Executive producer

Executive producer (EP) is a position in the making of a commercial entertainment product. Depending on the medium, the executive producer may be concerned with management accounting or with associated legal issues (like copyrights or royalties).[1] In films, the executive producer generally contributes to the film's budget and usually does not work on set, in contrast to most other producers.[2]

Contents

In films, an executive producer finances the film or participates in the creative effort, but does not work on the set. His/her responsibilities vary from funding or attracting investors into the movie project to legal, scripting, marketing, advisory and supervising capacities.[3]

The crediting of executive producers in the film industry has risen over time; in the mid-to-late 1990s, there were an average of just under two executive producers per film. In 2000, the number jumped to 2.5 (more than the number of standard 'producers'). In 2013, there were an average of 4.4 executive producers per film, compared with 3.2 producers.[4]

In television, an executive producer usually supervises the creative content and the financial aspects of a production, some writers (for example Stephen J. Cannell, Tina Fey and Ryan Murphy) have worked as both the creator and the producer of the same TV show.[5] In case of multiple executive producers on a TV show, the one outranking the other is called the showrunner,[6] or the leading executive producer.

In recorded music, record labels distinguish between an executive producer and a record producer, the executive producer is responsible for business decisions and more recently, organizing the recordings along with the music producer, whereas the record producer produces the music. Sometimes the executive producer organises the recording and selects sound engineers, session musicians, et al.[7]

In the video game industry, the title "executive producer" is not well-defined, it may refer to an external producer working for the publisher, who works with the developers. In 2012, Jay-Z was announced as executive producer for NBA 2K13, his role consisted of appearing in an introduction, picking songs for the game's soundtrack and contributing to the design of its in-game menus "and other visual elements".[8][9]

1.
Management accounting
–
One simple definition of management accounting is the provision of financial and non-financial decision-making information to managers. Performance management—developing the practice of business decision-making and managing the performance of the organization, risk management—contributing to frameworks and practices for identifying, measuring, managing and reporting risks to the achievement of the objectives of the organization. The Institute of Certified Management Accountants, Management accountants therefore are seen as the value-creators amongst the accountants. They are more concerned with looking and taking decisions that will affect the future of the organization, than in the historical recording. In 2014 CIMA created the Global Management Accounting Principles, the result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline. Focus, Financial accounting focuses on the company as a whole, Management accounting provides detailed and disagregated information about products, individual activities, divisions, plants, operations and tasks. Traditional approaches limit themselves by defining cost behavior only in terms of production or sales volume, in 1993, the Accounting Education Change Commission Statement Number 4 calls for faculty members to expand their knowledge about the actual practice of accounting in the workplace. Variance analysis is an approach to the comparison of the actual and budgeted costs of the raw materials. Other approach that can be viewed as innovative to the U. S. is the German approach, one of the more innovative accounting practices available today is resource consumption accounting. Consistent with other roles in corporations, management accountants have a dual reporting relationship. A function of management accounting in such organizations is to work closely with the IT department to provide IT cost transparency, given the above, one view of the progression of the accounting and finance career path is that financial accounting is a stepping stone to management accounting. Consistent with the notion of creation, management accountants help drive the success of the business while strict financial accounting is more of a compliance. Activity-based costing was first clearly defined in 1987 by Robert S. Kaplan and W. Bruns as a chapter in their book Accounting and Management, A Field Study Perspective. For example, increased automation has reduced labor, which is a direct cost, but has increased depreciation, the term Grenzplankostenrechnung, often referred to as GPK, has best been translated as either marginal planned cost accounting or flexible analytic cost planning and accounting. GPK is published in cost accounting textbooks, notably Flexible Plankostenrechnung und Deckungsbeitragsrechnung, in the mid- to late-1990s several books were written about accounting in the lean enterprise. The term lean accounting was coined during that period and these books contest that traditional accounting methods are better suited for mass production and do not support or measure good business practices in just-in-time manufacturing and services. The movement reached a point during the 2005 Lean Accounting Summit in Dearborn, Michigan. 320 individuals attended and discussed the advantages of a new approach to accounting in the lean enterprise,520 individuals attended the 2nd annual conference in 2006 and it has varied between 250 and 600 attendees since that time

2.
Copyright
–
Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families

Copyright
–
The Statute of Anne came into force in 1710.
Copyright
–
The Copyright Act of 1790 in the Columbian Centinel.
Copyright
–
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply stealing newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.
Copyright
–
A copyright certificate for proof of the Fermat theorem, issued by the State Department of Intellectual Property of Ukraine.

3.
Royalties
–
A royalty is a payment made by one party, the licensee or franchisee to another that owns a particular asset, the licensor or franchisor for the right to ongoing use of that asset. A royalty interest is the right to collect a stream of future royalty payments, license agreements can be regulated, particularly where a government is the resource owner, or they can be private contracts that follow a general structure. However, certain types of agreements have comparable provisions. When a government owns the resource in question, the transaction is subject to legal. In the United States, fee simple ownership of the mineral is possible by a private individual, local taxing authorities may impose a severance tax on the unrenewable natural resources extracted from within their authority. The Federal Government receives royalties on production on federal lands, managed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, an example from Canadas north is the federal Frontier Lands petroleum royalty regime. In this manner risks and profits are shared between the government of Canada and the petroleum developer and this attractive royalty rate is intended to encourage oil and gas exploration in the remote Canadian frontier lands where costs and risks are higher than other locations. In many jurisdictions oil and gas royalty interests are considered property under the NAICS classification code. As a standard example, for every $100 bbl of oil sold on a U. S. federal well with a 25% royalty, the U. S. government does not pay and will only collect revenues. All risk and liability lie upon the operator of the well, Royalties in the forestry industry are called stumpage. An intangible asset such as a patent gives the owner an exclusive right to prevent others from practicing the patented technology in the country issuing the patent for the term of the patent. The right may be enforced in a lawsuit for monetary damages and/or imprisonment for violation on the patent, patent rights may be divided and licensed out in various ways, on an exclusive or non-exclusive basis. The license may be subject to limitations as to time or territory, a license may encompass an entire technology or it may involve a mere component or improvement on a technology. In the United States, reasonable royalties may be imposed, both after-the-fact and prospectively, by a court as a remedy for infringement. 0%, however, the range extended from 0% to 50%. All of these agreements may not have been at arms length, in license negotiation, firms might derive royalties for the use of a patented technology from the retail price of the downstream licensed product. In the Arab countries, it may be found, that a royalty as a percentage of sales may be difficult to transact, a flat fee may be preferred as percentages may be interpreted as percentage of profit. Trade marks are words, logos, slogans, sounds, or other expressions that distinguish the source, origin. Trade marks offer the public a means of identifying and assuring themselves of the quality of the good or service and they may bring consumers a sense of security, integrity, belonging, and a variety of intangible appeals

Royalties

4.
Film producer
–
Film producers fill a variety of roles depending upon the type of producer. During the discovery stage, the producer has to find and acknowledge promising material, then, unless the film is supposed to be based on an original script, the producer has to find an appropriate screenwriter. For various reasons, producers cannot always supervise all of the production, in this case, the main producer may appoint executive producers, line producers, or unit production managers who represent the main producers interests. The producer has the last word on whether sounds or music have to be changed and they are in charge of selling the film or arranging distribution rights as well. The producers role can vary significantly from project to project, based on the circumstances and they generally are in charge of things like hiring staff, creating filming schedules, checking and approving locations, and much more. Producers are present in every genre of television and film. Although each genre might be different from each other, a producers role and job is the same throughout each. A producer from a program can be compared to a producer of a filmmaker despite how different each genre can be. Although the primary role of the producer can be compared to that of a filmmaker, the roles are very wide ranging, due to the fact that this occupation has gone through an enormous amount of stages and phases as time went on. Today, in most cases the roles range from supervising the editing process to hiring the main staff. The producer has an amount of power in every single aspect of the production process. They are never left out and are involved in every single stage of the production. There are times when a producer can try and find promising material to either a feature film or a television program. If a producer decides to do this, it is usually done in the discovery stage, the discovery stage is when a producer is actively looking for a variety of ideas, concepts, and/or promising scripts that he/she could make into a show and/or film. In this stage, a power may even stretch to gathering workers for the selected project. Even though a producer today can have a range of roles within the field. Within the industry, there are different types of producers who are only designated to specific roles such as controlling the staff. For example, to oversee and manage all aspects of production the role may be filled by the line producer

5.
Funding
–
Generally, this word is used when a firm uses its internal reserves to satisfy its necessity for cash, while the term ‘financing’ is used when the firms acquires capital from external sources. Sources of funding include credit, venture capital, donations, grants, savings, subsidies, fundings such as donations, subsidies, and grants that have no direct requirement for return of investment are described as soft funding or crowdfunding. Funds can be allocated for either short-term or long-term purposes, in economics funds are injected into the market as capital by lenders and taken as loans by borrowers. There are two ways in which the capital can end up at the borrower, the lender can lend the capital to a financial intermediary against interest. These financial intermediaries then reinvest the money against a higher rate, the use of financial intermediaries to finance operations is called indirect finance. Lender can also go the financial markets to directly lend to a borrower and this method is called direct finance. It is used for research, in fields of technology or social science, Research funding can split into commercial and non-commercial. Research and development departments of a corporation normally provide commercial research funding, whereas, non-commercial research funding is obtained from charities, research councils, or government agencies. Organisations that require such funding normally have to go through competitive selections, only those that have the most potential would be chosen. Funding is vital in ensuring sustainability of certain projects, entrepreneurs with a business concept would want to accumulate all the necessary resources including capitals to venture into a market. Funding is part of the process, as some businesses would require large sums that individuals would not have. These start-up funds are essential to kick start an idea, without it. Fund management companies gather pools of money from investors and use them to purchases securities. These funds are managed by investment managers, which may generate higher returns with reduced risks by asset diversification. The size of these funds could be a little as a few millions or as much as multibillions, the purpose of these funding activities is mainly aiming to pursue individual or organisation profits. Government could allocate funds itself or through government agencies to projects that benefits the public selection process to students or researchers. At least two external peer-reviewers and internal research award committee review each application, the research awards committee would meet some time to discuss shortlisted applications. A further shortlist and ranking is made, projects are funded and applicants are informed

Funding
–
The flow of funds from lender to borrower.

6.
Screenplay
–
A screenplay or script is a written work by screenwriters for a film, video game, or television program. These screenplays can be original works or adaptations from existing pieces of writing, in them, the movement, actions, expression, and dialogues of the characters are also narrated. A screenplay written for television is also known as a teleplay, the format is structured in a way that one page usually equates to one minute of screen time. In a shooting script, each scene is numbered, and technical direction may be given, in a spec or a draft in various stages of development, the scenes are not numbered, and technical direction is at a minimum. The standard font for a screenplay is 12 point,10 pitch Courier Typeface, the major components are action and dialogue. The action is written in the present tense, the dialogue are the lines the characters speak. Unique to the screenplay is the use of slug lines, a slug line, also called a master scene heading, occurs at the start of every scene, and is usually made up of three parts. Part one states whether the scene is set inside outside, or both, Part two states location of the scene. Part three, separated from Part two by a hyphen, refers to the time of the scene, each slug line begins a new scene. In a shooting script, the lines are numbered consecutively. These scene numbers serve as mile-post markers in a script and this allows any part of the script to be referred to by scene number. In the United States letter size paper and Courier 12 point are mandatory, the tab settings of the scene elements, which constitute the screenplays layout. The dialogue must be centered and the names must be capitalized, a script usually begins with FADE IN, followed by the first scene description. It might get more specific, e. g. FADE IN ON AN ECU of Ricky as he explains the divorce to Bob, a script will usually end with FADE TO BLACK, though there are variables, like CUT TO BLACK for abrupt endings. The style consists of a grammar that is specific to screenplays and this grammar also consists of two aspects, A prose that is manifestation-oriented, i. e. focuses largely on what is audible and what is visible on screen. This prose may only supply interpretations and explanation if clarity would otherwise be adversely affected, American screenplays are printed single-sided on three-hole-punched paper using the standard American letter size. They are then together with two brass brads in the top and bottom hole. The middle hole is left empty as it would make it harder to quickly read the script

7.
Marketing
–
Marketing is the study and management of exchange relationships. Marketing is used to create the customer, to keep the customer, with the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that Marketing is one of the premier components of Business Management - the other being Innovation. Other services and management activities such as Operations, Human Resources, Accounting, Law, the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably, a similar concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. Marketing practice tended to be seen as an industry in the past. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation, business planning and execution, ending with pre and it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times, the term marketing concept pertains to the fundamental premise of modern marketing. This concept proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, Marketing and marketing concepts are directly related. An orientation, in the context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service. There exist several common orientations, A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product, a firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product. A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible. Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, a firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale, until the minimum efficient scale is reached, a production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter. The marketing orientation is perhaps the most common used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, the marketing orientation often has three prime facets, which are, A firm in the market economy can survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firms future viability, in this sense, a firms marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from a marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a department could ascertain that consumers desired a new type of product

8.
Stephen J. Cannell
–
Stephen Joseph Cannell was an American television producer, writer, novelist, and occasional actor, and the founder of Cannell Entertainment and the Cannell Studios. After starting his career as a script writer, Cannell created or co-created several dozen successful TV series from the 1970s to the 1990s. Cannells creations included The Rockford Files, The A-Team, The Greatest American Hero,21 Jump Street and he also wrote novels, notably the Shane Scully mystery series. Cannell was born in Los Angeles, California, and raised in nearby Pasadena and he was the son of Carolyn and Joseph Knapp Cannell. Joseph owned the highly successful interior decorating company Cannell and Chaffin, Cannell struggled with dyslexia in school, but did graduate from the University of Oregon in 1964 with a bachelor of science degree in journalism. At UO, he joined the Sigma Chi fraternity, after college, Cannell spent four years working with the family business before selling his first script to the Universal series It Takes a Thief in 1968. He was quickly hired by the television branch of Universal Studios and was soon freelance writing for such other crime shows as Ironside. Not long afterward, he received a call from friend Herman Saunders who was the producer on the series Adam-12. They needed a script right away, would Stephen be interested in writing it. He delivered what they wanted in one day, his first full-time gig, in the process, he had by his own count, scripted more than 450 episodes, and produced or executive produced over 1,500 episodes. He described his early financial arrangements in a 2002 interview, saying that at Universal, In 1979, Cannell left Universal and formed his own company, Stephen J. Cannell Productions. For the first few years, Cannells office was located on the lot at Paramount Studios in Hollywood, though his earlier work at Universal was still distributed by MCA-Universal. Cannells first series under his new banner was Tenspeed and Brown Shoe, and was followed by The Greatest American Hero, The Quest, The A-Team, Hardcastle and McCormick, Riptide. Cannell offices relocated to larger facilities on Hollywood Blvd in 1983, Cannell also acted occasionally, including a regular supporting role as Dutch Dixon on his series Renegade. Cannell appeared as himself in the pilot of the ABC show Castle, along with James Patterson, Dennis Lehane, and Michael Connelly, he was one of Castles poker buddies. In season three, an empty seat at the table is described as Cannells, and remains empty for a full year. In 1987, and with an exchange rate between the US and Canadian dollars being a win/win for US producers, Cannell decided to shoot his new series Stingray in Toronto. So many producers were shooting in Toronto that no crews were available to man any additional productions, Cannell shot seven episodes of Stingray in Calgary with the remainder being shot in Vancouver

Stephen J. Cannell
–
Cannell in 2005

9.
Tina Fey
–
Elizabeth Stamatina Tina Fey is an American actress, comedian, writer, and producer. She is also known for writing and co-starring in the film Mean Girls, as well as appearing in such films as Baby Mama, Date Night, Muppets Most Wanted. Fey broke into comedy as a player in the Chicago-based improvisational comedy group The Second City. She then joined SNL as a writer, later becoming head writer, in 2004, she co-starred in and wrote the screenplay for Mean Girls, which was adapted from the 2002 self-help book Queen Bees and Wannabes. After leaving SNL in 2006, she created the television series 30 Rock for Broadway Video, in the series, Fey portrays the head writer of a fictional sketch comedy series. In 2008, she starred in the comedy film Baby Mama, Fey next appeared in the 2010 comedy film Date Night and the animated film Megamind. In 2015, she created and produced the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, originally for NBC and her other films include Sisters and Whiskey Tango Foxtrot. Fey has received nine Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, five Screen Actors Guild Awards, and four Writers Guild of America Awards and her autobiography Bossypants topped The New York Times Best Seller list for five weeks. In 2008, the Associated Press gave Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year award for her portrayal of Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin in a guest appearance on SNL. In 2010, Fey was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, on January 13,2013, Fey hosted the 70th Golden Globe Awards with her long-time friend and fellow comedian, Amy Poehler, to critical acclaim. The duo hosted again the two years, generating the highest ratings for the annual ceremony in a decade and receiving similar acclaim. Fey was born in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, an inner ring suburb of Philadelphia and her mother, Zenobia Jeanne, is a brokerage employee. Her father, Donald Henry Fey, was a university grant proposal-writer and she has a brother, Peter, who is eight years older. Feys mother, who was born in Piraeus, is the daughter of Greek immigrants, Vasiliki Kourelakou, Feys maternal grandmother, left Petrina on her own, arriving in the United States in February 1921. According to a genealogical DNA test arranged by the television series Finding Your Roots, Feys ancestry is 94% European, 3% Middle Eastern, Fey was exposed to comedy early, I remember my parents sneaking me in to see Young Frankenstein. We would also watch Saturday Night Live, or Monty Python and my dad would let us stay up late to watch The Honeymooners. We were not allowed to watch The Flintstones though, my dad hated it because it ripped off The Honeymooners, I actually have a very low level of Flintstones knowledge for someone my age. At age 11, Fey read Joe Franklins Seventy Years of Great Film Comedians for a project about comedy

10.
Ryan Murphy (writer)
–
Ryan Patrick Murphy is an American screenwriter, director and producer. Murphy was born on November 9,1965, and raised in Indianapolis, Indiana and he attended Catholic school from first through eighth grade, and graduated from Warren Central High School in Indianapolis. He has described his mother J. Andy Murphy as a beauty queen who left it all to stay at home and she wrote five books and worked in communications for over 20 years before retiring. His father worked in the industry as a circulation director before he retired after 30 years. After coming out as gay, Murphy saw his first therapist, during a 2012 interview on Inside the Actors Studio, Murphy claimed that he secretly dated a lot of football players in high school. He performed with a choir as a child, which would inform his work on Glee. While at college, he was a member of the school newspaper, the Indiana Daily Student. Murphy started as a journalist working for The Miami Herald, Los Angeles Times, New York Daily News, Knoxville News Sentinel and he began scriptwriting in the late 1990s, when Steven Spielberg purchased his script Why Cant I Be Audrey Paudry. Murphy started his career in television with the teen comedy series Popular, the series premiered on The WB on September 29,1999 and ran for two seasons, ending in 2001. He then created the FX drama series Nip/Tuck, which premiered on July 18,2003, in 2004, Murphy earned his first Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series. The series ended after six seasons in 2010, on May 19,2009, Murphys musical comedy-drama series, Glee, premiered on Fox. He co-created the series with Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan, in its early seasons, the show was critically lauded. Murphy won his first Primetime Emmy Award for directing the pilot episode, the series concluded in 2015 following its sixth season. Murphy was one of four executive producers on the reality television series The Glee Project, the show featured a group of contestants vying for the prize of a seven-episode arc on Glee, with someone being eliminated each week, until the winner is chosen in the final episode. The show was renewed for a season, which ended up being its last. Murphy and Glee co-executive producer Ali Adler created the half-hour comedy The New Normal, the series was based on Murphys own experiences of having a child via surrogate, with the main characters, Bryan and David, named for Ryan and his husband. The series was cancelled after one season. Murphy and Falchuk created the anthology series American Horror Story, which premiered on FX on October 5,2011, some of the same cast has played different characters in a different setting each subsequent season

11.
Record producer
–
A record producer or music producer oversees and manages the sound recording and production of a band or performers music, which may range from recording one song to recording a lengthy concept album. A producer has many roles during the recording process, the roles of a producer vary. The producer may perform these roles himself, or help select the engineer, the producer may also pay session musicians and engineers and ensure that the entire project is completed within the record companies budget. A record producer or music producer has a broad role in overseeing and managing the recording. Producers also often take on an entrepreneurial role, with responsibility for the budget, schedules, contracts. In the 2010s, the industry has two kinds of producers with different roles, executive producer and music producer. Executive producers oversee project finances while music producers oversee the process of recording songs or albums. In most cases the producer is also a competent arranger, composer. The producer will also liaise with the engineer who concentrates on the technical aspects of recording. Noted producer Phil Ek described his role as the person who creatively guides or directs the process of making a record, indeed, in Bollywood music, the designation actually is music director. The music producers job is to create, shape, and mold a piece of music, at the beginning of record industry, producer role was technically limited to record, in one shot, artists performing live. The role of producers changed progressively over the 1950s and 1960s due to technological developments, the development of multitrack recording caused a major change in the recording process. Before multitracking, all the elements of a song had to be performed simultaneously, all of these singers and musicians had to be assembled in a large studio and the performance had to be recorded. As well, for a song that used 20 instruments, it was no longer necessary to get all the players in the studio at the same time. Examples include the rock sound effects of the 1960s, e. g. playing back the sound of recorded instruments backwards or clanging the tape to produce unique sound effects. These new instruments were electric or electronic, and thus they used instrument amplifiers, new technologies like multitracking changed the goal of recording, A producer could blend together multiple takes and edit together different sections to create the desired sound. For example, in jazz fusion Bandleader-composer Miles Davis album Bitches Brew, producers like Phil Spector and George Martin were soon creating recordings that were, in practical terms, almost impossible to realise in live performance. Producers became creative figures in the studio, other examples of such engineers includes Joe Meek, Teo Macero, Brian Wilson, and Biddu

12.
Sound engineer
–
An audio engineer works on the recording, manipulating the record using equalization and electronic effects, mixing, reproduction, and reinforcement of sound. Audio engineers work on the. technical aspect of recording—the placing of microphones, pre-amp knobs, the physical recording of any project is done by an engineer. Many audio engineers creatively use technologies to produce sound for film, radio, television, music, electronic products and computer games. Audio engineers also set up, sound check and do live sound mixing using an audio console, research and development audio engineers invent new technologies, equipment and techniques, to enhance the process and art of audio engineering. They might also be referred to as acoustic engineers, audio engineers in research and development usually possess a bachelors degree, masters degree or higher qualification in acoustics, physics, computer science or another engineering discipline. They might work in consultancy, specializing in architectural acoustics. Alternatively they might work in companies, or other industries that need audio expertise. Some positions, such as faculty require a Doctor of Philosophy, in Germany a Toningenieur is an audio engineer who designs, builds and repairs audio systems. The listed subdisciplines are based on PACS coding used by the Acoustical Society of America with some revision, audio engineers develop algorithms to allow the electronic manipulation of audio signals. These can be processed at the heart of audio production such as reverberation. Alternatively, the algorithms might carry out echo cancellation on Skype, or identify, architectural acoustics is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a room. For audio engineers, architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a stadium or enhancing the quality of music in a theatre, architectural Acoustic design is usually done by acoustic consultants. Electroacoustics is concerned with the design of headphones, microphones, loudspeakers, sound reproduction systems, examples of electroacoustic design include portable electronic devices, sound systems in architectural acoustics, surround sound in movie theater and vehicle audio. Musical acoustics is concerned with researching and describing the science of music, in audio engineering, this includes the design of electronic instruments such as synthesizers, the human voice, computer analysis of audio, music therapy, and the perception and cognition of music. Psychoacoustics is the study of how humans respond to what they hear. At the heart of audio engineering are listeners who are the final arbitrator as to whether a design is successful. The production, computer processing and perception of speech is an important part of audio engineering, ensuring speech is transmitted intelligibly, efficiently and with high quality, in rooms, through public address systems and through mobile telephone systems are important areas of study. Producer, engineer, and mixer Phil Ek has described audio engineering as the aspect of recording—the placing of microphones, the turning of pre-amp knobs

13.
Video game industry
–
The video game industry is the economic sector involved in the development, marketing and Monetizing of video games. It encompasses dozens of job disciplines and employs thousands of people worldwide, the computer and video game industry has grown from focused markets to mainstream. They took in about US$9.5 billion in the US in 2007,11.7 billion in 2008, sound cards were developed for addition of digital-quality sound to games and only later improved for music and audiophiles. Early on, graphics cards were developed for more colors, later, graphic cards were developed for graphical user interfaces and games, GUIs drove the need for high resolution, and games began using 3D acceleration. They also are one of the pieces of hardware to allow multiple hookups. Product and talent layer, includes developers, designers and artists, production and tools layer, generates content production tools, game development middleware, customizable game engines, and production management tools. Distribution layer, or the industry, involved in generating and marketing catalogs of games for retail. Hardware layer, or the providers of the platform, which may be console-based, accessed through online media. This layer now includes network infrastructure and non-hardware platforms such as machines, or software platforms such as browsers or even further Facebook. End-users layer, or the users/players of the games, the game industry employs those experienced in other traditional businesses, but some have experience tailored to the game industry. Some of the specific to the game industry include, game programmer, game designer, level designer, game producer, game artist. Most of these professionals are employed by video game developers or video game publishers, however, many hobbyists also produce computer games and sell them commercially. Recently, game developers have begun to employ those with extensive or long-term experience within the modding communities, prior to the 1970s, there was no significant commercial aspect of the video game industry, but many advances in computing would set the stage for the birth of the industry. In 1947 Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann filed a patent for a cathode ray tube amusement device and their game, which uses a cathode ray tube hooked to an oscilloscope display, challenges players to fire a gun at target. One of the first known examples is Spacewar, developed by Harvard and MIT employees Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen. The introduction of easy-to-program languages like BASIC for mainframes allowed for more games to be developed. In 1971 the arcade game, Computer Space was released, the following year, Atari, Inc. released the first commercially successful video game, Pong, the original arcade version of which sold over 19,000 arcade cabinets. That same year saw the introduction of video games to the market with the release of the early video game console

Video game industry
–
The Magnavox Odyssey, released in 1972, was the first home gaming console.
Video game industry
–
The Nintendo Entertainment System, released in 1985, helped to revive the American gaming industry after the video game crash of 1983.
Video game industry
–
The PlayStation was the most popular gaming console of the fifth generation, which saw the common adoption of CD media.
Video game industry
–
Ubisoft Montreal

14.
Jay-Z
–
Shawn Corey Carter, known professionally as Jay Z, is an American rapper, businessman, and investor. He is one of the musicians of all time, having sold more than 100 million records. MTV ranked him the Greatest MC of all time in 2006, Rolling Stone ranked three of his albums—Reasonable Doubt, The Blueprint, and The Black Album —among the 500 greatest albums of all time. In 2014, Forbes estimated his net worth at nearly $520 million, Jay Z co-owns the New York 40/40 Club sports bar, and is the co-creator of the clothing line Rocawear. He is the president of Def Jam Recordings, co-founder of Roc-A-Fella Records. He also founded the sports agency Roc Nation Sports and is a certified NBA, as an artist, he holds the record for most number one albums by a solo artist on the Billboard 200 with 13. He has also had four number ones on the Billboard Hot 100, in 2009, he was ranked the tenth-most successful artist of the 2000s by Billboard as well as the fifth top solo male artist and fourth top rapper behind Eminem, Nelly, and 50 Cent. He was also ranked the 88th-greatest artist of all time by Rolling Stone, Jay Z married Singer-Songwriter Beyoncé in 2008. Shawn Carter was born in Brooklyn, New York, and was raised in Marcy Houses and he and his three siblings were raised by their mother, Gloria Carter after their father, Adness Reeves abandoned the family. Reeves would later meet and reconcile with Jay Z before dying from liver failure in 2003, Jay Z claims in his lyrics that in 1982, at the age of 12, he shot his older brother in the shoulder for stealing his jewelry. Along with future rapper AZ, Carter attended Eli Whitney High School in Brooklyn until it was closed down, according to his interviews and lyrics, during this period he sold crack cocaine and was shot at three times. According to his mother, Carter used to wake up his siblings at night banging out drum patterns on the kitchen table and she bought him a boom box for his birthday, sparking his interest in music. He began freestyling and writing lyrics, known as Jazzy around the neighborhood, Carter later adopted the showbiz/stage name Jay-Z in homage to his mentor Jaz-O. He would drop the hyphen in 2013, Jay Z can be briefly heard on several of Jaz-Os early recordings in the late 1980s and early 1990s, including The Originators and Hawaiian Sophie. Jay Z became embroiled in several battles with rapper LL Cool J in the early 1990s and he first became known to a wide audience on the posse cut Show and Prove on the 1994 Big Daddy Kane album Daddys Home. When I would leave the stage to go change outfits, I would bring out Jay Z and Positive K and let them freestyle until I came back to the stage. The young Jay Z appeared on a song by Big L, Da Graveyard, and on Mic Geronimos Time to Build. His first official rap single was called In My Lifetime, for which he released a music video, an unreleased music video was also produced for the B-side I Cant Get with That

15.
NBA 2K13
–
NBA 2K13 is a basketball video game developed by Visual Concepts and published by 2K Sports. It was released on October 2,2012 in North America for the Xbox 360, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, Microsoft Windows, a version for the Wii U was also released as a launch title in North America, and in December for the PAL region. Kevin Durant of the Oklahoma City Thunder, Blake Griffin of the Los Angeles Clippers, NBA 2K13 is the successor to NBA 2K12 and was succeeded by NBA 2K14 in the NBA 2K series. Around mid-June 2012 2K Sports announced a Uncover the Cover where the more tweets #NBA2K13 got the more clues would be revealed about the cover athletes, 2K also announced NBA 2K13s compatibility with Kinect for the Xbox 360. Two of the legends from NBA 2K12 have been removed, Julius Erving, also a shoe creator was developed, with Nike, Jordan, Adidas, Spalding, Reebok, Converse, Under Armour, and generic shoes available to create and edit. Rapper Jay-Z serves as producer of the game. He has been credited with the idea of having both the 1992 and 2012 United States mens national teams in the game. Additionally, he appeared in an introduction, picked songs for the soundtrack and contributed to the design of its in-game menus. Initially, Scottie Pippen was left out of the due to the inability to secure use of his likeness. However, after widespread disappointment from fans over his absence, he was added to the team roster. The soundtrack was announced in August 2012, in 2013 2K added NBA 2K13 Lite to the iOS platform. This version of the NBA 2K series of games is free, on September 28,2013 The Released Updated NBA 2K13 and 2K14 version from Xbox 360, PS3 and PC. Two days before the October 2nd release, 2K Sports announced via a reply to a fan on Twitter that the downloadable PC version was delayed to October 16, the release date on Amazon was subsequently changed to October 30. The game was distributed as a limited disc-based release and was found to have been missing some key features from the console versions. Within 24 hours of going on sale, the game sold 9.5 million copies in the U. S. Online matchmaking with friends is unavailable and Blacktop 3 vs 3, and MyTEAMs modes have been removed. The games virtual currency system and the associated with the currency system have not ported over from the console versions. In addition, advanced lighting features available on consoles, such as self-shadowing are also unavailable, custom soundtracks and DLC have been excluded as well. The PC version can be modified with new faces, arenas and courts, jerseys

16.
BBC News
–
BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole

BBC News
–
Television News moved to BBC Television Centre in September 1969
BBC News
–
BBC News
BBC News
–
Angela Rippon, pictured in 1983, became the first female news presenter in 1975
BBC News
–
The combined newsroom for domestic television and radio was opened at Television Centre in West London in 1998.

17.
Film crew
–
A film crew is a group of people hired by a production company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. The crew is distinguished from the cast as the cast are understood to be the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. The crew is also separate from the producers as the producers are the ones who own a portion of either the company or the films intellectual property rights. A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in an aspect of the production. Motion picture projects have three stages, development, production and distribution. Television crew positions are derived from those of film crew, the director is considered to be a separate entity, not within the film crews departmental structure. Though directors wield a great deal of power, they are subordinate to the films producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, second unit director The second unit director is responsible for overseeing the photography assigned to the second unit, which can range from minor insert shots to large stunt sequences. The second unit director position is filled by a member of the production. Music director In India-based movie productions, many of which are musicals, the role involves supervising the arrangement, recording and mastering of film music along with conducting and orchestration. Writer Person or persons who write a film script, either an original script or adapted from another written work, in which case the original work and author may also be credited. Production is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups, producer A film producer creates the conditions for film-making. The producer initiates, coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as raising, hiring key personnel. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the making process from development to completion of a project. There may be producers on a film who may take a role in a number of areas, such as development. Today, however, the title has become ambiguous, particularly in feature films, since the 1980s, it has become increasingly common for the line producer to be given the title of executive producer, while the initiating producer takes the produced by credit. On other projects, the reverse happens, with the producer taking the produced by credit. So the two credits have become effectively interchangeable, with no precise definition, line producer The line producer is the liaison between the studio or producer and the production manager, responsible for managing the production budget

18.
Filmmaking
–
Filmmaking is the process of making a film. Filmmaking takes place in places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political contexts. Typically, it involves a number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete. Film production consists of five stages, Development, The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc. Financing for the project has to be sought and greenlit, pre-production, Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected and sets are built. Production, The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot, post-production, The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. Distribution, The finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. In this stage, the project producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, true story, video game, comic book, graphic novel, or an original idea, etc. After identifying a theme or underlying message, the works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Next they produce an outline, which breaks the story down into one-paragraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a 25-to-30-page description of the story, its mood and this usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. Another way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced, next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, however, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. A film distributor may be contacted at a stage to assess the likely market. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience, not all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take DVD sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment and they will also pitch the film to actors and directors in order to attach them to the project. Many projects fail to move beyond this stage and enter so-called development hell, if a pitch succeeds, a film receives a green light, meaning someone offers financial backing, typically a major film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts, once all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period

19.
Actor
–
Anyone who meets the eligibility requirements may apply for aid, which could vary from medical assistance, paying rent, or finding employment. Heros benefits are not meant to be a permanent crutch for needy creators, any granted aid is kept confidential. The Hero Initiative has two boards of directors, the Executive Board and the Fund Disbursement Board, former board members include founders Pat McCallum, editor-in-chief of Wizard Magazine, and Mike Richardson, publisher and founder of Dark Horse Comics. They are George Pérez, Roy Thomas, Charlie Novinskie, Dennis ONeil, John Romita Sr. the charity is currently supported by Dark Horse Comics, Dynamic Forces, Image Comics, Marvel Entertainment, Top Cow Productions, and Wizard Entertainment. The Hero Initiative utilizes many methods of fundraising, foremost is their annual art auction, auctioning donated original comics art-work at fan conventions. Year-long, they sell donated art and special edition comics at conventions, artists, writers, and publishers are invited to donate work, and fans are invited to donate money directly to the fund. ACTOR also sells a green Excelsior, wrist-band similar in design to the Livestrong wristband. The Hero Initiative was formerly known as A Commitment to Our Roots, or ACTOR, while the original name of the organization reflected the charitys goal, the acronym that resulted, ACTOR, more often confused people unfamiliar with the organization. 2006, George Pérez, John Romita, Sr.2007, Joe Kubert 2008, Nick Cardy 2009, Neal Adams 2010, Walt Simonson 2011, Stan Lee 2012, John Romita, Jr. The award recognizes one person in each year who demonstrates particular generosity and integrity in support of the overall comic book community. It debuted at the 2010 Harvey Awards ceremony held at the Baltimore Comic-Con

Actor
–
The Hero Initiative
Actor

20.
Movie star
–
A movie star is a celebrity who is well-known, or famous, for their starring, or leading, roles in motion pictures. The term may apply to an actor or actress who is recognized as a marketable commodity. The most widely known, prominent or successful actors are sometimes called superstars by writers, when a small number of suppliers dominate a market those suppliers become superstars. According to a dictionary, a movie star is an actor or actress who is famous for playing leading roles in movies. In the early days of silent movies, the names of the actors, however, audience curiosity soon undermined this policy. By 1909, actresses such as Florence Lawrence and Mary Pickford were already widely recognized, Lawrence was referred to as the “Biograph Girl” because she worked for D. W. Griffiths Biograph Studios, while Pickford was Little Mary. In 1910, Lawrence switched to the Independent Moving Pictures Company, began appearing under her own name, Pickford began appearing under her own name in 1911. The Independent Moving Pictures Company promoted their picture personalities, including Florence Lawrence and King Baggot, by giving them billing, credits and a marquee. Promotion in advertising led to the release of stories about these personalities to newspapers and fan magazines as part of a strategy to brand loyalty for their companys actors. By the 1920s, Hollywood film company promoters had developed an industrial enterprise that. peddled a new intangible—fame. Publicists thus created the images and public perceptions of screen legends such as Judy Garland, Rock Hudson, Marilyn Monroe. The development of this system made fame something that could be fabricated purposely. However, regardless of how. strenuously the star and their media handlers, try to monitor and shape it, the media and the public always play a substantial part in the image-making process. According to Madow, fame is a phenomenon, something that is conferred by others. A person can, within the limits of his natural talents, but he cannot, in this same sense, make himself famous, any more than he can make himself loved. Madow goes on to point out fame is often conferred or withheld, just as love is, for reasons and on grounds other than merit. According to Sofia Johansson the canonical texts on stardom include articles by Boorstin, Alberoni and Dyer that examined the representations of stars, Johansson writes that more recent analyses within media and cultural studies have instead dealt with the idea of a pervasive, contemporary, celebrity culture. In the 1980s and 1990s, entertainment companies began using stars for a range of publicity tactics including press releases, movie junkets and these promotional efforts are targeted and designed using market research, to increase the predictability of success of their media ventures

21.
Cameo appearance
–
A cameo role or cameo appearance is a brief appearance or voice part of a known person in a work of the performing arts, typically unnamed or appearing as themselves. Short appearances by celebrities, film directors, politicians, athletes or musicians are common, a crew member of the show or movie playing a minor role can be referred to as a cameo as well, such as Alfred Hitchcocks frequently performed cameos. Originally cameo role meant a character part that stands out from the other minor parts. The Oxford English Dictionary connects this with the meaning a short literary sketch or portrait, which is based on the meaning of cameo. More recently, cameo has come to refer to any short appearances, whether as a character or as oneself, such as the examples below. Cameos are generally not credited because of their brevity, or a mismatch between the celebritys stature and the film or TV show in which he or she is appearing. Others are acknowledgments of a contribution to an earlier work, as in the case of many film adaptations of TV series. Others honour artists or celebrities known for work in a particular field, possibly the best-known series of cameos was by the director Alfred Hitchcock, who made very brief appearances in most of his films. Cameos also occur in novels and other literary works, “Literary cameos” usually involve an established character from another work who makes a brief appearance to establish a shared universe setting, to make a point, or to offer homage. Balzac often employed this practice, as in his Comédie humaine, a cameo appearance can be made by the author of a work to put a sort of personal signature on a story. Vladimir Nabokov often put himself in his novels, for instance, quentin Tarantino provides cameos or small roles in at least 10 of his movies. Likewise, Peter Jackson has made cameos in all of his movies, except for his first feature-length movie Bad Taste in which he plays a main character. For example, he plays a peasant eating a carrot in The Fellowship of the Ring and The Desolation of Smaug, a Rohan warrior in The Two Towers, director Martin Scorsese appears in the background of his films as a bystander or an unseen character. In Whos That Knocking at My Door, he appears as one of the gangsters, he is a crew man in After Hours. He opens up his 1986 film The Color of Money with a monologue on the art of playing pool. In addition, he appears with his wife and daughter as wealthy New Yorkers in Gangs of New York, in a same way, Roman Polanski appears as a hired hoodlum in his film Chinatown, slitting Jack Nicholsons nose with the blade of his clasp knife. Directors sometimes cast well-known lead actors with whom they have worked in the past in other films, mike Todds film Around the World in 80 Days was filled with cameo roles, and others. The stars in cameo roles were pictured in oval insets in posters for the film, among the many cameos featured in the film Maverick, actor Danny Glover appears as the lead bank robber

22.
Film director
–
A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a films artistic and dramatic aspects, the director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking. Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author of the film, the film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions, there are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors, other film directors have attended a film school. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors dialogue, while others control every aspect. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners, some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films. Film directors create a vision through which a film eventually becomes realized/noticed. Realizing this vision includes overseeing the artistic and technical elements of production, as well as directing the shooting timetable. This entails organizing the crew in such a way as to achieve their vision of the film. This requires skills of leadership, as well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful. Moreover, it is necessary to have an eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback to cast and crew, thus. Thus the director ensures that all involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as a jigsaw puzzle with egos. It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when, omnipresent are the boundaries of the films budget. Additionally, the director may also have to ensure an intended age rating, thus, the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one. It has been said that 20-hour days are not unusual, under European Union law, the film director is considered the author or one of the authors of a film, largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory. Auteur theory is a film criticism concept that holds that a directors film reflects the directors personal creative vision

23.
Screenwriter
–
One famous screenwriter is Jack Rosenthal, who has written for various TV shows over the years, including Londons Burning and Coronation Street. No education is required to become a screenwriter, just good storytelling abilities. Screenwriters are not hired employees, they are contracted freelancers, most, if not all, screenwriters start their careers writing on speculation, meaning they write without being hired or paid for it. If such a script is sold, it is called a spec script, what separates a professional screenwriter from an amateur screenwriter is that professional screenwriters are usually represented by a talent agency. Also, professional screenwriters do not often work for free, whereas amateur screenwriters will often work for free and are considered writers in training, spec scripts are usually penned by unknown professional screenwriters and amateur screenwriters. There are a legion of would-be screenwriters who attempt to enter the industry but it often takes years of trial-and-error, failure. In Writing Screenplays that Sell, Michael Hague writes Screenplays have become, for the last half of century, closet writers who used to dream of the glory of getting into print now dream of seeing their story on the big or small screen. Every screenplay and teleplay begins with a thought or idea, and screenwriters use those ideas to write scripts, with the intention of selling them and having them produced. In some cases, the script is based on a property, such as a book or persons life story. The majority of the time, a film project gets initiated by a screenwriter and because they initiated the project and these are referred to as exclusive assignments or pitched assignments. Screenwriters who often pitch new projects, whether original or an adaptation, when word is put out about a project a film studio, production company, or producer wants done, these are referred to as open assignments. In situations where screenwriters are competing for an assignment, more established writers will usually win these assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and personally offered a writing assignment, many screenwriters also work as full or part-time script doctors, attempting to better a script to suit the desires of a director or studio. For instance, studio management may have a complaint that the motivations of the characters are unclear or that the dialogue is weak, script-doctoring can be quite lucrative, especially for the better known writers. David Mamet and John Sayles, for instance, fund the movies they direct themselves, usually from their own screenplays, by writing and doctoring scripts for others. In fact, some writers make very profitable careers out of being the ninth or tenth writer to work on a piece, in many cases, working on projects that never see exposure to an audience of any size. Many up and coming screenwriters also ghost write projects and allow more established screenwriters to take credit for the project to increase the chances of it getting picked up. After a screenwriter finishes a project, he or she pairs with a representative, such as a producer, director, literary agent, entertainment lawyer

Screenwriter
–
A page of a screenplay

24.
Casting (performing arts)
–
The casting process involves a series of auditions before a casting panel, composed of individuals such as the producer, director and/or choreographer. In the early stages of the process, performers often may present prepared audition pieces such as monologues or songs and these audition pieces are usually video taped, attached with resumes, and head shots and then shared with producers, directors and studio representatives. Depending on the prestige of the role, casting calls may go out to the public at large, in the production of film and television, a similar process is followed. Character breakdowns, part of the breakdown, are often provided to auditioners. An actor may go through casting calls before receiving a part. Independent casting studios are used for casting calls so that the castings can take place in various locations. For some major productions, the process of selecting actors for sometimes hundreds of parts may require specialized staff. While the last word remains with the people in charge, artistic and production, a casting director is sometimes assisted by a casting associate, productions with large numbers of extras may have their own extras casting director. The CD remains as a liaison between director, actors and their agents/managers and the studio/network to get the characters in the script cast, at least in the early stages and for extras, casting may be decentralized geographically, often in conjunction with actual shooting planned in different locations. Another reason may be tapping into each home market in the case of an international co-production, the resulting list of actors filling the parts is called a cast list

25.
Location manager
–
They are also the public face of the production, and responsible for addressing issues that arise due to the productions impact on the community. Historically, the duties of the Location Manager were the responsibility of the Assistant Director, as the film industry grew, a need was identified for greater oversight, to allow ADs to focus on the internal aspects of the set. A dedicated person focusing on external influences was first seen in the 1950s on large studio features, the first job of a location manager is managing the location scouting of a project, usually supervising several scouts and assistant managers during the course of a show. The manager is responsible for public relations at the locations used. An experienced location scout will take into account all the necessary for the production to function. Good location managers are well-poised and able to think on their feet as they are moving, usually preceding production at a location. They are the first and last people the public sees that represent the production, in New York Commercials, they are represented by Teamsters Local 817. In Georgia, location managers are represented by the Teamsters Local 728, Location Managers are commonly associated with production as being part of the management of a show and as such, are generally paid a weekly salary as opposed to an hourly wage. The average salary can vary depending on the experience of the individual, Location Managers Guild International, a guild representing location managers around the world Location library, a listing of locations available for film and TV shoots. Location Managers Guild International Association of Location Scouts and Managers ALSAM Guild of Location Managers United Kingdom Crossroads United Locations Department Workers

Location manager
–
Film shooting on location in Downtown Los Angeles
Location manager
–
Large lighting equipment must be stored between shoots. For The Sorcerer's Apprentice, the storage spot was lower Broadway in Manhattan

26.
Storyboard
–
Many large budget silent films were storyboarded, but most of this material has been lost during the reduction of the studio archives during the 1970s and 1980s. Special effects pioneer Georges Méliès is known to have been among the first filmmakers to use storyboards, however, storyboarding in the form widely known today was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s. In the biography of her father, The Story of Walt Disney, the second studio to switch from story sketches to storyboards was Walter Lantz Productions in early 1935, by 1936 Harman-Ising and Leon Schlesinger Productions also followed suit. By 1937 or 1938, all American animation studios were using storyboards, gone with the Wind was one of the first live action films to be completely storyboarded. William Cameron Menzies, the production designer, was hired by producer David O. Selznick to design every shot of the film. Storyboarding became popular in film production during the early 1940s. Storyboards are now a part of the creative process. A film storyboard is essentially a series of frames, with drawings of the sequence of events in a film and it helps film directors, cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find potential problems before they occur. Besides this, storyboards also help estimate the cost of the overall production, often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement. In creating a picture with any degree of fidelity to a script. And in the case of media, it is the layout. In the storyboarding process, most technical details involved in crafting a film or interactive media project can be described either in picture or in additional text. A common misconception is that storyboards are not used in theatre, directors and playwrights frequently use storyboards as special tools to understand the layout of the scene. The great Russian theatre practitioner Stanislavski developed storyboards in his production plans for his Moscow Art Theatre performances. The German director and dramatist Bertolt Brecht developed detailed storyboards as part of his method of fabels. This allows the animators and directors to work out any screenplay, camera positioning, shot list, the storyboard and soundtrack are amended if necessary, and a new animatic may be created and reviewed with the director until the storyboard is perfected. Editing the film at the stage can avoid animation of scenes that would be edited out of the film. Often storyboards are animated with simple zooms and pans to simulate camera movement and these animations can be combined with available animatics, sound effects, and dialog to create a presentation of how a film could be shot and cut together

27.
Costume designer
–
A costume designer is a person who designs costumes for a film, stage production or television. The role of the designer is to create the characters and balance the scenes with texture and colour. The costume designer works alongside the director, scenic, lighting designer, sound designer, the costume designer may also collaborate with hair stylist, wig master, or makeup artist. In European theatre, the role is different, as the theatre designer usually designs both costume and scenic elements. Designers typically seek to enhance a characters personality, and to create a plot of colour, changing social status, or period through the visual design of garments. They may distort or enhance the body—within the boundaries of the directors vision, the designer must ensure that the designs let the actor move as the role requires. The actor must execute the directors blocking of the production without damaging the garments, garments must be durable and washable, especially for plays with extended runs or films with near-real time pacing but whose principal photography phase may stretch across several weeks. The designer must consult not only with the director, but the set, the designer must possess strong artistic capabilities and a thorough knowledge of pattern development, draping, drafting, textiles and fashion history. The designer must understand historical costuming, and the movement style, during the late-19th century, company managers in the US usually selected costumes for a show. Many were pulled from a house, few were designed. Though designers in other disciplines were recognized, few who specialized in costumes were. The few that were included Caroline Siedle, C, wilhelm, Percy Anderson, and Mrs. John Alexander. They sometimes even received credit on the page of a playbill rather than in the back. In the 20th century, film costume designers like Edith Head, later, those working in television like Nolan Miller, Janie Bryant, and Patricia Field became more prominent, some becoming authors and having their own clothing and jewelry lines. Professional costume designers generally fall into three types, freelance, residential, and academic, freelance designers are hired for a specific production by a theatre, dance or opera company, and may or may not actually be local to the theatre they design for. A freelancer is traditionally paid in three instalments, Upon hire, on delivery of final renderings, and opening night of the production, freelancers are not obligated to any exclusivity in what projects they work on, and may design for several productions concurrently. A residential designer is hired by a theatre, dance or opera company for an extended series of productions. This can be as short as a stock contract, or may be for many years

28.
Hairdresser
–
A hairdresser is a person whose occupation is to cut or style hair in order to change or maintain a persons image. This is achieved using a combination of hair coloring, haircutting, most hairdressers are professionally licensed as either a hairdresser, a barber or a cosmetologist. Hairdressing as an occupation dates back thousands of years, ancient art drawings and paintings have been discovered depicting people working on another persons hair. Greek writers Aristophanes and Homer both mention hairdressing in their writings, in Africa, it was believed in some cultures that a persons spirit occupied his or her hair, giving hairdressers high status within these communities. The status of hairdressing encouraged many to develop their skills, hours would be spent washing, combing, oiling, styling and ornamenting their hair. Men would work specifically on men, and women on other women, before a master hairdresser died, they would give their combs and tools to a chosen successor during a special ceremony. In ancient Egypt, hairdressers had specially decorated cases to hold their tools, including lotions, scissors, barbers also worked as hairdressers, and wealthy men often had personal barbers within their home. With the standard of wig wearing within the culture, wigmakers were also trained as hairdressers, in ancient Rome and Greece household slaves and servants took on the role of hairdressers, including dyeing and shaving. Men who did not have their own hair or shaving services would visit the local barbershop. Women had their hair maintained and groomed at their homes, historical documentation is lacking regarding hairstylists from the 5th century until the 14th century. Hair care service grew in demand after a decree in 1092 demanded that all Roman Catholic clergymen remove their facial hair. The first appearance of the hairdresser is in 17th century Europe. A wealthy mans hair would often be maintained by a valet and it was in France where men began styling womens hair for the first time, and many of the notable hairdressers of the time were men, a trend that would continue into contemporary times. The first famous male hairdresser was Champagne, who was born in Southern France, upon moving to Paris, he opened his own hair salon and dressed the hair of wealthy Parisian women until his death in 1658. Womens hair grew taller in style during the 17th century, popularized by the hairdresser Madame Martin, the hairstyle, the tower, was the trend with wealthy English and American women, who relied on hairdressers to style their hair as tall as possible. Tall piles of curls were pomaded, powdered and decorated with ribbons, flowers, lace, feathers, the profession of hairdressing was launched as a genuine profession when Legros de Rumigny was declared the first official hairdresser of the French court. In 1765 de Rumigny published his book Art de la Coiffure des Dames, the book was a best seller amongst Frenchwomen, and four years later de Rumigny opened a school for hairdressers, Academie de Coiffure. At the school he taught men and women to cut hair, by 1777, approximately 1,200 hairdressers were working in Paris

Hairdresser
–
Hairdresser washing a woman's hair
Hairdresser
–
A caricature of a French hairdresser at the Académie de Coiffure, working on a large hairstyle, fashionable of the time, in the 18th century.

29.
Make-up artist
–
In the United States as well as the other parts of the globe, professional licenses are required by agencies in order for them to hire the MUA. Fashion makeup Fashion makeup is used in photography as well as on the fashion runway. Avant-garde makeup is also a technique used for projects that require experimental themes. Fashion makeup is also used in television and film ranging for the natural prime look to more sophisticated applications such as color balance. Theatrical makeup Stage makeup is used as a method in conjunction with stage lighting to highlight the faces in order to make expressions visible to the audience from moderate distances. This often includes defining the eyes and lips as well as the highlights and lowlights of the facial bones, special make-up effects The use of special effects techniques enhancing physical features to exhibit metaphysical characteristics as well as fantasy makeup. The use of prosthetics and plaster casting are required for projects that entails non-human appearances. Accents such as blood and ooze are also techniques applicable to this type of makeup. Airbrushing The use of an airbrush which is a small air-operated device that sprays various media including alcohol, liquid foundations that are high in coverage but thin in consistency are applied with the airbrush for full coverage without a heavy build-up of product. Bridal makeup Bridal makeup is a new segment in a makeup artists repertoire, from ethnic, to glamorous, to contemporary, makeup artists are now an important part of wedding planning in Asia, Europe, Africa and North America. High definition This is an art which involves the use of light reflectors and this was developed due to the further development of high definition mediums and the cost implications of airbrush makeup. In 1955 the Bollywood group Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers Association created a rule that did not allow women to obtain memberships as makeup artists. However, in 2014 the Supreme Court of India ruled that this rule was in violation of the Indian constitutional guarantees granted under Article 14,19 and Article 21. The Court also found illegal the rule which mandated that for any artist, female or male, to work in the industry, in 2015 it was announced that Charu Khurana had become the first woman to be registered by the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers Association. The CCMAA and 15 of its members protested on the set as Daniel Bauer was not registered with the Union

30.
Visual Art
–
The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, filmmaking, literature, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines involve aspects of the arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the arts are the applied arts such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design. Current usage of the visual arts includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and crafts. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts. The increasing tendency to painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes, training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. Visual arts have now become a subject in most education systems. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used, the main techniques used in drawing are, line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman, drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. In ancient Egypt, ink drawings on papyrus, often depicting people, were used as models for painting or sculpture, drawings on Greek vases, initially geometric, later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC. Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier, like drawing, painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces. The finest examples, believed by some to be 32,000 years old, are in the Chauvet, in shades of red, brown, yellow and black, the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison, cattle, horses and deer. Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt, in the great temple of Ramses II, Nefertari, his queen, is depicted being led by Isis. The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost, one of the best remaining representations are the hellenistic Fayum mummy portraits. Another example is mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii, Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC, which initiated a tradition in icon painting. Apart from the manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages

31.
Matte painting
–
For the technique used in photography and special effects filmmaking to combine two or more image elements into a single, final image, see Matte. A matte painting is a representation of a landscape, set. Historically, matte painters and film technicians have used techniques to combine a matte-painted image with live-action footage. At its best, depending on the levels of the artists and technicians. In the scenes the painting part is static and movements are integrated on it, traditionally, matte paintings were made by artists using paints or pastels on large sheets of glass for integrating with the live-action footage. The first known matte painting shot was made in 1907 by Norman Dawn, the first Star Wars documentary ever made mentioned the technique used for the tractor beam scene as being a glass painting. By the mid-1980s, advancements in graphics programs allowed matte painters to work in the digital realm. The first digital matte shot was created by painter Chris Evans in 1985 for Young Sherlock Holmes for a scene featuring an animation of a knight leaping from a stained-glass window. Evans first painted the window in acrylics, then scanned the painting into LucasFilm’s Pixar system for digital manipulation. The computer animation blended perfectly with the matte, which could not have been accomplished using a traditional matte painting. Throughout the 1990s, traditional matte paintings were still in use, die Hard 2 was the first film to use digitally composited live-action footage with a traditional glass matte painting that had been photographed and scanned into a computer. It was for the last scene, which place on an airport runway. Paint has now superseded by digital images created using photo references, 3-D models. Matte painters combine their digitally matte painted textures within computer-generated 3-D environments, lighting algorithms used to simulate lighting sources expanded in scope in 1995, when radiosity rendering was applied to film for the first time in Martin Scorsese’s Casino. Matte World Digital collaborated with LightScape to simulate the indirect effect of millions of neon lights of the 70s-era Las Vegas strip. Lower computer processing times continue to alter and expand matte painting technologies and techniques, the army barracks in All Quiet On The Western Front. Count Draculas castle exteriors in Dracula and other scenes, the view of Skull Island in King Kong. Charlie Chaplin′s blindfold roller-skating beside the illusory drop in Modern Times, the view of Nottingham Castle in The Adventures of Robin Hood

32.
Illustrator
–
An illustrator is an artist who specializes in enhancing writing or elucidating concepts by providing a visual representation that corresponds to the content of the associated text or idea. The illustration may be intended to clarify complicated concepts or objects that are difficult to describe textually, illustration is the art of making images that work with something and add to it without needing direct attention and without distracting from the thing they illustrate. The other thing is the focus of the attention, and the role is to add personality. A cartoon illustration can add humor to stories or essays, use reference images to create scenes and characters. This can be as simple as looking at an image to inspire artwork, or creating character sketches. Some traditional illustration techniques include watercolor, pen and ink, airbrush art, oil painting, pastels, wood engraving, and linoleum cuts. Traditional illustration seems to have come full circle, from falling out of favor to photography in the early 1990s to being superseded by CGI, universities and art schools offer specific courses in illustration so this has become a new avenue into the profession. Many illustrators are freelance, commissioned by publishers or advertising agencies, most scientific illustrations and technical illustrations are also known as information graphics. Among the information graphics specialists are medical illustrators who illustrate human anatomy, often requiring years of artistic. A particularly popular medium with illustrators of the 1950s and 1960s was casein, the immediacy and durability of these media suited illustrations demands well. The artwork in both types of paint withstood the rigors of travel to clients and printers without damage, digital illustration is the technique of using a computer to produce original artwork. Digital illustrators use a combination of software and image editing software to create computer art. Digital illustration is not merely the manipulation of images with software, computer illustration or digital illustration is the use of digital tools to produce images under the direct manipulation of the artist, usually through a pointing device such as a tablet or a mouse. Computers dramatically changed the industry and today many cartoonists and illustrators create digital illustrations using computers, graphics tablets, software such as Adobe Illustrator or Adobe Photoshop are now widely used by those professionals

33.
Scenic design
–
Scenic design is the creation of theatrical, as well as film or television scenery. Scenic designers come from a variety of backgrounds, but in recent years, are mostly trained professionals. Scenic designers design sets and scenery that aim to fully immerse the viewer in the production, a designer looks at the details searching for evidence through research to produce conceptual ideas that’s best toward supporting the content and values with visual elements. The subject of, “How do we generate creative ideas. ”The most consuming part of expanding our horizons toward scenic concepts is more than witnessing creativity. It starts with us opening our mind to the possibilities, to have an attitude toward learning, seeking, and engaging in creativity and to be willing to be adventurous, inquisitive and curious. Whether outside or inside, colorful trees or concerts, star lit skies or the architecture of a great building, discovering what will best clarify and support the story being told. The scenic designer works with the director and other designers to establish a visual concept for the production. All of these required drawing elements can be created from one accurate 3-D CAD model of the set design. Scenic designers are responsible for creating models of the scenery, renderings, paint elevations. Prague, CZ What is Scenography Article illustrating the differences between US and European theatre design practices Special, WhatLinksHere/Julia Anastasopoulos

Scenic design
–
Scenic design, The 2010 Family Series, by Glenn Davis
Scenic design
–
Set design model by Marcel Jambon for an 1895 Paris production of Giuseppe Verdi 's Otello.
Scenic design
–
A set designer works on the set with carpenters.
Scenic design
–
Scenic designer Robert Edmond Jones (1887-1954) drawing at a waist high table (c. 1920).

34.
Principal photography
–
Principal photography is the phase of film production in which the movie is filmed, with actors on set and cameras rolling, as distinct from pre-production and post-production. Its start generally marks a point of no return for the financiers, feature films usually have insurance in place by the time principal photography begins. The death of a star before completing all planned takes. For example, sets are notoriously flammable, and most older studios feature water towers for that reason, furthermore, professional-quality movie cameras are normally rented as needed, and most camera houses will not allow rentals of their equipment without proof of insurance. Once a film concludes principal photography, it is said to have wrapped, in these circumstances, additional material may have to be shot. If the material has already been shot once, or is substantial, the process is referred to as a re-shoot, learning materials related to Filmmaking at Wikiversity Media related to Filmmaking at Wikimedia Commons

35.
Cinematographer
–
The study and practice of this field is referred to as cinematography. The cinematographer selects the camera, film stock, lens, filters, in the infancy of motion pictures, the cinematographer was usually also the director and the person physically handling the camera. As the art form and technology evolved, a separation between director and camera operator began to emerge, with the advent of artificial lighting and faster film stocks, in addition to technological advancements in optics, the technical aspects of cinematography necessitated a specialist in that area. Cinematography was key during the silent movie era, with no sound apart from music and no dialogue, the films depended on lighting, acting. Similar trade associations have been established in other countries too, there are a number of national associations of cinematographers which represent members and which are dedicated to the advancement of cinematography. S. C. Defines cinematography as, A creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of a work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography

36.
Camera operator
–
A camera operator, sometimes informally called a cameraman or a camerawoman, is a professional operator of a film or video camera. In filmmaking, the designing the lighting is the cinematographer or director of photography. The camera operator is responsible for operating the camera and maintaining composition. In narrative filmmaking, the operator will collaborate with the director, director of photography, actors and crew to make technical. In this setting, an operator is part of a film crew consisting of the director of photography. In documentary filmmaking and news, the camera is called on to film unfolding. In 2006, there were approximately 27,000 television, video, important camera operator skills include choreographing and framing shots, knowledge of and the ability to select appropriate camera lenses, and other equipment to portray dramatic scenes. The principles of story telling and film editing fundamentals are important skills as well. The camera operator is required to clearly and concisely on sets where time

37.
Focus puller
–
A focus puller, or 1st assistant camera, is a member of a film crew’s camera department whose primary responsibility is to maintain image sharpness on whatever subject or action is being filmed. Pulling focus or rack focusing refers to the act of changing the focus distance setting in correspondence to a moving subject’s physical distance from the focal plane. Additionally, the focus puller may shift focus from one subject to another within the frame, a good focus puller will have an intimate knowledge of cinematographic and optical theory. Depending on the parameters of a shot, there is often very little room for error. One must also consider that an actor may not be able to duplicate his or her best performance in a subsequent take, because of these factors, some production personnel consider the focus puller to have the most difficult job on set. And for configuring the camera and its accessories in multiple ways for different setups, 1st ACs arrive on set or in the studio before the director, director of photography and camera operator, and ensure that the camera and all required lenses are prepared for the days shoot. During shooting, the 1st AC is also responsible for moving the camera to each setup as directed by the Director of Photography, on larger budget productions, the camera is usually mounted on a dolly for most of the day, which is operated by the Dolly Grip. At the end of each shooting day, 1st ACs clean the equipment, if there is a problem with the rushes, the focus puller communicates with the film lab to fix any faults with the camera or film stock. Sharp focus is fundamental to reproducing a realistic, appealing image, when done correctly, good pulling goes mostly unnoticed by the audience. The shooting of a scene begins with a blocking rehearsal. During the rehearsal, the 2nd AC lays tape marks on the floor at all points an actor pauses movement. The actors then leave set to go through hair and makeup, and stand-ins come in to take their places at various positions for the purposes of lighting, framing. These distances are recorded in a series of grease pencil/pen marks on the barrel of the lens. Using the stand-ins or 2nd AC, marks are checked through the viewfinder and/or the onboard monitor for accuracy, marks may be repositioned in order to provide specific framing desired, and the 1st AC must be aware of this and re-measure/re-set his marks accordingly. When the actors return to set, there is usually a rehearsal for camera in which the focus puller and operator will practice the shot and make sure everything has been set up properly. In cases where an obstruction prevents the focus puller from seeing all his marks, traditionally, the focus puller used only his marks and his own well-developed sense of distance estimation to achieve good results. Over the last decade, the use of digital cameras. Professional 1st ACs have many tricks for pulling focus in difficult situations or when accurate measurement is impossible and these reference measurements can be used to quickly establish rough distances between the camera and the subject in chaotic shooting circumstances

Focus puller
–
A focus puller

38.
Clapper loader
–
The specific responsibilities and division of labor within the department will almost always vary depending on the circumstances of the shoot. Clapper loaders have an important role as practically the only people on set who directly and physically oversee the state of the undeveloped negative. The loader - the only person who handles the negative between the manufacturer and the laboratory - thus can easily render an entire days work useless if the film is handled improperly. Furthermore, the loader usually has more to do in addition to these tasks. Noted director of photography Oliver Stapleton has written on his website, The LOADER loads the camera, oddly enough, loading may not sound like much of a job, but in actuality it is very important. When this happens the Loader can become deeply unpopular very quickly, kubrick fired one loader I know on his first day of work for walking across the set holding a magazine upside down. Not Kubrick’s first day of work - the Loaders and this was a trifle harsh, but there is a right way to do the job, and the rules are there for a very good reason. If you screw up the minimum cost is about $20,000 and the max any figure you might care to imagine

Clapper loader
–
Panavision movie camera. The camera magazine is the lighter color unit on top of the camera, the camera magazine can be removed to be reloaded by the clapper loader
Clapper loader
–
A short strip of undeveloped 35 mm color negative film, from a roll of film.
Clapper loader
–
A 35 mm Each reel contains roughly 2,000 feet, or 20 minutes of running time at 24 fps in length.
Clapper loader
–
Digital Clapperboard

39.
Steadicam
–
Steadicam is a brand of camera stabilizer mounts for motion picture cameras invented by Garrett Brown and introduced in 1975 by Tiffen. It mechanically isolates the operators movement, allowing for a smooth shot, before the camera stabilizing system, a director had two choices for moving shots, The camera could be mounted on a dolly, a wheeled mount that rolls on tracks or leveled boards. This procedure is time consuming to set up, and it is impractical in many situations, the camera operator could simply hold the camera. This manual grip allows speed and flexibility, but even the most skilled operator cannot entirely prevent shaking, while these cinematic techniques are still common, the Steadicam has added another dimension to motion picture cinematography and videography. A Steadicam essentially combines the stabilized steady footage of a tripod mount with the fluid motion of a dolly shot. While smoothly following the broad movements, the Steadicams arm absorbs jerks, bumps. The Steadicam was introduced to the industry in 1975 by inventor and cameraman Garrett Brown, after completing the first working prototype, Brown shot a ten-minute demo reel of the revolutionary moves this new device could produce. This reel was seen by numerous directors, including Stanley Kubrick, the Steadicam was subsequently licensed to and manufactured by Cinema Products Corporation, which later diversified the brand into a consumer line for DV cameras. It was then used in running and chase scenes on the streets of New York City in Marathon Man. Rocky was also released before Bound For Glory, Garrett Brown was the Steadicam operator on all of these. The Shining pushed Browns innovations even further, when director Stanley Kubrick requested that the shoot from barely above the floor. This low-mode concept remains the most important extension to the system since its inception, a Steadicam rig was also employed during the filming of Return of the Jedi, in conjunction with two gyroscopes for extra stabilization, to film the background plates for the speeder bike chase. Brown, who operated the shot, walked through a redwood forest. The end result, when projected at 24 frames per second, in the Michael Crichton film Runaway, a Steadicam rig was used to simulate the point of view of a futuristic smart bullet in flight while targeting specific individuals by their heat signature. The operator wears a harness—the Steadicam vest—which is attached to an iso-elastic arm and this is connected by a multiaxis and ultra-low friction gimbal to the Steadicam sled which has the camera mounted at one end and counterbalancing weight at the other. The monitor substitutes for the viewfinder, since the range of motion of the camera relative to the operator makes the cameras own viewfinder unusable. In the film industry the armature and weight are traditionally called the sled, the sled includes the top stage where the camera is attached, the post which in most models can be extended, with the monitor and batteries at the bottom to counterbalance the camera weight. This is how the Steadicam stays upright, by making the bottom slightly heavier than the top

Steadicam
–
A Steadicam and operator in front of a crowd
Steadicam
–
The larger Steadicams are designed to support 35 mm film and digital cinema cameras (like this Arri Alexa) and even IMAX cameras.
Steadicam
–
To film this recreated Victorian London street scene, the cameraman next to the lamp post is using a Steadicam and wearing the harness required to support it.

40.
Grip (job)
–
In the U. S. and Canada, grips are lighting and rigging technicians in the filmmaking and video production industries. They constitute their own department on a set and are directed by a key grip. The first is to work closely with the department to provide camera support, especially if the camera is mounted to a dolly, crane, or in an unusual position. Some grips may specialize in operating camera dollies or camera cranes, the second main function of grips is to work closely with the electrical department to create lighting set-ups necessary for a shot under the direction of the director of photography. Grips responsibility is to build and maintain all the equipment that supports cameras and this equipment, which includes tripods, dollies, tracks, jibs, cranes, and static rigs, is constructed of delicate yet heavy duty parts requiring a high level of experience to operate and move. Every scene in a film is shot using one or more cameras, each mounted on highly complex, extremely expensive. Grips assemble this equipment according to specifications and push, pull. Good Grips perform a role in ensuring that the artifice of film is maintained. Grips are usually requested by the DoP or the camera operator, although the work is physically demanding and the hours are long, the work can be very rewarding. Many Grips work on commercials and features. In the UK, Australia and most parts of Europe, grips are not involved in lighting, in the British System, adopted throughout Europe and the British Commonwealth, a grip is solely responsible for camera mounting and support. The term grip is from the era of the circus. From there it was used in vaudeville and then in film sound stages. Some have suggested the name comes from the 1930s–40s slang term for a bag or grip that these technicians use to carry their tools. Another theory is that in the days of hand-cranked cameras, it was necessary for a few men to hang on to the tripod legs to stop excessive movement of the camera. These men became known as the good grips—as they were constantly being instructed to keep a grip on the tripod. US grips typically belong to the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, canadian grips may also belong to IATSE or to Canadas other professional trade unions including Torontos Nabet 700, or Vancouvers ACFC. British grips usually belong to BECTU, on all union jobs, grips do not touch the lights themselves

Grip (job)
–
Grips working on a dolly
Grip (job)
–
An HMI head on a stand
Grip (job)
–
Cameraman and dolly grip filming The Alamo (2004)
Grip (job)
–
Statue of a boom operator on the Avenue of Stars in Hong Kong

41.
Dolly grip
–
In cinematography, the dolly grip is a dedicated technician trained to operate the camera dolly. This technician places, levels, and moves the dolly track, then pushes and pulls the dolly and usually a camera operator, if the dolly has a moveable vertical axis, such as a hydraulic arm, then the dolly grip also operates the boom. If both axes are used simultaneously, this type of shot is known as a compound move. A dolly grip must work closely with the crew to perfect these complex movements during rehearsals. Focusing the lens is critical to capturing an image, so a dolly grip must hit his or her marks in concert with a camera assistant who pulls focus. It is a skill that experience can hone to a point, but the best dolly grips are known for their touch, a dolly grip is also employed when the camera is operated in handheld mode. While the camera operator is moving with the camera, the grip is responsible for the operators safety. The dolly grip silently directs the operator away from walls and other obstacles that the operator cannot see while concentrating on the image in the camera viewfinder, the same is true when the camera is operated with a Steadicam or similar body-mounted stabilization tool. Although dolly grips are hired by and under a key grip, they are paid the same as a best boy grip, dolly grips may also push a wheeled platform holding the microphone and boom operator. Crane operators in the industry are specially trained film crew. Some shots require the camera to move and this can be done several ways, one of which is to use a camera crane. There are many types of cranes, most being a counterbalanced arm on a pivot. Cranes can be used to lift the camera, and often the camera operator and assistant also, the crane operator sets up and operates the camera crane so that the camera arrives at the right spot. This can be difficult since the camera may be a distance from the operator. Wordpress. com, Production Team & Crew Glossary

42.
Sound design
–
Sound design is the process of specifying, acquiring, manipulating or generating audio elements. Sound design most commonly involves the manipulation of previously composed or recorded audio, such as sound effects, in some instances it may also involve the composition or manipulation of audio to create a desired effect or mood. A sound designer is one who practices the art of sound design, the use of sound to evoke emotion, reflect mood and underscore actions in plays and dances began in prehistoric times. At its earliest, it was used in religious practices for healing or recreation, in ancient Japan, theatrical events called kagura were performed in Shinto shrines with music and dance. Plays were performed in times in a form of theatre called Commedia dellarte. The use of music and sound in the Elizabethan Theatre followed, in music and sound effects were produced off stage using devices such as bells, whistles. Cues would be written in the script for music and sound effects to be played at the appropriate time, italian composer Luigi Russolo built mechanical sound-making devices, called intonarumori, for futurist theatrical and music performances starting around 1913. These devices were meant to simulate natural and man-made sounds, such as trains, russolos treatise, The Art of Noises, is one of the earliest written documents on the use of abstract noise in the theatre. After his death, his intonarumori were used in more conventional theatre performances to create sound effects. Possibly the first use of recorded sound in the theatre was a phonograph playing a baby’s cry in a London theatre in 1890, sixteen years later, Herbert Beerbohm Tree used recordings in his London production of Stephen Phillips’ tragedy NERO. The article states, “these sounds are all realistically reproduced by the gramophone”, as cited by Bertolt Brecht, there was a play about Rasputin written in by Alexej Tolstoi and directed by Erwin Piscator that included a recording of Lenins voice. A great deal of care and attention was paid to the construction and performance of these effects, but even though the sound designer has basically assumed these roles, time and technology have not ruled out non-sound designers having a hand in sound production. It was subsequently provided to both the ADC and David Goodman at the Florida USA local when they were planning to represent sound designers in the 1990s. MIDI and digital audio technology helped to drive the evolution of sound design during the 1980s and 1990s. These features were incorporated into the MIDI Show Control specification, a communications protocol used to interact with diverse devices. The first show to utilize the MSC specification was the Magic Kingdom Parade at Walt Disney Worlds Magic Kingdom in September,1991. Also, the World Wide Web has greatly enhanced the ability of designers to acquire source material quickly, easily and cheaply. In addition, software innovation has enabled sound designers to take more of a DIY approach

43.
Director of audiography
–
The director of audiography, within Indian-style filmmaking, is the head of the sound department and the person responsible for planning the audiography and managing the audiographers of a film. The title is not used professionally in most of the world, the role of audiographer and the title director of audiography derives from Bollywood-style filmmaking in India, where it is an established title credit. Since the onset of the talkies, a creative and professional conflict has emerged from the tension between the visual and aural dimensions of film. Production sound crews often complain about the lack of consideration given to sound on film productions, having a DA in pre-production helps to exert a powerful presence to defend the dimension of sound in film. In practice, the industry sees both roles as equivalent, the DA should not be confused with a production supervisor or post-production supervisor - both are administrative roles in the production department. In many ways the DoA role is a extension of the more limited post-production role of supervising sound editor. The term director of sound has also proposed as an alternative title to that of DA

44.
Production sound mixer
–
This requires choice and deployment of microphones, choice of recording media, and mixing of audio signals in real time. The recordist may be asked to capture a variety of wild sound on location. The recorded production sound track is later combined with elements, i. e. effects, music, narration. The Practical Art of Motion Picture Sound, vincent Magnier, Le guide de la prise de son pour limage. John Purcell, Dialogue Editing for Motion Pictures, A Guide to the Invisible Art, ISBN0240809181 Jay Rose, Producing Great Sound for Film and Video. Focal Press, fourth edition 2014 Book info, make Your Movie Sound Like A Real Movie Martinez, Carlos E. Location Audio for Any Budget, An Introduction Rose, Jay Film/video tutorials written for DV Magazine and others

Production sound mixer
–
Sound mixer at work.

45.
Boom operator (media)
–
A boom operator is an assistant of the production sound mixer. At Paramount, Dorothy Arzner directed Clara Bows first talkie, The Wild Party, to allow Bow to move freely on the set, Arzner had technicians rig a microphone onto a fishing rod, essentially creating the first boom mic. She did not, however, take out a patent, a patent was filed a year later for a very similar sound-recording device by Edmund H Hansen, a sound engineer at the Fox Film Corporation. They will also attach wireless microphones to persons whose voice requires recording, Boom poles are usually manufactured from several lengths of aluminum or carbon fibre tubing, allowing the boom to be extended and collapsed as the situation requires. The ideal boom pole is lightweight and strong, supporting the weight of the microphone on the end while adding as little weight as possible, frequently, a wind-attenuating cover, called a blimp or mic-blimp, is used to enclose the microphone. A blimp covered with sound-absorbing fuzzy fabric is usually nicknamed a windmuff or a dead cat, in film crew jargon, the gruesome-sounding phrase dead cat on a stick is simply a boom microphone fitted with a fuzzy wind-screen. The one-man unit is known simply as a sound recordist or sound man. Often the boom operator will need to be as familiar with the script as are the actors, in productions with a bigger budget, more than one boom operator may be used, with each operator focusing on a different actor. Having the boom mic or its shadow appear on the screen in a picture is considered a sign of poor film-making. The TV Tropes wiki has a list on its Visible Boom Mic trope page demonstrating more examples, pastiches of bad film-making may also use boom mic visibility to spoof their material

46.
Foley (filmmaking)
–
Foley is the reproduction of everyday sound effects that are added to film, video, and other media in post-production to enhance audio quality. These reproduced sounds can be anything from the swishing of clothing and footsteps to squeaky doors, the best Foley art is so well integrated into a film that it goes unnoticed by the audience. It helps to create a sense of reality within a scene, without these crucial background noises, movies feel unnaturally quiet and uncomfortable. Foley artists recreate the ambient sounds that the film portrays. The props and sets of a film often do not react the same way acoustically as their real life counterparts, Foley sounds are used to enhance the auditory experience of the movie. Foley can also be used to cover up unwanted sounds captured on the set of a movie during filming, the term Foley also means a place, such as Foley-stage or Foley-studio, where the Foley process takes place. What is now called Foley is a range of sound effects originally developed for live broadcasts of radio drama in the early 1920s in various radio studios around the world. Because no effective recording method existed in those days, a sound effects person had to create all sounds for radio plays live, jack Donovan Foley started working with Universal Studios in 1914 during the silent movie era. When Warner studios released its first film to sound, The Jazz Singer, Universal knew it needed to get on the bandwagon. Foley became part of the crew that turned Universal’s then upcoming “silent” musical Show Boat into a musical. Because microphones of the time could not pick up more than dialogue, Foley and his small crew projected the film on a screen while recording a single track of audio that captured their live sound effects. Their timing had to be perfect, so that footsteps and closing doors synchronized with the motions in the film. Jack Foley created sounds for films until his death in 1967 and his basic methods are still used today. Modern Foley art has progressed as recording technology has progressed, today, sounds do not have to be recorded live on a single track of audio. They can be captured separately on individual tracks and carefully synchronized with their visual counterpart, Foley studios employ hundreds of props and digital effects to recreate the ambient sounds of their films. In this article, Foley complements or replaces sound recorded on set at the time of the filming, the soundscape of most films uses a combination of both. A Foley artist is the person who creates this sound art, Foley artists use creativity to make viewers believe that the sound effects are actually real. The viewers should not be able to realize that the sound was not actually part of the process itself

Foley (filmmaking)
–
A Foley artist at work
Foley (filmmaking)
–
An early sound effects man (right) adding effects to a live radio play in the 1920s. He holds an effects board with which he can simulate ringing telephones and closing doors.

47.
Composer
–
A composer is a person who creates or writes music, which can be vocal music, instrumental music or music which combines both instruments and voices. The core meaning of the term refers to individuals who have contributed to the tradition of Western classical music through creation of works expressed in written musical notation, many composers are also skilled performers, either as singers, instrumentalists, and/or conductors. Examples of composers who are well known for their ability as performers include J. S. Bach, Mozart. In many popular genres, such as rock and country. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has previously composed and notated is termed interpretation. Different performers interpretations of the work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others, although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composers written intention came to be highly valued. This musical culture is almost certainly related to the esteem in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In Classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own compositions, in some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have greater importance than that of performing it. The preservation of individual compositions did not receive attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, for instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred. The term composer is often used to refer to composers of music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter and this is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers

48.
Special effect
–
Special effects are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video game, and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. Special effects are divided into the categories of optical effects. Mechanical effects are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting and this includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects, creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, etc. Making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building are examples of mechanical effects, mechanical effects are often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a set may be built with doors or walls to enhance a fight scene. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background, since the 1990s, computer generated imagery has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI, in 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the worlds first special effects movie by combining different sections of 30 negatives into a single image. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, as the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the place, restarted filming. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century and it wasnt only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery only possible in a motion picture, i. e. the stop trick. Georges Méliès accidentally discovered the same stop trick, according to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the trick had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction. Because of his ability to manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph. From 1910 to 1920, the innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, Dawn combined this technique with the glass shot. Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, from the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn

Special effect
–
Bluescreens are commonly used in chroma key special effects.
Special effect
Special effect
–
A methane bubble bursting

49.
Special effects supervisor
–
A special effects supervisor is an individual who works on a commercial, theater, television or film set creating special effects. The supervisor generally is the department head who defers to the films director and/or producers, special effects include anything that is manual or mechanically manipulated. This may include the use of mechanized props, special makeup, props, scenery, scale models, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects, creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow. Special effects or are produced on the set, as opposed to those created in post-production which are called visual effects. In recent years real physical special effects have been overshadowed by computer-generated imagery effects created in post-production. Some examples of effects are explosions, car crashes and chases, gunshots, earthquake effects, special makeup, prosthetics, special set construction, snow. Special Effects Technician is a person working in the effects department, under the special effects supervisor. Major motion pictures, with special effects many have many special effects technicians. A special effects supervisor has to ensure the safety of his/her crew, specific education programs are recommended for one to gain high awareness in health and safety. Other training in fields such as handling explosives, firearms, high voltage and other hazardous material. One should be familiar with all the equipment such as wind, snow, fog, fire and rain machines, as well as dummies. On set, the supervisor is the one in charge of setting up, creativity and imagination plays a big role in this occupation, for he/she is the one responsible to see the big picture of the script and know when and how a special effect should be implemented. He/she should have the ability to visualize how things will appear ‘on screen, as well, the head of the entire special effects team works closely with the production designer and art director. The supervisor plans a special scene and presents it to the director. Experience in photography may be an advantage in this job because as the supervisor, starting young allows one to absorb all the information and experience you can get and applying them to become a special effects artist. Entry into this career path is competitive, there are various paths that one can take in order to become a special effects supervisor. People with animation, computer science, and industrial design backgrounds are seen, a formal education, particularly in electrical engineering and mechanical engineering is suggested. Some enter into this profession with a degree in film and television production, some students may specialize in fine art or sculpture, which may enhance their techniques to apply to special effects careers in modeling, illustration, animation and much more

Special effects supervisor
–
A special effect of a firing methane bubble which looks like a bird.

50.
Animator
–
An animator is an artist who creates multiple images, known as frames, which give an illusion of movement called animation when displayed in rapid sequence. Animators can work in a variety of fields including film, television, Animation is closely related to filmmaking and like filmmaking is extremely labor-intensive, which means that most significant works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods of creating the images or frames for an animation piece depends on the artistic styles. Other artists who contribute to animated cartoons, but who are not animators, include layout artists, storyboard artists, in hand-drawn Japanese animation productions, such as in Hayao Miyazakis films, the key animator handles both layout and key animation. Some animators in Japan such as Mitsuo Iso take full responsibility for their scenes, one important distinction is between character animators and special effects animators. Usually, a young artist seeking to break into animation is hired for the first time in one of these categories, historically, the creation of animation was a long and arduous process. Each frame of a scene was hand-drawn, then transposed onto celluloid. These finished cels were placed together in sequence over painted backgrounds and filmed. Animation methods have become far more varied in recent years, todays cartoons could be created using any number of interesting methods, mostly using computers to make the animation process cheaper and faster. These more efficient animation procedures have made the job less tedious. Audiences generally find animation to be more interesting with sound. Voice actors and musicians, among other talent, may contribute vocal or music tracks, some early animated films asked the vocal and music talent to synchronize their recordings to already-extant animation. Nowadays, visual development artists will design a character as a 2D drawing or painting, texture artists paint the character with colorful or complex textures, and technical directors set up rigging so that the character can be easily moved and posed. For each scene, layout artists set up cameras and rough blocking. Despite those constraints, the animator is still capable of exercising significant artistic skill, more recently, Chris Buck has remarked that animators have become actors with mice. Some studios bring in acting coaches on feature films to help work through such issues. Each finished film clip is then checked for quality and rushed to a film editor, Animation Computer animation Computer graphics Key frame Sweat box Animation Toolworks Glossary, Who Does What In Animation How An Animated Cartoon Is Made

51.
Conceptual model
–
A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the composition of concepts which are used to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. Some models are physical objects, for example, a toy model which may be assembled, the term conceptual model may be used to refer to models which are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process. Conceptual models are often abstractions of things in the world whether physical or social. Semantics studies are relevant to various stages of formation and use as Semantics is basically about concepts. The term conceptual model is normal and it could mean a model of concept or it could mean a model that is conceptual. A distinction can be made between what models are and what models are models of, with the exception of iconic models, such as a scale model of Winchester Cathedral, most models are concepts. But they are, mostly, intended to be models of world states of affairs. The value of a model is directly proportional to how well it corresponds to a past, present, future. A model of a concept is different because in order to be a good model it need not have this real world correspondence. Conceptual models also range in terms of the scope of the matter that they are taken to represent. A model may, for instance, represent a single thing, whole classes of things, the variety and scope of conceptual models is due to then variety of purposes had by the people using them. Conceptual modeling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of the physical and social world around us for the purposes of understanding, a conceptual models primary objective is to convey the fundamental principles and basic functionality of the system which it represents. Also, a model must be developed in such a way as to provide an easily understood system interpretation for the models users. A conceptual model, when implemented properly, should satisfy four fundamental objectives, figure 1 below, depicts the role of the conceptual model in a typical system development scheme. It is clear if the conceptual model is not fully developed. These failures do occur in the industry and have linked to, lack of user input, incomplete or unclear requirements. Those weak links in the design and development process can be traced to improper execution of the fundamental objectives of conceptual modeling. The importance of conceptual modeling is evident when such systemic failures are mitigated by thorough system development, as systems have become increasingly complex, the role of conceptual modeling has dramatically expanded

52.
Rigging
–
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition rigging derives from Anglo-Saxon wrigan or wringing, to clothe. The same source points out that rigging a sailing vessel refers to putting all the components in place to allow it to function, including the masts, spars, sails and the rigging. Rigging is divided into two classes, standing, which supports the mast, and running, which controls the orientation of the sails, configurations differ for each type of rigging, between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. Standing rigging is cordage which is fixed in position, standing rigging is almost always between a mast and the deck, using tension to hold the mast firmly in place. Due to its role, standing rigging is now most commonly made of steel cable and it was historically made of the same materials as running rigging, only coated in tar for added strength and protection from the elements. Most fore-and-aft rigged vessels have the types of standing rigging, a forestay, a backstay. Less common rigging configurations are diamond stays and jumpers, both of these are used to keep a thin mast in column especially under the load of a large down wind sail or in strong wind. Rigging parts include swageless terminals, swage terminals, shackle toggle terminals, whereas 20th-Century square-rigged vessels were constructed of steel with steel standing rigging, prior vessels used wood masts with hemp-fiber standing rigging. This construction relied heavily on support by an array of stays. Each stay in either the fore-and-aft or athwartships direction had a one in the opposite direction providing counter-tension. Fore-and-aft the system of tensioning started with the stays that were anchored at in front each mast, each additional mast segment is supported fore and aft by a series of stays that led forward. These lines were countered in tension by backstays, which were secured along the sides of the vessel behind the shrouds, running rigging is the cordage used to control the shape and position of the sails. Materials have evolved from the use of Manilla rope to synthetic fibers, running rigging varies between fore-and-aft rigged vessels and square-rigged vessels. They have common functions between them for supporting, shaping and orienting sails, which different mechanisms. For supporting sails, halyards, are used to raise sails, on gaff-riged vessels, topping lifts hold the yards across the top of the sail aloft. Sail shape is controlled by lines that pull at the corners of the sail, including the downhaul at the clew. The orientation of sails to the wind is controlled primarily by sheets, but also by braces, full rigged ship Lateen rig Shipbuilding Superstructure Harland, John. Seamanship in the Age of Sail, the Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625–1860

53.
Stand-in
–
A stand-in for film and television is a person who substitutes for the actor before filming, for technical purposes such as lighting and camera setup. Stand-ins are helpful in the processes of film and television production. The underlying problem is that quick-and-dirty consumer shortcuts are simply insufficient to create the look which audiences expect from modern cinematography. Professional lighting and camera setup are always done manually and can be extremely time-consuming, actors strongly prefer to be elsewhere during that time. Stand-ins allow the director of photography to light the set and the department to light. The director will often ask stand-ins to deliver the scene dialogue, in this way, a good stand-in can help speed up the days production and is a necessary and valuable cast member on a film. Stand-ins are distinguished from body doubles, who replace actors on camera from behind, in makeup, stand-ins do not appear on camera. However, on some productions the jobs of stand-in and double may be done by the same person, in rare cases, a stand-in will appear on screen, sometimes as an in-joke. For instance, the actress who pretends to be Ann Darrow in the show during the final act of King Kong is played by Naomi Watts stand-in. Stand-ins do not necessarily look like the actor, but they must have the skin tone, hair color, height. For example, if the lighting is set up with a shorter than an actor. In these cases, skin tone and hair color are not so important, height and build, however, are still important for any interactions between live-action and animated characters. Some celebrities mandate that they always have the same stand-in. Famous cases include Pluma Noisom, Harry Cornbleth and Adam Bryant, when Bette Davis walked out on her Warner Bros. contract, she negotiated for her regular stand-in, Sally Sage, to continue to work at the studio. Fake Shemp Doppelgänger Impersonation Look-alike Political decoy Simulacrum The Stand In Stand-In Central, Learn How to Be a TV/Film Stand-In

Stand-in

54.
Stunt double
–
A stunt double is a type of body double, specifically a skilled replacement used for dangerous film or video sequences, in movies and television, and for other sophisticated stunts. Stunt doubles may be used in cases where a physical condition precludes a great amount of physical activity. Stunt doubles are sometimes referred to as stunties, the terms stunt double and body double may be used interchangeably for cases where special skills are needed, such as dancing, playing the piano, or competitive skiing. Stunt doubles should be distinguished from daredevils, who perform stunts for the sake of the stunt alone, sequences often do not place stunt doubles in the same mortal peril as the characters, for example, harnesses and wires can be digitally edited out of the final film. Many stunt doubles have long careers as part of a star actors contractual support crew along with the stars cooks, trainers, dressers. Often stunt doubles have to look like their respective actors, in order to keep the characters appearance, stunt doubles for Eddie Murphy, John Wayne, Harrison Ford, Steve Martin, Salman Khan and Michael Landon have been associated with their lead actors for decades. Non-humans are also known to have stunt doubles, for example, Enzo was the stunt double for his aging sire Moose on the sitcom Frasier. Soccer, the dog who portrayed Wishbone, reportedly hated swimming, some actors are known to have performed their own stunts. Jackie Chan is particularly famous for doing most of his own stunts, as are martial arts star and movie partners Yuen Biao. Indian actor, Jayan was well known for performing dangerous stunts by himself and was killed while performing a helicopter stunt. Akshay Kumar is also famous for doing all of his own stunts and has several dangerous stunts. Thai martial artist and actor Tony Jaa performs his own stunts, stunt performer Q&A with stuntman/stunt coordinator Matt Anderson

55.
Stunt performer
–
A stunt performer, often referred to as a stuntman, stuntwoman, or daredevil, is someone who performs dangerous stunts, often as a career. A stuntman typically performs stunts intended for use in a picture or dramatized television. Stunts seen in films and television include car crashes, falls from height, drags. There is an inherent risk in the performance of all stunt work, the most risk exists when performing stunts in front of a live audience. In filmed performances, visible safety mechanisms can be removed by editing, in live performances the audience can see more clearly if the performer is genuinely doing what they claim or appear to do. To reduce the risk of injury or death, most often stunts are choreographed or mechanically-rigged so that, while they look dangerous, despite their well-choreographed appearance, stunts are still very dangerous and physically testing exercises. From its inception as a skill in the early 1900s to the 1960s. This allows them to break down and plan an action sequence, physically prepare themselves. However, even when executed perfectly, there is still strain, daredevils are distinct from stunt performers and stunt doubles, their performance is of the stunt itself, without the context of a film or television show. Daredevils often perform for an audience, live stunt performers include escape artists, sword swallowers, glass walkers, fire eaters, trapeze artists, and many other sideshow and circus arts. They also include motorcycle display teams and the once popular Wall of Death, the Jackass films and television series are well-known and prominent recorded examples of the act in modern cinematography. Some people, such as Buster Keaton, Harry Houdini, Jackie Chan, Akshay Kumar, Pawan Kalyan, Tony Jaa, the earliest stunt performers were travelling entertainers and circus performers, particularly trained gymnasts and acrobats. This acrobatic discipline required long training in the ring and perfect body control to present a performance to the public. The word stunt was more formally adopted during the 19th century travelling vaudeville performances of the early Wild West Shows, in North America, the first and prototypical wild west show was Buffalo Bills, formed in 1883 and lasting until 1913. The shows which involved simulated battles with the firing of both guns and arrows, were a romanticized version of the American Old West. Egerton Castle and Captain Alfred Hutton were part of a wider Victorian era group based in London, by the early 1900s, the motion picture industry was starting to fire-up on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, but had no need for professional stunt performers. Firstly, motion pictures were so new that even if the producer had a budget for performers, there were more than enough applicants willing to do the scene for free. For instance, if you needed a shot of someone on a steel beam 1,000 feet up on a New York skyscraper, then there was always willing to do the scene for real

56.
Post-production
–
Post-production, or postproduction, is part of the process of filmmaking, video production, and photography. It occurs in the making of pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio recordings, photography. It is a term for all stages of production occurring after shooting or recording individual program segments, traditional post-production has been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. Post-production is many different processes grouped under one name and these typically include, Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision list Writing, recording, and editing the soundtrack. Adding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery and digital copy from which release prints will be made, sound design, sound effects, ADR, foley, and music, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or mixing with professional audio equipment. Transfer of colour motion picture film to video or DPX with a telecine, the process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading tools and the addition of music and sound, for instance, a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience. Post-production was named a dying industry by Phil Izzo, the once exclusive service offered by high-end post-production facilities have been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. As such, traditional services are being surpassed by digital. In television, the phases of post-production include, editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and it is imperative that post-production executes and oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready. Professional post-producers usually apply a certain range of image editing operations to the raw image format provided by a photographer or an image-bank, there is a range of proprietary and free and open-source software, running on a range of operating systems available to do this work. The first stage of post-production usually requires loading the RAW images into the post-production software, if there is more than one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize the images before loading them. After that, if necessary, the step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool for a perfect. The next stage would be cleaning the image using tools such as the tool, clone tool. The next stages depend on what the client ordered, if its a photo-montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the background. In advertising, it usually requires assembling several images together in a photo-composition, types of work usually done, Advertising that requires one background and one or more models. Fashion photography that usually requires a really heavy post-production for editorial and/or advertising, techniques used in music post-production include comping, timing and pitch correction, and adding effects. This process is referred to as mixing and can also involve equalization

57.
Film editing
–
Film editing is a creative and technical part of the post-production process of filmmaking. The term is derived from the process of working with film. The film editor works with the raw footage, selecting shots, Film editing is often referred to as the invisible art because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not aware of the editors work. On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, the job of an editor is not simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film slates, or edit dialogue scenes. Editors usually play a role in the making of a film. Sometimes, auteurist film directors edit their own films, for example, Akira Kurosawa, Bahram Beyzai, with the advent of digital editing, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that—picture, sound, music, and visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director. However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor and it is common, especially on lower budget films, for the editor to cut in music, mock up visual effects, and add sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are replaced with more refined final elements by the sound, music. Early films were films that were one long, static. Motion in the shot was all that was necessary to amuse an audience, there was no story and no editing. Each film ran as long as there was film in the camera, in the first shot, an elderly couple is outside an art exhibition having lunch and then follow other people inside through the door. The second shot shows what they do inside, one of the first films to use this technique, Georges Mélièss The Four Troublesome Heads from 1898, was produced with Pauls camera. There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girls foot shown inside a circular mask. Even more remarkable was James Williamsons Attack on a China Mission Station, an armed party of British sailors arrived and defeat the Boxers and rescue the missionarys family. The film used the first reverse angle cut in film history, James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like Stop Thief. and Fire. Made in 1901, and many others and he also experimented with the close-up, and made perhaps the most extreme one of all in The Big Swallow, when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. These two filmmakers of the Brighton School also pioneered the editing of the film, they tinted their work with color, by 1900, their films were extended scenes of up to 5 minutes long

58.
Color grading
–
Color grading is the process of altering and enhancing the color of a motion picture, video image, or still image either electronically, photo-chemically or digitally. Color grading encompasses both color correction and the generation of color effects. Whether for theatrical film, video distribution, or print, color grading is generally now performed digitally in a color suite, the earlier photo-chemical film process, known as color timing, was performed at a photographic laboratory. The earliest film grading technique, known as timing, involved changing the duration of exposure processes during the film development process. Color timing was used for color correction, but could also be used for artistic purposes. Color timing was specified in printer points, since it could not be performed in real time, color timing for film processing involved considerable skill in being able to predict correct exposures. For complex work, wedges were sometimes processed to aid the choice of the correct grading, with the advent of television, broadcasters quickly realized the limitations of live television broadcasts and they turned to broadcasting feature films from release prints directly from a telecine. This was before 1956 when Ampex introduced the first Quadruplex videotape recorder VRX-1000, live television shows could also be recorded to film and aired at different times in different time zones by filming a video monitor. The heart of this system was the kinescope, a device for recording a television broadcast to film, the early telecine hardware was the film chain for broadcasting from film and utilized a film projector connected to a video camera. Today, telecine is synonymous with color timing as tools and technologies have advanced to make color timing ubiquitous in a video environment, in a Cathode-ray tube system, an electron beam is projected at a phosphor-coated envelope, producing a spot of light the size of a single pixel. This beam is scanned across a film frame from left to right. Horizontal scanning of the frame is then accomplished as the film moves past the CRTs beam, once this photon beam passes through the film frame, it encounters a series of dichroic mirrors which separate the image into its primary red, green and blue components. From there, each beam is reflected onto a photomultiplier tube where the photons are converted into an electronic signal to be recorded to tape. In a charge-coupled device telecine, a light is shined through the exposed film image onto a prism. Each beam of colored light is projected at a different CCD. The CCD converts the light into a signal, and the telecine electronics modulate these into a video signal that can then be color graded. The Ursa Gold brought about color grading in the full 4,4,4 color space, Color correction control systems started with the Rank Cintel TOPSY in 1978. In 1984 Da Vinci Systems introduced their first color corrector, an interface that would manipulate the color voltages on the Rank Cintel MkIII systems

59.
Compositing
–
Compositing is the combining of visual elements from separate sources into single images, often to create the illusion that all those elements are parts of the same scene. Live-action shooting for compositing is variously called chroma key, blue screen, green screen, today, most, though not all, compositing is achieved through digital image manipulation. Pre-digital compositing techniques, however, go back as far as the films of Georges Méliès in the late 19th century. All compositing involves the replacement of selected parts of an image with other material, usually, in the digital method of compositing, software commands designate a narrowly defined color as the part of an image to be replaced. Then the software replaces every pixel within the color range with a pixel from another image. In television studios, blue or green screens may back news-readers to allow the compositing of stories behind them, in other cases, presenters may be completely within compositing backgrounds that are replaced with entire virtual sets executed in computer graphics programs. Virtual sets are used in motion pictures filmmaking, some of which are photographed entirely in blue or green screen environments, as for example in Sky Captain. More commonly, composited backgrounds are combined with sets – both full-size and models – and vehicles, furniture, and other objects that enhance the reality of the composited visuals. That way, subjects recorded in modest areas can be placed in large virtual vistas, most common of all, perhaps, are set extensions, digital additions to actual performing environments. Digital compositing is a form of matting, one of four basic compositing methods, the others are physical compositing, multiple exposure, and background projection. In physical compositing the separate parts of the image are placed together in the photographic frame, the components are aligned so that they give the appearance of a single image. The most common physical compositing elements are partial models and glass paintings, partial models are typically used as set extensions such as ceilings or the upper stories of buildings. The model, built to match the set but on a much smaller scale, is hung in front of the camera. Models are often large because they must be placed far enough from the camera so that both they and the set far beyond them are in sharp focus. Glass shots are made by positioning a large pane of glass so that it fills the camera frame, the entire scene is painted on the glass, except for the area revealing the background where action is to take place. Photographed through the glass, the action is composited with the painted area. A classic example of a shot is the approach to Ashley Wilkes plantation in Gone with the Wind. The plantation and fields are all painted, while the road, a variant uses the opposite technique, most of the area is clear, except for individual elements affixed to the glass

Compositing
–
Four images of the same subject, removed from their original backgrounds and composited onto a new background.
Compositing
–
The Playhouse composited using multiple exposures to show nine copies of Buster Keaton on screen at once.
Compositing
–
This article is about visual effects. For the process of combining several democratic motions, see compositing (democracy). For the technique of compositing typeset by hand, see typesetting. For compositing in graphic design and still photography, see photomontage. For other uses, see Compositing (disambiguation).

60.
Computer-generated imagery
–
The term CGI animation refers to dynamic CGI rendered as a movie. The term virtual world refers to agent-based, interactive environments, Computer graphics software is used to make computer-generated imagery for films, etc. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games. This has brought about an Internet subculture with its own set of global celebrities, clichés, the evolution of CGI led to the emergence of virtual cinematography in the 1990s where runs of the simulated camera are not constrained by the laws of physics. Not only do animated images form part of computer-generated imagery, natural looking landscapes are generated via computer algorithms. A simple way to generate fractal surfaces is to use an extension of the triangular mesh method, relying on the construction of special case of a de Rham curve. The creation of a Brownian surface may be achieved not only by adding noise as new nodes are created, thus a topographical map with varying levels of height can be created using relatively straightforward fractal algorithms. Some typical, easy-to-program fractals used in CGI are the plasma fractal, modern architects use services from computer graphic firms to create 3-dimensional models for both customers and builders. These computer generated models can be accurate than traditional drawings. Architectural animation can also be used to see the relationship a building will have in relation to the environment. The rendering of architectural spaces without the use of paper and pencil tools is now an accepted practice with a number of computer-assisted architectural design systems. Architectural modeling tools allow an architect to visualize a space and perform walk-throughs in an interactive manner, Architectural modeling tools have now become increasingly internet-based. However, the quality of internet-based systems still lags behind those of sophisticated in-house modeling systems, in some applications, computer-generated images are used to reverse engineer historical buildings. Computer generated models used in animation are not always anatomically correct. However, organizations such as the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute have developed anatomically correct computer-based models, Computer generated anatomical models can be used both for instructional and operational purposes. To date, a body of artist produced medical images continue to be used by medical students, such as images by Frank H. Netter. However, a number of anatomical models are becoming available. A single patient X-ray is not a computer generated image, even if digitized, however, in applications which involve CT scans a three-dimensional model is automatically produced from a large number of single slice x-rays, producing computer generated image

61.
Rendering (computer graphics)
–
Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating an image from a 2D or 3D model by means of computer programs. Also, the results of such a model can be called a rendering, a scene file contains objects in a strictly defined language or data structure, it would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information as a description of the virtual scene. The data contained in the file is then passed to a rendering program to be processed. The term rendering may be by analogy with a rendering of a scene. A GPU is a device able to assist a CPU in performing complex rendering calculations. If a scene is to look realistic and predictable under virtual lighting. The rendering equation doesnt account for all lighting phenomena, but is a lighting model for computer-generated imagery. Rendering is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in an editing program to produce final video output. Rendering is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, in the graphics pipeline, it is the last major step, giving the final appearance to the models and animation. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s, it has become a distinct subject. Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie or TV visual effects, as a product, a wide variety of renderers are available. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, on the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program, based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to, light physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development. In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be slowly, as in pre-rendering. When the pre-image is complete, rendering is used, which adds in bitmap textures or procedural textures, lights, bump mapping, the result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees. For movie animations, several images must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort, most 3D image editing programs can do this. A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features, Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together, Tracing every particle of light in a scene is nearly always completely impractical and would take a stupendous amount of time. Even tracing a portion large enough to produce an image takes an amount of time if the sampling is not intelligently restricted

Rendering (computer graphics)
–
Rendering of the European Extremely Large Telescope.
Rendering (computer graphics)
–
An image created by using POV-Ray 3.6
Rendering (computer graphics)
–
Spiral Sphere and Julia, Detail, a computer-generated image created by visual artist Robert W. McGregor using only POV-Ray 3.6 and its built-in scene description language.
Rendering (computer graphics)
–
Rendering of an ESTCube-1 satellite