1. Using the story of Pavlov’s dogs, identify and give an example of two of the four elements of classical conditioning.-Classical conditioning: is a form of learning in which one stimulus, the conditioned stimulus or CS, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus or US. Ex: Pavlov presented dogs with a ringing bell (CS) followed by food (US). The food (US) elicited salivation (UR), and after repeated bell-food pairings the bell also caused the dogs to salivate (CR).

2. Describe stimulus generalization and give an example.- Stimulus generalization: is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.

3. Describe a conditioned emotional response and give an example.- The conditioned response: is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. For example, let's suppose that the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus, a feeling of hunger in response the the smell is a unconditioned response, and a the sound of a whistle is the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

4. Describe vicarious conditioning and give an example.- Vicarious conditioning: learning emotional response by watching othersFor example, the child becomes afraid of an animal after watching an older sibling or parent show signs of verbal and nonverbal aversion and fear of this same animal.

5. Describe and give an example of two kinds of operant conditioning. - Operant conditioning: (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that...

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...distant relatives who often share breadwinning and child rearing responsibilities and the older children are responsible for younger brothers and sisters.
Heredity
• Is inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents
Historical generation
• A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative years.
Human Development
• The field of human development focuses on the scientific study of the systematic processes of change and stability of people.
• Ways of studying human development are still evolving, making use of advanced technologies.
• Almost from the start, human development has been interdisciplinary which means that it draws from a wide range of disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, sociology anthropology, biology, genetics, family science, education, history, and medicine.
Imprinting
• The instinctive form of learning which during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms and attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother.
• Konard Lorenz, Austrian, Zoologist (1957); got a newborn ducklings to follow him.
• Lorenz believes that imprinting is the result of (pre) disposition toward learning, that is, the readiness of an organism’s nervous system to acquire certain formation during a brief critical period in early life.
Individual differences
• Differences in characteristics, influences, or development outcomes.
• Influences on...

...﻿Skinner
Behaviorist Theory
Operant Conditioning
Observable
Positive & Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Clear Goals
Logical Sequence
Self- Pacing
Schedules of Reinforcement
Token economies
Contingency contracts
Operant Conditioning
WATSON 1913- Observe what can be seen not mental or emotional states
Behavioral learning Theory
Keyword Obervable
MISSED
Major Theorist- Skinner (Up top)
“Organisms learn to ‘operate’ on their environment in order to obtain or avoid a particular consequence”
Assumptions
Human behavior can be explained by a set of laws
Behavior should be studied at its simplest, most fundamental level
Principles of learning derived from research with animals should apply to humans
An observable change in behavior is the only basis for concluding that learning has occurred.
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning- strengthening a behavior
Positive Reinforcement0 Presenting a positive stimulus immediately after a behavior has occurred
Negative Reinforcement0 removing a negative stimulus..missed
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
Weakening a behavior
Presentation Punishment (Type 1)
Presenting an aversive stimulus immediately after the behavior has occurred
Removal Punishment (Type 2, or time-out)
Removing….missed
Extinction
When a previously reinforced behavior decreases in frequency and eventually ceases altogether because reinforcement is withheld
Spontaneous Recovery
When an extinguished behavior...

...Learning – long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
Classical Conditioning – a form of learning in which the first stimulus is the signal of the occurrence of the second stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (US/UCS) – the original stimulus that elicits a response
Unconditioned response (UR/UCR) – the involuntary, reflexive response to unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus – the stimulus associating with the original stimulus to elicit a response
Conditioned response – salvation elicit from the bell (not getting there yet)
Acquisition – learning is taken place once animals response to conditioned stimulus without the existence of unconditioned stimulus
the animal has acquired a new behavior
Delayed conditioning – the procedure in which conditioned stimulus is presented first and then the unconditioned stimulus is presented while the conditioned stimulus is still evident/continued
Extinction – the process of unlearning a behavior
Spontaneous Recovery – after a conditioned response has been extinguished with no further training, the response briefly reappears upon the presentation of the conditioned stimulus
Generalization – the tendency in which animals response to certain stimuli that are similar the conditioned stimulus
Discriminate – in which subjects can be trained to tell the difference between various stimuli
Aversive conditioning – negative responses to CSs/USs
Eg. Baby Albert experiment: loud noise(US), in which baby Albert fears...

...Section One – 1
When psychology first began to become a science in 1860, it was more of a field of philosophy than an actual medical study. It dealt with a more abstract concept than other medical fields; the human body is something concrete that you can physically look at and study whereas, at the time, you could not physically see the mind.
In Ancient Greece thinkers such as Aristotle and Plato could only come up with theories as to how the mind works. Plato believed that some knowledge is innate while Aristotle believed that the ability to learn depended on experience, however neither were able to prove their theories with concrete evidence. As time went on and psychology became more widely known, more theoretical approaches to psychology were introduced. Freud established the psychoanalytical theory, which emphasized the importance of the unconscious and how it shaped how humans behave. While Freud did use psychoanalysis to attempt to bring unconscious thoughts and feelings to conscious awareness, it was still far from valid scientific evidence.
In the 20th century, behaviorism was introduced. Behaviorism encouraged psychologists should limit their studies to behavior that was objectively observable. The introduction of behaviorism advanced psychology as a field of scientific study because it now focused on what people do rather than their own personal experiences. Studying behavior rather than gave...

...﻿TASK 1
Malaysia is well known for its diversity in race and culture which has never failed to attract thousands to millions of tourists from all around the world. The nation is represented by its multiple ethnic groups that live harmoniously in the country. According to Wikipedia, the population of Malaysia as in year 2010 is estimated to be 28, 334,000. The major ethnic groups which are Malays, Chinese and Indians enable the exposure of children to Multilanguage and bilingual environment. This will definitely leave an impact on children’s social, cognitive and linguistic development.
Children in Malaysia are exposed to Malay language generally because of its curriculum requirement. As to second language, English language has also been a focus being the International language. This type of bilingualism was put forward by some researchers thus far. Apart from these two languages children do share languages of other ethnics when come to communicate effectively. Though they may have to direct translate other language to the one they comfortable sometimes, it is undeniable that this practice will definitely enhance their linguistic skills.
Talking about profound impact on children’s social, they surely get to mingle and learning a second language will open the door for communication with people not from own ethnic group. The ability to understand two languages enable children to work along with peers and teachers and appreciate diversity. In multilingual Malaysia, children...

...can also help us understand what nonverbal organisms perceive
• discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
• reinforcer: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
• positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
• negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
• Whether it works by reducing something aversive, or by giving something desirable, reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior
• primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
• conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforce
• continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
• partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous...

...Chapter Five – Learning
Learning – a relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behaviour potential) due to experience.
Behaviours not dependent on learning
Reflex action – a simple, automatic, involuntary response to a specific stimulus that comes directly from the nervous system and is basically the same each time it occurs.
Fixed action pattern (FAP) – the innate predisposition – essentially identical among most members of a species – to behave in a certain way in response to a specific environmental stimulus; also known as species specific behaviour.
Maturation behaviours – innate, age-related behaviours that result from the physical growth and development (maturation) of
the body, brain and nervous system at fairly predictable ages in the life cycle.
Maturation – the physical growth and development of the body, brain and nervous system at fairly predictable ages in the life cycle.
Brain areas involved in learning
Hindbrain – learning certain types of motor skills – especially those requiring balance and coordination, such as riding a bicycle.
Midbrain – learning to navigate in space.
Forebrain/ frontal lobe – cognitive learning
Cerebellum – a structure attached to the rear of the brainstem that helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
The cerebellum:
• Primarily regulates posture, muscle tone and muscular coordination.
• Stores memories related to skills and habits.
The limbic system
Limbic system – a number...