1.
Social class
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Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society

2.
Affluence in the United States
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Affluence refers to an individuals or households economical and financial advantage in comparison to a given reference group. The top 0. 12% had incomes exceeding $1,600,000 annually, households may also be differentiated among each other, depending on whether or not they have one or multiple income earners. Similarly ownership levels of gadgets and access to amenities are exceptionally high compared to other countries. Another, possibly more objective indicator is the fact that immigrants to the US come from all over the world, overall, the term affluent may be applied to a variety of individuals, households, or other entities, depending on context. Data from the U. S. Census Bureau serves as the guideline for defining affluence. U. S. government data not only reveal the nations income distribution but also the characteristics of those to whom the term affluent. Affluence and economic standing within society are often expressed in terms of percentile ranking, economic ranking is conducted either in terms of giving lower thresholds for a designated group or in terms of the percentage of households/individuals with incomes above a certain threshold. The table below presents 2006 income data in terms of the thresholds for the given percentages. Source, U. S. Census Bureau,2006 Household income changes over time, all areas of the income strata have seen their incomes rise since the late 1960s, especially during the late 1990s. The overall increase in income is largely the result of an increase in the percentage of households with more than one income earner. Instead, the majority of families with children now have both parents rising at dawn to commute to jobs so they can both pull in paychecks. Today the median income for a fully employed male is $41,670 per year —nearly $800 less than his counterpart of a generation ago, the only real increase in wages for a family has come from the second paycheck earned by a working mother. Two income-earner households are common among the top quintile of households than the general population,2006 U. S. As a result, much of the rising income inequity between the upper and lower percentiles can be explained through the percentage of households with two or more incomes. Source, U. S. Census Bureau, Income, Poverty, all figures are inflation-adjusted and given in 2003 dollars. The vast majority of Americans derive the majority of their income from occupational earnings, Income derived from an occupation is largely determined by scarcity, the economic law of supply and demand, and politics. The greater the demand for a specialty and the less supply. A correlation has been shown between increases in income and increases in worker satisfaction, additionally, higher level workers with advanced degrees are hired to share their personal knowledge, to conceptualize, and to consult

3.
American gentry
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The American gentry were members of the American upper classes, particularly early in the settlement of the United States. The Colonial American use of gentry followed the British usage before the independence of the United States, the Southern plantation was commonly evidenced in land holdings by estate owners in Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas. North of Maryland, there were few large compatible rural estates, the families of Virginia who formed the Virginia gentry class, such as General Robert E. Lees ancestors, were among the earliest settlers in Virginia. Lees family of Stratford Hall was considered among the oldest of the Virginia gentry class. Lees family is one of Virginias first families, originally arriving in Virginia from England in the early 1600s with the arrival of Richard Lee I, Esq. the Immigrant and his mother grew up at Shirley Plantation, one of the most elegant homes in Virginia. His maternal great-great grandfather, Robert King Carter of Corotoman, was the wealthiest man in the colonies when he died in 1732. George Washington, the first president of the United States was also the wealthiest man to hold the office until the election of Donald Trump in 2016. He was a commercial farmer much interested in innovations, and happily quit his duties in 1783. Washington lived an upper-class lifestyle—fox hunting was a leisure activity enjoyed by gentry. Like most planters in Virginia, Washington imported luxury items and other fine wares from England and he paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop. Extravagant spending and the unpredictability of the market meant that many Virginia planters financial resources were unstable. Thomas Jefferson was deeply in debt when he died and his heirs were forced to sell Monticello to cover his debts, wood notes that Few members of the American gentry were able to live idly off the rents of tenants as the English landed aristocracy did. Some landowners, especially in the Dutch areas of upstate New York, leased out their lands to tenants, as there was a propensity to marry within their narrow social scope for many generations, many descendants bear surnames which became common in the growing colony. Many of the original English colonists considered members of the First Families of Virginia migrated to the Colony of Virginia during the English Civil War, royalists left England on the accession to power of Oliver Cromwell and his Parliament. The affinity of many early aristocratic Virginia settlers for the Crown led to the term distressed Cavaliers, many Cavaliers who served under King Charles I fled to Virginia. Thus, it came to be that FFVs often refer to Virginia as Cavalier Country and these men were offered rewards of land, etc. by King Charles II, but they had settled Virginia and so remained in Virginia. Most of such early settlers in Virginia were so-called Second Sons, primogeniture favored the first sons inheriting lands and titles in England. Virginia evolved in a society of second or third sons of English aristocracy who inherited land grants or land in Virginia and they formed part of the southern elite in America

4.
Andriana
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Andriana refers to both the noble class and a title of nobility in Madagascar. Historically, many Malagasy ethnic groups lived in highly stratified caste-based social orders in which the andriana were the highest strata and they were above the Hova and Andevo. The Andriana and the Hova were a part of Fotsy, while the Andevo were Mainty in local terminology, the Andriana strata originally constituted the nobility, warrior, and land owning class of the Merina society. They were endogamous and their privileges were institutionally preserved, while the term and concept of Andriana is studied with the Merina people of Madagascar, the term is not limited to them. Andriana often traditionally formed part of the names of Malagasy kings, princes, linguistic evidence suggests its origin is traceable back to an ancient Javanese nobility title, although alternate theories have been proposed. Adelaar, the Malagasy title andriana probably originated from the ancient Java-Indonesian nobility title Rahadyan, in Malagasy the term became Rohandryan and later Roandriana, mainly used in the Southeastern part of the island among the Zafiraminia, Antemoro and Antambahoaka ethnic groups. In the central Highlands among the Merina, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka, other proposed etymology for Andriana includes the root Handrina which means head or forehead in Malagasy. In Madagascar, the name of a Malagasy sovereign, prince or nobleman was often composed by placing Andriana as a prefix to the remainder of the name. For example, the name of Merina king Andrianampoinimerina is a composite of Andriana and Nampoinimerina, while that of the celebrated Sakalava warrior Andriamisara is formed from Andriana, in Madagascar today, names beginning with the Andria prefix are common. However, unlike in Western cultures where children automatically inherit the name of a parent. Following the end of the monarchy in Imerina, many parents have chosen to give their children including the Andriana prefix. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 to 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. African slaves were brought to the coasts between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, the Merina peoples culture likely mixed and merged with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba about whom little is known. The term Hova originally applied to all members of the Merina people who arrived in the highlands around the 15th century. Andriamanelo consolidated the power of the Hova when he united many of the Hova chiefdoms around Antananarivo under his rule, the term Hova remained in use through the 20th century, though some foreigners transliterated that word to be Ankova, and increasingly used since the 19th century. In and after the 16th century, slaves were brought into Madagascars various kingdoms, the Hova emerged as the free commoners caste below the nobles hierarchy

5.
Aristocracy
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Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006

6.
Baronet
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A baronet or the rare female equivalent, a baronetess, is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The practice of awarding baronetcies was originally introduced in England in the 14th century and was used by James I of England in 1611 as a means of raising funds. A baronetcy is the only British hereditary honour that is not a peerage, with the exception of the Anglo-Irish Black Knight, White Knight, Baronets are not deemed members of the nobility, but rather, titled gentry. Their social rank is equivalent to the petty nobility in some countries of continental Europe. The term baronet has medieval origins, Sir Thomas de La More, describing the Battle of Boroughbridge, mentioned that baronets took part, along with barons and knights. Edward III is known to have created eight baronets in 1328, at least one, Sir William de La Pole in 1340, was created for payment of money. Whether or not these early creations were hereditary, all have died out, in 1619 James I established the Baronetage of Ireland, Charles I in 1625 created the Baronetages of Scotland and Nova Scotia. The new baronets were each required to pay 2,000 marks or to support six settlers for two years. Over a hundred of these baronetcies, now known as Scottish baronetcies. As a result of the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, following the Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, new creations were styled as baronets of the United Kingdom. Under royal warrants of 1612 and 1613, certain privileges were accorded to baronets, firstly, no person or persons should have place between baronets and the younger sons of peers. These privileges were extended to baronets of Ireland, and for baronets of Scotland the privilege of depicting the Arms of Nova Scotia as an augmentation of honour, the former applies to this day for all baronets of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom created subsequently. The title of baronet was initially conferred upon noblemen who lost the right of summons to Parliament. A similar title of rank was banneret. Like knights, baronets are accorded the style Sir before their first name, baronetesses in their own right use Dame, also before their first name, while wives of baronets use Lady followed by the husbands surname only, this by longstanding courtesy. Wives of baronets are not baronetesses, only women holding baronetcies in their own right are so styled, unlike knighthoods—which apply to the recipient only—a baronetcy is hereditarily entailed. With some exceptions granted with special remainder by letters patent, baronetcies descend through the male line, a full list of extant baronets appears in Burkes Peerage and Baronetage, which also published a record of extinct baronetcies. A baronetcy is not a peerage, so baronets like knights and junior members of families are commoners

7.
Bourgeoisie
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A legally defined class of the Middle Ages to the end of the Ancien Régime in France, that of inhabitants having the rights of citizenship and political rights in a city. This bourgeoisie destroyed aristocratic privilege and established civic equality after the French monarchy collapsed, the aristocracy crumbled because it refused to reform institutions and financial systems. An affluent and often opulent stratum of the class who stand opposite the proletariat class. In English, bourgeoisie identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, hence, since the 19th century, the term bourgeoisie usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society. The 18th century saw a partial rehabilitation of bourgeois values in such as the drame bourgeois and bourgeois tragedy. The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and this urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen conflicted with their feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In English, the bourgeoisie is often used to denote the middle classes. In fact, the French term encompasses both the upper and middle classes, a misunderstanding which has occurred in other languages as well. The bourgeoisie in France and many French-speaking countries consists of four evolving social layers, petite bourgeoisie, moyenne bourgeoisie, grande bourgeoisie, the petite bourgeoisie consists of people who have experienced a brief ascension in social mobility for one or two generations. It usually starts with a trade or craft, and by the second and third generation, the petite bourgeois would belong to the British lower middle class and would be American middle income. They are distinguished mainly by their mentality, and would differentiate themselves from the proletariat or working class and this class would include artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, and small farm owners. They are not employed, but may not be able to afford employees themselves, the moyenne bourgeoisie or middle bourgeoisie contains people who have solid incomes and assets, but not the aura of those who have become established at a higher level. They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations, some members of this class may have relatives from similar backgrounds, or may even have aristocratic connections. The moyenne bourgeoisie is the equivalent of the British and American upper-middle classes, the grande bourgeoisie are families that have been bourgeois since the 19th century, or for at least four or five generations. Members of these tend to marry with the aristocracy or make other advantageous marriages. This bourgeoisie family has acquired an established historical and cultural heritage over the decades, the names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the regions history. These families are respected and revered and they belong to the upper class, and in the British class system are considered part of the gentry

8.
Business magnate
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A business magnate refers to an entrepreneur of great influence, importance, or standing in a particular enterprise or field of business. Such individuals may also be called czars, moguls, proprietors, tycoons, taipans, barons, the word magnate derives from the Latin magnates, meaning a great man or great nobleman. The word tycoon derives from the Japanese word taikun, which means great lord, the word entered the English language in 1857 with the return of Commodore Perry to the United States. U. S. President Abraham Lincoln was humorously referred to as the Tycoon by his aides John Nicolay, the term spread to the business community, where it has been used ever since. The word mogul is an English corruption of mughal, Persian or Arabic for Mongol and it alludes to emperors of the Mughal Empire in the Medieval India, who possessed great power and storied riches capable of producing wonders of opulence such as the Taj Mahal. Modern business magnates are entrepreneurs that amass on their own or wield substantial family fortunes in the process of building or running their own businesses and their dominance was known as the Second Industrial Revolution, the Gilded Age, or the Robber Baron Era. The Famous 15, Americas Most Fascinating Tycoons,25 Tycoons Who Run the World

9.
Castellan
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A castellan was the governor or captain of a castellany and its castle. The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum castle, sometimes also known as a constable, governor of the castle district or captain, the Constable of the Tower of London is, in fact, a form of castellan. A castellan was almost always male, but could occasionally be female, as when, in 1194, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many tribes migrated into western Europe, causing strife and war. The answer to recurrent invasion was to create fortified areas which evolved into castles, some leaders gained control of several areas, each with a castle. The problem lay in exerting control and authority in each area when a leader could only be in one place at a time. To answer this, lords gave their trusted vassals direct control of a castle and this changed as kings grew in power and as the Holy Roman emperors replaced recalcitrant vassals with ministerials. Usually the duties of a castellan were combined with the duties of a majordomo and this made the castellan responsible for a castles domestic staff and its garrison, as well as a military administrator responsible for maintaining defenses and protecting the castles lands. This was particularly the case if there was no lord resident at the castle, one unusual responsibility in western Europe concerned jurisdiction over the resident Jewish communities near the English Channel. The Constable of the Tower of London and those castellans subordinate to the dukes of Normandy were responsible for their administration, in France, castellans who governed castles without resident nobles acquired considerable powers, and the position actually became a hereditary fiefdom. In Germany the castellan was known as a Burgmann, or sometimes Hauptmann, the burgmann may have been either a free noble or a ministerialis, but either way administered the castle as a vassal. A ministerialis, being wholly indebted to a lord, was easily controlled. Ministeriales replaced free nobles as castellans of Hohensalzburg under Conrad I of Abensberg’s tenure as Archbishop of Salzburg from 1106 to 1147, in the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary usually was called várnagy, and in the Latin charts it appeared as castellanus. The lord of the castle had similar functions than the German ones. In Hungary first the King, later the most powerful noblemen designed the castellans between their followers for the administration of their castles and the states that belonged to the fortress, at times, there was a castellan among the Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, starting with Anselm. Lectures on the Statutes of the Sacred Order of St. John of Jerusalem, in the Kingdom of Poland and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the castellans were in most cases lower in precedence to the voivodes. Castellans in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were of senator rank, in Portugal, a castellan was known as alcaide. Later, the role of alcaide became a title awarded by the King of Portugal to certain nobles. As the honorary holder of the office of alcaide did not often live near its castle, an honorary holder of the office became known as alcaide-mor and its delegate became known as alcaide pequeno or alcaide-menor

10.
Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself

11.
Social stratification
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Social stratification is a societys categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power. As such, stratification is the social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region. The upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum, moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste, or both. Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social strata exist, by way of social differentiation. Social stratification is a used in the social sciences to describe the relative social position of persons in a given social group, category. In modern Western societies, stratification is often classified into three major divisions of social class, upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each of these classes can be subdivided into smaller classes. Social strata may also be delineated on the basis of kinship ties or caste relations, the concept of social stratification is often used and interpreted differently within specific theories. So-called conflict theories, such as Marxism, point to the inaccessibility of resources, talcott Parsons, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are regulated, in part, by universal values. Such values are not identical with consensus but can as well be an impetus for ardent social conflict as it has multiple times through history. Parsons never claimed that universal values, in and by themselves, indeed, the constitution of society is a much more complicated codification of emerging historical factors. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf alternately note the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due to the necessity of a workforce in technological economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning globalization, such as dependency theory, four principles are posited to underlie social stratification. First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society, second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. Third, social stratification is universal but variable, fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status. Although stratification is not limited to complex societies, all complex societies exhibit features of stratification, the term stratification system is sometimes used to refer to the complex social relationships and social structure that generate these observed inequalities. Social mobility is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or strata in a stratification system and this movement can be intragenerational or intergenerational. Such mobility is used to classify different systems of social stratification

12.
Economic inequality
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Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries. Economic inequality is sometimes called income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth gap, economists generally focus on economic disparity in three metrics, wealth, income, and consumption. The issue of inequality is relevant to notions of equity, equality of outcome. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures and systems, the term can refer to cross-sectional distribution of income or wealth at any particular period, or to changes of income and wealth over longer periods of time. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, a widely used index is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods. Some studies say economic inequality is a problem, for example too much inequality can be destructive. However, too much income equality is also destructive since it decreases the incentive for productivity, the first set of income distribution statistics for the United States covering the period from was published in 1952 by Simon Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Savings. It relied on US federal income tax returns and Kuznets’s own estimates of US national income, National Income, economists generally consider three metrics of economic dispersion, wealth, income, and consumption. A skilled professional may have low wealth and low income as student, low wealth and high earnings in the beginning of the career, peoples preferences determine whether they consume earnings immediately or defer consumption to the future. The distinction is important at the level of economy, There are economies with high income inequality. There are economies with low income inequality and high wealth inequality. There are different ways to measure income inequality and wealth inequality, Different choices lead to different results. g. Annual wages, including wages from part-time work or work during only part of the year, individual earnings inequality among all workers – Includes the self-employed. Individual earnings inequality among the entire working-age population – Includes those who are inactive, e. g. students, unemployed, early pensioners, household earnings inequality – Includes the earnings of all household members. Household market income inequality – Includes incomes from capital, savings, household disposable income inequality – Includes public cash transfers received and direct taxes paid. Household adjusted disposable income inequality – Includes publicly provided services, There are many challenges in comparing data between economies, or in a single economy in different years. Examples of challenges include, Data can be based on joint taxation of couples or individual taxation, the tax authorities generally only collect information on income that is potentially taxable. The precise definition of income varies from country to country

13.
Social inequality
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It is the differentiation preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power, religion, kinship, prestige, race, ethnicity, gender, age, and class. The social rights include labor market, the source of income, health care, and freedom of speech, education, political representation, and participation. Social inequality linked to Economic inequality, usually described on the basis of the distribution of income or wealth, is a frequently studied type of social inequality. However, social and natural resources other than purely economic resources are unevenly distributed in most societies. Many societies worldwide claim to be meritocracies – that is, that their societies exclusively distribute resources on the basis of merit, a modern representation of the sort of “meritocracy” Young feared may be seen in the series 3%. In many cases, social inequality is linked to racial inequality, ethnic inequality, and gender inequality, as well as other social statuses and these forms can be related to corruption. The most common metric for comparing social inequality in different nations is the Gini coefficient, Two nations may have identical Gini coefficients but dramatically different economic and/or quality of life, so the Gini coefficient must be contextualized for meaningful comparisons to be made. Social inequality is found in almost every society, in simple societies, those that have few social roles and statuses occupied by its members, social inequality may be very low. Anthropologists identify such highly egalitarian cultures as kinship-oriented, which appear to value social harmony more than wealth or status and these cultures are contrasted with materially oriented cultures in which status and wealth are prized and competition and conflict are common. Kinship-oriented cultures may actively work to prevent social hierarchies from developing because they believe that could lead to conflict, in todays world, most of our population lives in more complex than simple societies. As social complexity increases, inequality tends to increase along with a gap between the poorest and the most wealthy members of society. Social inequality can be classified into egalitarian societies, ranked society, egalitarian societies are those communities advocating for social equality through equal opportunities and rights hence no discrimination. People with special skills were not viewed as superior compared to the rest, the leaders do not have the power they only have influence. The norms and the beliefs the egalitarian society holds are for sharing equally, ranked society mostly is agricultural communities who hierarchically grouped from the chief who is viewed to have a status in the society. In this society, people are clustered regarding status and prestige and not by access to power, the chief is the most influential person followed by his family and relative, and those further related to him are less ranked. Stratified society is societies which horizontally ranked into the class, middle class. The classification is regarding wealth, power, and prestige, the upper class are mostly the leaders and are the most influential in the society. Its possible for a person in the society to move from one stratum to the other, the social status is also hereditable from one generation to the next

14.
The Condition of the Working Class in England
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The Condition of the Working Class in England is an 1845 book by the German philosopher Friedrich Engels, a study of the industrial working class in Victorian England. Engels first book, it was written in German as Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England. It was written during his 1842–44 stay in Manchester, the city at the heart of the Industrial Revolution, compiled from Engels own observations, in Condition, Engels argues that the Industrial Revolution made workers worse off. The overall death-rate in Manchester and Liverpool was significantly higher than the national average. Before the introduction of mills,1,006 out of 10,000 adults died before reaching 39 years old, Engels interpretation proved to be extremely influential with British historians of the Industrial Revolution. He focused on both the workers wages and their living conditions and he argued that the industrial workers had lower incomes than their pre-industrial peers and they lived in more unhealthy and unpleasant environments. This proved to be a very wide-ranging critique of industrialisation and one that was echoed by many of the Marxist historians who studied the industrial revolution in the 20th century. Originally addressed to a German audience, the book is considered by many to be an account of the universal condition of the industrial working class during its time. The eldest son of a successful German textile industrialist, Engels became involved in journalism in his youth. Sent to England, what he saw made him even more radical. About this time he formed his lifelong partnership with Karl Marx. French and German working class Communism are its direct, Fourierism and English Socialism, but proletarian conditions exist in their classical form, in their perfection, only in the British Empire, particularly in England proper. Besides, only in England has the necessary material been so completely collected and we Germans more than anybody else stand in need of a knowledge of the facts concerning this question. The root-causes whose effect in England has been the misery and oppression of the proletariat exist also in Germany, the book was translated into English in 1885 by an American, Florence Kelley. Authorised by Engels and with a newly written preface by him, it was published in 1887 in New York and these English editions had the qualification in 1844 added to the English title. The state of things described in this book belongs to-day, in respects, to the past. Accordingly, the most crying abuses described in this book have either disappeared or have made less conspicuous. But while England has thus outgrown the juvenile state of capitalist exploitation described by me, france, Germany and especially America, are the formidable competitors who, at this moment – as foreseen by me in 1844 – are more and more breaking up Englands industrial monopoly

15.
Four occupations
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In descending order, these were the shi, the nong, the gong, and the shang. In some manner this system of order was adopted throughout the Chinese cultural sphere. In Japanese it is called mibunsei and is stated as Shi, nō, kō, shō, in Korean as Sa, nong, gong, sang. The main difference in adaptation was the definition of the shi, the system did not figure in all other social groups present in premodern Chinese society, and its broad categories were more an idealization than a practical reality. The commercialization of Chinese society in the Song and Ming periods further blurred the lines between these four hierarchic social distinctions, there was also a gradual fusion of the wealthy merchant and landholding gentry classes, culminating in the late Ming Dynasty. From existing literary evidence, commoner rankings in China were employed for the first time during the Warring States period. Despite this, Eastern-Han historian Ban Gu asserted in his Book of Han that the four occupations for commoners had existed in the Western Zhou era, which he considered a golden age. However, it is now known that the classification of four occupations as Ban Gu understood it did not exist until the 2nd century BC. Ban explained the hierarchy of each group in descending order, Scholars, farmers, artisans. Those who studied in order to positions of rank were called the shi. Those who cultivated the soil and propagated grains were called nong and those who manifested skill and made utensils were called gong. Those who transported valuable articles and sold commodities were called shang, during the ancient Shang and Zhou dynasties, the shi were regarded as a knightly social order of low-level aristocratic lineage compared to dukes and marquises. This social class was distinguished by their right to ride in chariots and command battles from mobile chariots and they were also known by the weaponry they used, the double-edged sword, or jian. The type of clothing worn by the shi class also distinguished them from others and this was also a period where philosophical schools flourished in China, while intellectual pursuits became highly valued amongst statesmen. Under Duke Xiao of Qin and the minister and reformer Shang Yang. This philosophy stressed stern punishments for those who disobeyed the publicly known laws while rewarding those who labored for the state and it was a means to diminish the power of the nobility, and was another force behind the transformation of the shi class from warrior-aristocrats into merit-driven officials. The Qin Dynasty unified China under the Legalist system, but became infamous for its oppressive measures, the victor of this war was Liu Bang, who initiated four centuries of unification of China proper under the Han Dynasty. After the Han period, this system was replaced by the nine-rank system, both systems favored the wealthy, those of noble background, and the well-connected

16.
Consumerism
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Consumerism is a social and economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. In economics, consumerism may refer to policies which emphasise consumption. In this sense, consumerism expresses the idea not of one man, one voice, but of one dollar, one voice, the term consumerism has several definitions. These definitions may not be related to other and confusingly. One sense of the term relates to efforts to support consumers interests, by the early 1970s it had become the accepted term for the field and began to be used in these ways, Consumerism is the concept that consumers should be informed decision makers in the marketplace. Practices such as product testing make consumers informed, Consumerism is the concept that the marketplace itself is responsible for ensuring social justice through fair economic practices. Consumer protection policies and laws compel manufacturers to make products safe, Consumerism refers to the field of studying, regulating, or interacting with the marketplace. The consumer movement is the movement which refers to all actions. While the above definitions were becoming established, other people using the term consumerism to mean high levels of consumption. This definition has gained popularity since the 1970s and began to be used in ways, Consumerism is the selfish and frivolous collecting of products. In protest against this, some people promote anti-consumerism and advocate simple living, Consumerism is a force from the marketplace which destroys individuality and harms society. It is related to globalization and in protest against this some people promote the anti-globalization movement, vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term consumerism from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book The Waste Makers prominently featured the word consumerism in a negative way, the consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. This included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee, these were grown on vast plantations in the Caribbean as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20, critics argue that colonialism was indeed a driver of consumerism, but they would place the emphasis on the supply rather than the demand as the motivating factor. An increasing mass of exotic imports as well as domestic manufactures had to be consumed by the number of people who had been consuming far less than was becoming necessary. That idea was produced later, more or less strategically in order to intensify consumption domestically, marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise, restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield

17.
Distinction (book)
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Distinction, A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste is a 1979 book by Pierre Bourdieu, based upon the authors empirical research from 1963 until 1968. A sociological report about the state of French culture, Distinction was first published in English translation in 1984, in 1998 the International Sociological Association voted Distinction as one of the ten most important sociology books of the 20th century. Those with low overall capital are unable to access a higher volume of capital because they lack the necessary means to do so. This could mean lacking the terminology to describe or methods of understanding classical artwork, due to features of their habitus, the acceptance of dominant forms of taste is, Bourdieu argues, a form of symbolic violence. The aesthetic choices of a person create class fractions and actively distance one social class from the social classes of a society. Hence, predispositions to certain kinds of food, music, and art are taught and instilled to children, which specific tastes then guide the children to their appropriate social positions. In practice, when a man or a woman encounters the culture, influenced by structuralism, Bourdieu sought to go beyond the traditional reliance on regression analysis in contemporary sociology and achieve a more rigorous quantitative approach. In addition to analysis, Bourdieu also applied correspondence analysis to a subset of the data, the responses from what Bourdieu labelled the dominant classes. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013

18.
Economic mobility
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Economic mobility is the ability of an individual, family or some other group to improve their economic status—usually measured in income. Economic mobility is often measured by movement between income quintiles, Economic mobility may be considered a type of social mobility, which is often measured in change in income. There are many different ideas in the literature as to what constitutes a good measure of mobility, each with their own advantages. Mobility may be between generations or within a person or groups lifetime and it may be absolute or relative. Inter-generational mobility compares a person’s income to that of her/his/their parents, intra-generational mobility, in contrast, refers to movement up or down over the course of a working career. Absolute mobility involves widespread economic growth and answers the question “To what extent do families improve their incomes over a generation. ”Relative mobility is specific to individuals or groups and it answers the question, how closely are the economic fortunes of children tied to that of their parents. Relative mobility is a game, absolute is not. Exchange mobility is the mobility that results from a reshuffling of incomes among the economic agents, for example, in the case of two agents, a change in income distribution might be ->. This is a case of pure exchange mobility, since they have simply exchanged incomes, more generally, for a set of incomes xi, any permutation of the xi will yield a pure exchange mobility. Measures of inequality will not change under pure exchange mobility, structural mobility is mobility that results from a change in the income distribution function without regard to the identity of the agents. For two agents, a change in income distribution might be -> and this case may involve some exchange mobility, depending on ones definition, but there is certainly some structural mobility since it does not involve a simple reshuffling of incomes. Growth mobility is mobility that results from an increase in total income, for two agents, a change in income distribution might be -> or perhaps ->. Growth mobility is certainly positive in these cases, since the sum of the incomes increases, how much economic mobility really exists has been studied. This challenges the notion of America as the land of opportunity, other research places the U. S. among the least economically mobile countries. Another 2007 study found significant upward absolute mobility from the late 1960s to 2007, however, in terms of relative mobility it stated, contrary to American beliefs about equality of opportunity, a child’s economic position is heavily influenced by that of his or her parents. 42% of children born to parents in the fifth of the income distribution remain in the bottom. Only half of the generation studied exceeded their parents economic standing by moving up one or more quintiles, moving between quintiles is more frequent in the middle quintiles than in the lowest and highest quintiles. Of those in one of the quintiles 2-4 in 1996, approximately 35% stayed in the same quintile, 39% of those who were born into the top quintile as children in 1968 are likely to stay there, and 23% end up in the fourth quintile

19.
Flexible class system
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Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to others social location within a given society, Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. Open stratification systems are those in which at least some value is given to achieved status characteristics in a society, the movement can be in a downward or upward direction. Absolute social mobility refers to the numbers of people who end up in a different layer of stratification from that of their parents. The availability of at least some social mobility can be important in providing pathways to greater equality in societies with high social inequality, Mobility is most often quantitatively measured in terms of change in economic mobility such as changes in income or wealth. Occupation is another used in researching mobility, which usually involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis of data, but other studies may concentrate on social class. Mobility may be intragenerational, within the generation, or intergenerational. Intragenerational mobility is less frequent, representing rags to riches cases in terms of upward mobility, Intergenerational upward mobility is more common, where children or grandchildren are in economic circumstances better than those of their parents or grandparents. In the US, this type of mobility is described as a feature of the American Dream even though there is less such mobility than almost all other OECD countries. Social mobility is dependent on the overall structure of social statuses. The extent of differing social positions and the manner in which they fit together or overlap provides the social structure of such positions. Such dimensions within a society can be seen as independent variables that can explain differences in social mobility at different times and places in different stratification systems. These include sex or gender, race or ethnicity, and age, in other words, social class and a familys socioeconomic status directly affect a childs chances for obtaining a quality education and succeeding in life. By age five, there are significant developmental differences between low, middle, and upper class childrens cognitive and noncognitive skills, among older children, evidence suggests that the gap between high- and low-income primary- and secondary-school students has increased by almost 40 percent over the past thirty years. These differences persist and widen into young adulthood and beyond, just as the gap in K–12 test scores between high- and low-income students is growing, the difference in college graduation rates between the rich and the poor is also growing. Average family income, and social status, have seen a decrease for the bottom third of all children between 1975-2011. The 5th percentile of children and their families have seen up to a 60% decrease in family income. The wealth gap between the rich and the poor, the upper and lower class, continues to increase as more people get poorer

20.
Gentry
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Gentry are well-born, genteel and well-bred people of high social class, especially in the past. In the United Kingdom, the term refers to the social class of the landed aristocracy or to the minor aristocracy whose income derives from their large landholdings. The idea of gentry in the sense of noblesse is extinct in common parlance in modern day Britain. Though the untitled nobility in modern day Britain are normally termed gentry, the older sense of nobility is that of a quality identical to gentry. The fundamental social division in most parts of Europe in the Middle Ages was between the nobiles, i. e. the tenants in chivalry, and the ignobles, i. e. the villeins, citizens and burgesses. The division into nobles and ignobles in smaller regions of Europe in the Middle Ages was less due to a more rudimentary feudal order. After the Reformation, intermingling between the class and the often hereditary clerical upper class became a distinctive feature in several Nordic countries. Besides the gentry there have been other analogous traditional elites, the Indo-Europeans who settled Europe, Western Asia and the Indian subcontinent conceived their societies to be ordered in a tripartite fashion, the three parts being castes. Castes came to be divided, perhaps as a result of greater specialisation. The classic formulation of the system as largely described by Georges Dumézil was that of a priestly or religiously occupied caste, a warrior caste. Dumézil divided the Proto-Indo-Europeans into three categories, sovereignty, military, and productivity and he further subdivided sovereignty into two distinct and complementary sub-parts. One part was formal, juridical, and priestly, but rooted in this world, the other was powerful, unpredictable, and also priestly, but rooted in the other, the supernatural and spiritual world. The second main division was connected with the use of force, the military, finally, there was a third group, ruled by the other two, whose role was productivity, herding, farming, and crafts. This system of roles can be seen in the castes which flourished on the Indian subcontinent. Emperor Constantine convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325 whose Nicene Creed included belief in one holy catholic and apostolic Church, emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380. In this power vacuum, the Church rose to become the dominant power in the West, the classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and Latin West. During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom into laboratores, bellatores, the last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe. The clergy, like Platos guardians, were placed in authority, in the latter half of the period in which they ruled, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire

The bourgeoisie (French: [buʁʒwazi]) is a polysemous French term that can mean: — originally and generally, "those who …

The 16th-century German banker Jakob Fugger and his principal accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The background shows a file cabinet indicating the European cities where the Fugger Bank conducts business. (1517)

Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, …

Illustration from a 1916 advertisement for a vocational school in the back of a US magazine. Education has been seen as a key to higher income, and this advertisement appealed to Americans' belief in the possibility of self-betterment, as well as threatening the consequences of downward mobility in the great income inequality existing during the Industrial Revolution.

Portrait of Grand Burghers Jakob Fugger von der Lilie and wife Sibylle Artzt (ca. 1500). Jakob Fugger von der Lilie Großbürger zu Augsburg (1459-1525) at that time period was known as one of Europe's most significant merchants, mining entrepreneur and banker, who elevated to Grand Burgher of Augsburg through marriage to his wife Sibylle Artzt Großbürgerin zu Augsburg the daughter of an eminent Augsburg Grand Burgher (Großbürger).

16th-century oil painting portrait of Grand Burgheress Katharina Völker of Frankfurt (German Großbürgerin Katharina Völker zu Frankfurt), at the Historical Museum Frankfurt. The 16th-century oil painting is valued at above 100,000 Euro and was stolen from the museum in 2008, the painting was subsequently recovered by the German Police.