Częstochowa pogrom (1902)

Częstochowa pogrom refers to an alleged anti-Semitic disturbance that occurred on August 11, 1902, in the town of Chenstokhov, Russian Partition under Nicholas II (modern Częstochowa, Poland). According to an official Russian report by the Tsarist Governor of the Piotrków Governorate (residing at the 85 kilometres (53 mi) distance), the said pogrom started after an altercation between Jewish shopkeeper and a Catholic woman.[1] However, historical research does not corroborate Russian claims. No Jews have died in the disturbance, the fight at the marketplace between a Jewish man and an ethnic Pole, both suspected of illegal activities, was instigated by the soldiers of the imperial army. Almost instantly, the conflict turned into a mass protest against the Russian occupation. Two people were killed,[2] the riot escalated. The Tsarists Cossacks bludgeoned the president of the Jewish council Henryk Markusfeld and attacked the Jewish neighbourhood, raping young women, looting, and destroying property, it was the first such event in Częstochowa's history.[3]

There were 12,000 Jewish people in Częstochowa at the turn of the century, about 29% of the population. Notably, the relations between Jews and Poles in the town were good.[4] "Products of Jewish goldsmiths – wrote Father Jan Związek – adorned not only the synagogue interiors, but also some Catholic churches."[5] However, bloody anti-Russian disturbances began in Częstochowa already in May 1894 in which 2,200 workers participated,[6] the relations with the occupational forces reached its lowest point in 1905 when many striking workers were killed by the Russians, many others arrested, and sent to Siberia.[6]

According to the Tsarist Governor stationing in Piotrków, mob attacked the Jewish shops in Częstochowa, killing fourteen Jews and one Russian gendarme, the imperial army brought in to restore order were said to have been stoned by the mob. Soldiers then fired, and shot two Polish rioters and wounded several others according to the Russian Governor. Within days, the Tsarist report from Russia made its way to the foreign press, the incident's alleged description was repeated by New York Times on September 14, 1902.[7]

Because of its large Jewish community and the town's importance as a place of pilgrimage for Polish Catholics, Częstochowa experienced anti-Jewish disturbances nevertheless,[1] on May 27, 1919, five Jews were killed in revenge for the shooting of a Polish officer by a young Jew in broad daylight at the NMP Avenue. In June 1937, during the attempted robbery of a Jewish shop one Christian passerby was shot by a Bund member, resulting in dozens of Jewish establishments being destroyed by the right-wing youth, with no fatalities on either side.[2] Throughout the interwar period, Jewish merchants dominated in textile, leather, and food industries locally, over half of the retail establishment belonged to Jews in Częstochowa before World War II.[8]

1.
Russian Partition
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The Russian Partition constituted the former territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that were invaded by the Russian Empire in the course of late-18th-century Partitions of Poland. The Russian acquisition encompassed the largest share of Polands population, living on 463,200 km2 of land constituting formerly east-central territory of a sovereign country. The first partitioning led by imperial Russia took place in 1772, the one in 1793. To both Russians and Poles, the term Russian Poland was not acceptable, to the Russians after partition Poland ceased to exist, and their newly acquired territories were considered the long lost parts of Mother Russia. To Poles, Poland was simply Polish, never Russian, while the Russians used varying administrative names for their new territories, another popular term, used in Poland and adopted by most other historiographies, was the Russian Partition. Even before the partitions from the late 18th century, the Russian Empire had already acquired some territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first Russian partition took place in the late 17th century, under the Third Partition of Poland Russia acquired Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Nieman River, and the remaining parts of Volhynian Ukraine. Major historical events of the Russian Partition included the Warsaw Uprising soon after Kościuszkos victory at Racławice. It ended up in the massacre of Praga district of Warsaw, in which the Russian imperial army killed up to 20,000 civilians in reprisal or revenge, regardless of gender and age. The whole of Praga was strewn with bodies, blood was flowing in streams wrote Suvorov himself. In 1807, the victorious Napoleon formed the Duchy of Warsaw after his War of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia and Russia, the new Duchy was held in personal union by King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. However, the Duchy was dissolved after just a few years following the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Tsarist Kingdom of Poland was established in the territory returned to Russia with the Tsar taking the title of King of Poland. The protectorate was gradually integrated into Russia over the course of the 19th century, notwithstanding, the relentless Russian exploitation activities led to the 1830–1831 November Uprising which took place in the heartland of partitioned Poland, forming a government. Its subsequent defeat resulted in a new wave of Tsarist mass repressions, in 1863–1864 another insurrection, the January Uprising, broke out. This time, the Carmelite friars who helped the insurgents were sent on death marches to Siberia chained by their necks together, the January Uprising lead to the Kingdoms autonomy being drastically reduced, and its renaming as Vistula Land. There is debate as to whether the Kingdom of Poland, as a state, was replaced by the Vistula Land. Towns were stripped of their charters in reprisal, and turned into villages, the Russian Partition of Poland was made an official province of the Russian Empire in 1867. In early 20th century, a part of the Russian Revolution of 1905 was the Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland

2.
Nicholas II of Russia
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Nicholas II was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic, Soviet historiography portrayed Nicholas as a weak and incompetent leader, whose decisions led to military defeats and the deaths of millions of his subjects. The Anglo-Russian Entente, designed to counter German attempts to influence in the Middle East. Nicholas approved the Russian mobilisation on 30 July 1914, which led to Germany declaring war on Russia on 1 August 1914 and it is estimated that around 3,300,000 Russians were killed in World War I. Following the February Revolution of 1917, Nicholas abdicated on behalf of himself and his son, Nicholas, the recovered remains of the Imperial Family were finally re-interred in St. Petersburg, eighty years to the day on 17 July 1998. In 1981, Nicholas, his wife and their children were canonized as martyrs by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, located in New York City. On 15 August 2000 Nicholas and his family were canonized as passion bearers, Nicholas was born in the Alexander Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia. He had five siblings, Alexander, George, Xenia, Michael. Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexanders death in 1894 and he was also very close to his mother, as revealed in their published letters to each other. His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia and his maternal grandparents were King Christian IX and Queen Louise of Denmark. Nicholas was of primarily German and Danish descent, his last ethnically Russian ancestor being Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna, Nicholas was related to several monarchs in Europe. His mothers siblings included Kings Frederik VIII of Denmark and George I of Greece, Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany were all first cousins of King George V of the United Kingdom. Nicholas was also a first cousin of both King Haakon VII and Queen Maud of Norway, as well as King Constantine I of Greece, Tsar Nicholas II was the first cousin-once-removed of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich. To distinguish between them the Grand Duke was often known within the Imperial family as Nikolasha and Nicholas the Tall, while the Tsar was Nicholas the Short. In his childhood, Nicholas, his parents and siblings made annual visits to the Danish royal palaces of Fredensborg and Bernstorff to visit his grandparents, the king and queen. The visits also served as family reunions, as his mothers siblings would come from the United Kingdom, Germany. It was there in 1883, that he had a flirtation with one of his English first cousins, in 1873, Nicholas also accompanied his parents and younger brother, two-year-old George, on a two-month, semi-official visit to England. In London, Nicholas and his family stayed at Marlborough House, as guests of his Uncle Bertie and Aunt Alix, the Prince and Princess of Wales, where he was spoiled by his uncle

3.
Pilgrimage
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A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a persons beliefs and faith, a person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim. As a common experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift. The Holy Land acts as a point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity. Baháulláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the House of Baháulláh in Baghdad, Iraq, and the House of the Báb in Shiraz, later, Abdul-Bahá designated the Shrine of Baháulláh at Bahji, Israel as a site of pilgrimage. Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepal connected to the life of Gautama Buddha are, Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali, Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha, Varanasi, other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimage include, India, Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta. Thailand, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep, tibet, Lhasa, Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso. Sri Lanka, Polonnaruwa, Temple of the Tooth, Anuradhapura, malaysia, Kek Lok Si, Cheng Hoon Teng, Maha Vihara Myanmar, Bagan, Sagaing Hill. The Four Sacred Mountains Japan, Shikoku Pilgrimage,88 Temple pilgrimage in the Shikoku island, Japan 100 Kannon, pilgrimage composed of the Saigoku, Bandō and Chichibu pilgrimages. Saigoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kansai region, Bandō33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Kantō region. Chichibu 34 Kannon, pilgrimage in Saitama Prefecture, Chūgoku 33 Kannon, pilgrimage in the Chūgoku region. Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with the birth, life, pilgrimages were, and are, also made to Rome and other sites associated with the apostles, saints and Christian martyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions of the Virgin Mary. A popular pilgrimage journey is along the Way of St. James to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in Galicia, Spain, chaucers The Canterbury Tales recounts tales told by Christian pilgrims on their way to Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of Thomas Becket. According to Karel Werners Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, most Hindu places of pilgrimage are associated with events from the lives of various gods. Almost any place can become a focus for pilgrimage, but in most cases they are sacred cities, rivers, lakes, Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimages during their lifetime, though this practice is not considered absolutely mandatory. Most Hindus visit sites within their region or locale, Kumbh Mela, Kumbh Mela is one of the largest gatherings of humans in the world. The location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Char Dham, The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath compose the Char Dham pilgrimage circuit. Kanwar Pilgrimage, The Kanwar is Indias largest annual religious pilgrimage, as part of this phenomenon, millions of participants gather sacred water from the Ganga and carry it across hundreds of miles to dispense as offerings in Śiva shrines

4.
Virtual Shtetl
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The Virtual Shtetl is a bilingual Polish-English portal of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw, devoted to the Jewish history of Poland. It was officially launched on June 16,2009, the portal lists over 1,240 towns with maps, statistics and picture galleries. In the future, it also include an interactive system by which Internet users will interact with each other. It will create a link between Polish-Jewish history and the contemporary, multi-cultural world, the Virtual Shtetl is an extension of the real Museum scheduled to open in 2011 on the site of the Warsaw ghetto. Its main objective is to provide a social forum for everyone interested in Polish-Jewish life. It covers both contemporary and pre-war Poland, the English version enables Jews from all over the world to research their own Polish ancestry. Creating a fuller picture of Polish-Jewish history and Polish-Jewish relations was possible thanks to the efforts of many institutions, organizations, because the subject is so broad, the initiatives for further research and development are considered infinite. Numerous resources have been provided by the Polin portal and the Jewish. org. pl community portal, other Internet projects which have participated were the www. izrael. badacz. org and Diapozytyw as well as the Jewish Historical Institute. The Holocaust in Poland History of the Polish Jews Włodawa Synagogue at the List of active synagogues in Poland

5.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime

6.
Pogrom
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A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. First recorded in 1882, the Russian word pogrom is a derived from the verb gromit meaning to destroy, to wreak havoc. Its literal translation is to harm, the noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed via Yiddish. Its widespread circulation in todays world began with the excesses in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. Anti-Jewish riots took place in Europe already in the Middle Ages, some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed in this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. The first atrocities against Jewish civilians, on a scale of destruction, were committed during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, although it is estimated that about 20 percent of Jews of the region were killed. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytskys Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. In conquered territories, a new entity called Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jewish people from the former Commonwealth were only allowed to reside within the Pale, including families expelled by decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia, Jewish self-governing Kehilla was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first, in the 20th century Russia, was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 47 Jews were killed and it was followed by the Kiev pogrom of October 1905, resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. However, at about the time, the Jewish Labour Bund began organizing armed self-defence units ready to shoot. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920, there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War and the Revolution of 1917. Professor Zvi Gitelman estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine thus amounting to a greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648

7.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו‎, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד‎ Yid, ייִדן‎, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group

8.
Bar Kokhba revolt
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The Bar Kokhba revolt was a rebellion of the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire. Fought circa 132–136 CE, it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War, the revolt erupted as a result of ongoing religious and political tensions in Judea following on the failure of the First Revolt in 66−70 CE. The Church Fathers and rabbinic literature emphasize governor of Judaea Rufus role in provoking the revolt, in 132, a revolt led by Bar Kokhba quickly spread from Modiin across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. Roman Governor Rufus then unsuccessfully engaged the early phase of the uprising, Rufus is last recorded in 132, the first year of the rebellion, whether he died or was replaced is uncertain, but Gargilius Antiques is recorded as the Roman Prefect of Judea during the conflict. Initial rebel victories over the Romans established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for over two years, as Bar Kokhba took the title of Nasi. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was regarded by many Jews as the Messiah, who would restore their national independence. This setback, however, caused Roman Emperor Hadrian to assemble a large scale Roman force from across the Empire, the Roman army was made of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions, which finally managed to crush the revolt. The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the depopulation of Judean communities. According to Cassius Dio,580,000 Jews perished in the war and many died of hunger. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery, the Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a genocide. Roman casualties were also considered heavy - XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses, in addition, some historians argue that Legio IX Hispanas disbandment in the mid-2nd century could also have been a result of this war. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, Emperor Hadrian wiped the name off the map, the Bar Kokhba revolt greatly influenced the course of Jewish history and the philosophy of the Jewish religion. Despite easing the persecution of Jews following Hadrians death in 138 CE, Jewish messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar Kokhba as Ben-Kusiba and it was also among the key events to differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism. Although Jewish Christians regarded Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, after the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE, the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Judea. Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, tensions continued to build up in the wake of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean, the final stages of which saw fighting in Judea. Historians have suggested reasons for the sparking of the Bar Kokhba revolt, long-term

9.
Jewish revolt against Heraclius
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Following the Battle of Antioch in 613, Shahrbaraz led his forces through Palaestina Secunda and into Palaestina Prima provinces. In 614, Shahrbaraz conquered Caesarea Maritima, the capital of the Palaestina Prima province. The Persian army reinforced by Jewish forces led by Nehemiah ben Hushiel, after only a few months a Christian revolt occurred. Nehemiah ben Hushiel and his council of sixteen righteous were killed along with many other Jews, Christians were able to briefly retake the city before the walls were breached by Shahrbaraz’s forces who lay siege to the city. In addition 35,000 or 37,000 people including the patriarch Zacharias are said to have been deported to Mesopotamia, the city is said to have been burnt down. However, neither wide spread burning nor destruction of churches have found in the archaeological record. The Jewish army is said to have consisted of 20,000 men, the expedition, however, miscarried, as the Christians of Tyre learned of the impending danger, and seized the 4,000 Tyrian Jews as hostages. The Jewish invaders destroyed the churches around Tyre, an act which the Christians avenged by killing two thousand of their Jewish prisoners, the besiegers, to save the remaining prisoners, withdrew. The Jews had hoped that Khosrau II would give all of the Land of Israel in exchange for their support. By 617 CE the Persians had reversed their policy and sided with the Christians over the Jews, by 622 CE, the Roman Emperor Heraclius had assembled an army to retake the territory lost to the Sasanian Empire. In 628, following the deposition of Khosrau II, Kavadh II made peace with Heraclius and it is said that Benjamin even accompanied Heraclius on his voyage to Jerusalem and Benjamin was persuaded to convert, Benjamin obtained a general pardon for himself and the Jews. On 21 March 630, Emperor Heraclius marched in triumph into Jerusalem with the True Cross, a general massacre of the Jewish population ensued. The massacre devastated the Jewish communities of the Galilee and Jerusalem, only those Jews who could flee to the mountains or Egypt are said to have been spared. Some historians believe the war reduced and weakened the Christian population not just in Jerusalem but across the Near East, however, over the past thirty years the archaeological evidence has not supported the ancient manuscripts which record the devastation of the Christian community in Jerusalem. Jews and Samaritans were persecuted frequently by the Byzantines resulting in numerous revolts, Byzantine religious propaganda developed strong anti-Jewish elements. In several cases Jews tried to support the Sasanian advance. A pogrom in Antioch in 608 would lead to a Jewish revolt in 610 which was crushed, Jews also revolted in both Tyre and Acre in 610. The Jews of Tyre were massacred in reprisal, unlike in earlier times when Jews had supported Christians in the fight against Shapur I, the Byzantines had now become viewed as oppressors

10.
Rhineland massacres
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Prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the massacres included Peter the Hermit and especially Count Emicho. As part of this persecution, the destruction of Jewish communities in Speyer, Worms and these were new persecutions of the Jews in which peasant crusaders from France and Germany attacked Jewish communities. A number of historians refer to the events as pogroms. The preaching of the First Crusade inspired an outbreak of anti-Jewish violence, many people wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non-believers when there were already non-believers closer to home. It is also likely that the crusaders were motivated by their need for money, the Rhineland communities were relatively wealthy, both due to their isolation, and because they were not restricted as Catholics were against moneylending. Having armed themselves by assuming the debt, the crusaders rationalized the killing of Jews as an extension of their Catholic mission. There had not been so broad a movement against Jews by Catholics since the seventh centurys mass expulsions and forced conversions. ”Also many movements against Jews had been quashed by either Roman Catholicism’s papacy or its bishops. The passions aroused in the Catholic populace by Urban II’s call for the first crusade moved persecution of Jews into a new chapter in history where these previous constraints no longer held. ”Emperor Henry IV issued an order prohibiting such an action. Godfrey claimed he never intended to kill Jews, but the community in Mainz. The first outbreaks of violence occurred in France. ”Richard of Poitiers wrote that Jewish persecution was widespread in France at the beginning of the expeditions to the east, the anonymous chronicler of Mainz admired the Jews “At the time the communities in France heard, trembling… seized them. They wrote letters and sent messengers to all the communities around about the River Rhine, that they should fast…and seek mercy from Him who dwells on high, that He might save them from their hands. When the letter reached the holy ones in the land, namely the men of renown … in Mainz, they responded France as follows and we have done that which was ours. May the Lord save us and may He save you from all sorrow and we are in great fear. ’” In June and July 1095 Jewish communities in the Rhineland were attacked, but the leadership and membership of these crusader groups was not chronicled. Some Jews dispersed eastward to escape the persecution, on top of the general Catholic suspicion of Jews at the time, when the thousands of French members of the Peoples Crusade arrived at the Rhine, they had run out of provisions. To restock their supplies, they began to plunder Jewish food, not all crusaders who had run out of supplies resorted to murder, some, like Peter the Hermit, used extortion instead. While no sources claim he preached against the Jews, he carried a letter with him from the Jews of France to the community at Trier, the letter urged them to supply provisions to Peter and his men. The Solomon bar Simson Chronicle records that they were so terrified by Peter’s appearance at the gates that they agreed to supply his needs. Whatever Peters own position on the Jews was, men claiming to follow after him felt free to massacre Jews on their own initiative, after the crusaders had left the region these Jews returned to practicing Judaism

11.
History of the Jews in Speyer
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The history of the Jews in Speyer reaches back over 1,000 years. In the Middle Ages, the city of Speyer, Germany, was home to one of the most significant Jewish communities in the Holy Roman Empire and its significance is attested to by the frequency of the Ashkenazi Jewish surname Shapiro/Shapira and its variants Szpira/Spiro/Speyer. After many ups and downs throughout history, the community was wiped out in 1940 during the Holocaust. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 Jews again settled in Speyer, the earliest reference to Jewish settlement along the Rhine dates from the year 321 in Cologne, and it is assumed that Jews also lived in Speyer in Late Antiquity. With the collapse of state and church administration in the Migration Period, Jews resettled in the Rhine area coming from southern France where Roman life had more or less remained intact. Traveling Jewish merchants certainly would have had dependencies in Rhenish towns, even though the first branches are mentioned in 906 for Mainz. With the construction of Speyer Cathedral, beginning in 1032, Speyer emerged as one of the towns along the Rhine. The first records of Jews in Speyer appear in the 1070s and they were members of the renowned Kalonymos family of Mainz, which had migrated a century before from Italy. Other Jews from Mainz had possibly also settled in Speyer, the actual history of the Jews in Speyer started in 1084, when Jews fleeing from pogroms in Mainz and Worms took refuge with their relatives in Speyer. They possibly came at the instigation of bishop Rüdiger Huzmann, who invited a number of Jews to live in his town with the expressed approval of emperor Henry IV. I had them settle outside the quarters of the other inhabitants, now the place of their habitation which I acquired justly that place, I say, I transferred to them on condition that they pay annually 3 ½ pounds in silver for the use of the brethren. And I have also given them license to do throughout the state. Besides this I have given land of the church for a cemetery with rights of inheritance. This also I have added that if any Jew should at any time stay with them he shall pay no thelony, then also just as the judge of the city hears cases between citizens, so the chief rabbi shall hear cases which arise between the Jews or against them. But if by chance he is unable to decide any of them they go to the bishop or his chamberlain. They shall maintain watches, guards, and fortifications about their district and they may lawfully employ nurses and servants from among our people. Slaughtered meat which they may not eat according to their law they may sell to Christians. Finally, to round out these concessions, I have granted that they may enjoy the privileges as the Jews in any other city of Germany

12.
Timeline of antisemitism
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This timeline of antisemitism chronicles the facts of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group. It includes events in the history of thought, actions taken to combat or relieve the effects of antisemitism. The history of antisemitism can be traced from ancient times to the present day, Some authors prefer to use the terms anti-Judaism or religious antisemitism for religious sentiment against Judaism before the rise of racial antisemitism in the 19th century. For events specifically pertaining to the expulsion of Jews, please see Jewish refugees,586 BCE During the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon destroys the temple in Jerusalem, and captures Judea and 10,000 Jewish families. C.475 BCE Haman attempts genocide against the Jews,175 BCE –165 BCE The Deuterocanonical First and Second Books of the Maccabees record that Antiochus Epiphanes attempts to erect a statue of Zeus in Jerusalem. The festival of Hanukkah commemorates the uprising of the Maccabees against this attempt, C.124 BCE, The woman with seven sons was a Jewish martyr described in 2 Maccabees 7 and other sources. Although unnamed in 2 Maccabees, she is known variously as Hannah, Miriam,2 Maccabees states that shortly before the revolt of Judas Maccabeus, Antiochus IV Epiphanes arrested a mother and her seven sons, and tried to force them to eat pork. When they refused, he tortured and killed the one by one. The narrator mentions that the mother was the most remarkable of all and she watched her seven sons die in the space of a single day, yet she bore it bravely because she put her trust in the Lord. Each of the sons makes a speech as he dies, the narrator ends by saying that the mother died, without saying whether she was executed, or died in some other way. The Talmud tells a story, but with refusal to worship an idol replacing refusal to eat pork. Tractate Gittin 57b cites Rabbi Judah saying that this refers to the woman and her seven sons, the woman commits suicide in this rendition of the story, she also went up on to a roof and threw herself down and was killed. Other versions of the story are found in 4 Maccabees and Josippon. 2nd century BCE Various Greek and Roman writers, such as Mnaseas of Patras, Apollonius Molon, Apion and Plutarch, repeat the legend that Jews worship a pig, a golden calf, Josephus collects and denies the rumours. 19 CE Roman Emperor Tiberius expels Jews from Rome, Expulsion is reported by the Roman historical writers Suetonius, Josephus, and Cassius Dio. 37–41 Thousands of Jews killed by mobs in Alexandria, as recounted by Philo of Alexandria in Flaccus,50 Jews ordered by Roman Emperor Claudius not to hold meetings, in the words of Cassius Dio. Claudius later expelled Jews from Rome, according to both Suetonius and Acts 18,2, 66–73 Great Jewish Revolt against the Romans is crushed by Vespasian and Titus. Titus refuses to accept a wreath of victory, as there is no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God, the events of this period were recorded in detail by the Jewish–Roman historian Josephus

13.
Strasbourg massacre
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The Strasbourg massacre occurred on February 14,1349, when several hundred Jews were publicly burnt to death, and the rest of them expelled from the city as part of the Black Death persecutions. It was one of the first and worst pogroms in pre-modern history, starting in the spring of 1348, pogroms against Jews had occurred in European cities, starting in Toulon. By November of that year they spread via Savoy to German-speaking territories, in January 1349, burnings of Jews took place in Basel and Freiburg, and on 14 February the Jewish community in Strasbourg was destroyed. The causes of the increased anti-semitism are easy to make out and its development found fertile territory in the religious and social resentments against Jews that had grown deeper over the centuries. Formally, the Jews still belonged to the Kings chamber, Strasbourg therefore took in the most part of the Jews taxes, but in exchange had to take over their protection. In order to satisfy the demands, the Jews therefore had to do business accordingly, but in doing so further increased the populations. With the threat of Black Death, there were accusations of well poisoning. Unlike the majority of the population, the council and the master tradesmen remained committed to the policy of protecting the Jews and attempted to calm the people and prevent a pogrom. The Catholic clergy had been advised by two bulls of Pope Clement VI the previous year to preach against anyone accusing the Jews of poisoning wells as seduced by that liar. At first the council tried to rebut the claims of well poisoning by initiating court proceedings against a number of Jews, as expected, they did not confess to the crimes. Despite this, they were killed on the breaking wheel. Furthermore, the Jewish quarter was sealed off and guarded by armed persons, in order to protect the Jews from the population, a pogrom could easily escalate and turn into an uncontrollable revolt of the people. Furthermore, this unrest could give the opponents the possibility of taking power themselves, the bourgeoisie had after all come to occupy the leading political positions in a similar way, when they had used the dispute between the Zorn and Müllenheim noble families to their advantage. As the de facto master over the Jews, the city had a duty to protect them, peter Swarber also pointed to this, the city had collected the money, and had given in return a guarantee for their security—with a letter and a seal. The city must fulfill this duty towards the Jews and he therefore could not and would not agree to an extermination of the Jews, a stance in which he was surely strengthened by the fear of the negative effects on the economic development of the city. A weakening of the city would mean a weakening of the patrician bourgeoisie, that was reliant on stable political conditions. There were reasons enough, therefore, to remain attached to the policy of protecting the Jews, the motivations of the master tradesmen were concealed from the people of Strasbourg. It was therefore seen as important to first remove the masters from power, the chronicles have delivered a detailed overview of the process of the displacement of the masters

14.
Brussels massacre
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The Brussels massacre was an anti-Semitic episode in Brussels in 1370 in connection with an alleged host desecration at the Brussels synagogue. A number of Jews, variously given as six or about twenty, were executed or otherwise killed, while the rest of the small community was banished. The event was commemorated by local Christians as the Sacrament of Miracle, as it was said that the desecrated hosts stabbed by a Jew had miraculously shed blood, the cult of the putative miracle survived until after the Second World War. Black Death Jewish persecutions had previously destroyed Brussels community in 1350, host desecration was a common anti-Semitic canard in medieval Europe, and the wafers the Jews were supposed to have tried to profane were often said to have been miraculously spared from harm. The clerical usury scandal in Brussels was the context of the accusations of host desecration. According to Premonstratensian historian Placide Lefèvre, contemporary records indicate that there were eight Jewish households in Brussels. Shortly thereafter, the Enghien merchant was murdered and his widow passed the stolen hosts to the Jews of Brussels, where in the synagogue on Good Friday 1370 some tried to stab the wafers with their daggers, causing blood to pour forth. The Duke of Brabant, on the testimony, ordered the stabbers burnt at the stake. The hosts were placed in reliquaries and preserved in the chapel of Saint Gudula, the saint of Brussels. They became a feature of the procession on her feast day. Ten stained-glass windows depicting the putative miracle were donated to the chapel in the 16th Century by Emperor Charles V and this compared perceived Jewish anti-Catholicism to the nascent Protestant Reformation, with the miraculous bleeding countering Protestant denials of transubstantiation. In the early 1580s, during a period of Calvinist rule in Brussels, from 1579 to 1585 the relics had been hidden in a house in the Korte Ridderstraat. After the end of Calvinist rule in 1585, a procession of citizens and officeholders had retrieved the hosts, the re-emergence of the cult in 1585 was primarily as a celebration of the end of Calvinist rule. The Archdukes Albert and Isabella, who ruled in Brussels 1598–1621, made the annual procession a state occasion, had emerged as doubly miraculous after the end of Calvinist rule in Brussels in 1585 when it became clear that the sacred hosts had survived intact. The 1870 quincentenary of the Miracle was marked with celebrations, after the Second World War, in light of the mass murder of Belgian Jews during The Holocaust, the anti-semitic elements of the cult were de-emphasised. In 1968, in the wake of Nostra aetate issued by the Second Vatican Council, in 1977 Cardinal Leo Joseph Suenens installed a plaque in the cathedral to highlight this. The former chapel of Saint Gudula is now the museum, displaying its treasures, including the former reliquaries. History of the Jews in Belgium

15.
Modica
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Modica is a city and comune in the Province of Ragusa, Sicily, southern Italy. The city is situated in the Hyblaean Mountains, according to Thucydides, the city was founded in 1360 BC or 1031 BC and was inhabited by the Sicels in the 7th century BC. It was probably a dependency of Syracuse, Modica was occupied by the Romans after the battle of the Egadi islands against the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars 241 BC, together with Syracuse and all of Sicily. Modica became one of the thirty-five decuman cities of the island and was oppressed by the praetor Verres and it became an independent municipium, and apparently a place of some consequence. The city is mentioned among the inland towns of the island both by Pliny and Ptolemy, and though its name is not found in the Itineraries. Silius Italicus also includes it in his list of Sicilian cities, the southeast of Sicily and Modica was rapidly Christianized, as the diocese of Syracuse boasts an apostolic foundation by St. Paul in 61 AD. In 845, Modica was captured by the Arabs during the Muslim conquest of Sicily and they referred to the city as Mudiqah. The year after its capture, the Arabs fortified its citadels, in 1091 the conquest of Modica and the entire Val di Noto ended the long lasting war of the Normans, led by Roger of Hauteville, against the Arabs. On Assumption day 15 August 1474, Christians wreaked brutal havoc on the Jewish dwellers of the Cartellone area of Modica and this episode was the first and most horrible antisemitic massacre of Sicilian Israelites. During the evening a number of Christians slaughtered about 360 innocents causing a total, the incitement that echoed through the streets was, Hurrah for Mary. Later, the earthquake of 1693 destroyed the entire Val di Noto, annexed to Italy in 1860, Modica remained district capital until 1926, when it was included in the province of Ragusa. Modica consists of two centres, Modica Alta and Modica Bassa. The older upper part is perched on the top of the southern Ibeli hill. The walk down from Modica Alta to Modica Bassa reveals vistas of the town and involves many steps. Despite being ravaged by earthquakes in 1613 and 1693, and floods in 1833 and 1902, much of the city was rebuilt after the 1693 earthquake with imposing and conspicuous urban monuments in the Sicilian Baroque style. The large Baroque Cathedral San Giorgio is dedicated to St George, while the cathedral was rebuilt following the earthquake of 1693, like many other parts of the city its roots are in the Middle Ages. From the front of the Cathedral a staircase of 300 steps leads down towards Modica Bassa, another notable church is San Pietro, dedicated to St Peter, in Modica Bassa, featuring a principal façade crowned by a typical Sicilian Baroque belltower,49 metres high. Other sights include, Castello dei Conti Chiesa del Carmine Church of St, the city has now been joined by factories producing textiles, furniture and cars

16.
Spanish Inquisition
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The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition and it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition along with the Roman Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism, the regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave Spain. The Inquisition was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, the Spanish Inquisition is often stated in popular literature and history as an example of Catholic intolerance and repression. Modern historians have tended to question earlier accounts concerning the severity of the Inquisition, Henry Kamen asserts that the myth of the all-powerful, torture-mad inquisition is largely an invention of nineteenth century Protestant authors with an agenda to discredit the Papacy. Although records are incomplete, about 150,000 persons were charged with crimes by the Inquisition and about 3,000 were executed. The Inquisition was created through papal bull, Ad Abolendam, issued at the end of the century by Pope Lucius III as a way to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. There were a number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages. In the Kingdom of Aragon, a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus of Pope Gregory IX, in 1232, during the era of the Albigensian heresy. With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the fifteenth century, there was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in Castile. Members of the episcopate were charged with surveillance of the faithful, during the Middle Ages, in Castile, little attention was paid to heresy by the Catholic ruling class. Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional laws, however, by law, they were considered inferior to Catholics and were subject to discriminatory legislation. The Spanish Inquisition can be seen as an answer to the nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, large areas of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims until 1250, when they were restricted to Granada, which fell in 1492. However, the Reconquista did not result in the expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they. The Jews, who had previously thrived under Muslim rule, now suffered similar maltreatment, however, as Henry Kamen notes, so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals. Despite their legal inequality, there was a tradition of Jewish service to the crown of Aragon and Jews occupied many important posts. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi, ferdinands father John II named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas to be Court Astronomer

17.
History of the Jews in Arles
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Arles was a major Jewish center between the Roman times and the Renaissance. Due to its location between Spain and the rest of Europe, with its proximity to the Mediterranean coast, Arles became a comfortable and sometimes beneficial city for the many Jews who lived in it. No Jewish community was evident in Arles ever since, even though some evidences of former Jewish life can be seen around town and in the local museum. The Jewish community ceased to prosper towards the end of the 15th century, Jews were to be found in Arles in the 1960s, though no community was ever evident again. According to a legend, Roman emperor Vespasian placed Jewish exiles after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem on three ships that were abandoned by their captains. One of the vessels reached Arles, while the two got to Bordeaux and to Lyons. This legend suggests the existence of Jews in Arles prior to the common era, during time Roman Empire decline era, Arles became an important political and religious center. On 476, with the fall of the Roman empire, the city came under the rule of the Visigoths, the Jews of Arles lived relatively fine as long as the Visigoths maintained Arianism, which was later declared as heresy by the Vatican. In 508, when the city was under siege by the Franks and the Burgundians, after falling of Arles into the hands of Clovis I, the first king of Franks, the Jewish community of Arles, among other Arian Visigoths, accused bishop Caesarius of Arles of treason. The bishops adherents, in response, accused a Jewish soldier of helping the Burgundians, the soldier was sentenced to death while the bishop was acquitted. Soon after, upon the rule of the Merovingian kingdom, local bishops all around southern France were encouraged by king Chilperic I himself to attempt conversion over Jews. Arles bishop Virgilius was highly keen to convert local Jews, and apparently did so by force, in objection to the Vatican stand, many of the Jews settled in those parts have been brought to the font of baptism more by force than by preaching. Now, I consider the intention in such cases to be worthy of praise, but I fear lest this same intention, unless adequate enforcement from Holy Scripture accompany it, should either have no profitable result. For, when any one is brought to the font of baptism, not by the sweetness of preaching, but by compulsion, he returns to his former superstition, let, therefore, your Fraternity stir up such men by frequent preaching. Under the rule of the Carolingian dynasty, starting on 638, the Carlovingian princes protected the Jews from attacks of the clergy. At the beginning of the century, the kingdom of Burgundy was establishment by Boso of Provence, with the support of the clergy. Shortly after, Boso passed his rights over the Jews of Arles to the local Archibishop named Rostang, bosos successors continued with this tradition. A document attributed to the disposal of Archbishop Raymond mentions a Jewish cemetery at the montjuif, a Hebrew inscription on a tombstone dates to this period found in the cemetery can be found today at the Musee dart chretien

18.
Lisbon massacre
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In the years that followed the banishment of the Jews from Castile and Aragon in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs, about 93,000 Jews took refuge in neighbouring Portugal. King Manuel I was by far more tolerant toward the Jewish community but, under pressure from Spain, the massacre began, as it is reported, in the São Domingos de Lisboa Convent on Sunday,19 April 1506. A New Christian, one of the converted Jews, thought otherwise, the men gathered for Mass, hearing this, grabbed the man by his hair and brought him outside the church where he was beaten to death by the crowd and his body was burnt in Rossio. From that point the New Christians, who were not trusted by the population, became the scapegoats for the drought, famine. That Sunday, more than 500 people were sent to their deaths. The Court and the King had earlier left Lisbon for Abrantes in order to escape the plague, King Manuel I was in Avis when he was informed of the event in Lisbon, and dispatched magistrates to try to put an end to the bloodbath. Meanwhile, in Lisbon, the group of authorities present were unable to intervene, as the crowd grew. By Monday,20 April, more locals had joined the crowd, which carried on the massacre with even more violence. The New Christians, no longer found on the streets, were dragged from their houses and from churches and, along with their wives, sons, not even infants were spared, as the crowd ripped them to pieces or threw them against the walls. The crowd proceeded to loot the houses, stealing all the gold, silver, more than 1000 people were killed on the second day. There is also record more than Jews were killed that day. Some accused their neighbours of heresy, and these unfortunates met the fate as the New Christians. On Tuesday, members of the arrived at the city. João Rodrigues Mascarenhas, the Kings Squire, was killed by mistake in the massacre, the death count had, however, already reached more than 1,900. Some Portuguese were arrested and hanged, while others had all their possessions confiscated by the Crown, the foreigners returned to their ships with their plunder and sailed away. The two seditionist Dominican friars who had incited the massacre were stripped of their religious orders and were burnt at the stake, following the massacre, a climate of suspicion against New Christians pervaded Portugal. The Inquisition was established thirty years afterward, many families of Jewish ancestry either escaped or were banished from the country. Even banished, they still had to pay for their emigration, they had to leave or sell their properties to the Crown, after the massacre New Christians of Jewish ancestry still felt deep allegiance to the Portuguese monarch

19.
1517 Hebron pogrom
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1517 Hebron attacks occurred in the final phases of the 1513-17 Ottoman–Mamluk War, when Turkish Ottomans had ousted the Mamluks and taken Palestine. The massacre targeted the Jewish population of the city and is referred to as a pogrom. An account of the event, recorded by Japheth ben Manasseh in 1518, mentions how the onslaught was initiated by Turkish troops led by Murad Bey, Jews were attacked, beaten and raped, and many were killed as their homes and businesses were looted and pillaged. It has been suggested that the financial position of the Hebronite Jews at the time was what attracted the Turkish soldiers to engage in the mass plunder. Others suggest the pogrom could have in fact taken place in the midst of a localised conflict and those who survived the calamity fled to Beirut and Jews only returned to Hebron 16 years later in 1533. 1834 Hebron massacre List of massacres in Ottoman Syria

20.
1517 Safed pogrom
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The Safed attacks were an incident that took place in Safed soon after the Turkish Ottomans had ousted the Mamluks and taken Levant during the Ottoman–Mamluk War in 1517. At the time the town had roughly 300 Jewish households, the severe blow suffered took place as Mamluks clashed bloodily with the new Ottoman authorities. The view that the impact on the Jews of Safed was severe is contested. Historians link the event to the conflict taking place in the country between the incoming Ottoman regime and its opponents and note that the Jews suffered maltreatment during the war. Accounts of the attack against the Jews in Safed were recorded by historian Rabbi Elijah Capsali of Candia, and Rabbi Joseph Garson, according to these reports, many Jews were killed and left injured. They were compelled to flee the city and their property was plundered, scholars debate whether or not the event led to a decline in the Jewish population of Safed, but all agree that a few years later, Jews had re-established a significant presence in the city. The attack may have been initiated by retreating Mamluk soldiers who accused the Jews of treacherously aiding the Turkish invaders, alternatively, the attack occurred during an attempt by local Mamluk sheikhs to reassert their control after being removed from power by the incoming Turks. Many Jews were reportedly killed while others were wounded or had their property pillaged, according to Garson, the Jews were evicted from their homes, robbed and plundered, and they fled naked to the villages without any provisions. Many subsequently fled the city, but the community was rehabilitated with the financial help of Egyptian Jewry. The many Jews who had fled and sought refuge in neighbouring villages returned, the Ottoman overthrow of the Mamluks brought about important changes. Under the earlier dynasty, Egyptian Jews were guided by their nagid,1517 Hebron attacks 1834 looting of Safed 1838 Druze attack on Safed Ben-Ami, Shlomo, Mishal, Nissim. Demographic Changes in the Safed Jewish Community of the 16th Century, occident and Orient, A Tribute to the Memory of Alexander Scheiber. In Zion and Jerusalem, the itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola, to Come to the Land, Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel. Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos, Isaac Luria, eretz Yisrael Under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1917. Tel Aviv, Am Oved and Dvir, Ottoman history and society, Jewish sources. Heavenly Powers, Unraveling the Secret of the Kabbalah, further data on the pogrom of 1517 against the Jews of Safed, Cathedra 8, p. 190-94. On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest, Cathedra 11, p. 181-82

21.
Portuguese Inquisition
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The Portuguese Inquisition was formally established in Portugal in 1536 at the request of its king, John III. Manuel I had asked for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515 to fulfill the commitment of marriage with Maria of Aragon, in the period after the Medieval Inquisition, it was one of three different manifestations of the wider Christian Inquisition along with the Spanish Inquisition and Roman Inquisition. Many of these were originally Spanish Jews, who had left Spain for Portugal, the number of victims is estimated around 40,000. As in Spain, the Inquisition was subject to the authority of the King and it was headed by a Grand Inquisitor, or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the king, always from within the royal family. The Grand Inquisitor would later nominate other inquisitors, in Portugal, the first Grand Inquisitor was D. Diogo da Silva, personal confessor of King John III and Bishop of Ceuta. He was followed by Cardinal Henry, brother of John III, there were Courts of the Inquisition in Lisbon, Coimbra, and Évora, and for a short time also in Porto, Tomar and Lamego. It held its first auto-da-fé in Portugal in 1540, like the Spanish Inquisition, it concentrated its efforts on rooting out those who had converted from other faiths but did not adhere to the strictures of Catholic orthodoxy. Under John III, the activity of the courts was extended to the censure of books, as well as undertaking cases of divination, witchcraft and bigamy. Originally aimed at religious matters, the Inquisition had an influence on almost every aspect of Portuguese life — political, cultural, in Portuguese India, the Goa Inquisition also turned its attention to Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. Hundreds of thousands of Hindus were forced to out of Goa if they did not convert. It was established in Goa in 1560 by Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques, the coastal south Indian ancient Christian community of Malabar Nasranis was also persecuted in the Portuguese Inquisition. The Portuguese described the Malabar Nasranis as Sabbath keeping Judaizers and burnt their Syriac-Aramaic manuscripts at the Synod of Diamper, one of the main targets of the Inquisition were also the Portuguese Christian traditions and movements that did not conform with the orthodoxy. Until the 16th century, this was the annual festivity in most of the Portuguese major cities, celebrating each city even more than one Feast, such as in Lisbon, Porto. King João IV, in 1649, banned the confiscation of property by the Inquisition and this law would only be fully withdrawn around 1656, with the death of the king. Vieira had earned the name of the Apostle of Brazil, at the request of the pope he drew up a report of two hundred pages on the Inquisition in Portugal, with the result that after a judicial inquiry Pope Innocent XI suspended it for five years. The Portuguese inquisition was extinguished in 1821 by the General Extraordinary, in December 2008, the Jewish Historical Society of England published the Lists of the Portuguese Inquisition in two volumes, Volume I Lisbon 1540–1778, Volume II Évora 1542–1763 and Goa 1650–1653. The texts are published in the original Portuguese, transcribed and indexed by Joy L. Oakley and they represent a unique picture of the whole range of the Inquisitions activities and a primary source for Jewish, Portuguese, and Brazilian historians and genealogists. The archives of the Portuguese Inquisition are one of the best preserved judicial archives of early modern Europe, the original documentation of this tribunal is almost entirely lost

22.
Khmelnytsky Uprising
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The Khmelnytsky Uprising was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands. The insurgency was accompanied by atrocities committed by Cossacks against the civilian population, especially against the Roman Catholic clergy. The uprising has a meaning in the history of Ukraines relationship with Poland. The event triggered a period of turbulence and infighting in the Hetmanate known as the Ruin. With the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Union in 1569, a number of Ruthenian lands were gradually absorbed under the control of a powerful aristocratic republic — the Rzeczpospolita. Although the local nobility was granted full rights within the Rzeczpospolita, local Orthodox traditions were also under siege from the assumption of ecclesiastical power by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1448. Born to a family, Bohdan Khmelnytsky attended Jesuit schools. At the age of 22 he joined his father in the service of the Commonwealth, after being held captive in Constantinople, he returned to life as a registered Cossack, settling in his hometown of Subotiv with a wife and several children. He participated in campaigns for Grand Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, led delegations to King Władysław IV Vasa in Warsaw, the course of his life was altered, however, when Aleksander Koniecpolski, heir to Hetman Koniecpolskis magnate estate, attempted to seize Khmelnytskys land. In 1647 Chyhyryn starost Daniel Czapliński openly started to harass Khmelnytsky on behalf of the younger Koniecpolski in an attempt to force him off the land. He twice sought assistance from the king by traveling to Warsaw, having received no support from Polish officials, Khmelnytsky turned to his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by the Poles found a lot of not only in his regiment. All through the autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky traveled from one regiment to the other and had numerous consultations with different Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine and his activity raised the suspicions of Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts, and he was promptly arrested. Polkovnyk Mykhailo Krychevsky assisted Khmelnytsky in his escape, and with a group of supporters he headed for the Zaporozhian Sich. Cossacks were already on the brink of the new rebellion as plans for the new war with the Ottoman Empire advanced by the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa were cancelled by Sejm. Rumors about the hostilities with the infidels were greeted with joy. However, the Cossack rebellion might have fizzled in the manner as the great rebellions of 1637–1638. He realized that Cossacks, while having an excellent infantry, could not hope to match the Polish cavalry, however, combining Cossack infantry with Crimean Tatar cavalry could have provided a balanced military force and given the Cossacks a chance to beat the Polish army

23.
Mawza Exile
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Only a few communities, viz. those Jewish inhabitants who lived in the far eastern quarters of Yemen were spared this fate by virtue of their Arab patrons who refused to obey the king’s orders. Many would die along the route and while confined to the hot, with the rise to power of the Qāsimīd Imām, al-Mutawakkil Ismail, there was a crucial turning point in the condition of Jews living under the Imamate kingdom of Yemen. He endorsed the most hostile policies toward his Jewish subjects, partly due to the claim that the Jews were aiding the Ottoman Turks during the uprising against them. The rise of the Shabbathian movement in Yemen in 1666 exacerbated the problems facing the community, the king initially demanded their conversion to Islam and when they refused, he made them stand out in the sun without apparel for three days, which was later followed by harsher decrees. Yet, since the king fell ill and was bedridden, he did not presently perform his ill-designs to expel the Jews from his kingdom, everything reached its climax between the years 1677 and 1680, when he ordered the destruction of the synagogues in Sanaa and elsewhere. He gave to them three months to decide what they would do, the king’s words led to no small consternation amongst his Jewish subjects in Yemen, who immediately declared a time of public fasting and prayer, which they did both by night and day. Their plight soon became known to the local Yemeni tribesmen, whose chiefs and principal men pitied their condition, the king, agreeing to their counsel, chose not to kill his Jewish subjects, but decided to banish them from his kingdom. They were to be sent to Zeilaʻ, a place along the African coast of the Red Sea, the Jewish community in Sanaa was concentrated in the neighborhood of al-Sā’ilah, within the walled city, as one enters Bab al-Shaʻub on Sanaa’s north side. The Jews of Sanaa were given but short notice about the things that were about to happen to them, the Jews of Sanaa had, meanwhile, set out on their journey, leaving behind them their homes and possessions, rather than exchange their religion for another. In doing so, they brought sanctity to God’s name, the grandees reminded the king how they had been faithful in implementing his orders. At hearing this, the agreed and sent orders to the effect that Jewish exiles should be conducted only to Mawza‘. By the time the Jews of Sanaa reached Dhamar, they had already joined by the Jewish villagers of Siān and Tan‘am. He has destroyed our synagogues, and has darkened the light of our eyes, …Now, God has hidden His face from us, ‘while we have all faded like a leaf’. When some of their party had tried to escape at night, approximately seventy men, the morning when the sun arose they were stricken down by the intense heat. Here, the author makes a play on words, the Hebrew word for ended having the value of 440. Mawzaʻ is a town situated eleven-days’ walking distance from Sanaa, and ca.12 miles from the port of Mocha, during their long trek there, the king’s soldiers pressed them on. Many of the sick and elderly and children died along the way, others would later succumb to the harsh weather conditions of that place. All, however, suffered from hunger and thirst, eventually, the community of Sanaa was joined by other Jewish communities from across Yemen

24.
Hep-Hep riots
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The Hep-Hep riots from August to October 1819 were pogroms against Ashkenazi Jews, beginning in the Kingdom of Bavaria, during the period of Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation. The antisemitic communal violence began on August 2,1819 in Würzburg, many Jews were killed and much Jewish property was destroyed. In many German cities, emancipation of the Jews had only begun in recent years, in most German territories, Jews were excluded from posts in public administration and the army and forbidden to hold teaching positions in schools and universities. Jewish representatives formally demanded emancipation at the Congress of Vienna, and German academics, the Jews were portrayed to the public as upstarts who were attempting to take control of the economy, particularly the financial sector. Antisemitic publications became common in the German press, as Jewish Emancipation progressed, German Jews were becoming competitors for Christian guilds in the economy. Immediately before the riots began, the Bavarian Diet had completed a debate on further emancipation of the Jews throughout the Kingdom. Amos Elon writes in his 2002 book The Pity of It All, A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933, In some places, the free city of Frankfurt reinstated parts of the medieval statute that restricted the rights of Jews. As of 1816 only twelve Jewish couples were allowed to each year. The 400,000 gulden the community had paid the city government in 1811 in return for its emancipation were declared forfeited. In the Rhineland, which had reverted to Prussian control, Jews lost the rights they had been granted under the French and were no longer allowed to practice certain professions. The few who had appointed to public office before the war were summarily dismissed. Hep-Hep was the derogatory rallying cry. One theory is that it is an acronym from the Latin Hierosolyma est perdita, another theory is that it was based on the traditional herding cry of German shepherds. The acronym theory was mentioned in a British newspaper as early as August 1819, the riots began on 2 August 1819 in Würzburg. After several days troops were called in, the Jewish population fled the city and spent several days in tents in the vicinity. No Jews were killed during the riots in Würzburg, in some towns, the police appeared too late or stood by idly while the mob raged through the streets. In towns where the militia arrived promptly, the riots were put down relatively quickly, in Heidelberg the police were tardy in their response, but two professors and their students took the law into their hands and prevented a bloody pogrom. They restrained the culprits and made citizens arrests, with the exception of Heidelberg, townspeople generally remained passive bystanders

25.
1834 looting of Safed
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The 1834 looting of Safed was prolonged attack against the Jewish community of Safed, Palestine, during the 1834 Peasants Revolt. It began on Sunday June 15, the day after the Jewish holiday of Shavuot, most contemporary accounts suggest it was a spontaneous attack which took advantage of a defenceless population in the midst of the armed uprising against Egyptian rule. The district governor tried to quell the violent outbreak, but failed to do so, the event took place during a power vacuum, whilst Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt was fighting to quell the wider revolt in Jerusalem. Accounts of the month-long event tell of large scale looting, as well as killing and raping of Jews, many Torah scrolls were desecrated and many Jews were left severely wounded. The event has been described as a pogrom or pogrom-like by some authors, hundreds fled the town seeking refuge in the open countryside or in neighbouring villages. The rioting was quelled by Lebanese Druze troops under the orders of Ibrahim Pasha following the intervention of foreign consuls, the instigators were arrested and later executed in Acre. By the 19th-century, Safed had long inhabited by Jews. It had become a centre during the 16th-century and by the 1830s there were around 4,000 Jews living there. Throughout their history, the Jews of Safed, though supported by the Porte, had been the target of oppressive exactions by corrupt local officials. In 1628 the Druze seized the city, and holding it for years, despoiled the local community. And again in the 1660 destruction of Safed, the 1831 annexation of Palestine to Egypt by Muhammad Ali rendered life relatively more secure than had been the case under the Ottomans. In 1833, however, at the approach of Ibrahim Pasha, Jews and Christians were to be exempted from the disarmament policy. The news was greeted by widespread anger and it resulted in a mass uprising by the fellahin which broke out in the spring. Safed had been damaged by an earthquake in May of that year. Kinglakes is the account which mentions the individual involvement of a local Muslim clergyman. Other reports suggest the attack was more violent in nature, Isaac Farhi described how several Jews were killed and raped in the attack. Men, women and children were robbed of their clothes and then beaten, some fled into the surrounding fields and remained there naked like wild animals until the danger passed. 12 year-old Jacob Saphir was among a number of refugees who found sanctuary in the adjacent village of Ein al-Zeitun assisted by a sympathetic Arab sheikh

26.
1838 Safed massacre
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The 1838 Druze attack on Safed began on July 5,1838, during the Druze revolt against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Tensions had mounted as the Druze captured an Egyptian garrison outside of Safed, some Jews ended up leaving the town, moving south to Jerusalem and Acre. Among them was Israel Beck, whose printing press had been destroyed a second time by the ruffians, by the 19th-century, the Galilean city of Safed comprised a major Jewish center. It had become a centre during the 16th-century, reaching a size of about 15,000 at its peak. Despite the decline through the 17th and 18th centuries, by the 1830s there were still around 3, 500-4,000 Jews living there, comprising at least half the population. After several months, the Egyptians managed to crush the rebellion and regain control of the county, not long after, Safed was again the scene of devastation when in 1837 a strong earthquake resulted in thousands of deaths and the destruction of many buildings. The northern, Jewish section of the town was almost entirely destroyed, by 1838, the tense relationship between the fellahin and the Egyptian overlords was again mounting and a full-scale Druze revolt erupted in January. In summer of 1838, the Druze captured a heavily outnumbered Egyptian garrison outside Safed, the Jewish population relied on the protection of an Arab governor against the Druze. Dr. Elizer Loewe wrote in his diary, We huddled together in Rebbe Avraham Dovs house, the women were hysterical and the children crying. The Rebbe asked me to write a note in Arabic to the mayor, I did so, but his answer was mere lip service. According to Loewe, the mayor and his militia fled the city, the Druze rebels were joined by Muslim mob and they looted the Jewish quarters, as the Druze rebels thought the Jews possessed hidden treasures and local Muslims encouraged them to attack. The plunder lasted for 3 days, during the course of the attack, some Jews were assisted by friendly Arabs. One Arab by the name of Muhammed Mustafa, had helped them, lending them money and providing them with food. This time, Ibrahim Pashas response was swift, and after a few days things returned to normal. 1660 destruction of Safed 1929 Safed riots

27.
Damascus affair
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The Damascus affair of 1840 refers to the arrest of thirteen notable members of the Jewish community of Damascus who were accused of murdering a Christian monk for ritual purposes. The anti-semitic blood libel resulted in the accused being imprisoned and tortured by the Ottoman authorities, the affair drew widespread international attention which resulted in negotiations conducted in Alexandria from August 4 till August 28. Under Ottoman Islamic rule, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmis—a class of non-Muslims possessing some limited rights under Muslim rule—and were allowed to practice their religious precepts. In return, they had to pay a tax, or jizya, in 1831-32, Syria came under the rule of the Egyptians under Muhammad Ali. Muhammad Ali was said to have ruled at the sufferance of the European powers, led by France, and under his rule and this aroused a grudge among the Muslim majority toward its non-Muslim population. In the economic struggle between the Jews and the Christians, each side needed the backing and support of the Muslim majority, the Christians in Damascus complained about their cruel treatment by the Muslim judges. These priests reportedly brought the previously European blood libel myth with them, on February 5,1840, Father Thomas, a French citizen originally from Sardinia, and the superior of a Franciscan convent at Damascus, disappeared along with his servant. Their teeth and beards were pulled out, they were burned, lañado, a feeble old man, died under this treatment. Moses Abulafia became a Muslim in order to escape the torture, in spite of the stoic courage displayed by the sufferers, Sherif Pasha and Ratti-Menton agreed to the trumped up charges. While Ratti-Menton published libels against the Jews in French and in Arabic, Sherif Pasha wrote to his master, Muhammad Ali, in the meantime the populace fell upon the synagogue in the suburb of Jobar, pillaged it, and destroyed the scrolls of the Law. While occasional outbreaks of violence erupted during this time, far more serious outbreaks of violence occurred between Muslims and Christians and Christians and Druze. In 1840, G. W. Pieritz also exposed the matter in the Times to public indignation, negotiations in Alexandria continued from August 4 to August 28 and secured the unconditional release and recognition of innocence of the nine prisoners still remaining alive. Later in Constantinople, Montefiore persuaded Sultan Abdülmecid I to issue a firman intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. In a new and groundbreaking effort, the American Jewish community of 15,000 protested in six American cities on behalf of their Syrian brethren, for the first time in American Jewish life, Jews. Organized themselves politically to help Diaspora Jewry in distress, the United States consul in Egypt expressed the protest. The incident and its repercussions were considerable, according to Johannes Valentin Schwarz, the events also encouraged the growth of the modern Jewish press. As a result, a sense of solidarity was evoked among the Jewish communities of Europe they had never experienced before, one major repercussion of the 1840 Damascus Affair was the introduction in the Middle East of the French education system later integrated into Alliance Israélite Universelle. Accusations of the affair were published in the Egyptian daily Al Akhbar in 2000, in 2002, the Middle East Media Research Institute reported that some of the 1840 accusations emerged in a 1983 book The Damascus Blood Libel by the Syrian Minister of Defense, Mustafa Tlass

28.
Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire
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The term pogrom in the meaning of large-scale, targeted, and repeated anti-Jewish rioting, saw its first use in the 19th century, in reference to the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Pogroms began occurring after the Russian Empire, which previously had very few Jews and these territories were designated the Pale of Settlement by the Russian government, within which Jews were reluctantly permitted to live, and it was within them that the pogroms largely took place. Most Jews were forbidden from moving to other parts of the Empire, the first pogrom is sometimes considered to be the 1821 Odessa pogroms after the execution of the Greek Orthodox patriarch Gregory V in Constantinople, in which 14 Jews were killed. The initiators of the 1821 pogroms were the local Greeks, who used to have a substantial diaspora in the cities of what was known as Novorossiya. Some sources consider the first pogrom to be the 1859 riots in Odessa, the term pogrom became commonly used in English after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Imperial Russia from 1881 to 1884. The trigger for these pogroms was the assassination of Tsar Alexander II, the extent to which the Russian press was responsible for encouraging perceptions of the assassination as a Jewish act has been disputed. It has been argued that this was more important than rumours of Jewish responsibility for the death of the Tsar. The fact that the assassins were all atheists and that the wider Jewish community had nothing to do with the assassination had little impact on the spread of such antisemitic rumours. Nonetheless, the assassination inspired retaliatory attacks on Jewish communities, there also was a large pogrom on the night of 15–16 April 1881 in the city of Yelizavetgrad. On April 17 the Army units were dispatched and were forced to use firearms to extinguish the riot, however, that only incited the whole situation in the region and a week later series of pogroms rolled through parts of the Kherson Governorate. On April 26,1881 even bigger disorder engulfed the city of Kiev, the Kiev pogrom of 1881 is considered the worst one that took place in 1881. The pogroms of 1881 did not stop then and they continued on through the summer, spreading across a big territory of modern-day Ukraine. During these pogroms the first local Jewish self-defense organizations started to form and it was organized by the Jewish students of the Novorossiysk University. The new Tsar Alexander III initially blamed revolutionaries and the Jews themselves for the riots and in May 1882 issued the May Laws and these pogroms were referred to among Jews as the storms in the negev, negev being a Biblical word for the south. Changed perceptions among Russian Jews also indirectly gave a significant boost to the early Zionist movement, at least 40 Jews were killed during pogroms during April to December 1881. Of these,17 were reportedly killed while being raped, an additional 225 incidents of Jewish women being raped were reported. The leaders of the Jewish community in London were slow to speak out and it was only after Louisa Goldsmids support following leadership from an anonymous writer named Juriscontalus and the editor of the Jewish Chronicle that action was taken in 1881. Public meetings were held across the country and Jewish and Christian leaders in Britain spoke out against the atrocities, the 1905 pogrom against Jews in Odessa was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of up to 2,500 Jews killed

The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called the Great Revolt (Hebrew: המרד הגדול‎ ha-Mered Ha-Gadol), was …

Roman milestone mentioning the destruction of highways during the revolt

The treasures of Jerusalem taken by the Romans (detail from the Arch of Titus).

Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada in Israel, just outside the circumvallation wall at the bottom of the image.

An ancient Roman coin. The inscription reads IVDEA CAPTA. The coins inscribed Ivdaea Capta (Judea Captured) were issued throughout the Empire to demonstrate the futility of possible future rebellions. Judea was represented by a crying woman.

The Hebron massacre refers to the killing of sixty-seven or sixty-nine Jews on 24 August 1929 in Hebron, then part of …

From top-left, clockwise: Shlomo, son of Eliezer Dan Slonim Dwek, aged 1, survives with wounds to his hand, wrist and forehead; The Holy Ark of the Sephardi Synagogue of Abraham is ransacked; A survivor reflecting in the aftermath of the slaughter; Family Kolstein recover from their injuries. Bottom: Memorials to murdered rabbinical students in the old Jewish cemetery.

Elhanan Zelig Roch, a student of the Hebron Yeshiva, lost a hand in the attack

Monument in Lisbon in memory of those lost. It reads: "In memory of the thousands of Jews who were victimed by intolerance and religious fanaticism, killed on the massacre that started on 19 April 1506, on this square". The base has a verse from the Book of Job etched onto it: "O earth, cover not thou my blood, and let my cry have no place."