6 Abstract Abstract Although psychiatric disorders are among the leading causes of disability in modern societies, no molecular biomarkers exist for their accurate diagnosis, classification and treatment efficacy assessment. Proteomics technologies provide useful tools for identifying protein markers related to disease pathophysiology. To unravel the neurobiological underpinnings and identify candidate biomarkers for anxiety disorders, we interrogated the mouse model of high (HAB), normal (NAB) and low (LAB) anxiety-related behavior by a combined quantitative proteomics and metabolomics approach. The cingulate cortex synaptosome proteomes of HAB and LAB mice were compared by in vivo 15 N metabolic labeling and quantitative proteomics. In addition, the cingulate cortex metabolomes of HAB/NAB/LAB mice were quantified, and altered protein and metabolite networks were identified by in silico pathway analysis. Differential expression of sideroflexin-5 (Sfxn5), carbonic anhydrase 2 (Car2), myosin, heavy polypeptide 10 (Myh10) and succinate dehydrogenase, subunit b (Sdhb) in HAB and LAB mice was validated by Western blot in an independent HAB/NAB/LAB population, providing a set of candidate biomarkers for anxietyrelated behavior. Proteomics, metabolomics and in silico analyses revealed pronounced mitochondrial pathway alterations, suggesting previously not highlighted roles of the organelle in modulating anxiety-related behavior by affecting energy metabolism, oxidative stress and neurotransmission processes. To allow an accurate characterization of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model, proteomics tools were established and optimized. Mouse synaptosome proteome profiling was carried out to create a reference map for quantitative proteomics experiments. Furthermore, the quantitative proteomics platform based on metabolic labeling of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model with the 15 N heavy isotope was established, and the 15 N isotope effect on the proteome during metabolic labeling was investigated. To elucidate the role of the G72 protein in schizophrenia, the G72/G30 transgenic mouse model of schizophrenia-like symptoms was studied with traditional, gel-based proteomics approaches. The cerebellar proteomes of G72/G30 transgenic mice were compared with wild type (WT) i

7 Abstract controls, revealing differential expression of proteins involved in mitochondrial function and oxidative stress. Taken together, quantitative proteomics approaches were applied to identify disease-specific differences in animal models of psychiatric disorders. Our data provide the basis for the establishment of a biomarker panel for anxiety disorders and schizophrenia and offer insights toward a systemic understanding of mental disease and discovery of novel therapeutic targets. ii

18 Introduction 1 Introduction 1.1 Psychiatric disorders Although over the last century tremendous progress has been made in the therapy and mortality decrease of devastating conditions such as cancer and cardiopathies, no decrease has been observed in mortality rates or overall prevalence of psychiatric disorders (Kessler et al., 2005). It is therefore not surprising that according to the World Health Organization, psychiatric disorders are one of the leading causes of disease burden and disability worldwide (World Health Organization, 2008) Anxiety and depression Anxiety can be conceptualized as the emotional anticipation of an aversive situation, which is likely to occur and difficult to predict and control (Landgraf, 2001). In its non-pathological form, anxiety can be classified into state anxiety, referring to the acute or immediate level of anxiety and trait anxiety, which reflects the long-term tendency of an individual to show an increased anxiety response (Leonardo and Hen, 2006). It is believed that pathological anxiety evolves from normal anxiety behavior along a continuum from physiology to psychopathology (Landgraf et al., 2007; Rosen and Schulkin, 1998). In its pathological form, anxiety encompasses a wide spectrum of conditions, including panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Anxiety disorders constitute the most common psychiatric disorders in the industrialized world with an estimated lifetime prevalence ranging from 14.5% to 28.8% in Europe and in the USA (Jacobi et al., 2004; Kessler et al., 2005). Twin and family studies have revealed a 30-40% heritability of anxiety disorders (Hettema et al., 2001), suggesting a considerable genetic contribution. Remarkably, there is an up to 60% co-morbidity with depression. Depression, one of the most debilitating psychiatric disorders, is highly heritable (Fava and Kendler, 2000) and shares common symptoms with anxiety, making mild versions of both disorders difficult to distinguish (Kalueff et al., 2007). Antidepressants are also used for the treatment of anxiety disorders, indicating convergent underlying pathways (Gorman, 1996; Levine et al., 2001; Nutt, 2005). 1

19 Introduction Within the spectrum of anxiety disorders, the facts that they often co-occur (Hettema et al., 2005), and most of them respond to a similar spectrum of pharmacological treatments (Gross and Hen, 2004; Kent et al., 2002) indicates that they share common neurobiological and physiological characteristics, as well. At the neuroanatomical level, the amygdala and the limbic system are the key players involved in processing anxiogenic stimuli, which are in turn linked to cortex, hypothalamus and hippocampus, comprising the neural circuit involved in anxiety. At the synaptic level, imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in these brain areas has been proposed to be responsible for the manifestation of anxiety-like behavior (McNaughton, 1997; Wu et al., 2008). At the neuroendocrine level, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as well as neuropeptides (e.g., vasopressin) have been suggested to play a role in the mediation and modulation of anxiety symptomatology. Yet, the exact molecular mechanisms of anxiety pathogenesis remain elusive Schizophrenia Auditory hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder and cognitive deficits are the main symptoms of schizophrenia, which affects 1% of the general population (Freedman, 2003) with disease onset appearing in late adolescence. Evidence from genetics, neuroimaging and pharmacology suggests that schizophrenia is a heterogeneous group of disorders (Harrison and Weinberger, 2005; Kirkpatrick et al., 2001). Currently, schizophrenia is viewed as a subtle disorder of brain development and synaptic plasticity with a complex contribution from genetic and environmental factors (Arnold et al., 2005; Harrison and Weinberger, 2005; Rapoport et al., 2005). As there is up to 80% heritability in schizophrenia (Cardno and Gottesman, 2000), useful information concerning the underlying disease mechanisms has been derived from association and linkage genetic studies. Contributing genes include among others G72 (D-amino acid oxidase activator or DAOA) (Abou Jamra et al., 2006), neuregulin 1 (Li et al., 2006), disrupted-in-schizophrenia-1 (Schumacher et al., 2009) and dysbindin (Straub et al., 2002). Insights from antipsychotic drug action have implicated dopamine neurotransmission (Carlsson, 1978) and hypofunction of the glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (Coyle, 2006) in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, as is the case for anxiety disorders, the exact etiology of schizophrenia is not fully understood. 2

20 Introduction 1.2 Biomarkers for psychiatric disorders What is a biomarker? According to the National Institutes of Health, a biomarker is a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention (Biomarkers Definitions Working Group, 2001). Biomarkers are critical to differentiate between distinct biological states. Representative biomarkers routinely used in modern biology and medicine include human chorionic gonadotropin to detect pregnancy, serum ferritin to assess anemia and cholesterol to predict cardiovascular disease risk The quest for biomarkers in psychiatric research To date, no molecular biomarker exists for any psychiatric disorder. No prognostic test is available that could reliably identify individuals at risk of developing psychopathologies due to genetic predisposition or vulnerability to relevant environmental stimuli. Diagnosis and disease categorization are symptomatic and mainly rely on a subjective, interview-based communication with the patient (Turck et al., 2005). Current medication is not without side-effects and/or requires weeks to work, while not all patients respond to existing drug treatment (Bystritsky, 2006). Taken together, reliable molecular biomarkers in psychiatry are of paramount importance for identification of at risk individuals, premorbid diagnosis, patient stratification, disease monitoring and effective, personalized treatment. Besides clinical practice, biomarkers can accelerate drug discovery by being used as surrogate markers of drug efficacy and hence reduce production costs and pipeline development time (Schwarz and Bahn, 2008). In basic research, biomarkers can contribute to the elucidation of molecular mechanisms of disease pathogenesis. However, because of the complex nature and the increased intra-heterogeneity of psychiatric disorders, a single biomarker will not be able to unequivocally distinguish between clinical phenotypes. A panel of biomarkers, which depict more accurately a disease state is required to significantly represent complex traits like anxiety disorders or schizophrenia (Turck et al., 2005). In this context, animal models and novel -omics technologies promise to be useful tools for biomarker discovery. 3

21 Introduction 1.3 Mouse models for psychiatric disorders Advantages of mouse models in psychiatric research Mental disorder research on human subjects is problematic not only due to ethical issues but also due to increased intra-individual heterogeneity unrelated to disease pathology, restricted access to human material (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid) and limited control of retrieval protocols consistency (Ditzen et al., 2010). Studies on human post-mortem tissue have been informative, but largely unreliable due to post-mortem delay-derived changes, confounding clinical conditions, previous drug treatment and unavailability of suitable controls. In this respect, the use of model organisms represents the best possible alternative to investigate psychiatric disorders. ice constitute a valuable model organism because they can be cost-effectively bred, housed and maintained in large numbers under standardized laboratory conditions. They have a short life span and can be quickly reproduced, enabling long-term studies of a stimulus effect. Advantageously, inbred mouse lines have limited heterogeneity relative to human populations, and material acquisition and post-mortem tissue preparation can be performed in a consistent manner. A plethora of tools (information resources, molecular technologies, genetic manipulation methods, behavioral tests) is now available for mice, facilitating the application of diverse experimental approaches. Obviously, psychiatric disorders cannot be fully recapitulated in mice given that certain manifestations of disease symptomatology (e.g., low self esteem, suicidal ideation) cannot be modeled (Cryan and Holmes, 2005). Nevertheless, there is significant similarity between humans and mice since they share 99% of their genes (Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium, 2002), whereas brain structural organization and certain neural circuit interconnections, physiological parameters and behavioral responses are widely conserved across mammals (Ohl, 2005). While caution should be taken in extrapolating conclusions from animal studies to humans, a great amount of our current understanding of psychopathologies is derived from mouse models (Landgraf et al., 2007) The HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety Bidirectional selective breeding Following the same breeding strategy previously applied to rats (Landgraf and Wigger, 2002; Liebsch et al., 1998a; Liebsch et al., 1998b), Prof. Rainer Landgraf and colleagues in the group of 4

22 Introduction Behavioral Neuroendocrinology at the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry in Munich have established the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety. Outbred CD1 mice were used for selective and bidirectional breeding based on their performance on the elevated plus-maze (EPM) (Fig. 1.1). The method of bidirectional selective breeding enhances the representation of genetic material associated with a specific trait, thus shifting the animals phenotype from the population mean (Falconer and Mackay, 1996). The EPM is a physiologically and pharmacologically validated behavioral test that assesses anxiety in rodents in a spontaneous and unconditioned manner. The EPM principle is based on generating an approach-avoidance conflict between the exploratory drive of mice and their innate fear of illuminated, unprotected and heightened areas (Lister, 1987; Pellow et al., 1985). It consists of an elevated plus-shaped apparatus with two aversive open arms, two dark arms with protecting walls and a neutral zone (see and Fig. 1.1B). The amount of time spent on the EPM open arms is considered to indicate genetic predisposition for trait anxiety and is predictive for stress coping (Ducottet and Belzung, 2004). According to the % test time spent on the open arms, mice were bred with the corresponding partners to generate the behavioral extreme phenotypes. Mice spending less than 10% of the test time on the open arms gave rise to the high anxiety-related behavior (HAB) line, whereas mice spending most of the test time on the open arms ( 50% or more) gave rise to the low anxietyrelated behavior (LAB) line. Normal anxiety-related behavior (NAB) mice display an intermediate phenotype (time spent on open arms 30%) (Fig. 1.1A) Behavioral and molecular characteristics The HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model has been extensively studied, revealing behavioral, cognitive and molecular alterations in HAB and LAB mice. Apart from the EPM, HAB and LAB lines show differences in a battery of behavioral paradigms assessing anxiety-related behavior including the ultrasonic vocalization (USV, see ) and the dark-light avoidance test, with HAB mice exhibiting increased anxiety levels (Krömer et al., 2005). In behavioral tests measuring depression-like phenotype such as the forced swim and the tail suspension test (TST, see ), LAB animals exhibit decreased immobility, indicating a reduced depression-like behavior (Krömer et al., 2005). At the cognitive level, HAB exhibit superior performance compared to LAB mice in the social recognition test (Bunck, 2008). At the molecular level, vasopressin SNPs and decreased vasopressin mrna expression have been reported in LAB mice (Bunck et al., 2009; 5

23 Introduction Kessler et al., 2007). Additional gene expression differences between HAB and LAB mice have been found in a number of brain regions by microarray analysis (Czibere, 2009). A B Figure 1.1 Breeding scheme of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety A. EPM data (% time spent on the open arms) of the parental generation P and generations G1 to G27 of HAB and LAB mice, with CD1 (NAB) mice as controls. From the fourth generation on, HAB and LAB animals differ significantly in their anxiety-related behavior independent of gender (**p<0.01, n=40-80 per line and generation). B. Characteristic behavior of HAB and LAB mice on the EPM. LAB mice explore the a priori aversive open arms (blue square), while HAB animals spend more time in the protective closed arms (red square) (figure kindly provided by Dr. Ludwig Czibere) The G72/G30 transgenic mouse model of schizophrenia-like symptoms There is accumulating evidence from linkage and association studies that the G72/G30 region on chromosome 13q32-q33 is a strong susceptibility locus for schizophrenia (reviewed in Abou Jamra et al., 2006; Detera-Wadleigh et al., 2006). The G72 and G30 genes are transcribed from overlapping opposite DNA strands, with only G72 appearing to be actively translated (Chumakov et al., 2002). G72 is a primate-specific gene with a complex alternative splicing pattern 6

24 Introduction (Chumakov et al., 2002), whose exact function is largely unknown. To elucidate the functional role of the G72 protein and its involvement in schizophrenia, Prof. Andreas Zimmer and colleagues at the Institute of Molecular Psychiatry at the University of Bonn generated a G72/G30 transgenic mouse model by injecting bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) plasmids containing the G72/G30 genomic region into pronuclei of fertilized oocytes from CD1 mice. The G72/G30 transgenic mice display behavioral phenotypes relevant to psychiatric disorders, including impaired motor coordination, sensorimotor gating and olfactory discrimination as well as increased compulsive behavior (Otte et al., 2009). 1.4 Biomarker discovery platforms Quantitative proteomics Advantages of studying the proteome Although genomics have provided useful insights into genes conferring susceptibility to complex diseases, many disease-related genes have low penetrance and do not exhibit an effect on the phenotype in a predictable and quantifiable manner (Schwarz and Bahn, 2008). Moreover, in a given disease state, multiple lesions occur at the gene level that vary across the individuals. On the other hand, altered protein signatures have the potential to reflect disease states. Diseaserelated changes are depicted at the proteome level, thus relating proteome alterations to the disease phenotype. Consequently, interrogation of the proteome can result into an accurate and unbiased investigation of disease pathophysiology and drug action mechanisms (Turck et al., 2005) Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry (MS) -based techniques are powerful tools in proteomics research enabling protein identification and quantification in complex mixtures. MS determines the molecular weight of chemical compounds, which is characteristic for every molecule, by separating molecular ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) in a mass spectrometer. The main components of a mass spectrometer are an ionization source, a mass analyzer and an ion detector (Fig. 1.2A). 7

25 Introduction Figure 1.2 Components of a mass spectrometer A. Generic components of a mass spectrometer. The output of the measurement is a mass spectrum, where intensities of different m/z peaks are plotted (figure adapted from B. Simplified set-up of the Ultraflex MALDI-TOF/TOF instrument. C. Simplified set-up of the LTQ-Orbitrap instrument. Once a sample is introduced into the mass spectrometer, it undergoes ionization in the ionization source. The charged ions are then electrostatically propelled into the mass analyzer, where they are separated according to their m/z ratio and detected by the ion detector (Siuzdak, 1996). The output is a mass spectrum (ion intensity at different m/z values) that provides molecular weight information of the measured compounds (Fig. 1.2A). Different ion sources and ionization techniques can be combined with mass analyzers giving rise to different mass spectrometers (see ). In tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), the separation of ions according to their m/z is used as a preparative step to isolate an ion with a desired m/z. The selected ion is then fragmented, and the m/z of the fragment ions is defined in a second stage of analysis. As a result, selected ions in a complex mixture can be studied, and their amino acid sequence can be determined (Kinter and Sherman, 2000). 8

26 Introduction Mass spectrometry instrumentation Ultraflex MALDI-TOF/TOF Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) was first developed by Karas and colleagues (Karas et al., 1985). The sample to be analyzed is dissolved in a solid, non-volatile, ultra-violet (UV) absorbing material (matrix) and co-crystallizes with it. The mixture is then irradiated with a short-pulsed UV laser resulting in matrix ionization, followed by energy and proton transfer to the sample. The ionized sample molecules are then directed to a time of flight (TOF) mass analyzer (Siuzdak, 1996). In the TOF mass analyzer, the ion population coming from the ion source is accelerated by an electrical potential. After acceleration, the ions pass through a field-free region, where each ion is traveling with a speed characteristic of its m/z value. At the end of the field-free region, the detector measures the flight time (Matthiesen and Mutenda, 2007). In MALDI- TOF/TOF MS, two TOF analyzers are used consecutively (Fig. 1.2B). The first TOF mass analyzer isolates the precursor ions of choice using a velocity filter, and the second analyzes the selected ions (Vestal and Cambell, 2005). LTQ-Orbitrap Electrospray ionization (ESI) was first developed by Yamashita and Fenn (Yamashita and Fenn, 1984). The sample is dissolved in a polar, volatile solvent; the sample solution passes through a needle and is sprayed from a strong electric field region. The highly charged droplets are electrostatically attracted to the mass spectrometer inlet, and ions are then generated during droplet evaporation (Siuzdak, 1996). After ionization, ions are entering a linear-trap quadrupole (LTQ) mass analyzer, which is linked to an Orbitrap mass analyzer via a C-trap. From LTQ, ions are axially injected in the C-trap and in addition in the Orbitrap mass analyzer, where they are electrostatically trapped while rotating around the central electrode performing axial oscillation (Fig. 1.2C). The oscillation frequencies are determined using a Fourier transform and are converted to masses (Makarov, 2000). For higher analytical sensitivity, samples are first separated with reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), and the eluents are directly infused to the mass spectrometer. This set-up [referred to from now on as liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS), see 3.1] ensures high mass accuracy and resolution, making it the method of choice for quantitative proteomics experiments. 9

27 Introduction Mass spectrometry-based proteomics In a typical proteomics workflow, a protein population is extracted from the material under investigation (tissue, cells, etc.) (Fig. 1.3A), and the subproteome of interest is enriched (Fig. 1.3B). To reduce complexity, extracted proteins are separated by gel-based approaches (i.e. 1D- or 2D-gel electrophoresis) and digested with trypsin to generate peptides (Fig. 1.3C). Peptides are then extracted (Fig. 1.3D) and analyzed by MS (Fig. 1.3E). The corresponding fragment masses are searched against protein databases and are used for protein identification and/or quantification (Fig. 1.3F). Figure 1.3 Proteomics workflow scheme A. Protein extraction. B. Subproteome enrichment. C. Gel electrophoresis and in gel tryptic digestion. D. Peptide extraction. E. MS. F. Database search and data analysis Quantitative proteomics methodologies Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis Until recently, two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE) was the main proteomics approach for comparing two different states (i.e. disease, control), being based on the bidimensional separation of proteins in a complex mixture. In the first dimension, proteins are separated according to their isoelectric point by isoelectric focusing (IEF) using immobilized ph gradient (IPG) strips. In the second dimension, proteins are separated according to their molecular weight on polyacrylamide gels (O'Farrell, 1975). The 2D-gels are then stained, and spot signal intensities are compared across the samples. Spots with different intensities between the groups under study are excised from the 2D-gels, and the corresponding proteins are identified by MS. Although 2D-PAGE is a well-established quantitative approach, the analysis of hydrophobic, membrane, extreme ph and high or low molecular weight proteins remains challenging. Furthermore, expression of low abundant proteins can be masked by high abundant proteins, while reproducibility issues concerning intra-gel variability and sample pre-fractionation 10

28 Introduction can affect quantification accuracy (Fey and Larsen, 2001; Lubec et al., 2003). Consequently, quantitative proteomics can profit from a more accurate and sensitive quantification method that can deal successfully with quantitative data of a wide dynamic range in an unbiased manner. In vivo 15 N metabolic labeling The field of quantitative proteomics has greatly benefited from the introduction of stable isotopes ( 2 H, 13 C, 15 N, 18 O) into peptides or proteins for subsequent comparison with an unlabeled peptide or protein population. The use of stable isotopes introduces a predictable mass difference between the heavy and the corresponding light peptide that allows the mass analyzer to discriminate between the two peptide forms. Relative quantification of the light/heavy peptide pair is then achieved by comparing their signal intensities (Fig. 1.4). A B C Figure 1.4 Isotopologue patterns of the 14 N (light) and the 15 N (heavy) form of the same peptide A. Lower expression, B. non-differential expression, C. higher expression of the 15 N-labeled peptide compared to its 14 N (unlabeled) counterpart. Relative quantification of the 14 N/ 15 N peptide signals is achieved by comparing the sum of the signal intensities of the isotopologue peaks. 15 N metabolic labeling together with stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) (Krüger et al., 2008; Ong et al., 2002) are currently the gold standards for MS-based quantitative proteomics. The strength of these stable isotope labeling techniques compared to all other quantitative proteomics methodologies mainly relies on the ability to mix the labeled and unlabeled samples prior to sample preparation and treat them simultaneously, so that any experimental error during handling will affect both samples in the same way (Bantscheff et al., 2007; Ong and Mann, 2005). 15 N metabolic labeling of whole organisms has been described in 11

29 Introduction yeast (Oda et al., 1999), bacteria (Conrads et al., 2001; Pan et al., 2008), Drosophila melanogaster (Krijgsveld et al., 2003), Caenorhabditis elegans (Dong et al., 2007; Krijgsveld et al., 2003) and plants (Bindschedler et al., 2008; Huttlin et al., 2007; Kierszniowska et al., 2009a; Kierszniowska et al., 2009b; Lanquar et al., 2007; Palmblad et al., 2007; Schaff et al., 2008). Recently, rodents fed with 15 N-labeled algae (Huttlin et al., 2009; McClatchy et al., 2007a; Wu et al., 2004) were metabolically labeled with 15 N for quantitative proteomics experiments. 15 N isotope effect on the proteome The use of stable isotopes in proteomics is based on the isotope dilution theory (De Leenheer and Thienpont, 1992) according to which, a stable isotope labeled peptide is chemically identical to its unlabeled counterpart and therefore the behavior of the two peptides is identical during chromatographic and MS workflows. However, in most quantitative proteomics studies where 15 N metabolic labeling was used, control strategies for the 15 N isotope effect were employed either by reciprocal labeling of the two states to be compared (Huttlin et al., 2009; Kierszniowska et al., 2009b; Krijgsveld et al., 2003; Lanquar et al., 2007; Oda et al., 1999) or by the use of a 15 N- labeled internal standard (Dong et al., 2007; Liao et al., 2008; McClatchy et al., 2007a; Pan et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2004). These measures were introduced to avoid potential confounding 15 N- derived artifacts. Yet to date, no study has examined the actual effects of the 15 N isotope introduction on a given proteome per se Quantitative metabolomics The repertoire of small molecules present in cells, tissues and body fluids is known as the metabolome. Metabolomics (the study of the metabolome) have emerged to be the newest member of the -omics family. Metabolomics reflect the status of diverse biochemical pathways in a given metabolic state in health or disease. MS-based metabolomics enable the identification and quantification of known as well as new metabolites (Dettmer et al., 2007). In particular, gas chromatography (GC) coupled with MS has been used for metabolomics quantification in psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders (Paige et al., 2007; Underwood et al., 2006) due to its high sensitivity, quantitative precision and chromatographic resolution and wide dynamic range (Quinones and Kaddurah-Daouk, 2009). Altered metabolic signatures can provide useful information about disease pathophysiology and together with proteomics information can 12

30 Introduction contribute to a systemic approach for the study of disease pathogenesis and biomarker discovery (Kaddurah-Daouk et al., 2008). 1.5 Biomarker discovery in the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety 2D-PAGE in amygdala, hypothalamus and motor cortex of HAB, NAB and LAB mice revealed differences in two proteins, glyoxalase 1 (Glo1) and enolase phosphatase (EP). Glo1 expression was significantly higher in LAB compared to HAB mice in all brain areas examined, with NAB animals exhibiting intermediate Glo1 levels (Fig. 1.5). The same pattern was shown by Western blot analysis in red blood mouse cells (Ditzen et al., 2006; Krömer et al., 2005). Glo1 is a cytosolic enzyme that detoxifies dicarbonyl metabolites, such as methylglyoxal (Thornalley, 1993). In mice, Glo1 gene copy number has been associated with anxiety-related behavior (Williams et al., 2009), whereas Glo1 and glutathione reductase 1 have been reported to play a causal role in anxiety (Hovatta et al., 2005). In humans, a Glo1 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been associated with panic disorder without agoraphobia (Politi et al., 2006). Furthermore, Glo1 mrna levels in white blood cells have been suggested to be a state-dependent marker of mood disorders (Fujimoto et al., 2008). Notably, the predictive validity of Glo1 as a biomarker for the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model has been demonstrated by identifying HAB or LAB in a blind manner based on Glo1 expression levels (Krömer et al., 2005). EP showed a different motility pattern between HAB, NAB and LAB mice in the second dimension of 2D-PAGE in all areas examined (Fig. 1.5) (Ditzen et al., 2006). EP is a member of methionine salvage pathway, where methionine is metabolized to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM), a natural antidepressant and mood stabilizer also involved in polyamine biosynthesis (Papakostas, 2009). Differential expression of polyamines has been repeatedly reported in mental disorders (Fiori and Turecki, 2008). Further analyses revealed the presence of line-specific EP SNPs, altered EP enzymatic activity in HAB and LAB mice as well as increased polyamine expression in HAB mice (Ditzen et al., 2010). Importantly, Glo1 and EP are detectable by Western blot in human red and white blood cells, respectively, illustrating their applicability as markers for non-invasive patient screening (Ditzen et al., 2006). However, taking into account the multifactorial and polygenic nature of anxiety psychopathology, a considerable number of proteins that remain to be identified are likely to contribute to anxiety manifestation. 13

32 Aim of the thesis 2 Aim of the thesis The aim of the present study was to identify brain biomarkers and affected pathways in mouse models of psychiatric disorders by establishing and employing quantitative proteomics platforms. Specifically, the following subjects were addressed: 1. To establish and optimize proteomics tools for accurate characterization of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety, a protein profiling of mouse synaptosomes was performed to generate a synaptic protein reference map for quantitative studies (Chapter 4). Furthermore, a quantitative proteomics platform was established based on 15 N metabolic labeling of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model (Chapter 5), and the effect of the 15 N isotope introduction on the proteome during 15 N metabolic labeling was investigated (Chapter 7). 2. To identify candidate biomarkers and altered pathways in the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety, the cingulate cortex synaptosome proteomes of HAB and LAB mice were compared by the 15 N metabolic labeling quantitative proteomics platform. Differences between the HAB, NAB and LAB mouse lines were also investigated by quantitative metabolomics, in silico pathway analyses and immuno-based methods (Chapter 6). 3. To elucidate the functional role of G72 in schizophrenia, the cerebellar proteomes of G72/G30 transgenic mice of schizophrenia-like symptoms and wild type (WT) counterparts were compared by 2D-gel-based proteomics (Chapter 8). 15

33 Materials and methods 3 Materials and methods 3.1 Animals, equipment and standard procedures All animal studies performed were approved by local authorities and conducted according to current regulations for animal experimentation in Germany and the European Union (European Communities Council Directive 86/609/EEC). Unless otherwise stated, animals were kept in the animal facility of the Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry under standard housing conditions (room temperature 23±2 0 C, air humidity 60%, food and tap water ad libitum) in groups of 2-4 animals per cage. Tissue acquisition and behavioral testing were performed between 8a.m and 1p.m. Dissection of the desired brain areas was performed according to the mouse brain atlas (Paxinos and Franklin, 2001). Only male animals were studied. Quantitative MS measurements were performed with a nanoflow HPLC-2D system (Eksigent, Dublin, CA, USA) coupled online to a LTQ-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany) via a nanoelectrospray ion source (Thermo Fisher Scientific) (referred to as LC-ESI-MS/MS). For sample infusion into the mass spectrometer, in-house packed, fused silica, 3µm RP-C18 (Maisch, Monheim, Germany), 0.075mm x 15cm columns connected to distal coated silica tips (New Objective, Ringoes, NJ, USA) were used. 15 N incorporation calculation and 2D-PAGE spot identification MS measurements were performed with an Ultraflex MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometer (Bruker Daltonik, Bremen, Germany) equipped with a nitrogen laser operating at 50Hz (referred to as MALDI-TOF/TOF MS). For pipeting volumes up to 1ml, Gilson pipets (Pipetman, Gilson, Middleton, WI) were used. Pipet tips and tubes were purchased from Eppendorf (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany). For centrifugation steps, a 5804R centrifuge (Eppendorf) was used. Ultracentrifugation steps were performed in a L8-70M Ultracentrifuge (Beckman Coulter, Krefeld, Germany). Samples were lyophilized in a Savant Speed Vac plus SC210A concentrator (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Unless otherwise stated, 12.5% polyacrylamide, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) -containing mini gels with ten 1.5mm wells were used for 1D-gel electrophoresis. Electrophoretic equipment was purchased from BioRad (BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA). Protein content was estimated by the Bradford Assay (BioRad). Absorption at 595nm was measured by a DU-640 spectrophotometer (Beckman Coulter). Gels and Western blot autoradiographs were scanned by a GS-800 Calibrated Densitometer (BioRad). All commercially 16

34 Materials and methods available antibodies used for Western blot analysis are listed in Appendix 1. GraphPad Prism was used for statistical analysis (v5.03, GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Unless otherwise specified, statistical significance was accepted for p values <0.05, determined as follows: *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p< Data are presented in mean+sem (standard error of the mean). 3.2 Profiling of mouse synaptosome proteome and phosphoproteome Synaptosome enrichment from CD1 mouse whole brain Synaptosomes are artificially isolated synapses produced by mild disruption of brain tissue (see 4.1). Synaptosomes were purified according to Gray and Whittaker (Gray and Whittaker, 1962) with slight modifications (Filiou et al., 2010a). The whole brain of a CD1 adult mouse was homogenized in ten volumes (w/v) of 0.32M sucrose (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and 4mM HEPES (Sigma Aldrich) buffer (ph 7.4). Cocktail inhibitor tablets (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA) were used to inhibit phosphatase activity. The homogenate was centrifuged twice at 1000g for 10min to pellet the nuclei (nuclear fraction N), the two supernatants were combined (supernatant S1) and centrifuged at 17000g for 55min. Supernatant was removed (supernatant S2), and the pellet was resuspended in 0.32M sucrose, followed by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation at 64000g for 2h (0.32M/0.8M/1.2M sucrose gradient). The interface of 0.8M/1.2M sucrose gradient (containing crude synaptosomes) was collected and centrifuged at g for 60min. The supernatant was removed (supernatant S3), and the resulting pellet (synaptosomal fraction, Syn) was dissolved in distilled water. All steps were performed at 4 0 C Western blot analysis of selected synaptosomal proteins To investigate the expression of selected identified proteins in different fractions of the synaptosomal protocol as well as in cytosolic fraction C, a Western blot analysis was performed. The cytosolic fraction C of a whole mouse brain was isolated according to Cox and Emili (Cox and Emili, 2006). In addition, five g of nuclear fraction N, cytosolic fraction C, supernatants S1, S2, S3 and synaptosomal fraction Syn (see 3.2.1) were resolved by 1D-gel electrophoresis, and proteins were electrotransferred to Immobilon PVDF membranes (Millipore, Bellerica, MA, USA) at 100V for 1h. Membranes were blocked overnight with 5% (w/v) Carnation instant non-fat dry milk in Tris buffered saline (TBS) buffer containing 0.05% Tween 20 (TBS-T) (GE Healthcare, 17

35 Materials and methods Piscataway, NJ, USA) and incubated with anti-slc17a7 (NeuroMab, Davis, CA, USA, mouse monoclonal, 1:1100), anti-gria2 (NeuroMab, mouse monoclonal, 1:1100), anti-psd95 (Genetex, Irvine, CA, USA, goat polyclonal, 1:3000), anti-gap43 (Abcam, Cambridge, UK, rabbit polyclonal, 1:6000), anti-prkc (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA, USA, rabbit polyclonal, 1:1000), anti-crym (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, goat polyclonal, 1:1000) and anti-mbp (Abcam, rabbit monoclonal, 1:2000) primary antibodies for 1.5-2h at room temperature. Membranes were incubated for 1h at room temperature with the corresponding anti-rabbit (GE Healthcare), antimouse (GE Healthcare) and anti-goat (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) secondary antibodies. Immune complexes were detected by the ECLplus reagent kit (GE Healthcare), membranes transferred to a Hypercassette (GE Healthcare) and exposed to Hyperfilm (GE Healthcare) for the required amount of time. Equal loading amounts were ensured by staining transfer membranes with Coomassie brilliant blue R-250 (BioRad) and comparing signal intensities Isoelectric focusing-proteomics sample preparation Isoelectric focusing (IEF) is an electrophoretic method, where proteins or peptides are separated according to their isoelectric point on an IPG strip. Because of the negative charge of the phosphogroup, phosphopeptides have lower isoelectric points compared to non-phosphorylated peptides and therefore they migrate to the acidic part of the IPG strip. Due to phosphopeptide enrichment at the acidic part of the strip, IEF can be employed as a separation method to simultaneously interrogate the proteome and phosphoproteome of mouse synaptosomes. In the present study, 1.2mg of whole mouse brain synaptosomal proteins in 100 l distilled water were dissolved in 200mM ammonium bicarbonate (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), ph 8.5 (10 g/ l) and 8M urea (Genaxxon, Ulm, Germany). After reduction with 10mM dithiothreitol (BioRad) and alkylation with 50mM iodoacetamide (BioRad), the urea concentration was reduced by ultrafiltration to 2M and a final sample volume of 100 l. One hundred l of distilled water were added, and the sample was digested first with 24 g endoproteinase Lys-C (Wako, Neuss, Germany) overnight at room temperature, followed by 24 g trypsin (Promega, Madison, WI, USA) overnight at 37 0 C. To the digests, distilled water and urea were added to a final volume of 300 l and a final urea concentration of 2.5M. The digest solution was applied to a ph , 18cm, non-linear IPG strip (GE Healthcare). After 10h of active rehydration at 50V, IEF was carried out in an IEF Cell (BioRad) until 60kVh were reached. The IPG strip was then cut into 47 4mm pieces. 18

36 Materials and methods For each gel piece, peptide extraction was performed three times with 5% formic acid. Oil extraction of the combined peptide fraction was performed three times with 150 l hexane (VWR, Darmstadt, Germany). The organic phase was discarded and the aqueous fraction lyophilized. The resulting pellet was again oil extracted with 10 l hexane (VWR) and air-dried overnight. Pellets were dissolved in 25 l 5% formic acid and lyophilized. Samples were redissolved in 6 l 1% formic acid, and 3 l were used for MS analysis. Desalting with OMIX tips (Varian, Palo Alto, CA, USA) was performed according to manufacturer s instructions LC-ESI-MS/MS For LC-ESI-MS/MS, 3µl from each IPG fraction were loaded onto a fused silica column, washed with 0.1% formic acid for 20min and eluted with a gradient of 95% acetonitrile/0.1% formic acid from 2% to 45% over 90min at a flow rate of 200nl/min. The mass spectrometer was operated in the positive ion mode applying a data-dependent automatic scan switch between MS and MS/MS acquisition. Full scans were recorded in the Orbitrap mass analyzer at a mass range of m/z and a resolution of R=60000 (m/z 400) in profile mode. The MS/MS analysis of the five most intense peptide ions for each scan was recorded in the LTQ mass analyzer in centroid mode (top5 method). Fragmentation in the LTQ was induced by collision-induced dissociation (CID) with a target value of ions. Ion selection threshold was 500 ions, and the selected sequenced ions were dynamically excluded for 120s. Other MS conditions were as follows: Spray voltage kV, no sheath and auxiliary gas flow, ion transfer tube temperature C and normalized collision energy 35%. An activation q=0.25 and activation time of 30ms were applied for MS/MS acquisitions Proteomics data analysis MS raw files were searched against a concatenated, forward/reverse decoy, international protein index (IPI) mouse database (v3.29) utilizing BioWorks (v3.3.1, Thermo Fischer Scientific) and SEQUEST (v28, Thermo Fischer Scientific) softwares. Precursor and fragment ion tolerance was set to 5ppm and 1Da, respectively. Trypsin was chosen as enzyme, and up to two missed cleavage sites were allowed. Cysteine carboxyamidomethylation was used as static modification. Methionine oxidation and serine, threonine and tyrosine phosphorylation were used as variable modifications. Filtering parameters for peptide identifications were minimum Delta Cn: 0.08 and 19

37 Materials and methods Xcorr: 1.90 (z=1+), 2.70 (z=2+), 3.50 (z=3+), 3.00 (z 4+). Due to the isoelectric point-based separation at the peptide level, peptides belonging to the same protein can migrate in different parts of the strip according to their amino acid composition. Therefore, peptide identifications from all IPG fractions were merged with an in-house developed Perl script. Keratin and hemoglobin proteins were excluded. Proteins identified by only one peptide sequence in a single fraction were removed. Proteins identified by one peptide sequence present in more than one fraction were considered for further analysis. Phosphorylated proteins identified by one peptide sequence both in its modified and unmodified forms or by more than two phosphopeptides were included. All phosphopeptide spectra were manually confirmed. Due to the low phosphorylation stoichiometry, phosphopeptides with a low SEQUEST score were also manually validated. Functional annotation was performed according to Gene Ontology (GO) using the FatiGO online tool (Al- Shahrour et al., 2005; GO annotations were then grouped into ten broader categories N metabolic labeling of the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety N metabolic labeling breeding and feeding scheme To enable an accurate quantitative proteomics comparison, mice were labeled with the 15 N isotope through a 15 N bacterial protein-based diet (U-15N-SILAM-Mouse, Silantes, Munich, Germany). To avoid any diet-specific effects on the proteome, the unlabeled mice that were used for the 14 N/ 15 N comparison received a 14 N (unlabeled) bacterial protein-based diet (U-14N-SILAM- Mouse, Silantes) with the same composition as the 15 N diet (Table 3.1) following the same feeding protocol as the 15 N bacteria-fed mice. To achieve high 15 N incorporation rates, the 15 N feeding started in utero according to the breeding and feeding protocol shown in Fig In detail, females were mated one-to-one to a male. After pregnancy detection, males were separated from the dams, and pregnant dams were fed for a four day period ad libitum with both standard food (Altromin, Lage, Germany) and the respective 15 N or 14 N bacteria-based food so as to habituate to the new diet. Dams were then fed exclusively with the bacteria-based diet. For the offspring, gender detection was performed on post-natal day (PND) 2. On PND 5, USV was tested, and litters got culled to a usual litter size number. On PND 28, animals were weaned and grouphoused (2-4 animals per cage). Groups were composed of mice deriving evenly from all litters so 20

39 Materials and methods Behavioral testing Ultrasonic vocalization test It has been proposed that the number of USV calls induced by separation and isolation of the offspring from the dam can be considered as a measure of separation anxiety and is indicative of adult emotionality (Brunelli, 2005). Therefore, USV can be used to monitor anxiety-related behavior at an early developmental stage (Krömer et al., 2005). On PND 5, each pup was separated from its mother and was placed onto a Petri dish (diameter: 15cm, wall height: 1.5cm, temperature: 23 0 C kept constant by a water bath below the dish) having no olfactory or auditory contact to its litter (Fig. 3.2). USV was recorded for 5min using a Mini-3 Bat detector (Ultrasonic Advice, London, UK), fixed about 10cm above the pup and a WM-D6C tape recorder (Sony Professional, Cologne, Germany). The number of vocalization calls at 70kHz was quantified by Eventlog (v1.0, EMCO Software, Reykjavik, Iceland). Before the introduction of each pup, the dish was cleaned with a 70% alcohol solution. A B Figure 3.2 Ultrasonic vocalization test A. Experimental set-up. B. Schematic overview of ultrasound recording by the ultrasonic detector (figure kindly provided by Dr. Mirjam Bunck) Elevated plus-maze test The EPM testing apparatus consists of a plus-shaped platform, 37cm elevated above the floor, with two open (30 x 5cm) and two closed (30 x 5 x 15cm) arms with a connecting central zone (5 x 5cm). The open arms were lit by white light of 300lux, the neutral zone by 60lux and the closed arms by 5lux. The EPM apparatus was surrounded by a black curtain to limit visual or auditory cues for the tested subject. Mice were transferred from their cage to the EPM apparatus and placed on the central part, facing one of the closed arms (Fig. 3.3). The % time spent on the open 22

40 Materials and methods arms (ratio of time spent on the open arms to total time spent on closed and open arms) and the total number of entries into all arms were recorded during a 5min exposure by Plus-maze (v2.0, Ernst Fricke, Munich, Germany). For all animals tested, EPM was performed on PND 49. Before the introduction of each mouse, the maze was cleaned with water containing detergent and 70% alcohol. A B Figure 3.3 Elevated plus-maze test A. Experimental set-up. B. Schematic overview of the different areas of the maze (figure kindly provided by Dr. Mirjam Bunck) Tail suspension test The TST is based on the fact that mice subjected to the short-term, inescapable stress of being suspended by their tail, immediately engage in active, escape-oriented behavior, followed progressively by increasing periods of immobility. Immobility is indicative of a passive, depression-like behavior (Cryan et al., 2005). A B Figure 3.4 Tail suspension test A. Experimental set-up. B. Schematic overview of the behavioral parameters assessed (figure kindly provided by Dr. Mirjam Bunck). 23

41 Materials and methods The TST experimental set-up consists of a horizontal plastic rod (length 75cm) at a height of 75cm with four vertical rods (15cm). Mice were suspended by their tails at a height of 35cm above the ground by an adhesive autoclave tape for 6min (Fig. 3.4). Four animals were tested simultaneously, and each trial was videotaped. Animal behavior (total immobility time) was analyzed using Eventlog (v1.0, EMCO Software). For behavioral test data analysis, data dependent on two or more variables were compared using univariate analysis of a general linear model, subsequently split and further analyzed by Student s t test (two tailed, unpaired). Bonferroni correction was applied to adjust for multiple comparisons (Frank et al., 2009) Tissue acquisition For tissue acquisition on PND 5, 14, 28 and 56, animals were anesthetized and perfused with 0.9% saline. Whole brain was extracted and cingulate cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus were dissected. Pituitary, thymus, heart, lung, liver, spleen, pancreas, adrenals, kidney and muscle were also harvested. Prior to perfusion, blood was collected and centrifuged at 13000g for 10min at 4 0 C to separate plasma from red blood cells. All samples were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at C N metabolic labeling efficiency estimation Proteomics sample preparation 15 N metabolic labeling efficiency was monitored throughout the breeding protocol in brain and plasma at different time points (PND 5, 14, 28 and 56). Up to four 14 N/ 15 N mouse pairs were assessed per time point (cerebellum and plasma). Equal tissue weights of 14 N/ 15 N mouse cerebella pairs and equal volumes of 14 N/ 15 N plasma pairs were mixed. Brain samples were then homogenized in 250mM sucrose (Sigma Aldrich) buffer containing 50mM Tris-HCl (BioRad), 5mM MgCl 2 (Sigma Aldrich), 1mM dithiothreitol (BioRad), spermine (25 g/ml, Sigma Aldrich), spermidine (25 g/ml, Sigma Aldrich) and cocktail inhibitor tablets (Roche Diagnostics) and centrifuged at 25000g for 1h at 4 0 C. The supernatant was concentrated at 13000g, for 30min at 20 0 C using 3kDa cut off spin filters (Millipore). Plasma samples were diluted 1:10 (v/v) with 0.9% saline. Extracted protein mixtures from brain and plasma were resolved by 1D-gel electrophoresis and the gel stained with Coomassie brilliant blue R-250 (BioRad). Several gel bands were chosen, cut into small pieces, washed twice with 25mM ammonium bicarbonate (Merck)/50% 24

43 Materials and methods animals of similar age as the bacteria-fed animals (n=8 per line). For quantitative MS and Western blot analyses, synaptosomes from cingulate cortices were studied. For quantitative metabolomics analysis, cingulate cortices from standard-fed HAB/NAB/LAB animals of similar age as the bacteria-fed animals were compared (n=6 per line) Synaptosome enrichment from HAB/NAB/LAB cingulate cortices Synaptosome enrichment and protein content estimation from HAB, NAB and LAB cortices were performed as described in with slight modifications. For the bacteria-fed animals analyzed with MS, the 14 N and 15 N samples were processed separately until generation of the S1 supernatant. The S1 fractions from 14 N and 15 N cortices were then mixed 1:1 (w/w) based on protein content, and the combined fraction was used for synaptosome enrichment, as in For the standard-fed animals used for Western blot analysis, synaptosome enrichment was performed as in Proteomics sample preparation from HAB/NAB/LAB synaptosomes For quantitative MS, three 14 N HAB/ 15 N NAB and three 15 N NAB/ 14 N LAB animal pairs were compared. For each 14 N/ 15 N animal pair, 100 g of the combined synaptosomal fraction from the corresponding 14 N/ 15 N cingulate cortices were resolved by 1D-gel electrophoresis, and the gel was stained with Coomassie brilliant blue R-250 (BioRad). Every gel lane was sliced into 25 fractions that were cut into small pieces and washed twice with 25mM ammonium bicarbonate (Merck)/50% acetonitrile, followed by reduction with 10mM dithiothreitol (BioRad) for 30min at 56 0 C and carboxyamidomethylation with 50mM iodoacetamide (BioRad) for 30min at room temperature. Proteins were digested with trypsin (5ng/µl, Promega) overnight at 37 0 C, and peptides were extracted twice with 50% acetonitrile/2% formic acid. For every fraction, peptides were lyophilized and dissolved in 10 l 1% formic acid Mass spectrometry-relative quantification-data analysis Five l per fraction were analyzed by LC-ESI-MS/MS as described in MS raw files were searched twice against a 14 N and a 15 N decoy IPI mouse database (v3.46), utilizing BioWorks (v3.3.1, Thermo Fisher Scientific) and SEQUEST (v28, Thermo Fischer Scientific) softwares. For both searches, precursor and fragment ion mass tolerance was set to 20ppm and 1Da, 26

44 Materials and methods respectively. Trypsin was chosen as enzyme and up to two missed cleavage sites and only fully tryptic peptides were allowed. Cysteine carboxyamidomethylation was used as static modification. Methionine oxidation was used as variable modification. Peptide identifications from both searches were exported as DTA files, combined and subsequently filtered and assembled into proteins by the DTASelect tool (v1.9, Tabb et al., 2002). To achieve a low false positive identification rate, the following filtering parameters were used: Minimum Delta Cn: 0.08; Xcorr: 1.90 (z=1+), 2.70 (z=2+), 3.50 (z 3+); purging duplicate spectra on basis of the Xcorr (-t=2); minimum charge state: 1; maximum charge state: 6 and a minimum of one identified peptide per protein. Extracted ion chromatogram (XIC) generation as well as peptide and protein abundance ratio estimation was performed by the ProRata software (v1.0) using default parameters (Pan et al., 2006a). 14 N/ 15 N peptide pairs were used for relative quantification. The sum of the areas under each peak of the isotopologue pattern of the corresponding 14 N and 15 N peptide spectra were compared. Briefly, the identified peptides for every 14 N/ 15 N replicate were filtered and quantified with a minimum profile signal-to-noise ratio cutoff of 2. Proteins with at least two quantified peptides were evaluated for quantification. For the 14 N HAB/ 14 N LAB indirect comparison, the two 14 N HAB/ 15 N NAB and 15 N NAB/ 14 N LAB direct comparisons were combined, and proteins were further filtered with a maximum confidence interval (CI) width cutoff of 3. Quantification results were manually evaluated, and inaccurate quantifications due to incorrect isotopologue pattern assignment as well as quantified protein contaminants (e.g., keratin, hemoglobin) were excluded. To correct for potential mixing errors during sample preparation, quantification results were normalized by substracting the median from all log 2 ratios of the quantified proteins. Only proteins quantified in at least two out of three biological replicates per 14 N/ 15 N comparison were included for further analysis. Quantified proteins were considered to be differentially expressed when their 14 N HAB/ 14 N LAB protein abundance ratio was >1.3 fold, and the corresponding 95% CI did not contain HAB/NAB/LAB cingulate cortex metabolome comparison For quantitative metabolomics analysis, lysates from cingulate cortices (n=6 per line) were compared. Samples were measured at the Metabolomics Core, UC Davis Genome Center, CA, USA by gas chromatography-time of flight-mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS), using a 6890 N gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) interfaced to a TOF Pegasus III mass 27

45 Materials and methods spectrometer (Leco, St. Joseph, MI, USA). GC-TOF-MS was performed according to standard operation procedures, as previously described (Zou and Tolstikov, 2009). To identify a set of the most informative metabolites (i.e. those metabolites that could contribute reasonably to the discrimination between the HAB/NAB/LAB lines), two exploratory statistical analyses, namely random forest analysis (RF; Díaz-Uriarte and Alvarez de Andrés, 2006) and the in-house developed test- and functional-free biomarker searching method (TFFBS; Yassouridis et al., in preparation), were applied. Using the maximum set of metabolites selected by both methods as dependent variables and the animal line (HAB/NAB/LAB) as independent variable, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA, Wilks multivariate tests of significance) was performed to verify whether there is a significant line effect on these metabolites and on which of them the effect is more pronounced. Bonferroni post-hoc tests at a 0.05 significance level were then applied to localize the line pairs, where each metabolite contributes significantly to the observed line differences. Finally, a discriminant analysis was conducted with the maximum set of metabolites selected by the exploratory methods to assess the discrimination power of the identified metabolite candidates Western blot validation of selected differentially expressed proteins To confirm quantitative MS results of the 14 N HAB/ 14 N LAB indirect comparison, Western blot analysis was performed as described in for the following primary antibodies: Anti-Sfxn5 (Abnova, Taipei, Taiwan, rabbit polyclonal, 1:100), anti-car2 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, goat polyclonal, 1:500), anti-myh10 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, goat polyclonal, 1:200) and anti-sdhb (Abcam, mouse monoclonal, 1:1100). After development, autoradiographs were scanned, and quantification of the signal intensities was performed using QuantityOne (v4.4.0, BioRad). Signal intensity was measured as optical density x surface (OD*mm 2 ). Student s t test (two tailed, unpaired) was employed to assess signal intensity differences between the groups under comparison In silico pathway analysis For literature data mining and pathway visualization, Pathway Studio (v7.1, Ariadne Genomics, Rockville, MD, USA) was used. To identify altered pathways in HAB and LAB mice based on proteomics and metabolomics data, the HAB/LAB log 2 ratios of all quantified proteins and 28

46 Materials and methods metabolites were plotted in a combined histogram. Quantified proteins and metabolites were then assigned according to their HAB/LAB log 2 ratios to five continuous bins: (-, -0.8), [-0.8, -0.4), [-0.4, 0.4], (0.4, 0.8], (0.8, + ). The contents of each bin were compared to Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG; Kanehisa and Goto, 2000) to identify overrepresented pathways per bin. The hypergeometric test was calculated for each pathway per bin using the statistical language R (www.r-project.org). The p value threshold for significantly enriched pathways was set to Pathways with significant enrichment in at least one bin were then hierarchically clustered N isotope effect investigation in HAB mice and Escherichia coli Animals For the 14 N HAB/ 15 N HAB comparison, three bacteria-fed, PND N HAB/ 15 N HAB mouse pairs were compared by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Selection criterion was their TST performance (immobility time), with the average immobility time of the 14 N HAB being higher than the average immobility time of the 15 N HAB mice, depicting the antidepressant-like effect of 15 N on the behavioral phenotype of HAB mice (see ). The individual data of the HAB mice studied with quantitative MS are shown in Appendix 2. Western blot validation of differentially expressed proteins was performed in an independent population of bacteria-fed, PND N HAB (n=4) and 15 N HAB (n=7) mice. Cingulate cortex synaptosomes were analyzed with quantitative MS. For Western blot analysis, the cingulate cortex cytoplasmic fraction (S1 supernatant from the synaptosome protocol, see 3.2.1) was used. For the 14 N HAB/ 15 N HAB MS comparison, synaptosome enrichment, proteomics sample preparation and quantitative MS were performed as described in 3.2.1, and 3.4.4, respectively. Only proteins whose 15 N HAB/ 14 N HAB abundance ratio was >1.3 fold, and CI did not contain 0 both at the level of individual replicates and at the level of average CI of all replicates were considered to be differentially expressed Escherichia coli culture E. coli BL21star strain (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA, USA) was taken from glycerol stocks, scraped with a sterile loop, streaked out on a LB-agar plate with 100 g/ml ampicillin (Sigma Aldrich) as selective marker and incubated overnight at 37 0 C. Single colonies were taken and inoculated in 29

47 Materials and methods 2ml of either unlabeled 14 N (Spectra 9-U) or 15 N-enriched (Spectra 9-N, >98%) media (Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Andover, MA, USA) with 100 g/ml ampicillin. The pre-cultures were incubated for 6h at 37 0 C with shaking at 220rpm, inoculated into 100ml of the 14 N or 15 N media containing 100 g/ml ampicillin and incubated overnight at 37 0 C with shaking at 220rpm. The cultures were then centrifuged at 5000rpm for 15min at 4 0 C, supernatants were discarded, and 14 N and 15 N E. coli pellets were frozen. For quantitative MS and Western blot analyses, the 14 N and 15 N pellets were dissolved in lysis buffer (1ml/100ml culture) consisting of 100mM Tris-HCl (BioRad) ph 8.0, 150mM NaCl (Merck), 1mM EDTA (Sigma Aldrich) and sonicated to break the E. coli cells. The lysates were centrifuged at 13000rpm for 12min at 4 0 C, and supernatants containing the cytoplasmic fraction were collected Escherichia coli proteomics sample preparation-mass spectrometry The 14 N and 15 N E. coli cytoplasmic fractions were combined 1:1 (w/w) based on protein content, 100 g of the 14 N/ 15 N mixture were resolved by 1D-gel electrophoresis, and the gel was stained with Coomassie brilliant blue R-250 (BioRad). In gel digestion and peptide extraction were performed as described in For every fraction, extracted peptides were lyophilized and dissolved in 10 l 1% formic acid. Five l were then loaded onto an in-house packed column and analyzed by LC-ESI-MS/MS as described in Two technical replicates were measured per fraction Escherichia coli proteomics data analysis For protein identification, a concatenated, forward/reverse decoy MSDB (ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/repository/msdb) E. coli database was used. Database search and relative quantification were performed as previously described (see 3.4.4). Per replicate, proteins with at least two quantified peptides were evaluated for quantification. Peptides with the same sequence but different charge states were quantified as different entities. Peptides with the same sequence and charge state were grouped, provided that their MS/MS scans were acquired within a 2min interval (Pan et al., 2006b). Quantification results were manually evaluated, and inaccurate quantifications due to incorrect isotopologue pattern assignment were excluded. In the quantified dataset, for protein IDs corresponding to the same protein name, the amino acid sequences were manually checked. In all cases, every protein ID corresponded to a different protein variant and 30

48 Materials and methods therefore was treated as a separate protein entity. For every protein variant, variant-specific peptides were identified by MS. Quantification results were normalized by subtracting the median from all log 2 ratios of the quantified proteins. Proteins were considered to be differentially expressed when their 14 N/ 15 N abundance ratio was >1.3 fold, and their 95% CI did not contain 0 in both replicates. Proteins quantified only in one of the two replicates were not considered for further analysis. Quantification reproducibility between the two replicates was assessed by Pearson correlation analysis that measures linear dependence between two variables Western blot validation of selected differentially expressed proteins Western blot analysis and signal intensity quantification were performed as in and 3.4.6, respectively. For the 14 N HAB/ 15 N HAB comparison, the anti-tnr (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, goat polyclonal, 1:400) and anti-nefm primary antibodies (Abcam, rabbit polyclonal, 1:1000) were used. For the 14 N/ 15 N E. coli comparison, five g of 14 N and 15 N E. coli cytoplasmic fractions were resolved by 1D-gel electrophoresis. An anti-beta galactosidase (LacZ) primary antibody (Novus Biologicals, Littleton, CO, USA, chicken polyclonal, 1:10000) and a secondary anti-rabbit antibody (GE Healthcare) were used. Five technical replicates were evaluated per E. coli group Pyruvate assay of 14 N/ 15 N Escherichia coli cytoplasm Pyruvate levels in the 14 N and 15 N E. coli cytoplasm were assessed using a pyruvate assay kit (Biovision, Mountain View, CA, USA). 14 N and 15 N E. coli culture pellets were dissolved in 1ml pyruvate assay buffer each, centrifuged, supernatant collected, and the colored product of pyruvate oxidation by pyruvate oxidase was measured in triplicate using a GENios Pro microplate reader (Tecan, Männedorf, Switzerland) according to manufacturer s instructions. 14 N and 15 N group differences were statistically evaluated by Student s t test (two tailed, unpaired) In silico pathway analysis For the 14 N HAB/ 15 N HAB comparison, the FatiGO online tool (http://babelomics3.bioinfo.cipf.es) was used to compare over- or underrepresented functional groups in the differentially expressed and all quantified proteins. Pathway Studio (Ariadne Genomics) was utilized for literature data mining and pathway visualization. For the 14 N/ 15 N E. coli comparison, the functional clustering annotation tool DAVID (Dennis et al., 2003; was used. 31

51 Synaptosome profiling 4 Profiling of mouse synaptosome proteome and phosphoproteome 4.1 Introduction Synapses are the main structures for inter-neuron communication. Neurotransmitter- and signal transduction-related events represent brain responses to behavioral experience (Bai and Witzmann, 2007). Since synapses constitute the fundamental information processing unit in the brain, synaptic dysfunction is believed to be an underlying mechanism for psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders (Mohn et al., 1999; Snyder et al., 2005; Südhof, 2008). At the posttranslational modification level, reversible synaptic phosphorylation is required for basal neurotransmission (Smart, 1997) and is involved in learning and memory (Sunyer et al., 2008). Protein kinases and phosphatases have been implicated in the regulation of neurotransmitter release (Takahashi et al., 2003), receptor trafficking (Braithwaite et al., 2006), long term potentiation (Malenka and Nicoll, 1999) and memory consolidation (Bozon et al., 2003). Therefore, a thorough characterization of the synaptic proteome and phosphoproteome is crucial for understanding the organization of the synaptic machinery and its role in health and disease. Synaptosomes are artificially produced, isolated synapses. After mild disruption of brain tissue, nerve terminals detach from their axons and post-synaptic and glial cells to which they are connected. Subsequently, the pre-synaptic membranes reseal and enclose the nerve terminal contents to form synaptosomes. Synaptosomes are made up of the entire pre-synaptic terminal (mitochondria, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, external membranes and synaptic vesicles) and often a part of the attached post-synaptic side (post-synaptic membrane and post-synaptic density) (Schrimpf et al., 2005). Under metabolizing conditions, synaptosomes respire, take up oxygen and glucose, maintain a normal membrane potential and release neurotransmitters in a calciumdependent manner (Whittaker, 1993), thus retaining the molecular neurotransmission machinery and mimicking synaptic function in vivo. The synaptic machinery is of paramount importance in anxiety pathophysiology. Anxiety disorders are associated with alterations in neurotransmission, including serotonin, dopamine and gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter systems (Nemeroff, 2003; Stein et al., 2002). 34

52 Synaptosome profiling Furthermore, current anxiolytic treatment regulates neurotransmission (Gorman, 2002), neurotransmitter modulators constitute potential therapeutic targets (Nemeroff, 2003), and neurotransmitter receptors modulate anxiety levels (Barkus et al., 2010). Conceptually, the equilibrium between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission is critical for physiological anxiety, and disturbances of this synaptic balance can lead to pathological anxiety (Wu et al., 2008). Due to the pivotal role of synaptic neurobiology in anxiety manifestation, synaptosomes were chosen to be studied for identifying disease-specific markers and elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying anxiety-related behavior in the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model (Chapter 6). Before comparing the synaptosome proteomes of HAB/NAB/LAB mice in a quantitative manner, a profiling of the synaptosome proteome and phosphoproteome of a CD1 mouse was performed to get insights into the protein composition of synaptosomes, and create a reference protein map for the subsequent quantitative proteomics experiments. It has been previously shown in our group that IEF can be used for phosphopeptide enrichment (Maccarrone et al., 2006). To achieve a simultaneous, comprehensive analysis of the mouse synaptosome proteome and phosphoproteome, IEF was employed as a fractionation step, followed by LC-ESI-MS/MS. 4.2 Results Western blot analysis of selected synaptosomal proteins To evaluate the specificity of the synaptosome enrichment procedure and investigate the expression of selected identified proteins in synaptosomes, a Western blot analysis was performed using fractions from different steps of the synaptosome enrichment protocol. A cytosolic fraction of a whole mouse brain was additionally included. Antibodies for synaptic proteins (anti-gria2, anti-psd95 and anti-slc17a7) were used to test for synaptosome enrichment specificity. Glutamate receptor 2 (Gria2 or GluR2) binds L-glutamate in excitatory synapses activating ion transport channels. Discs large homolog 4 (PSD95) is a post-synaptic density protein marker, whereas brain specific sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate co-transporter (Slc17a7 or VGlut1) takes up glutamate into synaptic vesicles at pre-synaptic nerve terminals. All three antibodies showed satisfactory enrichment in the synaptosomal fraction and were not present in nuclei or in the supernatants S2 and S3 that do not include the synaptosomal fraction (see 3.2.1). Cytosolic proteins such as mu-crystallin (Crym) and protein kinase C family members 35

53 Synaptosome profiling (Prkcb1, Prkcc, Prkce) were present but not specific for the synaptosomal fraction, as expected. Neuromudulin (Gap43), a neuronal marker, was also present in the synaptosomal fraction. Myelin basic protein (Mbp), which is involved in axon myelination and is commonly present as impurity in synaptosome preparations, was not detected in the synaptosomal fraction (Fig. 4.1). Figure 4.1 Western blot analysis of selected proteins in different steps of the synaptosome enrichment protocol For the synaptosome-specific proteins Gria2, PSD95 and Slc17a7, no signals in N, S2 and S3 fraction as well as enriched signals in Syn fraction were detected. The neuronal-specific protein Gap43 and the cytosolic proteins Crym and Prkc exhibited a wide expression pattern including the Syn fraction. No detectable signal for Mbp was observed in Syn fraction. Nuclear fraction N was used as a negative control for non-nuclear proteins. N: Nuclear fraction; C: Cytosolic fraction; S1, S2, S3: Successive supernatants in the synaptosome enrichment protocol (see 3.2.1); Syn: Synaptosomal fraction; Slc17a7: Brainspecific sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate co-transporter; Gria2: Glutamate receptor 2; PSD95 (Dlg4): Post-synaptic density protein 95; Gap43: Neuromudulin; Prkc: Protein kinase C family; Crym: Mu-crystallin; Mbp: Myelin basic protein. 36

54 Synaptosome profiling Synaptosome proteome Analysis of whole mouse brain synaptosomes resulted in the identification of 4794 non-redundant protein hits, 2980 of which were identified with more than two peptides. False positive identification rate at the protein level was 0.35% after filtering and excluding one peptide hits using a decoy database. The identified proteins cover a wide range of molecular weights and isoelectric points (Fig. 4.2). The complete list of all identified proteins is available online (Filiou et al., 2010a; Table S1). A B Figure 4.2 Physicochemical properties of synaptosomal proteins A. Molecular weight distribution. B. Isoelectric point distribution. 37

58 Synaptosome profiling B Figure 4.4 Representative MS/MS spectra of novel phosphosites A. Phosphorylation at S11 for the Rgs6 peptide SVYGVTDETQSQSPVHIPSQPIR was unambiguously assigned. B. For the Cend1 peptide PAPTVPAAPSSPDATSEPK, phosphorylation at S10 and S11 could not be unambiguously assigned. In the MS/MS spectra, the mono, double and triple charged b and y ions identified are shown. Peaks marked by (#) in the ion superscript denote phosphorylated fragment ions. Underlined in the peptide sequence are the (potential) phosphorylation sites. Red and blue peaks correspond to b and y ions, respectively. A 41

59 Synaptosome profiling B Figure 4.5 Gene Ontology analysis of the synaptosome phosphoproteome A. Biological process annotation. B. Molecular function annotation. 4.3 Discussion Although a number of studies have been performed to characterize the synaptic mouse proteome, comprehensive proteomics investigations of mouse synaptosomes have been rare. In the only study where the whole mouse brain synaptosome proteome was examined, Schrimpf and colleagues analyzed synaptosomes by isotope-coded affinity tags, strong cation exchange chromatography and LC-ESI-MS/MS and identified 1113 proteins (Schrimpf et al., 2005). Here, an in-depth analysis of the mouse synaptosome proteome and phosphoproteome is presented. We identified 2980 unique proteins with two or more peptides, including 118 phosphoproteins, which is the most detailed mouse synaptosome protein dataset described to date (Filiou et al., 2010a). IEF is an effective fractionation method at the peptide level compared to classical 1D-gel electrophoresis at the protein level (Filiou, unpublished observations), resulting in a comprehensive analysis of brain tissue subproteomes. IEF fractionation is a highly sensitive method for the detection of low stoichiometry proteins and significantly increases the dynamic range of the analysis. A substantial number of low abundant proteins identified by only two or few peptides are reported. For the synaptic proteome, the successful identification of such proteins is of major importance since the key components of the synaptic machinery that are responsible for 42

60 Synaptosome profiling neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity (e.g., neurotransmitters and their receptors) are present in very low amounts. GO analysis of the protein dataset showed that apart from neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity, synaptosomal proteins participate in a variety of biological processes, including metabolism and development (Fig. 4.3A). Interestingly, 109 proteins participate in response to stress (GO: ) and 125 in apoptosis (GO: ), indicating that the synapse itself has developed mechanisms to retain its homeostasis. Our data support the observation that the molecular complexity of the synaptic proteome is greater than expected (Pocklington et al., 2006). Isolation of synaptosomal proteins is innately demanding, since synaptosomes constitute no preexisting subcellular organelle. Employing a well-established protocol, also used by others (Witzmann et al., 2005), only few protein identifications indicated contamination from astrocytes, myelin and serum (astrocytic phosphoprotein, myelin-forming proteins, albumin), whereas Western blot analysis showed satisfactory enrichment and specificity for synaptic proteins. No myelin basic protein, a myelin contamination marker, was detected (Fig. 4.1), thus ensuring the validity of the current protocol to study synaptosomes in an accurate manner and to be further used for quantitative studies of the synaptosome proteome (Chapter 6). IPG-based fractionation was applied to analyze complex protein mixtures from mouse brain and investigate the synaptosome phosphoproteome without employing additional steps for phosphoprotein enrichment. To date, only one other study has employed IEF to analyze phosphopeptides in brain tissue (Beranova-Giorgianni et al., 2006). In that report, a human pituitary protein extract was analyzed by IEF, and peptide mixtures were enriched for phosphopeptides with immobilized metal affinity chromatography resulting in the identification of 73 phosphorylated peptides corresponding to 26 proteins. In the present study, 133 phosphopeptides corresponding to 118 phosphoproteins were identified using a comparable amount of tissue. Large scale synaptosome phosphoproteome studies (Collins et al., 2005; Munton et al., 2007) often employ additional steps such as immobilized metal affinity or strong cation exchange chromatography to specifically enrich for phosphopeptides. In the current study, no additional phosphoenrichment step was performed, and both the synaptic proteome and phosphoproteome were investigated. This accounts for the relatively lower number of identified phosphopeptides compared to studies focusing exclusively on the phosphoproteome. Due to the low stoichiometry and the reversible nature of phosphorylation, the presence of phosphoproteins 43

61 Synaptosome profiling may be masked by the expression of high abundant synaptic proteins making their identification in a complex mixture challenging. Taken together, a considerable percentage of the synaptosome proteome is involved in the regulation of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events, suggesting that this posttranslational modification is of major importance in synaptic terminals. We performed a detailed literature search of the phosphorylated dataset and found 33 proteins that are reported to be implicated in psychiatric/neurodegenerative disorders. Among these, 13 proteins have been shown to be associated with more than one disorder, suggesting a possible role in multiple disease pathways (Filiou et al., 2010a). Remarkably, phosphorylation events in eight neuronalspecific proteins are for the first time reported. Four of the novel phosphorylated proteins (Atcay, Carptp, Slc8a2, Pcsk1n) have been implicated in neuropsychiatric disorders. The novel phosphorylation sites found in the present study may point out relevant mechanisms involved in disease pathobiology and deserve further investigation. In conclusion, the most comprehensive mouse synaptosome proteome analysis described to date was conducted. IEF coupled with LC-ESI-MS/MS is an effective proteomics platform that can be employed for the simultaneous analysis of the proteome and phosphoproteome of complex mixtures, such as brain synaptosome protein extracts. Synaptosomes are characterized by considerable functional diversity and the explicit investigation of the synaptosomal protein constituents and especially low abundant synaptic proteins will aid the further understanding of brain neurochemistry and synapse function, provide a reference map for synaptic large scale quantification studies in mouse models, reveal key components of neurotransmission and point to potential candidates for therapeutic intervention. 44

63 15 N metabolic labeling Anxiety-related behavior Anxiety-related behavior was assessed on PND 5 by USV (see ) and on PND 49 by EPM (see ). USV calls (Fig. 5.1A) and % time spent on the open EPM arms (Fig. 5.1B) were the main behavioral parameters examined. HAB, NAB and LAB animals showed the significant phenotypic divergence observed in the mice of the standard breeding both in USV and EPM tests (Frank et al., 2009, data not shown), indicating that the bacterial diet per se exerted no effect on anxiety-related behavior in all lines. In both tests, no significant difference was observed between 14 N and 15 N bacteria-fed animals of the same line, showing that the introduction of the 15 N isotope did not influence anxiety-related behavior. A B Figure 5.1 Anxiety-related behavior in the ultrasonic vocalization and the elevated plusmaze test A. An increased number of USV calls during the test time were observed in bacteria-fed HAB compared to LAB mice, with NAB mice exhibiting an intermediate behavior, similar to the animals of the standard breeding. No significant difference in the number of USV calls was found between 14 N and 15 N bacteria-fed HAB or NAB animals. All available bacteria-fed animals on PND 5 were tested (27 14 N HAB, N HAB, N NAB, N NAB, N LAB). B. HAB, NAB and LAB animals exhibited the significant anxiety-related, line-specific phenotypic divergence, similar to the animals of the standard breeding. HAB spent less time on the EPM open arms compared to LAB mice, and NAB mice exhibited an intermediate behavior. No significant difference in % time spent on the open arms was observed between 14 N and 15 N bacteria-fed HAB or NAB animals. The 15 N diet had no effect on locomotion as measured by the total number of entries into all arms 46

64 15 N metabolic labeling (Frank et al., 2009; data not shown). On the EPM, N HAB, N HAB, N NAB, N NAB and N LAB mice were tested Depression-like behavior Depression-like behavior was assessed on PND 51 by TST (see ). Total immobility time was the main behavioral parameter examined. The bacterial diet per se had no influence on the depression-like behavior compared to the animals of the standard breeding (Frank et al., 2009; data not shown). Intriguingly, a significant decrease in total immobility time in bacteria-fed 15 N HAB compared to 14 N HAB mice was observed, indicating a bacterial diet-independent, antidepressant-like effect of the 15 N isotope in HAB mice (Fig. 5.2). Figure 5.2 Depression-like behavior in the tail suspension test Total immobility time indicative of depression-like behavior was significantly reduced in bacteriafed 15 N HAB compared to 14 N HAB mice (**p<0.01). Bacteria-fed 15 N HAB still showed significantly increased total immobility time compared to 14 N LAB mice (**p<0.01). No significant difference in immobility time was observed between bacteria-fed 14 N NAB and 15 N NAB mice. The same animals that were tested on the EPM were also tested here N metabolic labeling efficiency estimation 15 N incorporation efficiency was monitored at different developmental time points (PND 5, 14, 28 and 56) in cerebellum and plasma of 15 N bacteria-fed mice. Already on PND 5, 15 N incorporation was >50.0% both in cerebellum and plasma. At early developmental time points, 15 N incorporation in cerebellum was lower than in plasma due to the slow protein turnover in the brain. 47

65 15 N metabolic labeling However, on PND 56, the 15 N incorporation in brain increased, reaching up to 92.0% both in cerebellum and plasma (Fig. 5.3). Representative examples of 14 N/ 15 N peptide pairs throughout development are shown in Fig A B C Figure N metabolic labeling efficiency at different developmental time points A. Cerebellum. B. Plasma. C. Table of average 15 N incorporation rates at different PNDs. A 48

66 15 N metabolic labeling B Figure 5.4 Representative 14 N/ 15 N peptide spectra from different developmental time points and their corresponding 15 N incorporation rates A. Brain beta-actin peptide IWHHTFYNELR. B. Plasma serum albumin peptide LGEYGFQNAILVR. As 15 N incorporation increases, the isotopologue pattern of the 15 N-labeled peptide (on the right) is shifted towards higher m/z ratios due to the presence of more heavy nitrogens in the peptide backbone. 5.3 Discussion A breeding and feeding protocol was established for in vivo metabolic labeling of mice with 15 N through a bacterial protein-based diet. The bacterial protein-based diet did not interfere with normal development, and no side-effects were observed apart from a slight body weight reduction of the bacteria- compared to standard-fed animals (Frank et al., 2009). To date, metabolic labeling of rodents has been performed using a 15 N-labeled, blue-green algae diet (Spirulina) (Wu et al., 2004; McClatchy et al., 2007a; Huttlin et al., 2009). All published efforts to label rodents with 15 N and relevant proteomics applications are summarized in Table 5.1. According to our experience, offspring fed exclusively with the Spirulina-based diet exhibited severe developmental problems (Frank et al., 2009). Therefore, the bacteria-based diet was chosen due to the lack of side-effects in normal development and its lower cost compared to the Spirulina- 49

67 15 N metabolic labeling based diet. Notably, a four day habituation period was introduced, during which mice had access ad libitum both to standard and bacterial food so as to ensure optimal transition to the new diet (Fig. 3.1). The bacterial diet did not influence anxiety-related behavior both at early and late developmental stages (as measured by USV and EPM, respectively), thus enabling proteomics analyses for identifying anxiety-related changes in an unbiased manner. Although the bacterial diet per se had no effect on the depression-like phenotype compared to the standard diet, an antidepressant-like effect of the 15 N isotope was observed in HAB mice (see ). This is the first time that the introduction of the 15 N isotope has been reported to affect the behavioral characteristics of labeled organisms. Further investigation of this effect at the molecular level can shed light on pathways involved in the depression-like behavior in HAB (discussed in Chapter 7). For quantitative MS experiments, a satisfactory 15 N incorporation is required to guarantee an accurate 14 N/ 15 N quantification. In the only study where mice have been metabolically labeled with 15 N, 15 N feeding started at the age of 3 weeks for 44 days, achieving an 82.8% 15 N incorporation in brain. Here, a labeling protocol was established starting with 15 N feeding in utero until early adulthood (8 weeks of age), achieving a 92.0% 15 N incorporation in brain and 91.3% in plasma. By starting the 15 N feeding in utero, high 15 N incorporation was achieved already at early developmental time points (Fig. 5.3). In the future, this will enable MS-based quantitative studies to investigate the ontogenetic development of anxiety-related behavior. Stable isotope labeling approaches have revolutionized the proteomics field and are to date the most sensitive quantitative proteomics approaches due to the ability of mixing the samples under comparison prior handling. Consequently, any error during experimental handling is introduced uniformly in both samples, and relative quantification accuracy is not affected (see ). Although the generation of a 15 N-labeled mouse is of considerable cost, all resulting 15 N-labeled tissues can be used in a plethora of experimental workflows as internal standards, facilitating highly sensitive proteomics comparisons and providing an overall cost-effective, highly precise tool for quantitative proteomics. Incomplete labeling was until recently the main bottleneck for 15 N metabolic labeling applications, as the complex nature of partially 15 N-labeled spectra hindered accurate 14 N/ 15 N quantification. To address this issue, optimized in silico identification and quantification strategies for partially labeled peptides (Gouw et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2009b) and several software solutions were developed to allow accurate 14 N/ 15 N quantification for partially 50

69 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice 6 Biomarker and pathway discovery in the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety 6.1 Introduction Although anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric disorders, no molecular markers exist for their prognosis, classification or treatment outcome. In our efforts to unravel the neurobiological underpinnings and identify candidate biomarkers for anxiety disorders, we interrogated the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety utilizing a quantitative multi-omics approach. As brain region of interest, the cingulate cortex was chosen. The cingulate cortex is in close connection to the amygdala, and its activation has been proposed to modulate amygdala s response to fear (Coplan and Lydiard, 1998; Milad and Rauch, 2007; Muigg et al., 2008). Neuroimaging studies in humans and lesion analyses in animal models have implicated cingulate cortex areas in the modulation of emotional behavior (Drevets and Savitz, 2008; Etkin and Wager, 2007; Hasler et al., 2007). Notably, alterations in cingulate cortex have been reported in panic disorder (Asami et al., 2008) as well as in other psychiatric conditions, including depression (Ballmaier et al., 2004) and schizophrenia (Carter et al., 1997). Furthermore, the cingulate cortex tissue amount obtained per animal allows proteomics interrogation of synaptosomes. Due to the key role of the synaptic machinery in anxiety pathophysiology (summarized in 4.1), we focused our proteomics investigation on synaptosomes. The quantitative proteomics platform based on 15 N metabolic labeling (described in Chapter 5) and quantitative MS were applied to compare the cingulate cortex synaptosome proteomes of HAB and LAB mice. To circumvent 15 N isotope-derived alterations, an indirect comparison workflow was employed using 15 N-labeled NAB animals as internal standards (Fig. 6.1). 52

70 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Figure 6.1 Proteomics strategy for HAB/LAB relative quantification Cingulate cortices from 15 N bacteria-fed NAB as well as from 14 N bacteria-fed HAB and LAB mice were excised and cytoplasmic fractions were mixed 1:1 (w/w) based on protein content for every 14 N/ 15 N comparison. 15 N bacteria-fed NAB mice were compared pairwise with 14 N HAB and 14 N LAB mice in two parallel steps. Data from the 14 N HAB/ 15 N NAB and 15 N NAB/ 14 N LAB comparisons were combined to indirectly compare the 14 N HAB and 14 N LAB synaptosome proteomes. In addition, the cingulate cortex metabolomes of HAB/NAB/LAB mice were quantified utilizing an established quantitative metabolomics platform in collaboration with the Metabolomics Core of UC Davis, CA, USA (Fig. 6.2). Moreover, differential expression of selected proteins was validated by Western blot in an independent, standard-fed HAB/NAB/LAB population and in silico pathway analyses based on proteomics and metabolomics data were performed to unravel altered networks in HAB and LAB animals. 53

73 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Table 6.1: Metabolites with the best discrimination power between HAB/NAB/LAB lines List of metabolites that can discriminate between the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse lines (based on RF, TFFBS and MANOVA analyses). : Ratio between the compared groups <1; : Ratio between the compared groups >1. To assess the discrimination power of the set of the 11 metabolite entities, a discriminant analysis was performed resulting in an excellent overall classification rate of 100%. In a second discriminant analysis, the seven prime candidate metabolite biomarkers were used as discriminators, and excellent discrimination power (100%) was also achieved. To assess whether there is a subset of the prime candidate metabolite biomarkers that can discriminate between the three lines, all possible combinations of the prime candidate metabolite biomarkers as discriminators were considered. We found that dehydroascorbate 3, xylose and metabolite constitute the minimum set of metabolites that can discriminate between the HAB/NAB/LAB lines (discrimination power 100%). Both dehydroascorbate and xylose were found at elevated levels in LAB compared to HAB mice Western blot validation of selected differentially expressed proteins To validate quantitative MS data, differential expression of selected proteins (Table 6.2) was confirmed by Western blot in cingulate cortex synaptosomes of an independent, standard-fed HAB/NAB/LAB population. Selection criteria for the proteins to be validated were the quality of MS raw data, the number of quantified peptides and antibody availability. Representative MS raw spectra and Western blot analysis are shown in the following sections. Protein symbol IPI Accession Protein name HAB/LAB abundance ratio Quantified non-redundant peptides Sfxn5 IPI Sideroflexin Car2 IPI Carbonic anhydrase Myh10 IPI Myosin, heavy polypeptide 10, non-muscle Sdhb IPI Succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit Table 6.2 Differentially expressed proteins in HAB and LAB synaptosomes confirmed by Western blot 56

78 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Figure 6.7 Differentially expressed proteins and metabolites pertinent to oxidative stressrelated processes A number of proteins and metabolites with altered levels in HAB and LAB animals have been implicated in oxidative stress-related processes in the literature. Highlighted proteins denote confirmed differential expression by Western blot (protein names corresponding to the abbreviations used here are given in Appendix 4). ROS: Reactive oxygen species. 61

79 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Figure 6.8 Differentially expressed proteins related to major psychiatric disorders A number of differentially expressed proteins in HAB and LAB mice have been related to psychiatric disorders, although only few to anxiety. Highlighted proteins denote confirmed differential expression by Western blot (protein names corresponding to the abbreviations used here are given in Appendix 4). 62

81 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Figure 6.10 Significantly overrepresented pathways in the quantified proteins and metabolites dataset Bins are color-coded according to Fig. 6.9 (center top). On the left, the hierarchical clustering of the significantly overrepresented pathways based on their p values is shown. Statistical significance for overrepresented pathways was accepted for p<

83 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice Figure 6.11 Glycolysis divergencies between HAB and LAB cingulate cortex synaptosomes Neurotransmission Glutamate and GABA are the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Increased expression of glutamate (Grm3, Gria2, Gria3) and GABA (Gabbr1) receptors as well as glutamate (Slc1a1, Slc1a2) and GABA (Slc6a1) transporters was found in HAB compared to LAB synaptosomes, suggesting an overall increased neurotransmission activity in HAB mice. In addition, proteins involved in glutamate metabolism, such as the mitochondrial glutamate dehydrogenase 1 (Glud1) and glutamate decarboxylase 2 (Gad2), were found differentially expressed in HAB and LAB synaptosomes. The calcium signaling pathway involved in 66

84 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice neurotransmission regulation was also overrepresented in the bin with a moderate increase in HAB mice (Fig. 6.10) Mitochondrial function Citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation Besides glycolysis, energy production takes place in mitochondria via the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Increased expression in LAB synaptosomes was observed for the citric acid cycle enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase (Idh1), which catalyzes the conversion of isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate, whereas increased expression of the Sdh subunits a, b and c was observed in HAB synaptosomes. As previously mentioned, Sdh couples the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Strikingly, subunits of all complexes participating in the ETC, including NADH dehydrogenase (complex I), Sdh (complex II), cytochrome bc1 (complex III), cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) as well as ATP synthase showed higher expression in HAB compared to LAB synaptosomes, in most cases 2 fold (Fig. 6.12). Figure 6.12 The electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane The energy obtained through electron transfer down the ETC (complexes I to IV) creates an electrochemical proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane, which allows ATP synthase to generate ATP. Red denotes increased expression in HAB mice. Oxidative stress Apart from producing ATP for energy metabolism, the ETC is one of the most prominent mechanisms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation that lead to oxidative stress. We found evidence for an increased antioxidant activity in LAB mice. At the proteome level, increased 67

85 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice expression of proteins with antioxidant properties, such as superoxide dismutase (Sod1) and peroxiredoxin-2 (Prdx2) was found in LAB mice. At the metabolome level, elevated levels of dehydroascorbate and xylose, two of the prime candidate metabolite biomarkers (see 6.2.2), were observed in LAB mice. Dehydroascorbate is the oxidized form of vitamin C (ascorbic acid), a known antioxidant (Sies et al., 1992). Unlike vitamin C, dehydroascorbate can cross the bloodbrain barrier with the aid of glucose transporters, thus being the transportable form of vitamin C in the brain (Agus et al., 1997). Furthermore, the monosaccharide xylose can be converted to D- xylulose-5-phosphate and enter the pentose phosphate pathway, an alternative pathway to glycolysis that generates NADPH, another key player in antioxidant defense. At the pathway level, overrepresentation of mechanisms involved in antioxidant defense, such as vitamin B6 and glutathione metabolism as well as the pentose phosphate pathway were found in the bins with increased expression in LAB mice (Fig. 6.10). Mitochondrial import and transport Increased expression of proteins participating in transport into and within mitochondria were observed in HAB synaptosomes. Among them were members of the translocases of the innerouter mitochondrial membrane (TIM-TOM) complex (Tim16, Tim22, Tim23, Tom22), which constitute the molecular machinery for mitochondrial protein import (Neupert, 1997), metaxin 1 and 2, which participate in the pre-protein mitochondrial import complex (Armstrong et al., 1997; Armstrong et al., 1999) as well as the voltage-dependent anion-selective channel (Vdac) proteins 1, 2 and 3, which form pores in the outer mitochondrial membrane for diffusion of molecules in the mitochondrion (De Pinto and Palmieri, 1992). Notably, seven members of the mitochondrial membrane carrier family, which facilitate transport of molecules across mitochondrial membranes (Palmieri, 2004) were expressed at higher levels in HAB synaptosomes. These included ADP/ATP translocases (Slc25a4, Slc25a5) that assist the exchange of ADP and ATP between cytosol and mitochondria, glutamate carriers 1 and 2 (Slc25a22, Slc25a18), phosphate and oxoglutarate/malate carriers (Slc25a3, Slc25a11) as well as the calcium-binding protein Alalar 1 (Slc25a12). In addition, numerous proteins located in mitochondria showed increased expression in HAB synaptosomes. Apart from sideroflexins, prohibitins - proteins with multiple functions in mitochondrial senescence and dynamics (Artal-Sanz and Tavernarakis, 2009) - showed 2 fold increased expression in HAB synaptosomes. 68

86 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice 6.3 Discussion A multi-omics approach combined with in silico pathway analysis was applied to the HAB/NAB/LAB mouse model of trait anxiety to unravel the neurobiological underpinnings and identify candidate biomarkers for anxiety disorders. The cingulate cortex synaptosome proteomes of HAB and LAB mice were compared by in vivo 15 N metabolic labeling and quantitative proteomics. In addition, the cingulate cortex metabolome profiles of HAB/NAB/LAB mice were quantified. Selected differentially expressed candidates were validated by Western blot and affected pathways were identified by in silico analyses. Our data provide a panel of phenotypespecific markers, suggesting a key role for mitochondria in modulating anxiety-related behavior that has not been reported previously. Differential expression of four proteins in HAB and LAB synaptosomes, namely Sfxn5, Car2, Myh10 and Sdhb, was confirmed in an independent HAB/NAB/LAB population. Sfxn5, a member of the sideroflexin family, showed increased expression in HAB mice. So far, limited information is available for sideroflexin functions (Fleming et al., 2001; Yoshikumi et al., 2005), and no association with psychiatric disorders has been reported. Sfxn1 mutations have been linked to abnormal iron deposition in mitochondria resulting in sideroblastic anemia in mice (Fleming et al., 2001). Interestingly, pre- and post-natal iron deficiency in rats led to increased anxiety-related behaviors (Beard et al., 2002; Eseh and Zimmerberg, 2005), suggesting a potential role of iron transport pathways in anxiety pathogenesis. Car2 was found expressed at higher levels in HAB compared to LAB mice. Increased Car2 expression has been also reported in a Down syndrome mouse model as well as in young Down syndrome patients (Palminiello et al., 2008). Carbonic anhydrases are ubiquitously expressed proteins, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors have been used for the treatment of bipolar disorder (Brandt et al., 1998; Hayes, 1994) and atypical psychosis (Inoue et al., 1984). Myh10, with an increased expression in LAB mice, has been shown to promote filopodia extension by relocalizing integrins (Zhang et al., 2004) and to participate in axon path-finding by regulating netrin receptors (Zhu et al., 2007). Increased Myh10 expression in LAB mice may thus indicate implication of neuronal cell adhesion mechanisms in anxiety modulation. Notably, knock-out mice for cell adhesion-related molecules exhibited increased anxiety-related behavior (Blundell et al., 2009; Schmalzigaug et al., 2009). Taken together, these data point toward novel mechanisms for understanding anxiety pathobiology and 69

87 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice implicate proteins not previously reported in anxiety pathogenesis (i.e. Sfxn5, Myh10) that provide the basis for the establishment of a panel of candidate biomarkers for trait anxiety. Due to the high costs involved in generating 15 N-labeled mice, the number of replicates used in the present study was limited. The animals used for the analyses were carefully chosen so as to accurately represent the phenotype of the individual mouse lines. The HAB and LAB mouse lines are inbred for many generations and therefore animal-to-animal variability is significantly lower compared to outbred animals. Furthermore, all validation assays were performed in a standardfed, independent population so that any potential diet effect could be excluded, and results could be confirmed in a larger dataset. Due to the low amount of cingulate cortex synaptosomes obtained from a single mouse, using one 15 N NAB animal per 14 N HAB/ 14 N LAB pair was not feasible and thereby different 15 N NAB mice were used as internal labeled standards for HAB and LAB animals. Great care was taken in choosing NAB animals with the smallest possible variability with regard to phenotypic parameters as well as animal and cingulate cortex tissue weights. Apart from single molecules, the biomarker discovery pipeline should extend to affected pathways, given that network dysfunctions rather than single molecular lesions are involved in the pathobiology of complex diseases such as anxiety disorders. Here, our proteomics, metabolomics and in silico analyses revealed pronounced alterations in mitochondrial functions, indicating a key role of mitochondria in anxiety-related behavior. In particular, decreased expression levels of glycolysis enzymes with simultaneous increased expression levels of ETC components were observed in HAB synaptosomes. Increased oxidative phosphorylation activity enhances ROS production and oxidative stress, which result in oxidative damage, lipid peroxidation and cell death. There is a mounting body of evidence that links oxidative stress to anxiety disorders. In human studies, increased ROS markers in patients with panic (Kuloglu et al., 2002b) and obsessive-compulsive (Behl et al., 2010; Kuloglu et al., 2002a) disorders have been reported. In mice, well-established anxiety-related behavior biomarkers, such as Glo1 and glutathione reductase 1 exert a neuroprotective role against oxidative damage (Ditzen et al., 2006; Gingrich, 2005; Hovatta et al., 2005; Krömer et al., 2005), and alterations in oxidative stress-related proteins have been described in a mouse model of anxiety (Szego et al., 2010). Moreover, anxiety-related behavior has been correlated with oxidative status in mouse brain (Rammal et al., 2008a) and blood (Bouayed et al., 2007; Rammal et al., 2008b). Remarkably, mitochondriadirected antioxidant treatment led to decreased anxiety-related behavior in rats (Stefanova et al., 70

88 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice 2010). In the present study, an increased expression of all ETC members that produce ROS and reduced levels of proteins and metabolites involved in antioxidant defense were found in HAB mice, implicating dysfunctional antioxidant protection in these animals. Most cellular systems exhibit flexibility in shifting their metabolism between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation according to energetic demands or nutrient availability. Most importantly, the therapeutic potential of modulating this reallocation has been demonstrated in several diseases (Chen et al., 2007; Huber et al., 2004; Riepe et al., 1997). Shifting energy metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis can attenuate oxidative damage and suppress apoptosis (Hunter et al., 2007; Jeong et al., 2004; Vaughn and Deshmukh, 2008). Nutrient-sensitized screening has also revealed the ability of several Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs to redirect oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis (Gohil et al., 2010). This may provide a means for modulating high anxiety-related behavior that warrants further investigation. An increased expression of proteins participating in mitochondrial import and transport was observed in HAB mice. Proteins such as the Vdac family or hexokinase have been proposed to participate or modulate the permeability transition pore complex, which regulates the exchange of small metabolites between the cytosol and the mitochondrial matrix. In response to ROS or calcium overload, the permeability transition pore complex allows a deregulated entry of small molecules into the mitochondrion, altering mitochondrial permeability and eventually leading to cell death (Kroemer et al., 2007). Interestingly, mice lacking members/modulators of the permeability transition pore complex exhibited alterations in anxiety-related behavior (Luvisetto et al., 2008). Altered levels of proteins involved in neurotransmission were also observed in HAB mice. There is a close interplay between synapses and mitochondria. Mitochondria are located in synaptic terminals and tethered to sites where synaptic vesicle release occurs (Kageyama and Wongriley, 1982). In functional synapses, mitochondria supply ATP and regulate calcium levels, modulating neuronal polarity (Mattson and Partin, 1999), neurotransmission (Billups and Forsythe, 2002), receptor signaling (Kann et al., 2003) and synaptic plasticity (Vanden Berghe et al., 2002). An increased synaptic activity has been shown to induce mitochondrial-encoded gene expression (Williams et al., 1998). In particular, inhibition of mitochondrial Sdh that we have found to be differentially expressed in HAB and LAB synaptosomes resulted in altered NMDA-mediated 71

89 Biomarker discovery in HAB/NAB/LAB mice neurotransmission (Calabresi et al., 2001). Since neurotransmission disequilibrium is a hallmark of anxiety disorders (McNaughton, 1997), an altered activity of proteins involved in energy production and transport in mitochondria may in turn lead to neurotransmission perturbations and influence anxiety-related behavior. Taken together, we submit a mitochondrion-centered hypothesis for the anxiety-related molecular alterations (Fig. 6.13) based on proteomics and metabolomics data and in silico pathway information (Filiou et al., 2009; Filiou et al., submitted). Although mitochondrial involvement has been suggested for other psychiatric disorders such as bipolar disorder (Kato, 2006; Stork and Renshaw, 2005) and schizophrenia (Ben-Shachar and Lainfenfeld, 2004), little is known about the role of mitochondria in anxiety disorders. In our dataset, mitochondria appear to be the common denominator of the energy metabolism, oxidative stress and neurotransmission divergencies observed between HAB and LAB mice. The shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation results in enhanced ROS production and consequently, increased oxidative stress and oxidative damage with an impact on anxiety-related behavior. On a second level, mitochondrial alterations affect the excitatory-inhibitory neurotransmission equilibrium modulating the processing of anxiogenic stimuli. Our hypothesis is further supported by increased anxietyrelated behavior observed in mice deficient for mitochondrial proteins (Einat et al., 2005) as well as by the modulation of mitochondrial function by glucocorticoid stress hormones (Du et al., 2009). The structural and functional characteristics of mitochondria enable their selective targeting by drugs for therapeutic purposes. The therapeutic potential of selective mitochondrial targeting has already been demonstrated in cancer (Fulda et al., 2010) and neurodegenerative disorders (Armstrong, 2007) and may also provide a novel promising approach for the treatment of anxiety disorders. 72

In-Depth Qualitative Analysis of Complex Proteomic Samples Using High Quality MS/MS at Fast Acquisition Rates Using the Explore Workflow on the AB SCIEX TripleTOF 5600 System A major challenge in proteomics

A Reference Measurement System for C-reactive Protein David M. Bunk, Ph.D. Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Definition of the Measurand: Human C-reactive

Mass Spectrometry Based Proteomics Proteomics Shared Research Oregon Health & Science University Portland, Oregon This document is designed to give a brief overview of Mass Spectrometry Based Proteomics

Electrospray Ion Source Electrospray Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry Introduction The key to using MS for solutions is the ability to transfer your analytes into the vacuum of the mass spectrometer as ionic

Introduction to mass spectrometry (MS) based proteomics and metabolomics Tianwei Yu Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Rollins School of Public Health Emory University September 10, 2015 Background

Pesticide Analysis by Mass Spectrometry Purpose: The purpose of this assignment is to introduce concepts of mass spectrometry (MS) as they pertain to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of organochlorine

Methods for Protein Analysis 1. Protein Separation Methods The following is a quick review of some common methods used for protein separation: SDS-PAGE (SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) separates

MultiQuant Software 2.0 for Targeted Protein / Peptide Quantification Gold Standard for Quantitative Data Processing Because of the sensitivity, selectivity, speed and throughput at which MRM assays can

Chapter 3 Contd. Western blotting & SDS PAGE Western Blot Western blots allow investigators to determine the molecular weight of a protein and to measure relative amounts of the protein present in different

Approaches that can be used to study expression of specific proteins Receptors and transporters Homogenate binding studies Receptor autoradiography Radiochemical Western blotting Immunohistochemistry/cytochemistry

EXPERIMENT VI PURIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PROTEINS I- Protein isolation and dialysis In order to investigate its structure and properties a protein must be obtained in pure form. Since proteins

Application Note # LCMS-81 Introducing New Proteomics Acquisiton Strategies with the compact Towards the Universal Proteomics Acquisition Method Introduction During the last decade, the complexity of samples

Common Course Topics Biology 1414: Introduction to Biotechnology I Assumptions Students may be enrolled in this course for several reasons; they are enrolled in the Biotechnology Program, they need a science

SUCRALOSE Prepared at the 41st JECFA (1993), published in FNP 52 Add 2 (1993). Metals and arsenic specifications revised at the 63rd JECFA (2004). An ADI of 0-15 mg/kg bw was established at the 37th JECFA

Advantages of Using Triple Quadrupole over Single Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry to Quantify and Identify the Presence of Pesticides in Water and Soil Samples André Schreiber AB SCIEX Concord, Ontario (Canada)

6 Characterization of Casein and Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) Objectives: A) To separate a mixture of casein and bovine serum albumin B) to characterize these proteins based on their solubilities as a function

Western Blotting All steps are carried out at room temperature unless otherwise indicated. Recipes for all solutions highlighted bold are included at the end of the protocol. SDS-PAGE 1. Construct an SDS-PAGE

ab185915 Protein Sumoylation Assay Ultra Kit Instructions for Use For the measuring in vivo protein sumoylation in various samples This product is for research use only and is not intended for diagnostic

KMS-Specialist & Customized Biosimilar Service 1. Polyclonal Antibody Development Service KMS offering a variety of Polyclonal Antibody Services to fit your research and production needs. we develop polyclonal

WESTERN BLOTTING TIPS AND TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL WESTERB BLOTS TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE 1. Suboptimal protein transfer. This is the most common complaint with western blotting and could

Kinexus Bioinformatics Corporation is seeking to map and monitor the molecular communications networks of living cells for biomedical research into the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of human diseases.

Western Blot Analysis with Cell Samples Grown in Channel-µ-Slides Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and subsequent analyses are common tools in biochemistry and molecular biology. This Application

Application Notes # LCMS-35 esquire series Application of LC/APCI Ion Trap Tandem Mass Spectrometry for the Multiresidue Analysis of Pesticides in Water An LC-APCI-MS/MS method using an ion trap system

The Use of Micro Flow LC Coupled to MS/MS in Veterinary Drug Residue Analysis Stephen Lock AB SCIEX Warrington (UK) Overview A rapid, robust, sensitive and specific LC-MS/MS method has been developed for