The Eighth Army moved forward as scheduled on 24 November, and against light to
moderate resistance registered gains of as much as twelve miles during the first
thirty-six hours. (Map IV) MacArthur's G-2, General Willoughby, forecast
confidently on 26 November that "Should the enemy persist in his present
non-aggressive attitude and withdraw, he may find sanctuary behind the Yalu
River." But in terms more prophetic than he knew, he added that "Should
the enemy elect to fight in the interior valleys, a slowing down of the United
Nations offensive may result." [1]

Beginning shortly after dark on 25 November, strong Chinese forces struck
suddenly and hard at General Walker's central and eastern units. (Map V)
The ROK II Corps, at Walker's right, scattered before the vicious onslaught. The
IX Corps, in the center, reeled, held briefly, then gave ground. On Walker's
left, the I Corps, under no pressure except at its east flank, withdrew in
coordination with the IX Corps' rearward moves. [2]

Walker notified Tokyo at noon on 27 November that the Chinese were attacking in
strength, but that it was too early to tell if the Chinese meant to sustain
their attacks. On the following day, he reported that the enemy attack force
numbered some 200,000, all of them apparently Chinese, and that he was no longer
in doubt that the Chinese had opened a general offensive. [3] The Chinese
broadened their offensive on 27 November with attacks against the X Corps.
General Almond's Marine troops had scarcely begun their advance toward
Mup'yong-ni on the 27th before they met strong resistance; and on the 28th
Chinese units slipped southeastward past the Marines and cut their supply route.

This wide display of Chinese strength also swept away General MacArthur's
doubts. "No pretext of minor support under the guise of volunteerism or
other

[1] Telecon, TT 4063, DA and GHQ, FEC, UNC, 26 Nov. 50.

[2] Details of the Chinese offensive and subsequent actions may be found in
B. C. Mossman, Ebb and Flow, presently in preparation as part of the UNITED
STATES ARMY IN THE KOREAN WAR series.

subterfuge now has the slightest validity. We face an entirely new war."
[4] Instead of fighting fragments of the North Korean Army reinforced by token
Chinese forces, Walker and Almond apparently now faced a total Chinese force of
about 300,000. [6]

MacArthur claimed that Walker's 24 November advance had forced the Chinese to
attack prematurely, theorizing that the Chinese originally planned to launch
their offensive in the spring of 1951 when better weather and greater supply and
troop resources would be at hand. But even if his claim were correct, the
Chinese attack gave MacArthur no real advantage. For he was finding it
increasingly difficult, and so admitted to Washington, to interdict enemy routes
of reinforcement and resupply from Manchuria because the Yalu River was now
freezing hard enough to permit the Chinese to cross without using bridges.
Furthermore:

It is quite evident that our present strength of force is not
sufficient to meet this undeclared war by the Chinese with the
inherent advantages which accrue thereby to them. The resulting
situation presents an entire new picture which broadens the
potentialities to world-embracing considerations beyond the sphere
of decision by the Theater Commander.

Having thus shifted responsibility for the next decision to Washington,
MacArthur announced that for the time being he intended to pass from the
offensive to the defensive, making local adjustments as the ground situation
required. [6]

As reflected in MacArthur's abrupt change in tactics, the opening episode of the
Chinese offensive had reversed the course of the war. The Chinese opening
success was due largely to the skillful execution of well-laid plans, in
particular to the achievement of complete surprise. That surprise was not wholly
the result of superior Chinese camouflage and march discipline. Intelligence
received by MacArthur and his senior commanders had been incompatible and
inconclusive. But this intelligence did provide clear warnings that Chinese
forces were poised between United Nations troops and the northern border of
Korea. Much of the surprise achieved by the Chinese stemmed from the tendency of
U.N. leaders to discount these warnings.

As a defense of his own judgment and the efforts of the theater intelligence
officers MacArthur insisted ". . . that the intelligence that a nation is
going to launch war, is not an intelligence that is available to a commander,
limited to a small area of combat. That intelligence should have been given to
me." [7]

But at the national level, authorities declared that Chinese intentions had not
been sufficiently clear to permit a definite judgment. General Bradley, in fact,
maintained that the Department of Defense had had no intelligence that the
Chinese would enter the war. [8]

The daily estimates given MacArthur by his own intelligence staff were
supplemented by General Willoughby in private presentations. Whether Willoughby
gave MacArthur different information from that contained in the daily estimates
is not known, but beyond doubt, Willoughby's presentations amplified the

[4] Rad, C 69953, CINCFE to JCS, 28 Nov. 50.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Ibid.

[7] MacArthur Hearings, p. 18.

[8] MacArthur Hearings, p. 759.

Page 276

routine staff reports. On the assumption that the G-2's published estimates and
personal briefings were similar, MacArthur must have learned of the enemy's
capabilities and the order in which those capabilities might be employed. But he
possibly found the reports also puzzling and contradictory. On 15 November,
Willoughby's staff forecast that the most likely sequence of enemy moves would
be (1) Conduct of offensive operations. (2) Reinforce with communist forces from
outside Korea. (3) Conduct guerrilla operations. (4) Defend. Then, in
amplification of this forecast, Willoughby's officers reported:

Information received from Chinese Nationalist military sources,
during the past few days gives strong support to an assumption that
the Chinese Communists intend to "throw the book" at United Nations
forces in Korea.... It is fast becoming apparent that an excessive
number of troops are entering Northeast China.... Such a
marshaling of troops cannot be explained in terms of redeployment
. . . or demobilization. It seems doubtful that the Chinese
Communists, if intending to intervene in Korea would wait until
this late in the war. On the other hand it seems incredible that
the Chinese Communists have deluded themselves with their own
propaganda and fear a United States attack on Manchuria. [9]

Such contradictions could scarcely have been of much help to MacArthur in
deciding for himself what the enemy most probably would do.

On 16 November, General MacArthur was told that the Chinese Communists had
probably deployed twelve divisions of trained soldiers in Korea. Three days
later he was told that "it would appear logical to conclude that Chinese
Communist leaders are preparing their people psychologically for war." On
the same day that the Eighth Army struck northward in its general offensive,
Willoughby reported that "Even though Chinese Communist strategy may not
favor an immediate full-scale war, preparations for such an eventuality appear
to be in progress." [10]

On the second day of the attack, before the Chinese had fully committed
themselves, Far East Command intelligence officers changed the predicted order
of enemy courses of action, placing reinforcement from outside Korea at the top
of the list, and the conduct of offensive operations in second place. But again
MacArthur received contradictory estimates of Chinese intentions when he was
told:

Although too early for concrete evaluation, there are some
indications of a withdrawal of Chinese Communist forces to the Yalu
or across the border into Manchuria. . . On the other hand, there
are many reports of Chinese Communist plans to strengthen their
intervention forces now in Korea and all indications point to a
heavy troop buildup in Northeast China and Manchuria. . . . Also
there are many indications that the Chinese Communists will
stubbornly defend reservoir and power installations along the
Yalu.... [11]

These vacillatory daily reports contained too many qualifying clauses to
permit a positive forecast. But in the sense that they indicated a continuing

Chinese build-up in Manchuria and Korea and that they did point out
psychological and other preparations for an offensive against United Nations
forces, these reports possessed some validity.

The reasons that prompted General MacArthur to persist in his drive to the
border in the face of the very obvious Chinese potential to meet his advance
with considerable military force, must remain conjectural. He was aware of the
presence in Korea of substantial numbers of Chinese soldiers; and his own staff
had warned him of the great Chinese potential for immediate reinforcement. He
had never been told, however, that the enemy had as many divisions in Korea as
actually were present.

MacArthur's determination to pursue his mission to the bitter end appears to
have had its basis in three concepts. First, MacArthur apparently thought that
the Chinese build-up and threatening posture were part of a gigantic bluff and
that the Chinese, since they could not afford to go to war with the United
States, would not attack his forces. The tenor of his message to the Joint
Chiefs of Staff on 24 November, turning down their suggestion that he establish
a holding line some distance short of the Yalu, clearly shows that he minimized
the Chinese menace. [12] He felt, it is also clear, that it was pretty late in
the day for the Chinese to be entering Korea, and that if they had been serious
in their intentions they would have intervened when United Nations forces were
still in the vicinity of the 38th Parallel. Willoughby, too, doubted ". . .
that the Chinese Communists, if intending to intervene in Korea, would wait
until this late in the war." [13]

MacArthur did not fear the Chinese and felt that in the event he was mistaken
and the Chinese were not bluffing, his forces were capable of taking care of
both the Chinese and the North Koreans. For, as noted earlier, he had pointed
out to the Joint Chiefs of Staff that Chinese Communist entry was a risk taken
in full knowledge of the situation. Chinese entry during the Pusan days would
have been extremely dangerous. But now that the UNC held the initiative and had
less area to defend the risk was much smaller. [14] Only a few days before, he
had told the Joint Chiefs that his air forces had succeeded in isolating the
battle area and in cutting off enemy reinforcement and choking off enemy supply.
[15] MacArthur seems to have overestimated the power of his own command vis-à-vis
the Chinese. Both the Eighth Army and the X Corps, he reasoned, were victorious,
battle-tested military forces. His naval and air forces gave him complete
control of the sea and air. Furthermore, Chinese troops, during World War II,
had proven inferior to Japanese troops and thus, by inference, to American
troops.

A significant factor was MacArthur's belief that his air power could isolate the
battlefield. MacArthur still persisted in this view on the eve of the attack to
the Yalu. He announced on 24 November, "My air force for the past three
weeks, in a sustained attack of model coordination and effectiveness,
successfully interdicted enemy lines of support from the

[12] Rad, C 69808, CINCUNC to DA, 25 Nov. 50.

[13] DIS, GHQ, FEC, No. 2998, 15 Nov. 50.

[14] Rad, C 69808, CINCUNC to DA, 25 Nov. 50.

[15] Rad, C 69211, CINCUNC to DA, 18 Nov. 50.

Page 278

north so that further reinforcement therefrom has been sharply curtailed and
essential supplies markedly limited." General Wright contends that this
belief in the effectiveness of air power was one of General MacArthur's greatest
weaknesses in dealing with the Chinese. [16]

But, from all indications, the overriding consideration in MacArthur's decision
to push on to the Yalu was his firm conviction that his mission, "the
destruction of the North Korean Armed Forces," dictated his line of action,
and could be accomplished only by an advance to the border. This mission, in
spite of noticeable tendencies on the part of Washington toward its
modification, was not altered, largely because of MacArthur's vehement protests
during November. [17] When the Joint Chiefs of Staff had told MacArthur on 8
November that ". . . this new situation indicates that your objective . . .
the destruction of the North Korean armed forces may have to be re-examined,"
[18] MacArthur retorted in extremely strong terms that any course short of
complete destruction of the enemy would be tantamount to abject surrender and a
breaking of faith with the peoples of Asia. [19]

There is little doubt that MacArthur ardently believed in his mission and that
he was more than willing to call what he regarded as a Chinese bluff in order to
carry out that mission. He may well have recalled those tenets of American
military doctrine which hold that "the mission is the basic factor in the
commander's estimate," and that "to delay action in an emergency
because of incomplete information shows a lack of energetic leadership, and may
result in lost opportunities. The situation, at times, may require the taking of
calculated risks." This is borne out by his explanation later of his
northward advance as a "reconnaissance in force." He stated the
alternatives which faced him on 24 November. ". . . One," he
testified, "was to ascertain the truth of the strength of what he [the
enemy] had; the other was to sit where we were. Had we done that he would have
built up his forces, and undoubtedly destroyed us. The third was to go in
precipitate retreat, which would not have been countenanced, I am quite sure."
[20]

MacArthur also vindicated his advance by insisting that ". . . the
disposition of those troops [Eighth Army and X Corps], in my opinion, could not
have been improved upon, had I known the Chinese were going to attack."
[21] Actually, the Eighth Army, when hit by the Chinese, was deployed on a broad
front with its right flank open and was supported by few reserves. Almond's
corps was strung out in widely separated columns advancing through extremely
rugged terrain. Not only was the X Corps' left flank unprotected, but Chinese
forces of considerable strength had been reported on that flank.

Emergency Meeting-Tokyo

General MacArthur called an emergency council of war in Tokyo on the night of 28
November. Generals Walker

and Almond, hastily summoned from Korea, joined MacArthur, Hickey, Wright,
Willoughby, and Whitney at MacArthur's American Embassy residence. In a meeting
which lasted from 2150, 28 November, until 0130, 29 November, the seven officers
studied the possible countermoves in meeting the entry of the Chinese.
MacArthur, feeling that above all he must save his forces, finally ordered
Walker to make withdrawals as necessary to keep the Chinese from outflanking him
and directed Almond to maintain contact with the Chinese but to contract the X
Corps into the Hamhung-Hungnam area.

Since the Eighth Army seemed in greater danger than Almond's corps, the main
theme of the conference appears to have been "What can X Corps do to help
Eighth Army?" When General Almond held that his first mission was to
extricate the Marine and Army forces cut off in the Changjin Reservoir area,
MacArthur agreed but asked Almond what he could do to relieve the Chinese
pressure on Walker's right flank. General Wright suggested that Almond might
send the U.S. 3d Division west across the Taebaek mountain range to join Eighth
Army and to attack Chinese forces moving in on Walker's right flank. Pointing
out that the road across the Taebaek Range appeared on the map but was actually
nonexistent, Almond objected that the bitter winter weather and the possibility
of strong Chinese forces in the gap between the two commands would make any such
relief expedition an extremely hazardous venture in which the whole 3d Division
might be lost. But he agreed to the scheme if Eighth Army would supply the
division after it crossed to the west side of the Taebaek Mountains. Walker made
no such promise, and MacArthur made no immediate decision on the attack. He
later ordered, then canceled, a drive by a task force from the 3d Division to
link up with the Eighth Army right flank. [22]

In Washington, meanwhile, the Joint Chiefs of Staff accepted General MacArthur's
appraisal of the situation and approved his plans for passing from the offensive
to the defensive. For some time, Admiral Sherman, Chief of Naval Operations, had
been expressing concern over MacArthur's operations in northeastern Korea. In
his opinion, the employment of U.S. naval vessels in support of the X Corps so
close to Vladivostok offered the Russians a tempting pretext for intervening if
they were so inclined. He insisted that the X Corps should be withdrawn to a
general consolidated defense line.

On 29 November, the Joint Chiefs of Staff told MacArthur to put aside any
previous directives in conflict with his current plan to defend. After calling
attention to the need for coordinating Eighth Army and X Corps operations, the
Joint Chiefs suggested that MacArthur should close the gap, more than thirty
airline miles in width in the beginning and now widening, between Walker and
Almond and form a continuous defense line across the peninsula. [23] But
MacArthur differed with the Joint Chiefs. According to him, X Corps

units "geographically threatened" the main supply lines of enemy
forces bearing down upon the right flank of the Eighth Army. He maintained that
the Chinese had been forced to commit an estimated eight divisions to ward off X
Corps thrusts against their supply lines, thus depriving them of eight divisions
to throw against the Eighth Army. So long as the X Corps stayed in this
position, MacArthur insisted, the Chinese could not, with any degree of safety
or assurance of success, penetrate to the south through the existing corridor.
He pointed out also the great difficulties of closing the gap.

Any concept of actual physical combination of the forces of the
Eighth Army and X Corps in a practically continuous line across the
narrow neck of Korea is quite impracticable due to the length of
this line, the numerical weakness of our forces, and the logistical
problems created by the mountainous divide which splits such a
front from north to south. [24]

As to the immediate situation within the X Corps, General MacArthur informed
his superiors that he had ordered Almond to pull his forces into the
Hamhung-Hungnam sector. Almond had been specifically warned against allowing any
piecemeal isolation and trapping of his forces. These forces were already
fighting their way out of isolation and entrapment. MacArthur believed that,
while the X Corps might seem overextended, the terrain conditions would make it
extremely difficult for the Chinese Army to take any advantage of this fact.
[25]

In a second message a few hours later, MacArthur gloomily predicted that the
Eighth Army would not be able to make a stand in the foreseeable future and
would ". . . successively have to replace to the rear." He had now
concluded that the Chinese intended to destroy the U.N. forces completely and to
secure all of Korea. [26]

General MacArthur's disclosure of plans for pulling the X Corps back into the
Hamhung-Hungnam sector and his forecast of more withdrawals by the Eighth Army
only increased the Joint Chiefs' concern. MacArthur's citation of the formidable
mountainous terrain as a deterrent to enemy advances in strength was nullified,
in the opinion of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, by the Chinese demonstrated ability
to negotiate rugged land barriers. The compression of the X Corps, with the
accompanying development of a progressively widening gap between Almond's and
Walker's forces would, the Joint Chiefs told MacArthur on X December, afford the
Chinese additional opportunity to move strong forces southward between the
Eighth Army and X Corps. The first task, in their opinion, was to extricate the
Marines and 7th Division troops from the Changjin Reservoir. But once that was
done, they wanted the Eighth Army and X Corps "sufficiently coordinated to
prevent large enemy forces from passing between them or outflanking either of
them." Following their custom of not directing MacArthur's tactical
disposition by specific orders, the Joint Chiefs of Staff discreetly but
pointedly suggested once again that he join his forces in a defensive line
across the peninsula. [27]

[24] Rad, C 50095, CINCUNC to DA for JCS, 30 Nov. 50.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Rad, C 50105, CINCFE to DA, 30 Nov. 50.

[27] Rad, JCS 97772, JCS to CINCFE, 1 Dec. 50.

Page 281

But MacArthur remained solidly against any junction of the Eighth Army and X
Corps at this time. Joining the two forces, he explained to his Washington
superiors, would produce no significant added strength. It would, on the other
hand, endanger the freedom of maneuver deriving from their separate lines of
supply by sea. [28]

General MacArthur again offered other objections. He called the development of a
defense line across the waist of the peninsula infeasible because of the
numerical weakness of his forces and the distances involved. He called to the
attention of the Joint Chiefs of Staff the necessity of supplying his two major
forces from ports within their respective areas; and he reminded them of the
geographical division of the peninsula into two compartments by the Taebaek
mountain range which ran north and south between the Eighth Army and X Corps. A
continuous line across the narrow waist would be approximately 120 airline
miles, or 150 road miles, in length. MacArthur explained:

If the entire United States force of seven divisions at my disposal
were placed along this defensive line it would mean that a division
would be forced to protect a front of approximately twenty miles
against greatly superior numbers of an enemy whose greatest
strength is a potential for night infiltration through rugged
terrain. Such a line with no depth, would have little strength, and
as a defensive concept would invite penetration with resultant
envelopment and piecemeal destruction.

MacArthur apparently had changed his mind about the ability of the Chinese
to operate over the rough terrain in the gap between the X Corps and Eighth
Army. [29]

MacArthur doubted that the Joint Chiefs fully realized the great changes wrought
by the Chinese entry. He tabulated for them the latest of his intelligence
agencies' estimates of enemy strength. Twenty-six Chinese divisions had been
identified in combat and an additional 200,000 men were either in reserve or
being committed. This formidable array of enemy strength was further augmented
by the remnants of the North Korean Army which were being reorganized in rear
areas. ". . . There stands, of course, behind all this, the entire military
potential of Communist China." [30]

The terrain on which the fighting was taking place was having a twofold effect
on the course of battle. It diminished the effectiveness of MacArthur's air arm
in trying to channelize and interrupt the Chinese system of supply. Secondly,
the rough ground aided the enemy in his dispersion tactics. These drawbacks,
MacArthur maintained, greatly reduced the normal benefits which would be
expected from complete control of the air. His naval potential, too, was greatly
minimized by the concentration of enemy forces in areas inaccessible to naval
gunfire. Under these circumstances, MacArthur held, the potential destructive
force of the United Nations combined arms was greatly reduced and the question
was becoming more and more one of the relative combat effectiveness of ground
forces. [31]

Commenting on the condition of his

[28] Rad, C 50332, CINCUNC to DA for JCS, 3 Dec. 50.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Ibid.

[31] Ibid.

Page 282

own forces, MacArthur pointed out that while they so far had exhibited good
morale and marked efficiency, they had been in almost incessant combat for five
months and were mentally fatigued and physically battered. Moreover, with the
exception of the 1st Marine Division, each American division then in Korea was
at least 5,000 men understrength. The Chinese troops, on the other hand,
appeared to be fresh, very well organized, splendidly trained and equipped, and
apparently in peak condition for actual operations. [32]

MacArthur concluded that unless he promptly got ground reinforcements of the
greatest magnitude, his command would be forced either into successive
withdrawals with diminishing powers of resistance after each such move, or into
taking up beachhead positions which, while insuring a degree of prolonged
resistance, would afford little hope of anything beyond defense. He charged that
his directives were now completely outmoded. The strategic concepts which had
been evolved for operations against the North Korean Army were not suitable for
continued application against the full power of the Chinese. Without being
specific, MacArthur then called for sterner measures than he was then authorized
to employ. "This calls for political decisions and strategic plans in
implementation thereof, adequate fully to meet the realities involved," he
declared. "In this, time is of the essence, as every hour sees the enemy
power increase and ours decline." [33] In clear terms, the United Nations
commander issued a prognosis which expressed his pessimism unmistakably. He told
the authorities in Washington:

This small command, actually under present conditions, is facing
the entire Chinese nation in an undeclared war, and, unless some
positive and immediate action is taken, hope for success cannot be
justified and steady attrition leading to final destruction can
reasonably be contemplated. [34]

Faced with General MacArthur's strong objection to a defensive line across
the peninsula, the Joint Chiefs of Staff yielded to his judgment. On 4 December,
after obtaining President Truman's approval, they told MacArthur that they now
regarded the preservation of his forces as the primary consideration and agreed
to the consolidation of forces into beachheads. [35]

Eight thousand miles away from the fighting, however, the Joint Chiefs of Staff
could not fully sense conditions in Korea. Consequently, General Collins flew to
the Far East for conferences with MacArthur, Walker, and Almond and for a
firsthand view of the battle. Collins intended to find out from MacArthur what
chance he had to defend success fully, what general line or area he could hold,
and for how long. Secondly, Collins wanted to obtain MacArthur's opinion of a
cease-fire. [33]

Collins Visits Korea

Collins arrived in Tokyo on the morning of 4 December, conferred briefly with
General MacArthur, then flew to

Korea for talks with General Walker and to inspect the Eighth Army's lines.
Walker's troops had been withdrawing southward as agreed at the 28 November
Tokyo conference, and although enemy pressure had lessened, were, at the time of
Collins' inspection, dropping back below Sukch'on and Sunch'on to positions not
far north of P'yongyang. Walker had already told MacArthur that he could not
hold P'yongyang and estimated that the enemy would unquestionably force him to
pull south of the 38th Parallel to the vicinity of Seoul.

Walker told Collins that he could continue the withdrawal without serious losses
unless he were ordered to defend the Seoul-Inch'on area. If this happened the
Chinese could encircle him. Walker felt, and General Collins concurred, that an
evacuation from Inch'on would be very costly. If evacuation became necessary,
Walker wanted to withdraw from Pusan, not Inch'on. He was confident he could get
his forces safely into the Pusan area, and even considered it possible that he
could hold there indefinitely if the X Corps reinforced him. [37]

Walker's troops passed below P'yongyang on 5 December, destroying many supplies
there and falling back to new positions to the south. On the next day, General
Collins flew to Hamhung to see General Almond. He found Almond confident that he
could hold the Hamhung-Hungnam area for a considerable time without serious
losses, and that he could withdraw successfully and cheaply when so ordered.
Collins agreed with Almond's estimate.

Returning to Tokyo for a final conference on 6 December, Collins met with
General MacArthur, Admiral Joy, and General Stratemeyer, and with key staff
officers, Hickey, Willoughby, and Wright, for a full discussion of what moves to
take against the Chinese. As a framework for their talks, they projected three
hypothetical situations covering the next few weeks or months.

In the first, they posited that the Chinese would continue their all-out attack,
but with MacArthur forbidden to mount air attacks against China; that no
blockade of China would be set up; that no reinforcements would be sent to Korea
by Chiang Kai-shek; that there would be no substantial increase in MacArthur's
U.S. forces until April 1951 when four National Guard divisions might be sent
MacArthur; and that the atomic bomb might be used in North Korea. General
MacArthur spoke strongly, charging that placement of such limitations on his
command while it remained under strong Chinese attack would represent
essentially a surrender. Under these conditions the question of an armistice
would be a political matter, helpful perhaps, but certainly not requisite from a
military standpoint. His forces would have to be withdrawn from Korea in any
case, and the United States should therefore not be hasty in seeking an
armistice under these conditions. He agreed with Walker and Almond, as did
General Collins, that the United Nations forces could be safely withdrawn from
Pusan and Hungnam respectively, with or without an armistice.

Under the second set of conditions, the conferees assumed a situation in which
the Chinese attack would continue, but with an effective naval

blockade of China put in effect, air reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese
mainland allowed, Chinese Nationalist forces exploited to the maximum, and the
atomic bomb to be used if tactically appropriate. Given these conditions,
General MacArthur said he should be directed to hold positions in Korea as far
north as possible. He would, in this case, move Almond's X Corps to Pusan to
join the Eighth Army in an overland movement.

Under the third postulate, that the Chinese would agree not to cross south of
the 38th Parallel, MacArthur felt the United Nations should accept an armistice.
The conditions of the armistice should preclude movement of North Korean forces,
as well as of Chinese, below the parallel; North Korean guerrillas should
withdraw into their own territory; the Eighth Army should remain in positions
covering the Seoul-Inch'on area, while X Corps pulled back to Pusan; and a
United Nations commission should supervise the implementation of armistice
terms. He viewed these as the best arrangements that could be made, unless the
United Nations should decide to act under the second postulate. He reiterated a
firm belief that the Chinese Nationalists should send troops to Korea without
delay and that other powers in the United Nations should increase their
contingents to a total U.N. strength of at least 75,000. He concluded by telling
General Collins that unless substantial reinforcements were sent quickly to his
command, the United Nations Command should pull out of Korea. [38]

MacArthur Is Warned

General MacArthur indeed felt that he was being forced to fight the Chinese with
his hands tied. His resentment displayed during talks with General Collins had
already welled over into public channels, giving rise to official concern and
laying the groundwork for later controversy. Shortly before his 6 December
meeting with Collins, MacArthur in an interview with the editors of U.S.
News and World Report had severely criticized the restrictions placed upon
his command. He called the continuing prohibition against hot pursuit and
bombing Chinese bases in Manchuria "an enormous handicap, without precedent
in Military History." [39]

He also had sent a message to Hugh Baillie, president of United Press, in which
he again criticized the national policies under which he was operating.
Disturbed by MacArthur's actions, President Truman on 5 December ordered the
Joint Chiefs of Staff to inform all unified commanders that any public statement
concerning foreign policy should be cleared with the Department of Defense
before issuance. He aimed this action directly at MacArthur. [40] The

[40] (1) New York Times, December 2, 1950. (2) Rad, W 98310, DA to
CINCFE, 8 Dec. 50. (1) and (2) are reproduced in MacArthur Hearings, pp.
3532-35. (3) The President later charged that MacArthur's repeated statements
had led many into the impression that the United States had changed its policy.
This the President would not allow. Therefore on 5 December he issued an order
to all government agencies that until they received further written notice from
him all speeches, press releases, or other public statements concerning foreign
policy would be cleared by the Department of State before issuance. In a second
such notice he admonished all officials overseas, including military commanders,
to use caution in their public statements, to clear all but routine statements
with their departments, and to engage in no direct communication on military or
foreign policy matters with newspapers, magazines, or other publicity media in
the United States. See Truman, Memoirs, II, 383.

Page 285

effect of these instructions became apparent almost immediately when MacArthur
on 9 December submitted for approval by the Department of Defense a communiqué
which he proposed to release to the press. MacArthur stated that his forces had
successfully completed tactical withdrawals and were now waiting for "political
decisions and policies demanded by the entry of Communist China into the war."
He continued, "The suggestion widely broadcast that the command has
suffered a rout or debacle is pure nonsense." He charged that "Advance
notice of the Chinese decision to attack was a matter for political intelligence
which failed.... Field intelligence was so handicapped that once the decision to
commit was made, this new enemy could move forward . . . without fear of
detection." [41]

The Joint Chiefs of Staff took exception and replied in a chiding vein that the
proposed release did not conform to the President's instructions and that in the
future he should confine such communiques to completed phases of military
operations. "Discussion of foreign and military policy referenced to press
comments and comments relative to political or domestic matters should not be
included in military communiques issued in the field," they pointed out.
[42]

High Level Conferences

Collins, upon his return to Washington, told the Joint Chiefs of Staff, "If
the United Nations decision is not to continue an all out attack in Korea and if
the Chinese Communists continue to attack, MacArthur should be directed to take
the necessary steps to prevent the destruction of his forces pending final
evacuation from Korea." [43]

No one was more aware of the need for wise decisions than was the President, who
now had to make them. The military collapse in Korea had effectively erased any
illusion that the current national policies would continue to serve national
interests. The crises evolving from the military failure in Korea and the even
more ominous catastrophe of open and unrestrained military action by the Chinese
had shocked Washington as well as Tokyo. But this was not the time for hasty
judgments. In the tinder-dry international atmosphere the wrong decision could
fan the brush fire in Korea into a flaming worldwide holocaust. Since a bad
decision would be worse than no decision at all, the President and his advisers
moved slowly and with great thoroughness and caution in their search for the
right answers.

President Truman first learned of the Chinese assault early on 28 November when
General Bradley gave him MacArthur's first reports of the crushing blows being
dealt his forces. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, already alerted by the increasing
resistance to the Eighth Army's advance, had been watching the situation closely
all during the preceding day. President Truman called immediately

[41] Rad, C 50736, CINCFE to DA, 8 Dec. 50.

[42] Rad, JCS 98410, JCS to CINCFE, 9 Dec. 50.

[43] Memo, Collins for JCS, 8 Dec. 50.

Page 286

for a meeting of the National Security Council. [44]

General Bradley told the council that the Joint Chiefs of Staff considered the
new turn in Korea to be very serious but not so devastating as newspaper reports
indicated. He stressed the dangers of MacArthur's command being attacked from
Manchurian airfields, but advised against authorizing MacArthur to bomb those
airfields.

Secretary of Defense Marshall recommended in strongest terms that neither the
United States nor the United Nations become involved in a general war with
China. He was joined in this view by all the service secretaries and by the
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Reflecting the emphasis which U.S. military planners were
placing on the defense of western Europe, General Bradley warned that if the
United States allowed itself to become embroiled in an all-out fight with China
it would not be able to continue the build-up of forces in Europe. General
Marshall added that it was essential for the United States, in dealing with this
new and very serious aggression, to keep strictly within the framework of the
United Nations, regardless of the difficulties which might arise.

The council was in general agreement that the Chinese intervention made it
extremely urgent for the United States to build up its military forces and to
enlarge its efforts to procure both men and materials. The President also agreed
with this view and with the necessity for sending to Congress a supplementary
budget to take care of the increased costs of greater military readiness.

The Secretary of State told the council that the Chinese attack on U.N. forces
had moved the United States much closer to general war. Always to be kept in
mind in approaching the Korean problem, he stressed, was that the real
antagonist, the power behind the scene in Korea and elsewhere, was Russia.
Therefore, any action that President Truman might eventually take must be taken
with full knowledge that a war with Russia could be the result. If, for example,
the United States successfully bombed Chinese airfields in Manchuria, the
President believed that Russia would have cheerfully entered the fight. [45]

The foreign policy of the United States was, and had been for the past three
years, predicated on containing the USSR within its 1947 limits. Now, if the
United States took action in or against Chinese territory and entered the USSR's
perimeter of special influence and interest, it would risk a war it might not
win. Acheson believed that there were a number of ways in which the United
States could damage the Chinese without going to war with them, although he did
not enumerate these means. But he had concluded that it would be best for the
United States to find some way to end the fighting in Korea.

Over the next several days, President Truman held more meetings with his top
advisers and with Congressional leaders but made no decisions on courses of
action. MacArthur, in his call for political decisions, had not explained what
he meant by the term. But certainly new

[44] (1) Truman, Memoirs, II, 385-87. (2) The following section is
based, in addition to specific citation, on an interview by the author with Mr.
Truman at Independence, Missouri, in June 1961.

[45] Truman, Memoirs, II, 387-88.

Page 287

national policies must now be established with regard to such questions as
whether to retaliate against China and whether to attempt to negotiate a
cease-fire. Vital in answering these questions was the determination of USSR
intentions, of the price which the United States could afford to pay for a
cease-fire, of the effects of voluntary withdrawal from Korea, and of the effect
of all these matters upon America's allies, particularly those of very
possibility of increased and more western Europe. [46]

Although General MacArthur had not yet expressed strong public views on the
subject, his obvious opinion that the United States should strike back at China,
particularly manifest in his readiness to attack the Yalu installations in early
November, had aroused the nations allied with the United States in NATO. NATO
had existed more than a year and a half, but its military forces were still in
the planning stages. The forces of the member nations in western Europe were at
the time few in number, poorly equipped, badly trained, and inadequately
supported. They would be virtually defenseless against the Soviet Union, or even
some of its satellite nations. Without American aid, in event of an attack from
the east, the nations of western Europe could anticipate much the same fate that
had befallen South Korea in the first days of the Korean War. These nations,
particularly England, France, and the Benelux countries, had therefore welcomed
the Presidential decision to oppose the North Korean venture with armed force.
Until then there had been real doubt among these nations that the United States
would actually fulfill its NATO obligation should one of them be attacked. [47]
These doubts had been largely removed by the President's action in June.

But the extension of the Korean War through Chinese intervention and the

very possibility of increased and more drastic action by the United States,
brought another fear that if the United States became involved in a war with
Communist China, American commitments to NATO would, through sheer necessity, go
by the board. China then might have little difficulty in persuading Russia to
move into western Europe; and without U.S. resistance to this aggression, Russia
could take all of Europe at little cost. [48]

[46] Like so many other decisions of the Korean War, the decision to evacuate
Korea defied classification as either political or military. Ostensibly
military, the decision nevertheless held profound political implications such as
its effect on the South Koreans, the Japanese, the Formosans, and U.S. allies in
other areas of the world.

[47] Article 5 of the Charter of the North Atlantic Treaty stated, "The
Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or
North America shall be considered an attack against them all; and consequently
they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of
the right of individual or collective self defense, recognized by Article 51 of
the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked
by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such
action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and
maintain the security of the North Atlantic area."

[48] Sentiment in the NATO nations was influenced measurably by exaggerated
speculation in the foreign press. President Truman was aware that foreign
newspapers were speculating openly about the American reaction, quoting some of
the more hawkish senators and talking about General MacArthur's ill-concealed
disapproval of American policy. Some of these papers actually predicted that the
United States would ignore the United Nations and plunge into a war with China.
Most Europeans had heard only that there was opposition to NATO and to sending
American troops to Europe. See Truman, Memoirs, II, 394-95.

Page 288

The NATO nations, people and leaders alike, distrusted General MacArthur's
strategic judgment. They feared that his stature and influence might enable him
to appeal so forcibly to the American people for more drastic military action as
to override the more temperate approaches to the Chinese which seemed to be
favored by Washington.

At times, even Washington officials set NATO nerves on edge with public
statements. On 30 November, at a press conference, President Truman remarked, no
doubt extemporaneously, that the use of the atomic bomb was under active
consideration, unintentionally implying to some oversensitive observers that its
use would be left to the discretion of General MacArthur. Even though
subsequently he attempted to subdue the storm of protest and consternation which
followed by pointing out that only he could authorize use of the atomic bomb and
that he had not given such authorization, he could not avoid the real issue that
any decision to use the bomb would be a United States, not a United Nations,
decision. [49]

The United Kingdom was predominant among the anxious advocates of the NATO
viewpoint. The most respected leaders of that nation, including Winston
Churchill and Anthony Eden, and of the Commonwealth of Nations, were seriously
disturbed by rumors that MacArthur wanted stern measures against China. As a
result of the mounting tension which, conceivably, could have shattered NATO and
the western bloc of the United Nations as well, Clement Attlee, Prime Minister
of the United Kingdom, proposed conferences between himself and President
Truman. These were quickly arranged and scheduled to begin on 4 December. [50]

In the interim, Attlee conferred with leaders of the other Commonwealth nations
and with the French Premier and Foreign Minister. Apparently, he was also to
represent the viewpoints of these nations in his talks with President Truman.

On the day before Attlee's arrival in Washington, and primarily in preparation
for his visit, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of State, Presidential
Adviser Averell Harriman, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff met to discuss the
possible courses of action open to the United States. One matter of paramount
concern was how to solve the current crisis, and at the same time preserve
solidarity in the United Nations, especially with the British Commonwealth
nations. At this meeting, the nation's top authorities reached general agreement
that the military posture of the United States should be strengthened without
delay. The Army staff was already making studies to determine what increase in
production schedules and in Army forces and personnel should be made. [51]

With particular regard to Korea, one suggestion was that the United States
should press the United Nations for a resolution calling for a cease-fire on the
condition that the Eighth Army leave

[50] The President received a message from the British Prime Minister,
Clement Attlee, on 30 November, asking to visit Washington and to discuss, face
to face, the meaning of events in Korea and the possible courses of future
action. See Truman, Memoirs, II, 393.

North Korea and pull back across the 38th Parallel. Any such resolution would
obviously have to be passed before the Chinese pushed the Eighth Army across the
parallel by force. There was also much concern over the price that the Chinese
would demand for agreeing to a cease-fire.

Another point discussed was whether the United Nations forces, in the absence of
a cease-fire, should evacuate as soon as they had withdrawn into beachheads or
wait until the enemy forced them out. The conferees also examined the no less
important question of whether the United States should attack Communist China by
air and sea after the United Nations were forced out of Korea. No definite
recommendations for the President as to courses of action evolved from this
meeting. It was agreed that such recommendations must await the return of
General Collins, then still in Korea, as well as the results of the conferences
which were to begin next day between President Truman and Prime Minister Attlee.

The British Prime Minister was thought to be particularly disturbed by President
Truman's remarks on possible use of the atomic bomb. The British position was
that the atomic bomb should certainly not be used without consultation-and
probably not without agreement-with them and perhaps other members of the United
Nations; and they were strongly opposed to its use in China. [52]

Just before the arrival of Attlee, Department of State officials examined the
reasons behind his unusual request for a conference with President Truman and
Attlee's attitude on the Korean situation. The occasion for Mr. Attlee's visit,
they concluded, was "the sudden change in the situation in Korea."
[53]

The growing British concern over the U.S. foreign and defense policies stemmed
in part from what Department of State officials described as "the
deterioration in the position of the West vis-à-vis the Soviet Union."
The British did not entirely trust the discretion of the United States. Their
concern was heightened by uncertainty as to the consequences of some United
States policies and actions. This concern was not peculiar to the British but
was known to be shared by other western powers. [54]

The Department of State forecast that Attlee would express to Truman the genuine
fear shared by all British peoples that the United States was drifting toward a
third world war and that even though an open war with Russia might be avoided,
the United States would become more completely embroiled in an exhausting war
with Communist China. The two particularly sensitive points in this connection
were the immediate situ-

52 (1) Rad, DA (Haislip) to CINCFE (Collins via Larsen), unnumbered, 3 Dec. 50.
(2) The reaction of the Chinese, as described by the Indian Ambassador, to the
statement of President Truman seems to have been opportunistic. "It was the
next morning (the 1t of December)," Pannikar recalls, "that Truman
announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese
seemed totally unmoved by this threat.... The propaganda against American
aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made
the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more
rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that
Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the revolution to enable
them to keep up the tempo of their activities." See Pannikar, In Two
Chinas: Memoirs of a Diplomat, pp. 116-17.

[53] JCS 2176/l, 3 Dec. 50, Incl B.

[54] Ibid.

Page 290

ation facing U.N. forces in Korea and the U.S. policy on Formosa. [55]

The Department of State officials told the Joint Chiefs of Staff:

With respect to Korea there is profound concern that actions have
been and may continue to be taken which unnecessarily aggravate the
situation and bring us closer to war with China. Germane to this is
the rather widespread British distrust of General MacArthur and the
fear of political decisions he may make based on military
necessity. Bearing on this is the British belief in the buffer area
and their stand against attacks across the Yalu. Also involved is
the fear of the effect on Asiatics of use of the Atomic Bomb or
even open consideration of its use. [56]

The Joint Chiefs of Staff were in complete agreement with that portion of
the Department of State's conclusion which stated:

We believe that the British are very sincere in their concern over
the above matters and that they should be handled with full
understanding and appreciation of that fact. Although we approach
them with understanding and sympathy and meet them wherever
reasonably possible, we should not give them cause to think that we
are fully satisfied with British actions and policies. In
particular, the occasion should be taken to emphasize to them the
importance and urgency of getting along with the defense effort.
They are inclined sometimes to regard the world situation as
primarily a United States-Soviet problem and therefore to keep the
sights for their own efforts too low. [57]

Insofar as the specifics of action in Korea were concerned, the Department
of State recommended to the President, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff concurred,
that he should make no commitment to Attlee restricting the freedom of action of
the United States on use of the atomic bomb. The President should tell Attlee
that the United States did not desire to use the atomic bomb and stress that the
United States fully realized the dire consequences of using the bomb. He should
also tell the British Prime Minister that the United States desired and expected
to move in step with the British in meeting the current crisis. [58]

The Department of State proposed that President Truman should discuss with the
British Prime Minister two possible courses of action in Korea. The first of
these involved a withdrawal of U.N. forces to a line on the 38th Parallel in
conjunction with a possible cease-fire agreement. The second course was the
evacuation of all of Korea. In the event of military necessity, the Department
of State held, the X Corps should withdraw from Korea to Japan and an attempt
should be made to stabilize the situation by a political cease-fire agreement,
with the line of demarcation between forces along the 38th Parallel. The
Department of State wanted President Truman to tell Attlee that MacArthur
intended to assemble his forces into three beachheads: in the Seoul-Inch'on
area, at Hamhung, and at Pusan. The X Corps could be evacuated to Japan in any
way that proved militarily practicable. [59]

The proposal held:

Before the Chinese Communists have reached the 38th Parallel in
strength we should try to establish a cease-fire on the basis of
the 38th Parallel with the armies

separated by a demilitarized zone. The principal purpose of this
effort would be to deny success to aggression and to consolidate an
overwhelming majority of the United Nations members behind the
cease-fire effort. Arrangements for a cease-fire on the basis of the
38th Parallel would not, however, be conditioned on agreement to
other issues, such as Formosa and the seating of Communist China in
the United Nations.

During the cease-fire effort (apparently before a cease-fire had been agreed
to by both parties), the United Nations would retire on the Seoul-Inch'on area,
but would not begin any evacuation until the results of the cease-fire were
determined. [60]

While the Joint Chiefs of Staff and their planning staff agreed that a
cease-fire might be militarily advantageous for the United Nations Command under
conditions then obtaining, they wanted to be sure of two things. First, the
considerations offered the Chinese in exchange for a cease-fire agreement must
not be too great, and, secondly, the United Nations commander must not be
operationally restricted. Such a plan as the Department of State proposed,
dictating not only the area into which the Eighth Army would retire but also
restricting the conditions under which MacArthur might evacuate his troops, was
unacceptable. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, in revising the Department of State
proposals, cut out any reference to the evacuation of the X Corps. "Arrangements
for this cease-fire," the Joint Chiefs of Staff maintained, "must not
impose conditions which would jeopardize the safety of United Nations forces."
In other words, MacArthur must be free to withdraw at any time. They also
objected to the Department of State provision that would have compelled the
Eighth Army to withdraw on the Seoul-Inch'on area. [61]

In the Department of State's recommendation to President Truman regarding the
possible necessity of evacuating Korea was the explanation that the Department's
position did ". . . not exclude the possibility of some military action
which would harass the Chinese pending their acceptance of a United Nations
settlement for Korea and would not exclude any efforts which could be made to
stimulate anti-Communist resistance within China itself, including the
exploitation of Nationalist capabilities." [62]

It is significant, in view of the early December date, that the Joint Chiefs of
Staff seized upon this discreetly worded hint of retaliatory measures and
reworded it, not only in stronger terms, but by adding several possible
retaliatory measures later proposed by General MacArthur, to include a naval
blockade of China and bombing of Chinese lines of communication outside of
Korea. [63]

President Truman and Prime Minister Attlee met at the White House on 4 December
and on each day thereafter for five days. Also present at these meetings were
Secretary of Defense Marshall and Secretary of State Acheson as well as the
British Ambassador to the United States. Discussion was frank, open, and occa-

It was very clear that the British, and by inference the other NATO nations,
while they had no intention of deserting the United States, could not reconcile
themselves to what they believed to be its unrealistic and extremely dangerous
policy in relation to Red China. Attlee took the position at first that there
was no choice under current conditions but to negotiate with the Chinese
Communists, with such negotiations most certainly extending beyond Korea and
amounting to the surrender of Formosa to the Communists, a grant of United
Nations status to the Chinese Communists, and the recognition of their
government by the United States as the price for a cease-fire and the withdrawal
of Chinese troops from the Korean peninsula. [65]

President Truman emphasized that it was not the American policy to desert its
friends when the going got rough. He pointed out that the United States did not
make distinctions between little aggressions and big aggressions. President
Truman's position coincided with that of the Joint Chiefs of Staff when he told
Attlee that if a cease-fire were proposed the United States would accept it, but
the United States would pay nothing for it. If a cease-fire were not accepted,
or if it were accepted and the Chinese later started fighting again, the United
States would fight as hard as it could.

Acheson agreed that an immediate cease-fire in Korea would be of advantage to
the United Nations. But to buy that cease-fire in the fashion suggested would be
unacceptable to the United States. The American leaders were opposed to Attlee's
suggestions on the ground that they would actually reward China for her acts of
aggression and would seriously weaken the position of the United States in the
Far East, politically as well as militarily. As for U.S. retaliation against
China, no promises were made by American authorities that they would not take
more active measures such as blockade or bombardment of the mainland; but Attlee
was assured that few of the President's key advisers were urging this course and
that, as a basic principle of its policy, the United States was determined to
avoid any enlargement of the conflict if at all possible.

Following their meeting on 7 December, Attlee and President Truman agreed that
there would be no general voluntary evacuation of Korea at that time. General
Collins, having returned from Korea, on 9 December briefed the two heads of
government on the military situation. After the briefing he told reporters that
MacArthur's forces would be able to take care of themselves without further
serious losses. [66]

After more discussions between the two heads of state, certain agreements were
reached. Among these was agreement that neither the United States nor the United
Kingdom would object to

[64] (1) This resume of the discussions is based on messages sent to General
MacArthur by the Department of State informing him of the progress: Rad, CM-IN
18584, State to SCAP, 8 Dec. 50; Rad, CM-IN 19784, State to SCAP, 12 Dec. 50.
(2) Truman, in his memoirs, gives a good deal of information on the trend of
these talks and of his private conversations with Attlee. See Truman, Memoirs,
II, 396-413 and Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 480-85.

[65] Rad, CM-IN 18584, State to SCAP, 8 Dec. 50.

[66] New York Times, December 7, 1950 and December 9, 1950.

Page 293

any appeal by Asiatic nations to the Chinese Communists for a cease-fire. It was
agreed that the objective of both nations was to achieve a free and united
Korea. A cease-fire and peaceful solution of the current conflict with the
Chinese Communists was desirable in the immediate future if it could be secured
on honorable terms. There was no disagreement on the matter of keeping Communist
China out of the United Nations, and there was agreement that the Chinese
Communists would not be granted any payment for a peaceful solution in Korea,
such as Formosa or Indochina. If no solution could be obtained, American and
British troops would fight in Korea until they were forced out. [67]