Intellectual abilities do not decline overallSpeed of processing slowsChanges in memoryExercise mind and body to keep your brain young.

preoperational stage

Ages 2-7

the child begins to represent the world with words and images. these words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action (2 - 7 years)

Final development of the frontal lobesPiaget’s final stage of formal operationsPreoccupation with ones self- Personal fable- belief that he/she is unique/special- Imaginary audience- everyone is watching

what causes you to start, direct, and continue activities that meet physical or psychological

needs/wants

Intrinsic motivation

the motivation to do work because it is interesting, engaging, or possibly challenging rather than because someone is rewarding us to do the work.

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

Instincts

biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior

Instinct approach

instincts motivate our behavior

William McDougall

Proposed 18 instincts

descriptions, but no explinations

Need

something that is necessary for survival (food, water)

Physical arousal

mouth-watering, stomach growing, ect.

Drive

physiological arousal and psychological tension caused by a need

primary drives

involve survival (hunger, thirst)

Secondary drives

learned through experience or conditioning (need for money, need for social approval).

Drive-reduction theory

Behaviors arise from the desire to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.

Homeostasis

tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

McClelland’s 3 psychological needs

1. Need for achievement (nAch): Strong desire to achieve both realistic and challenging goals- driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators2. Need for affiliation (nAff): Need for social interactions and relationships with others.3. Need for Power (nPow): need to have control or influence over other people.

Stimulus Motive

motive that appears to be unlearned, but causes an increase in stimulation- ex. Curiosity

Arousal Theory

people have an optimal level of tension/arousal- Sometimes level of arousal is reduced. Sometimes it is increased.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

we perform best at a medium state of arousal. Not high or low.

Sensation seekers

people who need more arousal than the average person

Incentive

something that attracts or lures people into action

Incentive approach

behaviors are motivated by reward

Expectancy-value theory

we must understand the beliefs, values, and importance of the act in order to predict actions

taking into account how you feel about the stimulus. Thinking about the emotion/fear

Facial feedback hypothesis

facial expression causes the emotion

Cognitive-Mediational Theory

- Richard Lazarus- How do you interpret the stimulus?- annoyed, scared, laughing?

What is social psychology

The scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others

Social Influence

Process through which the presence of others can influence the behavior of an individual

Conformity

changing one’s own behavior to match that of other people

Group Think

When people place more importance on maintain group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned

Consumer Psychology

Studies the habits of consumers, including compliance

Compliance

changing your behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change

Compliance Techniques

1. Foot-in-the-door – asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment.- came from the door-to-door salesman2. Door-in-the-face technique – asking for a large commitment and being refused, then asking for a smaller commitment. - Norm of reciprocity

3. The lowball technique – getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment.

4. Thats-not-all technique - add something to the offer

Obedience

Changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority figure

Milgram’s Obedience Experiment: 1963

Method: Participants (teachers) were instructed to give electric shocks to another person (learner), who only pretended to be shocked.Results: 65% obeyed until the end, even though many were upset by being asked to do so.

Group Polarization

the tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take somewhat more extreme positions and suggest riskier action when compared to individuals who have not participated in a group discussion

Social facilitation

the positive influence of others on performance

Social impairment

negative influence of others on performance

Social loafing

people who are lazy tend not to do as well when other people are also working on the same task, but they can do quite well when working on their own

Attitude

defined as a tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain idea, person, object or situation

What are three components of an attitude, how are attitudes formed and how can attitudes be changed?

- Affective component – the way a person feels towards the object, person, or situation. AFFECT means “emotions” or “feelings” so the affective component is the emotional component- Behavior component – the action that a person takes in regard to the person, object or situation.- Cognitive component – the way a person thinks about himself, an object, or a situation.

Attitude Formation

the result of a number of different influences with only one thing in common: they are all learning

Three influences of attitude formation

- Direct contact – one way in which attitudes are formed is by direct contact with the person, idea, situation, or object that is the focus of the attitude. - Direct instruction – when parents tell their children that smoking cigarettes is dangerous and unhealthy. As a result, children may form a negative attitude about smoking.- Interaction with others – sometimes attitudes are formed just because the person is around other people with that attitude.

Vicarious Conditioning (Observational learning)

attitudes are learned though the observation of other people’s actions and reactions to various objects, people, or situations.

Persuasion

the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading or explanation

Factors of predicting successful persuasion- Source -

communicator – person delivering the message. Strong tendency to give more weight to people who are perceived as experts.

Factors of predicting successful persuasion

- Message -

the actual message should be clear and well organized. Messages that are more directed at producing fear are more effective if they only produce some fear and tell you how to avoid the fear producing consequences.

Factors of predicting successful persuasion

- Target audience -

characteristics of the people who are the intended target of the message of persuasion are also important in determining the effectiveness of the message.

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

it is assumed that people either elaborate (add detail) based on what they hear or they do not elaborate at all, preferring to pay attention to the surface characteristics of the message.

central-route processing

people attend to the content of the message

peripheral-route processing

style of information processing that relies on peripheral cues, such as the expertise of the message source, the length of the message, and other factors that have nothing to do with the message content.

Cognitive dissonance

when people do things or say things that don’t match their idea of themselves as smart, nice, or moral. When people experience cognitive dissonance, the resulting tension and arousal are unpleasant, and their motivation is to change something so that the unpleasant feelings and tension are reduced / eliminated.

Three things that people can do to reduce cognitive dissonance.

1. Change their conflicting behavior to make it match their attitude2. Change their current conflicting cognition to justify their behavior3. Form new cognitions to justify their behavior

Impression Formation

the forming of the first knowledge a person has about another person. Includes assigning the other person to a number of categories and drawing conclusions about what that person is likely to do – it’s really all about prediction.**primary effect: the first time people meet someone, they form an impression of that person that persists even though they may later have other contradictory information about that person.

Social Cognition

the mental processes that people use to make sense out of the social world around them.

Stereotype

a set of characteristics that people believe is shared by all members of a particular social category.

Implicit Personality Theory

the categories in which people place others are based on this theory.

- Attribution theory –

Developed by Fritz Heider (1958)as a way of explaining why things happen and why people choose the particular explanations of behavior that they do.Two kinds: external cause and internal cause

Situational cause

when the cause of behavior is assumed to be from external sources (weather, traffic ect)

Dispositional Cause

if the behavior is assumed to come from within the individual

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for people to overestimate the influence of another person’s internal characteristics on behavior and underestimate the influence of the situation

Social Interaction

- Social influence and social cognition are two of the three main areas included in the field of social psychology- The third major area has to do with social interactions with other or the relationships between people.

Prejudice

When a person holds an unsupported and often negative stereotyped attitude about the members of a particular social group

Discrimination

when prejudicial attitudes cause members of a particular group to be treated differently than others in situations that call for equal treatment- “in-group” – the people with whom a particular person identifies- “out-group” – everyone else

Realistic Conflict Theory of prejudice

states that increasing prejudice and discrimination are closely tied to an increasing degree of conflict between the in-group and out-group when those groups are seeking a common resource, such as land or available jobs.

Scapegoats

the group of people with the least power, and the newest immigrants to any area are typically those who have the least power at that time.

Social Cognitive Theory

prejudice is seen as an attitude that is formed as other attitudes are formed, through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences on learning

Social Identity Theory

three processes are responsible for the formation of a person’s identity within a particular social group and the attitudes, concepts, and behavior that go along with identification with that group.

Social categorization

people assign categories to others to help organize information about others.

Social Identity

the part of the self-concept that includes the view of oneself as a member of a particular social group within a social category.

Social comparison

Festinger’s (1954) concept in which people compare themselves favorably to others to improve their own self-esteem

Stereotype Vulnerability

refers to the effect that a person’s knowledge of another’s stereotyped opinions can have on that person’s behavior.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

the effect that expectations can have on outcomes

Equal status contact

everyone was in the same situation with neither group holding power over the other.

Jigsaw Classroom

students have to work together to reach a specific goal.

Physical attractiveness

beauty is one of the main factors

Proximity

close to you – being physically near someone else. People choose friends and lovers in a pool available to them

Birds of a feather

similarity – people tend to like to be around others who are similar to them.

When opposites attract

people chose partners who have complementary qualities

Reciprocity of liking

people have a very strong tendency to like people who like them

Three Components of Love

Intimacy – refers to the feelings of closeness that one has for another person or the sense of having close emotional ties to another.Passion – the physical aspect of love. The emotional and sexual arousal a person feels toward the other person.Commitment – involves decisions one makes about a relationship.

The Love Triangle

1. Romantic love – when intimacy and passion are combined – basis for a more lasting relationship2. Companionate love – when intimacy and commitment are the main component of a relationship (usually in a marriage relationship)3. Consummate love – the ideal form of love that many people see as the ultimate goal.

Aggression

when one person hurts or tries to destroy another person deliberately, either with words or with physical behavior.

Social Role

the pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position

Prosocial Behavior

socially desirable behavior that benefits others rather than brings them harm.

Altruism

one form of prosocial behavior that almost always makes people feel good about other people

Why people won’t help

Bystander Effect – the likelihood of a bystander to help someone in trouble decreases as the number of bystanders increaseDiffusion of responsibility – the phenomenon in which a person fails to take responsibility for either action or inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility.

Why is water needed for photosynthesis?

Absorbed by the plants roots and transported to leaves, where veins carry it to the photosynthetic cells

how are photosynthesis and cell respiration similar?

During photosynthesis, light energy from the sun causes CO2+Water to be transformed into glucose+oxygen& Respiration requires glucose and oxygen to make CO2+Water. In the process, chemical energy in the form of ATP is released

What is starting and ending product for light dependent rxn?

Starting: light & water

Ending: ATP, NADPH,O2

What is crossing over, the purpose, & what is chiasma ?

crossing over: the exchange of corresponding segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes

Chiasma- the sites of crossing over appear as X shaped regions

Chlorophyll

A pigment in thylakoid & light absorbing pigment in the chloroplast that plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy.

Grana

Thylakoids that are concentrated in stacks

Grana

the thylakoids are concentrated in stacks called grana

Thylakoids

Inside chloroplasts, membranous sacs

Stomata

tiny pores in leaves where carbon dioxide enters and oxygen leaves

how are photosynthesis and cell respiration different from each other?

Photo synthesis occurs in plants and some bacteria. It occurs within the chloroplasts. Uses H2O, light energy and CO2

Respiration occurs in plants and animals. Occurs in mitochondria. uses O2 and glucose to produce energy, CO2, and H20