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Introduction

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The weather concerns everyone and has some effect on nearly every human activity. It occurs within the atmosphere, the mixture of gases that completely envelops Earth. Weather is defined as the momentary, day-to-day state of the atmosphere over any place on Earth’s surface. Climate, on the other hand, refers to weather averaged over a long period. The basic atmospheric conditions that make up the weather include precipitation, humidity, temperature, pressure, cloudiness, and wind.

The air is constantly in movement. There also is a continuous exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and Earth’s land and sea surfaces. These ever-changing conditions can be scientifically analyzed. The science of observing and predicting the weather is known as meteorology.

The Atmosphere and Its General Circulation

Air is compressed by its own weight, so that about half the bulk of the atmosphere is squeezed into the bottom 3.5 miles (5.6 kilometers). The bottom layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, is the site of almost all the world’s weather. Above its turbulence and storminess is the calmer stratosphere, which has little moisture and few clouds. (See alsoEarth, “Atmosphere.”)

Underlying the great variety of atmospheric motions is a pattern of large-scale air movement over Earth. The basic cause of these planetary winds, or general circulation of the atmosphere, is that the Sun heats the air over the Equator more than it does the air over the poles. The heated air over the equatorial regions rises and flows generally poleward—in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. In the polar regions the air cools and sinks. From time to time it flows back toward the Equator.

The upward movement of air results in a belt of low pressure in the tropical regions astride the Equator. On either side—at about 30° N latitude and 30° S latitude—is a belt of high pressure. It is formed as the upper-level flow of air from the Equator sinks to the surface. From each of these subtropical high-pressure belts, surface winds blow outward, toward both the Equator and the poles. The Coriolis effect—a result of Earth’s rotation—deflects the winds to the right of the winds’ direction of motion in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left of their direction in the Southern Hemisphere. This produces a belt of tropical easterly winds (winds blowing from east to west). It also produces two belts of midlatitude westerly winds (blowing from west to east), one in each hemisphere.

Like the tropical easterlies, or trade winds, the surface winds from the poles are also deflected to the west. Where these polar easterlies meet the westerly winds in each hemisphere—at about 60° latitude—a belt of low pressure girdles Earth.

This arrangement of Earth’s wind and pressure belts varies somewhat with the time of the year. They shift northward during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer. They shift southward during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer. Both the continuity of the pressure belts and the prevailing directions of the winds are also modified greatly by the differing rates at which Earth’s land and water surfaces exchange heat and moisture with the atmosphere.

Very large-scale and long-lasting changes in wind and pressure patterns also sometimes occur. Most of the time, for example, the eastern Pacific Ocean near South America has relatively cool water temperatures and high pressure. The western Pacific near Australia and Indonesia usually has warmer water and lower pressure. This results in dry conditions in Peru and Chile and wetter weather in Indonesia and eastern Australia. In some years, however, the pattern reverses as part of a phenomenon called El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which strongly affects weather in most parts of the world. A buildup of warm water in the eastern Pacific then brings heavy rains to Peru, while Australia experiences drought. The easterly trade winds in the Pacific weaken and may even reverse. The warm ocean water also strengthens winterstorms that move onshore in the southwestern United States. As a result, there is heavy rain in southern California and much of the southern United States.

Air Masses and Weather Fronts

Air that has acquired a fairly uniform temperature and humidity over a large area of Earth’s surface is called an air mass. Air masses are of four main types depending on where they originate. The types are Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), polar (P), tropical (T), and equatorial (E). Air masses are also of either maritime (m) or continental (c) origin. In general, a maritime air mass is relatively moist and has a moderate temperature. A continental air mass is relatively dry and may have a very hot or very cold temperature, depending on the season.

Every winter, immense, cold continental polar (cP) or continental Arctic (cA) air masses accumulate over northern Canada and Siberia. Temperatures may sink as low as –80 °F (–62 °C). Cold waves occur when a cA air mass sweeps southward in the wake of winter storms. Milder maritime polar (mP) air masses accumulate over the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. Maritime tropical (mT) air masses move into the United States from over the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the tropical Atlantic Ocean. The moisture in mT air can produce heavy rains.

Other parts of the world are often affected by similar types of air masses, but in different frequencies or combinations. These air masses help determine the particular climates of the regions. For example, Europe is most often affected by mP or mT air masses from the Atlantic, with occasional invasions of cP air from the east or northeast. Australia is affected mainly by rather mild mP or mT air masses and by hot, dry cT air from its own interior. Australia never feels the effect of true cP or cAA air. After such air leaves its source in Antarctica, it is essentially converted to mP air by its long path over water.

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Weather fronts are sharp transition zones between different air masses. A cold front, which is the leading edge of a cold air mass, brings a quick drop in temperature and a rapid rise in pressure. It is often accompanied by thunderstorms in summer and snow flurries in winter. It is often followed by clearing skies within a day or so. An advancing warm air mass tends to override the rear portion of the cold air mass ahead of it. The trailing edge of a retreating cold air mass along the ground is known as a warm front. Thickening and lowering cloud layers precede the arrival of the front, usually with widespread, long-lasting precipitation. After the front passes, conditions become warmer and less cloudy.

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A stationary front occurs when the boundary between a cold and a warm air mass does not move appreciably in any direction. Cloudiness and precipitation may then persist for many days, especially on the cold side of the stationary front. An occluded front results when a cold front overtakes a warm front on the ground, lifting the warm air entirely aloft.

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Weather fronts are formed as part of eastward-moving low-pressure centers known as wave cyclones or frontal cyclones. They are a type of cyclone, or a large system of winds that rotate around a low-pressure area, or low. In the Northern Hemisphere the wind circulation of a cyclone is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere it is clockwise. Wave cyclones form in the westerly wind belts along the polar fronts that separate polar and tropical air. A wave cyclone develops when a low-pressure area in the upper airflow approaches a stationary front on the ground. This lowers the pressure on the polar front. The polar front then bends to form the typical horizontal wave consisting of a cold front following a warm front. The cold front swings around the equatorial side of the low as it overtakes the slower-moving warm front. As a cold front passes through an area in the Northern Hemisphere, the wind generally shifts from the south or southwest to the northwest. In the Southern Hemisphere, the wind shifts from the north or northwest to the southwest.

Wave cyclones are associated with stormy weather, which may affect an area of more than a million square miles. They usually reach maximum intensity within two days. Storms in North America and Eurasia are usually steered by the upper airflow northeastward into, respectively, the Icelandic or Aleutian lows. These lows are semipermanent features of the low-pressure belt in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Wave cyclones usually occur in groups. As a cyclone matures and moves on, a new one may form along the trailing cold front. When this occurs near an abundant supply of heat and moisture, such as along the Atlantic coast of the United States, the secondary cyclone may exceed the primary one in suddenness, wind velocity, and amount of precipitation.

The Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean are the main sources of moisture for cyclones in the United States. Lows that enter the United States from these bodies of water, or that form over the western interior, may produce strong winds and heavy precipitation. Such storms occurring with a strong winter high-pressure area may result in a blizzard, with bitter cold and driving snow.

An anticyclone is the reverse of a cyclone. The winds of an anticyclone spiral outward around a high-pressure area, or high. They spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are usually associated with dry weather.

In the Northern Hemisphere anticyclones usually originate in high latitudes and take a southeastward course. Extreme winter cold usually occurs in areas of high pressure, most notably in the semipermanent Siberian High. In North America anticyclones have carried subfreezing air as far south as the Gulf of Mexico and into Florida. In summer the slow-moving oceanic anticyclones may influence inland areas in the central and eastern United States. Cloudless skies, heat waves, and sometimes drought may result. In autumn, stagnating continental anticyclones may bring spells of summerlike weather (Indian summer). The light winds may lead to an accumulation of pollutants.

Weather Elements

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The are several primary conditions of the atmosphere, or weather elements. They include wind, temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, and precipitation.

Wind

Wind is the movement of air parallel to Earth’s surface. Were it not for Earth’s rotation, winds would generally blow from areas of high pressure toward areas of low pressure, down what is called the pressure gradient—a sort of “slope” from high pressure to low. The Coriolis effect, however, causes winds to blow at almost right angles to the prevailing pressure gradient, especially in the upper atmosphere. Low-level winds experience more friction with the surface. This changes the balance of forces and allows a flow at an angle to the pressure gradient. Such winds are called geostrophic winds. In the Northern Hemisphere lower pressure is to their left and higher pressure is to their right. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere. At around 30,000 feet (9,000 meters) in altitude these westerly winds may exceed 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour along narrow zones known as jet streams.

Temperature

Temperature changes may also be associated with wind direction. In the Northern Hemisphere winds from the south usually bring rising temperatures, while northerly winds are normally accompanied by falling temperatures. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere. Under cloudless skies temperatures may vary greatly between night and day, while clouds keep temperatures more uniform.

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure by itself has limited significance in weather forecasting. However, changes in pressure do matter, if a correction is made for normal changes, such as a fall in pressure that usually occurs during the midday hours. Falling pressure generally indicates that a storm is approaching. Rising pressure indicates the approach or continuation of fair weather.

Humidity

Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. Water exists in the air in gaseous form, called water vapor. Warm air can contain more vapor than cold air can. The maximum amount of vapor possible at a specific temperature is known as its saturation value. Relative humidity is the proportion of water vapor actually in the air at a given temperature as compared with the maximum amount possible at that temperature. It may vary from almost none over deserts to as much as 100 percent in thick fog or rain. Another very useful humidity measurement is dew point—the temperature at which the relative humidity would reach 100 percent, given the current amount of water vapor present. Higher dew points correspond to greater amounts of moisture.

Clouds

Clouds often signal an imminent weather change. Rising cloud levels indicate clearing weather. Thickening and lowering clouds signify precipitation. Clouds form when water vapor is cooled below its dew point and condenses into tiny but visible droplets or ice crystals. The cloud base indicates the level at which rising air reaches its dew point. The main cloud types are the high, wispy cirrus, the layered stratus, and the massive, billowy cumulus. The terms alto, meaning “high,” and nimbus, meaning “rain,” further describe clouds.

Fog is a cloud whose base is on the ground. Like clouds, it forms when moist air cools below its dew point. Dew is formed when moist air is in contact with a surface such as grass that has been cooled below the air’s dew point by nighttime radiation. When the temperature is below freezing, frost forms instead of dew.

Precipitation and Storms

When warm, moist air cools to its dew point, condensation occurs if there are dust particles or salt crystals to serve as nuclei of condensation. When moist air is lifted by the collision of warm and cold air masses or by movement up a mountain slope, cooling and condensation may result in precipitation. The tiny water droplets that make up the cloud collide and coalesce into larger droplets. Eventually they may become heavy enough to fall to the ground as raindrops.

If air is lifted above the freezing level aloft, the moisture may form ice crystals. When ice crystals form in a supercooled cloud (a cloud in a temporary condition of having greater than 100 percent humidity), the water vapor condenses on them, forming snow crystals. As a snow crystal falls into lower, warmer air, it joins with other snow crystals and becomes a snowflake.

A hailstone grows like a raindrop but is then carried by strong updrafts into the higher, subfreezing parts of the cloud—sometimes repeatedly. Eventually it falls as solid ice. Sleet (as the term is used in the United States) is frozen rain, having passed through a layer of cold air before reaching the ground. Glaze, or freezing rain, occurs when rain fails to freeze in subfreezing air during its descent but then suddenly freezes on impact with trees, power lines, or the ground. This creates a dangerous coating of ice.

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When hot, moist air is carried above the freezing level by the strong updraft in a cumulonimbus cloud, thunder and lightning occur. There are strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes hail. This is a thunderstorm.

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The powerful rotating cyclones variously called tropical cyclones, hurricanes, or typhoons, generate torrential rains and winds of 74 miles (119 kilometers) per hour or more. These storms originate over tropical seas in late summer and early fall. At those times surface temperatures are highest and tropical air reaches farthest from the Equator. The storms usually track westward and then poleward, carrying large amounts of warm air to high latitudes. Airplanes penetrate hurricanes to gauge their intensity and to plot their courses. In the United States the National Hurricane Center issues warnings and advisories.

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A tornado has a narrow, funnel-shaped trunk that reaches down from a dark thundercloud. It whirls at speeds of up to 300 miles (480 kilometers) per hour. A tornado usually moves to the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and to the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. Tornadoes appear most frequently in spring and early summer. During those seasons in the United States, for example, cold, dry air flows over the Rocky Mountains and overrides the warm, moist air flowing from the Gulf of Mexico. Turbulence is caused by the sinking cold air and rising warm air.

Weather Instruments

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Weather conditions are measured by standard instruments. Surface wind speeds are usually measured by an anemometer. An anemometer consists of three or four wind-driven cups mounted on a vertical axis whose rate of rotation varies with wind speed. Wind direction is indicated by a vane, a pointer that swings with the wind. The vane is mounted on a vertical axis attached to a compass rose. Newer devices with no moving parts use pulses of sound to determine both wind speed and direction.

Atmospheric pressure is measured by an aneroid barometer, a flexible metal vacuum box that expands or contracts with changes in pressure. Atmospheric pressure can also be measured by a mercury barometer. It consists of a glass tube in which the height of a column of mercury varies with pressure.

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Temperature is measured by a thermometer. In the past, the most common type was a glass tube in which the height of a column of mercury or alcohol varies with changes in temperature.
Various types of electronic thermometers (thermistors and thermocouples) are now often used instead. Even then, the liquid-in-glass type is valuable for calibration and backup.

Humidity data, including relative humidity, vapor pressure, and dew point, is secured with the use of various types of instruments. The instruments are generally known as hygrometers. A commonly used type at government reporting sites is the dew-point hygrometer. In this instrument a polished metal surface is cooled until condensation begins to collect on its surface. Its temperature then indicates the dew point directly. Another accurate type is the psychrometer, consisting of two similar thermometers. The bulb of one thermometer is kept wet, and the other dry. The differences between the temperatures they record are related to the amount of moisture in the air.

The ceiling, or base height of cloud layers, can be measured by an automatic ceilometer. It shines a beam of pulsed light (often a laser) up at the base of clouds, which reflects the light. The ceilometer has a photoelectric telescope to detect this reflection. The ceilometer can measure in the daytime or at night.

The amount of precipitation is usually measured by a rain gauge, an open-mouthed container that catches the rain. A commonly used variation of this is the tipping bucket rain gauge, which automatically empties itself as the rain is measured. Radar is used to measure the intensity of rainfall or snowfall. This information is compiled over time to estimate the total amount in areas with no other data.

Soundings of upper-level pressure, temperature, humidity, and winds are made by radiosondes. A balloon carries a radiosonde aloft to 100,000 feet (30,000 meters) or more. The radiosonde transmits data to ground recorders. The speed and direction of upper winds are obtained by tracking the radiosonde with a radio direction finder. Upper-wind information is also obtained by tracking an ascending balloon visually with a surveying instrument. Data transmitted from commercial aircraft may be incorporated into the analysis as well.

Doppler radar can continuously measure wind speeds by observing microwaves reflected off of particles in the atmosphere, such as raindrops or dust. Doppler profiles record the apparent shift in frequency with respect to the observation point of waves emitted by a moving source. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler effect. A related instrument, the radiometric profiler, observes microwaves emitted by oxygen and water vapor in the air. Careful analysis of the data yields profiles of temperature and humidity at different altitudes.

Weather Forecasting

Through the ages, do-it-yourself weather forecasts were based on local observations made directly by the human senses. Accurate measurements of temperature and atmospheric pressure were not available until after the thermometer and the barometer were perfected in the 17th century. Comprehensive weather forecasting did not become practical until the telegraph was invented in the 19th century. This made possible the rapid collection and dissemination of weather observations.

The first systematic weather observations in the United States date back to 1738. In 1816 the German scientist Heinrich Brandes drew one of the world’s first known weather maps. In 1849 Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., established a telegraphic network of observations for the preparation of daily weather maps.

Government weather forecasts in the United States were first issued in 1870 by the Army. In 1891 the Army’s civilian weather activities were transferred to the United States Weather Bureau. In 1970 the Weather Bureau became part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and was renamed the National Weather Service.

Civilian weather activities in Canada are directed by the Atmospheric Environment Service, an agency of the Department of the Environment. This agency was first established in 1871 (under another name). Similar government weather services span the globe, from Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology to Zimbabwe’s Meteorological Services Department. Many of them have Web pages. There are also numerous privately owned weather forecasting companies that in some cases provide specialized services not covered by government agencies.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), an agency of the United Nations, dates from 1951. With more than 180 member states, the WMO coordinates the worldwide exchange of weather and climate information. It grew out of the International Meteorological Organization, established in 1873.

Methods of Weather Forecasting

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One of the most common methods of weather forecasting is synoptic forecasting. It is based on a summary, or synopsis, of the total weather picture at a given time. The development and movement of weather systems is shown on a sequence of synoptic charts, or weather maps. These weather systems are then projected into the future. The weather observations used for the charts are made at thousands of weather stations around the world four times a day—at midnight, 6 am, noon, and 6 pm, Greenwich mean time (GMT). The most common synoptic chart is the surface weather map. Various upper levels of the atmosphere also are charted.

Another method, statistical forecasting, employs mathematical equations based on the past behavior of the atmosphere. Still another, numerical forecasting, uses mathematical models based on the physical laws that describe atmospheric behavior. For forecasts of up to about 10 days, numerical methods are most often used. For somewhat longer periods, statistical methods are more accurate. Beyond about 90 days, weather events can be predicted almost as well through climatological forecasting, using the averages of past weather records.

Until the 1960s weather maps were plotted by hand and analyzed at local weather offices. The future locations of storms, fronts, and other weather phenomena were calculated by manually projecting the movements of weather systems from successive maps. Computer-drawn maps now predict wind, temperature, and humidity patterns for many atmospheric levels. Statistical methods are then used to map probable maximum and minimum temperatures, precipitation, winds, and other weather elements.

The basic weather predictions used in the United States are prepared at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), in Camp Springs, Maryland. Local forecasters modify these centrally produced guidance predictions to account for any local weather peculiarities.

In weather analyses, lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure, called isobars, are drawn on a map. Lines on the map may also connect points of equal value for other factors, such as humidity, temperature, or amount of rainfall. Maps for values both at the surface of Earth and at many higher levels of the atmosphere are examined. Analysis is largely done automatically on computers as part of numerical prediction. The computer-drawn maps, along with many other graphical and text products, are distributed electronically to public and private weather forecasting centers. Much of the information is also provided to various universities, which often publish the data—along with further analysis—on the Internet.

Numerical weather prediction is essentially a problem in fluid dynamics. Complete and precise data on the initial state of Earth’s atmosphere, water bodies, and land surfaces, plus a complete understanding of the physical laws describing the transfer of heat and moisture, theoretically could yield near-perfect numerical weather forecasts. Such information, however, is not fully available.

Numerical weather prediction was not practical at all before high-speed computers were developed in the late 1940s. Six basic equations—expressing the three dimensions of motion and the conservation of heat, moisture, and mass—are used in numerical mathematical models. Computers solve these equations to obtain instantaneous changes at thousands of regularly spaced grid points and at dozens of levels of the atmosphere. The changes are repeatedly computed for successive short time intervals for the desired time range of the forecast. This marching forward in time is the essence of numerical prediction.

In the United States the NCEP regularly runs at least three different major computer models, from one to four times per day. The models provide forecasts for periods from two days to two weeks. Some of these cover North America only, but others forecast for the entire planet. Other countries have similar computer models. A particularly notable example is the model run by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), a collaboration of more than 25 countries.

Forecasters study the output from the various models, using experience and skill to decide which might be more reliable in a given weather situation. Final forecast decisions are usually human ones, but they are heavily based on the computers’ output.

Collection and Distribution of Weather Data

Weather stations in the United States transmit coded weather data every hour for aviation use. They provide weather data every six hours for general forecasting and daily for climatological records. Surface weather data, much of it gathered by automated stations, is included on precipitation, temperature, pressure, change in pressure, wind direction and speed, humidity, dew point, cloud type, sky cover, visibility, ceiling, and current weather. In addition, volunteer observers at thousands of substations take daily measurements of temperature extremes and precipitation. Other weather networks are operated for warning of specific weather emergencies and for furthering agricultural programs.

In the United States professional weather forecasters communicate directly with the public through newspapers, radio and television broadcasts, and the Internet. A radio network operated by NOAA broadcasts forecasts, conditions, and severe weather watches and warnings 24 hours a day. Special NOAA radios feature alarms that alert the listener even when the radio is otherwise off. On cable television the Weather Channel relates local, regional, national, and selected international weather conditions 24 hours a day to many millions of American households.

An international system of telecommunication networks distributes weather information, largely by satellite. Numerically coded data from around the globe is relayed by collection stations to central processing offices, such as at NCEP in the United States.

Since the 1960s weather surveillance satellites have made it possible to detect weather systems from the time they begin. No longer is a destructive storm larger than a tornado likely to strike without warning.

Weather satellites fall into two main classes, based on their location and time to orbit Earth. Polar-orbiting satellites, first launched in 1966, were the first operational satellite system of the United States. These generally orbit at about 520 miles (830 kilometers) above Earth’s surface along nearly north-south paths. They circle the globe approximately every 100 minutes, so that they pass roughly over each point on Earth twice a day (once heading north and once heading south). Geostationary weather satellites (also first launched in 1966) are at a much greater distance, about 22,300 miles (35,900 kilometers), directly above the Equator. These orbit just about once a day and in the direction of Earth’s rotation. As a result, they appear to hover over a fixed point on Earth.

Many countries now operate weather satellites. The United States has two main GOES, or Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellites. One is positioned to view the western United States and eastern Pacific Ocean. The other has good views of the eastern United States and western Atlantic Ocean. These satellites also observe South America. A group of European countries operates the Meteosat geosynchronous satellites. Japan, Russia, China, and India have also operated geostationary satellites. Together, these have provided nearly continuous worldwide coverage.

Polar-orbiting satellites have included the United States’ NOAA series, along with a few Russian and Chinese satellites at times. Polar orbiters get a somewhat closer and more detailed view than the distant geostationary ones. They are also the only satellites capable of obtaining a direct view of the poles. A disadvantage is the lack of continuous coverage, as they can observe a given region only twice a day. Some of these satellites also provide other services, such as support for search and rescue operations.

Most of the information gathered by weather satellites consists of measurements of electromagnetic radiation—such as visible light, infrared, and microwaves. Two basic types of instruments are commonly used: imagers and sounders. Imagers aboard polar-orbiting satellites usually use a rotating mirror to direct light from Earth into a detector. As the satellite orbits perpendicular to the mirror’s scan direction, the two motions combine to form a pattern that can be assembled into a picture. Imagers on geostationary satellites scan in two dimensions to build up the image. The familiar satellite pictures seen on television weather broadcasts or the Internet are usually infrared or visible images from geostationary satellites. These are often combined in a “loop” to display images created about once an hour in the form of a movie covering several hours or more. Visible images require sunlight, but infrared images use heat emitted by the clouds or surface. The infrared images thus show features equally well day and night.

Sounders operate much like imagers, except that resolution (detail) is sacrificed to some extent in favor of simultaneous observation of a large number of different electromagnetic wavelengths, or “channels.” These different wavelengths are emitted by different types of gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone. Their origin is somewhat specific to different levels of the atmosphere, or to clouds, water, or land. Careful analysis of this information yields temperature and humidity profiles of the atmosphere. The profiles are much like those obtained by weather balloons, but over a much broader area, including remote locations such as the middle of an ocean.

The huge volume of satellite data is handled in the United States by NESDIS (National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service) and in Europe by EUMETSAT, an organization including 30 countries. The data is fed into computer models and has improved the resulting forecast significantly. Satellite data is also used to produce maps of sea surface temperature, snow cover, estimated rainfall, and ozone concentrations.

One of the best devices for continuous detection and tracking of hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other severe storms at distances up to 250 miles (400 kilometers) is radar. In the United States NOAA’s Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, analyzes such data and issues severe storm watches. The watches indicate that conditions over a large area are favorable for the development of such storms. Local National Weather Service offices are responsible for more specific warnings, meaning a storm has been sighted or is imminent. The National Weather Service operates the Weather Surveillance Radar–1988 Doppler (WSR-88D, or NEXRAD), which employs more than 150 radar stations to identify low-level wind shears associated with tornadoes.

Long-Range Weather Forecasting

Numerical weather prediction, such as atmospheric modeling on computers, is one of the most accurate methods of weather forecasting. But no matter what method is used, day-to-day forecasting decreases in reliability as the time range increases. The increase in forecast errors over time is due to the unreliability of measurements of initial atmospheric conditions over many areas, the wide spacing of data points, and an insufficient understanding of why the atmosphere acts as it does. Such errors can cause errors in computer-calculated forecasts. They grow larger as the computations move forward in time until the numerical forecasts become useless. Persistent or systematic errors are reduced by manual corrections. A typical error of atmospheric models is that the weather systems usually move faster than predicted.

In providing public forecasts, weather forecasters take into account this increasing uncertainty with time. The range of predicted temperatures, for example, is increased as the time range increases. Precipitation is usually forecast as a probability percentage.

Continuous weather elements such as temperature can be forecast with greater accuracy than discontinuous ones such as precipitation. Forecasts for the higher levels of the atmosphere, with their smoother patterns, are more accurate than for the surface zones. Beyond about a week, daily weather cannot be accurately predicted. However, average weather departures from normal can be predicted to some extent. Long-range forecasts deal with the total effects of weather systems not yet born, unlike forecasts for up to about a week. But useful inferences can still be made about the future evolution of atmospheric circulations.

The averaging of successive daily flow patterns in the atmosphere smooths and filters out temporary disturbances. This reveals broad westerly wind currents that meander between high and low latitudes. At any one time these currents form three to five large waves around each hemisphere. They move slowly and sometimes remain stationary for long periods, steering lows and highs along preferred tracks. The locations and sizes of these large waves determine the longer-period average weather anomalies such as cold spells, warm spells, and droughts.

In monthly forecasts the future locations of large-scale circulation meanders are estimated by a mixture of different methods. One component is an extended run of a computer model similar to those used for day-to-day weather forecasting. Other methods are largely statistical, using known connections between historical temperature and precipitation patterns and conditions such as soil moisture and sea surface temperature. Trends over the last 10 or 15 years are also considered.

In the United States NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center produces long-range forecasts for periods of up to about a year. These are not specific to the day. Instead, they consist of maps showing probabilities that temperature and precipitation will be above normal, near normal, or below normal for three-month periods. The forecasts are of only a general nature and are only modestly accurate (sometimes only a bit better than chance). Such information is nonetheless quite valuable for many farming and industry applications. Many private companies claim to produce accurate long-range forecasts. Those claiming long-range day-to-day accuracy or “secret” weather predicting formulas should be viewed with great suspicion. Weather patterns are notoriously chaotic, and even the best science can offer only modest long-range results.

Weather Modification

Weather modification can be considered as falling into two categories: intentional and inadvertent. Intentional weather modification includes practical, small-scale efforts such as frost prevention. Large fans can mix warmer air from above with the cold air near the ground on clear, calm nights, and smoke from smudge pots can help trap heat near the surface.

A major breakthrough in weather modification occurred in 1946, when it was discovered that seeding supercooled clouds with dry ice pellets or silver iodide could produce precipitation. These particles provide nuclei for the condensation or freezing of water vapor in the air. Most seeding is done from aircraft. Other means include artillery shells and ground-based generators. Cloud seeding can be used to increase precipitation, but a more practical use is dissipation of low clouds and fog around airports.

Initial excitement regarding cloud seeding waned somewhat after the 1960s. Suggestions that it could weaken hurricanes or significantly increase precipitation in drought areas were undermined by mixed or poor results from experiments along with doubts about some aspects of the theory behind it. Government funding for research in these areas was sharply reduced. Also, legal questions arose. For example, seeding a cloud over the U.S. state of Kansas that was headed for the state of Missouri might rob people in Missouri of rain they might have otherwise received. For these reasons, use of cloud seeding remains rather limited.

Inadvertent weather modification has also stirred a great deal of interest. This involves changes in weather and climate that are brought about by changes in land use and the release of gases and particles into the atmosphere. The building or expansion of cities and the conversion of farmland for industrial use can cause changes in weather, especially by raising nighttime temperatures. Cities may also alter local wind and precipitation patterns somewhat.

Of greater significance is the issue of global warming. It is caused primarily by the release of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, along with smaller effects from the release of other gases, such as methane from rice paddies or livestock. These gases are transparent to visible light and therefore let sunshine through to heat the ground. However, the ground radiates the stored heat in the infrared wavelengths, to which the gases are largely opaque. The gases are warmed by this radiation and in turn radiate infrared back toward the ground, effectively trapping a portion of the energy. This phenomenon is commonly called the greenhouse effect.

Actually, the most important “greenhouse gas” is water vapor. Along with naturally occurring concentrations of the other greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide), water vapor keeps Earth’s average temperature about 60 °F (33 °C) warmer than it would otherwise be. The problem is that human activities have increased concentrations of greenhouse gases far above their natural levels, strengthening the greenhouse effect. The result has been global warming—a rise in the average surface temperature over the past one to two centuries. A report released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2014 forecast that the global mean surface temperature will likely rise by as much as 4.7 to 8.6 °F (2.6 to 4.8 °C) by 2100 unless swift action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Any such human-caused warming takes place against a background of natural variations, which could either mask the effect or make it appear larger. While there are large uncertainties about the amount and distribution of the expected warming, there is a strong consensus among scientists that the effect is real and will be significant. Difficult political decisions may lie ahead as society weighs the costs of environmental change against the cost of attempts to limit global warming, such as through reduction of fossil fuel use or by means of technologies aimed at counteracting the warming.

NASA—Goddard Space Flight Center/Scientific Visualization Studio

Another issue, commonly confused with global warming, is that of ozone depletion. Ozone is a type of oxygen molecule, but with three atoms instead of the usual two. Near the ground, it is a pollutant that can cause respiratory irritation. High up in the atmosphere, however, it has the very beneficial effect of blocking ultraviolet light from the Sun. By the 1970s it became apparent that ozone concentrations could be reduced by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—gases then commonly used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants. In fact, measurable reductions in ozone, especially in the form of a seasonal “hole” over the Antarctic, have been documented. The result is likely increased rates of sunburn and skin cancer in humans, along with damage to plankton in the ocean. The good news is that substitutes for CFCs have been found for most previous applications. Largely through an international agreement of 1987 known as the Montreal Protocol, release of these gases has been sharply reduced. By the early 21st century the rate of ozone depletion had slowed markedly, and scientists thought the ozone layer might begin to “heal” considerably within a couple of decades.

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