Waves in Dark Matter

The following article, describing some additional
consequences of the wave theory. It appeared as a feature article in Frontier
Perspectives [2001] 10(2):23-34 (published by The Center for Frontier Science
at Temple University). The article was modified slightly for this presentation.

For much more, including experiments on how nature
controls gravity and utilizes w-waves, see the book Waves
in Dark Matter on the Main
Page. This article posted with permission from Frontier Perspectives.

The work here demonstrates that much of the
organization of the universe and life is due to all pervading longitudinal waves
apparently produced at least in part by electromagnetic sources. These waves
were called W-waves because they were first found in live wood. The work with
W-waves suggests that a major postulate characterizes W-waves. This postulate
is that if a source radiates W-waves the vacuum responds with an automatic return
wave that results in a standing wave. Thus these waves always form standing
waves. One of the main purposes of this paper is to show the feasibility of
this postulate. This paper reviews the older evidence and presents some new
evidence as to how these unique waves organize plants, star systems and their
components, larger systems of the universe, wave structures in tubes, and granular
materials.

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

The studies of W-waves began with experiments
on trees, smaller plants, and plant fossils. The tree measurements involved
many trees native to Southwest Oregon and trees used were generally less than
ten meters high. Ordinary garden vegetables and weeds were utilized as smaller
plants. Many measurements were also taken on plant fossils across the age spectrum.
The specific species are enumerated in Refs. 1-3. Measurements were performed
on round live tree sections, 70-80 cm long, cut from the bases of small trees.
In these early experiments the sections as well as some whole standing trees
were peeled. Most tree sections used were between 5 and 10 centimeters in diameter.
Probes used were unplated sharp #2 steel pins. A reference probe was first placed
in the xylem near the bottom of the block. Next the xylem was probed, as fast
as possible up the block, at multiple millimeter intervals. The voltage was
read with a high input impedance digital multi-meter as a function of distance
and time up the block. Later, in placing probes in whole plants, the bark was
peeled from an area near 3 mm in diameter before placing a probe. Probes were
pushed into the wood about 3 millimeters when taking measurements. Spacings
between probes varied depending on what was being tested. Probes were used for
connecting plants directly (through coaxial cable) to electronic instruments
including spectrum analyzers. Plants were often tested under completely metal
shielded conditions1,2,3.

At first nothing was found coming from the
probes, in the sections cut from the bases of small trees, except that the author
saw a pulse moving past the upper probe several times in each experiment. After
about five minutes or so a voltage pattern started to form that varied periodically
up a tree section. It always took some time for the new charge displacement
patterns to develop! It was concluded that standing waves were being formed
in the tested blocks (e.g. Figure 1). The patterns disappeared in about 30 minutes,
possibly because the blocks were peeled. Some small trees were later similarly
tested (at about 0oC) in place and regularly spaced voltage maxima
were found, up to meters apart. Again these indicated standing waves but of
much longer wavelength in the whole trees. Waves crossing the tree sections
were not considered in this study, although some effects might have been observable.

figure
1. A typical standing wave pattern found in small blocks cut from the bases
of small live trees in January of 1988. This pattern seemed to arise from the
energy of much longer wavelengths found in whole trees. The temperature was
approximately 0oC when the data were taken. The dominant frequency
here is 5.4 Hz the second harmonic of 2.67 Hz if 96 cm/s is assumed to be the
wave velocity.

In the next series of experiments, equally
spaced probes were placed up tree trunks and again these gave a periodic or
quasiperiodic variation of voltage up the trees tested1. Then wave velocities
were measured1,2,3,4,5,6(also see pp.19, 176-178 of Ref. 7). It was
hypothesized that spacings on plants are placed by standing waves and therefore
represent half wavelengths. Since then many thousands of internodal spacings
(spacings between branches, leaves, and other plant structures) have been measured.
Assuming the spacings to be half wavelengths, and using the measured velocities,
the data gave one a spectrum of what were called the eigenfrequencies of plants3,7
(Figure 2). It was observed that the frequencies repeated from plant to plant
and that some frequencies were more dominant than others. Matching frequencies
were found using a low frequency spectrum analyzer. This analyzer confirmed
that the calculated frequencies were accurate. After observing the characteristics
of W-waves both within and external to plants4 it was hypothesized
that the plant waves were not just plant waves but are everywhere in the universe
and in life in general7.

Figure 2. A frequency spectrum
derived from 7696 internodal horizontal spacings from small plants and medium
sized trees . Notice that some frequencies appear to be more dominant than others.
The spacings seem to repeat from plant to plant. From O.E. Wagner (1996), Physiol.
Chem. Phys. & Med. NMR 28:173-198. Used by permission.

These studies were supported with measurements
of plant cell lengths. Xylem tissue was macerated in an acid formulation until
the cells were separable. The material was then washed with water using a micro-centrifuge.
Next, enough glycerol was added to prevent drying. The material was then spread
out on microscope slides, and the cell lengths were measured using appropriate
microscope magnifications5.

The many thousands of measured internodal
spacings and cell lengths demonstrated that half wavelengths determine (or are
at least correlated with) cell lengths, internodal spacing, and other plant
component dimensions3,5. If one views xylem cells under a microscope
they look almost like how one would draw a half wavelength of a standing wave,
thereby suggesting that cell shapes are standing wave related. All the measurements
seemed to suggest that plant genes provide for the use of different standing
wave lengths to form cells, so cell dimensions vary considerably depending on
the cell's application in the plant. The thousands of plant cell measurements
taken at this laboratory also suggest that cell lengths are quantized5.

W-wave velocities were usually measured by
using signals that arise from wounding plants1,2,3,4. Two probes
were spaced (often 1.5 m) along a branch or tree trunk. The plant was quickly
slashed or otherwise wounded, usually below the spaced probes on a tree trunk
or on a branch on the main stem side away from the probes. The probes were connected
to a strip chart recorder that generally indicated an abrupt large rise in output
voltage immediately after wounding. It was found from many experiments that
this voltage continued to rise until a pulse left the space between the probes.
Using the pulse time between probes together with their spacing gave consistent
velocities. One could not easily use closely spaced probes and usual time of
flight methods because the output voltage was found to be approximately proportional
to the square root of the probe spacing and this resulted in extremely small
output voltages for small spacings2.

In velocity measurements so far three definite
integral multiples were found using successively shorter pulses: 96 cm/s, 288
cm/s, and 480 cm/s with one 1/2 integral multiple (240 cm/s) with other velocities
probable5,6. Evidence from plant internodal spacings suggests others.

Wounding one tree produces signals in nearby
trees. The velocity data taken in 1988 provide one velocity (480 cm/s) for disturbances
traveling between trees2.

Measurements of velocities between trees was
done using three widely separated trees all fitted with probes which were spaced
several meters apart on the two trees designated as receivers. The tree designated
the transmitting tree was quickly wounded and the resulting three signals recorded
on a strip chart recorder. These signals provided in-air velocities. Branches
between probes or in the vicinity of probes caused all sorts of reflections
so clear regions on tree trunks were used for these measurements.

To date, velocity measurements have been taken
only along the long axes of trunks and branches. In horizontal portions of plants
velocities are believed to be the same (96 cm/s) for most plant frequencies
since 96 cm/s has been found in most measurements on plants. 96 cm/s also provides
the most commonly observed frequencies found in calculations using plant spacings,
probes along plants, and verified on a spectrum analyzer3,5. Velocity
measurements in plants suggest, however, that velocity switching to integral
(or in some cases, half-integral) multiples of 96 cm/s is also possible5,6.
The observations, that higher velocities are produced by shorter pulses, may
suggest that the probability of switching to higher velocities becomes greater
with increasing frequency.

If one measures plant growth angles of straight
growing portions one finds that plant growth angles are quantized8.
Increasing corresponding mean internodal spacings are also very apparent as
the growth angle increases or decreases from the horizontal. These data suggest
that W-waves speed up in a stepwise manner as the plant part growth angle changes
from perpendicular to parallel to the gravitational field8.

PLANT FREQUENCIES

All frequency measurements indicate that many
plant frequencies are harmonics of 1.6 Hz. A 2.666 Hz series also shows strongly
in plant spacing data as well as in waves detected around electrical gear. Other
harmonics series also occur. Some especially strong natural frequencies are
16, 26.7, 40, 48, 80 Hz, and 96 Hz (Figure 2). Plant fossils suggest a different
distribution of plant frequencies in ancient plants than in modern plants. Ref.
7 p. 77 utilizes data taken from younger, older, and ancient plants to produce
a dating curve from the prevalence of 1.6 Hz harmonics.

W-waves jiggle charge enough so that plant
frequencies can be seen on sensitive spectrum analyzers. There is fluctuation
in plant frequency amplitudes so sometimes it may take several hours to see
a complete spectrum. When one derives frequencies from signals measured by periodically
spaced probes on trees, the calculated frequencies agree with those found by
other methods.

Figure 1 may not indicate exact periodicity
because of insufficient data points. 5.4 Hz is the calculated dominant frequency
in Figure 1 if one uses 96 cm/s as the velocity. Several frequencies are usually
present in most cases dealing with these waves, and probes don't always produce
completely uniform results. Low measurement temperatures (for Figure 1 near
0oC) may have kept the frequency count low in these particular measurements1.

OTHER PHENOMENA

Forces were found within plants using hanging
weights and small accelerometers in holes in xylem. These forces suggest that
sap flow is not just passive but is assisted by moving standing wave forces5,7,9,10,11.
Large energies, indicated by relatively high voltages and currents, have been
found in plants by measuring voltages (up to 8 volts dc) coming from silicon
diode dies placed in level slits in the trunks of trees12. RF and
60 Hz effects have been ruled out as important sources of energy for these diode
dies within trees. A plant’s response to gravity and light are tied to
effects on wavelength created by gravity and light. All of the plant functions
seem to be related to W-waves5.

Gravity was found to interact strongly with
W-waves in plant tissue. The velocity of vertically traveling W-waves in plant
tissue, as indicated by larger plant spacings, is increased by gravity by as
much as a factor of three times the horizontal velocity5,6. Gravity
determines how a plant grows in the gravitational field because the relative
growth length increases with increase in angle to the horizontal due to increasing
velocity (there is also the possibility of frequency change as suggested in
Ref. 6) as the growth angle approaches the vertical8.

If one compares plant internodal spacings
grown in the vicinity of electrical power substations with those grown far away
it is found that the spacing averages are shifted toward larger values (see
pp. 129-143 of Ref. 7). This apparently indicates that the electromagnetic sources
are producing an increased density of longer wavelength W-waves which the plant
absorbs and the internodal spacings are influenced accordingly (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Distributions of frequencies
derived from internodal spacings on Himalayan blackberry (Rubus Thyranthus
Focke). A is from spacings taken adjacent to the Grants Pass electric power substation.
B comes from data taken 100 m away while C and D come from data taken much further
away. Some of the frequencies are labeled. Note how the percentage of higher frequencies
in the distributions increases far away from the 60 Hz sources (see page 132 of
Ref. 7).

All the W-wave data from live plants
suggest that they are strongly resonant structures for W-waves. Death apparently
means that the strongly resonant structure is disappearing or has disappeared.
When a plant is alive it produces biophotons but when it dies it no longer emits
biophotons13. The presence of biophotons, as well as the appearance
of relatively high voltages in the diode measurements in tree slits, apparently
indicates the presence of very energetic W-waves. Since W-waves can be detected
with electrical instruments, the W-waves couple with electromagnetism. Measurements
suggest that the W-waves are longitudinal and are produced by electromagnetic
sources4,9. They excite molecules to high-energy states so that they
decay and give off energetic photons, some of which are in the ultraviolet13.

THE SUN AND ITS PLANETS

It has also been found that the W-wave model
provides a plausible explanation for the positions of planetary orbits and the
orbits of their natural satellites7,14. A wave equation is solved
where it assumed that the velocity of W-waves increases linearly as the waves
move away from the sun. The solution provides the present locations of the planets
and the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn. Also it similarly explains the locations
of the satellites of Neptune (see pp. 93-95 of Ref. 7). The increasing spacings
of the satellites and planets going away from the planets or sun suggest that
the waves increase in velocity linearly as they move away from the orbited object
and the wave equation solution confirms it. The increasing velocity going away
from the sun would imply that W-waves have very large velocities in empty space.
This increase in velocity may suggest the presence of something like dark matter,
which decreases in density going away from the sun. The Waves in Dark Matter
paper has discussion of this decrease in density effect14.

An alternative explanation from dark matter
is that gravity may increase W-wave velocity with decreasing gravitational field
going away from the sun. It was found that gravity increased W-wave velocities
within plants with a maximum velocity when waves traveled parallel to the gravitational
field. This behavior appears to be the reverse of what is observed around the
sun. The observed behavior, however, is similar to that of sound waves, which
are longitudinal waves in ordinary matter. W-waves are compared to sound waves
in Ref. 14 with the density of the medium decreasing as the reciprocal of the
square of the distance from the sun. One might expect to find that longitudinal
waves in dark matter behave in an analogous manner to sound waves in ordinary
matter.

There are some variations from theoretical
locations but the planetary and satellite fit is superb considering that conditions
have changed over time. It appears that Jupiter and Saturn were larger when
most of their satellites were placed because they initially were very hot. The
placement equation that arises from the solution to the wave equation is:

r=r0exp(0.625N)

where r is the planet or satellite orbital
radius, considering a circular orbit, while r0 is the radius of the
body being orbited at the time its satellites are placed. N is the orbit integer
starting with 1 closest to the sun or planet.

It is suggested that in satellite and planet
formation there is a double node involved14 (also see pp. 123, 124
of Ref. 7). An overlapping axial node and a radial node may provide a place
for a planet or satellite to form. To relate the velocities of the axial and
radial waves for a particular orbit with a known radius, using the orbit equation
for example, one has to remember the axial wave is 1/2 wavelength long (the
orbital circumference) in the simplest case of only one axial node.

Because of their stability it is suggested
that stable planetary rings are formed by radial waves that do not have a matching
axial wave node. This would likely be the case for waves arising from the oscillating
internal structure of a planet excited by W-waves from the sun for example (see
pp.101, 102 of Ref. 7). Using these latter ideas we can determine some of the
internal structure of Saturn by studying its ring structure. In the book Waves
in Dark Matter some of the calculations for the internal structure of Neptune
are performed (see pp. 92-95 of Ref.7) and the results are reasonable. The source
of the longtime stability of planetary rings has long been a persistent problem,
especially for those without shepherd moons. Continuous standing waves, holding
the rings in place at nodes, solves most of these problems, however. It is suggested
that temporary rings may form by mechanisms other than the mechanism suggested
here.

W-waves provide a model for the solar cycle,
complete with a possible mechanism for the reversal of the sun’s magnetic
polesa. Fully self-consistent models for the solar cycle apparently
do not exist otherwise (see Physics Today 44:69 (1991)). For the readers
reference, in the Physics Essays article, mentioned above, using the
period of the solar cycle as the W-wave oscillation period for the sun, the
radial velocity of W-waves at the sun's surface is calculated to be 1.25 m/s.
This same velocity is also calculated in a different manner, using an integration,
on page 91 of Ref. 7. So the initial velocity of W-waves coming from the sun
is small. An approximate expression for the oscillation frequency of bodies
like main sequence stars is 1.19/r0Öd
where d is the relative mean density (with water equal to 1)7. Waves
moving away from the sun would start at a velocity of 1.25 m/s and return waves
forming the standing wave would hit the sun’s surface at 1.25 m/s! W-waves
couple with charge, as determined experimentally in plants. This is observed
when a W-wave pulse moves forward as when measuring W-wave velocities in plants
and in other charge displacement experiments2,5. Gravity interacts
strongly with W-waves in plants and thus one might expect centripetal acceleration
to also interact with W-waves in the sun (using the idea of the equivalence
principle). Thus a pulse could be funneled towards the sun’s equator if
the model suggested to this author by the sunspot displacements is the correct
one.

W-WAVES IN SPACE

Extrapolating from W-wave behavior around
the sun and gaseous planets, Jupiter and Saturn, W-wave velocities are presumed
to increase to very large values in empty space with standing waves present
everywhere. Large repeating structures in the universe look just like more wave
structures with longer wavelengths providing for larger structure organization14.
An alternative explanation for the discontinuities in the microwave background
could be that standing W-waves traversing space generate them. The most recent
data suggest multiple discreteness in the source structures.

Galaxies are hypothesized to form mostly from
the work of W-waves with spiral galaxies arising because of the spin of accompanying
matter14. Density waves are also likely involved. An added mechanism
that was not discussed in the Physics Essays article is that enough matter
may collect in one place to form a quasar or gravitational reactor, since the
mechanism that produces gravity is hypothesized to break down under enough pressure.
It is hypothesized that this concentrated matter eventually explodes to form
a new galaxy15.

The bubble structure of the universe16( also
see pp. 97, 98 of Ref.7) may imply active oscillating regions where ordinary
matter is forced to the boundaries of the oscillating region of dark matter.
This behavior would tend to bring ordinary matter together. One only need to
look at trash and foam on running or actively moving water to see how matter
might be forced to the periphery of actively oscillating regions of energy and/or
dark matter filled "empty" space.

SOURCES AND DETECTION OF W-WAVES

W-wave sources apparently are many electromagnetic
configurations including stars, and other cosmic bodies such as galaxies and
groups of galaxies as well as quasars. Often it has been possible to locate
W-waves patterns around electromagnetic sources by using semiconductor probes
made of a nearly open base transistor (base with a large biasing resistor) and
an amplifier. The author has used electromagnetic sources to excite waves within
plastic tubes with sometimes no obvious results. Negative results here may just
have indicated that the source was not monochromatic. Filtering has been used
in attempts to obtain monochromatic waves by using tubes separated into periodically
spaced chambers (at some known eigenfrequency corresponding to one half wavelength).
This resulted in a slight indication of the presence of monochromatic waves.
For example, it has been observed that a bead hanging outside of such a tube's
open end, and with the tube excited electronically, was pushed away or drawn
into the tube depending on the length of the tube. An experimenter with sensitive
fingers and a bent brass rod seemed to be able to detect monochromatic standing
wave coming from an operating 6L6 vacuum tube for several meters going away
from the tube. The tube was set on a pedestal separate from the most of the
circuitry. The tube was producing 25 watts of RF power at 400 KHz to a light
bulb load. The nodal spacing here was around 4 cm. Three cm above a two cm thick
steel plate the half wavelengths observed increased by about 1/3. Also using
the 6L6 vacuum tube source one is able to pick up periodic variations in amplitude
as a detector approaches the vacuum tube source on a slowly moving optical table.

A large part of 1/f phenomena may be due to
effects on charge and/or other matter of these vacuum (or space) fluctuations.
Just the hierarchical nature of the sources, with the sun a major source, with
the planets and smaller and smaller objects producing higher and higher frequency
waves and smaller and smaller amplitude waves as the oscillator size decreases,
fits into the definition of 1/f phenomena! Large amplitude sources oscillate
at extremely low frequencies with periods in years or maybe millions of years
in the case of some structures. These apparently are the primary strong sources.
Plants, plastic tubes, and ordinary matter, probably produce some of the highest
frequencies.

Another evidence for the 1/f nature of W-waves
is that, using probes on trees to detect artificial wounding signals, for example2,
the signal strength is approximately proportional to the square root of the
probe spacing along the tree trunk. Atomic sources within matter probably do
not produce appreciable external signals, except for gravity, unless the Casimir
forces and/or Van der Waals forces represent such.

If W-waves are related to gravity (or are
long wavelength "gravity waves" as described earlier) one would expect them
to be hard to detect and manipulate as found. Their influences appear greatest
in reactions within mass and in granular materials. This is very obvious if
the effects observed in manipulated granular materials are due to these waves
(see the next section).

SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS INDICATING W-WAVES

The following simple experiments indicate
a strong local W-wave presence. Several characteristics indicate that one is
dealing with the same waves in and around suns and planets, in waves in tubes
discussed in this section, and in plants. First the velocities appear to be
nearly the same in the matter involved (e.g. 1.25 m/s at the sun's surface or
0.96 m/s in plants7,14) or are often integrally related. The waves
are standing waves, and a traveling wave leaving a source results in an automatic
standing wave. The velocities of the waves may increase with less matter (and
dark matter present?) as so far suggested from their behavior around the sun
and in and around plants where velocities in less dense matter were found to
be larger2,14. Also one would expect the waves to be present everywhere.

WAVES IN TUBES INDICATED BY FLOATANT

For floating material on water, dry sawdust
was screened to dimensions of one to two millimeters in diameter. It was then
placed in hot paraffin and then spread out on a screen to drain and harden.
30 cm diameter polyvinyl chloride plastic pipes, sealed at both ends with plastic
sheeting, were used as containers. About 10 cm deep water was placed in each
closed pipe. Closeable openings were placed along the pipe so that treated sawdust
could be placed on the water and then spacing measurements taken after equilibrium
was attained. The tubes were mounted level on wooden supports about 120 cm apart4,5.

The floating materials were placed in the
tubes and protected from the wind and sound. One has to optimize the amount
of floating material to see the wave effects. In the outdoor experiments performed
to date, during the summer, the best fit spacing observed between centers of
floating material concentrations appeared to be due to 2.4 Hz waves. These waves
were assumed to be traveling at a velocity of 480 cm/s, the previously obtained
open-air velocity between trees, (considering one half wavelength between concentrations
of floatant) because of the large diameter tube (30 cm). Lower velocities like
240 cm/s seem to be found in smaller diameter tubes with the smallest velocities
found in solid matter. Inside the laboratory, the most commonly observed separation
spacing between floatant concentrations was near 9 cm (unpublished).

In all experiments there always seemed to
be a tendency for floatant to separate into periodically spaced concentrations.
The spacings always seemed to be related to a W-wave eigenfrequency using a
velocity that was an integral multiple of 96 cm/s (or an integral multiple of
48 cm/s). The calculated frequencies appear to come from the set of commonly
observed frequencies that were previously found in plants. In plants, 2.4 Hz
seemed to show dominantly in corn stalks in summer3. Floatant distributions
indicated that there was a distinct difference between summer and winter wavelengths.
The main point to be made here is that the waves observed in floatant on water
appear to be the same kind of waves that were found in plants. One found similar
eigenfrequencies although there is ambiguity because W-wave velocities were
not measured directly in tubes. Noise accompanying detector signals has precluded
direct electronic measurements of the velocities. An earlier paper4
ruled out sound as a factor in causing the particle separation because no sound
sources were present that could produce the particular spacings measured either
in water or in air.

WAVES IN ROTATING DUST TUBES

Pyrex or ordinary glass tubes 15, 20, 25,
and 37 mm diameter, 120 cm long were used for testing granular material in rotating
tubes experiments. These tubes were rotated level on pairs of upside down hard
rubber castors placed at each end. The driven end of each tube was fitted with
an upper castor that exerted pressure downward on the tube so that it would
not pull out when it was rotated by a plastic belt driven by a geared down shaded
pole motor (on a separate mount to prevent vibration transfer). 5 to 20 ml of
granular material was placed in each tube depending on the diameter of the tube.
Rotation speeds varied from 1/12 of a rotation per second to 2 rotations per
second. Granular material was prepared, for example, from soft rock using a
mortar and pestle or off-the-shelf materials such as copper sulfate and barium
sulfate. The granular material was usually screened to take out particles more
than 2 mm in diameter4,5.

Since it was found that W-waves tended to
organized particles on water, several years ago, it was hypothesized that they
might organize a dust layer in a level tube where rotation permitted particle
relocation.. Dust with nearly uniform size granules was first tested in small
diameter glass and Pyrex tubes. It was observed that the material tended to
pile up in a periodic fashion along the tube during rotation but the effect
was not very pronounced. Then granular material composed of course and fine
materials was tested and the effect became quite apparent with course and fine
materials segregating in a quasiperiodic fashion along the tube4,5(Figure
4). It was noticed that the spacings between course bands had distributions
like plant internodal spacings. Distances measured between the course bands
were measured and the distances were assumed to be half wavelengths as in plants.

Figure 4. The graph represents
the distribution of reciprocals of spacings (multiplied by 1/2 of 240 cm/s) obtained
from 15 different rotation and diameter conditions of rotating dust tubes (478
spacings) (tube diameters 15, 20, 25, and 37.5 mm and rotation angular velocities
from 1/12 rev/s to 2 rev/s). The drawing represents part of a typical dust tube.
Compare this figure with Figure 2. Note how main peaks match. The matches obtained
tend to confirm that similar waves are involved in both cases. From O.E. Wagner
(1999), Physiol. Chem. Phys. & Med. NMR 31:109-129. Used by permission.

Always course material segregated out into
bands but different material mixtures behaved somewhat differently. A very pretty
blue-white banding effect appears if one uses a copper sulfate-barium sulfate
mixture. It was found that the frequency spectra were essentially identical
to plant spectra except that one had to use 240 cm/s instead of 96 cm/s for
the wave velocity in order for the frequency distribution peaks to match (compare
Figures 2 and 4). The velocity used (240 cm/s for the smaller tubes) was consistent
with previous observations. The number of spacings measured so far amounts to
near 500 instead of the many thousands that were measured on plants (e.g. Figure
4). The slower the tubes are rotated the more complex the spectra become. This
increase in complexity is attributed to better resolution since the same spectra
appeared as before but finer structure also appears when the tubes rotate more
slowly. Apparently many of the closer spaced bands didn't show in the faster
rotating tubes because they would self-destruct. Vacuum or air in the tubes
seemed to make little difference. Some of the phenomena observed for waves in
rotating dust tubes have also been noted in other studies17.

WAVES IN GRANULAR MATERIALS

It is hypothesized that W-waves are strongly
influenced by centripetal force as well as with gravity. In the sun the W-wave
pulse appears to converge onto the sun's equator as indicated by the sunspot
patterns. Thus it may be that in granular materials one sees all kinds of effects
due to movement in the W-wave fields present. Inside of matter, like granular,
W-wave fields may be especially effective in producing organization with their
interactions with matter movement as indicated from the granular material work.
Some of the effects shown in a March 2000 Physics Today article17
suggest interactions of W-waves with matter under all kinds of rotation conditions.
For example, in Figure 3 of the article perhaps one sees effects similar to
drumhead oscillations.

From the cylinder dimensions and granular
material band spacing data obtained from one of the authors (Shinbrot) of the
Physics Today article, the frequency of the standing waves in Figure
2 of the article was calculated as 26.7 Hz. This was based on an assumed velocity
of 240 cm/s and ignoring end effects. 26.7 Hz is in the set of most common W-wave
modes found in W-wave spectra.

The patterns found in manipulated granular
materials may tell us much more about matter behavior in the vacuum (which may
include matter) as well as about the behavior of granular material. One may
be able to extrapolate to behavior of W-waves in the sun, for example. So far
this author has studied only structures in granular materials produced in rotating
tubes. In the tube cases the results are analyzable as standing waves along
the tubes. The specific intervals are proportional to corresponding intervals
of internodal spacings on plants. Note that one doesn't have to have different
size particles in a rotating tube to be able to see nodes and antinodes but
the segregation of different sized particles makes the results dramatic. In
the major work done with granular materials there have been many shapes of containers
used together with all kinds of motions, resulting in complex patterns.

The granular evidence appears to be overwhelmingly
in favor of the wave hypothesis. No one, so far, has been able to satisfactorily
explain, with ordinary physics, the detailed structure that arises in granular
materials being processed. The strange structures that arise have caused many
problems in manufacturing, according to the Physics Today article17.

W-WAVES AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

In microscopic matter such as electrons, important
frequencies are quantized and they radiate to the surrounding space. Milo Wolff’s
descriptions of a crystalline substance and of the electron18 provide
possible additional insights on W-waves, and even early pioneers including Feynman
and Wheeler did classical work in this area. Wolff describes the electron as
composed of in and out waves and he gives mathematical descriptions for both
waves. He then combines them into a standing wave F=F0ejwtsin(kr)/r
which is a solution to the wave equation Ñ2F-1/c2δ2F/δt2=0.
He then goes on to describe the origin of spin. For present purposes, the main
feature of the Wolff model is that it describes an electron in terms of in and
out waves. This may apply to all elementary particles.

It appears that W-waves, in macroscopic situations,
behave in a similar manner to the in and out waves of quantum mechanics. The
planets of the sun apparently are located at the nodes of an in-out wave from
the sun. Plants operate with standing waves (see all the recent Wagner publications).
In quantum mechanics standing waves provide the organization for basic matter.
This organization may be disturbed when certain forces act. The in-out nature
of both W-waves and quantum waves suggest that they are identical or very similar
except for wavelength and conditions under which they are involved.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS AND SUMMARY

The literature suggests that there generally
is a high average density of matter present in star forming regions. These regions
are usually near the centers of galaxies and/or in the vicinity of quasars,
for example. In such circumstances one would expect to have a very complex wave
system. In some regions standing wave nodes may overlap to form supernodes.
These supernodes would tend to collect matter, thereby facilitating star (or
even galaxy) formation. A supernode might form at the center of a concentration
of oscillating dark matter and/or vacuum energy. When one considers that stars
form mostly from hydrogen gas, which obeys the gas laws, it must take some extremely
powerful, relatively long range forces to bring enough hydrogen together to
start forming a star. Thus some kind of large supernode producing strong collection
forces may be the only solution. If one peruses the literature, actual mechanisms
for star formation are mostly lacking.

GRAVITY, MASS, AND INERTIA

The W-wave-gravity interaction appears so
strong that the curvature of space idea is questionable. How would space curvature
change the velocity of waves in plants so dramatically5,6 and in
a quantum like manner as one changes the angle of growth with respect to the
gravitational field8? In response to this enigma it is proposed that
gravity is also a wave phenomenon15. The detectability of W-waves
suggests that they are in the same class with gravity but are of much longer
wavelength.

Matter particles have been hypothesized to
produce the in and out waves18. In another small step it is proposed
that at least some of the in-out wave is longitudinal, moves, and spreads out
indefinitely into space. This portion of the in-out wave is not the ordinary
transverse electromagnetic wave but is longitudinal and it is produced by an
ultimate structure of all ordinary matter (and dark matter). In ordinary matter
it is hypothesized that the in-out group velocity of this wave moves inward
toward its source If this wave, which is comparable to a moving standing wave,
moves through other matter it produces a weak attractive force on it or gravity
as we know it15. Low frequency W-waves have low velocity, with a
tendency to increase in velocity as their frequency increases as determined
in plant measurements. From this one can hypothesize that ordinary gravity waves
(the waves that compose the standing wave) move at near infinite velocities
since its frequencies would be so high coming from an infinitesimally small
portion of matter.

The ordinary gravity which everyone experiences
arises from the vector addition of all the forces due to "gravity producing
waves" emitted by all the ordinary matter in the universe. Even though one does
not feel the forces from all these "gravity waves" in the universe they are
still present. If one accelerates a piece of matter in this standing
wave field all of the waves present (the gravity waves from all other matter
react with the in-out waves of the piece of matter) interact to prevent movement.
This is somewhat similar to using crossing laser beams to cool atoms as the
Nobel prize winners of 1997 did15. This is hypothesized to produce
inertia. If an object has constant velocity or momentum, however, it is carried
along with the gravity waves moving with its velocity (remember velocity has
both magnitude and direction). Matter is moving in all directions all over the
universe, and standing waves are produced by all of it, thus the standing
gravity waves probably have nearly an infinite set of velocities. The model
here may be in conflict with ordinary electromagnetic theory but W-waves seem
to obey rules of new physics. Note that the gravity producing waves here are
standing waves, which have a velocity distinct from the waves that compose the
standing wave.

In the outer reaches of the universe the density
of the crossing waves due to gravity from the whole universe may decrease thus
inertia becomes smaller in an anisotropic manner for an individual particle
of matter. This may accelerate outward expansion of the universe far away. This
effect has recently been reported19. One might even find a slightly
anisotropic inertia, on earth, if the phenomenon was investigated thoroughly.

The wave model for gravity may eliminate the
unification of the forces problems between electromagnetics and gravity. This
is true because the waves that produce gravity are hypothesized to be the same
kind of wave, except for wavelength, as W-waves elsewhere. And W-waves may just
be a form of energy with a longitudinal wave nature connected to electromagnetics
since they are produced by electromagnetic sources. Energy becomes mass when
it produces its own longitudinal in-out waves. It is configured in a manner
forming an electron and positron, for example. In the theory here matter produces
very high frequency waves continually with the waves extending into space as
gravity but it is hypothesized that only acceleration of mass produces wave
crossing forces with inertia becoming evident15.

The given postulate could be tied into Newton's
laws in that if one thinks of space or the vacuum as having its own special
elasticity for the longitudinal waves discussed in this paper. One could invoke
the classical in-out waves of Feynman and Wheeler or the advanced wave propagating
backward in time of quantum field theory but here it is suggested that the vacuum
or space produces a return wave related to the inertia producing properties
of space. So in the case of longitudinal waves in the vacuum (or space), discussed
here, the vacuum's response is the return wave, so longitudinal waves in a vacuum
or space are always standing waves. Perhaps one can say that action equals reaction
in the case of these waves. This is surely the case when matter is accelerated
in the gravity wave field!

OTHER OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Although most of the work reported in this
paper is not new, the purpose was to review the information available and thus
relate W-waves to the postulate, tie it into quantum mechanics, and suggest
new applications such as in star formation, gravity, and matter organization.

Since detected W-waves always appear in standing
wave form, it is postulated that if man or something else produces the longitudinal
waves, defined here, in space (or vacuum that may include ordinary matter) the
vacuum (or space) responds with an automatic return wave resulting in a standing
wave. The latter characteristic of the vacuum may be one of the most important
characteristics of nature. This phenomenon also seems to occur in quantum mechanics
with quantum waves providing the most important characteristics of matter18.
Evidence for this postulate is provided by the standing waves that are produced
by the sun as pointed out in the earlier text. Also W-waves always seem to appear
in the form of standing waves as in plants and tubes. It is hypothesized that
standing waves arise because of the inertia producing nature of space.

W-waves are very elusive because they are
not ordinary electromagnetic waves, even though ordinary electromagnetic sources
seem to produce them. (Others have suggested20,21, mostly from a
theoretical standpoint, that electromagnetic sources produce longitudinal waves.)
They penetrate all kinds of matter and are longitudinal waves as determined
from plants5. To detect them is like detecting gravity. Experimentally
it has been found that they arrange matter so this aspect can be used to detect
them. In plants and salt filled wood they can be observed because they displace
charge as indicated by the periodic patterns obtained. Since plants and life
in general are apparently very resonant materials and superb waveguides for
W-waves, one can observe charge displacement by analyzing voltages coming from
probes. With the proper probe placement one can recognize standing waves2.

The behavior of granular materials during
processing may tell us more about the effects of W-waves on the dynamics of
moving media including those in the sun and elsewhere. This is a relatively
new area of study and the author has concluded that it will help us explain
the behavior of moving materials everywhere under the influence of W-wave forces
combined with other influences.

Usually physiologists state that life signals
are carried by electrical impulses. Experimental data also seems to prove it.
The work at Wagner Research Laboratory suggests that they are mostly carried
by W-waves but W-waves displace charge or move it around so it may just appear
that the signals are carried by electrical signals. This would provide a new
approach to the study of life. All life materials are conductors but W-waves
are not shorted out by this conductivity while electrical signals may be.

It is hypothesized that no other civilizations
have been found in the universe because W-waves are the natural communicator
medium. Most beings (but not humans) may use them for communication. The proper
form (like very high frequencies) of these waves may travel many times faster
than the speed of light because these waves may not have the velocity limitations
of ordinary EM waves. Detectors have been set up and signals found that look
like intelligent signals already (see pp. 118-121 of Ref.7). This work leads
one to conclude that properties of the vacuum (or space) (together with dark
matter if it exists), even on the macroscopic level, determine the ultimate
structure of much of the universe. Large sources such as the sun apparently
drive the wave systems of the planets and their satellites and also drive the
wave systems of plants and other life. This may suggest that life cannot survive
far away from such sources. The universe is self-organizing.

Studies by others (e.g. Refs. 20 and 21) corroborate
the present findings. For example, the waves seem to penetrate everything as
gravity does and they are involved with organization as is gravity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am grateful to Dr. Robert
Zimmerman of the University of Oregon physics department for our discussions
relative to the postulate. I thank my wife Claudia for reading the paper and
making suggestions.

aAbstract #J2.010 from American Physical
Society NW meeting 2000, "In Physics Essays 12: 3-10 I explain the placement
of the planets in terms of low velocity waves emitted by the sun. Evidence for
a wave pulse generated near the center of the sun is indicated by the initial
high latitude sunspots observed on the butterfly diagram. The wave pulse carries
charge with it, as observed for similar waves in plants (W-waves). For the first
half cycle negative charge is carried to the surface of the sun where much of
the wave pulse radiates a wave crest into space while the charge slowly redistributes
itself over and within the sun. This charge redistribution is probably a relatively
slow process in the turbulent sun. Meanwhile the next wave pulse carrying excess
positive charge moves outward. Charge rotating with the sun determines the polarity
of the sun's magnetic poles so they reverse as the pulse moves outward. The
wave pulse, which interacts strongly with force fields, is guided by centripetal
force and gravity so that the pulse radiates outward into space near the sun's
equator. W-waves produce an automatic return wave in the vacuum so that standing
waves are produced in the space around the sun providing a template for the
formation and stabilization of planets in orbit. The solar cycle provides another
evidence that W-waves provide self organization for both the universe and life".