Criterion (iv): The Val d'Orcia is an exceptional reflection of the way the landscape was re-written in Renaissance times to reflect the ideals of good governance and to create an aesthetically pleasing pictures.

Criterion (vi): The landscape of the Val d'Orcia was celebrated by painters from the Scuola Senese, which flourished during the Renaissance. Images of the Val d'Orcia, and particularly depictions of landscapes where people are depicted as living in harmony with nature, have come to be seen as icons of the Renaissance and have profoundly influenced the development of landscape thinking.

Val d'Orcia is crossed by a nineteenth-century railway, whose tracks, stations and tunnels have been restored to working order, the scenic line connects the small town of Asciano with Monte Antico for tourism purposes, using historic steam engines and carriages.

1.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties

2.
Tuscany
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Tuscany is a region in central Italy with an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy, Tuscany produces wines, including Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano and Brunello di Montalcino. Having a strong linguistic and cultural identity, it is considered a nation within a nation. Tuscany is traditionally a popular destination in Italy, and the main tourist destinations by number of tourist arrivals are Florence, Pisa, Montecatini Terme, Castiglione della Pescaia and Grosseto. The village of Castiglione della Pescaia is also the most visited destination in the region. Additionally, Siena, Lucca, the Chianti region, Versilia and Val dOrcia are also internationally renowned, Tuscany has over 120 protected nature reserves, making Tuscany and its capital Florence popular tourist destinations that attract millions of tourists every year. In 2012, the city of Florence was the worlds 89th most visited city, roughly triangular in shape, Tuscany borders the regions of Liguria to the northwest, Emilia-Romagna to the north and east, Umbria to the east and Lazio to the southeast. The comune of Badia Tedalda, in the Tuscan Province of Arezzo, has an exclave named Ca Raffaello within Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany has a western coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, containing the Tuscan Archipelago, of which the largest island is Elba. Tuscany has an area of approximately 22,993 square kilometres, surrounded and crossed by major mountain chains, and with few plains, the region has a relief that is dominated by hilly country used for agriculture. Hills make up nearly two-thirds of the total area, covering 15,292 square kilometres, and mountains. Plains occupy 8. 4% of the total area—1,930 square kilometres —mostly around the valley of the River Arno, many of Tuscanys largest cities lie on the banks of the Arno, including the capital Florence, Empoli and Pisa. The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron Ages parallels that of the early Greeks, following this, the Villanovan culture saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms. City-states developed in the late Villanovan before Orientalization occurred and the Etruscan civilization rose, the Etruscans created the first major civilization in this region, large enough to establish a transport infrastructure, to implement agriculture and mining and to produce vibrant art. The Etruscans lived in Etruria well into prehistory, throughout their existence, they lost territory to Magna Graecia, Carthage and Celts. Despite being seen as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks, the cultures of Greece, one reason for its eventual demise was this increasing absorption by surrounding cultures, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans. Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of existing roads, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, however, many of these structures have been destroyed by erosion due to weather. The Roman civilization in the West collapsed in the 5th century AD, in the years following 572, the Longobards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia

3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

4.
Siena
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Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena, the historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nations most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008, Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the Palio, a horse race held twice a year. Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans when it was inhabited by a called the Saina. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus, the first document mentioning it dates from AD70. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Senones, according to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their fathers murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants. Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name Saina, Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade and its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to, the oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. This ultimately resulted in the creation of the Republic of Siena, the Republic existed for over four hundred years, from the late 11th century until the year 1555. During the golden age of Siena before the Black Death in 1348, in the Italian War of 1551–59, the republic was defeated by the rival Duchy of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, Siena surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, the new Spanish King Felipe II, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century. A Republican government of 700 Sienese families in Montalcino resisted until 1559, the picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, especially for humanist disciplines. The city lies at 322 m above sea level, the Siena Cathedral, begun in the 12th century, is a masterpiece of Italian Romanesque-Gothic architecture. Its main façade was completed in 1380, the original plan called for an ambitiously massive basilica, the largest then in the world, with, as was customary, an east-west nave. However, the scarcity of funds, in due to war and plague, truncated the project

5.
Monte Amiata
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Mount Amiata is the largest of the lava domes in the Amiata lava dome complex located about 20 km northwest of Lake Bolsena in the southern Tuscany region of Italy. Mount Amiata is a lava dome with a trachytic lava flow that extends to the east. It is part of the larger Amiata complex volcano, a massive viscous trachydacitic lava flow,5 km long and 4 km wide, is part of the basal complex and extends from beneath the southern base of Corno de Bellaria dome. Radiometric dates indicate that the Amiata complex had a major eruptive episode about 300,000 years ago, the main economical resources of the Amiata region are chestnuts, timber and, increasingly, tourism. The lower areas are characterized by trees and vines. Other vegetation include beech and fir, in ancient times cinnabar was extracted here. The region is included in the comuni of Abbadia San Salvatore, Arcidosso, Castel del Piano, Piancastagnaio, Santa Fiora and Seggiano, list of volcanoes in Italy Monte Amiata museum of mercury mines Museum of Mines of Mercury Monte Amiata at Google Cultural Institute

6.
Pienza
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Pienza, a town and comune in the province of Siena, in the Val dOrcia in Tuscany, between the towns of Montepulciano and Montalcino, is the touchstone of Renaissance urbanism. In 1996, UNESCO declared the town a World Heritage Site, and in 2004 the entire valley, before the village was renamed to Pienza its name was Corsignano. It is first mentioned in documents from the 9th century, around 1300 parts of the village became property of the Piccolomini family. After Enghelberto dUgo Piccolomini had been enfeoffed with the fief of Montertari in Val dOrcia by the emperor Frederick II in 1220, in the 13th century Franciscans settled down in Corsignano. 1405 Corsignano was the birthplace of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, a Renaissance humanist born into an exiled Sienese family, once he became Pope, Piccolomini had the entire village rebuilt as an ideal Renaissance town and renamed it after himself to Pienza. The rebuilding was done by Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli who may have worked with the humanist and architect Leon Battista Alberti, Alberti was in the employ of the Papal Curia at the time and served as an advisor to Pius. Pope Pius II consecrated the Duomo on August 29,1462 and he included a detailed description of the structures in his Commentaries, written during the last two years of his life. The trapezoidal piazza is defined by four buildings, the principal residence, Palazzo Piccolomini, is on the west side. It has three stories, articulated by pilasters and entablature courses, with a cross window set within each bay. This structure is similar to Albertis Palazzo Rucellai in Florence and other later palaces, noteworthy is the internal court of the palazzo. Below this garden is a stable that had stalls for 100 horses. The Duomo, which dominates the center of the piazza, has a facade that is one of the earliest designed in the Renaissance manner. Though the tripartite division is conventional, the use of pilasters and of columns, standing on high dados, works of art in the duomo include five altar paintings from the Sienese School, by Sano di Pietro, Matteo di Giovanni, Vecchietta and Giovanni di Paolo. The Baptistry, dedicated as usual to San Giovanni, is located next to the apse of the church, Pius encouraged cardinals to build palazzi to complete the city. Palazzo Vescovile, on the side of the piazza, was built to house the bishops who would travel to Pienza to attend the pope. Its construction was financed by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia and it may represent a remodeling of the old town hall of Corsignano. It is now home to the Diocesan Museum, and the Museo della Cattedrale, the collection includes local textile work as well as religious artifacts. Paintings include a 12th-century painted crucifix from the Abbey of San Pietro in Vollore, 14th century works by Pietro Lorenzetti, there are also important works from the 14th and 15th centuries, including a Madonna attributed to Luca Signorelli

7.
Ideal town
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Albertis architectural theories concerned the planning and building of an entire town as opposed to individual edifices for private patrons or ecclesiastical purposes. One of the prominent examples of a town modelled on this theory was Zamość founded in the 16th century by the chancellor Jan Zamoyski. At present, it is a World Heritage Site in Poland, the ideal town was seen as a utopia to be achieved by disregarding the reasonably regular planimetrics of real, historic towns for standards – geometric, aesthetic or otherwise – of ideal perfection. Therefore the debate about ideal towns has become isolated from the debate about real, in fact, there has often been the temptation to superimpose and identify this debate with one about utopia and those town models often linked to the utopian concept

8.
Pope Pius II
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Pope Pius II, born Enea Silvio Bartolomeo Piccolomini was Pope from 19 August 1458 to his death in 1464. He was born at Corsignano in the Sienese territory of a noble and his longest and most enduring work is the story of his life, the Commentaries, which is the only autobiography ever written by a reigning pope. He settled in the city as a teacher, but in 1431 accepted the post of secretary to Domenico Capranica, bishop of Fermo. Capranica was protesting against the new Pope Eugene IVs refusal of a cardinalate for him, arriving at Basel after enduring a stormy voyage to Genoa and then a trip across the Alps, he successively served Capranica, who ran short of money, and then other masters. In 1435 he was sent by Cardinal Albergati, Eugenius IVs legate at the council, on a mission to Scotland. He visited England as well as Scotland, underwent many perils, the journey to Scotland proved so tempestuous that Piccolomini swore that he would walk barefoot to the nearest shrine of Our Lady from their landing port. This proved to be Dunbar, the nearest shrine was 10 miles distant at Whitekirk, the journey through the ice and snow left Aeneas afflicted with pain in his legs for the rest of his life. In Scotland, he fathered a child but it died, upon his return to Basel, Aeneas sided actively with the council in its conflict with the Pope, and, although still a layman, eventually obtained a share in the direction of its affairs. He supported the creation of the Antipope Felix V and participated in his coronation, Aeneas then was sent to Strasbourg where he sired a child with a Breton woman called Elizabeth. The baby died 14 months later and he then withdrew to the court of Holy Roman Emperor Emperor Frederick III in Vienna. He had been crowned imperial poet laureate in 1442, and he obtained the patronage of the emperors chancellor, some identify the love adventure at Siena that Aeneas related in his romance The Tale of the Two Lovers with an escapade of the chancellor. Aeneas character had hitherto been that of an easy and democratic-minded man of the world with no pretense to strictness in morals or consistency in politics. He now began to be regular in the former respect. This he did most effectually by the diplomatic dexterity with which he smoothed away differences between the court of Rome and the German imperial electors. He played a role in concluding a compromise in 1447 by which the dying Pope Eugene accepted the reconciliation tendered by the German princes. As a result, the council and the antipope were left without support and he had already taken orders, and one of the first acts of Pope Eugenes successor, Pope Nicholas V, was to make him Bishop of Trieste. He later served as Bishop of Siena, in 1450 Aeneas was sent as ambassador by the Emperor Frederick III to negotiate his marriage with Princess Eleonore of Portugal. In 1451 he undertook a mission to Bohemia and concluded an arrangement with the Hussite leader George of Poděbrady

9.
Radicofani
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As of 31 December 2012, it had a population of 1,148 and an area of 118.3 square kilometres. Radicofani borders the municipalities, Abbadia San Salvatore, Castiglione dOrcia, Pienza, San Casciano dei Bagni. The main landmark of Radicofani is its Rocca, of Carolingian origin, occupying the highest point of a hill, at 896 metres, it was restored after the conquest from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It has two lines of walls, the one has a pentagonal shape, while the inner one is triangular. Also notable is the Romanesque church of San Pietro, with a nave, housing works by Andrea della Robbia, Benedetto Buglioni. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Cfa

10.
Montalcino
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Montalcino is a hill town and comune in Tuscany, Italy. It is famous for its Brunello di Montalcino wine, the town is located to the west of Pienza, close to the Crete Senesi in Val dOrcia. It is 42 kilometres from Siena,110 kilometres from Florence and 150 kilometres from Pisa, the Monte Amiata is located nearby. The hill upon which Montalcino sits has probably been settled since Etruscan times and its first mention in historical documents in 814 AD suggests there was a church here in the 9th century, most likely built by monks associated with the nearby Abbey of SantAntimo. The population grew suddenly in the middle of the tenth century, the town takes its name from a variety of oak tree that once covered the terrain. The very high site of the town offers stunning views over the Asso, Ombrone and Arbia valleys of Tuscany, dotted with silvery olive orchards, vineyards, fields, the lower slopes of the Montalcino hill itself are dominated by highly productive vines and olive orchards. During medieval times the city was known for its tanneries and for the shoes, as time went by, many medieval hill towns, including Montalcino, went into serious economic decline. Like many of the towns of Tuscany, Montalcino experienced long periods of peace. This peace and prosperity was, however, interrupted by a number of violent episodes. Factions from each side controlled the town at times in the late medieval period. The number of producers of the wine has grown from only 11 in the 1960s to more than 200 today, Brunello was the first wine to be awarded Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita status. The first walls of the town were built in the 13th century, the fortress, built in 1361 atop the highest point of the town, was designed with a pentagonal layout by the Sienese architects Mino Foresi and Domenico di Feo. The narrow, short street leads down from the gate of the fortress to the Chiesa di SantAgostino with its simple 13th-century. The collection also includes a St Peter and St Paul by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, there are also modern works from the early 20th century in the museum. The Duomo, dedicated to San Salvatore, was originally in the 14th Century. The Piazza della Principessa Margherita is down the hill from the fortress, the principal building on the piazza is the former Palazzo dei Priori or Palazzo Comunale, now town hall. The palace is adorned with the coats of arms of the Podesta, a tall medieval tower is incorporated into the palazzo. Twice a year they meet together in a breath taking archery contest under the walls of the Fortezza, conducted in Medieval dress, with lords, the 13th-century church of San Francesco in the Castlevecchio contrada has undergone several renovations

11.
Brunello di Montalcino
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Brunello di Montalcino is a red Italian wine produced in the vineyards surrounding the town of Montalcino located about 80 km south of Florence in the Tuscany wine region. Brunello, a diminutive of bruno, which means brown, is the name that was given locally to what was believed to be a grape variety grown in Montalcino. In Montalcino the name Brunello evolved into the designation of the wine produced with 100% Sangiovese, in 1980, Brunello di Montalcino was awarded the first Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita designation and today is one of Italys best-known and most expensive wines. One of the first records of Brunello was a red wine that was made in the Montalcino area in the early 14th century, in 1831, marchese Cosimo Ridolfi praised the merits of the red wines of Montalcino above all others in Tuscany. In 1865, a fair in Montalcino noted that the prize winning wine of the event was a select red wine known as a Brunello. By the end of World War II, Brunello di Montalcino had developed a reputation as one of Italys rarest wines. The only commercial producer recorded in government documents was the Biondi-Santi firm, which had declared only four vintages up to that point—1888,1891,1925, the high price and prestige of these wines soon encouraged other producers to emulate Biondi-Santis success. By the 1960s there were 11 producers making Brunello, and in 1968 the region was granted Denominazione di Origine Controllata status, by 1970 the number of producers had more than doubled to 25, and by 1980 there were 53 producers. In 1980, the Montalcino region was the first Italian wine region to be awarded Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita designation. By the turn of the 21st century, there were nearly 200 producers of Brunello di Montalcino, mostly farmers and family estates. Laboratory tests later confirmed that the wines were in fact Brunello except for a small portion that remained inconclusive. Montalcino has one of the warmest and driest climates in Tuscany with the grapes in the area ripening up to an earlier than in nearby Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. It is the most arid Tuscan DOCG, receiving an annual rainfall of around 700 mm. As with all of the Northern Hemisphere, the northern slopes receive fewer hours of sunlight and are generally cooler than the southern slopes, vineyards planted on the northern slopes ripen more slowly and tend to produce wines that are racier and more aromatic. Vineyards on the southern and western slopes receive more exposure to sunlight and more maritime winds which produces wines with more power. The top producers in the area have vineyards on both slopes, and make use of a blend of both styles, the town of Montalcino is a small medieval village located about 564 metres above sea level in the province of Siena. The wine district is centered to the northeast of the village in densely wooden, monte Amiata, the highest peak in Southern Tuscany, provides a sheltering influence from the southeast and tempers the regions climate and rainfall. Compared to the nearly 41,000 acres of planted land in Chianti, vineyards in Montalcino are planted in varied soils—including limestone, clay, schist, volcanic soil and a crumbly marl known as galestro—at altitudes ranging from 149 m to 500 m

12.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history

13.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005

14.
World Heritage Sites
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties

15.
Sangiovese
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Sangiovese is a red Italian wine grape variety that derives its name from the Latin sanguis Jovis, the blood of Jupiter. Sangiovese was already known by the 16th century. Recent DNA profiling by José Vouillamoz of the Istituto Agrario di San Michele all’Adige suggests that Sangioveses ancestors are Ciliegiolo, the former is well known as an ancient variety in Tuscany, the latter is an almost-extinct relic from the Calabria, the toe of Italy. At least fourteen Sangiovese clones exist, of which Brunello is one of the best regarded, an attempt to classify the clones into Sangiovese grosso and Sangiovese piccolo families has gained little evidential support. Young Sangiovese has fresh fruity flavours of strawberry and a little spiciness, while not as aromatic as other red wine varieties such as Pinot noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah, Sangiovese often has a flavour profile of sour red cherries with earthy aromas and tea leaf notes. Wines made from Sangiovese usually have medium-plus tannins and high acidity, early theories on the origin of Sangiovese dated the grape to the time of Roman winemaking. It was even postulated that the grape was first cultivated in Tuscany by the Etruscans from wild Vitis vinifera vines, the literal translation of the grapes name, the blood of Jove, refers to the Roman god Jupiter. According to legend, the name was coined by monks from the commune of Santarcangelo di Romagna in what is now the province of Rimini in the Emilia-Romagna region of east-central Italy, the first documented mention of Sangiovese was in the 1590 writings of Giovanvettorio Soderini. Identifying the grape as Sangiogheto Soderini notes that in Tuscany the grape makes very good wine but if the winemaker is not careful, while there is no conclusive proof that Sangiogheto is Sangiovese, most wine historians generally consider this to be the first historical mention of the grape. Regardless, it would not be until the 18th century that Sangiovese would gain widespread attention throughout Tuscany, being with Malvasia, in 1738, Cosimo Trinci described wines made from Sangiovese as excellent when blended with other varieties but hard and acidic when made as a wine by itself. In 1883, the Italian writer Giovanni Cosimo Villifranchi echoed a similar description about the quality of Sangiovese being dependent on the grapes with which it was blended. The winemaker and politician, Bettino Ricasoli formulated one of the recipes for Chianti when he blended his Sangiovese with a sizable amount of Canaiolo. In the wines of Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Sangiovese would experience a period of popularity in the late 19th and early 20th century. In 2004, DNA profiling done by researchers at San Michele AllAdige revealed the grape to be the product of a crossing between Ciliegiolo and Calabrese Montenuovo and this essentially means that the genetic heritage of Sangiovese is half Tuscan and half southern Italian. Early ampelographical research into Sangiovese begun in 1906 with the work of Girolamo Molon, Molon discovered that the Italian grape known as Sangiovese was actually several varieties of clones which he broadly classified as Sangiovese Grosso and Sangiovese Piccolo. The Sangiovese Grosso family included the growing in the Brunello region as well as the clones known as Prugnolo Gentile. It is possible, and even likely, that Sangiovese is one of the parents of each of these grape varieties. Since these grape varieties are spread over different parts of Italy, in the Chianti Classico region, Sangiovese thrives on the highly friable shale-clay soil known as galestro

16.
Vino Nobile di Montepulciano
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Vino Nobile di Montepulciano is a red wine with a Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita status produced in the vineyards surrounding the town of Montepulciano, Italy. The wine is primarily from the Sangiovese grape varietal, blended with Canaiolo Nero. The wine is aged for 2 years, three years if it is a riserva, the wine should not be confused with Montepulciano dAbruzzo, a red wine made from the Montepulciano grape in the Abruzzo region of east-central Italy. The name Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was invented by Adamo Fanetti, until 1930 and beyond, the wine was officially called Vino rosso scelto di Montepulciano, but Adamo called his wine “nobile”. In 1925, Adamo Fanetti produced about 30 tons of Nobile, all bottled, Fanetti must be considered the first producer of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Cantine Fanetti has promoted Vino Nobile di Montepulciano all over the world in the years following World War I, the wine produced in Montepulciano continued to be appreciated, and over time it obtained the DOC Denominazione di Origine Controllata with DPR July 12,1966. The DOCG Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita of Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was authorized by DPR July 1,1980, the wine is aged in oak barrels for 1 year

17.
Trebbiano
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Trebbiano is one of the most widely planted varieties of grape in the world. It gives good yields, but tends to yield undistinguished wine and it can be fresh and fruity, but does not keep long. Its high acidity makes it important in Cognac and Armagnac productions, also known as Ugni blanc, in particular in France, it has many other names reflecting a family of local subtypes, particularly in Italy and France. Trebbiano may have originated in the Eastern Mediterranean, and was known in Italy in Roman times, a subtype was recognized in Bologna in the thirteenth century, and as Ugni blanc made its way to France, possibly during the Papal retreat to Avignon in the fourteenth century. An Italian study published in 2008 using DNA typing showed a genetic relationship between Garganega on the one hand and Trebbiano and several other grape varieties on the other hand. During a series of trials between 1924 and 1930, Trebbiano was crossed with Gewürztraminer to create the pink-skinned Italian wine grape variety Manzoni rosa. Also, in the early 21st century, DNA analysis has suggested there may be a close genetic relationship between Trebbiano and the Emilia-Romagna wine grape Alionza. Like many Italian grapes, Trebbiano came to Argentina with Italian immigrants, white Hermitage came to Australia with James Busby in 1832. The major plantings are in New South Wales and South Australia and it is known as Thalia in both Bulgaria and Portugal. Ugni blanc is the most widely planted white grape of France, being found particularly along the Provençal coast, in the Gironde and it is also known as Clairette Ronde, Clairette de Vence, Queue de Renard, and in Corsica as Rossola. Most of the table wine is unremarkable and is often blended or turned into industrial alcohol. Under the name St. Émilion, Trebbiano is important in brandy production, in the Armagnac / Côtes de Gascogne area it is also used in the white Floc de Gascogne. The Trebbiano family account for around a third of all wine in Italy. Perhaps the most successful Trebbiano-based blend are the Orvieto whites of Umbria, Trebbiano is also used to produce balsamic vinegar. As in Bulgaria, the variety is known as Thalia in Portugal, Italian immigrants brought Trebbiano to California, but is seldom seen as a single variety table wine. The vine is vigorous and high-yielding, with long cylindrical bunches of tough-skinned berries that yield acidic yellow juice, Trebbiano shares at least three synonyms with the Spanish wine grape Viura including Queue de Renard, Rossan, Ugni blanc and the similarly spelled Gredelín/Gredelin

18.
Denominazione di origine controllata
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Denominazione di origine controllata is a quality assurance label for Italian wines. The system is modeled on the French Appellation dorigine contrôlée designations, the Italian government introduced the system in 1963 and overhauled in 1992 to comply with European Union law on protected geographical designations of origin, which came into effect that year. There are three levels of labels, DO — Denominazione di Origine, DOC — Denominazione di Origine Controllata, all three require that a food product be produced within the specified region using defined methods and that it satisfy a defined quality standard. The need for a DOCG identification arose when the DOC designation was, in the view of many Italian food industries, a new, more restrictive identification was then created as similar as possible to the previous one so that buyers could still recognize it, but qualitatively different. A notable difference for wines is that DOCG labelled wines are analysed and tasted by government–licensed personnel before being bottled, to prevent later manipulation, DOCG wine bottles then are sealed with a numbered governmental seal across the cap or cork. Wines labelled DOC or DOCG may only be sold in bottles holding 5 litres or less, traditional food An excerpt from the relevant Italian law V. Q. P. R. D. Vini, Elenco e Riferimenti Normativi al 07.02, complete list of italian DOC wines

19.
Abrusco
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Abrusco is a red Italian wine grape variety grown primarily in the Tuscany region where it is a minor blending component permitted in the wines of Chianti. There Soderini notes that the grape was used to add deeper. The variety is considered rare and is close to extinction with only 6 hectares of the grape variety reported in the 2000 Italian census. Another Tuscan producer Ferlaino is also working with the centre of research, the Abrusco vine produces dark, bluish-black grape berries with a pale colored flesh. It is considered a variety that is usually harvested in the middle of the vintage season between the early ripening Ciliegiolo and the late ripening Sangiovese. The grape is noted for producing wines with a deep, dark color that has often lend itself as a variety for other. As a varietal, Abrusco tends to produce well-structured wines with spicy aroma, Abrusco is a minor blending variety permitted in several Denominazione di origine controllata and Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita regions of Tuscany, most notably the Chianti DOCG. Here Abrusco grapes that are destined for DOC wine production must be harvested to a yield no greater 10 tonnes/hectare for the red wine and 12 tonnes/ha for the rosé. In order to attain DOC designation the finished rosé must attain an alcohol level of at least 10. 5%. Here grapes are limited to a maximum harvest yield of 10 tonnes/ha with the wines having a minimum alcohol level of 12%. Grapes destined for DOC wine production are limited to yields of 10.5 tonnes/ha with the wines having at least 12% alcohol by volume. 5%. Its use is far less common in the Chianti Classico DOCG though it is still allowed. Grapes destined for Chianti DOCG production must be harvested to a yield no greater than 8 tonnes/ha with the wines needing to attain a minimum alcohol level of at least 12%. Despite the similarities in synonyms, DNA profiling has shown Abrusco to be distinct from the Tuscan wine grape Colorino and the Emilia-Romagna grape Lambrusco. Research from Dr. José Vouillamoz has also shown that Muscat Rouge de Madère, over the years Abrusco has been known under a variety of synonyms including Abrostalo, Abrostine, Colore, Colorino, Lambrusco, Raverusto, Abrusco Nero di Toscana and Abrusio. The name Abrusco and the synonyms Abrostine and Lambrusco are believed to derive from the same Latin phrase meaning wild vine

20.
Vin Santo
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Vin Santo or Vino Santo is a style of Italian dessert wine. The wines may also be described as straw wines since they are produced by drying the freshly harvested grapes on straw mats in a warm. However several producers dry the grapes by hanging on racks indoors, though technically a dessert wine, the wines can vary in sweetness levels from bone dry to extremely sweet. The most likely origin was the historic use in religious Mass. One of the earliest references to a vinsanto wine comes from the Renaissance era sales logs of Florentine wine merchants who widely marketed the strong, sweet wine in Rome, eventually the term vinsanto became almost an umbrella name for this style of wine produced elsewhere in Italy. When the Greek island of Santorini came under rule of the Ottoman Empire, over the next few centuries, this wine became known as Vin Santo and was widely exported to Russia where it became a principal wine in the celebration of Mass for the Russian Orthodox Church. Another claim is that when it was ruled by Venice packages taken from the island of Santorini were labelled, “Santo, wine from the island was denoted, “vin” or “vino” to denote the packages contents, thus, the term “Vinsanto” was born. Other, likely apocryphal, stories on the names origin attributes its naming to the work of a 14th-century friar from the province of Siena who would use the leftover wine from Mass to cure the sick. The miraculous healing became associated with the santo or holy wine, another 15th century story involving John Bessarion, a patriarch of the Greek Eastern Orthodox Church. According to legend at the Ecumenical Council of Florence of 1439 a local Florentine wine called Vin Pretto was served, after trying the wine, Bessarion is said to have liked the wine and remarked that it was like Xanthos, alluding to the famous straw wine of Thrace. The Florentine locals thought they heard the patriarch describe the wine as Santo, another theory for the name association often touted is the tradition of starting fermentation around All Saints Day and bottling the wine during Easter week. After the grapes destined for Vin Santo are harvested in September or October, they are out on straw mats. They are kept in warm, well ventilated rooms that allow the moisture in the grape to evaporate and this process of desiccation allows the sugars in the grape to be more concentrated. The longer the grapes are allowed to dry and desiccate, the higher the resulting residual sugar levels will be in the wine, depending on the style of wine desired, the grapes may be crushed and the fermentation process started after a few weeks or not till late March. Producers may use a starter culture of yeast known as a madre that includes an amount of finished Vin Santo from previous years production. It is believed that this wine can help jump start the fermentation process. After fermentation the grapes are then aged in oak barrels. In many DOC regions, the wines are required to age for at least 3 years though it is not uncommon for producers to age their wines for 5 to 10 years

21.
Harvest (wine)
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The harvesting of wine grapes is one of the most crucial steps in the process of wine-making. The weather can also shape the timetable of harvesting with the threat of heat, rain, hail, in addition to determining the time of the harvest, winemakers and vineyard owners must also determine whether to use hand pickers or mechanical harvesters. The harvest season typically falls between August & October in the Northern Hemisphere and February & April in the Southern Hemisphere, with various climate conditions, grape varieties, and wine styles the harvesting of grapes could happen in every month of the calendar year somewhere in the world. In the New World it is referred to as the crush. In the Northern Hemisphere, vineyards in Cyprus begin harvesting as early as July, in California some sparkling wine grapes are harvested in late July to early August at a slightly unripe point to help maintain acidity in the wine. The majority of Northern Hemisphere harvesting occurs in late August to early October with some late harvest wine grapes being harvested throughout the autumn, in Germany, the United States and Canada, ice wine grapes can be harvested as late as January. In the Southern Hemisphere harvest can begin as early as January 1 in some of the warmer climate sites in New South Wales, Australia. The majority of Southern Hemisphere harvesting occurs between the months of February and April with some cool climate sites like Central Otago, New Zealand picking late harvest wine grapes in June. Throughout the history of wine, winemakers would use the sugar, early winemakers tasted the grapes to gauge ripeness. Modern winemakers use a refractometer to measure hi sugar levels and °Brix or titration tests to determine the acidity within the grape. In recent times there has been more of an emphasis on the ripeness of the grape, usually in the form of tannins. Currently, tasting is the way to measure tannin ripeness. The question of using mechanical harvesting versus traditional hand picking is a source of contention in the wine industry, mechanical harvesting of grapes has been one of the major changes in many vineyards in the last third of a century. First introduced commercially in the 1960s, it has adopted in different wine regions for various economic, labor. In Australia, the work force in the wine industry has made the use of mechanized labor almost a necessity. A mechanical vine harvester works by beating the vine with rubber sticks to get the vine to drop its fruit onto a belt that brings the fruit to a holding bin. As technology improves mechanical harvesters have become more sophisticated in distinguishing grape clusters from mud, leaves, despite the improvement many harvesters still have difficulties in distinguishing between ripe, healthy grapes and unripe or rotted bunches which must then be sorted out at the winemaking facility. Another disadvantage is the potential of damaging the grape skins which can cause maceration and coloring of the juice that is undesirable in the production of white, the broken skins also bring the risk of oxidation and a loss of some of the aromatic qualities in the wine

22.
Yield (wine)
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In viticulture, the yield is a measure of the amount of grapes or wine that is produced per unit surface of vineyard, and is therefore a type of crop yield. Two different types of measures are commonly used, mass of grapes per vineyard surface. The yield is seen as a quality factor, with lower yields associated with wines with more concentrated flavours. In most of Europe, yield is measured in hectoliters per hectare, in most of the New World, yield is measured in tonnes per hectare – i. e. by mass of grapes produced per unit area. Due to differing winemaking procedures for different styles of wine, and different properties of different grape varieties and it is therefore not possible to make an exact conversion between these units. Representative figures for the amount of grapes needed for 100 l of wine are 160 kg for white wine,130 kg for red wine, thus, for white wine,100 hl/ha ≈16,000 kg/ha =6.5 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈15 hl/ha for red wine,100 hl/ha ≈13,000 kg/ha =5.3 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈19 hl/ha for mixed wine,100 hl/ha ≈14,000 kg/ha =5.7 tons per acre. 1 ton per acre =2470 kg/ha ≈17.5 hl/ha Yields vary greatly between countries, regions and individual vineyards, and can be vintage-dependent, somewhere around 50 hectoliters per hectare, or 3 tons per acre, is a typical representative figure for many countries and regions. While yield is seen as an important quality factor in wine production. This is a situation that would correspond to yields of, say,200 hl/ha or more, depending on grape variety. Beyond that, there are differing schools of thought, one school of thought, generally subscribed to in France, claims that great red wine is impossible to produce at yields exceeding 50 hl/ha. Another school of thought claims that a yield of 100 hl/ha is possible to combine with high quality, in general, white wine is seen as less sensitive to high yields, and some grape varieties, such as Pinot noir, as particularly sensitive to overcropping. For the Bordeaux vintages of the 1980s, it is recognized that the most abundant harvests also gave the best vintages. In both France and Italy, the maximum allowed yields are regulated in laws, and vary between appellations. In France, the yields are given in the regulations for each appellation dorigine contrôlée. The maximum allowed yield for given AOC in a vintage is a combination of the base yield of the AOC, as modified by the plafond limité de classement. In most vintages, the PLC allows a production around 20 per cent above the base yield

23.
Tonnes
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ

24.
Hectare
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The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units

25.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release

26.
Asciano
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Asciano is a comune and hill town in the province of Siena in the Italian region Tuscany. It is located at the centre of the Crete senesi between the river Ombrone and the torrent Copra, some 30 kilometres southeast of the town of Siena by rail, asciano has origins as Etruscan, Roman and Lombard settlements. A 5th century BC Etruscan necropolis has been excavated nearby and remains of Roman baths, during the medieval period its location made it a site of contest between Siena and Florence, the Battle of Montaperti was fought in the nearby on 4 September 1260. The village was purchased by the Sienese in 1285 and surrounded by walls in 1351, asciano has the 11th century Romanesque basilica of SantAgata which was built of travertine. The church, with its aisleless nave topped by a roof, is adorned with decorative elements of the Lombard type. Outside is its 13th century campanile, the interior houses two 16th-century frescoes, one by Il Sodoma and a Pietà attributed to Bartolomeo Neroni. Adjoining the church is the Museo dArte Sacra where works by painters in the Sienese manner of the 14th and 15th centuries are exhibited, the Museo Archeologico contains finds from the excavation of chamber tombs from the cemetery of Poggio Pinci. 10 kilometers to the south is the large Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, mother-house of the Olivetans, the cloister is famous for the series of frescoes illustrating scenes from the legend of St. Benedict begun by Luca Signorelli and completed by il Sodoma in 1505. The latter masters work is perhaps nowhere better represented than here, the church contains fine inlaid choir stalls by Fra Giovanni da Verona. The buildings, which are mostly of red brick, are conspicuous against the grey clayey, the monastery is described by Pope Pius II in his Commentaria

27.
The English Patient
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The English Patient is a 1992 novel by Michael Ondaatje. The book follows four dissimilar people brought together at an Italian villa during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The four main characters are, an unrecognisably burned man—the titular patient, presumed to be English, his Canadian Army nurse, a Sikh British Army sapper, the book won the Booker Prize and the Governor Generals Award. The novels historical backdrop is the North African/Italian Campaigns of World War II, the English patients only possession is a well-worn, and heavily annotated copy of Herodotuss The Histories that has survived the fiery parachute drop. Hearing the book constantly being read aloud to him brings about detailed recollections of his desert explorations, instead, he chooses to believe the assumption by others that he is an Englishman based on the sound of his voice. The patient is in fact László de Almásy, a Hungarian Count and desert explorer, Caravaggio, an Italian-Canadian in the British foreign intelligence service since the late 1930s, befriended Hanas father before the latter died in the war. He learns that Hana is at the villa caring for a patient and he had remained in North Africa to spy when the German forces gain control and then transfers to Italy. He is eventually caught, interrogated, and tortured, they cut off his thumbs. Caravaggio bears physical and psychological scars from his war experience for which he seeks vengeance. Two British soldiers yell at Hana to stop her playing a piano since the Germans often booby-trapped them. One of the soldiers, Kip, an Indian Sikh, a sapper, specializes in bomb. Kip decides to stay at the villa to attempt to clear it of unexploded ordnance, Kip and the English patient immediately become friends. Almásy was mesmerized by Katharines voice as she read Herodotus Histories out loud by the campfire and they soon began a very intense affair, but she cut it short, claiming that Geoffrey would go mad if he were to discover them. Geoffrey offers to return Almásy to Cairo on his plane since the expedition will break camp with the coming of war, Almásy is unaware that Katharine is aboard the plane as it flies low over him and then crashes. Katharine is injured internally and Almásy leaves her in the Cave of Swimmers, Caravaggio tells Almásy that British Intelligence knew about the affair. Almásy makes a trek to British-controlled El Taj for help. When he arrives, he is detained as a spy because of his name and he later guides German spies across the desert to Cairo. Almásy retrieves Katharines body from the Cave and, while flying back and he parachutes from the plane and is found by the Bedouin

28.
Anthony Minghella
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Anthony Minghella, CBE was a British film director, playwright and screenwriter. He was chairman of the board of Governors at the British Film Institute between 2003 and 2007 and he won the Academy Award for Best Director for The English Patient. Minghella was born in Ryde, on the Isle of Wight and his family are well-known on the Island, where they have run an eponymous business making and selling Italian-style ice cream since the 1950s. His parents were Edoardo Minghella and Leeds-born Gloria Alberta and his mothers ancestors originally came from Valvori, a small village in the Lazio region of central Italy. One of five children, Minghella attended St. Marys Catholic Primary School, Ryde, Sandown Grammar School and St Johns College, early interests suggested a possible career as a musician, with Minghella playing keyboards with local bands Earthlight and Dancer. The latter recorded an album Tales of the Riverbank in 1972 although it was not released until 2001 and he attended the University of Hull, studying Drama. After several years of teaching at the university, he abandoned his pursuit of a PhD to work for the BBC. His debut work was an adaptation of Gabriel Josipovicis Mobius the Stripper. His double bill of Samuel Becketts Play and Happy Days was his debut and debut feature film as a director was A Little Like Drowning. He wrote several episodes of the ITV detective drama Inspector Morse, made in Bangkok found mainstream success in the West End. Radio success followed with a Giles Cooper Award for the radio drama Cigarettes and it was revived on 3 May 2008 as a tribute to its author director following his death. His production starred Juliet Stevenson, Bill Nighy and Jenny Howe and his first radio play Hang Up, starring Anton Lesser and Juliet Stevenson, was revived on 10 May 2008 as part of the BBC Radio 4 Minghella season. Truly, Madly, Deeply, a drama written and directed for the BBCs Screen Two anthology strand, bypassed TV broadcast. He bypassed an offer of another Inspector Morse directorial to do the project, the English Patient brought him two Academy Awards nominations, Best Director and Adapted Screenplay. He also received an Adapted Screenplay nomination for The Talented Mr. Ripley, the No.1 Ladies Detective Agency, a pilot episode television adaptation which he co-wrote and directed, was broadcast posthumously on BBC One, watched by 6.3 million viewers. He vocally supported I Know Im Not Alone, a film of musician Michael Frantis peacemaking excursions into Iraq, Palestine and he directed a party election broadcast for the Labour Party in 2005. When you are talking to me, Ill give you my full attention only if I think you are very high status or if I love you, on that party political broadcast, they are staring at each other like lovers. With Samuel Becketts 100th birthday celebrations, he returned to radio on BBC Radio 3 with Eyes Down Looking, with, Jude Law, Juliet Stevenson, an operatic directorial debut came with Puccinis Madama Butterfly

29.
Gladiator
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A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena, most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Romes martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious, the origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC and its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games. The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. The games finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity as state church of the Roman Empire in 380, early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. In the late 1st century BC, Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan, a generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by the Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites. This was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games, reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators. Campania hosted the earliest known gladiator schools, tomb frescoes from the Campanian city of Paestum show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiatory funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games. Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative, the Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC. This is described as a munus, a duty owed the manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants. The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger, the enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps, the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver, the Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour. His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the Gods and their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded, most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. The munus became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only option for the gladiator was to fight well. In 216 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, late consul and augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of gladiatora munera in the Forum Romanum, using pairs of gladiators

30.
Ridley Scott
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Sir Ridley Scott is an English film director and producer. Scott is known for his atmospheric, highly concentrated visual style and his films are also known for their strong female characters. Scott has been nominated for three Academy Awards for Directing, in 1995, both Ridley and his brother Tony received the BAFTA Award for Outstanding British Contribution To Cinema. In 2003, Scott was knighted for his services to the British film industry, in a 2004 BBC poll Scott was named the tenth most influential person in British culture. In 2015 he received a doctorate from the Royal College of Art in London. Scott was born in South Shields, County Durham, North East England, to Elizabeth and he was brought up in an army family, so for most of his early life, his father – an officer in the Royal Engineers – was absent. His elder brother, Frank, joined the British Merchant Navy when he was still young, during this time the family moved around, living in Cumberland in North West England, Wales and Germany. He had a brother, Tony, who also became a film director. He studied at Grangefield Grammar School and West Hartlepool College of Art from 1954 to 1958, Scott went on to study at the Royal College of Art in London, contributing to college magazine ARK and helping to establish the college film department. For his final show, he made a black and white film, Boy and Bicycle. In February 1963 Scott was named in title credits as Designer for the BBC television programme Tonight, about the severe winter of 1963. After graduation in 1963, he secured a job as a set designer with the BBC, leading to work on the popular television police series Z-Cars. He was originally assigned to design the second Doctor Who serial, The Daleks, however, shortly before Scott was due to start work, a schedule conflict meant he was replaced by Raymond Cusick. In 1965, he began directing episodes of series for the BBC, only one of which. In 1968, Ridley and Tony Scott founded Ridley Scott Associates, a nostalgia themed television advertisement that captured the public imagination, it was voted the UKs all-time favourite commercial in a 2006 poll. In the 1970s the Chanel No.5 brand needed revitalisation having run the risk of being labelled as mass market, five members of the Scott family are directors, and all have worked for RSA. His brother Tony was a film director whose career spanned more than two decades, his sons Jake and Luke are both acclaimed directors of commercials, as is his daughter, Jordan Scott. Jake and Jordan both work from Los Angeles, Luke is based in London, in 1995, Shepperton Studios was purchased by a consortium headed by Ridley and Tony Scott, which extensively renovated the studios while also expanding and improving its grounds

31.
Federico Fellini
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Federico Fellini was an Italian film director and screenwriter. Known for his style that blends fantasy and baroque images with earthiness. His films have ranked, in such as Cahiers du cinéma and Sight & Sound. Sight & Sound lists his 1963 film 8½ as the 10th greatest film of all time, in 1993, he was awarded an honorary Oscar for Lifetime Achievement at the 65th Annual Academy Awards in Los Angeles. Fellini was born on 20 January 1920, to parents in Rimini. His father, Urbano Fellini, born to a family of Romagnol peasants and small landholders from Gambettola and his mother, Ida Barbiani, came from a bourgeiois Catholic family of Roman merchants. Despite her familys vehement disapproval, she had eloped with Urbano in 1917 to live at his parents home in Gambettola, a civil marriage followed in 1918 with the religious ceremony held at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome a year later. The couple settled in Rimini where Urbano became a traveling salesman, Fellini had two siblings, Riccardo, a documentary director for RAI Television, and Maria Maddalena. In 1924, Fellini started primary school in a run by the nuns of San Vincenzo in Rimini. In 1926, he discovered the world of Grand Guignol, the circus with Pierino the Clown, Guido Brignone’s Maciste all’Inferno, the first film he saw, would mark him in ways linked to Dante and the cinema throughout his entire career. Enrolled at the Ginnasio Giulio Cesare in 1929, he made friends with Luigi ‘Titta’ Benzi, in Mussolini’s Italy, Fellini and Riccardo became members of the Avanguardista, the compulsory Fascist youth group for males. He visited Rome with his parents for the first time in 1933, the sea creature found on the beach at the end of La Dolce Vita has its basis in a giant fish marooned on a Rimini beach during a storm in 1934. To say that my films are autobiographical is an overly facile liquidation and it seems to me that I have invented almost everything, childhood, character, nostalgias, dreams, memories, for the pleasure of being able to recount them. In 1937, Fellini opened Febo, a shop in Rimini. with the painter Demos Bonini. His first humorous article appeared in the Postcards to Our Readers section of Milan’s Domenica del Corriere, deciding on a career as a caricaturist and gag writer, Fellini travelled to Florence in 1938, where he published his first cartoon in the weekly 420. According to a biographer, Fellini found school exasperating and, in one year, had 67 absences, failing his military culture exam, he graduated from high school in July 1938 after doubling the exam. In September 1939, he enrolled in law school at the University of Rome to please his parents, biographer Hollis Alpert reports that there is no record of his ever having attended a class. Installed in a family pensione, he met lifelong friend

32.
Stealing Beauty
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Stealing Beauty is a 1996 British-Italian-American drama film directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and starring Liv Tyler, Joseph Fiennes, Jeremy Irons, Sinéad Cusack, and Rachel Weisz. Written by Bertolucci and Susan Minot, the film is about an American teenaged girl who travels to a lush Tuscan villa near Siena to stay with friends of her poet mother. The film was actress Liv Tylers first leading film role, Stealing Beauty premiered in Italy in March 1996, and was officially selected for the 1996 Cannes Film Festival in France in May. It was released in the United States on June 14,1996, Lucy Harmon, a nineteen-year-old American, is the daughter of well-known poet and model, Sara Harmon. The film opens as Lucy arrives for a vacation at the Tuscan villa of Saras old friends, Ian, other guests include a prominent New York art gallery owner, an Italian advice columnist and an English writer, Alex Parrish, who is dying of an unspecified disease. Dianas daughter from a marriage, Miranda Fox, is also there with her boyfriend. Mirandas brother, Christopher, is supposed to be there, but he is off on a trip with the Italian son of a neighboring villa. Lucy was particularly excited to see Niccoló, whom she had met on a visit to the villa, four years earlier. Lucy and Niccoló had briefly exchanged letters after this first visit, one letter in particular Lucy had admired so much she memorized it. Lucy reveals to the gallerist that she is there to have her made by Ian. She says its really just an excuse for her father to send her to Italy, smoking marijuana with Parrish, Lucy reveals that she is a virgin. When Parrish shares this information with the rest of the villa the next day, Lucy is furious and that evening, Niccoló comes to the Grayson villa for dinner, accompanied by his brother, Osvaldo. After dinner, the people separate from the adults to smoke marijuana. Lucy is now able to laugh about Parrishs betrayal, and the group take turns recounting when they each lost their virginity. When the question comes around to Osvaldo, he demurs, saying, I dont know which is more ridiculous, Lucy fawns over Niccoló but abruptly vomits in his lap. The next day Lucy rides a bicycle to the Donati villa, a servant informs her that he is in the garden, where Lucy finds him kissing another girl. Hastily bicycling away from the compound, she passes Osvaldo, who has been hunting with his dog, as she passes, Osvaldo holds up a jackrabbit he has killed and cries, Ciao, Lucy. Lucy doesnt stop but loses control of the bicycle at the next turn, Osvaldo tries to help but Lucy rebuffs his efforts and rides on

33.
Bernardo Bertolucci
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Bernardo Bertolucci is an Italian director and screenwriter, whose films include The Conformist, Last Tango in Paris,1900, The Last Emperor, The Sheltering Sky, Stealing Beauty and The Dreamers. In recognition of his work, he was presented with the inaugural Honorary Palme dOr Award at the ceremony of the 2011 Cannes Film Festival. Since 1979, he has married to screenwriter Clare Peploe. Bertolucci was born in the Italian city of Parma, in the region of Emilia-Romagna and he is the elder son of Ninetta, a teacher, and Attilio Bertolucci, who was a poet, a reputed art historian, anthologist and film critic. His mother was born in Australia, to an Italian father, Bertolucci had one brother, the theatre director and playwright Giuseppe. His cousin was the film producer Giovanni Bertolucci, with whom he has worked on a number of films, Bertolucci initially wished to become a poet like his father. With this goal in mind, he attended the Faculty of Modern Literature of the University of Rome from 1958 to 1961, shortly after, Bertolucci left the University without graduating. In 1962, at the age of 22, he directed his first feature film, produced by Tonino Cervi with a screenplay by Pasolini, the film is a murder mystery, following a prostitutes homicide. Bertolucci uses flashbacks to piece together the crime and the person who committed it, the film which shortly followed was his acclaimed Before the Revolution. Bertolucci caused controversy in 1972 with the film Last Tango in Paris, starring Marlon Brando, Maria Schneider, Jean-Pierre Léaud and Massimo Girotti. The film presents Brandos character, Paul, as he uses an affair to cope with the violent death of his wife by emotionally and physically dominating a young woman. The depictions of Schneider, then 19 years old, were regarded as exploitative, in one scene, Paul anally rapes Jeane using butter as a lubricant. The use of butter was not in the script, Bertolucci and Brando had discussed it and she said in 2007 that she had cried real tears during the scene and had felt humiliated and a little raped. In 2013 Bertolucci said he had withheld the information from her to generate a reaction of frustration. Brando alleged that Bertolucci had wanted the characters to have real sex, because of the scandal surrounding the films release, Schneider became a drug addict and suicidal. She later became a rights advocate, in particular fighting for more female film directors, more respect for female actors. Criminal proceedings were brought against Bertolucci in Italy for the anal-sex scene, an Italian court revoked Bertoluccis civil rights for five years and gave him a four-month suspended prison sentence. Bertolucci appeared on the Radio Four programme Front Row on April 29,2013, during the making of Last Tango in Paris, Bertolucci toyed with the idea of adapting Dashiell Hammetts book Red Harvest into a feature film

34.
A Midsummer Night's Dream
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A Midsummer Nights Dream is a comedy written by William Shakespeare in 1595/96. It portrays the events surrounding the marriage of Theseus, the Duke of Athens, to Hippolyta, the former queen of the Amazons. These include the adventures of four young Athenian lovers and a group of six actors who are controlled and manipulated by the fairies who inhabit the forest in which most of the play is set. The play is one of Shakespeares most popular works for the stage and is performed across the world. The play opens with Hermia, who is in love with Lysander, resistant to her father Egeus demand that she wed Demetrius, Helena meanwhile pines unrequitedly for Demetrius. Enraged, Egeus invokes an ancient Athenian law before Duke Theseus, whereby a daughter must marry the suitor chosen by her father, Theseus offers her another choice, lifelong chastity while worshipping the goddess Artemis as a nun. Quince reads the names of characters and bestows them to the players, nick Bottom, who is playing the main role of Pyramus, is over-enthusiastic and wants to dominate others by suggesting himself for the characters of Thisbe, the Lion, and Pyramus at the same time. He would also rather be a tyrant and recites some lines of Ercles, Bottom is told by Quince that he would do the Lion so terribly as to frighten the duchess and ladies enough for the Duke and Lords to have the players hanged. Quince ends the meeting with at the Dukes oak we meet, in a parallel plot line, Oberon, king of the fairies, and Titania, his queen, have come to the forest outside Athens. Titania tells Oberon that she plans to stay there until she has attended Theseus, Oberon and Titania are estranged because Titania refuses to give her Indian changeling to Oberon for use as his knight or henchman, since the childs mother was one of Titanias worshippers. Oberon seeks to punish Titanias disobedience, when the concoction is applied to the eyelids of a sleeping person, that person, upon waking, falls in love with the first living thing they perceive. He instructs Puck to retrieve the flower with the hope that he might make Titania fall in love with an animal of the forest and thereby shame her into giving up the little Indian boy. He says, And ere I take this charm from off her sight, /As I can take it with another herb, Hermia and Lysander have escaped to the same forest in hopes of eloping. Helena, desperate to reclaim Demetriuss love, tells Demetrius about the plan, Helena continually makes advances towards Demetrius, promising to love him more than Hermia. However, he rebuffs her with cruel insults against her, observing this, Oberon orders Puck to spread some of the magical juice from the flower on the eyelids of the young Athenian man. Instead, Puck mistakes Lysander for Demetrius, not having seen either before. Helena, coming across him, wakes him while attempting to determine whether he is dead or asleep, upon this happening, Lysander immediately falls in love with Helena. Oberon sees Demetrius still following Hermia and is enraged, when Demetrius goes to sleep, Oberon sends Puck to get Helena while he charms Demetrius eyes

35.
Iris Origo
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Dame Iris Margaret Origo, Marchesa of Val dOrcia, DBE, née Cutting, was an English-born biographer and writer. She lived in Italy and devoted much of her life to improving the Tuscan estate at La Foce, near Montepulciano and her parents travelled widely after their marriage, particularly in Italy, where her father contracted tuberculosis and died in 1910. Iris and her mother settled in Italy, buying the Villa Medici in Fiesole, there they formed a close friendship with Bernard Berenson, who lived not far away at I Tatti. Iris was briefly enrolled at school in London, but was educated at home, by Professor Solone Monti and by a series of French. In April 1918 her mother, Lady Sybil Cutting, married the architectural historian Geoffrey Scott and she divorced him in 1926 and took a third husband, the essayist Percy Lubbock. Iris Cutting travelled to England and the United States in order to be launched in the society of both countries, in 1922, she first met Colin Mackenzie, a young Scottish businessman working in Milan, a romantic correspondence was followed by a passionate affair. On 4 March 1924, Iris married Antonio Origo, an son of Marchese Clemente Origo. They moved to their purchased 7,000 acres estate, La Foce and it was in an advanced state of disrepair, but by dint of hard work, care and attention, they managed to transform it. Their son, Gian or Gianni Clemente Bayard, died of meningitis at the age of seven and they also had two daughters, Benedetta and Donata. After the death of her son, Gianni, Iris Origo embarked on a career, with a well-received biography of Giacomo Leopardi. A reviewer notated that an unobtrusive scholarship gives alimentation to a power in narrative. She followed this in 1938 with a biography of Cola di Rienzo and her 1957 book The Merchant of Prato is an invaluable source for students of Italian city and mercantile life, based on extensive research in the archives of merchant Francesco di Marco Datini. She also cast light on a facet of medieval and early Italian life in her article The Domestic Enemy. During the Second World War, the Origos remained at La Foce and looked after refugee children, following the surrender of Italy, Iris Origo also sheltered or assisted many escaped Allied prisoners of war, who were trying to cross the German lines, or simply to survive. Her account of time, War in Val dOrcia, was the first of her books to be a popular, as well as a critical. After the war, she divided her time between La Foce and Rome, where the Origos had bought an apartment in the Palazzo Orsini, and devoted herself to writing. The Origos also holidayed at Gli Scafari, the built by the architect Cecil Pinsent for Iriss mother at Lerici on the Gulf of Spezia. Antonio Origo died on 27 June 1976, Iris Origo died at her estate in Tuscany on 28 June 1988, aged 85

36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

37.
Crespi d'Adda
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Crespi dAdda is a historic settlement in Capriate San Gervasio, Lombardy, northern Italy. It is an example of the 19th and early 20th-century company towns built in Europe. The site is intact and is partly used for industrial purposes, although changing economic. Since 1995 it has been on UNESCOs list of World Heritage Sites, Cristoforo Crespi introduced the most modern spinning, weaving and finishing processes in his Cotton Mill. The Hydroelectric power plant in Trezzo, on the Adda river just a few kilometers upwards, was built up around 1906 for the manufacturer Cristoforo Benigno Crespi, both the town and the factory were illuminated thanks to electric light. The village of Crespi dAdda was the first village in Italy to have public lighting. The workers houses, of English inspiration, are lined up in order along parallel roads to the East of the factory, a tree-lined avenue separates the production zone from the houses, overlooking a chequer-board road plan. The whole architecture and town planning, was submitted to the architect Ernesto Pirovano, for about fifty years Pirovano, helped by the engineer Pietro Brunati, ran the construction of the village. In 1889 the son of Cristoforo, Silvio Benigno Crespi, started work in the factory as a director, after spending time in Oldham, England. He turned away from the large blocks in favour of the single-family house, with its own garden, which he saw as conducive to harmony. He put this policy into practice in 1892 and the years followed, with success. It then passed to the Legler company, which sold off most of the houses and it was last in the hands of the Polli industrial group, which employed some 600 people, as compared with the 3200 employed during the years of maximum activity. Today the village is inhabited by a community descended from the original workers. The factory stopped production only in 2004, its field of activity throughout its working life having been cotton textile production, model village Derwent Valley Mills, a similar World Heritage Site in Derbyshire, England whose first cotton mill was built in 1771. Crespi dAdda UNESCO - The official website Villaggio Crespi Crespi dAdda Official Unesco Photo gallery

38.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa

39.
Mantua
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Mantua is a city and commune in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua became Italian Capital of Culture, as chosen by the Italian Government on 27 October 2015, in 2017, Mantua will also be European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District. In 2007, Mantuas centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantuas historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera, the city is known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces. It is the place where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera LOrfeo and it is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who was commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park Piazza Virgiliana. Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century, as the defence system. These lakes receive water from the Mincio River, a tributary of the Po River which descends from Lake Garda, the three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore. A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which served as a defensive water ring around the city. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases, and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. Mantua was a settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio. In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, the name may derive from the Etruscan god Mantus. This new Roman territory was populated by soldiers of Augustus. Mantuas most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil, or Publius Vergilius Maro, after the fall of the western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Mantua was invaded in turn by Goths, Byzantines, Longobards, and Franks. In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, the last ruler of that family was the countess Matilda of Canossa, who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013, free Imperial City of Mantua After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered the course of River Mincio, three of these lakes still remains today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed in the 18th century. Podesteria Rule From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Gallic-Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli, during the struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273

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Sabbioneta
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Sabbioneta is a town and comune in the province of Mantua, Lombardy region, Northern Italy. It is situated about 30 kilometres north of Parma, not far from the bank of the Po River. It was inscribed in the World Heritage List in 2008, in 2008, Sabbioneta was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List as a recognition of its perfect example of practical application of Renaissance urban planning theories. Sabbioneta is also known for its historic Jewish Ghetto and Synagogue, in 1551 Tobias Foa set up the press, he had, however, published certain anti-Christian books and his career was forcibly ended. His work and possibly his type were taken up by a Christian printer, Vicenzo Conte. )Churches of the Assunta and Carmine Chiesa della Beata Vergine Incoronata The church, Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna duca di Sabbioneta e cavaliere del Toson doro. Luca Sarzi Amadè, Il duca di Sabbioneta, Guerre e amori di un europeo del XVI secolo, paperback,332 pages, Publisher, SugarCo, ISBN 88-7198-040-9 Vespasiano Gonzaga e il ducato di Sabbioneta, a cura de U. L. Ventura, Il collezionismo di un principe, la raccolta di marmi di Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna, Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna 1531-1591, luomo e le opere, actes del congrés destudis, Teatro olimpico di Sabbioneta,5 de juny,1999, a cura de E. Asinari

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Monte San Giorgio
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Monte San Giorgio is a wooded mountain of the Lugano Prealps, overlooking Lake Lugano in Switzerland. It lies in the part of the canton of Ticino. The Italian region west of Poncione dArzo was added as an extension to the World Heritage Site in 2010, in Meride is the Museum of fossils from Monte San Giorgio, designed by the Ticinese architect Mario Botta. Media related to Monte San Giorgio at Wikimedia Commons Monte San Giorgio on Hikr World Heritage official website

Capitoline Wolf at Siena Duomo. According to a legend Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus. When they fled Rome, they took the statue of She-wolf to Siena, which became a symbol of the town.

In viticulture, the yield is a measure of the amount of grapes or wine that is produced per unit surface of vineyard, …

The yield of grapes that will be harvested from a vineyard will depend on several factors including vintage conditions, local wine laws and winemaker's preference.

The size of harvest bins can vary from small trays to half tons bins.

How "hard" a wine is pressed, or if the wine is pressed at all, will impact the finished volume of wine yielded from the grapes. A winemaker can choose to not press their grapes at all, using only the free-run juice liberated during crushing and maceration, reducing the yield volume by 30-40%.

A gladiator (Latin: gladiator, "swordsman", from gladius, "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in …

Part of the Zliten mosaic from Libya (Leptis Magna), about 2nd century AD. It shows (left to right) a thraex fighting a murmillo, a hoplomachus standing with another murmillo (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and one of a matched pair.

Labels of the Italian wine Amarone Della Valpolicella Classico 2004 from the Pegrandi vineyard produced by Vaona. The label indicates that this is a DOC class wine from the Classico region of Valpolicella.