The Mexican foreign service officially started in 1822,[27] the year after the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba, which marked the beginning of the country's independence.[28] In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe and the Americas.[27]

In the early 1970s, Mexico recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole and legitimate government of China,[30] therefore issues related to the Republic of China (Taiwan) are managed through the Office of Consular Liaison under the circumscription of the Consulate General of Mexico in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau.[31] In addition, Mexico does not recognize Kosovo as an independent country.[32]

After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Mexico was the only country to condemn the Italian occupation of Ethiopia at the League of Nations. Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened.
In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia thanked Mexico by naming a square in the city called "Mexico Square". Mexico named a metro station in Mexico City called Metro Etiopía.

Ethiopia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[64]

Ghana and Mexico established diplomatic relations on 8 August 1961. Soon afterwards, both nations opened embassies in each other's capitals, respectively. In 1972, Ghana closed its embassy in Mexico City. Mexico closed its embassy in Accra in 1980.[67] Mexico re-opened its embassy in Ghana in 2013.

Ghana is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[68]

First contacts started in 1818 with the United Provinces of South America.[118] Due to internal conflicts in each nation, relations between Mexico and Argentina were established de jure until the 1880s when both countries officially accredited their respective representations, upgraded to embassies in 1927.[118] On May 20, 1914, accredited diplomats from Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, met in Niagara Falls, Canada, to prevent a war between Mexico and the United States, potentially possible due to measures taken by then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson concerning the Tampico Affair.[119]

In 2005, during the Fourth Summit of the Americas in Mar de Plata, Argentina, tensions between the two countries started when former President Vicente Fox canceled the anticipatively programmed bilateral reunion with then-PresidentNéstor Kirchner.[121] At the Summit, Fox actively promoted the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and suggested the exclusion of those who did not agree; Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela argued that the Summit was not meant to discuss the FTAA and rejected the proposition.[121] At the end of the ceremony, Fox expressed that "the most important countries of the Americas (Canada, Mexico and the U.S.) supported the FTAA, and the secondary ones (Cuba, Venezuela and the members of Mercosur) were against it".[121] Later, he criticized Kirchner's interest of "pleasing the Argentine public opinion",[122] who responded that "Fox should only care for the affairs that involve Mexico [...] and good diplomacy was not about bowing down to powerful countries".[122] The respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs redacted a joint communiqué apologizing for the incident and reminded the "importance of the good relations for both countries".[122] In 2007, when Kirchner paid a state visit, he and President Felipe Calderón signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" to strengthen bilateral ties.[123]

Mexico and Brazil represent more than half of population, territory and economic development in Latin America, and have the major prestige in the region.[137] Considered as regional powers by analysts,[19][20] relations between the two countries remain good. In the economic area, both are members of the ALADI, the G8+5 and the G-20.[137]

In October 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón visited Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to deepen the dialogue and cooperation between the two countries.[137] The governments of Brazil and Mexico look for maintaining an opened dialogue with several visits to strengthen the bilateral relations and allow a major exchange in areas such as non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, human rights, environment and energy.[137] Thus the Brazil-Mexico Bilateral Commission was released in March 2007 to strengthen their relations.[142] In August 2007, when President "Lula" da Silva paid a state visit, both leaders agreed to coordinate their foreign policies towards Latin America in order to further integrate the region.[143]

Formal relations did not begin until 1944,[149] at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side.[150] Prior to the negotiations around the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), economic and political ties between Mexico and Canada were relatively weak. Since NAFTA has come into force, the two countries have become much more important to each other, and often collaborate when dealing with the United States, for example with issues related to the economic embargo imposed to Cuba.[151]

Currently, Mexico and Canada are close friends and strategic partners and benefit from a very active bilateral relationship which includes ever increasing commercial ties, high-level political exchanges and an expanding collaborative network between Mexicans and Canadians in areas such as climate change, culture, energy, education, good governance, human rights and public service modernization. And more recently, both countries have been building a closer security and defense relationship.[149]

In the early 1820s, Chile and Mexico established diplomatic relations, both countries had interest of integrating the region, however, due to Mexico's economic and political instability the project did not go further.[152] In 1914, due to the Tampico Affair, then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of the Port of Veracruz. Once Wilson realized that his objectives had failed, he appealed to the accredited diplomats of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, to mediate and find a peaceful solution to the international conflict preventing a war between Mexico and the U.S.[119]

In 1902, Mexico became the first country to ever recognize and establish relations with the Republic of Cuba once it gained full sovereignty.[164] The cultural ties between the two nations became stronger during the following decades. In the mid-20th century, the Cuban Revolution took place, culminating with the triumph of the July 26 Movement on January 1, 1959. In 1964, when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained.[165] Mexico thereafter maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba, which effectively established it as the sole link between Fidel Castro and the rest of the hemisphere because none of the other Latin American governments recognized Cuba's revolutionary regime until after 1970.[165] Since then, Mexico constantly supported Cuba in international organizations and multilateral forums, and strongly opposed to the economic embargo imposed to the Caribbean island in the early 1960s.[166]

Under the Calderón administration, Mexico concentrated on rebuilding diplomatic relations with Havana.[26] On December 15–17, 2008, in the framework of the "First Latin American and Caribbean Summit for Integration and Development", President Calderón introduced Cuba to the regional organization Rio Group and held talks with President Raúl Castro about topics of interests for both countries. They both agreed to schedule mutual visits for 2009,[171] and put emphasis on strengthening the friendship, cooperation, integration, trade and support. Both countries share the vision of a permanent fight against poverty and organized crime.

With seven months before the six-year term of Felipe Calderón came to an end, he made plans to visit Cuba to "patch up the bruise" relationships and discuss possible business relations, which included oil deals.[172]
In April 2012, President Felipe Calderón traveled to Cuba and met with Raúl Castro to fix the broken relationship between the two countries. During his time in Cuba, Calderón condemned the 50-year-old U.S. trade embargo against Cuba.[173]

Mexico and Peru have historically had a unique relationship solidly based on that they share two of the most significant ancient cultures in the Americas. Both countries have expressed solidarity over the need to defend the recovery of cultural and archaeological heritage in the form of artifacts that have been illegally stolen from Peru and Mexico and which are to this date, illegally or legitimately kept in foreign locations. Peru's President Alan García and Mexico's Felipe Calderón signed a joint declaration in April 2011 aimed at deepening the two countries' friendship, cooperation, integration, trade, investments and the permanent fight against poverty and organized crime. The two countries aim to achieve a new model of integration within Latin America, and to represent a positive, realistic, and active example of integration amongst two "brotherly" nations.

In the Reform War, that lasted from 1858 to 1861, the liberals led by Benito Juárez, were given the U.S. recognition as the legitimate government in Mexico.[209] Meanwhile, the conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Zuloaga and Miramón, brought a European Emperor to govern the country, Maximilian I, which led to the French Intervention in 1862,[210] violating the Monroe Doctrine, there was nothing the U.S. could do, as it was involved in its own civil war.[211] Affecting Mexico's foreign policy, both sides, the Union and the Confederacy, were looking for international recognition as well. The Juárez administration was ideologically closer to the Union, but geographically Mexico shared a large border with the Confederacy.[211] In 1861, the then-U.S. President Abraham Lincoln named Thomas Corwin as his minister for Mexico and instructed him to neutralize the Mexican aid given to the Confederates; he successfully achieved this mission.[211] Once the civil war ended, then-Secretary of State William Seward declared that the French invasion in Mexico was harmful to the friendship between France and the U.S., and Washington provided financial aid to Benito Juárez, who successfully expelled the French in 1867.[211]

Lasting for seven years, the 1910 Mexican Revolution ended the rule of the dictator-president Porfirio Díaz. The war was sparked when the U.S.-supported Díaz was proclaimed the winner of the 1910 elections despite mass popular support for his rival in the election Francisco I. Madero.[212] After the war, the various groups that made up the revolutionary forces splintered as they lost the unifying goal of unseating Díaz —leading to a civil war.[213] The U.S. intervened in the conflict, including the involvement of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, in the plotting of the 1913 coup d'état which overthrew Madero.[214]

First ladies Paloma Cordero of Mexico (left) and Nancy Reagan of the United States (right) with U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, John Gavin observing the damage done by the earthquake.

The 1917 Constitution of Mexico caused several problems with the British and American transnational oil companies mainly derived from the article 27, which declares that "the wealth contained in the soil, the subsoil, the waters and seas of Mexico belongs to the Nation; the right to land ownership and to exploit the subsoil may therefore only be granted by the Nation."[215] Due to foreign pressure, the implementation of the article was continuously ignored by the government until March 18, 1938 when then-President Lázaro Cárdenasnationalized the oil industry.[216]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, as well as an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[217]

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, which led to the elimination of tariffs and other trade barriers between Mexico and the U.S. and serves as a multilateral platform for cooperation between both countries.[218] The agreement increased trade volume and cooperation in both countries.[219] The free trade agreement has been increasingly opposed by Mexican and U.S. farmers, with many groups and the political left presenting that it hurts the interest of traditional, small and local farmers in both countries.[220] Allegations of violations of labor and environmental laws have been considered by the trilateral institutions.[221] The Bush Administration argued that NAFTA had had modest positive impacts on all three member countries, but Mexican farmers have strongly criticized the effects of the agreement as they have become overshadowed by the large corporations benefiting from NAFTA.[222] Notable bilateral trade disputes relate to trucking, tuna, sweeteners and anti-dumping measures.[223] Currently, the United States is the number one destination for Mexican exports. The U.S. also exports more goods into Mexico than any other country in the world.

Historically the two countries have had good diplomatic relations. Ever since both countries became important players in the oil industry, some competitive tensions arose, eventually leading to disputes after Mexico signed an agreement to join NAFTA. During President Vicente Fox's term, relations between the two countries became critically strained to the point of recalling one another's ambassadors. It has been clear that diplomatic ties between both countries are not indefinitely severed, in recent years numerous groups, both in Mexico and Venezuela are working to restore the diplomatic relationship between the two countries, as they are of strategic economic and cultural importance. In August 2007, after two years of diplomatic absence in either country, normal relations were re-established with the appointment of former foreign minister Roy Chaderton as Venezuela's envoy in Mexico City and the transfer of Jesús Mario Chacón Carrillo, formerly Mexican ambassador to Colombia, to Caracas. Both countries are founding members of the Latin American Integration Association.

Mexico and the People's Republic of China established relations amidst tensions in 1972, and in recent years have seen an intense export rivalry over the United States market, with the Mexican government having accused the Chinese of impinging on its export territory by flooding the US with cheap goods manufactured in low-wage factories.

In 2005, Chinese President Hu Jintao came to Mexico promising increased investment in industries like automobile-parts manufacture and mineral exportation. In July 2008, Mexican PresidentFelipe Calderón reciprocated with a visit to Beijing in a bid to improve bilateral trade. Nevertheless, China has focussed more on South American commodity producers such as Brazil and Chile to meet this end and fuel its chiefly-export economy.

Under the Fox administration, several visits and bilateral meetings occurred concerning diverse areas such as economy, technology and culture. In April 2004, the "Group of Friendship Mexico-India" was established at the LIX Legislature. To promote a major rapprochement with India, then-Secretary of Foreign AffairsLuis Ernesto Derbez met with his Indian counterpart in mid-2004 in Washington, D.C., and officially visited New Delhi in August, where both ministers agreed to celebrate the IV Binational Commission, formerly suspended in 1996, with the aim of strengthening the bilateral agenda. In May 2007, India and Mexico signed the "Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement" (BIPA) to strengthen their trading relations, with proximity to the U.S., the joint ventures would enable Indian companies to increase their presence in the world's biggest market, taking advantage of Mexico's membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

The first diplomatic relations between Mexico and Persia (modern-day Iran) date back to 1889, although cooperation and trade between the two friend nations was not formally established until 1937.[261]
Mexico and Iran have enjoyed increasingly close political and economic relations over the years, growing with the volume of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The two countries aim to expand cooperation in several sectors, sharing science and technology, particularly in the oil industry. Both countries have also shared successful experiences in cultural cooperation and exchange. In 2008, an agreement to form a Mexico-Iran parliamentary friendship group was made at the Mexican parliament.

The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1888 between the two countries was Japan's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country.[267] In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called Enomoto Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas to grow coffee, this was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America.[267]
Former Mexican President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City. On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family.[268] In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom.[267]
On September 17, 2004, Mexico and Japan signed a free trade agreement, formally known as the "Agreement Between Japan and the United Mexican States for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership", which went into effect in April 2005.[269] This was one among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. As a result, in 2007 Mexico became Japan's largest trading partner in Latin America.[269] Over sixty treaties and agreements have been signed between the two countries, standing out the ones related to technological and scientific cooperation, several academic and cultural exchanges, as well as an increasing inter-parliamentary dialogue.[267][270]
Mexico currently enjoys very good social and economic relations with Japan and is major center of Japanese investment. Japan has invested heavily in the Mexican industrial, automotive, technology and manufacturing sectors.[271][272][273][274][275][276][277][278][279][280] As of 2012, it was estimated that Japanese companies employed over one million workers in Mexico just in the automotive and technology manufacturing industries.

Japan has an embassy in Mexico City and a consulate-general in León.[281]

Mexico was among the first nations to recognize Lebanon's independence in 1943.
Mexico was a popular destination during the Lebanese diaspora. There is a significant population of Lebanese descent in Mexico, nearing half a million people, many of which travel to and support business with Lebanon.
The Centro Libanés and "Club Deportivo Libanés" in Mexico City are important symbols representing the historically cultural and social ties between both countries.

Mexico and the Philippines share a myriad of traditions and customs derived from historical ties established over 450 years ago. Their common history dates back to the time when both countries were part of New Spain. Mexican money financed the expedition known as Legazpi exploration, under the command of King Philip II of Spain. During the Mexican administration of the Philippines, other than General Legazpi, all of the governor-generals were born in Mexico. Due to the grand exchange with the Philippines in those days, many cultural traits were adopted by one another, with Mexicans remaining in the Philippines, and Filipinos establishing in Mexico, particularly the central west coast, near the port town of Acapulco. Many Nahuatl words were adopted and popularized in the Philippines, such as Tianggui (market fair) and Zapote (a fruit).
After the colonial period, the first official contacts of Mexico with the Philippines were established in 1842, when a Mexican Representation was opened in Manila. With the assignment of Mexican Diplomat Evaristo Butler Hernandez in the Philippines in 1878.
The Independence of the Philippines brought forth a new era of relations between these countries. Mexico dispatched an envoy to participate in the festivities to celebrate the birth of the Southeast Asian nation. Diplomatic ties between both countries were formalized on April 14 of 1953. The year of 1964 was decreed the "Year of Philippine-Mexican Friendship" to celebrate the Fourth Centennial of the Expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi. In modern day, the conquest of the Philippines is seen as a Spanish initiative, while Mexico is viewed as a country of historical link and friendship, and several groups intend on strengthening the bond between the two countries.[310]

Mexico was the first Latin American country to sign a partnership agreement with the European Union (EU), in 1997, composed by 15 members at the time.[155] The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights.

In 1938, Mexico became the only country to protest against the anschluss of Austria at the League of Nations.[337] During World War II, Austria was part of the German Reich and in May 1942 Mexico declared war on Germany after the destruction of two Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf of Mexico by German U-boats.[338] After the war, normal relations were restored between the two nations.

In 1836, Belgium—itself newly independent—recognized the independence of Mexico. In 1919, the Belgian chamber of commerce of Mexico was established. Belgium opened its embassy in Mexico on June 5, 1954.[347]

In 1861, the liberals won the War of Reform, however, it left the treasury depleted. Trade was stagnant, and foreign creditors were demanding full repayment of Mexican debts, Juárez proceeded to declare a moratorium on all foreign debt repayments.[210]France, Great Britain and Spain decided to launch a joint occupation of the Mexican Gulf coast to force repayment.[210] The Spanish and British quickly figured out that Juárez fully intended to pay the debts when he could, so they withdrew. They also realized that the French had other intentions, indicated by the arrival of reinforcements, and had no desire to help France achieve its ambitions, which led to a military intervention, encouraged by the defeated conservatives.[210] When the French entered Mexico City in mid-1863, the conservatives quickly invited Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria to accept the Mexican crown, who agreed believing that this act responded to the desire of a majority of Mexicans.[370] However, once the conservatives understood Maximilian's democratic sentiments and anticlerical attitudes, began withdrawing their support.[371] When the American Civil War ended, the U.S. made its Monroe Doctrine valid and intervened by providing military and financial aid to Juárez.[372] Meanwhile, in Europe, France was increasingly threatened by a belligerent Prussia and, by 1866, Napoleon III began recalling his troops stationed in Mexico.[211] Conservative forces switched sides and began supporting the Mexican liberals. United resumed their campaign on February 19, 1867, and on May 15, Maximilian surrendered. He was tried and, on Juárez's orders, was executed on June 19.[211] After an exhaustive process, diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1880, leaving behind claims related to the war.[373]

Both nations had an international dispute over the island of Clipperton, which had been under Mexican occupation, but claimed by the Foreign Ministry of France.[374] In 1931 both nations agreed to abide to the arbitration of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, who declared it a French territory.

Alexander von Humboldt's reports on his trip to then-New Spain back in the early 19th century heralded the start of Germany's interest in Mexico.[384] Commercial links were quickly established through the signing of the "Treaty of Commerce and Navigation" between Mexico and Hamburg in 1823. Due to increasing investment, six years later, Prussia sent Carl Koppe as its first general consul and first representative in the newborn nation. During the administration of dictator Porfirio Díaz, commercial ties significantly strengthened.[384]

In January 1917, Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40, intercepted a proposal from Berlin, the Zimmermann Telegram, to Mexico to join the Great War as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U.S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U.S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the U.S. and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the U.S. from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.[385] When the U.S. entered the war on April 2, 1917, eleven days later then-President Venustiano Carranza not only turned down the proposition but also declared neutrality.[386]

In 1964, the foundation of Volkswagen in Puebla, Mexico, best represents the foreign investment from Germany; specifically, the Volkswagen Beetle, informally called "vocho", is commonly seen as a symbol of Germany in the country.[387] In contemporary times, Germany is viewed as a privileged partner in Europe, from whom economic, political and cultural engagement in Mexico is expected. Bilateral relations are being intensified in all areas based on a "Joint Declaration" between the two countries' Foreign Ministries signed in April 2007.[389] Economic ties have been strengthened since the European Union-Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Germany has become Mexico's fourth-largest trading partner.[390]

In 1904 the Holy See assigned an Apostolic Delegate to Mexico. Diplomatic relations were restored in 1992, giving the office of the Apostolic Delegate in Mexico City the status of a nunciature. As of 2012 about 78% of Mexico's population declared themselves Roman Catholics.

The first contact between Italy and Mexico was in 1869, just before the end of Italian unification in 1870; when Italy expressed its desire to open a consulate in Mexico. A consulate was opened in Mexico in December 1872, however, diplomatic relations between the two nations were not established until 15 December 1874.[403]

During World War I, Mexico remained neutral because it was involved in its own revolution during the same time. In the 1930s, diplomatic relations between the two nations began to deteriorate when Prime Minister Benito Mussolini invaded and annexed Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935–1936. Mexico was one of the few countries to vehemently oppose the occupation of Abyssinia by Italian forces.[404] On 22 May 1942, Mexico declared war on the axis powers due to German u-boat attacks on two Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf of Mexico that same year. Diplomatic relations were re-established on 1 June 1946.[403]

In 1997, Mexico signed a Free Trade Agreement with the European Union (which includes Italy). Trade between the two nations totaled just over six billion USD in 2011. Among the products that Mexico exports to Italy are: automobiles and petroleum based products. Italy exports mainly steel products to Mexico. Today, Italy is Mexico's ninth biggest trading partner in the world (third in Europe after Germany and Spain). Mexico is Italy's second biggest trading partner in Latin-America (after Brazil).[405]

Lithuania and Mexico initially established diplomatic relations on 31 May 1938 and signed a Treaty of Friendship in Washington, D.C., United States. Mexico never recognized the annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union and condemned the action. On 5 November 1991, Mexico recognized and re-establsihed diplomatic relations with Lithuania. In 2002, President Valdas Adamkus paid a visit to Mexico and met with Mexican President Vicente Fox. In 2008, President Adamkus returned to Mexico for a visit and met with Mexican President Felipe Calderón.[410]

Lithuania is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, and maintains an honorary consulate in Mexico City.[411]

Mexico is accredited to Lithuania from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and maintains an honorary consulate in Vilnius.[409]

On September 27, 1993 the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced The Netherlands – Mexico Tax Treaty and Protocol. The regulations detail the formalities residents of the Netherlands must observe "in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties."[419] In 2008 Mexico and the Netherlands modified their existing tax treaty, initially signed in 1993 to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion.[420][421]

Diplomatic relations between both countries were established in 1890. In 2010 the 120th anniversary of the ties of friendship between the peoples of Russia and Mexico were celebrated.

Mexico was the first country in the Americas to establish relations with the then Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet politician and leader Leon Trotsky moved to Mexico from Norway during his exile. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas welcomed him warmly, arranging a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port of Tampico. In Mexico, Trotsky at one point lived at the home of the painter Diego Rivera, and at another at that of Rivera's wife & fellow painter, Frida Kahlo with whom he had an affair.[432]

Due to its good relations with Russia, Mexico has often purchased military equipment from Russia. The Mexican Navy has received BTR-60's Ural-4320, Mi-17/8's, and anti-aircraft missiles SA-18 Grouse. Much of this equipment remains in service.

Mexico was the first Latin American country to recognize Slovenia after gaining independence on May 22, 1992. Mexican parliament members have praised Slovenia's participation in the eight-country initiative (which includes Mexico) for a world without nuclear weapons and its achievements in the human rights area. Since 1999 both countries have abolished visas as an example of strengthening relations.

Mexico is accredited to Slovenia from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.[342]

Slovenia is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.[435]

Due to rivalry with France and Spain, then-Prime Minister George Canning was interested in recognizing the independence of the newborn nations in the Americas. On June 27, 1824, Canning received Mexican plenipotentiary minister José Mariano Michelena and recognized Mexico as an independent country de facto, and formally on December 30, despite opposition from the British cabinet.[453]United Kingdom was the first country to officially recognize the independence of Mexico.[454]

In subsequent decades, the United Kingdom would persuade other European countries to recognize Mexico, especially Spain, and offer mediation in different international conflicts that involved Mexico in the 19th century such as the Pastry War[206] and the Texas War of Independence.[455] By 1861, Mexico was a country deeply in debt and torn by divisions of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico's creditors demanded repayment, forcing then-President Benito Juárez to declare a two-year moratorium on foreign debt, which in turn led to a punitive expedition sent by Britain, France and Spain. Juarez successfully negotiated the "Treaty of La Soledad" with the British and Spanish, who soon withdrew.[210] After the Mexican Congress ratified a commercial agreement with the U.S. in 1883, Great Britain showed more interest in reestablish diplomatic relations with Mexico, and quickly did so a couple of years later.[456] Sovereignty over the territory of Belize was historically claimed by Mexico, but the British crown refused to discuss this issue for a long time; however, in 1897, the signing of the "Mariscal-Spencer Treaty" resolved the territorial disputes with the British crown colony.[457]

In 1917, Mexico's newly promulgated Constitution provided, among other things, restrictions on foreign ownership of land and subsoil resources, notably oil.[458] This last provision, included in Article 27, was ominous for American and British investors who had obtained oil-mining concessions.[459] Due to heavy foreign pressure, subsequent governments did not strictly applicate the article, until Lázaro Cárdenas, who on March 18, 1938, fully nationalized the oil-industry. This measure led to protests by the British government questioning the nationalization and Mexico's solvency to execute it. In response, a check, in an amount worth of the demands for nationalization, was sent and diplomatic ties were broken off.[460]PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, and an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later.[459]

Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) three times (1946, 1982–83, 2002–03). On October 17, 2008, picking up 185 votes, it was elected to serve as a non-permanent member for the fourth time, from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010.[477] Since April 1, Mexico holds the rotative presidency of the UNSC.[478]

In 1964, under U.S. pressure, the OAS required all member countries to break off diplomatic ties with Cuba. Mexico refused, condemned the Bay of Pigs invasion, and did not support the expulsion of Cuba from the OAS.[482] Years later, Mexico strongly opposed to the creation of a military alliance within the OAS framework, and condemned the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989.[483]

The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are therefore considered extremely biodiverse and therefore are of utmost priority on the global environmental agenda. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries[484] in 1998,[485][486] most are located in or have territories in the tropics.

In 2002, Mexico formed a separate organization named Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries, consisting of countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge.[487] This organization includes a different set of involved megadiverse countries than those identified by Conservation International.

In 1990 just over half the cocaine imported into the U.S. came through Mexico, by 2007 that had risen to more than 90 percent, according to U.S. State Department estimates.[496] Although violence between drug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government used its police forces in the 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century with little effect. That changed on December 11, 2006, when newly elected PresidentFelipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to put an end to drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against cartel operations, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels.[497] As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now well over 25,000 troops involved.[498] During the Calderón administration, the Mexican government has spent approximately US$7 billion in an 18-month-old campaign against drug cartels.[499] It is estimated that during 2006, there were about 2,000 drug-related violent deaths,[500] about 2,300 deaths during 2007,[501] and more than 6,200 people by the end of 2008.[502] Many of the dead were gang members killed by rivals or by the government, some have been bystanders.

Our insatiable demand for illegal drugs fuels the drug trade. Our inability to prevent weapons from being illegally smuggled across the border to arm these criminals causes the deaths of police officers, soldiers and civilians.

Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year.[504] Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, and Illinois, but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers.[504] This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them.[504]

The framework of U.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. The U.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay into Social Security and Medicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law.[505] Furthermore, Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods.[506]

Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of the classic asylum countries, with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and other European countries before and during World War II, from Latin America's Southern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s.[509] However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes.[509] The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows over the past decade, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S.[510]José Luis Soberanes, president of the National Human Rights Commission, condemned the repressing policy implemented by the Mexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border.[511]PresidentCalderón modified the "General Law on Population" to derogate some penalties against immigrants such as jail, instead undocumented immigrants have to pay fines as high as US$500.[512]

^"Mexico: Netherlands And Mexican Regulations To The Netherlands – Mexico Treaty Announced". Deloitte & Touche. September 23, 1997. Retrieved 2009-06-06. In a press release dated 14 March 1997, the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced the Netherlands and Mexican regulations under the Netherlands – Mexico tax treaty and protocol, both of 27 September 1993. The Mexican regulations deal with the formalities to be observed by residents of the Netherlands in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties.

1.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan

2.
Politics of Mexico
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The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the President. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate, judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals. The politics of Mexico are dominated by three parties, National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and Institutional Revolutionary Party. Registered political parties receive public funding for their operation and can obtain private funding within the limits prescribed by the law. The coalition must present itself with a name and logo. Proportional representation seats are assigned to the coalition based on the percentage of votes obtained in the elections, once each party in the coalition has been assigned plurinominal seats, they do not necessarily continue to work as a coalition in government. Throughout the 20th century, PRI had an almost hegemonic power at the state and federal level and it was in 1997, that PRI lost its absolute majority at the Congress of the Union, and in 2000 the first non-PRI president was elected since 1929. Suffrage is universal, free, secret and direct for all Mexican citizens 18 and older, the identity document in Mexico serves also as the voting card, so all citizens are automatically registered for all elections, that is, no pre-registration is necessary for every election. All elections are direct, that is, no electoral college is constituted for any of the elections at the federal, only when an incumbent president is absolutely absent, the Congress of the Union constitutes itself acts as an electoral college to elect an interim president by absolute majority. Presidential elections are scheduled every six years, except in the case of absolute absence of the president. Elections are usually held on the first Sunday of July, state governors are also elected every six years, whereas the legislatures are renewed every three years. State elections need not be concurrent with federal elections, elections within the Federal District are also organized by a local electoral institute. A strongly ingrained concept in Mexican political life is no reelection, the theory was implemented after Porfirio Díaz managed to monopolize the presidency for over 25 years. Presently, Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, Deputies and senators are not allowed to immediately succeed themselves. The most recent federal elections were held on July 2,2006 concurrent with the full renovation of both chambers of the Congress of the Union. In these elections the Party of the Democratic Revolution, the Labour Party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the Ecologist Green Party formed a coalition called Alliance for Mexico. Felipe Calderón got the greatest number of votes according to the preliminary computation, the Federal Electoral Tribunal declared Felipe Calderón the winner of the elections on September 5, and president elect

3.
Constitution of Mexico
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The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention and it was approved by the Constitutional Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions, the current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918. Constitution Day is one of Mexicos annual Fiestas Patrias, commemorating the promulgation of the Constitution on 5 February 1917, although the official anniversary is on 5 February, the holiday takes place on the first Monday of February regardless of the date. Carranza convoked a congress specifically to draft the new constitution and it replaced the liberal Constitution of 1857, extending that constitutions restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Its innovations were in expanding the Mexican states power into the realms of economic nationalism, political nationalism, the constitution was a means to confer legitimacy on a shaky regime. The Liberal Party of Mexicos 1906 political program proposed a number of reforms that were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution, Article 27 of the Constitution incorporated some of the PLMs demands for land reform in Mexico. Points in the PLMs call for improvement in education were also incorporated, such as completely secular education, compulsory attendance up until age 14, not surprisingly, the PLM also called for restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, which were incorporated in the constitution. These included treating religious institutions as businesses and required to pay taxes, nationalization of religious institutions real property, the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constitutional Congress in Querétaro, not the capital. Carranza chose the site because it was where Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed, delegates to the congress were to be elected, with one per jurisdiction that had existed in 1912, when congressional elections had been held during the Francisco I. Those who had been hostile to the Constitutionalist Cause were banned from participating, Carranza was pressured to amnesty those who had been hostile as well as allow those who had gone into exile to return to Mexico, but he refused. The congress formally opened in November 1916, with delegate elections, the final draft was approved on 5 February 1917. The membership of the congress was not representative of all regions, classes, the 220 delegates were all Carrancistas, since the Constitutionalist faction had been victorious militarily. However, that did not mean they were of one mind, most delegates were middle class, not workers or peasants. Middle class professionals predominated, with lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, villas home state of Chihuahua had only one delegate. The predominantly civilian composition of the Constituent Congress was in contrast with the place of power in revolutionary Mexico. Most senior generals did not participate directly in the congress, an important group of delegates elected to the congress were the Bloc Renovador, who had been elected in 1912 to the Mexican legislature during Maderos presidency. Some considered them tainted for their continuing to serve during Victoriano Huertas regime, some congressmen fled Mexico, others were jailed by Huerta

4.
Mexican nationality law
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This law was last modified in 2005. In general terms, Mexican nationality is based on both the principle of jus soli and the principle of jus sanguinis, the Mexican constitution also makes a distinction between nationals of Mexico and citizens of Mexico. According to the 30th article of the Constitution of Mexico, there are two ways in which a person can acquire Mexican citizenship, by birth and by naturalization, as in most other Central and South American countries, Mexican law differentiates between nationality and citizenship. The 34th article of the Mexican constitution establishes that Mexican citizens are those Mexican who are 18 years of age or older, Mexican law also distinguishes between naturalized citizens and natural-born citizens in many ways. Under the Mexican constitution, naturalized citizens are prohibited from serving in an array of positions. The Mexican nationality law acknowledges that a Mexican by birth may possess another nationality, if that is the case, however, such an individual must always enter and leave the country as a Mexican. If in such a case, she or he can request a Certificate of Nationality from the government, visa requirements for Mexican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Mexico

5.
Capital punishment in Mexico
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Capital punishment in Mexico was officially abolished in 2005, having not been used in civil cases since 1937, and in military cases since 1961. There is significant history of abolitionism in Mexico, dating back to the 19th century, following the Plan of Ayutla, the 1857 constitution was drafted, which specifically outlawed the death penalty for political crimes, and allowed abolition for ordinary crimes in the future. Personal experiences too may have been a factor, as many Mexicans had experienced political repression, there was widespread condemnation of the death penalty in the media, and many Mexican literates were familiar with the work of Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria. Following the rule of Porfirio Díaz, the death penalty article was amended in the reform led to the current Constitution of Mexico. Mexico is a majority Roman Catholic country, with 88% of the population identifying themselves as Roman Catholic, the Vatican has made numerous statements criticizing capital punishment, and this may be a factor in the debate in Mexico. The Mexican Drug War has fueled rising rates of violent crimes such as kidnapping and murder, there have been proposals to amend the 1917 Constitution to allow capital punishment from both the PVEM and the Institutional Revolutionary Party, but both were rejected. Constitution, Article 22 Cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited, specifically, penalties of death, mutilation, infamy, marks, physical punishments, torments, excessive fines, confiscation of assets, and others are abolished. Confiscation of assets does not include the application of said assets to pay for civil responsibilities caused by a crime, or when used to pay taxes or other fines. Nor will it be confiscation when said assets are part of activities, or when they are related to organized crime. In 1981, Mexico ratified the American Convention on Human Rights, a treaty of the Organization of American States, Mexico does not extradite to countries that are seeking the death penalty, and has successfully defended 400 of its citizens charged with a capital offence in the United States. This has in the past led to American fugitives crossing the border into Mexico in order to avoid the death penalty, medina had been convicted in 1989 for killing an undercover police officer in Dallas. According to Mexican officials, Suárez was not informed about his right to consular access, and fourteen countries lobbied the United States Supreme Court on behalf of him

6.
Gun laws in Mexico
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Gun politics and laws in Mexico covers the role firearms play as part of society within the limits of the United Mexican States. A common misconception is that firearms are illegal in Mexico and that no person may possess them and this belief originates due the general perception that only members of law enforcement, the armed forces, or those in armed security protection are authorized to have them. The right to keep and bear arms was first recognized as a right under Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1857. However, as part of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, Article 10 was changed where-by the right to keep, the new version of Article 10 specified that citizens were entitled to keep arms but may only bear them among the population in accordance to police regulation. This modification to Article 10 also introduced the so-called. for exclusive use of the, dictating that the law would stipulate which weapons were reserved for the armed forces, including law enforcement agencies, for being considered weapons of war. For purposes of protection, firearms are only permitted within the place of residence and of the type. Contemporary Mexican society experiences gun homicide at a higher rate than other nations. Firearms have played a significant role in the History of Mexico, Mexican Golden Age films often depicted the protagonists and antagonists as gun-slinging cowboys and charros, an example of a cultural attachment to guns that was shared in both sides of the border. It was through the means of armed combat that Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, during the first half of the 20th century, a prevalent culture of guns was well present in Mexico. Prior to the Independence of Mexico, the first official record of a restriction on the possession of firearms occurred in 1811 as the Mexican War of Independence was taking place and this restriction came about as an attempt to stop the Miguel Hidalgo-led insurgency against the Royalists of Spain. The inclination to adopt a ban on firearms came as a precaution. After this measure, four years followed without war under President Guadalupe Victoria, after he took office in April 1829, civil unrest continued and he was ousted by mid-December only for two other men to serve as president before the end of the year. Also in 1857, another mandate was issued requiring a license in order to carry lawfully. In December of the year, a mandate required all persons to surrender such banned weapons. In January 1972, with the enactment of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, la ley señalará cuáles son las prohibidas y la pena en que incurren los que las portaren. Article 10, Every man has the right to keep and to arms for his security. The law will indicate which arms are prohibited and the penalty for those who would carry them, Article 10 of the 1857 Constitution gave citizens the right to keep and bear arms, both in their homes and in public for their security and defense. Legislation was to indicate which types of weapons would be forbidden, la ley federal determinará los casos, condiciones, requisitos y lugares en que se podrá autorizar a los habitantes la portación de armas

7.
President of Mexico
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The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote

8.
Federal government of Mexico
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Similar to the federal government of the United States, the Mexican federal government has three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial. The seat of the government functions per the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, as enacted in 1917. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the president and his Cabinet. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals. The federal government, known as the Supreme Power of the Federation, is constituted by the Powers of the Union, the legislative, the executive, Mexico City, as the capital of the federation is the Federal District, the seat of the powers of the Union. All branches of government are independent, no two separate branches must be vested upon a person or institution, and the legislative power must not be vested upon a single individual. The legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral congress comprising the Senate, the Senate addresses all matters concerning foreign policy, approves international agreements, and confirms presidential appointments. The Chamber of Deputies is formed by 500 representatives of the nation, Deputies cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Being a supplementary system of voting, proportionality is only confined to the plurinominal seats. The Senate consists of 128 representatives of the constituent states of the federation, senators cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, the ministers of the Supreme Court will serve for 15 years and cannot be appointed to serve more than once. Mexico City did not belong to any state in particular, but to the federation, being the capital of the country, as such, it was constituted as a Federal District, ultimately administered by the Powers of the Union. Nonetheless, since the late 1990s certain autonomy and powers have been gradually devolved, the executive power is vested upon a head of government now elected by first-past-the-post plurality. The legislative power is vested upon a unicameral Legislative Assembly, the judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice and the Judiciary Council. The Federal District was divided into delegaciones or boroughs, in 2016, the name was changed to Mexico City and the 12 delegations were transformed into municipalities each one with its own mayor

9.
Cabinet of Mexico
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The cabinet of Mexico is the Executive Cabinet and is a part of the executive branch of the Mexican government. It consists of eighteen Secretaries of State, the head of the federal executive legal office, in addition to the legal Executive Cabinet there are other Cabinet-level administration offices that report directly to the President of the Republic. Officials from the legal and extended Cabinet are subordinate to the President, the term Cabinet does not appear in the Constitution, where reference is made only to the Secretaries of State. Article 89 of the Constitution provides that the President of Mexico can assign, the Executive Cabinet does not play a collective legislative or executive role. The Executive Cabinet members are appointed by the President of the Republic, only the Attorney General needs to be approved by the Senate. Cabinet Secretaries are often selected from past and current governors, senators, private citizens such as businessmen or former military officials are also common Cabinet choices. It is not rare for a Secretary to be moved from one Secretariat to another, some positions are not part of the legal Executive Cabinet, but have cabinet-level rank therefore their incumbents are considered members of the extended cabinet. Some of the administration offices are, Executive Cabinet CIA, Chiefs of State

10.
Congress of the Union
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The Congress of the Union is the legislative branch of the Mexican government. The Congress is an assembly, consisting of two chambers, the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate of the Republic. Its structure and responsibilities are defined in the Third Title, Second Chapter, the upper chamber is the Senate, Cámara de Senadores or Senado. It comprises 128 seats,96 members are elected by popular vote for six-year terms. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, Cámara de Diputados and it has 500 seats,300 members are elected by popular vote to three-year terms, the other 200 seats are allocated according to proportional representation. The Congress of the Union has two chambers, the 200 PR-seats are distributed generally without taking account the 300 plurality-seats, but since 1996 a party cannot get more seats overall than 8% above its result for the PR-seats. There are two exceptions to that rule, a party can lose only PR-seats by that rule. Also, a party cannot get more than 300 seats overall, the Chamber of Senators has 128 members, elected for a six-year term,96 of them in three-seat constituencies and 32 by proportional representation on a nationwide basis. In the state constituencies, two seats are awarded to the plurality winner and one to the first runner-up and it is conventional to refer to each Legislature by the Roman numeral of its term. Thus, the current Congress is known as the LXIII Legislature, the previous Congress was the LXII Legislature, the I Legislature of Congress was the first Constitutional congress after the 1857 Constitution. Early in the 20th century, the revolutionary leader Francisco I, madero popularized the slogan, Sufragio Efectivo – no Reelección. In keeping with that long held principle, and until 2014, on February 10,2014, the Mexican Constitution was amended to allow reelection to the legislative bodies for the first time. Starting with the General Election of 2018, Deputies and Senators will be allowed to run for reelection, Chamber of Deputies Senate Politics of Mexico List of legislatures by country Chamber of Deputies Senate

11.
Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
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The Senate of the Republic, constitutionally Chamber of Senators of the Honorable Congress of the Union, is the upper house of Mexicos bicameral Congress. In a senatorial race, each party nominates two candidates who run and are elected together by direct vote, Senators serve six-year terms, running concurrently with the President of Mexico. Special elections are rare, as substitutes are chosen at every election, the Senate is completely renewed every six years, since senators are barred from immediate reelection. This will change at the 2018 election, in Spanish, it is conventional to refer to each Legislature of the Senate by the Roman numeral of its term. The current session is known as the LXII Legislatura, Senators are elected to serve during two legislatures of the Mexican Chamber of Deputies. Thus, current Senators will serve during the 62nd and 63rd Legislatures of the Chamber of Deputies, according to the Constitution, senators are the representatives of the nation. To be a senator, for any of the two principles of choice, you must meet the requirements, Being a Mexican citizen by birth. Not being active duty in the military or have control of police or rural gendarmerie at least ninety days before the election, not to be secretary or undersecretary of state unless it is definitively separated from office at least ninety days before the election. Not be Minister of the Supreme Court unless definitively separated from office three years before the election, no minister of some religious cult. Senators are elected for a period of six years, corresponding to two legislatures and can not be reelected for the period, although alternately. They are elected by popular suffrage and secret ballot in every state of the republic. They are also 32 senators elected by proportional representation, the integration of the governing bodies in the LXII Legislature has been as follows, For the office of legislative affairs Senators integrate in Commissions that are dedicated to a particular issue. The most important committees are those of, Interior, Constitutional Issues, Defense, Finance, Justice, each Senator belongs to at least three different commissions, and each committee shall elect a Chairman and two Secretaries 5 to coordinate their work. A senator holds office for a period of six years for which he was elected, divided into two legislatures of three years each, from 1 September 2015 is installed LXIII Legislature, which will end his term on 31 August 2018. The time between the regular sessions known as Recesses, there are two recesses that run from December 16 to January 31 and May 1 to August 31. The sessions of the Standing Committee are held in the Senate during the first recess and the House of Representatives in the second recess

12.
Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
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The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house of the Congress of the Union, the bicameral legislature of Mexico. The structure and responsibilities of both chambers of Congress are defined in Articles 50 to 70 of the current constitution, the Chamber of Deputies is composed of one federal representative for every 200,000 citizens. Of these,300 majority deputies are elected by plurality from single-member districts. The remaining 200 party deputies are assigned through rules of proportional representation and these seats are not tied to districts, rather, they are allocated to parties based on each partys share of the national vote. The 200 party deputies are intended to counterbalance the sectional interests of the district-based representatives, substitutes are elected at the same time as each deputy, so special elections are rare. From 1917 to 2015, deputies were barred from serving consecutive terms in accordance with the Constitutions ban on immediate reelection to the legislature, thus, the Chamber of Deputies was one of the few legislative bodies in the world that was completely renewed at an election. However, this change at the 2018 elections, deputies are now permitted to run for reelection. Congressional elections held halfway into the six year mandate are known as mid-term elections. President of the Chamber of Deputies Directive Board Congress of Mexico Senate of Mexico Politics of Mexico Official website

13.
Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation
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The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Spanish, Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación is the supreme court of Mexico and the head of the judicial branch of the Mexican federal government. It consists of judges, known as ministers, one of whom is designated the courts president. Judges of the SCJN are appointed for 15 years and they are confirmed by the Senate from a list proposed by the President of the Republic. From among their number, the elect the President of the Court to serve a four-year period, a given minister may serve more than one term as president. The court itself is located just off the plaza of Mexico City on the corners of Pino Suarez. It was built between 1935 and 1941 by Antonio Muñoz Garcia, prior to the Conquest, this site was reserved for the ritual known as Dance of the Flyers which is still practiced today in Papantla. It was also the site of a large market known as El Volador. The interior of the building contains four panels painted in 1941 by José Clemente Orozco, there is also one mural done by American artist George Biddle entitled War and Peace at the entrance to the library. While this building is still the home of the Court

14.
Administrative divisions of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence

15.
States of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence

16.
Municipalities of Mexico
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Municipalities are the second-level administrative division in Mexico, where the first-level administrative division is the state. There are 2,438 municipalities in Mexico, with an average population 45,616, the internal political organization and their responsibilities are outlined in the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution and further expanded in the constitutions of the states to which they belong. All Mexican states are divided into municipalities and this concept, which originated after the Mexican Revolution, is known as a municipio libre. A municipal president heads the ayuntamiento, the municipal president is elected by plurality and cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. The municipal council consists of a cabildo with a síndico and several regidores, in that sense, a municipality in Mexico is roughly equivalent to the counties of the United States, whereas the auxiliary presidency is equivalent to a township. Nonetheless, auxiliary presidencies are not considered an administrative division since they depend fiscally on the municipalities in which they are located. Although an urban area might cover an entire municipality, auxiliary councils might still be used for administrative purposes, municipalities are responsible for public services, street lighting, public safety, traffic, supervision of slaughterhouses and the cleaning and maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1983, they can collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state, since the Conquest and colonization of Mexico, the municipality became the basic entity of the administrative organization of New Spain and the Spanish Empire. Settlements located in strategic locations received the status of city and were entitled to form an ayuntamiento or municipality, as such, every state set its own requirements for a settlement to become a municipality. However, in 1983 the 115th article was modified to expand the authority to raise revenue. Data from the 2015 Intercensal Survey by INEGI and it is administered through the Government of the Federal District and it has its own unicameral Legislative Assembly. For administrative purposes, the Federal District is subdivided into delegaciones or boroughs, while not fully equivalent to a municipality, since 2000, they enjoy a certain degree of political autonomy since residents within a borough directly elect a local borough head of government. However, boroughs do not form local councils and they are not constituted by a group of trustees. They do not have powers, which are mostly centralized in the Federal District government. Most of the public services are organized by the Federal District even if part of the administration responsibilities are carried out by the boroughs. Still, at the level, the delegaciones of the Federal District are considered a second-level territorial division in statistical data collection. Other municipalities in Mexico have chosen to use a similar administrative internal organization, all municipalities of Baja California are subdivided into boroughs or delegaciones

17.
Mexican general election, 2006
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A general election was held in Mexico on Sunday, July 2,2006. Voters went to the polls to elect, on the level, A new President of the Republic to serve a six-year term. 500 members to serve for a term in the Chamber of Deputies. 128 members to serve terms in the Senate. In each state, two first-past-the-post seats are allocated to the party with the largest share of the vote, several local ballots were also held on the same day, most notably, The election of a new Head of Government and new Legislative Assembly of the Federal District. See,2006 Mexican Federal District election, gubernatorial elections in the states of Guanajuato, Jalisco and Morelos. Municipal and local elections in those three states and in Campeche, Colima, Nuevo León, Querétaro, and Sonora. San Luis Potosí also elected a new local congress, on September 5,2006, Felipe Calderón Hinojosa was declared President-Elect by the Federal Electoral Tribunal after a highly controversial post-electoral process. Eight political parties participated in the 2006 presidential election, five of them joined forces in two different electoral coalitions, calderons victory was confirmed by the Federal courts on September 5,2006, and he was declared President-elect of Mexico. 3% of the vote. The IFE further declared that the count, which began on Wednesday. PAN chairman Manuel Espino Barrientos requested that IFE declare a winner by the night of July 3,2006, Preliminary results clearly showed that PRI-PVEM candidate Roberto Madrazo did not have a realistic chance of winning the presidency. Those results also showed that the parties would retain their registration. The so-called foreign vote, whereby for the first time Mexican citizens living abroad were allowed to vote, albeit solely in the presidential contest, the overall turn-out for this election was approximately 59% of the eligible voters. The Preliminary Electoral Results Program is mandated by law to provide an estimate of the electoral results. This point was made repeatedly by IFE President Ugalde in his statements as the 2006 electoral process unfolded. The use of the PREP has been criticized because its data has been used by one candidate to proclaim his victory, however, the PREP tends to predict the winner accurately when the difference between candidates is more than 1%. After the PREP was concluded on 4 July, the official district-based counts were begun on Wednesday 5 July 2006, in some cases, such as when a tally sheet was illegible, the sealed ballot packets were opened and recounted. All under the eyes of any election observers that any political party cared to provide, the district committee results, along with the ballots, were then transferred to the IFE in Mexico City, which resulted in the running total shown below

18.
Mexican general election, 2012
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A general election was held in Mexico on Sunday, July 1,2012. Voters went to the polls to elect, on the level, A new President of the Republic to serve a six-year term. The current Constitution of Mexico prohibits any type of presidential re-election,500 members to serve for a three-year term in the Chamber of Deputies. 128 members to serve terms in the Mexican Senate. In each state, two first-past-the-post seats are allocated to the party with the largest share of the vote, several local ballots were held on the same day, notably, The election of a new Head of Government and new Legislative Assembly of the Federal District. If approved, the reforms will be implemented, Second round voting in case no presidential candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes. 96 Senators of the Republic,3 for each state, elected by plurality for a period of six years,400 Federal Deputies elected for a period of three years with possibility of reelection. The following are individuals who have formally announced that they are running for president in 2012. 5th Josefina Vázquez Mota was announced as PAN presidential candidate following her victory in the selection process. Nominee, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, former Head of Government of the Federal District from Tabasco, Marcelo Ebrard, withdrew November 15,2011 Never publicly announced intentions to run but was considered a likely contender. The movement Yo Soy 132 formed in response to perceived bias, with initial focus on Peña Nieto as the flagship of corruption, tyranny. On May 11,2012, Peña Nieto visited Universidad Iberoamericana and was received with scorn, both printed and televised media reported this as a minor mishap, called the students intolerant, and claimed that they had been paid by leftist organizations. In response,131 students identified themselves on a YouTube video by their university IDs and this caused a ripple effect as many tweeted Im the 132nd student in solidarity. Mass protests organized by public and private university students then took place across the country, following the elections, López Obrador demanded a full recount, claiming there had been widespread irregularities. 2% of the popular vote. Which officially has until 6 September to announce a winner, the complaint also pointed towards the PRIs campaign going over budget an alleged 1000% over the established allowed budget by the Federal Electoral Institute which is of 336 million Mexican pesos. On July 18 López Obrador accused Peña Nieto of using illicit funds and he said that if the Electoral Tribunal does not invalidate the election, Mexico will be governed by a gang of evildoers. On 30 August 2012, the TEPJF, Mexicos highest election-law court rejected the allegations of fraud after they concluded there was insufficient evidence of wrongdoing. Mexicos Federal Electoral Institute confirmed in January 2013 that Peña Nietos party spent $5.2 million in electronic cards throughout the whole campaign, opposition parties complained that this represented a form of illicit funding, but the IFE claimed the contrary

19.
Mexican general election, 2018
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General elections are scheduled to be held in Mexico in July 2018. Voters will elect a new president to serve a term,500 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 128 members of the Senate. The members of the legislature elected on this date will be the first allowed to run for re-election in subsequent elections, incumbent President Enrique Peña Nieto is not eligible for a second term according to the constitution. The President is elected by plurality in a round of voting. No party is allowed to more than 300 seats. In the three-seat constituencies two seats are allocated to the party receiving the highest number of votes and one seat to the party receiving the second-highest number of votes

20.
Mexican gubernatorial elections, 2010
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Gubernatorial elections were held in fourteen Mexican states on Sunday, July 4,2010. The gubernatorial elections were held simultaneously with other state and local elections, elections for governor were held in Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Puebla, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz and Zacatecas. A multi-party alliance between President Felipe Calderóns National Action Party and left-wing parties won elections in Oaxaca, Puebla, the results indicated an Institutional Revolutionary Party pick-up from the National Action Party. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Chihuahua, the Institutional Revolutionary Party held Durango. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Hidalgo, the incumbent government of Institutional Revolutionary Party Governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz was seen as increasingly repressive and corrupt by voters and political observers. Ruiz oversaw the crackdown on left-wing protesters in the city of Oaxaca in 2006, Ruiz was also believed to be linked to Oaxacan paramilitary groups which are responsible to violence and deaths in rural areas of Oaxaca. On the day of the election, Oaxacan police arrested 39 people for possessing bomb making materials in two hotels, a party alliance between the states largest vote winner, the Peace and Progress Coalition led by Gabino Cue, ousted the PRI from power. An alliance between the National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and smaller parties won Puebla from the Institutional Revolutionary Party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party held Hidalgo. The mayor of Cancún had been arrested during the campaign for alleged connections to drug traffickers, an alliance between the National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and smaller parties appear to have won Sinaloa from the incumbent Institutional Revolutionary Party. The gubernatorial election in Tamaulipas was marred by the violent assassination of the leading PRI candidate, Rodolfo Torre Cantú and his brother, Egidio, became the PRI candidate following the assassination. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Tamaulipas, the Institutional Revolutionary Party won Tlaxcala from the National Action Party. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Vercruz, the Institutional Revolutionary Party won Zacatecas from the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution. BBC News, Drug gang violence casts shadow over Mexico elections

21.
National Electoral Institute
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The organizations president is Lorenzo Córdova Vianello. The legislative branch of the government, the national political parties. Since its creation, the constitutional and legal regulations in this matter have experienced further major reforms. IFE had legal personnel and assets of its own and its headquarters were located in the Federal District, and it was organized under a decentralized framework that allowed it to exercise its duties throughout the country. As a result of reforms initiated by President Enrique Peña Nieto, the IFE was dissolved on April 4,2014. IFE was also charged with the registration, funding and oversight of national political parties, rules and guidelines for the registration of national political parties are outlined in the Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures. The creation of a political association is usually regarded as the first step towards the creation of a full-fledged political party. INE website Federal Electoral Tribunal website IFE, Now INE INE directory

22.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
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Though it is a full member of the Socialist International, the PRI is not considered a social democratic party in the traditional sense, its modern policies have been characterized as centrist. Its membership in the Socialist International dates from 1996, along with its rival, the left-wing PRD, they make Mexico one of the few nations with two major, competing parties part of the same international grouping. The PRI is the largest political party in Mexico according to membership, the adherents of the PRI party are known in Mexico as priístas and the party is nicknamed el tricolor because of its use of the colors green, white and red. The current president of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, is a member of the PRI, at first glance, the PRIs name looks like a confusing oxymoron or paradox to English speakers since they normally associate the term revolution with the destruction of institutions. In 1990, Peruvian Nobel Prize laureate for literature, Mario Vargas Llosa, even though the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution had ended in 1920, Mexico had continued to encounter political unrest. The intent was to institutionalize the agreements result of Mexican Revolution, in the first years of the partys existence, the PNR was, above all, the only political machine existing. As President of the government, the executive President continued to hold power as in an era known as the Maximato. The following presidents of this period, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and this ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, a candidate handpicked by the liberal PNR leaders. Though the now strongly conservative Calles thought he could control him, after establishing himself in the presidency, in 1936 Cárdenas had Calles and dozens of his corrupt associates arrested or deported to the United States. Cárdenass successor Manuel Ávila Camacho gave the party its present name in 1946, from 1929 to 1982, the PRI won every presidential election by well over 70 percent of the vote—margins that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, in essence, given the PRIs overwhelming dominance, the president chose his successor. The PRIs dominance was near-absolute at all levels as well. It held a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate. After several decades in power the PRI had become a symbol of corruption, consequently, its left wing went on to form its own party the Party of the Democratic Revolution in 1989. The conservative National Action Party became a party after 1976 when it obtained the support from businessmen after recurring economic crises. Critics claim electoral fraud, with voter suppression and violence, was used when the machine did not work. However, the three major parties now make the claim against each other. Subsequent administrations maintained stability with continued assistance from PRI members such as Secretary of Finance Francisco Gil Diaz, Lázaro Cárdenas renamed the party the Party of the Mexican Revolution whose aim was to establish a democracy of workers and socialism

23.
National Action Party (Mexico)
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The National Action Party, founded in 1939, is one of the three main political parties in Mexico. Since the 1980s has been an important political party winning local, state, in 2000, PAN candidate Vicente Fox was elected for a six-year Presidential term, in 2006, PAN candidate Felipe Calderón succeeded Fox in presidency. During the period 2000-2012, both houses of the legislature had PAN pluralities, but the party did not have a majority in either house of the Congress. In the 2006 legislative elections the party won 207 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 52 out of 128 Senators, in the 2012 Legislative Elections, the PAN won 38 seats in the Senate, and 114 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Action Party was founded in 1939 by Manuel Gómez Morín and he saw the need for the creation a permanent political party rather than an ephemeral organization to oppose the expansion of power by the post-revolutionary Mexican state. When Gómez Morín was rector of in 1933-35, the government attempted to impose socialist education, in defending academic freedom, Gómez Morín forged connections with individuals and groups that later came together in the foundation of the PAN in September 1939. Gómez Morín was not himself a militant Catholic, but he was a believer who rejected liberalism and individualism. In 1939, Gómez Morín and a significant number of UNECs leadership came together to found the PAN, the PAN’s “Doctrine of National Action” was strongly influenced by Catholic social doctrine articulated in Rerum novarum and Quadragesimo anno and rejected Marxist models of class warfare. The PAN’s newspaper, La Nación was founded by another former UNEC member, the relationship between the PAN and the Catholic Church was not without tension. The partys founder Gómez Morín was leery of clerical oversight of the party, although its members were mainly urban Catholic professionals, for its part, the Church hierarchy did not want to identify itself with a particular political party, since the Constitution of 1917 forbade it. In the 1950, the PAN, which had seen to be Catholic in its makeup. The PAN initially was a party of “civic example”, an independent loyal opposition that generally did not win elections at any level, however, in the 1980s it began a transformation to a political power, beginning at the local and state levels in the North of Mexico. A split in the PAN occurred in 1977, with the faction and the more secular wing splitting. The conflict came to a head and in 1977. The party ran no candidate in 1976. The PAN had strength in Northern Mexico and its candidates had won elections earlier on, the following year Manuel Torres Serranía, from Quiroga, Michoacán, became the partys first municipal president and Alfonso Hernández Sánchez its first state deputy. In 1962, Rosario Alcalá became the first female candidate for state governor, in 1967 Norma Villarreal de Zambrano became the first female municipal president. Until the 1980s, the PAN was an opposition party that was considered pro-Catholic and pro-business. The PAN came to be viewed as viable opposition party for a range of voters as it became more secular

24.
Party of the Democratic Revolution
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The Party of the Democratic Revolution is a social democratic political party in Mexico. The PRD is one of the three political parties in Mexico, the others being the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the National Action Party. The PRD originated from the Democratic Current, a political faction formed in 1986 from the PRI Party, the PRD was formed after the 1988 electoral fraud which sparked a movement away from the authoritarian rule of the PRI. Today, the PRD is a member of the Broad Progressive Front alliance, the PRD has its origins with the leftists members of the PRI, Institutional Revolutionary Party. The PRI had dominated Mexican politics since its founding in 1929, in 1986, three PRI members – Rodolfo González Guevara, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas – formed the Democratic Current, a political faction within the PRI. The Democratic Current was also against technocratization, in which the people in power had not held public office and were scholars that were educated abroad. Under the Miguel de la Madrid presidency which lasted from 1982-1988, the Democratic Current did not have many technocrats and was thus left out of the decision making process. This political marginalization led the Democratic Current members to be vocal about their concerns because they did not have a position of power to protect within the PRI. However, the PRI refused to acknowledge the Democratic Current as an organization unless they joined a union, the forming of a group that was not united because of work but because of difference in ideology within the PRI caused fear of division within the party. Once de la Madrids six-year term as president was coming to a close, the PRI had no process to apply as candidate so Cardenas could not run as a candidate for president. On October 4,1987 Carlos Salinas de Gortari was ultimately chosen as the PRI candidate, Gortari did not embody anything that the Democratic Current wanted and many of the Democratic Current members left the PRI including Cárdenas during November 1987. Some Democratic Current members went on to support Cárdenas in his 1988 quest for presidency, on October 12,1988 Cárdenas became the Authentic Party of the Mexican presidential candidate. Cárdenas still remained an independent candidate due to laws which meant that many parties could choose Cárdenas as their candidate. The win of the PRIs candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, years later, it was determined that there was indeed electoral fraud in the election. The 1988 electoral fraud sparked a movement against the rule of the PRI. As an integral part of the movement towards democracy, the Party of the Democratic Revolution was formed as Mexico’s only leftwing party, on May 5,1989, Cárdenas declared the establishment of the PRD. Former PRI members who helped found the PRD include, Cárdenas, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo. The party was founded by smaller left-wing parties such as the Mexican Communist Party, Unified Socialist Party of Mexico, Socialist Mexican Party, the PMS donated its registration with the Federal Electoral Commission to enable the new party to be established

25.
Labor Party (Mexico)
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The Labor Party is a political party in Mexico. It was founded on December 8,1990, the party is currently led by Alberto Anaya. The PTs roots lay in a network of community formed by Maoist activists. The party first participated in elections in 1991, but it failed to win 1.5 percent of the vote. In 1994, Rosario Ybarra, the prominent activist, became the presidential candidate, in 1998 the PT allied with the larger Democratic Revolution Party for the first time in the state of Zacatecas. In the 2000 elections, the party took part in the PRD-led Alliance for the Good of All, as part of the Alliance, it won 7 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 1 seat in the Senate. The PT ran separately from the PRD in the 2003 elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the party won 2.4 percent of the popular vote and 6 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In November 2005, the PT endorsed the PRDs candidate for President, in these elections the party won 12 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 3 out of 128 Senators. In October 2006, the PT further allied itself with the PRD and the Convergence Party to form the Broad Progressive Front, which was granted the register by the Federal Electoral Institute

26.
National Regeneration Movement
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The National Regeneration Movement is a left-wing political party in Mexico. Formally registered as a party in 2014, it is led by former two-time presidential candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador. MORENA was founded by López Obrador as a cross-party organization supporting his candidacy for the Presidency in the 2012 general election, after the election López Obrador left his former party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution, and MORENA transformed from an unofficial movement into a political party

27.
Ecologist Green Party of Mexico
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The Ecological Green Party of Mexico is one of the six political parties to have representation in the Mexican Congress. In the 2012 Legislative elections, the party took 34 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, in 2008, the PVEM initiated an advertising campaign in favor of reintroducing the death penalty in Mexico. This led to the European Green Partys withdrawal of recognition of the PVEM as a green party. During an interview, PVE candidate Gamaliel Ramirez verbally attacked an openly gay candidate for Guadalajara mayor & called for laws against homosexuality to be established. In the following days, Ramirez issued an apology after the party expressed disappointment at his remarks. While the party has pledged to support LGBT rights issues,3 representatives abstained from a vote on Mexico City granting legal recognition to same-sex couples, official website Death penalty debate grows in Mexico Mexico to rethink death penalty

28.
Citizens' Movement (Mexico)
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Citizens Movement is a political party in Mexico. Andrés Manuel López Obrador was the first leader and it was initially known as Convergence for Democracy, but the name was shortened to simply Convergence in August 2002. In July 2011, it was reformed as the Citizens Movement, Convergence was founded as a national political grouping in 1997. In that election, as its part of the share, it was awarded one Senate seat. It fought the 2003 mid-term congressional election as an independent party, as of 2004 it governed 28 municipalities in various parts of the country. The party won 17 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 5 out of 128 Senators, Convergence describes itself as a democratic socialist party. Its electoral colours are blue and orange, the party logo is a circle, superimposed by an orange eagle. The party was renamed the Citizens Movement and reformed on 31 July 2011

29.
New Alliance Party (Mexico)
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The New Alliance Party is a political party in Mexico. The creation of this party by the SNTE, a group that has supported the PRI in every election caused accusations of treason for Gordillo. The partys president is Jorge Kahwagi, on January 8,2006 the PNA elected Roberto Campa as its candidate for president in the 2006 general elections. In the 2006 legislative elections the party won nine out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, in the 2009 legislative elections the party lost one seat in the Chamber of Deputies, leaving it with eight seats. In the 2012 legislative elections, PANAL won 2 seats in the Senate, the party logo distinctly resembles that of the now-defunct Canadian Alliance, a conservative party active from 2000 to 2003. The logo was provided by an ad agency, purported to resemble a dove, despite the discovery of the logos resemblance to that of the Canadian Alliance, it was nonetheless adopted. The partys 2012 presidential candidate, Gabriel Quadri, appeared in a wetsuit at his campaign launch, the New Alliance Party introduced Copa Turquesa 2015, a soccer tournament, which will begin on March 28 in the boys division and April 5 in the women division. Copa Turquesa will be held in municipalities in the state of Puebla. Copa Turquesa will have 12 headquarters in the municipalities of, el SNTE y su nuevo partido politico. Archived from the original on 19 November 2008, archived from the original on 27 September 2007

30.
Secretariat of Foreign Affairs (Mexico)
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The Mexican Secretariat of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for Mexicos foreign affairs. Mexico currently has 80 Embassies,33 Consulates-General,35 Consulates,1 Representative Office in Ramallah,1 Trade Office in Taiwan and 144 honorary consulates around the world, mexico also has permanent observer mission status to the AU, CAN, CE, Mercosur, NAM and Unasur. The person in charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, also known domestically as the canciller

31.
International law
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Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states, analogous entities, such as the Holy See, and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, the field of study combines two main branches, the law of nations and international agreements and conventions. The Italian jurist Sir Alberico Gentili was the first to write on public international law and it is usually distinguished from private international law, which concerns the resolution of conflict of laws. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a nation with a distinct national identity. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and it does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy, and, in general, because international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in applicable areas are often subject to dispute. Under article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in addition, judicial decisions and teachings may be applied as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in treaties, customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i. e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the formation of the International Law Commission, codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms as to all states with no permissible derogations. Colombia v Perú ICJ6, recognising custom as a source of international law, belgium v Spain ICJ1, only the state where a corporation is incorporated has standing to bring an action for damages for economic loss. Where there are disputes about the meaning and application of national laws. The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties in their context, what the writers intended when they wrote the text. A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation in the light of its object and purpose, i. e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty and these are general rules of interpretation, specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. Greece v United Kingdom ICJ1, ICJ had no jurisdiction to hear a dispute between the UK government and a private Greek businessman under the terms of a treaty

32.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

33.
Sovereignty
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Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a term designating supreme authority over some polity. It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation, derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, and is still actively debated and it has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority, Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy. The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that, The imperium of the people is transferred to the Emperor, the Emperor is not bound by the law. Emperor is the law making and abiding force, Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, although he did not use the term expressly. Classical Ulpians statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times, Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom, Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life. 1380–1400, the issue of sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucers Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women and we desire most from men, From men both lund and poor, To have sovereignty without lies. For where we have sovereignty, all is ours, Though a knight be ever so fierce and it is our desire to have master Over such a sir. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, in his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler, however, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the law of the state. Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”. With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings. During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State

34.
Independence
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Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is a dependent territory, Independence does not necessarily mean freedom. Whether the attainment of independence is different from revolution has long been contested, nation-states have been granted independence without any revolutionary acts. The Russian October Revolution, for example, was not intended to seek national independence, however, the American Revolutionary War was intended to achieve independence from the beginning. Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many, the means can extend from peaceful demonstrations, like in the case of the Indian independence movement, to a violent civil war. Autonomy refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory. A protectorate refers to a region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region. Declaring independence and attaining it however, are quite different, a well-known successful example is the U. S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776, the dates of established independence, are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence day