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1 1 The Effect of Confronting Members Who Break Norms on Team Effectiveness Vanessa Urch Druskat Steven B. Wolff Whittemore School of Business and Economics Hay Group University of New Hampshire McClelland Center for Research McConnell Hall; 15 College Road 116 Huntington Ave. Durham, NH Boston, MA Phone: Fax: Phone: REVISION April 24, 2006 Druskat, V. U., & Wolff, S. B. (forthcoming in 2007). The effect of confronting members who break norms on team effectiveness. In L. Thompson, and K. Behfar (Eds.) Conflict in organizational teams. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

2 2 Abstract We argue that problem behavior in teams is often a specific form of process conflict enacted by team members who choose to act out rather than use their voice to register complaints about team processes and operations. We also propose that an effective way to manage this form of process conflict is to institute a norm of confronting members who break norms. A norm of confronting problem behavior ensures that disruptive behavior is discussed and understood in a timely manner. We argue that this keeps team members from making internal attributions about problem behavior and reduces the emergence of destructive relationship conflict in teams. However, not all confrontation is effective. In this chapter, we explore the benefits and costs of confronting problem behavior. We also present a study that examines whether team member skills associated with emotional intelligence (empathy, selfcontrol, persuasiveness, and developing others) moderate the link between confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness.

3 3 The Effect of Confronting Members Who Break Norms on Team Effectiveness One of the most complicated decisions made by a team is whether to confront or ignore problem behavior. We define problem behavior in teams as member behavior that openly defies implicit or explicit team norms, e.g., rudeness, lack of cooperation, skipping meetings, coming to meetings unprepared, general social-loafing. On one hand, confronting a member who breaks a norm may have a negative effect on the member and on the group by taking up valuable time and by prompting hurt, anger, and emotional conflict that escalate out of control. On the other hand, ignoring the problem behavior can result in even greater difficulties if the problem behavior continues and group member resentment and anger continue to fester and snowball. This can explode into even bigger levels of emotional or relational conflict or can lead to perceived inequities and member disengagement from group. The decision over whether to confront or not to confront problem behavior is a difficult one. Many teams and leaders end up waiting it out in the hopes that the problem behavior will stop (deleon, 2001; Liden, Wayne & Kraimer, 2001) this is a decision not to confront. We argue that problem behavior is usually a form of process conflict, e.g., a disagreement about how team members should work together to accomplish their task (Jehn, Northcraft, & Neal, 1999). Problem behavior occurs when at least one team member disagrees with an operating procedure or norm held by the team. For example, a member may dominate conversations because he disagrees with a team norm authorizing certain members opinions to carry the most weight, a member may not show up for meetings because she feels the team s meetings are a waste of time, or a member may not give full effort to the team (i.e., social loafing) because it doesn t appear that his effort is necessary (Hertel, Kerr & Messe, 2000). We

4 4 argue that such problem behaviors signal discontent and disagreement with the team s current operating or process norms. Therefore, we propose that adopting a norm of confronting problem behavior, as opposed to ignoring it, is an effective strategy. When carried out effectively, it ensures that the team, in a timely manner, discusses the problem behavior and decides whether process norms should be altered to better meet member needs. This can increase team members willingness and ability to work together effectively and can enhance team effectiveness. Our earlier research (Druskat & Wolff, 1999) revealed that when team member feedback was given in a structured, interactive, face-to-face setting, members who received the most negative feedback about their work and behavior in the team (i.e., feedback about their problem behavior), rated themselves as feeling significantly more positive about their team after the feedback and discussion than they had before receiving and discussing their feedback. Also, at a time subsequent to the feedback session, team members, on average, rated their teams as more task-focused than they had prior to the feedback session. These findings suggest that discussing why team members were breaking norms was helpful for those members who broke norms and for the entire team. A norm that supports confronting problem behavior when it occurs can also keep process conflict from evolving into a more personal, and emotional form of conflict labeled relationship conflict. Relationship conflict is defined as conflict that involves personal issues such as dislike among group members and feelings like annoyance, frustration, and irritation (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). It has been consistently linked to lower team performance and lower member satisfaction (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). Of course, not all feedback is effectively delivered. Not all teams have members with the skills necessary to handle confrontation in an interpersonally sensitive way (Molinsky &

5 5 Margolis, 2005; Von Glinow et al., 2004). Unskilled or ineffective feedback could easily be perceived as a personal attack, which would be likely to bring about defensiveness and relationship conflict. Moreover, the greater the number of team members with the skills to deliver effective feedback, the more likely the feedback will be handled and received well. Our objective with this chapter is to build on our past theory and research examining emotionally competent team norms (i.e., norms that create a productive social and emotional team environment) that support team effectiveness (Druskat et al., 2003; Wolff & Druskat, 2005). The norm we focus on here is labeled confronting members who break norms, and is defined as speaking-up (i.e., using voice) when another member behaves in a way that defies team expectations of acceptable behavior. As will be discussed throughout this chapter, we argue that honest, respectful, discussion-focused confrontation builds team-level trust and leads to fuller cooperation among team members and team effectiveness. The goal of this norm is to encourage all team members to offer constructive feedback and challenges (see Van Dyne & LePine, 1998) and to use the opportunity to discuss, revisit and adapt norms and procedures to member evolving needs. The goal is not to promote conformity (see Janis, 1982) In this chapter, we define when and why a norm of confronting members who break norms is constructive for a team. We propose that such a norm would be most constructive if team members had the skills necessary for constructive confrontation. We also present a longitudinal study that examines whether team member skills consistent with emotional intelligence: empathy, self-control, persuasiveness, and developing others, moderate the link between a team norm of confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness. The Context for Confronting Members who Break Norms

6 6 We define a team as made up of individuals who see themselves and who are seen by others as a social entity, who are interdependent because of the tasks they perform as members of a group, who are embedded in one or more larger social systems (e.g., community, organization), and who perform tasks that affect others (such as customers or coworkers) (Guzzo & Dickson, 1996). We use the terms group and team interchangeably throughout the chapter. Team effectiveness is defined here as a multidimensional construct that includes: customer satisfaction and the team s ability to continue working together effectively in the future. In long-term groups, a singular focus on customer satisfaction (i.e., performance) would eventually harm member well-being, group viability, and in due course, customer satisfaction (Hackman, 1987). The Tripartite Intra-group Conflict Taxonomy In this chapter, our definition of process conflict differs from traditional definitions. The conflict literature traditionally divides intra-group conflict into three types: task conflict (sometimes referred to as cognitive conflict), relationship conflict (sometimes referred to as emotional conflict), and process conflict (see Jehn, 1995; Pelled, 1996). Task conflict is defined as differences in viewpoints and opinions pertaining to a group task (Jehn, 1995). As discussed above, relationship conflict involves personal issues such as dislike among group members and feelings like annoyance, frustration, and irritation (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Process conflict is defined as controversies about aspects of how task accomplishment will proceed including issues of who should do what and how much responsibility different people should get (Jehn, Northcraft, & Neale, 1999). Yet, as defined, process conflict does not often factor as distinct from task conflict (for a fuller discussion of this issue see Behfar & Thompson, 2006 in this volume). Thus, theorists have begun to redefine process conflict. Behfar and her colleagues

7 7 (Behfar, Mannix, Peterson, & Trochim, 2005) identified three types of process disagreements in groups: work pace timing, scheduling conflicts, and workload distribution conflicts. In this chapter, our definition of process conflict is consistent with that posed by Behfar and colleagues, that is, process conflict involves disagreement about operational procedures and work processes including their timing, scheduling, and workload distributions. Team Norms In any group, norms are potent expectations that control member behavior; they trigger conformity in behavior through a system of positive and negative sanctions (Biddle & Thomas, 1966). Norms do not emerge randomly; over time team member back-and-forth interactions, observations, and sensemaking about common experiences, shape member expectations for one another (Giddens, 1984; Poole, 1999). These expectations become norms or informal rules (usually unspoken) that enable the team to regulate and regularize member behavior, interactions, and processes (Feldman, 1984). Well crystallized norms (that is, norms around which there is high consensus among members) are considered critical to the effectiveness of teams (Hackman, 1987). They relieve the discomfort of the unknown, free team members from having to continually negotiate procedures, and enable members to focus their time and energy on their task. However, while norms facilitate coordination and efficiency, they suppress member individuality (Peterson, 1999). Thus, full membership in a team (as opposed to marginalized membership) requires letting go of parts of one s unique individuality (Smith & Berg, 1987). At the same time, team members unique needs and personalities are an essential source for team growth, renewal and innovation (Miliken, Bartel, & Kurtzberg, 2003). Crystallized norms that become rigid can keep a team from adapting to the evolving needs of members, the team, and the broader organization

8 8 to which it belongs. Thus, complete cooperation and acquiescence to group norms is not necessary or ideal, and occasional disagreements over group process norms can be effective for group functioning (see Tuckman, 1965). In fact, one study found that process conflict (i.e., disagreements over group process norms) in successful teams is initially low, but continually increases as members get closer to meeting their deadlines (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Why Problem Behavior Occurs in Teams Research detailing the team norm development process reveals that team members frequently implicitly or explicitly challenge team norms. This research shows that challenges to existing norms end in one of two ways, they either (1) provoke discussion and negotiation ending in an altered group norm, or (2) are dismissed, thus confirming the team s perception that its current mode of operation is suitable for now (Bettenhausen & Murnighan, 1985). We propose that problem behavior in teams is most often a challenge to process norms by a member who chooses, consciously or unconsciously, to act out (e.g., break a norm) rather than use voice to express dissatisfaction with process norms. It would clearly be optimal for team members to challenge norms verbally by using voice behavior, defined as nonrequired verbal activity that emphasizes expression of constructive challenge with an intent to improve rather than merely criticize (Rusbult, Farrell, Rogers, & Mainous, 1988; Van Dyne & LePine, 1998). However, research suggests that voice behavior in teams is more likely to come from team members with high levels of global self-esteem and high levels of satisfaction with the team (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998). This description rarely fits all team members. There are other reasons that a team member might be more likely to break a norm than to use voice to express dissatisfaction with current team processes. Using voice requires the belief that one s voice can make a difference in this team. Not all team members have the status

9 9 necessary to challenge norms and get attention. Research has long shown that high status team members have the most influence over the norms adopted by a team (Hollander, 1961; Ridgeway, 1987), and that they are permitted more leeway in voicing dissatisfactions with the team (Bales, 1950). Also, the unhappy team member may not use voice because he or she is not fully conscious of the cause of the dissatisfaction or of his or her actions, or may not have the interpersonal skills to voice the dissatisfaction in a more constructive manner. Recognizing the root cause of one s dissatisfaction in a team environment and constructively voicing that dissatisfaction requires self-awareness and interpersonal competence. In summary, breaking a process norm (e.g., acting out or loafing) may be the only way some members believe they can get attention. In some teams, it may be the only way they can. Our previous research lends support to our proposal that team member problem behavior is frequently the exhibition of unarticulated process needs. Also, that in many cases, if these needs are discussed, they can be managed in a way that improves task focus in the team (Druskat & Wolff, 1999). In that time-series study, team members provided face-to-face feedback to one another using a structured feedback process. After the feedback sessions, which had given each team member the opportunity to receive and discuss his or her feedback with the full team, it was the team members who had exhibited the most problem behavior during the semester who reported themselves as most satisfied by the feedback process and who subsequently rated themselves as feeling most positive about the team. Also, well after the feedback session, team members rated their teams as more task focused than they had prior to the feedback session. This suggests that discussions about team member behavior can, in some circumstances, have a lasting positive effect on team effectiveness.

10 10 Of course, a team norm of confronting problem behavior can also incur costs. Below we discus potential benefits and costs of confrontation and propose hypotheses related to the skills required for effective confrontation of problem behavior. The results of the study discussed above also suggest that there are other norms that could reduce the frequency with which members break norms. For example, it would likely be effective for a team to adopt a norm of periodically holding structured feedback sessions like those used in the study. In our theory of emotionally competent norms, we refer to this norm as team self-evaluation, and define it as periodically assessing member satisfaction with team and member operations; we argue that team self-evaluation builds team identity and efficacy (Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Druskat et al., 2003; see also Salas, Sims, & Burke, 2005). Such a norm would help to minimize how often confrontation is necessary. Caveats It is important to point out that there are reasons why team members act out or break norms that may not be helped through a norm of confrontation and discussion. For example, the individual may be a chronic norm breaker in team settings. Wageman and Hackman (2006) refer to such team members as derailers. Derailers may be effective in many areas of their lives, but for one reason or another will not cooperate and resist coaching (Wageman & Hackman, 2006). It may be that they don t agree with the team s direction or purpose or that they simply have little interest in sacrificing their own individual needs for the team. One category of team derailers who periodically show up in research studies are those who score high in the Big Five personality trait of neuroticism, which is defined as: anxious, depressed, angry, emotional and insecure (Costa & McCrae, 1994). Research shows that these members receive low peer

11 11 ratings from teammates (Stewart, Fulmer, & Barrick, 2005) and have a negative influence on team performance (Kichuk & Wiesner, 1998). Another time when confrontation may do more harm than good is when the team has placed a member into the role of team scapegoat, which is defined as a member who is devalued and on whom most, if not all, group problems are blamed (Smith & Berg, 1987). Scapegoat theory comes from the psychodynamic perspective on group behavior (see McLeod & Kettner- Polley, 2004) and argues that non-conformists are often unconsciously placed into the scapegoat role to allow other members to distance themselves from anxiety and threat (Gemmill, 1989). Once the scapegoated member is labeled the problem, team members tend to ostracize him or her, which understandably causes the scapegoat to behave negatively or act out. In his treatise on prejudice, Allport argued that only scapegoating could account for extreme forms of predjudice (see Glick, 2005). A fuller discussion of scapegoat theory would take this chapter off track. However, it is pertinent to point out that a norm of confrontation could exacerbate troubles for a scapegoated team member. On the other hand, because of its problem and discussion focus, a confrontation norm may provide an opportunity for scapegoated members to get heard and may even prevent the emergence of a scapegoat. Process Conflict versus Relationship Conflict Once problem behavior is framed as process conflict, the potential advantages and disadvantages of confronting the behavior can be identified. Like any form of conflict, when process conflict is confronted and made public, it can have constructive or destructive results. For example, some research has suggested that moderate levels of task conflict can be beneficial for group performance on certain tasks (Jehn, 1995). However, when task conflict escalates, it gets personal and easily and frequently turns into destructive relationship conflict. Thus, task

12 12 conflict has frequently been shown to have a negative effect on team performance (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). Indeed, any form of conflict can become destructive to a team and its performance when it spirals out of control, provokes anger and becomes personal (Deutsch, 1973). Decades of research suggests that when conflict becomes personal and turns into relationship conflict, team performance is hurt in three ways (Pelled, 1996). As described by Pelled (1996), first, the emotional tension in the team is raised, reducing the ability of members to think and assess new information. Secondly, the anger and frustration leave members less receptive to the thoughts and ideas of other members. Thirdly, it wastes time. The longer the conflict remains unresolved, the more time gets wasted. To maximize team effectiveness, a primary goal of teams who engage in the form of process conflict discussed in this chapter should be to confront problem behavior in a way that minimizes relationship conflict and maximizes the potential benefits of conflict. Those benefits include positive change, the reconciliation of team members legitimate interests, and, by virtue of the first two points, increased team solidarity (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986). Without the capacity for change brought about by conflict, teams can easily stagnate and lose their ability to be effective. Attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Jones & Davis, 1965; Kelley, 1967) explains one avenue through which task or process conflict can become personal and spiral into negative relationship conflict. Attribution theorists have shown that people frequently seek information to explain why others behave a certain way. This enables them to determine how to best respond to that behavior. A fundamental distinction made by attribution theory is whether the behavior can be attributed to factors within the person (i.e., an internal attribution) or factors within the environment (i.e., an external attribution) (Heider, 1958). For example, if a group member breaks

13 13 a norm by not attending a meeting, the action might be attributed to the individual s lazy personality (an internal attribution) or to the group s lack of specificity about the meeting time (an external attribution). There is a discernable difference in how this team member would be treated if the member s behavior was attributed to her personality rather than to the team s situation or environment (Jackson & LePine, 2003). Team members attributing the missed meeting to something internal to the person are necessarily making the conflict personal. Thus, they are more likely to respond negatively and more likely to inflame relationship conflict. As described by Pruitt and Rubin (1986), this type of conflict easily shifts from one s initial interest in defending one s behavior (or defending the team), to an interest in winning the argument, and eventually to making sure that the other team member is hurt more than oneself. Escalation of conflict happens easily in group settings because as the conflict heats up, more and more members get involved (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986). A Norm of Confronting Members Who Break Norms We, therefore, propose that one way to keep problem behavior (i.e., process conflict) from turning into relationship conflict is to create a team environment where internal attributions are not so easily applied to problem behavior. Kelley (1968) found internal attributions more likely applied if the behavior in question is consistently exhibited by the individual. Adopting a team norm of confronting members who break norms would call for addressing problem behavior when it is first exhibited. For example, as soon as the member misses a meeting, the behavior is confronted and discussed. This would help minimize the number of times the person demonstrates problem behavior (e.g., misses meetings) and help minimize the likelihood that the behavior is attributed to internal causes, thus reducing the probability of negative affect and relationship conflict.

14 14 However, our previous field research conducted in six diverse organizations (Druskat et al., 2003) suggests that a norm of confronting members who break norms is not always associated with effective team performance. This makes sense because not all teams have members who exhibit problem behavior or break norms. Thus, they are less likely to utilize, with any frequency, a norm of confronting problem behavior. Team members may not break norms in these teams because the team is flexible enough to continually assess and adapt its norms as the needs of the team and its members evolve. As discussed above, these teams may have a norm of self-evaluation and continuous improvement (see Druskat & Wolff, 2001). Alternatively, team members may not break norms because their teams are similar to those discussed by LePine and Van Dyne (1998), that is, members use their voice to express disagreements over process norms rather than acting out. Another important reason why there may be no direct association between a norm of confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness, is that team members may not have the skills to effectively confront members who break norms (Molinsky & Margolis, 2005; Von Glinow, Shapiro, & Brett, 2004). Insensitive confrontation could harm the social identity of the member being confronted and cause the member to lose face. The affective response to losing face is usually anger and the behavioral response is often revenge (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Thus, ineffective confrontation could lead, rather than alleviate, relationship conflict. We are aware of no research that has examined the skills necessary for effectively confronting problem behavior in teams. Below, we hypothesize a set of emotionally intelligent skills that may increase a team member s ability to effectively and constructively confront a member who breaks norms. Skills Related to Emotional Intelligence

15 15 Group communication theorists provide a number of critical points about effective feedback in teams. Keyton and her colleagues have argued that all messages communicated in teams contain relational information (Keyton, 1999). For example, when one member confronts another member s inappropriate behavior, the latter hears both the content of the message and also its underlying relational message. In the case of confrontation, the relational message might convey support and caring, or shame, control, and dominance. Thus, confronters need to have the skills necessary to recognize and acknowledge the positive attributes of the member being confronted and to have the self-control to behave in a supportive rather than controlling manner during the confrontation. Without such skills, the confrontation might easily be perceived as a personal attack. As such, the skills necessary for effective confrontation would likely require emotional intelligence, which has been defined as the ability to monitor one s own and others emotions, to discriminate among emotions, and to use emotion information to improve cognitive thinking including the quality of actions and decisions (Mayer & Salovey, 1993). Because emotion pervades every human interaction (Kemper, 1978), emotional intelligence is particularly useful when actions and decisions involve others (Salovey et al, 2000). Work teams are social systems in which interactions among members are fundamental to team outcomes. It is no surprise that emotional intelligence has been labeled a valuable team resource (Elfenbein, 2006). We hypothesize that four skills associated with emotional intelligence will prove an effective team resource by enabling respectful, constructive confrontation that can reduce problem behavior and improve a team s ability to function well. In fact, research suggests that when such respect is conveyed, it not only increases feelings of fair

16 16 treatment (Tyler, Degoey, & Smith, 1996) it decreases the emergence of relationship conflict (Cronin & Weingart, 2006 this volume). We begin by hypothesizing the relevance of two prototypical emotional intelligence skills (i.e., skills that are included in all models of emotional intelligence, for a review see Druskat, Sala, & Mount, 2006): empathy and self-control. Empathy is defined as sensing another s feelings or perspectives and taking an active interest in the other s concerns (Boyatzis, 1982). Empathy would enable team members to attend to another member s moods, feelings, and nonverbal behavior and to better understand their cause. It would also help members to effectively interpret how the feedback recipient (e.g., member exhibiting problem behavior) is emotionally reacting to the feedback. Hence it would allow the feedback to be given in a way that it is respectful, least likely to cause defensiveness and anger, and most likely to be seen as a learning opportunity for the team. The second emotionally intelligent skill we propose to be important to effective confrontation is self-control, defined as the ability to manage (or keep in check ) disruptive emotions and impulses (Boyatzis, 1982). Self-control would allow team members to manage their own emotional reactions to the problem behavior. Managing one s own disappointment or anger over the behavior can help mitigate the escalation of anger during the confrontation and discussion. When the escalation of emotion is stopped, it enables the team to more clearly listen for and seek to understand the situational factors that contributed to the problem behavior. All of our hypotheses assume that, as discussed above, not all teams engage in confrontation. This implies that the relationship between the level of demonstration of the norm confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness will not be linear, i.e., teams with a low level of this norm may very well be high performing because they either effectively

17 17 minimize conflict with other norms such as a team self-evaluation norm or use voice to express disagreements. On the other hand, for those teams with a degree of conflict not addressed through these other means, a norm of confronting members who break norms will help teams effectively address the conflict. Thus, when the team has the requisite skills to confront members who break norms in an effective manner, the relation between confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness is expected to be U-shaped, i.e., high effectiveness with either low or high levels of the norm and low effectiveness for groups with conflict but that have not developed strong enough levels of the norm to ameliorate the conflict effectively. Such a U- shaped curve can be represented by a quadratic relationship. On the other hand, if the team does not have the requisite skills to effectively confront members, then we expect either that the more the group confronts members who break norms, the more negative effects the confrontation will have, thus, reducing team effectiveness in a linear relation to the degree of confrontation; or, it is possible that the positive and negative effects of confrontation will cancel each other out leading to a neutral condition where the degree of confrontation is not related to the level of team effectiveness. Thus, we hypothesize that mean level of skill (e.g., empathy, self-control) in the team will moderate the relationship between the level of the norm of confronting members who break norms and team effectiveness. For high levels of the required skill the relationship will be quadratic and for low levels of the required skill the relationship will be either a negative linear one or no relationship if the positive and negative effects of the conflict cancel out. Our first two hypotheses are the following: Hypothesis 1: The effect of a norm of confronting members who break norms on team effectiveness will be moderated by the mean level of team member skill at empathy.

18 18 1a: In teams with high mean levels of empathy, there will be a significant positive quadratic relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. 1b: In teams with low mean levels of empathy, there will be either no relationship or a significant negative linear relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. Hypothesis 2: The effect of a norm of confronting members who break norms on team effectiveness will be moderated by mean level of team member skill at self-control. 2a: In teams with high mean levels of self-control, there will be a significant positive quadratic relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. 2b: In teams with low mean levels of self-control, there will be either no relationship or a significant negative linear relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. In their treatise on effective feedback, Ashford and Cummings (1983) raise another set of issues that shed light on the skills required for effective confrontation. They argue that effective feedback requires a shift in thinking and behavior. Consistent with our discussion thus far, this shift requires that both parties approach the feedback as a learning and development opportunity. Both parties take an active role in seeking information and discussing the feedback (Ashford & Cummings, 1983). In this context, the learning and development would need to flow both ways with the intent that learning and change occur for both the individual being confronted and for the team.

19 19 To facilitate the experience of confrontation as a learning opportunity and not a topdown command, we hypothesize the relevance of two additional emotional intelligence skills (see Goleman, 2001; Sala, 2006): persuasiveness and developing-others. Persuasiveness is defined as using tactics to influence another (Boyatzis, 1982). Persuasiveness enables one to gain the buy-in of the person he or she is working to persuade. Skill at persuading or influencing others would enable the team members doing the confronting to convince the confronted member that their intent is to open a discussion about team process norms and not to mount a personal attack. Persuasiveness skills would be an important resource because feedback recipients often feel criticized (Baumeister & Cairns, 1992). Moreover, persuasiveness or influence skills would be useful for convincing both the member exhibiting the problem behavior and all members that everyone s behavior may need to change after the discussion. Skill at developing others is defined as the ability to support, stimulate, and engage someone in learning or developing him- or herself, or to improve his or her performance (Boyatzis, 1982). Such a skill would increase team members ability to engage the confronted member in a discussion focused on learning and development. We offer the following two hypotheses: Hypothesis 3: The effect of a norm of confronting members who break norms on team effectiveness will be moderated by mean level of team member skill at persuasiveness. 3a: In teams with high mean levels of persuasiveness, there will be a significant positive quadratic relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness.

20 20 3b: In teams with low mean levels of persuasiveness, there will be either no relationship or a significant negative linear relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. Hypothesis 4: The effect of a norm of confronting members who break norms on team effectiveness will be moderated by mean level of team member skill at developing others. 4a: In teams with high mean levels of developing others, there will be a significant positive quadratic relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. 4b: In teams with low mean levels of developing others, there will be either no relationship or a significant negative linear relationship between confronting members and team effectiveness. Below, we present the study used to test our hypotheses. Method Sample The present study was conducted as part of a larger longitudinal study of three hundred and eighty-two full-time MBA students, comprising 48 self-managing teams. Teams were composed before the start of the MBA program (during orientation in August) and remained intact working on small or large projects in each course until the end of the first academic year (May). Classes were all lock step and standardized so that all students took the same courses in the same order using standardized syllabi. Teams were composed by faculty in the organizational behavior department who aimed to maximize the demographic diversity within each team. Participation in the study was voluntary. Students were ensured confidentiality. To ensure that participation would not affect course grades, signed permissions were kept in an envelope until

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GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE STAFF PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS The research is clear. The outcome is consistent. We know with certainty that the most powerful leadership tool for improving productivity and increasing

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Evaluating a fatigue management training program for coach drivers. M. Anthony Machin University of Southern Queensland Abstract A nonprescriptive fatigue management training program was developed that

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Return to Work after Brain Injury This section talks about return to work after head injury and what kind of difficulties people experience. It moves onto talking about what kind of help and support is

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We are often asked the question, What should I do to improve our staff engagement? Culture change is a difficult task to achieve for any leader. Leaders we work with to help transform their organizational

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The Inventory of Male Friendliness in Nursing Programs (IMFNP) Background At the 2001 annual conference of the American Assembly for Men in Nursing (AAMN), a nursing student discussed his educational experiences

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT & CORRECTIVE ACTION GUIDELINES As a supervisor, one of your primary roles is to help employees succeed in their position and coaching them to high levels of performance. Whenever

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Capstone Suggestions for Survey Development for Research Purposes 1. Begin by listing the questions you would like to answer with the survey. These questions will be relatively broad and should be based