neutrinoelementary subatomic particle with no electric charge, very little mass, and 12 unit of spin. Neutrinos belong to the family of particles called leptons, which are not subject to the strong force. Rather, neutrinos are subject to the weak force that underlies certain processes of radioactive decay. There are three types of neutrino, each associated with a charged lepton—i.e., the electron, the muon, and the tau—and therefore given the corresponding names electron-neutrino, muon-neutrino, and tau-neutrino. Each type of neutrino also has an antimatter component, called an antineutrino; the term neutrino is sometimes used in a general sense to refer to both the neutrino and its antiparticle.

The basic properties of the electron-neutrino—no electric charge and little mass—were predicted in 1930 by the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to explain the apparent loss of energy in the process of radioactive beta decay. The Italian-born physicist Enrico Fermi further elaborated (1934) the theory of beta decay and gave the “ghost” particle its name. An electron-neutrino is emitted along with a positron in positive beta decay, while an electron-antineutrino is emitted with an electron in negative beta decay.

Despite such predictions, neutrinos were not detected experimentally for 20 years, owing to the weakness of their interactions with matter. Because they are not electrically charged, neutrinos do not experience the electromagnetic force and thus do not cause ionization of matter. Furthermore, they react with matter only through the very weak interaction of the weak force. Neutrinos are therefore the most penetrating of subatomic particles, capable of passing through an enormous number of atoms without causing any reaction. Only 1 in 10 billion of these particles, traveling through matter for a distance equal to the Earth’s diameter, reacts with a proton or a neutron. Finally, in 1956 a team of American physicists led by Frederick Reines reported the discovery of the electron-antineutrino. In their experiments antineutrinos emitted in a nuclear reactor were allowed to react with protons to produce neutrons and positrons. The unique (and rare) energy signatures of the fates of these latter by-products provided the evidence for the existence of the electron-antineutrino.

The discovery of the second type of charged lepton, the muon, became the starting point for the eventual identification of a second type of neutrino, the muon-neutrino. Identification of the muon-neutrino as distinct from the electron-neutrino was accomplished in 1962 on the basis of the results of a particle-accelerator experiment. High-energy muon-neutrinos were produced by decay of pi-mesons and were directed to a detector so that their reactions with matter could be studied. Although they are as unreactive as the other neutrinos, muon-neutrinos were found to produce muons but never electrons on the rare occasions when they reacted with protons or neutrons. The American physicists Leon Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger received the 1988 Nobel Prize for Physics for having established the identity of muon-neutrinos.

In the mid-1970s particle physicists discovered yet another variety of charged lepton, the tau. A tau-neutrino and tau-antineutrino are associated with this third charged lepton as well. In 2000 physicists at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory reported the first experimental evidence for the existence of the tau-neutrino.

All types of neutrino have masses much smaller than those of their charged partners. For example, experiments show that the mass of the electron-neutrino must be less than 0.002 percent that of the electron and that the sum of the masses of the three types of neutrinos must be less than 0.48 electron volt. For many years it seemed that neutrinos’ masses might be exactly zero, although there was no compelling theoretical reason why this should be so. Then in 2002 the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), in Ontario, Canada, found the first direct evidence that electron-neutrinos emitted by nuclear reactions in the core of the Sun change type as they travel through the Sun. Such neutrino “oscillations” are possible only if one or more of the neutrino types has some small mass. Studies of neutrinos produced in the interactions of cosmic rays in the Earth’s atmosphere also indicate that neutrinos may have mass, but further experiments are needed to understand the exact masses involved.