Michel Miguel Elias Temer Lulia (Portuguese pronunciation: [miˈʃɛw miˈɡɛw eˈliɐs ˈtemeɾ luˈliɐ]; born 23 September 1940) is a Brazilian lawyer and politician serving as the 37th and current President of Brazil. He took office on 31 August 2016 after the impeachment and removal from office of his predecessor Dilma Rousseff. He had been Vice President since 2011 and Acting President since 12 May 2016, when Rousseff was suspended while she faced an impeachment trial.[1] At the age of 77, he is the oldest person to have assumed the office.

The 31 August 2016 vote of 61–20 meant that Temer succeeded her to serve out the remainder of Rousseff's second term, ending 1 January 2019. In his first speech in office, Temer called for a government of "national salvation" and asked for the trust of the Brazilian people.[2] He also signaled his intention to overhaul the pension system and labor laws, and to curb public spending.[3]

As a child, Temer dreamed of becoming a pianist. However, there were no piano teachers in his city.[9] As a teenager, he wanted to be a writer.[10] After failing chemistry and physics classes in his first year of high school, he gave up the "curso científico", which prioritized hard sciences and math. In 1957, he moved to São Paulo to finish high school in the "curso clássico", composed mainly of subjects in the humanities and languages.

In 1968, Temer began teaching constitutional law at PUC-SP, where he also taught civil law and was director of the postgraduate department and of the Brazilian Institute Of Constitutional Law as well as a member of the Ibero-American Institute of Constitutional Law.

Temer published four major works in constitutional law. His most famous book is Elements of Constitutional Law, published in 1982, which sold over 240,000 copies.[13] The book focuses on the organization of the Brazilian state, especially on the separation of powers.

However, he considered himself a writer only in 2013, when he published Anonymous Intimacy, a book of poems. It consists of 120 poems, many of which were written on napkins during his plane trips between São Paulo and Brasílla.[14] Temer said writing poems helped him recover from the "barren arena of legislative politics".[15]

According to official government cables published by WikiLeaks, Temer provided information to the U.S. Embassy in Brazil in 2006.[19] Temer is described as gaining the loyalty of lower class Brazilians by strengthening social programs and opposing Lula da Silva.[20] The report has the status "sensitive but unclassified" with Temer stating that Lula da Silva "might finally begin to heed his friends on the left" and would "be led away from the orthodox macro-economic policies that have dominated his first term".[20]

In 2016, he was accused of instituting a lobbyist to bribe others between 1997 to 2001 in ethanol deals through state-run oil company Petrobas. He was also under investigation for accepting more than $1.5 million in funds from construction company Camargo Correa that works with Petrobras. Officials found spreadsheets from the construction company that listed Temer's name 21 times next to numbers that added up to $345,000 in alleged bribes. Temer denies.[21][22][23] Temer has also been accused of electoral fraud. He was facing, in 2016. allegations that he solicited $2.9m in illegal campaign donations in 2014. Part of investigation is into whether bribe money helped fund the 2014 campaign that saw Dilma Rousseff re-elected president with Temer as her running mate. Temer denies.[24]

In 2017, Brazil's federal police has said that investigators have found evidence the president received bribes to help businesses. A released video made by investigators shows Rodrigo Rocha Loures, former Temer aide, carrying a suitcase filled with about $150,000 in cash allegedly being sent from JBS to the president.[25]

In 2018, Brazilian Supreme Court Justice ordered President Michel Temer be included in an ongoing investigation into $3.07 million in illicit funds his Brazilian Democratic Party allegedly received from construction firm Odebrecht.[26]

In 2015 and 2016, Temer was involved in controversy as Dilma Rousseff's impeachment process unfolded. In December 2015, Temer sent a letter to the president complaining about his distance from government decisions. The letter began with the Latin proverb "Verba Volant, Scripta Manent" (spoken words fly, written words remain). Temer described the communication as a "personal" unburdening about various complaints against the president. He said Rousseff had made him look like a "decorative" vice president, not an active one, despite having been invited to support her government several times in the dialogue with Congress, a role he only accepted in 2015.

The letter was commented on and mocked in Brazilian social media, with images depicting the vice president as a Christmas decoration, making fun of his use of Latin, and photos purporting to show the president laughing as she read the missive, among many other things. The president's office had no immediate comment on the images,[27] but Rousseff condemned him as a traitor to her administration.[28]

In April 2016, an audio file of Temer was leaked to the media. In it, Temer speaks as if the impeachment process had already ended and he was the new president.[29] "I don't want to generate false expectations," Temer said on the recordings, which were first published by Folha de S.Paulo on 23 May. "Let's not think that a possible change in government will solve everything in three or four months."

The leak came just hours before a special lower house committee was scheduled to vote whether to back the request to impeach the president, generating complaints and accusations of treachery and lack of support from a vice president conspiring against the elected president. Temer alleged it was sent incorrectly to a WhatsApp group of his party's representatives in Congress.

After a Supreme Court judge, Judge Mello, ruled Cunha's actions wrong, he suggested that Temer should face impeachment proceedings.[30] Another attempt to impeach Temer[31] began with the decision on 6 April 2016, by the president of the Chamber of Deputies, Eduardo Cunha, to form a commission for termination analysis of liability for crime offered by attorney Mariel M. Marra. Four other requests for impeachment were presented to Cunha.[32]

Cunha, who was third in line for the presidency behind Temer, faced scrutiny for alleged money laundering uncovered in Operation Car Wash.[30] On 5 May 2016, Cunha was suspended as speaker of the lower house by Brazil's Supreme Court due to allegations that he attempted to intimidate members of Congress, and obstructed investigations into his alleged receipt of bribes.[33][34]

Vice President Temer holds his first cabinet meeting as Acting President at the Planalto Palace, 13 May 2016.

In the early hours of 12 May 2016, the Federal Senate voted to accept Rousseff's impeachment. Per the Brazilian Constitution, Rousseff's powers were suspended and Temer became acting president. Temer was to serve as acting president for up to 180 days while the Senate decided whether to convict Rousseff and remove her from office, which would make Temer President for the remainder of her term, or to acquit her of crimes of responsibility charges and restore her presidential powers. Temer was awaiting a decision from the Supreme Federal Court to start an impeachment process against him.

On his first day as acting president, Vice President Temer appointed a new cabinet, reducing the number of ministries from 31 to 22. Women's rights and Afro-Brazilian rights activists criticized the fact that all of the appointed ministers were white men, for the first time since 1979.[36][37]

On 2 June 2016, Temer received an eight-year ban from running for office after being convicted of violating election laws. This effectively ended any chance of Temer running for a full term as president in the 2018 election.[38] It can be argued that he was already ineligible to run in 2018 in any event. Under the Constitution, the vice president becomes acting president whenever the president travels abroad. Due to the manner in which the Constitution's provisions on term limits are worded, whenever a vice president serves as acting president for any reason, it counts toward the limit of two consecutive terms.

On 31 August 2016, the Senate voted to convict Rousseff, thereby removing her from office and making Temer President of Brazil. He will serve out the balance of Rousseff's second term, which finishes on 1 January 2019.[39] The vice-president position became vacant, and the President of the Chamber of Deputies acts as the first constitutional substitute during his term.[40]

In October 2016, the Constitution of Brazil was amended by deputies[41] to cap public spending, effectively frozen for twenty years, adjusted for inflation only. This measure was the subject of both praise and criticism among the Brazilian middle-class.[42]

In November 2016, Marcelo Calero, Temer's former Minister of Culture, resigned, stating that Temer had pressured him to help an ally, government secretary Geddel Vieira Lima, who had invested in a development that was being delayed by a heritage preservation measure by allowing construction to go ahead in spite of said measure. Vieira Lima resigned on 25 November 2016, and opposition leaders stated that they would seek President Temer's impeachment over this incident.[43] Temer denied the corruption allegations but admitted talking to Calero about the project.[44]

On 28 April 2017, trade unions called for a general strike against the pension and labor reforms proposed in his government,[54] which failed in many points, especially because the lack of interest of most of the population. Except in state capitals and major cities, in which there were shutdowns of various public services, in most places the strike was restricted to marches, or simply nothing happened.[55]

On 16 February 2018, Temer signed a law aimed at tackling the organised crime element in Rio de Janeiro, transferring full control of security to the military. The military will reportedly remain in control of security until 31 December 2018.[56] The next day, Tamer suggested of establishing the Ministry of Public Security in the near future.[57]

On 17 May 2017, secretly taped recordings leaked by O Globo, a leading national newspaper, reveal the President discussing hush money pay-offs with Joesley Batista, the businessman who runs the country's biggest meat-packing firm JBS,[58][59][60][61] prompting talk of trying again to impeach him.[62][63]
On Wednesday 24 May 2017, while thousands of angry demonstrators marched towards Congress demanding Temer's resignation and immediate direct presidential elections, President Temer sought to suppress a revolt within his own party.[64][65]

Overwhelmed by protests, Temer deployed federal troops to the capital.[66][67] Many photographs and testimonials taken during the protest show police violence, and officers shooting at demonstrators during the manifestation.[68] President Temer's refusal to resign is making him increasingly unpopular and has provoked not only a political stalemate but also uncertainty, plunging the country into crisis and amplifying the worst recession in its history.[69][70][71]

On 9 June 2017, the Brazilian Superior Electoral Court voted 4–3 to acquit Temer and Rousseff of alleged illegal campaign funding in the 2014 election, thus allowing him to stay in office.[72][73]
Former Odebrecht Vice President Marcio Faria da Silva said in testimony given as part of a plea bargain that Temer asked him at a meeting to arrange a $40 million payment to Temer's party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB). Faria said he met with Temer at his law office, and that speaker of the lower house Eduardo Cunha and Congressman Henrique Eduardo Alves were also present. The payment represented a 5% commission on a contract Odebrecht was seeking with the state-run oil company Petrobras, Faria said. Supreme Court Justice Luiz Edson Fachin made this and other testimony public, and ordered an investigation of more than 100 politicians implicated in bribes and kickbacks at state-run companies, particularly Petrobras.[74]

On 26 June 2017, Temer was charged by Prosecutor-General Rodrigo Janot with accepting bribes, and Janot delivered the charges to the Supreme Federal Court.[75] The lower house must vote on the charges, which stem from allegations that he took $5 million in return for clearing up JBS tax problems and facilitating a loan. Temer still has the support of Rodrigo Maia, who replaced Cunha as speaker of the lower house, and has the power to accept or shelve a petition for impeachment. Temer is thought to have the votes to remain in office, but to be vulnerable to a loss of support if repeated votes become necessary. Temer twice changed his justice minister in 2017.[76][77] The Federal Police (PF) have recommended that Temer also be charged with obstruction of justice.[75] Funding reductions have forced the Federal Police to dismantle the workgroup, leaving some investigations incomplete, and Justice Minister Torquato Jardim tried, unsuccessfully, to change PF leadership. A series of legislative initiatives focus on amnesty and changes to the code of criminal procedure.[78]

In June 2017 Temer's approval rating stood at 7%, the lowest for any president in more than thirty years.[76] DataPoder 360 released a poll 21 June which was conducted 19–21 June and showed an approval rating of 2%.[79]
In a survey conducted by the IBOPE institute between 24 and 26 July 81% of Brazilians favored the indictment of the President.[80]
On 2 August, lawmakers in the lower house in Congress voted not to refer the case against the scandal-plagued President to the supreme court, which has the power to try him. Observers and the population state that the move to shield Temer only further undermines the credibility of Brazil's political and electoral system.[81][82][83]

On 22 August 2017, Temer issued a decree to dissolve the "Reserva Nacional do Cobre e Associados" (Renca) Amazonian reserve in Brazil's northern states of Pará and Amapá.[84] After widespread criticism, the decree was revoked on 26 September.[85]

Temer and his first wife Maria Célia Toledo had three daughters: Luciana (1969), Maristela (1972), and Clarissa (1974).
Temer is also father to Eduardo (born in 1999) with journalist Érica Ferraz.[88]

In 2002, Marcela Tedeschi (born in 1983) accompanied her uncle Geraldo, a Paulínia municipal employee, to the annual political convention of the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB). While there, Marcela met Michel Temer, a politician forty-three years her senior.[89] The couple married on 26 July 2003, in a small ceremony.[90]
In 2009, Marcela graduated with a law degree from Fadisp, a private school in São Paulo. In an interview, Marcela says that she never took the licensing exam because of the birth of the couple's son Michel (a.k.a. "Michelzinho").[91][92]

1.
Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organisation or state. Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, and others holding equivalent rank and the FIFA President. It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, in reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency, in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency. The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency, alternatively it may stand for His/Her Eminence, in most republican nations, the head of state is formally addressed as His Excellency. If a republic has a head of government, that official is often addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency. Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency, in various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency, in some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg. In some emirates, only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness and their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency. In Spain members of the nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady. Some of the high ranking counts, Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Roman Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency. In the years following the First World War, the title of Excellency. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the title from that of Excellency given to civil officials. The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy Sees Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence. In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to other than the nuncio

2.
President of Brazil
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The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The presidential system was established in 1889, upon the proclamation of the republic in a military coup détat against Emperor Pedro II, since then, Brazil has had six constitutions, three dictatorships, and three democratic periods. During the democratic periods, voting has always been compulsory, the Constitution of Brazil, along with several constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office and the method of election. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, a provisional measure comes into effect immediately, before Congress votes on it, and remains in force for up to 60 days unless Congress votes to rescind it. The 60-day period can be extended once, up to 120 days, if Congress, on the other hand, votes to approve the provisional measure, it becomes an actual law, with changes decided by the legislative branch. The provisional measure expires at the end of the 60-day period, or sooner, the President of Brazil serves for a term of office of four years, and may be reelected for a single consecutive term. This two-term limit, however, is not for life—a former President who has served for two terms may, at a later time, run again for office, as long as at least one term has elapsed. The current term of four years was established by the 5th Amendment to the Constitution, in 1994, and the permission for reelection, by the 16th Amendment, in 1997. Before that, the President had been barred from reelection for all of Brazils republican history, with the exception of the latter half of the Vargas Era. The office was limited to men until the Brazilian Constitution of 1937, as of 2015, the president earns a monthly salary of R$30,934.70, along with an undisclosed expense account to cover travel, goods and services while in office.1. The Palácio do Planalto in Brasília is the workplace of the President. The Residência Oficial do Torto, popularly known as Granja do Torto, is a located on the outskirts of the capital and is used as a country retreat by the president. The Palácio Rio Negro in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, is a retreat of the president. In addition, the presidency of the republic also maintains the Jaburu Palace in Brasília for use by the Vice President of the Republic as his or her official residence. In the 2000s, the government decided to establish Regional Offices of the Presidency of the Republic in certain key Brazilian cities. The presidency of the republic also maintains offices in Porto Alegre. For ground travel, the president uses the state car. A1952 Rolls Royce Silver Wraith is used by the president on ceremonial occasions, such as Independence Day commemorations, state visits, a modified version of the Airbus A319, air force designation VC-1A, is used to transport the president on all medium and long-range international flights

3.
Dilma Rousseff
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Dilma Vana Rousseff is a Brazilian economist and politician who was the 36th President of Brazil from 2011 until her impeachment and removal from office on 31 August 2016. She is the first woman to have held the Brazilian presidency, the daughter of a Bulgarian immigrant, Rousseff was raised in an upper middle class household in Belo Horizonte. She became a socialist in her youth and after the 1964 coup détat joined left-wing, Rousseff was captured, tortured, and jailed from 1970 to 1972. After her release, Rousseff rebuilt her life in Porto Alegre with Carlos Araújo, both helped found the Democratic Labour Party in Rio Grande do Sul, and participated in several of the partys electoral campaigns. She became the secretary of Porto Alegre under Alceu Collares. In 2000, after a dispute in the Dutra cabinet, she left the PDT. In 2002, Rousseff joined the committee of energy policy advisors to presidential candidate Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva who won the election, Chief of Staff José Dirceu resigned in 2005, in a political crisis triggered by the Mensalão corruption scandal. Rousseff became chief of staff and remained in that post until 31 March 2010 and she was elected in a run-off on 31 October 2010, beating Brazilian Social Democracy Party candidate José Serra. On 26 October 2014 she won a narrow victory over Aécio Neves. Impeachment proceedings against Rousseff were officially accepted by the Chamber of Deputies on 3 December 2015, vice President Michel Temer assumed her powers and duties as Acting President of Brazil during her suspension. On 31 August 2016, the Senate voted 61–20 in favor of impeachment, finding Rousseff guilty of breaking budgetary laws and removing her from office. Dilma Vana Rousseff was born in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, on 14 December 1947, to Bulgarian lawyer and entrepreneur Pedro Rousseff and schoolteacher Dilma Jane da Silva. Her father was born in Gabrovo, in the Principality of Bulgaria, as an active member of the Bulgarian Communist Party, banned in 1924, Petar Rusev fled Bulgaria in 1929 to escape political persecution, he settled in France. He arrived in Brazil in the 1930s, already widowed, but soon moved to Buenos Aires and he returned to Brazil several years later, settling in São Paulo, where he succeeded in business. Pétar Rúsev adapted his first name to Portuguese and the last to French, during a trip to Uberaba, he met Dilma Jane da Silva, a young schoolteacher born in Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, and raised in Minas Gerais, where her parents were ranchers. The two married and settled in Belo Horizonte, where they had three children, Igor, Dilma Vana, and Zana Lúcia, Igor Rousseff, Dilmas elder brother, is a lawyer. Pedro Rousseff was a contractor for Mannesmann steel in addition to building and selling real estate, the family lived in a large house, had three servants, and maintained European habits. The children had an education, and both piano and French lessons

4.
Vice President of Brazil
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The Vice President is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. The office has existed since the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889 and it has been in place throughout all of Brazils republican history, save for the fifteen years of the Vargas Era, when it was abolished. The requirements to run for the office of Vice President are exactly those of the Presidency itself, the President and Vice President are elected on a single ticket for a four-year term and are inaugurated on 1 January of the year following that of the election. Both may be re-elected for a subsequent term, if the Vice President succeeds a sitting President, he or she may be reelected for an additional term. However, he or she is not eligible to run for a full term. This limit applies whenever the Vice President serves as Acting President when the President is either abroad or suspended from office as a result of impeachment, the Vice President works in an annex building of the Palácio do Planalto. The official residence of the Vice President is the Palácio do Jaburu, list of current vice presidents Vice-Presidency of Brazil Official Website Official vice presidential portrait

5.
Jader Barbalho
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Jader Fontenelle Barbalho is a Brazilian politician, businessman and landowner from the state of Pará. He is currently a member of the PMDB party and a Senator for Pará and he is the father of Hélder Barbalho, mayor of Ananindeua, Pará, and the former husband of Federal Deputy Elcione Barbalho. Barbalho is a figure, known throughout Brazil, albeit a controversial one. Starting a political career in Belém with humble possessions, Barbalho became a millionaire after decades in public office and he has held the offices of Federal Deputy over four terms, State Governor twice, Senator thrice and Minister twice. Barbalho was forced to resign the office, later arrested. However, he was subsequently elected Federal Deputy in 2002 and 2006, Jader, was born in Belém, capital of Pará. Jaders parents are Laércio Wilson Barbalho and Joanelle Fontenelle Barbalho, in the 1990s, Jader was involved in several corruption scandals and risked impeachment. Facing the threat of impeachment in connection with fraud and corruption scandals, Barbalho was implicated in a funding scandal at the regional development agency the Superintendency for Development of the Amazon where over 2 billion dollars went missing. He is alleged to have used his base in the Amazonian state of Para to influence which projects were approved by SUDAM. SUDAM was closed down in 2001 by President Fernando Henrique Cardoso because of the corruption allegations. On February 22,2002, Senator Antônio Carlos Magalhães gave an interview to state prosecutors in which he hinted at corruption involving Cardoso, Barbalho, the PMDB, the PFL, and the Supreme Court. On May 8,2002, after the opposition had secured these votes, Barbalho canceled a joint session of Congress. Afterward, political maneuverings persuaded enough legislators to change their minds, rather than risk impeachment and a loss of political rights for eight years, Arruda resigned on May 24, Magalhães followed suit on May 30. With Arruda and Magalhães out of office, Congress, at risk of becoming ineffectual, Barbalho took a leave of absence from his post as senate president on July 20. In the face of mounting evidence and the likelihood of impeachment, he resigned from the Senate on October 4, following the path of Magalhães

6.
Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)
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The Chamber of Deputies is a federal legislative body and the lower house of the National Congress of Brazil. The chamber comprises 513 deputies, who are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, the current president of the Chamber is the deputy Rodrigo Maia, who was elected in July 14,2016 to serve for the remainder of the 2015-2016 term. The legislatures are counted from the first meeting of the Chamber of Deputies and of the Senate, on 6 May 1826, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate were created by Brazils first Constitution, the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil, adopted in 1824. The inauguration of a new composition of Chamber of Deputies for a term of office marks the start of a new Legislature. In the imperial era the national legislature was named General Assembly and it was made up of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Senators were elected for life and the Senate was a permanent institution, whereas the Chamber of Deputies, when Brazil became a republic and a federal state the model of a bicameral Legislature was retained at the federal level, but the parliament was renamed National Congress. The National Congress is made up of the Chamber of Deputies, both houses have fixed terms and cannot be dissolved earlier. Under Brazils present Constitution, adopted in 1988, senators are elected to eight-year terms, each Brazilian state is represented in the Senate by three senators. Elections to the Senate are held four years, with either a third or two thirds of the seats up for election. The number of deputies elected is proportional to the size of the population of the respective state, however, no delegation can be made up of less than eight or more than seventy seats. Thus the least populous state elects eight Federal Deputies and the most populous elects seventy and these restrictions favour the smaller states at the expense of the more populous states and so the size of the delegations is not exactly proportional to population. Elections to the Chamber of Deputies are held four years. New elections were summoned by the government of the Republic in 1890. Old Republic 21st Legislature, discharged the role of Constituent Congress, during the drafting of the Constitution, the Congress was to meet in joint session. The Congress was required to adopt a Constitution that conformed to the form of government. Vargas Era 36th Legislature, discharged the role of Constituent Assembly 37th Legislature, legislatures elected under the Republic of 46 38th Legislature, discharged the role of National Constituent Assembly. The Constitution was voted under duress, legislatures elected under the Military Regime 43rd Legislature 44th Legislature 45th Legislature 46th Legislature 47th Legislature. The Chamber of Deputies was elected under the process of return to democracy

7.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website

8.
Maronite Church
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The Syriac Maronite Church is an Eastern Catholic sui iuris particular church of the Catholic Church. It came in communion with the Pope, with self-governance under the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches by the Patriarch of Antioch, officially known as the Syriac Maronite Church of Antioch al-Kanīsa al-Anṭākiyya al-Suryāniyya al-Mārūniyya), it is part of the Syriac Christianity by liturgy and heritage. Traditionally, the Maronite Church ministers to the Levant, particularly around Mount Lebanon, other centers of historical importance include Kfarhay, Yanouh, Mayfouq and Qadisha Valley. Establishment of the Maronite Church can be divided into three periods, from the 4th to the 7th centuries, a congregation movement, with Saint Maroun as an inspirational leader and patron saint marked the first period. The second began with the establishment of the Monastery of Saint Maroun on the Orontes and this monastery was described as the Greatest Monastery in the region of Secunda Syria, with more than 300 hermitages around it, according to ancient records. After 518, the de facto administered many parishes in Prima Syria. The Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch re-established their patriarchate in 751 AD, although reduced in numbers today, Maronites remain one of the principals ethno-religious groups in Lebanon, with smaller minorities of Maronites in Syria, Cyprus, Israel and Jordan. Over 3,198,600 Maronites practice the faith, Maron is considered the founder of the spiritual and monastic movement now called the Maronite Church. This movement has had an influence in Lebanon, and to a lesser degree in Syria, Jordan. Saint Maron spent his life on a mountain in Syria, generally believed to be Kefar-Nabo on the mountain of Ol-Yambos, thesix major traditions of the Catholic Church are Alexandrian, Antiochene, Armenian, Chaldean, Constantinopolitan, and Latin. The Maronite Church follows the Antiochene Tradition, a Roman Catholic may attend any Eastern Catholic Liturgy and fulfill his or her obligations at an Eastern Catholic Parish. That is, a Roman Catholic may join any Eastern Catholic Parish, Maronites who do not reside within a convenient distance to a local Maronite Church are permitted to attend other Catholic churches while retaining their Maronite membership. The Maronite Patriarchal Assembly identified five distinguishing marks of the Maronite Church and it is Chalcedonian, in that the Maronites were strong supporters of the Council of Chalcedon of 451. It is faithful to the See of Peter in Rome and it has strong ties to Lebanon. Many of his followers also lived a monastic lifestyle, following Marons death in 410 AD, his disciples built Beth-Maron monastery at Apamea. This formed the nucleus of the Maronite Church, in 452, after the Council of Chalcedon, the monastery was expanded by the Byzantine emperor Marcian. The Maronite movement reached Lebanon when St. Marons first disciple, Abraham of Cyrrhus, the Maronites subscribed to the beliefs of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Monophysites of Antioch slew 350 monks and burned the monastery, although Justinian I later restored the walls, correspondence concerning the event brought the Maronites papal and orthodox recognition, indicated by a letter from Pope Hormisdas dated February 10,518

9.
Lebanese Brazilians
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Lebanese Brazilians are Brazilian people of full, partial, or predominantly Lebanese ancestry, or Lebanese-born immigrants in Brazil. Until 1922, Levantine immigrants were considered Turks, as they carried passports issued by the Turkish Ottoman Empire, the population of Brazil of either full or partial Lebanese descent is estimated by the Brazilian and Lebanese governments to be around 7 million people. If the first figure is correct, this number of descendants is larger than the population in Lebanon, Immigration of the Lebanese to Brazil started in the late 19th century, most of them coming from Lebanon and later from Syria. The immigration to Brazil grew further in the 20th century, and was concentrated in the state of São Paulo, between 1884-1933130,000 Lebanese people immigrated to Brazil. 65% of them were Catholics, 20% were Eastern Orthodox and 15% were Muslims, during the Lebanese Civil War 32,000 Lebanese people immigrated to Brazil. Although the exact number of Lebanese Brazilians is disputed it is clear there are at least 6 million Brazilians of Lebanese origin. In big towns of Brazil it is easy to find restaurants of Lebanese food, most Lebanese immigrants in Brazil have worked as traders, roaming the vast country to sell textiles and clothes and open new markets. Lebanese-Brazilians are well-integrated into Brazilian society, please see List of Lebanese people in Brazil Immigration to Brazil White Brazilians

10.
Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943

11.
Aftermath of World War I
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The aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, economic, and social change across Europe, Asia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. As Germany was dependent on imports, it is estimated that 523,000 civilians had lost their lives. N. P. Howard, of the University of Sheffield, the continuation of the blockade after the fighting ended, as author Robert Leckie wrote in Delivered From Evil, did much to torment the Germans. Driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil, the terms of the Armistice did allow food to be shipped into Germany, but the Allies required that Germany provide the means to do so. The German government was required to use its reserves, being unable to secure a loan from the United States. Further, Marks states that despite the problems facing the Allies, from the German government, gläser further claims that during the early months of 1919, while the main relief effort was being planned, France provided food shipments to Bavaria and the Rhineland. She further claims that the German government delayed the effort by refusing to surrender their merchant fleet to the Allies. Finally, she concludes that the success of the relief effort had in effect deprived the of a credible threat to induce Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Food shipments, furthermore, had been dependent on Allied goodwill. Other treaties ended the belligerent relationships of the United States and the other Central Powers, included in the 440 articles of the Treaty of Versailles were the demands that Germany officially accept responsibility for starting the war and pay economic reparations. Historians continue to argue about the impact the 1918 flu pandemic had on the outcome of the war and it has been posited that the Central Powers may have been exposed to the viral wave before the Allies. The resulting casualties having greater effect, having been incurred during the war, when the extent of the epidemic was realized, the respective censorship programs of the Allies and Central Powers limited the publics knowledge regarding the true extent of the disease. Because Spain was neutral, their media was free to report on the Flu and this misunderstanding led to contemporary reports naming it the Spanish flu. A significant precursor virus was harbored in birds, and mutated to pigs that were kept near the front, the exact number of deaths is unknown but about 50 million people are estimated to have died from the influenza outbreak worldwide. The dissolution of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires created a number of new countries in eastern Europe and the Middle East. Some of them, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, had substantial ethnic minorities who were not fully satisfied with the new boundaries that cut them off from fellow ethnics. For example, Czechoslovakia had Germans, Poles, Ruthenians and Ukrainians, Slovaks, the League of Nations sponsored various Minority Treaties in an attempt to deal with the problem, but with the decline of the League in the 1930s, these treaties became increasingly unenforceable. One consequence of the redrawing of borders and the political changes in the aftermath of the war was the large number of European refugees

12.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

13.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested

14.
Pianist
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A pianist is an individual musician who plays the piano. Most forms of Western music can make use of the piano, consequently, pianists have a wide variety of repertoire and styles to choose from, including traditionally classical music, Jazz, blues and all sorts of popular music, including rock music. Most pianists can, to an extent, play other keyboard-related instruments such as the synthesizer, harpsichord, celesta. Perhaps the greatest pianist of all time was Franz Liszt, whose mastery was described by Anton Rubinstein, In comparison with Liszt. Modern classical pianists dedicate their careers to performing, recording, teaching, researching as well as learning new works/expanding their repertoire and they generally do not write or transcribe music as pianists did in the 19th century. Some classical pianists might specialize in accompaniment and chamber music while others perform as full-time piano soloists. Mozart could be considered the first concert pianist as he performed widely on the piano, composers Beethoven and Clementi from the classical era were also famed for their playing, as were, from the romantic era, Liszt, Brahms, Chopin, Mendelssohn and Rachmaninoff. From that era, leading performers less known as composers were Clara Schumann, however, as we do not have modern audio recordings of most of these pianists, we rely mainly on written commentary to give us an account of their technique and style. Jazz pianists almost always perform with other musicians and their playing is freer than that of classical pianists and they create an air of spontaneity in their performances. They generally do not write down their compositions, improvisation is a significant part of their work, well known Jazz pianists include Art Tatum, Duke Ellington, Thelonious Monk, Oscar Peterson and Bud Powell. Popular pianists might work as performers, session musicians, arrangers most likely feel at home with synthesizers. A single listing of pianists in all genres would be impractical, the following is an incomplete list of such musicians. As a result, there are prominent communities of amateur pianists all over the world play at quite a high level and give concerts just because of their love to music. The International Piano Competition for Outstanding Amateurs, held annually in Paris and it was only after the competition that he started pursuing a career as a classical pianist. The German pianist Davide Martello is known for traveling around conflict zones to play his moving piano, Martello has previously been recognised by the European parliament for his “outstanding contribution to European cooperation and the promotion of common values”

15.
Students' union
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In higher education, the students union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizational activities, representation, and academic support of the membership. Outside the US, student union and students refer to a representative body. Depending on the country, the purpose, assembly, method, universally, the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students in some fashion. In some cases, students unions are run by students, independent of the educational facility, the purpose of these organizations is to represent students both within the institution and externally, including on local and national issues. Students unions are responsible for providing a variety of services to students. Depending on the makeup, students can get involved in the union by becoming active in a committee, by attending councils and general meetings. Some students unions are politicized bodies, and often serve as a ground for aspiring politicians. Students unions generally have similar aims irrespective of the extent of politicization, usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, some students unions often officially recognize and allocate an annual budget to other organizations on campus. In some institutions, postgraduate students are within the students unions. In some cases, graduate students lack formal representation in student government, as mentioned before universally the purpose of students union or student government is to represent fellow students. Many times students unions usually focusing on providing students with facilities, support, simple variations on just the name include the name differences between the United States and other countries. Depending on the country there are different methods of representation compulsory education to Higher education or tertiary, in Australia, all universities have one or more student organizations. Most also operate specialized support services for female, LGBT, international, many expressed concerns over the introduction of voluntary student unionism in 2006. The legislation passed after the Greens took the balance of power in the senate, Azerbaijan Students Union was established by students from Baku on 15 September 2008. ASU is an organization which was established on basis of experience and it was the first student organization which united students irrespective of gender, race, creed. ASU considered international relations very important, for the first time ASUs delegates were participants of the First Asia IAESTE Forum in Shanghai during 12–15 November 2009. After that forum ASU established close relations with IAESTE which is one of the biggest student exchange organizations, as a result of relations on 21 January 2010 ASU was accepted a member of IAESTE. Our union gained right to represent Azerbaijan students in IAESTE and that membership was the unions first success on international level

16.
Brazilian military government
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The Brazilian military government was the authoritarian military dictatorship that ruled Brazil from April 1,1964 to March 15,1985. The military revolt was fomented by Magalhães Pinto, Adhemar de Barros, and Carlos Lacerda, Governors of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, the coup was also supported by the Embassy and State Department of the United States. S. government. The regime adopted nationalism, economic development, and Anti-Communism as its guidelines, the dictatorship reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, with the so-called Brazilian Miracle, even as the regime censored all media, tortured and banished dissidents. Brazilian Presidential elections of 1984 were won by opposition civilian candidates, in 1979 Figueiredo passed the Amnesty Law for political crimes committed for and against the regime. Since the 1988 Constitution was passed and Brazil returned to full democracy, Brazils political crisis stemmed from the way in which the political tensions had been controlled in the 1930s and 1940s during the Vargas Era. Each of these structural changes forced a realignment in society and caused a period of political crisis, period of right-wing military dictatorship marked the transition between populist era and the current period of democratization. The Brazilian Armed Forces acquired great political clout after the Paraguayan War, the politicization of the Armed Forces was evidenced by the Proclamation of the Republic, which overthrew the Empire, or within Tenentismo and the Revolution of 1930. While Kubitschek proved to be friendly to capitalist institutions, Goulart promised far-reaching reforms, expropriated business interests, the old hard-line army officers, seeing a chance to impose their positivist economic program, convinced the loyalists that Goulart was a communist menace. After the Presidency of Juscelino Kubitschek, the right wing opposition elected Jânio Quadros, Quadros campaign symbol was a broom, with which the president would sweep away the corruption. In the last days of August 1961, Quadros tried to break the impasse by resigning from the presidency, the Vice-president, João Goulart, member of PTB and active in politics since Vargas Era, at that time was outside the country visiting China PRC. At that time Brazils President and Vice President were elected from different party tickets, some military top brass tried to prevent Goulart from assuming the Presidency, accusing him of being communist, but the legalist campaign in support of Goulart was already strong. The core of Brazilian populism—economic nationalism—was no longer appealing to the middle classes, on April 1,1964, after a night of conspiracy, rebel troops made their way to Rio de Janeiro, considered a legalist bastion. São Paulos and Rio de Janeiros generals were convinced to join the coup, to prevent a civil war, and in knowledge that the USA would openly support the army, the President fled first to Rio Grande do Sul, and then went to exile in Uruguay. These ships had positioned off the coast of Rio de Janeiro in case Brazilian troops required military assistance during the 1964 coup. A document from Gordon in 1963 to US president John F. Kennedy also describes the ways João Goulart should be put down, and his fears of a communist intervention supported by the Soviets or by Cuba. Washington immediately recognized the new government in 1964, and hailed the coup détat as one of the forces that had allegedly staved off the hand of international communism. American mass media outlets like Henry Luces TIME also gave positive remarks about the dissolution of political parties, the victory of the hard-liners dragged Brazil into what political scientist Juan J. Linz called an authoritarian situation. However, because the hard-liners could not ignore the opinions of their colleagues or the resistance of society

17.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services

18.
Constitutional law
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Constitutional law is the body of law which defines the relationship of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. Not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a jus commune, or law of the land and these may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law, or international rules and norms. Constitutional law deals with the principles by which the government exercises its authority. In some instances, these principles grant specific powers to the government, such as the power to tax, other times, constitutional principles act to place limits on what the government can do, such as prohibiting the arrest of an individual without sufficient cause. In most nations, including the United States, constitutional law is based on the text of a document ratified at the time the nation came into being, Constitutional laws may often be considered second order rule making or rules about making rules to exercise power. It governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority, one of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. Human rights or civil liberties form a part of a countrys constitution. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a codified constitution, a recent example is the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union which was intended to be included in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that failed to be ratified. Perhaps the most important example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter and these are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments. Some countries like the United Kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights, in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law, a case named Entick v. Carrington is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. John Enticks house was searched and ransacked by Sherriff Carrington, Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it. The court, led by Lord Camden stated that, The great end and that right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole. By the laws of England, every invasion of private property, if no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment. The commonwealth and the civil law jurisdictions do not share the same constitutional law underpinnings, another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution, in bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force. Alternatively, there may further be requirements for maximum terms that a government can keep power before holding an election, Constitutional law is a major focus of legal studies and research. The doctrine of the rule of law dictates that government must be conducted according to law and this was first established by British legal theorist A. V. Dicey. Dicey’s rule of law formula consists of three classic tenets, the first is that the regular law is supreme over arbitrary and discretionary powers

19.
Separation of powers
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The separation of powers, often imprecisely and metonymically used interchangeably with the trias politica principle, is a model for the governance of a state. The typical division of branches is into a legislature, an executive, and it can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in some parliamentary systems where the executive and legislature are unified. Separation of powers, therefore, refers to the division of responsibilities into distinct branches to any one branch from exercising the core functions of another. The intent is to prevent the concentration of power and provide for checks, aristotle first mentioned the idea of a mixed government or hybrid government in his work Politics where he drew upon many of the constitutional forms in the city-states of Ancient Greece. In the Roman Republic, the Roman Senate, Consuls and the Assemblies showed an example of a government according to Polybius. John Calvin favoured a system of government that divided political power between democracy and aristocracy, Calvin appreciated the advantages of democracy, stating, It is an invaluable gift if God allows a people to elect its own government and magistrates. In this way, Calvin and his followers resisted political absolutism, Calvin aimed to protect the rights and the well-being of ordinary people. In 1620, a group of English separatist Congregationalists and Anglicans founded Plymouth Colony in North America, enjoying self-rule, they established a bipartite democratic system of government. Massachusetts Bay Colony, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, books like William Bradfords History of Plymoth Plantation were widely read in England. So the form of government in the colonies was well known in the mother country, the term tripartite system is ascribed to French Enlightenment political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu. In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu described the separation of power among a legislature, an executive. Montesquieus approach was to present and defend a form of government which was not excessively centralized in all its powers to a monarch or similar ruler. He based this model on the Constitution of the Roman Republic, Montesquieu took the view that the Roman Republic had powers separated so that no one could usurp complete power. In the British constitutional system, Montesquieu discerned a separation of powers among the monarch, Parliament, Montesquieu did actually specify that the independence of the judiciary has to be real, and not apparent merely. The judiciary was generally seen as the most important of powers, independent and unchecked, typically this was accomplished through a system of checks and balances, the origin of which, like separation of powers itself, is specifically credited to Montesquieu. Constitutions with a degree of separation of powers are found worldwide. The UK system is distinguished by a particular entwining of powers, a number of Latin American countries have electoral branches of government. Countries with little separation of power include New Zealand and Canada, Canada makes limited use of separation of powers in practice, although in theory it distinguishes between branches of government

20.
Parliamentary system
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In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, the modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden. In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, in the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George Is inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the minister, literally the prime or first minister. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister, hence the use of phrases like Her Majestys government or His Excellencys government. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political struggle for democracy. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, a parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies, the Westminster and Consensus systems, the Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition. These parliaments tend to have a more style of debate. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote, regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. The Western European parliamentary model tends to have a more consensual debating system, Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber, some West European countries parliaments implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed minister, ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, the head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. The head of state appoints a minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. The head of state appoints the leader of the party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister

21.
Recall election
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A recall election is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before their term has ended. Recalls, which are initiated when sufficient voters sign a petition, have a history dating back to the ancient Athenian democracy and are a feature of several contemporary constitutions, in indirect or representative democracy peoples representatives are elected and these representatives rule for a specific period of time. But if any representative is not properly discharging their responsibilities, then they can be called back with the written request of specific number of voters, the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia enacted representative recall in 1995. In that province, voters in a provincial riding can petition to have their representative in parliament removed from office, by January 2003,22 recall efforts had been launched. No one has been recalled so far, but one representative, Paul Reitsma, Reitsma resigned during the secondary verification stage and the recall count ended. While recalls are not provided for at the level in Switzerland, six cantons allow them, Bern. 30,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum, there has been one unsuccessful attempt to recall the executive in 1852. Schaffhausen, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1876,1,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one attempt to recall the executive in 2000 triggered by the lawyer. Solothurn, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1869,6,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one attempt to recall the executive and legislative in 1995. Three further attempts failed to collect the number of signatures. Ticino, Recall of the executive is possible since 1892,15,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There has been one unsuccessful attempt in 1942. In addition, recall of municipal executives is possible since 2011, signatures of 30% of all adult citizens are required to trigger a recall referendum. Thurgau, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1869,20,000 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum. There have been no recall attempts, uri, Recall of the executive and legislative is possible since 1888. Since 1979600 signatures are required to trigger a recall referendum, in addition, recall of municipal executives and legislatives is possible since 2011

22.
Economic interventionism
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Economic interventionism is an economic policy perspective favoring government intervention in the market process to correct the market failures and promote the general welfare of the people. The term intervention is used by advocates of laissez-faire and free markets. Capitalist market economies that feature high degrees of intervention are often referred to as mixed economies. Government regulation over markets and/or firms can also be a type of intervention when it inhibits, corrects or distorts the market mechanism in setting the price of a good or service. Indicative planning in market economies is sometimes considered to be a form of intervention when it influences the setting of prices in markets. Socialists often criticize interventionism as being untenable and liable to cause more economic distortion in the long-run, the effects of government economic interventionism are widely disputed. One study suggests that after the lost decade an increasing diffusion of regulatory authorities emerged, Latin America through the 1980s had undergone a debt crisis and hyperinflation. These international stakeholders restricted the economic leverage, and bound it in contract to co-operate. Multiple projects and years of failed attempts, for the Argentine state to comply, two key intervention factors that instigated economic progress in Argentina, were substantially increasing privatization and the establishment of a currency board. In Western countries, government officials theoretically weigh the cost benefit for an intervention for the population or they succumb beneath coercion by a private party. Also intervention for economic development is at the discretion and self-interest of the stake holders, to illustrate this during the 2008 debt crisis, the government and international institutions did not prop Lehman Brothers up therefore allowing them to file bankruptcy. Days later when AIG waned towards collapsing, the state spent public money to keep it from falling and these corporations have interconnected interests with the state. Therefore, their incentive is to influence the government to designate regulatory policies that will not inhibit their accumulation of assets. In Japan, Abenomics is a form of intervention with respect to Prime Minister Shinzo Abes desire to restore the former glory in the midst of a globalized economy. President Richard Nixon signed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1970 and it was later further amended in 1977 and 1990. NEPA remains one of the most commonly used environmental laws in the nation, in addition to NEPA, there are numerous pollution-control statutes that apply to such specific environmental media as air and water. The best known of these laws are the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, during World War I, U. S government intervention mandated that the manufacturing of cars be replaced with machinery to successfully fight the war. Today government intervention could be used to break the U. S dependence on oil by mandating U. S automakers to produce electric cars such as the Chevrolet Volt

23.
Constitution of Brazil
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The Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil is the supreme law of Brazil. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of Brazil and it provides the framework for the organization of the Brazilian government and for the relationship of the federal government to the states, to citizens, and to all people within Brazil. The current Brazilian Constitution is the seventh enacted since the independence in 1822. It was promulgated on October 5,1988 after a process in which it was written from scratch. Among the new constitutional guarantees are the errand of injunction and the habeas data and it also anticipated the existence of a Consumers Defence Code, of a Childrens and Youth Code and of a new Civil Code. It was the first constitution to demand punishment for breaches of civil liberties. Consequently, Brazil later approved a law making the propagation of prejudice against any minority or ethnic group an unbailable crime and this law provided legal remedy against those who spread hate speech or those who do not treat all citizens equally. This second aspect helped disabled people to have a percentage of jobs in the public service and large companies. The Constitution also established many forms of popular participation besides regular voting, such as plebiscite, referendum. The mention of God in the preamble of the Constitution was opposed by most leftists as incompatible with freedom of religion because it does not recognise the rights of polytheists or atheists. The preamble to the Federal Constitution is an introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose. The text reads, Title 1 is devoted to the principles of the Republic. This section comprises the base of the Republic, stating the States, the cities and it also establishes three independent, harmonic branches and lists the nationss main goals. One of the most important excerpts from this title is in Article 1, single paragraph, stating and this chapter ensures basic rights to all citizens and aliens, prohibits capital punishment, defines citizenship requirements, political rights, among other regulations. Title 3 regulates the State Organization and this title establishes Brasília as the Nations capital, the rights and duties for the Union, the States and the Cities, as well rules for the public staff. Title 4 disposes about the branches of government and this chapter describes the attributes for every government branch, and the rules for Amendment to the Constitution as well. Title 5 regulates the Defense of the State and its Democratic Institutions and this title rules the deployment of the armed forces, the national security baselines, and declaration of state of siege. Title 6 comprises the Taxation and the nations Budget, such title disposes on tax distribution among the Union components and their competencies, and the Nations budget

Courtyard of the College, Pátio do Colégio, in the Historic Center of São Paulo. At this location, the city was founded in 1554. The current building is a reconstruction made in the late 20th century, based on the Jesuitcollege and church that were erected at the site in 1653.

Though prominent as a Missouri Senator, Harry Truman had been vice president only three months when he became president; he was never informed of Franklin Roosevelt's war or postwar policies while vice president.

A recall election (also called a recall referendum or representative recall) is a procedure by which voters can remove …

Submitting petitions for the recall of Seattle, Washington mayor Hiram Gill in December 1910; Gill was removed by a recall election the following February, but voters returned him to the office in 1914.