Ascorbates - Sodium erythorbate (Sodium Iso-ascorbate) & Citric
Acid:These chemicals reduce oxidation and subsequent
off flavor and off-color that would result from oxidation . They speed the
curing reaction by the rapid reduction of nitrates and nitrites to nitrous
acid and ultimately nitric oxide that combines with myoglobin in the
muscle tissues to fix the cured color. Generally, I try for about 0.01%
for citric acid and 0.05% for erythorbate.

Cereal & Bread:These are principally starch and their purpose varies.
Generally they added to lower quality products for economical reasons,
although they often improve binding quality, cooking yield and slicing
characteristics. English sausage makers are fond of adding rusk,
breadcrumbs or wheat gluten to their sausages; French and Cajun sausage
makers often add rice.

Corn Syrup Solids: The
general use for corn syrup solids in sausage recipes is to enhance binding
qualities of the meat, provide sweetening and assists in holding the color
of the cured meat. In dry-cured product, it aids the fermentation
process by providing a carbohydrate source for lactic bacteria. Generally
use 2% or less of the weight of the meat block.

Milk Powder, Dry:Non fat dried skim milk powder is used in a
number of sausages. It used generally as a binder and helps cooked sausage
retain moisture. It assists in forming irreversible gels (upon heating)
that hold water and fat and helps to enhance the flavor of the product.
When making cooked sausages, I generally hold it to less that 4%.
Commercially the calcium reduced form of skim milk powder is used as
calcium is said to interfere with protein solubility and emulsion
formation.

MSG -Monosodium Glutamate:Monosodium Glutamate is a salt of glutamic acid.
In Sausage making it is used as a flavor enhancer. It is one of
twenty two amino acids which create protein molecules in all plants and
animal bodies. Therefore glutamate is naturally contained in almost all
food products such as meat, fish, vegetables, milk, etc. Food products
which naturally contain lots of free glutamate (e.g. tomatoes, cheese,
mushrooms, etc.) are used in many food recipes because of their flavor
enhancing properties. In sausage making, I try to keep MSG at
approximately 1¼ grams to 454 grams (1 pound) of meat. Scientific
examinations have proven that the application of MSG in food products does
not have a negative effect on the human body. Although many people claim
to be allergic to MSG, a board of scientists and medical doctors appointed
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has examined all existing
reports on supposedly allergic reactions caused by glutamate. They have
declared that there is no connection between glutamate content in food
products and the appearance of symptoms such as numbness of neck and back
(Chinese restaurant syndrome).

Phosphates: The
phosphates are a combination of: Sodium Tri-polyphosphate, Sodium
Pyro-phosphate and Sodium Hexa-metaphosphate, generally at the rate of 1/3
to 1/2 of one percent (0.3 to 0.5%) of the finished product weight. If you
want to learn more please see this page.Phosphates

Soy protein: Soy protein isolate is used as binder as well as
an emulsifier. The levels of soy products that you use in sausage
should be controlled so or they will impart a “beany” flavor to the
meat products. I like to use about 1.5-2% in my formulations; however,
some sausage makers use up to 3.5%. Textured soy protein used in sausages,
meat patties and meat loaves. Soy protein concentrate available as
coarse granules or grits is used in emulsion type sausages.

Sugars: A number of
different sugars can added to meat products like sucrose, dextrose,
lactose, corn syrup solids, maple
syrup, honey etc. Often they are added for flavoring and also has
some preservative action. Sugars, called reducing sugars, improve
the shelf life of the product. Dextrose (glucose) is and essential
in fermented sausages as a substrate for growth of fermenting bacteria.

Whey-Protein Isolate: Provides a smooth texture to the product by binds and entrapping water
thus
providing body, texture and
improves "sliceability", especially in loaves like mortadella. Whey forms
stable, fat/oil emulsions that provide structure to the sausage. It also
enhances non-enzymatic browning (Maillard Reaction).

I have used the following techniques for preparing freshly collected
during slaughter. Stun the animal with a gunshot to the head prior to
sticking (killing) it...you need a .22 caliber or larger
pistol or rifle; the animal will
sink to its knees.

Wash and sterilize a food grade plastic pail or bucket. The hog is hung upside down
over the blood bucket and one quick incision is made to bleed the hog.The slaughtered pig is hung so that you can
easily cut into the carotid artery-(main blood vessel leading to the head).
Wash the area of the neck, then stick the pig after determining the location of the
tip of the animal's breastbone in the throat area. Make a 2- to 4-inch
incision from that point forward along the exact center of the neck.

Use a smooth motion to insert an 8 to 10 inch very
sharp knife into the incision and cut at a 45o angle down and back to a point about 6 inches
below the top of the sternum, and twist slightly. Be careful not to cut too
far back into the body because the knife blade could puncture the chest
cavity and cause internal bleeding. At this point, it is advisable to find a
picture with a diagram as to where the right place is, because a
picture is worth a thousand words. Check out
USDA Farmers Bulletin 2265.

When you
insert the knife into the throat area, have the pail ready-collect the
blood. If you do not get a very copious blood flow immediately, do it again
quickly, with the full length of the knife. Immediately upon draining the blood from the pig, stir
it rapidly with as stick to aerate it. (You will see the fibrin in the blood
begin to precipitate). remove the precipitate by filtering the blood in the
pail through cheese cloth. Add 1 tablespoon of vinegar and ½ teaspoon of
salt. Note alternately, you may dissolve a tablespoon of tri-sodium citrate
to about a cup of water and use that instead of the vinegar. This helps
preserve the blood. You now have stable blood that will not clot
and will keep in your fridge for about
a week in edible form. If you don't
do this, you will have a solid block
of blood jelled blood which has much
more limited culinary use.

Casings
Natural:Natural casings are made
from the intestines or "innards" of a variety of animals. In the U.S.
they are generally made from the internal organs of hogs, beef, or sheep. In
other countries casings from other animals like horses, donkeys, goats,
geese and ducks are available. Depending upon the casing and how it is used
it may often be considered edible; others are not. Casings generally come
from the supplier packed in salt or a a preserving brine. The can be kept
under refrigeration almost indefinitely. Any odor that they have will be
gone once they are properly prepared. All natural casings must be rinsed and
soaked in several changes of fresh water before they can be used. Some
require additional preparation. The casings are generally measure by their
diameter in millimeters--an inch equals 25.4 millimeters (mm). Below I've
listed some of the more commonly used casings.Sometimes the casing type is suggested in my
formulation; other times, you'll have to experiment with what you prefer.
(For an enlarged view, click on the photo.)

Hog
Casings: Hog casings are the most
commonly used casings by home sausage makers. The three most
commonly used are 32-35 mm casings which are used for making Italian
sausage, bratwurst, chorizo, etc. Next more commonly used are the 35-38 mm
casings which are used for linquica, Polish Sausage, Smoked sausages, hot
links, etc. Finally, for some of the larger smoked sausage or ring
sausages like Russian, Ukranian and Serbian sausage often use casings that
are 38-42 mm in diameter. Some Italian and other European sausages
may be stuffed in bladders or hog middles. Hog middles do take some
special preparation due to their very strong, objectionable odor. It may
take anywhere from 3 to 6 weeks in advance to prepare them, depending upon
the technique used. Generally they are softened in a salted brine for
about a week. Next they are rinsed and soaked in a mixture of water and
strong vinegar (often citrus juices) for an additional week, then rinsed.
After this they are inverted and as much of the fat that adheres to the
intestinal wall is carefully removed so as to not tear the casing wall and
soaked in a salt brine for an additional week. Finely they are re-inverted
to their original form and store in a salt brine until ready for use; then
they are freshened in fresh, pure water before stuffing. Care must be
taken when stuffing casing thus prepared because they are very fragile and
must be carefully tied along their circumference after stuffing. Below are
some photos of the preparation steps for hog middles

Salted hog middle
casings as they arrive from the supply house.

Inverted casings after being
stripped of internal fat (not necessary for all casings.).

Re-inverted hog middles rinsed and
returned to their original state.

Stuffed hog middle; note the
string tied around the circumference.

Beef
Casings:The three most commonly
used beef casings in the US are: (1) Beef Rounds, about 40-42 mm in
diameter, which are used to make ring sausages and ring bologna; blood
sausages like morcella and biroldo, Knockwurst, mettwursts, potato
sausage, etc. (2) Beef Middles, 58-64 mm, which are used summer
sausage, cotechino, and various types of Italian salami, venison salami,
German salami, etc. and (3) Beef Bungs, that generally range from 90 to
140 mm, are used for cooked salami, Toscano salami, Lebanon bologna, coppa
or any other sausage where a large 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 inch diameter casing is
desired

Casings, Artificial:There are a wide variety of
artificial casings available on the web for the adventurous to seek out. I
have listed below several types that I use most frequently. In selecting a
casing you have to consider if you want it to be edible (yes, some
artificial casings are edible). The edible casings are very thin and will
not support the weight of the sausage in the smoker.

Collagen casings are made from collagen
extracted from animal skins and hides. There are special
collagen casings for use in the smoker, some are even dyed! Some of the
large collagen casings, however, due to their thickness and production
technique are not edible. Remember not to use collagen casings if you are
processing your sausage by poaching in water or steaming. Collagen casings
can also be used to cure salami.

Fibrous or Cellulose casings can come
protein-lined for salami drying or "regular". They need to be soaked in
warm water for about 30 minutes before use. They are permeable to smoke
and water, and for that reason, should not be used for poaching sausages
in water. They are made from cotton or wood fiber.

Plastic casings are water-proof and are
mainly used for boiling or poaching sausage loafs and rolls in water.

Fabric casings are made out of textile fibers
and are coated with a plastic and a very popular with some European
sausage makers. If you look at my recipe for Thuringer Summer Sausage, you
can see an example of this kind of casing.

NOTE A MORE EXTENSIVE DISCUSSION OF THIS TOPIC CAN BE FOUND ON THE
INTRODUCTION PAGE.

Curing Salts:Check the formulation
carefully and be sure you use the correct cure; do not substitute! (Cure#1
and #2 are formulated in such a way so that 1 level US teaspoon will cure 5
pounds of meat.) For the best results, always weigh out the amount of cure!

NOTE A MORE EXTENSIVE DISCUSSION OF THIS TOPIC CAN BE FOUND ON THE
INTRODUCTION PAGE.

Emulsions are sausages where the meat is ground so finely that it
encapsulates the fat to form a smooth paste such as is found in
hot dogs, bologna, liverwurst, mortadella, etc.

Lean
muscle fiber has a high myosin content. Myosin is the tem used to represent
all salt soluble, water soluble and heat-coagulable proteins in the fibers.
Emulsions are formed by solubilizing the meat protein and suspending the fat
globules in the protein solution that contains both soluble proteins and
collagen from the fiber's connective tissues.

A
food-processor in the home sausage kitchen can do a fairly good job of
forming an emulsion if a few precautions are taken. The result will not be
exactly like the one produced by commercial cutters and emulsifiers, but a
decent home product can be made. Using a large bowl processor, remember to
work in small batches, about 1 1/2 lbs to 2 pounds of paste maximum.
During the emulsification process, considerable heat is generated. This will
cause the emulsion to "break" by causing the proteins to coagulate
preventing them to "grab-hold" of the fat globules. Ice or ice-cold water is
added periodically to absorb the generated heat and ensure that the emulsion
holds. Experiment with your equipment, but I find that if I process the lean
meats first and then add the fats to form the emulsion, I get better
results.

Paste Temperature: I use a Cuisenart food processor. Generally I divide
the spices meat into one and a half pound batches and process each batch for
2 minutes, pulsing often to ensure even emulsification. I also add ice
cold liquid (mostly water) a little at a time to keep the temperature below
60oF (15oC). Try to keep total liquid to less that
10%.

Cooking Temperature: Hint:
Place the product in 120oF (49oC) poaching liquid and
gradually raise the temperature to 175oF (79oC).
Gelatin can form from meat collagen during the cooking process and I found
that if the poaching liquid temperature raises too rapidly or gets above 180oF
(82oC), the gelatin often breaks from the emulsion and creates
pockets and pools of gelatin (and or fat) dispersed in the emulsion.

Casings for emulsion-type saysages: I've had the best luck with
moisture-proof plastic, fibrous or coated casings for emulsion sausages that
are poached. I've used natural casings also; but, they often wrinkle after
cooking and showering. I've found that dipping the sausage in boiling
water a few seconds, shrinks the casing and remove most of the wrinkles.

An inexpensive mold can be
made out of scrap lumber and two threaded carriage bolt with wing nuts.
you can put something like the one show in the photo (right).

To mold
the ham to the shape that I wanted, I used two plastic ham "cans"; using two
allows for more strength when pressure is applied. Arrange the meat, skin
side down and place pieces so that the loaf is level and even. cover with a
tight fitting lid (cut out with a band saw or jig-saw) over the meat and
apply pressure according to the directions given in the formulation.

If
you're of the inclination to have something more substantial, the press can
be made out of Lexan or plastic blocks and stainless steel bolts.

Humidity
Control:If you are not lucky enough to
live in an area where the humidity is easily controlled, then you might want
to consider a humidifier and humidistat. A humidifier is a device that can
add moisture to the air and for sausage making purposes a baby nursery
"cool-air" humidifier will work fine. A humidistat is a device that senses
the humidity in the environment. The device should have a control to set
humidity in a range between at least 40% to 80%. These devices
available in a number of price ranges from several vendors.

You can make an
inexpensive incubator for dry curing salami by modifying an inoperative
freezer. I purchased an old Sears Coldspot from the dumps for $20 and
removed the freezing unit, thermostat, interior racks and baskets.

On the interior
I installed a porcelain light socket. The dimmer switch on the control panel
regulates a 100W light bulb which can be adjusted to produce temperatures
from 53oF to 110oF. I'm
worried that some moisture dripping from the incubating meats might break
the light bulb, so I plan on either shielding the bulb with a coffee can
open on both ends or replacing the light bulb with a ceramic reptile
terrarium heater that screws into the light socket.

Controlling the Temperature of Incubation

Temperature can
be controlled by a simple dimmer switch. I had an old electrical box [Square
D] and I wired it with a couple of dimmer switches, mounted to the exterior
of the unit with an outlet to provide power in and power out. On the power
out outlet I plugged in a Vicks, 18 hour nursery humidifier. This provides
about 95% humidity. One of the dimmer switches controls the heat lamp; the
other is an extra--in the event I want to mount a fan. All that is needed is
an accurate thermometer. I suggest a mercury-filled thermometer rather than
an alcohol-filled one for better accuracy.

A sausage
making buddy has a great solution to both humidity and temperature control
by modifying a home-refrigerator by altering the temperature and humidity
controls. You can read and see his elegant solution by clicking here:
Creating An Ideal Environment
For Dry Curing Sausage.

Controlling the Temperature in a
Salami Incubator - A More Elegant Approach

Constructing a P.I.D. Intelligent
Temperature Controller

P.I.D. controller - Non-technical
operational definition:

A PID controller is an electronic device that can be used to regulate the
temperature of an incubator. The device senses temperature input from a
thermocouple and regulates temperature output (heater in this case) to
maintain the user's pre-set temperature. The PID controller uses a built-in
automatic logic algorithm to learn the parameters set up by you to regulate
the system. For example, if you desire the temperature inside your incubator
to be maintained at 88oF, set up the controller to
recognize when that temperature is reached, press a single button and the
built-in artificial intelligence circuit is activated to automatically
calculate and set all parameters for the temperature set by you. It will
maintain that temperature within 0.2% accuracy.

P = Proportional
Band. The constantly calculated "P" value controls the output of the
temperature device (heater). When the "P" value increases, the temperature
device will off; when the "P" value decreases, the temperature device is
turned on. This will occur automatically to maintain the internal
temperature you set in the incubator.

I = Integration Time. This constantly
calculated value reduces error. When the "I" value decreases, response speed
is faster but less stable; when the "I" value increases the response speed
is slower but more stable. This is done automatically.

D = Differentiation
Time.
This value constantly controls the advance and compensates for the delay in
order to maintain system stability.

With a little knowledge of electronics, you can
construct such a control unit for your incubator. Many of the materials are
available at any well stocked computer-supply store or eBay. You can build
the controller for about $70.00 USD or less.

Table 2 PID and Relevant Parameters:
Auto-tuning is
recommended for users who are not familiar PID control theory. P, I
and d values should only be adjusted by professionals.

Symbol

Description

Range

Default

P

Proportional Band

0.1 ~ 99.9 (%)

5

I

Integration Time

2 ~ 1999 (Sec)

100

D

Differentiation Time

0 ~ 399 (Sec)

20

SF

Integration Range

1 ~ 999 (Deg)

40

Bb

On/Off Control Range

1 ~ 999 (Deg)

40

Ot

Control Period

2 ~ 199 (Sec)

2

Filt

Digital Filtering Strength

0 ~ 3

0

End

Exit

Grinder Tips:When grinding fats, make sure that it has been cut in small
enough sizes to fit the grinder throat then partially freeze the fat. Also,
place the grinder tube and worm, knife and plate in freezer prior to
grinding the fats. This will chill the grinder tube, cutting knife and
grinder plate, minimizing smearing of the fat.

If you get dings on the
grinder knife or it becomes dull, you can sharpen it by putting a piece of
400 grit wet-dry sandpaper on a thick glass plate and "sanding" the blade by
running it back and forth over the paper.

After washing the steel
plates and knives, warm them gently in the oven to dry them out. Spray with
a food grade lubricant over each item and wrap in brown paper cut from a bag
for storage.

The
grinder on the right works fine for people that only make small batches of
sausage, or you are working on a test batch to perfect the seasoning blend.
It's an all-purpose grinder that is easy to set up and clean . It comes with
plates and a sausage stuffing tube. This grinder has made many a batch of sausages; it is the
Model 113 made by Moulinex. It is a great grinder for the beginning sausage
maker and its relatively inexpensive. There are a number of similar brands
available on the market. With these lower powered grinders, its important to
have the meats to be ground almost at the freezing point so that you get a
nice clean cut.....otherwise the grinder plate clogs up with sinew and the
meat comes out like mush!

The
grinder to the left is a # 22 size plate and I have a variety of plate sizes
and has a reversing switch. It is supplied with only two grinding
plates, however. Extra grinding plates are available on-line from many
suppliers or in at the Hobart store in your community. This particular model
was made for Cabella's by the Italian firm, Tre-Spade and has a 3/4 hp
motor. If you hunt and have meat to be ground or you make a lot of sausage,
then your should consider a grinder of this size. The next size up would be
a #32, generally with a 1+ horsepower motor and the meat "flies" through
that one! There are a number of good grinders for sale...don't buy the
first you see! Do your homework

BACTERIAL AND MOLD STARTER CULTURES

NOTE A MORE EXTENSIVE DISCUSSION OF THIS TOPIC CAN BE FOUND ON THE
INTRODUCTION PAGE.

One can not always depend on indigenous bacterial
contaminants to produce a desireable result. Specialized meat cultures
can be added to impart added safety, color and taste to dry-cured or
fermented sausages. Fermentation is best controlled by the addition of
selected strains of Lactic Acid bacteria (a large family of bacteria),
whereas members of the Staphylococci contribute to the color, aroma,
flavor and stability of the sausage. Also available are cultures that
produce bacteriocins that provide anti-lysterial effects and bioprotection
from pathogens.

Lactic Acid Starter:

Starter cultures accelerate the formation of lactic acid and
drop the pH (to about pH5.3) of salami, which can inhibit the growth
of spoilage bacteria and pathogens. The rapid decline of pH not only gives
the salami a unique lactic acid flavor, but also increases the firmness of
texture and mouth feeling due to the acidic denaturation of meat proteins.
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in starter cultures have been shown to
inhibit Staphylococcus, gram-negative bacteria, and E. coli,
by 97.8% after 48 hours of fermentation. Further studies of LAB starters
(which often contain one or more species) of Pediococcus cerevisiae,Lactobacillus
platarum and Staphylococcus carnosus, have shown a very wide spectrum of inhibition activity on
Staphylococcusepidermidis, Lysteria
monocytogenes Klebsiella oxytoca, Shigella dysenteriae and germination of the
spores of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus, and
Pseudomonas fluorescens.I've added
extensive coverage to the starter cultures produced by Chr. Hansen, Inc.,
producers of freeze dried starter cultures on my main web pages [Introduction section - Starter Cultures]

BIOPROTECTIVE CULTURES:

Listeria is a constant concern in the meat industry. The US-FDA reports (June /29/2009)Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) has been responsible for several
outbreaks of food borne illness domestically. Each year approximately 2500
people become seriously ill due to Lm infections. Nearly 500 of these die
from their infection. Listeriosis only accounts for about 0.02% of illnesses
due to food borne disease, but it causes 27.6% of all deaths due to foodborne
infection.

Cultures containg
Staphlococcus xylosis, Lactobacillus curvatus, and Pediococcus
acidilactici provide protection against a population explosion of Lm in
fermented sausages. Chr. Hansen North America produces several bioprotective
meat cultures; Bactoferm F-LC and the newer Bacterferm BL-C-48. A source for
these is listed below

EXTERIOR MOLD CULTURES:

Many fermented sausages, especially
Northern Italian and American-Italian dry salami are generally covered in a
pure white mold; much like a good French brie cheese. This is desirable and
contributes to the overall taste of the final product. The mold (fungus) is
a variety of Penicillium (Penicilium nalgiovense) and is applied to the
surface casing after stuffing and tying the salami, prior to fermentation.
The easily available product is Bactoferm M-EK-4.

CHOOSING A STARTER CULTURE

Consider the qualities you want in your final product. Are you trying to
mimic a particular geographic style; German Polish, Italian, etc.? Would you
like it to be having a tang [a sharp or acidic] tang or a mild one? What
about sweetness? What about salt—with its concentration kill or inhibit the
starter culture? And then there is the flavor component—how do you define
that quality? Do you consider it divorced from the added spices or in
addition to their characteristics? Often it’s a matter of a somewhat
educated choice based on experimentation.

American style [whatever that means] is generally recognized by a short
fermentation that produces a very low pH [high acid content]. These products
are mostly produced commercially where a high acid content complies with
USDA guidelines and super-fast fermentation gets the product “out the door”
and to the consumer quickly.

Dry cured sausages from Southern Europe and the Balkans tend to be on the
“sweet” side—lower acid [higher pH] and often allowed to dry several months.
Rarely will you find Italian, French, Spanish, Serbian salami or Bulgarian
Loukaniko to have a tart, acidic tang.

On the other hand, fermented sausages from Northern and Eastern Europe
generally have a sharp tang [lower pH] whether they are dry-cured or
semi-dry-cured [“summer-type” sausage]; Think German Thüringen, Swedish
medvurst,

Cultures distributed by Internet online companies are of the freeze dried
type. In order to choose the correct culture the following advise may be
used as general guidelines. Paragraph numbers refer to the discussion
of starter cultures on the INTRODUCTION
page.

·Traditional
South and North European, choose cultures in paragraph 5.1.1.

·North European
fast fermented, choose cultures in paragraph 5.1.2.

·US style,
choose the extra fast and very fast cultures in paragraph 5.1.2

·To enhance
nitrate reductase activity choose from paragraph 5.1.3

·To produce a consistent surface molds, choose
from paragraph 5.1.4

·To provide Lysteria protection, choose from paragraph 5.1.5

Technical information sheets provide the recommended temperatures for
fermentation, however, bacteria will also ferment at lower temperatures,
just more slowly. For example, the technical information sheet for T-SPX
lists temperatures as 26-38º C, optimum being 32º C. T-SPX will ferment as
well at 20-24º C which is not uncommon for "European" style sausages, and 48
hours or more is not atypical.

When freeze-dried cultures are used it is recommended to disperse them in
distilled or purified water. Adding 25 grams of powdered culture to 200 kg
(440 lbs) of meat makes uniform distribution quite challenging. That comes
to about 1/2 teaspoon to 4.5 kg (10 lbs) of meat and the culture must be
very uniformly dispersed otherwise defects will occur later on. For those
reasons it is advisable, especially at home conditions, to mix 1/2 tsp of
culture in 1/2 cup (150 ml) of distilled water and then pour it down all
over the meat. Any tap water which is chlorine free will do, the
problem is that different cities, or countries, sanitize water in different
ways. Chlorine will kill bacteria and the process will suffer. For this
reason it is recommended to use distilled water.

Mixing freeze-dried cultures with cold water for 15-30 minutes before use
allows them to "wake up" and to react with meat and sugar faster when
introduced during the mixing process.

Once fast-fermented starter culture or GDL has been added to the sausage
mix, the mix should be filled into casings.

I suggest that
don't put your trust in indigenous bacteria that contaminate ground meats
instead purchase a culture from a supplier, such as Butcher and Packer Company.Use those suggestions in lieu of those given with any
formulation or recipe. When you choose a starter, check with the vendor or
the manufacture's guidelines as to the requiredtimeandtemperatureforoptimumfermentation.
Dissolve freeze-dried culture in a couple of tablespoons of de-chlorinated
water; add a small pinch of glucose (dextrose) and set aside for 2 or 3
minutes before use.

SAUSAGE LINKING
TECHNIQUES

Linking
Breakfast Sausage:
A number of people
emailed me to ask how to link breakfast sausages as shown in the recipes' photos. In stuffing the casing, don't
overfill or the casing will burst when you try to pinch and form the links.
Don't thread the link like sewing, instead push a portion of the link
through the previous loop to form a new loop. Words are difficult to follow
in this case so I'll try with pictures.

Step 1. Start to form a loop.

Step 2. Secure the loop

Step 3. Drape tube over loop

Step 4. Secure tube and "sew"
through 1st loop

Step 4. Repeat Step 3 & 4.

Step 6+> Continue untill the
whole tube is linked.

THE
MEANING OF pH

Acids in water separate into ions (Atoms with
electron imbalances are called ions), and the positive ion is hydrogen (H+).
When hydrochloric acid (HCl) mixes with water, it separates into positive
hydrogen (H+) and negative chlorine (Cl-). Hydrogen (H+) combines with water
(H2O) to make hydronium (H3O+). Bases in water also separate
into ions, and the negative ion is hydroxide (OH-). When the base sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) mixes with water, it separates into positive sodium (Na+)
and negative hydroxide (OH-).

The pH-value indicates
the degree of acidity in the meat. Acids all produce Hydrogen ions (H+).
Acids like Hydrochloric acid (HCl) produce lots of Hydrogen ions. Chemists
write "hydrogen ion concentration" as [H+]. The pH of a solution is
expressed mathematically as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion [H+]
concentration.

When
producing meat products, the pH-value should lie between 4 to 7; pH- values
from 0 to 7 denotes an acidic nature (the smaller the number the more acidic
the solution). The neutral point is 7; pH values from 7 to 14 signify
alkalinity (the larger the number the more alkaline the solution).

When
Hydrogen Chloride gas dissolves in water it form Hydrochloric acid and the
molecules of Hydrogen Chloride dissociate into Hydrogen ions and Chloride
ions.

HCl(aq)

=

H+

+

Cl-

Water also
dissociates to produce ions, this time it is Hydrogen ions and Hydroxyl
ions.

H2O(l)

=

H+

+

OH-

Sodium
Hydroxide also dissociates to produce ions when it is dissolved in water,
this time it is Sodium ions and Hydroxyl ions.

NaOH(aq)

=

Na+

+

OH-

In each
case we can measure or calculate the concentration of Hydrogen ions present.

InHCl(aq) Hydrochloric acid [H+]
= 0.01

InH2O(l) water [H+]
= 0.0000001

InNaOH(aq) Sodium Hydroxide solution [H+]
= 0.00000000000001

As you can
see, these numbers are small and difficult to read and write. By counting
the decimal places each of the above can be written as:

HCl (aq) pH
2

H2O (l) pH
7

NaOH (aq) pH 14

Though a pH value has no unit, it is not an arbitrary scale; the number
arises from a definition based on the activity of
hydrogen ions in the solution. The
formula for calculating pH is:

Meat with
a low pH-value (pH-value
below 5.8) has a poor
water binding capacity. This means high cooking losses, inconsistent weight
and a dry, straw-like consistency. For this reason water-bonding chemicals,
like sodium polyphosphates, are generally added to the formulation. It's use
is optional, however. Other additives contribute to good curing features,
such as accelerators like ascorbate or erythorbate, that are used for good
color development and color stability. These accelerators act as reducing
agents and/or lower the pH to provide the environment required to enhance
the rate of conversion of nitrite to nitric oxide, which reacts with
myoglobin plus heat to yield nitrosylhemochrome (pink). The reduction of
microorganism growth by the addition of nitrite results in a longer
shelf-life and a longer storability of the meat and meat products.

he most accurate way to test pH in dryed
sausage or salami is to use a pH meter with a specially designed probe for
"jabbing" into the meat product. They are prohibitively expensive for the
average hobbist, but essential in commercial plants. Cole Palmer sells an
expensive but a good one-

Some
common pH values founding sausage making and meat production are:

Spices come from the bark,
root, flower buds, seeds, berry, or the fruit of tropical plants and trees.
Herbs are leaves of shrubs and can be used fresh or dried. Seasonings are
generally dehydrated vegetables include onion powder or flakes, garlic
powder or granules, sweet peppers, chili peppers, mints, and freeze-dried
chives, onions and shallots whereas seasoning blends are mixtures of spices
and herbs.

When formulating your own
sausage recipes use the strong, pungent spices, herbs and seasonings such as
chili peppers or rosemary in small amounts. Aim for more delicate seasoning
which can be used in greater amounts without ruining the final product.
Remember that the herbs or spices should enhance and not overpower the
flavor of the meat.

The art
of using herbs and spices in sausage making is learning how much to add and
how to combine flavors. More than one herb or spice can be used in a
formulation. Start with a tested recipe then decide if more or less
seasoning is needed to suit your taste. It is generally recommended to begin
with about 1½% total weight of spice per weight of meat used (about 1/4
teaspoon of spice per pound of meat) when developing recipes. Stronger
seasoning like chili should begin with ½ that amount; is easier to add more
than to try to compensate for too much. As you gain experience in combining
herbs and spices, taste will tell if others might be added to your
formulation.

It
is absolutely essential that you use fresh spices for consistent results.
If your ground spices are morethan6months
old, throughthemout and purchase new ones.
It is always better to purchase whole, un-ground spices and grind them
yourself as needed...you'll be surprised by the difference! The most
consistent results are obtained by accurate weighing of both the meats and
the spices. Keep your whole spices covered in air-tight tins to
prevent the loss of volatile oils. Place the date of purchase on the tin!
Whole spice should be renewed after two years.

For those
of you that are considering making this a hobby, I recommend that you
purchase a good coffee mill to dedicate as a spice grinder. The
quality your are looking for is a removable, stainless steel grinding cup.
Plastic and other material retain the spice oils and are difficult to clean.
Also purchase TWO good electronic scales: One dedicated to measuring spices,
that will measure in 1/10 of a gram with a load limit of 454 gram (1 lb.);
The other dedicated to meats should measure in grams up to 5 or 10 Kilograms
(11 to 22 lbs).

Dry
cured sausages do not
need to be refrigerated if keep in a cool, dry place. Of course, if
summer temperatures are very high, it's best to refrigerate them or keep
them in a cooler so the fat does not render out. Some Italian cultures
preserve their dry cured sausages under oil or lard. They may be kept for
more than a year this way.

Smoked
sausagesthat are then
air-dried may also be kept for a short period out of the
refrigerator...again use your judgment in relation to the air temperature.
They maybe well
packed and frozen, if you wish.

Cooked and Smoke-cooked sausages should always
be kept under refrigeration. Well packaged, they will keep for
approximately 2 weeks under refrigeration or else they should be well packed
and frozen.

Fresh sausages should be consumed within 3-5
days or else they should be well packed and frozen.

For the sausage hobbyist, I believe a worthwhile investment is the purchase
of a vacuum sealer so that sausages can be vacuum packed and frozen. There
are a number of brands and styles manufactured. For me, since I just make
family quantities, I like the "Food Saver"™ by
Tilia.

This is an enzyme needed and used in living animals to repair lesions
of body tissues and create stable structures by extensively cross-linking
protein molecules. It has the capacity to form bonds between surface protein
structures of individual small or large muscle masses. This effect can be
used to create protein network structures in raw and cooked meat products.
The enzyme could be used to reduce or completely substitute for the use of
phosphates and other binding substances in raw-cooked or cured-cooked
products. When used in raw-fermented sausages, which are a mix of chopped
meat and fat particles, transglutaminase causes a firm cohesion of these
particles during aging process.

Ever eat chicken nuggets or commercial hot dogs?
Have you
heard of "meat glue"? Commercial deli meat producers have been using it for
years. Ever notice the deli hams that are evenly textured, or the
large sliced turkey breasts with no sinew, or those "canned hams" that
don't look like any ham muscle you've seen before? Well it's
because they used a naturally produced enzyme called transglutaminase
to "glue" meat trim or emulsion together. This enzymes causes the
proteins (well, certain protein amino acids) in muscles to cross-link---in
layman's terms, stick together by a chemical reaction. Basically it
restructures the meat muscle into a single unit! For example, you can get
two pork tenderloins (that taper) , sprinkle some enzyme, and line them up
to form an uniform roll! It's not a quick reaction, but takes at least
6 hours (or better up to 24 hours) to completely bond and it should be done
under refrigeration. The enzyme is either sprinkled over the chunks of
meat or dissolved in water and painted on; then the meats are formed as
desired in the final product and placed under a vacuum ( a "Food -Saver" bag
will work). After bonding the meat (sausage or whatever) can be cooked
or smoked as per the recipe you are using. It is produced by Ajinomoto (the
people that make "Accent" and is sold under the trade name "ACTIVA-RM".

Some Chemistry:

Cross-links are small chemical bridges that interact with
specific regions of a protein and as a result are able to form a strong chemical bond between proteins in close proximity to each other. In
ACTIVA, the enzyme is a relative small enzyme with 331 amino acids that are
twisted and folded around the amino acid cysteine into an active
bio-molecule. The enzyme targets the glutamine and lysine amino acid in
protein muscles. There are huge amounts of these amino acids and the
enzyme will stitch tem together form a very strong chemical bond. (a
covalent bond-if you remember your high-school chemistry)

Cross-linking reaction of transglutaminase. The enzyme
facilitates the formation of a covalent bond between the carboxyl group (COOH)
of a glutamine residue in one protein and a amino group (NH2) in
a second protein, joining the two proteins and releasing ammonia (NH3).

The enzyme works best in the pH5 to pH7 range, but remains
functional throughout the pH4 through pH9 range. It is inactivated by
temperature over 149oF. Transglutaminase is reactive with several
proteins found in muscle.*

Application*:

The major application for sausage makers is the restructuring of
muscle meat and the economical use of trim. Whole muscles can be joined, as
in the case of forming tapering tenderloins into rolls; layering thinner
cuts of meat joining flaked products, improve the slice-ability in muscles
with weak seams; wrapping dissimilar cuts, such as bacon around solid
muscle; etc. Muscle protein with large amounts of myosin (dark red color)
work best.

Generally the application of enzyme should be between 0.75% -
1.0% of the formula weight. It may be applied as follows:

·
Sprinkle Method: The enzyme can be sprinkled directly on the meat surface.
The pieces are then joined and placed in vacuum or pressure mold.

·
Dry addition to previously marinated meats: After coating marinated muscle,
muscles are joined molder or formed and refrigerated until sufficiently
bonded. Working time is 20-30 minutes after adding ACTIVA.

·
Slurry Method: ACTIVA is hydrated at 4 -4.5 times its weight in pure water
and painted or added to meat chunks, blended well and product formed within
20-30 minutes, then refrigerated. Generally use 1.0% of the formula weight.

*
source ACTIVA General Information. Ajinomoto Food Ingredients, LLC

TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR FERMENTED MEATS

Slow acidification---Frozen
culture allowed to thaw and subsequently held to long before dispensing into
meat. Microorganisms exhaust nutrients in packet/can, reducing the pH
resulting in a lower culture activity. Environmental temperatures/humidities
during fermentation inconsistent with recommended culture optimums.
Secondary growth in meat of contaminant microorganisms producing components
that buffer pH drop. Prolonged storage of the meat mixture at cold
temperatures resulting in extended lag phase at the beginning of the
fermentation cycle. If cheese is used in product may contain phosphate that
buffers pH drop; it also has a tendency to absorb moisture from surrounding
meat. Sausage entering the smokehouse/climate chamber colder than normal,
for example by using very cold meat, which may prolong the lag phase of the
starter culture. Spice formulation adjustment that either decreases acid
stimulation or inhibits the culture. Excessive salt or cure addition that
inhibit starter culture. Culture contact directly with curing components may
inactivate the starter culture. High fat formulation that reduces the
moisture content.Large diameter product giving slower heat transfer. Rapid
moisture loss in product. Insufficient carbohydrate source added to sausage
mixture.

Greasing (fat melting)---Overworking
raw meat mixture.

WHAT IS MSG?--Monosodium
glutamate (MSG) is the sodium salt of the common amino acid glutamic acid.
Glutamic acid is naturally present in our bodies, and in many foods and food
additives.

HOW IS IT MADE?--MSG
occurs naturally in many foods, such as tomatoes and cheeses. People around
the world have eaten glutamate-rich foods throughout history. For example, a
historical dish in the Asian community is a glutamate-rich seaweed broth. In
1908, a Japanese professor named Kikunae Ikeda was able to extract glutamate
from this broth and determined that glutamate provided the savory taste to
the soup. Professor Ikeda then filed a patent to produce MSG and commercial
production started the following year.

Today, instead of extracting and crystallizing MSG from seaweed broth, MSG
is produced by the fermentation of starch, sugar beets, sugar cane or
molasses. This fermentation process is similar to that used to make
yogurt, vinegar and wine.

IS MSG SAFE TO EAT?--FDA
considers the addition of MSG to foods to be “generally recognized as safe”
(GRAS). Although many people identify themselves as sensitive to MSG, in
studies with such individuals given MSG or a placebo, scientists have not
been able to consistently trigger reactions.

DOES “GLUTAMATE” IN A PRODUCT MEAN IT CONTAINS GLUTEN?--No—glutamate
or glutamic acid have nothing to do with gluten. A person with Celiac
disease may react to the wheat that may be present in soy sauce, but not to
the MSG in the product.

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MSG AND GLUTAMATE IN FOOD?--The
glutamate in MSG is chemically indistinguishable from glutamate present in
food proteins. Our bodies ultimately metabolize both sources of glutamate in
the same way. An average adult consumes approximately 13 grams of glutamate
each day from the protein in food, while intake of added MSG is estimates at
around 0.55 grams per day.

HOW CAN I KNOW IF THERE IS MSG IN MY FOOD?--FDA
requires that foods containing added MSG list it in the ingredient panel on
the packaging as monosodium glutamate. However, MSG occurs naturally in
ingredients such as hydrolyzed vegetable protein, autolyzed yeast,
hydrolyzed yeast, yeast extract, soy extracts, and protein isolate, as well
as in tomatoes and cheeses. While FDA requires that these products be listed
on the ingredient panel, the agency does not require the label to also
specify that they naturally contain MSG. However, foods with any ingredient
that naturally contains MSG cannot claim “No MSG” or “No added MSG” on their
packaging. MSG also cannot be listed as “spices and flavoring.”

HAS FDA RECEIVED ANY ADVERSE EVENT REPORTS ASSOCIATED WITH MSG?--Over
the years, FDA has received reports of symptoms such as headache and nausea
after eating foods containing MSG. However, we were never able to confirm
that the MSG caused the reported effects.

These adverse event reports helped trigger FDA to ask the independent
scientific group Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB)
to examine the safety of MSG in the 1990s. FASEB’s report concluded that MSG
is safe. The FASEB report identified some short-term, transient, and
generally mild symptoms, such as headache, numbness, flushing, tingling,
palpitations, and drowsiness that may occur in some sensitive individuals
who consume 3 grams or more of MSG without food. However, a typical serving
of a food with added MSG contains less than 0.5 grams of MSG. Consuming more
than 3 grams of MSG without food at one time is unlikely.

Are MSG and hydrolyzed protein related?--Yes. MSG is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. Glutamic
acid is an amino acid, one of the building blocks of protein. It is found in
virtually all food and, in abundance, in food that is high in protein,
including meat, poultry, cheeses, and fish.
Hydrolyzed proteins, used by the food industry to enhance flavor, are simply
proteins that have been chemically broken apart into amino acids. The
chemical breakdown of proteins may result in the formation of free glutamate
that joins with free sodium to form MSG. In this case, the presence of MSG
does not need to be disclosed on labeling. Labeling is required when MSG is
added as a direct ingredient.