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De Ranter (RF MAGIC, US) and Steyaert (KU Leuven, Belgium) describe layout innovations for complementary steel oxide semiconductor conversation circuits, particularly oscillators and upconverters. The layout instruments defined are in response to topology-specific layout templates that may be used as a framework for automating layout strategies.

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The independent paths can be distinct in space, time, frequency, or polarization. Time diversity mechanisms aim at spreading the data over time so that the effects of burst errors are minimized. Frequency diversity mechanisms spread the transmission over a wider frequency spectrum, or use multiple carriers for transmitting the information. The direct sequence spread spectrum and the frequency hopping spread spectrum techniques (which will be described later in this chapter) are some of the important frequency diversity mechanisms.

In fast FHSS, the dwell time on each frequency is very small, that is, the rate of change of frequencies is much higher than the information bit rate, resulting in each bit being transmitted across multiple frequency hops. In slow FHSS, the dwell time on each frequency is high, hence multiple bits are transmitted on each frequency hop. FHSS is now used mainly for short-range radio signals, particularly those in the unlicensed bands. 9. Illustration of FHSS. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum The principle behind direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) can be explained easily by the following analogy.

Thus the SNR for an FM wave is higher than that for an AM wave. Some common applications where FM is used are radio broadcasts and first-generation cellular phones. 3 (d) shows the FM modulated signal. Phase Modulation In phase modulation (PM), the phase of the modulated signal Φ(t) is directly proportional to the information signal x(t). 4) where n p is a constant, known as the phase modulation index. 2 that [2πf c t + Φ(t)] is the phase of the modulated signal. The instantaneous phase deviation of the modulated signal from the carrier signal is Φ(t).