Chapter 5: The Meanings and Uses of the Modal Verbs 26 The Meanings and Uses of Can and Could

27 The Meanings and Uses of May and Might

28 The Meanings and Uses of Will, Shall, Would and Should 29 The Meanings and Uses of Must, Need to and Have to

158 159 169 176 189

Chapter 6: The Tenses: Their Meanings and Uses 30 The Meanings and Uses of the Present Tenses

31 The Meanings and Uses of the Past Tenses

32 The Meanings and Uses of the Future Tenses

33 The Meanings and Uses of the Conditional Tenses 34 Tenses in Direct and Indirect Speech

199 201 208 220 226 237

Appendix of Irregular Verbs

245

Index

258

Answers

261

Preface

--- -

For grammarians in the ancient world, the verb was the key word in the sentence, and this view is shared by many modern grammarians too. Whether verbs are actually more important than, say, nouns or adjectives might be debated, but there is no doubt that anyone who wishes to speak any language well must have a firm grasp of the verb grammar of that language.

It is certainly true that in many languages the grammar of verbs is far more complicated than that of any other part of speech. English is one such language. Learners of English must get to grips with the correct use of the verb tenses, the meanings of lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs, the uses of the modal verbs (such as can and wil/), the spelling rules relating to verbs (stay ~ stays but cry ~ cries; rain ~ raining but run ~ running), irregular verbs (such as sing/sang/sung and go/went/gone), and much more besides. Learners also have to cope with the terminology used in describing verb grammar, such as transitive and intransitive, finite and non-finite, and indicative and subjunctive.

Verbs lind Tenses aims to help learners of English through the difficulties they may encounter when trying to master English verbs. Chapters 2 to 5 of the book provide a clear, concise, but complete description of all the important rules of English verb grammar and spelling, while in Chapter 1 learners will find a quick introduction to much of the grammatical terminology they will need. Other grammatical terms are introduced and explained in the later sections of the book as and when they are required. Each grammatical point discussed is illustrated with many examples of usage, and at the end of each unit there are exercises by means of which students can test themselves on what they have learnt.

The main focus in Verbs lind Tenses is on British English, but throughout the book attention is drawn to points of difference between British and American usage.

Thanks are due to Anne Seaton and Y H Mew for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this book, and to Dr Andrew Watson, Principal Teacher of Chemistry in Currie Community High School, Edinburgh, Scotland, for supplying the material on which Exercise B of Unit 24 is based.

George Davidson

Chapter

What I s a Uerb?

A verb is a word that either describes an action or an event (what someone or something does) or else helps to describe a state or a condition (what someone or something is or is like).

It "IIl1ed all day yesterday. The girl smiled at him.

Her father OWIIS the local newspaper. Give him a kiss!

The door opelled.

If only we had more time!

We arrive In Singapore at nine o'clock at night. Her mother Is a nurse.

Be sensible!

She seems honest.

He loola a bit worried.

it is. of course, quite possible to have two or more verbs in a sentence:

I lID". she ret"Tlled the book to you In good condition.

I SIlSpect that he /mew the reason for the delay. I thillle that is the tool we need for this job.

I hope to ret"rll to Egypt next year.

They wallted to IeIlOW the reason for the delay. I saw her Pllt that ring In her pocket.

She team over the pot to smell the soup. (action verb - 'smell the soup' says what she did)

Whot Is 0 Verb?

4I:Grammar Help~ A linking verb Is also known as an Intensive verb or a copula tkopjuIQ/. Copula Is a latin

word meaning 'link'.

4I:Grammar Help~ The verbs appear, prove and seem are often followed by to be:

They RppeRr to he friendly.

What we wanted proved to be Impossible.

The children seemed to he happy.

..

Verbs and Tenses

~Did You KnOw?~ Jokes are often

based on sentences that can be interpreted in more than one way grammatically. The following joke is based on the use of make as both an action verb ('makes' = 'cooks' or 'prepares') and a linking verb ('makes' = 'is'):

Two cannibals were eating their lunch.

One cannibal said to the other, 'Your wife makes a good stew.'

'Yes,' said the second cannibal, 'but all the same, I'm going to miss her.'

..

The weather suddenly turned very wet and windy. (linking verb'turned very wet and windy' describes what the weather was like)

She turned and walked out. (action verb - 'turned' says what she did)

john made an excellent chairman. (linking verb - 'made an excellent chairman' describes what John was like as a chairman)

john made an excellent apple pie. (action verb - 'made an excellent apple pie' says what John did)

The woman suddenly appeared very anxious. (linking verb - 'appeared very anxious describes what the woman was like)

The woman suddenly appeared round the corner. (action verb - 'appeared round the corner' says what the woman did)

<Grammar Help>

• The person or thing doing the action described by the verb is the

subject of the verb: .

We [subject] waited [verb] for you for over half an hour. The dog ba,.ked loudly.

She immediately ,.ealized her mistake. Cats and dogs always fight.

If only we had some rope!

Tile police came at once.

The boy kicked the stone over the wall. They smiled to one another.

• The person or thing that the action described by the verb is done to or

affects is the direct object of the verb:

The boy kicked [verb] the stone [direct object] over the wall. The police soon caught the burglars.

The dog was chasing a cat.

Her mother was ,.eading the newspaper. She Immediately realized her mistake. We need a bigger house.

There is more about the objects of verbs in Unit 4.

The word or phrase that follows the linking verb and says something about the subject of the verb is called a complement:

That cake smells [verb] nice [complement]. You look very worried,

We all forget things when we get old. Roses are red, violets are blue.

His father is a teacher, but he really wants to be a farmer, I felt a bit of a fool.

Their son became. a doctor and their daughter became a nurse. They remained good friends from then on.

Some complements are phrases formed with preposltlons (such as in or on):

•

It looks in good condition. She seems ve,.y on the ball .

• Some linking verbs may be followed not by a complement but by an adverb, an adverb phrase or a prepositional phrase. Such words and phrases do not describe what someone or something Is like, but say where the subject of the verb Is, when It Is, etc:

The boys lire here.

Our car Is right outside.

The only way over the river WIIS across a narrow bridge. The meeting Is at nine o'clock.

These books lire for you.

Do It Yourself

00 Circle the verbs in the following sentences. (They are all

action verbs.)

1. The man parked his car outside the shop.

2. I hate cabbage!

3. She ran downstairs and opened all the windows.

4. Scotland beat England 3-2.

5. The car needs a good wash.

6. I washed the car before we went into town yesterday.

7. I hope his sister comes too.

8. He thanked the woman for her kindness.

9. Archaeologists believe that an earthquake destroyed the city of

Troy.

10. They paid more than $10,000 for the ring.

11. She laughed as she walked with him to the door.

12. The waitress asked him what he wanted.

13. Go and fetch a doctor.

14. He saw someone he knew on the other side ofthe road.

15. The man soon returned with the tools he needed.

(]J Circle the verbs in the following passage and underline their subjects.

The taxi left at 6.24 and arrived at the airport at 6.31 . So we were right after all: ten minutes is more than enough time for the journey. The taxi company was quite wrong when they said the journey took at least 25 minutes. The journey cost $8.60, but while I searched in my bag for change, since I wanted to

What Is a Verb?

( Handy Hi nt )

To find the action verb in a sentence, ask yourself which word describes what someone or something is doing or thinking or what is happening.

There may be more than one subject and more than one verb in a sentence.

( Handy Hi nt )

There are both action verbs and linking verbs in this exercise.

..

Verbs and Tenses

Warning!

Not all the verbs in the following sentences are linking verbs. Some are action verbs.

give the driver a tip, he just got back into his taxi and drove away again. Perhaps he was in a hurry. Maybe he had another customer.

The plane reached Luton early, and our bus was early too, so we were home by ten o'clock! The house is OK, but I realize from the pile of letters behind the front door that five weeks is far too long an absence. And the garden looks as awful as I expected. It is full of weeds now and needs a good tidying-up.

The girls said they had never seen the man before. I have made a list of the things we need to buy.

There is more about past participles in Unit 22.

• If the auxiliary verb is do or a modal auxiliary, then the main verb will be in the form of an infinitive without to (that is, the base form of the verb):

I do like ice-cream.

We could come tomorrow if you like. I will see you next week.

Why worry? It might never happen.

There is more about infinitives in Unit 23.

The verbs dare, in the sense of 'be willing to risk (doing something dangerous)', need. ought to and used to are often counted among the modal auxiliaries.

I daren't tell her that I've forgotten to buy her a birthday present.

You needn't leave yet. There's plenty of time. I think we ought to leave now.

He used to live in that house over there.

There are a number of important and rather unpredictable features in the grammar of these four verbs, which will be discussed in detail in Unit 19.

Do It Yourself

CK) Circle the main verbs and underline the auxiliary verbs in

the following sentences.

1. She could hear him clearly.

2. I have never liked opera.

3. Where will you go now?

4. What on earth have you been doing?

5. We can provide all the necessary training facilities at the college.

6. Passengers must not leave their luggage in the corridor.

7. Mrs Kim had returned with more vegetables than she could

possibly use.

8. May God bless this country and its people.

9. The children were cheering and waving flags.

10. I can never ever remember her name.

11. Do you know why they are not coming?

12. I simply must tell you what has been happening here.

W Say whether the words in bold in the following passage are main verbs or auxiliary verbs.

They had been searching for him for hours. He was lying under a tree when they found him, and was fast asleep,

snoring loudly. He might just have been very tired, but he might have been drinking. He had certainly bought a bottle of whisky earlier in the day. He had wanted to buy two bottles but had only had enough money for one. His friends had often told him he shouldn't drink, but he didn't listen to them. He just did as he pleased. Some day the alcohol would kill him,

but he didn't seem to care. He was beyond hope, some people said. Certainly it seemed that he had lost all hope and had nothing to live for.

What Is a Verb?

( Handy Hi nt )

Remember that there may be more than one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase and that there may be more than one verb phrase in a sentence.

...

Word Order in Uerb Phrases

Auxiliary verbs always come before main verbs in a verb phrase.

She was [auxiliary verb] singing [main verb] loudly. I have seen many strange things in my life.

I do know what I am talking about!

I'm sure that we could help you.

The doctor will come again tomorrow.

Do you think that she did not know where they had hidde.1I the money?

Modal auxiliaries come before primary auxiliaries.

I suppose they could [modal auxiliary] have [primary auxiliary] done [main verb] it.

Madonna will be appearing on the Parkinson Show next week. We would have been here sooner if the traffic had not been so bad.

But you must have seen her!

I may have seen her. I'm not sure.

The auxiliary have comes before the auxiliary be.

What have you been doing?

I had been working in the garden al! day.

Fortunately, the thieves have bee.n caught by the police.

4i:Grammar Help~

There can only be one modal verb in a verb phrase. It would NOT be grammatical to say, for example, we will can go tomorrow, since both will and can are modal verbs. Similarly, it would be wrong to say we will must go, since both will and mllst are modal verbs.

it is, however, sometimes possible to use a lexical verb or a phrase in sentences like these, so making the sentences grammatical:

We will be IIb/e to go tomorrow. NOT We will can go tomorrow.

We will hllve to go.

NOT We will must go.

The verbs that form a verb phrase usually stand together in a sentence, but they may sometimes be separated by one or more other words, such as adverbs.

• The words in a verb phrase may be separated by adverbs,

such as not, -n't, never, always, often, just or only:

We did not see anything interesting at all. They might not always be able to help you. The parcels may not even have arrived yet. The boys haven't done anything wrong.

I was only trying to help.

I have never been here before.

My mother had often warned me not to talk to strangers.

• The verb phrase may be split by the words both, all and each:

You can all come with us. The boys are both coming. You may each choose a story.

• In questions, the verb phrase may be split by the subject of

the verb:

Did you see anything?

Is she coming here too? Has the parcel arrived yet? Will you be staying long?

Will the painters have finished by next week?

• The verb phrase may, of course, be split by the subject of the verb and one or more other words:

Have you ever been here before? Are the girls all coming?

Are they definitely coming?

Did you two really see a ghost? Have the girls only just arrived?

What Is a Verb?

Verbs and Tenses

-----

Do It Yourself

(A) Underline all the words that form verb phrases in the

following sentences.

1. Graham has arrived at last.

2. The medicine is definitely making me better.

3. We must meet for lunch some day.

4. The girl had been accused of stealing money from her

employers.

5. I really do believe you.

6. How can those people be so stupid?

7. They may not have completely understood the nature of the problem.

8. If only I could have been there with you!

9. I have Just been speaking to my mother on the phone.

10. I was just thinking how nice it would be if we could stay here for a few more days.

t t, if it hadn't been raining, she too would have run out Into the garden.

12. Could we please have another jug of water?

rn Answer the following questions using the adverb given in brackets.

Example Question:

Have you been to japan before? (never)

No, 1 to japan.

Answer:

No, I have never been to japan.

1. Did you apologize to them? (not)

No, I to them.

2. Will you remember what I told you? (always)

Yes, i what you told me.

3. Have they seen us? (-n't)

No, they us.

4. Have you played billiards before? (often)

Yes, I billiards.

5. Are you coming? (just)

Yes, 1 •

6. Must we wait at the gate for you? (always)

Yes, you at the gate for me.

7. Will they ever come back again? (almost certainly)

Oh, they back again.

8. Can you see them yet? (just)

Yes, 1 them now.

9. Are you going away on holiday this year? (definitely)

Yes, we away on holiday this year.

10. Would I be right in thinking they lost all their money? (probably)

Yes, you right in thinking they lost all their

money.

11. Could there be another reason for her disappearance? (well)

Yes, there another reason for her

disappearance.

12. Do you like Iychees? (-n't)

No, I Iychees at all.

13. Have you been waiting long? (-n't)

No, we very long.

14. Could they have known where to look? (-n't possibly)

No, they where to look.

What Is a Verb?

( Di d You KnOW?)

'Transitive' comes from the latin word transire, meaning 'to go across'. The action of the verb 'goes across' from the subject of the verb to the direct object of the verb.

Transitiue and I ntransitiue Uerbs

Transitive Verbs

A lexical verb that has a direct object is a transitive verb. Some transitive verbs have both a direct object and an indirect object.

I cut my finger when I was slicing the meat. Please put your shoes in the cupboard.

I've only got $4 and I need $5.50.

Can you lend me $1.50?

All transitive verbs are action verbs (see Unit 1) .

• The direct object of a transitive verb is the person or thing that is most directly affected by the action or condition described by the verb. For example, the direct object may describe what the subject of the verb has, or gets, or thinks, or likes, or does something to, or does something with:

I like dogs.

The boys were kicking a ball. He got $5 from his uncle.

She hugged him and kissed him.

Foxes eat rabbits and mice and other small animals. What are you holding in your hand?

Who did you see?

Which cake do you want?

The direct object of a transitive verb may not always be a noun or a noun phrase. It may sometimes be a clause with another verb in it:

I hope you will join us.

I like paddling in the sea.

We were wondering where you were. I'd hate to be poor .

• The indirect object of a transitive verb is the person or

thing that the direct object is given to, done for, etc:

I gave her my book. (= I gave my book to her)

He bought the children some sweets. (= He bought some sweets for the children)

I'd love to show you my garden. (= I'd love to show my garden to you)

Keep me a seat, will you? (= Keep a seat for me, will you?)

Depending on what follows the verb in the sentence, transitive verbs fall into three different classes: monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive verbs.

1 Monotransitive /monoultranSltIv/ verbs have only one object, a direct object:

I know the answer.

I need a new dictionary. He cut himself.

We saw a lovely pair of shoes in the shop window. Some silly boy threw a stone through our window.

2 Ditransitive /daIltransItIv/ verbs have two objects, a direct

object and an indirect object:

I told [verb] him [indirect object] the answer [direct object]. I gave her my dictionary.

She took her mother a bunch of flowers. Lend me five dollars, will you?

He awarded himself a bar of chocolate.

What Is a Verb?

( Did You Know?)

Mono- means 'one': monotransitive verbs have one object.

( Did You Know?)

Dj- means 'two': ditransitive verbs have two objects.

Verbs and Tenses

( Did You KnowD

'Reflexive' comes from the latin word reflectere, meaning 'to bend back'. The action of the verb 'bends back' to the subject of the verb; that is to say, it is something that the subject of the verb does to himself or herself.

..

3 Complex transitive verbs have a direct object and a complement (a word or phrase that says something about the direct object):

Your feet smell! (intransitive verb - there is no object or complement)

She was turning the pages of the book without really looking at them. (transitive verb)

Leaves turn brown In autumn. (linking verb)

She suddenly turned and ran out of the room. (intransitive verb)

What Is a Verb?

Verbs and Tenses

( Handy Hi nt )

Remember that the object of a transitive verb may be a clause, and that the clause itself may also contain a transitive verb with a direct object and possibly also an indirect object or a complement.

Do It Yoursel f

o Find the transitive verbs in the following sentences and underline the direct objects, circle the indirect objects and put an X through the complements.

1. We need some more nails.

2. Can you give me any more nails?

3. I'll tell you what I want.

4. That makes me very angry

5. What more do you need?

6. I say that we should give him a medal.

7. Take her a box of chocolates.

8. Always allow yourself enough time to check your answers at the end of the exam.

9. I'll lend you the book once I've finished it.

10. Call yourself a doctor? You don't know anything about medicine!

11. He made himself a cup of tea.

12. He made himself useful around the house.

m Look at the lexical verbs in bold in the following passage, and say whether they are transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, or linking verbs.

Dear Mike,

I hope yesterday was a good day for you, even though you were working on your birthday. It would have been nice if you could have had a holiday. I suppose you got wet on your way to and from the office, though I was hoping the rain might have stopped at the times when you would be standing at the bus-stop.

I thought the weather was getting better these days and that spring was coming, but after the rain yesterday we even had some snow this morning. Some of the showers were quite heavy.

Billy Reid the joiner came with the new window for the garden hut this afternoon. Luckily the snow had stopped by then, though it was still very cold. I gave him a cup of tea to keep

him warm while he was working. The job didn't seem very difficult - he finished it in less than ten minutes. He'll come again when the weather is not so windy and cover the bare bit on the hut roof with roofing felt.

I forgot to tell you when we spoke last Sunday on the phone that your Uncle Tony fell and broke his leg on Saturday. Of course, they had to call an ambulance for him. He had an operation on Sunday morning. He is getting better, though, and can already walk with the help of a nurse. I think that in spite of the pain he is really enjoying his stay in hospital. When I visited him last night, he gave one of the nurses an enormous smile as she passed his bed. I think he likes getting all the attention.

I'll phone when I have more news.

Love,

Mum.

W Make the intransitive verbs in the following sentences transitive, using the words given in brackets. You may have to add other words for the sentences to be grammatical. And there may be more than one possible correct answer.

Example

Question: The boys were playing in the garden. (football)

Answer: The boys were playing football in the garden.

1. I've spent all evening writing. (letters)

2. She parked outside the library. (car)

3. He nodded in agreement. (head)

4. They sang as they marched along. (happy song)

5. My pen has leaked all over my jacket. (ink)

6. I don't understand. (meaning of this sentence)

7. Don't drink so quickly. (lemonade)

8. She is saving to buy a new guitar. (pocket money)

9. John left early. (meeting)

10. We had to leave because the rebels were attacking. (the city)

What Is a Verb?

co Grammar Hel p> The adverbs and prepositions that are used to form phrasal verbs are sometimes called particles.

Phrasal Uerbs

A phrasal verb is an expression that consists of a lexical verb plus an adverb or a preposition or both an adverb and a preposition.

Some phrasal verbs are formed with adverbs (i.e. words such as away, back, by, down, of(, on or out).

Please sit down.

I wish these dogs would go away. Come back and see us sometime.

He broke off a piece of the chocolate and gave it to her. She blew out the candles on her birthday cake.

After the storm passed, the wind gradually died down.

Some phrasal verbs are formed with prepositions (Le. words such as at, by, for, into, of, on, to or with).

The horse suddenly broke into a gallop.

I came across a friend of yours the other day. The robbers were mRking for the frontier.

I just asked her how she was feeling and she flew into a rage. She's at least seventy but she could pass for a woman in her fifties. That's a problem we're going to have to deal with sometime.

Some phrasal verbs are formed with adverbs and prepositions.

I don't know how you put up [adverb] with [preposition] her complaining all the time.

We wanted to stay longer but we were running out of money. Her son has decided to go in for dentistry.

One should always try to get along with one's colleagues. He says he's going to complain but he probably won't go through with it.

She says that if he won't marry her, she'll do away with herself.

Notice that in phrasal verbs formed with both adverbs and prepositions, the adverbs (e.g. up, out, in, along, through, away) always precede the prepositions (such as with, of, (on.

< Grammar Help>

Some phrasal verb constructions have more than one object. In such phrases, both the transitive verb and the preposition are followed by an object:

It's the smell that puts people off durians.

One little mistake put the police on to the murderer.

You're the one who got me into this mess, so you could at least try to get me out of it. They passed the photos around the group.

Many phrasal verbs have meanings that can be completely understood from the meanings of the verbs and particles that form them.

Please come in.

Quick! Run away and hide!

How long would it take to drive to London and then drive back? She went out, waited for a moment, then came in again.

However, many phrasal verbs have quite unpredictable meanings:

When she was late for work for the third day in a row, her boss just blew up. (= became very angry)

I'm of( to japan for my holidays this year, so I must brush up on my japanese. (= refresh my knowledge of Japanese)

john and I get on very well. (= are friendly)

I had to fork out for two new tyres this week. (= spend money, pay for the tyres)

You can always rely on me to stick up for you. (= support you)

<Grammar Help>

Not all grammar books mean the same thing when they talk about phrasal verbs.

In some books, only the 'verb + adverb' constructions are called phrasal verbs. The 'verb + preposition' constructions are called prepositional verbs, and the 'verb + adverb + preposition' constructions are called phrasal-prepositional verbs.

On the other hand, for some grammarians only the expressions with unpredictable meanings, such as put up with and stick up for, are considered true phrasal verbs.

What Is Q Verb?

( Di d You KnOW?)

Some jokes are based on phrasal verbs that have more than one meaning. This is one:

A large hole has suddenly appeared In the middle of the High Street. The police are look;ng ;nto it.

Verbs and Tenses

<Grammar Help>

• Phrasal verbs formed with prepositions (with or without an adverb) are always transitive verbs; that is, they always have a direct object.

Whether it Is a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, the direct object always follows the preposition:

Her mother looks "fter the children [direct object] while she Is at work. I don't thInk I could do without coffee.

He t"kes "fter his father. They both love golf. You can rely 011 me to st"lId liP (or you.

• Phrasal verbs formed with adverbs alone may be either Intransitive

or transitive:

Fortunately, the rain held off till after the match. (Intransitive)

The soldiers held off the enemy until reinforcements arrived. (transitive)

The handle of the jug just broke off. (intransitive)

I dIdn't bruk it off deliberately. (transitive)

We'll need to set off first thing tomorrow morning. (intransitive) Something must have set off the alarm. (transitive)

• The rules governing the position of the object of a transitive 'verb + adverb' phrasal verb are slightly complicated.

1 If the direct object is a noun or noun phrase, It may stand

either behind or in front of the adverb:

You de,,' Ollt the cards. OR You de,,' the cards Ollt. H"lId over the moneyi OR H"lId the money overl

5. The youngsters cleared off when they saw the police car approaching.

The youngsters __ when they saw the police car approaching.

6. How did the accident come about?

How did the accident __ ?

7. She takes after her mother.

She __ her mother.

8. We were completely taken in by his apparent honesty.

We were completely __ by his apparent honesty.

9. It's been raining all morning but the weather may clear up this afternoon.

It's been raining all morning but the weather may __ this afternoon.

10. If we set to now, we may get the job finished by lunchtime.

If we __ now, we may get the job finished by lunchtime.

11. You just never know where John will pop up next.

You just never know where John will __ next.

12. We weren't actually looking for the key. We just came across it by chance.

We weren't actually looking for the key. We just __ it by chance.

Whot Is 0 Verb?

Verbs and Tenses

Beware!

Remember that the pronoun objects may not go in exactly the same place In their sentences as the nouns and noun phrases they

replace. Check the Cirammar Help panel again if you are not sure about this.

W Replace the object nouns and noun phrases in bold in the following passage with pronouns.

I still remember when I first ran into Tim. He was down at the harbour on his boat. He was bailing the boat out. I could see that he was using an old jug. I looked at the jug in amazement, and I told Tim he had better look after the jug. 'Don't you know that it's a valuable antique?' I said. 'The handle might come off, and if you break off the handle, the jug won't be worth much. I own an antique shop. That jug interests me. If you care about that Jug and about how

much It might be worth to you, bring it to the shop some day soon.'

Tim brought round the jug the very next day. 'OK. Hand over the jug,' I said.

'Is this a trick?' he said. 'If it is, I won't fall for the trick.'

'Look. This is a valuable jug,' I told him. 'Let me try to sell it for you. That is my suggestion. If you fall in with my suggestion, you will be a rich man, even though you will not have the jug any longer. But if you hang on to the jug, you may break it and then you will have neither the Jug nor the money. You will have to do without both the jug and the money.'

Tim liked my proposal. In fact, he jumped at my proposal.

'I can do without that jug,' he said. 'I can certainly do without the jug. I thought it was Just a cheap old jug. My grandparents handed the jug down to me. I can't get over my luck,' he said. 'I just can't get over my luck.'

I have got on very well with Tim ever since then.

Finite and Non-finite Uerbs

Finite Verbs

Some verbs change their form, or may change their form, depending on what their subject is or on whether they are referring to the past, the present or the future.

-- -- ---------,

lAny verb that changes, or that may change, in form to match its subject or to indicate present, past or future is a finite verb.

-----'

• If there is only a main verb in a sentence, then it will be a finite verb:

Coffee gives me migraines. That gives me an idea.

Coffee and chocolate give me migraines. That gave me an idea.

My brother teaches chemistry. My parents teach English.

My parents teach English. My parents taught English.

He leaves tomorrow morning. He leaves tomorrow morning.

I am very proud of you.

I am very proud of you.

I have a question to ask.

I have a question to ask.

We leave tomorrow morning. He left last night.

We are very proud of you. I was very proud of you.

John has a question to ask. I had a question to ask.

There is more about agreement between subjects and verbs in Units 7 and 8, and about the verb forms and endings used to indicate past, present and future in Units 9 to 11 .

• In verb phrases, it is the auxiliary verb that is the finite verb, the verb that agrees with its subject or that indicates past, present and future:

He is going to school. He is going to school.

They are going to school. He was going to school.

<Grammar Help> A finite verb is said

to agree with its subject. This is

known as

agreement or concord.

Verbs and Tenses

Have you lost your key? Have you lost your key?

I dDn't like goats' cheese. They am go tomorrow.

Has she lost her key? Hlld you lost her key?

My sister doun't like it either. They CDfIldn't go last week.

Where there is more than one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase, it is the first auxiliary that is a finite verb, agreeing with its subject or indicating past, present or future:

I have been looking for you for ages. He has been lookIng for you for ages.

They may have been here. They might have been here.

<Grammar HelP>

Notice that although modal auxiliary verbs are finite verbs and change to indicate reference to the past, the present or the future, they do not, unlike other finite verbs, change in form to agree with their subject:

I sing

I can sing

he goes he may go

she sings she can sing

they go they may go

Modal auxiliaries have no -s ending when the subject of the verb is he, she or it.

• Verbs that express wishes or commands are also considered finite verbs, even though they do not change in form to agree with their subject, and in fact usually do not have a subject expressed in the sentence at all:

Give me that knife. Tell him what I said. Don't talk so loudly. Pick that up, please.

<Grammar Help>

In any sentence with a finite verb, there is usually a word or phrase that represents the subject of that verb. However, finite verbs expressing wishes or commands are generally found without subjects:

Please help me. Don't touch that!

Sign your name there.

The unexpressed subject of commands and requests is always you, as can be seen from sentences in which the you is expressed, for example, when making a contrast or distinction:

You hold onto that rope, John, and Fiona, you hold onto this one.

Non-finite Verbs

Any verb that is not a finite verb is a non-finite verb. Non-finite verbs do not change in form to agree with a subject or to indicate past, present and future.

Present participles, past participles and infinitives are the non-finite verbs of English.

1 Non-finite verbs remaining unchanged with a change of subject:

He is working very hard.

I am looking for a new handbag. Have you got a map?

I have bought the tickets.

We can go to the cinema tomorrow.

They are working very hard.

She is looking for a new handbag. Has she got a map?

My brother has bought the tickets. You can go to the cinema tomorrow.

2 Non-finite verbs remaining unchanged with a change from present to past time:

I am [finite verb)

looking [non-finite verb) for a new handbag.

He is working very hard.

I have got the tickets with me. He is working very hard.

I have bought the tickets.

I was looking for a new handbag.

He was working very hard.

I had got the tickets with me. They are working very hard. I had bought the tickets.

Note from the examples above that a non-finite verb usually occurs in a sentence alongside a finite verb that does agree with its subject and indicate past, present and future .

• There are two ways of looking at the structure of a verb phrase. As you saw in Unit 2, a verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliary verbs plus a lexical verb:

she is [auxiliary verb) singing [lexical verb)

she can [auxiliary verb) sing [lexical verb)

she has [auxiliary verb) been [auxiliary verb) singing [lexical verb)

What Is a Verb?

..

Verbs and Tenses

A verb phrase can also be analysed in terms of finite and nonfinite verbs. A verb phrase consists of a finite verb plus one or more non-finite verbs:

she has [finite verb] been [non-finite verb] singing [non-finite verb]

4i:Grammar Help~

• An Infinitive need not always follow an auxiliary verb; it may also follow a lexical verb. But note that whilst an auxiliary verb is followed by a bare infinitive (an infinitive without to), a lexical verb is usually followed by a to-infinitive (an infinitive with to):

I can bdp them. I try to help them.

He will come with us. He wants to come with us.

We will arrive at 12 o'clock. We expect to arrive at 12 o'clock.

Both bare infinitives and to-infinitives are non-finite verbs. Adjectives and nouns are also sometimes followed by to-infinitives:

We were veryglad to see him.

I was afraid to ask for more money.

I have no desire to harm him in any way. It's time to leave, I think.

A to-infinitive may also be the subject of a sentence:

To behave like that In public is quite unacceptable.

There is more about the uses of infinitives in Unit 23.

• A participle need not always follow an auxiliary verb. Sometimes it

can stand on its own without an auxiliary:

The dog just stood there, looking at me with its tongue hanging out, wagging its tail enthusiastically.

The wizard was standing with his arms stretched out, Cllat1ting a magic spell.

A present participle may also follow an adjective:

The boys were happy playing football while their father was busy wo,.,<ing in the garden.

There is more about the uses of present participles and past participles in Units 21 and 22.

Do It Yourself

Underline the finite verbs in the following passage and circle the non-finite verbs.

The last time I met Sally was when I was living in Paris. She was outside a cafe, sitting in the sunshine and watching the people who were walking past. At the same time, she seemed to be sketching the old church across the street from where she was sitting.

I watched her for a little while, not wanting to disturb her while she was busy drawing. A waiter came out of the cafe carrying a tray with a glass of red wine on it. Just as he passed Sally's table, he tripped on her handbag, which she had left on the ground beside her chair, and tipped the wine all over her sketch pad. I waited to see what would happen. I thought Sally would be furious. But she just laughed, and held up her pad of paper while the wine dripped off it.

Then she caught sight of me, and waved to me to come over and join her. She showed me her sketch and said, 'Don't you think the red wine adds something to this picture? Red trees, red sky, red church, red people - it's perfect in a strange way. I would never have thought of it myself.'

Quick: Summary

This unit summarizes the main points of what has been said so far about verbs.

1 Verbs can be divided into two major categories: lexical verbs (or main verbs) and auxiliary verbs (or helping verbs). [Unit 2]

Lexical verbs describe actions, events, feelings, etc. Auxiliary verbs are used to form tenses and to convey the ideas of possibility, necessity, etc.

Most verbs are either lexical verbs or auxiliary verbs, but be. "lIve and do can be both. [Unit 2]

A verb phrase consists of a lexical verb and one or more auxiliary verbs. [Unit 2]

What Is a Verb?

Verbs and Tenses

2 There are two types of auxiliary verb: the primary auxiliaries be, have and do; and the modal auxiliaries call, could, will, would, must, etc. Dare, need, ought to and used to are also considered to be auxiliary

verbs. [Unit 2]

Be is followed by a present participle, have by a past participle, and do or a modal auxiliary by a bare infinitive. A lexical verb is followed by a to-infinitive. [Unit 2]

Transitive verbs that have only a direct object are monotransitive verbs. [Unit 4]

Transitive verbs that have a direct object and an indirect object are ditransitive verbs.

Transitive verbs that have a direct object and a complement are complex transitive verbs.

5 A phrasal verb is an expression consisting of a lexical verb in combination with an adverb, a preposition, or both an adverb and a preposltlon, [Unit 5]

6 A verb that agrees with its subject or that changes its form in order to indicate past, present or future time is a finite verb. [Unit 6]

Any verb that is not a finite verb is a non-finite verb. Participles and infinitives are non-finite verbs.

Uerb Forms

Verbs may have different forms depending on whether their subjects are in the first person, the second person, or the third person, and whether they are singular or plural.

111m it is

he is we lire

you lire they lire

Verbs may also change their form depending on whether they are referring to the past, the present, or the future.

he ellrs he lite

it rllins it rlllned

he will ellt it will rllin

There is a regular pattern of verb forms that most verbs follow:

cry open pour wllik

cries opens pours wlliks

cried opened poured wlliked

crying opening pouring wlllking

Some verbs, however, are irregular:
come comes coming clime
go goes going went
run runs running ran
sing sings singing sling Verbs come in three moods. The indicative mood is used for statements and questions, the imperative mood is used for commands and requests, and the subjunctive mood is used to express wishes, commands, suggestions, doubts and possibilities.

come gone run sung

Subjunctiue

First, Second and Third Person; Singular and Plural

I and we are first-person pronouns. A verb whose subject is lor we is likewise said to be in the first person.

You is a second-person pronoun. A verb whose subject is you is similarly said to be in the second person.

He, she, it and they are third-person pronouns. A verb whose subject is he, she, it or they is said to be in the third person.

I followed them along the street. (first person)

We wondered what had happened to her. (first person) You must come at once! (second person)

1 For almost all verbs, the first and second person singular and the first, second and third person plural of the present tense are represented by a verb that Is identical to the base form of the verb, while the third person singular verb ends in oS:

I come you come we come they come he comes

I Wlllk you Wlllk we wlllk they wlllk she Willies

I fellch you tellCh we tellch they fellch he tellches

The verb be has three different forms for the present tense:

111m you/we/they lire he/she/it is

The verb hllve Is Irregular In the third person singular: he/she/it hilS.

2 In the past tense, there Is usually only one form of the verb:

I wlllked you wlllked we wlllked he wlllked

I hlld you hlld they hlld she hlld

I WCllt we wellt they wellt he WCII'

The verb be, however, has two different forms in the past tense:

I/he/she/It WIIS you/we/they we,e

3 Unlike other verbs, modal auxiliaries (that is, verbs such as CII" and will> only have one verb form for first, second and third person, singular and plural:

I CllII Sing they CIlII sing BUT ALSO he ellll Sing

you must go we musf go BUT ALSO she must go

I will fall they will fall BUT ALSO he will fall

There Is more Information about verb forms in Units 10, 11 and 14.

Verb Forms

<: Grammar Hel p> In grammar, the concepts of 'singular' and 'plural' are together known as number.

Verbs and Tenses

( Handy Hi nt )

Always check in your own writing that the verb in a sentence agrees with its true subject.

if the subject of the verb is in the first person (that is, it is lor we), the verb must also be in the first person:

I am lost. We are lost.

I have no money. X I is lost.

We have no money.

X We has no money.

Similarly, if the subject of the verb is in the second person (l.e, YD"), the verb must be in the second person, and if the subject of the verb is in the third person (e.g. he, she, it, they, Harry, honesty, a man, the boys, etc), the verb must be in the third person:

You are quite right. She is quite right.

The boys are quite right.

X You is quite right.

X Harry are quite right.

Again, if the subject of the verb is singular, the verb must be singular, and if the subject of the verb is plural, then the verb must be plural:

I was in France. Harry is at school. X I were in France.

X The boys is at school.

We were in France.

The boys are at school.

--

Do It Yourself

o In the following passage, some of the verbs (shown in bold) do not agree with their subjects. Find the subject of each verb, decide which of the verbs show incorrect agreement with their subjects, and correct them.

A serious problem have occurred at the school. The prlnclpal is looking very worried and so is some of the teachers. The maths exam and physics exam is being held tomorrow, but one of the teachers have found out that some exam papers have gone missing from the cupboard where they was being stored. No-one know whether they has been lost or stolen, but if the papers are not found, then the exam will have to be cancelled.

A thorough search of the classrooms Is carried out, but no papers are found. The question is then asked, 'Who have got into the cupboard where the papers were being kept?' Both the room and the cupboard was locked and only one of the teachers has the keys. No student could have got in, and noone else would have wanted to.

'The staff and I are completely baffled,' say the principal. 'But I has no choice. Since the papers is missing, the exams has to be cancelled.'

m Complete the following passage by using the correct forms of the verbs given in brackets.

My family and I (be) off on holiday next week. We (be) going to the north of France again. My son and daughter (like) France, and we always (go) back to the same village every year. The people who (live) in the village (seem) to like us too.

My wife and I (have) been very fond of France since we (be) students at university many years ago and (spend) a year studying in Paris. I (speak) French very well, and so (do) my wife, and she and I (have) many French friends. Our children also (speak) the language now since they (have) had many holidays in France with us, and the two of them also now (have) good friends in the village.

Close to the village, there (be) an old ruined castle which (stand) at the top of a wooded hill. It (be) built by some knights in the 13th century. The villagers (say) that there (be) ghosts in it, but we (do)n't believe it. This year we (be) planning to spend a night in the castle to see what (happen). Perhaps we (will) see a ghost, perhaps not.

Verb Forms

< Gramma r HelP> The antecedent of

a relative pronoun

is the word that the relative pronoun 'stands for' or 'replaces'. For example:

The girl who was here yesterday is my sister.

'The girl' is the antecedent of the relative pronoun 'who',

_.

Some Problems of Subject-Uerb Agreement

[When making a verb agree with its subject, what is important is whether the subject is grammatically singular or

!Iural, not how many people or things the subject refers to.

All our friends have arrived early. ('All our friends' is plural.)

Everyone has arrived early. ('Everyone' is a singular pronoun even though it refers to more than one person.)

My many fans know how talented I am. ('My many fans' is plural.)

Everybody knows how talented I am. ('Everybody' is a singular pronoun even though it refers to more than one person.)

All our students spend an hour a day in the library. (plural subject)

Every student spends an hour a day in the library. (singular subject)

Sometimes it is not the immediate subject, or what seems to be the subject, of the verb that determines whether the verb must be singular or plural, but some other word or phrase in the sentence.

• For a verb in a relative clause, it is the antecedent that makes the verb singular or plural:

The boy who was playing outside is my son.

L__j

The boys who were playing outside are my sons.

L_j

Where is the book that was here on the table?

L_j

Where are the books that were here on the table? t I

• When a verb follows there or here, it is the word or phrase following the verb that determines whether the verb is singular or plural:

There is a man at the door asking to speak to you.

I t

There ale twotmen at the door asking to speak to you.

Here is the answer to your question.

I t

Here are the answers to your questions.

I t

• In noun clauses beginning with what, it is again what follows the verb that determines whether the verb is singular or plural:

What was once a thriving village is now a cluster of ruins.

I t

What were once houses and shops are now just heaps of

I t

stones and wood.

<Grammar Help>

Care must be taken with phrases consisting of two or more nouns linked by and. Ifthe nouns are considered as separate things, then the phrase is plural:

Tea and coffee are popular drinks. Carrots and potatoes are vegetables.

But if the nouns linked by and are considered to be one single thing, then the phrase is singular and the verb must be singular:

Gin and tonic is a popular drink.

Mince and potatoes is my favourite meal.

Sometimes both singular and plural verbs are considered correct:

Two and two make (or makes) four.

When the subject of a sentence refers to a quantity of something, it should be followed by a singular verb.

When the subject refers to a number of separate items, it should be followed by a plural verb.

The bread is mouldy. And the apples are mouldy too.

Verb Forms

< Grammar Help> In informal English, there's (= there is) and here's (= here is) may be followed by a plural noun or phrase:

There's hundreds of ants crawling over our picnic basket.

Here's three good reasons why you shouldn't smoke .

Verbs and Tenses

Some money has been stolen. And some ornaments have been stolen as wel/.

Fortunately no damage has been done and no losses have been incurred .

• Plural nouns denoting quantities or amounts are, however,

usually treated as singular.

Three pounds of potatoes ts far too much for one person. Sixty thousand dollars seems an awful lot of money to pay for a painting.

Two inches ts about the same as five centimetres. Twenty-five miles ls more than I could walk in one day. Ten weeks is a long time to wait for a reply.

Five days seems a very long rime to wait when you are only four years old.

C Grammar He' P>

Although it looks as if it ought to be singular, a number of is in fact treated as plural and should be followed by a plural verb:

A number of prisoners hllve already escaped.

A large number of passengers were injured when the two trains collided.

Similarly, when a lot of and the rest of are followed by a plural noun or pronoun, they are also followed by a plural verb:

A lot of strange things hllve happened around here lately. A lot of them lire not quite sure why they're here.

The rest of us hllve to stay here.

The rest of the passengers were rescued by the fire brigade.

But when a lot of and the rest of are followed by a sIngular noun or pronoun, the verb is In the singular.

A lot of the work hils already been done. The rest of it has to be finished by tomorrow.

Again, with lots, heaps, tons, etc, it is the following noun that determines whether the verb must be singular or plural:

Lots of rubbish WIIS left behind by the workmen. Lots of people were queuing outside the shop. Heaps of food hils been wasted.

Heaps of people hllve read her books.

Majority and minority, when followed by plural nouns, are also followed by plural verbs:

The majority of people with this surname lire Scottish.

Only a small minority of disputes lire resolved without arbitration.

Care must be taken with nouns that are plural in form but which are usually treated as singular.

Nouns like these can be thought of as referring either to one single body or to a number of individuals. When such nouns are felt to be referring to single entities rather than numbers of separate individuals, they are usually treated as singular nouns and followed by singular verbs:

The audience was larger than I had expected.

The committee "IIS decided not to accept your resignation. Our class "IIS been chosen to represent the school.

The public Is all too easily fooled.

The jury finds the defendant not guilty.

The government hilS no right to act without consulting parliament.

However, when they are thought of as referring to a number of individuals, they are, in British English, treated as plural nouns and followed by a plural verb:

The audience were obviously enjoying the performance.

The committee "lIve decided not to accept your resignation.

Our class have 01/ had flu.

The general public know very little about the causes of inflation.

He could see that the flock were getting restless.

In American English, it is more usual to treat collective nouns as singular nouns than as plural nouns.

<: Grammar Hel p>

Once a choice has been made as to whether to treat a collective noun as singular or plural, it may be necessary to make the same choice with regard to other words in the sentence:

The committee has [singular] decided that it does not want to accept your resignation.

The committee have [plural] decided that they do not want to accept your resignation.

Do It Yourself

m Choose the correct verb from the brackets to complete

the following sentences.

1. Everybody (knows, know) everybody else in this village.

2. A flock of crows (is, are) sometimes called a 'murder' of crows.

3. A lot of people (believes, believe) that there are aliens from outer space living here on Earth.

4. Noughts and crosses (is, are) a very simple game which is thought to have originated in England.

5. The pamphlet includes safety tips to help combat a number of common accidents that (happens, happen) in the home each year.

6. Five dollars (is, are) all one earns for an hour's work in a burger bar.

7. No-one (believes, believe) the Government's reassurances any more.

8. A lot of money (has, have) been spent on this ridiculous celebration that could have been better spent feeding the poor.

9. The group (was, were) allowed to hold their rehearsals in the town hall.

10. The rest of the biscuits (is, are) in that tin.

11. Two litres of petrol (is, are) enough to get us home.

Verb Forms

Verbs and Tenses

12. Vodka and orange (was, were) what everyone drank when I was young. It was a very popular drink in those days.

13. The jury (was, were) composed of five men and seven women.

14. A large number of children in the world (goes, go) to bed hungry every night.

15. There (was, were) strange noises coming from the next room.

16. There (was, were) a lot of people at the concert.

m Complete the following quotations using the correct form of the verb in brackets.

1. Mathematics (possess, possesses) not only truth, but supreme beauty - a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture. [Bertrand Russell]

2. Politics (is, are) perhaps the only profession for which no preparation is thought necessary. [Robert Louis Stevenson]

4. If the British public (falls, fall) for this, I say it will be stark, staring bonkers. [Lord Hailsham]

5. The conventional army (loses, lose) if it does not win. The guerrilla wins if he does not lose. [Henry Kissinger]

6. Europe has a press that (stresses, stress) opinions; America, a press, radio, and television that (emphasizes, emphasize) news. Uames Reston]

7. The best government (is, are) that which governs least.

Uohn O'Sullivan]

8. In male culture, police (is, are) heroic and so are outlaws; males who enforce standards are heroic and so are those who violate them. [Andrea Dworkin]

9. Aesthetics (is, are) the mother of ethics .... Were we to choose our leaders on the basis of their reading experience and not their political programs, there would be much less grief on earth. Uoseph Brodsky]

10. Nine-tenths of wisdom (consists, consist) in being wise in time. [Theodore Roosevelt]

The tense of a verb shows whether the action of the verb happens in the past, the present or the future, whether it is a single action or a repeated action, whether the action is completed or unfinished, and so on.

lam here.

She came with us.

The police caught the burglar. My canary sings beautifully.

I was here.

She will come with us.

The police had caught the burglar. My canary is singing beautifully.

The Simple Tenses

A simple tense is a tense indicated by a single word, such as runs, came, brings, taught, are or were.

The 'simple present tense' and the 'simple past tense' are the only two simple tenses in English.

1 The Simple Present Tense

Cows eat grass. Ilike pop music.

Martha is a reporter for the television news. Tom speaks French and Spanish.

The train leaves at 5.57.

There is more about the uses of the simple present tense in Unit 30.

2 The Simple Past Tense

We all went back into the house.

Suddenly she stood up and walked out of the room. Who gave you that camera?

At first I thought it was a ghost.

( Di d You KnOW?)

'Tense' comes from the Old French word tens, meaning 'tIme'.

Verbs and Tenses

(: Gramma r HelP> in some grammar books, only the two simple tenses are considered to be true tenses. The complex tenses are simply treated as verb phrases.

(: Grammar Hel p>

In questions and negative sentences with "or or ·If't, the simple past tense is in fact formed with two words. the auxiliary verb tlo and the base form of a lexical verb. Compare the following sentences:

I SII"" her. Did you .sa her? I didn't sa her.

Theyoll/IIIIBhed. 014 they 1.""h7 They tlld not '.lIgh.

There is more about the uses of the simple past tense in Unit 31 .

All other tenses in English are complex tenses, that is, tenses that are formed using two or more words.

A complex tense is formed with one or more auxiliary verbs and a lexical verb, such as will go, has come, is running, will be teaching, has been helping.

There are fourteen complex tenses in English.

The Future and Conditional Tenses

1 The Future Tense

The future tense of a verb is formed by using the auxiliary verb will, less commonly shall, along with the base form of a lexical verb:

They will al/ be here in a minute.

I expect John will get the maths prize again this year. You will find a huge selection of gifts in our catalogue. We shall overcome all obstacles in our path.

I will be more careful in future.

There is more about the base forms of lexical verbs in Unit 10, and more about the uses of the future tense in Unit 32.

2 The Conditional Tense (or the Future in the Past)

The conditional tense of a verb is formed by using the auxiliary verb would along with the base form of a lexical verb:

I would help you if I could.

She would come if you asked her to.

There is more about the uses of the conditional tense in Unit 33.

When used in reported speech (see Unit 34), this tense is called the future in the past:

He said he would come as soon as possible.

The Perfect Tenses

Perfect tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb have and a past participle of a lexical verb. There are four perfect tenses, each corresponding to one of the four tenses already described in this unit.

1 The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of have and the past participle of a lexical verb:

I have always eaten egg sandwiches for my lunch. Have you finished your homework yet?

You have already seen that film twice. Why do you want to see it again?

She says she has lost her purse somewhere. The weather has been very warm lately.

There is more about the formation of past participles in Units 10 and 11, and about the uses of past participles in Unit 22. And there is more information on the uses of the present perfect tense in Unit 31.

Verb Forms

2 The Past Perfect Tense < Grammar HelP>

The past perfect tense is formed with the past tense of have and the past participle of a lexical verb:

The noise had continued all night, and they had been unable to sleep.

I pretended that I hadn't heard her.

I had already seen that film twice and I didn't want to see it again. She had lost her purse and didn't have enough money for the train fare home.

There is information about the uses of the past perfect tense in Unit 31.

The past perfect tense Is sometimes called the pluperfect /'plu:p3:ftkt/ tense.

Verbs and Tenses

C Grammar Hel~ Continuous tenses are also known as progressive tenses.

3 The Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense is formed with will or shall, the auxiliary verb have, and the past participle of a lexical verb:

We will have finished this job by the end of the week. They will surely have left by now.

By the time this letter reaches you, I will have been here nearly a month.

There is information about the uses of the future perfect tense in Unit 32.

4 The Perfect Conditional Tense

The perfect conditional tense is formed with would, the auxiliary verb have, and the past participle of a lexical verb:

I would have told her if I had seen her.

We wouldn't have come if we had known she would be there too. Would he ever have dared to tell her the truth?

There is information about the uses of the perfect conditional tense in Unit 33.

The Continuous Tenses

Continuous tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb be and the present participle of a lexical verb. There are eight continuous tenses, each corresponding to one of the eight tenses already described in this unit.

1 The Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous tense is formed with the present tense of be and the present participle of a lexical verb:

You are looking very tired.

We are leaving first thing tomorrow morning. Why are the dogs barking so much?

She is arriving tomorrow and I am going to the airport to meet her.

There is more about the formation of present participles in Units 10 and 11, and about the uses of present participles in

Unit 21. And there is more information on the uses of the present continuous tense in Unit 30.

Z The Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is formed with the past tense ofthe auxiliary verb be and the present participle of a lexical verb:

All the students were IRughing.

My father WRS working in the garden when I arrived. Why were you hiding from your brother?

The dogs were running around on the beach. I WRS wondering what to say to her.

There is more information about the past continuous tense in Unit 31.

3 The Future Continuous Tense

The future continuous tense is formed with the auxiliary verbs will and shall, the auxiliary verb be and the present participle of a lexical verb:

It will be getting dark soon. Will you be stRying here long?

Just imagine what you will be doing this time next week. We shRII no doubt be seeing you again soon.

There is more information about the uses of the future continuous tense in Unit 32.

4 The Conditional Continuous Tense (or the Future Continuous in the Past)

The conditional continuous tense is formed with the auxiliary verb wDuld, the auxiliary verb be, and the present participle of a lexical verb:

He said he would be coming.

Just imagine what you would be doing now if you weren't here.

There is more information about the uses of the conditional continuous tense in Unit 33.

Verb Forms

Verbs and Tenses

5 The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The present perfect continuous tense is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary verb "ave, the past participle of the auxiliary verb be, and the present participle of a lexical verb:

It has been raining for days now. Will it never stop?

The police have been searching for clues to the murderer's Identity. I have been wanting to talk to you all morning.

You have been working on that model yacht for ages. Isn't it finished yet?

Who has been eating my porridge?

There is more about the uses ofthe present perfect continuous tense in Unit 31.

6 The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

The past perfect continuous tense is formed with the past tense of the auxiliary verb "ave, the past participle of the auxiliary verb be, and the present participle of a lexical verb:

We had been working on the project for more than a year and were getting a bit bored with it.

I had just been putting the finishing touches to the painting when he arrived.

I had been wondering whether you would come or not. The wind had been blowing all night.

There is more about the past perfect continuous tense in Unit 31.

7 The Future Perfect Continuous Tense

The future perfect continuous tense is formed with the auxiliary verbs will and s"all, the auxiliary verb "ave, the past participle of the auxiliary verb be, and the present participle of a lexical verb:

By the end of this month, I will have been working here for SIX years.

By this evening, the miners will have been trying to free their trapped colleagues for more than six days and hope is running out.

By the time the sale starts tomorrow morning, some of these people will have been waiting outside the shop for more than a week.

There is more about the uses of the future perfect continuous tense in Unit 32.

8 The Perfect Conditional Continuous Tense

The perfect conditional continuous tense is formed with the auxiliary verb would, the auxiliary verb have, the past participle of the auxiliary verb he, and the present participle of a lexical verb:

If I hadn't given you a lift, you would have been waiting in the rain for a bus for hours.

I wonder what we would have been doing now if we hadn't decided to sell the house and move to Spain.

There is more about the uses of the perfect conditional continuous tense in Unit 33.

Do It Yourself

o Give the grammatical name of the tenses of the verbs in bold in the following sentences.

Example

Question: She fell over.

Answer: simple past tense

1. The woman was smiling at us.

2. Tom was eager to be there.

3. Sadly they failed in their attempt to reach the North Pole.

4. I have never been to Japan.

5. We will discuss this in more detail tomorrow.

6. Bill teaches Chinese at Edinburgh University.

7. I had never seen such a strange-looking bird before.

8. We have been having some trouble with our car recently.

9. Is a young swan a gosling or a cygnet?

10. Is it still snowing?

11. I had hoped to meet her in the restaurant.

Verb Forms

Verbs and Tenses

12. I had thought they would have been hoping to meet her in the restaurant.

13. Did you realize what you would be missing if you didn't come with us?

14. Nothing that bad has ever happened to me before.

15. You will be hearing from my solicitor soon.

m Write out the named tenses of the following verbs. (Assume that the subject of the verb is 'he' in all cases.)

Verbs in English use certain word endings, or the absence of endings, to indicate person, number and tense.

Most verbs in English follow one particular general pattern of endings. Any verb that follows this general pattern for forming the simple tenses and the present and past participles is a regular verb.

This is the pattern for regular verbs:
, wlllk he wlllks she wlllked he is wlllking she has wlllked
you wllnt she wllnls he wllnfed we are wllnring he had wllnfed
you IooIc helDOks we looked you were looking we had looked
welckk helckks they kicked they were lciddng , have kicked
theymelr itmelfS itmelled it was mehing it has me/fed The Simple Present Tense

The form of a verb that is used for the first and second person singular and the first, second and third person plural ofthe simple present tense is the base form of the verb, the simplest form of the verb with nothing added on to it.

, tlllk 'rest

, blink

'mend

you tlllk you rest you blink youme.nd

we tlllk we rest we blink we mend

they tlllk they rest they blink they lfJe.nd

The 'base form' of a verb is the verb's most basic form. It is, for example, the form in which a verb is listed in a dictionary. It is the form of the verb that has no extra endings added to it to indicate person, number or tense.

(: Grammar Help> The base form of a verb Is also the bare Infinitive of the verb, the form of the verb that Is used

after a modal auxiliary:

we can talk

she must rest

he might blink

There is more about infinitives in Unit 23.

Verbs and Tenses

( Di d You KnOW?)

In older forms of English, there was a -rh ending that was used in the third person singular of the present tense, where -s is used today:

he cometh she speaketh

he saith (= he says)

In older forms of English, there was also a special pronoun rhou for the second person singular, and verbs agreeing with this pronoun had a special ending, usually -sf::

thou doest or dost (= you do)

thou hast (= you have) thou comest (= you come)

thou art (= you are) thou wilt (= you will)

The old verb-forms and the old secondperson pronoun are still sometimes used in poetry and religious language.

Verbs in the third person singular of the simple present tense end in -s. The -s is usually, but not always, added to the base form of the verb.

rest ~ she rests mend ~ it mends boast ~ she boasts like ~ he likes ski~ he skis

Spe 11 i ng He 1 p

The part of the word that an ending or inflection such as -s or -ing or oed is added to is called the stem. The stem is usually just the base form of the verb, but in some cases slight changes have to be made to the spelling of the base form to make the stem to which the inflection is added, such as doubling final consonants or deleting final Its.

• If the base form of the verb ends in s, Z, x, sh or ch, then the ending

is -es rather than just -s:

kiss ~ she kisses press ~ he presses

buzz ~ it buzzes fizz ~ it fizzes

box ~ he boxes relax ~ she relaxes

wish ~ he wishes push ~ she pushes

catch ~ it catches teach ~ she teaches

• If the base form ends in a y which is preceded by a consonant, the y changes to i before the ending is added, and the ending is -es:

cry ~ he cries

try ~ she tries

But if the y is preceded by a vowel, the y does not change, and the ending is os:

buy ~ she buys stay ~ he stays

If the base form ends in 0, the spelling rules are a little more complicated:

(a) If the base form ends in 00, just add Os:

•

boo~ he boos

moo ~ a cow moos

coo ~ a pigeon coos

(b) If there is any other vowel before the final 0, add Os: video ~ He vIdeos a lot of films.

radio ~ He quickly radios headquarters for reinforcements.

(c) Almost all verbs whose base form ends in 0 following a consonant add -es in the third person singular:

go~ she goes

tango ~ she tangoes

echo ~ It echoes veto ~ he vetoes

Exceptions to rule (c) are rare:

disco ~ She discos every Saturday night.

~----------------r Cspell i ng Not~ The past tense of bus is bused OR bussed.

Spelling Note

The third person singular of the verb bus is either buses or busses. The third person singular of glls is gllses and the third person singular of quiz is quizzes.

The Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense of a regular verb is generally formed by adding oed to the stem.

If the base form of the verb ends in e, just add ·d to form the simple past tense:

argue -? argued change ~ changed

die ~ die" tie -? tie"

agree -+ agreed free ~ free"

If the base form ends in y and the y is preceded by a consonant (not a vowel), the y changes to i before the ending -ed is added:

cry -+ crle" supply -+ supplle"

deny ~ den/ell try -+ trIed

BUT

stay -+ stayed journey -+ journeye"

Three verbs are slightly irregular: the simple past tenses of IllY, PIIY and sllyare IlIld. pllid and sllid /sed/.

If the base form Is a word of one syllable which ends In a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant (e.g. drip, pili) or else is stressed on its last syllable and ends in a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant (e.g. pr.'fer, remit, em'bfUl), the consonant Is doubled before the -ad ending is added:

clap ~ clal'ped drop -? dropped

stir -+ stirred refer -? referred

slam -+ slammed dim ~ dimmed

spot _, spotted admit -+ ad mitred

grin ~ grinned scan ~ scanned

If the vowel Is not stressed, or If there is more than one vowel letter in the syllable. then the consonant Is not doubled:

•

•

gossip -? 'gossiped offer -+ 'offered

stoop -? stooped rear -? reared

Verb Forms

4!:spelling Not~

The past tense of ski Is sometimes spelt ski'd.

4!:Spelling Not~

The following exceptions in British and American English, in which the final vowel is not stressed but the final consonant is nevertheless doubled, should be noted:

Note the spelling of pllrlllleled, which is the one exception to the rule.

ransom -7 'ransomed edit -7 'edited

pardon -7 'pardoned

steam -7 steamed greet -7 greeted clean -7 cleaned

In British English, a final I following a single vowel always doubles, regardless of the position of the stress:

comrot-s con'trolled rebel-7 rebelled

repel -7 re pelled

equat-e 'equalled travel-« 'travelled

stqnal -« 'signalled dial-« 'dialled

In American English, on the other hand, I obeys the general rule and is doubled only if the preceding single vowel Is stressed:

control-« controlled repel -7 re pelled BUT

equat-e 'equaled travel -« 'traveled

slqnai-« 'signaled dial-7 'dialed

• if the base form ends In a single vowel followed bv e, the c becomes e:k before the ending Is added:

rebel -7 re' belled

panic -7 panicked picnic -7 picnicked

The verb lire: is an exception: its past tense is IIrced .

• A number of regular verbs have slightly irregular past tense forms in addition to regular ones, and there are differences in usage between British and American English. (Fuller information about some of these verbs is given in the Appendix):

o The five 'principal parts' of an English verb are the base form, the third person singular of the present tense, the simple past tense, the present participle and the past participle. You can correctly form any part of any tense of any verb if you know these five 'principal parts' and the rules for forming them.

Give the principal parts of the following verbs: jump, fix, fry, obey, coach,

m The following passage has a number of incorrect verb forms. Edit the text and correct the errors.

In one case, the spelling is correct in American English, but not in British English. When correcting the passage, make all the spellings correct for British English.

letlng Helen get away with makelng so many spelling errors when she was young turnd out to be a serious mistake. Her parents admited as much. They agred that they ought to have correctted her work more often and insisted that she spellt all her words correctly. But Helen had been a rather spoillt child, and she had usually been allowd to do as she pleased.

By the time she had grown up, her bad spelling had become a serious problem for her. She was emploied as a secretary, and her boss frequently penciled angry comments on work she had typeed for him. He had already sayed to her more than once that If her spelling did not improve, she would have to look for a new job.

This made Helen very sad, because she enjoied her job and didn't want to leave. But there was no point In pan iCing. She knew she would have to do something about her spelling, so she enrolld in a night class.

Helen studyed hard for weeks at the class, and her efforts paved dividends. She was soon able to spell well and with confidence.

Verb Forms

4I:Grammar Help~ The simple past

tense and the past participle are

Identical In regular verbs, but this Is not the case with Irregular verbs: see Unit 11. That Is why we need to think of five principal parts

of a verb rather than Just four.

..

C Grammar Hel~ There are only two verbs that are Irregular in the present tense: be and have.

be:

[ am

he/she/it Is we/you/they are

have:

[/you/we/they have BUT

he/she/it has

Note also the pronunciation of the third person singular of do:

he/she/It does /dAz/

(: Grammar Hel ~ One Important feature of Irregular verbs Is that the stems of the simple past tense and the past participle are often quite different from the base form (e.g. he teaches, he tallght; he buys, he bOllght; he sells, he sold; he writes, he has written; he flies; he has flown).

CD

The Simple Tenses and Participles of Irregular Uerbs

Verbs that do not follow the normal, regular pattern of verb formation are called irregular verbs.

Almost all irregular verbs follow the regular rules for the formation of the simple present tense and the present participle. They are irregular only in the past tense and the past participle.

I swim he swims she was swimming

BUT they SWRm they had swum (NOT swimmed)

I write she writes she Is writing

BUT he wrote I have written (NOT writed)

I sing he sings she is singing

BUT she sRng he has sung (NOT singed)

I put she puts he is putting

BUT he put they have put (NOT putted)

I "old she holds she Is holding BUT he held I have held (NOT holded)

Patterns in Irregular Verb Formation

Although irregular verbs do not follow the regular rules for forming past tenses and past participles, they do follow certain patterns of construction and can be gathered into groups according to how their past tenses and past participles are formed.

(There is a complete alphabetical list of irregular verbs in the Appendix, beginning on page 245.)

Group 1

The past tense and the past participle add -t to the stem:

(a) The stem changes in pronunciation from li:1 to lei, usually with some change in spelling as well:

(b) There is a much greater and more unpredictable difference between the base form and the stem of the past tense and past participle; the past tense and past participle both end in either -ought or -llught:

buy: They bought /bo:t/ a new house.

They have bought a new car as well.

catch: The boys caught /ko:t/ three fish.

The boys had caught three fish.

Other verbs in this group are bring (brought, brought), seek (sought, sought), tellch (tllught, tllught) and think (thought, thought).

Group Z

The past tense and the past participle change the final d of the base form to -t:

send: She sent the parcel to her daughter.

He has sent a letter of complaint to the shop's manager.

build: They built those· houses in the 40s.

They have not built any more houses here since then.

Other verbs in this group are bend, lend and spend, and the old and literary verb rend, meaning 'to tear'.

Group 3

The past tense and the past participle add -d to the stem, with changes from the base form in pronunciation and usually also in spelling:

sell: She sold her car last week.

How many copies of the book have you sold?

hear: I heard /ha:d/ what happened.

Haven't you heard the news?

Other verbs in this group are flee (fled, fled) and tell (told, told).

Verb Forms

c: Grammar Help> Verbs In this group are similar to lellft and lop (see

page 58), but have no regular past tense and past participle forms, only Irregular ones.

Verbs and Tenses

Group 4

C Grammar Hel p~ The past tense and past participle end in -t or -d, and are

- - identical to the base form.

Note that there are two different verbs whose base form is bid. Only one of them, meaning 'to offer money for something', belongs to this group. The other is In group 8 below.

in the sense of 'to calculate the cost of something', cost is a regular verb:

This project was badly cosred.

Bet, quit and wet also have less common regular past tenses and past participles betted, quitted and wetted. See the notes at bet on page 246 and on wet on page 257.

Broadcast and forecast also have regular past tenses and past participles brolldcllsted and forecllsted.

cut: I cut the cake into five pieces.

I have cut my finger.

hurt: She hurt her knee when she fel/.

Somebody has hurt her feelings, it seems.

rid: The Pied Piper rid the town of rats.

The first Ming emperor had rid China of Mongol rule.

Other verbs in this group are bet, bid, burst, cast (and also broadcast and forecast), cost, hit, let, put, quit, set (and also upset), shed, shut, slit, split, spread, thrust and wet.

In American English, fit and sweat may be treated either as regular verbs or as belonging to this group. In British English, they are always regular verbs.

Group 5

Like the verbs of Group 4, the verbs in this group do not add a past tense and past participle ending, but unlike the Group 4 verbs, verbs in Group 5 change the vowel of the past tense and past participle from that of the base form.

(a) The base form has the vowel-sound faIl which changes to /au/ in the past tense and past participle:

find: We found some keys on the pavement.

We have found the answer to our problem.

Similarly bind, grind and wind.

(b) The base form has the vowel-sound /h/ which changes to /e/ in the past tense and past participle:

Also belonging to this group are hllllg (hulIg, hUllg), and strike (struck, struck or, much more rarely, strickellsee the note on page 255). Note also that in American English the past tense and past participle of sllellk may be either the regular form sllellked or the irregular form slluck. (In British English, the regular form slIellkedis normally used, but a few speakers of British English do say slluck.)

(d) Other verbs in Group 5 show a variety of changes from the base form to the past tense and past participle.

The verbs in this group are very similar to those of group 5c, but the past tense and the past participle have different vowels;. the past tense has lal and the past participle has I AI:

sing: He sling a song.

He has sung that song before.

sink: The ship Slink without trace.

Many ships have sunk near here.

Other verbs in this group are begill, drillk, rillg, shrillk, sprillg, stlllk and swim. (The verb stlllk also has a past tense form stullk.)

Group 7

The past participle ends in -II or -e.II.

(a) The vowel of the base form is i, pronounced laI/; the vowel of the past tense is loul and the vowel of the past participle is /II; the middle consonant sometimes doubles in the past participle:

Verb Forms

<Grammar Help~ Note that In the

sense of 'to execute someone by hanging them', hllllB Is regular In the past tense and past participle:

The picture was lIuIIII on the wall.

BUT

He was 1I,,"ged for murder.

< Gramma r Help> In American English, the past tense and past participle of

spit are usually spit rather than Split.

(: Grammar HelP> In the sense of 'to

put a ring on or round something', rlltg is a regular

verb:

He rillged all the places on the map that he wanted to visit.

BUT

The bells all rllllg out.

Verbs and Tenses

( Di d You Know?)

Verbs that form their past tenses and past participles by changing the vowel of the stem or by adding -n are called strong verbs.

Verbs that form past tenses and past participles by adding -ed. -d and -f are known as weak verbs.

drive: The thieves drove away in a white van.

The loud music had almost driven him crazy.

write: I wrote the letter.

I have written to her many times.

Similarly arise, ride (past participle ridden), rise, stride (past participle stridden) and strive. (Strive also has a regular past tense form strived.) Another verb in this group is the old and literary verb smite, meaning 'to hit' (smote, smitten).

(b) The vowel of the past tense is /u:/ and the vowel of the past participle is /ou/:

blow: The wind blew down the tree.

The storm had soon blown over.

fly: The birds flew away when I shouted at them.

The swallows have flown north for the winter.

Other verbs in this group are grow, know and throw (but NOT (low, which is a regular verb.) The verbs draw and withdraw have a similar pattern:

She drew a picture of the house. She has drawn on the wall.

She withdrew $50 from her bank account. He has withdrawn his application.

(c) The vowel of the base form is /eI/; the vowel of the past tense is /u:/ and the vowel of the past participle is /eI/:

shake: The earthquake shook the buildings.

The news has shaken her parents badly.

Other verbs in this group are forsake and take (and also mistake, overtake, partake and undertake).

(d) The vowel of both the past tense and the past participle is /ou/:

break: The rope broke under the strain.

The handle has broken off the jug.

freeze: The water froze.

The pond has frozen over.

Other verbs in this group are awake, choose, speak, steal, wake and weave.

(e) The base form ends in -ear; the past tense ends in -ore and the past partictple ends in -orn:

swear: She swore that she had never seen him before.

They had sworn an oath never to be captured alive.

Other verbs in this group are bear (and also forbear), tear and wear. But note that the past participle of bear is borne, not born:

It was a burden she had borne for many years.

(f) The vowel of the base form is /al/; the vowel in the past tense and past participle is /1/:

The doe bit the little girl.

The doe had bitten the little girl.

The only other verb in this group is hide (hid, hidden).

Verb Forms

< Grammar Hel~ Weave In the sense of 'to make cloth' is irregular, but with the meaning 'to

make a zigzag movement', it is regular:

He wetwed his way through the crowd.

Group 8 ~ Grammar Hel~
The rest of the irregular verbs do not fit easily into any pattern.
Past Participle Note that there are
Base Form Past Tense two different verbs
be I/he/she/it was been whose base form is
he/you/they were bid; only one of
beat beat beaten them, with the
bid bade /bad, berd/ bidden meaning 'to ask' or
'to say' belongs to
(less commonly, (less commonly, bid) this group. The other
bid) is in Group 4 above.
come came come
dive dove /douv/ dived or, rarely, dove
or dived (American (American En~iSh); dived
English); dived (British Englis )
(British English)
do did done/dAn/
eat ate / ert, et/ eaten
fall fell fallen
forbid forbade /fa'bad, forbidden
falbeId/
(OR forbad)
forget forgot forgotten
get got got (In American English,
there is also a past
participle gotten.)
CD Verbs and Tenses
give gave given
go went gone
have had had
lie lay lain
(In the sense of 'to tell
lies', lie is regular.)
lose lost lost
make made made
run ran run
see saw seen
shoe shod shod (OR shoed - see
page 253)
slay slew slaIn
tread trod trodden (OR trod) 4I:Grammar Help~ Modal Auxiliaries

The past tenses of all the modal verbs are Irregular:

She will go If she c.". She wOIIlti go If she COIIIII.

They say that they ",ay go. They said that they","'" go.

Modal verbs do not have present participles or past participles. However, It is sometimes possible to use other expressions as replacements for the participles of modal verbs:

I "" go to the meeting, and so, ".,". aWe fo go, I will go.

I "",sf finish this job today, although, _vi". fo finIsh It quickly, I may make some mistakes.

Do It Yourself

o Give the five principal parts of the following verbs: go, tell, lend, give, stand,

swing, sing, hit, flee, fight,

rise, take, speak, read, shoot,

fall, run, draw, beat, burst

m Replace the verbs in brackets with their correct simple past tense forms.

There (be) once a lonely man who (think) that life would be more fun if he (have) a pet. So he (drive) to the nearest pet shop and (tell) the owner that he (hanker) after something

unusual. After some discussion, he finally (buy) a centipede. which (come) in a little white box with a door at the front. to use for its house.

The man (take) the centipede back home and (find) a good place to keep the box. He (put) it on a shelf in his living-room beside some plants.

Later that day, the man (make) up his mind to take his new pet to his favourite bar for a drink. He (tap) on the centipede's door.

Would you like to go for a drink?' he (say).

'Certainly,' (reply) the centipede. 'I'll just get ready.'

The man (wait). Five minutes (go) by, then ten minutes, then fifteen minutes. The man (wonder) if the centipede still (intend) to go to the bar with him. He (rap) on the door again. Nothing (happen). He (let) another ten minutes go by, then (clap) his hands loudly.

A verb that expresses a command or request is said to be an imperative, or to be in the imperative mood.

Stop that right now! Give me a kiss.

Answer the phone for me, please. Come in.

Tell me all about your trip. Behave yourself!

Please help me.

Be sensible!

Stay alert!

Look happy!

<Grammar Help>

Moods In grammar are different forms of a verb that express, for example, whether the action of the verb is a statement or a command, or a fact, a wish or a possibility.

Only finite verbs have different moods. That is another feature that distinguishes finite verbs from non-finite verbs.

The two other moods of English verbs are the indicative mood and subjunctive mood, described in Unit 1 3 .

• Polite, persuasive or slightly annoyed requests use the

auxiliary verb do along with a lexical verb:

Do sit down. Do come in.

Do have another cake.

Do be quiet. I'm tired of listening to you.

Negative commands and requests formed with not and -n't require the use of the auxiliary verb do along with a lexical verb.

Not and -n't follow the auxiliary verb and precede the lexical verb.

Please do not (uk me for more money. You know I will say no. Do not be afraid.

Don't be silly!

Don't sit there. Come and sit over here.

Please don't worry about it. I can manage OK without you.

(There is more about making commands with not and -n't in Unit 16.)

With never, there is no need for the auxiliary verb da:

Never S(lY that again! Never tell lies.

(: Grammar HelP>

Normally, commands have no expressed subject (although the Implied subject Is always YDU). However, the subject pronoun YDU is sometimes used, especially for emphasis or when distinguishing between two or more people:

You two boys come with me to the princ/pallmmedlately. Don't yo" ever do that againl

Yo" make the sandWiches, Mary, and Tim, you make the coffee.

,---- --------------------------,

One way of making suggestions in English is with let's or, less commonly and in more formal language, let us, followed by the base form of a lexical verb.

Let~ go to the pictures this evening.

Let~ look in the paper and see what's on 7V tonight. Let~ t(llk about computers.

Let us pr(lY that it will not rain tomorrow.

Verb Forms

(: Grammar Help> In old-fashioned or literary English, not Is sometimes found following a lexical verb:

Fellr 1I0tli am here to help you.

Ask 1I0t what your country can do for you. [John F Kennedy]

Come IIOt between the dragon and his wrath. [WIlliam Shakespeare]

This Is not correct usage in normal everyday English.

Verbs and Tenses

If you want to be slightly more persuasive, you can say do let's or do let us:

Oh, do let's buy that sweet little puppy. Do let's have a party for all our friends.

Negative sentences with let's and let us are formed with not, never with -n'r:

I suggest that she come back again tomorrow. (subjunctive, expressing a suggestion)

I was stuck on the train for four hours. (indicative, expressing a fact)

I wish I were somewhere else! (subjunctive, expressing a wish)

(: Grammar Help>

There Is very little difference In form between the subjunctive mood and the Indicative mood In English, so little In fact that many English-speakers are not even aware that there Is such a thing as a subjunctive In English.

• Simple present tense

In the simple present tense, the subjunctive mood Is expressed by the base form of the verb. This means that the main difference between the Indicative and the subjunctive Is that In the third person singular there Is no -s ending In the subjunctive, as can be seen from the examples above:

God s.vu (Indicative) God S4IVC (subJunctive)

she ctHJNS (indicative) she come (subJunctive)

The present subjunctive of the verb be Is 1M, and the present subjunctive of "IIVC Is "lIVe:

If that lie the case, we shall have to change our plans.

I suggest that they be sacked immediately.

The doctor recommends she have at least another month off work.

• Simple past tense

The only difference between the indicative and the subjunctive in the simple past tense is the use of were instead of was:

If I were you, I wouldn't go.

He behaves as If he were the king.

In all other cases, the simple past indicative and the past subjunctive are Identical, and most grammarians now simply treat all such verbs as indicatives:

If I had your looks, I'd become a model. If you tried harder, you might succeed.

If this should ever happen, I would not want to survive.

• Negatives

To make a verb in the subjunctive present tense negative, put nor in front of It:

I strongly suggest that you not be late again this week.

It's very Important that they not be here when she arrives. It Is vital that the horse not get excited before the race.

To make the subjunctive past tense were negative, put nor or -n'r after it, Just the same as for the indicative:

If I weren't here to help them, they'd never manage on their own.

Other past subjunctives behave in the same way as past indicatives with 1I0r and -n'r: see Unit 16.

Uses of the Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood is used in a number of ways to express wishes, commands, suggestions and possibilities .

• The subjunctive is used in a number of set phrases and

expressions, many of which express wishes or hopes:

Cod save the Queen! Long live the President! Peace be upon him.

Heaven forbid that I should ever disobey a command.

Far be it from me to suggest that she was wrong. (= It is not for me to suggest ... ; I do not want to suggest ... )

Come what may, I will be back next year. (= No matter what happens, ... )

Suffice it to say that she was rather upset. (= All I need to say is fnat ... )

Verb Forms

Verbs and Tenses

Be that as it may, we still have to finish the job by next week. (= Even if that is so, ...

We're going on a sort of holiday, as It were. (= in a way, but not exactly)

• The subjunctive may be used in subordinate clauses following verbs or expressions meaning 'ask', 'lnslst', ·suggest', 'recommend', 'be important', etc:

I am simply asking that you be a little more polite to her.

It has been suggested that the coffee machine be replaced. It's vital that some progress be made soon.

It was imperative that everyone arrive at the same time. He insisted that she leave immediately.

I begged that she be allowed to stay.

Other verbs that may be followed by the subjunctive are IIdvise, IIrrllnge, decree, demllnd, desire, direct, instruct, intend, order, plelld, prllY, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require and urge.

Adjectives that may be followed by the subjunctive are IIdvisllble, IIpproprillte, better, crucilll, desirllble, essentilll, fitting, importllnt, necessllry, preferllble, rellsonllble, right, urgent and vitll/:

It's vital that this job be finished by next Friday.

Is it really so important that the job be finished by then?

Noun expressions with similar meanings can also be followed by subjunctives:

Someone has made the suggestion that she be given an award for bravery.

Your proposal that we fund the award is worth considering. She left clear instructions that all her money be given to charity when she died.

• This use of the subjunctive is rather formal, and is less common in British English than in American English. In less formal speech and writing, it is often better to use other constructions, such as 'should + verb' or, especially after an adjective, 'for + to + verb':

He insisted that she should leave immediately.

It was imperative that everyone should arrive at the same time. It is only right that she should be with her husband.

It was imperative for everyone to arrive at the same time. She left instructions for all her money to be given to charity when she died.

I think it would be advisable for you all to leave now.

Sometimes, an indicative verb is used rather than a subjunctive:

He Is insisting that she leaves immediately.

However, it is not possible to do this in all cases. Therefore, if you want to avoid using the subjunctive, it is safer to do so with should or for ... to.

<: Grammar Hel~

Notice that regardless of the tense of the verb In the main clause. the subjunctive verb In the subordinate clause is always In the present tense:

I SIIBsesr that she go at once.

I slIlIflCSled that she go at once.

I wOIl/ll hRVll slIggested that she go at once. It Is crucial that someone be at the meeting.

It WtlS cruclai that someone be at the meeting.

There Is more about this aspect of tenses In Unit 34 .

Verb Forms

• The past tense subjunctive were may be used after if, as if, ..... Grammar Hel p'

es though, even though, unless, suppose and imtlgine: " 'I

If I were you, I wouldn't go.

If the truth were ever to be told, it would cause an incredible scandal.

I wouldn't speak to him again even though he were to offer me a million dollars.

I felt as though I were the only person left on Earth.

For a discussion of structures such as 'Were the truth ever to be told, ...• , in which the verb precedes the subject. see Unit 20.

Verbs and Tenses

C Gramma r HelP> Subjunctive were is not normally

replaced by indicative was in If I were you, even in informal speech.

We have never ever been in a pub unless that hotel bar be counted as one.

Imagine he were to walk into the room right now, what would you say to him?

Don't speak to me as if I were a child. Supposing I weren't here, how would you cope?

Were is also used after the verb wish:

I wish I were her!

These uses of the subjunctive are rather formal, and the indicative mood is often used in less formal contexts:

I felt as though I was the only person left on Earth. I wish I was her!

• The SUbjunctive is used to express doubt or the possibility

of not being correct:

If that be the case, we shall have to elect a new chairman.

If that were the case, they would have elected a new chairman.

Whatever be her reasons for leaving, it is sad that she has gone.

This again is a rather formal usage, and less formally the subjunctive may be replaced by the indicative or a construction that uses a modal auxiliary verb:

If that is the case, we shall have to elect a new chairman. Whatever her reasons are for leaving, it is sad that she has gone. OR

Whatever her reasons may be for leaving, OR

Whatever may be her reasons for leaving, .

C Grammar Hel p>

Since the Indicative mood Is used to state facts and the subjunctive mood is used to express doubts and possibilities, the use of the indicative, as in 'If that is the case .. .', may also imply greater certainty than the use of the subjunctive, as in 'If that be the case .. .':

If that is true, we shall have to tell the police. (= I know it is true)

If that be true, we shall have to tell the police. (= I am not sure whether it is true)

However, since the subjunctive Is rarely used in everyday colloquial English, this distinction is rarely made nowadays, and the indicative is used to express doubt as well as certainty. (The subjunctive can, of course, only be used to express doubt.)

Do It Yourself

m Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with suitable verbs, using the subjunctive mood.

1. Having insisted that his tea b __ ready by six o'clock, he

didn't arrive home till eight.

2. The doctor recommended that she d __ less coffee.

3. I suggest that he s __ sorry to her for what he did.

4. They have specifically asked that my client not d __ the matter with anyone.

12. Well, far b __ it from me to criticize, but I really don't know what she was thinking of, leaving her children alone like that.

m Make the following pairs of sentences into single sentences, making the verbs in the subordinate clauses subjunctive.

Example Question:

Reply:

She is always so rude. Is it really necessary? Is it really necessary that ...

Answer:

Is it really necessary that she always be 50 rude?

1. Many changes need to be made to the company's security procedures. That is what the report recommends.

The report recommends that ...

2. The new procedures should be brought in as soon as possible.

That is what committee has proposed. The committee has proposed that .0.

3. We must come to some agreement soon. That's very important.

It's very important that ...

Verb Forms

Verbs and Tenses

4. The war must be brought to an end as soon as possible. That is absolutely crucial.

It is .absolutely crucial that ...

5. Drivers must wear seat-belts. That is what the law requires.

The law requires that ....

6. I would like to suggest something. We ought to paint the doors before the walls.

I would suggest that ...

7. I would like to suggest something. The doors should be painted before the walls.

I would suggest that ...

8. They should meet us here. That might be better.

It might be better that ...

9. We really ought to invite her to the funeral. It's only right.

It's only right that ...

10. The work must be completed by next week. That's the essential thing.

What is essential is that ...

( Handy Hi nt ) m Rewrite the following sentences using for and to:

Take care to use the correct forms of the pronouns In your answers to questions 3 and 4.

Example Question:

Is it absolutely vital that we leave today?

Is it absolutely vital for us to leave today?

Answer:

1. It is important that the new procedures be brought in right away.

2. Why have my orders that the machinery be switched off not

been carried out?

3. It is essential that we be seen to be co-operatlng,

4. It would be better that he come here than that we go there.

5. My preference would be that you meet me at the station.

6. Her instructions were that her money be left to charity.

7. It might be preferable that you leave before then.

8. It is just not appropriate that young children attend a funeral.

Quick: Summary

1 A verb whose subject is lor we is in the first person. A verb whose subject is you is in the second person. A verb whose subject is he, she, it, they or a noun or noun phrase is in the third person. [Unit 7]

A verb whose subject is one person or thing Is a singular verb. A verb whose subject is more than one person or thing is a plural verb. Singular and plural are together known as number. [Unit 7]

2 The tense of a verb shows whether the action of the verb happens in the past, the present or the future, whether It is a single action or a repeated action, whether the action is completed or unfinished, and so on. [Unit 9]

A simple tense is a tense that Is formed by a single word. The two simple tenses in English are the 'simple present tense' and the 'simple past tense'. All other tenses in English are complex tenses, formed with one or more auxiliary verbs plus a lexical verb.

3 Verbs in English use certain word endings (such as -ed, -ing or -s), or the absence of endings, to indicate person, number and tense. [Unit 10]

Most verbs in English follow one particular general pattern of endings, and any verb that follows this general pattern is called a regular verb. [Unit 10] When endings are added to the base forms of the verbs, there are sometimes slight changes to the spelling of the base forms.

Verbs that do not follow the normal pattern of endings are called irregular verbs. [Unit 11] Most irregular verbs are irregular only in the past tense and the past participle.

4 The form of a verb that is used to give a command or express a request is the same as the base form of the verb. A verb that expresses a command or request is said to be in the imperative mood. [Unit 12]

Suggestions may be expressed by means of let's or let us followed by the base form of a lexical verb. [Unit 12]

5 Verbs that are used to make statements and ask questions are In the indicative mood. [Unit 1 3]

The subjunctive mood is sometimes used to express wishes, commands, suggestions and possibilities. [Unit 13]

Verb Forms

C hap t e r

. I nuersion of Subjects and . Uerbs

RUHiliary Uerbs

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs, are used along with main or lexical verbs to form complex tenses and to indicate possibility, necessity and permission. They are usually divided into primary auxiliaries (be, have and do) and modal auxiliaries, (such as shall, will, can, may, etc):

I am [auxiliary verb] coming [main verb].

I have [auxiliary verb] told [main verb] him.

She may [auxiliary verb] not come [main verb]. You must [auxiliary verb] not do [main verb] that.

Some auxiliary verbs have special short forms:

I am~ I'm

we will ~ we'll

they have ~ they've

she will not ~ she won't

Auxiliary verbs are used in the formation of tenses, questions and negative sentences, and have a number of other important uses in English grammar .

Short Forms of RUHiliary Uerbs

Some auxiliary verbs have shortened forms, used both in speech and writing.

AIII't is more frequent and slightly more acceptable in American English than in British English.

<: Grammar HelP>

The short form .,,'t cannot follow a short form of a verb. Either the short form of a verb must be followed by "ot (e.g. It's not) or else .,,'1 must be attached to the full form of a verb (e.g. It Is,,'I or It ".s,,'I):

I'm not (I amn't Is not possible, as explained above)

you're not you aren't

he's not he Isn't OR he hasn't

she'd not she hadn't OR she wouldn't

they've not they haven't

he'll not he won't

-

Do It Yourself

00 Replace the full forms of the auxiliary verbs, and the negative word 1I0t, in the following sentences with short forms.

If the full forms may be replaced by short forms in more than one way (see the Grammar Help box above), give both shortened forms.

They will talk to me about their problems. 'I shall be back,' said Arnie.

We had enough food to last us for a week or more. They will not tell me what they are thinking.

The president is not responsible for the increase in crime. I cannot tell you how sorry I am.

We have been through a lot together. You have not seen the last of me! She had not forgotten her promise.

Note that if the whword or phrase is the subject of the interrogative sentence, the auxiliary verb does not move In front of the subject:

Which boys are going into town?

Who has broken the window?

What sort of animal can climb trees?

( Di d You KnOW?)

The first or only auxiliary verb in a verb phrase is sometimes called the operator.

~ ~

The boys are going into town. ~ Where are the boys going? The girls are going too. ~ Why are the girls going too?

He is painting a picture. ~ What is he painting a picture of? She can have one biscuit. ~ Which biscuit can she have? Mice could get in through that hole. ~ How could mice get in through that hole?

If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the verb phras~ move the first one to in front ofthe subject to form _:_ quest~o~

Josie will be coming with us. ~ Will Josie be coming with us? The joiners will have finished by then. ~ Will the joiners have finished by then?

She has been thinking about getting a new job. ~ Has she been thinking about getting a new job?

They might have forgotten about it. ~ Might they have forgotten about it?

She could have prevented the accident. ~ Could she have prevented the accident?

Lexical verbs cannot form questions on their own. There must always be an auxiliary verb (an operator) in a question. When there is no other auxiliary verb in the sentence, the verb do is brought in to be the operator, followed by the base form of the lexical verb.

They saw us. ~ Did they see us?

Her mother likes flowers. JC Does her mother like flowers? The girls went to the cinema. ~ Did the girls go to the cinema? Their dogs hark a lot. ~ Do their dogs bark a lot?

She broke the window deliberately. ~ But why did she break it? My baby sister wants a biscuit. ~ Which biscuit does your baby sister want?

4i:Grammar Help~

Note that, here again, if the wh- word or phrase is the subject of the sentence, the subject of the sentence remains In front of the lexical verb and there is therefore no need for an operator In the question:

Which dog bit you? Who broke the window?

WIMt son of IInimlll goes 'mlaow7

Be and Have

• The lexical verbs be and have are exceptions to the above rule.

1 Be never uses an operator to make a question. To make a question with be, simply put the verb in front of the subject of the sentence:

Auxiliary Verbs

41: Grammar Help~ In very old-fashioned English and In

poetry, lexical verbs sometimes do form questions without operators:

Come you from France, my lord?

I love him, but loves he another?

Wlliked she on thIs very path?

This Is never done In everyday modern English.

Verbs and Tenses

I am a complete fool. -7 Am I a complete fool?

Her mother is that famous artist. -7 Is her mother that famous artist?

John and Susan were a bit worried. -7 Were John and Susan a bit worried?

The same applies in sentences beginning with there:

There is more than one way of doing this. -7 Is there more than one way of doing this?

There was a fox in the garden today. -7 Was there a fox in the garden today?

2 Have can make questions with or without an operator:

Have you any money? OR Do you hllVe any money? Had he anyone to help him? OR Did he have anyone to help him?

4i:Grammar Help~

Usage with have Is slightly complicated.

• In the sense of possessing or carrying something, there are three possibilities:

'Have ... 7', 'Do ... have ... ?' or 'Have ... got ... ?':

Hllve you enough food with you?

Hils he enough food with him? OR

Do you hllve enough food with you? Does he hllve enough food with him? OR

Hllve you got enough food with you? Hils he got enough food with him?

All three are possible in British English. American English prefers the construction with do.

In the past tense, the usual form is 'Old ... have ..• ?':

Did you hllve enough food with you? Did he have enough food with him?

• In the sense of experiencing something or doing something, especially doing it habitually, the forms to use are 'Do ... have ... 7'/ 'Did ... have ... ?':

Did you hllve any trouble finding us? Did they hllve any trouble finding us?

Do you hllve coffee or tea for breakfast? Does he hllve coffee for breakfast?

'Have you got milk on your cornflakes? means 'Is there milk on your cornflakes at the moment?'

Do It Yourself

o Convert the following sentences into questions.

1. We are staying here tonight.

2. James can come with us if he wants to.

3. The workmen have been here all day.

4. We should have locked the garage door when we left.

5. They would have had enough time to get out when the fire

started.

6. They were perhaps pretending to be aliens from outer space.

7. They might have been men from Mars.

8. They come here quite often.

9. His parents lived in that house over there.

10. He intends to sell his field to a builder for housing.

11. His wife helped them move into their new house.

12. They got out safely when the fire started.

13. The girls enjoy gardening.

14. She always enjoyed gardening.

[[) The following sentences are answers to questions. Make up the probable questions using the words in brackets.

Example

Question: The man was painting his fence. (what?)

Answer: What was the man painting?

1. Our neighbour was walking along the street. (who?)

2. The man was walking along the street. (where?)

3. She will be here by three o'clock at the latest. (when?)

4. She will be coming by train. (how?)

5. The shopkeeper was talking to the detective. (who?)

6. I think she would prefer that one. (which one?)

7. I can't think of any reason she could have for leaving so suddenly. (what reason?)

8. He was drawing a picture of Buckingham Palace. (what?)

9. I don't know why she left like that. (why?)

10. He had given the money to the girl at the cash desk. (who?)

Auxiliary Verbs

( Handy Hi nt )

There are two possible solutions to numbers 5, 8 and 10.

Verbs and Tenses

W The following lines are taken (with slight alterations) from English poetry. The question forms (in bold) are not what you would expect In normal modern English. Rewrite the lines, changing the verbs and subjects into correct modern English.

Example Poetic English:

Standard English:

o saw you pretty Lesley?

o did you see pretty Lesley?

1. 0 came you by the water-side?

Pulled you the rose or the lily?

Or came you by the meadow green, And saw you my sweet Willie?

2. Why weep you by the tide, lady? (tide == river) Why weep you by the tide?

I'll wed you to my youngest son, And you shall be his bride.

3. Heard you the noise of battle loud, Lance to lance, and horse to horse?

4. You stars that measure life to man, Why seem your motions quicker?

5. Why, as we reach the Waterfall of Death Feel we its pull more rapid?

6. 0 where live you, my pretty lass?

And tell me what they call you.

7. And as she gave to me a kiss,

She said, 'Dear heart, how like you this?'

8. And if she be not kind to me,

What care I how kind she be? (be == is; see Unit 13)

Sentences with Not and -n't

Not and -n't almost always follow an auxi/iaryverb, though they may also follow the lexical verbs be and have.

If there is more than one auxiliary verb in a verb phrase, not and -n't follow the first one (that is, the operatorsee page 88).

We will answer that question. ~ We will not answer that question.

You must call to him. ~ You mllst not call to him.

I have seen that man before. ~ I have not seen that man before.

They are just being silly. ~ They are not just being silly.

The little boy over there Is crying. ~ The little boy over there is not crying.

The little boy had been crying. ~ The little boy had not been crying.

She has been playing on the computer for hours. ~ She has not been playing on the computer for flours.

The police could have come sooner. ~ The police could not have come sooner.

She ltJay be coming to the party. ~ She may not be coming to the party.

Notice that -n't is always attached to the verb it follows:

You wouldn't recognize him if you saw him. You mllstn't eat sweets In the classroom.

It collldn't have been George who broke the window. She says she isn't coming to the party.

<: Gramma r Help> Mayn't Is very rare in both British and American English. Use may not Instead.

Verbs and Tenses

C Grammar Hel ~ Other negative

words do not require the use of an auxiliary:

I never said that. No-one came.

She said nothing about it.

C Grammar Hel ~ Note that for both lexical and auxiliary be, the question form based on am + -n't is aren't:

Am I not being sensible7 BUT

Aren't I being sensible7

Am I not coming with you7 BUT

Aren't I coming with you7

In negative questions, -n't precedes the subject of the verb. whereas not follows it:

Why didn't she come with you? BUT Why did she not come with you?

Couldn't he have said that before? BUT Could he not have said that before?

Haven't you seen her today? BUT Have you not seen her today?

Why isn't she coming to the party? BUT Why is she not coming to the party?

• As with questions. if there is no other auxiliary verb available. the verb do is brought in to act as the operator in a negative sentence.

I like dogs. ~ I don't like dogs.

He said he was coming. ~ He did not say he was coming. They got lost on the way home. ~ They didn't get lost on the way home.

She drinks coffee. ~ She doesn't drink coffee.

They clearly want a fight. ~ They clearly do not want a fight.

C Grammar Hel p>

In older forms of English and in poetry, lexical verbs sometimes form negative sentences without operators, as in these quotations from William Shakespeare:

Our virtues would be proud if our faults whipped them not. (= ... did not whip them)

Things that love night love not such nights as these. (= ... do not love such nights as these)

This is never done in everyday modern English.

Be and Have

• Just as with questions. the lexical verbs be and have do not require auxiliary verbs to form negative sentences.

1 Be never takes an auxiliary:

She is his sister. ~ She isn't his sister.

These are John's shoes. ~ These are not John's shoes. I was very angry. ~ I wasn't very angry.

2 Have is more complicated. It can form negative sentences with or without do, and there is also the possibility of using 'have not got or 'haven't got:

We haven't any milk. OR

We don't have any milk. OR We haven't got any milk.

(: Grammar Help>

In the sense of possessing or carrying something, the three possibilities are 'do not have'/don't have' and 'have not got/ 'haven't got and 'have not (more usually 'haven't):

I don't have any money.

He doesn't have any money. OR

I haven't got any money.

He hasn't got any money. OR

I haven't any money.

He hasn't any money

All three are possible in British English, but the third form is less usual than the other two. American English prefers the construction with do.

In the past tense, it is normal to use the auxiliary verb do:

I didn't have any money. He didn't have any money.

2 In the sense of experiencing or undergoing something, or doing something, especially doing it habitually, the construction to use is 'do not have' (or, usually, 'don't have'):

/ didn't have uny trouble finding you.

He didn't have any trouble finding you

I don't have coffee for breakfast.

He doesn't have coffee for breakfast.

Notice the difference between 'do not have' and 'have not got: '/ haven't got milk on my cornflakes' means There is no milk on my cornflakes at the moment'.

'I don't have milk on my cornflakes' generally means 'I do not usually put milk on my cornflakes', though it mayalso mean There is no milk on my cornflakes at the moment'.