The Sanctuary of Athena Lindia(Click the image for a full screen view)

The Sanctuary of Athena Lindia

The History of the Excavations

The excavations at the Acropolis
of Lindus were begun systematically by the Danish archaeologists K.F. Kinch
and Chr. Blinkengerg. Their results were published in six volumes published
by the «Foundation Carlsberg» of Denmark. The first two volumes
(1931) deal with the objects, the next two (1941) with inscriptions. All
four are written by Blinkenberg. The architecture was published much later,
in 1960, in two volumes, by E. Dyggve who disagrees with many of the conclusions
drawn by Blinkenberg.

In 1910-1916 and 1929-1932 the Italian
archaeologists Maiuri and Jacopi worked on the site. It should be noted
that the island was under Italian occupation at the time, and the Italians
took an interest in the antiquities. They are responsible for the restoration
of the antiquities of Lindus which contribute to the popularity of the
site today.

The Cult of Lindus

The word Lindia (of Lindus), which
is a constant epithet of the Goddess, is of non-Greek origin etymologically.
Therefore, it seems that a cult existed in Lindus long before the Greeks,
perhaps even before the Mycenaeans, who were Greek-speaking. When the Dorians
brought their Goddess Athena with them, she was assimilated with the older
Goddess, a phenomenon which is very common in the history of religion.
For example, Athena of antiquity has now been assimilated to Virgin Mary
(Panaghia), whose church is to be seen in the village. According to Dyggve,
even the Temple of Athena Lindia was turned into a church of Virgin Mary
in the Christian era.

Apart from the name, another detail
points to an older, pre-existing cult in Lindus before Athena's arrival.
This detail comes from a poem by the 5th cent. BCE poet Pindar, who gives
the following mythical account of the establishment of Athena's cult: Zeus
had a terrible head-ache and asked Hephaestus to split his head. Hephaestus
struck with a brazen hatchet and Athena leapt forth from her father's head
and cried aloud with a mighty shout, while Heaven and Mother Earth, trembled
before her. Then the Sun God, who brings light to men, asked his dear children
to be the first to build an altar for the new Goddess and, by founding
a holy sacrifice, to gladden the heart of the father and daughter. But
sometimes mortals are driven from the right path, and they forgot to take
fire with them. So they performed the sacred rite without fire in the grove
of the Acropolis... (Olympian VII, 35-49).

This is clearly a myth designed to
explain a ritual, namely the custom of performing fireless rites in connection
with the cult of Athena Lindia. This deviated from standard Greek practice,
which demanded fire on the altar and burning of the entrails of the sacrificial
victims. This deviation from standard practice can be explained, if the
cult of Athena was assimilated to an older cult.

Blinkenberg suggested that no sacrifice
was performed at all in the Sanctuary, and that only fruits of the earth,
bloodless offerings, were made. He also stressed that there was no altar.
He concluded that the prehistoric Goddess, venerated before Athena, was
a vegetation Goddess, who did not require animal sacrifice.

Blinkenberg's hypothesis has found
general acceptance, but it may need modification. First, Dyggve identified
architectural evidence of an altar. Second and most important, there is
archaeological evidence of animal bones and ashes from the temenus (enclosure)
area outside the Temple. Third, votive animal figurines, as well as figurines
of men carrying animals, have been found. All this suggests that animals
were sacrificed. Blinkenberg himself was puzzled by the remnants of animal
bones and ashes, but he explained them as remnants of sacred banquets,
which took place in connection with the cult. This makes sense, but it
is difficult to accept that the killing and cooking of the animals was
a ceremony quite separate from the offering ritual.

What is the solution? Can Pindar's
testimony be ignored? Perhaps a close reading of the text will give a clue.
Pindar says that the sons of the Sun God forgot to take fire with them.
Their intention, however, was to perform sacrifice, and Pindar does not
say that they did not perform it; he says that they performed rites without
fire. Perhaps the solution is that they performed the sacrifice and ate
the meat but did not burn the entrails. This would deviate from standard
Greek practice (for sacrificial ritual, see further on) but would allow
the killing of the animal and the eating of the meat by the participants,
a practice which had a very important social function. This is only a hypothesis,
but it reconciles the Pindaric account with the archaeological evidence.

A different solution has been suggested,
Pindar's poem does not refer to Lindus at all but some other city on Rhodes.
The wording of the lines, however, do not support this supposition. Pindar
mentions other cities, but Lindus is mentioned last and the next line begins
with «there it is that...». Thus, the Pindaric account has
to be taken as serious evidence for the cult, whatever interpretation we
give to it.

The Temple Chronicle and the Epiphanies of the Goddess

In the area of Hagios Stephanos (see
map), a marble stele was found with valuable inscription concerning the
history of the Temple and with a list of offerings through the ages. This
is the Temple Chronicle, composed in the 1st cent. BCE. It was compiled
by a certain Timachidas, and its purpose was to advertise the wealth and
importance of the Sanctuary.

Map of Lindus' area, the bays, the Acropolis, the monuments
and the village.(Click the image for a full screen view)

For us it is valuable as a source
of religious belief in the Hellenistic period and as a historical source.
Among the most interesting accounts of the Temple Chronicle are the Epiphanies
(appearances) of Athena to mortals.

Although Athena can appear in person
in the Homeric poems, in the historical period she appeared in men's dreams.
Such forms of epiphany were common in antiquity, and some Greek sanctuaries,
like that of Asclepius at Epidaurus, had special arrangements for people
to sleep in the hope that the God would visit them at night.

One epiphany of Athena occurred at
the time of the Persian invasion in 490 BCE:

"When Darius, King of Persia, sent forth a great army
for the purpose of enslaving Hellas, this island was the first which his
fleet visited. The people in the country were terrified at the approach
of the Persians and fled for safety to all the strongholds, most of them
gathering at Lindus. Thereupon the barbarians set about to besiege them,
until the Lindians, sore-pressed by a water shortage, were minded to hand
over the city to the enemy. Right at this juncture the Goddess stood over
one of the magistrates in his sleep and bade him be of good courage, since
she herself would procure, by intercession with her father, the water they
needed. The one who saw the vision rehearsed to the citizens Athena's command.
So they investigated and found that they had only enough water to last
for five days, and accordingly they asked the barbarians for a truce for
just that number of days, saying that Athena had sent to her father for
help, and that if help did not come in the specified time, they would surrender
the city. When Datis, the admiral of Darius, heard this request, he immediately
burst out laughing. But the next day, when a great cloud gathered about
the Acropolis and a heavy shower fell inside the cloud, so that contrary
to all expectations (paradoxos) the besieged had plenty of water, while
the Persian army suffered for lack of it, the barbarian was struck by the
epiphany of the Goddess. He took off his personal adornment and sent it
as an offering -- his mantle, his necklace, and his bracelets, and in addition
his tiara, his scimitar, and even his chariot, which formerly was preserved
here, but was burned along with most of the offerings when the priest of
Helios was Eucles, son of Astyanactidas (probably soon after 350 BCE),
when the Temple caught fire. As for Datis, he set forth on the business
before him, after establishing peace with the besieged and declaring publicly,
"These men are protected by the Gods".

(From F.G. Grant, Hellenistic Religions, New York 1953)

In this account Athena lives
up to her reputation as a protectress of her city.

The History of the Temple and the Cult Image

Blinkenberg reconstructs the history
of the Temple as follows. At first there was no Temple structure at all,
only a grove to which Pindar refers also. The first structure may have
been built in the 6th cent. BCE. We do not know this; we can infer it only
by analogy from other sites.

A better Temple must have been built
by the tyrant Cleobulus (Kleoboulos) in the 6th cent. BCE. He may also
have strengthened the cult of the Goddess, as other tyrants did with local
Gods of their city-states, in an attempt to foster national religious feeling.
We know that Peisistratus strengthened the cult of Athena at Athens and
Polycrates built a magnificent Temple to Hera on Samos. Tyrants had also
another reason for building Temples: They absorbed the unemployed. The
promotion of national religion strengthened the political base of the tyrant's
power.

The cult image of this Temple has
naturally been lost, but Blinkenberg reconstructs it as a seated figure
with a special hat (polos) wearing necklaces and other jewelry. He infers
that from votive figurines of terra-cotta found in the Sanctuary of a colony
of Lindus which may reproduce the statue.

Figurine possibly representing Athena Lindia.(Click the image for a full screen view)

At the time of Cleobulus there was
also an impressive stairway, 7.5 m. broad, which led up to the Temple and
was used for processions. This stairway went through an enclosure wall
which marked off the temenus from the rest of the Acropolis. The first
built altar was probably erected then. An interesting detail: the Cleobulus
Temple was built above a natural cave in the cliff, which cave must have
been a cult place in prehistoric times. It was perhaps the cave which dictated
the choice of spot for the Temple at the very edge of the cliff. In Byzantine
times, this cave was used for the worship of Virgin Mary.

4th Cent. BCE

Around 342 BCE, the Cleobulus Temple
was burned, and a new one was built in its place in the end of the 4th
cent. BCE or around 300 BCE. The whole temenus area was later reorganized,
the most important addition being the Propylaea, an elaborate gate-structure
leading to the temenus.

The new Temple was in the Doric order.
It had three rooms and two rows of four columns, along the short sides.
(The terminus technicus is amphiprostylos). Its dimensions were 7.75 x
21.65 m.

A new cult image was created for the
new Temple, the type of which we can infer, once more, from votive terra-cotta
figurines. The Goddess was represented standing and carrying a shield,
and the statue almost certainly reflects Pheidian style and the Athena
of the Parthenon at Athens. But on her head she did not wear a helmet,
like the Athenian one, but a polos hat, like that of the older cult image.
An inscription makes some reference to jewelry, so it is quite possible
that this image also was ornated with pectorals and necklaces. The Temple
Chronicle of Lindus gives us some additional information. The statue was
fastened against the short wall of the cella, thus facing the spectator
as he entered from the door. Why was it fastened? Perhaps it was necessary
to secure it in position if it were too big to balance itself effectively
on its own weight, especially since there was always fear of earthquakes.
It must have been over life-size. The materials could have been wood for
the main body and ivory for the extremities, feet, arms, head. The Lindians
could not have afforded a gold and ivory statue as the Athenians did.

The fame of the Temple can be deduced
from the fact that Alexander the Great and many of his successors offered
magnificent sacrifices there, and dedicated weapons after victories. It
can also be inferred from the quality of votive gifts, many of which were
famous in antiquity and are mentioned in the Temple Chronicle. The sculptor
Boethus, the painter Parrhasios of Ephesus and other great artists had
their works exhibited in the Sanctuary.

The Propylaea (Gate)

The Propylaea were built in the first
half of the 3rd cent. BCE. and this involved a radical change in the appearance
of the Sanctuary. Before, the temenus was marked off by a low wall, now
this low wall was replaced by the monumental facade of the Propylaea to
which a very broad stairway gave access.

Reconstruction of the Propylaea after Dyggve.(Click the image for a full screen view)

The Propylaea were in the Doric order
and were U-shaped. The emphasis was on the wings, which looked like the
facades of the Temple. In this way the Temple facade is anticipated before
the visitor enters the temenus. The arrangement was designed to direct
the visitor through a series of surprises and changing views and to prepare
him for a crescendo upon reaching the temenus. We must imagine that the
view changed constantly with gradual ascent by the staircase. When the
visitor reached the top, he had to pass through a hall, which was bordered
by columns on the long sides. He was then confronted with a spectacular
panoramic view on the one hand, on the other he could see the Temple against
this view. The Temple was off the main axis, but the altar stood in the
center of the temenus. This was the sacrificial altar, identified by Dyggve.
Another one, smaller, and destined for bloodless offerings, was placed
inside the Temple in front of the cult image.

The Propylaea were asymmetrical, but
this could be seen only from the inside; from the outside they gave the
illusion of complete symmetry. The rooms of the wings were designed for
banqueting which followed the sacrifice and for display of the most spectacular
votive offerings, the greatest works of art. But the main function of the
whole structure was to isolate the temenus and to screen off unpurified
visitors.

The following prohibitions were effective
regarding entrance to the Sanctuary: Carrying weapons was prohibited. One
had to be decently dressed with the head covered. One had to be barefoot
or else wear white shoes, which could not be made out of horse's skin.
You could not enter at all immediately after loss of virginity; after an
abortion; during menstruation; after you had come into contact with a dead
body; after intercourse, unless a purification bath had taken place, etc.
These instructions shed light on the notions of impurity of the ancients.

The Portico or Stoa

The Hellenistic period was one of
artistic exaggeration. If the early art of the Greeks is characterized
by modesty and simplicity, the late art and architecture, during the Hellenistic
period, delights in dramatic effect. We can seen this in sculpture and
it is valid for architecture as well. By the end of the 3rd cent. BCE,
the monumental Propylaea were no longer considered magnificent enough in
themselves, and another structure had to be added to enhance dramatic effect.
This structure was a Doric portico or stoa which duplicated the facade
of the Propylaea but on a much larger scale.

Reconstruction of the Doric Portico or Stoa.Reconstruction after Dyggve.(Click the image for a full screen view)

The main difference in plan was the
complete symmetry of the Portico. The element of surprise, which was the
principle of the architects of the Propylaea, was repeated here as well.
Most important must have been the interplay of light and shade, as one
passed from the staircase to the columns of the central part. The center
of the long side of the Portico was cut by the stairway which led up to
the Propylaea. In a way the Portico was built as an entrance to this stairway,
just as the Propylaea were built as an entrance to the temenus. The experience
was thus repeated twice, and the visitor's expectations were rising with
each ascent.

It is with purpose that the wings
of the Portico reproduce the facade of the Temple, as was the case in the
Propylaea. The Temple was, after all, the emblem of the Sanctuary and the
culmination of the experience.

The function of the Portico was more
secular. It was outside the temenus and served as an art gallery and as
a shady area, much needed during the hot summer days.

Later Structures

Later additions destroyed rather
than enhanced the effect. The terrace was enlarged in the 1st cent. BCE.
Beneath this terrace there were 10 vaulted cisterns for the collection
of water. In the 2nd cent. CE an Ionic portico was added in the temenus
area, thus blocking the dramatic landscape which acted as a backdrop to
the temenus. Finally, the view from the other side of the acropolis was
blocked by the erection of a Roman Temple in the 3rd cent. CE, presumably
for the cult of a deified emperor. Some think it was for the cult of the
hero Psithyros.

Acropolis reconstruction with later structures.(Click the image for a full screen view)

Votive Offerings

In our times, it is often the case
that votives are placed on an icon of the Greek Orthodox Church as tokens
of gratitude for a difficulty or illness which has been overcome. These
offerings are jewelry or silver/gold limbs representing the healed parts
of the body: Ancient offerings were even more varied. Their value depended
on the economic status of the dedicator. They could range from large-scale
sculptures in stone, or bronze, to small figurines. They could be jewelry,
vases, weapons, and objects of every-day use such as mirrors and spindle
whirls. Most often they had the form of terra-cotta figurines representing
humans or animals. Sometimes the cult image of the divinity was represented,
but more frequently it was the mortal who presented himself as an worshiper
and servant to the God.

In the Sanctuary of Athena Lindia
figurines of musicians, horsemen, men carrying animals (for sacrifice)
have been found, representing different categories of worshippers. It is
female figurines that predominate, however, because of Athena's special
relationship with women as a protectress of the household. Mothers holding
a child are frequently represented; they were placing the child under the
protection of Athena. A special type is the seated boy, which is attested
also in Cyprus. Were these boys rendering services to the Temple for a
period and do the figurines symbolize this? If so, we have an Oriental
custom here. There is also a type of male figurine reclining and holding
a drinking vessel. This must allude to the sacrificial banqueting which
took place in the rooms of the Propylaea. Exotic animals like lions as
well as birds and cats are suggestive of the power of Athena over nature.
There are also objects brought from abroad, gifts from foreigners who visited
the Sanctuary. Egyptian, Near Eastern and Cypriot objects are attested
in significant quantities. A final category of objects represents cult
implements: lamps and torches used in processions, baskets which would
be filled with fruit and offered, wine jars and drinking cups which are
related to the feasting.

Lindus lies 55 km to the S. of the
city of Rhodes and is accessible by bus or even by small boats during the
summer season. The trip by car takes a little less than an hour and the
road is very good. For this reason one can even rent a car and drive without
being apprehensive about the possible mis-fortunes due to the conditions
of some Greek roads.

When you come close to Lindus, there
is a long beach, Vlecha (Vlycha), to your left or N. of the Acropolis which
towers over the landscape. On this beach, there exists the four major hotels
of Lindus: Lindos Bay Hotel, Lindos Royal Hotel, LTI Lindos Royal and Lindos
Mare Hotel. Otherwise, accommodations can be found in the village: there
are rooms to let in pensions or private houses.

The bus, or car, has to stop in the
square of the village; from there one has to go on foot because the village
streets are too narrow. The square is well equipped for the tourist: you
can buy film, souvenirs, refreshments, and there are restaurants as well.