2. Does taking part in a classroom observation project lead to some changes in the personal theories of Berke regarding the ideal English language teacher? If yes, what are those changes?........................................................................... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. Research Context and the participant ........................... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. I engaged in this study in ELT prep class of 15 students at a well-known foundation university in Istanbul in the summer term of 2007-2008 academic year. The students of ELT prep were receiving general English instruction before they began taking classes at English Language Teaching Department due to the fact that they could not score higher than 213 in TOEFL or the passing grade, 70 out of 100, from the proficiency exam administered by the testing office of the university. Berke, a 19-year-old Turkish male, (To maintain anonymity, a pseduo-name was used throughout the paper) was selected among ELT prep class by employing convenience sampling as the participating prospective teacher of English for the present case study................................................................................. Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. In relation to the second research question, findings revaled that after taking part in the classroom observation project, the participating prospective teacher started to be less harsh and critical about teachers. He began to empathize with teachers and thus began to consider that they may be doing the things he criticized for the benefit of their students. He began to judge his criteria for evaluating teachers and decided that he was being unfair to some teachers by considering the situations only from the student perspective.......Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. Anderson, L. M., & Bird, T. (1995). How three prospective teachers construed....... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. three cases of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education. 11, 579-599. .......Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE STUDIES ON L2 MOTIVATION FROM THE SELFDETERMINATION THEORY PERSPECTIVE.................................................................179 Savaş YEŞİLYURT............................................................................................................179 Hakan DEMİRÖZ** ..........................................................................................................179 EXPLORING EFL STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES: A CASE STUDY OF KYRGYZ UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES OF ENGLISH...................................191 PROF.DR.RECEP SONGÜN .............................................................................................191 KYRGYZSTAN-TÜRKIYE MANAS UNIVERSITY........................................................191 BISHKEK- KYRGYZSTAN..............................................................................................191 2006 ...................................................................................................................................191 GROUP TWO ....................................................................................................................195 GROUP THREE ................................................................................................................197 GROUP FOUR...................................................................................................................198 GROUP FIVE ....................................................................................................................199 GROUP SIX.......................................................................................................................200

işbirlikl. cooperative learning. teacher trainees Öz Her sınıfta kim daha iyi yapacak diye uğraşan . helping the others achieve the task and learn better. Key Words: goal structures. rekabetçi veya tek baslarına olmak üzere üçe ayrılırlar. it is possible to find students who prefer engaging in win-lose struggle to see who is best in completing the assignment. helping the others achieve the task and learn better. farklı grupların farklı tercihleri olduklarını bulmaktır. ya da küçük gruplar içinde birbirlerine yardım ederek daah iyi öğrenmeye çalışan öğrenciler vardır. Students’ learning goals are structured to promote cooperative. competitive or individualistic efforts. working together in small groups. Öğrencilerin öğrenme şekiller. işbirlikli öğrenme.
Anahtar kelimeler: hedef yapıları. working independently to complete the assignment. rekabetli öğrenme.Goal Structures: Learning Together and Alone (Hedef Yapıları: Beraber veya Yalnız Öğrenme)
Abstract n each classroom.In this study conducted with 92 teacher trainees. competitive or individualistic efforts. Her öğrenci bu gruplardan birine girer. it is possible to find students who prefer engaging in win-lose struggle to see who is best in completing the assignment. Students’ learning goals are structured to promote cooperative. Each student has a different preference when it comes to the goal structure. working independently to complete the assignment. working together in small groups. the aim is to highlight the characteristics of each goal structure and to show that in the class dynamics it is possible to find that different groups prefer different goal structures and even the same individual may prefer using the different structures and not employing only one type of social interdependence. A learning goal is “a desired future state of demonstrating competence or mastery in the subject area being studied” and the goal structure “specifies the ways in which students will interact with each other and the teacher to achieve the goal”(Johnson & 6
. ödevleri bitirmede tek başına çalışan. öğretmen adayları
In each classroom. Bu çalışmanın amacı 92 öğretmen adayına nasıl ders çalıştıklarıyla ilgili açık uçlu soru sorarak sınıf içi dinamiklerinin nasıl olustugunu. competitive learning.

Members do not take responsibility for anyone’s learning other than their own. this does not mean that only one goal structure should be employed and the others abandoned. cooperative based learning. content based instruction. deciding on the size of groups. A pseudo. Members believe they sink or swim together. competency based teaching. there are four types of learning groups: pseudo groups. traditional classroom groups.They give assistance to and encouragement to promote each other’s success. monitoring and intervening and evaluating the quality and quantity of student achievement. A high performance cooperative learning group is a group that meets all the criteria for being a cooperative learning group and outperforms all reasonable expectations.3). Johnson and Johnson (1997. --Informal cooperative learning groups are ad hoc groups that last from a few minutes to one class period and they are used during teaching to focus students’ attention on the material. Students are accountable as separate individuals not as members of a team. individual accountability and the expected outcome). Each student has a different preference when it comes to the goal structure. they form an integrated whole.learning group meets but does not want to work together.Johnson. p. Cooperative learning groups are divided into three types : --Formal cooperative learning groups which last from one class period to several weeks and they are used to ensure that students are actively involved in the work. High positive interdependence is easily seen among its members. 7
. cooperative learning groups. explaining the task and cooperative structure (explaining the assignment. However. choosing a method). Interdependence is low. recent methods (task based.1999. Although in the past competitive efforts dominated the classrooms (thanks to the audiolingual method). and high performance cooperative learning groups. Each goal structure has its place and when they are used appropriately. A cooperative learning group is more than a sum of its parts. Both taskwork and teamwork skills are emphasized. Not all groups are considered as cooperative groups. competitive or individualistic efforts. the aim is to highlight the characteristics of each goal structure and to show that in the class dynamics it is possible to find that different groups prefer different goal structures and even the same individual may prefer using the different structures and not employing only one type of social interdependence. A traditional learning group is a group whose members have accepted that they are tow ork together but see little benefit from doing so. heterogeneous groups with stable relationships. --Cooperative base groups are long term. p. they engage in cooperative.In this study . 1999. Whenever people strive to achieve a goal. Members need time and experience to achive cooperative learning. It is a group whose members are committed to the common purpose of maximizing each other’s learning. criteria.74) list the forces hindering group performance as follows: --Lack of group maturity.
Cooperative Learning A cooperative lesson plan is conducted by making preinstructional decisions (formulating objectives. As a result of a learning group performance developed by Katzenbach and Smith (1993). Members often block or interfere with each other’s learning communicate and cooperate poorly. multiple intelligences…) utilize cooperative learning.

salient and obtrusive comparisons among participants --criteria determining the winner. The larger the group. rewarding students is beneficial or structuring tasks so steady contributions are required for group success is recommendable. assign student roles essential for group success. To survive one must win over rivals. If the problem is students talk about everything but the assignment. Competitive Learning There are a lot of definitions of what competition is . Johnson and Johnson’s definition is broader than Deutch’s: competition exists when participants work against each other to achieve a goal that only one or a few can obtain. Instead of the dominant person’s response. the best solution is to prepare jigsaw materials. Skinner (1968) inserts the importance of reward in definition saying that competition results from a reward given to the person who achieves the highest relative to others. --Inappropriate group size. disciplined application of the basics of cooperative efforts. Secondly. Reducing problem behaviors If students do not participate or bring work or materials. all others with whom they are competitively linked fail to achieve their goals. competition builds character. competitive and individualistic behaviors.Lack of sufficient heterogeneity. again jigsaw resources and reward are necessary to make them cooperate successfully. each individual perceives that when one person achieves their goal. there have been many debates (Johnson & Johnson. Thirdly.Characteristics of competition involves --negative goal interdependence --perceived scarcity (what is wanted is scarce) --more than one partyand one winner --forced. --Lack of sufficient heterogeneity: Heterogeneity ensures a wide variety of resources are available for the group’s work. and reward groups if all members achieve up to criterion . Starting with Darwin scientists believe that competition is inherent in nature. Creating cooperative groups is not easy. If the problem is that students refuse to let others participate. it is useful to limit resources in the group (that will make them impossible to work alone ) and to prepare jigsaw materials so that students cannot finish the assignment without other members’ information. If students prefer working alone and ignore the group discussion. the fewer members can participate. 1998: 131-134). --Social loafing: Some members tend to work less --Free riding. Mc Clintock (1972) includes motive in his definition by pointing out that a competitive motive is a predisposition to act competitively in a situation that allows a choice among cooperative. the others are likely to reduce their efforts --Groupthink: Groups can be overconfident. --Motivation losses:When some members work less or free ride.--Uncritically giving one’s dominant response. it takes daily. Deutch (1962) thinks competition exists when individuals’ goal achievements are negatively correlated. they are less likely to exert efforts. group members should choose the best one. As to whether competition is destructive or constructive. it brings out the 8
. -.These basics are tough standards and present a difficult implementation challenge to teachers. When group members realize their efforts are dispensable. competition motivates individuals to do their best.

it occurs without any apparent struggle. those who perceive they have no chance to win refuse to try. simple tasks need to be completed. competition decreases self confidence and self esteem. Individuals should be able to cooperate. Fourth. competition is stressful and anxiety provoking. the first notion. playing fair.7
8
9
.5 8. and space.Being able to compete for fun and enjoyment is important. Sixth. The basic elements of an individualistic goal structure include students’ working on their own toward a set criterion.6
16
17. having their own materials. it teaches dysfunctional values such as bettering others. to take a responsibility with little or no interaction with classmates. nondivisible. taking joy in others’ mistakes. Method Participants 92 junior teacher trainees joined the questionnaire (Appendix A). Table 1 Students’ preferences regarding learning together or alone Items No % Yes % sometimes Preferring group 46 50 40 43. winninga nd losing with grace and style. enjoyment and amusement.4 6
accountability Preferring individual accountability
% 6. Individualistic Learning Individualistic learning exists when the achievement of one student is unrelated and independent from the achievement of other students. Fifth.The major teacher role is to keep students focused on learning and not getting sidetracked by arguments or hurt feelings.best in person. sportsmanship. The table is designed to show the answers of the students. When it comes to the claims against competition. competition increases self confidence and self esteem. Sixth. competition teaches important life values. Students need to learn how to win with enjoyment and lose with dignity. most people seek out competition for fun. perceiving the task as relevant and important. Fourth. natural selection does not require competition. tuning out distractions and using the teacher as a resource. Fifth. It decreases character. Last is competition increases future career success. Students need some skills to function better in an individualistic learning situation such as: --they recognize they have an individual fate unrelated to the others --they strive for self benefit --they have a short term perspective --they recognize that their identity depends on how their performance compares with the present criteria --they recognize that their performance is self caused. Students can be defeated but are never losers. They feel responsible only to themselves. Individualistic situations are most appropriate when unitary.3
66
71. cheating to win. Competition motivates most individuals to exert minimal effort.93). compete and work autonomously appropriately. They are asked to state their ideas in the semi-structured interview (The reliability is 0. Some students prefer to work at their own pace. Processing afterward is vital.

1993.2
64 64 62
69.2 26 26 23. Group work or projects do not constitute a significant percentage of the midterm or final exams. Their drive is so high and they think that group work might hinder their learning progress and achievement levels. Even though they say that teachers ask them to do group work 64 out of 92 prefer working by themselves.9 23.5 23. 62 out of 92 students love being rewarded.6
8
8. 10
. It is not clear whether teachers tailor cooperative learning lessons to meet the unique instructional circumstances and needs of the curricula. and students. whether everybody or groups do the work and how the group work is structured.9
64 66 68 46 58 62 60 68
69.7 73.5 67. (We all sink or swim together here.9 13 43. It is interesting that 66 out of 92 students wish to share the responsibility but only 40 wish to study with their friends.9 50 63 67.6 4. know that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team members.8 6. Interestingly . 1996. Just because the assessment is held through individual pen and paper tests . (We cannot do it without you.1
76
82. (Your success benefits me and my success benefits you). 1994). which posits the questions of who does the group work.3
Findings 40 out of 92 students prefer working collaboratively although cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain from each other's efforts.Sharing responsibility
22 22 12 40 26 24 24 22
23. Rewarding as a group is not an element in cooperative learning.5 71.9
8 4 2 4 8 6 8 2
8.9 28. They say they feel better and their confidence increases when they are rewarded.) .3 65. that is why students stil prefer individually. subject areas. recognize that all group members share a common fate.4 28.6 2.3 8. which might indicate that students do not trust each other.3
10 6 4
10.2 73. 58 out of 92 students wish to excel the others. feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement (We all congratulate you on your accomplishment) (Johnson & Johnson .5 8.6
18 22 26
19.3
Interpersonal interaction Social skills Taskwork and teamwork Excelling the others Being rewarded Competition Striving more in a competition Feeling hopeless in a competition Working by oneself Monitoring time Dislike for interactions
4.) .5 69. students need to work on their own to pass the exams.6 6.6
8
8.5 4.

the participants in this study say the opposite.). students need to be dissatisfied so that they can change their habits. Edina. & Holubec.Teachers have to choose a goal structure or a combination of goal structures for each lesson they teach. Johnson. Keeler & Anson. J. the combination may be more powerful than any of them.62 out of 92 students say they dislike interactions with their group friends as they say that they can progress faster when they work on their own and they encounter frictions or conflicts. bullying. The role of cooperative learning in assessing and communicating student learning. Depending upon the goals. So they are not desperate and they do not feel anxious and they are not overwhelmed with negative emotions. In T. References Deutsch. Slavin & Karweit. E. 11
. NE: University of Nebraska Press. Competition cannot exist without underlying cooperation concerning rules and procedures. M. and many more (Johnson & Johnson. teachers may wish to teach certain lessons cooperatively and others competitive. D. The diverse and positive outcomes that simultaneously result from cooperative efforts have sparked numerous research studies on cooperative learning focused on preventing and treating a wide variety of social problems such as diversity (racism. In M. (1993). (1962). 1985). MN: Interaction Book Company. students think they are pleased with what they have.. inclusion of handicapped). and young adults. sexism. drug abuse. Another striking result is seen in the competition drive of the students. 68 out of 92 say they strive hardest to achieve better. (1996). R.). On the microlevel cooperative learning is the most complex to implement and it has the most powerful impact on instructional outcomes. antisocial behavior (delinquency. Conclusions As is seen. On a macrolevel. low self-esteem. In order to effect a change. alienation and loneliness.) 1996 ASCD yearbook: Communicating student learning. Johnson. Lincoln. incivility). Cooperation and trust: Some theoretical notes. psychological pathology. in the classroom it is possible to find all sorts of students who prefer cooperative groups. Johnson. VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. lack of prosocial values and egocentrism. it is stated by the researchers above that adolescents. and topic to be taught. 1999. violence. cooperative learning is the instructional method of choice. When these three goal structures are used appropriately and in an integrated way. which contradicts the results obtained in the cooperative learning researches. D. Jones (Ed. Cooperation in the classroom (6th ed. W. Johnson. 275-319. W. aims. Johnson. They are pleased with what they do and get. R. T. For preventing and alleviating many of the social problems related to children.. 1995. instructional situations involve two complementary and interdependent roles: teacher and student. Nebraska symposium on motivation. to get higher grades and 8 of them say they feel hopeless. Individualsitic activities can be effectively used as part of the division of labor in which students master certain knowledge and skills that will be used in cooperative activities. Alexandria. 1995. Gusky (Ed. & Magnuson. & Johnson. however. those who love competing with each other and some others who prefer to work on their own. R.. It provides a context for the other two goal structures. T. R. Under these circumstances.

D. 351-367. 12(4). B.Johnson. E. D. The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-performance Organization.. Edina. T. & Karweit. Behavioral Science. R.T. An assessment of cooperative learning used for basic computer skills instruction in the college classroom. ability grouped. B.17. Journal of Social Psychology. W. Johnson. D. J. A. I do not like interacting with classmates when I am on task
12
. The nuts and bolts of cooperative learning.R. Johnson. 438-454 Slavin. I strive more and I learn more I feel hopeless in a competition I prefer working on my own I monitor my time and pace. American Educational Research Journal. & Magnuson. I prefer to excel the others I love being rewarded in the class Competition is useful. R. McClintock.. R.W. 135(6).K. & Smith. (1995). D. MN: Interaction Book Company. (1993). Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon Katzenbach. Johnson. Journal of Educational Computing Research. & Johnson. 379-393.. & Anson. (1968) The technology of teaching NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts Appendix A
I prefer group accountability I prefer individual accountability Sharing responsibility for the joint outcome is better I prefer interpersonal interaction Social skills are important in the class as well I love to engage in taskwork and teamwork simultaneously. When I am in a competition. D. Effects of whole class. Johnson. Skinner. and individualized instruction on mathematics achievement. (1985). (1972) Social Motivation. R (1999) Learning together. C. & Holubec. R.. G. Keeler. 673-686.. F.. Training elementary school students to manage conflict. & Dudley. (1994). Boston: Harvard Business School. N. (1995). 22(3). E. J. C.M.

Students are so much used to play nice games due to the course books they are using. But they sometimes need different kinds of materials and activities.This paper deals with teaching different types of idioms, proverbs and acronyms. In this presentation, how the idioms, proverbs and acronyms help to teach different cultures will be told. Samples of different kinds of idioms, proverbs and acronyms will be given. How these activities motivate students to learn and understand English passages better will be explained. What kinds of language skills can be improved during these courses will also be highlighted. Key words: idioms, proverbs and acronyms

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the word “idiom” is defined as follows: http://dictionary. as Wac from Women's Army Corps. a wise saying or precept. a construction or expression of one language whose parts correspond to elements in another language but whose total structure or meaning is not matched in the same way in the second language.reference. or from the general grammatical rules of a language. According to the following online dictionary. art. as the table round for the round table. an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements. the peculiar character or genius of a language. proverbs and acronyms always play important roles in our daily lives. or oracular utterance requiring interpretation. that expresses effectively some commonplace truth or useful thought. a didactic sentence.
According to the following online dictionary. a distinct style or character. as kick the bucket or hang one's head. or loran from long-range navigation.Introduction
Idioms. adage. a person or thing that is commonly regarded as an embodiment or representation of some quality. usually of unknown and ancient origin.: the idiom of Bach.com/browse/acronym
–noun 1. to make an acronym of: The committee's name has been acronymed MIKE. a language. –verb (used with object) 3. etc. 3. 4.reference. byword. the word “ proverb” is defined as follows: http://dictionary. 2.com/browse/proverb
1. and that is not a constituent of a larger expression of like characteristics. an acrostic. or style of speaking peculiar to a people. 5.com/browse/idiom
1. because we express ourselves more effectively when we use them.
2.
23
.
a short popular saying. 3. dialect. OPEC from Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.reference. a word formed from the initial letters or groups of letters of words in a set phrase or series of words. in music.
4. a profound saying. maxim. 2.
According to the following online dictionary. saw. Bible. the word “acronym” is defined as follows: http://dictionary.

. it is understood that learning and teaching idioms means teaching cultures and they are the essential parts of our lives.g. Perspective(s) or theoretical framework:
There are generally two departments in the School of Foreign Languages at Turkish universities in Turkey. kick the bucket) Compositional transparent (e.g.. the other is opaque. Cain et al. During the English courses. An English language is rich in idioms..proverbs and acronyms in the English Preparatory Classes.g. skating on thin ice) However.” Objectives and Purposes of The Study
This study deals with teaching different idioms. They can learn many new web-sites and vocabulary. Compositional opaque (e. proverbs and acronyms with different task activities. by and large).g. Its aim is to enable students of English to teach English idioms. students can develop their English by means of some enjoyable games. TOFEL.. These are called as Preparatory Classes Department and Modern Languages Department. which by definition are not transparent. learning the idioms in English language constitute the soul of language. in the Basic English classes and in the classes of the English-medium Programmes at Turkish universities or foreign universities. As Elkılıç (2001) states that
“ it is rather difficult for foreign learners to learn all the idioms used in the real situation of English language. spill the beans) Quasi-methaphorical (e..As it is stated by Elkılıç ( 2008) that
“ McGlone identifies (2001) identifies four types of idioms: Non-compositional (e. The students who want to study in the Preparatory Classes Department enter a placement examination which is prepared and graded by the instructors of the School of Foreign Languages at the universities they attended proficieny exams.
24
.” From here. (2005) mention two types: one is transparent. IELTS or TOEIC are also acceptable if they cannot enter the examination which is administrated by the School of Foreign Languages of Turkish universities. The language level results of the examinations which are called as KPDS.

Businessperson 1: "I can’t believe the weather.org."· However.Workflow Management According to the British Council TeachingEnglish online journal. picture the scene: a group of businesspeople in a meeting in Hong Kong. after considering the needs of your students and deciding they do need to learn some proverbs here are a few ideas to help you on your way. we shouldn’t count our chickens before they’ve hatched. They communicate in English but none of them are native English speakers. It’s raining cats and dogs!"
Businessperson 2: "Oh yes. It can be a lot of fun to work 28
.teachingenglish.Society of Professional Accountants WFM. but I think it will improve. the following suggestions are handled to teach proverbs or idioms: Before deciding to teach your students proverbs or idioms it may be worth considering the following: (http://www. I saw the forecast and it may well continue raining until the weekend. However.SPA.uk/languageassistant/teaching-tips/proverbs-idioms) How often do I actually use proverbs and idioms? Are my students going to use their English mainly to communicate with native speakers or other non-native speakers? Do my students need to be able to produce idioms and proverbs or only recognise them and understand them? Have students asked me to teach them some proverbs and idioms or am I forcing it on them because I think it will be fun? Are my students ever likely to spend time in an English speaking country? The reason I suggest you ask yourself these questions before embarking on any teaching of proverbs or idioms is probably obvious. However.

but just try to ensure that the time you invest in teaching them will be worth it for your students. Group the sayings by topic and introduce in conjunction with other activities around the topic. Tips for Using Proverbs and Idioms in Class Deal with proverbs and idioms as and when they crop up in their contexts. For eample. Do some matching activities. It will be easier for students to remember some of them if they’re in groups. For example. Would they find it a bit strange? Don’t overload students with too many at a time. to shoot yourself in the foot etc. E. Ask students if any of the proverbs translate directly into their own language. Use visuals and pictures to help learners remember them. Explain to students that it may be more useful for them to be able to understand the expressions when they hear them than to be able to produce them. draw a bid in the hand and two in the bush. Five is probably a good number for one class. Most of the time students will know a similar expression in their language and it can help them to remember them if they compare the differences between English and their language. give students five proverbs that have been cut in half and get them to match them up.g. Try to use situations when people actually use the expressions and get students to create dialogues or role-play and to use a few of the proverbs to reinforce the meaning. to be head and shoulders above the rest. For example. to be long in the tooth. teach several ‘body idioms’ together. such as in reading and listening tasks or when you use one naturally in class.
29
. Ask them how they would react if you used this type of expression in their language.with proverbs and idioms. Put them into context.

com/browse/proverb
http://dictionary. some suggestions on teaching idioms. BIBLIOGRAPHY Budden.reference.reference. Jo. I can say that each activity which is used during my class hours helps learners to understand the new words in their course books and pronounce effectively. They are also encouraged to speak with each other and write some sentences or dialogues and their fluency in pronunciation are improved gradually day by day.pdf http://dictionary.org/Issues/Volume%204/No. I tried to find solutions to get my students’ language skills one step further than the skills of the courses they had taken before attending my courses and tried to find more useful subjects to teach them. (2008).. Proverbs and Idioms. Retrieved from: http://www.teachingenglish. Educational or scientific importance of the study: From my own observation.teknolojiweb. Retrieved from: http://www.uk/language-assistant/teachingtips/proverbs-idioms Elkılıç.Results and/or conclusions/point of view: In this paper. G.jlls.net/ingilizce-atasozleri-english-proverbs-turkce-ingilizceata-sozu-rehberi-ingilizce-atasozleri-ingilizce-atasozu-atasozu-ata-sozleri-ata-sozu30
.com/browse/idiom
http://dictionary.com/browse/acronym
http://www. If anyone wants to have a look at the course sylllabus. British Council Teaching English. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies.reference.org. proverbs and acronyms in the classes of the Modern Languages Departments of private or state universities in Turkey have been told. he/she can understand that these courses will also be able to teach students to use many useful skills while they are working in an international environment and give some ideas on how the student homework papers and exams are graded.2/gelkilic. Turkish Students Understanding of Transparent and Opaque Idioms In English in Reading As Well As Speaking.

imagine that you have saved up a lot of money in your bank since last year. Please.e. a.AIDS c.AP
2. think a good day and find a proverb or an idiom related with it. c. Please. Please.Please find the abbreviation which is not related with health. find an idiom or an acronym related with this situation.Which abbreviation means “that is” ? a.i.bedsit d.FAQ b.EU c. a.EU c. think 2 bad situations and 2 good situations in your life and find a proverb or an idiom related with it. think a rainy day and find a proverb or an idiom related with it. 1.UNESCO d.Please find the abbreviation which means 2 rooms.asap c.btw
5.Appendix 1 Please find the correct answer and circle it.NB
32
.e.NB b. b.WHO d.Please find the abbreviation which does not mean an association. d.VAT b. Please.FAQ d.NATO b.g.AD Appendix 2 Sample Questions Which Are Related With Proverbs. Idioms and Acronyms Please.PTO
3.sitcom
4.Which abbreviation is used to count years? a. a.

The outcomes of these courses will be highlighted. warm up course activities. Turkey School of Foreign Languages Modern Languages Department
Abstract THE ROLE OF WARM UP ACTIVITIES IN LEARNING ENGLISH
As it is known. reading and writing. warm up activities help our learners to motivate themselves better. speaking. These are as follows: listening. useful web-sites
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.Ozlem Yagcioglu ozlem.yoglu@deu.edu. The importance of happiness in classes will be told. Izmir. outcomes. Warm up activities will be told generally.
Key words: happiness. Different kinds of warm up activities of different language levels will be given. Some useful websites will be suggested. using four basic language skills in learning a foreign language is crucial. not in terms of my students or classes. In order to start to teach all of these skills.tr Dokuz Eylul University. This paper does not deal the classes I am currently teaching in my institution.

Many laughter can be found from the internet and newspapers to help our learners to warm up to our courses. create a cozy atmosphere. According to Wikipedia causes of happiness is defined as follows: 34
. Warming up prepares the body mentally & physically. stretching and a sport related activity. courage and desire in courses. They help our students and us to motivate the courses we teach in our classes. It will also be a relief for the teacher who sometimes finds himself/herself in despair as s/he has to tackle with several different problems such as different learning styles and strategies. laughter is the best medicine. These activities help our learners to learn their courses in better and enjoyable ways. The risks and benefits of combining stretching with warming up are mixed and in some cases disputed. Warm up activities are the activities which prepare our students for a game or an exercise in our courses. little research on happy learning has been conducted. For example. but this study reveals and supports that happy learning helps learners to learn better and happily. before running or playing an intense sport one might slowly jog to warm muscles and increase heart rate. In order to increase student motivation. A warm-up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity in physical activity (pulse raiser).Introduction:
According to the Free Encylopedia of Wikipedia the term “ warm up” is defined as:
A warm up is usually performed before participating in technical sports or exercising.” The above paragraph clearly explains us that using laughter to motivate our learners to our courses will help us to warm up our courses and we will be able to have happy class hours. Rationale Although there has been many studies on warm up activities and motivation with common methods in ELT. different personality types. Warm up activities in English language teaching are the activities which increase excitement. a joint mobility exercise. boredom in the classroom etc. The Science of Happiness and The Warm up Activities in ELT
As Ersöz (1999) states
“Language learning is a long and painful process where the learner is bound to encounter frustrations and lose his/her motivation. which means that exercises (of warm up) should prepare the muscles to be used and to activate the energy systems that are required for that particular activity. It is important that warm ups should be specific to the exercise that will follow. help the learner find joy in learning and bring color and life to the classroom.

they hear. if we are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle'.” “Work harder.” They are rarely told. angry or sad. and we bring foreground what was in the background.”
Happiness in ELT classes is also explained by Helgensen (2009) with the following paragraphs: “ Many classes start each week with a quick “What did you do over the weekend?” warm-up. and we realize that the surprise wasn't dangerous.”
Helgensen (2009) state that
“Happiness” isn’t something like “vocabulary”. and we find out what is hidden within the sentence. “listening/speaking/
/reading/writing” or other elements that are necessarily part of an ELT/EFL/ESL class. school is a test-oriented.
• For many English students. A general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Some of these activities help learner feel successful. doesn't say. we are either doing this consciously or unconsciously. By embracing ideas from positive psychology. the sentence appears to be not relevant. supposes. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and "psychic energy".[7] This theory explains why laughter can be as a coping mechanism for when one is upset. This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health. “You’re going great. we also know that students who experience success learn more.” While we all know that learning English can be hard work.” Rather. and we automatically try to understand what the sentence says. we can help to create a supportive environment for our learners and ourselves. “educational pressure cooker. “grammar”. But a few points to consider:
• Every class involves educational psychology. As teachers.“Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor. asking the students to “think of five good things from the past week”
35
. For example. however other situations may cause laughter as well. and what is the underlying thought. this is how this theory works in the case of humor: a joke creates an inconsistency. Philosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at the passing of danger. and implies. we eventually laugh with relief. Instead. “You can do better.

Communicative Approach f. exercises or puzzles on language skills such as listening. “noticing good things as they happen” is going to have students using the present simple.) but with a focus. common language teaching methods are generally recognized and used in state schools and universities.Direct Method c. Purpose of the Study:
In Turkey.
Methods:
As Demirel (1990) states that the common methods which are known by the Turkish and European specialists are the following: a. therefore. conducted to find out if there is compatibility by examining ELT teachers’ perspectives on using new theories and happy learning theory in language teaching to warm up classes and students’ perceptions of the warm up tasks to promote happy learning.will generate the same kind of language (past simple. The crucial things we should remember is taking their feelings into consideration. etc. They can feel themselves happy when they hear nice words about their lives or about their styles or what they are doing. Things like “thanking” and “giving complements” (part of doing kind things) are important language functions.Grammar-Translation Method b. past continuous. In the same way. reading and writing.Cognitive-Code Approach e.Audio-Lingual Method d. This study. speaking.Eclectic Method
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.”
From these paragraphs we understand that students like to start their courses happily and to make our students happy is not only based on foreign language teaching games. Topics like “family” and “health” are standard in many English classes and textbooks. but most of the new theories or methods cannot be used because of the course books which are used in ELT classes.

Partners ask follow-up questions. Use an icebreaker because you want to. how they became interested in the subject. Language focus: past simple.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/breakice. This activity asks them to notice what they think of with each adjective – usually a way of remembering positive past events. sometimes with specific instructions to share a certain piece
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. Positive words #1 (elementary) – Students learn or review positive adjectives. not as a time filler or because teaching guides say one should be used. home town. (Wiriyakarun. According to the different language levels.com/od/icebreake rs/Icebreakers_for_Canadian_Teachers. They decide on five they will use today.The methods which are mentioned above can be used to warm up classes in all levels in English language teaching.85. 2004). favorite television program. Divide the class into pairs.about. Variations: Participants tell where they first heard about the class.hawaii. These theories involve Happy Learning.htm+Warm+up+Activities+in+ELT+in+the+Elementa ry+Level&cd=5&hl=tr&ct=clnk&gl=tr) The first day of class is usually spent in part by getting acquainted and establishing goals.htm?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=canadaonline&cdn= newsissues&tm=1189&gps=63_186_1003_538&f=00&tt=14&bt=0&bts=0&st=31&zu=http %3A//honolulu. Thinking Process Development Learning. By deciding five to use today and actually using them. Sample Warm up Activities For the First Day of The Schools (http://209.129.com/gi/dynamic/offsite. language teachers use different methods and activities to warm up their classes. Icebreakers are techniques used at the first session to reduce tension and anxiety. their occupations. Language focus: adjectives Positive psychology focus: Happy people remember good things and notice good things as they happen. Each person talks about him/herself to the other. Listed below are several examples of icebreakers. or the best book they have read in the last year. new methods and theories have recently been added to the educational systems of the schools in our world.132/search?q=cache:KIE4z1AxBZgJ:canadaonline. Participants introduce themselves and tell why they are there.about. Moral Value Development Learning and Aesthetic Value Development Learning.htm)
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INTRODUCE MYSELF. INTRODUCE ANOTHER. and also to immediately involve the class in the course. they are putting themselves in a position to notice good things as they happen. As the world has been changing rapidly. (http://canadaonline. Participatory Learning. Sample Warm up Activities for the Elementary Level Helgensen (2009) sates that the following warm up activities can be given in the elementary level: My top five – Students identify and explain five good events in their lives in the past year. asking questions Positive psychology focus: Happy people remember good things in their lives.

FAMOUS PERSON. HOW DO YOU FEEL? Ask the students to write down words or phrases that describe their feelings on the first day of class. hobby. I have eaten frogs' legs). People write a famous name on a piece of paper and pin it on someone else's back. For fun. List the responses on the blackboard. Everyone who has done it puts another penny in the center.. ask them to announce some of the most interesting items. I'VE DONE SOMETHING YOU HAVEN'T DONE. water skiing). Everyone else who has done the same thing admits it and puts one penny in the middle of the table. Briefly comment on your feelings and then discuss the joint student/teacher responsibilities for learning in the course.g. ME TOO. middle or nickname. Don't be afraid to experiment and try different approaches. Be creative and design your own variations. Person tries to guess what name is pinned on his/her by asking others around the room yes or no questions. The first student states something he/she has done (e. Each person writes on a blank index card one to three statements. If someone else has also done it.vidivodo. Put these on a stick-on badge.. FIND SOMEONE. etc. CHARACTER DESCRIPTIONS. When time is up. This works best for small groups or for each small group sitting together as a team (4-6 learners). Variation: Use famous place instead of famous person. and above all.). Give the group a specific time (perhaps 5 minutes) to write a list of everything they all have in common. People introduce themselves and tell what they know about why they have their name (their mother wanted to name me after her great aunt Helen who once climbed Pike's Peak in high heels. interest. MY NAME. Then the second person states something (e. or vacations. Everyone in the group gest 10 pennies/toothpicks/scrap of papers. Have that person find the person with their card and introduce themselves.
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of information." After five minutes. List them on the blackboard in a second column and note the parallels. It could be the first. the participants introduce the other person to the rest of the class. Pass out cards so everyone gets someone else's card. such as favorite color. Have class members find someone with similar or opposite adjectives and talk for five minutes with the other person.85. Have each person introduce themselves and then state something they have done that they think no one else in the class has done. For example.com/videoetiketler/laughter+Laughter&cd=8&hl=tr&ct=clnk&gl=tr
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. This also works best for small groups or foe each small group sitting together as a team (4-6 learners). the student must state something else until he/she finds something that no one else has done. Tell them to avoid the obvious ("we're all taking this course").129. COMMON GROUND. Continue until someone has run out of pennies.
These are just a few of the hundreds of icebreakers. ask each group how many items they have listed. etc. Then ask them to write down what they think you as the teacher are feeling this first day of class.g. have fun and start that most important first day of class on the right foot! Sample Websites for Laughter http://209.132/search?q=cache:NV8NTU7c8fcJ:www. "The one thing I am particularly proud of is. Have students write down one or two adjectives describing themselves.

com/?vse=laughter http://www.doc
The following website aims to use four skills and to raise awareness of how vocabulary and grammar work together: (Yıldırım.org.com/home.inged. R.tr/media/member-area/class-activities/ACT-Classroom-Rules.) http://www.izlesene.org.facebook.inged.br/elt/_v2/c_resources.britishcouncil.inged.doc The following website aims to find out how much the students know about question formation (good for a new class): (Vincent.asp?id_secao=22 Teacher Mónica Padilla de Hernándes has the following web-site for happy learning: http://209.inged.org. R.org.org.) http://www.http://search.85.) http://www.org.tr/media/member-area/class-activities/ACT-Introductions.inged.) http://www.tr/index.tr/media/member-area/class-activities/Tongue-Twisters.) http://www.H.B. negotiation and example: (Ledbury.org.ve/+Happy+Le arning&cd=3&hl=tr&ct=clnk&gl=tr The following is the website which can be used for class activities for all language levels to warm up ELT classes: http://www.tr/media/member-area/class-activities/ACT-Back-To-TheBoard.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49&Itemid= 56#content This is the website to energise groups in classes and it teaches games in ELT classrooms: (Kerr.doc 39
.inged.php#/laughterpage?ref=s Warm up Activities For Different Language Levels The following website includes the warm up activities in one day seminar given by Martin: http://www.129. A.doc The following website aims to improve pronunciation and it teaches tongue twisters: (Ersöz. D.tr/media/member-area/class-activities/ACT-EnergisersWarmups.com.doc The following website aims to establish classroom rules and promote class unity through discussion.132/search?q=cache:DLhQlit3zbsJ:happylearning. A.

Laughter and warm up activities help teachers to create happy hours in their classes. (1999). While There is Laughter.wikipedia. (2009). ELT and The Science of Happiness. (2nd edit. (2009). Usem Yayınları: Ankara.Conclusion
This paper was basically conducted to identify the useful warm up activities and the role of warm up activities in English language teaching classes. The role of happiness in English Language teaching classes is inevitable. sample warm activities for the elementary level.org/wiki/Warming_up +WARM+UP&cd=3&hl=tr&ct=clnk&gl=tr
40
. What does happiness and positive psychology have to do with Teaching English? ELT and The Science of Happiness.
Helgensen. Retrieved from: http://209. Ankara.terapad. It is also hoped that the given websites will be useful and helpful form y colleagues to warm up their classes.cfm?fa=contentGeneric.jisyjjhtregamdqe&pageId=1 30997
Wikipedia. sample websites for laughter. Depicting my teaching area and experience. p.ebbgrvlewihtdmez
Helgensen. A. M. p.85. There is Hope (For Learning). In this study. I can say that laughter can help to create happy class hours. 159. but all students cannot be happy at the same time due to many reasons such as their family problems.132/search?q=cache:TBzAGfBH79MJ:en. If there is happiness in a classroom. Warming up. Think about Good Things in Your Life (Count Your Blessings). 3rd international İNGED-Gazi ELT Conference Proceedings. 31.
REFERENCES
Demirel.129. sample warm up activities for the first day of the schools. Retrieved from: http://eltandhappiness. Ö.
Ersöz. there is also peace.terapad.com/index. social and cultural environment problems and financial problems. (1990).com/index. warm up activities for different language levels have been told. It is hoped this study will help colleagues to make more effective and happier courses.cfm?fa=contentGeneric. Retrieved from: http://eltandhappiness.). M. Bölüm 3. the free encyclopedia.

Turkey
ABSTRACT The present study aims to present the attitudes of Turkish EFL learners towards native (NT) and non-native teachers (NNT) and find out the differences in the classroom interactions. Data were collected by means of video-recordings and interviews. which seem to affect their classroom interactions with the teachers at a great deal. Two EFL teachers and eighteen students participated in the study.EFL LEARNERS’ INTERACTION WITH NATIVE AND NON-NATIVE EFL TEACHERS Görsev İNCEÇAY. Turkey Derin ATAY. Turkish students were observed to have a preference for native ELT teachers. Yeditepe University.
42
. Marmara University.

On the other hand. the majority of Turkish people. 2000). grammar occupied the pride of plea on the NNTs list. speaking. features of NT and NNTs’ teacher talk may be more similar to one another than every day speech produced by native and non-native speakers of English. In a study with 76 undergraduates Lasagaster and Sierra (2002) similarly found that there was a preference for NTs at all levels. Canagarajah (1999:79) argues that “the native speaker fallacy is linguistically anachronistic”. According to Kramsch (1997) one of the reasons NT speech has become so esteemed is because of the high importance placed on students’ communicative competence in the FL classroom. and particularly in the areas of listening and reading. Similar to many other EFL contexts. In particular at the level of discourse. Due to the power of English as the international language and due to the fact that Turkey is facing European integration. NTs have the advantage of having the cultural. Yet. in Hungary and had follow up interviews with them. provide more cultural information and have more awareness of students’ needs (Samimy and Brutt-Griffler. NNTs were claimed to be stricter teachers possibly because they had an enhanced feeling of responsibility as well as of being more restrained by school regulations and administrative task like giving marks. 1999) has led to debates regarding to whether English should be taught by native (NT) or by non-native teachers (NNT) and whether NTs or NNTs are better in terms of teaching the language. however. because of the nature and the demands of pedagogic discourse. with NTs seen less strict (Medgyes. that is there was a swing towards NNTs when it came to the teaching of grammar. NTs may be “potentially more accomplished users of English than non-native speakers” (Medgyes. NTs were also told to have motivational effects on their students. but might have no idea why this is so and fail to explain it to the learners. 1994: 12). NNTs can foresee language structures that could be problematic for their students to understand (Arva & Medgyes. phonetic and lexical knowledge of the target language. 1994). especially at a time when the globalisation of English and the existence of English are widely recognized (Liu. According to Kramsch (1997) and Phillipson (1992) the fact that NTs have a high command of the target language does not automatically prepare them to teach it. Moreover. English language teaching has expanded in Turkey in the last years. which is a proportion similar to that of teachers of English.1999) Arva and Medgyes (2000) in a small scale study video recorded language lessons of British and 10 Hungarian teachers. Generally speaking. Not surprisingly the primary advantage attributed to NTs lied in their superior English language competence. and according to Kachru’s (1996) estimates there are four non-native English speakers for each native English speaker. vocabulary and culture and civilization. In a number of studies NTs and NNTs were differentiated in terms of their teaching behaviours such as by their attitudes towards error correction. including administrators and educators seem to view English language teaching as domain of native 43
.INTRODUCTION The number of people worldwide learning English is steadily increasing. The participants showed preferences for NTs in the areas of pronunciation. 1999). and can identify something that is wrong when they hear or read it. sharing the same L1 with their students. NTs were found to use more ‘real’ language. yet. The increasing demand for English all over the world and the ever-increasing number of NNTs in the field (Samimy & Brutt-Griffler. as they used English as a genuine vehicle of communication. use English more confidently. specific aims of classroom language imply modifications in teachers’ speech. a slightly negative view of NTs emerged when it came to the assessment of grammar.

2006). Deniz (pseudonym). Data Analysis The recorded videos were transcribed and analyzed by means of Conversation Analysis Methodology as it helps researchers to focus on the interaction patterns emerging from the data (Walsh.speakers and assume that the ideal of EFL teacher is necessarily a native speaker (Atay. John (pseudonym) had a fifteen year of experience in TEFL. From the total of 26 hours of recorded lessons. On the other hand. During the video recordings. one of us sat in the back of the class and took field notes. Pattern coding was used to analyze the interview data as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994). interviews were carried out with each student in order to collect information on their ideas related to NT and NNTs. Both were graduates of ELT programs. two whole lessons were selected for transcription and analysis. and eighteen students in their class participated in this study. The rest thought it would be more “suitable to have NNTs during the early stages of L2 learning process” as they “benefit from Turkish explanations a lot” or “the grammar explanations given in Turkish are much easier for them to understand and remember”. Çelik. Only one pair accepted to take part in the study and allowed us to videotape their classes on the dates suggested by them for three months. Data collection Data for this study were collected by means of video-recording and interviews. The present study aims to present the attitudes of EFL learners towards NTs and NNTs and find out whether differences in learners’ attitudes affected their classroom interactions with their teachers in an EFL context. four female and fourteen male. were all native speakers of Turkish with an average age of 19. At the time of the study there were ten intermediate classes. one NT and one NNT. Students. we call him by his name. was a twenty nine year old Turkish EFL teacher with an eight year of teaching experience. Finally. which has not been explored in terms of the relevant issue so far. METHOD Participants and setting The study took place in the English prep school of a private university in İstanbul in 20078 academic year. when giving reasons for their preference for a native ELT teacher. 2002). For the purposes of the study we decided to do our study in an intermediate class. Relationship: Interestingly many students indicated that they felt free when studying with a NT because of having the freedom to call the NT by name as well as the NT’s flexibility with grammar mistakes while talking. in press. namely Turkey. RESULT Interview results: When asked whether they preferred to have NTs or NNTs. the majority of the students (13/18) chose natives as better English teachers. and to triangulate the data collected via video recordings. Our Turkish teacher claims to be “friend” – a friend whom we call “Mrs”. The native teacher. The NNT. each being taught by one N and one NNT. as illustrated in the following statements: He is like a friend to us. Thus. students focused on the following: a) relationship b) freedom and c) authenticity of topics and language use. Lessons on approximately the same content were selected for comparison. 44
.

One of the students makes the following comment on this: The more we talk and work in the groups. NNTs. Authenticity of topics and language use: Many students think that using L2 with a NT is not authentic as they share the same language. for NTs it was maximum talk of students in groups or individually. NTs’ spending time with their students out of class time was also highly appreciated by Turkish students. If we spent some time with our NNTs. Comparing those practices with those of the NNTs one student comment as follows: Mrs. has lots of rules.
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. we could be more willing in the lessons.Moreover. it is totally different with the NNTs as illustrated in the following statement: We don’t need to have a book to deal with during the lesson. Yet. the more she tries. like going to a cafe or going on a picnic. Freedom: Many students also mentioned the freedom provided by the NTs during class time. D. Many students also claimed that while the NNTs equated classroom disciplines with being silent and not going out without taking permission. however. Funny but. But it is the opposite with NNTs. I mean. were rather reluctant because of cultural reasons and administrative restraints. the more we want to talk in Turkish. But we are always working individually and can’t find anybody to communicate in the lessons with our NNTs who give too much importance to control and organization during the lessons. having a native teacher in the classroom is enough to understand that it is time for English although we are not dealing with tenses. talk in Turkish. Or when she does not accept us to the class. Analysis of the transcripts: The transcripts were analyzed in terms of the topics presented Table 1. I do not want to enter her class any more. NTs were not taking attendance or decreasing the participation grades of the students when being inattentive or when speaking in Turkish. When John enters we understand that it is time to practice English. For many students meeting their teachers outside was like an icebreaker: Spending time out of the class and doing anything but coursework with a teacher means so much for us. the more credits we get in the lessons with the NTs. for example we mustn’t enter class after her.

sure. NNT: Which program did you watch?(initiation) Length of answers: The analyses of the transcripts also showed that students tried to give longer answers (more than three words) in the NTs’ lessons and make longer sentences since they believed that the teacher didn’t know any Turkish. NNT: Arif. Ex 2. Is anyone adopted in this classroom? 46
. NNT: Can you tell me a long answer?(initiation) St17: I was home. Conversation initiation: When the data were analysed it clearly appeared that the students felt more confident in initiating a conversation in the NT’s lesson.The analysis of the transcriptions revealed the total number of the utterances in NT’s lessons was 233. in the NTs’ lessons they felt more comfortable to speak since the purpose was to ‘speak’ the target language not to learn any grammatical rules. in the NNT’s classroom the ratio of teacher-student in terms of conversation initiation was much lower. In addition. can you help me? (initiation) NT: Yes. NT:. In the NNT’s lessons the number of total utterances is 195. However. in the NNTs’ lessons students generally gave short answers with one or two words. Where were you last night at nine o’clock? (initiation) St17: home. 121 (62 %) of these utterances belonged to the teacher while 74 (38 %) belonged to the students... As it is the case in most of the Turkish classes. St1: What is the difference between foreigner and stranger? (initiation) NT: I am a foreigner because I am not Turkish but someone from another class is a stranger. Culturally in Turkey students cannot feel very confident to ask questions to their teachers. At home.. 1 St1: John. 131 (56 %) of these utterances belonged to NT whereas 103 (44 %) of them belong to the students. However. The following excerpt illustrates this point: Ex. Thank you. Is it clear? St1: Very clear. it is the teacher who always starts the conversations and the conversations usually involve display questions. Ex 3.

thirty seven. No no. in the NTs’ class they do their best to go on with communication. students in the NNTs’ class tend to utter in their native language when they have difficulty in target language. Anybody else? St7: Not real mother. As can be seen in the following extracts. here. John. It is a pop group. NT: It is not something bad. it is not gaved. Thirty seven. when the students were in the lessons of their NT. particularly when they cannot remember the words in English. he is in front of the other members. Ex10.
Ex9. NNT: Okay John Lennon died in 1980. they rarely corrected their own mistakes since the teacher also did not interrupt them when they were trying to talk. On the other hand. NNT: Now let’s talk about you. since the students were corrected any minute they made a mistake when speaking in the lesson with the NNT. He has step mum. NT: Who is a step mother? St6: Original mother. Ex6. NT: You should think more. NNT: Where were you born? St6: Ordu NNT: How is life in Ordu? Can you tell us about it a bit? St6: Nice Use of native language and translation: Another major difference was the use of native language and code switching. St2: Solist.[singer] NNT: No it is not a singer. NNT: No. NNT: The first one? St11: John Lennon dies in 1980. St4: No. (making a joke and the students laugh). You can tell it honestly. And Lennon was the leading member of the band. Ex 4. NNT: Beatles was a very famous pop band in 70s. Leading member for example in Yeni Türkü Derya Köroğlu is the leading member. I am not adopted. What is a band? St1: şarkıcı. they also tended to self correct while talking or answering a question which can be related to NNT’s focus on grammar as can be seen in the following extract. NT: When did she abandon her child? St5: when she is thirty-five. Look . St6: But teacher my friend not true. teacher died died. You should memorize the past forms of the verbs. They are lying. The second one. When were you born? St6: 1989.St3: Yes teacher. She abandoned her child when she was thirty five. NT: Yes your friend is true. Self correction and peer feedback: Moreover. Ex5. Arda is adopted. 47
. Seda? St3: The group gaved a lot of concerts all around the world NNT: The group gave. On the contrary.

NJ: Erlbaum. I’m joking. The Beliefs and Dilemmas of Turkish Prospective Teachers of English . when I want to talk about something daily. Ex15. P.. Have some chips and coke. they can easily go beyond. D. Now. (thinks. NT: Okay guys. That’s why after a few trials. the relationship they form with their students and the teaching principles they apply throughout their lessons. Global English Language Teacher Education. Interrogating the “native speaker fallacy”: Non-linguistic roots.. Call some other friends. tries to complete. DISCUSSION The present study aimed to find out the attitudes of EFL learners towards NTs and NNTs and the effect of the NTs’ and NNTs’ input on EFL learners’ talk. (1999). St10: John. TESOL Publications. System. I want you to tell the film to your friends next week. The NNT explains the reason for this as follows: Students in my classroom have a great tendency to spoil the lesson. Mahwah. The results of the study have shown that the EFL learners have different attitudes towards NTs and NNTs. no. I gave up making jokes or chatting with them in the end of the lessons. In G.. Ex11.). in the NNT’s lessons. no humour was observed. Enjoy the film. S. NT: What is agency? St1: Travel agency for example. St2: It is a place where you. NT: And. Canagarajah. NT: Okay but what is agency? ‘agency’. Atay.
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. (in press). & Medgyes.. Native and non-native teachers in the classroom. Please. 28(3). (2001). This result is the consequence of the different cultural backgrounds of the teachers. V. REFERENCES Arva. looks around) St3: where you buy tickets. nonpedagogical results. NT: Okay okay.The students in NT’s lesson ask for feedback from their peers themselves whereas in NNT’s lesson the teacher asks the peers for feedback since the students prefer using native language when they are not able to express themselves in target language. or make a joke. On the contrary. St9: Thank you John. (this learner helps L1 and completes the sentence) Humour: During the lesson taught by the NT it is seen that the students can make jokes to their teacher since the teacher also makes some jokes to them. St9: I don’t want the film. We don’t want homework. 77-92). let’s check the answers altogether. Okay. enjoy the film. Braine (Ed. We are champions. 355-372. Non-native educators in English language teaching (pp.

Comments of a supervisor or an outside visitor are undeniably a useful source of information about one’s teaching. For teachers of English as a foreign language professional development should consist of at least four components. Nevertheless. namely: self-assessment strategies. Richards (1990: 118) describes teacher self-assessment as “a systematic approach to the observation. Research conducted in Poland has shown that most of foreign language teachers realize the need for teacher development. Most importantly. To avoid this. particularly for those teachers for whom English is not a native language. since recognizing how past experiences have or have not been developmental helps identify opportunities for change in the present or future. Apart from formal training such as e. Lange (1990. challenges. He claims that if the observer is perceived as an institutional assessor or an unwanted distraction then the feeling of anxiety.” To Head and Taylor (1997: 250) teacher development is associated with the process of becoming “the best teacher that I personally can be”. teacher self-assessment provides an opportunity to examine one’s own teaching and helps teachers review their image of themselves as foreign language teachers. 3) engaging in language development.” 50
. 2) creating new experiences. quoted in Bailey et al. frustration. yet not everyone knows where to start and what to do. This talk will evaluate some self-assessment strategies and will present several ways of their implementation. It is centred on personal awareness of the possibilities for change but it also builds on the past. This paper aims at presenting some strategies that prompt development.g. and opportunities for teachers to broaden their repertoire. as Bowen (1994) notices some teachers become worried about the prospect of an observer sitting in during their lesson. Therefore. the needs may range from confidence-building to technical expertise.EFL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SELF-ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES Dorota Anna NOWACKA
ABSTRACT Most novice teachers are full of ardent enthusiasm which is sometimes difficult to maintain throughout their careers. in-service training programmes. experimental. For most English teachers classroom visits by a supervisor or peers are the main source of feedback on their teaching. Their lessons become more or less predictable and that may dent even the most avid enthusiasm and engagement in teaching. evaluation and management of one’s own behaviour for the purpose of achieving a better understanding and control over one’s own behaviour.
Section I Theoretical framework Professional development is an elusive term in education. it develops teacher autonomy and encourages teachers to seek new challenges in the teaching profession. or resentment increases. foreign language teachers should engage in professional development. namely: 1) recognizing and dealing with needs of individual teachers. there are other techniques that a teacher can use to ensure professional growth. 4) training teachers in the use of self-assessment and cooperative techniques of professional growth. and attitudinal growth of teachers. 2001:4) defines teacher development as “a process of continual.

Furthermore.5%) and helps them keep up with technological advances (15%). it is crucial to know and develop different tools for teacher self-assessment. teacher diary analysis. What is more.5%). Reasons for professional development. Data elicitation techniques included: questionnaires. scheduled and unscheduled interviews. and self-reports. Section II.the teachers’ perspective. Two types of data are available: quantitative data in the form of rating and qualitative data in the form of interpretations and comments. The figure below presents some of the reasons for developing professionally mentioned by the respondents. The survey data was analyzed to identify teacher’s attitude towards self-assessment. self-assessment is perceived as the ability to judge one’s own work and critically observe one’s actions.
As it can be seen. self-assessment strategies have become of paramount importance nowadays as the new trends towards making teachers autonomous and more responsible for their own professional development occurred. If foreign language teaching is viewed as a profession which requires continuous training and development. for 10% of the teacher-respondents
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. Research on teacher’s attitudes towards self-assessment As it has been assumed. and as such. The first part of research dealt with the teachers’ attitudes towards self-assessment and with their reasons for professional development. professional development makes the teachers more aware of what is new in their field (12. the teachers involve themselves in professional development since it broadens their knowledge about their students’ needs (17. The study was conducted for over 9 months among 52 teachers of English as a foreign language who had had from 2 to 25 years of teaching experience.Thus. What is noteworthy. enables them to improve their teaching skills and strategies (11%).
satisfaction improve one's teaching skills w hat's new in the field keep up w ith new technological advances broaden know ledge the fear of burnout
0
10
20 Percentage
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Figure 1. Most respondents involve themselves in professional development for fear of burnout and the need of constant improvement as professionals. teacher self-assessment has become especially important in the light of recent trends towards making teachers not only responsible and accountable for student outcomes but also for their own professional growth. The findings from the research have shown that the teachers have a positive attitude towards development as foreign language instructors.

The distribution of the strategies is presented in the following figure:
action research self-observation students' scores self-reporting questionairres portfolio audio-video recording diary
0
10
20 Percentage
30
40
Figure 2. as it has been mentioned. those teachers who admit using self-assessment techniques usually choose diaries or portfolios.
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.  Teaching portfolio. The use of self-assessment strategies by the subjects of the study.the ability to conduct self-development sessions gives the teachers satisfaction and motivates them to move forward in their profession. the teachers analysed their non-verbal classroom behaviour which was found to strongly influence classroom atmosphere and was conducive (or in some teachers’ cases not) to classroom teacher-learner communication. The main self-assessment strategies adopted by the teachers included:  Diaries. The results also indicate that teachers develop professionally by completing questionnaires. 25% of the respondents claimed to have created a diary and systematically updated it.  Audio and Video recording. They were interested in learning about their strengths and weaknesses which could be later improved and changed for better. self-reports. It has been observed that some respondents lack knowledge about techniques of self-assessment and some teachers are aware of different self-assessment strategies but they have never implemented them in their work. In general the teachers admitted to conducting self-assessment in order to improve their teaching skills. the respondents were invited to attend training sessions in the use and evaluation of selfassessment strategies. many teachers who participated in the study acknowledged audio and video recording of their foreign language classes since the recording presented them with information which often goes unnoticed. That is why. Most interestingly. the majority of the teachers believe that self-assessment is necessary in order to develop professionally but they would appreciate some professional help and guidance concerning its implementation. to learn about their students’ needs and to develop linguistically. and their students’ scores. What is more.  Self-reporting. According to the research findings.
The teaching diary has been the main strategy implemented by the teachers. namely: the teachers could see their lessons through their students’ eyes. As regards the teachers’ self-assessment. few of the teachers listed self-assessment as a strategy which could be of paramount importance in professional growth. However.

Kathleen M. London: Heinle & Heinle. Nevertheless. exploring oneself helps to discover both verbal and non-verbal behavioural patterns.
References: Bailey.e. the information about the teachers’ behaviour that is known and observed by both the teachers and their learners) to their ‘blind’ and ‘hidden self’ (i. The teachers who participated in the training sessions claimed to have moved from their ‘open self’ (i. The teacher-respondents admitted to being often unaware of the kind of teaching they engage in or how they handle many of the moment-to-moment decisions that arise in the foreign language classroom. 1994. or the information about the teachers’ behaviour that is unknown both to the teachers’ and to the others within the school environment). Inside teaching: options for English language teachers. Concluding remarks Thanks to training in self-assessment the foreign language teachers have become more aware of patterns in their classroom behaviour and of the effect on others of that behaviour. Roberts. the teachers who participated in the study could pinpoint areas for improvement. In the pre-training session. London: Macmillan Heinemann. 1990. Lange. Thus. 2001. Furthermore. never move forward. – Andrew Curtis – David Nunan. Second language teacher education. 1998. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tim. and make decisions about their teaching which. in turn. Dale E. London: Arnold. when no training was implemented. 1990. Consequently. Bowen. 1997. For this reason alone teacher self-assessment is arguably the most important of all types of informal research.Section III. it may be assumed that the teachers will never change. the teachers also adopted some effective and efficient teaching patterns but much of their behavioural and emotional patterns was undiscovered by the teachers themselves. peers’ feedback is likely to influence some judgments and achievements of other teachers-in-training.e. initiated their professional growth. Katie – Pauline Taylor. Jon. Readings in teacher development. Jack C. Oxford: Heinemann. New York: Cambridge University Press. Head. Language teacher education. Richards. the information available only to the learners and/or colleagues. could explore themselves.
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. never address some questions and issues of how they might improve the quality of what they do in the classroom both for themselves and for their learners. it has also been observed that peers’ input may considerably influence teacher self-assessment by directing the teachers’ attention to particular dimensions of practice. It may be then concluded that further research on comparing teacher self-assessment tools with cooperative strategies of professional development should be conducted so as to assess the effectiveness of respective methods and to design a model of teacher development sessions. The language teaching matrix. Pursuing professional development. It has been assumed that much of what happens in the foreign language classroom may be unknown and/or unnoticed by teachers. some teachers’ reactions and emotions revealed in the classroom. Therefore.

perceived competence. Thus. and motivation. based on a synthesis of communication apprehension. One way of achieving this can be through increasing learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) in the FL. Marmara University
ABSTRACT A goal of foreign language (FL) learning is to facilitate better communication and understanding between individuals who come from different cultural backgrounds and speak different languages. Despite the growing interest in learning English. social norms. Gokce KURT. attitudes. represents a conscious intention to seek out communication. WTC.
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. Marmara University. the present study aims to investigate this issue using a quantitative and qualitative methodology.TURKISH EFL LEARNERS’ WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE IN ENGLISH Derin ATAY. not much is known about Turkish learners’ WTC inside and outside the classroom.

e. the study investigates the following research questions: (1) To what extent do perceived L2 competence. p. among 174 college students attending an intensive English language program in China. Motivation was the strongest predictor of L2 WTC. frequency of communication in a L2 or both (MacIntrye & Clément. In these studies WTC was generally found to be a predictor of frequency of communication in a L2. desire to learn English and international posture predict Turkish EFL learners’ WTC inside and outside the classroom? (2) What are the factors affecting the WTC of Turkish EFL learners?
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. 2001. 1987) and conceptualized as a trait-like predisposition. Clément. Unlike previous studies. was a more powerful factor than integrative motivation. as well as situational variables such as the topic. By employing a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodology. WTC was defined as “a readiness to enter into disocurse at a particular time with specific person or persons using a L2” (MacIntyre et al.INTRODUCTION The concept of WTC was originally developed to explain individual differences in L1 communication (McCroskey & Richmond. willingness to go overseas to stay or work. where there is little contact with native speakers of English and used a new construct. Peng (2007) similarly investigated the relationship between L2 WTC and integrative motivation. Baker. MacIntyre. Results showed that the variables directly influenced WTC in L2 were L2 communication confidence and international posture. “international posture” as one possible variable underlying L2 WTC. responsibility and security. 1998. attitudes toward the learning situation and motivation. Kang found that L2 WTC was determined by the interaction of the psychological conditions of excitement. 1996. i. whereas motivation was a predictor of WTC. Kang (2005) employed qualitative methodology to explore situational variables affecting WTC.. MacIntyre. The past decade has witnessed substantial research into WTC as a key concept in L2 learning and instruction (McCroskey & Richmond 1991. Attitudes towards the learning situation did not appear to predict L2 WTC. Yashima (2002) conducted a study with 389 Japanese EFL students to examine the predictors of learners’ WTC in English. followed by integrativeness. the interlocutors and conversational context of the communication. greater perceived communication competence and a lower level of communication consistently predicted WTC in a L2. He redefined L2 learning attitudes in reference to the Japanese ethnolinguistic context. & Conrod. Investigating four male Korean students at an American university. Within this framework. Baker. which is fairly stable over time and across situations. This tendency. according to Yashima. Most of the L2 WTC research conducted with Canadian Anglophone students learning French combined MacIntyre’s WTC model with Gardner’s socioeducational model and examined the relations among variables underlying WTC in a L2. Included in this concept were interest in foreign or international affairs. L2 communication anxiety. MacIntyre & Charos 1996). MacIntyre (1994) found that similar to L1 communication. & Donovan 2003). Clément. 547). Applying the path model he developed to L2 communication. and readiness to interact with intercultural partners. integrativeness. Applying this model to the EFL context. consisting of three components. The aim of the present study was to extend the knowledge on WTC in an EFL setting which has not been explored in terms of the relevant issue before.

students were asked to indicate the factors affecting their WTC in English inside the classroom and the analyses revealed the following categories: the role of the teacher and classmates. et. al. percieved competence (beta= . All scales were piloted and the Cronbach values ranged between . 2001) and outside the classroom (McCroskey.1 (Sd =0. RESULTS Questionnaire Results showed that perceived competence and interest in international vocation or activities significantly predicted WTC inside and outside the classroom. et. The questionnaire consisted of the following sections: WTC in English inside (MacIntyre. The contribution of international posture (beta= . as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994).. Desire to learn English (Gardner & Lambert. Data Collection Instruments Data for this study were collected by means of a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews.0 and pattern coding was used to analyze interview data. The average age was 18. 1992). 1992). Clément & Conrod. Put table 1 about here For WTC outside the classroom. 1972) and International posture (Yashima. Baker. Zenuk-Nishide & Shimizu. al.METHOD Participants One-hundred and fifty nine intermediate level Turkish EFL students enrolled at the preparatory school of a state university in Istanbul participated in this study.43) made a better contribution than international posture (beta= 25) and they together explained 18% of the variance in WTC outside the classroom (see Table 2). perceived English competence. Perceived competence in English inside (McIntyre. between the two variables making a statistically significant contribution. Interviews For the second research question. 2001) and outside the classroom (McCroskey.. 2004). Put table 2 about here Thus. only perceived competence and international posture significantly predicted WTC inside and outside the classroom. 65
.62) and none of the students had stayed in English speaking countries more than a week. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with thirty randomly selected students to gather in-depth information about the participants’ opinions regarding the factors affecting their WTC Data Analysis Scales were analyzed by the Statistical Package of the Social Sciences (SPSS) 13.17) and perceived competence (beta= 16) was nearly equal for WTC inside the classroom and they predicted only 7% of the WTC inside the classroom (see Table 1). lack of background knowledge and the topic(s) of communication.73. 2001) and outside the classroom (McCroskey.47 and . Communication anxiety in English inside (McIntyre. 1992).

MacIntyre & Charos 1996). When I feel that I can not say what I want to say. with a foreigners.. However.. when she looks at her watch or outside while I am talking. They either ask me the address of a place or want me to translate a word or phrase for them. e.g. I wish we had more opportunities to learn daily English in Turkey. Students were also asked about the factors affecting their WTC outside the classroom. e. 66
. I feel more encouraged to speak. as illustrated in the following statement: When I speak English in class.g. But still talking to them makes me happy. It is a real information exchange. I generally stop abruptly in the middle of saying a sentence. like Japanese EFL students (Yashima 2002). I want to speak in the classroom but my English is not good enough to speak though my written exam results are high. I never care about my mistakes. Similar to the findings of previous studies (McCroskey & McCroskey 1986.
DISCUSSION The present study aimed to investigate the predictors of Turkish EFL learners’ WTC as well as to explore their opinions on communicating in English inside and outside the classroom. It is not like the group activities in the classroom. I am more willing to communicate and I feel more comfortable in a pair work activity if I am paired with one of my friends. When the teacher does not pay attention to what I am saying. I do not feel like talking. Although students had limited opportunities to communicate with foreigners. I don’t like to talk with a classmate I don’t know well. they all stated that they were highly willing to do so as illustrated in the following statement: After graduation I want to go abroad and find a job there but I’m not sure about my English. e. I somehow feel that I can speak in English A number of students felt that the foreigner interlocutors seemed much more interested in listening to them than their teachers and peers. When the teacher gives some prompts while I am trying to speak English and makes some comments on what I say... Moreover. All my friends have the same problem. e. A lack of perceived competence and the teacher’s feedback on their performance were further reported as affecting their WTC.The responses regarding the role of the teacher focused on teachers’ attitudes towards students’ attempts to communicate in the classroom.g. I feel very embarrassed. I feel tense. I don’t talk about politics or personal things with foreigners. The participants also mentioned the role of classmates as another factor.g. many of them stated that they did not have much difficulty in finding what to say because their conversations with foreigners. Interestingly. the present study found a strong positive correlation between perceived competence and WTC.

proposed by Kang (2005: 291) Willingness to communicate (WTC) is an individual’s volitional inclination towards actively engaging in the act of communication in a specific situation. Baker. teacher. (2005). & Conrod.D. such as reading/writing assignments. S. Communication Research Reports 11: 135-142. Baker. Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. This may indicate that their long term objectives were more effective than the short term ones. C. Macintyre & Charos 1996. Rowley. in non-immersion situations learners’ WTC was influenced to a larger extent by perceived communicative competence than by anxiety (Baker & MacIntyre 2000. Learners in our research had a tendency similar to that of non-immersion students. & Macintyre. P. An interesting finding of our study was that desire to learn English was not a significant predictor of WTC. social support. In this questionnaire the statements were related to English lessons. MA: Newbury House.C. (2003). However. Clément. Kang. SSLA. The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. (1994). Our findings support the following definition of WTC. R. Baker. 311-341. Gardner. particularly in L1 and full immersion contexts (Macintyre 1994. W. 23. and language learning orientations of immersion students. R. D. Teachers also should do their best to create an environment in which learners feel that their talk is appreciated and their personal and intergroup motives are driven. Thus. MacIntyre. C. Variables underlying willingness to communicate: Analysis. C. System. S. Similar to Kang’s study (2005) we found topic. However. which can vary according to interlocutor(s). & Lambert. S. Canadian Modern 67
.. Clément & Donovan 2002). (2000). P. REFERENCES Baker. 277–292. it is of utmost importance that classroom materials are about topics of learners’ interest and that they are related to their background knowledge. P. P. and conversational context. D. Talking in order to learn: willingness to communicate and intensive program. Clément. MacIntyre. thus. E. 33. 369–388. (1972). Yashima 2002). Language Learning 50(2). S. & Donovan. Communication anxiety has been found to be another predictor of WTC by many researchers.. background knowledge. among other potential situational variables. topic.. and peers as factors influencing the WTC of Turkish learners.A. MacIntyre. The growing interest in the exchange programs of Turkish EFL learners in a variety of international programs seems to support this finding.. (2001). Willingness to communicate. no significant correlation between communication anxiety and WTC was found. The qualitative findings of our study revealed that WTC is subject to situational variables. L.Turkish students with a higher score on international posture were found to be more willing to communicate in English both outside and inside the classroom. Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. S. MacIntyre. the present study was conducted in the second term of the academic year and students may have overcome their fear of talking at a certain extent. R. D..

The first and the second groups of the participants were studying English and Arabic as a foreign language respectively. However. the effects of languages on learners regarding their ego identity were significantly similar. and the third group consisted of male and female students of different majors including humanities.Abstract
A new perspective on ego identity and language. Therefore it seems that foreign language learners. it was supposed that Sapir-Whorf (1956) hypothesis of language relativisms / determinism and /or language universalism theories are highly correlated with Erikson’s (1963) and Marcia’s (1966) theories of ego identity. The data were collected using a translated version of the Ego identity process questionnaire (EIPQ) (Balistreri. In a large number of ego identity subscales. in some parts. In short. emotions and motivations. In this study. In this study. Bush-Rossnagel. Esmaeel SAEEDY ROBAT
Investigating possible relationships of language and ego identity has been ignored to a large extent on the part of language specialists and even psychologists. engineering and science. Geisinger. regardless of what language they are. share many interpersonal and ideological characteristics.The findings revealed that the first and second groups of participants who were studying English and Arabic as a foreign language respectively.
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. the results were mixed and more comprehensive studies are required to provide a full picture of EFL learners’ identity traits. the findings show more language universalism than language relativism tendencies. there were significant differences between the two first groups and the third one. the better they can equip themselves and their learners with multi-literacy and multi-culturalism in the “new” time (Norton & Toohey 2001). self– images. 1995). The more language specialists and psychologists know learners subjectivities. A stratified purposeful sample of 303 (162 females and 141males) of Shiraz University and Shiraz Teaching Training Center’s students were selected. interests. were very similar concerning their ego identity statuses in comparison with the third group. during the last five decades.

with those of their counterparts in other cultures and worlds" (Luke & Elkins 1998. teaching ESL and EFL particularly in schools and universities. et al. Language learners. Coming to a full picture of these two possibilities would have tremendous effects on language specialists’ efforts to equip their learners with most efficient teaching and testing methodologies. 2003) and intercultural texts and multiple languages” (Lasisi 2006. and imagined. From this theoretical perspective. interests.1. In the case where the impacts of different foreign languages on their learners create more distinguishing outcomes. the more effective their efforts will be toward intended educational targets. expectations and needs as a basic requirement for an understanding of the educational implications of the cultural and linguistic differences that are increasingly becoming part of the social features of life in the 21st century (NortonPeirce & Toohey 2001). p. McCarthy. (Lasisi 2006. some of whose factors are revealed in L2 learners through language structures. p. values and desires on one hand and on the other hand. foreign language learners may move toward more or less identical ego identity characteristics or vice versa. However.13) further explains that “it is critically important that as educators and researchers.6). raise two fundamental issues: the need to understand learners' needs. Learning a foreign language may have influences on their learners’ identity. when the influences of languages on their learners are more or less identical. The more they know their language learners. Introduction
Learning a new language is a tremendously complicated process. real. Review of the Related Literature
Recent studies in SLA have focused attention on the need to better understand language learners' subjectivities. cultural difference. the need to reconcile these with the demands of the "New Times. Their perspectives toward target language culture. and cultural community”. (2003) put forth that we search for more effective curriculum and instructional practices that reflect the self-defined images of English
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.1).0. teaching and testing methodologies may be applicable across different languages. among many other things. we problematize the issue of "cultural identity. the findings on teaching and testing methodologies in different languages may not be generalized easily. p. virtual. This leads teachers and other language specialists to look for ways to know their learners' needs and characteristics. Ego identity is one of those human characteristics that any single step to understand would be tremendously helpful to language teachers and other language specialists. preferences.
1. motivations." characterized by global electronic forms of communication (Willis. the present study is an attempt to investigate this issue. interests. Motarz & Lasin. meaning and phonology are one of the most controversial issues which language teachers and students deal with. At the core of the current thinking in language learning is the assumption that acquisition of knowledge should prepare learners for "new forms of social participation and link our students' communities. The effects of foreign language may be assimilating and/or dissimilating. in other words.Introduction
1. have to deal with a plethora of new factors. Therefore.

According to Erikson (1963) our future identity formation requires such introjects and identifications. Erikson viewed identity as built upon childhood identifications but as being more than the sum of these. is the individual's personal organization of
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. since language methodologies are under the direct influences of psychological and linguistic innovations. for Erikson. Erikson (1963) stresses that all the necessary ingredients for an identity are not present until adolescence. To teach differently to each learner is not so cost effective. values. the researcher investigated how middle school Hispanic students reconceptualize their identities to negotiate English language learning that ensures the knowledge gained in classrooms prepares them for full participation in their classrooms and communities. The first step in this direction is a reconceptualization of ESL/EFL learners' identities as students of multilingual resource. and discard others. Identity. If we can come up with some possible comprehensive understanding of a group of language learners who study a particular language and who share some identical characteristics. At that point in life. Each stage represents different developmental tasks that we all face during a lifetime (Erikson. The study recommends the need to understand how students construct their identities and how such self-defined images of self. 1958.1. any single step toward disclosing language learners’ identity issues may lead both language teachers and learners to more flourishing language settings
1. Erikson (1958) described eight psychosocial stages of development. dictate how much
students learn in English language learning classrooms. it is not until the individual is able to choose some of those childhood identifications. each stage consisting of both physical and psychological development set in a social context. we may devise methods that suit best to the specific groups needs. However. In the mentioned study by Lasisi (2006). In short. 1963). great physiological and cognitive changes coincide with growing social expectations. According to Lasisi (2006) understanding identity characteristics of language learners shall bring about fruitful consequences toward ultimate enrichment of both language learners and teachers. Erikson’s (1963) and Marcia’s (1966) theory of ego identity
Marcia's ideas spring from Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Different language learners learn in different ways. and beliefs.language learners.1. He describes the process of identity formation as being built upon the childhood processes of introjections and identification-that during childhood we incorporate the image of our parents (or other significant relations) and their roles. based on her or his interests and values. that identify formation can begin.

According to this hypothesis.
Erikson’s (1963) and Marcia’s (1966) theory of ego identity 1. There are two hypotheses in Whorfian theory. In interview studies.1. In figure 1-1 a full picture of the theory is depicted.
1.2. and are locked into the world view given to them by their language: The "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group (Sapir. Marcia (1966) developed the identity status paradigm in an effort to operationally define and empirically investigate Erikson's construct of identity. namely exploration and commitment. In other words. and that they displayed diverse outcomes of identity formation (Marcia. the first one is linguistic determinism. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (1956) of language relativity and language determinism. Based on this hypothesis. For example the Inuit can think more intelligently about snow because their language contains more sophisticated and subtle words distinguishing various forms of it. perceptions. Marcia formulated four different identity statuses that describe different ways of forming an identity: Identity Achievement.3.experiences of biological and psychological development in relation to the recognitions and regulations the individual receives in the social context. Based upon the criteria of these processes. Language universalism
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. Moratorium. speakers of different languages necessarily construe the world differently. and Identity Diffusion. 1993). differences among languages cause differences in thoughts of their speakers. 1951 [1921]).1. The differences found could be explained with reference to two important processes involved in the formation of an identity. The second hypothesis is that of linguistic relativity. Marcia found that the participants had different ways of arriving at an identity. and memories are determined by the categories and structures made available by language. Foreclosure. people’s thoughts.

A third group composing of students from different major fields including. the number. In contrast with language relativism. 1. it is intended to test the following hypotheses: 1. These arguments rely on the innateness of language which says that all human languages obey some rules. that they can be found in all languages in the form of specific words or word-like elements.1. It should be mentioned that all the participants were students at the time of the study and none of them obtained their relevant degrees. The participants’ age ranges from 18 to 26 with an average of 21. Introduction This chapter consists of three sections namely participants. In the last section. were purposefully selected from different proficiency levels and from among students who are studying in different fields seeking their relevant degrees such as AD. realms and domains are taken into account. all are far from their families and the university atmosphere is more or less the same for all of them. In the second part.Languages all share a common core of universal properties. age. all sleep in the same form of rooms. According to Wierzbicka (2004). The complementary information about participants is present in the following tables:
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. sex and other features related to the participants.0. the procedures for data collection and analysis are presented. Method 3.61. are described. instruments. Participants The participants in this study are 303 (162 females and 141males) of Shiraz University and Shiraz Teacher Training Center (Shahid Rajayee Center) students who are living in dormitories far from their families. that is. 3. are introduced. this is the main tenet of language universal theory that was first put forth by Chomsky (1964). which are called universals. It means all scales and subscales of ego identity including dimensions. instruments and procedures for data collection and data analysis. both in Arabic and English. Research questions
Since finding possible differences or similarities of ego identity statuses among students who were studying in different majors.2. It is claimed that the fact that all human languages obey the universals show that they are built-in in the human genetic information. humanities. language universal theory is looking for similarities rather than differences among languages. the tests used to collect data. Is there any significant difference between two groups of students who study English and Arabic as a foreign language with regard to their ego identity? It should be clarified that the participants’ ego identity shall be measured based on the theoretical framework already mentioned. one of the advocates of language universal theory. science and engineering was also utilized in the study. is the main objective of the study. All participants of the present study are living in university dormitories. because otherwise languages would diverge. The participants. evidence suggests that a set of primes is universal. BA and MA. In the first section.

each of which can range from 16 to 96. 16. Item scores are summed to obtain total score for exploration and commitment separately.The EIPQ contains 20 positively –worded and 12 negatively-worded items. 6. 8. 17. 32) and those that measure exploration consisted of (3. Questionnaire The Ego identity process questionnaire (EIPQ) is the revised and modified version of the Extended Version of the Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS) by (Bennion& Adams.
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. In this study. 7.75 for commitment and 0. Items that measure commitment are composed of (1. 1995.1. 14. 1986).2. 24. 29. 21. the original English version was translated into Persian which is the mother tongue of the all participants. 25. It should also be mentioned that in order for the researcher to avoid any possible misunderstanding and ambiguity on the part of the participants. 2. Ego identity process questionnaire (EIPQ) was revalidated and developed by Balistreri. the data were collected using (EIPQ). 18.76 for exploration.9 100. A copy of the EIPQ is attached to the appendix of the study.91. 20.Table 3-1 Participants’ majors Major English Arabic Others Total Frequency 110 75 118 303 % 36. 31.2. 19. 4. Bush-Rossnagel. modified and verified by Samani (2005) and Razmi (2005). Respondents above the median on exploration but below the median on commitment shall be classified as moratorium and those with the reverse pattern will be classified as foreclosure. 28. In scoring positively stated items “strongly agree” receives 6 points “agree” 5 points “slightly agree” 4 points and so on. 30). EIPQ was also validated in Shiraz University Department of Psychology by Samani (2005) and the reliability was reported 0.68. 9.0
3. the alpha value for the overall scales was reported 0. 27. Instruments 3. 13. 26. and Geisinger.3 24. Scoring is reversed for negativelystated items. 10. The final version of EIPQ is composed of 32 items which are randomly ordered across the two dimensions and eight domains. 23. 22. Based on the original version of (EOM-EIS). 5. Alpha coefficients were reported by Balistreri (1995) 0. whereas those below classified as identity diffused. 11. 12. Respondents’ above the median on both dimensions will be classified as identity achieved.8 38. 15. Respondents indicate their degree of agreement to each statement on a 6-point Likert-type scale. In another study conducted by Schwartz (2002) on university students in the US.84 using test – retest procedure and Alpha 0. The final version of the translated EIPQ was checked.

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. In order to analyze the given data comprehensively. one-way ANOVA tests and independent samples t-tests were utilized. were provided in most parts of the results.0. Descriptive statistics including mean.
Table 4-1 Mean and standard deviation of participants’ commitment and exploration score among students of different majors. standard errors of mean etc. Procedure for data collection and data analysis The researcher attended the relevant colleges to collect the data in person. Being categorized and codified. To find significant differences among variables. the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13. Results and Discussions The outcomes of the study are presented through relevant tables. discussions of the key findings with regard to the related theories are presented. the questionnaires were distributed.3. The data collected by this procedure later were analyzed by the researcher. was utilized for data analysis by the researcher.3. standard deviation. Having provided sufficient information to participants with regard to the objectives of the study and how the items should be answered.
4. In the parts where the results of the one-way ANOVA tests were significant. Scheffe tests of multiple comparisons were employed to pinpoint variables with significant differences precisely. Then in the second part. different statistical tests were employed in this study.

004 Groups Within Groups Exploration Total Between Groups 21874.02455 8.83505 1.108 22699. The mean of exploration scores of EFL and AFL groups is also very close . Deviation
Std.98343 8.06984 .66973 8.1310 62.4984 58. the given mean of commitment scores of students who study English as foreign language (EFL Group) and students who study Arabic as a foreign language (AFL Group) is 60. The standard deviations of all three groups are also very close.1944 Upper Bound 61.4587 61.000 72.0380 59.752 5.3898 58.7710 62.25 and 60.7416 57.2874
Commitment
Exploration
English Arabic Others Total English Arabic Others Total
110 75 118 303 110 75 118 303
60.As depicted in table 4-1.76511 1.0267 63.25707
. Commitment Between 825.49806 .03732 .83223 .503 2 412.0936 65.914
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.9538 60.7050 57.26512 9.However the mean of exploration scores of the “others” is very different.
N
Mean
Std.7091 60.7381 57.154 9.04030 9.75806 9.2409
8.71353 8.9598 61. Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound 58.80215 . But the mean of the third group is higher. The difference is very minute.4416 53.913 .5733 55.02 respectively.307 300 302 2 802.0541 58.5424 61.3641 62.4785 59.661 .611 1604.2545 60.53181
Table 4-2 One –way ANOVA of the commitment and exploration scores and major Sum of Mean Squares Df Square F Sig.

The AFL group has the most identity-diffused students. Discussions 4. In spite of drastic differences between English and Arabic languages.02 percent of the “others” are categorized in this status. In exploration part. Regarding friendship exploration the differences between the EFL and the “Other” are significant. learners go through very similar steps that lead them toward maturity both in language command and personality traits.psychological developments. In a nutshell. sex roles.1. the researcher believes that the consistency of ego identity of two groups of foreign language learners is mainly because of similarity of the language learning nature and processes. Yoder (2000) believes that social cognitions of adolescent’ self include three major aspects: A) knowledge of the self B) knowledge of the others and C) knowledge of the self in relation to others. For both languages. Regarding exploration. In spite of the interpersonal and inner. political. 87. the differences between the two first groups and the third one were significant. and ego identity domains (occupational. ego identity formation is shaped and tuned up in social context. moratorium.As depicted in the above table. the difference between the AFL and the third group was significant. Difference between the EFL and AFL concerning ideological exploration was also significant.1. In this regard the differences between the two first groups and the third one were detected salient. 4.1. it seems that languages have important effects on their learners. In spite of serious lack of literature. regarding most ego identity dimensions (commitment and exploration). In a nutshell. realms (interpersonal and ideological). was significantly lower than the rest. Concerning general commitment scores. both EFL and AFL groups had a mean of 60. the differences between the EFL and AFL groups and the third one was also significant. Major fields of study and ego identity In this study. value.
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.29 percent of the EFL and 89. In the EFL group. the EFL and the AFL group enjoy similar patterns regarding their identity statuses. the mean of the third group. The findings revealed that the EFL and the AFL group were very similar regarding ego identity status and different from the third group. these effects are not distinguishing but more assimilating ones. it seems that language learners are exposed to more or less similar contexts in both in language classrooms. while the “others” group’s mean was 63.23 percent of the AFL students are classified as identity achieved while only 82. religious and ideological commitment. and finally the “other” has the most identity foreclosed participants which are highly above the total percent of identity foreclosure. One way –ANOVA test showed that the mean difference of the “others” were significantly different form EFL and AFL groups. two groups of students studying English and Arabic as foreign languages (EFL and AFL respectively) were compared with regard to their ego identity to a third group that were students form different major fields. learners still share many learning strategies. religious. dating and friendship) the differences between EFL\EFL and the third group were significant or near significant. however. In other commitment subscales such as value. and out-of-class interactions. Concerning value exploration domain. family. According to the findings of the study. Almost 18% of third group was categorized in identity foreclosure level while this amount was 6 and 4 percent for EFL and AFL respectively. motivation patterns and self images.” others”. Therefore. diffused and foreclosure. the percent of the identity moratorium is the most. in occupational exploration domain. The other classification of ego identity is that of identity achieved.

179-192. E. In J.Reinvigorating the study of vocational exploration: A framework for research. E. (1950). Flum. A revision of the extended version of the objective measure of ego identity status: An identity instrument for use with late adolescents. (1993). 18. Erikson. 56.. multiple realities: self-defined images of self among adolescent Hispanic English language learner. are faced with very similar situations. Lasisi. This mutual give-and-take may lead learners to frustration or sadness or the reverse state of mind which is happiness and prosperity. Identity: Youth and crisis. Aldelson (Ed.. N. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. L. (2003). Identity in adolescence.13. Contesting 90
. E. New York: Norton & Co. J.L. Erikson. C. and thereby facilitating the establishment of coherent career plans and a personally meaningful work life”. So it is relevant to observe that their vocational domains of ego identity go parallel to a large extent. H. New York: Springer-Verlag. H. Erikson. E. & Geisinger K. (1980).. J. although with different quantities of job opportunities. L. Marcia.p2) believe that “vocational exploration fosters awareness of one’s internal attributes and knowledge about one’s educational and vocational options. B. J. Childhood and society (2nd ed. Blustein. 1958.. et al. Chomsky. New York: Norton. Journal of Adolescence . identity development is an interactive process of person-context transactions that regarding foreign language learners.. Journal of Counseling Psychology. Erikson. Bennion. (1995). (1986)..H. Journal of Adolescent Research 1. the language itself is the mediator means of interpersonal and ideological assimilation among learners. A.F. F.(1964).8. 3. L. H. New York: Wiley. F. 468. (1989). & Elkins. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. (1968). (2006). 4 . 196-02. 551-558. development and preliminary validation of the ego identity process questionnaire. Childhood and society. E. The ego identity status approach to ego identity. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. (1998). Marcia. A. concerning their future jobs.). Journal of vocational behavior. E. Multiple voices. N. & Kidney. E. In other words. 42(1). J. (1963). hand book of adolescent psychology. Language learners constantly receive and project feedbacks from and to their peers and socialvocational contexts. & Blestein D.. J.. Language learners. & Adams G. A. H. 183–198. Mouton: The Hague.R. 36. New York: Norton. Development and validation of ego identity status.A.D. Flum& Blustien (2000) further explains that vocational exploration and commitment has direct and indirect effective and cognitive feedbacks on people. Marcia. 126(3).). (1966). Motarz. (200). E. References
Balistreri. D. Education. Reinventing Literacy in ‘New Times’. Devenis.Flum& Blustien (2000. Bush-Rossnagel. Relationship between the identity formation process and career development. B. Luke. Most of them will involve in teaching and translation careers. 380-404. New York: Norton.. McCarthy. & Lasin. Young man Luther.

Journal of adolescence. E.. Appendences
Appendix 1: EIPQ. I have never questioned my views concerning what kinds of friends is best for me. (2005). I have considered different political views thoughtfully. Convergent validity in objective measures of identity status implications for identity theory. I have defiantly decided on the occupation I want to pursue. I m very confident about what kinds of friends are best for me.415. I have defined views regarding the ways in which men and women should behave. I have engaged in several discussions concerning behaviors involved in dating relationship.465. Harvard Educational Review. S. Adolescence Willis. (2000). (2001). my beliefs are likely to change in the near future. Barriers to ego identity status formation: a contextual qualification of Marcia’s identity status paradigm. and multiplicity. Journal of social sciences and humanities of Shiraz University.(2004). My ideas about men’s and women’s roles have never changed as I become older. post colonialism. TESOL Quarterly. A. 73(3).The study of family cohesion on identity status of adolescence. 13. (2003). 2. 17. Samani. I will always vote for the same political party. I have firmly held views concerning my role in my family. Sapir. B. English version
1. 307 – 322. Language and sciences 36(5). I don’t expect to change my political principles and ideals. 390 . Wierzbicka. 15.449 . (1951). There has never been a need to question my values. I have not felt the need to reflect upon the importance I place on my family. 9. K. (1956). Yoder. 3. Schwatz. 4. Language. P. B. Foot soldiers of modernity: the dialectics of cultural consumption and the 21st-century school. 10. When I talk to the people about religion. In D. Language. Article in Press. 35(2). (2002). 12. J. (1921). E. 91
. 413-441. 6. S. 96-106.. & Whorf. New York: Harcourt Brace. E. 16. & Toohey. A. Harvard Educational Review. Thought and Reality. Changing Perspectives on Good Language Learners. Norton. 73(3). I am sure to voice my opinion. Sapir.culture: identity and curriculum dilemmas in the age of globalization. 7. 14. Regarding religion.E. MA: MIT Press. P.Conceptual primes in human languages and their analogues in animal communication and cognition. The status of linguistics as a science. 5. My values are likely to change in the future. Cambridge. 11. I m not sure what type of dating relationship is best for me.23. 8. I have considered adopting different kinds of religious beliefs. Sapir. Mandelbraum : Berkeley.

21. 20. The extent to which I value my family is likely to change in the future. I think what I look for in a friend could change in the future. 30. I have discussed religious matters with a number of people who believe differently than I do. I have had many experiences that led me to review the qualities that I would like my friends to have. 32. 27. 26. My ideas about men’s and women’s roles will never change. 25. 28. 22. I have never questioned my occupational aspirations. I have evaluated many ways in which I fit in to my family structure. I m not sure that the values that I hold are right for me. My beliefs about dating are firmly held. 24. I m unlikely to alter my vocational goals. 31. I have tried to learn about different occupational fields to find the best one for me. I have never questioned my political views.18. I have questioned what kind of date is right for me. 23.
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. I have undergone several experiences that made me change my views on men’s and woman’s roles. 19. 29. I have consistently re-examined many different values in order to find the ones which are best for me.

This study is significant as there is a very limited literature on the use of MAMC questions for classroom use. In this paper.AN ALTERNATIVE WAY OF TESTING AND SCORING: MULTIPLE-ANSWER MULTIPLECHOICE QUESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM USE Kürşat CESUR
ABSTRACT Single-Answer Multiple-choice (SAMC) test technique is one of the most commonly used objective test techniques. This alternative way of testing and scoring MAMC questions is open to discussion. Many scholars provided suggestions to overcome such disadvantages. Different scoring methods for SAMC questions have been created so far. Key Words: Testing. The practical way of scoring MAMC questions for classroom use will be an initial step and it will pave the way for the new developments in the use of MAMC questions in the language tests. but something better which will help the further developments in testing the examinees’ success. Objective Tests. 1999:2). it is aimed to suggest a practical way of scoring MAMC questions. ease of administration and scoring. Most of the teachers and testing organizations prefer SAMC questions as these tests provide “high score reliability. However. There is nothing best. such questions have some disadvantages such as “decreased validity due to guessing and failure to credit partial knowledge” (Kurz. 1999:3). and objective scoring” (Kurz. In addition. Multiple-answer Multiple-choice Questions
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. it is claimed that using Multiple-answer Multiple-choice (MAMC) questions will also eliminate some of these disadvantages of SAMC questions. usefulness in testing varied content.

students’ success has been evaluated using various test techniques. 1. 1999:2).1. at least. However. ease of administration and scoring. and objective scoring” (Kurz. testing becomes indispensable part of the teaching and learning process as it helps teaching. 1. 2. However. Many scholars provided suggestions to overcome such disadvantages. However. Many studies regarding the SAMC questions have been carried out so far. Finally. A test can be called as objective or subjective by determining the way how the teacher scores the students’ performances. test designers. To be called as an objective test. usefulness in testing varied content. Nevertheless. when a multiple-choice question is to be asked.
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. The students’ success should also be evaluated and measured at the end of this process. Of all these techniques. this study is significant as there is a very limited literature on the use of MAMC questions for classroom use. The author of this paper claims that using MAMC questions will also eliminate some of these disadvantages of SAMC questions. educators. so and so forth. For many years. after a brief description of objective and subjective scoring. The practical way of scoring MAMC questions for classroom use is an initial step and it will pave the way for the new developments in the use of MAMC questions in the language tests. Subjectiveness can be used for everything. it is usually supposed to have one correct answer. 1988:25). a practical way of using MAMC questions and scoring these questions are suggested by the author. multiple-choice questions have been one of the most commonly used one by the institutions. such questions have some disadvantages such as “decreased validity due to guessing and failure to credit partial knowledge” (Kurz. Then. Not only the scoring but also the construction of tests can be subjective as the testers ask whatever they want to ask. Different scoring methods for SAMC questions have been created so far. In this respect. In this paper. a limited number of correct answers)” (Heaton. “only the scoring of a test can be described as objective” (Heaton. This process does not finish when the students have learned the subject. the disadvantages of SAMC questions are discussed. 1999:3). This is because single-answer multiple-choice (SAMC) questions are used much more frequently than the multiple-answer multiple-choice (MAMC) questions. INTRODUCTION Teaching and learning is a broad process. teachers. Most of the teachers and testing organizations prefer SAMC questions as these tests provide “high score reliability. a test must “have only one correct answer (or.1 Statement of the Problem SAMC test technique is one of the most commonly used objective test techniques. a conclusion and implications for ELT are drawn. 1988:25). OBJECTIVE TEST TECHNIQUES The terms objective and subjective are used for the scoring of tests.2 Purpose and Significance of the Study This paper aims to suggest a practical way of scoring MAMC questions.

SAMC questions can test some other language skills and areas. Genesee & Upshur. (13) Word changing. reading and pronunciation. 2000. (6) Cloze test. (12) Combination and Addition. 1988) Besides grammar. Like Madsen. a) phoned Options / Responses / Alternatives b) will phone c) is phoning d) phones  Answer / Correct Option / Key  Distracters
(Adapted from Heaton. SAMC questions and their disadvantages are described in detail. a) dull 2. they do not seem to work as well in testing conversational ability”. Weir. the others being distracters”. To him. 1988. 3. many authors (Heaton.Madsen (1983) gives many examples of the objective test techniques used in language testing. (5) Completion. (7) C-test. “while multiple-choice tests can be used successfully in testing grammar. (9) Ordering tasks (Rearrangement). 1989. When a multiple-choice question is under discussion. a) poor b) bull b) pour c) wool c) sure d) pull d) tour
As it is clear from the examples. three words have the same sound and one does not. grammar. Stem  Do not phone your father until he ________ you. but the SAMC question specifically.
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. but they will not be useful for testing all language skills. (2) Short-answer. Hughes. In the light of this literature. 1. The teacher can give the question either through an incomplete sentence or through a full question. Hughes (1989) described not the multiple-choice question in general. some of the objective test techniques can be listed as in the following: (1) Multiple-choice. the SAMC questions are used more frequently than the MAMC ones. (11) Transformation. (10) Error correction. Alderson. the teacher can test students’ knowledge of pronunciation by means of single-answer multiple-choice test items. one of which is correct. In fact. 1990) provide examples of similar test techniques used to assess language performance. 1996. Hughes (1989:59) points out that “there is a stem and a number of options. In his article on Testing Pronunciation. (3) True-false. SAMC questions can be used to test listening. Circle the one that does not have the same sound with the others. in the following part. vocabulary. SINGLE-ANSWER MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS: DISADVANTAGES Multiple-choice questions take many forms. Bobda (1993) gives an example as follows:
In each of the following sets of words. Following example demonstrates the things that make a single-answer multiple-choice question. Thus. Among these objective test techniques. a SAMC questions is usually meant. (4) Matching. Madsen’s (1983:38) statement makes this fact clearer. multiple-choice questions are commonly used by the test constructors. (8) Cloze elide tests. In fact.

1989.). Firstly. in such uses. Students can communicate with their friends non-verbally and give the correct answer using their body language (Hughes. Hughes. In addition. etc.g. Thus. In the light of Kurz’s definition. Taking all these disadvantages of SAMC questions into consideration. 4. as there are only four or five options. In the second use of MAMC questions. 1984). Heaton. in a questionnaire asking people’s hobbies. 2000. “there may be more than one correct answer but only one of them is the best of all the correct ones” (Salkind. take ________. Although there may be more than one correct answer in such questions. In some cases. Firstly. MAMC questions having more than one separate correct answer are hardly ever used in our classrooms. Finally. c) I . two of which are correct. but aims to get information about them. The advantages and disadvantages of this practical way of testing and scoring. these tests have some other disadvantages. Madsen. For example.In addition to not being able to test all language skills. Very limited research has been carried out so far on MAMC questions (Duncan & Milton. it is easy for students to cheat. the author developed a multiple-answer question format and a practical way of scoring it with which the number of correct answers. the tester provides four or five alternatives above the stem. and the others being the distracters. the number of the distracters. MULTIPLE-ANSWER MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Multiple-answer questions are rarely used while evaluating our students’ success. 1983. multiple-choice tests have a harmful effect on learning and teaching. it takes a long time to write effective multiple-choice test items (Alderson. the student is supposed to choose one option which includes all the correct alternatives (e.III. Then. Salkind. 2006:143). 1983). b) II – III. (2) This technique restricts what can be tested as it is really difficult to find enough distracters for the correct structure to be tested. 4. (3) backwash may be harmful.1 Using Multiple-answer Multiple-choice Questions: Some Advantages The format of the MAMC question suggested in this paper includes a stem and six options. Hughes (1989) provides three more disadvantages of these tests as (1) guessing may have a considerable but unknowable effect on test scores. MAMC questions are used in the questionnaires. 1989. and how it is to be scored are discussed in the following parts. 1988. 1978. a practical way of using and scoring MAMC questions is suggested in the following parts in detail. Each item in this format is scored by giving the number of answers correctly marked minus the incorrectly marked options”. the constructor of the questionnaire never aims to evaluate students’ success. Madsen. However.
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. Choices of Questions: a) I – II. Hsu & Moss & Khampalikit. students are trained in guessing rather than in learning the language. Cheating is facilitated. Finally. a person can choose more than one choice. in the last use. Kurz (1999:15) also defines multiple-answer format as a test technique in which “examinees are instructed that any number of the options might be correct. he/she asks the students which of the alternatives above are correct. the amount of the plus points for the correct answers and the amount of the minus points for the incorrect ones became much clearer. Reviewing the literature. too. 2006). Furthermore. An example of a MAMC format can be seen in the following table: Stem  If you’ve got a headache. the author found out three different uses of multiple-answer questions.

many methods of scoring multiple-choice test items have been used to eliminate these disadvantages. Though some teachers prepare different groups of exams each of which includes the same questions in different places to prevent cheating. SAMC questions fail to credit partial knowledge. Hence. Though this method is simple to use. In addition. the examinee can mark all the choices he/she wants. Thus. in SAMC questions. in SAMC questions. but also can see the answer sheets of their friends sitting nearby. a tester can eliminate the decreased validity of SAMC tests due to guessing. Nearly all of these methods are used to score SAMC questions. in a MAMC question suggested in this paper. Firstly.a) at home b) in bed Options / Responses / Alternatives c) to the doctor d) to the dentist e) some painkillers f) the day off  Two Answers / Correct Options / Keys  Four Distracters
Using MAMC questions can eliminate some of the disadvantages of SAMC questions. This is not the case in MAMC format which is suggested in this paper. it has the weaknesses discussed above. cheating to find the correct answers is quite difficult in this format. he/she will not be able to detect which answer is correct or which one is wrong. it is nearly %7 (1/15) in MAMC questions. Madsen. However. However. tester can ask two questions in one single stem. Finally. the chance of guessing the correct answer is %33 (1/3). it is usually easy to see the correct answer wherever the students sit and whatever group of exam they take as there is only one correct answer to be marked in their answer sheets. By using this format. this will cause great ambiguity in their answer sheet. it is difficult to find enough stems for the correct structure to be tested. These tests are traditionally scored using a conventional number-right scoring method in which items are scored with a value of ‘1’ given to correct answers and a value of ‘0’ given for incorrect. So far. no matter how clear a student sees his/her friend’s answer sheet. While. As the students can mark as many choices as they want. it can be argued that the tester kills two birds with one stone considering the number of the stems used. blank and omitted ones. They are more advantageous in some aspects when compared to SAMC questions. 97
. by using MAMC. Therefore. As well as guessing the correct answers. an alternative way of scoring MAMC questions to eliminate the disadvantages of SAMC questions is suggested in the following. The possibility of guessing two correct answers by chance in MAMC is almost impossible. it is easy for the students to cheat in exams including SAMC questions as there are only four or five options and a single correct answer. when conventional number-right scoring method is used. 1983). Furthermore. he/she can get some points for their partial knowledge (The scoring method and how students’ partial knowledge is rewarded will be explained in the following section in detail). Students not only can communicate with their friends nonverbally to give the correct answer (Hughes. 1989.

this method can be named as ‘Scoring All Choices’ (SAC) method. the examinee finds the first correct choice. Finally. such questions may have some drawbacks in language teaching.3 Limitations of Multiple-answer Multiple-choice Questions In addition to their advantages. In this method. teachers are suggested to give a value of ‘+2’ to each correct answer.4 points (4 incorrect options) = 0]. 98
. The following table exemplifies the way teachers should score students’ answers: Correct Options A–C B–D E–F D–E A–F B–D C–F A–E C–B A–E Q. but gets exactly the same score as if he/she did not answer the question. 4. Firstly. he/she gets 1 point more for his/her partial knowledge.4. This method can only be an alternative way of testing some specific areas of language. Instead of not marking the second choice. not scoring the responses carefully can mislead the results of the exam which will decrease its validity. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A A A A A A A A A A A Examinee’s Responses B C D E B B B B B B B B B C C C C C C C C C D D D D D D D D D E E E E E E E E E A Examinee’s Score for Each Question 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 point 2 points 1 point 0 point -1 point -2 points
F F F F F F F F F F
As it can be clearly seen in the example above. a value of ‘-1’ for each incorrect one and a value of ‘0’ to each blank/unmarked alternative. Students leaving all the alternatives unmarked (0) gets the same score when compared to students marking all the alternatives [+4 points (2 correct options) . in Question 2. As students are allowed to mark all the alternatives and the teachers are supposed to score all choices. It is also clear in Question 4 that the more alternatives the examinees guess to be true.2 Alternative Way of Scoring MAMC Questions: SAC Method While scoring MAMC questions with six options two of which are correct. he is in dilemma for the second one. like SAMC questions. this method also prevents guessing while penalizing the incorrectly marked options. As it is difficult to find two correct answers in one single stem. students can mark all the alternatives if he/she wants. finding two correct answers is much more difficult than finding two more distracters for the testers. it is impossible to test all language skills and areas with MAMC questions. Secondly. the more points they lose. Thus. the examinee can mark both the second correct answer and the strongest distracter. However. Therefore. preparing effective MAMC questions can be really time-consuming. MAMC questions both increase validity as it prevents guessing and is successful in crediting partial knowledge. For example.

countable and uncountable nouns. The merits of multiple-answer items as evaluated by six scoring formulas. last week.).). phrasal verbs.. but something better which will help the further developments in testing and scoring the examinees’ success. (2000) Assessing Reading. MAMC questions cannot test all the areas in English Language Teaching. (1978): Multiple-choice test items: Responding and scoring through Bayes and minimax strategies. T. Genesee. The author does not claim a best method while providing this alternative. they can be a good alternative for testing some language areas being taught. H. may. 152-158 Hughes. some. synonyms. T. (1984). & Khampalikit.ed.. tenses. C.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the knowledge of the time expressions (two weeks ago. A. Heaton.). this alternative way of testing and scoring MAMC questions is open to discussion. Cloze test. the use of conjunctions (however. A. etc. The testers can use this form of questions in testing not only grammar and vocabulary. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southwest Education Research Association. “A review of scoring algorithms for multiple-choice tests”. All in all. Available at: http://exchanges. There is nothing best.). 31(3). Homophones and minimal pairs can be tested best using this alternative way of testing. While testing grammar. 43-57. 43. A. E. but also reading and pronunciation. (1993) Testing Pronunciation. etc. this question type is most applicable to testing collocations. (1996) Classroom-based Evaluation in Second Language Education. TX. quantifiers (a lot of. C. B. Bobda. J. F. REFERENCES Alderson.B. (1988) Writing English Language Tests. (1989) Testing for Language Teachers. but.pdf Madsen. plenty of. True-false. English Teaching Forum Online. and passives can be tested using this new method of testing and scoring in our classroom.
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. G. 36. S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. T.5. (ED428076) Available at: http://eric. Ordering tasks. & Milton. Journal of Experimental Education. might. nevertheless. However. J. D. P.gov/forum/vols/vol31/no3/p18. Psychometrika. J. In testing vocabulary. etc. Matching. London: Longman. etc. & Upshur. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. modals (can. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (1999). CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ELT Like many other objective test techniques (Short-answer. (1983) Techniques in Testing. Kurz. Moss. etc. A.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/17/ 66/00. S.state. when carefully prepared and organized. Hsu. and so on.htm Duncan. 18-22. San Antonio.

CAN LEARNING STYLES PREDICT TURKISH UNIVERSITY PREP CLASS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE? Mustafa Onur CESUR
Abstract In this study. For the achievement in foreign language.
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. Next. it was found that styles. the English Language Test developed by the researcher was given to the students. first. In conclusion. The subjects were 376 university prep class students from 8 different universities in İstanbul. whether the learning styles would predict students’ achievement was checked. Turkish version of Cohen. are not the variables predicting the achievement in foreign language significantly. Oxford and Chi’s (2001) Learning Style Survey was used to reveal the students’ learning styles. except for auditory learning style. the relationship between learning styles and Turkish university prep class students’ achievement in foreign language was examined.

2000). 2002. Ehrman & Lavine. Ehrman. 1995. but they rather refer to personal preferences. 1998). 1999. 1994. 1990. 2000. & Oxford. 2003. Ehrman. Stenberg & Grigorenko. teachers and researchers. 1995. 1996.
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. 2003. strategies involve conscious choice (Dörnyei. 1993. 2005). 1995. Kinsella. 2001. Oxford. 1995). Ortiz. 1993. Morton-Rias. Corno & Jackson. processing. whereas styles refer to the manner of performance (Dörnyei. habitual. interacts with and responds to the learning environment (Dörnyei. 2003. Secondly. Cohen. To reveal the relation between LS and achievement in language learning (AinLL) might be of great benefit for the learners. Ehrman & Lavine. Cohen & Dörnyei. Ehrman & Oxford. Dunn. 2004. Ehrman & Leaver. Geisert. Jie & Xiaoqing. The study might also describe the profile of Turkish university prep class students’ LS and how far they would explain the AinLL. In addition. Thus it is reasonable to expect that this might increase academic achievement and efficiency in language learning and teaching. LS refer to an individual’s natural. First of all.. Dörnyei. because in the literature there are many studies showing the relation between language achievement and the styles playing role in determining strategies to use in learning language (Cohen. 2003. Leaver. Ehrman & Leaver. Karakış. In other words. the researches done so far in Turkey have uncovered the style profile and language achievement of high school and ELT department students in universities (Gorevanova. 1991. Besides. Mangione. 1999. the concept of LS represents individual approach to learning. 2006. 2008. 1990.CAN LEARNING STYLES PREDICT TURKISH UNIVERSITY PREP CLASS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE? Mustafa Onur CESUR
In literature there is growing evidence proving that learning styles (LS) are one of the constituents of language learning procedures (eg. 1991). 1996. 2005. 2006. compared to abilities. Ehrman. Thus. ability is related to the level of performance. Güven.forming a continuum between two poles with specific characteristicswhile abilities are unipolar (Brown. 1999.. LS does not reflect innate endowment which leads to success. Therefore. 2003. Ehrman. 1998. Riding. Terregrossa. LS is a concept which falls between ability and strategy. 2005. 1996. the purpose of this study is to explain and predict the relation between Turkish university prep class students’ LS and AinLL. 2000. In fact. habitual way the individual perceives. 1993. Lincoln & Rademacher. however. one can be successful in every style position (Kinsella. Oxford. 2001. Snow. Ehrman and et al. It would also be possible to design language programs with regard to this study explaining and predicting the relationship between LS and AinLL. most styles are bipolar. language learning strategies (LLS) are used for task-dependent situation. 2003. and retaining new information and skills (Reid. 2000). 2005. 2003). 2006). and preferred ways of absorbing. While styles are applied without individual awareness. Ehrman & Oxford. Finally the study could contribute language learning and teaching procedure and direct the researchers to develop new methods and approaches in ELT. 2001). Oxford. 1990. Riding. 2000. Tabanlıoğlu. 1990. 1998. Riding. & Honigsfeld.

Participants The subjects participated in the study were 368 university prep class students from 8 different universities in İstanbul. 86 and 87. the English Language Test (ELTe) developed by the researcher was given to the students. 0. in order to reveal the relation between Turkish university prep class students’ LS and AinLL Pearson correlation was checked.4 100 50 50 100
Measurement Turkish version of Cohen. Istanbul Bilgi University. The total 103
.83 among the 23 subscales indicated acceptable reliability. The results of factor analysis for construct validity of the survey addressed 12 subscales under the six dimensional constructs with 52 items.36 to 0.8 30. except for the items 46. Turkey.01 level.Method First. The correlations were significant at the 0.00 and 0. Bogazici University. Istanbul Technical University.
Table 1: Aspects of the Subjects
Demographic Characteristics Sex Male Female Total Field of Study Social Science Missing Total Level A B C Missing Total University Government/ Public Foundation/ Private Total f 188 188 376 187 188 1 376 107 146 114 9 376 188 188 376 % 50 50 100 49. The aspects of subjects are given in Table 1.5 38. Maltepe University. Bahcesehir University. Oxford and Chi’s (2001) Learning Style Survey (LSS) was used to reveal the students’ LS. In order to check reliability and validity checks of the scales.3 2. For AinLL. Turkey. LSS and the ELTe were applied to the subjects of 768 prep students who were enrolled English Prep Classes in seven different universities such as Yildiz Technical University. in Istanbul. Second. For the Turkish version of LSS. a regression analysis was carried out to define if LS can predict AinLL. and Sabanci University. Pearson's correlations between Turkish and English versions of the survey ranging from.7 50 0.3 100 28.

70 .38 -.33 1.Table 3: Regression weights for LS preferred
Variables Auditory -----> AinLL Introverted -----> AinLL Random -----> AinLL Synthesizing -----> AinLL Deductive -----> AinLL Reflective -----> AinLL Estimates -6. 2005.43 Critical Ratio -2. In Table 4 another regression analysis was given only for auditory learning style.96 Standart Error 2. In other words.70 . Kılıç.64 .91 . extroverted learning style and AinLL and synthesizing learning style and AinLL. Because a student with extroverted learning style can easily start a conversation and communication which is considered as an inevitable aspect of a good language learner.08 1.00 . the only meaningful predictor of AinLL is auditory learning style. 2004).17
As can be seen in Table 3 styles are not meaningful predictors of AinLL except from auditory learning style. In the same way. Sparks.27 2. Cho. When these styles are considered. it was found that they are not the variables explaining and predicting the achievement in foreign language significantly. native speakers and successful language learners use synthesizing procedures and comprehend the message as a whole. Leung.01).08 .71 2.31 . inductive learning style and AinLL.37 -1. it predicts AinLL in negative way.38 -.76.37 p . inductive and synthesizing learning styles and AinLL.60 7.91 -6. On the other hand. reflective learning style and AinLL.14 Standardized Beta -1.76 . Discussion The Pearson correlation analysis showed that there are meaningful relations between impulsive learning style and AinLL. teachers should not take the LS as a factor affecting instruction and students’ success directly.79 -. 2002.72 1.00 t p
In Table 4 it can be seen that auditory learning style is a meaningful predictor of AinLL but in negative way (t=-2.94 . 2003.78 .12 1. On the other hand. Some researches show that the LS have got nothing to do with AinLL (Arslan.07 1. Table 4: Regression analysis for auditory learning style only
Variables B Standard Error Constant Auditory -----> AinLL -7. Since LS do not explain achievement in foreign language. some researches state that poor language learners follow analytic procedures to learn a foreign language (Oxford. These characteristics are vital when learning a language.-2.27 . 105
. deductive learning style and AinLL.27 . In other words.12 2. The results of regression analysis showed that LS are not meaningful predictors of AinLL except for the auditory learning style. p<. This might also explain the relation between deductive. Dörnyei. it can be said that a successful learner should be a student with extroverted. synthesizing and reflective styles.08 -2. & Kim.

2005. 2002. Therefore. Sparks. Besides. It can be said that students with auditory style would not do as well as others with different styles in language lessons. For this reason. In the study. which aims to explain if LS preferences could predict Turkish university prep class students’ AinLL. 2003. 2008). Conclusions and Recommendations In this study. personality. it is recommended that the relation between cognitive styles and AinLL should also be investigated.2006). it means that using LS more frequently does not increase the level of achievement. it was found that auditory learning style directly predicts the achievement in foreign language learning. It is therefore suggested that while getting prepared for the lesson the teachers should present more repetitions and assignments for the students with auditory learning style and keep an eye on these students during and after classes by checking their language tasks frequently. Dörnyei. it was explained that the cognitive and memory strategies in language learning predict university students’ AinLL (Cesur. it is thought that to give more opportunity to the students to participate in tasks and do more practice would be of great benefit to the students with auditory learning style. However. Dörnyei (2005) states that LS is a concept which is too general to explain because they cover behaviors. following recommendation could be made based on the results. This result is parallel to some research results concluding that styles do not explain achievement in foreign language (Arslan. In the same way cognitive styles could be related to and explain achievement in foreign language learning. LS definition should be more specific and confined to cognitive styles which describe how students perceive. it was also found that auditory learning style explains the achievement in negative way. Kılıç.
106
. cognitive and environmental aspects. For educators and teachers. In this study also the same result was found. following conclusions have been obtained. 2006). auditory learning style affects the achievement in foreign language learning negatively. process and retain information. In regression analysis. Also in a study.

“Contributions of Teaching Short Stories to Language Teaching: A Sample Analysis”. Introduction 1. reveals that literature is a ‘special’ kind of language.topics for discussion and practice. Scholars such as Robert Scholes and H. a form of literature that deals with experience. they develop oral and written communication skills. and short story is a genre. There have been long debates about the use of literature in ELT classes. Moody come up with their own theories to be used in literary texts. language does not have an immediate referent. Literature enhances higher linguistic competence.1. Scholes puts forward a new competence in reading –

The present writer used Scholes and Moody’s theories as models in other articles about teaching literature in ELT classes: Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Eğitimi Ulusal Kongresi 22-23 Kasım 2007 ‘Kısa Öykünün Dil Öğretimine Katkıları ve Bir Örnek Çalışma’ s. As Crompton reveals. L. intellectual and emotional pleasure and understanding. and aims to arouse the same experience in the reader by saying so much in so few words. Eagleton. The common point reached in all these discussions is that literature enables the students not only to know about the language but also its culture. emotional attitudes which cannot be expressed in a direct statement are expressed with the use of figures of speech. It is differential. By offering ample opportunities.
1. It improves language learning and inspires motivation. on the other hand. That means each poem has its own grammar. drama.TEACHINGPOETRY IN ELT CLASSES: A SAMPLE EXAMPLE . rhyme and rhythm. While learning to support their arguments with evidence from texts. Poet uses poetic diction to express his emotions by distorting the language. logical. 712-717. and analytical thinking. Since language is insufficient to express our emotions. Cilt 31. it not only increases the student’s language awareness. B. or connotative rather than denotative. 110
. Eğitim ve Bilim. Literature transforms and intensifies ordinary language and deviates systematically from every day speech (1995. 3). Yet. but also allowing insight into the human world leads to his/her intellectual and emotional growth as well. Literature gives both aesthetic.to develop their interpretative power. 2006. 18-25.ANDREW MARWELL’S “TO HIS COY MISTRESS” Semra SARAÇOĞLU
1. literature sharpens students’ critical. s. in contrast to the ‘ordinary’ language commonly used. Aim of the Study Literature can be regarded as a valuable part of our language and life experience. Poetry.2 Scope of the Study How to teach literature in language classes have been problematic for language teachers. it helps us “developing an understanding of oneself and other people” (1992:Preface). like novel. In poetry. Sayı: 140. Language and literature are interrelated. Hunt (1994) states that it is a difficult task to define literature.

He lived during that time at Nun Appleton House. the social.A. He was elected M. John Milton.P. Until 1650 there is no certain information about him. Lord General of the Parliamentary Forces. The reader evaluates the text reading it “against” itself by comparison and contrast with other modes of production to which it belongs (1985: 24). this second step is the thematization of it. on the other hand. belong to the years 1650–2. He wrote his Poems. graduated B. for Hull from 1659 onwards till his death in 1678. in language classes students are not asked to read the text “against” itself and evaluate it in the literary canon. which he regularly addressed to his constituents in Hull after his election as M.textual power. reading “within” a text is the grammatization of the text. 2.1. In this method there are extrinsic and intrinsic features. The second approach for reading a text is reading “upon” a text. All Marwell’s poems have been published after his death in 1681. He attended Hull grammar school and Trinity College. and his Controversial Essays on ecclesiastical questions.Holderness. in 1638.e. The extrinsic features point out the background information about the writer – his life. written at intervals between 1672 and 1677. Moody (in Brumfit 1983: 23-25) suggests his own method in studying literature. He travelled in Europe.
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.P. which is interpretation. This study attempts to apply the above mentioned theories as a base in teaching poetry in language classes by exemplifying it with Andrew Marwell’s metaphysical poem ‘To His Coy Mistress’. If the first step. political.in language classes . However. Yet. H. from 1660 to the time of his death in 1678. the first is reading i.the student’s ability to understand the linguistic code of the text and realize the artistic use of language in a literary text. The reader reconstructs the text in the light of both the writer’s experience and of his own experience and creates a new organic whole. which is a broader synthesis than the work of art itself. near the city of Kingston upon Hull. for the most part. students are firstly familiarized with Marwell’s life and his literary background bearing in mind that it will help students a great deal in understanding his poetry. which he wrote on public men and public affairs in the reign of Charles II.B. Cambridge. structural. The Extrinsic Features in Moody’s Approach Before the analysis of the poem. which. the reader should make use of both extrinsic and intrinsic features. In 1657 Marwell was appointed assistant to the Latin Secretary for the Commonwealth. Marwell was born in Winestead -in. focuses on the grammatical. Scholes’s last stage of reading is called “criticism” which requires a critique of both themes and the codes. the Satires. While trying to arrive at a full realization of a literary text. where he continued to write most of his non-satiric English poems including ‘To His Coy Mistress’. the News-letters. In Scholes’s explanation of textual power. The intrinsic features. East Riding of Yorkshire. symbolic and paradigmatic dimensions. The reader brings his collective subjectivity to the interpretation of the text. near York. Reading moves from a summary of events to the discussion of meaning or theme of the text in the light of the metaphorical. lexical and cultural features. it is recorded that in 1650 he served as tutor to the daughter of Sir Thomas Fairfax. historical or ideological occurrences in the period the writer lived. there are three approaches to reading a text. his literary background. Discussion 2.L. It requires the reader’s . reading “within” a text.

pausing and so on would also help them to grasp the general meaning. Time has an important role in poems written in the philosophy of ‘carpe diem’.3. 2. the rhyme pattern employed to relate his ideas. They tend more to paraphrase it. The intrinsic features in Moody’s Approach and Scholes’s First Approach for Reading a Text: Reading “within” a Text Having focused on the external features. This helps students to get the poem’s dramatic and rhythmic qualities. telling her how charming she is. how he develops his theme and how he concludes it. The questions asked may vary as: Who is speaking in the poem? Who is being addressed to? What is the situation? What does s/he want to do? How does s/he feel? Is there any change in her/his mood?. In order to demonstrate the startling attempts of the speaker to convince the lady. poets such as Shakespeare. emphasis. This theme is found in Greek as well as in Latin poetry and is used extensively by the 15th and 16th century love poets in their appeals to their mistresses not to deny them. too. imagery. and death is certain. her shyness or unwillingness is a crime to him since she has been resisting the advances of the persona. she is not easily persuaded. Pronunciation.Marwell is a metaphysical poet. This is a step further than catching the general meaning in the poem. Since poems are short enough to be read and studied in the classroom. etc. It means “seize the day”. and Marwell elaborated the ‘theme’ or the ‘motif’ of “Carpe Diem”. then the coyness of the lady were no crime. The reason for the frequent use of this motif should have been the realization of the brevity of life and the inevitability of death. The intrinsic features in Moody’s Approach and Scholes’s Second Approach for Reading a Text: Reading “upon” a Text What Scholes points out by reading “upon” a text is interpretation. wrote seduction poems. Then. And lastly his romantic mood turns into that of a passionate one and tells her that they should seize the day and have sex ‘now’ instead of waiting until they were married. Having read the poem aloud once or -if necessary twice. they first become familiarized with the poem by hearing the teacher reading it to the class her/himself.teacher asks some questions to check if students can read “within” the poem i. The poem is made up of three stanzas. It is a plea to a young lady. “To His Coy Mistress” is a typical “Carpe Diem” poem. Teacher focuses on each stanza one by one to make the students get how the poet begins. students’ attention is drawn to the intrinsic features of the poem. In the very first two lines. Herrick. tone of voice.2. The speaker is a young. symbolism. The use of imagery. She is hesitant. structure and style. if they are in a position to give the general meaning. Just like John Donne. the speaker says. In this detailed meaning students’ attention is drawn to the explanation of the detail by stressing the metaphors. in the first stanza Marwell creates a sense of time which is not flying and in 112
. the way Marwell puts his arguments to seduce his mistress have something in common with that of Donne. If there were enough time. 2. most probably an immature and a selfish person addressing to his beloved. He is in love with the young lady and declares his love for her. The theme of “Carpe Diem” is “Enjoy yourself while you can”. he makes her rush and fear since time is flying. Yet. it has a vital function. The poem starts with a conditional statement. At first look.e. It is also obvious that the speaker pursues passion rather than true love. etc. In “To His Coy Mistress”. Marwell stresses the idea of time. too. Therefore. The speaker starts off his argument first by trying to convince her with flattery. During the Renaissance and the 17th century. he. There is a dramatic monologue.

The growth of his love is just like that of a plant. The speaker’s love “should grow vaster than empires and more slow”. throughout the first stanza Marwell dwells on this image of a slow-moving time. i. just like Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden before the Fall. The flood referring to Noah is a part in the Genesis in the Bible. Therefore. Since they have plenty of time. do there embrace ”. The third stanza unmasks the speaker’s intention. This instability in the comparison should also be serving to flatter the lady. This is another startling imagery he uses. 113
. He achieves this image by making references to past and future events on a grand scale. but a continuing and a slowly moving element. there is a negative implication in the very first word of the second stanza with the word ‘But’ which will hint at the mortality of human beings. I think. He says “the grave’s a fine and private place. he would wait and patiently go on spending centuries to flirt with her. If there were “world enough and time”. The theme that she should live the life to the full when “the youthful hue” is still present is emphasized once more. “Now therefore” in the beginning of the stanza indicates that the speaker is more insistent to make the lady submit to him. Even the speaker himself gets impatient while he is imagining this endless time period and realizing the length of the list that he makes. Love songs will come to an end and will not echo any more. and complains. sings songs of sorrowful love. while the poet takes a walk by the Humber. Having so much dealt with the idea of time in the previous stanzas. It is after the mortals with his winged chariot in a hurry and is unmerciful. He would take his time and praise each part of her body – her eyes. His advice to the lady is “seize the moment” before death comes. They should make their minds up about whether they will be “amorous birds of prey” or not. In the following lines the idea that there is an ample time is stressed this time by the two religious allusions made. The image of mating birds refers to sexual love. This indicates a long process. With the use of understatement he shocks both the lady and the reader implying that she should not let time pass. a little river which flows through Marwell’s hometown Hull. her honour will turn to dust and his lust into ashes. Then she will just lose it to the worms.no hurry. she will have to face death and decay. The speaker warns the young lady. they could arrange how they can spend their ‘long’ love’s day while the poet praises the beauty of the lady. There is a reference to the period between the Genesis and the Last Judgement. A metaphysical quality is likened to a concrete object. for their time expires. Therefore. When the two rivers are compared. Time is personified. If she preserves her virginity until the grave. If she keeps resisting him. cuts it short by quickly assigning “thirty thousand to the rest” and carefully arranging the place of the last praise to go as her heart. In the rest of the first stanza Marwell goes on with the employment of hyperboles. If she does not act ‘now’ and be with him. that is. she will get old and her beauty will fade. Time is flying. What the poet wants to indicate is that he would love her ten years before the flood “till the conversion of the Jews” as it is believed that the Jews were to be converted just before the Last Judgement. It grows slowly and its overtaking big spaces wider than empires takes longer than people’s short lifespan. her breasts for at least a hundred years. Yet. In this stanza there is a sense of hesitancy and violence. the lovers are not immortal and cannot waste their time with courtship because eternity or timelessness is just a vast desert – a dream./But none. his main target. the speaker paves the way to tell that death is coming nearer. Marwell tries to emphasize the slowness of time. This is another startling imagery that Marwell uses.e. while Humber is a little stream. Drawing a parallelism between the flowing of the river and that of time. She would walk by the beautiful Oriental Ganges and find rubies since she is worth them. He compares his love to a vegetable. centuries for the young man to explain how he feels and for the lady to refuse him just by not responding to him. Ganges is a magnificent river.

imagery to grasp the whole meaning.2. they should eat it up.") is ten couplets long. This time.... and a number of references to events in history. and beloved........... play or a poem. short story. Having gone through the poem stanza by stanza focusing on the metaphors. but they should love each other by not letting time have control over them.1.. There are eight syllables (four feet) per line.......... He reinforces his theme both with the title he uses and the structure of the poem.. but also plays an important role in their intellectual and emotional growth..") seven. students’ attention are also drawn to the form of the poem.(Rhyme pattern of the poem is like aabbccddeeffgghhiijj...... time is envisaged as a hunter or an unmerciful giant chewing up the world and the people in it. and this. 114
..3. he dwells on the same theme: seduction. hyperboles. improves their critical ability and creative power... and the third ("Now therefore.. students can get the underlying meaning in any literary text.... on the other hand... Before death comes to claim them. A literary text improves not only students’ language and communicative competence. can mean lady.. be it a novel..The situation is serious. he puts forward his argument to seduce his “mistress”. the last syllable of Line 3 (way) rhymes with the last syllable of Line 4 (day). They cannot make it stand still.... and so on..4 Had WE | but WORLD | e NOUGH | and TIME . Moody’s theories.L... the second ("But.. the last syllable of Line 5 (side) rhymes with the last syllable of Line 6 (tide). Each foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable... The word ‘mistress’. Therefore this use of ‘his’ in the title is referring to the young man because this is ‘his’ experience............. it can be claimed that the contribution of literature in language classes is inevitable. Although Marwell uses different images. .") six.. The last syllable of Line 1 (time) rhymes with the last syllable of Line 2 (crime). allusions... lover..... It provides a comprehensive outlook on life.....1. it is seen that this kind of deconstructive and semiotic reading is helpful in gaining a good grasp of the poem and can be applied to any literary text analysis.. Interactive class discussions allow students feel independent. With the variation in rhythm and rhyme. The poem rhymes in couplets.B.. As a result.. If the lovers do not want to be the slaves to time by being eaten by it. While analysing Andrew Marwell’s poem “To His Coy Mistress”.. This ‘I’ is a young man who is begging to a young lady and this experience of the young man is reported by Marwell in his poem. not responding to the speaker’s wish. ...... The word ‘coy’ tells the reader that the lady is shy.. consequently..4 This COY | ness LA | dy WERE | no CRIME 3.. sweetheart. The title of the poem is “To His Coy Mistress” and is significant when looked at the poem as a whole...2....). Conclusion This study discusses the use of poetry in language classes in the light of Robert Scholes and H. Pairs of rhyming lines are called couplets. There is an ‘I’ persona in the poem.3.. with . The first part ("Had we.. The following two lines exhibit the meter and rhyme prevailing in most of the other couplets in the poem: The poem is in iambic tetrameter. Considering the steps mentioned... they should live the life to the full..

Gardener. 1985 proposes that second language acquisition is truly a sociopsychological phenomenon. learning English. The sample comprised 42% female and 58 % males. Methods. However.institutional communication. Attitudes do not influence learning directly but they are instrumental in development of motivation. Motivation. 2000. 1996) and has been extensively investigated (Dornyei & Clement. Although socio. 1985). What had been thought on in the Gardner and Lambert tradition as motivation or. get to know the target language culture better and even become part of it. Orientations. 2005.psychological investigation of the learner is important in both understanding the learning situation and the learners’ mindset towards English. Tabriz and Kurdistan universities were chosen as the sites of the survey. reasons for undertaking the activity. Also they may not have a genuine interest in acculturation. the applicability of the finding of the research of Gardener (1979) may be questionable in a predominantly and consistently monolingual country like Iran. The two samples would be evenly distributed in the sense that very few subjects would come from very poor or very wealthy families. 2005. The main objective was to analyze and determine how various psychological and social factors in foreign language apply to Iranian Bilingual Students. Rahman. Iran (Islamic Republic of) Presenting Author: Shirbagi. person. The questionnaire given to students was developed 116
. Methodology. if the learner is oriented towards instrumental goals: desire to study in country where the target language is spoken or to get a better job. Ajzen (1998) defines attitude as a disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object. or event. Motivation and attitudes are undoubtedly major factors in foreign learning success (Gardener. 1998). has more recently been renamed orientation. learners who are integratively motivated want to interact with members of the other community. Oxford & Shearin. For a clear reason university students have been chosen. The study was most part based on Gardener & Lambert’s (1972) work. Maniruzzaman & Haque. They first made the famous distinction between two types of motivation. instrumental and integrative. 1985. The role of English in Iran is purely functional as English is used as an international link language as well as English is not used as an interpersonal and inter. Nikolaou. The apparent idea of native speaker is gotten mainly from both electronic and print media that may not give an authentic picture of native speakers. The orientation is instrumental. Motivation Naser Shirbagi University of Kurdistan. The mean age of the respondents was 20 years. on the other hand refers to the combination of efforts plus desire to achieve the goal of learning plus favorable attitudes towards learning the languages (Gardener.Orientations and Motivation of Two Samples of Iranian Bilingual University Students' For English Language Acquisition Keywords: foreign language Acquisition. McClelland. Usually. institution. Research Instruments or Sources Used The study was lunched in 2008. On the other hand. Naser This article brings some of the principal findings of a survey conducted in Tabriz and Kurdistan Universities in Iran. 2000. The fact is that children especially in school are more ambivalent in term of job objective. Gardener & Lambert (1972) argue one should not necessarily expect a relationship between the two. Iranian students do not have a chance to interact in any form with the native speakers of English. A total of 400 university students participated.

Language and Social Psychology (pp. R.). (1967). 12–28. Motivational strategies in language classroom. the respondents showed modestly favorable attitudes toward learning English and have positive attitudes towards foreign languages learning.A. M. Newbury House pub. (1985). No. and Haque. D. Language Learning Motivation: Pathways to the New Century. 91-109. Giles & R. The students showed a moderate motivation and desire to learn English. (2005). An Investigation into the socio-psychological orientations of Japanese college students learning EFL. Overall. & R. The students are found to be both integratively and instrumentally oriented in English-language learning task but the appeared to more integratively than instrumentally oriented. R. Dornyei. Orientations and motivation in English language learning: a study of Bangladeshi students at undergraduate. S. In J. “Motivational characteristics of learning deferent target languages: result of nationwide survey”. (1994) Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretic framework. A. vol. Cambridge: Cambridge university press Gardner. Language learning motivation in a new key. Massachusetts. and Shearin. Action-control: From cognition to behavior (pp. (2000). Lambert.Language Learning. The journal of Social Issues. 193-220). M. 121-44.7.M.ac. In Oxford.pdf Nikolaou. In H. References Ajzen. R. Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. Clement (2000). “Survey of attitude and Motivation of Greek pupils’ for learning English” Retrieved May 2. Expected Outcomes or Findings The findings of the study are as follows: The number of respondents reporting a middle level of proficiency was striking. (2001). (1972). Conclusions.). The Modern Language Journal 78 (1).). University of Surrey. & Lambert.N. S. Social psychological aspects of second language acquisition. J. 11-39). F. In Dornyei.L. http://www. Oxford: Brazil Blackwell Gardner. Heidelberg: Springer. Clair.in English than translated to Persian and consisted of the two items: questions eliciting demographic data and a set of attitudes and orientations scales. Z. E. 1 45-60
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. Attitudinal and motivational impact on EFL proficiency of undergraduates: A preliminary investigation. Z. Linguistics. Finally. English Language Institute. 23. Maniruzzaman. R. Kuhl & J. Rowley. C. I. Attitudes and Motivation In Second. (Eds. Asian EFL Journal. J.(2005). Beckmann (Eds. W. there are positive and significant correlations between psychological and social factors and students' self-rated proficiency in English marks and orientation toward learning English. (Ed. (1979). (1985). R. Rahman. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. C. 2007 from http://Survey+of+attitude+and+Motivation+of+Greek+pupils%E2%80%99+f Oxford. W. (1996).L. the results showed that the instrumental orientation is significant predictor for the integrative orientation of the selected sample and it explained 15% total variance of integrative orientation. London: Edward Arnold. R. Oxford. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. A social Psychology of bilingualism. Gardner. (1998). Journal of the Institutes of Modern Languages. 5-30 McClelland.surrey. & Shearin. Also.uk/ELI/mcclellandn.

and on the results of a follow-up interview with students and professors. some modifications will be proposed to make the current syllabus more responsive to the perceived needs and expectations of stakeholders. Based on the needs analysis conducted through the administration of a questionnaire to the currently enrolled 20 students. Yeditepe University Abstract This paper aims to design a syllabus for an oral communication class offered to the first year students at the English Language Teaching Department of a private university in Istanbul.
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. Yesim. Evrim & Kesli.AN ORAL COMMUNICATON SYLLABUS DESIGNED FOR FRESHMAN YEAR ELT STUDENTS
Eveyik-Aydin.

In such contexts. and development of a set of discourse strategies like initiating and closing a conversation. The vital importance of needs analysis before course and syllabus design and materials development is also emphasized in vast literature on English for Specific (ESP) and Academic Purposes (EAP) and task-based learning (Ferris & Tagg. In an attempt to generate a syllabus to meet the expectations of such students. It is a document transforming the general philosophies and aims of a program into concrete goals and objectives to provide teachers and students with direction for activities. A task-based syllabus mainly emphasizes meaning and communication through purposeful real-life activities that “…require learners to approximate. the sorts of behaviours required of them in the world beyond the classroom” (ibid. and teachers of other classes the students take. they are quite specific to learners’ and 119
. since these students may need a certain level of oral proficiency in English for vocational.21).I. 1991). introducing a topic. interviews. 1989). but also to demonstrate a mastery of public speaking skills. teachers and the program. To gather this information Brown suggests questionnaires. a needs analysis is “the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant information necessary to satisfy the language learning requirements of the students within the context of the particular institutions involved in the learning situations”. discussions. not only are they expected to improve their oral production abilities. p. administrators. INTRODUCTION Oral communication is a multifaceted process that requires the ability to speak fluently and coherently with an accurate control over the sound system of language to convey meaning effectively (Murphy. Syllabus Design and Needs Analysis A syllabus is the specifications of the content and the ordering of what is intended to be taught in a program (Nunan. 1992). As they will set role models with their appropriate use of language. 1988). skills and competencies necessary for the achievement of the basic requirements of a particular course need to be considered in the design of its syllabus. The attainment of oral communication skills becomes even more necessary when the students are prospective language teachers. Learning process in task-based view is seen as a set of communicative tasks directly linked to the goals set in curriculum (Nunan. occupational or general educational reasons. taking turn and so on. and what content to be covered. Not only does a syllabus articulate what needs to be achieved.40). In some courses designed with specific language purposes. in class. According to Brown (1995. and meeting with all stakeholders involved in a particular course including the current and past students and teachers of the course. both teachers and learners are involved in tasks which promote real use of language. they should be better listeners who are more receptive to linguistic and nonverbal cues in spoken communication. 1996. it also covertly reflects the pedagogy by identifying the tasks and skills to be emphasized. The improvement of such abilities has been acknowledged as the main goal of college-level oral communication classes for ESL students. An essential step in the design of a syllabus is the determination of the specific objectives based on the needs of learners. In other words. Long and Crookes. learners need to master specific uses of language promoted in a skills-based syllabus that breaks the language into specific skills or competencies to consider within the content of a course instead of emphasizing the global components of a language. p. Besides. and sources for instruction. the current paper reports the results of a needs analysis conducted in an oral communication class offered by the English Language Teaching program of a private university. and decisions in a course. Although such syllabuses are criticized for having a reductionist theory of language as pointed by Kranke (1987).

Besides.2. on the other hand. such tasks were preferred more in smaller classes. depended on the class size. The frequency of interactive tasks. The results of the analysis will be evaluated in order to design a syllabus with a task and skillsbased approach in order to meet the expectations of all stakeholders.1 The Oral Communication Course The oral communication course investigated in this paper is a four-credit. 2. they are assessed by their professor according to a set of criteria they were informed about during the first weeks of the class. During their speech delivery. During the 3-hour part of the class. the students are asked to prepare a 5-minute presentation. engineering and science disciplines. twosemester course of 5 contact hours a week offered to first year undergraduate students mastering English Language Teaching at a private university. Needs are quite specific to the learning situation and to those who are involved in that situation. A brief review of literature on the implementation of needs assessment revealed how expectations and needs of students. and can be used with other approaches to syllabus design as Brown mentions (1995). 2 of 5 hours a week that are intended as lab hours is mainly spent with public speaking practices. and out-of-class assignments requiring interaction with native speakers as well as traditional speaking assignments like report speeches in class were found to be uncommon in all contexts. Results of the 234 returned survey showed how instructors’ requirements may vary depending on their academic disciplines. The course also aims to increase students’ abilities to speak in front of an audience with an effective use of body language. it does not have a textbook to follow strictly. Therefore. student-led discussion. but some handouts compiled from different sources. participants had a tendency to opt for pair or group work in oral presentations. teachers and other stakeholder vary depending on the program and the specific course. 2. The current study will investigate the needs of first year English Language Teaching students’ perceived needs with a questionnaire designed for the analysis of their needs. Except for 2 of them who studied one 120
. The course aims to improve students’ formal and informal language use during small-group and whole-class activities in the class and social interactions outside of the class. Participants 20 freshmen enrolled in this class during the fall semester of 2008 participated in this study. type of institution and class size. The course is offered in two sections by the same professor. 12 of these participants were section 1 students. In order to find the types of listening and speaking tasks in English that should be required from college students by subject-matter teachers. The background questionnaire given to the students revealed that most of them were graduates of Anatolian Teacher Training Schools. Tasks like in-class debates. As this student-centered course is designed to maximize student-to-student interaction while minimizing the teacher talk and lecture. and a final 15-minute presentation to deliver on any topic they choose to inform or persuade their audience. While participants from all disciplines recognized effective lecture note-taking as an important requirement.programs’ perceived needs. Ferris & Tagg (1996) surveyed over 900 professors working at four different institutions in business. the degree of interaction in their classes varied significantly across the disciplines. a 10-minute presentation. while the eight of them were from section 2. METHOD 2. The findings of that study confirmed the findings of previous studies on the changing aspect of needs across the disciplines and learning contexts.

They were also asked to evaluate their current syllabus with main focus on the aspects of the class that need to be changed to better meet their language needs. RESULTS 3. only half of the participants expected to get involved with debates and lectures. To have other stakeholders’ point of view in the oral communication needs of students.point Likert scales ranging from ‘very important’ to ‘not sure’. interactions with native speakers with 70 %.3. task-based communication. the lowest grades obtained revealed the highest need for the inquired skill. competence on general speaking and presentation skills (section D). One of the professors interviewed was the current teacher of the class. The mean values of each item were calculated. However. but also for their success during the course of their study in the program.and 3. The students also identified the most problematic areas of interpersonal communication. When the data obtained through the questionnaire were entered into SPSS 15 for descriptive and frequency analysis. Results of the Needs Analysis Questionnaire Each item on the needs analysis questionnaire was analyzed for frequency of answers obtained by each student. that is. 43 % of them expressed difficulties with the use of academic language followed by 121
. and public speaking for themselves. they seemed to have more difficulties with their interpersonal and in-class communications compared to public speaking. the rest of the participants were allowed to start the program without a prep requirement after being given a proficiency test assessing their language skills. types of oral communication (section C). students stated the frequency of their perceived problems regarding their competence in general speaking and presentation skills. who is a native speaker of English. This was followed by smallgroup discussions with 85%. While some sections included yes/no questions. In section C.1. They reported difficulties in whole-class and small-group discussions. classroom discussions and presentations with 65 %. The results on section B revealed that 95 % of first year ELT students ranked speaking and listening as the most necessary skills to focus on not only in the oral communication class. 2. and types of speeches (section E) perceived to be important during and after the completion of this class.year at the prep school of the same university. it was important to take their views to add a dimension to the perceived needs of students. When the mean values of three types of oral communication were compared. These skills were followed by reading (50%) and writing (45%) for a successful completion of the program. presentations. In section D. 90 % of the participants revealed their expectations related to the use of English in their daily conversations during and after this course. debates. The session was audio-recorded to be transcribed later. and from ‘very often’ to ‘never’. some others included 4. The qualitative data were collected through a whole-class interview conducted in Turkish. As shown in the following figure. daily conversations and running errands. and in their interactions with natives. The questionnaire included four sections on skills required in oral communication (section B). 4 staff members were interviewed for the purpose of this study. Data Collection and Analysis To identify learners’ perceived needs and expectations a questionnaire was developed with expert opinion. the lowest score of 1 was given to ‘very important’ and ‘often’ points of the scales. and pilot tested for the verbalization of its items. Both students and professors were asked questions similar to the ones on the questionnaire for triangulation purposes. respectively. and addressing to an audience with 60%. 3. As their views reflect the expectations of the program.

The students clearly want to work more on group projects in a collaborative way instead of spending most of the class-time and energy on individual presentations. Besides. One fourth of the students. almost all of the participants believed that it is of great importance to use language accurately. The results showed that the students identified entertaining (38%). and correct intonation during the classroom presentations. speech outline.2. newspaper article commentary (23 %). Accent Express Ideas Dialects formal Lang. they claim that such presentations encourage them to memorize their speeches. expressing ideas (34 %). eye-contact. More contact with the native speakers of English. their organizations and outline before the actually presentation.
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.
% of students
Percieved difficulties
As for the important aspects of the oral communication. and appropriate use of vocabulary.e. the students were asked about their needs to get informed of a variety of speech types. 3. seemed to have problems with their English grammar. etc. Less focus on timed and individual presentations. logical sequencing. persuasive (19%). More opportunities for collaborative group work tasks. In the final section of the questionnaire. and visual aids for an effective delivery of public speaking. 2. A detailed analysis of the interview reveals some suggestions for the improvement of course content. smoothly connected ideas.). and introductory (19%) speeches as the most often needed types of the speech. audience analysis. clearly. The students need 1. Although they believe in the necessity of being equipped with the principles of effective public speaking. and a closure). facial expressions. appropriately. 4. Results of the Interview with Participants Data obtained through a 40-minute interview with students revealed that these students are in need of improving their fluency and accuracy. on the other hand. 3. understanding different dialects (33 %) and the use of formal language (27 %).understanding different accents (38%). Gramm.
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Academic Lang.e. informative (29 %). they agreed with the necessity of affective use of body language (i. speech organization (i. well formulated introduction. and vividly with varied syntax and vocabulary choice. More guidance by their teacher on the analysis of different speech types. voice.

7. The other professors also pointed out the necessity of including some skills and task-based activities to engage them with more collaborative work. they believed it is imperative to get focused on their deficient language skills. teachers believed in the necessity of such presentations to give students more chance to become aware of their use of body language as well as the way they address people so they can detect what needs to be improved before their actual presence in a real teaching environment. Although students revealed a negative attitude towards the use of timed individual presentations. but the weekly assignments as a whole should be worked out in more detail. More feedback on their use of language. The interview data obtained from the professors showed some similarities to students’ expectations and needs. More emphasis on their pronunciation. and therefore included some assets that were not available in the previous one. More emphasis on listening activities like movie-watching to get exposed to authentic use of language and different accents. Therefore. The new syllabus included more group work activities. 8. If I were to redesign the syllabus. Discussion and Conclusion The results of the needs analysis and interviews formed the basis for the generation of new syllabus for oral communication class. The new syllabus was designed with better identified objectives. I personally believe that one way of doing this is to develop some clear weekly objectives… Possibly even some task based activities could be developed to meet student needs. 9. One participating professor made the following suggestions also shared by the other participating colleagues to improve the content of the lesson: I believe the current syllabus is very vague in terms of what the student assignments are each week and how they apply to the goals and objectives of the course.to 40-minute popular TV shows followed by whole-class discussions or group tasks on related themes and topics. debates. the current study developed a preliminary syllabus with an example lesson plan based on the objectives that will improve their communicative and interactional skills as well as their presentation skills through the meaningful tasks to be completed individually or in a group. teachers’ expectations demonstrated some congruence with the expectations of their students. 4. whole-class discussions and task-based individual presentations.5. More guidance on the use of visual aids and technology for an effective presentation. lab hours were devoted more to the development of listening skills with the watching of 20. Besides. I would want the weekly assignments to be more clear and easily relatable to the course objectives. To illustrate this. 6. As revealed by interview data. More guidance on general study and research skills. Within the light of needs analysis and the suggestions made by both groups of participants. I do like the presentation aspect of the syllabus. in an attempt to increase their awareness in relation to their use of 123
. students will often need to make classroom presentations during the course of their studies. therefore. as both learners and teachers identified listening skills as an indispensable part of oral communication classes. The assets of the new syllabus will be illustrated in the following section. especially in 3rd and 4th years in college. it was also aimed to familiarize students with different accents and dialects as they were reported as the most frequent difficulty they experience. By this asset. They emphasized the necessity of raising teachers who will set good role models with their accurate and effective use of language.

Because of the time limitations.D. Kranke. K. (1995). 51-75. TESOL QUARTERLY 30 (1). 31-58. 27-56. Long M. D. NJ: Prentice Hall. Oral Communication in TESOL: Integrating speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1996). Finally. Syllabus design. students will also get involved in the use of language in more academic settings. D. The elements of language curriculum. Oxford: Oxford University Press Nunan. G. TESOL QUARTERLY 25(1). and realize the differences between daily language used for interactional purposes and the formal language used in papers. (1988). Through this assignment. the study was conducted only with first year students who are already taking the class. and production. Murphy. Nunan. However. and reliable online sites and journals. a new group work project was added to the syllabus to encourage learners to do some research on a topic of interest using the outside sources. (1987). J. (1989). Limitations of the study The needs analysis conducted in this study was used in the development of a syllabus for an oral communication class offered in an English Language Teaching program. (1991). INC. TESOL QUARTERLY 26. (1992).M. & Tagg.verbal and non-verbal means of communication. Boston: Newbury House.and in-class video-recording activities to be reviewed with individual students were given an importance place in the syllabus. Academic Oral Communication Needs of EAP Learners: What subject-matter instructors actually require. D. self. J. Three-approaches to task-based syllabus design. listening. Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. In a larger-scale study. T.
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. Approaches to syllabus design for foreign language teaching. this study should be considered as a preliminary or a pilot study that intends to reveal first year students expectations and urgent interactional needs. Ferris. the needs analysis questionnaire can be applied to all students in the program to have a better perspective on the changing aspect of their needs. & Crookes. References Brown.

We can bring fun to our reading classes by making use of literary texts like poems. you can ask them to tell/or write on the board their guesses and why they think their guess is right. How do we start training then? A guessing game will maket he EFL reading class more interesting. Students need to develop certain reading skills before they go for a full comprehension of a text. They can work in pairs and write down their guesses. In foreign language reading the words that one does not know makes the process difficult and boring. In foreign language reading the words that one does not know makes the process difficult and boring. reading in a foreign language can be painful. When the time is up. short stories. get skilled in FL reading and at the same time enjoy reading. The emphasis in this paper is mainly exploring some techniques relevant to using literature in our English Language Teaching classes. learners both develop the essential reading skills and also enjoy being acquainted with the target culture. The possible answer to the question of what the definition of reading is might be that reading is an interaction between the reader and the text. In most EFL reading classes texts are used for vocabulary teaching and comprehension. more fun. While reading in the first language is pleasant and fun. While reading in the first language is pleasant and fun. Most teachers use the texts for both vocabulary teaching and detailed comprehension. reading in a foreign language can be painful. Therefore. it is at the same time an engagement in understanding what the message is. plays or novels. reading in our English as a Foreign Language ( EFL) classes could be conducted in various techniques with different purposes not in one text with multi purpose as done in practice. Teachers need to train their learners on how to guess the words they do not know. While it is the physical eye movement on a text. how to get the gist of a text and on how to scan for certain information.LEARNER TRAINING FOR READING: LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSES Birsen TUTUNİS Abstract The main purpose of reading in L1 is usually to have access to the literature written in that language. We can assign the task : read and guess what . Tell them that this is a competition. If reading materials are chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.
The Stone top The damp echo The cold wind The held breath
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. Foreign language reading instruction needs to be organized in such a way that the learners both learn the techniques.

Day & Bamford. 1988 quote Field (1997) who gives a good example of L2/FL reading classes where students sit silently and wait fort he teacher to ask comprehension questions. Then Richard.The fading foothills The small trees The missed turning The hopeless face The chinks of light The life-line sky The cold echo The Stone steps The Stone tower A Japaneese student of English Carter&Long (1987)
You can ask them to guess the title. You can ask them to guess what they mean and tell you why they think so. they can be enthusiastic and confident about reading and leave the second language reading course as independent and lifelong readers in the target language. As a folllow up activity for a shaped poem. xiii) Day & Bamford. you can ask them to write a poem in a shape which correlates with the meaning. to guess the situation and to guess the end of the story. It is the teacher’s responsibility to make it more realistic and meaningful 135
. 14-15) believe that use of literature in language classes has a number of benefits and states some of them as: it is very motivating it is authentic material it has general educational value it is found in many syllabuses it helps students to understand another culture it is a stimulus for language acquisition it develops students’ interpretive abilities students enjoy it and it is fun it is highly valued and has a high status it expands students’ language awareness it encourages students to talk about their opinions and feelings
Learners in our EFL classes can be trained to become good readers throughout their lives if the materials are chosen carefully and the planning for training is done properly.1988 brings in his own comment and states” students learning to read a second language do not have to act like that.” (preface. to guess the place. (1988. Rather. You can give them other simple poems and underline some of the words. pp. The texts in course books are chosen carefully but they are designed according to the structure taught in that unit.

In those silent reading classes EFL students are provided with literary texts of different types and levels anda re trained to evaluate their own reading speed and comprehension and choose the materials accordingly. is generally associated with reading large amounts with the aim of getting an overall understanding of the material. in both intensive reading for pedagogic purposes and in extensive reading for pleasure.book opinion forms (Day & Bamford 1988. Hafız& Tudor 1989. in. in contrast. Extensive reading activities need to be designed to give the student the pleasure of reading. a reading fair with posters designed on the books read.students who read fluently. p. This would easily be a real life training session then. Mason & Krashen 1997). teachers develop high motivated fluent foreign language readers. They will themselves be struggling with the texts they read in the foreign language they learn. Common European Framework for Languges “CAN DO” statements are placed. on linguistic competence and on EFL writing. A few of them can be stated as. They will not always have teachers asking them comprehension questions. Along with each level. training of EFL students for fluent and high motivated foreign language reading. Students do their silent reading evaluate themselves and the next session choose something from the upper or lower level. Therefore. Research results on extensive reading in EFL show positive impact on the development of more interest on reading in FL and improving it. by the help of extensive reading. Cho & Krashen 1994. students of EFL could be asked to read silently in class for five minutes. re-reading to prepare materials for lower level readers As a conclusion. summarizing the plot etc. Activities for extensive reading designed by EFL teachers are infinite in numbers. pp. on positive attitude toward reading-affect. 137. 1964. Intensive reading is associated with the teaching of reading in terms of its component skills. The positive impact of reading in EFL was seen on reading ability. The tasks designed for reader training depend upon the materials chosen to be studied as intensive reading and as extensive reading. For example. Extensive reading is a prime means of developing a taste for foreign language reading. Palmer (1968.by designing activities relevant to their lives.
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. on vocabulary expansion. The terms “intensive” and “extensive” reading in EFL are put forward to bring in the differences between classroom reading and out of class reading. teachers of EFL need to design activities other than reading and answering comprehension questions which are far from real life activities apart from the surveys we do very occasionally. reading silently for the sake of reading and comprehension. Thus. Extensive reading.150-151) where the reader writes a short comment for the next reader. Students need to be given the chance to choose the materials. EFL teachers assign simplified classics to be read but in practice most of the follow up activities seem to be boring since all students do similar activities such as talking about the characters. p. or the curriculum and syllabus could be designed with silent reading slots. reading materials can be grouped according to FL proficiency level and can be put in boxes or shelves in different colour. (Elley and Mangubhai 1981. 113) chose the term extensive reading to distinguish it from intensive reading. So they need to be equipped with the reading skills to make the task easier and more enjoyable.

both the process between seeding and harvesting should be monitored very carefully and the harvesting process itself should be carried out under appropriate conditions with proper methods and effective measurement tools. For the harvest to be rich and of high quality.Uygulaması arasındaki bağlantı ve farklılıklar anlaşılır biçimde belirlenmeli ve uygulama süreci de buna uygun yürütülmelidir. School Experience and Teaching Practice are the “HARVEST TIME” for education faculties. Okul Deneyimi ve Öğretmenlik Uygulaması için bölümlerin özelliklerine uygun değerlendirme ölçütleri geliştirilmeli ve uygulanmasında asgari müşterekler oluşturulmalıdır. Sayısal yığılma oluşması halinde. THE SCHOOL EXPERIENCE AND TEACHING PRACTICE COURSES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION FACULTIES: APPLICATIONS. fakülte uygulama koordinatörü öncülüğünde danışman öğretim elemanlarıyla değerlendirme seminerleri yapılmalıdır. c) Those caused by advisor instructors and guidance teachers. b) Those caused by the provincial/district national education directorates and implementation school administrations. course programs and Uludag University Education Faculty School Experience and Teaching Practice guidelines were analyzed. Danışman öğretim elemanı ile okul rehber öğretmeni sürekli işbirliği halinde olmalı. While carrying out the study in hand. ama bu çalışmanın da yeniden güncelleştirilmesi ihtiyacı doğmuştur. Her yarıyılın başında ve sonunda. karşılıklı ziyaretlerle uygulamalar hakkında bilgi ve öneri alışverişinde bulunmalıdırlar. During the researching process.German Language Teaching. French Language Teaching and English Language Teaching divisions of the Foreign Languages Education department of the Education Faculty of Bursa Uludag University and to propose possible solutions. d) And lastly. my own experiences and observations as a student advisor and the implementation coordinator since 1999-2000 academic year and those that advisor instructors and guidance teachers at implementation schools have shared with me and the data composed of observations and reports by teacher trainees participating to the practicing courses were taken into consideration. uygulamaya katılan adaylara bir anket uygulanarak. Eğitim Fakültelerinin geneline hitap eden uygulama rehberi yerine. both qualitative and quantitative differences were observed at the three divisions of the Foreign Languages Education Department . Her yarıyıl sonunda. French Language Teaching and English Language Teaching. uygulamalar hakkındaki dönütleri alınmalı ve sonraki uygulamalarda bu hususlar dikkate alınmalıdır. ya her yarıyıl belirlenen alandan öğretmenleriyle veya her alandan temsilci öğretmenlerle bu seminerler uygulanabilir. four important problems were identified: a) Those caused by the insufficient administrative coordination between the departments of the Faculty. firstly the Higher Education Institute (HEI) teacher training regulations. those caused by teacher trainees participating to the practice The followings are the possible solutions to the identified problems: When the School Experience and the Teaching Practice courses given at the Foreign Languages Education Department of Education Faculty of Uludag University are examined. Moreover. PROBLEMS AND IMPLICATIONS ABSTRACT The present study aims to investigate into the applications and problems concerning the School Experience and Teaching Practice courses given at the German Language Teaching. İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüklerinde de yarıyıl başlamadan önce ve yarıyıl bitiminden hemen sonra rehber öğretmenlerle bilgilendirme ve değerlendirme seminerleri yapılmalıdır. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yabancı Diller Eğitimi Bölümü’nün böyle bir çalışması olmuştur. bölümlerin özelliklerine uygun uygulama rehberinin geliştirilmesi. While English is taught as the first Foreign Language at the secondary 139
.

and primary schools both in Bursa and in most cities of Turkey. Evaluation seminars should be held with advisor instructors in the lead of the Faculty practicing coordinator at the beginning and the end of each term. In case of numerical accumulation. practice groups should be formed in a way that will prevent numerical accumulations at implementation schools. Information and evaluation seminars should be held at the provincial national education directorates before the beginning of and just after the end of each term with guidance teachers at implementation schools. these seminars can be held either with teachers from the predetermined fields or with those representing each field. The connections and differences between the School Experience and Teaching Practice courses should be determined clearly and the practicing process should be executed accordingly. the teacher candidates participating to the practice should be given a questionnaire and should be asked for their opinions about practices and those should be taken into consideration in the following terms. At the end of each term. German and French are taught mostly as a second Foreign Language. A voluntary and continuous collaboration should be achieved between the University and the provincial/district national education directorates. it requires updating again. Advisor instructors and guidance teachers at implementation schools should be in continuous collaboration and make an exchange of ideas and suggestions about practices through mutual visits. The practicing guidelines prepared for all the Education Faculties should be replaced by the one to be developed considering the characteristics of the divisions.
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. These differences should be taken into account both in the process of training teacher candidates and in the School Experience and Teaching Practice processes. Although Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Education Faculty Foreign Languages Education Department carried out a study of this kind. Teacher candidates should be prepared for the School Experience and Teaching Practice courses and those who have not fulfilled the pre-requisite requirements should not be involved in this process. Criteria for the evaluation of the School Experience and Teaching Practice courses should be developed considering the characteristics of the divisions and the least common denominators should be determined.

mostly published. culture or origin.
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. Since all writers have a high level of spoken English and regularly use it for both social and academic purposes. It is based on work done at an Academic Writing Centre at the Izmir University of Economics. Cambridge Grammar of English (1999) and Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (2006). written by experienced associate and assistant professors from different fields.A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ACADEMIC PAPERS WRITTEN BY EXPERIENCED ASSOCIATE AND ASSISTANT PROFESSORS Aylin Koyalan & Simon Mumford. Turkey
ABSTRACT It is a common challenge for non-native speaker (NNS) researchers to publish in English irrespective of country. This study examines editorial changes to papers in terms of replacement of forms which have characteristics of spoken language with forms typical of written academic prose. as attested in corpora based grammars. Izmir University of Economics. Present study analysed the academic papers. it is suggested that this has an influence on their written prose.

As Flowerdew (2008. aspects and passive voice (Hinkel.
Thus. Furthermore. This means inevitably that. 1988). 77) mentions in his introduction. the passive voice (Hacker. it is claimed that the way to redress the balance is to accept ‘intelligibility’ as the criteria for accepting journal articles whose content meets journals’ requirements for publication. 9) have pointed out that there are significant differences between language used in spoken situations at university. that researchers are influenced by Spoken English. the need to employ a native speaker is obviously a disadvantage for NNS researchers. 2003). tutorials and at conferences is a major influence on their writing. IUE is an English-medium university. regardless of the merits of the content.
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. 2003) and ‘epistemic modality’ (Gabrielatos & McEnery. in this case Turkey. ‘fifty years ago scholars did not feel such pressure as they do now to publish in international journals (which are invariably in English)’ and he adds that. the majority of the academic staff. verbs (tenses) and mechanics (Santos. 2005). This article attempts to show that in the context of an English Medium University in a NNS English speaking country. ‘in many cases they (NNS) experience great problems in producing manuscripts which are acceptable to international journal editors and reviewers. e. 230). writing in L2. colleagues. a native speaker editor or proof-reader will need to be involved in the process at some stage. proof readers and editors. and our research tends to suggest that it is possible that the daily use of academic spoken English in lectures. Flowerdew (2008. lexical choice. intended meaning unrecognizably out of shape. claiming that
(the phrase) ‘It just doesn’t sound idiomatic English’ is often used and abused by editorial assistants and copy editors for changing portions of the text radically. In Izmir University of Economics. Ammon. 84) reports that NNS researchers can feel stigmatised. since their work can be seen as of lower standard to native speaker norms. This is a common approach used in a number of previous studies. Biber et al (2002. who incur extra cost and spend extra time having their papers corrected (Burrough-Boenisch. these earlier studies have tended to focus on mainly verbal constructions. In the case of NNS academics. 2003. 329) goes further than asserting writers’ right to use non standard academic forms. since this is the language they are most familiar with and use on a daily basis. 83) asserts EAL (English as an Additional Language) writers’ ‘right to linguistic peculiarities’. including lectures. Rajagopalan (2006. and the language requirement is a challenge for many non-native speakers (NNS) or second language (L2) writers. quoted in Flowerdew (2008. However. articles. who concludes that an article is actually a collaborative effort by the writer. tenses. reviewers. and the language of research articles. at least one editor will probably be a native speaker. The role of native speaker editors has been described in Burrough-Boenisch (2003. often twisting the original. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This study takes a descriptive approach in comparing NNS academic language and changes made by a NS editor.INTRODUCTION: THE DEBATE ON THE ROLE OF NATIVE SPEAKER EDITING As the need for academicians to publish in English worldwide increases. modality and modal verbs (Flowerdew. this inevitably leads to questions of standards of English in academic publication.’ Journals demand certain standards of English before an article will be published. 227). English. the researchers. for many L2 writers. and believes that editors should accept work by non-native speakers that is intelligible.g. suggesting that databases be established to decide what is intelligible and what is not. are Turkish. 2001). However.

Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Carter and McCarthy (2006). THE CONTEXT As mentioned earlier. one at the department of Public Relations and Advertising. and is not available for undergraduate students. The students study English for one year at preparatory programme and when they go to their faculties. 271). The Writing Centre at the Izmir University of Economics differs from traditional writing centres. one of them is at International Relations and European Union Department. attempts to redress this balance. The interaction between verbal and written language and possible implications for the influence of spoken clausal patterns on NNS academic writing has so far received no attention. This study.In contrast. There are five faculties in our university: Faculty of Computer Sciences. one is at The Department of Logistic Management. The academicians are encouraged by the administration to publish articles and take part in international research projects. and it is these that contribute in a major way to the differentiation between ‘literate’ and ‘oral’ genres. Faculty of Fine Arts and Design. nine researchers have been chosen from different faculties and departments. all the others are Assistant Professors. Except for one of them. research assistants and Masters students. Two of them are at School of Foreign Languages. they are all from social sciences. the present study focuses on the use of nouns and clausal and phrasal elements closely connected with the use of nouns. By providing such a service. clausal constructions’ (ibid. Most research has focused on verbal constructions. IUE is an English-medium university.
The Academic Writing Centre While the AWC is used by a minority of university staff. THE METHOD In our research. despite the fact that corpus based grammars have revealed the importance of nominal constructions. 269) and that ‘noun phrases are often used in academic style as an alternative to longer. because these are essential to the nature of academic writing. As can be understood. follow almost all the courses in English. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. The table below shows the researchers’ academic background: 158
. one is at The Department of Fashion and Design. considering the importance of these features in condensing information. It is aimed primarily at Faculty staff. the university is helping researchers overcome many of the obstacles. and Faculty of Communication. by focusing on nominal structures. two are at the Department of Business Administration. and one at the Department of Architecture. The lack of focus on nouns and nominal phrases in previous research would seem to be an important omission. state ‘the noun phrase is an important structure in academic writing’ (267) They also point out that ‘post-modified and complement noun phrases are extremely frequent in academic English because of the frequent need for definition and specification’ (ibid. it performs the service of proofreading and editing articles to an acceptable level for international publication for those who need it. who is an Associate Professor.

When it comes to whether the researchers publish in English or in Turkish, they all said they published in both languages but mostly in English. Similarly, when they were asked whether they followed literature in English or in Turkish, except for one, who followed literature only in English, they all said they followed literature in both languages but mostly in English. This article will analyse extracts from NNS articles and compare them with the Native speaker rewritten forms, relating these changes to corpus based grammars (Cambridge Grammar of English, 2006, and Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, 1999).

THE DATA All the extracts remain anonymous and are used with both the authors’ permission and with the knowledge and permission of the School of Foreign Languages. In some cases, papers have been used to compare authentic researcher’s actual words with NS AWC advisers rephrasing for purposes of comparison. There is no guarantee that the researcher made the changes to the paper, and no attempt has been made to follow up the researcher to see if the changes were in fact made. The aim of this research is purely to compare the two phrasings and analyse them in terms of written and spoken language. The five categories represent five tendencies of academic prose to concentrate information, which are opposed to spoken language’s tendency to employ verbs rather than nouns, coordinating clauses rather than subordinating clauses, to post modify with finite clauses rather than non-finite clauses, to post modify with clauses rather prepositional phrases, and to post modify rather than pre modify nouns. It also represents, in ascending order of concentration of information the techniques academic prose uses to concentrate and integrate information. For example, nouns tend to be used more than verbs in written language. At the second level, rather than coordinate clauses, subordinate clauses are more a feature of written language, and so on. Thus, each stage represents a move towards greater informational focus and information integration. The following extracts show editing that moves NNS academics’ language from a more personal, less compact style which shows structures common in spoken language to a 159

denser, more informational style typical of NS academic prose. The divisions are for the purpose of convenience, but in practise, since forms are interdependent, the categories overlap. For example, where a wh- clause with a finite verb is replaced by noun post modified by a noun finite clause, change has occurred at the verb/noun level and the finite/non-finite level. Other changes, such as replacement of vocabulary items with more formal synonyms are included in the amended versions, but not commented on as they are not the focus of this study. Certain preferences are observed in academic prose as compared to spoken language, due to the importance of the noun and noun phrase. 1. Nominalisation: Academic writing relies more on nouns than verbs, which is a feature of spoken language. This section demonstrates how replacement of verbs with nouns allows a more formal tone. 2. The tendency of academic language to integrate information into subordinate clauses which post modify nouns. This section shows how changes that introduce subordination result in a more academic style. 3. Post modification by non-finite clauses. 4. The tendency of post-modification to use prepositional phrases rather than clauses. 5. The tendency of academic prose to use premodification as a way of integrating information. 1. Nominalisation 1.1 One of the most frequently expressed problems was that the preparatory programme very intensive and they had difficulty in keeping up the program. (SFL2) One of the most frequently expressed problems was the intensity of the preparatory programme and the difficulty in keeping up with the program. Carter and McCarthy note that noun phrases are preferred to clausal constructions in academic writing because they allow more information to be conveyed by the subject or object. This is known as nominalisation (2006, 271). Nouns allow for modification, and difficulty and intensity are both post modified in the amended version. 2. Subordinate Clauses 2.1 If supplier development is implemented by a buyer company, personnel from a buyer may be involved in the processes of the supplier... in that company. Accordingly, he/she supports the supplier’s development. (Logistics) If supplier development is implemented by a buyer company, personnel from a buyer may be involved in the processes of the supplier...in that company, thus supporting the supplier’s development. The use of a non-finite clause connects the sentences and eliminates the need for a clumsy dual third person singular pronoun. Carter and McCarthy state that ‘in general academic writing displays quite complex sentence patterns, including frequent use of the types of subordination... Non-finite subordinate clauses are particularly common’. (2006, 2889)

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3. Post Modification by Non-finite Clauses 3.1 The reason why we decided to develop such a system was that we are a new administration and have observed dissatisfaction, demotivation and quite high failure rate... (SFL 2) The basis for the decision to develop such a system was the fact that we are a new administration, and have observed... Biber et al. (1999, 754) state that ‘finite complement clauses, i.e. that clauses and whclauses, are most common in conversation. They are relatively rare in academic prose.’ Conversely, ‘to- clauses and –ing clauses are... common ... in academic prose’ but ‘are relatively rare in conversation’ (ibid 754). The replacement of wh- clauses allows the omission of the pronoun we thus replacing a personal construction with an impersonal one. Biber et al. (1999, 325) note that ‘derived nouns are essential in academic discussions… where frequent reference is made to abstract concepts.’ Nominalisations such as the use of the psotmodified noun decision eliminate the need for the nominal clause the reason why we decided. (ibid, 325). 4. Post-modification by Prepositional Phrases, Including Complex Prepositional Phrases. 4.1 In another project conceived in order to cool down the body under high temperatures, translation from bioclimatisation to clothing has been done for anyone who has to migrate due to global transformation of the climate (Fashion) In another project conceived for those forced to migrate due to global climate transformation, bioclimatisation features have been integrated into clothing in order to reduce body temperatures. The indefinite pronoun anyone is typically postmodified, but this is much less a specific feature of academic prose, and more a general feature of all type of language (583). A post- modified those, very rare in conversation, is very common in academic prose (Biber et al., 1999, 580) and thus replacing anyone with those creates a more formal style. The focus of the sentence has thus been transferred from the personal (who) to the abstract (body temperatures). Those has been postmodified by an –ed clause forced, rather than a full relative those who were forced, also frequent in academic prose (607). 5. Premodification 5.1 Company success in the long term or wide scope will not be guaranteed (7) logistics Long-term, wide-ranging company success will not be guaranteed The writer’s use of or in the original suggests that these two qualities are different, however this is unlikely to be the case. Carter and McCarthy (2006, 267) note that English academic style ‘packs a great deal of information into... noun phrases’. DISCUSSION As can be seen, speaking and academic writing are not only different, they are mutually exclusive. Speaking relies on pronoun use, and simple nouns and verbal constructions. Academic writing in contrast depends on nomination construction and pre and 161

post modification, so that while almost 60 % of nouns are modified, in conversation the number is around 15 percent (Biber et al., 578). Flowerdew (2000, 130) mentions the need for academics to learn ‘the belief values and conventions that characterised a community’ and quotes a study by Berkenkotter and Huckin (1995) where a graduate student’s ‘articulate but informal style’ is replaced by a more formal one. The spoken/written distinction, while not synonymous with the formal/informal distinction, does coincide with it to a high degree, and, the extracts show using written styles is important in making a text less personal and more formal. Academics whose native language is not the one in which they are writing, and who use spoken form of the language on a daily basis, may find that while they are fluent speakers, their writing frequently needs proof reading. For these writers, a NS proof reader may be a necessity as time limitations and other reasons may mean that it would be impossible for writers to reach the required level. Cargill and O’Connor (2006, 217) suggest that experienced and novice writers’ needs are different. This present study suggests it is at sentence level/stylistic level that help is needed, experienced academics need no help with article structure and it would be inappropriate for writing centre staff to attempt give it. However, with regard to assistance in producing language of appropriate formality, this may be seen as a continuous and almost permanent need. CONCLUSION An analysis of academics writing suggests that, rather than using their own ‘idiosyncratic’ language, as suggested, academics are in fact using a type of academic ‘interlanguage’ (Ellis, 1995), based on both L1 and their previous experience of learning English, and their daily interactions in English. As much of their previous language learning would have been with non academic forms, spoken English may be the forms used for this. While the AWC is used by a minority of university staff, it performs the service of proofreading and editing articles to an acceptable level for international publication. For academics in the field of linguistics, further study of the differences between written and spoken language may be helpful, but for many academics without a background in linguistics, some kind of editing service is going to be needed. This is the difference between the writing centre at IUE, which is primarily aimed at academic staff, and writing centres in UK, USA etc which are to help students, both NNS and NS. This does not solve the problem for writers with no access to this type of service, but the establishment of a writing centre at IUE may be part of a trend to develop writing support for academics. Writing centres do not need a great deal of resources (one room, two part time staff at present) and are relatively easy to set up. Finally, further research could look at similarities between lecturers’ spoken language in class and their writing styles, and look for other ways to raise awareness on this issue. REFERENCES Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., Finegan, E. (1999): Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English Longman Biber, D., Conrad, S., Reppen, R., Byrd, P. & Helt, M. (2002). Speaking and Writing in the University: A Multidimensional Comparison. TESOL Quarterly, 36 (1), 9-48.

Nevertheless. reading. Italian. Before the `90s. all approaches being restricted to giving insights into only one language at a time. methods and approaches such as: grammar translation. the 20th century will remain in history as the period in which important methodologies. Languages such as: French. Intercomprehension. even though sometimes conflicting. the idea that a form of communication in 164
. At the end of the 20th century. Maria Filomena Capucho Assistant professor dr. total physical response. understands that of the other. which replaced Latin successfully at the beginning of the 16th century. German. the new approach that started to be considered in the early `90s. The process of learning languages has been of great importance for a very long time. The idea of plurilingual education gained new grounds once the term Intercomprehension was used to define a new form of communication in which each individual uses his or her own language BUT yet. Delia Lungu The beginning of 90s was the starting point for a new approach towards teaching and learning languages. The aim of this paper is to bring into attention the term of Intercomprehension. The general acceptance of a lingua franca has been given nowadays a more critical view and disadvantages such as the danger of linguistic imperialism (Skutnabb-Kangas 2004) and the danger of depreciation of the mother tongue (Rieder 2002) cannot be ignored anymore. in a major part of what is now the European space. silent way. Key words: Intercomprehension. Nowadays. eventually being able to step beyond this limit. audio lingual. Latin was the dominating language in sectors such as: education. Latin changed from a lingua franca into a subject studied only in schools and its importance in terms of learning/teaching has diminished a lot. with the development of new conceptions about Foreign Language Learning brought into light by the Common European Framework of Reference. etc. at least the languages belonging to the same family. listening and writing in a foreign language. the importance of Intercomprehension in the complex system of learning and teaching languages. Not only has the language dominance changed but also different ways in which foreign languages are taught have been developed. so far. none has focused on the ability to make learners understand several languages without studying them at all. language. suggestopedia. gave hope that learners will develop the ability to understand.INTERCOMPREHENSION: A NEW APPROACH TO LEARNING AND TEACHING LANGUAGES Professor dr. are still in use in many different places around the world. and commerce. have their own positive contributions to learning/teaching foreign languages. communicative language learning. Nevertheless. were developed. but they are in a continuous competition with English which has gained lately so much ground that undoubtedly it is considered by most people the real lingua franca of today’s world. it is more and more difficult to cope with all the information available in any sectors at present without being able to understand other languages apart from English. namely with the notion of partial competences. In Europe. plurilingualism. as well as the latest projects in which Intercomprehension is the key factor. religion. but. its history so far. all with the hope that people will become more and more proficient in speaking. Latin contributed tremendously to the development of most European languages. Not more than 500 years ago. The 19th century brought along the need to innovate the foreign language teaching process and consequently. to a certain extent. government.

Capucho. According to his theories (cf.  Intercomprehension in Language Teacher Education (ILTE). utilizing the multidimensional nature of computerized information to allow the complex network of relations among the seven languages to be displayed in a coherent way.  IGLO (1999 – 2003) promoted cross-linguistic comprehension among the Germanic languages. Chomsky.
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. on the model of the Scandinavian situation. This gives us the ability to create sentences that we have never heard before. Most of the research was linked to the necessity to establish the sound theoretical basis of different projects aiming at the development of multilingualism in Europe and financed by the European Commission. bearing in mind that the development of foreign language teaching is not linear. there is an essential idea sustained by these linguists according to which humans share a universal grammar. however. which ended in 2001. Spanish and Italian. we believe it is worth mentioning the theoretical branch sustained by N. vocabulary. 1965 or. The projected end product is software.  Eurom 4. 2000). Several European teams have been studying this concept and its implementation in the process of language learning in order to identify the development of multilingualism in EU. whereby speakers produce their own language but understand the other Scandinavian languages. the limits of this theory in terms of plurilingual education are evident. Consequently.  Galanet (2001 – 2004) promoted intercomprehension among speakers of Romance languages and crated a web platform that is still being used. and phonology. Among those projects. which is contemporary of Galatea and also aims at creating a specific methodology for the development of reading skills in French. due to the fact that human languages share many common features. aimed at creating a teacher-training module focused on the concept of Intercomprehension. which is built into our brain structure. Portuguese. The aim in this paper is not to describe all the methods and approaches that have been produced so far. This approach derives from the rationalist position that man is born to think and language use is solely a human trait otherwise impossible in the case of other species. 2008) but would not have been imaginable in the context of formal school learning. students generate original and meaningful sentences to gain a functional knowledge of the rules of grammar. in various aspects of their grammar. the database contains information on all seven languages and how they relate. regardless of the culture they belong to and the language they speak. more recently. share a universal grammar. Intercomprehension as a system comes to answer the following questions: if humans. promoted the development of Intercomprehension among speakers of Romance languages. we could mention the earliest ones:  GALATEA. The innovative aspect of Intercomprehension consists mainly in this idea of being able to understand a language in spite of not having learnt it before. but can still be immediately deciphered by anyone who understands the specific language being spoken. which started in 1991 and finished in 1999. we still have to limit our ability of receiving the message of only one language at a time. Unfortunately. why wouldn’t they be able to understand themselves even if they speak different languages? Is it possible to establish certain processes and strategies in order to understand texts and utterances in languages not learned/studied yet? The concept of Intercomprehension has been under discussion for more than 20 years now.which each person would use his or her own language and would be able to understand that of the other(s) was accepted by the common sense of all those who travelled through the world or by inhabitants of border regions (cf. Chomsky. it does not open the door to the understanding of different languages that have not been studied before. Chomsky.

the efficiency of different approaches and the decisive role of Intercomprehension in the process of nontraditional language learning were successfully confirmed. Italian and French). Bulgarian and Greek at A2 level. in 2007 when the Colloquium Diálogos em Intercompreensão took place.Eu & I (2003 – 2007). According to Capucho & Pelsmaekers (2008) there are three acknowledged types of distinctive projects. Spanish. papers. In spite of all the research that has been conducted so far.  GALAPRO (2008 – 2010) aims at training teacher trainers on the topic of Intercomprehension. we decided to bring it into attention and make it more visible by presenting it in detail in this conference. In spite of the large number of existing results of research (online courses. beyond the linguistic proximity.  EuroCom is a project intended as a way towards European multilingualism. Since REDINTER is the latest project dealing with Intercomprehension and its importance is once more demonstrated by the presence of practitioners from different European countries. Also.2009) creates chains of stories that are written in cooperation by children using their mother tongue and understanding the languages of four other countries (Portuguese.  REDINTER – Rede Europeia de Intercompreensao (2008 – 2011) is a thematic network which aims to develop Intercomprehension and good practices in this domain. Romanian. textbooks. A new step forward was undertaken in Lisbon. they should provide the concrete results that have been awaited for more than 20 years. Portuguese. the notion of Intercomprehension has evolved. which go from the multilingual reception to multilingual interaction and from languages belonging to the same family to a more general area. The 166

. the academic approach of Intercomprehension development has not achieved the expected results at the teaching level be it within institutions or formal or informal practices for language learning. the notion of Intercomprehension remains mostly unknown to the general public. as well as to organize a scientific colloquium at the end of the project in which all the research done will be discussed. taking into consideration that the development of multilingualism in Europe is a must among the educational priorities of the 21st century. mathematics…) Other projects are still going on:  Intercom (2007 – 2009) aims at developing reading skills in German. conferences). During this international event. to identify the existing materials and experience and to publish a report of recommendations. Portugal. EuroCom should be understood as a necessary complement to the language teaching provided in schools. It is expected that these joint efforts should lead to the enhancement of their political and educational dimensions and. EuroComRom – The Seven Sieves is a multilingual gateway to the world of the Romance languages. science.  Euromania (2006 – 2008) developed materials for school children to develop intercomprehension skills in the Romance languages whilst learning other subjects (history. even to the majority of language teachers. its field of application has been enriched and expanded. One of the most important outcomes of this colloquium was the possibility of establishing a European network with the purpose of studying Intercomprehension.  Chain Stories (2007 . It is still considered only by a limited number of researchers who have been interested in the topic. Theoretically. the institutions present in the colloquium have become aware of the necessity of joining their efforts in order to disseminate the didactic applications of the notion of Intercomprehension in all the European countries. the first project that promoted intercomprehension beyond the different families of languages. at the same time.

o an online brochure “Good Practices in Intercomprehension”.  Development of the concept of Intercomprehension The group is coordinated by the University of La Réunion. etc. University of Aveiro). Thus. Public Service Language Centre. bilingual teaching/learning contexts. The groups and their specific responsibilities are as follows:  Dissemination of “good practices” and produced materials The group is coordinated by the University of Siena. the group will collect all the materials that have been produced so far and will evaluate their impact at the level of concrete learning and of linguistic policies. 29 expressed their formal interest in participating as active or associated partners in the network. Italy. University of Lyon. During the first stage (1st year) of the project. the network has been split into 7 working groups and each group has been assigned specific tasks. The actions and interventions of the institutions involved in the network will be the same as the ones proposed by European programs such as: Erasmus. out of 35 institutions present in the colloquium. During the 2nd and 3rd years. and is composed of 17 institutions (The Portuguese Catholic University. LLPs. Leonardo da Vinci and Grundtvig. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objectives. thus supporting the linguistic diversity in Europe as well as the multilingual learning at different levels: schools and universities. Intercultural Association “Narramondi” Palermo. University of 167
. self-training. University of Antwerpen. mainly due to the fact that Intercomprehension is applicable to language learning/teaching/training at all educational levels. University of La Reunion. The group’s products will materialize in: o a report of the study which will be published on the network site. devise and disseminate the information concerning the good practices in this domain in order to motivate the multilingual learning and to create the appropriate environment in terms of linguistic diversity learning. The aims and objectives of this project are:  to develop and encourage the politics promoting Intercomprehension in and among different language families and beyond related linguistic features. University of Rome III. Vilnius. University of Grenoble. etc). which have showed their interest in and commitment to the domain of Intercomprehension. The consortium possesses all the necessary skills and human resources to develop the established working plan. illiterates.  to identify and assess all the initiatives aiming (or having aimed) at the development of Intercomprehension and their impact upon the educational process. the group will also create effective means of exploitation of materials and dissemination of “good practices”: virtual communities.  to exchange and use the good practices concerning the development of the Intercomprehension process for learners with special needs (immigrants. Åland Polytechnic University. mainly by efficient use of technological means. The consortium is composed of 28 partner institutions and 16 associated institutions. The name given to the project is REDINTER (Rede Europeia de Intercompreensão – The European Network of Intercomprehension).proposal of creating such a network was warmly welcomed by all participants.  to find. Autonomous University of Barcelona. University of Cassino. and is composed of 12 institutions (University of Salzburg. Comenius. University of Innsbruck. initial and continuous teacher training. participation in large events.

University of Cassino. Complutense University of Madrid. Intercultural Association “Narramondi” Palermo. Åland Polytechnic University. The group will also develop the thematic axes that were discussed during the Colloquium Diálogos em Intercompreensão. University of Frankfurt. University of La Reunion. I. University of Provence. the members of this group will try to define the strategic lines that are the most adequate to convince the educational institutions and the political stakeholders about the need to apply Intercomprehension to the Didactics of Languages aiming at multilingualism in the EU. “A. “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy of Constanta). University of Aveiro. University of Provence. “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy of Constanta. St. University of Grenoble. University of Grenoble.  Institutional and political dissemination The group is coordinated by the University of Lyon. University of Mons. Autonomous University of Barcelona. University of Giesen. Onsekiz Mart University of Canakkale). Vilnius. Vilnius. o organize training courses adapted to specific needs – distance and face-to-face courses (the 2nd and 3rd years). in the 1st year. University of Toulouse. University of Salzburg. University of Salamanca. 168
. University of Provence. and is composed of 8 institutions (The Portuguese Catholic University. Cuza” University of Iasi). In the 3rd year. University of Siena. Together with their associated partners. and is composed of 22 institutions (The Portuguese Catholic University. University of Aveiro. and is composed of 7 institutions (University of Frankfurt. I. During the 2nd and 3rd years. and by proposing and developing projects and targeted actions (the 2nd and 3rd years). University of Venice. The group will adapt materials and training courses to new learning contexts and to new audiences by identifying new needs (1st year). Åland Polytechnic University. Onsekiz Mart University of Canakkale). University of Frankfurt. Vilnius. Public Service Language Centre. University of Lyon. University of Siena. Cuza” University of Iasi. I. In the 2nd year possible relationships with other works and other teams (on integrated didactics) will be developed. Complutense University of Madrid. University of Antwerpen.  Adaptation of Intercomprehension practices to new audiences and new needs The group is coordinated by the University of Antwerpen. University of Rome III. University of Innsbruck. University of Salamanca. University of Rome III. The group will: o assess the state of the art on existing courses in the form of a descriptive report about the actions and analysis of results which will be eventually published and disseminated (during the 1st year). “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy of Constanta. “A. they will put in practice and develop assumed actions. Kliment Ohridski University of Sofia. University of Aveiro. University of Mons. In the 1st year. Public Service Language Centre. a new scientific colloquium on Intercomprehension will be organized. Autonomous University of Barcelona. University of Provence.  Training courses on Intercomprehension The group is coordinated by the University of Grenoble. during which the results of recent research will be shared and published in paper format. University of Toulouse. University of Grenoble. “A. the group will continue and develop the reflections on the definitions of the notion of Intercomprehension and its implications at the linguistic and didactic levels. University of Antwerpen.Salzburg. Public Service Language Centre. Cuza” University of Iasi.

the online journal and in paper format. REDINTER proposes the following results: o An online journal “Good Practices in Intercomprehension”. o Scientific colloquium (REDINTER). and it is composed of 4 institutions (St. o Brochures and flyers. Therefore it is one of the main issues towards the development of citizenship in the European space. o Scientific publications. methodology and didactics and it constitutes a new approach that is to be applied in all the language learning fields. Intercomprehension is an extremely important issue both in educational research and in educational practices including training activities and language learning in classrooms. o Creation of national and international dissemination poles with the purpose of spreading the already identified “good practices” and the produced materials. University of Siena). open forum). The group will create and develop academic tools for the dissemination of the scientific production of the network. which will be performed inside the network. The publications will be issued in the different languages spoken by the partners involved in the project. University of Grenoble. and by publishing a periodic newsletter. Kliment Ohridski University of Sofia. It implies work in interdisciplinary fields like linguistics. University.
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. o Actions. University of Lyon. materials and products adapted to new needs. “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy of Constanta). its generalized dissemination and its applicability to concrete practices of teacher training and in formal and informal contexts of foreign language learning. University of Grenoble. one issue per year. o Online newsletter (4 issues a year). The group will conceive and maintain communication tools within the network and external dissemination tools by designing a website of the network (web page. The above-mentioned results strictly concern the notion of Intercomprehension. responsible for the journal in paper format. o Intercompreensão – special REDINTER Journal (3 issues) – online and in paper format. o Training courses on Intercomprehension (face-to-face and online) in 23 institutions. o Internet website of the network in Spanish. o Long term exploitation plan. It opens the way to language awareness and to the development of multilingualism.  Dissemination of the network’s academic work The group is coordinated by the Polytechnic Institute of Santarem. o Strategic plan of institutional dissemination. namely. Products Apart from the descriptive and assessment reports. and the University of La Reunion. French and English. University of La Reunion. University of Aveiro. by producing brochures and flyers to be distributed in public events. Communication and dissemination tools The group is coordinated by the Autonomous University of Barcelona. responsible for the online journal. communication platform inside the network. and it is composed of 5 institutions (Åland Polytechnic University. o Colloquium Proceedings.

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. As in many Expanding Circle nations. In a broad sense. In addition to that it presented answer to the question whether children’s early L1 literacy attitudes affect their L2 reading attitudes and examined the results of the above cited research questions to see if they were mediated by the children’s gender. This makes studies on early L2 reading attitudes and experiences of Turkish children. particularly girls. Futhermore. Key Words: Maternal Literacy. Only 69.The Influence of Maternal L1 Literacy on Turkish Children’s Early L1 and L2 Literacy Attitudes and Experiences in Rural Turkey Aslı BAGISLAYICI ABSTRACT Turkey is a regionally diverse nation which has a tradition of progressivism and modernization at the national level. all the more important. In order to collect data. This explanatory study tried to define the effects of maternal literacy on children’s attitudes towards L1 and L2 reading experiences in rural south central Turkey. L1 and L2 reading attitudes. the study revealed that both boys and girls do have positive attitudes towards L1 and L2 reading at differing degrees regardless of the diverse and limited maternal literacy activities. students were also given two different questionnaires on differing themes. students and their mothers were interviewed. The participants were 25 4th graders and their mothers who live in rural South central Turkey. parents. In any location. opportunities for English as L2 input are limited. compared to 81% of the boys. contrasted with traditionalism at the local level. and many learners and educators must rely on reading as a significant source of L2 input.2% of the girls can read in their L1s. particularly mothers are the first significant figures in early literacy activities among children.

It is believed to be derived from the students’ informal experiences with reading instructional practices in the classroom. And the existing attitudes towards some actions can be a source for the new ones. “Seeing the parents and older siblings read or being read to develop favorable attitudes toward reading and help children value reading”(Day and Bamford. 1998) Literacy and Women According to the most recent data by Unesco. Therefore.6 % literate female . creating a literacy rich environment at home is essential for parents who represent the longest term teachers children will ever have. it is clearly stated that the first environment where language is met carries significant importance in children’s early literacy skills. 64% of them are women and this gap has not changed throughout the modern history: In 1960. Therefore. 60%. 2000 census revealed that.When we go to the Rural areas. 2004). 66 % ( Malmquist& Eve&August. 58 %. It is stated by Day and Bamford(1998) that one of the sources of the attitude that we have towards our L2 is the attitude towards our L1 reading attitude. 1991) the following points are also introduced as the reasons of the high rate of illiteracy among females  Hostile family and community attitudes  Local traditions and ancestral customs about women’s roles in the society  Lack of time after family and household commitments  Frequent Pregnancies  Irrelevant Literacy Programs  Lack of child care facilitates ( Malquimst& Eve& August.#2. in 1985. They do try to imitate every single thing that they have seen or exposed to. 2007.(cited in Bingham. This might be either negative or positive. there are 774 million illiterate people all around the world. This explanatory study tried to find answers to following research questions: 1) What are the effects of maternal literacy on Children’s attitudes towards L1 reading experiences in rural south central Turkey? 2) What are the effects of maternal Literacy on Children’s attitudes towards L2 reading experiences in rural south central Turkey? 3) Do children’s early L1 literacy attitudes affect their L2 reading attitudes. In Bingham’s research on the quality of mother child joint book reading. November. in 1990. So what is the reason for this. in 1970. and #3 mediated by the children’s gender? LITERATURE REVIEW L1 and L2 Reading Attitudes Through our experiences or sharing in our life. we do develop feeling towards the events or things. this gap between the genders becomes wider.whereas 93. why women lag behind the men in terms of literacy rate for ages.9 % of males are literate. Consistent with the data provided by Malquimst& Eve& August. there are 80. 1991). 1991). 63%.
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.INTRODUCTION Children can be perceived as the reflections in the mirror. 4) Are the results of RQs#1. L1 attitudes and the activities within the family come to focus. and the way reading is viewed within the first language and culture Considering the role of parents and the significance in their child life concerning the development of early literacy skills.

females tend to outperform male peers in terms of reading and writing . METHODOLOGY Participants: 25 fourth graders and their mothers took part in the study. the participants were given the interviews and questionnaires. One fifteen and one fourteen item questionnaires were adapted from ESL-E binder. All the collected data scanned to the researcher via email on the day it was completed. In addition to that in the case of English Skills. She is an education major. in order to avoid any possible bias. and 35 years old. She has very little knowledge of English. questionnaires and interviews were used. None of the mothers had any formal education on English before. Materials: In order to collect the data. Also. According to a pre set schedule. There were 12 males and 13 females. and the gap between the genders remain larger. All of the participants were already literate in their L1.Gender and Educational Attainment: Machin and Nally(2002) describes gender and educational attainment as the success rate of different sexes in specific subjects. another native speaker of Turkish also made the translation of those replies. classroom teacher. the study was explained to them in great detail. There were 25 mothers in this study. Other than that. Throughout the data collection procedure. at the same time English teacher of the class assisted me. Mothers were preferred to be interviewed in case of existence of any illiterate mother Procedure: Before the application of any of the data collection tools. it is revealed that boys lag behind the girls in the early literacy skills. there are still significant differences in the case of different disciplines. the researcher did translate it into English. students and their mothers were assured that their participation or answers to the study would do no impact for their grades. According to a research by National center for educational Statistics. boys are doing considerably less well than girls. Her foreign language is German. any of the data collection tools were given at the same day or back to back. in order to find out Children’s L1 and L2 reading attitudes. The picture does not differ is not so much different in Turkey. Another research by NCES revealed that over time and throughout their education . in New Zealand. aging between 10-11. Two 10 item interview questions were adapted from NFER. They were all literate and primary school graduate except for one mother who was 50 years old. Since the data was in Turkish. All of the students were zero beginners of English. Although the gap between the success rate and the sexes seem to narrow down.
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. During my study. For instance. to be able to learn about students’ early dispositions towards reading in English and their L1 reading experiences. Another 10 item was used to interview mothers on their literacy activities at home. when the literature is reviewed similar results are found in Turkey too such as girls’ being more successful than he boys in oral tests.

And number 1 and 2 randomly assigned to two genders. two different spreadsheet were designed aiming to analyze the students’ replies to the questionnaires that were given to measure students’L1 and L2 reading attitudes. Participants’ names. Item#3 Talking about books is enjoyable. Table 2: Children’s English Reading Attitudes
Gender 12 13 #1of1 #1of2 #2 of 1 #2 of 2 Item1 25 0 12 0 13 0 Item2 24 1 11 1 13 0 Item3 25 0 12 0 13 0
Item#1 Reading is my favorite subject in school. Item#2 I would rather read an English book than watch a Turkish TV show Item#3 Sharing English books in school is enjoyable for me After receiving the written answers for the interview. Item#2 I would rather read a book than watch TV. gender and the number of questions were written in cells. In the chart below. Each conversation for the change is recorded. number one represents male. The themes that would be referred to the answers were identified. number two represents female. each answer was written into piece of paper for each participant and both by looking at the answers and questions. At the bottom of the chart the answers were sorted according to gender of the participants for each question Table 1: Children’s L1 Reading Attitudes
Gender 12 13 #1of1 #1of2 #2of1 #2of2 Item1 25 0 12 0 13 0 Item2 24 1 11 1 13 0 Item3 23 2 10 2 13 0
Item#1 Reading is my favorite subject in school. number 2 represented no in the chart. In order to make sure that themes and the students replies are related.Analysis of Data: In order to be able to understand the attitudes of children towards L1 and English reading. In each table the first column includes the items. At the end the following three tables for each of the interviews. Number 1 represented yes. another Turkish speaker who is not involved in any part of the research checked the themes whether the replies were matching or not. The next column consists of the related theme and the last column indicates some of comments made by the participants 174
.

I do write poems and stories .1
Item#6 Do you buy newspaper or magazine regularly?
Spending money on reading materials
Table4: Analysis of Children’s Interview concerning L1 Reading Experiences Item Item#4 When do you usually read? Theme Some comments Spared time for In the class during the reading hour.*No. stories that their children bring home or in their textbooks .Religious stories.Some issues that I really wonder . interesting short stories. Newspaper.I read newspaper to learn about what is going on.Magazine for kids . When I have money. Before I go to bed. I buy I save money to buy books
Table5: 175
.I do read the writings on TV
Item#2 What other written text do you have in Turkish back at home? Item#10 Could you please give examples of written text that you read in your everyday life? Item#6 Would you like to spend your money on books?
Spending money on reading materials
I would like to buy. I do buy newspaper.Story Reading book.We cannot always afford it . I do read them . I sometimes buy newspaper or magazine . I read the books that children bring home.I read to search on something . I always buy.Calendar paper( jokes. anecdotes). and in my country . and weekends Newspaper .In my spare time.Table3: Analysis of Mothers’ Interview Item Theme Item#4 What do you usually Available read? reading Materials
Some comments Recipe. I do not read. I do not buy regularly. The poems and stories in Materials Turkish Text Book. During holidays. Calendar paper. books.*I read written texts that I come across
Item#9 What kind of things Using reading as you want to learn more a tool in daily life about in daily life? Do you read to find out about them?
I read to learn about what is going on around the world. On my way back reading: to home .I do not buy.We usually buy newspaper .

Although they do have no English story books available for them in their class library. most of them who do the read out loud are to their mothers. While majority of the children says they do not read out loud at home.Analysis of Children’s Interview concerning L2 Reading Experiences Item Item#6 What do you do in your spare times? Do you read? Do you try to read in English? Item#2 What do you have for English reading at home? Item#3What are the other examples of English reading materials that you do reading in your daily life? Are there any other English reading materials at home? Item# 10 Would you like to you spend your money to buy something to read in English? Theme Reading In English as a spare time activity English Reading Materials Some comments I do read English Dictionary I do read the things that we read or learn in English class I do not read. As they do have no other reading materials in English. The students read at least once a week they do check out books from library at least once a week. or at least try to look at the pictures of the book. some of them implied that they do read the dictionary or look at the pictures of the text book. although they are not assigned. Most of the students do read after they are done with their studies or before they go to bed. some of them replied this question saying that they do use dictionary to have a look up the words meaning. I do work There is no other material in English except for text book. almost all of the mothers do not know English as a result 176
. Very few of the mothers do read out loud for their kids. The most typical reading materials are newspapers and the books that they have for class or in the classroom library. it can be seen how the students are enthusiastic about reading in English. I do often have a look at it I do have my elder brother’s and sister’s story books in English
Spending money on reading materials in English
I would like to buy if I have money and English books
RESULTS When the findings are examined. It can be understood that most of the students do like reading and they do have positive attitudes towards reading. they do read their text books. Majority of the students said that they are trying to read in English in their spare times. while most of the kids implied that there is no one who does read out loud for them at home. Majority of the students do read the upcoming chapters. so the answer to the last item on the interview clearly states that they do spend their money on books when they have. besides. it is understood that students do read. they clearly emphasized that they would have checked out if there were some. When the whole table of analysis for L2 reading attitudes is examined. but I wish we would have We do have dictionary. They also provide specific examples of reading materials that are available for them. As implied before. Although they are just the beginners most of them implied that they would love to use English as a source for information.

and most of them implied that reading is not regular habit for them. References • Arua. Again. There is no doubt that the above mentioned themes like L1 and L2 reading attitudes. Family Literacy: Attitudes of Parents Towards Reading In Rural Communities in Botswana. Since any of the mothers do not know English. R. women and literacy and gender and educational attainment. as it is also revealed in children’s answers. positive L1 reading attitudes are transferred to children’s l2 reading attitudes. (1998).they can not do reading in English. almost all of the mothers say that they do read out their children from the books that they have checked out or children’s text books. T. The second reading material that is available to the children is the books that they check out from library.2 • Bamford. On the contrary to children’s reply on the maternal reading at home. No. Further. CONCLUSION In this study. most of the time children are either listened by their mum or the whole family.& Day. they do not buy newspaper regularly.. especially mothers and teachers need to go beyond the annual teacher parent meeting.(2006). The study revealed that students are very enthusiastic about reading despite their mothers’ insufficient time and reading materials at home. When table 4 is examined. The students who are read out loud English are the ones that have elder siblings who know English. but they do imply if they have money. Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom United Kingdom: Cambridge
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. they do or would love to buy. I questioned whether their reading attitudes in L1 affect their L2 reading attitudes and tried to find out if these three formerly articulated questions are deviated by the children’s gender.. this is also emphasized with the answers given to questions both by mothers and children. Arua & Mathangwane. most of the children can not be read out loud in English at home. Significant number of students implied that no one listens to them.. they do affect each somehow in one way or the other. the positive attitude of the reading in English is almost same for both of them. some of the mothers state that they do read to search on something and most of the mothers do reading in order to learn what is going on in the world. they do say that they would love to buy if they have money. E. I did answer the research questions concerning the effects of maternal literacy on Children’s attitudes towards L1 and English reading experiences in rural south central Turkey. Also. It is worth saying that mothers tried to do their best to support their children in their reading in L1. R. Although the families are economically disadvantaged. the most typical reading materials found to be newspaper.6. Although some differences can be seen between two genders concerning L1 reading attitudes. Considering these. The Reading Matrix Vol. It is revealed that children are contributed by their mothers in their reading via being read too them or listened. however there is only one mother who tries to read and learn English together with her daughter. J. The illiterate mother replies this question by saying that she does tell her childhood stories to her kids. Although the students have limited or no chance to buy an English book. However. the tie between families. J. Majority of the mothers say that they do read when they have time.

unicef. Women and Literacy Development in the Third World. E. (2004). Educational Equity for Girls and Women Washington.G. E. (Ed.S. Literacy portal
http://portal.unesco. Department of Education. SWEEDEN.
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U. D.•
Bingham.Implications of maternal Literacy beliefs on the quality of mother and child joint book reading interactions and the home literacy environment. Linkoping.html • Gender Review In Education. National Center for Education Statistics.
Web Sources • UNESCO.).org/education/en/ev.S.C.org/turkey/sy7/ge/2c. Turkey 2003
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Malquimst. Proceedings of an International Seminar on Women and Literacy Development in the Third World. Education. Early Education and Development. U.html/17k
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.phURL_ID=53553&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_S ECTION=201. (2000). 18(1). (1991).

and the research methods they used. Vallerand. Guay. Necatibey Education Faculty. Studies in different areas showed that SDT could successfully be extended to the investigation of human functioning. and achievement levels. Intrinsic Motivation. to give a summary of the related literature. parenting. such as teaching and communication practices enhancing students’ perceived autonomy in the learning process and classroom environment. Vallerand. 1985) has been used and regarded to be very useful by the researchers from numerous areas of inquiry for investigating the motivational processes in different aspects of life such as work settings.AN INVESTIGATION OF THE STUDIES ON L2 MOTIVATION FROM THE SELFDETERMINATION THEORY PERSPECTIVE Savaş YEŞİLYURT4 Hakan DEMİRÖZ** Abstract Over the past 25 years.. Amotivation
4
Research Assistant. it was seen that the research investigated L2 learning on the basis of SDT generally aimed to determine the motivational profiles of L2 learners according to the framework proposed by it. in this way. English Language and Literature Department
**
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. self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan. 2007. 2008. English Language Teaching Department Research Assistant. Larose & Senécal. Ratelle. In the literature review of the study. performances. and to seek the factors having roles in the development of the motivation types which make greater contributions to achievement in L2 learning. Towards the end of 1990s. 2008). Balikesir University. For this. participation in the classes. physical activity. accordingly. Extrinsic Motivation. Deci & Ryan. 2002. it was also found that these studies conducted generally descriptive quantitative research mostly with university level language learners and emphasized the need for longitudinal and experimental designs with larger samples from different contexts of L2 learning. education. Results of these studies revealed that intrinsic motivational profiles had more positive effects in L2 language learning compared to extrinsic ones and the autonomy supportive classroom environments and teaching practices made great contributions to intrinsic motivation and. etc. motivation. Faculty of Science and Literature. it was tried to convey their major concerns. Pelletier & Koestner. main findings. Keywords: Self-Determination Theory. In this study. development. this theory became popular among second/foreign language (L2) researchers as well and several attempts were made to adapt the motivational model proposed by this theory to the investigation of L2 motivation (Dörnyei. 2003). Motivational Profiles. environmental issues. 2008). to compare the motivational constructs of this theory with some other models. learners’ interest. to explore the relationship between these motivational profiles and performances and achievement in L2 learning. et al. (Reeve. Cumhuriyet University. By this overview. health. and relationships in every sphere of life and that basic motivational processes proposed by this theory operated in different areas similarly (Vallerand. it was aimed to introduce some important studies which adapted SDT to the field of L2 motivation and.

Below some examples will be introduced. the relationship between the motivational profiles and academic outcomes and the antecedents of self-determined motivation (such as autonomy supportive communicative styles of teachers) and controlled motivation or amotivation (such as use of strict deadlines. & Roth. and relatedness (Ryan & Deci. 2008. They are external regulation. and integrated regulation. mastering challenges in life. Rodger. controlled (extrinsic) motivation. Introjected regulation is the second least self-determined type of extrinsic motivation. introjected regulation. 2000b).. one of the areas most frequently utilized the constructs of self-determination theory (SDT) has been education. The motivation types outlined by the theory and basic psychological needs it focused on are given below with their short definitions. 1996. Bolt & Cai. 2000a. Intrinsic motivation is defined as the motivation for engaging in an activity for its own sake and for the pleasure and satisfaction from this activity. Taylor. which investigates human motivation basically in the categories of autonomous (intrinsic) motivation. 2003. 2009). Its basic premise is that people have an innate tendency for personal growth.g. proposes that this tendency and motivation types of people are influenced by social factors enhancing or thwarting the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs. But before the introduction of them. autonomy. Jeon. etc. et al. intrinsic motivation. optimal functioning. 2000b). Assor. Kaplan. Reeve. it proposes some sub-categories for extrinsic and intrinsic motivation types. personality. and useful. Three types of intrinsic 180
. Flink. External regulation is the least selfdetermined form of extrinsic motivation. Assor & Kaplan. It involves behaviours done for being considered personally valuable. Poulsen.Introduction Since it was first introduced by Deci and Ryan (1985). Many researchers adapted this theory to their investigation of learner motivation (e. 2005. important. Gottfried. Filak & Sheldon. 2000a. controlling language. Although they are very few when compared to the great amount of research in educational area in general. competence.. 2005. there are some important studies in the field of L2 motivation especially in the recent decade. Reeve. Ntoumanis. Ratelle. 1985. Jang. As stated above. & Barch. 2006. needs and identity (Ryan & Deci. and integrating their experiences into their self-concept (Deci & Ryan. Extrinsic motivation is defined as engaging in an activity for attaining some outcomes separate from it such as getting a reward. Identified regulation is more self-determined type of extrinsic motivation than both external and introjected regulation. 1999. It involves the activities carried out in order to avoid a shame and guilt or to attain esteem and self-worth. Boggiano & Barrett. giving a brief definition of the theory and its major concepts may be useful for a better understanding and interpretation of them. SDT proposes a framework of motivation consisting of extrinsic motivation. etc. contingent rewards). & Casey. Black & Deci. & Ziviani. Externally regulated behaviours are performed by people because of external sources such as getting a reward or avoiding a punishment. 1985). and well-being that focuses on the types of motivation rather than its amount (Deci & Ryan. Carrell. identified regulation. Moneta & Spada. Cordova & Lepper. Reeve. or avoiding a feeling of guilt or a punishment. Spittle. development. 2006. 1990. Integrated regulation is the most self-determined type of extrinsic motivation and it refers to choiceful behaviours fully assimilated with individuals’ values. 2002. 2009. Besides these general categories. The main concerns of these studies generally revolved around the purposes of discovering the motivation profiles of learners. 2001. and amotivation. The theory. 2000. 2008). 2007. Extrinsic motivation is analyzed in four different categories along a continuum from most controlling to most autonomous one. too. and amotivation. Jackson. Kanat-Maymon. SDT formulated by Deci and Ryan (1985) is defined as a macro-theory of human motivation. 2004. & Standage. These studies reported the usefulness and appropriateness of SDT in the investigation of learning motivation of students.

some of the major L2 SDT studies are introduced chronologically. Relatedness refers to people’s desires to care. they are regarded to be parts of a continuum between the ends of non-regulation and intrinsic regulation. 2007). Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation involves activities engaged for the enjoyment. Intrinsic motivation to accomplish refers to desires to realize a goal or master a task. intrinsic motivation to know. All these motivational profiles are illustrated in Figure 1 below. Below. The motivational profiles are not considered to differ from each other with exact borders. autonomy. most of the studies investigated more than one of such issues at the same time. Competence refers to people’s strivings to experience effectance and ability to direct the instrumentalities that lead to desired outcomes. 16). Autonomy refers to the desires and efforts of people to be the origin of their behaviours. In the next section. Within their theory. The last motivational construct proposed by SDT is amotivation which refers to the lack or absence of motivation. 2002. 1991). the relationship between students’ perceptions of their teachers’ communicative styles and their extrinsic and intrinsic motivational orientations was investigated.
Type of Motivation Type of Regulation Quality of Behaviour
Amotivation Non-regulation External Regulation
Extrinsic Motivation Introjected Regulation Identified Regulation Integrated Regulation
Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Regulation
Nonself-determined===============================Self-determined
Figure 1. Both motivation types and psychological needs are considered to be interrelated to each other. In this study. fun. Rather.motivation are given. p. as seen in Figure 1. be cared with by the people around them and have a satisfying and coherent relationship with their environment (Deci & Ryan. and Pelletier (1999). The self-determination continuum with types of motivation and regulation (Deci & Ryan. One of the first examples of such studies is Noels. and relatedness. or excitement associated with them. Deci and Ryan (1985) put great emphasis on the vitality of three universal and innate basic psychological needs. a review of some L2 motivation studies based on the SDT will be given. intrinsic motivation to accomplish and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. competence. it is seen that they generally focus on the similar issues with those of other educational areas. Clément. Intrinsic motivation to know refers to the intrinsic motivation for doing an activity for the pleasure of attaining new knowledge and ideas.. When people are amotivated they do not see any relationship between their behaviours and their outcomes (Ratelle et al. Its data was collected from 78 students registered in a summer French immersion class. Besides 181
. Furthermore. Second/Foreign Language Motivation Research from the Self-Determination Theory Perspective When the studies of L2 researchers who based their research on the motivational model of SDT are reviewed.

and less selfdetermination were strongly related to high classroom anxiety. feeling of autonomy and competence regarding language learning. intentions to continue learning the L2. 1992. On the other hand. In the data collection procedure. 1993). amotivation. intrinsic motivational orientations and their perceived autonomy support. Clément. Noels. their classroom anxiety. Pelletier. and freedom of choice across L2 learners as antecedents and consequences of self-determination. 74). The correlation analyses showed that stronger perceived autonomy support and intrinsic motivation had strong positive relationship with positive learning outcomes. among the motivation types. The study was carried out with 159 English psychology students who were learning French as an L2. Her correlation-based analyses showed that perceived autonomy was negatively associated with amotivation whereas it was positively associated with higher levels of intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. and perceived control in the classroom were also measured. less self-determined and more self-determined forms of motivation. integrative orientation was weakly associated with the less selfdetermined orientations and negatively related with amotivation. She found positive correlations between greater perceived control and amotivation and less-self determined motivation types. external regulation was most highly correlated with the instrumental orientation whereas intrinsic motivation for knowledge was most strongly correlated with the knowledge orientation. and learner motivation could be validly assessed using the motivational constructs outlined by Deci and Ryan (1985) and later refined by Vallerand and his colleagues (1989. less probability to continue to study an L2 and lower levels of academic achievement. The analyses indicated a positive correlation between integrative orientation and all of the intrinsic and extrinsic orientations. and Pelletier (2001) conducted another research aiming to replicate the previous research on the motivational profiles for language learning in French Canadian 182
. A similar study was carried out by Noels (2001a). and friendship orientations. It was found that. perceptions of competence. perceived competence in the L2. They also exposed that less autonomy supportive learning climates. and Vallerand (2000). at the same time. this study emphasized the importance and usefulness of extension of SDT to the investigation of L2 motivation. extrinsic and intrinsic motivational profiles of L2 learners and to explore the relationship of these motivational profiles with four L2 learning orientations. According to the findings. integrative orientation. motivational intensity. intrinsic and integrative orientations together predicted increased motivational intensity and greater intention to continue learning Spanish. more self-determined forms of motivation such as identified regulation and intrinsic motivation subtypes were positively and highly correlated with travel. Clément. participants’ final course marks were obtained as well. In contrast.participants’ extrinsic. She conducted a research with 322 native English-speaking university students registered in Spanish classes at a California university to assess their extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for learning Spanish. demonstrated some similarities between Clément and Kruidenier’s (1983) motivational orientations and Deci and Ryan’s (1985) motivational constructs. and perceptions of teachers’ communicative style. The study claimed that motivation orientations discussed by Clément and Kruidenier (1983) and the motivational constructs proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985) were in line with each other in terms of their content and students’ responses (p. in particular with intrinsic and identified regulation orientations. The study. knowledge. Positive correlation were identified also between greater self-perceptions of competence in Spanish and increased intrinsic orientation. it was indicated that learners could distinguish between amotivation. The study aimed to assess amotivation. In addition. As one of the concluding remarks. Another important example is Noels.

This study made a comparison between the two groups in terms of their perceptions of autonomy. the relationship between need for cognition. and higher levels of identified regulation and intrinsic motivation predicted higher motivational intensity and persistence in learning English. competence. Intrinsic motivation was also found to be positively correlated with integrative orientation. competence. autonomy. concluded that more self-determined motivational profiles and integrative orientation both predicted higher level of persistence and effort in studying English. it emphasized the need for the extension of this model to different contexts using different research methods. In the study. This was interpreted to mean that individuals who enjoyed effortful thinking learnt an L2 for self-determined reasons. The only significant differences were that external regulation was lower than identified regulation for heritage learners and lower than intrinsic motivation for nonheritage learners. From the data analyses. language learning strategies. Except for their identified regulation. metacognitive awareness in language learning. identified regulation. However this study also reported the usefulness of SDT. and relatedness were correlated with the intrinsic. According to the correlational analyses of the data collected from 57 Canadian junior-high school students learning French as a second language. higher perceived autonomy and competence were found to be associated with higher levels of identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Moderate correlations were found between extrinsic and intrinsic motivations of the learners and their listening proficiency. it was also found that higher self-determination in L2 learning is positively associated with the use of language learning strategies. Results showed a significant and positive correlation between the need for cognition and selfdetermination of the learners. motivational intensity.students of English and to investigate the relationship between these motivation profiles and the integrative orientations. and higher perceived competence. and listening proficiency of the adolescent learners of French. In the study. On the other hand. persistence in studying English. it was also drawn that perceptions of autonomy. Heritage learners’ identified regulation were higher than that of nonheritage learners. namely they wanted to learn German because they found it important for their self-concept more than non-heritage learners did. and final course grades were sought. The study concluded that intrinsic and more self-determined motivational orientations and the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs. SDT. Heritage learners’ perceived competence and relatedness were determined to be higher than the non-heritage learners. Among the L2 motivation studies based on SDT. In the research conducted by McIntosh and Noels (2004) with 126 undergraduate students enrolled in French. This study. These were all associated with more active engagement in language learning. competence.
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. there was no difference between the two groups as well. and relatedness as well. a stronger intention to persist in language study. there was a positive correlation between metacognitive awareness and motivation of the students. intention to persist. The findings obtained from the correlation-based analyses depicted that amotivation was negatively correlated with perceived autonomy. Noels (2005) conducted her research which tried to explore the heritage and nonheritage language learners’ motivation according to extrinsic/intrinsic and instrumental/integrative frameworks of motivation with 96 university-level students registered in German classes. and effort in studying English. One was Vandergrift’s (2005) examination of the relationship among the language learning motivation orientations. perceived competence. and instrumental orientations. and relatedness predicted positive outcomes in L2 learning. consistently with the findings of Noels (2001a). Spanish. and L2 achievement was examined. integrative. the relationship between these variables and learners’ perceptions of autonomy and competence. and German language courses. few were related to a particular language skill.

due to its effects on the other affective variables influencing learners’ performances in reading Japanese. intrinsic motivation was again found to be the strongest predictor of self-confidence and motivational intensity and to have an indirect relation to L2 achievement. and perceptions of basic psychological need satisfaction as well. and other means of the modern age. identified regulation. Nevertheles. and language levels. Another study which comparatively examined the types of motivation among L2 learners based on the Integrative/Instrumental Motivation Theory and the SDT was conducted by Eubel (2008). They both stated the utility of the adaptation of the motivation framework of SDT to L2 motivation investigation. This study made some suggestions for the extension of this theory to other language skills. Eubel compared types of motivation of the first and second/third year students studying at the German Department at the University of Western Australia. 2008a) which aimed to adapt SDT to the investigation of Turkish English language department students’ motivation profiles in writing courses. Pae (2007) researched the relationship between external regulation. This result was related by the author to higher participation levels of the second/third year students in German clubs and societies since participating in such voluntary organizations were considered to be a matter of choice which was a major concept of self-determination. 184
. The last study investigated in this section is a doctoral thesis (Yeşilyurt. investigated the relation of motivational constructs proposed by SDT to Japanese L2 reading comprehension and Kanji knowledge test scores of 43 university students in advanced Japanese courses. perceived competence. Kondo-Brown. the mediating role of other variables was emphasized as well. perceived autonomy. speaking. introjected regulation. besides other several different affective variables. challenge and competence and incorporate their aim to learn language in their self concept should be developed. In the study. data was collected from the preparatory and first year students taking writing classes at the English Language Teaching and English Language and Literature departments at Atatürk University through both questionnaires and interviews. fun. the importance of the development of such type of motivation was emphasized. Participants’ motivational profiles were analysed in terms of their relations to their writing grades. According to these findings. some other variables which could mediate this relationship were also analyzed. It was found that there was a shift from more extrinsic forms of motivation to more intrinsic forms of motivation as the grades got higher. In these two studies. fun. In the study. These students were reported to prefer communicating with their friends in German and enjoy performing their abilities and study German for challenges. ages. The results also exposed that there was a similarity between external regulation and instrumental orientation. For the purpose of the study. and intrinsic motivation and perceived English proficiency of Korean university students. the practices which would enhance learners’ feelings of choice. however. Another study which related the SDT with a particular language skill was conducted by Kondo-Brown (2006). In another study of Pae (2008). they did not indicate any significant similarity between intrinsic motivation and integrative orientation. communication facilities. through the use of exchange programs. the author suggested that. among the four motivation types.This study was particularly significant in that it provided some evidence for the applicability of SDT to different language learning contexts and that it generalized the selfdetermination framework to adolescent language learners. and writing and to different groups of learners with different cultures. In a more recent study. and competence more than first year students did. intrinsic motivation was determined to be the most powerful predictor of perceived proficiency in English. After the analyses. the Internet. reading. The results demonstrated that there were indirect relationship between selfdetermined motivation for learning Japanese and Japanese L2 reading development.

Murray. Foreman. In addition. perceptions of basic psychological needs satisfaction levels. 2001b. Noels. Of course. Nevertheless. Noels. They show that individuals can distinguish different motivation sub-types. Dörnyei. those given above constitute a great portion of all and may give some useful information about both the past and possible future studies. some major results of the studies described above will be given in a brief summary.According to the analysis of the data. 2003. In this respect. perceived control. 2005. teacher negativity. Below. Another common feature is their data collection materials and data analysis methods. 1997. informational feedback. intrinsic motivation for knowledge) of the students were higher than their less self-determined motivations (i. Canada. introjected regulation). external regulation. One important point that should be noted concerning these studies is their common view for the extension of this theory to different contexts. perceived autonomy. Above. and writing grades.. identified regulation. As for the participants of the inquiries. Namely. 185
.e.e. Another important result is that more self-determined motivation is more strongly associated with positive outcomes in L2 learning than less self-determined motivation. levels. the researcher suggested some possible classroom practices which might enhance learners’ perceptions of autonomy throughout their writing instruction. Clément. Investigation of L2 learning motivation on the basis of SDT in relation to different variables would provide findings that would lead teaching practitioners to develop more effective motivation strategies and teaching methods.. accordingly. German. and lower level of perceived competence diminish such motivation and cause lessautonomous motivation and amotivation among learners. etc.e. French. more self-determined motivations (i. they may be defined as quantitative researches. on higher level of academic achievement in English writing classes. their data had quantitative nature. In addition. 2001. and higher satisfaction level of basic psychological needs enhance self-determined motivation. They measured the existing variables and did not test their hypotheses through different practices or experimental/control groups of participants. & Pelletier. Noels. ages. some studies exemplifying the adaptations of the SDT to L2 learning motivation were briefly introduced. Carreira. Results of L2 Self-Determination Theory Research The most noteworthy result of the L2 motivation studies based on SDT is that they provide ample evidence for the utility of the motivation framework proposed by this study to the investigation of L2 learning.. 2005. 2001. 2008b). Dörnyei. One common characteristic of their methodology is that they all applied descriptive research rather than experimental designs. there are also some other studies which might be reviewed (i. and for applying various research methods. 2005.. Findings related to some similarities and differences between self determination theory and other motivation models can be regarded to be among the significant results of these studies as well. They collected their data through questionnaires and analyzed them statistically. it was determined that motivation types were closely related with some factors in the environment: whereas autonomy supportive teacher practices and communicative styles. Determining the significant positive effects of higher levels of autonomy support on more self-determined motivations and. Almost no qualitative or mixed type designs were found among the studies reviewed in this study. Research Methodology of L2 Self-Determination Theory Research Studies on L2 learning utilizing the basic concepts of the SDT have great similarities in terms of their research methodology. Yeşilyurt. positive correlations were found between more self-determined motivations and higher perceived competence. or Spanish in the United States. they were chosen mostly among university students studying English.

A. Learning and Instruction. H. Black. and so on. (2005).e. H. G... 31 (4).. Kanat-Maymon. Kuhl. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. different levels. & Staw.E.e. 101-120. Carreira. diaries. 740-756. The effects of instructors’ autonomy support and students’ autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective.): Trends and Prospects in Motivation Research. 84. ages. A. A. The Keiai Journal of International Studies. using different research methods (i. & Kaplan. Conclusion The main purpose of this study was to provide a review of research on L2 learning motivation based on SDT framework and to find out the utility of this theory to the investigation of L2 learning motivation. 397-413.L. E.
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. Sorrentino (Eds. B. (2000). Considering this fact as one of the important limitations they suggested the extension of such investigations to larger groups of participants from different contexts. Kaplan. Inquiries on different aspects and factors in language learning which will be conducted with participants from different settings. In A. observations). & R.J. J. where these languages are taught usually as second languages rather than foreign languages. New framework of intrinsic/extrinsic and integrative/ instrumental motivation in second language acquisition.M. (2005). maybe an underlying. etc. Mapping the domain of autonomy support: Five important ways to enhance or undermine students’ experience of autonomy in learning. Another. Self-perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 39-64. and data analysis techniques will probably provide various practical findings for the develoment of motivation in L2 learning and effective instructional policies and practices. purpose was to make some suggestions regarding the adaptation of the model to foreign language learning contexts in Turkey and extension of it to different levels of learners and to different language skills in relation to different variables. (2001). The extension of SDT. and its motivation model. J.. Science Education. & Roth.. Assor. Efklides. B. 15. longitudinal. Y.interviews. etc. 16. & Deci. levels.M. data collection instruments (i. REFERENCE LIST Assor.Australia. qualitative). Directly controlling teacher behaviors as predictors of poor motivation and engagement in girls and boys: The role of anger and anxiety. cultures. to the investigation of different factors and variables in foreign language teaching in Turkey would probably make great contributions to both the development of effective motivation strategies and improvement of foreign language teaching process. Calder.M. 599-605. which has a broad spectrum of regulation types. experimental. (1975).

RECEP SONGÜN KYRGYZSTAN-TÜRKIYE MANAS UNIVERSITY BISHKEK. small group work. Kyrgyzstan. regardless of learning level because Manas University students are educated in Turkish and Kyrgyz. 21 from the Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University and 32 from the American University. learning in pair. whereas American University students are educated in English only. Additionally.
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.EXPLORING EFL STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES: A CASE STUDY OF KYRGYZ UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES OF ENGLISH. The data for this study were collected through questionnaires from a total of 53 senior students. individual study.KYRGYZSTAN 2006 ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to explore the learning styles of English of the senior students of the Turkish-Kyrgyz Translation and Interpretation department at the KyrgyzTurkish Manas University and the senior students of the department of American Studies at the American University in Bishkek. The survey was conducted from April through May of the 2004-2005 academic year and the data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively.DR. PROF. Key words: Foreign Language Learning Styles. The overall findings of the survey show that all of the respondents have a higher level of understanding about FLLS (Foreign Language Learning Styles) concepts. useful implications are proposed based on research findings in order to help teachers and students to construct and implement FLLS more effectively.

psycholinguistics and anthropology paved the way for language teachers to better understand the value of teaching. reflecting and acting. various disciplines can affect the individual learning styles of the language learner. It is obvious that a student’s ability to learn in the classroom depends not only on the teacher’s preparation or way of teaching. In this respect.” All teaching is theory loaded and all theories are value loaded” (Halliday:15). The perspective of learning a foreign language has been changed from a teacher-centered approach to learning up to student-centered approaches. these different views lead to a variety in types of syllabus. gradually. Our study. Buckingham 1981. analysis and studies like ours can help the learners to awaken their awareness of what they need and demand for the teacher to adapt his teachings accordingly. Visual and Verbal. It is utmost important for teachers to find a suitable syllabus design. “Students learn in many ways. memorizing and visualizing. Thus. There are some arguments on how a foreign language should be taught. which has a long history (R. Sensory and Intuitive. for instance some say different parts of a language should be taught step by step. Felder and Henriques (1995:21) state. learning styles are the general approaches to learning a particular item. We must not forget the sentence. It is known by every foreign language teacher that the analysis of needs is the first step in second language or foreign language teaching and that the learners are at the center of the teachings. the teaching methods may vary. It means that the needs of language learners have taken a considerable amount of interest. We are sure that the findings
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. We find it very important to see and to identify what students demand from teachers. For this reason. reasoning logically and intuitively. however there may exist many different learning styles since the instructor does not have one or more students sharing the same characteristic features in a language classroom. and the administrators to find and provide their material to suit the learners’ needs and demands. which the students of the American University and the Kyrgyzstan-Türkiye Manas University demand. methods of assessment and curricula of the teaching units/institution and the society. whereas some others say that learners should be exposed to a greater variety of linguistic structures from the beginning. Van Els et al. The programs which have been carried out all over the world should be designed very carefully so that they could meet the desired level of competence at language teaching and learning. After seeing the ways and approaches of learning of the Kyrgyz students. 1984). that is.Chancerel 1980. It is our study’s aim to find a way of teaching. 1996). We have decided to make this survey to be able to help all universities’ instructors and professors with the aim of finding their students’ learning styles.” In short. and there must be a compromise between the availability of the learners’ resources. but more on his characteristic approach to learning. the developments in applied sociolinguistics. by seeing and hearing.Richterich & J-L.INTRODUCTION
It is well known that learning a (or more) foreign language is a widely needed in today’s world. the language teacher should consider the social and the individual factors in language education because language and society are in many ways closely linked either in language education or in social science. in one way. On the other hand. the thought objectives and curricula and the resources. No learner can be the same because of different individual characteristics. is a kind of needs analysis. Consequently. Sequential and Global (Carell. The most known types of learning are Active and Reflective. too. Especially these kinds of studies are of great importance for countries like Kyrgyzstan.

The styles are: 1. Research Design and Methods In an attempt to investigate Kyrgyz Students’ learning styles of English. A total of 58 senior students. explained the goal of the survey before they read the questions. 193
. and asked them to answer the questionnaire. Active 2. From the American University and the University of Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University in Bishkek. we saw that all respondents understood our aim and responded as “Yes” or “No”. including Manas and American university students. While visiting the two universities’ given departments in May 2004. Reflective 3. not in an order to be able to get reliable and valid results. a three-page questionnaire. the present study examined their approaches in studying English or how they would like to be taught. All of the participants have had at least ten year’s experience of learning English as a foreign language. Discussion of Results Table 1: In response to item 1 through 15. The Survey Instrument The Survey instrument. the 58 participants were composed of only the seniors of the departments mentioned above.3%). Visual 4. giving a response rate of 100%. All of the questionnaires were returned. Intuitive The questions were given in a mixed way. the researcher contracted the students who participated in the study.of this investigation would show us whether we should “Teacher-centered or Studentcentered” approaches. in which setting of learning they try to learn or they have to learn because the conditions in this country and their wishes are completely different. The questionnaire. Sensory 6. Verbal 5. Specifically. was divided into six styles. composed of thirty eight questions. Data Collection and Analysis Only one method was used for data collection. The Participants The population for this Study were Kyrgyz Students at the university level. was devised to see Kyrgyz Students’ learning styles both in classroom setting and outside school. In the light of the goal of the Study. thirty eight questions on learning styles were asked to both groups.3%) and 12 were male (20. completed the survey. According to the responses. All of them were almost at the same age (21-22). for a total of 58 senior students from the departments of Kyrgyz-Turkish Translation and Interpretation and American Studies. 46 Students were female (79. which asked for some key questions.

Conclusion and Implications In the Kyrgyz EFL context, in which learners don’t have much contact with native speakers of English, the focus of language learning has been dependent on the classroom practice from the traditional passive lecture to a little more active group learning, so that learners can be more easily exposed to target language use. Thus, many students have had an increasing amount of interest in listening and grammar learning as a style of learning, chiefly because they believe and see that the only chance they have for increasing the learning skills and interactions. The overall findings of this study revealed that, except on very few items, there is no significant difference between the two groups in their learning styles. The findings also indicated that both groups like to learn by listening, but AUS seem to like discussions more because they have too much time in their weekly programs. MUS cannot get what they want from the discussions. They would like to learn as much as possible in a short time because of the lack of time. Both groups like to take notes for they are mostly VERBAL learners. They do not test themselves after their classes because they do not like to discuss it much. The item 6 indicated that AUS can use English outside their classes, especially in the university, whereas MUS do not do it, because it is more important for them to improve their Turkish. AUS are interested in the activities in classes, whereas MUS do not like them because they find them as waste of time. They say, “Teach us more!” Both groups are eager to learn what is taught. In general, they are not ACTIVE learners, but they do want to learn English. They do not like pair or group working. We think that they do not have this 201

kind of activities. Neither group likes to learn alone; they are very typically REFLECTIVE learners. For they find surprises and complications as waste of time, they do not like them. Both groups, however, want to learn interesting and useful topics because they want to be taught what they need and what’s necessary things. It is interesting to see that both groups are very careful learners. Details and steps following each other are important for both groups. They do not want unrelated topics to be given. This shows that they are SEQUENTIAL and ANALYTIC learners. They say, “Topics should be given in events”; they believe that it would be more interesting and contributory. To conclude, we can say very clearly that both, the American University students and the Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University students, are VERBAL, REFLECTIVE and SEQUENTIAL-ANALYTIC learners. We know why they prefer these ways of learning. There are no rich sources to be used around, especially outside the two universities. No satisfactory opportunities to improve their English. Even if they can find some sources, they are too poor to buy them, so they cannot learn or practice as much as they need. The reason why there is some difference (not too many) between the two groups is that most of the classes of AUS are taught in English, whereas most of the classes of MUS are taught in Turkish or Kyrgyz; only four or six hours a week are in English. In ending, we believe that the results might change meaningfully from now on, because of the newly-opened departments, such as Turkish-English, Turkish-Russian and Kyrgyz-English at the Manas University in Bishkek. We would like to make another study to compare the past findings with the new current ones, by using the same questionnaires and, after at least two training years, the same kind of study should be made to see whether or not there have been any developments or innovations in the English teaching programs. After, new programs could be proposed and made in accordance with the new findings. In addition, by using the same questionnaires, the same study could be carried out in more universities, which might represent all universities in Kyrgyzstan, through ANOVA (One-sided Variance Analysis) and LSD (Least Significance Division). REFERENCES

ABSTRACT The Evaluation of Foreign Languages Courses in Primary Teacher Training Department Considering the Opinions of Prospective Teachers and Their Attitudes In this study the opinions of classroom teacher candidates about English Courses and their attitudes were asked to collect the data which were analyzed and then they were evaluated. The data were collected by a survey that was developed by the researcher. The survey was divided into two main parts. Firstly, the achievement of university students was tried to identify by the scale of “Academic Achievements of University Students in Foreign Language” and in second part, the opinions of the students about English courses were taken by the scale of “The Opinions of Students About Foreign Language”.

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Survey method was used in this study. The students in Ahi Evran University and primary school students in Kırşehir were identified as restricted universe, 98 first grade students in high schools and 96 senior students in Faculty of Education were chosen as the sample of the study that were composed randomly. The data were gathered and analyzed by the help of computer and SPSS (Statistical Package For Social Sciences) packet program. While interpreting the data to find out answers underlying problems, frequency ( f) , percentage ( %), Arithmetic Mean ( X ) and Standard Deviation (ss) were calculated and the evaluation was done accordingly. Key Words: Primary Education, Classroom Teacher Training, Academic Achievement, Foreign Language