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1765

(1765) New British tax leads to charges of ‘taxation without representation’The new tax forces colonists in British America to pay a fee on legal documents and other papers to help fund British forces in North America. Colonists vehemently oppose the tax, organizing a resistance that will presage the American Revolution.

The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III, c. 12) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain that imposed a direct tax on the colonies of British America and required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the stamp tax had to be paid in valid British currency, not in colonial paper money. The purpose of the tax was to help pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years’ War and its North American theater of the French and Indian War. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers because there were no foreign enemies on the continent, and the Americans had always protected themselves against Indians. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers and career soldiers who should be paid by London.

The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Their slogan was “No taxation without representation.” Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests. The Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure; it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by colonial merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence, creating a loose coalition that extended from New England to Maryland. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new secret organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent and destructive as the masses became involved. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, and the tax was never effectively collected.

Opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, pressured Parliament. The Act was repealed on March 18, 1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever” by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists.

The episode played a major role in defining the grievances that were clearly stated within the text of the Indictment of George III section of the Declaration of Independence, and enabling the organized colonial resistance that led to the American Revolution in 1775.

Four years in the making, Michelangelo’s masterpiece covers over 5,000 square feet of the papal chapel’s arched ceiling. The depictions of hundreds of human figures in various poses will be hugely influential for centuries to come..

The Sistine Chapel ceiling, painted by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art. The ceiling is that of the Sistine Chapel, the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. It was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II. The chapel is the location for papal conclaves and many important services.

(1765) New British tax leads to charges of ‘taxation without representation’

The new tax forces colonists in British America to pay a fee on legal documents and other papers to help fund British forces in North America. Colonists vehemently oppose the tax, organizing a resistance that will presage the American Revolution..

The Stamp Act of 1765 was the first internal tax levied directly on American colonists by the British government. The act, which imposed a tax on all paper documents in the colonies, came at a time when the British Empire was deep in debt from the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) and looking to its North American colonies as a revenue source. Arguing that only their own representative assemblies could tax them, the colonists insisted that the act was unconstitutional, and they resorted to mob violence to intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766, but issued a Declaratory Act at the same time to reaffirm its authority to pass any colonial legislation it saw fit. The issues of taxation and representation raised by the Stamp Act strained relations with the colonies to the point that, 10 years later, the colonists rose in armed rebellion against the British.

Citation: 5 George III, c. 12Introduced by: The Rt. Hon. George Grenville, MP (Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer & Leader of the House of Commons)Territorial extent: British America and the British West IndiesRoyal assent: 22 March 1765Commencement: 1 November 1765Repealed: 18 March 1766Repealed by: Act Repealing the Stamp Act 1766Relates to: Declaratory Act

‘The Match of the Century’ pits the small and scrappy thoroughbred racehorse Seabiscuit against the regal Triple Crown-winner War Admiral. Seabiscuit beats the favorite by four lengths and will be named the American Horse of the Year..

War Admiral was an American thoroughbred racehorse, best known as the fourth winner of the American Triple Crown and Horse of the Year in 1937, and rival of Seabiscuit in the ‘Match Race of the Century’ in 1938. During his career toward the end of the Great Depression, War Admiral won 21 of his 26 starts with earnings of $273,240.

The United States detonates the first full-scale thermonuclear weapon on Enewetak, an atoll in the Pacific. The H-bomb test, dubbed Operation Ivy Mike, detonates an 82-ton bomb about 1,000 times more powerful than its nuclear predecessors. The blast, which will spark an arms race with the USSR, highly contaminates the area around the atoll and sends radioactive debris miles in all directions..

On 31 January 1950 Pres. Harry S. Truman publicly declared the U.S. intention to develop a hydrogen bomb. The primary motivations for this declaration was were two surprising revelations – the Soviet Union’s first fission bomb during the previous fall; and the discovery of Klaus Fuchs’ espionage activity of at Los Alamos, uncovered just days before. These combined shocks, added to the rapidly growing Cold War tensions, created grave concern at the highest levels of Washington about the United States being overtaken in a nuclear arms race by the Soviet Union.

From that time onward, the highest priority was placed on developing new and more potent strategic weapons – especially thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs). At that time though no one had good ideas about how a practical thermonuclear weapon could be made, rendering Truman’s declaration hollow. This raised new fears – that Truman’s pronouncement may have spurred Soviet thermonuclear efforts onward even faster, and that they might have hit upon concepts not yet known in the U.S. Consequently a fallback strategy was pursued – developing the highest yield fission bomb possible, a technical effort led by Theodore Taylor at Los Alamos. The conceptual breakthroughs of Stanslaw Ulam and Edward Teller the following January provided the needed insights to develop a thermonuclear device.

So from early 1951 onward, these two parallel efforts to develop high yield weapons were focused on a Pacific Proving Ground test series for late in 1952. This series – Operation Ivy – exploded the two largest bombs tested up to that time. It inaugurated the thermonuclear age with the first “true” thermonuclear test (code name Mike), which was considerably more powerful than all the high explosives used in two World Wars put together. Ivy also tested the highest yield pure fission weapon ever exploded.

It is part of my responsibility as Commander in Chief of the Armed forces to see to it that our country is able to defend itself against any possible aggressor. Accordingly, I have directed the AEC to continue its work on all forms of atomic weapons, including the so-called hydrogen or Super bomb.— President Harry S. Truman, 31 January 1950

Ivy Mike was the codename given to the first test of a full-scale thermonuclear device, in which part of the explosive yield comes from nuclear fusion. It was detonated on November 1, 1952 by the United States on the island of Elugelab in Enewetak Atoll, in the Pacific Ocean, as part of Operation Ivy. It was the first full test of the Teller-Ulam design, a staged fusion device.

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