Several Puranas describe him as emerging from a lotus, connected to the navel of Lord Vishnu. Other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects,[13] or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology.[8] Brahma, along with other deities, is sometimes viewed as a form (saguna) of the otherwise formless (nirguna) Brahman, the ultimate metaphysical reality in Vedantic Hinduism.[11][9]

Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the other members of the Trimurti, Vishnu and Shiva. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshiped as a primary deity in India.[14] Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India; the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Pushkar in Rajasthan.[15] Brahma temples are found outside India, such as at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok.[16]

The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because several related words such as one for Ultimate Reality (Brahman), and priest (Brahmin) are found in the Vedic literature, the existence of a distinct deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text.[17] A distinction between spiritual concept of Brahman, and deity Brahma, is that the former is a genderless abstract metaphysical concept in Hinduism,[18] while the latter is one of the many masculine gods in Hindu mythology,[19] the spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman.[17]

The 10th century artwork from Bihar showing the trinity of Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma

One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE. Brahma is first discussed in verse 5,1, also called the Kutsayana Hymn, and then expounded in verse 5,2.[21][22]

In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn,[21] the Upanishad asserts that one's Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being, it equates the Atman (Soul, Self) within to be Brahma and various alternate manifestations of Brahman, as follows, "Thou art Brahma, thou art Vishnu, thou art Rudra (Shiva), thou art Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Indra, thou art All."[21][23]

In the verse (5,2), Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, that is qualities, psyche and innate tendencies the text describes can be found in all living beings,[23][24] this chapter of the Maitri Upanishad asserts that the universe emerged from darkness (Tamas), first as passion characterized by action qua action (Rajas), which then refined and differentiated into purity and goodness (Sattva).[21][23] Of these three qualities, Rajas is then mapped to Brahma, as follows:[25]

Now then, that part of him which belongs to Tamas, that, O students of sacred knowledge (Brahmacharins), is this Rudra.
That part of him which belongs to Rajas, that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Brahma.
That part of him which belongs to Sattva, that O students of sacred knowledge, is this Vishnu.
Verily, that One became threefold, became eightfold, elevenfold, twelvefold, into infinite fold.
This Being (neuter) entered all beings, he became the overlord of all beings.
That is the Atman (Soul, Self) within and without – yea, within and without!

While the Maitri Upanishad maps Brahma with one of the elements of Guṇa theory of Hinduism, the text does not depict him as one of the trifunctional elements of the Hindu Trimurti idea found in later Puranic literature.[26]

In Vaishnava Puranic mythology, Brahma emerges on a lotus from Vishnu's navel as Vishnu creates the cosmic cycle.[27]

The post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma, these include Sarga (primary creation of universe) and Visarga (secondary creation), ideas related to the Indian thought that there are two levels of reality, one primary that is unchanging (metaphysical) and other secondary that is always changing (empirical), and that all observed reality of the latter is in an endless repeating cycle of existence, that cosmos and life we experience is continually created, evolved, dissolved and then re-created.[28] The primary creator is extensively discussed in Vedic cosmogonies with Brahman or Purusha or Devi among the terms used for the primary creator,[28][29] while the Vedic and post-Vedic texts name different gods and goddesses as secondary creators (often Brahma in post-Vedic texts), and in some cases a different god or goddess is the secondary creator at the start of each cosmic cycle (kalpa, aeon).[13][28]

Brahma is a "secondary creator" as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas, and among the most studied and described.[30][31][32] Born from a lotus emerging from the navel of Vishnu, Brahma creates all the forms in the universe, but not the primordial universe itself;[27] in contrast, the Shiva-focussed Puranas describe Brahma and Vishnu to have been created by Ardhanarishvara, that is half Shiva and half Parvati; or alternatively, Brahma was born from Rudra, or Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma creating each other cyclically in different aeons (kalpa).[13] Thus in most Puranic texts, Brahma's creative activity depends on the presence and power of a higher god.[33]

In the Bhagavata Purana, Brahma is portrayed several times as the one who rises from the "Ocean of Causes".[34] Brahma, states this Purana, emerges at the moment when time and universe is born, inside a lotus rooted in the navel of Hari (deity Vishnu, whose praise is the primary focus in the Purana), the myth asserts that Brahma is drowsy, errs and is temporarily incompetent as he puts together the universe.[34] He then becomes aware of his confusion and drowsiness, meditates as an ascetic, then realizes Hari in his heart, sees the beginning and end of universe, and then his creative powers are revived. Brahma, states Bhagavata Purana, thereafter combines Prakriti (nature, matter) and Purusha (spirit, soul) to create a dazzling variety of living creatures, and tempest of causal nexus,[34] the Bhagavata Purana thus attributes the creation of Maya to Brahma, wherein he creates for the sake of creation, imbuing everything with both the good and the evil, the material and the spiritual, a beginning and an end.[35]

Lord Brahma Idol with two wives Saraswati and Gayatri

The Puranas describe Brahma as the deity creating time, they correlate human time to Brahma's time, such as a mahākalpa being a large cosmic period, correlating to one day and one night in Brahma's existence.[33]

The stories about Brahma in various Puranas are diverse and inconsistent; in Skanda Purana, for example, goddess Parvati is called the "mother of the universe", and she is credited with creating Brahma, gods and the three worlds. She is the one, states Skanda Purana, who combined the three Gunas - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas - into matter (Prakrti) to create the empirically observed world.[36]

Left: 19th century roundel of four-headed Brahma as a red-complexioned aged man, holding manuscript (Vedas), a ladle and a lotus; Right: 6th century Brahma in Badami cave temples holding a writing equipment, ladle, and mala.

Brahma is traditionally depicted with four faces and four arms,[2] each face of his points to a cardinal direction. His hands hold no weapons, rather symbols of knowledge and creation; in one hand he holds the sacred texts of Vedas, in second he holds mala (rosary beads) symbolizing time, in third he holds a sruva or shruk — ladle types symbolizing means to feed sacrificial fire, and in fourth a kamandalu – utensil with water symbolizing the means where all creation emanates from.[1][40] His four mouths are credited with creating the four Vedas,[5] he is often depicted with a white beard, implying his sage-like experience. He sits on lotus, dressed in white (or red, pink), with his vehicle (vahana) – hansa, a swan or goose – nearby.[2][41]

Chapter 51 of Manasara-Silpasastra, an ancient design manual in Sanskrit for making Murti and temples, states that a Brahma statue should be golden in color,[42] the text recommends that the statue have four faces and four arms, have jata-mukuta-mandita (matted hair of an ascetic), and wear a diadem (crown).[42] Two of his hands should be in refuge granting and gift giving mudra, while he should be shown with kundika (water pot), akshamala (rosary), and a small and a large sruk-sruva (laddles used in yajna ceremonies).[42] The text details the different proportions of the murti, describes the ornaments, and suggests that the idol wear chira (bark strip) as lower garment, and either be alone or be accompanied with goddesses Sarasvati on his right and Gayatri on his left.[42]

Brahma's wife is the goddess Saraswati,[43][44] she is considered to be "the embodiment of his power, the instrument of creation and the energy that drives his actions".[45]

Very few temples in India are primarily dedicated to Lord Brahma and his worship,[14] the most prominent Hindu temple for Brahma is the Brahma Temple, Pushkar.[15] Other temples include a temple in Asotra village, Balotra taluka of Rajasthan's Barmer district known as Kheteshwar Brahmadham Tirtha.

A shrine to Brahma can be found in Cambodia's Angkor Wat. One of the three largest temples in the 9th-century Prambanan temples complex in Yogyakarta, central Java (Indonesia) is dedicated to Brahma, the other two to Shiva (largest of three) and Vishnu respectively,[46] the temple dedicated to Brahma is on southern side of Śiva temple.

A statue of Brahma is present at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand and continues to be revered in modern times,[16] the golden dome of the Government House of Thailand houses a statue of Phra Phrom (Thai representation of Brahma). An early 18th-century painting at Wat Yai Suwannaram in Phetchaburi city of Thailand depicts Brahma.[47]

The name of the country Burma is derived from Brahma; in medieval texts, it is referred to as Brahma-desa.[48][49]

Brahma (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मा, brahmā)[51] is distinct from Brahman.[52] Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,[53] who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything, he is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.[54] In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, then a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again,[53][55] the deity Brahma is mentioned in the Vedas and the Upanishads but is uncommon,[56] while the abstract Brahman concept is predominant in these texts, particularly the Upanishads.[57] In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently, some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma,[58] others suggest god Shiva created Brahma,[59] yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma,[60] and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.[60][61] Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the saguna (representation with face and attributes)[62] Brahma is Vishnu,[63] Shiva,[64] or Devi[65] respectively, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is the same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.[66]

Brahman (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मन्, brahman)[51] is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate reality.[52] According to Doniger, the Brahman in the Hindu thought is the uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.[54]Brahmin (Sanskrit: ब्राह्मण, Brahmin)[67] is a varna in Hinduism specializing in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations.[68][69] The Brahmanas, or Brahmana Granthas, (Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणग्रंथ, brāhmaṇa)[70] are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy,[71][72] they are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hinduśruti literature.[73]

^The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations".[12] Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others.[10][11]

^In Devanagaribrahma is written ब्रह्म. It differs from Brahmaब्रह्मा by having a matra (diacritical) in the form of an extra vertical stroke at the end. This indicates a longer vowel sound: long "ā" rather than short "a".

^Charles Russell Coulter; Patricia Turner (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. p. 240. ISBN978-1-135-96397-2., Quote: "Brahma, a creator god, received the basics of his mythological history from Purusha. During the Brahmanic period, the Hindu Trimurti was represented by Brahma with his attribute of creation, Shiva with his attribute of destruction and Vishnu with his attribute of preservation."

^Barbara Holdrege (2012), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-1438406954, pages 88-89

^ abCharles Coulter and Patricia Turner (2000), Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities, Routledge, ISBN978-0786403172, page 258, Quote: "When Brahma is acknowledged as the supreme god, it was said that Kama sprang from his heart."

^ abDavid Leeming (2009), Creation Myths of the World, 2nd Edition, ISBN978-1598841749, page 146;
David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195156690, page 54, Quote: "Especially in the Vedanta Hindu Philosophy, Brahman is the Absolute. In the Upanishads, Brahman becomes the eternal first cause, present everywhere and nowhere, always and never. Brahman can be incarnated in Brahma, in Vishnu, in Shiva. To put it another way, everything that is, owes its existence to Brahman; in this sense, Hinduism is ultimately monotheistic or monistic, all gods being aspects of Brahman"; Also see pages 183-184, Quote: "Prajapati, himself the source of creator god Brahma – in a sense, a personification of Brahman (...) Moksha, the connection between the transcendental absolute Brahman and the inner absolute Atman."

1.
Absolute (philosophy)
–
In philosophy, metaphysics, religion, spirituality, and other contexts, the Absolute is a term for the most real being. The Absolute is conceived as being itself or perhaps the being that transcends and comprehends all other beings, while there is agreement that there must be some fundamental reality, there is disagreement as to what exactly that might be. For example, some theist philosophers argue that the most real being is a personal God, some pantheist philosophers argue that the most real being is an impersonal existence, such as reality or awareness. Others argue that various similar terms and concepts designate to the same Absolute entity, atheist, agnostic, and scientific pantheist philosophers might argue that some natural law such as gravity or simply nature itself is the most real being. The basic concept of the Absolute is that it is the truest reality, however, there are three general ways of conceiving it. The Absolute might be the first and greatest being, not a being at all but the ground of being, in conception the Absolute is the most true and intelligible reality. It can be spoken of and known, for example, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegels Absolute Spirit is the most true reality. It is thinkable, speakable, and exists in objective world by comprehending everything, including people, states, in the Absolute might be conceived of as utterly outside of all other reality and hence unintelligible. It cannot be known or spoken about, platos Socrates says that The Form of the Good is beyond being, implying that it is even beyond thought, language, and normal categories of existence. In the Absolute might be conceived of as transcending duality and distinction and this concept of a fundamental reality that transcends or includes all other reality is usually associated with divinity. While this conception initially seems contradictory, it has been highly influential, One way to understand this third conception is to consider the Tao te Ching. The Tao that can be spoken is not the eternal Tao, the name that can be named is not the eternal name. These opening lines distinguish between two Taos, One is the eternal Tao and the other Tao seems to exist in space and time. The eternal Tao is beyond existence and cannot be named or fully understood, while the other Tao exists, the eternal Tao is infinite, the other is finite. The eternal Tao is formless, the other is formed, the eternal Tao is transcendent, the other is immanent. The other Tao is an attempt to describe the eternal Tao in human terms, in these lines, he further discusses the difference between the two Taos. The eternal Tao is nameless and is the origin of Heaven and Earth, later, he points out that both the named and the nameless emerge together from the same eternal Tao. This seemingly self-contradictory unity, of course, is said to be the mystery to be understood, One or more of these three conceptions of the Absolute can be found in various other religions or philosophies. H

2.
Brahman
–
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient and it is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle, in the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality. Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman, personal, impersonal or Para Brahman, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman in each being, Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self, puligandla states it as the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world, while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that cannot be exactly defined. In Vedic Sanskrit, Brahma, brahman from root bṛh-, means to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote. Brahmana, from stems brha + Sanskrit -man- from Indo-European root -men- which denotes some manifested form of power, inherent firmness. In later Sanskrit usage, Brahma, brahman means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, the concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta, this is discussed below. Brahm is another variant of Brahman, Brahmā, Brahman, means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i. e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. These are distinct from, A brāhmaṇa, is a commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. A brāhmaṇa, means priest, in this usage the word is rendered in English as Brahmin. This usage is found in the Atharva Veda. Ishvara, in Advaita, is identified as a partial manifestation of the ultimate reality

3.
Supreme Being
–
Supreme Being is a term for God used by theologians and philosophers of many religious faiths, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and deism. In Christian theology, the term Supreme Being is used to refer to God, although God is mostly reserved for God the Father in the New Testament, Supreme Being can be used to refer to Jesus Christ or the Holy Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Deists use the term Supreme Being to refer to the Godly, following the French Revolution, the Cult of the Supreme Being was intended to become the state religion of the new French Republic. In Hinduism, the term is used by several traditions and it is used by the Vaishnavite traditions in reference to Vishnu/Krishna, and by the Shaiva tradition in reference to Shiva. Islamic scholars have used the term Supreme Being to refer to Allah, the holy scripture of the Sikhs, Guru Granth Sahib, uses terms that are sometimes translated as Supreme Being. Sikhs personally use Waheguru, or the term Ik Onkar, meaning One God, in the Yoruba religion the term Supreme Being is used in reference to Olorun, one of the three manifestations of the Supreme God in the Yoruba pantheon. In Yoruba cosmology, Olorun is the Supreme Being whose supremacy is absolute

4.
Dharma
–
Dharma is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. There is no single word translation for dharma in western languages, in Buddhism dharma means cosmic law and order, but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha. In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for phenomena, Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of tirthankara and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of human beings. For Sikhs, the word means the path of righteousness. The Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, the word dharma was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia. The antonym of dharma is adharma, the Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, which means to hold, maintain, keep, and takes a meaning of what is established or firm, and hence law. It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit n-stem dharman-, with a meaning of bearer, supporter. In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, dhárman-, figuratively, it means sustainer and supporter. It is semantically similar to the Greek Ethos, in Classical Sanskrit, the noun becomes thematic, dharma-. The word dharma derives from Proto-Indo-European root *dʰer-, which in Sanskrit is reflected as class-1 root √dhṛ, etymologically it is related to Avestan √dar-, Latin firmus, Lithuanian derė́ti, Lithuanian dermė and darna and Old Church Slavonic drъžati. Classical Sanskrit word dharmas would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus from Proto-Indo-European *dʰer-mo-s holding, were it not for its development from earlier Rigvedic n-stem. In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, in Pāli, it is rendered dhamma. In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it occurs as dharm. Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion and it has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is difficult to provide a concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings. There is no equivalent single word translation for dharma in western languages, there have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word dharma into German, English and French. The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused difficulties for modern commentators and translators. Dharma root is dhri, which means ‘to support, hold and it is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant

5.
Moksha
–
Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism and Hindu philosophy which refers to various forms of emancipation, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, in its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha refers to freedom from ignorance, self-realization and self-knowledge. In Hindu traditions, moksha is a concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals of human life. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism, the concept of moksha is found in Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. In some schools of Indian religions, moksha is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with terms such as vimoksha, vimukti, kaivalya, apavarga, mukti, nihsreyasa. However, terms such as moksha and nirvana differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, the term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while moksha is more prevalent in Hinduism. Moksha is derived from the root Sanskrit, मुच्, muc, in Vedas and early Upanishads, the word Sanskrit, मुच्यते, mucyate appears, which means to be set free or release - such as of a horse from its harness. The definition and meaning of moksha varies between schools of Indian religions. Moksha means freedom, liberation, from what and how is where the schools differ, Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be attained while one is on earth, or eschatologically, some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is a transformation that permits one to see the truth. For example, Vivekachudamani - an ancient book on moksha, explains one of many steps on the path to moksha, as. Samsara originated with religious movements in the first millennium BCE and these movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each subject to injury, disease. By release from this cycle, the involved in this cycle also ended. This release was called moksha, nirvana, kaivalya, mukti, in earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed soteriological curiosities. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of saṃsāra, or transmigration - where one’s balance sheet of karma determined one’s rebirth, along with this idea of saṃsāra, the ancient scholars developed the concept of moksha, as a state that released a person from the saṃsāra cycle. Moksha release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism, suggests van Buitenen, comes from self-knowledge, the meaning of moksha in epistemological and psychological sense has been variously explained by scholars

6.
Brahmanism
–
Brahmanism is the religion that developed out of the historical Vedic religion in ancient India. The term is different from Brahminism, the latter is used to identify a ritualistic system led by the Brahmin priests in the Hindu society. The term Brahmanism is considered synonymous with Hinduism, by some scholars, of the major traditions that emerged from Brahmanism are the six darshanas, particular the Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism. There were other schools of thought in ancient India, those that disagreed with Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism, indian religions History of India History of Hinduism

7.
Trimurti
–
When all three deities of the Trimurti incarnate into a single avatar, the avatar is known as Dattatreya. The Puranic period saw the rise of post-Vedic religion and the evolution of what R. C, one of the important traits of this period is a spirit of harmony between orthodox and sectarian forms. Regarding this spirit of reconciliation, R. C, majumdar says that, Its most notable expression is to be found in the theological conception of the Trimūrti, i. e. the manifestation of the supreme God in three forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva. Maurice Winternitz notes that there are few places in Indian literature where the Trimurti is mentioned. Historian A. L. Freda Matchett characterizes the Trimurti system as one of several frameworks into which various divine figures can be fitted at different levels. The concept of Trimurti is also present in the Maitri Upanishad, temples dedicated to various permutations of the Trimurti can be seen as early as the 8th century C. E. and there are even temples today in which the Trimurti are actively worshiped. Surya was also a member of the original Vedic Trimurti, which included Agni, some Sauras worship either Vishnu or Shiva as manifestations of Surya, others worship the Trimurti as a manifestation of Surya, and others exclusively worship Surya alone. Shaivites hold that, according to Shaiva Agama, Shiva performs five actions - creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, respectively, these first three actions are associated with Shiva as Sadyojata, Vamadeva and Aghora. Thus, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra are not deities different from Shiva and this stands in contrast to the idea that Shiva is the God of destruction. To Shaivites, Shiva is God and performs all actions, of destruction is only. Ergo, the Trimurti is a form of Shiva Himself for Shaivas, Shaivites believe that Lord Shiva is the Supreme, who assumes various critical roles and assumes appropriate names and forms, and also stands transcending all these. A prominent visual example of a Shaivite version of the Trimurti is the Trimurti Sadashiva sculpture in the Elephanta Caves on Gharapuri Island and this feminine version of the Trimurti is called Tridevi. The masculine gods are then relegated as auxiliary agents of the supreme feminine Tridevi, smartism is a denomination of Hinduism that places emphasis on a group of five deities rather than just a single deity. Śankarācārya later added Kartikeya to these five, making six total and this reformed system was promoted by Śankarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the six major sects on an equal status. Despite the fact that the Vishnu Purana describes that Vishnu manifests as Brahma in order to create and as Rudra in order to destroy, for example, the Dvaita school holds Vishnu alone to be the supreme God, with Shiva subordinate, and interprets the Puranas differently. For example, Vijayindra Tîrtha, a Dvaita scholar interprets the 18 puranas differently and he interprets the Vaishnavite puranas as satvic and Shaivite puranas as tamasic and that only satvic puranas are considered to be authoritative. Moreover, Swaminarayan followed a Smarta approach by instructing his followers to venerate all five deities of the Panchayatana puja with equal reverence, Dattatreya Harihara Tridevi Trinity Triple deities Basham, A. L. The Wonder That Was India, A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before The Coming of the Muslims, gaṇeśa, Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings

8.
Deva (Hinduism)
–
Deva means heavenly, divine, anything of excellence, and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all beings are called Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, in post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their powerful but malevolent half-brothers. Devas along with Asuras, Yakshas and Rakshasas are part of Indian mythology, Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Monier Williams translates it as heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of excellence, exalted. The concept also is used to refer to deity or god, the feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning female deity. The bode of the Devas is Dyuloka, according to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean a shining one, from *div- to shine, and it is a cognate with Greek dios divine and Zeus, and Latin deus god. Deva is masculine, and the feminine equivalent is devi. Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea, when capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. Deva is also referred to as Devatā, while Devi as Devika, the word Deva is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to one who wishes to excel, overcome or the seeker of, master of or a best among-. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati are gods and hence Devas, saraswati and Ushas are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas, max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every single of different devas as the only one, the supreme, the greatest.163.3, Trita art thou by interior operation. All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts, a much studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura, and contrasts it with Asura adevah. They are born from the father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor, the elder sons are envisioned as the Asuras. The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras, the Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers, finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad

9.
Brahmaloka
–
In Hinduism, Brahmapura is the abode of Brahma, one of the three Trimurti. It is located on Mount Meru and it is also referred to as Brahmaloka or Satyaloka in all of the puranas. Brahmapura is the topmost loka within this material universe, during each pralaya, the lower ten realms are destroyed while the higher four realms, including Satya-loka, Tapa-loka, Jana-loka, and Mahar-loka are preserved. During each Mahapralaya, all 14 realms are destroyed, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad says in 8,1,1 that within the Brahmapura is an abode, a small lotus-flower within which is a small space. What is within that, should be searched out, that, further there are Hiranyapura and Siddhapura or White Island. Brahma loka, Vaikuntha loka, Shiva loka are seen as the same, satya loka is at their top and can be looked at as the lowest plane of Para Brahman. Narayana is also venerated as Para Brahman and therefore to all the 14 lokas. Lord Vishnu who is said to live in Vaikuntha is a form of the infinite Narayana. Here is Brahmaloka the highest of the worlds, the abode of the Brahmas. It consists of twenty heavens, the nine ordinary Brahma-worlds, the five Suddhāvāsā, the four Arūpa worlds, the Asaññasatta, abhinav Publications,1 edition chhandogya upanishad as PDF Twitchell, Paul The Far Country. ISBN 0-914766-91-0 Twitchell, The Far Country as PDF Brahmapura

10.
Mantra
–
A Mantra is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit believed by practitioners to have psychological and spiritual powers. A mantra may or may not have syntactic structure or literal meaning, the earliest mantras were composed in Vedic Sanskrit by Hindus in India, and are at least 3000 years old. Mantras now exist in various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, in Japanese Shingon tradition, the word Shingon means mantra. Similar hymns, chants, compositions and concepts are found in Zoroastrianism, Taoism, Christianity, the use, structure, function, importance, and types of mantras vary according to the school and philosophy of Hinduism and of Buddhism. Mantras serve a role in tantra. In this school, mantras are considered to be a sacred formula, in other schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Sikhism, initiation is not a requirement. Mantras come in forms, including ṛc and sāman. They are typically melodic, mathematically structured meters, believed to be resonant with numinous qualities, at its simplest, the word ॐ serves as a mantra. In more sophisticated forms, mantras are melodic phrases with spiritual interpretations such as a longing for truth, reality, light, immortality, peace, love, knowledge. Some mantras have no meaning, yet are musically uplifting. The Sanskrit word mantra- consists of the root man- to think, scholars consider mantras to be older than 1000 BC. By the middle Vedic period—1000 BC to 500 BC—claims Frits Staal, mantras in Hinduism had developed into a blend of art, the Chinese translation is zhenyan 眞言, 真言, literally true words, the Japanese onyomi reading of the Chinese being shingon. Mantras are neither unique to Hinduism, nor to other Indian religions such as Buddhism, similar creative constructs developed in Asian, mantras, suggests Frits Staal, may be older than language. There is no accepted definition of mantra. Renou has defined mantra as thought, mantras are structured formulae of thoughts, claims Silburn. Farquhar concludes that mantras are a religious thought, prayer, sacred utterance, zimmer defines mantra as a verbal instrument to produce something in one’s mind. There is no universally applicable uniform definition of mantra because mantras are used in different religions, in some schools of Hinduism for example, suggests Gonda, mantra is sakti to the devotee in the form of formulated and expressed thought. Staal clarifies that mantras are not rituals, they are what is recited or chanted during a ritual, There is a long history of scholarly disagreement on the meaning of mantras and whether they are really instruments of mind, as implied by the etymological origin of the word mantra

11.
Brahmastra
–
In ancient Sanskrit writings, the Brahmastra was a weapon created by Brahma. The Brahmashirsha astra and Brahmanda astra were similar weapons, created to be more powerful. As described in a number of Purana, it was considered as a destructive weapon. It is said that when the Brahmastra was discharged, there was neither a counterattack nor a defense that could stop it, except by another Brahmastra, Brahmashirsha astra, or a Brahmanda astra. The Brahmastra never missed its mark and had to be used with specific intent against an individual enemy or army. It was believed to be obtained by meditating upon the Lord Brahma, according to ancient Sanskrit writings, the Brahmastra is invoked by a key phrase or invocation that is bestowed upon the user when given this weapon. The user would have to display immense mental concentration and it could only be used once in a day. The target, when hit by Brahmastra, would be utterly destroyed, the weapon was also believed to cause severe collateral damage. The land where the weapon was used became barren, and all life in, both men and women became infertile. There was also a decrease in rainfall with the land developing cracks. The Brahmastra is mentioned in the epics and Vedas as a weapon of last resort and was never to be used in combat, the Brahmastra, described in the Mahabharata, is a weapon which is said to be a single projectile charged with all the power of the universe. Indrajit used the Brahmastra against the army of Rama in the Ramayana, even Rama and Laxmana could not survive this weapon, Laxmana was felled by the weapon. Only the sanjeevani herb brought by Hanuman saved the brothers and their army, also, Indrajit used the Brahmastra against Hanuman, but Hanuman survived because of boon previously given to him by Lord Brahma. According to the Ramayana, the weapon was aimed at Varuna to carve a path out of the sea such that Ramas army could march towards the island of Lanka. However, as Rama loaded the weapon, Varuna appeared and offered to assist the king in crossing the ocean. But once invoked, the Brahmastra must be discharged, and hence it was aimed towards Dhrumatulya, falling at of modern-day Rajasthan. In Mahabharata, Bhishma used a Brahmastra against his guru Parashurama, in the Kurukshetra war Karna neutralized a Brahmastra sent by Arjuna with an equal Brahmastra and the colliding effect of these astras was catastrophic. This creation of Lord Brahma is cited capable of killing the devas themselves, in the Mahabharata era, Parasurama, Bhishma, Drona, Karna, Ashwatthama, and Arjuna possessed the knowledge to invoke this weapon

12.
Brahmashirsha astra
–
Brahmashirsha astra is a mythological weapon described in the Indian epic Mahabharata, capable to kill Devas. According to Mahabharata, the characters Ashwatthama and Arjun used this weapon and it is thought that the Brahmashirsha astra is the evolution of the Brahmastra, and 4 times stronger than Brahmastra. The weapon manifest with the four heads of Lord Brahma as its tip, the entire welkin seemed to be filled with noise and assumed a terrible aspect with those flames of fire. The whole earth with her mountains and waters and trees, trembled

13.
Hindu iconography
–
The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and denomination of the followers. Over time some of the symbols, for instance the Swastika has come to have wider association while others like Aum are recognized as unique representations of Hinduism. Other aspects of Hindu iconography are covered by the terms murti, for icons and mudra for gestures and positions of the hands, Hindu sacraments are physical objects or markings that are considered sacred and used as a sign of devotion by the followers of Sanathana dharma. These are often associated with a puja or religious ceremony. The tilaka is a mark worn on the forehead or other parts of the body as a sign of spiritual devotion, Hindus may wear a tilaka regularly or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the tilaka is often an indicator of devotion to a certain deity, for example, a U shape tilaka usually denotes devotion to Vishnu, while Shiva devotees often wear it in the form of three horizontal lines. It may be made of saffron, vermilion, turmeric, clay or simply ash, to denote marriage and auspiciousness, married Hindu women commonly wear a decorative vermilion dot or bindu, or bindī on the forehead. This is analogous to a ring worn in western countries. In southern India, the mark is called pottu, in east India, especially in West Bengal, traditionally larger bindis are worn as mark of devotion towards Goddess Durga. Vibhuti is the ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. Also a variant called Basma used as Vibhuti is prepared from the ashes of cow dung. Ash as the product of fire is considered intrinsically pure and it is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal lines of Shiva and the U shape thilaka of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara. In addition, sacred ash signifies that the origin is from dust and ash and to dust. The ash is a marker of impermanence, everything in the interim is but an illusion. Rudraksha are seeds of the tree that, in Hinduism. They are often threaded into a necklace and used as a rosary to accompany prayer and it is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. Aum is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva, as the Divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence

14.
Padma (attribute)
–
Padma is an aquatic plant that plays a central role in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. The lotus flower has many different names such as the Indian Lotus, the Sacred Lotus, the lotus is an ancient and polyvalent symbol in Asian culture. Hindus revere it with the gods Vishnu, Brahma and to a lesser degree Kubera, often used as an example of divine beauty and purity, Vishnu is often described as the Lotus-Eyed One. The lotus springs from the navel of Vishnu while he is in Yoga Nidra, the lotus blooms uncovering the creator god Brahma in lotus position. Its unfolding petals suggest the expansion of the soul, the growth of its pure beauty from the mud of its origin holds a benign spiritual promise. Particularly Brahma and Lakshmi, the divinities of potency and wealth, have the symbol associated with them. The lotus flower is one of the Ashtamangala of Buddhism, representative of creation and cosmic renewal and primordial purity and shares in the chakra and mandala symbolism of the Dharmacakra. This has also taken root in Chinese cultures with a statement made by the 11th century Confucian scholar Zhou Dunyi, I love the lotus because while growing from mud. The padma is held to be a flower with a thousand petals and is associated with the Sahasrara. The padma appears as a dais upon which deities rest. It is also symbolic of detachment as drops of water easily slide off its petals and it is also to be noted that many Asian deities are depicted seated on a lotus flower. According to legend, Gautama Buddha was born with the ability to walk and everywhere he stepped, nelumbo nucifera Lotus Ashtamangala Dallapiccola, Anna L. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend, voices Of The First Day, Awakening in the Aboriginal Dreamtime. Rochester, Vermont, Inner Traditions International, Ltd, plant Myths and Traditions in India

15.
Vedas
–
The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period

16.
Kamandalu
–
Kamandalu or kamandal or kamandalam is an oblong water pot made of a dry gourd or coconut shell, metal, wood of the Kamandalataru tree, or from clay, usually with a handle and sometimes with a spout. Hindu ascetics or yogis often use it for storing drinking water, the water-filled kamandalu, which is invariably carried by ascetics, is stated to represent a simple and self-contained life. The kamandalu also used in Hindu iconography, in depiction of deities related with asceticism or water and it is, thus, viewed as a symbol of ascetism in Hinduism. The kamandalu is used by Jain monks and in depictions of some bodhisattvas. The kamandalu may be made of materials, including metal, clay, wood. For making the gourd kamandalu, a pumpkin is plucked. This leaves only the shell, which is used as the kamandalu. This is interpreted on a level as the removal of ego from a person. The ripe pumpkin represents the person, seed being the ego, cleaning the seed thus symbolizes removal of ego, forming a cleansed person fit to accept self-realization. Water in a kamandalu represents Amrita—the elixir of life—thus a symbol of fertility, life, the kamandalu is often depicted in hands of gods, who appear as ascetics, like Shiva and Brahma and also water deities like Varuna, Ganga and Sarasvati. Adi Shankaracharya’s ashtotaram hymn praises Shiva whose hand is adorned with the kamandalu, other deities like the fire-god Agni and the preceptor of the gods, Brihaspati, are depicted carrying the kamandalu. The goddess Karamgamaladharini is described as wearing a garland of kamandalus, the text Devi Mahatmya describes goddess Brahmani slay demons by sprinkling holy water from her kamandalu. A 183–165 BC coin depicts the god Krishna holding a kamandalu, several mythological stories refer to the kamandalu. Vamana the dwarf avatar of god Vishnu, requests demon king Mahabali for three feet of land, the donation of the land is sanctified through pouring water through a kamandalu. When Sukra, the preceptor, tried to prevent flow of water from the kamandalu by blocking the spout, Mahabali pierced the spout with a stick. In Bhagavata Purana, king Satyavarta after initially put Matsya which he found in the river into his kamandalu, later, the fish expanded and protected the king from the great deluge of Hindu mythology. The Mahabharata records the god Dhanvantari brought Amrita in a kamandalu, the Hindu epic Ramayana records the monkey-god Hanuman disguised himself as a sage and fooling the demons to drink his urine stored in his kamandalu. The mythical Sarasvati river traces her creation legends to the creator-god Brahmas kamandalu, the river Ganges is also believed to flow through Brahmas kamandalu

17.
Vahana
–
Vahana denotes the being, typically an animal or mythical entity, a particular Hindu deity is said to use as a vehicle. In this capacity, the vahana is often called the deitys mount, upon the partnership between the deity and his vahana is woven much iconography and mythology. Deities are often depicted riding the vahana, other times, the vahana is depicted at the deitys side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute. The vahana may be considered an accoutrement of the deity, though the vahana may act independently, the deity may be seen sitting or on, or standing on, the vahana. They may be sitting on a platform called a howdah. Vah in Sanskrit means to carry or to transport, in Hindu iconography, positive aspects of the vehicle are often emblematic of the deity that it carries. Nandi the bull, vehicle of Shiva, represents strength and virility, Parvani the peacock, vehicle of Skanda, represents splendor and majesty. The hamsa, vehicle of Saraswati, represents wisdom, grace, however, the vehicle animal also symbolizes the evil forces over which the deity dominates. Mounted on Parvani, Skanda reins in the peacocks vanity, seated on Mushika, Ganesh crushes useless thoughts, which multiply like rats in the dark. Shani, protector of property, has a vulture, raven or crow in which he represses thieving tendencies, under Shanis influence, the vahana can make even malevolent events bring hope. The vehicle of a deity can vary according to the source, the time, in popular tradition, the origin of each vehicle is told in thousands of different ways. Three examples, While the god Ganesha was still a child, Ganesha trapped him with his lasso and made him his mount. Mushika was originally a gandharva, or celestial musician, after absent mindedly walking over the feet of a rishi named Vamadeva, Mushika was cursed and transformed into a mouse. However, after the rishi recovered his temper, he promised Mushika that one day, the prophecy was fulfilled when the mouse became the vahana of Ganesha. Before becoming the vehicle of Shiva, Nandi was a deity called Nandikeshvara, lord of joy and master of music, then, without warning, his name and his functions were transferred to the aspect of Shiva known as the deity Nataraja. From half-man, half-bull, he simply a bull. Since that time, he has watched over each of Shivas temples, kartikeya, the war-god known as Murugan in Southern India, is also mounted on a peacock. This peacock was originally a demon called Surapadma, while the rooster was called the angel, after provoking Murugan in combat, the demon repented at the moment his lance descended upon him

18.
Hamsa (bird)
–
The hamsa is an aquatic bird of passage, such as a goose or a swan. Its icon is used in Indian and Southeast Asian culture as a spiritual symbol, monier Williams translates the term from Sanskrit as goose, gander, swan, flamingo, or other aquatic bird of passage. The word is used for a mythical or poetical bird with knowledge. In the Rig Veda, it is the bird which is able to separate Soma from water, when mixed, in later Indian literature, in Indian philosophical literature, hamsa represents the individual soul or spirit, or the Universal Soul or Supreme Spirit. The word Hamsa is cognate with Latin anser, Greek χήν, German Gans, English goose, Spanish ganso, however, Henry Milman and others state that some early translators were misled by the closeness of the word Hamsa to Gans, and this is likely an incorrect link. According to Vogel, Western and Indian scholars may have preferred translating hamsa in Sanskrit text as swan because the indigenous goose appears plump while the swan appears more graceful. Paul Johnsgard, in 2010, has stated that mute swan do migrate to northwestern Himalayan region of India every winter, migrating some 1000 miles each way. Grewal, Harvey and Pfister, in 2003, identified large swaths of northwestern India and northeastern Pakistan particularly Kashmir, the Sanskrit and Pali languages, both have alternate words for goose such as Jalapada, Dhamara, Cakragki, Majjugamana, Shvetagaruta and others. Daves identification is based on the provided in the Sanskrit texts about the changes in plumage over the birds life, described voice, migratory habits, courtship rituals. Some Sanskrit texts, states Dave, distinguish between Hamsa and Kadamb, the former being swan and latter as bar-headed goose, the hamsa, or the swan, is often identified with the Supreme Spirit, Ultimate Reality or Brahman in Hinduism. The flight of the hamsa symbolizes moksha, the release from the cycle of samsara, the hamsa is also the vahana of Saraswati – the goddess of knowledge and creative arts, and her husband Brahma – the god with powers of creation, in Hindu trinity. Lake Manasarovar in Hindu mythology, is seen as the abode of the hamsa. Poetical images are derived from the flight of the swans to that lake in the Himalayas, during pranayama, which is a yogic exercise of breath control, hamsa came to epitomize the prana, the breath of life. In view of the association of a hamsa with several attributes as indicated above, Hindu rishi and sadhu have been given the title of paramhamsa, that is and it connotes a particular person who has reached a high level of spirituality. He is immune to the existence of his body, which he treats as a corpse and he is beyond false pretensions and lives realizing the Brahman. In chapter 3, the Paramhamsa Upanished states that the one who understands the difference between staff of knowledge and staff of wood, is a Paramahamsa, Hamsa, or Hansa, are part of Indian mythology. Arayanna, or heavenly hamsa, are said to live in Manasasaras in the Himalayas and they are mentioned in the Hindu Epic, the Ramayana. Hamsa, the swan, is part of the love story of Nala and Damayanti

19.
Kartik Purnima
–
Kartik Purnima is a Hindu and Jain holy festival, celebrated on the Purnima day or the fifteenth lunar day of Kartik. It is also known as Tripuri Purnima and Tripurari Purnima and it is sometimes called Deva-Diwali or Deva-Deepawali - the festival of lights of the gods. The 2016 date is November 14, Tripuri Purnima or Tripurari Purnima derives its name from Tripurari - the foe of the demon Tripurasura. In some legends of Kartik Purnima, the term is used to denote the three sons of Tārakāsura. Tripurari is an epithet of god Shiva, Shiva in his form as Tripurantaka killed Tripurasura on this day. Tripurasura had conquered the world and defeated the gods and also created three cities in space, together called Tripura. The killing of the demon and destruction of cities with a single arrow - by Shiva overjoyed the gods. This day is also called Dev-Diwali—the Diwali of the gods, Diwali is the Hindu festival of lights. Kartik Puornima is also the birthday of Matsya, god Vishnus fish-incarnation and it is also the birthday of Vrinda, the personification of the Tulsi plant and of Kartikeya, the god of war and son of Shiva. This day also is considered special for Radha, the lover of Krishna - Vishnus incarnation and it is believed that Krishna and Radha danced rasa and Krishna worshipped Radha on this day. This day is dedicated to the pitrs, dead ancestors. Underhill believes that the origins of this festival may lie in ancient times, the festival has even more significance when the day falls in the nakshatra Krittika and is then called Maha Kartik. The nakshatra is Bharani, the results are stated to be special, if it is Rohini nakshatra, then the fruitful results are even much more. Any philanthropic act on this day is supposed to bring benefits, Kartik Purnima is closely associated with Prabodhini Ekadashi which marks the end of Chaturmas, a four-month period when Vishnu is believed to sleep. Prabodhini Ekadashi signifies the awakening of the god, Chaturmas penance ends on this day. Many fairs that begin on Prabodhini Ekadashi end on Kartik Purnima, fairs that conclude on this day include Prabodhini Ekadashi celebrations at Pandharpur and Pushkar Fair. Kartik Purnima is also the last day to perform Tulsi Vivah ceremony that can be performed from Prabodhini Ekadashi, also, it is believed that Vishnu, on this day, returns to his abode after completing his stay in Bali. Hence, the day is known as Deva-Diwali, in Pushkar, Rajasthan, the Pushkar Fair or Pushkar mela commences on Prabodhini Ekadashi and continues till Kartik Purnima, the latter being the most important

20.
Srivari Brahmotsavam
–
A Brahmotsavam is a holy cleansing ceremony in honor of Lord Brahma, and the one at Tirumala is by far the largest. The Brahmotsavam is one of the most important and auspicious festivals in Tirupati, popular stories trace the origin of this celebration to Brahma, the creator God, who first conducted this festival to Lord Venkateswara at Tirupati. Brahma worshiped Venkateswara on the banks of the holy Swami Pushkarini in Tirupati as a way to give thanks for the Lord’s protection of mankind, hence, this utsava bears his name as Brahmotsavam, which means Brahma’s Utsavam. In tirumala, Brahmotsavam is celebrated during month of Aswayuja beginning near the end of September or in early October, the Brahmotsava is performed over a nine-day period in the beginning of Āśvina Masa as per the Hindu Lunar Calendar. On the evening before the start of the first day, the rite of Ankurarpana is performed along with a festival for Vishvaksena, on the first day, the main activity is the Dwajarohana, the hoisting of the Garuda flag at the Dhvajastambham. This signifies the commencement of the Brahmotsava and it is believed that Garuda goes to Devalokam and invites the Devas to attend the function. During the days of the festival, the activities include daily homas. Every evening, the utsava-murtis are decorated with different alankarams, the concluding day is the Janma Nakshatra of Sri Venkateswara, which is celebrated in a grand way with Avabhritha Utsava. In Tirupati, the Sudarshana Chakra is bathed in the Swami Pushkarini, in Aurora, a priest takes the Sudarshana Chakra on his head and takes a holy bath in Swami Pushkarini. Afterwards, the Chakra is placed on a platform, so the devotees can walk under it. The celebration officially concludes with Dhvajavarohanam, the lowering of the Garuda flag, the priests pay respects to Gods and Sages with the chanting of Vedic mantras and see them off on their return to the Devaloka. Dwajaarohanam is a festival that is held on the first day by hoisting a flag with a picture of Garuda on the top of the Dwajah Sthambham in front of the sanctum sanctorum. It is said to be a significance of formal invitation to all the deities to attend the Brahmotsavam festival. After Dwajarohanam, The Chief Minister, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh symbolically offers new silk clothes to the Lord as a mark of obeisance and thanks giving to the Lord of the Universe in a procession. This was earlier done on 5th day but due to heavy rush of devotees and for CM security reasons, the priests will decorate it with tulus and will do a pooja to garuda the they will tie with ropes + the dwaja sthambam. Temple priests will be there along with the head priest, the gods will be there and pandits will be chanting a series of vedas and the Garuda Dwaja will be raised. They chant vedas and say many slokas many priests will be there. This is one of thee most important days of the utsavam, after the Dwajaarohanam the Lord is taken out in a procession in the evening on Aadi Sesha the thousand headed Chief Serpent God as his vehicle. Aadisesha is the seat on which Lord SriManNarayana rests in his abode Sri Vaikunta, Tirumala hills the abode of Lord Venkateswara is said to be the manifestation of Lord Aadisesha

21.
Diwali
–
Diwali or Deepavali is the Hindu festival of lights celebrated every year in autumn in the northern hemisphere. It is a holiday in Fiji, Guyana, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. One of the most popular festivals of Hinduism, it signifies the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, knowledge over ignorance. Its celebration includes millions of lights shining on housetops, outside doors and windows, around temples, in the Gregorian calendar, Diwali night falls between mid-October and mid-November. Before Diwali night, people clean, renovate, and decorate their homes and offices, after puja, fireworks follow, then a family feast including mithai, and an exchange of gifts between family members and close friends. Deepavali also marks a major shopping period in nations where it is celebrated, the name of festive days as well as the rituals of Diwali vary significantly among Hindus, based on the region of India. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra, Diwali or Sanskrit dīpāvali means series of lights, and is derived from dīpam light, lamp and oli glow of light. Diwali is also known as festival of lights. Diwali dates back to ancient times in India, as a festival after the summer harvest in the Hindu calendar month of Kartika. The diyas are mentioned in Skanda Purana to symbolically represent parts of sun, the giver of light and energy to all life. Hindus in some regions of India associate Diwali with the legend of Yama, the Nachiketa story about right versus wrong, true wealth versus transient wealth, knowledge versus ignorance is recorded in Katha Upanishad composed in 1st millennium BC. King Harsha in the 7th century Sanskrit play Nagananda mentions Deepavali as Deepapratipadutsava, the Persian traveller and historian Al Biruni, in his 11th century memoir on India, wrote of Deepavali being celebrated by Hindus on New Moon day of the month of Kartika. Diwali is one of the happiest holidays in India and Nepal with significant preparations, people clean their homes and decorate them for the festivities. People also buy gifts for family members and friends which typically include sweets, dry fruits and it is also the period when children hear ancient stories, legends about battles between good and evil or light and darkness from their parents and elders. Girls and women go shopping and create rangoli and other creative patterns on floors, near doors, youth and adults alike help with lighting and preparing for patakhe. There is significant variation in practices and rituals. Depending on the region, prayers are offered one or more deities, with most common being Lakshmi – the goddess of wealth. On Diwali night, fireworks light up the neighborhood skies, later, family members and invited friends celebrate the night over food and sweets

22.
Saraswati
–
Saraswati is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and learning worshipped throughout Nepal and India. She is a part of the trinity of Saraswati, Lakshmi, all the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda and she has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions. Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami in her honour, the Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India, as well as some Buddhist sects. Saraswati who is revered as a goddess of knowledge, music and arts is found outside Nepal and India, such as in Japan, Vietnam, Bali. It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati which means one with plenty of water, the word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to Sarasvati River and mentioned with other northwestern Indian rivers such as Drishadvati, Saraswati then connotes a river deity. In Book 2, Rigveda calls Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, –Translated by John Muir In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is declared to be the possessor of knowledge. In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning, Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani, Brahmi, Bharadi, Vani and Vachi, Varnesvari, in Nepali language, her name is written Nepali, सरस्वती. In the Telugu, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli, in Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustaka dharini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, in Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal, Kalaivāni, Vāni, Bharathi. She is also addressed as Shāradā, Veenā pustaka dharani, Vākadevi, Vāni, Varadhanāyaki, in India she is locally spelled as Bengali, সরস্বতী, Saraswati. Malayalam, സരസ്വതി, Saraswati. and Tamil, சரஸ்வதி, Sarasvatī, outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi or Tipitaka Medaw, in Chinese as Biàncáitiān, in Japanese as Benzaiten and in Thai as Suratsawadi or Saratsawadi. Saraswati is found in almost every major ancient and medieval Indian literature between 1000 BC to 1500 AD, in Hindu tradition, she has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day. In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, in Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music. Saraswati is the energy and power of Brahma

23.
Narada
–
Narada is a Vedic sage, famous in Hindu traditions as a traveling musician and storyteller, who carries news and enlightening wisdom. He appears in a number of Hindu texts, notably the Mahabharata, in Indian texts, Narada travels to distant worlds and realms. He is depicted carrying a khartal and Veena with the name Mahathi and is regarded as one of the great masters of the ancient musical instrument. This instrument is known by the name mahathi which he uses to accompany his singing of hymns, prayers, in the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism, he is presented as a sage with devotion to Lord Vishnu. Narada is described as wise and mischievous, in humorous tales. Vaishnav enthusiasts depict him as a pure, elevated soul who glorifies Vishnu through his songs, singing the names Hari and Narayana. The Narada Bhakti Sutra is attributed to him, in the Mahabharata, Narada was conversant with the Vedas and the Upanishads and was acquainted with history and Puranas. He had mastery of the six Angas, pronunciation, grammar, prosody, terms, religious rites and he was a perfect master in re-conciliatory texts and differentiating in applying general principles to particular cases. He could swiftly interpret contraries by references to differences in situation and he was eloquent, resolute, intelligent and possessor of powerful memory. He knew the science of morals, politics, skilled in drawing inference from evidence and he was competent in judging the correctness and incorrectness of complex syllogistic statements consisting of 5 proponents. He was capable of arriving at definite conclusions about religion, wealth, pleasure and he possessed knowledge of this whole universe, above it, below it and everything surrounding it. He was capable of answering successively at Vrihaspati himself, while arguing and he was the master of the Sankhya and Yoga systems of philosophy, conversant with sciences of war and treaty and proficient in drawing conclusions of judging things not within a direct knowledge. He knew about the six sciences of treaty, war, military campaigns, maintenance of posts against the enemy and he was a thorough master of every branch of learning. He was fond of war and music and was incapable of being repulsed by any science or any course of action. The Bhagavata Purana describes the story of Naradas spiritual enlightenment, He was the source of information among Gods. He claimed to have 60 wives, in his previous birth Narada was a Gandharva who had been cursed to be born on an earthly planet as a sudra for singing glories to the demigods instead of the Supreme Lord. He was born as the son of a maid-servant of some particularly saintly priests, the priests, being pleased with both his and his mothers service, blessed him by allowing him to eat some of their food, previously offered to their lord, Vishnu. Gradually he received blessings from these sages and heard them discussing many spiritual topics

24.
Daksha
–
Besides his noble birth, Daksa was a great king. Pictures show him as a rotund and obese man with a body, protruding belly. According to the Puranas, Daksha had 89 daughters from his wife Prasuti, according to Vishnu Purana and Padma Purana, Daksha and his wife Prasuti had 24 daughters. Of these, the 13 married to Dharma are, Sraddha, Srilakshmi, Dhriti, Tushti, Pushti, Medha, Kriya, Buddhi, Lajja, Vapu, Santi, Siddhi, Kirtti. According to Matsya Purana, Daksha and his wife Panchajani had 62 daughters, not one of whom resembled their father. 10 of those daughters were married to Dharma,13 to sage Kashyapa,27 to Chandra,4 to Arishtanemi,1 to Kama,1 to lord Shiva,2 to sons of sage Bhrigu,2 to sage Angiras,2 to Krisasva. According to Padma Purana, when Daksha felt the number of women are not sufficient. Sati was the married to Shiva. The 10 daughters married to Dharma are Maruvati, Vasu, Jami Lamba, Bhanu, Urjja, Sankalp, Mahurath, Sadhya, and Vishva. The 13 daughters married to sage Kashyapa are Aditi, Diti, Danu Arishta, Sursa, Surabhi, Vinata, Tamra, Krodhvasha, Ira, Kadru, Vishva, the 1 daughter married to Kamadeva was Rati. These 27 wives of Chandra are 27 Nakshatras which are on the moons orbit, Daksha found that Soma overly favored one daughter over the others, thus neglecting their needs and flouting his responsibilities. For this, Daksha cursed him to wither and die, Chandra Dev approached and worshipped Lord Shiva in order to be relieved of the curse, at Somnath. He gave Chandra the boon that in a month, he would grow for fifteen days in one half and in the half he would keep losing one Kala per day. The place where Chandra Dev worshipped Lord Shiva came to be known as Somnath, Somnath means the Protector of the Moon God. Legend has it that the first temple at Somnath was built by Chandra Dev himself, Daksha is a Sanskrit word said to be a Prajapati or one of the Brahmas sons. The equivalent meaning in English is competent, one of the daughters of Prajapati was Sati or Dakshayani, who had always wished to marry Shiva. Daksha forbade it, but Sati disobeyed him and did so anyway, Daksha disliked Shiva intensely, calling him a dirty, roaming ascetic and reviling the great yogis cohort of goblins and ghouls. Daksha Yagna was an important turning point in the creation and development of sects in Hinduism like Shaktism and Shaivism and it is the story behind the Stala Purana of Shakti Peethas

25.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages

26.
Hinduism
–
Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents

27.
Prajapati
–
In Hinduism, Prajapati lord of people is a group of Hindu deities presiding over procreation and protection of life, and thereby a King of Kings. Prajapati is a Vedic deity presiding over procreation, and the protection of life and he was mentioned as Daksha in Hiranyagharbhasuktham as the creator deity emerging from supreme god vishvakarman above the other Vedic deities in RV10 and in Brahmana literature. According to later beliefs in the post-Vedic Era, the Prajapatis were elected democratically, at first Lord Bràhma was elected as Prajapati, Lord Vishnu was then elected democratically/unanimously as Prajapati by all the Rishis and subjects of that era and sat on the throne of Prajapati. Thereafter, Lord Shankar or Rudras were elected as Prajapatis, the throne of Prajapati succeeded further and there were about 26 Prajapatis, as mentioned in later puranas In later times, he is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. In classical Puranic Hinduism, Hiranyagarbha is a name of Brahma, so called because he was born from a golden egg, Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 8.8.16 cites Vishvakarman as the leader of the prajāpatis, the sons of Lord Brahmā who generate progeny. The Prajapati community come brahmana warriors are seen as the descendants of Prajapati, Lord Brahmā, Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Prajapati also means protector & preserver. The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Book 2, Sabha Parva, Lokapala Sabhakhayana Parva, section, a possible connection between Prajapati and the Prōtogonos of the Greek Orphic tradition has been made by several scholars. It has been argued that the name of /PRA-JĀ-pati/ is etymologically equivalent to that of the god at Kolophōn

28.
Kama
–
Kama means desire, wish, longing in Indian literature. Kama is one of the four goals of life in Hindu traditions. It is considered an essential and healthy goal of life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals, Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha, Kama means “desire, wish or longing”. In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to sexual desire, however, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature. The concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in Vedas, for example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. The Mahabharata, for example, provides one of the definitions of kama. Kama often implies the short form of the word kamana, Kama, however, is more than kamana. Vatsyayana, the author of Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a manasa vyapara, experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being. Kama Sutra, in its discourse on kama, describes forms of art, dance. Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and capacity, a little girl who hugs her teddy bear with a smile is experiencing kama, as are two lovers in embrace. During these experiences, the person connects and identifies the beloved as part of oneself and feels more complete, fulfilled and this, in the Indian perspective, is kāma. Hindery notes the inconsistent and diverse exposition of kama in various ancient texts of India, both Sita and Rama, frequently express their unwillingness and inability to live without the other. Gavin Flood explains kama as “love” without violating dharma, artha, in Hinduism, kama is regarded as one of the four proper and necessary goals of human life, the others being Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma precedes and is essential, if dharma is ignored, artha and kama lead to social chaos. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra recognizes relative value of three goals as follows, artha precedes kama, while dharma precedes both kama and artha. Vatsyayana, in Chapter 2 of Kama sutra, presents a series of philosophical objections argued against kama, the pursuit of pleasure, claim objectors, encourages individuals to commit unrighteous deeds, bring distress, carelessness, levity and suffering later in life. These objections were then answered by Vatsyayana, with the declaration that kama is as necessary to human beings as food, just like good food is necessary for the well being of the body, good pleasure is necessary for healthy existence of a human being, suggests Vatsyayana

29.
Puranas
–
The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers

30.
Nelumbo nucifera
–
Nelumbo nucifera, also known as Indian lotus, sacred lotus, bean of India, Egyptian bean or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. The Linnaean binomial Nelumbo nucifera is the currently recognized name for this species and this plant is an aquatic perennial. Native to Tropical Asia, and Queensland, Australia, it is cultivated in water gardens. It is also the flower of India, and Vietnam. The lotus is often confused with the water lilies, in fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system call the lotus Nymphaea nelumbo or Nymphaea stellata. Far from being in the family, Nymphaea and Nelumbo are members of different orders. The roots of lotus are planted in the soil of the pond or river bottom, the flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. The plant normally grows up to a height of about 150 cm and a spread of up to 3 meters. The leaves may be as large as 60 cm in diameter, researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers to within a narrow range just as humans and other warmblooded animals do. Dr. Roger S. Seymour and Dr and they suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract coldblooded insect pollinators. The study, published in the journal Nature, is the latest discovery in the field of thermoregulation, heat-producing, two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus and Philodendron selloum. An individual lotus can live for over a thousand years and has the ability to revive into activity after stasis. In 1994, a seed from a lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ±270 years, was successfully germinated. As mentioned earlier, the traditional Sacred Lotus is only related to Nymphaea caerulea. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine, the genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013. The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are sold throughout the world for decorative purposes. The flowers, seeds, young leaves, and roots are all edible, in Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten. In Korea, the leaves and petals are used as a tisane, yeonkkotcha is made with dried petals of white lotus and yeonipcha is made with the leaves

31.
Vedanta
–
Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It represents the divergent philosophical views of more than 10 schools—all developed on the basis of a textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The Prasthanatrayi is a term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras. Vedanta does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine, over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from other orthodox schools like Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been shaped and influenced by the doctrines of different schools of Vedanta. The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads, Vedanta was concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic knowledge part called the Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the philosophical traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses and these mark the culmination of Vedic thought. These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya stage, Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, the latter enquiry or higher enquiry, and is contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or rituals part in the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, the Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna, considered the Sruti foundation of Vedanta. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana, considered the foundation of Vedanta. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna, considered the Smriti foundation of Vedanta, the Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings and this was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, the Upanishads do not present a rigorous philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis, varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras, led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time of which three, four, five or six are prominent. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a rather than a school of Vedanta

32.
Vishnu
–
Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu

33.
Shiva
–
Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list

34.
Brahma Temple, Pushkar
–
Jagatpita Brahma Mandir is a Hindu temple situated at Pushkar in the Indian state of Rajasthan, close to the sacred Pushkar Lake to which its legend has an indelible link. The temple is one of few existing temples dedicated to the Hindu creator-god Brahma in India. Although the present temple dates to the 14th century, the temple is believed to be 2000 years old. The temple is built of marble and stone stabs. It has a distinct red pinnacle and a bird motif. The temple sanctum sanctorum holds the images of Brahma and his second consort Gayatri. The temple is governed by the Sanyasi sect priesthood, on Kartik Poornima, a festival dedicated to Brahma is held when large number of pilgrims visit the temple, after bathing in the sacred lake. According to the Hindu scripture Padma Purana, Brahma saw the demon Vajranabha trying to kill his children and he immediately slew the demon with his weapon, the lotus-flower. In this process, the lotus petals fell on the ground at three places, creating three lakes, the Pushkar Lake or Jyeshta Pushkar, the Madya Pushkar Lake, and Kanishta Pushkar lake. When Brahma came down to the earth, he named the place where the fell from Brahmas hand as Pushkar. Brahma then decided to perform a yajna at the main Pushkar Lake, so Brahma married Gurjar girl, Gayatri and completed the yajna with his new consort sitting beside him, holding the pot of amrita on her head and giving ahuti. When Savitri finally arrived at the venue she found Gayatri sitting next to Brahma which was her rightful place, agitated, she cursed Brahma that he would be never worshipped, but then reduced the curse permitting his worship in Pushkar. Thus, the Pushkar temple is regarded the temple dedicated to Brahma. Savitri, thereafter, moved into the Ratnagiri hill and became a part of it by emerging as a known as the Savitri Jharna. Though the current structure dates to the 14th century, the temple is believed to be 2000 years old. The temple is described to have built by sage Vishwamitra after Brahmas yagna. It is also believed that Brahma himself chose the location for his temple, Pushkar is often described in the scriptures as the only Brahma temple in the world, owing to the curse of Savitri, and as the King of the sacred places of the Hindus. Although now the Pushkar temple does not remain the only Brahma temple, it is one of very few existing temples dedicated to Brahma in India

35.
Erawan Shrine
–
The Erawan Shrine, formally the Thao Maha Phrom Shrine, is a Hindu shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, that houses a statue of Phra Phrom, the Thai representation of the Hindu god of creation Lord Brahma. A popular worship attraction, it features performances by resident Thai dance troupes. On 17 August 2015, a bomb exploded near the shrine, killing 20, the shrine is located by the Grand Hyatt Erawan Hotel, at the Ratchaprasong intersection of Ratchadamri Road in Pathum Wan district. It is near the Bangkok Skytrains Chitlom Station, which has an elevated walkway overlooking the shrine, the area has many shopping malls nearby, including Gaysorn, CentralWorld and Amarin Plaza. Five other shrines dedicated to Hindu deities are located in the area as well, Phra Laksami, Phra Trimurati, Phra Khanet, Phra In, and Phra Narai Song Suban. The Erawan Shrine was built in 1956 as part of the government-owned Erawan Hotel to eliminate the bad karma believed caused by laying the foundations on the wrong date. The hotels construction was delayed by a series of mishaps, including cost overruns, injuries to laborers, furthermore, the Ratchaprasong intersection had once been used to put criminals on public display. An astrologer advised building the shrine to counter the negative influences, the Brahma statue was designed and built by the Department of Fine Arts and enshrined on 9 November 1956. The hotels construction thereafter proceeded without further incident, in 1987, the hotel was demolished and the site used for the Grand Hyatt Erawan Hotel. In the early hours of 21 March 2006, the shrine was vandalised by a Thai man believed to be mentally ill, after smashing the statue with a hammer, 27-year-old Thanakorn Pakdeepol was beaten to death by angry bystanders. Two street sweepers who worked for the Pathum Wan District office were arrested and charged with the fatal beating, witnesses said Thanakorn stood on the base of the statue with a large hammer in his hands, and smashed the hollow statue of Brahma to pieces. The deitys four-faced head, torso, six arms and weapons were fragmented, only part of the lap and base of the statue were left intact. The incident occurred at about 01,00, a white cloth was used to conceal the absence of the statue. Officials later reopened the site to the public, displaying photographs of the statue so worshippers could pay their respects, however, the slain mans father, Sayant Pakdeepol, said his son had received treatment for psychiatric problems and that mental illness was the cause of the attack. Sayant described the beating of his son an overreaction. Doing something like this is not the act of people with beliefs, of those with real faith in Brahma. Murder is an act and people with morality would not have done what they did. In the days immediately after the destruction of the Erawan Shrine, then Thai Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra visited, the new Brahma statue was placed in the shrine on 21 May 2006 at 11,39, the moment the sun was shining directly above the shrine

36.
Bangkok
–
Bangkok is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres in the Chao Phraya River delta in Central Thailand, over 14 million people live within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, significantly dwarfing Thailands other urban centres in terms of importance. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam—later renamed Thailand—during the late 19th century, the city grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailands politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is a hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a regional centre for the arts, fashion. The city is known for its vibrant street life and cultural landmarks. The historic Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the scenes of Khaosan Road. Bangkok is among the top tourist destinations. It is named the most visited city in MasterCards Global Destination Cities Index, Bangkoks rapid growth amidst little urban planning and regulation has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure systems. The city has turned to public transport in an attempt to solve this major problem. Five rapid transit lines are now in operation, with more systems under construction or planned by the national government and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and became the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Empire in 1767, the newly declared King Taksin established his capital at the town, in 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern banks Rattanakosin Island, thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom. The City Pillar was erected on 21 April, which is regarded as the date of foundation of the present city, Bangkoks economy gradually expanded through busy international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siams modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late 19th century, Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932

37.
Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura
–
The Chennakesava Temple located at Somanathapura is one of the finest examples of Hoysala architecture. The temple was built by Soma, a Dandanayaka in 1268 C. E. under Hoysala king Narasimha III, the ceiling of the mantapa is supported by lathe turned pillars, a standard feature in Hoysala constructions. Between pillars, the ceiling is domical and intricately decorated and these decorations could include multi-petalled lotuses, banana bud motifs based on stepped ponds and snake like knots. Of the three shrines, one shrine has the image of the god Keshava, but the image is missing from the sanctum, the other two shrines house images of Janardhana and Venugopala. This is strictly a Vaishnava temple and there are no depictions of any forms of the Hindu god Shiva, the names of many architects and sculptors are etched on stone from which it is evident that the artists were both local and from outside the region. Famous among them are the locals such as Ruvari Mallithamma, Masanithamma, the temple is housed inside an impressive high walled enclosure and the entrance to the complex is through a porch with tall lathe-turned pillars. The material used for the temple is soapstone, the Keshava temple standouts out as one of the finest the Hoysala architects produced. Its symmetrical architecture, fine sculptures on equally prominent shrines, while there are Hoysala temples with better sculpture and others with better architecture, this temples satisfies all requirements. According to the Mysore archaeological reports, it was built by the famous architect, the temple which is built on a jagati is a trikuta and fully satisfies that terminology as all shrines have a superstructure that is intact. Inside the temple, each vimana has a vestibule that connects it to the main rectangular mantapa. Like the shrines, all three also have their own tower called the Sukanasi, though it is shorter and hence looks like a low extension of the main superstructure over the shrine. The outer walls of all three shrines, their towers and Sukanasi are equally well decorated, making it overall a very well balanced design, the temple stands on a jagati and the three vimanas are located at the back and are connected by a common rectangular closed mantapa. The jagati closely follows the plan of the exterior and there is a gallery with lathe-turned pillars all along the enclosure of the temple complex which adds to the effect. There is one flight of steps leads to the jagati. The wide jagati invites devotees to follow the ritualistic clockwise circum-ambulation before entering the hall, the full effect of the rectangular hall is seen only when the temple profile is viewed. The moldings on the wall of the mantapa has well decorated reliefs and friezes. All the three shrines are 16 pointed stellate in design and their towers follow the same pattern, hence the whole structure looks like a rhythmic progression of well decorated projections and recesses. The upper eaves is where the tower meets the wall of the shrine, the lower eaves is about a meter below the upper eaves

Kartika Purnima is a Hindu, Sikh and Jain holy festival, celebrated on the Purnima (full moon) day or the fifteenth …

Kartika Purnima: November 28, 2012

Here, the five-headed Tripurantaka is seen pointing an arrow towards the Tripura (rightmost top corner) with the bow made of mount Meru, the serpent Vasuki is seen as its string. The four-headed god Brahma is seen. The moon and the Sun are depicted as the wheels of the chariot.

The Bangkok city proper is highlighted in this satellite image of the lower Chao Phraya delta. Notice the built-up urban area along the Chao Phraya River, which extends northward and southward into Nonthaburi and Samut Prakan Provinces.

Bangkok's major canals are shown in this map detailing the original course of the river and its shortcut canals.

Deva (Sanskrit: देव, Devá) means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence", and is also one of the terms for a deity …

Devas are benevolent supernatural beings in the Vedic era literature, with Indra (above) as their leader. The above gilt copper statue of Indra with inlaid semi-precious stones is from 16th-century Nepal.