Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[10] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[11] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[11] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the St Lawrence River as Canada.[11]

The Aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[25] and two million,[26] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[27] As a consequence of contact with European diseases, Canada's Aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced infectious diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), resulting in a forty to eighty percent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival.[25][28]

European colonization

The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.[34] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[35][36] Then Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.[37] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River, where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory (known as the colony of Canada) in the name of King Francis I.[38] In general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time.[39]

The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized American independence and ceded the newly added territories south (but not north) of the Great Lakes to the new United States.[49]New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[50]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration now resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain 1815-50.[51] New arrivals included Irish refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[52] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 per cent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[25]

Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[61] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[62] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[63] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[64] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[64] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[62] and the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[2]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[82] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[83] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[84] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.[85] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[86]

Geography and climate

Canada occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south, and the US state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.[92]Greenland is to the northeast. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the worlds largest proportion of fresh water lakes.[93]

Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141°W longitude,[94] but this claim is not universally recognized. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[95] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);[96] additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).[97]

Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.[98] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes (563 greater than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)), more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.[99][100] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains.

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[104] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[105]

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited.[108][111][112] In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (at present Justin Trudeau),[113] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[111] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[114] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[111] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[115]

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[112] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[119] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[120]

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[124]

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin (the first female Chief Justice).[128] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[129]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[130] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[131] However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[132]

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[146][147] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in co-operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[148]

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[149] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[150] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[62] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[151]

Provinces and territories

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare.[158] Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[159]

A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals.

In 2014, Canada's exports totalled over C$528 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $523 billion, of which approximately $349 billion originated from the United States, $49 billion from the European Union, and $35 billion from China.[167] The country's 2014 trade surplus totalled C$5.1 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[168][169]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[170] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[171]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[173] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13% share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[174] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[175] Canada's Ministry of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal and lead.[176] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[177]

The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a major recession, which led to a significant rise in unemployment in Canada.[182] By October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate had reached 8.6 percent, with provincial unemployment rates varying from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.[183] Between October 2008 and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.[184]Canada's federal debt was estimated to total $566.7 billion for the fiscal year 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09.[185] In addition, Canada's net foreign debt rose by $41 billion to $194 billion in the first quarter of 2010.[186] However, Canada's regulated banking sector (comparatively conservative among G8 nations), the federal government's pre-crisis budgetary surpluses, and its long-term policies of lowering the national debt, resulted in a less severe recession compared to other G8 nations.[187] As of 2015[update], the Canadian economy has largely stabilized and has seen a modest return to growth, although the country remains troubled by volatile oil prices, sensitivity to the Eurozone crisis and higher-than-normal unemployment rates.[188][189] The federal government and many Canadian industries have also started to expand trade with emerging Asian markets, in an attempt to diversify exports; Asia is now Canada's second-largest export market after the United States.[190][191]Widely debated oil pipeline proposals, in particular, are hoped to increase exports of Canadian oil reserves to China.[192][193]

The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada, spanning approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 miles).[103]

About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the contiguous United States border.[218] Approximately 50 percent of Canadians live in urban areas concentrated along the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor,[219] with an additional 30 percent living along the British Columbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[220] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found below the 55th parallel north.[219] In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;[221] by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years.[222] As of 2013[update], the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81 years.[223] The majority of Canadians (69.9%) live in family households, 26.8% report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3.7%.[224] The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.[224]

Education

According to a 2012 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada is the most educated country in the world;[225] the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with 51 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[225] Canada spends about 5.3% of its GDP on education.[226] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than 20 000 USD per student).[227] As of 2014[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[165]

Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982, education in both English and French has been available in most places across Canada.[228] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.[229] The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[230] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[92] In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[231] The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates that Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading.[232][233]

According to the 2006 census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%).[235] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,172,790 people.[236] Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed Aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-Aboriginal visible minority.[237] In 2006, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.[238] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[239] By 2007, almost one in five (19.8%) were foreign-born, with nearly 60 percent of new immigrants coming from Asia (including the Middle East).[240] The leading sources of immigrants to Canada were China, the Philippines and India.[241] According to Statistics Canada, visible minority groups could account for a third of the Canadian population by 2031.[242]

Religion

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[244]Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[245] The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[246] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[247] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[248][249][250][251] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[252] but still believe in God.[253] According to the 2011 census, 67.3% of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7% of the population. The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%).[254] Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.[255][256] In 2011, 23.9% declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001.[257] The remaining 8.8% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%) and Hinduism (1.5%).[254]

The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[263] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[264] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[265] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[266]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[267] There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[268] Of these, only the Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway languages have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.[269] Several Aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[270] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[271]

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, two of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL), is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[272]Quebec Sign Language (LSQ), is spoken primarily in Quebec, however there are sizeable population centres in francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba; due to its historical relation to the francophone culture.[273]Plains Sign Talk was the most widespread language in North America prior to colonization, spoken across the Prairies by a number of First Nations.[274]Inuit Uukturausingit is used by Inuit in Nunavut.[275]Maritime Sign Language was used in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island before ASL became available in the mid-20th century.[276]

Culture

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[277][278] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[279]Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[280] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[281][282] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a culture of Quebec that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[283] However, as a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic—a collection of several regional, Aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.[284]

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Aboriginal peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[288] During the 20th century Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[289]Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[290] Many Canadian comedians have archived international success in the American TV and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world.[291]

References

^ abHail, M; Lange, S (February 25, 2010). "Federalism and Representation in the Theory of the Founding Fathers: A Comparative Study of US and Canadian Constitutional Thought". Publius: the Journal of Federalism. 40 (3): 366–388. doi:10.1093/publius/pjq001.

^Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall. A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380. ISBN978-0-521-49666-7.

^Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. University of Illinois Press. 7 (1): 128. doi:10.2307/743779.

^Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659.

^Teigrob, Robert (September 2010). "'Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations". Canadian Review of American Studies. 37 (3): 403–430. doi:10.3138/cras.37.3.403.

^Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and influence in the world. Government of Canada. 2005. ISBN978-0-662-68608-8.

^Hale, Geoffrey (October 2008). "The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 41 (3): 719–747. doi:10.1017/S0008423908080785.