This detailed history offers the most comprehensive account available of Tibetan nationalism, Sino-Tibetan relations and the issue of Tibetan Self Determination. Warren Smith Explores Tibet’s ethnic and national origins the birth of the Tibetan state the Buddhist state and its relations with China, Tibet’s quest for independence and the Chinese takeover of Tibet after 1950.

Focusing especially on post 1950 Tibet under Chinese Communist rule, Smith Analyses the Marxist-Leminist and Chinese Communist Party’s Nationally and policy their application in Tibet and the consequent rise of Tibetan nationalism. Concluding that the essence of the Tibetan issue is self determination Smith bolsters his argument with a comprehensive analysis of modern Tibetan and Chinese political histories.

Warren W. Smith. Jr. an independent scholar in Alexandria Virginia, received his Ph.D. in international relations from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.

Preface

Tibet’s brief appearance on the international political stage in 1950-1951 at the time of the Chinese invasion and in 1959 following the flight of the Dalai Lama into exile in India was followed by long periods of the absence of any news on Tibet except the glowing reports emanating from the PRC propaganda machine about the glorious progress of the Tibetan people in achieving Liberation Democratic reforms and Socialist transformation Since 1980 however the opening of Tibet to the outside worlds has revealed that Chinese rule in Tibet has been oppressive and destructive of Tibetan culture and Civilization. In addition Tibetan nationalism has not been eradicated but has been exacerbated by Chinese nationalism has grown under the conditions of foreign conquest and rule despite every effort by the Chinese to eradicate it.

The history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations involves immensely complicated historical and political issues. Tibetans and Chinese will never agree on whether Tibet was or even currently is a part of China. In the Tibetan empire period of the seventh to ninth centuries a centralized Tibetan government dominated the entire Tibetan plateau and consolidated a Tibetan Buddhist state which was dependent upon foreign political and military patronage Tibet came under the also ruling dynasties of Mongol and Manchu empires both of which were also ruling dynasties of China. China when it overcame its own foreign domination was thus able to claim Tibet as part of China due to the legacy of Mongol and Machu Domination over Tibet. Tibetan Nationalism little developed under the politically benign conditions of indirect rule was aroused by China’s attempt to transform its previous suzerainty into direct sovereignty.

After the Chinese Communists liberation of Tibet in 1950-1951 Tibetan local nationalism was targeted for eradication by Marxist Leninist nationalities policies which were purported to provide the solution to the nationalities question. Marx and Lenin had realized that nationalism is inevitably aroused by foreign imperialism however because this lesson to nations under their own domination. Instead Marxists have attempted to disguise their imperialist domination of other nations by claiming to have liberated those nations from their own ostensibly feudal and exploitative social and political systems a type of justification typical of imperialism. The issue of Tibet is not the nature of its former social and political system a system far more benign than the hell on earth described in Chinese propaganda. Instead the issue is the legitimacy of China’s invasion and conquest of Tibet its continuing foreign imperialist rule over Tibet and its denial of Tibetan’s right to self determination.

The history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations may be divided into four main periods. The first period is that of the consolidation of the Tibetan state from the beginnings of Tibetan history up to the fall of the Tibetan empire in 842. The territory and peoples of the Tibetan plateau were politically unified by the Tibetan empire (630-842) the only time in history that all of the Tibet was unified under an independent centralized Tibetan state. During the empire period Tibet rivaled T’angdynasty China (618-907) for influence in inner Asia and along the frontier between the two countries. It is during this period that Tibetan cultural territorial and political identities the fundamentals of later Tibetan nationalism were consolidated.

After the collapse of the Tibetan empire in 842 Tibet was not again politically unified until the mid-13th century when Tibetan lamas established a political spiritual relationship known as Cho-Yon or priest patron relationship with the Mongol empire. This arrangement averted a Mongol conquest of Tibet and established ecclesiastical rule in Tibet under the Sakya sect. Tibet was a dependent state under the Mongol Yuan (1260-1368) and Manchu Ch’ing (1644-1911) dynasties. Tibet was independent of Chinese influence during the native Chinese Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Tibet’s relationship to China typical of feudal relationship Tibetan feudal relations with the Mongol Yuan and the Manchu Ch’ing had little impact upon Tibetan autonomy and Chinese impotence but failed to achieve international recognition of its independence.

Contents

Preface

xi

Acknowledgements

xv

Geographic Preface

xix

Maps

xxviii

Chapter 1

Tibetan Ethnic Origins and Sino- Tibetan Ethnic Relations

1

Tibetan Ethnic and Cultural origins

1

Mythology of Tibetan Origins

12

Summary of Tibetan Ethnic origins

16

Chapter 2

Chinese Frontier Policies

19

Sino-Barbarian Differentiation

19

China’s Ethnic cultural and political frontier

24

Tribute system

25

Barbarians within the frontier

29

Frontier Feudalism

32

Chapter 3

Foundation of the Tibetan State

37

Mythology of Origins

37

Religious Foundations

41

Epic Mythology

45

Mountain Cults

47

Political Foundations of the Yarlung state

52

Frontier Feudalism

32

Chapter 4

The Tibetan Empire

59

Consolidation of the Tibetan Empire

59

Sino-Tibetan Conflict

66

Cultural and political effects of the Empire

75

Chapter 5

The Emergence of the Tibetan Buddhist State

81

Post Empire Interregnum

81

Tibetan Relations with the Mongols

82

Cho-Yon

93

Later Yuan Dynasty

100

Revival of the Cho-Yon relationship with the Mongols

105

Tibetan Relations with the Manchu

108

Chapter 6

Tibet Under the Ch’ing

115

The Fifth Dalai Lama

115

Death of the Fifth Dalai Lama and Rule of the Desi

117

Lhazang Khan

121

Ch’ing protectorate over Tibet

126

The Rule of Polhanas and the Ch’ing ambans

129

Zenith of Ch’ing Authority in Tibet

133

Decline of the Ch’ing

137

Political Status of Tibet Under the Ch’ing

145

Chapter 7

The Thirteenth Dalai Lama and the Quest for Independence

151

The British and the Great Game

151

Treaties of 1906 and 1907

160

Exile of the Dalai Lama

164

Chinese Incursions in Eastern Tibet

168

The Dalai Lama in India

175

The Tibetan Declaration of Independence and the Tibet Mongolia Treaty

182

The Simla Convention

188

Tibetan Advances in Kham and Post Simla Negotiations

205

Flight of the Panchen Lama

215

Last Years of the Dalai Lama

219

Chapter 8

Interregnum

231

Death of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama

231

The Reting Regency

240

The Taktra Regency

243

The Tibetan Trade Mission

257

Chapter 9

The Chinese Invasion of Tibet

265

Prelude to Invasion

265

The Invasion of Tibet

277

The 17 Point Agreement

294

The Dalai Lama’s Return to Lhasa

304

Chapter 10

Chinese Nationality policy and the Occupation of Tibet

232

Chinese Nationalism and Nationality Policies

323

Leninist Nationality Theory and policy

329

Chinese Communist party Nationalities Policy to 1949

336

Post Revolutionary CCP Nationality Policy

341

Implementation of Nationality policy

352

The occupation of Tibet 1951-1954

360

Usurpation of Tibetan Governmental Authority

375

Chapter 11

The Revolt in Tibet

387

Democratic Reforms and Socialist Transformation

387

High Tide and Socialist transformation Among Nationalities

391

Revolt in Tibet 1956

399

Retrenchment policy in the TAR 1957

412

Contradictions Among the people

422

Nationality Contradictions

426

The Great Leap Forward

435

Revolt in Central Tibet

440

Chapter 12

Tibet Transformed

451

Aftermath of the Revolt

451

Democratic Reforms

470

Prisons and Labor Camps

480

Sino-Indian Border Dispute

488

Tibet at the United Nations

492

Tibetan Resistance and the CIA

506

ICJ Report and second United Nations Resolution

510

Sino- Indian Border War

519

Purge of the Panchen Lama

521

Tibet’s Final Appeal to the United Nations

528

Inauguration of the Tibet Autonomous Region

532

Chapter 13

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in Tibet

541

The Nyemo Revolt

548

Communization During the Cultural Revolution

551

US-PRC Rapprochement

554

End of the Cultural Revolution

555

Chapter 14

Revival of Tibetan Nationalism

563

Sino-Tibetan Dialogue

563

Revival of Tibetan Religion Culture and Nationalism

577

1984 Law on National Regional Autonomy

584

1984 Tibet work meeting

586

Chapter 15

Internationalization of the Tibet Issue

597

Demonstrations in Lhasa

602

The Dalai Lama’s Strasbourg Proposal

608

Martial Law in Tibet

616

Tiananemen and after

618

China’s Propaganda Offensive

627

China’s Solution to the Tibet Problem

634

Denigration of the Dalai Lama

647

Conclusions

654

Chapter 16

Tibetan Self Determination

659

Tibet’s Legal status

661

Self Determination in international Law

667

Minorities Rights in the PRC

681

Conclusions Prospects for Tibetan Self – Determination

684

Bibliography

695

Index

717

Tibetan Nation (A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations)

This detailed history offers the most comprehensive account available of Tibetan nationalism, Sino-Tibetan relations and the issue of Tibetan Self Determination. Warren Smith Explores Tibet’s ethnic and national origins the birth of the Tibetan state the Buddhist state and its relations with China, Tibet’s quest for independence and the Chinese takeover of Tibet after 1950.

Focusing especially on post 1950 Tibet under Chinese Communist rule, Smith Analyses the Marxist-Leminist and Chinese Communist Party’s Nationally and policy their application in Tibet and the consequent rise of Tibetan nationalism. Concluding that the essence of the Tibetan issue is self determination Smith bolsters his argument with a comprehensive analysis of modern Tibetan and Chinese political histories.

Warren W. Smith. Jr. an independent scholar in Alexandria Virginia, received his Ph.D. in international relations from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.

Preface

Tibet’s brief appearance on the international political stage in 1950-1951 at the time of the Chinese invasion and in 1959 following the flight of the Dalai Lama into exile in India was followed by long periods of the absence of any news on Tibet except the glowing reports emanating from the PRC propaganda machine about the glorious progress of the Tibetan people in achieving Liberation Democratic reforms and Socialist transformation Since 1980 however the opening of Tibet to the outside worlds has revealed that Chinese rule in Tibet has been oppressive and destructive of Tibetan culture and Civilization. In addition Tibetan nationalism has not been eradicated but has been exacerbated by Chinese nationalism has grown under the conditions of foreign conquest and rule despite every effort by the Chinese to eradicate it.

The history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations involves immensely complicated historical and political issues. Tibetans and Chinese will never agree on whether Tibet was or even currently is a part of China. In the Tibetan empire period of the seventh to ninth centuries a centralized Tibetan government dominated the entire Tibetan plateau and consolidated a Tibetan Buddhist state which was dependent upon foreign political and military patronage Tibet came under the also ruling dynasties of Mongol and Manchu empires both of which were also ruling dynasties of China. China when it overcame its own foreign domination was thus able to claim Tibet as part of China due to the legacy of Mongol and Machu Domination over Tibet. Tibetan Nationalism little developed under the politically benign conditions of indirect rule was aroused by China’s attempt to transform its previous suzerainty into direct sovereignty.

After the Chinese Communists liberation of Tibet in 1950-1951 Tibetan local nationalism was targeted for eradication by Marxist Leninist nationalities policies which were purported to provide the solution to the nationalities question. Marx and Lenin had realized that nationalism is inevitably aroused by foreign imperialism however because this lesson to nations under their own domination. Instead Marxists have attempted to disguise their imperialist domination of other nations by claiming to have liberated those nations from their own ostensibly feudal and exploitative social and political systems a type of justification typical of imperialism. The issue of Tibet is not the nature of its former social and political system a system far more benign than the hell on earth described in Chinese propaganda. Instead the issue is the legitimacy of China’s invasion and conquest of Tibet its continuing foreign imperialist rule over Tibet and its denial of Tibetan’s right to self determination.

The history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations may be divided into four main periods. The first period is that of the consolidation of the Tibetan state from the beginnings of Tibetan history up to the fall of the Tibetan empire in 842. The territory and peoples of the Tibetan plateau were politically unified by the Tibetan empire (630-842) the only time in history that all of the Tibet was unified under an independent centralized Tibetan state. During the empire period Tibet rivaled T’angdynasty China (618-907) for influence in inner Asia and along the frontier between the two countries. It is during this period that Tibetan cultural territorial and political identities the fundamentals of later Tibetan nationalism were consolidated.

After the collapse of the Tibetan empire in 842 Tibet was not again politically unified until the mid-13th century when Tibetan lamas established a political spiritual relationship known as Cho-Yon or priest patron relationship with the Mongol empire. This arrangement averted a Mongol conquest of Tibet and established ecclesiastical rule in Tibet under the Sakya sect. Tibet was a dependent state under the Mongol Yuan (1260-1368) and Manchu Ch’ing (1644-1911) dynasties. Tibet was independent of Chinese influence during the native Chinese Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Tibet’s relationship to China typical of feudal relationship Tibetan feudal relations with the Mongol Yuan and the Manchu Ch’ing had little impact upon Tibetan autonomy and Chinese impotence but failed to achieve international recognition of its independence.