Stars

One of the most exciting discoveries in 20th-century astronomy was the detection in 1995 of a planet circling another star—an exoplanet (extrasolar planet). By the end of 2009, the number of known exoplanets had exceeded 400. Since these planets are so dim compared with the stars they orbit, they were very difficult to detect directly. Astronomers had found nearly all the known exoplanets by using a variety of indirect means, the most effective of which was to look for tiny changes in the motion of a star along its line of sight, indicating the presence of one or more orbiting planets. This method was used by a group of European astronomers led by Michel Mayor of the Geneva Observatory to detect 32 new exoplanets. The discoveries, which were announced in October, had been made with an instrument called the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS), a spectrograph attached to the 3.6-m (142-in) telescope of the European Southern Observatory at La Silla, Chile. It was capable of detecting stellar motions as small as 3.5 km/hr (2.2 mph), about the speed of a person walking. Including the 32 new discoveries, some 75 exoplanets in 30 different planetary systems had been identified with HARPS. Earlier in the year Mayor’s group had reported the detection of an exoplanet that orbits the star Gliese 581 and has a mass as small as 1.9 Earth masses. This indicated that astronomers were not far from being able to detect planets of about the same mass as Earth. Probably the most intriguing exoplanet discovery in 2009 was of the object designated CoRoT-7b. It was the most likely of the known exoplanets to be a solid, rocky body like Earth. It has a mass of about five Earth masses and a radius of about 1.7 Earth radii. Didier Queloz and colleagues from the Geneva Observatory reported that the planet probably has a silicate mantle and an iron core similar to Earth’s. The home star of CoRoT-7b is much like the Sun in mass and temperature and lies about 500 light-years from Earth. The exoplanet’s orbit is tilted about 77° with respect to the spin axis of its host star, however, which is much different from Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Unfortunately for the search for life on exoplanets, this planet was found to orbit its star at a distance far less than that between Mercury and the Sun. This meant that liquid water could not exist on the surface of CoRoT-7b, so the possibility of its harbouring life as known on Earth was highly unlikely.

Throughout 2009, astronomers reported the detection of a wide range of astronomical objects with the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. Perhaps most exciting was the discovery of 16 previously unknown pulsars solely on the basis of their gamma-ray emissions. Thirteen of them coincided with previously detected gamma-ray sources that had not been known to be pulsars. Of the 1,800 pulsars discovered to date, the vast majority had been identified first by radio telescopes, even though their gamma-ray luminosity often exceeds their radio power by orders of magnitude. Detection of these gamma-ray-emitting objects was also helping to solve a half-century-old mystery: the origin of very-high-energy cosmic-ray protons, those with energies of up to a trillion electron volts (TeV). It began to seem likely that most of the TeV cosmic rays detected from Earth are accelerated in rapidly rotating, highly magnetized neutron stars, acting either as ordinary pulsars or as accreting pulsars in binary star systems (X-ray pulsars that accrete matter from their companion stars).

Galaxies and Cosmology

For 40 years, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs)—flashes of gamma rays that last from fractions of a second to minutes—had been detected coming from directions all over the celestial sphere. They were thought to accompany the deaths of massive stars in giant supernova explosions. Because the gamma rays emitted in GRBs are beamed into small solid angles, they can be detected at great distances. On April 23 NASA’s Swift satellite identified such a burst of gamma rays, now called GRB 090423 for the date of the event. It lasted for about 10 seconds and originated in the direction of the constellation Leo. Ground-based telescopes in Hawaii and Chile determined that this GRB had come from a supernova in a galaxy with a redshift of 8.2, which indicated that it was very distant. In fact, it was the farthest astronomical object seen to date. The source was so far away that given the time it took light to travel from the host galaxy to Earth, the event had to have occurred a mere 630 million years after the big bang (which, according to the latest cosmological estimates, happened some 13.7 billion years ago). Detection of this GRB provided direct evidence that stars had already formed not very long after the big bang. Complementing this gamma-ray discovery, infrared observations of 21 very distant galaxies were made with the Hubble Space Telescope’s new Wide Field Camera 3. They implied that galaxies probably did not form at very much earlier times than suggested by GRB 090423. The colours of the 21 galaxies indicated that they lie between 12.9 billion and 13.01 billion light-years from Earth. Taken together, all these observations suggested that galaxy formation was just beginning—but was happening quite rapidly—at very early times in the history of the universe.

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