The American Revowutionary War (1775–1783), awso known as de American War of Independence, was fought primariwy between de Kingdom of Great Britain and its Thirteen Cowonies in America, resuwting in de overdrow of British ruwe in de cowonies and de estabwishment of de United States of America.[n]

Whigs in Britain had wong opposed de pro-war Tories in Parwiament, and de surrender gave dem de upper hand. In earwy 1782, Parwiament voted to end aww offensive operations in America (awdough Britain continued to war against France and Spain in Europe, de Caribbean, and India). On September 3, 1783, de bewwigerent parties signed de Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize de sovereignty of de United States and formawwy end de war.

Background

Taxation and wegiswation controversy

The growing sentiments behind de revowution had its roots in years of taxes and new waws imposed on de cowonists who fewt dey were not represented in a Parwiament which existed over seas and whose members dey had never seen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Parwiament passed de Stamp Act in 1765 to pay for British miwitary troops stationed in de American cowonies after de French and Indian War and to recoup costs of de war itsewf. The cowonists resented being forced to pay for a war in which dey had sacrificed many wives. Parwiament had previouswy passed wegiswation to reguwate trade, but de Stamp Act introduced a new principwe of a direct internaw tax. Americans began to qwestion de extent of Parwiament's power in America, and de cowoniaw wegiswatures argued dat dey had excwusive right to impose taxes widin deir own jurisdictions.[34] Cowonists condemned de tax because deir rights as Engwishmen protected dem from being taxed by a Parwiament in which dey had no ewected representatives.[35] Parwiament argued dat de cowonies were "represented virtuawwy", an idea dat was criticized droughout de British Empire.[36] Parwiament did repeaw de act in 1766, but it awso affirmed its right to pass waws dat were binding on de cowonies.[37] From 1767, Parwiament began passing de Townshend Acts to raise revenue for de sawaries of civiw officiaws, imposing taxes on imported goods such as tea, wead, gwass, and paper—items reqwired by waw to be purchased excwusivewy from Britain—and dis estabwished de precedent dat Parwiament had de right to tax de cowonies. A Board of Customs was awso created in Boston to enforce de Acts, whiwe de New York Assembwy was suspended—aww of which fuewed increasing resentment and widespread opposition among de cowonists.[38][39]

1846 widograph by Nadaniew Currier entitwed "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; de phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of de men dumping de tea were actuawwy disguised as Indians.[40]

Enforcing de acts proved difficuwt. The British seized de swoop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggwing, and dis triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parwiament dreatened to extradite cowonists to face triaw in Engwand. Tensions rose after de murder of 11 year-owd Christopher Seider by a customs officiaw in 1770, and escawated into furder outrage after British troops fired on civiwians in de Boston Massacre. Many of de cowonists suspected dat de incident was intentionawwy provoked and used as a pretext by royaw officiaws to crush de rebewwion by force.[41] In 1772, cowonists in Rhode Iswand boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parwiament den repeawed aww taxes except de one on tea, passing de Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force cowonists to buy East India Company tea on which de Townshend duties were paid, dus impwicitwy agreeing to Parwiamentary supremacy. The wanding of de tea was resisted in aww cowonies, but Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor—so de Sons of Liberty destroyed de tea chests in what became known as de "Boston Tea Party".[42]

Parwiament den passed punitive wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah. It cwosed Boston Harbor untiw de tea was paid for and revoked de Massachusetts Charter, taking upon demsewves de right to directwy appoint de Massachusetts Governor's Counciw. Additionawwy, de royaw governor was granted powers to undermine wocaw democracy.[43][44]Furder measures awwowed de extradition of officiaws for triaw ewsewhere in de British Empire if de governor fewt dat a fair triaw couwd not be secured wocawwy. The act's vague reimbursement powicy for travew expenses weft few wif de abiwity to testify, and cowonists argued dat it wouwd awwow officiaws to harass dem wif impunity. Furder waws awwowed de governor to biwwet troops in private homes widout de owner's permission, uh-hah-hah-hah.[45][p] The cowonists referred to de measures as de "Intowerabwe Acts", and dey argued dat deir constitutionaw rights and deir naturaw rights were being viowated, viewing de acts as a dreat to aww of America.[46] The acts were widewy opposed, driving neutraw parties into support of de Patriots and curtaiwing Loyawist sentiment[47]

The Congress awso affirmed dat Parwiament had no audority over internaw American matters, but dey were wiwwing to consent to trade reguwations for de benefit of de empire,[s] and dey audorized committees and conventions to enforce de boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97% in 1775 compared to 1774.[49]

Parwiament refused to yiewd. In 1775, it decwared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebewwion and enforced a bwockade of de cowony.[51] It den passed de Restraining Acts of 1775 aimed at wimiting cowoniaw trade to de British West Indies and de British Iswes. Cowoniaw ships were barred from de Newfoundwand cod fisheries, a measure which pweased Canadiens but damaged New Engwand's economy. These increasing tensions wed to a mutuaw scrambwe for ordnance and pushed de cowonies toward open war.[52]Thomas Gage was de British Commander-in-Chief and miwitary governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on Apriw 14, 1775, to disarm de wocaw miwitias.[53]

Acting on intewwigence, Generaw Thomas Gage initiated a pwan on Apriw 18 wif two objectives, sending 900 troops to capture John Hancock and Samuew Adams, considered to be de two principwe provocateurs of de rebewwion, who were hewd up in Lexington. Gage's detachment was to den proceed to Concord and destroy stores of miwitia ordnance. The operation was to commence before midnight whiwe compweting deir objectives and retreating to Boston before muwtitudes of patriot miwitias couwd respond. However, de patriots awso had a good intewwigence network and wearned of Gage's intentions before he acted, where Pauw Revere qwickwy dispatched dis information and awerted Captain John Parker[disambiguation needed] and de patriot forces in Concord.[54][55]

Fighting broke out during de Battwes of Lexington and Concord on Apriw 19, forcing de British troops to conduct a fighting widdrawaw to Boston, uh-hah-hah-hah. Overnight, de wocaw miwitia converged on and waid siege to Boston.[56] On May 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived wif generaws Wiwwiam Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Cwinton.[57] During de Battwe of Bunker Hiww de British seized de Charwestown Peninsuwa on June 17 after a costwy frontaw assauwt dat cost dem de wives of many officers,[58][59] weading Howe to repwace Gage.[60] Many senior officers were dismayed at de attack, which had gained dem wittwe,[61] whiwe Gage wrote to London stressing de need for a warge army to suppress de revowt.[62] On Juwy 3, George Washington took command of de Continentaw Army besieging Boston, uh-hah-hah-hah. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington's surprise.[63] A pwan was rejected to assauwt de city,[64] and de Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in earwy March 1776 wif heavy artiwwery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga, brought in by Cowonew Henry Knox.[65] Under cover of darkness Washington got his artiwwery to de top of Dorchester Heights, on March 5, 1776, de sixf anniversary of de Boston Massacre.[66] The heavy guns wooking over Boston and its harbor dreatened de city and de British ships sitting idwe in de harbor. Initiawwy Howe wanted to attack Dorchester Heights but a storm set in, and not wanting to experience anoder uphiww battwe wike Bunker Hiww, he decided to evacuate, where de British were permitted to widdraw widout furder casuawties on March 17, and dey saiwed to Hawifax, Nova Scotia. Washington den moved his army to New York.[67] Starting in August 1775, American Privateers began to raid viwwages in Nova Scotia, first at Saint John, den Charwottetown and Yarmouf. They continued in 1776 at Canso and den a wand assauwt on Fort Cumberwand.

The British marching to Concord

Meanwhiwe, British officiaws in Quebec began wobbying Indian tribes to support dem,[68] whiwe de Americans urged dem to maintain deir neutrawity.[69][70] In Apriw 1775, Congress feared an Angwo-Indian attack from Canada and audorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec had a wargewy Francophone popuwation and had been under British ruwe for onwy 12 years,[71][72][t] and de Americans expected dat dey wouwd wewcome being wiberated from de British.[71] The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after Benedict Arnowd's arduous march but was defeated at de Battwe of Quebec.[73][74] After a woose siege, de Americans widdrew on May 6, 1776.[75] A faiwed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec.[76] However, de British couwd not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champwain. On October 11, de British defeated de American sqwadron, forcing dem to widdraw to Ticonderoga and ending de campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. The invasion cost de Patriots deir support in British pubwic opinion,[77] whiwe aggressive anti-Loyawist powicies diwuted Canadian support.[78] The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, dough no furder attempts to invade were ever made.[79]

British sowdiers and Provinciaw miwitiamen repuwse de American assauwt at Sauwt-au-Matewot, Canada, December 1775

Powiticaw reactions

After fighting began, Congress waunched a finaw attempt to avert war, which Parwiament rejected as insincere as during dis time Congress had formed a committee seeking to secure arms and had awso borrowed £6,000 to purchase gunpowder.[95] In response to de costwy battwe at Bunker Hiww, King George III den issued a Procwamation of Rebewwion on August 23, 1775, which onwy served to furder embowden de Patriots in deir determination to become independent.[96] After a speech by de King, Parwiament rejected coercive measures on de cowonies by 170 votes.[97] British Tories refused to compromise,[98][99] whiwe Whigs argued dat current powicy wouwd drive de Americans towards independence.[97] Despite opposition, de King himsewf began micromanaging de war effort.[100] The Irish Parwiament pwedged to send troops to America,[101] and Irish Cadowics were awwowed to enwist in de army for de first time.[102]Irish Protestants favored de Americans, whiwe Cadowics favored de King.[103]

The initiaw hostiwities in Boston provided a sobering miwitary wesson for de British, causing dem to redink deir views on American miwitary capabiwity.[104][105] The weak British response gave de Patriots de advantage, and de British wost controw over every former cowony.[106] The army had been dewiberatewy kept smaww in Engwand since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by de King.[107] Parwiament secured treaties wif smaww German states for additionaw troops[19] and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year, de wargest dat it had ever sent outside Europe at de time.[108]

Committee of five (standing at center) from weft to right: John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Frankwin

Thomas Paine's pamphwet Common Sense had boosted pubwic support for independence droughout de 13 cowonies.[109][110] Prompted by de defeats in Canada, Congress was eager to make de break wif Britain and appointed de Committee of Five consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Frankwin, Roger Sherman and Robert Livingston[111] to draft a Decwaration of Independence, which wouwd officiawwy sever rewations between de cowonies and Britain, wif Jefferson being chosen by de committee to write de first draft. In order to justify independence Jefferson's originaw draft incwuded various items dat were severewy criticaw of King George III, many of which wouwd eventuawwy be removed from de finaw document.[112][113] On Juwy 2, Congress voted in favor of independence, wif 12 affirmatives and one abstention,[114] and issued de decwaration on Juwy 4.[115] In so doing de signatories were committing acts of treason in de eyes of de British Crown who was encouraged to bring a conviction and a penawty of deaf to dose responsibwe.[116] George Washington had de Decwaration read to assembwed troops in New York City on Juwy 9;[117] dat evening, a crowd tore down a wead statue of de King which was mewted down water to make buwwets.[118]

Patriots fowwowed independence wif de Test Laws, reqwiring residents to swear awwegiance to de state in which dey wived,[119] intending to root out neutraws or opponents to independence. Faiwure to do so meant possibwe imprisonment, exiwe, or even deaf.[120] American Tories were barred from pubwic office, forbidden from practicing medicine and waw, forced to pay increased taxes, or even barred from executing wiwws or becoming guardians to orphans.[121][122] Congress enabwed states to confiscate Loyawist property to fund de war,[123] and some Quakers who remained neutraw had deir property confiscated. States water prevented Loyawists from cowwecting any debts dat dey were owed.[124]

British counter-offensive (1776–1777)

After regrouping at Hawifax, Wiwwiam Howe determined to take de fight to de Americans.[125] He set saiw in June 1776 and began wanding troops on Staten Iswand near de entrance to New York Harbor on Juwy 2. Based on poor miwitary intewwigence, Washington spwit his army to positions on Manhattan Iswand and across de East River in western Long Iswand,[126] and de Americans rejected an informaw attempt to negotiate peace.[127] Howe outfwanked Washington on August 27 at de Battwe of Long Iswand and forced him back to Brookwyn Heights, but he restrained his subordinates from pursuit and did not attempt to encircwe Washington's forces.[128]

On de afternoon of August 28, it began to rain and Washington had Henry Knox and his artiwwery bombard de British drough most of de night. On August 29, Washington hewd a meeting wif generaw Thomas Miffwin and oder generaws who aww agreed to retreat to Manhattan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Washington qwickwy had his troops assembwed and ferried dem across de East River to Manhattan on fwat-bottom river boats widout any wosses in men or ordnance. Meanwhiwe, Miffwin's regiments made up de rear guard, howding de wine untiw de patriot army had compweted its widdrawaw from Brookwyn, uh-hah-hah-hah.[129][130]

Washington's retreat weft his forces isowated, and de British captured Fort Washington on November 16, taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms "de most disastrous defeat of de entire war".[136] Washington's army feww back four days water.[137]Henry Cwinton den captured Newport, Rhode Iswand, an operation which he opposed, feewing dat de 6,000 troops assigned to him couwd have been better empwoyed in de pursuit of Washington[138][139] The American prisoners were den sent to de infamous prison ships in which more American sowdiers and saiwors died of disease and negwect dan died in every battwe of de war combined.[140]Charwes Cornwawwis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to hawt and Washington marched away unmowested.[141][142]

The outwook was bweak for de American cause; de army had dwindwed to fewer dan 5,000 men and wouwd be reduced furder when de enwistments expired at de end of de year.[143] Popuwar support wavered, morawe ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Phiwadewphia.[144] Loyawist activity surged in de wake of de American defeat, especiawwy in New York.[122]

News of de campaign was weww received in Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Festivities took pwace in London, pubwic support reached a peak,[145][146] and de King awarded de Order of de Baf to Howe. The successes wed to predictions dat de British couwd win widin a year.[147] The American defeat reveawed what one writer views as Washington's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numericawwy weaker army in de face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading de situation, and his troops fweeing in disorder when fighting began, uh-hah-hah-hah.[148] In de meantime, de British entered winter qwarters and were in a good pwace to resume campaigning.[149]

Burgoyne continued de advance, and he attempted to fwank de American position at Freeman's Farm on September 19 in de First Battwe of Saratoga. The British won, but at de cost of 600 casuawties. Burgoyne den dug in, but he suffered a constant hemorrhage of deserters, and criticaw suppwies were running wow.[166] The Americans repuwsed a British reconnaissance in force against de American wines on October 7 wif heavy British wosses during de second Battwe of Saratoga. Burgoyne den widdrew wif de Americans in pursuit, but he was surrounded by October 13. He surrendered on October 17 wif suppwies exhausted and no hope of rewief, and de Americans took 6,222 sowdiers as prisoners of war.[167] The decisive American victory spurred France to enter de war as an awwy of de United States, securing de finaw ewements needed for victory over Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[168][169]

Meanwhiwe, Howe waunched his campaign against Washington, dough his initiaw efforts faiwed to bring him to battwe in June 1777.[170] Howe decwined to attack Phiwadewphia overwand via New Jersey or by sea via de Dewaware Bay, even dough bof options wouwd have enabwed him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time-consuming route drough de Chesapeake Bay, weaving him compwetewy unabwe to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficuwt to understand dat Howe's critics accused him of treason, uh-hah-hah-hah.[171] Howe outfwanked and defeated Washington on September 11, dough he faiwed to fowwow up on de victory.[172][173] A British victory at Wiwwistown weft Phiwadewphia defencewess, and Howe captured de city unopposed on September 26. He den moved 9,000 men to Germantown norf of Phiwadewphia.[174] Washington waunched a surprise attack on Howe's garrison on October 4 which was eventuawwy repuwsed[175] but Howe did not fowwow up on his victory once again, uh-hah-hah-hah.[176]

Howe inexpwicabwy ordered a retreat to Phiwadewphia after severaw days of probing American defenses at White Marsh, astonishing bof sides.[177] He ignored de vuwnerabwe American rear, where an attack might possibwy have deprived Washington of his baggage and suppwies.[178]

On December 19, Washington's army entered winter qwarters at Vawwey Forge. Poor conditions and suppwy probwems resuwted in de deads of some 2,500 troops.[179] Howe, onwy 20 miwes (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed couwd have ended de war.[180][181][182]

The Continentaw Army was put drough a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing de most modern Prussian medods of driwwing.[183] Meanwhiwe, Howe resigned and was repwaced by Henry Cwinton on May 24, 1778.[184] Cwinton received orders to abandon Phiwadewphia and fortify New York fowwowing France's entry into de war. On June 18, de British departed Phiwadewphia, wif de reinvigorated Americans in pursuit.[185] The two armies fought at Monmouf Court House on June 28, wif de Americans howding de fiewd, greatwy boosting morawe and confidence.[186] By Juwy, bof armies were back in de same positions dey had been two years prior.

Foreign intervention

The defeat at Saratoga caused considerabwe anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Norf ministry sought reconciwiation wif de cowonies by consenting to deir originaw demands,[187] awdough Lord Norf refused to grant independence, whiwe de Americans, bowstered by deir French awwiance, settwed for no terms short of compwete independence from Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[188]

French foreign minister de Comte de Vergennes was strongwy anti-British,[189]
and he sought a pretext for going to war wif Britain fowwowing de conqwest of Canada in 1763.[190] Wif de woses incurred during de defeat in Canada, and wif de treaties made between Britain and de Germans, it became cwear to Congress dat hewp from France was imperative. France, however, wouwd not be compewwed to intervene if de cowonies were stiww considering reconciwiation wif Britain, as France wouwd have noding to gain in dat event. To assure assistance from France, independence wouwd have to be decwared, which was effected in Juwy 1776.[191] Subseqwentwy, de French began covertwy suppwing de Americans drough neutraw Dutch ports since de onset of de war,[189] proving invawuabwe droughout de Saratoga campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah.[192][193][194] The French pubwic favored war, dough Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to de miwitary and financiaw risk.[195][196]

The American victory at Saratoga convinced de French dat supporting de Patriots was wordwhiwe,[196] but doing so awso brought major concerns. The King was concerned dat Britain's concessions wouwd be accepted, and dat Britain wouwd den reconciwe wif de Cowonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in de Caribbean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[197][198] To prevent dis, France formawwy recognized de United States on February 6, 1778, and fowwowed wif a miwitary awwiance. France aimed to expew Britain from de Newfoundwand fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegaw and Dominica, and restore de Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Angwo-French trade.[199][200] Spain was wary of provoking war wif Britain before being ready and opted to covertwy suppwy de Patriots via its cowonies in New Spain.[201][202]

To encourage French participation in de American struggwe for independence, American dipwomat to France Siwas Deane made promises of promotions and command positions to any French officer dat came to de aid of de American war effort. This had wess dan adeqwate resuwts, as many of de French officers proved to be adventurers who were compwetewy unfit for command. Upon de arrivaw of Lafayette, he subseqwentwy was met by de Congress in a curt and unfriendwy manner. After Lafayette demonstrated his commitment by his wiwwingness to accept no pay or promotion, but just a commission, Congress finawwy recognized Lafayette's "great zeaw to de cause of wiberty" and made him a major Generaw on his own terms. Lafayette was instrumentaw in cwosing de gaps between some of Washington's rivaw officers and an indifferent Congress.[203][204]

Congress awso hoped to persuade Spain into an open awwiance, so de first American Commission met wif de Count of Aranda in 1776.[205] Spain was stiww rewuctant to make an earwy commitment, owing to a wack of direct French invowvement, de dreat against deir treasure fweets, and de possibiwity of war wif Portugaw, Spain's neighbor and a cwose awwy of Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[206] However, Spain affirmed its desire to support de Americans de fowwowing year, hoping to weaken Britain's empire.[207][208] The Portuguese dreat was neutrawized in de Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–77). On Apriw 12, 1779, Spain signed de Treaty of Aranjuez wif France and went to war against Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Spain sought to recover Gibrawtar and Menorca in Europe, as weww as Mobiwe and Pensacowa in Fworida, and awso to expew de British from Centraw America.[209]

Meanwhiwe, George III had given up on subduing America whiwe Britain had a European war to fight.[210] He did not wewcome war wif France, but he bewieved dat Britain had made aww necessary steps to avoid it and cited de British victories over France in de Seven Years' War as a reason to remain optimistic.[211] Britain tried in vain to find a powerfuw awwy to engage France, weaving it isowated,[212] preventing Britain from focusing de majority of her efforts in one deater,[213][214] and forcing a major diversion of miwitary resources from America.[215][216] Despite dis, de King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage de cowonies indefinitewy, or untiw dey pweaded to return to de yoke of de Crown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[217]Mahan maintains dat Britain's attempt to fight in muwtipwe deaters simuwtaneouswy widout major awwies was fundamentawwy fwawed, citing impossibwe mutuaw support, exposing de forces to defeat in detaiw.[218]

Since de outbreak of de confwict, Britain had appeawed to her awwy, de neutraw Dutch Repubwic, to wend her de use of de Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among de Dutch pubwic forced dem to deny de reqwest.[219] Conseqwentwy, de British attempted to invoke severaw treaties for outright Dutch miwitary support, but de Repubwic stiww refused. Moreover, American troops were being suppwied wif ordnance by Dutch merchants via deir West Indies cowonies.[220] French suppwies bound for America had awso passed drough Dutch ports.[189] The Repubwic maintained free trade wif France fowwowing France's decwaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on dis issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Conseqwentwy, de Repubwic joined de First League of Armed Neutrawity to enforce deir neutraw status.[221] The Repubwic had awso given sanctuary to American privateers[222] and had drafted a treaty of commerce wif de Americans. Britain argued dat dese actions contravened de Repubwic's neutraw stance and decwared war in December 1780.[223]

Cwinton widdrew from Phiwadewphia, consowidating his forces in New York fowwowing de British defeat at Saratoga and de entry of France into de war.[216] French admiraw de Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to America in Apriw 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortwy after Cwinton widdrew into New York. The Franco-American forces fewt dat New York's defenses were too formidabwe for de French fweet, and dey opted to attack Newport at de Battwe of Rhode Iswand, waunched on August 29 under de command of Generaw John Suwwivan.[224] The effort, however, faiwed when de French opted to widdraw, and dis dispweased de Americans.[225] The war den ground down to a stawemate, wif de majority of actions fought as warge skirmishes, such as dose at Chestnut Neck and Littwe Egg Harbor. In de summer of 1779, de Americans captured British posts at de Battwes of Stony Point and Pauwus Hook.[226] In Juwy, Cwinton unsuccessfuwwy attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut.[227] That monf, a warge American navaw operation attempted to retake Maine, but it resuwted in de worst American navaw defeat untiw Pearw Harbor in 1941.[228] The high freqwency of Iroqwois raids compewwed Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a warge number of Iroqwois settwements, but de effort uwtimatewy faiwed to stop de raids.[229][230] During de winter of 1779–80, de Continentaw Army suffered greater hardships dan at Vawwey Forge.[231] Morawe was poor, pubwic support was being eroded by de wong war, de nationaw currency was virtuawwy wordwess, de army was pwagued wif suppwy probwems, desertion was common, and whowe regiments mutinied over de conditions in earwy 1780.[232]

In 1780, Cwinton waunched an attempt to retake New Jersey. On June 7, 6,000 men invaded under Hessian generaw Wiwhewm von Knyphausen, but dey met stiff resistance from de wocaw miwitia at de Battwe of Connecticut Farms. The British hewd de fiewd, but Knyphausen feared a generaw engagement wif Washington's main army and widdrew.[233] Knyphausen and Cwinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks water which was soundwy defeated at Springfiewd, effectivewy ending British ambitions in New Jersey.[234] Meanwhiwe, American generaw Benedict Arnowdturned traitor and joined de British army, and he conspired to betray de key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to de enemy. The pwot was foiwed when British spy master John André was captured, so Arnowd fwed to British wines in New York. He attempted to justify his betrayaw by appeawing to Loyawist pubwic opinion, but de Patriots strongwy condemned him as a coward and turncoat.[235][236]

The war to de west of de Appawachians was wargewy confined to skirmishing and raids. An expedition of miwitia was hawted by adverse weader in February 1778 after it set out to destroy British miwitary suppwies in settwements awong de Cuyahoga River.[237][238] Later in de year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize de Iwwinois Country from de British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on Juwy 4 and den secured Vincennes, awdough Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamiwton, de British commander at Detroit. In earwy 1779, de Americans counter-attacked by undertaking an arduous winter march, going days widout food, and secured de surrender of de British at Vincennes, taking Hamiwton prisoner.[239]

On May 25, 1780, de British waunched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to cwear resistance from Quebec to de Guwf coast. The expedition met wif onwy wimited success, dough hundreds of settwers were kiwwed or captured.[240][v] The Americans responded wif a major offensive awong de Mad River in August which met wif some success, but it did wittwe to abate de Indian raids on de frontier.[241] French miwitia attempted to capture Detroit, but it ended in disaster when Miami Indiansambushed and defeated de gadered troops on November 5.[242] The war in de west had become a stawemate; de Americans did not have de manpower to simuwtaneouswy defeat de hostiwe Indian tribes and occupy de wand.[243]

War in de Souf (1778–1781)

The British turned deir attention to conqwering de Souf in 1778 after Loyawists in London assured dem of a strong Loyawist base dere. A soudern campaign awso had de advantage of keeping de Royaw Navy cwoser to de Caribbean, where it wouwd be needed to defend wucrative cowonies against de Franco-Spanish fweets.[244] On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops den moved inwand to recruit Loyawist support.[245]

There was a promising initiaw turnout in earwy 1779, but den a warge Loyawist miwitia was defeated at Kettwe Creek on February 14 and dey had to recognize deir dependence upon de British. The British, however, defeated Patriot miwitia at Brier Creek on March 3,[246] and den waunched an abortive assauwt on Charweston, Souf Carowina. The operation became notorious for its high degree of wooting by British troops, enraging bof Loyawists and Patriots.[247]

In October, a combined Franco-American siege effort faiwed to recapture Savannah. In May 1780, Henry Cwinton captured Charweston, taking over 5,000 prisoners and effectivewy destroying de Continentaw Army in de souf. Organized American resistance in de region cowwapsed when Banastre Tarweton defeated de widdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.[248]

American and British cavawry cwashing at de Battwe of Cowpens; from an 1845 painting by Wiwwiam Ranney

Cwinton returned to New York, weaving Charwes Cornwawwis in command in Charweston to oversee de soudern war effort. Far fewer Loyawists joined him dan expected. In de interim, de war was carried on by Patriot miwitias who effectivewy suppressed Loyawists by winning victories in Fairfiewd County, Lincownton, Huck's Defeat, Stanwy County, and Lancaster County.

The British waunched a surprise offensive in Virginia in January 1781, wif Benedict Arnowdinvading Richmond, Virginia, to wittwe resistance. Governor Thomas Jefferson escaped Richmond just ahead of de British forces, and de British burned de city to de ground.[249][250] Jefferson sent an emergency dispatch to Cowonew Sampson Madews whose miwitia was travewing nearby, to dwart Arnowd's efforts.[251] Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to wead de American effort in de souf. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, setting de stage for Cornwawwis to invade Norf Carowina.[252] The British attempted to subjugate de countryside, and Patriot miwitia continued to fight against dem, so Cornwawwis dispatched troops to raise Loyawist forces to cover his weft fwank as he moved norf.[253]

This wing of Cornwawwis's army was virtuawwy destroyed on October 7, irreversibwy breaking Loyawist support in de Carowinas. Cornwawwis subseqwentwy aborted his advance and retreated back into Souf Carowina.[254] In de interim, Washington repwaced Generaw Gates wif his trusted subordinate Nadanaew Greene.[255]

Greene was unabwe to confront de British directwy, so he dispatched a force under Daniew Morgan to recruit additionaw troops. Morgan den defeated de renowned British Legion, considered to be de cream of de British army, under Tarweton, on January 17, 1781, at Cowpens. Cornwawwis was criticized for having detached a substantiaw part of his army widout adeqwate support,[256] but he advanced into Norf Carowina despite de setbacks, gambwing dat he wouwd receive substantiaw Loyawist support dere. Greene evaded combat wif Cornwawwis, instead wearing de British down drough a protracted war of attrition.[257]

By March, Greene's army had increased in size enough dat he fewt confident in facing Cornwawwis. The two armies engaged at Guiwford Courdouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but Cornwawwis's army suffered irrepwaceabwe casuawties.[258] Compounding dis, far fewer Loyawists were joining dan de British had previouswy expected.[259] Cornwawwis's casuawties were such dat he was compewwed to retreat to Wiwmington for reinforcement, weaving de Patriots in controw of de interior of de Carowinas and Georgia. Greene den proceeded to recwaim de Souf. On Apriw 25 de American troops suffered a reversaw at Hobkirk's Hiww when one of Greene's commanders made an unwise attempt to reposition de Marywand regiment, resuwting in confusion and terror among his troops. Marching 160 miwes in 8 days, dey continued to diswodge strategic British posts in de area nonedewess, capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte on Apriw 15.[260][261][262] Augusta was de wast major British outpost in de Souf outside of Charweston and Savannah, but de Americans under Brigadier generaw Andrew Pickens recwaimed possession of it during de Siege of Augusta, on June 6]].[263]

A British force cwashed wif American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a finaw effort to stop Greene, but de British casuawties were so high dat dey widdrew to Charweston, uh-hah-hah-hah.[264] Minor skirmishes continued in de Carowinas untiw de end of de war, and British troops were effectivewy confined to Charweston and Savannah for de remainder of de confwict.[265]

Internationaw war breaks out (1778–1783)

In de wate 1700s, de Engwish cowoniaw insurgents in Norf America became de “centerpiece of an internationaw coawition” to check and den compromise British preeminence in de Norf Atwantic.[266] Throughout de wast hawf of de 1770s, de insurgency against de British Crown among its Norf American cowonies suffered repeated reverses. The cause of American independence fwickered as its major port cities were eider occupied or bwockaded, its navaw forces proved ineffectuaw, and its armies suffered repeated defeats in pitched battwes at de hands of British reguwars and awwied mercenaries from German principawities.

Initiawwy de Continentaw Congress persevered wif financiaw contributions from de personaw fortunes of de richest cowoniaws to compensate for smawwer states refusing to pay deir fuww reqwisitions, and it kept an army in de fiewd by de weadership of George Washington and a fwow of recruits from de wargest states, especiawwy Virginia, Massachusetts and Pennsywvania. Then came assistance from Dutch financiers and French covert miwitary aid. French Enwightenment freebooters and European sowdier-adventurers came to de aid of de embattwed revowutionary forces. In 1778, de French Crown recognized de United States, and in 1779 de Spanish Crown decwared formaw war on de United Kingdom.[266]

Britain responded by expanding its cowoniaw war worwdwide in 1778 wif de Angwo-French War. These additionaw confwicts around de gwobe wif France and Spain strained Britain's resources for de war in America. The French bwockaded de wucrative sugar iswands of Barbados and Jamaica, intending to damage British trade.[267] In response de British defeated a French navaw force on December 15 and captured St. Lucia.[268] But in 1779, de French had superiority in de Caribbean and began capturing British territories, seizing St. Vincent and Grenada.[269] Britain suffered anoder major woss at de Battwe of Grenada in 1779, de worst woss dat de Royaw Navy had suffered since 1690.[270] Awdough France and Spain faiwed an attempted invasion of de British homewand, a Franco-Spanish fweet intercepted and decisivewy defeated a warge British convoy off de coast of Azores bound for de West Indies.[271] The defeat was catastrophic for Britain, costing her dozens of ships awong wif deir suppwies and crews.[272] Spain faiwed to capture de British navaw station during de Great Siege of Gibrawtar, whiwe de British bwockade of Spain and France proved ineffective.[271]

In America west of de Mississippi River, Spanish Governor Generaw de Gáwvez had been awwowing covert aid to de American Revowution drough New Orweans at de Crown's direction, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 1777 Owiver Powwock, an Irish Pennsywvanian who had earwier became a successfuw merchant amidst de Spanish Caribbean empire in Havana and den in New Orweans, was appointed US “commerciaw agent” at New Orweans. There he used his personaw weawf to underwrite an American Lower Ohio and Upper Mississippi Vawwey campaign against de French settwements cowonized by de British. Virginia miwitia Generaw George Rogers Cwark's operations in 1778 founded Louisviwwe, cweared British forts in Iwwinois nearby St. Louis, and captured Vincennes.[273] Cwark's conqwest resuwted in de creation of Iwwinois County, Virginia comprising bof French Iwwinois and Ohio Country, norf to de Great Lakes. It was organized in 1778 wif de consent of French cowoniaws guaranteed protection of de Cadowic Church. Its court house was estabwished at Kaskaskia, and it had state Generaw Assembwy representation for dree years untiw de Commonweawf ceded de wand to de US Congress.[274]

At de Spanish decwaration of war wif France in 1779, Governor Gawvez raised an army in Spanish Louisiana to initiate offensive operations against British outposts.[275] Spanish cowoniaw forces cweared British garrisons in Baton Rouge, Fort Bute and Natchez, capturing five forts.[276] In dis first maneuver he opened navigation on de Mississippi River norf to US settwement in Pittsburg.[277] He den provided Spanish miwitary assistance to Owiver Powwock for transport up de Mississippi River as an awternative suppwy to Washington's Continentaw Army, bypassing de British-bwockaded Atwantic Coast.[278] In 1781, Governor Gawvez and Powwack campaigned east awong de Guwf Coast to secure West Fworida incwuding British-hewd Mobiwe and Pensacowa.[279] The Spanish operations crippwed de British suppwy of armaments to soudeastern woodwand Native American tribes, effectivewy suspending a miwitary awwiance wif de Creeks, Choctaw, and Cherokee to attack settwers on US wand cwaims between de Mississippi River and de Appawachian Mountains.[280]

In Apriw 1782 at de Battwe of de Saintes, de British parried de pwanned French-Spanish invasion of Jamaica, and subseqwentwy dominated de Caribbean Sea, and in February 1783 de British wifted de Siege of Gibrawtar. The heart for worwd war was taken out of de French-Spanish awwies, notwidstanding a combined Spanish-US fweet captured Bahamas. The British had “abandoned aww hope of subduing its American cowonies” and dey first negotiated de Treaty of Paris (1783) wif de US, which was den approved by Congress Apriw 1783.[281] The US settwement wif Britain apart from de French awwowed de US fishing rights in Newfoundwand and de Guwf of Mexico, awong wif "perpetuaw access" to de Mississippi River. The Treaty of Versaiwwes (1783) fowwowed in September, settwing a British peace wif France and Spain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[282]

British defeat in America (1781)

Cornwawwis bewieved dat a successfuw campaign in Virginia wouwd cut suppwies to Greene's army in de Carowinas and precipitate a cowwapse of American resistance in de Souf. He had written to bof Lord Germain and Cwinton detaiwing his intentions to invade.[283][w] Cwinton strongwy opposed de pwan, favoring a campaign farder norf in de Chesapeake Bay region, uh-hah-hah-hah. Germain wrote to Cornwawwis to approve his pwan but negwected to incwude Cwinton in de decision-making, even dough Cwinton was Cornwawwis's superior officer,[285] and Cornwawwis den decided to move into Virginia widout informing Cwinton,[286][x] aww de whiwe he was being pursued by Lafayette and his army.[287] However, Cwinton, had faiwed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficuwt rewationship wif his navaw counterpart Admiraw Marriot Arbudnot[y] who had faiwed to detect de arrivaw of French forces in Juwy.[288][289][290]

As de Franco-American army approached Cornwawwis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sawwy out and engage before siege wines couwd be erected, despite de repeated urging of his subordinate officers.[291] Expecting rewief to soon arrive from Cwinton, Cornwawwis prematurewy abandoned aww of his outer defences, which were den promptwy occupied by de besiegers, serving to hasten de British defeat.[292] These factors contributed to de eventuaw surrender of Cornwawwis's entire army, and de end of major operations in Norf America.[293] Fowwowing de cawamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French pwanners reawized dat cwoser cooperation wif de Americans was reqwired to achieve success.[294] The French fweet wed by de Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in de norf if navaw support was needed.[295][296] Washington and de Comte de Rochambeau discussed deir options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, whiwe Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia, where de British were wess weww-estabwished and dus easier to defeat.[297] Franco-American movements around New York caused Cwinton a great deaw of anxiety, fearing an attack on de city. His instructions were vague to Cornwawwis during dis time, rarewy forming expwicit orders. However, Cwinton did instruct Cornwawwis to estabwish a fortified navaw base and to transfer troops to de norf to defend New York.[298] Cornwawwis dug in at Yorktown and awaited de Royaw Navy.[299]

Washington stiww favored an assauwt on New York, but he acqwiesced to de French when dey opted to send deir fweet to deir preferred target of Yorktown, uh-hah-hah-hah. In August, de combined Franco-American army moved souf to coordinate wif de Grasse in defeating Cornwawwis.[300][301] The British wacked sufficient navaw resources to effectivewy counter de French, but dey dispatched a fweet under Thomas Graves who arrived from New York, to assist Cornwawwis and attempt to gain navaw dominance.[302] On September 5, in a battwe dat wasted onwy two hours, de French fweet decisivewy defeated Graves at de Battwe of de Chesapeake, giving de French controw of de seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwawwis from reinforcements and rewief.[303] Despite de continued urging of his subordinates,[291] Cornwawwis made no attempt to break out and engage de Franco-American army before it had estabwished siege works, expecting dat reinforcements wouwd arrive from New York, and de Franco-American army waid siege to Yorktown on September 28.[304] Cornwawwis continued to dink dat rewief was imminent from Cwinton, and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediatewy occupied by American troops—serving to hasten his subseqwent defeat.[305] The British den faiwed in an attempt to break out of de siege across de river at Gwoucester Point when a storm hit.[306] Cornwawwis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindwing suppwies; dey agreed dat deir situation was untenabwe and negotiated a surrender on October 17, 1781,[307] The same day as de surrender, 6,000 troops under Cwinton had departed New York, saiwing to rewieve Yorktown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[308]

Initiawwy Cwinton bwamed Germain for de defeat at Yorktown who had assured Cwinton dat adeqwate reinforcements wouwd arrive from Sir George Rodney's fweet in de West Indies. After Cornwawwis' formaw account of de surrender, however, Cwinton took exception to his cwaims and de two admiraws began bwaming each oder for de defeat. Cornwawwis cwaimed dat he 'had been compewwed' to take his position at Yorktown, contrary to his advice to Cwinton, dat Yorktown had been occupied as a resuwt of Cwinton's orders, and because of repeated promises of reinforcements. Cwinton took exception to aww such cwaims and subseqwentwy wrote his own account of de matter, again pwacing much of de bwame on de navaw support dat never arrived, which was promised by Germain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Cwinton, however, asked Germain to pubwish his account of de defeat upon his return to London, but Germain decwined. Cwinton uwtimatewy took de brunt of de bwame for de defeat at Yorktown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[309]

Norf Ministry cowwapses

On November 25, 1781, news arrived in London of de surrender at Yorktown, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parwiament, and a motion to end de war was proposed on December 12 which was defeated by onwy one vote. On February 27, 1782, de House voted against furder war in America by 19 votes.[310]

Lord Germain was dismissed and a vote of no confidence was passed against Norf. Under de direction of Prime Minister Charwes Watson-Wentworf de Rockingham Whigs came to power and opened negotiations for peace. Rockingham died and was succeeded by de Earw of Shewburne. Despite deir defeat, de British stiww had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York, Charweston, and Savannah.[311] Henry Cwinton was recawwed and was repwaced by Guy Carweton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations.[312]

Anawysis of combatants

United States

The Americans began de war wif significant disadvantages compared to de British. They had no nationaw government, no nationaw army or navy, no financiaw system, no banks, no estabwished credit, and no functioning government departments. The Congress tried to handwe administrative affairs drough wegiswative committees, which proved wargewy inefficient. The state governments were demsewves brand new and officiaws had wittwe to no administrative experience. In peacetime, de cowonies rewied heaviwy on ocean travew and shipping, but dat was now shut down by de British bwockade, and de Americans had to rewy on swow overwand travew.

However, de Americans had muwtipwe advantages dat outweighed de initiaw disadvantages which dey faced. They had a warge prosperous popuwation dat depended on wocaw production of food and most suppwies rader dan on imports, whiwe British suppwies were mostwy shipped from across de ocean, uh-hah-hah-hah. The British faced a vast territory far warger dan Britain or France, wocated at a far distance from home ports. Most of de Americans wived on farms distant from de seaports; de British couwd capture any port, but dat did not give dem controw over de inwand areas. The patriots were on deir home ground, had deir own newspapers and printers, and internaw wines of communication, uh-hah-hah-hah. They had a wong-estabwished system of wocaw miwitia, previouswy used to combat de French and Indians, wif companies and an officer corps dat couwd form de basis of wocaw miwitias and provide a training ground for de nationaw army.[313] Motivation was awso a major asset. The Patriots had much more popuwar support dan de Loyawists, and more dan 200,000 Americans fought in de war; 25,000 died. The British expected de Loyawists to do much of de fighting, but dey did much wess dan expected. The British awso hired German auxiwiaries to do much of deir fighting.[6]

At de onset of de war, de Americans had no major internationaw awwies. Battwes such as de Battwe of Bennington, de Battwes of Saratoga, and even defeats such as de Battwe of Germantown[314] proved decisive in gaining de attention and support of powerfuw European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertwy suppwying de Americans wif weapons and suppwies to overtwy supporting dem. On June 13, 1778, war between France and Britain was decwared, wif France forming a miwitary awwiance wif America, a prospect which King George III feared wouwd make de recwamation of de cowonies unwikewy.[315] During de Revowution, especiawwy during its water years, de British were drawn into numerous oder confwicts about de gwobe.[316]

The new Continentaw Army suffered significantwy from a wack of an effective training program and from wargewy inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was somewhat offset by a few senior officers. The Americans sowved much of deir training diwemma during deir stint in winter qwarters at Vawwey Forge, where dey were rewentwesswy driwwed and trained by Generaw Friedrich Wiwhewm von Steuben, a veteran of de famed Prussian Generaw Staff. He taught de Continentaw Army de essentiaws of miwitary discipwine, driwws, tactics, and strategy, and he wrote de Revowutionary War Driww Manuaw.[317] When de Army emerged from Vawwey Forge, it proved its abiwity to eqwawwy match de British troops in battwe when dey fought a successfuw strategic action at de Battwe of Monmouf.[318]

When de war began, de Thirteen Cowonies wacked a professionaw army or navy, and each cowony sponsored wocaw miwitia. Miwitiamen were wightwy armed, had wittwe training, and usuawwy did not have uniforms. Their units served for onwy a few weeks or monds at a time, were rewuctant to travew far from home, were unavaiwabwe for extended operations, and wacked de training and discipwine of sowdiers wif more experience. If properwy used, however, deir numbers couwd hewp de Continentaw armies overwhewm smawwer British forces, as at de battwes of Concord, Bennington, and Saratoga and de siege of Boston. Bof sides used partisan warfare, but de Americans effectivewy suppressed Loyawist activity when British reguwars were not in de area.[319]

The Continentaw Congress estabwished a reguwar army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. The devewopment of de Continentaw Army was awways a work in progress, and Washington used bof his reguwars and state miwitia droughout de war. Three branches of de United States Miwitary forces trace deir institutionaw roots to de American Revowutionary War; de Army comes from de Continentaw Army; de Navy recognizes October 13, 1775, as de date of its officiaw estabwishment when de Continentaw Congress created de Continentaw Navy, appointing Esek Hopkins as de Navy's first commander.[320] The Marine Corps winks to de Continentaw Marines of de war, formed by a resowution of Congress on November 10, 1775.[321]

George Washington's rowes

Recognizing George Washington's skiww and experience as an officer, and his abiwity to unite de cowonies "... better dan any oder person in de Union", John Adams nominated Washington on June 14, 1775, to be de commander of de Continentaw Army. Washington was unanimouswy confirmed by de Continentaw Congress on June 16,[322][323] and he officiawwy assumed command in de fiewd at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on Juwy 3.[324]

Washington assumed five main rowes during de war.[325] First, he designed de overaww strategy of de war, in cooperation wif Congress, wargewy empwoying a Fabian strategy rader dan resorting to frontaw assauwts against Britain's professionaw army.[326] The goaw was awways independence. When France entered de war, he worked cwosewy wif de sowdiers and navy it had sent, which assisted him greatwy in defeating Cornwawwis during de surrender of Yorktown in 1781.[327]

Second, he provided weadership of troops against de main British forces in 1775–77 and again in 1781. He wost more battwes dan he won, but never surrendered his army during de war, and he continued to fight de British rewentwesswy untiw de war's end.[328]

Third, he was charged wif sewecting and guiding de generaws. In June 1776, Congress made its first attempt at running de war effort wif de committee known as "Board of War and Ordnance", succeeded by de Board of War in Juwy 1777, a committee which eventuawwy incwuded members of de miwitary.[324][329] The command structure of de armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressionaw appointees (and Congress sometimes made dose appointments widout Washington's input) wif state-appointments fiwwing de wower ranks. The resuwts of his generaw staff were mixed, as some of his favorites never mastered de art of command, such as John Suwwivan. Eventuawwy, he found capabwe officers such as Nadanaew Greene, Daniew Morgan, Henry Knox (chief of artiwwery), and Awexander Hamiwton (chief of staff). The American officers never eqwawed deir opponents in tactics and maneuver, and dey wost most of de pitched battwes. The great successes at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777), and Yorktown (1781) came from trapping de British far from base wif much warger numbers of troops.[330] Owing to de precarious nature of de committee process, Congress created de post of Secretary of War which repwaced de Board of War and appointed Major Generaw Benjamin Lincown as its first secretary in February, 1781. Washington worked cwosewy wif Lincown in organizing de rewationship between civiwian and miwitary audorities.[324]

Fourf he took charge of training de army and providing suppwies, from food to gunpowder to tents. He recruited reguwars and assigned Baron Friedrich Wiwhewm von Steuben, a veteran of de Prussian generaw staff, to better train dem in de ways of troop maneuvers in de fiewd, transforming Washington's army into a more discipwined and effective force overaww.[317] The war effort and getting suppwies to de troops were under de purview of Congress, but Washington pressured de Congress to provide de essentiaws. There was never nearwy enough.[331]

Washington's fiff and most important rowe in de war effort was de embodiment of armed resistance to de Crown, serving as de representative man of de Revowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. His wong-term strategy was to maintain an army in de fiewd at aww times, and eventuawwy dis strategy worked. His enormous personaw and powiticaw stature and his powiticaw skiwws kept Congress, de army, de French, de miwitias, and de states aww pointed toward a common goaw. Furdermore, he permanentwy estabwished de principwe of civiwian supremacy in miwitary affairs by vowuntariwy resigning his commission and disbanding his army when de war was won, rader dan decwaring himsewf monarch. He awso hewped to overcome de distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration dat weww-discipwined professionaw sowdiers counted for twice as much as poorwy trained and wed miwitias.[332]

Intewwigence and espionage

At de onset of de war, de Second Continentaw Congress reawized dat dey wouwd need foreign awwiances and intewwigence-gadering capabiwity to defeat a worwd power wike Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. To dis end, dey formed de Committee of Secret Correspondence which operated from 1775–1776 for "de sowe purpose of corresponding wif our friends in Great Britain and oder parts of de worwd". Through secret correspondence, de Committee forged awwiances and shared information wif persons in France and Engwand and widin America. The Committee empwoyed secret agents in Europe to gader foreign intewwigence, conduct undercover operations, anawyze foreign pubwications, and initiate American propaganda campaigns to gain patriot support.[333] Some notabwe members of de committee incwuded Thomas Paine, de committee's secretary, and Siwas Deane who was sent undercover to France and was instrumentaw in securing her aid.[334] During dis time Benjamin Church, an assumed trusted patriot, was giving de British information on patriot troop strengf and positions.[335]

The British were driven out of Boston during de Siege of Boston and redepwoyed in Nova Scotia. Washington correctwy assumed dat an attack on New York City was imminent and departed Boston on Apriw 4, wif his army, and headed for Manhattan, where he began constructing fortifications about de harbor. He reawized dat he needed advance information to deaw wif discipwined British reguwar troops. Subseqwentwy, he promoted Thomas Knowwton to wieutenant cowonew on August 12, 1776, wif orders to sewect an ewite group of 130 men and 20 officers, which came to be known as Knowwton's Rangers, de Army's first intewwigence unit. Their purpose was to conduct reconnaissance and oder secret missions dat were considered too dangerous for reguwar troops. Knowwton was kiwwed in action on September 17 at de Battwe of Harwem Heights whiwe on a mission observing British troop activity.[336] Among de Rangers was Nadan Hawe.[333][337]

On August 27, 1776, de British wanded on Long Iswand wif overwhewming force during de Battwe of Long Iswand and forced Washington to retreat across de East River to New York City on Manhattan Iswand.[z] Washington knew dat a British attack on de city was imminent, and he was desperate to wearn when and where it wouwd occur. He asked for a vowunteer among de Rangers to spy on activity behind enemy wines in Brookwyn, but no one came forward except for de young Nadan Hawe, however he was onwy abwe to provide Washington wif nominaw intewwigence. The British attack occurred on September 15, and Hawe was eventuawwy recognized in a tavern by a Loyawist shop keeper. The British captured him and found sketches of British fortifications and troop positions in his pockets, and Howe ordered dat he be summariwy hanged widout triaw de next day (September 22).[338]

After Washington was driven out of New York, he reawized dat he wouwd need more dan miwitary might and amateur spies to defeat de British. He enwisted de aid of Benjamin Tawwmadge, and togeder dey created de Cuwper spy ring consisting of six men, uh-hah-hah-hah.[aa] Washington promised members of de ring dat deir identities and activities wouwd never be reveawed.[ab] Whiwe in New York, Washington and his spies often made use of vanishing ink to convey deir messages.[341] Among de more notabwe achievements of de ring was exposing Benedict Arnowd's treacherous pwans to capture West Point, awong wif his cowwaborator John André, Britain's head spymaster,[342][343][ac] and intercepting and deciphering coded messages between Cornwawwis and Cwinton, uh-hah-hah-hah. They provided dis wast intewwigence to Washington during de Siege of Yorktown weading to Cornwawwis's surrender.[345][346] By 1781, de amateur shortcomings of British intewwigence had been corrected, enabwing Cwinton and Cornwawwis to predict patriot movements and capabiwities. However, de improvements came too wate to reverse British misfortunes.[347] During de war, Washington spent more dan 10 percent of miwitary funds on intewwigence operations.[333] Some historians maintain dat, widout de efforts of Washington and de Cuwper Spy Ring, de British wouwd never have been defeated.[340][339]

Sowdiers and saiwors

At de beginning of 1776, Washington commanded 20,000 men, wif two-dirds enwisted in de Continentaw Army and de oder dird in de various state miwitias.[348] About 250,000 men served as reguwars or as miwitiamen for de Revowutionary cause in de eight years of de war, but dere were never more dan 90,000 men under arms at one time.

About 55,000 saiwors served aboard American privateers during de war.[9] They used 1,700 ships, and dey captured 2,283 enemy ships.[349]John Pauw Jones became de first great American navaw hero, capturing HMS Drake on Apriw 24, 1778, de first victory for any American miwitary vessew in British waters.[350] For exampwe, in what was known as de Whaweboat War, American privateers mainwy from New Jersey, Brookwyn and Connecticut attacked and robbed British merchant ships and raided and robbed coastaw communities of Long Iswand reputed to have Loyawist sympadies.[351][352][353]

Armies were smaww by European standards of de era, wargewy attributabwe, on de American side, to wimitations such as wack of powder and oder wogisticaw capabiwities; and, on de British side, to de difficuwty of transporting troops across de Atwantic, as weww as de dependence on wocaw suppwies, which de Patriots tried to cut off. The wargest force Washington commanded was certainwy under 17,000,[354] and may have been no more dan 13,000 troops, and even de combined American and French forces at de siege of Yorktown amounted to onwy about 19,000.[355] By comparison, Duffy notes dat in an era when European ruwers were generawwy revising deir forces downward, in favor of a size dat couwd be most effectivewy controwwed (de very different perspective of mass conscript armies came water, during de French Revowutionary and den de Napoweonic Wars), de wargest army dat Frederick de Great ever wed into battwe was 65,000 men (at Prague in 1757), and at oder times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men, considering de watter de most effective number.[355]

African Americans

African Americans—swave and free—served on bof sides during de war. The British recruited swaves bewonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to dose who served by act of Lord Dunmore's Procwamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington wifted de ban on bwack enwistment in de Continentaw Army in January 1776. Smaww aww-bwack units were formed in Rhode Iswand and Massachusetts; many swaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of de men promised freedom were sent back to deir masters, after de war was over, out of powiticaw convenience. Anoder aww-bwack unit came from Saint-Domingue wif French cowoniaw forces. At weast 5,000 bwack sowdiers fought for de Revowutionary cause.[356]

Tens of dousands of swaves escaped during de war and joined British wines; oders simpwy moved off in de chaos. For instance, in Souf Carowina, nearwy 25,000 swaves (30% of de enswaved popuwation) fwed, migrated or died during de disruption of de war. This greatwy disrupted pwantation production during and after de war. When dey widdrew deir forces from Savannah and Charweston, de British awso evacuated 10,000 swaves bewonging to Loyawists.[357] Awtogeder, de British evacuated nearwy 20,000 bwacks at de end of de war. More dan 3,000 of dem were freedmen and most of dese were resettwed in Nova Scotia; oder bwacks were sowd in de West Indies.[358][359] About 8,000 to 10,000 swaves gained freedom.[359] About 4,000 freed swaves went to Nova Scotia and 1,200 bwacks remained swaves.[360]

American Indians

A watercowor painting depicting a variety of Continentaw Army sowdiers

Most American Indians east of de Mississippi River were affected by de war, and many tribes were divided over de qwestion of how to respond to de confwict. A few tribes were on friendwy terms wif de oder Americans, but most Indians opposed de union of de Cowonies as a potentiaw dreat to deir territory. Approximatewy 13,000 Indians fought on de British side, wif de wargest group coming from de Iroqwois tribes, who fiewded around 1,500 men, uh-hah-hah-hah.[361][362] The powerfuw Iroqwois Confederacy was shattered as a resuwt of de confwict, whatever side dey took; de Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes sided wif de British. Members of de Mohawks fought on bof sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided wif de Americans. The Continentaw Army sent de Suwwivan Expedition on raids droughout New York to crippwe de Iroqwois tribes dat had sided wif de British. Mohawk weaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided wif de Americans and de British respectivewy, and dis furder exacerbated de spwit.[363]

Women

In some cases women served in de American Army in de war, some of dem disguised as men.[371]Deborah Sampson fought untiw her sex was discovered and she was discharged, and Sawwy St. Cware died in de war.[371] Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in de Army, and she was wearing men's cwodes by de time of de Battwe of Germantown.[371] According to de Virginia Generaw Assembwy, Lane "performed extraordinary miwitary services, and received a severe wound at de battwe of Germantown", fighting dressed as a man and "wif de courage of a sowdier".[371] Oder women fought or directwy supported fighting whiwe dressed as women, such as de wegendary or mydicaw Mowwy Pitcher.[372] On Apriw 26, 1777, Sybiw Ludington rode to awert miwitia forces of Putnam County, New York and Danbury, Connecticut, warning of de approach of de British reguwar forces. She is referred to as de femawe Pauw Revere.[373] Oder women awso accompanied armies as camp fowwowers, sewwing goods and performing necessary services. They were a necessary part of 18f century armies, and dey numbered in de dousands during de Revowutionary War.[374] Some women accompanied deir husbands when permitted. Marda Washington was known to visit de American camp, for exampwe, and Frederika Charwotte Riedesew documented de Saratoga campaign.[375] Women awso acted as spies on bof sides of de Revowutionary War.[376]

Great Britain

The popuwation of Great Britain and Irewand in 1780 was approximatewy 12.6 miwwion,[377] whiwe de Thirteen Cowonies hewd a popuwation of some 2.8 miwwion, incwuding some 500,000 swaves.[378] Theoreticawwy, Britain had de advantage; however, many factors inhibited de procurement of a warge army.

Armed forces

Recruitment

In 1775, de standing British Army, excwusive of miwitia, comprised 45,123 men worwdwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavawry. Their Army had approximatewy eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in Norf America.[379][ad] Standing armies had pwayed a key rowe in de purge of de Long Parwiament in 1648,[380] de maintenance of a miwitary dictatorship under Owiver Cromweww,[381] and de overdrow of James II,[382] and, as such, de Army had been dewiberatewy kept smaww in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by de King.[107][383] Despite dis, eighteenf century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded wif scorn and contempt by de press and pubwic of de New and Owd Worwd awike, derided as enemies of wiberty.[384]

Parwiament suffered chronic difficuwties in obtaining sufficient manpower,[385] and found it impossibwe to fiww de qwotas dey had set.[386] The Army was a deepwy unpopuwar profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8d. per day,[387] de same pay as for a New Modew Army infantryman, 130 years earwier.[388] The rate of pay in de army was insufficient to meet de rising costs of wiving, turning off potentiaw recruits,[389] as service was nominawwy for wife.[390]

To entice peopwe to enrow, Parwiament offered a bounty of £1.10s for every recruit.[391] As de war dragged on, Parwiament became desperate for manpower; criminaws were offered miwitary service to escape wegaw penawties, and deserters were pardoned if dey re-joined deir units.[392] After de defeat at Saratoga, Parwiament doubwed de bounty to £3,[393] and increased it again de fowwowing year, to £3.3s, as weww as expanding de age wimit from 17–45 to 16–50 years of age.[394]

Impressment, essentiawwy conscription by de "press gang", was a favored recruiting medod, dough it was unpopuwar wif de pubwic, weading many to enwist in wocaw miwitias to avoid reguwar service.[395] Attempts were made to draft such wevies, much to de chagrin of de miwitia commanders.[396] Competition between navaw and army press gangs, and even between rivaw ships or regiments, freqwentwy resuwted in brawws between de gangs in order to secure recruits for deir unit.[397] Men wouwd maim demsewves to avoid de press gangs,[398] whiwe many deserted at de first opportunity.[399] Pressed men were miwitariwy unrewiabwe; regiments wif warge numbers of such men were depwoyed to remote garrisons such as Gibrawtar or de West Indies, to make it harder to desert.[400]

By 1781, de Army numbered approximatewy 121,000 men gwobawwy,[13] 48,000 of whom were stationed droughout de Americas.[12] Of de 171,000 saiwors[16] who served in de Royaw Navy droughout de confwict, around a qwarter were pressed. This same proportion, approximatewy 42,000 men, deserted during de confwict.[16] At its height, de Navy had 94 ships-of-de-wine,[11] 104 frigates[15] and 37 swoops[15] in service.

Loyawists and Hessians

In 1775, Britain unsuccessfuwwy attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia,[401] and de use of de Scots Brigade from de Dutch Repubwic,[402] such was de shortage of manpower. Parwiament managed to negotiate treaties wif de princes of German states for warge sums of money, in exchange for auxiwiary troops.[19] In totaw, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states.[19][ae] King George III, who awso ruwed Hanover as a Prince-ewector of de Howy Roman Empire, was approached by Parwiament to wend de government Hanoverian sowdiers for service in de war. Hanover suppwied 2,365 men in five battawions; however, de wease agreement permitted dem to onwy be used in Europe.[403] Widout any major awwies,[212] de manpower shortage became criticaw when France and Spain entered de war, forcing a major diversion of miwitary resources from de Americas.[215][216] Recruiting adeqwate numbers of Loyawist miwitia in America was made difficuwt by intensive Patriot opposition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[319] To bowster numbers, de British promised freedom and grants of wand to swaves who fought for dem.[404] Approximatewy 25,000 Loyawists fought for de British droughout de war,[17] and provided some of de best troops in de British service;[405] de British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry[406][af] commanded by Banastre Tarweton, gained a fearsome reputation in de cowonies for "brutawity and needwess swaughter".[407]

Leadership

Britain had a difficuwt time appointing a determined senior miwitary weadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief of Norf America at de outbreak of de war, was criticized for being too wenient on de rebewwious cowonists. Jeffrey Amherst was appointed Commander-in-Chief of de Forces in 1778, but he refused a direct command in America because he was unwiwwing to take sides in de war.[408] Admiraw Augustus Keppew simiwarwy opposed a command: "I cannot draw de sword in such a cause". The Earw of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, whiwe Wiwwiam Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to miwitary sowutions to de crisis. Howe and Henry Cwinton bof stated dat dey were unwiwwing participants and were onwy fowwowing orders.[409]

Officers in British service couwd purchase commissions to ascend de ranks,[410] and de practice was common in de Army.[411] Vawues of commissions varied but were usuawwy in wine wif sociaw and miwitary prestige; for exampwe, regiments such as de Guards commanded de highest prices.[412] The wower ranks often regarded de treatment to high-ranking commissions by weawdier officers as "pwums for consumption".[413] Weawdy individuaws wacking any formaw miwitary education or practicaw experience often found deir way into positions of high responsibiwity, diwuting de effectiveness of a regiment.[414] Royaw audority had forbidden de practice since 1711, but it was stiww permitted for infants to howd commissions. Young boys were taken from deir schoowing, often orphans of deceased weawdy officers, and pwaced in positions of responsibiwity widin regiments.[415]

Logistics

Logisticaw organization of eighteenf century armies was chaotic at best, and de British Army was no exception, uh-hah-hah-hah. No wogisticaw corps existed in de modern sense; whiwe on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were freqwentwy reqwisitioned from de wocaws, often by impressment or by hire.[416] No centrawwy organized medicaw corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formaw medicaw education, and no dipwoma or entry examination was reqwired. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from de women who fowwowed de army.[417] Army surgeons and doctors were poorwy paid and were regarded as sociaw inferiors to oder officers.[418]

The heavy personaw eqwipment and woow uniform of de reguwar infantrymen were whowwy unsuitabwe for combat in America, and de outfit was especiawwy iww-suited to comfort and agiwe movement.[419] During de Battwe of Monmouf in wate June 1778, de temperature exceeded 100°F (37.8°C), and heat stroke cwaimed more wives dan actuaw combat.[420] The standard-issue firearm of de British Army was de Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred deir troops to fire carefuw, measured shots (around two per minute), rader dan rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficuwt, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down de charge into de barrew.[421] British troops had a tendency to fire impetuouswy, resuwting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized dem during de Saratoga campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at de time.[422]

Every battawion in America had organized its own rifwe company by de end of de war, awdough rifwes were not formawwy issued to de army untiw de Baker Rifwe in 1801.[423] Fwintwocks were heaviwy dependent on de weader; high winds couwd bwow de gunpowder from de fwash pan,[424] whiwe heavy rain couwd soak de paper cartridge, ruining de powder and rendering de musket unabwe to fire. Furdermore, fwints used in British muskets were of notoriouswy poor qwawity; dey couwd onwy be fired around six times before reqwiring resharpening, whiwe American fwints couwd fire sixty. This wed to a common expression among de British: "Yankee fwint was as good as a gwass of grog".[425]

Provisioning troops and saiwors proved to be an immense chawwenge, as de majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[426] The need to maintain Loyawist support prevented de Army from wiving off de wand.[427] Oder factors awso impeded dis option; de countryside was too sparsewy popuwated and de inhabitants were wargewy hostiwe or indifferent, de network of roads and bridges was poorwy devewoped, and de area which de British controwwed was so wimited dat foraging parties were freqwentwy in danger of being ambushed.[428] After France entered de war, de dreat of de French navy increased de difficuwty of transporting suppwies to America. Food suppwies were freqwentwy in bad condition, uh-hah-hah-hah. The cwimate was awso against de British in de soudern cowonies and de Caribbean, where de intense summer heat caused food suppwies to sour and spoiw.[429]

Life at sea was wittwe better. Saiwors and passengers were issued a daiwy food ration, wargewy consisting of hardtack and beer.[430] The hardtack was often infested by weeviws and was so tough dat it earned de nicknames "mowar breakers" and "worm castwes",[431] and it sometimes had to be broken up wif cannon shot. Meat suppwies often spoiwed on wong voyages.[432] The wack of fresh fruit and vegetabwes gave rise to scurvy, one of de biggest kiwwers at sea.[433]

Discipwine

Discipwine was harsh in de armed forces, and de wash was used to punish even triviaw offences—and not used sparingwy.[434] For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 washes each for robbery during de Saratoga campaign,[435] whiwe anoder received 800 washes for striking a superior officer.[436] Fwogging was a common punishment in de Royaw Navy and came to be associated wif de stereotypicaw hardiness of saiwors.[437]

Despite de harsh discipwine, a distinct wack of sewf-discipwine pervaded aww ranks of de British forces. Sowdiers had an intense passion for gambwing, reaching such excesses dat troops wouwd often wager deir own uniforms.[438] Many drank heaviwy, and dis was not excwusive to de wower ranks; Wiwwiam Howe was said to have seen many "crapuwous mornings" whiwe campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heaviwy on a nightwy basis towards de end of de Saratoga campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. The two generaws were awso reported to have found sowace wif de wives of subordinate officers to ease de stressfuw burdens of command.[439] During de Phiwadewphia campaign, British officers deepwy offended wocaw Quakers by entertaining deir mistresses in de houses where dey had been qwartered.[440] Some reports indicated dat British troops were generawwy scrupuwous in deir treatment of non-combatants.[441] This is in contrast to diaries of Hessian sowdiers, who recorded deir disapprovaw of British conduct towards de cowonists, such as de destruction of property and de execution of prisoners.[442]

The presence of Hessian sowdiers caused considerabwe anxiety among de cowonists, bof Patriot and Loyawist, who viewed dem as brutaw mercenaries.[443] British sowdiers were often contemptuous in deir treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from Generaw Howe dat "de Engwish shouwd treat de Germans as broders". The order onwy began to have any reaw effect when de Hessians wearned to speak a minimaw degree of Engwish, which was seen as a prereqwisite for de British troops to accord dem any respect.[444]

During peacetime, de Army's idweness wed to it being riddwed wif corruption and inefficiency, resuwting in many administrative difficuwties once campaigning began, uh-hah-hah-hah.[445]

Strategic deficiencies

The British weadership soon discovered it had overestimated de capabiwities of its own troops, whiwe underestimating dose of de cowonists, causing a sudden re-dink in British pwanning.[104][105] The ineffective initiaw response of British miwitary and civiw officiaws to de onset of de rebewwion had awwowed de advantage to shift to de cowonists, as British audorities rapidwy wost controw over every cowony.[106] A microcosm of dese shortcomings were evident at de Battwe of Bunker Hiww. It took ten hours for de British weadership to respond fowwowing de sighting of de Americans on de Charwestown Peninsuwa, giving de cowonists ampwe time to reinforce deir defenses.[446] Rader dan opt for a simpwe fwanking attack dat wouwd have rapidwy succeeded wif minimaw woss,[447] de British decided on repeated frontaw attacks wif heavy casuawties, untiw de patriots ran out of ammunition, gunpowder being in short suppwy. The resuwts were tewwing; de British suffered 1,054 casuawties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontaw assauwts.[448] The British weadership had neverdewess remained excessivewy optimistic, bewieving dat just two regiments couwd suppress de rebewwion in Massachusetts.[449][450]

Debate persists over wheder a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferwing argues dat de odds were so wong, de defeat of Britain was noding short of a miracwe.[451]Ewwis, however, considers dat de odds awways favored de Americans, and qwestions wheder a British victory by any margin was reawistic. Ewwis argues dat de British sqwandered deir onwy opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and dat de strategic decisions undertaken by Wiwwiam Howe underestimated de chawwenges posed by de Americans. Ewwis concwudes dat, once Howe faiwed, de opportunity for a British victory "wouwd never come again".[452] Conversewy, de United States Army's officiaw textbook argues dat, had Britain been abwe to commit 10,000 fresh troops to de war in 1780, a British victory was widin de reawms of possibiwity.[453]

Wiwwiam Howe

Throughout de New York and Phiwadewphia campaigns, Howe made severaw strategic errors which cost de British opportunities for a compwete victory. After securing controw of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Cwinton to capture Newport, a measure which Cwinton was opposed to, on de grounds de troops assigned to his command couwd have been put to better use in pursuing Washington's retreating army.[454][139] Despite de bweak outwook for de revowutionary cause[455] and de surge of Loyawist activity in de wake of Washington's defeats,[122] Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington whiwe de Americans settwed down into winter qwarters, much to deir surprise.[160]

During pwanning for de Saratoga campaign, Howe was weft wif de choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Phiwadewphia, de revowutionary capitaw. Howe decided upon de watter, determining dat Washington was of a greater dreat. When Howe waunched his campaign, he took his army upon a time-consuming route drough de Chesapeake Bay, rader dan de more sensibwe choices of overwand drough New Jersey, or by sea drough de Dewaware Bay. The move weft him unabwe to assist Burgoyne even if it was reqwired of him. The decision so angered Parwiament, dat Howe was accused by Tories on bof sides of de Atwantic of treason, uh-hah-hah-hah.[171]

During de Phiwadewphia campaign, Howe faiwed to pursue and destroy de defeated Americans on two occasions; once after de Battwe of Brandywine,[172][173] and again after de Battwe of Germantown. At de Battwe of White Marsh, Howe faiwed to even attempt to expwoit de vuwnerabwe American rear,[178] and den inexpwicabwy ordered a retreat to Phiwadewphia after onwy minor skirmishes, astonishing bof sides.[177] Whiwe de Americans wintered onwy twenty miwes away, Howe made no effort to attack deir camp, which critics argue couwd have ended de war.[180][181][182] Fowwowing de concwusion of de campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was repwaced by Henry Cwinton on May 24, 1778.[184]

Contrary to Howe's more hostiwe critics, however, dere were strategic factors at pway which impeded aggressive action, uh-hah-hah-hah. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive maneuvers by de memory of de grievous wosses de British suffered at Bunker Hiww.[456][457] During de major campaigns in New York and Phiwadewphia, Howe often wrote of de scarcity of adeqwate provisions, which hampered his abiwity to mount effective campaigns.[458] Howe's tardiness in waunching de New York campaign, and his rewuctance to awwow Cornwawwis to vigorouswy pursue Washington's beaten army, have bof been attributed to de paucity of avaiwabwe food suppwies.[459][460]

During de winter of 1776–1777, Howe spwit his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerouswy exposed de individuaw forces to defeat in detaiw, as de distance between dem was such dat dey couwd not mutuawwy support each oder. This strategic faiwure awwowed de Americans to achieve victory at de Battwe of Trenton, and de concurrent Battwe of Princeton.[461] Whiwe a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, de qwantity of avaiwabwe food suppwies in New York was so wow dat Howe had been compewwed to take such a decision, uh-hah-hah-hah. The garrisons were widewy spaced so deir respective foraging parties wouwd not interfere wif each oder's efforts.[462] Howe's difficuwties during de Phiwadewphia campaign were awso greatwy exacerbated by de poor qwawity and qwantity of avaiwabwe provisions.[463]

Cwinton and Cornwawwis

In 1780, de primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyawist uprising in de souf, for which Charwes Cornwawwis was chiefwy responsibwe. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwawwis was poised to invade Norf Carowina. However, any significant Loyawist support had been effectivewy destroyed at de Battwe of Kings Mountain, and de British Legion, de cream of his army, had been decisivewy defeated at de Battwe of Cowpens. Fowwowing bof defeats, Cornwawwis was fiercewy criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army widout adeqwate mutuaw support.[256] Despite de defeats, Cornwawwis chose to proceed into Norf Carowina, gambwing his success upon a warge Loyawist uprising which never materiawized.[464] As a resuwt, subseqwent engagements cost Cornwawwis vawuabwe troops he couwd not repwace, as at de Battwe of Guiwford Courdouse,[258] and de Americans steadiwy wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwawwis had dus weft de Carowinas ripe for reconqwest. The Americans had wargewy achieved dis aim by de end of 1781, effectivewy confining de British to de coast, and undoing aww de progress dey had made in de previous year.[264][265]

Like Howe before him, Cwinton's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic suppwy issues. In 1778, Cwinton wrote to Germain compwaining of de wack of suppwies, even after de arrivaw of a convoy from Irewand.[465] That winter, de suppwy issue had deteriorated so badwy, dat Cwinton expressed considerabwe anxiety over how de troops were going to be properwy fed.[466] Cwinton was wargewy inactive in de Norf droughout 1779, waunching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partiawwy due to de shortage of food.[467] By 1780, de situation had not improved. Cwinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern dat a "fataw conseqwence wiww ensue" if matters did not improve. By October dat year, Cwinton again wrote to Germain, angered dat de troops in New York had not received "an ounce" of dat year's awwotted stores from Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[468]

Campaign issues

Suppressing a rebewwion in America presented de British wif major probwems. The key issue was distance; it couwd take up to dree monds to cross de Atwantic, and orders from London were often outdated by de time dat dey arrived.[469][470] The cowonies had never been formawwy united prior to de confwict and dere was no centrawized area of uwtimate strategic importance. Traditionawwy, de faww of a capitaw city often signawed de end of a confwict,[471] yet de war continued unabated even after de faww of major settwements such as New York, Phiwadewphia (which was de Patriot capitaw), and Charweston, uh-hah-hah-hah.[472] Britain's abiwity to project its power overseas way chiefwy in de power of de Royaw Navy, awwowing her to controw major coastaw settwements wif rewative ease and to enforce a strong bwockade of cowoniaw ports. However, de overwhewming majority of de American popuwation was agrarian, not urban, and de American economy proved resiwient enough to widstand de bwockade's effects.[473]

The need to maintain Loyawist support prevented de British from using de harsh medods of suppressing revowts dat dey had used in Scotwand and Irewand.[474] For exampwe, British troops wooted and piwwaged de wocaws during an aborted attack on Charweston in 1779, enraging bof Patriots and Loyawists.[247] Neutraw cowonists were often driven into de ranks of de Patriots when brutaw combat broke out between Tories and Whigs in de Carowinas in de water stages of de war.[475] Conversewy, Loyawists were often embowdened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feadering.[476][477] The vastness of de American countryside and de wimited manpower avaiwabwe meant dat de British couwd never simuwtaneouswy defeat de Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described de attempt as "wike trying to conqwer a map".[478]

Weawdy Loyawists wiewded great infwuence in London[479] and were successfuw in convincing de British dat de majority view in de cowonies was sympadetic toward de Crown, uh-hah-hah-hah. Conseqwentwy, British pwanners pinned de success of deir strategies on popuwar uprisings of Loyawists. Historians have estimated dat Loyawists made up onwy 15- to 20-percent of de popuwation (vs. 40– to 45-percent Patriots)[480] and dat dey continued to deceive demsewves on deir wevew of support as wate as 1780.[481] The British discovered dat any significant wevew of organized Loyawist activity wouwd reqwire de continued presence of British reguwars,[482] which presented dem wif a major diwemma. The manpower dat de British had avaiwabwe was insufficient to protect Loyawist territory whiwe countering American advances.[483] The vuwnerabiwity of Loyawist miwitias was repeatedwy demonstrated in de Souf, where dey suffered strings of defeats to deir Patriot neighbors. The most cruciaw juncture of dis was at Kings Mountain, and de victory of de Patriot partisans irreversibwy crippwed Loyawist miwitary capabiwity in de Souf.[254]

Upon de entry of France and Spain into de confwict, de British were forced to severewy wimit de number of troops and warships dat dey sent to America in order to defend oder key territories and de British mainwand.[215][216] As a resuwt, King George abandoned any hope of subduing America miwitariwy whiwe he had a European war to contend wif.[484] The smaww size of Britain's army weft dem unabwe to concentrate deir resources primariwy in one deater as dey had done in de Seven Years' War, weaving dem at a criticaw disadvantage.[213] The British were compewwed to disperse troops from America to Europe and de East Indies, and dese forces were unabwe to assist one oder as a resuwt, precariouswy exposing dem to defeat.[218] The immediate strategic focus of de French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica,[485]

Fowwowing de end of de war, Britain had wost some of her most popuwous cowonies. However, de economic effects of de woss were negwigibwe in de wong-term, and she became a gwobaw superpower 32 years after de end of de confwict.[486]

Aftermaf

After de surrender at Yorktown Washington expressed astonishment dat de Americans had won a war against a weading worwd power, referring to de American victory as "wittwe short of a standing miracwe".[487] On Apriw 9, 1783, Washington issued orders dat he had wong waited to give, dat "aww acts of hostiwity" were to cease immediatewy. That same day, by arrangement wif Washington, Generaw Carweton issued a simiwar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to disband untiw a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort dat invowved much negotiation and wouwd take some seven monds to effect.[488]

Treaty of Paris

On September 3, 1783, de finaw, "definitive" British-US Treaty of Paris was signed, just before de out-maneuvered French and Spanish ended de Angwo-French War of 1778 in deir respective treaties wif Great Britain at Versaiwwes Pawace.[ag] The US ministers were John Adams, Benjamin Frankwin, John Jay, David Hartwey of Parwiament and Richard Oswawd, Britain's Peace Commissioner.[489] Adams, who was a weading participant in de drafting of de treaty, maintained dat its negotiations represented "one of de most important powiticaw events dat ever happened on de gwobe".[490]

Fowwowing de British army defeat at Yorktown in October 1781, Engwish pubwic wiww for continuing a war to suppress de Thirteen Cowony rebewwion evaporated. Three monds water on February 2, de House of Commons voted against furder offensive war against de US. Six weeks furder at New York City, American Generaw George Washington and British Generaw Sir Guy Carweton entered into an end of hostiwities between UK and US.[491] On March 5, 1782 Parwiament passed a biww audorizing de government to make peace wif de US.[492]

Parwiament began peace negotiations in Paris, and a British-US-French-Spanish armistice was negotiated and honored in Norf America among aww sides, dus ending confwict rewated to de American War for Independence.[312]

To dipwomaticawwy maneuver an earwy end to de American Revowutionary War, Lord Shewburne accepted American independence and demands for US territory west to de Mississippi River in hopes of separating de US from France. He couwd den commit de British garrisons at New York and Charweston to attack French and Spanish West Indies. To speed de US negotiators, Britain offered Newfoundwand fishing rights to de US, denying France excwusive rights, and France and Spain wouwd now sign after de Americans.[493] Prewiminary peace articwes to end de American Revowutionary War were signed in Paris between UK and US on November 30, 1782. The US Congress ratified de Treaty of Paris on Apriw 13, 1783, securing independence from Britain in dat treaty between de two bewwigerents as separate and eqwaw nations.[494] Congress den procwaimed an end to aww hostiwities dat same day.[495]

Throughout de negotiations, Britain never consuwted her American Indian awwies, forcing dem to rewuctantwy accept de treaty. The fowwowing year Britain underwrote awwied Indian attacks on territory it ceded to de US west of de Appawachians. The wargest sustained war of dis period was de Nordwest Indian War 1785–1795.[496] Britain's extended war powicy on de US continued trying to create an Indian buffer state bewow de Great Lakes as wate as 1814 during de War of 1812.[365] However, de wast British troops departed New York City, two days behind de agreed scheduwe, on November 25, 1783, marking de end of British occupation in de new United States.[497]

USS Awwiance

The US armies were disbanded as of Washington's Generaw Orders of Monday June 2, 1783 in accordance wif Congressionaw resowution of May 26. Aww noncommissioned officers and enwisted were furwoughed “to deir homes” untiw de “definitive treaty of peace”, when dey wouwd be automaticawwy discharged.[498] Once de treaty was signed Washington resigned as commander-in-chief and pwanned to retire to Mount Vernon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[489] After Yorktown, aww US Navy ships were sowd or given away.[499] The wast to be decommissioned was de frigate USS Awwiance dat fought de wast skirmish of de war on March 10, 1783. Under command of Captain John Barry, de Awwiance outgunned HMS Sybiw in a 45-minute duew whiwe escorting Spanish gowd from Havana to Congress.[500]

Treaties of Versaiwwes

Fowwowing de British-American armistice and peace ending de American War of Independence wif Britain, Parwiament and Crown separatewy negotiated European treaties wif Spain, France, and de Dutch Repubwic addressing a Continentaw “bawance of power” and deir respective worwdwide cowoniaw empires.[501]

On concwuding de American Revowutionary War by granting US independence, Britain was freed from de Thirteen Cowonies bwockade reqwirements. British navaw superiority was concentrated in de Caribbean, where de French suffered a decisive defeat at de Battwe of de Saintes in Apriw 1782, as weww as oder reverses. That assured British navaw superiority among Caribbean French and Spanish cowonies during de course of negotiations among de Europeans.[502]

Meanwhiwe, prewiminaries rewative to European warfare and imperiaw contests among Britain, Spain, France, and de Nederwands continued untiw September 1783.[494][ah] During dese weeks of negotiation, de British decisivewy repuwsed de Spanish attack on Gibrawtar, giving additionaw weight to de British proposaws.[493] The British successes on wand and sea spurred de popuwace into a vengefuw mood against de French. Prewiminary offers by Britain to cede Gibrawtar to Spain were widdrawn, and de British counter-offer for Mediterranean Minorca was accepted. The French became rewuctant to rewease navaw assets from European waters and de Spanish abandoned deir preparations for a joint French rewief fweet to de Caribbean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[504]

The French weveraged deir redistribution of forces in European waters to gain British cowoniaw trade-offs, traded away Dutch cowoniaw assets in India and Africa in deir controw, and abandoned deir Spanish treaty obwigations for Gibrawtar. The generaw armistice among European powers to end deir continentaw and cowoniaw confwicts was signed January 20, 1783, and de definitive treaty of September 3 among dem at de Versaiwwes Pawace “merewy confirmed de terms reached eight monds earwier” to concwude de Angwo-French War.[505]

Casuawties and wosses

The totaw woss of wife droughout de confwict is wargewy unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. As was typicaw in wars of de era, diseases such as smawwpox cwaimed more wives dan battwe. Between 1775 and 1782, a smawwpox epidemic broke out droughout Norf America, kiwwing 40 peopwe in Boston awone. Historian Joseph Ewwis suggests dat Washington's decision to have his troops inocuwated against de disease was one of his most important decisions.[506]

Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active miwitary service.[23] Of dese, approximatewy 6,800 were kiwwed in battwe, whiwe at weast 17,000 died from disease. The majority of de watter died whiwe prisoners of war of de British, mostwy in de prison ships in New York Harbor.[24] If de upper wimit of 70,000 is accepted as de totaw net woss for de Patriots, it wouwd make de confwict proportionawwy deadwier dan de American Civiw War.[507] Uncertainty arises from de difficuwties in accuratewy cawcuwating de number of dose who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at weast 10,000 died in 1776 awone.[5] The number of Patriots seriouswy wounded or disabwed by de war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.[508] The French suffered approximatewy 7,000 totaw dead droughout de confwict; of dose, 2,112 were kiwwed in combat in de American deaters of war.[25] In West Fworida, de Spanish wost a totaw of just 124 kiwwed and 247 wounded, whiwe de Dutch suffered around 500 totaw kiwwed, owing to de minor scawe of deir confwict wif Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[27]

British returns in 1783 wisted 43,633 rank and fiwe deads across de British Armed Forces.[30] A tabwe from 1781 puts totaw British Army deads at 9,372 sowdiers kiwwed in battwe across de Americas; 6,046 in Norf America (1775–1779), and 3,326 in de West Indies (1778–1780).[31] In 1784, a British wieutenant compiwed a detaiwed wist of 205 British officers kiwwed in action during de war, encompassing Europe, de Caribbean and de East Indies.[509] Extrapowations based upon dis wist puts British Army wosses in de area of at weast 4,000 kiwwed or died of wounds.[5] Approximatewy 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of de former, it is estimated 1,800 were kiwwed in combat.[5]

Around 171,000 saiwors served in de Royaw Navy during de war; approximatewy a qwarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were kiwwed in battwe, whiwe an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776–1780).[32] The greatest kiwwer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.[433] It was not untiw 1795 dat scurvy was eradicated from de Royaw Navy after de Admirawty decwared wemon juice and sugar were to be issued among de standard daiwy rations of saiwors.[510] Around 42,000 saiwors deserted during de war.[16] The impact on merchant shipping was substantiaw; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during de war;[511] of dose, 2,283 were taken by American privateers awone.[349]

Financiaw debts

Congress had immense difficuwties financing its war effort.[512] As de circuwation of hard currency decwined, de Americans had to rewy on woans from France, Spain, and de Nederwands, saddwing de young nation wif crippwing debts. Congress attempted to remedy dis by printing vast amounts of paper money and biwws of credit to raise revenue, but de effect was disastrous: infwation skyrocketed and de paper money became virtuawwy wordwess. The infwation spawned a popuwar phrase dat anyding of wittwe vawue was "not worf a continentaw".[513]

At de start of de war, de economy was fwourishing in de cowonies in spite of de British bwockade. By 1779, however, de economy had awmost cowwapsed.[514] By 1791, de United States had accumuwated a nationaw debt of approximatewy $75.5 miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[515] The nation finawwy sowved its debt and currency probwems in de 1790s when Secretary of de Treasury Awexander Hamiwton secured wegiswation by which de nationaw government assumed aww of de state debts and created a nationaw bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues dat paid off de foreign debts.[516]

Britain spent around £80 miwwion and ended wif a nationaw debt of £250 miwwion (£27.1 biwwion in today's money), generating a yearwy interest of £9.5 miwwion annuawwy. The debts piwed upon dat which it had awready accumuwated from de Seven Years' War.[517] Wartime taxation upon de British popuwace averaged approximatewy four shiwwings in every pound, or 20 percent.[518]

The French spent approximatewy 1.3 biwwion wivres aiding de Americans, eqwivawent to 100 miwwion pounds sterwing (13.33 wivres to de pound).[519] Britain had a very efficient taxation system,[520] but de French tax system was grosswy inefficient and wed to a financiaw crisis in 1786.[521] The debts contributed to a worsening fiscaw crisis dat cuwminated in de French Revowution at de end of de century.[522] On de eve of de French Revowution, de nationaw debt had risen to 12 biwwion wivres.[519]

Notes

^The American Revowutionary War was primariwy fought by de Thirteen Cowonies dat became dirteen states independent of British Parwiament.[1] Those dirteen states joined to become de United States when each of deir wegiswatures sent dewegates to de Second Continentaw Congress to decware independence as "one peopwe" to dissowve de “powiticaw bands” connecting dem to de peopwe of Great Britain and de British Crown, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Each of de Thirteen Cowonies dat became states in de United States maintained separate miwitias estabwished before deir unanimous Decwaration of Independence. These worked in a rough cooperation wif Continentaw Army forces. Individuaw state wegiswatures controwwed fiewd promotions among deir State Line regiments widin de Continentaw Army bewow de rank of Brigadier Generaw. For de most part, citizens in state miwitia units stayed widin deir home states.

^ The 1778 French-US treaty dat formawwy wed to France in de American Revowutionary War, was a defensive awwiance wif "de direct and essentiaw end", to (1) maintain de independence of de US from de Britain, and (2) maintain US sovereignty in British-ceded Norf American territory (see Art. II).[2] The French-US treaty as a miwitary awwiance was to become effective were a war to break out between France and Great Britain (see Art. I),[3] which subseqwentwy did.

^"Of 7,500 men in de Gibrawtar garrison in September (incwuding 400 in hospitaw), some 3,430 were awways on duty".[14]

^Contains a detaiwed wisting of American, French, British, German, and Loyawist regiments; indicates when dey were raised, de main battwes, and what happened to dem. Awso incwudes de main warships on bof sides, And aww de important battwes.

^The strengf of a Hanoverian battawion is wisted as 473 men, uh-hah-hah-hah.[18]

^This articwe primariwy refers to de inhabitants of de dirteen cowonies who supported de American Revowution as "Americans", wif occasionaw references to "Patriots" or "Revowutionaries". Cowonists who supported de British and opposed de Revowution are referred to as "Loyawists" or "Tories". The geographicaw area of de dirteen cowonies is often referred to simpwy as "America".

^"The pwan was considered very attractive to most of de members, as it proposed a popuwarwy ewected Grand Counciw which wouwd represent de interests of de cowonies as a whowe, and wouwd be a continentaw eqwivawent to de Engwish Parwiament. After a sincere debate, it was rejected by a six to five vote on October 22, 1774. It may have been de arrivaw of de Suffowk County (Boston) resowutions dat kiwwed it."[50]

^"Resowved, 4. That de foundation of Engwish wiberty, and of aww free government, is a right in de peopwe to participate in deir wegiswative counciw: and as de Engwish cowonists are not represented, and from deir wocaw and oder circumstances, cannot properwy be represented in de British parwiament, dey are entitwed to a free and excwusive power of wegiswation in deir severaw provinciaw wegiswatures, where deir right of representation can awone be preserved, in aww cases of taxation and internaw powity, subject onwy to de negative of deir sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed: But, from de necessity of de case, and a regard to de mutuaw interest of bof countries, we cheerfuwwy consent to de operation of such acts of de British parwiament, as are bonafide, restrained to de reguwation of our externaw commerce, for de purpose of securing de commerciaw advantages of de whowe empire to de moder country, and de commerciaw benefits of its respective members; excwuding every idea of taxation internaw or externaw, for raising a revenue on de subjects, in America, widout deir consent." qwoted from de Decwarations and Resowves of de First Continentaw Congress October 14, 1774.

^Arnowd managed to escape, whiwe André was captured and hanged on October 2.[344]

^Figures incwude de 41st regiment of invawids, but not de 20 independent companies on garrison duty. Troops in India were under de controw of de East India Company, and did not become part of de British Army untiw 1858.[379]

^"British Legion Infantry strengf at Cowpens was between 200 and 271 enwisted men". However, dis statement is referenced to a note on pp. 175–76, which says, "The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usuawwy considered to have had about 200–250 men, but returns for de 25 December 1780 muster show onwy 175. Totaws obtained by Cornwawwis, dated 15 January, show dat de whowe wegion had 451 men, but approximatewy 250 were dragoons". There wouwd derefore appear to be no evidence for putting de totaw strengf of de five British Legion Light Infantry companies at more dan 200.[406]

^Note:Previouswy, French and Spanish ministers had insisted, and Britain had acceded, to continue deir imperiaw war untiw concwuding a European power peace prior to any of dem recognizing US independence. Awso, de secret 1779 French-Spanish treaty to secure navaw superiority over Britain in European and Mediterranean waters for de duration of de Angwo-French War was predicated on de French continued warfare against Britain untiw after Gibrawtar had fawwen to Spanish possession, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Note:After de British initiated a war on de Nederwands to sweep its merchant marine from de Atwantic Ocean to retawiate for trading wif de US, de Dutch joined de League of Armed Neutrawity among Russia, Denmark, and Sweden to protect deir shipping trade in de future against British seizure between Europe and de Thirteen Cowonies.[503]

Citations

Year dates encwosed in [brackets] denote year of originaw printing

^“Generaw Assembwy Interregnum, December 1775,” Hening’s Statutes, Laws of Virginia from 1619, Vow. IX. (1821). At Chapter II, June 12, 1776: Virginia awwegiance to de Crown was maintained; “King-in-Parwiament” ruwe was DISSOLVED and a new wocaw Virginia state constitution put in its pwace, “… unwess some reguwar adeqwate mode of civiw powity is speediwy adopted”, in compwiance wif “de Generaw Congress”, de wegitimate Norf American "wegiswature of state wegiswatures". But de fwag fwown over de Wiwwiamsburg Capitow was de "Grand Union Fwag" , dat of de British East India Company wif its British Fwag canton turned 90-degrees.

^O'Brien, 2008, p. 124; Governor Bernardo de Gawvez is onwy one of eight men made honorary US citizens for his service in de American Cause. see Bridget Bowman (29 December 2014). "Bernardo de Gáwvez y Madrid's Very Good Year". Roww Caww. The Economist Group. Retrieved Apriw 25, 2020.

^Andrews, Charwes McLean (1912), "Guide to de materiaws for American history, to 1783, in de Pubwic record office of Great Britain", Washington, D.C., Carnegie institution of Washington, Vowume II, p. 32

Freeman, Dougwas Soudaww; Harweww, Richard Barksdawe (2011). Washington. Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-1-4391-0533-7. An abridgement in one vowume by Richard Harweww of de seven-vowume biography of George Washington

Kapwan, Rodger (January 1990). "The Hidden War: British Intewwigence Operations during de American Revowution". The Wiwwiam and Mary Quarterwy. Omohundro Institute of Earwy American History and Cuwture. 47 (1): 115–138. JSTOR2938043.

Shy, John, uh-hah-hah-hah. A Peopwe Numerous and Armed: Refwections on de Miwitary Struggwe for American Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976 (ISBN0195020138); revised University of Michigan Press, 1990 (ISBN0472064312). Cowwection of essays.

Weintraub, Stanwey. Iron Tears: America's Battwe for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775–1783. New York: Free Press, 2005 (a division of Simon & Schuster). ISBN0743226879. An account of de British powitics on de conduct of de war

Furder reading

These are some of de standard works about de war in generaw dat are not wisted above; books about specific campaigns, battwes, units, and individuaws can be found in dose articwes.

Biwwias, George Adan, uh-hah-hah-hah. George Washington's Generaws and Opponents: Their Expwoits and Leadership (1994) schowarwy studies of key generaws on each side.

Bwack, Jeremy. "Couwd de British Have Won de American War of Independence?." Journaw of de Society for Army Historicaw Research. (Faww 1996), Vow. 74 Issue 299, pp 145–154. onwine video wecture, uses Reaw Pwayer