
Coordinate with resource extraction industries on potential mitigation strategies as new information
becomes available regarding the industry’s impacts to other GSL resources.
Coordinate with DWQ to help ensure compliance with Utah Water Quality Act regulations (UTAH ADMIN.
CODE R317).

Resource Issue: Valuation of GSL ecosystem resources
Objective: Promote the development of quantitative metrics to determine the values of GSL noncommodity
resources.
Management Agency: FFSL
Permitting Agency: FFSL
Intersecting Agencies: DOGM, DSPR, DWQ, DWR, local cities and counties, UGS, Utah Office of Tourism
High
(4,205–4,213 feet or more)
Support further research that
identifies the implications of high
lake levels on economic values.

Medium
(4,198–4,204 feet)
–

Low
(4,188–4,197 feet or less)
Support further research that
identifies the implications of low
lake levels on economic values.

Initiate coordination with DWRe and
legislature to mitigate impacts to
GSL resources through pumping if
lake is trending upward.
Discuss the possibility of dredging
the intake canal to facilitate
pumping if lake level is trending
upward rapidly.

–

Coordinate with DSPR, DWRe,
Davis County, UDOT, and USACE
to minimize impacts to other GSL
resources when protecting
transportation resources from high
lake levels.

–

–

Management common to all lake levels:


Coordinate with responsible agencies to determine the appropriate level of involvement in processes that
consider impacts of future transportation projects.



Participate in transportation planning efforts with UDOT, Wasatch Front Regional Council, and the Bear
River Association of Governments that promote safe and effective transportation routes that minimize
impacts to GSL resources.

Coordinate with search-and-rescue entities to identify areas or infrastructure within the lake that have
lake level access constraints, including marinas, and identify how to operate safely around constraints.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

CHAPTER 4

COORDINATION FRAMEWORK

4.1 Introduction
Multiple state and federal agencies are involved in management, research, and permitting on and around
GSL (Figure 4.1). Although FFSL is primarily involved in permitting activities on sovereign land below
the meander line, UTAH CODE Â§ 65A-10-8 states that FFSL is responsible for coordinating activities of
the various divisions within the UDNR with respect to GSL. As such, FFSL has an interest in improving
coordination with other agencies with respect to management, research, and permitting. Currently there is
a need for more coordination on a day-to-day basis between and within these spheres. GSL research plays
an important role in informing resource-specific management and evaluating impacts associated with
those specific permitting activities. Likewise, permitting new activities can have important implications
on the management of some of the lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources, and resource managers are well placed to evaluate
mitigation options for new projects. For this reason, it is important for permitting agencies to better
coordinate, not only with other permitting agencies but also with resource managers. Likewise, better
coordination between researchers and permitting agencies and resource managers will improve the value
and applicability of future research.

Comprehensive Lake Management

Resource
Management

Permitting

Research

Figure 4.1. Overlapping spheres of comprehensive lake management.

As described in the Management Strategies chapter, much of FFSLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility as a manager of GSL
resources is communication and coordination with other agencies. This chapter of the GSL CMP
describes the existing collaborative features between the three spheres and provides a framework for
enhanced future coordination and communication efforts. Coordination between the management,
research, and permitting spheres is essential to achieve comprehensive lake management and to sustain
the multiple uses of the lake into the future.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 4.1 illustrates the coordinating agencies involved with GSL. Cross-agency overlap is highlighted
under permitting and compliance, management, and research (see Table 4.3 for a more comprehensive
table).
Table 4.1. Role of State and Federal Agencies in Permitting, Management, and Research on
Great Salt Lake
Agency
UDNR

Permitting and
Compliance

Management

Research

FFSL

X

X

X

DOGM

X

DSPR

X

DWRi

X

X

DWR

X

X

DWRe

X

X
X

UGS
DWQ

X

DAQ

X

Utah Department of
Community and Culture

SHPO

X

Federal Agencies

USACE

X

UDEQ

Coordinating Bodies

X

X

X

X

USGS

X

National Park Service

X

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

X

USFWS

X

GSLAC

X

GSL Technical Team

X

X
X

4.2 Research and Management
4.2.1 Current Coordination
Research and management issues are currently addressed through the GSL Technical Team, which is
facilitated by FFSL. As stated in section 1.2.10, the GSL Technical Team comprises academic, federal,
state, and special interest representatives. The GSL Technical Teamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission is to provide guidance and
recommendations in the monitoring, management, and research efforts of the Great Salt Lake ecosystem
and to provide a forum for the interchange of information on ideas, projects, and programs that affect the
activities and natural systems of the Great Salt Lake. The GSL Technical Team meets four times a year to
view research presentations, GSL-related project updates, and to discuss research and funding
opportunities. The meetings are open to the public, and as such, not all individuals attending the meetings
are directly responsible for resource management or research. Informal coordination also occurs between
individual resource managers and researchers outside the GSL Technical Team on a project-specific or
case-by-case basis. Recently, the GSL Planning Team, which has provided guidance in the development

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

of this CMP, has facilitated productive coordination not only on the CMP but also on specific
management activities. Proposed projects under review by FFSL are noticed through the Governor’s
Office and Planning and Budget Resource Development Coordinating Committee.

4.2.2 Coordination Needs
The divisions within UDNR and UDEQ that manage GSL resources operate within a range of different
mandates. GSL resource managers need to be informed of management actions by other divisions (or
federal government agency) to evaluate the effects on “their” resource within the GSL system. Resource
managers need a mechanism to communicate resource concerns and/or anticipate changes to the resource
associated with a proposed management action.
Resource management and research are important pieces in the context of coordination. Within GSL
resource management, managers need to understand how actions can affect a range of resources managed
by others. For those state agencies that are required to monitor the resource, optimizing and coordinating
equipment and personnel amongst agencies could save considerable time and costs to the state.
Research is also a critical component to understanding impacts associated with projects and management
actions on the lake. Currently there is a need to prioritize research efforts that help reduce uncertainty
associated with resource management. Research is needed to help resource managers effectively manage
specific resources of the GSL ecosystem (e.g., what is the best Phragmites management approach? Are
nutrients a concern for any of the beneficial uses of GSL?) Research will also be more applicable and
efficient if individual scientists partner with other researchers where appropriate to expand the reach and
scope of research. Depending on the research topic, coordination between agencies would require greater
levels of coordination than others based on their complexity and the range of resources the proposed
research would have (e.g., mercury: fate and transport, biological processing, impacts to sensitive species,
and associated health concerns). Throughout the planning process, it was determined that there were
several future research needs in relations to GSL; several were identified and are listed in Appendix E.

4.3 Permitting
4.3.1 Current Conditions
Currently, the permitting agencies of GSL are typically operating in separate “silos.” Communication
between agency staff that is responsible for permitting is minimal. The permitting staff does not
necessarily overlap or coordinate with resource managers within or outside of their respective divisions.
Individuals who are responsible for permit review are not involved in the GSL Technical Team. This lack
of coordination has led to permitting actions on behalf of one division that conflict with another division.

4.3.2 Permitting Coordination Needs
To ascertain the level of coordination needed, FFSL has developed a table to determine where the permit
activities intersect (Table 4.2). Permitting relationships between divisions need to be established to
determine when permits need to be obtained (e.g., concurrently or proceeding one another). That is to say,
would one division or the applicant themselves benefit from completing a permit from one division (or
federal agency) prior to the submission to another agency? The information obtained from the previous
permitting process could support the future permitting needs and lead to greater efficiency within the
permitting process. Within the State of Utah government agencies, there is also a need for a more efficient
and streamlined permitting/application process. This is in support of Governor Herbert’s “business
friendly” initiative.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 4.2. Agency Permitting Responsibilities

†

X

X
‡

Special use lease agreement

X

Easement

X

Right-of-entry

X*

Minerals lease

X

Royalty agreement

X

X

X
X

X

X

Letter of authorization

X

Grazing permit

X

Bioprospecting registration

DWQ

DAQ

Invasives Treatment

X

Materials permit

DOGM

Extraction of Resource
other than Bio/Minerals
(mud, sand, gravel, etc.)

Filming/Professional
Photography

Grazing Activities on
State Lands

Brine Shrimp/Biological
Resources Harvesting

Marinas/Boating
Activity

General permit

Dike or Causeway
Modification

FFSL

Activity

Discharge to GSL
across State Lands

Permit

Mineral Extraction

Agency

X

Application for permit to drill (oil and gas)

X

Notice of intention (minerals)

X

Utah pollutant discharge elimination system, general and
stormwater permit with an antidegradation review

X

401 certification

X

Title V permit

X

4-4

X
X

X

X
¶

X

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 4.2. Agency Permitting Responsibilities

Invasives Treatment

Extraction of Resource
other than Bio/Minerals
(mud, sand, gravel, etc.)

–

Filming/Professional
Photography

DWR

X

Grazing Activities on
State Lands

–

X

Brine Shrimp/Biological
Resources Harvesting

DSPR

X

Marinas/Boating
Activity

Section 10/404 permit

Dike or Causeway
Modification

USACE

Activity

Discharge to GSL
across State Lands

Permit

Mineral Extraction

Agency

§

X

X
X

X

Notes:
*Rights-of-entry have been issued for some mineral/salt extraction operations where the evaporation pond is located on adjacent, upland, private property and the operator extends piping and a pump to the
water’s edge to extract brine. These operations tend to be smaller, seasonal, and have short-term easements with private property owners, which limit the ability of the FFSL to issue an easement that involves
longer-term use.
†

A general permit would be issued to a government agency wishing to extend a causeway or dike on GSL (e.g., general permit issued to DSPR for causeway from Antelope Island to main shoreline).

‡

General permits are issued to marinas operated by government agencies (e.g., DSPR). Special-use lease agreements are issued for marinas operated by private or nongovernmental entities (e.g., Black Rock,
which is undeveloped to date).
§

DSPR would also need to issue authorization/permission for filming within state parks or state park marinas.

¶

If invasive weed treatment involves burning, DAQ must authorize.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

4.4 Proposed GSL Coordinating Framework
As mentioned previously, UTAH CODE ยง 65A-10-8 states that FFSL is responsible for coordinating
activities of the various divisions within DNR with respect to GSL. To accomplish this coordination,
FFSL plans to retain many of the GSL Planning Team members as a GSL Coordinating Committee. This
team, comprising primarily DNR and DEQ representatives, will review proposed actions on GSL and
provide comment and advice on resource or permitting issues related to the action. The most critical part
of the coordination framework is the notification of proposed actions on GSL. In the past, notifications
from one division to another about proposed actions or permits on sovereign lands have been sporadic at
best. Noticing of proposed projects by FFSL will continue on the Resource Development Coordinating
Committee website. However FFSL is interested in coordinating on a proposed project before it gets
posted on the Resource Development Coordinating Committee website. The current plan is for FFSL to
be notified when another division receives an application for an action on sovereign land. In turn, FFSL
will send a summary of the proposed action to the GSL Coordinating Committee for review and
comment. Meetings of the committee will take place quarterly, unless a member calls a supplemental
meeting for a proposed action. FFSL is optimistic that the Coordinating Committee will provide a
sufficient level of feedback for the division to make informed decisions affecting GSL and its resources.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 4.3. Great Salt Lake Coordination Spheres
Agency

Permitting and
Compliance

Management

Current and Past
Research Initiatives

FFSL

Activities on sovereign
land below the GSL
meander line

Unimpounded
wetlands

Fund research
opportunities on topical
issues related to GSL
each year

DOGM

Oil, gas, and mineral
exploration and
extraction in and around
GSL

DSPR

Boat slip permits at GSL
UDNR Marinas

DWRi

Right to withdrawal
water from GSL and its
tributaries
Groundwater diversion
permits

UDNR
DWRe

DWR

Hunting and fishing
permits

UGS

DWQ

Marinas,
campgrounds, and
beach areas around
GSL

Operation of pumps
from GSL to West
Desert when lake
reaches high levels

Selenium and mercury
dynamics related to
GSL beneficial uses
Nutrient concerns,
primarily in Farmington
Bay
Development of
numeric criteria
Water quality baseline
sampling
Development of
nutrient criteria in the
Willard Spur of Bear
River Bay

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table 4.3. Great Salt Lake Coordination Spheres
Agency

Permitting and
Compliance

Management

DAQ

Major source permits for
sources near the GSL

Fugitive dust sources
along the Wasatch
Front including open
areas around GSL

USACE

CWA 404 permits for
activities in jurisdictional
waters

Lake dynamics as
necessary for National
Environmental Policy
Act analyses

APPENDIX B. SUMMARY OF PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
FFSL submitted a notice of intent to initiate the CMP revision process to the Resource Development
Coordinating Committee in April 2010. Following that submittal, FFSL and SWCA conducted three
rounds of public involvement meetings: 1) at scoping, 2) release of the draft GSL CMP, and 3) release of
the final GSL CMP. A summary of these three public involvement periods is provided below.
1. In August 2010, FFSL and SWCA conducted one scoping meeting in each of the five affected
counties to solicit public and agency concerns and comments (Table B.1).
Table B.1.

Formal Scoping Meeting Dates, Times, and Locations

Date

Time

City, State

Address

August 10, 2010

10:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2380 Washington Blvd

August 17, 2010

10:00 a.m.–1:00 p.m.

Farmington, Utah

28 East State Street

August 17, 2010

4:00–7:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

2001 South State Street

August 24, 2010

3:00–6:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

August 31, 2010

9:00 a.m.–Noon

Brigham City, Utah

01 South Main Street

2. In May 2011, FFSL and SWCA conducted one public meeting in each of the five counties that
surround GSL to solicit public and agency feedback on the draft GSL CMP (Table B.2).
Table B.2.
Draft Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan Meeting Dates,
Times, and Locations
Date

Time

City, State

Address

May 12, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Brigham City, Utah

01 South Main Street

May 17, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2380 Washington Blvd.

May 18, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Farmington, Utah

28 East State Street

May 19, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

May 24, 2011

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

1594 West North Temple

3. In March 2012, FFSL and SWCA conducted one public meeting in each of the five counties that
surround the GSL to solicit public and agency feedback on the final GSL CMP (Table B.3).
Table B.3.
Draft Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan Meeting Dates,
Times, and Locations
Date

Time

City, State

Address

March 20, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Clearfield, Utah

562 South 1000 East

March 21, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Tooele, Utah

47 South Main Street

March 22, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

1575 West 1000 North

March 27, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Brigham City, Utah

26 East Forest Street

March 28, 2012

6:00–8:00 p.m.

Ogden, Utah

2464 Jefferson Avenue

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Meeting Design
The public involvement meetings combined formal presentation and open house formats. At each
meeting, SWCA’s project manager provided a brief project overview or presentation. Following this
informational session, an open house meeting was conducted in a meeting space within the same building.
Attendees were greeted and asked to sign in, as well as informed about the meeting format and given the
option of taking a business card with the project website and contact information and/or a scoping
comment form. Attendees were informed about ways to submit comments and encouraged to ask
questions of SWCA’s public involvement staff and resource specialists from the GSL Planning Team (if
present).
Informational display boards were also arranged around the meeting room to provide the following
background information:
 Explanation of the plan revision process and the general timeline and sequence of events
 Description of the general need for a plan revision and responsible entities
 Definition of sovereign lands, public trust, and multiple-use/sustainable yield
 Map and list of potential resource issues
 Opportunities for public comment and a description of available comment methods
 Description of the mineral leasing process
 Lake Level Matrix

Meeting Advertising
Pursuant to FFSL requirements, public involvement meetings were advertised in a variety of formats
(Table B.4) prior to their scheduled dates. In each format, the advertisements provided logistics, explained
the purpose of the scoping meetings, gave the schedule for the public and agency comment period,
outlined additional ways to comment, and provided methods of obtaining additional information.

Stakeholder Meetings
During the revision process, two rounds of stakeholder meetings also took place (one in January 2011 and
one in November 2011). The objective of the first stakeholder meeting was to preview and gather
comment on the GSL Lake Level Matrix. The objective of the second meeting was to preview and
comment on the draft management strategies. The comments gathered at the stakeholder meetings were
incorporated into the document, as appropriate. A summary of the public meetings held to date is
provided in Table B.5.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table B-4.

Advertising of Public Meetings

Media Notices and Other Forms of Advertising
Media notice releases for the scoping period were emailed on July 30, 2010, to the following:





Meeting information was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on July 30, 2010.
The draft GSL CMP was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on May 2, 2011.
The final GSL CMP was posted on the project website, www.gslplanning.utah.gov on March 7, 2012.
Postcards and Other Invitations
Postcards announcing the scoping meetings were sent to those on the mailing list on August 2, 2010.
These comprised the following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

A meeting invitation for the scoping meetings was emailed to those on the project mailing list for whom email
addresses were provided or were obtainable on August 2, 2010.
A scoping meeting announcement was posted on the following listserves:




GSL Technical Team
Jordan River Watershed Council
South Shore Cooperative Weed Management Area

A project poster was displayed at the FRIENDS of GSL Issues Forum April 28–30, 2010.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table B-4.

Advertising of Public Meetings

A meeting invitation for the draft GSL CMP was emailed to the 416 individuals on the project mailing list for whom
email addresses were provided or were obtainable as of April 19, 2011.
Postcards announcing the draft GSL CMP meetings were sent to the 567 individuals on the project mailing list for
whom mailing addresses were provided or were obtainable as of April 19, 2011. These comprised the following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

A meeting invitation for the draft final GSL CMP was emailed to the 416 individuals on the project mailing list for
whom email addresses were provided or were obtainable as of March 7, 2012.
Postcards announcing the draft final GSL CMP meetings were sent to the 638 individuals on the project mailing list
for whom mailing addresses were provided or were obtainable as of March 7, 2012. These comprised the
following:







UDNR staff identified as having an interest in
the project
Prior and current GSL Planning Team
members
Nongovernmental organizations identified as
having a possible interest in the project
Local and state agencies identified as having
jurisdictional authority in the project





Residents who had attended prior plan
meetings
Members of the general public who signed up
for updates via the project website
Members of the press
All landowners adjacent to the meander line
within the affected counties

Table B.5. Meeting Dates, Times, and Locations
Date

Time

City, State

Address

January 4, 2011

2:00–4:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

January 6, 2011

2:00–4:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

November 1, 2011

10:00 a.m.–Noon

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

November 3, 2011

1:00–3:00 p.m.

Salt Lake City, Utah

SWCA, 257 East 200 South

Methods for Public and Agency Comment
Members of the public and representatives of agencies were given several methods for providing
comments:
 Comments could be recorded on comment forms at the scoping meetings. Comment forms were
available throughout the meeting room, and attendees could write and submit comments at that
time.
 Comments could be submitted online at www.gslplanning.utah.gov.
 Individual letters and comment forms could be mailed via U.S. Postal Service to Laura Vernon,
SWCA project manager, or Laura Ault, FFSL project manager.

Public Comment and Content Analysis
Public comments were gathered during three rounds of public comment periods and during the
stakeholder meeting mentioned above. The comments gathered throughout the planning process were
considered in the decision-making process and shaped the final CMP. Public comment summary reports
were produced for each round of comment periods and are part of the project record. FFSL has provided
public comment analysis and response to comments on the draft final CMP and MLP in the following
section.

Comment Analysis Approach
FFSL received 225 public comment submissions on the Draft Final CMP and MLP. From the 225
comment letters, 1,211 individual comments were extracted for review of acceptance or non-acceptance.
All public comments received were coded by resource or section of the plan and as substantive, nonsubstantive, or out-of-scope. Comments pertaining to the proposed expansion of the GSL Minerals
Evaporation ponds were accepted but are out of the scope of this plan and will not be responded to.
Impacts associated with the GSL Minerals Expansion are being analyzed in an Environmental Impact
Statement led by the US Army Corps of Engineers. All Draft Final GSL CMP substantive comments were
considered in the revision of the Final GSL CMP.
Due to the large number of public comments received on the CMP and MLP, a process was devised to
group and respond to similar public concerns. All comments are organized by commenter letter and
comment numbers (e.g. 111.4).Substantive, comments have been summarized into public concern
statements and responded to below. Each of the associated comments attributed to the public concern
statement can be found in their entirety in the GSL CMP Comment Table. Editorial and technical
comments have been reviewed individually and changes to the CMP and MLP have been made at the
discretion of FFSL.A list of all commentors on the Draft Final CMP and MLP proceed the following
Response to Comments section below.

Introduction
PUBLIC CONCERN 1
FFSL should balance sustainability and ecological health with multiple use principles and this balance
should be reflected throughout the GSL CMP. Further, FFSLFFSL should recognize that these are
principles that are widely shared by GSL managers and stakeholders. FFSL should address project
proposals using environmental regulations rather than the precautionary principle.
Associated Comments: 132.5, 132.6, 132.7, 149.2, 149.30, 150.1, 150.4, 150.5, 151.33, 160.2, 177.4,
177.5, 178.2, 185.8, 217.4, 223.1.
Response: The vision statement on page xv was developed in consultation with the Great Salt Lake
Planning Team assembled to oversee the development of the GSL CMP. The vision statement accurately
captures FFSL’s philosophy for multiple use management. FFSL is satisfied that the resource specific
sections of the CMP are consistent with the vision statement and the division’s multiple use mandate. The
GSL CMP does not address specific project impacts but lays the foundation for such evaluation in a
collaborative manner with other agencies.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 2
FFSL should not elevate the Public Trust Doctrine above statutorily mandated policy criteria. FFSL
should ensure that the CMP complies with its legislative mandate. The CMP as currently drafted outlines
a management process that is inconsistent and does not fulfill the FFSL’s public trust obligations. (148.2,
148.14, 148.21, 150.3, 151.15, 151.29, 194.8, 149.17, 151.2, 151.115, 150.2, 150.15, 150.16, 150.17,
151.30, 198.2, 198.3)
Response: The legal parameters governing FFSL and the Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management
Plan are fairly well defined. Great Salt Lake is sovereign land and therefore subject to the laws relating to
those lands including applicable constitutional provisions, statutes, regulations, and case law.
Article XX Section 1 of the Utah Constitution states, “All lands that have been, or may hereafter be
granted to the State by Congress, and all lands acquired by gift, grant or devise, from any person or
corporation, or that may otherwise be acquired, are hereby accepted, and, except as provided in Section 2
of this Article [relating to school and institutional trust lands], are declared to be the public lands of the
state; and shall be held in trust for the people, to be disposed of as may be provided by law, for the
respective purposes for which they have been or may be granted, donated, devised or otherwise acquired.”
The State of Utah obtained ownership of Great Salt Lake through the Equal Footing doctrine. Utah v.
United States, 403 U.S. 9 (1971).
The Utah legislature has adopted statutes that provide guidance to FFSL on its management activities
generally, and also specifically with regard to Great Salt Lake. FFSL statutes govern the sale, exchange,
and lease of state lands (Utah Code § 65A-7-1 et seq.); mineral leases on state lands (Utah Code § 65A-43, Utah Code § 65A-6-1 et seq.); management of sovereign lands (Utah Code § 65A-10-1 et seq.);
management of range resources on state lands (Utah Code § 65A-9-1 et seq.); and flood control and
prevention on state lands (Utah Code § 65A-11-1 et seq.). Furthermore, FFSL statutes proscribe certain
activities on state lands (Utah Code § 65A-3-1 et seq.) and provide for forest management and fire control
on state lands (Utah Code § 65A-8-1 et seq., Utah Code § 65A-8a-1 et seq.).
Statutes provide that “[FFSL] is the executive authority for the management of sovereign lands, and the
state’s mineral estates on lands other than school and institutional trust land.” (Utah Code § 65A-1-4);
that “[FFSL] shall administer state lands under comprehensive land management programs using
multiple-use sustained yield principles.” (Utah Code § 65A-2-1); and that “[FFSL] is the management
authority for sovereign lands, and may exchange, sell, or lease sovereign lands but only in the quantities
and for the purposes as serve the public interest and do not interfere with the public trust.” (Utah Code §
65A-10-1).
In regard to Great Salt Lake, through Utah Code § 65A-10-8, the Utah legislature has granted FFSL the
following powers and duties:
 Prepare a comprehensive plan for Great Salt Lake which recognizes the following policies: (a)
develop strategies to deal with a fluctuating lake level; (b) encourage development of the lake in a
manner which will preserve the lake, encourage availability of brines to lake extraction industries,
protect wildlife, and protect recreational facilities; (c) maintain the lake's flood plain as a hazard
zone; (d) promote water quality management for the lake and its tributary streams;(e) promote the
development of lake brines, minerals, chemicals, and petro-chemicals to aid the state's economy;
(f) encourage the use of appropriate areas for extraction of brine, minerals, chemicals, and petrochemicals; (g) maintain the lake and the marshes as important to the waterfowl flyway system;
(h) encourage the development of an integrated industrial complex; (i) promote and maintain
recreation areas on and surrounding the lake; (j) encourage safe boating use of the lake; (k)

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan












maintain and protect state, federal, and private marshlands, rookeries, and wildlife refuges; and (l)
provide public access to the lake for recreation, hunting, and fishing. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(1).
Employ personnel and purchase equipment and supplies authorized by the legislature through
appropriations. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(2).
Initiate studies of the lake and its resources. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(3).
Publish scientific and technical information concerning the lake. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(4).
Define the lake’s flood plain. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(5).
Qualify for, accept, and administer grants, gifts, or other funds from the federal government and
other sources, for carrying out any functions related to Utah Code § 65A-10. Utah Code § 65A10-8(6).
Determine the need for public works and utilities for the lake area. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(7).
Implement the comprehensive plan through state and local entities or agencies. Utah Code § 65A10-8(8).
Coordinate the activities of various divisions with the DNR with respect to the lake. Utah Code §
65A-10-8(9).
Perform all other acts reasonably necessary to carry out the purposes and provisions of Utah Code
Ann. § 65A-10. Utah Code § 65A-10-8(10).
Retain and encourage the continued activity of the Great Salt Lake technical team. Utah Code §
65A-10-8(11).

FFSL’s rules provide further guidance to management of sovereign lands. Utah Admin. Code R652-2-200
states,
“The state of Utah recognizes and declares that the beds of navigable waters within the
state are owned by the state and are among the basic resources of the state, and that there
exists, and has existed since statehood, a public trust over and upon the beds of these
waters. It is also recognized that the public health, interest, safety, and welfare require
that all uses on, beneath or above the beds of navigable lakes and streams of the state be
regulated, so that the protection of navigation, fish and wildlife habitat, aquatic beauty,
public recreation, and water quality will be given due consideration and balanced against
the navigational or economic necessity or justification for, or benefit to be derived from,
any proposed use.”
This regulation indicates the balancing that FFSL considers when determining whether or not to allow
proposed uses of sovereign land resources. R652-70-100 states that the R652-70 rules implement “Article
XX of the Utah Constitution, and Section 65A-10-1.” All uses of sovereign land are required to be
consistent with the Utah Constitution, governing statutes and rules, as well as common law principles
including the public trust doctrine.
FFSL is not aware of binding legal precedent interpreting the public trust doctrine in Utah, nor is FFSL
aware of legal precedent interpreting FFSL’s statutory framework. All uses of sovereign land at Great Salt
Lake are required to comply with governing constitutional provisions, statutes, regulations, and applicable
legal doctrines including the public trust doctrine. FFSL asserts that public trust doctrine does not conflict
with other applicable law and that the plan does not inappropriately elevate any legal doctrine or principle
over any other. Rather, the plan is entirely consistent with all applicable law.

PUBLIC CONCERN 3
FFSL should acknowledge that the CMP is not a rule promulgated under the Utah Rulemaking Act.
(148.3, 148.13, 148.18, 148.19, 148.20)

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Response: The CMP is not a rule promulgated under the Utah Rulemaking Act (Chapter 3 of Section
63G). Comprehensive Management Plans are defined as “plans prepared for sovereign lands that guide
the implementation of sovereign land management objectives.” Utah Admin. Code R652-1-200. These
sovereign land management objectives are identified in the FFSL’s statutes and rules. The Utah
Rulemaking defines a rule as, “an agency’s written statement that: (i) is explicitly or implicitly required
by state or federal statute or other applicable law; (ii) implements or interprets a state or federal legal
mandate; (iii) applies to a class of persons or another agency.” Utah Code Ann. § 63G-3-102. R652-901000 states, “[FFSL] shall follow the management direction, policeis and land use proposals presented in
comprehensive management plans.” As indicated by this rule, FFSL has obligated itself to follow the
CMP, but the CMP itself is not a rule promulgated under the Utah Rulemaking Act.

PUBLIC CONCERN 4
FFSL should acknowledge that the following resource sections are not required for the GSL CMP:
Paleontological Resources, Visual Resources, Land Use Management, Agriculture, and Cultural
Resources. They are beyond the legislative intent of the GSL CMP. (151.94)(151.11, 151.95,
151.134))(151.10, 151.133, 151.93)(151.8)(151.12)
Response: The GSL CMP aims to document all of the resources within the meander line of GSL
including those that FFSL is not specifically tasked with managing. The final plan clarifies those
resources that are managed by other agencies, including SHPO, municipalities, and UGS.

PUBLIC CONCERN 5
FFSL should acknowledge that the CMP is not comprehensive unless it has commitment from other
agencies. (223.2)
Response: The title of the plan is dictated by Utah code. In addition, the GSL Planning Team assembled
to oversee the development of the plan included representatives from all of the divisions in the
Department of Natural Resources and two divisions in the Department of Environmental Quality.

Lake Level Approach
PUBLIC CONCERN 6
FFSL should acknowledge that both high and low lake levels are concerning to the public, industry, and
impact GSL resources. Additional planning is necessary to protect industry from high lake levels.
(151.21, 153.11)(160.8, 160.9, 160.12, 160.19, 160.24)
Response: The GSL CMP addresses both high and low lake levels throughout the management strategies
section. Additional language has been added to 1.1.3 of the final plan to clarify that both high and low
lake levels are of concern to the public. FFSL is not responsible for protecting infrastructure during high
lake levels. The use of pumping to protect infrastructure at high lake levels is managed by the Division of
Water Resources under the direction of the legislature. This is discussed in Table 3.2 under the objective
“manage at extremely high and low lake levels to reduce impacts to ecosystems, industry, and
infrastructure.”

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 7
FFSL should provide more information on the methodology used for the “Lake Level Effects” sections
and improve the legibility of the Lake Level Matrix. FFSL should continue to refine the Lake Level
Matrix as more data becomes available. (168.2)(149.22, 149.32, 177.8)(132.11, 148.31)(174.55)
Response: A high resolution version of the Lake Level Matrix will be made available to the public with
the release of the final GSL CMP. In addition, a discussion on methodology used to develop the matrix
was added to section 1.1.3 and the references used in the development of the matrix was added to this
section in addition to be included in the matrix figure itself.

Ecosystem
PUBLIC CONCERN 8
FFSL should protect the health of the GSL ecosystem, its importance in the Pacific Flyway, and
acknowledge that ecological health makes GSL’s beneficial uses possible. FFSL should consider adopting
into the CMP the benchmarks for GSL health contained in the “Definition and Assessment of Great Salt
Lake Health” report (GSL Health Report) recently commissioned by the GSL Advisory Council. Further,
FFSL should consult, and encourage other agencies to consult, the GSL Health Report when considering
proposals. FFSL should modify its definition of a “healthy ecosystem” from “one that existed before
significant anthropogenic impacts” to a definition that recognizes the unique ecosystems that have
developed as a result of physical modifications to the system including those that support industry,
waterfowl management, and transportation. Such a definition is developed in the GSL Health Report.
FFSL should conduct research to identify key ecological targets or benchmarks for the health and
sustainability of GSL. (185.1, 183.8, 8.3, 101.3, 106.4, 112.1, 220.3, 132.2,132.3,151.31,153.19, 153.20,
177.2, 177.3)(168.8)(148.46)(132.6, 132.7)(151.35)(7.3; 65.2; 158.2)(221.2)(185.6)
Response: FFSL recognizes that protecting the health of the GSL ecosystem is an important objective of
managing the lake’s resources for multiple uses. FFSL supports the incorporating the findings of the GSL
Health Report into management of the lake. Unfortunately, the findings of the GSL Health Report could
not be incorporated in the GSL CMP due to the timing of the report’s release. There are insufficient time
and funds to modify the plan to incorporate the GSL Health Report during this revision cycle. FFSL will
consider the GSL Health Report and updates to it in future management plans. A note was added to the
plan (Sections 1.2.9 and 2.2.3) that references additional data and reports, including the GSL Health
Report, published after the drafting of the GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 9
FFSL should clarify the term ‘sustainable’ and ‘sustainability’, develop a definition specific to Great Salt
Lake that includes protection of the entire system not only specific resources in the lake, and use it
consistently throughout the plan including in sections 2.2.5, section 3.3, and the vision statement. (132.17,
177.6, 177.17, 132.17)
Response: FFSL has broadened the definition of sustainable to include both the overall complex lake
system and specific resources within the lake. The definition is referred to consistently throughout the
final GSL CMP.

B-9

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 10
FFSL should remove all references to “substantial impairment” from the CMP or outline how it intends to
use that term in a manner consistent with Utah Code Ann. § 65A-10-1. (148.5)
Response: The “substantial impairment” standard is similar, if not identical, to the “interference”
standard stated in Utah Code Ann. § 65A-10-1. The “substantial impairment” standard was articulated by
the United States Supreme Court in Illinois Central R.R. Co. v. Illinois, 146 U.S. 387 (1892).

PUBLIC CONCERN 11
Section 2.2.5 should be revised to be consistent with the vision statement that frames the philosophy of
the GSCLMP. Specifically, the statement regarding industry and political opposition to the precautionary
approach should be removed and the use of the precautionary principle in managing for multiple uses
should be better explained. FFSL should focus on monitoring and adaptation as a strategy to protect the
ecosystem and account for uncertainty associated with impacts from natural resource development. FFSL
should clarify what GSL resources it thinks will be consumed by growing populations. (151.38, 151.33,
177.5, 151.37, 177.6)(151.35)160.24
Response: FFSL recognizes the need to balance sustainable use of natural resources with other uses of
the lake in an effort to protect the long-term health of the ecosystem and the economies dependent upon
it. The statement “There is often industry and political opposition to the precautionary approach because it
interferes with traditional ways of conducting business and with the scientific process used to provide
decision-making rationales” has been removed from the final GSL CMP. Page 2-11 of the draft GSL
CMP already includes a lengthy discussion of the importance of monitoring and incorporating uncertainty
into planning and decision making.

Water Resources
PUBLIC CONCERN 12
FFSL should develop a comprehensive water management plan for GSL that includes an updated water
balance and a discussion on the influence to lake level and circulation of groundwater pumping around
GSL, precipitation, climate variation, water extraction and diversions. Further, FFSL should evaluate the
effect that additional breaches in the Southern Causeway would have on the lake when it is above 4,200
feet. (123.2) (175.4) (191.13, 153.24)(66.15, 66.17)(148.45)(185.4)
Response: FFSL supports updating the water balance and hydrodynamic models for GSL to improve
understanding of circulation, linkages between bays, and formation of deep brine layers. If such a tool
were available, FFSL would use it for management and planning including analysis of project specific
impacts on lake dynamics. As such, FFSL supports GSL Advisory Council’s selection of a GSL
Hydrodynamic Model as an important research priority deserving of funding in the near future. In
addition, the GSL CMP identifies several related research priorities in Appendix D.

PUBLIC CONCERN 13
FFSL should incorporate watershed-level management strategies that account for the complex hydrologic
network in the GSL basin into planning and management of GSL as well as all sovereign lands within the
GSL watershed. These strategies should acknowledge the impact that surface water inflows have on water
quality and water quantity in GSL both of which are affected by activities in the GSL watershed. Water
quality and quantity are critical factors for the sustainable use of GSL resources and protection of

B-10

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

ecosystem health. FFSL should actively advocate for good management of water quality and quantity
upstream in the GSL basin and against upstream projects that degrade water quality and/or quantity to
GSL. (153.8, 153.13, 153.59, 153.67, 185.2, 220.1, 153.9, 153.10, 153.34) (151.120,
153.57)(153.16)(123.4)(194.6)(148.47)
Response: FFSL does not have management authority over areas above the meander line. Nonetheless,
FFSL supports development of a watershed wide hydrologic model that would allow FFSL and other
agencies to evaluate linkages between actions in the watershed and GSL including those related to water
quality and quantity. FFSL would use such a tool in GSL management and planning including analysis of
project specific impacts and to better coordinate with agencies that do have management authority in the
watershed. As such, FFSL supports GSL Advisory Council’s selection of a Hydrologic Model of the GSL
Basin as an important research priority deserving of funding. Several related research priorities are
identified in Appendix D
FFSL does not have management authority over water quality in Great Salt Lake. However, FFSL
supports UDEQ’s ongoing efforts to develop water quality standards for GSL. Reference to this effort has
been added to the water quality section 3.6 and the coordination section (4.0).

Lake Elevation
PUBLIC CONCERN 14
FFSL should acknowledge that GSL elevation is naturally fluctuating. (217.1, 168.4, 216.1)
Response: The natural fluctuation of GSL is discussed in Section 2.3.1.4.1 “Natural Fluctuations of Lake
Level”. The plan does not seek to manage the lake at a single elevation but rather to manage GSL
resources appropriately at varying lake levels. This is reflected in the discussion of lake level management
in Section 1.1.3.

PUBLIC CONCERN 15
FFSL should consider conducting morphometric analyses and developing hypsographic curves for GSL.
(123.5)
Response: FFSL supports collection of more refined hypsographic curve data. The need for more refined
bathymetry data is identified as an important research need in Appendix D. Any additional or improved
hypsographic data will be considered in future updates to the Lake Level Matrix and future revisions of
the GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 16
FFSL should remove reference to lake elevation models that are not necessarily useful in predicting lake
level into the future. (153.28, 151.51)
Response: The discussion of existing lake elevation models has been revised from the 2000 CMP to
show that there has been evaluation of different models that may or may not be appropriate for the lake.
The models are not used nor endorsed by FFSL.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Water Rights
PUBLIC CONCERN 17
FFSL should make it clear in the CMP that existing water rights on GSL will be protected. (160.21)
Response: FFSL does not have authority to regulate water rights. This authority resides with the Division
of Water Rights as stated in Section 1.4.4. A more explicit statement about these modifications was added
to the final GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 18
FFSL should remove the CMPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s discussion of existing water rights in the GSL Basin. (151.54)
Response: Water use in the basin directly affects the amount of water delivered to the GSL. Section 2 of
the plan describes the resources of GSL and the quantity of water delivered to GSL is relevant to this
section.

Water Quantity
PUBLIC CONCERN 19
FFSL should provide more detail on the relationship between groundwater and GSL. Specifically, FFSL
should identify the areas where groundwater pumping could result in altered hydrology to wetlands and
saline intrusion thereby threatening the health of wetlands. (66.15, 66.17,66.25)(151.90)
Response: The influence of groundwater is discussed in subsections of 2.3.1.2. The need for additional
research on groundwater and wetlands in relation to GSL is also mentioned in 2.4.11.
Potential impacts to wetlands as a result of groundwater pumping would be explored by FFSL should a
proposal to do such activities be submitted to DNR and/or DEQ. Coordination regarding groundwater
impacts would occur in the GSL Coordinating Committee.

Water Quality
PUBLIC CONCERN 20
FFSL should acknowledge that more protection of water quality is needed to protect GSL. FFSL should
support more restrictive pollution guidelines and conduct a comprehensive study of what contaminants
are found in GSL. (114.1, 137.1, 175.8, 191.12, 114.2, 175.6, 175.7, 175.9, 191.6)
Response: FFSL defers to UDEQ for management of pollutant discharge to and water quality in GSL. As
such, FFSL supports UDEQâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ongoing efforts to develop water quality standards for GSL. FFSL supports
the need for more research related to contaminants to GSL as identified in Appendix D.

PUBLIC CONCERN 21
FFSL should explain why GSL is so uniquely affected by air deposition of mercury. (151.65)

B-12

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Response: The most up-to-date information available on mercury deposition to GSL was incorporated
into the plan. Mercury dynamics are the subject of on-going research and future plans will be updated
with additional research as it becomes available.

PUBLIC CONCERN 22
FFSL should explain why the CMP’s mercury section did not use Utah Division of Water Quality
analyses conducted after 2008. (151.66)
Response: The most recent mercury data available from DWQ was collected in 2008 and released in a
report in 2011. FFSL confirmed with DWQ in October 2012 that there are no additional or more recent
data available on this topic.

PUBLIC CONCERN 23
FFSL should acknowledge that selenium levels in GSL are below levels of concern. (177.14)
Response: This is noted in the last paragraph of section 2.3.4.5.1.

PUBLIC CONCERN 24
FFSL should develop management strategies to deal with the degraded state of Farmington Bay and
incorporate more data and recent publications in the description of the water quality in and ecology of
Farmington Bay. (123.6) 123.12, 123.15)
Response: Additional data on the role of salinity in nutrient dynamics, observed cyanobacteria
concentrations, and observed cyanotoxin concentrations in Farmington Bay were added to the nutrient
section of the final plan. Data that have not been published through a peer-reviewed process were noted as
“unpublished data.”

Salinity
PUBLIC CONCERN 25
FFSL should support a new, updated salt balance model for GSL and use the model to evaluate the
impacts of new leases on GSL. The salt balance model should also be used to determine how the amount
of salt extracted from GSL each year by the mineral extraction industry compares to the amount delivered
from its tributaries (132.16)(66.19)(160.4)
Response: FFSL supports updating the salt balance for GSL as part of a hydrodynamic model for the
lake. FFSL recognizes that an updated salt balance model would improve the management of minerals in
GSL by understanding their flux throughout the lake and assessing low lake level effects on salt
movement between the North and South Arms. FFSL would use such a tool in GSL management and
planning including analysis of project specific impacts. FFSL supports GSL Advisory Council’s selection
of “Updating the salt balance for GSL and development of planning horizon for mineral extraction” as an
important research priority deserving of funding in the next few years. Several related research priorities
are identified in Appendix D. The most recent information on salt balance indicates that there is a slight
imbalance between salt delivery and salt withdrawn as described in section 2.3.2.3.

B-13

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 26
FFSL should acknowledge that the artificially higher salinities in Gunnison Bay are problematic for the
GSL ecosystem and steps are needed to restore the salinity balance between the north and south arms of
GSL. FFSL should clarify whether it will develop a plan to equalize salinity in the lake to pre-causeway
conditions. (69.4, 139.6, 140.1, 160.27, 219.1, 148.58, 219.2).
Response: FFSL manages the GSL based on its current physical condition, including modifications that
have resulted in the development of altered ecosystems. FFSL is not aware of any research indicating
what the ideal salinity would be for GSL. Rather FFSL recognizes that salinity fluctuates with lake level.
FFSL manages the lake to minimize impacts to all lake resources in the context of natural fluctuations and
existing physical structures including dikes, causeways, and impounded wetlands. FFSL supports future
efforts to evaluate the salinity balance and identify optimal salinity ranges for given circumstances.

Wetlands
PUBLIC CONCERN 27
FFSL should acknowledge that GSL was recently nominated for designation as a Wetlands of
International Significance under the Ramsar Convention, but Utah Division of Natural Resources did not
endorse the nomination. (174.26)
Response: Section 2.7.8.1 of the final report reflects that the lake has been nominated for this status.

Air Quality
PUBLIC CONCERN 28
FFSL should address dust production from exposed GSL shoreline. FFSL should consider the research
assessing the affect that dust has on the rate of snow melt in the Wasatch, and how this affects lake levels.
(66.16)(132.12, 174.75, 114.3, 143.1, 219.6, 174.76, 183.10, 124.5, 177.7)
Response: FFSL does not have regulatory authority over dust production. FFSL will consult with the
DAQ when the lake level is low to develop management strategies to reduce windblown dust, as
described in Section 3.6. Discussion of dust on snow melt rates in the Wasatch Mountains is outside of
the scope of the GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 29
FFSL should not single out mineral extraction industries for additional air emission scrutiny. (151.6,
151.68, 151.121, 153.40, 153.58, 151.121)
Response: As described in Section 2.5.2, only those emissions from industries that are directly reliant on
GSL and/or are permitted by FFSL were included in the analysis. The section describes the relative
contribution of GSL dependent industries on overall air quality issues along the Wasatch Front. All other
emissions are beyond the scope of the GSL CMP.

B-14

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Climate
PUBLIC CONCERN 30
FFSL should consider the effect that climate change will have on lake elevation. FFSL should
acknowledge that there is scientific uncertainty about how Utah will be affected by climate change.
(151.7, 151.69, 153.41, 151.22)(114.4, 185.5)
Response: The final plan includes more discussion on the scientific uncertainty associated with the
report published by the Governor’s Blue-Ribbon Advisory Council on Climate Change. This scientific
uncertainty extends to impacts on GSL itself. Should additional research be available in the future, it will
be considered during future revisions of the plan and could be incorporated. FFSL supports development
of hydrologic and hydrodynamic model that could incorporate analysis of climate change impacts on
GSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 31
FFSL should provide an accurate portrayal of the contribution that GSL “lake effect” precipitation
provides to the local climate. The phrase “small but detectable role” should be removed. (132.13, 151.71)
Response: The phrase ‘small but detectable’ was removed from the final plan and the section will simply
report the 10% value.

PUBLIC CONCERN 32
FFSL should remove the preliminary analysis on ocean acidification. (151.70)
Response: This section was deleted from the final plan.

Biology
PUBLIC CONCERN 33
FFSL should develop more specific management strategies to address the Phragmites problem at GSL
including improved coordination between agencies and improving the process for obtaining a permit for
Phragmites control. (2.3, 63.4, 66.21; 63.5)
Response: FFSL is currently in the process of developing a Sovereign Lands Invasive Species Guidance
Document that includes more specific strategies to manage Phragmites around GSL. FFSL will work to
improve the permitting process including better coordination with other agencies. This is now indicated in
coordination section of the plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 34
FFSL should provide more discussion of the management of brine shrimp in terms of bird consumption,
prey base, salinity tolerance, population and harvest figures, and long-term protection of the population.
(149.33; 151.34)(212.1)
Response: FFSL used the most recent data provided at the time of the drafting of the GSL CMP. UDWR
including representatives that manage brine shrimp and birds were members of the planning team
consulted during the drafting of the GSL CMP. All relevant data provided during that period was included

B-15

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

in the GSL CMP. FFSL will consider additional brine shrimp data in future revisions of the GSL CMP.
Finally, a new section was added to the plan that references additional data and reports published after the
drafting of the GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 35
FFSL should rely upon objective and authoritative facts when stating conclusions about brine shrimp
harvest in the CMP. Noting that brine shrimping was best in the Gunnison Bay before the Causeway
construction based on a conversation with EPA’s Kleeman is not supported by any objective facts.
(153.29, 151.53).
Response: This statement was deleted from the final plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 36
FFSL should acknowledge that the presence of fish in GSL is minimal but that fish can persist in areas of
GSL during periods of low lake levels as well as high lake levels. FFSL should explain if there are any
native species of fish in GSL whose abundance would increase at higher lake levels. (151.77, 151.78,
174.24, 174.18)
Response: Fish in GSL and surrounding wetlands are discussed is section 2.7.7. FFSL recognizes that
additional research on fish populations is needed to better understand the role of fish in the ecosystem.
This was added to the list of research priorities in Appendix D of the final GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 37
FFSL should acknowledge that GSL mineral extraction industries sometimes contribute to bird numbers
by providing habitat for brine shrimp in extraction ponds, especially during periods of high lake levels.
(151.34)
Response: No data related to the role of mineral extraction ponds in providing brine shrimp habitat was
received during the drafting stage of the GSL CMP. Should such data be provided in the future, it could
be considered in future revisions.

PUBLIC CONCERN 38
FFSL should clarify management goals related to isolated nesting habitat to explain why protection of
rookeries from natural predators at low lake levels is an appropriate management objective. FFSL should
also eliminate the word ‘unnecessary’ in the management strategy related to disturbance to nesting
habitat. (151.49) (151.126)(168.15)
Response: FFSL acknowledges that naturally occurring low lake levels would result in an increase of
predators to GSL islands. Human modifications to GSL and human habitation around the lake have the
potential to increase the frequency at which predation occurs. DNR is interested maintaining the isolated
islands of GSL and providing critical habitat for birds of national and regional significance, including the
American White Pelican. The word ‘unnecessary’ was removed from the related management strategy.

B-16

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Minerals and Hydrocarbons
PUBLIC CONCERN 39
FFSL should aim to maintain and provide certainty for the continued operation of mineral extraction
industries at GSL and to increase the utilization of GSL minerals. Specifically, FFSL should renew
existing mineral leases if they do not involve expansion of the authorized use before new leases are
permitted on GSL. Further, FFSL should continue leasing arrangements into perpetuity unless they are
renegotiated at their normal term. FFSL should allow existing mineral lessees to extend intake canals
when necessary at low lake levels without requiring additional permits. (160.10) (160.22) (160.14)(151.5)
(160.5, 160.17, 160.18, 216.2)
Response: The GSL CMP balances the requirement to promote the development of minerals outlined in
Utah Code § 65A-10-8 with the multiple use mandate described in Utah Code § 65A-2-1 which states that
FFSL shall use “multiple-use, sustained-yield principles.” FFSL is satisfied with the balance represented
in the GSL CMP between mineral development and other uses of GSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 40
The plan as currently drafted is biased towards expansion of mineral evaporation ponds. FFSL should
consider removing existing evaporation ponds from GSL and limiting mineral development on the west
side of GSL. (219.7)(169.2)(144.1)(139.4)
Response: The GSL CMP balances the requirement to promote the development of minerals outlined in
Rule 65-8-10-A with the multiple use mandate described in 65A-2-1 which states that FFSL shall use
“multiple-use, sustained-yield principles.” FFSL is satisfied with the balance represented in the GSL
CMP between mineral development and other uses of GSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 41
FFSL should release all available data, and conduct research to supplement the data, on the rate of
mineral extraction from GSL and the potential for airborne pollution following evaporation from
industrial ponds. (149.18)
Response: The GSL CMP is not the appropriate document to disclose extraction rates of specific mineral
operations. Royalty data are available in aggregate form provided that they cannot be used to identify a
particular operator. Emissions associated with GSL industry are maintained by the Division of Air
Quality and are summarized in section 2.5 of the plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 42
FFSL should provide more information about the potential for spills from evaporation and tailings ponds,
as well as any mitigation plans on file. Further, FFSL should monitor dumping at GSL. (175.11)(149.19)
Response: A hazardous waste and remediation section has been be added to Section 2.9.7, which will be
retitled “Hazards.” This section includes a summary of spill prevention, hazardous waste management,
and remediation for mineral operators that are required by the Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining.

B-17

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Land Use
PUBLIC CONCERN 43
FFSL should identify in detail the areas of the lake that are appropriate for different uses. Specifically,
FFSL should consider designating more areas of GSL as restricted from further development and give
preference to existing uses that have demonstrated their ability to sustainably function within GSL. FFSL
should protect the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, Bear River Bay, and Gunnison Island’s nesting
American white pelicans from industrial activities. (8.1)(160.13)(112.2, 148.59, 178.3, 139.4,
183.9)(63.6)
Response: FFSL is satisfied with the level of detail in the classification of mineral development areas.
Other proposed uses will be handled on a case-by-case basis with site-specific analyses as determined
appropriate by the FFSL Director.

PUBLIC CONCERN 44
FFSL should expand the CMP’s land use objective related to diking and causeways to include recognition
of how human modifications to GSL impact all resources. (151.128)
Response: The management objective was revised to read “Recognize how human modifications to GSL
impact GSL resources.”

PUBLIC CONCERN 45
should independently confirm the FEMA information in the CMP regarding lake elevation and structures
that are subject to further inundation. (66.20)
Response: FFSL supports FEMA’s designation of the 100-year floodplain at 4,217. Since FFSL does not
have jurisdiction to lands above the meander line (no higher than 4,212 feet), exact confirmation of the
4,217 elevation would have little relevance in FFSL’s management of the lake bed.

PUBLIC CONCERN 46
FFSL should modify its description of Class 1 category areas to include values other than resource
development and eliminate the Class 3 category for GSL. (168.6)(185.3)
Response: FFSL does not have the authority to change the wording of the classifications or eliminate
classifications in the GSL CMP. These definitions are determined in Rule R652-70-200. Sovereign Lands
Classifications and are described in more detail in Section 2.9.3.1.

PUBLIC CONCERN 47
FFSL should explain how evaporation ponds would be reclaimed and restored. FFSL should require full
restoration to at least the physical/hydrologic conditions of the site before approving projects that require
major alteration of the lake bed. (132.23)(124.9, 191.15)
Response: As part of the site-specific planning required for future proposals, a work plan and reclamation
plan for proposed evaporation ponds would be required by DOGM and reviewed by FFSL. Issues such as
spill prevention, hazardous waste management and site reclamation would be addressed in the mining
permit issued by DOGM. FFSL will coordinate with DOGM and DEQ to ensure that new projects include
a Mining and Reclamation Plan that supports the sustainability of GSL resources.

B-18

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 48
FFSL should consider the potential effects that noise from encroaching development or transportation
could have on GSL. (66.3)
Response: A discussion of noise impacts to GSL resources was added to the final plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 49
FFSL should educate communities adjacent to GSL about the dangers of building below 4,217â&#x20AC;&#x2122; due to
future potentials for high lake elevations. (168.5)
Response: Notifying residents and developers about flood risk associated with high lake levels has been
added to the management strategies for land use in the final plan.

Visual Resources
PUBLIC CONCERN 50
FFSL should address potential impacts to GSL visual resources at both high and low lake elevations.
(153.50)
Response: Additional discussion was added to section 2.10.1 to acknowledge visual resources that would
be impacted at high lake levels.

PUBLIC CONCERN 51
FFSL should consider the visual impact of tailings ponds at GSL. (191.7)
Response: Visual impacts of tailing ponds at GSL was added to the visual resources section of the final
plan.

Recreation
PUBLIC CONCERN 52
FFSL should develop a more specific plan to balance recreation uses and other GSL uses and should
eliminate discussion on recreation outside of the meander line, such as skiing. Specifically, the plan
should outline how to balance industrial development along the shores of GSL with recreation uses. FFSL
should consider how mineral leasing on the west side of GSL would affect recreational and commercial
boating. (219.3)(151.136, 2.4, 151.131)(63.7)
Response: Reference to skiing was included due to the fact that the lake effect snow is suggested to
enhance snow totals in the Wasatch Mountains and have an potential impact on recreation and visitor
spending in Utah. The west shore of GSL is not used for recreational boating. FFSL is satisfied with the
management strategies developed to support other recreation on GSL.

B-19

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

PUBLIC CONCERN 53
FFSL should acknowledge the potential impacts to recreation caused by low lake elevations. These
impacts include reduced airport access to Bear River Bay, Ogden Bay, and Farmington Bay; reduced
recreational waterfowl hunting; and reduced ability to enjoy the lake through sailing. (162.10, 185.9,
220.2, 221.1, 222.1)
Response: The recreation impacts of low lake level are discussed in section 2.11.3.1 including impacts to
air boating and sailing.

Economics
PUBLIC CONCERN 54
The GSL CMP should be based on the most up to date information available on economic value. FFSL
should revise the economic section of the GSL CMP to incorporate the economic study “Economic
significance of the Great Salt Lake to the State of Utah” (GSL Economic Report) commissioned by the
GSL Advisory Council and completed by Bioeconomics in January 2012. The GSL Economic Report is
more recent, accurate, and comprehensive than the literature and data used in the GSL CMP.
(194.5)(151.96, 151.97, 151.100, 151.101, 153.51, 153.52, 151.98)(153.53, 132.15)(148.46)(151.108,
151.109)(66.18)(151.135)(151.102, 151.103)
Response: FFSL recognizes the importance of good economic data in managing GSL. FFSL supports the
incorporating the findings of the GSL Economic Report into management of the lake. Unfortunately, the
findings of the GSL Economic Report could not be incorporated in the GSL CMP due to the timing of the
report’s release. There are insufficient time and funds to modify the plan to incorporate the GSL
Economic Report during this revision cycle. FFSL will consider the GSL Economic Report and updates
to it in future management plans and future management decisions. This is noted in Section 1.2.9 and
2.14. Any errors reported in the section have been corrected in the final plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 55
FFSL should rework the economic section to acknowledge values that are currently not captured,
eliminate sections that are no longer significant, and provide an appropriate amount of attention to GSL
industries that have the greatest economic impact. The GSL CMP should acknowledge the economic
value of GSL’s contribution to rainfall and snowpack and the intrinsic value of GSL. However, salvage
and manufactured wood does not have sufficient economic value to deserve its own section. The current
section on “Quality of Life” does not present an objective quantitative assessment of economic value of
the impact of GSL on quality of life and such an analysis is outside of the mandate of the GSL CMP.
Further, too much attention is paid to the value of tourism while there is insufficient information on the
value of industry. (151.14, 151.135)(66.22)(66.18)(150.14, 151.13, 151.105, 151.106, 151.104)(151.103)
Response: FFSL used the most recent economic data available at the time that the GSL CMP was
drafted. Due to limited time and funds, no additional data subsequently produced can be incorporated into
the plan during this revision cycle. FFSL plans to consider additional research on other economic values
of the lake during future plan revisions. A recently completed report on the economic impact of lake
effect snowfall can be found in Section 2.14.1. While the manufacturing of salvaged and manufactured
wood is not a substantial economic GSL resource, the industry will remain included to show the range of
past and present GSL uses. The Quality of Life section provides an important qualitative examination of
how the GSL impacts local residents and visitors to the area. While managing for quality of life is not a

B-20

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

specific mandate of FFSL we are responsible for understanding how GSL impacts local communities on
qualitative and quantitative levels.

PUBLIC CONCERN 56
FFSL should develop a more robust and integrated economic development plan for GSL that includes
ensuring that mineral, gas, and oil leases provide fair compensation to the State based on the resources
they impact and cost-benefit analyses of specific mineral extraction operations and impacts to other
industries and economic entities. FFSL should discuss how to encourage the development of an integrated
industrial complex to optimize the production and economic output associated with GSL resources, as
required by 65A-10-8 (1)(h). (151.3) (66.9)(101.5, 112.3, 178.4)
Response:
The lease and royalty rates on mineral extraction operations were established at the time their lease
agreement. Future leases would be subject to adjusted royalty rates. Readjustment of royalty rates would
be possible as deemed appropriate by FFSL as a result of relevant analysis and a change in rule. FFSL
manages GSL for a range of uses required by 65A-10-8 and does not promote a hierarchy of uses on GSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 57
FFSL should consider how lake level affects the economics of mineral extraction. (151.127)
Response: Information on lake level impacts to mineral extraction industries was taken into account
during the planning process and can be found in Section 2.8.2.6. Future research on the impacts of lake
level to mineral extraction industries may be developed and incorporated into the GSL Lake Level Matrix
and future GSL CMP revisions.

PUBLIC CONCERN 58
FFSL should support research to estimate the value of ecosystem services provided by GSL to migratory
bird populations including the value of the Gunnison Island rookery, over-wintering bald eagles, brine
shrimp, invertebrates, and green algae. (191.17; 191.18; 196.3; 191.8)
Response: FFSL supports research on the value of ecosystem services. This is a research item identified
in Appendix D of the document and is included in the management strategies for the economic section of
the plan.

Management Strategies
PUBLIC CONCERN 59
FFSL should revise its management objectives to be more useful and specific in guiding management of
GSL, rather than just understanding the GSL ecosystem. As such, FFSL should remove superfluous
management objectives from the CMP and ensure that the CMP is guided by established priorities and
principles. FFSL should include discussion of future plans for framing and developing policies in the
CMP. (66.10)(151.16)(151.118, 151.114)(151.113, 151.125)
Response: The management objectives and strategies in the plan reflect the lack of direct management
authority that FFSL has for many specific resources in GSL. The GSL CMP revision aims to clarify

B-21

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

FFSL’s authority and identify new opportunities for improved coordination between agencies to improve
overall management of GSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 60
FFSL should consider waiting until GSL elevation reaches 4,210 feet before using the West Desert
Pumping Project to protect the long-term health of GSL. (168.11)
Response: FFSL assumed the level of 4,208 because this is the level at which the DWRe, the agency
tasked with managing the pumps, would ask for legislative approval to begin pumping. The final decision
to begin pumping lies with the legislature and the DWRe not with FFSL.

PUBLIC CONCERN 61
FFSL should specify what management actions would be taken under each lake elevation scenario.
(160.6, 160.26)
Response: Management actions that would be taken at low, medium, and high lake levels are described in
Section 3.6. The title of this section was revised to read “Lake Management at Varying Lake Levels.”

PUBLIC CONCERN 62
FFSL should restrict pumping of GSL water for mineral extraction operations with current leases, not just
new leases, when the lake elevation drops below a certain elevation. (100.4, 100.5, 100.6, 100.7, 100.8,
162.8, 149.29, 100.10, 66.8, 127.3, 141.1, 222.2, 148.30, 162.2, 162.3, 162.4, 162.5, 168.3, 168.9, 175.12,
198.8)
Response: Absent highly unusual circumstances, FFSL does not have the authority to amend existing
leases on existing operations unless the operator seeks a modification of an existing lease or if a lease is
up for renewal. Existing water withdrawals are managed by the DWRi.

PUBLIC CONCERN 63
FFSL should not restrict GSL industries when lake elevations are low. (217.2, 153.56, 160.7, 160.16,
160.20, 179.13)
Response: FFSL is required to manage the lake for multiple resource uses. Lake levels below the
threshold identified in the GSL CMP clearly impacts multiple resources as well as some industry. These
impacts are summarized in the Lake Level Matrix and in the management strategies Table 3.7.

PUBLIC CONCERN 64
FFSL should increase the lake level threshold at which actions are taken to reduce lake withdrawals and
increase flow to the lake. Specifically, an elevation of 4,195 is more protective of all GSL resources.
Critical biological resources within the GSL ecosystem could be impacted if the surface elevation of
Gilbert Bay drops below 4,193 feet, and many of these impacts could affect critical links in the GSL food
web and are not well understood. Further, Gunnison Island is accessible to predators when GSL lake falls
below 4,193 feet, and the biological importance of Gunnison Island is increased at GSL elevations above
4,195 feet. In addition, impacts to stromatolites, an important habitat for brine flies found in shallow areas
of the lake, are impacted at levels at and below 4,193. (162.9)(162.7)(162.6)(153.21, 153.27)(162.1)(66.7,
100.1, 100.2, 100.3, 139.3, 148.32, 148.34, 148.35, 148.36, 149.27, 149.28, 168.10)(155.1)

B-22

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Response: The threshold was kept at 4,193 but the point during the year at which to measure the
elevation was changed from June (generally the peak elevation) to October 15 (generally the lowest
elevation). Should the lake level elevation be 4,193 in the south arm on October 15, new lessee may be
required to modify or cease pumping operations until June 15 of the following year or until the lake
reaches 4,194 whichever is later.

PUBLIC CONCERN 65
FFSL should work with other agencies to develop the lake level threshold identified in the GSL CMP into
a formal conservation pool with an in-lake water right assigned to the lake. FFSL should acknowledge
that the CMP cannot protect GSL until the in-lake water rights are recognized. (148.27; 223.3)(2.2, 5.2,
66.4, 66.5, 101.10, 139.5)
Response: According to Utah Code § 73-1-1 “All waters in the state…are …the property of the public.”
Under the Prior Appropriation system, the system of water allocation used in Utah, a right to use a
specific quantity of water can be obtained by placing a quantity of water to beneficial use and by applying
for a water right. See Utah Code § 73-3-1. Thus, although the water in the state belongs to the public, the
right to use a specific quantity of water within a specific water source can be held by a private person.

FFSL has no control over water rights. Rather, the State Engineer is responsible to administer the
system of water rights allocation in the State of Utah (Utah Code § 73-2-1(3)(a)). The State
Engineer’s agency, DWRi (Utah Code § 73-2-1.2), is a sister agency to FFSL. Coordination with
DWRi and the State Engineer will occur regarding new project proposals and lake-level specific
resource concerns.
No statute specifically authorizes a conservation pool at Great Salt Lake or any other navigable body of
water in the state. The Division is conceptually not opposed to a privately-funded conservation pool at
Great Salt Lake if possible according to existing statutes. Furthermore, the Division is not opposed to a
state agency possessing an in-lake water right if authorized by existing law.
In the 2013 CMP, FFSL is proposing implementing management strategies for various lake levels
including a restriction on new leases or expansions of existing leases when the lake elevation goes below
a certain identified threshold.

PUBLIC CONCERN 66
FFSL should acknowledge that suspending new leases when GSL reaches 4,193 feet is unlikely to stop a
downward trend in lake elevation since existing leases would still be active. (219.5)
Response: FFSL does acknowledge that suspending new leases would not stop a downward trend, but the
management action is one tool that seeks to minimize the adverse impacts to GSL resources at low lake
levels. Further, as mentioned in Public Concern Statement 64 the time of year that FFSL will evaluate
lake level elevation has been changed from the average annual high to the average annual low in order to
minimize adverse impacts from lower lake elevations. .

Response: Coordination between agencies is outlined in Section 4 of the GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 68
FFSL should examine the already existing GSL management groups before recommending the creation of
another group. (151.137, 153.61)
Response: The proposed Great Salt Lake Coordinating Committee brought forth in Chapter 4 of the Draft
Final CMP is not a newly created group. It will be an extension of the GSL CMP Planning Team that was
established in 2010. Representatives from the DNR and DEQ have expressed continued interest in the
interagency coordination that has been occurring at the Planning Team meetings over the last two years.

PUBLIC CONCERN 69
FFSL should outline how site-specific analyses for proposed projects will be completed in the future
including an analysis of cumulative effects on all GSL resources and the role of Resource Development
Coordinating Committee in the permitting process. Further, FFSL should clearly state what criteria state
agencies will be using to make permitting and other project specific decisions beyond expanding the
existing coordination/information sharing processes. (132.4, 132.19)(132.21, 94.2, 148.15, 198.4,
148.33)(148.60, 124.8, 124.10, 183.4, 196.2, 219.8, 191.10, 101.1, 178.8)(153.18)(101.9, 132.9, 168.17,
194.4)(196.1)(198.7)(68.61)(149.9)
Response: FFSL is responsible for analyzing proposed projects according to R652-90 and applicable
rules, statues and other laws. The level of site-specific analyses is currently being determined on a caseby-case basis at the Directorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s discretion. Future site-specific analyses will be subject to changes in R65290. Future projects will also be reviewed by the Great Salt Lake Coordinating Committee in order to
understand impacts to a range of GSL resources.

PUBLIC CONCERN 70
FFSL should consider developing a technological approach to exchanging information with coordinating
agencies. (66.13)
Response: FFSL will continue coordination with the Great Salt Lake Coordinating Committee as it has
done throughout the two year planning process â&#x20AC;&#x201C; via email and face-to-face meetings. FFSL also supports
the continued use of Resource Development Coordinating Committee as an electronic mechanism for
sharing information and soliciting comments on permit applications and other proposals within the state
system. This has been added to Section 4 of the final GSL CMP.

PUBLIC CONCERN 71
FFSL should include a narrative in the CMP about the role of the GSL Advisory Council. (68.59)
Response: A discussion of the role of the GSL Advisory Council was added to section 4.1 of the final
plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 72
The coordination section of the GSL CMP seems to seek reassignment or ceding of some FFSL
responsibility to other agencies. (151.116, 185.7)

B-24

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Response: The coordination framework outlined in Section 4 documents existing mandates and
relationships between agencies. Although, this section is the first place to document these relationships in
one place, the plan does not seek to change management authority over GSL resources. Rather it aims to
improve coordination between agencies with varied management, research, and permitting authority over
GSL and its resources.

PUBLIC CONCERN 73
FFSL should state its permitting process and requirements with as little uncertainty as possible and should
clarify the relationship between the CMP and the MLP. (148.4)(160.11, 198.6, 148.8)
Response: The MLP provides a more-detailed look into mineral extraction as a resource when compared
to the CMP. It is intended to be used as a companion guide to the CMP. The MLP offers a more in-depth
look at FFSLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s management direction with regard to mineral extraction when compared to the CMP.
When considering the fundamental guidance on mineral extraction, the CMP provides sufficient level of
detail. When considering FFSL management direction in a greater level of detail, the MLP will be used.
Additional detail on management guidance and permitting processes will be incorporated into future MLP
revisions, as appropriate. At this time the permitting process for each application is handled on a case-bycase basis at the discretion of the FFSL Director.

Public Involvement
PUBLIC CONCERN 74
FFSL should have a clearly defined public participation process including a discussion on how public
comments framed the final GSL CMP. FFSL should list the public meetings and public comment periods
that occurred during the planning process. FFSL should notify the public where to find updates and/or
updated data regarding the CMP when that information becomes available. (168.1)(126.1)(70.1) (139.2,
148.12, 198.5, 168.18, 192.1)(153.3)
Response: The public involvement process is documented in Appendix E of the GSL CMP. Public
comment periods, meetings, and the location of future updates have been updated in Appendix E of the
final plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 75
FFSL should allow the public and all stakeholders to review and comment on decisions that affect the
health and future of GSL. (94.3, 149.5, 149.6, 178.7) (192.2, 192.3, 160.23, 160.25, 151.1)
Response: The new coordination plan outlined in Section 4 involves coordination with agencies that
represent the public and stakeholders. In addition, FFSL will continue to comply with public involvement
requirements for specific permitting actions, as required by R652-90. These are outlined in Section 4 of
the final plan.

PUBLIC CONCERN 76
FFSL should extend the public comment period and/or hold additional public meetings. (70.2, 140.3,
176.1)

B-25

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Response: FFSL already extended the public comment period by 30 days. FFSL is satisfied with the
public involvement process conducted during the drafting of the GSL CMP and additional delays to its
finalization are not acceptable.

B-26

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table B.6.

Commenters on the Draft Final CMP and MLP

Letter #

First Name

Last Name

Email

Address

City

State

Zip

Organization

1

Stephanie

Young

slymerzel@aol.com

723 9th Ave

Salt Lake City

UT

84103

–

2

Debra

Johnson

–

615 W 9400 S Ste 116

Sandy

UT

84070

–

3

Louise

Brown

luckylou@allwest.net

PO Box 643

Kamas

UT

84036

–

4

J

Tanner

–

5760 Stoneflower

Kearns

UT

5

Wade

Brown

–

8324 W. Danbury Dr.

Magna

UT

84044

–

6

Nick

Brown

–

8324 W. Danbury Dr.

Magna

UT

84044

–

7

Tim

Rhodes

rhodes@xmission.com

2002 Imperial St

Salt Lake City

UT

84105

–

8

Sylvia

Wilcox

–

2689 Imperial St.

Salt Lake City

UT

84106

–

9

Wade

Brown

–

8324 W. Danbury Dr.

Magna

UT

84044

–

10

Nick

Brown

–

8324 W. Danbury Dr.

Magna

UT

84044

–

11

Vernona

Pace

–

4853 Cherrywood Ln

Salt Lake City

UT

84120

–

12

Sylvia

Wilcox

–

2689 Imperial St.

Salt Lake City

UT

84106

–

13

Alex

Toller

–

701 E 2nd Ave

Salt Lake City

UT

84103

–

14

Andrew

Lloyd

–

5832 S Westbench Dr

Kearns

UT

84118

–

15

Zoe

LeCheminant

–

3525 W. 7520 S.

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

16

Tony

Johnston

–

9757 S. 1650 W.

South Jordan

UT

84095

–

17

Laura

Romney

–

2437 Countryside Lane

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

18

Carole

Sexton

–

9075 S. 700 E. Apt. 326

Sandy

UT

84070

–

19

Bob

Romney

–

1494 S. West Temple

Salt Lake City

UT

84115

–

20

Doug

Pearson

–

5932 Allores Ct.

Herriman

UT

84096

–

21

Kelly

Asay

–

5031 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

22

Dena

Robinson

–

5032 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

23

Kyle

Stevens

–

5168 W. 4100 S.

West Valley City

UT

84120

–

24

Eric

Tvedtnes

–

2382 Jordan Meadows Lane

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

25

Bret

Beckstead

–

3213 Larkin

West Valley City

UT

84120

–

26

Tyler

Beckstead

–

7549 South 2160 East

Salt Lake City

UT

84121

–

27

Sylvia

Gray

–

666 Ninth Avenue

Salt Lake City

UT

84103

–

28

Rocky

Robinson

–

5032 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

29

Anon

Anon

–

–

–

–

–

–

30

Gary

Lloyd

–

8553 Johnson Way Drive

Sandy

UT

84094

–

31

Burh

Sinsi

–

623 Marin Way

Saratoga

UT

84045

–

32

Mike

Asani

–

5031 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

33

Pat

Burns

–

6843 S. Clover Circle

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

34

Todd

Kaumo

–

1479 California Ave

Salt Lake City

UT

84104

–

B-27

–

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table B.6.

Commenters on the Draft Final CMP and MLP

Letter #

First Name

Last Name

Email

Address

City

State

Zip

Organization

35

Jeredee

Gibson

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

36

John

Gibson

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

37

Cameron

Reynolds

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

38

Tim

Rhodes

–

2002 Imperial St

Salt Lake City

UT

84105

–

39

Carole

Sexton

–

9075 S. 700 E. Apt. 326

Sandy

UT

84070

–

40

Andrew

Lloyd

–

5832 S. Westbench Dr

Kearns

UT

84118

–

41

Todd

Kaumo

–

1479 California Ave

Salt Lake City

UT

84104

–

42

Amanda

Martin

–

664 S. Grand

Salt Lake City

UT

84102

–

43

P

Burns

–

6843 S. Clover Circle

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

44

Dena

Robinson

–

5032 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

45

Laura

Romney

–

2437 W. Countryside Ln

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

46

Bob

Romney

–

1494 S. West Temple

Salt Lake City

UT

84115

–

47

Dave

Pearson

–

5932 Allores Ct.

Herriman

UT

84096

–

48

Kelly

Asay

–

5031 Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

49

Mike

Asay

–

5031 Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

50

Tony

Johnston

–

9757 S. 1650 W.

South Jordan

UT

84095

–

51

Tyler

Beckstead

–

7549 South 2160 East

Salt Lake City

UT

84121

–

52

Bret

Beckstead

–

3213 Larkin

West Valley City

UT

84120

–

53

Burh

Sinsi

–

623 Marin Way

West Valley City

UT

84045

–

54

Zac

LeCheminant

–

3525 W. 7520 S.

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

55

Eric

Tvedtnes

–

2382 Jordan Meadows Lane

West Jordan

UT

84084

–

56

Gary

Lloyd

–

8553 Johnson Way Drive

Sandy

UT

84094

–

57

Anon

Anon

–

58

Kyle

Stevens

–

5168 W. 4100 S.

West Valley City

UT

84120

–

59

Rocky

Robinson

–

5032 W. Highwood Dr.

Kearns

UT

84118

–

60

John

Gibson

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

61

Cameron

Reynolds

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

62

Jeredee

Gibson

–

PO Box 1306

Bountiful

UT

84011

–

63

J. Thomas

Bowen

–

925 Executive Park Drive, Ste B

Salt Lake City

UT

84117

–

64

Bob

Brister

–

1102 S. 800 E. #A

Salt Lake City

UT

84105

–

65

Bryant

Olsen

bryant_olsen@yahoo.com

688 E. 700 S. #105

Salt Lake City

UT

84102

–

66

Elizabeth

Menzies

menzies.miranda@googlemail.com

–

–

–

–

–

67

Sarah

Powell

sarahlovesparrots@gmail.com

–

–

–

–

–

68

Jennifer

Sullivan

–

–

–

–

–

State of Utah; Dept of Natural Resources
Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands

APPENDIX E. FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS
Throughout the 2013 GSL CMP revision process, efforts to better understand the unique and complex
GSL exposed numerous data and knowledge gaps. To effectively manage GSL, FFSL and other agencies
need to better understand the lake’s ever-changing characteristics. This list is a compilation of research
needs identified by the Planning Team and SWCA’s resource specialists. The list also includes most
recent hot topics identified by the GSL Technical Team.
Long-term planning and resource management benefit from more data and information. The list below
discusses the most striking and critical research needs that will further the understanding the aspects of
the lake that are directly related to management and planning. The list highlights future research
opportunities for federal and state governments, universities, industries, and organizations. It also serves
as a foundation from which all agencies and organizations can build on. The list is intended to be a
“living” document that can be updated as projects are complete and the need for new research is
understood. The list should be updated quarterly by the GSL Coordinating Committee (discussed in
section 4.4) or by the GSL Technical Team. A methodology for prioritizing research projects could also
be completed by the Coordinating Committee and/or the Technical Team. To inform the agencies and the
public about GSL research efforts, this list could be placed on FFSL (and other agency) websites.

1. Water
Water quality:


Water quality criteria: Identify water quality criteria, assessment methods, and standards that are
supportive of GSL beneficial uses.



Mercury: Further characterize the fate and transport, biological processing, and impacts of
mercury on sensitive species and human health.



Selenium: Further investigate the physical and biological processes that affect the fate and
transport of selenium in GSL, including biological factors, interactions with mercury,
bioaccumulation, and sequestration in stable molecular forms.



Define a trophic condition that is supportive of native biota, especially in Farmington and Bear
River bays, including thresholds for indicators such as summer chlorophyll a concentrations and
invertebrate diversity.



Technology: Evaluate technologies that could be used to reduce or prevent the methylation of
mercury in GSL.



Other toxins: Identify the level of toxins, other than mercury and selenium, in the water column
and in the sediment that does not impair populations of significant species. Characterize the
current concentrations of toxins throughout the lake. These toxins could include arsenic,
cyanotoxins, avian botulism, and endocrine disrupting compounds.

Salt cycle:


Salt balance: Continue and expand research on the salt cycle and salt balance for GSL. Research
could include analysis and quantification of riverine and atmospheric inputs to each bay and total
extraction from the lake.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan



Salt sinks: Research could also seek to refine data on salt sinks within the GSL system, including
amounts of precipitated salt in the North Arm and in evaporation ponds, and amounts of salt in
solution in two arms of the lake and DBLs. Investigation of cycling among salt sinks at varying
lake conditions and continued collection of brine composition data with specific elemental
analysis would be important components of research.

Circulation of GSL:


Positive and negative implications of increased circulation between bays; water quality and salt
balance and interlinkages; more info on sources of nutrients, salt, etc. (currently assumptions).



Circulation model: Identify through the use of models and monitoring the processes that
drive GSL circulation. Characterize how circulation relates to salinity, salt balance, and the
sustainable level of extractable ions in each embayment of the lake.



DBL: Determine the extent to which the DBL would form at varying lake levels and characterize
the importance of the DBL in terms of fundamental lake processes including biogeochemical
cycling of mercury, nutrients, and selenium.



Currents: Determine the speed and paths of currents in the South and North arms of the lake. The
last scientific study of the South Arm currents was done in 1991. This study was done after the
breaching of the causeway in 1984, but there has been no current scientific study done in the
North Arm.

Mapping:


Bathymetry: Create a bathymetry map and topographic map, from the multiple sources available,
with at least 1-foot resolution from elevations 4,191 to 4,217 feet. Ideally, new bathymetry data
should be collected to accurately estimate volume in each bay at varying lake levels.

2. Wetlands
Water quality:


Pollutant retention: Identify the mechanisms by which different wetland types immobilize and
retain nutrients, toxic pollutants, and sediment from GSL inflows. Quantify how fast, how much,
and how long pollutants are retained in the various wetland types found around GSL.



Water quality indicator: Develop an indicator of water quality appropriate for delivery to
wetlands found around GSL.



Toxicity: Identify the levels at which toxins begin to impair the ecological function of wetlands.

Mapping:


Wetland types: Develop a current map of wetland types and develop spatial models of the areal
extent and the class of wetlands around GSL. Re-mapping every three to five years across a range
of lake levels would increase confidence in wetland management options and forecasting
scenarios.

Hydrography: The main surface water inflows to GSL are regulated rivers and streams, and much of
the lake’s surface flow first passes through impounded wetlands. However, there are currently no

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

complete, freely available spatial data identifying these flow systems, especially those within and
between managed wetlands.

3. Air Quality


Windblown dust: Identify areas prone to generation of windblown dust and quantify the
contribution of windblown dust from exposed mudflats and playas around GSL to air quality
violations in Salt Lake, Weber, and Davis counties.

Phytoplankton: Identify the maximum and optimal level of phytoplankton in winter and in
summer that is supportive of brine shrimp in Gilbert Bay.



Bioherm function: Characterize the biological component(s) and determine the importance of the
bioherms in the lake.



Bioherm extent: Determine the extent of bioherms that is supportive of the food chain, including
attached periphyton, brine flies, and their consumers.



Microbial diversity: Characterize the types of bacteria, algae, and other microbes that live in the
South and North arms of the lake and evaluate how and why they change over season and with
varying lake levels and salinity.



Methylation of mercury: Determine the role of microbes in the methylation of mercury in the
lake.



Nutrient cycling: Evaluate the role of algae, cyanobacteria, and bacteria in the cycling of nutrients
in the lake.



Cyanotoxins: Measure the concentration of cyanotoxins, especially in Farmington Bay, and
evaluate impacts to recreation uses.

Plants


Submerged aquatic vegetation: Characterize the linkage between submerged aquatic vegetation
branch density and other measures of support for the food web in impounded wetlands and in the
open water of Bear River and Farmington bays.



Phragmites: Identify possible uses for Phragmites obtained from the lake (e.g., fuel, fiber) and
create incentives for harvest and use.

Invertebrates


Macroinvertebrates: Characterize and quantify macroinvertebrate populations that are supportive
of waterfowl and other waterbirds in the wetlands around GSL.

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Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan



Brine fly larvae: Characterize and quantify brine fly larval populations that are sufficient to
support waterbirds.



Terrestrial transfer of toxins: Characterize the terrestrial transfer of toxins that enter the food
chain in GSL (e.g., mercury transfer from brine flies, to terrestrial invertebrates, to birds).

Fish


Forage fish: Identify the quantity and species optimal for supporting fish-eating birds that forage
in Farmington and Bear River bays as well as wetlands around GSL.

Birds


Gunnison Island Rookery: Define and evaluate threats to Gunnison Island as a world-class
American white pelican rookery. Define the process (or processes), timeline (or timelines), and
work needed to identify alternatives that ensure the viability of the rookery.

6. Minerals and Hydrocarbons


Mineral balance: Update estimated GSL mineral balances in North and South arms.

Salt deposition: Determine the amount of salt that is deposited on the floor of the North Arm of
the lake (see also salt balance under Water).



Planning horizon for mineral extraction: Define processes for establishing planning horizons
for minerals extracted from GSL. Evaluate alternative approaches to estimate mineral balances of
GSL. Specifically, define scientific and administrative processes for determining the remaining
economically extractable quantity and rates of removal and/or sequestration of minerals from
GSL; the quantity and rate of those minerals entering the lake; and the processes or conditions
that affect rates of removal and replenishment.

Lake effect snow: Determine the economic value of lake effect snow on the local economy. A
study of direct and indirect effects of the economic relationship between GSL and the snow
produced on the Wasatch Range could increase our economic understanding of our reliance on
this natural phenomenon.

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Appendix F. SWCA Environmental Consultants List of Preparers

Final Great Salt Lake Comprehensive Management Plan

Table F.1.

SWCA Environmental Consultants List of Preparers

Name

Title

Resource

Laura Burch Vernon*

Senior Planner/GSL CMP Project
Manager

Minerals and hydrocarbons, land use,
visual resource management, economic
and social trends, public involvement

John Christensen

Geologist

Minerals and hydrocarbons

Patrick Crowley

Water Resource Specialist

Climate, water, law enforcement and
search and rescue

Jarod Dunn

Economist

Economic and social trends

Erica Gaddis

Senior Water Resource Scientist

Air quality, water

Hope Hornbeck

Biologist

Biology: aquatic biology, reptiles,
amphibians, mammals

Rachel Johnson

GIS Specialist

Mapping

Eric McCulley

Ecologist

Biology: birds

Brian Nicholson

Wetlands Specialist

Ecosystem, wetlands

John Pecorelli

Graphics Designer/Editor

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Dave Reinhart

GIS and Database Specialist

Mapping and public involvement

Krislyn Taite

Archeologist

Cultural and paleontological resources

Linda Tucker Burfitt

Technical Editor and Formatter

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Christina White

Planner

Economic and social trends

Sue Wilmot

Environmental Specialist

Recreation, public involvement

In June 2012, Laura Burch Vernon was hired by the Division of Forestry, Fire and State Lands as a land use planner and was responsible for
coordinating and finalizing the plan with SWCA through March 2013.