14.
In order to ensure that all types of B2B media were investigated, 28 respondents, each from 21 BINs or business categories, were interviewed. While the 28 interviews do not constitute a representative sample of each individual BIN, they are directional. Taken as a whole for a total of 588 interviews, the data are representative and projectable to the entire B2B industry.

15.
All respondents are involved in the decision-making process at their company and have been working at their company for at least 1 year.

17.
The incidence for executives who use B2B media on their job is 96% - almost universal.

18.
A minimum of 40% of the sample was among senior executives - those who are Vice President level or higher at their company.

19.
All respondents are at companies with $5 million or more in annual sales.

5Executive Summary

20.
6Executive SummaryTrends in Time Spent with Various Business-to-Business Media Sources

Since 2001, B2B media have remained an important resource for executives who, on average, report reading 4.2 B2B magazines and visiting 7.4 B2B websites in the past month.

21.
Senior executives report higher regular usage of B2B magazines than mid-level executives, but both use them frequently.

22.
Attendance at trade shows continues to be important, particularly among senior level executives who report attending close to 3 trade shows per year, compared to mid-level executives who report attending close to 2 per year.

23.
B2B media are held in high regard among executives with a strong majority who consider B2B magazines and websites to be more informative and reliable than general media sources.

24.
In fact, when asked what source of information executives rely on to do their job best, B2B magazines (41%) comes out on top as the single most mentioned resource, well above any general business media.

7Executive SummaryTrends in Time Spent with Various B2B Media Sources(continued)

To go a step further, executives are not passively receiving the information that B2B media offer them. Executives report they are more engaged/involved with B2B media than with general business magazines, television and newspapers. In particular, sales representatives and B2B magazines are the most engaging/involving, followed closely by B2B trade shows, B2B websites and B2B conferences or seminars.

8Executive SummarySources of Information that Corporate Decision Makers Rely Upon when Researching or Purchasing Products or ServicesB2B Media are essential tools throughout the purchasing process. In fact, during all phases of the purchasing process, a synergy of different B2B media offers executives the guidance they want every step of the way. The most used resources throughout the research process are:Start thinking about purchase: B2B websites, B2B sales people, B2B magazines;Begin researching options: B2B websites, B2B sales people, B2B magazines;Narrow down choices: B2B sales people, B2B websites, B2B magazines;Make a final decision: B2B sales people, B2B websites, B2B magazines and trade shows;Review after purchase: B2B sales people, B2B websites, B2B magazines.Furthering their reputation as informative, B2B magazines are the top source identified where executives first learn about new products.This is closely followed by B2B websites and B2B sales people.Senior executives are more likely than mid-level executives to value the importance of B2B magazines.

25.
9Executive SummaryThe Specific Role Each Type of B2B Media Have as a Source of Information

Different B2B media are perceived by executives as having different strengths; but what they have in common is the ability to generate purchases.

26.
There are three key factors that demonstrate the value and ROI of advertising/promoting in B2B media:

29.
Each type of B2B media discussed directly leads to purchase of products or services advertised/promoted in that media by at leasthalf of executives.

10Executive SummaryHow Corporate Decision Makers Use Different Sources of InformationExecutives recognize the value of using multiple media and it is easy to see why – advertisements in different B2B media spur different types of action on the part of executives. B2B magazines are a great way to direct executives to the web, either to find additional information (79%) or to make a purchase through the Internet (39%). Almost six in 10 executives (57%) say that an advertisement in a B2B magazine prompted them to purchase or recommend purchase of a product or service.Trade shows also drive executives to seek additional information either on the web (77%), by talking to a sales person (73%) or calling a 1-800 number (40%). Trade shows, with their hands-on advantage, are great places to make a sale with seven in 10 (70%) executives purchasing or recommending the purchase of a product or service directly as a result of advertising/promoting at a trade show.Advertising on B2B websites led slightly over one in three (35%) to directly make a purchase over the Internet and half (49%) to purchase or recommend purchase of a product or service.

30.
11Executive SummaryAn Evaluation of the Strengths of Different MediaBecause executives identify different strengths for each type of B2B media, it is helpful if a synergy of the different sources is used in order to deliver a more complete message to executives.The strengths that executives most closely associate with different types of B2B media are:B2B magazines: considered trustworthy, objective and raise awareness of new products.B2B websites: access to the latest information and trust in them as a resource is on the rise.Trade shows: interaction with representatives and industry peers and vital in raising awareness of new products.Executives acknowledge the strong tie between seeing a brand advertised in multiple B2B media and having that brand be more top-of-mind.Additionally, executives do not find these advertisements to be redundant but feel that additional advertisements offer more information.

31.
12Executive SummaryHow B2B Media Interact with Sales RepresentativesFour in 10 executives say they are spending less time with sales representatives than they did five years ago. Despite that fact, executives do report regular contact with sales representatives – key players in the purchase process.Seven in 10 (70%) executives report being contacted by a sales representative at least once a week, with one in three (34%) reporting daily contact.Salespeople and B2B media have a close relationship. This synergy is important to a majority of executives, as over three-quarters (88%) say that it is importantthat B2B media are an integrated part of sales initiatives.About half of executives report that B2B media have led them to contact a sales representative, with another half reporting the reverse.

33.
14Trends in Time Spent With Various Business-to-Business Media Sources

34.
15B2B media are widely used – from B2B magazines to newer methods such as webinars/webcasts. Most decision makers are regularly using many different types of B2B media. General Reported Use of Business-to-Business MediaUse B2B Magazines, B2B Websites and Trade Shows2006 48%2001 46%Q400: In the past month, did you read any Business-to-Business MAGAZINES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Q415: In the past month, did you visit any Business-to-Business WEBSITES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work, including online editions of Business-to-Business magazines?Q426: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a WEBINAR OR WEBCAST geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Q430: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a TRADE SHOW OR CONVENTION geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Q440: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a CONFERENCE OR SEMINAR geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Base: All respondents (n=588)

35.
16Executives read, on average, 4 B2B magazines each month and visit 7 B2B websites – numbers almost unchanged from 5 years ago.General Reported Use of Business-to-Business MediaQ405: In the past month approximately how many different business-to-business magazine titles did you read?Q420: In the past month approximately how many different business-to-business websites did you visit, including online editions of B2B magazines?Q426: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a webinar or webcast geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Q430: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a trade show or convention?Q440: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a conference or seminar geared to professionals in your industry?Base: All respondents (Base for Trade shows/conventions and Conferences/seminars) (n=588); B2B Readers (n=507); B2B Website users (n=402)

36.
17Executives are spending the most time with B2B websites, but B2B magazines and time spent at trade shows are holding steady from 2001.General Reported Use of Business-to-Business MediaQ410: In the past week how much time in total have you spent reading Business-to-Business magazines?Q425: In the past week approximately how much time in total have you spent visiting Business-to-Business websites, including online editions of B2B magazines?Q435: During the past 12 months approximately how many days in total did you spend attending these trade shows and conventions?Q445: During the past 12 months approximately how many days in total did you spend attending these conferences or seminars?Base: All respondents (n=588); B2B Readers (n=507); B2B Website users (n=402); Trade show attendees (n=452); Conference attendees (n=448)

37.
18Executives report regular usage of B2B magazines. Senior executives not only read more magazines than mid-level executives, they spend more time with those magazines.A Closer Look at B2B Magazine Usage

Q400: In the past month, did you read any Business-to-Business MAGAZINES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Q405: In the past month approximately how many different business-to-business magazine titles did you read?Q410: In the past week how much time in total have you spent reading Business-to-Business magazines?Base: All respondents (n=588); B2B Readers (n=507); Sr. Executives (n=241); Mid-level executives (n=347)

42.
19B2B websites are a popular tool across the board and executives spend about 2 and a half hours with them, on average, per week.A Closer Look at B2B Website Usage

44.
Sr. and mid-level executives use B2B websites at similar rates (69% and 68%, respectively).

Q415: In the past month, did you visit any Business-to-Business WEBSITES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work, including online editions of B2B magazines?Q420: In the past month approximately how many different business-to-business websites did you visit, including online editions of B2B magazines?Q425: In the past week approximately how much time in total have you spent visiting Business-to-Business websites, including online editions of B2B magazines?Base: All respondents (n=588); B2B Website visitors (n=402); Sr. Executives (n=241); Mid-level executives (n=347)

48.
The more B2B magazines executives read, the more trade shows they attend.

Q430: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a trade show or convention?Q435: During the past 12 months approximately how many days in total did you spend attending these trade shows and conventions?Base: All respondents (n=588); Trade show attendees (n=452); Sr. Executives (n=241); Mid-level executives (n=347)

49.
21Top-of-mind, B2B magazines continue to be the single most frequently mentioned source of information for insight about how to build business and do a better job. Top-of-Minds Mentions*(2001)(46%)(44%)(27%)(16%)(30%)(7%)(3%)(12%)(6%)(0%)(2%)Q310: What sources do you rely on for information and insight about how to build your business and do your job better?Base: All respondents (n=588)* Individual items mentioned by 5% or more of respondents listed above.

50.
22Sales people and B2B magazines are the most engaging/involving sources of information, with trade shows and B2B websites not too far behind. General business media such as magazines, television and newspapers, fall low on the engagement scale.Engagement ScoreQ330: Now I’m going to ask you to indicate how “engaged” or “involved” you are with the various types of B2B media we have been talking about. By engaged, we mean how much attention are you paying when you use this type of media. If 0 is not at all engaged and 100 is very engaged, how engaged would you say you are withBase: All respondents (n=588)

51.
23B2B magazines are the most engaging/involving resource for senior executives, followed by trade shows – both score over 60 on the engagement scale.Engagement SourcesQ330: Now I’m going to ask you to indicate how “engaged” or “involved” you are with the various types of B2B media we have been talking about. By engaged, we mean how much attention are you paying when you use this type of media. If 0 is not at all engaged and 100 is very engaged, how engaged would you say you are withBase: All respondents (n=588); Sr Level (n=241); Mid Level (347)

52.
24An overwhelming majority agree that B2B magazines and websites are more informative (87%) and reliable (83%) than general business sources.“Business to business magazines and their affiliated websites tend to be more reliable than general business media including television, books, radio and websites.”“Business to business magazines and their affiliated websites tend to be more informative than general business media including television, books, radio and websites.”Q530 How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements? Would you say you agree strongly, agree somewhat, disagree somewhat, or disagree strongly that Base: All respondents (n=588)

53.
25More generally, executives consider B2B media to be useful when building on a current information base (87%) as well as a place to go to for new information (82%).“If I am interested in learning about trends in my industry, business to business media will be one of the first places I go to.”“Information from business to business media builds on my current information base.”Q530 How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements? Would you say you agree strongly, agree somewhat, disagree somewhat, or disagree strongly that Base: All respondents (n=588)

54.
26Seven in 10 (72%) agree that webinars and webcasts are a convenient way to learn something new about their industry.“Webinars and Webcasts are a convenient way to learn something new about my industry.”Q530 How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements? Would you say you agree strongly, agree somewhat, disagree somewhat, or disagree strongly that Base: All respondents (n=588)

55.
27Sources of Information that Corporate Decision Makers Rely Upon when Researching or Purchasing Products or Services

56.
28Regardless of what point executives are at, throughout their purchase decision-making process, B2B media prove to be invaluable resources for information.Media Used in Decision-Making ProcessThis top tier is dominated by B2B mediaQ805 Which Business-to-Business media sources or data providers do you use at each of the following points in the decision-making process, first/next Base: All respondents (n=588)

57.
29B2B magazines are the top source through which executives first learn about new products – mentioned by nearly half, followed by B2B websites (34%) and B2B sales people (30%). B2B media dominate the list of sources for learning new information.Top Two Media Sources To First Learn About New Products81% gave B2B media for both responses16% gave B2B media for only one responseOnly 3% did not give B2B media for either responseQ810: What are the top two sources through which you first learn about new industry products, equipment and suppliers?Base: All respondents (n=588)* Less than 0.5% gave this response

58.
30Senior level executives are slightly more likely than mid-level executives to use B2B magazines and trade shows to learn about the latest products. Mid-level executives also prefer B2B media but tend to use websites and sales people more.Top Two Media Sources To First Learn About New ProductsQ810: What are the top two sources through which you first learn about new industry products, equipment and suppliers?Base: Mid Level executives (n=347); Sr Level executives (n=241)* Less than 0.5% gave this response

59.
31Four in 10 searched archives of B2B websites during the past 12 months and one-third of executives purchased content from them. In-Depth Use of B2B WebsitesQ600 Which of the following have you done during the past 12 MONTHS? Base: All respondents (2006, n=588; 2001, n=505)

60.
32The Specific Role Each Type of B2B Media Have as a Source of Information

61.
33Different B2B media have different strengths, each vital at getting information that decision-makers view as crucial to running their businesses. Trade shows help you become aware of new products, magazines are objective and trustworthy, and websites are easy to “turn to first.”Strengths of Different B2B MediaQ600 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business magazines that you read most often.Base: Respondents who’ve read B2B magazines in the past month (n=507)Q605 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business WEBSITES that you visit most often, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these websites. Base: Respondents who’ve visited B2B websites in the past month (n=402)Q615 Now, I would like you to think about the trade shows and conventions for professionals in your industry or line of work that you attend most often. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these trade shows and conventions. Base: Respondents who’ve attended a trade show in the past 12 months (n=452)

62.
34B2B magazines are considered a trustworthy, objective resource that raises awareness of new products.B2B Magazines: A Closer LookQ600 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business magazines that you read most often. . I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these magazines. (READ EACH STATEMENT) Does this statement describe completely, describe a lot, describe a little, or not describe at all, the Business-to-Business magazines you read most often?Base: Respondents who’ve read B2B magazines in the past month (n=507)

63.
35B2B magazines are held in high regard, improving slightly as a trustworthy source for information not available elsewhere. Almost three in four say they are a resource of new information – slightly lower than 2001 but still a strong majority.B2B Magazines: A Closer LookQ600 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business magazines that you read most often. . I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these magazines. (READ EACH STATEMENT) Does this statement describe completely, describe a lot, describe a little, or not describe at all, the Business-to-Business magazines you read most often? Base: Respondents who’ve read B2B magazines in the past month (2006, n=507; 2001, n=420)

64.
36B2B websites are important sources for up-to-date information – three in four say they provide access to the latest information, while two-thirds say B2B websites help them become aware of new products.B2B Websites: A Closer LookQ605 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business WEBSITES that you visit most often, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these websites. Base: Respondents who’ve visited B2B websites in the past month (n=402)

65.
37More than half feel B2B websites are the primary source for information – a slight dip from 2001. Trust in B2B websites is growing and three in four say they provide access to the latest information.B2B Websites: A Closer LookQ605 Now, I would like you to think about the Business-to-Business WEBSITES that you visit most often, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these websites. Base: Respondents who’ve visited B2B websites in the past month (2006, n=402; 2001, n=341)

66.
38Interaction with company representatives (88%) and industry peers (86%) are the primary benefits of trade shows, with creating awareness of new products close behind (81%).Trade Shows: A Closer LookQ615 Now, I would like you to think about the trade shows and conventions for professionals in your industry or line of work that you attend most often. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these trade shows and conventions. Base: Respondents who’ve attended a trade show in the past 12 months (n=452)

67.
39Since 2001, trade shows have edged up in providing information executives can trust, while decreasing slightly as tools to keep executives ahead of competition and as places to do comparison shoppingTrade Shows: A Closer LookQ615 Now, I would like you to think about the trade shows and conventions for professionals in your industry or line of work that you attend most often. I am going to read a few statements and I’d like you to tell me the degree to which each statement describes these trade shows and conventions. Base: Respondents who’ve attended a trade show in the past 12 months (2006, n=452; 2001, n=386)

68.
40How Corporate Decision Makers Use Different Sources of Information

69.
41Advertisements in B2B magazines are a direct link to executives, prompting them to seek additional information – particularly from the web (79%) – or to purchase a product (57%). Outcomes of Advertising in a B2B MagazinesQ700: I am going to read a list of activities, and thinking about the PAST SIX MONTHS I’d like you to tell me if an advertisement you saw in a business magazine for professionals in your industry prompted you to do that. Base: All respondents (n=588)

70.
42Advertising on B2B websites is yielding profitable visits with half (49%) of executives reporting that visiting one prompted them to make or recommend a purchase, and slightly over one-third (35%) making a purchase over the Internet. Outcomes of Advertising on a B2B WebsiteQ705: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a Business-to-Business website, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines, led you to do a particular activity during the past SIX MONTHS. Did an advertisement on a WEBSITE lead you toBase: All respondents (n=588)

71.
43Seven in 10 executives purchased or recommended purchase of something due to visiting a trade show, with 27% making a purchase through the Internet. Outcomes of Advertising at Trade ShowsQ710: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a trade show or convention led you to do a particular activity during the past YEAR. Did something you heard or saw at a TRADE SHOW OR CONVENTION lead you toBase: All respondents (n=588)

73.
45B2B magazines and trade shows demonstrate their strengths in getting executives to take notice of advertising, but websites are not far behind.Actions Taken as a Result of Advertising with Different B2B MediaQ700: I am going to read a list of activities, and thinking about the PAST SIX MONTHS I’d like you to tell me if an advertisement you saw in a business magazine for professionals in your industry prompted you to do that. Q705: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a Business-to-Business website, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines, led you to do a particular activity during the past SIX MONTHS. Did an advertisement on a WEBSITE lead you toQ710: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a trade show or convention led you to do a particular activity during the past YEAR. Did something you heard or saw at a TRADE SHOW OR CONVENTION lead you toBase: All respondents (n=588)

74.
46Perhaps because executives can have a direct experience with products, trade shows prove a great place for sales or subsequent purchasing through the Internet and this is up from 2001.Actions Taken as a Result of Advertising with Different B2B MediaQ700: I am going to read a list of activities, and thinking about the PAST SIX MONTHS I’d like you to tell me if an advertisement you saw in a business magazine for professionals in your industry prompted you to do that. Q705: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a Business-to-Business website, including on-line editions of Business-to-Business magazines, led you to do a particular activity during the past SIX MONTHS. Did an advertisement on a WEBSITE lead you toQ710: Now I’d like you to tell me if visiting a trade show or convention led you to do a particular activity during the past YEAR. Did something you heard or saw at a TRADE SHOW OR CONVENTION lead you toBase: All respondents (n=588)

75.
47Nine in 10 (89%) agree a brand is more top-of-mind if they see it in more than one medium and strong majorities believe different ads offer additional information and make executives more likely to consider that brand at purchase time.Benefits of Advertising in Multiple MediaQ720 Think again about business-to-business advertising for a company or brand that you have seen in more than one medium. By that I mean more than one of the following: Business-to-business magazines, Business-to-business websites, and trade shows. Do you strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree that compared to seeing it on one medium, seeing it in multiple media Base: All Respondents (n=588)

77.
49Executives report frequent contact with sales representatives. In fact, seven in 10 (70%) report being contacted at least once a week.Frequency of Contact with Sales RepresentativesQ905 How often do sales representatives from product and/or service companies contact you? Base: All respondents (n=588)

78.
50While four in 10 feel they are spending less time with sales people compared to five years ago, a plurality reports no change in the amount of time they spend working with sales representatives.Change in Frequency of Contact with Sales RepresentativesQ920 Compared to 5 years ago, would you say you are spending more, less or about the same amount of time with a sales person on a typical sales call?Base: All respondents (n=588)

79.
51B2B media and sales people have a close relationship – half report that B2B lead them to see a salesperson and half report the reverse.The Relationship Between Salespeople and B2B MediaQ910 How often do [INSERT ITEM]. Would you say often, sometimes, rarely or never? Base: All respondents (n=588)

80.
52A strong majority believes that B2B media should be an important part of an integrated sales initiative. In fact, over half the executives believe it is a very important part of sales initiatives.Importance of Sales Representatives Integrating B2B Media in their InitiativesQ925 How important is it now for sales people to use business-to-business media as an integrated part of their sales initiatives? Would you say…Base: All respondents (n=588)

82.
54While executives are familiar with Blogs, only 11% are using them regularly.Frequency of Blog VisitationQ1000 How often do you visit a blog or different blogs that are specifically related to your industry? Base: All respondents (n=588)

83.
55BINs and B2B MediaPlease note the data in this section is directional and not projectable

84.
56B2B Magazine Readership by BIN CategoryQ400: In the past month, did you read any Business-to-Business MAGAZINES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Base: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

85.
57B2B Website Use by BIN CategoryQ415: In the past month, did you visit any Business-to-Business WEBSITES geared to professionals in your industry or line of work, including online editions of Business-to-Business magazines?Base: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

86.
58Trade Show Attendance by BIN CategoryQ430: During the past 12 months, how many times did you attend a TRADE SHOW OR CONVENTION geared to professionals in your industry or line of work?Base: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

87.
59Key Source of Information to Do Job Better by BIN CategoryQ310: What sources do you rely on for information and insight about how to build your business and do your job better?Base: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

88.
60Engagement Score by BIN Category: B2B Media are more engaging than general business mediaQ330: Now I’m going to ask you to indicate how “engaged” or “involved” you are with the various types of B2B media we have been talking about. By engaged, we mean how much attention are you paying when you use this type of media. If 0 is not at all engaged and 100 is very engaged, how engaged would you say you are withBase: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

89.
61Top Sources for Learning About New Industry Trends by BIN CategoryQ810: What are the top two sources through which you first learn about new industry products, equipment and suppliers?Base: All respondents (n=28 for each BIN; small base sizes, use data with caution)

91.
63All executives in the survey are involved in the decision making process and two in three executives surveyed are “very involved.”Involved in Purchase Decisions for Company or OrganizationBase: All respondents (n=588)

99.
71Detailed MethodologyThe Business-to-Business Media Study was conducted by Harris Interactive on behalf of American Business Media. Interviewing was completed over the telephone using Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) for a total of 588 completed interviews from February 2006 to April 2006. The final survey was approximately 20 minutes in length. SAMPLE SELECTIONSample was purchased from Dun & Bradstreet and respondents were from companies with $5 million or more in annual sales. Sample was purchased to cover 28 interviews in the 21 BINs, identified by ABM, and to ensure that at least 40% of respondents would be of Vice President level of higher. All respondents have been at their company for more than a year and are involved in the purchase decision-making process there. INTERVIEWING PROCEDURESInterviews were conducted using Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) to administer the 20 minute survey. The CATI system would randomly select a business sector and interviewers would ask to speak to the most senior person available in that business sector. Respondents were screened to ensure that they had been working at the company for at least 1 year, that they are part of the decision-making process for purchase decisions at that company and to ensure that they read B2B media. 96% of respondents interviewed read B2B media. Respondents were taken through the 20-minute interview and were given the option to complete the interview at a time more convenient for them. A $50 honorarium was offered to charity on their behalf. The option to have the honorarium mailed to the charity of their choice, or directly to them was given.