2 The international community and The global governance It is an undisputed fact that, the international community has established itself as the guardian of the world affairs. Wherever people are in distress, countries are threatened by implosion, freedoms of all kind suppressed by despots and tyrants, economies collapsing, conflicts gaining in intensity, and many other ills,the international community becomes the essential fallback position or even the referee from who appropriate and balanced responses are expected. From this point of view, the international community appears to be the body that holds all the levers of economic governance and global politics. But what is this entity that has a great importance in the management of the contemporary world? In other words, what is this thing that seats at the heart of the global management or the current rate of global governance? After all what is the international community? How does it work? Who finances it? What are its components? Is Africa a member of it? Is the voice of Africa heard? What should Africa do to play a worthy role? These questions are some of the many queries that rise up in mind when trying to understand the international community and identifying the main contours. The follow presentations will attempt to respond and provide a better knowledge about the place and role of Africa within the international community, which today figures as leitmotif in most political and economic speeches. The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission ii

4 Dr. René N Guettia Kouassi Director, Economic Affairs African Union Commission Is Africa a member of the International Community? At first, this question sounds so unusual. But on a second thought, it needs to be asked. Indeed, since the advent of what is henceforth called the Arab Spring, the concept of International Community is profusely used in all types of media and in international issues where of peace and security, human rights and democracy are discussed. The International Community is particularly mentioned when conflicts break out in the world. Thus, political conflicts, following the renewal of political mandates and armed conflicts emerge from frustration of all types or which take on the shape of a palace coup or armed rebellions aimed at ending everlasting regimes resembling dynasties, are occasions when the term International Community is most used. And rightly so, as conflict resolution must be based on a supranational authority whose competence is universally accepted. Thus, dictatorship appears and tramples under the foot of human rights and human freedom, when people in the world express needs for democracy, justice, protection, peace and even transparency in the management of public affairs, their first reflex is to appeal to the International Communities. Everything goes on as if the International Community is the world authority recognized by all and capable of finding an effective and lasting solution to all the injustices in the world. In other words, the International Community is considered as a superstructure with economic and political powers enabling it to correct all the inequalities, all the mistakes or all the exactions of which the people are victims. From that point of view, it is supposed to respond to the cries from the heart of all human communities, wherever they are living, who are in danger. Yesterday, in countries like Liberia, Sierra Leone, Libya, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lebanon, Vietnam, Cambodia, Cote d Ivoire at some period of their history, the International Community has been Qu est-ce que la Communauté internationale? L Afrique est-elle membre? Ces questions sont insolites, à première vue. Mais à y réfléchir, elles méritent d être posées. En effet, depuis l avènement de ce que l on appelle désormais le Printemps arabe, le concept «Communauté internationale» est abondamment utilisé dans les médias de tout genre et dans les instances internationales, où les questions de Paix et Sécurité, des Droits humains et de Démocratie sont traitées. La Communauté internatio nale est surtout évoquée lorsque les conflits éclatent à travers le monde. Ainsi, les conflits politiques, consécutivement au renouvellement des mandats politiques, et les conflits armés nés des frustrations populaires révolutions de Palais ou rebellions armées visant à mettre fin à des régimes trentenaires s apparentant à des dynasties constituent des occasions où le mot«communauté internationale» s emploie le plus. Et pour cause, la résolution de ces conflits doit se fonder sur une autorité supranationale dont les compétences sont Universellement admises. Ainsi, lorsque les peuples, pour des raisons diverses, sont menacés dans leur existence, lorsqu une dictature se manifeste et foule aux pieds les droits humains et les libertés humaines, lorsque les peuples dans le monde expriment des besoins de démocratie, de justice, de protection, de paix et même de transparence dans la gestion des affaires publiques, le premier réflexe qui s impose à eux est de faire appel à la Communauté internationale. Tout se passe comme si la Communauté internationale était la seule autorité mondiale reconnue de tous et capable d apporter une solution efficace et durable à toutes les injustices planétaires. En d autres termes, la Communauté internationale est regardée comme une superstructure nantie de pouvoir économique et politique lui permettant de réparer toutes les inégalités, toutes les fautes ou toutes les exactions dont les peuples sont victimes. De ce point de vue, elle est supposée The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 1 * The Original document is in French

5 approached to contribute to the establishment of political and social balance. Today, countries like Somalia, Syria, Palestine, etc. seek assistance for the same reasons. In brief, everywhere in the world, where there have been serious political and social crises, appeal has been made to the International Community to contribute to restore order and peace through its main levers of intervention. They are the United Nations, all its agencies, the Bretton Woods institutions, NATO, the regional organizations like the European Union, ASEAN, African Union and its RECs, MERCOSUR, ALENA, the League of Arab States, the ICC. Indeed, the International Community is regularly sought to eradicate poverty and hardship. But it should be stressed that the salvation aspect of its actions does not hide the often harsh criticism leveled against it. As a matter of fact, the International Community is often accused of partiality or practicing a double standard policy in its actions across the world. But, for the purpose of our paper, we are voluntarily muting this aspect underscored on several occasions by the disparagers of the International Community. But paradoxically we resort to the International Community or wonder about its role in the world without knowing all the theoretical and practical outlines of its existence. What is, therefore, the International Community? A scientific definition on which there is universal consensus does not exist to reply to this question. Each one can find a reply according to his understanding of the world and international relations or still on the basis of his ideological convictions. However, an outline of a definition may revolve around elements linked to economic weight, military power, possession of nuclear weapon, having the right of veto in the UN Security Council. In such a perspective, it can be argued, without great risk, that: any country or nation is a member of the International Community that has economic weight (which can be measured by its volume of trade or its share of world consumption), is a military power, has nuclear weapon, a right of veto in the UN Security Council. It is a definite event that any country which today enjoys all these prerogatives has a voice in the comity of nations. That country counts, is consulted, listened and respected in the management of the affairs of the world. Today, it is the case of the United States of America, France, United Kingdom, China, which not only possess a deterrent nuclear force but also are the co-managers of the major le- répondre aux appels lancés par toutes les Communautés humaines en danger, où qu elles vivent. Par le passé, au Libéria, en Sierra Léone, en Libye, en République démocratique du Congo, au Rwanda, en Afrique du Sud, au Zimbabwe, au Mozambique, au Liban, au Vietnam, au Cambodge ou en Côte d Ivoire, la Communauté internationale a été sollicitée pour contribuer à l établissement d un équilibre politique et social. Aujourd hui, les pays comme la Somalie, la Syrie ou la Palestine, y recourent pour les mêmes raisons. Bref, partout dans le monde où des crises politiques et sociales graves se sont produites, l on a fait appel à la Communauté internationale pour contribuer à rétablir l ordre et à réinstaurer la Paix. Au nombre de ses leviers d intervention, on compte les Nations Unis et l ensemble de ses agences, les institutions de Bretton-Woods, l OTAN, la CPI, et les Organisations régionales comme l Union européenne, l ASEAN, le MERCOSUR, l ALENA, la Ligue Arabe ou l Union africaine et ses CER. Certes, la Communauté internationale est régulièrement sollicitée à travers le monde entier pour réparer les torts, corriger les injustices, apporter la paix, et soutenir les processus de croissance et de développement afin d éradiquer la pauvreté et la misère. Mais ses interventions réussies n occultent pas les critiques souvent acerbes que l on exprime à son endroit. Qu est-ce alors la Communauté internationale? En effet, la Communauté internationale est fréquemment accusée de partialité ou de pratiquer une politique de «deux poids deux mesures» dans ses missions à travers le monde. Pour les besoins de ce papier, nous taisons volontairement cet aspect maintes fois souligné par les pourfendeurs de la Communauté internationale. Nous nous interrogerons plutôt sur le rôle qui est attribué à la Communauté Internationale, alors même que les contours théoriques et pratiques de son existence restent indéfinis. Il n existe pas aujourd hui de définition du concept de Communauté internationale qui fasse l objet d un consensus universel. Chacun peut donner une réponse à cette question en se fondant sur sa compréhension du monde et des relations internationales, ou encore sur la base de ses convictions idéologiques. Toutefois, une esquisse de définition peut s articuler autour des éléments liés au poids économique, à la 2 VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

6 vers of the management of the world economy and enjoy the right of veto in the UN Security Council. Beside this initial group of countries, there are countries which are, certainly, without a nuclear weapon but which have their membership card of the International Community due to their weight in the world economy. They have a super-equipped army with conventional weapons and can contribute to the financing of military operations, for humanitarian needs, throughout the world. It is the case of Germany, Japan and Italy. There is also a third group of countries among the emerging economies. They are members of the International Community less because of the size of their economy but rather because they possess nuclear weapons. They are Israel, Pakistan, India and Russia. Finally, there is a fourth group of countries which, by their role as the engines or driving forces of global growth, are in the anteroom of the International Community. These countries can be consulted but their views are rarely taken into account in major final decisions. Countries like Brazil, Turkey and Indonesia can belong to this category of countries. And Africa, in this category of countries, which is its place in the International Community? Is it a member? In the light of the above-mentioned privileged criteria, it can be argued, with little margin of error, that Africa is lagging far behind. Africa, as a whole, with its 54 States, its huge natural resources and population nearing almost a billion inhabitants, is not, on the basis of the criteria already mentioned, a member of the International Community. It has an insignificant economic weight (less than 3% of the international trade), it is absent in the UN Security Council with a right of veto, it has to make up a huge scientific and technological gap before being a candidate for possessing nuclear capacity, even for civilian purpose. How can Africa be considered as a full member of the International Community if it is deprived of all these assets? The advent of the G20, following the financial and economic crisis of July 2007, which reached its peak in September 2008, made the whole world believe that, henceforth, the voice of the poorest will be heard and respected. But did we not rush matters by affirming that the G20 was born from the ashes of puissance militaire, à la détention de l arme nucléaire, et/ou la possession d un droit de veto au Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies. Dans une telle perspective, l on peut tenter d arguer que : est membre de la Communauté internationale tout pays ou toute nation qui a un poids économique (que l on peut mesurer par sa part dans le volume des échanges commerciaux ou par sa part dans la consommation mondiale), une puissance militaire, l arme nucléaire et un droit de veto au Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies. Sans nulle doute, tout pays qui aujourd hui jouit de toutes ces prérogatives a une voix audible dans le concert des Nations. Ce pays-là est apris en compte, consulté, écouté et respecté dans la gestion des affaires du monde. Aujourd hui, c est le cas de pays comme les États-Unis, la France, le Royaume-Uni, et la Chine qui non seulement sont dotés d une force de dissuasion nucléaire, mais encore sont co-gestionnaires des principaux leviers de gestion de l économie mondiale, et jouissent d un droit de veto au Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies. Aux côtés de ce premier groupe de pays, il y a des pays qui sont, certes, démunis d arme nucléaire, mais qui ont leur carte de membre de la Communauté internationale par le biais du poids de leurs économies dans l économie mondiale. Ils disposent d une armée moderne et équipée en armement conventionnel, et peuvent contribuer au financement d opérations militaires pour des besoins humanitaires à travers le monde. C est le cas de l Allemagne, du Japon et de l Italie. Il y a également un troisième groupe de pays qui compte parmi les économies émergentes. Ces pays sont membres de la Communauté internationale, moins par la taille de leurs économies que par la possession de l armement nucléaire. Ce sont Israël, le Pakistan, l Inde et la Russie. Enfin, il y a un quatrième groupe de pays qui, de par leur rôle de locomotive ou de moteur de la croissance mondiale, sont dans l anti-chambre de la Communauté internationale. Ces pays sont généralement consultés, mais leur avis est rarement pris en compte dans les grandes décisions finales. Des pays comme le Brésil, la Turquie ou l Indonésie, peuvent appartenir à cette catégorie de pays. The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 3

7 the G81and that the latter had bowed out? Rightly so, the G20, from the time of its inception, was entrusted the mandate of the world economic governance which, among others, was to place safeguards aimed at saving the latter from systemic crises like the one of 2008, whose effects still threaten the implosion of the Euro zone. As the role of monitoring the world economy has been, henceforth, entrusted to the G20, its elder, the G8, should simply ensure world peace and security. Is this division of labor between the G20 and G8 rational and optimal? Have the G8 countries accepted that the privilege they enjoyed be extended to emerging countries which, in the meantime, have become the engine of world economic growth? Have the emerging countries checked all the characteristics likely to make them credible partners in the management of world affairs? Are they not accused of having a millstone around the neck as the non-observance of human rights, violation of all types of freedom as well as the lack of vigilance about corruption in all its forms? Does the persistence of the millstones in these countries prevent them from sitting and playing their role fully alongside the G8 countries in the co-management of the affairs of the world? Are there two types of country in the G20? : Those that enjoy all the rights (G8 countries) and those that have limited rights (emerging countries)? In truth, everything leads to believe that it is the first group which still holds the command levers of world governance and seem to be at heart of the International Community. No offence to all those who saw in the emergence of the G20 a deep change of governance of the world economy. The G20 is less of an embryo of the sharing of world governance than a political forum where the G8 countries, the hard core of the OECD members, still exercise their economic and political power. Facts are stubborn. They illustrate better the reality. Economic and political power established after the Second World War has still a lot to enjoy. This power, which today governs the Bretton Woods Institutions even ignores that the centre of the world economy has now shifted towards the emerging countries. Everything is going on as if the world is still the one that existed in The non-election of candidates from the developing world to head the IMF and the World Bank is a glaring proof. 4 Et l Afrique, quelle est sa place dans la Communauté internationale? En est-elle un membre à part entière? Si l on se fonde sur les critères privilégiés ci-dessus, l Afrique est loin du compte. L Afrique tout entière, avec ses 54 États, ses immenses ressources naturelles et sa population qui avoisine le milliard d habitants n est pas, sur la base de ces critères, membre de la Communauté internationale. Car elle a un poids économique insignifiant (moins de 3% du volume des échanges internationaux), elle est absente au Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies avec droit de veto, et elle a un retard scientifique et technologique profond à rattraper avant d être candidate à la possession du nucléaire, même à des fins civiles. Comment l Afrique peut-elle alors être considérée comme membre à part entière de la Communauté internationale si elle est privée de tous ces atouts? L avènement du G20, consécutivement à la crise financière et économique survenue en juillet 2007, a fait comprendre au monde entier que dorénavant, la voix des plus pauvres devrait être écoutée et respectée. Mais n est-on pas allé trop vite en besogne en affirmant que le G20 était né sur les cendres du G81 et que celui-ci avait tiré sa révérence? Et pour cause, le G20 s est vu confier dès sa naissance la responsabilité de repenser la gouvernance de l économie mondiale, en posant des garde-fous pour se protéger contre les crises systémiques de la nature Soit étendu aux pays émergents qui, entre temps, sont devenus la locomotive de la croissance économique mondiale? Les pays émergents vérifiaient-ils toutes les que le privilège dont ils jouissaient de celle de 2008 dont les effets menacent encore d implosion la zone euro. Le rôle de surveillance de l économie mondiale étant donc désormais confiée au G20, son paix et à la sécurité mondiale. Cette répartition des tâches, entre le G8 et le G20, était-elle rationnelle et optimale? Les pays du G8 ont-ils vraiment accepté caractéristiques pouvant faire d eux des partenaires crédibles dans la gestion des affaires planétaires? Ne sont-ils pas délégitimés par leur gestion parfois autoritaire des droits humains, des libertés en tout genre, ainsi que leur non fermeté vis- VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

8 The non-election of the candidate of Africa, Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, to the post of Director General of the World Bank is a bitter evidence. The G8 will still remain for a long time to come, unmovable from its place and its privileged role of world economic and political governance. As it is stated, has the G20 not become a futile game? The emerging countries of the G20 should better prepare themselves; make their weight felt and their voice heard. The African Union should do everything to find its rightful place in this new struggle for a position in the world economic and political order. The success of its ongoing economic and political integration programme in Africa could contribute greatly to this end. How to succeed with its integration? To succeed with its economic and political integration, a guarantee that will give it the title or the certificate of the full membership of International Community, Africa should accept to take its destiny in its own hands by having all the endogenous assets to effectively execute all the regional and continental integrating projects. Africa has already adopted its model of integration. This model is perfectly illustrated in the Accra Declaration of July It is a question of building the United States of Africa through the main levers of the Abuja Treaty. Such a clear and strong choice requires that Africa equip itself with the necessary means to establish a single continental market, a single currency, a Pan-African Parliament worthy of that name, in which the members of the Parliament are elected by universal suffrage; to have a credible Court of Justice and establish, at the regional and continental levels, income generating mechanisms commensurate with its ambitions of integration. Africa cannot be counted, consulted, heard and respected if it continues to be a group of independent and sovereign States. Such a situation harbors the ingredients likely to divide its voice, expose it to all external shocks, weaken and alienate it further from the circle of the members of the International Community. On the contrary, if Africa wants to The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 5 à-vis de la corruption sous toutes ses formes? La persistance de ces boulets dans ces pays leur dénie-t-il le droit de siéger et de jouer pleinement leur rôle aux côtés des pays du G8 dans la co-gestion des affaires du monde? Existerait-il au sein du G20 deux types de pays : ceux qui jouissent de tous les droits (les pays du G8) et ceux qui connaissent des droits limités (les pays émergents)? En réalité, tout porte à croire que c est le premier groupe de pays qui tient encore les rennes de la gouvernance mondiale et qui semble être au cœur de la Communauté internationale, n en déplaise à tous ceux qui voyaient dans l avènement du G20 une mutation profonde de la gouvernance de l économie mondiale. Le G20 est moins l embryon d une gouvernance mondiale équilibrée, qu un forum politique où les pays du G8 exercent encore leur pouvoir économique et politique. Les faits sont têtus. Ils illustrent mieux la réalité. Le pouvoir économique et politique établi après la deuxième guerre mondiale a encore de beaux jours devant lui. Ce pouvoir qui gouverne aujourd hui le FMI et la Banque Mondiale fait encore mine d ignorer que le centre de l économie mondiale s est déplacé vers les pays émergents. Tout se passe comme si le mode était encore celui de La non élection des candidats du monde en développement à la tête des institutions de Bretton- Woods, parmi lesquels récemment la candidate de l Afrique, le Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, au Poste de Directeur général de la Banque Mondiale, en est une preuve assez édifiante. Le G8 restera encore pour longtemps indéboulonnable de sa place et de son rôle de privilégier de la gouvernance économique et politique mondiale. Au bout du compte, le G20 n est-il pas devenu un Jeu vain?! Aux pays émergents du G20 de mieux fourbir leurs armes, de faire sentir leur poids et de rendre audible leur voix. L Union Africaine doit tout faire pour gagner sa place dans cette nouvelle bataille pour le repositionnement économique et politique de la planète. Le succès de son programme

12 THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY AND WORLD GOVERNANCE ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA / ETHIOPIE June 1st, 2012 / 1ER JUIN, 2012 The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 9

13 THE PLACE OF AFRICA IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY: PROSPECTS AND OBSTACLES By Adams Oloo Chairman of Department of Political Affairs and Public Adminstration of University of Nairobi Kenya INTRODUCTION Africa remains an underdog in international politics and her influence in international politics is at best minimal. Despite the recent increase in quota and voice of Africa in global politics she is yet to curve a niche in the international arena. In spite of this, there are a number of international organizations where African countries have been able to register some effective representation, like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). By and large, African actors in the international arena have realized that the only way they can forge a distinct role in the international diplomatic game and have significant impact in multilateral processes is when they act as a regional block. These initial gains are being felt in the trade and climate change issues where African countries have exerted their block power to ensure that their input on issues affecting them are taken into consideration. This paper traces the evolution of African representation in the international community from the cold war era to the post-cold war era and the related dynamics at play that influence the attempt of African to be heard at the international level. While tracing this evolution we also look at ways through which Africa has attempted to influence events at the international level, the players that have been involved in this struggle and what options Africa has for greater representation and involvement in the international arena. The key question that we seek to answer is whether African has the political clout to change the dynamics of engagement in international institutions and whether that clout can be used to the advantage of Africa. Africa and the International Community: A Brief History 10 Developing countries have over the years been grossly underrepresented in international institutions. This can be attributed to the fact that they were late entrants in the international arena as most of them gained independence after most of the contemporary international governance regimes were already in place and the rules of engagement had already been defined. With this late entry into international politics, the African group coalesced around themselves, by initially forming the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to advance their own interests in world affairs. Within the greater UN system, they established the G77 group of countries to push their collective concerns through reciprocal solidarity. Very early on, through the NAM and the G-77, the South- South grouping was able to press their case for major reforms in global governance and for a new international economic and communications order (Olukoshi). VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

14 There are, of course, different types of international organizations that comprise the international community. There are those that rely on the use of authoritative, forceful, or sanctioning nature to ensure compliance, like for example the UNSC (United Nations Security Council), or those that rely on policy tools that provide capacity or resources or otherwise, for example WTO and ICJ (International Court of Justice). African representation is well represented in the latter vis-à-vis in the former. But again there are scholars who argue that this representation is not effective in the sense that the major powers of the world are really significantly not affected by the deliberations of such international entities. They portend that powerful states had an interest in either not participating in such organizations and maintaining the power that they would have foregone as a condition of participation, or controlling as much of the policymaking body of the organization as possible in order to exert influence on its outcomes (Swargety 2012). These scholars provide the example of the UN General Assembly to illustrate their case. They point out that as more countries gained independence and the face of the UN General Assembly was forced to change since the system for passing resolution was based on one-countyone-vote, big powers could no longer fully dominate the Assembly. Consequently, they shifted to the UNSC as the effective and more manageable site for pushing and bargaining their competing interests in a polarized world. This left the Assembly as a mere talk-shop which at best could only muster a moral authority. Yet, the UNSC also saw countries frequently resorting to the veto, which produced regular gridlocks in international governance broken only by the competing powers taking open or clandestine unilateral action (Akokpari 2001; Lehmann 2008). The multilateral system operates according to the whims of the big powers who prefer that way as they have the opportunity to act both within and outside their rules. Most of the international institutions are operated according to the whims of the big power interests. For example, the Bretton Woods institutions became tools aligned to the global strategy of the G7 countries led by the US. In the UNSC, where interests between developing and developed states are competing for relative power position, only 21.4 percent of the African population had a direct representative in the voting bloc regardless of the fact that a majority of UNSC policies affect African states directly. Conversely, in the WHO, where interests are convergent and incentives exist to cooperate, the voting structure is more egalitarian with each member-state possessing one vote in the World Health Assembly. Both African and North American citizens are represented equally at 100 percent (Murithi 2007). The Security Council s five permanent members China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States were designated in 1945 and have since remained unchanged. While 10 non-permanent members have been added, including South Africa and Nigeria, these members do not have veto power and can only serve nonconcurrent two-year terms. To date, both Africa and Latin America lack representation among the Security Council s powerful permanent members. The UN s leadership in generating ideas and formulating broad economic perspectives for effective global co-operation was severely eroded by the less transparent IMF and World Bank, where weighted voting allowed the US and its allies to shape and impose global economic governance policies. It was more than a passing coincidence that from the late 1960s into the early 1980s, the UN was where members of NAM (most of whom were also in the G77) campaigned for a new international economic order and, most notably, pushed for a UN conference on trade and development, among other such initiatives. The shift by the US and its allies towards the Bretton Woods institutions, to the detriment of the UN, significantly expanded the IMF and World Bank s influence in economic management and broader policy processes of the NAM/G77 countries; the Executive Committees of the Bank and the Fund were also effectively dominated by the G7 countries. A good case of the big powers reluctance to adhere to the rules of international engagement is the ICJ (International Court of Justice). Since the establishment of ICJ to date, no permanent member of the UNSC has been subject to any compulsory jurisdiction: the most obvious example being the abrogation of assent to compulsory jurisdiction by the United States in 1984 after the ICJ rendered a decision unfavorable to the U.S. position by asserting jurisdiction over a case brought by Nicaragua (Elkind 1988; Posner and Figuieredo 2004). Evidently, the power originally vested in the institution for the settlement of international legal disputes has been somewhat marginalized by the fact that states that do not The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 11

15 consent to the terms of adjudication are not subject to the jurisdiction of the court. In spite of this fact, all the permanent members of the UNSC have a jurist sitting on the panel of the fifteen judges that adjudicate cases before the ICJ. This clearly shows that even though the affairs of the court do not affect them they still control the agenda and direction of international legal standards to reflect their interests and agendas. (Swargety 2012). In the Bretton Woods Institutions (BWI), the framework that has existed for many years is that many of the major policy decisions are taken by the executive boards of the BWI where developing countries are underrepresented in terms of membership. For instance, forty seven sub-saharan African countries are represented at the boards of the IMF and the World Bank by two executive directors. World Bank recently added a third executive director for SSA. These directors have relatively, large constituencies, making it difficult to ensure that the diverse interests of African countries are adequately represented in informal processes that influence final decisions. African countries participation in the WTO has previously been very limited. With the exception of South Africa, no other country in Sub-Saharan Africa has been involved in the WTO s Dispute Settlement Mechanism, as either com plainants or respondents. With the current trend of rising protectionism in developed countries, it will be important for African countries to take a more active role in the WTO to safeguard their trade gains. There have been some developments with regard to Africa s place in the international hierarchy. Some sorts of cooperation have begun to take place ever since the transformation of OAU into AU and the coming into being of the AU security architecture, NEPAD and APRM. The big powers, especially through the UN and the Bretton Woods institutions, have endeavored to work and listen to Africa through these arrangements priorities regarding development objectives which are crucial to African development have begun to take root in international politics. The international community has been instrumental in providing financial and technical capacity for the development of these organizations. The UN has been very instrumental in providing a central building block of AU s emerging peace and security system. The UNECA has been instrumental in the setting up and development of the capacity of NEPAD and APRM. It has been instrumental in developing a set of initiatives that respond to NEPAD s broad peace and security, stability, democracy and sustainable development objectives. Through its subprogrammes ECA continued to provide technical support for the implementation of the NE- PAD programme. This support was vital for developing and supporting the implementation of the various AUC/NEPAD programmes. In addition, ECA supported the transition of the NEPAD secretariat into a full-fledged technical unit of the AUC. Specifically, ECA supported the development of NEPAD Agency s Strategic Direction and its subsequent alignment with the AUC s Strategic Plan, and also helped the Agency to develop its knowledge management platforms. ECA also continued to house and provide human resources for the operations of the RCM-Africa secretariat. Support for APRM activities included technical support for the APRM Panel and preparation and analysis of assessment questionnaires. During the period under review, UN agencies continued to provide support to APRM missions. They collaborated in a study leading to the development of guidelines on the design, implementation and monitoring of the National Plan of Action that will ensure consistency and harmonization between National Plans of Action and existing national development strategies, to be used by technical research institutes, national governing councils or commissions and government departments and agencies that are involved in the APRM process. A Declaration on the ten-year capacity-building programme, signed by the UN Secretary-General and the AUC Chairperson, builds on previous agreements between the UN and the AU and provides a holistic framework for the UN system to support the capacity development efforts of the AU and the regional economic communities, on the basis of the latter s needs and strategic priorities. The Programme is aimed at enhancing cooperation between the UN and the AU in their areas of competence, in conformity with their mandates. Indeed, Africa s participation in international and multilateral diplomacy has grown significantly and become more complex. This has placed great demands on Africa s capacity to negotiate and implement deals to its advantage. Given its long standing challenges with a high incidence of poverty, disease and conflict and its marginalization in international affairs especially during the cold war, Africa has come to the real- 12 VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

16 ization that with growing multilateralism in the post-cold war era it needs to use its numbers better by advancing common positions in international negotiations. The power of having large numbers of states would be of no value in multilateral diplomacy unless Africa took coherent and concerted negotiation positions during increasingly complex international negotiations on global challenges that tend to have Africa as their epicenter (Zondi 2007). Consequently, the number of common positions and platforms by African countries in international diplomatic forums has increased since the mid-1990s. This has enabled the African Group in the UN and other platforms to play a much more distinct role in international diplomacy than in the past. The role of African countries in the WTO, as well as in the climate change arena has also been driven by attempts by African states to utilize its advantage in the numbers game in international forums (Zondi 2011). The results have been patchy. In the case of the UN reform, the Africa common position outlined in the Ezulwini Consensus was arrived at through a consensus-forming process that resulted, because of the need to accommodate such disparate interests, into an implausible and inflexible negotiating position that left Africa marginalized in the UN discussions (Zondi 2011: p.9-11). Influence in the Copenhagen negotiations was greater and the common Africa position was a first for the AU (Hoste 2011). But even there the collective position could not withstand the centrifugal pull of national interests, South Africa taking a key role in the drafting of the Copenhagen Accord out-with AU oversight after pre-summit bilateral deals and splits between Ethiopia and Sudan had undermined AU cohesion on the issue (Zondi 2011: p15; Hoste 2011: p.6-7). African states have a greater influence and potential role in the WTO than they do in any other international economic institution. African states have used this potential to take advantage of schemes within the WTO that enhance the role of poor countries. Regional organizations such as the African Union and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) have facilitated the involvement of African states, which now constitute a third of the WTO s membership and thus have become integral to influencing the process but not the substantive content of trade policy issues. This has particularly been the case in The Doha Round of trade negotiations. But whether this idea of an African Group and its common negotiating positions will affect Africa s relations with global power and globalization depends on how they have enhanced Africa s position in multilateral diplomacy and led to a clear definition of africa s collective or common interests. It is also inextricably linked to the idea of neutralizing the dominant neo-liberal agenda and the divisive influence of external powers on intra-african affairs. Right from the start, the African group and other alienated groups were obsessed with the reform of the world order already in place because that is the only way that their interests could find a place on the agenda of international politics. The main agenda of their proposals has always been the: a) Reform of the UN system in general, and the UNSC in particular, with a view to broadening representation at the highest levels of global decision making, and to disciplining the use of the veto by the big powers in order to prevent the routine subversion of the will of the international community; b) Recalibration of the voting rights and decisionmaking processes of the IMF and the World Bank, to ensure a greater voice for the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America; c) Generalized reform of the international trading system, to make it fairer, remunerative and development-oriented; d) Creation of a global integrated programme for commodities (agricultural and mineral) that would assure more stable and fairer prices; e) Creation of a new global currency, based on the special drawing rights, that could safeguard the development interests of all members of the international community; f) Adoption of rules that would govern the conduct and practices of Western transnational companies in the economic and political spheres, as well as in matters of technology transfer, patents, and copyrights; The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 13

17 g) Adoption of a global tax on the brain drain, to ensure that less developed countries would receive some form of compensation for losing skills to more advanced countries; and h) Reform of the global information and communications order, to allow for greater North-South balance. To date these proposals still form the aspirations of the African group in their quest for a greater say in world affairs. To date, African countries form the largest regional grouping at the UN, with over a quarter of all UN member states. Yet group size per se does not automatically translate into pro-active, unified decision-making. On the contrary, speaking with one voice at the UN and synchronizing their position has become an ongoing challenge for African Member States to the UN. Africa s voice in the International Community: from the Cold War Era to the Post-Cold War Era The effects of the cold war bipolar politics was best felt in Africa. Both cold war blocks had their own interests in Africa and it was unlikely to reach a consensus in the UNSC on matters involving African politics where each group had its own sphere of influence. This nature of relations in international politics ensured that Africa did not have a say in the running of international politics especially in affairs that affected issues dear to them. In spite of this state of affairs, African states were able to play one superpower against the other in a bid to extract concessions. The post-cold war global structure has produced opportunities for structured cooperation in international peace and security with economic development as one of the essential elements of stability. The African group has endeavored to build a united approach in matters of world affairs and speak with one voice. However, this approach has been dogged with a myriad of challenges especially where there is a strong national interest, such as security issues and conflict situations. In such scenarios, the African group has suffered the incapability of fronting a united position in either negotiations or voting. The immediate cold war period up to the 1990s was dominated by a myriad of approaches towards resolving African problems by international institutions. The majority of these approaches were decided by the super powers with limited or no input from the African continent. A case in point is the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs). The negative impact of these policies on African economies as well as other sectors is well documented and need not detain us here. The point to be made is that these programmes have been counterproductive for the very reason that there was no Africa voice in their formulation that would have led to an insight on how to domesticate such policies (ECA 1989; World Bank 1994:1). Among other effects, they have compounded rather than ameliorated the deleterious conditions they were originally meant to alleviate. Consequent on their emphasis on the liberalization of economies, for example, local industries have collapsed causing an escalation in unemployment. With their devastating impact on women and the vulnerable sections in society, SAPs have been blamed for the deepening of poverty in much of Africa (Stewart 1991), and partly for the growing indebtedness of the region (Akokpari 2001b). But more relevant for this discussion, adjustment programmes have deepened the dependence of implementing countries not only on imports but also on international creditors. The latter scenario has led to the strengthening of the international economic relations between adjusting African states and the supplier countries of their imports. It wasn t until the end of the cold war and specifically during the 1990s, that the African voice begun to be felt in the international institutions as African players began to aggressively push for integration into the international system. A number of international institutions began to undergo restructuring during this period. A system of multilateral approaches to international security intervention, for example, emerged under the auspices of the UN and regional organizations. The institutional cooperation between OAU and UN witnessed some drastic and constructive changes like the establishment of comprehensive approaches to peace making and peacebuilding. Cooperation between different organs of international institutions and the African group under the auspices of the AU began to take root. This period saw the African leadership begin to bemoan the perceived indifference of the international community and began calling for African solution to African problems through utilization of sub-regional arrangements to address local peace operations (Andemichael 1994; Akokpari 2001). 14 VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

18 The period from witnessed the transformation of OAU into AU and ushered a new African vision aimed at the regeneration of the continent. It is during this period that NE- PAD came into being and would become the pivot platform under the auspices of the AU that the African group would soldier on with their quest for greater say in the affairs of the world, more specifically in matters affecting the continent. This rebirth of the African voice ensured that socio-economic development of Africa became an integral part of the international initiatives, most of which revolved around peace and security and from then henceforth building and strengthening of a peace and security mechanism was a sine qua non for Africa s development Greater cooperation between the international community and the Africa Group slowly began to evolve. It is during this period that the development and implementation of the UN ten-year plan for capacity building with AU took us shape. This development was to impact on NEPAD which has hitherto been accepted as the blueprint of the UN cooperation and engagement in Africa, including issues of peace and security. It is also during this period that Africa intensified its initiatives to speak as one voice.in March 2005, the AU issued a declaration known as The Common African Position on the Proposed Reform of the United Nations: The Ezulwini Consensus which was a statement in response to the Report of the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change which was issued in December In this Common African Position the AU highlighted issues pertaining to HIV/AIDS and security, poverty, debt, environmental degradation, trade negotiations, the responsibility to protect, peacekeeping and peace building. In addition, the AU called for further reforms of the UNSC to ensure that the Council was inclusive and that the African is fully represented in all the decisionmaking organs of the UN, particularly in the Security Council. The African Group demanded not less than two permanent seats in the UNSC with all the prerogatives and privileges of permanent membership including the right to veto and five non-permanent seats. This decision subsequently locked the AU into trying to maintain this position in the face of tremendous pressure from other members of the international community notably by the Group of four (G4) Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, which were aspiring for a permanent seat at the Council and the Uniting for Consensus coalition, which opposed their ambitions. This was in effect a bold move for the AU to have taken which was informed more by principle than by real politik, as indicated in the Ezulwini Consensus document which states that even though Africa is opposed in principle to the veto, it is of the view that as long as it exists, and as a matter of common justice, it should be made available to all permanent members of the Security Council (Murithi 2006). At least on paper the AU was endeavouring to establish and maintain a common position. However, due to internal dissension some African countries particularly Egypt and South Africa effectively broke rank with the Ezulwini Consensus and sought ways to individually ascend to become permanent members of the Security Council. This in effect undermined efforts to demonstrate African unity of purpose. This is further reinforced by the fact that time and again African countries have shown that they are unlikely to vote as a collective on matters before or pertaining to, the Security Council. Governments generally tend to adopt positions that best serve their interests or positions that enable them to receive certain benefits from more powerful countries that pick and choose which African countries they want to work with. Therefore, the logic of national self-interest and political realism still prevails among African countries, and other member states, at the UN (Akokpari 2001). The Africa Group has a rotating monthly chairperson who is a Permanent Representative of one of the constituent African countries to the United Nations. The chairperson convenes meetings of the Group and establishes the negotiation agenda on key issues of vital Pan-African interest. In terms of the record of the Africa Group, on some issues African countries often find consensus for example on development, trade, debt cancellation, infectious diseases, small arms and light weapons, nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, climate negotiations, trans-national crime prevention and on the election of Africans to various UN activities and bodies. For example, the official statement of the Africa Group on the draft 2005 Outcome Document was issued through the office of the Permanent Observer Mission of the African Union to the United Nations. On some of these issues the Africa Group occasionally aligns itself with the Group of 77 (G-77) countries and China to increase its negotiation strength (Murithi 2007). From the year 2008, the African Group has engaged in maneuvers geared towards the The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 15

19 forming of formal links as a crucial step towards enhancing the symbiotic relationship between the UN and the AU. Slowly, the continent s voice is being integrated into the murky waters of global politics. This impact has been greatly felt in the international entities such as the WTO. The General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) system in place before its transformation into WTO was from its inception dominated and ordered by the dominance of the US and from the 1960 onwards by the balance of power between the US and the EU. Many African countries enjoyed very little, if any influence, in multilateral trade governance. Although most African countries were members of GATT, histories of the eight multilateral trade rounds conducted during GATT period ( ) indicate that African member states were largely absent from these negotiations. On the contrary, the WTO has since its inception in 1995 been multipolar and has ensured increased African participation (Zondi 2011). African states have become more active and embedded into the WTO negotiating process. African states have insisted throughout the DDA negotiations that a discourse of development should predominate. When development issues have been sidelined African members have vetoed any potential WTO agreement on issues they see as detrimental or indifference to their development interests (Zondi 2011). Evidently, the post-cold war period has witnessed increased international intervention in Africa, especially in peace operations. This period has also witnessed an upsurge in Africa s say in these interventions especially in the area of capacity building to tackle emerging challenges. Various initiatives have undertaken to formalize engagement between the international community and African actors to ensure that Africa s development priorities are integrated into UN architecture for peace and security in Africa since it has established that development is an indispensable foundation of collective security. The jury is still out there as to whether African countries have sufficiently coalesced as a group and developed a coherent identity to effectively influence policy development at the international deliberations especially the UN. African Actors in the World Governance Realm African participation in global affairs has always revolved around the AU. However, with proliferation of alliances and coalitions, sub-regional actors also became integrated in international politics under the auspices of the AU. There are a number of actors involved. The most conspicuous players in international relations include: NEPAD, RECs, African Development Bank, African Economic Research Consortium, UN- ECA as well civil society organizations. There is however a general consensus that most of these players lack sufficient voice in the key global institutions that Africans have been seeking integration. And while African governments lack sufficient voice, other African actors outside the realm of government are completely voiceless. A number of factors have been elaborated that impact on this state of affairs; that is, the inadequate technical capacity to express that voice; inadequate voting rights and structures in international organizations; and, inadequate groups to express African voices collectively, notably because a lot of groups are dominated by large middle-income countries. In the recent days, African actors have resolved to coalesce around the African Group in order to speak as one voice and effectively lobby for greater African representation in global politics. This development is yet to solidify and continues to face challenges. But as long as Africa continues with this resolve to act as group without disintegrating during crucial negotiations and deliberation then the African Group will emerge as a substantive actor in address peace and stability, development and democracy in Africa (Andrews and Holt 2007). In Search Of Democracy Development and Security, Home Made Solutions International Interventions Intervention by the global community in Africa s political, economic, military and cultural affairs has been accelerating since the end of the cold war and the intensification of globalization throughout the 1990s to the present. These interventions ensured that the international organizations served in policymaking capacity for states that are unable to design, implement, and enforce effective public policies through traditional domestic political institutions. This could be attributed to a lack of resources, the presence of an unstable environment, or a corrupt domestic government. Regardless, when an institutional void is created by 16 VOL. 5 No.1 July 2012

20 ineffective domestic policymaking structures, global governance, often through international organizations, fills this void by governing the provision of goods to society. Those states that have the least influence in the design of global public policies are disproportionately affected by them. The big question has always been whether these interventions have provided the best solutions to African problems or whether Africa should have resorted to homemade solutions to tackle African problems. The rallying cry by various African actors in global politics has been African solutions to African Problems. But the question begs: can Africa tackle these problems on their own? Do we have effective and efficient institutional structures, and the managerial resources and capacity to do it alone? Can we manage without the financial, logistical and technical capacity of the international community? Numerous studies have been carried out to answer these questions posed above. But the results have been mixed and remain controversial. In a study on the impact of IFI programs in 76 African and Asian counties through 34 annual observations from 1974 to 2007, Limpach and Michaelowa attest to the mixed impact of the different types of IFIs implemented in Africa on the various dimension of democracy. The authors observe that in a narrow sense, democratization cannot be imposed from the outside. We do not find significant effects of any type of IFI program on vertical accountability as measured by the degree of political participation and competitive elections in a country. On a different note, they also observe that in a wider sense, however, IMF and World Bank programs do have political implications for changes in the extent of executive constraints and in the level of civil liberties in developing countries. Their main results reveal that the IFIs traditional lending programs have negative short-term impacts on horizontal accountability in recipient countries, while their development policy lending to low-income countries increases horizontal accountability over the long term. In addition, this study shows that the IFI s PRS initiative strengthens civil liberties by promoting broad-based participation of civil society and, in particular the poor in the domestic political decisionmaking process (Limpach and Michaelowa 2010). In two other studies by Barro and Lee on IMF financial stabilization programs, they observe that these interventions have had a marginally negative effect, directly on democracy and indirectly on economic growth especially on democracy and economic growth contemporaneous and the lagged fiveyear period (Barro and Lee 2003; Barro and Lee 2005). On the contrary other studies have illuminated the positive impact that international intervention has had in Africa. The study by Nelson and Wallace (2005) reveals that countries being under any kind of IMF program show significantly higher democratization levels, and concludes that the conditions attached to the loans disbursed by the IMF have a positive effect on the quality of democratic institutions in participating countries. These positive effects grow over time. For a one-year time lag, no apparent relationship between the participation in an IMF program and the level of democracy is detected. However, in the three-year and five-year lagged models, the coefficients for participating in an IMF program become stronger and statistically significant (Nelson and Wallace 2005). Similarly, the path-breaking study by Abouharb and Cingranelli (2007) on the IFIs human rights impact looks at the length of time a country has been under a structural adjustment program by either the World Bank or the IMF in the 1980 to 2003 period. The authors find that longer exposure to structural conditionality is positively correlated with procedural democracy. At the same time, their finding that long-term structural adjustment has a negative impact on a wide range of civil, worker and human rights points to the paradox that structural adjustment may have led, simultaneously, to advances in procedural democracy and a decline in substantive democracy (Abouharb and Cingranelli 2007). Positive impacts of Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) processes are seen in three key areas, namely (i) that the PRS consultation process created new space for domestic policy dialogue and resulted in an unprecedented engagement of civil society organizations in poverty policy debates; (ii) that the PRS process contributed to a much stronger focus on poverty inside government; and (iii) that the PRS approach focused attention on donor coordination internationally and at the recipient country level (e.g., Booth 2003; Molenaers and Renard 2003; World Bank and IMF 2005; Driscoll and Evans 2005). However, a lot of challenges for achieving national ownership and democratic control of the PRS process are still remaining. They are mainly seen in the areas of institutionalizing sustainable participation and taking the domestic political context into account. Even though the ownership principle sug- The Bulletin of Fridays of the Commission 17

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