This chapter analyzes the soteriological aims of Jōkei's message and the means he promoted for achieving those aims. Above all, Jōkei encouraged aspiration for birth in the realms of Maitreya and ...
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This chapter analyzes the soteriological aims of Jōkei's message and the means he promoted for achieving those aims. Above all, Jōkei encouraged aspiration for birth in the realms of Maitreya and Kannon, and emphasized the necessity of relying on the “other power” of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas. At the same time, he emphasized the importance of karma and the relevant consequences of our thoughts, words, and deeds.Less

Soteriological Aims, Means, and Boundaries

James L. Ford

Published in print: 2006-08-24

This chapter analyzes the soteriological aims of Jōkei's message and the means he promoted for achieving those aims. Above all, Jōkei encouraged aspiration for birth in the realms of Maitreya and Kannon, and emphasized the necessity of relying on the “other power” of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas. At the same time, he emphasized the importance of karma and the relevant consequences of our thoughts, words, and deeds.

This chapter examines the use of breastfeeding as a metaphor for the compassionate deeds of buddhas and bodhisattvas. It argues that whereas the comparison between a mother’s breastfeeding and the ...
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This chapter examines the use of breastfeeding as a metaphor for the compassionate deeds of buddhas and bodhisattvas. It argues that whereas the comparison between a mother’s breastfeeding and the Buddha’s teaching of the dharma is largely absent in India, it did become prevalent in the medieval Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka, where the Buddha was often described as a “mother” who feeds the “milk” of the dharma to the “suckling babies” of the Saṃgha. In India, on the other hand, the mother’s breastfeeding is more often compared to the bodhisattva’s “gift of the body,” or the many deeds of bodily self-sacrifice the bodhisattva engages in on behalf of others. In this way, the bodhisattva’s gift of his body is subtly rendered as “physical” and “female” (akin to a mother’s breastfeeding), whereas the Buddha’s teaching of the dharma is “spiritual” and “male”—and therefore the gift of a father.Less

“Just as a Mother’s Milk Flows from Her Breasts” : Breastfeeding and Compassionate Deeds

Reiko Ohnuma

Published in print: 2012-07-01

This chapter examines the use of breastfeeding as a metaphor for the compassionate deeds of buddhas and bodhisattvas. It argues that whereas the comparison between a mother’s breastfeeding and the Buddha’s teaching of the dharma is largely absent in India, it did become prevalent in the medieval Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka, where the Buddha was often described as a “mother” who feeds the “milk” of the dharma to the “suckling babies” of the Saṃgha. In India, on the other hand, the mother’s breastfeeding is more often compared to the bodhisattva’s “gift of the body,” or the many deeds of bodily self-sacrifice the bodhisattva engages in on behalf of others. In this way, the bodhisattva’s gift of his body is subtly rendered as “physical” and “female” (akin to a mother’s breastfeeding), whereas the Buddha’s teaching of the dharma is “spiritual” and “male”—and therefore the gift of a father.

This work provides a survey and critical investigation of the remarkable century from 1225 to 1325, during which the transformation of the Chinese Chan school into the Japanese Zen sect was ...
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This work provides a survey and critical investigation of the remarkable century from 1225 to 1325, during which the transformation of the Chinese Chan school into the Japanese Zen sect was successfully completed. The cycle of transfer began with a handful of Japanese pilgrims traveling to China, including Eisai, Dōgen, and Enni, in order to discover authentic Buddhism. They quickly learned that Chan, with the strong support of the secular elite, was well organized in terms of the intricate teaching techniques of various temple lineages. After receiving Dharma transmission through face-to-face meetings with prominent Chinese teachers, the Japanese monks returned with many spiritual resources. However, foreign rituals and customs met with resistance, so by the end of the thirteenth century it was difficult to imagine the success Zen would soon achieve. Following the arrival of a series of émigré monks, who gained the strong support of the shoguns for their continental teachings, Zen became the mainstream religious tradition in Japan. The transmission culminated in the 1320s when prominent leaders Daitō and Musō learned enough Chinese to overcome challenges from other sects with their Zen methods. The book examines the transcultural conundrum: how did Zen, which started half a millennium earlier as a mystical utopian cult primarily for reclusive monks who withdrew from society, gain a broad following among influential lay followers in both countries? It answers this question by developing a focus on the main mythical elements that contributed to the overall effectiveness of this transition, especially the Legend of Living Buddhas.Less

From Chinese Chan to Japanese Zen : A Remarkable Century of Transmission and Transformation

Steven Heine

Published in print: 2017-11-30

This work provides a survey and critical investigation of the remarkable century from 1225 to 1325, during which the transformation of the Chinese Chan school into the Japanese Zen sect was successfully completed. The cycle of transfer began with a handful of Japanese pilgrims traveling to China, including Eisai, Dōgen, and Enni, in order to discover authentic Buddhism. They quickly learned that Chan, with the strong support of the secular elite, was well organized in terms of the intricate teaching techniques of various temple lineages. After receiving Dharma transmission through face-to-face meetings with prominent Chinese teachers, the Japanese monks returned with many spiritual resources. However, foreign rituals and customs met with resistance, so by the end of the thirteenth century it was difficult to imagine the success Zen would soon achieve. Following the arrival of a series of émigré monks, who gained the strong support of the shoguns for their continental teachings, Zen became the mainstream religious tradition in Japan. The transmission culminated in the 1320s when prominent leaders Daitō and Musō learned enough Chinese to overcome challenges from other sects with their Zen methods. The book examines the transcultural conundrum: how did Zen, which started half a millennium earlier as a mystical utopian cult primarily for reclusive monks who withdrew from society, gain a broad following among influential lay followers in both countries? It answers this question by developing a focus on the main mythical elements that contributed to the overall effectiveness of this transition, especially the Legend of Living Buddhas.

This chapter reports several aspects of archaeological, legal, ethical, and political debates of Afghanistan's cultural heritage. It starts by summarizing Afghanistan's intriguing history. It also ...
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This chapter reports several aspects of archaeological, legal, ethical, and political debates of Afghanistan's cultural heritage. It starts by summarizing Afghanistan's intriguing history. It also discusses the initial efforts of the Society for the Protection of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage (SPACH) to preserve what was possible. In addition, the importance of archaeology for understanding Afghanistan's history and the plundering of the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul are highlighted. The chapter then explains the illegal excavation and looting of archaeological sites, the willful destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas and figures from the National Museum, and the material that has survived the war. Finally, it argues that the lessons learned from the recent history of Afghanistan could be applied beneficially in other situations. The destruction of Afghanistan's cultural heritage is exceptional because this heritage fell victim both to extensive looting and to religiously inspired iconoclasm. However, it could serve as a case study to illustrate the types of threats that need to be guarded against in the future and to indicate what might constitute appropriate preventive action or countermeasures.Less

Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage An Exceptional Case?

Neil BrodieMorag M. KerselKathryn Walker Tubb

Published in print: 2006-08-01

This chapter reports several aspects of archaeological, legal, ethical, and political debates of Afghanistan's cultural heritage. It starts by summarizing Afghanistan's intriguing history. It also discusses the initial efforts of the Society for the Protection of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage (SPACH) to preserve what was possible. In addition, the importance of archaeology for understanding Afghanistan's history and the plundering of the National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul are highlighted. The chapter then explains the illegal excavation and looting of archaeological sites, the willful destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas and figures from the National Museum, and the material that has survived the war. Finally, it argues that the lessons learned from the recent history of Afghanistan could be applied beneficially in other situations. The destruction of Afghanistan's cultural heritage is exceptional because this heritage fell victim both to extensive looting and to religiously inspired iconoclasm. However, it could serve as a case study to illustrate the types of threats that need to be guarded against in the future and to indicate what might constitute appropriate preventive action or countermeasures.

The true Way of Poetry is similar to the Great Void, lacking in nothing and no way superfluous. Every individual finds his own way to attain perfection and is capable of experiencing enlightenment ...
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The true Way of Poetry is similar to the Great Void, lacking in nothing and no way superfluous. Every individual finds his own way to attain perfection and is capable of experiencing enlightenment without depending on others. Abandoning the Great Way results in benevolence and righteousness, but the appearance of knowledge only gives rise to great lies. All the categories, distinctions, and admonitions expounded inSasamegoto are rejected here from the perspective of an achieved state of wisdom or enlightenment where they no longer apply. In other words, the distinctions between right and wrong, of is and is not, are crucial tools for teaching and conversion, but useless outside of the pedagogical context that necessitates them. According to the Makashikan, the buddhas and bodhisattvas practice two things, namely, preaching and silence.Less

Epilogue

Published in print: 2008-04-16

The true Way of Poetry is similar to the Great Void, lacking in nothing and no way superfluous. Every individual finds his own way to attain perfection and is capable of experiencing enlightenment without depending on others. Abandoning the Great Way results in benevolence and righteousness, but the appearance of knowledge only gives rise to great lies. All the categories, distinctions, and admonitions expounded inSasamegoto are rejected here from the perspective of an achieved state of wisdom or enlightenment where they no longer apply. In other words, the distinctions between right and wrong, of is and is not, are crucial tools for teaching and conversion, but useless outside of the pedagogical context that necessitates them. According to the Makashikan, the buddhas and bodhisattvas practice two things, namely, preaching and silence.

This chapter addresses the cultural background of Tabo. The juxtaposition of visual and the scriptural data at Tabo appears to be unique in a number of ways. The Gaṇḍavyūha murals belong to ...
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This chapter addresses the cultural background of Tabo. The juxtaposition of visual and the scriptural data at Tabo appears to be unique in a number of ways. The Gaṇḍavyūha murals belong to continuirende darslellungsweise (continuous narration). As an essential component to narrative mural were added two types of inscriptions: redactional sutra text and short-label inscriptions. The short inscriptions were of seminal importance for laymen and laywomen who did not understand the abstract theories on the stages of sanctification, interpenetration, and causation but were generally attracted by the career of the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas. The visual experience of the literate Buddhists and monks was that narrative murals and inscriptional panels were actively involved in the entire spiritual process. Both the murals and the inscriptions are part of the same narrative media, sometime working simultaneously, or sometime independently, according to the capacity of the viewer.Less

Epilogue : The Cultural Heritage of Tabo

Laxman S. Thakur

Published in print: 2005-11-24

This chapter addresses the cultural background of Tabo. The juxtaposition of visual and the scriptural data at Tabo appears to be unique in a number of ways. The Gaṇḍavyūha murals belong to continuirende darslellungsweise (continuous narration). As an essential component to narrative mural were added two types of inscriptions: redactional sutra text and short-label inscriptions. The short inscriptions were of seminal importance for laymen and laywomen who did not understand the abstract theories on the stages of sanctification, interpenetration, and causation but were generally attracted by the career of the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas. The visual experience of the literate Buddhists and monks was that narrative murals and inscriptional panels were actively involved in the entire spiritual process. Both the murals and the inscriptions are part of the same narrative media, sometime working simultaneously, or sometime independently, according to the capacity of the viewer.

Chapter 2 examines political factors and social influences that contributed to the construction of the Legend of Living Buddhas, a benchmark for the institutional and artistic shift from Chinese Chan ...
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Chapter 2 examines political factors and social influences that contributed to the construction of the Legend of Living Buddhas, a benchmark for the institutional and artistic shift from Chinese Chan to Japanese Zen. It aims to answer the question of how the Zen monastic institution managed to gain a wide following of religious leaders and their disciples as well as lay followers, especially Song-dynasty literati, after struggling for centuries to grow in China beginning with the historical background of the Tang dynasty. Stressing the commercial network of maritime routes linking China and Japan, along with cultural as well as commercial connections that inspired monks to make the daring trip across the waters, the chapter shows how transnational relationships formed between creative priests from both countries, particularly in regard to the mythology of Living Buddhas.Less

Transitions : Social Influences on Zen’s Legend of Living Buddhas

Steven Heine

Published in print: 2017-11-30

Chapter 2 examines political factors and social influences that contributed to the construction of the Legend of Living Buddhas, a benchmark for the institutional and artistic shift from Chinese Chan to Japanese Zen. It aims to answer the question of how the Zen monastic institution managed to gain a wide following of religious leaders and their disciples as well as lay followers, especially Song-dynasty literati, after struggling for centuries to grow in China beginning with the historical background of the Tang dynasty. Stressing the commercial network of maritime routes linking China and Japan, along with cultural as well as commercial connections that inspired monks to make the daring trip across the waters, the chapter shows how transnational relationships formed between creative priests from both countries, particularly in regard to the mythology of Living Buddhas.

A yogi's powers of omniscience entail extensions of his person that radiate far beyond the contours of his physical body, into the furthest reaches of the cosmos. In effect, a yogi's mind-body (or ...
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A yogi's powers of omniscience entail extensions of his person that radiate far beyond the contours of his physical body, into the furthest reaches of the cosmos. In effect, a yogi's mind-body (or more properly speaking his consciousness-body) complex becomes virtually coterminus with the limits of the universe. This chapter follows the ways in which the implications of this extension of the person or self came to be applied to the theology, anthropology, cosmology, and soteriology of the Hindu Purānas and Tantras, as well as the scriptures of Buddhist Mahāyāna and Tantra. These new developments appear to follow parallel tracks, with the bodies and powers of yogis and gods being magnified in homologous ways in coeval sources. The four-verse “coda” of the Mahābhārata's yoga chapter offers a novel expansion on the theories of perception and the science of entering foreign bodies. This chapter also examines yogic displays by gods and Buddhas and the deification of yogis.Less

Yogi Gods

Published in print: 2009-11-01

A yogi's powers of omniscience entail extensions of his person that radiate far beyond the contours of his physical body, into the furthest reaches of the cosmos. In effect, a yogi's mind-body (or more properly speaking his consciousness-body) complex becomes virtually coterminus with the limits of the universe. This chapter follows the ways in which the implications of this extension of the person or self came to be applied to the theology, anthropology, cosmology, and soteriology of the Hindu Purānas and Tantras, as well as the scriptures of Buddhist Mahāyāna and Tantra. These new developments appear to follow parallel tracks, with the bodies and powers of yogis and gods being magnified in homologous ways in coeval sources. The four-verse “coda” of the Mahābhārata's yoga chapter offers a novel expansion on the theories of perception and the science of entering foreign bodies. This chapter also examines yogic displays by gods and Buddhas and the deification of yogis.

This concluding chapter begins by reviewing the findings of the previous chapters, all of which generate different forms of ambivalence—an air of ambivalence that is summarized in the ambiguity of ...
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This concluding chapter begins by reviewing the findings of the previous chapters, all of which generate different forms of ambivalence—an air of ambivalence that is summarized in the ambiguity of the book's title. The title indicates concerns regarding both how Buddhas speak and how to speak in their stead. Indian Buddhist commentators shared these issues, who struggled to distinguish, interpret, and teach others to describe and interpret the speech of a Buddha, while simultaneously demonstrating the difficulty of speaking on a Buddha's behalf. Using a short passage drawn from an eighth-century commentary attributed to Kamalaśīla on the Śālistambasūtra, the chapter addresses the issue of whether and to what extent these commentators saw their own representations in the texts they were tasked to illustrate.Less

Conclusion

Richard F. Nance

Published in print: 2011-11-29

This concluding chapter begins by reviewing the findings of the previous chapters, all of which generate different forms of ambivalence—an air of ambivalence that is summarized in the ambiguity of the book's title. The title indicates concerns regarding both how Buddhas speak and how to speak in their stead. Indian Buddhist commentators shared these issues, who struggled to distinguish, interpret, and teach others to describe and interpret the speech of a Buddha, while simultaneously demonstrating the difficulty of speaking on a Buddha's behalf. Using a short passage drawn from an eighth-century commentary attributed to Kamalaśīla on the Śālistambasūtra, the chapter addresses the issue of whether and to what extent these commentators saw their own representations in the texts they were tasked to illustrate.

This introductory chapter describes the book's trajectory: to explore the ways in which successive Buddhist generations, particularly Indian Buddhists, have imparted teachings through time. According ...
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This introductory chapter describes the book's trajectory: to explore the ways in which successive Buddhist generations, particularly Indian Buddhists, have imparted teachings through time. According to Professor Robert Sharf, the term “Buddhism” turns out to be a site of relentless dispute, “as a cacophony of voices lays claim to its authority.” Through these attempts to speak authoritatively, Buddhists are able to speak not only for themselves, but also for Buddhism in general-and thus to speak for Buddhas. Indian Buddhist literature depicts Buddhas as excellent speakers. They generate texts that are taken to represent “the speech of a Buddha” (buddhavacana); they are also held to manifest the characteristics of “right speech” (samyagvāc). The chapter aims to outline a map that would highlight the normative aspects of Indian Buddhist textual production that have been largely ignored, as well as the commentaries on Buddhist sūtra texts. It also provides a layout of topics for the subsequent chapters.Less

Introduction

Richard F. Nance

Published in print: 2011-11-29

This introductory chapter describes the book's trajectory: to explore the ways in which successive Buddhist generations, particularly Indian Buddhists, have imparted teachings through time. According to Professor Robert Sharf, the term “Buddhism” turns out to be a site of relentless dispute, “as a cacophony of voices lays claim to its authority.” Through these attempts to speak authoritatively, Buddhists are able to speak not only for themselves, but also for Buddhism in general-and thus to speak for Buddhas. Indian Buddhist literature depicts Buddhas as excellent speakers. They generate texts that are taken to represent “the speech of a Buddha” (buddhavacana); they are also held to manifest the characteristics of “right speech” (samyagvāc). The chapter aims to outline a map that would highlight the normative aspects of Indian Buddhist textual production that have been largely ignored, as well as the commentaries on Buddhist sūtra texts. It also provides a layout of topics for the subsequent chapters.