The traditional occupation of brāhmäņs was that of priesthood at the Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies and rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers.[2][3] Theoretically, the brāhmäņs were the highest ranking of the four social classes.[4] In practice, Indian texts suggest that brāhmäņs were agriculturalists, warriors, traders and have held a variety of other occupations in India.[3][5][4]

Contents

Vedic sources

Brāhmäņ priests

a Brāhmäņ doing ahaman and chanting

A Myanmar Brāhmäņ

Indonesian Brāhmäņs

early 19th century Indian Brāhmäņ

Purusha Sukta

The earliest inferred reference to "brāhmäņ" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta.[6] According to this hymn in Mandala 10, brāhmäņs are described as having emerged from the mouth of Purusha, being that part of the body from which words emerge.[7][8][note 1] This Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth.[9] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".[9]

Shrauta Sutras

Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests: the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the brāhmäņ and sometimes the ritvij.[10][11] The functions associated with the priests were:

The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda.[12]

The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers oblations.[12]

The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.[12]

According to Kulkarni, the Grhya-sutras state that Yajna, Adhyayana (studying the vedas and teaching), dana pratigraha (accepting and giving gifts) are the "peculiar duties and privileges of brāhmäņs".[13]

Brāhmäņ and renunciation tradition in Hinduism

The term brāhmäņ in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.[14] Both Buddhist and brāhmäņcal literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define "brāhmäņ" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities.[14] These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. brāhmäņs, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.[14]

Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras

The Dharmasutras and Dharmashatras text of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of brāhmäņs. The rules and duties in these Dharma texts of Hinduism, are primarily directed at brāhmäņs. The Gautama's Dharmasutra, the oldest of surviving Hindu Dharmasutras, for example, states in verse 9.54–9.55 that a brāhmäņ should not participate or perform a ritual unless he is invited to do so, but he may attend. Gautama outlines the following rules of conduct for a brāhmäņ, in Chapters 8 and 9:[15]

Virtues more important than rituals
A Brāhmäņ man who has performed the forty sacramental rites, but lacks eight virtues does not obtain union with or residence in the same world as Brāhmäņ. A man who may have performed just some rites, but possesses these eight virtues, on the other hand, does.

Chapter 8 of the Dharmasutra, states Olivelle, asserts the functions of a brāhmäņ to be to learn the Vedas, the secular sciences, the Vedic supplements, the dialogues, the epics and the Puranas; to understand the texts and pattern his conduct according to precepts contained in this texts, to undertake Sanskara (rite of passage) and rituals, and lead a virtuous life.[17]

The text lists eight virtues that a brāhmäņ must inculcate: compassion, patience, lack of envy, purification, tranquility, auspicious disposition, generosity and lack of greed, and then asserts in verse 9.24–9.25, that it is more important to lead a virtuous life than perform rites and rituals, because virtue leads to achieving liberation (moksha, a life in the world of brāhmäņ).[17]

The later Dharma texts of Hinduism such as Baudhayana Dharmasutra add charity, modesty, refraining from anger and never being arrogant as duties of a brāhmäņ.[18] The Vasistha Dharmasutra in verse 6.23 lists discipline, austerity, self-control, liberality, truthfulness, purity, Vedic learning, compassion, erudition, intelligence and religious faith as characteristics of a brāhmäņ.[19] In 13.55, the Vasistha text states that a brāhmäņ must not accept weapons, poison or liquor as gifts.[20]

The Dharmasastras such as Manusmriti, like Dharmsutras, are codes primarily focussed on how a brāhmäņ must live his life, and their relationship with a king and warrior class.[21] Manusmriti dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of brāhmäņs.[22] It asserts, for example,

A well disciplined Brahman, although he knows just the Savitri verse, is far better than an undisciplined one who eats all types of food and deals in all types of merchandise though he may know all three Vedas.

John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for brāhmäņs, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic brāhmäņ can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom",[24] and that "the virtuous brāhmäņ is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.[25]

History

According to Abraham Eraly, "brāhmäņ as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), and "no brāhmäņ, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to in any Indian text" dated to be from the first century CE or before.[26] Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.[26] However, the knowledge about actual history of brāhmäņs or other varnas of Hinduism in and after 1st-millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archeological evidence, and much that is constructed from a-historical Sanskrit works and fiction. Michael Witzel writes his perspective that in no way determines who Brāhmäņs actually are,

Toward a history of the Brāhmäņs: Current research in the area is fragmentary. The state of our knowledge of this fundamental subject is preliminary, at best. Most Sanksrit works are a-historic or, at least, not especially interested in presenting a chronological account of India's history. When we actually encounter history, such as in Rajatarangini or in the Gopalavamsavali of Nepal, the texts do not deal with Brāhmäņs in great detail.

Normative occupations

The Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a brāhmäņ to learn and teach the Vedas.[28] Chapter 10 of the text, according to Olivelle translation, states that he may impart Vedic instructions to a teacher, relative, friend, elder, anyone who offers exchange of knowledge he wants, or anyone who pays for such education.[28] The Chapter 10 adds that a brāhmäņ may also engage in agriculture, trade, lend money on interest, while Chapter 7 states that a brāhmäņ may engage in the occupation of a warrior in the times of adversity.[28][29] Typically, asserts Gautama Dharmasutra, a brāhmäņ should accept any occupation to sustain himself but avoid the occupations of a Shudra, but if his life is at stake a brāhmäņ may sustain himself by accepting occupations of a Shudra.[29] The text forbids a brāhmäņ from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines and milk products even in the times of adversity.[29]

The Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for brāhmäņs, but in the times of adversity he may do so.[30] The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances: human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits.[30]

The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a brāhmäņ, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity.[31] The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states:

Except during a time of adversity, a Brahman ought to sustain himself by following a livelihood that causes little or no harm to creatures. He should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. – 4.2–4.3

He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood but subsist by means of a pure, upright and honest livelihood proper to a Brāhmäņ. One who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self-controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. – 4.11–4.12

The Manusmriti recommends that a brāhmäņ's occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others.[33] It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a brāhmäņ: teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts and accepting gifts.[33] Of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a brāhmäņ with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts.[34] The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six.[33] In the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a brāhmäņ may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade.[34] Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10.83–10.84 recommends a brāhmäņ should avoid agriculture if possible because, according to Olivelle translation, agriculture "involves injury to living beings and dependence of others" when the plow digs the ground and injures the creatures that live in the soil.[34][35] However, adds Manusmriti, even in the times of adversity, a brāhmäņ must never trade or produce poison, weapons, meat, soma, liquor, perfume, milk and milk products, molasses, captured animals or birds, beeswax, sesame seeds or roots.[34]

Actual occupations

Historical records, state scholars, suggest that brāhmäņ varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and teaching profession.[3][5][39] Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest brāhmäņs were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception.[3][5] Donkin and other scholars state that Hoysala Empire records frequently mention brāhmäņ merchants "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.[40][41]

The Pali Canon depicts brāhmäņs as the most prestigious and elite non-Buddhist figures.[39] They mention them parading their learning. The Pali Canon and other Buddhist texts such as the Jataka Tales also record the livelihood of brāhmäņs to have included being farmers, handicraft workers and artisans such as carpentry and architecture.[39][42] Buddhist sources extensively attest, state Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, that brāhmäņs were "supporting themselves not by religious practice, but employment in all manner of secular occupations", in the classical period of India.[39] Some of the brāhmäņ occupations mentioned in the Buddhist texts such as Jatakas and Sutta Nipata are very lowly.[39] The Dharmasutras too mention brāhmäņ farmers.[39][43]

According to Haidar and Sardar, in the Islamic sultanates of the Deccan region, and unlike the Mughal Empire, Telugu Niyogi brāhmäņs served the Muslim sultans in many different roles such as accountants, ministers, revenue administration and in judicial service.[44] The Deccan sultanates also heavily recruited Marathi brāhmäņs at different levels of their administration[45] During the days of Maratha Empire in the 17th and 18th century, the occupation of Marathi brāhmäņs ranged from administration, being warriors to being de facto rulers[46][47]
After the collapse of Maratha empire, brāhmäņs in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers.They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century[48]

Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era brāhmäņs served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj.[49] The East India Company recruited from the brāhmäņ communities of the present day Uttar pradesh and Bihar regions for the Bengal army[50] Many brāhmäņs, in other parts of South Asia lived like other varna, engaged in all sorts of professions. Among Nepalese Hindus, for example, Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels report the actual observed professions of brāhmäņs from 18th- to early 20th-century included being temple priests, minister, merchants, farmers, potters, masons, carpenters, coppersmiths, stone workers, barbers, gardeners among others.[51]

Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of Uttar Pradesh, recorded that the primary occupation of almost all brāhmäņ families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of brāhmäņs), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations.[52][53] The survey reported that the brāhmäņ families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their labor services to other farmers.[52][54]

Brāhmäņs, bhakti movement and social reform movements

Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were brāhmäņs, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god.[55][56] Among the many brāhmäņs who nurtured the Bhakti movement were Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Madhvacharya of Vaishnavism,[56]Ramananda, another devotional poet sant.[57][58] Born in a brāhmäņ family,[57][59] Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims).[59][60][61] He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. His ideas also influenced the founders of Sikhism in 15th century, and his verses and he are mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.[62] The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu Ramanandi Sampradaya,[63] the largest monastic renunciant community in Asia in modern times.[64][65]

Modern demographics and economic condition

According to 2007 reports, brāhmäņs in India are about five percent of its total population.[49][71] The Himalayan states of Uttarakhand (20%) and Himachal Pradesh (14%) have the highest percentage of brāhmäņ population relative to respective state's total Hindus.[71] Also, the participation of brāhmäņs in present government is very high.

According to a Wall Street Journal report, an estimated 65 percent of the brāhmäņ households in India, with about 40 million people, lived on less than $100 a month in 2004; this number dropped to about 50% in 2007.[49] brāhmäņs have also included wealthier and politically successful members.[72]

In Buddhist and Jaina texts

The term brāhmäņ appears extensively in ancient and medieval Sutras and commentary texts of Buddhism and Jainism. In Buddhist Pali Canon, such as the Majjhima Nikaya and Devadaha Sutta, first written down about 1st century BCE,[73] the Buddha is attributed to be mentioning Jain brāhmäņs and ascetics, as he describes their karma doctrine and ascetic practices:[74]

The Blessed One [Buddha] said,
"There are, o monks, some ascetics and Brahmans who speak thus and are of such opinion: 'Whatever a particular person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all this has (...) Thus say, o monks, those free of bonds [Jainas].
"O Niganthas, you ...

Modern scholars state that such usage of the term brāhmäņ in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition.[76][77][78] An alternate synonym for brāhmäņ in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is Mahano.[76]

Outside South Asia: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia

Among the Hindus of Bali, Indonesia, brāhmäņs are called Pedandas.[79] The role of brāhmäņ priests, called Sulinggih,[80] has been open to both genders since medieval times. A Hindu brāhmäņ priestess is shown above.

Some brāhmäņs formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court brāhmäņs were locally called Punna.[81] During the Konbaung dynasty, Buddhist kings relied on their court brāhmäņs to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions.[81] This role of Hindu brāhmäņs in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts don't.[81]

The brāhmäņs were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India.[81] Hindu Dharmasastras, particularly Manusmriti written by the brāhmäņ Manu, states Anthony Reid,[82] were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".[82][83][84]

The mythical origins of Cambodia are credited to a brāhmäņ prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands.[85][86] Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.[85]

brāhmäņs have been part of the Royal tradition of Thailand, particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brāhmäņical temple Devasathan, established in 1784 by King Rama I of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai brāhmäņs ever since.[87] The temple hosts Phra Phikhanesuan (Ganesha), Phra Narai (Narayana, Vishnu), Phra Itsuan (Shiva), Uma, Brahma, Indra (Sakka) and other Hindu deities.[87] The tradition asserts that the Thai brāhmäņs have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title Pandita, and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals. The coronation ceremony of the Thai king is almost entirely conducted by the royal brāhmäņs.[87][88]

See also

Notes

यत् पुरुषं व्यदधुः कतिधा व्यकल्पयन् ।
मुखं किम् अस्य कौ बाहू का ऊरू पादा उच्येते ॥११॥
ब्राह्मणो ऽस्य मुखम् आसीद् बाहू राजन्यः कृतः ।
ऊरू तद् अस्य यद् वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥१२॥
11 When they divided Puruṣa how many portions did they make?
What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet?
12 The Brahmin was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rājanya made.
His thighs became the Vaiśya, from his feet the Śūdra was produced.

^Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, ISBN978-1-4724-1913-2, page 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."

^Shankara, Student's Encyclopædia Britannica - India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, ISBN978-0-85229-760-5, page 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, page 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."

^Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0-231-10335-0, page 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism - if not the only one - which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".

^ abcdefGreg Bailey and Ian Mabbett (2006), The Sociology of Early Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-02521-8, pages 113–115 with footnotes