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1 Medieval Workshop of an Alchemist, Jeweller and Glassmaker in Bilyar (Middle Volga Region, Russian Federation) Středověká dílna alchymisty, klenotníka a skláře v Bilär (Střední Povolží, Ruská federace) Svetlana Valiulina Předloženo redakci v květnu 05, upravená verze v lednu 06 One just has to come into their world, imagine possessing a minimum of scarce substances available at that time in order to easily understand that there would have been no more reasonable explanation for that material; thus, we are fated to cherish the strength of mind of those alchemists who used to reach amazing conclusions while drawing on a miserable stock of facts I. I. Kanonnikov (886) In the centre of Bilyar, the pre-mongolian capital of Volga Bulgaria, a team of researchers from Kazan University (Head S. I. Valiulina) excavated and investigated an alchemy workshop an example of an advanced experimental and craft alchemy practice. Some technological secrets from these experiments were determined using X-ray analysis (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The considered artefacts and materials are representative of the workplace or production facilities of an alchemist-craftsman who combined chemical experiments with a jewellery practice and who was capable of providing himself with the necessary specialpurpose glassware. The scope of alchemy activity was determined using the analysis of alembics, as all other obtained materials are related to craft jewellery, which is quite common for Oriental alchemy as a whole. Judging from the results of the stratigraphic analysis and the nature of obtained materials, the Bilyar workshop of an alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker functioned in the centre of Bilyar at the very end of the th century and the beginning of the 3 th century. The majority of finds were in use for a long period of time. Archaeometric dating was performed for the following items: Iranian Kashin ceramics of a lustrous design and minai, Russian glass tumblers, a lamp and a bead necklace of semi-transparent yellow glass. Finds of chemical glassware in Bilyar and other pre-mongolian cities of Bulgaria and the discovery of the workshop of alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker in the centre of Bilyar informed the conclusion on the existence of alchemy in Volga Bulgaria in the th century to the beginning of the 3 th century. Thus, archaeologists gained a rare opportunity to unveil the peculiarities of the initial stage of development of alchemy experimental, craft or practical chemistry in eastern Europe. medieval alchemy, Islamic glass, natural science methods, Volga Bulgaria, Bilyar V centru Biläru, v předmongolském období hlavním městě Volžského Bulharska, nalezl a prozkoumal tým badatelů z Kazaňské univerzity (pod vedením S. I. Valiulinové) alchymistickou dílnu příklad pokročilého experimentálního a řemeslného alchymistického pracoviště. Některá technologická tajemství experimentů byla určena pomocí rentgeno-fluorescenční spektrální analýzy (XRD) a rastrovacího elektronového mikroskopu (SEM). Posuzované výrobky a materiály jsou typické pro pracoviště nebo výrobní vybavení alchymisty-řemeslníka, který spojoval chemické pokusy s praxí šperkaře a který byl schopen sám si vyrobit potřebné speciální skleněné nádoby. Sféra alchymistovy činnosti byla ohraničena použitím analýzy s pomocí alembiků, zatímco ostatní získané materiály se vztahují ke šperkařskému řemeslu, což je docela běžné pro alchymii Orientu. Podle výsledků stratigrafické analýzy a povahy získaných materiálů soudě, dílna alchymisty, klenotníka a skláře fungovala v centru Biläru na samém konci. století a počátem 3. století. Většina nalezených předmětů byla využívána dlouhodobě. Archeometrické datování bylo provedeno u těchto nálezů: íránské kašínské keramiky s lustrem a minai (vzácný typ keramiky Středního Východu z íránského města Rey, předchůdce Teheránu), ruské skleněné číšky, lampy a korálů z poločirého žlutého skla. Nálezy skleněných nádob určených k chemickým účelům z Biläru a dalších předmongolských měst Volžského Bulharska a objev dílny alchymisty, šperkaře a skláře v centru města Bilär potvrzují závěr o existenci alchymie ve Volžském Bulharsku ve. a začátkem 3. století. Archeologové tak získali vzácnou možnost odhalit svébytnost počátečního stádia rozvoje alchymie experimentální, řemeslnické nebo pokusné chemie ve východní Evropě. středověká alchymie, islámské sklo, metody přírodních věd, Volžské Bulharsko, Bilär PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 37

2 Fig. a. Map of Volga Bulgaria. Drawn by S. Valiulina, technical support from G. Frolov. Obr. a. Mapa Volžského Bulharska. Kresba S. Valiulinová, technická úprava G. Frolov.. Introduction The Volga Bulgarian state was formed in the 0 th century in the Middle Volga and Kama regions. Its peak of development is estimated to be in the th century to the early 3 th century (Fig. a), as suggested by the volume of international trade and the high level of craft development, including such technologically-demanding arts such as glass-making and glazed pottery. This work presents the investigation of a workshop in the central part of the inner city of Bilyar, the capital of Volga Bulgaria. Stratigraphically, the find was located at the top of the cultural layer, undisturbed by any building construction since the destruction of the city as a result of the Mongol invasion in 36 AD, thus providing a great opportunity for research and reconstruction. Written sources provide no information about alchemy practices in Volga Bulgaria. In the Middle Ages, multifunctional centres of experimental alchemy were closely associated with handicraft activities, primarily with jewellery and glassmaking. For example, in the 8 th century and at the beginning of the 9 th century, famous Arab alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) experimented with glassmaking (Henderson Loughlin Phail 00, 6). Raymond Lully (36 35) called glass the first product of the philosophy of chemistry (Farmakovsky 9, The reported study was partially supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR), research project no a. 73). Alchemic practices were conducive to the accumulation of knowledge about chemical processes practiced by craftsmen.. Workshop topography, features Numerous glass items from excavation XXVIII helped to identify the location of the glassmaking workshop in the given part of the settlement, and excavation XL (60 m ) was initiated in the centre of the inner city, to the west of excavation XXVIII. Excavation XL yielded a pottery workshop for production of glazed ceramics. The fullscale manufacturing unit included a kiln, a pit for storing raw materials and a roofed workshop with fragments of throwing wheels. However, half-dugout living quarters were examined only partially, as they extended further northwards beyond the excavation s limits (Va- liulina 0a, 85 90). Excavation XLI (08 m ) was established to the northeast of excavation XL (Fig. b). A m thick cultural layer is represented by just one stratigraphic horizon of the pre-mongolian era. The best part of the layer, as was the case at excavation XL, was seriously destroyed by long-term ploughing and trenching. We examined a number of features found beneath the tilled land, the majority of which were associated with the process of production. Of principal interest are the remains of small kilns in the central part (Fig. b: K, K3) and at the western wall of the excavation (Fig. b: K). As a rule, kilns were located in pits. 38 PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

3 Fig. b. Alchemy workshop layout. Bilyar excavation LXI. Drawn by S. Valiulina, technical support A. Frolov. Obr. b. Alchymistická dílna situační plán. Bilär: výzkum LXI. Kresba S. Valiulinová, technická úprava A. Frolov. The contours of the latter were discovered at a depth of 0 5 cm on the subsoil surface. Kiln no. (Fig. b: K) was discovered in a sub-rectangular pit ( m). Fragments of the kiln found at a depth of 0 cm included an amassment of crushed brick, broken stone and a burned spot with a thick lens-shaped daub in the centre (Fig. : ) smoothed and burned from the inside. The kiln s diameter was apparently about m. Other finds included a few fragments of ceramics, brick rubble, a clay plug (Fig. 0: 6), coal, iron balls, ferrous and ceramic slag as well as two juxtaposed knives. Kiln no. (Fig. b: K) was discovered in pit no. ( m) (Fig. b: F), 60 cm below the contemporary surface. Oval in plan (..0 m), one-level, twin-chambered and obviously arched, with a slightly extended southern side, the kiln was oriented strictly along the north-south axis. The upper part and walls are completely destroyed. The kiln s construction can be studied only from its base anchored into the pit s bottom to a depth of 55 cm. The kiln was built of standard construction bricks using limestone and sandstone slabs. It was most likely equipped with moulded Dinas bricks (Fig. 0:, 5). The wall thickness was about 0 5 cm. A partition wall divided the kiln along the west-east axis into two approximately equal (60 70 cm) chambers. The cup-shaped bottom of the kiln is lined with large stones and brick fragments. Gaps are filled with charcoal, fragments of firebricks (Fig. 3: 3), grating stones (Fig. : 5), alembics (Fig. 3: 5), spheroconical vessels (Fig. 6: 5), and slag (Fig. 3:, ). An ash and lime amassment contains eggshells and sherds of glass items, including fragments of alembics (Fig. 5, 6, 8). Post holes with a diameter of 5 cm suggest the presence of a fence. In the opinion of T. A. Khlebnikova, one-level twinchamber arched kilns were quite rare, as craftsmen used them to perform a limited amount of technological tasks (Khlebnikova 988, 39). Regular sub-rectangular pit no. 6 (. m) (Fig. b: F6) holds kiln no. 3 (Fig. b: K3). The kiln s corners face the cardinal directions. A niche (0 cm width 60 cm depth 0 cm height) was discovered at the northwest wall of the pit at a depth of 0 cm, with the bottom lined with bricks and close-fitted stones with traces of burn deposits and soot. The niche obviously held a kiln. The fill of the kiln yielded pieces of coal, a (clay) puddle (up to 5 cm thick) from the kiln s arch (Fig. 0: ; :, ), a fragment of the bottom of a clay vessel with unworked liquid glass, pieces of lime, slag (Fig. 3: 6), an alembic (Fig. 3: ) and a fragment of a grey clay sphero-conical vessel (Fig. 6: 7). At the bottom of the kiln, on the fragmentary clay puddle, the lower part of a massive glazed tripod (Fig. : ) was cleared. On the southwest the kiln s pit neighbours pit no. 5 (Fig. b: F5), filled with lime and large slabs of crude stone. Judging from coal heads, wood dust and post holes (5 0 cm in diameter) around the perimeter, the entire complex had a wooden stationary covering. Several poorly preserved traces of fireplaces (pits) with burned spots, sandstone plates and brick rubble testify to vigorous handicraft activities in the given area. Although both in terms of design and fill material, the kilns of excavation XLI are not kitchen ovens, they definitely differ from the known Bilyar pyrotechnological units: pottery (Kokorina 983, 50 67), metallurgical (Halikov 976, 6 7) and glassmaking (Valiulina 003, 50). Small ground ovens are similar to the socalled philosophers ovens used by alchemists. Albert the Great described the process of constructing such an oven: Dig a pit one cubit deep, about two cubits or a bit more wide, line it around and above with potter s clay. Fence the pit with a round wall and line it with potter s clay, too Then use potter s clay to make a disc which PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 39

4 would resist heavy fire A clay tripod stand should be installed above the disc. The tripod should accommodate vessels with all kinds of substances intended for firing, whereas embers should be placed under the tripod stand (Albert the Great /Rabinovich 983, 35/). Instead of special tripod stands, craftsmen sometimes used wide-open, three-legged, cup-shaped vessels (Fig. : 5). Several such vessels were discovered during the excavation. In in Suvar, A. P. Smirnov discovered fragments of alembics, about 0 sphero-conical vessels as well as fragments of large plain threelegged stands made of refractory clay. The lower parts and legs of the latter were covered with a glazed film of a dirty green colour formed under the influence of high temperatures and the kiln s atmosphere. According to prescriptions, all alchemic operations should be performed in cold and humid places (Albert the Great /Rabinovich 983, 36/). The ground units of excavation XLI met the abovementioned requirements. Apparently, cold and humidity were accompanied by darkness, which is proven by numerous finds, including clay lamps (58 specimens, either intact or in fragments, Fig. : 8) and a glass funnel-shaped lamp/ lampad (Valiulina 005, fig. 3, 5). However, lamps and oil and petroleum burners could also have been used as heaters (Karimov 957, 6 63, 07, ; Tiflisi /translation Mikhalevich 976, 8/; Poisson 00, 0). 3. Glass Like today, special-purpose glassware held great significance. The sixth prescription in Albert the Great s Libellus de Alchimia strongly advises that vessels intended for operations with water and oils, whether with or without the use of fire, should be either made of glass or glazed from the inside. Otherwise, many evils will befall. Thus, should acidic waters be poured into a copper vessel, the latter s walls would turn green; should they be poured into a vessel made of iron or lead, the walls would turn black because of damnation (inficiuntur). In the case of a clay pot, acidic waters would penetrate through porous walls and the entire undertaking would be irretrievably ruined (Albert the Great /Rabinovich 983, 353/). Ar Razi also insists on the use of glassware in alchemy practice (Karimov 957,, note 3). The same requirement applied to pharmacy. For example, S. v. Osten cites relevant prescriptions from Pharmaceutical Regulations adopted in the city of Passau in 588 on the prohibition of storage of solutions in vessels made of copper and other metals (v. Osten 998, 86). With regard to the glassware of medieval Armenian alchemists, T. T. Kazandzhyan cites one of the Matenadaran manuscripts: And I will tell you about the vessels we need in our art; these are vessels for the preparation of salts, vessels for heating substances, and glasses, and glass, and glass mortars for grinding substances (Kazandzhyan 955, 36: Matenadaran manuscript no. 83, 8). State Historical Museum, no , inv. 687/7903; no , inv. 89/85. Libellus de Alchimia contains over 30 references to glass, and Ar Razi pays great attention to it as well. He often writes specifically about Syrian glass, one of the best in the medieval East not only in terms of its excellent outer appearance purity and transparency but above all in terms of technical characteristics and high chemical endurance. The German physician and chemist Andreas Libavius (second half of the 6 th century beginning of the 7 th century) writes about ovenware: A substance placed in a vessel made of thoroughly double-melted and blown glass can resist fire for a great while (v. Osten 998, 67). Close affinity between alchemic and handicraft practices is also justified by the example of the workshop of the end of the 3 th century, found at the outskirts of Marseille (Thiriot 997, 55 56, 5). Excavations at the site of an alchemy laboratory from the 6 th century in Oberstockstall (Austria) yielded numerous glass laboratory dishes and other glass items, including window screens (v. Osten 998, 00 3, Taf. 6 57, 7 75). Excavation XLI yielded over 300 fragments of various items made of glass, including 35 alembics. A total of 9 alembics were found in a hoard (Fig. 5: ) in the southeast part of the excavation, in the unconsolidated fill of pit no. 9a. The vessels were stored in a corner, presumably, in a birch bark box. It should be noted that the given complex yielded mostly intact alembic (Fig. 3: 9; Fig. : 8) samples: one was restored totally, others were represented as exact graphic reproductions (Fig. :, 3, ). Apart from alembics, the hoard included other interesting items: three touchstones (Fig. 7: 9 ), 7 sheep astragals (Fig. 5: ), either perforated or somehow processed, an iron axe (Fig. 5: 3), a bronze key (Fig. 5: ), an anthropomorphic object made of green schist a figurine of a Tengri (Fig. 5: 5). The hiding of hoards in ancient times involved the pronunciation of various spells and performance of magic rites aimed at making the hoard inaccessible. N. A. Makarov provides a vast list of hoards containing axes, keys, locks, spearheads and other metal objects (Makarov 98, 6 63). The presence of such items in hoards is explained by an ancient belief in their magical properties. Prior to their placement in a hoard, locks, axes or keys were subjected to ritual locking they had to be placed in a magical circle circumscribed by an axe, a knife or a sword. However, apotropaic magic included not only rites intended to ward off harm or evil influences, but actual items used to avert evil protective amulets and mascots. The abovementioned figurine of Tengri a celestial deity or sky god, is responsible for the preservation of the soul and property of people. Tengri is often associated with the Buddhist epithets self-emerged, emerged unseen, lacking arms and legs (Fig. 5: 5). Thus, the hoard of alembics was hidden in full compliance with the rules. However, it was not claimed by the owner and survived in its original state. The time of the burial of the hoard was established stratigraphically. The hoard dates to the moment of the demise of the city as the result of fire and devastation during the Mongol conquest in the autumn of 36. The complex testifies to the high 0 PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

5 value of glass products, as they deserved to be hidden. The presence of touchstones is further proof of a close connection between alchemy and jewellery handicraft practices. 3.. Alembics Written sources provide no information about alchemy practices in the Volga Bulgaria. However, judging from alchemy treatises by Oriental and west European authors, alchemy was one of the main medieval sciences. Alchemists recorded detailed accounts of recipes and technologies for the production of various alloys, drugs, elixirs and beauty aids with drawings and lists of the necessary laboratory equipment, including chemical glassware (Dzhanpolyadyan 97, 39). Distillation is an ancient technological-chemical operation. Primitive vessels for distillation found in Mesopotamia date to the third millennium BC. One of the earliest descriptions of the given procedure is provided by Dioscorides ( st century AD), who recorded the distillation of mercury isolated from cinnabar and gave the name to a retort-shaped vessel necessary for this operation ambix (General History of Chemistry 983, 39). The first such vessels were probably made of bronze (Maslenitsyna 975, no. 5). Tashtyk antiquities of the Early Iron Age in South Siberia include wooden vessels reminiscent of large alembics. E. V. Vadetskaya calls them flagons kettles with nozzles (Vadetskaya 999,, fig. : ). According to S. v. Osten, the first glass alembic obtained at the Cyprus complex of the nd century AD (v. Osten 998, 7) was mistakenly named guttus by the author of the excavation (Nicolaou 97 97, 33 3). The names lambics-alambics-alembics are used in different Oriental regions (from Arabian al-inbig ); ar Razi used the word ambic vessel with a trunk, alambic (Karimov 957, 6); lombics in Hungary (Termeszettudomanyi Kislexikon A Z 976, 73); Destillierhelm distillation helmet or distillation cap in late medieval Germany (Huwer 99, 36, Abb. 9); glass and glazed clay vessels in 6 th -century Austria (v. Osten 998, 3, Abb. 3; Taf., A ). Since the Early Middle Ages, alembics are available from the archaeological complexes of Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Transcaucasia, Central Asia and China. In the 9 th 3 th centuries they gained in popularity across the entire Muslim world (Lamm ; 935; Dzhanpolyadyan 97, 0; Abdurazakov Bezborodov Zadneprovsky 963, 3 33; Amidzhanova 96, 9, 5; Fomenko 96; Chkhatarashvili 978, 87, table V, ; Shishkina 986, 5, fig., 3; Kröger 98, 7, 8; no. ; 995, 85 87, no. 39 3; Han Han 999, 76; Auth 976, 78, fig. 8; Whitehouse 00, 78, no. 8; Carboni 00, 5, Cat. 3c). G. M. Akhmedov describes Bailakan alembics as little snorters with a long nozzle of original form (Akhmedov 003, table 90: 8, 38). In Georgia alembics are sporadic (Chkhatarashvili 978, 95, tab. V: ), of Iranian origin and dating to the 9 th th centuries (Ramishvili 003, 33). In the Volga Bulgaria alembics are known in large pre-mongolian cities Suvar 3 (Fig. 6: ) (Smirnov 95, 60; 9, 66), Bilyar (Valiulina 005), Murom town in Izmeri. One alembic was recently obtained during excavation work led by V. S. Baranov in Bulgar. Alembics are the most abundant glass vessels in both Bilyar and Bukhara (Abdullayev 98, 56). The distribution of the found alembics with the features of the Bilyar settlement reflects the spheres of their application. Basically, alembics are available from excavations XXVIII (90 specimens) and XLI (35 specimens), i.e. from the handicraft centre of the capital city, as in Suvar. The Bilyar settlement collection contains about 50 alembic samples (fragments and archaeologically intact vessels). Initially some fragments were mistakenly identified as fragments of bracelets made of hollow tubes (Halikov 979, 0, table VII: 0, ). The majority of vessels are blown from light green-blue glass of various intensity and tint. Six fragments are of an olive colour, while four vessels are colourless. Glass is transparent or slightly matte, with numerous vertically drawn bubbles and almost no patina or irisation on the surface due to high glass durability. Decoration is lacking on all of the vessels. Alembics and test tubes were made using the blowing and drawing method based on a successive combination of the blowing and drawing processes. Bubbles on finished products are of an extremely eccentric oval shape. Both the body base and nozzle tube are made using the given method. The only difference between the two components in the first stage was the tube diameter. Next, the separately produced rundown pipe had to be connected to the outlet in the upper part of the body with the use of an additional piece of glass. The edge of the nozzle tube is sheared and fire-polished. There is a substantial thickening at the junction of the rundown pipe and the body due to the excess reserve of glass. 3 About 0 fragments kept at the Central Museum of the Tatar Republic; no , no cm Fig.. Alembic, type. Bilyar. A. Khalikov excavations XXXVIII biennium. Б XXXVIII/750. Drawn by T. Valiulin. Obr.. Alembik, typ. Bilär. Výzkum A. Khalikov (XXXVIII. biennium). Kresba T. Valiulin. PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

9 The reheated tubes of the finished alembic were then curved, whereas the free end of the tube received a vertical orientation in relation to the horizontal line of the edge of the alembic s collar. As already mentioned, all Bilyar alembics are very standard. Their tubes are always curved in the same direction, albeit at different angles. The bodies of certain alembics differ, as they were blown into the forms (possibly, clay crucibles) using rotation. Such vessels have a matte surface, with traces of rotation and cylinder-shaped bubbles. Excavation XLI yielded both alembics and crucibles that are commensurate in form. Central Asian alembics were also produced by blowing in a form using rotation (Abdurazakov Bezborodov Zadneprovsky 963). Bilyar Museum, BXXXVIII/750. BM, BXXXVIII/750. There are two types of Bilyar alembics: Type. Armenian alchemy treatises refer to alembics with a dome-shaped pumpkin (Dzhanpolyadyan 97, 0). The Bulgar collection of glass includes a fragment of one such vessel from Bilyar (D = 8.3; D = 3), which used to be part of a distillation apparatus (Fig. ). The mushroom-shaped alembic consists of two components a high straight cylindrical collar and a mushroomshaped dome of a larger diameter. The rundown pipe is attached at the junction point (smooth fold) of these two components. In the course of the distillation process, the above-mentioned fold accommodated drops of liquid, which were then transferred to a decanter. The given process can be illustrated by the schematic illustration of the distillation apparatus invented by Leonardo da Vinci (Huwer 99, 36, Abb. 9). Distillation apparatuses of a similar construction produced the rosewater widely used in medicine and cosmetics (Dzhanpolyadyan 965, no., 3). Glass vessels similar to alembics but with narrower necks pulverisers or smoking pipes are known from medieval India (Chidambaran 969, 3, fig. : 3, ). Type. Alembics (Fig. 3: 0; : 0; 5: 30; 6: ; 5: ; 6: ) small cylindrical or cone-shaped glass vessels (7 0 cm in height, collar diameter from 3.5 to 6 cm, most often from to.5 cm) with an extremely narrow, slightly bent and inwardly curved, sometimes straight, roundish, slightly liquated, edge of the collar, conic or round bottom, with a wall thickness increasing towards the bottom; the bottom often bears traces of the delicate removal of the pontil. A sharply curved or almost straight, parallel to the horizontal line of the collar, rundown pipe of 8 cm in length, is attached to the upper part of the vessel, 0.8 cm from the edge of the collar. Bilyar alembics are distinguished by their rundown pipes, which are originally curved to meet the requirements for the vessels placement during the process, as well as by explicit uniformity as the result of the established standardization of forms and dimensions of the vessels, by their large numbers, by the colour of the glass and the absence of decoration. Apparently, type alembics are all-purpose vessels they could be parts of a distillation apparatus, such as type alembics, or could be used for pouring liquids into narrow-necked vessels such as sphero-conical vessels. Some experts suggest that they could also have been used for medical purposes (Mukhametzhanov et al. 988, 78). One Bagdad miniature depicts an alembic as a bloodletting device (Dzhanpolyadyan 97, 0). During the Early Middle Ages in the countries of the Arab East bloodletting cans were made not of glass, but of metal, more often from bronze (Metz 973, 6). According to J. Kröger, sphero-conical vessels and alembic caps found in Nishapur homes of the 9 th 0 th centuries could have been used for the household production of rosewater, date wine or for sherbet, whereas their main purpose had to do with pharmaceutics and the alchemy practice (Kröger 995, 86 88). Other experts also support the idea of a wide application of alembics (Thomas 009). However, the performance capabilities of type alembic caps in the process of distillation are often considered to be insufficient. With the aim of testing the hypothesis of the use of the combination of sphero-conical vessels and type alembics as a distillation apparatus, the following experiment was conducted during the seminar Technology of Medieval Handicrafts hosted by Kazan University. A clay sphero-conical vessel was positioned on a stand. Its head accommodated a replica of a glass alembic, and the end of the alembic tube led to the decanter (a glass flask was used instead of the second sphero-conical vessel, to make the distillate visible). An alcohol lamp was lit under the entire unit. The sphero-conical vessel was installed at an angle, with regard to the curve of the alembic tube, to facilitate the draining process. Water was used as a distillation fluid (Fig. 3). The experiment proved the possibility of using such a unit for distillation purposes (Nuretdinova Va - liulina 05, 53 55). In fact, all connecting points of the three vessels would have been thoroughly sealed with special clay or egg white (Thomas 009, 36). Alembic caps could have been used to solve more complex tasks, as the alteration of the angle of the entire unit ( sphero-conical vessel form is well suited for such variations) ensured better purification or separation of mixtures. The strictly vertical installation of the sphero-conical vessel with the mother substance and the type alembic in the first stage of distillation, and alteration of the tube angle in the second stage allowed for redistillation and rectification. Rectification (lat. rectus straight and facere to make ) is the separation of binary or multi-component mixtures on the basis of differences in boiling points, when a certain part of the liquid condensate is constantly returning to the source vessel while moving against the steam. As a result of the given process, various admixtures present in the steam return to the source vessel, leading to an increase in the purity of the steam and condensate. The form of the inner crosswise fold-free alembic cap (type ), with almost vertical straight walls, perfectly suited the given procedures. Bilyar alembics of both types are most similar to the 9 th th -century vessels from the Armenian city of Dvin. Central Asian alembics are of different sizes and proportions (D =.0 5. cm; H =.5 5. cm). PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 5

17 Fig. 0. Various materials from the alchemy workshop (Bilyar excavation LXI): 3 vessel fragments AKУ85/ , 69;, 5 refractories AKУ85/7, 700; 6 plug AKУ85/809; 7 spatula AKУ85/688; 8 box AKУ6/6; 9 feather-edged brick with marking AKУ85/90; 0, kiln daub AKУ85/0, , 6, 8 9 clay;, 5 Dinas; 7 bone. Photo by T. Valiulin. Obr. 0. Zlomky technické keramiky a předmět z kostí z alchymistické dílny (Bilär: výzkum LXI): 3 fragmenty nádob;, 5 zlomky šamotových cihel; 6 klínek; 7 kostěná špachtle; 8 schránka; 9 cihla s břitem se značkou; 0, mazanice z pece. 3, 6, 8 9 hlína/jíl;, 5 z Dinasu; 7 kost. Foto T. Valiulin. available, raw materials. Bilyar glassmaking should be considered as an integral part of the Middle East tradition. Handicraft practices developed in the course of the th century under the influence of Transcaucasian and, possibly, Central Asian schools. Being analogous by all parameters to samples from the above-mentioned centres of glassmaking, Bilyar glassware, apart from the original ratio of alkalis (Na-K compounds) and a significant presence of aluminium, is also characterized by a stable content of Fe and Mn compounds. Along with other features, the latter two elements stand out as distinctive indicators of Bilyar glassware (Valiulina 005). Apart from finished glass products, we obtained shunk glass, drawn glass drops and threads (Fig. 9: 9,, 3, 7, 6 9, 3), a semi-finished glass piece, a fragment of the massive bottom of a ceramic vessel with unworked liquid glass melt. Alchemists could satisfy the need for glassware by manufacturing it on-site from semi-finished products (as practiced often by modern chemical laboratories). One may find relevant accounts in medieval manuscripts of Armenian alchemists. In other words, workshop craftsmen practiced a semi-complete manufacturing cycle.. Material proof of jewellery and alchemy practices Some alchemy operations assumed the use of glass scrap and powder. In the chapter dedicated to the colouring of yellow copper in gold, in the section Description of interesting operations one can perform while near the kiln, ar Razi instructs as follows: Grind glass scrap in rosewater and mix it with some tincal used by coppersmiths. Then set layers of thick glass onto the bottom of the crucible, add [powdered] glass and tincal, yellow copper (the darkest known), then [powdered] glass and tincal, and cover everything with thick glass. Then blow under the crucible until [everything in it] is well-melted and set in circumrotation, PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 53

18 Fig.. Various materials from the alchemy workshop (Bilyar excavation LXI): kiln daub AKУ85/0, Photo by T. Valiulin. Obr.. zlomky mazanicového výmazu pece AKУ85/0, Foto T. Valiulin. then take the crucible away [from the fire] and cool [it] down, take out the ingot reminiscent of gold in terms of yellowness, appearance and glow. I have sold it to a goldsmith, splitting miskal into four kirats, I have sold one miskal in Bagdad for approximately ² ³ of a dinar (Karimov 957, 86). The use of glass is also recommended in other chapters of The Book of the Secret of Secrets: for the calcination of glass (Karimov 957, 95), for distillation of mercury and synthesis of amalgam (Karimov 957, 98; 9, note 5; 55, note 38). Glass in the workshop of an alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker could also be used in a different fashion. Drawing on earlier sources, M. Chapman suggests that in the 8 th century, in order to strengthen the colour of gold plating of bronze products, ancient craftsmen used ammonia, saltpeter, verdigris and other substances, including glass (Chapman 995, 35). Aside from that, the presence in alloys of nonferrous metals of such admixtures as tin and zinc hindered the purification procedure. According to Theophilus, the problem was solved by adding a special flux crushed glass (Eniosova Reren 0, 8). The cultural layer and the fill of all objects at the excavation are rich with ash, coal, brick rubble, pieces of sulphur, and handicraft production waste. Some glass vessels bear traces of mercury (Valiulina 998, 90). Apart from iron balls and slag (Fig. 3), we also found numerous artefacts made of iron fragments of different tools, locks, keys, nails, lead seals (Fig. 9: 6, 7), metal cubic scale weights (Fig. 9: 5), stone balance weights (Fig. 9: 5) similar to those in use in pre-mongolian Baylakan (Akhmedov 003, Tab. 93: 3) and whetstones (Fig. : 3). Numerous materials are related to jewellery practices of the workshop owners: moulds (Fig. 7: 3), grinding stones (Fig. :, 5 8) and slabs, massive slabs with a worn-out surface, sometimes bright-finished, touchstones (Fig. 9: 8 ), technical (Fig. 0: 9; : ; Fig. 7: 0), household (Fig. : ) and glazed ceramics (Fig. 0: 9), copper ingots and plates, lead-tin ingots (Fig. 8: 3, 5), tin splashes, a bronze monetary ingot soum (Fig. 9: 6), a fragment of golden foil, a silver earring (Fig. 8: 5), metal pincers (Fig. : ), pieces of copper and fragments of copper and bronze items, including a braided bracelet (Fig. 8: 6), a finger ring (Fig. 8: ), chevrons (Fig. 8: ), binding from the rim of a wooden vessel (with charred wood preserved inside), several fragments belonging to the same metal vessel, a needle (Fig. 8: 7), two bell buttons (Fig. 8: ), and other objects (Fig. 8: 9, 0, ). A fragment of a bronze (brass?) product made of thin metal sheet was decorated with images of fish (Fig. 8: ) using a matrix embossing technique. The chemical composition of several metal items was determined by means of X-ray fluorescent spectral 5 PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

21 Fig. b. Profiles of samples from Fig. a. Drawn by T. Valiulin. Obr. b. Řezy k obr. a. Kresba by T. Valiulin. (Konkova 989, 3). Ar Razi uses the plural form of the word az-zarnikh either as a common name for realgar and orpiment or names them yellow zarnikh and red zarnikh, accordingly (Karimov 957, 9). Two samples characterize the composition of a twinlayer product a rectangular chevron, or a plate (type B-II- in G. F. Polyakova s classification) (Polyakova 996, 95, fig. 65: 8) with an embossed symmetrical floral ornament (Fig. 8: 3). Experts recognize a large number of both items and matrices for their ornamentation obtained at Bulgar sites as positive proof of their local origin (Polyakova 996, 97; Halikov /ed./ 985, 00, fig. XXXVII: 0 ). A considerable number of such chevrons originate from the Bilyar settlement. However, coupled samples bearing edge-fastened bronze and silver plates are very rare. Excavation XXXVIII in Bilyar yielded yet another sample, the very thin upper (face) plate of which is made of silver added to or alloyed with copper and zinc (Tab. : ). The alloy also contains some gold. Silver, zinc and copper become mutually soluble at C. Shares of 60 % silver and 35 % zinc ensure the preservation of the best qualities of silver the pure silver colour, brightness and shine. The medieval craftsman succeeded in his search for the optimal (marginally acceptable, by standards of modern metallurgy) formula. PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 57

23 Fig. 6. Sphero-conical vessels and alembic from the alchemy workshop. Obr. 6. Nádoby srdči tého tvaru a alembik z alchymistické dílny. alembic AKУ85/739;, 6 sphero-conical vessels AKУ85/08; 3, AKУ85/95; 5 AKУ85/83; 7 AKУ85/. Photo/Foto by T. Valiulin The given ceiling percentage of zinc still maintains the single-phase α-structure of the alloy, whereas 0 % entails the formation of a β-structure with the subsequent deterioration of physical properties leading, above all, to increased fragility (Hansen Anderko 96, 78 79). The 60/35 formula is excellent in terms of both the technology itself and the final result, representing one of the numerous examples of the victory of experiment-based intuition centuries before theoretical computations and the involvement of unnamed craftsmen in the discovery of the nature of alloy transformations. The lower plate is to some extent a mirror reflection of the silver plate (Tab. : 5). PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 59

29 Fig. 9b. Items from the alchemy workshop (Bilyar excavation LXI). Profiles from Fig. 9a. Drawn by T. Valiulin. Obr. 9b. Předměty z alchymistické dílny (výzkum LXI v Biläru). Profily z obr. 9a. Kresba T. Valiulin. (0 %), calcium (5 %) and ore accessory minerals. Their probable place of origin is: ) the Jasper Belt of the Southern Urals; ) the Caucasus. Location: seashore. 0 Touchstones are held at many museum collections, as they are artefacts frequently found at medieval sites, including excavations at the Bilyar settlement (XXVIII, XL). They are an integral part of materials obtained at the Golden Horde sites, including the Selitrennoe settlement (Fyodorov-Davydov 98, ill. 95: 8, 9). One of the recent finds from the Bilyar area originates from the jewellery workshop of the Toretsk settlement from the end of the th century and the 5 th century (Valiulina 00, fig. 6: ). Touchstones from the alchemy workshop are not perforated (Fig. 9: 8 ). However, some of them bear traces of initial drilling. The wide plain surface of one of the touchstones bears several golden line-strokes arranged in a fanwise fashion (Fig. 9: ). 0 The petrographic analysis was performed by Professor V. G. Izotov, the head of the Department of Mineral Resources of Kazan State University, whose efforts I deeply appreciate. University Archaeological Collection 85/35; National Museum of Finland, 5385: 006, 007 Bilyar; National Museum of Finland, inv. 5385: 5000, 500 Laishevo. University Archaeological Collection 85/6. Since classical times, people have distinguished between pure gold, its alloys with other metals, and fake PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 65

30 gold. According to Pliny, Romans used touchstones for distinguishing different gold-based alloys (Djua 966, 7). One of the earliest descriptions of the nature of touchstones was suggested by the ancient Greek philosopher-encyclopaedist Theophrastus (c. 37 c. 87 BC) in his treatise On Stones: The nature of the touchstone is quite remarkable. It helps to determine the degree of gold purity, as it seems to possess the property of fire, which is also used to determine the purity of gold. On this occasion many people hesitate, though without justification, as stone tests gold in a different way. The impact of fire entails a change in colour, whereas stone deploys friction in a way that it seems to be capable of identifying the true nature of every metal Touchstones are used not only to determine the purity of gold, but also the share of gold and silver in alloys, and the share of impurities in each stater, however insignificant such impurities might be (Theophrastus /Kulikov 00, 55/). E. Caley and J. Richards, in their comments on Theophrastus text, refer to the results of the determination of gold content in the alloys of silver and gold by Japanese jewellers. The difference between touchstone test results and results obtained from modern methods is only %. This is possible when the gold content in the alloy varies within the range of % (Theophrastus /Kulikov 00, 5/). According to Theophrastus, all touchstones were obtained from a single source: the basin of the river near Tmolus Mountain. 3 Commentators on Theophrastus treatise point at an array of historical evidence proving that Tmolus Mountain was an important gold-mining centre in the second half of the first millennium B.C. Touchstone tests were probably introduced by miners; all the more so, because Tmolus gold was actually electrum, with a varying silver content (Theophrastus /Kulikov 00, 5/). Even today experts prefer touchstone tests to other methods, in the majority of cases. Here is how the given process is described in a modern jewellery-making guide: First of all, the touchstone s surface should be slightly greased with almond, nut, or other type of vegetable oil, and then it should be wiped dry. Then, with the same force of pressure, rub the gold alloy of unknown purity and a test needle (sample of gold alloy of known value) against the touchstone surface to leave streak-shaped metal samples. Swipe the applicator moistened with the relevant test solution across the samples for 0 30 seconds. While the test solution is carefully being dried, experts compare the results of its impact on samples. The intensity of the colour of the spot formed under the impact of the test solution is indicative of the content of gold in the alloy (Novikov Pavlov 99, 90). The best results are achieved by using nitric acid and aqua regia chemical compounds invented by Arab alchemists in the Middle Ages. The Book of the Secret of Secrets by ar Razi contains 6 recipes for different acidy waters. Some of them are suitable for the preparation of mineral acids, including hydrochloric acid (Karimov 957,, note 35). However, known sources lack any references as to the use of acids during touchstone tests. Apparently, in classical times touchstone tests were performed without the use of any chemical compounds. 3 Ancient Tmolus Mountain (modern Bozdağ) in Lydia. Works by medieval authors also contain mention of touchstones. Ar Razi writes about mihak a touchstone usually made of hard black stone. Al-Istahri refers to mepek a black stone used for the determination of the quality of gold shipped from Shabran to other parts of the world (Akhmedov Ibragimov 976, 9). With regard to the geographic location of Shabran in Transcaucasia on the shore of the Caspian Sea and the results of a petrographic analysis of the stone from the workshop of an alchemist in Bilyar, we can assume that the stone in question was imported from Transcaucasia. The purity of gold used by Bilyar alchemists was established during routine testing of the items of the Golden Fund of the Archaeological Museum of Kazan University, using a touchstone (Fig. 9: ). The analysis proved that the craftsman operated with 850 gold. According to ar Razi, apart from other types of assay tests, ancient experts would check the quality of alloys by biting them with their teeth (Karimov 957, 5, note 3). In ancient times fire assay tests of gold were used only for qualitative analysis. Long-term firing led to the oxidation of admixtures of base metals, whereas pure gold remained constant (Karimov 957, 9, note 53). Chinese Taoist (Gě Hóng Pao-p u-tzu /Torchinov 00, 333/) and Armenian alchemists apparently used exactly this method, as one of the Matenadaran manuscripts (no. 86, 37b) reads as follows: the bodies of metals are not absolutely refractory, as they gradually melt away while fired, except for pure gold, which does not disappear or shrink because of the fire, only getting better and finer instead (Kazandzhyan 955, 83). 6. Technical ceramics Fragments of ceramic vessels ( assay sherds ) obtained at excavations testify to fire assay tests practiced at the Oberstockstall alchemy laboratory (v. Osten 998, 3). Apart from clay plates and vessels used in the home, the Bilyar workshop yielded samples of technical ceramics: fragments of large thick-walled vessels (presumably, roasting vessels), tripods (Fig. : 5), lamps (Fig. : 8), crucibles (Fig. 7: 9), a muzzle (Fig. 7: ), refractories (Fig. 0: 5), sphero-conical vessels (Fig. 6), small standard-sized saucers (38 specimens), which could have been used as Petri dishes (European alchemists used the term paropsis ) (Fig. : 9 ) (Albert the Great /Rabinovich 983, 390, comment 8/), obviously special-purpose vessels with perforated walls and bottoms (Fig. 0: 3), and clay balls 0.9. cm in diameter, which could have been used to mix the content and to even facilitate its boiling in hermetically sealed vessels-reactors (Volkov 00, 6). An oval clay container with dimensions of 8 0 cm, with 6 cells formed by one lengthwise and lateral partitions (Fig. 0: 8), with traces of scum and In the words of Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Gold is tested with fire, woman with gold, man with woman (Treasures of Antique Wisdom 00). 66 PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

31 partly covered with a transparent glaze, was difficult to identify. Although it was found in one of the kilns from excavation XL, the given item was not likely part of a kiln, and we are still uncertain about its purpose. Excavation XLI yielded one intact sphero-conical vessel and 83 fragments of other sphero-conical vessels. The existence of a certain interrelation between alembics and sphero-conical vessels was established a long time ago (Dzhanpoladyan 965, 5; Amindzhanova 96, 8). The upper horizon of the cultural layer at excavations XXVIII and XLI yielded almost equally high numbers of finds of both types of vessels. In this sense, one of the best examples is pit no. 7 (excavation XXVIII, 8 m to the south of the features of excavation XLI), which contained over 30 fragments of alembics and 3 fragments of clay sphero-conical vessels. It is rather unfortunate that their utility remained underinvestigated. Apart from highly volatile substances (mercury, etc.), in the process of distillation sphero-conical vessels could accommodate mother substances and final products (Fig. 6). A clay cast of a sphero-conical vessel ( turundzh ) a remainder of baked clay daub repeating the outer form of a vessel (Fig. 7: 0) illustrates the preparation of cinnabar described in the th -century treatise Description of Handicrafts by Khubaysh Tiflisi. This is how Tiflisi describes the procedure: Take a glazed vessel of the turundzh form, i.e. with a narrowing base and narrow neck fill it with mercury and add onefourth [of the mercury s volume] of yellow sulphur, or, even better, one-sixth of it. Cover the neck with a copper plate, thoroughly daub the entire vessel with clay and place it in the sun for drying. Should the clay fracture, daub the vessel again to seal it well, fire sheep excrements in the kiln, leave the vessel inside the kiln and seal the kiln s outlet with clay. Keep the vessel inside for one day. After it is taken out, the cinnabar will be red and good! (Tiflisi /translation Mikhalevich 976, 68/). Following R. M. Dzhanpolyadyan (98, 3 5), B. V. Lunin (96), O. L. Vilchevsky (96), T. D. Scanlon (98, 90) and other authors, I. V. Volkov insists that the main purpose of sphero-conical vessels was the storage and transportation of mercury (Volkov 00, 6); therefore, the large-scale production of such vessels should have been organized in close proximity to areas rich in mercury deposits Transcaucasia and Maverennakhr. Spherical-conical vessels produced within territories lacking deposits of mercury were basically used as chemical vessels (Volkov 00, 39, ). In the opinion of the majority of experts, spheroconical vessels constitute an integral part of the nomenclature of Bulgar ceramics (Mikhalchenko 97; Halikov 986, 7 83; Khlebnikova 988, 9 95). Glossy redware sphero-conical vessels from pre-mongolian Bulgar sites are in no way different from Georgian specimens, with the exception of their dimensions, as the latter could be up to 30 cm in height and 0 cm in diameter. 5 Judging from the marks on the walls of one of such sphero-conical vessel, R. M. Ramishvili refers to it as a vessel for melting gold. The find dates back to the th th centuries (Ramishvili 003, Tab. 30: 6). It was probably intended for storage of so-called aurum potabile. In Europe it could be a solution of gold trichloride or mercuric chloride in Tang Chinese alchemic texts (Gě Hóng Paop u-tzu 00, 5). Several fragments of a sphero-conical vessel of a similar size were found at the Bilyar workshop. A generalising study comprising full morphological, technological and semantic analyses of these interesting vessels would shed light on many secrets of medieval handicrafts and alchemy, and outline vectors of cultural influences (Nuretdinova 0, 5 6). The walls of the majority of sphero-conical vessels bear signs or symbols which may be not just tamgas, pointing to the producer or owner, but alchemic codes designating the contents or the contents purpose. Other vessels from the excavation bear numerous different symbols scored on handles, walls and bottoms (Fig. : 6 ). Apparently, sphero-conical vessels are both of local and foreign origin. As for the origins of imported sphero-conical vessels, experts note the extensive distribution of the latter to Volga Bulgaria especially from Transcaucasia, particularly Dvin (Mikhalchenko 97, 6 50; Halikov 986, 7 83). 7. Glazed ceramics An excavation yielded a comprehensive collection of glazed ceramics (7 specimens), with an almost equal proportion of items of local and foreign origin. Local glazed pottery was obviously produced in the workshop investigated at excavation XL, whereas imported items, similar to those obtained from excavation XL (Valiulina 99, 78 96), originate from a wide spectrum of handicraft centres, with the predominant role of the Transcaucasian vector of cultural and economic contacts. Local glazed pottery is represented by small fragments, mainly fragments of lamps ( specimens), imported items by fragments (except for one case of a semi-destroyed vessel) of cup-shaped vessel-tripods and jars; in the majority of cases the glaze is variously tinted monochrome green, dim and blackened; fragments bear traces of soot, and the highest concentrations of finds were located next to production facilities. Two kilns, apart from fragments of alembics and sphero-conical vessels, yielded large fragments of thick-walled glazed vessels. Legs of one such vessel (tripod) were worn out or ground down to the required height (Fig. : ). 6 While addressing the given group of glazed ceramics, one can hardly avoid recollecting strict requirements placed on laboratory dishes in alchemy literature. Apart from traditional housekeeping equipment, residential premises discovered at excavation XL (unit no. ) at the connecting point of excavations XXVIII, XL and XLI yielded a clay-ware set including two fragments of alembics, fragments of iron balls, metal slag, copper and lead ingots. Imported pottery is of better quality. 5 National Museum of Georgia. Case no. 8. Clay vessels of the th 3 th centuries (Dmanisi, Tbilisi, Zhinvali, Gudarekhi); no. C Kazan University archaeological collection 85/99. PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 67

33 Fig.. Stone necklace from Bilyar excavations LX and LXI: 6 cornelian; 7 crystal; 8, glass; 9, 0, amber (after S. I. Valiulina 005, Fig. 6, I: ). Photo by T. Valiulin. Obr.. Korály z náhrdelníků z polodrahokamů, skla a jantaru z výzkumů LX a LXI v Biläru: 6 karneol; 7 křišťál; 8, sklo; 9, 0, jantar (podle S. I. Valiulina 005, Fig. 6, I: ). Foto T. Valiulin A larger number of vessels feature polychromic glazing. Unit no. yielded 9 fragments of frit (stonepaste) vessels with lustrous painting and a fragment of a mina-i (an especially rare and precious type of Middle-East ceramics) vessel lid (Fig. 0: 3), whereas Bilyar sites yielded only 6 fragments of this sort (Valiulina 00, 53 55). In terms of the quality and composition of the Kashan fabric, glazing and painting pattern, the vessel is associated with pottery produced in the Iranian city of Rey at the end of the th century beginning of the 3 th century. Other imported items include a semi-destroyed plate-type narrow-necked container, a glass finger-ring insert (Fig. : 8) and fragments of two glass tumblers of Russian origin (Valiulina 005, Fig. 6:, ). A fragment of a glass Byzantine bracelet (Valiulina 005, Fig. 30: ) was found outside the residential premises. A cornelian finger-ring insert ( 0 3 mm) with a carved two-line Arabian sign Happy with the authority of / God 7 was found beyond the excavation area by members of the 99 expedition (Fig. 0: 8). 8. Social status 7 I appreciate the assistance of Prof. Muhammad Batajni (Yarmouk University, Jordan) in gaining an understanding of the meaning of the sign. The above list of expensive and prestigious items is indicative not only of the tastes of the workshop and residential premises owners, but, more importantly, of their capabilities. Albert the Great begins his treatise with an unambiguous warning: Our art is not for the poor, as each person attempting to spring into action should have enough money, at least for about two years In his eighth prescription he demands that nobody should undertake any required operations before he buys everything necessary for the given art. Should you get into the alchemic business without adequate funds, you will fail. You will lose everything you had before (Albert the Great /Rabinovich 983, 39 35/). Ar Razi s list of the necessary laboratory equipment also assumes a wealthy owner. One can judge both the property and social status of the alchemist-glassmaker from the workshop s location in the handicraft centre of Bilyar, next to the most privileged producing units blacksmithing and nonferrous metallurgy, glassmaking, jewellery and other artistic crafts, m away from the complex of the allbrick buildings within the territory of excavation XXXVIII, the lord s residence, mosque and the mausoleum of nobles. The issues of social stratification in Bilyar still remain unexplored by scientists. However, the fact that the most important and expensive producing units operated in the very centre of Bilyar (as in Suvar) supports the assumption that the Bulgar governors followed the lead of Timur and the governors of Bukhara and Ahsiket, who preferred the centre of the city to be settled with craftsmen who were to meet the needs of the courts and produce items for sale. The profit from sales of handicraft products added to the personal gains of the governors (Papachristou Ahrarov 98, 95). According to S. v. Osten, alchemy laboratories in the Middle Ages were usually supported by monasteries and royal courts and were under the protection and patronage of the latter (v. Osten 998). In Budapest, alembics were found on the grounds of Buda Castle in the layer corresponding to the 3 th th centuries (Gyürky 98, 5). The Bilyar workshop of an alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker was apparently part of the court economy and served to produce additional income. 9. Conclusion The large concentration and archaeological context of special-purpose alchemic vessels alembics (Fig. : 5), decanters (Fig. 7: ), test tubes, flasks (Fig. 8: ; 6: ) as well as other vessels made it possible to locate PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 69

34 Fig.. Raw amber. Bilyar. Excavation XLI, pit 8: clay bowl AKУ85/ 57; amber AKУ85/57. Photo by T. Valiulin. Obr.. Surový jantar. BILÄR. Výzkum XLI, jáma (jímka) 8: hliněná mísa; jantar. Foto T. Va liulin. the workshop of an alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker from the end of the th century to the beginning of the 3 th century in the centre of Bilyar (Valiulina 005, 6 65). It is important to note that it was a workshop, not a laboratory, because the complex had a pronounced industrial character. The close connection with the production of alchemy is a distinctive feature of Eastern alchemy as a whole. Alembics are quite common for Islamic glassmaking, especially since the 9 th th centuries, and always date within the pre-mongolian period (Savage-Smith 997, ; Carboni 00, 5, cat. 3b, c; Kröger 995, 87 88, no. 39 ; Bass Lledo Matthews 009, pl. 3, 3). The highest concentration of finds of sphero-conical vessels and alembics at handicraft centres in Volga Bulgar cities, especially in Bilyar, is indicative of the priority of the technical function of the glassware. Apparently for the first time ever, the Bilyar workshop yielded a whole set of sphero-conical vessels and alembics found in small kilns. The completeness of the set is confirmed by the correspondence of the diameter of the alembic s collar and the head of the sphero-conical vessel, as well as by the diameter of the sphero-conical vessel s outlet and diameter of the alembic s outflow tube. Alembics of Bilyar origin are distinguished by standardized forms and sizes and the stable formulation of glass preconditioned by the specificity of the raw materials resources of the Volga-Kama region. This is indicative of the mass, purpose-focused and standardized production of special glassware in Bilyar at the end of the th century and beginning of the 3 th century. The experiment (Fig. 3) conducted in the course of the study proved the hypothesis of the main function of the given vessels: along with sphero-conical vessels, alembics were used for distillation and, possibly, the rectification of mixtures. The considered objects and materials are representative of a working place or production facilities of an Fig. 3. Experimental modelling of the process of distillation with the use of a type alembic (replica) and a sphero-conical vessel. Photo by А. Frolov. Obr. 3. Experimentální simulace destilace za použití alembiku typu (replika) a nádoby srdcovitého tvaru. Foto А. Frolov. alchemist-craftsman who combined chemical experiments with jewellery production and who was capable of providing for himself with the necessary specialpurpose glassware. The scope of alchemy activity was determined based on the analysis of alembics, as all other obtained materials are related to handicraft jewellery, which is quite common for Oriental alchemy as a whole. According to ar Razi, almost all equipment in use in the alchemic laboratory can be found at a goldsmith s workshop. Being experiment-based, Oriental alchemy applied a different methodology and tools when working with chemicals (Watt 976, 6), unlike the mystic and allegorical alchemy of western Europe (Canseliet 00). As for the workshop profile, toolkits and materials, the Bilyar complex is associated with the Armenian centre of alchemy. Judging from numerous alchemy texts, the latter was focused on regular handicraft tasks related to the production of pure substances and their subsequent use for making drugs, paints, chemicals and alloys true gold and gold-coloured metals. The best part of alchemy literature is dedicated to operations aimed at the purification of reagents, including distillation procedures (Kazandzhyan 955, 99). The most telling feature associated with alchemy practices among Bilyar analogies to Transcaucasian materials is the above-mentioned pit no. 7 at excavation XXVIII, which yielded numerous sphero-conical vessels and alembics, as well as other items made of glass, often unique and directly analogous to Transcaucasian samples fragments of window glass of a reliefcell design, thick-walled shape-blown bottles, a tumbler with a polished ornament, a a type lamp and a a type bottle (Valiulina 005, 35, 50). Most likely, alchemy in crafts-oriented Volga Bulgaria evolved on the basis of local hi-tech production, under the influence of Oriental, in particular, Armenian, alchemy. Thanks to the wide trade and handicraft connections of merchants and migrants, Armenians played a great role in the dissemination of alchemy knowledge to other countries (Arakelyan 003, 38). 70 PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06

35 A B Fig. A, B. Spectral electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of glass alembics. Obr. A, B. Výsledky analýzy skleněných alembiků provedené rastrovacím elektronovým mikroskopem (SEM). Judging from the results of the stratigraphic analysis and the nature of obtained materials, the Bilyar workshop of the alchemist, jeweller and glassmaker functioned at the very end of the th century and beginning of the 3 th century in the centre of Bilyar. The majority of finds were in use for a long period of time. Archaeometric dating was performed on the following items: Iranian fragments of frit (stonepaste) vessels of a lustrous design and mina-i, Russian glass tumblers, a lamp and a bead necklace of semi-transparent yellow glass. Built structures at excavation XLI are covered with a thick layer of ash and coal, which is typical for the upper horizon of the cultural layer throughout the entire territory of the settlement. Conflagration completes the image of terrible devastation and carnage in the city during its capture by the Mongol-Tatars in 36. The top surface of the cultural layer contains a large number of human bones. In the corner of one of the maintenance buildings in the northwest segment of the excavation a burnt skeleton of a man 8 was found, with a metal arrowhead beneath it. 8 Anthropological analysis was accomplished by I. R. Gazimzyanov. PAMÁTKY ARCHEOLOGICKÉ CVII, 06 7

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