Dr. Apostolos Makrakis (1831-1905), or Makrakes, was a controversial and charismatic Greek laytheologian, preacher, ethicist, philosopher and prolific writer. He was born in 1831 in the village of Katavati on Sifnos island, Greece, and died on December 25, 1905 in Athens, buried in his family chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary's Annunciation. His bust is in the square bearing his name at the entrance of the village.

Life

Apostolos Makrakis was a charismatic lay theologian gifted with many talents and a leader of the "awakening movement" in post-revolutionary Greece. He finished his secondary school training in his birthplace and later studied in Constantinople, where he worked for a short time as a teacher and published his first treatises. Being a person of strong character and with a disposition towards vigorous inspection of things, he came to a collision course with the Ecumenical Patriarchate and with the parents of his students, the grounds being his teaching of frequent communion.
In 1862 he went to Paris, where he worked as a private tutor, remaining there for two years and learning about modern European philosophy from Descartes to Hegel, in the French language. His defensive disposition was expressed quickly with the writing in French of four treatises against Western philosophy, particularly the Cartesian, and founding philosophy on the principles of the doctrine of Christ (i.e in favour of Christianity). This work was entitled "The Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, i.e. Christian Philosophy and Modern Philosophy"). After a brief trip to Athens, he returned in 1865 to Constantinople, where he continued his work for a year, and in 1866 he settled permanently in Athens, where he also reposed.

Makrakis was manifested upon the Greek nation during a multifarious and therefore very difficult epoch. The re-emerging civilization, the foreign military presence, the irregular political situation, the activity of foreign influences (especially religious propaganda), the attachment to "Enlightened Europe", and the uninterrupted adulteration of traditional criteria were problems that would not leave a spirit as restless as his indifferent or in peace.

And so Makrakis, wanting to contribute to the Catholic rebirth of the nation, regarded as the most basic element in this the rebirth of the Church, as the ark and instrument of the new national life[1].

Preaching

Apostolos Makrakis was the most influential figure on the development of the Greek Church in the 19th and 20th centuries. As a preacher he was a new phenomenon in newly reborn Greece. Preaching during that period mostly was an activity of the marginal competitors of the Church, so that preaching, especially outside the temples by non-authorized figures, was violently repressed. This was in line with the tradition of the Church of Late Antiquity, in that once Christian Churches were solidly established, clerics' activities were regulated and disciplined in order to avoid ecstatic innovations, which is what Makrakis was in fact criticized for.[2]

In May 1866, he came to Athens, where for six months...in Concord Square he delivered twenty speeches on the subject of The Work of the Fathers of 1821 and How it Can Best and Quickest Be Brought to a Conclusion, which were published in the newspaper Justice and republished in book form in 1886. Given occassion by a threatening letter of the Free Masons, who had been incensed by his speeches, he wrote two books against Freemasonry: Freemasonry and Masonry Exposed by the Masonic Certificate, the first was published in 1867 and the second in 1868. At the instigation of the Masons who had political influence at the time, he was twice arrested and jailed, the first time for twenty-four hours, and the second for sixteen days for allegedly insulting the King.[3].

Makrakis also preached to large crowds in Patra, who came out in awe to listen to his "nation-saving" teachings on June 18, 24, 27, and July 16, 1876, having as his most fervent followers Theodoros Kapetanon, Ioannis Arnellon, and Nikolaos Christogiannopoulos[4]. After this a number of publications such as Achaia, Phoenix, and Aratos strongly attacked his teachings, while others such as the Peloponnesus supported him. Defenders of Makrakis included a theologian of Patras named Ieronymos, as well as the spiritual father of Patras, Fr. Athanasios Georgiou, who recommended he be exiled for two years lest he be judged by the Synod. For a period of thirty years Makrakis visited Patras, in 1876 remaining there for forty-days teaching the people.

Continuing his quest of preaching to the nation, he arrived on the island of Zakynthos in July 1892, and again in August 1893, teaching out of exile. A critic of Makrakis from Zakynthos was the primary school teacher Ioannis Siderokastritis, who wrote O Anamorphotis Makrakes (The Uneducated Makrakis)[5].

In the summer of 1894 he made his tenth and last Gospel tour, visiting Thebes, St. Theodore, Levadeia, Atalante, Chalkis, Kyme, Aliverion, Kariston, Gaurion on the islands of Andros, Syros, and his birthplace Siphnos.[6]

Christology and Controversy

He criticized contemporary prelates of Simony, and also upheld the theory of the Trisyntheto (triple constitution of humanity, i.e, Psyche (soul), Pneuma (spirit), Soma (body). He was arguably one of the most important religious personalities of the 19th century, and one whose innovations turned the Holy Synod against him, resulting in his being condemned and jailed several times[7]. He was also an extremely prolific writer whose works were widely translated outside of Greece.

He founded the School of the Logos in Athens in September 1876 and titled himself Professor of philosophy and the philosophical sciences in the Greek nation, teaching philosophical subjects (i.e. "Philosophy", as "Love of the Logos", so that in this sense philosophy becomes applicable to and interchangeable with the theological discipline of Christology). In a peer-reviewed book review of Makrakis' philosophical system[8] R.P. Scharlemann states that:

"Makrakis intended to be a teacher of the people of Greece,...this child of the revolution of 1821. The Kierkegaard[9] who speaks here has a Hellenistic soul. Philosophy, "the love and science of the God-equal WORD, or Logos", has as its purpose "the acquisition of God's omniscience...and the deification of the philosophical investigator". Its object is the same as that of religion and government. The system traces the journey of the soul in its ascent from the "primary cognition [noein]" through the philosophical sciences to its deification. The means of ascent are provided by the "right reason" that is the object of logic and is incarnate in Jesus Christ.....right reason being the nexus between temporal fact and eternal being. In this system, the primary cognition, or what phenomenology might call the basic intellectual intuition, is that I exist, the world exists, and God exists... The soul is conscious of its own existence, perceives the world, and knows God's existence, but it does not know the nature of each of them. The aim of science is to make the unknown known. Philosophy as Christology and Christology as Philosophy, it is at least a theme that makes one think."[10]

Excommunication

There has been some confusion as to whether or not Apostolos Makrakis was in fact put out by the Church or not. The sources show in actuality that he was condemned by the Synod, but not formally excommunicated by them.

As the Very Rev. Archimandrite Isaias Simonopetritis explains in The Orthodox Church and Proselytism, "while Makrakis was condemned by the official Church and the monasteries of Mount Athos, he was not excommunicated, for fear that his numerous followers among the middle classes of Athens would turn him into a martyr figure".[11]

Although Dr. Christos Yannaras gives a slightly different account, writing that "The Synod excommunicated [Makrakis] to silence him, invoking ludicrous theological arguments, such as his views on the tripartite composition of man" and that "when he died, however, the Synod agreed to give him a church funeral"[12], nevertheless Makrakis' biography by Constantine Andronis explains that the excommunications were published by one particular Bishop, and not by the entire Synod:

"...so long as Makrakis combated only Freemasonry and neither said nor wrote anything against the high priests, he was recommended by the latter as the Saviour of Orthodoxy, but when he proved certain high priests to be guilty of the crime of Simony and demanded their dismissal in accordance with the sacred regulations of the Church, war began to be waged upon him as a heretic teaching that man consists of body, soul, and spirit. Makarios, Bishop of Karystia, published excommunications and anathemas in opposition to this belief.[13]

As for the Holy Synod, on December 18th, 1878, the Council of Athens was convened and presided over by Metropolitan Bishop Procopius I of Athens, resulting in formal condemnation of the Makrakists. The Synod succeeded in obtaining from the governement of Koumoundouros a decree dissolving Makakris' "School of the Logos" on the pretext that it taught doctrines opposed to the tenets of the Church, that is, that man is composed of body, soul, and spirit, and that Christ attained perfection in the Jordan. The Holy Synod likewise addressed an encyclical to the whole body of Christians in Greece that was read in the churches, charging Makrakis with attempting to introduce innovations. On January 8, 1879, his trial was held, and without his presence he was condemned by default to three months' imprisonment. On February 6, 1879, the Holy Synod also issued a decree condemning the clergy of the College to confinement (exile) for five to ten years in various monasteries and refrainment from all sacramental acts. On June 13, 1879 Makrakis' term of imprisonment for resistence and insolence to the authorities expired, but he later insulted the Holy Synod again, and on November 26, 1879 he was again sentenced to imprisonment, this time for eight months. From the jail in Amphissa he wrote letters to all his brethren in Christ urging them to be of good cheers and to feel glad because he was suffering in behalf of truth and justice. In many cities of Greece the citizenry expressed indignation at the persecution of the educator, and submitted a petition to the Chamber of Deputies bearing 4530 signatures. Makrakis himself submitted a memoir to the Minister of Justice Athanasios Potmezas from jail with the hope of obtaining his release. In 1880 he was absolved by decree of the court of appeals in Athens, and beginning on October 6, 1880, he resumed instruction in the "School of the Logos" after a two year interruption.[14]

Criticisms

British Orientalist and Professor of Theology at the University of Oxford Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, a contemporary of Makrakis writing in 1903, proposed that if we cut through the many mists of spiteful exaggeration often attributed to Makrakis' life story,

Dr. Constantine Cavarnos although referring to Makrakis as "perhaps the most outstanding philosopher and religious teacher of modern Greece," in reviewing Makrakis' important treatise on Soteriology, the "Divine and Sacred Catechism", states that Makrakis' teaching is marred by the exaggerated importance he attributes to the Devil, by his narrow conception of Orthodoxy, and his invective against other religious denominations.[16]

Blessed Elder Philotheos (Zervakos) has written The Errors of Apostolos Makrakis. Although not yet in English translation, it is summarized in part in Dr. Constantine Cavarnos's book "Blessed Elder Philotheos Zervakos". In his criticism the Elder emphasises that he does not mean to say that there is nothing of value in Makrakis' writings, especially the earlier ones, but that they must be approached with caution.

In 1882 Chrysanthos Makris, later an Archimandrite, wrote a book against the tenet of Makrakis relative to the tricomposite nature of man, entitled "The Bicomposite Nature of Man Proved by Reference to the Great Fathers of the Church". This was refuted by Makrakis in a series of articles in the Logos, which were reprinted in a separate book 302 pages long under the title "The Tricomposite Nature of Man Verified also by Reference to the Great Fathers of the Church"[17]

Apologetics

In 1869 Makrakis issued a work entitled "Refutation of an Ironclad Refutation" in reply to Theocletos Bimpos, professor of Theology at the University of Athens who undertook to criticize Makrakis' doctrine concerning the threefold nature of man.

In 1873 Makrakis wrote the "Apology of A. Makrakis Concerning His Feelings, Views, and Acts", in particularly refuting all that had been advanced against him by Professor K. Nestorides regarding his view of the soul. Makrakis maintained that his view concerning the nature of the soul and of man's three constituent parts (body, soul, and spirit) is in accordance wth the Holy Scriptures, of which he cites many passages in proof.

Dr. Constantine Cavarnos identifies that there are a number of things in his vigorously written book the "Divine and Sacred Catechism" that should interest the student of religion, including the lucid and systematic exposition of the doctrines of the Eastern Church by a conservative representative of it; the firm belief in perfect divine justice; the very high conception of man — man, according to Makrakis is the most perfect work of God, higher even than the angels; and the profound conviction in, and the attempt throughout the book to show, the perfect harmony between experience, reason, and religion.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

Complete List of Works

The following catalog of Makrakis' massive writing repertoire is based on the list found in Constantine Andronis' Apostolos Makrakis: An Evaluation of Half a Century (1966).[18].

A New Philosophy and the Philosophical Sciences: A New Original Philosophical System [2 Vols]. New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1940.

1b) Five of the Six Books above (excepting the book on Ethics), were re-issued as:

The Logos and the Holy Spirit in the Unity of Christian Thought: According to the Teachings of the Orthodox Church. 5 Vols. Chicago : Orthodox Christian Educational Society, c.1977.

Vol 1. The Orthodox Approach to Philosophy.

Vol 2. Psychology: An Orthodox Christian Perspective.

Vol 3. Logic: an Orthodox Christian approach.

Vol 4. Theology: An Orthodox Standpoint.

Vol 5. Philosophy: An Orthodox Christian Understanding.

2) A Commentary on the Revelation of John the Divine.

3) Interpretation of the Gospel Law, and, Our Duties to God and Christ. b) A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Two vols. in one.

4) Divine and Sacred Catechism.

5) The Foundation of Philosophy.

6) The Bible and the World, An interpretation of the first three chapters of Genesis in extenso and from a philosophical point of view, and, Triluminal Science, Surveying the Universe and Explaining Everything (1 vol).

7) Interpretation of the Entire New Testament (except the Book of Revelation). 2 vols.

8) An Interpretation of the Book of Revelation.

9) The Paramount Doctrine of Orthodoxy (3 books in one vol).

10) Commentary on the Psalms of David and the Nine Odes.

11) Kyriakodromion, or Sunday Sermonary, and Festal Sermons. (A collection of sermons on the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the epistles appointed to be read in Orthodox Christian Churches every Sunday from Easter to Palm Sunday).

12) All in one volume:

I. Three Great Friday Sermons;

II. Three Sermons on the Death on the Cross and the Glorious Resurrection;

36) Homily on the Eight Beatitudes, or The Sermon on the Mountain: A Summary Teaching Delivered by Apostolos Makrakis in the Island of Leukas, Greece, on August 29, 1886, During his Second Gospel-Tour.

↑Kierkegaard, Soren,b. Copenhagen, Denmark, 1813; d. 1855. Philosopher and religious writer. He was a precursor of the existentialists and a major influence on Protestant theology. He argued that advancing through the three stages of the aesthetic, the ethical and the religious by means of an "existential dialectic" brings the individual closer to God. A leap of faith is required; reason is not a help. But awareness of the relationship to God leads to despair as the individual contrasts temporality with eternal truth. His major works include Either/Or (1843) and Fear and Trembling (1843). (The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge. 1st Ed.. St. Martin's Press, NY, Oct. 2004. pp.1020.)

↑Simonopetritis, Very Rev. Archiman. Isaias. "The Orthodox Church and Proselytism." Orthodox Herald, Official Publication of the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain, September–October 2001, No. 120-121.

↑While Elder Philotheos's book on Makrakis has not been translated yet, there is a very careful summary of its contents, as well as those of two shorter publications of his on the subject, in Dr. Constantine Cavarnos's book Blessed Elder Philotheos Zervakos, Vol. 11 in the Modern Orthodox Saints series (ISBN 0914744941) from the Institute for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. Note that Elder Philotheos emphasises that he does not mean to say that there is nothing of value in Makrakis' writings, especially the earlier ones, only that they must be approached with caution.

Simonopetritis, Very Rev. Archim. Isaias. "The Orthodox Church and Proselytism." Orthodox Herald, Official Publication of the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain, September–October 2001, No. 120-121.

The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge. 1st Ed.. St. Martin's Press, NY, Oct. 2004.