James Francis Cagney Jr. (July 17, 1899 – March 30, 1986)[2] was an American actor and dancer, both on stage and in film,[3] though he had his greatest impact in film. Known for his consistently energetic performances, distinctive vocal style, and deadpan comic timing, he won acclaim and major awards for a wide variety of performances.[4] He is best remembered for playing multifaceted tough guys in movies such as The Public Enemy (1931), Taxi! (1932), Angels with Dirty Faces (1938), and White Heat (1949), and was typecast or limited by this view earlier in his career.[5] In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of Classic Hollywood Cinema.[6]Orson Welles said of Cagney, "[he was] maybe the greatest actor who ever appeared in front of a camera",[7] and Stanley Kubrick considered him to be one of the best actors of all time.[8]

In his first professional acting performance, Cagney danced costumed as a woman in the chorus line of the revueEvery Sailor, in 1919. He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925. He secured several other roles, receiving good notices, before landing the lead in the 1929 play Penny Arcade. After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $500-a-week, three-week contract to reprise his role; this was quickly extended to a seven-year contract.

Cagney's seventh film, The Public Enemy, became one of the most influential gangster movies of the period. Notable for a famous scene in which Cagney pushes a grapefruit against Mae Clarke's face, the film thrust him into the spotlight. He became one of Hollywood's biggest stars and one of Warner Bros.' biggest contracts. In 1938, he received his first Academy Award for Best Actor nomination, for Angels with Dirty Faces, for his subtle portrayal of the tough guy/man-child Rocky Sullivan. In 1942, Cagney won the Oscar for his energetic portrayal of George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy.[9] He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me. Cagney retired from acting and dancing in 1961 to spend time on his farm with his family. He came out of retirement 20 years later for a part in the movie Ragtime (1981), mainly to aid his recovery from a stroke.[10]

Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms. In 1935, he sued Warner for breach of contract and won. This was one of the first times an actor prevailed over a studio on a contract issue. He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled—and established his own production company, Cagney Productions, in 1942, before returning to Warner four years later. In reference to Cagney's refusal to be pushed around, Jack L. Warner called him "the Professional Againster".[11] Cagney also made numerous morale-boosting troop tours before and during World War II and was president of the Screen Actors Guild for two years.

James Francis "Jimmy" Cagney was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City. His biographers disagree as to the actual location: either on the corner of Avenue D and 8th Street[2] or in a top-floor apartment at 391 East Eighth Street, the address that his birth certificate indicates.[12] His father, James Francis Cagney Sr. (1875–1918), was of Irish descent. At the time of his son's birth, he was a bartender[13] and amateur boxer, though on Cagney's birth certificate, he is listed as a telegraphist.[12] His mother was Carolyn (née Nelson; 1877–1945); her father was a Norwegian ship captain[4] while her mother was Irish.[14]

Cagney held a variety of jobs early in his life, giving all his earnings to his family: junior architect, copy boy for the New York Sun, book custodian at the New York Public Library, bellhop, draughtsman, and night doorkeeper.[21] While Cagney was working for the New York Public Library, he met Florence James, who helped him into an acting career.[22] Cagney believed in hard work, later stating, "It was good for me. I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it. Suddenly he has to come face-to-face with the realities of life without any mama or papa to do his thinking for him."[21]

He started tap dancing as a boy (a skill that eventually contributed to his Academy Award) and was nicknamed "Cellar-Door Cagney" after his habit of dancing on slanted cellar doors.[21] He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.[13][23] He engaged in amateur boxing, and was a runner-up for the New York State lightweight title. His coaches encouraged him to turn professional, but his mother would not allow it.[24] He also played semiprofessional baseball for a local team,[21] and entertained dreams of playing in the Major Leagues.[25]

His introduction to films was unusual. When visiting an aunt who lived in Brooklyn opposite Vitagraph Studios, Cagney would climb over the fence to watch the filming of John Bunny movies.[21] He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House, one of the first settlement houses in the nation, where his brother Harry performed and his soon-to-be friend, Florence James, directed.[22] He was initially content working behind the scenes and had no interest in performing. One night, however, Harry became ill, and although Cagney was not an understudy, his photographic memory of rehearsals enabled him to stand in for his brother without making a single mistake.[26] Therefore, Florence James has the unique distinction of being the first director to put him on a stage.[22] Afterward, he joined a number of companies as a performer in a variety of roles.[27]

While working at Wanamaker's Department Store in 1919, Cagney learned, from a colleague who had seen him dance, of a role in the upcoming production Every Sailor. A wartime play in which the chorus was made up of servicemen dressed as women, it was originally titled Every Woman. Cagney auditioned for the role of a chorus girl, despite considering it a waste of time; he knew only one dance step, the complicated Peabody, but he knew it perfectly.[28] This was enough to convince the producers that he could dance, and he copied the other dancers' moves while waiting to go on.[29] He did not find it odd to play a woman, nor was he embarrassed. He later recalled how he was able to shed his own natural shy persona when he stepped onto the stage: "For there I am not myself. I am not that fellow, Jim Cagney, at all. I certainly lost all consciousness of him when I put on skirts, wig, paint, powder, feathers and spangles."[30]

Had Cagney's mother had her way, his stage career would have ended when he quit Every Sailor after two months; proud as she was of his performance, she preferred that he get an education.[31] Cagney appreciated the $35 a week he was paid, which he called "a mountain of money for me in those worrisome days."[28][29] In deference to his mother's worries, he got employment as a brokerage house runner.[29] This did not stop him looking for more stage work, however, and he went on to successfully audition for a chorus part in the William B. Friedlander musical Pitter Patter,[4][30] for which he earned $55 a week—he sent $40 to his mother each week.[32] So strong was his habit of holding down more than one job at a time, he also worked as a dresser for one of the leads, portered the casts' luggage, and understudied for the lead.[30][32] Among the chorus line performers was 16-year-old Frances Willard "Billie" Vernon, whom he married in 1922.[4][30]

Pitter Patter was not hugely successful, but it did well enough to run for 32 weeks, enabling Cagney to join the vaudeville circuit. He and Vernon toured separately with a number of different troupes, reuniting as "Vernon and Nye" to do simple comedy routines and musical numbers. "Nye" was a rearrangement of the last syllable of Cagney's surname.[34][35] One of the troupes Cagney joined was Parker, Rand, and Leach, taking over the spot vacated when Archie Leach—who later changed his name to Cary Grant—left.[36][37]

After years of touring and struggling to make money, Cagney and Vernon moved to Hawthorne, California, in 1924, partly for Cagney to meet his new mother-in-law, who had just moved there from Chicago, and partly to investigate breaking into the movies. Their train fares were paid for by a friend, the press officer of Pitter Patter, who was also desperate to act.[38] They were not successful at first; the dance studio Cagney set up had few clients and folded, and Vernon and he toured the studios, but garnered no interest. Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.[38]

Cagney secured his first significant nondancing role in 1925. He played a young tough guy in the three-act play Outside Looking In by Maxwell Anderson, earning $200 a week. As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part. He had no experience with drama at this point.[39] Cagney felt that he only got the role because his hair was redder than that of Alan Bunce, the only other red-headed performer in New York.[39][40] Both the play and Cagney received good reviews; Life magazine wrote, "Mr. Cagney, in a less spectacular role [than his co-star] makes a few minutes silence during his mock-trial scene something that many a more established actor might watch with profit." Burns Mantle wrote that it "...contained the most honest acting now to be seen in New York."[41]

Following the show's four-month run, Cagney went back to vaudeville for the next few years. He achieved varied success, but after appearing in Outside Looking In,[clarification needed] the Cagneys were more financially secure. During this period, he met George M. Cohan, whom he later portrayed in Yankee Doodle Dandy, though they never spoke.[42]

Cagney secured the lead role in the 1926–27 season West End production of Broadway by George Abbott. The show's management insisted that he copy Broadway lead Lee Tracy's performance, despite Cagney's discomfort in doing so, but the day before the show sailed for England, they decided to replace him.[42][43] This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment. He almost quit show business. As Vernon recalled, "Jimmy said that it was all over. He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else."[44]

The Cagneys had run-of-the-play contracts, which lasted as long as the play did. Vernon was in the chorus line of the show, and with help from the Actors' Equity Association, Cagney understudied Tracy on the Broadway show, providing them with a desperately needed steady income. Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months. By the end of the run, Cagney was exhausted from acting and running the dance school.

He had built a reputation as an innovative teacher, so when he was cast as the lead in Grand Street Follies of 1928, he was also appointed the choreographer. The show received rave reviews[45] and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929. These roles led to a part in George Kelly'sMaggie the Magnificent, a play the critics disliked, though they liked Cagney's performance. Cagney saw this role (and Women Go on Forever) as significant because of the talented directors he met. He learned "...what a director was for and what a director could do. They were directors who could play all the parts in the play better than the actors cast for them."[46]

Playing opposite Cagney in Maggie the Magnificent was Joan Blondell, who starred again with him a few months later in Marie Baumer's new play Penny Arcade.[47] While the critics panned Penny Arcade, they praised Cagney and Blondell. Al Jolson, sensing film potential, bought the rights for $20,000. He then sold the play to Warner Bros., with the stipulation that they cast Cagney and Blondell in the film version. Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930.[47] Cagney was given a $500-a-week, three-week contract.[48]

In the film, he portrays Harry Delano, a tough guy who becomes a killer, but generates sympathy because of his unfortunate upbringing. This role of the sympathetic "bad" guy was a recurring character type for Cagney throughout his career.[49] During filming of Sinners' Holiday, he also demonstrated the stubbornness that characterized his work attitude. He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line: "There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother's breast... [The line] was 'I'm your baby, ain't I?' I refused to say it. Adolfi said 'I'm going to tell Zanuck.' I said 'I don't give a shit what you tell him, I'm not going to say that line.'" They took the line out.[50]

Despite this outburst, the studio liked him, and before his three-week contract was up—while the film was still shooting[51]—they gave Cagney a three-week extension, which was followed by a full seven-year contract at $400 a week.[50] The contract, however, allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively only guaranteeing him 40 weeks income at a time. As when he was growing up, Cagney shared his income with his family.[50] Cagney received good reviews, and immediately starred in another gangster role in The Doorway to Hell. The film was a financial hit, helping cement Cagney's growing reputation.[52] He made four more movies before his breakthrough role.

Warner Brothers′ succession of gangster movie hits, in particular Little Caesar with Edward G. Robinson,[53] culminated with the 1931 film The Public Enemy. Due to the strong reviews in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers. However, after the initial rushes, each was reassigned the other's part.[53][54] The film cost only $151,000 to make, but it became one of the first low-budget films to gross $1 million.[55]

Cagney received widespread praise for his role. The New York Herald Tribune described his performance as "...the most ruthless, unsentimental appraisal of the meanness of a petty killer the cinema has yet devised."[56] He received top billing after the film,[57] but while he acknowledged the importance of the role to his career, he always disputed that it changed the way heroes and leading men were portrayed; he cited Clark Gable's slapping of Barbara Stanwyck six months earlier (in Night Nurse) as more important.[58]Night Nurse was actually released three months after The Public Enemy, and Gable punched Stanwyck in the film, knocking her character unconscious, then carried her across the hall, where she woke up later.

Many critics view the scene in which Cagney pushes a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face as one of the most famous moments in movie history.[18][54][59][60] The scene itself was a late addition, and who thought of the idea is a matter of debate. Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference, director William Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot, and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face. Cagney himself usually cited the writers' version, but the fruit's victim, Clarke, agreed that it was Wellman's idea, saying, "I'm sorry I ever agreed to do the grapefruit bit. I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie. Director Bill Wellman thought of the idea suddenly. It wasn't even written into the script.".[61]

However, according to Turner Classic Movies (TCM), the grapefruit scene was a practical joke that Cagney and costar Mae Clarke decided to play on the crew while the cameras were rolling. Wellman liked it so much that he left it in. TCM also notes that the scene made Clarke's ex-husband, Lew Brice, very happy. "He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud."[62]

Cagney's stubbornness became well known behind the scenes, not least after his refusal to join in a 100%participation-free charity drive pushed by Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. Cagney did not object to donating money to charity, but rather to being forced to. Already he had acquired the nickname "The Professional Againster".[11][63]

Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars—Edward G. Robinson and Cagney—for the 1931 film Smart Money. So keen was the studio to follow up the success of Robinson's Little Caesar that Cagney actually shot Smart Money (for which he received second billing in a supporting role) at the same time as The Public Enemy.[64] As in The Public Enemy, Cagney was required to be physically violent to a woman on screen, a signal that Warner Bros. was keen to keep Cagney in the public eye. This time, he slapped co-star Evalyn Knapp.[65]

With the introduction of the United States Motion Picture Production Code of 1930, and particularly its edicts concerning on-screen violence, Warners allowed Cagney a change of pace. They cast him in the comedy Blonde Crazy, again opposite Blondell. As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings. Cagney began to compare his pay with his peers, thinking his contract allowed for salary adjustments based on the success of his films. Warner Bros. disagreed, however, and refused to give him a raise. The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even ones he was not in, which he opposed. Cagney moved back to New York, leaving his brother Bill to look after his apartment.[66]

While Cagney was in New York, his brother, who had effectively become his agent, angled for a substantial pay raise and more personal freedom for his brother. The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros.' hand. They eventually offered Cagney a contract for $1000 a week.[67] Cagney's first film upon returning from New York was 1932's Taxi!. The film is notable for not only being the first time that Cagney danced on screen, but it was also the last time he allowed himself to be shot at with live ammunition (a relatively common occurrence at the time, as blank cartridges and squibs were considered too expensive and hard to find to use in most motion picture filming). He had been shot at in The Public Enemy, but during filming for Taxi!, he was almost hit.[68]

In his opening scene, Cagney spoke fluent Yiddish, a language he had picked up during his boyhood in New York City.[17][68] Critics praised the film.

Taxi! was the source of one of Cagney's most misquoted lines; he never actually said, "MMMmmm, you dirty rat!", a line commonly used by impressionists. The closest he got to it in the film was, "Come out and take it, you dirty, yellow-bellied rat, or I'll give it to you through the door!" The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All.

Despite his success, Cagney remained dissatisfied with his contract. He wanted more money for his successful films, but he also offered to take a smaller salary should his star wane.[69][70] Warner Bros. refused, so Cagney once again walked out. He held out for $4000 a week,[69] the same salary as Edward G. Robinson, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., and Kay Francis.[70] Warner Bros. refused to cave in this time, and suspended Cagney. Cagney announced that he would do his next three pictures for free if they canceled the five years remaining on his contract. He also threatened to quit Hollywood and go back to Columbia University to follow his brothers into medicine. After six months of suspension, Frank Capra brokered a deal that increased Cagney's salary to around $3000 a week, and guaranteed top billing and no more than four films a year.[71]

Having learned about the block-booking studio system that almost guaranteed the studios huge profits, Cagney was determined to spread the wealth.[72][73] He regularly sent money and goods to old friends from his neighborhood, though he did not generally make this known.[74] His insistence on no more than four films a year was based on his having witnessed actors—even teenagers—regularly being worked 100 hours a week to turn out more films. This experience was an integral reason for his involvement in forming the Screen Actors Guild in 1933.

Cagney returned to the studio and made Hard to Handle in 1933. This was followed by a steady stream of films, including the highly regarded Footlight Parade,[75] which gave Cagney the chance to return to his song-and-dance roots. The film includes show-stopping scenes with Busby Berkeley-choreographed routines.[76] His next notable film was 1934's Here Comes the Navy, which paired him with Pat O'Brien for the first time. The two would have an enduring friendship.[77]

Cagney's last movie in 1935 was Ceiling Zero, his third film with Pat O'Brien. O'Brien received top billing, which was a clear breach of Cagney's contract. This, combined with the fact that Cagney had made five movies in 1934, again against his contract terms, caused him to bring legal proceedings against Warner Bros. for breach of contract.[79][80] The dispute dragged on for several months. Cagney received calls from David Selznick and Sam Goldwyn, but neither felt in a position to offer him work while the dispute went on.[79] Meanwhile, while being represented by his brother William in court, Cagney went back to New York to search for a country property where he could indulge his passion for farming.[79]

Cagney spent most of the next year on his farm, and went back to work only when Edward L. Alperson from Grand National Films, a newly established, independent studio, approached him to make movies for $100,000 a film and 10% of the profits.[81][82] Cagney made two films for Grand National: Great Guy and Something to Sing About. He received good reviews for both,[83][84] but overall the production quality was not up to Warner Bros. standards, and the films did not do well. A third film, Dynamite, was planned, but Grand National ran out of money.[85]

Cagney also became involved in political causes, and in 1936, agreed to sponsor the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League.[86] Unknown to Cagney, the League was in fact a front organization for the Communist International (Comintern), which sought to enlist support for the Soviet Union and its foreign policies.[86][87]

The courts eventually decided the Warner Bros. lawsuit in Cagney's favor. He had done what many thought unthinkable: taking on the studios and winning.[85] Not only did he win, but Warner Bros. also knew that he was still their foremost box office draw and invited him back for a five-year, $150,000-a-film deal, with no more than two pictures a year. Cagney also had full say over what films he did and did not make.[88] Additionally, William Cagney was guaranteed the position of assistant producer for the movies in which his brother starred.[89]

Cagney had demonstrated the power of the walkout in keeping the studios to their word. He later explained his reasons, saying, "I walked out because I depended on the studio heads to keep their word on this, that or other promise, and when the promise was not kept, my only recourse was to deprive them of my services."[90] Cagney himself acknowledged the importance of the walkout for other actors in breaking the dominance of the studio system. Normally, when a star walked out, the time he or she was absent was added onto the end of an already long contract, as happened with Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis.[73] Cagney, however, walked out and came back to a better contract. Many in Hollywood watched the case closely for hints of how future contracts might be handled.[91]

Artistically, the Grand National experiment was a success for Cagney, who was able to move away from his traditional Warner Bros. tough guy roles to more sympathetic characters.[88][92] How far he could have experimented and developed will never be known, but back in the Warner fold, he was once again playing tough guys.[92]

Cagney's two films of 1938, Boy Meets Girl and Angels with Dirty Faces, both costarred Pat O'Brien. The former had Cagney in a comedy role, and received mixed reviews. Warner Bros. had allowed Cagney his change of pace,[93] but was keen to get him back to playing tough guys, which was more lucrative. Ironically, the script for Angels was one that Cagney had hoped to do while with Grand National, but the studio had been unable to secure funding.[93]

Cagney starred as Rocky Sullivan, a gangster fresh out of jail and looking for his former associate, played by Humphrey Bogart, who owes him money. While revisiting his old haunts, he runs into his old friend Jerry Connolly, played by O'Brien, who is now a priest concerned about the Dead End Kids' futures, particularly as they idolize Rocky. After a messy shootout, Sullivan is eventually captured by the police and sentenced to death in the electric chair. Connolly pleads with Rocky to "turn yellow" on his way to the chair so the Kids will lose their admiration for him, and hopefully avoid turning to crime. Sullivan refuses, but on his way to his execution, he breaks down and begs for his life. It is unclear whether this cowardice is real or just feigned for the Kids' benefit. Cagney himself refused to say, insisting he liked the ambiguity.[94] The film is regarded by many as one of Cagney's finest,[95] and garnered him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for 1938. He lost to Spencer Tracy in Boys Town. Cagney had been considered for the role, but lost out on it due to his typecasting.[96] (He also lost the role of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne in Knute Rockne, All American to his friend Pat O'Brien for the same reason.[96]) Cagney did, however, win that year's New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor.

His earlier insistence on not filming with live ammunition proved to be a good decision. Having been told while filming Angels with Dirty Faces that he would be doing a scene with real machine gun bullets (a common practice in the Hollywood of the time), Cagney refused and insisted the shots be added afterwards. As it turned out, a ricocheting bullet passed through exactly where his head would have been.[97][98]

During his first year back at Warner Bros., Cagney became the studio's highest earner, making $324,000.[99] He completed his first decade of movie-making in 1939 with The Roaring Twenties, his first film with Raoul Walsh and his last with Bogart. After The Roaring Twenties, it would be a decade before Cagney made another gangster film. Cagney again received good reviews; Graham Greene stated, "Mr. Cagney, of the bull-calf brow, is as always a superb and witty actor".[100]The Roaring Twenties was the last film in which Cagney's character's violence was explained by poor upbringing, or his environment, as was the case in The Public Enemy. From that point on, violence was attached to mania, as in White Heat.[100] In 1939, Cagney was second to only Gary Cooper in the national acting wage stakes, earning $368,333.[101]

Filming began the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the cast and crew worked in a "patriotic frenzy"[104] as the United States' involvement in World War II gave the cast and crew a feeling that "they might be sending the last message from the free world", according to actress Rosemary DeCamp.[106] Cohan was given a private showing of the film shortly before his death, and thanked Cagney "for a wonderful job".[107] A paid première, with seats ranging from $25 to $25,000, raised $5,750,000 for war bonds for the US treasury.[108][109]

"Smart, alert, hard-headed, Cagney is as typically American as Cohan himself... It was a remarkable performance, probably Cagney's best, and it makes Yankee Doodle a dandy"

Many critics of the time and since have declared it Cagney's best film, drawing parallels between Cohan and Cagney; they both began their careers in vaudeville, struggled for years before reaching the peak of their profession, were surrounded with family and married early, and both had a wife who was happy to sit back while he went on to stardom.[111][112] The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards and won three, including Cagney's for Best Actor. In his acceptance speech, Cagney said, "I've always maintained that in this business, you're only as good as the other fellow thinks you are. It's nice to know that you people thought I did a good job. And don't forget that it was a good part, too."[113]

Cagney announced in March 1942 that his brother William and he were setting up Cagney Productions to release films though United Artists.[81][114] Free of Warner Bros. again, Cagney spent some time relaxing on his farm in Martha's Vineyard before volunteering to join the USO. He spent several weeks touring the US, entertaining troops with vaudeville routines and scenes from Yankee Doodle Dandy.[115] In September 1942, he was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild.

Almost a year after its creation, Cagney Productions produced its first film, Johnny Come Lately, in 1943. While the major studios were producing patriotic war movies, Cagney was determined to continue dispelling his tough-guy image,[116] so he produced a movie that was a "complete and exhilarating exposition of the Cagney 'alter-ego' on film".[117] According to Cagney, the film "made money but it was no great winner", and reviews varied from excellent (Time) to poor (New York's PM).[118]

"I'm here to dance a few jigs, sing a few songs, say hello to the boys, and that's all."

Following the film's completion, Cagney went back to the USO and toured US military bases in the UK. He refused to give interviews to the British press, preferring to concentrate on rehearsals and performances. He gave several performances a day for the Army Signal Corps of The American Cavalcade of Dance, which consisted of a history of American dance, from the earliest days to Fred Astaire, and culminated with dances from Yankee Doodle Dandy.

The second movie Cagney's company produced was Blood on the Sun. Insisting on doing his own stunts, Cagney required judo training from expert Ken Kuniyuki and Jack Halloran, a former policeman.[120] The Cagneys had hoped that an action film would appeal more to audiences, but it fared worse at the box office than Johnny Come Lately. At this time, Cagney heard of young war hero Audie Murphy, who had appeared on the cover of Life magazine.[121] Cagney thought that Murphy had the looks to be a movie star, and suggested that he come to Hollywood. Cagney felt, however, that Murphy could not act, and his contract was loaned out and then sold.[122]

While negotiating the rights for his third independent film, Cagney starred in 20th Century Fox's 13 Rue Madeleine for $300,000 for two months of work.[123] The wartime spy film was a success, and Cagney was keen to begin production of his new project, an adaptation of William Saroyan's Broadway play The Time of Your Life. Saroyan himself loved the film, but it was a commercial disaster, costing the company half a million dollars to make;[124] audiences again struggled to accept Cagney in a nontough-guy role.[124][125]

Cagney Productions was in serious trouble; poor returns from the produced films, and a legal dispute with Sam Goldwyn Studio over a rental agreement[124][125] forced Cagney back to Warner Bros. He signed a distribution-production deal with the studio for the film White Heat,[125] effectively making Cagney Productions a unit of Warner Bros.[89]

Cagney's portrayal of Cody Jarrett in the 1949 film White Heat is one of his most memorable.[126][127] Cinema had changed in the 10 years since Walsh last directed Cagney (in The Strawberry Blonde), and the actor's portrayal of gangsters had also changed. Unlike Tom Powers in The Public Enemy, Jarrett was portrayed as a raging lunatic with few if any sympathetic qualities.[128] In the 18 intervening years, Cagney's hair had begun to gray, and he developed a paunch for the first time. He was no longer a romantic commodity, and this was reflected in his performance.[128] Cagney himself had the idea of playing Jarrett as psychotic; he later stated, "it was essentially a cheapie one-two-three-four kind of thing, so I suggested we make him nuts. It was agreed so we put in all those fits and headaches."[129]

Cagney's final lines in the film – "Made it, Ma! Top of the world!" – was voted the 18th-greatest movie line by the American Film Institute. Likewise, Jarrett's explosion of rage in prison on being told of his mother's death is widely hailed as one of Cagney's most memorable performances.[127][130] Some of the extras on set actually became terrified of the actor because of his violent portrayal.[127] Cagney attributed the performance to his father's alcoholic rages, which he had witnessed as a child, as well as someone that he had seen on a visit to a mental hospital.[127]

The film was a critical success, though some critics wondered about the social impact of a character that they saw as sympathetic.[131] Cagney was still struggling against his gangster typecasting. He said to a journalist, "It's what the people want me to do. Some day, though, I'd like to make another movie that kids could go and see."[132] However, Warner Bros., perhaps searching for another Yankee Doodle Dandy,[132] assigned Cagney a musical for his next picture, 1950's The West Point Story with Doris Day, an actress he admired.[133]

His next film, Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye, was another gangster movie, which was the first by Cagney Productions since its acquisition. While compared unfavorably to White Heat by critics, it was fairly successful at the box office, with $500,000 going straight to Cagney Productions' bankers to pay off their losses.[134] Cagney Productions was not a great success, however, and in 1953, after William Cagney produced his last film, A Lion Is in the Streets, the company came to an end.[81]

Cagney's next notable role was the 1955 film Love Me or Leave Me, his third with Day. Cagney played Martin "Moe the Gimp" Snyder, a lame Jewish-American gangster from Chicago, a part Spencer Tracy had turned down.[135] Cagney described the script as "that extremely rare thing, the perfect script".[135][136] When the film was released, Snyder reportedly asked how Cagney had so accurately copied his limp, but Cagney himself insisted he had not, having based it on personal observation of other people when they limped: "What I did was very simple. I just slapped my foot down as I turned it out while walking. That's all".[135][136]

His performance earned him another Best Actor Academy Award nomination, 17 years after his first.[9] Reviews were strong, and the film is considered one of the best of his later career. In Day, he found a co-star with whom he could build a rapport, such as he had had with Blondell at the start of his career.[137] Day herself was full of praise for Cagney, stating that he was "the most professional actor I've ever known. He was always 'real'. I simply forgot we were making a picture. His eyes would actually fill up when we were working on a tender scene. And you never needed drops to make your eyes shine when Jimmy was on the set."[137]

Cagney's next film was Mister Roberts, directed by John Ford and slated to star Spencer Tracy. Tracy's involvement ensured that Cagney accepted a supporting role, although in the end, Tracy did not take part.[138] Cagney had worked with Ford before on What Price Glory?, and they had gotten along fairly well. However, as soon as Ford met Cagney at the airport, the director warned him that they would "tangle asses", which caught Cagney by surprise. He later said, "I would have kicked his brains out. He was so goddamned mean to everybody. He was truly a nasty old man."[139] The next day, Cagney was slightly late on set, incensing Ford. Cagney cut short his imminent tirade, saying "When I started this picture, you said that we would tangle asses before this was over. I'm ready now – are you?" Ford walked away, and they had no more problems, though Cagney never particularly liked Ford.[139]

Cagney's skill at noticing tiny details in other actors' performances became apparent during the shooting of Mister Roberts. While watching the Kraft Music Hall anthology television show some months before, Cagney had noticed Jack Lemmon performing left-handed. The first thing that Cagney asked Lemmon when they met was if he was still using his left hand. Lemmon was shocked; he had done it on a whim, and thought no one else had noticed. He said of his co-star, "his powers of observation must be absolutely incredible, in addition to the fact that he remembered it. I was very flattered."[138]

The film was a success, securing three Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Sound Recording and Best Supporting Actor for Lemmon, who won. While Cagney was not nominated, he had thoroughly enjoyed the production. Filming on Midway Island and in a more minor role meant that he had time to relax and engage in his hobby of painting. He also drew caricatures of the cast and crew.[140]

In 1956, Cagney undertook one of his very rare television roles, starring in Robert Montgomery's Soldiers From the War Returning. This was a favor to Montgomery, who needed a strong fall season opener to stop the network from dropping his series. Cagney's appearance ensured that it was a success. The actor made it clear to reporters afterwards that television was not his medium: "I do enough work in movies. This is a high-tension business. I have tremendous admiration for the people who go through this sort of thing every week, but it's not for me."[142]

The following year, Cagney appeared in Man of a Thousand Faces, in which he played Lon Chaney. He received excellent reviews, with the New York Journal American rating it one of his best performances, and the film, made for Universal, was a box office hit. Cagney's skill at mimicry, combined with a physical similarity to Chaney, helped him generate empathy for his character.[143][144]

Later in 1957, Cagney ventured behind the camera for the first and only time to direct Short Cut to Hell, a remake of the 1941 Alan Ladd film This Gun for Hire, which in turn was based on the Graham Greene novel A Gun for Sale. Cagney had long been told by friends that he would make an excellent director,[144] so when he was approached by his friend, producer A. C. Lyles, he instinctively said yes. He refused all offers of payment, saying he was an actor, not a director. The film was low budget, and shot quickly. As Cagney recalled, "We shot it in twenty days, and that was long enough for me. I find directing a bore, I have no desire to tell other people their business".[145]

In 1959, Cagney played a labor leader in what proved to be his final musical, Never Steal Anything Small, which featured a comical song and dance duet with Cara Williams, who played his girlfriend.

For Cagney's next film, he traveled to Ireland for Shake Hands with the Devil, directed by Michael Anderson. Cagney had hoped to spend some time tracing his Irish ancestry, but time constraints and poor weather meant that he was unable to do so. The overriding message of violence inevitably leading to more violence attracted Cagney to the role of an Irish Republican Army commander, and resulted in what some critics would regard as the finest performance of his final years.[146]

Cagney's career began winding down, and he made only one film in 1960, the critically acclaimed The Gallant Hours, in which he played Admiral William F. "Bull" Halsey. The film, although set during the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Theater during World War II, was not a war film, but instead focused on the impact of command. Cagney Productions, which shared the production credit with Robert Montgomery's company, made a brief return, though in name only. The film was a success, and The New York Times'Bosley Crowther singled its star out for praise: "It is Mr. Cagney's performance, controlled to the last detail, that gives life and strong, heroic stature to the principal figure in the film. There is no braggadocio in it, no straining for bold or sharp effects. It is one of the quietest, most reflective, subtlest jobs that Mr. Cagney has ever done."[147][148]

"I never had the slightest difficulty with a fellow actor. Not until One, Two, Three. In that picture, Horst Buchholz tried all sorts of scene-stealing didoes. I came close to knocking him on his ass."

Cagney's penultimate film was a comedy. He was hand-picked by Billy Wilder to play a hard-driving Coca-Cola executive in the film One, Two, Three.[149] Cagney had concerns with the script, remembering back 23 years to Boy Meets Girl, in which scenes were reshot to try to make them funnier by speeding up the pacing, with the opposite effect. Cagney received assurances from Wilder that the script was balanced. Filming did not go well, though, with one scene requiring 50 takes, something to which Cagney was unaccustomed.[150] In fact, it was one of the worst experiences of his long career. For the first time, Cagney considered walking out of a film. He felt he had worked too many years inside studios, and combined with a visit to Dachau concentration camp during filming, he decided that he had had enough, and retired afterward.[151] One of the few positive aspects was his friendship with Pamela Tiffin, to whom he gave acting guidance, including the secret that he had learned over his career: "You walk in, plant yourself squarely on both feet, look the other fella in the eye, and tell the truth."[152]

Cagney remained in retirement for 20 years, conjuring up images of Jack L. Warner every time he was tempted to return, which soon dispelled the notion. After he had turned down an offer to play Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady,[153][154] he found it easier to rebuff others, including a part in The Godfather Part II.[154] He made few public appearances, preferring to spend winters in Los Angeles, and summers either at his Martha's Vineyard farm or at Verney Farms in New York. When in New York, Billie Vernon and he held numerous parties at the Silver Horn restaurant, where they got to know Marge Zimmermann, the proprietress.[155]

Cagney was diagnosed with glaucoma and began taking eye drops, but continued to have vision problems. On Zimmermann's recommendation, he visited a different doctor, who determined that glaucoma had been a misdiagnosis, and that Cagney was actually diabetic. Zimmermann then took it upon herself to look after Cagney, preparing his meals to reduce his blood triglycerides, which had reached alarming levels. Such was her success that, by the time Cagney made a rare public appearance at his American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement award ceremony in 1974, he had lost 20 pounds (9.1 kg) and his vision had improved.[156]Charlton Heston opened the ceremony, and Frank Sinatra introduced Cagney. So many Hollywood stars attended—said to be more than for any event in history—that one columnist wrote at the time that a bomb in the dining room would have ended the movie industry. In his acceptance speech, Cagney lightly chastised the impressionist Frank Gorshin, saying, "Oh, Frankie, just in passing, I never said 'MMMMmmmm, you dirty rat!' What I actually did say was 'Judy, Judy, Judy!'"—a joking reference to a similar misquotation attributed to Cary Grant.[157]

"I think he's some kind of genius. His instinct, it's just unbelievable. I could just stay at home. One of the qualities of a brilliant actor is that things look better on the screen than the set. Jimmy has that quality."

While at Coldwater Canyon in 1977, Cagney had a minor stroke. After two weeks in the hospital, Zimmermann became his full-time caregiver, traveling with Billie Vernon and him wherever they went.[159] After the stroke, Cagney was no longer able to undertake many of his favorite pastimes, including horseback riding and dancing, and as he became more depressed, he even gave up painting. Encouraged by his wife and Zimmermann, Cagney accepted an offer from the director Miloš Forman to star in a small but pivotal role in the film Ragtime (1981).

Despite the fact that Ragtime was his first film in 20 years, Cagney was immediately at ease: Flubbed lines and miscues were committed by his co-stars, often simply through sheer awe. Howard Rollins, who received a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his performance, said, "I was frightened to meet Mr. Cagney. I asked him how to die in front of the camera. He said 'Just die!' It worked. Who would know more about dying than him?" Cagney also repeated the advice he had given to Pamela Tiffin, Joan Leslie, and Lemmon. As filming progressed, Cagney's sciatica worsened, but he finished the nine-week filming, and reportedly stayed on the set after completing his scenes to help the other actors with their dialogue.

Cagney's frequent co-star, Pat O'Brien, appeared with him on the British chat show Parkinson in the early 1980s and they both made a surprise appearance at the Queen Mother's command birthday performance at the London Palladium in 1980.[160] His appearance on stage prompted the Queen Mother to rise to her feet, the only time she did so during the whole show, and she later broke protocol to go backstage to speak with Cagney directly.[158]

Cagney made a rare TV appearance in the lead role of the movie Terrible Joe Moran in 1984. This was his last role. Cagney's health was fragile and more strokes had confined him to a wheelchair, but the producers worked his real-life mobility problem into the story. They also decided to dub his impaired speech, using the impersonator Rich Little.[citation needed] The film made use of fight clips from Cagney's boxing movie Winner Take All (1932), despite the fact that the TV movie is about an entirely different character.

In 1920, Cagney was a member of the chorus for the show Pitter Patter, where he met Frances Willard "Billie" Vernon. They married on September 28, 1922, and the marriage lasted until his death in 1986. Frances Cagney died in 1994.[161] In 1941, they adopted a son whom they named James Francis Cagney III, and later a daughter, Cathleen "Casey" Cagney.[162] Cagney was a very private man, and while he was willing to give the press opportunities for photographs, he generally spent his time out of the public eye.[163]

Cagney's son married Jill Lisbeth Inness in 1962.[164] The couple had two children, James IV and Cindy.[165] James Cagney III died from a heart attack on January 27, 1984 in Washington, DC, two years before his father's death.[166][167] He had become estranged from his father and had not seen or talked to him since 1982.[165][166]

Cagney's daughter Cathleen married Jack W. Thomas in 1962.[168] She, too, was estranged from her father during the final years of his life. She died on August 11, 2004.[169]

As a young man, Cagney became interested in farming – sparked by a soil conservation lecture he had attended[19] – to the extent that during his first walkout from Warner Bros., he helped to found a 100-acre (0.40 km2) farm in Martha's Vineyard.[170][171] Cagney loved that no concrete roads surrounded the property, only dirt tracks. The house was rather run-down and ramshackle, and Billie was initially reluctant to move in, but soon came to love the place, as well. After being inundated by movie fans, Cagney sent out a rumor that he had hired a gunman for security. The ruse proved so successful that when Spencer Tracy came to visit, his taxi driver refused to drive up to the house, saying, "I hear they shoot!" Tracy had to go the rest of the way on foot.[82]

In 1955, having shot three films, Cagney bought a 120-acre (0.49 km2) farm in Stanfordville, Dutchess County, New York, for $100,000. Cagney named it Verney Farm, taking the first syllable from Billie's maiden name and the second from his own surname. He turned it into a working farm, selling some of the dairy cattle and replacing them with beef cattle.[172][173] He expanded it over the years to 750 acres (3.0 km2). Such was Cagney's enthusiasm for agriculture and farming that his diligence and efforts were rewarded by an honorary degree from Florida's Rollins College. Rather than just "turning up with Ava Gardner on my arm" to accept his honorary degree, Cagney turned the tables upon the college's faculty by writing and submitting a paper on soil conservation.[172]

Cagney, born in 1899 (prior to widespread use of automobiles), loved horses from childhood. As a child, he often sat on the horses of local deliverymen, and rode in horse-drawn streetcars with his mother. As an adult, well after horses were replaced by automobiles as the primary mode of transportation, Cagney raised horses on his farms, specializing in Morgans, a breed of which he was particularly fond.[174]

Cagney was a keen sailor and owned boats harbored on both US coasts,[175] His joy in sailing, however, did not protect him from occasional seasickness—becoming ill, sometimes, on a calm day while weathering rougher, heavier seas[176] at other times. Cagney greatly enjoyed painting,[177] and claimed in his autobiography that he might have been happier, if somewhat poorer, as a painter than a movie star.[178] The renowned painter Sergei Bongart taught Cagney in his later life and owned two of Cagney's works. Cagney often gave away his work, but refused to sell his paintings, considering himself an amateur. He signed and sold only one painting, purchased by Johnny Carson to benefit a charity.[177]

In his autobiography, Cagney said that as a young man, he had no political views, since he was more concerned with where the next meal was coming from.[179] However, the emerging labor movement of the 1920s and 1930s soon forced him to take sides. The first version of the National Labor Relations Act was passed in 1935 and growing tensions between labor and management fueled the movement. Fanzines in the 1930s, however, described his politics as "radical".[180]

This somewhat exaggerated view was enhanced by his public contractual wranglings with Warner Bros. at the time, his joining of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933, and his involvement in the revolt against the so-called "Merriam tax". The "Merriam tax" was an underhanded method of funneling studio funds to politicians; during the 1934 Californian gubernatorial campaign, the studio executives would 'tax' their actors, automatically taking a day's pay from their biggest-earners, ultimately sending nearly half a million dollars to the gubernatorial campaign of Frank Merriam. Cagney (as well as Jean Harlow) publicly refused to pay[181][182] and Cagney even threatened that, if the studios took a day's pay for Merriam's campaign, he would give a week's pay to Upton Sinclair, Merriam's opponent in the race.[183]

He supported political activist and labor leader Thomas Mooney's defense fund, but was repelled by the behavior of some of Mooney's supporters at a rally.[179] Around the same time, he gave money for a Spanish Republican Army ambulance during the Spanish Civil War, which he put down to being "a soft touch". This donation enhanced his liberal reputation. He also became involved in a "liberal group...with a leftist slant," along with Ronald Reagan. However, when Reagan and he saw the direction the group was heading, they resigned on the same night.[184]

Cagney was accused of being a communist sympathizer in 1934, and again in 1940. The accusation in 1934 stemmed from a letter police found from a local Communist official that alleged that Cagney would bring other Hollywood stars to meetings. Cagney denied this, and Lincoln Steffens, husband of the letter's writer, backed up this denial, asserting that the accusation stemmed solely from Cagney's donation to striking cotton workers in the San Joaquin Valley. William Cagney claimed this donation was the root of the charges in 1940.[185] Cagney was cleared by U.S. Representative Martin Dies Jr., on the House Un-American Activities Committee.

Cagney became president of the Screen Actors Guild in 1942 for a two-year term. He took a role in the Guild's fight against the Mafia, which had begun to take an active interest in the movie industry. His wife, Billie Vernon, once received a phone call telling her that Cagney was dead.[186] Cagney alleged that, having failed to scare off the Guild and him, they sent a hitman to kill him by dropping a heavy light onto his head. Upon hearing of the rumor of a hit, George Raft made a call, and the hit was supposedly canceled.[186][187]

During World War II, Cagney raised money for war bonds by taking part in racing exhibitions at the Roosevelt Raceway and selling seats for the premiere of Yankee Doodle Dandy.[108][110] He also let the Army practice maneuvers at his Martha's Vineyard farm.[188]

By 1980, Cagney was contributing financially to the Republican Party, supporting his friend Ronald Reagan's bid for the presidency in the 1980 election.[190] As he got older, he became more and more conservative, referring to himself in his autobiography as "arch-conservative". He regarded his move away from liberal politics as "a totally natural reaction once I began to see undisciplined elements in our country stimulating a breakdown of our system... Those functionless creatures, the hippies ... just didn't appear out of a vacuum."[191]

In 1974, Cagney received the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Award. Charlton Heston, in announcing that Cagney was to be honored, called him "...one of the most significant figures of a generation when American film was dominant, Cagney, that most American of actors, somehow communicated eloquently to audiences all over the world ...and to actors as well."[196]

Cagney was among the most favored actors for the director Stanley Kubrick and the actor Marlon Brando,[199] and was considered by Orson Welles to be "maybe the greatest actor to ever appear in front of a camera."[200] Warner Bros. arranged private screenings of Cagney films for Winston Churchill.[126]

On May 19, 2015, a new musical celebrating Cagney, and dramatizing his relationship with Warner Bros., opened off-Broadway in New York City at the York Theatre.[201]Cagney, The Musical has since moved to the Westside Theatre.

^"James Cagney Jr. Engaged". Associated Press in The New York Times. June 26, 1962. Retrieved August 25, 2010. James F. Cagney Jr., 23-year-old son of the movie actor, is engaged to Miss Jill Lisbeth Inness, daughter of Mr. and ...

^ ab"James Cagney's Son Dies". New York Times. February 2, 1984. Retrieved August 25, 2010. James F. Cagney Jr., the adopted son of the actor James Cagney, has died of a heart attack here. He was 42 years old. The elder Mr. Cagney and the son had been estranged for the last two years, but the actor was reported by his secretary to be very upset. The young Mr. Cagney, who was divorced, is survived by two children, James Cagney IV, and Cindy Cagney. ...

^ ab"'Jack of All Trades' Cagney's Son Dies". Associated Press. January 31, 1984. Retrieved August 25, 2010. .. seen in two years James Cagney, Jr. died Friday of a heart attack in Washington. Cagney's secretary Marge Zimmermann said yesterday The elder Cagney is very ...

^"James Cagney, Jr". Philadelphia Inquirer. January 31, 1984. Retrieved August 25, 2010. James Cagney Jr., 43, adopted son of actor James Cagney, died Friday of a heart attack in Washington, D.C., according to Marge Zimmermann, the actor's secretary. She said the 84-year-old actor, at home on his farm in Stanfordville, N.Y., was "very upset" upon hearing of the death. "There was an estrangement," she said, adding that the Cagneys had not seen each other for two years or more. The elder Cagney recently ...

^"James Cagney Is Dead at 86. Master of Pugnacious Grace". New York Times. March 31, 1986. Retrieved December 12, 2013. James Cagney, the cocky and pugnacious film star who set the standard for gangster roles in The Public Enemy and won an Academy Award for his portrayal of George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy, died yesterday at his Dutchess County farm in upstate New York. He was 86 years old. ...

1.
Lower East Side
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The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the F. D. R. Drive to the east and Canal Street to the south, the western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street. The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown – which extends north to roughly Grand Street, in the west by Nolita and in the north by the East Village. Historically, the Lower East Side referred to the area alongside the East River from about the Manhattan Bridge and Canal Street up to 14th Street and it included areas known today as East Village, Alphabet City, Chinatown, Bowery, Little Italy, and NoLIta. Parts of the East Village are still known as Loisaida, a Latino pronunciation of Lower East Side, Avenue C is known directly as Loisaida and is home to the Loisaida Festival every summer. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway, one encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack. Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or half-free Africans, one of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area, gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East side was then part of the Delancy farm. James Delanceys pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city survives in the names Delancey Street, on the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street. In response to the pressures of a city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the West Farm in the 1760s. The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this plantation that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans or Nechtanc. Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman, founder of the Beekman family of New York, the projection into the East River that retained Corlaers name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, in the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers. In 1833, Corlears Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City, the original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill. It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street, the name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive. The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there. By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, later, more radical artists such as the Beat poets and writers were drawn to the neighborhood – especially the parts which later became the East Village – by the inexpensive housing and cheap food

2.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city

3.
Stanford, New York
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Stanford is a town in Dutchess County, New York, United States. The population was 3,823 at the 2010 census, the town is in the north-central part of the county. Stanford was first settled around 1750, the town was part of the Great Nine Partners Patent of 1697. The town of Stanford was formed in 1793 from the town of Washington. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 50.3 square miles, of which 49.7 square miles is land and 0.66 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,544 people,1,398 households, the population density was 70.9 people per square mile. There were 1,712 housing units at a density of 34.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 95% White,1. 52% African American,0. 20% Native American,1. 10% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 82% from other races, and 1. 38% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 65% of the population,24. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 2.99. In the town, the population was out with 23. 4% under the age of 18,5. 8% from 18 to 24,28. 2% from 25 to 44,30. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 102.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.2 males, the median income for a household in the town was $54,118, and the median income for a family was $62,171. Males had an income of $40,746 versus $30,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $29,236, about 2. 7% of families and 4. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 4% of those under age 18 and 8. 4% of those age 65 or over. David Politzer,2004 Nobel laureate Attlebury – A hamlet in the northeast corner of the town, Bangall – A hamlet northeast of Stanfordville. It is the location of Immaculate Conception Church, the Bangall Post Office was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2014. Bear Market – A hamlet northwest of Stanfordville, lenihan – A hamlet north of Stanfordville

4.
Jeanne Cagney
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Jeanne Carolyn Cagney was an American film, stage, and television actress. Born in New York City, Jeanne Cagney and her four brothers were raised by her widowed mother. Two of the brothers were film actor James Cagney and actor/producer William Cagney and she attended Hunter College High School. Majoring in French and German, she was a cum laude graduate of Hunter College of City College of New York and she also starred in plays produced by the colleges dramatic society. Following her college graduation, she studied acting at the Pasadena Playhouse, Cagney performed in the original stage production of The Iceman Cometh, which premiered on Broadway on October 9,1946. The plays author, Eugene ONeill, cast her in the role of Margie, after being heard by a scout while appearing on Bing Crosbys radio program, Cagney had a film test with RKO Pictures. However, she signed a contract with Paramount Pictures. She appeared in 19 films between 1939 and 1965, including four films with James Cagney, Yankee Doodle Dandy, The Time of Your Life, A Lion Is in the Streets, Cagney gave a noted performance opposite Mickey Rooney in the film noir crime film Quicksand. Cagney briefly played the role in the radio soap opera The Romance of Helen Trent. Later, she served as the commentator of Queen for a Day. This daytime game show is regarded as a forerunner of todays reality shows, Cagney hosted segments that provided viewers with tips on style and introduced to them the latest fashions. Cagney married actor Ross Latimer in 1944 and she was divorced from him March 9,1951. She married Jack Morrison, a faculty member in theater arts at UCLA, on June 6,1953, Jeanne Cagney, at age 65, died of lung cancer in Newport Beach, California, on December 7,1984. Survivors included brothers William and James Cagney, daughters Theresa Cagney and Mary Anne Roberts, and her grave is at Pacific View Memorial Park in Corona del Mar, California. Her brother William, who died in 1988, is buried next to her, Jeanne Cagney at the Internet Movie Database Jeanne Cagney at the Internet Broadway Database Jeanne Cagney at AllMovie Jeanne Cagney at Find a Grave

5.
The Public Enemy
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The Public Enemy, released as Enemies of the Public in the United Kingdom, is a 1931 American all-talking pre-Code gangster film produced and distributed by Warner Bros. The film was directed by William A, Wellman and stars James Cagney, Jean Harlow, Edward Woods, Donald Cook, and Joan Blondell. The film relates the story of a mans rise in the criminal underworld in prohibition-era urban America. The supporting players include Beryl Mercer, Murray Kinnell, and Mae Clarke, as youngsters in 1900s Chicago, Tom Powers and his lifelong friend Matt Doyle engage in petty theft, selling their loot to Putty Nose. Putty Nose persuades them to join his gang on a fur warehouse robbery, when Tom is startled by a stuffed bear, he shoots it, alerting the police, who kill gang member Larry Dalton. Chased by a cop, Tom and Matt have to gun him down, however, when they go to Putty Nose for help, they find he has left town. Toms straightlaced older brother Mike tries, but fails, to talk Tom into giving up crime, Tom keeps his activities secret from his doting mother. When America enters World War I in 1917, Mike enlists in the Marines, in 1920, with Prohibition about to go into effect, Paddy Ryan recruits Tom and Matt as beer salesmen in his bootlegging business. He allies himself with noted gangster Samuel Nails Nathan, as the bootlegging business becomes ever more lucrative, Tom and Matt flaunt their wealth. Mike finds out that his brothers money comes not from politics, as Tom claims, but from bootlegging, Tom retorts in disgust, Your hands aint so clean. You didnt get them medals for holding hands with them Germans, Tom and Matt acquire girlfriends, Kitty and Mamie respectively. Tom eventually tires of Kitty, in a scene, when she complains once too often. He then drops her for Gwen Allen, a woman with a weakness for bad men. At a restaurant on the night of Matts wedding reception to Mamie, Tom and Matt recognize Putty Nose, begging for his life, Putty plays a song on the piano that he had entertained Tom and Matt with when they were kids. Tom shoots him in the back, Tom gives his mother a large wad of money, but Mike rejects the gift. Tom tears up the banknotes and throws them in his brothers face, Nails Nathan dies in a horse riding accident, prompting Tom to find the horse and shoot it. A rival gang headed by Schemer Burns takes advantage of the disarray resulting from Nathans death, later, Matt is gunned down in public, with Tom narrowly escaping the same fate. Furious, Tom takes it himself to single-handedly settle scores with Burns

6.
Taxi!
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Taxi. is a 1932 American pre-Code gangster film starring James Cagney and Loretta Young. The movie was directed by Roy Del Ruth, the provenance of this sequence led to Cagney being famously misquoted as saying, You dirty rat, you killed my brother. Also, Taxi. marks the first occasion when Cagney dances on screen, as Matt, to play his competitor in a ballroom dance contest, Cagney recommended his pal, fellow tough-guy-dancer George Raft, who was uncredited in the film. In a lengthy and memorable sequence, he scene culminates with Raft and his winning the dance contest against Cagney and Young, after which Cagney slugs Raft. As in The Public Enemy, several scenes in Taxi, involved the use of live machine-gun bullets. After a few of the bullets narrowly missed Cagneys head, he outlawed the practice in his future films. In the film they see a fictitious Warner Bros. movie at the cinema called Her Hour of Love in which Cagney cracks a joke about the leading mans appearance saying. Also advertised in the lobby in the film is The Mad Genius. Her unpredictably willful but passionate rant instantly lands her on Matts bad side, although he eventually has a change of heart. Other complications arise shortly thereafter, putting their relationship in jeopardy

7.
Angels with Dirty Faces
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Angels with Dirty Faces is a 1938 American crime film directed by Michael Curtiz for Warner Brothers. It stars James Cagney, Pat OBrien, The Dead End Kids, Humphrey Bogart, Ann Sheridan, the screenplay was written by John Wexley and Warren Duff, and is based on the story by Rowland Brown. The film chronicles the rise and fall of the notorious gangster William Rocky Sullivan, after spending three years in prison for armed robbery, Rocky intends to collect $100,000 from his co-conspirator, Jim Frazier. All the while, Father Jerry Connolly tries to prevent a group of youths from falling under Rockys influence, Angels with Dirty Faces was released on November 28,1938 to positive reviews. At the 11th Academy Awards, the film was nominated in three categories, Best Actor, Best Director, and Best Story, in 1923, Rocky Sullivan and Jerry Connolly attempted to rob a railroad car carrying fountain pens. Jerry, the runner, escaped from police, while Rocky was caught. Thirteen years later, Rocky is arrested for armed robbery and his lawyer and co-conspirator, Jim Frazier, asks him to take the blame and, in exchange, he will give Rocky the $100,000 stolen on the day he is released. Rocky agrees, and is sentenced to three years in prison, after serving his sentence, he returns to his old neighborhood and visits Jerry, who is now a Catholic priest. Jerry advises Rocky to get a place in the old parish, he does so, renting a room in a house run by Laury Martin. He then pays a visit to Fraziers casino, Frazier claims to have been unaware of Rockys release, but promises to have the $100,000 ready by the end of the week. In the meantime, he gives Rocky $500 spending money, Rocky is pickpocketed after leaving the casino. The culprits turn out to be a group of youths, Soapy, Swing, Bim, Pasty, Crab and they admire Rockys reputation and criminal lifestyle so, after retrieving his wallet, Rocky invites them to dinner. While they are eating, Jerry shows up and asks the gang why they havent been playing basketball, with Rockys help, he convinces them to play against another team. At the match, Jerry and Laury express equal concern over the negative influence Rocky may be having on the gang, while walking home, an attempt is made on Rockys life by Fraziers hit squad. Rocky survives, and retaliates by kidnapping Frazier and raiding his house at gunpoint, stealing $2,000, Fraziers business partner, Mac Keefer, gives Rocky his $100,000 in full, but informs the police of the kidnapping. Rocky is arrested, but after discovering he has possession of the ledger, Frazier tells the police it was all a misunderstanding, Jerry learns of the kidnapping, and decides to go to the press in an effort to expose the corruption in New York. Rocky tries to reason with him, but to no avail, on the radio, Jerry publicly denounces the corruption, as well as Rocky, Frazier and Keefer. Frazier and Keefer assure Rocky that no harm come to Jerry

8.
White Heat
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White Heat is a 1949 film noir starring James Cagney, Virginia Mayo and Edmond OBrien and featuring Margaret Wycherly and Steve Cochran. Directed by Raoul Walsh from an Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts screenplay, Arthur Cody Jarrett is a ruthless, deranged criminal gang leader. Although married to Verna, Cody is overly attached to his equally crooked and determined mother, Ma Jarrett, his only real confidante. Cody suffers from debilitating headaches, and Ma consoles him—even sitting him on her lap and giving him a shot of whiskey with the toast, Top of the world, an expression she uses more than once. Cody and his gang rob a train in the High Sierra at the California border, resulting in the deaths of four members of the train crew as well as a member of Codys gang. With the help of informants, the close in on a motor court in Los Angeles where Cody, Verna. Cody shoots and wounds US Treasury investigator Philip Evans and makes his escape and he turns himself in and is sent back to Illinois, where he receives a one- to three-year sentence in state prison. This plan does not fool Evans, however, who plants undercover agent Hank Fallon in Codys cell in the Illinois State Penitentiary and his main task is to find the Trader, a fence who launders stolen money for Cody. In the prison workplace Parker arranges to drop a piece of machinery on Cody but Hank pushes him out of the way. Ma visits and vows to care of Big Ed, despite Codys frantic attempts to dissuade her. He starts worrying and decides to break out, before he can, Cody learns that Ma is dead and goes berserk in the mess hall, slugging guards before being overpowered and dragged away to the infirmary. Although feigning a psychosis, he concocts a plan to escape the prison, in the infirmary he is diagnosed as having homicidal psychosis and is recommended for a transfer to an asylum. Cody takes hostages and escapes, along with his mates, including Hank. Parker is locked in the trunk of the getaway car, later, when he complains, Its stuffy, I need some air, Cody—blithely snacking on a chicken leg—replies, Oh, stuffy, huh. Ill give ya a little air and fires his gun several times into the trunk, the remaining men head for California. On hearing of Codys escape, Big Ed nervously waits for him to show up, Verna tries slipping away but Cody catches her. Although it turns out that she was actually the one who murdered Ma by shooting her in the back, she convinces Cody that Big Ed killed Ma, the gang welcomes the escapees, including Hank, for whom Cody has developed a genuine liking. Cody insists on sharing the proceeds from their robberies with him, stating, I split even with Ma, a stranger shows up at the gangs isolated country hideout, asking to use the phone

9.
American Film Institute
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The American Film Institute is an American film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the moving picture arts in America. AFI is supported by funding and public membership. The institute is composed of leaders from the film, entertainment, business, a board of trustees chaired by Sir Howard Stringer and a board of directors chaired by Robert A. Daly guide the organization, which is led by President and CEO Bob Gazzale. Prior leaders were founding director George Stevens, Jr. and Jean Picker Firstenberg. <ref>AFI Board of Trustees etc. American Film Institute. October 2014. Retrieved December 24,2014. </ref>Two years later, in 1967, AFI was established, supported by the National Endowment for the Arts, the Motion Picture Association of America and the Ford Foundation. The institute established a program for filmmakers known then as the Center for Advanced Film Studies. The institute moved to its current eight-acre Hollywood campus in 1981, the film training program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate school. AFI educates audiences and recognizes excellence through its awards programs and 10 Top 10 Lists. In 1969, the established the AFI Conservatory for Advanced Film Studies at Greystone. The first class included filmmakers Terrence Malick, Caleb Deschanel and Paul Schrader, mirroring a professional production environment, Fellows collaborate to make more films than any other graduate level program. Admission to AFI Conservatory is highly selective, with a maximum of 140 graduates per year, in 2013, Emmy and Oscar-winning director, producer and screenwriter James L. Brooks joined AFI as Artistic Director of the AFI Conservatory where he provides leadership for the film program. Brooks artistic role at the AFI Conservatory has a legacy that includes Daniel Petrie, Jr. Robert Wise. Award-winning director Bob Mandel served as Dean of the AFI Conservatory for nine years, jan Schuette took over as Dean in 2014. AFI Conservatorys alumni have careers in film, television and on the web and they have been recognized with all of the major industry awards – Academy Award, Emmy Award, guild awards, and the Tony Award. The AFI Catalog, started in 1968, is a web-based filmographic database, early print copies of this catalog may also be found at your local library. Each year the AFI Awards honor the ten outstanding films and ten outstanding television programs, the awards are a non-competitive acknowledgement of excellence. The Awards are announced in December and a luncheon for award honorees takes place the following January. The juries consisted of over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics and historians, with movies selected based on the films popularity over time, historical significance, citizen Kane was voted the greatest American film twice. AFI operates two film festivals, AFI Fest in Los Angeles, and AFI Docs in Silver Spring, Maryland, AFI Fest is the American Film Institutes annual celebration of artistic excellence

10.
Orson Welles
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George Orson Welles was an American actor, director, writer, and producer who worked in theatre, radio, and film. In 1937 he and John Houseman founded the Mercury Theatre, an independent repertory company that presented a series of productions on Broadway through 1941. It reportedly caused widespread panic when listeners thought that an invasion by extraterrestrial beings was actually occurring, although some contemporary sources claim these reports of panic were mostly false and overstated, they rocketed Welles to notoriety. His first film was Citizen Kane, which he co-wrote, produced, directed, Welles was an outsider to the studio system and directed only 13 full-length films in his career. He has been praised as the ultimate auteur, Welles followed up Citizen Kane with critically acclaimed films including The Magnificent Ambersons in 1942 and Touch of Evil in 1958. Although these three are his most acclaimed films, critics have argued other works of his, such as The Lady from Shanghai and Chimes at Midnight, are underappreciated. Known for his voice, Welles was an actor in radio and film, a Shakespearean stage actor. George Orson Welles was born May 6,1915, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, son of Richard Head Welles and he was named after his paternal great-grandfather, influential Kenosha attorney Orson S. Head, and his brother George Head. Despite his familys affluence, Welles encountered hardship in childhood and his parents separated and moved to Chicago in 1919. His father, who made a fortune as the inventor of a bicycle lamp, became an alcoholic. Beatrice died of hepatitis in a Chicago hospital May 10,1924, the Gordon String Quartet, which had made its first appearance at her home in 1921, played at Beatrices funeral. After his mothers death Welles ceased pursuing music and it was decided that he would spend the summer with the Watson family at a private art colony in Wyoming, New York, established by Lydia Avery Coonley Ward. There he played and became friends with the children of the Aga Khan, Welles briefly attended public school before his alcoholic father left business altogether and took him along on his travels to Jamaica and the Far East. When they returned they settled in a hotel in Grand Detour, Illinois, when the hotel burned down, Welles and his father took to the road again. During the three years that Orson lived with his father, some observers wondered who took care of whom, in some ways, he was never really a young boy, you know, said Roger Hill, who became Welless teacher and lifelong friend. Welles briefly attended school in Madison, Wisconsin, enrolled in the fourth grade. At Todd School, Welles came under the influence of Roger Hill, Hill provided Welles with an ad hoc educational environment that proved invaluable to his creative experience, allowing Welles to concentrate on subjects that interested him. Welles performed and staged theatrical experiments and productions there, Todd provided Welles with many valuable experiences, wrote critic Richard France

11.
Stanley Kubrick
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Stanley Kubrick was an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor, and photographer. He is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history, Kubrick was born and raised in the Bronx, New York City, and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945. This was followed by two collaborations with Kirk Douglas, the war picture Paths of Glory and the historical epic Spartacus. His reputation as a filmmaker in Hollywood grew, and he was approached by Marlon Brando to film what would become One-Eyed Jacks, though Brando eventually decided to direct it himself. His home at Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire, which he shared with his wife Christiane, became his workplace, where he did his writing, research, editing, and management of production details. This allowed him to have almost complete control over his films. His first British productions were two films with Peter Sellers, Lolita and Dr. Strangelove and he often asked for several dozen retakes of the same scene in a movie, which resulted in many conflicts with his casts. Despite the resulting notoriety among actors, many of Kubricks films broke new ground in cinematography, Steven Spielberg has referred to the film as his generations big bang, and it is regarded as one of the greatest films ever made. For the 18th-century period film Barry Lyndon, Kubrick obtained lenses developed by Zeiss for NASA, with The Shining, he became one of the first directors to make use of a Steadicam for stabilized and fluid tracking shots. His last film, Eyes Wide Shut, was completed shortly before his death in 1999, Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26,1928, in the Lying-In Hospital at 307 Second Avenue in Manhattan, New York City. He was the first of two children of Jacob Leonard Kubrick, known as Jack or Jacques, and his wife Sadie Gertrude Kubrick, known as Gert and his sister, Barbara Mary Kubrick, was born in May 1934. At Stanleys birth, the Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in the Bronx, although his parents had been married in a Jewish ceremony, Kubrick did not have a religious upbringing, and would later profess an atheistic view of the universe. By the district standards of the West Bronx, the family was fairly wealthy, soon after his sisters birth, Kubrick began schooling in Public School 3 in the Bronx, and moved to Public School 90 in June 1938. Although his IQ was discovered to be average, his attendance was poor. He displayed an interest in literature from an age, and began reading Greek and Roman myths. When Kubrick was 12, his father Jack taught him chess, the game remained a lifelong interest of Kubricks, appearing in many scenes of his films. Kubrick himself, who became a member of the United States Chess Federation, explained that chess helped him develop patience. At the age of 13, Kubricks father bought him a Graflex camera and he became friends with a neighbor, Marvin Traub, who shared his passion for photography

12.
Vaudeville
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Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment. It was especially popular in the United States and Canada from the early 1880s until the early 1930s, a typical vaudeville performance is made up of a series of separate, unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. A vaudeville performer is often referred to as a vaudevillian, Vaudeville developed from many sources, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and literary American burlesque. Called the heart of American show business, vaudeville was one of the most popular types of entertainment in North America for several decades, the origin of this term is obscure, but is often explained as being derived from the French expression voix de ville. A second speculation is that it comes from the songs on satire by poet Olivier Basselin. Some, however, preferred the term variety to what manager Tony Pastor called its sissy. Thus, vaudeville was marketed as variety well into the 20th century, with its first subtle appearances within the early 1860s, vaudeville was not initially a common form of entertainment. The form gradually evolved from the saloon and variety hall into its mature form throughout the 1870s and 1880s. This more gentle form was known as Polite Vaudeville, in the years before the American Civil War, entertainment existed on a different scale. Certainly, variety theatre existed before 1860 in Europe and elsewhere, in the US, as early as the first decades of the 19th century, theatregoers could enjoy a performance consisting of Shakespeare plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedy. As the years progressed, people seeking diversified amusement found a number of ways to be entertained. Vaudeville was characterized by traveling companies touring through cities and towns, a significant influence also came from Dutch minstrels and comedians. Vaudeville incorporated these various itinerant amusements into a stable, institutionalized form centered in Americas growing urban hubs, pastors experiment proved successful, and other managers soon followed suit. B. F. Keith took the step, starting in Boston. Later, E. F. Albee, adoptive grandfather of the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Edward Albee, circuits such as those managed by Keith-Albee provided vaudevilles greatest economic innovation and the principal source of its industrial strength. They enabled a chain of allied vaudeville houses that remedied the chaos of the booking system by contracting acts for regional and national tours. These could easily be lengthened from a few weeks to two years, Albee also gave national prominence to vaudevilles trumpeting polite entertainment, a commitment to entertainment equally inoffensive to men, women and children. Acts that violated this ethos were admonished and threatened with expulsion from the remaining performances or were canceled altogether

13.
Warner Bros.
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Entertainment Inc. – colloquially known as Warner Bros. or Warner Bros. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios, Warner Bros. is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America. The companys name originated from the four founding Warner brothers, Harry, Albert, Sam, Jack, the youngest, was born in London, Ontario. The three elder brothers began in the theater business, having acquired a movie projector with which they showed films in the mining towns of Pennsylvania. In the beginning, Sam and Albert Warner invested $150 to present Life of an American Fireman and they opened their first theater, the Cascade, in New Castle, Pennsylvania, in 1903. When the original building was in danger of being demolished, the modern Warner Bros. called the current building owners, the owners noted people across the country had asked them to protect it for its historical significance. In 1904, the Warners founded the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement & Supply Company, in 1912, Harry Warner hired an auditor named Paul Ashley Chase. By the time of World War I they had begun producing films, in 1918 they opened the first Warner Bros. studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. Sam and Jack produced the pictures, while Harry and Albert, along with their auditor and now controller Chase, handled finance and distribution in New York City. During World War I their first nationally syndicated film, My Four Years in Germany, on April 4,1923, with help from money loaned to Harry by his banker Motley Flint, they formally incorporated as Warner Brothers Pictures, Incorporated. The first important deal was the acquisition of the rights to Avery Hopwoods 1919 Broadway play, The Gold Diggers, however, Rin Tin Tin, a dog brought from France after World War I by an American soldier, established their reputation. Rin Tin Tin debuted in the feature Where the North Begins, the movie was so successful that Jack signed the dog to star in more films for $1,000 per week. Rin Tin Tin became the top star. Jack nicknamed him The Mortgage Lifter and the success boosted Darryl F. Zanucks career, Zanuck eventually became a top producer and between 1928 and 1933 served as Jacks right-hand man and executive producer, with responsibilities including day-to-day film production. More success came after Ernst Lubitsch was hired as head director, lubitschs film The Marriage Circle was the studios most successful film of 1924, and was on The New York Times best list for that year. Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and Lubitsch, Warners remained a lesser studio, Sam and Jack decided to offer Broadway actor John Barrymore the lead role in Beau Brummel. The film was so successful that Harry signed Barrymore to a contract, like The Marriage Circle. By the end of 1924, Warner Bros. was arguably Hollywoods most successful independent studio, as the studio prospered, it gained backing from Wall Street, and in 1924 Goldman Sachs arranged a major loan

14.
Mae Clarke
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Mae Clarke born Violet Mary Klotz was an American actress. Both films were released in 1931, mae Clarke was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her father was a theater organist and she studied dancing as a child and began on stage in vaudeville and also worked in night clubs. Mae Clarke started her career as a dancer in New York City. She subsequently starred in films for Universal Studios, including the original screen version of The Front Page. Clarke played the role of Henry Frankensteins fiancee, Elizabeth, who is attacked by the Monster, on her wedding day. The Public Enemy, released that year, contained one of cinemas most famous scenes, in which James Cagney pushes a half grapefruit into Clarkes face. Clarke appeared as Myra Deauville in the 1931 pre-Code version of Waterloo Bridge, Clarke also appeared in the modest pre-code Universal film Night World, with Lew Ayres, Boris Karloff, Hedda Hopper, and George Raft. By the mid-1930s, Clarke was no longer a leading lady and was featured in small parts through to the 1960s. In the early 1930s Clarkes face had been left partially scarred as a result of a car crash, in 1949 Clarke was the female lead of Republic Pictures 12-chapter movie serial King of the Rocket Men that introduced their popular atomic rocket-powered hero. On television, Clarke acted in the series Perry Mason and Batman, Clarke was married and divorced three times, to Fanny Brices brother Lew Brice, Stevens Bancroft, and Herbert Langdon. Early in her career, Clarke and Joan Crawford were roommates, Clarke died from cancer on April 29,1992, at age 81, in Woodland Hills, California. She is buried in Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery

15.
Academy Award for Best Actor
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The Academy Award for Best Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. It is given in honor of an actor who has delivered a performance in a leading role while working within the film industry. The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with Emil Jannings receiving the award for his roles in The Last Command and The Way of All Flesh. Currently, nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the branch of AMPAS. In the first three years of the awards, actors were nominated as the best in their categories, at that time, all of their work during the qualifying period was listed after the award. The following year, this unwieldy and confusing system was replaced by the current system in which an actor is nominated for a performance in a single film. Starting with the 9th ceremony held in 1937, the category was officially limited to five nominations per year, since its inception, the award has been given to 79 actors. Daniel Day-Lewis has received the most awards in this category with three Oscars, spencer Tracy and Laurence Olivier were nominated on nine occasions, more than any other actor. As of the 2017 ceremony, Casey Affleck is the most recent winner in category for his role as Lee Chandler in Manchester by the Sea. In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of release in Los Angeles County. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31, for the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1,1932 to December 31,1933

16.
George M. Cohan
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George Michael Cohan, known professionally as George M. Cohan, was an American entertainer, playwright, composer, lyricist, actor, singer, dancer and producer. Cohan began his career as a child, performing with his parents, beginning with Little Johnny Jones in 1904, he wrote, composed, produced, and appeared in more than three dozen Broadway musicals. Cohan published more than 300 songs during his lifetime, including the standards Over There, Give My Regards to Broadway, The Yankee Doodle Boy, as a composer, he was one of the early members of the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers. He displayed remarkable theatrical longevity, appearing in films until the 1930s, known in the decade before World War I as the man who owned Broadway, he is considered the father of American musical comedy. His life and music were depicted in the Academy Award-winning film Yankee Doodle Dandy, a statue of Cohan in Times Square in New York City commemorates his contributions to American musical theatre. Cohan was born in 1878 in Providence, Rhode Island, to Irish Catholic parents. A baptismal certificate from St. Josephs Roman Catholic Church indicated that he was born on July 3, but Cohan and his family always insisted that George had been born on the Fourth of July. Georges parents were traveling vaudeville performers, and he joined them on stage while still an infant, first as a prop, learning to dance, Cohan started as a child performer at age 8, first on the violin and then as a dancer. He was the member of the family vaudeville act called The Four Cohans. In 1890, he toured as the star of a show called Pecks Bad Boy and then joined the family act and he and his sister made their Broadway debut in 1893 in a sketch called The Lively Bootblack. Temperamental in his years, Cohan later learned to control his frustrations. During these years, Cohan originated his famous speech, My mother thanks you, my father thanks you, my sister thanks you. The family generally gave a performance at the hall there each summer. Cohans memories of those happy summers inspired his 1907 musical 50 Miles from Boston, as Cohan matured through his teens, he used the quiet summers there to write. When he returned to the town in the cast of Ah, in 1934, he told a reporter, Ive knocked around everywhere, but theres no place like North Brookfield. Cohan began writing original skits and songs for the act in both vaudeville and minstrel shows while in his teens. Soon he was writing professionally, selling his first songs to a publisher in 1893. In 1901 he wrote, directed and produced his first Broadway musical, The Governors Son and his first big Broadway hit in 1904 was the show Little Johnny Jones, which introduced his tunes Give My Regards to Broadway and The Yankee Doodle Boy

17.
Yankee Doodle Dandy
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Yankee Doodle Dandy is a 1942 American biographical musical film about George M. Cohan, known as The Man Who Owned Broadway. It stars James Cagney, Joan Leslie, Walter Huston, and Richard Whorf, and features Irene Manning, George Tobias, Rosemary DeCamp, Jeanne Cagney, Joan Leslies singing voice was partially dubbed by Sally Sweetland. The movie was written by Robert Buckner and Edmund Joseph, according to the special edition DVD, significant and uncredited improvements were made to the script by the famous script doctors, twin brothers Julius J. Epstein and Philip G. Epstein. Cagney was a choice for the role of Cohan since, like Cohan. His unique and seemingly odd presentation style, of half-singing and half-reciting the songs and his natural dance style and physique were also a good match for Cohan. Newspapers at the time reported that Cagney intended to consciously imitate Cohans song-and-dance style, although director Curtiz was famous for being a taskmaster, he also gave his actors some latitude. Cagney and other came up with a number of bits of business, as Cagney called them. Although a number of the particulars of the movie are Hollywood-ized fiction, care was taken to make the sets, costumes. This effort was aided significantly by an associate of Cohans, Jack Boyle. Boyle also appeared in the film in some of the dancing groups, Cagney, as Cohan, is shown performing as a singing and dancing version of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Although it was known, the reality of Roosevelts use of a wheelchair after polio was not emphasized at the time. In the film, Roosevelt never leaves his chair when meeting Cohan, the movie poster for this film was the first ever produced by noted poster designer Bill Gold. Cohan himself served as a consultant during the production of the film, due to his failing health, his actual involvement in the film was rather limited. However, Cohan did see the film before he died and approved of Cagneys portrayal, in the early days of World War II, Cohan comes out of retirement to star as President Roosevelt in the Rodgers and Hart musical Id Rather Be Right. On the first night, he is summoned to meet the President at the White House, Cohan is overcome and chats with Roosevelt, recalling his early days on the stage. The film flashes back to his birth on July 4. Cohan and his sister join the act as soon as they can learn to dance. But George gets too cocky as he grows up and is blacklisted by theatrical producers for being troublesome and he leaves the act and hawks his songs unsuccessfully around to producers

18.
Love Me or Leave Me (film)
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Love Me or Leave Me is a 1955 biographical romantic musical drama film which tells the life story of Ruth Etting, a singer who rose from dancer to movie star. It stars Doris Day as Etting, James Cagney as gangster Martin Moe the Gimp Snyder, her first husband and manager and it was written by Daniel Fuchs and Isobel Lennart and directed by Charles Vidor. After kicking a customer for getting fresh, 1920s Chicago nightclub singer Ruth Etting is in jeopardy of losing her job when Martin Snyder intervenes on her behalf. Snyder, known as The Gimp to some because of his leg, owns a laundry business and runs a protection racket. Etting and her piano accompanist Johnny Alderman are grateful, but Snyder makes it clear he expects Etting to travel to Miami with him, not for business, Etting declines, but Snyders interest in her continues. Through an agent, Bernie Loomis, he arranges a radio program to feature Etting and his crude behavior and violent temper cause Etting a number of problems along the way. Johnny is in love with Etting as well, but she marries Snyder out of gratitude and his heavy-handed management continues as her popularity grows. Goaded to get into the entertainment business, Snyder decides to open a nightclub of his own, upset at sensing a relationship resuming between Etting and Johnny during their filming of a Hollywood movie, Snyder strikes her. He then catches them together, shoots Johnny and is arrested, horrified but conflicted because of all Snyder has done for her career, Etting arranges for Loomis to bail him out of jail. At his neglected nightclub, Snyder arrives to find that Etting is performing there herself. At first enraged by what he perceives as an act of charity, Snyder finally realizes this is Ettings way of showing her appreciation, Doris Day as Ruth Etting James Cagney as Martin Snyder Cameron Mitchell as Johnny Alderman Robert Keith as Bernard V. The role had been sought by Ava Gardner and Jane Russell, but Cagney persuaded MGM to cast Doris Day, variety called the film a rich canvas of the Roaring 20s, with gutsy and excellent performances. The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists,2002, AFIs 100 Years.100 Passions – Nominated 2004, love Me or Leave Me was the eighth ranked movie in 1955. All but two of the songs in the movie were hits that Etting had recorded originally back in the 20s and early 30s. These new songs, written specifically for the film are, Never Look Back, by Chilton Price, and, Ill Never Stop Loving You, by Nicholas Brodzsky and Sammy Cahn

19.
Ragtime (film)
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Ragtime is a 1981 American drama film, directed by Miloš Forman, based on 1975 historical novel Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow. The action takes place in and around New York City, New Rochelle, the music score was composed by Randy Newman. The film was nominated for eight Oscars, the newsreel is accompanied by ragtime pianist Coalhouse Walker, Jr. The millionaire industrialist Harry Kendall Thaw, who makes a scene when Whites latest creation, the model for the statue is Evelyn Nesbit, a former chorus girl who is now Thaws wife. Thaw becomes convinced White has corrupted Evelyn and humiliated him, and publicly shoots White, meanwhile, an unnamed upper class family resides in a comfortable suburban home in New Rochelle. The familys Father owns a factory, where his wifes Younger Brother is employed as a fireworks maker and their passive, sheltered existence is disturbed when an abandoned African American baby is found in their garden. The childs mother, an unmarried washerwoman named Sarah, is discovered, when she learns that the police intend to charge Sarah with child abandonment and attempted murder, Mother intervenes and takes Sarah and her child into the home, despite Fathers objections. Realizing that he is the father, he announces to a skeptical Father that he intends to marry Sarah. Younger Brother witnesses Whites murder and becomes obsessed with Evelyn, leaving home for periods of time to follow her throughout the city. Thaws lawyer, Delphin, bribes Evelyn with a divorce settlement to keep silent about Thaws mental instability at his trial. Passing through the tenements of the Lower East Side, Evelyn encounters a street artist known as Tateh and he takes their daughter and leaves New York, taking with him the flip book he has invented, which he begins to sell successfully. Evelyn, who has become fond of the girl, is troubled by their disappearance. She begins an affair with him as she begins to plan her return to the stage and he assumes that they will eventually marry and plans to introduce her to his family. The affair ends shortly thereafter, leaving Younger Brother alone and adrift, after he leaves to find a policeman, Walker returns to find his cars front seat soiled with horse manure. His protests end with the racist policeman placing him under arrest for parking his car illegally, after Father arranges for Coalhouses release, they discover his car has been vandalized further. Coalhouse pursues legal action, but can find no lawyer willing to represent him and she sneaks out of the house to attend a presidential rally, where she attempts to tell President Roosevelt about Coalhouses case but is pushed back and beaten by guards. She is severely injured, and soon dies from her wounds. After Sarahs funeral, Coalhouse and a group of supporters ambush the volunteer firemen and he sends a letter to the police and newspapers threatening to attack other firehouses, demanding that his car be restored and that Conklin be turned over to him for justice

20.
Jack L. Warner
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Jack Leonard J. L. Warner, born Jacob Warner, in London, Ontario, was a Canadian-American film executive who was the president and driving force behind the Warner Bros. Warners career spanned some forty-five years, its duration surpassing that of any other of the seminal Hollywood studio moguls, as co-head of production at Warner Bros. Studios, he worked with his brother, Sam Warner, to procure the technology for the industrys first talking picture. After Sams death, Jack clashed with his older brothers, Harry. Although Warner was feared by many of his employees and inspired ridicule with his attempts at humor, he earned respect for his shrewd instincts. He recruited many of Warner Bros. top stars and promoted the social dramas for which the studio became known. Given to decisiveness, Warner once commented, If Im right fifty-one percent of the time, Throughout his career, he was viewed as a contradictory and enigmatic figure. Although he was a staunch Republican, Warner encouraged film projects that promoted the agenda of Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal and he opposed European fascism and criticized Nazi Germany well before Americas involvement in World War II. Despite his controversial image, Warner remained a force in the motion picture industry until his retirement in the early 1970s. Jack Warner was born in London, Ontario, in 1892 and his parents were Jewish immigrants from Poland who spoke mainly Yiddish. Jack was the surviving son of Benjamin Warner a cobbler from Krasnosielc, Poland, and his wife. Following their marriage in 1876, the couple had three children in Poland, one of whom died at a young age, one of the surviving children was Jacks eldest brother, Hirsch. The Warner family had occupied a hostile world, where the night-riding of cossacks, the burning of houses, and the raping of women were part of lifes burden for the Jews of the shtetl. In 1888, in search of a future for his family and himself, Benjamin made his way to Hamburg, Germany. Pearl Warner and the two children joined him in Baltimore, Maryland, less than a year later. In Baltimore, the couple had five children, including Abraham and Sam Warner. Benjamin Warners decision to move to Canada in the early 1890s was inspired by a friends advice that he could make an excellent living bartering tin wares with trappers in exchange for furs and their sons Jack and David were born in Ontario. After two arduous years in Canada, Benjamin and Pearl Warner returned to Baltimore, bringing along their growing family, two more children, Sadie and Milton, were added to the household there

21.
Screen Actors Guild
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The Screen Actors Guild was an American labor union which represented over 100,000 film and television principal and background performers worldwide. On March 30,2012, the leadership announced that the SAG membership voted to merge with the American Federation of Television. The Screen Actors Guild was associated with the Associated Actors and Artistes of America, AAAA is affiliated with the AFL–CIO. Internationally, the SAG was affiliated with the International Federation of Actors. C, since 1995, the guild annually awarded the Screen Actors Guild Awards, which are considered an indicator of success at the Academy Awards. This award is continued by SAG-AFTRA, in 1925, the Masquers Club was formed by actors discontent with the grueling work hours at the Hollywood studios. This was one of the concerns which led to the creation of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933. A meeting in March 1933 of six led to the guilds foundation. Aubrey Smith, Charles Starrett, Richard Tucker, Arthur Vinton, Morgan Wallace, many high-profile actors refused to join SAG initially. This changed when the producers made an agreement amongst themselves not to bid competitively for talent, a pivotal meeting, at the home of Frank Morgan, was what gave SAG its critical mass. Cantors participation was critical, particularly because of his friendship with the recently elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt, after several years and the passage of the National Labor Relations Act, the producers agreed to negotiate with SAG in 1937. Robinson, Edwin Stanley, Gloria Stuart, Lyle Talbot, Franchot Tone, Warren William, Ten of those summoned, dubbed the Hollywood Ten, refused to cooperate and were charged with contempt of Congress and sentenced to prison. The president of SAG – future United States President Ronald Reagan – also known to the FBI as Confidential Informant T-10, testified before the committee but never publicly named names. He felt that lacking a definite stand on the part of the government, subsequently, a climate of fear, enhanced by the threat of detention under the provisions of the McCarran Internal Security Act, permeated the film industry. On November 17,1947, the Screen Actors Guild voted to force its officers to take a non-communist pledge, none of those blacklisted were proven to advocate overthrowing the government – most simply had Marxist or socialist views. The Waldorf Statement marked the beginning of the Hollywood blacklist that saw hundreds of people prevented from working in the film industry, unfortunately, there are no credits to restore, nor any other belated recognition that we can offer our members who were blacklisted. They could not work under assumed names or employ surrogates to front for them, an actors work and his or her identity are inseparable. The Screen Actors Guild Ethnic Minorities Committee was co-founded in 1972 by actors Henry Darrow, Edith Diaz, Ricardo Montalban, the Screen Actors Guild Womens Committee was founded in 1972. In 1998, Naomi Marquez filed suit against SAG and Lakeside Productions claiming they had breached their duty of fair representation, the claim was denied by the Supreme Court

22.
Avenue D (Manhattan)
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Avenue D is the easternmost named avenue in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, east of Avenue C and west of the FDR Drive. It runs between East 12th and Houston Streets, and continues south of Houston Street as Columbia Street until Delancey Street, avenues A, B, C and D are the genesis of the name for Alphabet City section of the East Village neighborhood, which they run through. Avenue D is served by the M14D bus from East 10th Street to Houston Street, among the structures along this avenue are, Dry Dock Park, located at the northern end, a small park with a public pool—named for the neighborhoods former tradition of ship repair. The corner was formerly the site of the Corn Exchange Bank Trust Co, many of the larger Public Housing projects in Alphabet City are on Avenue D. The east side of Avenue D is flanked by the Jacob Riis Houses, named for famous photographer Jacob Riis, the development was designed by Walker & Gillette and was completed in 1949. Between 5th and 6th streets, east of Avenue D, was formerly the location of the Boys Brotherhood Republic, New York Songlines, Avenue D, a virtual walking tour

23.
8th Street / St. Mark's Place (Manhattan)
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Between Third Avenue and Avenue A, it is named St. Marks Place, after the nearby St, Marks Church in-the-Bowery on 10th Street at Second Avenue. Marks Place is considered a main street for the East Village. Vehicular traffic runs east along both one-way streets, Marks Place features a wide variety of retailers. Marks Place include Gem Spa, the St, Marks Hotel, Trash and Vaudeville, and St. There are several open front markets that sell sunglasses, clothing, in her 400-year history of St. Marks Place, Ada Calhoun called the street like superglue for fragmented identities, is for the wanderer, the undecided, the lonely, and the promiscuous. Wouter van Twiller, colonial governor of New Amsterdam, once owned a farm near 8th. Such farms were located around the area until the 1830s, nearby, a Native American trail crossed the island via the right-of-ways of Greenwich Avenue, Astor Place, and Stuyvesant Street. Under the Commissioners Plan of 1811, a city grid for much of Manhattan was defined, Eighth Street was to run from Sixth Avenue in the west to Third Avenue and the Bowery to the east. The area west of Sixth Avenue was already developed as Greenwich Village, after the Commissioners Plan was laid out, property along the streets right of way quickly developed. By 1835, the New York University opened its first building, row houses were also built on Eighth Street. The street ran between the Jefferson Market, built in 1832 at the west end, and the Tompkins Market, built in 1836 and these were factors in the streets commercialization in later years. Eighth Street was supposed to extend to a place at Avenue C. Capitalizing on the status of Bond, Bleecker, Great Jones. Marks Place between Third and Second Avenues between 1831 and 1832, although the original plan was for Federal homes, only three such houses remained in 2014. Meanwhile, Eighth Street became home to a literary scene, at Astor Place and Eighth Street, the Astor Opera House was built by wealthy men and opened in 1847. Publisher Evert Augustus Duyckinck founded a library at his 50 East Eighth Street home

24.
Amateur boxing
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Amateur boxing is a variant of boxing practised at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Pan American Games and Commonwealth Games, as well as many associations. Amateur boxing bouts are short in duration, comprising three rounds of three minutes in men, and four rounds of two minutes in women, each with an interval between rounds. Mens senior bouts changed in format from four, two-minute rounds to three, three-minute rounds on January 1,2009 and this type of competition prizes point-scoring blows, based on number of clean punches landed, rather than physical power. Also, this format allows tournaments to feature several bouts over several days, unlike professional boxing. Head protection was used in competition until March 2016, before it was removed by the AIBA due to a higher concussion rate with Head Protection. However, womens boxing will continue with Head Protection, after the AIBA announced that they did not have data to decide if there was higher risk of concussion in women. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows, referees also ensure that the boxers dont use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, bouts which end this way may be noted as RSC, RSCI RSCH or KO. Amateur boxing emerged as a sport during the mid-to-late 19th century, in England, the Amateur Boxing Association was formed in 1880 when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year, four weight classes were contested, Featherweight, Lightweight, Middleweight and Heavyweight. By 1902, American boxers were contesting the titles in the A. B. A, Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By 1924, the A. B. A. had 105 clubs in affiliation, Boxing first appeared at the Olympic Games in 1904 and, apart from the Games of 1912, has always been part of them. From 1972 to 2004, Cuba and the United States won the most Gold Medals,29 for Cuba and 21 for the U. S, the first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in 1974. Computer scoring was introduced to the Olympics in 1992, each of the five judges had a keypad with a red and a blue button. The judges pressed a button for which ever corner they felt landed a scoring blow, three out of the five judges had to press the button for the same boxer within a one-second window in order for the point to score. A legal scoring blow was that which is landed cleanly with the surface of the glove, within the scoring area. As long as the punches landed within the area, they are legal. The AIBA introduced a new scoring system in January 2011, each judge gives an individual score for each boxer

25.
Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767

26.
Infant baptism
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Infant baptism is the practice of baptising infants or young children. In theological discussions, the practice is referred to as paedobaptism, or pedobaptism. Opposition to infant baptism is termed catabaptism, Infant baptism is also called christening by some faith traditions. Most Christians belong to denominations that infant baptism. The exact details of the ceremony vary among Christian denominations. Many follow a prepared ceremony, called a rite or liturgy, in a typical ceremony, parents or godparents bring their child to their congregations priest or minister. The rite used would be the same as that denominations rite for adults, Catholic and Orthodox churches that do this do not sprinkle. At the moment of baptism, the minister utters the words I baptise you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Although it is not required, many parents and godparents choose to dress the baby in a white gown called a christening gown for the baptism ceremony, christening gowns often become treasured keepsakes that are used by many other children in the family and handed down from generation to generation. Traditionally, this gown is white or slightly off white and made with lace, trim. In the past, a gown was used for boys and girls, in the present day it has become more common to dress children in a baptismal outfit. Also normally made of fabric, the outfit consists of a romper with a vest or other accessories. These clothes are kept as a memento after the ceremony. It is a tradition to baptise children using the ships bell as a baptismal font. Tracking down and searching for a name on a specific bell from a ship may be a difficult. Christening information from the bells held by the Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt Museum has been entered into a data archive that is accessible to any interested web site visitors. Scholars disagree on the date when infant baptism was first practiced, some believe that 1st-century Christians did not practice it, noting the lack of any explicit evidence of paedobaptism. The earliest extra-biblical directions for baptism, which occur in the Didache, are taken to be about baptism of adults, however, inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century which refer to young children as children of God may indicate that Christians customarily baptised infants too

27.
Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity

28.
79th Street (Manhattan)
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79th Street is a major two-way street in the Upper East Side and Upper West Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The transverse crosses Central Park, its exit at West 81st Street on the Upper West Side is flanked by Hunters Gate. 79th Street does not exist between Central Park West and Columbus Avenue, due to the superblock of Manhattan Square, largely occupied by the American Museum of Natural History. The street was designated by the Commissioners Plan of 1811 that established the Manhattan street grid as one of 15 east-west streets that would be 100 feet in width. The interchange on the Hudson River and the basin was first proposed in 1934 and was constructed by 1937 during the tenure of Robert Moses as Parks Commissioner. Designed by Gilmore David Clarke, the Works Projects Administration provided $5.1 million for the project, which included an underground parking garage, a restaurant. The 77th Street station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, two blocks south, is served by 6 <6> trains during the daytime and 46 trains during late nights. The M79 crosstown bus route runs from between the 79th Street Boat Basin and East End Avenue at all times, at Broadway stands The Apthorp, one of the West Sides classic apartment blocks, and the First Baptist Church in the City of New York. The Reservoir was a fortress-like building 1,826 feet long and 836 feet wide, former mayor Michael Bloomberg lives in a five-story townhouse on East 79th Street, between Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. Other notable residents of 79th Street include Tom Wolfe, Art Garfunkel, socialite Nan Kempner lived on 79th Street at Park Avenue. The south side of the block between Fifth and Madison is protected as an unbroken row of townhouses. It begins at the corner of Fifth with the French Renaissance Harry F. Sinclair House, the New York Society Library, at 53 East 79th street, is the citys oldest circulating library, it occupies a double-width townhouse built for John S. and Catherine Dodge Rogers. On the street grid, East 79th Street leads to an unnumbered southbound-only entrance to the FDR Drive at East 78th Street, East 79th Street is also the southern end of East End Avenue, which runs north-south to 90th Street. Sinclair, oil industrialist, at 2 East 79th Street Notes Media related to 79th Street at Wikimedia Commons

29.
96th Street (Manhattan)
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It is one of the 15 hundred-foot-wide crosstown streets mapped out in the Commissioners Plan of 1811 that established the numbered street grid in Manhattan. East and West 96th Street are separated by Central Park, whose West 96th Street pedestrian gate is called Gate of all Saints and whose East 96th Street gate is called Woodmans Gate. A sunken roadway through the park, often called the 97th Street Transverse road or Transverse Road #4, connects the East and West Sides via 96th and 97th Streets. 96th Street is the boundary of the New York City steam system, the largest such system in the world. From the FDR Drive to First Avenue, 96th Street is the border of Zone A. When Hurricane Sandy hit New York City in 2012, residents on neighboring blocks found out they, too, were in a zone. Residents of the housing projects as well as high rise apartments in the zone were left without power. 96th Street rises after Second Avenue, and climbs from Third Avenue to Lexington Avenue – called Carnegie Hill – before leveling off at Central Park. The street is the dividing line between Yorkville and the Upper East Side to the south and Spanish Harlem or East Harlem to the north. East 96th Street, particularly near Second and Third Avenues, underwent significant gentrification in the late 1980s, by 2005, a wave of speculation for Harlem real estate pushed a corridor of luxury condos and coops up First Avenue from 96th Street as well. The Islamic Cultural Center of New York opened at Third Avenue, like all mosques, it is oriented toward Mecca, which required a slight shift in orientation from the neighboring buildings. On the West Side, 96th Street runs through a natural valley passing under Riverside Drive and it is regarded as the southern border of the nearby Manhattan Valley area. Broadway at West 96th Street was home to two ornate theaters – the Riverside and the Riviera / Japanese Gardens – each designed in the early 20th century, in the mid 1980s, parts of West 96th Street began to convert from rental units to cooperative housing. At the time, crime remained a problem, in 2009, Hogue escaped from custody and returned briefly to West 96th Street before being found and returned to treatment. Homelessness continues to be visible in the area, the rapid development of Columbus Avenue from 96th to 100th Street around 2009 resulted in a burgeoning concentration of large, national chain stores. In the 1989 film When Harry Met Sally, Harry and Sally are seen buying their Christmas tree from The Plant Shed, a long-established neighborhood store on West 96th Street, near Broadway. A year later, no longer a couple, Sally is seen buying her tree there, in the How I Met Your Mother episode Last Time in New York, Ted references some misspelled graffiti on the intersection of 96th Street and Amsterdam Avenue. The graffiti read, YOUR A P***S, which Ted then corrects to YOURE A P***S, notes Media related to 96th Street at Wikimedia Commons

30.
Confirmation
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In Christianity, Confirmation is seen as the sealing of the covenant created in Holy Baptism. In some denominations, Confirmation also bestows full membership in a local congregation upon the recipient, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and many Anglicans view Confirmation as a sacrament. In the East it is conferred immediately after baptism, among those Catholics who practice teen-aged Confirmation, the practice may be perceived, secondarily, as a coming of age rite. In Protestant churches, the rite tends to be rather as a mature statement of faith by an already baptized person. It is also required by most Protestant denominations for membership in the church, in particular for traditional Protestant churches. Confirmation is not practiced in Baptist, Anabaptist and other groups that teach believers baptism, thus, the sacrament is administered to converts from non-Christian religions, those aforementioned groups, and nontrinitarian churches. There is a ceremony also called Confirmation in the Jewish religion. The age instituted was older than that of Bar Mitzvah because some of these topics were considered too complicated for 13-year-old minds to grasp. Nowadays, Confirmation has gained widespread adherence among congregations affiliated with the Reform movement, then they laid hands on them and they received the holy Spirit. Also, in the Gospel of John, Chapter 14, Christ speaks of the coming of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles, later, after his Resurrection, Jesus breathed upon them and they received the Holy Spirit, a process completed on the day of Pentecost. After this point, the New Testament records the apostles bestowing the Holy Spirit upon others through the laying on of hands. From this fact, Confirmation brings an increase and deepening of baptismal grace, it roots us more deeply in the divine filiation which makes us cry, Abba. God the Father has marked you with his sign, Christ the Lord has confirmed you and has placed his pledge, in the Latin Catholic Church, the sacrament is customarily conferred only on persons old enough to understand it, and the ordinary minister of Confirmation is a bishop. According to the ancient practice maintained in the Roman liturgy, an adult is not to be baptized unless he receives Confirmation immediately afterward, provided no serious obstacles exist. Priests who, in virtue of an office which they lawfully hold, in Eastern Catholic Churches, the usual minister of this sacrament is the parish priest, using olive oil consecrated by a bishop, and administering the sacrament immediately after baptism. This corresponds exactly to the practice of the early Church, when at first those receiving baptism were mainly adults, the practice of the Eastern Churches gives greater emphasis to the unity of Christian initiation. The main reason why the West separated the sacrament of Confirmation from that of Baptism was to direct contact between the person being initiated with the bishops. In the Early Church, the bishop administered all three sacraments of initiation, assisted by the priests and deacons and, where they existed, the post-baptismal Chrismation in particular was reserved to the Bishop

31.
Stuyvesant High School
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Stuyvesant High School /ˈstaɪvəsənt/, commonly referred to as Stuy /ˈstaɪ/ or Stuyvesant, is one of nine specialized high schools in New York City, United States. Operated by the New York City Department of Education, these schools offer tuition-free accelerated academics to city residents, Stuyvesant is a college preparatory science, technology, engineering, and mathematics focused liberal arts high school. Admission to Stuyvesant involves passing the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test, each November, about 30,000 eighth and ninth graders take the 2 1⁄2-hour exam, and roughly 800 students, or 2. 7% of applicants, are accepted to Stuyvesant each year. Stuyvesant High School is named after Peter Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor of New Netherland before the colony was transferred to England in 1664, the school was established in 1904 as a manual training school for boys, hosting 155 students and 12 teachers. In 1907, it moved from its location at 225 East 23rd Street to a building designed by C. B. J. Snyder at 345 East 15th Street. The building, built in 1905 for $1.5 million, the school became renowned for excellence in math and science, and enrollment continued to grow so that by 1919, admission began to be restricted based on scholastic achievement. Stuyvesant went on a double session plan in 1919 to accommodate the number of students, with some students attending in the morning and others in the afternoon. All students studied a full set of courses and these double sessions ran until 1956. The school implemented a system of entrance examinations starting in 1934, the examination program was later expanded to include the newly founded Bronx High School of Science, and was developed with the assistance of Columbia University. During the 1950s, the building underwent a $2 million renovation to update its classrooms, shops, libraries, in 1956, a team of six students designed and began construction of a cyclotron, and a low-power test of the device succeeded six years later. A later attempt at full-power operation, however, knocked out the power to the school, prior to 1969, Stuyvesant did not accept female students. That year,14 girls were admitted to Stuyvesant and 12 enrolled at the start of September, by 2002, female enrollment had grown to 42%. The act called for an exam to be administered for admission to Brooklyn Tech, Bronx Science. The school building, meanwhile, deteriorated over the years. S, during the 2003–4 school year, Stuyvesant celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding with a full year of activities. Construction on the new ten-floor, $150 million building located in Lower Manhattan began in 1989, the new building was designed by Cooper, Robertson & Partners. When it opened in 1992, the building was New York Citys first new school building in ten years and. The new building is 0.5 miles from the site of the World Trade Center, the school was evacuated during the attack. Although the smoke coming from the World Trade Center engulfed the building at one point, there was no structural damage to the building

32.
Columbia College, Columbia University
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Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college at Columbia University, situated on the universitys main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It was founded in 1754 by the Church of England as Kings College, Columbia College is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States. The college is distinctive for its comprehensive Core Curriculum, Columbia College is highly selective in its admissions. For the class of 2021, the college accepted 5. 8% of its applicants, Columbia College was founded as King’s College by royal charter of King George II of Great Britain in the Province of New York in 1754. Due in part to the influence of Church of England religious leaders, samuel Johnson was chosen as the college’s first president and was also the college’s first professor. During this period, classes and examinations, both oral and written, were conducted entirely in Latin, hamiltons first experience with the military came while a student during the summer of 1775, after the outbreak of fighting at Boston. Along with Nicholas Fish, Robert Troup, and a group of students from Kings, he joined a volunteer militia company called the Hearts of Oak. In August 1775, while under fire from HMS Asia, the Hearts of Oak participated in a raid to seize cannon from the Battery. With the successful Treaty of Paris in 1783, the situation was stable enough for the college to resume classes in 1784. This 1787 charter remains in effect, the Columbia School of Mines awarded the first Ph. D. from Columbia in 1875. Also by this time, graduate faculties issuing the Doctor of Philosophy degree in philosophy, political science, and the natural sciences had also developed. Thus, in 1896, the trustees of Columbia College, under the guidance of Seth Low, approved a new name for the university as a whole, Columbia University in the City of New York. At this point, the name Columbia College returned to being used solely to refer to the undergraduate college, founded as King’s College in 1754. A tract for the campus was purchased which extended from 114th St. to 120th St. between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White was selected to design the new campus, Columbia College and Columbia University as a whole relocated to the new campus in 1897. Also in 1919, a course, War and Peace, was required of all Columbia College students in addition to the Great Books Honors Seminar. During the 1960s, Columbia College, like others across the United States, experienced unrest and turmoil due to the ongoing civil rights movement. University officials wished to build new facilities in the park

33.
Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act. Additional objectives are established by the departments of the Department of Defense. Improving the ability to communicate well both orally and in writing, developing an appreciation of the importance of physical fitness. Increasing a respect for the role of the U. S, Armed Forces in support of national objectives. Developing a knowledge of building skills and basic military skills. Taking 3–4 years of the course grants cadets the ability to rank higher if they pursue a military career. Section 524.5 of the CFR National Defense title states in part that JROTC should provide meaningful leadership instruction of benefit to the student, the dual roles of citizen/soldier and soldier/citizen are studied. These programs will enable cadets to serve their country as leaders, as citizens. The JROTC and NDCC are not, of themselves, officer-producing programs but should create favorable attitudes and impressions toward the Services, the military has stated that JROTC will inform young Americans about the opportunities available in the military and may help motivate young Americans toward military service. A1999 Army policy memorandum stated that While not designed to be a recruiting tool. Work closely with school guidance counselors to sell the Army story. Jones, then Commandant of the Marine Corps, testified that the value of the Marine JROTC program is beyond contest, fully one-third of our young men and women who join a Junior ROTC program wind up wearing the uniform of a Marine. General Eric K. Shinseki, then Chief of Staff of the United States Army, testified that Our indications are about 30 percent of those youngsters—we dont recruit them and we are not permitted to do that. But by virtue of the things that they like about that experience, about 30 percent of them end up joining the Army, either enlisting or going on to ROTC and then joining the officer population. General Michael E. Admiral Jay L. Johnson, then Chief of Naval Operations, testified that Even if the number is only 30 percent, but think about what we get out of the other 70 percent. They have exposure to the military, so it is a long way around saying it is well worth the investment for lots of different reasons. Former United States Secretary of Defense William Cohen referred to JROTC as one of the best recruitment programs we could have, Armed Forces maintains a Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, organized into units. The cap was increased to 1,600 units in 1967 and again to 3,500 units in 1992 and their goal is to reach 3,500 units by Feb.2011 by encouraging program expansion into educationally and economically deprived areas

34.
1918 flu pandemic
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The 1918 flu pandemic was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic, the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus. Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early 20th century, a considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic, specifically the year 1918. Life expectancy in the United States alone dropped by about 12 years, most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile, elderly, or already weakened patients, in contrast, the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults. There are several explanations for the high mortality of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Some research suggests that the variant of the virus had an unusually aggressive nature. Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the geographic origin. It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s, in Spain, a different nickname was adopted, the Naples Soldier, which came from a musical operetta titled La canción del olvido, which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave. Federico Romero, one of the librettists, quipped that the plays most popular musical number, the site of the very first confirmed outbreak was at Camp Funston, within Fort Riley in Kansas, USA at a military training facility preparing American troops for involvement in World War I. The first victim diagnosed with the new strain of flu on Monday, historian Alfred W. Crosby recorded that the flu originated in Kansas and popular writer John Barry echoed Crosby in describing Haskell County, Kansas, as the point of origin. These researchers postulated that a significant precursor virus, harbored in birds, earlier hypotheses of the epidemics origin have varied. Some hypothesized the flu originated in East Asia and he considered several other hypotheses of origin, such as Spain, Kansas, and Brest, as being possible, but not likely. Political scientist Andrew Price-Smith published data from the Austrian archives suggesting the influenza had earlier origins, in fact, it found evidence that the virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and potentially years before the 1918 pandemic. When an infected person sneezes or coughs, more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by, some speculate the soldiers immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility. A large factor in the occurrence of this flu was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, in the United States, the disease was first observed in Haskell County, Kansas, in January 1918, prompting local doctor Loring Miner to warn the U. S. On 4 March 1918, company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley, by noon on 11 March 1918, over 100 soldiers were in the hospital. Within days,522 men at the camp had reported sick, by 11 March 1918, the virus had reached Queens, New York. Failure to take measures in March/April was later criticised

35.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief

36.
The Sun (New York)
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The Sun was a New York newspaper that was published from 1833 until 1950. It was considered a paper, like the citys two more successful broadsheets, The New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune. The Sun was the most politically conservative of the three, in New York, The Sun began publication September 3,1833, as a morning newspaper edited by Benjamin Day with the slogan It Shines for All. This was a penny press newspaper, the Sun was groundbreaking in its content, being the first newspaper to report crimes and personal events such as suicides, deaths, and divorces. Day printed the first newspaper account of a suicide and this story was significant because it was the first about an ordinary person. It changed journalism forever, making the newspaper an integral part of the community, prior to this, all stories in newspapers were about politics or reviews of books or the theater. Day was the first to hire reporters to go out and collect stories, prior to this, newspapers relied on readers sending in items, and on making unauthorized copies of stories from other newspapers. His focus on crime is the beginning of the craft of reporting and storytelling, in addition, The Sun was aimed not at the elite but at the common masses of working people. Day and The Sun recognized that the masses were fast becoming literate, prior to The Sun, printers produced the newspapers, often at a loss, making their living selling printing services. An evening edition was introduced in 1887, Frank Munsey bought both editions in 1916 and merged the Evening Sun with his New York Press. On April 13,1844, The Sun published as factual a story by Edgar Allan Poe now known as The Balloon-Hoax, the story told of an imagined Atlantic crossing by hot-air balloon. Today, the paper is best known for the 1897 editorial Is There a Santa Claus, but if a man bites a dog, that is news. In 1926, the Sun published a review by John Grierson of Robert Flahertys film Moana, the series served as the basis for the 1954 movie On the Waterfront. The Suns first female reporter was Emily Verdery Bettey, hired in 1868. The 1952 film Deadline – U. S. A. is a story about the death of a New York newspaper called The Day, loosely based upon the old New York Sun, which closed in 1950. The original Sun newspaper was edited by Benjamin Day, making the newspaper name a play on words. The masthead of the original Sun is visible in a montage of newspaper clippings in a scene of the 1972 film The Godfather and they were recognized as a New York City landmark in 1986. In 2002, a new broadsheet was launched, styled The New York Sun and it was intended as a conservative alternative and local-news focused alternative to the more liberal/progressive The New York Times and other New York newspapers

37.
New York Public Library
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The New York Public Library is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States and it is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing. The library has branches in the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island, the City of New Yorks other two boroughs, Brooklyn and Queens, are served by the Brooklyn Public Library and the Queens Library, respectively. The branch libraries are open to the public and consist of circulating libraries. The New York Public Library also has four libraries which are open to the general public as well. At the behest of Joseph Cogswell, John Jacob Astor placed a codicil in his will to bequeath $400,000 for the creation of a public library. After Astors death in 1848, the board of trustees executed the wills conditions. The library created was a reference library, its books were not permitted to circulate. An act of the New York State Legislature incorporated the Lenox Library in 1870, the library was built on Fifth Avenue, between 40th and 42nd streets, in 1877. Bibliophile and philanthropist James Lenox donated a vast collection of his Americana, art works, manuscripts, at its inception, the library charged admission and did not permit physical access to any literary items. Both the Astor and Lenox libraries were struggling financially, although New York City already had numerous libraries in the 19th century, almost all of them were privately funded and many charged admission or usage fees. On May 23,1895, Bigelow and representatives of the two agreed to create The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations. The plan was hailed as an example of philanthropy for the public good. The newly established library consolidated with the grass-roots New York Free Circulating Library in February 1901, the trustees hired McKim, Mead & White, Carrère and Hastings, and Walter Cook to design all the branch libraries. The notable New York author Washington Irving was a friend of Astor for decades and had helped the philanthropist design the Astor Library. They saw their role as protecting the librarys autonomy from politicians as well as bestowing upon it status, resources, representative of many major board decisions was the purchase in 1931 of the private library of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, uncle of the last tsar. This was one of the largest acquisitions of Russian books and photographic materials, at the time, the military drew extensively from the librarys map and book collections in the world wars, including hiring its staff. For example, the Map Divisions chief Walter Ristow was appointed as head of the section of the War Departments New York Office of Military Intelligence from 1942 to 1945

38.
Bellhop
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A bellhop or hotel porter is a hotel porter, who helps patrons with their luggage while checking in or out. Bellhops often wear a uniform, like certain other page boys or doormen and this occupation is also called bellman and bellboy in North America. The jobs name is derived from the fact that the front desk clerk rang a bell to summon an employee. The term porter is used in the United Kingdom and much of the English-speaking world, Bellboy or bellhop is an American English term. This employee traditionally was a boy or adolescent male, hence the term bellboy, todays bellhops must be quick-witted, good with people, and outgoing. Bellhops will meet a variety of different people each day and must have the skills to deal with them. Duties often include opening the front door, moving luggage, valeting cars, calling cabs, transporting guests, giving directions, performing basic concierge work and they must be able to escort guests into their rooms while carrying luggage, or help move any baggage a customer needs. In many countries, such as the United States, it is customary to tip such an employee for his service. Brandon Flowers, who is the American frontman, keyboardist and primary lyricist of the Las Vegas-based rock band The Killers, served as a bellhop at the Gold Coast Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Ted Serios was a Chicago bellboy who gained notoriety in the 1960s by producing thoughtographs on Polaroid film, karl Ernst was a Sturmabteilung Gruppenführer who, in early 1933, was the Sturmabteilung leader in Berlin. Before joining the Nazi Party he had been a hotel bellboy, the Belgian comic strip character Spirou was originally a bellboy. Throughout many of his albums he always wore a red bellhop suit, in later stories this was reduced to him just wearing his bellhop cap. In the 1918 comedy short The Bell Boy Roscoe Arbuckle and Buster Keaton play bell boys, the Bellboy is a 1960 comedy film starring Jerry Lewis, in which he plays the titular character. The 1962 film The Bellboy and the Playgirls also features a bellboy, the 1973 song Bell Boy by The Who has the character Jimmy discover that someone he looked up to is now a bell boy. In the 1995 film Four Rooms Tim Roth plays a bellhop who goes through rough times. Porter Skycap Bellhops Moving Help Media related to Bellhops at Wikimedia Commons

39.
Technical drawing
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Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering, to make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together, such conventions constitute a language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous. Many of the symbols and principles of drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO128. The need for communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted, their meanings are multiply determined, Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning. A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing, a professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. Professional drafting is a desirable and necessary function in the design and manufacture of mechanical components. Professional draftspersons bridge the gap between engineers and manufacturers and contribute experience and technical expertise to the design process, the basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, parallel lines can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-squares edge. The T-square is used to other devices such as set squares or triangles. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel, in addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, a spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task and this basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles and these machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well

40.
Doorman (profession)
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A doorman is an individual hired to provide courtesy and security services at a residential building or hotel. They are particularly common in urban luxury highrises, at a residential building, a doorman is responsible for opening doors and screening visitors and deliveries. He will often provide other services such as signing for packages. The occupation dates back at least to the time of Plautus under the Roman Republic where its name was iānitor, the United States House of Representatives had an official doorkeeper until the post was abolished in 1995. In New York City, doormen and elevator operators are unionized and they last went on strike in 1991, and other strikes were narrowly averted in 2006 and 2010

41.
Playhouse Theatre (Seattle)
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The Playhouse Theatre is a theater located at 4045 University Way NE on The Ave in the University District, Seattle, Washington. It was converted from a warehouse in 1930 by Burton and Florence James. They got funding during the Federal Theatre Project of the New Deal to set up the Negro Repertory Company, one of four FTP units in Seattle, the facility was sold to the University of Washington in 1950, which used it for its theatre department. In 1967 it was converted from a proscenium to a thrust stage, from 2007-2009, the building was reconstructed to add a story and make numerous improvements. New Yorkers Burton James and Florence James came to Seattle in 1923 to start the department of what was then the Cornish School and is now the Cornish College of the Arts. In 1928, the Jameses quit Cornish after the board of directors objected to a production of Pirandellos Six Characters in Search of an Author because of its brothel scene. They formed the Seattle Repertory Playhouse, the venturesome, multi-ethnic, multiracial, and sometimes explicitly socialist company performed a wide repertoire, ranging from popular comedies to works by Ibsen and Goethe. In 1930, they established themselves in the Playhouse Theatre, which constructed in a former tile warehouse at the corner of NE 41st Street. The Jameses also taught classes at the University of Washington. In 1933 the theater scored a success with In Abrahams Bosom, which had a largely black cast, included a gospel choir. When the Federal Theatre Project began in 1935 during the New Deal era, the Jameses applied separately to start a unit with Negro actors, to be housed at their theater with them as producers and directors. The proposal was funded, as were that of Hughes and two other FTP units in Seattle, the resulting Negro Repertory Company was founded in January 1936, in cooperation with the Seattle Urban League. The Negro Repertory Company was performing it at the larger Moore Theatre, the players rejected producing George Gershwins Porgy and Bess after some rehearsals, because they found the material degrading and offensive. The Jameses resigned in 1937 after a furor over their production of Power, about public utilities. The NRC was combined with another FTP unit and survived for as long as funding did, Seattles pioneering impresario of jazz in a concert setting, Norm Bobrow, promoted weekly Sunday concerts at the Playhouse Theatre for two years starting in May 1946. The Jameses lost subscribers, and by 1950, their theater was in financial trouble and they sold it to the university. Burton Jamess health failed about the time, Florence James continued her theater work in Saskatchewan. The university renamed the building the University of Washington Playhouse Theatre, in 1967, Greg Falls, influenced by the ideas of such avant garde directors as Peter Brook, converted the building from a proscenium to a thrust stage

Lower East Side
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The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the F. D. R. Drive to the east and Canal Street to the south, the western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street. The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown – which extends north to

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Lower East Side Historic District

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The corner of Orchard and Rivington Streets, Lower East Side (2005)

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Corlears Hook is "Crown Point" in this British map of 1776; "Delaney's [sic] New Square" was never built

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The Hotel on Rivington was completed in 2005

Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many mu

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View from Midtown Manhattan, facing south toward Lower Manhattan

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Peter Minuit, early 1600s.

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The Castello Plan showing the Dutch colonial city of New Amsterdam in 1660 – then confined to the southern tip of Manhattan Island.

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J.Q.A. Ward 's statue of George Washington in front of Federal Hall (on Wall Street) where he was inaugurated as the first U.S. President in 1789.

Stanford, New York
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Stanford is a town in Dutchess County, New York, United States. The population was 3,823 at the 2010 census, the town is in the north-central part of the county. Stanford was first settled around 1750, the town was part of the Great Nine Partners Patent of 1697. The town of Stanford was formed in 1793 from the town of Washington. According to the U

Jeanne Cagney
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Jeanne Carolyn Cagney was an American film, stage, and television actress. Born in New York City, Jeanne Cagney and her four brothers were raised by her widowed mother. Two of the brothers were film actor James Cagney and actor/producer William Cagney and she attended Hunter College High School. Majoring in French and German, she was a cum laude gr

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Jeanne Cagney

The Public Enemy
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The Public Enemy, released as Enemies of the Public in the United Kingdom, is a 1931 American all-talking pre-Code gangster film produced and distributed by Warner Bros. The film was directed by William A, Wellman and stars James Cagney, Jean Harlow, Edward Woods, Donald Cook, and Joan Blondell. The film relates the story of a mans rise in the crim

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theatrical release poster

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A controversial scene in which Tom (James Cagney) angrily smashes a half grapefruit into his girlfriend's face (Mae Clarke).

Taxi!
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Taxi. is a 1932 American pre-Code gangster film starring James Cagney and Loretta Young. The movie was directed by Roy Del Ruth, the provenance of this sequence led to Cagney being famously misquoted as saying, You dirty rat, you killed my brother. Also, Taxi. marks the first occasion when Cagney dances on screen, as Matt, to play his competitor in

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lobby card

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Scene from Taxi!

Angels with Dirty Faces
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Angels with Dirty Faces is a 1938 American crime film directed by Michael Curtiz for Warner Brothers. It stars James Cagney, Pat OBrien, The Dead End Kids, Humphrey Bogart, Ann Sheridan, the screenplay was written by John Wexley and Warren Duff, and is based on the story by Rowland Brown. The film chronicles the rise and fall of the notorious gangs

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Theatrical release poster

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Ann Sheridan and James Cagney

White Heat
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White Heat is a 1949 film noir starring James Cagney, Virginia Mayo and Edmond OBrien and featuring Margaret Wycherly and Steve Cochran. Directed by Raoul Walsh from an Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts screenplay, Arthur Cody Jarrett is a ruthless, deranged criminal gang leader. Although married to Verna, Cody is overly attached to his equally crooked and

American Film Institute
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The American Film Institute is an American film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the moving picture arts in America. AFI is supported by funding and public membership. The institute is composed of leaders from the film, entertainment, business, a board of trustees chaired by Sir Howard Stringer and a board of directo

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American Film Institute

Orson Welles
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George Orson Welles was an American actor, director, writer, and producer who worked in theatre, radio, and film. In 1937 he and John Houseman founded the Mercury Theatre, an independent repertory company that presented a series of productions on Broadway through 1941. It reportedly caused widespread panic when listeners thought that an invasion by

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Welles on March 1, 1937 (age 21), photographed by Carl Van Vechten

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Welles's birthplace in Kenosha, Wisconsin (2013)

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Macbeth (1936)

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Macbeth opening night at the Lafayette Theatre (April 14, 1936)

Stanley Kubrick
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Stanley Kubrick was an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor, and photographer. He is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in cinematic history, Kubrick was born and raised in the Bronx, New York City, and attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941 to 1945. This was followe

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Kubrick with showgirl Rosemary Williams in 1949

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Kubrick photo of Chicago taken as photographer for Look magazine, 1949

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Kubrick at the age of 21

Vaudeville
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Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment. It was especially popular in the United States and Canada from the early 1880s until the early 1930s, a typical vaudeville performance is made up of a series of separate, unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. A vaudeville performer is often referred to as a vaudevillian, Vaudevi

4.
As the genre declined, most performers left the theatre; here the kid hoofer Ray Wollbrinck (cousin of Louis Wollbrinck), once called "the cleverest buckdancer on the vaudeville stage"; he later became a bandleader and ended his days as a bank teller.

Warner Bros.
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Entertainment Inc. – colloquially known as Warner Bros. or Warner Bros. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios, Warner Bros. is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America. The companys name originated from the four founding Warner brothers, Harry, Albert, Sam, Jack, the youngest, was born in London, Ontario. The three elder

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Warner Bros.

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Lobby card from Open Your Eyes (1919)

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Lobby card from The Beautiful and Damned (1922)

Mae Clarke
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Mae Clarke born Violet Mary Klotz was an American actress. Both films were released in 1931, mae Clarke was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her father was a theater organist and she studied dancing as a child and began on stage in vaudeville and also worked in night clubs. Mae Clarke started her career as a dancer in New York City. She subseque

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in Lady Killer (1933)

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In Tod Browning 's Fast Workers (1933)

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Clarke in the daytime drama General Hospital (1963) with John Beradino

Academy Award for Best Actor
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The Academy Award for Best Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. It is given in honor of an actor who has delivered a performance in a leading role while working within the film industry. The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with Emil Jannings receiving the award for his roles in The La

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Emil Jannings (center) was the first winner in this category for his roles in 1928's The Last Command and 1927's The Way of All Flesh.

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Warner Baxter won in 1928 for his performance in In Old Arizona.

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George Arliss won in 1929 for his performance in Disraeli.

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Lionel Barrymore won in 1930 for his performance in A Free Soul.

George M. Cohan
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George Michael Cohan, known professionally as George M. Cohan, was an American entertainer, playwright, composer, lyricist, actor, singer, dancer and producer. Cohan began his career as a child, performing with his parents, beginning with Little Johnny Jones in 1904, he wrote, composed, produced, and appeared in more than three dozen Broadway music

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Cohan in 1908

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Cohan and his sister Josie in the 1890s

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"Over There" sheet music cover

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Cohan's mausoleum in Woodlawn Cemetery

Yankee Doodle Dandy
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Yankee Doodle Dandy is a 1942 American biographical musical film about George M. Cohan, known as The Man Who Owned Broadway. It stars James Cagney, Joan Leslie, Walter Huston, and Richard Whorf, and features Irene Manning, George Tobias, Rosemary DeCamp, Jeanne Cagney, Joan Leslies singing voice was partially dubbed by Sally Sweetland. The movie wa

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Movie poster by Bill Gold

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Premiere at New York's Hollywood Theatre on May 29, 1942. Tickets were available only to those who bought War Bonds. Former New York governor Al Smith and his wife are in the horse-drawn carriage.

Love Me or Leave Me (film)
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Love Me or Leave Me is a 1955 biographical romantic musical drama film which tells the life story of Ruth Etting, a singer who rose from dancer to movie star. It stars Doris Day as Etting, James Cagney as gangster Martin Moe the Gimp Snyder, her first husband and manager and it was written by Daniel Fuchs and Isobel Lennart and directed by Charles

1.
Theatrical Poster

Ragtime (film)
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Ragtime is a 1981 American drama film, directed by Miloš Forman, based on 1975 historical novel Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow. The action takes place in and around New York City, New Rochelle, the music score was composed by Randy Newman. The film was nominated for eight Oscars, the newsreel is accompanied by ragtime pianist Coalhouse Walker, Jr. The m

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Theatrical poster

Jack L. Warner
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Jack Leonard J. L. Warner, born Jacob Warner, in London, Ontario, was a Canadian-American film executive who was the president and driving force behind the Warner Bros. Warners career spanned some forty-five years, its duration surpassing that of any other of the seminal Hollywood studio moguls, as co-head of production at Warner Bros. Studios, he

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Portrait of Jack L.Warner in 1955

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Hollywood movie studios, 1922

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Jack Warner's former estate

Screen Actors Guild
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The Screen Actors Guild was an American labor union which represented over 100,000 film and television principal and background performers worldwide. On March 30,2012, the leadership announced that the SAG membership voted to merge with the American Federation of Television. The Screen Actors Guild was associated with the Associated Actors and Arti

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The Hollywood Professional Building housed SAG headquarters in the 1940s

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Screen Actors Guild

Avenue D (Manhattan)
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Avenue D is the easternmost named avenue in the East Village neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, east of Avenue C and west of the FDR Drive. It runs between East 12th and Houston Streets, and continues south of Houston Street as Columbia Street until Delancey Street, avenues A, B, C and D are the genesis of the name for Alphabet City section

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The Jacob Riis Houses, located on Avenue D

8th Street / St. Mark's Place (Manhattan)
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Between Third Avenue and Avenue A, it is named St. Marks Place, after the nearby St, Marks Church in-the-Bowery on 10th Street at Second Avenue. Marks Place is considered a main street for the East Village. Vehicular traffic runs east along both one-way streets, Marks Place features a wide variety of retailers. Marks Place include Gem Spa, the St,

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St. Mark's Place in 2010

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Wanamaker Annex

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The entrance to 295 East 8th Street, with "Talmud Torah Darchei Noam" above the door

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Marlton House in 2008

Amateur boxing
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Amateur boxing is a variant of boxing practised at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Pan American Games and Commonwealth Games, as well as many associations. Amateur boxing bouts are short in duration, comprising three rounds of three minutes in men, and four rounds of two minutes in women, each with an interval between rounds. Mens senio

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Headgear is mandatory in amateur boxing

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A child boxing exhibition in Union City, New Jersey.

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A Marine corporal active in USA Boxing (2005).

4.
Terms

Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according

Infant baptism
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Infant baptism is the practice of baptising infants or young children. In theological discussions, the practice is referred to as paedobaptism, or pedobaptism. Opposition to infant baptism is termed catabaptism, Infant baptism is also called christening by some faith traditions. Most Christians belong to denominations that infant baptism. The exact

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Water is poured on the head of an infant held over the baptismal font of a Roman Catholic church

2.
Baptism by submersion in the Eastern Orthodox Church (Sophia Cathedral, 2005).

Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the indust

1.
An example of urban poverty in this slum in Jakarta, Indonesia

2.
Children of the Depression -era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937

3.
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the previous day. Sweden, 1868.

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A Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility.

79th Street (Manhattan)
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79th Street is a major two-way street in the Upper East Side and Upper West Side of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The transverse crosses Central Park, its exit at West 81st Street on the Upper West Side is flanked by Hunters Gate. 79th Street does not exist between Central Park West and Columbus Avenue, due to the superblock of Manhattan

4.
The Greek Consulate occupies the former George L. Rives residence, 67–69 East 79th Street (Carrère and Hastings, 1907–08)

96th Street (Manhattan)
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It is one of the 15 hundred-foot-wide crosstown streets mapped out in the Commissioners Plan of 1811 that established the numbered street grid in Manhattan. East and West 96th Street are separated by Central Park, whose West 96th Street pedestrian gate is called Gate of all Saints and whose East 96th Street gate is called Woodmans Gate. A sunken ro

1.
Crossing First Avenue, looking west

2.
96th Street runs under Riverside Drive near its western end

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The Islamic Cultural Center at Third Avenue (1991)

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The Crenshaw Christian Center East, formerly the First Church of Christ, Scientist (1899-1903) at 1 West 96th Street and Central Park West

Confirmation
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In Christianity, Confirmation is seen as the sealing of the covenant created in Holy Baptism. In some denominations, Confirmation also bestows full membership in a local congregation upon the recipient, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and many Anglicans view Confirmation as a sacrament. In the East it is conferred imm

4.
David Hamid, suffragan bishop in Europe, administering an Anglican confirmation in Helsinki.

Stuyvesant High School
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Stuyvesant High School /ˈstaɪvəsənt/, commonly referred to as Stuy /ˈstaɪ/ or Stuyvesant, is one of nine specialized high schools in New York City, United States. Operated by the New York City Department of Education, these schools offer tuition-free accelerated academics to city residents, Stuyvesant is a college preparatory science, technology, e

1.
The Old Stuyvesant Campus in 2010

2.
Pro Scientia Atque Sapientia

3.
Main entrance to Stuyvesant High School

4.
Stuyvesant High School, as seen from southern Battery Park City

Columbia College, Columbia University
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Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college at Columbia University, situated on the universitys main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It was founded in 1754 by the Church of England as Kings College, Columbia College is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fif

1.
College Hall in 1790

2.
School logo

3.
Hamilton Hall (left), new home of Columbia College, and Hartley Hall, the College's first dormitory, in 1907

4.
Van Amringe Quadrangle houses a memorial to John Howard Van Amringe, who served as the College's first dean after the formation of Columbia University

Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps
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The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act. Additional objectives are established by the departments of the Department of Defense. Improving the ability to communicate well both orally and in writing, developing an appreciation of the importance of physical

1.
A Navy JROTC cadet salutes during the parading of the colors ceremony held at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

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NJROTC cadets visiting USS Theodore Roosevelt in November 2005.

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A Marine Corps JROTC unit in Hendersonville, Tennessee.

4.
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1918 flu pandemic
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The 1918 flu pandemic was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic, the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus. Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early 20th century, a considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic, specifically the year 1918. Life expectancy in the United States alone dropped by a

Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landsca

1.
Filippo Brunelleschi is revered to be one of the most inventive and gifted architects in history.

The Sun (New York)
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The Sun was a New York newspaper that was published from 1833 until 1950. It was considered a paper, like the citys two more successful broadsheets, The New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune. The Sun was the most politically conservative of the three, in New York, The Sun began publication September 3,1833, as a morning newspaper edited by

1.
The November 26, 1834 front page of The Sun

New York Public Library
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The New York Public Library is a public library system in New York City. With nearly 53 million items, the New York Public Library is the second largest public library in the United States and it is a private, non-governmental, independently managed, nonprofit corporation operating with both private and public financing. The library has branches in

1.
The New York Public Library Main Branch in Bryant Park, Manhattan

3.
The New York Public Library main building during late stage construction in 1908, the lion statues not yet installed at the entrance

4.
Lenox copy of the Gutenberg Bible in the New York Public Library

Bellhop
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A bellhop or hotel porter is a hotel porter, who helps patrons with their luggage while checking in or out. Bellhops often wear a uniform, like certain other page boys or doormen and this occupation is also called bellman and bellboy in North America. The jobs name is derived from the fact that the front desk clerk rang a bell to summon an employee

1.
Robert Walker as a bellboy in the 1945 film Her Highness and the Bellboy.

2.
Bellboy from a hotel in Kyoto, Japan.

Technical drawing
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Technical drawing, drafting or drawing, is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering, to make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of measurement, n

1.
Drafter at work.

2.
Copying technical drawings in 1973

3.
Sketch for a government building.

4.
A drafting table.

Doorman (profession)
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A doorman is an individual hired to provide courtesy and security services at a residential building or hotel. They are particularly common in urban luxury highrises, at a residential building, a doorman is responsible for opening doors and screening visitors and deliveries. He will often provide other services such as signing for packages. The occ

1.
Hotel doormen in London

Playhouse Theatre (Seattle)
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The Playhouse Theatre is a theater located at 4045 University Way NE on The Ave in the University District, Seattle, Washington. It was converted from a warehouse in 1930 by Burton and Florence James. They got funding during the Federal Theatre Project of the New Deal to set up the Negro Repertory Company, one of four FTP units in Seattle, the faci

1.
Some directors found ways to get around the rules; an example of this is in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1946 film Notorious, where he worked around the rule of three-second-kissing only by having the two actors break off every three seconds. The whole sequence lasts two and a half minutes.

2.
A page from the Shemot Devarim (literally Names of Things), a Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German dictionary and thesaurus, published by Elia Levita in 1542

3.
American World War I -era poster in Yiddish. Translated caption: "Food will win the war – You came here seeking freedom, now you must help to preserve it – We must supply the Allies with wheat – Let nothing go to waste". Colour lithograph, 1917. Digitally restored.