The 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles was the most violent revolt to the open shop policies of the Pacific Electric Railway Company in Los Angeles. Labor organizers had fought for over a decade to increase wages, decrease work hours, and legalize unions for streetcar workers of the Los Angeles basin, after having been denied unionization rights and changes in work policies by the National War Labor Board, streetcar workers broke out in massive protest before being subdued by local armed police force.

Henry E. Huntington was a notorious anti-labor businessman. His distaste of unions ran so deep that Huntington joined alliance with multiple labor opponents to ensure that unions would remain subdued. Huntington shared like-minded ideas with the likes of David M. Parry, the president of the National Association of Manufacturers (NAM) and Harrison Gray Otis, owner and publisher of the Los Angeles Times. The National Association of Manufacturers was established in 1895 and had originally promoted trade and commerce, but by 1903 it began to side with anti-strike and anti-union ideologies. Huntington and Parry worked together to demand legislation for making boycotting illegal and protecting strikebreakers and nonunion workers. Otis had been working to ensure that his publication aligned with anti-unionism policies since the 1880s, he framed supporters of unions in a highly negative light and claimed that strikebreakers were deserters that should not be allowed into the Los Angeles community. Otis utilized the Los Angeles Times to share the ideas of likeminded men of power stating that union men could not be trusted and that labor leaders sought to undermine and destroy companies.[1] Huntington’s involvement went beyond sharing ideas with powerful men that shared his visions, he supported and funded organizations that supported companies that fell victim to unions and strikes. He battled labor movements locally alongside the Los Angeles Merchants and Manufacturers Association as well as the Citizens' Alliance. The Merchants’ and Manufactures’ Association (M&M) was founded in the 1890s to work with emerging businesses to encourage mediation between employers and its workers. After a union organized strike against the Los Angeles Times in 1902, M&M shifted its platform and began to publicly attack organized labor.[2] Over 80 percent of local businesses were members of M&M. Businessmen were strong-armed into supporting open shop policies from threats of cutting off bank credit, denying advertisements in the Los Angeles Times, and withholding shipment of materials to companies forcing people to buy from competitors,[3] the Los Angeles Citizens' Alliance (LACA) was founded in Los Angeles in 1904 and was over six thousand people strong. Members could participate so long as they did not participate in any labor unions. Huntington heavily sent his support to LACA by both joining and financially backing the organization. LACA ensured the safety of its companies from unions and boycotts by providing its members one dollar per day for each worker that walked off from a strike.[4]

Huntington faced his first encounter with labor in Los Angeles in 1901 when the Los Angeles Railway's platform men-conductors and motormen-demanded that their hourly wages be increased from twenty cents to twenty-two and a half cents per hour; in June the employees accepted the company's counter-proposal of a progressive wage scale based on seniority-men with under four years experience were paid twenty cents per hour, those with four years received twenty-one cents, and workers with five or more years at the Los Angeles Railway earned twenty-two cents per hour.[5] This created a huge setback for union unity. Instead of working for a common cause, each worker sought to work towards personal gain, this dilemma increased once Huntington threatened to fire anyone who joined a union. An effort was made by the Los Angeles Council of Labor in 1901 and 1902 to amalgamate the streetcar workers in the Los Angeles Basin. Huntington trampled the attempts of the council for threat of being dismissed from work if employees were caught joining the cause. Organizers from San Francisco came to Los Angeles and organized the Local No. 203 of the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees in 1903 despite Huntington’s work against unions in years prior. The new local gained steam and quickly accumulated over 200 in membership. Previously dismissed employees attempted to call up strikes on two separate occasions in March and April, but Huntington did not tolerate any of it. Managers were ordered to fire employees that participated or sympathized with the strike and police force were used against employees attempting to march out. Huntington rewarded employees that chose to stay loyal to the company with a ten percent wage increase, the following labor clash in April 1903 known as the Pacific Electric Railway Strike of 1903 was caused by the unrest of racial divides in labor practices. The Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees decided to assist the Mexican laborers working in the Huntington construction gangs to organize their own union. Mexican laborers were hired to lay track in the southwest because their low wage rate, $1.00 to $1.25 for a ten-hour day, was significantly less than other minorities, such as the Chinese, who collected up to $1.75 per day for the same work.[6] The Mexican Federal Union was formed in 1903 and raised great support in the community. Work on the Main Street line was stopped and demands were made to Pacific Electric for increased wages. Huntington refused to meet these demands and replaced them with black, Japanese, and white laborers while still paying them higher wages than had been paid towards the Mexicans.

Clashes between organized labor and Pacific Electric simmered until labor efforts were renewed in 1910. Metal trade workers began a large strike and great tensions were created between employers and workers in Los Angeles as a result, the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees took advantage of the discourse and organized the Los Angeles trainmen and created Carmen's Local No. 410. The organization lobbied the state to create a ten-hour workday for local and interurban railway workers, the movement failed because employers threatened to fire anyone found participating in the movement. From 1913 to 1915, the amalgamated workers fought for lower work shifts and higher wages but found themselves blocked off by powerful enemies of labor. Pacific Electric found a new tactic of subduing the labor movement by adopting a company union in 1917. Huntington chose General Manager George Kuhrts as the group's president, and the other officers were elected by the workers, the union established a board selected by workers to air employee grievances and make. Although it made employee desires known to management, the union had no administrative authority, and it served in a purely advisory capacity.[7]

The most intense strike for the railway workers occurred in two stages between 1918 and 1919. World War I caused great inflation in prices in Los Angeles. Streetcar crews worked over ten hour shifts and the pay increases averaged only 50 percent over a period when the cost of living had risen nearly 75 percent,[8] the vice-president of the Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees, Ben Bowbeer, began to unionize workers with strong support from federal government wage adjustment bureaus in 1918. Labor leaders fueled with renewed energy pulled their efforts together to create the Amalgamated Division 835, the union applied to the National War Labor Board (NWLB) in the fall of 1918 for an increase in wages and an eight-hour workday. The eight-hour workday was granted, but Huntington kept from its implementation. Once again, streetcar workers went on strike, this time, the US naval commander sent armed sailors on the Red Cars to threaten the streetcar conductors. The city also served injunctions declaring that workers had agreed to open shop policies upon their employment and that their demands to unionize were illegal.[9]

In 1919 the streetcar unions petitioned the National War Labor Board again for union recognition and were denied a second time, resulting in violent resistance, the Mexican tracklayers walked out in solidarity, strikers greased streetcar wheels, trolleys were overturned from their tracks, and a riot broke out on August 20 in downtown Los Angeles. Ultimately, railway workers walked away with a pay increase and the Los Angeles Railway management continued their open shop policies. War time politics would greatly halt organized labor in the coming years.

1.
Pacific Electric
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Organized around the city centers of Los Angeles and San Bernardino, it connected cities in Los Angeles County, Orange County, San Bernardino County and Riverside County. The system had four districts, Northern District, San Gabriel Valley, including Pasadena, Mount Lowe, South Pasadena, Alhambra, El Monte, Covina, Duarte, Glendora, Azusa, Sierra Madre, and Monrovia. Eastern District, Pomona, San Bernardino, Arrowhead Springs, Riverside, Rialto, Southern District, Long Beach, Newport Beach, Huntington Beach, San Pedro via Dominguez, Santa Ana, El Segundo, Redondo Beach via Gardena, and San Pedro Via Torrance. Western District, Hollywood, Glendale/Burbank, San Fernando Valley, Beverly Hills, Santa Monica, Manhattan/Redondo/Hermosa Beaches, Venice, Electric trolleys first appeared in Los Angeles in 1887. The Pacific Electric Railway was created in 1901 by railroad executive Henry E. Huntington, Hellman, the President of the Nevada Bank, San Franciscos largest, became one of the largest bond holders for these lines and he and the younger Huntington developed a close business relationship. When uncle Collis died, Henry lost a battle for control of the Southern Pacific to Union Pacific President E. H. Harriman. Huntington then decided to focus his energies on Southern California, Hellman added that he had already tasked engineer Epes Randolph to survey and lay out the companys first line which would be to Long Beach. Hellman and his group of investors owned the majority of stock. Using surrogates, the syndicate began purchasing property and rights-of-ways, the new companys first main project, the line to Long Beach, opened July 4,1902. Huntington experienced periods of opposition from organized labor with the construction of the new railways, tensions between union leaders and like-minded Los Angeles businessmen were high from the early 1900s up through the 1920s. Strikes and boycotts troubled the Pacific Electric throughout those years until they reached the height of violence in the 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, the efforts of organized labor simmered with the onset of World War I. Railroads were one part of the enterprise, revenue from passenger traffic rarely generated a profit, unlike freight. The real money for the investors was in supplying electric power to new communities, to get the railways and electricity to their towns, local groups offered the Huntington interests opportunities in local land. Soon Huntington and his partners had significant holdings in the companies developing Naples, Bay City, Huntington Beach, Newport Beach. In early 1903, Harriman proposed a plan with three-cent fare plan to the Los Angeles City Council. Huntington countered with a book which gave the rider 500 miles of travel for $6.25. The Council vetoed the idea, unable to believe adequate service could be provided for such a low fare. The final confrontation came over a war for the 6th Street franchise, in which the franchise, finally went to the top bidder for $110,000

2.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital

3.
Henry E. Huntington
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Henry Edwards Huntington was an American railroad magnate and collector of art and rare books. Huntington settled in Los Angeles, where he owned the Pacific Electric Railway as well as real estate interests. In addition to being a businessman and art collector, Huntington was a booster for Los Angeles in the late 19th. Huntington held several positions working alongside his uncle with the Southern Pacific. He had four children with Mary Alice, Howard Edward, Clara Leonora, Elizabeth Vincent, and Marian Prentice, arabellas son Archer, from her prior marriage from which she was widowed, had earlier been adopted by Collis. In 1898, in competition with his uncles Southern Pacific, Huntington bought the narrow gauge. In 1901, Huntington formed the sprawling interurban, standard gauge Pacific Electric Railway, known as the Red Car system, centered at 6th, Huntington succeeded in this competition by providing passenger friendly streetcars on 24/7 schedules, which the railroads couldnt match. Connectivity to Downtown Los Angeles made such suburbs feasible, by 1910, the Huntington trolley systems stretched over approximately 1,300 miles of southern California. In 1905 Huntington, A. Kingsley Macomber, and William R. Staats developed the Oak Knoll subdivision, the road was completed in February 1907. The property was donated to the city of Riverside by the heirs of Frank Miller. Huntington was a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California, Huntington retired from active business in 1916. In 1927 Henry E. Huntington died in Philadelphia while undergoing surgery and he and Arabella are buried, with a large monument, in the Gardens of the Huntington Library in San Marino, California. The Huntington Hotel was originally named Hotel Wentworth when it opened its doors on February 1,1907, financial problems and a disappointing first season forced the Hotel Wentworth to close its doors indefinitely. Henry Huntington purchased the Hotel Wentworth in 1911, renaming it the Huntington Hotel and it reopened in 1914, transformed into a beautiful winter resort. The 1920s were a time for the hotel, as Midwestern and Eastern entrepreneurs discovered Californias warm winter climate. The hotels reputation for fine service began with general manager and later owner Stephen W. Royce. By 1926, the hotels success prompted Royce to open the property year-round, the golden years ended with the stock market crash and the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s. However, by the end of the 1930s the hotel was back on solid ground, when World War II began, all reservations were cancelled and the hotel was rented to the Army for $3,000 a month

4.
David M. Parry
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David MacLean Parry was an American industrialist and writer. David MacLean Parry was born on a farm near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he worked briefly as a clerk, a traveling salesman, a reporter on The New York Herald and later became a successful businessman. Parry was well known for being hostile to labor unions. He authored the anti-socialistic dystopian novel The Scarlet Empire, the book was written as a satirical counterblast to Edward Bellamys Looking Backward. He was a thirty-second degree Mason, a Shriner, and an Odd Fellow, the Necessity of Organization Among Employers, Science, Vol. XVII, No. What can a University Contribute to Preparation for Business Life, in, Convention of Educators and Business Men for the Discussion of Higher Commercial Education. Ann Arbor, The Richmond & Backus Co.1903, the Employers Side, Saturday Evening Post, October 1904. New York, Grosset & Dunlap,1906, david M. Parry, Author of The Scarlet Empire, Replies to Socialists Criticism, The New York Times, April 15,1906. Automobile Sales and the Panic, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. XXXIV, in, Walton Hale Hamilton, Current Economic Problems, The University of Chicago Press,1914. Eugen Richter George F. Baer Henry Ward Beecher Morris Hillquit Bossiere, the Scarlet Empire, Two Visions in One, Science Fiction Studies, Vol.1, No. Jones, Ellis O. Parry and His Book, The Arena, Vol.36, the Fight for the Open Shop, The Worlds Work, Vol.11, pp. 6055–6965. The Utopian Novel in America 1886–1896, The Politics of Form, the Employers Fight Against Organized Labor, World Today. Vol.6, pp. 623–630 Roemer, Kenneth R, the Obsolete Necessity, America in Utopian Writings, 1888–1900. David M. Parry, of Indianapolis, and his Family, Hyattsville, david M. Parry, Indiana Magazine of History, Vol.34, No. David M. Parry, Captain of Industry, Pennsylvanian, Vol.5, david MacLean Parry, 1852-1915, Studies in Ancestral Biography, No. Employers Associations, The International Socialist Review, Vol.5, the Closed Shop in American Trade Unions. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, Series XXIX, the Origins of the Open-Shop Movement, 1919-1920, The Journal of American History, Vol.51, No. The Issue of the Open and Closed Shop, The North American Review, Vol.180, Employers Associations for Dealing With Labor in the United States, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.20, pp. 110–150

5.
National Association of Manufacturers
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The National Association of Manufacturers is an advocacy group headquartered in Washington, D. C. United States, with 10 additional offices across the country and it is the nations largest manufacturing industrial trade association, representing 11,000 small and large manufacturing companies in every industrial sector and in all 50 states. According to Bloomberg, Duke Energy did not renew its membership with the NAM partly because of differences over climate policy and this editorial urged the manufacturers of the time to organize and work together to improve business conditions nationally. Under Egans leadership, organization began, and a group was created, they called themselves the Big 50, he invited them, on Jan 25,1895, in the Oddfellows Temple, where 583 manufacturers attended, NAM was created. The U. S. was in the midst of a deep recession, one of the NAMs earliest efforts was to call for the creation of the U. S. Department of Commerce. The organizations first president was Thomas Dolan of Philadelphia, the early history of NAM was marked by frank verbal attacks on labor. In 1903, then-president David MacLean Parry delivered a speech at its convention which argued that unions goals would result in despotism, tyranny. Parry advocated the establishment of a great national anti-union federation under the control of the NAM, and the NAM responded by initiating such an effort. In an address at its 1911 convention, NAM president John Kirby, Jr. proclaimed, The American Federation of Labor is engaged in an open warfare against Jesus Christ and his cause. The NAM also encouraged the creation and propagation of a network of local anti-union organizations, in October 1903 the local Citizens Alliance groups were united by a national called the Citizens Industrial Alliance of America. NAM, in the late 1930s, used one of the earliest versions of a modern multi-faceted public relations campaign to promote the benefits of capitalism, NAM made efforts to undermine organized labor in the United States before the New Deal. NAM lobbied successfully for the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act to restrict unions power, the advent of commercial television led to the NAMs own 15-minute television program, “Industry on Parade”, which aired from 1950–1960. According to its website, the Manufacturing Institute is the 5013 affiliate of the National Association of Manufacturers, the Manufacturing Institute is the authority on the attraction, qualification, and development of world-class manufacturing talent. John N. Stalker, The National Association of Manufacturers, A Study in Ideology, sarah Lyons Watts, Order Against Chaos, Business Culture and Labor Ideology in America, 1880-1915. Burton St. John III, Press Professionalization and Propaganda, The Rise of Journalistic Double-Mindedness, National Association of Manufacturers Shopfloor Manufacturing Blog Manufacturing Institute online description of historical NAM pamphlets, 1908-1969 National Association of Manufacturers. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University

6.
Harrison Gray Otis (publisher)
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Harrison Gray Otis was the president and general manager of the Times-Mirror Company, publisher of the Los Angeles Times. Otis was born near Marietta, Ohio, on February 10,1837 and his father was from Vermont and his mother, a native of Nova Scotia, Canada, came to Ohio from Boston, Massachusetts, with her family. The young Otis received schooling until he was fourteen, when he became an apprentice at the Noble County Courier in Ohio. He was a Kentucky delegate to the Republican National Convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln for president in 1860. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, he left his job as a compositor in the office of the Louisville Journal to volunteer as a private for the Union army, Otis fought in the 23rd Ohio Infantry. He was promoted through the ranks and was made an officer and he was wounded twice in battle, was twice breveted for gallant and meritorious conduct and was promoted seven times. After the war, Otis was Official Reporter of the Ohio House of Representatives, then moved to Washington, D. C. where he was a government official, correspondent and he left that position in 1881 to return to Santa Barbara. Beginning August 1,1882, he was to have the conduct of the Daily Times and Weekly Mirror. Later the company was named Times-Mirror, and on April 6,1886, it was reorganized, with Albert McFarland and W. A. Spalding as owners and Otis as president and that was Otiss official title at the time of his death in 1917. The Times story about his demise noted that the Times-Mirror Company was publishers of the Los Angeles Daily Times, the article called Otis the principal owner of the newspaper but never referred to him as publisher. Eleven years earlier, however the Associated Press had called him publisher of the Los Angeles Times, when the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, Otis asked President William McKinley for an appointment as Assistant Secretary of War. But Secretary of War Russell A. Alger did not want the conservative Otis serving under him, Otis thereupon again volunteered for the Army and was appointed brigadier general of volunteers. He did not see any action against the Spanish, but commanded the 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, Otis was known for his conservative political views, which were reflected in the paper. His home was one of three buildings that were targeted in the 1910 Los Angeles Times bombing, during his time as publisher of the Times Otis is known for coining the phrase You are either with me, or against me. His support for his city was instrumental in the growth of the city. He was a member of a group of investors who bought land in the San Fernando Valley based on knowledge that the Los Angeles Aqueduct would soon irrigate it. He died on July 30,1917 at the home of his son-in-law, list of Los Angeles Times publishers PBS biography Otis biography in the Bancroft Library Harrison Gray Otis Album of California Scenes, around 1890–1910, in the Bancroft Library

7.
Los Angeles Times
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The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985

8.
Pacific Electric Railway Strike of 1903
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The Pacific Electric Railway strike of 1903 was an industrial dispute between Mexican tracklayers and their employers on the construction of the Main Street streetcar line in Los Angeles. The dispute began on April 24 when the workers, known as the Traqueros, demanded wages to match those of the European immigrants working on the same project. It ended on April 29 when the organising the strike failed to persuade workers on rest of the streetcar system to join the strike. The strike was organised by the Union Federal Mexicanos, representing about 700 workers. The strikers demanded wages to increase roughly three cents from 17.5 cents an hour to 20 cents an hour for those working the day shift,30 cents an hour for night work, and double time pay on Sunday. Mexican workers were less than southern European immigrants such as Italians who earned $1.75 a day in contrast to Mexican workers $1.25 a day for a ten-hour shift. On April 24,1903 approximately 700 Mexican track workers, working on Main St in Downtown Los Angeles, the Strikers worked for Pacific Electric Railway owned by Henry E. Huntington, who was a notorious anti-union businessman. The Strike was organized by the Union Federal Mexicanos a newly created union that was supported by the Amalgamated Association of Street Car Employees, both unions were established by the Los Angeles Council of Labor. The Union Federal is important because it was likely the first union in the United States to represent Mexican track workers, at first the managers of Pacific Electric succumbed to the workers demands and granted a 20 cents an hour wage. However, Huntington quickly retracted the increases because he did not want to deal with a union, a spokesman for Pacific Electric told the Los Angeles Times that Huntington would have raised wages if only the workers came to him instead of bringing the union. The spokesman further elaborated that the company would pay the five dollars a day if they had to but they absolutely would not deal with the union. Mexican laborers accepted such low wages because the pay was double of what they would be paid in Mexico for similar work, the higher wages made it difficult for railroad employers in Mexico to keep a steady workforce. The Union’s response to Huntington bringing in strike breakers was to have all members of the Union form a line on Friday April 24,1903. The picket line was intended to get the strike breakers, many of whom were Mexican, to walk off the job, however, the picket line did not succeed because the LAPD surrounded the strikers preventing them from communicating with strike breakers. Some of the strikers sneaked on to the job site to talk the workers individually but the foreman quickly caught them and threw them out. After picketing failed, a group of women marched onto the site Saturday April 25,1903 and confronted the strike breakers, the women were likely the wives, mothers, and sisters of the strikers who felt the need to stand in solidarity. The track workers received the help of Santa Teresa Urrea, a Mexican Catholic leader that sided with the working class and her presence had such an impact that when she marched down Main street at least fifty workers dropped their tools and joined Urrea. However, Huntington brought in 200 men from El Paso, Texas to keep the project going on schedule

9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany