イスラーム世界研究 第 Western 6 巻（2013 年 3 月）43‒58 頁 Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th Kyoto Bulletin

of Islamic Area Studies, 6 (March 2013), pp. 43–58

Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th Thierry ZARCONE*
In this paper, I would like to investigate the way the Europeans have drawn and painted, and then photographed the “dervish,” that is, the most common word to designate the Muslim mystic or Sufi in the Ottoman Empire. In Europe, the figure of the dervish is emblematic of the Muslim East, and it is frequently considered as embodying not only mysticism but also religious fanaticism or “oriental despotism.” This word appears for instance in the writings of renowned French authors like Molière, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Victor Hugo. Similarly, in the visual sources, as engravings, paintings and drawings, the image of the dervish is, at least since the 14th century, an image which has fascinated and even haunted artists, writers, engravers, painters and even photographs. The dervish: from pictures and paintings to photographs The first travelogues published by Westerners who visited the Ottoman Empire gave a notable place to the dervishes, and especially to those who used to perform amazing unexpected rituals and ascetic practices, as expressed by those who have been surprised by them.1 The term “dervish” appeared for the first time in the book dedicated to the Ottoman Empire by the traveller Georges of Hungary, in 1481, under the form: « dermschler / durmishlar ».2 The word has a Persian origin (drigu, driyosh, daryosh) and refers, in the Zoroastrian culture before the emergence of Islam, on one hand, to a poor and impoverished man, and, on the other hand, to a man searching for a moral realisation.3 The original meaning of this term was not lost with the collapse of Zoroastrianism and the emergence of Islam; but it has become more ascetic and mystical. Several chapters of Georges of Hungary’s book are dedicated to the Muslim mystics, particularly to the wandering and unmarried monks called “qalandars,” and also to the dance of the whirling dervishes, and to the mystic Hatschi Pettesh, actually Hacı Bektaş, the saint patron of the Bektashis, a Sufi brotherhood very popular among the Ottomans with a close link to the Janissaries. Georges of Hungary’s indications are quite interesting,
* CNRS/GSRL – EPHE-Sorbonne 1 On these travelogues see James Mather, Pashas, Traders and Travellers in the Islamic World (New Haven – London: Yale University Press, 2009). 2 Klaus Kreiser, “Die Derwische im Spiegel abend-ländischer Reiseberichte,” in Klaus Kreiser, Istanbul und das osmanische Reich. Derwischwesen, Baugeschichte, Inschriftenkunde (Istanbul: Isis Verlag, 1995, p. 2). 3 See Mansur Shaki, “Darvîš,” Encyclopaedia Iranica (Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 1996), vol. VII, pp. 72–73.

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vol. condictionibus et nequitia Turcorum. 6 Dervishes who are against the law (nomos in old Greek) of Islam. 7 Eugène Roger. Traité sur les mœurs. This is the case for example of the ceremonials and rituals of the Sufi brotherhoods which were drawn in detail by a European engraver in 18th century. and in several other books in the 16th and 17th centuries. Later. as the Easter miniaturists and the Turkish or Persian designers have done. the images are precise and reliable. jemali. 5 (Lyon: Guillaume Rouillé).” Besides. First of all. the howling and the whirling dervishes of Constantinople have constituted the most attractive exhibition any new visitor to this city would want desperately to see. the first images of the dervishes were published in Nicolay de Nicolay’s book in 1577. from the 17th century. Finally.
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. Georges de Hongrie. the Western artist wanted usually to picture some details of the dervish life or clothing which had never drawn the attention of the Eastern artist. La Terre saincte ou description topographique tres-particuliere des Saincts-Lieux et de la terre de promission (Paris: chez Antoine Bertier. wearing and bearing unusual and spectacular clothes and symbolic artifacts.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. come from the Quatre Premiers Livres des Navigations et pérégrinations orientales of Nicolas de Nicolay. “Dervish. Some of them disappeared in the
4 See Tractatus de Moribus. Sometimes. the dance of the whirling dervishes at Constantinople started to fascinate the Western artists and their audiences.” Encyclopedia of Islam 3 (2012): pp. as if they were photographs. but only in those who lived in a quite marginal way. dated 1555. les coutumes et la perfidie des Turcs.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
but unfortunately fragmented and lacking any images. qalandar. p. 2003). though unintentionally. The visual representations of the dervishes are of several kinds. 129–135.4 It is only in the second half of the 16th century that the dervishes were pictured in travelogues about the Ottoman Empire. The oldest pictures. It is striking that Nicolas and all the travellers who came after him were not interested in all of the dervishes of the Empire. As mentioned above. On the term “Dervish” in Islam see Hamid Algar. and Alexandre Papas. who were divided into several brotherhoods. etc. the painters and illustrators pictured the wandering and begging dervishes. edhemi. and on the life of the dervishes.7 These bands were known actually under many varied names. printed in Paris. pp. torlaqi. 123. more precisely that were never represented by the Muslims. VII. “Darvîš. 1646). But. since the 19th century. another point to be mentioned is that the Westerners didn’t observe the dervishes. translated in French from latin by Joël Schnapp (Toulouse : Anarcharsis. in some other cases. In this last case. Des Turcs. they are unreliable images. Also worthy of mention is the book of the Christian missionary Eugène Roger written in 1646 which deals exclusively with bands of non-conformist and antinomian mystics6 among whom few would qualify as dervishes or Sufis. because the Western designer or painter was very badly informed about Sufism and the Sufi orders. the images must be considered as “ethnographic pictures.5 Nicolas de Nicolay had visited Turkey from 1551 to 1552. in 1568. 1996. 73–76.

Edhemi. but orthodox dervishes.” Ricaut writes for example that “nobody denies that the religion of the Turks is a bizarre mix of those of the Christians and the Jews. They said prayers and chanted mystical songs for the people. translated from the original in English published in 1668 (Amsterdam : chez Abraham Wolfgank. They performed ascetic practices such as selflaceration.”
8 Histoire de l’état présent de l’Empire ottoman. Kadri (Kadiri). the text of Ricaud is accompanied by two drawings which show some dervishes who are neither wandering nor non-conformist. piercing their own body with swords or iron. and that the monasteries of the Turks were built on the model of those of the former. Mevlevi. pp. Les navigations. panther) and begged food and money from the people. Ricaut. gives a description. This fact is illustrated by a Western writer who wrote in the 18th century that “the clothing of the dervishes is similar to that of the Capuchin [a religious order within the Catholic Church]. the British ambassador in the Ottoman Empire. 1670). the Turks have also regarded the Christian religious as a kind of dervish.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
following centuries and only the term “qalandar” has continued to be used. Kalenderi. Les navigations. p.
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. And contrary to Nicolay. 334. wore animal-skins (feline.”9 This particular point is pictured in Nicolay’s book. pérégrinations et voyages faicts en la Turquie par Nicolas de Nicolay (Anvers: 1626). 182. Bektasses (Bektashi). Since the time of Clavijo. of almost all the Sufi brotherhoods without any exception: Naqshbandi (Ebrbuhari of Abu Bakr). Nicolay de Nicolay writes for instance that these dervishes “wear a big and heavy iron ring on their genitals in order to prevent them from having sex with anyone. These dervishes travelled in bands.”10 Similarly. p. lived half-naked. drums and cymbals.8 The non-conformist and antinomian dervishes were wandering and ascetic mystics who frequently opposed the political and religious law. and the religious and social politic of the sultan. Herevis/Hizrevi. Nimetulahi. 334–363. many travellers
Figure 1: Turkish qalandar : from Nicolas de Nicolay. Chalveti (Halveti). 10 Histoire de l’état présent de l’Empire ottoman. etc. another author.
have regarded the antinomian dervishes as “Muslim monks. in 1668. but was never represented by the Eastern miniaturists who avoided representing the sexual organs (Figure 1). Besides. 9 Nicolas de Nicolay. accompanied by the sound of percussion instruments. pérégrinations et voyages faicts en la Turquie par Nicolas de Nicolay (Anvers: 1626).

they are half-naked. 2008). Les navigations. London. see F. The History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire (London: 1686). and writes that each wore “a particular sign to refer to his ascetic exercise”. and a conch (a big shell) used as a horn. Routledge. l’Asie et l’Amérique par l’Auteur des mélanges intéressants et curieux (Yverdon: 1767). nor drawn in the eastern sources: i. 4.
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. monk). a long stick with a horse head at the top (Figure 3). 117–118. 35–43.
11 Mémoires géographiques. that is usually composed of folds. and they heal the sick chanting hymns accompanied by a tambourine. pp.”12 Georges de Hongrie gave a more detailed report of these dervishes in 1481. brings them the respect and consideration of the population. etc. 14 This image is in Paul Rycaut’s book. 1928. pp. however. a Sufi order
Figure 2: Dervish with the stick (asa) of Moses: from Eugène Roger. Resul Ay. from a printed version in Spanish dated 1582.e. La Terre saincte ou description topographique tresparticuliere des Saincts-Lieux et de la terre de promission (Paris: chez Antoine Bertier. 1646). the clothing made by sewing together pieces of material of different colors means poverty. It must be mentioned. physiques et historiques sur l’Afrique. a carved stone fixed to the belt.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
and that consequently “the members [of this Catholic order] don’t need to disguise themselves in these countries.14 This symbol is certainly of shamanic origin since the dervish who carried it is a Qalandar. On the Sufi paraphernalia in Turkey. (according to the pictures published by Roger and Ricaut. 7–29. etc. liturgical objects and pictorial art.”11 The oldest description of these ascetic dervishes was probably made by the Spanish Ambassador Clavijo who met them in Azerbaijan in 1403–04. 18th century) (Figure 2). 139–240. Traité sur les mœurs. and wrote: “these priests live as hermits. Anadolu’da Derviş ve Toplum. the feather means for instance that the dervish practices meditation. the images have brought more detail about this symbolic clothing and paraphernalia. 13 Des Turcs. “The iconography of Bektashism: A survey of themes and symbolism in clerical costume. p. 185–194.” in Manuscripts of the Middle East 4 (1989): pp. pp. About these dervishes see also Nicolay. The English translation was made by Guy Le Strange. It is worthy to note for example that the headgear of these dervishes was not turbans but closer to the cap used in Central Asia. that one of these Western observers has pictured something that was neither indicated.13 One century later. a begging bowl made from a coconut. 13–15 Yüzyıllar (Istanbul: Kitap Yayinevi. les coutumes et la perfidie des Turcs. Also they carried knotty sticks (similar to that of the stick / asa of Moses) decorated with symbols. Clavijo Embassy to Tamerlane 1403–1406. because the similarity of their clothing to that of the Abdal and of the dervishes. that is a deformation of the Persian word keshish (Christian priest. pérégrinations et voyages faicts en la Turquie. pp. vol. De Jong. their hair and beards are trimmed. 71. 12 The word “Priest” here is the translation of caxic in the Spanish texte.

but all of the Sufi orders.
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. the descriptions of the dervishes and their visual representations became more precise. The great majority of these pictures made by Western artists are reliable and reflect the descriptions that have appeared in Ottoman sources and Eastern miniatures. f o l l o w i n g t h e disappearance of the Qalandar bands and the emergence of strong Sufi orders in the Ottoman
Figure 3: “A sort of dervish that travails the world”: from Ricaud.) (Figure 4). a Catholic Armenian of Istanbul: the Tableau général de l’Empire ottoman. it was not only the antinomian groups that attracted the interest of Western painters. Halveti. Dervish groups in the Islamic middle period 1200–1550 (Oxford: Oneworld.15 These antinomian and ascetic Muslims were the only ones to be represented by European artists. a few pictures exist of whirling dervishes ( mevlevi ) and of other dervishes linked to more orthodox orders.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
very close to the Islamised shamans of Central Asia. translated from the original in English published in 1668 (Amsterdam : chez Abraham Wolfgank. “A propos des cannes chevalines du Musée de l’Homme. Histoire de l’état présent de l’Empire ottoman. 16 Cf. This turning point is represented by a book published in 1788 by Muraga D’Ohsson. Ahmed Karamustafa.” in The Torch of the Empire.17 Kapidagı’s series of full-length portraits of the dervishes of almost all the orders of the Ottoman Empire is of major interest. The travellers have also well understood that these wandering dervishes were far from being respectful of the obligations of Islam. 1670)
Empire. etc. pp. and that they were condemned as “heretics” by the ulama. pp. 65–66. Yapıkredi. God’s unruly friends. the shamans use a very similar stick with the head of a horse at the top. 2002.16 I n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y. 1992). However. 103–120 . at this time. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak. in Siberian shamanism. 27–54. at least until the 17th century. 72. 17 See Günsel Renda. Investigating these portraits. 65–84. pp. we can understand the reasons why painters and illustrators had
15 See Laurence Delaby. especially because it shows Sufi orders who had never before been painted or drawn (Kadiri. More. “Illustrating the Tableau Général de l’Empire Othoman.” Etudes mongole et sibérienne 28 (1997): pp. Kalenderiler (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu. Istanbul. The long chapter in this book which deals with the Sufi orders is illustrated by wonderful pictures made by the Greek-Ottoman court artist Constantine Kapidagı (or Konstantinus Kyzikos). from the end of this century. Also. Ignatius Mouradgea d’Ohsson and the Tableau Général of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth century. 1994).

4 vols. vol.” p. the Bektashis and the Qalandars. 1791). Such drawings had never been made in the past. Such orthodox Sufis generally wore a large overcoat and a turban of some sort and didn’t bear any mysterious paraphernalia.e. 302. actually “ethnologic drawings. Figure 4: « Cerrâhî-dervisch » : from Baron Ignatius Muradgea d’Ohsson. 1791). facing p. nor was it attractive. that is quite rare (Figure 5). from Baron Ignatius Muradgea d’Ohsson. very different from the spinning of the Mevlevis. the assemblies of vocal dhikr and the mingling of whirling dance and dance in chain. 72. l’autre. 19 Baron Ignatius Muradgea d’Ohsson.19 These
Figure 5: “Danse des derwischs cadrys” (dance of the Kadiri dervishes). of the Kadiris and Halvetis.” of several rituals performed by different Sufi orders. l’histoire de l’Empire othoman (Paris: Imprimerie de Monsieur. Tableau général de l’Empire othoman. It was actually because the clothing of these Sufis had neither unique features. Renda. “Illustrating the Tableau Général de l’Empire Othoman. as a court painter. The second particularity d’Ohsson’s book is that it provides very detailed pictures. i. performed hand-in-hand in a circle. d’Ohsson decided to include visual representations of the members due to the scientific character of his book. the ritual of piercing of the Rifai and Kadiri.
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. the appearance of Orthodox Sufi orders was not amazing for artists or for their public. certainly from Kapidag ı ’s circle). l’histoire de l’Empire othoman (Paris: Imprimerie de Monsieur. The author of many of them was also Constantine Kapidag ı who. divisé en deux parties. had access to the religious ceremonies (with the exception of the ritual of the Rifai order which is from another local but unknown artist.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
no interest in general in the conformist/orthodox Sufi orders. Tableau général de l’Empire othoman. dont l’une comprend la législation mahométane. unlike the whirling dervishes. Nevertheless. l’autre. dont l’une comprend la législation mahométane. divisé en deux parties. plate 127. Tableau général de l’Empire othoman. In brief. 18 These drawings show the “dance in chain” ( halka ).
18 G. 2.

with one chapter in this book entitled “Derviche. 15–24. “Dervish Images in Photographs and Paintings. The Dervich Lodge.23 No wonder then that the photographers were drawn by the same subjects that had attracted the illustrators of the beginning of the 19th century: i. Architecture. the whirling and howling dervishes. Art and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey (Berkeley: University of California Press). 151–156. 347–367. The photographers however have worked in different ways. L’Art de la mesure ou l’invention de l’espace dans les récits d’Orient (Saint Denis: Presses universitaires de Vincennes. 1861). of constant light and color —.20 The figure depicted at this time embodied more and more of the occult and the beauty. 37 (3 trimester 1930): pp. after 1840. some photographers opened photographic studios in Istanbul and among their customers there were Sufi shaykhs
Figure 6: Kudretullah. with the exception of the miniatures of the dance of the Mevlevis.” in 1820–1830 — that is the travel of writers and artists to the East in quest of a new estheticism. Meanwhile. ed. influenced the depiction of the dervish. and also the horror. 269–283.” in Raymond Lifchez. 1996).e. Les Orientales (Paris: Charles Gosselin. pp. vol 3. Some were more attracted by doing realistic pictures and providing illustrations for the travelogues and for the studies of the first researchers. pp. the photographers have endeavoured to display the day-to-day lives of the dervishes or to report about some major event of their religious. 21 See Nancy Micklewright. Itinéraire descriptif. The photographers were quickly fascinated by the dervishes. 1829). In these cases. and in the first travel guides of Turkey. The “orientalist fever” and the beginning of the “oriental tour. historique et archéologique de l’Orient (Paris: Hachette. social and political lives. following by the introduction in the Ottoman Empire of photography in 1839. 352. magazines. Adolphe Joanne et Emile Isambert. as in journals.
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.
20 See Isabelle Daunais. Les sources de Victor Hugo.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
engravings are indeed of the greatest interest for the historians and the anthropologists who investigate the Sufi orders and the religious rituals because there are very few equivalents of these pictures in the East. 23 See for example. “Le ‘Derviche des Orientales’. pp.21 At this time. as the painters had been at first.” Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France. 22 Victor Hugo. end of the 19th century. Victor Hugo wrote the Orientales. See Georges Thouvenin. mevlevi shaykh of the Pera Lodge: photograph by Abdullah Frères. the non-conformist Sufis. the Qalandars and the wandering Sufis. p.”22 The word “dervish” became very popular and portraits of dervishes have appeared in photographic books on the Ottoman Empire.

the Magasin pittoresque. 1840–1900 (Paris: CNRS Editions. though a few do reflect the reality. 47–48. and then tourists and scholars: the first group is composed of the wandering dervishes. unfortunately. and. there is a great likelihood that he is not. private collection Th.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
coming for portraits of themselves. Zarcone. and made this image popular with a great number of European readers. photographes et sultans. are based on a photograph of the same dervish with different names. to please the eyes of the European public.” Magasin pittoresque (1839): pp. as it is well illustrated in several postcards. and especially pp. 25 “Derviches tourneurs. In this case. confusion is encouraged. Istanbul. photography can sometimes trick its viewers with subtlety and persuasion. through postcards in the beginning of the 20th century. 111–116. Bektachi. 70–73. pp. at least more than engravings and paintings. It would be an error to think that photography was fully respectful toward the reality.” Magasin pittoresque (1883). “Les Derviches hurleurs. Several photographs of Sufis in the Ottoman Empire were indeed photomontages. On the contrary. Sufi brotherhoods and ‘‘haunting” images There are three groups of dervishes which have fascinated first travellers and Western readers. magazines. famous Western illustrated magazine and journals — like the Tour du monde. for instance. This spread was made possible by journals. and especially in the later where many people were curious about the dervishes and also desirous to travel to Turkey. We wonder finally if the man in these photographs is a real dervish or not. 2011). and the Illustration25 — have circulated the image of the dervish on a large scale. the aim was for example to gather in one photograph the whole of the symbolic paraphernalia borne by a dervish.24 Thanks to the invention of photography. Besides. the pictures were usually taken in their tekke (Figure 6). mostly qalandars. the images of Sufis spread gradually in both the East and the West. alone or with their family.
. and Rifai). These illustrations. some others mix the paraphernalia of more than one Sufi order (Kalenderi.
50 Figure 7 : Postcard “le marcheur oriental”. In this last case. who would usually came to the Ottoman Empire from Central Asia and India. first and foremost. all appearing to be borne by the same dervish (Figure 7). are generally unreliable and eccentric. and also of all the members of the lodge.
24 See Catherine Pinguet. Some postcards.

Jerusalem and Mecca. 2006). They would beg for their food. Erected in 1491. A French journalist indicated in an article dedicated to the whirling dervishes. the travellers used to immediately rush to the lodge of the whirling dervishes at Pera. doctrines et pratiques (Paris: Le Cerf . private collection Pierre de Gigord. 2009). In addition. this ritual was observed some
26 “Derviches tourneurs. this famous mevlevihane (house of the whirling dervishes) worked without interruption up until 1925. and on the way illustrators have pictured them. 27 About these rituals see Eve Feuillebois.” Magasin pittoresque (1839): pp. Les Derviches tourneurs.”26 In brief.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
These dervishes used to stop for some days or months in Istanbul on their way to Jerusalem and Mecca (Figure 8). but to focus only on the interpretation of these rituals by Western observers.
whirling and howling dervishes were the strangest Sufi orders because of their ascetic exercises. in the Magasin pittoresque in 1839. an inescapable attraction for foreign travellers. Alberto Ambrosio and Thierry Zarcone. dance and chant in the streets of the great Muslim cities. They were recognizable by their conical hats. since the 18th century. Representations of them made by painters and photograph exist in many places in the Muslim world: Istanbul.Patrimoines.
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. Watching the ceremonies of these orders at Constantinople was. Histoire. Sâfî Arpaguş. while being horrified by the howling of the second.27 Arriving in Istanbul. I don’t want to enter here into an analysis of the rituals of these two Sufi orders. alms bowls. this Sufi image was particularly appreciated by the postcard makers.. Mevlevîlkte Ma’nevî Eğitim (Istanbul: Vefa Y. in the former Western district of the city. end of the 19th century. the interest of the Westerners in the performances of these dervishes comes from the fact that they appreciated the beauty of the dances of the first order. the former danced and the later howled. that “the
Figure 8: A Qalandar dervish called “derviche mandiant” (begging dervish): photograph. and that as indicated by their names. Two lodges belonging to these orders existed in the city. and knotted staffs. The whirling dervishes The two other groups are those of the whirling and howling dervishes. 71. close to the foreign embassies. Paris (I would like here to thank Mr de Gigord for having authorized me to reproduce this picture). The oldest Western description of the ritual of the whirling dervishes can be read in Georges de Hongrie’s book in 1481.

and published in the Histoire de l’état présent de l’Empire Ottoman of P.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
decades before at Edirne or in Anatolia. p.
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. in the Recueil de cent estampes représentant différentes nations du Levant. 2005). 131. 86 (some paintings of Vanmour on Mevlevism. Istanbul. 131.28 Besides this. 30 This painting is now displayed in the Museum of Amsterdam. peintre de la Sublime Porte 1671–1737. Therefore. Musée des Beaux-Arts de Valenciennes. p. from Images of the Turks in the 17th Century Europe (Istanbul: SSM. 120. p. Les Peintres du Bosphore au XVIIIe siècle (on his engravings of the dervishes. end of the 17th century. and became soon the model for all the engravings and paintings of this dance in the future (Figure 10). Duflos (1665–1727). in Paris. who lived and died in Istanbul in 1699. p. This Mevlevi dervish however doesn’t dance but only plays the flute and the tambourine. a very symbolic gesture. 31 About van Mour see A. the first picture of a Mevlevi dervish was made by the engravers Cl. painting by Franz Hermann.31
Figure 10: « La Danse des dervis » : de Jean-Baptiste van Mour. less known. while the other is inclined to the earth. 24–25) and Seth Gopin and Eveline Sint Nicolaas. The ceremonial hall is generally that of the Pera mevlevihane. from Recueil de cent estampes représentant différentes nations du Levant (Paris: 1712). the dervishes are performing the circular dance with one arm pointing to the sky. Figure 9: Dance of the whirling dervishes. The sole
28 Georges de Hongrie. Valenciennes.29 The second and best known representation of this dance is that of Jean-Baptiste van Mour. Jean-Baptiste Vanmour. official painter to the French King in the Levant. Rycaut in 1671 in Paris. 29 Reproduced in Images of the Turks in the 17th Century Europe (Istanbul: SSM. 1654. Boppe. Des Turcs. or Hans Gemminger or Valentin Mueller. are presented in this book). Hans Gemminger or Valentin Mueller (Figure 9). the first representation of the ritual of the dance was painted in 1654 by an Austrian painter whose name is not clear: it could have been Franz Hermann. This painting was published in 1712.30 In this image. 2009.
There are few differences between van Mour’s painting and the other paintings of the dance ritual in the Pera lodge made in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. 2005). pp.

” but he described with details the ritual of the “hot iron hooks” held by the dervishes in their mouths until they were
32 It was also the case of the lodge of the howling dervishes of Üsküdar. Hans Christian Andersen. let us mention here Théophile Gauthier. etc. It was only in the 50’s that the dances of the whirling dervishes were restarted. The first travel guide in Turkey. since the end of the 18th century. and Mesopotamia. private collection Th.32 The great number of articles in European magazines. quarter of the 20th century. The later however didn’t depict these dervishes as “howling dervishes. 119–20.34 This Rifai tekke. European Turkey. first
the Mevlevi and Rifai orders ceased their activities. see J. that is the Handbook for travellers in Turkey. first at Konya and then at the Pera mevlevihane (transformed into a museum). through payment of some fees. dedicated to the whirling and howling dervishes is astonishing. on the Bosphorus.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
changes are: first. Constantinople (Paris: M. 104.33 Furthermore. Levy Frères. when visiting Istanbul. London. is mentioned in 1784 in a Western source.
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. After the ban upon the Sufi brotherhoods in 1925. probably for the first time. 33 Théophile Gauthier. but as a folkloric performance only. several famous writers and artists. Armenia. Zarcone. 1854. Nouveau Voyage dans la Turquie d’Europe et d’Asie et en Arabie (Paris: 1812). p. Griffiths. the appearance of a musical band. was the Sufi ritual on Thursday afternoon at the lodge of the howling dervishes (Rifai) at Üsküdar. newspapers. and Christian Andersen. 1856). and even the lodge of Pera (Figure 11). Bentley. 3 34 Handbook for travellers in Turkey describing Constantinople. 1846). A Poet’s Bazaar (London: R.
Figure 11: Postcard of the Mevlevi lodge of Pera. p. Murray. Gérard de Nerval. the presence of foreign visitors in the audience. and second. pp. The howling dervishes The second attraction in Constantinople after the dance of the whirling dervishes. founded in 1732. the photographers and the postcard makers have immortalized the whirling dervishes and their dances. Asia Minor. Westerners were usually welcomed at the ceremonial of the Pera lodge. have written some paragraphs about the rituals observed in these two lodges. and very recently as a folkloric attraction for a foreign audience. 1. vol. 143 . vol. Besides. Potoski. by the well know Polish traveller M. and chapters in travelogues. published in 1854 by the English printer John Murray. reports that a great number of people were coming to this lodge.

ladies especially. first attended the lodge of the whirling dervishes of Pera.36 However. we do know detailed descriptions of this practice from some travelogues. bodies. 125. Voyages en Turquie et en Egypte faits en l’année 1784 (Varsovie . 1902). 1. facing p. from Baron Ignatius Muradgea d’Ohsson. Tableau général de l’Empire othoman. and this is certainly the reason why it has been painted by at least two well known Western artists of the French and Italian orientalist schools. There were also some foreigners who wrote in strong criticism of it. 80–88. translated from the English (Paris: Moutardier. p.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
cold. pp.35 At this time. The first ritual. i. as mentioned in the beginning of this article. 72. 1830).
54 Figure 12: “Exercices des derwischs rufayis” (ritual of the Rifai dervishes). vol. In this ritual.Paris: Royez. pp. These children were lying down in quick
35 Potocki. has been portrayed by a local artist from the circle of Kapıdağı in 18th century (in d’Ohsson’s book) (Figure 12). an 9 [1801]). Agasse. the later being depicted as “howls” by the foreigners. vol. avoided attending this ritual. “Illustrating the Tableau Général de l’Empire Othoman. they were on the contrary drawn to the ceremonial of the howling dervishes because of its frightening and terrific aspect. 38 G. 303. Un séjour à l’ambassade de France sous le Second Empire (Paris: Plon. Renda. and draw hundred of foreigns to the place. plate 132. and faces. perhaps by the middle of the 19th century. 275. 1914. 39 See Charles Mac-Farlane.” p. Potoski didn’t mention the ritual of “walking over the backs of disciples” (devse/dawsa) that would be so attractive to the travellers and the tourists in the 19th and 20th centuries. 155. Constantinople et la Turquie en 1828 et 1829. 1788). It seems as if this ritual was introduced later in the lodge. fait par ordre du gouvernement pendant les six premières années de la République (Paris: chez H.37 The ceremony of the Rifai or howling dervishes was composed of two main rituals which were accompanied with prayers and rough dhikr. 39 The aim of this ritual was “the proof” (burhan göstermek). 37 See for example Selim Sırrı. and Baronne Durand de Fontmagne. No wonder some Europeans visitors. to demonstrate that the power of God is so great as to protect the dervishes and allow such wonders. 48.e.
. Potocki. if Westerners used to attend the ritual of the whirling dervishes because of its beauty and esthetic. 36 Guillaume Antoine Olivier. 2. Voyage dans l’Empire Othoman. Doğru Sözler (Istanbul: Tefeyyüz Kitabhanesi). 73–77. pp. the shaykh of the tekke was “walking over the backs” of his disciples or their children (devse/dawsa). that of the dervishes piercing their sides. The second ritual is more impressive than the first one. like the other travellers. pp. l’Egypte et la Perse.38 Besides this.

from an unidentified magazine. The first one by the French Albert Aublet (1851–1938) who visited Istanbul in 1881. in 1876 (Figure 13).” Magasin pittoresque (1883). The first visual representations of this ceremony — drawings — were published in two English magazines: The Graphic. entitled
Figure 13: Howling dervishes at Scutari.
“The Eastern Question: howling dervishes at Scutari. In the second drawing.” which seems to be made by the same artist. 17–18 and Ed. This painting is very realistic and one can notice many Sufi elements and decorations. two monumental oil paintings of this ceremony were made by two famous orientalist painters. Les Orientalistes.41 It is entitled “The Imam walks over the back of children to bring them under the protection of God” (L’Imam marche sur les enfants pour les mettre sous la protection d’Allah). pp. Ch. In the first drawing. pp. one year later.
55 Figure 14: Albert Aublet’s oil painting.” the shaykh is walking over the backs of some children. The second painting was authored by the Italian painter Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929). was shown at the “Exibition of Orientalist Paintings. and especially the calligraphy on the walls of the lodge (Figure 14).. “Les Derviches hurleurs. etc. See Lynne Thornton. From a sketch by our special artist at Constantinople.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
succession like a living carpet. swords. The ritual was supposed to bring happiness and health to the people upon whom the shaykh was walking. Illustrated Weekly Newspaper . 2001). It is a large oil painting of two by one meters which was particularly praised at the Milano Exposition in 1906. XIII: n°334 (April 22 1876). the official painter of the Sultan. as is well illustrated in the paintings. 41 Published in the French journal Magasin pittoresque in 1883. Zarcone. 41–2. musical instruments. peintres voyageurs (Paris: ACR Editions. end of the 19th century. the shaykh walks on the back of one child only.40 the second in an unidentified magazine in 1880. The painting was reproduced in black and white
40 Vol. Besides these. 1880. private collection Th. named “The howling dervishes of Scutari healing the sick.” in Paris.
.

faces of people. 44 See Gérôme’ painting in Kristian Davies. and he has even painted himself. pp. the Sahara. D’Aubet’s painting has definitively a better quality for the historians and the anthropologists than Zonaro’s. 18:n° 203 (February 1907): pp. the symbolic and ritualistic gestures. etc. “Fausto Zonaro. several differences between Aublet and Zonaro’s paintings. Zonaro writes that he had attended the ritual of the howling derviches several times when working on his painting (Figure 15). Zonaro.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
in the French magazine Le Figaro illustré in February 1907. the ritualistic artifacts.
56
.M. 22–33. for example. his wife and his daughter howling together with the dervishes. notwithstanding its artistic quality.e.43 Zonaro’s painting. Western Artists in Arabia. the calligraphy.) than — as it is the case in d’Aubet’s painting — for the ethnographic elements.44
Figure 15: Fausto Zonaro’s oil painting. i.I. The Orientalists. 43 See a detailed analysis of these two paintings in my article “Batı seyyahları Gözlerinde Istanbul’daki ‘Haykıran Dervişler’ Töreni” (The ritual of the howling dervishes of Istanbul as seen by Western travellers) İstanbul Araştırmaları Yıllığı 1 (September 2012). since the painter brought in many elements linked to Sufism: the ritual of walking over the backs of disciples. around 1900. peintre de S. In his memoirs. has painted foreign visitors watching the ceremony. It must be depicted as an “ethnographic painting” and considered a “source” for researchers. Persia and India (New York: Laynfaroh. Yet. le Sultan. All these elements and people gathering at the same moment seems unlikely.
This is the reason why Zonaro is more interesting for the esthetic elements (headgear. 2005).
42 Adolphe Thalasso. There are. the alignment of the howling dervishes and also a whirling dervish playing the flute. is an “orientalist catch-all” painting. This painting was erroneously dated 1910 when it was sold in 2000 by Christies at London (the expert has based his evaluation on the mention “Zonaro 1910” written on the painting). however.42 The painting was probably completed by Zonaro around 1900. 286–289.” Figaro illustré vol. the painting had already been completed in 1907 when the article in the Figaro illustré came out. This painting may be compared here with the “Whirling Dervishes” (of Cairo) of the French Jean-Léon Gérôme (1829–1904) that is also not very realistic.

however. are exposed as curious animals. amazing.Western Visual Representations of Dervishes from the 14th Century to Early 20th
To conclude.” This “Théâtre” resembles. “Les Derviches tourneurs et hurleurs au Jardin d’Acclimatation. The rituals performed by these “dervishes in the Forest of Boulogne” « derviches du bois de Boulogne » were observed by a writer who published a report in a popular French magazine. intriguing peoples. the visual representations of dervishes in Europe since the 16th century are rich and varied. and the dervishes. The explanation lies in the exotic. The figure of the dervish has obviously inspired the travel literature. and an iconic feature of the “Oriental trip. Théâtre des derviches”.
from Cairo. and among them. the European readers who had read a lot about the whirling and howling dervishes in magazines and seen paintings. This article is illustrated with 3 drawings: a whirling dervish.” with about twenty Sufis. wonderful and frightening character of the figure of the dervish. a dance of fire and a dance of the sabres performed by two dervisheswarriors (pp.” Revue des sciences et de leurs applications aux arts et à l'industrie 1356 (May 20 1899): pp. The theme of the dervish became at that time both a literary theme in Europe. private collection Th. This pavilion was named in French “Théâtre des derviches” (Theater of the dervishes). eventually wanted to have these dervishes come to the West. a “pavilion of the dervishes. My main aim was to decipher the intention of the artists and to see how they have tried to
45 Paul Mégnin. a circus or fairground attraction. Several postcards were published to commemorate this exhibition.” Since I am not an art historian.45 Conclusion As it has been show. primitive tribes and curious animals from all around the world were shown. Zarcone. 396–397. and such an event was arranged in France. and some of them were dedicated to the “Théâtre des derviches. in 1899. At this exhibition. originally
Figure 16: Postcard “Jardin d’acclimatation. In the postcards. I am not interested in the estheticism of these images of the dervishes. at the time of the zoological and ethnographical exhibition at the Jardin d’acclimation. and it has also marked the emergence of painting and photography in the East. pictures and photographs of them. as well as the novels and poetry of the time. 395–398). L’Afrique mystérieuse. and the Rufai dervishes with their iron sticks in their hands (Figure 16).
57
. in Paris. we can recognize the Mevlevi dervishes with their long hats and wide skirts.

because such visual sources bring a complementary approach to the written Eastern sources. from those made by the Eastern artists and miniaturists — is of the greatest interest for the historians and the anthropologists of religion in general and of Sufism in particular.Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies 6 (March 2013)
comply with their public’s expectations. that some of these visual representations of the dervishes must be regarded as ethnographic sources. the visual representations are a visual way to narrate to a Western audience the impressions experienced by the travellers when meeting. talking and observing the dervishes. and throw light on some topics neglected by the Eastern artists. on the contrary.
58
. as mentioned above. Another important conclusion is that the Western representations of the dervishes — which are different. and whether they have painted reliable or unreliable representations. On the other hand. So it is not an exaggeration to confirm. in several aspects. unreliable “orientalist” compositions. Some other visual sources are.