Ecology

Ecologically, the ferns are most commonly plants of shaded damp forests of both temperate and tropical zones. Some fern species grow equally well on soil and upon rocks; others are confined strictly to rocky habitats, where they occur in fissures and crevices of cliff faces, boulders, and taluses. Acidic rocks such as granites, sandstones, and quartzites are associated with characteristic fern species different from those of alkaline rocks such as calcites and dolomites. A few species appear to be confined to serpentine and related rocks. In the tropics as many as two-thirds of the ferns of an area may grow as epiphytes on the shaded lower trunks and branches or in the crowns of trees. A few so-called epiphytic ferns are actually climbers that originate upon the ground and grow up tree trunks. In these the lower leaves (bathyphylls) are usually vegetative and are often different in form from those at the higher levels (acrophylls), which are entirely or partly fertile in that they bear sporangia over their surfaces.

Shield fern (Dryopteris dilatata)Ingmar Holmasen

Both epipetric (growing on rocks) and epiphytic ferns may show structural adaptations to dry habitats similar to those of some desert plants. These adaptive features include such specializations as hard tissues and thick texture; the surface cells, or epidermis, may be provided with a very thick cuticle (a waxy layer); and abundant trichomes (plant hairs) or scales may be found on the leaf and stem surfaces. Terrestrial ferns, growing on the ground, may also possess such modifications, especially those that grow in salt marshes (e.g., leather ferns, Acrostichum) and in open, fully exposed sites (e.g., bracken, Pteridium; lip ferns, Cheilanthes; and brakes, Pteris).

Lip fern (Cheilanthes)A.J. Jermy

Ferns that grow in the open are often referred to as sun ferns (e.g., Gleichenia) and, unlike most ferns, do not (at least as mature plants) require shade. Water ferns—waterclovers (Marsilea), water spangles (Salvinia), and mosquito ferns (Azolla)—surprisingly are very commonly inhabitants of dry regions. They appear only after rains, however, and their growth and life cycles are accomplished rapidly, probably as an adaptation to the need for making quick use of water. These ferns have two types of spores that essentially lack the vegetative phase of other ferns; they simply produce sex organs and sperm and eggs rapidly, utilizing food in the spores. Many inhabitants of dry rocky slopes and cliffs, especially in the maidenhair family, Pteridaceae, have developed a modified type of life cycle known as apogamy, in which fertilization is bypassed. This life cycle is also believed to foster quick reproduction in connection with brief damp periods; the gametophytes grow quickly, with buds developing directly into sporophytes. Thus, free water is not required for swimming sperm.

Parasites and animals that feed upon ferns do not seem to be numerous, although the information available is not complete. Fungi infect ferns, some of them producing soruslike (i.e., resembling the sorus, the sporangium cluster of ferns) dark bodies, or sclerotia. Snails and slugs commonly attack young, uncurling fronds (leaves) of some species, and various beetles have been observed to graze upon ferns. Partially eaten or insect-damaged fronds are not commonly observed in most fern species, however, which suggests that they may contain repulsive substances that ward off grazers. Many ferns have chemical compounds similar or identical to molting hormones of insects, and these may play a role in protecting the plants from major insect damage.

Although the sporophyte is long-lived, the fern gametophyte is usually ephemeral. It develops in a microenvironment characterized by little competition from other plants (including even mosses and algae); exposed humus, decomposing plant materials, or fresh mineral surfaces; deep to moderate shade; and a humid atmosphere. Even ferns whose sporophytes tolerate sun and drought tend to have these requirements for their gametophytes. On rocks, for example, the gametophytes form in protected crevices in which light is minimal and moisture maximal. Because of their requirements for exposed soil, development of fern gametophytes is promoted by damage to mature vegetation, such as fallen trees in the forest, flooding, and deep erosion. Prothallia are observed in nature most commonly upon shaded soil banks in forests and along streams and upon rotting logs.

As the bulk of reproduction of ferns is probably vegetative, taking place in the sporophytic stage, the presence of a large stand of a particular kind of fern results not so much from sexual reproduction by gametophytes as from clone formation by rhizomes and in some cases by root or leaf proliferations. In fact, vegetative reproduction probably accounts for the bulk of fern plants in the world; the sexual cycle, including spores and independent gametophytes, is probably important primarily in invading new habitats, extending the plant’s geographic range, and creating ever so slight variations through rearrangement of the genetic material during meiotic cell division immediately preceding spore production.

Form and function

The fern spore—a single living cell, usually protected by a thick wall—is the main source of population dispersal, being readily carried by wind. Ferns display a wide diversity of spore types in terms of shape, wall structure, and sexuality, and these types prove to have great value in determining taxonomic relationships. The full functional significance of the different types, except on the grossest scale, is not yet fully understood; for example, the minute differences in sculpturing of the outer wall surface do not, in the present state of knowledge, appear to have functional significance.