Bashar al-Assad, (born September 11, 1965, Damascus, Syria), Syrian president from 2000. He succeeded his father, Ḥafiz al-Assad, who had ruled Syria since 1971. In spite of early hopes that his presidency would usher in an era of democratic reform and economic revival, Bashar al-Assad largely continued his father’s authoritarian methods. Beginning in 2011, Assad faced a major uprising in Syria that evolved into a civil war.

Early life

Bashar al-Assad was the third child of Ḥafiz al-Assad, a Syrian military officer and member of the Baʿth Party who in 1971 ascended to the presidency via a coup. The Assad family belonged to Syria’s ʿAlawite minority, a Shīʿite sect that traditionally constitutes about 10 percent of the Syrian population and has played a dominant role in Syrian politics since the 1960s.

Bashar received his early education in Damascus and studied medicine at the University of Damascus, graduating as an ophthalmologist in 1988. He then served as an army doctor at a Damascus military hospital and in 1992 moved to London to continue his studies. In 1994 his older brother, Basil, who had been designated his father’s heir apparent, was killed in an automobile accident. Bashar, despite his lack of military and political experience, was called back to Syria, where he was groomed to take his brother’s place. To bolster his standing with the country’s powerful military and intelligence agencies, he trained at a military academy and eventually gained the rank of colonel in the elite Republican Guard. Ḥafiz al-Assad also sought to engineer a positive public image for his son, who until then had lived out of the public eye. Bashar was placed at the head of a popular anticorruption campaign that resulted in the removal of several officials but ignored the dealings of senior members of the regime. His image as a modernizer was burnished by his appointment as chairman of the Syrian Computer Society.

Presidency

Ḥafiz al-Assad died on June 10, 2000. Hours after his death, the national legislature approved a constitutional amendment lowering the minimum age for the president from 40 to 34, Bashar al-Assad’s age at the time. On June 18 Assad was appointed secretary-general of the ruling Baʿth Party, and two days later the party congress nominated him as its candidate for the presidency; the national legislature approved the nomination. On July 10, running unopposed, Assad was elected to a seven-year term.

Although many Syrians objected to the transfer of power from father to son, Bashar’s ascent engendered some optimism both in Syria and abroad. His youth, education, and exposure to the West seemed to offer the possibility of a departure from what had been the status quo: an authoritarian state, policed by a network of powerful overlapping security and intelligence agencies, and a stagnant state-run economy reliant on shrinking oil reserves. In his inaugural speech, Assad affirmed his commitment to economic liberalization and vowed to carry out some political reform, but he rejected Western-style democracy as an appropriate model for Syrian politics.

Assad announced that he would not support policies that might threaten the dominance of the Baʿth Party, but he slightly loosened government restrictions on freedom of expression and the press and released several hundred political prisoners. Those early gestures contributed to a brief period of relative openness, dubbed the “Damascus Spring” by some observers, in which public political discussion forums emerged and calls for political reform were tolerated. Within months, however, Assad’s regime changed course, using threats and arrests to extinguish pro-reform activism. Afterward Assad emphasized that economic reforms would have to precede political reforms.

Assad maintained his father’s hard-line stance in Syria’s decades-long conflict with Israel, continuing to demand the return of the Golan Heights and giving support to Palestinian and Lebanese militant groups. Relations with the United States worsened after Assad denounced the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. Nationalist and anti-Western rhetoric soon became a standard part of Assad’s speeches.

By 2005 Assad had used a series of cabinet reorganizations and forced retirements to sideline members of the “old guard”—powerful government and military officials held over from his father’s administration. They were replaced by younger officials, and many of the most powerful security positions went to relatives of Assad. However, even after this consolidation of Assad’s power, his reform initiatives remained tentative and largely cosmetic. Economic liberalization mainly benefited a politically connected elite without helping the many Syrians who depended on the faltering public sector for employment, services, and subsidies.

In early 2005, after the assassination of Lebanon’s former prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri, Assad—under pressure from Western and Arab nations—committed to the removal of Syrian troops and intelligence services from Lebanon, where Syrian forces had been stationed since a 1976 military intervention. Although a United Nations investigation appeared to indicate some level of Syrian participation in the assassination of Hariri, the involvement of the Assad administration was not conclusively determined.

In 2007 Assad was reelected by a nearly unanimous majority to a second term as president through elections generally received by critics and opponents as a sham. In his second term Assad took some tentative steps toward ending his country’s international isolation, seeking to mend relationships with regional powers, including Saudi Arabia and Turkey.

Beginning in March 2011, Assad faced a significant challenge to his rule when antigovernment protests broke out in Syria, inspired by a wave of pro-democracy uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa. (SeeArab Spring.) While Syrian security forces used lethal force against demonstrators, Assad offered a variety of concessions, first shuffling his cabinet and then announcing that he would seek to abolish Syria’s emergency law and its Supreme State Security Court, both of which were used to suppress political opposition. However, implementation of those reforms coincided with a significant escalation of violence against protesters, drawing international condemnation for Assad and his government.

As unrest spread to new areas of the country, the government deployed tanks and troops to several cities that had become centres of protest. Amid reports of massacres and indiscriminate violence by security forces, Assad maintained that his country was the victim of an international conspiracy to instigate sectarian warfare in Syria and that the government was engaged in combating networks of armed insurgents rather than peaceful civilian protesters.

By September 2011 armed opposition groups had emerged and begun to stage increasingly effective attacks against Syrian forces. Attempts at international mediation by the Arab League and the United Nations failed to achieve a cease-fire, and by mid-2012 the crisis had evolved into a full-blown civil war. In July 2012 Assad’s inner circle suffered its most significant losses to date when several senior security officials were killed by a bomb inside a government building during a meeting. Among those killed were Daoud Rajiha, the minister of defense, and Assef Shawkat, Assad’s brother-in-law and one of his closest advisers.

With rebels and government troops seemingly locked in a bloody stalemate and security conditions deteriorating in Damascus, Assad’s public appearances became increasingly rare and consisted mainly of staged events to rally troops and civilian supporters. International allies of Assad’s regime and of the rebels each stepped up their support, raising the prospect of a regional proxy war. Efforts by Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar to fund and arm rebels became increasingly public in late 2012 and early 2013 while the Syrian government continued to receive weapons from Iran and the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah. By late 2012 Hezbollah also had begun sending its own fighters into Syria to battle the rebels.

Assad faced new calls for international military action against his government after alleged chemical weapons attacks in the suburbs of Damascus killed hundreds on August 21, 2013. The Syrian opposition accused pro-Assad forces of having carried out the attacks, but Assad denied having used chemical weapons and asserted that, if such weapons had been used, rebel forces were to blame. U.S., British, and French leaders claimed to possess intelligence proving that Assad’s regime had ordered the attacks and made it known that they were considering retaliatory strikes. Russia, China, and Iran spoke out against military action, and Assad vowed to fight what he described as Western aggression.

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