Unserdeutsch ("Our German"), or Rabaul Creole German, is a German-based creole language that originated in Papua New Guinea. It was formed among the New Guinean children residing in a German-run orphanage in what was then German New Guinea. About 100 native speakers survive today, most of whom migrated to Australia after Papua New Guinea's independence in 1975.[1]

Most speakers of Unserdeutsch are bilingual; speaking either Standard German, English, Tok Pisin or Kuanua. Most speakers are middle-aged or older, although younger members of the community may comprehend the language, the descendant of a pidginised form of Standard German which originated in the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain during German colonial times among the Catholic mixed-race (Vunapope) community. With increased mobility and intermarriage, it has been disappearing in the last few decades.

Unserdeutsch presumably influenced the development of its neighbour, Tok Pisin. Unlike Namibian Black German in Namibia, it is a creole; indeed, it is the only creole that developed from colonial German.[3]

Papua New Guinea
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Its capital, located along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian provinces of Papua, Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. There are 852 known languages in the country, of which 12 have no known living speakers, most of the population of more than 7 mill

3.
Lime container, late 19th or early 20th century. The container is decorated with wood carving of crocodile and bird. Punctuation is emphasised with a white paint. The central portion, hollow to hold the lime, is made of bamboo. The joints are covered with basketry work.

Language family
–
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the pr

German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other member

1.
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)

2.
The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into German by Martin Luther helped establish modern German

Creole language
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A creole language is a stable natural language developed from a mixture of different languages. Creole languages, therefore, have a developed vocabulary and system of grammar. The precise number of languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500 and these are

1.
Road sign in Guadeloupe Creole meaning Slow down. Children are playing here. The literal translation is "Lift your foot [from the accelerator]. There are small people playing here".

2.
Creole in use at car rental counter, USA

German people
–
Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse

German New Guinea
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German New Guinea was the first part of the German colonial empire. It was a protectorate from 1884 until 1914 when it fell to Australian forces following the outbreak of the First World War and it consisted of the northeastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups. The mainland part of German New Guinea and the islands of the Bismarc

Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to t

Bilingual
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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the worlds population, more than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one other language in addition to their mother tongue. Multilingualism is becom

4.
The three-language (Tamil, English and Hindi) name board at the Tirusulam suburban railway station in Chennai (Madras). Almost all railway stations in India have signs like these in three or more languages (English, Hindi and the local language).

English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language i

1.
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

Tok Pisin
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Tok Pisin is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is a language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in that country. However, in parts of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro Province and Milne Bay Provinces, the use of Tok Pisin has a shorter history, while it likely developed as a trade pidgin, Tok Pisin has become a

1.
A 1971 reference book on Tok Pisin (then called Melanesian Pidgin).

2.
Sign in common use in the 1980s giving a warning in Tok Pisin: "Work on road, cars must stop if you see the red sign."

Gazelle Peninsula

1.
Gazelle Peninsula seen from space

2.
Map of Gazelle Peninsula, 1912

Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries

Special Broadcasting Service
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The Special Broadcasting Service is a hybrid-funded Australian public broadcasting radio, online, and television network. SBS operates four TV channels and five radio networks, SBS Online is home to SBS On Demand video streaming service. SBS is one of five main networks in Australia. These started broadcasting in June 1975, with pre-recorded messag

1.
The wall of the SBS carpark in Artarmon, showing the 'Mercator' logo, used from 1993 to 2008

International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

German language in Namibia
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Namibia is a multilingual country wherein German is recognized as a national language. While English is the official language of the country since 1990. German is especially used in central and southern Namibia and was until 1990 one of three official languages in what was then South West Africa, alongside Afrikaans and English. The German Namibian

4.
German place names are especially prevalent in the south of the country

Amana German
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In German linguistics, German dialects are distinguished from varieties of Standard German. The German dialects are the local varieties. They are traditionally traced back to the different Germanic tribes, many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only Standard German, since they often differ from Standard German in lexicon, phono

1.
Distribution of the native speakers of major continental West Germanic dialects today [citation needed] (dialects of the following standard languages: Dutch, German, and Frisian). The colors in this map do not reflect the actual relationship between the languages or dialects.

Alsatian dialect
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Alsatian is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken in most of Alsace, a region in eastern France which has passed between French and German control five times since 1681. A dialect of Alsatian German is spoken in the United States by so-called Swiss Amish, the approximately 7,000 speakers are mainly located in Allen County, Indiana but also in daugh

Pennsylvania German language
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Pennsylvania German is a variety of West Central German spoken by the Amish and Old Order Mennonites in the United States and Canada, closely related to the Palatine dialects. There are possibly more than 300,000 native speakers in North America, although for many, the term Pennsylvania Dutch is often taken to refer to the Amish and related Old Ord

1.
Blue: The counties with the highest proportion of Pennsylvania German speakers. Red: The counties with the highest number of Pennsylvania German speakers. Purple: The counties with both the highest proportion and highest number of Pennsylvania German speakers.

Texas German
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Texas German is a German language dialect spoken by descendants of German immigrants who settled in Texas in the mid-19th century. These German Texans founded the towns of Bulverde, New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Boerne, Walburg, and Comfort in Texas Hill Country, and Schulenburg and Weimar to the east. During World War I, Texas education rules wer

1.
Gillespie County

Brazilian German
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The German-based varieties spoken by German Brazilians together form a significant minority language in Brazil. Brazilian German is strongly influenced by Portuguese and to an extent by Italian dialects as well as indigenous languages. German dialects are particularly strong in Brazils South and Southeast Regions, according to Ethnologue, ca.3 mill

East Pomeranian dialect
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East Pomeranian is an East Low German dialect that is or used to be spoken in Northern Poland. It is part of the Pommersch dialect group, the name Pomerania comes from Slavic po more, which means Land at the Sea. East Pomeranian was mostly spoken in the Farther Pomerania region of the Prussian Province of Pomerania, after World War II, the East Pom

1.
Papua New Guinea
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Its capital, located along its southeastern coast, is Port Moresby. The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian provinces of Papua, Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. There are 852 known languages in the country, of which 12 have no known living speakers, most of the population of more than 7 million people live in customary communities, which are as diverse as the languages. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18 percent of its live in urban centres. The country is one of the worlds least explored, culturally and geographically and it is known to have numerous groups of uncontacted peoples, and researchers believe there are many undiscovered species of plants and animals in the interior. Papua New Guinea is classified as an economy by the International Monetary Fund. Strong growth in Papua New Guineas mining and resource sector led to the becoming the sixth fastest-growing economy in the world in 2011. Growth was expected to slow once major resource projects came on line in 2015, mining remains a major economic factor, however. Local and national governments are discussing the potential of resuming mining operations in Panguna mine in Bougainville Province, nearly 40 percent of the population lives a self-sustainable natural lifestyle with no access to global capital. Most of the still live in strong traditional social groups based on farming. Their social lives combine traditional religion with modern practices, including primary education, at the national level, after being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea established its sovereignty in 1975. This followed nearly 60 years of Australian administration, which started during the Great War and it became an independent Commonwealth realm with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state and became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans first arrived in Papua New Guinea around 42,000 to 45,000 years ago and they were descendants of migrants out of Africa, in one of the early waves of human migration. Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, a major migration of Austronesian-speaking peoples to coastal regions of New Guinea took place around 500 BC. This has been correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, in the 18th century, traders brought the sweet potato to New Guinea, where it was adopted and became part of the staples. Portuguese traders had obtained it from South America and introduced it to the Moluccas, the far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture and societies. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and resulted in a significant increase in population in the highlands. In 1901, on Goaribari Island in the Gulf of Papua, missionary Harry Dauncey found 10,000 skulls in the islands Long Houses, traders from Southeast Asia had visited New Guinea beginning 5,000 years ago to collect bird of paradise plumes

Papua New Guinea
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Kerepunu villagers, British New Guinea, 1885.
Papua New Guinea
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Flag
Papua New Guinea
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Lime container, late 19th or early 20th century. The container is decorated with wood carving of crocodile and bird. Punctuation is emphasised with a white paint. The central portion, hollow to hold the lime, is made of bamboo. The joints are covered with basketry work.
Papua New Guinea
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Australian forces attack Japanese positions during the Battle of Buna–Gona. 7 January 1943.

2.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others

3.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

4.
Creole language
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A creole language is a stable natural language developed from a mixture of different languages. Creole languages, therefore, have a developed vocabulary and system of grammar. The precise number of languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500 and these are predominantly based on European languages, due to the Age of Discovery and the Atlantic slave trade that arose at that time. In addition to creoles that have European languages as their base, there are, for example, creoles based on Arabic, Chinese, the Middle English creole hypothesis argues that English is itself a creole. If so, this would make it the creole with the largest number of speakers, if this hypothesis is untrue, the creole with the largest number of speakers is Haitian Creole, with about ten million native speakers. The lexicon of a language is largely supplied by the parent languages. However, there are often clear phonetic and semantic shifts, on the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages. A creole is believed to arise when a pidgin, developed by adults for use as a language, becomes the native. The pidgin-creole life cycle was studied by Hall in the 1960s, Creoles share more grammatical similarities with each other than with the languages from which they are phylogenetically derived. However, there is no accepted theory that would account for those perceived similarities. Like most non-official and minority languages, creoles have generally regarded in popular opinion as degenerate variants or dialects of their parent languages. Because of that prejudice, many of the creoles that arose in the European colonies, however, political and academic changes in recent decades have improved the status of creoles, both as living languages and as object of linguistic study. Some creoles have even been granted the status of official or semi-official languages of particular political territories, Linguists now recognize that creole formation is a universal phenomenon, not limited to the European colonial period, and an important aspect of language evolution. For example, in 1933 Sigmund Feist postulated a creole origin for the Germanic languages, Pidgins, according to Mufwene, emerged in trade colonies among users who preserved their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as an everyday vernacular, the English term creole comes from French créole, which is cognate with the Spanish term criollo and Portuguese crioulo, all descending from the verb criar, all coming from Latin creare. They were most commonly applied to nationals of the colonial power, however, in Brazil the term was also used to distinguish between negros crioulos and negros africanos. Over time, the term and its derivatives lost the generic meaning, originally, therefore, the term creole language meant the speech of any of those creole peoples

Creole language
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Road sign in Guadeloupe Creole meaning Slow down. Children are playing here. The literal translation is "Lift your foot [from the accelerator]. There are small people playing here".
Creole language
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Creole in use at car rental counter, USA

5.
German people
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity

6.
German New Guinea
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German New Guinea was the first part of the German colonial empire. It was a protectorate from 1884 until 1914 when it fell to Australian forces following the outbreak of the First World War and it consisted of the northeastern part of New Guinea and several nearby island groups. The mainland part of German New Guinea and the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago. The Micronesian islands of German New Guinea are now governed as the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, the mainland portion, Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, was formed from the northeastern part of New Guinea. The islands to the east of Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, on annexation, were renamed the Bismarck Archipelago, due to their accessibility by water, however, these outlying islands were, and have remained, the most economically viable part of the territory. With the exception of German Samoa, the German islands in the Western Pacific formed the Imperial German Pacific Protectorates. These were administered as part of German New Guinea and they included the German Solomon Islands, the Carolines, Palau, the Marianas, the Marshall Islands, the total land area of German New Guinea was 249,500 square kilometres. By the end of 1875, one German trader reported, German trade and German ships are encountered everywhere, the most important ones were the Kolonialverein of 1882 and the Society for German Colonization founded in 1884. But you know, my map of Africa is here and you see here is Russia, over there is France. And us, we are here – right in the middle between those two, despite his personal objections, it was Bismarck himself who eventually organised the acquisition of much of what would become the German colonial empire. The very first attempts at the new policy came in 1884 when Bismarck had to put German trading interests in southwestern Africa under imperial protection. Bismarck told the Reichstag on 23 June 1884 of the change in German colonial policy, annexations would now proceed, recent explorations had given the basis for reconsideration, it is considered useful by geology and biology people as holding in its forests the key to solve problems. A profitable field for cultivation but London had only sent missionaries to save souls, as we Germans have learnt a little about conducting colonial policy, and as our wishes and plans turn with a certain vivacity towards New Guinea. He also instructed the London Agent for Queensland to urge the Imperial Colonial Office to an act of annexation, when news of this reached London, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Derby promptly repudiated the act. Finsch encouraged them to pursue the founding of a colony on the north-east coast of New Guinea, on 3 November 1884, under the auspices of the Deutsche Neuguinea-Compagnie, the German flag was flown over Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, the Bismarck Archipelago and the German Solomon Islands. Albert Hahl joined the German Colonial Office in 1895 and until 1914 played a part in New Guineas administration. After 1901 Hahl attempted to apply his system to the whole of New Guinea and he was forced to retire because of disagreements with Berlin officials, and became an active writer on New Guinea and was a leader in German colonial societies between the wars. By the mid-1880s German church authorities had devised a program for missionary work in New Guinea and assigned it to the Rhenish Mission, under the direction of Friedrich Fabri

German New Guinea
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1895 20 Mark gold coin issued by the German New Guinea Company.
German New Guinea
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Flag
German New Guinea
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Native recruits during drill in German New Guinea
German New Guinea
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20-pfennig "Yacht", postmarked Matupi, 11 March 1902

7.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia

Australia
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Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
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Portrait of Captain James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
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Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.

8.
Bilingual
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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the worlds population, more than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one other language in addition to their mother tongue. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization, people who speak several languages are also called polyglots. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals, even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates the other. People who know more than one language have been reported to be adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization, the definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language so as to sound native, on the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions, in addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or a dialect of English. Many small independent nations schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions, for example, in, all children are required to learn at least two foreign languages, the other national language and one alien language. Many Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian, in some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In major metropolitan areas of Central, South and East India, thus a child of Telugu parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue at home and the state language, Hindi and English in school and his or her surroundings. Many myths and much prejudice has grown around the notions of bi- and these are all harmful convictions which have long been debunked, yet still persist among many parents. A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, more specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. A multilingual person is referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed

9.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

English language
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The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
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Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

10.
Tok Pisin
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Tok Pisin is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is a language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in that country. However, in parts of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro Province and Milne Bay Provinces, the use of Tok Pisin has a shorter history, while it likely developed as a trade pidgin, Tok Pisin has become a distinct language in its own right. It is often referred to by Anglophones as New Guinea Pidgin or Pidgin English, between five and six million people use Tok Pisin to some degree, although not all speak it well. Many now learn it as a first language, in particular the children of parents or grandparents who originally spoke different vernaculars, perhaps one million people now use Tok Pisin as a primary language. Tok is derived from English talk, but has an application, also meaning word, speech. While Tok Pisins name in the language is Tok Pisin, it is also called New Guinea Pidgin in English, Papua New Guinean anglophones almost invariably refer to Tok Pisin as Pidgin when speaking English. However, professional linguists prefer to use the term Tok Pisin, the Tok Pisin language is a result of Pacific Islanders intermixing, when people speaking numerous different languages were sent to work on plantations in Queensland and various islands. The labourers began to develop a pidgin, drawing primarily from English. This English-based pidgin evolved into Tok Pisin in German New Guinea and it became a widely used lingua franca – and language of interaction between rulers and ruled, and among the ruled themselves who did not share a common vernacular. Along with English and Hiri Motu, Tok Pisin is one of the three languages of Papua New Guinea. It is frequently the language of debate in the national parliament, most government documents are produced in English, but public information campaigns are often partially or entirely in Tok Pisin. While English is the language in the education system, some schools use Tok Pisin in the first three years of elementary education to promote early literacy. The Tok Pisin alphabet contains 22 letters and 4 digraphs, five of which are vowels and it has 17 consonants and 5 vowels. However, this varies with the local languages and the level of education of the speaker. The following is the phonemic inventory, common to virtually all varieties of Tok Pisin. More educated speakers, and/or those where the language have larger phoneme inventories. Nasal plus plosive offsets lose the element in Tok Pisin e. g. English hand becomes Tok Pisin han

Tok Pisin
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A 1971 reference book on Tok Pisin (then called Melanesian Pidgin).
Tok Pisin
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Sign in common use in the 1980s giving a warning in Tok Pisin: "Work on road, cars must stop if you see the red sign."

11.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century

Namibia
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German church and monument to colonists in Windhoek
Namibia
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Flag
Namibia
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Map of Bantustans, land set aside for black inhabitation, in South West Africa
Namibia
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Sand dunes in the Namib Desert, Namibia

12.
Special Broadcasting Service
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The Special Broadcasting Service is a hybrid-funded Australian public broadcasting radio, online, and television network. SBS operates four TV channels and five radio networks, SBS Online is home to SBS On Demand video streaming service. SBS is one of five main networks in Australia. These started broadcasting in June 1975, with pre-recorded messages in seven and eight foreign languages, the following year, the Federal Government formed the Consultative Committee on Ethnic Broadcasting. Following the recommendation of this and subsequent committees, the Broadcasting and this legislation came into force on 1 January 1978, with the new broadcaster taking responsibility for 2EA and 3EA. SBS TV began test transmissions in April 1979 when it showed various foreign language programs on ABV-2 Melbourne, full-time transmission began at 6,30 p. m. on 24 October 1980, as Channel 0/28. The first program shown was a documentary entitled Who Are We. which was hosted by veteran news man Peter Luck, at the time, SBS was broadcasting on UHF Channel 28 and VHF Channel 0, with a planned discontinuation of the latter at some time in the future. Bruce Gyngell, who introduced television to Australia back in 1956, was given the task of introducing the first batch of programs on the new station. On 14 October 1983, the service expanded into Canberra, Cooma and its new slogan was the long-running Bringing the World Back Home. The network changed its name to SBS on 18 February 1985, SBS expanded to Brisbane, Adelaide, Newcastle, Wollongong, and the Gold Coast in June of that year. On 5 January 1986, SBS ceased broadcasting on the VHF channel 0 frequency, in August 1986, the government proposed legislation that would merge SBS into the ABC. This was highly unpopular with ethnic-minority communities, leading Prime Minister Bob Hawke to announce in 1987 that the amalgamation would not proceed. The SBS Radio and Television Youth Orchestra was launched in 1988 with founding conductor Matthew Krel, plans to introduce limited commercial-program sponsorship, and the establishment of SBS as an independent corporation with its own Charter, were put in place in July 1989. Eat Carpet, showcasing local and international films, was also launched in 1989. The proclamation of the Special Broadcasting Service Act 1991 officially made SBS a corporation in 1991, throughout the early 1990s, SBS TV coverage was expanded further to include new areas such as the Latrobe Valley, Spencer Gulf, Darwin, northeast Tasmania, Cairns and Townsville. In 1992, SBSs radio and television facilities were moved to new headquarters in Artarmon, New South Wales, from their original studios at Bondi Junction. The new building was opened on the 10 November 1993 by Prime Minister Paul Keating. A national radio network was launched in January 1994, the new service initially covered Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth and Darwin, while original stations 2EA and 3EA were renamed Radio Sydney and Radio Melbourne, respectively

Special Broadcasting Service
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The wall of the SBS carpark in Artarmon, showing the 'Mercator' logo, used from 1993 to 2008
Special Broadcasting Service
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Special Broadcasting Service
Special Broadcasting Service
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The SBS building in Melbourne 's Federation Square

13.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

14.
German language in Namibia
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Namibia is a multilingual country wherein German is recognized as a national language. While English is the official language of the country since 1990. German is especially used in central and southern Namibia and was until 1990 one of three official languages in what was then South West Africa, alongside Afrikaans and English. The German Namibian newspaper Allgemeine Zeitung on its website refers to 22,000 native speakers, German benefits from its similarity to Afrikaans and has a prominent position in the tourism and business sectors. Many Namibian natural features, place and street names have German names, some experts see the future of German in Namibia as threatened. During the period as a German colony from 1884 to 1915 German was the official language in German Southwest Africa. South African whites who spoke Dutch already lived in the country alongside Orlam tribes, South Africa took over administration of the country in 1915. However, German language privileges and education remained in place, in 1916 the Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper was founded under its original name of Der Kriegsbote. After the end of the First World War the South African attitude to the German Namibians changes, in 1920 Dutch and English replaced German as the official languages of the country. The German-speaking population wished German to be reinstated as an official language and it was hoped that this would throw a spanner in the works against South African annexing South West Africa into the Union of South Africa. South Africa did not officially recognize German, however, de facto German was added to Afrikaans, only in 1984 would German officially be added as an official language. German is more used than may be assumed by its lack of official status. German is taught in schools, and is the medium for a daily newspaper. Although German is not common as a mother tongue among the black population, there are several additional elementary schools, German-medium high schools and a German-medium Gymnasium in Windhoek. The University of Namibia offers German-medium programs in German studies and business administration, German is also found on signs for tourists, especially those to monuments and historic buildings from the German colonial period. Other signs that include German date back before 1990, when English, Afrikaans, in Windhoek, Swakopmund, Keetmanshoop, Grootfontein and Lüderitz many or most street names are German in origin, even though after 1990 many streets were renamed to honor black Namibian people. Unlike other parts of the world with large German immigration and large numbers of German place names, Namibia never experienced a wave of place-name changes. Especially in the south, in the regions of Hardap and Karas, about 80% of all names are either German, Afrikaans

German language in Namibia
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Examples of German language on signs in Namibia
German language in Namibia
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Sign in Windhoek with directions to the German colonial-era monuments Christ Church, Alte Feste and Reiterdenkmal
German language in Namibia
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Examples of multilingual signs in Namibia
German language in Namibia
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German place names are especially prevalent in the south of the country

15.
Amana German
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In German linguistics, German dialects are distinguished from varieties of Standard German. The German dialects are the local varieties. They are traditionally traced back to the different Germanic tribes, many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only Standard German, since they often differ from Standard German in lexicon, phonology and syntax. If a narrow definition of based on mutual intelligibility is used. However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics, the varieties of standard German refer to the different local varieties of the pluricentric language standard German. They only differ slightly in lexicon and phonology, in certain regions they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany. The variation among the German dialects is considerable with only the neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible, Low German, most Upper German, High Franconian dialects, and even some Central German dialects when spoken in their purest form, are not intelligible to people who know only Standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the continuum of High German. In the past, there was a continuum of all the continental West Germanic languages because nearly any pair of neighbouring dialects were perfectly mutually intelligible. The German dialect continuum is divided into High German and Low German. The terms derive from the characteristics of the terrain where they are spoken rather than from social status accorded to them. Low German varieties are considered dialects of the German language by some, linguistically Low German and Low Franconian dialects are grouped together because both did not participate in the High German consonant shift. Low German is further divided into Dutch Low Saxon, West Low German, Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany, and several translations of the Bible were printed in Low German and this predominance changed in the 16th century. In 1534, the Luther Bible was printed by Martin Luther and it aimed to be understandable to an ample audience and was based mainly on High German varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than Low Saxon and became the language of science, other factors included the Hanseatic League losing its importance around the same time and that the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany. The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education with the language of the schools being standard German, slowly Low Saxon was pushed back and back until it was nothing but a language spoken by the uneducated and at home. Today, Low Saxon could be divided in two groups, Low Saxon varieties with a sizable standard German influx, and varieties of standard German with a Low Saxon influence, the North German Broadcasting also offers TV programs and radio programs in Low Saxon

Amana German
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Distribution of the native speakers of major continental West Germanic dialects today [citation needed] (dialects of the following standard languages: Dutch, German, and Frisian). The colors in this map do not reflect the actual relationship between the languages or dialects.

16.
Alsatian dialect
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Alsatian is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken in most of Alsace, a region in eastern France which has passed between French and German control five times since 1681. A dialect of Alsatian German is spoken in the United States by so-called Swiss Amish, the approximately 7,000 speakers are mainly located in Allen County, Indiana but also in daughter settlements elsewhere. Alsatian is closely related to other nearby Alemannic dialects, such as Swiss German, Swabian and it is often confused with Lorraine Franconian, a more distantly related Franconian dialect spoken in the northwest corner of Alsace and in neighbouring Lorraine. Like other dialects and languages, Alsatian has also influenced by outside sources. Words of Yiddish origin can be found in Alsatian, and modern conversational Alsatian includes adaptations of French words and English words, many speakers of Alsatian could, if necessary, write in reasonable standard German. For most this would be rare and confined to those who have learned German at school or through work, as with other dialects, various factors determine when, where, and with whom one might converse in Alsatian. Some dialect speakers are unwilling to speak standard German, at times, to certain outsiders, some street names in Alsace may use Alsatian spellings. C, Q, and X are only used in loanwords, Y is also used in native words such as Dytschi, but is more common in loanwords. Alsatian, like some German dialects, has lenited all obstruents and its lenes are, however, voiceless as in all Southern German varieties. Therefore, they are here transcribed /b̥/, /d̥/, /ɡ̊/, the phoneme /ç/ has a velar allophone after back vowels, and palatal elsewhere. In southern dialects, there is a tendency to pronounce it /x/ in all positions, short vowels, /ʊ/, /o/, /ɒ/, /a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /i/, /y/. Long vowels, /ʊː/, /oː/, /ɒː/, /aː/, /ɛː/, /eː/, /iː/, /yː/ Since 1992, however, Alsatian, along with other regional languages, is recognized by the French government in the official list of languages of France. France is a signatory to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages but has never ratified the law and has not given regional languages the support that would be required by the charter. The policies of the Paris government have had the effect of greatly weakening the prevalence of native languages in France that are not French. As a result, the Alsatian dialect of German has gone from being the prevalent language of the region to one in decline, a 1999 INSEE survey counted 548,000 adult speakers of Alsatian in France, making it the second most-spoken regional language in the country. Like all regional languages in France, however, the transmission of Alsatian is on the decline, while 43% of the adult population of Alsace speaks Alsatian, its use has been largely declining amongst the youngest generations. La dynamique des langues en France au fil du XXe siècle, lalsacien, deuxième langue régionale de France Insee, Chiffres pour lAlsace no. Le dialecte à la portée de tous La Nuée Bleue,1999, ISBN 2-7165-0464-4 Matzen, Raymond, and Léon Daul

17.
Pennsylvania German language
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Pennsylvania German is a variety of West Central German spoken by the Amish and Old Order Mennonites in the United States and Canada, closely related to the Palatine dialects. There are possibly more than 300,000 native speakers in North America, although for many, the term Pennsylvania Dutch is often taken to refer to the Amish and related Old Order groups exclusively, the term should not imply a connection to any particular religious group. In this context, the word Dutch does not refer to the Dutch people or their descendants, alternatively, some sources give the origin of Dutch in this case as a corruption or a folk-rendering of the Pennsylvania German endonym Deitsch. Speakers of the language today are found in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and other Midwestern States of the United States. Historically, the dialect was spoken in several other regions where its use has either largely or entirely faded. Since that time, its use has greatly declined, some other North and South American Mennonites of Dutch and Prussian origin speak what is actually a Low German dialect, referred to as Plautdietsch. Low German and High German differ considerably and are not mutually intelligible, as do Pennsylvania German, most of them spoke Rhine Franconian, especially Palatinan and to a lesser degree Alemannic dialects, and it is believed that in the first generations after the settlers arrived these dialects merged. The result of that dialect levelling was a very close to the eastern dialects of Palatinian. When individuals from the Palatinate region of Germany encounter Pennsylvania German speakers today, there are many similarities between the German dialect that is still spoken in this small part of southwestern Germany and Pennsylvania German. There are approximately 2,400,000 Germans in Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region speaking Palatinate German, Pennsylvania German has primarily been a spoken language throughout its history, with very few of its speakers making much of an attempt to read or write it. Writing in Pennsylvania German can be a task, and there is no spelling standard for the language whatsoever. There are currently two primary, competing models which numerous orthographic systems have been based upon by individuals attempting to write in the Pennsylvania German language, one school tends to follow the rules of American English orthography, the other the rules of Standard German orthography. The choice of writing system is not meant to imply any difference in pronunciation, for comparison, a translation into Pennsylvania German, using two different spelling systems, of the Lords Prayer, as found in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, is presented below. The text in the second column illustrates a system based on American English orthography, the text in the third column uses, on the other hand, a system based on Standard German. The English original is found in the first column, and a Standard German version appears in the fifth column, since 1997, the Pennsylvania German newspaper Hiwwe wie Driwwe allows dialect authors to publish Pennsylvania German poetry and prose. Hiwwe wie Driwwe was founded by Michael Werner and it is published twice a year - since 2013 in cooperation with the Pennsylvania German Cultural Heritage Center at Kutztown University. Since 2015, the newspaper is published online and in print. In 2014, Jehovahs Witnesses began to publish literature in Pennsylvania German, Pennsylvania German reflects the origins of the early speakers from the regions along the upper Rhine River in the Rhineland, Württemberg, Baden, Saarland, Switzerland and the Elsass/Alsace

Pennsylvania German language
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Blue: The counties with the highest proportion of Pennsylvania German speakers. Red: The counties with the highest number of Pennsylvania German speakers. Purple: The counties with both the highest proportion and highest number of Pennsylvania German speakers.

18.
Texas German
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Texas German is a German language dialect spoken by descendants of German immigrants who settled in Texas in the mid-19th century. These German Texans founded the towns of Bulverde, New Braunfels, Fredericksburg, Boerne, Walburg, and Comfort in Texas Hill Country, and Schulenburg and Weimar to the east. During World War I, Texas education rules were established mandating English-only instruction, due to the growth of these communities and cultural bias during both World War I and World War II, Texas German speakers drifted towards English and few passed the language to their descendants. By 1950, the number of new speakers of the language was virtually zero, the dialect is near extinction, as it is now spoken almost exclusively by a few elderly German Texans. Its an odd mixture of English and 19th-century German, says Boas, hardly any of the Texas Germans speak alike. Theres a lot of variation in the dialect, Texas German borrows about 5 to 6 percent of its vocabulary from English, creating words like der cowboy. Boas book on the language, The Life and Death of Texas German, a feature-length documentary project named All Gut Things is currently being developed about the language and will be completed by April 2017. Some 1,035 people report speaking German at home in Fredericksburg, gillespie County, with the communities of Fredericksburg, Harper, Stonewall, and Luckenbach, has a German-speaking population of 2,270,11. 51% of the countys total. In all,82,100 German-speakers reside in the state of Texas, Texas German is adapted to U. S. measurement and legal terminologies. German words were invented or English was Germanicized for words not present in 19th-century German, in some cases, these new words also exist in modern Standard German, but with a different meaning. For instance, the word Luftschiff means airship in Standard German, the Life and Death of Texas German. Publication of the American Dialect Society, Texas German Dialect Project All Gut Things crowdsourcing project Texas German Dialect Project Article about Texas German – Spiegel online German dialect in Texas is one of a kind, and dying out

Texas German
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Gillespie County

19.
Brazilian German
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The German-based varieties spoken by German Brazilians together form a significant minority language in Brazil. Brazilian German is strongly influenced by Portuguese and to an extent by Italian dialects as well as indigenous languages. German dialects are particularly strong in Brazils South and Southeast Regions, according to Ethnologue, ca.3 million people in Brazil speak Riograndenser Hunsrückisch,1.5 million Standard German, and 8,000 Plautdietsch. German speakers from Germany, Switzerland and Austria make up the largest group of immigrants after Portuguese and they tended to preserve their language longer than the speakers of Italian, which is closer to Portuguese. Consequently, German was the second most common language in Brazil at the 1940 census. However, even in areas that are dominated by German speakers. Today, German is increasingly cultivated as a heritage. Riograndenser Hunsrückisch is the most significant variant, and the term is used so as to include all forms of Brazilian German. It is particularly represented in the two southernmost states, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. But especially in Espírito Santo there are significant pockets whose dialect is based on East Low German, Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a dialect of the High German language, is also referred to as Riograndenser Hunsrückisch after the countrys southernmost state, Rio Grande do Sul. But it is strongly represented in Santa Catarina, where the local variant is referred to as Katharinensisch. Together, these three states form Brazils South Region, the area attracted significant immigration from German-speaking countries. Overall, it is well developed in comparison to the rest of Brazil. German immigration to Rio Grande do Sul started in 1824, the German workers and settlers came from many different regions, but especially from the poor regions Hunsrück and nearby Palatinate. However, in most places the Hunsrück dialect proved dominant, initially, the immigrants had to organize their own school system, but this was to change. Due to lack of exposure – from 1938 till 1961, German was not even taught at higher schools, speakers of Hunsrückisch are typically bilingual with Portuguese, but are not necessarily familiar with Standard German. Pommersch spoken in Rondônia since 1970, in Santa Leopoldina, first European settlement in Espírito Santo, the descendants of immigrants from Switzerland and Luxembourg now speak Pommersch. Santa Maria de Jetibá is Brazils center of Pommeranian culture with 90% Pommeranians, tyrol Austro-Bavarian dialect and Vorarlberg Alemannic in Dreizehnlinden

20.
East Pomeranian dialect
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East Pomeranian is an East Low German dialect that is or used to be spoken in Northern Poland. It is part of the Pommersch dialect group, the name Pomerania comes from Slavic po more, which means Land at the Sea. East Pomeranian was mostly spoken in the Farther Pomerania region of the Prussian Province of Pomerania, after World War II, the East Pomeranian-speaking German inhabitants of the region were largely expelled to western Germany. East Pomeranian is also spoken in Brazil