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1 Stem and Web: A Different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candilis-Josic-Woods Tom Avermaete 237

2 Sociology, Production and the City There are today a few who are across the brink of another sensibility a sensibility about cities, a sensibility about human patterns and collective built forms. Looking back to the fifties it was then that brink was crossed, it was then that architectural theory convulsed, then that the social sciences suddenly seemed im0portant. A change of sensibility is what I now think Team X was all about. (Peter Smithson) 1 La structure des villes réside dans les activités humaines; elle est définie par les rapports entre ces activités. 2 1 : Urban Modernization and Vanishing Architectural Dimensions If until the Second World War the discussions about the city and housing in France were largely held in architectural circles, in the post-war period these issues were recaptured by a centralized, technical planning ministry. After 1944 France entered a second and decisive stage of its révolution urbaine. Substantial shortages in the realm of social housing urged the government to take large urban planning initiatives. 3 Urban planning became completely embedded in the project for the modernization of the country, represented by the subsequent Plans de Modernisation et d Equipement. The centralized and technocratic character of these modernization plans was practically literally translated in the urban planning approaches used. The large housing complexes that arose in the peripheries of all of the French cities, the so-called Immeubles Sans Affection (ISA), demonstrate this. 4 Completely detached from their local or regional context, independent of the existing urban morphology, these complexes were the first exponents of an understanding of the urban as a mere facility, a presumption that gained importance in the 1950s and 1960s Grand Ensembles. 5 In these projects urban form was no longer considered as a spatial phenomenon embedded in a context, but rather as an accountable and independent unit. As Georges Candilis pointed out: L immense destruction due à le guerre, l urgence et la pauvreté ont fait dévier ces tendances vers des solutions répondant à la nécessité de faire vite et bon marché: UN STYLE RECONSTRUCTION apparaît en Europe.... La notion de plan de masse prenait une valeur secondaire: le grand souci était surtout l objet même de l habitation. 6 Hence, the post-war history of many French cities, reads as the story of the increasing independency of the architectural and the urban realm: first the disruption of architecture out of the framework of the existing city ( ), subsequently out of the banlieu under the heading of Grand Ensemble (1960) and finally the complete liberation of architecture by the Ville Nouvelle (1965). Marcel Cornu described this process strikingly: Au mitan des années cinquante, apparurent d étranges formes urbaines. Des immeubles d habitation de plus en plus longs et de plus en plus hauts, assemblés en blocs qui ne s intégraient pas aux villes existantes. Ces blocs s en différenciaient ostensiblement et parfois comme systématiquement, s en isolaient. Ils semblaient 238

3 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods faire ville à part. 7 Faire ville à part or the complete dislocation of architecture out of the logic and structure of the urban realm, was the result of the French post-war approach to urban planning. As Candilis noted, the inner logic of new housing developments were often completely detached from the surrounding urban matrix, resulting among others in l indépendance du plan de masses par rapport à l ordonnance des rues Ethnologie Sociale: Critiques, Perspectives and Alternatives The dislocation of architecture from its urban matrix rapidly became subject to severe criticism. From the beginning of the 1950s in France, a substantial debate centred on the changing urban condition emerged from the realm of the social sciences. 9 An important contribution was the book Paris et l agglomération Parisienne: L espace social dans une grande cite, written in 1952 by French social geographer Paul-Henry Chombart de Lauwe. 10 The ethnologie sociale of Chombart de Lauwe and his team was in the first place a critique of the environments that resulted from the post-war hard French planning methods. 11 Chombart de Lauwe questioned the dwelling conditions of the new urban developments in the periphery of Paris: Ce dernier se caractérise le plus souvent par la présence de cours intérieures autour desquelles une série de hauts bâtiments se distribuent méthodiquement. Il amène ses habitants à se situer en masse compacte au milieu ou à l écart d agglomération existante. Des ensembles de population sont ainsi posés de façon très distincte dans l espace; leur distribution intérieure ne les groupe pas d abord en fonction d une rue, mais autour d escaliers et de courées sur lesquels la vie des quartiers environnants n a pas la même emprise que sur les habitations voisines. 12 In his 1952 publication Chombart de Lauwe was extremely critical of the dwelling conditions in the new urban developments. Especially their failure to underscore public life was heavily criticized. It is to the merit of Chombart de Lauwe that this critique was not formulated ex-nihilo, but emerged from and was confronted with investigations of the characteristics of the historical city of Paris. 13 This approach is illustrated in the1952 study Paris et l Agglomération Parisienne. The research in this book focuses on the combination of physical entities and practiced entities, using notions such as the neighbourhood (le quartier), the urban block (l îlot), the building (l immeuble) and the street (la rue). 14 In order to understand these entities simultaneously as physical matter and as spatial practices, Chombart de Lauwe proposed to regard them as elements of les paysages de la vie quotidienne. 15 In the fashion of the contemporary structural anthropology of Claude Levi-Strauss, Chombart s ethnologie sociale compares everyday urban landscapes in different neighbourhoods, in order to trace the recurrent and thus structural elements. According to Chombart de Lauwe one of the structural elements of the neighbourhood, in both a physical and a social sense, 239

4 Sociology, Production and the City is the entity of the street: Ce lieu géométrique, c est la rue, dont l importance est d ailleurs fonction de l exiguïté de l habitat. La vie de quartier est intimement liée à cette rue où elle est appelée à se traduire. ( ) On pourrait dire que la vie de la rue donne la mesure de la vie du quartier. 16 Beyond the recognition of the street as a structural element for the neighbourhood, Chombart also investigated the structural components of the street. It is from this perspective that he underlined the importance of commercial and other services (l équipment): L ors qu on étudie la vie de la rue, on remarque vite que la structure des boutiques est aussi important que les formes d habitat. 17 This statement was underscored with a detailed cartography of the structural qualities of the services of the street. Through a comparative analysis of maps of different Parisian neighbourhoods, Chombart de Lauwe demonstrated that within the urban tissue of an ordinary Paris street a densely woven social and spatial structure of services can be detected. This structure is a compulsory quality of the well-functioning of the street according to the French social ethnologist: Le jeu réciproque de la vitrine et de la rue. Avec ses étalages qui souvent envahissent les trottoirs, avec ses illuminations qui, à la tombée de la nuit, égayent et enrichissent les rues aux apparences les plus misérables, toute boutique représente par ellemême une structure concrète dont l influence est fondamentale sur la vie d un quartier urbaine. 18 Against the background of the contemporary hard French approach of the post-war urban developments and the related disconnection of the urban and the architectural realm, Chombart s study appeared as the story of a different reality. In French architectural circles Chombart de Lauwe s unravelling of the historical urban tissue of Paris did not remain unnoticed. On the one hand it was perceived as a critique of the disruptive logics of postwar urban planning. On the other hand it was understood as a useful study of characteristics and principles that could guide architectural and urban design in the future. 3 Another Modern Architectural Tradition The Architectural Critique on Post-War Urban Planning The precise moment that, following the developments in the social sciences, a general critique of post-war urban planning was brought to the fore within the realm of French architecture and urbanism is difficult to trace. In the pages of L Architecture d Aujourd hui and Urbanisme a substantial and public critique of post-war urban developments did not 240

5 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods appear until the beginning of the 1960s. Surprisingly, the bulk of this 1960s architectural critique did not turn against the hard French state apparatus and its planning methods, but rather held CIAM responsible for the dislocation of architecture from its urban matrix. As both Kenneth Frampton and Manuel de Sola-Morales have argued, this negative attitude towards CIAM gained adherence in the second half of the twentieth century 19 : The breakdown of European cities, that has occurred over the last forty years has cast a heavy shadow of guilt over the ideology of city planning derived from functional architecture. Critics like Bernard Huet and Leon Krier have accused the Athens Charter and its descendents of the grave crime of treason against city planning. Before them, Gordon Cullen and the townscape of the sixties, and the morpho-typological school of the seventies... have joined the ranks of the detractors, sometimes with more opportunism than justification, thereby setting off a banal and superficial campaign of denigration of such concepts as zoning, planning regulations, and general schemes of development, to the point of rejecting any rational basis for the organization of cities as mistaken or counterproductive. 20 From this standpoint the position of Candilis-Josic-Woods is remarkable, since their negative evaluation of the post-war urban developments in France and elsewhere in Europe was not connected to a condemnation of the urban models that were developed within CIAM. In a text with the telling title Urbanisme: Repenser le problème Georges Candilis developed a distinct view on the underlying reasons of the urban developments in the immediate postwar period: La période de la reconstruction dans toute l Europe, par l ampleur de son programme, fait apparaître la nécessité d une doctrine: la Charte d Athènes a servi comme planche de salut. L application de la Charte d Athènes, par des gens qui voyaient uniquement la recette et non l esprit a provoqué la confusion et le désordre de nos plans d urbanisme actuels.... En traversant la France, l Allemagne, l Italie, on découvre à l infini le même aspect uniforme et désolant des collectifs en morceaux de sucre, des blocs d immeubles, témoins tristes, éléments isolés de la vie, juxtaposés sans aucune liaison entre eux, sans aucune liaison avec ce qui existait, sans aucune liaison avec ce qui va venir. L académisme d avant-guerre a donné place à un pauvre modernisme sans âme et sans consistance. 21 According to Candilis-Josic-Woods, besides the poor modernism that emerged in postwar France, other more valuable approaches of the urban realm exist. In contrast to many of the post-war critics, Candilis-Josic-Woods did not claim that this tradition had to be sought outside the modern movement, but rather within its very confines. According to the 241

6 Sociology, Production and the City partnership the origin of this other modern tradition is situated before the general introduction of the principles of the functional city in Germany during the 1920s: Avec la naissance du XXème siècle apparaissent les premières études, publications et, quelquefois, réalisations qui nous amènent vers un autre esprit d urbanisme où son rôle par excellence, social, est destiné à tout la société. Les architectes démontrent que l Art de Bâtir les villes : c est aussi et surtout leur affaire et pour résoudre les problèmes d urbanisme, il est nécessaire de posséder une technique très poussée afin de dissocier l apparence et la réalité. 22 Georges Candilis pointed to the modern architectural tradition of conceiving cities that has its origins at the turn of the nineteenth to the twentieth century in the seminal work of the Viennese architect and historian Camillo Sitte, translated in French as l Art de Bâtir les villes. 23 For Candilis, Sitte stands at the beginning of the modern tradition of urbanisme. This other modern tradition is believed to take as its point of departure les valeurs plastiques et spatiales of the urban realm. 24 The spatial characteristics that result from the material articulation of the city are the central concern of this tradition, according to Candilis: La recherche des relations harmoniques entres les volumes bâtis et les espaces libres: la recherche de l ESPACE. 25 Besides the fact that this modern tradition approaches the city as a material articulation that defines space, it is also characterized by a particular affection for the existing city. In his 1954 article L esprit du plan de masse de l habitat Georges Candilis underlined that this other modern tradition regards the city as a repository of knowledge concerning material articulations and spatial practices: L Urbanisme, c est la science qui a comme but d organiser la vie d une ville; c est une science très vieille; dernièrement encore on a découvert des villes vieilles de plusieurs milliers d années dont on peut constater d après leurs ruines et leurs traces que leur vie était organisée, structurée. Qui dit organisation, dit plans, prévisions, équilibre, structures. C est justement la recherche d une structure harmonieuse entre les différentes activités urbaines que la science urbanisme a comme but et aussi prémouvoir et surtout de prévoir. 26 Candilis definition of urbanisme, brings to mind the posterior definition of a culturalist model of urbanism by French scholar of urban history Françoise Choay. 27 By means of an analysis of the work of Camillo Sitte, Choay explained that one of the main characteristics of the culturalist model of urbanism is that it relies on knowledge of the existing spatial organization: Ce n est qu en étudiant les oeuvres de nos prédécesseurs que nous pourrons réformer l ordonnance banale de nos grandes villes, écrit Sitte

7 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods Choay opposed the culturalist model to a so-called progressist approach to urbanism. This last approach, embodied by CIAM, holds that modernity requires a rupture with the historical city. 29 According to Choay these two models of urbanism are diametrically opposed because they are orientated selon deux directions fondamentales du temps, le passé et le futur, pour prendre les figures de la nostalgie ou du progressisme. 30 Candilis did not subscribe to the binary discrimination between culturalist and progressist models of urbanism that Choay later held to. On the contrary, Candilis was in search of an approach to urbanism that could gather an understanding of urban forms from the past while envisioning those of the future. His writings can be regarded as attempts to uncover within the progressist current of the modern movement, culturalist approaches to urbanism. According to Candilis, it is precisely the simultaneity of the two tendencies that reveals the meaning of the other modern tradition. 31 The architects that belonged to this other modern tradition studied existing cities from synchronic and diachronic perspectives and based their urban visions of the future upon them. Commenting on a project by P.L. Wiener and José-Luis Sert (fig.iv.6) Candilis underlined: En Amérique Latine, Sert et Wiener ont étudié a grande échelle l habitat de populations pauvres. Dans l ordre existant des quadras espagnoles une forme est apparue: le logement constitue un ensemble, les circulations sont bien séparées et la tradition des patios respectée. 32 In his article Candilis presented a wide spectrum of contemporary projects that regard the investigation of existing forms of dwelling and building as a basis for new urban design. He did not, however, call for a literal transposition of existing urban forms or principles. His selection of projects illustrated how existing architectural and urban spaces are comparatively investigated, in order to uncover their underlying structural principles. In turn, these structural principles become guiding codes for future urban planning and design. According to Candilis this particular strain of urban thinking is not necessarily absent from the work of the fathers of the modern movement, but rather was neglected. Moreover it was interrupted on several occasions: La notion d urbanisme née avec notre siècle a été interrompue deux fois par les deux guerres mondiales et n a pas pu atteindre sa matérialisation dans l art de vivre et dans l art de bâtir. 33 In his 1954 article L esprit du plan de masse de l habitat Georges Candilis traced a renewed interest and re-vitalization of this other modern tradition in post-war projects by Merkelbach and Elling (Frankendaal Housing Complex, , Amsterdam) and by Tecton, Lasdun and Drake (Hallffield Estate, 1947 Paddington, London). A few years later, 243

8 Sociology, Production and the City in his text Habitat sous forme de trame Candilis added the work of Sert and Wiener in South America and of Ecochard in North Africa to the tradition of urbanisme. It is also this other modern tradition of urbanisme that Team X aimed to re-vitalize according to Candilis: Pour la première fois, à Dubrovnik, certains architectes prennent conscience du moment critique où les choses ne peuvent pas devenir pires et où la notion officielle d urbanisme a perdu tout son rôle primordial dans la vie de la société. Pour la première fois, on essaie d introduire des critères nouveaux: - L importance de la découverte de l interrelation des fonctions d urbanisme, - La mise en évidence de l homme et de son échelle, élément primordial de la continuité des établissements humains, - L intervention de la mobilité de notre époque où tout change de façon de plus en plus accélérée, faire des plans stratifiés, c est aller contre la nature, c est être aveugle. La notion de l identité et du caractère personnel de nos établissements humains qui est une révolte contre l uniformisation absurde et la platitude. Et avant tout, tenir compte de la croissance constante qui fait éclater les limites, modifie l aspect des territoires et la façon de vivre. Pour la première fois, on essaie de revitaliser cette autre tradition moderne.... Ces architectes se sont groupés en équipe = TEAM, au 10ème congrès des C.I.A.M. et ils sont devenus les TEAM X. 34 In this text Candilis defined the objective of Team X as the re-vitalization of the tradition of urbanisme from a particular set of criteria. His definition of the criteria for this reconceptualization reverberated the perspective that Chombart de Lauwe, Lefebvre and other sociologists had opened on the French post-war urban realm a few years earlier. The proclaimed importance of the interrelation of different urban functions, the continuity of the urban tissue and the importance of mobility within the urban realm illustrate the kinship. Candilis definition situates the work of Team X and of the partnership at the crossroads of two traditions of urban research: an ethnologie sociale tradition of understanding the city as the result of practices of dwelling and building, and another modern architectural tradition of regarding the city from its material articulation and spatial characteristics. By situating Team X within these two traditions, he identified in my opinion one of the most productive fields of tension for the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods. The urban projects and thinking of the partnership are permeated by the search to combine considerations on spatial practices with a nuanced understanding of the spatial qualities that result from the material articulation of existing cities. Hence, the work of the partnership appears as the revitalization of the modern tradition of urbanisme on the basis of an understanding of the built environment as frame, substance and goal of spatial practices. A la Recherche d une Structure Urbaine This revitalization of the other modern tradition of urbanism is most clear in the 1962 article 244

9 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods A la recherche d une structure urbaine by Candilis, Josic and Woods. In this text the partnership clarified its intention to search for, analyze and make operational that which structures the material articulation and the spatial practices of the urban realm. If, as the partnership held, the urban realm should be looked upon as the combination of spatial practices and material articulation, which instruments, what logic or which structures can guide these? The possible answer to this question was primarily sought within existing cities. Within the practice of Candilis-Josic-Woods the research into existing cities played a paramount role: Les plans de ses villes, leur tracé de réseaux routiers, leurs équipements collectifs: adduction d eau, évacuation, nettoyage, enlèvement des ordures ménagères, etc.... la détermination des différentes fonctions basses: le quartier d habitation ou de résidence, le lieu de commerces, le quartier administratif et de cultes, les établissements de la culture et des loisirs: c est-à-dire tous les éléments qui nous préoccupent actuellement, pour le tracé de l organisation de l extension de nos villes, et la création de nouvelles villes, peuvent être constatés et découverts dans les plans des villes existantes. 35 Against the background of this appreciation of existing cities as a knowledge basis, articles such as A la recherche d une structure urbaine (1962) or Problèmes d Urbanisme (1965) were in search of those elements that structure the urban realm. For these historical investigations, Candilis, Josic and Woods made use of their own research on existing cities and on the contemporary corpus of Italian research that focussed on patterns of urbanization and models of urbanism. Candilis, for example, founded his 1965 article on the Atlante di Storia dell Urbanistica by the Italian scholar Mario Morini. 36 The main aim of the historical studies in the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods was the recognition and the study of the perennial character of certain elements within the historical development of cities: A travers et par les Romains, on peut constater une continuité de l esprit et du tracé urbain de nos villes et de nos capitales. En effet, si on analyse l origine et l évolution historiques des structures de la presque totalité des villes actuelles, nous apercevons que les schémas d origine sont des tracés de l époque romaine. 37 The duration of tracés and other perennial elements and the fact that these have been able to fulfil a function that reaches beyond their very reason of creation, received ample attention. This investigation of the perennial character of certain urban elements was not a goal in itself, but was pursued as part of the search for a more dynamic conception of urban planning: Il ne suffit plus de faire une composition grande ou petite, comme celle de Versaille 245

10 Sociology, Production and the City hier et celle de Brasilia aujourd hui, mais il faut démontrer... comment ils vont changer et croître, et surtout, il faut traduire la notion Espace-Temps. 38 Hence, Candilis-Josic-Woods interest in the perennial character of urban tracés and elements is thus not fuelled by the belief that the city must be a stabile entity, but rather by the conviction that perennial urban elements encompass the capacity to structure change and growth. This attention for the structuring logics of the European city and its capacity to accommodate growth and change was common to most of the Team X contributors. In this respect Jakob Bakema s 1962 article An Emperor s House at Split became a town for 3000 People, published in the Dutch architectural periodical Forum, played a major role within Team X. 39 In this text Bakema documents Split, a town that had grown out of a palace built by Diocleation circa 300 BC and was quartered by the traces of the Roman cardo and decumanus. (fig.iv.7) He illustrates how within the quarters defined by these two axes, the urban tissue has gradually changed and renewed throughout history. The article includes photographs of busy contemporary streets that have emerged within the Corinthian colonnades of the original palace. (fig.iv.8) Bakema discerns the perimeter and the tracés of the historical palace as the perennial and structuring elements of the urban fabric s development throughout time. The fascination for physical (gates, perimeter) and non-physical (tracé) elements of longue duré that can structure urban development reappeared in Shadrach Woods 1961 Stem article. Under the heading of stem Woods dwelt upon the possibility of a linear tracé operational as a conceptual instrument of urban planning. The stem-article is an investigation into the characteristics and the role of the defining elements of such a tracé. 40 In his book The Man in the Street Shadrach Woods underlined that these investigations into perennial elements and change and growth are based on a specific understanding of the city. For, as the result of the spatial practices of dwelling and building, the city was for Candilis-Josic-Woods not a static entity, but the outcome of relentless building, modification, decay and re-building: Any building, no matter how well conceived and built, needs maintenance and replacement of parts to keep it in a state of useful repair. A city is such an enterprise, and certainly maybe be thought of as a building. Change and decay, and replacement to accommodate those changes and to repair that decay, are fundamental to the continued existence of the city. 41 Woods emphasized that the presence of perennial elements is essential to the conception of the city. More precisely, he considered the relation between long- and short-term elements fundamental to the very existence and continuity of the city. According to the partnership in the post-war period the relation between both came under severe tension. In France and elsewhere in Europe the post-war period was characterized by the introduction 246

11 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods of the new short-term time rhythms of automotive mobility, mass distribution and mass consumption. The relation between the longue durée of the European city and these new time rhythms was, according to the partnership, one of the main questions for post-war urban planning. It became one of the main concerns within the partnership s urban projects, as I will discuss further on in this paper. Attitudes of Modification and Intromission The analytical and conceptual interest in the perennial character of urban traces that characterized the work of most Team X contributors, also led to a specific understanding of urban design. The understanding of the existing urban realm as structured by elements with a longue duré, bestowed urban design with a specific status: Change made by one generation to the general scene in terms of building and engineering works is relatively small, and no matter how large the area of development may be, it cannot stand alone, and its effectiveness must also be measured in its inter-actions with what exists and with what it calls into being, both socially and plastically.... Buildings should be thought of from the beginning as fragments; containing within themselves a capacity to act with other buildings; be themselves links in systems of access and servicing. What is proposed is the abolition of planning as we know it... the disappearance of the master plan. 42 Peter Smithson put into words a more general tendency among Team X contributors. He pointed to an attitude of regarding urban projects and realizations as spatial acts that interrelate with a wider and long-standing urban framework. Within the texts and projects by Candilis-Josic-Woods, urban projects were not considered as independent entities, but rather as fragments that acquire most of their significance by their very situation within a larger existing urban matrix: The difference between our situation and previous situations is that we are capable of seeing a building as a fragment, not as an isolated act like a poem, which you can read and put in your mind and keep separate. 43 This understanding of the urban project as fragment that interacts with a larger existing urban realm, is one of the main premises to be found in the work of several Team X contributors. Peter Smithson rightly underlined that it can also be considered as a clear shift of attitude within CIAM. On the one hand this fragment attitude represented a move away from the encompassing character of master planning towards the partial and incomplete as Denise Scott Brown argued in her 1967 article Team 10, Perspecta 10, and the Present State of Architectural Theory. 44 In the work of Team X urban design was not considered as a final and independent project, but rather as a fragment that is situated within, and contrib- 247

12 Sociology, Production and the City utes to, a larger entity. On the other hand, the fragment approach counters what Bruno Fortier designated as one of the main legacies of the modern movement in urban planning: the concept of rupture. 45 Fortier argues that the bulk of urban planning methods of the modern movement as represented by CIAM were characterized by an attempt to literally distance new parts of the city from existing ones. Manfredo Tafuri shares this viewpoint when he underlines the significance of the distance between the new and the existing in the urban plans of Le Corbusier. 46 In post-war France this disruptive attitude towards the existing urban realm became general practice, as Candilis remarked: La rupture d une évolution organisée des agglomérations urbaines devient un acte éhonté. 47 Within the work of Team X in general and of Candilis-Josic-Woods in particular, this modern idea of rupture with an existing urban context became subject to careful reconsideration. The division between historical and modern parts of the city that was propagated by some CIAM architects during the inter-war years and fully elaborated immediately after the Second World War in the centrally planned hard french urban developments, was critically reexamined. Instead of a rupture with the existing urban environment, the contributors of Team X developed within their debates and writings a different approach, centred on the notion of continuity. Within Team X the idea of continuity was developed along two different lines, most clearly illustrated in the polemical positions taken in the debate at the Otterlo meeting of At this meeting, held to define the goals and approaches of a new CIAM, the issue of relating to existing urban environments was one of the key-points of debate. On one side of the spectrum there was the particularly Italian position that represented a growing awareness that additions to the urban realm should communicate in a concrete, architectonic way with the existing urban fabric. Nathan Ernesto Rogers, a prominent Italian architect who was in the 1940s and 1950s subsequently editor of Domus and Casabella and the most important CIAM representative of his country, was one of the important voices within this discussion. Rogers launched the notion of preexisting environment (preesistenze ambientali); pointing thereby to precedents that could be found within the existing urban realm and that could through linguistic transposition be made operational in a new urban design. 48 As Vittorio Gregotti, a privileged witness of the Italian debate, retrospectively explained: For Rogers, though, the concept of a pre-existing environment was not at all a stylistic one; above all it corresponds to the idea of opening a dialogue with ways of looking at history from the point of view of contemporary culture using as a starting point the specific political and social conditions

13 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods Historical interpretation had, according to Rogers, a constitutive role within urban design where everything is staked on the relationship between memory and invention. Rogers did not consider continuity a function of literal transposition, but rather a matter of understanding and re-considering the forms of the historical urban context. According to the Italian architect new urban design did not necessarily have to mimic historical urban forms, but by all means had to strive for a strong affinity and continuity with them. In addition to the Italian attitude there was another position that sought the continuity with an existing urban context not so much in formal matters, but rather in what lied behind them. Alison and Peter Smithson were important spokesmen of this approach that sought continuity in the so-called scale of associations. 50 The Smithsons proposed a scale that demonstrated that different social attitudes and associations of men resulted in various built environments. It would run isolated buildings, villages, towns and cities, borrowing rather superficially a characterization found in Patrick Geddes valley section. (fig. IV.9) In the Smithsons viewpoint: The problem of re-identifying man with his environment cannot be achieved by using historical forms of house-groupings, street, squares, greens, etc., as the social reality that they represent no longer exists. 51 At the Otterlo meeting of 1959 Ernesto Rogers led the discussion with the Smithsons concerning the London Roads Study. His main objection concerned the attitude toward the history of the city, since, even though the built fabric that defined the roads was destroyed, the guidelines of the latter were nevertheless preserved. Rogers argued that, if the intention was to alter the city drastically, in other words to make it appropriate for the post-war reality of the different flows and types of traffic, then it would be more logical to build a completely new city. Rogers proposed a position that would remain more faithful to the architectural articulation and structure of the historical city. Candilis-Josic-Woods took up a position in between that of Ernesto Rogers and Alison and Peter Smithson. Just as their fellow Team X contributors, the partnership situated the continuity of the city not in a slavish replication of the past, nor in a complete adherence to modern infrastructures, but rather in the field of tension between what is and what has been. Two categories of elements keep this field of tension alive according to the partnership: the material forms of the past and the spatial practices of the inhabitants and users of the city that are impregnated with history. Concerning the first category Woods wrote: It is clear, to any urbanist, that history and historical markers are important to the continuity of the city. No group, people or nation can hope to live without some continuity, and historical markers in the form of buildings are an important part of that sentiment

14 Sociology, Production and the City Besides this first category, the partnership insisted especially on the historical meaning of spatial practices: La ville est avant tout un lieu contenant des espaces qui englobent les fonctions dans une entité bâtie. C est un lieu qui favorise les activités de l homme et de sa société. Animée par l homme, c est aussi un organisme vivant qui rend possible à chaque instant de son existence, évolution, changements et adaptations. 53 For Candilis-Josic-Woods the everyday practices the daily trajectories of inhabitants between house and work, shop and church through which the structure of the city is imprinted on bodies and memories represented an important aspect of the continuity they sought. Continuity was, however, not considered as an exclusive characteristic of spatial practices, nor of urban form. Urban forms and systems, as well as the practices, rhythms and routines of urban dwellers were considered essential aspects for the continuity of the city: The new urban world is not a desert. It is full of old urban things, systems, structures and attitudes. To make it new and fitting, we see the need... to repair and to renovate these systems and structures. 54 This quote from Woods underlines that the new is not understood as a rupture with the existent, but rather as a way of relating to the existing structures that underlie the material articulation and the spatial practices of the urban realm. By openly defining the new as alteration of the existent, the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods represents a sheer change of attitude within CIAM. If the avant-garde architects of the inter-war period made their awareness of the existing urban context explicit through the propagation of an idea of extraneousness or rupture, then the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods is characterized by an opposite attitude. The partnership, just as the majority of the Team X contributors, abandoned the idea of a rupture with the existing urban context and replaced it with attitudes of continuity and modification. As Woods underlined in his 1960 Stem article the partners held to the basic axiom that every extension to the city is an extension of the city and cannot be considered as a self-contained unit, isolated by its introspective nature from the rest of society. 55 In the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods the focus of design is not directed at a rupture with the existing, but rather at the question of how to renew and extend our cities. 56 This is not to say that the partnership placed its work exclusively in relation to the traditional city, but rather that the big city, the urban realm as a whole encompassing both the historical and the new figured permanently as a background for their actions. Every urban design is understood as a strategic positioning in the field of tension that exists between what has 250

15 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods been and what is. This positioning is understood as insertion and modification of the existing urban realm. Commenting on the work of Candilis-Josic-Woods, Peter Smithson described the partnership s design attitude as the belief that a new thing is to be thought through in the context of the existing patterns. Thought through in the context of the patterns of association, the patterns of use, the patterns of movement, the patterns of stillness, quiet, noise and so on, and the patterns of form, in so far as we can uncover them. 57 Candilis-Josic-Woods conception of urban design as intromission and modification of a pre-existing field of urban forms and practices, epitomized an important shift in post-war architectural thinking. In the urban designs of Candilis-Josic-Woods one of the guiding principles reads: The planning, the method of siting, and the aesthetic character of the new town are integrated as completely as possible into the existing geographical and cultural environment of the old town and the region. 58 The ideas of intromission and modification are beyond doubt two of the most important themes within the approach to the urban realm by Candilis-Josic-Woods. 4 On Streets and Stems The feeling is prevalent in Western societies that something basic has gone wrong... the street is no longer his, no longer functioning as a life-line which he rightly expects it to be. 59 One of the main structuring elements of the urban realm that the work of Candilis-Josic- Woods focuses upon is the street. Just as for many other Team X contributors, the idea of finding an alternative for the ordinary street was one of the central concerns of the partnership. 60 It is instructive to note that less then thirty years separates the anti-street thesis of Le Corbusier from the pro-street preoccupations of Team X. Where Le Corbusier in 1929 castigated the traditional street for being no more then a trench, a deep cleft, a narrow passage, 61 Georges Candilis in 1962 held a plea to rétablir la notion rue disparue des réalisations nouvelles. La Chartes d Athènes élaborée par les C.I.A.M. a détruit la rue corridor périmée, pour la remplacer par de passages, des trajets. Mais la fonction rue reste un élément primordial dans la cité. Il faut retrouver la rue-centre linéaire comme structure de base d un plan urbain. 62 The Modern Movement and the Road Though Candilis plea for a return to the street as the structural principle of the urban realm 251

16 Sociology, Production and the City might seem to be diametrically opposed to the models of the modern movement as embodied by CIAM and Le Corbusier, at closer inspection the approach of the partnership also represents a certain continuity. Within the modern movement roads were often relied on for their capacity to structure the urban realm. In the post-war period this modern tradition of assigning to the road a structuring role was revived from a complementary perspective. Under the header of street, the spatial practices and the experience of the road were put into the centre of attention. Between 1955 and 1965, particularly at the M.I.T. and in the pages of The Architectural Review, a notable debate was held on how streets structure spatial practices and the experience of the urban realm. Two special issues of The Architectural Review, one titled Outrage (1955) and the other Counterattack (1956), formulated a strong plea against the contamination of the landscape by muddled, uselessly meaningless and antidistinctive elements. 63 (fig. IV.11) The editors Kenneth Browne, Gordon Cullen, Jim Richards and Ian Nairn held a plea against what they called the subtopia phenomenon, combining the words suburb and utopia. They sought to re-install the distinct characteristics of streets that structured the spatial practices, the perception and the experience of the urban realm. They assumed that the elements introduced by the modern world such as new road systems, advertising and new building typologies could contribute by intensifying the character of the urban realm. A second strain of post-war research on streets relied foremost on the name of Kevin Lynch. Lynch published The Image of the City in 1960, Site Planning in 1962, and the highly appreciated The View from the Road in Throughout his publications Lynch underlines the quality of roads in structuring the experience of the environment. The road and the practice of moving on it by car offered a way to structure the dispersed post-war urban realm. The Stem: Aligning Urbanity The re-establishment of the street in the practice of Candilis-Josic-Woods should be situated within the perspective of both understandings of the structural role of the road. Both the structural characteristics of the physical form and the spatial practices and experience of the road played a major role in the partnership s approach. More precisely, it is the tenuous relation between both that was the focus of Candilis-Josic-Woods attention. 65 This focus on the interrelation between physical form and experience does not distinguish the position of the partnership from the international architectural debate, but merely echoes the perspectives of Gordon Cullen and Kevin Lynch. However, the very definition of the interrelation between form and experience sets the approach of the partnership apart from their Anglo-Saxon contemporaries. Cullen s and Lynch s methods were largely coloured by a phenomenological perspective that regards the relation between form and experience as a faculty of visual perception; of the human eye moving through space. Candilis-Josic- Woods tackled the relation from the much wider cultural framework of everyday spatial practices. Not the eye moving through space, but spatial practices that reflect cultural and 252

17 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods social logics were the point of departure to contemplate the relationship between form and experience. A notable example of such a broad cultural and social approach to the street was to be found in the realm of the social sciences. The ethnologie sociale and its detailed analysis of the composing elements of the street that Chombart de Lauwe brought to the fore in the beginning of the 1950s in Paris et L agglomération Parisienne was an important model for the Candilis-Josic-Woods partnership. 66 Especially the investigations of allotment settlements in the agglomeration of Paris were indicative. Under the heading of description écologique, Chombart unfolded a comprehensive analysis of the historical development of the allotment settlements, that took into account both physical and social parameters. He indicated how the different historical extensions of the original development, though composed of different dwelling typologies, are experienced as integral parts of one coherent urban entity. (fig.iv.12) One of the reasons for this coherence is explained under the heading of Factors of Unity (Facteurs d Unité). Chombart demonstrated how in the everyday spatial practices of the inhabitants collective buildings such as schools, cinemas and libraries generate the main street that functions as a spine for the allotment development. He suggests in his diagrams that, though the different collective buildings are not physically interconnected, their very role within everyday practices creates a certain coherence of experience and results in a backbone that structures the urban development. This understanding of the street as a central figure that is the result of particular relations between spatial practices and entities, reverberates in Candilis-Josic-Woods approach to the street: Cette rue-centre qui se construit par les éléments qui la composent: immeubles d habitation, magasins, marchés, salles de spectacles, édifices de culte, centres sociaux, jardins et parcs... a pour rôle d associer les logements aux sièges des diverses activités de la Cité... boulevards, avenues, places, ronds points, squares et jardins, forment l ossature urbaine qui donne le caractère spécifique à la ville actuelle. 67 This particular conception of the street not only guided the analysis of the urban realm, but was made operational in the designs of Candilis-Josic-Woods. The most important outcome was the article titled Stem, written by Shadrach Woods immediately after the 1959 meeting at Otterlo and published in 1960 in Architectural Design. 68 In his article Woods underlined that the stem-concept is in the first place a criticism of the hard French urban planning approaches and of their use of the plan masse as main planning instrument. This method of outlining the envelopes of buildings and their disposition as a way of planning the urban realm was, according to Woods, contradictory to the practices, rhythms and logics of post-war urban development: In an urban complex the idea of plan masse as an independent, plastic arrangement does not correspond to the basic axiom that every extension to the city is an extension 253

18 Sociology, Production and the City of the city and cannot be considered as a self-contained unit, isolated by its introspective nature from the rest of society. It seems clear then that the aesthetic, monumental or symbolic grouping of cells (hence, of families), in the tradition of La Grande Architecture, leaves out too many factors of human ecology. It is the wrong tool for the job. 69 Echoing Chombart s description écologique, Woods argued to take into account the many factors of human ecology in urban design. He insisted on the embedment of urban design in real circumstances and pointed out that this involves taking into account new parameters. Underlying Woods rejection of the plan masse as an instrument that is incapable of extending the city, lies as earlier mentioned a critique of CIAM s neglect of an important parameter of urban planning: modification. As Bruno Fortier pointed out, this idea of modification was short-circuited by modern movement architects: More than by a rejection of the city, the modern movement has been characterised by the abandoning of the culture of modification which, after the renaissance, was at the base of processes of transformation. 70 Fortier pointed out that CIAM s neglect of modification was reflected in the static and a final images by which the urban projects were presented at the different meetings. He argues that, though the imagery of CIAM projects often stressed movement and mobility, the underlying planning approach gave ample attention to growth and change. It is within this perspective of re-introducing a parameter of modification into urban design that Team X s large and relentless attention for change and growth in urban planning should be situated: The practice of urbanism is chiefly an organizing process, as indeed is the practice of architecture. Urbanism is essentially concerned with organisation through minimal structuring. Urban design is concerned with order within organization. By order we mean the judicious disposition of activities and communications in the form of built or open spaces, in such a way that they function well. The organization we propose must be conceived so as to permit and to encourage order. They must also be dynamic, i.e. adaptable to change and capable of accepting change. 71 The stem article by Woods was an attempt to introduce a dynamic conception of urban design. Under the heading of mobility Woods underlined that a dynamic approach to planning is better adjusted to the rhythms and practices of post-war society: For architects, mobility has several connotations: in terms of movement it signifies the shift from 2,5 miles per hour to 60, 100, or 500 miles per hour. In terms of time it means the appreciation of fourth dimension, i.e. change on a short time cycle. In terms of economy, it means rapid mass-distribution, consonant with the potentialities of mass-production and mass-consumption. In terms of housing, it means the easy, unquestioning rootlessness of the urban population. Architects and planners are principally concerned with mobility, in all its connota- 254

19 Stem and Web: A different Way of Analysing, Understanding and Conceiving the City in the Work of Candalis Josic Woods tions. 72 Woods suggested that urban form in the post-war period be analysed and understood through the multifarious notion of mobility. In his opinion, urban form could not be pinned downed in clearly circumscribed envelopes or forms, but rather should respond to a culture of modification, requiring a different form of planning. Surprisingly, the inspiration for this different approach to planning was not sought within a newly devised system, but rather within the history and logic of the European city. In two sketches that accompany the stem article Shadrach Woods seems to suggest that for the partnership the traditional European city fabric with its density, scale and especially its elements of longue durée figured as a background against which alternative planning strategies for the urban realm were developed. (fig.iv.13) It was, however, a specific understanding of the historical urban realm that informed Woods stem-concept. This can be clarified by looking at the work of another scholar of the urban realm who was in close contact with the Team X circles and with Shadrach Woods: social geographer Erwin Antonin Gutkind. After the Second World War, Gutkind came into close contact with the English CIAM contributors, the so-called MARS group to which Alison and Peter Smithson belonged. In the middle of the 1950s Gutkind wrote to the MARS group: I am glad that at long last the Athens Charter has been recognised as what it is in reality, namely an utterly useless and nonsensical salad of meaningless phrases. It has nothing whatever to do with LIFE, for it neglects the greatest reality, the human beings whom it degrades to functions of the Functions on which it purports Town Planning to consist.... I enclose my latest book, The Expanding Environment, which I believe contains a discussion of some of the problems which could form the basis for a new Charter. 73 In his book The Expanding Environment of 1953 Erwin Antonin Gutkind unfolded a different perspective on the urban realm by placing l homme habitant central. Gutkind s subject of study was not man as the product of nature or economic forces, but man as the creator of dwellings and landscapes, of his own dwelling environment and his own microcosm. Gutkind investigated the urban and rural landscape as the result of man s practices of dwelling and building. He went in search of structural principles in the relation between the spatial practices of man and the landscape. One of the structuring elements that Gutkind traced within the landscape is the figure of the street. Under the heading of Street Villages Gutkind illustrated that the tracés of streets are perennial elements that have structured and guided the spatial practices of dwelling and building and thus urban development throughout time. (fig.iv.14) Gutkind s analysis of tracés as elements that structure the spatial practices of the urban realm was a main source of inspiration for Shadrach Woods stem-concept. The most suggestive explanation of the principles of the stem-concept is a collage 255

20 Sociology, Production and the City that was elaborated shortly after the publication of the stem-article. (fig.iv.15) The collage reveals the twofold characteristic of the stem. In the bottom left corner aerial photographs of linear urban developments suggest how the stem attempts to recapture the capacity of existing tracés to structure urban development. In this part of the collage the stem appears as a device that structures the practices of dwelling and building and their resulting forms. At the top of the collage a completely different view of the stem can be seen. Here photographs of markets, squares and streets demonstrate how the stem is thought of as a figure of social practices. The stem appears here as the locus of collectivity; as a site for meeting, trade and play. The middle part of the collage demonstrates, through a mixed technique of plan and photographic material, how the final goal of the stem concept is the reconciliation of physical and social characteristics. Here it becomes clear that the stem is initially a tracé and thus no more then a path. The stem acquires its actual form and span from the alignment of entities that are simultaneously built architectural volumes and collective functions. According to Candilis-Josic-Woods, the very presence of these janusfaced elements defines the essential characteristic of the Stem. It is especially in the middle part of the collage that the similarities of the stem concept and the analysis of the traditional European street by social ethnologists in the early 1950s become clear. Just as in Chombart de Lauwe s historical analyses of the main avenues of Paris (fig.iv.16), the figure of the stem is completely defined by the adjacent architectural volumes that contain collective functions, as another collage of the stemconcept illustrates. (fig.iv.17) The traditional European street, simultaneously epitomizing principles of architectural form, spatial practices and of urban structuring, features as an exemplary figure for the development of the stem concept. The stem concept is an attempt to recapture the simultaneous characteristics of the traditional street in a new concept for urban design. As the Candilis-Josic-Woods collage demonstrates, like the street, the stem is primary thought of as the thread that holds the basic characteristics of the urban fabric together. The overlay and weave of the different threads result, according to Candilis-Josic- Woods, in a true urban tissue. Caen-Hérouville (France, 1961) The principle of the Stem is most convincingly elaborated in the competition submission for the extension of the city of Caen (Normandy, France). (fig.iv.18, 19) In 1961 Caen had a population of about which was expected to increase at the rate of five or six thousand inhabitants per year for the next ten to fifteen years. The competition brief called for a residential environment for about forty thousand people in an area of three hundred hectares. In the Caen project the main assignment for Candilis-Josic-Woods was to design an organization principle which could generate and support the eight to ten thousand dwellings needed. Since the increase in population was expected to cover a ten to fifteen year period, it was compulsory to create an organization that could be executed in phases, and 256

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