Racial segregation in the United States

Racial segregation in the United States, as a general term, includes the segregation or separation of access to facilities, services, and opportunities such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation along racial lines. The expression most often refers to the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from other races, but also applies to the general discrimination against people of color by white communities.[1]

"We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in Lancaster, Ohio in 1938.

The term refers to the physical separation and provision of so-called "separate but equal" facilities, which were separate but rarely equal,[2] as well as to other manifestations of racial discrimination, such as separation of roles within an institution: for example, in the United States Armed Forces before the 1950s, black units were typically separated from white units but were led by white officers.[3] Signs were used to show non-whites where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.[4] Segregated facilities extended from white only schools to white only graveyards.[5]

De facto segregation—segregation "in fact", without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day. The contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors.[7]De facto segregation results from the geographical grouping of racial groups either as a result of economic factors or choice (white flight). Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the inner city are African Americans and the suburbs surrounding this inner core are often European American residents.[8]Douglas Massey and Nancy A. Denton proposed the term hypersegregation in their 1989 study of "American Apartheid", when whites created black ghettos during the first half of the 20th century in order to isolate growing urban black populations.[9]

Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867, the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1870 providing the right to vote, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 forbidding racial segregation in accommodations. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote and to elect their own political leaders, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However, it did not prohibit segregation in schools.[11]

When the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools. Almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans, after the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the public school systems but sharply cut their funding. [12]

Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race,[13] the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students. Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education, they provided a small amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, and also subsidized the pay of some teachers; in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students.[14][15] Prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington; Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states.

By the early 1870s, the North lost interest in further reconstruction efforts and when federal troops were withdrawn in 1877, the Republican Party in the South splintered and lost support, leading to the conservatives (calling themselves "Redeemers") taking control of all the southern states. 'Jim Crow' segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s.[16] Disfranchisement of the blacks began in the 1890s, although the Republican Party had championed African-American rights during the Civil War and had become a platform for black political influence during Reconstruction, a backlash among white Republicans led to the rise of the lily-white movement to remove African Americans from leadership positions in the party and incite riots to divide the party, with the ultimate goal of eliminating black influence.[17] By 1910, segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, and only a small number of black leaders were allowed to vote across the Deep South.[18]:117

The legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537. The Supreme Court sustained the constitutionality of a Louisiana statute that required railroad companies to provide "separate but equal" accommodations for white and black passengers, and prohibited whites and blacks from using railroad cars that were not assigned to their race.[20]

Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, and represented the institutionalization of the Jim Crow period. Everyone was supposed to receive the same public services (schools, hospitals, prisons, etc.), but with separate facilities for each race. In practice, the services and facilities reserved for African-Americans were almost always of lower quality than those reserved for whites; for example, most African-American schools received less public funding per student than nearby white schools. Segregation was never mandated by law in the Northern states, but a de facto system grew for schools, in which nearly all black students attended schools that were nearly all-black; in the South, white schools had only white pupils and teachers, while black schools had only black teachers and black students.[citation needed]

Some streetcar companies did not segregate voluntarily, it took 15 years for the government to break down their resistance.[21]

On at least six occasions over nearly 60 years, the Supreme Court held, either explicitly or by necessary implication, that the "separate but equal" rule announced in Plessy was the correct rule of law,[22] although, toward the end of that period, the Court began to focus on whether the separate facilities were in fact equal.

The New Deal of the 1930s was racially segregated; blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the Works Progress Administration (WPA); it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the National Youth Administration (NYA).[23] Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black.[24] Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation;[25] in its first few weeks of operation, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, however, practically all the CCC camps in the United States were segregated, and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned.[26]Philip Klinkner and Rogers Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow."[27] Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration's most prominent supporters of blacks and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP; in 1937 when Senator Josiah Bailey Democrat of North Carolina accused him of trying to break down segregation laws, Ickes wrote him to deny that:

I think it is up to the states to work out their social problems if possible, and while I have always been interested in seeing that the Negro has a square deal, I have never dissipated my strength against the particular stone wall of segregation. I believe that wall will crumble when the Negro has brought himself to a high educational and economic status…. Moreover, while there are no segregation laws in the North, there is segregation in fact and we might as well recognize this.[28][29]

The New Deal's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality, the critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property, they detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy, and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation.[30][31]

In an often-cited 1988 study, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton compiled 20 existing segregation measures and reduced them to five dimensions of residential segregation.[32] Dudley L. Poston, Michael Micklin argue that Massey and Denton "brought conceptual clarity to the theory of segregation measurement by identifying five dimensions".[33]

African Americans are considered to be racially segregated because of all five dimensions of segregation being applied to them within these inner cities across the U.S. These five dimensions are evenness, clustering, exposure, centralization and concentration.[34]

Evenness is the difference between the percentage of a minority in a particular part of a city, compared to the city as a whole. Exposure is the likelihood that a minority and a majority party will come in contact with one another, this dimension shows the exposure to other diversity groups while sharing the same neighborhoods. Clustering is the gathering of different minority groups into one certain space; clustering often leads to one big ghetto and the formation of hyperghettoization. Centralization is the number of people within a minority group that is located in the middle of an urban area, often looked at as a percentage of a minority group living in the middle of a city compared with the rest of their group living elsewhere. Concentration is the dimension that relates to the actual amount of land a minority lives on within its particular city, the higher segregation is within that particular area, the smaller the amount of land a minority group will control.

The pattern of hypersegregation began in the early 20th century. African-Americans who moved to large cities often moved into the inner-city in order to gain industrial jobs, the influx of new African-American residents caused many European American residents to move to the suburbs in a case of white flight. As industry began to move out of the inner-city, the African-American residents lost the stable jobs that had brought them to the area. Many were unable to leave the inner-city, however, and they became increasingly poor,[8] this created the inner-city ghettos that make up the core of hypersegregation. Though the Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned discrimination in sale of homes, the norms set before the laws continue to perpetuate this hypersegregation.[35] Data from the 2000 census shows that 29 metropolitan areas displayed black-white hypersegregation; in 2000. Two areas—Los Angeles and New York City—displayed Hispanic-white hypersegregation. No metropolitan area displayed hypersegregation for Asians or for Native Americans.[36]

For much of the 20th century, it was a popular belief among many whites that the presence of blacks in a white neighborhood would bring down property values, the United States government created a policy to segregate the country which involved making low-interest mortgages available to families through the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Veteran's Administration. Black families were legally entitled to these loans but were sometimes denied these loans because the planners behind this initiative labeled many black neighborhoods throughout the country as "in decline." The rules for loans did not say that "black families cannot get loans"; rather, they said people from "areas in decline" could not get loans.[citation needed] While a case could be made that the wording did not appear to compel segregation, it tended to have that effect.[citation needed] In fact, this administration was formed as part of the New Deal to all Americans and mostly affected black residents of inner city areas; most black families did in fact live in the inner city areas of large cities and almost entirely occupied these areas after the end of World War II when whites began to move to new suburbs.[citation needed]

In addition to encouraging white families to move to suburbs by providing them loans to do so, the government uprooted many established African American communities by building elevated highways through their neighborhoods. To build a highway, tens of thousands of single-family homes were destroyed.[citation needed] Because these properties were summarily declared to be "in decline," families were given pittances for their properties, and were forced into federal housing called "the projects." To build these projects, still more single family homes were demolished.[citation needed]

President Woodrow Wilson did not oppose segregation practices by autonomous department heads of the federal Civil Service, according to Brian J. Cook in his work, Democracy And Administration: Woodrow Wilson's Ideas And The Challenges Of Public Management.[37] White and black people would sometimes be required to eat separately, go to separate schools, use separate public toilets, park benches, train, buses, and water fountains, etc; in some locales, in addition to segregated seating, it could be forbidden for stores or restaurants to serve different races under the same roof.

Public segregation was challenged by individual citizens on rare occasions but had minimal impact on civil rights issues, until December, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to be moved to the back of a bus for a white passenger. Parks' civil disobedience had the effect of sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Parks' act of defiance became an important symbol of the modern Civil Rights Movement and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation.

Segregation was also pervasive in housing. State constitutions (for example, that of California) had clauses giving local jurisdictions the right to regulate where members of certain races could live; in 1917, the Supreme Court in the case of Buchanan v. Warley declared municipal resident segregation ordinances unconstitutional. In response, whites resorted to the restrictive covenant, a formal deed restriction binding white property owners in a given neighborhood not to sell to blacks. Whites who broke these agreements could be sued by "damaged" neighbors;[38] in the 1948 case of Shelley v. Kraemer, the U.S. Supreme Court finally ruled that such covenants were unenforceable in a court of law. However, residential segregation patterns had already become established in most American cities, and have often persisted up to the present (see white flight and Redlining).

In most cities, the only way blacks could relieve the pressure of crowding that resulted from increasing migration was to expand residential borders into surrounding previously white neighborhoods, a process that often resulted in harassment and attacks by white residents whose intolerant attitudes were intensified by fears that black neighbors would cause property values to decline. Moreover, the increased presence of African Americans in cities, North and South, as well as their competition with whites for housing, jobs, and political influence sparked a series of race riots; in 1898 white citizens of Wilmington, North Carolina, resenting African Americans' involvement in local government and incensed by an editorial in an African-American newspaper accusing white women of loose sexual behavior, rioted and killed dozens of blacks. In the fury's wake, white supremacists overthrew the city government, expelling black and white office holders, and instituted restrictions to prevent blacks from voting; in Atlanta in 1906, newspaper accounts alleging attacks by black men on white women provoked an outburst of shooting and killing that left twelve blacks dead and seventy injured. An influx of unskilled black strikebreakers into East St Louis, Illinois, heightened racial tensions in 1917. Rumors that blacks were arming themselves for an attack on whites resulted in numerous attacks by white mobs on black neighborhoods, on July 1, blacks fired back at a car whose occupants they believed had shot into their homes and mistakenly killed two policemen riding in a car. The next day, a full scaled riot erupted which ended only after nine whites and thirty-nine blacks had been killed and over three hundred buildings were destroyed.

With the migration to the North of many black workers at the turn of the 20th century, and the friction that occurred between white and black workers during this time, segregation was and continues to be a phenomenon in northern cities as well as in the South. Whites generally allocate tenements as housing to the poorest blacks, it would be well to remember, though, that while racism had to be legislated out of the South, many in the North, including Quakers and others who ran the Underground Railroad, were ideologically opposed to Southerners' treatment of blacks. By the same token, many white Southerners have a claim to closer relationships with blacks than wealthy northern whites, regardless of the latter's stated political persuasion.[39]

Anti-miscegenation laws (also known as miscegenation laws) prohibited whites and non-whites from marrying each other. These state laws always targeted marriage between whites and blacks, and in some states also prohibited marriages between whites and Native Americans or Asians, as one of many examples of such state laws, Utah's marriage law had an anti-miscegenation component that was passed in 1899 and repealed in 1963. It prohibited marriage between a white and anyone considered a Negro (Black American), mulatto (half black), quadroon (one-quarter black), octoroon (one-eighth black), "Mongolian" (East Asian), or member of the "Malay race" (a classification used to refer to Filipinos). No restrictions were placed on marriages between people who were not "white persons." (Utah Code, 40-1-2, C. L. 17, §2967 as amended by L. 39, C. 50; L. 41, Ch. 35.).

The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The Army Air Corps (forerunner of the Air Force) and the Marines had no blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were blacks in the Navy Seabees, the army had only five African-American officers.[42] In addition, no African American would receive the Medal of Honor during the war, and their tasks in the war were largely reserved to non-combat units. Black soldiers had to sometimes give up their seats in trains to the Nazi prisoners of war.[42] World War II saw the first black military pilots in the U.S., the Tuskegee Airmen, 99th Fighter Squadron,[43] and also saw the segregated 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion participate in the liberation of Jewish survivors at Buchenwald.[44] Despite the institutional policy of racially segregated training for enlisted members and in tactical units; Army policy dictated that black and white soldiers would train together in officer candidate schools (beginning in 1942).[45][46] Thus, the Officer Candidate School became the Army's first formal experiment with integration- with all Officer Candidates, regardless of race, living and training together.[46]

Pressure to end racial segregation in the government grew among African Americans and progressives after the end of World War II, on July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the United States Armed Forces.

An African-American Military Policeman on a motorcycle in front of the "colored" MP entrance during World War II.

On September 11, 1964, John Lennon announced The Beatles would not play to a segregated audience in Jacksonville, Florida.[47] City officials relented following this announcement.[47] A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the Cow Palace in California specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience".[47]

Despite all the legal changes that have taken place since the 1940s and especially in the 1960s (see Desegregation), the United States remains, to some degree, a segregated society, with housing patterns, school enrollment, church membership, employment opportunities, and even college admissions all reflecting significant de facto segregation. Supporters of affirmative action argue that the persistence of such disparities reflects either racial discrimination or the persistence of its effects.

The intellectual root of Plessy v. Ferguson, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation, under the doctrine of "separate but equal", was, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by most whites at the time.[50] Later, the court decision Brown v. Board of Education would reject the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. Following that decision both scholarly and popular ideas of scientific racism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the court decision.[50]

The Mankind Quarterly is a journal that has published scientific racism, it was founded in 1960, partly in response to the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education, which ordered the desegregation of US schools.[51][52] Many of the publication's contributors, publishers, and Board of Directors espouse academic hereditarianism, the publication is widely criticized for its extremist politics, anti-semitic bent and its support for scientific racism.[53]

After the end of Reconstruction and the withdrawal of federal troops, which followed from the Compromise of 1877, the Democratic governments in the South instituted state laws to separate black and white racial groups, submitting African-Americans to de facto second-class citizenship and enforcing white supremacy. Collectively, these state laws were called the Jim Crow system, after the name of a stereotypical 1830s black minstrel show character.[54] Sometimes, as in Florida's Constitution of 1885, segregation was mandated by state constitutions.

Racial segregation became the law in most parts of the American South until the Civil Rights Movement, these laws, known as Jim Crow laws, forced segregation of facilities and services, prohibited intermarriage, and denied suffrage. Impacts included:

Segregation of facilities included separate schools, hotels, bars, hospitals, toilets, parks, even telephone booths, and separate sections in libraries, cinemas, and restaurants, the latter often with separate ticket windows and counters.[55]

Laws prohibited blacks from being present in certain locations. For example, blacks in 1939 were not allowed on the streets of Palm Beach, Florida after dark, unless required by their employment.[56]

State laws prohibiting interracial marriage (“miscegenation”) had been enforced throughout the South and in many Northern states since the Colonial era. During Reconstruction, such laws were repealed in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, Texas and South Carolina; in all these states such laws were reinstated after the Democratic "Redeemers" came to power. The Supreme Court declared such laws constitutional in 1883, this verdict was overturned only in 1967 by Loving v. Virginia.[57]

The voting rights of blacks were systematically restricted or denied through suffrage laws, such as the introduction of poll taxes and literacy tests. Loopholes, such as the grandfather clause and the understanding clause, protected the voting rights of white people who were unable to pay the tax or pass the literacy test. Only whites could vote in Democratic Party primary contests.[57] Where and when black people did manage to vote in numbers, their votes were negated by systematic gerrymander of electoral boundaries.

Formal segregation also existed in the North, some neighborhoods were restricted to blacks and job opportunities were denied them by unions in, for example, the skilled building trades. Blacks who moved to the North in the Great Migration after World War I sometimes could live without the same degree of oppression experienced in the South, but the racism and discrimination still existed.

“

Despite the actions of abolitionists, life for free blacks was far from idyllic, due to northern racism. Most free blacks lived in racial enclaves in the major cities of the North: New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. There, poor living conditions led to disease and death; in a Philadelphia study in 1846, practically all poor black infants died shortly after birth. Even wealthy blacks were prohibited from living in white neighborhoods due to whites' fear of declining property values.[58]

While it is commonly thought that segregation was a southern phenomenon, segregation was also to be found in "the North", the Chicago suburb of Cicero, for example, was made famous when Civil Rights advocate Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. led a march advocating open (race-unbiased) housing.

“

Northern blacks were forced to live in a white man's democracy, and while not legally enslaved, were subject to definition by their race. In their all-black communities, they continued to build their own churches and schools and to develop vigilance committees to protect members of the black community from hostility and violence.[58]

”

In the 1930s, however, job discrimination ended for many African Americans in the North, after the Congress of Industrial Organizations, one of America's lead labor unions at the time, agreed to integrate the union.[59]

School segregation in the North was also a major issue;[60] in Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, towns near the Mason–Dixon line enforced school segregation, despite state laws outlawing the practice of it.[60] Indiana also required school segregation by state law,[60] during the 1940s, however, NAACP lawsuits quickly depleted segregation from the Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New Jersey southern areas.[60] In 1949, Indiana officially repealed its school segregation law as well,[60] the most common form of segregation in the northern states came from anti-miscegenation laws.[61]

Segregation in sports in the United States was also a major national issue;[62] in 1900, just four years after the US Supreme Court separate but equal constitutional ruling, segregation was enforced in horse racing, a sport which had previously seen many African American jockeys win Triple Crown and other major races.[63] Widespread segregation would also exist in bicycle and automobile racing;[63] in 1890, however, segregation would lessen for African-American track and field athletes after various universities and colleges in the northern states agreed to integrate their track and field teams.[63] Like track and field, soccer was another which experienced a low amount of segregation in the early days of segregation.[63] Many colleges and universities in the northern states would also allow African Americans on to play their football teams as well.[63]

Segregation was also hardly enforced in boxing;[63] in 1908, Jack Johnson, would become the first African American to win the World Heavyweight Title.[63] However, Johnson's personal life (i.e. his publicly acknowledged relationships with white women) made him very unpopular among many Caucasians throughout the world.[63] It was not until 1937, when Joe Louis defeated German boxer Max Schmeling, that the general American public would embrace, and greatly accept, an African American as the World Heavyweight Champion.[63]

In 1904, Charles Follis became the first African American to play for a professional football team, the Shelby Blues,[63] and professional football leagues agreed to allow only a limited number of teams to be integrated.[63] In 1933, however, the NFL, now the only major football league in the United States, reversed its limited integration policy and completely segregated the entire league.[63] However, the NFL color barrier would permanently break in 1946, when the Los Angeles Rams signed Kenny Washington and Woody Strode and the Cleveland Browns hired Marion Motley and Bill Wallis.[63]

Prior to the 1930s, basketball would also suffer a great deal of discrimination as well.[63] Black and whites played mostly in different leagues and usually were forbidden from playing in inter-racial games.[63] However, the popularity of the African American basketball team The Harlem Globetrotters would alter the American public's acceptance of African Americans in basketball.[63] By the end of the 1930s, many northern colleges and universities would allow African Americans to play on their teams;[63] in 1942, the color barrier for basketball was removed after Bill Jones and three other African American basketball players joined the Toledo Jim White Chevrolet NBL franchise and five Harlem Globetrotters joined the Chicago Studebakers.[63]

By the end of 1949, however, only fifteen states had no segregation laws in effect.[61] and only eighteen states had outlawed segregation in public accommodations.[61] Of the remaining states, twenty still allowed school segregation to take place,[61] fourteen still allowed segregation to remain in public transportation[61] and 30 still enforced laws forbidding miscegenation.[61]

"As far as I'm concerned, what he did in those days—and they were hard days, in 1937—made it possible for Negroes to have their chance in baseball and other fields."

—Lionel Hampton on Benny Goodman,[64] who helped to launch the careers of many major names in jazz, and during an era of segregation, he also led one of the first racially integrated musical groups.

Black-White segregation is consistently declining for most metropolitan areas and cities, though there are geographical differences; in 2000, for instance, the US Census Bureau found that residential segregation has on average declined since 1980 in the West and South, but less so in the Northeast and Midwest.[65] Indeed, the top ten most segregated cities are in the Rust Belt, where total populations have declined in the last few decades,[66] despite these pervasive patterns, changes for individual areas are sometimes small.[67] Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which blacks and whites still often inhabit vastly different neighborhoods.[67][68]

Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,[69] access to health care,[70] or even supermarkets[71] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[72] areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to mortgage discrimination. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.[73]

The creation of highways in some cases divided and isolated black neighborhoods from goods and services, many times within industrial corridors, for example, Birmingham's interstate highway system attempted to maintain the racial boundaries that had been established by the city's 1926 racial zoning law. The construction of interstate highways through black neighborhoods in the city led to significant population loss in those neighborhoods and is associated with an increase in neighborhood racial segregation.[74]

The desire of some whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in white flight to the suburbs,[75] and in the foundation of numerous segregation academies and private schools which most African American students, though technically permitted to attend, are unable to afford.[76] Recent studies in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners tended to self-segregate to be with people of the same education level and race.[77] By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by indirect factors, including the phenomenon where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas,[73] the residential and social segregation of whites from blacks in the United States creates a socialization process that limits whites' chances for developing meaningful relationships with blacks and other minorities. The segregation experienced by whites from blacks fosters segregated lifestyles and leads them to develop positive views about themselves and negative views about blacks.[78]

Segregation affects people from all social classes, for example, a survey conducted in 2000 found that middle-income, suburban Blacks live in neighborhoods with many more whites than do poor, inner-city blacks. But their neighborhoods are not the same as those of whites having the same socioeconomic characteristics; and, in particular, middle-class blacks tend to live with white neighbors who are less affluent than they are. While, in a significant sense, they are less segregated than poor blacks, race still powerfully shapes their residential options.[79]

The number of hypersegregated inner-cities is now beginning to decline. By reviewing census data, Rima Wilkes and John Iceland found that nine metropolitan areas that had been hypersegregated in 1990 were not by 2000.[80] Only two new cities, Atlanta and Mobile, Alabama, became hypersegregated over the same time span,[80] this points towards a trend of greater integration across most of the United States.

Residential segregation in Milwaukee, the most segregated city in America according to the 2000 US Census. The cluster of blue dots represent black residents.[81]

Racial segregation is most pronounced in housing, although in the U.S. people of different races may work together, they are still very unlikely to live in integrated neighborhoods. This pattern differs only by degree in different metropolitan areas.[82]

Residential segregation persists for a variety of reasons. Segregated neighborhoods may be reinforced by the practice of "steering" by real estate agents, this occurs when a real estate agent makes assumptions about where their client might like to live based on the color of their skin.[83] Housing discrimination may occur when landlords lie about the availability of housing based on the race of the applicant, or give different terms and conditions to the housing based on race; for example, requiring that black families pay a higher security deposit than white families.[84]

Redlining has helped preserve segregated living patterns for blacks and whites in the United States because discrimination motivated by prejudice is often contingent on the racial composition of neighborhoods where the loan is sought and the race of the applicant. Lending institutions have been shown to treat black mortgage applicants differently when buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods in 1998.[85]

These discriminatory practices are illegal, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibits housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing fair housing laws. Any person who believes that they have faced housing discrimination based on their race can file a fair housing complaint.[86]

Households were held-back or limited to the money that could be made. Inequality was present in the workforce which lead over to the residential areas, this study provides this statistic of "The median household income of African Americans were 62 percent of non-Hispanic Whites ($27,910 vs. $44,504)"[87] However, blacks were forced by system to be in urban and poor areas while the whites lived together, being able to afford the more expensive homes, these forced measures promoted poverty levels to rise and belittle blacks.

Massey and Denton propose that the fundamental cause of poverty among African Americans is segregation. This segregation has created the inner city black urban ghettos that create poverty traps and keep blacks from being able to escape the underclass, it is sometimes claimed that these neighborhoods have institutionalized an inner city black culture that is negatively stigmatized and purports the economic situation of the black community. Sociolinguist, William Labov[88] argues that persistent segregation supports the use of African American English (AAE) while endangering its speakers, although AAE is stigmatized, sociolinguists who study it note that it is a legitimate dialect of English as systematic as any other.[89] Arthur Spears argues that there is no inherent educational disadvantage in speaking AAE and that it exists in vernacular and more standard forms.[90]

Historically, residential segregation split communities between the black inner city and white suburbs, this phenomenon is due to white flight where whites actively leave neighborhoods often because of a black presence. There are more than just geographical consequences to this, as the money leaves and poverty grows, crime rates jump and businesses leave and follow the money, this creates a job shortage in segregated neighborhoods and perpetuates the economic inequality in the inner city. With the wealth and businesses gone from inner city areas, the tax base decreases, which hurts funding for education. Consequently, those that can afford to leave the area for better schools leave decreasing the tax base for educational funding even more. Any business that is left or would consider opening doesn't want to invest in a place nobody has any money but has a lot of crime, meaning the only things that are left in these communities are poor black people with little opportunity for employment or education."[91]

Today, a number of whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.[92] By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods again effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into white neighborhoods. While some scholars maintain that residential segregation has continued—some sociologists have termed it "hypersegregation" or "American Apartheid"[9]—the US Census Bureau has shown that residential segregation has been in overall decline since 1980.[93] According to a 2012 study found that "credit markets enabled a substantial fraction of Hispanic families to live in neighborhoods with fewer black families, even though a substantial fraction of black families were moving to more racially integrated areas, the net effect is that credit markets increased racial segregation."[94]

As of 2015, residential segregation had taken new forms in the United States with black majority minority suburbs such as Ferguson, Missouri supplanting the historic model of black inner city, white suburbs.[95] Meanwhile, in locations such as Washington, D.C., gentrification had resulted in development of new white neighborhoods in historically black inner cities. Segregation occurs through premium pricing by white people of housing in white neighborhoods and exclusion of low-income housing[96] rather than through rules which enforce segregation. Black segregation is most pronounced; Hispanic segregation less so, and Asian segregation the least.[97][98]

Lila Ammons discusses the process of establishing black-owned banks during the 1880s-1990s, as a method of dealing with the discriminatory practices of financial institutions against African-American citizens of the United States. Within this period, she describes five distinct periods that illustrate the developmental process of establishing these banks, which were as followed:

In 1851, one of the first meetings to begin the process of establishing black-owned banks took place, although the ideas and implementation of these ideas were not utilized until 1888,[99] during this period, approximately 60 black-owned banks were created, which gave blacks the ability to access loans and other banking needs, which non-minority banks would not offer African-Americans.

Only five banks were opened during this time, while seeing many black-owned banks closed, leaving these banks with an expected nine-year life span for their operations,[100] with African-Americans continuing to migrate towards Northern urban areas, they were faced with the challenge of suffering from high unemployment rates, due to non-minorities willing to do work that African Americans would previously take part in.[101] At this time the entire banking industry, in the U.S., was suffering however, these banks suffered even more due to being smaller, having higher closure rates, as well as lower rates of loan repayment. The first groups of banks invested their finances back into the Black community, where as banks established during this period invested their finances mainly in mortgage loans, fraternal societies, and U.S. government bonds.[102]

Approximately 20 more banks were established during this period, which also saw African Americans become active citizens by taking part in various social movements centered around economic equality, better housing, better jobs, and the desegregation of society.[103] Through desegregation however, these banks could no longer solely depend on the Black community for business and were forced to become established on the open market, by paying their employees competitive wages, and were now required to meet the needs of the entire society instead of just the Black community.[103]

Urban deindustrialization was occurring, resulting in the number of black-owned banks being increased considerably, with 35 banks established, during this time,[104] although this change in economy allowed more banks to be opened, this period further crippled the African-American community, as unemployment rates raised more with the shift in the labour market, from unskilled labour to government jobs.[105]

Dan Immergluck writes that in 2003 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for business density, business size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.[107] Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.[108] Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers, a factor that disproportionately affects black workers.[109]

Rich Benjamin's book, Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America, reveals the state of residential, educational, and social segregation. In analyzing racial and class segregation, the book documents the migration of white Americans from urban centers to small-town, exurban, and rural communities. Throughout the 20th Century, racial discrimination was deliberate and intentional. Today, racial segregation and division result from policies and institutions that are no longer explicitly designed to discriminate. Yet the outcomes of those policies and beliefs have negative, racial impacts, namely with segregation.[110]

Segregation in education has major social repercussions, the prejudice that many young African-Americans experience causes them undue stress which has been proven to undermine cognitive development. Eric Hanushek and his co-authors have considered racial concentrations in schools, and they find large and important effects. Black students appear to be systematically and physically hurt by larger concentrations of black students in their school, these effects extend neither to white nor to Hispanic students in the school, implying that they are related to peer interactions and not to school quality.[111] Moreover, it appears that the effect of black concentrations in schools is largest for high achieving black students.[112]

Even African Americans from poor inner-cities who do attend universities continue to suffer academically due to the stress they suffer from having family and friends still in the poverty stricken inner cities.[113] Education is also used as a means to perpetuate hypersegregation. Real estate agents often implicitly use school racial composition as a way of enticing white buyers into the segregated ring surrounding the inner-city[114]

The percentage of black children who now go to integrated public schools is at its lowest level since 1968,[115] the words of "American apartheid" have been used in reference to the disparity between white and black schools in America. Those who compare this inequality to apartheid frequently point to unequal funding for predominantly black schools.[116]

In Chicago, by the academic year 2002–2003, 87 percent of public-school enrollment was black or Hispanic; less than 10 percent of children in the schools were white. In Washington, D.C., 94 percent of children were black or Hispanic; less than 5 percent were white.

The "New American apartheid" refers to the allegation that US drug and criminal policies in practice target blacks on the basis of race, the radical left-wing web-magazine ZNet featured a series of 4 articles on "The New American Apartheid" in which it drew parallels between the treatment of blacks by the American justice system and apartheid:

Modern prisoners occupy the lowest rungs on the social class ladder, and they always have, the modern prison system (along with local jails) is a collection of ghettos or poorhouses reserved primarily for the unskilled, the uneducated, and the powerless. In increasing numbers this system is being reserved for racial minorities, especially blacks, which is why we are calling it the New American Apartheid, this is the same segment of American society that has experienced some of the most drastic reductions in income and they have been targeted for their involvement in drugs and the subsequent violence that extends from the lack of legitimate means of goal attainment.[117]

This article has been discussed at the Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice and by several school boards attempting to address the issue of continued segregation.

In higher education some groups have contested racially separatist policies in college dormitories; in 2002, the New York Civil Rights Coalition[118] released "The Stigma of Inclusion, Racial Paternalism and Separatism in Higher Education." The report underscored patterns of self-segregation on college campuses that the authors alleged were encouraged by college administrators.[119]

Due to education being funded primarily through local and state revenue, the quality of education varies greatly depending on the geographical location of the school; in some areas, education is primarily funded through revenue from property taxes; therefore, there is a direct correlation in some areas between the price of homes and the amount of money allocated to educating the area's youth.[120] A 2010 US Census showed that 27.4% of all African-Americans lived under the poverty line, the highest percentage of any other ethnic group in the United States.[121] Therefore, in predominantly African-American areas, otherwise known as 'ghettos', the amount of money available for education is extremely low, this is referred to as "funding segregation".[120] This questionable system of educational funding can be seen as one of the primary reasons contemporary racial segregation continues to prosper. Predominantly Caucasian areas with more money funneled into primary and secondary educational institutions, allow their students the resources to succeed academically and obtain post-secondary degrees, this practice continues to ethnically, socially and economically divide America.

Alternative certificate programs were introduced in many inner-city schools and rural areas, these programs award a person a teaching license even though he/she has not completed a traditional teaching degree. This program came into effect in the 1980s throughout most states in response to the dwindling number of people seeking to earn a secondary degree in education,[122] this program has been very controversial. It is, "booming despite little more than anecdotal evidence of their success.[…] there are concerns about how they will perform as teachers, especially since they are more likely to end up in poor districts teaching students in challenging situations."[123] Alternative Certificate graduates tend to teach African-Americans and other ethnic minorities in inner-city schools and schools in impoverished small rural towns. Therefore, impoverished minorities not only have to cope with having the smallest amount of resources for their educational facilities but also with having the least trained teachers in the nation. Valorie Delp, a mother residing in an inner-city area whose child attends a school taught by teachers awarded by an alternative certificate program notes:

"One teacher we know who is in this program said he had visions of coming in to "save" the kids and the school and he really believes that this idea was kind of stoked in his program. No one ever says that you may have kids who threaten to stab you, or call you unspeakable names to your face, or can't read despite being in 7th grade."[124]

Delp showcases that, while many graduates of these certificate programs have honorable intentions and are educated, intelligent people, there is a reason why teachers have traditionally had to take a significant amount of training before officially being certified as a teacher, the experience they gain through their practicum and extensive classroom experience equips them with the tools necessary to educate today's youth.

Some measures have been taken to try give less affluent families the ability to educate their children. President Ronald Reagan introduced the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act on July 22, 1987,[125] this Act was meant to allow children the ability to succeed if their families did not have a permanent residence. Leo Stagman, a single, African-American parent, located in Berkeley, California, whose daughter had received a great deal of aid from the Act wrote on October 20, 2012 that, "During her education, she [Leo's daughter] was eligible for the free lunch program and received assistance under the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Educational Act. I know my daughter's performance is hers, but I wonder where she would have been without the assistance she received under the McKinney-Vento Act. Many students at BHS owe their graduation and success to the assistance under this law."[126]

Leo then goes on to note that, "the majority of the students receiving assistance under the act are Black and Brown."[126] There have been various other Acts enacted to try and aid impoverished youth with the chance to succeed. One of these Acts includes the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), this Act was meant to increase the accountability of public schools and their teachers by creating standardized testing which would give an overview of the success of the school's ability to educate their students.[127] Schools which repeatedly performed poorly would have increased attention and assistance from the federal government.[127] One of the intended outcomes of the Act was to narrow the class and racial achievement gap in the United States by instituting common expectations for all students.[127] Test scores have shown to be improving for minority populations, however, they are improving at the same rate for Caucasian children as well, this Act therefore, has done little to close the educational gap between Caucasian and minority children.[128]

There has also been an issue with minority populations becoming educated because to a fear of being accused of "Acting White." It is a hard definition to pin down, however, this is a negative term predominantly used by African-Americans that showing interest in one's studies is a betrayal of the African-American culture as one is trying to be a part of white society rather than staying true to his/her roots. Roland G. Fryer, Jr., at Harvard University has noted that, "There is necessarily a trade-off between doing well and rejection by your peers when you come from a traditionally low-achieving group, especially when that group comes into contact with more outsiders."[129] Therefore, not only are there economic and prehistoric causes of racial educational segregation, but there are also social notions that continue to be obstacles to be overcome before minority groups can achieve success in education.

Another impact of hypersegregation can be found in the health of the residents of certain areas. Poorer inner-cities often lack the health care that is available in outside areas, that many inner-cities are so isolated from other parts of society also is a large contributor to the poor health often found in inner-city residents. The overcrowded living conditions in the inner-city caused by hypersegregation means that the spread of infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, occurs much more frequently,[130] this is known as "epidemic injustice" because racial groups confined in a certain area are affected much more often than those living outside the area.

Poor inner-city residents also must contend with other factors that negatively affect health. Research has proven that in every major American city, hypersegregated blacks are far more likely to be exposed to dangerous levels of air toxins.[131] Daily exposure to this polluted air means that African-Americans living in these areas are at greater risk of disease.

One area where hypersegregation seems to have the greatest effect is in violence experienced by residents, the number of violent crimes in the U.S. in general has fallen. The number of murders in the U.S. fell 9% from the 1980s to the 1990s.[132] Despite this number, the crime rates in the hypersegregated inner-cities of America are rising, as of 1993, young African-American men are eleven times more likely to be shot to death and nine times more likely to be murdered than their European American peers.[9] Poverty, high unemployment, and broken families, all factors more prevalent in hypersegregated inner-cities, all contribute significantly to the unequal levels of violence experienced by African-Americans. Research has proven that the more segregated the surrounding European American suburban ring is, the rate of violent crime in the inner-city will rise, but, likewise, crime in the outer area will drop.[132]

One study finds that an area's residential racial segregation increases metropolitan rates of black poverty and overall black-white income disparities, while decreasing rates of white poverty and inequality within the white population.[133]

Research shows that segregation along racial lines contributes to public goods inequalities. Whites and blacks are vastly more likely to support different candidates for mayor than whites and blacks in more integrated places, which makes them less able to build consensus, the lack of consensus leads to lower levels of public spending.[135]

^Berea College in Kentucky was the main exception until state law in 1904 forced its segregation. Richard Allen Heckman and Betty Jean Hall. "Berea College and the Day Law." Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 66.1 (1968): 35-52. in JSTOR

^Schaffer, Gavin (2007). "'"Scientific" Racism Again?': Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the Question of 'Race' in Science after the Second World War". Journal of American Studies. 41 (2): 253–278. doi:10.1017/S0021875807003477.

^Jackson, John P. Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown V. Board of Education. p. 148. ISBN0-8147-4271-8.

^Connerly, Charles E. (2002). "From Racial Zoning to Community Empowerment: The Interstate Highway System and the African American Community in Birmingham, Alabama". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 22 (2): 99–114. doi:10.1177/0739456X02238441.

^Alana Semuels (June 2, 2015). "Where Should Poor People Live?". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 4, 2015. For more than a century, municipalities across the country have crafted zoning ordinances that seek to limit multi-family (read: affordable) housing within city limits. Such policies, known as exclusionary zoning, have led to increased racial and social segregation, which a growing body of work indicates limits educational and employment opportunities for low-income households.

1.
Racial segregation
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SMPTE color bars is a television test pattern used where the NTSC video standard is utilized, including countries in North America. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers refers to this test pattern as Engineering Guideline EG 1-1990, the components of this pattern are a known standard. The pattern is used for setting a television monitor or receiver to reproduce NTSC chrominance and luminance information correctly. The color bar test pattern was originally conceived by Norbert D. Larky of RCA Laboratories, U. S. patent 2,742,525 Color Test Pattern Generator was awarded on April 17,1956 to Norbert D. Larky and David D. Holmes. Previously categorized by SMPTE as ECR 1-1978, the development of this test pattern was awarded an Engineering Emmy in 2001-2002, the Color bar signal is generated with unconventionally slow rise and fall time value to facilitate video level control and monitor color adjustments of HDTV and SDTV equipment. In a survey of the top standards of the organizations first 100 years, in a SMPTE color bar image, the top two-thirds of the television picture contain seven vertical bars of 75% intensity. In order from left to right, the colors are white, yellow, cyan, green, magenta, red, and blue. The graticule of a vectorscope is etched with boxes showing the regions where the traces from these seven bars are supposed to fall if the signal is properly adjusted. Below the main set of seven bars is a strip of blue, magenta, cyan, the bottom section of the test pattern contains a square of 100% intensity white and a rectangle of 7. 5% intensity black, for use in setting the luminance range. More modern versions of the feature a pluge pulse. The white square lines up so that it is below the green and cyan bars, on a waveform monitor this will show up with the white bar overlapping the peak of the yellow, the pluge pulse is positioned within the black rectangle, below the red bar. It comprises three vertical bars, a rightmost one with intensity 4% above black level, a middle one with intensity exactly equal to black. When a monitor is properly adjusted, the rightmost pluge bar should be just barely visible, while the two should appear indistinuishable from each other and completely black. On a vectorscope, they appear as two short lines ninety degrees apart and these are used to ensure that the television receiver is properly demodulating the 3.58 MHz color subcarrier portion of the signal. The vectors for the -I and +Q blocks should fall exactly on the I and Q axes on the vectorscope if the signal is demodulated properly. These bars give rise to the portion of the casual term, bars. Likewise, producers of television programs typically record bars and tone at the beginning of a videotape or other recording medium so that the equipment can be calibrated. Often, the name or callsign of the TV station, other such as a real-time clock

2.
Race and ethnicity in the United States
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The United States has a racially and ethnically diverse population. In fact, the Census asks an Ancestry Question which covers the broader notion of ethnicity initially in the 2000 Census long form, White Americans are the racial majority. African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to 13. 2% of the population, Hispanic and Latino Americans amount to 17% of the population, making up the largest ethnic minority. The White, non-Hispanic or Latino population make up 62. 6% of the nations total, Non-Hispanic Whites make up 79% of the Midwests population, the highest ratio of any region. However, 35% of White Americans live in the South, the most of any region, 55% of the African American population lives in the South. A plurality or majority of the other official groups reside in the West, Black or African American, those having origins in any of the native peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa. Asian American, those having origins in any of the peoples of the Far East, Central Asia, North Asia, Southeast Asia. Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islander, those having origins in any of the peoples of Polynesia, Melanesia. Some other race, respondents may write how they identify themselves, however, 95% of the people who report in this category are Hispanic Mestizos. This is not a standard OMB race category, two or more races, widely known as multiracial, those who check off and/or write in more than one race. Any respondent may identify with any number, up to all six, each person has two identifying attributes, racial identity and whether or not they are of Hispanic ethnicity. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature and they have been changed from one census to another, and the racial categories include both racial and national-origin groups. In 2007 the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the US Department of Labor finalized its update of the EEO-1 report format, in particular, this update concerns the definitions of racial/ethnic categories. The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race, Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Andorra, Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse, consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. Each racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans, see the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article. Self-identifying as both Hispanic or Latino and not Hispanic or Latino is neither allowed nor explicitly prohibited. In the United States since its history, Native Americans, Africans and Europeans were considered to belong to different races

3.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor

4.
White people
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White people is a racial classification specifier, used for people of Europid ancestry, with the exact implications dependent on context. The contemporary usage of people or a white race as a large group of populations contrasting with black, American Indian. It is today used as a racial classifier in multiracial societies, such as North Africa, United States. The term white race or white people entered the major European languages in the later 17th century, in the context of racialized slavery, description of populations as white in reference to their skin color predates this notion and is found in Greco-Roman ethnography and other ancient sources. Scholarship on race generally distinguishes the concept from pre-modern descriptions of collective difference. In the literature of the Ancient Near East and Classical Antiquity and we know that Egyptians were not oblivious to skin color, however, because artists paid attention to it in works of art, to the extent the pigments at the time permitted. Classicist James Dee states the Greeks do not describe themselves as white people—or as anything else because they had no word in their color vocabulary for themselves. Peoples skin color did not carry meaning, what mattered is where they lived. Religious conversion was sometimes described figuratively as a change in skin color, similarly, the Rigveda uses krsna tvac black skin as a metaphor for irreligiosity. The Ancient Egyptian funerary text known as the Book of Gates distinguishes four groups in a procession and these are the Egyptians, the Levantine/Canaanite peoples or Asiatics, the Nubians and the fair-skinned Libyans. The Egyptians are depicted as a reddish brown, the Nubians as black skinned, the Semites from the Levant and Canaan as light skinned. Herodotus described the Scythian Budini as having blue eyes and bright red hair. And the Egyptians – quite like the Colchians – as melánchroes and he also gives the possibly first reference to the common Greek name of the tribes living south of Egypt, otherwise known as Nubians, which was Aithíopes. Later Xenophon described the Aethiopians as black and the Persian troops as white compared to the skin of Greek troops. These color adjectives are found in contrast to the standard set by the own group. According to historian Irene Silverblatt, Race thinking … made social categories into racial truths, Alastair Bonnett argues that white identity, as it is presently conceived, is an American project, reflecting American interpretations of race and history. According to Gregory Jay, a professor of English at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Before the age of exploration, group differences were based on language, religion. … the European had always reacted a bit hysterically to the differences of skin color, in the 16th and 17th centuries, East Asian peoples were almost uniformly described as white, never as yellow

5.
Lancaster, Ohio
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Lancaster is a city in Fairfield County, Ohio, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 38,780 and it is located near the Hocking River, approximately 33 miles southeast of Columbus and is the county seat of Fairfield County. The current mayor of Lancaster is Republican Brian S. Kuhn, many mounds and burial sites have also yielded archaeological artifacts. It served as a crossroads for the intertribal and intra-tribal wars fought at various times. Noted frontier explorer Christopher Gist reached the vicinity of Lancaster on January 19,1751, leaving the area the next day, Gist rode southwest to Maguck, another Delaware town near Circleville. White settlers began to encroach on Native American lands in the Ohio Territory, with pioneer settlement within Ohio made legal and safe from Indian raids, developers began to speculate in land sales in earnest. As part of the deal, Zane was awarded square-mile tracts of land at the points where his trace crossed the Hocking, Muskingum, Lancaster predated the formal establishment of the state of Ohio by three years. The initial settlers were predominantly of German stock, and emigrated from Pennsylvania, ohios longest continuously operating newspaper, the Lancaster Eagle-Gazette was born of a merger of the early Der Ohio Adler, founded about 1807, with the Ohio Gazette, founded in the 1830s. This was shortly after the Gazette was acquired by glassmaker Anchor-Hocking, the newspaper is currently part of the Newspaper Network of Central Ohio, which is in turn a unit of Gannett Company, Inc. Initially known as New Lancaster, and later shortened by city ordinance, the connection of the Hocking Canal to the Ohio and Erie Canal in this era provided a convenient way for the regions rich agricultural produce to reach eastern markets. Modern Lancaster is distinguished by a blend of 19th-century architecture. Lancaster is home to the Lancaster campus of Ohio University, offering a variety of two- and four-year baccalaureate degrees and this continually expanding branch offers many courses in a variety of settings, including multi-site classes via the Ohio University Learning Network and online classes. Lancaster is home to the Lancaster Festival, an 11-day arts, Lancaster is home to both the Decorative Arts Center of Ohio and the Ohio Glass Museum, both located within the downtown area. Lancaster is home to the Lancaster Eagle-Gazette newspaper, Lancaster is home to the Fairfield County Fair, a week-long fair and the last county fair in Ohio each year, always on the second week of October. It features a variety of attractions including truck, tractor, and horse pulls, demolition derbies, concerts, bands, the Fairfield County Fair also includes lots of food, exhibits, games, and rides for people of all ages. It is located in Rising Park, a city park on the citys north side. It is possible to climb to the top of Mount Pleasant by following a marked trail from the park through the woods that cover the bluffs other sides. There is also a cave known unofficially as Devils Kitchen in the front in which people are willing to climb about 20 feet using only shallow bear claws

6.
Separate but equal
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The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase equal but separate. The doctrine was confirmed in the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896, in practice the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal, usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. The doctrine was overturned by a series of Supreme Court decisions, however, the overturning of segregation laws in the United States was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation, and many court cases. However Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a manner that kept the races separate and this rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases. After the end of Reconstruction, the government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of policy was the second Morrill Act. Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act had provided funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act which implicitly accepted the concept of separate. Prior to the Second Morrill Act,17 states excluded blacks from access to the land grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act,17 states established separate land grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities. In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, the legitimacy of such laws under the 14th Amendment was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. The Plessy doctrine was extended to the schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education,175 U. S.528. In Texas, the established a state-funded law school for white students without any law school for black students. In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, the conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was 7/8ths white and 1/8th black, Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately. One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson, plessys lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy’s 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment granted equal protection to all under the law, the Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson established the phrase separate but equal. The ruling railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others

7.
Racism in the United States
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Racism and ethnic discrimination in the United States has been a major issue since the colonial era and the slave era. Legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights were given to white Americans that were not granted to Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, East and South Asians have similarly faced racism in America. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the century. Racial politics remains a phenomenon, and racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality. Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, as the United States gained its independence from Great Britain it sought to keep distancing itself from Europe and its ideologies. The distinctions within the population came from the ideological and legal implementation of race within the newly formed America, as Jeffries argues the Western analytic concept of race allowed for a rhetorical smoothing over when it came to slavery. While the existence of slavery is arguably the root of subsequent conceptualizations of African-Americans, colonies were sources of mineral wealth and crops, to be used to the home countrys advantage. Using Native Americans for manpower was impractical, they were decimated by disease, using Europeans for labor proved unsustainably expensive, as well as harmful to the supply of labor in the home countries. However, African slaves were available in numbers at prices that made plantation agriculture in the Americas profitable. It is also argued that, along with the motives underlying slavery in the Americas. According to this view, the European in-group for humane behavior included the sub-continent, with the capability to spread their schematic representation of the world, Europeans could impose a social contract, morally permitting three centuries of African slavery. As a result of the above, the Atlantic slave trade prospered, according to estimates in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, between 1626 and 1860 more than 470,000 slaves were forcibly transported from Africa to what is now the United States. Furthermore, approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to the Civil War, according to the 1860 U. S. census, there were about 385,000 slaveowners out of a white population in the slave states of approximately 7 million. During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society was the vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa. Established the colony of Liberia, assisting thousands of former African-American slaves and it was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off. Although in 1820 the slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death, the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the 13th Amendment which was declared ratified on December 6,1865, about 4 million black slaves were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North, consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North

8.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President

9.
Military history of African Americans
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The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United States to the present day. African-Americans as slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war, ray Raphael notes that while thousands did join the Loyalist cause, A far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. Black soldiers served in militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South. Over 100,000 slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms, despite Dunmores promises, the majority were not given their freedom. Many Black Loyalists descendants now live in Canada and Sierra Leone, many of the Black Loyalists performed military service in the British Army, particularly as part of the only Black regiment of the war the Black Pioneers, and others served non-military roles. In response, and because of shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. At least 5,000 African-American soldiers fought as Revolutionaries, peter Salem and Salem Poor are the most noted of the African American Patriots during this era, and Colonel Tye was perhaps the most noteworthy Black Loyalist. Black volunteers also served with various of the South Carolina guerrilla units, including that of the Swamp Fox, Francis Marion, half of whose force sometimes consisted of free Blacks. These Black troops made a difference in the fighting in the swamps. At least 12 other black men served with various American Marine units in 1776–1777, more may have been in service but not identified as blacks in the records. However, in 1798 when the United States Marine Corps was officially re-instituted, Secretary of War James McHenry specified in its rules, No Negro, Mulatto or Indian to be enlisted. Marine Commandant William Ward Burrows instructed his recruiters regarding USMC racial policy, You can make use of Blacks and Mulattoes while you recruit, the USMC maintained this policy until 1942. Hannibal Collins, a slave and Oliver Hazard Perrys personal servant, is thought to be the oarsman in William Henry Powells Battle of Lake Erie. Collins earned his freedom as a veteran of the Revolutionary War and he accompanied Perry for the rest of Perrys naval career, and was with him at Perrys death in Trinidad in 1819. No legal restrictions regarding the enlistment of blacks were placed on the Navy because of its shortage of manpower. The law of 1792, which generally prohibited enlistment of blacks in the Army became the United States Armys official policy until 1862, Louisiana permitted the existence of separate black militia units which drew its enlistees from freed blacks. A number of African Americans in the Army during the Mexican–American War were servants of the officers who received government compensation for the services of their servants or slaves, also, soldiers from the Louisiana Battalion of Free Men of Color participated in this war. African Americans also served on a number of vessels during the Mexican–American War, including the USS Treasure

10.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote

11.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on

12.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2,1964, Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963. On June 11,1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening and this led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, the presidents bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U. S. law, in essence, this was the controversial Title III that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality, Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October,1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22,1963, kennedys successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee, by the time of the 1963 winter recess,50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill, to avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastlands firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor, Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Said Russell, We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about equality and intermingling. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals, on the morning of June 10,1964, Senator Robert Byrd completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, a day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bills manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. On June 19, the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, and quickly passed through the House-Senate conference committee

13.
Redlining
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During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected

14.
White flight
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The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some historians have challenged the white flight as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations, according to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its components, the first data set potentially capable of proving white flight was the 1950 census. But original processing of data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau. It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof required for policy makers to consider taking action. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, in 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it, after World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs and this may have exacerbated urban decay. In Birmingham, Alabama, the government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of blockbusting was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, the remaining white inhabitants, fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. Losses happened when they sold en masse, and would sell the properties to the black families, profiting from price arbitrage

15.
European Americans
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European Americans are Americans with ancestry from Europe. The Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, St. Augustine, Spanish Florida, was the first known person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare, born in 1587 on Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, European Americans are included in the category of White. White is defined by the United States Census Bureau as a person having origins in any of the peoples of Europe. According to the US Census, European Americans are a subset of White Americans, the term Non-Hispanic White is often used as a proxy for European Americans, although that also includes a small fraction of peoples of Middle Eastern descent. In 1995, as part of a review of the Office of Management,15, a survey was conducted of census recipients to determine their preferred terminology for the racial/ethnic groups defined in the Directive. For the White group, European American came third, preferred by 2. 35% of panel interviewees, the term is used interchangeably with Caucasian American, White American, and Anglo American in many places around the United States. Also, whereas the terms White American and Caucasian American carry somewhat ambiguous definitions, depending on the speaker, European American has a specific definition. According to linguist Janet Bing, the term European American has increased a little in use, the term is used by some to emphasize the European cultural and geographical ancestral origins of Americans, in the same way as is done for African Americans and Asian Americans. A European American awareness is still notable because 90% of the classified as white in the U. S. Census knew their European ancestry. Historically, the concept of an American originated in the United States as a person of European ancestry, thus excluding African Americans, as a linguistic concern, the term is sometimes meant to discourage a dichotomous view of the racial landscape between the white category and everyone else. Margo Adair suggests that the recognition of specific European American ancestries allows certain Americans to become aware that they come from a variety of different cultures, since 1607, some 57 million immigrants have come to the United States from other lands. Approximately 10 million passed through on their way to other place or returned to their original homelands. Prior to 1960, the majority came from Europe or European descent from Canada. In 1960 for example,75. 0% of foreign-born population in the United States came from the region of Europe. Before 1881, the vast majority of immigrants, almost 86% of the total, arrived from northwest Europe, principally Great Britain, Ireland, Germany, the years between 1881 and 1893 the pattern shifted, in the sources of U. S. Between 1894 and 1914, immigrants from southern, central, some people of colonial stock, especially in the Mid-Atlantic states, are also of Dutch, German and Flemish descent

16.
Douglas Massey
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Douglas S. Massey is an American sociologist. Massey specializes in the sociology of immigration, and has written on the effect of segregation on the black underclass in the United States. He received his Bachelor of Arts in Sociology, Psychology, and Spanish, from Western Washington University in 1974, Massey continued at Princeton University and received his PhD in 1978. He was a Guggenheim fellow in 1990–1991 and he is married to psychologist Susan Fiske. Douglas S. Massey is the founder and co-director of the Mexican Migration Project and he served as the 92nd president of the American Sociological Association, 2000–2001, and has won several awards for his books. Since 2006 he has been president of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, in 2008, he received a special recognition from the World Cultural Council. What I Dont Know About My Field but Wish I Did, dimensions of the New Immigration to the United States and the Prospects for Assimilation. Princeton University, Sociology Department Mexican Migration Project Latin American Migration Project Video of discussion/interview with Douglas Massey by Will Wilkinson on Bloggingheads. tv

17.
Oklahoma City
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Oklahoma City is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Oklahoma. The county seat of Oklahoma County, the city ranks 27th among United States cities in population, the population grew following the 2010 Census, with the population estimated to have increased to 631,346 as of July 2015. Oklahoma Citys city limits extend into Canadian, Cleveland, and Pottawatomie counties, the city ranks as the eighth-largest city in the United States by land area. Oklahoma City has the largest municipal population of any city in the Great Plains region of the central United States as well as all neighboring states to Oklahoma, excluding Texas, lying in the Great Plains region, Oklahoma City features one of the largest livestock markets in the world. Oil, natural gas, petroleum products and related industries are the largest sector of the local economy, the city is situated in the middle of an active oil field and oil derricks dot the capitol grounds. The federal government employs large numbers of workers at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma City is on the I-35 Corridor, which is one of the primary travel corridors south into neighboring Texas and Mexico and north towards Wichita and Kansas City. Located in the Frontier Country region of the state, the citys northeast section lies in a region known as the Cross Timbers. The city was founded during the Land Run of 1889, the city was the scene of the April 19,1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, in which 168 people died. It was the deadliest terror attack in the history of the United States until the attacks of September 11,2001, and remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U. S. history. Oklahoma City was settled on April 22,1889, when the known as the Unassigned Lands was opened for settlement in an event known as The Land Run. Some 10,000 homesteaders settled the area that would become the capital of Oklahoma, the town grew quickly, the population doubled between 1890 and 1900. Early leaders of the development of the city included Anton Classen, John Shartel, Henry Overholser, by the time Oklahoma was admitted to the Union in 1907, Oklahoma City had surpassed Guthrie, the territorial capital, as the population center and commercial hub of the new state. Soon after, the capital was moved from Guthrie to Oklahoma City, before World War II, Oklahoma City developed major stockyards, attracting jobs and revenue formerly in Chicago and Omaha, Nebraska. With the 1928 discovery of oil within the city limits, Oklahoma City became a center of oil production. Post-war growth accompanied the construction of the Interstate Highway System, which made Oklahoma City a major interchange as the convergence of I-35, I-40 and it was also aided by federal development of Tinker Air Force Base. In 1950, the Census Bureau reported citys population as 8. 6% black and 90. 7% white, patience Latting was elected Mayor of Oklahoma City in 1971, becoming the citys first female mayor. Latting was also the first woman to serve as mayor of a U. S. city with over 350,000 residents. As with many other American cities, center city population declined in the 1970s and 1980s as families followed newly constructed highways to move to housing in nearby suburbs

18.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states

19.
Civil Rights Act of 1875
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The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1,1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases that sections of the act were unconstitutional, the bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875. The Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15,1883, Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate the badge of slavery, but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law by the government until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 during the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War. Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and this legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America, An Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. The Supreme Courts Sanction of Racial Hatred, The 1883 Civil Rights Cases, shades of Freedom, Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process. The Shifting Wind, The Supreme Court and Civil Rights from Reconstruction to Brown, New York, State University of New York Press. State Response to the Civil Right Issue, 1883-1885, the Civil Rights Act of 1875, A Failure Reconsidered. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895, From The Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass, accommodating Jim Crow, The Law of Hospitality and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Badges and Incidents of Slavery In the Supreme Court, the Promises of Liberty, The History and Contemporary Relevance of the Thirteenth Amendment. The Reconstruction Desegregation Debate, The Politics of Equality and the Rhetoric of Place, east Lansing, Michigan State University Press. In Jessie Carney Smith, Linda T. Wynn, Freedom Facts and Firsts,400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. The Civil Rights Act of 1875, Some Reflected Light on the Fourteenth Amendment, the Enforcement of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Gudridge, Patrick O. Privileges and Permissions, The Civil Rights Act of 1875, Charles Sumner, the Constitution, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875

20.
American Missionary Association
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The American Missionary Association was a Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on September 3,1846 in Albany, New York. The main purpose of organization was to abolish slavery, to educate African Americans, to promote racial equality. Its members and leaders were of races, The Association was chiefly sponsored by the Congregationalist churches in New England. Starting in 1861, it opened camps in the South for freed slaves and it played a major role during the Reconstruction Era in promoting education for blacks in the South. From the beginning the leadership was integrated, the first board was made up of 12 men, one of its primary objectives was to abolish slavery. The AMA was actually one of the responsible for pushing slavery onto the national political agenda. The organization started the American Missionary magazine, published from 1846 through 1934, among its achievements was the founding of anti-slavery churches. Members of the AMA began their support of education for blacks before the Civil War, by wars end, there were 100 contraband camps, and many had AMA teachers. The AMA also served the Roanoke Island Freedmens Colony, located on an island occupied by Union troops, the colony was intended to be self-sustaining. It was supervised by Horace James, a Congregational chaplain appointed by the Army as Superintendent for Negro Affairs in the North Carolina District, the first of 27 teachers who volunteered through the AMA was his cousin, Elizabeth James. By 1864 the colony had more than 2200 residents, and both children and adults filled the classrooms in the several schools, as they were eager for learning. The missionary teachers also evangelized and helped provide the medical care of the time. The AMAs pace of founding schools and colleges increased during and after the war, Freedmen, historically free blacks, and white sympathizers alike believed that education was a priority for the newly freed slaves. Together with the Freedmens Bureau, the AMA founded Howard University in Washington, in addition, the AMA organized the Freedmens Aid Society, which recruited northern teachers for the schools and arranged to find housing for them in the South. In the mid-1870s, however, the Association pronounced black suffrage a failure, by the 1870s, the AMA national office had relocated to New York City. Its magazine, American Missionary, had a circulation of 20,000 in the 19th century, the Cornell University Library has editions from 1878-1901 accessible online in its Making of America digital library. While the AMA became notable in the United States with its work in opposition to slavery and in support of education for freedmen, the 19th-century missionary effort was strong in India, China and east Asia. Over time, the association became most closely aligned with the Congregational Christian Churches, most of those congregations have become members of the United Church of Christ

21.
Fisk University
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Fisk University is a private historically black university founded in 1866 in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. The 40-acre campus is a district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1930, Fisk was the first African-American institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges, accreditations for specialized programs quickly followed. AMA support meant the organization tried to use its sources across the country to aid education for freedmen, enrollment jumped from 200 to 900 in the first several months of the school, indicating freedmens strong desire for education, with ages of students ranging from seven to seventy. The school was named in honor of General Clinton B, Fisk of the Tennessee Freedmens Bureau, who made unused barracks available to the school, as well as establishing the first free schools for white and black children in Tennessee. In addition, he endowed Fisk with a total of $30,000, the American Missionary Associations work was supported by the United Church of Christ, which retains an affiliation with the university. Fisk opened to classes on January 9,1866, James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson graduated as well and became a member of the Fisk Jubilee Singers. Walker became a missionary while the Burrus brothers were both prominent educators and, during their careers, professors at Fisk. Cravath organized the College Department and the Mozart Society, the first musical organization in Tennessee, rising enrollment added to the needs of the university. In 1870 Adam Knight Spence became principal of the Fisk Normal School, with a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the start of a student choir. In 1871 the student choir went on a tour in Europe. They toured to raise funds to build the first building for the education of freedmen and they raised nearly $50,000 and funded construction of the renowned Jubilee Hall, now a designated National Historic Landmark. On April 12,1873, the Jubilee Singers sailed for England where they sang before an audience in the presence of the Queen. During the 1880s Fisk had a building program, as well as expanding its curriculum offerings. By the turn of the 20th century, it added black teachers and staff to the university, from 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was President of Fisk. McKenzies tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history, McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities and other aspects of student life led to student protests. In 1947 Fisk heralded its first African-American president with the arrival of Charles Spurgeon Johnson, Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter, organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4,1953

22.
Shaw University
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Shaw University, founded as the Raleigh Institute, is a private liberal arts institution and historically black university in Raleigh, North Carolina, United States. Founded on December 1,1865, it is the oldest HBCU in the Southern United States, the founder of Livingstone College studied at Shaw, before transferring to Lincoln University. What became North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University was located on Shaw’s campus during its first year, the university has won CIAA championships in Football, Basketball, and Mens Tennis. In 2007, Shaw received $2.5 million from the National Science Foundation to support its Nanoscience, in 2004, Shaw University received $1.1 million from the U. S. Department of Education to develop an Upward Bound Program. The University also offers programs in Divinity, Religious Education. The Center for Alternative Programs in Education has centers in Greenville, Kannapolis, High Point, Rocky Mount, Ahoskie, Fayetteville, Durham, Wilmington, the school was founded by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. By 1915, supported by the American Baptist Home Mission, the school had 291 students, in 1867 the school consisted of three buildings, two of which were Antebellum cabins. As of 1875 when Shaw Collegiate Institute became Shaw University only two structures existed – The Shaw Building and Estey Seminary. It provided instruction services, a library, and lodging, the seminary, reputed to be the first building ever erected for the education of African-American females, was devoted to training women in cooking, sewing, music, and the like. Henry Martin Tupper bought the material from which the women made garments and he sold the garments in an effort to pay for the cost of the material. In 1879, a major building was erected – a chapel. Greenleaf of Springfield, MA, a liberal contributor. The upper part of the building was accessible by stairs, doors on either side of the tower provided entrance to the dining room. At the right of the chapel was a room and at the left a library. A storeroom existed under the stairway, funds saved from the school were used to build this structure. These were augmented by contributions of $650 from O. H, Greenleaf, Captain Ebenezer Morgan, and Deacon O. B. It was renamed Shaw Collegiate Institute after Elijah Shaw, benefactor of Shaw Hall, in 1875, it became Shaw University. In 1873, Estey Hall was built, marked the first female dormitory on the campus of a school in the United States

23.
Howard University
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Howard University is a federally chartered, private, coeducational, nonsectarian, historically black university in Washington, D. C. It is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a university with high research activity and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. From its outset it has been nonsectarian and open to people of both genders and all races, Howard is classified as a Tier 1 national university and ranks second among HBCUs by U. S. News & World Report. Howard is the only HBCU ranked in the top 75 on the 2015 Bloomberg Businessweek college rankings, the Princeton Review ranked the school of business #1 in opportunities for minority students and in the top five for most competitive students. The National Law Journal ranked the law school among the top 25 in the nation for placing graduates at the best law firms, Howard has produced four Rhodes Scholars between 1986 and 2017. Between 1998 and 2009, Howard University produced a Marshall Scholar, in 2011, the Huffington Post named Howard the second best-dressed college in the nation. Howard is the most comprehensive HBCU in the nation and produces the most black doctorate recipients of any university, within a few weeks, the project expanded to include a provision for establishing a university. Within two years, the University consisted of the Colleges of Liberal Arts and Medicine, the new institution was named for General Oliver Otis Howard, a Civil War hero, who was both the founder of the University and, at the time, Commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau. Howard later served as President of the university from 1869–74, U. S. Congress chartered Howard on March 2,1867, and much of its early funding came from endowment, private benefaction, and tuition. An annual congressional appropriation administered by the U. S. Department of Education funds Howard University, many improvements were made on campus. Howard Hall was renovated and made a dormitory for women, J. Stanley Durkee, Howards last white president, was appointed in 1918. The Great Depression years of the 1930s brought hardship to campus, despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels during the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Howard University has played an important role in American history and the Civil Rights Movement on a number of occasions, alain Locke, Chair of the Department of Philosophy and first African American Rhodes Scholar, authored The New Negro, which helped to usher in the Harlem Renaissance. Ralph Bunche, the first Nobel Peace Prize winner of African descent, beginning in 1942, Howard University students pioneered the stool-sitting technique, which was to play a prominent role in the later civil rights movement. By January,1943, students had begun to organize regular sit-ins and pickets at cigar stores and cafeterias around Washington and these protests continued until the administration asked the students to stop in the Fall of 1944. Historian Rayford Logan served as chair of the Department of History, E. Franklin Frazier served as chair of the Department of Sociology. Sterling Allen Brown served as chair of the Department of English, at the time, the Voting Rights bill was still pending in the House of Representatives. In 1975 the historic Freedmans Hospital closed after 112 years of use as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital, Howard University Hospital opened that same year and continues to be used as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital with service to the surrounding community

24.
Atlanta University
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Clark Atlanta University is a private, historically black university in Atlanta, in the U. S. state of Georgia. It was formed in 1988 with the consolidation of Clark College, Clark Atlanta University is a member of the United Negro College Fund and is the largest institution in the Atlanta University Center Consortium. By the late 1870s, Atlanta College had begun granting degrees and supplying black teachers. In 1929–30, it began offering graduate education exclusively in various liberal arts areas and it gradually added professional programs in social work, library science, and business administration. At this same time, Atlanta University affiliated with Morehouse College, the story of the Atlanta University over the next twenty years from 1930 includes many significant developments. Graduate Schools of Library Science, Education, and Business Administration were established in 1941,1944, the Atlanta School of Social Work, long associated with the university, gave up its charter in 1947 to become an integral part of the university. In 1957, the controlling Boards of the six institutions ratified new Articles of Affiliation, the new contract created the Atlanta University Center. The influence of Atlanta University has been extended through professional journals and organizations, including Phylon, du Bois, a member of the center. Clark College was founded in 1869 by the Methodist Episcopal Church and it was named for Bishop Davis Wasgatt Clark, who was the first President of the Freedmans Aid Society and became Bishop in 1864. A sparsely furnished room in Clark Chapel, a Methodist Episcopal church in Atlantas Summerhill section, in 1871, the school relocated to a new site on the newly purchased Whitehall and McDaniel Street property. In 1877, the School was chartered as Clark University, an early benefactor, Bishop Gilbert Haven, visualized Clark as the university of all the Methodist schools founded for the education of freedmen. Also in 1883, Clark established a theology department, named for Dr. Elijah H. Gammon, the Gammon School of Theology in 1888 became an independent theological seminary. It is part of the Interdenominational Theological Center, Clark Atlanta Universitys main campus houses 37 buildings on 126 acres and is 1.5 miles from the center of Atlanta. Pfeiffer Hall Holmes Hall Merner Hall Bumstead Hall – vacant for renovations Ware Hall Beckwith Hall Residential Apartments – now called James P. Brawley Hall when the original James P. The Isabella T. Clark Atlantas Center for Functional Nanoscale Measures has produced more black Ph. D. s in Nanoscale Science than any HBCU in the nation. Clark Atlanta is annually ranked on the list of The Washington Monthly of Best Colleges and Universities, Clark Atlanta has a Carnegie classification of Research University – High Research Activity and is one of only four Historically Black Colleges and Universities to earn such a distinction. The preeminent scheduled event of CAU Experience is the induction ceremony. At the ceremony, new students are officially inducted as Clark Atlanta University students

25.
Hampton University
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Hampton University is a private historically black university located in Hampton, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1868 by black and white leaders of the American Missionary Association after the American Civil War to provide education to freedmen, in 1878, it established a program for teaching Native Americans, which lasted until 1923. These facilities represented freedom to slaves, who sought refuge with Union forces during the first year of the war. She first taught for the AMA on September 17,1861 and was said to gather her pupils under a large oak, after the tree was the site of the first reading in the former Confederate states of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, it was called the Emancipation Oak. The tree, now a symbol of the university and of the city, is part of the National Historic Landmark District at Hampton University and it was first led by former Union General Samuel Chapman Armstrong. Among the schools famous alumni is Dr. Booker T. Washington, during the American Civil War, Union-held Fortress Monroe in southeastern Virginia at the mouth of Hampton Roads became a gathering point and safe haven of sorts for fugitive slaves. The commander, General Benjamin F. Butler, determined they were contraband of war, to them from being returned to slaveholders. This area was later called Slabtown, the newly issued Emancipation Proclamation was first read to a gathering under the historic tree there in 1863. After the War, a school was formalized in 1868. The new school was established on the grounds of a plantation named Little Scotland. The original school buildings fronted the Hampton River, legally chartered in 1870 as a land grant school, it was first known as Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. One of the many Civil War veterans who gave substantial sums to the school was General William Jackson Palmer and he later built the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, and founded Colorado Springs, Colorado. As the Civil War began in 1861, although his Quaker upbringing made Palmer abhor violence and he was awarded the Medal of Honor for bravery in 1894. Unlike the wealthy Palmer, Sam Armstrong was the son of a missionary to the Sandwich Islands and he also had dreams for the betterment of the freedmen. He patterned his new school after the model of his father and he wanted to teach the skills necessary for blacks to be self-supporting in the impoverished South. Under his guidance, a Hampton-style education became well known as an education that combined cultural uplift with moral and manual training, Armstrong said it was an education that encompassed the head, the heart, and the hands. At the close of its first decade, the school reported a total admission in the ten years of 927 students, with 277 graduates, many of them had bought land and established themselves in homes, many were farming as well as teaching, some had gone into business. Only a very small proportion failed to do well, by another 10 years, there had been over 600 graduates

26.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources

27.
Deep South
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The Deep South is a cultural and geographic subregion in the Southern United States. Historically, it is differentiated from the Upper South as being the states most dependent on plantation-type agriculture, the Deep South was also commonly referred to as the Lower South or the Cotton States, for their production of cotton as the primary commodity crop. Today, the Deep South is usually delineated as being those states, the seven states that seceded from the United States before the firing on Fort Sumter and the start of the American Civil War, and were the first to form the Confederate States of America. Ultimately the Confederacy included eleven states, in order of secession they are, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The first six states to secede were those that held the largest number of slaves, a large part of the original Cotton Belt. Some of this is coterminous with the Black Belt, originally referring to areas of Alabama and Mississippi with fertile soil. The term came to be used for much of the Cotton Belt, though often used in history books to refer to the seven states that originally formed the Confederacy, the term Deep South did not come into general usage until long after the Civil War ended. Up until that time, Lower South was the designation for those states. This was the part of the South many considered the most Southern, later, the general definition expanded to include all of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and often taking in bordering areas of East Texas and North Florida. Houston is the largest city of the Deep South region and they sometimes served as overseers on plantations. Georgia -1,132,184 out of 3,009,484 people identified as English, making them 37. 62% of the states total. Mississippi -496,481 people out of 1,551,364 people identified as English, making them 32. 00% of the total, the largest national group by a wide margin. Florida -1,132,033 people out of 5,159,967 identified English as their only ancestry group, making them 21. 94% of the total. Louisiana -440,558 people out of 2,319,259 people identified only as English, making them 19. 00% of the total people and the second-largest ancestry group in the state at the time. Those who wrote only French were 480,711 people out of 2,319,259 people, or 20. 73% of the total state population. Texas -1,639,322 people identified as English only out of a total of 7,859,393 people, making them 20. 86% of the people in the state. These figures to do not take into account people who identified as English, when the two were added together, people who self identified as being of English with other ancestry, made up an even larger portion of southerners. South Carolina was settled earlier than those states commonly classified as the Deep South, the map to the right was prepared by the Census Bureau from the 2000 census, it shows the predominant ancestry in each county as self-identified by residents themselves

28.
Movie theater
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A movie theater or movie theatre is a venue, usually a building, that contains an auditorium for viewing films, for entertainment. Most, but not all, movie theaters are commercial operations catering to the general public, Some movie theaters, however, are operated by non-profit organizations or societies which charge members a membership fee to view films. The film is projected with a projector onto a large projection screen at the front of the auditorium while the dialogue, sounds. Since the 1970s, subwoofers have used for low-pitched sounds. In the 2010s, most movie theaters are equipped for digital cinema projection, removing the need to create, a great variety of films are shown at cinemas, ranging from animated films for children, blockbusters for general audiences and documentaries for patrons who are interested in non-fiction topics. The smallest movie theaters have a viewing room with a single screen. In the 2010s, most movie theaters have multiple screens, the largest theater complexes, which are called multiplexes—a design developed in the U. S. in the 1960s—have up to 25 screens. The audience members sit on padded seats which in most theaters are set up on a sloped floor. Movie theaters typically sell soft drinks, popcorn and candy and some theaters also sell hot fast food, in some jurisdictions, movie theaters are licensed to sell alcoholic drinks. A movie theater may also be referred to as a theatre, movie house, film house. In the US, theater has long been the preferred spelling, while in the UK, Canada, the latter terms, as well as their derivative adjectives cinematic and kinematic, ultimately derive from Greek κινῆμα, κινήματος —movement, motion. In the countries where those terms are used, the theatre is usually reserved for live performance venues. Colloquial expressions, mostly applied to motion pictures and motion picture theaters collectively, include the silver screen, specific to North American term is the movies, while specific terms in the UK are the pictures, the flicks and for the facility itself the flea pit. A screening room is a theater, often a private one. Open air place in ancient times for viewing spectacles and plays, the term theater comes from the Old French word theatre, from the 12th century and. The use of the theatre to mean a building where plays are shown dates from the 1570s in the English language. The earliest precursors to movies were magic lantern shows, magic lanterns used a glass lens, a shutter and a powerful lamp to project images from glass slides onto a white wall or screen. The invention of the Argand lamp in the 1790s, limelight in the 1820s, the magic lantern could project rudimentary moving images, which was achieved by the use of various types of mechanical slides

29.
Belzoni, Mississippi
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Belzoni is a city in Humphreys County, Mississippi, in the Mississippi Delta region, on the Yazoo River. The population was 2,235 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Humphreys County. It was named for the 19th-century Italian archaeologist/explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni, the area was named Farm-Raised Catfish Capital of the World in 1976 by then Governor Cliff Finch, since it produces more farm-raised catfish than any other U. S. county. About 40,000 acres of the county are under water in ponds used to grow catfish, about 60% of U. S. farm-raised catfish are grown within a 65-mile radius of Belzoni. The title Catfish Capital is also claimed by Savannah, Tennessee, Des Allemands, Louisiana, Belzoni is known for the World Catfish Festival held every April. The area that eventually became Belzoni was originally known as Greasy Row because of saloons along the bank of the Yazoo River, which was the main transportation route until replaced by railroads. In 1895, a charter was granted for the village of Belzoni, although the area had settled by European Americans. It was developed for cotton plantations before the Civil War and relied on well into the 20th century. Steve Castleman, who secured the charter, was elected as the first mayor of Belzoni, when Humphreys County was formed by the state legislature in 1918, Belzoni was selected as the county seat. Belzoni was the site of the murder of a civil rights pioneer. His killers were never found, as the governor of Mississippi, Hugh L. White, many consider Lee the first martyr of the modern civil rights movement. In 2000, she recalled, I remember how difficult it was to register people and she said that the civil rights movement changed Humphreys County, and bettered the lot of African Americans. There was real change in Belzoni, streets were paved in hog town, sewers no longer overflowed into the dirt streets. Several black families I knew from then have held office during the last decade. In 2006, Belzoni elected Wardell Walton as mayor, the first African-American to hold the position and he was re-elected to a second term. He was succeeded in 2013 by Lenora Sutton, the first female mayor of Belzoni, Belzonis role in history has been recognized primarily through historical marker campaigns. There is a marker for Reverend George Lee as part of the Mississippi Freedom Trail, detailing his contribution to the Civil Rights movement in Mississippi, in 1990, the local African-American community placed concrete markers on each side of George Lee Avenue. Each catfishs design is based on a reference to its specific commercial sponsor or on a chosen by that sponsor

30.
Plessy v. Ferguson
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Plessy v. Ferguson,163 US537 was a landmark constitutional law case of the US Supreme Court. It upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities under the doctrine of separate, the decision was handed down by a vote of 7 to 1 with the majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown and the dissent written by Justice John Marshall Harlan. Separate but equal remained standard doctrine in U. S. law until its repudiation in the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education. In 1890, the state of Louisiana passed a law that required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on railroads, concerned, a group of prominent black, creole, and white New Orleans residents formed the Comité des Citoyens dedicated to repeal the law or fight its effect. They persuaded Homer Plessy, a man of mixed race, to participate in an orchestrated test case, Plessy was born a free man and was an octoroon. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, on June 7,1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a whites only car of the East Louisiana Railroad in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for Covington, Louisiana. After Plessy took a seat in the railway car, he was asked to vacate it. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective, as planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in Orleans Parish, Plessy was convicted and sentenced to pay a $25 fine. Plessy immediately sought a writ of prohibition, the Committee of Citizens took Plessys appeal to the Supreme Court of Louisiana, where he again found an unreceptive ear, as the state Supreme Court upheld Judge Fergusons ruling. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled as early as 1849 that segregated schools were constitutional, in answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court stated, This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law and cannot be changed by law. Similarly, in commenting on a Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated and it is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to intermix. Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court in 1896, two legal briefs were submitted on Plessys behalf. One was signed by Albion W. Tourgée and James C. Walker, oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13,1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy, Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was property, which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by Attorney General Milton Joseph Cunningham of Natchitoches, earlier, Cunningham had fought to restore white supremacy during Reconstruction. Justice Edward Douglass White of Louisiana was one of the majority, in the seven-to-one decision handed down on May 18,1896, the Court rejected Plessys arguments based on the Fourteenth Amendment, seeing no way in which the Louisiana statute violated it. In addition, the rejected the view that the Louisiana law implied any inferiority of blacks

31.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included

32.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks

33.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered

34.
National Youth Administration
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It operated from June 26,1935 to 1939 as part of the Works Progress Administration. Following the passage of the Reorganization Act of 1939, the NYA was transferred from the WPA to the Federal Security Agency, in 1942, the NYA was transferred to the War Manpower Commission. The NYA was dissolved in 1943, by 1938, college youth were paid from $6 to $40 a month for work study projects at their schools. Another 155,000 boys and girls from families were paid $10 to $25 a month for part-time work that included job training. Unlike the Civilian Conservation Corps, it included young women, the youth normally lived at home, and worked on construction or repair projects. Its annual budget was approximately $58,000,000, the NYA was headed by Aubrey Willis Williams, a prominent liberal from Alabama who was close to Harry Hopkins and Eleanor Roosevelt. The head of the Texas division at one point was Lyndon B, johnson, who was later to become president of the United States. The NYA operated several programs for out of school youth, as the Great Depression continued to grip the American economy and inhibit the harnessing of American potential, unemployment and poverty spiraled to record lows. These debilitating years saw youth unemployment dip to 30% and the younger cohorts of the United States increasingly faced the devastation of not being able to afford education, serving as the main catalyst for change and accelerator for government intervention, Eleanor Roosevelt recognized the need for government involvement. In 1934 she notably declared that she frequently experienced moments of terror when we might be losing this generation. To combat the forces that entangled the youth and their families. The NYAs first mission embodied the goal to prevent already-enrolled high school and university students from dropping out before earning their degree and these efforts stemmed from a twofold mission to develop the youths talent, while simultaneously keeping them from flooding the already-suffering and compromised labor markets. Secondly, the NYA was committed to providing training and employment for long-term value, by 1937, more than 400,000 youth were employed or participating in occupational training under the NYA. Interestingly, these programs and occupational placements were put to the ultimate test with the onset of World War II. The 1939 outbreak of war in Europe provided the testing grounds to observe the effectiveness of NYAs training. The war effort increased the reach and saw a substantial surge in young. On a more level, the NYA was also fundamental in bringing race considerations into the dialogue surrounding aid to workers. This platform was strongly pushed by Aubrey Williams leadership in the agency and he was a forerunner in addressing unemployment and access to education among African Americans, creating the Office of Minority Affairs

35.
Civilian Conservation Corps
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The Civilian Conservation Corps was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families as part of the New Deal. Originally for young men ages 18–25, it was expanded to young men ages 17–28. Robert Fechner was the head of the agency, the CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men, and to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States. At the same time, it implemented a general natural resource conservation program in every state, maximum enrollment at any one time was 300,000. Over the course of its nine years in operation,3 million young men participated in the CCC, which provided them shelter, clothing. The American public made the CCC the most popular of all the New Deal programs, principal benefits of an individuals enrollment in the CCC included improved physical condition, heightened morale, and increased employability. The CCC operated separate programs for veterans and Native Americans, approximately 15,000 Native Americans participated in the program, helping them weather the Great Depression. Despite its popular support, the CCC was never a permanent agency and it depended on emergency and temporary Congressional legislation and funding to operate. By 1942, with World War II and the draft in operation, the need for work relief declined, as governor of New York, Roosevelt had run a similar program on a much smaller scale. He promised this law would provide 250,000 young men with meals, housing, uniforms, the Emergency Conservation Work Act was introduced to Congress the same day and enacted by voice vote on March 31. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6101 on April 5,1933 which established the CCC organization and appointed a director, Robert Fechner, the organization and administration of the CCC was a new experiment in operations for a federal government agency. A CCC Advisory Council was composed of a representative each of the supervising departments. In addition, the Office of Education and Veterans Administration participated in the program, to end the opposition from labor unions Roosevelt chose Robert Fechner, vice president of the American Machinists Union, as director of the corps. William Green, head of the American Federation of Labor, was taken to the first camp to demonstrate that there would be no job training involved beyond simple manual labor. Reserve officers from the U. S. Army were in charge of the camps, General Douglas MacArthur was placed in charge of the program but said that the number of Army officers and soldiers assigned to the camps was affecting the readiness of the Regular Army. But the Army also found benefits in the program. When the draft began in 1940, the policy was to make CCC alumni corporals, CCC also provided command experience to Organized Reserve Corps officers. Through the CCC, the Regular Army could assess the performance of both Regular and Reserve Officers

36.
Harold L. Ickes
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Harold LeClair Ickes was an American administrator and politician. He and Labor Secretary Frances Perkins were the original members of the Roosevelt cabinet who remained in office for his entire presidency. Ickes was responsible for implementing much of President Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal and he was in charge of the major relief program, the Public Works Administration, and in charge of the federal governments environmental efforts. Before his national-level political career, where he did remove segregation in areas of his direct control, he had been the president of the Chicago NAACP. Weaver, who in 1966 became the first African-American person to hold a position in the U. S. was in the Black Kitchen Cabinet. He was the father of Harold M. Ickes, White House Deputy Chief of Staff for President Bill Clinton, of Scottish and German ancestry, Ickes was born in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. He moved to Chicago at the age of 16 upon his mothers death and he was the class president while at Englewood. After graduating, he worked his way through the University of Chicago, at Chicago, Ickes was a charter member re-establishing the Illinois Beta Chapter of Phi Delta Theta. He first worked as a reporter for The Chicago Record. He obtained a law degree from the University of Chicago Law School in 1907, instead, he became active in reform politics. Initially a Republican in Chicago, Ickes was never part of the establishment and he was unsatisfied with Republican policies and joined Theodore Roosevelts Bull Moose movement in 1912. After returning to the Republican fold, he campaigned for progressive Republicans Charles Evans Hughes and Hiram Johnson. He fought lengthy and legendary battles first with Chicago figures Samuel Insull, the magnate, William Hale Thompson, the mayor, and Robert R. McCormick. Later he had a battle with Thomas E. Dewey. Although locally active in Chicago politics, he was unknown nationally until 1933, as part of this involvement, Ickes was involved in Chicagos social and political affairs, among his many activities include his work for the City Club of Chicago. After Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president in 1932, he began putting together his cabinet and his advisers thought the Democratic president needed a progressive Republican to attract middle-of-the-road voters. He sought out Hiram Johnson, a Republican Senator at the time who had supported Roosevelt in the campaign, Johnson, however, recommended an old ally, Ickes. Ickes served simultaneously in major roles for Roosevelt

The term Reconstruction Era, in the context of the history of the United States, has two senses: the first covers the …

The Southern economy had been ruined by the war. Charleston, South Carolina: Broad Street, 1865

A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.

Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war

The New Deal was a series of federal programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted in the …

Top left: The Tennessee Valley Authority, part of the New Deal, being signed into law in 1933 Top right: President Roosevelt was responsible for initiatives and programs of the New Deal. Bottom: A public mural from one of the artists employed by the Works Progress Administration, part of the New Deal

USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.

1935 cartoon by Vaughn Shoemaker; he parodied the New Deal as a card game with alphabetical agencies.

Roosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through his declaration that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" and his "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.

Advertisement by a slave trader offering various amounts for slaves in Lexington, Kentucky, 1853

Ashley's Sack is a cloth that recounts a slave sale separating a mother and her daughter. The sack belonged to a nine-year-old girl Ashley which was a parting gift from her mother, Rose, after Ashley had been sold. Rose filled the sack with a dress, braid of her hair, pecans, and "my love always"