The formation of a new species as a result of an ancestral population's becomming isolated by a geographical barrier.

~ Where geographical isolation prevents two populations from interbreeding ~

~ Most common mechansim by which a new species arises ~

Allopatric Speciation

Some type of physical barrier that arises and prevents gene flow between populations of species.

Two Kinds of Reproductive Barriers:

PrezygoticPostzygotic

How many Kingdoms are there?

8

How are living organisms classified?

In a scheme with species being the most basic classification.

~ Humans: Homo Sapiens ~

How does a living organism aquire a new trait?

Through selective forces acting on random mutations.

Reproductive Definition of a Species:

All members of the same species have the ability to reproduce with each other.

Species:

One kind of organism. "Like Organisms"

What is the relation among living organisms?

There is a unity among all living organisms at the biochemical and genetic levels, indicating their relatedness.

Do insects dominate the living world?

Insects dominate the living world by their diversity.

. 9 out of 10 animal species are insects

How does a species come into bieng?

Individual varitations and reproductive isolation give rise to a new species.

How do individual variations promote natural selection?

They provide the substrate for natural selection.

What causes reproductive isolation?

It is caused by geographiccal seperation of two populations of the same species.

Malaria:

An infectious disease of the red blood cells caused by plasmodium.

What causes Malaria?

Plasmodium

How does the sickle cell trait protect against Malaria?

The sickle cell trait protects against Malaria by making the infected red blood cells more susceptible to lysis.

How does natural selection propogate the sickle cell trait?

Individuals carrying the sickle cell trait are resistant to Malaria and pass on the trait to the next generation.

What do antioxidants do?

They fight against free radicals.

What is a free radical?

A molecule that includes an oxygen atom that lacks a full complement of electrons in its outer shell. As a result it is extremely reactive. It can disrupt or destroy the molecules in the process.

What are some sources of antioxidants?

Vitamin CVitamin ECarotenoids

Antioxidant:

Is a chemical that prevents an atom of molecule from losing one or more electrons to another atom or molecule, an event called oxidation. In certain cases when a transferred electron is stolen by another molecule called a free radical, the result can be devistating cell damage.

The longevity of an individual under a specific set of environmental conditions.

What is life span?

The speices specific longevity.

What is Necrosis?

Cell death as a result of injury.

Forensic Entomologist:

Crime Scene Investigator . Studies Succession

What is Mimicry?

The situation in which a species has evolved so that it resembles (usually) another type of organism.

What is biological extinction?

Biological extinction is defined as the disappearance of the genetic blueprint of a biological species.

During early fetal development what is different about a male baby and a female baby?

Nothing. During the fetal stage all babies begin development the same way.

Testicular Fermentization:

. Remember story of Sara who found out she was really a man, because she had an XY chromosome, during testing before her track nationals.

. During early fetal development, all fetal reproductive organs are structurally female. If a fetus has a Y chromosome, two hormones (testosterone and melanin inhibitory factor) are released at a critical stae during development.

. These hormones bind to the receptors in the reproductive organ and cause it to develop into a male reproductive organ.

. In some males, their receptors are defective or absent during this critical developmental stage.

. a result of political and social controversies over species becomming extinct U.S. legislation issued the Edangered Species Act.

. To assist in the protection of species near extinction (endangered)

Tropical Rainforests:

.Account for 50% of existing species.Yet,less than 5% of earth's surface.If we burn all the tropical rain forests, we will force as much as 50% of existing species into extinction.

How do living organisms adapt to environmental changes?

By generating individual variations within a species.

Two types of adaptation:

1. Behavioral Adaptation 2. Gentic Adapation

Behavioral Adaptation:

Example: When you move to a colder climate you wear a heavier coat.

This type of adaptation is the result of modification of preexisting characteristics to suit the need.

Genetic Adaptation:

Example: When individuals of a species migrate to a colder climate, only the individuals who have longer hair will survive.

What is a key factor for a species to survive?

The survival of a species depends heavily on the ability of the members of the species to adjust to environmental changes.

How does DNA undergo change?

Through mutation.

What are the three types of mutation?

1. Beneficial2. Neutral3. Detremental

Know that while mutations can be beneficial most muatations are nuetral or detremental.

Carolus Linnaeus:

. Sweedish Physician. (1707-1778). Developed the first Systematic scheme in classifying living organisms. . His primary interest was in plants

What is the genus and species name for humans?

Homo Sapiens

Life Span:

What we could live

Life expectancy:

What we are expected to live based on our environment.

Primary Succession:

. Occurs on bare, lifeless substrate such as, rocks or open water. Gradual Occurance. Example: New islands formed in the ocean by underseas volcanos.

Secondary Succession:

. Occurs in areas that have been disturbed.. Originally these areas were occupied by living organisms. Example: Mount St. Helens in 1980 fires.

Pioneer Community:

First organisms that inhabit the changing environment. (underwater vascualr plants such as pond weeds).

Biotic Factor:

Living

Abiotic Factor:

Not living

Autotroph:

(Producers) Not human can live by itself

Heterotroph:

Consumer that needs to eat

Mimicry:

Looks like something else

Detrivores:

Feed on Dead or Dacaying (Decomposing) Matters

Diseases that make you age:

1. Progeria2. Werner's Syndrome

Taxonomy:

The naming and grouping togeter of species and groups of species.

Systematicists:

Biologists who study the classification of living organisms.

What percentage of the total number of animal species are mammals?

0.4% of the total number of animal species are mammals.

~ There are 4,000 species of mammals ~

Charles Darwin:

. Published "Origin of Species" in 1859.. "Origin of Species" discussed how a population of interbreeding individuals becomes two seperate populations. . This book provieds an explanation for the existences of the large number of species and how one species can give rise to two different species.

Niche:

The ectinction of an exsisting species leaves a biological niche for anther species to fill.

Mutation:

Change in DNA sequence having either a good (beneficial), bad (detrimental), or no (neutral) effect.

Artificial Selection:

Selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to promote the occurence of desirable inherited traits in offspring.

Genus:

In Classification, the taxonomic category above species; the first part of a species' binomial.

Carcinogen:

Any Cancer Causing Agent

Mutagen:

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

Haploid:

In the life cycle of an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing a single set of chromosomes.

Diploid:

In an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing two homologus sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent; a 2n cell.

What is Mutualism?

Mutualistic Symbiosis. Occurs when both organism benefit from the relationship that is essential for each of their survival.

What is Parasitism?

Parasitic Symbiosis. Occurs when one organism benefits form the other ant the other's detriment with out killing it.

Example: Virus

What is Commensalism?

Note Symbiosis.

When organism benefits from host with out harming or benefiting the host.

What was the name of Charles Darwin's ship?

The H.M.S. Beagle

Where did Charles Darwin's ship sail to?

The Southern Islands (Galapagos), South American Coast, and Austraila.

What was the name of Charles Darwin's Book?

"Origin of Species" by means of natural selcetion.

What is Progeria?

Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome is an extremely rare genetic disease that accelerates the aging proccess to about 7 times the normal rate. Because of the acceleration a child who is only 10 will have simillar resperitory, cardiocascular, and artheritic conditions that a 70 year old would have.

Internal Fertilzation:

(Adaptation to living on land)

. Reproduction inside female, less production of gametes, higher probability of fertilization, lower probablility of gametes drying up, allows for sexual selection, requires cooperative behavior between the sexes and development of sophisticated reproductive system.

External Fertilization:

Usually limited to animals living in water, large gonads, large number of gametes are produced, can release 100 million eggs each season. Very uncertain method of fertilization. Requires development of elaborate behavioral patterns to ensure that bout sexes release gametes at the same time and place.

A genetic recessive disorder. It is a type of progeria diesease that occurs in adults ages twenty to thirty. People who are affected start to age rapidly beginning in their twenties and thirties and look as though they are twenty or more years older than what they actuall are. Strikes about 3 in every 1 million people world wide. Mostly common in Japan.

What is Alzheimer's?

About 4 million people in the U.S. have Alzheimer's. It is an illness that makes it hard for people to remember, think, and use language. It can make them act strange or seem moody. After a while people with this illness have a hard time cooking, using the phone, and handling money. . More common in older adults. Affects 1 in 10 people over the age of 65. Affects 5 in 10 or 50% ofpeople over the age of 85

Herbivores:

Plant Eaters

Omnivores:

Meat and Plant Eaters

Carnivores:

Meat Eaters

Ways to reproduce Asexually:

1. Budding2. Fragmentation3. Parthenogenesis4. Binary Fission

Sexual Reproduction:

Production of haploid gametes (by both sexes) and their union to form a zygote. Both genomes involved in meiosis.

Mechanisms which prevent the fusion of egg and sperm so no zygote can form.

Postzygotic:

Mechanisms that prevent a zygote from developing into a fertile adult offspring.

Which is most common? Allopatric Speciation or Sympatric Speciation?

Allopatric Speciation.

Adaptation:

Modification that increases the survival of a population in a given environment.

Bottlenecks:

Fluctuations in the environment may cause a population to periodically experience a rapid decrease in their number, with only a few individuals from a large population surviving.

Causes of Genetic Drift:

1. Inbreeding2. Bottlenecks3. Founder effect

Directional Selection:

Peppered Moth

Extinction:

Irrecoverable loss of a species.

Founder Effect:

A few individuals from a large population establish, or found, a new population taht have alleles only form the founders.

Genetic Drift:

Change in allele frequencies over generations (usually to a small population)

How old is our planet?

4.6 billion years old

Inbreeding:

Non-random mating among closely related relatives.

A way in which genetic drift occurs.

Disruptive Selection:

Finch Beaks

Jean-Babtiste Lamarck: (1744-1829)

"New traits could be created over a life time." This person explained how one species develops from another. (We now believe that changes occur over generations not with in a life time).

Linnaeus: (1707-1787)

Creator of Taxonomy

Niches:

Different ecological roles that need to be filled.

Darwin sailed to which famous Islands?

Galapagos Islands

When Darwin went to the Galapagos Islands what did he observe?

He noticed slight variations that made tortises form different islands recognizably distinct.

An array of unique finches

Lamarck:

He beleived that Giraffes necks became long as a resultof cotinually stretching to reach high folliage. His hypothesis was incorrect.

Know that Lamarck was wrong!!!

Punctuated Equilibrium:

Contested by a view of episodes of rapid change and long periods of stasis.

Peppered Moth: (Industrial Melansim)

During the Industrial Revolution, soot and other industrial wastes darkend tree trunks and killed of lichens. The light-colored morph of the moth became rare and the dark morph became abundant. In 1819, the first melanic morph was seen; by 1896 it was far more uncommon--illustratiing rapid evolutionary change. Eventually light morphs were common in only few areas far from industrial areas. The cause of the change was thought to be selective predation by birds, which favored camoflage coloration in the moth. To this day the dark moth is still more popular in industrial areas and the light moth in non industrial woods.

Punctuated Equillibrium:

instead of a slow, continuous movement, evolution tends to be characterized by long periods of virtual standstill ("equilibrium"), "punctuated" by episodes of very fast development of new forms.

Decomposers:

Organisms that break down the organic matter accumulated in their bodies of other organisms. (Mushrooms)

Ecological Selection:

Natural selection minus sexual selection. Strictly ecological processes that operate on a species with ou reference to mating or secondary sex characteristics.

1. Relatively few examples of transitional forms in the fossil record Speciation favors small populations

2. Fossil record shows evidence of species remaining unchanged for relatively long periods of time.

3. Abrupt extinction events occur in the fossil record.

What is Taxonomy?

The science of describing, classifying, and organizing organisms according to their similarities and differences.

What is Systematics?

The study of evolutonary relationships between organisms.

Linneaus:

Classified animals formally 100 years prior to darwin.

Phyletic Gradualism:

Species change is the result of long, cumulative changes).

Tempo of Speciation:

1. Phyletic Gradualism2. Punctuated Equilibrium

What happens during REM sleep?

Once we doze off, we experience 90-minutes cycles of Non-REM and REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. Non-REM or Delta sleep dominates the first part of a night's sleep, while REM or dreaming sleep commands the second half.

Using the EEG (electroencephalogram), which measures brain waves, researchers have shown that most people remember their dreams most often when they awake from REM (Rapide Eye Movement). In REM sleep, our eyes flutter inside their lids as if scanning the dreams we're experiencing. What exactly dreams are, and why almost every mammal has them, is still a mystery.

During REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, the brain actively paralyses the body, sending signals to muscles in the limbs, face, and mouth that prevent us from acting out our dreams. When we talk or walk in our sleep, it's often because the brain, for reasons that are not clear, is failing in its attempt to send those paralyzing signals.

Distinction between REM sleep and SWS sleep:

The traditional distinction between REM and SWS sleep is based on the pattern of activity obtained from scalp electrodes attached to the scalp. This electroencephalographic measure (EEG) shows increased amplitudes and higher power at lower frequencies during SWS sleep. The EEG pattern during REM sleep is basically indistinguishable from that in the awake state and is characterized by low amplitudes and higher frequencies. Eye movements (ROG) and muscle tension in the chin (EMG) are used to differentiate the REM state from the awake state.

Density Dependand Factors:

As a population increases the rate of growth is slowed by increasing the death rate or decreasing the birth rate.

. Right after falling asleep, there is slow EEg activity. This stage is called slow wave sleem (SWS).. Second stage, the EEG reveals very fast activity. They eyes move rapidly, giving this stage its other famous name-REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep.. REM: time we dream. The brain reviews and sorts the knowledge from the day. Assording to theory: sleep is required for learning and memory