Cemeteries and a late Ramesside suburb at Amara West

by N. Spencer — Sudan & Nubia, No 13, published by The Sudan Archaeological Research Society, 2009

SUDAN & NUBIA
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SUDAN & NUBIA
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Cemeteries and a late Ramesside
suburb at Amara West
ity of pre-19th Dynasty occupation at the site cannot yet be
ruled out (Spencer 1997, 53; Edwards 2004, 106). Several
monuments of the 18th Dynasty have been found at the site
(e.g. Barbotin 2005, 156–7 [85]), though these may have been
brought from elsewhere.
Significantly, a large building (24.5 x 29m) near the West
Gate was identified as the Governor’s Residence (E13.2),
on the basis of a series of inscribed doorjambs and lintels.
These named several ‘deputies’ (idnw) including Sebaukhau
(Spencer 1997, pl. 151) and Paser (Spencer 1997, pls 153
[b], 166), making it reasonable to assume Amara West was
the administrative centre of occupied Kush (Upper Nubia,
south of the Second Cataract) in the 19th and 20th Dynasty,
perhaps replacing Soleb some 80km upstream (Müller 1976,
57–61). These deputies may have been of local origin, serv-
Neal Spencer
Downstream of Sai, as the Nile flows eastwards past the
modern town of Abri, the ancient site of Amara West overlooks the river on the north bank (Figure 1, Plate 1). Egypt
Exploration Society (EES) excavations, before and after
the Second World War (Spencer 1997; 2002), uncovered a
sandstone temple in the north east of the town surrounded
by mud-brick magazines. This temple was decorated in the
reigns of Ramesses II and his successors; a year 6 inscription of Ramesses IX (c. 1125 BC) around the hypostyle hall
Figure 1. Map of Amara West area showing the location of the palaeochannel, areas of magnetometry survey (2008) and location of cemeteries.
(Spencer 1997, 36, pl. 27 [d]) is the latest royal inscription of
the New Kingdom known in Upper Nubia. Two areas of the
surrounding town, set within a mud-brick temenos wall, were
excavated, to the south of the temple and adjacent to the gate
through the western enclosure wall. The excavators identified four main architectural phases, amongst well-preserved
remains of houses, magazines and storage bins, seemingly
dating to the 19th and 20th Dynasties (c. 1307–1070 BC), with
the highest levels being perhaps of later date. The possibil-
ing on behalf of the Egyptian administration (Kemp 2006,
35–7). The ancient name of the town was preserved on
several monuments: ‘House of Ramesses-beloved-of-Amun’
and later ‘House of Ramesses-ruler-of-Thebes (see Grandet
1983, 108–9). Despite its administrative importance, the surface area of the walled town at Amara (11,660m²) is dwarfed
by the extent of the 18th Dynasty town enclosures at Sesebi
(54,000m²) and Sai (33,320m²), which may reflect respective
population levels.
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architecture.1 The archaeological strata, consisting
of mud-brick and sandstone architecture shrouded
by deep deposits of wind-blown sand, occupation
layers and rubble, makes the site an ideal place
for magnetometry, in this case using a Dual Array
Bartington Grad 601-2 Fluxgate Magnetometer
(Figure 1). The outline of buildings, and indeed the
shoreline of the dried up river channel north of the
site, can be clearly discerned, with the exception of
the temple in the north-eastern part of the walled
town (Figure 2). This is due to the deep layer of
spoil used to rebury the temple after World War II,
with the aim of protecting the reliefs from further
erosion (Spencer 1997, 99).
Complex E13.3
The magnetometry survey revealed modest buildings, populating the southern part of the enclosure
within the town walls, not excavated by the EES.
The most intriguing feature was a sizeable structure (E13.3;
19.2 x 22.6m),2 or series of adjacent structures, located in the
north-west corner (Figure 3), just north of the governor’s
residence (E13.2).
Given its markedly different alignment in relation to other
structures within the town, this feature could potentially be
of a later phase than the majority of buildings previously
excavated, particularly as the current surface level is noticeably
higher in this part of the site. A 20 x 10m area of the building, along its western edge, was then exposed during the first
season of excavations (2009).3 Though excavations are still
ongoing in this building, several observations can already be
made. Two, possibly three, long, rectangular rooms (nos 6, 18,
and 9/19) featured vaulted ceilings, though only the bases of
the vault springs survive in most places, with thinner bricks
laid on their ends to support the vault (Plate 3). This type
of room is typical of New Kingdom storage magazines, as
found associated with cult temples (such as the Ramesseum
at Thebes and at Amara West, Spencer 1997, pls 4, 58c),
but also attached to large houses (e.g. at Tell el-Amarna in
Middle Egypt: houses M51.2, Q46.1, Q47.1, R44.2, T36.2;
Kemp and Garfi 1993). Confirmation of such an interpretation was provided by the concentration of storage amphorae
fragments found within these rooms and the discovery of a
pottery ostracon (F4017; Plate 4) in the eastern end of room
Plate 1. View over Cemetery C from the desert escarpment, with the town site in the
background beyond the palaeochannel.
Survey
Since the EES excavations were closed on New Year’s Day,
1950, the site has suffered very little from further degradation
or modern development. There is still no modern occupation
on, or around, the site and the previous excavations have
simply filled with sand, brought in by the strong northerly
winds (Plate 2). Amara West thus offers the opportunity to
investigate a well-preserved, late New Kingdom town, with
the potential to elucidate aspects of the lived experience of
both Egyptians and Nubians in occupied Kush, using a range
of scientific methods of enquiry. It is worth bearing in mind
that a significant number of Amara’s ancient inhabitants may
Plate 2. Area of West Town excavated in 1948-50, now filled with
wind-blown sand. Unexcavated areas, in the background, are covered
with a stone and pottery sherd scatter.
Leonie Pett (British School at Rome) and Sophie Hay (University
of Southampton, Archaeological Prospection Services) undertook
the survey, assisted by Neal Spencer and Karis Eklund. Shadia Abdu
Rabo acted as inspector for the National Corporation for Antiquities
and Museums.
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Grid, building and room references continue the system used during
the EES fieldwork (see Spencer 1997, 6, pl.2).
3
The project team consisted of Neal Spencer (director), Mary Shepperson, An Van Camp, Nick Soderberg, Stephanie Aulsebrook, René
Kertesz (archaeologists), Michaela Binder (physical anthropologist),
Marie Millet (ceramicist), Jamie Woodward and Mark Macklin (geomorphologists) and Shadia Abdu Rabo (NCAM inspector).
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have been of Nubian, not Egyptian, origin (see Smith 2003,
192–7, 202–6). Ancient health and diet, the effects of climate
change, migration patterns, modes of cultural expression, and
the process of assumed abandonment of the site at the end of
the New Kingdom, are the research priorities of the project.
A magnetometry survey was conducted during the first season (January 2008) to investigate the extent of the underlying
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Figure 2. Topographical and magnetometry survey of Amara West town (2008).
Figure 3. Detail of magnetometry survey of Amara West town (2008), showing western suburb.
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Plate 3. General view south west over building complex E13.3, with remains
of vaulted storerooms, subsequently subdivided (for example, insertion
of walls to create rooms 9 and 19).
18, bearing a hieratic text recording commodity deliveries
(Rob Demarée, pers. comm.).
Our understanding of this group of storerooms is made
difficult as they were subsequently converted into rooms of
a more domestic character, with additional brick walls and
stone-lined doorways inserted to divide the space into smaller
units (Plate 3). The function of some rooms could be easily
identified, such as one with three bread ovens along its back
wall (room 11), or the adjacent room with three grain-grinding
emplacements (room 10; Plate 5). Access to the roof, or an
upper storey, was provided from some rooms, as remnants
of two staircases were identified. The pottery found within
the rooms was all of 20th Dynasty date, with the
exception of some 19th Dynasty ceramics in one
Plate 4. Hieratic ostracon, with a record of commodity
deliveries. From complex E13.3 (layer 4002).
of the magazines, within deposits predating the
division of the space into smaller rooms. The
top of a stela, depicting Amun-Ra as a ram, was
found here, re-used as a vessel lid (F4096; Plate
6). The remains can thus be interpreted, at this
preliminary stage of investigation, as a series of
20th Dynasty dwellings built amongst the remains
of a large-scale storage complex of an earlier
period. It seems reasonable to associate the latter
function with the Governor’s Residence immediately to the south, although it is difficult to explain
the shift in the axis of the building compared to
those around it. It should also be noted that a series of vaulted magazines were identified west of
the Governor’s Residence (E12.3–5 and D12.1;
Spencer 1997, 171–2, pls 115, 122–3) and in the
area immediately south of the temple complex
(‘the Northern Complex’, Spencer 1997, 104–5,
pl. 76). Vaulted rectangular magazines, with schist
floors, were also found in association with a large
‘administrative’ building in the 18th Dynasty town
on Sai Island (Azim 1975, 111–19).
Villa E12.10
The principal focus of this article is, however, the area west
of the walled town. Fairman had undertaken some test
trenches here, revealing floors and brick walls, but did not
record their location, or provide a plan (Spencer 1997, 11).
The magnetometry survey provided a high-resolution image
of a series of large buildings (Figure 3), which could reasonably be termed villas, on account of their size and similarities with other New Kingdom elite houses, notably those at
Tell el-Amarna. Up to six of these can be made out in the
survey data. The northernmost one (E12.10) was selected
for excavation in 2009.
Plate 5. View over the southern part of complex E13.3, showing spaces with ovens
(room 11), grinding emplacements (room 10) and staircases.
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wind-blown sand, containing a significant amount of pottery,
and rubble deposits with a high proportion of mud-brick
fragments. Function can be assigned to some rooms on the
basis of internal features, but also in comparison to elite
houses found at other sites.
An entrance porch (room 13; 3.73 x 2.75m; Plate 8) projected from the south wall of the villa was embellished with
a row of schist paving stones leading up to the main doorway
(Colour plate XIX). Wind-blown sand was clearly a problem
for the ancient inhabitants, as at some point the porch had
to be closed off with a cross wall (2143), and a set of steps
(2154) built against this to allow persons to step down from
the rising ground level into the villaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s porch. The sandstone
doorway (2076) was almost entirely preserved, with doorjambs bonded to the brick walls. The lintel was found lying
nearby, broken into five pieces (F2024, Plate 9). Embellished
with a cavetto cornice and torus moulding, this bore the
remains of a white plaster coating, which would have been
Plate 6. Upper part of a sandstone stela, found reused as a lid for a
storage vessel buried in floor (4096) within room 9, complex E13.3.
The villa is well-constructed from mud bricks (365-395
x 170-200 x 50-80mm), with an 800mm thick external wall,
defining a 28 x 17m building (Figure 4, Plate 7). There is no
evidence for foundation trenches, cut to receive the walls,
which seem to have been built directly on alluvial deposits
and levelled rubbish from the 19th Dynasty occupation of the
walled town (see below). In places the walls were preserved to
1.46m in height, though the architecture was more truncated
in the northern half of the building, with only the first course
of bricks preserved in the north-west corner. Wind erosion
Plate 8. Porch (room 13) in front of the doorway into villa E12.10,
with later blocking wall (2143) and access steps (2154) visible to
the left. A later circular structure (2145) can be seen, built over
the south-east corner of the porch.
inscribed. No trace of any inscription survives unfortunately,
as one would expect to find here the names and titles of the
house owner (Budka 2001). Another similar lintel (F2096)
was found leaning against the south wall of the porch.
Plate 7. View north over villa E12.10 at the end of excavations.
may well be responsible for this uneven state of preservation
(see Kemp 1995, 150â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2), with accumulated sand deposits
then protecting the southern parts of the villa. In some
rooms, whitewashed mud-plaster still adhered to the walls. No
remnants of painted decoration were found, although some
of the other buildings at Amara were embellished with such
dĂŠcor (e.g. Spencer 1997, 172). Black schist slabs, quarried
locally, were employed as door thresholds, many of which
still remained in situ.
Deposits in the rooms consisted of interleaved layers of
Plate 9. Sandstone door lintel (F2024), probably from the main
entrance to villa E12.10, reconstructed from fragments
found lying upon the surface nearby.
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cess from the nearby West Gate into
the walled town. Three courses of
a later brick, blocking wall (2153)
were preserved between the jambs
of the main door.
Passing through the entrance
gate, a narrow corridor (room 12,
also paved with schist slabs) provided access to the main courtyard
of the villa (room 7; Plate 7). This
large space (originally 9.45 x 7m)
must not have been roofed, as
there was no evidence for column
emplacements necessary to support
such a span (it is estimated joists
could span up to 3.7m, Spence 2004,
129). Very little ceiling collapse was
found in this space, in contrast to
the more northerly rooms, though
roof remains can easily disappear
once the wood has been eaten by
termites, or decayed (Kemp 1995,
149). The well-preserved, mud-plaster floor extends across the room
(2136). Brick piers on either side
of the room revealed two distinct
construction phases (2109 and 2156;
2071 and 2167), suggesting small
modifications were undertaken in
the villa during its occupation. A
sandstone trough (F2069, 1.55 x
0.6 x 0.443m; Plate 10) lay against
one of these piers. The principal
architectural addition to the house
was a new room against the south
wall of the courtyard (room 6; walls
2100, 2073, 2074). The remains
of at least two other
sandstone doorways
(four jambs and a lintel; F2025–7, F2071–2)
were found carefully
stacked up against the
southern wall of the
courtyard; again, none
bore the remains of
decoration. Were these
from elsewhere in the
villa, or from earlier buildings, and why are they so carefully
arranged against the courtyard’s south wall? A large milling
stone in dark grey granodiorite (F2021), with a working
surface of 640 x 500mm, was found discarded in the upper
deposits excavated from this room.
The main features in the courtyard were five storage bins,
arranged in an L-shape, against the western wall (Plate 11).
Figure 4. Plan of villa E12.10 (scale 1:150).
Entrance porches of this type are a common feature of Tell
el-Amarna houses, usually reached via a staircase (see Spence
2004, 126–34) and were clearly an indicator of status (Kemp
2006, 311). The decision to orientate the house southwards
at Amara West, in the opposite direction to Tell el-Amarna
houses (Spence 2004, 127) may be explained by the strong
northerly winds, but perhaps also by a desire to provide ac52
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Bricks, laid at an angle on the north side, would have allowed an individual to rest his/her shins against the brick
while grinding grain;4 the flour then fell onto a plastered floor
Plate 10. Sandstone trough (F2069) against brick pillar 2109 in the
main courtyard (room 7) of villa E12.10.
These were raised above the courtyard floor by schist slabs
laid on their sides, with another flat slab being used to create
the base for the bins. Thin brick and plaster walls formed the
sides of the bins (Colour plate XVIII). Though built against
the western wall of the court (2072), they were not bonded
with it, and it remains unclear whether they were an original
part of the villa or were added during a renovation phase.
However, as these are most likely to have been used to store
grain, they may well be contemporary with the main occupation phase of E12.10, given the presence of processing and
Plate 12. Grain processing installations
(2012) in room 9 of villa E12.10.
View looking west.
area (2093) bounded by a raised lip.
Similar emplacements have been found at
Tell el-Amarna (Bomann 1995, 17â&#x20AC;&#x201C;19, figs
1.11â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1.12). The room immediately to the
south preserved the remains of seven ovens
(2030, 2031, 2032, 2033, 2040, 2041, 2081,
2081) at least some of which were in use
together with a fired-clay core surrounded
by mud and a flue hole at the base (Plate 11,
Colour plate XVII). Thick deposits of ash
were found within the ovens. Many parts
of the brick walls in this room were discoloured reddish-black through the use of
these ovens. It is notable that the thickness
Plate 11. View west over rooms 10, 9 and 8 (left-right) of villa E12.10, with storage bins against of the external villa-wall around the service
the western wall of the main courtyard visible in the foreground.
rooms (9, 10) and the main court (room 7) is
only 600mm, in contrast to 800mm for the
cooking areas in the adjacent rooms. Similar bins were found
remainder
of
the
villa. The southern part of the villa may not
constructed on fill in rooms around the temple (Spencer 1997,
have
been
roofed
or supported an upper storey. The presence
89â&#x20AC;&#x201C;91, pl. 73a). Just south of the bins, a doorway provided the
of so many ovens and grain-processing emplacements is
only access to a set of two rooms (Figure 4, Plate 11). That
to the north (room 9) housed a grain-grinding installation
(2012), with four adjacent settings for quern stones, which
would have sat around 450mm above the ground, supported
by schist stones, brick and mud plaster (Plate 12).
For the required stance, see Samuel 1989, figs 12.6 and 12.12. An
ancient representation of this action is part of the lower register in
the well-known depiction of the house of Djehutynefer (Shedid 1988,
pl. 5a).
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also somewhat unusual, even for a large house, and suggests
that the house may have provided for persons other than its
inhabitants. In smaller houses, oven and grinding emplacements are usually combined within a single room (e.g. Peet
1921, pl. 27 [2]).
An earlier oven (2183) was partly exposed, beneath two
of the later ovens. It can be associated with the corner of an
earlier wall (2192), visible beneath the main wall (2051-2052).
This is likely to be from the first phase of building in the
villa, though still post-dating the 19th Dynasty rubbish layers
(see below). The continuation of this wall was located to the
east (2192) in a sondage dug through the floor of room 6,
again with the main phase wall (2052) built directly over it.
Returning to the main courtyard, a doorway in the northwestern corner led to a small square space (room 8), with well
preserved white-plastered walls; the purpose of this room
is unclear though a small brick setting, or bench, was found
against the east wall (2097; 1.33 x 0.76m). Room 8 provides
the only means of access to the rear, presumably more private,
part of the villa. A large room (5) spans the width of the villa,
and was found to be devoid of features, other than the base
of a hearth (2155) at one end (Plate 13). The combination of
a circular hearth, with a small step before it, is again well paralleled at Tell el-Amarna (Bomann 1995,
9, 12â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13, fig. 1.9). Its
presence suggests this
room was in regular
use. The eastern end
of the room provided
access to a small room
(4), where the first
flight of a staircase
leading to the roof
and/or upper storey
was preserved (Plate
14). As the second
flight led from south
to north, it would have
emerged above room
1, perhaps suggestPlate 13. View west over the hearth (2155) ing that the area over
the northern series of
in room 5 of villa E12.10.
rooms offered accessible roof space, or even upper storey rooms. The truncation
of the architecture has removed any roof remains, other than
a mass of mud fragments bearing reed and matt impressions
(Plate 15), likely to derive from the ceiling (very similar to
those published by Bomann 1995, 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;11). Whether a built
upper storey existed is unknown, but multi-storey dwellings
were a typical feature of New Kingdom towns (Spence 2004).
Three-storey Ramesside houses were seen by Flinders Petrie
at Memphis (Drower 1995, 62), though space constraints may
have been more acute in a city such as Memphis.
If a substantial second storey did exist, it is perhaps sur-
Plate 14. Staircase 2096 in room 4 of villa E12.10, with the doorway
to room 5 in the background.
prising that more archaeological debris does not survive from
it. While a significant amount of brick rubble was excavated
out of the rooms, its volume is consistent with collapse from
a single storey house of this scale; of course, a certain amount
of rubble may have been removed through wind activity. If
we assume the second flight of stairs ascended at a similar gradient to the first, we can posit the roof, or upper storey floor
level, at around 2.48m,
though it may have been
somewhat lower if the
upper flight also had
a landing. The narrow
space around the staircase preserved several
complete pots lying on
a floor (2111) beneath
r ubble layers (2094,
2095). These included
two small Nubian cooking pots (C2017, Colour
plate XXI) and a vessel
which seemed to be a
more modern intrusion,
perhaps post-Medieval
in date (C2016).
Plate 15. Pieces of mud bearing matting
A doorway from the impressions (F2069) found in the fill
transverse room led north excavated from room 6 of villa E12.10.
into a private courtyard
(room 2), with fine white-washed brick paving across its extent
and a mastaba against the north wall. This can be interpreted as
the principal private reception space and probably had a column
(perhaps with a sandstone base and a wooden shaft) in the middle of the room. The placement of this column would have
facilitated roofing the space, unlike the main courtyard (room
7). To the right, room 1 preserved an original floor level (2015),
not paved, with one shallow plate found in situ (C2000, Colour
plate XX). On the opposite side of the rear courtyard, another
paved room (room 3) was provided with a platform against its
southern wall, perhaps intended to support a bed (Plate 16).
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Pottery found within the villa allowed its occupation to be
broadly dated to the very end of the 19th and the 20th Dynasty
(c. 1200-1100 BC). Fineware vessel fragments were almost
completely absent, with coarse siltware pottery dominating
the assemblage: storage jars, cooking pots, plates and, to a
lesser extent, bowls. Nubian pottery made up around 10%
Plate 18. Fragment of a decorated faience bowl (F2066) found upon
floor 2015 in room 1 (villa E12.10).
the Egyptian bureaucracy at Amara West. This rubble deposit
clearly predates the construction of the villa and is likely to
represent material discarded from the walled town prior to
of the total, consistent with the New Kingdom assemblage
the development of a suburb of sizeable houses outside the
at Askut (Smith 2003, 115–16), though restricted cooking
western wall. Natural silt deposits lie beneath the rubble.
jars are the only class of Nubian vessels found at Amara
A second sondage was made through floor 2163 in room
West. Prior to the completion of petrographic analyses of
6 (Plate 19). Once again, the deposit featured a distinctive
the fabrics, it is not possible to assign Nile silt fabrics to a
repertoire of ceramics (2185-2187-2189), with more 19th Dylocal source, rather than as imports from Egypt. Cernasty, blue-painted sherds. Natural silt was also found
tain marl clays can, however, be assigned an Egyptian
beneath this rubble layer (2193). Written on one of
provenance. It is notable that the previous excavations
the sherds was a hieratic copy of an excerpt from the
and the magnetometry survey have not led to the
literary classic The Teaching of Amenemhat (F2137, Plate
identification of a single kiln within the settlement.
20).5 This is the first copy of a classic Middle Egyptian
Where was the pottery being produced?
literary text found outside Egypt. An example from
The relative paucity of objects, even material of no
the 1938-9 excavations was subsequently identified
intrinsic value, found within the villa is notable, and
for the first time in the EES archives (Parkinson and
gives an impression that possessions were carefully
Spencer 2009). The significance of this discovery is
removed prior to its abandonment. Other than a large
that it is now beyond doubt that such literary classics
number of quern stones, fragments of worked stone,
were read throughout the Egyptian empire.
pottery roundels, faience and shell beads, and clumps
Unfortunately, the principal occupants of villa
E12.10 remain unidentified. The ‘Deputy of Kush’
of yellow and red ochre, the only notable find was a
is one candidate, although the Governor’s Residence
copper alloy double-edged knife blade (F2008) found
(E13.2) was in continuous use throughout the site’s
in room 1 (Plate 17).
occupation. Again, it is possible that the inhabitants
Two sondages beneath the floors of E12.10 proof such houses were Nubians, partly acculturated and
vided further confirmation of the building’s use during
the late Ramesside era. Firstly, a sondage through floor Plate 17. Double- maybe even trained in Egypt, a process well known
2015 against the south wall of room 1, yielded frag- edged copper knife from textual sources (including 18th Dynasty ‘deputies’, see Davies 2005, 54). The size of villa E12.10,
ments of a decorated faience vessel (F2066, Plate 18),
(F2014) found
the rim from a calcite beaker (F2064) and a carnelian in room 1 of villa at 476m², underlines that these were elite dwellings;
very few Tell el-Amarna houses approach this scale
E12.10
spacer bead (F2063), all within a layer of rubble (2165,
(Kemp 2006, 312, fig. 109 [inset]). Those houses with
(layer 2014).
2179). Fifty-one clay seal impressions were found
a larger surface area include the residences of the viwithin this deposit. These have yet to be studied, but
zier
Nakht
(K.50.1), the high priest Pawah (O.49.1) and the
include examples with the prenomen of Thutmose III (e.g.
overseer
of
works Hatiay (T.34.1; for all three, see Kemp and
Colour plate XXV) and impressions of decorative scrolls, tilapia with lotus-flower in the mouth and other types of scenes.
5
For an English translation of The Teaching of Amenemhat, see Parkinson
Such seal impressions are an indication of the functioning of
1997, 203–212.
Plate 16. Brick pavement and platform within room 3 of villa E12.10.
55
houses were excavated within the walls at Sesebi. Though
poorly preserved, it is clear that these large houses were of
a similar scale to the Amara villas (Blackman 1937, 149–51,
pl. 19). At Askut, New Kingdom occupation was actually
focused outside the walls of the largely abandoned, Middle
Kingdom fortifications and the largest house, of Meryka, was
not within a walled area (Smith 1995, 154–66; 2003, 97–101).
By far the best comparative data for elite dwellings is, of
course, Tell el-Amarna, the late 18th Dynasty town founded by
Akhenaten as a new residence in Middle Egypt. Built between
c. 1350 and 1333 BC, the houses predate the earliest known
levels at Amara West. Several clear points of comparison exist
between the larger houses at Tell el-Amarna and E12.10 at
Amara West. The effectively tripartite division of the space,
with a porch, followed by ‘front rooms’ (courtyard with side
rooms), a ‘middle’ group of rooms with staircase and hall,
and an ‘inner’ area with bathroom and inner hall, is again
easily recognisable (see Spence 2004, 126–34). Villa E12.10
is unusual, however, in the relative size of the main courtyard
(room 7) and the manner in which it is not enclosed on all
sides by other rooms. It also seems to be a feature of the villa
immediately south east of E12.10 outside the West Gate. A
light well is generally assumed to have been a component
of large houses at Tell el-Amarna, but given that all of the
rooms in E12.10 include an external wall, lighting through
windows may have been sufficient.
Despite such variations in ground plans between New
Kingdom villas at different sites, it is clear that E12.10 accords
well with domestic architecture of the period, underlining that
Egypt exported many of its architectural ideals throughout
its Empire and that the houses at Tell el-Amarna should not
be seen as ‘an aberration’ (for a summary of opposing views
on this subject, see Spence 2004, 123). Two further elements
are not present with villa E12.10, in comparison with the elite
dwellings at Tell el-Amarna. Firstly, it does not sit within a
walled compound which at Tell el-Amarna provided space
for circular grain silos, wells, kitchen areas, animal pens and
occasionally subsidiary accommodation (Kemp 2006, 327–9).
The large houses at Sesebi were also without compounds
(Blackman 1937, 149–51, pl. 19). Secondly, a cult place cannot
be identified within house E12.10. While the larger houses
at Tell el-Amarna were provided with a formal shrine with
stone architectural elements, more modest cult settings are
also found in Egyptian houses, often for the veneration of
ancestors (see Hölscher 1939, 68–71, figs 54, 56; Ikram 1989;
Smith 2003, 127–31). Given the truncation of the architecture
of E12.10 in the northern more private rooms, it may simply
be that all traces of such an installation are now destroyed.
One of the smaller houses within the town walls featured
a ‘cupboard’ cut into the town wall (Spencer 1997, 154, pls
78, 100[a]). The careful modelling of a torus moulding and
an intimation of a formal lintel suggest that this could have
been a domestic shrine.
Given the construction date of villa E12.10 towards the
end of the 19th Dynasty, it is worthwhile to consider how it,
Plate 19. View of room 6 in villa E12.10, with mid floor (2163).
Ostracon F2137 was found in rubble layer (2189) beneath this floor.
Garfi 1993). Such officials and priests represent the highest
echelons of pharaonic society. Of course, persons living in
Egyptian towns in distant Kush may have had more freedom
to construct large dwellings.
The closest parallel to E12.10 is a large house recorded by
Steindorff at Aniba within the existing fortified walls, which
displays many of the same characteristics, including a projecting entrance porch and a tripartite division of the space,
though in this case with columned rooms in all three parts
(Steindorff 1937, 19, pl. 8). It is also of near-identical size (26
x 17m). Unfortunately, only a general ‘New Kingdom’ date
can be assigned to the structure on the basis of the published
record, but it is noteworthy that Aniba became the seat of
the idnw of Wawat (Lower Nubia) during the 20th Dynasty
(such as Pen-niut, whose tomb was located here; Steindorff
1937, 242–5, pls 101–4). Parts of three large, contiguous
Plate 20. Pottery sherd inked with a stanza from The Teaching of
Amenemhat (F2137), found in rubble (2189)
beneath the floor in room 6.
56
Sudan & Nubia
and the adjacent houses visible in the magnetometry data,
compare to other dwellings at Amara West. The earliest
architecture found in the EES excavations within the town
was assumed to date to the early 19th Dynasty (‘Level Four’),
and in the areas exposed, it appears that densely-built housing
was arranged on a fairly regular plan following the temple
alignment. The houses to the north west of the Residence
match its alignment, set along the western side of a northwest alley, with houses E12.8 (117m²) and E12.10 (64m²; see
Spencer 1997, pl. 113), and an enigmatic structure immediately to the north (for storage?). In the East Town south of
the temple, the ‘Level Four’ buildings actually predate the
preserved temple and may be contemporary with the reign
of Seti I (c. 1306-1290 BC). Much of the exposed area was
taken up with a large building which may not be a house
(‘the Northern Complex’, Spencer 1997, 104–5, pl. 76), but
featured small rooms off a central courtyard and a series of
rectangular magazines to the east (497m²). Immediately to the
south across a street, lay more modest houses: D.14.16 (67m²),
D14.17 (62m²), D14.10/8 (48m²) and D14.11/13/21 (36m²;
Spencer 1997, 113–20, pl. 76) The alignment of these houses
was slightly skewed in relation to the projected temple axis.
In the ensuing phases, many of these houses were modified, further subdivided, or even completely replaced, but
the range of dwelling sizes did not change dramatically.
Furthermore, the new areas of the walled town, revealed
through magnetometry (Figures 2 and 3), suggest, if anything,
an even denser area of housing, particularly evident in the
south-east corner. Buildings in the south-western corner of
the walled town are less clear in the survey data, but do seem
to be arranged around a series of bisecting streets aligned on
the town walls. It is difficult not to interpret the early architectural phases as evidence for a planned town with temple
area, associated storage, governor’s residence and a series of
houses to accommodate the ‘garrison’, perhaps including
officials, priests, soldiers and maybe even those involved in
gold working and other trades. These roles would have been
filled by both Egyptians and Nubians. It is noteworthy that
the proportion of Nubian ceramics (10%) seems consistent between villa E12.10 and the areas excavated within
the town wall (E13.3). Whether there was any real military
threat to Egyptian control during the Ramesside Period – the
few, known campaigns recorded having amounted only to
conflicts with semi-nomadic, or desert-dwelling groups (see
Morris 2005, 645–59, 782–8) – the appearance of the town
had been couched in defensive symbolism and architecture.
Buildings lay within imposing walls, the town had been situated upon an island and there was a temple with decoration
propagating the rhetoric of Egyptian conquest and control.
In fact, an inscription found in the Governor’s Residence
seems to refer to a ‘fort-town’ (mnnw, Spencer 1997, pl. 157).
How did the villas fit into this scheme? They may not have
existed at all in the early phase of the town’s occupation, as
19th Dynasty rubbish deposits underlie the walls of E12.10. If
we assume a similar chronology may be applied to the villas
south of E12.10 (which will be targeted in future seasons),
it would be the case that by the late 19th Dynasty individuals
had decided to construct spacious dwellings outside the town
wall, effectively creating a small suburb of elite houses. An
important prerequisite of extramural buildings is, of course,
a sense of security. Space, freedom in terms of layout and
perhaps even shelter from the northerly winds, would all have
been attractive aspects of this western suburb. Given the
decision to reside in extramural housing, threats from raiding
parties, or the desire to live within an urban area separated
from the alien cultural environment (Spence in Kemp 2004,
268–9), were clearly not issues at Amara West during the
period when the suburb was built.
It has long been assumed that the city must have been
totally abandoned after the New Kingdom, other than
some ‘squatter’ occupation, identified by Fairman (Spencer
1997, 219); the term itself is rather judgmental. Settlements
subsequently flourished on the opposite bank of the Nile,
where Napatan, Meroitic and Medieval remains have been
identified (Vila 1977b). The absence of any Napatan pottery
on the settlement site at Amara would seem to support this
interpretation. However, a large structure was built adjacent
to, and over, the partly ruined remains of villa E12.10. This
consisted of a thin wall, laid out on a semicircular plan
(2145; diameter 4.84m; Plate 8), bonded with a north-south
wall (2194). Both were only cleared to allow mapping and
it is hoped that future excavations between the villa and
western town wall may elucidate whether this is a very late
New Kingdom feature, or it post-dates this period. A series
of dry-stone constructions west of the walled town, some
with three distinct spaces, may be of New Kingdom or much
later date and also await investigation. In addition, the previous excavators had suggested a ‘squatter’ occupation of the
town south of the temple, during the 25th Dynasty (Spencer
1997, 221), but this is difficult to substantiate without ceramic
evidence. The accumulation of thick deposits of wind-blown
sand between occupation phases does not necessarily imply
a lengthy time frame.
The cemeteries at Amara
Despite the lack of clear evidence for continued occupation
of the town following the end of the New Kingdom, it is clear
that Cemetery C, set on a low rise above a wadi to the north
east of the site, was in intensive use (Plate 1, Figure 1). This
was probably identified by the EES team in the 1938-9 season,
though the location of their work is not accurately recorded
(Spencer 2002). A subsequent CNRS survey designated the
site NF-36-M/2-R-8, and excavated a two-chambered tomb
with pottery dated to the late New Kingdom, or perhaps
later (Vila 1977a, 28–31). Following a magnetometry survey
in 2008, which revealed the distribution of graves in part
of the cemetery (Figure 1), a first season of excavation was
undertaken in 2009 (Plate 21). The graves were cut into the
Holocene alluvial silt and included simple pit burials (graves
202–5, 206, 208), tomb shafts with lateral burial niches (grave
57
210) and shafts leading to one or two, roughly-hewn chambers (graves 200, 201 [Plate 22]). No descending staircases or
vaulted burial chambers were found during the 2009 season
(see Smith 2007, 100â&#x20AC;&#x201C;103).
While all the burials had been disturbed in antiquity, initial
chamber (and remains of two further bodies in the shaft). In
addition to large amounts of pottery, numerous bone, shell,
faience and carnelian beads were recovered, along with faience scarabs and plaques and a fine Egyptian blue bracelet
(Colour plate XXVI). Specifically Egyptian-style objects
(head-rest, scarabs and wooden coffins [Plate 23])
were complemented with Nubian elements (wooden
funerary beds [Plate 24], metal vessels, bone-plaque
bracelets). The better-preserved skeletal remains at
Tombos suggested that Nubians and Egyptians (or
Egyptianised Nubians) could be buried side-by-side,
Plate 23. Fragment of a coffin panel (F9118) from the fill
(9019) within the western chamber of Grave 201 (Cemetery C).
Plate 21. General view west over excavated graves in Cemetery C.
study indicates that the eastern chamber of grave 201 held up
to 27 adults, two juveniles, four children and two neonates,
with a further eight individuals identifiable in the second
in the same tomb (Smith 2007, 103â&#x20AC;&#x201C;5). A large number of
fragmentary remains of matting were also encountered in
grave 201. Fragments of plaster, bearing red and black painted
decoration, were recovered; linear patterns predominate,
but one fragment bears a representation of an Egyptianstyle, bird-headed god (Plate 25). The original context of
this decorated plaster is not clear, but some had originally
been adhered to wood, on the
basis of impressions left on the
reverse. Grave 211 features a
chamber accessed from a shaft
cut into the alluvium, which
was used for the burial of four
adults found with remnants of
wooden funerary beds, beads
Plate 24. Wooden bed leg terminals
(F9077, F9078) from the fill (9018)
within the eastern chamber of Grave
201 (Cemetery C).
Plate 25. Two conjoining fragments of
white plaster, bearing
a painted depiction
of a bird-headed god.
From the fill (9018)
of the eastern chamber of Grave 201
(Cemetery C).
Plate 22. Remnants of the original stone and brick blocking to the
eastern chamber off the shaft in tomb 201 (Cemetery C).
58
Sudan & Nubia
(bone, faience and quartz), as well as faience Hathor-head
amulets, copper-alloy tweezers and a faience situla (Plates 26
and 27). Fragments of painted plaster were also recovered
here. A lateral niche at the base of the shaft housed a single
burial, wrapped in textile and matting and sealed by a large,
schist slab (Plate 28).
Unfortunately, the superstructures in this cemetery were almost
entirely destroyed, though one tumulus was investigated (grave
210). This featured a single, lateral burial niche at the base of
the shaft, sealed with a reused sandstone door-lintel invoking
Plate 26. Hathor-head
amulets (F9060, F9063)
and plaques from bone
bracelets (F9061), found
in the fill (9034) within
western chamber of Grave
211 (Cemetery C).
Plate 28. View north into grave 211, with a schist slab in situ over the
lateral niche. The doorway to the western chamber is visible to the left.
bowl, C9100) and 204 (the above-mentioned miniature vessel,
C9012). As such, this cemetery falls into a period about which
relatively little is known. The best parallel for the ceramic
repertoire are the tombs at Hillat el-Arab, particularly ARA
19 (Vincentelli 2006, 132–54). However, at both Amara West
and Hillat el-Arab, the period throughout which the tombs
were being employed for burials is far from clear. A closer
parallel exists at site SAC5 on Sai Island, where New Kingdom tombs had been reused for ‘pre-Napatan’ burials, with a
similar array of ceramic forms, though without the beer jars
(Thill 2007). Again, there seems to have been multiple use of
the tombs at Sai, with one of the chambers used for at least
17 individuals. Tombs at Tombos, both pit graves with, or
without, side chambers and single burials beneath tumuli, can
also be dated to the aftermath of the New Kingdom (Smith
2007, 105–113). These tombs indicate that both traditional
Nubian forms of burial, as well as funerary practices displaying Egyptian elements, were in use alongside one another
during the formation of the Kushite state.
In the publication of the EES graves, a similarity with the
burials at Missiminia was noted (Spencer 2002, 3). These dif-
the goddesses Werethekau and Sekhmet,
perhaps sourced from
the town (Plate 29).
Child burials were a notable feature of Cemetery C, with six infants
and juveniles placed in
shallow cuts into the alluvium, in one instance
provided with a single miniature pot (e.g. C9012 from grave
204 [Colour plate XXII]).
The pottery from this cemetery appears to post-date the
New Kingdom, but pre-date the 25th Dynasty (Colour plates
XXIII and XXIV). Some of the forms echo New Kingdom
vessels: beer jars and shallow bowls, with red-painted rims.
Other vessels seem to pre-empt the fashion for deep beakers,
as are commonly found in Napatan tombs. Specifically, Nubian vessel forms were only found in graves 200 (a handmade
Plate 27. Faience situla (F9049)
from the fill (9034) within the
western chamber of Grave 211
(Cemetery C).
Plate 29. Ramesside door lintel (F9010) found re-used to
seal the burial at the base of the shaft within
tumulus (Grave 210) in Cemetery C.
59
fer from those excavated in Cemetery C, at Amara in
2009, in that deeper ‘Napatan’ beakers predominate
at Missiminia, there are no beer jars and the pilgrim
flasks are more spherical in form (Vila 1980). It is
also notable that penannular earrings are not found.
A similar lack of beer jars and penannular earrings
occurs at Sanam (Griffith 1923).
It is possible that the Amara West area did not
suffer from significant depopulation towards the
end of the New Kingdom (Edwards 2004, 108–9):
life may have continued much as before, despite the
collapse of Egyptian control, as had occurred in the
Second Intermediate Period (see Edwards 2004, 97–9).
The graves excavated at Amara West clearly attest to
inhabitants’ access to luxury grave goods, including
metal and semi-precious stone. The presence of so
many individuals in grave 201 may be more typical of
Egyptian funerary practices (see Williams 1992, 21;
Smith 2003, 158–9) and consistent with the presence
Plate 30. View east over the tomb chapels (nos 112 and 301) in Cemetery D. The
chapel in the foreground (112) features a brick pyramid base at its western side.
of coffins, which would be particularly interesting,
given the period to which they can be dated. Strontecture are consistent with the New Kingdom tombs found
tium isotope analyses on dental remains from the grave may
at other sites in Nubia, although at the more modest end of
help elucidate the geographic origin of some of the interred
the size range (superstructure area, Smith 2003, 194–5). The
individuals (Buzon et al. 2007).
pottery excavated during the 1938-9 season includes forms
A perplexing result of the EES excavations was the apmore typical of the Napatan era (Spencer 2002, pl. 10 [D1]),
parent lack of an elite cemetery with pharaonic architecture,
but also those which seem to be earlier in date (Spencer 2002,
leading to the suggestion that the wealthy inhabitants may
pl. 10 [H9] and pl. 9 [C2, C9]). Another such structure was
have been returned to Egypt for burial (Spencer 2002, 3).
then identified immediately to the north (tomb 301, 4.4 x
However, this would represent a notable departure from the
3.2m), though the pyramid foundation was almost completely
norm, as elite officials (whether Egyptians, or Egyptianised
destroyed. The pottery collected from the surface clearance
Nubians) were buried in tombs with chapels throughout
can be dated to the 19th and 20th Dynasties. The extent of
Upper Nubia, such as are found at Sai (Geus 2004, 116, figs
this cemetery is presently unknown, as the remains are largely
90–1), Soleb (Schiff Giorgini 1971), Sesebi (Blackman 1937,
swathed in a deposit of schist gravel. That it remained in use
51) and Tombos (Smith 2003, 136–66). A similar situation
during later times is suggested by the presence of tumuli some
existed in Lower Nubia, as is clear at sites such as Aniba
built over the remnants of the mud-brick superstructures. A
(Steindorff 1937, 42–55, pl. 8). As the 18th Dynasty ‘Deputies
two-chambered tomb, cut into the schist bedrock, was also
(idnw) of Kush’ seem to have been buried at Soleb (Schiff
identified (grave 300) though this had been almost entirely
Giorgini 1971), it would be reasonable to suggest their
cleared out.
Ramesside equivalents were interred in a cemetery at their
Two seasons of renewed fieldwork at Amara West have
residence, Amara West.
clearly illustrated the potential of the site to provide new inIn the 2009 season, extensive field-walking across desert
sights into aspects of the lived experience of the inhabitants,
escarpments to the north of the site revealed the presence
both Egyptian and Nubian, at a New Kingdom town in Upof surface disturbances as well as degraded spoil heaps in a
per Nubia. Petrographic, botanical and food residue analyses
discrete location, prompting a surface clearance (perhaps near
have been instigated in the British Museum’s Department of
NF-36-M/2-R-56, see Vila 1977a, 61–2). This proved to be
Conservation and Scientific Research, and isotope studies
tomb 112 (Plate 30) which had been excavated by Egyptian
(University of Purdue) and geomorphological investigations
workmen for the EES at the end of the 1938-9 season, as the
(Universities of Manchester and Aberystwyth) are also beBritish archaeologists attempted to complete their recording
ing undertaken. Furthermore, an insight into the process of
of the temple (Spencer 2002, 6–8, pls 7–11).
abandonment, which may have occurred much later than the
Unfortunately, neither the tomb’s location nor its archicollapse of pharaonic control of the region, may be possible.
tecture were recorded by the excavators. The recent surface
Key questions remain, some of which may be answered by
clearance exposed brickwork delineating a courtyard chapel
future fieldwork. Given the proximity of the long-established
(4.36 x 2.94m) with a schist slab still lying near the burial
Egyptian town on nearby Sai Island, and other 18th Dynasty
shaft, and a small foundation for a mud-brick pyramid (1.5m
settlements further south, why was Amara West founded?
square) on its western side (Plate 30). Such forms of archi60
Sudan & Nubia
Was access to gold resources on the east bank a motivating
factor or did control over routes north west to the Selima
Oasis play a part in the decision to build a new town (see
Hein 1991, 83)? Was the agricultural potential of the area a
motivating factor, as hinted at by Edwards (2004, 83), with
sizeable cultivable areas available in the winter? Future fieldwork may shed light on some of these problems.
of house P46.33’, in Tell el-Amarna Reports VI. Egypt Exploration
Society Occasional Publications. London, 146–68.
Kemp, B. J. (ed). 2004. ‘Egypt’s Invisible Walls’, Cambridge Archaeological
Journal 14/2, 259–88.
Kemp, B. J. 2006. Ancient Egypt. Anatomy of a Civilisation. 2nd edition.
London.
Kemp, B. J. and S. Garfi 1993. A survey of the ancient city of El-’Tell elAmarna. London
Morris, E. F. 2005. The Architecture of Imperialism. Military Bases and
the Evolution of Foreign Policy in Egypt’s New Kingdom. Probleme der
Ägyptologie 22. Leiden.
Müller, I. 1976. Die Verwaltung Nubiens im Neuen Reich. PhD dissertation,
Humboldt-Universität, Berlin.
Parkinson, R. B. 1997. The Tale of Sinuhe and other Ancient Egyptian Poems
1940-1640 BC. Oxford.
Parkinson, R. B. and N. Spencer 2009. ‘Amenemhat at Amara’, Egyptian
Archaeology 35, 25-27.
Peet, T. E. 1921. ‘Excavations at Tell el-Amarna: A Preliminary Report’,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 7, 169–85.
Samuel, D. 1989. ‘Their staff of life: initial investigations on ancient
Egyptian bread baking’, in B. J. Kemp (ed.), Tell el-Amarna Reports
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253–90.
Schiff Giorgini, M. 1971. Soleb II. Les nécropoles. Florence.
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Smith, S. T. 1995. Askut in Nubia. The Economics and Ideology of Egyptian Imperialism in the Second Millennium B.C. Studies in Egyptology. London.
Smith, S. T. 2003. Wretched Kush: Ethnic Identity in Egypt’s Nubian Empire.
London.
Smith, S. T. 2007. ‘Tombos and the Transition from the New Kingdom
to the Napatan Period in Upper Nubia’, in W. Godlewski and A.
Łajtar (eds), Between the Cataracts. Proceedings of the 11th Conference for
Nubian Studies. Warsaw University, 27 August – 2 September 2006, I. Main
Papers. PAM Supplement Series Volume 2 Part 1. Warsaw, 95–115.
Spence, K. 2004. ‘The Three-Dimensional Form of the Tell el-Amarna
House’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 90, 123–52.
Spencer, P. 1997. Amara West, I: The Architectural Report. Excavation
Memoir 63. London.
Spencer, P. 2002. Amara West, II: The Cemetery and the Pottery Corpus.
Excavation Memoir 69. London.
Steindorff, G. 1937. Aniba II. Service des antiquités de l’Égypte. Mission
archéologique de Nubie 1929–1934. Glückstadt.
Thill, F. 2007. ‘Les réoccupations « pré-napatéennes » dans le cimitière
égyptien 8B5/SAC5 de Saï’, in B. Gratien (ed.), Mélanges offerts à
Francis Geus. Cahiers de Recherches de l’Institut de Papyrologie et d’Égyptologie
de Lille 26 (2006-2007), 353–69.
Vila, A. 1977a. La prospection archéologique de la vallée du Nil, au sud de la
cataracte de Dal (Nubia Soudanaise), 7 : Le district d’Amara Ouest. Paris.
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cataracte de Dal (Nubia Soudanaise), 8 : Le district d’Amara Est. Paris.
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cataracte de Dal (Nubia Soudanaise), 12 : La nécropole de Missiminia, I.
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Acknowledgements
Fieldwork at Amara West would not be possible without
the permission and support of the National Corporation of
Antiquities and Museums, with particular thanks to Hassan
Hussein Idris, Salah Mohamed Ahmed, Abdel Rahman Ali
Mohamed and our inspector, Shadia Abdu Rabo. Thanks are
also due to Patricia Spencer (EES) for facilitating access to
the ostracon from the 1938-9 season, and Richard Parkinson
(British Museum) for identifying the texts. Excavations in the
cemetery were funded by a British Academy Small Research
Grant (SG-51563).
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61
Colour plate XVIII. Amara West. Storage bin, set upon schist slabs, against
the west wall of the main courtyard (room 7) in villa E12.10.
Colour plate XVII. Amara
West. Bread oven (2030) in
room 10 of villa E12.10.
Colour plate XIX. Amara West. The main doorway and porch of villa E12.10,
with sandstone doorjambs (2075) and schist paving slabs (2173).
SUDAN & NUBIA
Colour plate XX. Amara West. Shallow bowl
(C2000) found on the mud floor (2015) in
room 1 of villa E12.10.
Colour plate XXI. Amara West. Nubian
cooking pot (C2017) found in
room 4 of villa E12.10.
Colour plate XXIV.
Amara West. Selection of pottery from
the fill (9019) of
the western chamber,
grave 211 (Cemetery
C): C9010, C9008
and C9009 (clockwise from top left).
Colour plate XXIII. Amara West. Selection of pottery from the fill
(9018) of the eastern chamber, Grave 211 (Cemetery C): C9016,
C9014, C9122, C9121, C9112 and C9013 (clockwise from top left).
Colour plate XXV. Amara West. Clay
seal impression, bearing the cartouche of
Thutmose III (Menkheperra), flanked
by two pairs of uraei. From villa
E12.10, room 1, layer 2179.
Colour plate XXVI. Amara West. Selection of small finds from the fill within the
eastern chamber of Grave 201 (Cemetery
C): steatite scarab (F9055), carnelian
earring (F9056), faience amulet of Bes
(F9058) and faience plaque (F9027).
Colour plate XXII. Amara West. Miniature
burnished bowl (C9012) from
Grave 204 (Cemetery C).
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SUDAN & NUBIA
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