Fetal Ultrasound Click Image to Enlarge Procedure Overview What is a fetal ultrasound? Fetal ultrasound is a test used during pregnancy that creates an image of the fetus in the mother's uterus, or womb. During a fetal ultrasound, various parts of the baby, such as the heart, head, and spine, are identified and measured. The testing may be performed either through the mother's abdomen (transabdominal) or vaginal canal (transvaginal). Fetal ultrasound provides a non-invasive way to evaluate the health of...

Adolescent Mental Health Overview Many adolescents have mental health problems that interfere with their normal development and daily life activities. Some mental health problems are mild, while others are more severe. Some mental health problems last for only short periods of time, while others, potentially, last a lifetime. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), reports the following: Research studies have reported that up to about 5 percent of...

Airway Obstruction Overview Airway obstruction, which includes choking, suffocation, and strangulation, prevents oxygen from entering the lungs and brain. Lack of oxygen to the brain for more than four minutes may result in brain damage or death. Airway obstruction can occur when children choke on an object that is blocking the airway, suffocate on items that block or cover the airways, or strangle themselves with items that become wrapped around their necks. Infants and children under age 4 are particu...

Anomalous Coronary Artery (ACA) What is an anomalous coronary artery (ACA)? An anomalous coronary artery (ACA) is a coronary artery that has an abnormality or malformation. The malformation is congenital (present at birth) and is most often related to the origin or location of the coronary artery. However, there may be other defective areas in the coronary artery. Likewise, it may affect the overall size and shape of the affected coronary artery or arteries. ACA may also occur along with other congenita...

Bone Marrow Biopsy (Biopsy-Bone Marrow, Bone Marrow Aspiration and Biopsy) Procedure Overview What is a bone marrow biopsy? In the center of most large bones there is a soft tissue (called bone marrow) that makes about 95 percent of the body's blood cells. The marrow is a network of tissue that contains immature blood cells in an organized structure. Red bone marrow is the active portion that produces red blood cells, while yellow bone marrow contains fat cells. In adults the red bone marrow is located ...

Breastfeeding Overview Giving birth to a premature or other high-risk baby (or babies) does not mean you cannot breastfeed. Actually, the opposite may be the case. There is even more reason to provide your own milk for, and eventually breastfeed, a premature or a sick newborn. Providing your milk for your baby lets you participate in your baby's healthcare in a very crucial way. Because the benefits of mother's milk are so important to the high-risk newborn, you are able to do something for your baby th...

Classification of Burns What are the classifications of burns? Burns are classified as first-, second-, or third-degree, depending on how deep and severe they penetrate the skin's surface. first-degree (superficial) burns First-degree burns affect only the epidermis, or outer layer of skin. The burn site is red, painful, dry, and with no blisters. Mild sunburn is an example. Long-term tissue damage is rare and usually consists of an increase or decrease in the skin color. second-degree (partial thicknes...

Cystic Fibrosis Overview What is cystic fibrosis? Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease characterized by an abnormality in the body's salt, water- and mucus-making cells. It is chronic, progressive, and is usually fatal. In general, children with CF live into their 30s. Children with CF have an abnormality in the function of a cell protein called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR). CFTR controls the flow of water and certain salts in and out of the body's cells. As the movement of...

Digestive and Liver Disorders Overview What is digestion? Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients to be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into smaller parts so that the body can use them to build and nourish cells, and to provide energy. Click Image to Enlarge How does the digestive process work? Digestion involves: the mixing of food. the movement of food through the digestive tra...

Eisenmenger Syndrome What is Eisenmenger syndrome? Eisenmenger syndrome is a condition that includes a collection of symptoms: cyanosis (pale blue or grayish skin due to decreased oxygen in the blood), pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs), and erythrocytosis (increased number of red blood cells in the blood due to decreased oxygen in the blood). Eisenmenger syndrome primarily affects adolescents and adults with certain congenital heart defects that are repaired ...

Fire Safety and Burns Overview What are the different types of burns? A burn injury usually results from an energy transfer from a heat source to the body. There are many types of burns caused by thermal, radiation, chemical, or electrical contact. thermal burns - burns due to external heat sources which raise the temperature of the skin and tissues and cause tissue cell death or charring. Hot metals, scalding liquids, steam, and flames, when coming in contact with the skin, can cause thermal burns. rad...

First Trimester Screening What is first trimester screening? First trimester screening is a combination of fetal ultrasound and maternal blood testing performed during the first trimester of pregnancy. This screening process can help to determine the risk of the fetus having certain birth defects. There are three parts of first trimester screening: Click Image to Enlarge ultrasound test for fetal nuchal translucency (NT) Nuchal translucency screening uses an ultrasound test to examine the area at the ba...

Genetic Disorders Associated with Congenital Heart Disease Some congenital heart defects are caused by, or related to, genetic problems. Listed in the directory below are some, for which we have provided a brief overview. If you cannot find the information in which you are interested, please visit the Cardiovascular Disorders Online Resources page in this website for an Internet/World Wide Web address that may contain additional information on that topic. Down Syndrome Marfan Syndrome

Glomerulonephritis in Children What is glomerulonephritis? Glomerulonephritis is a type of kidney disease that involves the glomeruli. The glomeruli are very small, important structures in the kidneys that supply blood flow to the small units in the kidneys that filter urine, called the nephrons. During glomerulonephritis, the glomeruli become inflamed and impair the kidney's ability to filter urine. What causes glomerulonephritis? Glomerulonephritis is caused by several different disease states, includ...

Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome in Children What is hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)? HUS is a rare condition that can lead to kidney failure in children. Kidney failure develops as a result of destruction of the small, functional structures and vessels inside the kidney. HUS is a serious illness and potentially fatal. More than 85 percent of patients with the most common form of HUS recover complete kidney function. What causes hemolytic uremic syndrome? HUS is more common during the summer months and may occ...

Topic Index Anatomy of the Urinary System Overview of Genitourinary Disorders Overview of Kidney Disorders Glossary Urology is a surgical specialty concerned with normal and abnormal problems of the kidney, renal, pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra, penis, and vagina in both genders. Urogenital or genitourinary (GU) are words that refer to the urinary and genital organs. Nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with the kidneys. According to the American Urological Association, about 6 percent of gir...

Horseshoe Kidney What is a horseshoe kidney? Horseshoe kidney occurs in about one in 500 children. It occurs during fetal development as the kidneys move into their normal position in the flank area (area around the side, just above the waist). With horseshoe kidney, however, as the kidneys of the fetus rise from the pelvic area, they fuse together at the lower end or base. By fusing, they form a "U" shape, which gives it the name "horseshoe." One-third of individuals with horseshoe kidney will have at ...

Hydrocele What is a hydrocele? A hydrocele occurs from an accumulation of fluid in the tunica vaginalis (a thin pouch that holds the testes within the scrotum). In the fetus, the tunica vaginalis is formed in the abdomen and then migrates into the scrotum with the testes. After the pouch is in the testes, it seals off from the abdomen. Hydroceles can be communicating or non-communicating. communicating hydrocele A communicating hydrocele occurs from the incomplete closure of the tunica vaginalis, so tha...

Inguinal Hernia in Children What is an inguinal hernia? A hernia occurs when a section of intestine protrudes through a weakness in the abdominal muscles. A soft bulge is seen underneath the skin where the hernia has occurred. A hernia that occurs in the groin area is called an inguinal hernia. Click Image to Enlarge What causes an inguinal hernia? A hernia can develop in the first few months after the baby is born because of a weakness in the muscles of the abdomen. As a male fetus grows and matures du...

Male Conditions Several disorders of the urinary tract only affect males. This is largely related to the male anatomy, as well as fetal development. Disorders that affect males may involve the penis, urethra, or testes. Listed in the directory are some male disorders, for which we have provided a brief overview. Overview of the Male Anatomy Circumcision Hydrocele Hypospadias Inguinal Hernia Micropenis Phimosis and Paraphimosis Posterior Urethral Valves (PUV) Testicular Torsion Undescended Testes (Crypto...

Maternal and Fetal Infections Overview Infection is the invasion and multiplying of microorganisms in the body. The body may respond in different ways depending on the type of infection and the extent of the infection. An infectious disease is caused by one or more of the following: viruses bacteria parasites fungi Infectious diseases can range from common illnesses, such as the cold, to deadly illnesses, such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Depending on the specific illness and country (...

Maternal and Fetal Testing Overview The vast majority of women have healthy pregnancies and their babies are born without difficulties. However, women with high-risk pregnancies often need a close watch for potential problems or complications. Fortunately, there are many tests and procedures to monitor the health of both mother and baby. Many of these pose little or no risk and can provide tremendous amounts of information to physicians and expectant parents. Some types of testing and procedures, howeve...

Megaureter What is megaureter? Megaureter (dilated ureter) is an abnormality of one or both of the ureters of a child. Ureters are the two funnel-shaped tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. A megaureter refers to an expanded or widened ureter that does not function normally. The size of a megaureter is usually greater than 10 millimeters (three-eighths of an inch) in diameter. Complications associated with megaureter include reverse flow of urine into the kidneys and pooling of urine ...

Micropenis What is micropenis? Micropenis is defined as a normally structured penis that is below the normal size range for an infant. Normally, the length of a newborn boy's penis is between 2.8 to 4.2 centimeters (1.1 to 1.6 inches) with a circumference of 0.9 to 1.3 centimeters (0.35 to 0.5 inches) . This measurement is taken by carefully stretching the penis and measuring from the tip of the penis to the base of the penis. A penis length of less than 1.9 centimeters (0.75 inches) is usually consider...

Minor Injuries Overview Children's days are filled with running, jumping, bicycling, sports, and other fun activities that keep them active and "on-the-go" from morning until night. Along with the fun comes an occasional cut, bruise, or tumble. Luckily, most of these injuries are not serious and can be handled with some simple first-aid interventions at home. However, there are times when a physician's care is needed. Specific treatment for skin wounds and injuries will be determined by your child's phy...

Nephrotic Syndrome in Children What is nephrotic syndrome? Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by the following symptoms that result from changes that occur to the small, functional structures in the kidneys, such as: very high levels of protein in the urine low levels of protein in the blood due to its loss in the urine tissue swelling all over the body (edema) especially in the abdomen (ascites) high cholesterol levels in the blood decrease in frequency of urination weight gain from excess fluid What ...

Neurogenic Bladder in Children What is a neurogenic bladder? Neurogenic bladder may also be called neuropathic bladder. The muscles and nerves of the urinary system work together to hold urine in the bladder and then release it at the appropriate time. Nerves carry messages from the bladder to the brain and from the brain to the muscles of the bladder telling them either to tighten or release. In a neurogenic bladder, the nerves that are supposed to carry these messages do not work properly, essentially...

Newborn Multiples Care of multiple birth babies: Because many multiples are small and born early, they may be initially cared for in a special care nursery called the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). In the NICU: The NICU combines advanced technology and trained healthcare professionals to provide specialized care for the tiniest patients. NICUs may also have intermediate or continuing care areas for babies who are not as sick but do need specialized nursing care. Some hospitals do not have the pers...

Nutrition and Nephrotic Syndrome Nutritional requirements for a child with nephrotic syndrome: Children with nephrotic syndrome may have trouble regulating their body's water balance. This can cause fluid retention (also known as edema). The diet for a child with nephrotic syndrome may include a sodium and fluid restriction. These restrictions in the diet may help to regulate your child's fluid balance. Any food that is liquid at room temperature counts as a fluid. This includes the following: milk, wat...

Nutrition and Renal Failure The kidneys are responsible for many functions in the body. They help control the body's fluid and electrolyte (mineral) balance and also help the body remove waste products (products that the body cannot use). When the kidneys are not functioning properly, these waste products can build up in the body and make your child feel sick. This can cause your child to have a poor appetite, which can contribute to poor growth and development. The goal of the diet for children with re...

Online Resources - Genitourinary and Kidney Disorders This Web was compiled from a variety of sources including the online resources listed below, but is not intended to substitute or replace the professional medical advice you receive from your child's physician. The content provided here is for informational purposes only, and was not designed to diagnose or treat a health problem or disease. Please consult your child's physician with any questions or concerns you may have regarding your condition. Th...

Overview of Genitourinary Disorders What does genitourinary mean? Genitourinary is a word that refers to the urinary and genital organs. Urology is the branch of medicine concerned with the urinary tract in both genders and the genital tract of the reproductive system in males. Nephrology is the branch of medicine concerned with the kidney. What is the urinary tract? The urinary tract includes the organ system primarily responsible for cleaning and filtering excess fluid and waste material from the bloo...

Overview of Kidney Disorders in Children How do the kidneys work? Click Image to Enlarge The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood. The kidneys and urinary system keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance by removing a type of waste, called urea, from the blood. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain veget...

Overview of Renal Failure What is renal failure? Renal failure refers to temporary or permanent damage to the kidneys that results in loss of normal kidney function. There are two different types of renal failure - acute and chronic. Acute renal failure has an abrupt onset and is potentially reversible. Chronic failure progresses slowly over at least three months and can lead to permanent renal failure. The causes, symptoms, treatments, and outcomes of acute and chronic are different. Conditions that ma...

Phimosis and Paraphimosis What is phimosis and paraphimosis? Phimosis is a constriction of the opening of the foreskin so that it cannot be drawn back over the tip of the penis. This condition is a normal occurrence in the newborn boy, but over time the skin that adheres to the tip of the penis can be retracted as the foreskin loosens. By age 17, around 99 percent of males will be able to completely retract their foreskin. Phimosis can also occur if the foreskin is forced back before it is ready. This c...

Phosphorus Restriction Controlling phosphorus in your child's diet: Most children with renal failure need to limit the amount of phosphorus in foods they eat. The kidneys help remove excess phosphorus from your child's body. If the kidneys are not working well, excess phosphorus builds up in the bloodstream and can cause calcium to leave the bones. This can make your child's bones weak and easy to break. What foods are high in phosphorus? The following foods are high in phosphorous and should be restric...

Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) What is polycystic kidney disease (PKD)? Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the growth of numerous cysts filled with fluid in the kidneys. PKD cysts can reduce kidney function, leading to kidney failure. PKD can also cause cysts in the liver and problems in other organs, such as the heart and blood vessels in the brain. PKD is the fourth leading cause of kidney failure and affects approximately 600,000 people in the US. According to the...

Posterior Urethral Valves (PUV) What are posterior urethral valves? Posterior urethral valves (or PUV) are an abnormality of the urethra, which is the tube that drains urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for elimination. The abnormality occurs when the urethral valves, which are small leaflets of tissue, have a narrow, slit-like opening that partially impedes urine outflow. Reverse flow occurs and can affect all of the urinary tract organs including the urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidne...

Potassium Restriction Potassium requirements for children with renal failure: Potassium is very important to the body, but too much potassium in the blood can be harmful. When your child's kidneys do not work well, too much potassium can build up in the blood. Your child's body receives potassium from the foods he/she eats. If your child is having trouble maintaining a normal potassium level, then it may be necessary for him/her to limit or avoid foods with high amounts of potassium. What foods are high...

Protein Restriction Protein requirements for children with renal failure: The body uses protein from foods to grow and repair cells. With kidney failure, your child will need to avoid excess protein. The kidneys may not be able to get rid of the waste products that come from eating too much protein. However, it is also important for your child to get enough protein for proper growth and nutrition. Your child's weight, medical condition, type of treatment, and laboratory values will be factors in determi...

Prune Belly Syndrome What is prune belly syndrome? Prune belly syndrome is also known as triad syndrome or Eagle-Barrett syndrome. It is characterized by a triad of abnormalities that include the following: absence of abdominal muscles undescended testicles - a condition seen in newborns whereby one (or both) of the male testes has not passed down into the scrotal sac an abnormal, expanded bladder and problems in the upper urinary tract, which may include the bladder, ureters, and kidneys Because of the...

Renal Failure Diseases of the kidneys often produce temporary or permanent changes to the small functional structures and vessels inside the kidney. Frequent urinary tract infections can cause scarring to these structures leading to renal failure. Acute renal failure has an abrupt onset and is potentially reversible. Chronic failure progresses slowly over at least three months and can lead to permanent renal failure. Listed in the directory below is some additional information regarding renal failure, f...

Second Trimester Prenatal Screening Tests Second trimester prenatal screening may include several blood tests, called multiple markers. These markers provide information about a woman's risk of having a baby with certain genetic conditions or birth defects. Screening is usually performed by taking a sample of the mother's blood between the 15th and 20th weeks of pregnancy (16th to 18th is ideal). The multiple markers include: alpha-fetoprotein screening (AFP) - a blood test that measures the level of al...

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Children What is SARS? Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a rapidly spreading, potentially fatal infectious viral disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), SARS was recognized as a global threat in March 2003. The viral disease first appeared in Southern China in November 2002 and spread to more than 24 countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. By the spring of 2004, the outbreak appeared to be over...

Sodium and Fluid Restriction Sodium restriction for children with renal failure: A low-sodium diet or salt restriction may be used to help prevent or reduce fluid retention in your child's body. The amount of sodium or salt allowed in your child's diet depends on your child's medical condition. Your child's physician or dietitian will determine the amount of sodium allowed in your child's diet. This is usually expressed in milligrams (mg) per day. Some common sodium restrictions include 2,000, 3,000, or...

Superficial Injuries Overview In the course of a child's day, minor injuries may occur during play and sports activities. The face and head are especially at risk for cuts, scrapes, and lacerations because: children have much larger heads in comparison to the rest of their bodies than adults do. This creates a larger "target" when falls occur. children's center of balance is not completely adjusted yet due to their rapid growth and "bowed" position of the spine. children's feet are often "toed-in" causi...

Teratogens Overview What is a teratogen? A teratogen is an agent that can cause or increase the chance of a birth defect. It is usually something in the environment that the mother may be exposed to during her pregnancy. It could be a prescribed medication, a street drug, alcohol use, chemical exposure, or an infection present in the mother, which could increase the chance for a baby to be born with a birth defect. What are the most sensitive periods for teratogens in pregnancy? Once the egg is fertiliz...

Testicular Torsion What is testicular torsion? Testicular torsion is a twisting of the testicles and the spermatic cord (the structure extending from the groin to the testes that contains nerves, ducts, and blood vessels). The torsion causes decreased blood flow to the testes, essentially strangling them of oxygen and nutrients. This is a painful problem that usually occurs in boys 10 years and older. While it generally occurs in adolescent boys, it may also occur during fetal development or shortly aft...

Tick Bite Overview Ticks are small insects that live in grass, bushes, wooded areas, and seashores. They attach their bodies onto a human or animal host and prefer hairy areas such as the scalp, behind the ear, in the armpit and groin, and also between fingers and toes. Tick bites often occur at night and occur more in the spring and summer months. What to do if you find a tick on your child: Do not touch the tick with your bare hand. If you do not have a pair of tweezers, take your child to your neares...

Ureterocele and Ureteral Duplication What is a ureterocele? A ureterocele involves the kidney, ureter, and bladder. A normal ureter is one that transports urine from the kidney to the bladder. When a child has a ureterocele, the portion of the ureter closest to the bladder becomes enlarged because the ureter opening is very tiny and obstructs urine outflow. As the urine flow is obstructed, urine backs up in the ureter tube. What is ureteral duplication? Children who have a ureterocele may also have an u...

Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) What are urinary tract infections (UTI)? Urinary tract infections describe a health problem that results from a bacterial infection along the urinary tract. The urinary tract consists of two kidneys that remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine. Two narrow tubes called ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The urine is stored in the bladder (a triangle-shaped, hollow organ). When the bladder is emptied, the urine travels through a tube called ...

Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR) What is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)? Vesicoureteral reflux occurs when urine dwelling in the bladder flows back into the ureters and often back into the kidneys. The bladder is the hollow, muscular organ that stores urine before urination occurs. The bladder has three small openings; two connect the ureters where urine is drained down from the kidneys, and one connects the bladder to the urethra where urine exits the body. The ureters are funnel-shaped tubes that carry urine ...

Vision Overview When an infant first emerges into the world, his/her eyesight is immature. While the infant can see the form of his/her mother and can tell the difference between light and dark, the ability to focus has not been developed. Monitoring your child's ability to see is an important part of the health of your growing child. Facts about vision problems: More than one in 20 million preschoolers have vision problems of a type that can lead to vision loss if not treated. More than 12.1 million, o...

Visual Screening Overview Newborn babies arrive equipped with wonderful abilities to see and hear. Although their vision is not as sharp as that of an adult, newborn babies show responses to adult faces in the earliest days of life. Babies also have remarkable responses to sounds. They startle with loud noises and become quiet to the mother's voice. Sometimes, babies have problems with vision. These problems may be due to a birth defect, or may be caused by the effects of prematurity, neurological probl...

West Nile Virus in Children What is the West Nile virus? The West Nile virus belongs to a group of viruses known as flaviviruses, commonly found in Africa, West Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. Flaviviruses are spread by insects, most often mosquitoes. Other examples of flaviviruses include yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, dengue virus, and St. Louis encephalitis virus (West Nile virus is closely related to the St. Louis encephalitis virus). The West Nile virus can infect humans, birds, mosquitoes...

A Child's Concept of Death Every child, at any age, has their own unique concept of death. Past experiences with death for the terminally ill child, as well as, his/her age, emotional development, and surroundings are what most influence a child's own concept of death. Cartoons, movies, television, video games, and even books are filled with images of death. The child with a terminal condition has, most likely, previously experienced death by loss of a family member, friend, or pet. An adult's misconcep...

Airway Obstruction - Injury Statistics and Incidence Rates The following statistics are the latest available from the National SAFE KIDS Campaign: Injury and death rates: In the most recent statistics, 88 percent of children who died from airway obstruction injuries were children ages 4 and under. In 2006, there were over 14,000 emergency room visits for airway obstruction. Where and when: Most airway obstructions in children occur at home. Children most often choke on food items. Balloons are the most ...