Sequencing and CNV

Pricing Comments

This test is also offered via our exome backbone with CNV detection (click here). The exome-based test may be higher priced, but permits reflex to the entire exome or to any other set of clinically relevant genes.

Targeted Testing

Turnaround Time

Clinical Sensitivity

Mutations in known FA genes are found in >95% of cases. RAD51C mutations are a rare cause of FA.

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Clinical Features

Fanconi Anemia (FA) is considered a blood disorder, however the clinical features of FA expand well beyond hematologic disorders alone. FA is characterized by a range of physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure (aplastic anemia), pancytopenia, and predisposition to cancers - particularly acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), gynecologic and GI tract cancers, and cancers of the head and neck (Auerbach. Mutat Res 668:4-10, 2009). FA patients are up to 800 fold more susceptible to AML than the general population with a median age of onset of 13 years (Rosenberg et al. Blood 101:822, 2003). Physical abnormalities include radial ray defects (absent thumb or radius), skin pigmentation defects, short stature, microphthalmia, renal and urinary tract defects, genital defects (males in particular), gastrointestinal malformations (atresia), congenital heart disease, hearing and central nervous system defects, and general developmental delay (Tischkowitz and Hodgson. J Med Genet 40:1-10, 2003; Dokal. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 13:407-425, 2000). About one-third of FA patients have no obvious physical abnormalities and are diagnosed only after a family member is diagnosed, or after developing hematologic anomalies such as thromobocytopenia, leukopenia, and anemia (Giampietro et al. Am J Med Genet 68:58-61, 1997). A hallmark of FA is hypersensitivity of chromosomes to interstrand cross linking agents such as diepoxybutane (DEB) or mitomycin C (MMC) (Sasaki and Tonomura. Cancer Res 33:1829-1836, 1973). Exposure of primary cell cultures from FA patients to DEB or MMC results in chromosomal abberations (breaks, radials, rearrangements) due to damaged DNA repair mechanisms that require functional products of the Fanconi anemia genes. For example, the FANCA, -B, -C, -E, -F, -G, -L, and -M proteins are part of a nuclear core complex that regulates monoubiquitination of the FANCD2 and FANCI proteins (ID complex) during S-phase and after exposure to DNA crosslinking agents (Moldovan and D'Andrea. Annu Rev Genet 43:223, 2009). In unaffected individuals, ubiquitination helps localize the ID complex to sites of DNA damage and facilitate repair (Grompe, and van de Vrugt. Developmental Cell 12:661, 2007; Smogorzewska et al. Cell 129:289, 2007), but in FA patients, this mechanism is impaired.

Genetics

FA is a genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive disorder. To date, 16 FA or FA-like genes have been discovered. Approximately 86% of all cases are attributed to mutations in three genes: FANCA (OMIM 607139) (~ 60%), FANCC (OMIM 227645) (~ 16%), and FANCG (OMIM 602956) (~ 10%) (Auerbach. Mutat Res 668:4-10, 2009). Nearly 95% of all cases are attributed to mutations in the eight genes, FANCA, -B, -C, -E, -F, -G, -L, and -M, that encode components of a nuclear core complex required for ID complex ubiquitination and facilitation of DNA repair (Grompe, and van de Vrugt. Developmental Cell 12:661, 2007). In the United States, the carrier frequency for FA is estimated at 1 in 181 and the incidence rate of FA is estimated at 1 in 131,000 (http://www.fanconi.org/; Rosenberg et al. Am J Med Genet A 155:1877, 2011). With the exception of FANCD1 and FANCN patients who seem to have more severe clinical symptoms, obvious genotype-phenotype correlations are lacking, and related individuals who harbor a common mutation(s) may have drastically different phenotypes. The FA-like phenotype includes severe congenital abnormalities and positive chromosomal breakage tests common to FA, but is considered FA-like because no indication of bone marrow failure or tumor development has yet been observed in the index family (Vaz et al. Nat Genet 42:406, 2010). Mutations in RAD51C account for a very small fraction of FA or FA-like cases. To date, only one mutation in the RAD51C gene, c.773G>A (p.Arg258His) has been associated with the FA-like phenotype (Vaz et al. Nat Genet 42:406, 2010). However, several other monoallelic mutations in the RAD51C gene have been linked to hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (Meindl et al. Nat Genet 42:410, 2010) thereby identifying RAD51C as a cancer susceptibility gene.

Testing Strategy

For this Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) test, sequencing is accomplished by capturing specific regions with an optimized solution-based hybridization kit, followed by massively parallel sequencing of the captured DNA fragments. Additional Sanger sequencing is performed for regions not captured or with insufficient number of sequence reads.

For Sanger sequencing, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to amplify targeted regions. After purification of the PCR products, cycle sequencing is carried out using the ABI Big Dye Terminator v.3.0 kit. PCR products are resolved by electrophoresis on an ABI 3730xl capillary sequencer. In nearly all cases, cycle sequencing is performed separately in both the forward and reverse directions.

Copy number variants (CNVs) are also detected from NGS data. We utilize a CNV calling algorithm that compares mean read depth and distribution for each target in the test sample against multiple matched controls. Neighboring target read depth and distribution and zygosity of any variants within each target region are used to reinforce CNV calls. All CNVs are confirmed using another technology such as aCGH, MLPA, or PCR before they are reported.

This test provides full coverage of all coding exons of the RAD51C gene, plus ~10 bases of flanking noncoding DNA. We define full coverage as >20X NGS reads or Sanger sequencing.

Indications for Test

Patients with clinical features of FA and positive chromosome breakage tests, patients with a family history of FA and/or cancer, and patients who develop aplastic anemia at any age.

Rosenberg PS, Tamary H, Alter BP. 2011. How high are carrier frequencies of rare recessive syndromes? Contemporary estimates for Fanconi Anemia in the United States and Israel. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A 155: 1877–1883. PubMed ID: 21739583

TEST METHODS

Test Procedure

NextGen Sequencing

We use a combination of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) and Sanger sequencing technologies to cover the full coding regions of the listed genes plus ~10 bases of non-coding DNA flanking each exon. As required, genomic DNA is extracted from the patient specimen. For NGS, patient DNA corresponding to these regions is captured using an optimized set of DNA hybridization probes. Captured DNA is sequenced using Illumina’s Reversible Dye Terminator (RDT) platform (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). Regions with insufficient coverage by NGS are covered by Sanger sequencing.

For Sanger sequencing, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to amplify targeted regions. After purification of the PCR products, cycle sequencing is carried out using the ABI Big Dye Terminator v.3.0 kit. PCR products are resolved by electrophoresis on an ABI 3730xl capillary sequencer. In nearly all cases, cycle sequencing is performed separately in both the forward and reverse directions.

Patient DNA sequence is aligned to the genomic reference sequence for the indicated gene region(s). All differences from the reference sequences (sequence variants) are assigned to one of five interpretation categories, listed below, per ACMG Guidelines (Richards et al. 2015).

Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) recommendations are used to describe sequence variants (http://www.hgvs.org). Rare variants and undocumented variants are nearly always classified as likely benign if there is no indication that they alter protein sequence or disrupt splicing.

Deletion and Duplication Testing via NGS

Copy number variants (CNVs) such as deletions and duplications are detected from next generation sequencing data. We utilize a CNV calling algorithm that compares mean read depth and distribution for each target in the test sample against multiple matched controls. Neighboring target read depth and distribution, and zygosity of any variants within each target region are used to reinforce CNV calls. All CNVs are confirmed using another technology such as PCR, aCGH or MLPA before they are reported.

Analytical Validity

NextGen Sequencing

As of March 2016, 6.36 Mb of sequence (83 genes, 1557 exons) generated in our lab was compared between Sanger and NextGen methodologies. We detected no differences between the two methods. The comparison involved 6400 total sequence variants (differences from the reference sequences). Of these, 6144 were nucleotide substitutions and 256 were insertions or deletions. About 65% of the variants were heterozygous and 35% homozygous. The insertions and deletions ranged in length from 1 to over 100 nucleotides.

In silico validation of insertions and deletions in 20 replicates of 5 genes was also performed. The validation included insertions and deletions of lengths between 1 and 100 nucleotides. Insertions tested in silico: 2200 between 1 and 5 nucleotides, 625 between 6 and 10 nucleotides, 29 between 11 and 20 nucleotides, 25 between 21 and 49 nucleotides, and 23 at or greater than 50 nucleotides, with the largest at 98 nucleotides. All insertions were detected. Deletions tested in silico: 1813 between 1 and 5 nucleotides, 97 between 6 and 10 nucleotides, 32 between 11 and 20 nucleotides, 20 between 21 and 49 nucleotides, and 39 at or greater than 50 nucleotides, with the largest at 96 nucleotides. All deletions less than 50 nucleotides in length were detected, 13 greater than 50 nucleotides in length were missed. Our standard NextGen sequence variant calling algorithms are generally not capable of detecting insertions (duplications) or heterozygous deletions greater than 100 nucleotides. Large homozygous deletions appear to be detectable.

Deletion and Duplication Testing via NGS

In general, sensitivity for single, double, or triple exon CNVs is ~80% and for CNVs of four exon size or larger is close to 100%, but may vary from gene-to-gene based on exon size, depth of coverage, and characteristics of the region.

Analytical Limitations

NextGen Sequencing

Interpretation of the test results is limited by the information that is currently available. Better interpretation should be possible in the future as more data and knowledge about human genetics and this specific disorder are accumulated.

When Sanger sequencing does not reveal any difference from the reference sequence, or when a sequence variant is homozygous, we cannot be certain that we were able to detect both patient alleles. Occasionally, a patient may carry an allele which does not amplify, due to a large deletion or insertion. In these cases, the report will contain no information about the second allele. Our Sanger and NGS Sequencing tests are generally not capable of detecting Copy Number Variants (CNVs).

We sequence all coding exons for each given transcript, plus ~10 bp of flanking non-coding DNA for each exon. Test reports contain no information about other portions of the gene, such as regulatory domains, deep intronic regions or any currently uncharacterized alternative exons.

In most cases, we are unable to determine the phase of sequence variants. In particular, when we find two likely causative mutations for recessive disorders, we cannot be certain that the mutations are on different alleles.

Our ability to detect minor sequence variants due to somatic mosaicism is limited. Sequence variants that are present in less than 50% of the patient’s nucleated cells may not be detected.

Runs of mononucleotide repeats (eg (A)n or (T)n) with n >8 in the reference sequence are generally not analyzed because of strand slippage during PCR.

Unless otherwise indicated, DNA sequence data is obtained from a specific cell-type (usually leukocytes from whole blood). Test reports contain no information about the DNA sequence in other cell-types.

We cannot be certain that the reference sequences are correct.

Rare, low probability interpretations of sequencing results, such as for example the occurrence of de novo mutations in recessive disorders, are generally not included in the reports.

We have confidence in our ability to track a specimen once it has been received by PreventionGenetics. However, we take no responsibility for any specimen labeling errors that occur before the sample arrives at PreventionGenetics.

Deletion and Duplication Testing via NGS

This CNV calling algorithm used in this test detects most deletions and duplications; however aberrations in a small percentage of regions may not be accurately detected due to sequence paralogy (e.g. pseudogenes, segmental duplications), sequence properties, deletion/duplication size (e.g. single vs. two or more exons), and inadequate coverage.

Balanced translocations or inversions within a targeted gene, or large unbalanced translocations or inversions that extend beyond the genomic location of a targeted gene are not detected.

In nearly all cases, our ability to determine the exact copy number change within a targeted gene is limited. In particular, when we find copy excess within a targeted gene, we cannot be certain that the region is duplicated, triplicated etc. In many duplication cases, we are unable to determine the genomic location or the orientation of the duplicated segment with respect to the gene. In particular, we often cannot determine if the duplicated segment is inserted in tandem within the gene or inserted elsewhere in the genome. Similarly, we may not be able to determine the orientation of the duplicated segment (direct or inverted), and whether it will disrupt the open reading frame of the given gene.

Ship blood tubes at room temperature in an insulated container. Do not freeze blood.

During hot weather, include a frozen ice pack in the shipping container.
Place a paper towel or other thin material between the ice pack and the blood tube.

In cold weather, include an unfrozen ice pack in the shipping container as insulation.

At room temperature, blood specimen is stable for up to 48 hours.

If refrigerated, blood specimen is stable for up to one week.

Label the tube with the patient name, date of birth and/or ID number.

DNA

(Delivery accepted Monday - Saturday)

Send in screw cap tube at least 5 µg -10 µg of purified DNA at a concentration of at least 20 µg/ml for NGS and Sanger tests and at least 5 µg of purified DNA at a concentration of at least 100 µg/ml for gene-centric aCGH, MLPA, and CMA tests, minimum 2 µg for limited specimens.

For requests requiring more than one test, send an additional 5 µg DNA per test ordered when possible.

DNA may be shipped at room temperature.

Label the tube with the composition of the solute, DNA concentration as well as the patient’s name, date of birth, and/or ID number.

We only accept genomic DNA for testing. We do NOT accept products of whole genome amplification reactions or other amplification reactions.

CELL CULTURE

(Delivery preferred Monday - Thursday)

PreventionGenetics should be notified in advance of arrival of a cell culture.

Culture and send at least two T25 flasks of confluent cells.

Some panels may require additional flasks (dependent on size of genes, amount of Sanger sequencing required, etc.). Multiple test requests may also require additional flasks. Please contact us for details.

Send specimens in insulated, shatterproof container overnight.

Cell cultures may be shipped at room temperature or refrigerated.

Label the flasks with the patient name, date of birth, and/or ID number.

We strongly recommend maintaining a local back-up culture. We do not culture cells.

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