As similar as human beings are in many ways to other species, we are unique among the earth's life forms in our ability to use language and thought. Having evolved a large and complex brain, our species has a facility to think, imagine, create, and learn from experience that far exceeds that of any other species. We have used this ability to create technologies and literary and artistic works on a vast scale and to develop a scientific understanding of ourselves and the world.

We are also unique in our profound curiosity about ourselves: How are we put together physically? How were we formed? How do we relate biologically to other life forms and to our ancestors? How are we as individuals like or unlike other humans? How can we stay healthy? Much of the scientific endeavor focuses on such questions.

Science for All Americans

This chapter relates to many ideas in Chapter 5: The Living Environment. Many of the characteristics of the human organism covered in this chapter are common to all mammals, or all animals, or all life forms. They are presented in a human context because that is easiest to learn for most students. Still, some features of life may be less readily recognizable in human beings because they are covered by layers of socialization and language. People sometimes become aware of their own characteristics only when they see them in other animals.

A. Human Identity

However much people may vary in appearance and behavior, the variations are minor when compared with the internal similarity of all human beings. Chemical similarities make it possible for people from anywhere in the world to donate blood and organs to others or to mate and produce offspring. Furthermore, as great as cultural differences among groups of people seem to be, it is their languages, technologies, and arts that distinguish human beings from other species. The theme of same/different is at the core of distinguishing what is human. Often individuals are very aware of differences between themselves and their family members, between family members and neighbors, between neighbors and foreigners, etc. Interest shifts to similarities among people mostly when human beings are contrasted with other species.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

At this level, children should be finding out about themselves and other animals, developing ideas about how people and other animals live, grow, feed, move, and use their senses. They should concentrate mainly on external features. They may be able to identify some major internal organs and have simple views of their functions, but those should not be emphasized. Although children easily imagine animals acting like people, they may have difficulty seeing people as animals. They need not be coerced into this idea, but they should explore the similarities and differences. As they progressively find similarities and differences among human beings and between human beings and other animals, they see where the animal classification is usefully applied to people and where it is not.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People have different external features, such as the size, shape, and color of hair, skin, and eyes, but they are more like one another than like other animals. 6A/P1

People need water, food, air, waste removal, and a particular range of temperatures in their environment, just as other animals do. 6A/P2

People tend to live in families and communities in which individuals have different roles. 6A/P3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People have different external features, such as the size, shape, and color of hair, skin, and eyes, but they are more like one another than like other animals. 6A/P1

People need water, food, air, waste removal, and a particular range of temperatures in their environment, just as other animals do. 6A/P2

People tend to live in families and communities in which individuals have different roles. 6A/P3

Grades 3 through 5

Children should study some aspects of feeding, sensing, defending, and reproducing in human beings and other animals. It's a good time to examine how people accomplish various tasks and how machines improve on what people can perceive and do. Some students at this level may be intrigued with sports, and others may delve into topics such as dinosaurs or fossils and learn everything they can about them. Such explorations should be encouraged and opportunities provided for students to share with classmates what they have learned.

Discussing sex differences and roles requires sensitivity. In most species, the roles are biologically determined, whereas in human beings, the roles can be socially decided. History provides good examples of how human roles changed from hunting and gathering to farming to living and working in villages, towns, and cities.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Unlike in human beings, behavior in insects and many other species is determined almost entirely by biological inheritance. 6A/E1

Human beings have made tools and machines to sense and do things that they could not otherwise sense or do at all, as quickly, or as well. 6A/E2*

Artifacts and preserved remains provide some evidence of the physical characteristics and possible behavior of human beings who lived a very long time ago. 6A/E3

Technology has helped people with disabilities survive and live more conventional lives. 6A/E4** (BSL)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Unlike in human beings, behavior in insects and many other species is determined almost entirely by biological inheritance. 6A/E1

Human beings have made tools and machines to sense and do things that they could not otherwise sense or do at all, or as quickly, or as well. 6A/E2

Artifacts and preserved remains provide some evidence of the physical characteristics and possible behavior of human beings who lived a very long time ago. 6A/E3

Grades 6 through 8

At this level, students are studying the details of animal digestion, respiration, and reproduction, and so, in learning how human beings carry out these same functions, they can understand some of the commonalties between human beings and other animals. Middle-school students are interested in machines that support or enhance life functions, so they should also look at ways in which human beings use various machines to improve speed, mobility, strength, hearing, seeing, etc. Whenever students learn something about the ways that technology helps human beings, they also learn something about human capabilities and limitations.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Like other animals, human beings have body systems for obtaining and deriving energy from food and for defense, reproduction, and the coordination of body functions. 6A/M1*

Although social behaviors are affected by both genes and environmental factors, human beings are still able to invent, learn, and modify a wide variety of these behaviors. 6A/M4*

Human beings use technology to match or exceed many of the abilities of other species. 6A/M5*

Technologies having to do with food production, sanitation, and health care have dramatically changed how people live and work and have resulted in rapid increases in the human population. 6A/M6*

Like other complex organisms, people vary somewhat in size and shape, skin color, body proportions, body hair, facial features, muscle strength, handedness, and so on. But these differences are minor compared to the overall similarity of all humans, as demonstrated by the fact that people from anywhere in the world can reproduce with each other and donate blood or organs to one another. Humans are indeed a single species. Furthermore, as great as cultural differences between groups of people seem to be, people's complex languages, technologies, and arts unite them as a species distinct from others. 6A/M7** (SFAA)

Written records and photographic and electronic devices enable human beings to share, compile, and use great amounts of information. 6A/M8** (BSL)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Like other animals, human beings have body systems for obtaining and providing energy, defense, reproduction, and the coordination of body functions. 6A/M1

Human beings have many similarities and differences. The similarities make it possible for human beings to reproduce and to donate blood and organs to one another throughout the world. Their differences enable them to create diverse social and cultural arrangements and to solve problems in a variety of ways. 6A/M2In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 6A/M7**.

Fossil evidence is consistent with the idea that human beings evolved from earlier species. 6A/M3In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been moved to grades 9-12 and recoded as 6A/H3**.

Specialized roles of individuals within other species are genetically programmed, whereas human beings are able to invent and modify a wider range of social behavior. 6A/M4

Human beings use technology to match or excel many of the abilities of other species. Technology has helped people with disabilities survive and live more conventional lives. 6A/M5In the current version of Benchmarks Online, the first sentence of this benchmark has been moved to grades 3-5 and recoded as 6A/E4**.

Technologies having to do with food production, sanitation, and disease prevention have dramatically changed how people live and work and have resulted in rapid increases in the human population. 6A/M6

Grades 9 through 12

Similarities of complex molecules, as well as similarities in organ systems, can be used to illustrate human beings' kinships with one another and with their more distant relations. The relationships deduced from molecular evidence are highly consistent with those deduced from the fossil record.

Apparently all species have some capacity for communication, and it may interest students to speculate on some possibilities and then see if they can find anything in the literature to support their ideas. That can then be contrasted to the ability of human beings to communicate.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

The similarity of humans in their cell chemistry and DNA sequences reinforces the idea that all humans are part of a single species. 6A/H1*

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

The similarity of human DNA sequences and the resulting similarity in cell chemistry and anatomy identify human beings as a single species. 6A/H1

Written records and photographic and electronic devices enable human beings to share, compile, use, and misuse great amounts of information and misinformation. No other species uses such technologies. 6A/H2In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted.

B. Human Development

Human fertilization, followed by birth, growth and development, and finally aging and death continue in a cyclic fashion over generations. Birth and death are subjects that have awed and inspired people of all ages. Perhaps no other topic brings individuals closer to a sense of connectedness to people of all cultures and all times. Considerable amounts of society's resources go towards developing technology to control birth and death. The options opened up by technology raise ethical dilemmas for both individuals and society.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

Although not much may change in the lives of young children over a couple of years, they can certainly become aware of each human life's stages—infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. They see evidence of a life cycle even though they may not think of it as such. Imagining their parents as children, or themselves as old, may be impossible, so short-cycle animal (even plant) examples may be the best first step in building this understanding.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

All kinds of animals have offspring, usually with two parents involved. 6B/P1*

A human baby grows inside its mother until its birth. Even after birth, a human baby is unable to care for itself, and its survival depends on the care it receives from adults. 6B/P2

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

All animals have offspring, usually with two parents involved. People may prevent some animals from producing offspring. 6B/P1

A human baby grows inside its mother until its birth. Even after birth, a human baby is unable to care for itself, and its survival depends on the care it receives from adults. 6B/P2

Grades 3 through 5

Children are fascinated by films and stories about early stages of human development and they are particularly intrigued by comparisons of themselves now and earlier. It may be helpful at this level to inform students about changes that will take place in them during adolescence, since when they reach puberty, they may be too embarrassed to talk with adults about it. The importance for growth of adequate rest, proper food, regular checkups, and shots to prevent disease should be supported by some of the science behind the advice.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

It takes about nine months for a human to develop inside its mother. The developing baby is nourished by the mother, so substances she takes in will affect how well or poorly the baby develops. 6B/E1*

Human beings live longer than most other animals, but all living things die. 6B/E2

In the first few years after birth, most children make remarkable gains in their physical and mental abilities that allow them to interact with others and with their environment. 6B/E3*

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

It takes about 9 months for a human embryo to develop. Embryos are nourished by the mother, so substances she takes in will affect how well or poorly the baby develops. 6B/E1

Human beings live longer than most other animals, but all living things die. 6B/E2

There is a usual sequence of stages in physical and mental development in human beings, although individuals differ in exactly when they reach each stage. 6B/E3

People are usually able to have children before they are able to care for them properly. 6B/E4In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted.

Grades 6 through 8

Conception, both natural and artificial, and the idea (introduced earlier without saying how) of birth control are important issues for some middle-school adolescents. Films showing how embryos develop are likely to interest them. The study of the life cycle ties in well with the social issues of parenthood. Most students are intrigued to learn about rites of passage in different cultures and compare them to their own.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Human fertilization occurs when sperm cells from a male's testes are deposited near an egg cell from the female ovary, and one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell. 6B/M1*

Contraception measures may incapacitate sperm, block their way to the egg, prevent the release of eggs, or prevent the fertilized egg from implanting successfully. 6B/M2

The developing embryo—and later the newborn infant—is subject to many risks from infection, faults in its genes, its mother's inadequate diet, or her use of cigarettes, alcohol, or other drugs. Inadequate child care may lead to lower physical and mental ability. 6B/M4*

Various body changes occur as adults age. Muscles and joints become less flexible, bones and muscles lose mass, energy levels diminish, and the senses become less acute. Women stop releasing eggs and hence can no longer reproduce. 6B/M5abc

The length and quality of human life are influenced by genes and environmental factors, including sanitation, diet, medical care, and personal health behaviors. 6B/M5d*

Development sometimes involves dramatic biological changes. For example, puberty involves the maturation of the body to enable reproduction. 6B/M6** (SFAA)

Development occurs with somewhat different timing for different individuals. 6B/M7** (SFAA)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Fertilization occurs when sperm cells from a male's testes are deposited near an egg cell from the female ovary, and one of the sperm cells enters the egg cell. Most of the time, by chance or design, a sperm never arrives or an egg isn't available. 6B/M1

Contraception measures may incapacitate sperm, block their way to the egg, prevent the release of eggs, or prevent the fertilized egg from implanting successfully. 6B/M2

Following fertilization, cell division produces a small cluster of cells that then differentiate by appearance and function to form the basic tissues of an embryo. During the first three months of pregnancy, organs begin to form. During the second three months, all organs and body features develop. During the last three months, the organs and features mature enough to function well after birth. Patterns of human development are similar to those of other vertebrates. 6B/M3In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been moved to grades 9-12, split into two separate benchmarks, and recoded as 6B/H6** and 6B/H7**.

The developing embryo—and later the newborn infant—encounters many risks from faults in its genes, its mother's inadequate diet, her cigarette smoking or use of alcohol or other drugs, or from infection. Inadequate child care may lead to lower physical and mental ability. 6B/M4

Various body changes occur as adults age. Muscles and joints become less flexible, bones and muscles lose mass, energy levels diminish, and the senses become less acute. Women stop releasing eggs and hence can no longer reproduce. The length and quality of human life are influenced by many factors, including sanitation, diet, medical care, sex, genes, environmental conditions, and personal health behaviors. 6B/M5

Grades 9 through 12

Students should know enough about atoms and molecules to make sense of the idea that DNA carries instructions for the assembly of proteins, determining their structure and the rates at which they are made. Students' growing notion of systems can help them understand how turning instructions on and off can sequence developments over a lifetime and that each cell's immediate environment can influence its development, even though nearly all cells carry the same DNA instructions. The use of health technologies raises many social issues—what certainty is necessary before a new drug is marketed, who benefits and who pays, and what constitutes a reasonable quality of life and who should decide. By now, students can take up such controversial issues and consider the trade-offs involved.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

As successive generations of an embryo's cells form by division, small differences in their immediate environments cause them to develop slightly differently, by activating or inactivating different parts of the DNA information. 6B/H1

The complexity of the human brain allows humans to create technological, literary, and artistic works on a vast scale, and to develop a scientific understanding of the world. 6B/H3*

The development and use of technologies to sustain, prolong, or terminate life raise social, moral, ethical, and legal issues. 6B/H4*

Both genes and environmental factors influence the rate and extent of development. 6B/H5** (SFAA)

Following fertilization, cell division produces a small cluster of cells that embeds itself in the wall of the uterus. As the embryo develops, it receives nourishment and eliminates wastes by the transfer of substances between its blood and the blood of its mother. 6B/H6** (BSL)

Patterns of human development are similar to those of other vertebrates. 6B/H7** (BSL)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

As successive generations of an embryo's cells form by division, small differences in their immediate environments cause them to develop slightly differently, by activating or inactivating different parts of the DNA information. 6B/H1

Using artificial means to prevent or facilitate pregnancy raises questions of social norms, ethics, religious beliefs, and even politics. 6B/H2

The very long period of human development (compared to that of other species) is associated with the prominent role of the brain in human evolution. The ability to learn persists throughout life and may improve as people build a base of ideas and come to understand how to learn well. Human mental abilities that apparently evolved for survival are used for newly invented cultural purposes such as art, literature, ritual, and games. 6B/H3

The development and use of technologies to maintain, prolong, sustain, or terminate life raise social, moral, ethical, and legal issues. 6B/H4

C. Basic Functions

Like other organisms, human beings are composed of specialized cells grouped in organs that have special functions. However, rather than focusing on distinct anatomical and physiological systems (circulatory, digestive, etc.), instruction should focus on the essential requirements for life—obtaining food and deriving energy from it, protecting against injury, providing internal coordination, and reproducing. These grand body systems and their subsystems illustrate important aspects of systems in general.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

Children at this level think each organ has its own independent function. The eyes are for seeing, the brain is for thinking, the stomach is for digesting food, and so forth. Only later will students be able to learn how organs work in coordinated ways to make systems. One can expose young children to some of the facts in response to their questions, but they cannot understand those facts until they are older.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

The human body has parts that help it seek, find, and take in food when it feels hunger—eyes and a nose for detecting food, legs to get to it, arms to carry it away, and a mouth to eat it. 6C/P1

Senses can warn individuals about danger; muscles help them to fight, hide, or get out of danger. 6C/P2

The brain enables human beings to think and sends messages to other body parts to help them work properly. 6C/P3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

The human body has parts that help it seek, find, and take in food when it feels hunger—eyes and noses for detecting food, legs to get to it, arms to carry it away, and a mouth to eat it. 6C/P1

Senses can warn individuals about danger; muscles help them to fight, hide, or get out of danger. 6C/P2

The brain enables human beings to think and sends messages to other body parts to help them work properly. 6C/P3

Grades 3 through 5

At this level, children can begin to view the body as a system, in which parts do things for other parts and for the organism as a whole. Models help children to see and touch the internal organs and to know where they are located in the body. Questions about familiar body systems can be useful in getting students to start thinking about systems generally. They can then begin to understand that each organ affects and is affected by others.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

From food, people obtain fuel and materials for body repair and growth. 6C/E1a*

The indigestible parts of food are eliminated. 6C/E1b

By breathing, people take in the oxygen they need to live. 6C/E2

Skin keeps the body from drying out and protects it from harmful substances and germs. 6C/E3*

The brain gets signals from all parts of the body telling it what is going on there. The brain also sends signals to parts of the body to influence what they do. 6C/E4*

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

From food, people obtain energy and materials for body repair and growth. The undigestible parts of food are eliminated. 6C/E1

By breathing, people take in the oxygen they need to live. 6C/E2

Skin protects the body from harmful substances and other organisms and from drying out. 6C/E3

The brain gets signals from all parts of the body telling what is going on there. The brain also sends signals to parts of the body to influence what they do. 6C/E4

Grades 6 through 8

Students can now develop more sophisticated understandings of how organs and organ systems work together. The circulation of blood carries digested food to the cells and removes wastes from them. Nerves and hormones carry messages that contract muscles to help the organism respond to its environment. Asking "What if?" questions such as "What might happen if some other parts weren't there or weren't working?" can stimulate students to reflect on connections among organs.

Students can relate knowledge of organs and organ systems to their growing knowledge of cells. The specialization of cells serves the operation of the organs, and the organs serve the needs of cells.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Organs and organ systems are composed of cells and help to provide all cells with basic needs. 6C/M1

For the body to use food for energy and building materials, the food must first be digested into molecules that are absorbed and transported to cells. 6C/M2

To burn food for the release of energy stored in it, oxygen must be supplied to cells, and carbon dioxide removed. Lungs take in oxygen for the combustion of food and eliminate the carbon dioxide produced. The urinary system disposes of dissolved waste molecules, the intestinal tract removes solid wastes, and the skin and lungs aid in the transfer of thermal energy from the body. The circulatory system moves all these substances to or from cells where they are needed or produced, responding to changing demands. 6C/M3*

Specialized cells and the molecules they produce identify and destroy microbes that get inside the body. 6C/M4

Hormones are chemicals from glands that affect other body parts. They are involved in helping the body respond to danger and in regulating human growth, development, and reproduction. 6C/M5

Interactions among the senses, nerves, and brain make possible the learning that enables human beings to predict, analyze, and respond to changes in their environment. 6C/M6*

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Organs and organ systems are composed of cells and help to provide all cells with basic needs. 6C/M1

For the body to use food for energy and building materials, the food must first be digested into molecules that are absorbed and transported to cells. 6C/M2

To burn food for the release of energy stored in it, oxygen must be supplied to cells, and carbon dioxide removed. Lungs take in oxygen for the combustion of food and they eliminate the carbon dioxide produced. The urinary system disposes of dissolved waste molecules, the intestinal tract removes solid wastes, and the skin and lungs rid the body of heat energy. The circulatory system moves all these substances to or from cells where they are needed or produced, responding to changing demands. 6C/M3

Specialized cells and the molecules they produce identify and destroy microbes that get inside the body. 6C/M4

Hormones are chemicals from glands that affect other body parts. They are involved in helping the body respond to danger and in regulating human growth, development, and reproduction. 6C/M5

Interactions among the senses, nerves, and brain make possible the learning that enables human beings to cope with changes in their environment. 6C/M6

Grades 9 through 12

Students' understanding of the human organism can expand to encompass molecular energy release, protection by the immune and nervous systems, cognition, and some of the ways in which systems interact to maintain a fairly constant environment for cells. Although some concepts can be learned from print and video, students can have direct experiences examining the effects of exercise on biological rhythms, or of food on body measurements such as temperature, pulse, blood pressure, or oxygen consumption. These types of observations can be linked to mathematical description of changes, to physical and chemical measurements, to statistical summary, and to controlled experiments.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

The immune system functions to protect against microscopic organisms and foreign substances that enter from outside the body and against some cancer cells that arise within. 6C/H1*

Communication between cells is required to coordinate their diverse activities. Cells may secrete molecules that spread locally to nearby cells or that are carried in the bloodstream to cells throughout the body. Nerve cells transmit electrochemical signals that carry information much more rapidly than is possible by diffusion or blood flow. 6C/H3*

Some drugs mimic or block the molecules involved in communication between cells and therefore affect operations of the brain and body. 6C/H5** (BSL)

The human body is a complex system of cells, most of which are grouped into organ systems that have specialized functions. These systems can best be understood in terms of the essential functions they serve for the organism: deriving energy from food, protection against injury, internal coordination, and reproduction. 6C/H6** (SFAA)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

The immune system is designed to protect against microscopic organisms and foreign substances that enter from outside the body and against some cancer cells that arise within. 6C/H1

The nervous system works by electrochemical signals in the nerves and from one nerve to the next. The hormonal system exerts its influences by chemicals that circulate in the blood. These two systems also affect each other in coordinating body systems. 6C/H2In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 6C/H3*.

Communication between cells is required to coordinate their diverse activities. Some cells secrete substances that spread only to nearby cells. Others secrete hormones, molecules that are carried in the bloodstream to widely distributed cells that have special receptor sites to which they attach. Along nerve cells, electrical impulses carry information much more rapidly than is possible by diffusion or blood flow. Some drugs mimic or block the molecules involved in transmitting nerve or hormone signals and therefore disturb normal operations of the brain and body. 6C/H3The final sentence of this benchmark was made a benchmark of its own and recoded 6C/H5**

Reproduction is necessary for the survival of any species. Sexual behavior depends strongly on cultural, personal, and biological factors. 6C/H4In the current version of Benchmarks Online, this benchmark has been deleted.

D. Learning

Human behavior results from the interaction of inheritance and learning. Besides being a basic function of most animals, learning defines the most prominent way in which human beings are different from other species. The apparently unique human ability to transmit ideas and practices from one generation to the next and to invent new ones has resulted in the virtually unlimited variations in ideas and behavior that are associated with different cultures. There are multiple reasons for studying how people learn. By learning about how people learn, students may be able to learn more effectively themselves and to know what difficulties they may face. Finally, knowing about the limitations of human learning can help people to anticipate problems (their own and those of others) in learning how to teach children better.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

This level is the time to be sure that all children learn that they can learn almost anything they want to. Children are most interested in learning about their surroundings and all the ways they can interact with these surroundings. They should be encouraged to notice how they learn by asking them how they learned something in the past or how they might learn to do something new or by having them teach a skill to someone else.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People use their senses to find out about their surroundings and themselves. Different senses give different information. 6D/P1*

Some of the things people do, like playing soccer, reading, and writing, must be deliberately learned. Practicing helps people to improve. How well one learns sometimes depends on how one does it and how often and how hard one tries to learn. 6D/P2

People can learn from each other by telling and listening, showing and watching, and imitating what others do. 6D/P3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People use their senses to find out about their surroundings and themselves. Different senses give different information. Sometimes a person can get different information about the same thing by moving closer to it or further away from it. 6D/P1

Some of the things people do, like playing soccer, reading, and writing, must be deliberately learned. Practicing helps people to improve. How well one learns sometimes depends on how one does it and how often and how hard one tries to learn. 6D/P2

People can learn from each other by telling and listening, showing and watching, and imitating what others do. 6D/P3

Grades 3 through 5

At this level, children are more aware that they are separate from their surroundings. As their self-awareness increases, they want to know more about their personal capabilities, what they might be able to do and know. They should be given many opportunities to explore areas of personal interest and to develop new skills.

Students may select a topic they wish to delve into and then learn all about it, and they may also select a skill at which they wish to excel. Their concern with learning is how it can help them achieve in their areas of interest. Many also take pride in teaching things to younger children by reading them stories and asking them questions about what they've heard, showing them how to play new games, etc. Attention should turn to how learning can be improved, to factors that influence learning and help students to improve their own learning.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Human beings have different interests, motivations, skills, and talents. 6D/E1

Human beings can use the memory of their past experiences to make judgments about new situations. 6D/E2

Many skills can be practiced until they become automatic. If the right skills are practiced, performance may improve. 6D/E3

Human beings tend to repeat behaviors that feel good or have pleasant consequences and avoid behaviors that feel bad or have unpleasant consequences. 6D/E4

Learning means using what one already knows to make sense out of new experiences or information, not just storing the new information in one's head. 6D/E5

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Human beings have different interests, motivations, skills, and talents. 6D/E1

Human beings can use the memory of their past experiences to make judgments about new situations. 6D/E2

Many skills can be practiced until they become automatic. 6D/E3

Human beings tend to repeat behaviors that feel good or have pleasant consequences and avoid behaviors that feel bad or have unpleasant consequences. 6D/E4

Learning means using what one already knows to make sense out of new experiences or information, not just storing the new information in one's head. 6D/E5

Grades 6 through 8

Emphasis should now be on how to figure out what learning has taken place as a consequence of studying something. Students can design various tests and administer them to individuals and groups as practice for longer studies of learning. They can investigate different ways of learning different things and compare the results they get. Many students are interested in animal behavior experiments, which can help them understand learning and the nature of scientific inquiry.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Some animal species are limited to a repertoire of genetically determined behaviors; others have more complex brains and can learn and modify a wide variety of behaviors. 6D/M1a

All behavior is affected by both inheritance and experience. 6D/M1b

The level of skill a person can reach in any particular activity depends on innate abilities, the amount of practice, and the use of appropriate learning technologies. 6D/M2

Human beings can detect a tremendous range of visual and olfactory stimuli. The strongest stimulus they can tolerate may be more than a trillion times as intense as the weakest they can detect. Still, there are many kinds of signals in the world that people cannot detect directly. 6D/M3

Attending closely to any one input of information usually reduces the ability to attend to others at the same time. 6D/M4

Learning often results from two perceptions or actions occurring at about the same time. The more often the same combination occurs, the stronger the mental connection between them is likely to be. Occasionally a single vivid experience will connect two things permanently in people's minds. 6D/M5

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Some animal species are limited to a repertoire of genetically determined behaviors; others have more complex brains and can learn a wide variety of behaviors. All behavior is affected by both inheritance and experience. 6D/M1

The level of skill a person can reach in any particular activity depends on innate abilities, the amount of practice, and the use of appropriate learning technologies. 6D/M2

Human beings can detect a tremendous range of visual and olfactory stimuli. The strongest stimulus they can tolerate may be more than a trillion times as intense as the weakest they can detect. Still, there are many kinds of signals in the world that people cannot detect directly. 6D/M3

Attending closely to any one input of information usually reduces the ability to attend to others at the same time. 6D/M4

Learning often results from two perceptions or actions occurring at about the same time. The more often the same combination occurs, the stronger the mental connection between them is likely to be. Occasionally a single vivid experience will connect two things permanently in people's minds. 6D/M5

Grades 9 through 12

Students can reflect on and generalize from the particulars studied in previous grades. Now is the time to consider some explanations of how learning takes place. Claims of sophisticated learning by other animals, such as language in lower primates, can be considered in light of available evidence.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Even instinctive behavior may not develop well if the individual is exposed to abnormal conditions. 6D/H1*

The expectations, moods, and prior experiences of human beings can affect how they interpret new perceptions or ideas. People tend to ignore evidence that challenges their beliefs and to accept evidence that supports them. 6D/H2ab

The context in which something is learned may limit the contexts in which the learning can be used. 6D/H2c

Human thinking involves the interaction of ideas, and ideas about ideas. People can produce many associations internally without receiving information from their senses. 6D/H3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Differences in the behavior of individuals arise from the interaction of heredity and experience—the effect of each depends on what the other is. Even instinctive behavior may not develop well if the individual is exposed to abnormal conditions. 6D/H1In the current version of Benchmarks Online, the first sentence of this benchmark has been deleted because the ideas in it are addressed in benchmark 7A/H4*.

The expectations, moods, and prior experiences of human beings can affect how they interpret new perceptions or ideas. People tend to ignore evidence that challenges their beliefs and to accept evidence that supports them. The context in which something is learned may limit the contexts in which the learning can be used. 6D/H2

Human thinking involves the interaction of ideas, and ideas about ideas. People can produce many associations internally without receiving information from their senses. 6D/H3

E. Physical Health

Knowledge of health and knowledge about illness and disease are closely connected. Human beings' knowledge of diseases has helped them understand how the healthy body works, just as knowing about normal body functioning helps to define and detect diseases.

Knowledge of science can inform choices about nutrition and exercise, but that doesn't ensure healthy practices. Some adults have ideas about health that are contrary to scientific facts. Ideas about what constitutes good nutrition change somewhat as new information accumulates, but the basics are quite stable. Students should learn these basics.

The learning goals in this section are closely related to those of 8F: Health Technology. The connections are not always drawn explicitly here, but children should learn how to make and graph health-relevant measurements (body temperature, pulse), discuss tradeoffs in using prescription drugs, and so on.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

Children should learn how to keep healthy, although they may not understand why certain diets, exercise, and rest all help. They do know some of the ways one can be in poor health, and instruction should build on that.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

Eating a variety of healthful foods and getting enough exercise and rest help people to stay healthy. 6E/P1

Some things people take into their bodies from the environment can hurt them. 6E/P2

Some diseases are caused by germs, some are not. Diseases caused by germs may be spread by people who have them. Washing one's hands with soap and water reduces the number of germs that can get into the body or that can be passed on to other people. 6E/P3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

Eating a variety of healthful foods and getting enough exercise and rest help people to stay healthy. 6E/P1

Some things people take into their bodies from the environment can hurt them. 6E/P2

Some diseases are caused by germs, some are not. Diseases caused by germs may be spread by people who have them. Washing one's hands with soap and water reduces the number of germs that can get into the body or that can be passed on to other people. 6E/P3

Grades 3 through 5

Children should explore ways in which good health can be promoted. Here, they can begin to understand some of the evidence, though not in great detail. They may get their first look at microorganisms through a microscope.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Food provides fuel and materials for growth and repair of body parts. 6E/E1a*

Vitamins and minerals, present in small amounts in foods, are essential to keep everything working well. 6E/E1b

As people grow up, the amounts and kinds of food and exercise needed by the body may change. 6E/E1c

Tobacco, alcohol, other drugs, and certain poisons in the environment—such as pesticides and lead—can harm human beings and other living things. 6E/E2

Some germs may keep the body from working properly. For defense against germs, the human body has tears, saliva, and skin to prevent many germs from getting into the body and special cells to fight germs that do get into the body. 6E/E3*

There are some diseases that human beings can catch only once. After they've recovered, they don't get sick from them again. There are many diseases that can be prevented by injecting people with killed or weakened germs so that people don't catch the diseases even once. 6E/E4*

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Food provides energy and materials for growth and repair of body parts. Vitamins and minerals, present in small amounts in foods, are essential to keep everything working well. As people grow up, the amounts and kinds of food and exercise needed by the body may change. 6E/E1

Tobacco, alcohol, other drugs, and certain poisons in the environment (pesticides, lead) can harm human beings and other living things. 6E/E2

If germs are able to get inside one's body, they may keep it from working properly. For defense against germs, the human body has tears, saliva, skin, some blood cells, and stomach secretions. A healthy body can fight most germs that do get inside. However, there are some germs that interfere with the body's defenses. 6E/E3

There are some diseases that human beings can catch only once. After they've recovered they don't get sick from them again. There are many diseases that can be prevented by vaccination, so that people don't catch them even once. 6E/E4

Grades 6 through 8

Students should extend their study of the healthy functioning of the human body and ways it may be promoted or disrupted by diet, lifestyle, bacteria, and viruses. Students should consider the effects of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs on the way the body functions. They should start reading the labels on food products and considering what healthful diets could be like.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

Regular exercise is important to maintain a healthy heart/lung system, good muscle tone, and bone strength. 6E/M1b

Toxic substances, some dietary habits, and some personal behavior may be bad for one's health. Some effects show up right away, others years later. Avoiding toxic substances, such as tobacco, and changing dietary habits increase the chance of living longer. 6E/M2

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. A person can catch a cold many times because there are many varieties of cold viruses that cause similar symptoms. 6E/M3

White blood cells engulf invaders or produce antibodies that attack them or mark them for killing by other white cells. The antibodies produced will remain and can fight off subsequent invaders of the same kind. 6E/M4

The environment may contain dangerous levels of substances that are harmful to human beings. Therefore, the good health of individuals requires monitoring the soil, air, and water and taking steps to make them safe. 6E/M5

Specific kinds of germs cause specific diseases. 6E/M6** (BSL)

Vaccines induce the body to build immunity to a disease without actually causing the disease itself. 6E/M7** (BSL)

Toxic substances, some dietary habits, and some personal behavior may be bad for one's health. Some effects show up right away, others may not show up for many years. Avoiding toxic substances, such as tobacco, and changing dietary habits to reduce the intake of such things as animal fat increases the chances of living longer. 6E/M2

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites may infect the human body and interfere with normal body functions. A person can catch a cold many times because there are many varieties of cold viruses that cause similar symptoms. 6E/M3

White blood cells engulf invaders or produce antibodies that attack them or mark them for killing by other white cells. The antibodies produced will remain and can fight off subsequent invaders of the same kind. 6E/M4

The environment may contain dangerous levels of substances that are harmful to human beings. Therefore, the good health of individuals requires monitoring the soil, air, and water and taking steps to keep them safe. 6E/M5

Grades 9 through 12

Students should relate their knowledge of normal body functioning to situations, both hereditary and environmental, in which functioning is impaired. As they come across medical news in the media, students can identify new ways of detection, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, or monitoring. They should routinely try to find explanations for various disease conditions in physiological, molecular, or systems terms.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Some allergic reactions are caused by the body's immune responses to usually harmless environmental substances. Sometimes the immune system may attack some of the body's own cells. 6E/H1

Faulty genes can cause body parts or systems to work poorly. Some genetic diseases appear only when an individual has inherited a certain faulty gene from both parents. 6E/H2

New medical techniques, efficient health care delivery systems, improved diet and sanitation, and a fuller understanding of the nature of health and disease give today's human beings a better chance of staying healthy than their ancestors had. 6E/H3a*

Conditions now are very different from the conditions in which the species evolved. But some of the differences may not be good for human health. 6E/H3b

Some viral diseases, such as AIDS, destroy critical cells of the immune system, leaving the body unable to deal with multiple infection agents and cancerous cells. 6E/H4

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Some allergic reactions are caused by the body's immune responses to usually harmless environmental substances. Sometimes the immune system may attack some of the body's own cells. 6E/H1

Faulty genes can cause body parts or systems to work poorly. Some genetic diseases appear only when an individual has inherited a certain faulty gene from both parents. 6E/H2

New medical techniques, efficient health care delivery systems, improved sanitation, and a fuller understanding of the nature of disease give today's human beings a better chance of staying healthy than their forebears had. Conditions now are very different from the conditions in which the species evolved. But some of the differences may not be good for human health. 6E/H3

Some viral diseases, such as AIDS, destroy critical cells of the immune system, leaving the body unable to deal with multiple infection agents and cancerous cells. 6E/H4

F. Mental Health

Sound mental health involves the interaction of psychological, physiological, and cultural systems. It is generally regarded as the ability to cope with the circumstances people encounter in their personal, professional, and social lives. Ideas about what constitutes good mental health vary from one culture to another and from one time period to another. This fact is probably the most important insight students can gain about mental health.

Kindergarten through Grade 2

Children should be helped to identify internal feelings and distinguish them from external sensations. Through discussion, they can appreciate that everybody has both pleasant and unpleasant feelings.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People have many different feelings—sadness, joy, anger, fear, etc.—about events, themselves, and other people. 6F/P1

People react to personal problems in different ways. Some ways are more likely to be helpful than others. 6F/P2

Talking to someone may help people understand their feelings or problems and what to do about them. 6F/P3

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 2nd grade, students should know that

People have many different feelings—sadness, joy, anger, fear, etc.—about events, themselves, and other people. 6F/P1

People react to personal problems in different ways. Some ways are more likely to be helpful than others. 6F/P2

Talking to someone (a friend, relative, teacher, or counselor) may help people understand their feelings and problems and what to do about them. 6F/P3

Grades 3 through 5

Children at this level are less concerned about identifying emotions than about knowing what to do with them. They know that everyone has emotions, and they may even realize that people respond differently to their own emotions. But it might seem strange that other people don't always feel the same way they do in similar situations. Students should be encouraged to wonder why they and others have certain emotions. They should learn that different ways of dealing with emotions have different consequences, and that it is normal for feelings to fluctuate. Role playing offers opportunities for students to explore ways of dealing with emotional situations. They can begin to make a connection between their physical and emotional well-being and see how one can affect the other.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 5th grade, students should know that

Different individuals handle their feelings differently, and can have different feelings in the same situation. 6F/E1

Often human beings don't understand why others act the way they do, and sometimes they don't understand their own behavior and feelings. 6F/E2

One way to respond to a strong feeling, either pleasant or unpleasant, is to think about what caused it and then consider whether to seek out or avoid similar situations. 6F/E4

Grades 6 through 8

Students at this level are often drawn to situations involving intense emotions, such as those they encounter at sports events, concerts, playground fights, and in horror stories and movies. They may connect these extremes of emotion to their own thoughts and feelings. The consequences of unbridled emotion, such as violence, death, drug use, etc., are now so serious that it is important for students to understand the connection between emotion and risky behavior.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Individuals differ greatly in their ability to cope with stressful situations. 6F/M1a

People may react to mental distress by denying they have any problems. 6F/M2a

With help people can sometimes uncover the reasons for their feelings. 6F/M2b

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 8th grade, students should know that

Individuals differ greatly in their ability to cope with stressful situations. Both external and internal conditions (chemistry, personal history, values) influence how people behave. 6F/M1

Often people react to mental distress by denying that they have any problem. Sometimes they don't know why they feel the way they do, but with help they can sometimes uncover the reasons. 6F/M2

Grades 9 through 12

Students at this level begin to search for their place in a complex world. Some researchers report that adolescents want to understand why people behave as they do and will seek general truths about social and psychological processes. Students are not so interested in the particulars as in the meaning of things in general.

Current Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Stresses are especially difficult for children to deal with and may have long-lasting effects. 6F/H1

Biological abnormalities, such as brain injuries or chemical imbalances, can cause or increase susceptability to psychological disturbances. 6F/H2

Reactions of other people to an individual's emotional disturbance may increase its effects. 6F/H3

Human beings differ greatly in how they cope with emotions and may therefore puzzle one another. 6F/H4

Ideas about what constitutes good mental health and proper treatment for abnormal mental states vary from one culture to another and from one time period to another. 6F/H5

Psychological distress may also affect an individual's vulnerability to biological disease. 6F/H6** (SFAA)

According to some theories of mental disturbance, anger, fear, or depression may result from exceptionally upsetting thoughts or memories that are blocked from becoming conscious. 6F/H7** (SFAA)

1993 Version of the Benchmarks Statements

By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that

Stresses are especially difficult for children to deal with and may have long-lasting effects. 6F/H1

Biological abnormalities, such as brain injuries or chemical imbalances, can cause or increase susceptibility to psychological disturbances. 6F/H2

Reactions of other people to an individual's emotional disturbance may increase its effects. 6F/H3

Human beings differ greatly in how they cope with emotions and may therefore puzzle one another. 6F/H4

Ideas about what constitutes good mental health and proper treatment for abnormal mental states vary from one culture to another and from one time period to another. 6F/H5

VERSION EXPLANATION

During the development of Atlas of Science Literacy, Volume 2, Project 2061 revised
the wording of some benchmarks in order to update the science, improve the logical progression of ideas,
and reflect the current research on student learning. New benchmarks were also created as necessary to
accommodate related ideas in other learning goals documents such as Science for All Americans (SFAA),
the National Science Education Standards (NSES), and the essays or other elements in
Benchmarks for Science Literacy (BSL). We are providing access to both the current and the 1993
versions of the benchmarks as a service to our end-users.

The text of each learning goal is followed by its code, consisting of the chapter, section, grade range, and the
number of the goal. Lowercase letters at the end of the code indicate which part of the 1993 version it comes from (e.g., “a”
indicates the first sentence in the 1993 version, “b” indicates the second sentence, and so on).
A single asterisk at the end of the code means that the learning goal has been edited from the original, whereas two asterisks
mean that the idea is a new learning goal.