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Correlation coefficients with the multi-item variable length of the jump were considerably reduced. A statistically significant value of the correlation coefficient (r=0.39; p=0.05) was found only in the sixth jump. The value of the total variance (TV=50.13%) in the first common factor was calculated and it slightly exceeded the value of 50%, thus both providing the minimum criteria for a satisfactory relationship with the multi-item variable length of the jump. A significant reduction in the value of the correlation coefficients indicates a complex relationship of the performance of ski jumpers. During flight, a jumper must optimise the angle between the leg and ski, where it is important to conduct a sufficiently integrated complex system of rotation of the body and skis, which will truly take advantage of favourable aerodynamic forces during the take-off and establish the optimum position for the flight phase.

The aerodynamic aspect of take-off strongly determines the position of the skis. The research results show entirely low and statistically insignificant correlations between the multi-item variables, the angle between left and right ski, the horizontal axis, and the length of the jumps. The values of total variance in the first common factor do not reach 50%. The factor weights on the first factor are fairly homogeneous but negative. The most favourable aerodynamic position is where the skis are in a horizontal position during the early flight phase. The study of Virmavirta et al.

(2005) showed that Simon Amman (Olympic champion 2002) had skis perfectly horizontally positioned during the early flight in his victories, and that this enabled him to maintain the highest possible horizontal flight speed. Displacement of the skis from that position increases the aerodynamic drag of the skis and reduces the speed of the jumper during the early flight phase. Generally, the position of the skis during the early flight phase was similar. The average value between the seven rounds of the jumps was varied by about two angular degrees. Slightly higher mean values were generally found at the position of the right ski. No determination of significant correlation coefficients of the multi-item variable angle of hip extension and the criteria multi-item variable length of the jump was found. Based on the structure of factor weights in the first common factor, a slight positive correlation was shown.

Generally, the jumpers who had longer jumps had a slightly more stretched body position at the early flight phase. A more or less stretched body position can have a negative impact on the aerodynamic aspect in the middle part of the flight. In both cases, the positive influence of aerodynamic Dacomitinib forces and their moments can be lowered. This again underlines the aerodynamic aspect of the flight phase. For some time, the so-called flat style of flying (Flat Style) was in use.

, 2008). However, these studies used only single-trial selleck chemicals sprint protocols, neglecting to address the repeated-effort sprint requirements specific to the nature of many field and court sports. The relationship between the force-generating capacity of muscles and repeated-sprint ability has received little attention (Kin-??ler et al., 2008). Amputee soccer is gaining popularity throughout the world and it represents a game that places demand on anaerobic performance, muscular strength, sprint performance, balance and locomotor capacity. In amputee soccer, matches are played between teams of seven players using bilateral crutches. Wearing a prosthetic device is not allowed during match play (Yaz?c?oglu et al., 2007a). The match is played in two equal periods of 25 minutes each.

Play may be suspended for ��time-outs�� of one per team per half which must not exceed one minute. The half time interval must not exceed 10 minutes (Yaz?c?oglu et al., 2007b). These rules emphasize the importance of body composition, anaerobic performance and speed of action, three different variables that have not been hitherto studied within this frame. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship composition, anaerobic performance and sprint performance of amputee soccer players. Methods Subjects Fifteen male amputee soccer players with unilateral below-knee amputation participated in this study voluntarily. The causes of amputation were gun shot in 13 subjects, traffic accident in one subject and congenital malformation in one subject.

Their mean age, height, body mass and body fat were 25.5 ��5.8 yrs, 169.8 �� 5.5 cm, 66.5 �� 10.2 kg and 10.1 �� 3.6 %, respectively. The study group consisted of active football players of the amputee football team and all the players were the members of the same team competing in Amputee Super League and trained for two hours five days per week. Subjects�� mean training experience was 3.3 �� 2.9 yrs. Subjects were informed about the possible risks and benefits of the study and gave informed consent to participate in this study. Procedures Anthropometric Measurements The body height of the soccer players was measured by a stadiometer with an accuracy of �� 1 cm (SECA, Germany), and an electronic scale (SECA, Germany) with an accuracy of �� 0.1 kg was used to measure body mass.

Skinfold thickness was measured with a Holtain skinfold caliper (Hotain, UK) which applied a pressure Anacetrapib of 10 g/mm2 with an accuracy of �� 2 mm. Gulick anthropometric tape (Holtain, UK) with an accuracy of �� 1 mm was used to measure the circumference of extremities. Diametric measurements were determined by Harpenden calipers (Holtain, UK) with an accuracy of �� 1 mm. The soccer players�� somatotypes were then calculated using the Heath-Carter formula (1990) and the percentage of body fat was determined by the Jackson and Pollock formula (1978).

The most common is the functional method of identifying during segmental parameters has been proposed as an effective way to reduce the proposed variability of anatomical definitions (Besier et al., 2003; Della Croce et al., 1999). However, the use of markerless technology to record 3-D kinematics is still a minority technique (Richards and Thewlis, 2008) and has been limited by the intricacy of obtaining precise 3-D kinematics using this approach (Corazza et al., 2006). Future research may wish to replicate the current investigation using markerless anatomical frame definition to further examine the efficacy of this technique. The fact that this paper focused solely on 3-D angulation and angular velocities is potentially a limitation of the current investigation.

Future investigations should focus on additional kinetic parameters such as joint moments which may be influenced by differences in anatomical frame definition (Thewlis et al., 2008). Joint moments have strong sporting and clinical significance and may also be influenced by variations in the anatomical frame thus it is important to also consider their reliability. Finally, care should be taken when attempting to generalize the findings of this study to investigations examining pathological kinematics. It is likely that variations will exist in the relative contributions of the sources of measurement error in participants who exhibit an abnormal gait pattern (Gorton et al., 2009). For participants with skeletal alignment pathologies, palpation and subsequent marker placement may be more complex and result in reduced reliability (Gorton et al.

, 2009). In conclusion, based on the results obtained from the methodologies used in the current investigation, it appears that the anatomical co-ordinate axes of the lower extremities can be defined reliably. Future research should focus on the efficacy and advancement of markerless techniques. Table 2 Knee joint kinematics (means, standard deviations) from the stance limb as a function of Test and Retest anatomical co-ordinate axes (* = Significant main effect p��0.05). Table 5 Knee joint velocities (means, standard deviations) from the stance limb as a function of Test and Retest anatomical co-ordinate axes (* = Significant main effect p��0.05) Acknowledgments Our thanks go to Glen Crook for his technical assistance.

Uniform instructions on the Code of Points (CoP) in gymnastics under the Federation International GSK-3 of Gymnastics (FIG) date back to 1949. Every four years after the Olympic Games, the FIG Technical Committee improves and further develops the CoP. Biomechanics research in gymnastics is a growing area of interest, especially when related to scoring of vault difficulty. Physical parameters of vaults are generally-known (Brueggeman, 1994; Prassas, 1995; 2006; Krug, 1997; Takei, 1991; 1998; 2007; Takei et al., 2000; ?uk and Kar��csony, 2004; Naundorf et al.

The subjects were fitted with a chest HR transmitter and wrist monitor recorder. HR was recorded, from the beginning of the session, using individual Polar RS400 (Polar? Vantage sellectchem NV, Polar Electro Oy, Finland), and subsequently exported and analyzed using the Polar Pro-Trainer? software program (Polar Electro Oy, Finland). The subjects could not see their HR measurements during the experimental trial, because it could influence their perceived effort on the Borg and OMNI RPE scales. For this reason, a sticker was placed on each HR monitor. The experimental trial was divided into four stages: a warm-up (10 minutes in a seated position, with a cadence of 90�C100 RPM (revolutions per minute)), a main phase (35 minutes, where the subjects alternated between normal seated positions and seated and standing climb cycling, between 60�C80 RPM in climb techniques and between 80 �C 110 RPM in normal seated cycling).

Then, a cool down (5 minutes, with a cadence of 80�C100 RPM) in a seated position and, finally, stretching exercises, of the principal muscles used in the session off cycling. During the experimental trial, HR was recorded every 5 s. The participants were instructed to follow the directions of a qualified indoor cycling instructor, which included recommended frequencies of pedalling (RPM) in each phase of the session and recommended cycle resistance. The instructor provided feedback to help the subjects to regulate their intensity. Although the resistance of the cycle could be freely changed by the participants during the session, the study subjects had to follow the instructions about the resistance and the RPM indicated by the instructor.

The Borg 6�C20 RPE and the OMNI 0�C10 scales were used to assess perceived exertion. The RPE is a 15-point single-item scale ranging from 6 to 20, with anchors ranging from 6 ��No exertion�� to 20 ��Maximum exertion��. The OMNI 0�C10 scale has a category rating format that contains both pictorial and verbal descriptors positioned along a comparatively narrow numerical response range, 0�C10. Each pictorial descriptor is consistent with its corresponding verbal descriptor, from 0 ��Extremely easy�� to 10 ��Extremely hard��. Both RPE scales were positioned within sight in the indoor cycling room. The subjects were instructed to give an overall perception about how hard the exercise felt according to both RPE scales every five minutes, from the start to the end of the indoor cycling session.

These values were written on a record sheet which the subjects had on their handlebars. Before the measurements, subjects were asked to read instructions on how to use these scales. A familiarization period of two weeks (and a minimum of 3 sessions per week) prior Batimastat to the experimental trial was carried out to accustom the participants with the Borg and the OMNI RPE scales. The first session consisted of familiarization to the RPE scales.

Table 2 also shows the data relative to the velocity and space travelled in the vertical components of the CM��s movement at the moment of the ball��s release (VZ-REL and eZ-REL, respectively) as well as 100 ms before the release (VZ-100 and eZ-100, respectively). The measures selleck chemical Tipifarnib of central tendency on the goalkeepers�� vertical movements show statistically significant differences between expert and inexperienced subjects (F(1, 68) = 4.96, p = 0.03). During the anticipation period, the experts demonstrated a clear tendency to lower their CM with a slower velocity than did their counterparts (VZ-REL) (?0.16 �� 0.21 and ?0.32 �� 0.33, respectively) and therefore moved a shorter distance at the moment of the ball��s release (ez-REL) (?0.03 �� 0.045m and ?0.055 �� 0.085m, respectively).

This lesser vertical movement of the CM in expert goalkeepers is substantiated by the values recorded for maximum vertical velocity during the anticipation phase (VZ-MAX), which was less for expert players than for inexperienced ones (?0.16 �� 0.22 m/s and ?0.24 �� 0.42 m/s, respectively). Moreover, the spatial data as well as the data on velocity components show less dispersion in expert goalkeepers. Discussion and conclusions As might be expected, the differences in the performance of both test groups confirm that the elite goalkeepers were efficient at gathering and interpreting information during the anticipation period, which was subsequently used to determine a precise intercepting movement with a higher percentage of success.

However, the inexperienced goalkeepers intercepted fewer throws, found it difficult to anticipate and identify the path of the throws, and more frequently moved in incorrect directions. When they moved in correct directions, they lacked sufficient precision. These results coincide with those of Ca?al-Bruland et al. (2010) and Vignais et al. (2009), who state that the ability to intercept a ball comes from precise technical execution, specifically of arm movements, and the ability to perceive cues up to the moment the ball leaves the player��s hand. The data gathered from the start of the goalkeepers�� movements, (TSTART-X) corroborate the studies of Savelsbergh et al. (2002, 2005) in which elite goalkeepers tended to begin movement before the thrower released the ball. The minor temporal difference in elite and inexperienced goalkeepers supports the study by Vignais et al.

(2009) reporting a similar response time between groups with varying experience levels. Nonetheless, the statistical values for the start of lateral movement, (TSTART-X), are lower than those of Savelsbergh et al. (2002), who measured 230 ms for soccer goalkeeper using a joystick. These differences could be attributed to the Entinostat different movement structures analyzed: in our study, a complex body movement to intercept a ball, and a simple joystick movement in Savelsbergh et al. (2002).

18 years, SD=9.56). Instruments The short IPAQ is an internationally standardized short administrative version of the questionnaire for the estimation of the level of physical activity in the last 7 days (Craig et al., 2003, Fr?mel et al., 2004). The selleck chemical long and the short IPAQ are useful instruments for the estimation of the level and the amount of physical activity, especially in epidemiological studies. The questionnaires were designed to be used by adults aged 18�C65 yrs. The short version provided information on the time spent walking, in vigorous- and moderate intensity activity and in sedentary activity. Participants were instructed to refer to all domains of physical activity.

The long version was designed to collect detailed information within the domains of household and yard work activities, occupational activity, self-powered transport, and leisure-time physical activity as well as sedentary activity (Craig et al., 2003).Vigorous physical activities in IPAQ are activities, that require hard physical effort and significantly increase minute ventilation. Moderate activities in IPAQ are activities that take moderate physical effort and make you breathe somewhat harder than normal. The long version of the IPAQ provides more detailed information on physical activity, yet the value of the estimated total physical activity is higher than in the short version of the IPAQ. Both the questionnaires have acceptable measurement properties (Craig et al., 2003; Meriwether et al., 2006; Sigmund et al., 2009). The long IPAQ questionnaire was a part of the ANEWS questionnaire (Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale-Abbreviated; www.

ipenproject.org/surveyanews.htm). The IPAQ questionnaires estimate physical activity and inactivity and allow the comparison of vigorous and moderate physical activity, walking and sitting in the context of other personal, demographic and environmental data. The adjustment of data was done in compliance with the internationally recognized methodology of the assessment by the ��IPAQ Research Committee�� (www.ipaq.ki.se). The evaluation of physical activity in METs was 6 METs for vigorous physical activity. Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was carried out using the software Statistica 8.0. The associations between variables and physical activity were quantified by use of the Spearman correlation coefficient.

To assess significant differences, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test and its relevant effect size ��2 coefficient were used. Commonly Anacetrapib used evaluations of values of ��2 are as follows: 0.06>��2��0.01 small effect, 0.14>��2��0.06 middle-sized effect and ��2��0.14 large effect (Morse, 1999). Results When we consider physical activity in relation to age groups (age brackets 25�C35, 36�C45 and 46�C60 years), in this sectional study, regardless of the year of monitoring and regardless of gender, there are no significant differences in PA among age groups.