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DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, TO HER MAJESTY.
Natural History
Ok
♦ ft
Buoviti giMsbtt d "Cfee ^nglis]^ dDgriopobia,
yC
CONDUCTED BY
CHAKLES KNIGHT.
Volume II.
LONDON:
BRADBURY, EVANS, & CO., 11, BOUVERIE ST., FLEET ST., E.C.
SCRIBNER, WELFORD, & CX)., 654, BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
i86r.
.ens'
lokdon:
BRADBURT, KVAHU, AHD CX)., PKINTKRS, WUtTEFRIARB.
CL-b^^hr
' ' \
Ul 'i '
a
NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME II.
CLIVINA.
CLUPEIDiEL
CLI VFNA, a genus of ColeopterouB Inflects of the family SeariiidiB,
and section Qtodephaga, It has the following oharacten :— -Body
elongate, somewhat cylindrical ; antennae monilifonn, the basal joints
rather long (the first longest), the remaining joints short and rounded ;
palpi with the terminal joint long and pointed ; mentum trilobate ;
thorax, nearly square ; anterior tibinJbroad and compressed, with two
notches eztemiJly, leaving three long pointed tooth-like processes ;
the intermediate pair of legs with one of these external prooesseB on
the tibia.
Dejean incorporates with this genus that of jyyiehirivM, but we
think without sufficient reason.
These insects are of small size, and live under stones m damp
situations, particnlariy on the margins of rirers, lakes, fta Their
dentated anterior tibiis enable them to burrow like the Lamellicom
Beetles.
Of the genus Cliwna but few species are knows. In Bn|;laDd there
are two ; the more common is C. fouor (or O. arenarta of some
authors). This species is rather more than ^ths of an inch in length,
and of a black or brown colour ; the legs, antennn, and palpi, are
reddish. C. collarit, the other British species, is rather less than the
one just described. It is black, and has chestnut-red elytra, sometimes
with a black dash on the suture.
The species of the genus Dytchiriut are distinguished from those of
Clivina principally by their having the thorax globular, the terminal
joint of the palpi thicker in proportion, and somewhat securiform.
The body is generally shorter in proportion, and more convex, or less
cylindrical ; they are almost always of a brsssy metallic colour,
whereas the species of Clivina are black or brown, and without any
metallic hue.
Of the genus Dytchiri^u between twenty and thirty speciee are
known, ^eir habits are much like those of the genus CUvina, but
they are less frequently found under stones, and often make cylin-
drical burrows in the ground in banks at the margin of rivers or
other pieces of water. Upwards of twelve species inhabit this country,
the largest of which is scarcely more than one-eighth of an inch in
length.
CLO ANTHITE, a oobaltiferous anentde of nickel.
CLOT. [Blood.]
CLOTHO, a genus of Fossil Bivalve Shells, established by Faujas
de Saint Fond. Shell oval, subregular, striated longitudinafiy, equi-
valve, subequilateral Hinge formed by a bifid tooth, curved into a
hook, a little larger in one valve than in the other. Ligament
extemaL
CLOTHONIA. [BoiDJB.1
CLOUDBERRY, a dwarf kind of Bramble, with herbaoeons stems,
and orange-yellow fruity found in turfy alpine bogs ; it is the Rubut
chamcmorui of botanists. Its fhiH is excellently well flavoured when
newly gathered. [RuBUS.]
CLOVE-PINK, a species of JHanthtu, so called frt>m a supposed
reaemblsnce in odour between its flowers and the cloves of the shops.
[DiANTHUS.]
CLOVER. rTRnrouuM.]
CLOVES. fCABYOPHTLLUS.]
CLUB-MOSS, or SNAKE-MOSS, is a prostrate moss-like plant,
with small scaly imbricated leaves, found in alpine or damp situations
in most parts of the world. Its fructification consists of little two-
valved cases, containing powdery nuitter. All the spedes belong to
VAT. HI8T. Dr7. VOL. IL
the genus Lyeopodimm; that to which the name is most oommonly
applied is A ekwaium. [Ltcopodiux.]
CLUNCH, a name given to the lower and harder beds of the
Cretaceous Rocks. They are occasionally used for building purposes,
and have been especially employed for internal work in cathedrals
and other large public buildmgs. This material stands well if not
exposed to accidents from mechanical violrace. (Ansted, JBlementary
Qeology.)
CLUPE1DJS, a family of Fishes of the section AhdominaUi. The
CUnpeidm are placed by Cuvier between the Salmanidiz and the
Qadida : in ftJC^ they form the fifth and last division of his section
' Malaoopterygiens Abdominaox.' The fishes of this division may be
distinguished by their wanting the adipose fin, by having the upper
jaw composed of the inteimaxillaiy bones in the middle, and the
maxiUaries at the sides, and by the body being always covered with
scales. Some of the species ascend rivers.
The genus Clupea, as now restricted by Cuvier, may be thus
characterised : — Maxillaries arched in frxint ; opening of the mouth
XAoderate; upper jaw entire; body compressed and covered with
laiige scales; teeth minute or wanting. To this genus belong the
Herring, Sprats Whitebaity^ Pilchard, kc
0. narengutf Linn., the Herring (French, Le Hareng Commun), is a
fish well known. Its characters however will be useful to distinguish
it fix>m some allied species ; they are* as follows : —
Small teeth in both jaws; subopercolum rounded; veins on the
infrsrorbitals and gUl-oovers ; dorsal fin behind the centre of gravity ;
this fin commences about half way between the point of the upper
jaw and the end of the fleshy portion of the tul ; ventrals placed
beneath the middle of the donal fin ; toll foiked ; length of the head
one-fifth of that of the body ; the greatest deptii of the body one-fifth
of the whole length. The upper part of the fidi is blue or green,
according to the light ; the aides, belly, and gill-covers are silvery-
white ; ordinary length, ten to twelve indies.
The term Herring is the same as the Qerman Hiiring, which,
according to some, is derived from Heer, an army, and is applied to
these fishes from their visiting the coasts in such immftnaA numbers.
"The Herring inhabits the deep waters all round the British
coasts, and approaches the shores in the months of August and
September for the purpose of depositing its spawn, which takes place
in October, or the begumingof November. It is during these months
that the great fishing is carried on, for after the spawning is over it
returns to deep water. The mode of fishing f6r herrings is by drift-
nets, very similar to those employed for taking mackerel and pilchard,
with a slight dififerenoe in the size of the mesh. The net is suspended
by its upper edge from the drift-rope by various shorter sad smaller
ropes, called buoy-ropes; and considerable practical sldll is required
in the arrang^ement, that the net may hang with the meshes square,
smooth and even, in the water, and at the proper depth ; for according
to the wind, tide, situation of their food, and other causes, the herrings
swim at various distances below the surface.
" The size of the boat used depends on the distance from shore at
which the fishery is carried on, tmt whether in deep or in shallow
water, the nets are only in actual use during the ni^t^ It is found
that the fish strike the nets in much greater numbers 'v^en it is dark
than when it is light : the darkest nights therefore and those in which
the surface of the water is ruffled by a breeae are considered the most
((svourable. It ib sappoied that nets stretched in the daytime alarm
CLUPEIDJE.
' CLUSIA.
the fish, and cause them to quit the places where that praotioe is
followed ; it is therefore strictly forhidden.*' (YarrelL)
The young are found on our coast during the summer months in
great abundance, and are often taken in sniall-meBhed nets used for
catching other fishes.
The food of the Herring consists principally of small Cfnutaeea, but
they have been known to devour the fi^ of their own species.
C. Leaehii, Leach's Herring. This second species of herring was
discovered by Mr. Yarrell, and described in the ' Proceedings of the
Zoological Society ' for 1831, p. Si. An account by the same gentle-
man is also given in the ' Zoological Journal/ vol r., where a figure
of the species will be found, as well as in his 'History of British
li^hes.' The following is Mr. Yarrell's description : —
*' The length of the head, compared to that of the body alone, with-
out the head or caudal rays, is as one to three ; the depth of the body
greater than the length of the head, and, compared to the length of
the head and body together, is as one to three and a half; it va there-
fore much deeper in proportion to its length than our common
herring, and has both the dorsal and alidominal lines much more
convex : the under jaw longer than the upper, and provided with
three or four prominent teeth just within me angle formed by the
symphysis; the superior maziUiiiy bones have their edges slightly
crenated ; the eye is large, in breadth fuU one-fourth of the length of
the whole head; iridespale yellow; the dorsal fin is placed behind
the centre of gravity, but not so much so as in the common herring ;
the scales are smaller ; the sides without any distinct lateral line ;
the edge of the belly carinated, but not serrated; the fins small
The fin-rays in number are->dorsaI, 18; pectoral, 17; ventral, 9;
anal, 16 ; and caudal, 20. Vertebra, 54.
" The back and upper part of the sides are deep blue, with green
reflections, passing into . silveiy-white beneath. The flesh of this
species differs from that of the common herring in flavour, and is
much more mild."
Mr. Yarrell first discovered this species when examining the various
kinds of fishes caught by the fishermen engaged in taking sprats.
C, SpraUtu, the Spi«t» called in France Le Melet» EBprot» or
Harenguet This fish has by many authors been confounded with
the young of the herring. It is however disthust^ and its characters
were first pointed out by Pennant ; Uiey are as follows : — ^proportions
nearly the same as those of the herring, but the depth of the body is
greater in proportion than in the voung of that species ; the giU-
covers are not veined ; the teeth of the lower jaw are so minute as
to be scansely visible to the touch. The dorsal fin is placed fiiurther
back, and the ke^ to the abdomen is more aontefy serrated than in
the herring.
Sprat-fijB^ing commences in the early part of November; hence in
season they immediately follow herrings, and the markets continue
to be suppUed with them during the winter months. Like the
herrings these fishes inhabit the deep water during the summer:
they are so plentiful as to be frequently used for manuring the land,
and are often sold as low as 6cL per buweL
(7. alba (Yarxell), the White-Bait; French, Blanquette; German,
Brietling. This fiah has been supposed to be the young of the Shad.
ILr. Yanell however, upon a careftil investigation of the subject)
ascertained it to be a distinct species. Its distinguishing characters
are : — Length of the head compared with that of the body, and not
including uie tail, as two to five ; depth, as compared to the whole
length of the fidi, as one to five; keel of the abdomen distinctly
serrated, but not so sharp as in the Shad. The dorsal fin commences
half way between the tip of the mujssle and the end of the tail ; the
upper jaw is slightly crenated, the lower jaw is the longer, and is
smooth. Its colour is silveiy-white, growing (preenish on the back ;
the body is more oompressed than in the herring, and the keel to
the abdomen is more sharply serrated than in either that fish or the
sprat.
The White-Bait is caught in great abundance in the Thames as
high up as Woolwich and BladkwaU. The* fishing commences about
the beginning of April, and is continued to September. "When
fishing as high as Woolwich," says Mr. Yarrell, " the tide must have
flowed from three to four hours, and the watw become sensibly
bracULsh to the taste, before the White-Bait will be found to make
their appearance. They return down the river with the first ebb-
tide ; and various attempts to preserve them in well-boats in pure
fresh water have uniformly failed." The food of the White-Bait
consists of small Cnutacea, Dr. Pamell states that he has taken
White-Bait in the Frith of Forth in considerable numbers during the
summer months. It is also taken in the Ex and other rivers of
Eng^d. When fried with flour it is a favourite dish with all classes
of the community ; and amongst the English few entertainments are
more popular than White-Bait dinners. It is the young of the season
that are taken in such large numbers in the Thames. The adult White-
Bait are taken on the Kentish and Essex coasts throughout the winter.
C. Pilchardw, the Pilchard ; Le Celan of the French. In size this
fish resembles the herring ; it is also nearly of the same form, but rather
thicker, and of greater proportionate depth ; the scales are larger, the
head is shorter, tiie suboperculum is square, and the dorsal fin is
more forward in position ; the gill-covers are distinctly veined.
This fish is caught off the coast of Cornwall in great abundance ;
the fishing commences in July. The food of the Pilchud consists
of small shrimps and other crustaoeous animals.
O, aloia, LimuBus (Alota firUa, Cuvier), the Shad, is another fish
belonging to this group. Cuvier separated this, together with several
other species, from the true ClutpecB, from the circumstance of their
having the upper jaw deeply notched in the middle.
Two species of Shad are foimd off the British coast ; the first, the
Twaite Shad of Yarrell, known generally by the name of Shad {Alota
fifUa), is about 14 inches in length ; its colour is brownish-green on
the back, or inclining to blue in certain lights ; the rest of uie body
is silvery ; five or six dusky spots are observed on each side, and are
disposed longitudinally, the first close to the head, and the others
at short intervals ; the length of the head, as compared with the body,
is as one to five; the body rather exceeds this measurement in
depth ; the jaws are furnished with distinct teeth, and the tail is
deeply forked.
This fish is found in the Severn and Thames in tolerable abundance.
The principal fishing season for the Shad in the Thames is about the
second week of July. They begin to ascend the river about May for
the purpose of depositing their spawn, and this being done they
return to the sea about the end of July.
In former times the Shad was caught as high up the river as
Putney; it now rarely passes London Bridge, and is caught in the
greatest abundance a little below QreenwidL Its flesh is dry, and
therefore not much esteemed for the table.
The second species of Shad, the Allice, or Allice Shad of Yarrell
{AUua eotMMmii), is considerably larger than the one just described,
from two to tlu«e feet in length : it may moreover be distin-
,ed by its having only one spot on the side of the body, near the
, and that is sometimes scarcely visibla : the jaws have no distinct
teeth, and 'the aotlM of the body are rather smaller in proportion,
though they are laxge in both species.
The Allice Shad is plentiful in the Severn, but of rather rare
occurrence in ^e Thames.
O. encraneoku O^innssus}, the Anchovy (Bngraidit eneratieol^
Fleming ; JSngraulii vulgarts, Cuvier). This fish, whidi is a favourite
condiment^ is a native of the Britidi seas. It has been taken in the
river Dart; and Mr. Couch, in his 'Cornish Fauna,' says, "This fish
abounds towards the end of summer, and if attention were paid to
the fishery enough might be caught to supply the consumption of the
British Islands. It is abundant on the coast of Wales : " and Mr.
Yairell says, " The Anchovy is reported to be at this time an inha-
bitant of the large piece of water below Blackwall called Dagenham
Breach ; and in May 1838 I received one that was caught in the
Thames, where however this species is so little known that the
specimen referred to was sent to me with a request to know what
fish it was." [Anohovt.]
CLU'SIA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
OUuiacea or Outtifero!, named after Charles de I'Ecluse, or Clusius, one
of the most celebrated botanists of the 16th century. [Clusius,
Cabolus, in Bioo. Div.] It has a calyx of four imbricate coloured
permanent sepals, the outer ones smallest, usually doubly bracteate
at the base ; the corolla of 4-6 deciduous petals ; the stamens nume-
rous and free in the male flowers ; few, sterile, and connected in the
female flowers; the style absent ; the stigmas 5-12, radiately peltate,
sessile, permanent; uxe flowers usually polygamous; the ovaiy
surrounded by a short staminiferous nectiury; the capsule fleshy,
5-12-celled, opening bv valves from the top to the base, with a dis-
sepiment in tne middle of each valve ; the placenta thick, triangular,
central; tiie seeds egg-shaped, surrounded hj pulp, suspended from
the inner angle of the cells ; the embryo straight, inverteid ; the coty-
ledons separable. This definition includes the genus Quapoya of
Aublet The species are trees and shrubs, usually parasitical, and
yielding a viscid resinous juioe^ of a balsamic flavour ; hence they are
called in England Balaam-Trees.
C, ro»ea, Rose-Flowered Balsam-Tree, has polygamous flowers, a
rose-coloured 5-6-sepaled calyx ; the tops of the dense nectaries awl-
shaped; 8-12 stigmas; the leaves obovate, obtuse^ veinless, some-
times enkarginate, on short striated petioles. It is a native of the
Carolines and St^ Domingo, and other parts of tropical America. The
fruit is green, and of the size of an apple, with eight lines running like
the meridians of a globe : when it ripens it opens at these lines,
disclosing its scarlet seeds lying in the midst of a pulpy mucilaginous
matter, similar to the pomegranate. The whole tree is very hand-
some, but few fruits offer so beautiful a piece of mechanism. " It
grows on rocks, and frequentiy on the trunks and limbs of trees,
occasioned by birds scattering or voiding the seeds, which being
glutinous, like those of the mistietoe, take root in the same manner ;
but the roots not findmg suflicient nutriment spread on the surface
of the tree till they find a decayed hole or other lodgment wherein is
some small portion of soil : the fertility of this being exhausted a
root is discharged out of the hole till it reaches the ground, where it
fixes itself, and the stem becomes a large tree." (Loudon.) The
resin collected from this plant is used as an external application in
veterinary medicine, and also is employed for covering boats instead
of tallow and pitch.
C. alba has hermaphrodite flowers, a many-leaved calyx ; corolla
with 5-8 petals ; tops of nectaries retuse, or with 5-10 short stamens ;
CLUBIACBA
CLTTUa •
i«f«r it to ipacdta of Omiiigia, Zamlko<Afmt», BOradeiuhwt, and
BbilaffmMi. The But ludiu TennulkUK U yidded bj s ipedca of
Qifapii Wfa w. rCALoraTLLOiL] Tha Butter orTdlow-Tree of Siwn
I«oiM h the Pa U a d m m a tMyrocM. The frnlta of nuny eptoJM srs
eeteemtd, bcddea the Ifui^ait««n. The Hammee Apple, m Wild
Afojoot of South America, u aaid to be very dcdidoni. It« aeiKU an
aDtlieliniiilio ; ita floren vield on diatillatioi] a apirit known aa Eaa
ds Creole, and vine ia obtained 1^ farmeDtiiig ite lap. Tha lain
beiriaa of the PaoouryuTa {PlaloiMa Hu^nit) of Braail are hlgliW
priied on aooount of Uiair delidona flavour. The tndUt of aernvl
apecice of OarcMia [Qutoiliu.], baaidea the Hangooteen, an brought
to table in Oie countriea where thay grow, but tiiaj are Rgvded aa
vary inferior. The bloaaotna of Mtna ftrrea are remaAabla for thcdr
fngrmnoa, and ara aold In the banara of India under tha name of
Nagkeaur.
The affinitiee of the order Chuiatta an with Sfpericaeta, TWn-
ttrOnicaeea, and Mtitaeta. The order oonlaina SO ganei« and ISO
Sndln', VegOaiU Sinfdim.)
UTHALITE, aUineralooouRinginlai^Bodnba in amygdaloid,
oonatitutii^ a oongariaa of imperfect ciyatala with ron^ aarfkoea.
Colour fleah-red. Hardnaaa 8-(£ BritUe. Luatra *ltr«oiia. Opaqne
or tnmaluoent on the edgea only. Spedflc gravity 2106. Found in
the Rilpatariok HiUa, ami Dumbarton. An analyaia t^ Dr. ThonuMi
givea—
SUiM Gl-SflS
Alumina ....... 38560
Peroxide of Iron T'S06
Soda E'lSO
Hagneaia 1-28S
Water . ' 10M8
CLTUBNIA. rCLTMunsA]
CLTMENID^, a fii^ilr of FomH IfoBiiaca bdooglngto D-Orbtgn/B
Older TmlanU^eraotiiMaiimO^luUepoda. Itembraoea aevenjgenen^
which are divided into groupa aooording aa Uudr partitiona are withont
or poaaaaa a aingle lateral loW To the firat diviuon, or thoaa without
lateral or donJ lobee, belong Um genera Mdia, Chmenetnu, Oimpw-
Ufa, and Tr^MlUa. To the aeeond diviaion, or thoee In whioh the
parttUona have one latraal lobebnt no donal lobe, the genera Olfnmia
and Mtgatipi«»ia are rehired.
The genua Otyauina, the type of thia fantUy, waa flnrt aepaiated
from the Omiatiia, to which It haa a ationg reaerablanoe, by Count
Hunater. The BpadM of Olynwrna have the variationa of form and
lorfaoa aeea In tJoniatila. [CkiHunraa.] By aome writcia the
ClymaHda are referred to th« yattlilUa, with which they have no
doubt a atronger afflnitf than with Jatatonttutoi, the family to which
Ooniattitt mnat be ref eirvd.
The genua (Xfoiaiia haa a diaooidal ahall with alightly lobed aapta,
and an internal aiphmicle. BevenI apsciea ware deacnbed by Count
Hunater from aome oalc&raoui bands in the Falnoaoio strata of the
Fiohtelgebarge. Some of tfaeee, with othera, ooour in the etrata of
Devon and Cornwall, and aUo in North America.
CLTPBASTER. [EoHnnnA]
CLTTBDS, the gmerio name given b^ Klein and Leake to a group
of Foaail Xcktitida, nwoent In the Oolitic Formationa. C. aw m atw M
Leake ia the largeat Bntiah apeciea. C. cfaMwoIarii of Smith ia now
ranked aa a A iicfaolifca.
CLYTHRA, a gauoa of Coleoptennu Inaecta of the family
OkrytomMda. The inaacta of thia gcoua generally have the body
more or leaa cylindrical ; the antennn abort, with the baaal joint
thick, the two following jointa ghort, ind the remaining (with the
eioaption of the apical joint) aensted, that ia, produoed intOTually, aa
aa to reaemble the teeth of a saw. The head ia placed vertically, and
inaerted into the thorax, ao aato be acareely visible from above ; often
larger in the male than the female. The lega are moderately long,
rather thick ; in the malea the anterior pair are ottea oomdderably
larger than the two poatorior paira ; the penultimate joint of tha
'rdiabilobed.
The larvtB of tbeae inaecta (at least tfaoae that are known) inbatnt
a corlaceooa tube, which they drag about with them.
The ClyfAni teeide on (reea and ahruba, and thoae found in thia
country appear in the beginning of tlie aummer. The apeciea are
very abundant, and aeldomadomedwithmetalliecolouia. In England
we have five apedee, the moat common of which ia C. guadriputittala.
Thia i> not qmie half an inch in length, and black ; the elytoa ochre-
ilonred, with four blank apota, two near the baae, and two near tha
liddle. The next apeciea which ie not tmcommonly met with ia
C. IridaiXata. Thia beetle ia nther leaa than .the laat, and of a
blue-gteen colour, thickly and finely pnnotui«d above; the elytrk
e pale-yeBow and immaculate ; tha anterior pair of lega in the male
e elongated.
CLT'TUS, a genua of Coleoptenma Inaeota of the aeotion Limgi'
coma and family Cerambyeida.
The apedea of the genua Olj/fm (a genua eatabliihed \>j Fahridoi)
form a well-marked group among the OcroatijrcKia, and are ohiaflj
diatinguiahed by their having the palpi abort and nearly equal, the
terminal joint thicker than the othen, and tiunoated at the apex j
tha head nanower than the thonx, and tha latter nearly globular ot
RoM-Flonnd BakaiD-rtn {CXtula roMn).
1, an axpaniMl lawer ; 9, a salfi tto firm below ; I, the Dvary, with a
part of tha ealfi sDt i.inj ; i, a UaBmna KctlDn or a trolL
atigmaa 6-6 ; Icevee like tha preceding, but not ematginate. An
elegant tree, native of South America, and epiphytical on larger traea.
The trunk ia frequently a foot in diameter. It abonnda in a balaamio
juice of a green colour, which becomea brawn on being expoaed to
the air. Tha fruit ia acai^et, and contain! Ita aeeda embedded in a
acarlet Dulp. Birda ore very fond of the aeeda, and pluck thcta out
of the fruit while hanging on the tree. The Caiibbeea uae the juice
fbr painting the outaide of their boata, The flowera are white, but
O. Quopoya haa atalked dimdoua flowan ; the oalyi of S or S
amala; the eorolla of fi or ft yellow petala; the neotary abort,
4-S-lobad ; atigmaa 5 ; fmlt globoae ; leavee obovmte, acute. It ia a
native of the wooda of Qnyana, where it ia called Quapoy. It ia a
climbins thrub with yellow flaweie, and when cut into yielda a white
tranaparent juice. O, pcmopanari ia a aimilar plant, yielding a
yellow jnioe. C, JUtva i> a tree cloady naembling C. aHa. C. JIava
la aaid by Bndlicher to yield the Hog-Oum of Jamaica. The flowera
of O. ttwi^it weep a ocnaiderable quantity of reain from the diac and
atannena. Ton Hartiui aava he obtained an oonoe from two flowera.
All the apeciea grow weU in a li^t aandy loam, and cuttinga root
freely in aand under a hand-glaaa in heat. The pola in whioh tha
planta are grown require to be well drained with potaherda.
SDoa, DiMtatydrnvt Plant! ; iModon, EneycUqiadia of PlaiUt.)
!LDSIA'CE£, or QnTTIFEIUG, Outtifer; a amall natural order of
Exogenooi Planta, inhabiting the hotter parte of tropical countriea In
both the Old and New World. Th^ are readily known by their
ooriaoeoua oppoaite leavea, with van fine veina running parallel with
each other in a gentle euirve from the midrib to the margin ; by the
abaenoa of atipulea ; their oa^ oompcaed of aavaral aepala r^ularly
overlapping aaoh other, and bearing a definite proportion to the
pelala ; thdr numeroua atamensj and their aupenor ovary, which ia
In moat caaea many-oelled and many-aeeded, with a peltate radiant
atignta. Their fruit ia auooulent, juic^, and in many caaea reaembling
\ large apple or oTwige. The Mangoeteen [Qareinia Mangotl<ma) ia
probably the moat delicioui of any known ; but it haa never been
'n a freah atale in Europe, for the tree will hardly eiiet
wall known aa a vaTlow pigment, aa
alao a purgative medidne. The plant which yielda tha Otunboge of
commerce ia atill unknown. The London College of Phynciana in
thdr ' Pharmacopcaia ' refer it to aome upeciea of (lOrtWHO, others
CNEMIDIUM.
COAL.
approaching to a cylinder. The body ib elongate, and nearly cylin-
drical ; the antenniB are shorter than the body, and filiform ; the
basal joint is rather thick ; and the terminal joints are sometimes
incrassated ; the legs are moderately long.
These insects are generally of moderate aze, and haye the elvtra
adorned with arcuated fasoisB ; their ground colour is usually blacK or
brown, and the markings rellow.
About 90 species of uus genus have been disoovered, and they
appear to inhabit every quarter of the globe ; 5 are recorded as
Bntish, of which the more common are C. myttiouij C, ArietiSf and 0.
arcuatU9. (7. mywlicuB is about half an inch in length ; colour black ;
the base of the elytra red-brown ; three bent white fasciA are situated
near the middle of the elytra ; and there is a white patch at the apex.
This spedes is common in the neighbourhood of London. We
have frequently found its larva in the rotten wood of old black-
thorns.
(7. ArielU is about the same size as the last ; its colour is black ;
legs and base of the antennse reddish ; the former with the thighs of
the two anterior pairs blackish ; thorax with a yellow band on the
anterior part, and another on ^e posterior ; soutellum yellow ; elytra
with four yeUow bands.
This insect is frequently met with in gardens and woods in the
neighbourhood of London and elsewhere. When handled it makes a
peculiar noise, which seems to be produced by the friction of the thorax
against the smooth part of the abdomen which is inserted in that part
Many of the Ceramhycida have this power.
(7. arcnottM is less common than either of the preceding species ; it
somewhat resembles the O, Arietit, but is considerably larger and
broader in proportion. The ftTit<ynTiflB are entirely of a reddish-yellow
colour; the legs are coloured as in the last-mentioned species ; the
thorax has a yellow band on the fore ^art^ and an interrupted band
in the middle; the dytra have three yellow bands, and towards
the base three spots of the same colour ; the scutellum is also yellow.
CNEKI'DIUH, a genus of Sponffiadce, proposed by Qoldfuss for
some fossils usually ranked as ManUUia and Stphonia,
COAGULATION. [Blood.]
COAITA, or QUATA. [Atslbs.]
COATIMONDI. [Viybbbida]
COAL, an opaque combustible mineral substance of a black or
brown colour, and in all cases giving indications of having been
derived from a vegetable source. Such is a definition that would
probably include aU those substances which are used in domestio
economy and the arts for the purposes of combustion, and popular^
called Coal. At the same time it should be stated that the tetm hM
at present no special scientific application that is univertallv admitted,
•aa each investigator thinks himself at libertv to apply the term in
accordance with his own views. As the knowledge of chemioal prin-
oiples and methods of investigation have advanced, substances which
at one time were regarded as identioal have been shown to have a
very diffeiient chemioeJ composition as well as miorosoopio struoture.
This has led in some instances to the discussion of the question,
What is Coal?
For instance, in our courts of law, one of the most recent oases —
that of QiUeapie v. Ruasell — ^was tried in Edinburgh durixig the pre-
sent y«ar (1863). In this case, by an agreement for a lease entered
into between the plaintiffs and defendants, the former agreed to grant
to the latter a lease of " the whole coal, ironstone, iron-ore, limestone,
and fire-day, but not to comprehend copper or any other mineral
whatsoever. ' It was alleged by the plamtifb that, although the
defendants had in the course of their operations come upon iron-ore
and ironstone, coal, and firenolay of workable value, they had n^lected
these, and had chi^y worked a certain mineral substance which the
p]ainti£b contended was not let to the defendants, not being one of
the mineral substances specified in the sgreement. This mineral was
of much greater value, it was stated, than any which the defendants
were permitted to work. Although used as a combustible material,
it was alleged that tiiis substance was not coal, and that its chemical,
microscopical, and mineralogical characters were not those of coal.
On the other hand, it was asserted by the defendants that the mineral
in question was coal; that they had been led to seek a lease of the
Torbane-Hill estate from the fisMt that on the adjoining lands of
Boghead this minenl existed, and was worked and sold as coal, beiiig
known in the markets l^ the name of the ' Boghead Gas CoaL' This
mineral, they contended, was true coal belonging to the variety known
as Cannel or Parrot CoaL This trial was interesting on account of the
large nimiber of chemists, mineralogists, geologists, and mioroscopiats
examined, who appeared in about eqiuQ numbers on either side;
one set of them contending that the mineral was coal, whilst the
others contended it was not. A laige amount of interesting facts on
the nature of coal and the substances with which it is found asso-
ciated was laid before the jury, who came to the conclusion that,
wluktever might be the result of scientific investigation in more
rigorously defining the nature of coal and limiting the use of that
term, both plaintiffii and defendants called this mineral coal when the
lease was ^wn up, and therefore gave a verdict in &vour of the
defendants.
The same .question which has thus been debated in Scotland has
also oome before the law courts of G^ermany and of the United States
of America with the same differences of opinion ; and we refer to these
cases to show the difficulty of defining accurately this weU-kdown
substance. It may be regarded in the present state of our knowledge
as one of those instances in which the typical form is lost by irregular
combination with other and different substances.
That Coal is and must be of vegetable origin seems to be agreed
upon by all inquirers, but the question of how to determine that
origin in particular cases is the difficulty. Again, it is well known
that coal after it is deposited undezgoes certain chemical changes by
which substances with a v6ry definite chemical character are pro-
duced, such as bitumen, paniffine, &c. These, mixed with the coal
itself and the earthy matters around, nuiy form compound substances
about whose nature there may be considerable difference of opinion.
This is not improbably the case with the Torbane-Hill mineral, and
will account for the peculiarity of both its chemical and microscopical
characters.
Coal presents itself ordinarily in a massive form, and is brittle or
sectile. It has a hardness of 2*5, and a specific gravitv of 1*2 to 1*75.
It is opaque, and has a black or brown colour. Its chemical compo-
sition is distinguished by the presence of carbon ; in addition, it also
yields, on ultimate analysis, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. On
burning it leaves an ash whidi conaiBts of vaiying quantities of silica,
alumina, and oxide of iron. The carbon and hydrogen are often
found chemically united to form bituminoua compounds which are
mixed with the coaL It is Uie presence of these compounds whidi
causes coals to bum with a bright flame ; at the same l^e they give
off a bituminous odour. Tliose destitute of bitimiinous compounds
bum with a pale blue flame, due to carbonic oxide, which is formed
in these cases through the decomposition of the water present.
The following taUe, founded on Mr. Mushet's Analysis of Coel, is
taken from Professor Ansted's 'Elementary Course of Gtoology,
Mineralogy, and Physical Geography ^ —
Anaij^ of tariout Kinds of OoaL
Looality.
Description
of OoaL
•
If
•
1
Bitumen.
Volatile
Matter.
Water.
i
1. Neweastle-QpoB-Tyne
Bitumiaoas. .
1*257
57*00
87*60
5-40
Ditto . . .
1-260
54*90
40*48
4-62
8. Ditto . . .
~.
56*40
41*00
2*60
4. North Wales .
—
62*72
8600
1*38
6. Staffordshire Potteries
Ditto . . .
—
62*40
84*10
8-50
6. Torkahlre
Ditto . . .
«~
67*14
80-78
2-18
7. Ditto . . .
Ditto . . .
_
58*88
89-51
2-00
Ditto . . .
1-285
52*46
45-50
2-04
e. Ditto . . .
Oaanel . . .
1-278
48*86
47*00
4-64
10. Ditto .
Cherry . . •
—
57*00
40*00
8*00
11. Shiopahire . . .
Bituminous. .
».
64*10
84*77
1*18
12. South StaflDfdihire .
Ditto . . .
—
54*05
43*70
8*25
18. Ditto . : .
Ditto . . .
—
5417
48*88
2-50
14. Dean Forest
Ditto . . .
—
68*72
83-08
4*25
15. South Walei . .
Ditto . . .
.^
60-25
8800
6*75
16. Ditto .
Ditto . . .
.«
66-02
29*15
2-88
17. Ditto . . .
Ditto . . .
_
70*68
2^*82
8-50
18. Ditto .
Anthraeits • .
—
91*89
5*61
1*50
19. Ditto . . .
Dry . . . .
^^
79*50
17*50
8*00
30. Ditto .
Steam . . .
.—
85-00
11-87
8*80
21. Clyde YaUey . .
Bituminous . .
—
51*30
45*50
813
Cannel . . .
—
89*48
56-57
4-00
23. Sootch Goal (mean) .
Dry . . . .
—
48*81
41*85
9-84
24. Ireland, Lelntter
Dry Anthracite
1*602
92*88
4-25
2*87
25. Ditto ditto . .
Cannel . . .
—
79*60
iroo
8*40
26. France (mean) .
Dry ....
m^
79-15
7*87
18*25
27. France, St.-Etlemie .
Bituminous. .
.».
65*68
27*88
6*49
28. Spain (B«A) .
Ditto . . .
—
58*00
40*00
7*00
39. Belgiunn, Qainault .
Ditto . . .
1*276
84-67
18-28
2*10
80. Belgium, U^
Ditto . . .
—
76*00
19-60
4*40
81. Ditto ditto . .
Dry . . • .
1*865
81-90
9-00
9-10
82. Silesia .
Glance . . .
—
5817
87*89
8*93
88. Bengal . . .
Slaty. . . .
1*447
41-00
8600
28-00
84. America, Ohio .
Bituminous . .
—
55*55
41-85
3*60
85. America, Alleghany .
Dry . . . .
—
78*85
9-47
11*78
36. America, Nora Scotia
Bituminous . .
1-821
58-80
28*20
12*95
87. America, Fennsylvanii
i Anthracite . .
"^
92-60
2-25
2*25
The following analyses of the Torbane-Hill Mineral and Cannel Coal
were presented by Br. Fjfe at the trial in Edinburgh :— '
Torbaaa.Hill Mineral
Capeldrae Cannel Coal
Carh.
Hyd.
Oxy.
Nit
Sulp.
60*25
8*8
8*6
1-5
9-8
56*7
6-8
8*8
1-9
0-25
Ash.
25*6
25*4
The Torbane mineral is only remarkable amongst other coals for
the Isige quantity of sulphur it contains.
A large series of coals, more especially Welsh, has been submitted
to fthi^TTii*^ examination by order of the government ; and the fol-
lowing table is taken from the ' Report on the Coals suited to tiie
Steam Nayy,' by Sir Henry De la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfiur, in
the second volume of the ' Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain : ' —
COAL.
COAL FORMATION.
10
Locality, or name
ofOoaL
1
1
g
1
1
8
i
Percentage
of Coal
lefh in each.
Welsh Coals:—
Graigola .
1*80
84-87
3-84
0-41
0-45
7-19
3-24
85-6
Anthracite
1876
91-44
8-46
0-21
0-79
2-68
1-62
92-9
Oldcastle Fiery Veiii
1-289
87-68
4-89
1-81
009
8 89
2-64
79-8
Ward's Fiery Vein .
1-844
87-87
8-98
2-02
0*83
included
in Ash
7-04
—
BureaCoal
1*804
88 66
4-68
1-43
0-83
103
8-96
88-10
Uangennech
1-812
86-46
4-20
1-07
0-20
2-44
6-64
83-60
Pentrepoth
Pontrefelin •
1-81
88-72
4-60
0-18
—
8 '24
8-36
82-5
1-358
85 52
3-72
trace
012
4 55
6 09
85
Dufl^yn .
1-826
88-26
4-66
1-45
177
0-66
8-26
84-3
Mynydd Newydd
1-81
84-71
6-76
166
1-21
8-62
8-24
74-8
Three - quarter )
Rock Vein . i
Cwm Frood Rock)
Vein . ;
1-84
7616
4-98
1-07
2-86
604
10-96
62-5
1-266
S2-26
6-84
111
1-22
8-68
600
68-8
Cwm Nanty-gros .
1-28
78-86
6-69
1-86
8-01
6-68
6-60
65-6
RasolTen •
1-82
79-88
4-76
1-88
6-07
included
in Ash
9-41
83-9
Ponty Pool
1-82
80 70
6-66
1-86
2-89
4-38
5-62
64-8
Bedwaa
1-82
80 61
6-01
1-44
8*50
1-60
6-94
71-7
Ebbw Vale
1-276
89-78
615
2-16
1-02
0-39
1-60
77-6
Porthmawr Bock
Vein . . '
1-89
74-70
4-79
1-28
0-91
8*60
14-72
681
Coleahill .
1-29
78-84
614
1-47
a-84
8-29
8-92
66-0
^ootoh Coals :—
Dalkeith Jewel Beam
1-277
74-66
6-14
010
0-88
15-61
4-37
40-8
Dalkeith Corona- 1
tion Seam )
1-816
76-94
6*20
trace
0-88
14-87
810
63-6
Wallaend Elgin
1-20
76-00
6-22
1-41
1-68
6-05
10-70
68-45
Fordel Splint .
Orange Mouth .
Engliah Coals :—
1-25
79-68
6-60
lis
1-46
8-38
4-00
62*03
1-29
79-85
6-28
1-35
1-42
8-68
3 62
66 6
Broomhill .
1-25
81-70
617
1-84
8*86
4-87
8-07
60-2
Park Bad, Sydney .
i-iss
78-62
6*60
S-04
2-27
6-48
10*00
67-8
Irish Coals:—
Sievardagh
Foreign Coals :—
1-69
80-08
2-30
0-28
6-76
indnded
in Ash
10-80
90-1
Formosa Island
1-84
78-26
6-70
0-64
0-49
10-95
8*96
_
JBomeo (Labuan
kind) . . •
1-ffl
64-62
4-74
0-80
1-46
20-75
7-74
—
8 feet Seam
1-87
64-81
603
0-98
114
24-22
14-82
_
11 feet Seam .
1-21
70-88
6-41
0-67
117
1919
3-28
_
Patent Fuel :—
Wylam*s Patent Fuel
1*10
79-91
6-69
1-68
1-26
6-63
4-84
66-8
Bell's ditto .
1-14
87-88
6-22
0-81
0-71
0-42
4-96
71-7
Warllch^s ditto . 115
90 02
6-66
trace
1-62
indnded
in Ash
2-91
85-1
Coal diffan oonsiderably in its physical properties, and it has
obtuned various names in the markets. The mineralogist generally
divides it into two varieties : —
First, Coal without Bitumen.
Second, Coal with Bitumen.
The first variety is known by the general name of AtUhracite, It
has however various local names. [Aztthraoitb.] It is sometimes
very hard, and has a high lustre, and is often iridescent. Besides
being used for fuel it is often made into inkstands, small boxes, and
other articles of use. This is more especiBlly the case with the
Anthracite of AmeriosL It is the most common form of coal in the
Welsh beds.
The Bituminous varieties of Coal present greater differences of
structure and appearance, and have a larger number of names. By
the above analyses it will be seen that the quantity of ^Bitumen, or
substances resembling it [BrnrMEx], differ very much in different
specimens of coaL It is generally softer and less lustrous than
Anthracite, although occasionally specimens exhibit a very brilliant
fracture. Its speofio gravity is less than that of Anthracite, seldom
exceeding 1*5, whilst the spedfio gravity of Anthracite ranges from
1*8 to 1*75. The kinds of this coal are known by various names.
'The following are analyses of the different Unds of Coal as they
occur in the Newcastle beds : —
Density ....
Carbon ....
Hydrogen ....
Nitrogen and Oxjgen
ASu .....
SelatlTs heat by the same weight \
of Coal.
Belatire heat by the same volume
of Coal . . . . /
Splint
Coal.
1*302
74*961
6-254
4'878
1S'912
110*340
108*990
Caking
Coal.
No. 1.
1*274
83*688
5- 150
8*743
2*591
114-980
111*310
Caking
Coal.
No. 2.
1-280
87-800
5*159
6*139
1*898
122-560
119*030
Cherry
Coal.
1-266
84*694
5-054
8*476
1-576
110-630
112*070
PUchingor Caking Coal is known by its velvet or grayish-block
colour. When first Uirown on a fire it breaks into smidl pieces, but
on the continued application of heat the pieces again unite into a
solid mass or cake. It bums readily with a yellow flame, but on
account of its caking quality it is likely to clog the fire unless it is
freouently stirred. The Newcastle beds mostly yield this form of coal
Uktrry Coal resembles in external appearance the pitch coal, and
whan exposed to heat it cracks and iiea, but does not cake. It is
very brittle, and on this account much loss is occasioned in mining it.
It bums with a clear yellow flame. This kind of coal occurs in the
Ghuigowbeds.
S^iini Coal is a variety found in connection with the last, and is
remarkable for its hardners ; for which reason it is sometimes called
Hard CoaL It is also found at Qla^gow.
Cannd Coal has little lustre, is very compact and smooth in its
texture, and breaks with a large condhoidal fracture. It bums very
i^'o<^<lil7» giring out a clear yellow flame without melting. In conse-
quence it has been employed for the making of candles — Whence its
name. It is often employed for making inkstands, snuff-boxes, and
other articles of uscl At the Great Exhibition of 1861 several models
of public buildings^ monuments, &c., were exhibited, formed of
Cannel CoaL
The above cools are those most commonly bnnied. Their goodness
for heating is tested by the quantity of water they evaporate. The
following are the results of some recent experiments : —
lb.
5
7
8
OS.
14
5
84
anthracite
Common Scotch Bituminous Coal . .
Carres West Hartley Main (Newcastle)
Merthyr Bituminous Coal
Pure Welch Anthracite 10
From which it will be seen that the heating power of
nearly doubles that of some bituminous ooals.
Broion Coal, Wood Coal, LignUe, are names given to less perfect
varieties of coal than the Ifust Specimens of these coals have a
brownish-black colour, and bum with an emp^umatic odour.
On placing sections of Lignite under the microscope, the structure
of the wood of the plant foraoing it can be readily detected. This is
not the case with the other kinds of coal, where, although the woody
fibre can be frequently made out, it has evidently undergone con-
siderable change. Professor Quekett, on this ground, proposes to con-
fine the term Coal to those fossil or mineral substances alone which
are evidently made up of the woody tissue of plants. He maintained
that the Torbane mineral was not coal, on the ground that it was not
composed of the debris or remains of v^etable woody tissue.
Althou^ woody and vascular tissue can be seen in the Torbane
mineral. Professor Quekett mainfnma that this has been accidentallv
introduced, and that no true vascular or spiral tissue is found in coal.
The term Brown Coal is frequently applied to coal more recentlpr
deposited than that of ike great coal-beds of the world, and this
quite independent of its structure or any^ peculiarity in combustion.
LignUe is also a term applied to the semi-carbonised forms of wood
which are frequently found in deposits later than those cfl the coal
deposits. Most of these varieties of coal contain a laige quantity of
water, and the quantity of matter given off at a moderate heat by
distillation is at least equal to Uiat of the carbon contained. .
" DytodU is a yellow or grayish highly laminated substance, often
found with lignite, and burning vividly, and spreading an odour of
assafoetida." (Ansted.)
Jet is another variety of coal belonging to the bituaoinous series.
It sometimes occurs in elongated reniform masses, and sometimes in
the form of branches with a woody structure. It is soft and brittle,
with a oonchoidal fracture. Its specific gravity is but little greater
than that of water. It is opaque, of a velvet-black colour, and has a
brilliant and resinous lustre. It is found in Saxony, and also in the
Prussian amber-mines in detached fragments. It is sometimes washed
up on the shores of Great Britain. The finer sorts are used in the
manufacture of ornaments and trinkets of various kinds. The coarser
sorts are burned as fueL It gives out when burned a greenish fiame
and a strong bituminous smell, and leaves a yellowish ash. It con-
tains about 874 P^>* ^^'^^^ o^ volatile matter.
For an account of the origin of Coal, an^ che beds of Coal on the
surface of the earth, see Coal Formation ;ad Coal Plants.
(Dana, Manual of Mineralogy; Ansted, Elementary Cowrte of
Otology, Mineralogy,andPhy»ical Geography ; Memoirt of the Geological
Survey of Oreai £rit<tin and qf the Mueeum of Practical Geology ;
Gregory, Hand-Book of Organic Chemistry ; Reports of Juries of Great
RschOnlion ; Catalogue cf the Great Exhibition ; Proceedings cf the
Microscopical Society ; Microscopical Journal, 1854.)
COAL FORMATION. That part of the Carboniferous System of
Rocks which lies above the Limestone Shale and Motmtain Limestone
is called the Coal Formation. The deposits constituting this formation
consiBt of a series of alternating beds of sandstone and shales, between
which Ue beds or seams of coid. These deposits generally lie upon a
rock called the Millstone Grit. The following is a synopsis of the
Carboniferous System as it is developed in two of the most typical
coal districts in the British Isle& These two districts are South
Wales and Derbyshire.
In South Wales we get, resting on the Old Red-Sandstone, a band
of about a hundred feet in thickness, of black fossiliferous shals^
called the Lower Limestone Shale, over which are beds of thick
limestone, called the Mountain or Carboniferous Limestone. The fol-
lowing is a synopsis of the whole formation, taken from the published
sections of the ' Geological Survey of Britam' (ascending order) : —
1. Lower Limestone Shale, about 100 feet.
2. Carboniferous Limestone; limestone^ with occasional partings of
black shale ; from 600 to 1500 feet
m ■ ■■■
11
COAL FORICATION.
COAL FORMATIOK.
IS
8. Milktone Orit^ or Farewell Rook ; white qturtsose aandstone
and ooDglomemte ; 800 to 600 feet.
4. Coal-Measures ; a great series of sltemations of sandstones and
shales, with occasional beds of coal ; from 8000 to 12,000 feet in total
In the Derbyshire district we get the following groups or series : —
1. Mountain Litnestone ; the base of whidi ib not exposed, consist-
ing principally of thick limestone, occasionally interstratified with
black shales, and exceeding 1200 feetw
2. Limestone Shale ; black shales, with their interstratified lime-
stones ; in some places 400 to 650 feet.
8. Millstone Qrit; strong sandstones, with occasional small con-
glomerate, interstratified with shales and a few small beds of coal ;
about 1700 feet.
4. Coal-Measures ; alternations of sandstone and shale, with beds
of ooal and ironstone ; total thickness, 2700 feet and more.
Proceeding from the Derbyshire district towards the north, a
gradual change takes place in the Carboniferoxis Formation in sudi a
way that it becomes more and more a series of Coal-Measures from
top to bottom. The Millstone Orit is never anything more than the
lower part of the Coal-Measures in which beds of strong sandstone
occur. These as we proceed north become more and more split up
and interstratified by beds of shale and occasional beds of coaL The
Limestone Shale, too, of Derbyshire farther north becomes split up bv
beds of gritstone and limestone, and still fiurther north by beds of ooaL
Lastly, the Mountain limestone itself becomes split up and interstra-
tified first by beds of shale, then by beds of shale and sandstone, and
lastly, on the borders of Scotland, by shales, sandstones, and coals.
In the midland counties of England — namely, in Leicestershire^,
Warwickshire^ Stafibrdehire, and Shropshire — the Carboniferous
Formation consists simply of the upper group of the formation of the
Coal-Measures. Little patches of Mountain Limestone are found
below them in one or two spots in the first and last named counties ;
but usually the Coal-Measures rest directly and unconformably on
Silurian and still older rocks. In Staffordshire sereral beds of ooal
oome together by the thinning out of the intermediate measures, and
make a mass of coal which in some places is upwards of 80 feet
thick, in fiom 10 to 18 beds.
In Scotland the Carboniferous Fonnotion admits of no subdivisions
into groups. Immediately above the Old Red-Sandstone are Coal-
Measures containing beds of ooal, over which are thick encrinital
limestones interstratified with shales, so that no single maas of lime-
stone is more than 40 feet thick. The whole series of Carboniferous
rocks in Scotland is said to be upwards of 6000 feet thick, the whole
being Coal-Measures with intentratified beds of limestone in tiie
lower portion, representing the Mountain Limestone of England.
The whole series is oompooed of materials in the following pro-
portions: —
Feet.
Sandstone 8800
Shale I ' • 2160
Umestone 806
Coal 180
Clay 183
6078
These materials tjfe so disposed that there never is an unbroken set
of beds of more than tbe f oUowing thickness of each sort : —
Feet.
Sandstone 200
Shale ........ 180
Limestone 40
Coal. 18
Clay 28
Small bands and nodules of clay-ironstone are found ocoasionally
in all the shales and days of the Carboniferous rocks of England^
Scotland, and Indand ; but though of economical value, they are not
of great geological importance.
In IreSmd the Carboniferous rooks consist in the south and west
of two subdivisions — Carboniferous Limestone and Coal-Measures.
The Carboniferous Limestone, the maximum thickness of which is
about 8000 feet, is locally again subdivided into three parts — A. Lower
Limestone. B. Calp, a series of dark limestones, iaterstratified with
black shale. C. Upper Limestone. The Coal-Measures consist of
alternations of shale and sandstone, with a few thin beds of coal
principally anthracite or culm, and have a thickness of more than
2000 feet in the Queen's County. In the north of Ireland the Car-
boniferous rooks seem to assume more of the type of those of York-
shire and the north of England. The Coal-Measures are still confined
to the .upper portion ; but the lower part seems to consist of alterna-
tions of shale and sandstone with various thick beds of limestone, so
that it may be doubted whether the subdivisions of the Carboniferous
Limestone of the centre of Ireland can be accurately traced into the
north or north-west.
The Carboniferous Formation of Belgiimi admits of a three-fold
subdivision (ascending order) : —
1. Arenaceous Shales; gray shales, limestones and purolitio iron-ore,
OTtr which are gray nndsUmes and anthracite.
2. Limestone Group; orinoidal, dolomttio, and pioductos lime-
stones, with chert and anthracite.
8. Coal-Measures ; shale and sandstone, with coaL
The formation is found slso at St.-Etienne in central France, where
it appears to consist of conglomerate and sandstone below, and shale
and sandstone above, with beds of coaL
In Westphalia there are black shsles below, passing up into black
limestones, and those into lighterooloured hmestone, whidi sre
covered by black shales and sandstone in which beds of ooal occur.
In Russia there are, according to Sir R. Murchison, two types of
the formation. The northern type consists of (ascending order) : —
1. Sands and Shales with coal
2. Dark-Gray Productus Limestone^ Yellow Magnesian Limestone,
White Limestone of MoscoWi shale and sandstone, and gray, white,
and yellow limestone.
8. Limestonesy calcareous grits, and flagstones capped by con-
glomerate.
In this type the ooal is confined to the base of the fonnation.
The souwem type consists of : —
1. Sands and Shales without coaL
2. Productus Limestone with shalei^ sandstones, and thin lime-
stones, with many beds of coaL
8. Limestone, oalcareous grits, and flagstones, with traces of ooal,
capped by sandstone oontaining ooal plants.
In this type the most coal occurs about the centre of the formation.
The above remarks, taken from Mr. Jukes's admirable 'Intro-
duction to Physical Geology,' will serve to show the relation of the
deposits of Coal to the other rooks and substances with which it is
found associated. The Coal-Measures above referred to occupy defi-
nite and limited areas of somewhat considerable extent in various
parts of Europe, Ada, America, and the islands adjacent. The
following is an estimate of the annual production of ooids in various
parts of the worid as given by Professor Ansted : —
Conntriet.
Ooal Area
Proportion
Total Yearly
in Square MUm.
toArea.
Prodnotion in Tons.
British UUnds
1S,000
1— 10
82,000,000
Franoe
S,000
1—100
4,150,000
Belgiom
6S0
1~ S2
8,000,000
Spain . . . .
4,000
1— 4S
680,000
PniMia
l.SOO
1— 80
8,800,000
1,000
1— SO
—
United States of America
119,000
1— 20
4,000,000
Britlah North Amerioa .
18,000
2—
(t)
Table pf tU Principal Coal-Fidds qf the Bntitk Idandt.
Fiim Ptofuaor Avited,
COAL-FISLDS.
1. Worthnmberland and Dnriuun Diitriet
Neweaetle OoaUFIeld
2. Cnmberlaad, Westmoralaad, and West
Biding of Torkshiie : —
Whitehaven and Akertoa •
Applehy (8 basins) . •
Seberghsm (Ctunberland)
Kirhy Lonsdale . .
S. Lancashire, Flintdiire, and North
Staflbrdshlre :—
Laneashircl^SoaUField •
Flintshire ....
Pottery, North Staflbrdshlre .
Cheadle, North Staflbrdshlre .
4. Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, and
Derbyshire :—
Great Yorkshire Ooal.FleId .
Darley Moor, Derbyshire ; Shirley )
Moor, Derbyshire • /
5. Shropshire and Worcestershire : —
Colebrook Dale, Shropshire .
Shrewsbury, Shropshire
Brown Glee HiU, ShropsUre .
Titterstone Glee HUl, frhn^vshlre
Lnkey Hill, Worcestershire •
Bcwdley, Worcestershire •
8. South Staflbrdshlre : —
Dudley and Wolverhampton •
7, Warwickshire and Leicestershire : —
Nuneaton . . • •
Ashby-de-laJSouch
8. Somersetshire and Gloucestershire : —
Bristol
Forest of Dean
Newent, Gloucestershire
800,000
80,000
17,000
(?)
2,800
880,000
120,000
40,000
10,000
880,000
1,800
21,000
16,000
1,800
5,000
680
45,000
65,000
40,000
40,000
130,000
86,000
1,800
I-
^1
18
17
1
4
78
8
24
12
17
8
8
(t)
(t)
11
9
8
50
37
15
3ll
80
8
17
180
89
88
82
40
(I)
67
30
83
00
17
4
J
I
8
9
10
9
10
10
(T)
40
18
21
II
I i
6 s
2,00
6,000
200
1,000
IS
COAL FORMATION.
COAL FORMATION.
14
{Table eon^MMieei)
COALFIELDS.
9f South Welch Coal-Field • •
10. SoottUh Ooftl-FieldB :~
Clyde Yallej, Lanarkthlre, South
SootUnd lererftl nmUl areu
Hid Lothian
East Lothian
Kilauurnoek, Ayrshire •
Pifethira ....
Dnmfiries Coal region .
11. Irish OoaUFields:—
Ulater
Connanght ....
Lelnster, Kilkenny
Hnniter, lereral .
oft
I
1^
P
600,000
1,000,000
(T)
(t)
(!)
(!)
45,000
600,000
200,000
150,000
1,000,000
i
o
II
80
84
S4
60
S
(!)
10
8
8
hi
X3.9 «
a|1
100
200(1)
94
180
40
(!)
55
40a)
28
I
8«
I
IS
18
SO
21
6
I I
ill
a
12,000
6,000
4,400
6,000
The following airangemeiit is that of Mesara. Conybeare and PhiUipa,
and from its siinpliclty will serve as a plan for some general remarks
on the ooal-fields of Great Britain : — 1. The great northern district,
including all the coal-fields north of the Trent 2. The central
district^ indoding Leicester, Warwick, Stafford, and Shropshire.
3. The western district^ which may be subdiTided into north-western,
including North Wales ; and south-western, including South Wales,
Gloucester, and Somersetshire.
Ooal-Dutrict North of the Treni. — This great coal formation encircles
the whole Pennine mountain chain on the easty south, and north ; not
however in one uninterrupted line, but in a series of detached ooal-fields.
1. The Coal-Field of Northumbtfland and Durham. 2. Some small
detached Coal-Fields in the North of Torkshire. 8. The Coal-Field of
South Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Derby. 4. The Cosl-Field of
North Stafford. 5. The South Lancaahure Coal-Field. 6. The North
Lancashire Coal-Field. 7. The Whitehaven Coal-Field.
1. The Coal-Field of Northumberland and Durham commences
near the mouth of the river Coquet on the north, and extends nearly
to the Tees on the south. As £ur as Shields the sea is its boundary on
the east; from that point it leaves a margin of a few miles between
it and the sea, and extends about 10 miles west from Newcastle. Its
greatest length is 68 miles, and its greatest breadth about 24 miles. The
coal-measures of this field rest on the series of strata of the millstone
grit and shale, and are in part under the magnesian limestone, the
northernmost point of which is near the mouth of the Tjme. The
beds of which this coal formation is composed dip towards the east
and crop out towards the west, so that a section of them gives the
idea of a form of a boat. In consequence of this disposition the beds
of coal in some places appear at the surfiioe, while in the middle of
the basin they are at great depths. At Yarrow, about five miles fh>m
the mouth of the Tyne, one of the thickest beds, cidled the High
Main, is 960 feet deep, and rises on all sides ; the dip of the strata
averages one inch in twenty, but this is not uniform throughout; and
theren)re that bed does not rise to the surfiuse at equal distances around
Yarrow. The beds of the ooal-measures are 82 in number, and consist
of alternating beds of coal, sandstone, and slate-day; twaVfng ^n
aggregate thickness of 1620 feet, which varies however in different
parts. The irregularities of the surface do not affbct the dip or in-
clination of the strata ; so that when a valley intervenes tney are
found in the sides of the opposite hills at the same levels as if the
respective strata had once been continuous. It is difficult to deter-
mine the exact number of beds of coal, in consequence of the different
depths at which the same bed occurs, the numerous faults, and the
varying thickness of the beds of coal and other strata. These strata
occasionally enlarge and contract so much, that it is only by extensive
observation that the identity of the seams can be ascertuned. Dr.
Thomson supposes the whole number of beds of coal in this field to
be twenty-five ; Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips state that forty beds
of coal have been seen : a considerable number however of these are
very thin. The two most important beds are those distinguished by
the names of High Main and Low Bfain. The thickness of the
first is 6 feet, and of the second 6 feet 6 inches. The Low Bfain is
about 60 fathoms below the High Main. Eight other beds of coal
occur between these : one called Bensham is 4 feet thick, and another
called Coal- Yard is 8 feet thick. Seven beds of coal have been ob-
served under the Low Biain, some of which are of considerable
thickneas, but of an inferior quality. The aggregate thickness of
the whole number of seams is about 44 feet ; but there are eleven
beds not workable, the thickness of some of them being only a few
inches. Five others amount together to only 6 feet. Making proper
deductions for these, it may be considered that the available beds
amount to 80 feet in thickness.
The number of dykes or faults which traverse this field is very
considerable. They appear to run in aU directions. The most re-
markable, called the Great Dyke, or 90-&tbom dyke, has received the
latter name because the beds on the north side of it have been thrown
down 00 fsthoms. Its direction is north-north-east and south-south-
west It enten the sea a little to the south of Hartley, or about three
miles north of Shields, and running westward crosses the Tyne at
Lemington, about four miles west of Newcastle Bridge. In some
places it is only a few inches wide, but in Montagu colliery it is 22 yards
wide, and is filled with hard and soft sandstone. From the southern
side of this dyke two others branch off, one to the soutJi-east and the
other to the south-west The latter, called from its breadth the
70-yard dyke, is also filled with hard and soft sandstone. This dyke
intersects the upper or Beaumont seam of coal, but does not alter the
level on either side. The thickness of the seam however decreases,
beginning at the distance of 15 or 16 yards from the dyke : and the
coal first becomes sooty, and at length assumes the appearance of
coke. The south-eastern branch is only 20 yards in breaduL Another
dyke, which passes through Coal^ Hill, about four miles west of
Newcastle, is about 24 feet wide. It is filled with basalt'in detached
masses, which are coated with yellow ochre ; a thin layer of indurated
day is interposed between the sides of the fissure add the basalt
The upper seam of coal is here about 85 feet from the surface, and
where it is in contact with the dyke is completdy chaired. Another
dyke, which crosses the l^rne at Walker, and traverses the Walker
colliny, does not alter the levd of the strata^ but on each side of it
the coal is converted into coke, which on one side in some places was
found to be 18 feet thid[^ and on the opposite side only about 9 feet
At Walbottle Dean, 5i miles west of Newcastle, a double vein of
basalt crosses the ravine in a diagonal direction, passing nearly due
east and west; it underlies at an angle of 78 degrees, and cuts the
coal strata without altering their dip, but the seam of coal is chsored.
A dyke, called the Cockfield Dyke, 17 feet wide, throws up the coal-
measures on th^ south 18 feet The Low Main coal, contiguous to
the basalt^ is only 9 inches thick, but enlaiges to 6 feet at the distance
of 150 feet from it; the coal contiguous to the dyke is reduced to a
dnder. The dykes, if not large, are locally called troubUa, tUpi, or
kUehet. These minor faults are numerous and extensive, and are a
perpetual source of diffic^ty and expense to the coal-owner by dis-
turbing the levd of the strata and by the disengagement of carburetted
hydrogen gas. They are not however without thdr use, being often
filled with a tenadous water-proof clay, by whidi numerous springs
are dammed up and brought to the surface. The faults which depress
the strata have kept valuable seams within the basin, which would
otherwise have cropped out and have been lost
The coal-fidd of Northumberland and Durham supplies an enor-
mous quantity of coaL Besides being consumed in its own district^
London depends nearly altogether on it, as wdl as all the southern
coast counties, with the exception of ComwalL It is consumed along
the eastern coast, induding all the eastern coimties as far west as
Hull, Boston, Peterborough, Bedford, and Windsor. An inquiry as
to the probable duration of this supply is one of no small inta«st
Dr. Thomson calculates that this coal-fidd may fiuriy be expected
to yield coal for 1000 years, at the annual consumption of two
millions of dialdrons ; but as we have no data by which to discover
how much coal has been already consumed, we cannot tell how mudi
of these 1000 years has already elapsed. Besides this, Dr. Thomson
has taken the average annual consumption much too low for the
present time. The coals shipped from the Tyne, the Wear, and the
Tees, in 1885, amounted to 4,868,144 tons. The quantity of waste
coal is estimatiBd at one-third of the whole. Without therefore taking
into account the pousumption of the immediate district, the annual
quantity of coal taken from tiie mines is more than 6,552,216 tons.
On the other hand it appears tiiat in this calculation the area of the
coal-fidd is very much under-estimated, being taken at 1 80 square miles.
Professor Buddand, in his examination before the House of Commons,
limits the period of supply at the present rate of consumption to
about 400 years. Mr. Baily, in his ' Survey of Durham,' states the
period for the exhaustion of the ooal to be about 200 years hence.
Some proprietors of the coal-mines, when examined before the House
of Commons, in 1830, extended the period of exhaustion to 1727
years. They assumed that there are 837 square miles of coal strata
in this fidd, and that only 105 miles had been worked out The small
coal taken out of the pits is not considered worth shipment ; large
quantities of it were therefore often piled up near the mouths of the
pits. These masses of ooal were frequently set on fire, and bumed
for several years. Dr. Thomson describes two of these immense fires
which were burning in 1814. About three miles to the north of
Newcastle, and three miles off the road from Berwick, on the left
hand, '' one has been burning these#ight years. The heap of coal is
said to cover twelve acres. The other, on the right hand, is nearer the
road and therefore appears more bright : it has been burning these
three or four years (1814)." Of late years many more manufactories
have been established in this district, by whidi, and by converting it
into coke, most of the small coal is consumed.
Besides this coal-field there is another coal formation in the northern
coimties, which is minutdy described by Dr. Thomson in the 'Annals
of Philosophy,' November, 1814, under the name of the Independent
Cod Formation. This tract terminates westward at Cross Fell, in
Cumberland, is supposed to occupy the whde of Durham, and con-
stitutes the whole of that part of Northumberland east of the Cheviots
u
COAL FORMATION.
COAL FORMATION.
16
ezelufllTe of the oottl-field already deaoribed. The diffezent strata of
this ooal formation amount to about 147. The coal-meaeurea here
differ from those we have just noticed, in having limestone as well as
sandstone and slate-day alternating wii^ the iMds of ooal ; the ooal
worked in this formation is slate-CKNJ| and is considered inferior in
quality to the Newcastle ooal. There are several ooUieries, but the
ooal is only employed for home consumption. The lowest bed of these
measures crops out near Cross Fell The coal of which it is composed,
provinoially called crow-coal, falls into powder when exposed to the
air, and cannot be burnt by itselC The poorer dass make it up into
balls with clay, and use it for fuel. This bed is 887 fathoms below
the lowest of ike Newcastle beds. {* Ann. of Phil,' vol iv.) There
are numerous lead mines in this tract
2. Detached Coal-Fields in the North of Yorksire. — These are very
limited in extent, being small insulated coal basins, lying in hollows
in the gritstone. They occur near Middleham, Leybume, Thorpefell,
near Bumsell, and as far west as KettlewelL The seam is seldom
more than 20 inches thick. At Thedswell Moor the lowest seam is
one yard, btit the stratum diminishes and vanishes at the edges.
Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips doubt whether these beds should not
be referred to the thin ooal seams subordinate to the millstone gdt
series, rather than to ^e prindpal coal-measures.
Coal is wrought in some jparts of the great carboniferous chain
extending from Fenigent to Kirkby Stephen. Here the great ' Craven
fault' occurs, descril^ by Professor Sedgwick (' On the Carboniferous
Chain from Fenigent to Kirkby Stephen,' in * Geol Trans.,' voL iv.
series 2) as ranging idong the line of junction of the central dhaan with
the skirts of the Cumbrian system, passing along the south flank of
Casterton Low Fell, up Barbondale, thence across the valley of Dent
through the upper part of the valley of Sedbeigh, and along the
flanks of Bowe Fell, and Wildboar Fell, to the ridge which flanks
Bavenstone Dale. Throughout the whole of this line there are
enormous and most complex dislocations, which affect the strata of
the coal formation and produce other phenomena Oidy one of the
coal strata in the lowest part of the coal-measures is suffidently
valuable to be worked ; it varies from ISinches to nearly 4 feet in
thickness. At Tuma Fell, near Hawes, in x orkshire and at Tan Hill,
near the highest part of the road from Brough to Aigengarthdale, this
coal is extensively woriked, and is of good quality. The same seam is
found near Kirkby Stephen. Horizontal dnfts have been canned into
this bed near the top of Fenigent, of Whernside, and of Great Colm ;
but in these parts it is of bad quality and not fit for domestic use,
being mixed with ferruginous and pyritous shale. This coal varies in
thicbiess from a mere trace to 2 feet. It was once worked to some
extent on the south side of the valley of Dent, by means of horizontal
drifts under Oreat Colm. It was only a few inches in thickness, but
said to be of so good a quality as to be in great request About 70 or
80 years ago it was sent on pack-horses from this place as far as
Kendal, for the use of blacksmiths' forges, &c. Kendal has long been
supplied witii fuel from the Lancashire coal-field ; but this fact, of
comparatively so recent a date, strongly illustrates the astonishing
progress we have made in our modes of internal communication.
At the Barbon coal-pit in Westmoreland, a coal-bed of this series
is likewise wrought ; the lower part of it is however so impure as to
be unfit for ordinary purposes, and is chiefly consumed in lime-works.
The following is a section of the strata as occurring in the Barbon
colliery:—
feet. in.
1. Alluvial Soil 52 6
2. Plate (Calcareous Shale) . . . .'.16
8. Limestone, the 4th or Mosdale Moor Limestone
of the great section 27
4. Gritstone 27
6. Alternations of Shale and Gritstone . ..120
6. Shale SO
7. Crow Limestone 2
8. Plate with a S-inch Crow-Coal . . .16
9. Gritstone 27
10. Coal 12
The strata of the ooal are in general much less regularly continuous
than the strata of limestone. This however is not always the case.
Some of the thin bands of coal here appear to continue with astonish-
ing regularity. The following example is quoted from Professor
S^gwick. "At Cross Pits, in the valley of Dent, the coal seam
under the 12-fatiiom limestone is divided, by a band of day half an
inch thick, into two parts, with distinct mineral characters ; and the
same coal seam, with exactly th^same subdivisions, has been foimd
in the mountain on the opposite side of the valley at the distance of
3 or 4 miles measured in a straight Ihie. This seems to prove that a
bed not more than a fraction of an inch thick was originally con-
tinuous throughout an area probably several miles in diameter."
(* Geol. Trans.' vol. iv. sec 2, p. 101.)
8. Coal-Field of South Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Derbyshire. —
This extensive field, which in character is closely allied to that of
Newcastle, is considered by some geologists as a re-emergence of the
same strata from beneath iLe covering of magneeian limestone under
which it is concealed through the intervening space. This coal-field
occupies an area extending north and south from a little to the north-
east of Leeds nearly to Derby, a distance of more than 65 miles ; its
greatest width. 28 miles, is on the north, reaching nearly as ^Ear as
Halifax to the west On the south it extends towards the east to
Nottingham, and is here about 12 miles wide ; but in some parts it
is much narrower The strata of these ooal-measures range in the
same manner as in the Northumberland ooal-field, from north to south,
dip to the east and rise to the west and north-west^ in which direc-
tions the lowest measures at length crop out sgainst the rodcs of the
millstone-grit series, which constitute the higher ridges of the Pennine
chain, ^e strata of this ooal formation are very numerous. Th^
are 20 beds of gritstone at the least, some x>t great thickness. Most
of these beds consist of grains of semi-transnarent sUex united by an
ai^|;illaceous cement ; the lowest of these beds is termed the miUrtone
gnt» beneath which no workable coal is found. Besides these gritstone
beds there are numerous strata of shale (slat»^y), bind (indurated
loam), and dunoh (indurated day), altematiDg with several beds of
coal of diffBrent thickness and value. A hard argillaceous rode called
crow-stone forms in some places the floor of &e ooal beds, and is
supposed to be a variety of the dunch still more highly indurated.
The numerous faults in this ooal-fidd render it extremely difficult to
ascertain the exact number and order of the ooal beds. Mr. BiJte-
wdl (p. 884) states their number at 80, varying from 6 indies to
11 feet^ and the total thickness of ooal at 26 yards. This however he
oonsiders as only an approximation. Three varieties of coal oocur in
these measures : hard, or stone-coal, which bums to a white ash ;
sofb^ or bright, which bums to a white ash ; caking, or oroiling, which
usually bums to a red ash. The first is esteemed the best^ and ia in
much greater demand than the others. The tluckest bed is worked
near Bamsby. In a pit near Middleton three seams are being worked ;
one at the depth of about 40 to 70 yards from the surface, another
88 yards lower, and the deepest fr^m 28 to 82 yards deeper, making
the whole depth from 106 to 140 yards. The upper seam is about 2
feet 8 inches thick, the middle seam from 2 feet 10 inches to 8 feet
4 inches, and tiie lower one from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet.
The strata of this field are traversed by an immense fault com-
mencing from Allestry, in the south, and running in a aigzag direction
through the south and east part of the field ; the rise of the strata is
said to be much more rapid on the western than the eastern side of
the fault. Besides tlus great fault there are man^ others which
txaverse the field in various directions, and create an mextricable con-
fusion by the rise and fall of the different strata, rendering it almost
impossible to trace distinctly the continuation of each bed. This coal-
field supplies the ooal for the important manufactures which surround
it, and dso, by means of inland navigation, the midland counties
south and east of Derbyshire.
A little to the west of the coal-fidd already described, coal has been
found in two places about half-way between Ashbome and Derby, but
it has not been worked.
4. Coal-Fidd of North Sta£ford.— There are two detached coal-
fields : the one situated on the north-cast of Newcastle-under-Lyne,
distinguished as the Pottery Coal-Field ; the other at Cheadle, to the
east of the first. The form of the Pottery Coal-Field is triangular.
Its vertex is near Congleton, from which point the sides diverge to
the south-south-east and south-south-west, running in each direction
about ten miles ; the base is estimated at about seven miles : New-
castle is nearlv in the centre of the base. The strata dip from the
two sides to tne centre of the area. On the eastern side the inclina-
tion westward is estimated at one foot in four ; on the other side it is
still more rapid. Between Burslem and its eastern limit, nearly in
the centre of the coal-field, it has been ascertained that there are
32 beds of ooal of various thickness, generally from about 3 to 10
feet each ; but tiie strata are in general much dislocated in this field.
In the prindpal mines in this district coal is found at various
depths, from 50 to 800 yards and more; there has been a mine
worked at the depth of more than 400 yards. Some seams only 20
inches thick have occasionally been worked, ** ' they are seldom
worked under 8 or 4 feet thickness.
The Cheadle Coal-Field is an insulated basin surroimded by and
reposing upon millstone grit ; it is about five miles long and three
miles broad, and is of litUe importance.
5. The Manchester or Soutiii-Lancashire Coal-Fidd is separated
from that of South Yorkshire and Derbyshire by the range of lofty
hills extending from near Colne to Blackstone Edge, and thence to
Ax Edge in Derbyshire. It commences near the western side of this
range in the north-west of Derbyshire, and continues thence to the
south-western part of Lancashire, forming an area somewhat in the
shape of a crescent^ having Manchester nearly in the centre. The
chord or span between the opposite horns is about forty miles. It
runs nearly due north from Macclesfield to a few miles beyond Roch-
dale, a distance of thirty miles; the part between Macclesfield and
Manchester is however very narrow, being in some places not two
miles in width. From Rochdale it extends westward to Bolton and
Chorley, south-west to Leigh and Prescot, north-west to Preston, and
north to Colne. Viewing it as a whole, the strata rise towards the
exterior edge of this crescent-shaped coal-field, along which the strata
of miUstone grit, on which they repose, crop out from beneath them,
and dip towards its inner edge, where they are covered by the superior
strata of the newer sandstone formation, whidi contain occasionally
17
COAL FORMATION.
COAL FORMATION.
18
k
y
beds of calcareo-magnesian conglomerate. Qreat duturbaaces bave
however interrupted the regidarity of this arraneement, and caoBed
diviflions of the ooal-measures, which render it difficult to trace out
the exact dimenjnonB of the field. At Dialey, in Cheshire, it bifur-
cates into two branches, having an intermediate ridge or " saddle of
millstone grit, the eastern branch forming a trough, of which the
strata crop out on both sides against the millstone grit." Tlds part of
the field is a long narrow strip joined to the main field at Disley, and
extending thence southward fifteen miles to near Mearbrooke in
Staffordshire. The strata of the western branch of this bifurcation,
extending from Disley to Macclesfield, dip again to the west^ but not
at so great an angle aa thev rose, on the eust side of the intermediate
ridge. In other parts of the coal-field great faults occur, but it has
not been sufficiently investigated by the geologist for them to be
distinctly traced. Mr. Bakewell has investigated a small portion,
which he distinguishes as the Coal-Field of Bradford : the result of his
observations is found in the second volume of the ' Qeological Trans-
actions.' This tract is rather more than two miles long, and little
more than one mile and a furlong wide. It is situated on the river
Medlock, a short distance east-south-east of Manchester. It is sur-
rounded on every side, except the east^ by the red-sandstone which
prevails in the environs of Manchester. Beds of limestone pass under
this and overlay the coal-measures, in which there are several beds of
coal rising to the north, under aa angle of 30*. One of these, near
the centre of the field, is four feet in Udcknesa. To the north of these
inclined beds there is a considerable disturbance, and the direction of
the beds becomes suddenly vertical One of the vertical beds, toge-
ther with its accompanying strata, bears so close a resemblance to the
4 -feet coal above mentioned, that there is no doubt of their iden-
tity, and that the vertical stratum was, before the dislocation which
severed them took place, a continuation of the first With these
vertical beds the ooal-measures terminate : on the north an interval of
the red-sandstone succeeds for about 1400 yards, when coal-beds
again appear, rising as before towards the north. All this indicates
considerable faults and subsidences, which however cannot be accu-
rately traced at present The coal from the Lancashire field supplies
Manchester, Liverpool, and the surrounding districts.
6. The North Lancashire Coal-Field is one of little importance. It
lies midway between Lancaster and Ingleton ; it is about eight miles
long and six miles wide, but it has never been thoroughly examinedi
and its strata cannot be distinctly stated.
7. The Whitehaven Coal-Field is situated on the west coast of
Cumberland, and extends from near Egremont, south of Whitehaven,
to near AJlonby on the north.
Central Coal DUtrict, — Under this division are classed the coal-
fields of Ashbv-de-la-Zouch, of Warwickshire, and South Staffordshire.
1. The Coal-Field of Ashby-de-la-Zouch is of a very irregular figure,
and so much dislocated that it rather forms two small basins than
one continuous whole. The greatest length from north-west to south-
east is about ten miles, the greatest breadth about eight miles. The
eastern extremity of this area approaches almost dose to the transition
district of Chamwood Forest. This coal-field is described by Mr.
Farey as "one of the highly curious but perhaps not uncommon
occurrences in the red man districts ; a tract entirely surrounded by
a fault, or a series of faults, which unite, seem lifted up through the
red marl strata, and denudated, the coal strata having rapid dips in
various directions, while the surrounding strata of red marl are hori-
Eontal, or as nearly so as may be." Of the two portions of the
field, one ranges by Ashby Wold, about three miles on the west
of Ashby ; the other by Coleorton, which is about the same distance
on the east.
The Ashby Wold portion ranges from Swepston, four miles south
of Ashby, to Bretby in Derbyshire : the inclination of the strata is
towards Ashby ; but between the out-crop of the beds and that town
another crop ha^ been traced near Brothorpe, dipping in a contrary
direction. More than twenty coal-works have betBU opened on thiiB
line. The lowest shaft sunk is to. the depth of 246 yards. One of
the seams is from 17 to 21 feet thick. This great thickness is catised,
it is supposed, by the running together of two or more seams — a cir-
cumstance which is known to occur in the coal-fields of South
Staffordshire. The eastern portion of this district commences about
a mile and a half north-east of Ashby, and extends about six miles in
length, running parallel to the larger portion. The strata dip to east-
north-east In tiie pits belonging to Sir Geoige Beaumont two coal-
beds, each a yard and a half thick, are worked. On Coleorton Moor
several coal-seams, which have been proved to lie above these, have
been worked at the depth of 116 feet
2. The Warwickshire Coal-Field commences at Wyken and Sow,
two villsges about three miles east of Coventry, and continues in a
north-west direction to Polosworth and Wareston, about five miles
east of Tamworth, a distance of sixteen miles : its average breadth is
about three miles. All the strata rise to the east-north-east^ the
inclination becoming greater towards the eastern edge of the field,
where in many parU it makes an angle of more than 45° with the
horizon : towards the west it decreases to about one foot in three,
and lastly in five. The principal collieries are near the south of the
field, at Qriff and Bed worth. The depth of the first is 117 yards, and
the principal seam three yards in thickness. The same seams are
VAT. HIBT. DIY. TOL. II.
worked in the Bedworth mines, but there the first and second coal-
seams of Griff run together and form a 5-yard seam. The interme-
diate strata of shale which separate them at Griff are found in the
eastern shaft to be 88 yards, and in the western 25 yards thick ; but
they gradually decrease as they proceed westward, till at length
they entirely vanish.
8. South Staffordshire or Dudley Coal-Field, the principal in the
central district, extends from. Beverton, near Badgely, on the north-
east> to near Stourbridge on the south-west The greatest length is
about twenty miles, and its greatest breadth, from Walsall to Wolver-
hampton, is about seven nuies, but it is veiy irregular towards the
south, bcong almost divided into two parts. The area, from actual
survey, has been found to be about sixty square miles. The soulhen^
portion, extending from Stourbridge to Bilston, about seven or eight
miles in length and four in breadth, has been fully investigated by
Mr. Keirs, and described by him in Shaw's ' History of Staffordshire.'
No satisfactory accoimt of the northern portions of this field has
hitherto been published ; manv coal-seams, of eight, six, and four
feet in thickness, are worked in, it The southern portion is of much
more importance, as it contains seams firom 80 to 45 feet in thickness.
This enormous thickness is however not one continuous seam, but a
number of seams, divided by layers of what the miners caU band,
which are very thin beds of day-slate. The working of these thick
seams is not so profitable as might be supposed. The pillars left
standing in order to support the high roof are estimated at about one-
third of the whole coal in the bed, and the small coal left in the mine
is about equal to another third, so that only one-third of the whole is
at present taken out of the mine.
In the coal-measures of this district there is an absence of the
millstone grit, carboniferous limestone, and old red-sandstone, which
usually lie under the coal-meaiyires. The coal-measures rest, in the
Dudley Coal-Field, on the transition rock at once, without any inter-
mediate strata : this singularity is likewise observed in the Coal*
brook Dale coal formation.
The coal district in South Staffordshire is traversed from north-
west to south-east by apparently a line of hills, but they are not
absolutely continuous, though they have a uniform general direction.
On exammation, the hills on the north and those on the south of
Dudley are found to differ entirelv in their character. The northern
chain consists of highly inclinea strata of limestone, against the
sides of which all the ooal-measures crop out at a considerable aaglo^
but come nearer a horizontal position as they recede from these
hills. The other chain of bills, on the south of Dudley, is entirely
composed of one mass of basalt and amygdaloid, and the coal-
measures preserve their usual level in approaching the hills, not
cropping out as they do upon the limestone chain. Two opinions
are entertained with r^ard to these basalt elevations: "they may
be either the protruding edge of a vast basaltic dyke traversing the
coal-field, or an overlying mass :" the latter is considered the more
probable. The coal-measures on the south, near Stourbridge, appear
to dip beneath the beds of the newer red-sandstone formation : the
beds of this and of the Warwickshire coal-field dipping in opposite
directions imder the superstrata, give reason for supposing that they
may extend' continuously below this through the intervenixigspace.
The eastern side of the field, which extends a little beyond WaJsall,
is bounded by the same limestone with that of Dudley, and the coal-
measures are observed again to crop out against it, thus lying in a
basin between these two towns. Tluit the coal-beds rise towaitis the
north, and the upper ones crop out while others continue imder the
surface, is very satisfactorily shown by the comparison of the strata
in different collieries. At Tividale tiie main coal is 60( fathoms
below the surface ; at Bradley it is only 20} ; and the greater number
of beds which cover the mam coal at the former place have entirely
disappeared before the main seam reaches Bradley ; and farther to
the north the main seam also crops out and disappears altogether.
A very curious phenomenon takes place at Bloomfield colliery, to the
south of Bilston, thus described in the ' Geology of England,' p. 412 :
— " The two upper beds of the main coal, called the roo^ fioor, and
top slipper, separate from the rest, and are distinguished by the
name of the 'flying reed.' This separation grows wider, and at
Bradley oolliery amounts to 12 feet, four beds of shale (slate-day)
and ironstone being interposed. These two upper beds crop out,
while the rest of the main coal goes on to Bilston, and is only eight
yards thick."
This district supplies coals to the numerous iron-works in the
immediate neighbourhood, and the manufactories of Birmingham
and its vicinity; besides which, all the neighbouring counties, aa
far south as Beading and Gloucesteri are supplied by means of inland
navigation.
The clay ironstone occurs in various beds, but is only wrought
in two : one of these is the bed under the main coal, and is wrought
for iron- ore.
Many faults or dykes occur in this field ; they are usually fissures
in the beds, filled up with day, and very frequently the levels of the
different strata vary in consequence. There is a great fault near
Bilston, which causes the dip of the strata to be reversed, the beds
on the south side dipping south, and those on the north side dipping
north: this is however an unusual droumstanoe
C
19
COAL FORMATION.
COAL FORMATION.
90
Western Coal DistrieU. — The Coal-Fields of this diyision axe dis-
posed around the transition district of North and South Wales. The
north-western district includes the coal-fields of Anglesey and Flint-
shire, the western those of Shropshire, the south-western those of
South Wales, of South Qloucester and Somerset^ and of the Forest
of Dean.
1. Isle of Anglesey. — ^At the distance of about six nules from the
Menai Straits, and running nwAj parallel to them, a remarkable
valley stretches across the whole island. This yalley opens oi^the
north into Red Wharf Bay, and on the south into the tdstuary of
Maltraeth ; it is flanked on both sides by parallel bands of carboni-
ferous limestone, in the depression between which coal has been
found, and it is thought probable that the coal-measures may extend
through the whole line. Coal has been worked near the Maltraeth
estuaiy ; and a few years since shafts were sunk in the neighbour-
hood of Trefdaeth. Successful trials have likewise been made at
Pentreberen, about five miles north-east of the former pits : the
beds are said to be of a tolerable thicknesB, and the coals of a good
quali^.
2. Flintshire. — The Coal-Field of this county extends north and
louth from. Llanassa, near the western cape of the sestuary of the
Dee, to near Oswestry, in Shropshire^ forming an exterior belt co-
ext^udve with the range of the mountain line crom the north of the
Qwyd. Where the carboniferous limestone is partially interrupted
by the mountain of Selattyn the coal shales rest immediately on the
transition slate, of which that mountain is composed. (Conybeare
and Phillips, p. 419.) The greatest lenjgth of the district in which
the coal-measures are found is about th&y miles, but it must by no
means be understood that coal is worked throuf^out At Oswestry
there is a very small detached piece, not more than three miles long
and half a mile broad ; there is then an interval of some miles.
Near Chirk another coal tract commences, and runs north for about
five miles; then another interval occurs; and a little to the north of
Wrexham the prindpcd portion begins, and thence extends to the
coast, and forms a narrow belt along it to the termination at the
west cape of the Dee. The beds dip from one yard in four to two
in three, sink beneath the eastuaiy of the Dee, reappear on its opposite
side, and finally sink beneath the strata of the newer red-sandstone.
This position of the coal-measures has led to the conjecture that
they are connected with the beds of the limcashire coal-field. The
coal formation here commences with the same strata as those of
Derbyshire. The beds of coal vary in thickness from three quarters
of a yard to five yards. In the Basalt mines three seams are worked,
varying from 84 to 7feet. Common, cannel, and peacock coid are found.
3. The Coalbrook Dale Coal-Field rests on transition xock: it
extends from Wombridge, in the parallel of Wellington, to Coal
Port, on the Severn, a length of about six miles ; its greatest breadth
is about two miles. The coal-measures are composed of the usual
alternating strata, which occur without much legulari^, except that
each bed of coal is always immediately covered by indurated or
slaty clay, and not by sandstone. The strata are 86 in number. In
Maaely colliery a shaft is sunk 729 feet through all the bed& The
first coal-seam, which occurs at the depth of 102 feet, is very
sulphurous, and not more than 4 inches tmok ; nine other beds of a
nmilar nature, but rather thicker, occur between this and the depth
of 896 feet. This coal is called ' stinking coal,' and is only emploved
in the burning of lime. The first seam of coal that is worxed is
496 feet deep and 5 feet thick. Two other beds of coal occur, one
10 inches and the other 8 feet thick, before the bed of 'big fiint'
sandstone, which is found at the depth of 676 feet : nine beds of
coal occur, of the sggregate thickness of 16 feet, between Uie 'great
flint' and the 'little flint' bed (an interval of 100 feet). Beneath
the ' little flint ' and the lowest bed of the whole formation there is
a sulphurous 8-inch coal. This account of the strata refers more
particularly to the Madely colliery. The coal of this field is usually
a mixture of slatoKXMl and pitch^ooal.
West of the Coalbrook Dale field there are a few detached, narrow,
and broken coal-fields in the plain of Shrewsbuiy^ at the other side
of the Wrekin.
Several small Coal-Fields occur in the Brown Clee Wil] and the
Titterstone Clee Hill, which rise a few miles south of the Coalbxx>ok
Dale Field ; the latter hill is about four miles south of the former.
The coals in the Brown Clee Hill only lie in thin strata, while the
principal stratum in the Titterstone Clee Hill is 6 feet thick. The
coal-fields on the Titterstone Clee Hill are represented as six detached
portions, or separate basins, cut asunder and rendered irreg^ular by a
vast basaltic dyke, more than 100 yards wide, which intersects the
hilL These coal-measures are more interesting to ihe geologist than
the miner.
On the east of these hills, and between them and the Severn, a
Coal-Field extends from Dense Hill and Billingsley on the north to the
borders of Shropshire and Worcestershire on the south, a length of
about eight miles, coal being worked in several points along 1^ line.
Coal is also worked near Over Arley, on the Severn, adjoining this
tract on the west. Only a few miles from the Billingsley coal-field at
Pensex, near the foot of the Abberley Hills, is "a sznall patch (rather
than field) of coal-measures," and another similar piece about three
miles to the west
The SoutK-Weitem Coal Dittrid comprehends the several Coal-Fields
near the seetuarv of the Severn and the Bristol Channel, including
parts of the adjacent coimties of Qloucester, Somerset, Monmouth,
and Glamorgan. The various coal-fields distributed over this district
are apparency insulated, yet they have several pomts of cozmection.
" They all rest on one common base of old red-sandstone ; they all
appear to have been formed by similar agency and at the same era ;
to nave been subject at a later period to the same revolutions ; and
lastly, to have been covered paitiallv b^ similar overlying deposits."
(' OteclL Trans.,' voL L) The several basins in the coal formation are
divided by lines termed ' antidinal,' formed by the saddles of the
strata or meetings at the surfi»ce of their vertical angles, on each side
of which the strata dip in opposite directions. The coal-measures are
1. AbMH**'^' line ftmniag the erest of a hlU. 2. Tha isme line mnniBf
aloBf the eouae of a vaUsj*
thus surrounded by exterior bands of mountain limestone and old
red-sandstone, in the order of the outcrop of the subjacent beds. This
district includes three principal coal oasins, together with some
smaller ones, adjacent to and closely connected with the two last
Hnt, the South Welsh coal basin ; second, that of South Qloucester
and Somerset ; third, that of the Forest of Dean.
1. The Coal-Field of South Wales is upwards of 100 miles in length,
and the average breadth in the counties of Monmouth, Qlamoi^gan,
Caermarthen, and part of Brecon, is frx>m 18 to 20 miles ; it becomes
much narrower in Pembrokeshire, being there only from 8 to 5 miles.
This area extends frt>m Pontypool on the east to St Bride's Bay on
the west, and forms a vast basin of limestone in which all the strata
of coal and ironstone are deposited. The deepest part of the basin is
between Neath and Llanelly : ftom a line ranging nearly east and
west through Neath all the strata rise on the south towards the south,
and on the north towards the north, cropping out at the edges. The
limestone crops out at the surface all round the coal, except where
its continui^ is interrupted by Swansea and Caermarthen bays.
The depths from the surface to the various strata depend upon local
situations. The upper coal-seam does not extend a inile either north
or south beyond Neath, and not many miles in an east or west direc-
tion, and its utmost depth is not above 60 or 60 fathoms ; the next
stratum of coal and those likewise beneath, being deeper, crop out at
a greater distance from the centre ; and so of the rest in proportion
to their dep^ The lowest bed is 700 fathoms deep at the centre,
and all the principal strata lie from 600 fathoms deep to this depth.
But this district is intersected by dee^ valleys which generally run in
a north and south direction, intersectinff the coaL By driving levels
in tiie hills the beds of coal are found without the labour and expense
of sinking shafts; there are also many pits in the low valleys. This
basin contains twelve beds of coal from 8 to 9 feet thick, making on
aggregate of 70( feet ; and there are eleven more from 18 inches to 8
feet, ^ether equal to 244 feet ; the whole thioknew is therefore 95
feet A number of smaller seams likewise occur. On the south side
of the basin, from Pontypool to Caermarthen Bay, the coal is princi-
pally of a bituminous nature ; on the north-east it is a caking coal ;
on the nortii-west, anthracitia It is this latter coal which has the
greatest heating power. It is found in abundance near Swansea, and
IS cheap. Qreat faults occur in this field, which traverse it generally
in a north and south direction, and throw the strata out of their level
40, 60, 80, or 100 fathoms. These dislocations are not often shown
on tiie surface. A principal fault occurs at Cribbath, where the
strata of limestone stand erect ; another of considerable magnitude
lies between Tsteadvellte and Penderryn. These dykes are usually
fiUed with clay, but one of some magnitude has been observed near
Swansea, which is many frithoms wide and filled vrith fragments of
the disrupted strata, the level of which differs by more than 240 feet
The rich ironstone of this basin supplies extensive iron-works in the
neighbourhood The principal beds of ironstone occur in the lower
part of the coal-measures ; the most valuable bed is found beneath
tiie lowest ooaL The strata of this coal formation dip much more
rapidly on the south than on the north ; on the south tiiey make an
angle of 46" with the horizon, and on the north dipping only 10**.
The coal from, the South Wales basin supplies the whole of Wales
with the exception of the more northern counties, the whole of Corn-
wall, and the western half of Devonshire.
2. South Qloucester and Somerset Basin. — This basin occupies an
irregular triangular space, bounded on the south by the Mendip
Hills, which are a high range of mountain lii]lestone resting on an
arch of old red-eandstone. The vertex of the triangle is on the north,
at the village of Tortworth in Qloucestershire : the western side from
theMendips to the vertex is formed by three insulated masses of high
land, separated by narrow intervals^ tiie widest of which is less than
X
/
21
COAL FOBMATION.
COAL FOBMATION.
three miles. Kear Toitwoith the range extending from Almonds-
bury Ib deflected suddenly to the south, and this may be considerBd
the north-eastern frontier of the basin ; it may also be traced through
Wickwar to Sodbuzy. The south-eastern lunit^ from Sodbury to
near Hells, the eastern extremity of the Mendips, is mostly oonooded
by overlying deposits. Partial denudations occur at Lansdown, near
Wick Bock, where the limestone can be traced in the valleys dipping
towards the centre of the coal basin. From Lansdown to the Mendips
the continuity of the basin can be well ascertained, the coal-measures
being imcov^«d in some of the valleys in which the principal collieries
are situated. In other places shafts have been sunk through the
overlying horizontal deposits beneath which the coal is worked. The
greatest length of this area is 25 miles ; the width, from the collieries
near Bath to those of Bedminster near Bristol on the west, is about
11 nules. In this district there is much local irregularity, and the
stratification of the coal-measures is so deranged that they have yeiry
different and varying leveLk In some parts the beds are denuded^
in others concealed by the more recent horizontal deposits ; and thus
the whole basin is divided into several detadied coal-fields.
The imcovered areas may be divided into the northern, the central,
the southern, the eastern, and the western coal-tracts. The northern
is the most extensive and elevated : its greatest length, from the vertex
of the basin near Tortworth to the viUage of Brislington on the left
bank of the Avon near Bristol, is 12 miles ; its greatmt breadth from
east to west is nearly four miles. The collieries of Iron Acton, Sodbury,
and Kingswood are in this coal-tract. Along the northern limits of
the basin, frt>m Sodbury to Cromehall and Titherington, the coal-
measures are exposed in immediate contact with the limestone ; on
the western, southern, and great part of Uie eastern border of the
tract they are skirted by hills of red marl capped by lias. At
Pucklechuroh shafts are sunk to the coal through both the latter
formations.
The central tract, which begins on the south of Dundry Hill, is
divided into two parts by a narrow valley; the northern portion,
about six miles in length, extends from Burnet on the north-east to
Knowl Hill, near Stanton Drew, on the south-west; near Pensford it
is about two miles in breadth. The southern division, extending from
Temple Cloud on the west to between High IdtUeton and Timsbury
on the east, is about three miles in length. To the south-east of this
central coal-tract the coal-measures are entirely concealed by super-
i*acent deposits through a distance of six milee. Throughout this space
lowever many shafts are sunk — some through the red marl of the
valleys, and some through the lias which occurs on higher ground.
There are several of the latter description in the parishes of TimsbiOT
and Poulton ; but the deepest is on Clan Down near Badstock, which
is sunk 200 fathoms before its horizontal adits are driven. Another
shaft, beginning in the oolite, is sunk on the edge of the same Down
near Pamton ; but it is not so deep as the former, since here there is
a rise in the strata, and the coal-seams are in consequence much nearer
the surface. On the ascent of the hiU abovQ Clmcompton the coal-
measures are again exposed to the extent of about an acre.
The southern coal-tract commences near the point where the road
between Bath and Shepton Mallet crosses the Nettlebridge stream,
and ends between Vobster and Mells ; its greatest length is six miles,
and greatest breadth two miles and a hal£ The coal-measures of the
eastern coal-tract axe laid open In the vale of the Buoyd at Wick and
Upton, both in Gloucestershire ; they are likewise exposed at Newton
St. Loe, on the left bank of the Avon below Bath, dipping towards the
interior of the basin. Several seams are worked at Upton and Newton.
The western coal-tract lies at the south-east of Leigh Down, near
Bristol Beds of red marl form the upper strata in tiae shafts of all
the coal-pits of this tract between Long Ashton and Bedminster. The
coal-field of Nailsea,lying more to the west, is a continuation of thistraot
A great undulation in the strata of the coal-measures which form
the coal-basin of Somersetshire and the south of Gloucestershire, alters
the apparent position of the seams so much that it is very difficult to
ascertain the identity of each throughout the various colnerieft. The
local names of the several seams also tend to oonfrise the g^logist
The cham of hills which limits the western boundary of this coal
district presents remarkable anomalies between Clevedon and Port-
buxy along its northern escarpment. A great fault rangijog along the
edge effects a very considerable subsidence of the strata. In conse-
quence of this " the coal-measures, depressed to the level of the old
rad-sandstone, appear to occupv its place, and seem to dip beneath
the mountain limestone, on which in fiaiot they repose. ('GeoL
Trans.,' voL iv.)
The following are the principal subdivisions of theCoal-Measures in
this basin, beginning witn the nighest : — The Upper Coal Shale; the
Pennant Grit (sandstone) ; the Lower Coal Shale ; and the Millstone Grit.
In the Bedminster collieiy on the south-west of Bristol there are
three seams of good bituminous coal : the deepest and uppermost are
worked ; the former is i feet 8 inches, the latter 2^ feet to 3 feet
thick; the middle seam is only 1 foot The interval between the two
principal seams is 28 fathoms ; the lowest shaft simk is 127 fathoms
deep. These beds are obviou^y referrible to the lower coal shale.
In the meridian of Pitcot, situated a little to the north-east of
Nettlebridge, all the strata are vertical : a perpendicular shaft is
there sunk to the depth of 80 fothoms in one bed of coal.
The total number of mines worked in this district is probably less
than it was formerly, but the whole produce is certainly much greater,
owin^ to improved methods in working. The seams of coal are very
thin m oompaiison with those which are worked in the principal coal-
fields of England, and in most of those would be rejected as not
worth the working.
8. The Forest of Dean Coal-Basin oooupies an irregular elliptical
area, circumscribed by the trian^e formea by the Wye, the Severn,
and the road from Gloucester to Ross ; the laigest diameter from
north-north-east to south-south-west is about ten miles, the shorter
about six miles. AU the strata dip unifcnrmly towards the centre of
the basin. The whole of this coal-tract^ together with the high land
that surrounds it^ constitutes a mountain group, the average height
of which above the level of the sea is about 900 feet. The aggregate
thickness of the whole strata of the coal-measures is, according to Mr.
MuAet, 600 faUioms ; he divides the diflferent strata into seven series,
in which there are 27 beds of coaL
On the north of the Forest of Dean basin, and at the distance of a
few miles, is the Newent coal-field, a very sinall tract surroimded and
concealed by overlying strata of the new red-sandstone.
Scotch Coal-Pidas, — Several small Coal-Fields occur in Dumfries-
shire, forming narrow basins in the valleys of the great southern
transition chtun of Scotland. In the valley of the Nith, in the parishes-
of Sanqidiar and Kirkoozmel, there is one of these coal-basins, about
7 miles in length and 2^ miles in breadth. Three seams of workable
coal have been discovered, avera^^ing in thickness from 8 to 4 J feet.
The range of the seams is in the direction of the Nith ; the measures
are disturbed by a dyke running north and south, by which the strata
are much depressed on the east side. In the parish of Canobie,
adjoining Cimiberland, coal is worked in two pits : the principal seam
is 5 feet 10 inches thick.
The principal coal-district of Scotland occupies the tract which
forms tiie great central lowland of Scotland, and lies between the
great transition chain on the south and the still loftier primitive
mountains of tibe Highlands on the north. " The whole of this wide
tract is occupied by the coal-measures, the carbomferous limestone,
and the old red-sandstone, associated in every possible manner with
vast accumulations of every variety of trap." (Conybb and Phil.)
To b^gin with the most eastern oountv in this tract in which coal
is found : — In the parish of Dunbar, on tne east coast of Haddington,
there are indications of coal, but no seams have yet been found of
sufficient thidmess for working. In the pariah of Ormiston, in the west
of the same county, coal is found in abundance; there are three
workable seams of coal, varying from 28 to 48 indies in thickness,
and the coal is of good quality.
Coal oocurftin Fifeshire, on the north side of the Forth. ^ There are
mines in tiie parish of Dysart, where coahi were first raised in Scotland
nearly 400 yean ago. Coal is wrouglit in several places in Mid-Lothian.
In Lanark the cou-fields are numerous and extensive. The Wilson-
town coal-basin and the Climpy basin both occur in the parish of
C^umwath; the latter is on the west side of the first, the crop of the
one nearlv approaching the other. There are several seams of coal
in these basms. The main coal, or lowest^ is called the 4-feet coal ;
another seam is about 2 feet in thickness. The accompanying strata
are sandstone^ varying in composition and hardness, bituminous shale,
slate-day, and thin beds of ironstone alternate with the coaL Several
small faults, or hitches, as they are here called, traverse the field. On
the south-west part of the fidd the main coal is generally 14 feet
bdow the crow coal, which is the next superior bed ; on the north-
east the space between the same beds is only about 2 feet. These
basios form part of the great coal-basin of the Clyde, which extends
on both sides of that river, and the centre of which is near DalzieL
On the same side of the river, in the parish of Monkland, there are
many collieries, in which the thickest bed of ooal is 9 feet, and it is
of good quality. On the left bank of the river coal is wrought in
several places. Several mines ai-e worked in the parish of Rutheiglen,
and othen in the adjoining parish of Cambuslang. There are several
also in Hamilton, Stonehouse, and Douglass. Throughout this dis-
trict seven seams of coal are usually found within 415 feet of the
surface; five of these seams are of sufficient thickness and good
quality to be wrought The following ehowb the situation and thick-
ness of the seams of coal in the pits in the parish of Cambuslang : —
feet. in.
Upper soil (earth and day) . • . from 20 to 80
Argillaceous white fiwestone 20
Shde, with vegetable impressions, from 80 feet to 40 feet 85
1st Seam, soft coal 4 6
Interval (hard freestone, &a) 26 6
2nd Seam, soft coal 8 6
Interval (shale) 68 6
8rd Seam, snaft ootl 5
r shale, 20 feet . . . . 1 .
Interval < hard ironstone, from 6 to 18 inches > . 65 2
[shale and freestone . . *}
4th Seam, soft coal 6
COAti f^BltAf lOK.
COAL FORMATION.
U
feet. in.
Sth Seam, aoft ooal * . 8
i-*«™^{dSf"} ...... 10
6ih Seam, hud. coal, good for iron-works, forges^ &c. . 8 6
Interval (shale) . . . . . . .16
7th Seam, soft coal .,,.,,. 16
Till, ftc., with thin seams of ooal 84
445 8
The thickness of the coal and of the freestone varies considerably
in different parts, and the numbers here given must be taken only as
an approximation. The strata are frequently deranged by faults,
several of which run from east to west In their genend arrangement
the strata usually run nearly parallel to each other, elthous^ they
have always a considerable angle of elevation, and uniformly dip
towards the Clyde. A great fault occurs between Hamilton and
Quarter, and none of the principal seams are wrought for some miles
north of this spot, the coiu-beds being sunk nearly 100 fathoms lower
than those out of the fault. The main seam worked at Quarter is
5 feet 6 inches thick, and consists of four distinct varieties of coaL
This Coal-Basin of the Clyde extends into Renfrew, where there are
many collieries. Coal is wrought in the parish of Eastwood, in that
county, in several seams of various thickness, but none exceed 2 feet
6 inches. ^The whole are of good quality. Five of them are wrought
in pits vaiying in depth from 10 to 40 fathoms. The coal-measures
here consist of the usual series of freestone, shale, &o., dipping
generally to the south-west. This coal formation pad*tly surrounds
the Loch of Castle Semple, and continues without interruption into
Ayrshire, around Kilbimie Loch, and onwards to Ardrossan. Coal
occurs in different places in Dumbarton, where, among other parishes,
it is wrought in Easter Kilpatrick. It is also foimd abundantly in
Stirlingshire, along the southern base of the Lennox Hills. Coal
likewise occurs thiHoughout Linlithgow, and is worked extensively in
that county ; it is likewise found in Clackmannan and in the south
of the counties of Perth and Kinross.
Some of the richest and most valuable bands of ironstone are
obtained from the coal-measures of Scotland, chiefly in the basin of
the Clyde. The manufacture of iron in this distnct is very exten-
sive. In the year 1849 nearly 700,000 tons of pig-iron were wrought
in this district The Scotch beds include a large proportion of sand-
stone and a peculiar limestone, worked at Burdie House near Edin-
burgh. The remains of plants and animals are found in these rocks,
and amongst the latter the MegaliclUhift, a fossil fish of large size and
interesting structure. [MsaALiOHTHT8.1
Irith Coal-Fieldt. — ^Mr. Qrifi&ths, in his ' Report on the Leinster
Coal District,' gives an excellent summary of the Irish coal-fields,
from which what follows la taken : — ** If we except the Leinster dis-
trict, my knowledge of the coal-fields of Ireland is as yet vexy limited;
and though each in its turn will form the subject of a separate report>
I think it right to draw attention to them in this place, bv giving
such general infonnation as I possess respecting their situation and
circumstances. Coal had been discovered in more or less quantity in
seventeen counties of Ireland; but I believe the island contains but
four prindpctl coal-districts — ^namely, the Leinster, the Munster, the
Connaught, and the Ulster. The two former contain carbonaceous
or stone-coal, and the latter bitimunous or blazing coaL
" The Leinster ooal-district is situated in the counties of Kilkenny,
Queen's County, and county of Carlow. It also extends a short dis-
tance into the county of Tipperary, aa far aa Killenaule. This is
the principal carbonaceous ooal-district. It is divided into three
detached parts, separated from each other by a secondary limestone
country, which not only envelops, but in continuation passes under
the whole of the coal-district ; a fact which was indisputably, though
accidentally, proved by the Grand Canal Company, who sank a pit
through 18 yards of black slate-clay and flinty slate into the limestone
in search of coal. The Leinster coal-district is therefore of subsequent
formation to the limestone.
" The Munster ooal-district occupies a considerable portion of the
oonnties of Limerick and Kerry, and a large part of the county of
Cork. It is by much the most extensive in Ireland ; but as yet there
is not suflicient information respecting the number, extent^ or thick-
ness of the beds of coal it may contain.
" Coal and culm have hem raised for near a century in the neigh-
bourhood of Kanturk, ih the county of Cork. At Dromagh colliery
I understand the work has been carried on to a very considerable
extent^ and its annual supplies of coal and culm have materially
contributed t6 the agricultural improvement of an immense extent
of the great maritime and commercial counties of Cork and Limerick,
which must otherwise have continued neglected and unreclaimed.
** Many drcumstances combine to mue the examination of this
district of peculiar interest and importance ; and as a recent applica-
tion has been made by tixe Cork Institution to the DubUn Society to
aid the undertaking, it is probable that this immense district will
shortly be minutely explored. From all that has been ascertained,
it is very dear Uiat the dip of the beds and the quality of the coal
differ materially from those of the Leinster district In the Munster
district the beds run east and west^ and dip to the south, forming an
angle of 45*. In the Dromagh oolliety, where all tJie beds which
have been discovered have been successively and in general success-
fully wrought^ four beds incline on each other, and at no greater
distance than 200 yards. The first of these beds is a 8-feet stone-
coal, and is the leading bed. All faults, checks, and dislocations,
simUar to those which are discoverable in this bed, are in genenl to
be encountered in the other threa The names of the four beds are,
the eo€Urbed — this lies farthest to the north ; the roek-eoal, so called
from its being oomparativelv of harder quality than the other beds ;
the hulk-bed, so called from its contents being found in laige marwcfi or
bulks ; and Bath't-hed, so called from the name of a celebrated English
miner, by whom it had been many years ago discovered and worked.
The coal-bed consists of 3-feet solid coal, and is not sulphurous ;
the rock-coal is nearly .of the same thickness with the leading bed,
but is very sulphurous, and, having the soundest roof, is the most
easily wrought The other beds are of the culm spedes, but of
peculiar strength. . . . The bulk-bed forms immense bulks and
masses of culm, in which the miners have frequently been unable to
retain the ordinaiy directions of roof and seat
*' No work has been undertaken in the Munster cosl-district to a
greater depth than 80 vards. The present work at the Dromagh
colliexy is at that depth; it is heavily watered, and consequently
expensivdy wrought The quality of the coal and culm improves as
the work descends. . . .
" The Connaught coal-district stands next in order of value and
importance to the Leinster and Munster, and possibly may be found
to deserve the first place when its subterranean treasures shall be
explored. At present nothing is known, except that the outer edges
of several beds of coal have oeen observed, but they have not been
traced to any distance, so that their extoit is by no means ascer-
tained. The coal is of the bituminous spedesi Tins coal is particu-
larly adapted to the purposes of iron-works, foundries, ftc. ftc.
** The iJUter coal-custrict is of trifling importance when compared
with the for^^ing. It commences near Dungannon, in the county of
Tyrone, and extends in a northern direction to Coal Island, and in
continuation to the neighbourhood of Cookstown. Ko beds of ooal
worth working have hitherto been discovered between Coal Island
and Cookstown, but certainly the coal strata extend there. The
principal collieries are at Coal Island and at Dungannon. The coal
of this district is bituminous. I understand that mdications of coal
have been observed at Drumquin, in the coun^ of Tyrone ; and also
at Petigoe, to the north of Leugh Erne. Possibly the coal foxmation
may extend firom the neighbourhood of Cookstown westward to the
north of Lough Erne.
"Besides the foregoing principal coal-districts^ there are okhen of
less consequence. Bituminous coal has been found in the neighbour^
hood of Belturbet^ in the ootmty of Cavan, and at the ooUieries of
Ballycastle, in the county of Antrim ; but Uie Antrim ooal-distriet is
not very extendve. These collieries have been wrought for a number
of years. The coals are of a slaty nature, and greatlv resemble both
the coal and the accompanying rocks which occur m Ayrshire, and
probably they bdong to the same foxmation."
CorUinentcu Europe. — ^France. — In the centre and south of France
some small coal-fidds occur in the valleys of the Loire, the Allier,
the Creuse, and the Dordcgne, the .KYejron, and Axd^che^
between ridges proceeding from the primitive central group
connected with the Cevennes; and, in a few localities, some of the
thickest beds of coal yet discovered have been found. In the north
of France, the coal-formation occupies a very large tract of country,
running westward frt>m Hardinghen, near Boulogne, by Valendennea,
and thence up the Schdde and down the Mouse to Eschweiler,
beyond Aix-la<!hapelle. The total area of coal in France is probably
not less than 2000 square miles. Its annual yield is not less than
4,000,000 tons. These depodts are of the same age as those of England,
but they rest on granite or other ciystalline and metamorphine rocks.
Belgium. — ^The district along the Meuse, between Namur and
Lidge, is said to resemble in its geological structure, as well as pic-
turesque features, the Somersetshire and South Qloucester district :
the strata being broken and deranged, exhibit, if posdble^ still more
contorted and mverted positions of the respective beds. The defiles
of the Sambre and the Mouse {* CeoL Trans.,' voL L, 2nd 8eriesX_pre-
sent an exact cotmterpart of those of the Avon and the Wye. There
are two prindpal coal-fields in Belgium, the one extending to the east
and known as the Li^ Coal-Field, and the other west forming the
Hainault dividon. The seams are generally thin, remaricably
numerous, and presenting an apparent multiplication by doublings
of the strata. A kind of coal is found in Belgium called Flenu Coal,
which is not found in Great Britain. It bums rapidly, giving out a
disagreeable smelL [Belgium, in Qeoo. Div.]
Qermany. — The coal-districts in the north of Germany are probably
the prolongation of the Belgium formation. On the north-east and
Bouui-east of the Hans Mountains, near Ballenstadt and Keustadt, the
coel-formation occurs resting on the transition rod^ of that group. In
Saxony coal is found in man^ places along the northern foot of the
Erzegebixge. It is extensively worked near Zwickau and near
Dresden. There is a very extendve coal-district in Bohemia, extend-
ing into Upper Silesia. This district lies between the great primitive
chain of the Erzegebiige and the Riesengebixge, on the north, and the
COAL FORMATION.
COAL FORMATION.
26
great distriot of primitive slate which t>ccupie8 the larger part of
Bohemia aouth of the Beraun and Upper Elbe. More than forty beds
of coal are supposed to be worked in this district. The whole annual
supply from Prussia and the Qerman States of the Zollyerein exceeds
2,760,000 tons.
Russia. — Qood ooal has been found in Southern Ruflm% near Toula,
lat. 54*, long. 87% where it is worked ; but the quantity is so small,
and the difficulty of working it beneath a loose and half-liquid bed of
quicksand is so great, that it seems unlikely to be of much utility.
Coal halt also been worked at Bakhmont^ mt 48'', long. 88**, in the
Stvemment of Katerinoslat (Mr. Strangways on the Oeology of
ussia, ' OeoL Trans.,' toL i., 2nd series, p. 85.)
Sweden. — ^Coal occurs in this country near Helsingborg at the
entrance of the Baltic, and also in the island of Bomholm.
[BOBKBOLM, in Gsoo. DlY.]
Spain. — ^Both bituminous coal and anthracite are found in Spain.
The richest beds are in Asturias, where the measures are so much
broken and altered aa to be worked by almost Tertical shafts driven
through the beds. The area covered by coal-beds ^in Spain is not
exactly known, but it is said to be the largest in Europe, presenting
upwazds of 100 workable seams varying from 3 to 12 feet ia thickness.
(Anstad.)
Hunguy and some other countries in the east of Europe contain
coal-measures which appear to belong to the carboniferous period.
It has hem, conjectured that ooal exists in several parts of contmental
Greece.' Coal is said to be found north of Constantinopla
Atia, — ^In Asia coal has long been known in China, where it is said
to have been worked as early as the 18th oent'ury. Mr. Williams says
that both bituminous coal and anthracite are seen in the coal marts
of the north of Chintu Coal is likewise found in the countries imme-
diately around the Persian Qulf, but of a very indifferent description.
In most parts of Cutch, ooal occurs in abundsAoe and of good quality ;
it Ignites quicUy, and bums to a white ashl Coals are also found in
Bundelcund. There are huge mines in the district of BurAwan, 180
miles from Calcutta, and worked to the extent of 14,000 or 15,000
tons annually. They are situated on the banks of a river connected
with the Hoogly, and were first worked about thirty-five years ago,
but they have not been in extensive operation more than twenty-five
years; the principal seam is about 9 feet thick, and is about 90 feet
from the surfiice. Coal has likewise been got fram a mine opened
near Bhaugulpoor, on the Ganges, about 800 miles from Buxdwan.
Another ooal-field has been discovered on the banks of the Hoogly,
near Merzipoor, about forty miles from Calcutta ; the coal is found
close to tile surface, and the thickness of the principal seam is
said to be 2 feet. Coal of good quality likewise occurs in the Birman
Empirci
America, — ^Plofessor Ansted says, " It is only within a few years
that the coal-measures of the continents of America have been in an v
way knowD, and we are even now in ignorance of many details with
regard to the greater number ; but enough is ascertain^ to convince
any unprejudiced person that the supply of mineral fuel there obtun-
able is amply sufficient for the requirements of the whole civilised
world for thousands of years, even should the demand increase
rapidly and the consumption continue to bear reference to the multi-
plication of all kinds of industrial occupation. There are in North
America four principal coal areas, compared with which the richest
deposits of otner coimtries are comparatively insignificant These
are the great central Coal-Fields of the AUeghanies ; the Coal-Field of
Illinois and the basin of the Ohio ; that of the basin of the Missouri ;
and those of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton. Besides
these there are many smaller coal areas which in other coimtries
might well take rank as of vast national importance, and which even
ioNorth America will one day contribute greatly to the riches of
various states. We will endeavour to give a brief outline of the
main fsuits concerning the chief of these districts.
** The Alleghany or Appalachian Coal-Field measures 750 miles in
length, with a mean breadth of 85 miles, and traverses eight of the
principal states in the American Union. Its whole area is estimated
at not less than 65|000 square miles, or upwards of 40,000,000 of acres.
The area is thus distributed —
Name of States. Area in Acrea.
Alabama .... 2,250,000
Georgia 100,000
Tennessee 2,750,000
Kentucli^ 5,750,000
Virginia 13,500,000
Ma^land 850,000
Ohio 7,500,000
Pennsylvania 9,500,000
41,700,000
" Making a liberal deduction for improductive portions, denuded and
eroded strata, and the parts of the seams out of reach, we may still
fahrly calculate that there exists in this district an area of 25,000,000
acree of productive coal-measures. The working has already com-
menced in most of the states above mentioned, though not geneially
to any very considerable extent. Thus in Alabama, the beds alternate
with the usual sandstones, shales, and clays, and the coal-seams worked
seem to be from 4 to 10 feet thick, and are quarried at the surface.
They repose on grits and appear on the two sides of an anticUnid.
The coal is bituminous and used for gas. In Kentucky both
bituminous and cannel coal are worked in seams about 8 or 4 feet
thick, the cannel being sometimes associated with the bituminous
ooal as a portion of the same seam ; and there are in addition valuable
bands of iron-ore. In Western Virginia there are several coal-seams
of variable thickness, one 9^ feet, two others of 5 feet, and others
8 or 4 feet On the whole there seems to be at least 40 feet of ooal
distributed in thirteen seams. In the Ohio district the whole ooal-
field affords on an average at least 6 feet of coaL The Maryland dis-
trict is less extensive, but is remarkable as containing the best and
most useful coal, which is worked now to some extent at Frostbnr^.
There appears to be about 80 feet of good coal in four seams, besides
many others of less importance. j_ The quality is intermediate between
bituminous and anthracitic, anoit is considered well adapted to iron-
making. Lastly, in Pennsylvania there are generally from two to five
workable beds, yielding on an average about 10 feet of workable coal,
and amongst them is one bed traceable for no leas than 450 miles,
consisting of bituminous coal, its thickness being from 12 to 14 feet
on the south-eastern border, but gradually diminishing to 5 or 6 feet.
Besides tiie bituminous coal there are in Pennsylvania the largest
anthracitic deposits in the States, occupying as much as 250,000 acres
and divided into three principal districts. The Illjlnois Coal-Field, in
the plain of the Mississippi, is only second in importance to the vast
areas already described. There are four principal divisions traceable,
of which the first or Indiana district contains several seams of bitu-
minous coal, distributed over an area of nearly 8000 square miles. It
is of excellent qilality for many purposes; one kind burning with
much light and very freely, approaching cannel coal in some of its
properties ; other'kmds consist of caking or splint coaL In addition
to the Indiana Coal-Field, there appears to be as much as 48,000
aquare miles of coal tCrotk in the other divisioiu of the Illinois dis-
trict Although these site leas known and not at present mudi
worked,' 80,000 square miles are in the Sta.te of Illinois, which sup-
plies' coal of excellent quality and with great fietcility. The ooal is
generally bituminous. The third great coal area of the United States
is that of the Missouri, which is little known at present, although
oertainly of great importance. From the account given of these
localities the rteder'will be able to appreciate in soxiie measure the
mineral resources of the United States, and may perceive also the
importance of geological knowledge in. recognising the laws of the
position of a material so valuable.
" British America oontains very large supplies of cpal in the provinces
of N6w Brunlnvick and Nova Scotia. The former presents three coal-
fields, occupying in all no less than 57,000 square iniles ; but the latter
is far larger; and exhibits several very distinct localities where coal
abounds. The New Brunswick coal-measures include not only
ahales and sandstones, as is usual with such deposits, but bands of
lignite infpregnated with vitreous copper-ore and ooated by green
carbonate of copper. 'The coal is generally in thin seams lying
horizontally. It is Chiefiy or entirely bituminous.".
Nova Scotia contains a great quantity of coaL The great coal-field
of Pictou has been traced from Carriboo Harbour to Merigomish,
comprising an area of more than 100 square mUes. The seams of
coal tesemble much more those of Staffordshire than those in the
north of England. One bed is described by a practical miner, who
went to Nova Scotia to superintend the opening of the mines^ as 40
feet in thickness ; it is not however equally good throughout, and it
was th#ught advisalde to work only 10 feet of the upper part Ac-
cording to Bouchette, the seams of this field vary in thickness from
1 foot to 50 feet The coal is highly bituminous and bums well.
There is another ooal-field, also of considerable extent, in the north-
west part of the county of Northumberland, between tiie river Macan
and the shores of the Chignecti ChaimeL In this district there are
eight strata of coal, varying from 1 foot to 4 feet in thickness. This
coal is not considered so good as that of Pictou. There are also indica-
tions of coal in the township of Londonderry and at Onslow ; on the
north shore of the Mina's basin ; at the head of Pomket Harbour, in
the upper district of the county of Sydney ; and on the south shore
of Wallace Harbour, in the county of Cumberland. (Bouchette.y
Coals of excellent quality are got in Cape BretoiL The coal-
measures have been traced in the western part of the island, on
Inhabitants River, at Port Hoodi and at Mabou. On the east the
Sydney Coal'^Field is of great extent; it eommenees at Miray Bay and
runs along the coast to the Great Bras d'Or, being in length about 40
miles, and averaging 5 miles in breadth. " From a minute calcula-
tion, after deducting harbours, bays, and all •other interpositions, it
appears Uiat there are 120 square miles of land,- containing available
veins of coaL" (Bouchette.) The measures in this district contain
fourteen beds of coal, varying frt>m 8 to 11 feet in thickness. The
coal is wrought at Sydney Harbour and at Lingan.
Coal is found very abundantly in Australia, and is worked exten-
sively in the Newcastle district, on the Hunter's River. A ooal
formation likewise occurs in Van Diemen's Land ; and ooal has been
found and is wrought in several parts of New Zealand, £Sttpp. }
27
COAL FORMATION.
COAL PLAKTa
FauUi of the Coal Formation.
The plants found in this deposit are so important that a separate
article, Coal FhAsn, is deroted to them. The animal remains found
have only been occasionally alluded to : we acoordingly furnish a list
of the g^era of animals found in the entire Carboniferous System of
Great Britain, fus given in Professor Tennant's list of British Fossils.
Where the species are more than one, the number is given, but where
there is but one the specific name is added.
Amorphozoa.
TragoB, temicirculare .
ZOOPHTTA.
AmpUxui .
AitfiBa aranea
AitfHBopora aniiqna .
Anlopora
Bermieea(f) megattoma
Caryophyllia .
C^<Me9radi<mi
Oladoeora
OyathophyUwm
Favotitea capillaris
FenateUa .
FUiMra palmata
Giaueonome
Chiyoma
ffemitrypa Hibemica .
Ichihyorachie Ncwenham
Jania.
Lithodendron .
Lithottrotum
Michdinia ienutaepta
Orbieulitea antiquu$ .
Polypora
Ptylop&ra phma
Puttnlopora
JUitpora undata ,
Stromatopora auhtUis
Syrmgopora
TuMnUia expama ,
VinetUaria,
EOHnrODSBXATA.
Aetinocrimu .
Atoerinut MiUeri
C^atkoerinm .
JSdkinoermut
Bw ryocrim ti wneavu$
OUberttoerinut .
Paktekinm
Pentairemaiitti .
PkUUpaoerimm earjfocrinoidet
PlatyervMu
PoteriocriMu .
Khodoerinfu
Symbathocrinut eonicvi .
TauDocrimu
AVKXLXDA.
SaMla tmiiqua
Serpula
SetTHtlitet
SpwrorhU .
i^roglyphw margintUut
Ikucta.
OureuUaidet . •
Cbubtaoba.
ApnM dubUu .
Aaaphut quadraUmhu
Bairdia . * • .
Cydutradialu .
Cypriii^)
Cyihert
Cytharina Phimpnana .
Vapknia primava
Ditkyroearit .
BiUotnocanchui Scouleri
Bwrypterui Seouleri,
GrijUhidea
Lm.vim ....
PhiUiptia .
2
2
8
2
2
20
4
2
8
8
4
4
2
2
4
10
9
5
4
6
8
16
6
2
4
5
2
4
2
2
4
17
8
5
8
11
CONCmPEBA BlXTABU.
Amphidetma(Ji) . . . . 4
Anotma ..... 2
Area 2
ArUmisparva
Aitarte 2
Axinna 7
ByMtoarea 5
Cardinia(1) ... 5
Cardiomwpha . . 8
Cardium orbieulare
Corhia eanedlata . .
Oorbfda aeniUa
Orenella aeutiroairia . . .
OueuUcea .... 8
Cyprieardia . . . . 11
Uyprina 2
Ihlabra 5
Ihnax primigeniua ,
3im<mdia untformia • . .
laocardia axiniformia .
KeUia gregaria . ...
La/ni^ea 2
Leptodamua . . . . 2
Lithodomua dactyloidea .
Lucina . . . . . 2
Lutraria .... 8
Mactraovata . . . .
Modiola 9
Mytilua 8
Nucula 22
Pandora davata . . .
Pinna 4
Pleurorhynehua . . . 10
PaamnuHna decuaaaia
PuUaatra 4
Sanguinolitaa . . . .19
Sedgwiekia 6
Solemya primasva .
SoUnpdagicma . ...
y^naritpia » . .8
Venits 4
Ungidina atUiaua .
rnfo(?) 8
CoyCHIPEBA MOVOICTARU.
Aviada 16
CkrviUia 4
Inoceramua . . 7
Lima . . . . .8
MeUagrina . . . 6
MonoHa caqualia »
Pectm 75
Poaidonomya .... 9
Ptmnea 8
Ptenmita .... 5
■
Bbachiopoda.
Atrypa 9
Chondea 12
Orama vtaicuhaa . .
Zitptcsna • . .4
Lingula 5
Orbicula 4
Orthia 17
Prodmdua .46
Spirifer 59
TerAratuda • .26
Oastebopoda.
AerocuUa ....
. 4
Buecimim
. 8
drrua ....
. 5
Dentaiiitm inomaium
BUndima ....
. 2
Buomphalaa •
. 17
FiaanSrdla dongaia
Olobultia. . . . ,
. 8
Lacuna aaUiqtM .
Loxanema . . . .
. 11
LittoHnapuaiUa . . .
MaeraehcUua • • • ,
, B
Metoptoma . . 5
Mieroconehua carbonariua
MurdUaonia . . 8
Natica • .... 8
Natieopaia 6
Neriia 2
Paidla 5
Phanerotinua .... 2
Platyeeraa 8
Platyadiiama .... 8
Plmrotomaria . . 41
Pyramia 2
Sipkonaria Konindn . . .
Terebra eondrida .
T^vchdla priaea . . .
Tnrbo 5
Twritdla 8
Umbrdla kevigata .
PVnWFODA.
Oonularia quadrindeaia . .
Phyaonemna aubterea . . .
Oyracanthua .... 4
Oraeanth^a . . 4
Lapraeanthua .... 2
^TVittyc^MM orciMlia . . .
Cladaeanlkua paradoxna
Oieaeanthua loneaii ....
Oroduaeindua
Orthaeanthiu eylindricua . .
PleuraeaaUhua ... 4
ffdodua 9
Chomatodfua .... 8
a>eU»o<lM« 5
\Paammodua .... 4
PcBcilodua 6
Pleuirod/ua . . .2
Ctfnoplyc&HM . . 8
Otenodm .... 4
P€<a2(K2if« 8
Cladodua .... 7
Diplodm 2
Hbtxbopoda.
BdUropkon
Poredlia .
Ckfbalopoda.
Adtnoeeraa
Oyrtoeeraa t^Aereidaiwik
Ooniatitea
I^atUUua . . . .
Orthaceraa
Phragmoceraa JUxidria
TaoEB,
Placoidaa,
Onehua ....
Cftena^mihua
Ptychaeanihua aM<Bvia .
Sphenaeanthua aemUaiua .
Aataropiydiiua
19
8
2
54
42
82
6
6
(T^onoMfei.
Aeantkodea auteatua .
Pakeomacui •
iWynofus
Seiicroiefei.
JHplapterua •
Pygoptarua.
AeroUpia aaUirodria
Orognathua oonideua .
GraptoUpia omaiua .
Pdodua eapUatua
Ccelaeamikua . .
Holopygua Bennuvi .
jBIeronaiMit [odcUtis
. 3
. . 6
. 2
2
2
3
2
8
COAL PLAKTS. That ooal is the result of the minenlisation of
vegetable remains is abundantly proved, both by tlie numerous
impresiions of plants found in connection with it^ and by the traces
of organisation which are still discoverable in it.
In general the impressions of plants occur chiefly in the shale of
the coal-measures, that is, in the mud which separates the seams of
coal, or in the sandstone or ironstone associated with the coal fonna*
tlon ; and as such impressions are much more distinct than any that
occur in the ooal itself, it is chiefly from them that our ideas of the
vegetation from which coal has been produced have been derived.
They are often present in inconcdvable beauty and abundance, as
may be imagined from Dr. Buckland's graphic accoimt of those in
the coal-mines of Bohemiiu In his ' Bridgewater Treatise,' he says : —
"The finest example I have ever witneraed is that of the coal-mines
of Bohemia just mentioned. The most elaborate imitations of living
foliage upon the painted ceilings of Italian palaces bear no comparison
with the beauteous profusion of extinct vegetable forms with which
the galleries of these instructive coal mines are overhung. The roof
is covered as with a canopy of gorgeous tapestry, enriched with
festoons of most graceful xoliage, flung in wild irregular profusion
over every portion of its surface. The efi<Bct is heightened by the
contrast of the coal-black colour of these vegetables with the light
ground-work of the rock to which thev are attached. The spectator
feels himself transported, as if by enchantment, into the forests of
another world; he beholds trees of forms and charaeten now
unknown upon the surface of the earth, presented to his senses
almost in the beauty and vigour of their primeval life; their scaly
stems and b^icUng branches, with their delicate apparatus of foliage,
are all spread forth before him, little impaired l^ the lapse of
countless ages, and bearing faithful records of extinct systems of
vegetation, which began and terminated in times of which these
rehcs are llie infiUlible historians."
Such remains consist chiefly of impressions of leaves separated
from their branches, and of casts of trunks more or less in a broken
state ; and with them occur now and then pieces of wood or remains
of trees in which the vegetable texture is to some extent preserved.
Of the leaves the greater part is more or less mutflated; those of
ferns, which are extremely numerous, have lost their fructification in
the majority of ^stances; and it fre(j[uently happois that the
leaflets of compound leaves have been disarticulated either wholly
or partially. Stems or trunks are in all cases in a state which must
be supposed to result from decay previously to their conversion into
coal ; aestitute of bark, or with the principal part of that envelope
gone, and often pressed qui te flat, so that all trace of their original
convexity is deslxoyed. Where ripe fruits are met with, they are not
in dusters as they probably were when alive, but sepacmted into
»
COAL PLANT&
COAL PLANTa
30
Bingle indiylduals. Of flowen there is no trace that can be satiB-
factorily identified ; for AfUhdUhea PUeaimuB, the most perfect that
has yet been diBCovered, is altogether of a doubtful nature.
It will at once be seen that the investigation of plants in such a
condition is very much more difficult than that which is presented by
a recent Flora, The nature of the inquiries, and the difficulties
presented to an investigator of the plants of the coal formation^ have
been well described by Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, in a paper 'On the
Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period as compared witn that of the
Pr^nt Bay/ in the second volume of the 'Memoirs of the
(j^logical Survey of Great Britain.' His remarks are arranged under
four heads — ^the nature of the plants, their geographical distribution,
relation to the boU, and the reciprocal influence of the whole mass of
the vegetation on the surface it covers : —
"1. Of the mutual affinities of the groups under which the
majority of the genera of ooal-plants arrange themselves little more
can be said but that the ferns occupy thejower end of the series and
the Con^ferm possibly the highest ; but this depends upon the view
taken of the affinities of StgiUaruB, the most important group.
These are classed by some observers amongst Ferns, ny others with
CcnifircB, another considers them as linking these two widely different
families, whilst a fourth ranks them much higher than either. The
affinities of another group, CaltmUtetf are entirely unascertained.
Of the whole amoimt of species in each no conjecture can be formed,
or any but a very rough one, of the number mto which those with
which we are familiar as of common occurrence should be divided
The Ferns far outnumber probably all the others; but this again
materially depends on the value according to the markings of
StgillaruB, as means of dividing that genus; for if the slight
differences hitherto employed be msisted upon, the number of the
so-called species may be uzilimitedl^ increased.
"2. With regard to the geograpmcal distribution of the spedes, ftci.,
it appears that a uniformity once existed in the vegetation through-
out the extra-tropical countries of the Northern Hemisphere, to
which there is now no parallel ; and this was so whether we consider
the coal-plants as representing all the flora of the period, or a part
only, consisting of some widely-distributed forms that characterised
certain local conditions. Nor is this uniformity less conspicuous in
what may be cdled the vertical distribution; the fosnls in the
lowest coal-beds of one field very frequently pervading all the
succeeding beds, though so many as thirty may be interposed
between Uie highest and the lowest
" 3. Of the relations between the soil and the plants nourished by it»
little more is recognisable than that the SiffiUaria have been partiou-
lariy abundant on the under day, which, judging from the absence of
any other fossils but SiffiUarioB roots {Stigmaria), seems to have been
either in itself unfriendly to vegetation, or so placed (perhaps from
being gubmei^ged) as to be incapable of supporting anjr other. The
latter Is the most probable, because both SigtUaria and their
Stigmaria roots occur in other soils^ besides under day, and are there
accompanied by CaUunUei, Ferns, &a The 0(m\fara! again are chiefiy
found m the sandstones, and their remains being exceedingly rare in
the clays, shales, or ironstones, it may be oonduded that they never
were associated with the SigiUarue and other plants which abound
in the coal-seams, but that they flourished in the neij^bourhood, and
were at times transported to these localities. The qoanti^ of
moisture to which these plants were subjected must remam a
question so long as some authors insist upon the SigiUaria being
ulied to plants now characteristic of deserts, and others to such as
are the mhabitants of moist and insular dimatea. The singular
succulent texture and extraordinary size of both the vascular and
cellular tissttes of many, possibly indicate a great amount of humidity.
The question of light and heat involves a yet more important
question, some of the coal-plants of the arctic regions beinf^ considered
identical with those of Britain. How these can have existed in that
latitude under the now prevailing distribution of light and heat has
not been hiUierto explained ; they are too bulky for comparison with
any vegetables inhabiting those regions at the present time, and of
too lax a tissue to admit of a prolonged withdrawal of the stimulus
of light, or of their being subjected to continued frosts.
"4. The consequence of the existence of the ooal-plants has been
the formation of coal; but how this operation was conducted is a
question yet unsolved. The under-day or soil upon which the coal
rests, and upon whidi some of the plants grew, seems in general to
have suffered little change thereby, further wan what was effected by
the intrusion of a vast number of roots throughout the mass. The
shales on the other hand are composed of inorganic matter, materially
altered by the presence of the vegetable matter they contain. The
iron-clays again present a third modiflcation of this mixture of
organic and inox^ganic matter, often occurring in the form of nodules.
These nodules seem to be the result of a peculiar action of vegetable
matter upon water, chaiged with soil and a salt of iron ; the iron-
stone nodules of existing peat-bogs appearing altogetiier analogous
to those of the carboniferous period, whether in form or in chemical
constituents. Here then tne botanist recognises in one ooal-
seam a vegetable detritus under three distinct phases, and which
has been acted upon in each by very different causes. Li the under-
day there are roots only ; these permeate its mass as those of the
water-lily and other aquatic plants do the silt at the bottom of still
waters.
" The coal is the detritus dther of those plants whose roots are
preserved in the under-day, or of those togeuier wiUi others which
may have grown amongst tiiem or at a distance, and have been after-
wards tliiftiBd to the same position. Above the cod is the third soil,
bearing evidence of the action of a vigorous vegetation ; this is the
shde, which has all the appearance of a quiet deposit from water
chaiged with mineral matters, and into which broken pieces of plants
have fUlen. Here there is so clear a divisional line between the coal
and shale that it is still a disputed point whether the plants oon-
tained in the latter actually grew upon the former, or were drifted to
that podtion in the fluid whidi depodted the mineral matter. Amongst
the sndes are also interspersed in many cases innumerable stumps of
SigUlaria, similar to those whose roots occur in the underdav, and
which are themsdves found attached to those roots in soils similar to
the underdays, but unconnected with anv seam of ooal These
stumps are almost universally ereot^ are uniformly scattered over the
seamsy and otherwise appear to have deddedhr grown on the surfkoe
of the ood ; the shales likewise seem depodted between these stomps.
The rarity of SigiUaria roots (l^igmaria) in this podtion is probably
due to their bong incorporated with the ood itself, though they
sometimes occur above that minerd and between the layers of shde.
The seams of ironstone (or black band) are the last modifications of
soil by vegetable matter to which allusion has been mada When
these are uniform beds or layers, they may be supposed to be the
depodt fh>m water diaiged with iron and soil widen has percolated
through the peat» and in so doiiig absorbed a great ded of vegetable
matter. The layers of nodular ironstone are simple modifications of
these, and may be caused by the sedimentary partides contained in
the fluid, whidi instead of being deposited in a unifonn stratum, are
aggrmted round bits of vegetable matter (as fern leaves, stems, or
cones) which served as nudei
"Nowy though each of these points admits of some explanation
when taken separately, and some illustration firom the action of an
existing veptation on the soil, ftc., it is very difficult to und^vtand
their oombmed operation over so enormous a Bur&oe — ^for instance,
as one of the American ood-fidds — and even more to account for
their regular recurrence according to some flxed law in eveiy succes-
dve coal-seam throughout the whole carboniferous formation."
Cod-plants may be divided for practicd purposes into three classes :
1, those of which only wood still containing organic structure has
been found ; 2, those which have an obvious andogy with recent
plants ; 8, those with which no existing andogy has been traced.
1. Coal-Planii of which Wood only amtaining Opganio Structure
hat been jownd.
The exlstenoe of wood in the cod foraAtion with its texture still
preserved, is a discovery of very modem date. Mr. Nicol, of Edin-
burgh, oldms the credit of having first invented the art of preparing
fosm wood so as to show its structure microscopicdly ; Mr. Witham
has investijgated the subject extendvely, and he nas beoi foUowed by
Messrs. Lindley, Hutton, and others. The result of these inquiries
has been, that wood still preserving its texture exists in a minerd
state extendvely t^iroughout the ood-mines of the north of England ;
that it in most cases has a structure andogous to, dthough not
identical with, that of recent coniferous wood ; and that in those
oases in which its structure is not coniferous it is unlike that of any
existing trees.
Coniferous wood is known amongst other things bv the presence of
small discs upon the ddes of its woody tubes ; differences in the
arrangements of these discs have given rise to the formation of the
genera Pence and Pinitet, to one or other of which dl the ooniferous
cod-wood seems refeirible. Mr. Niool believes that it may all be
referred to dther the existing genera Ptn/iu or Araucaria, Specimens
of this kind of wood occur sometimes of condderable sise. A trunk
of PvnUet Bramdlingi has been found 72 feet long^ and another of
Pinitee WUhami 36 feet long.
The wood to which Mr. Witham's genus Anahaihra apparently
bdongs Is known by its longitudind section 'representing tubes
marked by parallel transverse lines resembling the steps of a ladder.
This iB Yery uncommon, and is stated by Messrs. Lindley and Hutton
to belong to the genus Stigmaria, mentioned hereafter.
Specimens in ironstone dso have occurred of the wood of the
genus Lepidodendron. It consists principally of loose odltdar tissue,
having near the centre a zone of spird vessels, connected with the
bases of the leaves by arcs of spird vessels, and having rudiments of
wood on the outdde of the zone.
2. Ooal-Pkmte which have an obviout Analogy with Heeent Plante»
Coniferous plants have but few .remains, except wood, by
which they can be recognised. A cone of PinMe onlAroctna has been
met with, and there is reason to believe that certain stems called
Bothrodendron, having numerous minute dots upon their surfitce, and
deep circular oblique concavities 4 or 5 inches across, at intervals of
10 or 11 inches, are also remains of trees of this description. It is
probable moreover that some of the fosdls referred to the genua
n COAL PLANTS;
£giHloilen(fnMi in reall; eooiferoui planta, eipeciaU; £. leng\fativm ;
but upon tbw point □□thing certki^ la known.
It wkB at one tims lupposed that the ramuna of palms had bean
found : the eridence, however, upon wbioh thia nippoaition reabi ia
coutidered by JL Brongniart and Dr. Hooker aa insufficient. The only
portiooa of planta auppoaed to be palmi that have been fonnd, ai« the
nmaint of fniila. Theae remaina are generally oblong; S-aided or
6«idid bodies, not mors than an incb long. They haxe been named
Trigonoearpitai NSigtrathi.
Lycopodiaceona plants, or what are oonaidersd anslogoni to tham,
form a vary largs proportion of ths vsgetable remEtlns or tbe nortli of
England coal-field. They are repreaanted by impresaiona clonly
coTcrsd either with loiengo-ahaped apacei diapoaed in a apinl manner,
or by small scalo-like learea, which are sappoaad to have produoed
those spaces by fslling off. Whan they branch Uu; have often been
observed to do so in a forked or dichotomous ■wnner. Somstimes
they are minute, and no larger than existing Lgeofodia, bat they are
oooamonally found of considcxable size, som* bkTing besn seen whiah,
.- -^5o7^-
althpngh n
« fragmenlB,w
a betwean 40 and GO U
than 1 feet in diameter. An idea of tlieir
dwi of tlieir aopeaiani
. iriU '
Sttnierjii.
be gained
ZtpUatlnlia TsriaHlit.
Ifplititniean Sltmitrfii.
Asaodated with Uiem aro narrow sbarp'pointed loves reasmUti
scalea, which no doubt belonged to them, but which are distingoiahi
by Uie name of ZepidojAyliun, In the same formations ar« found
cones of differeat aima, conajating of small sharp-pointed lax ncalea, in
the aiila of which were aeeds : theae have been supposed to be the
fhictiScation of Lipidodaidnm ; but as there is no actual oertaintj of
the but, the; bear the name of LepidoMlrnbi. The aliove figure repre-
sents Lepidalnbiu rariniilu. [LEFIDOSTnOBm.]
Ltpidadaidra are usually quoted as an instance of andant i^edea
belonging to the budb genua aa modem plants of very hnmble ttatdre
{tor existing tii/copodia, although they acquire sometime* Hie laigth
or liei^t of three or four fert, gjv always more like monaea than Iteea),
having artivod at gigantic dimenBions in the remote ages when coal
was depoaltad. Thia is ths opinion of M. Adolphe Brongniart and
Dr. Joseph Hooker, who liave bath studied this subject carefully.
Dr. Lindley haa however expressed the opinion that the Ltpidodeadra
are allied to the Canifera. He arguea, iu ths first pUce, that there is
no certainty whatever that the moat gigantic Lepiiodtndra were not
flr-treea,aiui!ogoua to.JroiKorio; a conjecture which ia rendered the
more probable by Mr. Nicol's discovery that some of the apedmena of
fosul coniferous wood are nearly identical with the wood of that
genua. Now, the Norfolk Taland Pine, which ia a speciea of Arau-
Corio, ia one of the latgeat of knovra trees. In the second place, it ia
asserted that Lepidodendron Harcouriii ia not a Lyeopodiaceous plant
at all, but an extinct genua, intermediate in organisation betvreea
Omiftra and Ljfeopodiaeir, connecting Oymnoepermn and Acrogens
more directly ud satLsfactoiily than any known plant Dr. Lindlej
COAL PI-AKTS. tt
admita that with regard to the small spedsa of Lepidodtndron, it is
more probable that th^ belonged to the genus Lycopadutm; but
there U nothiog remarkable in their stature.
Pema are the most abundant of all planta In the ahale of the ooa],
almoat every yard of it being more or leas marked by their impresnons,
and veiy oflen containing them in great multitudes. It naa beaa
estimated that of the vegetable remains belonging to tlte Coal Flora,
one-half at least of the apeciea are feme. They ore inmost oases deiti-
tute of fnicUGcaUon, ao that tllfly oanuot be arranged acoording to
the system in uae for recent apeciea ; and conaequent^ M. Ado^^
Brongniart, the great writer upon these aubjeota, haa divided them
into genera characteriaed chiefly by the way la wliich the veins are
disposed. The number of ferns renden it ooovenient that some anch
clasdBeation ihould be formed, and M. Bcongniart'H plan boa been
adopted by all other writers. It ia no part of our object to go into
auch details iu thia plioe, but it will be useful to many of our reader*
to know what the diflei«neea are between some of tlie moat ooumon
of these foaail genera. Such ore the following : —
Pteaplerii consiata of apedea whoae leavea are once, twic*, at thriee
pinnated, with the leateta eHber odhsrin^ bv the whole breadth of
their base, or by the centre only. The midrib runs quite through to
the point, and the veins ore planted upon it tomswhat perpendiouStfly.
PtcfltrU ItnMtiee, a Ultle lufBiflnL
Nrunpltrii haa leavea divided like those of Pttopterit, but the mid'
rib doe* not reach the apex of the leaflets ; on the oontniy, it divides
off right and left into veins, ud giaduall; disappeaiA
Knnflirii f if Htm.
W COAL PLAHTS.
OdmtlOfttrii hu Iutoi like ths UM, bat its lekflets kdhwa to tlia
■Ulk by their whola haae ; then ii no midrib ; Mid the Toini spriDg
■Mb by dde at diim fram the bMe of the leaflet, puung onvu^
ttxnwdi the point.
COAL PLANTS.
Spktm^lent htt twice or thrice
n^miwert >t the bue, and the v
radiated from the bue; t^ leofleti
thui uy other figure.
innatifld laavee ; the leaflet
la generally amnged >a if they
r« more frequently wedge-ehaped
^fimafttrit crtmitltifUiit, magnUed.
XowsteiiterM baa the learea aereiml tiniBi pinnatiBd, and the laaSela
more or leea imitod to one another at the baee ; then il k diatinol
midrib, and the Teiua are reticulaUd.
Lnuhopitru Bridi.
Cfdapttrit has the leaveg umple, and either altagether undivided
or only lobed at the margin ; they are more or lea orbieular, and are
filled with Tune ndiating hom the baee ; there ia no midrib. 8pMi-
meaa of thii genus am common in innutone sodulei.
S e kiat ftt ri* ie like the laat, except that tlia leaf ie deeply divided
into numeiotu unequal aegmenta, whieh are uraally lobed and taper-
Under the name of CmJopttri» an oompreheDded all the kinds of
■teme of bvejema. They are finmd in the form of ehort, round, or
oQinpreeeod tmncheone, marked eitamally by oblong acara of cooai-
derable aiie, much wider than the ipacea that eepante them, and
having their eurfaoo irr«((ukrly interrupted bv projeoting poiote.
Bach appeaiancea ar» owing to the manner in which the woody parte
of the iMf when tteah wen connected with (he etem. The fragments
'' which this name is given no doubt belong to leaves bearing other
impoaalble I
_ ... r fonnd united, it .
I identity them. Remaina of tree-fem itama an of buoI
that up (a the preaent time not more than two o
been f ' '" ■' -
I found in the rich ooal-fielde of Oreat
three epeoimena have 1
Dr. Joeeph Hooker obeervee, with re^ud to the apedea of foaeil
feme, tliat the charaoten on which num^ of them have been
founded are quite insufficient to prove them distinct. Be ahowi that
amonget reoent ferna the presence of the fructification is alone suffl-
of prooedun amongst foasil fema, woold be widely d
CUoatiM are foeails found in abort, jointed, cylindrical, or com-
preened f^agmenta, with channele furrowed in tbeirsidee, and loine-
timea partially ■urrotittded by • bituminou coatdng, the renwina ot »
oortioal integument.
They were originally hollow, but the oavity is oiually filled up wiHi
the eubatanoe into which they thenuelvea are eoBVerted. They wore
■eparsbia at their articulations, and, when broken acrooa at that part
■how a number of strin originating in the hirrows of the eide^ and
tuning inwards towards the centre of the etem, which however tboy
do not reach. It ie not known whether thia etnictoi* waa oonneoted
with an impeifaot diaphragm etretched ocroea the hollow of tfaa
Btem at each joint, or whether it merely repraaante the anda of "W^O^
plat^ of *tl>9)^ ttie aojid )>nrt al the stem was oempuaed. ^tOT
SS COAL PLANTS.
Bitremities have been duooTBred either to taper endnall; to & point,
or to end abruptly, the inten&lB becomiog sborter and emaller. The
Utter ore believed tohavebeeDthert>ot.endBaf thenepUutg, the otbeni
the eitremity at their branchee. Varioua speculBtiona upon the
nmture of theiie plants ore to be foimd in H. Adolphe BrongDiort'e
works, slid in Lindlay Mid Button's ■ FdbsP Flora.' The former
bobuiiat eoncludea that th^ were plants allied to Equiietiim, only of
a more gigantic stature. Later botoniffte, on the oontrarj, adduce
what they consider ample eridenceto show the supposition that Cala-
mila were analogous to Ej^tiiela to be unfoimded ; and that thay
more probably irere a race of plants which have now become extinct.
It is particularly urged that the preeenoa of bark in Ctdamitu, the
ezisteuce of wbicb H. Adolphe Broagnisrt admits, is quite conEluuTe
against these plants being related to the EgutMetacea. Dr. Hooker
also points out the absence of siliceous matter in the Calataita, a sub-
atacos always found to be present in recent Bquitetaair.
Stigmaria U one of the moat common Tegetable forma in the cool
fonnatioii ; not a mine is opened, nor a heap of shale thrown out, but
there occur fragments of on irregularly-compressed roundish form,
apparently portions of a stem, marked eilermdly with small oaTities
in the centee of slight tubendes arranged irregularl}', but somewhat
in a qoincundal manner. The axis of these fragments is often hollow,
or different in texture from tbe Burrounding port. From the tubercles
arias long ribbon-shaped bodies, said to have been traced to the length
of twenty feet. Although for a long time regarded es an independent
plant, there is now no longer any doubt that SigmarM is tbe root of
Sigillmia. In various places specimens of Siffiitaria have been found
standing upright in nlit, with tbe Siigmaria proceeding from it u
BtiffButria JUoidu.
SigUlariit comprehends all those oolumnar ^gantio stems which
oooor oonunonly in the sandstone of the coal in an erect or ns4riy
OMOt position, but whioh are prostnte and crushed flat in the oou-
sbole, and which ore marked by fluUngs with a single row of small
scan hetmsn them. In diameter they Toiy from S to 3S inches, and
thn most have sometimes been full tO or 60 test high.
It U baUered, from the verj comprsHed state of many specimens,
that these plants must have berai of a aoft nature, and, mim the gene-
ral absence of soan i^ Isrgesize, that they must have been veiy little
blanched.
Of the folisse of StgHiariai little or nothing is known. The scon,
especially in the larger species, are much too brood to be regarded as
the point of attschment of learee such aa may be sappoaed to have
been the case in ZcpidedoKiron. The great maaa of the stems of i%il-
laria seems to hare been of a soft and succulcot character, but the
remains of a oentral oolumn of a denser texture are soffldently
obvious in many of the upright stems. These have been called Endo-
gmita. "That this slender column," says Dr. Hooker, "roproBented
all the vascular tissue of this plant, I cannot doubt from examination o '
Sluniaria, whoes vascular column often osaumee the same appearance.'
The affinities of these plants have been variously estimated. Artie,
Lindlmr, Button, and Corda, have referred them to EupKorhiacea ,
Bchlotheim to Palms ; Vun Hartius to Cactacea ; Sternberg to Ferns ,
Sronguiart to Oycadacae. Dr. Hooker, regarding SHnllana efe^onj as
their type, places them not for from Lj/aopodiiKKe, and near to Lepi~
dodeBdroa, " That it was," he says, " of much completer structure
Mid higher organisation than either, [i iBCOuteatable ; but the iudica-
COAL PLANTS. m
ions of a relationship with any individual group higher in the neriea,
ir with (^catUa in particular, appear to me for too feeble to justify
lur considering it as tending to unite these two natural ordeis." It
s a plant which must be considered as belonging to the great fiuuil;
if Ferns, diaplaying a relationship, though only of analogy, to C^a-
dea in one point and to Euphorlnacti* and Oactacca in othen,"
BigiUaria rtniforwtU,
AdenfhyUitm are reiy common plants, with narrow pointed whoried
learei^ which vary in fignre and In size, but which, together with the
■lendmMSS of Uie stem to which they belong, give the plants much
Uie appeonaoe of the modem genus OMum. Thsy present howera'
no further afBnity to Bzogsnous Plant* than this anidogy of form.
SphtnofhsUum, with many of the characters of the last genua, has
broad wedgMhaped leaves, the Teios of which axa forked. That cii^
cunutanoe has led to the notion that it was related to Fem^ aspeciallj
to the genus Maniiaa.
Such are the more cotomon of the plants whose remains are traced
In the coal-meosuras. One of tbe first things vhich strikes us in cast-
ing the ne on the list is tbe little variety of form apparent in the old
flom. Instead of the infinite diversity of plants which are contained
in a modem forest, nothing here preeents itself except fir-treesi, fema,
and a small numbw of speciea whose nature ia unknown. Kot a ttace
is found of grasses, or Uie numerous herbs and shrubs that are now
met with in all regions clothed vrith vegetation ; and of the Tsst class
of Eiogens not one authentic instance occurs. Feme, loo, would
seein to have constitnted in themselves one-half of the entire Flora,
and yet it is only in a few rare cases that they have been met with in
a state of fructipoation. These circumstances have led to the bast;
inference that in the beginning nature was in reality but little diverai-
£ed ; that a few forms of organisation of the lower kind only were all
that clothed the iace of tbe earth ; and that it was only in aftei-«ges
that nature assumed her many^oolonred eTer-vaTying robe. And yet
it has been at the same time admitted that in those early days vegeta-
tion was more luxuriant and vigorous than at the present hour. It
ia not a little singular that the true explanation of this drcomstauce
should not have been hit upon without any direct eiperimsnt having
87
COAL PLANTS.
COAL PLANTS.
•13
been instituted for the purpose of demouBtrating how it is really to
be expkined ; for, coxuddenng that all geologists are of accord in the
opinion that the plants which formed coal were for a period of some
duration floating in water, a partial destruction of them might easily
have been suppiosed to be the result. Professor Lindley has proved
that plants are capable of enduring suspension in water in very difiEer-
ent degrees, some resisting a long suspension almost without change,
others rapidly decomposing and disappearing. One hundred and
seventy-fleven plants were thrown into a vessel containing fresh water ;
among them were species belonging to the natural orders of which
the flora of the coal-measures consists, and also to the common
orders^ which, from their general dispersion over the globe at the
present day, it might have been expected should be found there. In
two years one himdred and twenty-one species had entirely disap-
peared ; and of the fifty-six which still remained, the most perfect
specimens were those of Conifarous Plants, Palms, I^copodiaewef and
tne like ; thus showing in the blearest manner that the meagre cha-
racter of the Coal Flora may be owing to the different capabilities of
different plants of resisting destruction in water. The same experi-
ment accoimts for the want of fructification in fossil fems ; for it
showed that one of the consequences of long immersion in water is
a destruction of the fructification of those plimts.
A much more important fact is the presence of certain tropical
forms of vegetation, such ea tree-ferns, m the coal; and the quasi-
tropical character of other species, as Ara/ikeaHaAJika CkmiftrcB, This
is the more startling when connected with another fact, that the coal-
measures of Newcastle are of the same age as those of Newfoundland,
and even of Melville Island, in 75* N. lat.
From this it has been inferred that the northern parts of the world
enjoyed in remote ages a dimate where firost and snow, and the incle-
ment seasons of arctic regions were unknown ; that t2i0y were at least
as hot as equinoctial countries now are ; and that the inhospitable
hyperborean plains of Melville Island at one time displayed the noble
scene of a luxuriant and stately vegetation. Palms, it has been said,
were there, and they are the especial and princdy denicens of the
tropics; tree-ferns occur, and they now only exist in the -primeval
forests of the torrid zone, haunting their deepest recesses, breathing
a damp and equable atmosphere, and living, like vegetable eremites,
without even a parasite to fix itself upon their trunks and keep them
company. Stigmarke, SigiUariat, and even Calamites have been
enlisted in the cause of tlus theory, notwithstanding that no one can
say what they may have been. And in confirmation of all this, the
preponderance of fems has been appealed to as having its parallel
nowhere except in the hottest and dampest islands of Polynesia.
In opposition to this view it has been asserted that the presence of
these tropical forms of vegetation in northern latitudes is no proof of
what the climate in which they were deposited formerly was, because
they mav have been drifted to their present situations by currenta
The^ perfect state of many of the remains offers however great diffi-
culties in the way of this supposition ; for although they are very
much broken, yet the angles of most fossil plants are by no means
water-worn, and in SiffUtariag, &c. are as sharp as they ever were.
Nor is the state of those tropical stems and firuits, which in modem
times reach the coasts of Ireland and Norway, at all like that of the
buried plants of the coal-measures.
Another difficulty in the way of admitting a high temperature in
northern regions in former days is suggested by considering the dura*
tion of the days. Without a diurnal change of light and darlmeas
Slants cannot exist ; absence of light blanches them, by the aocumu-
ktion of undecomposed carbonic acid ; absence of darkness destroys
or dwarfs and deforms them, by the incessant decomposition of tiieir
carbonic acid. Now, however this may be reconciled with a oountiy
like England, in which the winter days are of moderate length, it is
leas reconcilable with the northern parts of North America, and not
at all with Melville Island, in which there are 94 days when the sun
is never above the horizon, and 104 days that he never sets. With
regard to the transportation of the ooal, the absence of indications of
washing, and the frequent occurrence of upright stems, seem to lead
to the conclusion that in most instances the plants which formed coal
have^ grown at the most within a few hundred miles of the places
where they are now deposited, and probably in their very vicinity.
From this statement we must at present except the coal of Melville
Island ; for although the veg^ble impressions in the English coal-
measures are by no means water-worn, yet those in the British
Museum from lielville Island are so rubbed and damaged that there
is no doubt they have travelled long distances before they were
deposited.
The opinion that the plants of the coal-measures afford evidence
that the climate where they grew must have been tropical, has been
founded upon three classes of fkots, each of whidi requires separate
examination ; the one, the excessive development of certain forms of
vegetation ; another, tiie presence of the remains of palms and tree-
ferns, which are usually considered incapable of existing unless in a
tropical atmosphere ; the third, the excessive disproportion of fems
to other plants.
With regard to thfr first alignment it may be answered, that we
know too little of the real nature of the SigiUairiaBy Lepidodendr<i,
CdlamiUs, and other plants, to form a correct opinion. It is almost
certain that all these plants are in reality destitut-e of living analogies ;
and therefore as we do not know what they were, we have no means of
judging what kind of climate they required. Supposing that some of
the L^ddodendra were closely allied to the modem genus Araucaria, as
is highly probable, yet that fact does not afford any proof of a tropical
climate ; for AraucaHa Ihmbeyi now inhabits the cold mountains of
southern Chili, and is at this day uninjured in the severest of our
English winten ; while Ckmmngkamia SinentU, and species of OaUUria
or Dacrydiiunf with which other remains of Zepidodtndra may be
compared, although not European, are by no means of tropical habits^
but are found on the mountains of New Zealand and Van Diemen's
Land, where they are exposed to a far trom temperate cUmatei
Moreover, Saliiiyuna cuiiantifolia, which would certainly be oonsidcored
a tropical form of Oontfera, if found in an extinct state only, is one of
the hardiest of trees, and a native of the rigorous climate of Japan.
But even supposing SigiUairia could be found to have been succment
plants, allied to Cactaceat or EuphorbiaeetE^ as some think, still no real
evidence of their having required a tropical climate for their develop-
ment would be afforded by th^m, because there is nothing in the mere
oiganisation of succulent plants which unfits them for oold dimates;
A capability of enduring cold is something immaterial and independ-
ent of oiganisation, about which nothing can be judgedl k priori ; for
tumipsy cabbages, Jerusalem artichokes, house-leek, and many other
hardy plants are in parts as succulent as OaeUtcecB, All azgnments
therefore to prove that the north of Europe was foraierly tropical,
deduced frt>m the presence of sueh plants as those now mentioned,
are inadmissible.
Nor is the argument derived from the presence of palms and tree-
fems of much greater force. In the first place^ we have seen that
there is really no grounds for believing that palms existed ; and as for
tree-ferns, we have them in New Zealand, and especially on tJie south
side of Van Diemen's Land, where the mean t^pentore probably
does not exceed 54' Fahrenheit So that, aU things considered, it
is by no means safe to take the remains of these plants as good evi-
dence of a tropical climate, or of a climate materially unBke that
which we now experience.
The only remaining argument 'to be considered is that derived from
the great preponderance of fems in the Coal Flora. It is said by
Adolphe Brongniart, that as it is oidy in damp tropical regions that we
now find fems equal in the number of their species to all the species
of other plants, and as this same proportion is found in the Coal
Flora, that therefore the climate undnr which the Coal Flora was
produced must have been damp and tropical. But as, by the experi-
ment already mentioned, it was shown that when a given number of
plants of entirely different habits are plunged into ihe same vessel of
water, by far the greater part is decomposed before fems b^;in to
be affected, it is obvious that no estimate of what the proportion of
ferns to other plants really was, can now be formed ; and consequently
this argument also falls to the ground.
From these facts it appears wen that we may safely adopt the fol-
lowing conclusions : —
1. That coal is of vegetable origin.
2. That at the period of its deposit, the earth was covered with a
rich vegetation^ of which onlv a small portion has been preserved ;
and that of thk portion all the species and several of the races are
totally unknown at the present day.
8. That the climate may possibly have been something milder than
it now is, but that there is no evidence in the vegetable kingdom to
show that it was materiallv di£brent from that of the present day.
The following is a list of the species of plants that have been found
in the coal-measures of Great Britain, as given by Plro&ssor Tennant
in his ' Stratigraphical List of British Fossils.' Very few species indeed
appear to have been found in other parts of the world that are not
found in Ghneat Britain : —
AleOyopikerit OitUi, Oopp.
A. heterophylUtf Gopp.
A. Lindieyana, PresL
A. hmchitidit, Stemb.
A, ManteUi, Oopp.
A. nervotci, Gopp.
A. Sawverii, Gopp^
A, Sara, Gopp.
A, Serlii, Gopp.
A, urophylla, Gopp.
A. vuiffoUcTf Stemb.
Anabathra pvlcherrimOf Lindley.
Annularia fertUis, Stemb.
A, longifolia, Brong.
AnthUUhei onomoZiw, Morris.
A, Pitcaimia, Lindley.
Aphlebia adniueent, PresL
Artitia apprtKcinuUtt, Brong.
A. ditiang, Brong.
A. transvertaf PresL
Atpidiairia Anglicct, PresL
A, eov^ueng, I^-esL
A, erittaiki, PresL
A, qmdrainguUuriM, PimL
A. «Mic{ii2ato, PresL
Atteropkyllitet eomoMif, Lindley.
A, foliotut, lindley.
A. ffoUoidei, Lindiey.
A. Jvlbatutf Lindley.
A. rigidtttj Lindley.
Beehara ehara^ormig, Stemb.
B. fframdU, Stemb.
Bomia egwifee^fbrmis^ Stemb.
Bruckmannia grandiMi Lindley.
B. tonffifolia, Stemb..
B, rigtdOf Stemb.
B. tmuifoUa, Stemb.
B. tnbercuUUa, Stemb.
Caiamtteg approximaiHi, Brong.
C. eamneeformit, Schlot
C. OUtii, Brong.
C, decortUvt, Brong.
C. dubiut, Brong.
C, inaquaUa, Brong.
O. JAndUyi, B^Mnxh.
O.nodotui Schlot.
COAL PLANTa
COOALT OtlEa
C. paehjfdenna, Brong.
O. romotnc, Brong.
C. Sleinkaweri, Brong.
C. Swkowii, Brong:
O, %mdulaiug, Brong.
C. variani, Stembw
a ^ertieillalmg, LincDey.
Oardioeorpon ac^Oumf Brong.
CarpoUiMes alaiuiflJikdlBy,
C. kdkteroidat Monia.
O, margmtUMg, Artia.
C, gamioidaf Morrio.
CoMlopteriB PkiUiptii, Lindley.
C, primavet, Lindley.
CkimdriteM Ptatmei, Morria.
CjfetopUru dUaUtUif Lindlej.
q/oMtoa, Brong.
O. Mala, Lindley.
C Mtqua, Brong.
C orbicMkHg, Brong.
C, reniformi§f Brong.
Ojfperitet hicarmata, Lindley.
Favutaria tmaeOata, Lindley.
F, nodo$a, Lindley.
FlahMaria horamfoUa, Sternb.
Hatonia ditHeka, Morris.
J7. gracUu, Lindley.
H. reguUui$, Lindley.
J7. (orCttMO^ Lindley.
J7. M«roM2ots, Lindley.
l^pidodendron Bueklandi, Brong.
Z. eUgant, Brong.
L, Hareowrtiif Lindley
L. longifoUum, Brong.
L, obopoium, Stemb.
L, phtmairinmf Lindley.
L. Mdaginoideif Sternb.
Z. Serlii, PresL
L, Stemhergiif Brong.
I^epidopkuUiMm imtermedwrn,
L, kmceoMUfMi.
L, trinerve, Lindley.
Ztpidottroinu eomotut, Lindley.
L. omaitu, Lindley.
L, pinagteTf Lindley.
Jt, vatriabiliif Lindley.
Ljfeopoditei eordattu, Stemb.
L. pkUffmarwidei, Sternb.
Mtffophyton AUani, Preal.
M, approximatum, Lindley
M, dktan$f Lindley.
MyriophyUUe$ graeHU^ Artia.
NewropUru luwminala, Brong.
N. aeSuiifoUa, Brong.
N. amgitt^foUoy Brong.
N, aUenmaia, Lindley.
N, eordaia, Brong.
N, fiexwMo, Sternbb
N, gigaaUeOy Sternb.
N. AeUrophyUOf Brong.
y, LoAU, Brong.
N, maerophfUa, Brong.
N, roiwtdifoUa, Broog.
N. SoretH, Brong.
N, tmuifolia, Sternb.
Nofffferathiajlabdktia, Lindley.
OdontopterU BriUmniea, PreaL
0. LindUj^na, Stemb.
0, oUusa, Brong.
0. Sehhtheimn,Brfmg.
PeeopierU aUrevtatof Brong.
P. adiamioidea, Lindley.
P, arboreteent, Brong.
P, Buddandi, Brong.
P. dentata, Brong.
P. heterophffUa, Lindley.
P. laeiniSata, Lindley.
P, MUUnU, Brong.
P, murieaia, Brong.
P. cbliqua, Brong.
P, or&iutridUf Brong.
P. p l m m o § a , Brong.
P, pieroidea, Brong.
P. repamda, Lindley.
P. vittota, Brong.
Pemee WUhami, Lindley.
Pimiim ambiffmu, WHham.
P. amtkraeina, Lindley.
P, BramdUmgi, Lindley.
P, earhonaeet, Witham.
P, medullarii, Lindley.
P. WUkami, Lindley.
Pi nmU a i na eapiUacea, Lindley
Pitya amUqua, Witham.
P. priKUBvaf WithanL
Poaeite» coeoina, Lindley
JSjUkIm dteeeeo, PreaL
RJurcata^FTeBl
Soffmaria tuuUaia, PreaL
& ctxiaia, Brong.
8, ophimra, Brong.
Seloff mUta patent, Brong.
SigiJUitria aUeman§, Lindley.
8. eatemdata, Lindley.
8. eowtraela, Brong.
& dongatOf Brong.
8, JU^moaa, Lindley.
8 Kwtrrii, Brong.
5. leioderma, Brong.
8 lavigata, Brong.
.5. Mwtchiiom, Lindley.
»8, notaia, Brong.
8. ocuUUa, Lindley.
8 (frnatmn, Brong.
8 rentformu, Brong.
8 8tmlUi, Brong.
Sphftnoph^um deiUaium, Brong.
8 emarginatwm, Brong.
8 eratiim, Lindley.
8 8ehlotheimii, Brong.
Sphmopient aeuttfolia, Brongp
8 adianloidei, Lindley.
8 affimg, Lindley.
8 artemiicrfoUet, Stemb.
iSL bifida, Lindky.
8. camdata, Lindley.
8, OoMoagi, Lindley.
8 era$mt, Lindley.
8 erenaia, Lindley.
8 cuneolaia, Lindley.
8 dUaiata, Lindley.
8 eUgam, Brong.
8 €SBedi€tt Lindley.
8. gnteilia, Brong.
8. HibbertU, Lindley.
8 UaifoUa, Brong.
8 linearit, Stemb.
8 maeilenta, Lindley.
6. mulUi;flda, Lindley.
8. obopoia, Lindley.
8, polyphyUa, Lindley.
8. tmdla, Brong.
19. trifcUata, Brong.
StigmaHaficoides, Brong.
Trigonocairpvm Dmoeaii, Lindley.
T. NoeggerathH, Brong.
T. cblarifgwn, Lindley.
T. oUvcrfonne, Lindley.
T, owUum, Lindley.
Ulodtndnm AUani, BudcL
U. Cimf^earii, BuokL
U, Lueatii, BuckL
U* nu^us, Lindley.
U. minut, Lindley.
Walehia pinifvrmit, Sehlot.
More recent inTeatigationa haye enlaiged thia liat: at the aame
time it ahonld be romembered, that there ia oonaideirable donbt aa to
whether iH theae forma ahould be regained aa apeciea. The following
table drawn up by ICr. Pattiaon in hia Siaptera on FqaaU ^tany will
giye an idea of the oompaiatiye abundance and diyendty of the planta
of the Coal period in Great Britain aa compared with that of any other
geological period ■—
Formation.
Plaati foQBd Fonil.
0(U6i'a.
SpMin*
Tertlarj
Chalk
Oraenaaad
WeaUoi
OoUta * . . .
IJm , .
n
t
7
8
84
7
8
88
1
ISO
4
f
11
88
10
8
S79
1
New Bed-SudstoM
Coal-Mbajobxi
148
6S9
COASSUa [CnyiDA]
COBiBA'CEiE, a amall natoral order of PIaata» aeparatad by D.
Don firom Poiemomiaceee, It haa a leafy 6-cleft'eqnal «lyx; an
inliarior eampannlate regular 6'lobed oorollay imbricate in natiyation ;
6 unequal atamena riaing-from the baae of the corc^ with 8-celled
oompreaaed anthera ; auperior. 8-celled oyary, aurrounded by a fleahy
annular hjpogynoua diac; the oyulea aeyeral, aacending; aimple
atyle; trifid atlgma; the fruit capsular, S^Mlled, S-yalvi^ with a
aeptiddal dehiaoence; the placenta yenr laige^ S-coroerad in the
azia, ita anglea toudiing the line of dehiacence of the pericarpium ;
the aeeda llat» winged, imbricated in a double row, their intagument
mudlaginoua, fleahy albumen, and a atraight embryo ; the cotyledona
foliaceoua; the radicle inferior. The apeciea are climUng ahrabe,
with altemate pinnated leayea, the common petiole bemg ccnyerted
into a tendriL G. Don obaervea that thiaorder la readily diatinsuiahed
from BigmomaettB $nd PedaimecB by the flowers bcrag ragnlar and
pentandroua, and in the preaence of albumen in the aeeda ; and from
Polemamaetm by habit and ita winged aeedai Lindlaj placea the
genua Oobaa, which ia the only one of the order, in Pdemomiaeea,
and aaya, " The diflfarenoea of miportanoe be t w e en the one and the
other appear to oonaiat in the former haying an unuaualhr laige lobed
diaq, a aepticidal dehiacence^ and climbing habit; diatinctiona, I
fear, of too little moment to be admitted aa of ordinal yalue."
Than aro two apeciea of Oobaa, C. aeamdmu and C, hdea : the
former haa large eampannlate flowers, with a short tube of a dark
dirty purple colour ; the latter haa yellowiah flowera, about half the
aiae of thoae of O, aeemdem. The O, ieandem ia a great fkyourite in
our gardena, and ia a rapid-growing and abundant-flowerfaig climber.
It will grow in the open air in summer, and ahould ho trained
againat a aouth wall, or against a honae^ when it flowers pofriaely.
It ia adapted for conaeryatoriea and graenhouaea. It may be propa-
gated by aeeda or cuttinga.
a>on, DidUaawdeomi Plamti; Lindley, NaNnl SgHeaL)
COBALT 0RB3. Cobalt ia not found m the natiye atate^ and its
orea, though not numeroua, require a more minute examination than
they haye hitherto receiyed. We ahaU notice those which are beat
known.
Brigfa WkUeOobaUw TFU^ Cbftoft occurs aystalline and maaaiye;
the primary form is a cube, the planes of which are usually attiated ;
colour ailyer-white; atreak grayiah-black ; luatre metallic; hardneaa
6*6, yielding with difficulty to the knife, and not yery frangible;
apeeifto gravity 6*8 to 6*6 ; fracture nneyen ; deayage parallel to the
fiioea of the cube ; before the blowpipe on charcoal giyea araenical
fumea, and tin^ borax of a deep blue.
It ia found m fine ciyatala at Tunaberg in Sweden, in Norway,
Sileaia, and ComwalL
It ia met with alao amorphoua, aihoraacent^ botryoidal, and
atalactitic. The foUowiog ia the analyaia of the cryatala from Tuna-
berg by Klaproth and Stromeyer : —
Cobalt 44 86-7
Araenic 55 49*0
Sulphnr 00*6 6*6
6*6
09*6
97*8
Tm-WkUeOoiaUiiirffard TfAito Cb6aU oecuim maasiye anderystal*
lised in cubes snd octahedrons; colour tin-white^ but sometimes
externally tarnished; fracture fine-grained and uneyen; lustra
metallic; it yields with difficulty to the knife, and is hard and
brittle; specific grayity yariously stated, from 6*74 to 7*7; yields
arsenical vapour whan heated with the blowpipe, and tinges borax
deep blue.
The maasiyB is amorphous, arborescent^ botnrotdal, fte. The
amorphous occun in Cornwall, and the orystsllissd at ^cuttamd in
Norway. Analyais of the crystals by Stromeyer : —
Cobalt .... . . 88*10
Araenio 48*46
Iron . . 8*SS
Sulphur • 90*00
99-^9
41 COBALTINE.
Oray Cohalt occunt mHMive Hnd ctystallued ; primiuy (orm it Ciibo ;
colour gimyiili tin-whila; atreak gTByimh-bUck ; luKtre mfli&llio; hard-
nenB 5'5 ; apacifio gnrity 6'46S \ fnotura nneven ; cleaTOgs indUtiact.
The miuiVfl ocoun amorphoiu uid T«tiouUt«d. It in found prin-
cipollj kt.EtatuiMbais in Sazonj, and ia xatA in the muiufuture of
EaTt\y Cobalt oooon munTS, amorphotu, botryoidal, pnlTsmlent,
Jtc; oolouTyellairuh-browiisiidbluuh-bliok; spBoificgravitf 2to2'4 ;
the fnotore of the nundTa ii earthT and dull, but polithed bj
friction, ud jrields to the knife readily ; wbait heated on charcoal
RiTfls on anemokl odour, and a deep blue colour with borax: itia
found in Heaae, Saxony, Bohemia, and also in Cheahire and Cornwall
StilphurtI of Cobalt oocura yeliowlih-vhite and ateal-graj; streak
gnj ; it ii amorphoiu or boUyoidal, and externally brilliant ; fraoture
uneren. Aocordinf; to Buinger it coniiata of —
Cobalt lS-3
Copper ll'l
Iron 8'SS
StUphnr S8-fiO
Earthy Blatter -SS '
Arieaialt of Ci^idU—CiAaU filooM— Aoi CMoU— ooonn flbraui,
maaaiTe, and cryHtoUiMd ; primary form an oblique rikombio priam ;
colour TOriona ihodes of red paning into crimaon; sometimee
grayish ; tranaluoeot, traniparent ; it is soft, light, md flexible ;
apeciflo gravity a'e48 ; the manive variety amorphtnu, botrjoidal
etnioture fibroua, imdiating; before tiie blowpipe emita oraenical
odoura, and tinges beroz blue ; It oooun In Saxony, Bohemia, Soot-
land, and Commll, ka.
Analyrii by BnoholB : —
AiMnioAdd ST-4
Oiida of Cobalt SB-3
Water 23-9
100
BuipKaU of OiAab—Sai 7Un«l~lM at a pale rose-red oolonr, ssd
oocuTB inreeting other minerala, in amall maaaes and in atalaotitea
the marainn are aenu-baniparent and crystalline; it ia aolnbls ii
water ; tranalnoant ; loatra vitreoDS, often dull exteraallj : it DOOnn
among the mining heaps nnr ECaoan and in Balibatt;.
COBALTINE, u Arsenical Ore of Cobalt containing sulphur. I.
' la of a lilver-white oolonr InoUniag to red. It ia alao called white
oobolt [CouLT Oan.]
COBI'TIS, a genua of nahes belonging to the Abdominal MaUt-
copltrygU and &mily Oyprimida. This genua includes the Loaohea,
Uieir haying the head ima]] ; month but alightly cleft, with
and furniahed with barbnlea on the upper lip ; body elongated,
oorered with small scales, and invested with a mucous secretion ;
ventral fina situated for back, doml fin placed above them; gill-
opaninga small ; bronohiaategouB rays three in number.
C. lariatula, the Loach, Loche, or Beordie, ia common in most ol
our running watem It ia about i inchea in length, and of a dirty
pale-yallow colour, motUed with brown ; its upper lip la famlahed
with nx borbulee, one of which apringi from eaoh comer of the
mouth, and the oUisra are situated on the fore part
Like flahes in graieral whioh have barbuJee, the Loaches feed at
the bottom of the water. The speoies above deeoribed apawna
Uarch or early in April, and ia very proliflo.
O. toiMo ( T.inn }, the Spined Loooh, or Oronndling, la a far li
common apeoies than the above ; its form ia more compressed ; the
barbnles are very ahort, and consequently less oonspicuoui
principal ohaiaoter howsvar oonaiata in its having two apinei.
before each eye. From this character and some other diffiirenoes of
minor importance, this fish, and sevenl others having the same
structure, have betm separated tmm the true loachea^ and now con-
stitute the genua BoUa at Hr. Oray.
The Losohes are eitremely reatlen during atormv wnther, when
they generally rise to the aurftoe of tile water, which from ^'----
rastleaanaaa is kept in conatont agitation.
COB-NUT or HOO-NDT, a name given In the West Indfee t . _
fruit ot a apecjea of Omphaiea. {Oufkalmx.} It is alao applied to
the larger forma of the cultivated Haiel-Kab [FiLBSBT. A. ft S. DiT.]
COBRA. fNlu.1
COCA, the dried leaf of SiytkroxylM^ Coca, is one of those stimu-
lating narcotics which belong to the same doss with tobooco and
opium, but ia more remarkable than either of them in ite effeota upon
the human natem. The plant ia found wild in Peru, according to
Piippig, in the environs of Cuchero, and on the stony summit of the
Cerro de San Cristobal. It ia cultivated eitensiTaly in the mild but
very moiat climate of the Andes of Peru, at from 2000 to
aixne the aea : in colder aituationa it is apt to be killed, and in
wanner diatiicts tlie leaf loaea its fiavour.
A detailed aooount of it ia given by Fopplg and Sir WilHom
Hooker in the ' Companion to the Botanicsl Hagaaina,* whence we
extract the following mformaticn. It forms a shrub from 1 to B feet
high, the stem covered with whitish tnbercles, which appear to be
formed of two curved lineH 8ot fnoe to face. The leaves are oblong,
acute at each end, 3-ribbed, on short petioles, with a pair of Intra-
peticlary brown acute atipulea. Flowers in little fasddea ; peduncle*
iharplv angled; i»lyx 6-elefl; petals oblong, concave, wavy, with a
jagged plaited membrane arising &om within their base ; stamens
10; stylea 8 ; fruit a 1-seeded oblong dr«pe.
Ayttm]>lsH Cbta.
The sffiwts of this dmg are ladd to be of the most pemlctotu
nature^ eioeeding even opium in the destruction of msntsl and
bodily powen, The coca leaf is chawed by the Peruviana, mixed
with flnely-powdered chalk, and bringa on a state of apathy and
indiffsrence to all surrounding objects, the dnire for which increaaea
BO muoh with indulgence in it, that a confirmed Coes-chewer is said
nevra to have been reclaimed. Fiippig describes such a person In his
usual graphic manner ; —
" Useless Ibr every active pursuit In lifb, and ths slave of his
pononi, even more than the drunkard, he exposes bimaelf to the
greatest dangers for the sake of grati^ng this propensity. As the
stimulus of the oooa is moat fully davaloped when the body Is
sxhanated with toil, or the mind with eonvenatlon, the poor victim
then hastens to some retreat in a gloomy native wood, and flinging
himself under a tree, remains atretcbed out them, heedlees of niight
or of storms, unprotected by covering or by fire, unconscious of ths
floods of rain and of the tnmsndoas winds which sweep the tbreat ;
and after yielding himself, for two or three entire days, to the occu-
pation of chewing coco, retoma home to his abode, with trembling
£nibs and a pallid ooontenance, the miserable apectacia of uuDataral
enjoyment. Whoever aoddaitally meets the Coqoero under such
(ureumstonoes, and by speaking interrupta the e£Fect of this Intoxi-
cation, ia aura to draw upon himself the hatred of the half-maddened
creature. The man who is once seised with the paasion for this
practice, if placed in oircuraatanoaa which favour its indulgence, ia a
ruined being. Hany inatano« were related to ua in Peru, where
young people of the best fomiliee, by occasionally visiting the forests,
have b^nn using the oooa for the sake of passing the time away,
and, acquiring a relish for it, have, from that period, been lost to
dvilioation ; as if Belzed by some malevolent inatinct, they refuse to
return to their homes; and, resisting the entreaties of their friends,
tunity of escaping when they have been brought bock to ths
The immodarate addiction of the Peruvians to the use of this
drug ia Buch that their forests have long since ceased to be able to
supply their wants ; and the cultivation of the plant baa been carried
to a vary great extent, not only under the Incaa, but beneath the
local govammant of the Bpaninrda, nho seem to have been no mor«
able to resist the temptation of a lam revenue from the monopoly
of this article than European nations from the conaumptiou ot
ardent spirits. It ia said that in ths year 1G8S the govamment of
Potoai derived a autn of not lem than 500,000 dollars from the con-
sumption of 90,000 to 100,000 boskets of the leaf. The cultivation
of Coca is therefore an important feature in Peruvian husbandry,
and, it is added, ao lucrative, that a coca plantation, whose original
oost and current expanses amounted to 2500 dollars daring the
first SO months, will, at the end of 1 months more, bring a clear
Inaame of ITOO doltws. FQppig states that Coca hoa now bscom*
evil ; that thouHuda of persona would ba
43
COCCID-^
COCCOLITE.
4A
deprived of their meaxu of ezisience if its consumption were put a
Btop to ; and that the value of it in Peru and Bolivia amounts to
above two and a half millions of dollars a year.
Hie exciting principle of tlie Coca has not yet been inquired into.
It is stated by P5ppig to«be of so veiy volatile a nature that
leaves only twelve months old become perfectly inert and good for
nothing. "Large heaps of the freshly-dried leaves, paiticularly
whileuie warm rays of the snn are upon than, diffuse a very strong
smell, resembling uiat of hay in which there is a quantity of melilot
The natives never permit strangers to sleep near them, as they would
suffer violent headaches in consequence. When kept in small
portions, and alter a few months, the coca loses its scent and becomes
weak in proportion. The novice thinks that the grassy smell and
fresh hue are as perceptible in the old state as wlien new, and this
is to be expected with the Peruvian, who never uses it without the
addition of burnt lime. Without this, which always excoriates the
mouth of a stranger, the natives declare that coca has not its true
taste, a flavour, by the bye, which can only be detected after a long
use of it. It then tinges green the carefully-swallowed spittle, and
yields an infusion of the same colour. Of the latter alone I made
trial, and found that it had a flat grass-like taste, but I experienced
the full power of its stimulating principles. When taken in the
evening it was followed by great restlesBneas, loss of sleep, and gene-
rally uncomfortable sensations; while, from its exhibition ,in the
morning, a similar effect, though to a slijght degree, arose, aocompazued
witii loss of appetite. The Knglish physioian, ih, Ardliibald Smith,
who has a sugar plantation near Huanuco, once, when unprovided
with Chinese tea, made a trial of the coca as a substitute for it, but
experienced such distressing sensations of nervous excitement that
he never ventured to use it agaixL The Peruvian increases its effects
by large doses, utter retirement^ and the addition of other stimulating
substances. The inordinate use of the coca speedily occasions bodily
disease, and detriment to the moral powers; but still the custom
may be persevered in for many yean, especially if frequently inter-
mitted, and a Coquero sometimes attains the age of fiffy, wim com-
paratively few complaints. But the oftener the orgies are celebrated,
especially in a warm and moist cUmate, the sooner are their destructive
effects made evident. For this reason the natives of the cold and
dry districts of the Andes are more addicted to the consumption of
coca than those of the dose forests, where, undoubtedly, other
stimulants do but take its place. Weakness in the digestive organs,
which, like most incurable complaints, increases continually m a
greater or less degree, first attacks the unfortunate Coquero. This
complaint, which is called ' opilaoion,' may be trifling at the beginning;
but soon attains an alarming heif^t. Then come bmous obstructions,
attended with all those thousand painful symptoms which are
so much aggravated by a tropical climate. Jaimdice and derangement
of the nervous system follow, along with pains in the head, and such
a prostration of strength that the patient speedily loses all appetite;
the hue of ihe whites assumes a leaden colour, and a total inability
to sleep ensues, which aggravates the mental depression of the
unhappv individual who, spite of all his ills, cannot relinquish the
use of the herb to which he owes his sufferings, but craves brandy in
addition. The appetite becomes quite irregular, sometimes failing
altogether, and sometimes assuming quite a wolfish voracity, espe-
cially for animal food. Thus do yean of misery drag on, succeeded
at length by a painful death."
(Poppig, Bntc in C%ile, Ac, vol u. ; Hooker, Companum to BoL
Mag, h and ii)
OOCCIDiB (Leach), GaUinaeda (Lat)-eille), a fSunily of Insects
placed by Latrcdlle and others at the end of tiie Somopiera. These
msects apparentiy have but one joint to the tarsi, and this is furnished
with a smgle claw. The males are destitute of rostrum, and have two
wings, wmch when closed are laid horizontally on the body : the
apex of ihe abdomen is furnished with two setn. The females are
apterous, and provided with a rostrum. The antennas are generally
filiform or setaceous.
The insects belonging to this family live upon trees or plants of
various kinds : they are of small size, and in the larva state nave the
impearance of oval or round scales, hence they are called Scale Insects.
They are closely attached to the plant or bark of the tree they
inhabit, and exhibit no distinct external origans. At certain seasons,
when about to undergo their transformation, they become fixed to
the plant, and assume the pupa state within the skin of the larva.
The pupa of the males has their two anterior legs directed forwards,
and the remaining four backwards ; whereas in l£e females the whole
six are directed backwards. When the nudes have assumed the
winged or imago state they are said to iMue from tile posterior
extremity of their cocoon.
In the spring time the body of the female becomes greatly enlarged,
and approaches more or less to a spherical form. In some the skin
is smooth, and in others transverse mcidons or vestiges of segments
are visible. It is in this state that tiie female receives the embraces
of the male, after which she deposits her eggs, which are extremely
numerous. In some the eggs are deposited by the insect beneatn
her own body, after which she dies, and tiie body hardens and forms
a scale-like covering; which serves toprotect the egga nntU the
following season, when they hatch. The females of other species
cover their ^ggs with a white cotton-like substance; which answers
the same end.
Upwards of thirty species of the fSunily CoccidcB, or CfaOimaeela, are
enumerated in Mr. Stephens's ' Catalogue of Britiidi Insects ;' several
of these however have undoubtedly been introduced with the plants
they inhabit, and to which th0y are peculiar.
Many of the exotic Cocci have long been odebrated for the beantif ol
dyes they yield. The Coccua Cacti of Linmeus may be mentioned as
an instance. The female of this species is of a dieep brown colonr,
covered with a white powder, and exhibits transverse mcisions on the
abdomen. The male is of a deep red colour, and has white wing^
Ooeeua OacU, mafnifled.
a, the male; h, the female.
This insect, which when property prepared yields the dye called
cochineal, is a native of Mexico, and feeds upon a partioolar kind of
Indian fig, which is cultivated for the express purpose of rearing it.
[COOHINBAI..]
C. Ilicia, an insect found abundantiy upon a small species of ever-
green oak (Qucrcua eoeeifera), oonunon in the south of PVanoe and
many other parts, has been employed to impart a bk>od-ied or
crimson dye to doth fh)m the earliest ages. ('Introduction to
Entomology,' by Kirby and Spenoe, voL L p. 819.)
C PotSnacua is another species which is used in dyeing, and
imparts a red colour. It is now chiefly employed by the Turks for
dyeing wool, silk, and hair, and for staining the nails of women's
fingers. (Kirby and Spenoe, voL i p. 320.)
But we are not only indebted to tiie Cbccua tribe for the dyes they
vield ; the substance called Lac is also procured from one of these
insects (the Coccua Zacctu)^ This species inhabits India, where it is
found on various trees in great abundance. " When the females of
this Coccua have fixed themselves to a part of the branch of the
trees on which they feed {Ficua rdigioaa, and F, Indica, BuUa
frondoaa, and Bhamnua Ji^uba), a pelluoid and glutinous substance
b^ni> to exude from tiie margins of the body, and in the and covers
the whole insect with aioell of this substance, which when huniened
by exposure to the air becomes lao. So numerous are these insects,
and so closely crowded together, that they often entirelv cover a
branch ; and the groups take difoent shaptt, as squsxes, hexagons,
ftc., according to the space left round the imrnst which first began to
form its cell. Under these cells the females deposit their eggs, which
after a certain period are hatched, and the young ones eat their way
out." (Kirby and Spenoe, voL iv. p. 142.)
C, adonddfwnt the Mealy Bug, is an insect well known in our hot-
housea It attacks vines, pineapples, and other plants. It is of a
reddish colour, and is covered with a white mealy powdery-looking
substance — Whence its name.
C. Vitia, the Vine-Scale, is another spedes which does great mischier
to vines on account of the rapidity with which it is propagated.
C. Jleaperidum is found on orange-trees. C, Teatmdo, the Turtie-
Scale, is found on stove-plants exposed to a high^ temperature.^
Many ways are recommended of getting rid of these insects.
Brualung them off with cold or lukewarm water, when plants
will bear it, is a good plan. Painting with spirits of turpentine, ot
exposiug them to the fumes of turpentine; or tobacco, or sulphur
has also been found effectuaL
COCCINELLA. [TBiMnA.]
COCCOLITE, a general name fbr grRnular varieties of PfroxnM,
[Ptbozbnb.]
43 COCCOLOBA.
COCCO'LOBA, ft geouB of Plants belonging to the natural order
Polt/gonacBX. It haa a Gparted oalfi, ereDtoBlly becoming succu-
lent ; the fiUmenta 6, uuert«il into the bosa of ihe ca1;i, and farming
a short ring by their unioQ ; tLe iitjl« S ; atigma limple ; the nut
l-seeded, bony, oovared with the fucculent enlarged calyx; the
nmbryo in Vbe middle of the albumen.
C. wifera, Sea-Side Qrape, has cordate ronndiah ahining leavea.
It is a tree 20 feet in he%ht^ intli fleiuose branchea. The leavea
are very beautiful, being of a full bright gloisj green colour, i*tth
the pnncipal nerves of a deep red. As the fruit advances to maturity
it becomes surrounded by the succulent perianth, which forms an
obovate reddish purple berry, not unlike a small pear. The nut in
the inside is roundish, very acute, 3-lobed at the base, and attached
by the centre. The embryo has foliaceoos cotyledons. The leaves,
wood, and bark of this plant are powerfully astringent, and a
decoction of them is evaporated to form the Bubatanoe caJled Jamaica
Kino, The af!trin|;enc7 depends on the presence of taimin, but there
is in addition present in the wood a red colouiing-matter which is
used OS a dye. The wood is sltn valued for oabinet-worfc. The fruit
is eatable, and is exposed for sale in the West Indian markets, but is
not valued much. It is a native of the sea-oossta of most of the
West Indian Islands and the adjoining shares of Araerica. Then
are several oIlieT species of Ooccoloia natives of the West Indies.
They are all of tliem eveigreen-tiees. They grow freely in a light
loamy soil, and ripened cuttings taken oETat the joint and placed under
ahand-glassiaapot of sand will root (reely. Theyreqi" ' —
coTsring, ftom Uie Old B«d-8andstons of Gamrie, Cromarty, Caitbneog,
and the Orkney Islands. (Agsssi&i)
COCCOTHRAUSTES, ■ geno* of Insessorial Birds bslonging to
the family Frinqillida. It has the following characters : — Be«k
conical, very thidc at the base, tapering nraidh to the point ; culmen
rounded ; the commissure slightly aiehad ; lower mandible nearly
OS large m the upper, its cutting edges inflected, and shutting within
those of the □pper. Nostrila banl, lateral, oblique, oval, nearly
hidden by the ahort feoUien at Qie base of the b«k Wings long,
ratlier powerful, the second and third quiU-feallierB of nearly equal
length and rathra longer than the first. Legs with the taim short,
not eiceediog the length of ibe middle toe, the outer toe longer than
the middle one ; claws sharp and curved, the hind-toe and claw broad
and strong. Tul short and more or less forked.
C. vtUgarit. the Hawanch, Haw Qrosbeak, Orosbeak, of the
English; Oylflnbraff of the Welsh; Le Giosbec and Finson
Boyol of the French ; Prog^one, Frocdone; Froeoue, Frisone,
Friggioue, of the Italians ; Kembeisser, Elrsch EembeisBeT, Kersch-
fink, Nusbeiseor, of tlie Oermans; App^-Yink of Oia NetherUDdos;
Loxia (hemthraiutei of Linntsus; FrmgiUa CWcatinniffet of
Temminck; Cocatthrmuta vulgarit of Briffion.
It has the rump, head, and cheeks, red-brown; edging round the
bill, space between tbat and the crye, a line beyond the eye and throat,
deep black; a lat^ ash-coloured ooUor just below the nape; back
and greater port of the wings deep brown, but there is an oblique
white stripe upon the wing, and beyond it a oonsIdeiKble space of a
light whitikh colour going o7 into chestnut ; secondary quills as if
out off squars at tlie ends, or, as Edvnuds si^ with justice, like the
figuiea of some of the ancient battie-axes, glossed with rioh blue, lees
conspicuous in the female; tell-ttethers whita within, of a blsc^ish-
brown on the external borba ; lower parte of the bird vinous-red ; Iris
pale red (according to Temminck); feet and biU gn^ish-brown.
Length seven indies.
ifbs female is generally like the male, but with the oolauis much
less brilliant.
The young of the year before the moult ore very dififarent from the
adulta and old birds. Throat yellow ; &ce, cheeks, and summit of
the head dirty yellowish ; lower ports white or whitosh ; iddee marked
with small trown streaks, with which all the featheie are terminated.
As the young bird advances in age some red vinous fbathere appear
disposed irregularly upon the belly; the upper parts are of a
toniished brown, spotted with dirty yellowish ; bill whitjsh brown,
except at the point, where it is deep brown. (Temminck.)
Mr. Gould ('Birds of Europe') says that In the male the beak and
feet in winter are of a delicate flesh-brown, the farmer beooming in
chestnut-brown. The rest of the description does not dffibr much
from H. Temminck's.
Varietie& — White, yellovrish, or grayish. Wings and tiJl often
white. Plumage often vari^ated with white feathers.
Food, Habits, Reproduction, Ac — Hard seeds and kernels form the
principal food of the Qrosbeak, but we have seen it feeding on the
bemce of the hawthorn (whenoe its name), and shot it when eo
employed; so that it is probable that the soft part of fjruits is not
disagreeable to it, although Uie bill ia evidently farmed for cracking
the stony kem^. Willughby states that it broaks the stones of
cherries, and even of olives, with expedition. The stomach of one
ivhich he dissected in the month of December was full of the stones
of holly-bemea. The majority of ornithologists give the Hawfinch
credit for forming a
vegetable fibres, witli .
But, according to Hr. Doubleday, who has thrown much light on ihe
history of this bird, and discovered it breeding in Epping Forest in
Hny and June, the nest, which is made in some instances in bushy
trees at the height of five or eix feet^ and in others near the top of
firs at an elevation of twenty or thirty feet, is remarkably shallow
in intensity, spotted and streaked with greenish-gray and brown.
Mr. Oould states that he has known the bird to breed near Windsor,
and a few other places ; b^ certainly nowhere so abundantly as on
the estate of W. Wells, Esq., at Rodieaf, near Penshurst, Kent This
gentlemaii informed Mr. Oould that he had, with the aid of a small
teleecope, counted at one time eighteen on his lawn.
Mr. Selby remarks that in the pairing sesaon it probably utters a
superior song, aa Montagu says that even in winter, during mild
weather, he has heard it aing aweetly in low and plaintive notm.
Distribution. — Plentiful in some districts of France ; permanent
and not uncommon in Itjdy ; common in Oermany, Sweden, and port
of BuBsia. In Mr. Selli^B ' niuitrations,' and indeed in meat other
English works, the Hawfinch is noticed aa an occssioiial visitant.
Dr. Latham says that " the hawfinch visits us chiefly in winter, but
one was shot in the summer months near Dortfocd, in Kent." He
goes on to remark that White records another instsjice at the soma
season, snd aaya that it hod the kernels of damsons in its stomach,
" These," continues Dr. Latham, " might possibly have bred here,
though we have no authority for its ever being the case." This
authority now exists in the observations of Mr. Doubleday. "The
hawfinch," nys Mr. Doubleday, " is not mlgraloiy, but remains with
us during the whole of the year." 'Thia observer sufflcientty
accounts for the rarity of ite appearance: — "Its >hy and retiring
habits leading it to choose the moat secluded places in the thickest
and mora remote parts of woods and forests, and when disturbed it
Invariably perches on the tallest tree in the neighbourhood."
Omsbesk {Coteot^auta tatgarii].
C. cUcrw, the Qreenflnch or Qreen {grosbeak ; Ghoabeo Yerdier of
the French ; Loxia Morit and Fringiiia cUoria of authors.
The male has the upper porta and breast yellowish-green ; the head
tinged with gray ; the edges of the wings, outer wsbe of primanr
quills, with the boaal part of the tail-featWa, yellow. Female with
the upper parts greenisn-brown ; the breast grayiah-brown ; the wings
and tail marked yellow, as In the mole. Young ainular to the femalt^
with foint brown streaks on ihe back.
This bird is common in all the oountries of Southern Europe, and
is found geneially in the oultdvated parb of Englajid, Ireland, and
Scotland. It remains in this country all the veor round, and
frequents gardens, shrubberies, orchards, small wooiu, and cultivated
lands. It feeds on gr^n, seeds, and insects. Its notes are haiell
and inharmonious. The eggs ara white tinged with blue, finm four
to six in number.
SLrrell, BrMA Birdt; MaceilUvisy, Mtumai of BriiiA BirtU.)
'CCULUS, a ^os of IMantA belonging to ihe natural oi4er
MenitptrvMeta, oonnsting of olimbers, whose leaves are usually more
or less heortehaped, and the flowers small, and either white or pale
green, in loose panicles or ncamea ; in most coses they an diosoious,
and ore always very minute. The distinguishing ohancten of the
genus ara: — eix > - ■ ■ ■ ......
} whorls, a corolla ^ 6 petal% 3 or
3, 6, (
nsnally powerfdl bitter febrifuges. OoeaUm cruptit, ■ twining
plant found m Sumatra and the Holuooas, with a iubOToIed or wsrted
stem, is employed by the Hataya for the cure of intermittent
fevers. Owmg to ita intense bittemees and twining habit it was
called Ftmit ftOvu by Rumf. Another plant, the ifeniipmnius
who illaB [t, itMp it in
M k iliomMliio.
0. viUottu, > pUut oommon in the hedges of BengiJ, with TftriabU
downy Ihth uiii aiilluy ■olituy fenule flowen, aucceeded by deep
purple berriei the dsaof peas, ii ■ Bpesiei of ootuddanbla importuice
to tag Hindoos. The juice of its npe berriea makes a good durable
bluish-purple ink, aooording to Roibuigli, who adds gome further
[lartlculars oonoamiiig its uses: — "A decoction of the &eah roots,
with a few heads of long pepper, in goata' milk, is adminiaterad for
rtiaumatlo and old renereal pains; it is rackoned heating, lazative,
and iudoriflc. The fresh lesTea taste simply berbsfeousj rubbed in
water they thleksn It Into s greeu jelly, which is sweetmed with
SURV, and drank, when fraah made, to (fte quantity of half a pint
twioa a dav, far the oure of heat of urine in gonorrhcea. If Buffered
to tUnd for a few minutes, Qxa gelatinaos or mucilaginous parts
•sparate, oontraot, and float in tlie centre, leKving the water clear,
like Madeira wins, and almost tasteless. Curry is made of the leareii^
forpeopla under a ooune of its roots, or jell^ of thelearea."
T'ha species most important to Europeans is ttut which produces
ths celsbratad Calumba Boot, Ooccuha palmatM, from wMch a
valuable bitter is procured. This plant is a native of Hoaambiqae
and Oibo, abounding in the thick forests that Dover the shores of
those oountrles, and sztendins inland for IS or 20 miles. The
AIMcani of Uieea parts call it Kalumb. It has a large fleshy deep
yellow root, divided into many irregular forks or fangs, which are
amputated by the collectors, cut into slices, strung on oords, and
hung to dry in the shade. The stem is oovered with a thick whitish-
green glandular fur ; the leaves are large, rounded, baart-shaped, and
deeply divided into &am t! to T shari^point«d lobes. The plant i>
now cultivated in the island of Mauritius.
QfdeylHf juAaiUu.
a, mile flower ; h, widsr side, ihewlBC »1^ j c, ituien ; 4, petal ; (, bractea.
The name given to this genus is that of a kind of seed importad
from the East Indies under the name of Coooulus Indious Berries,
which poneaa a powerful bitter poisonous principle, that, aooording
to Ooupil, exists principally in the kernel The plaiit is found in the
forests of Malabar, and when tnnsplanted to tlie Iratanui garden,
Croatia, grew in a few years so as to extend over a Urge mango-tr^e,
with a stout woody stem as thick as a man's wrist, oovered with
deeply cracked, spongy, ash-ooloured bsj^ The leaves were very
ezaouy eoidate, entire, obtuse, or amai^inate. of a hard texture,
shining on the upper Bur&oe, uid team 1 to 12 inchea long, by from
8 to S inches broad. This plant is the ifmitptrmum Coecuhu of
Linnnus, the Coectibu Mubtrotiu of De Candolle ; but according to
Heesia. Wight and Amott, it does not properiy belong to the latter
genus, haviog the stamens combined into a central oolumu and no
corolla. They call it J namiiia Ooccalia.
Dr. CbrisloBon reovmmendt "the medical jurist to make himself
COCHINEAL. w
well acquainted with the extamal characters of those berries,
because, beaidea being occasionally used in medicine, they are a
familiar poison for deatroying flsh, and have also been extensively
used Iiy brewers as a substitute for hops — an adultention which ia
prohilHtad in Britain by severe statutes." This fruit is a berried
drupe, varying in siae from that of a pea to that of a laurel (or bay)
bern; auba^boae, smaiginate, dark brown, opaque, rough, and
wrinkled ; the ext<nial integument, or husk, is vecj brittle ; within
is the seed or kernel, lunulate, oily, with a nauseous and intensely
bitter taste. The kernel contains about one part in the hundred of
Picrotoiia, or Heuispermia, as some term it. Upon this principle
its polBonoua properties depend. It seems to act b^ exhausting the
irritability of the heart, and if the doss be considerable ita &tal
effects are very speedily displayed. What renders it a moi« redoubt-
able sgeut ia Uie circumstance of ite leaving scaroely any trace of ita
ptqaeitoe on the aoats of the stomach. Ooeeihu IndtctiM is never used
mtemally in the praddoe of medicine, but an ointment formed of the
powdered berries ia ver; efBcaoiouB in some cutaneous disesses, such
as Porrigo CapUii and ,^|reatu Menti. It speedily allays the inflamma-
tory state ; but ite employment requirea gT«at ears. Creaaote will
probably supersede it in such oases.
Oa'wmia is the root of the CocailMipalxfuiiiia, a native of ths foreate
of the Bsat ooast of Africa, whence it is sent to Ceylon, and thence to
Europe. It occurs in the form of tnuiTarw sectioos, the bark of
which ia thick and easily separable ; the woody portion is spongy, of
a yellow colour, and when old much perforat«d by worms. The
odour is bintty aromatic, ths taste Utter and alightly acrid. It
contains much starch, a yellow asotised matter, a y^ow bitter
principle, IfBoea of a volatile oil, woody fibre, salte (chiefly of lima
and potassa), oxide of iron, and ailei. The active principle is Calum-
bina, which may be obtained either by alcohol or ether. As Calumba
□ontains nothing which can decompose the salte of iron it may be
given along with them. The powder is a good form : ths infusion
soon spoils, but is otherwise a very eioellent form ; a tincture or
extract retains the virtues, and keeps a loi^ time.
Other roote sie oft«n fraudulently subatitutad for Calumba. Soma
of these are supplied by America, athen by AMca. The American,
which is the moat common in England and the north of Europe, is
the root of the Fraura Waiitra (Idich.), a native of the marshes of
Carolina. It ma; be distinguished &om the true by ita whiter colour,
lighter texture, the presence of longitudinal pieces, and the taste
b^ng at first sweetish, and not nearly so bitter as genuine Calumba.
Chemical teste further sssist in diacrimiaating them : solutjon of
proto-sulphate or of permuriata of iron, does not trouble the tincturo
of tha teal, while it gives the false a dark gi«en colour ; the tinctura
of ths genuine yieldg with tincture of ^Ils a copious dirty gray
precmitate, but the false none. The substance of the true is rendered
blueb; lodina, Uie false brown. In large doses the spurious causes
vomiting, but the genuine allays that action.
BliccB of bryony root ara often employed to adulterate Calumba
C0CCD8. rCooom*.]
C0CCTZU8. [CoaoLiDJL]
COCHINEAL u extremely rich in the Snest red oolouring-matter,
and has been long employed in scarlet dyeing and In tha manufacture
of carmine. [Cobhiiib, m ABta asd Sc. Div.]
Cochineal has been aualyaed by Folletier and Caventou, and they
find that it contains : — 1, a oolouring-matter to which Oiey have
given the name of carmine, or oarminium ; 3, a peculiar animal
matter ; S, fatty matter which is soluble in ethar, and consiiting of
stearine, oleiue, and an odorous acid ; 4, phosphate of lime and of
potash, chloride of potassium, and carbonate of lime, and potash
oombinsd with an organic acid.
Caimininm was obtained by Felletier and Caventou bj digesting
Cochineal in ether; tieating the reddus repeatedly with boiling
alcohol, allowing it to cool ; treating the deposit formed with pure
alcohol, and then adding a volume equal to ite own of pure sulphuric
ether : a deposit of Corminium is thus formed.
Tha chief use of Cochineal is the dyeing of scarlet ; tha fine colour
which it yields is oonvortad to this tint by means of chloride of tin
usually oolUd Muriate of Tin, and by the clyer Tin Spirita.
The insect which constitutes Cochineal tbeds chieBy upon tbe
CbcfUi eoclimtiliftra and O. Bpuniia. [CooCID«.] The female insect
oiJy is collected. Several varieties are distinguished in commerce, and
have diBerent d(«reee of value attached to them, dependent chieSy upon
the different methods employed to kill and dry the insects. When
dried they rBHembie small grains scarcely so large as a p«ppei'<»m,
ovala, convex above, plane below, traneveraely furrowed, axtemally
btackiah-brovra, but as if dusted vrith a white powder, light, friable,
the internal substance consisting of extremely small gruns, obecurely
purple, but when roduoed to powder of a rich purple. Inodorous,
but with a bittersweet acrid taste. They import to wate'r or alcohol
by digestion an intensely red colour. Tha colouring principle ia
termed Carmine. Adulterations are effected either by mixing old
insecte oonoisting of the mere skin or grains artificially prepared with
Cochineal has hitherto bean employed mostly as a colouring
material either of tinctures or of other things, the nature of which it
€9
COCHLEABIA.
COCKATRICE.
50
ia wished to disguise ; but lately it has been stated to possess diuretic
and antispasmodic powers, and to be useful in pertussis, or hooping-
coueh. Its claim to this diaracter requires yet to be established by
further eyidenoe.
COCHLEAHIA (from Cochleare^ a spoon, the leaves of the species
being hollowed out like the bowl of a spoon), a genus of Plants
belonging to the natural order Crucifera, the sul>order PUurorhuea,
the ^be Alyuvnem, It has sessile ovate-globose or oblong silicles,
with ventricose very convex valves, with a prominent dorsal nerve ;
many seeds, not margined; the calyx equal at the base, spreading;
the petals entire; the stamens too^less. The species are annual or
perennial herbs, usually smooth and fleshy, but sometimes pubescent.
The flowers are mostly white.
One of the most common species of this genus, as formerly defined,
28 the common Horse-Radish {O, Armoracia). This species however
is now referred by some botanists to a new genus, Armoracick, and is
described by Babington, in his * Manual of British Botany,' as
A. rusUcmM. The genus Armoracia diflers from Cochlearia in its
globose pouches or silicles being destitute of a prominent dorsal
nerve. The Horse-Radish, though described in books on British
Botany, can scarcely be considered a native of Great Britain, aa the
wild specimens are evidently escapes from gardens.
C. officincUis, common Sourvy-^rass, has the radical leaves cordato,
reniform, stalked ; the stem-leaves sessile, oblong-sinuate, half
embracing the stem ; the pouch globose or ovate. It is a native of
Great Britcdn, in muddy places near the seaKK>a8K This plant varies
much in aize, and two or three varieties have been described. The
C. GroBfdandica of Smith and Withering appears to be nothing more
than a diminutive variety of this species. In France the Scurvy-
Grass is called Cranson Officinal ; in Germany Loffelkraut. When
fr^sh it has a peculiar smell and a bitter acrid taste, which are quite
lost by drying. The fresh plant is a stimulant, and possesses the
antiscorbutic virtues of the whole order. It has however a peculiar
reputetion in the disease caUed scurvy ; hence ite common name. It
is sometimes used as a salad. When cultivated the seeds should be
sown in July, in drills eight inches apart^ and when the plante are up
they should be thinned to about six inches apart. Those plante
whftsh are taken out may be placed iir new beds. They will all be fit
for use in the following spring.
C. Danica has the leaves all stalked, the radical ones cordate, some-
what lobed ; the stem-leaves 8-5-lobed, subdeltoid uppermost, mostly
shortly stalked ; the pouch roundish, elUpticaL It is found in Great
Britain, in a few places on the sea^<x>ast. It is a more abundant
native of the sean^aste of the north of Europe, and is a native of
Kamtehatka.
C. Anglica, English Scurvy-Grass, has the radical leaves stalked,
ovate-oblong, entire; the stem-leaves oblong, entire or toothed,
mostly sessile, the upper ones embracing ^e stem ; the pouch oval,
oblong veinedL It is a native of muddy sea-shores about the mouths
of rivers, especially in Great Britain ; but is found in Norway and
Lapland and other parts of Europe.
There are several other species of Co^learia described ; they are
however most of them insignificant plante, inhabitante of nortnem
climates. For the culture and medioil properties of C. Armoraeia
see Horss-Radish, in Arts and So. Diy.
COCHLICELLA. [Helioida]
COCHLICOPA. [Hblioid^J
COCHLIODUS, a genus of Placoid Fishes, from the Carboniferous
Limestone of Armagh and Bristol. (Agassiz.)
COCHLITOMA. [Hblicida]
COCHLODESMA. [Ptloridea.]
COCHLODINA. [Hblioida]
COCHLODONTA, [HBLicmiB.]
COCHLOGENA. [Helicidjb.]
COCHLOHYDRA. [Hblicida]
COCHLOSPERMUM, a genus of Plante placed by Lmdley in the
natural order CistacecB, found in Asia, Africa, and Soutii America.
Botaniste usually place it amongst the Theads (TemgtHimiacete) ; but
ite parietel plaoentee, acrisomerous flowers, and curved embryo lying
in the midst of albumen, seem fatal objections to that association.
C. Go89ypiwn is a large tree with downy shoots. Leaves 5-6 inches
long, 5-lobed ; ovary beneath on C7lin<hrical downy stalks. Panicle
terminal Flowers lai^ge, and bright yellow. The trunk yields the
gum Kuteera, which in the North-Westem Provinces of India is
substituted for Tragacanth.
C inaignt growb in Brazil on the plains in the western desert^ part of
the province of Minas Geraes, and also on the Catui^ges of Minas Novas.
The leaves are coriaceous, palmate, 5-lobed, the lobes folded together
coarsely and sharply double serrated, when full grown nearly smooth.
A decoction of the rooto is employed in internal pains, especially such
as result from falls or accidente ; it is also said to heed absoesses
already commenced. C, tinetorivm is used in cases of amenorrhoea,
and also as a yellow dye.
(Lindley, Flora Sfedica ; Lindley, VegetaibU Kingdom^
COCHLOSTYLA. [Hblicida]
COCK. [PHASlAiriD2B.1
COCK OF THE WOOD. rCAPEBOALL]
COCKATOO. [PsrrtJLOTDAj
RAY. HI3T. DIY. YOU IL
COCKATRICE, one of the names by which the Basilisk was known.
"Many opinions," says Dr. Thomas Browne, in his 'Pseudodoxia
Epidemica,' "ai'e passant concerning the basilisk, or little king of
serpents, commonly called the Cockatrice; some affirming, others
denying, moat doubting, the relations made hereof. .... That
such an animal there is, if we evade not the testimouy of Scripture
and human writers, we cannot safely deny." This is very true ; and
it is equally true that the alleged generation of the Basilisk or Cocka-
trice, and Uie powers attributed to it in ancient times, were the most
ridiculous fables.
Of Basilisks or Cockatrices there were said to be three, if not four
kinds. One species burned up whatever they approached; — a sort of
breathing upases, they made a desert wherever tney went, for every-
thing animal and vegeteble withered before them ; a second were a
kind of wandering Hedusa's heads, and their look, like Yathek's eye,
caused an instant horror, which was immediately followed by death * ;
the touch of a third caused the flesh to fall from the bones of the
wretohed animal with which they came in contact ; and a fourth, a
concentration of evil, was said to be produced from the eggs of
extremely old cocks {Ova centonkia)), hatohed under .toads or ser-
pente. There are authors who maintain that this parentage did not
belong exclusively to one kind only, but that it was the origin of the
whole infernal brood.
The Greek won> 'RturOdaKoi is often translated in Latin by the word
Regvlvs. When mention is made of these Basilisks or Cockatrices in
the Holy Scriptures, nothing appears to occur in the sacred volume
beyond words expressive of a very poisonous and deleterious serpent,
intended, in the opinion of many commentetors, to typify sin, misery,
destruction, God's judgments, and the principle of evil, or Anti-Christ.
Thus, in Psalm xcL 13, it is written — "Super aspidem et basilisciim
ambiUabis," which in the old quarto Bible, * imprinted at London by
Robert Barker, printer to the King's most excellent Majestic, 1615,'
is translated — " Thou shalt walke upon the lion and aspe ;" and in the
more modem editions, " Thou shalt tread upon the Hon and adder."
In the 'Booke of Common Prayer,' by the same printer (Robert
Barker), 1618, the passage stands, "Thou shalt goe upon tiie lion
and adder," and so in the more modem editions. Again (Proverbs
xxiiL 82), speaking of the abuse of the wine-cup, " Monlebit ut colu-
ber et sicut Regulus venena dififundet," which in the old edition above
alluded to is rendered, " In the end thereof, it will bite like a serpent
and hurt like a cockatrice; " and, in the modem version, " At the last
it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder." So, Isaiah xiv. 29,
" Ne Iseteris," fta " de radice enim colubri egredietur Regulus," &c.,
in the old quarto, " Rejoyce not (thou whole Palestina) because the
rod of him that did beate Uiee is broken ; for out of y^ serpente roote
shal come forth a cockatrice, and the fruit thereof shall be a fiery
flying serpent:" and lix. 5, speaking of the wicked, "Ova aspidis
rumpunt et telas aranearum texunt ; qui comederit de ovis ejus morie-
tur, et quod fructum erit crumpet in Regulum :" in the old quarto,
** They hatch cockatrice egges, and weave the spiders webbe : he t^at
eateth of their egges dieth, and that which is trod upon breaketh out
into a serpent ;" which the commentetor tiius explains, " Whatsoever
Cometh from tliem is poison and bringeth death. They are profitable
to no purpose." The present edition reads, " They hateh cockatrice-
eggs, and weave the spider's-web : he that eateth of their eggs dieth,
and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper." Also Jeremiah
viii. 17, " Ecce ego mittam vobis serpentes Regulos," &c., which the
same old edition renders, '* For behold I will send serpents and cock-
atrices among you, which will not bee charmed : and they shall sting
you, saith the Lord ; " which the commentetor explains as follows :
" Go4 threateneth to send the Babylonians among them, who shall
utterly destroy them in such sort as by no meanes they shall escape."
The modem edition scarcely varies from the old quarto, except fti the
substitution of the word *bite* for 'sting.*
These Basilisks were called Kings of Serpente, because all other
dragons and snakoi, behaving like good subjecte, and wisely not wish-
ing either to be burnt up, or struck dead, or to have their flesh fall
from their bones, although they were in full feast upon the most
delicious prey, were supposed, the moment they heani the distant
hiss of their king, to turn tail in a ' sauve qui pent ' style, leaving the
sole enjoyment of the banquet to the royal monster.
Of the ancient profane writers, Aristotle, as might be expected,
says nothing aboiit the wonders of the Cockatrice ; but Pliny, who
dearly loved a fable, mentions the Basilisk more than once : thus
(* Hist Nat' book viii. c. 21, and book xxix. c. 4) he enters at length
into ite deadly attributes, and records the praises with which magi-
cians celebrate the efficacy of ite blood, which was considered an
admirable antidote agaiilst sorceiY (veneficia). Dioscorides, Galen,
Solinus, JSIian, and others, are eloquent upon Basilisks, as are Avi-
cenna, Grevinus, Scaliger, and many more.
Browne (Paeiidodoxia) is of opinion that what " we vulgarly call a
cockatrice, and wherein (but under a different name) we intend a
formal identity and adequate conception with the basilisk, is not the
bas ilisk of the anciente, whereof such wonders are delivered ; for this
* Lady Anne, in Shakapere's play of Biohard IIL, in answer to Biohard's
obaervatioa on her eyes, sajb— '
" Would they were baailiaka to strike ibee dead I '*
" COCKATBICE.
of ours is genenllj deicribed with lege, wingi, ■ serpeDtine and wind-
ing toil, uid > criat or comb lomeirlut like a oock ; but ths bamliiik
of slder tim« iru b propar kind of •erpent, Dot &boTe three polniB
lon^ u KimB accouDt ; uid differeni^ from other aapeuta by
wiTUiciiig hii head, uid •ome white nuriu or aoroiuuy spots upon
the cromi, ss all authentio writ«n Iutb delivered." The following is
Flinr's description ('Hiit. Nat' viiL 21). After stating that the
Builisk, like the beast Catoblepu, ilsjrs wilJi its nje, he proceeds : —
"The Cyreiuuc proiince prodacea bim of Uia gnatDesa of not more
thsn twelve fingers, and remarkable for a while ipot, like a, diadem,
on hii hssd. He drives away all serpents bv his hissiiig, Dor does he
im Ml his body like the rest by a multiplied fleiioo, but advances lofty
and upright (celsus et erectus In medio). He kills the shrubs, not
only by coated^ but by breathing on them, soorche* up the green
herb, and iplita the rocks : such power of evil is there in hTtn I(
was formerly behaved that if killed by a spear from on honelwck,
the power of the poison conducted Uirougb the weapon killed not
only the rider, but the hone also." To this Lnoan alladea in these
" Quid prodsn mlmi buUbetu ciuplde Himl
Truasotu t velor currlt per tela veDennm,
Inndllqn* miaau."
Snch a prodigy waa not likely to b« psnad over in die l^endi of
the saints. Aooordingly we find that a good man (vir quidnm Justus)
a fountain in the desert, suddenly beheld " '" "
related of the abbot 8i^ John, who, by prayor, alew a Basilisk
that In; hid in the bottom of a deep well, and nduced the monks of
a monastery built by him to the greatest distress for want of water.
IiBo IV., by a limiliLr piety, is said to have delivered Rome &om a
Basilisk whose breath afflicted the inhabitants witlx a terribia pesti-
lence in his pontificate.
Jonston enumerates the attribute! of tbe Basilisk in silence, tiU he
comes to its alleged power of annihilating wiUi the eye, wheu he sagely
remarks, " Intuitu interimere viz crediderim, quis enim primoa
vidiuiet ? " — " I would acareely believe that it killi with its look, for
who flnt could hsve seen it t" The woithy physiciaii was not awam
that those who went to bant the Basilisk of thia sort, took with
them a minor which reflected back the deadly glare upon its author,
and, by a kind of poetical justice, slew the Basilisk iriUl it* own
It is curious to observe that Browne, who treats moat of the fable*
about the Basilisk with contempt, ia still unable to leaist the story of
its killing with the eye. We think we can traoe a little of the sym-
pathetic theory maintained by Sir Kenelm Digby and othera, in the
fcllowing passage : " According to the doctrine of the andanta, men
still affirm that it killeth at a distance, that it poisoneth by the eye,
and by priority of vision. Now that deleterious it may be at some
distance, and deetructive without corporal contaction, what uncer-
tainty soever there be in the eflTect. ther« ia no improbability in the
relation. For if plsguei or pestilential atoms have been conveyed in
the air from difTerent regions ; if men at a distance have infected each
other ; if the shadows of some treea be noiioua ; if torpedoes deliver
their opium at a diatanoe, and stupify beyond themselves ; we cannot
reasonably den; that (beaidea our grois and restrained poisons,
requiring contiguity unto their actions) there may proceed from
aubtiUer seeds more agile emanations, which contemn tboae lawa, and
invade at a diatatioe unexpected. That this Tenenation diooteth Aom
the eye, and Qitt this w^ a *^ii«^ ma; emp(Haan, although thus
much be not agreed upon by auUion, some uapntmg it unto the
breajjli, others unto the bite, it is net a thing impoenbls ; for eysa
receive olliiasive impressions bom their objects, and may have innu-
ences dcrtruotiva to each other ; for the visible Bpecies of thioga abike
not our senses immaterially, but streaming in corporal raies, do carry
with them the qualitiea of the object from whence they flow, anil the
medium through which they paai. Thus, through a green or red
glasi, all things wa behold appear of the same colours ; thus, sore
eyes affect those which are sound, and themselves also by reflexion,
as will hsppen to an inflamed eye that beholds itself long in a glass :
thus is fascination made out ; and thus also it ia not impossible what
is affirmed of thia animal; the visible raies of their ejea carrying
forth the Bubtillest portion of their poison, which, received by the eye
of man or beast^ infscteth flnt the brain, and la from thence ooounu-
nioatvd unto the heart"
But if the author of the ' Inqniries into Vulgar and Common
Errors ' here shows something of the lingering lo^ with which moat
wen regard received prejudices, he makes amends b; declaring war
against the story of the mode of the Cockatrice's produotioiL " A*
for the generatioD," lays be, " of the bsMlisk, that it proeeedath from
a oock'»egg hatched under a toad or serpent, it is a oonceit as mon-
■troua aa Uie brood itself." Jonston, who aupears to rcfpud with a
proper horror most of the ne&rious prooeedingi of the Cockatrice,
treats tiiis part of ths aubjeot quite profeedonolly. " Quomodo,"
rsmonsttates the sage doctor of medicine, " formari a gallo intra
ovmo poisit cum utero deatituatnr non video." It ia aupposed that
this idea took its rise {mm an Egyptian tradition conoetning the
this; "for an opinion it wat of that nation that the ibis feeding upon
COCKATBICE.
food BO fnqainatas their oval) oonoeptiDEia, or
eggs within their bodies, that they sometimea csme forth in serpeutjns
sh^HB ; and tJierefbre the; alwaiea brake their ^g^ nor would they
endure the bird to sit upon them." (Bniwoe.) Biuitdsta Porta is of
opinion tliat if a hen's«gg be placed in a ditch full of serpent*, cor^
mption (tabes), arsenic, and other poisona, it will produce an animal
n<^OQB to the sight and touch ; at the same time he put* On expari-
mentolist on his guard, l»t in tiying to produce thia atdmaf ha
might (like EVankonstein) give birth to a croture that would do him
But what ms to atta^ this terrible and* unapproachable monster t
There is an old sa;ing that " ever;thing hath its enemy j " and the
Cockatrice quailed before the weoseL (Pliuy, Solinus, and othera)
The Basilisk might look daggers, the weasel cared not; — in he went
to Uis scratch. When it came to biting, the a&ir became more
•aiona ; but the waasd retired for a moment to eat some rue (which,
of eoDna^ was the only plant which the Basilisks could not wither,
and was always growing where they lay), returned to the charge, and
never left the enemy idl be lay stretched dead before Kini , So that
when men found out the den of a Basilisk, they had only to torn in a
weoael, and the thing was done. The monster, too, as if oonsooos of
the irregular way in wMoh ha entered the worid, was supposed to
have a great antipathy to a cod ; and well he mi^t ; for aa soon aa
he heard the cock crow, ha expired. Tiiia we learn from .£lian ; and
African travellcn, conBei|uentl;, carried with thero the * bird of
dawning ' aa a specific against Cockatrices.
The Basilisk was of some ute after death. Thoa wa read that its
mspended in the Temple of Apollo, and in private houses
ths sacred pbum.
The reader will, we apprehend, bj this time have " supped full " of
absurdities, bnt still we can iiriagme his anxie^ to know what a
Cookatrioe was like. We therefore subjoin from Aldroraodns, in
whose work he will find two others made out of skatea (Raia), a
couple of Sgnreo, one of which he seems to owe to Cardan, and the
other to Grevinus. In both it will be seen that ,
BntiHtem in *pK(m«ih 4;*i(« li
AsiiKMW, ite* St^yt, GlCTiol.
■ COCKCHAFER.
In thva outs will be seen bh exunple of the ' Bomak Poiton-
taque Theauk,' irhicli luTe vuiuhed bafot* Um light of fdMKe.
COCKROACH. The o
! for the Blaaa trimtalU.
a.]
_.._.. . [Cocoa]
COCOA-PLUH, the fruit of CKrywbafanM leaea. [Chbts
COCOON. [Bohbicida; Pufa.1
COCOS, K geauB of Pluita bBlongtoK to ths utuial order ot
Palms. It ii l£uB defined V Von Hutliu :— Both mala ud famale
flowen on the aame spadix. Spatbe aiinple ; flowan wnile. Hklee :
caljx S-leitTsd ; corolU of S petals ; Btamaiia 6 ; a rudiment of a
KtiL Famolaa ; 8 sepoU and S petals rolled together ; ovuy
elled ; itigmaa 3, leaBUe j drupe fibrous ; putamen wiOi three
Coooa-Hol Palm (Omi mteVtra).
0, lo'ver portion of tbo spfctlu opennl ; ^ bruuhlrtt with fnoida flomrs
the mils on the upper nd dtopprd off; i, fcmsle flover; ^ itunvn
porei at the base ; albumen hamogenaous, hoUow ; embryo next one
of the porea at the bB» ; stems either loft; or middle-oiad, alendar,
ringed, or cromied bj the basu of the petiolea, with a pale fibroua
vood ; leave* pimiAted ; the pinnis lanceolate or Hoear ; flowers pali
jretlow; drupe* broim, green, or orange-oolour, rather di7. The
" inua oontaina soToral spaciea.
Cocot nudfera. the common Cocoa-Nut Palm. This plant is found
I over the tropioai parts of the world, especially in the Tidnity of
Its principal range is said by Ur. HarsbsU U
and the 25th parallel of latitude, and in the equinoctial sons to an
altitude of about S900 feet. Its great importance to man has cnuaed
be cultivated wherever the climate ia favourable to ita growth ;
and accordingly it is sometimes found occupying eitensire tracts to
jxclusion of all other trees : the whole Biazilian coast from tha
San FraDcisoo to the bar of Mamangui^w, a distance of 280 miles,
Lth few breaks, thus occupied ; and it was estjmated that in the
year 1813 no fewer than 10,000,000 trees were growing on the south-
sat coast of Ceylon.
The Cocoa-Kut Palm rises like a slender column to t^m 60 to SO
feet in height ; its stem is of a soft fibrous natun, and is marked on
the outside by rings produced by the foil of ita lea'tes j two such
leaves are sud to drop off annually, and oonsequently the age of an
individual is equal to half the number of the annular acara of it4
stem. About a dozen or fifteen leaves, each from 12 to 11 feet long,
a the summit of the stem ; and as theae are not inaptly compared
to gigantic ostrich-feathers, they give the plant the air of an enormon*
toft of v^table plume*. A retioulatad substance, resembling coarse
cloth, envelops the base of each leaf-atslk, but falls off befora the leaf
is fiill grown. The Sowers proceed from within a large pointed apathe,
which always opens on the under side. In wet aeasoniT tha tree
blossoms every five or six weaka, so that there are geaerslij fr«sh
flowen and ripe nuts on the tree at the same time : Uieie are com-
monly from five to ' fifteen nut* In a bunch ; and in good soils a tree
may produce from eight to twelve bunohea, or ftom 80 to 100 nut*
inuBlly.
In hot oountriee the uses to which the Coeo(i-Nut Tree ia applicable
e innumerable The roots are chewed in place of the areca-nut;
gutters, drums, and the pasta of huts are formed trom the trunk ; the
youog buds are a delicate vegetable ; shade is furnished by the leaves
when growing, and after separation from ths tree their large siie and
hard texture render them mvsluable as thatch for cottages ; they are
moreover manufactured into baskets, buckets, laotems, articles of
head-diees, and even books, upon which writing is traced with an iron
stylus. Their asbea yield potash in abundance ; their midrib forms
oars i and brushes are formed by bruising the end of a leaf with a
portion of the midrib adhering to it.
Tha sap of the tree during the time of blosmming ascends in large
quantities: it is veiysweet, and Sows &«elj on the stem being punctured,
in CeyloD it is diuly collected by a clsas of people known as ' toddy-
drawara,' wh^ get up early to procure it for the use of the inhabitants.
If allowed to stand, this toddy ferments, and fonna palm-wine, from
which an ardent spirit called arrack is distilled. By further diatilW
tion sugar is procured from this spirit, which is called ' ga^^ghsu
sugar.' This sugar, mixed with lime, forms a powerful cement, which
lemsts moisture, endurea great solar heat, and will take a fine polish.
A farinaceous matter contained in the stem is a good substitute for
sago. The ripe fruit is a wholesome food, and the milk it contains is
husk, which has three flat sides le
the top in a blunt point. This peculiar form seems to be a special
provision for the disBemination of the sgecieB; growing, as it does, Dear
the shores of seas and rivers, its large seeds drop into the water, and
their ahape particularly adapts them for sailing; one edge, being down-
wards, fonns the keel, while the upper snrfaoe, being fiat, is acted upon
by the wind, and so propelled ^ng on the surface until it reaches
some coral reef or shore, where, whan stranded, it vegetates and rises
to be a magnificent palm, affording food and shelter in abundance.
The shell of the Cocoa-Nut is inclosed in a fibrous husk, which has
DOW become a considerable article of commerce on account of the
strength and durability of the fibre. Its preparation is veiy simple,
consisting of little more than beating the husks to separate the fibre*,
which are dir and but loosely held together, and afterwards drawing
them through a coaraa oouib or heckle, by which the refuse is cleaned
oat ; it is tbra spun into yarzis of different thickness, and is now
extensively manufactured in Europe into ropee and matting : it is also
used to stuff mattresses and cushions. In India it is very genenlly
used as cordage for vessels, and for fishing-nets ; its lightness recom-
mends it especially for the latter purpose. Ita durability is surprising ;
perhaps no other vegetablfrfibre will resist so long the action of altei-
nate dryness and moisture. The hair-like fibre is made also into
scrubbing-brushes ; and the poorer classes in many places use the
entire husk for the same purpose. The imports of cocoa-nut yam
sod rope into England are greatly increasing . in the year 18E1 (as
Dearly as can be asoertained) 10,661 tons were brought into Liver-
pool from Ceylon and Bombay. The oil of the Cocoa-Nut is valuable
as an export : it is used lan^ely in Europe for burning, in the manu-
facture of torches, and in the composition of pharmaceutical prepan-
tiona. Mixed with dammar (the resin of Skoria Tobvila), it forms ths
substance used in India for payiug the seams of boats and ships.
(0 COFFEA.
■roniBtic nimuiBted mlsatanoe to ■ nutmeg. If U a BecMtioD foimed
iu the interior of the leail, and oDTelaping the embryo plant, for
whoBe anppoit it ia destined whm it fint begjmi to germlDnte; it
coDititutea the principal part of the ue<], the embryo iUelf being A
minute body lying in a cavity at one end of the albumen. Unakilfiil
obserren are often unable to find the embiyo ; but it may readily be
seen by the following ainiple means r— Take a new aampla of amall
fine unroasted Mooha cofrea> and throw it into boiling water ; the
embryo will, after a httle while, be expelled with foroe from the
albumen in a maiority of cosea.
The genua Cogta is known among Cinchonaceoua Plants by haring
a tubulaT corolla, with four or five ipreadiog diviiiona ; itameni
ariaing from the naked throat of the corolla, and either extending
beyond it or incloaed withic it ; and a succulent berry containing two
cells lined with a cartilaginous membrane, of the texture of parch-
ment, in eaoh of which cella there is a single seed, convex at the
back and deeply furrowed in front, in conaequence of the albumen
being rolled inwards.
Coffia AnJnca ia an evergreen ihrub, with oval shining wavr
sharp-pointed leaves, white fragrant Gve-cleft clustered corollas with
Erojecting antheia. and oblong pulpy berries, which are at first of a
right red, but afterwards become purple. It is stattid by If iebuhr
to have been brought from Abyssinia to Yemen by the Ar«bs from a
country similar to their own plains and mountains. By that people
it has for ages been cultivated in the hilly range of Jabal, in a headthy
temperate climate, watered by frequent rains, and abounding in wells
and watfiT-tanks. Here the plants are grown in grounds that are
Continually irrigated, and in aoU from one to one and a half foot deep.
Among the plantationB are intenperaed various kinds of trees, whose
shadebas a beneficial effect upon the coSba-bushee. When in Sower,
they diffuse a most delicious fragrance, in the midst of which the natives
fix their habitations. The fruit begins to ripen in February: and
when the seeds are prepared, they are oonveyed to the city of Beit el
Faldh, whence part goes to Hocha, and another portion to Hodeida
and Loheia, whense it finds its way to Djedda and Snes for the
Turkish and Europesji madeU.
Ihs •anu 1 /, nnbrfo.
ttiehoMS of soil in the Weat Indies has been thought to be the cause
of the inferior quality of coffee grown in that part of the world, and
to the SBppoaed dryness of Yemen has been ascribed the excellence
of Hocha coffee. But it has been shown that the Arabs counteract
the effect of an; dirness in the ur by abundant irrigation ; and that
moreover it is not m the Tehama or dry parts of the country that it
is cultivated, but on hill-aides, where the temperature is mudi lower,
and when it laina daily for four months in the year.
COLCBICACG£ rt
The seed of Coffea Jro&ica conaisla of much homy albumen, and a
peculiar principle or alkaloid, termed CaSeiiMi, which oootaiu more
nitrogen than anyothsr known vegetable lubalance. Theaeed is osed
in a raw stitte in medicine, and, when roasted, both as a medieiDe and
still more extensively as an article of diet. The coSeHilant begins to
produce frnit when two or two and a half years old ; but the quality
of the seeds from young stems is not ao good as that from stems four
or five years old. The aixe and oolonr at the bean (as the inner part
of the seed ii called) vary oonsidenbly, those from the West Inilifs
bong larger than thoae tiata tiie East, Huch more depends upon the
manner of roasting and making the coffee, than upon the qunlity of
the beau. The supariori^ of French coffee, in the prepustion of
which little or no Hocha coffee is used, proves this position. Beans
of a good quality are hard and heavy, sink quickly in water, are of a
light yellowish-green oolour, not diaooloursd or black, and poee ou a the
odour of eoffse, which Uiongh faint is peculiar, and are free fttnn any
damp smelL Beans recently oollected, or only two or three montltt
from the tree, are not so good as those about a year old ; when older
than this Ihev become deteriomled. From the analyns of Segnln and
SnhrOder, coffee oonsista of ooffee-bitter (impure offdne), lolid fat,
resin, a little aromatio principle, gum, albumen (this albumen, accord-
ing to Beguin, nnitea with the jcUow coffee-hitter, and fonns t, greeo).
The taste of rmw imB^ is somewhat sweetie ; but the application
of heat in the process of roasting prodoces important ohangea.
The bean increasai to nearly twice the original atae, while it loses
about one third of its weight : a powerful and agreeable odour is
evolved, and a laije quantity of empyreumatic oil, which ^pe«rs in
small drops on the surface, is formed along with a bitter prindpli^
probably by an alteration in the caffeine, and of the saodiarlne matter.
The roaeting should take plaoe in a close revolving iron cylinder, over
a clear but moderate fire, and should not be earned too &r : when
the beans have aoqnired a light cheetnut colour, the roastins should
be diaoontinued. The beans are then to be cooled quicUyby being
toned up into the air, and the grinding, or rather rough pounding,
should be performed in a covered mortar or milL The drink ahould
be prepared from it as soon as possible, by infusion, which is pnftr-
able, unless some apparatus be employed by which a kind of decoction
is made in a close vessel Abonthalfanonnoe of ooflee powder should
be used fbr erety eight ounces (half a pint) of water. Id Britain the
roasting is generally earned too (ar ; and ika subvqnsnt parts of die
proceaa, instead of being perfonned immediately, are ofUm postponed
for days or even WMU, by which the aroma is diaipated : when
made the liquid is generally deficient in strength and cleamev. Ths
employment of white of egg or flsh-skin for clarification is decidedly
objectionable : clearness is thus purchaaed, but at the expense of the
•trengtb.
The addition of milk (which should always be hot) and of sugar
heightens the nourishingqualities of this beverage, and in the morning
renders it a more subs^tial article for breakfast When taken after
dinner to promote digestion it should be without milk, and, where the
palate can be recoodled to it, vrithout sugar.
There is much uncertainty as to the first introduction of ooflbs
into the weatem parte of Europe. The Yenetians, who tnded with
the Levant, were probably the first to use it. We find it mentioned
in the year 1916 b^ Peter de la Yalle, and thirty yeui afler this some
gentlemen returmng from Constantinople to Haiseille brought with
them a supply of tlus luxury, together with the vessels required for
CoS^ was first introdnoed into England in the year 1653, fourteen
yean esrlter than the introduction of tea. The first ooSee-faouse was
opened in Oeoige Yard, Lombard Street, 1^ a Qreek named Paaque,
who was brought from Turkey by a merchant of ths name of
Edwards.
The adulterations of grauDd ooffee are very considersble ; the most
Important of these is chicory, a dork brown powder made from the
roasted roots of the CkiBoriiim Inlyiui. It is perfectly haimleaa, and
by some is thought to be an agreeable additioo to the coffee : it is not
however of sn much value, and should not therefore be added to the
coffee hy the dealer, but sold separately, aa that those who dodrato add
it may purchase it themselves. Tanous other seeds aro used eitfaor
as imitations or adulterations of coffee, such as Rye-Chick Peas (Ckh-
aritlinwn). Broom Seeds (Sparlum tcopariitm), the Yellow Water-Iris
(Irit pMOHtaturui), and the Dandelion root (LtimtodcK taraxacum).
It has been suggested to use the leaves of the coffee-plant in infusion
the same as those of the tea-plant, and it is said they form a very
agreeable beverage ; but the berries are too valuable in themselves to
permit of the trees being injured by the loss of their leaves, as they
would be were titers any demand for them as an article of diet.
For medical uses, trade, and cultivation, see CorFU, in Astb «jm
ScDiT.
COIX, a genus of Plants belonging to the natutsl order of Oraosesi
One of the species, C. Lachryma, has hard stony fruits, which are
known by the name of Job s Tears. These frmts ore supposed by
— ^' — '- be strengthening and diuretia
81
COLCHICUM.
COLEOPTERA.
es
COLCHICUM, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
MelarUhacece, It has a coloured funnel-shaped perianth, with a very
long subterranean slender tube, and a somewhat campanulate 6-parted
limb; 6 stamens inserted into the throat of the tube; a S-celled
ovary; numerous ovules in 2 or 4 rows; 8 long filiform styles;
stigmas somewhat clavate ; capsule 8-celled, S-partible, opening
inwardly; seeds numerous, roundish, with a shrivelled skin.
O. auttmndU, Meadow Saffron, is a plant with a solid bulb-like
rootstock, found wild in various parts of Europe, as well as in Great
Britain, and forming a gay carpet in the autumn in the fields, where
its lively purple croous-uke flowers spring up. Its under-ground
stems, or bulbs, as they are called, and its seeds, abound in an acrid
stimulating deleterious principle, which has been carefully examined
by modem chemists, and the plant forms an important article in the
Materia Medica, large quantities of both rootstooks and seeds being
annually consumed in the manufacture of Eau M^dicinale, and other
medicinal preparations. The rootstock is irregularly egg-eiiaped, and
covered with a dry brittle brown skin ; at its base it bears a bud,
which feeds upon the parent stock, exhausting and finally replacing
it every year. Its flowers are large, pale purple, and spring up in the
autumn witiiout leaves, forcing &emselves resdily through the soil,
and expanding just their orifice, together with the anthers and
stigmas, above the surfieuM of the soi^ while the tubular part with
the ovary and filaments, remains enveloped in membranous sheathing
spathes below the soiL Each stock produces six or eight of these
flowers. The stamens are six, the ovaries three, each with a long
thread-shaped style, and not adhering in any degree to the tube of
the flower. These are succeeded by three little follicles, which
slightly adhere to one another by their inner edge, and in the spring
are elevated above Uie soil by their lengthened footstalk. At this
time, too, the foliage makes its appearance in the form of an erect tuft
of broad, oblong, shining, sheathing leaves. Each follicle contains
several oblong seeds. It is found in the moist rich pastures of
England, and in various other countries of Europe.
Colchicum is so very like an autumn crocus that an inexperienced
observer might readily mistake the one for the other. They are
however to 1^ distinguished by the crocus having only three stamens,
one style, and an inferior ovary, while the Colchicum has six stamens,
three styles, and a superior ovary — distinctions of no little importance
when the poisonous qualities of Colchicum, in which the crocus does
not at all participate, are considered.
For medicinal purposes the rootstocks of Colchicum should be col-
lected at Midsummer, and they should be used immediately ; for at
that time the peculiar principles which they contain are in the
greatest state of concentration. If they are employed at a time when
the plant is in a state of growth, especially when it is coming into
flower, those principles are partly lost and decomposed by the growth
of the plant, and there is no certainty as to the quantity of Colchicine
that a given weight of the rootstocks will yield.
Other species of Colc^cum are cultivated for the sake of their
flowers, but they aro of no medicinal importance, and aro very badly
distinguished from each other by botanists.
Three difibrent parts of O. autumnale yield an active principle used
in medicine, but wey respectively contain it in the greatest mtensity
at different seasons of the year ; the cormus (incorrectly called root
or solid bulb) having it in perfection about June or July, the flowers
in September, and the seeds the following spring. The cormus and
seeds are most frequently employed in Britain ; but should the proper
period (Midsummer) for collecting the cormi be neglected, the flowers
may be substituted,' though they can only be put to immediate use,
as they do not keep well. The cormi are found at various depths
under ground ; when very deep they aro not so good, being the pro-
duce of old exhausted plants. Each cormus is about the size of a
hazel-nut or walnut, ovate or heartwdiaped, consisting of a white
fleshy succulent substance, which, when cut across, exhibits roundish
plates. It is somewhat flatter on one side, on which also may be dis-
covered a groove, in which is lodged the germ of the flowernitem of
the following year. The recent cormus has a nauseous radish-like
odour ; when dried, no odour ; the taste is sweetish-bitter, leaving an
acrid sensation in the throat.
The seeds, which should be collected in May, are small, globose,
about the size of a grain of millet, of an obscure fawn-colour, opaque,
raugh, and wrinkled, with a white hilum at the base, very hard,
tough, and difficult to reduce to powder. The relative proportions
of the constituent ingredients of the cormus differ greatly, according
to the season of the year when it is taken up for examination, as
Stolze's analyses demonstrate. The active principle of Colchicum
was long considered to be the same as that of Veratrum, and hence
called Veratria; but Geiger and Hesse have shown that it is different,
and have termed it ColcUcine. The seeds contain this principle, and
likewise some thick oiL Colchicum imparts its active principle
partially to water, but more so to acetic acid, proof spirit, and wine.
A sirup is sometimes formed of it^ but it does not keep wdL
COLE, COLESEED. rBRABSiCA.]
COLEOTTERA (ico\cdirTcpa), a name first applied by Aristotle
^' Hist. Anim.' i &c.), and now imiversally adopted, to designate one of
the orders into which Insects are divided, the species of which order
are commonly known by the name of Beetles
Nearly all true Insects, or those Annulose Animals which have six
legs, exhibit, in a more or less developed state, four wings, or mem-
bers, which, although they may not enable the animal to fiy, occupy
the same situation, and are analogous to those which in many insects
are true oigans of flight.
These members are modified in various ways to suit the habits of
the species or of the groups in general ; but in those insects whose
habits are of a nature not to require the power of flight they are very
seldom entirely wanting, being found either in a rudimentary state,
or modified in their structure so as to perform some other office. In
those instances where the wings are only rudimentary, we cannot
often assign any positive use for them ; we can only perceive that the
affinities of the individuals exercise an influence in these respects —
that is to say, those species which belong to groups where tne indi-
viduals generally possess perfect wings, wiB often possess these
members in a rudimentary state^ when from their habits they do
not require the power of flying. It appeared necessary to make
these few general remarks before proceeding to give the distin-
guishing characters of a Coleopterous Insect, in order that tiie
nature of these characters and the departures from them might be
understood ; for it ia difficult to give a strict definition of any group
of animals.
The insects, then, which constitute the order OoUoptera may be
characterised as having four wings, of which the two superior are not
suited to flight> but form a covering and protection to the two inferior,
and are of a hard and homy or parchment-like nature, and when
closed, their inner maxgins, which are straight, touch and form a
longitudinal suture {fig. 16, c); the inferior wings, when not in use,
are folded transversely under the superior, and are membranous.
From this character of having the wings in a sheath, the term
OoU(^tera was applied, it being composed of the two Groek words
KoAc^f, a sheath, and rrepd, wings. The superior wings, which form
the sheath, are generally called elytra.
The principal exceptions to this general rule are as follows : — those
beetles whicH have no under-wings, or have them in a rudimentary
state, as in Carabua eancelUztut, and those in which the elytra are
soldered together at the suture, in which case we believe no under
wings are ever found. Another species of Carahut {C. violaceiu) and
many among the ffeteromera afford examples of this exception. There
are several beetles in which the elytra do not close at the suture, and
in which the under-wings are not protected by them. Such is the
case in the genera SUarit, RipipJionu, and others, in which the wing-
cases, or elytra, are somewhat pointed ; and in the genus MolorchuB,
among the CerambycidcBf the wing-cases are very short, and the wings
are not folded beneath them when at rest. In the Staphylinidix l£e
wing-cases are also very short, but the under-wings, by a series of
folds, are, when not in use. entirely concealed beneath them; and
as in this tribe the elytra form a straight suture when closed, the
only exception consiBts in the greater number of folds in the under-
wings. *^
Numerous other exceptions might be noticed, but we shall merely
mention the genus Afeloe, where one elytron partly folds over the
other ; the families Lampyridce and Tdepkoridce, in which the elytra
are comparatively soft and flexible ; and the glow-worm, the female
of which beetle has neither elytra nor wings.
The larvae c^ Coleopterous Insects are generally composed of
thirteen distinct segments, the head included. They aro almost
always of an elongate cylindrical or slightly depressed form; the
body is often soft and fleshy, and of a white colour : in these the head
is always of a firmer texture, being of a homy nature. The principal
parts of the mouth are the same, as to number, as in the perfect
insect^ although the parts aro (as far as our observations go) always
differently formed. The head is furnished with two antennae, which
are generally minute, and composed of four joints ; and ocelli, or simple
eyes, are, on each side, situated near the base of the antenna. The
body is furnished with six legs, which are attached to the first three
segments, or those next the head, a pair to each : the legs are small
and usually terminated by a simple claw. Sometimes, in addition to
the ordinary legs, the larva is furnished with false legs (often termed
pro-legs) ; these are fieshy tuberoles which the animal can protrude
at pleasure, and are used to propel the body. Some larvae have only
two of these pro-legs, which are attached to the apex of the terminal
segment of the abdomen, or placed beneath that segment; and in
the larvae of the species of CtrambycidcB each segment of the body
is thickened in the middle both above and below : these parts the
animal has the power of protruding considerably, by which means it
is enabled to thrust itself forwards or backwards in the holes in
the trunks or boughs of trees which are formed by its feeding upon
the wood.
The larvae of groups (generally believed to be natural) very closely
resemble each other, though those of different groups are sufficiently
distinct ; hence a knowledge of the larvae is of great use in determin-
ing the natural affinities of species when their fSamilies or sections are
not well ascertained.
We select as an illustration of the principal characten of a Coleop-
terous larva, that of one of the LameUicomeSf a group which comprises
the common Cockchafer, and where the larvae generolly, if notalway^^
have their body bent under at the apex.
COLEOPT£BA.
Fig. 1, lArnoraColsivWrowluHtti ■.mtonlilia; t,Uti
d, numdibl* ; •, nuilla. F^. 3, F«P> (Uta oT tb* Hma Ijum
nitorml lengUi <^ tha pupn.
WeahaUi
IT proceed to the pup« «
le of Coleoptoroiu
■tate bj remoTing . .
open oval space : otheifl form
oomtmcted of paiticlaB of earth,
joined together by t, kind of web or glutJnouB BubBtanca. Wood-
feeding lorVEC, or Oioie that live in the tnmkii or bark of tress, for the
moBt part auimie the pupa state vithout each preparation.
Some luTS which feed upon phukta inclose thnnselTea in * sphe-
rical cocoon; others again siupend themaslTes b7 the'tul, and hang
from Ai leaf or stalk of the plant. In one instance We have known the
■nimal to aBimme the pupa state within the skin of the larra. The
pupse of ColeopterouB Insects are what is termed iocomplete, that ia,
■11 the parte of the perfect insect ore distioctly liaiUe, the legi,
antonnie, winge^ Ao-f being each inclosed in a separate sheath, iLd
not as in the pupa or cluTBaUs state of moths and bntterfliea, where
all the parte are eoldered together, or as in the pnpBS of the Eaniptera
(bug-tribe), or Orlhopttra (locust-tribe), in which stage the insect is
ective, aiid in some instances cannot be distinguished from the perfeot
insect. This character of inoompletenees in the pupa ia therefore
ona of great importance, and is generall; added to Uie deGnition of a
Coleopterous Insect, for there are no other insecta which, in tha pupa
■lata, are incomplete, and which in the imsgo state could be oon-
founded with the CoUoptira.
Having traced the beetle through the larva and pupa states, vre
arrive at the last or imago stato, tha perfeot ioaoot.
Beetles belong to the Manda>viata, which forms the first of the two
great sections into which Ineecte are divided : a section, the indivi-
duals of which are distinguished b7 their pcsseeaing distinct mandi-
bles; and as the insects of the order Calioptent possess the mandibles
and all other parte of the mouth so well developed, they have by
many Iwea placed at the head of the Insect-Tribe. We ims^ine,
however, that the reasons elated for so doing are not suffloienb
The anatomy of insecta is given mider the article Ihbecta. We shall
therefore at preaent con&ne ourselves to Uie external parts of a beetle,
and to those only which it is esaential to know, in order to understand
the description of tboaa insects.
When we look at a beetle, we perceive that it is oompond of three
distinct parts, the foremost of whioh is the head ; the next is tailed
the thorax; and the last the abdomen.
The head is furnished with two e^ea, two antenn«, and tha various
parte of the mouth, called the trophi. The eyes aie situated on each
aide of the head, and are generally prominent, and always convex
manee oomposed of an immense number of leuaes arranged oloeely
together, so that their interstices form hexsgons. These are techni-
csJij termed compound eyee, and are of a circular or oval form,
frequently kidney-shaped, and in some instances (as in the genus
TelToft among the Ctnanhycida) they are completely divided.
The antennn in Coleopterous Insects have their origin genenlly
near the eyes, and are situated for the most port either between them
or before them. They are generally composed of eleven Jointa ; in
many however this number cannot be traced, whiiat in soma few there
appear to be twelve. The form of the antentiES is extremely variable,
and will be best understood by an inspection of the following illus-
trations, among which will be found most of tlie more common forma,
and some of the more extraordinary : —
Fig. i represents the head (with one antenna atteched) of ona of the
OurcvlioBida, a large tribe of beetles, in which the antennie are what
is termed geniculate ; that is, they have the terminal jointa kneed, or
bent at an angle with the basal joint. In deecribing beetlea of this
tribe the antenna is generally divided into three parts. The long
basal joint (a) is called the scapus, the several following joints (6) are
tonned the funiculus, and the terminal jointa which form the nob
(c) clavB. Figi. S and 12repreBent antennsa which are tonned capitate,
or which have the terminal joint or jotnte suddenly enlarged and
forming a knob. When the knob exhibits distinct articulatioiis {fg. G),
the Hutenna is tenosd capitate with perfoliate knob ; and whan the
COLEOPTERA. M
knob does not exhibit articulations, or is composed of a single joint,
it is said to be capitate with solid knob. Examplca of the former
will be foond in the genns JVecrepAonu, and of the Utter in the genu*
Monotoma. Fig. 9 represents on antenna which becomea gradually
thicker towards the apex, and which is termed clavate. Fig. 7 is the
' mn of ona of a moat extraordinary group of beetlea, the Pauttid/r,
J of which insects have the knob of that member swollen or
infiat«d. Fig. 8 is an auriculato ant«ima, and is ao called from ita
having an eaivlike appendage at its base. This description of antenna
is found in the genera Pamut and Gyrintti. Fig. 6 represente the
antenna of the common Cockchafer {MttobnMa vtUgarit). This form
of antenna, whioh is termed lamellate, is fbund thniughout the
Immense tribe of beetle* called by Linnsius ScartA<nu, and which
ha* received the luune of Lanellitmitei from this peculiar ohaiacter.
It must be observed however that slight modiGcations are found.
Fiff. 10 is a figure of a serrate antenna. Antennai are ao called when
they hare the apex of the jointe widened, so as to resemble the t«th
of a saw. Examples may be found in the Eialtrida and Sapratida.
Pectinate antenna ify. 11) ore those in which the i^x of the joints
is produced on one aide, and which somewhat resemble the teeth of
a comb. There are many examples of this structure in the anteniue
of Iho Lampgrida, A:c, and there are some in whioh the jointe are
elongated on each aide : these are termed bipectinat& Fig. 13 is
what is called a fissate antenna (the jointe on one aide divided aa b;
incisures). This form of antenna is found in the genoi Xvcaau,
Fig. H repreeenta a very common form of antenna (where it is slender
and teperine gradually to the apex) ; it is tonned setaceoua, and most
of the Caraiida and Cerambycida will afford examplee. The antennai
termed Blifonn somewhat resemble the last, but the jointa are all of
equal thickneaa throughout. The Lut dettcriptioo of antemuB which
we shall notice ore those termed monilifcrm. {Fig. IS.) Here all tbs
joints are ova] or round, and resemble a necklaoe of beads. Examplta
are found in many of tha apociea of the section lltteronera.
We now come to the parte which constitute the mouth of a beetle ;
these, it is scarcely necessary to say, are situated in the fore part of
tha head : they consist of a labrum, or upper lip j two mandiblee, or
jaws; two moxillie, or undeHaws ; and a labium, or under hp. These
are the six principal parts. We shall however also notice the portions
called the mentum, or chin,'and the clypeus, since the; are frequently
mentioned in descriptjens.
The labrum ia a moveable piste, often on the same plane with the
fore part of the head, which it terminates, and generally covera the
l»se (at least) of the mandibles above ; hence it is often called the
upper lip, forming as it does the upper boundary of the mouth.
This portion, although of various forms, is less liable to variation
than most of the other parte of the mouth. The moet common fonn
perhaps is somewhat quadrate, or brooder than long, as in fig. 21, a.
Upon referring to the article CaRibub, it will be aer n that that
genus and some other closely-allied genera an sepanted chiefly on
account of the diffarence in tha form of this member. In one it ia
described as bilobate ; by this is meant that the labrum is notched in
the middle, so that the two side-pieces form lobes (Fig. 2S.) When
the labrum ia not thus notched, but presents on even anterior margin,
it is described as entire. In one ot the other Beuarm (iVocnisfa),
where the labrum is desoribed as trilobate, the only di^reooe
consiste in ite having two notches on the anterior parts, and is thm
separated as it were into three lobee.
as COLEOPTERA.
The olfpeuB ia the part to which Oie Ltbrum ii attached, and which
ia uiuallv on the lune plane with it The term olypetu will eeldom
be foaod in descriptiDnii, eioepting in giving the chantctera of tboee
beetle! which beloDX to the LatatUicarmt, a tribe in which this part
ia great!; developed (jl^t. IT and 18, d), and where the l^nim '
hidden beneath it.
Under the labnim the mandiblei (mandibalie) are dtuated. Tbcae,
oa their name implies, are the oisaiw of mandacatioD ; thejT move
horizontally, and an most comtnonlj of a ebape moie or ]em
approaching to a trian^ Their form howsTer vaiiee acooidiog to
the food of the ineeot.
Generally speaking, in bsetleB which feed upon vegetable sub-
stancts the Jawb ■» broad, obtuaelr pointed at the apex, and have
moreover ■ broad flat BUiface at their base (often with Uttls eharp
ridges), which pomewbat reeemblefl a molar tooth of herUvoroiu
quadrupeds. IPig- 21.) In thoae epeciea whose habiU are carnivo-
rous the jaws are longer and less stoat, have the apex acatelypointed,
and seveial sharp tooth-Iilce processea on their inner side. (I'ig. 20.)
Next in aucceasion follow the maxillie, or under jaws (^. 17, n, and
Jig. 22) : theae organs are situated beneath the mandibles, and, like
them, move honjsontallj. A t^picA] maxilla consists of several parte,
the priacipal of which are — the hinge (cardo), a piece situated at the
base of the maxilla (fig. 22, <f) ; the maxillarir palpua (j(jr. 22, a), an
ortiinilated oi^an generallj composed of four jointe ; Uie outer lobe
(lobuB superior), which in beetlee of camivoroua habits ia a two-jointed
process IJlg. 23, b) eituated between the maxillary palpos and the
inferior lobe (lobua inferior), which last portion oonsUtutes the imier
part cf the maxilla, and is often formed like the blade of a knife, snd
fiimiahed generally with a series of bristles or hairs on the inner edge.
(Fig. 22, c) The maxillm aeem to be used vdtb the labium in direct-
ing the food during mauducatiaD, and the bristles on the inner edge
appear to serve as a kind of etrainer through which the juioea are
pressed, for we cbserve that aeUd inbetancei are seldom ewallowed b;
insects in their imago state.
The labium, or under lip (fig. IT, A and g, and figi. 23 and 26), ia
a moveable organ which serves to close the mouth beneath, and ia
generall; divided b; a traosverae suture, in wMoh case the lower
portion oonatitutee the mentum, or chin. The tongue (fig. 23, e),
which may be considered as ■ portion of the labium, in Coleopterous
Inaecta, is usually situated at iht apex of that member, or emerging
from it. The labial palpi (Jig. 23, b, b, ani fig. IT,/) are two articu-
lated oigana osiially springing Sana the summit of the labium on
Having noff brieSy noticed the head and its parts, we come to the
thorax. On this portion it will be unnecessary to dwell : we need
only mention that the thorax in ineecta is composed of the three first
aegmenta of the body, which in the larva state are naually distinct ;
these are termed the prothorax, meeothorai, and motathoiai ; and it
generally happens that in the perfect insect one of (heee segmenta ia
greatly developed at the expeoae of the other two, particularly on
'the upper lurfsoeor the bod;; meh ia the caae in thaBeeUe Tribe,
RAT. am. Div. VOL. u.
COLEOPTERA. ee
where Uie firat portion or prvthorax (fig. 16, a) and the email plate
(fig. 16, b), which is a part of the meaothorax, are all that ia visible
ftoia above when the elytra are closed. Some few entomologista,
therefore, in describing Beetles, call the part (fig. 16, a) the protborax,
but it is most oommODly called the thorax. The small plate (fig. Ifl, i]
above referred to ia called the scutellum, and is uaually of a trianguhir
To the thorax are attached the legs and wings : the anterior pair
of lege are attached to the prothorax ; to the maiothorai the inter-
mediate pair of legii and the anterior pair of winge, or elytra, as they
are termed in the CoUofttra; and to the metathorax the posterior
pur of legs and the hinder pair of wings. Of the winga enough haa
for the Dresanb.
a their habita. Thua in aome
^ -r ,■ others for Bwimming (fig. 38) ;
here they are very broad and dat : in others agun their atructure ia
Boited to burrowing habita 0^, 29) ; and fig. 30 reprasenta the hind
lag of a beetle, which haa the power of leaping to a great distuioe,
where the thigh ia vary larger
A leg may be divided into five principal parta : the coxa, cr hip
{otfigi, 27 and 26), which is the flrat joint, or Uiat joined to the body,
where it playa in a aocket ; the next part, or aeoond joint of the 1^,
ia the trochanter (b, figt. 27, 28, and 29) ; the third is the femur, or
thigh (n, figt. 2T, 26, and 29} ; the fourth joint is called the tibia, or
shank (d, figi. 2T, 23, and 29) ; the fifth and last part is the tareus (t,
figt. 2T, 38, and 39) : this put in a great portion>of the Coleopteroua
Inaecta ii compoaed of five jainta ; in many a leaser number is found,
but in ncme do they exceed five : the last joint of the tareus is uaually
tenoinated by two hooked claws called unguiculi (g, fig. 27), and the
rt of tike tjbia ia fumiahed generally with two atnight apinea called
cricaria(/,/in.2Tand2S}.
Aa regards the clsssification of the CoUopttra, aa well as of inaecta
in general, in almost every work which treats of the subject, a new
meUiod ia proposed. We shall content ouraeives however with
noticing two — that which is moet oommonly adopted on the conti-
nent, and that which ia followed by moat entomologiets of our own
country : the former ia the method proposed by I^treille, and tha
Utter by Btepheni.
In the classifiostion of the CeUofttra, published by JCr. Stepbena
fn his ' Syatematic Catalogue of Britdah Inaecta,' the varioua aectiona
and Bubtections are aa follows : —
BeeLl. Adtphagii.
" ■ " ■ 1. Ottdephaga,
2. Bydradtphaga.
8. Philhi/iirida.
t. Hcrrophaga.
Sect 2. ChOagnaUtotaorpha.
Sab-Seot. 1. Clanctima.
2. ZoffieUKomca.
8. Plenum.
4. Mcdacodtrva.
Order, OaUopUra.
BtipiiiUhomorplui.
' 1. SMiHitopkara.
2. Longieonta.
Sub-Sect. I
2. Oy'dica.
8. ZWfwri
Sect S. f cteranem.
Sect fl. Brachdtlra.
Saotion 1. Ptntatntra, inolndlng all those Beetlaa which have five
joints to their taraL
Section 2. Eiteromera, Beetles with five joinla to the tarai of the
two anterior pairs of 1(^ and four to thooa
of the posterior pair.
Section \ T^Tomera, Beetlea with only four diatinct jointa to all
the taraL
Section 4. IMmeri, Beetlea with only tliree distinct jcnnts to Uis
opuuon b
the value of certain groups. The TWowH, aocordiog to Latreille, fa
of the four gr«at aectiona, whilst Hr. Stephen* makea tha
LatndSe'a At
it equal unpmtanoa witlt
k grtmi number of iiuecti poBseaaiiig certain characters ui conusaa,
but it often happens that we cannot asoertain what influence these
chancten have on the habits and economy of the imiiTiiluats. In such
instances, the moit ooireot waj psrhapg would be to judge of the
Talne of a character from its conatanc; ; or, in other words, to con-
sider that character of moat importance, aa ragards claaaificatioD,
which Is found in the greateat number of apeciei, theae speciaa
agreeing more or leas in aome olJier points.
In all groups of animals then arahowerer certain tjpical chatacters
to which all the speoies approach more or leas, and which perhaps the
greater portion aotuallj poaaaBS. The typical charaoters of a group,
and the departures from them, ought not therefore to be selected for
conatructing natural and equivalent groups. In the CoUopltra, for
instance, the typical (truoture is to possess five joints to tjie tarai ;
Lalfeille's firat seotion (the Penlam^ra) consequently oompriaea at
least half the species and seTeral distinct groups, each of which is
equivalent to one of his other sections.
It appeaia to us, being guided by the points abore mentioned, that
the Older CUcopfera contains the thirtsen fallowing distinct sectiona,
and that Latreille'B groupa are not natural : —
All the Tani with file jointa.
Section 1. OtodtiAaga, H'Leay. ^
2. Hydradtjihaga, H'Leay.
8. SraeMylra, LatreiUe.
4. Nccnipliaga, M'Leay.
C Pa^itcomti, Latraille.
6. LaneliKOTTiM, Latreills.
7. 3ltntoxi, Latreills.
8. MiUacodtrmi, Latreille.
five Joint* to the Tusi of the two antenor pair* of legs, and four to
the posterior pair.
9. BtUromtra, Latreille.
All the Tarsi with four joints.
10. AAyneqUtoro, Latreille.
IL Lomtoriut, latreille.
12. Oydiea, Latreille.
All the T^isi with three jointa.
IS. Trmtri, Latreille.
The number of species of Beetles in sxistenoe may probably amount
to between 30,000 and 10,000.
The principal works on the Ooltopltra are as follows : — Fabricius
g. C), ' Systema Eleutheratorum ;* OUvier (A. T.), ' Entomolo^e, ou
istoire Naturelle dea Insectes,' &ve vols. foLo, wiUi coloured pjates ;
Paykul (QustaTos), ' Fauna Suedea,' three vols. ; QyUanhal (L.),
' Insecta Suedoa ;' Schtenherr (G. J-), ' Qenera et Species Curculioni'
dum j' Dejean, * Species Oi5n^ral des Col4optferea ; fEve volumea of
this work are publiahod, and contain deacriptions of the genera and
^edes of the Carainda and Gicindilida. Besides these, the works of
dermar, UliKer, Sturm, Knoch, and Duftachmid may be conaultei! ;
and the (Mcoptera of our own country will be found described in
Stephens's ' Ulustratioua uf British Entomology.' The works also of
Curtis, Kirby and Speaoe, Westwood, Newman, and the Tranaactions
of the T'""r'" and Entomological SuciBtiee, may be consulted with
COL^L JTBOcmLiDAl
COLLEUACG^ an order in the Liohenal Alliance proposed b;
Dr. Lindley, having the following chaiaoten :^Nuoleus bearing asci ;
thallus homogeneous, gelatinous, or oartilaginoua. Dr. Lindley has
given no arrangement of the genera and species of this order in his
' VegeUble Kingdom.' [Lie ■"
COLLO'MLA (from ititAAa, ,
natural order PoUmtmiacea.
COLLO'HIA (from KitAAo, glue), a genua of Plants belonging to the
natural order Polemoniaceir. It has a oampanulate cslji, S^left or
somewhat 6-parted, the lobes lanoeolate or linear, equa^ entire ; the
corolla salver-shaped, with a slender eiserted tube, and a spreading
6-parted limb ; the aegmenta oblong, entire ; the stamena inserted
towards the middle of the tube ; the anthen ovate-rouudiah ; the
cells of the capsule 1-2-seeded. The species are annual herbs, with
alternate leaves and dense heada of flowera. They are all nattvea of
C. Imearu is an erect branched plant, clothed with glandolai burs ;
the leaves ovate-lanceolatc^ qulta entdre, opaque, reniform, the upp^
ones downy beneath ; the calyx cup-shaped, S-parted ; corolla more
than twioe as lon^ as the otuyi; the cells of the capsule 1-seeded.
This plant Is a native of North America, from Lake Winnepog to the
western ocean. The corolla has a reddish tube and a rose-coloured
limb. The seeds of this as well as the other species are covered with
a testa, which is oompoaed of a spiral tiasue held together by inspissated
mucus. On the seeds being placed in water the gum of the mucus is
dissolved, and the spiral fibres start up on the surface of the seed.
The species of cdUmia are showy pUuits, and may be eaaily cnlti-
ffted in any common garden soiL The seeds should be sown in an
ffprnttorderin spring.
(O^ IHiAlaMylpnu Flaall.)
C0L0BU8. «s
COLLOFHORA, a genua of PUnta belongiag to the natuivl order
Apotynacea. One of the spedee, C tUilu, palda oaoutchou^ or a
substance analogous to it '
COLLUKICINCLA. [Lawad*.]
COLLUBIO. [LaaiAD*!
CO'LOBUS, a genus of Quadnuoanoua ifammaZta (Cheiropeds of
Mr. Ogilby) established by Illiger and adopted by M, Qeo&oy. The
latter places the genus in the group of SingssCatarrhina, or Monkeys
of the Old Continent ; a group distinguished by having their noatrila
separated bv a very thin partition, and by poaaeaaing five molar teeth
o[Jt on each aide of the two jawa,
Ths genus has the following characters : — Fatoal anf^e from 4 to
46 d^reea ; muzale abort; face naked; body elongated and small;
extremities slender; the anterior hands deprived of a thumb; the
fingers rather short ; the posterior thumb very distant &om the
fingers, snd placed veiT much baekwaids ; tail longer than the body,
snuil], and tufted at the end ; cheek-pouchea ; and calloaitie* on the
buttocks.
The CoMii, which are supposed to be inhabitanta of the Coast of
Guinea, seem to be in Uie Old World the repreaentativea of .^Ufe),
whose locality is South America.
C. pciycoDKU, Ooo&oy, is the iSimia palyconum of Schreber ; the
^tniia comota of Shaw ; the Quanon h Camail of Bufibn ; and the
Full Bottom of Pennant It is a very handsome spedee. The head
and upper part of the body are covered with hair, falling over the
shoulders and forming a kind of hood and pelerine, from whence it
derives the name given to it by Buffon, while the resemblance of this
chsielure to a wig determined Pennant to give it the English name
above recorded. This ornament is compooad of aoating hiura, which
are yellow miogled with blwik ; the face is brown, and the rest of
ths body is covered with very short close hair of a jet-block, a oolour
which seta off the snow-white tail, which is much longer than the
body and not prehenole. In this last particular, in the posaeasion of-
cheek pouchea, and in other characters, it diffsra from ^t«l<i,- while
ia some points, and eepecially in the absence of the thumb in tha
anterior hands, it resemblea it much.
Poll Bottom {Oolntmi patyamiii).
It inhabila the forests of Sierra Leone, where the natives give i<
name of the ' King of the Monkeys ' (Roi dee Singes), apparently,
Desmarat, on account of the b«uty of its colours, and its ' can
which represents a sort of diadem. They attach great value t<
fur, of which they make ornaments, and they apply it to vai
purposes.
0. polt/eomoi, Schreber, with the bead and shoulders covered '
long coarse fiowing hair, of a dirty yellowish colour, mixed '
black ; body, arms, and legs of a fine glosay blackness, covered
short hsir ; tail of a snowy whiteness, witii very long hair at the
fomung a tufL (Pennant) Locality, SieriB Leone.
s;
«> COLOCASU.
C t'l'rtRtM, Ogilby, " with vary long gloea; black hur over the
whole body aod eitreroities, sod a long Bnowji-white tail, tufted at
the end;" described finm two impenect akins without haads or
hands. It is probable that this animal is onl; a Tsriety or idsatical
with C poiynnno*.
C. Gueraa, Biipp«Il, with the head, face, neck, bock, timba, and
basaJ half of the tail, covered with abort black hair ; the temploa,
chin, throat, and a
band over Uie ejres,
white ; Hie iddcs,
flanks from the
shouldcia downwards.
Sawing whit«,
hangs down on eacn
side like a, loose gia-
meDt ; the tip of the
tail tufted with dirty-
white. Locolitr, AbjB-
sinia. There u - ■"--
QeoflVoy. Crown
black 1 bock of & deep
bay colour ; outside
of the limbs black ;
cheeks, under part of
the body, and legs,
very bright bay; tail
black. Locality, Siem
C. fidiffinoiiu, CobAm
Smoky-blue above,
dirty yellowiah-gToy beneath; cheeks, throat, tail, and eitremitiei,
brick-red. (OgUhy.) Locality, the Oambis. Hr. Ogilby obaerrea
that the (ace is short, the head ronnd, and the whole form and habit
of the animal similar to those of the Semnopithcci. The teeth, he
adda, are of the usual form and number, and there are large and
very distinct cheek-pouches. "I was the more particular," says
ISt. Ogilby. " in making this last observation, because the organs in
questioii had not been previously recorded as existing in the Colobi,
aud because H. QeoBroy St. Hilaire, in bis valuable lectures, of which
it is a matter of great regret that so small a portion has been given
to the public, even doubts their existence." In the ' British Museum
Catalogue ' this species is given sa a synonym of the following ; —
C. Temminckii, Kuhl, " with the hands, face, and tail, purpUsh-red ;
restof the membera clear-red; belly reddish-yellow ; head, neck, back,
shoulders, and outer face of the thighs, UacL" Habitation unljiown.
Described from a specimen formerly in Bullock's Huseum, and now
in that of Leyden.
COLOCASIA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
Araeta. The species are excessively acrid ; the leaves of C. tttslaita
excite a violent salivation and biuning sensation in the mouth. Not-
withstanding this property many of the species are used as food by
the natives of the south of Europe. The leaves and roots of
C. acaltnta, C. Bimalam, C. antiquaram, and C nutenmata, under
the names of Cocoa-Nut, Eddoes, and Yams, when boiled or roasted,
are common articles of diet in hot countries. Whale Selds of
C. macrorhaa are coltivated in the South Sea Islands under the nc
-a or Kopeh roots. In the Himalayas the apeciea which is called
I.', aimalenru forma a chief portjon of the food of the Hill Tribes.
Medicinally the root is stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant. The
:io1e of the species are remarkable for containing a milky juice.
They are cultivated in Portugal, Greece, and Egypt.
COLOCYNTH. [Cucciaa.]
COLOy. The abmentary canal below the stomach is divided into
the small and great intestjnea. The former consist of the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum ; the latter of the colon and rectum. The Colon
commencGE a little above the right groin, in the right iliac fossa
[Abdomen], in the form of a dilated pouch, which is called the caput
coli, or more commonly the ccccum.mim its blind rounded extremity.
The ileum opens obliquely into the left side of this pouch, its inner
or mucous membrane projecting so as to fbrm the Ubo-ciscbI valve,
which, permitting the cootents of the small intestine to pass into the
Colon, suffices to prevent tikeir return, except in peculiar casee of
diseased action. Near the some part of the ctecum opens also a
slender contorted intestine about two inches long, likewise blind,
which is called the appendix vermiformia, from its resemblance in
the human subject to a worm. The use of this appendsge is
unknown ; in some animals, as the sheep, it is much larger, and is
probably of more importance than in man. From the right iliac
region wa Colon passes upwards along the side to the under surface
of the liver. Hence it turns to the left, stretching over the upper
part of the bally just below and in front of the stomach, to which
It is oannected 1^ the common attachment of both organs to the
COLOPHONIA.
, a loose pendulous membrane, formed by a double fold of
the peritoneum, and spread like on aprao in front of the small intes-
tinea Having reached the opposite aide of the abdomen, the Colon
passes downwards to the left iliac fosea ; thence, taking two sudden
tuma to the right and downwards, it descends into the pelvia over
the last lumbar vertebra, and becomes continuous with uie rectum.
The double turn Just mentioned is the sigmoid Seiure ; the trans-
verse port is called
the areh of the Colon ;
and the ascending and
descending or lateral
parts, as they lie im-
mediately over the
loins, are called the
right and left lumbar
portions. The central
space thus nearly en-
circled by the Colon
is occupied by the
convoluted heap of
small intestines. The
length of the whole
intestinal canal is six
or seven times that
of the body in man,
the Colon constituting
about a fifth part. In
graminivorous animals
its length is proper-
tionably greater ; in
those which feed ez>
cluaively on flesh it is
The Colon is en-
Khtcu. veloped in the seroaa
membrane colled the
peritoneum, which forms the external covering of all the abdominal
viscera. [Abdoiibn,] This outer tunic passing entirely round it, meets
behind, and forms a duplicatnre called the mesocolon, which attaches
it, more loosely at the arch than at the rades, to the spine and loins, and
serves as a medium for the passage of nerves and vessels, and the
lodgment of absorbent glands. Between the peritoneal coat and the
interior mucous lining thars is a layer of muscular fibres, some of
which encircle the bowel in scattered bands, and serve to diminish its
calibre ; others, more rwulorly arranged in three distinct longitu-
dinal bands, contract its length ; and their combined actions, t^ing
place succesnvely in difieient parts of the intestine, but on the whole
Siropagoted from above downwards, agitate its contents backwards and
orwaMs, and urge them ultimately mto t*— — '
~ " lli blood
The Colon is amply supplied w
nddu ■
rell a
ilood -vessels, nerves, lymphatics,
■ "•-• '•■'■-cateB lie interior as
separated from the
blood SB being injurious or nseless. The canal is not smooth and
uniform like the small intestines, but bulges out between the bands
of muscular fibre into various prominences more or leas regular in
their form, in which the becee lodge for a time and become deprived
of much of their moisture as they ore rolled onwatdibylhaperuitaltia
action. Hence arises their lobiUated or globular form, more observable
in some of the lower animals, as the hone and sheep, than in man.
It is in tie Colon that the feces acquire their peculiar odour, which
is not perceived above the ileo-cowal valve. It is in this port of the
alimentaiy canal that the fluid port of the food is chiefly absorbed,
being no longer needed to keep the nutritive particles in suspenaion.
The lymphatjc vessels of the Colon are consegueutl* found distended
with a transparent fluid, and not the milk-like chyle absorbed by
those of the small intestines. [Absobbuct Brsnu.]
COLOPHO'NIA (in French the wood is called Boil de Colophane),
a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Burieniceir. It has
on urceolar bluntly 3-lobed calyx ; G roundish-ovate petsis inserted
under the disc, imbricated in Uie bud ; stamens, one-half shorter
than the petals, equal in length to the calyx ; the disc S-lobed, It is
to a genus thus defined that De Candolle refers the tree producing the
Bois de Colophane of the island of Mauritius, and calls it C. Mauriliana.
In bis description of the tree he says the fruit is unknown. Lindlej,
in his ' Flora Medics,' gives Colophoaia Mauriluma, Da Cand.,
Buitera panicvlala. Lam., Amyru Zeiflaniea, Rate, and Baliomo-
dendntn Ztylanieam, Da Cond., as synonyms of Canartitm cominime.
This last Is described as a small tree, with T-11 leaflets on long etalks,
ovate-oblong, acute or shortly acuminated, quite entare, smooth ;
stipules oval; the panicles of flowers tennizia], divaricating; the
flowera S'3 together, almost eeaaile, when young covered over by
broad ovate concave eilky brocteola ; the calyx siUy externally ; the
drupes oblottg, black. The bark of this plant yields a limpid oil,
with a pungent turpentine smell, whioh congeals into a buttery
iperties as
Copa
eet it
Don aaya : — " When the nuts are mature t1 .
Tuel. which does not bnoome rancid, and which reeembles
ret chestnut; they are eaten boti raw and dressed by the
71
COLOPHONITE.
COLTTMBn)^
fa
inhabitants of the Mohiccas, Banda, and New Guinea ; and an oil ia
expressed from them, which is used at the table when fresh, and for
lamps when stale ; bread is also made from them, cakes, biscuits, &c.,
for the table. Eaten fresh they are apt to bring on diarrhoeas and
dysenteries, and to occasion an oppression at the breast." The same
tree is also said to yield East Indian Elemi It is a native of the
continent of India and of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago.
(Don, Dichlamydeotu Plantt; Lindley, Flora Medico.)
COLOPHONITE, a coarse granular variety of Oamet, presenting
iridescent hues and a resinous lustre. [Gabnst.]
COLOQUINTIDA. [Cucumis.]
COLOSSOCHELYa [Chblonia.]
COLTSFOOT, the common name of TuesUago Foffara,
[TUSSILAOO.]
COLUBER. [Colubbida]
COLUBRID^, a family of Snakes, the last of the sub-order
Colubrina of Dr. J. K Gray. The Colubrinfi include the families
HydridcB PHTDRiDiE], Boida [BoiDJt], and Col/vibridcB, This last
family includes the genus CcHibtr of Linnmns, which comprised all
the serpents, whether venomous or not, whose scales beneaui the tail
are divided into two, or, more properly speaking, arranged in pairs ;
but the term is generally applied by Cuvier and other authors to
those sorfjbnts which have transverse plates on the belly, and the
plates under the tail forming a double row, a flattened head with
nine laiger plates, teeth almost equal, and no poison-fangs. The
following is Dr. Gray's definition of the sub-order CoVubrina .'—Jaws
strong, both toothed, sometimes with some fangs in front or grooved
teeth behind. Head moderate or indistinct; crown often covered
with regular shields. The section of this order to which the
Cclvbrida belong have the belly covered with broad band^like shields;
vent without any ; spur-like feiet ; the tail conical and tapering. The
only family in this section are the CohAridoBj which have the nostrils
apical, lateral, open ; the head g^erally shielded. *
Laurenti placed the ColvbriicB between the Rattlesnakes (Caudi-
mma) and the Vipers. Scopoli's genera were those of Linnaras.
Lac^pMe placed the CMbrida at the head of his nine genera of
Serpents^ and next to them came the Boas and Rattiesnakes.
Alexander Brongniart made them the last but one of his six genera
of Ophidians, arranging them between the Vipers and the Boas.
Latreille gave the genus a place between Ckenydnu and IHpttu in
his family of Anguivipdres. Daudin comprehended 172 species under
the genus. In the synoptical table of Dum^ril and Bibron, Cuvier is
made to place it between JHp&aa and Cerberut. Oppel subdivides his
section (the second) the Sqiummata (Ecallleux) into seven families,
of which the CokArida (Couleuvr^es) are the last, coming imme-
diately after the Pseudo-vip&res. Merrem divided the Serpents into
two sub-tribes: in the fint sub-division, the Innocui, or serpents
without venom, of the first tribe {Chdonet), Colvher appears between
SeytdU and Hwrridk, De Blainville separated the Serpents into
Dipodet and Apodet; Coluber coming immediately after Boa, is placed
in the innocuous division of these Apodei. Dr. Harlan made the
Ophidians, his fourth order, contain six genera, and placed Coluber,
between Ophieamrut, his firaty and Vipera, his third- genus. Ifr.
Haworth arranged the genus Colvber between Scytale and Dryinue,
among the True Serpents (Apoda epalpdtraia, or serpents without
eyelids), and under the innocuous branch of the Gulonia, Fitzinger
(1826) placed the CohibrOidet between the Pythondide$ and the
Biimgariidet, in his comprehensive third tribe Monopjioa Bquammata.
Ritgen (1828) arranged the Colvbridce and the Boida under his
MfkcrotUimata, the third sub-partition of the first subdivision,
HolodomUupiMteB (with entire teeth), of his third sub-order of Scaly
Serpenta Wagler publiahed in 1830 his 'Naturliohes System der
Amphibiens.' He mjAkes his fourth order, the Serpents, consist of one
family only, comprehending 97 genera, and places Colvber the forty-
ninth between SpUota (Wagler) and Herpetodrye (Boi^).
In 1882 Professor John MiiUer, of Bonn, published his system :
the Colubers are arranged by him immediately after Dryinus, as the
last of the Isodonts, the third family of his second order, uniting the
Macrostomet, which correspond to the Heterodermet of DumdriL
The species of the genus Colvber, as left by Cuvier, aro very
numerous, and their geographical distribution ia very wide. The
foreign species are some of them remarkable for their vivid colouring,
and others for the regularity of the pattern, so to spei^ with whidi
they are marked. Others again are singularly slender in form, but
none grow to a lane size.
The harmless Common Snake or Ringed Snake (Neidr fraith,
Neidr y tomenydd, of the Welsh, Nairix torqwUa of Gesner and
Ray, Colvber NcUrix of Limueus) is the best example of the fonn.
[Natbdl]
COLUbRINA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
Bhamnacea. It has a spreading 5-oleft calyx; petals 5, obovate-
convolute ; stigmas 8. Fruit capsular, dehiscent^ tricoceous, girded
at the base by the oa]yx. The seeds are furnished with a short stalk.
The species are shrubs with alternate, quite entire, or crenulated
leaves, netted with distant feather-nerves, smooth but usually pubes-
cent or rusty villous. The .flowers are in axillary short crowded
cymes, or in fascicles with simple peduncles.
(7. ftrmmUwn, Fermented Snake-Wood, is a native of Guinea ; the
bitter bark of which tree is said to bring on violent fermentation in
the liquors into which it is thrown. There are several other species
described, natives of South America, Africa, and the East Indies.
None of them are of any known wae, and are not worth enltivatiaa
except in general collections.
COLUMBA. [CoLnMBiD&]
COLUICBIDjE, a natural tuDjly of Birds, comprising the Hgeoni^
Doves, and Turtles.
Aristotle mentions five, if not six, birds of this group — IXc^^rcp^
IlfAccib, ^TTo, Olrhs, and Tpv7^,^-entering at laive into their
organisation and habita (* Hist,' b. L a 1 ; b. ii. c 15, 17 ; b. iii c. 1 ;
b. V. c. 18 ; b. vi a 1, 2, i, and 8 ; b. viiL c 8 ; b. ix. c. 7.) He also
(b. viiL c 8) speaks of a bird named *&^, which A^enaeua ('Deipn.,'
b. ix. o. 11) and others consider to be one of the Columbidee, while
others a^in hold a different opinion, inasmuch as Atheneus states
that Anstotle has distinguished five species of Pigeons, and
enumerates ^^ as one, omitting IIcXci^; and so Aristotle does
(b. viii. c. 8), but he mentions n^cuU elsewhere (b* '^^ ^ ^^)t ^i^d it
is clear to us from the context that Phapg signified one of the
CoUimbida!, tltpurrtpMiSus, There is considerable doubt as to which
of the species of pigeons Aristotle intended to designate by the
terms above given, and some of them have been applied by modem
ornithologists to signify forms which he probably never saw. Only
two, or at most three, can be identified with anything like certainty.
Pliny ('Nat. Hist,' b. x. c 84) writes 'De Columbis,' and (c 35) 'De
Palumbibus.' He enters moreover laigely into their habits in other
parts of his ' Natural History.'
Much doubt seems to have prevailed as to the proper place of the
pigeons in the system. Belon collected the few species known to him
under the titles Ramiers, Tourterelles, Bisets, Pigeons Fuyarda, and
Pigeons, among the birds " qu'on trouve viander indiffdremment en
tons lieux," placing them between the Toroou (Yunx TorqwiUa, Wry-
neck) and the Merle Bleu (Blue Thrush). Gesner arranged them
between the Gallinaceous Birds and the Bustards ; Aldrovandus placed
them between the Domestic Cock and the Sparrow; Willughby
between the Bustards and Thrushes, and Ray gave them Ihe same
place. Brisson, Pennant, and Latham insulated them in a particular
order. Pennant also arranged them between the Gallinaceous and
Passerine Birds, and Latham between the Pottere* and the OoUuub.
Other authors placed them among the Gallinaceous Buds. linnseus
made them a genus of his order Pa$aere», arranging them between
Tetrao (the Grouse and Partridges, kc) and JUawda (the Lazks).
Cuvier placed them among the Gallinaceous Birds, next to the
Tinamous {Tinaimu, Lathun; Oryptvtrvt, Illiger), making them the
last of the order. In his arrangement the Echassiers JiflraJUaioreM,
Wading Birds) form the order which immediately follows the
Ghdlinac^ LacdpMe had previously given them the first place in
the last-mentioned fiunily, as did also DumdriL Meyer had insulated
them as his seventh order, coming between the Ckdidxmee (Swallow
Tribe) and his eighth order, OiUma; and Illiger had found a
situation for them under his Batoret (the Rasorial Birds). Le
Vaillant, who seems to have been the first who separated the
ColwoAida into well-defined divisions, arranged them in three
sections; the first containing the Colombes, fijniers, and Tourte-
relles; the second the Colombars ; and the third the Colombi-Gallines.
Vieillot made them the last family but one (Colombins) of his second
tribe (Aniaodactyli), arranging them between his OpkiopkagtM and
Aleetridee. M. Temminck classed them as his ninth order between
the Chelidons and the Ghillinacds. De Blainville's order Sponsored, or
Les Colombins, contained these birds, and came between the Saltatoret
(Paaseret) and the Oradaiorei (Pheasants or Partridges): in his
amended method, as developed by M. Lherminier, they occupy nearly
the same position between the Paueret and the Gallinaceous Birds.
C. Bonaptrte (Prince of Canine) assigns the same place to them.
(* Spe cchio Comparativa')
When he wrote the article 'Pigeon ' in the ' Dictionnaire d'Histoire
Naturelle,' M. Vieillot conformed to the opinion of Linnaeus in
placing these birds among the Pataeret, because of its natural great
analogy to the last-mentioned group, like nearly the whole of which
the pigeons pair in the season of love, the male and female working
jointly at the nest^ taking their turns during incubation, and partici-
gating in the care of the young, which, among the true pigeons, are
atched blind, fed in the nest, which they do not quit till Uiey are
covered with feathers, and are supported by their parents some time
after their departure from it^ having no power to feed themselves.
Such are the points of resemblance. Their dissimilarity consists in
their mode of drinking and feeding their young, in the nature of their
plumage, and the singularity of their courtship and of their voice —
points of difference which slso separate them from the true gallina-
ceous birds, with which, says M. Vieillot, they have no analogy in their
instincts, tiieir habits, or their loves. Nearly all tiie gallinaoeoTis
birds are polygamous, and lay a great number of eggs each time they
incubate, wmch is rarely more than once a year in the temperate
zones; while the true pigeons lay only two eggs each time, incubate
frequentiy during the year, and are monogamous. Among the galli-
naceous birds, as a general rule, the male does not solace the female
at the time of building the nest and of inoubation ; the young run as
soon almost aa they are out of the agg-iheU, quitting their nest^ and
-- - llll«M iJilBI
73
COWKBlhM.
COLtTMBlD^.
74
seeking their own food immediately, f'inally, a striking character
remoTes the pigeons from the gallinaceous birds, and in 11
Yieillot's opinion places them in the same natural group witii ^e
Pcuaerei, namely, liie possession of a posterior toe articulated at the
bottom of the tarsus, upon the same plane as the anterior toes,
touching the ground throughout its length in walking and embracing
the roost in perching. On the contrary, in the gallinaceous birds, the
hind toe is articulated upon the tarsus higher tlum the otJiers, and
only touches the ground with its claw, or at most with its first
phidanx, and remains peipendicular when the bird is on the perch.
Nevertheless it must be confessed that there are found among the
pigeons species which participate in some degree with the gallinaceous
birds in regard to theur manners and gait (allures) or some exterior
conformity. Such are the Colombi-Qallines, the Pigeon-CaUle of Le
Vaillant, to which must be added the Colombi-Gallines of M. Temminck,
the Mountain-Partridge of Sloane, the Blue-Headed Pigeon, the
Cocotzin, &&, all which have their feet more elongated than those of
their congeners, with the wings of the partridges, that is to say
rounded, and with the two first quills shorter than the third or fourth ;
but for the rest, all, with the exception of the Colombe-Oalline of Le
Vaillant, approach the other pigeons in their amours, their laying, and
the bringing up of their young; and so it is of the birds which at
Guadaloupe and Martinique bear the name of Partridge ; and M.
Vieillot quotes Dutertre, who says that "according to the common
opinion of the inhabitants of Guadaloupe, there are thi^e sorts of
partridges, red, black, and gray, which have never passed in my mind
for aught but turtles (tourterelles) ; for they have not the short
quality of flesh belonging to our partridges, tiiey have the straight
bill, they perch and bmld their nests in trees, they only lay two ^ggs,"
&c. C Hist des AntiUes,' tom. ii.) These facts, adds M. Vieillot,
have been confirmed to me by the inhabitants of Martinique and
Quadaloupe. Of all the pigeons and turtles, continues this ornitho-
logist, which I have had occcasion to study in the living state, the
Cocotzins are those which appear to me to have the greatest relation
to the partridges ; their haunt is always hi the fields and savannahs ;
there they secuc their food, and never resort to trees ; they raise them-
selves into the air like the partridges, and after a short flight alight
upon the ground. For this reason the En^h and the inhabitants of
the United States call it the Ground Dove. But the habit of
frequenting the ground, Ac does not belong exclusively to the
pigeons whose wings are formed as above stated ; fZtar, according to
lAtham, the Coltmba Chaleoptera (Pkapt), which M. Temmin^
arranges with his OoUmbeB (Vieillot* s first section), has the same
habits^ so that the English of Australia call it the Ground Pigeon.
(Vieillot)
"The family of OolwrnbidcB (says Mr. Vigors, 'Linn. Trans.,'
YoL xiv. p. 410), alteniately arranged by systematio writers among the
Perching and Gallinaceous orders, and not unfrequently grouped as a
separate order between the two, at once indicates where the point of
iunction exists between them. These birds, although we have the
high authority of Linnsus for uniting them with that division of our
Perchers whi^ forms his Pcuteret, Ido not hesitate in arranging, con-
formably to the opinion of Messrs. Cuvier and Illiger, as a subdivision
of the Gallinaoeous Birds.
" In those particulars, where they respectively assume the character
of each order, their affinity with the latter is considerably stronger
than that which approximates them to the former. Their food and
habits, their internal economy, and the formation of their bills,
identify them with the Rtuoret ; while, on the other hand, the cha-
racters which bring them near the Intesioret, their divided toes and
comparatively short legs, are weakened by the resemblance which
those members bear to the same parts of the contiguous order in their
general structure, and more particularly in the blimtneas of the nails,
BO strongly indicative of the rasorial habits of the Gallinaceous Tribes,
and so strikingly contrasted with the sharpness of the nails in the
Linnaean Pantrti, They are much more nearly allied to these latter
tribes by their habits of perching and building their nests in trees or
rocks, by the absence of the spur on the legs of the male, and by the
inferior nimiber of their tail-feathers."
In a note to that part of the text which alludes to the rasorial
habits of the Gallinaceous Birds, the author cites the habits of
Colwttha Nieobariea, Ooiwnba caruneulata, and Colvmba paaterina.
Mr. Vigors accordingly places the Oolumbida In the aberrant group
of his Rawrei. ** I have already observed, when speaking of the affi-
nities," says that ornithologist in the paper above quoted, " which
connect the orders of birds together, that the Ooltmbida form the
passage from the Intesaores to the Roiorea by their habits of perching
and ^eir powers of fUght, The hind toe is articulated, as in the
Perchers, and their tarsi are shorter, more particularly in the earlier
groups, than those of the Gallinaceous Birds in general. The first
group which we meet in this extensive fiimily is the genus Vinago of
M. Cuvier, the bills of which, stronger and more solid than they are
usually found to be among the pigeons, unite them to Pendope and
Crax, which form the opposite extreme of the present order, as well
as to Mutophaga and Cbf^^Aaix, which approach, as we have seen, the
whole of the groups before us, and connect them with the Perchers.
From this genus Vinoffo, which seems confined to the southern divi-
sions of the Old World, we may observe a series of cpx>ups leading
gradually to the true Coluniba, of which genus the European species
Colvmha (EnaSf Linn., may be considered to form the type. Hence
we are led by several intervening species to the Columbi-Gallines of
M. Le Vaillant, which, still retaining the soft and fiexible bill of
ColuffihOf approach the typical Gallinaceous Birds in their moi^e ele-
vated tarsi, and in their habits of living in company and seeking their
nourishment chiefly on the ground. Among these may be noticed
some forms, (7. Nicob€urieaf Linn., and C. caruncvlata, Temm., for
instance, which possess the feathered appendages, together witib the
naked face and caruncles of the Linnssan GcUIiikb ; and another group,
the Lophynu of M. Vieillot, which exhibits the size and general form
of the same birds, as well as the singular plumes which frequently
decorate their head. This last-mentioned genus, formed of ^e
crowned pigeon of India, possessing the strongly-formed leg and foot
of Meleagritf Linn., but without the spurs, while at the same time it
retains the bill of Colwnba, may be observed to open the passage
immediately from the present to the succeeding family" (the
Phtuianidte).
The following remarks embody Mr. Swainaon's views upon this
interestitg family : — " The extensive genus of (7oZum&a, like that of
Falco, has been pronounced indivisible by an eminent ornithologist of
the present day; who, from having made these birds his peculiar
study, is in one sense pre-eminently qualified to give a decided
opinion. The principle he has laid down, and on which this opinion
consequently is founded, is, that whenever intermediate species are
discovered which serve to unite two neighbouring genera, such genera
should invariably be united." After stating that this theory hu been
refuted in the pages of the ' Zoological Journal,' Mr. Swainson thus
continues : " It is admitted that there are certain peculiarities of form
and of economy among the ColumbicUEf which point out natural divi-
sions. Some of these have been used for the construction of genera,
by Messrs. Le Vaillant, Vieillot, and Cuvier, and of sections by M. Tem-
minck ; but the inmiense number of species already known, and the
great influx of new ones, renders it essential that many others should
be formed. As we labour under a comparative ignorance of the
natural economy of the vast number of tropical species recently
described, any attempt to throw tiie Columbtda into their natural
arrangement must be very imperfect The basis of such a work must
rest on their natural habits, their food, and their geographic distribu-
tion. Tet, as we ^ee in other natunl families that a peculiarity of
economy is almost invariably accompanied by some corresponding
modification of structure, we shall receive considerable assistance by
accurately examining such variations. We may note the forms
without being acquainted with their reference to the peculiar habits,
of the group; and although our inference in some cases may be
erroneous, in others we shall not be tar from the truth. The pas-
senger-pigeons, for instance, have their first quill-feather as long as
any of the others — a sure indication of that rapid and long-continued
power of flight they are known to possess. The Columbi-Gallines of
M. Le Vaillant are described as having naked and somewhat length-
ened tand; a structure well adapted to those ambulating habits
which bring some of them close to the Phaaianida, Vigors, and others
to the Oraeida, Vigors. Another group, the Colombars of M. Le
Vaillant {Vinago, Cuv., Triron, VieilL), liave a strong hard bill; and
their short clasping tarsi covered with feathers lead us to conclude
they seldom perch upon the ground ; in fact, Messrs. Le Vaillant
and Cuvier both assert that these birds are only found in the tropical
forests of the Old World. Apparently confined to the same regions,
we see another group, wherein the bill partakes of that weak structure
observed in the generality of pigeons, while the tarsi are thickly
clothed with feathers, similar to 3ie group last mentioned. These
seem to be the principal divisions among the Columbidca," In 1827
the same author characterised the genera Periatara, durmtpdia, and
Ectopiatea; and in the 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' under Columha
Bctopiatea migratoriOf he has the following note : — "As ornithologists
do not appear to be aware of the great difference which exists in the
groups of this £unily in the relative structure of their feet, we shall
here draw their attention to the principal groups. In the even-tailed
wood-pigeons of Europe, North America, and the Old World, forming
the restricted genus uohmba, the external and internal anterior toes
are equal In the lovely genus PtilinoptUf Swainson, confined to the
men pigeons of the Indum and Australian isles, and in that of Vinago f
Cuv., formed l^ the thick-billed species of the same countries, uie
inner toe is much shorter than the outer ; but in the sub-genus (Y)
JSetopiatea, Swainson, and the small turtle doves, this proportion is
reversed, the inner toe being the longest In the beautifrd genus
Periatera, Swainson, which comprises idl the bromse-winged pigeons
of Australia and the ground-pigeons of America, the tand are more
elevated, the hind toe shorter, and the inner toe is likewise the
longest We have been for some time engaged in analysing this
family, with the view of ascertaining the reUxive value of aU these
groups." Dr. Ritgen (1828) makes the genus Colwnba, Linn., form
the tnird tamilj{Herpochoropteni) of his first tribe {Chofyptemj, of his
second series (Xeromithea, or birds of the dry land) in his tricho-
tomous system, as applied to birda
P. J. Selby, Esq., in the ' Naturalist's Library' (1886), charaoteriset
the following genera, Catpophaga, Phapa, and OeophUua. He thus
speaks of the classification: — " Of the sub-families or five typical
Ti COLUHBIDA
fonnB of the Catvimbida., we oan only Bpeak with difBdence and uncer-
taintf, u DO uutjsia oftho gpecisa eamcientl? strict or eitenmve lus
bitherto been instituted, fn>m wbesce conclasire deductiona can be
dnvn. We etudl onl; cunorily obaerre, that the arboreal pigeoni,
embracing Viaago, Swmiiuoii'B genna PlUrao}na,i>MT gentu Carpophaga,
and aoQis other imdafined groups, with feet formed sipniialj for
perehing and graaping, uid through which, fram their babita uid
form, the neceaaary eoiuiection with the inaeaaoria] order is Buppart«d,
are likely to eonelitate one ; the true pigeons, of which our ring-
pigeon and commoD pigeon may be considered typie&l, a aeoond ; the
tujtlea mod their tihea, with feet of different proportions from the
preceding, and graduated tails, a third; the mund-pigeons, or
Columbi-Oallinea of the French □atunlists, a fourd ; and the fifth 1*
not unlikely to be repreaented by Vioillofs genua Lophym, in which
the deviation from the proper Columbine form ia not to that of the
typical Xatira, but to the OrrKidfi, placed at the farther eitremity,
and, like the CiihmMda, another aberrant family of the Baaorial
B^ote apeakiog of the olaanficstion of the Caliiri^iida, one part of
the internal organiiation of the pigeon ia worthy of apeci^ notice.
Tbe crop, in the state which ia adapted for ordinary digeation, is thin
and membranouB, and the internal surface ia smooth ; but by the
time the young are about to be hatched, the whole, sxoept that part
which lies on tbe trachea, becomes thicker, and puts on » glandular
appearance, hAving its internal surface very irregular. In tbii organ
it is that the food is elaborated by the parents before it is conveyed
to the young ; tor a milky fluid of a grayish colour ia secreted and
poured into the crop among the grain or seeds undergoing digestion,
and a quality of food suited to the nestling is thus produced. The
fluid coagulates with adds and forms curd, and the apparatus fi>rms,
nmong birds, the nearest approach to the mammm of wnrm-blooded
animals [Birds]; hence no doubt the term ' pigeoa's-milk.' The
number of vertebnc amounts to 13 cervical, 7 dorsal, 13 sacral, and
7 caudal = 40 (Cuvier), The atenium is narrow, with a deep keel,
the inferior border convex, and the anterior one curved forwards, thin,
and trencbatit ; the manubrial process is strong and bifurcated, tbe
oostal processes short. The posterior margin is clefl by two Essurea
on either side of tbe meeisl plane, the lateral and superior fisaurea
being the deepest ; the mesial onee are occasionally converted into a
foramen, Tbe costal surface of the lateral margin is, as in the galli-
naceous birds, of very little extent. In the crown-pigeon l^e swerior
fissures are so deep and wide as to convert the rest of the lateral
margin into a mere flattened process, which is dilated at the extre-
miM', (Owen.)
The distribution of this family is very extensive, the form occurring
almost everywhere, except withm the frigid zones, Tbs specieB are
most abundant in Southern Asia and the Orest Indian Archipelago.
The following definition includes the Colnmbida:, to which we shall
refer in the preaent article : — Bill moderate, oompresned, covered at
the base of the upper mandible with a soft skin, in which the nostrils
are pierced, and more or less curved at the point. Feet with three
divided toes in front, and one behind.
Vimigo (Cuvier),^Bi]l comparatively large, strong, thick, and solid,
compressed at tbe sides; the tip very bard, hooked, and inflated ; the
nostrils comparatively exposed, and with the swollen or projecting
membrane but little , developed. Tarsi short, partly clothed with
featben below the tarsal joint ; sole wide, the membrane being
extended, and the whole foot formed for perching and grasping ; the
outer toe longer than the inner, claws strong, sbsrp, and semioiroular,
" closely resembling in form those of tbe woodpecker or other scan-
■orial birda" (Selby.) Wings of mean length, strong and pointed,
second and third quills about equal, and the longest in the wing,
Mr. Selby soys, that in all the species submitted to examination the
third qmll 1^ lie central part of the inner web deeply notched, as if
a piece had been cut out ; and that tbe prevailing colours are green
and yellow of different intensitiee, contrasted more or less in cert '
parts with rich purple and reddish-brown.
The ipeoies mhobit intertropical Asia and Africa. Tbsy feed
berries and fmita. They are shy and timid, and inhabit the woods.
Mr. Selby gives the following, on tbe authority of Hr. Neill, who,
speaking of Vinajfo iphoHtra, says : " I hod two, but both, I believe,
were males. BoUk had a song, very different from tbe mere o '
of the ringdove. When they sang in concert, they gave the
little tune, but on different keys. After the death of one thi
vivor used to sing at command, or, at all events, when incited to it by
. . It is the Columbia anmaliea of Latham, "The
Aromatie Vinago is of a mild and timorous disposition, and is gene-
rally seen in flocks or societies, except during the period of reproduc-
tion, when they pair, and retire to the recesses of the foreel. The
nest ie simple, and composed of a few twigs loosely put together, and
tbe eggs are twa .... The base or softer pari of the bill is a
blackish-gray, the tip yellowish-wbite, strong, muoh hooked, and
bulging on the side. The forehsod is of a bright siskin-green, tht
crown greenisb^ray, the chin and throat gamboge-yellow, the remain
der of the nedi, the breast, belly, lower back, and rump, yellowish
green. The upper back or mantle, and a part of tbe lesser wing
eoverta, are of a rich brovmish-ped, and exhibit a purplish-tinge u
in lights The greater wing-coverts and secondary quills are
greenish-blAck, with a deep and well-defined edgizig of gambr^s-
yellow throughout their length. The tail has the two middle feathars
'holly green, and slightly exceeding the rest in length ; tbeee are of
- dark bluish-gray, with a dark eenbal band. The under tail-coverta
are yellowish-white, barred with green. The legs and toea are rod,
the claws pale gay, strong, sharp, and semicircular." (Salby ; and sea
Tamminik.)
Aranstio TlBM^n [ rinaft anmAltet).
It inhabits the continent of India, Java, and other adjacent islanda
The habits of this speoieB are arboreal. Hr. Selby, givee tbe follow-
ing note which accompanied the skins of V. nilitani, and F. aromalica.
" Green Pigeon,— This beautiful bird has brilliant red eyes. Its feet
are sometlung like the parrot's, and it climbs in the same way as that
bird. It is very difficult to find ; for although a flock is maAed into
a tree, yet its colour is so siniilar to the leaf of the banyan ( on tiis
small red Sg of which it feeds ), that if a bird does not move you may
look for many minutes before you can see one, although there may ba
Ptilinapm (Swainson). — Wings moderate, first quill oontrvcted
towards the apex, third and fourth longest Bill slendw. Tatm
feathered.
Mr. Swainaon says that in propoemg the characters of this gmua,
he wishes them to be considered more as indicating a group, by whidi
the genus IWron, Fiaill. { Vinago, Cuv.), may ba united to the naked-
legged pigeons, than as being so rigidly framed as to exclude all other
species which do not strictly present the same structure.
Hr. Selby, in the ' Naturalist's Library,' feels inclined to still
further subdivide the group, restrictiag the genuine title of J>fiItnop«
to that group of sm^er pigeons in which the fint quill-feather
becomes suddenly nnirowed or attenuated towards the tip, and the
tarsi are feathered almost to tbe division of the tee^
The species inhabit the Holucosa, the Celebea, and the islands of
thePacific (Selby.) Their habits are retired ; they live hi forwt aoli-
tudef. Food, fruita and berries.
The following is a description of the genoi aa realnoted by
Ur. Selby :— Bill comparatively slender, the base slightly dspresaod,
and the soft covering of the nostrils not much arched or swollen;
the tip though bard is little inflated, with a gentle curvature ; the
forehead ia ratber low and depreased ; the legs are short but strong ;
the taru clothed with feathera nearly to the division of the toea ; the
feet are calculated for grasping, and are aimilar in form to those of
Vinago, the sides of the toes beiog enlarged by the eitenaion of tha
laternal mombrane, and tbe outer longer than the inner one ; the
wings are strong, and of moderate length, tbe first quill-fcAther con-
siderably shorter than tbe second, and suddenly narrowed towards the
tip — a peculiarity also possessed by several pigeons belonging to other
distinct groups, and by which means the connexion ia thus kept up
between them. Tbe third and fourth quills are nearly equal to each
other, and an the longest in the wing. The tail is of proportionate
length, and genarally square at the end. Predominating oolonr like
that of FiiKwo, green, varied in ports with yellow and orange, and in
acme, besntifully encircled with maseee of purplish-red and vivid blua.
P. qfOHO-wirau. It is the tSJiMRAa qf/uw-viireHi of Leason, who
described it in the 'Voyage de la Coquille." Tbe bird is termed
Manasope in the Papuan tongue, and iuhabita, says Lesson, the pro-
foond and still virgin foresta ifencore viergsa) of Now Ghiinea. " It was
ib the nei^bourhood of tha harbour of Dordry that we procured the
COLUMBID^.
6 linea (Frenoh); bill delicate and black; iria
of a red-brown J iaia ahort, uid naarly entirely faatbered; totK
with ■ membruioiu border, uid of a livaly oncge cdour ; hwd, rump,
upper part of the body, winga, uid tail, tdajt ogneoble grase-grean ; a
lATge palub falotte) of a beautiful indieo-blue cxnan the oodput ;
elongated blua apota ocmipy Uie oentie of the aubalw feathen, whioh
are bordered witli a atraight yellow line j the internal and hidden part
of the same featherB ia brown ; the qoilla are entirely brown, and
bordered at the external edge with a liiie of canary yellow ; the tail is
square and rectilinear ; the featheis which oomposa it sre fourteen in
number, brown, their eitremitiee whita below, aod of a green siuular
to that of (he back abuve, pasBing into black in the middle, ood each
tenniaating within with a white spot; the two exterior onea an
bivwn, bordsred with yellow exteru^y, as are the two or three next ;
the shaft is brows ; (he (hroat to half-way down the neck ia ash-gray ;
the breaat ia grayiah-graan ; the belly and the flanks are at first green
mingled with some yellow bordering^ and then oomee a lai^ paUJk
of yetlowiih-white eztending on each side ao as to fonn a kind of
giidle; the festhera of (be thigba are green; those of the rent, white
and pale yellow; the lower tail-coverts are yellow mingled wiUi green.
H. Lesson mention! another indiiidual rather inuller, with some
diSerances of plumage, which he supposea to have been either a female
or a young one. Mr. Selbj remarks upon the &ct that no notice is
taken of the form of the Srst quill-feather in this deaoription, and
regrets it, but entertaina little or no doubt of its preaenoe m nearly a
similar form to that assumed by (he rest of tliia group, of which
P. purftiraltit is the type.
Oarpofhaga (Selby).— "In this group," says Ur. Selby, "which is
composed of birds i^ a mucb iaiger size than ths preceding, the
wings, though posseaaing the same relatiTe proportiona, havs no
emuginstioD, or sudden naironing of the tip of the first q uill Their
tanii also are not ao thickly or entirely feaUiered j and their nostrils
are placed nesrar to the base of the bill In some apedes, green,
yellow, and purple are the prevailing colours ; in others, a rich
bronzed or metallic colour compoiee t£e upper plumige, exhibiting
shades of deep green and puiple, accordiug to the light in which it is
viewed, while in those which lead the way to the typical pigeons, the
tints become less vivid and more uniform in their distribution. Their
hill is considerably depressed at the base, tbe membrane ia which (be
nostiila are plaoed but little prominent or swollen, the tip compressed
and moderately arched, the tomia slightly ainuated. The forehead
ia low, and tbe fsatheiB advance considerably upon the soft portion of
ths bill In man^ of theca a caruncle, or gristly knob, vatyiug in sise
and shape according to the species, grows upon the basal part of the
upper mandible during the season of propagation. This is anppoeed
to be common to both seiea, ss the female is described with it in
Duperrey's ' Voyage.' Aftw thia epoch it is rapidly absorbed, and its
situation scarcely to be obaerved upon the surface of the bilL The
feet are powerful and formed for grasping, the soles being flat and
greatly extended. As in the other memb^ of this group, th« bmtl
toe ia fully developed and long, and the exterior longer thui the iunar
toe. They inhabit the forests of India, the Holucoas, Celebes, Aus-
tralia, and the Pacific Iale& Their food consists of fruits and berries.
That of the preoioua nutmeg, or imthsr its Soft covering, known (o us
by (he namo of mace, at certain teMoas affiitdi a likTOuntble repast to
COLUMBIDJS. n
some species, and upon thia luiurioua diet they become so loaded
with fat as A^quently, when shot, to burat asunder when they trJl to
the ground. And here we may remark on the remarkable provision
nature has made for the propagation as well as the diaaemination of
thia valuable spice ; for the nutm^ itself, which is gsnerallv swallowed
with the whole of its pulpy covering, passes uninjured through the
digestive otgans of the bird, and is thus dispeised throughout the
group of the Moluccas and other islands of ths east. Indeed, from
repeated experiments, it appears that an artificial preparation ana-
logous to that which it undergoes in its passsge through the bird, ia
neceasary to enauie the growtii and fertility of the nut ; and it was
not till after many unsuccesaful attempts bad been made that a
lixivium of lime, in which tbe nuta were steeped for a certain time,
was found to have the wished-for eBect^ and to induoe the germinat-
ing tendency. The fruit of the Banyan (Ficui rtligioia), we sacred
tree of the Hindoos, is also a favourite repast of all the pigeons of thia
group, as well as of the stronger-billed Vinago."
O. Dcranica. It is the CotunJia oetanica of Lesson. This s|>eciea,
according to Leaeon, is the Houlouesse, or Houleux, of the nabvea of
Oualan, and though it approaches the Nutmeg Pigeon, Colmnia
(Carjtophaga) anea, very nearly, it differs from it in sise, being one-
third lees, and in the distiibution of some of ita colours. "The
Nutmeg Pigeon lives mora particularly in the eastern Holuocaa, and
BSpaciaJly nt New Guinea and Waigiou, while the Octanio tVuil-
PJgeon is abundant in the little isle of Ouslan, in the midst of the
great archipelago of the Carolines, and seems to exist in the Pslew
Islands, where Wilson mentions it under the narn^ of cyep/' Lesson
further observes, thst it may be posably spread over the Philippines,
and atHagindanaa
Oeeanle FmltJigMin lOaiypiafa s«hhjm).
Description. — Total length, 14 inchea (EVench), including the
tail, which measures five ; the bill, an inch long, is block, strong, and
surmounted at its base by a roundod and very block caruncle ; the
feet are veiy strong and of a bright orange colour ; the tarai are
feathered nearly down to the toes, which have a well-dereloped
border ; the wings are pointed, and only one inch ahorter than the
toil, wlucb ia almost rectilinear. The feathers of tiie forehead, cheeks
and throat, are whitish mixed with gray ; the head and the bock
of tbe neck are of a deep slaty gray ; ttie book, rump, wing-coverts,
quills, and tail-feathers, are of a uniform metallic green, passing into
brawn on the interior of the great feathers; the breast and upper
part of the belly are gray, with a tint of rust-colour ; the lower port
of the belly, the vent, Uie thighs, and the lower tail-coverts, are a
deep ferruginous red ; the tail-featheiB on the under side are a bright
reddish-green (vert rougelirB olair). (Lesson.)
VL Lesson thinks that this, very probably, is the species mentioned
by "the ceJebisted naturalist, Foreter (and not Captain Forster, as
the reading is, twice, in M. Temminck's work, torn. L p. 89, 8vo),
who observed in the Isle of Tanna, one of tho New Hebrides (Cook's
'Sooond Voyage,' vol iU. p. 17B, *to), a Nutmeg Pigeon of tbe some
apeciee as Hat which occurred at the Friendly Islands."
Tbe caruncle shown in the cut ia disiiipated after the breeding
aeaaon, leaving nothing but a slight cu^meous wrinkle. M. Lesson
says that thebird feeds on a berry which is veij abundant in the
small lala of Oualan, and that it is not disturbed by tbe natives.
Mr. Selby givea as a form apparently belonging to this divinon of
tbe (MvB^ida, tbe foDowing species : Cuiumio PKatiantUa (Tonun.),
the strueture of the bill being, as he obaervea. Intermediate between
that of Vinago and CbJvmia, and the feet formed upon the same
plan M those of the rest of the Ptiliaofina.
n COLTIMniD.E.
DeaeriptioD. — Langth from 11 to 16 iDchea, the tail being KTen,
mnd rather more. Winga ahart. Teaching, when closed, about an inch
and a half bejond the root of the tail, rounded, and with the third
quill longest ; the first and fourth being equal to each other. BUI,
tneasnrmg from the forehead, nearly three quarten of an inch long
the tip of the upper miuidible moderatel; arched, and with a notoh
that of the lower augulated and itrong ; tliroat, yeUowioh-nhita ,
head, nidaa, and front of the neck, and whole of the under plumage
orange-brown ; hinder part of the neck changeable rich Tiolet-purple,
with brilliant gold reSectionis; back, wing-coverts, and the rest of
xhe upper plumage, deep redduh-brown, shot with bronze in some
lights J tail graduated or cuneiform, the two middle featherB brown,
the laterKl marked obliquelj with a black bar ; feet and naked part
of 1<^ reddish-brown; sole of the hind and innai toes tnoch
expanded.
Young differing from the adult in having the neck dirty reddish'
brown, trith narrow ban of black ; bell; of a pale reddiah-graj,
minutely and darkly speckled ; back inclining to haii~brown ; and
smaller winjfcoverta deeply edged with orange-brown.
H. Temminck first described the spedea.in the 'Linntean Trans-
actions,' from an Australian spacimen. It has sincA been observed
in moat of the Philippine and Holucca Islands, Java, fto.
Caitmiia Phatiamlla ia an inhabitant of the wooda. Its food ii laJd
to connst of a kind of pimento and of other aiomatio bertiea,
swallowed entire. The flesh is dark, bnt ita flavour is stated to be
Hr. Selby makes the group to oontain C<dumiba Maermtra, Auct. ;
C. nucAo/ii, Wogler ; and V. Seitaeardtii, Temm. " Of its precise
situation," says Mr. Selby, "in the circle of the Cotumbida, we speak
with some degree of doubt, not having had an opportunity of
instituting so strict an analysis of the species as the subject reqturea ;
bnt we believe'it will be found to enter among the i'tiltnoprntr, or
arboreal pigeons, as the feet and tarsi of its members are similar in
form to those of that division, the latter being very short and partly
plumed below the joint, the fonner with the exterior toe longer than
the inner, and the hinder toe fully developed ; the sole of the foot,
by the extension of the membrane, is broad and expansive, and the
euws ore arched and strong, all of whioh are oharaeters evidently
ahowiug these members to be expT«HBly adapted f<^ perohing and
prehenmoo, and not for gmsorial movements. The bill slso in one
species (0. Reimcardtii) approaches in point of strength neariy to
that of Vinago, and in all of them the tip of both mandibles ia hard
and flrtn, tho upper one with a visible emargination and moderately
arohed. Their habita and mode of life are also nearly allied to the
other arboreal speciea, being the oonstant inhabitants of the vroods,
and subsisting upon tbe fruits and berriee of various trees and shruba.
U. Temminck, in his description of tins species, says that it pos-
•SMBa a straeture and form precisely sinulor to that of the C.
nijfratoria of North America. To this we cannot mbscribe, seeiog
that Ita essNitial obancten^ ** above described, are difiersn^ and
COLUMBID.E. so
that the only point of resemblance conaiEta in the length of the tail,
Indeed, so tut removed do we think it from the American group,
that we cannot consider it aa ita analogue in the Asiatic regions
where it resides."
CoUm^a, Auct Most ornithologists are agreed that the sub-familx
Colwnbina conttuns the type of the form of the Coimmbida, and that
we are to look among the species of our ovm country for that type.
The Ring.Pigeon, Cuahat or Queeet (C. Palmabut), the Wood-Pigeon
«7. (Enat), and ilia Rock-Pigeon or Biaet (O. livia), are oonudered to
be the foima in which the peculiarly of structure and habita of tha
family are moat petfeotij developed, and of these 0. Palumbiu is
generally taken aa the t<rpioal point of comparison. The Columiina
are diatmgnished In a bill of moderate strength, witii a hard tip,
bulging and somewhat arohed. The nostrils ore partly ololhed by a
soft membrane, and the orblta of the eyes axe more or less denuded
of feathers. The feet may be'called both greseorial end inasBBorial ;
for they are so organised, that the action of walUnK or perching
1 at pleasure, for the bad: toi ' . ■ •
e BO formed and placed as n
t the longest. The tail ia
pointed; the second and tl
generally square, and moderately long
"In those speciea," laya Hr. Selby, in the WOA above quoted,
" which ate the media of eonneebion with other groups, the above
charactan become partially modified, aa we see exemplified in the
spedsB neanst allied to die Ptiii»opkue, or arboreal pigeons, their
tbet loung the tme character of that of the common pigeon, and
assoming more of the grasping fbnn than that fitted for progress upon
the grodnd." -
The speciea are *ei7 nnmeroos, and spread over ever; quarter of
the globe.
" The prevailing Oolonr of tha pigeons ia bluish-gray, of various
intfinaitieB and shaded frequently embelliahed upon the neck with
fsathers having a metallic lustre and peculiar form, and which exhilnt
various tints of oolour according to the light in which they ara viewed.
They are naturally birds of a wild and tmiid disposition (though one
species has been partly reclaimed), and usually live congregated in
extensive flocks, except during the season of reproduction, when thej
pur. Most of tlie species seek their food upon the ground. This
consists of the different Certalia, as also aooma, beech-mast, and other
seedi, and oocasionally of the green and tender leaves of particular
plants. Their flesh is sapid and nutritious, being of a warm and
mvigorating nature. Their fl^ht ia powerful, very rapid, and can bo
long Buatoined, and many Bpeoim are in tlio habit of making distant
periodical migrations. They are widely diaaeminated, speciea of the
genua being found in every quarter of the globe, and in all climates,
except the fruien reg^ona of the two hemispherea. They build in
trees or holea of rocka, ""l-'ng a shallow nest of small twigs loosely
put together. Their eggs ate never mora than two in number, their
oolour a pore white; they are incubated alternately by both sexes,
and are hatched after being sat upon from eighteen to twenty-one days.
The young, upon exclusion, ore thinly covered with down, which ia
rapiiUy succeeded by the proper feathers." (Selby.) The apparatus
r preparing the food for the neBblinga hoa boen before adverted to-
O. tpadi^ea. Hr. Selby places this Bpedea aa connecting the arbo-
real species with the typical pigeons, but arranges it under the Ooium-
bina, not vrithout doubt, " for (dtbough it presents characters in some
of ita members approaching tboae of tiie pigeoTis, it cannot be denied
that, in its general appearance, and the metsllic lustre of its plumage,
it also shows evident maiks of a near.affinity to several species of tho
genua CoTjiophaga, and it might perhaps with equal propriety be
placed at the extremity of that group ;" and regnta the litUa infor-
mation extant of its peculiar habita and mods of life, which would
have asaiated in farming a more satisfactory conclusion oe to its proper
poaitioD. He adds, that from the form and size of the feet we may
judge that its habits are more those of an arboreal than terrestrioL
bird, though its claws wont the great curvature of those of the Ptili-
nopttur, and show its capability of occadonally resorting to the ground
for food. H. Lesson, who killed many iadividusJs of this brilliant
Sigeon, described by Lathsm and figured by Tenuninck, says that its
ah is excellent, and that it is very abundant in the woods about
the Bay of Ipiripi, or the Bay of lalanda. The first which he procured
was kUled and sent to the expedition by one of the offlceia of the
CoquiUe ; and Toui, ohief of the hippoh of Koouera, near which ahe
was moored, brought them frequentiy on board. He adds, that the
individual described by Latham as the Chestnut-Shouldered Pigeon
from Norfolk Island, not far frem New ZcsJand, and that
H. Temminck indicates the Friendly or Tonga Islands as its native
oountry. This locality M. Lesson, from whom the following descrlp-
tion ia taken, seems to doubt.
*" tal length, 16} inches (French) — English anthoni give it as from
20 inches; tul 6 inchea, nearly rect^«l, and slightly notched ;
bill rather swollen near the point of the lower mandible, of a brilliant
ine at its base as well aa the feet, the tarsi of which are feathered
almost to the toea. The eyes ore surrounded with a bright^red mem<
brane, and the iris is of the same colour. All the upper parts of the
SI COLUMBID-R
bird, tbe bsck, the rump, tbe wings, nnd the thront, are of a chan
able huo, in which are mingled rosy coppar-reBeBtiona nmning ii
briUiant and irideiceDt tiuts, but becoming more Boiubra upon i
great quOin. The plumage of the breaat, bBlly, yeot, and tarai
pu™ while. The upper part of the tail ia brown, slightly tinged with
grefmiah ; aa^ below it ia brown, whith ii deepest witlun and at the
C. dUtpIka, " In this euriooB qMcies," uyi Hr. Belbr. " bvidea the
ooapital crest, an ornuaeDt which ia found iu many other birda, thare
is an additicnal one in front, oompoaed of long recurved and lai
featbe™, which not only oooupj the forehead, but also the superior
part of the soft or banJ portion of the bill. This double creet girea
the head of the pigeon a, cbaraotar unlike any of its coogeoeni, and
more raesmbling that of aome of the created P/iatianida or CnKida,
witli which an aualogieal relation is thua austuaed. In other respeota
it« characters agree with those of 0. tpadicta, the proportion of the
wiaga and the form of the feet being nearly the same. Temminck,
who first described it, obserres, " Cette nouTelle esp^ce a le plus de
npporta daoa toutea aea formes aveo la Columha tpadicea, at toutes
Ics dniii Bout trte pen diff^rent«9 de notre Krunier d'Euiope,"
COLUMDID^. n
The alee of this bird ia nearly that of C. ipadieta. Wings long and
powerful, reaching when closed beyond the middle of the tail, second,
third, and fourth feathers longest and nearly equal, fifth shorter thau
the fimt, Biil rich orauKe, tip of undermandible obliquely truncated,
tip of upper niaudible comprsaaed, somewhat arched, culmeu rouudeii.
Frontal crest begimiiag on the upper part of tbe bill immediately
behind the homy tip aud above the nostrila, composed of long curved
feathers, soft and loose in texture, and bluish-gray tinged with rufous
in colour, pointing backwards. Occipital creet rich rufous, bounded
on each aide from the posterior angle of the eye by a streak of glossy
black, decumbent, composed also of long soft featben with open
barbulee, each feather widening towards the tip. Side and front of
neck and breast pale gray, block at the base of the feathen, which ia
bid. Tbe feathen here are trifid at the end ; on the back of the neck
they are acuminated, but not distinctly divided as upon the breaat.
Bock, acapulara, and wingKHiverta deep bluiab-gray, the feathers
darker at tbe margin; quills and eecondariea bluish-black | under
plumage gray. Tail square, basal part and narrow band pale gray
tinged with reddiah, tip and broad intermediate bar black ; length
7 inches. Naked parte of tarai and toes crimson-red ; hind toe
strong, with a broad flat sole, aud exceeding the tarsus in length ;
naQa long and somewhat curved. It ia found in Australia and Java.
C. Palmniui, the Cushat. It is the Ramier of the French ; Torquato,
Ohiondario, kc, of the Italians, according to Belon ; Colombacoio,
Polombo, Picdone da Ohianda of tbe same, according to PriUce Bona-
parte ; BingdufwB of the 'Fauna Suecicaj' Witd-Taube and Ringel-
Tauba of the Oermansj Ring-Do ve, Queest, and Cushat of the British ;
Ysguthan of the Welsh, and in Belon's opinion the Wttb of the
Greeks.
Instances have been known of its laying in aviaries, and Hr. Selby
states that a pair of ring-pigeons in one of the aviaries of the
Zoological Qardens " built their neat in a tree or shrub contained
within it, and that the female laid two eggs, which unfortunately
were deatroyed by aome accident during incubation. Thia fact ahowa
that under favourable circumstances, and when the habits of the bird
ore attended to, a progeny may be obtained."
0. (Emu. It is the Falomballa, Falombella di Hacchia, Piccdone
Topacchio of the Itsliana ; Le Pigeon Sauvage of Brisaon ; Stock-Dove
and Wood-Pigeon of the British. Mr. Selby observes, " Near as it
approaohsB the common pigeon in size and form, no mixed breed that
-e ore aware of has ever been obtained between them, although
ipaatfld attempts to effect an intercourse have been mode. Thia in
ar tnind appears a strong and convincing proof that all the varieties
geneially blown by the name of Fancy Pigeons have originated from
one and the some stock, and not from crosses with other species, as
some have supposed, the produce of which, even could it be ocoa-
aionslly obtained, we ^tc no doubt would prove to be barren, or
what are genEsally termed mules."
C. livia. This— the Pigeon Priv^ of Bflon; Le Pigeon Domestiqno,
Le Biset, and Le Kocheraye, of Brisson ; Coulon, Colombe, Pigeon,
of the French ; Palombello, Piccione di Tom, Piocjone di Rocoa, of the
Italians; F^ld-Taube,Haaa-raube, Hohl-Taube, BUu-Taube, ondHolts-
Taube, of tiie Oermana ; Wild Rock-Pigeon of the British; Colommen
of the Welsh — is the stock from whidi ornithologists generally now
agree that the domestic pigeon and its varieties ore derived.
" Under this species," writes Ur. Selby, " we include not only the
nnmou pigeon, or inhabitant of the dove-oot, but all those numerous
srieties, or, ss they are frequently termed, nces of domestitsted
pigeons, ss highly prized, and fostered with suoh care aad attention
by the amateur breeder or pigeon fancier; for, however diversified
their forms, colour, or peculiarity of habit may be, we consider them
all as having originated from a few accidental varieties of the common
pigeon, and not from any cross of that bird with other species, no
or marks whatever of such being apparent in any of the nume-
rous varieties known to ua. In fact, the greater part of them owe their
moe to tbe interference and the art of man ; for by separating
from the parent stock such accidental varieties as have occasionally
oocurred, by subjsctiug these to captivity and domestication, and by
assorting them and pairing them together as fancy or caprice sug-
gested, he haa at intervals generalsd all tbe various races and peouliir
varietiee which it is well known when once produosd may be per-
petuated for an indefinite period, by being kept separate from and
unmixed with others, or what by those interested In auch pursuits
ia usually termed ' brenling in and in.' Such also, we may add, is
the opinion of the most eminent nsturalists aa to their origin, and it
is strongly inusted on by U. Tamminck in his valuable work tbe
' Histoire OJn jrale Naturalle dea Pigeons.' Indeed the fact that all
Jie varietiea, however much they may diSbr in colour, siie, or other
particulars, if permitted, breed freely and indiaciiminately with each
other, and produce a progeny equally prolific, is another and «
convincing proof of their common and self-same origm ; for it is one
' ' ise universal laws of nature, extending even to plants, and ona
which if once set sside or not enforced would plunge ail animated
ir into indescribable confusion, that the offepring produced by
the intercourse of different species, that is, distdnct spedes, is incapable
of further incresiae. That such an intercourse may be e&otod is w«U
B3 COLUUBID^
known to ali ; but it ii geDarally under peculiif or oitifictal circmn-
st&ncea, and rarely when the animala, birds, or Trhatsrer the; may
be, Dfe in their natural state, and in a qondition to make tlieir own
election. It u eeen in the orossea obtained in a atate of confinement
between the uqut and goldfinch, linnet, &0. ; in the hybrids between
different apedea of Anatida, when domeatioated or kept in captivity;
in the croaa between the pheasant and conimon fowl, tut. -
" The bastard produce of the common wild turtle (Turlur comnunu)
with the turtle of the aviary (TWttir ruon'iu} has been proved by
freqaent eiperimente to be btu^ren, although the two speciea from
whence it originates appear to be closely allied, and a mixed breed
is easily procured ; and Buoh, we have no hesitation in aayinif, would
be the event if ■ croaa could be obtained between the common pigeon
and the ring pigeon, the wood pigeon, or any other apectes." These
observations are well woriJiy of attention. The aaaertion respecting
the bastard produee of the tnrtleo, made above, ia corroborated by
Heaan. Boitard and Corbid In Uisir ' Hisloire dss Pigeons de Toliire,'
and tiie princble is further confirmed by the eiperimenta of Uaudayt,
VieiUot, and Corbi&
The varieties of this bird produced under the fostering band of
man, the tumblers, croppers, jscobines, runts, spots, turbite, owls,
nuna, Sx. ko,, would fill a volume. Uur limits will not permit us to
figurs or describe them. Tbe Carrier however demands notice. In
one of his odes (EIi OifHimpdi') Anacieoa has immortalised it as the
bearer of epiattea. Taurosthsnes sent to bis expectant father, who
maided in .£gina, the glad tidings of his success in the Olympie
games on the very day of his victory. Pliny (' Nat. Hist.' book i.
37) speaks of the communication kept up between Hirtins and
Decimus Brutus at the siege of Uutlna (Uodeoa) : "What aviuled An-
tony the trench and the watch of the beeiegere j what availed the neti
(retia) stretched across the river, while the messenger was cleaving
the air (per ctsliim eunte nuntio)." The Crusaders employed them,
and Joinville records an instance during tjie cruaade of Samt Louis.
Tasso ' Oieroaalenuna Liberata,' cant, iviii angs of one that wa^
attaclud by a blcon and defended by Qod&ey,
which 'carta' Godfrey of oourae reads, and ia put in possesnon of all
thesecrala. In the sams way Ariosto {cant, iv.) makwtbe 'Castellan di
Damiata' spread the news of Orrilo's death all over Egypt. Sir John
Haundeville, knight, warrior, and pilgrim, who penetiat«d to the border
of China in the reigns of our Second aod Third Edward, thus writes ;
" In that contree and other oootreea beionde thai )i«" a ouatom, whan
thei schulle nsen werre, and whan men holden sege abouten oytee or
cssteUa, and thei withinnen dur not senden out messacen with lettere
fro lord to lord, for to aske sokour, thei maken here letters and
bynden them to the nekke of a Ooher, and letten the Colver flee ;
and the Colverea bon ao taugbte that theraean with the lettera to
tbe very pkce that men wolde sonde hem to. For the Colveres ben
norysBcht in the places where thei ben sent to ; and the! senden bam
thus for to bsrsn bare letters. And the CoLveres retournea ssen
where as thei ben noriascht, and so tbey den comounly."
The Carrier however gradually Bank, in this countiy at least, to the
bearer of the intelligoncs of the felon'a death at Tybum— Hogarth's
print will oocur~to every body: it became the messonger from the
rBc»«ourBs andpriie-ring, and woa olao largely used in Btook-jobbing
transactions. The inventjon and applioation however of ths electric
telegnph hsi to a oonudcarable extent superseded the use of the
Carrier-^geon.
Some idea of the astoniahing fecundity of the domesticated pigeon
may be derived from the aaeertioa of Biberg, who observes that if
you suppose two pigeons to hatch nine times a year they may produce
iu four years 14,760 young.
In its wild state the Hock Pigeon ia widely distributed ; the rooky
isUnda of Africa and Asia, and in the Hediterranean, abound with
them. Tiigil'a beautiful simila in the Fiith ^neid evidently rdatei
to this spedea : —
In the Orkneys and Hebrides it is said to swarm. " It is also met
irith upon the northern and western coasts of Sutherland, the perfo-
rated and cavernous rocks which gird the eastern side of Loch Eriboll,
and those of the limestone district of J>umeaa, furnishing suitable
places of retreat ; and again upon the eastern ooaste of Sootland it is
seen about the rocky steeps of the Isle of Baas and the bold pramon-
torv of St Abb'a Head." (Selby.)
C. twin in its wild state has the following charactdra : — Bill blackiah-
brownj the nostril membnne red, sprinkled as it were with a white
powder. The irides pale reddish-orange. Head and throat bluiah-
gr^. Kdes of tbe neck and upper part of the breast dark lavender-
punilt^ glossed with shades of green and porpliah-red. Lower part
of brnsl and abdomen bluinh-gray. Upper mandible and wing-
OOTsrta Un»fTay. Greater coverts and secoodariaa barred with black,
■o that there are two broad and distinct baia acrooa the closed wings.
Lower part of ths back white j rump and tail-coverta bluiah-gray.
Tail deep gray, with a bi:oad black bar at the end. L^ and feet
Wild Boek-Fiteon (Cblunte Una).
Turiur lEdapitlaia, Selby),— Bill more alender than that of the
pigeona. Tip of the upper mandible gently deflected, that of tbe
lowor Bcarcely exhibiting the MpeaiancB of an angle. Tarsi rather
shorter than the middle toa. Feet formed for walking or perching ;
inner toe longer than the outer. Front of tarai covered with broad
imbricated aodea. Winga — flrat quill a little ahort^r than the second,
third longest of alL Tail rounded or slightly giaduat«d. (Selby.)
•T. ritoritu. It ia the Ootan^a riaoria of authors; T. lorcuatut
Saugitifnuit, Brisson ; Tourtorelle & Collier, Bufian ; probab^ the
Turtle of the Scriptures, and atill plentiful in Egypt and other ea«tem
coontries, where it is often kept in confinement. The relics of Qreek
and Roman art give a very fair repreeentation of this species ;
BAon and others seem to be of opinion that the T, ec ~
Turtle Dove, was the T/iOynt of the Greeks.
The following is a description of a wild specimen from Southern
Africa : — Length about 1 inches. Chin whitish ; from the oometa
of the mouth to the eyes a narrow streak of block. Forehead pale
bluiah-giay ; crown darker ; cheeks, neck, breaat, and belly, gray,
tinged irith vinaoeoua or pole purplish -rad ; the hind neck with a
demi-oollar of block ; some of the aide feathers of the collar tipped
with white. Bock, scapulan, and rump, pale clove-brovm, with a
greenish tinge. Margins of wings, greater oover^ and nnder win^
coverts, blua^pmy- Greater quiUa hair-brown, delicately edged wiUi
giayiah-white. Vent and under tail-coverts white. Legs and feet
gray ; inner toe a little longer than the outer. (Selby.)
In its natural state this species haunts the woods, where it breeds,
(I COLlTUBID^
making ■ Deat like that of the common turtle, flnd lays two wbits
tggn. It Heka its food in ths open grannda, and Rubeitta upon groin,
gntneeds, imd pulM, &c Its triTisl nune ii dgriTsd !com > fanciful
reaemblonoe to the human Uugh in its ccninga. (3elb<^.)
A race between the common turtle and thie speciee has been ob-
tained ; bat the mule* are stated to hare been iQTSTiablf barren.
T. nmnUHiu (Linnsus), the Turtle Dove {Cohtmba lurlw of authon),
is found in Great Britain. It oocon only aa a sunimsr Tijuter coming
from Africa.
Mr Selbf proTiaioaally placei the C. lophoia of Temminck under
this genua.
EctopUtu (Swninsoa).— Bill ilender, notched. Wings rather elon-
gated, pointed ; the Snt and third quill equal ; the second longest.
Tijl rounded, or curvated. Feet ihort, naked ; anterior sooles of the
tuid imbricate ; lateral scales very small, reticulate.
£ nigreaoria. It ia the C. migritiaria of authors, the Passenger
Pigeon of Wilson, Audubon, and othera. Our limits not allowing --
PssKnfCr FiEtOD ISetapiila migratiiria).
" The rooating-placeB ore always in the woods, and aometimea
occupy a large eitent of foreat When they have frequented one of
tbcae places for some time, the appearance it eihihita is aurpriaing.
The ground is covered to the depth of several inches with their dung ;
all the tender grass and underwood destroyed; the aurfaoe strewed
trith large limbs of trees, broken down by the weight of the birds
collecting one above another ; and the trees themselves, for thousands
of scree, killed aa completely as if girdled with on axe. The morlu
of their desolation remun for many years on thespot; and numerous
places could be pointed out where, for several years alter, scarcely a
discovered, the inhabitants, from considerable dislanceii, visit them
in the night with guns, clubs, long poles, pots of sulphur, and various
other enginee of destruction. In a few hours they fill msny socks
and load honn with thsm. By the Indiazu a pigeon-ioost or breed-
ing-place ia consjdflfed on important source of national proSt and
dependence for that season, and all their active ingenuity is eierdsed
on the occaaioa. The breeding-place differs from the former in its
greater eitent In the western oountriee, namely, the states of Ohio,
Kentucky, and Indiana, these are generally in back wood^ and often
extend in neor^ a stroight line aoroas the country for a great way.
Not far from ^elbyviUe, in the state of Kentucky, about five years
ago, there was one of these breeding-places, which sb«tched through
the woods in nearly a north and south direction, was several miles in
breadth, and was said to be upwards of forty miles in extent. In this
tract almost every tree was furoished with nests wherever the branches
could accommodate them. The pigeons made tlieir first appearance
there about the 10th of April, andleft it altogether with their young
before the 25th of Hay. Aa soon os the young were fully grown, and
before they left the nests, numerous parties of the inhabitants tram
all part* of the adjacent country came with waggons, axes, beds,
cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater part of
their families, and encamped for several days at tills immense nunery.
SeTer«t of them informed me that the noise was so great aa to terriF^
their horses, and that it was difficult fbr one person to hear another
speak without bawling in his ear. The ground was strewed with
broken limbs of trees, eggs, and young squab pigeons, which had been
piecipitated from above, and on which herds of hoga were fattening.
Hawks, buzEardB,and eagles were sailing about in great numbers, and
seizing the squabs from we nests at pleasure, while, from twenty feet
upwards to ute top of the trees, the view through the woods presented
a pcrpeloal tumult of crowding and fluttering multitudes of pigeons,
their wings roaring like thunder, mingled wiw the frequent crash of
falling timber ; for nowUie axemen were at work, cutting down thi
trees that seemed to be most croivded vrith nests, ond coatrived tof
them in such a manner, that in their descert they might bring down
several others; by which means the falling of one large tree some-
times produced 200 squaba, little inferior in siss t6 the old ones, and
olmost one heap of fat^ On some single treea upwarda of 1 00 neitla
were found, each cont^ning one squab only ; a circumstance in the
history of this bird not generally known to natunliata. It waa
dangerous to walk under these flying and fluttering millions, &om tha
int fall of large branches, broken down by the weight of tha
budea above, and which in their descent often destroyed numbeni
of the birds themaelves ; while the clothes of those engaged in
the woods were completely covered with tie excrements
of the pigeons.
" Thefle eircumfftances were reloted to me by many of Uie moat
ipectable part of tbe community in that quarter, and were con-
firmed in part by what I myself witnessed. I passed for several miles
through thie same breeding-place, where every tree was spotted with
nests, the remains of those above described. In many instances I
connted upwards of ninety nests on a single tree ; but tbe pigeons
had abandoned this place for another, sixty or eighty miles off. towards
Green River, where they were said at tliat time to be equally numer-
ous. From the great numbem that were constantly passing over onr
beada to or from that quarter, I hod no doubt of the truth of this
statement. Tbe mast bod been chiefly conaumcd in Kentucky ; and
the pigeons, every morning a little Mfore sunrise, set out for Uw
Indiana territory, the nearest part of which was about sixty milea
distant. Many of these returned before ten o'clock, and the great
body generally appeared on their return a little aft— noon. I had
left the public road to visit the remuns of the hreeding-plooe near
Shelbyville, and was traversing the woods with my gun, on my way
to Frankfort, when about ten o'clock the pigeons which I hod observed
flying the greater part of the morning northerly, began to return in
such immense numbers as I never before had witneued. Coming to
on opening by the aide of a creek called tbe Benson, where I had a
more uninterrupted view, I was astonished at their appearance : thej
were flying with great steadiness and rapidity, at a height beyond gun-
shot, in several strata deep, and so close together that, could shot
have reached them, one discharge could not have failed of bringing
down several individuals. From right to left, as far as the eye could
reach, the breadth of this vast procession extended, seeming every-
where equally crowded. Curious to determine how long thia appear-
ance would continue, I took out my watch to note the time, and aat
down to observe tbem. It was then half-past one ; I sat for more
than an hour, but instead of a diminution of this prodigious proces-
sion, it seemed rather to increase, both in numben and rapidity;
and anxious to reach Frankfort before nigbt I rose and went on.
Aboot four o'clock in the afternoon I crossed Kentucky River, at tho
town of Frankfort, at which time the living torrent above my head
seemed as numerous and as extensive as ever. Long after this I
observed them in large bodies that continued to pass for ail or eight
minutea, and theae again were fallowed by other detached bodies, all
movmg in tbe some south-east direction, till after six o'clock in tbe
evening. The great breadth of front which this mighty multituda
preserved would seem to intimate a corresponding breadtli of their
breeding-plaoe, which, by several gentlemen who tiad lately passed
through part of it, was stated to me at asvera] milea."
ihat its whole length was 240
miles, and that the numbers oomponng it amounted to 2,280,272,000
pigeons, observing that this is probably far below the aotual amount.
He adds, that allowing each pigeon to consume half a pint of food
daily, the whole quantity would equal 17,424,000 bushels doily. Ur.
Audubon conflrms Wilson in every point, excepting that he very pro-
perly corrects that part of the murative wtuph would lead to the
conclusion that a single young one only is hatehed each time. The
latter observes that the bird lays two eggs of a pure while, and that
each brood generally consists of a male and female. ,
DeeoriptioD. — Winga long and acuminate, having the seeoad quill-
feather exceeding the othera in length. The taii is greatly cuneifonu
or graduated, and consists of twelve tapering fea^era Bill black,
and like that of the turtle. Legs purpliah-red, abort, and atrong.
Iria bright orange-red, the naked orbit purplish-red. Head and cheek)
pale bluish-gray. Fore-neck, breast, and aides brovfoish-red, with a
puniliah' tinge. Abdomen and vent white. Lower port and sides of
neck purplish-crimaon, reBecting tints of emerold green and gold.
Upper plumage deep bluish-gray, some of the scapulars and wing-
coverts apotted with black. Greater ooverta gray, tipped with wbitK
Quills blaokish-gny, their exterior webs bluish-gtiy. Tail with the
two middle feothera block, the other five on each side grav at the base,
with a black bar on the interior arch, and paaaing into white towards
the extremitieik
The female is rather smaller, and has the coloun of her plumaga
much duller than tbooe of the male, though the diatribution ia the
some. (Selby.)
The Passenger Pigeon inhabits the North American continent, be-
tween the 20th and 02nd degrees of north latitude. Mr. Eyton has
flgured one as a visitant to our shares, on the authority of Dr. Fleming,
who, in his ' History of British Animals,' says that one was shot in
tbe parish of Monimai), Fifeahire, on tbe 31st December, 1335. llr.
a COLUMBIDJS.
Yurell also records the capture of anoUieT Bpecimen at RayBton,
in Cambrtdgeehire.
Hr. Selb; refsn praviraooBlly fbfwnta Capeatit, Aiiot, C. Mac-
giMirni, Loaun, uid C. vemtila, Temm., to his group of EeUrpittma,
<uid thinlu that bythsBeuid some other nearly allied forma apaaaaga
tc the next RTOup, Ftriiitrina, the Qroiutd-DoTea, is affected.
Family PeritUrina (Selby). — DiaJJnguiahed from the praeodlng
graupa by their terrene habits, and their evideot approach in many
points to the more typioal Satora, or OallinaceouB Birds. In these
the bill is rather alender, frequently aub-emargiuat^ and the tip of
the upper mandible gently deflected ; the wings are generally shart
and rounded, and in many instances concave, aa in the partridgo,
gronso, &c The legs are canaidersbty longer than in the typical
pigeons, the taisus uanally exoeeding Uis middle toe in length, and
the feet better adapted for walking than grasping ; the olaws an
obtuse and alightly arched. The hallux a shorter, and ita relative
position different ftom that of the arboreal apeciea. Their plamags
IS plaiuBT and more uniform In tint than that of some of the preced-
ing groups, though it is still brilliant in those epeciee which connect
them with other forms. They live almoat entirely upon the greund,
and many of the gpeciea run with gnat celerity, on which account
they have been called Partridge Flgeoni. Their fli^t, which is
usually low, is efibcted with greater exertion than that u the pigeons,
and is nerer long suatalned. (Selby.)
Mr. Selby observes that this division oontains a great number of
species, and is of opinion that wlien better investigated it will be
feund divisible into a variety of minor groupa or g«isn. He places
under it Pha^, Chanurfdia, and Periilera. This group is dis-
tinsniabed by a longer bill, very faintly emarginate, and by its tarsi,
whieh are moderat^y long and naked, with the ^ntal scales divided
into two aeries, and Uie sides and hinder port reticulated with minute
scales. Another group, he adds, leems indicated by certain Amatio
■pedes, conspicuoua for the rich metallic green of the plumage
oLUieir backs, resembling therein some of the Ptiluurpina. The
tarsi of these are destitute of scales, except a few indistinct ones in
front, just above the toes. The bill ia rather long, and destitute of a
notch. Thi^ live mostly on the ground, but their flight ia powerful
Mr. Selby tales CUmalba titperiAiata of Wagler bb the type of this
last-mentioned group.
Pkapi (Selby). — Bill moderately long, rather slender ; upper man-
dible gently deflected at the tip, and with the indication of a notch
or emargination. Wings of mean length ; second and third feathers
longest, and nearly equal Tall slightly rounded. Legs — tarsi aslong
s« tde middle toe, the front covered with a double row of scales, sides
and back reticulated with small hexagonal acalea. Hind toe short ;
inner toe exceeding the out«r in lei^tli. Claws blunt, slightly arched.
Type, Cblumia eAaieopfcru, Latham. C. tiegaiu, Temm. ; and C. picata,
Wftgler, belong to this group. (Selby.)
P. duUeoptera. It is the G. chaUopltnt, Latham ; the C. Lamaehellt
of Temminok ; Bronie-Winged Qraund-DoTe.
Broan-Wingcd Onnad-DoTC (napi e^kopttrB).
Bin about that of C. (Ema. Total length about IG inches. Bill,
from edges of the gapo, hardly an inch ; black anteriorty ; reddish
near the base. Forehead, stripe below the eyes, and throaty white ;
crown brown, tinged with reddish, filleted with dusky red ; cheeks
Mid sides of neck bluiah-gray ; bottom of neck in front and breast
scapulars, rump, and upper tan-ooverta, brown tinged w_._ „. .
in Home lights, the border of each feather paler. Wing-coven blnisb-
giay, but the outer webs of every feather have a large ovate spot,
producing varioua tints of metallic brilliancy according to the direc-
tion of the light. Quills brown above, with the iimer sur&oe <rf tha
webs, the axillary feathers, and under wing-cavSrta bordeied rather
deeply with pale orange-red. Tail slightly rounded, bluish-gray, with
a black baad. Legs red ; two rows of scales in fron^ the sides
reticulated.
It is an inhabitant of Australia and islands in the PadSc ; in the
ground, and occasionally perched upon the low branches of shrubs.
Ifest inartificial, in holes of low trees or decayed tninks near the
greund, sometimes on it Egga two, white. These l^rds go in paira
generally ; their cooing is tond, and has been compared, whoi heaid at
a distance, to the lowing of a cow,
Ckamcepdia (Swainion), — Bill slender, entire. Wings rounded, tha
first quill short, third, fourth, and fifth nearly equal and longest ; Ut«
weba on both sides alighUy emaiginate. Tul rounded. Feet nther
short ; the sides of the tarsi feathered. Types, Coiimiib* posscrina,
Linn. ; 0. tjuoauua, Temm. (Swainion).
C. Talpieati. It ia the OolaoJia Talpieoti of Temminok, the spedsa
which Mr. Selby considen to be the ^pe. Length 3J inches, adult
male j forahead, crown, and nape of neck, aah-gny ; cheeka and throat
pinkiah-white ; upper plumage entirely brownish-orangs, with tiie
exception of a few transverse etreab of black upon ths exterior weba
of the wing-coverta neareet the body ; under plumage deep
browniah-blnck, with reddish-brown tips, moderately curved ; bill and
orbits bluish-gray ; legs and toes pale red, tha outer side of the tarsus
with a row of amsll feathers down the line of junction b
and parataraia; quilla broad, the fourth with a large
Cjectdng notch Cowardi the middle of the inner web. The fnnale
the crown of the head at a sordid gray j the apper plumage of •
wood-brown, tinged with red ; the scapular and wing^overts marked
OS on the male ; under plumnga dirty gray, tinged with pale tnirpli*I>*
red. (Selby.)
Chamaftlia Tiilpieiiti.
This bird inhabits Brazil, Poiaguay, and other districts of South
America. It haunts open grounda near woods, where it roots and
breeds upon the underwood, but never far frem the ground, where it
ia active, and feeds upon the smaller cerealia, berries, Aa. Generally
observed in pairs, sometimes in familiea of four or six, never in luge
flooka. Does not fly fi'om the face of man, but affects the confines of
hooaes and farm-yards. Easily kept and propagated in aviariea.
Pei-uKra (Swainson). — Bill slender, sub-emaiginata. Wings rounded,
the fii-Bt quill abort and abruptly at(enna(«d, second and fiftli equal,
third and fourth equal and longest Tul rounded. Feet strong,
naked, somewhat lengthened ; anterior scales of the tatai imbricati^
lateral scales none. Type, L'ottanlia emtrea, Temm. (Swainaon).
P. tyatpamtlna. It is the CbJumia t^paaitlria of Temminok.
Leogth about 9 inches ; upper plumage brown, slighUy tinged with
gray on the neck ; large spots of shining dark green on the outer webs
of three or four of the greater wing-ooverts ; middle tail-feothera
brown ; the two exterior on each Hi(k gray, with a broad black tiar
near the tip ; inner weba of greater quilla deep brown ; forehead,
streak over the eye, and under plumage, pure white; under wing-
ooverts and sides pale oruige-brown ; undu' tail-oo verts brown ; bul
and legs gray, thejatter with a reddish tinga
It inhabits South Africa, where it is said to haunt woods. The
spedea does not seem to be common.
Qeophiliu (Selby),— Mr. Selby, speaking of Oohmba Cfatu/Ctphalm,
Wsgler, IWttir Janatcouu, Brisson J Co^tMt&i Mranculnfs, Wagler;
and Oolambn Nicabarica, Latham, Ceivmba QaUvt, Wagler, Bay»—
Piriittra lg„^KuMa.
" Whether tlie7will fonzi a wparate diTuucn, or the three fint will
enter among the Pervterina, and the Lophymt eJons ramain a repn-
■entntiTO of another group, we are noabls to detwmine, not poaaeoBuig
sufficient materuJa to ioatitute so etrict an aoalfaii aa ii necenary, or
to b-aee out with precimon the direot afBoitiea of those ipecLeB, and
the aitaaUon they hold in mpect to the other gronpa of the
CUnmMdor, M well u those of the adjoining families. The three firat
wa hare proriaioiiall; included in the genus Otofhiliu. In their
form and babita they approach still nearer to the typieal gallinaoeoua
birda than the species we have just heen describing. Their tarsi are
lon^ and covered with hexagonal scales ; their tail short, and rather
pendcmt ; their wings ooncave, shorty and rounded ; aud their body,
aa oompared with the typical pigeons, thid: and heavy. A striking
departure from the gennvl economy of the CohnMda is further
obeerved in th«ir mode of propagation, the number of the eggt they
Uy each hatching not being confined to two, aa is seal to prevail in
the groups alrea^ described, but extending to eight or ten, which are
incubated upon the ground, and the yoimg, l^e those of the true
gallinaoeona birds, are produced from the egg in such a state aa to
be able immediately to ibUow the parent, which brooda over and
attaids them like the partridge or domestic fowL Tbey live entirely
upon the grotmd, ezoept during the hours of repose, when they some-
tiinei lelira to boshes, or the loi# branches of tiws. They walk and
nm with great qniekness, like the OaUina, and in fact appear to be
the forms which immediately connect this family Vith the Pavonida
and TelrtKmiAx. JUthoogh for the present we have placed the first
three under the ume generic head, yet from their distinct geogra-
phioal distributian, and the diSerence observed in the bill of the first)
it ia more than probable that a further division will be required."
a. eaniuMtalut. It is the Columba eartmctilaia of Temminek ; the
Colombe Oalline of Le Vaillant. Sim about that of the Common
Turtle, bnt with the body stouter and more rounded. Base of the
bill and forehead covered with a naked red wattle; another wattle of
the same hue depends from the chin, and branches of it extend
upwards towards the ears. Plunuge of head, cheeks, neck, and
breaat, purplish-gray ; back, scapulars, and wing-ooverts, pale gray ;
feathers bordered with white. Belly, UPI*^ and under tail-coverts,
Banks, and under wing^ooverta, white. Tail aborts rounded, deep
ruddy-brown, except the outer feather on each side ; these have the
outer web white. Legs covered with hexagonal scales, pnlplish-red.
Iris with a doable cirole, yellow and red. The female bat UO wattle^
and her ooloure are less pure. (Le Taillant.)
It inhabits South A&iea, where it was disooveind in the Oraat
Kamaqoa ooantry t^ Le Taillant, who gives the following aoeount of
ile habits and ^Bnilies : — " To Uie pigeons its affinity is shown by
the form of the bill and the plnntage ; while It difite* from them in
the pendaot wattle, elongated tarn, rounder body, less gnuwful form,
tail, which it osniea baoging down like that of a partridge, and
rounded vrings ; points which bring it near to the Oaliinte." A
passage ia thus formed by it, in his opinion, betweoi tboae birds and
the pigeons. The nart, oompoaed of twigs and the dried stems of
grasses, is formed in aooe sli^t hollow of the gronnd, and there tbs
female lays six or eight reddisb-wbite eggs, which are Inmbated by
both the parenta. The yoong are hatched clothed wil^ down of a
l«iidish-gray, run immediately and follow their parents, which keep
COLUMBID..E. M
them together by a peculiar oft-repeated- cry, and brood over them
with their wings. Their fir«t food consists of the larvn of anta, dead
inseota, and worms, which the parents point out to them. When
strong enough to find their own food, they live on grain of difibrent
sorts, berries insects, tc, and keep together in coveys, like the
[lartridge and other Ttlraxmida, till tiie poiriug-time.
OtopkUiu
If the wattles of the last-named apeciea recall to the observer the
highly devel. '
txt present '
GalUna.
O. NicDbarieuM, It is the Coluatta Nieoiariea of Latham, the
0. OaUut of Wagler. Length hardly IS inches ; iaH slender, about 1 \
inch long, tip but little bent downwards; the t^ pure white, the
quills deep blackish-blue, with varying ttnin of green ; ^ the rest of
Uie plumage rich metallic green, shooting, according to the light,
into the variegated tints of gnlden^freeQi bronze, bright ooppcr-
oolour, and deep purplish-red; neck-feathera long, narrow, and
pointed, like those of the domestic cock ; barbulea towards the tip
alky and distinct; bail ahorti pendent, nearly square; wings, whoi
oloaed, reaching nearly to the termination of tail; legs strong,
moderetely lone, black, covered with hexagonal scales ; nails yellow,
gently curved, blunt- Cpon the base of tiie upper mandible of the
male a round fleshy tubercle (probably apparent in the breeding
season only). The female resemuea the male in colour, but bar neck-
feathers are not so long, and she has no tubercle.
It inhabits the isles of Nicobar, Java, Sumatra, snd nisnjr of the
Uoluocaa, Authors differ about its habits, some asserting that ila
nest ia }daced on the ground, and that the female lays sBveral eggs,
the yoong running aa soon as hatched ; but Mr. Bennett, who saw
them in Mr. Beale'a aviaiy at Uacao, aays that they w«re usually
sera perdied apon the trees, even upon the loftiest branches, and
adds, that they build their rode nests and rear their young npm
tress, similar to all tiie pigeon tribe.
Lofhynu (Tieillot). — Bill moderate, rather slender, and slightly
gibbons towards the tip ; npper mandible cduumelad (sUloimfe) 'Ml
COLTTUBIKB.
tbs lidn, t""!'"*-* toirarda the point; noatrili Mtu»)*il
winsi roundad. (VieiUot.)
L. evrtmaiiu. It b tiis Columba atnmata of ImAata ; PAonamu
cH^oJw Indian, BiiMaD ; CMwkM foeco, La Vaill. ; Colomba Oalline
Ogim, Tamm. ; QrtaX CmwDed Pigeon, Edv. A apec'
in nza all tha other Cobimbida. Total length from 27
bill two iochea long, blank, tip* of maodiblea thickened
upper one lomswhat deflectA) ; bead with a Urge elera
Itf eompreawd ereat of narroir itrai^t feathen, with dsoompoaad
or rather diaunitad nlky barbulea, always erect ; treat and bodj below
grayish-bliu ; feathen of back, acapulaia, and ainallsr wing-coveita,
black at the baae, rich piirpLe-brown at the tip* ; greater coverta
■una colour, but ceotrall; barred with white, forming a aingle trane-
Verae bond acroee the ninga when cloaed ; quilla and tail deep gray,
the latter terminated with grapah-blue ; legi gn; ; tani 31 inehea id
Imgih, covered witti rounded acalea not clotel; aet, with a white
border of akin round each ; toea itrong and lomewhat ahort, acalei
pUced H in the Q^tminn^
""''**Wi^_^
Gm( Crownad Tlgnn ( CopAynu esrsmUu).
Thia bird Ii found in many of the iilanda of the great Indian group.
Not nr« in Java and Banda, abundant in New Quioea and in ntost of
the Holuocaa. Meat built in treoa; eggs two; cooing of the male
hoane, aooompanied b; a noiae BDmewhat like that of a turkey-cock
whan atrulling. Food— berrien, teed, grain, Ac Flavour of the flesh
•aid to be excellent.
"In thia magnificent and beautiful bird," aayi Mr. Selby, "we
obMTTe a combinatjoa of form different from that of the ground-
pigeoDH lo lately described ; for, instead of the marked affinity to the
typioal raaorial famUiea, the Pavonidre and Tttriumida, lo decidedly
exhibited by these ipeoiea, both in their mode of life and in their
divlation from the uaual Columbine figure, we haie, in the present
Inatanoe, an approximation of structure much nearer that of oome of
^he Oracidtr, another tribe of birda which oonstitutea an aberrant
bunlly of the Raaorial Order; and it ia on thia aooount we think that
tbia bird cannot well be placed in the aame diviaion with the ground-
dovea, but miut constitute the type of a eeparate group."
FoaH CiJtmbida.—J>T. BuoMand enumerates the bonea of the
pigeon among the remaina In the on at Kirkdals, and figures a bone
which he aan uproaches oIom^ to the Spaiush runt ; but Profeaaor
Owen, in hia ' ^itUh Foa^ MaTnmali and Birds,* is silent on Uiis
COLiniBINE. [Aoduou.]
OOLtlHBITE, a Kinetal into the ootupotitian of wUeh Iha metal
Columblum etitanL Columblum on its fliM diMoverr was alao called
by ohemlila Tantalum, and tbli BuiMnl has idao been ealled
Colutnhita oooon in notugular prisms, mom or leM modified, also
COLTTUELttACB^ «
ii'C. It Li of an iruu-blouk or bi-owiuihliLkck colour, often with
a choncteristic irideaoence on a surface of firoetute ; the streak dark
hrowtt, slightly leddiah ; \aiAn snbmetallie, «*'i"'"g ; opaque i brittle.
The hardnaaa is S to 8 ; the specific grmnty S-8 to 6L
According to Dana the eompodtioD of an American specimen was
Colnmhie with Ifiobic Acid SO'l
Protoxide of Iron ISit
Protoxide of Hanganeae 6*0
Oxide of Tin -1
Oxides of Copper and Lead -l
BaTaiion specimens contain Pelopic acid, wliich, oecordiog to Boa(^
accounts for their high specific grarity, which rougea bom G'TtoS'l.
This mineral is infusible alone before ttie blowpipe, but on miitore
with borax in Gne powder it fuses slowly but perfectly, forming ■ dark
green glass, which indicates the presence of iron.
Columlnte is found in granite at Bodenmais in Bavaria, also in
shemia. It ooonn in the United States in faldspathia or albitjo
nx^ at Hiddletown and Haddam, Conneeticnt, at Chesterfield and
Bevsrl<7, Hasaachnsetts, and at Aicworth, New Hampshire; Faro-
tantalitt ia a Colnmhate of Iron.
(Dana, ilmeralogji.)
COLUHE'LLA, the oeutnd part or axis in the theoa of a noes,
around which the sporea are arranged, without having any de6nile
oonneolioa with it. Also Uie axis irf any kind of fruit when separate
' the carpels : in the latter esse it is a hardened state of the
growing poinL
COLUHELLIACE^, a natural otder of EiOMnoDs Planta with
epipetalooa stamena^ nnnona antiiat* busting longitodioaUy, and
unsymmetrical flowera. They are evergreen shmba or trees. The
leaVflfl opposite, wiUiout stipule^ entire or serrated; the flowers
yellow and teiminoi; calyx supsriar, S-parted; corolla rotate, S-8-
parted, with an imlnicated Ecstivation ; stameni S, inserted in the
throat, alternate with the aegmenta of the corolla ; anthers roundish,
3-lobed, bursting externally, eoob comnstdng of tliree pairs of narrow
somewhat ainiiaos cells, which open loogitudiiully, and which are
placed upon a solid fleshy connective. The affinities of thia order
are very doubtfuL Professor Don, who first noticed the order, plocsa
it near the Jasmines. It differs however materially from them, and
may almost t>e described as a form of monopetalous O^agraeae. Dr.
Ltndley, in thia uncertainty, leaves it by the sids of Btrbtraeta and
Cindtonaeia ; to either cS which, and especially to the latter, it may
COLDMNARIA.
I for PlocU belonging to the
u Pluta, .
TOigs;
COLimSI'PERM,
nitunl order Matvaeea. [Halvaora.]
nhich explode vhsD auddenlj compressed, and which look like Tegs'
table bludden, whence the conunon Eaglish name of Bladdei^SeimA.
The species have jellow or yellow and red flowers of Boue beauty ;
and are kll found in the South of Europe, in Palestine, md in the
fiinulnft Hountaini.
COLT'MBIDiE, a fuoilj of Swimming Birds {NatMoret), having a
smootli, atnight, oompressed, and pointed bill.
WiUnghbj anigned the fsjnily ft place in his fllth section (' Whole-
Footed Birda, wiUi Shorter Lws '), under the nsJne of " Douckera or
Loons, called in Latine Cblysto^' and he divided them into " Cloren-
Footad Douckors that have no Tails," the Qreban, and the " Whole-
Footed Douckers with Tails," the true Divert. The following is
Wiliughby"! doecription ' of^DouokerH in general : '— " DouokecB have
ow, stntight, Bharp-poiiitad bills, small heads, lad also small
1^ ; tlunr legs situate backwards, near the tail, for quick awim-
g and easier diving ; broad 3at lees, by which nota they are di>-
tingiiiahed from all other kinds of birdu ; broad claws, like human
naus. Of Uiose Douckers there are two kinds ; the Smt is of such as
an cloran-foolad, hat fln-toed, having lateral membranes all along the
sides of ttidr toes, aid Uiat want the tail ; the.second is of those that
ace wbolO'footed and candat^ iriiich do nearly approach to those
Urds we call TridaOfjla, that want the back toe. These are not
without good reason called 'Douckers,' for that tbey dive mach, and
continua long nnder water, aa soon aa they are up dropping down
igain."
Bay, in his ' Synopsis,' amnges the Cloven-Footed and Whole-
Footed OUyitAi, Grebes, and Diven, mider hia 'Palmipedes Tstta-
doctyls di^to postioo solute, et prim6 roatro recto angusto acuto,
Bradiyptetm et Uriuatricea, Column dictn.' He also mdades the
genua Mergalia. [Ade.]
linnnus placed both the Divers, property eo Called, and the Qrebee
under hie genus Calymlnu, which stands in his ^atem nnder the
order Anteret, between the genera Phaiton (Tropio Birds), and ZanM
{OuIIb).
Pennant followed BrisBon in separating the Orebea ^m the Diven.
The fint he placed next to the Cool«, and immediately before the
Aicoets ; and the Divers between the Quillemots and the Oulls.
Under the term ' Plongeurs, ou Brachyptirea,' Cuvier arranges
thoae Paimiiptda, " a part of which have some relation to the Watei-
Hens. The legs placed more backward.thBu in any of the other birds,
reader walking a ditBcult operation, and oblige them, when on land,
to keep themselves in a vertical position. Aa the greater part of them
are, besidee, bad flyeni, inasmuch as some of them cannot fly at all
on account of the shortness of their wings, they may be regarded aa
almost eicluaively attached to the surface of the waters. Id aocord-
snce with this destination their plumage ia more close-set, and some-
times it evan ofibra a smooth sor&ce and ailveiy hue. The; awim
under the water, Uding themaelves with their wings, Dearly as if th<^
were fina. Their naaaid ia anffldently mnacular, their oeeoa arc
iiiademt<^ and dur have each a pecnliar muscle on each aide of didr
lower lannz." The following are the genera comprehended under
this buJlT by Cuvier : — the Grebes, Brieaon {Padietft, Latham ;
Colyntiui, BrisBon and Illiger) ; Oie Diven (Flongeons), properly no
called (Mergm, Brisson ; Colyv^m, Latham ; Eudyta, Uliger) ; the
Goillemota lUria, Briseoa and Illiger) ; the Auks (I^ngouins), Alea
of Linnmoa; the Penguiiu (Hani^ticts), Aplauidj/ta of Foister, con-
sisting of the Bub-genen ApUnodnttt, Cuvier ; Calatrhaeta, Brisson ;
and Sphenixiit, Briasou.
Temminck places the Qrebee {Podicrpt) next to the Phalaropti, at
the end of his fourteenth order, the Piimatipida, or Fin-Footed
Birds ; and the Diven {Oigmhu*, Latham) between Ills Pelicans and
the GuiUemotB in his fifteenth order, the Palmiptdtt.
VLt. Vigors mokes his fifth order of birds (Natatvrti) comprise the
foUowing fauiliea ; —
Anatida, Leach.
Oolymbida, Leach,
Pdtcanidai, Leach.
Larida, Leach.
Or, with reference to the ^pical nvupa —
Hormal Group.
.iAkadec
Aberrant Group. , Bj„.,—ij-
With longer and weU-feathered wings, and feet espe- 1 VoJ^
dally placed within the equipoiae of the body , •\Aiialida.
COLYllBID.^:.
'y of «"
sizth order of birds, Les PalnupMes {ffatalora of Illiger and Vieillot) ;
and the family oomprises the genera Podictpi, Latham ; Calymmu
(part), Linnaeus ; and Ctp\ut, Cuvier.
The Prince of Canino places Podicepi under his order Amera in
the fiunily Lobiptda, and Colpiilmt undn' the aame order in his family
Pygopoda.
In the ' Fauna Boreali-Americnna,' Podierpt is placed at the head
of the order Natatora, and is immediately succeeded by SterRU {the
Terns) ; the pontion of Cblymiiu is between Peleeamu and Uria,
which lust-mentioned genus concludes the order.
Podicepi. — Bill longer than the head, robust, elighUy compreased or
Hnd tod Foot at tb* male Earsd Grebe ; i
Hi. Qanld'i ' Biltiili Birds / the foot frsm ■
ZODloglol SiKinj.
The species of Podictpi are called Qrebea. They haunt the aea aa
well as the rivers, are excellent BvrimmerB, and dive frequently, as aU
who have watched the Dabchick or Little Grebe (Padictpt minor),
and have been amused by its quickly-repeated plungings, well know.
Tbey feed on small Sshes, frogs, crustaceans, and insects, and their
neete, farmed of a large quantity of gras, Ac, ore generally placed
amoDg reeds and coricee, and rise and foil with the water.
The geographical distribution of this genus is very wid& Fiva
European species are enumerated, and the foreign species ore very
numerous. The form seems oapable of adaptation to great varieties m
climate. In the ' Tables ' published in the ' Introduction to Fauna
Boreali-Amerioana,' we And P. comutut and P. CaroUnentii among
the birds which merely winter in Pennsylvania, and migrate in
summer to rear their young in the Fur Countriea ; and P. eriila-
ttu, P. ntbricoUii, and P. eoriHitiit in tiie list of speoies common to
the Old World and to the Fur Countries. Sabine gives a deeodption
of a mature individual of P. rufrricoUu killed at Great Slave lake,
and of a ^ecimen of P. Carolinentu killed at tiie same plaoe, both in
Sir John Franklin's first expedition and in May 1S22; and Sir John
Richardson notes P. erittaint as having been killed on the Saskatche-
wan, and P. cemtitM at Great Slave Lake ('Fauna Boreali-Amerioana').
P. CkUtmiM and P. Ameneannt are naUvea of the warm parts of
America ; the Snt, aa its name implies, having been found in the Btf
BB COLYHBID^.
of ConoepfioD, and the nooud on the Biwdliu wtUn (Bio Qiando
■nd S. Piuilo).
P. oecipit^ii (Laosou) maj be taken aa aa euunple. Thu Qrebe,
aooording to H. Leason, .a reaaAtiiXv for the d^mte tiiita of ita
eiuisge, which ia atate-gny (gria ftrdois^ sbare and of ii utiiiy white
low. The oheeka and foniieftd are of a light grmf ; a bundle of
loose plumflB (plumea efflldes) springB behind each eye, and is pro-
longsd backwBixla and on the sides of the neok. A calotte of deep
black rises from the occiput, and ia prolonged on the posterior part of
Hie neck half-wa; down it. The throat ia of > pearlsd-gray, which
becomes lighter, so that the &OQt of the neck and tlie sides are of ■
pure white, as well aa the reat of the lower part of the body. The
back and wings are of a deeper slate-colour, and this tint, mingled
however with white, prevaila on the feathers of the rump. The tarn,
toea, and the ooostderably large membranes whioh fringe them, are
greukiah. The bill is short and black. The iria ia of a moat lively
rad, BO brilliant aa to call forth from Vire Dom Pemetty, whose Petit
Plongeon b Lunettea it ia, the expression that " diamonds and rubies
have nothing to offer equal to the fire of the eyee of a spedas of
Flongeon whioh is frequently found on the edge of the sea." The
total length of this Qrebe is II inchea and 2 or 3 lines ; &ota the
forehead to the point of the bill, 8 lines; tarai, IT liuea; ezt«nialtoe,
2 inches.
The British species of thia genoe given by Tarrell in hia ' British
Birds,' are — P. crittatat, the Oreat-Created or Qreat-Tippet Orebe ;
P. rabricoHit, the Red-Ifooked Grebe ; P. aymntiiu, tha SolaTonian,
Dusky, or Homed Orebe ; P. auritat. the Eared Qrebe ; and P. minor,
the Little or Black-Chin Qrebe, Dabchick, and DidSpper.
CWyminK — It is the Mtrgvt of Briaaon ; Urinaior, Lac^lpide ; and
Sudgta, Illiger. Bill moderate, alfong, atraightj vary much pointed,
oompreaaedi nostrils concave, half closed. Wings abort; the first
quill the longest Tail short, rounded. Three front toes very long,
entirely palmated ; hind toe bordered with a small supple membrane.
The Diren bear a dose resemblance to the Qrebes, from which
tiley differ but little, excepting in their palmated feet On the water
they are at their ease : on land, thejr, as well as the Qrebea, ara awk-
Wanl and beset with difflcolties in their looamotion.
They priDOipslly inhabit tiie northern latitudes, where they nestle
in the wildest and moat desert spote. In the ' Tables ' in ' Faona
Boreali-Amaricana,' we find C. glaciaiit and C. ttptenirioniUit in ths
liat of species which merely winter in Pannsylvania and migrate in
Bummer to rear their young in the Fur Countriss, and C. teptaUriann-
lit in the list of bir^ (migratory) detected on the Korth Qeorgian
lalands and adjoining seas (lat. 73° to 76° north), on Sir Edward
Parry's first voyage. 0. glaciaUt and 0. ttptaUrionalit ocmir in
Sabine's list of Qreenland Birds ; and C. glaeiattiM, C. antieat, and
C teptaUTwnatit in Sir John Bichardaon'a list of species oommon to
the Old World and to tha Fur Countriea.
O. glacialit, the Qreat Northern Diver. Head, neok, and npper tul-
oovarta glossed wi(h deep purplish-green on a blaek ground. A short
' lebaion tha throaty a collar on the middle of tlie ueA, inter-
Grest Northsra Dlier {Myilmi glaelatiM).
mpted above and below, and the ahonldats white, broadly striped on
the shafts with blaek. Whole upper plumage, winga, sides of the
bi«aat, Qanki, and under tul-ooverb^ blodi ; all, except the quills and
COLYHBID^ M
tail, mariied with a pair of white spate near the tip of each feather :
the apota form rowi, and are large and quadrangular un the acapulars
and interscapulars, round and smaller elsewhere, smalleet on tke rump.
Under plums^ and inner wing^nverts white, the aiiUsiiee striped
down their middles with black. Iridea brown. Bill oompressed,
strong, tapering ; its rictus quite straight ; its contour very slightly
arched above ; Tower mandible channeled beneath, appearing deepest
in the middle ; ita gonys sloping npwarda to the point ; margina of
both mandiblee, but pu-ticularly of the lower one, infisct«d. Inner
wing-eoverta vary long. Tail, of twenty feathers, much rounded. Total
length Sflinchea; extentofwinglSincheB. Sir John Richardson, whose
deacriptioD this isi obserTea, that speoimena iu mature plumage vary
oonsidarablv in total length, upwards of an inch in length of wing,
and mora than half aa indk in the length of the tarsus.
The young of the year di^r considerably from the old birds. The
head of the young, the ocdput, and the whole posterior part of the
neok ara of an ashy-brown ; on the cheeks are small ashy and white
points ; throat, front of the neok, and other lower parts, pura white ;
feathers of the back, of the winga, of tha rump and flanks, of a Tory
deep brown in the middle, bordered and terminated by bluish-ash ;
upper mandible ashy-gray, lower mandible whitiah ; iris brown ; feet
externally deep brown ; internally, aa well as the membranes, whitish.
In this state Temminck says that the bird is the Ooii/minu Immer,
{Qinelin, ■ SjsL Lath. Ind.') ; Le Qrand Plongeon of Bnflbn (but the
plate eid. 914 repreeents a young individual of Oalymbut orcftnu) ;
Heigo Maggiora o Smergo ('Stor. dag. Uoo.'), with a good figure. Ue
thinks that the Imber Taucher of Beohsteiu (' Naturg. Deat^') is pro-
bably a young of this species on aooount of its large dimensions, and
remuka that under the name of C. Immer the young of this species
ara often oonfonnded with those of C. arclieiu.
At the age of a year, according to the same author, the indiridoala
of both aexei ahow a tranaverse biaokish-brown bsjid towards the
middle of the ned, about an inch in length, forming a kind of collar ;
the featben of the back become of a blackish tint, and the small white
blotchea begin to appear. In this stste it is the Qrsnd Plongeon of
Bresson (voL vi. p. 105, pL 10, f. 1), a very eiaot flgui«.
At tha age of two years the collar is more defined : this part, the
head, and the neck ara varied with brown and greenish-black feathers ;
the rmmeraua blotches on the back and wings beoome more prevalent,
and the band under the throat, and the nuchal collar also, are marked
with longitudinal brawn and white linea.
At the age of three years the plumage ia perfect.
Aeoordiog to Mdntagu, 0>lyajna glaeiaiit ia the Ooiyaiiu maximtu
eimdatM* of Bay ; Mtrgvi major n/tvva and MtrguM nmwu of Briason ;
L'Imbrim of Buffon ; Oreateet Speckled Diver or Loon of Willughby ;
and Northern Diver of Pennant (' Brit. ZooL') : and tha female ia
Oolymhut Inmer of Limueus ; Colspihui vmximut Qetneri of Ray;
SttTfftu mnjor of BrisBOD ; Le Qrand Plongeon of Bufion; Ember
Qooae of Sibbsld ; and Imber Diver of tha Britiah ZooIoct. It is the
Ofymbnt torgitatui of Bnumich ; Uie Schwanhalaiger See-Tauoher,
™- "■--icher, Orosse HaJb-Enta, and Meer-Ni '
of the Norwegians; Turlik of the Q
Ti of the Cree Indians ; Talkyeh of the i^mpewyans ; Kagiooiex
Esquimaux ; Inland Loon of the Hudson's Bay residents ; and
TrochyddHawr of the Welsh ; it is proviacially oslled by the British
Gunner and Greater Doucker.
Fish is the prindpal food of this apeciea, and the herring in par-
ticular ; the fry of fiah, crustaceana, and marine Tegetablea. It nestles
in small islands and on the banks of fresh waten, and tha female l^s
two eggs of so Isabella-white, maded with very large and witlt amsll
spots of a putplish-Bsb. Sir John Bichardaon gives the ft^owing
deeoripCion of ita maimen : — " Though this bandjKiioe bird i* gene-
rally described as an inhabitant of the ooeao, we seldom observed it
dther in the Arctic Sea or Hndson's Bay ; but it abounds in all the
interior lakes, where it destroys vsat quantities of fi"li It is rarely
seen on land, ita limbs being ill fitted for walking, though admirably
adapted to ita aquatic habits. It can swim vrith great en-iftnees, and
to a very oonaiderabla diatance under the water; and when it comes
lo the aurface, it seldom expoeea more than the neck. It takea wing
with difficulty, fliea heavily, though iwiftly, and frequently in a drcle
round thoac who intrude on its haunte. Ibi loud and very melaooholy
cry, tike the howling of tha wolf, and at times like the distant acream
of a man in distress, is said to portend rain. Its flesh is dark, tough,
and unpalatable. We caught several of these birds in the fiahing-
neta, in which they had entangled themselves in the ponnit of fish."
The Bpedes is sometimea taken even in tha south of England. Montagu
mentions one which waa kept in a pond for some months. In a few
daya it became extremely docile, would come to the call from one
aide of the pond to the other, and would take food from the hand.
The bird had reoeivad an injury in the head, whieh had deprived one
eye of ita sight, and the other was a little impaired ; but, notwith-
standing, it could, by incessantly diving, discover all the fish that
ware thrown into the pond Whan it could not get fiah it would eat
fleah ; and when it quitted the water, it shoved its body along upon
the ground like a seal, b^ jorka, rubbing the breast against the
ground ; end returned sgam to tha water in a similar manner. In
swimming and diving the legs only were used, and nut the winge, and
by their situation so far behind, and their lit) lo deviation Ir^ the
V7
COLYMBUS.
COMA.TULA.
P4
tine of the body, it is enabled to propel itaelf in the water with great
velocity in a straight line, as well as turn with astoaishing quickuessL
In the winter of 1813-14, according to Mr. Graves, during the intense
frost, two fine individuals were taken alive in the Thames below
Woolwich, and were kept in confinement for some months. They
eagerly devoured most kinds of fish or ofiaL At the approach of
ipriog they began to show great uneasiness in their coE^nement,
though they hiiwd the range of an extensive piece of water, from
whence they ultimately escaped in the month of ApriL The distance
of the river from the pond in which they were confined was several
hundred yards, but they made their escape ; and two birds resembling
them in colour were seen on the river in that neighbourhood for
aeveral days after they were missed; and though repeatedly shot at,
they escaped by diving.
They are found in the azotic seas of the New and Old World ; very
abundant in the Hebrides, Norway, Sweden, and Russia ; accidental
vifliterB along the coasts of the ocean. The young in winter are very
rare on the lakes of the interior, in Germany, Fhmoe, and Switzer*
land; the old birds are never seen there. (Temminok.) It is a
rather rare visitant to these islands, especially to the southward.
C. areticut, the Black-Throated Diver, the Lesser Imber, Plongeon
k Qotge Noire of the FVenoh. In habits and appearance this bird is
like the last. It is more rare in this country.
C. aeptentrunuUu, the Red-Throated, or Speckled Diver, is the most
common species in Great Britain.
Lesson arranges the genus Cephut, Moehring, Cuvier (Colymhut,
Linn. ; Uria, Temm. ; Merffulus, Ray, Vieillot), uuder the Colymhidcs,
obstsrving that it forms the passage fh>m the Divers to the Auks.
[Auk.]
COLYMBUS. [C0LT1IBID.B.]
COLZA. [Bbassica.]
CO'MARUM, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
BoBoctoB, It has a concave 8-10-parted calyx in two rows, the five
exterior sepals being smallest ; 4-5 petals ; the receptacle ultimately
large, fleshy, spongy, and persistent ; the style lateral near the summit
of the nu^ the seed ascending. There is but one species of this
genus, CpaUutrt^ Marsh Cinquefoil. It has an ascending stem, is
about one foot high, has pinnate leaves, dark purple flowers, and
numerous carpels seated on the dry spongy receptacle. This plant is
a hative of Great Britain. It is found in marshes and peaty bogs.
In Scotland the fruit is called Cow-Berries. The roots dye wool of
a dirty red colour, and possess a sufficient amount of tannin to render
them available for makmg leather. In gardens it will grow in any
moist soil, and may be increased by dividing at the root.
COMATULA, Lamarck {AUeto, Leach), a genus of Radiated
Animals. Linneos appears to have confounded the form with the
other Star-Fishes ; for it is only noticed by him as a species of his
genus Aslericu, Neither Gmelin nor Pennant disturbed thui arrange-
ment M. de IV^minville (' Nouv. BuU. des Sciences') seems to be
the first who formed a genus for it^ under the name of AfUedon. Leach
characterised it genericaUy under the name of Alecto. Lamarck
makes it the first genus of his first family (Les Stell^rides) of his
order of Echinodermatous Radiariaf placing it immediately before
EuryaU, Cuvier arranges the genus under his Eichinodermes P^-
cellds ; observing, that it is near to the division of the Ewryaln and
CamatuUB that the EncrvnUet ought to have their position. Miller is
of opinion that Cvmatviia presents a conformity of structure with
that of the Pentacrinite almost perfect in every essential part, except-
mg that the column is either wanting or reduced to a single plate ;
and M. de Blainville makes it come under his first section (Free
Asterencrinideans) of his third feunily (Asterencrinideans) of his
third order (Stelleredians^ of his first class (Cirrhodeimarians) of his
first type (Actinozoarians) of Zoophvtes.
The genus is thus characterised by M. de Blainville : — Body orbi-
cular, depressed; membranous ; protected above by an aasembkge of
calcare6us pieces, of which one is medio-dorsal, with one or two rows
of acoessorr articulated simple rays, and provided on its drcum-
fersnce witn five great rays, deeply bifid and pinnated, commencing
with three basilary pieces. Mouth rather anterior, isolated, mem-
branous, at the bottom of a star formed by five bifurcated channels.
A large peeudo-anal orifice at the fringed extremity of a visceral sac
The following details of structure are given by the same author.
The body of CcmtUula is almost entirely membranous below ; above,
on the contrary, it is protected by a sort of cupule, which is thick,
and composed of calcareous pieces, articulated and held together by
a very delicate and hardly distinct skin. This cupule is formed by a
centro-doFud part, in which two pieces placed one over the other
enter. It is round the first that the auxiliary rays are articulated,
and to the second the great rays are joined by means of their basilary
part.
The auxiliary rays, whatever may be their number, for they may
form one or two rows, are always simple ; that is, they are composed
of simple articulations joined end to end, of which the last is attenu-
ated and curved into a hook. {Pig. 5.) They are never pinnated, and
it would appear that they are not provided with any sucxers.
The g^reat rays enter by their base into the composition of the
cupule or cell in whidi the visceral mass is contained. Each of them
IS formed by a simple basilary part^ and another much more extended,
vijo. Bin, PIT. YOU n.
divided, and pinnated. The basilary part is composed of three joints,
a first articulated with the centro-dorsal piece, a second intermediate,
and a third terminal, with which the two principal divisions of the
rays are joined, and which on that account is shaped into an angle at
its summit. The joints of this basilary part not only articulate with
each other, but laterally they touch the corresponding parts of the
two neighbouring rays. By such a disposition, becoming more and
more complex, it is that the heads of EnerinUet and the genera allied
to them are formed. With regard to the pinnated or complex part of
the ray, it is at first constantly double, that is, formed of two digita-
tions, which are thems^ves often subdivided in a variable manner ;
so that sometimes the ChmiUvia bears a resemblance to a great figure
of a sun : each subdivision is composed of joints in general but Uttle
elongated, which augment but little in number in a given space in
proportion as they approach towards the extremity. Their most
remarkable points are, that they alternately differ a little in length,
and that the longfest carry, right and lefl> on their internal surface
compressed triangular pinnules nearly cirrhous at their extremity,
and also composed of a great number of short articulations. The
result is, that when the animal is dead the digitation resembles the
leaves of the Mimo$a, because the pinnules in repose cling one to
another like the folioles of sensitive plants throughout the length of
the rachis when they are dosed. But the principal character which
disting^hes the great rays from the accessory ones is, that through
the whole length of the axis and pinnules the buccal or labial channel,
fleshy and provided with sucking cirrhi serving the animal to seize its
prey, is continued. In following out these channelings (espies de
sillons), the number of which is in proportion to that of the digita-
tions of the ray, we arrive, by means of a channel from each, and
occupying its base, at the centre of a sort of star with thick fringed
borders, and finally at the mouth, which is at the bottom. The star
formed by the junction of the channelB of the rays is not symmetri-
cal, that is, its branches are veiy unequal ; some, which we shall call
the anterior ones, being shorter than the others, or posterior ones.
The result is, that the mouth is not at the centre of the star, but
much nearer one side than the other ; it is difficult to be seen, which
is not the case with another orifice which we shall presently discuss,
and which M. Lamarck seems to have taken for it. The mouth is
deeply buried in the star of the channelings, is round, unarmed, and
leads immediately into the stomach. What is remarkable in this last
is, that its parietes are thick, and especially that it is not simpla It
is in fact ftul of laoims, or rather it forms a sort of caveinous tissue,
enveloped on all sides by a yellow g^ranulated matter of some volume,
which must be the liver. The result of this disposition of stomach
and liver is a considerable visceral mass, which occupies the excavated
|)art of the calcareous cupule, and which is attenuated by degrees as
it retires backwards, where it terminates in a soft and obtuse point.
All this mass projects in the interior of a large cavity, of which it
remains to speak. This cavity, entirely membranous — at least below,
for above and on the sides it is doubled by the solid parte — surrounds
the visceral mass, and detaches it from all the rest of the animal,
except towards the mouth, where it is continued. The internal orifice
M. de Blainville was unable to discover. It is perfectly smooth, but it
is prolonged externally into a sort of bladder (vessie), the base of
which is behind, and whose truncated summit is forward. This free
summit passes even a little beyond the mouth as it advances below it.
It is pierced by a large gaping orifice, provided with a circular row of
tentaculiform papille.
In the ' Descriptive Catalogue of the Museum of the College of
Surgeons' (Physiological Series, vol. i), there is a notice regarding
Alecto glaeialit (No. 485, ▲), wbdch imports that the alimentary caniu
is continued in a spiral direction from the sub-central opening at the
convergence of the radiated canals to the opening at the extremity of
the fieuiy tube which projects forwards by the side of the mouth,
forming a second distinct orifice or anus. Professor Owen at first
follow^ Lamar^ in considering this tubular orifice as the mouth ;
but after dissecting a specimen carefully, and considering the analogy
of Alecto with the other Aeterite, he regarded it as the superadded
orifice, and the sessile orifioe at the convei^gence of the canals or
channels as the normal orifice, and consequently the mouth. He is of
opinion that this tubular orifice cannot be the opening of the oviducts,
because the ovaries are situated in membranous expansions on the
inside of the pinnules of the rays, as has been described in another
part of the ' Physiological Catalogue.' That the tubular cavity should
be a locomotive orgiui he oonsiders most improbable, to use no
stronger term ; indeed the animal is so well provided with moveable
rays, that such an adaptation would be superfluous. Whether or not
some respiratory actions are effected by the fleshy tube and receptacle
is another question, requiring observation on the ouxrents, &c, while
the animal is living, for its solution.
P^ron states that these Badi€Uii suspend themselves by the small
arms from fud and polyparies, and in that position watch for their
prey, which they entotp in iheir spreading arms.
uonuUiUa roeacea. Link, Rosy Feather-Star. The whole animal is of
a deep rose-colour dotted by brown ovaries and fringed by transparent
cirrhi Professor £. Forbes, in his ' History of British Star-Fishes,' says :
— " The histoiy of this creature is one of the little romances in winch
natund liutoi^ abounds, one of those nazxations which while beUeriiitg
M COHATULA.
we ■ImtHit doubt, aod 7«t while doubting wa muat beliara, it bcuig tha
only Criaotd ammil at preHiit mbaUtlug our saa*, at one tjma lo full
of thoea beautiful and wonderful creiturea, pnaeotiBg; pointa of groat
intsreat noC to the aoologiat oul; but also to the geoTi^UL" In the
Tear 1823 Mr. J. V. Thompaon discovered in the Ba; of Cork a nin giiUr
Lttle pedunculated animal, which he colled Pentacrimu EitFopmu,
and which proved to be the young of the ConuUtUa, and gave riae tu
muoh interest and diaouiiaion both at home and abroad, for it waa the
first animal of tha Enorinita kind which had been aeen in the aeaa of
Europe, and the firat recent JSncrmttt that had ever been eiamined
by a competent obaarver in a living state. In 1836 Ur. Thompiim
publiahed a memoir in tha ' Edinburgb Now Fhiloaophical Journal,'
maintaining tha propoaition that bia PeUaeriimi Eun/paut waa only
the younj of ConaMa ; that the Feather^tar commaDced life aa an
Bnermile, and thua ai it were changed its nature &om a Hendo-polfpe
to a itar-fiah. He then compares the youngest Oanatwa he had met
with, with ths oldest Ptnlatrvuu, and ibowa the gradual
I, (hmahJa AitBna, tbraa-tOnrUia ot tb« n
ride of tbe tune ; 1, part ot Um Dnder tide of a .
A, oDa of the dotui nyi ma^Ulcd, ihowlnff the book or uohor.
De BtalnTille.
of form doling tha darelopment of the lattar towarda Uie adult atata
of the fonner. Since that time other naturaUata have taatil!ed to
this obaarration of Hr. J. T. Thompson ; it is confirnied by Profeasor
£. Forbaa, Dr. Ball of Dublin, and tha Ut« Mr. W. Thompaon of
Belfast.
G Adtom of Lamarok ha* the foUowiog cbaractara . — 10 pinnatad.
COHEPHOBUS. loa
slender, penniform raya ; pionulea laooeolate, oomplicatedly eaoaliou-
lata below ; 20 dorsal cirrbi.
It inhabita the seas of Aiutnlia, when Pdron and Lttuaor found
it hooked OD to an Adtona. Itia amall, dulicale, with 10 very alendar
feathery rays, and only S inchea in diameter. The pinnulaa are
lanoeolated, and folded m two, aa it
e, below, longit
le pinnu.
"7-..
The apeciea of ComiluZa are widely spread. The Rosy father-
' ' .... Q^(^ Coast. Two apedea are
works on aoolo^, 0. maaa and C. barba!a.
id on many pariA of tht
Dren aa British in most works on i .
Thay are evidently the same animal of difTetent ages
atatee of prcservabon : thc^ are both identical wiui the C. Mediler-
preaerred in spirits with its expanded fins fiom what it appears when
dried. In the Museum of the Coll^ of Sui^eona there an two
spBciniena {rota the Society lalea, one brought up from a depth of
22fl fathoma, in 80° 20' N. lat, 12° 30' K lon^ (H.ILS. Dorothea,
Captain Buchan, B.N.); and the same apeciea (Aueioglatialit) troot
250 fathoma, 80° 26' N. lal, 11° S2' E. long. <H.1LS. Trant, lien-
tenant FranUin, RN.).
Dr. Laaeh recoida
and De
Tha apaciea probably are tcJerably ni
Urae apedet, two in iba British Huae
~ iville nine. Hany of the qi«ciea a
[EOHOK
FattU CoimUiiUe.
I four apeciea ii«m Solenhofen (Oolitic group),
of the Britiah atiato.
Oaldfiw
There are none in any
COMBRETA'CK*,
ith 1-eelled inferior
ao, and pendnlona, the stamens definite in number, and tha oo^ledona
convolute. It caimot be doubted that thia order haa a near rolatioa
to Mfriactit and eapadally to Paniea. Dr. Lindl^ conmders it to be
in olooer alliance with Lauraeta and Cbnponto.
4
eiPilUli ^itanuD', n^lrult; /, borluntal le
The apeciea known as Hyrobalans are tropical ohruba or trees, with
alternate or oppomte laavee destitute of stipules, and long Blender
stamens. The order doea not contun any plants of much importance
for their useful propertieo. Some of them are astringent and used
for tanning, and the kernels of othen are eatable; they are chiefly
valued for their brightly oolourad ihowy flaWBi% eopacially in the
genua Conbrttnak
COHEPBORUS, a genua of Ilahea belonging to the family of
Qobiea. There is only one apaciea, which ii found in tha freah-watar
lake of BailcaL It is not taken by Qis flohennen, but ia found dead
on the shores after tlie Mvere stoima to which Uiat lake ia freqaently
m COUFAET.
exposed. The 6stL ia aboat a fout in lengtli, and of a Kift greaa;
toxtiir& It ia oaUsated uid proBsed for oil, but ia not Mton,
COMFREY. [BthfhtthilI
COHUELTKX. [ConuLTNAiTUL]
COUHELTNA'CE^, a ver; rdoII order of Trip«taloid«ouB
Eodogena, uoiuiBting of Planta with aheaUiing lurga, white or mo«t
frequenUf btoe flowers inclosed in ■ green sputhe, and a nngle
B-oaUed oykj terminated by a nngle style. They are moreover
remu-kftblfl for their pulley-sbaped (or trochlear) embryo Ijiug in a
porticoiar eaiity of the albumen. Ifoae of the apeoiea are European,
nor of any known lue. Many of them ue common Indian weeds ;
others are handaome Amorican herbeoflona plan^ The conAnon
Spiderworts are a good type of the oider. Thn an in many reapecta
sUied to the Lillea. Blown •ompana them with Ruahea. They may
alao be compared with Aliamads. Lindley placea them between
LiUaeta and BrmuiUatta. Then are 16 genera of Uiia order and
■bout 260 apeoiaa.
a, Caljx. itimau, uil rlilU ; i, •tuDsn tiUEiilAed ; a, Jointed hair fimi (be
Olaaanla of tlie«tuiitD; d, plitll; /, fniiti g, hortiontil Kotlim of Ibe Kcd-
Tfaaal; k, i, atetloni oCuMdi t, embtra; f, ued g«RBli»t[tir.
COUHA, a genoa of Plants belonging to the natural order
BifiKiAiaeta. It has dicedous floweia. Tha ataminiferous flowers
are formed of braota united into an amentom; the atamena are
nnmenma and united into a BJngle cnlumo. The piatiliferoua flowera
are noemcae, the oalyi ia S-parted, the styles S, the capanle 3-tobed.
O. ddUHolHMiutf is a small tree witti a leainoos jnios. It has
•Hemate aotiie amooth learea. The mala flowen are amentaoeos^
the "— Wnif conriating of imbiicatad 1-flowered acalc^ axillary and
duat ; the (tanale flowers raosmcaa, terminal, and amalL Uiia tzea
ylalds a gnm which poaaaaaes emetia and purgative prOMCtiea. It ia
reooomiended in oaaea of dropay, but hu not been Introdnced into
EoTOpaan pnottoa. It la a natiTe of Cochin China.
OOMMUIQTONITB, a Mineral belonging to tlie Plicate of Iron
HCioL It la a eompomid of ailiea, iron, nunganeee, and soda.
OOMOCLADIA (&om «V<k hair, and kA^i, a branch), a genoa
of Flanla belonging to the natural order Atiaeardiatta. It has
hnm^ihzodito or monceoious flowera ; a 3-4-parted permanent oalyl,
S-1 long petala ; &-1 abort atamena ; a single oTary with no style, and
■ ain^atlgmai an orate l-oelIed,I-eeededdrupe; tha seed somewhat
pendnlooa from a ourred funioalua originating at the base of the
d dmtata, Tooth-Leared Huden-Plum, has pinnated shining leaTea,
gnsn abiire, with a roimd raehia 6 inches long, S-10 teafleta on aaoh
lid<^ with an odd one oblong, acuminate, spiny-toothad, vein, and
■omewhat downy at the baak. This plant is a tree reading a hai^t
efabootSOfaat. Itlaanativaorthairoodaof Cnb«aad8tI)omingo,
COKPOSIT^ 101
where it ia called Ouao. It has an erect not much branched steuk
A milky juice eiudea from it, which ia glutinous, and beoomea black
by expoaure to the air. It ataina linen and Uie akin blick, which
cannot be waahed out of the former, and only comes off from the
latter by the exfoliation of the cuticle. It is belieTed by the natives
of Cuba that it is death for persons to sleep under tliia tree, especially
if they are fat or of a full halut of body. It ia, undoubtedly, a
poisonous tree, although nothing ia recorded of ita mode of action on
C. inlegrifolia hsa stalked leaflets, lanceolate, quite entire, smooth.
It ia a tree 20 feet high, with sinall scentleaa deep red flowora.
The berries are black and suoouleot, and may be fsaten with impunity,
but ore not pleasant to the taste. The wood is hard, of a fine grain,
and reddish colour. The tree gives out a natery Juice, which ii
alightW glutinous, and grows black on exposure to the air. Like the
juioe from tha last, it stuns linen and the skin indelibly. It ia a
native of Jamaica.
(Don, DieAloMwUotu Plmtt; Lindl^, Flora Mtdica.)
OOHPCSIT.^ the laneat known natural order of Plaota. It
oonsiats of Honopetaloua Exogena mtii syugsnepious stamens, and an
erect solitary ovule in a simple 1-oelled inferior ovary, the style of
whiob ia divided into two arms ; the flowera are alwaya arranged in
dense heada, or capitula, and are aunounded by one or more external
rows of btaota forming sn involuore. Profeaaor Lindley regards it aa
an alliance of aeverol natural orders. It consiata of herba, abruba, or
treaa, found in all parte of the world, but aaauming an arborescent
oharaoter only in warm latitudes : the; occur in every conceivable
varie^ of situation, are often exceedingly similar to eaoh other in
, and have always been, from the birth of botany aa a
adance, the puaala and reproach of syatematista. Every
■uimsuuig writer, with a few exoeptiona, rendered the subject more
complicated and difficult, till Caasini, a Frenchman, of good powers of
observation, much patience in investigation, and a clear bead, wiUi
the command of the rich materials included in the Paris herbaria,
sat ataadily about a re-fonnation and re.«iBminBtion of the whole
order. In 1SS3 Laadng gave tha woild a aynopsis of the genera of
Aatpalita^ in which for the fint time aolear, oompendioua, intelligiblo
view of the order was ayatematicaUy taken. Subeequently De Can-
dolle, the oelebrated botanist of Geneva, achieved the difficult task of
syst^natining tha Cbmpottto in an nnezoeptionabls manner in his
great worit, ' Prodromua Systamatis Naturalis Regni Vwatabilis.'
The old and generally adopted plan of breakiog up Chmfotita into
primaiy divisions ia that of Jussieu, which may be eiplained thus ; —
Every head of flowera, or florets, aa they are technically named, has a
oentnJ part, or diao, and a dronmference, or lay : of th»e floreta
some are n^ularly tubular, with their limb out into four or Gve m-
menta ; others are alit up on one aide, opened Sat, and turned toward
the drcumferenoe of the head ; the Litter are named ligulate floret*.
When In a head of flowera oU the floreta ore alike and ligulate, it
belonged to the division CiiJuraeea (Jtg. a), aa in the dandrliou ; if
thefloretaof thadisavraratubnlar, and thoat of tha orcurafereuce only
ligulate, it was referrible to Cormibiftra (Jig. t), as in the marigold ;
and when all the floreta are alike tubular, both In the disc and ny
-), It behmged to Oftua-ot^u^ provided the faivolucre waa at
una time sfiff and ovate, as in the thistla. The latter ohaiaoter
.euesBBi'i in order to distinguish C^rnorocepiala from tJioae Curyat-
Tnftra in iridch tha ray ia not developed, as common graundsal. To
(heae three diviaiotis a tburtli baa in later times bean added nndar the
ime of Latii^ifOTa, in oonaeqnenoe of the floreta having diatlnetly
ro lipa of unequal siae. {Figt. d and t.)
These divisions have however been thought obleotionable on aereial
account^ and De Candoll^ following Cassuil and LesainB, has tnialed
more to modifications of the style ; the result of which b the folloi^
g arrangement i£ the order in eight tribee : —
■ T^Hndifiora; namely, with the hermaphrodite florets regularly
tabular, and C-toothed, seldom 4'toothed.
Tribe 1, Ytnumiaeta. Style of the hermaphrodite flowers cylin-
drical, its arms usually lengthened and subulate, rarely ehort and
obtuse, always equally hispid la about all the length. The true stigma
ending short of the middle of the arms of the style. A part of the
~~~'Issa Oorgwiiifera. {Pig. 1.)
Priba S, Enpiloriaeea. Style of the hermaphrodite flowen cylin-
drical, with long somewhat club-shaped arms, which on covered
externally near the end with papillose down. The true stigma but
little prominent, and usually ending short of the middle of the arms
of the style. A port of the rayleas Corymb^era. (Fig. 2.)
Tribe 8, AiltriidtiE. Style of the hermaphrodite flowera cylindrioal,
with linear arms, rather flat externally, and towards Ilia end equidly
and finely downy. The true stigma produced about as for aa the
iiiirin of the external down. A part of Corj/mbifera. (Pig. 3.)
Tribe *, SenttvmiiUa. Style of the hermaphrodite flowers cjlin-
drioal, wit^ linear arms having a pencil of hairs at the point ; either
truncated, or produced beyond the pennl into a abort cone, or a long
narrow hiapia appendage. The true stigma broad and prominoit aa
br «a the penciL A [«rt of Qoryv^iftra. (Fig. 4.)
Tribe 5. Opuma. Style of the hermaphrodite floweia thickened
and knobby towwda Uie npper end, and often pencilled at the knob^
CONCBACEA.
UH
aenfiamt. A)l Uie CfnaroapMaiiE. {Pig. S.)
* ■ IiMalifionx ; ntxaaij, with the hennapbrodito florati nnuUj 2-lipped.
on th* outaid^ uid >t the upper part oovared irilli
{Pig. 8.)
Tribe T, ^ouaunaaic. Style at the hermaphrodite Sowen nerer biabb? uid
thickened ; the unu linear, latier long, truncated, and pencilled at the point
onlj. (Pig. 1.)
■ * * lAgydifiora ; namely, with all the flowsn hermaphrodite and li^ate.
of the middle of the .
De Candolle egtimatea Conptaita at ODe-t«nth of the whole TegetAb'e kingdom.
They are in soma cuea ■oporiGo, aa Isttuoe and aucoory ; in otbera Uiej are
diuretic, aa variou* ooDysai ; aome are tonio and atomachic^ aa wormwood and
cbamomile. Common artichokes with tbeir auooulant recaptacl ei, and Jeruaalem
' utichakes with their auoculent tubera, are the only eaculents. Maoy are beautiful
objecta to look upon, and are amoagit our cboioeat garden flowen, aa dahliaa,
tnari^ilda, ooreopsia, aatan, Ac.
For furtber infonnBtion on thie order iM-^AcBILLla ; AirTBIUIS; ARtnoa:
Abtucsia; Astib; Baboehahiu; Bklubj BtDiHa; Calehdula; CKMTADitEa;
' CBBTUNTBnnrM; CtOHaaacBX; CiuHOBiOHi CiMaRAniA} CoriTZAj CoRTMBtrinxi
Crems; Ci.v.tn>i Qm.tik.otM; Dablu ; DiOTia ;
tle; Bbioeiiohj BurAlonloM ; Filioo; Hsum-
; HiEHAciuu; HTFocBcuia; Ihdla; LaorncA;
LarBANA ; Leontodon; Luiostbis ; Sohohuh ; Hdl-
aEDID>; PETABim; PlOHLS; PBINANTEBBi PtBITHBUII;
SEnxno; BouDAOO; OFOSintAj TaHAOETDM; ThbiucIa;
TRAOOI'OOOII ; TUBalLAOO.
COUPOUKD FLOWERS are the flower-heada oT
Comparita:; they are maaiea of nnall flowua coUedAl
upon a deprss»d azii, or receptacle, and aurrounded by
ao involucre of flon! leave* or braota.
COUPT'ONIA, a gennB of Flanta belongiiig to th>
latural order Mj/rieactiE, named after Hwiy ComptoD,
uahop of London, by whom tite fine collection of ptanta
attached to the epiaoopal palace at Fulham waa formed.
The male flowers have cylindrical looaelj imbrioatod
catkins, with dectduous l-flowei«d braeli; ! aepala;
' stamens, adhering in pain : the female flowen have
rate deuealy imbricated catkins, with 1-flowered braota ;
aepala, larger than the brada ; 2 eapillaiy abylea, aud
l-weded nnC. There is onlj one speeiea, the C. atpUiu-
fotia. Sweet FernT It ia a small bush fhim 3 to 1 feet in
height, yielding a powerful aromatic fragnnce when
rubbed between the fingers. It haa long lin^ pinnatLfid
leavea, brown and nther downy on the nndarnde, shining
on the upper. It ii a native of the wooda and mouuUJna
of the United Statea, whera it la a favourite domwUo
remedy for the cure of dianfaoea. It poaaeeaea tonic and
aatriogent propertisa. It ia a handaome ahrub, and will
thrive in a peat soil or sandy loam, and may be propa-
gated by layen or Backers. It was called Ltqttidamiar
ofpleni/olttm by Linnaua, but differa very muoh from
that genua in Ita cfaaraotata and propertiea. (Lindley,
Plora MedUa; London, Saq/dopaaia a/ PlanU.)
COHPTONITB, a Hineial, also called Thomnmilt.
Trimetric. In right teotangular prisma. TIsnally in
maaaea having a radiated atruotore within, and oonaiat-
ing of long flbrea or acicnlar eryatala. Also amorphoua.
Cleavage parallel to the diagonal planea of the primai;
form. Flaoture uneven, oonohoidaL Hardnea^ acratchea
fliior-apar. Colour anow-white; Inatre vitreoos, in-
clining to pearly ; tranaparsnt to traoaluoent. Specific
gravity, 2'S to 2-lT. Compositian :—
SiUca 38-S
Alumina . 307
Lime 135
Soda i-5
Watar 13.0
It intumesces aud Incomes opaque, but the eilgea merely
are rounded at a high heat. When pulverised it gelatiniaea
with nitric or muriatic adds. It is diatinniiahed from
NatnSilt and oilier Zealita by ita difficult fuaibility. It
occurs in Amygdaloid near Kilpatrick, Scotland ; in
lAvas at Veauvioi; in Clinkatone in Bohemia; also at
Peltar'a Point in Nova Scotia, in Trap.
COKCHA'CEA, a family of MMutea in IL De Blain-
ville's arrangement of the Animal Kingdom. The fol-
lowing is hu definition of the family : — " Mantle cloaed
before (en avant), above, and behind, where it is pro-
longed by two tubes more or less long, extensile, and
either aeparated or unlt«d ; abdomen constantly provided
with a foot of slightly variable form, aerving for loco-
motion. Shell nearly always regular, entirdy oloaed,
eqaivalve; nmbonta curved forward; hinge dorsal, com-
plete — tiiat is to say, with teeth and a lignment; ttua last
cither external or internal, ahoit, and awoUen (bomb^) ;
two distinct muacular impresmona united below by a
ligule more or less large, and very often inflected or
rutuming backwards {rentrie en arriere).
" All the animals of this &mily live plnnged more or
leaa deeply in the sand or in IJie mud, bnt Uhey are still
U. Rang thus modifiei De Bl»nville'a definitjon,
priDcipally for the introduction of Iridma (which aooord-
mg to the observations of II. Deehayea ooold no longer
be retained among the StAmylUacta) and Oratdn^ia, a
foBsil apeciaa
" Mantle closed, fiimished with a conaidenble antero-
inferior opening, for the passage of a foot, and pnaenting
two posterior tabee more or leaa elongated, eitenaila,
united or aeparated longitudinally, the lower one serving
for reopiration, and the upper one for dejectiona. Shell
equivalve, geaendly regular, rarely gaping; umbonea
more or leea curved forwards; hinge almoat always with
teeth ; ligament ahort and swollen, internal or external ;
murcular impreaaioDs vei; diatinct ; united by a pallial
impreaaion more or len excavated posteriorly.
" Animals marins^ rarely ftedi-water."
1>3
CONCHACEA.
CONCHACEA.
CuTiar, in hii li*t edition of tlis ' Rigne AnimJ,' at, Ibi
defiuition of the Cardiaeta, th« fourth funilj of bis
A eijAala, haa th* folloviDg liot« ■ — -" U. d* BUinviUs en fkit U
fuuiUe d<a Conchaeta." The following ii CuTler*! definition of bi»
Cudiiu^: — " HuUe open in troai (pur dennt), mnd moreorer with
two Mparate opening*, cme for reapintion and the other for the excra-
ments, which mre tirolanged into tubes eometiiDaa diitinot, lometitnes
onitfld iiit« ■ ungle mue. Then U idwafi a tiaDirene mtuole at
each eztnnu^, and a foot which moat fraquoitl; Mnrea for oraarang.
' It mtj be re^rded m t, Huffidentl^ gennal ride, that those irtiidi
have long tabea live plunged in the mnd or und. One may rvcogoiw
on the Bhell thii oondition of otguiiaatiou by the mora or lew
developed contour (contonr plus ou moina rentnnt), which the im-
preudon of tha BttochraeDt of the borders of the mantis deicribeB
bafare un iting with the impnadon of the posterior tnnsvene
These definltiona appear oontntdictoiy, bnt in reality they are
meant to conrey the same idaaa. Tha month is placed anteriorly, Uia
foot ia eiaertad <tiferii)rlj, and the tubes opeD poeteriorly. The fbl-
lowiug i* an anangemaot of the genera : —
Hinge lineu- and tootUess— freshwater. (Hang.)
Iridiita. — Animal elongated, sbaight, nther thick od the back,
thinner towards its inferior border; mantle daheate, terminated
anteriorly by a thick border, open bom the anterior musole to two-
thirda of the lower border for the paassge of the foot ; harden of
the mantle united throughout the whole posterior part, whenoe q>ring
two abort and unequal tubes, with no rebsctor muacle to the aiphoni ;
foot compressed and aharp-edged. Shell, with an epidermis, nacreous
or iridescent internally, tolerably thick, oral oblong, elongated, in-
auriculated, eqniv&lTe, inequilateral, the anterior end sluaW than
the posterior, a little gaping at either end ; umbonea small and pro-
jecting but little, alighUy inclined ; hinge veiy long, linear, attenuated
towBidi the middle, often crenulated, as it wers^ throughout its
length ; ligament Tery long, marginal, external ; muscular impreoiona
Tery distinck Example, I. txatita. Lam. ; 1. tlmgata. Sow.
TrUima aeliea, onbtUid of uturti ■!».
I«mank pros the riTera of wnnn climates aa the locslitj. The
specimens were supposed to oome from China. H. Caillaud found
them in considerable abundance in Uie Nile ; and from his speoinieni
preesrred in spirit U. Deahayes made his examination. Hr. O. R
Sowerby figures another spades (' ZooL Joum.,' roL i.), I. IfiMtea,
obtained from Sennaor bj X. CoiUaud, and sent to England by U.
D'Aadebord. It veiy much i Mumbles the species given here as on
eiunple, bat its hinge margin is not crcnulatfid or dentatod. H. Des-
hayea, in his lost edition of Lamarck, mokes It identical with
/. uotita. Lam. and Dash., Anodenta emiica, BLdav., and Le Hutel,
Begolar: Hinge-Teeth lateral and wide apart (marine).
Oardium [CiAnroHl. — Tha apeoiea are onmennu, and
a very la^e ai
of Lomanik, gives
} separate from the others, oomprehending the spedes with com-
preaaed Valves strongly oarinated in tha middle, observing that it is
difficult to suppose that tha animal is not modified in unison with
this ■ingulor {noformation. U. Rang oorroborates Cnvier's observo-
tioD, fmm the examination of many living individuals of Cardiuin
CariUfa, the type ; but U Deahayes oonaidars that theform can only
be admitted as a aaction.
De BloinviUs divides the genus into the follovring secUoaa
1. Species more or less gaping posteriorly, and wi<ti the ribs of the
shell as lai^ aa the channetings. Example, Cardium smMcMM. ,
2. Speoiea not gaping, and with the ribs as large as the ohannslings.
Example, 0. Inicrciilataic*.
3. Species not gaping, with the ribs loigar than Uie ohannaliugs.
Example, C tdnU.
i. Smooth or almost smooth species. Example, C. dongaiitM.
5. SpecisawhaBsanteriorddeis very shortandneariyflat. Example
C. ktmuartiiiim.
Sevetsl spades have bean added to this genus from the ooUeotion
of Hr. Cuming.
The spedes of Oardivm are found foaaiL
nalonl lllt. 1. Otriium [?Mi(Hr«H>)
Deahayes in his Tables gives fifty-three living spedes and thirty-nine
fossil (tertiary), and C. ringm, C. ciliare, (7. ccAtnaMtm, C. ntonttMH,
C. tduit, C lafterca/aMm, and 0. ptaimlaM, as both living and fossil
Bpedea (tertiary). Of the recent epedes M. Deshayes, in his edition
(^ lamarck, where they are given as forty-dght, considers C. IndicHm,
0, ringait, C. ecAtfuWmt (of which last be makes C. (uiermJottiM to be
only a variety), C. nileat»n, and C. ethile (common cockle) as identical
with fcasil apaoiei described by Brocchi and others under different
names. The fossil species he nukes amount to thirty. Of theae he
refera C. tckinatMm, to its living analogue, C. Burdigalimtm to the
recent C. Indiokm, C, rhmnbiida to the recent C. eduU, and Considers
C. dilsrumwn. Lam,, as identical with C. kiaiu, Brocchi. The fossils
ooeur in nearly all the fosailiferouB atrata from tha Supracretseeous
the Qrauwa^a group, and appesr to be most abundant in the dig.
inferior border for the passags of a compressed and very large foot :
Cipta BraxUittuU,
CONCHACEA.
,e diBtijict bi
umboDee ; a large Bi
le polllBl ii
The ipecieB are found in temperate and warm isoa. They bu]
themsalTea at a bihbII depth m the sand, where they ore said to 1
with the posterior part upward! to facilitate the inSux of the water
for respiration. The genus has beau foimd in sandy mud and soft
mod, at depths vaiying from five to twelve fathoms from the aurface
of the leo.
Hr. Q. B. Sowerb; has added a new species, C allior, brought he
by Mr. Cuming. {' ZooJ. Proc.')
Donax. — Animal rather compressed, more or less triangular, having
the mantle bordered with tentacular appendages ; kbial appendages
laigs ; mouth small ; branchiie ven unequal, on the »
le side ; foot
iDgmtO a duns of the mootle.
Shell more or leea triangular and oompressed, always longer than
it ts high, regular, equivalve, very inequilateral, posterior side shorter
tikan the antsrior ; umbones but little prominent, and nearly vertical ;
hinge composed of two cardinal teeth, sometinufl upon both valves,
Bometinies upon one only, and one or two lateral teeth more or less
distant ; ligament external, short and swollen ; muscular impreasions
rounded, nnit«d by a pallial impression, whioh is straight and very
much excavated posteriorly.
The species are widely extended. De Blainvilla says that they
occur in all parts of the world. They pltmge themselves in aond and
sandy mud, where the animal lies with the short side of the shell
uppermost, at a depth longing from the surface of the sea to ten
hdioms.
M. Deshayes in his Tables «
le living, and in his edition of Lamarck thirty of thsM^
BTH 2>. puAeicou, Limi., as havingbeen established on a yoong
of A swrtvm ; i>. trranosii, Lam., as ft rariet J of i). eiHiaafa ;
2>. (rifttcfra, as approaching
tbs (^thmirr than the AnuKet;
oelonging to the genus Capia, Lam., if Lamarck's
ligoroualy followed ; D. cardiliidtt (the onimoJ), as
o that of Cardiam vudium than those of the
Ihnaea ; and O. MerUe and D. leripta, as having more of the ohano-
tsrs of OyUunta than Donaea. Forbes and Hanley give ths fitllawiitg
Bpedes as British :^D. anaftnuL It has the inner margin crenulated,
and the hings with lateral teeth. It is the D. tnmctUiu of Linnaiuo.
It is veiy common on all our shoreo. D. potilut luui the inner margin
eotire; It is the D, eoB^lanaivt of Montagu, and is one of the most
beautiful of our native shells. It is never common, and is much prised
by ooUectoro. It is found on the south coasts of England, and at
Itoatry Bay in Ireland.
Lamarck divides the species Sato two Beetjans : fiist, those which
have the internal border of the valves entire or nearly bo ; seoond,
those that have the internal border distinctly crenulated or dentated.
De Blainville aeporatea them into Sve divieions, according to the
shape, sculpture, and markings of the shell His fifth divinon is the
genus Capia of Lamarck.
Mr. Q. B. Sowerby, in his ' Oeoera of Sbella,' says, " Of fossil species
there are very few : Brocchi mentions two, and we possess a Bmsll
one&om Bordeaux, but we believe they at« very scarce." De Bloin'
ville quotes Defiance for seventeen, three of which are anali^uea, one
•t Loignan, near Bordeaux, one in lUly, and a third In the environs
CONCHACEA. its
of Paris. Deshayes in his Tablesgivea fifteen fj sil ,l«rtinry), and one
only (D. tiongata) as both living and fossil (tertiary). In Iub editjon
of Lamarck, the last-mentioned species is passed without any notice
of its occurring in n fossil state ; but D. tnintviut is noticed as faesil,
and Brocchi, ' Conch.,' t.ii., p. 637, No. 1, is quoted ; nine fossil speciea
only ore given. The fosailB are said to have occurred principally in
the blue marls of the south of France, Ao., the bads at Bordeaux and
Dai, and in the oolitic group.
(hattlupia. — Shell subtrigonal, oquivalve, regular, nearly eqnilatenj,
a little attenuated at its posterior part, and pregenting at the pontero-
inferior border a alight sinuosity ; umbonee very small, not projeetiog,
hardly inclined forwards ; hinge with three cudinol diverging teeui
in eo^ valve, and from three to six cardim.«erial teeth, lamellar, with
finely dentelated edges, converging towards ths sommita, and situated
a litUe below them, under the ligament ; a single lateral tooth, ante-
rior, beneath the lunule, in the left valve, corresponding with a hollow
oval, noitsd by a pallial impr«asion largely and very deeply excavated
poeteriorly.
This genos, founded by H. Chories des Moulins, was confounded
with the Donaces by M. de Basterot. U. Bang, who agrsea with
H. des Moulins on the propriety of this separation, says that there is
but one species, Q. donacifonnu, which is fbsaiL It is found in the
marine beds of Mdrignao (tertiary). Dr. Lea, in his ' Contributions
to Qeology,' describee and figures another sp< ' ~ " " " " '
Claiboma, Alabama (Amsrioa), here copied.
Craltlupia VMlintii.
IVUtna. — Animal generally very much compressed, oonsiderably
eloDgitad; mantle moderately opeo at its antero-inferior part, and
bonier«d with tentacular appendages ; branchim unequal, on both
■idea ; foot Teiy mach eonpreeseiC trenchant, and painted before ;
tubes very muah eloogatad, aepftrmted, and oap^ls <tf being retutned
'~to a fold cf the mantis.
Sbdl gmerally riongated, and very mnoh oompreMed, equiralvs,
regular, sometimes slightiy inequilateral ; the antoior aide not being
always much longer than the posterior one, which is oftan angular,
witli a fleiuous and irregular bend or fold at its lower btndar;
' [mea very small; hinge with three cardinal teeth, and two lateral
which Gire often distant, with a hollow at their base in eooh valve ;
„ unt posterior, swollen and elongated; a very small second
ligamant near the umbo ; muscular impreasioiis rounded ; poUiol
imprenion straight, and very deeply excavated.
lAmarck mokes the forme of Tellina and Tdiinidm disliiiet^ genericL
Mr, O. R Sowerby follows Lamarck's arrangement, observing that of
the TUfiwE there are many apectiB,someof a form very much elongated
in a transverse direction, aa T. roitrata, T. Spengleri, ftc ; others of an
oval shape, some of which are rough on the outeide, T. Iinjnq/alu,
for example ; othen, again, nearly orbicular, T. timbmata, T. eamaira,
ka. ; a very few have one valve more flat than the other, T, optrei^aHt,
for instanoe : while both valves are remarkably deep in others, aa in
T. 100*0040. Of TtUinida, he says that the number of shells that
may be ranged under it is rather conalderable, althou^ Lamarck baa
th M. de BlaJnville and H. Rang think that theea two form*
belong to one genus, and M. Deabayas is of the same opinion.
The species are found in almost all seas, but more particularly in
oae of worm climates, where, like the Doaaca, they live plunged in
sands and sandy mud ; TeWino having been found in the former
depths varying from the Burfoce of the aea to seventeen bthoms,
and Tdlinidei in sandy mud at depths ranging &om five to riitaen
iathoms. Mr. Q. B. Sowerby obawves that thsy are ocmmonly th«
prey of Aporrhtridei, Bttcema, and other cftmivoroos Troehtl^iodt,
which pierce the shell to devour the inhabitant.
The speciea ore very numerous. M. Deshayes, inhisTablee, makes
tha number of livingspeciesaiity-eight, and that of TUItnuJu, one. In
his edition of Lamarck (183S), he records sixty-two only, the number of
speciea of TtUinidet being still one. Of these, he connders soma aa
repetitions or varieties (TtUina nmmaettUUa, T. nlijf^imta, for example
tha Gnt of which ha Donsiders a white vonety of T. rodi/tia, and tha
second as identical with T. tofvatfro, tha only dilTersnee being that
IN CONCUACEA.
of colour), and othan u> founded merelj on the diflemuM of i^
T. ehtonititea, for exumpls.
Laourck dinded the spscUa into — '
1. TboM with the shall traiiBTanely oblong, ExHbpIe, T.
3. Thou with tba shell orbiauUr, or loimded onL Example,
T. teoiinata.
De BlaisTille dirides the geniu Ihua : —
1. Sabtriquetral ipecisB. EumpU, T. bimaaUala.
2. EloDgaiad Bpeoiea, but which uve the posterior side shorter
and lurTDwaT (plus dtroit) than the uitarior. Exunpl^ T. radiala.
3. Onl, or Buborbioubtf, sod nwl; eqniUteraL Kumpla, T.
tabmata.
4. EqoUatersl apecice, Bufflcieotly elongated, almost without a
fliKuoaa fold ; two divergent cardinal teeth, and two distant lateral
ones, of wbich the antarior is but little distant from the umbo.
{TtlUnidu, Lazn.)
Thefoaailsi
1. IMItfu nxf rofa. 1. Tellmi
■B recorded as ocourring in the Sap
ronp, in the Cntsceou* groop, and in the Oolitio group (Coralline
Oolite, Yo AshJre ; Kinuneridge Cia; ; Bemeae JuraX Sir S. Hurchison
mentions two Bpeciea (probab!;) in the Salopian outlier of Liaa.
Aatpkidana. — Shell suboval or rounded, of little thickneas, longer
than it ia high, inequilateral, sometimea ■ little gaping ; hinge with
one or two cardinal teeth, and lomeUnMa latenl tseth mora or Ism
projecting ; ligament double ; one lignment external and abort, the
other iutenial and fixed in a narrow (Aroite) hollow of the hinge.
As the ganoB was left b; Lamarck, it would appear to be widely
■pread, for it is recorded as oooarring in the European aaaa (Northern,
Ensjidi Channel, MediterrsDeu) ; t^oae of Auatralia and the south ;
and on the ooaats of BranJ. But it should be remembared that A.
torbaioidm, Imd., Mga Nonetgica, ChenuL, ia the example giren by
Deehayaa f tn" hia gonna CWcodssmn, while ^.plairella (aeasof Anatralia
and Kangaroo ialsa) is one of his JfeMdosMta. The EpeoieB, which
are tolnmbly nomaroua in their undisturbed state (Amtphidttma,
I^m.), are sMd to have been found in sands and mud at depths
vaiTing b-oin the sur&ce of the sea to forty fathoma. Lamarck gives
aixl«an ntadea ; Hr. Q. B. Sowsrby baa added twelve, brought home
bjHr. Cuming. ('ZooL Pnio.')
J. s>arM(nX<H nay be takes Han example of the genna. Itisfoaud
on the ooaat of Brazil.
Bnt few ipeoiea have been found foaaiL
Maodttma (Deshayes).— Animal inclining to oval or nbtrigonal,
flattened ; lobes of the mantle united for two-thiida of the posterior
length, and provided, at their posterior extremity, with two short
aipbona prolonged within by a very delicate membrane; foot verv
much flattened, quoitrangulor, hidden in port by the ' ' ' ~
COMCHACEA. IW
are abort, truncated, and flied (aoud^) posteriorly, the eitdmal pair
amaUest and BubarticuUted. Shell oval, transverBe or triangular,
thick and ordinarily closed. Hinge with a apoon-ahaped hollow,
Btruight and mesial for the ligament, and, on each aide, an oblong and
simtile tooth. (Deebayes.)
M. Deahajes remaps that the ahellB of this genus are eaally
reoognised. llie ahell is always thicker than that of the ilaelra :
they ore more compreaaed, more completely cloBed (mieui ferm^)
and in this respect approach the OrattattUa. The binge is particularly
remarkabla ; in the middle of the border and immediately below the
umbo ia placed a spoon-ehaped triangular deep hollow, the border
of which pnijecte within the valves as in the greater part of the
ZolrartOL On each aide of tbia spoon-like procees, in which the
ligament is inserted, is seen in each valve a Urge thick tooth, and
behind ia a hollow to receive tho tooth of the opposite valve. Muscular
ImpreBBionB unequal ; the anterior largest, elongated ; the posterior
somewhat rounded. The pallial impreasioQ in the spedes which
approach the Maclra haa a moderate posterior ainuoaity wbich
diminishes mora and more in proportion oa the species have more
reaambUnoe to the Oranattlla. The ainuoaity exiata however in all
tiie epedea of the genua.
Ouningia (G. B. Sowerby). — A genua which ahould he plaoed near
to AnpKidama. It ia remairfcable for the diaaimilnrity of the hinge
of the two valvea, one having a strong lateral tooth on each aide of
the ligament, and the other being entirely destibute of Uteral teeth.
Having only met with a small West Indian species, we could not
venture to oonstder this gcmiiB as established, until Hr. Cuming showed
UH several species in his rich collectian of South American and Pacific
abelts, one of which ia sufBciently large to show the charaotepa
distinctly. ('Oeneraof BocantandFoseil SheUa.'Ho. 40.) Mr. Sowerby
eharacterissa the shell as inequilateral, equivalve, wiUi the anterior
side rounded and the posterior rather acuminated. A single small
anterior cardinal tooth observable in each valve : one strong lateral
tooth on each side of the hinge in one valve, but no lateral tooth in
the other valve ; ligament internal, and affixed to a somewhat spoon-
shaped pit in each valve. Muscular impressiona two in each valvc^
lat^al and distant, the anterior irregular and oblong, the posterior
ronnded. A very large Btnus in the muscular impresaion of the manUo.
The apedea are found in the tropical seas oa far as ia yet hiown, ia
clay, mud, and aand, in the fissures of rocks, at a depth varying from
the BOiface of the aea to six fathoma, No fossil specie* known.
.. (Sow.).
Cuminfta mutiea,
Madra. — *plmtl oral, somswhat thick, wiUi the borden of tba
mantle thick and simple, fHimisbed posteriorly with two tubes but
little elongated end united ; branchial lamin« small and nearly equal ;
foot oval, trenchant, very long, angular. Shell transvene, inequi-
lateial, aubtrigonal, sometimes a little gaping at the sidee; umbone*
protuberant ; hinge with one cardinal tooth, folded into the shape of
the letter T, the point being neanat the umbo and the branches
diverging from it ; posterior to this and very close to it ia a very
thin sluup tooth ; aometimee the bronchee of the folding tooth are
separated at the base, forming two divarging teeth ; ligamental pit
immediately behind the angular tooth and projecting within tbe
sbelL Lateral teeth, two on each side in one valve, one on each aide
in the other, diverts from the umbones, and very near the margin,
thin, moatly elongated, and the inner ones more prominent than the
outer, but m aome species very short, in the tbiokar spedes perpen-
dicularly atriated. Muscular impressions two, lateral, distant; pcdlial
impreesion with a small sinus. Ligament oonsisting of two portiona
(as usual), one, by far the larger, internal ; the other external. In
some spedea the umbones are separated, and the ligament farma a
deep pit extending both within and without to the point of the beaks:
of this Jf . Spengltri is an example.
" Thia genus," aaya Mr. O. B. fjowerby, " ooutains a groat number
of spedea, some of which are handsome and others very ungular
shslla ; upon examining a number of species we think it might ba
dedrahle to divide it mto several genera, because we find aeveral
distinct forms in it." It is found in Europe, East and W«t Indies,
Africa, North America, Ac, buried generally in sandy mud and Bands
at a depth varying from the surface of the aea to 12 fathoms.
The spedei axe numerous. DeshByes,inliiBTables,gives thirtjr-two
living ; m his edition of Lamarck thirty-three ; but in his opinion
one of these, M. datutcia, is not a Maclra but' a ltitodmt»a, and
others are lepetitJODS or varieties.
Ill
COSCHACEA.
De BUinTille thua divides Uie genus ; —
1, 8p«dw whoM eanliQsl teath become nearlf
ooosequeDce of the enliirgement of the ligamantal hollow. Elunple,
U. giganlta.
2, Species »11 of whowi teeth ore Ter? lorgs, Ismallar, knd not
■triatsd. Example, M. SttiUonHa.
3, Thick and solid species without sn epidermis ; the Utarel
teeth Snel; atri&ted; mantle pteroed with two apenings; but
almost withoat tubas. Example, M. IrigimeUa.
i. Very thick solid specieB atristed longitudiosUy ; cardinal
teeth none or unt to nana; Utenl teeth very thick, approximated,
raised ; an external ligunent besides the intranal one.
Jladra Bratilimi
Mr. a. B, Sowerby ssyo, " The fose
they are onW found in the tertiary bed^ unless indeed some very
ringular fosaili faimd in the secoQiliuT strata, particularly oolite, be
tndy refarrible to thia genus ; of this however we cannot be eertidn,
beosose we know not thsir hinges ;" they will be found represented in
Sowerby's ' Mineral Conchology.' Da Blainville quotas M. Dafrance
for eightean fossil apeoiBS, one identical, one analogue in the FUiian-
lin, and another analogua "dana la Caroline du Kord." Desha^M
in his Tables gives fourteen foaail (tertiary) snd four as both living
and fossil (tertian) : in hia edition of Lamarck but three ipecies are
maiborae
. anMotetlcL — Shell eqoivalve, tnnsrarse, inequilateral, not attached
nor gaping. In one valve two strong, cuneiform, mgosa, loinetimea
perpandicularly-grooved cardinal teeth ; in the other odIv one ; liga-
netit internal, attached to a concave space placed on the anterior
ude of the binge ; the pit divided by a carina into two portions, and
that part of the ligament attached to the outer portion virible
externally when the valves are cloaad : two strong oblong depiessioos
may then be observed, one on the anterior side of the umbo, rmther
elongated, aitd not so distinct as the other on the posterior side.
Muscular impressions two, distant, lateral, rather oblong; lateral
teeth none, or nearly obsolete. Shell very thick, particularly in old
■pscimetis ; the recent ones with a brownish somewhat homy spi-
dermis ; all more or lees transTersely grooved near the umbones.
The spedee are found in the seas of Australia.
IL Deshayes, in his Tables, gives the number of living spades at
nine. The shdls may be distinguished &om Maadama by msoni of
the pillial imprcesioD, which is always simple in the C?natalella, and
always rinnous posteriorly in Maodama.
Mr. G. B. Sowerby, in his 'Qenera,' mentions C. Ivmida sod
C- cwnjimvt from tite Caloaire GrOBsier of the environs of Paris, and
C. mictUa as very common at Holdwell, and as appearing to be
CONCHIFERA. ll»
ohoncteristic of the London Clay. M. Deshayes remarks npon that
shell, that Lamarck regarded tlie fossils at Besuvais and those living
at Australia as analogues; but that he has satisfied hinuelf that t^oae
fossils and C. (ti^nUa are difibrent speciea. C. twnida, he observes,
■pproachea C, Singicola nearer than any other,
De Blainville states tliat there ore seven at least foaail in Fnnce,
and that H. Defiance mentions twenty from the lower chalk with
some doubt In his Tables M. Deshayes gives twenty-four fossil
species (tertiary) : in his edition of Lamarck he records fourteen
only. It appears in the catalogaes in the Bupracretaoeous and
Cratoceou* groups.
Other geuers balon^ng to De BlaJnville'a (bncAocsa vrill be found
under liTraoPBAaiDM, oiid the generu sepatsted &rom Vttivd, or allied
to that family, nndsr Vbhhida
CONCHITERA, Lamarck's name for that large class of Molluscuus
*¥iiiiu.l« which are protected by shells oonaiatjng of two principid
piaoes oommonly known under the denominatioa of Bivalves. It
oomtoiMi the whole of the Aoephalous Hollusks of Cuvier, including
the SmMopoda. [BaiOHiopODi.]
Idmarok divided the dasa into two great orders, the Dinyaria
(Dirajairea), or Cendufers, furnished vrith two adductor muscles, and
the Mtiumyaria (Hoaoonires), or Conchifers furnished with one
Dmyaria; 3, the Mtmomj/aria. Ha foundi this order of arrange-
ment on the principle that the organisation of the Brackitrpoda is
more siiaple than that of the other Conchifers, white that of the
Dimj/aria is somewhat less oomplai than that of the Mtmonyaria.
The tvro lost divinons are now more generally called LamelU-
branehiata, fkom iJie fact that in nearly every case the brandmB, or
gill^ ocour in the form of four riband-shaped lamelhe, two of which
are attached to each lobe of the mantle.
The following account of the atructurs of the OmAifera refen
more especially to the Lamdlibmneltiala :—
Digestive System. — Houth witiiout any hard parts, situated ante-
riorly : in the Dimyarians oonoeoled between the foot and the anteiio-
retractor musde : in the Honomyariane under a sort of hood made hr
the mantle. Labial palpa or lips Sattenad, aometimea truncated,
sometimn laminated internally, more or less elongated, extending on
dlher side. No aolivaiy Eland. (Esophagua varying in length and
capacity, often wanting altogetiier both in Dimyarians and Mono-
mjarions. Stomach sometimes, not often, lengthened and narrow,
aometimea subcircular, geuerally pear^haped ; interior surfiice vrith
irregular depressions, or biliary crypts. Intestine arising posteriorly,
convoluted within the liver and ovary, and so brought towards the
bock and mesial line of the animal, and continued posteriorly to the
vent, nearly of the same diameter all through. Rectum, which
commencee vrith the dorsal port of the intestine, shorter in the
Monomyarions than in the Dimyarians : in the former it is convo-
luted behind the single central adductor, and terminates in a floating
vent hetwaau the edges of the mantle ; in tiie latter the vsnt is
situated above the niperior adductor. Liver very larger aupporlad
by muscular flbrea, which traverse it, pouring the bile into the
stomach by the bilioiy crypts.
Ciroulat(H7 and Kespiiatoiy System. — Cinmlatioi, a simple eircoit
of two vasci^ar systems, namel;, a ventricle and an arterial system —
a vanoua system and two auricles, the ventricle firmly and cloady
embracing the rectum, so that it appears to pass through it. The
arterial system not ocmpUoated, the venoua syitem upon a oondder-
able Bcole of development. Circulating fluid nearly colourless, or
white, aoarcelj tinged with bluiah, alightly viadd, and with very
little crasaamantum. [Blood.] "Circulation then ia an eitremdy
simple fouotion in the Conchiferous Uollusks ; an aorUo ventricle
gives the blood impulse enough to carry it through the two syitems
of vessels, to expel it from the heart, and to carry it back agaiD to
the auiiole. In other branchiferous animals the auricle is sometimes
adapted to give the blood a new impulse when it ia about to psa
throng^ the bronchisj; hare, on the contrary, the auriclee do not
receive the blood until it hoa been expoaed to the "revivifying influence
of theorew" of reapirotion." (Daahayea.) Tha respiratory function
is carried on by means of hranchiie variously disposed. They are all
however disposed in a lamelliform manner.
The reproductive system consists aimply of an ovaiy enveloped in
the viaoenl mass. Taking the common oyster for example, it reate,
a whitish mass of considerable nze, upon tha adductor, and may be
seen through tha mantle. It oocupies the whole upper part of tho
molluak, and creeps down along the sides and lower parte, being
filled at the time of reproduction with a milky fluid, containing
multitudes of small globules of a whitish colour. These are the eggs;
and in many of the famil; the; are not at the time of their exclusioQ
abandoned at onee, but ore deposited between the two membranes of
tha branchial laminEe, where tbey undergo a kind of incubation. In
some the shell is developed in the ovum before it quits this receptacle.
This fostering of the eggs seems to be analogous to the gestation of
the eggs in the CrtuliKta and the pipe-fishes. Sir Anthony Carlisle
('Hunlarian OtatioQ,' 1826) says, "OyBtara are viviparous, and their
young are found within the tracheal poasagee and between the folds
of the ooTsrlet (mantle) during tho month* of June snd Jul; to Uua
m CONCHIFERA.
diniWtfL In tU fint state the ojBter sihibita two Bemi-orbiculac films
of tranaparent ahell, vbich are continuajl; oponiog and cloitng mt
regulirintemlB. Tha whole brood are nssociated together by being
iniolTed in a viscid Blime, and in th&t state called the 'spat,' it beiog
eemmoD unong viviparous animals of this kind to have their spawn
n*ted in contact with the luogs. The involving slime servea as the
notriinent : and we may infer that the fcotal food no influenced
bj the gills is at the same time a respiratorj' supply to the imperfecllf
fonnad f ouDg." In the siphoniferous branch of the family the longer
the siphoiiB the laivaT, as a general rule, is the mass of the ovarj : in
those fonuB which have the siphons short and the foot compaiaUvely
Urge the ovary is compaiatively small. As far >■ anatomy baa
hitherto detected this part of the organisation, here we hara hermv
phroditiam in the true sense of the word. The whole bualoeea of
reproduction is apparently carried on within the two valves of the
shell without the aid of a second individual, as it is in a hermaphro-
dite flower. But it will occur to most observers that the Con^tra
are gregnrions; the Filed Conchifeni (Oyslera, Spondyli, Chama,
&c, for instance) eminently so ; and it ia by no means dear that
this coDgregatJon may not be a necessary condition for the
fecundation of the ova ; and that there may not be a mutual
diSuaicn of some influenco analogous to that of the milt in fishes.
M, Fraioat, who made his experiments upon the Uraona, would
make it appear that though there can be no union, still no propa-
gation takes place without an assemblage of these animals upon the
The muscular system, as it rsfsids moUon, Is two-fold; valvular
and locomoliTe. The first conaists in the adaptaUon of muscular
Sbra to the movement of the valves, and indeed this muscular appa-
ratus may in some cases be made ancillary to locomotion, as in
the Pecteiu, for eiample. The adductor muaclea are attached to
(ppoaite points in each valve, and their offlce ia to cloae the valves by
their contractility, or sufler them to expand by their relaxation. In
the greater number [Dimyana) there are two ; one anterior near the
oval apertott^ the other posterior. The Monamyana have appa-
rently one only ; but Poli has shown that this muscle is in reality an
approximation of two, and thence most prebably arose the slight
regard manifeeted b]L Cuvier for the division of Lamarck. The
•ecood or true looomotire organ ia called the foot, and is formed of
various layer* of flbrea, which by their counteraction bestow on it
great power of motion when the organ is well developed. Though in
some species merely rudimentary it is found in all the Dimyaria,
not 90 in the Monomyaria, some of which are entirely without it. Its
place may be defined by stating that the mouth is generally hidden
between its base and the anterior adductor. Where well developed
it is of various shapea, cylindriol, flattened, ftc In some it is a
digging organ, or kind of ploughshare for making a furrow in the
land or mud wherein the animal means to lie hid ; in others, as in
the cockle, Jko., it becomes a leaping organ, god enables the coni^fer
to clear a boat's gunwale when laid on the bottom boards. The foot
ia the instrument which produces the bysaus. [Btssub.] The
following is Deshayea'a acoount of the structure : — " If the byaaus and
foot of a byaaiferous molluak be placed under a powerful lens, the last
EUmenta of the bysaus ar« first seen to be nearest to the tiase of the
foot ; and if the inferior edge of the foot be inspected, a fissure will
be found miming completely along it, at the tnttom of which a
brewniah and semicomeous filament is often to be perceived : this is
neither more nor lees than a filament of the bysaus prepared to be
detached by the animal, in order to which the animal atretchee forth
its foot until it encounters the object upon which Uie other fibres of
the byasus are fixed ; to this it applies the point of the foot, which
then secretea a small quantity of glutinous matter continuous with
the rilky filament lying aloi^j- the bottom of the furrow of which we
have spoken. When the pasty matter has acquired sufficient oon-
aistency, and is firmly fixed to the stone or other body at the bottom,
the aniPiM retracts ita foot, and in doing so detaches the new fibre at
the base of the pedicle. The mode in wliich the filaments of the
bjsaui are formed is consequently entirely difierent from that in
which hair or the horns of the higher animals are evolved, and it is
easily understood when the intimate structure of the foot of ths
bpBiferouB molluska is known, when we are aware that this organ
irall.
imala that
now eogages our attention the fibres situated at the bottom of the
groove of the foot become horny, and are detached in succession in
the form of threads as they become oonaolidated." The siphons,
which are the organs by which these animals take in and throw out
vater, are retracted by means of two latersl fen-shaped muscles,
situated posteriorly.
Uantle and Cuticular System. — Two thin fleshy lamins applied over
the back of the animal, extending over its aides, and with its edges
meeting along the anterior middle aspect of the body, covering, or
dosely in contact with, the whole interior surface of the shell, form
the mantle, in the thickened edge of which is the principal apparatus
that secretes the shell : there are also frequently rows of oontraotile
tentacular cilia fringing it. The whole of these parte are ezquisitety
senuble, and highly contractile. The mantle becomes free at the
origin of the brancbiie, and forms a cavity round the lower part of
CONCHIFERA.
i, aaleilor or oral citremlty ; P, poaterlor or anal extremity.
BbeU at (V"Unta.
116
CONCHIFERA,
CONCHIFERA.
116
the animal, containing the visceral mass, the foot, for the extrusion of
which there is an opening, and the branchiae. This is the pallial sac,
and is the area wherein &e omrents for respiration and nutrition are
formed. The siphons^ where they exist, project from tiie mantle,
with which they are continuous. The^ are sometimes very long, and
sometimes reduced to mere perforations ; sometimes separate, and
sometimes conjoined; but in any case the superior siphon is that
destined for dejections, and is called the anal siphon, while the office
of the lower one is to conduct the water to the branchiae; whence it
is termed the branchial or oral siphon. The structure of these
posterior siphons or tubes is eminently contractile, and their apertures
are fringed with a number of papillsB of great sensibility, capable of
giying notice of the contact of any prejudicial foreign body. The
retractor muscle is generally more or less developed according to the
greater or less development of these parts.
The nervous system is very simple. Symmetrical in the Dimy<tria,
hardly symmetrical in the Monomyaria. They have no true brain. In
the Dimycuia there is a ganglion above the oesophagus on each side of the
mouth towards the labial palps, connected by a transverse filament
crossing the cesophagus. From these ganglions filaments are given
off to Uie mouth, anterior adductor, kc ; and from their posterior
edges two nervous branches go to the stomach, liver, and heart, ovary,
and branchisB. A branch of some volimie goes down to the foot.
The lateral filaments, after advancing along the internal surface of the
posterior adductor, are coi\joined into one or two ganglions larger than
the anterior ones. These posterior ganglions give off the nerves to
all the posterior parts ; if the ganglions are much separated a nervous
filament connects theoL In the Monomyaria the system is less
perfectly developed
The senses of these animals are very limited ; and indeed there is
no good ground for attributing to the generality of them anything
beyond a sense of touch and taste. That most of them may be
conscious of the presence or absence of light is possible. "Not
having any especial organs for seeing, hearing, or smelling," says Sir
Anthony Carlise, speaking of the common oyster, in hia 'Hunterian
Oration' (1826), "the creature is limited to perceive no other
impressions but those of immediate contact ; and yet eveiy part of
its exterior seems to be sensible to light, sounds, odours, and liquid
stimulants. It is asserted by fishermen that oysters, in confined
beds, may be seen, if the water is clear, to dose their shells whenever
the shadow of a boat passes over them."
M. Deshayes goes so far as to say that no especial oxgan of sense
can be detected among them, unless perhaps those of touch and
taste ; but we must not fox^t what have been called the eye-specks in
Peetm, to the animal of which Poll gave the name of Argug, from the
supposed number of its visual organs. The peotens are free swimmera,
and, from their rapid and desultory motions, we have heard Uiem
termed the butterflies of the ocean. The manner in which these
motions are executed, especially on the approach of danger, indicates
the possession of a sense analogous at least to that of ordinary
vision. These eye^pecks may be seen in the pecten placed at short
intervals round the thickened edge of the mantle, on the outworks,
as it were, of the internal part of the animal fabria "As locomo-
tion so vision" is a general aphorism, not without its particular
exception ; for there is good reason for believing that Spondyfus,
whicui is a fixture in its adult state, is furnished with these visual
specks.
The following arrangement of the Conehifera proposed by H. Deshayes, is published in the ' Cydopflddia of Anatomy and Physiology ' : —
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONCHIFERA.
FamiliM.
TUBIOOUB (^^P**??!""*
iStplaria
Tenduia
PholOM
OsrsoDmcATA
'Pkoladomya o
Ctteodttma e
Ptriploma ^
Anatina
^T%raeia
iCMnda*
(V,
*
AnatindUi
^ The lobes of the insntla(
united in a greater or 1
fDIlCTARIA..,
dogroe poeteri<»rly
M0LLU8CA ,
ACEPHALA (
BIVALVU
Mactkacbjb
ILutraria
Maetra
Mtaodetma
Cm$aatdla
JBfyc%iut
Amphidwna
PMmmoMo-
Donax
) PBTRIOOUB
OOKOBiB
• • • • • • 1
AitarUi
is CyrkM
QaUakta
^ ( Cjnprieardia
Cabdiac&b \l!oeardia.^,t^
TmmAoncjE
' Naiadu . . .
The lobes of the mantle
dieunitod
TaioovBA
Abcaceji
^Mttilaci
'Having a foot
Max.liao>«
iBippopua
fOmftta
\Unio
i TriffotUa
{Nweuta
{Peehmtului
Area
Cueyilka
Pimna
Avieula
(MaUeuM
Vul$dla
,( Crmahda
^ Pentor-
lllMciMa
Ung¥lina
Jlfyo^ama
%Clei(UlheruM
Ckama
JHeenU*
BOuria
}
LUCINIPiB
CHAMAOEA
Hippwitn
Copriua
}
RUDI8TE8
^MOKOMYARIAI
Having no foot
,PMjniiii>i
OSTlAOBiV
JnoeeramM*
{OcUUbu
IUma
Pedmm
Ptetm
PUaUvla
Spondflut
-OerviUia
{
Odna^
^Plaauut )
Plaeunanomia VPLACUNIDJB
itfnomiat )
iTerdftniula,
117
CONCHODERMA.
CONDOR.
118
Thn lobes of the mantle, the thick edges of which form tho
principal secreting organ, determine apparently the form of the shell.
[Shell, Psabl.] In the Conchifera it is bivalve, or composed ot two
pieces, often covered with an epidermis, joined at their uppw edge
(corresponding to the dorsal part of the animal) by a hinge.
The hii^e is entirely formed by the inner layer of shell, and
consists of either a simple cardinal process, or a serrated edge, or of
projections, or teeth as they are called, and corresponding cavities
into which they are inserted. To this hinge is superadded a ligament^
which binds the two parts together, and keeps the parts composing
the hinge in their places. The ligament is either internal or external,
intemal when it is hidden by the outside of the cardinal edge,
external when it appears beyond it, and is highly elastic, being
composed of a number of fibres parallel to each other, and perpendi-
cular to the valves which they connect. This is a beautiful
contrivance for the necessities of the animaL When undisturbed, the
elastic ligament keeps the valves open, and the animal functions are
carried on without any e£fort; when danger is apprehended, or
circumstances require it, the adductor muscle or muscles contiact,
overcome the resistance of the hinge, and shut the valves close till
they may be opened in ssfety. One of the earliest signs of the loss
of vitality in the Conchifers is the more than ordinaiy wide gaping of
the shelL This arises from the state of the adductor muscle, which
being relaxed by death is no longer an antagonist to the elastic
ligament
The common oyster will serve as an example of the Konomyarians,
and the cuts will give a general idea of the Dimyariansi, their shelly
and its muscular impraarions.
COKCHODERMI. [Cibripedia.]
CONCHOLEPAS. [Eiteomostomata.]
CONCHOLOGT is that branch of science which teaches the
stmcture and forms of the shells which are the hard external
covering of the animals belonging to the class MoUusca, Although
these shells present great variety of forms, and aro variously marked,
they are only a subsidiary part of the structure of the animals to
which they belong. Hence amongst naturalists the shells are only
studied in connection with the structure of the ^nimRla which
inhabit them. An account of these animals, with their shells, will
be found in the articles Mollusca, Braohiopoda, Tunioata, Covchi-
nRA, Gastbbopoda, Pterofoda, Cephalopoda ; also under the heads
of the more important of the families and genera of the MoUuaca,
CONDAMINEA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural oider
CmckonacetB. It has a campanulate calyx, 6-crenate or 6-toothed
limb, deciduous; corolla funnel-shaped, with a somewhat curved
tube, which is a little longer than the calyx, a dilated throat, and a
5-parted limb ; stamens inserted above the middle of the tube or near
the throat ; anthers oblong, linear, bifid at the base, length of corolla ;
stigma 2-lobed. Capsule turbinate, truncate, opening in the middle
of the cells. Seeds numerous, very small, wedge-shaped. The
species are American shrubs, with 2-parted acuminate stipules and
terminal many-flowered corymbs.
0. corymba$a is a native of the hills and ravines of the Peruvian
Andes. It has ovate-oblong leaves, acuminate, cordate, sessile,
plicated, coriaceous ; corymbs large, brachiate, trichotomous ; corolla
purple externally, with the throat and filaments naked ; teeth of ^e
calyx broad, short, and blunt The bark is febrifugal The bark-
gatherers of Peru are said to use this plant for adulterating samples of
Cinchona. Its bark is only slightly bitter, and may be easily
recognised by its being white inside, rather bitter, and viscid.
C. tinetoria is a native of South America, and is used occasionally
as a dye.
(Lindlev, Vegetable Kingdom ; Lindley, Flora Medico.)
CONDOR, or OwntwTj one of the largest Birds belonging to the
family VtUturida. Of the size and habits of this bird many exagge-
rated accounts were at one time current. It was compared to the
Roc of the Arabian romance-writers ; nay, by some it was considered
identical with that monstrous oriental conception. In the ' Mudteom
Tiudescan.tianum,' under title ' Clawes,' we find " the daw of the bird
Rock, who, as authors report, is able to trusse an elephant." This
may have been the claw of a Condor, exaggerated by some of the
artiste who wrought extraordinaxy zoological forms for the collectors
of the day. Near the passage quoted there is a notice of a toucan's
(Aracari's) bill, and other parts of birds from Brazil and ' the West
Indias.' In the old French ' Encydopddie,' after noticing Condamine's
statement^ the writer adds that it is believed that these birds exist
also in the region of Sophala, of the Kaffirs, and of Monomotapa, as far
as the kingdom of Angola, and that it is supposed that they do not
differ from tliose which the Arabians call ' roiidi.'
Ray, in his ' Synopsis,' confesses that such was the enormous and
almost incredible magnitude attributed to it, that he at one time con-
sidered the Condor the mere o£bpring of fiction ; that he dared not
insert the bird in Willughby's ' Ornithology ;' and that it was to Sir
Hans Sloane, who possessed a feather plucked from the wing of one
•hot on the coast of Chili, and presented to him by Ci^tain Strong,
who gave him at the same thne the measurement of the bird, that he
first owed his belief of its existence.
Joseph Aoosta, Qarcilasso de la Vega, and John de Laet, all speak
of this vulture. Acosta says that the birds called Condors are of
great magnitude, and of such strength that they are ni>t only able to
eviscerate and devour a sheep, but even an entire calf. Qarcilasso
enumerate among the rapacious birds those called Cuntur, and cor-
ruptly by the Spaniards Condor, and states that some of those killed
by the Spaniards measured 15 or 16 feet from tip to tip of the
extended wings. He further observes that nature, in order to temper
their ferocity and strength, has denied them the crooked talons which
she has bestowed on the eagle, and given them daws more like those
of the Gallinaceous Birds ; but that she has however endowed them
with a beak sufficiently strong to perforate and tear off a bull's hide,
and to rip out its entrails. Two of them, he adds, will dare to attack
a cow or a bull, and will devour it ; " neither do Uiey abstain from
the human race, but will set upon and slay single-handed boys of ten
or twdve years, and it is by a providence of nature, for the protection
of the flocks and the natives, that many are not hatched ; for, if they
were numerous, they would cause great slaughter among the herds,
and the greatest damage to the inhabitants." The accoimt given by
John de Laet, who speaks of the ' vasta moles' of the bird, is much
the same with that of Qarcilasso.
In relation to the Condor's alleged attack upon children, Condamine
notices^ a story of tho Indians setting up a figure of a child made of
very viscous clay ; on this the Condors were said to pounce, and so
entangle their claws that they were hdd fast.
Abbeville assures his readers that it is twice the size of the most
colossal ei^le. Desmarchais gives eighteen feet as the extent of the
wings, which, he says, are so enormous that the bird can never enter
the forest ; and he adds that it will attack a man, and carry off a stag.
Linnseus seems to have drawn up his account of the habits of the bird
£rom the writers above noticed, some of whom he quotes. " It preys,"
says Linnseus, " on calves, sheep, nav, on boys of ten years ; a pair
wUl tear up and devour a cow ; " and he adds, that the rudung of its
wings, as it nears the earth, renders men planet-struck, as it were, and
almost deafens them — ** in terram devolans, susurro attonitos et surdos
fbre reddit homines : " he makes the alar extent from 18 to 16 feet.
These marvellous stories were left to work upon the minds of men
always prone to receive the wild and the wonderful ; foif, till within
the last forty or fifty years, one or two specimens, and Uxose not perfect^
were the ozdy evidences of the Condor in the cabinets of Europe.
The Great Vulture of the Andes was a striking instance of the way
in which things imperfectly known are exaggerated. " It was with
the Condor," observes Vieillot, " as it was with the Patagonians, —
" both shraiik before examination." To the scrutiny of the Baron
Von Humboldt and of M. Bonpland we owe the reduction of the bird
to its proper dimensions. Nestling in the most solitary places, often
upon the ridges of rocks which border the lower limit of perpetual
snow, and crowned with its extraordinary comb, the Condor for a
long time appeared to the eyes of Humboldt himself as a winged
giant, and he avows that it was only the measurement of the dead bird
that dissipated this optical illusion. The grand scenery among which
it is found had a precisdy contrary effect on Lieutenant Maw ('Journal
of a Passage from the Pacific to tiie Atlantic '), who, in describing Ms
descent into the deep and narrow valley of Magdalena, says : " "V^ilst
descending, several condors hovered round us, and about the rocks on
which they build their nests; but so vast was the scale of the rocks
and mountains, that even these immense birds appeared quite insig-
nificant, and I doubted for a time that they were condors."
Under the name of Zopilote, a word derived from the Mexican word
Tzopilotl, which is said to signify ' King of the Vultures,' M. Vieillot
places the Condor in the same genus with the bird usually termed
' the King of the Vultures ' ( Vultur papa of Linnseus and others), and
the Califomian Vulture ( Vidtur Califomianue, TAfhum and o&ers).
His Latin name for this genua is Oypague, Mr. Bennett adopts this
arrangement^ and, as his description of the bird is accurate, and evi-
dently made from personal observation, we give it the preference.
*'The condor," writes Mr. Bennett, "forms the type of a genus, a
second species of which is the Yvlttw papa of Linnaeus, the ' King of
the Vultures ' of British writers. They are both peculiar to the New
World, but approach in their most essential characters very closely to
the vultures oi the Old Contiuent, differing from the latter prindpally
in the large fleshy or rather cartilaginous caruncle which surmoimts
their beaks ; in the large size of their oval and longitudinal nostrils,
placed almost at the veiy extremity of the cere ; and in the compara-
tive length of their quill-feathers, the third being the longest 'of the
series. The most important of these differences — the size and position
of their nostrils — appears to be well calculated to add to the already
highly powerful sense of smell possessed by the typical vultures, ada
for which these birds have been almost proverbially cdebrated from
the earUest age& There is also a third species^ the Califomian vulture,
two noble specimens of which, the only pair in Europe, are preserved
in the Sodety's museum, rivalling the condor in bulk, and agreeing in
every respect with the generic characters of the group, except in Uie
existiauce of the carunde, of which they are entirely destitute.
"In size, the condor is little, if at all, superior to the bearded griffin
(the Lonimergeyer of the Alps), with which Buffon was disposed con-
jccturally to confound it, but to which it bears at most but a distant
relation. The greatest authentic measurement scarcely carries the
extent of its wings byond 14 feet ; and it appears rarely to attain i
gigantic a size. M. Humboldt met with none that exceeded P '^
lit CONDOR.
uid wu auDi«d bjrmui; credible inhftbitanta oF the pcvTiuce of Quito
that the; bftd never ahot an; that measured more than 11 feet. The
length of a male Bpecimea ■ometrhiLt leu than 9 feet in expanse, wu
3 feet S inches from tho tip of the beak to the eitreroity o! the tail .
and its heiglit, when perching, with the neck parti; withdrawn, 2 feet
"■ ' ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ "n length, and an inch and a quartai
in depth when closed.
t the b
>ppe>
mandible beoamei archc
Btrong and wall-currfld hoot The basal
the remaining portion towards the point is nearl; white. The head
and neck are bars of feathers, and covered with a hard, wrinkled ,
dusk; reddish skin, rat which are scattered some short brown or
blacbsh hain. On the top of the head, which is much flattened
above and ertendiog some distance along the beak, is attached an
oblong firm caruncle or oamb, covered by a continuation of the skin
which invests the head. This organ is peculiar to the male. It
wmiectfld to the beak onl; in its anterior part, and is separated fmta
it at the base in such a manner as to allow of a free passage of the
air to the large oval nostrils which are situated beneath it at that
Enrt. Behind the e;e«, which ara somewhat elongated and not mink
Bneath the general suiface of the head, the akin of the neck
were, gathered into a series of descending folds, extending obliquel;
from Uie back of the head over the temploi to the under side of the
neck, and there connected anteriorl; with a lax membrane or wattle,
capable of being dilated at pleasure, like that of the common turkey.
The neck is marked b; niuneroua deep parallel folds, produced by
the habit of retracting the head, in which the bird indulges when at
rest. In this position scarce!; an; part of the neck is visible.
" Round the lower part of the neck both sexes, the female as woU
as the male, are futnished with a broad white ruff of down; feathi
which forms the line of separation between the naked skin above i
- the true feathera covering the body below it All the other feathi
with the exception of the wing-coverta and the second ar; quill-featheni,
are of a bright black, generall; mingled with a gra;iBh tinge of greater
or less inl«iBity. In the female tie wing^;overi« are blackish gra; ;
but the males have their points, and frequentl; as much as half their
length,' whits. The wings of the latter are consequently distinguished
fromthose of the female bylheir lacge white patches. The secondary
Joill-fsatheri of both sexes are white on the outer side. The tail is
lort and wedge-shaped. The legs are excessively thick and powerful,
and Bra coloured of a bluish-gra;, intermingled with whitish streaks.
Their elongated toes are united at the base by a loose but very appa-
rent memlMDe, and are terminated by long black talons of considerable
thickneaa, but very little curved. The hinder toe is muoh shorter
than the rest, and its talon, although more distinctly curved, is equal!;
wanting in strength ; a deficiency which rendera the foot much less
powerfid as an organ of prehension than that of any other of ths large
birds of the raptorial order."
This bird is found in the Andes, and the greater part of the
mountain chain which runs up South America to 7* H. lat, but i
common in Peru and ChilL
The Condor is found moot frequently at an elevation of from 10
to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, and there they ara to be i
in groups of three or four, but never in large companies, like the true
Tulturea. Many of tho clusters of rocks and of the elevated plateaux
are named after them Cuntur Kahua, Cuntur Palti, and Cuntur Hua-
cana, for example — nsmea which, in the language of the Incaa, are said
to aigni^ the Condor's Look-out, the Condor's Boost, and the Condor's
Nest In this rarefied atmosphere the bird breathes freely, and
morts to the plains only when impelled b; hunger. Then two of
them will attack the vicuna, the guanaco, the heifer, and even the
puma, the lion of South America, persecuting the tormented quad-
ruped till overpowered it falls beneath the wo^iods inflicted b; their
claws and beaks, groaning and protruding ita tongua Upon thia and
the eyes, their favourite morsels, the Condors instantly seise, and the
bloody banquet is continued till they are quits gorged. Humboldt
saw them alter such repasts sitting sullen and sombre on the rocks ;
and when thus overlosdud, tbey mil sufiiir themselves to be driven
before the hunter rather than take wing. But he has also seen them,
when on the look-out for prey, and especially on serene days, soaring
at a prodigious height, as iJT for the purpose of commanding the most
extensive view. " C^est I'oiseau," says Cuvier, speaking of the Condor,
" qui s' tl&ve le plushauL" With regard to the stories of their carry-
ing off children, Humboldt never heiurl of an instance, although the
in&nts of the Indians who gather snow for sale are frequently left
sleeping in the open air in the midst of the haunts of these birds.
He often approached within a few feet of three or four of them as
the; sat on the rocks, but they never manifested any disposition to
attack him : and the Indians ot Quito assured tii"! that men have
nothing to fear from Condon : hs admits indeed that two of these
vultures would be dangerous antagonista for a single man to oope
with; and SirFrancia Head describes a severe struggle between one ot
them and a Comisb miner, with his usual graphic power. When
the bird descends into the plains, it rerel; perches on trees, preferring
the ground, for standing snd walking on which its toes and sliaight
daws are better adapted.
Biimboldt was assured UutttJie eggs, which are whlto, «nd thiM or
CONDBOLITE. IM
four inches in length, are depoaited on the bat^ rock without any
border of straw or other defence. The young ones are said to remain
with tho female during one ;ear. The nestlings have no feathers ;
their bodies for some months are covered with a very fine curling
whitish down or hair, something like that of young owls ; and they
ara BO puffed out by this envelope, that they look almost larger than
adults. At the age of two years the Condor is not yet black, but of
a ;e11owUh-brewn ; up to this time the female baa no appearance of
the white ruff {gollUa of the Spaniards), and it is owing to want of
observation on this change of plumage that man; naturalists and
travellera — nay, the inhabitants of Peru themselves — talk of two
species of Condor, the black and the brown (Condor nt^re ; Condor
pardo). Thus Lieutenant Haw, in the sequel to the passage above
quoted, b»;s, " There were two kinds of Condors ; one dark-brown,
tJie other white on ths bock, with half the upper aide of ths wings
next the back, and a white ring round the neck."
At Peru, Quito, and in the pravince of Popayne, Condors are taken
alive with the iaaao. To this end a cow or a hone is killed. Down
come the Condom, and ore permitted to gorge themselves. Then tha
Indians, with their lassoes, appear on the scene, and soon eaptura
them. When one of the birds finds itself hampered, it makes
incredible efforts to raise itself in the air, and succeeds, after vomiting
freely. The Spaniards call this sport * oorrsr Buitres,' and it is, next
to the bull-feBsta, ths great amusement of the country people. In
other countries it is said that poiaonous herba are placed in jlie belly
of the quadruped that serves as a bait, and then the Condon appear
OS if intoxicated after their meal.
The tenacity of life exhibited b; the Condor almost rivals the
endurance of the Qrisl; Bear. [BuB,] Humboldt relates that at
Riobomba he saw some Indians first strangle one with a lasso snd
hang it on a tree, pulling it fordbl; by the feet for some minutes.
The lasso was hardly removed when ths Condor arc«, and walked
about as if nothing extraordinary bad happened. At less ihan four
paces, three balls were then discharged from a pistol at it, all of which
entered its body, wounding it in the neck, chest, and abdomen : the
bird still kept its legs. Another ball broke its thigh, and brought it
to the ground ; but the wretched creature did not die till after on
interval of half an hour. Ulloa asserts that in the colder parts of
Peru the skin of the Condor is so closely covered with feathers, that
eight or ten balls may be heard to strike it without penetrating its
This celebrated vulture, Vvttur Gryphut of LinnEus, Gypayia
Orsfftu of Vieillot^ Sarcoramphvi OrypAtu of Dum&4!, is said to
possess a most exquisite sense of smelling. It may be doubted how-
ever whether, as in other vultures, Uke eye is not at lesst as great an
ossistantto thebirdin discovering its prey as ths nostrils ore. [Bird^]
Lieutenant Maw saw ths Condor s quiII used ss a pen in ths Cordillera
(Toulea).
malt).
The Zoological Society of London have now made thia bird, of
which such romantic ttJes were told and credited, familiar to the
whole population of the metropolis. It js a striking contrast to rise
from lie perusal of one of these marvellous stories, and look iX the
hving bird in tha Regent's Park.
CONDKODITK [U&cldrbitb.] .
Ill COKDURBITE.
CONDURRITE, a MiDenJ fouDd in Cornw»U. It U bq arMnato of
eopperof abrovnidi-bliuk or blue colour. It gives out, like tbe other
uttenatCB, as aUlaceouB odour vben heated on charcoal before the
blow-pipe.
CONDTLnilA, Illigor, a genuB of IcaectiToroua Mammalia,
founded on tbe Sorex crulolwi of Linneus. CuTier observea that
DesmarMt ma die Arrt who made the peculiar deutition of the genua
It haa the following chaiKoten : — Body thick, furr; ; muzile much
elongated, bordered with membranoui creata. diipoaed Btor-like round
the opeoing of the noatrilJi; ao ext«rDal auHclea; ejes eitremelf
Bmall 1 anterior feet abort, luge, with fire toes, fumiahed with robust
ciaits properfordigging ; poBteiioc feat sleoder, with five toes : length
of tail moderate.
lacieara, ~; caDinei, -^^ ; moUn, - — ==40.
Tnth of aw{«fura tHitaia (F. Cnrler).
Leason obHrrea that tbe generic name reata on an error made b;
La Faille, whobadrepreHntedthe radiated mole with knatt; Bwelliugs
on the tab ; but it ia generally received by aoologista. The genui i>
allied to the Uolea and to Scalopi.
The speciea an eatirelf confined to North America, as far as ii
known Rt prwent. Spedting of some Hpecimens of Candylura longi-
catuJola in the Muaeumof tbe Zoological Societ]', obtained from Mouse
Factory, Hudaon'a Bay, Sir John Richardson says, "They were not
accompanied by any occaunt of thejr habita, or notice of the eiact
locality where thw were kUled ; but, as the most aouthem fur posta
depeuding upon Hoose Fwctory are situated upon the tnrdere of Lake
Superior, it is probable that tbuy came from that quarter, Pennant's
specimen wss received from New York."
C. nuKTVum (Harlan), the Thick-Tailed Star-Kose. The follow-
ing is Sir John Rtcbardson's description of a specimen presented to
him by the unfortunate Mr. David Douglas, and which the latter bad
procured OD the banks of the Columbia River.
" Tbe head is remarkably Urge ; the body is thick and short, and
becomes narrower towards tbe toil, and the hind legs are consequently
nearer to each other than the fore onea. The nose is rather thick,
and projects beyond the month ; it ia naked towards its end, is
marked with a furrow above, and terminates in a flat surface, which
is aurroutided by IT cartilaginous processes, with two more anterior
ones situated above the DOstrila, and a pair of forked ones immediately
below the nostrils. The surfaces of those procaaaea are minutely
granulated. Some white whUkers spring fram the side of the nose,
and reach about half thg length of tbe head. There are others not so
long on' the upper end under lips. The fur on tbe bod; is very soft
and Sne, and has considerable lustre. It is longer than the fur of the
other two known species. Its colour on the dorsal aspect is dark
amber-brown, approaching to blackish-brown. On the belly it ia
pale livei^brown. Whan the fur ia blown aside, it exhibits a shining
bUckisb-gray colour towards its roots. It ia longer on tbe hind-head
and neck than on the belly. The tail is narrow at its origin, but it
suddenly swells to an inch and a half in circumference ; it then tapeia
gradually until it ecds in a fine point, formed by a pencil of hairs,
about half an inch long. It ia round, or very slightly compressed,
and ia covered with scales about as laive as those on the feet, and
with short, tapering, acute hairs, which do not conceal the scales.
The hairs covering the upper surface of the tail are nearly black ;
those beneath are of a browner hue. The eitremitias are shaped
almost precisely like those of the C lotigicatidata. Only the palms
and toee of the fore feet project beyond the body. The palina are
nearly circular, and are protected by a granulated skin like shagreen.
Tbe sides of the feet are furnished with long white hairs, wbisb curve
in over the palms. Tbe Eve toes are very short, equal to each other
in length, and, together with the book of the hands, are oovered with
hexagon^ scales. The fore claws are white, nearly atraight, broadly
linear, and acuta, convex above and flat beneath. The palms turn
obliquely outwaids, which causes the fourth claw to project out the
farthest ; but the third one measures as much, the second is shorter,
and the first and fifth are equal to each other, and a little shorter
than the rest. The hind feet are also turned obliquely outwards,
and are scaly, with a few interspersed hsira above, and granulated
underaeath. Tbe aides are narrow, and present a coospicuoua calloua
tubercle, poaterior to the origin of the inner toe. The hind legs are
very short, and are clothed with aoft brown hair, a tuft of which
curves over the heel There on no hairs on the sides of the bind
feet, like those which form a margin to the fore ones. The
toes are longer thm the fore ones, and are armed with mora sleodgr
C0N1D.S. l:i
claWB, which are white, ani-shsped, curved, and acuta. They have a
narrow groove towards their paints underneath. Length of the bead
and body i inches 3 lines ; of the bead, 1 inch 6 lines ; of the tail,
2 inchea 6 lines, including the pencil ol hairs at ite extremity,
S inches 3 lines ; naked part of the nose, exclusive of the awl-ihaped
processes, i\ lines," Ac. (' Fauna Boreoli-Ami
Thiek.Tsiled Btar.TCoM (Onityrsra maermra).
Dr. Oodman observes, that though the eztemsl ear in C criilata
ia destitute of auricle, it is very extensive, and is situated at a short
distance frem the shoulder, in the broad triangular fold of integu-
ment connecting the fore-arm and head.
Two or three other species are known.
COMESSI BABK is the produce of a plant belonging to the
natural order Ap^c^aaaf a native of the western const of Hindustan,
It is the WrigUia anttdyiaUtrUa, and is a valuable astringent.
COXPEHVACEjG, a nsma sometimes considered synonymous
with Alga. It is limited in aystematic botany to a section of Alga,
eoQoisting of simple tubular jointed species mbabiting fresh water.
CONFERVITES, species of FosmI Plants, probably of Uie Con-
fervaceoua Family, occurring in the chalk of Bomholm and the south
of England, in Uie Qreenaond of Maidstone, and Chalk-Marl of
Hamsey, (Mantetl)
CONOER-EEL, [Mubshids.]
CONQLOMERATB. This term is most usually applied by geolo-
gists to designate rocks more or lesa distinctly inclosing displaced
fragments of mineral mames which bad been consolidated at some
previous epoch, and subsequently broken up, removed frem their
original site, and placed in circumstances such as to permit of their
being re-aggregated, and more or lesa cemented together by interven-
ing smaller particlea Thus the old red conglomenitd on the borders
of tha Orampiana ia full of fragmeuts of the atill more ancient
schistose and gneisaic strata, worn by attrition in water, and reunited
into a solid rock by interposed reil sands. In some volcanic regions
the matariala thrown out by eruptions are re-aggregated into conglo-
merate, by the operation of water.
The coarser conglomerates are sometimes oaUed Pudding-Stone.
Conglomerates diSer in their nature, and vary in the siie of their
component parts sccordjng to the process by which they have been
brought into the form of congloraerate. Along the base of the
Maritime Alps the rivers, with few eiceptiona, are now forming con-
glomerate and ssnd, (Lyeirs • Geology.') Near Kico the mud,
pebbles, and portions of rock brought down by tho torrenta form
beda of shingle ; but the greater part are swept into the deep sea,
where they form strata of inclined conglomerate, about 1000 feet in
thickneas oud 7 or Smiles in length. Volcanic eruptions also tend
to the formation of conglomerate by uniting masses of rock together.
Conglomerates, as already observed, to whatever causes owing, are
characterised by being manifestly a congeries of ^agmenta of rock,
of various siieB, whi<£ have undergone the process of attrition, and
consequently have been formed by fragments of various rocks that
have been carried conudersble distancea. [Sheccia.] Many of these
conglomerates ore sometimes so well compsoted as to form a hard
rock, eapaUe of receiving a considerable degree of polish, as we
observe in two colossal fragments of hesds in the British Museum,
the faces of which are tolerably smoothed by Egyptian art, while
the broken paria exhibit a conglomerate consisting of irregulartjaed
rounded grains, and masses of qoartE and other recks. According aa
they consist of granite, qoartK, limestone, 4c., they are called
, granitic, quortsose, calcareous In building, the oonglomerBtes are
generally only employed for the coarser kinds of work, as foi rounds'
tjons and the abutments of bridges.
COHID.^, a family of Oaateropodoui JfoUwca, including tha
genera Cunni [CuHDs] and Plamtoma [SirHOMOBtoMaTA]. Thsy are
in CONIFERS
dunctcrised b; the ahell being iurenely oooical ; the aperture Inng
Mid DHTOw ; the outer lip DOtched at or near the auture ; operculum
minnta and lamellar. The aaimal ha* an oblong foot truacated in
front, with a coiupicuous pore in the middle. The head a produced,
and the tentacles are far aparL Tlie ejea are attached to the tea taclee.
The gitla an two. The lingual teeth are la purs, elongate, subulate,
or hastate.
Lamarcic reoords nine foujl apeciea of Cottida. Deehajee in hia
'Tablet' makea the nuuiber farty-oine (tertiary), one of which, C.Medi-
Itrraneut, he giiea ae both living aud foasil (terUar;), Mr. Q. B.
Sowerby ('Genera') aajs: — "Foaail oones are not unfrequeot; but
we believe that they occur only in the newer atrata, or thoee above
the chaU. such as the London Clay and Crag in Englaud, the Calcaire
Oroaaier in France, and the contemporaneous bads in other countrisa.
There are a few aeen in collections, Rlleil with a coarae dark-green
arenaoeouB subatance ; these belong to the Terraina Calcoreo- Trap-
pfienaof Brongniart Doubtfulcaatsoremetwithin the inferior Oolito,
according to Coiiylware and Phillips." The aama author gives a
figure of C. darmitot, a fowl from Barton, approaching very near to
a PUarotoma. Many ipeciea are found in the blue marla of the south
of France (M. Marcel de aorroa). M. de BuaCerot givn many from
Bordeaux aud Dai, Ac ; one of thetn, C. deprrdilm of Lamarck, as
analogous to the eiiHbing species at Owbyhee. Among the fo«il
■pedes from the western borders of the Red Sea, collected by Ur.
James Burton, named by Dr. J. E. Qray and Mr. Fretnbley, and com-
municated to Sir Charles Lyell by Mr. QreeDough, are twelve species
all living; hut neither C. MediUrraneut nor C. deperditut appears in
thelir"
Tannanlinhis List of British Fuaails records three species of i'^n
Omm in the latter fan
lama in the Crag and uinetoen In the London Chty, a
le species of
CONITER.1E, a natural order of Oymnoapermous EUogens (called
by Dr. Lindley Pinacea), consiating of resinous, mostly evergreen,
hard-lesved trees or shrubs, inhabiting all those parts of the world in
which arborescent plants can exist. Under this name are collected
the Tarious rscea of fir-tiees, pines, cedars, junipers, cypresses, aud
the like, which, however dissimilar they may at first sight appear,
correspond not only in their universally terobinlaceoiis sap, but in
the following poinU of organisation :— They all branch from numerous
buds, procenlmg from the side of a main stem. Their wood consists
of tubes of nearly equal diameter, oniong which there are here and
there fistular cavities which receive the resin that eiudes from the
wood. The sides of the woody tubes are marked by circular discs,
which when highly msgniSed appear as if coaaistiug uf a smaller
internal and a large external circle : the nature and use of these discs
■re unknown. The following out representa highly-mngnified sections
of s piece of deal A shows the nearly equal size of the woody tubes
when viewed tranaversely ; B is a perpendicular section with the discs
seen on the sides of the tubes.
The leaves ars articulated with the stem, and rery often are linear,
veinleas, and sharp-pointed ; but in some esses, as ^iiiburia adianti-
folia. Jig. 1, and Podotarjnu atplaiii/olia, fy. i, the leaves becomi
broad, and then they are filled with veins, which are all of the sami
nie, and branch by repeatedly forking ; a mode of veining knowi.
only in these plants and in ferns. The Bowers are collected in little
■caly cones ; males in one cone and females in another. The fenwjes
haVe no pvricarpial coverine, but consist of naked ovules, to which
fertilisation is communicated directlv from the pollen, without the
intarpositian of a style or stigma. When the fruit is ripe it consists
of a certain number of acales collected into a cone, and inclosing the
naked seeds in their axils. Sometimsa luch scales sie thin as in t
larch, or bard and long as in the pine, or even succulent as in t
juniper, whose berries, as they are named, are small cones with 11
culent consolidated scsles.
Satiahufia adiautifvlia- Podocarpvt aipttmiifbiia^
Lindley places this order between the Ci/cadacea and Taxacea.
There are SO genera aud above 100 species, which include trees and
ehruba of univeiaal importance to maokind. Oigantic in size, rapid
in growth, noble in aspect, robust in constitution, these trees form a
considerable proportion of woods and plantations in cultivated
countriea, and of forests where nature remains in temperste countries
in a aavage state. They are natives of Tarioyt parts of the world,
from the perpetual snows of arctic America to the hottest regions of
the Indian Archipelago. The principal part of the order is found in
temperate climates. In Europe, Siberia, China, and the temperate
parts of North America, the species are exceedingly abundant. The
timber of these trees is exceedingly valuable in commerce, and is
knownunderthenamesofDeal, Fir, Pine, aud Cedar. Their resuious
secretions are also well known by the names of Oil of Turpentine,
Burgundy Pitch, Canailian Balsam, kc. The common I^rch yields
Venetian Turpentine 1 Liquid SCorax is procured from a species of
Pine ; the branches of the Hemlock Spruce are used in making spnice
beer ; and the Savin, which is well known in medicine, is a species
CONlROSTREa, a family of Bi^d^ the third amongst Cuvier's
Pattera. Jt comprises those genera which have a strong bill, more or
less conical, and without notchea Cuvier says that t£ey live exclu-
sively upon seeds, in proportion as their bill is more or lees thick.
The CoairotlTa form one of Uie five tribes of tbe order Iniai>ra of
Mr. Vigors. [B1BD8.J
CONIUM, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Apiacea,
or UmbtU^/eric. It has an obsolete calyx ; petals obcordate, some-
what emarginate, with a very short iuBexed lobe. Fruit oompressed
at the side; ovata Half-fruits vrltb five prominent equal undulated
ridges, of which the lateral are on the border. Channels with many
striic, but no vittie. Biennials Root fusiform; stem taper^branched ;
leaves decompound ; botli involucres 3-G-loaved, the pextial one-halved.
Flowers whiu, aU fertile.
0. miKulalum, Hemlock, is found in waste places throughout
Europe, the east of Asia, and the cultivated parts of America. It
possesses highly narcotic and dangerous quslitiee, but is used medi<
cinally as a remedy in nervous affections. It has a white fusiform
biennial rout ; an erect branched bright-green spotted stem, fivm
five to ten feet high, on which are planted so many smooth finely cut
large fem-like leavo. When very healthy, and growing in a spot
where it is neither injured by sterma nor disfigured by dust, the
Hemlock is one of the moat nobk) of our wild plants. Its little
greenish white fiowers, arranged in umbels after the manner of its
order, have a minute involucre of severTiI leaves at the base ; and the
firtial umbels have also three or four short oval leaflets on one aide,
he fruit is globular, encfa half having five projecting angles, which
are slightly crcnelled, without either x-itto! or appendages or projec.
tions between them. It grows in wild places, sometimes by the
sides of ditches in meadows, but more frequently in light upland
pastures, flowering in June and July. It is almost the only wild
umbelliferous plant whose fiuit is destitute of vittai, aud consequently
It is necessary to pay the greatest attention to the botanical cha-
radera of Conntm maculatum, in order that the genaine plant may be
collected. Sometimes plants resembling it are collected, which ai«
almost or entiraly inert when employed as a medicine ; or plants
*1 of {greater potency ara iia*d in iU Bt««d, Trom which fatal offBotiiBlly allayed by coniuiii and IpecaouanluL From tlie Tery deoidiid
femltB h»vo followed. It is » " well-known ciromn«t«noB that the , aedatiTe sction of conia on the apbal Oord, Dr. Gordon hu suggested
greatest discrepancy prerula among medical men aa to the activity ' that it will prove a useful remedy in t«tauua and other spauuodio
of hemlock, not niBroly u a remedy hut. also aa a poison." Thie dia- "'
CT«piincy admits of satisfactory eiplan
even! graunds. The
activi^ of the pluit — even supposing the proper one to be colleoled-
depends greatly upon its plaoo of growth, the kind of sesMn, the
time when collected, and the meaoi employed to dry it or form it
a the temperature and dryness of the plaoa where
I on the length of time it has been k^t. In the
d wllh fmlt, nitanl site ; i, (he buk tI«w of ■
miit, mncli mi^iBcd-; 3, a IniuTcne hkUdu of tic rune, ahowing Ibe
rtdm, Ihe abKD« or tIIUb, ind the iniolnte albnnien.
south of Eompa it is much more energetic than in the aartb, owing
to the greater intensity of light ; even in the eonthem proTincei( of
France it is more powerful than in the northern. The wild plant,
growing in well-eiposed sitnations, is always to be preferred to a
cultivated one; the kind of season markedlj iaSuenoes its power,
which is greatest in a dry sunny season, and least in a wat gloomy
one. The leaves during the first year of growth possess little potency ;
nor do they possess much during the early period of the second, till
the flower-atem is developed, and the flowere are about to expand.
If this period, which is the fittest time for collecting the leaves, is
allowed to pass, it is better to wait two months longer, and oollect
the fruits instead, as they become the reoipient of the active principle.
The leaves should be dried quickly, but not by the application of a
high temperature ; they should never be powdered till the time when
it is intended to use them, but prsBcrred meanwhile in a cool dry
place. If an extract be formed which requires much care in the
preparation, it can rarely be kept beyond twelve months. A. fresh
supply of leaves, fruits, or extract, abauld consequently be procured
every year, and the farmer thrown away, as the action of time or heat
volatilises the active principle (Conia), and renders the residue nearly
inert. When these precautions are attended to, Hemlock is a medi-
cine of great power and unqueationable value.
The &eeh leaves are dark green, shining : odour strong, stapifying,
nnpleasant, resembling that of mice, or the urinous odour of fresh
Spanish Flies ; when dried the colour is lighter, a grayish green ; the
taste is disagreeably saline, nausBously bitter, and at last somewhat
said. The expressed juice is green.
According to LinnEeua, aheep eat the leaves, but horses, cows, and
goats refuse it. Say informs us that the thrush will feed upon the
seeds even when com is to be had. The first physician who endea-
voured to bring hemlock into repute as a medicine was Baron Stcerck
of Vienna, who announced that it exerted extraordinary efTecte on tbe
most inveterate chronic diiiordere in 1760. The whole plant is a viru-
lent poison, but varying much in atrength according to circumstances.
When taken in an over done it produces vertigo, dimness of sight,
nausea, and paralysis of the limbs. In small doees however it is found
very useful in scirrhus, scrofulous tumours, dropsy, epilepsy, and
as an anodyne. Dr. Pereira and Dr. Christison recommend an
alcoholic tincture of the bruised ripe fruit instead of the leaves.
In what way hemlock proves useful aa a remedial agent in many
diseases ia by no m^ana clear, unless it be by allaying irritabiUty in
the diseased parts, and giving an opportunity to the vital powers to
recover their beathful action. That it leesena irritability in many
diseased organs ia certain, from the eSsota of the adminidtratioa of
even a few dosea, especially in many cases of scrofulous aSectiona,
and above all from allaying tbe irritation of the lungs during the
fonnatioa of tubercles, and indeed during all the subsequent stagea of
consumption. Even when inhaled along with the vapour of wann
water the same good effect is said to follow, but this is rather doubtful.
Its beneficial influence over external ulcers is however open to oleerva-
tion ; and John Hunler remarked, that under the combined action of
conium and cinchona-bark, many obstinate buboes, which resisted
every other mode of trcAtment, aoon took on a healing process. Many
irritable or oainful ulcere are soothed and improved by a hemlock
poultice. RiieuniBtio pains, and those attending nodes, are said to be
Dr. Chriatiaon is of opinion that the Coniuta macvlalwn of the
present day is not the plant which furnished the poison employed to
dispatch Phocion and Socrates. Waller conHiders it to have been
Oinula viroia. [CoNlA, in Abm AND So, Dry.]
For farther partioulars with regard to tbo subject of this article
we refer to Dr. Christison's ' Memoir on the Poisonous Properties of
Hemlock and its Aloaloid, Conia." (' Traneaotiona of the Royal Soriaty
of Edinburgh,' voL xiiL)
CONNARACE^ a natnral order of tropicil Trees or Shrubs allied
to Anacardiaccie and Legami-naice, It coutaitis 5 genera and about 40
apeciea. The leaves ara compound, not dotted, alternate, witiout
stipules. The flowere terminal and axillary, in racemes or panicles,
with bracts. Calyx 5-parted, regular, pereistant ; [estivation either
imbricated or valvular. Petals 6, inserted on the calyx, imbricated,
rarely valvate in eestivation. Stamens twice the number of petals,
hypogynooB, those opposite the petals shorter than the others;
filaments usually monadelphaua. Carpels solitary or several, each
with a separata style and stigma. Ovidee 2, collateral, orthotropal.
II isd >(]'1m; 3, a
ascending; s^les terminal; stigmas usually dilated. Fruit dehiscent,
fotlioular, splitting lengthwise internally. Seeds erect, in pairs or
solitary, vritJi or without albumen, often with an aril ; radicle superior,
at the extremity opposite the hilum ; cotyledons thick in the speeies
without albumen, foliaoeous in those with albumen. Brown says the
genua can be distinguished from Leguminous plants by the relation
which parts of its embryo bear to the umbihcus of the seed ; that is
to say, by tbe radicle being at the extremity moat remote trmn the
hilum. From AnacardiactiE and othen they ara at once known by
their total want of reainous juice and their orthotropal ovules.
The species are all tropical ; most common in America. The beautiful
ESbra-wood now so much nsed by cabinet-makers is ascertained to be
produced by Omph/Uobiitm Lamherti, a large Guyana tree of this
CONNOCHETES. [Antiixipejs.]
CONNOR, a Fish belonging to tbefamilyZo&rtdiT. [CRKHILLBftDB.]
CONO'CEKAS, a genus of Cephi^opoda, fossil on Lake Huron.
Bronn founds the characters of it on the form of the aepta, which are
convex towards the base of the cone.
CONOELIX,CONCELIX,orCO»JOHELIX,agenuaofTurUil«ted
Malliuea, eatabliahed by Mr. Swainaon for a group which, ia his
m coNOPa
npinioii, "fonn k beaatifull; deBaed link connecting the Cones iriUi
the Volutes, atrtcUj so tenned." It bu the following generic chir
neter; — ^"Shell caniTorm. Spin tctj ahart Outsr lip ■imple.
Columella or pillu- pluted. Apertun linear, dutdw, longer thin
the apin^ Generic tjpe, Conalix Uiualut." (Swunson.)
Hr.SmiaKin ('Zoological Illoitrstions') figures three species, and
nwntions Uut sererKl specimens are in the Bsnluian oollection from
Um Pd«w Iilsnds. To one of th«e species in thst ooUeetJoD, Tnheite,
nsosUr called Otaheit«, is giren as b locality. Hr. Cumitig brought
home another species, 0. Virgo, which Mr, Swainson considers as
r c pr es giting CtHia Virfo, &om the reefs at the island of Bietea. It
was in shsllow water.
C. liKodu. '• Shell smooth, whitjsh, with truasYerae oapillarr
(qItous linea. Bpire depressed, the spei prominent. PilLirsii-plsited.
Inhabits the South Seas (T)." (Swainson.) The figures, which are of
tlie Dstoral tii^ are oopied fivm the accurate drawing in the ' Zoological
niuatratiooi.' All the other known species are compsntiTelf small
DeHainTilla dirides the genus Milra into Sts sections, and makes
bis fifth oonaiiit ot Imbricaria, Sebum., and Caindix, Sow,, meaning
SuworUy ; bat the genus is Swainson's, and is generally adopted.
COMOPS, a genus of Inseeta belonging to the order Diplera and
tlia (ainily Concpida. The family Conopida is thus chsncterised : —
Proboecis distinct, last joints of ontenns forming a short style.
Wings perfect. Cubital vein simple ; brachial veius without spurious
vein ; uillary lobe rounded. H^teres uncovered.
The genus Conopt has tbe following characters : — Body of middle
size, nUher slender, generally adorned with yellow or red bands-
Head thick, TCaiculose, the crown especially, with a transTerse ved-
eulsr tabercle ; front brood in both seiea. Eyes prominent, oblong ;
ocelli none. Proboscis long, porrect, stiff, cloTste, horizontal, or
somewhat nused rnto a curve, geniculate at the base, arched above,
hollow beneath, obliquely notched at tbe tip, much shorter than the
labium. Lingua slender, filiform, transparent. Pslpi untarticulate,
short, Tery small, fringed itt tbe tips with fine bristles. La,bium
obliquely porrect, cylindrical, twice the length of the lingua, narrower
towards the tip, most slender in the mide, bilobed, slightly hairy,
and with three shallow transverse furrows at tbe tip. Antennn
about as long ss the head, porrect, seated on a tubercle, approximate
at the base, diverging thence ; first joint short, cyliadrit^, pubescent,
forming on angle with the second; seoond long, Bub-clavate; third
conical, shorter than the second ; fourth very short ; fifth and aiztb
liuger, widened on one side; siith and seventh like a little spine.
Thorax almost quadrate, slightly convei above, with a scapula on
each aide ; scutellum small, semicircular. Wings lanceolate, finely
pubescent incumbent, and parallel in repose, prwbrachial vein united
with the cubital tovsrds the tip; proahrachial and discal sreolete
long, Che latter closed near the posten or margin l)y a tnnsTeiH vein;
onol areolet long, distinct, complete. Abdomen arched, rather long,
jrilh six segments more or less slender towards the base, obclavate
towards tiie tip, which is incurved. Legs rather stout; tibial very
slightly curved, compressed and dilated at the tips, in some cases
with a tnnsveras auture ; tani rather broa^; ungues and onychia
distinct,
Male, — Abdomen with a ptojecting oonic^ proeeas on the fourth
CONUS.
ita
"s;
lese flie* frequent flowers ; their larm are paraaitio on those of
are twenty spedes of this insect in the ool-
<um, of these not more than three are found
; been caught in ths south of Fnnce, Korth
il genus of MoBtuta, generally ranked witli
Dame for jScAvtwdi, to which also the term
laleropodou* ifoSusca, founded byLinDDBUB.
eery much compressed and involved, with a
loted by a proboBcts capable of mnch eiten-
^e rather short, but projeotjng, and armed
rth ; tentscula cylindncol, carrying the eyes
al, elongated, wider before than it ia behind,
)r channel ; mantle scanty, narrow, forming
Shell thick, solid, rolled ap aa it were in a conical form ; epidermis
membranous, sometimes very thick ; spire of different degrees of
elevation, sometimes almost flat ; aperture long and very narrow,
widening a little anteriorly; lipa generally straight and parallel, the
outer lip simple and sbartHedged, sometimes a little curved, the iimer
lip without any plaits on the columella, but with a few elevated strin
on its anterior termination. Operculum homyj very small, subspiral,
vrith a terminal summit, placed obliquely on the bock part of tbe
foot^ and, when compared with the length of the aperture, appearing
like a rudiment.
The apecies ore found in southern and tropical sess. The form
becomes gradually less developed as Ihe locality appioachn tbe north.
In the Mediterranean there are a few species, but none appear to have
been detected in the northern seas. They are camiToroue, and found
on sandy mud at depths vaiying from near the sur&oe of the sea to
seventeen fathoma.
Tbe species are very nomerooB. Lamarck raoorda 181 recent ; and
aerersl of these include Tarieties. The following obeerrations of
Hr, Broderip in bis introduction to the description of some new spedes
in the Gumingian collection may be of use to the student After
pointing out the difficulty of tbe task arising from the infinite varieties
presented by the genus, and the very few pointa of form and s^iicturs
in the shell that con be relied on as the foundation of speciSc cho-
them may bo w
cat! examine an extensive coiiecuon 01 v;anea, particujo;
many individuala of each species, for the purpoea < . ^ ,
without being struck by tbe force of tbe observation. Colonr, granu-
lation, or smoothness, length or shortness of the spire, its plunness
or coronation, will be found m many apecies the result of locality,
food, or temperature." H. Ducloe, in reference to tJie numbers given
by Lamarck, states that he is convinced that there are many of the
Bpefies which can only be regarded as varieties at most. About
269 recent species and 80 fossil epeciea have heen described up to the
present time,
Uony of these species and nrieties are very beautiful, both in shape
and colour, and the genus baa always been highly volaed by collectora.
Oonui gliiria-marii, C. etdo-nnlti, C. Dmaicitf, C. aurisiociM, C. amntir-
ajti, and some others, have brought very large prices, and aom* of the
finest specimens of these shells are now m this country.
Lamarck separates thegenus into two diviaiona : the first compriaidg
thoae apeciea wbose apire ia coronated; and the second thoee whose
spire is simple. By far the greater proportion of apedea belong to the
Utter division.
De Blainville thna divides the genu ; —
(Oeaua Rhombiu, De Uontfort)
Conical SDedes with a coronated spir^ which is either projecting
or flattened. (Example, 0. imperialii).
(Qenus Ct/linder, De Hontfort.)
Species a littie elongated, suboval ; the spire projecting and
pointed, but not coronated. (Example, C. ttxitle.)
■J.)
(Genua Htrma, De Montfort)
Elongated, cylindrical apedea with a projecting spire, and the
aperture as in the genus TrrsicUum, that ia, angular posteriorly.
(Examples, C. Nwuatelia and C. nu/nUiu,)
Mr. G. a Sowarby ('Genera of Recent and Fosdl Shells') observes
that the Cones are Uabte to be confounded with the PUaroloiaata, and
the young spedmena of some Slron^i ; and tbosa which are rathei
Animal or Oomu iaiiitina,
a. Been [d proSle ; i, iliw of UDdrr ilde ; c, DpennilDni,
ventricosa with young Ogfraa ; but that they may be disliDgiiiahed
from tbe Plevrolowita by their short spire, their linear apei'ture, and
their straight columella; troai the young Strombi, by .their being
I»
CONVALtABITES.
entirely destitute of TBrioote suturea, *iid by tbeir never haTJog; any
■ppeanuice of a notsh neu the lower axtremit; of the outer lip ; the
young &rombi moreoTer an Mldoin, if ever, so regularly ooniod;
and from the young Cypraa by the thickneH of their ahell, by the
coroiuted or abrupt ipire, and b; their not being naturally polubed
in every pari, whioh the Ci/praa alnnya nra, in cooKqueDce of the
want of epidermia which covers the shell of the Cone, while in the
Ol^raa the Urge mantle Oomee in oontaotwith the whole of the ahalL
Shell at OnuupifunLM).
CONVALLABIT^, a genua of IJliaceans <t} Plants foadl m the
Ilsd-3and>tone of Sulibad. (Brongniart.)
CONVOLVnLA'CEl<S,aiiatural Older of Hanopetalooa Exogenous
Plants, with bell-ahapad flowers, opening or contracting beneath the
inBaence of light, a plaited natiTation of the coroUo, 5 gtameni, and a
fruit with 2 or 3 celle, in which 1 or 2 OTulea itand erect The
embryo is crumpled up in the midst of very firm albumen. - The
common Bind- Weeds of the hedges, the Ipomaa and Oonvolvuii of the
Gardens, offer illnstrstiona of the ordinary state of Utis order, the
s^ieedes of which have purgative roots ; and in the case of scammony,
yielded by Contolvulfu Scammonia, and of jalap, produced by various
spedee of Ipouioa [IroWEA], are of great medictnol importance.
OcGasionally the purgative principle is so much diffused among Uis
fieculii of the root as to be almost inappreciable, as is the case in the
Cowtoirtiiiu Balaiai, or Sweet Potato of America, which was the
fororunner of the common potato, and gave it its name, and which is
still cultivated in the south of Spain and France. [BiTaias.]
of this natural order ai
it ia immediately recognised ; but oecasioiiaUy they ai
B spiny, and when that happens it is n '
CONTZA. IM
know the order. If however attention is paid to the -fery imbricated
state of the calyx, two of the sepals beine^uite exterior with respect
to the other three, no real difficulty in id^tifying it need be experi-
enced. For illustration we have taken a singular East Indian genus
called (Veuroprfris, in which the flowers grow from the niidrib ot the
bractesl leavea
The BpedsB are abundant in all porta of the tropics, but rsre in
cold elimates where only a few are found. In the ooldest elimataa
they are unknown. The roots abound in a milky juice, which ia
■tronglr purgative : this property dependa on a peculiar resin
which u the active principle of jatap, scammony, and oUien of like
nature. There aie 43 genera and above SOO i^tedes. The order.
Dr. Lindl^, is allied to Solanaeea, Boroffiaacta, and
COMVOLYULnS, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural
order ConvolwiiKta, The spades are chiefly herbs or herbflhruba,
The genus ia known by the style being divided into 2 linear arma
and its ovaiy having 2 cells in which stand 2 erect ovul&s. There
are aboTS ISO species of this genus, They ore commonly known by
the name of Biod-Weeds,
C. Scammonia, Scamtaony Bind-Weed, is a native of Syria, Cappa-
docio, and of the island of Rhodca, in hedges. It has large campanu-
late cream-coloured or very pale red corollas. The roota, whii^ ara
very long and thick, when freah contain a milky juice. Thia ia
obtained Dy removing the earth from the npper part of the rootj^ and
cutting off the tops obliquely. The milky juice which flows out is
oollected in a vessel in the earth at the lower end of the cut. Sach
root fumishes a few drachms, and the produce of several roota is
added together, and then dried in the sun. This is the true and una-
dulterated Seammony. It is lights of a dorkgray colour, and becomes
of a whitish-yellow when touched with the wet finger. It seldom
reaches us in a pure stato, but is commonly mixed with the eiprened
juice of the root, and often with Sour, sand, or earth. The best comes
from Aleppo, and a second quality from Smyrna. Scommony Is
an eiDoaoioiu and powerful purgative. [Scamuost, in Abts and
8o.DtT.]
C. dPKDsis has angularatriated atoms; leaves sagittate, somewhat auri-
eledjpeduncleausuaUyl'Bowered; sepals ovate, roundish; corolla whita
or rose-colour. It ia native throughout Europe in sandy fields and by
road-sidee ; also in China, Persia, and some parts of Indis. It [s very
common in Oreat Britain, lliis species is said to possess a purgative
quality, oa also C. SoidantUa, C. laaritianu, and O, tnacncarpvt,
C. pmdvn^uM abounds in prussic add, and ia one of the plants from
which the liqueur Noyau is prepared.
C. abmoida is a nstivs of the South of Europe North of Africa,
and Levant, climbing ammg bushes. It hoe stems branched from the
bottom, cliinbing or spreading, taper and leafy ; the conilta about two
inches long, and of a beautiful rose^nlour. According to M. Loiseleur
Dealongchamps the roots contain a purgative resin, ^ch is given in
doses from 16 to 24 grains.
C. SoldantUa and C. SQnun are now referred to the genua Calytt^ia
by Robert Brown. [Calibtbou.] Several of the apeciet are nativea
of Qreat Britain. Many grow well in our gardens, and form handsome
and showy flowsrs.
COMY'ZA, a genus of Plants belonging to ths natural order Ctm-
pcrila, to the sub-order TiibulijUnr, Uie tribe Eupaloriaaa, the sub-
tribe £aechan<Ua, the division Cimyua, and the lub-diviidon Enco-
ngita. It has an herbaooooa imbricate involucre, the flowen of l^s
ray tubular, 3-toothed, pistiliferous, those of the diso tubular, 6-
toothed, hermaphrodite ; the anthers caudate, the achenium beakless,
the pappus pilose, the receptacle naked. The species are herbs and
shrubs, and are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.
C. iquamoia, Fleabane, Ploughman's Spikenard, has the scalea of
the involucre Ul linear, theleavesoTal«-lanceol«le,downy,denticulBte,
the lower leaves narrowed into a footstalk, the florets of the ray sub-
ligulate, the fruit terete. This is a common plant on calcareous soila
in Great Britain and throughout Europe. It possesses a volatile oil
with a peculiar scent, and is used for the purpoae of driving away
fleas and gnala. It seems to have had this reputation from an early
period, as ita names in most languages have reference to this quali^.
Ila I«tin name is PidUana: French, Herbea sui Puces ; English,
Fleabane. Thia species has been referred bj De Condolle, in his
' Prodivmus,' who is followed by Babington, m his ' Manual,' to the
genus Inla, under the name of I. Conynt.
O. anlkdmiatKa has ovate or oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at both
ends, coarsely serrated, and downy ; the heads corymbose, each con-
taining 40-SO florets ; the scalea of the involucre Uncsotat«, linear,
acute, the outer somewhat spreadiog. le<ifly, and obovale-linear. It is
a oommon plant among rubbish and in dry uncultivated ground in
the Ejist Indies. It is the Vsnumi'a anihrlmmiiea of Willdenow,
The fruit is used by the doctors of Indio as a powerful remedy for
C, gtnitUUoida has very small leaves reduced to sharpish somewhat
temate acnlea ; 1-2 heads in interrupted spikca, the involucre turbinate,
with the acsles all acuminata. This plint U a native of Peru and
Braiil. It is the Baeeharit goiitUitoida of PerM>on, the Molina
rcHcidaia of Lcwlng. It contains a bitter ettrootiva matter aikd an
nromutiii oil, and ia not unlike in Ha medioiual ehomcters the oommoa
wormwood, tt ia em;dojeiI in the Bmzila id inUnnittent fimn, and
nuiy be u»«d in tH tho» ciiBe« where the Artamiiisi U indicated. It
is puticuliirif beoeficiftl in the chronio dieenHfl of horees, which are
ver; fond of this plant Itmty be employed in the form of an eitract
C. Harglandica hoe seuite, broad -lanceolate, acute, aemited leaves ;
the corTmbe tenninal nud fastiginta. It is a natiTe of North America,
■nd eeorot«a a powerful volatile oil, which givea out the odour of
oimphor. This property is also poaatieeed by C, eamphorata.
(Loudon, Encyclopadiaof Planti; Koch, Ptara GermatUa; Lindley,
Flora Medico.)
COOKIA, n gonui of Plnnta belongiig to the naturd order
Auraaliacta. The epeciee are emull trees with impari-pinnate leaTea;
Icnfleta nlteniate, uoequal at the b.-ise, or oblique.
C. punctata ia a native of China and tlie Molucoaa ; it hu ovate
Injioeolftto leaflets, acuminated, hardly unequal at the base. It is a
ini<1dle'Bized tree bearing eatable fruit about the aJES of a pigeon's egg,
yellow OD the outside, the pulp white, rather acrid, but sweet. Thu
fruit is esteemed as an article of diet in China and the ladian Archi-
P'liigo, and is tnown by the name of Wiimpee. There are two or
three other species, natives of the Kaat, all known as Wampee Trees.
COOT. [RaLLiD*.]
COPAI'FERA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
Fahacea or Lrgviminota, sometimes placed in the Aiayridacea. It has
a 4-parted oalyi, eegraents diverging, the lowest the narrowest.
Curolla wanting; stamens 10, declinate. Ovary roundish, com-
pnsBcd, with 2 ovules. Fruit pedicelUte, oblique, obovate, 2-valved,
1-aceded ; seed inclosod in a l-sided aril. The species are trees or
xhnibe, inhnbiting tropical America. Their trunks yield balsam by
inoirioQ. The leaves are alternate, pinnntetl equally or unequally;
leaBeta opposite or alternate, either dotted or not. The flowers
are arranged in compound aiillary and terminal spikes.
C. Jacqaini, the C. officinatii of Jacquin, is a nntive of the West
Indies. The leaves are gcnciTkllv equally pinnated ; leaflets in 2-5
pairs, incurved, ovate, uncquu-aided, obtusely noumtnato, with
pellucid dots. From this species is obtnined the Copniva Balsam
of the West Indies, which is used in medicine. [Cofaiva, in Arts
ASD 8c. Div.]
Oipaififa JaequifiL
C.nvl/ijuga has equally-pinnated leaves; leaflets O-IO pairs, some-
what incurred, unequal-sided, with a long tapering point and pellucid
dote, the lower ovate-oblong, the upjior lanceolate. This is said to
yield the Copaiva exported from Para.
C. Langtdorfli grows in the province of 3. Paulo In Brazil. It has
leafiets in 3-S pairs, equal-sided, obtuse, with pellucid dots ; the lower
ovate, the upper elliptical : the petioles and peduncles slightly
The Copaiva H*'""" of Braiil is fumiahed bj this and the next
■pedes.
C. earUKta is also a native of S. Paalo in Brazil. It has leaflets ia
S-3 pairs, elliptical, equal-aided, cmarginate, not dotted ; petioles and
peduncles nearly smooth. The Balsam of Copaiva, an acrid bitter
IS liquid resin, is apparently furnished by all iba species of this
applied indiscrimiDately to many diBTeient apecit
The ParpleHeart, a Ouyana tree yielding timber of great toughneos,
which is very valuable for resisting the shock of artillery-discbarges,
sod is therefore employed for making niortnr-lwds, ia the C. jminfivra
COPPER in
and hntdeata. The balsam is said to gush out of tlie heart of these
trees in largo quantitiee when wounded.
COPAL, a resin poasoesed of peculiar properties, the prodace of
the SJtiu copaUinumj a n.itiTe of Mexico ; it is in rounded masses,
■mootli and brittle, tronapareat or nearly ao, without oolour or having
a slight tinge of yellow; it has but little taste, and is nsarif
inodorous ; it is Insoluble in water, fusible, and inflammable. It
differs from most other resins in its very sparing solubility in slcohol ;
and of the little that dissolves with the assistance of heat the greater
part is deposited as the solution cools. It ia dlasolvcd by ether and
A aubstauce resembling Copal is also found mineral, which is called
Foail Copal. It ia however insoluble in alcohol.
CO'PHINUS, a fossil genua whoaaafEuiticB are uncertain. (Uun^
'Sil. Syet.' pL 26, f. 12.)
COPPER, one of the motals, occura native in conaideruble quantiUea ;
also combined with oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and various acida The
ores of copper voir in apeciGc gravity from 3'5 to 8'S, audaeldom exceed
i in hardnesa. Many of the ores give to borax a gnten colour in the
outer flame, and an opaque dull red in the inner. With carbonate of
aoda on charcoal, nearly al! the orea are reduced, and a globule of
copper obtained ; borax and tinfoil are required in some cases, where
a combination with other metals oonceala the copper. When soluble
in the acids, a clean plate of iron inaerted in the aolution become*
covered wiUi copper, and ammonia produces a blue solution.
NlTlvi CoFPiB. — Uonometric In octahedrons; no cleavage appa-
rent. Oflen in plates or masses, or arborescent and filiform shape*.
Colour copper-red. Ductile and malleable. Hardness, 2'5 to 8. Specific
gravity, 8-68.
Native copper oflen contains a little silver disseminated throu^out
it. Before the blow-pipe it fuses readily, and on cooling it ia oovared
with a black oxide. It dlsnlvea in nitric acid, and produces a Uu9
aolution with ammonia.
Native copper accompanies the ores of copper, and usuallj occurs
in the vicinity of dykes of igneotu rocks. Siberia, Brwdl, and Corn-
wall, are noted for the copper they have produoed. A. mass, supposed
to be from Bahia, now at Lisbon, weighs 2616 lbs. The vidnity of
Lake Superior ia one of the moat extnordinary regions in the world
fur ita native copper, whero it occurs moatly in vertical seams in timp,
and alao in the inclosing sandstone. A mass weighing 3TIH lbs. haa
been taken from thence to Washington dty. One large mass weigh-
ing 80 tons was quarried out in the same district. It was GO feet
long, 6 feet deep, and averaged 6 inches in thicknesa This copper
rontJuns intimately mixed with it about 3-lOths per cent, of silver.
Besidea this, perfectly pure silver in strings, masses, and grains is
ofteu dieseminated through the copper ; and aome masses when
polished appear aprinklcd with large white spots of silver. Crystals
of native copper are also found penetrating magses of prehnita and
onolcime in the trap rock. This mixture of copper and silver cannot
be imitated by art, aa the two metals form an alloy when melted
together. It is probable that the separation in the rocks is due to
the cooling from fusion being so extremely gradual as to allow the
two metals to solidify separately at their respective temperatures of
Bolidiflcation ; the trsp being an igneoua rock, and ages often elapsing,
as is well known, during the cooling of a bed of lava covered from
the air. Small specimena of native copper have been found in various
parts of the Unitnl States. It occura also in Australia.
FUrtotu Copptr Ore. — Trimetric Cleavage parallel to the faces of
a right rbombio piiam, but indistinct. Secondary forms, variously
modified rhombic prisms. It occurs also in compound crystals like
aiTSgonite ; often massive. Colour and streak hinckiah lead-gray,
often tamishod, blue or green, streak sometimes shining. BardnesB,
26 to 3. Specific gravity, iS to C*S. Compoaition : —
Sulphur 20-8
Copper 77-2
Bcforo the blow-pipe it gives off fumes of sulphur, fuses easily in the
external flame, and boils. After the sulphur is driven off a globule of
copper remains. Dissolves in heated nitric acid, with a precipitation
of the Bulphur, The vitreous copper ore resembles vitreous silver
ore ; but the lustre of a surface of fracture is lees brilliant, and they
aSbrd different results before the blow-pipe. The solution made bj
putting a piece of the ore in nitric acid covers an iron-plate or knife-
blade with copper, while a similar solution of the silver ore ooven a
copper-plate with rilver.
This ore occurs with other copper ores in beds end veina. In Corn-
wall splendid orjatollisations occur. Siberia, Heaao, Saxony, the
Bannat, Chili, and the United States, also afford it.
Capper Pyrita — Sulphuret of Copper and Iron. Dlmetrio. Crys-
tola tetroliedrsl or octahedral, sometimes compound. Clsavsge
indistinct It occurs also massive and of various shapes. Colour
bian-yellow, often tamiahed deep yellow, and also iridesosntj
atreak unmetallic, greenish-bhuk, and but little shining. Hardneas,
8S to i. Specific gravity, *-16 to *-17. Compoaition ;—
Sulphur SB'S
Copper ... ... SSI
Iron . . . . 81-B
133
COPPEtt.
COPPER.
134
It fusea before the blow-pipe to a globule, which is mugnetic, owing to
the iron present. Gives sulphur-fumes on charcoal; with borax
affords pure copper. The usual effect with nitric acid.
This ore resembles native gold and also iron pyrites. It is dis-
tinguished from gold by crumbling when it is attempted to cut it,
instead of separating in slices ; and from iron pyrites in its deeper
yellow colour, and in yielding easily to the point of a knife, instead
of striking fire with a steeL
Copper pyrites occurs in veins in granite and allied rocks; also in
grauwacke, &c. It is usually associated with iron pyrites, and often
with galena, blende, and carbonates of copper. The copper of Fahlun,
Sweden, is obtained mostly from this ore, where it occurs with serpen-
tine in gneiss. Other mines of this ore are in the Harz, near Goslar,
in the Bannat, Hungary, Thuringia, &c. The Coinwall ore is mostly
of this kind, and 10,000 to 12,000 tons of pure copper are smelted
annually. There is much of this ore found in the United States.
Besides being mined for copper, this ore is used extensively in the
manufacture of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in the same manner
that sulphate of iron (copperas) is obtained from iron pyrites.
Vari^foied Copper Pyn'/eiL^Monometric. Cleavage ootahedral,
in traces. Occurs in cubes and octahedrons ; also massive. Colour
between oopper-red and pinchbeck-brown ; tarnishes rapidly on expo-
sure ; streak pale grayish-black, and but slightly shining. Brittle.
Hardness, 8. Specific Qravity, 6. Composition : —
Sulphur 25*7
Copper 62*8
Iron 11»6
It fuses before the blow-pipe to a globule, attiTictable by the magnet.
On charcoal affords fumes of sulphur. Mostly dissolved in nitric acid.
This ore is distinguished from tne preceding by its pale reddixh-yellow
colour. It occurs with other copper ores in granitic and allied rocks,
and also in secondary formations. The mines of Cornwall have
afforded crystallised specimens, and it is there called from its colour
Horseflesh Ore. Other localities of massive varieties are — Ross
Island, Killamey, Norway, Hesse, Silesia, Siberia, and the Bannat.
Fine crystallisations occur in some of the United States.
Gray Copper Ore, — ^Honometric. Occurs in modified tetrahedrons,
and also in compound crystals. Cleavage octahedral, in traces.
Colour between steel-gray and iron-black; streak nearly as the
colour. Rather brittle. Hardness, 8 to 4. Specific Gravity,
4*75 to 5.1. Composition : —
Sulphur 26*3
Copper 88*6
Antimony 16*5
Aisenic ....... 7*2
together with some iron, sine, and silver, amounting to 15 per cent.
It sometimes contains 80 per cent, of diver, in place of part of the
copper, and is then called Argentiferow Cray Copper Ore, or Silver
FakUrz. The amount of arsenic varies from to 10 per cent One
variety from Spain included 10 i>er cent, of platinum, and another
from Hohenstein some gold ; another from Tuscany ^*7 per cent, of
mercury. These varieties give off before the blow-pipe fumes of
arsenic and antimonv, and after roasting yield a globiUe of copper.
It dissolves, when pulverised, in nitric add, affording a brownish-green
solution. Its copper-reactions before the blow-pipe, and in solution
in nitrio acid, distinguish it from the gray silver ores. The Cornish
mines, Andieasberg in the Harz, Kremnits in Hungary, Freiberg in
Saxony, Kapnik in Transylvania, and Dillenberg in Nassau, afford
fine crystallisations of this ore. It is a conmion ore in the Chilian
mines, and is worked there and elsewhere for copper, and often also
for silTer.
Bed Copper Ore. — Monometric. In reg^ular octahedrons, and modi-
fied forms of the same. Cleavage octahedral. Also massive, and
sometimes earthy. Colour deep red, of various shades; streak
brownish-red. Lustre adamantine, or sub-metallio; also earthy,
sub-transparent to nearly opaque. Brittle. Hardness, 8*5 to 4.
Specific Gravity, 6. Composition : —
Copper 88*88
Oxygen 12
Before the blow-pipe on charcoal it yields a globule of copper.
It dissolves in nitnc acid. The earthy varieties have been called TiU
Ore, from the colour. From cinnabar it differs in not being volatile
before the blow-pipe, and from red iron ore in yielding a bead of
copper on charcoal, and copper-reactions. It occurs with other
copper ores in the Bsnnat, Thuringia, Cornwall, at Chessy, near Lyon ;
in Siberia, and Brazil ; also in the United States. The octahedrons
are often green, forming a coating of malachite.
Black Copper, TenoriU, — ^An oxide of copper occurring as a black
powder and in dull black masses and botryoidul conci^etions, in veins
or along witlk other copper ores. From Cornwall, and also the Yesu-
viau lavas. It is an abundant ore in some of the copper mines of the
Mississippi Valley, and yields 60 to 70 per cent of copper. The
oxides of copper are ensily smelted by heating with the aid of
charcoal alone. They may be converted directly into sulphate
or blue vitriol by means of sulphuric acid, but are more
valuable for the copper they afford.
Blue Vilriol, Sulphate of Copper, C7oj)p«r<M.— Triclinate, In oblique
rhomboidol prisms ; also as an efflorescence or incrustation. Colour
deep sky-blue; streak uncoloured. Sub-transparent to translucent.
Lustre vitreous. Soluble. Taste nauseous and metallic. Hardness,
2 to 2*5. Specific Gravity, 2*21. Composition :—
Sulphuric Acid
Oxide of Copper
Water
81*7
821
86.2
A polished plate of iron in a solution becomes covered with copper.
It occurs with the sulphurets of copper as a result of their decompo-
sition, and is often in solution in tlio waters flowiug from copper
mines. Occurs in the Harz, at Fablun iu Sweden, and in many
other copper regions.
Blue Vitriol is much used in dyeing opcrati(Hi8, and in the printing
of cotton and linen ; also for vai'ious other purposes in the arts. It
has been employed to prevent dry rot by steeping wood in its solu-
tion, and is a powerfiJ preservative of auimal substances ; when
imbued with it and dried they remain uunltered. It is afforded by
the decomposition of copper pyrites, iu the same manner as greeu
vitriol from iron pyrites: It is manufactured for the arts from old
copper sheathing, copper turnings, and copper refinery scales. The
scales are readily dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid at the temperature
of ebullition ; the solution obtained is evaporated to the point where
crystallisation will take place on cooling. Metallic copper is exposed
in hot rooms to the atmosphere after it has been wotted in weak
sulphuric acid. By alternate wetting and exposure it is rapidly
corroded, and affords a solution which is evaporated for crystals.
400,000 lbs. is the annual consumption of blue vitriol in the United
States. In some mines the solution of sulphate of copper is so
abtmdant as to afford considerable copper, which is obtained by im-
mersing clean iron in it. It is called Copper of Cementation. At the
copper springs of Wicklow, Ireland, about 500 tons of iron wei« laid
at one time in the pits: in about twelve months the bars were
dissolved, and every ton of iron yielded a ton and a half, and some-
times nearly two tons, of a precipitated reddish mud, each ton of
which produced 16cwt. of pure copper. The Rio Tinto mine, in
Spain, is another instance of working the sulphate iu solution. These
waters yield annually 1800 owt. of copper, and consume 2400 cwt. of
iron.
Qrten Malachite. Green Carbonate of Coppa\ — ^Monoclinate. Usual in
incrustations, with a smooth tuberose botryoidal or stalactitic surface.
Structure finely and firmly fibrous ; also earthy. Colour light green ;
streak paler. Usually nearly opaque. Crystals translucent Lustro
of ciystals adamantine, inclining to vitreous; but fibrous incrustations
silky, on a cross fracture. Earthy varieties dulL Hardness, 3*5 to 4.
Specific Gravity, 4. Composition : —
Carbonic Acid 18
Oxide of Copper . . ... 70*5
Water lis
Dissolves with effervescence in nitric acid. Decrepitates and blackens
before the blow-pipe, and becomes partly a black scoria. With borax
it fuses to a deep green globule, and ultimately affords a bead of
copper* It is readily disting^uished by its copper-green colour and its
association with copper ores. It resembles a siliceous ore of copper,
ChrysocoUa, a common ore in the mines of the Mississippi valley ;
but it is d is t in g ui s h ed by its complete solution and effervescence iu
nitric acid. The colour also is not the bluish-green of chrysocolla.
Green malachite usually accompanies other ores of copper, and forms
incrustations, which when thick have the colours blended, and
extremely delicate in their shades and blending. Perfect crystals
are quite rare. The mines of Siberia, at Nischne Togilsk have
afforded great quantities of this ore. A mass partly disclosed mea-
sured at top 9 feet by 18 feet; and the portion uncovered contained at
least half a million pounds of pure malachite. Other noted localities
are Chessy in France, Sandlodge in Shetland, Schwartz in the Tyrol,
Cornwall, Australia, and the island of Cuba. This mineral receives
a high polish, and is used for inlaid work, and also ear-rings, snuff-
boxes, and various ornamental articles. It is not much prized in
jewellery. Very large mosses are occasionally obtained in Russia,
which are worked into slabs for tables, mantel-piecen, and vases,
which are of exquisite beauty, owing to the delicate shadings and
radiations of colour. In the Great Exhibition of 1851 there were
magnificent specimens of this material in the shape of doors and
vases sent thither by the Emperor of Riissio. At Versailles there is
a room furnished entii*ely with tables, chairs, &c., wrought in
malachite, and the same are to be found in other European palaces.
At NiBchue Tagilsk, a block of malachite was obtained weighing
40 tons. Malachite is sometimes passed off in jewellery as turquoise,
though easily distinguished by its shade of colour and much inferior
hardness. It is a valuable ore when abundant^ but it is seldom
smelted alone, because the metal is liable to escape with the liberated
volatile ingredient, carbonic acid.
Agurile. Blue Carbonate of Copper. — Monodinate. In modified
oblique rhombic prisms, the crystals rather short and stout ; lateral
cleavage perfect ; also massive ; often earthy. Colour deep blue,
azure, or Berlin blue ; transparent to nearly opaque; streak bluisli.
lU
COPPER.
COPROLITES.
IM
Lustr6 vitreous, almost adamantine. Brittle. HardneM, 8 '6 to 4*5.
Specifio Qrayity, 3*5 to 3*85. Compositioii : —
Carbonic Acid 26*5
Oxide of Copper 691
Water 5*5
Before the blow-pipe and in acids it acts like the preceding. Azurite
accompanies other ores of copper. At Chessy in France its crystal-
ILiations are very splendid. It is found also in Siberia, in the Bauanat,
and near Redruth in ComwalL As incrustations, and rarely as
crystalB, it occurs uear Singsing, New York ; also in other parts of
the United States.
When abundant it is a valuable ore of copper. It makes a poor
pigment, as it is liable to turn green.
ChrfftocoUa. Silicate of Copper, — Usually as incrustations ; botryoidal
and massive; also in thin seams and stains ; no fibrous structure
apparent, nor any appearance of crystallisation. Colour bright green,
bluish-green. Lustre of surface of incrustations smoothly shining ;
also ewrthy. Translucent to opaque. Hardness, 2 to 8. Specific
Gravity, 2 to 2*3. Composition : —
Oxide of Copper 400
Silica 86*5
Water 20*2
Carbonic Acid 2*1
Oxide of Iron I'O
This mineral varies much in the proportion of its constituents, as
it is not crystallised. It blackens in the inner flame of the blow-pipe
without melting. With borax it is partly reduced. No effervescence
nor complete solution in nitric acid, cold or heated.
It is distinguished from green malachite, as stated under that species.
It accompanies other copper ores in Cornwall, Hungary, the Tyrol,
Siberia, Thuringia, kc In Chili it is abundant at the various mines.
In Wisconsin and Missouri it is so abimdant as to be worked for
copper. It was formerly taken for green malachit& This ore in the
pure state affords 30 per cent of copper, but as it occurs in the rock
will hardly yield one-third of this amount. Still, when abundant^ as
it appears to be in the Mississippi valley, it is a valuable ore. It is
easy of reduction by means of limestone as a flux.
bioptate is another silicate of copper, occurring in rhombohedral
crystals and hexsgonal prisms. Colour emerald green. Lustre
vitreous ; streak greenish. Transparent to nearly opaque. Hardness,
5. Specific Gravity, 8*28. From the Kirghese Steppes of Siberia.
Besides the above salts of copper, the following species, which are of
little use in the arts, are given in Dana's ' Manual of Minerslogy ' : —
ArupnattM of Copper,
JSvtehroite has a bright emerald-green colour, and contains 83 per
cent of arsenic acid and 48 per cent, of oxide of copper. Occurs in
modified rhombic prisms. Hardness, 8*75. Specific Gravity, 3*4.
From Lebethen in Hungary.
AphanetUe is of a dark verdcgris-green inclining to blue, and also
dark blue. Hardness, 2*5 to 8. 8p. Gr., 4*19. It contains 80 per cent,
of arsenic acid and 54 per cent of oxide of copper. From Cornwall
£rmUe hss an emerald-green colour, and occurs in mammillated
coatings. Hardness, 4*5 to 5. Sp. Gr., 4*04. Contains 83*8 per cent
of arsenic acid and 59*4 per cent of oxide of copper. Ftom Limerick,
Ireland.
Liroconite varies from sky-blue to verdigris-green. It ooeun in
rhombic prisms sometimes an inch broad. Hardness, 2*5. Sp. Gr.,
2 '8 to 2*9. Contains 14 per cent of arsenic acid and 49 per cent
of oxide of copper.
OliveniU presents olive-green to brownish colours, and occurs in pria-
matic crystals or velvety coatings. Hardness, 8. Sp. Gr., 4*2. Contains
36*7 per cent of arsenic acid and 56*4 per cent of oxide of copper.
Copper Mica is remarkable for its thin foliated or mica-like struc-
ture. The colour is emerald or grass-green. Hardness, 2. Sp. Gr.,
2*55. It contains 21 per cent of arsenic acid, 58 per cent of oxide
of copper, and 21 per cent of water. From Cornwall and Hungary.
Copper Froth is another arsenate of a pale apple-green and veitligris-
green colour. It has a perfect cleavage. It contains 25 per cent of
arsenic acid, 43'9 of oxide of copper, 17'5 of water, and 18*6 of carbo-
nate of lime. From Hungary, Siberia, the Tyrol, and Derbyshire.
Condurritc has a browuish-black or blue colour. From ComwalL
These different arsenates of copper give an alliaceous odour when
heated on charcoal before the blow-pipe.
Pho9phatea of Copper.
Pteudo-MalachiU occurs in very oblique crystals or massive and
incrusting, and has an emerald or blackish-green colour. Hardness,
4*5 to 5. Sp. Gr., 4'2. Contains 68 per cent of oxide of copper.
From near Bonn on the Rhine, and also from Hungary.
Lihdhenite has a dark or olive-green colour, and occurs in prismatic
crystals and massive. Hardness, 4. Sp. Gr., 8*6 to 3*8. Contains 64
per cent of oxide of copper. From Hungary and Cornwall.
Thromholite is a green phosphate occurring massive in Hungary.
Contains 39 per cent, of oxide of copper.
These phosphates give no fumes before the blow-pipe, and have the
reaction of phosphoric add.
Chloridet of Copper,
Ataeamiie. — Colour green to blackish-green. Lustre a d a ma nti n e to
vitreous; streak apple-green. Translucent to sub-tmnslucent Oocrora
in right rhombic prisms and rectangular octahedrons ; also maaarve.
Consists of oxide of copper 76*6, muriatic acid 10*6, water 12*8. Gives
off fiimes of muriatic acid before the blow-pipe, and leaves a ^obnls
of copper. From the Atacama Desert between Chili and Peru, and
elsewnere in Chili ; also from Vesuvius and Saxony. It is ground up in
Chili, and sold as a powder for letters under the name of ArseniUo.
A Sulphate Chlwide of Copper has been observed in Cornwall, in
blue acicular crystals, apparently hexagonaL
Beaumoniite of C. T. Jackson is a hydrous crenato-ailicate of copper,
containing 15'8 per cent of crenic acid. It is bluish-green to greraish-
white, and pulverulent when dry. From Cheasy, France.
Vanadate of Copper, — Massive and foliated or pulverulent; folia
citron-yellow, pearly. From the Ural.
Bwatite. — A hydrous carbonate of copper, zinc, and lime, occurring
in blmsh radiating needles. Sp. Gr., 8*2. From Chessy, France ; the
Altai Mountains; and Tuscany.
Velvel Copper Ore. — In velvety druses or coatings, oonsiating of
short fine fibrous crrstallisations. Colour, fine smalt blue.
Copper has been known since the earliest periods. It is obtained
for the arts mostly from pyritous copper — the gray sulphurets
and the carbonate ; also to some extent from the black oxide and
from solutions of the sulphate. The principal copper mines in the
world are those of Cornwall and Devon in England; of the island of
Cuba; of Copiapo and other places in Chili ; Chessy, near Lyon, in
France ; in the Er^gebixge, in Saxony ; at Eisleben and Sangerhauaen,
in Prussia ; at Goslar, in the Lower Harz ; at Schemnitz, Kremnits,
Kapnik, and the Bannat^ in Hungary ; at Fahlun, in Sweden ; at
Turmsk, Nischne Tagilsk, and other places in the Urals; also
in China and Japan. Lately extensive mines have been opened in
Southern Australia. Copper, united with zinc in different proportions,
forms brass and pinchbeck. Bronze is an alloy of copi>er with 7 to 10
per cent of tin. This is the material used for cannon. With 8 per
cent of tin it is the bronze used for medals. With 20 per cent of
tin, the material for cymbals. Bell-metal is composed of copper with
a Uiird to a fifth as much tin by weight Sheet-copper is made by
heating the copper in a furnace, and rolling it between iron rollers.
Copper is also worked by forging and casting. In casting it will not
bear over a red heat wiUiout burning.
(We are indebted for the substance of this article to Dana's excel*
lent ' Manual of Mineralogy.') [SuppLBannr.]
COPPER, ORES OF. rCoppER.]
COPPERAS. [COPPKB.]
COPROLITES {K6wpos and \i0os), the fossilised excrements of
reptiles, fish, and other animals, found in various strata of the earth.
Dr. Buckland in his ' Bridgewater Treatise ' first drew attention to
the probable nature of these substances, some of which bad been
previously known under the name of Bezoar Stones. These foesila
were first detected in the Lias at Lyme Regis and in other localities,
and their true nature inferred from the fact of their identity with
similar masses found actually within the body of many species of
IdUhyoBaunu, The Coprolitet are often found to contain scales of
fishes, and occasionally teeth, and fragments of bone, belonging to
species of fishes and reptiles which have been swallowed by the animal
as food, and have passed undigested throu^ its stomach. They often
occur in a spirally twisted form, which is a characteristic of the
excrements of some of the larger forms of recent fish, and have been
accepted by comparative anatomists as indications of the nature of
the intestinal tube in the extinct forms of Reptiles and Fishes.
Professor Liebig says in his 'Letters on Chemistry,' "In the autupin
of 1842 Dr. Buckland pointed out to me a bed of Coprolites in the
neighbourhood of Clifton, from half to one foot thick, Inclosed in a
limestone formation, extending as a brown stripe in the rocks for
miles along the banks of the Severn. The limestone marl of Lyme
Boob conusts for the most part of one fourth part of fossil excrements
and bones. The same are abundant in the Lias of Batheaston, and
Broadway Hill, near Evesham. Dr. Buckland mentions beds several
miles in extent, the substance of which consists in many places of a
fourth part of Coprolites."
Coprolites, when chemically examined, are found to contain a large
proportion of phosphate of lime. Liebig states that some he examined
from Clifton contamed above 18 per cent of phosphate of lime^ whilst
other specimens have afforded a much laxger per oentaga The
occurrence of phosphate of lime in these substances has led to their
use as manurei^ and large quantities are annually 0(dleoted in this
country for that purpose. Biofore being used they are submitted to
the action of sulphuric acid, by which the phosphate is converted into
a super-phosphate of lime. [Manure, in Arts aud Sa Dir.l
Not only have the beds of the Lias afforded deposits of pnosphate
of lime which have received the name of Coprolitee, but they have also
been found in the Greensand, in the Wealden Formation, and in the
Red Crag. In the latter formation it may be altogether doubted as
to whether the phosphate of lime there found in the form of dark-
brown or blackish smooth nodules, can be appropriately called
Coprolites. These nodules occur in beds or seams running through
the Red Cm| of Suffolk, where, in the neighbourhood of Ipswich and
i!7 COPROPHAQI.
Woodbndge, uid oa tho lea-cout of Feliiatow and Bawilae;, it it
worked to K coiuidembie extent. Id ndditiou to these nodules, ore
foond the fmgmenta of the bonei of vorioui forme of Ceiaeta, nil of
irbicli contoui large qunotitiea of phoaphate of lime, and &re collected
luider the nune of Coprolttes. It a itill a quutton of interest u to
how the nodulea not bsTing im orguiic bmais bava been formed. It
hu been Bnppoaed tlint all deposits of phoi^phala of lime are derived
from the deatruetion of organised beinge, but it is very evident that
phosphate of lime must have existed in some form or another before
the creation of either vegetable or animal beings. The increase alao
of the number of indiTiduali of epeciee of plants and animala demand
that there afaould be some oomitant supply of thiA substance from tba
mineral kingdom. Whatever may be the result of further inquiry on
this point, there cim be little doubt of Che itopropriety of .calling all
depoota of phosphate of lime Coprolites. A better general name and
whieh ia not eipoaed to the objection of a falsa theory would be
PJuuphalUe. [PBoarnATnx.]
CWPROPHlai, [SciBiBiroia.]
CDPTIS (from niirTB, to out), a genua of Plants belonging to the
natural order EanatxcidiKai. It hu S-6 sepals, ootound, petaloid,
deciduoni ; the petalj imall, cucullate ; the stameua 20-2fi ; the
capsalea S-10, on long italla, somewhat stellate, membrauoui, ovate,
oblong, tipped with ^e style j 1-6 seeded.
C, trifoUa, Gold Thread, has tenute leaves, obovate blunt toothed
hardly 3-lubed leaflets ; the soape 1-Qowered. It ii a native of Ice.
Virginia. It is a small plant with white Sowers and a yellow fibrous
rtiizoma which rung in all directions. The French in Canada coll it
TinvojBiins jaune. A decoctioD of tbe'leaves and stalks is used by
lbs Indiana for giving a yellow colour (o cloth and skins. Tba rhiio-
mata are bitter, and when administend as a medicine act in the sama
manner aa ouasaia, gentian, and other hitters, but are not astringent ;
it ia a popular remedy in the United Ststaa for aphthous afiectioni of
the mouth in children.
C. atpUnifoiia has bitemate leaves, the leaflets rather pinnatifid, very
acutely seintted, the scape i-towend. It is a native of Japan and the
north-west coast, of America.
Both species areprettyplantfl, and will thrive in a peat BoiL A moist
■itnatioD agrees with them, or they may be planted in pota among alpine
plants. They may be propagated by seed, or by dividing the roots.
(Don, IHchlamydtoui PlaaU ; Llndley, Flora Medical)
CORACES. [CoRiciAS.]
CORACIAS, agenuaof Birds belonging to the Inseasorial or Perch-
ing division.
LioDa-ua arranged the genua Caraciai between Cormu and Oriolus.
Beooant ('British Zoology') gives it a position between the Nut-
Oracker and the Oriole ; sL Dumdril placed it between the Birds of
Pandisa and the Crowa ; and Meyer arranged it in his second order,
Coraca, among which it stands in llliger's method. Cuvier placed the
Kullers (Ooratiat, Lion.) between the Crows (Comtf, Linn.) and the
Birds of Paradise {Paraduea, Linn.), the poution assigned to them by
LacipMa; and includes under that title the Hollers properly so called
{Coraciai garrvia, Linn, kc), and the Rolles [Colaru).
Mr. Vigore places them iu his family CorviiHr. [CoRTIDA.]
M. Lesson's family Eurytamida (Rolliers of Cur.) oonsiala of tbe
Rollers iGalgiUiu, Brisson, and Coraciat, Linn.); the genus KoUe
(fsryHontu, Vieill rUiHOFm.s], Colarii, Cur., Cotikuu, Linn.) ; the
l!>TDus JfaiTKUw {Eidaba, Cuv., Orofda, Lino.) ; and the genus ifins.
Less. U. Lesson rejects the term Coradai, because many suthora
have BO dismembered it, according to their different views, that a
confusion calculated to produce error is the result.
In tbe system of Hr. Swainson, who retains tbe generic name
Coraciat, the Bolters appear among the Men>pida. [Hzbopuis.]
The Prince of Canlno arranges the genus C'oraciai, giving as an
eiample the common Boiler, ( C. narmia, Linn. ) in the family
Awipttida. (' Birds of Europe and North America.')
In Mr. Gould's great work on tiie 'Birds of Europe,' the BoUer
(C. gamUa) comes down between the Bee.Eater {Merop$ apituStr) and
Siogflaher [A letde arpida).
Hr. Yarrell ('British Birds') arranges the common Boiler under
the family Mtropidce.
C. garniia, the Roller. It is the Pica Marina and Pics Merdsria of tbe
Italians; Bollier of the French; Birk-Beher, Blaue-Backe, and
Uaodelkrshe, of the GermaDa ; Spnnsk Kmka, Blakrako, and AUe-
knka, of the Swedes ; Ellekrage of Brunich ; and Bholydd of the
Welsh. The bill ia black towards the point, becoming brown st the
Use with a few bristles ; irides of two circles yellow and brown ; head.
Deck, breast, and belly various ahades of varditer-blue changing to
pale green; shoulders aiure-blue, bock reddish-brown, rump purple,
ving.primaries dark bluiah.black, edge lighter, tnil-feathera pale
greemsh-blue, the outer ones tipped with black, those in the middle
•Ira much darker in colour ; legs reddish-brown ; in old males the
Dul«r tail-feathers are somewhat elongated.
Adult females diSer but little from the moles ; joung birds do not
attain their brilliant colour till the second year. (Gould, ' Birds of
Eorope.') Length about 13 inches.
This bird appears to have a wide geographical range. In Enropa,
CORACIAS.
IM
it is found in Denmark, Sweden (where it arrives with tbe Cuckoo),
and tbe southern provinces of Russia; is more common in Qermany
than France, where however it haa been found in Provence ; and it
has been taken at Gibraltar. In Italy, according to Prince Bonaparte,
it is rather common, arriving in thoapring and departing in September.
In Malts and Sicily it is exposed for sale in the shops of poulttrers,
and is said to have the taste of a turtle-dove. In tbe Moron it ia con-
sidered a delicacy in tbe autumn, when it is fat with its summer food.
It has been captured at Aleppo, and at Trebiiond and Knerum. It '
visits the countries between the Black and the Caspian seas ; and
Dr. von Siebold and M. Burger inclucio it among the birds of Japan.
inNorthAfricait is found from Marocco to Egypt. Flocks were seen
by Adanson at Senegal, and ha concluded that they passed the winter
there. Dr, Andrew Smith records it among the buds of South Africa.
In Great Britain it haa been killed in Cornwall, in Suffolk.and Norfolk,
ia Cambridgeshire, in Yorkshire, Northumberland, Perthshire, the eaal
of Scotland.aiid Orkney. It has been only occaaioDolly seen in Ireland.
The Itollcr [Oaraciai farmla).
Deep forests of oak and bireh appear to be tba &vonrite hannia ol
the Boiler. In the 'Annabi of Natural History' for 183l>, it is stated
by a traveller in Asia Minor, that the Roller, which was most common
ibroughout the south and west parts of the country wherever the
magpie was not found (fbr it was not seen in the same district willi
that bird), was observed to fall through the air like a Tumbler Pigeon.
Temminck states that it makes its nest in the holes of trees, where it
lays from four to seven e^a of a lustrous white. M. Vieillot atates
that iu Malta, where trees are scarce, tbe bird builds on the ground.
In Barbary it has been observed to form its nest in the banks of the
Shelifl', Booberak. and other riven ; and Pennant remarks that where
trees are wanting, it makes it in clayey banks, ^hese last modes of
nidification bring it very close to tbe Bee-Eatareand KingRshers, whose
eggs quite reeemble those of the Roller in colour and shape, and odIj
vary in size. Tbe male takes hie turn to sit. The food is very varied,
according to Temmtnck, who enumerates moles, crickets, cookchafeis,
grasshoppers, millipedes, and other insects, slugs, and worma. Gould
states that it feeda on worms, slugs, and insects generally. Yarrell
informs us that tbe food oonsista of worms, slugs, insects in tlieir
various stages, and berries.
Bechstein observes that til! lately he fasd Hiought that the Boiler
waa untnmeable ; but Dr. Meyer of Offenbach had convinced him to
the contrary, having himself reared them in hia room by the following
method : — The young ones must be token from the neat when only
half grovn, and fed on little bits of cow't.heart or any other meat
which is lean and tender, till they can feed alone ; small frogs, worms,
and insects may then be added. Its mode of kiUing and swallowing
insects is thus described : it commences by seiKingond crusbingthem
with its bill, and then throws them into the air several times, in order
to receive them in its throat, which is very capacious. When the
morsel is too large, or the insect is still slive, the bird strikes it hard
against the ground, and begins again to throw it into the air till it
falls not across, but so aa to thread the throat, when it is easily swal-
lowed. Bechstein says that he had never seen the bird drink. The
translator of Becbstein's interesting little book states, that be once
saw a Roller drink after having aw^owed dry anta'-eggs ; it then ate
greedily of lettuce and endive, " Another which I kept," adds the
translator, " liked the outside of lettuces and spinach after having
eaten insects, especially beetles, which are very heating. To judge
" om what I have observed, the Boiler is by nature wild and solitary ;
seldom changes its situation except to seek its food or to hide itself
[>m strangers. It is a good thing, whether kept in a cage or let
range, always to have a box in its way, in which it may take i^tiigt
u»
COSACIAS.
wbeo frightened ; it will not foil to hide Itjielf then, and b; thii
meunwiJl not ba tempted to bent itself TiolentJ 7, which ttdoes when
it cuinot fly (rma the object of its fright. It knowa lie mietnea very
well, lets ber talcs it up, comes near her, find >ita without any fear on
her knees for whole hours without atiikng. This is as far u it goes
even when tamed. It is usither caressing nor funillsr ; when fright-
ened it utters harsh oriea, soller ones when its food is brought ; but
' crag, crag, oraag,' at the same time raising its head, is the eipression
" of its joy or triumph."
Oracvia rdigioia (Linnmus), the Mino-Bird. is the Boo and Hencho
of the JavaoeHi, Teeong of the Sumatrans, and is referred by Hr. Swain-
■ou to the Stumida. Mr. 0. R. Qray BirangeB it under the family
Corrida, in the sub-fumly Oraciiiinar. Mr. Swoiuson atatee that
analyais has convinced him that neither the Rollers nor the bird in
question belong to the Corvida ,- aad he romorVs that the little value
that can be attached to speculatianB on the rank of the preseot genen
founded upon mere eyntheeis, will best appeor by looking to those
artificial anangementa that place the sbort-lt^^ed Rolleia close to the
long-i^ged and powerfully-constructed Qrakle {Oratvla rdiffioia).
H. Louon places this bird next to the Holleie, and among tiie
Euiytt</Mida.
Uiso-Blrd {Oracula nllgicMa), (Aifatw /anmu, Tlelll.)
It ia the tvpe of Cuvier's genus Eiiiaha, which has the following
oluuaoters : — Bill short, stout, not so long as the head ; tntirsly com-
praosed. Frontal feathen advancing far upon the base, Imt not
dividing the &ont. Culmen gradually curved from Uie hose to the
Up, which is distinctly notched. Commissure but slightly angnlated.
Under nundible with the bnae fannd and dilated. Xostiila bual,
naked, round, sunk in a depression. Frontal feathers short, velvety.
Head with naked wattles. Wings as in Pastor. Tail short, oven.
Feet rather short, very strong. Tanus and middle toe equal ; hinder
toe shorter ; inner toe almost equal to the outer toe. (Sw.)
Its colour is of a deep velvety black ; a white space in the middle
□f the wing ; bill and feet yellow ; behind the eye spring fleshy ca-
runcloB of a bright orango-oolour, and extend beyond the occiput.
It is found in Java, Sumatra, and the great Eastern Islands.
Insects end fruits form the food of the Kino-Bird, which is easily
tamed, and learns to whistle and talk with great facility. With the
natives it is a, great favourite in consequence. Haisden says of it,
Uiat it has the isculty of imitating human ipeecb in greater perfection
than any other of the feathered tribe. &>ntiuB, who terms it Picn,
SCTt pptitu iSMmiu /ndtcM, heads the chapter where he figure* and
describes it, with the following lines : —
"Piitlacns EcrUqavnTliI
•sloquu
nlu ladu.
And tells the fallowing story :— There was, when he was !d Batavia,
an old Javiuieee woman, the aerrant of a Chiuesfl gardener, who kept
one of these birds, which was very loquacious. Bonlius vu very
anxious to buy it, but this the old woman would not hear oC He
then begged Oiat she would at least tend it to him that ite picture
might be taken, a request which was at last gnnted with no very
good grace, the ancient Mohammedan dame being under groat appre-
hension that Bontine would offer that abomination, pork, to her
beloved bird. This he promised not to do. and had the loan of the
Mino, which kept continually saying " Onuig Naaarani Catjor Hacan
Bahi." Thia, being interpreted, means "Christian Dog, Eater of
Fork ; '* and Bontius carne to the couclusion that tiie uuwillingneas of
the old woman arose not only from the fear of her bird being dfc^e-
cnited \ij nn offer of swino'e flesh, but nl,"o fmm the apprehonaion
that he or his servants, irritated by its contumelies, would wring its
neck. U. Lesson also saw one at Java which knew whole pbrasea of
the Unlaj' language.
CORACIKA. no
The genera] opinion seems to ba that there ii but one spedea of
Mino-Binl.
Cuvier however states that Linnmus oonfounded two spacies nnder
the name of QnKviM rtligiota, namely, Buiaba Indietu and BtUabet
Javama.
H. Lcason, who states that only one spoaies is known, namely, the
Hainate ReUgieui, Gracnla rdigioia, Linn,, Bco and Henoho of the
JnTsneae, remarks afterwards that there is said to be a smallsr variety :
this is probably the Ealaba /ndicui above noljced.
The last-mentioned ornithologist appliea the old Indian irord Hino
» a generic term for a veiy di&rent bird, Mino AmoiKii, described
a him in the ' Zoology of the Coquiile,' and lliere figured at pL 26.
I is also of opinion that GranUa ci^tia, Linn., should bo added to
this geuus.
CORA'CINA.a ^nua of Birds, separated from the Crowe {Oavitltx)
by Tieillot, and divided by him into four aectians. The first comprises
those species n'hich have the bill fumiahod at ila base with velvety
(cAthers (Lea Col-Nus, 'naked necks'); the aecond those whose nostrils
are covered with setaceous feathers, directed forwards, and whose
upper mandible is notched towards the end (LeaChoucnris,(A-aiicaJiu) ;
the third those whose bill is nake<l at the base, and notohed at the
point (CariKina gymnocfphain, VieiUot ; Corviu calvui, Latham, for
example) ; and the fourth, that curious species on which Geoffi^j-
3aiat.Bi]aire founded hia geuus Cfptudojtterut.
Cuvier, in the last edition of the ' Rigno Animal,' defines Graucaint
to be the Qreek name of an nsh-colouKd binl (oiseau cendn!), and
says that three Choiicaris out of four are of that colour. M. Vieillot,
he adds, confounds these birds with bis Coraeina, which oomprise tlie
Oymnoderi and the Oymnoetphali,
H. Lesson, who places the group under the Amp^ida, ohserres that
the genus Coraeitui ia far from being determined. Thus, he obeerres,
M. Tieillot phices under it the CepluJopltnu of M. QooBroy.Saint-
Hilaire, the Choucaris and the Col-Nu, or Ogmnodena. (He might
have added tbe Oymnocsphalm of Qeoflroy and Cuvier.) Temminck
adds to it many of the Cotingm of Le Vaillant ; but for hia own
(Leeson'a) part, ho adopts the term Ooracina for that group of birds
which Cuvier has collected together under the name of Piauhaus.
Oaraema, Lesson {Ooracina, Temminck ; Lea Piauhaus, Coliiiga,
Cuvier ; Piauhau, Qaerula, Vieiilot). — Bill depresaed, smooth, ciliated
at the base, thick, narrowed at the pointy angular above, a little curved
towaids the end, slightly toothed at the point ; lower mandihle a little
flattened below ; head and neck feathered, but without any ornamental
plumes, and without any naked skin.
C, icniala, Temminck and Latham. Tliis ipedea differs but little
from Comeina nbricoUii, Mvieicapa rvbricollit, of Gmelin, in the
colour of its plumsgo, but the wings are shorter. In C, mbrieoUit the
plumsge ia all black, with the exception of the throat and ttont of
the neck, which are of a purpled rose-colour. In C. Mcutala, the red,
which coven the throat and breast, goes aa low as the upper part of
the belly, and the bill ia not black aa it ia in C n^iritoUl*. It is found
hi Biwdl, which is also the habitat of C. nbricolli:
Oifninoeephaltu{Coracina, Tieillot). — M. Lesson observes that Hcssr^
Tiemot and Temminck place the (TyninocKipAali (Bnld-Heods) among
the Coradna, and that Cuvier contents himself with ohserviug that
Coi-tui (olrat, Irfitham, the type of this new gennp, has the bill of the
Tyrants, with the ridge (culmen) a little more arched, and a great
portion of the face denuded of fenthers. Le Tailiant, he states,
regarded this denudation of the skin in the front of the head as tha
CORACINA.
lU
Ths principal ehuiu:teni at Oymtmdena, OeoS^f -Saint- HiUire, rest
on the poassiaion of a bill lika that of tlw Coraeiwc and CtpSalopla-i,
with a partially naked neck and a head coTer«d -with TeNoty fcatben.
0. fatidui. It ia Coradna ffymnodtra, Viaillot; Cornu nudm,
Latham ; Oracuia nudicoUu, Shaw ; Oraada Jalida, Linccciu ; Col-
" BuDoD. Rather larger thiu the jackdav, but Uio body ia thick
lashy. The aidea of the neck are entirely naked, and only pro-
■ome trscea of dowu. Buffon's figure, on the contrary (Flanchea
Enlmn. 609), repreBenta this part ai bciog clothed with a eoiwldBrably
thick down. Upper part of the hoad, back of the neck and throa^
covered with amall elose-wtt feathen like black velTet. External
edges of the quills of the middle of the wing, the laat quilli, and all
the wing-corerta, bluish-gray. Qreat quilla and tail-feathon black,
with bluish reflections. The rest of the plumage, bill, and feet, black.
Eyea red brown, with a yellow skin beneath. The female ta unaller,
and of a brownish black. It is ■ native of Brazil and Guyana.
reault of a particular habit ; and in the ' History of the Birds of
Paradise' has printed a nota, in which he affirms that he had reoeived
from Cayenne a specimen having this part well oaverod with featheti ;
but H. Loson adds that ha hinuelf bod seen at Kochefort mor«
than twenty skins of Oynamxphati, and thnt all had the face bare of
feathe™. However it may be, he contiaues, this genus entirely
requires revision.
O. rains, the Ckpuchin Baldhead. It ia the Coradna gynttoapliala,
Tieillot ; Cbr*M calnu, Latham. Biie of the crow ; and of the ootour
of Spanish innf^ or, as some authon write it, Capuchin colour, whence
the Cr«oIea of Cayenne gire it ths name of Oiseau mon FAce. The
quills and the tail-feathers are black. The large beak and ample fore-
head bare of feathen give a singular air to this bird. Tieillot obaerrei
that it has been compared to the rook, on account of the nakedneas
of the head, a comparison which seems to him just; "for," says
Viallot, " it baa not this part nakod till it is adult, the yoong, like
the yooDg rook, having the head entirely feathered, and even the
OyjHnodrrui ftrtidnt^ mate.
CtfiAalppfenu.— Bill strong, robust j mandibles nearly equal, tha
upper one convex and scarcely curved at the summit, not notched at
the point; lower mandible flattened below. Nostnla longitudinal,
ojien, hollowed into an ova] excavation ; briatles at the border of th«
bill, which infringe a little on (he frontal feathers. Two tow* ot
feathers, taking their origin on the forehead, and elevating themselvea
into a pluma or crest on the head. The feathers of the neck form a
kind of pendent pelerine in front of the neck, which is naked.
C. entalv. It is the Ceradna e^pkaiopUra of Vieiltot Colour a
Capoelila Baldlicad {Q^mnottphaiut caicut),
nostrils coverad with amall setaceous feathers, as I can testify, from
the iospactioD of a young individual of which I have nude mention
in tbe em edition of the ' Houveau DioUannsore d'Histoire Natnrelle.' "
It is a native of Quyana.
G^nuadcrM((7i»-acisa,Vieillot,Temmincki CbJitvOiL^VaiUant). —
Ii3
CORACITB.
CORALlilNACE^
lU
uniform blue black. Head and base of the bill ornamented with a
plume or crest, forming a sort of parasol, composed of straight elevated
feathers, with white and stiff shafts, and terminated by an ear (^pi) of
black beards, which projects forwards (se renverse en devant). The
sidM of the neck are naked, but long feathers forming a loose pelerine,
and hanging down lower than the breast, spring from beneath the
throat and from the sides of the neck. TaU long, slightly rounded.
General plumage of a deep black. Crest and feathers of the pelerine
giving metallic reflections. (Lesson.)
The bird that furnished the description was brought to M. Qeoffroy-
Saint-Hilaire from Lisbon. M. Lesson states that the belief was that
it came from Brazil, but that a well-informed PoHuguese had told
him that it was from Gba. M. Vieillot says that the colour of the
naked skin of the neck is cerulean blue. Mr. Swainson, in his
' Natural History and Classification of Birds,' London, 1836, says : —
" The crest of this extraordinary bird is immensely large, advancing
so fkr in front as to touch the end of the bill, and it is compressed in
the same manner as that of Rupicola ; but the ends of the feathers,
instead of meeting so as to form a sharp ridge, suddenly recede from
each other, curve outwards, and form a most el^;ant drooping line of
plumes, hanging over on the sides so as to shade the face like an
umbrella. The figures that have hitherto been given of this rare
bird are all taken from the specimen in the Paris Museum, and which
has been sadly distorted in the setting up. A minute examination of
this specimen has convinced us that the frontal feathers, instead of
being nused over the bill, as Temminck represents them, partly repose
and overshadow it, at least as much as do those of CcUyptomeiia and
Rupicola*' (voL L p. 41). The species above noticed is the only one
known.
CORACITE (Le ConteX an ore resembling PildMende [Uba-
Kiuu], in which oxide of aluminium supplants a part of the oxide
of uranium contained in that mineral. It is found on the north
shore of Lake Superior in a vein two inches wide, near the junction
of trap and syenite. It occurs massive with a resinous lustre, and
has a hardness of 4*5, and a specific gravity of 4*38.
CORAL. [POLTPIFERA.]
CORAL RAO, the most calcareous or at least most coralliferous
part of the Oxford Oolite Formation. It is a variable and singular
rock, most rich in Madrephylliaa and Rchinodermalta, in the vicinity
of Calne.
CORALLINA. [CoRALLnrACBJS.]
CORALLINACEifi, a family of Marine PUnts belonging to the
order Algat. According to Harvey's definition it includes the CoraU
Unee and SpongiUa of Kiitzing, and the CoralUmdtz and NtUliporidce
of Dr. Johnston.
The forms referred to this family have been alternately regarded
as animals and plants. When their structure was imperfectly under-
stood they were regarded with many of the zoophytes {Polypi/era
and Polytoa) and sponges as sea-weeds. When the animal nature
of these beings was established it was again an inference that the
Corallines belonged to the animal kingdom. Recent researches have
however demonstrated the truly vegetable nature of this family both
in their general structure and mode of reproduction. The following
is Dr. Harvey's diagnosis in his 'Manual of the British Marine
AlgsB :' — ^Rigid, articulated, or crostaceous, mostly calcareous sea-
weeds, purple when recent» flEuling on exposure to milk-white.
Composed of closely-packed elongated cells or filaments, in which
carbonate of limo is deposited in an oi^ganised fonn. Tetraspores
tufted, contained in ovate or spherical oonceptades. Ceramidia
furnished with a terminal pore.
The following general remarks on this family are taken from Dr.
Harvey's work : — ^The root, where this organ is manifested, is an ex-
panded crustaceous disc, often widely spreading. The frond almost
always calcareous, effervescing strongly when thrown into acids, rarely
destitute of lime, very variable in aspect and habit, llie lowest
forms of the order are simple incrustations, spreading like the crus-
taceous lichens over the suiface of rocks, or Uie fronds of the lai^ger
Algce. In the smaller of these the crust is a mere film, as thin as
paper, generally circular, and extending by means of small additions
to the ciroumference, so that the frond becomes marked as it advances
with concentric oirdes. In the larger the crust is thick and stony,
rising here and there into prominences and sinking into depressions.
Still farther advance manifests itself by the crust assuming a branched
habit: at first papills rise from the surface; these thicken, and
widen, and lengtnen, and at length throw out branches, till a shrubby
frond, of stony hardness, but extremely brittle, is formed. All these
changes in character take place within the limits of a single eenus,
Mdobuia. Nearly related to this (and by many botanists considered
identical) is Maslophorci, a genus in whicli the frond is expanded
into leafy lobes, usuallv fan-shaped, sessile, or stalked, but not adnate
to rocks; of a flexible substance, containing a smaller portion of
carbonate of lime than the former group. Some of these have the
habit of Padina, but differ from that genus in being of a red colour.
They are the most perfectly organised of the leafy or frondose
Corallines (Jfi^Z^porece). The articulated or true Corallines are
filiform, either pinnated or dichotomous, the branches formed of
strings of calcareous articulations, truncated at the upper extremity
and rounded at the lower, each articulation connected with that above
and below it by a flexible joint composed of cellular tissue, destitute
of carbonate of lime. This joint in our British species is scarcely
evident till after maceration ; but in many exotic species (of Amphiroa)
it is so long as to interrupt the continuity of the articulations, and is
either marked or coated with warlike GEilcareous tubercles.
The form of the articulations varies extremely, and often in the
same species, or even in the same specimen, so that the determination
of these plants is sometimes difficult. In many the articulations are
cylindrical, in others oval and compressed, in some flat and irregularly
shaped ; but in the greater number they are heart-shaped or wedge-
shaped, with the upper angles frequently prolonged with horns.
The fructification consists of hollow extemsJ or inmiersed con-
ceptades containing a tuft of oblong spores, divided at maturity by
three horizontal fissures into four parts. They are therefore tetra-
spores, precisely similar to those of Plocamiunif Hypnea, &a The
nature of the conceptacle varies even in the same species. Thus in
CoraUina it is normally formed by the metamorphosis of the terminal
articulation of the branches, which swells at the sides and becomes
piereed at the apex; but in C. tquamata and even in C. officinaliM
other articulations frequently bear numerous small hemispherical
conceptacles on their sides; and sometimes the whole surfiace is
warted with such, and these irregular organs are equally furnished
with tetraspores as the normal ones. These latter conceptacles, which
are irregular in CoreUlina, are the normal fruit of ^mp^troa, a genus
chiefly firom the Southern Ocean. In Jania the oonceptade is similar
to that of OoraUiTM^ except that it generally bears a pair of ramuli
(resembling the antennae of an insect) from its upper angles.
The Coiallines are found in all parts of the ocean, but are much
more numerous in warm than in cold countries, and some of the
species of the tropical and sub-tropical ocean are among the most
beautiful of marine vegetables. Until recently the plants of this
order were with other calcareous Alga confounded with Zoophytet, or
polypiferous corals. They are however undoubtedly of v^etable
nature, and when the lime which they contain is removed by acid,
the vegetable framework concealed beneath it is found to be of a
similar structure to that of other Rhodosperms, to which g^up of
Alga they are further allied by their colour and the nature of their
spores. The order consists of two, or if Lgthoeyttea be rightly placed
in it> of three sub-orders, as follows : —
Sgnoptia of the British Qtnera,
Sub-order 1. CoraUinea. — Frond filiform, articulated.
1. CoraUma. — ^Frond pinnated. Ceramidia terminal, simple.
2. Jama, — Frond dichotomous. Ceramidia tipped with two horn-
like ramulL
Sub-order 2. iVtifftporea.— Frond crustaceous or foliaoeousi, opaque,
not artictdated.
3. Mddbeaia, — Frond stony, forming either a crustaceous expansion
or a foliaceous or shrub-like body.
4. jffildenbrandlia. — ^Frond cartilaginous, not stony, forming a
crustaceous expansion. ' *
Sub-order 3. LythocyttetB. — Frond plane, hyaline, composed of
cells radiating from a centre. Fructification unknown.
5. Lythoey$ti$, — ^A minute parasite.
Sub-order 1. OoraUinece.
1. OoraUina. — Frond filiform, articulated, branched (mostly pin-
nate), coated with a calcareous deposit. Fructification turbinate or
obovate, mostly terminal ceramidia, pieroed at the apex by a minute
spore, and containing a tuft of erect pyriform or club-shaped trans-
versely parted tetraspores. Name from Corallium, Coral, which these
plants resemble in having a stony substance.
C. officinalia is the most common example of this genus on British
shores. It is decompound, pinnate, the lower articulations cylindrical,
twice as long as broad, upper slightly obconical, round edged, their
angles blunt, ultimate ramuli cylindrical obtuse. It is found on rocks
between the tide marks, extending from the limits of high to the
extremity of low water mark. Perennial. Winter and spring. The
root is a widely expanded rod .crust. The fronds from two to six
inches high, tuftod, much branched, bipinnated, but varying greatly
in luxuriance according to the depth at wliich it grows.
C. dongaia and C. »quamata* are both British species, and are
mentioned in Dr. Johxuston's woi^ on the Corallines and also by
Dr. Harvey.
2. /anto. — Frond filiform, articulated, dichotomous, branched,
coated with a calcareous deposit. Fructification urn-shaped. Ceramidia
formed of the axillary articulation of the uppermost branches (mostly
two-homed), pierced at the apex by a minute pore, and containing a
tuft of erect pyriform transversely parted tetraspores. Named fbom
JanirOj one of the Nereides,
J, rubetu is found on all parts of the British coast on the smaller
AlgcB between tide marks. The articulations of the principal branches
and ramuli are cylindricfd, about four times as long as broad. The
fronds are from half an inch to two inches high, densely tufted,
dichotomous, many times forked, fostigiate ; branches either erect or
spreading gradually, tapering upwards. Articulations cylindrical in
all parts of the frond, without prominent angles ; those near the base
very shorty the up^ter ones gradually longer. Ceramidia subterminali
lis
CORALLINES.
CORDIACEiE.
lid
um-ehaped with long horns, formed of two to four articulations.
Colour a pale i-ed with a purplish nhade when quite fresh.
/. eornicidcUa is also found on the southern shores of England and
Ireland, and in Jersey.
Sub-order 2. NuUtparecB.
8. Melobesia, — Frond attached or free, either flattened, orbicular,
sinuated or irregularly lobed, or cylindrical and branched (never arti-
culated), coated with a calcareous deposit; fructification conical,
sessile. Ceramidia scattered over tiie surface of the frond, and con-
taining a tuft of transversely-parted oblong tetraspores. The genus
is named from one of the sea nymphs of Hesiod.
If. polymorpha is foimd attached to rocks, thick, stony, incrusting,
or rising into short clumsy branches, which are seldom much divided,
and often merely rudimentary. Much is yet to be done in working
out the species of this genus.
Af. ptuttdata is the laz^^est and most developed of the parasitic
section of the genus. It is found on Phyllophora rubenSf Chondrut
crisput,^ &c It is thick, of a dull purple^ or green colour, oblong or lobed,
incrusting, smooth. Ceramidia numerous, large, rather prominent, and
conical. Dr. Johnston refers this species to Corallina officinalis.
This plant, he says, appears first in the g^ise of a circular CfUcareous
patch of a purplish colour, and in this state is common on almost
every object that grows between tide-marks. When developing on
the leaves of Zogtent, or in other unfavoiu^ble sites, these patches are
usually pulverulent and ill-coloured, green or white, and never
become lax^e ; but in suitable situations they continue enlai^ging in
concentric circles, each marked with a pale zone until they ultimately
cover a space of several inches in diameter. The resemblance which
in this condition the crust has to some crustaceous fungi, more espe-
cially to Polypwtu verneoloTf is remarkably exact ; and neither is it
less variable than the fungus in its growth, the variations depending
on the nature of the site from which it grows. If this is smooth and
even, the foliaceous coralline is entirely adnate and also even ; but if
the surface of the site is imeven or knobbed, the coralline assumes the
same character. If it grows from the edge of a rock, or the frond of
a narrow sea-weed, or from a branch of the perfect coralline, the
basal laminsB spread beyond in overlapping imbrications of consider-
able neatness and beauty ; they are semicircular, wavy, either smooth
or studded with scattered granules, and these granules (ceramidia)
may be either solid or perforated on the top. Such states of the
corajline have been described as MiUepora Hchenoides, while its
earlier states constitute Lamouroux's various species of Melobesia.
4. HildtHJbrandtia. — The frond cartilagineo-membranaceous (not
stony), crustaceous, suborbicular, adhering by its lower surface;
composed of very slender closely-packed vertical filaments ; concep-
tacles immersed in the frond, orbicular, depressed, pierced by a hole,
and containing tetraspores and paraphyses at the base of the cavity.
H. rtAra is found on smooth stones and pebbles between tide-marks
and in deep water. It is very common, and fomu a thin membra-
nous crust, at first orbicular, and spreading concentrically, at last
irregular in form, following the sinuosities of the body to which it
may be attached. Viewed under the microscope, a small portion
shows minute cells lying in a clear jelly. When in fruit, the surface
is pitted with disc-like depressions, pierced by a hole which commu-
nicates with a chamber in which the spores lie. The colour is
variable ; now a bright^ now a dull red.
Sub-order 3. (?) LUhocystea,
LithocffHis. — Plant calcareous; consisting of a single plane of
cellules, which are disposed in radiating dichotomous series, forming
an uppressed flabelliform frond., Nameid from a stone in the bladder,
because the cells have stony coats. '
5. L. AUmanni is parasitical on Chrysymenia clavellosa firom an oyster
bed at Malahide, Dublin, by Professor Allmann. It forms minute dot-
like {Mttches of a whitish colour on the fronds of the Chrysymeniti.
Each dot consists of one or several fan-shaped fronds composed of
qnadrate cells disposed in dichotomous series. The plant is brittle,
colourless, and effervesces in acid.
(Harvey, British Algat,)
CORALLINES. rCORALLINACE&]
CORALLIUM. [POLYPIFERA.]
CORALLORHI'ZA, agenus of Plants belonging to the natural order
Orchidea^ and to the tribe Malaxidea, It has a converging perianth ;
the lips with two prominent longitudinal ridges at the base ; 8-lobed,
the lateral lobes small, the middle lobe large, slightly emarginate ; the
spur short or obsolete ; the stigma triangular ; the rostellum obsolete,
but with a laige globose appendage ; the anthers terminal, 2-celled,
opening transversely; the colxunn elongated; the germen slightly
stalked, straight.
C. iflauUa has the sptur obsolete or wanting. It has thick fieshy
roots vrith much Ivanched fibres. The flowers are seated on a spike,
and are of a yellowish colour. It is found in Qreat Britain in moun-
tainous woods, but is a rare plant. There are several An^erican species.
They are exceedingly difficult of cultivation.
CORALWORT. [Dentaria,]
CORBULA, a genus of Marine MoUuseaf belonging to the Lamelli-
branckiata. The shell is suborbicular or oval, tumid or depressed,
SAT. HIST. DIY. VOL. IL
very inequivalve, slightly inequilateral, rounded anteriorly, more or
loss truncated posteriorly ; beaks prominent ; surface of the valves
mora or leas furrowed or transversely striated, covered with an epi-
dermis. Hinge composed of a recurved primary tooth in one or both
valves, with corresponding socket and ligamental pit beside it. Liga-
ment small, interior. Muscular impressions slightly marked, united
by a pallial one with a very slight sinus. The animal is short, with
veiy short imited siphonal tubes. 'Orifices fimbriated. Mouth closed,
except in front, where there is an opening for a bony narrow thick
foot of considerable dimensions. Anal siphon with a conspicuous
tubular membrane. Labial tentacles slender.
This genus was once abundant in the European seas, especially
during the early part of the Tertiary epoch. Only a few species now
exist. It has more species in the tropical seas of the present day.
O. nucletLs is one of the most common species in the seas around the
British IslandSL Whilst very frequently found in the dredges, it is
seldom washed on shore or found in shallow waters. It is about half
an inch in length and about one-fourth less in breadth.
This genus belongs to De Blainville's family Pyloridea, which
embraces Solen, Panopea, Mya, and other allied species. [Ptloridia.]
CORCHORUS, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
TUiacecB. The leaves of C. olitoriut are used in S^gypt as a pot-herb.
Fishing-lines and nets, rice bags, and a coarse kind of linen called tat,
are made in India of the fibres of C. eapsularis.
CORDIA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Cordiacete.
It has a tubular calyx, 4-5-toothed. Corolla funnel shaped or cam-
panulate, with a flat 6-7-cleft limb, and a hairy or naked throat.
Stamens 5, short, inserted in the throat of the corolla. Style pro-
truding, bifid, with 4 stigmaa Ovary 3-4-celled. Drupe containing
1 stone with 1 or 8 cells, two of which are usually abortive.
O. UuifoUa is a native of Hindustan. It has numerous spreading and
drooping branches ; the young shoots angular and smooth The general
height of trees ten or twelve years old about 20 feet. Leaves alternate,
petioled, round, cordate, and ovate, often slightly repand ; 3-nerved ;
of a hard texture, smooth above, scabrous and pide underneath ; from
8 to 7 or even 8 inches long, and rather less in breadth. Petioles
nearly rounded and smooth. Panicles short, terminal, and lateral,
roundish; the branches alternate, divex^ging, and one or more
frequently dichotomous. Flowers numerous, small, white. Bracts
minute, Filloua. Calyx villous, campanulate, leathery ; mouth unequally
toothed. Corolla short, campanulate. Segments 5, linear-oblong;
filaments as long as the segments of the corolla, and inserted imme-
diately under their fissures. Anthers incumbent. Ovary ovate, 4-celled,
with one ovule in each attached to the upper end of the axis. Style
short. Stigma 4-cleft ; segments long, rugose, and recurved. Drupe
oblate-spheroidal, about an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter;
smooth when ripe, straw-coloured, covered with a whitish bloom.
Under the name Sebesten Plums, Sebestans, or Sepistans, two sorts
of Indian fruit, have been employed as pectoral medicines, for which
their mucilaginous qualities, combined with some astringency, have
recommended them. They are believed to have been the Persea of
Dioscorides. Linnseus has erroneously applied the name of Sebesten
to an American species of this genus which is not known in medicine.
C, Myxa is a native of many parts of India, Persia, Arabia, and Egypt.
The trunk is generally crooked, from 6 to 12 feet high, and as thick
or thicker than a man's body. The bark gray, cracked in various
directions. Branches numerous, spreading, and bent in every possible
direction, forming a dense shady head. The flowers are numerous,
white, small ; a very large proportion of them are sterile, and they
always want the style. The drupe is globular, smooth, the size of a
cherry, sitting in the enlarged calyx ; when ripe, yellow ; the pulp is
almost transparent, very tough, and viscid. The smell of the nut
when cut is heavy and disagreeable ; the taste of the kernels like that
of filberts. It is the true Sebesten of the European Materia Medica.
The fruits, according to Roxburgh, are not used in the Circars
medicinally, but when ripe are eaten by the natives, and also most
greedily by several sorts of birds, being of a sweetish taste. The
wood is soft, and of little use except for fuel. It is reckoned one of
the best kinds for Idndling fire by friction, and is thought to have
furnished the wood from which the Egyptians constructed their
mummy cases. The wood is said by Dr. Royle to be accounted a
mild tonic
(7. Qerasaeamthus is a native of the West Indies in woods, and of
Mexico, near Acapulco. It has ovate oblong leaves, acute^ quite
entire, glabrous; racemes terminal, aggregate; flowers verticillate,
sessile; calyx 10-furrowed, lO-striped, downy; limb of corolla 5-cleft;
throat villous; stamens the length of the corolla. This is esteemed one
of the best timber-trees in Jamaica, of which it is a native. The wood is
of a dark brown colour, and gently striped ; it is tough and elastic, of
a fine grain, and easily worked. It is called Spanish Elm or Prince
Wood by the English, and Bois de Chypre by the French.
O, Ruanphii has brown wood beautifully veined with black, and
smelling of musk.
There are above 100 species of this genus.
^Lindl^, Fhra Medico.)
bOBDlXVEM, a smaU natural order of Monopetslous Exogens,
with a shrubby or arborescent habit, a gyrate inflorescence, and a •
drupaceous fruit. The leaves are alternate, usually covered with aspe-
L
H» CORMEIIITE.
ritieB, KnA deatitute of Mipulea. The oOtx !■ ioferior Bud S-toolhed ;
tbd coro11& regular, with 6 itamenB proceedintt from the tube, uid
kltemikta nith the Bdgmenta. Tbere is n peDduloiu arule in encb cell.
and the >t;1e is Iwice-forkrd. Thn cotyleilaiiB are crumpled or folded
in plaita lengthwiw. The aSuitiea of the order ire olmort equnl between
Bomginacea tmd Cmvolwlaaa, but prepondsistaa in fnvour of tbo
former. The onl; ecoDominl pluita cantsined In it tire the Sebeet«u
Piums, the produce of Cordin Uyia uid Sdialeaa, the rind of which
u mjcculent and macitaginana. All the Epeoies are tropical.
CORDIEHITE, [Iolub.]
C0BEOONU8, fSii-MoMn)*.]
CORIANDER. [CoaiiUDBCB.]
CORIANDRUM, a genus of Plant* belonging to the natural order
Vfnhtllifera. TthaefiAcutecalyxteetb, unequal and permanent; petals
oboTate. emarginate, with an inflsied segment, the exterior rndiating
and bifid. Fniit globoae, with 10 riba scarcely separaWng. Halt
fniita, with G primary deprened wavy ridges, and 4 secondary ones
(besides the marginals) more prominent and keeled. Channels with-
out vittae ; commlBmire with 2 vittie. Seed hollowed out in front
with a loose skin. The species are smooth herbs. Leaves muIUfid ;
nmbets with S or 5 rays. Involuoro none; involucels about 3-leaved,
halved.
C. lativun is found in the corn-Gelds of Tartary, the Levant, Qreece,
Italy, and the south of Europe. It ie not really wild in EngUnd.
The root is tapering, the
■tern erect, 12 or 18 inches
high, mare or Issa branch-
ed, leafy, round, atriated.
The lower leaves are pin-
nate on longish slender
stalks, their leafleta wedge-
shaped or fan-shaped, and
acutely notched ; npper
leaves multifid in fine
lineal segments. The
flowera are white, often of
a reddish tint. The fruit
pale brown, somewhat
coriaceous, spherical, 1(
lines in diameter ; all the
ridgee indistinctly shown
on account of tbeir slight
elevation; the Titlje of
the commissure short, lu-
ibcl. In bolt j 1, a halt nata, just visible without
' IM same, dissection. The fruit is
C ullsn oonstdeied it more powerfully corrective of the odour and taste
if eenna than any other aromatic {Lindley, ' Flora Medica.'}
Coriander fruit, or seeds as they are incorrectly called, are used in
fwcelmeats, in certain stomachic liqueun, and in some countries in
(ookpry ; they are little esteemed in Enghmd.
CCEIARIA'CE^, n vary small iintunil order of Qynobaaie Poly-
•y) -^ '(If
Oorvria m)fTt\falia.
HctiOB ottbosa
petolou
CORIfACE^ lU
ovariea, with distinct spreading itigmss. The two genera, of which
alone tiie order comusta, are nearly allied to Rutacta, but their leavea
are not dotted. The only plant uat gives the onter any interest is
Coriaria myiiifoHa, a shrub inhabiting the south of Kurope, and
employed by dyers for staining black. Its fniit is suoculent, and aaid
to Ie poisonous.
CORIOCELLA. [Chibhobbakcbiata.]
CORK, botanically considered, is a soft and elastic layer of bark
which becomes remarkably developed in the kind of oak iahabiting
Spain and FortugaL [Qitsrcus; BaIiil] This aubstnnce is deve-
loped in other plants, but in none in so ]ari:e quantity as in tba
Qnfrriu Subtr. As soon as the boi'k dies it ceases to grow, and then,
not dixtending as it is pressed upon from within, it f^ls off in flakea
wbiiti correspond to the layen that are formed annually. These
flakes are tbe layen of cork which the Spaniards collect under the
name of the outer bark, while tbo inner living bark is cr rather should
be spared. We are told however by Captain 8. Cook that the
Spaniards have been in the habit of stripping off the inner bark also,
although it is of no value except for tanning, and although its removal
destroys the trees. The same intelligent obeerrcr states that tbe
cork-tree accura in Spain throughout the whole extent uf the Tierra
Caliento, but is most abundant in Catalonia and Valencia, whence the
principal ezporta have been made. Cork sppean to be a corruption
of tbe Latin word 'cortei.' For the uses of Cork in the arts ■«« CoBK
in Anra ahd Sc. Div.
CORK, MODNTAIN. [ABBtsrua.]
CORK-TREE. [QnEiiciia.]
CORK-WINO. [CBEKlLiBRUB.]
CORKLING. rCREIIILAHBUS.1
CORMORANT. rTELi
CORN-MARIGOLD. [Chb
CORN-SALAD. [VALBnliMELLA.]
CORKA'CE.£, a small natural order of Polypetalous Exogenous
Planta. They consist principally of shrubs, very rarely of berbaccoua
plants. They have opposite strongly-veined leaves without stipules; an
inferior ovary, in each of whose cells is one pendulous ovule ; 1 val-
vate petals ; 1 slamena alternating with them ; and a drupaceous fruit
wiUi two cells i the embiyo lies in some fleshy albumen.
cut tlinHi|li
vcrtlosU)', ihowinf a eup-tike diss inrrDiinilinR Itis bus of tbs ttrle, sad the
pendulaui ovb1« ; 9, ■ (rait cat lo u to (haw tbe slniie ; 1, ■ vttUcal KCUoo
at the itoae, eihlliltlBg tbe e mbrja and albuDUD.
Kany of the species are cultivated in European gardens^ especially
ComHi taos, the Gomel-Tree; C. alba, C tangminta, and O, tericta,
called Dogwood ; together with Bcnlhaniia fragifera. They ai«
valued either for their bright-red ahoots, which in the winter are
149
CORNBRASH.
CORONILLA.
150
highly ornamental, or for their richly-coloured fruit. BmUiamia
fragifera in particular has its drupe* collected in roundish strawberry-
like heads, which have a beautiful effect in the south-west of England,
where it haa been several years intix>duced from the Himalaya Moun-
tains. The bracts of some species of this order are very large, and
resemble petals, and being white they are a gay substitute for the
flowers themselves, which are small and inconspicuous. This is
particularly the case with Oomua herbacea, C. fiorida, and Benthamia
fragiftra. Medicinally, Comaoeous plants are of great importance.
The American physicians esteem the bark of ComiM Jlorida and
C, aericea equal to Cinchona as a febrifuge.
Formerly the Comut mat used to be cultivated in gardens for the
sake of its fruit, which were called Cornelian Cherries. It is a deci-
duous tree, with clusters of small starry yellow flowers, appealing in
the spring before the leaves. The leaves are ovate-lanceolate, acute,
wavy, and of a dull grayish-green. The fruit consists of oblong
drupes of a red or occasionally a yellow colour ; they are excessively
austere before ripe, but eventually blet like medlars, and then
become eatable.
This order is allied to Vmbellifera and ffamamdidacece. There
are 9 genera and above 40 species.
CORNBRASH, a thin calcareous member of the Oolitic Formations.
It oonatitates the uppermost band of the Bath Oolitic Formation,
and is extremely ridi in Echinodermata Bnd ConcKifera, but somewhat
remarkabbr deficient in BeUmnUet.
C0RNC31AK£. [Rallid&]
CORNEA. [Ete.]
CORNEL-TREE. [Cobkus.]
CORNELIAN, or CARNELIAN. fAQATB.]
CORNELIAN CHERRY. [Cobnaoba]
CORNISH CHOUGH. [Cobvidjb.]
CORNISH DAW. [Cobvida]
CORNSTONK The peculiar Limestone, often mottled in colour,
of the Old Red-Sandstone of Hereford, Salop, and South Wales, receives
this title. (Murchison, Silurioin Syttem.)
CORNUAMMONia [AiocoviTBa.]
CORNULITES, an obscurely characterised genus (of PUypiaria f),
which occtm in the Silurian Limestones and Sandstones very fre-
quently, as at Dudley, Usk, Marloes Bay, &c. (Murchison, SUnrian
HjfMteaiy pL 26, t 5.)
CORN US, a genus of Plants, the type of the natural oxder Cwnaeem.
It has a calyx with a very small 4-toothed limb; with 4 oblong
sessile petals ; 6 stamens ; 1 style ; a baccate drupe marked with
traces of a <»lyx; the stone 2Hselled, rarely S-oeUed; the seeds
solitary, pendulous; the albumen fleshy; Uie radide-of the embryo
shorter than the cotyledons. The species are trees, shrubs, or low
herbs, with opposite leaves, and white flowers^ sometimes yellowish.
C, Mfi^mea, Dog-Wood, Wild Cornel-Tree, has arborescent straight
branches; ovate cuspidate leaves, green on both sides; t]^e cymes
flat^ without an involucre. This plant is a shrub, i«aohing a height
of 5. or 6 feet Its branches are of a reddish colour. It is a native of
Oreat Britain, in hedges and thickets. It also inhabits North America,
in Canada and the State of New York; but was probably introduced
there. It has a dark purple fruit, which is very bitter. Matthiolus
says that it contains an oil, which is sometimes expressed, and is used
for lampa The wood is used for making charcoal, from which gun-
powder is made. The fruits are sometimes mistaken for those of
bnckthom, but do not possesa the active properties of that plant
The wood is also used for making skewers for butchers. It is called in
the country Female Cornel, Pnck-Wood, Dogberry-Tree, Hound'a-
Tree, Gat^ and Qaten-Tree.
C, mueiea, Dwarf Cornel, has herbaceous stems, the leaves all oppo-
site, sessile, ovate; the nerves separate almost to the base; the
flowers umbellate^ shorter than the 4-leaved petaloid involucre. It is
found in high mountain pastures in England and Scotland. It is not
BO large a plant as the last, and has purple flowers with yellow
stamens. The berries are red and sweetish, and are supposed by the
Highlanders to create an appetite^ of which their name for Uiem,
' Lua-a-Chrasis,' is expressive.
C, fionda has shining branches, ovate acuminated leaves, pale
beneath, beset with adp rcooe d hairs ; the flowers umbellate ; the leaves
of involucre large, roundish, retuse, the drupes ovate. It is a native
of moist forests in the United States, especially on the borders of
swamps. The bark of this tree is a powerful tonic, astringent^ and
antiseptic, resembling Cinekona in its action on the system, and much
valued by American physicians. The young branches stripped of
their bark, when rubbed against the teeth, render them extremely
white. The bark of the roots yields a colouring-matter which dyes
cloth scarlet
C. aericea. Silky Dogwood, has spreading branches ; woolly branch-
lets ; ovate acuminate leaves, clothed with rusty pubescence beneath ;
the corymbs depressed, woolly; the nucleus cpmpressed. It is a
native of North America, in moist woods. It has the same properties
as the last species, and is used for the cure of intermittent fevers. It
is probable that these plants contain an alkaloid identical with quinine,
but it has not yet been separated.
C, ma$, Male Cornel, Cornelian Cherry, has smoothish branches ;
leaves or:tl, acuminate, i-ather pubescent on both surfaces ; flowers I
rising before the leaves; the umbels about equal in length to the 4-
leaved involucre ; the fruit elliptic. It is a native throughout the
continent of Europe, but is not found in Qreat Britain. It has yellow
flowers, which are succeeded by an elliptical fruit of a bright shining
scarlet colour, of the sixe and form of a small acorn. This plant was
formerly cultivated for the sake of its fruit, but it is very inferior to
many others that can be more easily produced, so thiit it is not now
often used. The fruit is called Corbet by the Turks, and is used
by them in the manufacture of sherbet The wood is very durable
The species of Comus form good plants for shrubberries, and many
of them \7ill grow under the drip of trees, and in spots where other
plants will not thrive. They may be propagated by cuttings, layers,
or suckers.
(Don, I>iehlamydeou» Plantt ; Lindley, Flora Mediea ; Babington,
Manual of British Botany.)
COROLLA, the name given by botanists to the innermost of the
envelopes of which the flower is composed. Like the Calyx [Caltx]
it ia formed of leaves changed from the ordinary state of those parts
in consequence of an alteration in the office they have to perform, but
liable to resume the state of common leaves if exposed to the effect of
any disturbing cause. The corolla is usually thin, delicate, perish-
able, and both laiger and more richly coloured than the calyx ; hence
the older botanists considered those qualities proper to the corolla,
and applied the term to all cases in which they existed. But it is now
known that the calyx is frequently in the same state, and hence the
only distinction that is now made between calyx and corolla is to
consider everything calyx which forms the exterior of two or more
rows of floral envelopes, everything corolla that belongs to the inner
rows, and when there is omy one row, to refer that to the calyx,
whatever the colour or texture of it may be.
There is little doubt that when a calvx is green and leafy its busi-
ness is principally to protect the corolla ; and that a corolla when
laige, thin, and brightly coloured, is intended to exercise some special
influence upon the fertUising organs of the flower; for while the
respiratory action of the calyx when green is not distinguishable from
that of common leaves, the corolla differs most essentinJly in the want
of all power of decomposing carbonic acid ; it absorbs oxygen from
the air, but does not part with it again in a pure state : on the con-
trary, it combines it with its carbon, and throws off the carbonic acid
thus formed. But although there is this difference between the calyx
and corolla in ordinary cases, the functions of the corolla are par-
formed by the calyx when it has the appearance of a corolla, and
vice vend. The peculiar functions of tnese parta are therefore
performed indifferently by the one or the other according to their
structure.
The leaves of which a corolla is composed are called Petals ; and
the endless varieties of its form and structure depend principally
upon the different manner in which those parts are unitea, or upon
the proportions they bear to each other. A Monopetalous Corolla, for
instance, is composed of several petals joined more or less together by
their edges ; Campanulate Corollas originate from petals without a
claw or unguis; Tubular Corollas from unguiculate petals. In a
regular monopetalous corolla all the petals are of equal size, and are
united in the same degree ; in an irregular monopetalous ooroUa, the
petals are unequal in size, and perhaps unequally united.
The corolla is generally the part of the flower in which grotesque
forms are most frequently met with ; such as horns or spurs project-
ing from the base ; or a cowled figure, or dark hairy appearances
resembling the bodies of insects, as in the Bee-Larkspur, various orchi-
daceous plants, &a The cause of these singular forms is entirely
unknown ; they appear to be specific cases of which no explanation
can be given. [Flowbb.]
COROLLIFLOR^, a subdivision of the class of Exogenous or
Dicotyledonous Plants. It embraces those orders in which the petals
are united and the stamens are attached to those organs.
CORONARIL [Ammonites.]
CORONILLA, agenits of Plants belonging to the natural order Zf^a-
minoeau It has a campanulate calyx, short, 5-toothed, the superior
teeth approximated and nearly united. Claws of the petals distinctly
longer than the calyx ; keel acute. Stamens diadelphous. Legume
tapering, slender, finally separating into oblong l-seedod joints. Seeds
ovate or cylindricaL The speciea are shrubs or herbaceous plants.
Leaves unequally pinnated. Peduncles axillary, bearing an umbel
of stalked flowers.
C, Emerue is common all over the South of Europe. It is known
by the name of Scorpion Senna, and its leaves are cathartic like thos<>
of true Senna, but less so. It is a small bush. Branches deep
green, strongly furrowed, quite smooth. Leaflets 2-3 pairs, obovatew
retuse or obtuse, when young very downy ; stipules ovate, acute, very
much shorter ^an the first joint of the petiole. Peduncles axillary,
2-3-flowered, slender, erect, as lonj; as the leaves. Calyx fdightly
downy, only half the length of the claws of the petals. Corolla deep
bright yellow. Legume a long while before its joints drop in pieces.
C. vana is an herbaceous plant, with distinct lanceolate petals ; the
leaflets 9-13, oblong, elliptic, mucronate, the lower ones approaching
the stem ; the umbels 16-2(lf-flowered ; the legumes angular, veiy long^
straight It inhabits meadows and waste places iu the soutli of
Europe and in the Crimea. The leavea h.ive a diuretic action on th^
lei
COBONULA.
CORVlDiE.
luS
fiyiftem, and aLio puiige. The juice is said to be poiaonouB wLen taken
in large quantities ; although this is the action on the human system,
cattle feed on this plant with aridity, and it has been proposed to
cultivate it in. this countiy as fodder. It probably does not develop
its aetire secretions in climates north ot its native districts. In a
good soil the stems grow to the height of five feet, so as amply to
repay its cultivation, especially in a diy season. When once planted
it is diiBcult to eradicate. C. globota and C, (beriea have the same
tendency.
The species of OoroniUa are numerous, and are all shrubs or herbs,
adapted for ornamental cultivation. Of the hardy shrubby species,
ripened cuttings root freely, and may be planted in open ground in
the autumn. The frame and greenhouse species are of easy culture.
They grow best in a mixture of loam and peat; cuttings strike
readily in sand under a hand-glass, and may be turned out into the
open border in spring, where they will flower all summer. Many of
them are well adapted for rock-wotk, but are apt to be killed during
a severe winter.
(Don, XHchUunydeaus Plants; Loudon, Enepclopcedia of PlcaUs;
Lindley, Flora medico.)
CORONULA. [CiBBiPRDiA.]
COROPHIUM, a genus of Animals belonging to the class Crustacea
and the family Oammarince. With the whole of the funily, it is
remarkable for the length of its antenna. It has no claws. One of
the species. Cancer aronipe* of Linnseus, QafMuaruM longieomU of
FabriciuB, Onitcua vMutaior of Pallas, is well known on the coast of
La Rochelle for its habit of burrowing in the sand. They live prin-
cipally upon the annelides which inhabit the sand, and are remarkable
for assembling in great numbers around their prey, and destroying it
although it may be twenty times as large as themselves. They also
attack fishes, moUntca, and the dead bodies of other ftwitwiilM.
CORREA, n genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
JtutacffE, of which one of the species, C, alba, is used by the settlers in
Australia as a substitute for tea. (Lindley, Vegetable Kingdom.)
CORRIOrOLA (diminutive of corrigia, a shoe-string), a genus of
Plants belonging to the natural order Paronyehieee, It has 5 sepals
slightlv cohering at the base ; 5 petals equalling the sepals ; 5 stamens;
8 sessile stigmas ; a 1-seeded indehiscent fruit; the seed suspended
by its cord, which arises from the base of the capsule; the petal, as
the sepal, inserted upon an obscurely perigynous ring at the bottom
of the calyx. The species are procumbent glaucous herbs, with
alternate stipulate leaves.
C. littoraliSf Strap- Wort, has the stem leafy on the part only which
bears the flowers. It is the only British species of the genus. It is
found on sandy shores in England, but it is not an abundant plant.
There are three or four other species described, natives of America
and Africa.
(Babington, Manual of BrUith Botany.)
CORSIOAN MOSS. [Plooabia.]
CORUNDUM. Several substances difiering considerably in colour,
and sometimes in form, but nearly agreeing in composition, are classed
together tmder the name of Corundum, which is that given to the
common variety bv the natives of India.
tSapphire, of which there are several varieties, the names of which
are dependent chiefly upon their colour : the White Sapphire, which
is transparent or translucent ; the Oriental Sapphire, which is blue ;
Oriental Amethyst, which is purple; the OrienteU Topaz, yellow; the
Oriental Emerald, green ; and some other varieties occur, as the Cha-
toyant and the Opaleecent Sapphire. The Sapphire occurs in rolled
masses and crystallised, and the primary form oi this and every variety
of crystallised Corundum is a slightly acute rhomboid, presenting a
great variety of secondary forms ; it usually occurs in the form of
0-sided prisms variously terminated. Its specific gravity is 8*976 to
4*101 ; it possesses double refraction, and is inferior in business only
to the diamond. Alone before the blow-pipe it suffers no change ;
with borax it fuses slowly but perfectly into a colourless glass. In
one direction only the crystals cleave readily parallel with the faces
of the primary rhomboid, and present a very brilliant surface ; the
cross fracture is conchoidaL The finest are found in Ceylon. Accord-
ing to the analysis of Chenevix, the Sapphire consists of —
Alumina 92
SUica 6*25
Oxide of Iron 1
98-26
According however to Dr. Thomas Muir, this substance is pure
alumina, containing no silica but what is abraded from the mortar ;
and this is the view adopted by modem mineralogists.
Jiuby. Colour blood-red or rose-red, sometimes a tinge of violet ;
primary form as above, and generally occurs in Owitded prisms. It is
not 80 hnrd as the Sapphire, and is more readily cleaved. Like the
Sapphire, it consists of pure alumina. '' The laigest oriental ruby
known was brought from China to Prince Gargarin, governor of Siberia ;
it afterwards came into the possession of Prince Menzilkoff", and con-
stitutes now a jewel in the Imperial Crown of Russia." (Dana.)
CoTnmon Corundum, the variety usually called Adamantine Spar,
occurs, like the Sapphire and Ruby, commonly in the secondary form
of 0-sided prisms, but usually much laigor. It is sometimes nearly
colourless, and rather translucent ; it presents great vai*ioty of colour.
but is most coinuiouly gi-ecnish or grayish ; occasionally bruwu or i-eJ,
rarely blue. Although iu most common form is the 6-sided prism,
it occurs, though rarely, also in acute and obtuse double 6-eided
pyramids. On account of its extreme hardness it received the name
of Adamantine Spar. It occurs in China, Bengal, Malabar, Tibet, the
Camatic, ftc. It is used in the East Indies for cutting and polishing
precious stones, and also granite and other hard rocks that are em-
ployed in the temples and other public monuments. According to
Chenevix, the Camatic Corundum contains silica, but this does not
appear to be constants
Emery. This substance which, when reduced to powder, is much
used for polishing hard bodies, though very different in appearance
from the preceding, is, on account of its hardness and analysis,
regarded ss Amorphous Corundum. Its colour is usually gray; its
lustre is somewhat glistening. Its specific gravity is about 8'66
to 4 ; it occurs massive, and is granular. It is principally imported
from the island of Naxos in the Qredao Archipelago, and was found
by Mr. Smithson Tennant to consist of —
Alumina 86
SiUca 8
Oxide of Iron 4
—98
It occurs also in Italy, Spain, and Saxony ; and it is said, in small
quantities, also in Wicklow, Ireland.
CCRVIDiE, Crows, a family of Birds belonging to the division
Conirottres. The bill is strong, slightly cultrirostral, or more or leas
compressed ; the gape or commissure straightb The nostrilB are
covered with stiff bruitle-like feathers directed forwards.
" The Nueifraga, Briss., our Britidi Nutcracker," savs Mr. Yigors,*
in his paper ' On the Natural Affinities that connect the Orders and
Families of Birds,' in ' Linn. Trans.,' " closely resembling the pre-
ceding groups (Fam. Stumida) in the form of its bill, in conjunction
with Barita, Cuv., introduces us into the family of Corvidce, From
that genus we may trace a line of affinities, through some intervening
forms, to the Jays and Rollers, Oarrulm, Briss., and Ooraeiat, Linn.,
until we arrive at the Corvut of Linnaeus, which again branches out
into several groups closely allied to each other, but differing consider-
ably in the structure of the bill. Hence we proceed by means of
Olaueopu, Forst., to some genera, among which we may particularise
Ptilonorhynehus, KuhL, Crypeirina, VieiS., Eulabee, Cuv., and PregUut,
Cuv., which, in the metallic lustre of their plumage and the velvet*
like process that in some species ornaments the face, indicate our
approach to the Birds of Paradis& The last-mentioned genus, Pre-
gilus, in particular, by its curved and slender bill, brings us imme-
diately into this group, the Paradieea, Linn., which, in conjunction
with the EpifMuihue of M. Cuvier, tenninates the family of Cvrvidct,
Here we shall probably find the passage from the present to the
succeeding family. The Epimachun, more united in its front toes
than the Corvida in general, holds a middle station in respect to that
character between the two groups ; while in the length and curvature
of its bill it approaches, in conjunction with many of the Paradiseee,
to some of the extreme species of the Bueeridee, among which 'the
Buceroe natutut of Latham may be instanced." Mr. Vigors, in a note,
says that he speaks with considerable hesitation as to the situation of
Epimachue, wtdch bears too strong a resemblance to the Promerope
of M. Brisson, a group feeding on vegetable juices, with an extoisile
tongue, to permit him to separate it without some expression of
doubt.
Mr. Swainson, in ' Fauna Boreali-Americana,' vol il, thus writes on
the Corvidce : — " There are some singular and highly interesting
peculiarities exclusively belonging to groups pre-eminently typical,
which demand the deepest attention of the {milosophio natuiaUstk
One of the most striking of these is the great difference between
those forms which belong to perfect and natural genera, strictly so
termed. We might cite the restricted genera, Tanagra, CeuhmoT'
hynchua (Camnarhynchot), and Coccothrauetee, as remarluible examples
of this fact, and as groups which would repav the most minute
analysis. This peculiarity sometimes extends to higher groups ; and
in the present family, the most pre-eminently typical in the whole
circle of ornithology, it is more striking than in any other. It is
perhaps to this circumstance that we must attribute the very imper-
fect manner in which the internal relations of the Corvidce have been
illustrated, and the artificial distribution that has been made of the
groups it containa Our space indeed will not permit us at present to
throw much light upon the subject, further than what may be gained
by studying the following table of sub-families : —
1. Typical Qroup.
Analogies. Siib-fainillca.
2. Sub-Typical Qroup.
8. Aberrant Qroup.
SCAKSORES. TBiU short, entire, light; feet short. 1 Crypeirince.
Tenuirostres. <♦ ♦ • • • • *M
FissiRoSTRBS. [ BiU slender, lengthened ; feet short. J JWgi'ina:,
va
COUVWJE.
" k glnnce ftl the modem nrrangeinentd miii ihow how eu
we differ from all ornilbologints who lika oa hnvo attempted ■
lUM this yerj iutricate family. Tha t«st« however ly which every
nerieB of animatfl thought to be natiim] muHt be tried, will brio^ to
light moDj remarkable peculiarities which belong Dal; to the fore-
gi>ing arrangement. Yet however confideQt we feel on the general
accurac; of this sketch, vra are unprepared either to show in what
■□aiiner the aub-families are connected, or to refer man; of the modem
{.Tiiera to their natural divisiona. The Jsjs (Oamiina) UQqueation-
ably represent the Buih-Shrikes (Tliamnophilina) ; while the genua
Criiptirata and the ahort-leggod Glaucopina of M. Tomminck form
part of a gronptypifjing the Drongo-ahrikea, The slender bill ot the
PngtUna, at the opposite side of the circle, indicites the position of
the fiseirostrsl group, corresponding to the Bactrida. But we have
' msuy doubts on the true nature of the tenuirostial tf pe, siace it
miiit QOt oaly represent the Hang-Ne*t Starlings (/cfcrins), but also
the Calerpillar-Catchera Ifitblipyritta), and the typical Ampetida, or
Chatterer*. Now it will strike every ornithologist who has the means
of eiamining the Graevia ealea of authors, that notwithstanding its
general resemblance to the Chauve of Le Taillant (■ Oiseaux de
I'Amtfrique,' pL 49), it is decidedly a Crow ; while the latter is con-
•idered by Le VaiUant as unquestionably belonging lo the A mptlida.
We have therefore good reason to suspect the Qracila caiva to be one
of the tenuirostml types of the Corrida. Id all probability it will
prove to be the sub-family type representing that tribe, although at
gite.
<^
the ndea; convei and curved towards lie point, its edges cutting.
Nostrils open. Fourth qoill the longest. Tail even, rounded, or
red^linenr.
" The apecies Coma," says H. Leasoo, " is very Dumerous in its
species. Birds which differ in their characters and halnta tima the
crows, properly so callad^which are the largest of the Poswru,
whose way of life is camivoroud, and their food composed of oU sorts
of nibstances, especially carrion — have been joined to the genus; The
crows poBsess much intelligence, are easily tuned, and become very
fnmiliar. They ore very vorscions, and live in numerous bands, and
their harsh cry has been called croaking. They often commit sui^
hsvoc that a price is set on their head m some countries. They have
at all times been objects of superetitjon to the people. Some of the
' ' " rs again are travellera, and migrate annually.
imd in ell the four quarters of fho
Tbvj moult hut (
The species of
globe.
C. Corax, the Raven. This welt-known bird ia the lU|>atafthe
Oreeks ; ComuM of the Latins ; Corro, Corbo, and Corvo Qroaso of
the modem ttaliaas; El Cuervo ot the Spaniards; Corbeau of the
French; Ber Rabe and Der Kolkrabe of ^eQermans; Korpofthe
Swedes; Rkud of the Danes; Corbie of the Sootoh ; Cigfran of the
Welsh ; Knw-kaw-gew of tie Cree Indians ; and TooUoo-ak of tike
Esquimaux. Sir John Richardson says that it abounds in the Fur
Countries, and visits the remotest islands of the Polar Seas. "It
frequents the Barren Qrouuds even in the moat intense winter colds,
its movements being directed in a great measure by those of the berds
of rein-deer, musk-oxen, and bison, which it follows, ready to assist in
devouring such as are killed by beasts of prey or by accident. Np
sooner has a hunter alaiigbtered an animal than these birds are seen
coming from various quarters to feast on the offal ; and considerable
numbers constantly attend the fishing stations, where the; show
Hiual boldness and rapacity. The eiperienced native, when he aeea
from afar a flock of ravens wheeling in small circles, knows that a
party of hia countrymen well provided with veniaon are encamped on
the spot, or that a band of wolves are preying upon the carcass of some
of the larger quadrupeds, and pushes on briskly in the certain pros-
pect of having his wants supplied. The thievish habib of a tame
raven are well known ; but it is remarkable that, inhabiting in a wild
state the most socluded and worst peopled districts of America, it
thould exhibit the same disposition to carry off shining metallic
bodies and other articles totally unfit either for food or to be used in
the construction of its nest; Hr. Kendall, in crossing the height of land
which divides the natera that flow towsfils Hudson'a Bay from those
which fall into the Arctic Sea, aaw a raven Sying off wMi something
in his clawB pursued by a number of his clamourous companions.
The bird being fired at dropped the object of contention, which
proved to be the lock of a cheat"
The aptitude of the raven for articulating clearly ia generally
admitted. Hr. Swainson says, "One belonging to lib. Henalow, of
BL Albans, speaks so distinctly that when Brst we heard it we were
actually deceived in thinking it was a human voice : and there !s
another at Chatham which has mode equal proficiency ; for living in
the vicini^ of a giiaid-houae it has more than once turned out the
guard, who thought they were called by the sentinel on duty."
Sir John Richardson {'Fauna Boreali -Americana ') statiS that a
pied individual was killed on the south branch of the Uackeniie from
a flock of the common sort lis nsck, fore part of the baok, and
part of VUa wings were gray ; the i«it of ita plumage black.
COUVID^ lU
This," writes Dr. Latham, "is a univeraid apcdes, found both In
the old and new continents ; from Greenland to the Cape of Oood
Hope in the one, and from Hudson's Bay to Heiico in the other. It
was also met with by our circumnavigators in the Sandwich Isles,
and at Owhybee was held in great estimation." Its appearance ia
recorded in the first and second voyage of Parry as occurring within
the Arctic Circle, and in Franklin's Journal. Several pairs were seen
Helville laland, and Sir John RicbardaoQ gives a desoription of
le killed at Fort Franklin in March, 1820.
Sir James Roas ('Anpendii to Sir John RoJs's Second Voyage,'
p. 28), speaking of the lUven, soya, " This is one of the few birds Uiat
- — capable of braving the severity of an arctic winter, and of enduring
scorching raya ot a tropical sun without any change being pro-
duced in its plumage by the extremes of climate. Cuvier and other
authora mention that in the north it is frequently found more or less
white : we never saw anything corroborative of such an observstiott.
It preserves ita plumage and peculiar characteristics unchanged in
evBiy quarter of the globe."
In his ' History of British Birds,' Hr. Yorrell haa gone into ■
minute investigation of the stmcture of the larynx in the Raven, in
which he shows that ita power of voioe depends on the complicated
Lture of the muscular apparatus with which tbia oi^an is supplied.
C./rufi'ifffui (Linn.), the Rook. This well-known gregarious and
familiar bird (for it seems to aS*ect the neighbourhood of man. and
even not to be seared by the amoky atmosphere of great towns) is the
Comacchia Nera and Comacchione of the Italians; Qraye, Orolle,
Freux, and Fniyonne of the French ; ComeilleMoisaoneuseof Brieson;
Schwartce Kriihe of the Qermans ; Boka of the Swedes ; and Ydfren
of the Welsh.
DvDd and Fool at Book {Oimu firufUifn).
Bslon and Caius, the latter of whom names the Rook l^iervmhgiu,
ant Fmgikga, appear to be of opinion that it is the 3npiii)\iyai of
Aristot^ ('Hist Anim.'viiLS). It is doubtless, as Pennant observe^
the Comu of Vi:^, who has happily described a flock of Uiem —
.* lib. i. V
The Rook is spread over the graator part of Europe ; but nowhen
doe* it seem to be more abundant than in Great Britain and Ireland.
Wooded and cultivated districts are ita &vourite haunts. The
farther north the observer goes in Scotland the fewer rooks does he
see. In Orknn and Shetland there are none, nor are there any in
Guernsey and Jersey. They do not appear to be numnona in Den-
mark, nor in the southern districts of Sweden, nor in Russia and
northern Asia, thou^ they may be seen there. In iMly the Rook is
oommon and permanent ; but it appean to be migratory over a part
of the continent of Europe. In France it is also common, and th*
following quatrain appears under the cut of it in tba 'Fortraita
d'Oyseaui :'~
" Ismsls le Fnax ne haole ta livagei
£t ne se palst que de rnliu et
u, srofliwrvers,
It oocura between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea ; and Dr. Yon
Stebold and H. Biirger note it among the European birds seen by
them in Japan.
Grain, and insects especially, form the food of the Book, and then
doubt that it amply renays the farmer for the seed which
165
CORVID-^
CORVIDiE.
136
llook-Worma in many places, and the birds may be seen following
the plough-tail to gather them up as the share exposes them. In the
end of May and beginning of June, when the young are able to fly
and go abroad with their parents, they may often be seen among the
bright green leaves of the horse-chestnut and other trees, bending the
branches with their weight as they assemble to pick off the cock-
chafers in their winged state. Where these birds have been incon-
siderately destroyed on account of the supposed damage which they
had done, a total ftulure of the crops has made the farmer glad to try
to get them back again. The stick-built nest contains four or five
pale g^reenish eggs, blotched with dark greenish-brown; these are
sometimes palmed upon the undisceming for plovers' eggs, but are
easily distinguished from them. Not that a rook's egg is by any
means bad, though far inferior in every respect to the other. The
male is most attentive to the female whilst she is sitting, and feeds
her assiduously ; both are very industrious in supplying their young,
and the skin under the tongue may at this season be often seen
dilated into a kind of pouch by the collected food. During the
building season they have great squabbles among themselves about
their nests. An account of one of their battles with the herons for
the possession of a disputed territory is alluded to in the article
Abdba. They frequently visit their nest-trees in the autumn on
their way to roost in some distant wood, and come to them for the
purpose of repairing their nest, and setting about the business of
mcubation early in March.
The Rook is not without the power of mimicry granted so laigely
to the greater part of the true crows, is docile, capable of learning
amusing tricks, and becomes much attached to the kind hand that
feeds it. It has been heard to imitate the note of a jackdaw
(Hewitson) and the barking of dogs so perfectly that if the mimic
had been out of sight no ear could have discovered the deception.
(Macgillivray.)
Varieties. — ^White, pied, and cream-coloured. "A gentleman,"
says the charming author of the ' History of Selbome, " had two
milk-white rooks in one nest. A bOoby of a carter finding them
before they were able to fly, threw them down and destroyed them,
to the regret of the owner, who would have been glad to have pre-
served such a curiosity in the rookery. I saw the birds myself nslled
against the end of a Imm, and was surprised to find that their bills,
legs, feet, and claws were milk-white. These perhaps were perfect
albinos, and might so have continu^ ; but instances are not wanting
where the origioal light colour deepens into the usual sable with age.
Mr. Yarrell quotes Mr. Hunt, of Norwich, who states that a gentleman
of his acquaintance had in 1816 a young rook of a light ash colour
most beautifully mottled all over with black, and the quill and tail-
feathers elegantly barred ; but when the bird moulted it became a
jet-black rook, and in this state was suffered to join its sable brethren
in the fields. Mr. Yarrell remarks that this agrees with his own
observations, and he adds that accidental varieties will generally be
found to be comparatively small and weak birda As these young
birds increase in age and gain constitutional power, the secretions, he
observes, become perfect, and the plumage assumes its natural
colours, whilst the assumption of white feathers by old birds is
probably the effect of the converse operation of the physiological law.
(* British Birds.')
It has been, and indeed still is with some, a question whether the
loss of the feathers at the base of the beak in the young rook upon
the first moult, is or is not a specific distinction, or merely the result
of denudation from plimging the bill into the ground in search of
prey. It must be borne in mind that some foreign birds resemble
the rook in this particular. Mr. John Blackwall's observations
(' Researches in Zoology ') touching this matter are full of interest.
He i-efers to a rook preserved in the Manchester Museum, which has
its mandibles crossed near their extremities, but so slightly that the
malformation could not have interfered materially with the mode of
procuring food usually resorted to by rooks, as is clearly shown by
the denuded state of the nostrils and anterior part of the head, both
of which are entirely destitute of feathers. But he notices another
specimen, in the possession of Mr. R. Wood of Manchester, which has
the mandibles greatly elongated and much curved. "Now," says
Mr. Blackwall, *'it is evident that the bird possessing a bill thus
formed could not thrust it into the ground in search of worms and
larvsB of insects, as the rook is known to do habitually ; and accord-
ingly the plumage at the base of the bill of this individual, and the
bnstly feathers which cover its nostrils, are very conspicuous, not
having sustained the slightest injury. The opinion entertained by
many persons that the naked condition of the nostrils and anterior
part of the head is an original peculiarity in the rook is thus satis-
factorily proved to be incorrect ; indeed the fact that young rooks
exhibit no deficiency in these particulars is sufficiently conclusive on
this point ; but the possibility of an entire species being endowed
with an instinct destructive of a usual portion of its organisation was
probably never contemplated by tliese observers ; it is not surprising
therefore that the inference deduced from a partial view of the
subject should be erroneous."
C, Corone, the Carrion-Crow, Qor Crow, Black Crow, Corby Crow,
Hoody, Bran. ; the Comeille Noire of the FrencL It has the feathers
of the throat short, ovate-lanceolate, compact. Tail stniight, slightly |
rounded. Plumnge black, highly glossed, with purple reflections
above and green beneath. Young similar, but less glossy.
It is found throughout England, and also in the north of Ireland
and Scotland. It idso inhabits Germany, France, Spain, Provence,
and Italy. Temminck says it is a native of Japan.
Like the raven, the crows keep in pairs all the year, and seldom
more than two are found together, unless at a feast of carrion. Its
partiality to animal food has given it its various appellations, as well
as that of Flesh-Crow. They are dangerous enemies where sheep are.
They attack lambs and small quadrupeds, as well as the young of
birds. They also eat shell-fish on the sea-shore. In de&ult of meat
they eat grain, potatoes, and have been known to feed on green-
walnuts. The Carrion-Crow is an early breeder, and commences
building its nest in February. The female lays four or five eggs of a
pale bluish-green, spotted and speckled with two shades of ash colour
and dove-brown.
C. comixt the Hooded or Royston Crow, Gray-Backed Crow, Gray
Crow, Dun Crow, Bunting Crow, Heedy Crow ; Comeille Mantel^ of
the French. The feathers of the throat are short, lanceolate, comp€u^t ;
tail straight, slightly rounded ; head, fore-neck, wings, and tail, black ;
the other parts ash-gray. Young with the plumage all dull blacky
except a broadband of dusky round the fore part of the body.
This bird resembles the last in its form, and in its habits is said to
be even more mischievous. In the southern parts of England it ia
only a winter visitant, arriving from the north early in October, and
departing again in ApriL In the western and northern parts of Scot-
land it remains all the year. It frequents marshes near the sea, the
banks and shores of tidal rivers, as for instance the Thames. It is
called Royston from its frequency in the neighbourhood of that town
from October to ApriL Like tbe last species, they feed on lambs,
poultry, and other animals, and when on the sea-shore partaking of
cnutacea, moUutcti, and fish. Mr. Selby says, "I have repeatedly
observed one of these birds to soar up to a considerable height in the
air, with a cockle or mussel in its bill, and then drop it upon the r jok
in order to obtain the included fish." The Hooded Crow often pairs
with the Carrion-Crow, and, what is singular, the produce are not
apparent hybrids, but assume either the plumage of the Hooded Crow,
or Carrion-Crow.
Pica. — Bill entire, with cutting edges, straight or curved, furnished
at the base with setaceous feathers, lying forwards. Tail very long,
graduated. (Vieillot)
The Piece, Magpies, feed much in the same manner as the true
crows, build their nests in trees, advance on the ground by hopping,
are clamorous, leam to articulate words easily, and the European
species is renowned for hiding anything shining and portable that
pleases its eye. This bird also has been always an object of supersti-
tion with the vulgar.
P. caiid<Ua of Ray, Corvui Pica of LimuDus, our common Magpie,
or Pianet, is, there is hardly any doubt, the Klrra of the Greeks. It
is the Pica of the Romans ; Gazza, Regazsa, Putta, Picha, Gazzuola,
Gazzara, Ghiandara, Gaggia, and Ghiggia Domenicana, of the Italians ;
Pie, Jaguette, Dame, and Agasse, of the French; Die Elster,
Die Aebter or Aglaster, of the Germans ; Skade and Huus Skade of
the Danes ; Skior and Tunfugl of the Norwegians ; Piogen of the
Welsh ; and Ootawa-kee-aakee of the Cree Indianis.
The Magpie hardly needs description, its plumage of black and
white being so characteristic and well known. It is omnivorous, and
lays six or seven oblong eggs of a yellowish-white, spotted with brown,
and cinereous : its nest^ wdl fortified with blackthorn twigs, is a curiosity.
The female is rather less than the male, and her tail is shorter.
"This bird," says Sir John Richardson ('Fauna Boreali- Ameri-
cana'), "so common in Europe, is equally plentiful in the interior
prairie lands of America; but it is singular that though it abounds
on the shores of Sweden and other maritime parts of the Old World,
it is very rare on the Atlantic coasts of America, or near Hudson's
Bay : only stray individuals passing to the eastward of the Mississippi
or of Lake Winipeg. Mr. Say informs us that it winters on the
Missouri, and takes its departiure northwards on the 23rd of March.
It does not entirely quit the banks of the Saskatchewan even in
winter, but is much more frequent in summer. On comparing its
eggs with those of the European bird, they are found to be longer and
narrower; and though the coloiuv are the same, the blotcnes art
laiger and more diffused. The manners of the American bird are
precisely the same that we are accustomed to observe in the Engli-ih
one." Mr. Swainson odds, that he has been able to compare English
and Arctic specimens with one from the interior of China, communi-
cated to him by Mr. Gray, and that he cannot perceive the slightest
difference whereon to build even the character of a variety, much less
of a species. The tails of the Arctic specimens, he observes, are very
beautiful. A white variety of this bird is occasionally seen.
The habits of the Magpie are very suspicious. Although seeking
the habitations of man, it is always prompted by s^-interestw " It
is," says Montagu, "a great enemy to the husbandman ^nd the
preserver of game; but has cunning enough to evade their wrath.
No animal food comes amiss to their carnivorous appetite; young
poultry, eggs, young lambs^ and even weakly sheep it will attempt to
destroy by first plucking out their eyes ; the young of hares, rabbiti^
and feathered game, share the same fiate; fish, carrion, insects^ and
fhiit, lutly grain, irheD oothuig eUe can be got. It ia
bird.
l»aUyg
r aloud I
apparent danger, and thereby j
J Dr. Latham aayi be baa Been ti*o Tarietiea ; the one pure nliite, the
LI I other as in the ConunoQ Jay, bat haling the whola of tbs quilli
appear without being obeerved end haunted ; even the fowler la
frequently apolled of hie sporty tar all other birda seem to koo^r the
alorraing chatter of the magpie."
Everywhere this bird ia marked for destruction, and were it not
for ita sagacity it would certoiuljloDg eince have become extinct.
This bird is common io Scotland. Although not koown in Ireland
a ceutury and half mnce, they are now common. This bird is very
oommon in Norway, where the tnbabjtanta avoid destroying it. It
liree in X^pland, and is common in the Morea. It is also a oAtive of
China and Japan.
There ore several foreign spedea of PUa. They occur both in the
Old and New World.
DemtneUla — a genus founded by Mr, Qould, and comprehending
Pica vagabunda of Wagler, P. SiatntU of Hardwicke and Gray, and
a tliird ipedei, which Hr. Qould believes to have been hitherto
ird ipeciei,
It haa the bill ehorter than the head, cultreted, broad at the base
ctjlmen arched, aidee eubtumid; nostrils basal, partly oovred witi:
■etaceoni feathers. Wings moderate : fifth and sixth quills longest
Tail elongate, cuneated, the tail-feathers spatulat«. Feet (tani) short
and weak: toes moderate; hallux strong, with a etroog incurv'-'
D. loKDgaitnL Block ; occiput, neck, tiansvene artripe at the
of the quills, and abdomen, white ; scapulars, interscapular n _
<intei»c*pulio), and lower tail-coverts, tinged with chestnut (dilute
caatoneis); two intamal toil-featliers a^-colouied, except at their tips.
" The sbortneBB and compantive feebleness of the tarsi in Den-
dToeUta, and its more elongated tail, tbe feethen of which are equally
gTaduat«d, except the two middle ones, which ore much longer than
Uie others, distinguish it from the typical Pica, the common magpie,
for example. These characters are in accordance with its haUt of
wandering from tree to tree in search of ite food. It is farther
distingni^ed by the form of ita bill.
" All the speciea jet known are native! of Eastern Asia." (Ooold,
ZooL'Ptoc.,' May lith, 1833.)
D. ragabunda. Pica ragabtrnda, Wagler. Head, neck, and crest, of
a amoke colour, or blackish gray; the back light cin n a m on ; tbe centre
of the wings gny ; tbe quilla black ; the tail gray, each feather being
tipped laigel; with block ; under surface pole tawny ; beak and tarai
black. Length 16} iuchca; beak IJ inch; tarsi 11 inch; tail ID
incheo. The species ia mom wide! j diffused than an; of its congeners,
beiUK found in oonsidereble abundance all over India. (Qonld, 'Century
ot Birda from the Himalaya Mountaina')
Carr^M. — Bill moderate, straight^ with cuttjng edges, inclined, and
with obecnre notches near l^e point. Tail even, sometimes rounded.
(TieilloL)
The Joya are inhabitants of the wooded dietricta, and live chiefly
upon fruits, principaiiy acorns and such vegetable productions. They
larely come mto the open country, but make great havoc in gardens
and cultivated grounds in the neighbourhood of woodlands. Their
food is much leas varied thou that of the true crows ; but they may
■till be styled omnivorouo. Their plumage is generally |ay, and even
brilliant: the beautiful speculum on the wing is a leadmg eharoctar.
The manners of the foreign species are analogous to those of the
foreign magpies. Those of the Common Jay and ita aptness at
imitation ore vrell known.
G. gtandaritu, the Common Jay, is auppoaed by Belon to be
the Maiuwsicrani;! of Aristotle; sod we may observe, in coa-
SrmotioD of this opinion, that the editor of the lost edition of
Pennant says, that the bird is very common in Greece, where it still
retains ita ondent name, MiUmniitpttFriii. Belon statee it to be the
Oaia Ghiandaia, or Ohiandora, the Gaia Verio, and the Berla, of
tbe Italians; and the Prince of Cauino gives Ghiandaja, Pica,
Pica ffkiandaja, and Piat paUmbina os its Italian appellations. It
is the Jay and Oeai of the French, the Kieben-Hoher (Oak Jay),
Holtnchryer (Wood-Cryer), or Holz-Baher, of tbe Oermana; and
Screch y Coed of the Welsh.
The Jay, like the Magpie, is too well known to require deaoriptiDU.
Its beautiful colours make it one of the handsomest of our native
birda. It builds ila basket-like nest in treea or high coppico-wood and
hedges, and lays five or six (ggs of a dull whitish olive, mottled vary
obscurely with pale brown ; towards the large end there aro usuallj-
two or three black linea. It is a sad enemy to gardeners. Fruits,
•specialty cherries, ond peas are its great favourites, and it ia fre-
Krntly taken by springa sat upon the rows ot peas when in bearing.
, KiMier says that it will kiU small birds. With regard to their
imitative powero, Bewick Bays, " We hove heard one imitate the sound
made by the action of a saw so exactly, that though it was on a
Sunday, we could hardly be pereooded that the person who kept it had
not a oipenter ot work in the house. Another, ot the approach of
cattle, bod learned to bound a cur dog upon them, by whistling and
calling upon him by his name. At hist, during a severe frost, the dog
waa, by that means, excited to attack a cow big vrith calf, when tbe
poor animal foil on tha lo^ and waa much hurt ; the jay waa oom-
plained of as « nuiMUioa, and its owner was oblized to destroy it."
Joy, bat having t
The author last quoted states that this species, though not neoriy
so for spread as the magpie, eiiota in various paiis of the continent
of Europe, aud that he has observed it sniong drawings done in
Chins.
There sre aeveml foreign species, both of the New and Old World.
Mr. Gould, who figures three species in his 'Centuiy ot Birds,' well
observes that, " The close affinity which the Gamdm lanciolaltit
bears to some soeciea inhabiting the United States and Mexico is
worthy of remark, as o corroboration of the fact so often insisted on,
that eimilor forms of ornithology are found in countries widely
separated from each other, whose' temperatures ore alike." Indeed,
the lost-mentioned bird immediately reminds the observer of the
Blue Jay (GamJut mifuCut) of America, while Oarntliu biipeculari4
recalls flie common Joy to his recoUaction.
Picalharlei — o genus foiindod by H. Leieon, who takes for the type
the Ke Chauve (Cormu ffymnocephalut of Temniiuck),
It has the bill convex, not very robust, the upper moudible higher
than the lower; the latter a little swollen towards its eitremitv ; the
base entirely without hain, and furoished with a cere. Nostrils
placed on the middlu of the bill, oval, open, hollowed into an oblong
excavation. Head entirely naked. Feet (tarsi) long, but little
Bcutellated in front, naked behind; claws feeble; wings rounded,
short. Toil long, graduated. (Lesson.)
" The form of this singular tuid," says M. Temminck, " the cut of
its wings, ond its long conical and very graduated tail, serve me os
indicia to judge by ^olo^iy of whot country it may be a native, ita
locality being unknown. In tact, on comparing our new species with
tbe Piapic of Le Vaillant (Comu Senegalemit), one is inclined, from
the marked analogy, to conclude Africa to be its country. Some data,
which it is noveruieless not prudent to trust, lead me to believe that
the only individual known, which is in the collection ot Mr. Lead-
beater of London, was brought from the English possessions on the
coast of Guiuea."
" Proportions (taille) a little stronger, tar« much longer, and a toil
less in proportion distinguish our bird from the Piapic The head in
certain pomts offers some resnnblance to that of the Graeitia caiva of
the Philippines, and tbis approximation is so strong that it would
produce doubts as to its African origin, if it did not bear a greater
resemblance in its general contour to tiie Piapic of Africa. In fine,
if this bird is not AAican, it can onlf be a native of the Philippine
FkalKarUr ff^MWtetpl
Upon this passage M. Lesson remarks, that he does not find the
least analogy between tbe figure of the Enlum., 638, which i>
C'liiTiu Scaigalmtu, and the Pie Chauve, whivh ff "
lU COBVID^
Catluula. Th« coacluaion itated In H. Temtsiiiok'i I*a( wnteDOB H.
LwaoQ U fiir from Bdniittuigf.
Tha following ii Tsmmiiiofc'a dMcriptioa of the apecica; "Thu
Dnlied parta ot tba head oSar a particular character. The whole of
the auUitorj meatna ia completely deatitute of feathen and otcd of
hair*. A amall border, or nuUment of membniDB, fomu, beloir the
orifice of the ear, a sort of eitflmal concha, but little apparent, it ii
true, in tba staffed BpecimeQ, but the extent of which miiat be renaark-
able to the liring bird. All thJB part of the organ of hearing, as
well aa a part of each aide of the occiput, are covered bf a black skin
with a ahghtlj-projecting orbicDlar border, and forming a rounded
plaque. The cere which enrelops the base of the bUI ia ain blick.
All the reet of tha naked parte of the head, the mesial line of the
occiput which eepaiatei the black plaquea of the temples, and Uie
upper part of the top of the neck, appear to ma to hare been red or
ros; in the living aubject ; a (light tint of roej-jellow cotoi these
parta in that before ua The whole of tha nape is covered, clorly,
by a whitiah and very short down. The front of the neck and all the
other parte are white. The back, well covered with thick-set feathera,
is of an aahy-black ; all the rest of the plumage is bistre brown.
The feet ara yellow, and the bill is black. Length 16 inchea."
<Telnla.)
Pudoca. — This geaui was founded by M. Fischer, for a bird dia-
oovered by Dr. Paoder, in the country of the EiroheM beyond Otcm-
burg, whose habits of life are analogous to those of the crows, among
nhich ilL Leason thinks it ought to be placed
The bill is moderate, of the length of the head, bendiug downwards
at ita point, without a ifotcb, and slightly angular, the upper mandible
shorter than tha lower, receiving and covering the edges of it.
Noetrilj basal, rounded, large, covered with setaceous oveihaoging
fmthers (plumea setactSeeretombantaa). Feet robust and long ; chws
triangular, very mnch pointed, and but litUe i^rred ; a warty mam-
brane bordering the thickness of the phalanges. First quill short,
second long, the three neit equaL Tail rectilinear. (Fischer.)
P. Pandtri. Greenish glaucous above ; eyebrows white ; bill and
claws blackish ; feet greenish. The bird flies badly but wolki very
wea It lives'- " ^
feet areenii
Bocka.
JWmu FtKdrrl.
_«, (trong ant ...
oueniDg with some stiff 'bristies and small feathera turned forwards.
Iiaaol nasB eub-oval, closed by a large membrane. Winga rounded,
niodaiata. Quilla nearly equal, the third longeat Feet very long,
demiseutellatad. Tail rounded.
There are aevaral ipedaa, all oriental Mr. Oould, who has pub-
lished two, namely, Jf. Bm^iddii and 3f, Ttmminctii, in his
' Century,' states tha^ aa regards the habits of these birds, little can
be said with certainty, but that &om their lengthened tarsi and
general structura they m^ be couudered aa depending in a great
measure fjr their subsistence upon worms, insects,
manners of M. TVnninciu, when on the groimd, ai
leaeuible those of the English blackbird. It may
whether this grvup ia property plaoed among the Cor
M. Jtsvirotlrii (M. ■wfoUiciu, Temm.) Entirely of i
with metallic tints. Bill of a beautiful jellow.
inbabita Java.
and larva), 'ile
re Bidd much to
be questionable
iryopinntu JIarimiiii.
Ptilonorhjiitektu. — BUI strung, rohnst, widened, rather long, upper
baaal termination convex, but little marked ; point recurved ; upper
mandible presenting two small notches at its aitreniity ; edges a little
swollen i lower mandible slightly convex ; commissure of the mouth
itnught, simple. Nostrils basal, lateral, furnished with short briatlea.
Wings short, rounded. Tail moderate, graduated. Feet skndcr.
Tba genus, aa modified by Lesson, contains but two apedea. He
thinka that it would be better placed among the Dattirctlrtt at the
side of the Cboucaria (Ontuealiu, Cuvier) ; but he allows that it baa
all the forms of the Boilers (Coraciai) and of the Crows, Locality,
the warmest islands of the Weet Indian Archipelago.
P. Sintntit, Coraeiat Sinauii, Latham. Body above pale aqua-
tuarins green clouded with yellowiBh-green. Forehead furnished with
silky round feathers turned in ^Serent directions; feathers of tha
nape long, unravelled aa it were, and capable of being erected into a
tufl— boUi of a yellowiah-green. A black band taking ita rise from
the angle of the bill surrounds the eye and nape. Throat and cheeks
of a yellowish-green. Lesser wing-covarts brown. Quilla brown,
inclining to olive externally and chestnut internally; the lut thrre
progreesively terminated with greenish white. Bill red, Burtounded
by a few black bristles ; feet reddish. Siie 11 inchea. Locali^, the
Philippine Ishuids.
The other specie^ accordingly Lesson, is Killa fWasnna, Tem-
KiUa. — Bill short, oonvex, com pressed on the sides ; upper mandible
with the bKSal termination recurved, and depressed aides ; the point
aharp and fucuiibhcd on each side with a sm^dl projecting tooth, bor-
dera of the mandibles thick, recurved, and covered at the commiaure.
Noatrits baaol, transversal, hidden by the silky feathers of the fore-
head, and by a row of small btistlea Wings pointed Tall equal,
rounded. E«et robust ; toes equal ; hallux atoeng. (Lesson.)
Lesson, who places in this genus Killa hotoxrieta, Plilonerkynelitit
Smtthii, and Killa rircscms, says that what was observed aa to the
last-mentioned geEus is applicable to this, which has tha genersJ
characters of the Rollers and BoUes (Oolarit).
The birds composing the genus are exclusively peculiar to Aus*
ttalia and the temperate sons. (Lesson.)
K. kolatrricca, Tom mi nek ; PtiloaorhgndiiH kolOKriaut, Kuhl;
Satin Oiakle. Latham ; PCtionorAyncAiu Mac-Ltayii, Latham USS.
Vigora and Uorsfleld.
IWe, very briHiant bl^kUli-blue. QuilU and Uil-feathara dead
blank. Bal and feet j-ellow. A double row of Bilky uid toItbIt
blukh-black feathers at the baaa of the hih. Unft^i 13 inchaa. The
ftmala haa tho upper parts of im olive-green. The quilU and tail-
BalLn-Bliil {Eitla holoifHcta).
feather* of a i«d-brown ; wing'Coverta varied irith brown and a colour
inclining to olive ; lower parte gneniah, barred with blaok. There
are whitiih barliontal epots, lanceolated, and bordered with black, on
the front of the neck.
COBVID.(E. in
Mr. Caley eaja (Vigore and Honfield, ' Linn. Traaa./ toL it. p. SflJ)
that ■ tbe male of thie species is reckoned a leiy scarce bird, and ia
highly valued. The natives call it Cowry, the colonists Satin-Bird.
I have novr and then mot with a solitary bird of this species ; but I
once saw lai'ge flocks of them on some newly-eown wheat, from
wlienoB they fled on being KSred into a nf ighbouring bnieh. When
all was af!un quiet they soon returned to tie whent They did not
leave the brush above a few yards. There were no black onea amons
them, nor can I affirm that they were feeding on the wheat."
A'um/rnjo— Bill long, thick, with cutting edges terminating in a
blunt |K)int, furnished with setaceous feathers at the base, the upper
mandible longer than the lower. Noatrils round, open. Wiugs
pointed ; fourti quill longeat.
Till the publication of Mr. Oonld's Niulfraga hemitpxla (see ' Cen-
tury of Birds') but one species wrh known, namely, that which we
select as the example :—
K. Caryocatar-la. Briason, the Nutcracker; OaryiKaiacta nueifraga,
NiU ; Conui Caryocalada. LinnIBU^ the Caese-Noii of the French ;
the Tannen-Hiiher of the Qermane; the Noddekrigr of the Danes; tbe
Not-Kraake of the Norwegians; and the Aderyn y Cnau of the
Thia bird ia somewhat less than the Jackdaw. The bill ia atraigbt,
strong, and black. Head, neck, breast, and body, rusty brown.
Crown of the head and rump pUin, the other parta marked with
triangular white spots. Winiri black. Covi-rts spotted like the body.
Tail rounded at the end, black, tipped with white. Legs dusky.
Locality, most parts of Europe ; but the Prince of Caniuo does not
notice it in bis ' Specchio Compamtivo."
PgrrhiiTOTax, — Bill moderate:', oompreaiied, subulate, rather slender,
furnished at the base with festhera directed forwards, and at the
extremity of the upper mandible with two small teotb whidi are
often wanting. Nostrils basal, ovoid, open, hidden by bristles. Feet
robust; claws strong and recurved. Fourth and fifth quills longeet
These birds, the Choquords of the French, live in troops like the
Jackdaws, which they resemble in their manners. They inhabit the
high moimtains of Europe, and especially the snowy regiona of the
AJpe, Thej are omnivorous, feeding on insects, worms, soft fruit*, and
seeds. They moult once a year, aod the sexes are alike eitemally.
P. Pyrrhocorax. Brilliant black, but the colour is dull in youth,
und the bill and feet are black. In the adult bird tbe black preaenta
iridescent and changeable tints varying to greenish ; the bill is yd-
lowish, and the feet bright red. Tbe female lays four white egga,
ipotted with dirty yellow ; the neat is in holes of the rocka Locality,
Alps of Switzerland. The Prince of Canino {' Specchio Compantivo )
ites it as rare, and only occurring in the Apennines.
^V^M.— Bill longer than the head, slender, entire, arched, pointed.
Nostrils covered with feathers directed forwards.
Lesson is at opinion that this genus ought to be united with the
last, from which it only diSers in having tbo bill longer and more
curved, which ma.le Cuvier place it in the tribe of Ttaviratlre*, near
the Hoopoes {Upupa). The species have the manners, habits, and
general organiaation of the crows ; and the European species (selected
here as an example) perfectly resembles Fyrrhocarax. (Lesson.)
P. gractUta, Temm. ; Corrai ffracutut, Linn. The CoroiBh Chough,
or Red-Legged Craw, is considered by Belon, on no bod grounds, to
be the Koinuilat, the KapAwTi ^anKipayxai <Red-Billed Crow) of the
Greeks and the J^rrAoraroi of tbe Romans; Spelvier, Taccols, Pason,
Zorl, of the Italians (Belon); Choucas aui Pieds et Bee Rouge, Choquar,
Choiiette Rouge, of the French (Belon) ; Stein-Tahen and Stein-Fne
of the (^rmans ; and Br&n Big U6ch of the Welsh.
BHck beautifully glossed with blue and purpla Legs and bill
bright orange, inclining to red. Tongue almost as long as the bill,
and a little cloven. Claws large, hooked, and black. The Chough
builds its nesta in high cliffs or ruined towers, and lays four or five
eggs, white, spotted with dirty yellow or light brown and ash colour.
It is a native of England in Devonshire, Cornwall, and Wales.
Pennant says that it is found in different parts of Scotland ai far sa
Straithnavern, and in some of the Hebridtt. He also atstes that it ia
found in small numbers on Dover cliff, where tbry came by accident;
a gentleman in that neighbourhood had a pair sent as a present frotn
Cornwall which escaped and stocked these rocks. They sometime*
desert (he place for n week or ten days at a time, and repeat it eevei-al
times in the year. Montagu, speaking of this locality, says, " Wa
believe tbe breed in those parts is ngain lost." Latham states that it
ia also said tu frequent the South Downs about Beachy Head and
Eastboum, where it is culled the Red-Billed Jackdaw. With regard
to its general geographical dietributioQ, Pennant observes that we do
not find it in other parts of Europe except England and the Alps.
In Asia the island of Candia produces it; in Africa, Egypt, which
laat place it visite towards the end of the inundations of thp Nile.
He quotes Pliny, Brissun. Belon. and Haaselquist, for these statements.
The e^tor of the last edition of Pennant says that the Chough inha-
bits the lofty cli& about the mid region of the higheat mountains of
Qreece, but never the maritime partA, as with us. Scopoli apcaks of
it in Camiola, and ssya that the feet of some during autumn turn
black- These were probably young birda.
Tbe Comiah Chough is easily tamed, and may be taught to speak.
Ona in Colonel Montagu's possesaion would stand quietly for hours to
ba lootlMd tad atnued, btit would rsaent an afiWint lioUi with bill
uid cUm. "It «," Bays Penmuib, "aotiva, rertlBBg, and thiBiring ;
mudl taken with glitter, nnd ao meddUnK u not to be tnuted when
UuDgB of oon«equcace lie. It ii veiy apt to alflh up bits of lishted
(Ucki, 10 that there ars iiutuioet t^ houiea being let on Are br lb
nieuu, whicb ie the reuon that Camden calls it ' inoendiaria btu.' "
Ssrenlof Um WeUhand Comiih fkmilLea bear tliii bird in thsir ooat-
l^ere are foreign Bpeciai — Fregilut leucoptena, Tigort and Hoci-
fieW (Pyrrhocorax leaci^ltnu, Tomniinok}. from Auatialia, where
it ji called b; tbe nHlivei Wajbung, according to Hr. Caliejr, and
Rrgiltu Enca, of Horsflsld, from Java, for inatance.
Paradiiea — fBiBDB oi PiBiDiSE.]
AilTo^ia. — 'Bill amootb at the baae, compressed laterally, etraight
aboTe, pointed, notched, and bent toTrarda the eitrsmitj. Tail Teiy
loi^ and very gmdunted.
Pie d* Puadli.
plum*^ 1
nigra, and Latham that of Paradttta gviari; while Cut
COBTLi.CK£. IM
it to coma under tbe genus Titrdta (Herle de la you^elle Oninfe).
Thii beautiful bird is the Pie de Faradis or Incomparable of th«
FrencL Leeson ea;a : — " I brought from New Qutnea two indiriduala
of this magnificent bird, the value of which is sufficiently considerabla
in France, and which saenu to ba Tery rare eren in its native country ;
for, during our sojourn at tbe Moluccas aud the land of the Papoua,
I only law there two birds, and cna of these now embellishes tha
gallerioa of the muaeum where I deposited it."
No desoriptioQ osn convBy any idea of the brilliancy of this bird.
The metallic tints of almost every hue, varying with the pisy of the
light on the plumage, olmoat nirpan beliet It is well figurad in
Le Vaillant'i ' Oi»Bui de Pandis,' plaU 20 aad 21 ; but no colouc-
ing can give the ilighteat Dolaon of its aplendid intensity and varietj.
The form may be imagiued from the preceding out taken from th*
plates above mentiivied.
the c«ve at Kirkdale, and figures the right ulna of one of those luids
in ' Reliquin Diluviaiue,' plata xl
C0RVU3. rCoBTnii]
CORTDA'LIS, a genua of Plants belonging to the natural order
Pumariacia. It haa a calyx oomposed of two sepals, or abaent ; 4
petals, the upper one spurred at the base ; the stamens diadelphous ;
the pod 2-valvad, man; seeded, oompreased. Tbe species are mostly
small glaucous herbs, with temat« or pinnated leaves, and fuiifonD
tuberous or fibrous roots. Upwards of 10 apeciea of this genua have
been dncribed. They are natives of the temperate parts of the earth
in tbe four quarter! of the globe.
0. tiavicalala. White Climbing Fumitory, haa a fibrous root; pin-
nate kavee, with acuminate bracts, the pinnsa temate ; footstalk ending
in tendrils. It bas small pale-yallow or nearly white flowers. It liai
a slender climbing stem, 1 to 4 feet long. It is found in bushy place*
in hill; districts of Great Britain and throughout Europe.
C. lulta. Yellow Fumitory, haa a fibrous root, tritemate leaves;
minute oblong cuapidate bracts ; shining aeeda, gnu) u late-rugose, with
a patent denticulatad crest. Thia plant ia a native of the south oi
Europe, in the fiasurea of rocke and old walla. It ii now naturallaed
in Oraat Britain, and forms a picturesque object on the old walls of
ruins, as at Casdeton in Derbyshire, and Fountains Abbey, YoiUiin.
It ia a very common plant in gardens.
C. lolida haa n tuberous sohd root, with bitemata cut leavaa, the
lowest petiole a leafleaa scale, the bracts palmate. It is found in Qraat
Britain, but has been undoubtedly introduced.
0. Fahacta has a nearly limple erect stem, scaly under tbs lower
leaf I the leaves stalked, bitemate ; the bncta ovate, acute, longer than
the pedicles. It is a native of shady mountainous places in Sweden,
Denmark, and many other ports of the continent of Europe. This
species, as well as C. UiberaKi, a native of the South of Europe, bas a
tuberous root. Tbe root of both the spedea is very bittar and rather
acrid. That of C. Htieroia ia hollow, and is found to contain a pecQ-
liar alkali called Coiydolin. On the continent these roots are used
under the name of Radix Aralolochitc, and uv employed aa eiteroal
appUcations to indolent tumours. C. bulboia bas a tuber which ia
somewhat aromatic, extremely bitter, slightly astringent and acrid,
and was formerly used as a substitute for Birth- Worts in expelling
intestinal worms, anJ as an ammensgogue.
Many of the species on cultivated in Qreat Britain, and, having
escaped from gardeus, ore occasionally found wild, but only C. tlawi-
cuiaia is a native ; C- Uttea ia naturalised- In cultivation they require
A light rich soil. They are well adapted for flowar-bordeta and rock-
work. The perennial apeciee may be propagated by dividing the roots,
the annual % seeds, which shotud be sown where they are intended
to remain. Thay will grow well under treea it the abil ba not very dry.
(Don, ZHiJilamydfoii4 PlaaU ; Lindlay, Flora Ifedica; Loudon,
Encyelopadia of PlanU : BMagtaa, ManutU of BritiA Sotaag.)
CORYLA'CE.^, MaitviorU, the Oak.Tribe, a highly important
natural order of Apetalous or Incomplete Exogenous Pluila,
eonoiating of trees or shruba, chiefly natives of the colder port*
of the world, and valuable either for the nuia they bear or the
timber they produce. The Oak, the Beech, the Hazel, (he Horn-
beam, and the Sweet Cheatnat, all belong to this order, the
general character of which ia briefly thia : — Leaves alternate, usually
serrated, often with veins running atroight from the midrib to the
margin, beyond which they ilighUy project ; at the base of each leai
a pair of membranous stipules. Flowers monracioua ; the males in
catkins ; the females in bud-like clusters. Stamens from S to 20,
arising from the acolas of the catkin. Ovoiy infarior, crowned by a
toothed obsolete calyx, seated in a membranous cup or involucra^
with more cells than one, and aa many styles as cells ; ovules solitary
or in pairs, penduloua ; all the ovules except one and all the cells
disappear after the flowering is over, and whan the fruit is ripe there
is but one cell and one seed, whatever thoir number may originally
have been. Fruit, a nut (called also acorn, maat, &c), incloaed within
a peouliar kind of involucre or cupule composed of bracts more or leaa
united together, and forming a cup in the oak, a huak in the filbert,
and a apiny osaa in the oheatnut nnd beech. The seed conusts of a
roundiall embryo, with thick fleshy cotyledons, and no albumen. Tha
M coRttTra
mort Mntheni of the spaaica of this order ia the Beech, of irhinh nun;
nn<Ci«s occur in the lower parts of South Amarioa, AuatnlU,
and Sew Zealiuid. The order w (Jlied to Jaglandaeea. For parti-
cnkra respecting the genera of thia moat importajit fiimilf of plants
Me CABriyris ; Ostbta ; Cobtlits ; Fiam ; Caiiania ; Qukboub ;
LiraocABFVB.
Flonra of Ihe Sacel-Nnt {Oerftat Ataiana),
I, a tmneb, wltb tba aula flowen " In dreaping satklni ; the ftmile* • In
bnd-liko cluilen ; 1, onn of the Kslci of Iha duIe »tkin, irlth Iha itameiu
•tuctwd to It ; 3, B female bud. wiLb Itie ilfla prnJmtiiiB bejimd tba brteti i
4, Ibc rooDt onriia wllh Uh biacU remoTed ; 3, a h«1ds of the otstj,
nhlMtlnf the otuIh, the loolhid hIti, and the bsie ol the stjle ; 6, a eroH
(Hiiua at Um otuj ; 1, a laniitadissl section ot a not.
C0HTLTJ9, a genua of Plant* after whiiA the natural otdar Ctorj-
loMd recaiTCB its name. It consieta of the diSersnt ipedes of hazal-
tmt, and ia diatinguiehed from the genera aaaociated witb it bf its
eupule baing a twa-leavad lacerated husk, and its Ovar; bunng but
two cella, in each of nhich is one ovule.
C. Av^ana, the Comman Uazel-Xub This planl^ which It •
nitire of all the cooler parts of Europe, Northern Asia, and North
America, is the parent of the many varieties of nuts and filberls now
cultivated for their fruit. [Hazel-Nut, Fi[.BEBt,in Abtb add 9a D^.]
It is speciGcall/ known fa; its husks baing hispid with glands, laafj,
broad, much lacerated, and ruther spreading at the point ; never con-
tflKted into a long tube, nor divided into narrow rigid s^ments ; b;
its rounded, heart-ehaped, very rugose, angular, toothed cuspidate
leaves, glandular-hispid branchni, and shrubb; habit. It varies very
much in the form of its hueke, in the degree of their hisptdit;, eoma
being nearly smooth, in the shape of their nuta, and in the height to
which it grows. In the Hazel-Kut the husk is open at the point,
ehoiter or at least but little longer than the nut, and nearly smooth ;
while in the Filbert (Coryliu fuiWoja of some writers) it is lengthened
ooneiderably beyond the nut, and covered more or leas with glandular
hairs ; all d^jTeea of intermediate atructure ma; be found in the cul-
tivated vaiieties. This plant is found as a large shrub having nome-
rous stems rising from the rool^ or as a small bushy tree with a great
number of branches, which ore covered with hairs when it is young.
It is found all over Oreat Britain, from Cornwall to Sut^erlandihire.
It grows at the height of 1600 feet above the level of the sea, in the
north of England and Scotland. It is cultivated very generally on
account of its nnte, eapetially in the caunt; of Kent, where it attains
its greatest perfection. It is also cultivated on the continent of
Europe ; and every year laige quantitiea of the nuts are brought into
England from various |»rts of Fiance, Portugal, and Spain. The
haiel is valued in planting principally as an undergrowth. Its branches
sod stems are used for various kinds of wicker-work. The wood
is said to make the beat charcoal for gunpowder, and ia also used foi
Disking crayons for drawing purposes.
C. Amtritana is not distinguishable as a variety from the last
spedee. The Beaked American or Cuckold-Hscel is a pretty purple-
leaved kind in shmbberiea.
C. rotfrala, the Homed Hazal-Nut. In this tlie branches are
qnite free from glandular hispidity, the leaves are oblong, not cordate,
doubly toothed, and acuminate, and the husks globular over the nuta,
' e they are eitremely hispid, without ever being glandular;
dOBTHBIFER.^. l«i
C. Columa, the Constantinople Nut, a white-barked tree SO feet
and more high, with an erect trunk and a dense spreading head. The
leaves are shining, much less nigoee than in the haiel-nut, cordate,
angular, serrated, acute or acuminate, slightly haiiy on the under
BurFace. The branches and all the other parts are destitute of
glands ; tJie huaks are campanulata, deeply cut into narrow hairj
rather falcate segments. The nuts ore roundish and verv hard- It
is a native of Aaia Minor, and known from all the other garden
apede* by its becoming a tree. It seldom produces ita nuts in thia
climate.
Besides these tliere ore the C. laeera and C. /trax, two spedea
found in the Himslaya Hounlaine. Of these, the former, gathered in
Kumaon, is hardly different from C, Colnmaj the other, from Mount
Sheupore, has narrow taper-pointed leaves, and eiceesively hard nula
'nclosed in a husk, with divaricating narrow epiny divisions.
COSYHB, a form of inflorescence approaching ven nearly to the
nceme. The raceme consists of an axis, upon which all the floweta
ire disposed upon footstalks of the earns length ; and henoe ita figure
a more or less cylindrical. A corymb oonsiets of an axia, the lowar-
noat flowers on which have very long stalks, and the uppermost
rery short ones, so that the mass of inflorescence ia an inverted oon^
IB in candytuft and man; other cruciferous plants. The oorymb i^
in fact, an umbel with a lengthened axis.
From this word ia derived the term Corymbose, which is applied not
only to flowers, but to any kind of branching in which the lowermost
parts are very long aud the uppermost very short, as is the case in
most spedes of Atter. [Ikflorbbcssce.]
CORTMBI'FER^, one of the primary subdivisions in the system
of Jussieu, of the natural order CotnpotUa. It comprehends most of
the Tttbulijlora of De Candolle. It is characterised by the absanoe of
albumen, an erect aeed, a hemispherical involucre, and the florets vt.
the ray, if present, ligiUate. Thia division comprises b; far the
laigeot number of the genera of the large order Oonyionta. The
apedea of Corymii/era produce more active secretions, and have been
used more extensively by man than those of the other subdivisions of
the order. They generally represent the Cichoracfa [Cioboraoka]
in hot elimatee, and this will perhaps account for their more active
properties. In Oreat Britain the CotytiA^fera ore more numerous
than either the C^naracea or CieKoracta, The number of apeoiea hi
the second edition of Babington's ' Manual of British Botai^ ia —
Oarymbiftm SS
CiAortKta 61
Cynaractai 28
Comptmttt 189
De Candolle estimates that the apeciea of the C<mtiil>tita form a
tenth part of the flowering planta in tlie world, and this is about ib*
proportion in which they occur in Oreat Britain.
The following is a nynopsis of the British genera of Ooryntitftrtl !—
Tribe I. Eupatoriaci*.
Section L Si^/aiorta.
Eupaiariitm eannabinwn
Section IL TnutUagntta,
PitatUa vtt^rij
Tuuilago Fcufara
Tribe IL AniROiSES.
Section I. AUereic
Alter IHpirftwn
Erigtron . . . S spedes
SittU pirennil
Solidago Virgaurea
Chryiocoma Lmotjfrit
Section IL Invito.
Inula .... 3 species
Pulicaria . . 2 speciea
Tribe IIL SKTraciosniK*
Section I. Ifelianlkta.
Sidetu ... 2 specdea
Seotion II. Anlktmidaf.
AnthanU, . . S species
Achilita ... 4 speciea
Diotw maritima
Chryianthenium ! species
Pyrtlhram . . 3 species
Slalriearia ChancimiUa
Atttmitia . . 5 speciea
Tanactitmi vulgare
Section IIL Onapkaiieo'.
Pilago . . . S species
Qaaphalitim . 6 species
Antamaria . . 2 speciex
Seotion IV, Seitcionta.
w
COBTNE.
The propertiea oF thU dirisiou of Compotita un otuTacteristic.
BittfiDHO, with ta nroni&tic odour, a common tio M the apecies.
Whether the bitterueiM depends oa ui alkaloid or not, checniBta hRFe
not detennined. Hany of the ipeciog poBBesa properties very similar
to thooe possessed bj quinine, and ore administered in the same
diseasee u cincliona; among Uiesa fire species of the genera IntUa,
' Pigueria, Mitania, and Emilia. This bitter principle seldom hov-
ever girea the chaiicter to the plant alone, but is combbed with some
BTDmatJc oil, which gives the plant the properties of both a tonic and
a, aiimu]ant. Such a combination is found in many of the species o*
thp genera AtUhtnU, Arlenitia, Diolii, Santolma, CArytan/Aonuni
Eufatonvm, Liatu, Ac. Sometimes the volatile oil is more promi
nent than the bitter principle ; and this is obvious in the species of
Pl/rtlhrum, Tamuelum, Sleaactit, Erigeron, &C. In some of these the
volatile oil nasumeBthe characters of turpentine and the oil of juniper,
and acta aa a diuretic ; heuoe a certajn number of these plants Imve
the repatatioD of stimuIatinK the action of the kidnejs. In some the
volatile oil assumes an acrid character, as in Bidau, and acts as a sia-
logogue, as in Pyrtlhrum and Spilanlka ; in Mamia it is sufficiently
active to produce vomitiog. In some a secretion is produced, similar
to that which gTves the character to Oicheracea. Thus Sapl^lialmum
i^UiciJotima is said to possess oarcotic powers, and the Arnicamaafana
it stated by Burnett to have yielded a principle identical with Citi-
mne, the active principle of the laburnum. Some of the species yield
a filed oil. In addition to the acrid oil in Pi/rethmm offcinate, there
is a butyraccoue matter, consisting principally of atearinc. The seeds
of the species of HtliatUhu4 yield a fixed oil on ezpresaioo, and this is
probably not couSued to the seed-i of this genus. These seeds also
contain nutiitivs matter (protein F), and are the support of birda and
sometimes of man, in America. Another group yield colouring-
matl«ra : Anthtmit titatoria, and the species of CalmdMla and Bidmt,
are used for dyeing yellow ; the TJnamliim vulyare for dyeing green.
The roots of many species contain starnh, and in quantities large
enough to afford food for man, as in the tubers of SHiavUhu* tubtrotut.
Hany of the species also yield the peculiar kind of starch known by
the name of laulin, so named after tiie Inulas tn vhich it was first
foond. Some of them appropriate potash in the spots where they
grow, and a spedes of Erigerva is remarkable for the large quantities
of this alkali which it contuns. Qum is a secretion found in consi-
derable quantities in some species, as of Q/uipludmm, Vauyta, and
TuMfilago, and on this account they have been used in medicine as
demulceala. TanniD is not found in any quantity in this tribe of
plants, BO that they seldom eiert on astringent action upon the sys-
tem ; the Acliillca mi'Ifr/ofiTim seems ho vsver to possess this proper^.
Uany of ths omamenta of the garden belong to the (7Drym6t/<!ii;. The
Dahiia, CArytanlliemum, Xerati>hemum,Airtr,Erigen)n, Soiida^, Cert-
eptit, and Tagda, are amongst the genera that ^ord the most showy
and highly valued flowers in the autumn of tbe year. Although tha
properUes and uses of these plants in relation to man are important,
yet iu proportion to tbe poaitian they oocupy in the veiretable king-
dom, they are few. Mjuy orders which yield a much smaller number
of species aSWii! n.v.'-h -.r.iiie abundant materials for the use of man,
(Lindley, J^ffra Medi^'i; Liudley, Vegetable Kingdom: BabingtOD,
Manttai of BritiA Eolati-i ; Burnett, Outiima of Botany.)
CORYNE [Pot,TPi»kM-]
CORTNETBORUii, a K~r.ns of British Qrasass, belonging to the
tribe Avmaiea, with the liiUuwin'g characters : — Awn club-shaped,
straight, jointed in the middlv, the upper portion clavate, a tuft of
boirs at the joint, panicle lai, glumes 2-flowered. There is but one
Secies, C caneKent, which has a rather dense elongated panicle, the
imes acuminate, longer than the flower, the awn coming from near
the base of the palea, the leavea aetaceous. It ia a native of the sandy
coastH oF Norfolk and Sufiblk and Jersey. (Babington, Manual)
COJIYFHA, a genua of Plants belonging to the natunl order Pet-
maecit. Jt has gigantic fan-shaped leaves, Sowers with a S-toothed
calyi, S petals, 6 stamens, and a 8-cslled ovary. The &uit ia oom-
posed of round l-aeeded berries.
C. TaUirra, the Tara, or Talliera, is an elegant stately apeciea in-
habiting Bengal, Its trunk is about 30 feet high, and as nearly as
possible of equal thickness throughout. The leaves are in about
80 divisions, each 6 feet long by 4 inches broad, radiating from the
point of a leaf-stalk from fi to ID feet !ong, and covered with strong
spines at its edge. Roxburgh describes the spadix as decompound,
issuing iu the month of February from the apei of the tree and centre
of the leaves, farming an immense diffuse ovate panicla of about
20 or more (eet in height. The fruit is the size of a crab-apple,
wrinkled, dark-olive, or greenish-yellow. The leaves are used by tbe
natives of India to write upon with their steel styles, and for other
purposes.
a umbrattiliftra, the Tah^ or Talipat Palm, ia a native of Csylon,
and similar in appeamnce ; but its leaves are not so round as those oF
tlie Talliera, the divisions in tho centre being ehorter than those at
the sid«. The trunk grows 60 or 70 Feet high ; the leaves are U Feet
broad and 18 Feet long, exclusive of this stalk, and they form a heail
about 40 Feet in diHmeter. Fana of enormous size are manufactured
from this pinut in Ceylon ; the pith of its trunk Furnishes a sort cF
flour From which bread is made; the leaves make excellent thatcli,
end arc sIko used For writing on, tike those of the Talliem.
COBTPHJENA 1«
C. Oibauga is one of the most useful of all the Tadian Palms. It«
pith furnishes a sort of sago ; its leaves are used for thatch and
broad-brimmed hats; fiihing-nets and linen shivto are woven from its
fibrLs, and ropes from its twisted leaF-atalks ; tbe root is both emollient
and 'lightly astringent ; sliced, it is used in slight diarrhcni^ and
Waita says that it in a most valuable remedy for the periodical
diarrhceaB which in the East Indies attack Enropeana.
CORYPHJENA (Linnaus), a genus of Fishes belonging to the
section Aeanlhopierygii and family SamberidiF.
The group of fi^es formerly iocludrd under the head Corypkatia
is new Bubdivided, and the subdivisions may be either termed sub-
genets of the genus Coryphama, or the group may be looked upon
as a BubFsmily, and the subdivisions as genera. The principal
characters of this group are aa follows ; — Body elongated, compressed,
covered with small scales ; dorsal fin extending the whole irngth of
the back (or nearly so); branch iostecous rays generally seven in
number. These fishes have commonly a long anal fin. iu Eome
extending From tbe tail almost to the ventral. The tail is more or
leas Forked, and tbe pectoral fin ia usually Jirohed above and pointed.
Considering Corj^phiena aa a genus, Oit following are the sub-gen eta :
— Coryphana (proper), Caranxomorat, Cenlrolophiu, Atlrodermtit, and
Pttraclit.
Cbtyphana. — The species have the bead much elevated, and the
and they prey upon the fiying-fish
C. hij^urm (Linn,), a speciee not uncommon in the Mediterranean,
is about 2 feet in length, of a bluish-lead colour above and pale-yellow
beneath. There are dark-blue spota on the back and dorsal Sn, and
the under parts oF the body are furnished with spots of a paler
colour. The ventral fins are yellowish beneath and black above, and
the anal fin is yellowish. The greatest depth of the body is about
in»<iith of the whole length.
Gjfj/phitHa hippurut-
There are seveml other species of this genus, some of which are
found in the Mediterranean, and very closely resemble tbe one just
Caraiu-omorai (Lac^ptde) is closely allied to Coryphitna (properj ;
tho species however may be diBtiuguisbixi by their having the head
less elevated and the eye in a medial position; the dorsal-fin is
shallow and of equal height throughout : the tail is much forked.
C. pelagieuM is about 9 or 10 inches in length, of a bluish colour
above and yellowish beneath ; tbe dorsal and anal Gna are of the aame
oolour SB the back of the fish, and have a whitish margin. It iobabite
the Heditananean,
Cenlrolophm. — The npecies of thiB genus have the body shorter in
proportion than iu either of the two preceding genera, and of a
somewhat elongate-oval form, tha ttul le.a forked, *c (CwrrRO-
AtriiMermiul.Bonu»l1i). — But one species of this aub-genos is known.
The generic characters are :— Bead elevated, mouth bat elightly cleft ;
dorsal fin extending nearly tbe whole Ungth of the body ; ventral fins
very small, and placed on tbe throat ; branchiostegous ntys four.
A. Coryphanoidtt (Ciiv,) is from 12 to 15 inches in length, and of a
pale-rose colour, with five or six longitudinal rows of round black
spots ; the dorsid and anal fins are bhickish, and the pectoral and
caudal fins are oF a red hue. The most remarkable character oF this
fish however consists in the scales, which, instead of folding over each
other in the usual way, are scattered over tbe body and hcBd ; they
are very minute and serrated, and uuder a leoji rosomble amall stars.
It inhaMla tha HBditerranean.
AttndtrmuM (^rypt>enwdtt.
Pirraclii (Cuv,) The species of this group are remarkable for Hm
Dmense uze of the donal.and anal fina, each of which spiingi from
1« CORYPBODOK.
batween two tien of ickIm, which form a protection, Mid pnbably
gin itreogtb to tba biunl portioa of tbe fln-rny*. Theu flna extend
the whole laimth of the body; tho bend »nd teeth tn nearly the
nine la in the true Caryphrm-e ,- the matlet m large.
P. oceUo/iH <Cuv ) ie about 4 inchsB in lenKth. tuidof anlTeiyhue;
the pectoral \ad caudal Gna-Bre yellowiah; the others are bluiah-gny,
■nd the dorsal fin has a large blue spot near ita biRheat part.
Ftinulii mlUtui.
CORTPHODON, a genua of Foaail AninuJi beloaging to the family
of TapiiB. The remaina of this genua haTa beeu found in thia
eoontry ; and althoiigb closely allied to the genus Lophiodon of Curiar,
Profeuor Owen regards its differences as of aufficient importance to
conetitute a new type. The specimen os which thia genua was eata-
bliahed is unique, and was dredged up from the bottom of the sea
between St. (jsyth and Harwich on the Eesex coaat, and now forms
part of the collection of John Brawo, Esq., of Hauway Green, near
Colcheat«r. Tliis specimeu is petrified, coDtaining metallic salts, and
having the appearaiice orfussiia trom the London Clay. There can be
litUa doubt that it was originally imbedded in tbe Eocene Tertiary
Formation of the Harwich coast. It oonsiata of tbe riglit branch of
the lower jaw, ooataining the last and part of the penultimate molar
teeth of Uie lower Jaw. Although thia fragment resembles the same
bone in the ganui Lophiodon, yet a close examinatioa of tbe crown of
the last molar tooth exhibits a smaller antero-posterior diameter in
proportion to its tranBTerse diameter, as compared with the corre-
spooding tooth in that genua It also diffem from the teeth of
AnlAnuollieriun, to which it haa some rewmblance. Frofeasor Otrati
infera from tbiii aod other characters a! theae teeth that " the whole
dental series of tbe extinct Eocene Pachyderms offered modifications
of the Lopbiodont type of dentition, which led towards that of the
Anfhracotherium, more especially of the smaller species ftim Garonne
and Valery. From the closer resemblance which tbe fossil presents
to the true Lophiodona, it must be regarded as a member of tbe saiae
family of Tapiroid Pachyderms; indicaling therein a distinct sub-
genus, characterised by the want of paralleLsm of tbe two principal
tnuerene ri' gea, aud by the nidimental state of the postenor talon
in the last miliar tooth of the lower Jaw. The name Corypkodon, which
1 bale proposod for this sub^renus, is deriveit from xiVV^ a point,
and itaas, a tooth ; and is significative of the development of the
(idges into points. Tbe broad ridged and pointed grinding surface of
the tooth indicates its adaptation to comminute the coarser kinds of
v^tetable aubataneea ; and it is rery probable that the habits snd
food of the Tspir, which is the iiear«t existing analogue of the Cory-
pkodva. are not very dissimilar from those which characterised of old
the present extinct gpecies and tbe true Lophioduns."
Professor Owen gives the species the name of Coryphodon Eaamiu.
He also dirscrii>eB a tooth fouod in digging.for a well at Camber-well^
at a depth of 160 feet in the Plastic Clay. After dncribing this tooth,
Ur. Owen saya, "From its close rosemblaacs in tbe essential characters
of its form to the canines of the great extinct Tapiroid Pachyderms,
and the apparent ipedSc distinctions from sny of the known species
of Lophiottm, I strongly suspect it to have belonged to a Coryphodon."
(Oven, £rilit\ Fouil MammaU and Sirdt.)
COKYSTES, a genus of BracbyurouB or Sbort-TaUed Crutlaeia.
The species have the following chaiaoters :— Exterior antennte longer
than the body, setaceous, with two rows of cilii. Jaw-feet (piiids-
mocboina) having their third Joint longer than the second, stnight,
terminated by an obtuie pointy with a notch upon its internal border.
CORTSTES. 17«
Syea rather distant, boma npon large peduncles, which are nearly
:ylladrictil, and somewhat short. Anterior feet (cbeloi) large, aqiud,
twice as long as the body, and Qearly cylindrical in the males ; in the
females, of about the length of tbe body, and eompressed, enpecially
towards the hand (monus). The other fvet terminated by an elongated
nul or claw, which is strsight, pointed, and channeled longitudinally.
Carapace oblong-oval, terminated by a rostrum anteriorly truncated
and bordered posteriorly. The regions but slightly indicsted, with
tbe exception of the cordial region, the bcanchiai or lateral tigiona
being vary much elongated.
LoBK.^lsveiI Cmb {OarfMta Ounrtlammi), male.
TtiyUft OuttH/atnu, tessle.
C. Cauivtlaitniu (Laach), tbe Long-Gawed Crab ; C. dtntata, C.
dtntaliu, C. iongimanat, of Latreille; Canctr Caaivtiaumu, Catietr
pertonatia, of Herbst; Albtaua deiUata of t'abricius.
This snb has the surfaoe of the canpaca somewhat gianuloui^ with
two denticles bettrcen tbe eyes, and three rhei'p point* dirMtsd
171
COSCINOPORA.
COTTON.
ITS
forwards on each side. The male has but five abdominal pieces ; but,
as M. Latreille obeezres, the yestiges of the separation of the two
others may be clearly remarked upon the intermediate or third piece,
which is the largest of all.
It is found on the coasts of England and France. The specimens
figured by Pennant were dredged up from deep water near Holyhead
and Red Wharf, Anglesey.
M. Desmarest is of opinion that the natural relations of his crustacean
approximate it to AteUcyelus, Thia, and LeucotiOf of which M. Latreille
forms his Orbicular Tribe (Les Orbiculaires). Dr. Leach, he adds, in
his method, placed them near the first two of the above-mentioned
genera, solely because they hare the same number of abdominal
articulations. The LeucoauBf in which the number of those articulations
is less considerable, are remored to a distance.
COSCINOTORA, a genus of Fossil Corals proposed by Goldfuss.
(7. ifrfwndibuliformit occurs in the Chalk of Ireland.
CO'SSONUS (Clainrille), a genus of Coleopterous Insects belonging
to the family CwculionuUe. It has the following characters : —
AntennsB shorty rather thick; funiculus 7-jointed, the basal joints
longer than the following ; club lai^ge and of an ovial form ; rostrum
rather long, thickened at the apex ; thorax truncated before and
behind, and somewhat depressed above ; elytra elongate, moderately
convex above, and covering the abdomen ; tibies dilated towards the
apex, where there is a large hook ; tarsi rather slender, the penul-
timate joint bilobed.
About seventeen species of this genus are known, of which
Schonherr selects (7. linearis as the type. This species is not
uncommon in England, and has been found in Boleti and in old trees.
It is about a quarter of an inch in length, and of a narrow elongated
form, and black or brown colour ; the elytra are punctate-striated.
C. tardui is another British species which closely resembles the last^
but is of a lazier size, being nearly half an inch in length.
COSSUS (Fabricius), a genus of Insects belonging to the section
Lepidoptera Twetwrna^ Moths, and the family H^ialidce (Stephens).
The species have the following characters : — ^AntennsB long, raUier
slender, furnished on the inner edge with a series of transverse
elevated ridges (which when viewed from the side resemble the
teeth of a saw) ; two distinct palpi, thickly clothed with scales, and
each 8-jointed ; head very small ; upper wings longer and laiger than
the lower; body large. Larva lignivorous. Pupa inclosed in a
cocoon.
O. ligniperda (Fab.), the Goat-Moth, is one of the lai^est of the
British moths, measuring from tip to tip of the wings when expanded
from 3 to 3} inches. It is of a gray colour ; the upper wings are
mottled with white, and adomeid with numerous irregular black
lines ; the under wings are almost of a uniform brownish ash colour ;
the anterior part of the thorax is of a buff colour, and there is a
transverse dark mark towards the posterior part ; the body is of a
dark brownish-gray colour, with rings of a silver-like hue.
The larva, or caterpillar, is about three inches in length when full-
grown, and of a yellowish colour; the upper part of the body is oink,
tiie head is black, and the first segment of the body (or that joining
the head) has two irregular black patches above.
This caterpillar emits a very strong and disagreeable odour, and if
touched with the hands the scent cannot be discharged from them for
some considerable time, although they may be frequently washed.
It resides in and feeds upon the wood of the poplar, oak, and aspen ;
but old pollard willows appear to be its most favourite haunts.
These we frequently see perforated with numerous oval holes large
enough to admit the finger, and when the caterpillan are abundant the
trees attacked eventually fall a sacrifice to their ravagesw It is three yean
before attaining maturity, at which time it incloses itself in a tough
cocoon, formed of pieces of wood joined together by a glutinous web.
The moth is common in various parts of the south of England, and
the name Goat-Moth has probably been applied to it from the
property of emitting a disfljg;reeable odour having been transfeired
from the caterpillar to the moth.
A detailed histoiy of the C, ligniperda will be found in the
'M^moires pour servir k I'Histoire des Insectes,' by De Geer; and
for its anatomy we refer our readen to the ' Recherches sur T Anar
tomie et les Metamorphoses dc diffSrentes Esp^ces d'Inaectes,'
by L. L. Lyonet. This latter author has also published a sub-
stantial quarto work, with numerous beautiful plates engraved and
drawn by himself, which is entirely devoted to the anatomy of the
caterpillar above mentioned. This work, which was the labour of
years, must ever stand as a monument of the great skill and perse-
verance of its author, who boasts of having destroyed but one
caterpillar for its completion. It is entitled * Traits Anatomique de
la Chenille qui ronge le Bois de Saule,' &a
CO'SSTPHUS (Olivier), a genus of Coleopterous Insects of the sec-
tion Httemmera and sub-section Taxieomea, The principal character
of this genus consists in the dilated and flattened sides to the thorax
and elytra — a structure also found in many of the NUidultB and in
the CairideB, These insects, if it were not for the dilated portions of
the thorax and elytra, would be of a long narrow form, but with
these parts they present an oval outHne. The thorax is nearly semi-
circular, and its dilated margins as well as those of the elytra are
Bemitransparent .The anteonsa are ll-jointad; the last four joints
are considerably thicker than the preceding, and rather flattened ; the
terminal joint of the maxillary palpus is dilated, and of a somewhat
tiiangpilar form ; the head is completely hidden by the anterior part
of the thorax.
These insects inhabit the south of Europe and the northern parts
of Africa and India. About ten species are known.
C. Hoffnanaegii is nearly half an inch in length, and of a dark brown
colour; the parts of the thorax and elytra which extend beyond
the insect itself are of a paler hue. It is difficult to give an accurate
idea of this curious insect, which appeara as if it were an ordinary
shaped beetle pressed against the under side of a little oval scale of
wax, so that its impression is distinctly visible above, being convex,
whereas the scale itself is concave.
The present genus, with two othen {HtUxua and NUio), form,
according to Latreille, the second tribe of the family Tcueicomet, and
are included under the head CosypkeneB.
COTINGA. [CoRAOiNA.]
COTON EASTER, a genus of Plabts belonging to the natural order
RosacetBf and to the tribe Pomeeg. The st^gments of the calyx 5 ; the
petals 5 ; the styles 2-5 ; the fruit turbinate, its nuts adhering to the
sides of the cidyx, but not cohering at the centre; the stamens
erect, as long as the teeth of the calyx. The species are shruba,
with simple entire leaves, woolly beneath. This genus was separated
from Meipilus by Lindley.
C. vulgaris, the Common Cotoneaster. It has roundish ovate leaves,
rounded at the base, flower-stalks and margins of the cidyx downy ; the
petals are rose-coloured. It is a native of Europe, and is found in North
Wales upon the cliffB at the Great Ormeshead. Previous to its having
been discovered to be a British plant it had been cultivated in this conn-
tiy. Several varieties are met with both in a wild state and in gardens.
C. tomentosa has its peduncles and calyxes woolly. It is a shrub
like the preceding^ and is foxmd wild on the rocks of the Jura and
other parts of the Alps of Switzerland.
C. laxifiora has its flowers in panicled cymes, and its calyxes
quite smooth. It has the same general appearance as C. vulgarit,
and is probably a variety.
O. frigida is an East Indisn species. It is a native of the higher
mountains in the northern region of NepauL
C7. (nfflnis was brought from Chittong, a town of Lower Nepaul, and
is similar in general appearance to the last species. C. acuminata
and C. nummidaria are likewise species from NepauL
(7. rotwidifoUa and O. microphglla are probably varieties of the
same species. They are both from the north of Hindustan.
All the species are adapted for shrubberies, and many of them
are very commonly cultivated in Europe. They are easily propagated
by laying down the branches, or by cuttings, which should be placed
in a sheltered situation under a hand-glass. They may be also
increased by dividing their roots, and by seeds.
(Lindley, Linnean Transactions; Loudon, Arborettun et PrtUiceium
Britcmnicum.)
COTTON, a word derived from. JTvfn, or Kuiun, one of the names
given by the Arabs to this substance, is a filamentous matter pro*
duced by the surface of the seeds of various species of Oossgpium.
[GosSTPiUM.] It consists of vegetable hain, of considerable length,
springing from the surface of the seed-coat, and filling up the cavity
of the seed-vessel in which the seeds lie. Hain are extremely
common on the surface of plants ; frequently however they are
unobserved, in consequence of their small number and minuteness ;
while on the other hand in some cases they give plants, such as the
Mullein for instance, a remarkable hoary appearance. On the surface
of seeds they are uncommon ; and yet in the Malvacece and their allies,
to which the cotton plants belong, they not only exist abundantly on
the seeds of that genus, but in several other species. Vegetable hairs
are one of the many forms in which the cellular substuice of vege-
tation is developed, and they consequently partake of two of the
great characteristics of that foim of tissue, namely, thinness and
transparency. In the cotton they are long weak tubes, which, when
immersed in water and examined \mder the microscope by transmitted
light, look like flat narrow transparent ribands, all entirely distinct
from each other, and with a perfectly even surface and uniform
breadth. At certain distances along the hair, an interruption occurs,
which looks as if it proceeded from the turning round or twisting
of the hair during its growth. On each side opposite these inter*
ruptions a slight indentation is observed. Sometimes a slight traoe
of fine grains is discernible in the interior, but more frequently the
hairs seem empty. If strained singly they have little strength and
readily break, and it is only when many are entangled together that
they acquire any appreciable degree of strength. In all these points
cotton differa from the vegetable matter that constitutes linen ; the
latter consists of woody tissue, in the state of long tubes, but is at
once distinguished by the tubes adhering in bimdles, which it is
difficult under a microscope to break up into their component parts ;
the tubes are thick-sided, and will not acquire a riband-like appear-
ance when viewed in water, but rather resemble extremely minute
thermometer tubes. When they are jointed together the articulation
is oblique, the ends of the tubes being pointed and overlying each
other; and finally, in each particular tube of the woody tissue,
delicate as it may be^ there is a sufficiently approdable degree of
193
COTTON.
COTTUa
174
toughness when an attempt ia made to break it. In short, cotton is
a development of cellular tissue. Linen is a form of vascular tissue.
Henre it is easy to distinguish with certainty linen from cotton
manufactured articles, in cases of doubt ; and hence also the well*
known superiority of linen to cotton in strength : the latter is manu-
factured from the most delicate part of plants, the former from the
toughest [Tissues, yKaBTABL£.J
Cotton is produced by many different species and varieties of the
genns Gotaypium, which consists of herbaceous or nearly herbaceous
plants, vaiying in height from 3 or 4 to 15 or 20 feet, according to
the sort Sometimes the branches become woody, but they always
partake very much of the herbaceous character. The leaves are
downy and ntiore or less lobed, being sometimes however near the
top of the stem undivided; at their base is seated a pair of awl-
shaped stipules. The flowers are either yellow or dull purple, and
have the ordinary structure of the Malvaceous Family ; each is sur-
rounded by three heart-shaped bracts, which are more or less lacerated.
The calyx is a bluntly 5-toothed cup. The seed-vessel is a capsule
opening into from 3 to 6 lobes, and then exposing many seeds
enveloped in cotton, which sometimes adheres to them so firmly that
it is separated with difficulty ; sometimes it parts freely from them ;
in Mme sorts it is long and in others comparatively short, giving rise
to the commercial names of Long Staple and Short Staple.
The qualities of these hairs most valued by the nyinufacturer are
length of staple, strength, and silkiness. In these respects cotton
differs very much, and it is when these three properties are combined
in the highest degree that the cotton obtains the highest prices in the
markets.
Cotton-plants are found wild in both the Old and Kew World.
Herodotus and Arrian speak of the cotton-plant as indigenous in
India, and the cloth found in Peruvian tombs sufficiently attests its
having existed in that country long before it could possibly have been
carried to America by eastern intercourse. In fact the wild American
cotton-plants are specififially different from those of the Old World ;
but at the present day the cotton of the West is cultivated in Asia
and Africa, while that of the East has long since been introduced to
the American plantations.
The situations in which cotton-plants have been advantageously
cultivated are included between Egypt and the Cape of Gk>od Hope
in the eastern, and between the southern banks of the Chesapeake
Bay and the south of Brazil, in the western hemisphere. It has not
been found to succeed beyond the parallels that limit those countries.
In the equinoctial parts of America Humboldt found it at 9000 feet
elevation above the sea ; in Mexico as high as 5500 feet ; and Professor
Royle saw it at the elevation of 4000 feet on the Himalayas. It seems
generally to prefer the vicinity of the sea in dry countries, and the
interior districts of naturally damp climates. Thus, while the best
cotton is procured in Ipdia from the coast of Coromandel, or other
msritime districts, and in the southern states of the American Union
from certain coasi-islands, the coast cotton of Pemambuco is inferior
to what is produced in the interior of that country. These facts
lead to the inference that it is not merely temperature by which the
quality of cotton is'affected, but a pecidiar combination of heat, light,
and moisture ; the most favourable instance of which maybe assumed
to be the coast of Qeorgia and the Carolinas, and the worst to be Java
snd the coast of Brazil.
That this should be so would, in the absence of positive evidence,
be probable, considering thenature of cotton. We have seen that it
is a hairy development of the surface of the seed ; and nothing in the
organisation of plants is more affected by the situation they live in
than their hairs: thus many water-plants which have scarcely any
hairs, when transferred to a dry exposed station are closely covered
with such organs, and vice vend. The quantity of hair is also affected
in an extraordinary degree by local circumstances. The Venetian
sumach-plant, when in flower, has its flower-stalks nearly naked ; a
large proportion of the flower-stalks has no fruit, and becomes covered
with very oopious long hairs, whence the French call this plant Arbre
k Perruque; but those flower-stalks which do bear fruit remain
hairless. In this case the local cause is probably the abundant food
, thrown by the system of the sumach-plant into the flower-stalks for
the nouiishment of the fruit ; and the fruit not forming, the food
intended for it is expended in the formation of hairs upon the surface
of the flower-stalk. This is only an accident^ but local circumstances
conducive to the formation of cotton in excess may be permanent,
snd derived fr^nn the situations in which the plants grow. In a damp
cloudy climate the food procured from the soil may not be concen-
trated upon the surface of the seed, but may be expended in the
production of excessive quantities of leaves, and of proportionally few
flowers ; or it may pass off into the atmosphere in the form of a mere
exhalation, a smul proportion only being consolidated ; or in a dry
climate the soil may not be able to furnish food enough to the plant
out of which to form more cotton than it is absolutely its speciflc
property to produce under any circumstances. Or, lastly, there muy
be a mean where the powers of vegetation are called into their utmost
activity by v^armth and abundant food, and where, nevertheless, the
dryness of the atmosphere and the brightness of the sun, constantly
acting upon the surface of the cotton pods (seed-vessels), may drive
back the juices from the tfuxfiioe of the latter to that of the seeds, and
thus augment the quantity and improve the quality of the cotton
itself : this may explain the action of climate upon this substance.
The question is however rather more complicated ; the different
specific qualities of different varieties of the ootton-plant must be also
taken into account. A considerable number of varieties of cotton ia
certainly cultivated, although little is correctly known about them.
In some of them the cotton is long, in others it is short ; this has it
white, that nankeen-coloured: one may be cultivated advantageously
where the mean winter temperature does not exceed 46" or 48**, and
another may require the climate of the tropics. This is just what
happens with all cultivated plants. Some vines will produce only
sweet wine, others only hard dry wine, and some are suited only to
the table ; some potatoes are destroyed by a temperature of 32", while
others will bear an average English winter ; only one kind of wheat
produces the straw from which the fine Leghorn plait for bonnets is
prepared. But to multiply such instances is unnecessary. There can
then be no doubt that the quantity and quality of cotton will depend
partly upon climate and partly upon the specific properties of parti-
cular varieties.
The Cotton-Plant, or Qozteypiufn, must not be confounded with the
Cotton-Tree, Bombax, or Eriodendron. The latter has also cottony,
seeds, but they cannot be manufactured into cloth.
For further information see Cottok Manufactubb, in Abts and
So. Div.
( Royle, lUiutratiom qf the Botany amd other Branches of the
Natural Hietory of the HivMlayan Movntaine, and qf the JPhra of
Cachtnere, article ' Malvacese.')
CO'TTUS (Linnssus), a genus of Fishes belonging to the section
Acanthopterifgii and family Loricati (Jenyns). The species have the
following chiunu^rs : — Hrad large, depressed, furnished more or leas
with spines or tubercles ; teeth in front of the vomer and in both
jaws, none on the palatines; two dorsal fins; ventral fin small; body
\fithout scales ; branchiost^^ous rays six.
C. gobio, (Linn.), the River Bull-Head, Miller*s Thumb, or Tommy-
Logge, affords an example of this genus. This little fish, which is
found in almost all the fresh-water streams throughout Europe, is
from 3 to 4 inches in length, and of a browiah colour above, more or
less mottled and spotted, and whitish beneath The head is very
laige in proportion to the body, and without spines ; the pre-oper-
cuImS has a single curved spine on the posterior part : the eyes are
small, and directed upwards. The number of fin-rays are— anterior
dorsal 6 to 9, posterior 17 or 18 ; pectoral 15 ; ventral 3 ; anal IS;
caudal 11. The name Bull-Head is given these fishes on account of
the large size of their heads. These fish more particularly frequent
those streams in which pebbles abound. They feed upon aquatic
insects, kc It is foxmd in the brooks and streams of Great Britain.
The remaining British species of this genus inhabit the salt water,
and together with others of the same habits, are distinguished from the
fresh-water species by having the head armed with numerous spines.
C. scorpiua (Bloch), the Sea^corpion, or Short-Spined Cottus, is very
common on our coasts, and is foimd very frequently under stones or
sea-weeds, in the little pools left by ike retiring tide. It is thus
described by Mr. TarrelL "The head large, more elevated than
that of the River Bull-Head; upper jaw rather the longer; teeth
small and sharp; eyes large, situated about half-way between the
point of the nose and the occiput ; irides yellow, pupils bluish-black ;
one pair of spines above the nostrils, with an elevated ridge between
them ; the inner edges of the orbits elevated, with a hollow depression
above, but no occipital spines ; pre-operculum with three spines ; the
upper one the longest ; operculum with two spines, the upper one
also the longest, the lower one pointing downwards ; there is besides
a scapular and a clavicular spine on each side ; gill-openiiigs large ;
the body tapers off rapidly, and is mottled over with dark purple-
brown, occasionally varied with a rich red-brown; the belly white;
the first dorsal fin slightly connected with the second by an extension
of the membrane; lateral line smooth; the ventral fins attached
posteriorly by a membrane to the belly." Length rarely exceeding
8 or 9 inches.
This fish feeds upon small enutacea and the fry of other fishes.
C. &tt6a2t« (Euphraseu), the Father-Lasher, or Long-Spined Cottus, is
about the same size, and resembles the last both in appearance and
habits ; the two species however are seldom found in the same imme-
diate neighbourhood. This species is distinguished from the last by
its more perfectly armed head, the spines of which are longer in pro-
portion, tne space between the eyes is less, the crest above the eyes is
more elevated, and the ventral fins are destitute of the connecting
'membrane observed in the Short-Spined Cottus. Both these and the
last species are remarkable for the length of time they will live out of
the water. Hence Mr. Tarrell concludes that it is not a large gill-
aperture, as has been supposed, which hastens the death of certain
kmds of fish, as these have very large heads and gill-apertures.
C. qttadricomu (Linn.), the Four-Homed Father-Lasher, or Cottus,
another species also foimd off the British coast, though less abund-
antly than either of the foregoing maritime species, may be distin-
guished, as its name implies, by the four tubercles which are situated
on the top of the head, two on the nape, and two near the eyes ; the
pre-operculum is furnished with three spines, and the operculum with
one ; length from 10 to 12 inches.
m COTUNNITE.
Atpidophomt, LaoJpMa, is oomidared bj CuTiar u * xilHgetliu of
Colliu. This gsniu, or nib-gsniu, U thus cliuwiterued : — HMd Urge
uid deprflnod, more or !«■■ arnifld with ipiTiH and tubercles ; both
j&WB fumuhad with teeth, nans on llie vomer; body ftttauuBited poi-
tariorlf , oorered with uigulkr platai ; rentnU uaall ; bnuchioitagoui
raTiiix.
A. EVropatu (CuTier), the Armed Bull-Hewl, Fogge, Lrrie, Sn-
PcAcbar, PUck, or If obis. Thia little fiah, geMrallf about 4 oi 6 inchea
in length, U frequcDtlj augbt in the sbrimping nets, and ■■ oalled b;
tLa fiafacmeu, in some diatricti, ia addition to ita other names, tbe
Hook-Noae. Its general covering ia brown above find white beneath :
there are however most commonly indicationa, m<ire or leaa distinot,
of aaverkl broad dark marks serosa the back ; the nose is fumiahed
with four recurved apinea; the upper jaw exteods beyoDd the lower;
the infra^rbitali have three blunt tiiberoles on their lower margin,
and a shsip apiue dirwted baokwarda ; the pre-operculum is also
armed with a spine ; the brsnchiost^gous membrane and chin
an each furnished with numeroui flesh; fllamenta ; the body is
divided lonj^tudinally byeigbt scaly ridgea, those on the upper part
being moat produoed. The number of Bti-raja are — dorsid G to T;
pectoral IS; ventralS; anal T ; caudal 11.
The habtta of tbia fish appear in uiaay respects to be the same as
those of the C. irorpiw, Ac. It is very freqaent on the aonthem
shores of Omt Britain.
COTUNNITE, a Mineral It is a native Chloride of Leti, ooaa-
ring on Vesuvius in white acicular cryatala.
COTURNIX, [TlmiOBlDi.]
COTYLE'DOy is the leaf of a seed; it is the part preparad by
nature to enable tbe young plant when it first springs into eiistenoe,
and before it has been able to form otgana of digestion and reapiration,
to perform both those functions. Sometimra the cotyledon performs
these functions under ground during the whole period of its activity ;
but in many cases its subterranean IDe extends only to a few days or
hours, after which it ia elevated above the soil, and takes on the
ordinary property of the leaves. [aiBHmATiOH.]
The situation of the cotyledon ia on one tide of the axis, of which
the plumule is the apex, and the radicls the base. In tiie largest
nnmber of known seeds there are two co^ledons on opposite mdea
on tbe same plane ; in a few there are several opposite to each other
in a whorl ; in a conaiderable number (here ia only one ; and among
the lower planta there appears to be an absence of any distinct organ
of this kind. These differences have given rise to the tsmu Dicoty-
ledons, Polycotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Acotyledona.
The &Rt two and the laat of theae fornu will be readily undentood ;
bat the structure of a Monocotyledon is far more puasling to the
student, in consequence of the axis not being found on one side of the
cotyledon, as would have been expected. A common monocotyle-
donous embryo is a nearly cylindrical body, obtuse at each end, as at
fy. t, and its axis of growth is in the iuterior of the cotyledon, so that
it can only be found by cuttiog the organ opsn. The following
diagram will explain this anomaly. Let the upper line represent four
kinds of embryoes seen from the side, and the lower line tbe plan upon
which those embiyoas are constructed, the inner circle being always
the axis of growth, aud the crescent or crescents the cotyledons;
Fig. 1 is a common dicotyledonous embryo, with ita cotyledons equal ;
jt;. 2 is a rare kind of embryo of the same kind, with one of tie
cotyledons exceedingly small If the smaller cotyledon -were abso-
lutely deficient, it may easily be conoeived that such an embryo as
that ttjig. 3 would be the remit, the angles of the crescent being
dtiiwn tf^ther round the axia, just as the edgu of leaves are drawn
together when they roll up in tha leaf-bud. If we now suppose that
the anglaaare not only drawn together, but actually united as atjt?-1,
the preaance of the axia within the cotyledon will no longer appear
inexplicable.
n d
CXJWBANR. IM
It ia also a native of PortugaL Altbougb this plant belongs to bd
order with comparatively inert properties, it has obtained a reputa-
tion in the treatment of nsrvoos diaeaaea, especially epilepsy.
C. lutea hns tbe lower Isavea somewhat peltate, upper leavea crsnats
or toothed, the bracts toothed, flowen ereot. The flowers are of k
bright yellow. It has been found wild in England, but is probably
not a naljve.
Many of the species of this genus hare been separated nndar tha
gsnus VmbUiau, tha trpe of t^ich is the first apeciea name! — which
is called U. erielMt. Tbe species of Umiiiiciu closely resemble thi—a
□f OalslcdoH, In the cultivation of the spedes of both gener>, tliey
should be plaoed in pota well drained, with a soil of sandy loun or
brick rubbish. They may be propagated by cuttings, whioh should
ate planted, as they ai
The best situation for th
(Don, DitUamydioui
. . at the wound if otherwise
B planta is the shelves of a greenhonaSL
P^nti; Babiugton, ManwJ qf Brilitk
con AGO A. [EqniDA]
C0UCH-QRAS3. [TbitIOuh,!
OOUCOO. [CUCDLID*.]
COUMAROUKA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
leguniinoia. It has 8 stsmens, and the lowar segment of the calyx
undivided. TUs genus is also referred to DipterLz.
C odiyrala ia the plant which yields the sweet-scented Tonga Bean
of the parfumsra. It is a native of French Ouyaua, where it forma ■
taige forest-tree, called by the natives Coumarou. The tnmk is sud to
be 60 or 80 feet high, with a diameter of St feet, and to bear a large
head of tortuous stout limbs and branches. The leaves are pinnated,
of two or three pain of leaflets, without an odd one at the extremity.
The flowers appear in axillary bnnches, and consist of a calyx wiUi
two spreading sepals, and five purple petals washed with violet, of
which the three upper are the largest and most veiny. Tbe stamens
are eight, and monadelphous. The fruit iaan oblong hard dry fibroos
drupe, containing a single seed ; tha odour of ita kernel ia extremely
agreeable. The natjvea string the seeds into necklaces ; and tha
Creolsa place them among their linen, both for the sake of their scent
and to keep nwny insecta.
®QQ)Q
COTTLE'DON, a genns of Plants belonging to the natural order
Craitulacia. It baa 6 sepals shorter than the tube of the corolla ;
the petala cohering in a tubular fi-eleft corolla; tha stamcoa 10,
insetted on the corolla ; 6 hypogynous scales ; G carpels. The spocisa
sre anccultnt shrubs, mostly nativea of the Cape of Oood Hope.
C imWt'oiu, Navel-Wort, haa the lower Ieavsa_peltate^ oonoava,
orbicular ; the bracts entire ; flowers pendulous. The flowers are of
a greenish-yellow colour, and the stem ia from to 13 in^s high. It
la found very commonly on rocka or walls in the weat of lilngland.
lafO-
.to).
flower ; *, ths csIti
with a yaant drupe projecUiiK from It.
COimSER. [CaxBacBianx.]
COUZERANITE, a Mineral from tbe Pyreneea. It has a compo-
sition atar to that of Labradoritt. [KamturantM.]
COW. [BoYim]
COWBAIKB, ou« of the oommon names for tha Watai^Hamloo)L
[CtOUtA.]
in COW-BERRY.
COWBERRY, » oomDiDn luune for the Red WhoiilebmTy.
COW-BUNTINO. [MoLOTHnn*,]
COWITCH. or COWAQE, a word of unknown deri AtioD, unlau it
be > corruption of Al Kooabw, tbe Beugftli Dame of one nf the planU
tbAt produca it, coDBUts of the hmin found upon the podi of diSenoit
■p«ifB of Mucuna. They ue eicwdinci; ilender, brittle, and ewdl;
dcUched, uid th» fragroente readil; stick iaio the skin nnd produce
■n intolrmble itching ; hence they are rrequeutl; amplojed for mii-
ehierniu purposea. Cowitch U bIki ueed medicinaltT u a vermifage,
bj being tuized with syrup till of the ooniiatence of hODe;, knd given
iu Hoata of two or three tea-spoon fuU.
The plftuts thst beju' these pods nre large twiniog Bunuiila or peren-
Bisli, with 1b«tp« like thoaeof kidney-beans, beiDgd»rit purple papiliona-
CHus flowers, with a short standard lying close upoa the wings and
kni, and dindelpbons e-.araena, half of which hare round and half
arrow headed authen. The pods cnutaiu fnim one to six seadd, and
are coiered by a very wrinkled shriveled skin, wbich even stands up
in little pUtes. Before they are ripe and their hairs hardened, thu
podi are employed as a vegrtsble, like kidnej-benns, and are described
u being delicious. The species are found in hedges, tiiickets, on
the banks of rivers, and about watercoiiraes in both the Kest and
Vest Indiea, and America within the tropics. Mvama vreiu and
M. prtiriau usually furnish the lubatanoe ; but that from M. moae-
tpmta, called b; the Telingai Enooga dola Qunda, or Elephaat'a
Semtch-Wort, is said to exceed the others in the irritating bunking
prc»rty of it* hairs. Dr. Roxburgh statea that M. prurient was one
of the plants formerly ueeil in India to poison v^lls ; " it has turned
out, however, not to be the poinon it wsa iskHn for, and it is more
than likely that tbe other plants employed !• r the same base ends
an fortunately much leu dangenias Uian those who employ tham
imagine." [SIdcdka.]
Opened pod of Macuna mmoipmiia, cstDnl lia.
COW-FARSLGY, an tJmbeUiferoaa Flaot {Chatvpkyllmm Mnahm).
[Cb^bophi
COW-PLAKT. [Oi*
COWHY. [CmMJD^t
COWSLIP. [PBlMOLi.]
COW-TEEE, a Plant belonging to the natural order Urticacea, and
apparently to the geuug ^ifutmiiin, from which, when wounded,
a milky nutritious juice is discharged in such abundance as to tender
it an iioportunt object to the poor natives in whuse country it grows.
It is described by Humboldt as being peculiar to the Can]illeras of
the coast of Caracas, particularly from Barbuta lo the lake of Mara,-
caybo, near the villsge of Ssn Hateo, and in the valley of Caucagua,
three days' journey east of Caracaa. In these places it bears the name
of Pain do Vaca, or Arbol de Leche. and forms a fine tree resembling
the Star-Apple of the West Indies " Its oblong pointed leaves, rough
and alternate, are marked by lateral ribs, prominent at the lower
surface, and parallel ; they are, some of them, ten inches long." Its
flowers and fruit have not been seen by an; botanist. From incisions
in its trunk flows a glutinous milk, similu' in consistence to tbe first
milk yielded by a cow after calving. It has an agreeable balsamic
smell, is eaten by the negroes, who fatten upon it, and has been found
by Europeans perfectly innocuona. In chemical characters it is
temarksbly similar to the milk of animals, throwing down a cheeay
CRACWM. m
matter, and nodergoiog the same phenomena of putrefaction as
gelatine.
Humboldt supposed the Cow-Tree to belong to the Sapotaceoue
Order ; but, though tittle hsa been added to our knowledge of it since
his visit to the Caracas, it is at least certain that it is either a spscisa
of BroiimHm or very nearly related to it, and consequently a member
of the Urticaceoua Order.
The latter circumstiuice rendeia the Cow-Trse still mora interesting ;
for tbe milky juice of Urticaceoua plants is in other cases highly
poisonous. But botanists are now Hcquainted with many instaooes of
innocuous plants in poisonous orderi | thus the Hya-Hya Tree of
Demerara, for instance, belonging to the deadly Apocynaceoua Family,
yields a thick rich milky fluid destitute of scrimony ; and the Eiria-
ghuna plant of Ceylon is a sort of East Indian Cow-Plant, notwith-
standing it belongs to the Asclepiadaceoiis Order, which is acrid and
dangerous. In tbe absence of precise information as to the circum-
stances under which the Cow-Trees are milked, it is imposiible to eay
what is the cause of their harmlessnese ; but every phypiologiet wiU
eee that it is capable of being eipbdned without difficulty in mora
ways than one.
COYPU. [Htsiiuoida]
CRAR [Cinckr; CnnETACEA.]
CRAB-APPLE, or WILD APPLE. [Praos.)
CRABRO'NlD.iG (Leach), CSotronila (LatreiUe), a family of
Hymenopterous Insects of the section Aculfata and subjection
Pouortt. The species hare the following cbaracten : — Head large,
and appearing almost square when viewed from above ; body oval or
elli[itii»l, narrowed more or less at the base, and joined to the thorax
by a peduncle; antemue short, and generally thickened towards the
'be species of Tripoxi/tim provision their neats with small spiden.
The species of Gorytu are parasitic.
The species of the genus Oralkro are chiefly distinguished by their
having but one perfect cubital cell to the anterior wing ; the mandibles
terminating in a bifid point, and tbe antennte being distinctly genicn-
lated, they are sometimes filiform, and sometimes slightly serrated.
The palpi are short, and almost squsl. The clypeua is frequently
clothed with a Gue down of a glossy silvet^like hue.
These insects are extremely active in their movements, and may be
frequently seen settling on the flowen of umbelliferous plants, on
palings, or on the leaves of plants when the sun is shining upon them,
Iviog wait in such situations for the approach of other insects, which
they seiie snd carry to their nests for the purpose of feeding their
larvta. The larger spooies of this country are mostly of yellow and
black colours, the body being adorned with rings of the former colour,
the smaller species are for the moat part black.
Crabra ctpKalola is upwards of half an inch in length ; black ; the
body isadorned withfiveyellowring^; the baaal joint of the antenna)
and the tibia and ti—' ' "- —
MAT. I
T. W». V
Crabro palelialiu (Panzer), and several other species of tbii genus,
_re remarkable in having a large appendajie attached to the exteraBl
Sart of the anterior tibiae ; this is a thin plate of a somewhat rounded
)rm, convex above and concave beneath, and is undoubtedly used in
removing the soil whilst these insects are forming their burrows in
the ground. Each burrow is stored with flies or other inseets
(depending upon the species of Cratro to which it belongs) ; the egga
are then deposited with these flies, which constitute the food of the
larvn whan batched. Many species of Ondro form their cells in
rotten trees or poste. Much that relates to the habits of these insects
however niisains to be discovered.
CRA'CID^ (Vigors), a family of Rasorial or Oallinaceous Birds
(Satora). Hr. Vigors regarded this family as connected with the
Btrutbious Birds, Struthionida (Ostrich Family), by means of the
Dodo [Doso], generally supposed to be now extinct, the foot of
which, he observes, has a strong hind toe, and which, with the excep-
tion of its being more robust, in which character it still adheres to
the Stnuhionida, corresponds exactly with the Linnaean genus Orax.
" The bird," says Mr. Vigoni, " thus beoomes osculant, and forms a
strong point of junction betwi^n these two conterminous gTOU[M,
which, though evidently approaching each other in general points of
similitude, would not rihiblt that intimate bond of connection which
we have seen to prevail almost uniformly throughout the neighbourinjf
subdivisions of uatura, were it not for the intervention of this important
" The family of Oracida," says Mr. Vigora, " thus connected with
the SirvMonida, are separated from the typical groups of the order
by tbe length and robustness of the hinder toe, and by its being
situated more nearly on a level with those in fiunt These birds,
placed in this manner at the extreme of the preeeat order, assume
more of tbe habits and appearance of the preceding order of Penhera
than the other Auoref, with the exception of the family of Columbtda.
They are found most frequently to make their abode in trees, and to
i«ort to the neighbourhood of forests ; in the leaser number of their
tail-feathers they evince an equal deviation from their more typical
congeners, and they never possess a spur. Tbi* family contains th«
in CRACID^
Oarax of M. Cusiar, uid tho trua Crax, Lion., toRathor with the
Pemlopt «nd Ortalida of M. Marram. The two Imtter ganei» h«V8
th.ir hind toa ftrtieulated on a level with the front toes, and thm
rtcoDduct u» to the Columhida. Their billa also, more lengthoned
Ifasn those of Crax, approach moat naarly to those of the Pigeons,
which, on the other hand, seem to meet them by the atroniter form
and cunature of thabill of finojo, which lieriates in these particulars
from the 1,'enenJ structure of ifci own fumily. Th» gaoua Orlalida, in
particular, tlia feathered cheeks of which sre dialjnguished from the
naked face of Pendope, brings u» in immediatB contact with that
family. Here it is, in this extreme of the order, that I would assign
■ place to the beautiful New Holland genus ifnum. Lath., a group
that haa hitherto afforded more difficulty to the Bystemalio writer
than any other in the class. By modern authors it ia geQerslly placed
among the Perchen on account of the length snd low position of the
hind toe. But its hahits and manners are gallinaceous, as far as we
CAD ascertain, and its generul appearance decidedly eviuces an affinity
to tlie Batata. The deviation in the structure of the foot from that
of the typical Rasorial groups only indicates ita being placed at a
dialance from them, and in that eitreme of the order which connects
itself with the conterminous order of Perohers. The same deviation,
it has been seen, ii found in other groups of ita own family, and in
the adjoining family of Coiambida. A group newly discovered in
some islands of the Enstfm Archipelago, the Megapodiiu of M. Tem-
minrk, semes strongly to illustrate thfsa principles, and to corroborate
my opinion as to the situation of the singular New Holland genus
brfow us. The Megapodiut, brought home to France by one of har
late expeditions, ia ccinfeaiedly gallinaceoua in its habits, and
has been placed, without hesitation, among the trie Kanra, and yet
its foot is preciaely of the same conntruotion as that of Jfmuro. The
bill also "hows uo very material differenoa from those of the oxtre
groups of the Cracida. To return however to the general affinitiei
the frimilj, it may again be repeated that all the latter genera tl
united iimong themai-lves, evince an evident approach to the CVifi
hid'Xt from which, it may be remembered, we commenced our ohi
Tatione on the order. The whole of the groups uf the Raiora, thua
following each other in continued affinity,
socceasion without interruption." [M«[I1;h ._
The following are the charade™ of the Family :— Three toes before,
one behind, the latter touching the ground througbouL Head
feathered, generally orested : there ia oRea a Cere or naked akin at
the base of ths bill.
Mr. Swainnoii, ' Natural History and Classification of Birds,' voL i.,
p. 153, state-, that " in the &mily of the Craada, which connects thi
/nirmru with the RatoTti, the hinder toe is nearly as long as in thi
euokooii, and ia oonBiderably mora developed than in any other grouj
of rwtorini biida. We will aay nothing of the genera Megapodiui
Palamidta, and Menwa-, whose feet are well known to be enormous
or of Opitlhoeomia, because apecimeoa of these larga and rara birds
are not upon our table. Confining ourselves to the genus Penrtopc,
we msy remark that the toes, considered by themselvea, might be
taken for thoiie of a cuckoo, if the outer one was only versatile; it ia
evident also, from the structure of the claws, that these birds are
much more arboreal than tlieir congeners, for their claws are more
curved ; and from their lateral and not horizontal compression, as
well from their acuteness, we conclude that they are very little, if at
all. employed in scratching the ground, their structure being similar
to those of Pereheis, and adapted only for clinging. The foot, in tact,
of the Penilopc. ia not a rasonsl but an inaessorial toot, for it does not
mssess any one of the rasorial characters. Even the hind toe, which
all other rasoriii] birds ia raised above the heel, is here placed upon
toea. That no ambigi ' ' •' ^
CBACID.S. W
a positions a slight tinge of green. Tail-fi-athera tipped with
white. Lags red, claws yellow. Iris brown. Bill bright rod : th»
protuberance with which it if surmounted (which is rounded in the
young birds, and pear-shaped with the narrow end directed forward*
in the adult males) of a liviil alate-colour ; it is more (ban two inches
in length when fully devolopid, hard and bony eitemally, and inter-
nally oellular, the cells communicating with the cavity of thi mouth.
This protuberance is not visible til! after the first moulting, when it
Qnt appears in the form of a small tubercle, and becomes .much
larger in the male than in the female. In other respecti then ii
litUe difference between the seIe^ and the young atfl only diatin-
guiahed by a browner tinge. The windpipe descenda for a consider-
Lble distance in front of the sternum, immediately beneath the akin,
.md makes no lees than three distinct convolutions before poaaiilg
into the cavity of the cheat (E. T. Bennett)
the
9 beg to call the omithologiat's attention to the parCi-
culftr species now before us, the F. Aracuan of Spix, one of the most
common of the same genus. How this remarkable formation in the
foot of the typical Cracida should hitherto have been completely
overlooked, even by those who have speculated so much on the mode
by which ibt SoMrei and lnia»0!tt are united, is somewhat extraor-
dinary. We can only acconnt for it by the custom of examining epe-
ciniena set up in cases, or on branchee, inateail of preserving them in
■kina, in which stale they can be handled in all directions. But how-
ever this may be, the fact itself decides the long-conteated queation aa
to which family of the Satoru mokes the neareat approach or rather
forms the paf sage to the Inttttera ; while, if tbia question be revt
and it is ssked which of the JmenoTa makes '
the Raim-it, we need only direct our search n
legged Brazilian cuckoos, or at once point
Ojnj'Aocumu."
Ourax (/"aaxi, Temm.}.— Bill short, atrong, compressed, vaulted,
convex, dilated at the base of the upper mandible into a homy, oval,
hard, end elevated substance. Nostrils basal, pierced near the fron^
hidden, open beneath ; bead covered with ahoit and close-set feathers.
Feet (tarai) long and amooth. This family conaiata of the following
genera: —
0. Paiui (Cuv.), the Oaleated Curassow. Size about that of a small
hen turkey. Head and neck covered with short velvety feathers of i
rich black. All the rest of the plumage, with the exception of th'
white abdomen and under tail-coverte, brilliant black, exhibiting ii
i singular genus
GelrateiJ CuraHow [Outai Fnui!).
This bird ia a native of Mexico, where the species lives In large com-
paniei perching upon the trees. Nest generally made on tb- ground.
The young are led about by the femali; iu the same manner as tlie
hen pheasant and the common hen lend theirs. The Gist food of th«
chicks conaiats of worms and insects, but as they advance fruita and
seeda are added. Hemandea gives a very good deacription of the bird
a ■ Uistoria Avium Novs Hispanim,' cap. ccixii. The Oaleated
CurasBOW is eoHily domesticsted, and is enumei-ated by M. Temminck
among the birds which brecl abundantly in the menagerie of H.
Ameaboff before the French revolution.
Mr. Yarrell hiu pointed out the peculiarities of the very elongatad
trachea of another apecies, Ourax Milu, Cuvier, Thia organ is pro-
duced between the skin and the muscles beyond the sternum, and
reaches almost to the vent It haa been figured by Dr Lnthsm,
M. Temminck, and others. The stemo-tracheal muscles extend along
the whole of the tube, a diapoaition which, Mr. Yarrell remarked,
prevails with one or two exceptions in all birds in which the fold ol
the tracbM ia not included in the hone. (' Zool. Proc,,' 1B30-81.)
Mr, Bennett (' Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society')
observes that the nostrils in Ourax Pauii are seated behind ths
Erotubarance, and are perpendicuUr in their directiou : the roem-
rauoiu cere which surrounda them, be adda, ia covered with alKirt
velvety feathers.
{>iu.— Bill moderate, long, comprsised, higher than it is broad at
the base, thick, carinated above, curved towards the end, aunounded
at tbo base with a membrane; lore naked; noatrila lateral, longitu-
dinal, pierced in the cere, and partially covered. Head crested with
curied festhera. Tail apread out, inoliueil ; tail-featbersH. Siithquill
the longest Hallux reaching the b:rDuud with the Grst phalanx.
C. AUetor (Linmeus), the Created Curaasow. The plumage of the
Crested Curaasow is of a deep black, vrith a elight gloss of green upon
the head, creat, neck, baok, winga, and upper part of the tail ; it ia
of a dull white beneath, and on the loner Uil-covarta. Ita cnrt ia from
2 to 3 inches in length, and occupies the wl'ole upper surjaoe of the
head ; it is curled and velvety in ita appearance, and capable of being
raised or depressed at nilL The eyes are surrounded by a naked skin
which eiteode into the cere, and there asaumea a bright yellow colour.
Sixe about that of Ourax Paiai. (hi. T. Bennett)
■ " Thia epeciea," aays Mr. Bennett, " ia a native of Mexico, Guyana,
and Brazil, and probably extends itself over a large portion of the
acuthem divlaiou of the American continent In the woods of Ouyank
it appeara to he ao extremely common that M, Sonnini regards it ■■
the most certain resource of the hungry traveller whose stock of pro-
visions ia eihauated, and who has conaequently to trust to bis gon
for fumiahing him with ■ freeh supply. The; congregate together la
unmeroiia flockn, and appear to be under little
en a cansiderable
reat remnin quietly perched upon
if the haroc that bju been com-
CreitcJ Curiuov (Ovi Alittcr).
mitted MUODgit tbem. Tbia conduct ie by no rneana the result of
liniplicity, but pn>ceedB latlier from the natural tameueia and nnaui'
pitiuusneH of their character. Thoee however which frequent the
neighbourhood of inhabite-l places are raid to be much vihler nnd
more mietrustful. heiag kept coustantl; on the alert to iToid Ui*
Eumiiit of the huntere, who destroy them io great numben. They
uild their nestii on the tn^ee, forming them eitemally of brunchea
interlaced with the atalki of herbaceous pistite, and lining tbem inter-
nally with leaFea. They genernlly lay but once a year, during the
lainy aeneon ; the number uf their egga being, accordiag to Socniui,
Gve or ail, and according to D'Aiara aa many an eight. Tbey are
nearly aa larye ae those of a turkey, but lire wbita like a hen's, and
with a thicker ahelL" ('aardena and Menagerie of the Zoological
Society.' Tol, iL)
C. yarrtUii, the Red-Knobbed CuraBaow. The traohea of this
apeciea differs from all Ihoee previoualy known, but most resemblea
that of C. Aleetor, Linnsiua, while in external choractera the bird
approachea C. gtvbicera, Linngnia, from which it ia diatinguiahed by
the redness of ita oere, and by a prominence on each side imder the
baae of thu lower juw, in addition to the globoee knob near the base
of the upper. The tube in C. Yarrdlii ia straight throuf^hout its whole
length, except a short conrolutinn imbedded in a cellular menibraae
pLiced between the shafts of the oa furcatorium. The trachea is
nuTow. and the fold, inrr-Bted uid supported by a membranous sheath,
gives off one pair of muaclea, which are inserted externally below the
apex of the os furcatoriitm. The lower portion ot the tube immedi-
ately above the bone of diTarication aenda off a pair of muscles to be
inserted in the ttemum. The upper pair of mviaclea (furculo-traeheal)
influence the lensth of the tube aboTc the convolution. The inferior
pair < atemo-traoheai) baie the aame power over the bronchial tubes
and that portion of the trachea which ii below the' coqtoIuUod.
(■Zool. Proo,,' 1830-31.)
Ur. Bennett. ApeaklDg of the Zoological Sooiely's Henagerie, eayi: —
" Of all the gallinaceous birds in the collection, the most inlareating
Of* thoee which hold out to ua a prospect of supplying our farm -yards
with oew braada of poultry of a auperior kind. Such are especially
like Cunaaowa In many p^krts of South America these birde have
long been i«cUmed ; and it is really surprising, oonsideriDg the ez-
trrme familiarity of their mannera and the facility with which tbey
appear to pass from a atate of nature to the tameness of domestic
towla, that they have not yet been introduoed into the poullry-ysnls
of Europe. That with proper treatment they would speedily become
habituatsd to the climate we have no reason to doubt; on the oou-
trory, numerous examplfis have shown that they thrive well even in
its nortbem parte; and Temminck informs us that they have once at
least been thoroughly acclimsted in Holland, where they were as
prolific in their domesticated state as any of our common poultry.
The eatabliahuient however in which thia had been effected wae
broken up by the civil commotions which followed in the train of the
FRDch revofutiou, and ail the psins which bad been bestowed upon
the education of these birda were loet to the world by their audden
and complete dispersion. The task which had at that time been in
acme nicaiura accomplished still remaina to be performed ; and it
may not be too much to expect that tbe Zoological Society may be
moee»fixl in perfecting what was then ao well b^;un, and in natural-
CIlAf^ID.*. Mj
ising tbe Curoasow as completely aa our ancestors hnve dune the
equally exotic and in their wild Btate much less familiar breeds of the
turkey, the Ouinea-fowl, and the peacock. Their introduction would
certainly be moat deeirable, not merely oq account of their aize aud
beauty, but also for tbe whitenen and excellence of their flesh, which
is Bsid by those who have eaten of it to surpoaa that of tbe Quinea-
fowl or of the pheasant in the delicacy of ite flavour." (' Gardens aod
Menagerie,' Ac, vol. iL)
Lieutenant Maw. who appears to have shot a Red-Knobbed Curnaafiw
on hiBpieenge from the Pacific to tbeAtlantic down the river Harabon,
says that the native Peruvian name for the bird is Peury.
Penilopr. — Bill moderate, naked at tbe base, entir*, convex above,
wider than it is high, bent at the point] lore and btue of the bill
n^ikad. Under the throat a naked akin which is c.ipsble of being
inflated or awoUen. NoBtrila pierced in tbe cere towarda the middle
of the bill, half closed. Foot (tarsus) slenrler, louger than the inter-
mediate toe ; nails somewhat curved, atrong, compreseed, and pointed.
Fifth and eiith quill longest. ToilfeatheiB 12.
P. crUtala (Qmelin), the Ouan. Length about SO iuches. the tail
being IS or H inches." Upper parts dusky black nr bronze, glossed
witb green, changing to olive in certain ligbts. A blick Bti i|ie pauses
from the under part of the bill backwards, and surruuiids the ear.
Fore part of neck and breast spotti^d with whitish, each of the
feathera being bordered by white ; belly and legs, lower part of tbe
hock, and under tail coverts, reddish. Cheeks a:ikeil aud vidlet-
purplish. Iris reddish brown. Bill bta<'kiah. Feathers of the back
of the head long, forming a thick tufted crest, wliii:h the Idrd con
raise or depress at pleasurtj. Naked part of the throat BCarlot, with
a contractile and extensile fuld of depending skin. Mr, Bennett
observes that this fold retains its elasticity after death. The female
differs from tbe male principally in having Iter plumage, eapeciallj
her under parte, more decidedly tinged with red.
Onan (AihIoik crulalu).
Mr. Tarrell states that the trachea of the Ouaa ia oDiform in eise
and substance throughout its whole length. After descending by the
neck in the usual way, it ia extended, and passes downwards under
the skin, but over the outer surface of the pectoral muscle on the
right side, to the extent of two inches beyond the angle formed by
the junction of the two portions of the os furcatorium. The tube of
the trachea is tbcD reflected, aod, ascending to the cavity of the
thoiai, again turns to be carried to the lungs as in other birda, and ia
provided with one pair of true muscles of voice, which have the usual
origin and inaartioc. The loop or fold of the tube farmed on the
BuHace of the pectoral muscle is imbedded in cellular ti<>aue, and
further retained in its place by a strong ligament, which, firmly
adhering to the loon, passea backwarde to be first attached to the
posterior angle of the sternum ; and afterwards dividing once, and
passing still farther backwards, the two slips are inserted on the two
elongated pubio points of the pelvis. This structure in the Quan, Mr.
Yarrell obaervea, haa been noticed and figured by M, Temminck In
his ■ Histoiie des Pigeons et Oallinac^s.'
Mr, Bennett remarks that the manners of the Ouan have little to
distinguish ^them from those of the Curossowa. Atthuugh to all
introduced into Europe in equal numbers with the Curaaaows, nor has
the same Buccess attended the attempts to propagate them in this
quarter of the globe, " We are told however," continues Mr, Bennett,
"by M, Terominck,that the proprietor of a menjigerie in the neigh-
bourhood of Utrecht had bred them for aeveral years ; and there can
be little doubt that with proper care and attention these birds might
be added to the Etook of our domeetioated fowls. Tbey are spoker
IS! CRiCIDX.
of u fumiihiDg an gxcslleut diah for ttia tabls. In k urUd atkte thajr
inhsbit QuyBDn uid Biszil, aad perhsps eitoivl itilL fu-th«r to the
□orth. Their food coUBUti prindpall; of seeds Kid fruit«, which the;
search far s^d eat upon the ground ; but the grester part o! their
existence ib paeeed upon the bves^ on the tops of which th^y perch,
and in which the; build their neeta. They are often fcuod in large
bands, but generally pair together with tile etricteat eooitano;. The
feinalea la; from two to fire eggs. Their Bight, like that of moat
gaUiaaaeouB birds, in consrqneDoe of the shortness of their winga.
low and heav; ; nnd in the performance of this action tirnj deri
much assistance from their tail, the featheia of which pa; be
axpaDded in the shape of a fati. All the birds of this genus appear
to be known in Brazil li; the oame of Jacu, pronounced Tacou,
deriTnd, acoordiog to Hanzgrave, from their note. Tbir, as might be
expected from the ooDformation of their trachea, is extramel; loud,
insomuch that when a considerable number are collected near the
same spot, the ver; woods, to use the eipreasiou of the scientific
traveller juat quoted, re-echo with their clamorous criea." The same
author obserrea that H. Spii added very conaiderabl; to the difS-
culties that previousl; existed in distinguishiDg the species of this
inlarastinR group b; the publication, in his ' Brazilian Birds,' of
•eriea of ngurea representing apparentl; very sli^t modiflcatione i
the oonunon form, but to each of which he has preGicd a peculia
specific name. Ur. Bennett eipreasea his belief that moat of theae
will be found on further eiamination to be referrible to the present
speciea, which, from its long domestication in tho poultr;-;arda of
S«uth America, must necessarily be subject to very extensive raria-
tions. (' Oardena and Ucnsgarie of the Zoological Society,' vol. it)
M. Lesson, on the authorit; of H. Qondot, meutiooa a species,
Penclopt Abttrri, Gkiud., 2 feet S inches (French) long, the tail being
10 iochea. H. Ooudat states that this speciea seems peculiar to the
mountains of New Qranada, inhabiting temperate and cold districts ;
it is, he says, unknown in the great warm valleys and b; the rivers.
In the eavirona of the cit; of Huio, celebrated for its mine of
emeralds, thia bird, he statea, is known under the name of Pavo-&-
Ouali. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood of Bogota and of the
valle; iif Cauca designate it b; the ttmn Psva Burri, or Aburri
Aburrida, which when alowl; pronounced well aipressaa its ay. The
male does not differ from the female; and thoaa which M. Ooudot
opened had two ctecums analogous to Pttuiope PanJKUta and Paviia
(japernltarii I ). The trachea descended without an; fold to the lungs.
There was no gravel in the gizzard, the walls of wMch were thio, and
nearly entirely covered by the proper muscles. M. Qoudot states
that the species lives soUtaiT, perches upon high trees, files but little,
and suffers the hunter to approach easily within shot. It ia never
seeu on the ground. The berries of tree* compose its food. Its neat
is formed in a mass of dry leaves, disiiosad between the forks of
treea The eegs are three in number, white, and 1 inch 8 lines in
diameter. Thaso birds, adds M, Ooudot, are very common in the
mountsins of Quindiu, between Hague and Cartliagena. Their notes
are the last that are heard on the approach of night, and the first
that announce the dawn uf ds;.
Ortalida. — Ita chancters are the SBmet* tboaa of Paitloi't, except-
ing that the head ia completcl; feathered, and that there is no naked-
neaa about the throat or round the eyea.
0. Uolavit, />AananM Mottnat, OmeL, Phanania Parraqua, Lath.
Colour r«d-brown, brtmied above. Tail modenta; It inhabits
H. Ooudot describes a new
H. L«HBan names Orlali
the same places with the
a new species from Santa-74 de Bogota, which
ida Gondolii. The bird it appears Is found in
the Pmdopt Abmrri. Total lei^ 23 inches.
CRACID.£. IH
of which the tail is S inches. Feet red ; tarsus 2 inches E lines ;
middle toe 2 inches 1 lines, the claw being fit lines (French). The
bill ia blackish, brown at its point; the upper mandible 1 inch
S linM^ cere and naked memlnnne round the eyes blue. All the
upper ^mage brown, with deep green reflections, or rather of a very
deep greenish. Feathers of the throat gray. Bottum of the neck,
hell;, and abdomen, as wall aa the thighe, covered with ruddy. Ko
crest nor nakedneas about the throat. N.o fold of the trachea in either
sex. It ia found in the uiountaina of Quindiu.
U. LesBon observes that this bird approaches nearl; to the last, but
is clearl; dintingulahable from it, especially by the trachea, which does
not descend upon the abdomen.
Opiitlutctmm, Hotfm, ( Hoazin, Buff. ; Orlhocorgi. TieilL).— Bill thick,
robuet, short, convex, bent atthe point, which is suddenly compreeaed,
fumiahed with diverging briatlea at the base, which is dilatwl later-
ally ; lower mandible strong, terminated in an angle ; edges dentelnted
towards the origin. Noatrils mesial on the surface of the bill, pierced
(de part en part), covered above by a membrane; Feet robust and
muscular; tarsus shorter than the middle toe, the lateral toea long,
equal, entirely divided; sole broad; toes bordered with rudiments
of membranes. Wings moderate, the first quill veiy short, the tour
following graduated, and the sixth the Eongeat. Tail-feathen ten.
0. crisfafui. This speciea, which appears to be the only one
belonging to the genus, ii the Hoatzin and Hoactxin of Hemandei;
who deacribea it as an inhabitant of warm districts, where it was seen
Bitting on treea by the aides of rivers, and as having received its name
from a suppoaed similarit; of the shrieking cr; of the bird to the
intonation of the word 'hoatsin.' Heruandez relates some Bb«nge
stories of cures effected by ita bones and b; a sufBtua of ita featheia ;
but Ba;s that the bird is deemed inauspicious b; the natives. Soiinini
states that it is known in Guyana b; the name of Saaa.
Hooiln lOpitthBHmHi triitattt).
The Hoozlns an said to live in pairs or in small troops, consisting
of from aix to eight individuals, in the flooded savannahs, which they
prefer, and where Vimj seek for their food the leaves of the Aram
arboractiu. Their flesh ia not oonstdered good, having a strong smell
of Castoreumabout it.. Theae birds are by no tnaana timorous. In
Stature and gait the; resemble the peacock.
Megapodiiu. — Bill slander, straight, aa wide sa it is high, and
flattened above at the base : upper mandible longer than the lower,
slightly curved at ita extremity ; lower mandible straight, the point
hidden by the edges of Che upper mandible. Nostrils suboval, open,
plaoed nearer to the point than to the base of the bill ; nasal lifoe
long, oovered by a membrane furnished with email feathers. Space
round the eye naked, head and neck well feathered. Feet large and
strong, plaoed &r bBakwardi ; tarsua large and long, and covered
with large scales, compreased posteriorly ; four very elongated toei^
the three anterior ones nearly equal, united at their bases by a small
membrane, which is more apparent between the inner and middle to»
than between it and the outer one ; posterior toe horizontal, touching
the ground throughout ita length ; claws very long, very strong,
flattened above, very little curved, triangular, obtuse at the poin^
nearly like thoae of Jfenaro. Wings moderate, concave, rounded ;
third and fourth quills the longest. Tail small, wedge.ahaped, scarcely
exceeding tbewiogs in length, and formed of twelve feathera. (Quo;
and Oaimard, with slight iteration.)
a. Oapemyii. In size hardly so large as apartridge. Tani !«■
elevated than they are in M. Pftj/cinelii and M. mAnpea The bird
moreover altogether better proportioned. Total length, from the
of the bill to that of the wings, whtdi ar« longer than the
r less than a foot (French). Tarsi strong, coTered with
IK CRACIDA
•odea, and 20 Hum in leogth; middle toa, InoladingUieolftir, IT UDBa;
bind bw II lines; posterior cUw T lioes. Billslightl; swollen tovuda
iU extremity, yellow, 8 liaes ia length. Noatiils luboTkl, oovered
■ith a metnbrans clothed with very smftll rudimeatary fskthei
Space round the eya naked, but leas tbui in the otiier two specie*.
Keck well clothed with feathtn. Iris reddish. A very thick oreat
carm the bead ; the festhers wltioh compose it are raised (s« redres-
■ent) lowerdB the occiput The winjjS ere concaTe, an inob longer
than the Uil, and terminated in * point : the fifth qniil (he longest
Tail suboval, p.intcH, very short, oumposed of 10 small featlie™.
Lega grajieh, and feathered down to the tani ; the clawa sli
curred, pointed at the end, flat below, and of
(Leaaoa.]
slightly
Manfolpe ( Jft^jmHtu I)upim)iii).
" The tutl," Bays H. L«ason, " of our M. Ditptrreyii ii of a browo-
;(11dw ; the neck, the throat, tbe belly, and the lateral parts, are of
■ gntj-slate calotir. The feathers of Uie back ODd the wing-oorerta
la^e, and of a ruddy yellowish brown. Eump. uppw part of the
tail, and TCDt-feathers, ochreous red. Quills yellow without, brown
within, the shafts being ruddy bromL
" Tbe middle toe ia united to the inner one by a membnnou*
border, which is wanting between tbe middle toe and the eiteraal one.
" In comparing our Megapwiiv* with the Mawra of New Holland,
we cannot fail to peroeive that it oonneots the last-mentioned genua
with the gallinaceous birds, by forming a rery natural passage. In
&ct, if we examine the position of the nostrils, the geneial form of
(he bill and li-gs, and the nakedneas round the eyes— tbe membnne
vhich unite* the two external toes, but which is wanting between the
middle toe and the inner one (an arraogemeDt which is reversed in
W^^orfituJ— the same length ot the toes, the analogy in the form
of the claws, the greater length of the posterior one, the concavity
and the smallness of tbe wings — aU these characlen, in Gne, coincide
to eooGrm tbia passage, if we eioept the extraordinary grandeur and
liiiurisDt form of the tail of Memra, a form without analof^ among
the other birds, if qropoifitu would thus belong to a small natural
gn)up,thei.«"/'"c''V'eillot (27th family); the naroeof which, in oon-
•eqaence of its having become improper, would have to be changed.
"Tbe M. Dwperrtsii, the Hangoipe of the Papuans, inhabita the
Dmbrageoiia foreata of Tfew Guinea, in the neighbourhood of the
barbaur of Dor^ry. Tbe bird is timid, runs very fast among the
biubea, like ■ partridge in standing com, and uttera a feeble cluck
(an petit glouaaement}."
U. Lesson statea that he only observed M. Fnt/ciaetii In tbe
Island of Waigiou, and that the attempt to preserve it alive in
n"M vna vain, for the birds sodd died. Tbeir flesh, he says, ia
black, very hard, and not Vi^ry agreeable as food, although posHSsing
a gauiey Sivnur when it is cuuked. The Papuans brought them
CD board the Coquitle daily, snd called tnem (thoae of the harbour
of Oflack at least) Haneaaqu^.
Both PigafettH and Oemelli Carniri apeak of the Tavon (MegO'
fdiiu), and it would seem that this, the Megapadinu of the Philip-
Iiinea, leaves its eggs to the fastertng heat of the sun. The habita of
the Urgapodii of New Qiiinea and tbe neighbouring islands are,
Kcording to M. Lcason, entirely unknown.
ilicthrtia-^^tha characters of tbe genus Mtgapodivt, obserrea M.
Lesson, estnbliahed by Meaan. Quoy and QaJmard in the Zoology of Lbs
voyage round the world performed by the Unute, are in great
CRAO. IM
measure applicable to tbe siib-geoas Attcllulia, formed "bj H. LeSMin
for the position of a bird whioh diffem &oni (he true Migapoda, or '
Tavona, by many distinctive charaotera.
Bill abort, oomprened, pointed ; the upper mandible prolonged,
the lower mandiUe a little swollen and very short; noatrils at the
base of tbe bill separated by a straight ridge; beul and forehead
abundantly DOTrred with featber* down to tbe noatrils ; space round
thu eyes fumished with short and close^et feathers ; innir toe rather
the shortest ; membrane which unites the middle toe to the inner
one almoei absent; no tail; all the foHthers of the body, eioapt
tbuee of the wings, composed ot loose barba, vary finely ciliated on
each of the shafts.
A. Ufviltii, LsHon. It is tbe only species known. Its total lengdi
fWim the extremity of tbe bill to that of tbe wings is e inches 4 line*.
Tain H lines; middle toe 10, bind toe 8, claws 5,bill 6 linea(FTvnch).
The bird is oovered with loose and scanty feathen, but has upon the
occiput a thick bunch of feathers. The general tint is brown,
fuliginoua, deepest aboie; belly and throat bmwn, slightly tinged
with ruddy colour; throat aah-coloured ; wings concave, rounded,
the festhen entirely brown, the second, third, and fourth being
equal; tbe upper part ia brai^n sprinkled with tigiag or irregular
lines, not well defined, of ruddy yellow. Place of the tait-feathsis
supplied by very loose plumes, composed of very fine barba, br^ed
with very slender approximated barbules, presenting much analogy
wl^ those of the Cassowary (No. 6, pi. 67, 'Atlas da Psron'), and
which, implanted in the rump in the same manner, form a feathery
tuft OS in tbe Cassowary ; all the feathei-s ef thia bird, eioept those
of the wings, ore composed of multiple stems, very slender and soft,
fumisbed with equal and very fine borbuies which may be called
multirochid. The biU is greyiih, and so are the feet ; tbe inner toe
is a little more united to the middle one than to the external one ;
the daws are slightly curved, sharp, convex above, ooncavs bdow,
and of a brown oolour; the iri is reddish.
This species, which comes from the Isls of Ousbj, placed imme-
diately under the equator, is, no donbt, proper to the neighbouring
lands such as the great and beautiful Isle of Halnniiva or Qolilo, so
little known and so little studied by naturalists. (Lesson.)
CRAO, the uppermost of tbe distinctly Tertiary Strata of England
— using this term in a sense wliich is perhaps gradually passing
away, to be replaced by tbe larger meaning of Camozoic, suggested
in this work. The Crag of Norfolk and Suffolk is partly a calcareous
moss rich in delicate corsla ; partly a subcajcoreous sand rich in
shells; and partly a rudely Bt[gregated deposit of sand, sbells pebbles,
and bono. To these divisions, whoso origin is due to different local
conditions, snd successive times, Mr. Charleaworth has sseigned tlie
title* of Coralline Crag, Red Crag, and Mammaliferous Cng. The
position of these beds will be best seen from the following table of
the classification of tbs Tertiary Bocka from PiofttMur Autted'a
' Elementary 0>-ology.'
Newer Tertiary, or Fliooane Series : —
1. Upper Oravsl and Sand.
2. -m.
S. Manmialiferoia Orag.
t. Fieah-Watar Sand and OnveL
B. JUd Crag.
Hiddle Tertiary, or Miocene Seriea ; —
fl. OoTamni Crag.
Lower Tortiary, or Eooejw Seriea r —
T. Fluvio-Harine Beds, &□.
187
CRAKE
CRANGONIDiE.
18t
For « further aoooant of the raktion of the Crag Formation to the
other membera of the Tertiary Seriee, see Tbhtiabt Strata. [Sup.]
CRAKE. [Raludjb.]
CRAMBE, a genuB of Plants helonging to the natural order
Orvcifenx, It helongs to the sub-order LwneiUaeea and the tribe
RapkanecB, It has a 2-jointed silicle, upper joint globose, with 1 seed
pendent from a long curved seed-stalk springing from the bottom of
the cell ; lower joint barren, stalk-like.
0, marUima, the Sea-Kail, or Sea-Kale, is a glaucous spreading
pUmt, with broad-toothed sinuated leaves, and dense corymbs of large
white flowers, foxmd occasionally on the sea-coast of England, and
now commonly cultivated in giuxlens for the sake of its delicate
tender shoots. Naturally the flavour of the plant is strong, cabbage-
Uke, and highly disagreeable, but in the state in which it is sent to
the kitchen, it is merely a colourless mass of delicate fleshy vege-
table tissue, with little or no flnvour. This arises from the shoots
that are to be cooked being grown in darkness, and with a little more
speed than usuaL For this purpose a garden-pot is inverted over the
crown of an old sea-kail stock, in the winter before the leaves sprout.
Over the pot is thrown a little litter, or some decajing leaves, or
some old tan, so as to increase the temperature of the earth, and to
exclude light ; after a week or two the pot is examined from time
to time, and when sprouts five or six inches long have been pro-
duced, they are cut ofi^, and are fit for table.
Sea-Kail loves a Kght sandy soil, well drained in winter and richly
manured. It will continue to bear cutting for twenty years together
without suffering much ;*and ia one of the most simple and useful
of all culinary plants for a small garden. It is generally grown in
rows eighteen inches or two feet aparL
CRA'MBUS, a genus of Moths {Lepidoptera no^uma) of the family
TineidcB (Stephens). The type of this genus is the Phalana PawneUa
of LinnsBus.
In crossing dry meadows during the summer time, we observe
numerous little moths fly from the grsss at every step we take;
they soon settle again, and are then not easily detected, owing to
their mode of folding their wings, which when shut almost inclose
their slender bodies, and partly surround the blade of grass on which
they rest ; their form is then long and narrow, pointed at the head,
and somewhat truncated at the opposite extremity. Their colouring
is often brown and white, disponed on the upper wings principally in
longitudinal lines. Very frequently however we find ttiem adorned
with beautiful metallic colours, generally of silvery or golden hues.
Such are the insects which constitute the genus Orambut, and of
which we possess about 40 species in this country. The characters
of this genus are : — Proboscis distinct ; wings convoluted round the
body when at rest ; superior wings narrow ; palpi long, the inferior
the longer ; head furnished with short closely-applied scales.
When the wings are expanded, these moths commonly measure
about an inch in width ; they are called in England the Veneers, and
sometimes Grass-Moths.
CRANBERRY. [OxTCOCCUS.]
CRANE FLY. [Tipulid^]
CRANES. [Gbuid^]
CRANE'S-BILL. [GERAKmic]
CRANGONID^, a family of Cfnutaeea belonginflr to the division
Deeapoda Maeroura, The type of this family ia the Common Shrimp
(Crangon mUgarii), and no other genera are included in itw It has the
following characters : —
Internal antennsB inserted on the same line as the external antennso;
first pair of feet terminated by a subcheliform hand. Although there
are a large number of Onutacea which are vulgarly called Shrimps
which resemble in general form the Common Shrimp, the OrangonidcB
difier too much from all these to be comprised in the natural tribes
formed by theuL It corresponds to the genus Orangon of Fabricius,
which, in the opinion of M. A^ilne-Edwards, has been unnecessarily
subdivided by Dr. Leach and M. Risso into the Crangons, properly
so called, Egeons, and Pontophili,
Orangon comprises those shrimps whose anterior feet are terminated
by a mooodactylous and subcheliform hand.
Carapace much more depressed than in the other shrimps, and
presenting anteriorly only the rudiment of a rostrum. Eyes short,
large, and free. Antennas inserted nearly on the same transversal
line; the first pair dilated at their base, at the external side of which
is a rather large scale ; their peduncle ia short, and they are termi-
nated by two multi-articulate filaments.. The external anteimss are
inserted outwardly and a little below the preceding, and they offer
nothing remarkable. The mandibles are slender, and without any palp.
The external jaw-feet, which are pediform and of moderate length,
terminate by a flattened and obtuse point ; within, they cany a short
palp, terminated by a small flagriform appendage directed inwards.
The sternum is very wide backwards. The first pair of feet are
strong, and terminate in a flattened hand, on the anterior edge of
which a moveable claw is bent back : the internal an^le of this hand,
srhich corresponds to the point of the claw, is armed with a tooth
representing an immoveable rudimentary finger. The two succeeding
pairs of feet are extremely Klender ; the second terminate generally in
a very small didaotylous claw; and the third are monodactylous,
like those of the fourth and fifth pairs ; but these four posterior feet
are much stronger. The abdomen is very large, but presents nothing
remarkable in its conformation. The branchis are only seven in
number on each side of the thorax (Milue-Bdwarda.)
Details of (h-ani^on. a. Mandible.
The genus is divided by M. Milne-Edwards into the following
sections : —
1. Species having the second pair of feet nearly as long as the
third pair. ^
In Uus section are comprised C vtUgarU, Cfateiatutt and C. Boreas.
2. Species with the second pair of feet mudi longer than the third.
Example, C. teptemcarifuUui.
C. vulgariif the Common Shrimp. Carapace and abdomen almost
entirely smooth, with the exoeption of one small median spine on
the stomachal region, and one lateral above each branchial region.
Terminal filaments of the internal antenn® more than twice as long
as their pedimcle. Lamellar appendage of the external antenne large
and elongated (about twice as long as the peduncle of the internal
antennse). Last joint of the external jaw-feet long and narrow.
Two last pairs of feet of moderate size. A strong spine inserted on
the sternum between the second pair of feet, and directed forwards.
Abdomen smooth, and without any keel. Median blade of the caudal
fin pointed, and without a furrow above. Length rather more than
two inches. Colour greenish-gray, dotted with brown.
Common Shrimp {(k'trnpon vulgarU). 0, anterior foot or claw.
It ia common on the coasts of England and Fnmce.
It is the Crevette of the French, and Shrimp of our markets, and
is one of the most delicious (Pennant thinks the most delicious) of
the macrurous crustaceans.
The shoals of these creatures which frequent our coast give employ-
ment to a great number of persons, who are engaged in catching
theuL They are abundant at the mouth of the Thames, from whence
the London market is principally supplied. They are caught by a
large open net, which is attached to a long stick and pushed through
the water. They are most plentiful on sandy shores. They are luied
also for baitw
l« CRAKIA.
C.fataaliu, tha Banded Shrimp, ia fouDd in the HaditvTTMMUt.
tt hu kbo been taken in Eogluid at Salcnmbe Bay.
C.tpiiuaia, the SpiDj Shrimp, It in the PoiUofhilM* fpuxwiu of
Ltuh, ^n>it loncat\tt of Ouerin. This iihrimp hai been taken in
hi«bI placca on the louth cout of EngliiDd.
C. tcitlptut i« a Britith apeciea, deMribad by Profeasor Bell in bis
'HiMoiT of the Britiab Stalk-Eyed Crustacea.' It was taken at
Weymouth by Mr. Bowerbank.
C. IritpinotoM and C. bitpinom are alio Britiah apeciea, and hare
been takt^n an the coiut of Rafltiuga.
CRANIA. rRHicHioroDA.]
CRASSAUENTUM. [Blood.]
CRA3SATELLA. [CancnacEa.]
CRAS3INA. [A«T*aTi]
CRAS3ULA, a genua of Planla, the type of the nataral order
Cniti^acta. It baa a S'parted calyx, much ahorter than the oorolla ;
KfrAi flattiah ; the petala fi, atellate, apreadlng, diatinct ; the itamena
6, Glamenta awl-tihaped ; icalea C, avata, abort; carpels E, many-
Ksled. The apeciea are very Dumeroua They ore luceulent herbs
or ■hniha, and are moatly natiTee of the Cape of Oood Hope. Their
luTca are oppoaite and entire, or nearly ao. Tha Sowara are moatly
vbite, rarely ruee^oloured. Upwarda of Bfty apeciea hare been
dttcriheit ', and many of them, on account of their groteaque appf ai^
•DCS, are cultivated in our gardena. '^'7 *xv greeobauae plants.
One ipwiea, C. Mragima, ia ueed at lie Cape of Qood Hopa as a
nmed; iiT dyientary. Any medicinal propertiea they possess ia
prnlikbly nwing to the presence of tannin.
CRA3SULA^CE£, Boiarrleda, a natural order of Poljpetaloua
Eiogpsoua Plants. It cooiiatB of succulent plants, with herbaceous
or ihrnbhy, and annual or perennial roots, groving in hot dry eipoaed
plicei in the mora temperate parts of tbeOld World chiefly. On the
lun-Korcbed clifft and volcanic soil of the Canariee, aod on thf dry
ittrile plains of the Cape of Qood Hope, they are tnoat abundant.
Tleir flowen are arranged in panicles, apikee, cymes, and corymbs ;
trch has a calyx of several diviaioos, alternating with which ia the
like number Mpetals, alternating with which ia the like number of
tUmens, or ttnce as many, alternating with which are as many
Jiatam; 1, aeslfx of A stviaraa
n, snd adhering 1>t U>e tube oi
g— tlie bjponnoui scide* are
distinct carpels a
a there are segments of the csilyx. The stameDi
tuba uf tbe calyx; there is usually a hypogynoui
tlaod at the base of each carpel ; tbe carpels are often of tha samt
colour aa tbe petala; and sometintea, in moustroas cases, ths anthers
bear ovules aa well as tbe ovarios. The fruit conaisU of a number of
distinct folliclea, each containioa numsrouH minute eeeda ; the embryo
lies in the axis of fleshy albumen. The afGnities of thi* order,
according to Dr. Limiley, are with SamaguiiKta, CaryophgUacuB,
&> '-ifragacat, and Tumeractcs.
Many species of CraiMida, Roclua, Semptreivim, Sedam, ir,, are
cultivated for the beauty of their flower* ; the various annual Tilleas,
Ac, are obscure weeds ; hause-leeks (different sorts of Sanpermmm.)
are grown for tbelr refVigeiant qualities; aod the leaves of 5^per-
vivam arboram possess puwerfiU tanning qualitiea This order
contains 22 gaoera and 460 spoclsa. [Skddm ; SEHrEBvrvuM ; CoTT-
liiion; Ecuiitkhia; Tiu.aj ; Kocuiu ; Uhuiuui;*; tlBYuruiL-
All tbe hardy species may be grown on old wall;, roofs, rock-work,
or other places thoroughly druned of moisture ; tJie greenhouse kinds
require what is called a dry'Stove treatment — that is, they must be
patted in a mixture of lime, rubbish, broken pots, and earth ; in
summer they an freely exposed to the weather in sunny aituationa
without protection, and in winter they are kept moderately coul, and
□early without water.
CRAT.£'QU3, a genus of Plaota belonging to the natural ot^ft
BattKea and the sub-order Fonea. This gonus ia very nearly aUisd
to tbe Apple (i^n-w), from which it differs in the fruit contaming a
variable number of at«nea, u> the Medlar does ; from the Medlar it is
known by its fruit being closed, not spread open, at tbe apex.
Ths Bpeciea inhabit woods and bedgea through put ths northent
hemisphere, from Barbery and Palestine to about 60° N. lat. tn ths
east, and from Mexico to a similar latitude in the west South of
these limits they do not occur tn a wild state. Ths flowers appear in
the greatest profusion, usually in terminal cymes, in t b early munths
of the year, and are succeeded by small round fruita, coloured yellow,
red, purple, or black. Moat of them are merely haws, and fit only
for the food of birda ; a few ara lai^^er and more fleshy, but Done of
them have been found worth cultivating for the fruit, except the
Azarole (i ruloyiu Aiaroiiu), which ia eaten in Italy, and the Aronia,
which is s>'ld in tbe markete of Montpellier under the name of Pom-
mettea It Deux Closes.
Between uity and seventy well-marked species and varieties are
known in tbe gardens of this country. Into extensive collections tbey
are all worth introduction, except C. patvt/olia and those immediately
allied to it; and for tbe ornament of patk-scenery there is prohnbly
no genus of flo.vering trees at all to be compared with Cralirgui for
variety, fragrmnca, and Iwauty. Our limita prevent our notiuiog all ■
these at length; we therefore confine ourselves to a brief indication
of tbnse which are molt vnlviable for ornamental purposes.
C. aryacaatha, the Hawthorn, White Thorn, or May, The leaves
ore obovate, 3-1-lobed, cut and serrate, cuneate at the base ; tba
flowers corymbose; calyx not glandular; styles 1-3. The bnuicbea
are spinaae. Thia plant ia ona of tbe most common in tbe British
Flora, baii^ used throughout the kingdom for farming quickset
hedgea. Babington mentiona two varieties, eipressii;g oi
(Jaoquin), with the peduncles and cuyz villose. The latter is
The Hawthorn not only growa in the form of a thrub or bush in our
hedges, but is not unfrtqueutly seen in the form of a tree. It is of
slow growth, and many mdividuals have attained celebrity for their
antiquity. There are several in Bushy Park said to be above two
centurlea old. The wood of the Hawthorn is bard, takes a fine
polish, and ia uaed by cabinet-makers.
Under the name c^ Hawthorns rnay be comprehended alt the noma-
roue sorts which are either varieties of Cralagru aiyaeanlha or nearly
n-latod to it, They have all deeply-lobed rather shining lesvei, ao
little hairy that their brii^ht i^reen colour ia nut deadened, smsll fra-
grant flowers, and small shining hawa They are distinguished for
the graceful manner in which they generally grow in rich soil and
unharmed by the pruning-knife. Thirty feet is not an unusual height
tor very fine specimeno, and when of that stie their appMtrsuce ia
exceedingly graceful and pictureaque. C. oryaeaniha itself prodncaa
varieties wiUi double flowers, bright crimson Sowers, yellow fruit,
black fruit, and &uit downy when young ; the latter ia called C. oxy-
acaniha erioearpa, and is one of the moat beautiful of the genua
Very nearly allied to these are the Oriental Thorns, spec es which
have their dveply-cut leaves covered so cloatly with hun as to have a
dull gray or hoary aipect, large fragrant fiowen, and loiga succulent
rather angulu' fruit. These are less graceful in their manner of
growth than tbe true Havrthoms, some of them, est>eoially C. tanaetli'
folia and C. odoraluima, having a round formiJ head ; but their
flowers are even more frngrant than the May-bush, and their fruit ren-
ders them striking objects in tha autumn. The Asarole is ons of
them ; but it does not fruit or flower readily, and is the least worth
having of the group. We should recommend C. odoraliMtima, with
its rsd fruit. C. latuKtlifolia with ite yellow fnut, C, arienlalu witli
purple fruit, and C. Araaia with ite light orange-coloured fruit.
The American Thorns are species with leavee but littls lobed,
usually broad, shining, and toothed unequally, often Laving eiceed-
....._)•.__ ._. J ,.._!__ ._-. ii_-r._;_^ — isdjate siaa.
ingly long spines, and having fmit genenlly oif ai
m
CRATiEVA.
CREI^USCULARIA.
18^
They are not qnite so handsome as the species of the two former
groups ; but the following, nevertheless, have suflBciently ornamental
features, namely — C. Cruagallif or the Cockspur Thorn, with very
long strong spines and 8hining deep green l^tves ; of this we have a
bmad-lcaved variety called C. aplmdent, and a narrow-leaved variety
ealted C. talieifolia ; C. prunifolia, C. avalifolia, and C. DougUmi, with
dark handsome leaves ; C, punctata, with large yellow or red haws ;
C. cordate^ with brilliant scarlet fruit ; and U. microcarpa, with very
■mall beautiful vermilion fruit and graceful pendulous shoots.
The Small-Leaved Thorns are all North American : they form small
straggling bushes, and are not worth cultivation.
f^ally, the Evergreen Thorns consist of C. Mexieana and C pyr-
acantha. The former is a small tree with lance-shaped bright g^reen
leaves, and large round yellow fruit ; it is probably too tender for
hardy cultivation north of London. The latter, an iuhabitant of rocks
and wild places in the south of Europe and the Caucasus, has been
long cultivated ic this country for the sake of its flame-coloured berries
and evex^green leaves.
All these plants may be budded or grafted upon the Common Haw-
tiiom, so that persons whose means do not allow them to purchase
the plants may nevertheless ornament their gardens with them by
providing hawthorn stocks, upon which they may work them them-
selves ; or a very small garden might exhibit a good many sorts, if
each of the groups here pointed out were intermixed upon the same
plant This mii^ht be easily effected by a skilful budder. It would
not however .do to intermix the different groups upon the same plant,
because the species would not harmonise, and consequently a bad
appearance would be the result.
(LovLdon, Arboretum et FnUicetum JBritannicum ; Botanical Register,
vols, xxi and xxii.)
CRATifiVA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Cap-
paridacecB. It has 4 sepals; 4 imguiculate petals larger than the
calyx, and not closing over the stamens during SBstivation ; 8-28 sta-
mens ; the torus elongated or hemiBpherical ; the berry stalked, between
ovate and globose, pulpy within ; a thin pericarp. The species are
unarmed shrubs or trees with trifoliate leaves and terminal cymes or
racemes of large flowers.
C. gynandrai Garlic Pear, has 20-24 stamens inserted on the cylin-
drical receptacle, longer than the petals ; the berry ovate ; the leaflets
ovate, acute ; the petals lanceolate. It is a native of bushy pUces
and thickets near the sea-side in Jamaica. The whole plant has a
nau!«eous smell and a burning taste. The bark of the root is said to
blister like cantharides.
C, Tapia, the Tapia, or Common Oarlic-Pear, has 8-16 stamens,
dedinate, about three times as long as the petals ; the stipe of the
ovary as long as the stamens ; the stigma sessile, capitate ; the fruit
globose. This plant is a tree about 20 feet high. Its fruit is the size
of a small orange. It is brought both from the West India Islands
and from South America. The fruit has the smell of garlic, and com-
municates its odour to animals that feed on it. The bark is bitter
and tonic, and has been employed in the ciure of intermittent fevers.
61 Manndoi, the Bilva, or Mahura, is a small tree bearing a large
spheroidal berry with a hard shell, and 10-15 cells which contain,
besides the seeds, a lai^ge quantity of a tenacious transparent gluten,
which on drying becomes very hard, but continues transparent ; when
fresh it may* be drawn out, before it breaks, into threads of one or
two yards in length, and so fine as scarcely to be perceptible to the
naked eye. This plant in now however transferred to the family Auran-
tiacece, tmder the generic name JSgle. It is the Peronia peUucida of
some authors. It is found in all parts of the East Indies. The fruit
is nutritious and aperient, and very delicious to the taste. It is
recommended by European physicians in the East as a valuable
remedy in habitual costiveness, and it is said never to fail in producing
its aperient effects. The root, bark, and leaves are also used in fevers
by the Malabar phyfficiiins.
(Lindley, Flora Medica; Don, DiclUamydeous Planti.)
CRAW-FISH. [AsTACUS.]
CRAX. [CRACIDiB.]
CRAY-FISH. [Abtacus.]
CREAM-FRUIT, a kind of eatable Fruit found at Sierra Leone, and
said to be produced by some Apocynaceous Plant
CREEPERS. [CerthiadaJ
CRENATULA. [Malleaoea.]
CRENELLA. [MTTiLiDiB. See Supplbubnt.]
CRENILA'BRUS (Cuvier), a genus of Fishes b'^Ionging to the
section A eanthopterygii and family Labridce. The species of this genus
have all the general characters of the true Labri, or Wrasses, but are
distinguished by their having the margin of the pre-operculum denti-
culated : the cheeks and operculum are scaly.
C. melops {Labrus melops, LinnsBua), C. tinea of others, the Gilt*
Head, Connor, Golden Maid. This fi^h is found on various parts of
the coaH ; it is about six inches in length, and the depth is nearly
Dne-third of the length. The general colour of the body is obscure
red and green ; these colours are arranged in longitudinal stripes on
the upper parts, and beneath the lateral line the red is disposed in
spots* The Gilt-Head mostly frequents deep water, where the bottom
is rocky ; its food is chiefly Crustacea,
O. Norwegicus (Cuv. et VaL), 0. Oonmbieus (Risso), the Goldfinny or
Goldsinhy, and Corkwing, somewhat resembles the last, but may
always be distinguished by a black spot on each side near the base of
the tail, and situated on the lateral line ; its general colour is yellowish
green, darkest on the back ; the sides are usually adorned with longi-
tudinal lines of a deeper hue. Length about three or fotir inches.
O. gibhus, the Gibbous Wrasse, may be readily distinguished from
either of the known British species of this genus by its comparatively
shorter and more elevated form. The depth of the body is consi-
derably more than one-third of the length : the colours are chiefly
orange and blue; the gill-covers and sides of the body are spotU;d,
and the back is striped. The ventral fins are green, the pectorals are
yellow, with transverse red stripes at their base.
Pennant obtained a specimen of this fish off the coast of Angle^y ;
and this is we believe the only instance on record of its capture off the
British coasts.
C. luscus (Couch), Aeantholabrus Couchii (Cuv. et VaL), the Scale-
Rayed Wrasse, has been caught by Mr. Couch off the coast of Cornwall :
the specimen was 22 inches in length. The tail is round, and consists of
15 rays; "between each ray of the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, is a
process formed of firm, elongated, imbricated scales. Colour, a
uniform light brown, lighter on the belly ; upper eye-lid black ; at the
upper edge of the base of the caudal fin is a dark brown spot Pectorals
yellow : all the other fins bordered with yellow."
C fmUtidentatus (Thompson), Ihirdvs minor (Ray), Lahrus pusPlvs
(Jenyns), the Corkling, Ball's Wrasse. This fish was originally taken
in the British coast by Professor Henslow at Weymouth. It bas
once been taken in Cornwall and Ireland. Jt is about foiu* inches
in length. Mr. Jenyns says, ** It is quite distinct from any of those
described by other authors. Though belonging to the present section
{Labrus) which it is convenient tc retain, it would seem to form the
transition to the Creniiabri, to which its near affinity is indicated by
the rudimentary denticulations on the margin of the pre-opercle.'*
C. rupestriSf Jsgo's Goldsinny (Selby) It has been referred by
various writers to the genera ScicBua, Labrus, Peiea, and Lutjanus.
Several specimens of this fish have been taken in Great Britain. It
is found occasionally in the Baltic, in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway.
Its prevailing colour is orange, the free edge of each scale being of
light golden-yellow colour ; the colour is darkest over the three or
four Imee of scales along the highest part of the back, and lightest
on the lower part of the sides and belly: the body is indistinctly
marked with five transverse bands. In northern localities it is tinged
with green.
O. microstoma^ the Small-Mouthed Wrasse, or Rock-Cook (Thomp-
son). It is the Aeantholabrus exoletus (Cuv. and YaL^, the Labrus
exoUtus of other authors. This fish is occasionally caught in Com
wall, and has been taken at Antrim in Iiv land. It is immediately
known amongst its congeners by its very small mouth. It is found
on the coasts of Sweden, Denmark and Norway. [Labbidjb.]
CREPIDOTTERIS. a genus of Fossil Ferns, which Preal substi-
tutes for Pecopteris of Bronguiart, in the case of two species, one from
Stuttgardt, the other from Newcastle.
CREPIDULA. [Caltftbjsid^]
CREPIS, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order Com-
posUce, the division Cichoracea, and section Lactueea. It has many-
flowerad heads ; a double involucre, the inner of one row, the outer
of short lax scales ; the fruit terete, narrowed upwards or obscurely
beaked. Most of the species of this genus are common weeds in the
hedges of Europe. Five of the species are found in Great Britdn.
The most common is the C. virenSf which has the outer involucral
scales adpressed, linear, the inner ones glabrous within : the leaves
lanceolate, remotely dentate, runcinate, or pinnatifid, the uppermost
leaves linear, arrow-shaped, clasping with flat margins ; the stem sub-
corymbose; the fruit shorter than the pappus, oblong, slightly
attenuated upwards, with smooth ribs. This is the C. tectorum of
Smith ; but the true tectorum has revolute mai^gins to its upper leaves,
and other points of difference, and has never been found in Great Britain.
The other British species are — C putchra, a rare plant found in
Scotland ; C biennis, also rare, found in chalky places in England ;
C. succiseefoUa, common in woods in the north of England ; C. palu-
dosa, not uncommon in damp woods and shady places. C. lacera ia
considered to be a venomous plant in Naples, where it growa
(Babington, Manual of British Botany.)
CREPUSCULA'RIA(Latreille), a section of Lepidopterous Insects,
corresponding with the genus Sphinx of Linnaeus. These insects
occupy an intermediate station between the Lepidoptera Diuma, or
Buttei'flieB, and the Lepidoptera Noctwma, commonly called Moths.
They have the following characters: — Antennse growing gradually
thicker towards the apex, at which part they are furnished with an
elongated club, either fusiform or prismatic. Inferior Mrings furnished
with a rigid bristle-like process at their base, which passes into a hook
on the under surface of the superior wings, and serves to retain them.
The larvae are furnished with 16 legs, and many of them have a long
homy process on the last s^^ent of the body. The chrys^ides are
smooch, or sometimes furnished with small spines (but destitute of the
points and angles usually observed in those of butterflies). They are
either inclosed in a cocoon or buried in the earth. The larvae sometimes
feed upon wood, in which case they assume the pupa state within the
tree or branch.
CRESCENTLL
s the ^Mtiffida, Saiida,
IB c*l;i ; the corolla
eunpumlftte, with ■ flwhj tube much ahorter Outa the ventriooae
S-dnft unequal crisped limb ; i KtAmeiu, didjnamcnu^ with the mdi-
meat of ■ fifth ; tha fruit gourd-like, 1-celled, with a, mild iheU, inter-
hmUj pulpy, many-eeeded. The B|MoiaB are luea npiTiling tieea, with
■olituT Sowen rising from the trunk or brandiee.
C. Otiete, Cujete or Common Cakbesh-Tree, hu oblcmg asute or
obtius leaTOB, cuoeate at the baie, and in EtuKJcles. This plaat ia a
natiTe of the Went India lalanda and Spaoiah Main, It ia a tree
about 20 feet high, and ia readiiy distinguiebsd from all others b; its
habit. It eends out Urge hariumtal bnuichsa, wliich bear fascicIeB of
learee at Tahous diatanoea. Theae leavaa ara from 1 to 6 inches long.
The flowen are scattered over the older braDohea j the coTolla is large,
■omewhat campauulale and conatricted below the middle, which girea
the nppcT part a Tantricoae character. It does not wither up M other
eorDllaa, but becomea putrid, giving out a nauseous and intoleiaUe
odour. The form and aiie of the fi-uit ia very variable, being from
9 inches to 1 foot in diameter. lb ia coTOred with a thjn skin, of a
greenisb^yellow colour whan ripe, and under this is a hard woody shell
i^oh oontains a pale yellowish soft pulp, of a tart unplesaant Sbtout,
mrrounding a great number of Sat SBsda. The shell ia of great use
to the inhabitants ; tha smaller oblong ones ara formed into spooiia
and ladles, the larger ones form drinkiag cups, basins, and bowls for
BTery Tariety of domestie purpoaea. They will eran bear fire, and
are used for boiling water io. The Cariba generally carra the out^e
of these Teasels with a variety of groteaque Ggurea. The pulp is
■omatimea eaten by the natives, but it ia not much Bought after. A.
syrup ia preporwl ^m it in the West Indies, which has a great repu-
tation aa a cough medicine The pulp is also used as a poultice in
oases of abeceas or bniises. The leaves and branches and pulp of the
b-uit are eaten by cattle in timea of scarcity. The wood of the tree
ia tough and flexible, and well adapted for the work of the ooacb-
mnker. There are three or four oUier spedea, naUvea of the West
Indies and Soath America, having the same geoeral charaoten aa the
The spedea of Craeeatia will grow in a mixture of loam, peat, and
sand, and woody cuttioga will grow when placed in aand in heat under
a hand-glaaa. They do not howerer blossom in this country, aa they
require nrst to arrive at the full size.
(Don, DiMamydecm Plantt; Iioudon, Snej/dopadia of PUaiU ;
Lindley, FU/ra Midiea.)
CRESCENTIACEiE, a natural order of Fhmts formerly included in
the Solauiaa, allied to Oetaeraeta and Bigaoniaeta. The species are
trees of small sise, with alternate or clustered simple leaves without
stipules. Tha flowers grow out of Uie old stems or brsaohce)
the calyx free, undivided, eventually apUtting into insular pieces;
the corolla mononetalous, irregular, somewbnt 2-lipped, with an
imbricatad nativation. The atamena are four in number, growing on
tlie corolla, didynamoua, with the rudiment of a fiflb between the
poatcrior pair, which are the longest ; anthen 2-lobed, bunting longi-
tudinally ; ovary free, surrounded by a yellow annular disc, 1-celled,
.cumpoaed of au anterior and posterior oarpellary leaf, with 2 or 4
equidistant parietal placentae, which sometimce meet and produoe
additional oella ; ovules 0-Q, horizontal ; style 1 ; atigma of 2 plates.
Fruit woody, not splitting, contuning a multituda of large ajnygda-
loid seeds buried in the pulp of the placautn ; akin leathery, loose ;
embryo atiaight, without albumen, with plaoo-Oonvai fleshy cotyle-
dons, and a thi(^ short radicle next the hilum.
CRESS, the u'Une given to various Flanta with acrid or pungent
loaves. Common Creas is Lepiditim lativam; Water-Crass, Nattitr-
iium offtdiaie ; Belleisle or Normandy Cress, Barhama praeoxi
Indian Creas, TVopmlnni nuvuf. [LEFlDnrM; ITASttritnnil; BailBABBa;
Tropxolcil]
CRETACEOUS GROUP or FORMATION. [Caiii Fowiaiioii.]
CHEU3IA- [CiRBiraDU-l
CREX. [RiLUDE]
CRIBELLA. [SoLASTBHi*.]
CRICACA'NTUUS, a genus of FoasU Fiahen from the Mountain
Limestone of Armagh. (Agassis.}
CRICETUS, tha name of a gsnua of Rodenta, whose economy
tiukea them one of the most interesting of the great Limusan genus
Hum, or the family of Mitrida in its moat extensive sense. The
species have the following characters :^
Molar teeth simple; Uieir crown furnished with blunt tubercles.
Four toes and the vestige of a thumb on the fbre feet ; five toes on
the hind f^t ; nuls robust. Tail short and hairy.
Dental Formula :— Incisors, - ; molars, SzZr = IS.
^2' ^8—8 ■
The species are found over all the north of Europe and of Asia, the
temperate countries of Peixia, and the deserta of Astrakhan. If the
Canada Pouched Rat (Kamater du Canada, Criixltu (wrsaruu of
Deamareat, ifaj bunariut of Shaw) ia to be considered a Hamster,
Canada and the borders of Lake Superior must be added ; and it must
be remambered that tha Tuoan of Hemandes, an inhabitant of New
Spain, ia considered by some to be identical with this Canada Rat
CBICETUa IM
John Richardson thinks on insufBcient grounds). But the laat-
mentioned aoologiet places Desmarest's Canada Uancister under the
genua Oeontj^t, with a note of interrogation ; and Say haa given it a
generic distinction under the name of Pieudoiloma.
C. vyJgarit, the Common Hamster, Miu Cricetui of Falla^ La
amater of BuQbn and the French authora.
Tnlh of Cmmnon Hanutn ICriatia tv'farti). P. Cnvler.
It b reddiih-brown above; black below, with three great whitish
KitB on the ddu ; feet white ; a white spot on the throat, and ano-
lar on tlu breaat. Length abont B inches ; tail 3 inohee. Hales
bigger than femalea Weight of some males trom 12 to 10 ounces ;
-reight of females seldom oxoeeding from 1 to 6 ounces.
CommuB Huniter [Cricitui ralgarU). F. Cuvler.
Variations in colour are not uncommon. Tlftre is one variety
entirely bhwk. Pennant fignrea one which ia entirely block, with the
eioeptioD of the edge of the ear, the muzsle, the under-jaw and feet.
It ia found in the north of Europe and Asia (Lesson), Austria,
Silesia, and many parts of Germany, Poland, and the Ukraine ; all
the aouUiem and temperate parts of Russia and Siberia ; end even
about the river Yeneeei, but not farther to the east. In the Tartarian
deserta, in sandy soil ; thoy dislike moist places. Swarming in Qotha.
(Per.
mt)
The Common Hamsters are ill friends to the fanoen. The quan-
laty of grain wliich the; consume is very great, nor does the destruc-
tion stop with mere satiety of appetite; the animal never forgets its
hoard, and fills its two cheek-pouches till they seem bursting with Oie
booty. They ore also said to be very fond of tba seeds of liquorice.
Their dwellings are under the earth ; their mode of forming tbem,
and the purposes to which they apply them, have been thus
described : — Tbej fint fbrm an eutrsnce, burrowing down obliquely.
At the end of this psassge one perpendioular hole is sunk by the male ;
the female sinks BeveraL At t^e end of theae they exoavats various
vaults, some aa lodgea for themselvee and young, some aa atorehouSRa
for their food, - Every young one ia said to have ita aaparate apart-
ment ; each sort of gnun ita difierent vaull The ' living apartments,'
as they may be called, ore lined with straw or grass. TEe vaults are
said to be of different depths, aooording to the age of the constructor :
a young hamster, it ia stated, makes them scarcely a foot deep, an old
198
CRICHTONITR
CROCODILID^.
196
one Biziks to the depth of four or fiye feet ; and the whole ' curtilage/ bo
to speak, ia aometiinea eight or ten feet in diameter. From the mode
of proceeding in their work, the reader will be prepared for the state-
ment that zke male and female live in separate Itpartments ; and
indeed it appears that, excepting at the short season of courtship,
they haye yery little or no intercourse. Pennant giyes them a yeiy
unamiable character. " The whole race," says that Eoologist, " is so
maleyolent as to constantly reject all society with one another. They
will fight, kill, and deyour their own species, as well as other lesser
animals ; so may be said to be camiyorous as well as graniyorous. If
it happens that two males meet in search of a female, a battle ensues ;
the female makes a short attachment to the conqueror, after which
the connection ceases. She brings forth two or tlurae times in a year,
and produces from 16 to 18 young ones at a birth : their growth is yery
quick, and at about the age of three weeks the old one forces them
out «f the burrows to take care of themselyes. She diows little affec-
tion for them ; for if any one digs into the hole, she attempto to saye
herself by burrowing deeper into the earth, and totally neglects the
safety of her brood ; on tne contrary, if she is attacked in the season
of courtship she defends the male with the utmost ftiry."
The haryest of these animals commences in August . GraioB of
com, ears of com, peas and beans in the pods, all find their way into
their cheek-pouches, which will hold a quarter of a pint English.
This fonige is carefully cleaned in their burrows, and the husks and
chaff carried outb When all is in order, they stop up the entrance
and prepare for their hybernation, whidi lasts during the whole of
the seyere season ; the proyision they haye made haying been col-
lected for the purpose of their support before their torpidity actually
oommeuoefl^ and also in the spring and summer before the season has
produced a supply for them in the fields. If all tales be true, they are
a bold generation, and will jump at a horse if he tread near them, and
hang by its nose so as to be disengaged with difficulty. Th^ yoice
is said to be like the barking of a dog. Fierce as they are, t^ey qujul
before their deadly enemy the pole-cat, which, chasing them into their
holes, destroys tnem unrelentingly. Notwithstanding tins check,
they are said to be so numerous m some seasons as to occasion a
dearth of com.
The fur of the animal is said to be yaluable ; and the peasant, when
he ' goes a Hamster-nesting ' in the winter, not only possesses Umself
of the skin of the plxmderer, but of the plunder, which is said com-
monly to amount to two bushels of good orain in each magazine.
Buffon, quoting Sulzer, says that in Gotha, where these animals were
proscribed on account of their yast deyastations amonff the com,
11,664 of their skins were deliyered at the H6tel-de-Ville of the
camtal in one year, 54,429 in another, and 80,189 in a third.
There are four or fiye other spedes of this genus.
Professor Kaup records Orieettu vtUgarit fottiUi, from the Epple-
aheim sand.
CRICHTONITE. [Titawium.]
CRICKET, FIELD. [GrtllidaJ
CRICKET, HOUSE. [Grtllioaj
CRICO'PORA, a genus of Corals formed by Blainyille out of a sub-
diyision of the MUUporida, including some fossil ^ecies, which chiefly
occur in the Oolitic Formations C* f^romuiea is found near Scar-
borough ; C. ocBapiio§a near Bath.
CRINOIDEA. [Emobinites.]
CRINUM, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
AmcurylUdawE. It has a tubular long perianth, with a spreading
reflezed or equal limb ; 6 stamens, spreading or declinate, inserted
into the orifice of the tube ; the oyules hardly separable from their
fleshy plaoentn; the capsule membranous, bursting irregularly; the
seeds globose, with a fleshy testa, giying them the appearance of
small tubea. The species are handsome plants, and many of them
form the greatest ornaments of our gardens.
C. AiicUieumf Poison Bulb {Radix toxicaria, Rumph.), has a cylin-
drical bulb aboye ground ; the leayes lanceolate, smooth at the edge,
longer than the scape, flowers on stalked umbels, the segments long,
linear, reflexed ; the oyary inferior ; the style as long as the stamens,
declinate ; the fruit membranaceous, subglobose. The bulbs of this
plant are powerfully emetic, and are used m Hindustan for the purpose
of producmg yomiting after poison has been taken, especially that of
the Antiaris. It is a natiye of the East Indies.
C amabile has a yery large btdb witli a long red neck, the leayes
broad, glaucous, smooth at the edge ; the umbels many-flowered ;
the tube shorter than the limb. This plant is a natiye of the East
Indies, but is now common in our greenhouses. Many of the species
haye been lately introduced. They grow bes^ in a rich loam mixed
with a little rotten dung. They should be potted in large pots, where
they will flower abundantly. They may be propagated by suckers
from the roots, or they may be raised from seed. Should the plant
show any indii^sition to put out suckers it should be cut down near
to the root, when it will put out plenty.
(Lindley, Flora Medica; Loudon, Bncydopcedia of Plants;
Herbert, Anutryllidaeeout Pkmis.)
CRIOCERATITEa The discoidally spiral AmmorUtidw, whose
whorls do not touch each other, receiye this generic title. The spedes
occur in the Oolitic and Lower Cretaceous Strata. [Ammonites.]
CBIOCE'RIDM (Leach), o family of Coleopterous Insects^ of the
sub-section Eupoda and section Tgtramera, distinguished by the fol-
lowing characters : — ^Mandibles truncated at the apex, or presenting
two or three notches ; labium generally entire, or but idighSy emai^gi-
nated; antenna of moderate length, filiform, somewhat thickened
towards the apex ; the joints mostly of an obconic form ; tarsi with,
the penultimate joint bilobed ; femora often thick, especially towards
the apex.
The principal gfenera contained in this family are — Donaeia,
ffcemonia, Ptawrittea, Orioeerit, Zeuffophora, Auchmia, and MegacdU.
The species of the genus Chioeeria haye Uie posterior femora of the
same thickness as the others ; the antennas gradually enlazged towards
the apex, the joints of which are scarcely longer than broad ; the eyes
are emaiginated on the inner side : the thorax is narrower than the
elytra, short, and usually of a somewhat cylindrical form : the elytra
are elongate.
About eight spedes of this genus haye been found in England, of
which the most common is the OrioeerU Aaparagi, sometimes called
the Asparagus Beetle, which is nearly a quarter of an inch in length,
and of a blue-black colour ; the thorax is red, with two black spots ;
the elytra are yellow, with the suture, two transyerse bands, and a
spot at the base, black.
This pretty little beetle is found in abundance in the south of Eng-
land on asparagus plants ; the laryse are of a greenish hue, resemble
little masses of jelly, and inhabit the same situations as the perfect
insect. They subsiBt upon the leayes and soft part of the stalk of the
asparagus plantw
CRIOCERia [Criooeridjs.]
CRISIA. [Cbllarlaa; Poltzoa.]
CRISTATELLA. [Poltzoa.]
CRITHMUM, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
UmbeUifercB, The mar^ of the calyx is obsolete ; petals roundish,
entire, inyolute, ending in an oboyate segment ; transyerse section of
fruit nearly terete ; mericarps with 6 eleyated shaip rather winged
ribs, lateral ribs a little broader than the rest, and maiginating;
pericarp spongy, with large cells; seed semi-terete, constitutiDg a
free nucleus which is coyered with copious yitt» in eyeiy part.
A sufi&utioose glabrous fleshy herb ; petioles sheathing at the base ;
leayes bipinnate; leaflets oblong linear; umbels compound; inyolucre
and inyolucds of many leayes ; flowers white.
C, maritimvm, Samphire, is a well known natiye of rocky sea-
shores and clifis along the Black Sea, in Tauria, the Mediterranean
Sea ; and of Europe, along the shores of the Western Ocean, from
Spain to Britain, and of the Canary Islands; in Britain on the rocky
sea-shore and diffs. The root is branched and creeping extensively ;
the plant is greenish, salt, and pungently aromatic in flayour;
the leayes bitemate, liie stems ascenmng; the flowers are white,
anthers yellow. Samphire la a fayourite ingredient in pickles. It is
generally gathered in places where it is found wild, and the alludon
to the practice by Shakespere in his description of the diffii of
Doyer is well known. The plant is also used medicinally. Samphire
is cultiyated artificially in many places for the purposes of diet
CROCIDOLITE, a Silicate of Iron of a layender-blue or leek
colour. It is called Blue Asbestus. It comes from Southern Africa
CROCODILK [Crooodilida] '
CROCODI'LIDiE, Crocodile-Tribe, Crocodiles, a family of Saurians,
comprising the lai^i^est liying forms of that order of Reptiles.
Dum^ril and others distinguish the family by Uie appellation of
Aspidiot (shielded) Saurians; while many modem zoologists haye
considered them as forming a particular onier. They form the Lori'
cataof Menem and Fitzinffer, and the Emffdoiouruxna of De Blainyille.
Cuyier in his 'R^e Animal' describee the peculiarities of the
family. The tail is flattened at the udes ; there are flye anterior and
four posterior toes, of which the three inner ones only on eadi foot
are armed with daws; all the toes are more or lees joined by
membranes. There is a single row of pointed teeth in each jaw, and
the tongue is fleshy, flat, and attached yery nearly up to the edges,
which made the ancients belieye that tiie Crocodile wanted that
oigan. The intromittent male organ of generation is single; the
opening of the yent longitudinaL The back and tail are coyersd by
great and strong squared scales, deyated into a ridge on their middle.
There is a deeply dentilated crest on the tail, at the base of which
the crest becomes double. The scales of the bdly are squared,
delicate, and smooth. The nostrils are opened at the end of the
muzzle by two small crescentnihaped slits, dosed by small yalyes,
and lead by a long and straight eanal pierced in the palaUne and
sphenoidal bones to the bottom of the back part of the mouth. As
the lower jaw is prolonged behind the dcull, the upper jaw haa the
appearance of mobility, and so the andents wrote ; but it only moyea
in concert with the whole of' the head. The external ear is shut at
will by means of two fleshy lips ; and the eye haa three lids. Under
the Uuroat are two small glandular orifices, whence issues a musky
secretion. '
The yertebrss of the neck bear upon each other by means of small
fiilse ribs, which render lateral motion difficult. Crocodiles there-
fore change their direction not without trouble, and they may be
easily ayoided by doubling, and escaping while they are employed in
the laborious operation of turning round. They haye no true
clayides ; but their ooraooid apoph^ea are attached to the Btemxmif
i» CnoCODIUDA
*■ ia kll the other Sauriuu. Beude* the ordiouy and the hlae ribs,
than ire m Mt whioh pioteot the abdomen without ra&ching up to
the qiine, and which appgar to be produced bj the OBmficatioQ of the
tAtidinolu portioiu of the reoU muBale& Thoir longs are not sunk
in the abdomen like those of other reptilM, and there are fleahf fibrea
adhering to the part of the peritoneum which coTen the liver, and
vbich preacDt the appaanmce of a diaphragm, which. Joined to their
trilocuUr heart, whrae the blood which comee from the lunga ii not
mingled with that venoui portion of it which comee from the bod;
•a completoly ae it ia in the other reptilea, ilight]; approximates the
Crocodilea to the warm-blooded quadrupeds. The auditory bone
(raJMii] and the pterygoid apophyeea are fixed to the skull as la the
The eggs of the CrocodileB are hard, and aa large aa those of the
goose ; and these reptUea are eoneidei«d to be animale in which the
extremea of aiie, takmg that of the newly-hatched joung and that of
the full grown sdult aa the moat remote polnta, present the wideat
diSerence. The femalea guard their eggt, and when they are hatched
take care of the young during some montha. (CuTiar.)
The dentition of the Crocodilee ia peeijiar. The teeth are
numeroos, large, of unequal length, conical, hollow at the baae,
disposed in a single row, and planted in the thick-
ness of the edgea of the superior and inferior
mazillaTy bonee, in separate carities which may
be couaidered as true alTeoli. These teeth are
hollowed at the base in suoh a manner aa to
aerTs for the case or sheath of the germ of the
tooth destined to replace it, and which is to be
of grcBter volume ; so that, in Crocodilee, the
number of the tasth does not vary with age aa in
many other animals.
Great aolidi^ and strength are tbe reaults of
this double RomphosiB, and the alveoli are more-
over directed obliquely from front to rear. The
bony edges of tbe jawa whence theae insulated
teeth spring, are covered by a kind of gum.
Another peculiaiiw of admirable adaptation to
the neossaitiea of Ute animal, may be obeerved in
the interior of the mouth of the Cnicodilea.
Their palatine vault is neirlv Sat, and ia not
piereed by the extremilaea of the usal totue, aa
in the majority of other reptilea. The posterior
nasal apertures open in the pharynx behind the _ ,. , ^ .„
velum palati. which ia .uffiaentfy long to over- ^^;?'^r™J"':
spread that portion of the roof whioh U in front '^rS~' „Tai
at tbe orifice of the glottis. They are probably hoUowbaaal enw
the only reptiles wbic^ have a true pharynx, that fr„g u,, ttcet et the
ia to say, a vestibule common to tbe posterior rising pnunra or the
noBtrila, the mouth, the larynx, and the oasophagus. sdvunlDg tooth.
This conformation, joined to tbe muscolar sb-uc-
ture of the tongue, and a peculiar expansion of the body of the os
hyoides, produces a kind of cartilaginous diao or valve, which can
be railed and applied to the velum palati above, so aa to protect
the glottia, to which it serves the office performed by the epiglottis
in mammifen, while it confers on the reptile a peculiar power of
degluldtian and respiration, of the greatest consequence to its economy
when it ie below the sorface of the water and has seiied its prey in
that situation ; or, when the muide alone is above the sumos. In
carrying on resptiation.
ThefitUowing is a summary of the oharacteri of the fkmily Oocedt-
hda-SoAj depreseed, elongated, protected on the back with solid
and catiuatad scutcheons or ahielda ; tul longer than the trunk,
Dompeesed laterally, annulated, and furnished with crteta above ;
feet four, short, tiie toes of the posterior feet united by a nstatoiy
membrane : each foot with three ckws only ; he^d depressed, elongated
into a muzsle, in front of which are the nostrils approximated upon a
fieahy tubercle, furnished with moveable suckers (soupapea) ; gape of
the mouth extending beyond tiie skull ; tongue fleshy, adherent,
entire, not protractile ; teeth conical, simpje, hollowed at the base or
towifds the root, unequal in length, but placed in a single row ; male
genital organ simple, having its exit from the cloaca, which opens
hingitudinally. (Dumjril and Bibron.)
No living speciea of this family is found in Europs, nor has any
been yet detected in Auatralasis. The Alligators are peculiar to
America ; the species of Cromdihu are distributed in the Old and
New World; t^ose of Qovialii seem to be limited to the Oonges and
the other large rivers of continental India.
Ana, boudes the Qavial of the Oanges, produces at least three true
crocodiles, via. CrotodUvt m^orti, C. gaitattu {C. Siomauu, Schnaid. ;
C. Siamau^i, Gray I], and 0. inp^catui, Siam seems to be the prin-
cipal, if not the only locality, where the Srst of these has been found |
while the other two appear to he natives of those rivers which have
their mouths in the Indian Ocean and the Oanges.
Africa, where neither Caimans {A Uigator) nor Gavials have yet bean
discovered, ia the native country of the Crocodile & BoucUer, and
CrBa>diltu wigarit ; it may also be the locality of C planintlrit of
Qiaves and of Qray {C. ffmnnt, Bory de St. Vincent); and C.
inJermnf (US of Qtaves and of Ony {C. Jmtmti, Bory de St Vincent),
America is
CBOCODILID^. IM
though their gecgisphicsl position does not seem to be determined :
tiiese may perhaps come from the ooaat of Guinea. The only part of
Afnos whence the Crocodile h Bouclier has been received is Sierra
Leone ; while Crocodilut mlgarit seems to be spread over the whole
of Africa, and ie also an iubabiUnt of Hadanscar. Numbers have
been taken in the Nile, and one in the river Senegal. (Dumdril and
Bibron.)
Amerioa is most fruitful in CrooodHea, and poassses more spedea
than Asia and Africa put together. True Crocodiles have never been
detected on the continent. C ncufut has l>een found at Martinique
and St. Domingo, and C. rhombtftr at Cuba. The northern part of
* " inhabited by one species only, Altigalor LueitH, wlulefanr
Attigator palp^ratta, A. idavpt, A. ptHMMIaMj. and A.
', inhabit tbe south, (Dum^ril and Bibron.)
Cavier says that the Cntodilida inhabit fresh-water, that they
cannot swallow while in the water, but drown their prey and place
it in some nook tmder water, where they suffer it to putre^ before
they eat it. This account seems to require some momfioation. Sir
Charles Lyell, in his ' Principles of Geology,' observes that the larger
Qsngetic species deecends beyond the brackish water of the Delta into
the sea : and other instances are recorded of the true Crocodiles (but
not of the Alligators) frequenting the mouths of large rivers, and
even passing between different ieluids at eonaiderable distances from
each other. [ALuaAtoH.] Thii should be romembered by geologists.
Then, as to uieir inability to ewaUow wtiile in the water, those authora
who describe their collective Gahing expeditione, entirely contradict
it. True it is, according to them, that the Alligators, after Hmt have
seised the fish from below, rise to the eurfaca and toss the fish into
the air to get rid of the water which they have taken in with it,
catching it again in its descent : but it is clear that they swallow it
without resorting to the land, though they go thither fbr the purpose
of devouring those land animals which they have suoceeded in
capturing and drowning, after they have undergone some degree of
decomposition.
" The laying of the ^gs," aayi M. Bicord, " takea place in April
and Hay, and ths number amoimts from 20 to 2G, more or leas, laid
at many times. The female deposita them in the sand irrith little
care, and scarcely covers them. I have met with them in the lima
which the masons had left on the bank of tbe river. If I have
reckoned right, the yonng oome forth on tbe fortieth day, when ths
temperature is not too cold. At their birUi they aro 5 or 6 inches in
len^h. They are hatched alone, and as they oan do without nourish-
ment while coming out of the egg, the female is in no haste to bring
it to them : she Irnds them towards tbe water and into ths mud, and
disgorges for thsm half-<ligeated food. The male takes no aoconnt of
thetn. The young preserve tor some tjme the umbilical mark or
doatrice on the abdomen, whereby the vitellus was absorbed.
The OramdUida aro generallj considered as forming a natural
paasage from the Saurians to tbe Chelonisjis, the last genera of which,
m certain points of their conformation and habits, approximate nearly
to the fhmily under oonsideration.
The following is a synopsis of the species from ths ' Catalogue of the
Speoiee in the British Museum' : —
Fam. L Cbocodiudx (Crocodiles).
Ths lower canines fitting into a notch in the edge of the upper jaw.
The hind legs with a fringe of compressed scales behind.
Synopsis of Qenera.
* Teeth all uniform ; nose of the male very large, inflated.
ITeeistsfit. — Jawa oblong, slender, depressed. Cervieal and dorsal
discs united. Hind feet webbed.
CVoetxMtu. — Jaws oblong, depreased. Nnchal, cervical, and dorsal
discs separated from eaih other by amall scales.
Oanialit. — Jaws very long, subcylindrical, slender, rather dilated
and convex at the end. 'Teeth, canines two, quite anterior, imaM ^
lower caniius shuttmg into a notch in the edge of the upper jaw.
Feet fringed ; toes webbed to the tip. The cervical plates united to
and forming a disc with the dorsal ones. Males mth a large swelling
in front of the nostrils. Native of Aaia.
a. Gangtticm, the Oavial, or Nakoo.
If eeutopt (Gray), Otaiialv (Uliller). — Jaws oblong, slender, ifcpr esse J ,
fiat, without ridgea. Teeth unequal, lower canineeSttin^intva notch
in the side of the upper jaw. Feet fringed ; toes webbed to the lap.
The cervical plataa m three or four cross series united to the dorsal
ahield. Hales without soy swelling in front of the nostiila.
M. Batntttii, Bennett's False GaviaL
M. oofapArMM {OneodHnM eaiaplvraettu of Cuvier), like FiIm
GaviaL
IM CROCODILID^.
M. Joumti (.Cracodiliu intermtdiv* of Qraves), Jouraej'B Falie
Qavul.
Oraead^iu. — Jaw» oblong dapresMd, tapering, rather dilated at the
end. Teeth uneau&l, lower canines fitting into a. notch in the eide of
the upper jaw. Feet fringed; toeg webbed to Uie tip. Nuchal and
cervical plataB forming a dieo separated from the danul one by imall
gnumlar ecalsB. The head of the newly hatched gpeoimeiia ia ihort,
but it gradually eloogatee, and after ■ short time attaini the form
proper to the species ; and, through the bones becoming more solid by
increasing age, they only slightly alter the relative proportiona of the
different puts, so tbat the form of the bead, taken with the ehielding
of the back, affords good characters for the determination of the
C. poronu, the Indian Crocodile.
C. bomh^rvai, the Large-Headed Indian Crocodile.
C rkoiMiftr, the Aqua Palin.
C. Jmericantu, the American Crocodile.
C. margirtatut, the Margined Crocodile.
C nigarii, the Epyptiaa Crocodile.
C. paiitilTii, the Muggar, or Goa Crocodile.
C. Irigonopt, the Wide-Faced Crocodile.
(7. pUmirottrit, Oravee'i Crocodile.
C. SiamtTttii, the Siamese Crocodile.
Fam. II. Allioatoridx (Alligators).
Synopui of the Genera.
Canine teeth of the lower jaw fitting into a pit in the odge of
the upper jaw. It is a native of the New World.
/ocarc— Jaws oblong, depressed, with a rii^ auross the face
between the eyes. Hind feet scarcely webbed. Nostrils with a car-
tilaginous aeptiim. EyeUds Seahy.
JJIuj'iCor,-— Jaws oblong, depreesed, with a small longitudinal rib
between the orbits. Uind feet webbed. Nostrils separated by a
bouy septum.
Caiman Jaws oblong, depresaad. Hind feat scarcely webbed.
Nostrils a cartilaginous septum. Syelids with three bony plates.
Jacart. — Head oblong, depressed, with a ridge across the face before
the eyes, rounded in front. Teeth unequal, canlnee of lower jaw
each fitting into a pit in the upper jaw. Toes scarcely webbed.
Nuehal and cervical plates united into one group. Eyelids fleshy,
only partially bony. Nostrils only separated by a cartilage.
/ fiuipa, the Sroad-Headed Yacare.
/. icleropi, the Yacare.
J. nigra, the Black YacBi«.
/. fanaidata, the Spatted Yacare.
/. valiifTom, Natterer's Yacare.
Alligator. — Jaws oblong, very depressed, broad, nearly parallel,
rounded in front Forehead witti a small longitudinal ridge between
the orbits. Teeth unequal, the lower canines received into a pit in
the edge of the upper jaw. Nuchal and cervical plates separate.
Feet fringed behind ; toes half webbed, the outar front toe free.
Nostrils separated by a bony septum arising from the outer edge.
North America. The muzzle elongates by age.
A. ifiirinpcTUit (Qiay), A. Lueitu of others, the Alligator.
Coiiiian.— Jaws oblong, depressed, subpyramidica], rounded, and
swollen at the end, without any frontal ridges or maiillaiy pita.
Forehead flat and smooth. Teeth — , unequal, lower ouiine t«eth
fitting into a pit in the inner edge of the upper Jaw. Eyebrows
defended with three bony platea. Toes scarcely webbed. Nuchal
and cervical plates united into one group (I). Tropical America.
C. Irigonalut. — The Trigonal Caiman.
C. palptbratia. — The Eyebrowed Caiman.
C. gibbicept. — The Swollen-Headed Caiman.
With regard to the diffeiences between the above-named gAiera, Du-
ndril and Bihrcn observe that nothing better distinguishes the Craco-
diliu ft»m the Alligators than Uie narrowness of the muzele behind the
nostrils, a uarrownen which is produced by the deep natch on each side
of the upper maodible serving for the passage of the fourth la wrr tooth.
The Oavuls, it is true, have similar notches, which are destined for
Ihe same purpose ; but at the extremity of the muzzle they have also
two others far the reoeption of the front lower teeth ; in heu of this
the front lower teeth in the Crocodiles pierce the upper mandible
through and through- The horizontal contour of the head of the
Crocodiles rppresents in general the figure of an isosceles triangle
more or less elongated, depending upon the size of the jaws ; but in
no case is the mussle wider than that of the Caimans, nor more slander
than that of the Qavials. The Crocodiles have, hke the fanner, their
jaws fsstuoned, as it were, oa their sides, and their teeth unequal, but
in leas numlier, because they have never been observed with mora
than 19 on each side above, and ]S on each aide below. The cranial
holes are larger than they are in the Ci^imans, and less wi<le than they
are in the Gaviala Their diameter is always found to be less than
that of the orbits. The nssal aperturo is oval or aubciroular. There
is a very small bony plats in the thickncaa of the upper eyelid.
CB0CODII.ID.fi
tOD
The same remark, ns to the length of tiie head in proportion to it«
width at the three piincipal epodis of life, applies to the Cumans M
well as to the Crocodiles.
The greater part of the Sauriana of this group have the hind too*.
the three eitemol ones at least, united up to their extremity^ by a wida
natatory membrane. There are indeed some nevertheless in which it
is shorter, and one species, CroeodUtu rhombifer, wants the membrane
almost entirely, in the interval of the two inner toes. With about
two exceptions, all the Crocodiles have the posterior border of t^o
1^ fumished with a dentilated crest formed of flattened scales. Tb«
two species which are said not to present tl
dilw jiiantnwtrtt and O. rhonbifer.
is character are CVvcO-
b, ikoU of Allifattr ZuiIum,
a, hind KwtoC Caiman 1 », htnd foM of Crecedlle.
Only ona species among the Crooediles (Jftnttoju Btnneltii, C. eala-
pkraelvi) has its cervical scales similar, in regard to the extent which
they occupy on the neck, to those of the Caimans ; that is to say,
they form a long band commencing behind the nape, and prolonging
themselves to the first dorsal olatea. In the olhen, the cervical
armour occupies about the middle of the neck ; so that there remains
before and behind it a considerable space devoid of bony pieces. The
scales which cover the sides of the body are flat in some, carinated in
otbeiB, and there are some wMoh are provided with both aorta. The
cuiuM Bpriu3;iu5 from the toll-platoa to form the creet which sur-
BSi CROCODILID^
mounte that p«rt ■!« in general lower, of lua coanliiUiicB, antt leu 5t
(hui thoM in the Cainiuii. Crocodilut Thombifcr must however
Hccpted; for th» caudal eredt of
Zoologiatii aLuiu to be agreed iu
allowing that then u ncaroely anj
genu of Beptilea the species ot
irhich are so difficult to be disUn-
guiehed ftvm each other aa thoaa
of OneodSMt. CnmdUitt vuigaru,
the Egyptian Crocodile, maj be
takcD a* a ^pe of the gmiis to
«hicb it beloogi and of the whole
fuuilj. It haa the follaving chaiao-
ten :~-JawB not elongated into a , '
pimnr h^k. Hind feet kigely
palmated, and with a feitooned cmt
along their posteiior border. Six
nrrical platea. Boreal scutcheons
or shields quadrangular, and sur-
mounted bj aix lougitudiiial rOWs of
carinas but little elevated.
It ts the CroeadHtu ai^thiiiiit Kntkel and ccrrieil pUlta, ke., at
mUiieru, Loch. ; Le Crocodile du eraaiiiiliirnilfarU.
Nil, Daud. ; Cntvdilut vnigaru.
Cot. ; OneodUiu rulfarv, ^iedm. ; La Crocodile Tulgaire, Cut. j the
ComiDon Crocodile, Qrifil, ' Animal Kingdom ;' Laeerta CrocodU»4,
Una. ; C. Champtei, B017 ; C. IdranonM, Oeoff. ; C. eomplamalut,
Geoff
Hosn. Dumiril and BibtODDuke four varietiM of this ipeeies. The
first TBiiety haa the following ebaiacten : — Hunle a little narrowed,
ntbei flat than arched acroaa, with small hollows and chauneliDgii,
which are now aod then wono-ahaped, on its surfaoe. Table of the
■kull entirely flat Back green, speckled with black ; two or three
oblique bands of the UstrmentioDed oolour on each Bank. The author*
giTe the following ■rnomyni) : —
OncodOuj vy^rii, Qeoff, ' Ann. Mus.' torn. i. p. 67 ; ' Deacript
Ern>-'('Hiat.Kat.')tom. L p. 8; Atlaa, pL 2, flg. 1, 2 : (7. ruZ^ofu,
' Heir. Amph.' p. 37, siiec ; C. Ckampm, Bory de St Vincent,
'Dirt. Claa. tom. v. p. 105; 0. tvlgarit, Geoff, 'Crocod. d'Egypla,"
It 159; C. tonHonw, OeoE, 'Croc d'Egyple,' p. 107; C. wigarii,
way, ' Synops. Rept.' part i. p. (17. ipeo. 1.
lliiB, as well a* the following rariety, la that to wUch those indivi-
dnals wboaa jawi are the least narrowed belong. The jaws bave not
indeed the aame width in all, but it may be said genenlly that their
width, when meaaured at the ninth upper tooth, is only one-aerenth
of the lengUi of the head meaaured from the and of the noae to the
occiput. There are some indinduals of this Tariety wboas upper
nundible praaents a neariy flat aurface ; that ii to aay, the extreme
edge of ita oontonr is the only part which declines towards the lower
jaw. As ao euunple of this group Heani. Dumdril And Bibron refer
to th« indiTidaal brought from Egypt by U. Oeof&oy, and wbicb
both Cuvier and himself haTe- liken as the type of Omtodibi*
CR0CODILID.fi. KB
that hiatocian to the locality of Elephantine alone, nor to any parti-
cular species. OeoSroy obMrvM that the Crocodile still beua ill
Egypt the name of Tenua, which H. Champollian thought he recog-
nised upon many papyri, as mahah, a word which he r^arded aa
formed of tbe preposition ' m,' * in,* and the subatantive ' aah/ ' egg.*
With regard to the Suchus, 1L Champollian, tbe younger, states t^t
tbe Egyptians gave ths name of Souk to a deity which they repr*-
sented as a man with a Crocodile's head. We refer those who wish
to follow out this, part of the subject more especially to the ancient
authon above mentioned, to U. OeofTroy St. Hilaiie, to Curier, and to
tbe Tolmne on Egyptian Antiquities in the ' Library of Entertaining
Knowledge;' obaening only that the EgypUana ornamented their
tame Crocodiles by banging rings of gold and precious stones in the
opercula of their ears, wbiob they pierced for the purpose, adorned
their fore feet with braoeleta, and pnaented them in tbia finery to the
Tenenition ot tbe people. They also fed them well Cake, roaat meat,
and mulled wine were oooaaionally crammed and poured down their
throats. Pliny. £lian, and othen, did little hut oopy what preceding
writers bad written upon thia subject ; bnt wa learn from the former
that the Romans fint saw tbem in the ndilnhip of Scaurua, who
" ■"■ ' " n into an amphi-
idiatora.
:d that CrvcodHia vfjgarit is no longer seen in the Delta, but
that it is found, sometimes in great numbera, in the Thebaid and the
Upper Nile.
The eharaeton of the genua Oavvilit are giTen above.
The upper mandible of the Qaviala ia nevsr pierced for the intro-
mioaion of the teeth of the lower jaw, as it is in CnKodilut; but tbera
are four large notches whiohaarveaslodgmenta for the first and fourth
pair of lower teeth. The Qaviils are beeidea distinguished by the
narrowness and length preeented by the anterior part of their head
and jaWB, which resemble a aort of stnught beak spread out at its
origin, Bubcylindrical for the greateet part of its length, and termi-
nating in a ught circular enlargement at its extremity. These jaws
are rectilinear, and not undulated as in Alligator and Croeodilut. The
number of teeth with which these narrow mandibles are armed is also
greater than in nther of the laat-meutioned ganen, amounting ordi-
narily in OantOu to 118 or 120, all of which are equal, with the
eicsption of thoaa which compose the five or aiz first pain above a*
well aa below. The post^rblto-crBBia] holes are oval, and larger thaa
they are in Crocodilut, for tbeir diameter approaches that of th«
orbits themselves. The eileroal orifioe of the nasal foaasa, or rather
if the long canal, which H. Oeoffivy St. Hitaire haa termed oranio-
tilaginona maaa. Thia prominence ia a kind of sac divided i:
portions internally, the aperture of which ia backwards and a little
below. Aa in the Crocodile^ the eyelid contains in its substance ■
rudiment of a bony plate.
The hind feet of the Oavials are formed for the most part in tbe
same manner as those of the ro^ority of species of CrotodOitt : that is
to say, there are long and wide webs between the toea, and the poet*-
rior part of the leg ia fumiahed with a dentilatad crest. The cervical
platoB of the Qaviala form a long band on the neck, as in the Caimans,
and in one species only of Crocodile. Theacaleaof theflanksareflstand
ZnP'laB Crocodile {Cntoii
The second variety is the C. pattulrii, Leaa., ' Toy. Ind. Orient.' ;
Bell, ' ZooL Bepl' p. 309 : C. vaigaru, tax., E., Gray, ' Synopa. Kept'
p.B8.
The third variety is C. marginalm, Qeoff, ' CrocoJ. d'Egypte,' p.
IBS ; C. vnigaru, vsr., B., Gray, ' Synopa. Kept.' part. i. p. SB.
The fourth variety is the C. tomplanaivi, C. Suchvt, Qeoff
It may be expected that we should notice the nncient hiatoi; of
an fnJTwl held aocred by the Egyptiana, and even elevated by tnem
to tbe lank of a deity, for it was certainly one of the symbols of
Typhon. Herodotus, Aristotle, Diodorua, Strabo, and Plutarch, wiU
be md with interest on Una subject While it waa wonhipped id one
part of Egypt under the name of Suchua or Souchis, it was eaten at
Elephantine. Cuvier observes that the term Zoix", or 3aixii woa
only applied to the sacred individuEl, aa Apis, Unevta, and Facia wera
amellatioDB of the deified bulla of Memphis, Heliopolis, and Hermon-
this respectively, and not intended to designate particular races of
oitn. GeoO^y St. Hilaire ia of a different opinion from Cuvier, who
Conoidered that Champaa,* aa used by Herodotos, was not applied by
• Kaifnm U li ■(•■OiiiUa, aJUt xsf^iu— DdI I1i*r are nDlulltd CroHdils.
"be carina which surmount the bony pieces forming the dorsal
cuiraaa aiw low, but the ciest of the toil is very much elevated
throughout the whole of ita length.
The Caimans and Crocodiles, in tbeir youth, have the head abort in
proportion to the uze which it eihibita at their full growth. Ths
contrary obtains among the Qaviala, for in them the head is propor-
tionally lor,' T in youth than it is in age, ao that it has the appearance
of becoming ahorter as Uie nnimul increases in ai^ (thitndril and
Bibron.)
0. OangOieiu, the Narrow-Beaked Crocodile of ths Ganges, Edw.,
' PhiL Trsns.' It ia the OmcodOtu wuixilii* Itrelibiu siiicy/uKtmeeis,
' OroDov. Zooph. ;' OrMedUui, Herck, ' Hess. Beytr.' ( Laecria OoKgt-
tica, Qmel. ; Le Qavial, Laoip., ' Hiat Quad. Ovip. ;' Le Qavial, Bonn.,
' Encyc Mith, ;' Crocodile du Gange ou Gaviat Fa^j. Saint Fond,
' Hist Uont Saint-Pierre ;' CncodUut Umgiroint, Schneid., ' Hiat
Amph. ;' Le Qavial, Latr., ' HiatL Repl ;' Qangetic Crocodile, Shaw,
' Gener. Zool. ;' Cricodiiui aretiratlrii, C. lonfirotlrii, Daud., 'Hiat
Rent, i' C. lomimtrit, C. (enairosfrit, Cuv., 'Ann. Uus. Hist Nat;'
C. Gangtlicui, C. tttHtimlrii, Tied,, 0pp. und Liboscb, ' Notuig. Ampb. ,■*
O'atiaiii Itityirotliii, 0. ItnuimttiM, Hen., 'Amph.;' Vrocoditut
W3 CROCODILID^
tmu/troitru, C. (mutrw(i-i», Cuv., ' On. Fou.;' Le Orand QiTittl, Le
PeUt Q»rial, Boiy dfl St Vinoant, 'Diet. Claffl, d'Hiit Nat;'
Crocodilta Gangelicui, C. Itnitiroilru, Geoff., ' Mim. Mus. d'Hiit Nat ;'
Le Giivial du GangB, Cut., 'Keg. Anim. ;' (jcmia/ii (mnirDi(rt(,Quer,,
' Icon. Itejr. Anim. ; ' Shampluuloiaa le»Miroiire,WagL, ' NaturL Syat
Amph.;' Gavudit Gangeticiu, Onr, 'Sjaova. Eapt :' the Oavial of
the GBngM, Qriff., ' Aaim. Kingd.'
The head of the Osvial may be considered u franied of two porta ;
one anterior and long, almoat cylindrical in form, more or lea flat-
t«ued ; the other poiterior and short presenting the Ggur« of a
dopressed hexahedron, wider behind than before. The jaws constitute
the anterior pui. or beak, which is long, stnught, aud of eitreme
narrowneaa, but not, properly speaking, ojlindricaL It ie j-aided,
but the angles are rounded. Itspreads out at ita base and terminatoa
in front so aa to recal to the obBerrsr the beak of the SpoonbilL Its
vertical diameter is throughout loaa than its tranaveraal diameter.
CR0CODILID£. im
heak, at a small distance tram its tenmnal border. Tlie ^lertan U
senulunar, at the bottom of whieh may be psroeiTed a oftrtilaginoiia
plate, which dividea it longitudinally id two. The edges of this
opening fom two lipa, which appear to have the power of approaching;
each other, so aa to cloee the aperture hermetically. The anterior of
these is cunilinear, end the porterior rectilinear ; in the femaln and
in young subjects they are very delicate and qnitesoftj but is the
old males tbe anterior lip not only arrives at a caitit^iiuras c<m-
listence, but a development that carries it backwards u &r ai Iha
seventh pair of teeth, and triples the thickness of the muiile. This
pouch, or cartilaginous sac, with two compartmenti, ia of a snb-onl
form, and is notohed behind so aa to form two very thick ronnded
lobea. Above these ia, on the mesial line and in front ■ cordiTonu
Erominenoe, on each side of which is a deep fold in the form of the
itter 8. This sac has ita opening, which is coomon to it and the
nostrils, below. This apparatus ia the nasal pntse or poudi (bouraa
nasale} of H. Oeoffitiy, and in hii opinion performs the otBca of ■
ressrvoir of air for Uie animal whan plunged beneath the maztto» of
The anterior limb ia nearly on^-faalf longer than that part of the
body which Ilea between the anterior and posterior limbs of the same
aide. The hinder limb ia about two-thirda of the same inl«mL The
third toe is longest in all the feet The three middle teas of the fore
foot are united at thur base by a very short membrane : the other
two toes are free, aa well aa tiie first toe of (he portsrior f est ; bnt
id, third, and fourth of these last are nnited by a thick
ill orihe Great aBTiaI((7aiiiatii Oanfflina), bkb rrom mbar*i t, loner
Jaw at Gatlal, anoLhtr inBlridiua ; c, prsflle of the akuU et aaiial ; d, auUine
of Ihe hfetl corr rtd with tb« iDt^untBta.
The hew), properly so called, that is, the part situated behind the
beak, has its sides straight and perpendicular. The upper Burface ia
quadrilateral The poet-orbital portion ia flat and smooth, except
that one can perceive through the ektn the subtriangular or ovoid
holes with which the skull is dotted. The other portion is consider-
ably inclined forwards, and mostly occupied by the eyes, the interval
between which forms a slight gutter-like dsprssaion. The mandible
is not continued from the forehead by a gradual alope as it is in the
Crocodiles, but sinks suddenly to follow a straight and nearly hori-
■ontal direction, on a line with the inferior edge of the orbit At the
extremity of this upper mandible arc the four notches for the passage
of the first and fourth lower teeth when the mouth ia shut Two of
these Dotchea are very deep, and situated quite in front : the other
two are moderate, and placed one on tbe right the other on the left
behind the spatuliform termination of the beak, where it is alightly
constricted.
The division of tbe lower jaw into two branches does not com-
mence till towards the twenty-aecond or twenty-third tooth. The
fint ten upper teeth, among which the two anterior teeth are the
least separated, are implanted in the intermaxillary bone, and the
greater portion of the teeth of the upper mandible are longer than
the correeponding teeth of the lower jaw. Up to tbe ninel«enth or
twentieth pair they are turned a little outwarda, ao that when the
mouth is shut the upper teeth paaa over the sides of the lower jaw,
and the lower teeth over the sides of the upper. The lest six pairs
are straight or nearly ao. so that the points of the one set correspond
exactly with the intervijs of the other. The first the third, and the
fourth above, and the 6rst second, and fourth below, are the longest
Tbey are in general a tittle curved and slightly oompreased from
before backwards, and are veiy slightly trenchant right and left.
Hardly more than the laat eight or nine on each side are nearly
oouic^ Slight vertical ridgea show themselves on the surface of the
teeth of old individuals.
Under the throat about the middle of the brancbe* of the maxillary
bone, are utuated, one on tiie right and Uie other on the left side, the
musky glands.
The external orifice of the nostrila opens on tbe upper side of the
with a free border, which is notched a_ ,.
circularly between the toea. The noils are alightly arched.
The naps supports two strong scutcheons, surmounted by a carina,
more compressed behind than it is before. Their form ia oval, and
their height nearly eaual to their width. There is sometimn a
small scutcheon on eaoh side of these. This ia the case in one of the
largest individuals ; namely, that described by Lac^pide, and flgnred
by F^ujas de Saint-Fond in bis 'History of St Petw's Mountain,' at
Haaetricht, The cervical scutcheons, to the number of four pain,
form a longitudinal band, which eitanda from two-thirds of Ihe length
of the neck to the dorsal ahield. The firet two are triangular, the
Noehal and cerrial pUtcs, Ac., of Iwa IndiTldoBls of Onialll GangtlUat,
ttaa CuTier.
The upper part of the body ia transversely cut by eighlaen faanda
f osseous plates, with equal carina, which consequently form four
ingitudiiuu rows all down the back. The plates of the two lateral
:iWB are squared, and rather smaller than those of the mesial rows,
which are also four-sided ; but their longitudinal diameter is lev thaa
their tianaveisaL A longitudinal row of other carinated acatcheona
borders this doml cuirass on the right and on the left for a part of
length. The Banka, the aidea of tha neck, and a portion of its
upper part are covered with oval fiat ecalos of moderate aixe. Tho
tail is surronnded by from thirty-four to forty scaly circlea, the num-
ber vaiying in di&^nt individuals. The dentilat«d crest does not
'- veiy parceptible till towards the sixth or seventh drcle : its
is delicate and
flexible. The acalea which clothe the lower partji of the body are quadri-
Utera], oblong, and perfectly smooth: there are needy alxty tranam«e
from the chin to the rent, and, like those of the flanks, th^ ars
all pierced with a small pore on (he middle of their posterior border.
Crotected above with rhomboidal scales : th«
eir external edge ; the posterior limbs from ttxe
hock (jarret) to the little toe have a row forming a serrated edga.
The surfaos of the natatory membransa is covered with graunlous
Tbe grooDd-oolonr of the upper part* is a deep watei^firasii, on
which are often toattand mmsTons oblong irregular brown spot*.
W CROCODILID.'E.
In ymuuriuloeetB Uie ImcIc and limb* ua tmurenaly btuidad with
bUok. Tho lowta region of tlia body ia yary pale yellow or whitish.
Tha jawB mrs aprinklcd with brown. Tha luuls u« of » dear honi
eolour. (Dtim^ and Blbcon.)
The OaTial of the Oangsa a luppoeed to be tbe largeat of Uia liying
Sauriaus. The meaBunmaat of the largset maationed by Heaan. Du-
aJrilandBibTfin iigiian atS metree, 40 osntimetna (17 feat 8 iuchea).
CnTiflT waa led to think, principally from the figuree published I^
Ftnjaa de Saint-Pond, that there was mors than one ipecies of
Oanal, and on lubsaquent inquiry dlttinguiihed two, the Oreat
QiTial and the Little Qmal ; but he waa i^rwardi latiifled, from
tha e i« mm >tion of namerou* apecinien^ that age alone made the
diSeranoe betweea them.
Fotnl Orotodilida.
"In the liring ■abf^anaim of <Aa Crocodilean familr." obaerrea
T. Bnckbad (' Bridgewater Treatin,' p. 250), " we aee Uie elongated
IT beak of the Qarial of the Oangea conitruoted to feed on
fiihea ; whilst the ahurter and itrongar inout of the broad-DOsed
ODcoditea and aJligatora give* tham tbe power of Hiiing and
dsTouriug quadnipeda that oome to the banki of riven in hot ooun-
triea to drink. Aa there were scarcely any Mammalia during tha
■Bcondary periods, whilst tha waters were abundantly stored with
fishes, we might, k priori, eipeot that if any crocodilean forms had
then anrted, they would moirt nearly have resembled -the modem
Qariil : and WB have hitherto found only thoaa genera which have
aloBgatcd bxW in formations anterior to and including theobalk;
•rliilst true crocodiles with a short and broad snout like that of the
aiman and the alligator appear for the first time in strata of tha
tertiary periods, in which the remains of MamtiuJia abound."
The ganna Semauaiinu of Oeofl^y St. Uilaire appears to come tha
■Karat in its conformation to the living Gavial, and a general idea of
the structura of tho mnasle and anterior nasal aperture will be
derived from the following cut of a specimen from Ham ; whilst
Huxla at SUruo^mmnu, from Dr. BuoUsnd, who qnoi
in TUrajtmrw* (Geoff), though then is aonsideiable siniilarity In the
genanl contour of the head and jaws, the confarmation of the muzzle
sod naml apertnre is very different from that of the living Saurian,
the anlarior termination of that aperture forming almost a lartlcal
notion of the extceniity of the upper mandibla.
n rroiB above; b, bead of soother
ladl'iidaal of the tana spceies seen from below, ifaawlgf tba lower Jaw ;
louUiT or both, liss In tbe naiglibaarbooil of Whitby ; e, indda view of
inlerier eitreniltT at lower Jsir : localltf. Great OeUM at Enskiw dov Wood-
Modi, Oion. rrom
Anterior aitremitiei of the beak oi
In his moDograpb on ths ' Fosail Reptilia ' of tbe London Clay,
published by the Palieontographical Society, Professor Owen describes
tbe foUowing apedea of extinct Eaydoaaurians.
Oixodtlau TWtOfiifWi. It ia the Crooodile do Sheppey of Cnvier;
C. Spoiceri of Backlandi in hia ■ Bridgewater TreatJae,' and of Boss In
the ■ Beport* of the British Asaociation,' ISll.
It was Fonod originally in the Eocene beds of Sheppey, and waa Brst
dsKribed by Bsjon Ciirier trom a specimen in the collection of H.
Delue of Qeneva. Professor Owaa doubia if the skull figured by Dr. ,
CROCODILIDJL
Buckland (and given below) as C. Spaiceri is identical with a n
perfect specimen of this species now in tha British Museum, £
which he has given his own desuription.
C. Champioida (Owen). This species seems also to have been
included in Buckland's C, Spenceri, and Cuvier's Crocodile da Sheppey.
This species has been eBlabliabed from a skull in ths poeaoaion of
Hr. Bowerbank, and although not to be clearly identified with Buck-
land's C. SpenKtri morq nearly resemblea it than C. Tuliapieut.
"Tha evidences," says Professor Owen, "of Crocodilean Beptilee
from the deposits at Stieppey, less oharacteristio than thoas above
described, are abundant. Hr. Bowerbank posaeasee numerous rolled
and fractured rertebne, condyloid BKtremities, and other portiona of
long bones, with fragmenta of jaws and teeth." In relation to the
two Sherosy spedes he ssys, " Amongst the existing species of Croco-
dile, the C. aevlMi of the West Indies offers the nearest approach to
the C. Ttiiapiau ; and the C. SMigdii of Borneo most resemblea the
C. Clurnqmida."
C, Hailingria (Owen). Tbe specimen upon which thii species i«
eatabllshed was discoTered by the Uarcbtoneaa of Hastinga in tha
Gooene Freah-Waterdepoails of the Eordwell CliA in Hampai^, which
her ladyship has described in the volume of ' Heports of the British
Aasociation' for 1817.
AUigati>r Hantcmiauit (Searlea Wood). The spedmsns of tbia
foaail differ from the last in the exposed oondition of the inferior
canines when the mouth is shut. Although this distinction is rnffi-
oient to separate tbe eiiating species of Crocodiles and Alligators,
Frofesaor Owen is iadiced to doubt whether it may not be In thia
cass a mere accidental variety,
ChitMit Dixmi (Owen). The temains on which this species is
' ' " bed were disoaversd by the late Mr. Frederick Dixon in the
dnraaitBOf Biaeklashun.
[eluding tha monogiaph in which these Fossil Crooodilea aia
dcocrflMd a ■ " " '
minutely d
1 and flgnred, and ths skeletal anatomy of th«
remuns of the Proocslian Cmeoddia that have been discovered in
Eooene dspodta of Enijand, the great degres of cUmatal and geogra-
phical dimge, whioh this put of Europe must have undergone ainoa
the period whan every known generic form of that group of reptiles
flourished here, most be fordbly impressed upon tbe mind.
"At the present day theoonditiana of earth, air, water, and warmth,
which are indispensable to the existence and propagation of tbeea
moat gigantic of living Saurians, concur only in the tropical or warmer
temperate latitudes of the globe. Crooodiles, Gavials, and Alligatura
now requite, in order to put forth in fnll vigour the powers of theb
ooki-blooded oonalitiition, the stimuloa of a large amount of aolar
he»t, with ample veige of watery space for the evolutions whioh thn
nd diqrasal of thaur pr^. Manhes with
laige rivets, aneh aa the Oambia and Niger
tnots of Africa, or thoes that inundate
the country tllToug^ whidi they run, nther periodically, aa thp Ifile
for example, or with boundless forest and savannahs, like thoss
ploughed in evsr vaiying channelaky the force of the mighty Amaxon
or Onnoco, — such fenn the theatres of the destructive eiisteuoe of tha
carnivorous and predacious Crooodilean Septilea. And what then
must have been the extent and configuration of the Eoome oontinsnt
which was drained by the rivers that deposited the ma—is of day
and sand accumulated in some parts of the London and Eampahire
baains to the height of 1 000 feet, and farming tbe graveyard of count-
leas Crooodilea and Gaviala. Wliither tended that great atream one*
the haunt of aUigaton and tha resort of taper-like quadrupeds, the
sandy bed of whioh is now exposed on the upheaved face of Hord-
wsll Clifff Had any of the human kind existed and traversed t^e
land where now the base of Britain risea from the ocean, he might
have vritoessed the Oavial deaving the waters of its native river with
the velocity of an arrow, and ever and anon rearing its long and
ler snout above the waves, and making the banks re«ho with
Qud and sharp anapjung of its formidably armed jaws. He might
watched the dea<fly stmggle between uie Crocodile and Palteo-
thera, and have been himself warned "isj the hoarse and deep bellow-
ings of ths Alligator from the dangerous ricinity of ita retreat. Oor
fossil evidancu supply us with ample materials for this most straaga
S07
CROCOISITE.
CROTALIDiE,
S08
picture of the animal life of anoient Britain ; and what adds to the
singularity and interest of the restored ' tableau vivant ' is the fact»
that it oould not now be presented in any part of the world. The same
forms of Crocodilean Reptile it is true stiU exist, but the habitat» of
the Gavial and the Alligator are wide asunder, thousands of miles of
land and ocean interrening : one is peculiar to the tropical riyers of
continental Asia, the other is restricted to the warmer latitudes of
North and South America ; both forms are excluded from Africa, in
the rivers of which continents true Crocodiles alone are found. Not
one representative of the Crocodilean order naturally exists in any
part 01 Europe : yet every form of the order once flourished in
close proximity to each other in a territory which now forma part of
England." [Sdpp.]
CROCOISITE, a native Chromate of Lead. [Lead.]
CROCUS, a beautiful genus of Iridaceous Plants, oonsiBting of
many hardy species, some of which are among the commonest orna-
ments of gardens. Crocuses are chiefly found in the middle and
southern parts of Europe and the Levant, three only being wild with
us, namely Crwvn nvdi^orutf which is abundant in the meadows near
Nottingham, C. vemva and C, tativus. Botanists have found it ex-
tremely difficult to ascertain by what precise technical marks the
species are to be distinguished. We do not propose to o<Scupy our-
selves with that subject, but shall rather enumerate briefly the names
and localities of such as are apparently distinct ; so that those who
wish to form a complete collection of these pretty flowers may know
where to look for them, and when their task ia accomplished.
* Vernal Species.
C, vemu8. This is the common Purple or White Crocus of our
gardens in the spring. It has produced a multitude of florists' varie-
ties, some of which are extremely beautiful and well marked. Its
root^oats are finely netted, its flowers scentless, and the throat of
the tube of the flower ooveied with haurs. C. albiflonu and O. ohoveAiu
are varieties of it. It is said to be wild in some parts of England,
but it may have been introduced. It is certainly wild on the Alps,
particularly of the Tyrol, Piedmont, Switserland, Sal£bux*g, and
Carinthia, descending to the sesrcoast at FriulL It is also found on
the mountains of the Abruzzi and elsewhere, in similar situations in
the kingdom of Naples, associating itself with oaks, chestnuts, and
similar trees, and not existing at elevations exceeding 6000 feet
C. veraicohr, the common Sweet-Soented Variegated Spring Crocus.
There are not many varieties of it, all of which are recogniseid by the
root-coats not being cut circularly, the yellow tube of the flower
hairless, and the sweet scent. It grows wild about Nizza (Nice), and
in all the eastern parts of Provence.
C. hifloruB, the Scotch Crocus. The beautiful pencilled sepals
and clear or bluish-white petals of this species distinguish it at once ;
added to which the root-coats are cut round into circular segments,
a circumstance that occurs in no other species. It is a native of the
most southern parts of Italy; growing wild in sterile subalpine
pastures in the kingdom of Naples, and in similar situations in Sicily.
Our garden plants are merely a cultivated state of the C. ptuiUus of
the Italians.
C. Impeniti^ This is little known in England. Its leaves
appear long before the flowers, and are glaucous and spreading. The
petals and sepals are a delicate violet inside, but externally white ;
the petals are almost whole-coloured and pale purple, except at the
base ; the sepals are strongly feathered with rich purple. A white
and a whole-coloured variety of it are said to exist. It differs from
C. biJhruM in its root-coats being membranous, and not cut circularly,
and from C. verneohr in the tube of the flower not being haiiy. It
inhabits low hills and woods in the kingdom of Naples, on Capri, on
Mount S. Angelo di Castellamare, and elsewhere. It is supposed that
C. ftMiveo2«iif is at most only a variety of this.
0, IvteuB or nustiacui, the Laige Tellow Crocus. It is charac-
terised by veiy large whole-coloured flowers, and laige roots, with
coarsely netted coats. It is an oriental plant> but its exact locality is
unknovpL
C. aurau, the Small Tellow Crocus, by no means so common as
the lasty of which it is probably a variety. Its flowers are smaller and
deeper coloured, and it has a pale cream-coloured variety. Dr.
Sibthorp found it wild on the hills of the Morea.
C, ttuianuB, the Cloth-of-Qold Crocus. This species is well
known for its coarsely-netted root-skin, and small deep yellow flowers,
the sepals of which are feathered with dark chocolate brown, and are
rolled back when expanded under sunshine. It is a native of the
Crimea, the Ukraine, and the other parts of south-western Russia : it
is also believed to be a Turkish plant; and localities are given for it
' under the name of C. reticttkttuBf on mountains near Trieste, in woods
near Lippizza, in FriuU, and in Hungary, in the lordship of Tolna. A
remarkable variety with deep purple flowers exists, but it is extremely
rare.
O. titdUUua and O. nUphureua are pale and probably hybrid varieties
of C. luteus. They have never been seen except in gardens, and are
the least pretty of the genus.
* * Autumnal Species.
(7. tcUivutt the common Saffron Crocus, an eastern plants culti-
vated from time immemorial for the sake of its long reddish-orange
drooping stigmas, which, when dried, form the saffron of the shops.
Its Asiatic localities are not known ; in Europe it grows i^parenUy
wild in the south of Tyrol, and is said to have been found near Ascoli,
and on the Alps of Savoy. Its British station is in all probability to
be ascribed to accident.
C. odorus, the Sicilian Saffi:on. This species, which has also
been named C, Umgijlorut, is found in mountain pastiures in Cedabri%
and in both mountainous and maritime situations through all Sicily,
where its stigmas are collected instead of those of the true safi&on.
Its blossoms are sweet-scented, and are known at first sight from the
stigmas not hanging out of the flower, but standing upright and
inclosed within it The tube of its flower is very long.
C, Thomatiif a Calabrian plant, found in mountain woodSb It
is said to have coarsely-netted root-coats, fragrant saffron-l^e trun«
cated stigmas inclosed within the flower, which appears long after the
leaves, and has a bearded throat. It exists in English gardens, but is
veiT^ rare.
U. nudi/hrus. The flowers appear without the leaves, and tlie
root-coats are slightly netted. The stigmas aro divided into many
deep narrow segments. The plant is not rare in many parts of
Europe, flowering about the time of the Colchicum, to a small species
of which it at first sight bears much resemblance. C tpeciosut,
C. muUiJidfUf C. meditiSf aro mero varieties or synonymous names of
this plajit.
C. ecrotinus. This requires to be compared with C. odorut, to
which it approaches very nearly, if it be not the same thing.
The Crocus delights in a dry situation and a rich light sandy soil.
In such a place and soil it flowers profusely and produces lai^e roots ;
but in a wet poor soil it dwindles away. Slugs aro the chief enemies
of this plant, which may be destroyed by watering the beds or clumps
with lime-water.
For a florist's account of the varieties of spring Crocuses cultivated
in the gardens of this country, see the ' Transactions of the Horticul-
tural Society of London,' vol. vii
CRONSTEDTITE, a hydrous Silicate of Iron, occurring both
massive and crystallised. Its primary form is a rhomboid, in small
thin hexagonal prisms, and in radiatmg groups. The cleavage is per-
pendicular to the axis, distinct. The colour is black and brownish-
black; streak, dull green. Hardness 2*0 to 2'5. Specific gravity
8*8 to 8*86. Lustra vitreousL Opaque. This mineral is found in
Cornwall, Brazil, and Pndbram in Bohemia. It has the following
composition : —
SiUca 22-45
Oxide of Iron 58*85
Oxide of Manganese 2*89
Magnesia 5*08
Water 10*70
CROSSARCHUS. [Vivbrbidjb.]
CROSSBILL. [LoxiAOJB.]
CROSS-STONE. [Staubolitb.]
CROSSWORT. [QaliuilI
CROTALIDiE, a family of Reptiles belonging to the order Serpents
or Snakes, and including those species known by the name of Rattle-
Snakes. In the ' Catalogue of the British Museum ' Dr. J. E. Gray con-
stitutes Orotalida a family of his sub-order Viperina. The family,
has the following distinctions : — Face with a lai^y^o pit on each side,
placed between the eye and the nostriL The head large behind, crown
flat, coverod with scales or small shields ; the jaws weak, the upper
with long fangs in firont and no teeth. The belly covered with broad
hand-like shields: anal spurs none. The species aro all of them
venomous and viviparous.
The following is a synopsis of the genera and speciaa ."-^
A, Head covered with scales, having small shields on the edge of the
forohead and eyebrows ; tail ending in a spine ; cheeks sody.
& Subcaudal plates two-rowed to the tip. Oratpedoeej^alina.
Crcupedocephah*. — Superciliary shield single, hinder labial shields
laige ; scales lanceolate, keeled. America.
Species — C, BratUieniU; G, lanceoUUiu; C, cUroxj C. eUgant ;
0, trilinetUut,
Tnmtturu9, — Superdliaiy shield single, hinder labial shields
smaUest ; scales lanceolate, keeled. Asi&
T, viridit; T, cUbolabru; T, earincAua; T, purpuretit; T. macw-
UUua ; T. tubannulatua ; T, PhiUppmtU ; T. ilrigattu; T. Sumatranua ;
T.formoitu; T, CtyUmentit.
jParia«.^-Superoiliary shield single, hinder labial shields smallest ;
scales lanceolate, of head and body smooth, of crown unequnl.
Am**-
P, fiavomaeulaiut ; P, omatus; P, variegatus.
Megtxra. — Superciliary shield double, hinder labial shields smallest ;
scales lanceolate^ of head and body smooth. Asia.
M. triffonoeephala ; M, olimtcea,
Atropot. — Superoiliary shields many, forming a prominent arched
series. Asia.
A. cusoiUia.
h. Subcaudal plates four-rowed at the tip. America. ZaditiincL
Lachmi, — Head ovate; crown scaly.
L, muiui; L.pictu8,
tO0
GROTALIDiE.
CROTALIDiE.
210
B. Head more or lewihielded.
c Snbcaudal plfttee two-rowed ; tail ending in a spine ; oheeka not
scaly; head-ahieldB with some additional platea in front Tngono-
eepkaUtuL
Trigonocephalui, — Dorsal scales keeled.
T. ff€Uy9; T. affinit; T, Bromhoffl; T. rhodott<mia; T. ffjfpndU;
T. AMora.
d, Subcaudal plates one-rowed; tail ending in a spine; cheeks not
scaly; head shielded. America. Ceiiehrina.
Ctnehrii.
C, eontortrix; C. atrofiueut; (7. piteivcrus,
e. Subcaudal plates one-rowed ; taU ending in a rattle ; cheeks scaly ;
head more or less shielded. America. Orotaliwt,
Crvialophoru*, — Head with nine laige shields extending behind the
eyos.
a miliaria; C. tergeminuij C KiHlandi,
{TropiopAiML— Head with scales behind; temporal scales and labial
ihield moderate.
U. deeuuui,
Orotalut. — ^Head with scales behind; temporal scales and labial
shields Tery small, convex.
C. horridiu.
The last species, C, horridutf the Battle-Snake, may be taken as a
type of the whole family.
The colour of the head is brown ; eye red ; upper part of the body
yellowiah-brown, transrersely marked with irregular, broad, black
lists. Rattle brown, composed of seyeral homy membranous cells, of
an undulated pyramidal figure, articulated one within the other, so
that the point of the first cell reaches as far as the basis or protuberant
ring of the third, and so on ; which articulation, being veiy loose,
gives liberty to the parts of the cells that are indosed within the
outward rings to strike against the sides of them, and so to cause
the rattling noise which is heard when the snake shakes its tail
(Catesby.)
"TYnorrrrriGQacina^i
•.*>.».i.*>.#»»U. .•i..
4 .V tl t
a. Battle of twenty ^oar Jointa ; b, section of rattle.
It is a native of Virginia, the Carolinas, and other parts of America.
LawBon, in his 'History' (1714), says, "The Rattle-Snakes are
found in all the main of America that I ever had any account of ;
being so called from the rattle at the end of their tails, which is a
connection of jointed coverings of an excrementitious matter, betwixt
the substance of a nail and a horn, though each tegmen is very thin.
Nature seems to have designed these on purpose to give warning of
such an approaching danger as the venomous bite of these snakes is.
Some of them grow to a very great bigness, as six feet in length, tbwr
middle being the thickness of the small of a lusty man's leg. We
have an account of much larger serpents of this land ; but I never
met them yet, although I have seen and killed abundance in my time.
They are of an orange-tawny and blackish colour on the back;
difTering (as all snake^ do) in colour on the belly, being of an sah-
colour inclining to lead. The male is easily distinguished from the
female by a black velvet spot on his head ; and besides his head is
smaller shaped and long. Their bite is venomous if not speedily
remedied ; especially if the wound be in a vein, nerve, tendon, or
Bnew • when it is very difficult to cure. The Indians are the best
physicians for the bite of these and all other venomous creatures of
thw country. There are four sorts of snake-roots already discovered,
which knowledge came from the Indians, who have performed several
neat cuxw. The rattle-snakes are accounted the peaceablest in the
world ; for they never attack any one, or injure them, unless they are
trod upon or molested. The most danger of being bit by these
snakes is for those that survey land in Carolina ; yet I never heard of
any surveyor that was killed or hurt by them. I have myself gone
over several of this sort, and others ; yet it pleased God I never came
to any harm. They have the power or art (I know not which to aUl
it) to charm squirrels, hares, partridges, or any such thing, m such a
manner, that they run directly into their mouths. This I have seen
by a squirrel and one of these rattle-snakes ; and other snskes have
in soS messure the same power. The ratUe-snskeshave many small
teeth of which I cannot see they make any use; for they swallow
everything whole ; but the teeth which poison are only four ; two on
each side of their upper jaws. These are bent like a sickle, and hang
loose as if by a joint. Towards the setting on of these, there is, m
each tooth, a little hole wherein you may just get in the point of a
small needle. And here it is that the poison comes out (which is as
erccn as grass) and follows the wound made by the pomt of their
teeth. They are much more venomous in the months of June and
KAT. HIST. DIV. VOL. IL
July, than they are in March, April, or September. The hotter the
weather the more poisonous. Neither may we suppose that they can
renew their poison as oft as they will ; for we have had a person bit
by one of these who never rightly recovered it, and very hardly
escaped with life ; a second person bit in the same place by Uie same
snske, and received no more harm than if bitten with a rat. They
cast their skins 6V€|>7 your, and commonly abide near the place where
the old skin lies. Ijiese cast-skins are used in physic, ana the rattles
are reckoned good to expedite the birth. The gall is made up into
pills with clay, and kept for use, being given in pestilential fevers and
the small-pox. It is acoounted a noble remedy, known to few, and
held as a great arcanum. This snake has two nostrils on each side of
his nose. Their venom, I have reason to believe, effects no harm any
otherwise than when darted into the wound by the serpent's teeth."
Catesby thus notices this species in 1771 : — '' Of these vipers," says
he, writing of all the American venom-snakes under that name, "the
rattle-snske is most formidable, being the largest and most terrible of
all the rest : the largest I ever saw was one about eight feet in length,
weighing between eight and nine pounds. This monster was gliding
into the house of Colonel Blake of Carolina ; and had certainly taken
his abode there undiscovered, had not the domestic animals alarmed
the family with their repeated outcries ; the hogs, dogs, and poultry
united in their hatred to him, showing the greatest consternation, by
erecting their bristles and feaUiers, and, expressing their wrath and
indignation, surrounded him, but carefully kept at a distance ; whilst
he, regardless of their threats, glided slowly along.
" It is not uncommon to have them come into houses, a very extra-
ordinazy instance of which happened to myself in the same gentleman's
house, in the month of February, 1728 : the servant in making the
bed in a ground-room (but a few minutes after I left it), on turning
down the clothes discovered a rattle-snake lying coiled between the
sheets in the middle of the bed.
" They are the most inactive and slow-moving snake of all others,
and are never the aggressors except in what they prey upon ; for
unless they are disturbed they will not bite; and, when provoked,
they give warning by shaking their rattles. These are commonly
believed to be the most deadly venomous serpent of any in these
parts of America : I believe they are so, as being generally the laigest,
and making a deeper wound, and injecting a greater quantity o£ poi-
son ; though I know not why any of the other kindh of vipers may
not be as venomous as a rattle-sxiake, if as big, the structure of the
deadly fangs being alike in all. The most successful remedy the
Indisns seem to have, is to suck the wound, which, in a slight bite^
has sometimes a good effect ; though the recovered person never fails
of having annual pains at the time they were bit. They have likewise
some roots which they pretend will effect the cure ; particularly a
kind of Atarumt commonly called Heart Snake-Roots, a kind of Ckryt'
ofUAemum called St. Anthony's Cross, and some others; but that
whidi they rely on most, and which most of the Virginian and Caro-
lina Indians carry dry in their pockets, is a small tuberous root, which
they procure from the remote parts of the coimtry ; this they chew,
and swallow the juice, applying some to the woimd. Having, by tntr
veiling much with Indians, had frequent opportunities of seeing the
direful effects of the bites of these snakes, it always seemed and was
apparent to me that the good effects usually attributed to these their
remedies is owing more to the force of nature, or the alightness of the
bite of a small snake in a muscular part, &o. The person thus bit I
have known to survive without any assistance for many hours ; but
where a rattle-snake with full force penetrates with his deadly fangs,
and pricks a vein or artery, inevitable death ensues ; and that, as I
have often seen, in less than two minutes. The Indians know their
destiny the minute they are bit ; and when they perceive it mortal,
apply no remedy, concluding all efforts in vain. If the bite happeneth
in a fleshy part> they immediately cut it out to stop the current of
the poiK)n. I could heartily wish that oil of olives applied to the
wotmd might have as good success against the venom of these snakes
as it hath been found in England to have had against the poison of
the adder." (Catesby, .' Natural History of Carolina.')
LawBon, it appears, was an eye-witness of the fascination, if so the
effect of terror on the victim is to be termed, of the Rattle-Snake ; and
though Catesby never saw it, he thus details the evidence of the fact
known to him : —
" The charming, as it is commonly called, or attractive power this
snake is said to have of drawing to it animals and devouring them, is
generally believed in America. As for my own part, I never saw the
action, but a great many from whom I have hul it related all agree
in the manner of the process ; which is, that the animals, particularly
birds and squirrels (which principally are their prey), no sooner spy
the snake, than they skip from spray to spray, hovering and approach-
ing gradually nearer their enemy, regardless of any other danger ; but
with distracted gestures and outcries descend, though from the top
of the loftiest trees, to the mouth of the snake, who openeth his jaws,
takes them in, and in an instant swallows them."
There can be little doubt that this supposed power is greatly
exaggeiated. That a suddenly-surprised animal should be arrested
by terror and easily fall a victim to the serpent^ is highly probable ;
but that it should descend to its destruction from the top of the
loftiest trees, is almost incredible.
CROTON.
Tlut Uie Mcrelioii of the poison mfty be greatly inew ned by loo&l
iiriUtiOD would be expeoted ; and Mr. Bell, in hii ' Hiitory of Briliiili
Beptilei,' ftdducea the fbllowing; aa evidauoa of the bet. Ha waa
diisecUiig very carefully aod minutely the poiBon-apparatiu of a luge
ntUe-snake which bad been dead far some ooura ; the head had beoi
taken off iminediately liler dmth ; yst a* iii. Ball oontinoed hia dia-
aaotioD the poinn oontinued to be aecreted ao faat aa to require to ba
oocaaianallj dried off wiUi a bit of rag or apoDge. Ha atatea hia belief
that there could not have been lets idlagetW than dz or ei^t diopa
UtheleMb
RntUe^nako (tHIoTuf honiiliu].
The Mon* adentifie and ^tertaining author relate*, aa a proof that
the effeol of wouttda inBtcted by venomona awpenta anbaequently to
the (Int la gnttly leeaenad, either bj the diminutian of the quantity
of venom or of lome detoioration of it^ atrengUi, the following anec-
dote i^—i. gentleman of hia aoquaiutance had received a living rattle-
inaka from America. Intendmg to try the effect of its bitelupon
Bome rata, he introduced one of those animnla into the cage with the
aerpent, which immsdifttely abuck the ratj and the latter died in two
miuiitea. Another nt waa then placed m the oag^ and ran to the
&rClie«t oomer from the anak^ uttering criee of diatnea. The serpent
did not attack St immediately ; but after about half an hour, on bong
Irritated, atnick the ratj whioh exhibited no i^mptomB of being poi-
Boned for several minutes, nor did it die till twenty minutea aller the
bite bad been inflicted. A third rat, remarkably Urge, was then intro-
duced into the cage, and exhibited no aigiu of terror, nor waa it appa-
rently noticed by ita dangerouB companion. After watehing forlthe
nat of the evenmg, Ur. Bell's Mend retired, laaving the rattlesnake
and the rat together. He rose euly the next momiiig,'and visited
Oie cage : there lay the.make dead, and the rat hod au^ied upon the
moBciUar part cf its t«ck. Ur. B«U does not remember at what time
of the year this took place, but he expreesea his belief that it was not
during vary hot weather.
The length of time during which a man will linger after being
Utten by one of these deadly snakes was manifested in a very dii-
treenng Mss. Some yean ago a carpenter came to see a rattlesnake
which was poblicly ^own toi money in London. The man endee-
Toured to exdle it, probably to heu ita rattle, with hia rul^ which
he dropped into the aerpant'i cage. As he waa trying to reeorar it
the roalie bit him in the hand. Ha waa taken to one of the hospitals
(81 Qsorge's, if we recollect right), and bore up so long that hopes
were antart^ed of hia reoovaiy ; tint his constitution gave^way at
last, and after many days he fell a victim to the poison. [Vifieiha.]
CROTON, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
St^horbiaeta, comprehending a laiga number of apedea, many of
wtuch have important medical properties. It is distinguished from
other genera of its order by monoecious flowers ; the males with a
E-parted valvular calyx, 6 petals, 6 glands alternate with the petals,
and a definite number of distinct stamens ; the fenudea with a S-parted
calyx, no petals, 3 biSd or multifld styles, 6 glands surrounding
tho ovary, and ■ tricoccous fruit The specien are eitramaly diversi-
fied in appearance, soma being trees, othera busbos, others herbaceous
plants ; many with sarrBted or lobed leaves, many vfith enUra ones ;
BometiineB covered with hair, Bometimes naked ; and now with a small
compact inflorescence, now having it long and lax. The following
are a few of the mora remarkable species : —
0. Catcariila. Leaves lanceolate,, acute, quite entire, stalked,
downy on the under surface. Stem arborescent. A native of the
CROTOPHAQA. lit
aiders that the true Caaoarillk Bark is not yielded by tbla apealea but
by C. EltMhena.
C. Ili^ittm. Leavea ovate, smooth, aaumiDBte, senatad. Stem
arborescent. Flowers in terminal spikes. Fruit imooth, the size of
a hazel-nut. An inhabitant of the Holuccaa, Ceylon, and other porta
of the Eaat Indies. This plant is at once the moat actjva and dangerous
of drastic purgatives; every part — wood, leaves, and fruit — seems to
partidpate equally in the energy. The leaves are so acrid as to
inflame the moutl^ lips, and Enuoes of thoaa who merely chaw them,
bringing on swelling and producing a senjVition of burning aa far oa
the anusb The seeds thrown into water intoxicate flah. Ten or
twenta fruits bruised with honsy have been known to kill a horse by
the violent diarrticea they have produced. Henoe the oil obtained
from the seeds, which is known by the name of Croton Oil, when nsed
medidnally, has to be administend with extreme care.
Cralan ■niUvm.
C. taeciftrta^ Leaves ovite, downy, serrulated, stalked ; calyxes
downy ; Sowers in terminal spikes ; fruits small and velvety. A
native of the Fast Indies. This apedea is said to fiimiah the flnest of
all the sorts of lac, but soorcdj ever to find its way to England. It
is very pure, of a bright red, and fumiabea a brilliant vamish in
this species is that which furnisbee the Coscarilla Bark of
but others ascribe it to C. EUulheria ; and Sohiede suspects that
may be rather the produce of C. Pteado-Chma, which he found to 1
tho real Quina Blanca of the apothecaries of Jalapv Dr. Lindlsy con- 1 of Birds
Draco, a MexicMl plant, with long heart-ahaped woolly leaves,
vrith C i^arocarpum, and C. tanguijluim, yields, when wounded, a
resinous substaooa of a deep red colour, reaembling dragon's blood.
Others are merely aromatic. From C, iaJtfHn^nwa the liquor called
Kau de Hantea ia distilled ; O. aromalicum, C. niveum, C, fragrant,
and C. coriaceun have similar qualities ; and C. Ikurtfenun exudes a
fragrant resin analogous to incense.
The bark of these trees occurs in pieces about a foot long, which
e tubular or overlapping, externally covered with a cutide which
cosily peels ofi', so thatthe liber or bark ia otien eipofwd, in which
:i t..i n. — I ---k-like. The colour extomaiiv is yellowi .,
Uy
)f lichens. The surface is also marked by
irregular deep fongitudinol furrows. The inner surface is a dirty or
rusty-brown colour. Odour faintly aromatic ; taste bitter, not un-
pleasant, and stimulating. No alkaloid has been detected in it ; but
". possesses much volatile oil One pound of bark yields one drachm
ad a half of volatile oiL This bark is Bometimes mixed with the
inchona barks, being called Qray Fever-Bark — a substitution in no
respect hurtfuL
For the medical properties of this genus see CaBOa&lLU and CsOTOX
' Abts abd Sc. Div.
CROTOTHAOA (Linn.), CVotopAfutu (Browne, Briason), a genua
' Birds placed by Lesson imder the third CamilT Hdt^rampne^ of
CROTOPHAOA.
Ilie order Qrimp^un (&an*aret), CuHer; Zygodaetjfii, Temmittek ;
SjIyuhb Zygodactylea, VieiUot.
Ths bill ihort, tbtj muoh eomprasaed, arched, withont deotilatioiu,
elentsd, and Burtnoonted by b vertioel kod trenaluuit onat ; Ooatdli
builar;, open ; roarth and fifth qoUU laiigwt ; tail-featlisre long,
mniided.
TheflB birdfl aro caJled Ani utd Ahqo in Ouyuia and Bruil, and
Anno in Vtn^axj. In Maiico they mre tULmed, woording to Her-
oindez, CecalototoU, aod in the AntillM BoaU de Fatnn, Anwngous,
Diiblee de 8«vbjuw«, and Fertoqaet* Noiiv. In Ca^anns thdr
oommoD name ia BooiUeur de Canaii Their gcdaial oolaor ia blaok,
vilh mora or 1«b> of motallie refleotdona.
A cotuddarkUe portion of die ipecdea are found in America —
pnncipallf the hot and hofflld petta, Ditt Uia louth mon eapedally —
ud the AntiUM.
The Ania lire in Sooka, and are ao Ux &om timid that when they
Me Uieir oompMiioiu &11 betbre the gnn, the lUTrivora S7 but a ihort
w^, and then again aatUa Buah«, the akirU of woods, and the
bordara of Koodnd aaTaonaha, are their favonrite haunta. Thur food
comiita of amaU linrda, inaeols, and leeda. Hanj pairs are add to
tiM the aama neat, bailt on the branchee of trece, and of latge
dimanaiOQi, when oonaidered in relation to die number of ooi^c*
nocupjing it, wbere the; la; and hatch their young in oonoert.
C. Ania V. blaokbird with bronaed tinte in lome lights. Biie
lather larger tban that of the common blackbird ; leaa than that of a
jackdaw. Ifocatlity, nxdat aaTannaha and the neighbondiood of water,
in the Wert India lalandt, Carolina^ Bnsil, Fanguay, &o. It ia the
Ranr-Billed BlaekbiTd cf Jamaica of Cateal^, the SaTannah Blaokbird
utthsEi^iah aolcokti, and <^ Onat KaAInid of Sloane.
Juulea BlukUrd [OvUpliafa Jul).
Browne (' Hiist. of Jamaica ') thua deacribea it ; — " Thia liird Ia
ibant the aise of a Barbery dove, or aomething larger, black all orer,
and aplay-footed like a parrot It haa a long nqoare tail, a broad
comprened bill, and a ahart thin tongne : but the beak or upper part
at t^ bill ia flatted on the aldaa, arched and aharp above, and strugbt
•t the edges below. Thn Utb chiefly upon ticka and other onell
Tcrmin, and msT &eqaenuj be seen jumping about all the oowi and
oxen in the fields ; nay, they are oftm obaerred to fly oo their backs
tmleas they lie down Sat them, which if maoh troubled with ticks
the; generally do when the; aee the biida about them ; but if the
bout be heedless they hop once or twice round it, looking it very
eameatly in the face eveiy time they pass, as if the; seem to know
th«t it was onl; reqnl«t« to be seen tc bo'indulged. They are toij
noisy birds, and one of the moat common aorta in all the pastures i»
' Jamaica. Their flight is low and short."
Sloans thns describee his Bpe<nmen, under tha name of the Qreat
Blackbird : — " This was thirteen inches long from the end of the bill
to the end of the tail, and about fifteen inches troTa the end of ana
ving to the end of the other, both being extended ; the bill was three-
qiuuiers of an inch long, and black, the under mandible being straight,
Uie upper of a dngnlar make, distinguishing it ^m other birds ; for
it was arched or round, raised high, flat and thin on the upper round
edge. .The feet have three toes before and one behind (though
Uarcgrave says oUierwise). The legs ore two inchea long, and black
u jet ; the middle toe before is one inch and a half long, armed with
a pretty ahaip claw, and ths other toes proportionable. The colonr
of the feathers all o
s block. The stomach of thia bird v
pt«tty thicki it was Tery fuU of gnttshoppera, b«etlea,fte., diajdnted
and partly disaolred.
"It haunts the woods on the edges of the savannahs, and Is tot
alarms all the fowls in their neighbourhood, so that they are very
prqudicial to fowlen ; but on ue other htuid, when negroes run
from their masters and are pnraued by them in the woods to be
brought book to their lerTitM^ these birds, on sight of them as of other
man, will make a noise, and direct the pursuers which w» they must
take to follow their blacks, who otherwise might live olw^s in the
remoter ioland woods in pleasura and idlaneao.
"Perhaps Uiis bird may have the toes sometamei two before, at
other times two behind."
Slosne's doubt may have arisen from a casual ezominaldon of dead
specimens. The hot is that the external toe in some soansoriol bird*
' ■" ' 1 backwards, but not * ^
are eaaily tamed, an
have a bad odour.
CROUOEH, a local name tot the Pmsaiaa or Oibal Carp.
[CTPnnrm*;
CROW, [CoavmiJ
CROW-BERRT. [EMmBUJLl
CBOW-FOOT. pLmTBonnrBT]
CROZOFHORA, a genus of Plants belonging to the natural order
Euipluirhiaeta. The flowers are moncedoui. Calyx of male flowers 6-
partad ; petals 6 ; atamans 6-1 0, with unequal aoimata filaments. Calyx
of ftanata flowers 10-parted; petals abeent; atylee 8-bifid; oapaole
S-ooccons.
..-__ aboutafootlongrsoft, oTd,alt«nat«s»i— - -,
which are plaited and curled at thdr edge ; small Aowen arranged In
short dusters, and drooping fruit oompoMd of three UaeUahnxigfa
oalla. ItiaanotiveofbanenpUceaaUoTerthesonthofBnrop^andis
cultivated about Montpelier for the aake of the deep purple d^
called Toumesolc^ which It prodnoea. Its properties are amid, emebc,
oorroaiTSt aod drastic, like the meet virulent Guphorbiaoeotu Planto,
I, s male flcver oat open, ihowtcf t^ eUmou
neailj ripe Iralt ; 4, E, dUTtmnt ktodi of itairy loale
CRUCIAN CARP. [CtpbihiiiaI
CRUCITERiE, (Wi/'erj, the Cabbage Tribe, a very exienatve and
meat natural assemblege of Plants, called TVtnidyHafliu) and Omeiatm ttj
Linnnus, and Bratneaeea by others. It comprebenda the Hustard,
Cress, Turnip, Cabbage, Scurvy-Grass, Radish, Hor»i.Radiah, and
.^r . .", . ^ ?_■__!_,- j;iE — . M l«ea in their
Itt CBUCIFEB^.
longolawi, uid their bUdea planed ■omethint; like the ■rtoiafsMiltMa
orou, whence their nkme ; 6 itameQ*, 1 of which nra longtr thui the
Other 3; and > fruit conmBtiiigof 2 eeOt, with a centnl Avine, to which
is fitted a pair of deoiduoiiB nliea, and from the iddBi of wliioh under
the valvaa is itretched a thin doable traoapareot diaphngm. In each
cell an two or more leadi, with an embryo folded upon ilaelf, and
daatitnte of albumen. The form of the frait hi eitceinelf variable :
when it 1b long and slender it ie called a Siliqne, and whan ahrat and
round a Siliole ; hence the two diviiioDa of the JVfrodjnuMui of Lin-
umia into Sili^twa and SUiadoia.
About a couple of thousand speeies an diq»aned over the milder
put* of the world, reftimng alike to exist beneath the leren cold of
the arctie ton* and the exoesaiTe heats of the tropica. A Uxga pro-
portion oonrista of inoonspienous and nsdias weeds; manyanob'--'^-
of beau<T from tile stie and g»7 colours of their p«t^; andUien
already mentioDed show that another part of the order oonsis
planta luriiil to man.
Ouiranlliiil OliM.
■ flovet Irom which Iha peUli litT* ben icn
an ot tb* 0TU7 ; 4, * ripe tinlt, ftom whieb
• wpuaUn^i
Owing , ._. , ..__ .__ ,
between them, the sjrtematjo arrangemont of Cruoi
until late years eioeedinglf unsatisfactory. It has howarer bean di*-
coveied that ths embryo prosenbi the most oaiistant oharacter, and
that by five modifioatioos of the maimer in which it is folded up Bn
preaissly limit«d diviaioiit of the order an secnred. Ths following
out illustTatea them. Let A 1 be an embryo with the radicle applied
to tlie ootyledona in suoh a way m to lie agunst its edgea; then B 1
Qm' '
"=o ||o/<o|io||||||o
will be Um appearance of sueh an embryo iriMn out across, and C 1 1
will be a tigo expressing the mutual poaitiooi of the radicle and ooty-
ledona by a circle end tivo tars : thef e are Plnrm-hiica. Then jlf . A 3
CRUCIFER^ IM
will be the same embtTo with the radiele applied to the back of the
cotyledons ; and B 2 and C S will giie the section and sign of what
an called Natorkiitii. When the ootyledoiu instead of bemg flat am
channeled so as to rectdve the radicle in a kind of groove, as at A S,
it gives ths division Ort^oplix»t. If the Cotyledons an so long aa to
be doubled twice, A 1, the; constitute ^mtobta ; and if, aa at A 6,
the ooMedona are doubled thne timea, they iiidicate the divisl»n
DifleaJotta. Upon theae dlstiaetioa* all reoent arrangamenta ^
OnK^fa^ have been formed.
The affinities of this order are with Papaveraeta, CSttacea, Oappa-
ridaeea, and Fumariacea. There are ITS genera and above 1600
epedes dcaoribed. It is aninently a European order : 166 speeiet
an found in Hortlism and Middle Europe, and ITS on the noHhem
shore or islands of the Ueditertanean ; ii an peculiar to the coast oi
Africa between Mogadon and Alexandria ; 181 to Syria, Alia Minor,
Tauria, and Persia; 90 to Sibeiia; 85 to China, Japan, or India;
T6 to Australia and the South Sea Islsnds ; 6 to Mauridns, and the
neighbouring islands ; 70 to the Cape of Oood Hope ; 9 to the
Canaries or Madeira ; S to St Helena j 3 to the West Indies ; 11 to
South America; 48 to North Amerioa; E to tiie islsnds between
If orth America and Kamtohatka ; and 35 an oommon to varions parts
of the world. This being their general geographical distdbutioa, it
appear! that, exclusive of the species that are unoerti'
aaveral different oountries, about 100 an found i
hemisphere and about 800 in the northern hemisphere ; or 91 ii
Hew and the rest in the Old World. Finally, if we o "
irith regard to tempentore, w
In the frigid lone of ths northem hemiaphera SOS
In all the tropioa (and ohiafly in mountainous regions) SO
In the temperate lone —
Of the northern hemisphere .... 5481 -a.
Of the southern hemisphere . .86/ ^^
Buoh wen the caloulations of De Candolls in 1831. Although («•
quiring oonsiderable modification, especially in the Adatic and North
American numbers, which are much too low, they serve to give a general
idea of the manner in wliiob this order is dispersed over the globe.
The aharaoter of the genera of this order is ontisoorbuUc and stimu-
lant, combined with an acrid flavour. The officinal apeoisa an among
of ail planta, and will he found treated of under their
It. Alatge number of genera ai
The fallowing is a synopaia of the British g
large number of g
— _ - synopsia of the E
Babington's ' Maonal of British Botany :'—
Sub-Order I. SmqvoiM.
' Pod (sllitjue) linear or linear-lanoeolate, opening by two Talraa;
diMepimsnt narrow, but in its broadest diameter.
Tribe I. t»iiiTn«»
Cotyledons aooumbsnt, parallel to tiis dissepiment ; radicle lateral ;
6. IWrifia
6. ArabU.
7. Cardtmiitt.
8. JktUaria.
Tribe IL SuntBUiA
Cotyledons inaunbent, oontrar7 to the dissepiment ; radid* donal
seed oomprested.
9. Haptru.
10. Sinrnbritm.
11. AmaHa.
13. Sryimum.
Tribe Itl. B&AssioKA
Cotyledon* conduplioate, longitudinally folded in the middle;
15. DipUitaxit.
Sub-Order IL Latomt*.
Pouch (dlicle) short, op«ning with two valvea; dissepiment in
broadeet diameter.
TriU IV. At.nsi](K&
Cotyledons aocomhant
18. Alytim.
17. Kaluga.
IS. Draba.
19. CoMtaria.
20. ATmoraeia.
TriUT. Caiolivia.
21.
Tribe VL Vi
u oondnplioate.
S3. VMa.
t"> i£
n7
CRUCIROSTRA.
CRUSTACEA.
218
Sub-Order III. Akoustisepije.
Pouch (silide) short, laterally compressed, opening with two boat-
diaped yalvesy keeled or winged on the back ; disaepiment narrow,
linear, or lanceolate. ^' -.
Tribe YIL THLABPiDKiB.
Cotyledon! aocumbent.
28. TkUupi,
24. StuAinna,
25. Teeadalia,
26. IherU
Tribe YIII. Li?n)zv&&
Cotyledons inoombent
27. Lepidium.
28. CapteUa,
Tribe IX. SUBULABIXJE.
Cotyledons incumbent, long, linear, cunred back above their base ;
cells many-seeded.
29. Sutndaria.
Tribe X. SnriBBniRUL
Cotyledons incumbent^ long linear, ourred back above their base ;
cells o ne s e e ded.
30. SeMbrier(i.
Sub-Order IV. Kuoamxntacks.
Pouch (silide) scarcely dehiscent^ often 1-celled, owing to the
absence of the cUssspiment
Tribe XI. ISATis.
Cotyledons incumbent
81. Itatii.
Sub-Order V. LoMSKTAOEiE.
Silide or silique dividing transversdy in single-seeded cells; the
true silique often barrenTi^ the seeds being in the beak.
Tribe XIL Cakilinul
Cotyledons aocumbent.
82. CakUe.
Tribe XIIL Rafbanea
Cotyledons condupUcate.
88. Cframbe,
Si, JRaphamu.
CRUCntOSTRA. [Loxiadjl]
CRUSTA'CEA^ Grustao^ of the French, Krustenthiere of the
Gennans, MoXoic^srpnca of Aristotle and the ancient Greeks, a
diss of Articulated Animals, whose external covering is less solid
than that of the majority of Testaceous Molluslu, but much
firmer and harder than the skin of the Kaked MoUusks; and whose
oonfoiination is essentially distinguishable from other classes, espe-
cially in tiie circulating, respiratory, and locomotive organs. The
Common Crab [Cbab], the Lobster, and Crayfish [Abtaottb], the
Common Shrimp [CbakoovidaI, and the Water-Fleas [Branchio-
foda], may be tiScen as types of different sections of this family.
As in many of the Testaceous MoUusks, the skeleton of the Onutaeea
is extemaL It is made up of the t^gumentaiy envelope, which, in
some of the dass, always continues Bott, but in the greater portion is
very firm, forming a shelly case or armour, in which all the soft parts
are contained. In the more perfect Crustaceans it is complex. The
following description of its component parts is ttom, the pen of
If. Milne-Edwaids, who, in his ' Histoire Katurelle. des Crustac^'
(Paris, 188i, &a, 8vo), and in the article 'Crustacea' in the ' Cyclo-
paedia of Anatomy and Physiology (London, 1886, &c.), has given
the moet complete view of the oiganisation of this family. Taking
the Brachyura, or Short-Tailed Cnistaceans, as his instance of the
more highly developed forms of the dass in whidi the complex
structure is exhibited, he thus proceeds, " The integument consists of
a corium and an epidermis, with a pigmentary matter of a peculiar
nature, desttined to conununicate to the latter membrane the various
colours with which it is ornamented. The oorium or dermis, as
among the VeridfreUcif is a thick, spongy, and very vascular membrane;
on its inner surface it is intimatdy connected with a kind of serous
membrane, which lines the parietes of the cavities in the Oruataeea in
the same manner as the serous membranes line the internal cavities
among the VertebnUa; these two membranes, divided in the latter
order i>y the interposition of muscular and bony layers, which cover
and protect the great cavities, become dosely united when these
layers disappear, as they do in the Ortuiaeeti, in consequence of the
important changes that take place in the conformation of the apparatus
of locomotion. The corium again, among the OruiUicea, is completely
covered on its outer surface 1^ a membranous envelope unfurnished
with blood*vesseIs, and which must be held in all respects as analogous
to the epidermis of the higher animals. It is never found in the
properly membranous state, save at the time of the OrtuUieea casting
their shell; at this period, it is interposed between the corium and
the solid covering z«ady to be oast off, and has the appearance of tk
pretty dense sad consistent membrane, in spite of its thinness. It
forms, as among animals higher in the scale, a kind of inorganic
lamina, applied to the surface of the corium, from which it is an
exudation. After the fall of the old shell it becomes thicker and
very considerably firmer, owing to the deposition or penetration of
calcareous molecules within its substance, as well as by the addition
of new layers to its inner surfisuse. The degree of hardness finally
acquired, however, and the amount of calcareous matter deposited
within it, vary considerably ; in many members of the dass, it remains
semioomeous, in a condition very sixnilar to that of the integuments
of insects, with which, moreover, it corresponds veiy dosely m point
of chemiiMil composition ; in the higher crustaceans, again, its compo-
sition is veiy different: thus, whHst chitine in combination with
albumen is the prindpal dement in the tegumentary skdeton of some
spedes, this substance scarcely occurs in the proportion of one or
two tenths in the carapace of Uie Decapods, wmch, on the contrary,
contains 60 and even 80 per cent, of phosphate and carbonate of lime,
the latter substance particularly occurring in considerably lax^ger
groportion than the former. With regard to the pigmentum, it is
iSB a membrane or reticulation than an amorphous matter diffused
through the outermost laver of the superficial membrane, being
secreted like this by the conum. Alcohol, ether, the acids, and water
at 212° Fahr., change it to a red in the greater number of spedes;
but there are some species in which it may be exposed to the action
of these different agents without undergoing any perceptible change.
The epidermic layer hardened in different degrees is the part which
mainly constitutes the tegumentary skdeton of the Oiurtocea. In its
nature it is obviously altogether different from that of the internal
skeleton of the Vertebrata; still its functions are the same, and this
physiological resemblance has led naturalists to speak of these two
pieces of organic mechanism, so dissimilar in their anatomi(Mil relations,
under the common name of skeleton. The tegumentary skdeton of
the Onuteicea consists, like the bony skeleton of the Vertebratcif of a
great number of distinct pieces connected together by means of
portions of the epidermic envelope which have not become hardened,
in the same way as, among the higher animals, certain bones are
connected by cartilages, the ossification of which is only accomplished
in extreme old age."
This skeleton, or crustaceous frame-work, consists of a series of
rings varying in number, the normd number of the body-segments
being twenty-one. Instances of a larger number are rare, and a lees
number seldom occurs ; one or more rmgs may be appca«ntly absent,
but in such cases they will generally be found consohdated as it were.
In the embryo the segments are developed in succession from before
backwards ; the posterior rings therefore are generally absent when
the number is defective. Each ring is divisible into two arcs, one
upper or dorsal, the other lower or ventnJ. Each arc may present as
many as four dementary pieces. Two of these united in the mesial
line form the tergum ; uie sides of this upper arc are framed of two
other portions denominated flanks or epimeral pieces. The lower
arc is a counterpart of the upper. Two of the four pieces into which
it is divisible constitute the sternum, situated in the mesial line, and
are flanked by two epistemums. These two arcs do not cohere at
their edges, but a space is left for the insertion of the lateral append-
ages or extremities which correspond with them. (liilne-Edwards ;
Audouin.)
The one^md-twenty rings above mentioned are generallv dividble
into three sections of seven each, and may be considered as corre-
sponding with the three regions which zoologists have generally
consented to recognise- in the bodies of the crustaceans, under the
denominations of a head, a thorax, and an abdomen ; but the student
should be on his guard against the false impresdons which, as M. Milne-
Edwards observes, are likdy to arise from these terms, by their leading
the mind to liken them to the grand divisions in the Vertebrata, which
are defined by the same expressions.
The cephdo-thoradc portion and carapace first claim our attention,
and the latter acquirea its greatest development in the Decapods.
*' In these animals," says M. Milne-Edwards, ** the frame-work of the
body does not appear at first sight to consist of more than two por-
tions, the one anterior, formed by the carapace, and representing the
cephalic and thoradc segments conjoined ; the other posterior formed
by the abdomen. In reality, the first fourteen rings of the body are
covered by this enormous buckler, and are so intimatdv conjoined
as to have lost all their mobility ; the whole of the thoracic segments
thus hidden below the carapace are connected with it in their superior
parts ; they are only joined with one another underneath and late-
rally ; and their texgal parts having, in consequence of this, become
useless, are no longer to be found, being ia some sort replaced by the
great cephalic buckler ; thus the whole of these rings, m conformity
with this arrangement, are imperfect and open above."
The subjoined cut represents the carapace of a Brachyurous or
Short-Tailed Crustacean, and the regions of which it is composed,
named after the viscera and oi^gans protected by them.
The succeeding figure represents the carapace of a Macrourous or
Long-Tailed Oostacean.
The abdomen is most fully devdoped in the Macrwra, or Long-Tailed
Crustaceans, in many of which it becomes a very important organ of
motion, and in them there is a comparativdy small development of
the carapace ; while in the ^rocA^ro, or Short-Tailed Crustaceans,
CRUSTACEA.
Cmpu* of Omiiuii mmtai {Omtw iwiut, Liim.]
0, B«fion of th* ttomuh, oi ^utiis Tt(!aB ; t, gmltal ncion ; e, oudlu
Chnpu* or common Cnvfldk {Atlamu fmiaiaui,
a, Outiis ntlm ; t, (oiitil nsloo ; «, OMdiM nfton ) i, postvln oudlio
nfion; i^ f, brucblAl ngloiu.
thii mle ii revenad, th« abdoman being compantiToIy imall, ukd the
great development takiiig pUca in the carapace, IJIustaktiiig the " lol
oe balanoepMutoTguiique" of M. Oeofftx>7 St. HilaireL TheCommoa
Crab and Common Lobrtw affoid sfcriUng ezunpln oT ttda kw of
oiBanio eqniTAlaatt.
Ti(« ol (lie mdn t\i» ol the rcmilg at TMp>tm4t,JhKiatilU, with the UU or
I, (, D, d; (, atenul pleeu; /, f , t, i, litenhiterul ^eeMi t, t, extenul
TtsTs td a>» lOula oi^uu Dl lennMloD ; I,
a (Mt. Tba dedwhtd Ifon rtpneraU —-
ftom Ih* abdoDu
£
now of lb* ludB ilda or the mele of IMjilhiM JturiatilU, with the mule
011*111. The detuhed Agim TepromU DU of tluae orguu.
On tliii lubjeot FrofeMor Bell remark! ■,^~" When we oonaider tiis
■Imoot endleee dlToiBitf of form iiiidsr wliiott tlie 'apeoies compoeing
tllia daw of «"'"■»!" appear, tlie Mtoniahing diacrepancf which eiista
in the forma and relabva proportiaiu of the different ncion* of the
body, and other parte of their orgMliaatioD for the peifonnaDce of
oSmi and funotioiu equ*]l; Tarioiu, aod eee that all dieae diversitiee
■re produced onl; by modifloatiaDB of a trpieil number of part«, we
' but be itruck bj no remarkable and interMtins an illujttratiDD
■a it nur be terraed, dut U
of the great eoonomio^ law, a
t Uc typtcof
„- - — . . - - -Jjb - , ...
Hructvrc of any j/rmp bting pwcK, Ihe differtnt hihiU of it* eompmatl
Ipecit* or minor groupt art prvvided for, not hg tlie creation of not
orgamt or (Ac dafrHCfwii Itf oDtert, &M by U< ntadijlciriwit in fonn,
ttnustmrt, or pUtct, of orgmu (jpicaUy bcZoiwiiw fo lie group,"
One of tiiB nooeaaary ooiuaquenoea of the eon<Ution of theae
animaliinoloaadin ahatdohellii thapowerthnpoeaaaa of throwing
it oE If thia were not the eaae all growth would be itopped,oioept-
iog increase of tbicikneaa in the nhrrll rji mnnnaeinn of aedretjonafrom
bdow. To alloir therefore room for .the ezpaniton and growth of
Uie bodr ukd Ibnba, a proTisfon for their inm«aae ii made by meajia
of moolting, which, aa a general rule, ii more tt^qaant the younger
the animal ii, aa indeed might be Bxpeoted. Thus eight moiilta ii
Cnb. [C^aiii.J
In Aitacru JfnmatHit, the moult, en
la prsoeded by a few dara of fkatin^ , .
the OBiapaoe beoomea loosened from the corium to which it waa
attached. The corium begini forthwith to aeoiete a new ehell, which
b at fint toft and membranous, beoomea gradually harder and harder,
and Ii at but calcareous. When all oonneotion with the old shell ia
broken off; and the corium has oompletsly secreted the new mem-
tnaoons envelope^ the ammal begin* to sat about freeing itaelf from
the old iQoaubnooei ud bMomss very raatloB, the symptoms of
inquietude InoreMJtig in proportion as the time tor emanointion
dram ni^h. It ruba it* legs one againat the other, and finally thniwa
itaelf OQ Its back. In Umt ajtuation it begins to shake itaelf and awell
itaelf out, till it tears the membrana which connects the car^nce
with the abdomen, and begina to niae the former : then it reata a
while. Altematioiia of agttatioa and rot anooeed each other at luter-
vaU of longer or shorter duiatiou, the cai^woe is oompletaly raised,
the head, the eyes, iha anteniue, are extrioatad. The greatest dif-
fioolty oOcors in fiming the eitremitie*, nor oould the; be eidicated
at all did not the old coTenng split longitudinally: and indeed it
frequently hqipena that the Crawfiah leares a limb or two behind ;
and ia somstimea so fettered, that it perishes from inaUlity to aitri-
cate itseli The abdomsQ ia the last diriaitm of the body freed, and
the whole change ganorally takea plaoe in half an hour. Four-aud-
twen^-homa, or tao or thrse ds^ at furthest an necessai; f^r the
oonvenion of the soft and mamravnous integument which aheathei
the corium or Baked body into a firm calcareous case similar to the
last, and resenting the same appendages, eren to the hain ; although
M. Uilne-Edwards has stated tliat tbiiM last organs are not formed
within the old ones, aa suppoBed by Bteumur, but exist rea<^-fonued
in the new entolopo, tuned in towards the interior like the fingan of
a glove tuned in upon itself,
Mr. SpeDCe Bata of Plymouth, who has very suooeaafully studied
the OnMocco, ttatea that he has oonflrmed the original ohserrataoD
of Kdaomur.
H. Milue-Bdwarda obeerve* that tho time oocnpied in the busintM
of throwing off the shell varies oonsidraably in difierant species, and
that it also depends on atmoepheric inSuenoes ; and this obaenatioD
applies equally to the oumbw of days required for giving the new
tegumentary sheath the oonaiatency of the old shell ; and he adda,
that in the whole of the specdee which have been duly watched,
eapedallj thoeefoundrai the French shorea, the period which preoedes
and that which follows the Bodj^ is a pwiod of inquietude and
disorder. The musolea are then flaccid, Um fleeh is soft and watery,
and the animals are conaidetvd unwholesome and unfit for food. An
exception to this remail: occnrs in the Land-Crabs (Amtchmij), which,
according to the teatimonv of all ivbo have spoken and writtsn on the
subject, art never so delimous m during the lossnn of change.
tn
CRUSTACEA.
CRUSTACEA.
233
At the period of Eodysia, roonded flattened calcareouB concretions
(carbonate of lime), commonly called Ocnli Citncrorum, are formed
at the aides of the stomach of the conunon river crawfish. (Prep.
m, Mu& ColL of Suig.)
Every one has occasionally been struck with the difference of siise
in the members of crabs and lobsters. One claw of these, and other
crustaceans which have the daws, when perfect, nearly equal, is often
found of its full volume, while the other is comparatiyely diminutive ;
for the animal, upon the limb receiving any injury, has the power of
suddenly throwing it oS, and the effort does not appear to be attended
with pain, though it is frequently made when the system receives a
severe shock. [Astaous.] The point at which the separation takes
place is always in the. second articulation, near the basis of the
limb, and from the stump, which speedily cicatrises, a new daw buds
forth with all the proper articulations, and with an entire Uiough
miniature resemblance to the rejected member. This new daw is
formed within the dd shell and hee folded up until the exuvia are
shed, when it appears as a part of the new udeton. If one of the
limbs be severed In any other place than the usual point of separation
the stump goes on bleeding, nor does it heaL In such cases the
renovating prooesB does not commence until the animal succeeds in
separating the remains of the member at the proper point, and this
it does by a violent muscular contraction. Some vears sgo there
were some Land-Grabs {Ofecareinut) at the Qaiden of the Zoological
Society, and the apparent ease with which they parted with their
smaller legs in order to escape from any one who injudidoudy took
them up by these members was very remarkable^ They did not seem
to regard the loss at all, and ran awi^ on the remainder of their legs
sa if nothing had happened. Mr. Hairy Qoodsir has pointed out
that this power of renewing the members in the Onutacea depends
on a small glandlike body seated at the base of each limb. This
body oonsiBts of a great number of laige nudeated cells, which are
intezspersed throughout a fibro-gelatinous mass, it is supplied by a
vessel and a nerve. Mr. Spenoe Bate describes the development of
the shell as follows : —
" Immediately above the hearty a pulp consisting of nucleated cells,
areolar tissae, (and blood vessels?), is formed, extending to the
intemd suzfruse of the shell, from which it is separated by a layer of
pigment whidi gives colour to the new formation. Towaids the
base, that is, immediatdy above the hearty the cells are uniformly, large
and disUncty while an areolar tissue ramifies throughout the whole.
As advance is made from the base, cells of less size mix with them,
which increase in number as they diminish, in diameter, untU they
approach the layer of pigment^ immediately beneath which *they
adapt themsdves by mutual pressure into a polygonal fbrm. The
pdp extends over the whole periphery of Uie crab^ immediately
beneath the shell ; the thickness of the p^p decreases with the
distance from the centre; and the larger cells become fewer in
nunber, the mass being maide of the smdler cdls which become the
secreting ozgans of the future shdl, which process conmiences pre-
viously to and is completed after the removal of the exuvlse." {* Annals
of Kat. Hiflt,' voL vu.)
Of the nature of the organs of locomotion developed by the
external skeleton, Milne-Edwards has given the best account :— '
" The kind of solid sheath formed by the tegumentary skeleton of
the Onutacea, and which indudes in its interior the whole of the
viaoera and other soft parts of these animals, is required to be so
constructed as not to oppose locomotion ; consequently there exist,
either between the different rings of the body or the various con-
stttuent elements of the limbs, articulations destined to admit of
motion to a greater or less extent between these different pieces.
The structure of these articulations is of the most simple kind ; the
moveable piece rests upon that which precedes it by two hinge-like
joints, sitiuted at the two extremities of a line perpendicular to the
plane in vhidi the motion takes place. In the internal portion of the
edge of the moveable piece comprised between the joints there exists
a notch of greater or less depth, destined to admit of flexion, whilst
on the opposite or external side the same edge generally glides xmder
that of the preceding piece. This kind of articulation, whilst it is the
most favourable to preddon of movement and to strength, has the
disadvantage of admitting motion in one plane only ; therefore the
whole of ttie rings of the body, the axis of motion beiug entirely
paralle], cannot move save in a verticd plane ; but nature has intro-
duced a kind of corrective of this disadvantage in the structure of
the limbs, by changing the directions of the articular axis, whence
ensues the possibility of general motions being performed in every
direction. Between the two fixed points two opposed emptor spaces
are observed, left by the rings severdly, and destined to admit of the
occurrence of motions of flexion and extendon. The tegumentary
membrane which fiUs it never becomes incrusted or calcareous, but
dwm continues soft and flexible.
** The tegumentary skdeton supplies the apparatus of locomotion
with fixed points of acUon as weU as with the levers necessary to
motion. The immediate or active organs of this apparatus are the
muscles, the colour of which is white, and the stnicture of which
presents no peculiarity worthy of notice. They are attached to the
pieces which they are required to move either immediately or by the
intermedium of homy or cdcareous tendoni^ which are implanted
upon the edge of the segment to which they belong. To the fixed
point they are most commonly attached immediatdy. Thdr struc-
ture is simple, and each segment in fact, as has already been said,
bein^ contrived to move in one fixed and determinate plane, the
muscles which communicate motion to it can constitute no more
than two systems antagonists to each other, the one acting in the
sense of flexion, by which the segment moved is approximated to
that which precedes it, the other in the sense of extension, by which
the segment is brought into the podtion most remote from the centre
of motion. The musdea that produce these oppodte effects, as might
have been conduded, are found implanted into the oppodte arms of
the lever upon which their energy is extended.
" The motions in flexion tend universally to bring the extremities
and the diflerent rings towards the ventral aspect of the body ; it is
consequently upon this aspect that the flexor musdes are inserted,
and these are in general the more powerful On the contrary, and in
accordance with the nature of the motion produced, it is upon the
superior or donul aspect of the segments that the extensor muscles
are attached. In the trench the two orders of musdes generally
form two distinct layers, the one superficial, the other deep; the
former thin and sometimes absent, the second on the contra^ very
powerful wherever powerfril| motions are required. The musdes
generally extend from the arc above to the one immediately below,
passing for the most part from the anterior edge of the upper to the
anterior edge of the lower segment The extent and the du^ction of
the flexion of which any segment is susceptible depend on the sise of
the interannular spaces above or bdow the ginglymoid joints ; and as
these spaces are in general of condderable magnitude on the ventral
aspect^ whilst the superior arcs are in contact^ and can only ride one
over another in a greater or less degree, it is oxdy downwards that
the body can be bent upon itself, while upwards, or in the sense of
extendon, it can hardly in general be brought into tiie horizontd line.
" Thus far what has been said applies more espedallyto the rings of
the body, but the extremities present nothing that is essentially
different, dther as regards the mode in which the tubular segments
are articulated to one another, or as regards the mode in which the
musdes are inserted. Each of these indeed having but one kind of
motion, and even that very limited in its extent, nature has aided the
defidenoy, as has been steted, by increasing the number of articula-
tions, by which extent of motion is confened, and in varying the
direction of the articular axes, an arrangement by which the animal
obtains the ability of moving in every £rection, but at the expense
of power, rapidity, and precision in its motions. Each segment of a
limb indoses the musdes destined to move that segment which suc-
ceeds it^ unless it be too short and weak for this end, in which case
the musdes themselves have their origin at some point nearer to the
medium plane of the body. As a general law the muscles are observed
to be more powerful in proportion as they are nearer to the centre,
which is to be explained by the fact that each motion they then com-
municate is transmitted to a larger portion of a limb, to a lever
longer in that sense in whidi it is disadvantageous to the power.
Occadonally however the two last segments of a member are converted
into a sort of hand, and in this case the penultimate segment some-
times indudes a muscular mass, whidi may surpass in power the
same system in the whole of the limb besides. Those musdes that
put an extremity generally into motion are attached to the ddes of
the thorado cavity, and the apodemata supply them with surfaces of
insertion of great extent, and very favourd)ly dtuated as regards
their action. They occupy the double rank of cells formed by these
laminsD, but they vary too much in their mode of arrangement to
admit of our saying anything generally upon this head The motion
of translation or nrom place to place, the only kind upon which it
seems neoessaiy to say anything here, is effected in two modes,
dther by the alternate flexion and extendon of the trunk, or by the
play of the limbs.
" In those Onutacea which are formed essentially for swimming,
the posterior part of the body is the prindpal sgent in enabling the
anixnd to change its place ; but here the motions, instead of being
laterd, are vertical ; and instead of causing the creature to advance
they cause it to recede : it is by bending the abdomen suddenly
downwards, and bringing it immediately under the sternum, that it
strikes the water, and consequently by darting backwards that the
animal makes it^ way through the liquid. [Abtaoits.] From what
has now been said it may be imagined that the Ormtf»cea whose con-
formation is the best adapted for swimming have the abdomen largely
devdoped, and this is in fact what we dways observe ; the Amphi-
poda and Deca/poda Macrowra are examples; whilst in the walking
Onutacea, such as the Crabs, the Caprella, the Oniaeut, &&, this por-
tion of the body attains but very insignificant dimendons. In the
swimming Onutacea the appendages of the penultimate segment of
the abdomen also become important organs of locomotion, inasmudi
as they for the most part terminate in two broad horisontal plates,
which, with the last segment, also become lamdliform, constitute an
extendve . caudd fin arranged in the manner of a fan. We have
already sud that the thoradc extremities done constitute true ambu-
latory limbs. When destined for swimming only, their segments are
lamdliform, and the pdp, as well as the stem, contributes to form the
kind of oar which each of them then constitutes.
tt CROaTACEA.
"To concludB^ ths (temmatoui portioD of the thorwdo flxtreiaitlsi,
whilit it still prcMTTMi the genenl form which we have ungned it,
u modified ia loms eisee to serve for walking aa well tis iwimming, or
to aid the Buimal u >n initrumeiit for burrowing with hcility, and
making a cavitv fbr ihelter among the aand. Tbua in the Decapods
that buiTow, the last a^ment of ths tanus anumes a lineeolated
form ; and in Uie ■wiimniDg SrscAyuro, the aama segment, eapemallj
of thelast pairof aEtntnitieB(Jfa(Wa, for example), appeara entirely
lamellu'."
Any one who will take the tnmble of gobg orer this exeellent
deecriptioD with a common crab and lobiter before him, will have a
clear idea of the locomotiie system in these ammals.
Wo have only furtbar to add, that in a great number of spraiea one
or eevaral pain of the thoracio extremities are modified so aa to
become lutramente of preheneioD ; sometimes it is the last segment
of the limb which, acquiring more Uian usual mobility, bends in such
a manner as to form a hook with the preoeding aliment ; sometimaa
It is thia pannltimate segment which extendi below or by the side of
tha last^ so aa to form a kind of immoveable finger with which it is
pUced in oppoaitian. In the first instance theee inatrumants are
danomiuated sabcheliform clawa, in the second chelm simply, or
oholiform daws.
Jnw.I^ [fitii nucholrti], be., or n,ilpiua flmiatHii.
1, right tiUTDSl Jiw-nwt ; A, Its Intmsl bisde, ct tig»; a, t, e, d, t, Its
tuiOBM anlaslatiaiu ; B, its Hicraat blade, or palp ; 3, Jsw of the ronrth piir
wlUi iU palp ; 1, ]kw of tht lUrd pair with Its palp ; 4, Jaw oT the seuod
__._ . . ■ — _. .>j jjij p^ . g^ nisndibls wilh Its palp; I, npptr Up; t,
CBPSTACEA. IM
adapted for sucking, and In tbe interior of which are two slendar
poiobsd prooessaa tlut act aa lancata for the piupoae of pcrforatiotl,
m lieu of the true mandiblaa.
The basilar articulations of tlie anterior thoraoio extremitiea in
many apeciea are employed to seise, hold bst, and in a considerable
dwree comminute, tha food ; and Uie moat perfect derelopment of
thia design is manifestsd in the chelifonn clawa of the lobatera and
crabs, with all their admirable modiflcatioiu for powerfol prehension.
The mouth is a mere opening of the short cesophagus ; nor i* it
furnished wilji a tongue — Uie organ to named (langue and laiiguett«)
is no more than a, homy and lamellar pnceaa, performiw in a degree
the functioDS of a lower lip. The ceaophagoi, which terminates
without any interruption in the stomach, and both parts, with one
striking exception in the ease of tha latter, whieh we shall presently
mention, present nothing remarkable, oonaisting, as well as Uia whole
of the Intestinal canal, of two mamtotmoui layers, and preaanting a
considenble reaemblanoe to the same put of tlia organisation of the
hi ahfv animals. The stomach Is globular and ouMoioui, oconpying
much of the area of the cephalic cari^. Mid oouMug of two dictiaet
portions: I, the cardiac region, sDTmoanting the tDOvtb and amo-
phagu* J 3, the pyloric, placed behind the oardiao ragioo.
A^und the pylorus is situated that extraordinary apptT«tas of hard
taberolea or ahaip teeth which opeiate as grinding or tearing organa
on tha food submitted to the action of this animal miU ; and though
the different pieces vary ooniiderably in dillhrent specieB, their greater
or less derelopment depending npon the nature of the food tuen by
those apaoiea, they may be tneed in all the Brada/tuv and JfacrMmi.
In Squilla thia mastiratoiy fiwnework ia reduced to two half-horay
pieosa, with rounded projectiona ; and, to make up for thia deficiency,
a bn&ah of each manditde reaehaa down to the pylorio orifice.
From the pyloms the intasUne prooeeda dinct to the Ttnt, there
being no convolution ; but in the higher Cmstaaeans ft b diatingniah-
•ble into two portions, to which the names of duodenum and raotntn
have bean applied, and which are aometimea, in the lobster for in-
stance, separated by a valve, but mora frequently are without defined
Umits. In the lower Cmitaceans the intestine is cylindrical, anJ
oSen no differenoe throughout its whole length from the stomach to
tha vent, which is alwaya situated in the laat ring, and has its orifice
closed by muscular fibres which perform the functions of a sphincter.
The liver is largely developed in many of tha Omilaeta, eepeoially
in the Decapods ; indeed, no one can eat a crab or a lobster without
being struck with the laif^e proportions of this viacus, which in thoae
species is considered so delicioua. In the Bdriophthalmians, on the
contWy, it is almost rudimentary, there being in them only three
pairs of biliary vessels, much reaembling those of insects. The organ,
when well developed, consiste of two symmetrical portions, generally
sepatated from each other, and oompoaed of a collection ot ocuma,
whi^ at one of their eitremitiea dischaiva their ascietion into excre-
tory ducts, which being oonvertad by uiur union into longer and
laiger veasls, pour the bile ultimately through a double channel into
the pylorua. The nature at the whitiah fluid accreted by the two,
and, as it is said, in soma casee three, elongated blind tubular worm-
like oigana—the Gnt two tituatad on each aide of the pylorus and tha
third on the middle of the intestine a ahort way below then — ia not
known, nor is its use.
The two groan glandular organs placed on each aide of the ceso
phagui are supposed to aet in soma degi«e aa aDbstltutat for aalivaiy
Much has been written on the subject of the vMCular sralem of the
Oruitaeta. The following are the conclusiona to which HUne-Ed wards
and V. Audooln came, after a careful study, bb well of the anatomical
disposition of the circulating apparatus ot the Onulacta, as of the
progress of the blood through its interior : —
" The circulation of the blood in these animals is accomplished in s
manner very similar to what takes place in the MoUu*ca. The blood
puahed forward by the heart, is distributed to svray part of tha body,
from whence it is returned into Urge sinuses situated at no greal
distance from the base of the hnnctun; from theee sinuses it is sen'
on to the respiratory apparatus, which it trBverses, and from which i^
finds ite way to the heart, to recommenoe the tame circle anew. Thf>
heart is consequently aortic and single. The heart is always found
in the median line of the body, and lying over the alimentary cnnal,
near the dorsal aspect. Its form is various ; in the Decapods it is
nearly square, and lies in the middle and superior part of the thorax,
being separated from the carapace by tegumenteiy membranes only,
and may be seen in the spaoe included between the two vaulta of the
Banks. In structure it appears to be composed by the interlacement
of numerousmuscular fibres, fixed by their eitremitiea to neighlrauring
parte, and passing to some distance over the aggrwate at either end,
so that tha whole oigan brings to mind such a figure ae would be
formed by the luperposition of a number of stara Uie rays of which
do not correspond. In the other orders this general form of the heart
varies conaiderably, from the figure of an oblong square of rather
inconsiderable aiae, aa it occura in the Dteapoda, to that of a long
cylindrical vessel extending through the whole length of the body, as
it appears in the Slomap«da and the Edriophthalmians. In the
former of these it gives origin to six vascular trunks, three of whi^
issue from tha anterior edge, and three from the posterior sur&ce;
CRUSTACEA.
CRUSTACEA.
SH
etch of the tax openings ui doeed by a valynlar apparataa, which
prarants the ragnigitation of the blood.
** The fint of the thiee anterior yeasela is situated in the median
line, and b distributed to the eyes, in consequence of which we have
entitled it the ophthalmic arteiy. Lodged within the substance of
the general tegumentary membrane, it continues its course without
undergoing any subdivision along the median line through the whole
length of the thorax, until, arrived opposite the eyes, it subdivides
and terminates in two branches, which penetrate the ocular pedundes.
On the two sides are the two antennary arteries. They run obliquely
towards the aatennfiB, sending off numerous branches to the tegumen-
tary membrane, in which tney are at first lodged ; they then plunge
more deeply, sending branches to the stomach and its musdes^ and to
the oigans of generation, between which they insinuate themeeWes
by following Sie folds of the same membrane which parts them.
I^ly, each of these vessels subdivides into two branches, one of
which proceeds to the internal and the other to the external antenna.
" Two hepatic arteries arise from the fore part of the inferior sur-
face of the heart, and penetrate the liver, there to bo ramified ; but
they are only found double and distinct from one another so long as
the Uver is met with divided into two lobes, as it is in the crawfish
and lobster.
*' From the posterior part of the same surface of the heart there
proceeds a large trunk, which, from its importance, might be com-
pared with the aorta. This is unquestionably the vessel which many
oathon have spoken of as a great vena cava ; we have entitled it the
sternal artery. It bends forward, giving origin to two abdominal
arteries, dips into the sternal canal, distributing branches to the
different thoracic rings, as also to the fint five cephalic rings, which
it passes over in its course. Meeting with the oesophagus, it bifur-
cates, but still sends branches to the mandibles and the whole of the
anterior and inferior parts of the head.
"The bulb presented by the sternal artery at its origin, in the
Jfocnmro, is the part which Willis characterised as auricle of the
heart As ooncems the two abdominal arteries, which may be distin-
gmshed into superior and inferior, and which arise from ^e kind of
cross which it forms almost immediately after its exit^ they are in
precise relationship in point of size with the magnitude and import-
anoe dT the abdomen itself. In the Brachyura they are mere slender
twigs ; in the Moicmu/ra, on the contrary, they are capacious stems,
and the inferior of the two sends branches to tiie two posterior pain
of thoracic extremities.
" The disposition of the first three vessels is the same in the Stoma-
poda as in the preceding species ; but the great vessel which represents
the heart being extended through the whole length of the body, sup-
plies immediately other arteriaJ branches in pairs, and in number
equal to those of the rings.
'* The blood returns from the different parts of the body by canals,
or rather TBCuities, among Uie tissues (for they have no very evident
appropriate parietes), which terminate in the venous sinuses situated
dose to the branchiss.
*' In the short-tailed Ikeapoda we find no more than a double series
of these sinuses included within the cells of the planes above the
articulation of the extremities. They communicate with one another,
and they appear to have no parieties other than laminss of cellular
membrane, of extreme tenuity, which cover the neighbouring parts.
Euh of them, nevertheless, receives several venous conduits, and
gives origin at its superior and external part to a vessel, which, tra-
Tcrsing the walls of the planes at the base of the branchiae, conducts
the blood to the latter organs. This is the external or afferent vessel
of the branchiss.
"We find the same lateral venous sinuses in the if acrottra; but
instead of communicating with one another athwart the thoradc
septa, as is the case in the Bf*adiyura, they all empty themselves into
a great median vessel, which is itself a venous sinus, and occupies the
sternal canal. In the SquiUa this sinus is almost the only vessel which
•errcs as a reservoir to the venous blood.
" The blood, after being arterialised in its passage through the
capillaries of the branchise, is poured into the efferent vessel which
nms along the internal surface of each branchia. It enters the thora-
cic cells in the same manner as the afferent vessel passed out firom
them, bends upwardly under the vault of the flanks, and thus takes
its course towards the heart. It is to this portion of the canal that
we have given the name of branchiocardiao vessel"
The anatomical accuracy of the above description is generally
admitted ; but the physiological deductions of M. Lund differ from
those of Messrs. Audouin and Milne-Edwards. He regards the heart
as destined to propel, not only the pure blood from the gills, but also
an admixture of venous blood which enten the cavity of the heart by
four orifices, seated on its dorso-lateral aspects, and distinct fipom
those in which the brandual veins terminate. The French anatomists
have objected that these orifices described by Lund are dosed by a
membrane ; but we find them plainly shown, and provided with the
valvular apparatus for preventing a reflux of the blood, in a prepara-
tion (No. 898 a.) added by Mr. Owen to the Hunterian Series illus-
trating the same subject in the Museum of the College of Surgeons.
John Hunter had long sgo arrived at the same conclusions as to the
mixed condition of the blood which is sent from the heart, and in a
KAT. HIST. Dty. VOt, II.
series of elaborate researches on the circulation in the Onutaeea
and Insects, fint discovered the difiiised state of the venous blood in
extensive and irregular venous sinuses; the general disposition of
which, in the lobster, is well displaved in the four beautify plates
(15, 16, 17, and 18) illustrative of John Hunter^s account of the circu-
lating system of the lobster, in the * Catalogue of the ^ysiological
Collection,' voL ii
With regard to the circulation in the Amphipod^t, Mr. Spence Bate
has pointed out to us that there appear to be no vessels, and that the
fluid circulates between the muscular structure.
The vascular system just described is regarded by most authon as
a true sanguiferous system, but Professor Agassis has stated his rea-
sons for believing that the fluid which circulates is not blood but
chyle, and that this system must be regarded as chyliferous. (' Ann.
Nat. HisV 1851.)
The respiration of the Crutlcieea is carried on generally by means
of branchise. We say generally, because there are some forms where
no special organs have been detected, and where it is presumed that
oxvgen is obtained from the water through the medium of the exter-
nal tegument. But where, as in the great mass of these animals,
brancQal respiration is present, the variety in form and disposition of
the apparatus, and in some cases the complexity of it» are very great
Thus, in the Branchiopoda the lamellar form of all the thoracic extre-
mities and the two external appendages corresponding to the palp
and flabeUum present membranous vesicles, flat in shape, highly vas-
cular and soft, whose office is to facilitate ^e action ox the air upon
the blood. In the Amphipoda and Lctmodipoda we begin to perceive
a gradual departure fix>m this type. In the LoBmodipoda the vesicu-
lar bodies produced by the flabeUiform appendage of a certain number
of pain of the thoradc extromities, only peiform the functions of
branchiee ; and in the laopoda the locomotive extromities cease to act
as respiratoiy organs, the firat five pain of abdominal extromities
being exclusively devoted to those duties. The Stamapoda, which in
some cases aro without determinate respiratory organs, in othen pre-
sent an oiganisation analogous to that of the Decapodous embiyo, and
again in Uie SquUlce and Thytanopoda exhibit a highly-complicated
s&ucturo of branchiie, which, though superior even to the highest
^pe in complexity, still fall short of the perfection manifested in
that type, inasmuch as the branchise float in the water unprotected
by any envelope.
M. Milne-Edwards thus roviews the respiratory apparatus in its
state of greatest complexity, commencing with it in the embryo, and
following it in its progressive development. It should however be
recollected that the larvse of Attacut /luvicUilu undergo no metamor-
phosis, and can hardly be regurled as typical of the QrvMUteea : —
" In the earliest periods of embryotic life of the common Ariaeui
JluviaiUiB we discover no trace of branchise ; but at a somewhat moro
advanced stage of the incubation, though still beforo the formation of
the heart, these oigans begin to appear. They aro at first small lamd-
lar appendices of extreme simpUdty, attached above the three pain
of mudllaxy extremities, and roprosanting the flabelliform portions of
these limba Soon these lamellar appendages dongate and divide into
two halves, one internal, lamellar, and triangular, the other external,
small, and cylindrical; lastly, upon the surface of this, strise aro
observed to appear, whidi aro the rudiments of the branchial fila-
ments. During this interval the thoracic extromities have beoomtf'
devdoped, and above their bases other branchise have made their
appearance, presenting in the beginning the form of tuberdes, and
subsequentiy that of stilete, smooth and rounded on their surface,
but by-and-by becoming covered with a multitude of small tubercula-
tions, which, by Uieir dongation, aro gradually converted into branchial
filaments similar to the preceding. During this period of the de-
velopment of the branchise, these organs aro applied, like the extremi-
ties, to the inferior surface of the embryo ; but they subsequoitly
rise against the lateral parts of the thorax, become lodged within a
cavity situated under the carapace, and thus aro no longer visible
externally.
" The cavity destined to protect in this manner the brandiial appa-
ratus is ndther moro nor less than an internal fold of the common
tegumentary membrane. It shows itself first under the guise of a
narrow groove or furrow, which rons along the lateral psjrts of the
thorax, below the edge of the lateral piece of the carapace. This lon-
gitudinal furrow is not long of expanding, and becomes consolidated
by its superior edge with the internal surface of the carapace, which,
by being prolonged inferiprly, constitutes the external wall of a cavity,
the opening of which, situated above the base of the extremities,
becomes more and moro contracted, and ends bv being almost entirdy
dosed. The space in this way ciroumscribed mcloses the branchise,
and constituteB what is called the respiratory cavity of the Decapod
Crustaceans.
*' From what has just been said, it would appear that the embryo
of AttacuB Jluviatilit presents four principal periods with reference
to the state of the rospiratory apparatus : 1, that which precedes the
appearance of this apparatus ; 2, that during which the branchise aro
not distinguishable from the flabelliform appendages of the extromi-
ties, or in which it consists of simple lamelhu: or stiliform processes,
which appear as mero processes of other oigans especially dedicated to
locomotion or mastication ; 8, that characterised by the transformation
Q
227
CRUSTACEA.
CRUSTACEA.
of these extremely simple appendages into oi^gana of a complex
structure, entirely distinct from the extremities, but still entirely
external ; 4, and lastly, that during which the branchiss sink inwards,
and become lodged in a cavity especially adapted for their reception,
and provided with a particular apparatus destined to renew the water
necessary to the maintenance of respiration.
'* If we now turn to the examination of the apparatus of respiration
in the different groups in which it exhibits important modifications,
we shall, in the series of Crustaceans, encounter permanent states
analogous to the various phases through which we have just seen the
apparatus passing in the most elevated animals of the class. And in
fact the first period which we have particularised above in the
embryonic life of the Decapod is exhibited in the permanent condition
of some inferior Crustaceans, in which not only are there no special
oigans for respiration, but in which none of the appendices occur
with such modifications of structure as would fit them to become sub-
stitutes for the branchiae, in which, consequently, the process of
respiration, that is, the aeration of ike blood, appears to take place
over the surface of the body Mb large. The greater number of the
GEaustellate Onuicteea, of the JSntomottraca properly so called, of the
Copepodiif and even of the PhyllotonuUa, appear to belong to this
type of oigamsation."
The branchial character is so inherent in this class, that it is pre-
served even in certain species that live on the land. The Land-Crab
(CfecareiMu), for example, would die if long immersed in water ; but
this, as W€ul as other land Crustaceans, requires a certain degree of
moisture to enable the branchiee to act, and accordingly they never
remove far from damp situations.
Much light has been recently thrown on the anatomy of the nervous
system and senses in the Onutacect,
The principles derived from the study of the gradual evolution of
the nervous system in the common Crawfish are— 1. The isolated
formation of the nervous centres, independently of one another. The
ulterior junction of the organs comrtdtutes the law of centripetal
development of M. Serretf. 2. A tendency to conjunction by a motion
transversely. 8. A second motion in the line of the axis of the body,
producing a final concentration of a greater or lees number of nervous
centres, originally independent of each other.
The first of these conditions is well seen in TalUrui, On each side
of the mesial line in this genus is a chain of ganglions, cox^oined by
nervous centres of simple construction, flattened, and somewhat
losenge-like in their outline. Thirteen pairs of these correspond to
the thirteen segments of the body, the two nuclei of each pair com-
municating together in the same way that each pair is connected with
its antecedent and succeeding pair, by means of medullary cords in
the first case, and longitudinfd cords in the second. Each of these
pairs in all essentials is a counterpart of the other, the cephalic gang-
lion, which sends branches to the antennse and eyes, not excepted.
In PhyllowfMk the tendency to centralisation is more obvious, and in
Oymothoi the union of the medullaiy nuclei is accomplished, the
approximated chains forming a single longitudinal series from head
to tail.
In the tvpes, as might be expected, the centralising system is per-
fected by the actual cox^unction of the nuclei. This subject has been
fully treated by Rathke, Audouin, Milne-Edwards, and Newport
Hr. Newport's excellent and instructive paper ' On ^e Nervous Sys-
tem of the Sphinx liguttri of IdnnflBus ' (' FhiL Trans.' part iL, 1884),
including beautiful illstrations of the nervous system of the Lobster,
and showing its identity in principle with that of the Sphinx, may be
consulted with advantage.
The conclusion formed by M. Milne-Edwards in his 'Histoire' is,
that "the nervous system of the Onutaeea consiBts uniformly of
medullary nuclei (ganglions), the normal number of which is the
same as that of the members or rings of the body, and that all the
modifications encountered, whether at difforent periods of the incuba-
tion or in different species of the series, depend especially on the
approximation, more or less complete, of these nuclei (an approxima-
tion which takes place from the sides towards the median line, as well
as in the longitudinal direction), and to an arrest of development
occurring in a variable number of the nudeL"
Mr. Newport appears to have been the first who pointed out the
double ganglionic chain in the Lobster, as being composed of two
orders of fi1»es, forming distinct and superposed fasciculi or columns,
designated by him columns of sensation and of motion.
The highest d^ree of nervous centralisation is found in Maia,
according to M. Milne-Edwards, who lays down the following princi-
ples, the result of the experiments made by himself and M. Audouin,
and his deep and elaborate investigation of the subject : —
" 1. The nervous system is the system which entirely presides over
the sensations and motions.
** 2. The nervous cords are merely the organs of transmission of the
pensations and of volition, and it is in the ganglions that the power
of perceiving the former and of producing the latter resides. Every
orgnn separated from its nervous centre speedily loses all motion and
Eensation.
" 8. The whole of the ganglions have analogous properties ; the
faculty of determining motions and receiving sensations exists in each
of these oigans ; and the action of each is by so much the more inde-
pendent as its development is more isolated. When the ganglionic
chain is nearly uniform through its whole length, it may be divided
without the action of the apparatus being destroyed in either portion
thus isolated, — always understood, that botii are of considerable size,
because, when a very small portion only is isolated from the reet of
the system, this appears too weak, as it were, to continue its func-
tions, so that sensibiiitv and contractility are al^e speedily lost. But
where one portion of the ganglionic cham has attained a development
very superior to that of the rest, its action becomes essential to the
integrity of the functions of the whole.
" It must not be imagined, however, from this that sensibility and
the faculty of exciting muscular contractions are ever completely
concentrated in the cephalic ganglions, and it seems to us calculated
to convey a very inaccurate idea of the nature and functions of these
ganglions to sp^stk of them under the name of brain, as the generality
of writers have been led to do, seduced by certain inconclusive analo-
gies in point of form and position.
" It is nevertheless to be remarked, that in these animals an obscure
tendency to the centralisation of the nervous functions is observable
in the anterior portion of the ganglionic chain ; because i^ in the
lobster, for instance, it be divided into two portions, as nearly equal
as possible, b^ severing the cords of conmiumcation betvreen the gan-
glions belongmg to the first and seoond thoradc rings, sensibility, and
especially mobuity, are much more quickly lost in the posterior than
in the anterior half, and this disproportion is by so much the more
manifest as the division is performed more posteriorly ; still there la
a great interval between this first indication and the concentration of
the faculties of perception and of will in a single organ — the brain —
of which every other portion of the nervous systems then becomes a
mere dependency." (' Cycle, of Anat. and Phys.')
The sense of sight is possessed by the whole of the claas at some
period of their fives, and in the gjraat majority the organ is of a
highly complicated structure. The parasitic Onulaeea, which
undergo a land of metamorphosis, possess eyes in the early stage of
their existence, though they are subsequently obliterated ; but the
great mass of Crustaceans are gifted with the power of distinguishing
objects through the medium of light from their birth to their death.
The different forms presented by the visual apparatus are as
follows : —
Smooth or Simple Eyes. — These consist of a smooth rounded
transparent cornea, being a modification of the tegumentaiy mem*
brane, immediately behmd which and in contact with it is the
crystalline lens, generally spherical, and behind this last and in con-
tact with it is a mass of gelatine, which performs the function of the
vitreous humour, and touches the extremitv of the optic nerve. A
thick deep-coloured pigment envelops the whole, and lines the inner
surface of the eye-globe up to the point at which the transparency of
the cornea b^^ns. Limvliu (Molucca Crab, Eing-Crab) affords an
example of this kind of eye. The simple eyes have never been found
to exceed two or three In number.
Intermediate Eyes. — NAaUOf Branchipui, and JOaphnia present us
with the first modification of a visual structure, intermediate as it
were between the simple and the compound eyes. In this organisa-
tion the cornea is stiU undivided externally, but a number of small
crystallxne lenses and vitreous humours, each in its separate pigmen-
tiuy sac and terminating in immediate contact with the optic nerve,
presents an eye consisting of a ooz^unotion of several stemmata or
simple eyes under a common cornea — Apui [Bihoottlub], besides its
pair of simple eyes, has also a posterior compound pair. The second
modification, which is to be found in the Edriophthalmians (Ampki-
thoi, for instance), brings us still nearer to the Ixxdy compound form
with distinct facets. Two transparent laminse form the*ooniea in
these Crustaceans : the external is smooth and undivided, the internal
divided into a variable number of hexagonal facets, each wiUi a
distinct cornea, which are superposed upon the conioal crystalline lens,
which is an ingredient in compound eyes properly so ceJled.
Compound Eyes. — The external and internal membranes, the junc-
tion of which forms the cornea, present simultaneously the division
into facets, each of which forms anteriorly an ocular compartment.
Unlike the facets in the eyes of insects, which are always hexagonal,
these present various figures in different Crustacea, In ScyllanUt
Oalaihea, the common Crawfish, fta, for example, they are square : in
Pagurttt, SquUla, the Crabs, &o., they are hexagons. The crystalline
humour that succeeds them immediately, is, according to M. Milne-
Edwards, " of a conical form, and is followed by a vitreous humour
having the appearance of a gelatinous filament, adhering by its base to
the optic nerve." Each of the columns thus formed is moreover
lodged within a pigmentary cell, which likewise coven the bulb of
the optic nerve. " But the most remarkable circumstance is, that the
large cavity, within which the whole of these parallel columns, every
one of which is in itself a perfect eye, are contained, is closed poste-
riorly by a membrane, which appears to be neither more nor lees than
the middle tegumentary membrane pierced for the passage of the
optic nerve, so that the ocular chamber at large results from the sepa-
ration at a point of the two external layen of the general envelope."
....'' The most remarkable modification of fooetted eyes con-
sists in the presence of a kind of supplementary lens, of a circular
shape, and set within the cornea in front of each proper crystalline
229
CBUSTACEA.
CRUSTACEA.
230
lens. These small lentioiilar bodies exist independently^ and are
p^fectly distinct from the small corneal facets. In some cases they
might be mistaken (in the Idotea, for example, where they may be
peroeiTed singly, and with their distinct circiUar forms), and the
incautious obseryer led to conclude that the corneal facets are merely
these lentieulAr bodies so much enhuged that their hexagonal or
equare forms result from their agglomeration in a point ; but there
are Qnutaeea, such as the Ca^iofUMtcr, in which these two elements
of the external ooniea may be perfectly distinguished, the lenticular
body being of insignificant dimensions, sad occupying the centre of
the ootneai &cet only. In general however the diameter of the lenti*
cular body is equal to that of the oomeaJ facet itself, so that l^eir
edges blend. Further, the lenticular bodies are most commonly
erolTsd in the substance of the comes ; but there are oases in which,
under fsTourable drcumstances, they may be detached from it
Although the existence of these different modifications must not be
oonsidcared as being exdusiye, inasmuch as there are certain Onuitacea
^hich exhibit more than one of them at the same time, for instance,
Btemmata and compound eyes, the latter only are the species of visual
ozgao encountered in the great minority of cases. Their general
number is two ; but these are occasionally united, so as to form a
single mass, and make the animal appear at first sight as if it had but
a single eye. This peculiarity of organisation can even be followed in
the /}aphnia [Bbakohiopoda], in the embxro of which the eyes are
first seen isolated ; with the progreas of the development however
they are observed gndually to approach each other, and fixially to
become united. Stemmata are always immoveable and sessile ; the
compound eyes with smooth oomen however, although in the m^ority
of cases they present the same disposition, now snd then occur move-
able : sometimes they are supported by a pedicle, moveable in like
manner and provided with special muscles. The eyes with facets
present the nme modifications, and even supply important ohacaeters
in das^ying these animals : thus in the Bdi%ophihtUmia the eyes are
always immoveable and sessile, whilst in the Deeapoda and Stoma-
poda they are supported upon moveable stems of very various
lengths, sAd which every consideration leads us to view as limbs or
appendages of the first cephalic ring. It sometimes even happens that
in these animals* between the outer edge of the carapace and the base
of the antemue, there occurs a furrow or cavity, within which the eyes
may be withdrawn or Isid flat, so as to be out of the way of injury ;
this groove or cavity is generally spoken of under the name of the
orbit." (' Cyd. of Anat and Phys.')
Absence of Eyes. — ^Mr. Westwood has recently made known through
the Iiinnnan Sodetv a form of JBdriopMhaltnia inhabiting a deep well,
a spedes in which there is no external appearance of eyes whatever.
Hr. Newport has however, with his accustomed accuracy in dissection,
pointed out that even in this case a rudimentaiy visual oigan exists
underneath the cephalic crust
In some of the rorms {M<Ua, for instance) there is a fringe of hairs
on the inner side of the orbit, so placed as to perform the office of a
brush in wiping the eye when brouffht into contact with it
With regard to hearing, a cavitv full of fltdd, supplied with a nerve
fitted for uie perception of impulses of sound, forms the basiB of the
auditory system in the Onuiacea, This apparatus appears to be
aausted by certain oigans, elastic membranes, and rigid stems, for
7nff*'*?««^ organised so as to vibrate under the action of sonorous
undulations, or to assist sudi vibrations. The long rigid stem formed
by the antenna of the second pair is said to asttst in this function,
and, according to the highly interesting experiments of BL Savart, the
addition of such a rigid stem renders certain vibrations appreciable ;
but in some instances no such stem exists. In many of the forms
{Maia, for instance) there is an ossictdum auditus.
In the Museum of the College of Suigeona (Ghdleiy, No. 1559 A) is
a Hermit Crab (Pagurua MiUb, Oliv.), prepared by Mr. Owen to show
the organ of hearing, which ia compost of a simple vestibular cavity
situated at the under part of the basal joint of the external antenna.
The cavity is surrounded by a dense crustaoeous substance, except at
the internal opening, where the auditoxy filament of the antennal
nerve penetrates it, and at the opposite side, where an elliptical open-
ing or fenestra is left, which is closed by the acoustic membrane : the
membranes of sound affect this membrane, and are transmitted to the
nerve, which is exposed on ihe left side. (Owen, * Cat of Physiolog.,'
series, voL in. part 1.)
Every lobster-pot Uiat is baited on our coasts aflbrds evidence that
the Crustaceans are endued with the sense of smelling, but where the
organ is seated is doubtfiiL H. de Blsinville placed it in the antenna,
where it certainly does not reside, according to H. MUne-Edwards,
who further states that the opinion of H. Itosenthal, who ascribes
thft function to a cavity which he discovered at the base of the first
pair of antenna, requires to be supported by direct experiment
Though the Ontiacea have no true tongue, their selection of food
and the preference exerdsed by Uiem, show that they are gifted with
the sense of taste or a sense analogous to it The seat of the faculty
is most probably that portion of the tegumentary membrane that
hnes the inside of the mouth and OBSophagus.
The more or less calcareous crust wi& which the Oruttacea ere
covered forms a medium not calculated to convey external impresdons
of any delicacy. " Nevertheleaa," says M. Milne-Edwards, "in front
a, right external anteima of
Thelphuaa Jltinatilu ; (, left an-
tenna of the same. Desmarest
of the head there are certain special oigans which all the observations
I have had an opportunity of making upon the oiganisation of these
animals lead me to regard as parts more particularly destined to be
the seat of the sense of touch. These oigans are the antenna — those
slender filaments possessed of a great degree of flexibility, of motility,
and of sensibility. M. de Blsinville was led to regard these oigans as
the;Mat of the sense of smell ; but
direct and condudve experiment
has satisfied us that the destruc-
tion of the antenna has no influence
whatever on the exercise of the
sense of smell : and we are on the
same grounds induced to believe
them destined to the exerdse of
the sense of touch ol oondderable
delicacy, unless we would imagine
them as the instruments of some
quite peculiar sense, the existence
of which would be purely hypothe-
tical. The number and dispodtlon
of these organs vary extremely.
Some of the Crustaceans at the
very bottom of the series are
wholly without antenna, or are
furnished with them in a merdy
rudimentary state. Some spedes
have no more than a single pair;
the normal number however is
two pairs. In speaking of the
tegumentary skdeton we have said to which of the rings these
appendages bdong; we shall only say further here that they may
be inserted on the superior or inferior surface of the head according
to the respective development of the different pieces of which this
segment is composed. They do not differ less widely in their form
and compodtion, and under this double point of view present modi-
fications analogous to those which we have specified as occurring in
the extremities."
As a rule the sexual oigans are separate in the Cnutacea, that is,
they never co-exist in the same individual, and the reproduction is
oviparous. Milne-Edwards has however described a crab in whidi
the oigans were male on one dde and female on the other. Mr.
Spence Bate also informs us that he has in his possession a
specimen of OoryHei in which all the characteristics are female but
with male oigans. The celebrated hermaphrodite lobster also (* Phil.
Trans.,' 1780, p. 290) presented a different sexual oigan on each dde,
and both the mde and female portion were complete. In the more
perfect Crtutaeea the analogy between the male and femde organs is
so great as frequently to deceive the observer at first sight
m the male oigans of the Common Crab tiie testis is grape-like,
the duster consisting of four prindpal lobes formed of numerous
woim-like delicate cuials convoluted into pellets. The first portion
is placed in the front of the thorax, and terminated in a laige coiled-up
vessd dtuated on the dde of the stomach ; behind, and connected
with it, is the deferent vessel, a convoluted canal of some size and
of a milky colour. It is twisted about the thorax, and at last pene-
trates the cell of the last pair of limbs, opening outwardly on the
basilar piece, and again passes into the styliform organs, which are
true intromittent oigans. The intercourse of the sexes only takes
place during the time that the female is moulting.
" The female reproductive apparatus of the (^ruttacea," says Milne-
Edwards, "in the highest state of complication consists of an ovary, an
oviduct, and copulatory pouchesi The ovaries in the Deeapoda brachy'
ura resemble four qylindricd tubes placed longitudinally in the thorax,
and divided into two symmetrical pairs, each opening into a distinct
oviduct, yet communicating with one another by a transverse csjial,
and by the intimate union of the two posterior tubes in a portion of
their length. The oviducts as well as the ovaries are of a whitish colour ;
they are shorty and become united in their course to a kind of sac, the
neck of which extends to the exterior of the animd's body ; there is
one of these on each side, and they are known by the name of the copu-
latory poudies. It is into these reservoirs that the mde pours the
spermatosoa, which are dmple round cells, and are applied to the
ova as they pass in succesdon dong and out of the oviducts. These,
after a course which is never long, terminate at the vuIvsb — openings
formed in the stemd pieces of the segment which supports the thiM
pair of ambulatoiy extremities,
"The Anomowra and Macroura have no copulatoiy pouches, and
their vulva are dtxutted on the basilar joint of the ambulatory
extremities of the third pair. The mode in which fecundation is
accomplished in these genera is consequently much leas apparent than
in the Brachuura, Many writers are of opinion that this operation
takes place in the interior of the ovaries, a process that appears by no
means feadble on account of the inequality of development of the
ova, which is such that the last of them are not in being even long
after the first have been expelled.
"The femde Crustacean does not abandon her eggs after their
extrudon. Those of the Decapods preserve them under their abdo-
men by means of the abdomiud extreiuitied modified in their
131 CRUSTACEA.
■truotura, TheSdriapUkalmia, again, ksop thfau no^br tbair thoiax b;
meuu of the flabtllifonn apptnidagea of ths eitr«miti«a belonging to
the region ; whilst the inTerior ggneni, Buch u the EntonuiartKa, Ac,
hava inipended to the external oriGcea either horn; tubes or a pair
of membTBDOiu laaa which oontain and teaniport them troai place '
plaoe. Theie vaiietiea in the aooeaaorr orgau of geneniion are
many case* aaffleieDt to diiitiuKuiah the aexn ; thuM, among i
Dieapoda (rotAjwa, the fam^w are known at a gluce b; Uudr
wider abdomen, which a aometimes of auch dimennona aa to •
the whole alemum."
The following cute wiU oonTsy some idea of the reUtire poaition of
the parti in the carapace.
B, a, s, o, 1
ImnehlB ; /,/, mu.
At one time it waa auppoied that the young of ths Cnulacta
underwent no change after being hatched from the ova, and this waa
formerly given aa a diatinotion between the loaect* and OwdKco. We
now know however that those anomaloua forma of unimrJ life known by
the name of Zeta, and referred t^ Boao and othera to the Entomostra-
coua OuitacM, are truly the young of t!ie higher forms of Ortulaaa
undergoing metaraorphosiH. jEwiioHlOPODi.] The faots of this pro-
eeoa were first made out by Mr. V. Thompson in the year 1828, and
anbteqnently the instances in which it has been obaerred are ao
numerous that there can be no doubt that mstamorplio«s takes place
in all the Uarina Deoapodcus Cnutaeta. In the Tarious forms of
Maenmra, the metamorphosis is less decided than in the £racA]/ura ;
and in the Fresh-Water Ciay-Fish {AHaeiti JtuvialUit) no change takes
KceatalL Thegehave lodsomaobeervers to doubt the correctnees of
. Thompson's conclusions. One of the last and most importuit series
of investigations conducted on thia subject was by Mr. H. Q. Couch,
at Pensance, Cornwall, who, diBsatisfied with the uncertainty and
contiadiction of former testimony, resulved tu inVHtigsto the matter
for himself. He observed the metamorphoiis to occur in the following
genet* :— Cancer, Zantho, Pilunimu, Cardnyu, PorimHu, Main,
OalaOea, Samaiiu, and Paimunu. The details of Mr, Couch's
observationi were published in the 'Proceedings of tjie Cornwall
FobtMihnia Society' for 1B4S.
nofesBOT Bell says, " Eliminating, therefbre, thii exceptional cue
(tint of AiHum fiuviatilii), it will be found that the fact of a. meta-
morphoma has been demonstrated with mo™ or less suooau in no less
than seventeen genera of the Bracbyurous order ot the Duapada, in
CBUSTACEA. tss
which order the phenomenon ia most decdded and obvions, belonging
to the families i^^odiada, Maiada, Caiueridtx, Portuntda-, Pmnc-
Aeiidce, On^Ma, Qteardnidix. In the Anomourous order it has been
shown in the genera Paguna, PuTceUarm. and Gaiathta, and amongst
the Maenura in Homartu, Patinarat, PaUmum, and Crangvik."
The following is Ur. Couch's account of the cbangrs which take plaoe
in the Common Shore-Crab (Cornnui nHeTU)). Having procured aome
q)ecimena of the Crab laden with ripe oya, he says—" These were
transferred to nq>tiTity, placed in separate basins, and supplied with
sea-water, and in about sixteen hours I hod the gratification of finding
large numbeia of the cresturea alluded to above swimming about with
all the activity of young life. There could be but little doubt that
these creatures were tho young of the captive craba. In order how-
ever to secure accuracy ot result, one of the crabs was removed to
another vestiel and supplied with filtered vlei, that all insects might
be removed ; but in about an hour the aame creatures were observed
swimming about aa before. To render the matter if possible still
more certain, some of the ova were opened, and the embryos extracted.
but shortly afterwarda I had the pleasure of witnessing beneath tht
microsoope the natunl bunting and escape of one precisely nmilar in
'" ~m to uioae found so abundantly in th '" "^ — ■^'--- ■>
doubt tliat these groteoqufr-looking or
then there is
are the young of the
Careintu tnaaat; but how different they are from the adult need
hardly be pointed out. When tliey Arrt escape th^ rarely e*oeed
half a line in length. Ths body is ovoid, the dorsal idueld large and
inflated; on its upper edge and about the middle is a loog epine,
curved posteriory, and rauier longer than the diameter of ttw body,
though it varies in length in different specimens; it is hollow, and
the Mood may be seen circulating through it The upper portion of
the body is sap-green and the lower samitransparent. The eyes an
laige, sessile, and situated in ^nt, and the urcumferance of the
pupil marked with radiating linee. The lower margin of the shield
IB waved, and at its posterior and lateral margin is a pair of natatoir
feet The tail is extended longer than the diameter of the shield
and is composed of five equal annulations besddea the terminal one j
ita extremity is forked, and the external angles long, slender, pointed,
and attached to ths last annulation by joints. Between the external
angles, and on each side of ths median line, are three lesser spine^
also attached to the last ring by joints. Between the eyes and from
near the edge of the shield hangs a long stout and somewhat oom-
prsssed appendage, whioh as the animal moves is reflexed posteriorly
betwssn the claw*. Under eadi eye there ie also another appeodags,
shorter, andilightlj mora compressed. The claws arain three pairs;
each is composed of three jointe, and terminates in four long slender
hair-like appendages. These claws an generally bent on the body,
but stand m relief &om it. If the animal be viewed in fomt the
lower margin of the dotnl shield will be foond to be waved into
three semiciroular festoons, the two external of which sn occupied
by the eyes, and between whioh the middle one intervenes ; the
general direction of the claws will be seen to be at right snglss to die
body. As the young lies indoaed wiUiin the membnines of the egg,
the daws are folded on each other, and the tail ie flexed on t^em so
fv as the margin of the shield ; and if long enough is reflected over
the front of the shield between the eyea. The dorsal spine is bent
backwards, and lies in contact with the donial shield ; for the youn^
when it escapes from the egg, is quite soft, but it rapidly hardens and
Bolidifles by the deposition of calcareous matter in what may be called
ita skin. 'The progress of this solidification may be very beautifully
observed by watching the circulation is the dorsal spine. When the
Qceatore has just effeeted its liberation from the egg, ths blood globules
may be seen ascending to the apex, but as the consolidation advances
the droulation becomss more and more limited in ita extent, and is
finally confined to the base. These minute cmturea, in this early
state of their existence, are natatory and wonderfully active. They
are continually ■dimming from one part of the vesnl to -the other,
and when observed free m their native pools, if possible even more
than when in conflaemenb Their swimming is produced by
IS and extensions of the tail, and by repeated beating moticua
of their claws; this, together with their gretesque-looking forms, gives
a most extrac
appearance
when under ei
shell becomes more solid they get less active, and return to the
sand at the bottom of the vessel to cast their shells, and acquire a
form. They are exceedingly delicato, and require greet care and
lUon t« convey them through the first stsge, for unless the watei-
be supplied very frequenUy and in great abundance they soon die.
Ths second form of bansmutation is equally as remarkable as the
Grsl, and quite as distinct from the adult anioiat. In the spedes now
under consideration this second transformation is marked by ths dis-
appearance of the dorsal spine ; the shield becomes Qatter and more
depreeaed: the anterior portion more horiiontal and pointed, the
three festoons having dimppeared. The eyes, from being sessile, are
now t-levat«d on foot-stalks; the in&a-orbitsl appendages beoome
apparently converted into antennK, The claws undsigo an entire
"— 'olution; the first pair beoome stouter than the others and a
m
ORUSTACEA.
CRUSTACEA.
M
bat ii more oommonly extended. Thia form ie as iiAtatoty as the
first. They are frequently found c o ngregating around floating sea-
weed, the buoys and strings of the crab-pot marks, and other floating
sabstanoes, both near the shore and in deep water. Their genenu
fonn somewhat resembles a Galatketk."
Subsequently to this second change a third takes place, in which
ihe animal loses its tail, and becomes more like to the form it assumes
in adult age. In the various species different forms are aaramed, but
they can ul be referred to departures fh»m the typical form of the
bsmlj. On this point the following observations of Mr. Couch are
very interesting : —
'*So &r as my observation has extended, it appears probable that
tile metamorphoBis of the young in their pro gress to adult growth is
not universal in all Crustaceans ; but^ on the contrary, that the fSunilies
in which the eyes are always sessile in their adult growth, and which
do not exuviate or voluntarily throw off tb»ir limbs, are in the habit
of producing their young perfectly fonned : and an opportunity that
has occurred to me of obeerring the process of early development in
the common lobster will tend to establish the existence of a law of
nature as applicable not only to it, but probably also to all the genera
of this extensive family or class, that is, the Long-Tailed Onutacea ;
which law is, that the greatest extent of metamorphosis is in those
genera which are of the highest rank in the series, that is, the Short-
Tailed, or Crabs, that even at their birth the Long-Tailed genera, as
the Lobster, approach more closely to the ultimate sice of the parent ;
and, what is still more extraordizmiy than all beside, that so long as
the lobster in particular retains the eyes sessile, the progress of
development and growth is'conformed to what is the perpetual mode
of growth of the permanently sessile-eyed races ; and it is only when
the crust baa become fully extended and hardened, and thus the
exuviation is rendered necessary, that the eyes become elevated on
footstalks^ and the adult form and habit are completely established."
With regard to the arrangement of the Otwtooea, almost every
writer on this class of animals has embodied his own views in their
classification. Among the principal soologiats who have written on
^he subject^ the names of Cuvier, Desmarest, Latreille, and Leach will,
with many others, occur to the observer. We select the arrangement
of M. Milne-EdwardS) because it is founded on anatomical mvesti-
gation, and on actual experiment made in a great many instances by
himself and H. Audouin. He makes .the Chiitocea to consist of two
great diviaiona
1st. Those which have the mouth funushed with a certain
number of organs destined in an espedal manner to the prehension
or division of the food.
2nd. Thoee which have the mouth unfurnished with special pre-
benaile or masticatory oxgans, but surrounded by ambulatory extre-
mities, the b as es of which perform the part of jaws. We shall take
this second division first, because it contains but one order, namely,
the XypAoMira. Example, lAminJiM*,
But it is to the first division that the great mass of the Crustaceans
belong, and these are subdivided into two great groups.
Ist The MaxUloeaj or Mandibtdaia, which poesess a mouth armed
with jaws, ftc.
2nd. The Sd€niata, or HoM t ieUa t a, whose mouth is prolonged in
the shape of a sucker.
L Uaullosa.
The Maxilloia are separated into four great sections : —
1. Podophthalmia.
These almost always possess true branchiae ; pedunculated and move-
able eyes; feet or ex^mities vergiform, partly prehensile, partly
ambulatory ; and a thorax covered by a carapace.
The Podophthalmia contain two orders, the Ikcapoda and Stomapoda,
1. The Peeapoda, whose branchiso are fixed to the sides of the
thorax, and are inclosed in special respiratory cavities. The oral
apparatus is composed of six pairs of members. There are five pairs
of thoracic extremities, which are generally ambulatoiy. The
Ikcapoda are divided into Ist^ the Brachywra (Cancer, Portunuif
Grapsus, Podophihalmis, Thdphuta, Gecarcimu, Ocypode, Pinnotherea,
Maia, Leucoiia, Dorippt, ftc.) ; 2nd, the Arunnoura (Dromia, JSantna,
PaffuruM, Hippo, JRemipa, Birgt$9, &c.) ; 8rd, the Macroura {Aitactu,
Scyllanu, Patcemonf Palinwui, Penautf &c.).
2. StomapodOf whose branchiff) are external ; sometimes rudimentary,
or none. Oral apparatus composed in general of three pairs of mem-
bers. Thoracic extremities prehensile, or for swimming ; generally
six or eight pairs. {Myn$, PhyUotomOf SquHlOy Thytanopodeif Alima,
Cynthia, ftc).
2. Edriophthalmia,
True branchiae none, but replaced by certain portions of the extre-
mities modified for tiiis in their structure; eyes sessile; thoracic
extremities ambulatory, almost always consisting of seven pairs ; no
carapace. The BdriophthtUmia contain three orders, namely, the
Amphipoda, the Lamodipoda, and the Itopoda,
1. JflipAtpocta.—- These have the flabella of the thoracic extremities
vesicular, and subserving respiration. The abdomen is very much
developed, subserving locomotion, and is furnished with six pairs of
limbs, the first three of which differ in form and use from the last
three. {Qammamm, TaUUu, ffyperia, Phronima, &c )
2. Lctmodipoda, — ^Abdomen rudimentary. Flabella of the thoracic
extremities vesicular, and subserving respiration. {Proio, Caprdla,
Cyanui, ftc.)
S. liopoda. — ^Abdominal extremities weU developed ; the first five
pairs lamellar, and subserving respiration. Abdomen well developed.
{Jdotea, Spheroma, CyfMthoa, lonct, Bopyrut, &a)
8. Branchiopoda,
No true branohie, but thoracic extremities lamellar, membranous,
and so formed as to be subservient to respiration. The PrancKiopoda
contain two orders, PhyUopoda and Cladocera,
1. PhyUopoda.'^^o bivalve sheU-like covering. Extremities nata-
tory, and in considerable numbers (from 8 to 22). (lAmnadiOt Chiro-
cepkahtt, Nebalia, &c.)
2. Cladoeera, — Carapace in form of a biTalvendielL Thoracic
members five pairs. {Daphnia, Ac.)
4. Bntomattraca,
No branchise nor any modification of oigan apparent to supply
the place of these. Eyes sessile, and commonly umted into a single
mass. The Entomoitraca contain two orden^ namely, the Cbpepoda
and OttrapodcL
1. Cbp^xxlflk— Body divided into distinct rings, neither carapace not
valvular envelope. . Thoracio and oral members in considerable num-
bers. {Cydopi, Pontia, &c.)
2. Okrapoda, — ^Body without veiy evident annular divisions, and
entirely inclosed undeor a large dorsal shield having the form of a
bivalvfrehell. Extremities in very small number. (CyprU, ko.)
IL Edentata.
The Bdentaia contain three orders, namely, the Arcmeiformu, the
SiphomatomioUi, and the LemcBiform/u.
1. Jrcmet/oniiet. — Extremities rod-like, long, adapted for walking.
{PycnogwMin, Nympkon,)
2. StphomoitofMOa, — ^Extremities not adapted for walking; partlj
lamelUf, partly prehensQe. (CaUgut, DiehdatUm, Nieotkoa, ftc.)
8. LtsniaifcTmeM, — Extremities rudimentary, body presenting anor-
mal forms. (Ltmaa, ftc.)
Foufl Cruttaeea.
Various forms of Crustacea have been found throughout the whole
series of fossiliferous rocks. Although their shells are not so well
calculated to resist decomposition as those of the McUutca, and even
the Behmodennata, yet a considerable number of speciee have been
recorded, especially of the smaller forms. Bronn, in his list of extinct
and recent species of the families of animals, gives the following as
the result amongst the OrMttaeea : —
Eztinet. Beeent.
Bntomostraca 568 148
Malacottraca 244 541
These numbers are probably higher for the extinct and lower for the
recent than the present state of our knowledge would warrant.
One of the most interesting groups of extinct Oruttaeect, are those
found in the Silurian Rocks, and which from their meet prevalent
forms may be called Trilobitic. [Chirociphalus ; TBiLOBnn.] The
species in this formation are more abundant than at any subsequent
period, and present greater departures from the types of existing
Cruatacea,
In the Devonian Bocks the Cnutaeea are represented also by Trilo-
bitic forms, some of which, as Brontee, are characteristic and remark-
able. This fossil which was at first supposed to be a fish, has been
rrferred by Agassis to the Cruttaeea, It was not unlike a lobster in
shape, but was four feet in length. Its claws were of gigantic size. The
shield was sculptured with delicate markings, looking like scales. The
tail was continuous, and so laige that a lobster of ordinary size might
stretch its entire length on it.
.The Carboniferous group of Rocks presents us with a considerable
number of species of Cruttaeea, but they principally belong to the
groups of smaller forms referred to the Entomostraoous Cruttaeea*
[Ertomostraca.] We have however, in certain forms, as in those
spedes which have been referred to Aput, Ataphut, Daphniet, Cyprit,
and XAmulut, approaches to the forms which exist at the present day.
Of the Ostracodous Cruttaeea Professor M'Coy has figured, and has
described twenty-two species fh>m the Carboniferous Limestone of
Ireland; M. de Koninck six species in Belgium. The Ottracoda
described in the Carboniferous and Silurian Rocks amount to about
thirty-seven spedes.
The Permian system, embracing the Magnesian Limestone Formation
of England, affords the remains of no other Crustacean but those
belonging to the Bntomottraca or Ottracoda,
In the OoUtic Rocks the species of Cruttaeea are not numerous, but
the forms so closely resemble those more common at the present time
as to afford some difficulty in distinguishing theuL The specimens
discovered in British rocks have all beenrefernod to the genus Attacut,
of which Professor Tennant gives four species — A,leptomanut,A. mitero-
naiu*. A, tcahrotut, A» rottreUut. Tue Lithographic Limestone of
215
CRYOLITE.
CRYSTALLOQRAPUY.
230
Solenhofen, affords several examples of the OruUaeea of this forma-
tion. It contains species of IdiMUuij and also of a genus Ergon
allied to the reoent genua Attiteua.
In the Chalk, specimens of CrutUteea are found representing hoth
the lobster and the crab. The following list of species is given by
Tennant in his ' British Fossils f — Attacua Leaehii, A. longimtmui. A,
Suatexiantu, Orithrya B