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How do planetary scientists analyze and interpret data from laboratory, telescopic, and spacecraft observations of planetary surfaces? What elements, minerals, and volatiles are found on the surfaces of our Solar System's planets, moons, asteroids, and comets? This comprehensive volume answers these topical questions by providing an overview of the theory and techniques of remote compositional analysis of planetary surfaces. Bringing together eminent researchers in Solar System exploration, it describes state-of-the-art results from spectroscopic, mineralogical, and geochemical techniques used to analyze the surfaces of planets, moons, and small bodies. The book introduces the methodology and theoretical background of each technique, and presents the latest advances in space exploration, telescopic and laboratory instrumentation, and major new work in theoretical studies. This engaging volume provides a comprehensive reference on planetary surface composition and mineralogy for advanced students, researchers, and professional scientists.

Carbonate rocks in the Mojave Desert are presented as potential analogues for the carbonates on Mars. Rocks collected from the Little Red Hill site contain iron oxide-bearing coatings that greatly suppress the spectral features due to carbonate of the underlying material and impart a spectral slope. The Mojave Desert was formerly a lush pedogenic soil environment that, over time, transformed into the current arid climate with abundant rock varnish. One niche for microbes in the current desolate environment is inside and underneath the rocks where the microbes profit from solar protection by the iron oxide rock coatings. Carbonates were long predicted to be present on Mars and have recently been detected by instruments on Phoenix and MER and using hyperspectral orbiters such as the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM), the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) and the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES). We describe here the results of a study of carbonate rocks from the Little Red Hill site of the Mojave Desert that includes X-ray diffraction (XRD), chemistry and visible-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Coatings on the carbonate rocks greatly reduced the strength of the carbonate bands and caused changes in the shape of some bands. We compare these data with a carbonate outcrop at Nili Fossae, Mars. If microbes once inhabited Mars, similar carbonate rocks with iron oxide coatings could have provided a UV-protected niche there as well. Thus, analysis of carbonate-bearing regions on Mars by future landers would be useful sites to search for biosignatures.

We propose that nanophase iron-oxide-bearing materials provided important niches for ancient photosynthetic microbes on the Earth that ultimately led to the oxygenation of the Earth's atmosphere and the formation of iron-oxide deposits. Atmospheric oxygen and ozone attenuate ultraviolet radiation on the Earth today providing substantial protection for photosynthetic organisms. With ultraviolet radiation fluxes likely to have been even higher on the early Earth than today, accessing solar radiation was particularly risky for early organisms. Yet, we know that photosynthesis arose early and played a critical role in subsequent evolution. Of primary importance was protection below 290 nm, where peak nucleic acid (~260 nm) and protein (~280 nm) absorptions occur. Nanophase ferric oxide/oxyhydroxide minerals absorb, and thus block, the lethal ultraviolet radiation, while transmitting light through much of the visible and near-infrared regions of interest to photosynthesis (400 to 1100 nm). Furthermore, they were available in early environments, and are synthesized by many organisms. Based on experiments using nanophase ferric oxide/oxyhydroxide minerals as a sunscreen for photosynthetic microbes, we suggest that iron, an abundant element widely used in biological mechanisms, may have provided the protection that early organisms needed in order to be able to use photosynthetically active radiation while being protected from ultraviolet-induced damage. The results of this study are broadly applicable to astrobiology because of the abundance of iron in other potentially habitable bodies and the evolutionary pressure to utilize solar radiation when available as an energy source. This model could apply to a potential life form on Mars or other bodies where liquid water and ultraviolet radiation could have been present at significant levels. Based on ferric oxide/oxyhydroxide spectral properties, likely geologic processes, and the results of experiments with the photosynthetic organisms, Euglena sp. and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, we propose a scenario where photosynthesis, and ultimately the oxygenation of the atmosphere, depended on the protection of early microbes by nanophase ferric oxides/oxyhydroxides.

We interpret recent spectral data of Mars collected by the Mars Exploration Rovers to contain substantial evidence of sulfate minerals and aqueous processes. We present visible/near-infrared (VNIR), mid-IR and Mössbauer spectra of several iron sulfate minerals and two acid mine drainage (AMD) samples collected from the Iron Mountain site and compare these combined data with the recent spectra of Mars. We suggest that the sulfates on Mars are produced via aqueous oxidation of sulfides known to be present on Mars from Martian meteorites. The sulfate-rich rock outcrops observed in Meridiani Planum may have formed in an acidic environment similar to AMD environments on Earth. Because microorganisms are typically involved in the oxidation of sulfides to sulfates in terrestrial AMD sites, sulfate-rich rock outcrops on Mars may be a good location to search for evidence of life on that planet. Whether or not life evolved on Mars, following the trail of sulfate minerals is likely to lead to aqueous processes and chemical weathering. Our results imply that sulfate minerals formed in Martian soils via chemical weathering, perhaps over very long time periods, and that sulfate minerals precipitated following aqueous oxidation of sulfides to form the outcrop rocks at Meridiani Planum.

A spectroscopy and isotope study has been performed on igneous sediments from Lake Hoare, a nearly isolated ecosystem in the Dry Valleys region of Antarctica. The mineralogy and chemistry of these sediments were studied in order to gain insights into the biogeochemical processes occurring in a permanently ice-covered lake and to assist in characterizing potential habitats for life in paleolakes on Mars. Obtaining visible/near-infrared, mid-infrared and Raman spectra of such sediments provides the ground truth needed for using reflectance, emittance and Raman spectroscopy for exploration of geology, and perhaps biology, on Mars. Samples measured in this study include a sediment from the ice surface, lake bottom sediment cores from oxic and anoxic zones of the lake and the magnetic fractions of two samples.

These sediments are dominated by quartz, pyroxene, plagioclase and K-feldspar, but also contain calcite, organics, clays, sulphides and iron oxides/hydroxides that resulted from chemical and biological alteration processes. Chlorophyll-like bands are observed in the spectra of the sediment-mat layers on the surface of the lake bottom, especially in the deep anoxic region. Layers of high calcite concentration in the oxic sediments and layers of high pyrite concentration in the anoxic sediments are indicators of periods of active biogeochemical processing in the lake. Micro-Raman spectra revealed the presence of ~5 μm-sized pyrite deposits on the surface of quartz grains in the anoxic sediments. C, N and S isotope trends are compared with the chemistry and spectral properties. The δ13C and δ15N trends highlight the differences in the balance of microbial processes in the anoxic sediments versus the oxic sediments. The biogenic pyrite found in the sediments from the anoxic zone is associated with depleted δ34S values, high organic C levels and chlorophyll spectral bands and could be used as a potential biomarker mineral for paleolakes on Mars.

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