6 Working environment and productivity A register-based analysis of Nordic enterprises Lars Foldspang, Michael Mark, Louise Lund Rants, Laurits Rømer Hjorth, Christian Langholz-Carstensen, Otto Melchior Poulsen, Ulf Johansson, Guy Ahonen and Steinar Aasnæss ISBN ISBN (EPUB) TemaNord 2014:546 ISSN Nordic Council of Ministers 2014 Layout: Hanne Lebech Cover photo: Signelements Print: Rosendahls-Schultz Grafisk Copies: 36 Printed in Denmark This publication has been published with financial support by the Nordic Council of Ministers. However, the contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views, policies or recommendations of the Nordic Council of Ministers. Nordic co-operation Nordic co-operation is one of the world s most extensive forms of regional collaboration, involving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Åland. Nordic co-operation has firm traditions in politics, the economy, and culture. It plays an important role in European and international collaboration, and aims at creating a strong Nordic community in a strong Europe. Nordic co-operation seeks to safeguard Nordic and regional interests and principles in the global community. Common Nordic values help the region solidify its position as one of the world s most innovative and competitive. Nordic Council of Ministers Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 Copenhagen K Phone (+45)

9 Preface Globalisation pressures and demographic trends affect the chances of the Nordics to be prosperous and indirectly threaten the welfare states as we know them. These pressures and trends underline the twin challenge to the Nordics of productivity stagnation and a decreasing work force. A contribution to an answer to both challenges can be an increase in productivity and new ways to increase the work force. A good work environment can do both: If less people have to take sick leave as result of bad work environments, this will contribute to increasing the work force. Also, for some time, a relationship between work environment and productivity has been hypothesised. Happy, healthy workers, in short, are more productive than not-so-happy and not-so-healthy workers are. Therefore, the main objective of the Nordic Council of Ministers cooperation in the area of working environment is to promote health and welfare at work and thus productivity in society. In this context, the Nordic Council of Ministers has initiated a project aiming at clarifying the impact on productivity of work environment and well-being in companies. This report presents an empirical analysis measuring the coherence between working environment and productivity in the Nordic countries. The report state that we do in fact find a positive coherence between improved working environment and productivity and the result is consistent across the Nordic Countries. As far as we know, this is the first analysis that tests the relationship between working environment and productivity. At least when using large scale datasets being representative for individuals and enterprises in the four Nordic Countries. With its focus on working environment and productivity, this report contributes to the scarce empirical literature on working environment, work wellbeing and productivity. Since data has not been collected for this purpose, and as challenges have been met with regards to matching data at company level, the results should not be seen as conclusive in any way. In order to do more thorough studies across the Nordic countries, there is a need to harmonise data at individual level. This is an explorative analysis and we are in unexplored territory. As such, this report should not be seen as conclusive in any way. The au-

10 thors hope that the report will spur an interest and inspire further investigations of the subject. It should be stressed that non-results in this analysis can not be considered a negative results. A non-results only implies that we could not establish a either positive or negative correlation in the models. The project, funded by the Nordic Council of Ministers, was conducted by a group of experts, consisting of Otto Melchior Poulsen, The National Research Centre for Working Environment (Denmark). Guy Ahonen, Työterveyslaitos/Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (FIOH), Finland. Steinar Asnaess, STAMI, Norway. Ulf Johansson professor at Mälardalen University, Sweden. Jan Mouritsen (CBS, Denmark), in co-operation with the research based Scandinavian consultancy DAMVAD. We would like to thank the participating experts for their valuable contributions. Any omissions or misunderstandings remain the sole responsibility of DAMVAD. 8 Working environment and productivity

11 Summary This report provides the final report for measuring the relation between a good working environment and productivity. It thus completes a three year research project focusing on the possible connection between working environment, work wellbeing, and productivity. With its focus on working environment and productivity, this report contributes to the scarce empirical literature on working environment, work wellbeing and productivity. As far as we know, this is the first analysis that tests the relationship between working environment and productivity using harmonized register-based and survey data from the four Nordic countries and applying micro-econometric techniques to the data. The applied data was collected for other purposes and, thus, the analyses must be seen as a first take on testing whether or not there is indeed a relationship between working environment and productivity (and whether or not it is a positive one). Thus, it should be stressed that a non-result does not equal a negative result. As such, this can be seen as an explorative study, exploring the possibilities of actually linking data on working environment and work wellbeing with register data on productivity in enterprises. The main results of this report are: Working environment/work wellbeing is positively correlated to productivity. We show that physical working environment is an important, statistically significant predictor of productivity. This result is robust to various empirical specifications in Denmark and Sweden, the two countries in which national data protection regulations do not prohibit the matching of individual-level information on working environment with companylevel information on productivity and other company-level characteristics, and thus allow us to harmonize data at individual level. In Norway and Finland we also identify that physical working environment is an important, statistically significant predictor of productivity. However, in Norway and Finland data regulations prohibit the matching of information on individual-level working environment and companylevel performance. Thus the analysis is performed at sector level and shows similar results.

12 The fact that physical working environment and productivity are found to be positively related in all four countries, also after adjusting for a range of other productivity-related factors such as educational level and capital intensity, provides support in favour of the Becker-Huselid hypothesis. Working environment/work wellbeing may interact with the level of education in affecting company productivity In Sweden, a strong interaction is found between the level of education and physical working environment. This is not too surprising, as one could hypothesise that the importance of physical working environment varies between different educational qualifications. However, the same result does not appear in the Danish context, where data also allows for testing of the interaction hypothesis at company level. In the cases of Norway and Finland, we find as in Denmark that there are no differences between working environment/ work wellbeing and productivity at different levels of education. Psychosocial working environment does not seem to be strongly related to productivity In Sweden and in Denmark, only in one case do we find a positive relationship between psychosocial working environment and productivity. This is a somewhat surprising result, as factors such work-life imbalances and work-related stress are included in the concept of psychosocial working environment as defined here and since it is easy to see how work-related stress could affect and hamper productivity. The result might be explained with the level at which data is collected. Psychosocial working environment is closely related to the individual person, whereas physical working environment is related to groups within the company or the whole company. We might see huge variation in personal perceptions of psychosocial working environment, but at company level the differences even out. Thus, a non-result here cannot be interpreted solely as a negative result, but as much a question of how data is collected. Thus, we can neither confirm nor reject a correlation between psychosocial working environment and productivity. As for the Norwegian case, we cannot find any significant correlation at all. Identical non-results are found in Finland. Again it is important to stress that these non-results are not the same as negative results last section contains the appendix as well as references and a summary in Danish. 10 Working environment and productivity

13 Sickness absence is negatively correlated with company-level productivity In Norway, we have had the possibility to test whether sickness absence is correlated with productivity. We find a strong negative and correlation between sickness absence and company-level productivity. Even when we include year dummies in order to take into account the development of productivity over time, we still find a strong negative correlation. Thus, one can argue that lowering sickness absence will have a positive impact on productivity, even though we do not test for causality. This report delivers a first statistical piece of empirical evidence on which to base the assertion that working environment and productivity are in fact related. The analysis tests the relationship across the four Nordic countries of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. Since data has not been collected for this purpose, and as challenges have been met with regards to matching data at company level, the results should not be seen as conclusive in any way. In order to do more thorough studies across the Nordic countries, there is a need to harmonise data at individual level. This calls for relaxation of the legislation in Finland and Norway to allow academia to analyse micro-level data. Further, stronger coherence in measuring work wellbeing across the Nordic countries will improve the possibility for more comparative analysis across the Nordic countries. Finally, there is a need for stronger focus on the causality between working environment and productivity. The question of causality, along with the question of drivers, should be investigated further in studies to come. This is an explorative analysis and we are in unexplored territory. As such, this report should not be seen as conclusive in any way. The authors hope that the report will spur an interest and inspire further investigations of the subject. Working environment and productivity 11

14

15 1. Introduction: Working environment and productivity partners in the Nordics? Working environment and productivity are usually perceived as two opposites. On the one hand, many practitioners and researchers consider working environment as an extra, resource-consuming, nonproductive activity, which managers dislike because of the lack of production stemming from it. On the other hand, some argue that productivity and the urge to increase productivity is the major source of malfunctioning working environment, because it raises the bar of what is expected of workers without necessarily giving them extra means or resources to handle this. However, working environment and productivity are not necessarily conflicting. Whether or not they are in fact counterparts is an empirical question. That empirical question is exactly what this report sets out to answer. Taking its point of departure in the theory of Becker and Huselid (1998), this report builds on a theoretical model, which assumes a positive relationship between working environment and productivity. Using register-based and survey data from the four Nordic countries of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, this model is tested empirically and we test whether or not working environment and productivity are counterparts. The report is the culmination of a three-phase project, financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, and led by DAMVAD. Phases one and two set up the analytical framework of the empirical model. Phase 1 built up the theoretical model and identified relevant indicators of working environment and productivity. Phase 2 focused on the collection of register-based data, with information about enterprises financial performance and survey data, as well as measuring the working environment in the four Nordic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland). With its focus on working environment and productivity, this report contributes to the scarce empirical literature on working environment,

16 work wellbeing and productivity. As far as we know, this is the first analysis that tests the relationship between working environment and productivity using harmonized register-based and survey data from the four Nordic countries and applying micro-econometric techniques to the data. Leading Nordic experts on working environment and productivity also joined the project, namely Ulf Johannson (Mälardalens Högskola, Sweden), Steinar Aasnaes (STAMI, Norway), Otto Melchior Poulsen (NFA, Denmark), Jan Mouritsen (CBS, Denmark), and Guy Ahonen (FIOH, Finland). We would like to thank the participating experts for their valuable contributions. Any omissions or misunderstandings remain the sole responsibility of DAMVAD. The remainder of the report is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the theoretical model in further detail, while section 3 describes the approach of the project. Sections 4 7 present data and results for each of the four Nordic countries. Whereas the last Section contains the appendix. 14 Working environment and productivity

17 2. Theoretical model The theoretical model was developed during phase 1 of this project. This report merely presents the basic idea of the model see for a more thorough discussion of the model, the concepts of physical and psychosocial working environment and work wellbeing. The basic hypothesis of the model is that improving the work wellbeing of employees will increase productivity because improving wellbeing at work reduces risks, uncertainty, hostile conditions, injuries, toxic exposures, and sickness absence, which all move resources away from work tasks into unproductive actions. According to Becker and Huselid, improving the work wellbeing of workers pays off, because it gives a strategic advantage to the company (Becker & Huselid 1998). Chart 2.1 Overall model for company practice, work wellbeing and productivity General company characteristics Work wellbeing Company work wellbeing practice Physical conditions and exposure Psychosocial conditions Wellbeing Productivity Source: DAMVAD and expert group, One result if this model stands and is proven empirically is that enterprises can actually improve productivity if they improve the working environment and work wellbeing of their employees. We will test this hypothesis in this report. Although we are not able to test the causality, we will test the correlation between working environment and productivity.

18 We exploit the richness of data in the Nordic countries. The model allows for including general company characteristics. This is done in order to isolate the effects of adjustments in work wellbeing initiatives and, thus, make sure that observed changes in productivity are not an effect of a change in exports, R&D level and the educational level of the employees or other factors which usually affect productivity Definitions Definitions of the concepts in the theoretical model, i.e. physical conditions and exposure, psychosocial conditions, and wellbeing, as well as company work wellbeing practice were discussed at length in Measuring Work Wellbeing and Productivity in the Nordic Countries. Therefore, definitions are merely repeated in the present report: The physical working environment of the employee includes the overall health and safety of the employee including the identifiable workplace, causes of accidents and illness. The psychosocial working environment of the employee includes, among other things, a set of job factors related to the interaction between people, their work and the organisation. The wellbeing of the employees is conceptualised here as the more explicit results of the working environment, that is, work-related injuries, work-related diagnoses, illness/sickness, etc. In the appendix we present the individual national indicators composing the of physical working environment, psychosocial working environment and wellbeing. The indicators have been identified through the work launched in previous phases of the project. The three different es are presented in the following. 1 These are common growth drivers when focusing on endogenous growth theory (Romer 1994) assuming growth to be the result of endogenous forces such as knowledge, technology and human capital. The empirical models includes as many growth drivers as possible, but we have not been able to include export and R&D. 16 Working environment and productivity

19 2.1.1 The physical working environment Physical conditions and exposures constitute a central part of work wellbeing that affects employees psychosocial and physical health. Indicators included in the working environement Indicator Physical conditions Light Noise Temperature High repetition of motion Work involves simultaneous lifting and sub-optimal movement/positioning Work involves static load on muscles Exposure Production or use of certain chemicals Exposure to smoke, dust, fumes (skin contact/breathing/eye contact) Production using technical equipment and machinery Work includes risk of falling from heights Work includes traffic risk Source: DAMVAD and expert group, The psychosocial working environment Psychosocial conditions also constitute a central part of work wellbeing and affect employees psychosocial and physical health. Here, the psychosocial indicators are tentatively divided into three categories, namely influence, demands, and work-reward balance and leadership. This section draws on the collection of indicators across six countries made available by courtesy of Aasnaes. Many of the indicators in this section coincide in topic with the indicators of company practice. However, the indicators below primarily measure how the psychosocial conditions are experienced by employees, whereas the indicators above in the company practices section measure what the company does and does not do. Hence, the important difference is one of level: company practice is at company level, whereas psychosocial conditions are taken to be at the individual or employee level. Working environment and productivity 17

20 Indicators included in the psychosocial working environement Indicator Influence Freedom to decide one s own work tasks Framework allowing deliverance of the same quality as desired by oneself Freedom to organise the day, including breaks Demands Work at high speed Large work load High cognitive demands Work-reward balance and leadership Clarity of expectations in work Trust and respect from leadership Predictability of work Work-reward balance Source: DAMVAD and expert group, The wellbeing The work wellbeing indicators measure the result /output/effect in terms of the state of the workers health and safety in a broadly defined context. This can be done on the basis of two main categories of indicators: Fact-based indicators, that is, indicators that measure the state of work wellbeing in an objective manner. Self-reported indicators, or subjective measurement of work wellbeing. Indicators included in the wellbeing Indicator Health Annual number of work-related diagnoses Annual number reporting sick or ill Long-term sickness Mortality rate Average retirement age Number of recipients of benefits due to being unfit for work Stress Depression Safety Work-related injuries Self-reported work-related health problems Work-related deaths Source: DAMVAD and expert group, Working environment and productivity

21 3. Approach The overall research project was split into three phases. The present report being the product of phase 3 of the project. In phase 1, the theoretical model for the analysis of the relation between working environment, wellbeing, and productivity was created, as well as a thorough indicator and data manual for the measurement of working environment and wellbeing. 2 In phase 2, the project uncovered available data in the four countries and made this available to analyse. In the case of Finland, DAMVAD received working environment data at aggregate level courtesy of FIOH, and at company level characteristics were analysed on location at Statistics Finland. In the case of Sweden, the data was analysed via an internet connection to Statistics Sweden provided for DAMVAD by Statistics Sweden. For Norway and Denmark, data was analysed via an internet connection to Statistics Denmark, to whom Statistics Norway delivered relevant data. 2 See Measuring Work Wellbeing and Productivity in the Nordic Countries at publikationer/publikationer/

22 In phase 3, this data was analysed, and the results are presented in the present report. The three phases are depicted in figure 3.1 below. Chart 3.1 The three phases of the project Phase 1 - Methodology Conceptualis ation Identify data Theoretical model Phase 2 - Feasibility study Accessibility to data Data "collection" Basic comparative presentation of data Phase 3 - Empirical analysis Analyse collected data Comparable Nordic analyses Source: DAMVAD, Phase 1 Indicators of working environment In Phase 1, the project group consisting of Nordic experts on working environment and DAMVAD developed a conceptualisation of working environment and wellbeing to ensure a common understanding of these important concepts. Further, the theoretical model already presented was developed. Finally, data-enabling analysis in the four Nordic countries was identified and described in a data measurement, indicator and how to measure manual. Also, data quality was assessed in this manual with regards to its relevance, accuracy, availability, and cross-country comparability. The assessment of quality and relevance was a consequence of the diversity of data measuring work wellbeing and working environment. There is quite a large amount of data, especially from surveys used for measuring different aspects of working environment in the Nordic countries. Yet there is no data linking working environment to productivity. This project and the data used helps shed light on the effects of working environment and general wellbeing in Nordic enterprises. This 20 Working environment and productivity

23 can be done, because workplace is identifiable (in Denmark and Sweden). In Norway and Finland, identifying the workplace does not conform to national data disclosure regulations, and the analyses have to be performed at a more aggregate level. Phase 1 resulted in: Description of the relevant concepts, i.e. working environment, occupational health, and work wellbeing. Development of the theoretical model presented above in chart 2.1, describing the relationship between working environment, wellbeing, and productivity. An indicator manual, identifying indicators for working environment (physical working environment, psychosocial working environment, and work wellbeing). A description of existing Nordic data available to measure these factors. The conclusion that is was in fact possible to find data covering the different aspects of the model presented in chart 2.1 The report containing the results of phase 1 of the project is available for download at Phase 2 Data acquisition In phase 2 of the project, actual data availability was identified as part of testing the feasibility of the planned study. Also, data was collected (or arrangements were made for the data to be made available). Finally, basic comparative presentation of the data was made. This report has not been published as an independent piece of work, since phase 2 to a large extent consisted of the process of collecting the relevant data. Therefore, phase 2 is described in somewhat more detail in the following. The data collected was either made available directly on location at the central statistical bureaus, via internet connections to the central statistical bureaus, or it was indirectly available via Statistics Denmark. Working environment and productivity 21

24 There are different ways in which data can be made available and there are different criteria which have to be met in the four countries. Below is a description of the following elements for Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland: Data owners. Formal requirements for access to data. The access to data Linkable and non-linkable data There is one very important difference between the data made available in Denmark and Sweden and the data made available in Finland and Norway. Because of national data-disclosure regulations in Finland and Norway, it is not possible to match individual-level information about working environment to company-level information on productivity, company characteristics, etc. Obviously, when individual-level data on working environment and company-level data on productivity are not linkable, it is not possible to relate the (individually reported) information on working environment to productivity. Thus, it is not possible to analyse the relation between these variables at company level The general accessibility of data The relevant data can be grouped into six different areas, as indicated in the figure below. The six areas are: 1. The general company characteristics, e.g. covering sector and number of employees. 2. Company work-wellbeing practice identified at company level. 3. Physical conditions and exposure, including the overall health and safety of the employees, see appendix 10.1 for a full list. 4. Psychosocial conditions, including a set of job factors related to the interaction between people, their work and the organisation, see appendix 9.1 for a full list. 3 This is the case in Norway and Finland. Our solution is to aggregate company level data from our different sources of data. Then we use the aggregated level of data to run the analysis. 22 Working environment and productivity

25 5. Work wellbeing covering work-related injuries, work-related diagnoses, illness etc., see appendix 9.1 for a full list. 6. Productivity covering the value added per employee and following the OECD manual for measuring productivity. We use the capitallabour multi factor productivity measure based on value added. 4 This will usually be identifiable using a company registration number, whereas the work wellbeing factors will be identifiable using civil registration number of the respondents. Whereas company characteristics, company work-wellbeing practice and productivity are identified at company level, the various working environment indicators are identified at individual level. The model presented aggregates the information at company level. Chart 3.2 The cohension of different sources of information Source: DAMVAD and expert group, 2011: Measuring Work Wellbeing and Productivity in the Nordic Countries A Manual. It has been possible to acquire various amounts of relevant data for each of the different countries. In the table below, an indication of data availability is given. We have given the data a mark depending on the following three levels. For each level where we can access data we provide the country with a + mark: 4 See OECD Productivity Manual, measurement of aggregate and sector-level productivity growth, OECD Manual Working environment and productivity 23

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