THE CAMERA 12
The design of film and digital cameras with an explanation of how they work. Different types of camera, lens, and lighting equipment are also described in detail.

HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES 34
The secret of good photography lies in the ability to “see” good pictures, the principal elements of which – shape, tone, pattern, and texture – are analyzed in this section.

HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES 70
A comprehensive and practical behind-the-camera guide to photographing different subjects, from formal portraits to panoramic landscapes.

STILL LIFE 138
Composing a Still Life 140 Lighting a Still Life 142 Selecting Still Life Themes 144 Taking Outside Still Life 146 Choosing Backgrounds for Still Life 148 Photographing Found Still Life 150 Still Life Gallery 152

TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION 248
An overview of traditional image manipulation techniques including conventional darkroom techniques such as solarization and hand coloring.

DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT 260
Practical guidance to all the equipment necessary for setting up a studio and darkroom at home. In addition there is information on how best to view and store slides, negatives, prints, and digital files.

All these are illustrated with behind-thescenes shots of me out on location or in a studio actually taking the pictures. but also what to leave out.
Photographer at work The unique photo set-ups provide a practical insight into the way I work in the studio and on location. landscapes.
. and natural history. architecture. These photo set-ups reveal exactly how a shot was taken.
Framing the shot. whether you are using film or a digital chip. the equipment that was used. the camera angle. and the wider settings from which the pictures were derived.INTRODUCTION 7
INTRODUCTION
Taking exciting photographs has very little to do with buying an expensive camera or having a massive array of photographic equipment. left The photographer’s skill lies not only in knowing what to include in the photograph. These fundamental camera controls are illustrated in the first section of the book using both diagrams and photographs.
A PRACTIC AL APPROACH
This book adopts a practical approach to help you master photography. still life. The more familiar you become with the controls and lens settings on your own particular camera. The largest section covers a wide range of photographic genres. A technical understanding of your camera is important. including portraiture. the more attention you can pay to composition and timing. What is crucial is how you see a chosen subject – and then how this vision is transformed into a permanent image using photographic techniques and composition. as it allows you to capture the pictorial qualities of a scene in the best way possible.

Most of the basic techniques also remain virtually unchanged. texture. take pictures. and other. Whether shot digitally or on film. right Some colors have a very powerful effect in pictures. whatever camera you use. However. in the 21st century. which is shown most graphically when the subject is silhouetted by means of backlighting and underexposure. grabbing the viewer’s attention.
THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION
In recent years. In the last century it was the 35mm SLR that was the single most important invention for
the serious photographer. To do this you need to take advantage of the fundamental elements of an image. when there are differences in the way the different types of camera are used.
Good photographs tend to capture the spirit of a subject by showing some of its features more strongly than others. I explain how to use these. for example. both amateur and professional. Other key elements are form. Despite the basic difference in the way an image is recorded. many digital cameras are designed to look and handle in exactly the same way as the traditional SLR. The composition is simple. digital cameras have made a huge difference to how photographers. emphasizing those that are most useful for the interpretation of the subject using composition and lighting. The most basic of these elements is the shape of a subject. so that you can get the most out of my advice. but the effect created by the lighting is striking. precision. once on a computer the exposure and composition can be altered with an ease. and subtlety that are impossible to reproduce using traditional means. In fact.8 INTRODUCTION
Texture and light. many keen photographers are using digital imaging instead of film. and color.
. compositional devices in the section entitled How to See Better Pictures. The red of this clown’s mask dominates this portrait. tone. Using color. these have been highlighted throughout the book. Where digital imaging comes into its own is in the way that it can allow you to change and improve the picture after it is taken. Now. above This image shows how light can be used to reveal contrasting textures. many of the main camera controls are the same as they were.

INTRODUCTION 9
.

.

you will discover limitless ways to express your own particular vision. Even an impromptu studio allows you to experiment with lighting and control it in a way that is impossible to achieve outdoors. or desktop printer. and the best way to avoid them – as well as how to rectify the problem using conventional or digital techniques.
THE COMPLETE PHOTOGRAPHER
The basic equipment you need to set up a home darkroom and studio is covered in the last section of this book. crop. this athlete would appear neither frozen nor as a crisp. By exploring the many possibilities of the medium. The fault finder section will help you see what mistakes you might make when taking and printing pictures. meanwhile. black silhouette.INTRODUCTION 11
Developing an eye. left Part of the skill of good photography lies in being able to see. above Photography lets you see the world in new ways. Having your own darkroom. and enlarge your own images without the need for a computer. allows you to manipulate. and capture. but can add a new level of artistry to it.
.
Unnatural view. great images in the ordinary things around you. can not only improve your photography. To the eye. Use this book as a guide to developing your own creativity and individual style. such as Adobe Photoshop. I provide an overview of how digital image manipulation software. scanner.
Using my own examples again.

.

type of lens. lighting equipment. it is important to understand the basic optical principles underlying how a camera works.THE CAMERA
To take consistently successful photographs. what film speed or digital setting to use in a particular situation.
. The more familiar you are with the controls on your camera. plus the advantages and drawbacks of different camera formats. the more you can concentrate on the composition and lighting of each photograph.

or chip.14 THE C AMERA
THE BASIC CAMERA
If you were to strip away the electronic refinements and automatic features of any camera you would find the same basic design underneath – a lightproof container with a hole at one end over which a lens is placed and a holder opposite to accommodate either a strip of light-sensitive film. focal-plane shutters consist of two metal blinds that open progressively. behind the lens. or a lightsensitive electronic chip. This dictates the brightness of the image reaching the film. or •Compact digitallight film cameras are and easy to use. With an SLR.
Subject and light source
Full aperture
Medium aperture
Stopped down
Lens
Diaphragm
Blade shutter – closed
Focal-plane shutter – closed
Shutter
Blade shutter – open
Focal-plane shutter – open
Viewfinder
Focal plane and film
Viewfinder Direct vision viewfinders on compact cameras do not show exactly the same image the lens sees. so a focusing mechanism moves the lens toward or away from the back of the camera. Shutters located between the aperture and the lens or behind the aperture have overlapping blades that spring open when the release button is pressed. the camera lens has an iris diaphragm that can be adjusted to leave a hole of varying diameter. so that they converge to form coherent points. light is reflected by a mirror and pentaprism to the viewfinder.
CAMERA TYPES
•SLRs are the most popular type of camera
for serious photography. which determine the length of time the film is exposed. Focal plane This is where the rays of light refracted by the lens converge to form a sharp. Moving to the next f-number either halves or doubles aperture size. and is known as a focal-plane shutter. the lens also contains a shutter
THE PATH OF LIGHT
Subject and light source A light source to illuminate a subject is essential. upside-down image. On a fixed-lens compact camera. The shutter allows you to choose the precise moment of exposure.
Direct vision
Single lens reflex
. The shutter mechanism on a single lens reflex (SLR) camera is located inside the body. Light traveling from different distances from the camera needs varying degrees of refraction to focus at the focal plane. Light rays reflected from the subject are transmitted through the camera to form a latent image on the film (or digital chip). Moving the shutter speed dial to the next stop either doubles or halves exposure time. and by selecting from a range of shutter speeds you can also control the length of exposure. This is basically a compositional aid that allows you to aim the camera accurately and to decide what elements to focus on.
mechanism. and focal plane coincide if the lens is correctly focused. known as a between-the-lens shutter. Shutter The shutter can be set at different speeds. To produce a correctly exposed image in a variety of light intensities. The position of the film. just in front of the film or digital sensor. Aperture size also affects depth of field (see page 17). The point at which the lens focuses these rays – the focal plane – coincides with the position of the film when the lens is correctly focused. This is called the aperture. Digital cameras usually also have an LCD TV monitor to show the image being projected onto the sensor.
•Medium-format cameras use wide
rolls of film for better image definition. Lens A simple lens consists of a convex disk of ground and polished glass that refracts the widening light rays traveling away from every point of the subject. Another common feature is the viewfinder. they are either digital or use 35mm film. which opens to allow light to reach the film.
Aperture The diameter of the lens diaphragm can be changed by turning the aperture ring.

THE B ASIC C AMERA 15

DESIGN OF AN SLR C AMERA

Viewfinder window DX sensors

Rubber eyecap Fold-away film-rewind crank (manual cameras only)

The unique feature of the popular SLR (single lens reflex) camera lies in the design of its viewfinder system. Light traveling from the subject enters the lens and strikes a mirror angled at 45˚. It is then reflected upward, through the focusing screen, and into the pentaprism, where it exits the camera via a rear-mounted viewfinder window. This means that no matter what focal length lens is attached to the camera, the scene the photographer sees through the viewfinder corresponds exactly to that seen by the lens.
35mm SLR cutaway This cutaway of a typical SLR shows the link between the external controls and the internal mechanisms. Although camera models may look different, the layout of the basic features – lens, diaphragm, aperture, angled mirror, shutter, focusing screen, and pentaprism – is the same.

Ring for attaching strap Film advance spindle

Film chamber for 35mm cassette

Rewind spindle

Focal plane shutter

Rear viewfinder window

Focusing screen has etched surface to help the photographer judge if the image is sharp

35mm SLR back view This view shows a typical SLR with the hinged back removed to reveal the layout of the lightproof film chamber and position of the focalplane shutter.

Flash hotshoe contains electrical contacts that trigger the flash when the shutter is fired

Exposure compensation dial: used for manually overriding the automatic exposure system Pentaprism has mirrored surfaces to flip the image on the focusing screen so that it appears the right way round when seen in the viewfinder Aperture control ring Internal mirror reflects the image onto the focusing screen, so photographer can see the image as it will appear on the film.The mirror swings upward out of the light path when the exposure is taken

Shutter speed dial: exposure times ranging from up to 2 seconds or longer to 1/2000 second or briefer can be set Frame counter on LCD display

Button for unlocking the lens Batteries Ring for attaching strap Film Focal plane shutter Shutter release button – on most SLRs, half depressing this often activates the automatic exposure and focusing controls

Light path through the camera

Lens is constructed with a number of glass elements

18 THE C AMERA

FILM CAMERAS
The 35mm is far and away the most popular camera size. It is small, lightweight, easy to use, and generally produces good results. Its popularity has led to a steady increase in technical, optical, and design innovations, and cameras are now available with every conceivable automatic feature. For 35mm single lens reflex (SLR) users, there is the added bonus of a wide range of lenses with different focal lengths from which to choose.
AUTOMATIC FEATURES
MANUAL SLR
The least expensive film SLRs tend to be those which do not have autofocus. For every shot, you turn the lens until the subject in the viewfinder appears as sharp as possible. On some models you may also need to wind the film on manually between shots and when the film is used up – but there may be a built-in motor to do this for you.

Shutter release button

Shutter speed and exposure mode dial

Flash hotshoe

Exposure compensation

Autofocus systems in general target anything positioned center-frame and assume it to be the subject of the photograph. Problems may arise, however, if the subject is off-center, although more elaborate systems exist that can identify the closest subject from a wide area within the frame. Autoexposure systems vary in how they are programed to control exposure. Some cameras measure exposure in the center of the frame (assuming that this is where the subject will be). Other cameras take samples from different parts of the frame, combining these multizone or evaluative readings to callculate an intelligent reading. Additional automatic features include filmspeed recognition (DX coding), which picks up the speed of the film from a code printed on the cassette. Automated film transport not only speeds up film loading and unloading, but winds on the film by one frame each time a picture is taken. When automatic wind-on is continuous, allowing you to take up to four frames per second, this function is known as motor drive.
COMPACT C AMERAS

Lens

Manual focus ring

AUTOFOCUS SLR
The majority of SLR cameras now have autofocus. The skill of this feature will vary greatly from model to model – with some able to track fast-moving subjects far more accurately than others. But it is still necessary for the photographer to check and control where the camera focuses – and in some situations it will be preferable to focus manually.

Shutter release button

Flash hotshoe

Built-in pop-up flash

Lens

Manual focus ring

Focus mode switch

APS COMPACT
An alternative to the 35mm film format is APS, or Advanced Photo System. The film area is smaller than 35mm, but this means that compact cameras can become even more compact. The cartridges just slot into the camera – you do not see or touch the film. With APS you can also change the shape of each picture between conventional, widescreen, and panoramic aspect ratios.

Shutter release button

Autofocus window

Viewfinder

Flash

The other popular types of 35mm camera are compact, or point-and-shoot, models. These are less bulky than SLRs and have a fixed lens that cannot be changed. The main design problem with compact cameras is that the view seen through the viewfinder is not exactly the same as that seen through the lens. This can result in framing errors at close distances, such as chopping off the top of a subject’s head. It is also not possible to see whether the image is correctly focused.

Lens

FILM CAMERAS 19

MANUAL SLR

•Ideal for technically minded photographers. •Shutter speeds tend to be incremental and
intermediate settings are not usually possible.

•Viewfinder showsbe the scene that will
recorded, no matter what lens is used.

Manual SLR can be used for close focusing

•Manual focusing allows you to decide
which area of the image to concentrate on. BUYING SECONDHAND

•Buying a secondhand SLR allows you to own a sophisticated camera for the fraction of the cost
AUTOMATIC SLR film •Automaticwind-on loading and make for quick and easy handling. of a new one. It is not necessary to have the latest model in order to take great photographs. film •Secondhandmorecameras and accessories have is become even affordable in recent years.This because many serious photographers have switched to digital cameras. you buy from reputable dealer purchase •If be guaranteedaagainst malfunctionyour a number will for of months. But you may get a better deal privately or online through an auction site. is •Secondhand pricethe highly dependent on theless visible condition of item.You will pay much if you are willing to buy a scuffed item, or one that does not come in the original box. are •Lenses, and some other accessories, theyalso good used deals. But make doubly sure that will work with your particular model of camera.

•Autoexposure is ideal for those not
interested in making technical decisions about the appearance of the final image. useful •Autofocus is poor for those with
Automatic SLR can be used for low light levels

eyesight, or when the camera is being used in low-light situations.

ZOOM COMPACT
All but the most basic compacts have built-in zooms, allowing you to change the focal length to match subject size and distance. Advanced models offer a greater zoom range allowing you to get closeups of more challenging subjects. Top models also offer more advanced metering, focusing and viewing systems. However, you still miss out on the degree of control over camera settings and focusing that is available on even a basic SLR.
Shutter release button Autofocus window Viewfinder

Flash and red-eye reduction lamp

COMPACT

•Point-and-shoot features make this
camera ideal for nontechnical users.
Basic compact picture

Scene viewfinder •not theinsame as that is recorded on the film, so use the parallax marks to frame scene.

•Most compact and cameras are lighter
less intrusive to use than SLRs.
Camera grip and battery compartment Zoom lens Advanced compact picture

20 THE C AMERA

DIGITAL CAMERAS
A principal attraction of digital cameras is the immediacy of the results. As soon as the picture is taken, you can view the shot on screen. As there is no processing stage, there is also the advantage of low running costs; even the memory can be re-used. As well as being displayed on camera, computer, or TV screen, digital pictures can also be printed at home using a standard desktop printer – or professionally using photographic paper.
HOW DO THEY WORK ?

Instead of using film, digital cameras use an electronic light-sensitive CCD or CMOS chip that converts the focused image into an electrical signal. This is then converted into a digital form, using the same binary code in which all computer files are stored.
DIGITAL SLR
A digital SLR is designed to offer the advantages of digital recording – but with the handling and features of a 35mm SLR. The design allows you to see the image directly through the lens using a prism and moving mirror arrangement. But there is also an additional LCD monitor, which can be used for framing shots, or reviewing pictures already taken. The lenses are interchangeable, and many digital SLRs can use lenses designed for 35mm models; but, as the imaging area is smaller than that used with 35mm, the effective focal length is increased. There is a high degree of control over exposure, focusing, color balance, and other creative functions.
Manual white balance adjustment for overriding automatic color balance Exposure mode dial

Just as with film cameras, the sophistication of digital cameras varies enormously. Some are mere point-and-shoot models, producing low-resolution on-screen snaps. At the other extreme, an ever-increasing number are capable of offering all the creative control and picture quality expected from a professional film camera. A key consideration in choosing a digital camera is the number of pixels – the individual elements used by the imaging sensor. The more pixels, the higher the maximum resolution. This is particularly important if you want to print your images, rather than just view them on-screen. An enthusiasts’ model will typically offer a resolution of 5 million pixels, and be capable of producing reasonable A3 (16x12in/40.6x30.5cm) prints.
Hotshoe for attaching flash AF illuminator, helps autofocus lock onto near subject in lowlight Lug for attaching strap

ABOUT PIXELS a model •Choosemillion or with two more pixels for good 4x6in (10x15cm)prints.

•The higher the resolution, the bigger
the file size – so you get less shots on a memory card.

•Youtodo not always have shoot at top
resolution – file size can be reduced from shot to shots. But a high resolution allows more cropping later.

DIGITAL SLR viewing •Reflexlets user see system directly through lens. Large LCD monitor also provided.

Input dial – used in conjunction with other controls Shutter release

•Interchangeable lenses. Other system
accessories available to adapt camera to specific tasks. range of •Wide controls and creative manual overrides.

•Readout of aperture and shutter speed.
Zoom ring, for adjusting the focal length of the lens

HYBRID MODEL
The hybrid is a halfway house between the SLR and the compact. It is designed to look and handle like an SLR, but as the zoom is built-in the lens can not be changed to suit different situations. The focal length range, however, is usually extensive – and there are often other system accessories such as lens converters and additional flashguns. Most significantly for the serious photographer, the user typically has complete control over aperture, shutter speed and color balance – providing a degree of creative control that is rarely found on a compact. Hybrid models are lighter, smaller, and less expensive than true SLRs.

Exposure compensation Shutter release Exposure mode

Automatic pop-up flash

HYBRID MODEL to handle •Designed camera – like an SLR but lens is fixed.

•Lens has a wide a 6x ratio, typically with
zoom ratio or greater.

•Eyelevel TV monitor shows view seen by
Hybrid model picture

lens.There is also a large LCD monitor. range of •Wide controls and creative
Screw mount for filters and add-on lens converters Built-in motorized zoom lens

Slot for memory card

manual overrides, with readout of aperture and shutter speed.

COMPACT CAMERA
Compact digital cameras are designed for ease of use and portability, but typically provide a greater creative control than that found on a similar film camera. Most have built-in zoom lenses, but the range varies significantly from model to model. The number of pixels used (and maximum resolution) also varies greatly. There is often some control over shutter speed, aperture, color balance, and focusing – but this falls short of that provided with SLR or hybrid models. A direct eyelevel viewfinder provides a slightly different view from that seen by the lens, although a more accurate LCD monitor is also provided.
Mode dial Shutter release Viewfinder Automatic flash

DIGITAL COMPACT primarily •Designeduse and for ease of portability.

•Maximum resolution varies significantly from
model to model. a fixed lens, •Has usually offers which short zoom range. vision •Directviewfinder. But eyelevel usually also has large LCD monitor.
Compact camera picture

Built-in motorized zoom lens: retracts into body of camera when not in use

BASIC DIGITAL CAMERA
If you do not need to print out your pictures, and are happy to view them on-screen, and without being enlarged, there is no need to invest in a model with millions of pixels. Many low-cost digital cameras are designed as “webcams” – for producing stills and movie images for internet use, where low resolution, and small file sizes, are essential. Digital cameras are also found built into other devices – such as cell phones and camcorders. Those found on phones are particularly popular, and are designed for sending thumbnail images to other phones or to email addresses. Not suprisingly, the features provided are very limited.

Color LCD screen used as viewfinder when the camera is in use

BASIC DIGITAL CAMERA

Main menu key

•Very small, or built into multi-function
device.

•Low resolution with limited number
of pixels. Designed primarily for producing on-screen snapshots.
Basic digital camera picture Softkey – function depends on menu or function currently in use

•Usually has fixed wide-angle lens. Any
zooming achieved by magnifying the image electronically.

hoods. and other •Bellowsequipment close-up can be attached to the camera body.
of •Selection candifferent viewfinders be used.
.
Shutter release button
Pentaprism
6 X 7CM CAMERA
•Film imagexsize measures 56 69. In terms of reliability and durability. This type of medium-format camera uses either 120 or 220 roll film (see page 30). For many professional photographers.FORMAT AND SPECIAL CAMERAS
Medium-format roll-film cameras fill the gap between the lightweight 35mm compacts and SLRs and the unwieldy sheet film cameras. Some photographers are devoted to this format while others prefer the compositional possibilities of rectangular-format images. which can capture the image digitally if required. which is ideal for landscape photography. this type of camera produces a much larger negative than a 35mm. However.
Removable film back
Protective flap for waist-level finder
6 X 6CM CAMERA size •Film image x 56mm. Many can be used with special electronic backs.
•Interchangeable lenses are available. and in most situations must be used with a tripod.5mm. but
similar handling characteristics.
ROLL-FILM SLRS images •Professional result of high quality from the large film image size. including a pentaprism correction viewfinder. It is supported by a comprehensive range of different lenses. and other accessories.
•Convenience of changing the film
back to switch quickly and easily from film to digital. •Larger overall size than a 35mm SLR. and because of their size and bulk. measures 56
•Lenses range from 30mm to 500mm. Both are widely available for the leisure photographer and can be found in digital form. A waterproof camera will produce good results even in wet conditions. the Hasselblad shown on the right is the choice of many professionals. Medium-format cameras are not designed for casual snapping.
Shutter release button
6 X 7CM CAMERA
The 6 x 7cm camera produces an approximately 6 x 7cm (21⁄4 x 23⁄4in) rectangular-format image. The appeal of instant film cameras has diminished with the affordability of digital cameras – but the immediate prints can still be fun. This Pentax model is similar in appearance and operation to an enlarged 35mm SLR camera.
6 x 6cm format picture Film wind-on lever Lens
•Bellowstocan also be attached the camera. or from negative film to slides even halfway through a film. from eye-level pentaprisms to waistlevel and angle finders. the lenses are much more expensive to buy.
6 x 7cm format picture Focus control ring Lens
ranging from wideangles to telephotos. Although it is not too bulky. film backs. which results in better definition and tonal qualities of prints and transparencies. rollfilm format cameras are ideal. Most roll-film cameras accept interchangeable film “backs” that allow you to change from color to black and white.22 THE C AMERA
MEDIUM . there are other cameras available that have been designed for specialized applications. and an underwater camera can take excellent images. Although a 35mm or digital SLR will produce excellent results for most purposes. and auxiliary viewfinders.
6 X 6CM CAMERA
This type of medium-format rollfilm SLR is also known as a 21⁄4in square camera and produces an image that is roughly 6cm (21⁄4in) square. the range of available lenses is not as extensive as you would find with a standard 35mm SLR camera. range •Wideviewing of lenses.

Since the negative is so big.MEDIUM-FORMAT AND SPECIAL CAMERAS 23
Rangefinder window
6 X 9CM CAMERA
This roll-film camera produces a rectangular image measuring roughly 6 x 9cm (21⁄4 x 31⁄2in).
INSTANT CAMERA
Instant-picture cameras produce a finished image just a few seconds after exposing the film. and there are also instant-picture film backs for roll-film cameras. The model shown here uses an integral film with the final print with plastic sheet layer and mask being ejected from the camera. This camera uses individual sheets of 4 x 5in (10.
Lens with automatic shutter
Photocell
Built-in electronic flash
KEY FEATURES is fully •Focusingthrough a automatic standard 125mm lens. it requires little enlargement to produce prints of superb quality and definition. but are not designed for deep underwater photography. Waterproof cameras can be submerged in water.
Shutter lock
6 X 9CM CAMERA size •Film image x 86mm. This model has a rangefinder split-image viewing system.
WATERPROOF CAMERA
Specially adapted waterproof cameras have moisture-proof bodies and sealed controls for taking photographs in wet conditions. Some medium and large format cameras use a peel-apart version of the film.
Viewfinder Bellows
KEY FEATURES
•Direct vision coupled viewfinder. x 4in (10. depth of 50m
Waterproof camera for wet conditions
Non-slip grip
Glass lens cover
LARGE-FORMAT CAMERA
Large-format cameras have either a monorail or baseboard design.
panel •Front lens and can be removed
Handle
swapped for one of a different focal length. Digital versions are available.
Instant camera for snapshots Film exit slot
•Electronic flash.7cm)
Large-format camera for architecture Lens panel Baseboard
. The large negative or positive film original ensures excellent enlargements. and moving them along the rails on the monorail or fold-down baseboard. The lens. but different models have different focal lengths.2 •Uses 5sheet film.7cm) film for each image. x 12. via a
•Ten images per pack of film. lens. focus with •Fixed lens for closeadd-on
ups down to 0. Color and black and white 35mm instant films are available for ordinary 35mm cameras.2 x 12. making it very lightweight.
available •Models are90mm with either a
Lens 6 x 9cm format picture Flash sync terminal
wide-angle or 65mm very wide-angle lens. Focusing is achieved by extending the flexible bellows. however.6m (2ft). holding the lens panel and lens. is not interchangeable. Most waterproof cameras have automatic focusing and a choice of standard and wide-angle lenses. to a •Waterproof (164ft).
Shutter release
Viewfinder window Built-in electronic flash
KEY FEATURES
•Fixed wide-angle lens. rather than standard through-the-lens reflex viewing. measures 56
•Direct vision rangefinder viewing. through the •Viewingreflex mirror.

With so little of the scene filling the frame. and its angle of view is similar to that of the human eye. Depth of field decreases as the lens gets longer.
Long-focus lens Angles of view of longfocus lenses of 80–400mm start to diminish rapidly.
23˚ 18˚ 12˚ 8˚ 6˚ 4˚ 2˚
400mm 200mm 135mm 80mm 105mm 300mm
1200mm 600mm
50mm 8mm 14mm 21mm
24mm
28mm 35mm
Fisheye lens Extreme wide-angle lenses of 6–8mm are known as fisheyes. The diagonal of a 6 x 6cm negative measures approximately 80mm.
STANDARD LENSES is standard •50mm35mm format. with vertical and horizontal lines bowed. which are all taken from the same viewpoint. standard (normal).
Wide-angle lens Wide-angle lenses of 18–35mm have more general applications than fisheye lenses. Useful for most types of subject. The resulting image is very distorted. For a 35mm camera. because these are dictated by the camera format. The focal length of a standard lens is approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of that format’s image size. however. making a long lens ideal for distant subjects or detailed close-ups. show that as camera lens focal length increases so the angle of view decreases.24 THE C AMERA
STANDARD CAMERA LENSES
Camera lenses can be broken down into three broad groups: wide-angle. so an 80mm lens is standard for a mediumformat camera. lens for a common •28mm is lens. and a lens of 80mm is a moderate long-focus lens.
•
FOCAL LENGTH AND ANGLE OF VIEW
92˚ 84˚ 74˚ 62˚ 46˚ 28˚
180˚
106˚
The illustration and sequence of photographs below. it often has a wide maximum aperture.
Extreme long-focus lens Focal lengths above 400mm are specialized and are not usually found on standard zooms. making it good in low light. It is not easy to assign focal lengths to each lens group. the diagonal of the negative size measures around 50mm.
Standard lens A standard 50mm lens is fitted on most 35mm SLRs. and long-focus (telephoto). so a lens with a focal length of 50–55mm is considered standard. Angles of view are generous and depth of field at all apertures is extensive. the focal length is usually quoted as if for the 35mm film format. As the dimensions of the sensors used by digital cameras varies so much from model to model. wide-angle 200mm is a common long-focus lens. The use of a tripod to support the lens is essential because of its relatively heavy weight. They record a circular image of at least 180˚. with some lenses even looking behind the camera with a 220˚ angle of view. It does not show the same distortion as a wide or long lens. A long lens has a shallow depth of field and a small maximum aperture. Poorquality wide-angle lenses may sometimes show some distortion toward the edges of the image. the subject is shown very large.
.

Depth of field scale
Lens Aperture ring Focusing ring Standard 50mm lens Standard lenses are useful for most outdoor subjects
WIDE-ANGLE LENS
A wide-angle lens takes in a larger angle of view than a standard lens. making them useful in low-light situations. however. which is useful when all parts of a subject must be sharply rendered. If used too close to a subject. there is less chance you will miss an important shot. Standard lenses usually have wide maximum apertures.STANDARD C AMERA LENSES 25
STANDARD LENS
A standard lens produces an image that is roughly equivalent to the way a scene appears when viewed with the naked eye. Most 35mm SLRs used to come with 50mm lenses.
Depth of field scale
Lens
Aperture ring 28–85mm zoom lens
Focusing ring Zooms are useful for action shots
LONG-FOCUS LENS
Longer focal lengths are useful for taking large images of distant subjects or when you cannot move close enough to the subject to use a shorter lens.
Depth of field scale
Focusing ring
Lens
Aperture ring
135mm telephoto lens
Long-focus lenses are useful for natural history subjects
. shorter lenses. distortion may be a problem. and is ideal for photographing a group of people or when you are working in confined space. and the restricted angle of view makes the use of fast shutter speeds to avoid camera shake more important than with lighter. giving you great flexibility at a reasonable cost. Depth of field at each aperture setting is generous. Since you do not have to think about changing lenses. Each zoom lens covers a range of three or four fixed focal length lenses.
Depth of field scale
Lens Aperture ring Focusing ring 28mm wide-angle lens Wide-angle lenses are useful for interiors
ZOOM LENS
A zoom lens allows you to fine-tune subject framing by adjusting the focal length of the lens. Long-focus lenses can be fairly heavy. so they can be inexpensive to buy secondhand.

The lenses shown on these pages. are just a selection of the many focal lengths and designs available. or medium-format camera body can be thought of simply as the film holder and control center for a vast array of different add-on attachments. the mirror lens (right) of equivalent focal length weighs only 17oz (485g) and is 3. each with its own use. shift lenses correct perspective to overcome the problem of converging vertical lines. which makes it the popular choice with SLR users. Whereas the traditional 500mm long-focus lens (below right) is 9. such as extreme longfocus lenses and ultra wide-angle fisheye lenses. Zoom lenses are also fitted as a standard feature on most compact cameras. 28mm. manipulating the light rays to allow a long focal length to be contained within a physically short space.
Lens mount Depth of field scale
Mirror lens image
600mm mirror lens with colored filters
Advantages of a mirror lens
The compact design of a mirror lens reduces the bulk and weight associated with extreme long-focus lenses.
Aperture ring
Distance scale
Focusing ring
Depth of field scale
75–300mm zoom lens 75mm setting 300mm setting
. 35mm SLR. but they can also be rented for short periods. Macro lenses are designed for taking close-ups of small subjects or isolating details of larger subjects. a wideangle zoom is likely to be slower and heavier and to show more image distortion than a wideangle fixed focal length lens.
Distance scale Frontal mirror Focusing ring Mirror lens
Focusing ring
Long-focus lens
Focusing ring
Aperture ring
21–35mm zoom lens 21mm setting 35mm setting
TELEPHOTO ZOOM
A telephoto zoom ranging from 75–300mm encompasses about six fixed focal length lenses.4in (87mm) long.25in (235mm) long and weighs 35oz (1. including lenses. It is also useful for portraits and can be used to photograph architectural and landscape details. However. a mirror lens uses a combination of glass elements and mirrors. Specialized lenses.
WIDE-ANGLE ZOOM
A wide-angle zoom ranging from 21–35mm is effectively three lenses – 21mm.
A zoom allows you to vary subject magnification without moving your camera position.26 THE C AMERA
SPECIAL CAMERA LENSES
A digital SLR.
ZOOMS AND SPECIALIZED LENSES
MIRROR LENS
Instead of using groups of glass elements to bend light rays entering the lens and traveling down the barrel. designed for the 35mm format. These mirrors bounce the light up and down the lens barrel. Used for photographing buildings. This type of zoom is popular with sports and wildlife photographers. These lenses allow the camera to focus extremely close to a subject to record a detailed image. have more limited applications. and 35mm – with the added advantage of being able to select any intermediate focal length setting. These lenses are expensive to buy.000g).

Aperture ring
Distance scale
Focusing ring
Lens mount
50mm macro lens
Standard lens image
Macro lens image
TELEPHOTO LENS
An ultra telephoto lens has specially designed optics that allow it to have a long focal length in a relatively short barrel. Moving in close with a shorter macro lens may block out the light. a sports photographer will frequently use a monopod.SPECIAL C AMERA LENSES 27
ULTRA WIDE-ANGLE LENS
Ultra-wides used to be expensive.
Camera body
Focusing ring
1000mm telephoto lens
Focusing ring
Tripod mount
400mm telephoto lens Standard lens image 1000mm lens image
. longer macro lenses produce a large image from farther back. require some sort of camera support but to ensure some maneuverability. Some ultra wideangles are designed to create a distorted view of the world – these are known as fisheyes. Instead of tilting the camera back to include the top of a tall structure and so distorting the perspective. Linearly corrected ultra wide-angle lenses have a focal length ranging from around 21mm down to around 15mm. with a shift lens you can keep the camera parallel and shift the lens upward to record an undistorted image. Telephotos of 400mm. but now ultra wide-angle zooms have made focal lengths under 20mm much more affordable. Macro lenses are available in focal lengths ranging from 50mm to 200mm.
Aperture ring
Lens mount Focusing ring 28mm shift lens Standard lens image Shift lens image
MACRO LENS
This type of specialized lens is designed primarily to be used at very close focusing distances (see pages 210–211). When taking close-ups outdoors. Most have a fixed focal length. even lightweight ones.
Lens mount
Focusing ring
Aperture ring 15mm fisheye lens
Distance scale
Standard lens image Shift control
Ultra wide-angle lens image
SHIFT LENS
A shift lens (also known as a perspective control lens) gets its name because it can be shifted off-center in relation to the film frame.

the flash head can be angled to bounce light off a wall or ceiling for a softer and more natural look.
FLASH FALL-OFF
•The farther the flash. the flash and lens are very close together and this causes red eye. In general. This type of flashgun can be very sophisticated for its size. One useful feature of the camera shown below is an infra-red light transmitter. the
light is spread over four times the area. and portable add-on or hand-held units.
•If the flash-to-subject distance is doubled.
Built-in flash head Autofocus light projector
Add-on flash This flash fits into the hot shoe on top of the pentaprism. First. automatically triggering the flash. and a fully integrated unit (dedicated flash) allows great versatility. which bounces a beam of invisible light off the subject and helps the autofocus detector locate the subject when it is too dark to see.
Direct light from built-in flash
Bounced light from add-on flash
Bounced light from hand-held flash
Built-in flash This type of built-in flash is more useful as a supplementary or fill-in light source than as the main illumination for a picture. unattractive light.
Flash tube Tilt and swivel flash head
Hand-held flash This type of unit has a long handle for hand holding. it does have disadvantages. in which the pupils of the subject’s eyes appear red. they have a more powerful output.
Tilt and swivel flash head
Flash hot shoe attachment unit Pentaprism Flash light sensor Flash sync socket
Hot shoe connection Pentaprism
Flash sync cord Battery holder and handle
. the flash is always front facing and tends to produce a harsh. Its lowoutput beam and front-facing position make its application rather limited for any creative flash effects. Third. Electrical contacts connect with the camera shutter. if it is the sole illumination. which can also be used to supplement daylight. It may have a separate battery pack.28 THE C AMERA
FLASH LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Flash lighting units can be divided into several groups: studio equipment. allowing faster recharging and more flashes per charge. A synchronization cable coordinates the flash firing with the shutter. built-in flash. and the flash head is far enough away from the lens to avoid the problem of red eye. Although built-in flash is a convenient source of lighting. light output is limited in strength and. subject is from the
the less light it receives. Add-on and hand-held flash units are far more versatile. Second. has to be used relatively close to your subject. but it can also be attached to the side of the camera.

Hold the meter where you want to take your reading and fire the flash manually.
.
Wide beam of light
Size and shape of the reflector surrounding the flash head determine the spread of light
Central column of lighting stand is telescoped up or down to alter the height of the head
Barn doors flash head A set of four hinged flaps placed around the flash keeps light from reaching certain parts of the subject.
Narrow beam of light
Diffused lighting
Bounced lighting
Adding a reflector
Softbox diffuser A diffuser produces a soft. Flash units cannot be battery-powered due to the intensity of their light output. Flash lighting stays cool during use and is a popular choice with film users. A control switch allows you to alter the strength of the light.
Power pack is connected to mains supply. larger packs can be used for a higher output Cable connects the flash head to the power pack
Basic flash unit An adjustable lighting stand is required for each flash unit.
Portable reflector A collapsible reflector is a useful accessory when working indoors or on location. You must use the correct type of film (or white balance) with artificial lights because the color temperature of tungsten is different from that of daylight.FLASH LIGHTING EQUIPMENT 29
STUDIO LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Tungsten or flash lighting can be used for indoor photography. Made of reflective material. Flash lighting is used with normal film and. linked to the flash head and shutter by a synchronization cable. making the front panel the light source. since it has the same color temperature as natural light.
Flood flash head A flood produces an even spread of illumination over the whole subject. can be used to supplement daylight. are adjustable. Flashlight travels through the gauze material of the softbox. Do not mix daylight and tungsten.
Adjustable beam of light
Snoot flash head A snoot is similar to a spot and gives a narrow.
Umbrella reflector This device bounces light back onto the subject. concentrated beam of light with dark shadows. and accessories can be used to modify light quality. Larger units require a power pack.
FLASH METER Because of the immediacy of flash. The inside of the umbrella can be white or silver. according to the light quality desired. and are easy to use. a light meter is required for accurate exposure measurement. Tungsten lights plug into standard outlets. particularly with digital cameras. Some meters are designed for use with flash and ambient light. it is used to soften shadows. wide spread of light.

is far more impressive than a print. Lets user to choose between three different frame shapes for each shot. the colors or tones on the film correspond to those of the original scene. and in varying lengths and film speeds.
Sheet film Sheet film comes in individual sheets that are loaded into holders. roll film is used in all mediumformat cameras.
Color negatives show subjects in their complementary colors. Therefore. They can be stored in the envelopes supplied by the processors or mounted in albums. however. Large-format film comes as individual sheets. The other main types of film – color positive ‘slide’ film and black and white film – may be less popular. In addition. Black and white negatives have reversed tones – what was a dark tone appears light. Colors are reversed when printed to show the scene correctly rendered. while roll film used in medium-format cameras has a paper backing for protection. In comparison to color film. and there is an overall orange color-cast. It is available for prints or slides.
Color negative (above) Color print (right)
The advantage of using color negative film is that color prints are easy and convenient to view. Before it is ready for projection. If necessary. intended for producing color prints. color can be corrected with filters during printing.
Slide (above) Mounted slide (right)
35mm film This is the most popular film format. and the colors tend to be richer and truer to life. the vast majority is color negative. When a black and white negative is printed the tones are reversed to show the correct distribution of light and dark. each image has to be cut from the film strip and mounted. and smaller. Positive film images are known as slides or transparencies.
APS film Film format used widely for compact cameras that is easier to load. and are intended to be projected and not printed. colors should appear normal. which makes judging image quality from the film difficult. which all have a 21⁄4in (6cm) image dimension. Film for 35mm cameras comes in metal or plastic cassettes. black and white film is relatively easy to develop and print yourself. since the image quality is superior. and vice versa. but a black and white negative will usually give the best-quality results. In contrast. but are widely used by serious photographers.
NEGATIVE OR POSITIVE FILM
BLACK AND WHITE
The image tones on a black and white negative appear reversed – but then appear normal when printed.
Roll film Also called 120 or 220mm film. Black and white prints can be made from a color original.
COLOR SLIDE
Since there is no intervening printing stage with slides. Color and black and white prints can also be made from these transparencies. color slides must be mounted and loaded into a projector before they are viewed in a darkened room. This is done for you automatically with process-paid slide film.
FILM FORMATS Each format of camera must be used with its corresponding film format. A projected slide. with a large range of brands. the colors should be extremely accurate.30 THE C AMERA
CHOOSING FILM TYPES
Of all the film sold worldwide. After printing. extra copies can be printed at little cost and enlargements made.
PRINTS OR SLIDES
Black and white negative (above) Black and white print (right)
COLOR PRINT
The colors on a color negative appear as the complementary colors of the subject. than 35mm.
. You should ask for replacement prints if colors are inaccurate or there are color differences within a set.

In the first picture (far left). Black and white film can be used under any type of lighting without risk of distorting its tonal response. with their auto white balance system. or when using tungsten studio lights.CHOOSING FILM TYPES 31
DAYLIGHT AND TUNGSTEN FILM
Film is manufactured to produce best results. this cast can largely be corrected during the printing stage.
DIGITAL SOLUTION
Digital cameras can automatically adjust the color of the image to suit the type of lighting used. In the second picture (left). when used under specific types of lighting.
Incorrect use of daylight-balanced film Correct use of daylight-balanced film
TUNGSTEN FILM
Color film intended for use in tungsten light will show a strong blue cast if used in daylight (or with electronic flash). In the first shot (far left). If daylight-balanced film is exposed using domestic lighting. Most film is balanced for use in bright daylight or for use indoors with electronic flash. daylight gives the scene a distinct blue cast. These two pictures were both taken on tungstenbalanced film. These two pictures were shot on daylight-balanced film.These differences are most obvious when using color slide film. the scene is lit by domestic tungsten bulb lighting and has correct color rendition. With color prints.
DAYLIGHT FILM
Color film designed for use in daylight or flash will show a distinct orange cast if used under tungsten lights. since there is no intermediary printing stage. however. In the second picture (left). in terms of color. then it will show a pronounced orange color-cast.
Film with blue bias
Film with yellow bias
Film with red bias
. the tungsten of the domestic bulb lighting gives the room a distinct orange cast. both of which have the same color temperature. does not go through a printing stage. Color may also vary between different speeds of film from the same manufacturer. which result in subtle color variations.
Correct use of tungsten-balanced film Incorrect use of tungsten-balanced film
BRAND COLOR BIAS Different brands of color film use different dyes. so it is vital to make sure that you buy the correct type of film for the light source under which it will be used (or filters can be used). Color slide film. the scene is lit by natural daylight alone and is correct in color.

The surface of the bust looks less fine and the contrast between light and shade is beginning to increase slightly.
exposed image when a less-sensitive. is some reduction in image sharpness and an increase in contrast. the grain is now fairly noticeable in the enlargement. for example.
MODERATE-FAST FILM
With the film speed doubled to ISO 400. the appearance of the bust on the full-frame image is slightly different. the camera can be set up on a tripod and a long exposure given. Note. It is often used for still life subjects that need to be enlarged while still retaining a lot of detail and a fine-grained image.5 times more sensitive than the ISO 400 film. Slow films are ideal when light levels are good and you need the highestquality prints with fine detail. and now the grainy nature of the film emulsion is apparent. too. medium-speed film can also be used in less light earlier or later in the day when the sun is much lower in the sky. Fast films are useful in low-light situations.
Choosing slow film A slow film is ideal for brightly lit subjects. medium. Note that grain becomes coarser the faster the film. Fast films have high ISO (International Standards Organization) numbers and slow films have low ISO numbers. that the soft gradation of tone apparent in the version using the slow film is now more abrupt and that there is a slight color shift. Choosing medium film A film in the medium-speed category is suitable for a wide range of different subjects and lighting conditions. slower film may result in underexposure.
Choosing ultra-fast film Choose an ultra-fast film when light levels are really low. This type of film is so sensitive that it will give you acceptable results even by the light of a match. as well as a small aperture to cover any slight error in focus. or slow – a reference to their sensitivity to light. The graininess of the resulting image can add to the dramatic impact of the shot. Note the delicate. or where a degree of subject movement or blur is required. the bust was shot using a medium-speed film (ISO 200). The result of this increase in speed.
ULTRA-FAST SPEED FILM
The ISO 1000 film used for this photograph of the bust is 1. almost creamy texture of the statue’s surface and the soft gradation of tones between the lit right-hand side and the shadowy left-hand side. the appearance of any grain is negligible.32 THE C AMERA
FILM SPEED AND CAMERA EQUIPMENT
Films are referred to as being fast.”
MEDIUM FILM
Using the same lighting as above. since they increase the chances of achieving a correctly
SLOW FILM
This marble bust was shot using a very slow-speed film (ISO 32). in a dimly lit interior or outdoors at dusk. however. As you would expect with a faster film. Even in the enlargement (see inset). Although ambient light levels are high in this bright Mediterranean scene. Here the film is much faster than the ISO 32 film (each doubling of the ISO number is a doubling of the sensitivity). and the grain can only just be detected.
.
DIGITAL CAMERAS The sensitivity of digital sensors can often be changed electronically for each shot to give a range of “film speeds. Choosing moderate-fast film This shot of a seagull in flight requires a fast shutter speed to capture the movement of the subject and avoid camera shake. Even if light is poor. The speed of a moderate-fast film enables you to photograph subjects in dim lighting conditions. but the quality is still good.

CAMERA CARE KIT All you need for cleaning your camera and lenses are (from left to right) a soft lint-free cloth. then a pair of tweezers might be needed.and camera-cleaning kit.
FILTERS A clear ultra-violet filter can be left on the lens as protection.The rear lens cap should be fitted when the lens is removed from the camera. Use a cap to protect the interior of the camera when a lens is not attached.
FRONT AND REAR LENS CAPS When a lens is not in use.
CABLE RELEASE Releases the shutter on a tripodmounted camera and avoids the risk of camera movement.
FILM Always carry several rolls of spare film. In terms of lenses.
.
ELECTRONIC FLASHGUN An electronic flashgun is useful when light levels are low. lens-cleaning fluid. you should consider choosing a wide-angle lens between 28 and 35mm for shooting a broad panorama or when working in a confined area. a notepad and pen. Use the cleaning fluid very sparingly. A tripod guarantees sharp images of stationary subjects and may be essential to avoid camera shake during a long exposure. Wider straps spread the weight of the camera and lens. and some spare film of different speed ratings.
35MM CAMERA The body of the camera forms the heart of a system for which there are numerous accessories and lenses. then you should also include a few filters. or when you want to lessen contrast by adding some light to areas of shadow. special dust-free tissues. Extension rings allow you to get in closer to a subject. NOTEPAD AND PEN These are invaluable for noting the location of a particular shot or for details of a particular subject. your camera may come with a standard 50mm lens already fitted. Wide and long lenses increase flexibility. a zoom lens gives you flexibility without changing lens. Strongly colored filters are used with black and white film or for special effects with color film.FILM SPEED AND C AMERA EQUIPMENT 33
BASIC CAMERA EQUIPMENT
For the 35mm SLR user there is a wide range of equipment and accessories available to cover every area of photographic interest.
LENSES Choose lenses according to the type of shots you want to take. always keep the front lens cap on. However.
CAMERA STRAP Use a camera strap and keep it around your neck in case you let the camera slip. If a hair or piece of film debris gets lodged in an awkward area. If you have fast film you will be able to take photographs in dimly lit places. Additionally. when working indoors.
TRIPOD A lightweight tripod is essential when you need steady images. A small screwdriver is also useful. A long-focus lens between 90 and 135mm is useful for portraits as well as more distant subjects. a basic lens. If there is room in your camera bag. a portable flashgun.
CAMERA BAG A camera bag should be well padded inside and have adjustable compartments for holding equipment. and a blower brush.

.

.HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
Taking photographs that have appeal and impact depends in part on your ability to see the potential in a subject and then interpret it in your own way. and pattern. This section reveals how light affects form. and shows how to compose excellent photographs by considering the different qualities of light. shape. It also illustrates the importance of selecting the viewpoint that will show your subject in the most effective and telling fashion. texture. color.

and showing almost the same amount of teeth. In this image. Color harmony. However. the main element may be color – subtle and moody or vibrant and contrasting – or a humorous juxtaposition of subject elements. above Looking like companionable old friends.
Adding humor.
Vibrant color The color of this cabbage has been intensified by moving in close to exclude extraneous details and fill the whole frame with a deep. a central cloud directs the gaze to the distance and gives a feeling of depth.
Main subject A well-composed picture needs to have a main focal point. In other photographs. left Natural brown and green hues come together in this photograph of a decorative piece of fungus to create an image that has strong shape and color harmony. vibrant pink. but each has a quality that invites closer inspection. what constitutes a good photograph may be a personal judgment. The photographs on these pages are all different in terms of subject matter.
.36 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
THE ESSENTIAL PICTURE ELEMENTS
It is difficult to define precisely what it is that makes a “good” photograph. Some images work because the photograph has captured the subject’s intriguing shape or some aspect of its form that makes it appear three-dimensional. this Peruvian woman and her llama makes for a very humorous picture. With pictures taken on vacation or of members of your family. some photographs do communicate to a broader audience because of the revealing way the subject has been treated or the way in which the elements are composed to convey mood.

This has the effect of squashing the different subject planes. so that the background is enlarged relative to the foreground.
Simple detail Even a simple still life photograph of seemingly mundane objects such as these thermometers can be an image of considerable dramatic impact.
. A clue to the scale of the landscape is provided by the figure.THE ESSENTIAL PICTURE ELEMENTS 37
Lens effect Extra punch is given to this photograph of Indonesian paddy fields by shooting the scene using a long lens. whose shirt provides a splash of contrasting color.

but you can also affect color through exposure: slightly underexposing to give a low-key result. In terms of mood. with a panel of delicate. and slightly overexposing or using colored filters to lessen color contrast.38 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
UNDERSTANDING COLOR HARMONY
Ideally. a composition made up of harmonious colors of similar tones tends to be restful and calm. a photograph should have one main subject and one main color – with any other colors being supplementary to give added emphasis to the most important element. Even contrasting colors can be blended and subdued to create a harmonious picture if photographed in the appropriate type of lighting.
Strong hues Although blue and green are harmonious colors. unlike the discordant feeling of compositions based on contrasting colors.
Restricted palette The stark simplicity of this bathroom is reinforced by restricting the color palette to cream and beige. the strength of the hues in this landscape would appear strongly contrasting if it were not for the intervening band of light gold acting as a buffer between the two. gray-blue tiles used to link the flat bands of color. The choice of lighting can affect color.
.

Faded hues A gentle. above As the sun dips below the horizon. blue. Low-key image.UNDERSTANDING COLOR HARMONY 39
Sunset colors. harmonious shades of green and brown. slowly being absorbed back into the natural world is the focal point of this rural image composed of subtle. left The green. red wavelengths of light dominate.
Morning light Red and blue – opposites in the color spectrum – feature in this portrait.
. and red colors of these wooden boats are blended into a harmonious scheme by underexposing the image to give a low-key result. but in the morning light the colors complement each other rather than compete. turning all colors in the scene into harmonious shades of the same single hue. autumnal blend of color characterizes this photograph of dried rose blooms and hips.
Natural colors An abandoned wagon.

conveying atmosphere and affecting how we interpret an image.
Spatial abstraction.40 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
USING COLOR CONTRAST
Color has an emotional content.
Unusual view. contrasting color destroy the sense of depth in this picture. and yellow – or results from placing a primary color next to its complementary color (green. above An abstract composition consisting of strong color contrast is created here by showing part of the boat’s red keel and its reflection in the inky blue water.
. respectively). Although the use of color is dependent on personal preference. left The light by which an object is viewed has an effect on its coloration. Large areas of contrasting color can have a detrimental effect on subject form. Light and color. if used with restraint. directional evening light produces intense hues of red. Strong. blue. orange. as a general rule bold colors should usually be balanced with weaker ones. bold colors can create a feeling of vitality and. strong. Color contrast is caused by the juxtaposition of primary colors – red. Although the yellow field is more distant. Here. and purple. above Two large blocks of strong. small areas of color contrast can draw attention to a section of an image without overwhelming it as a whole. destroying depth and masking detail. it is the green grass closer to the viewer that appears to recede.

the variety of color would have detracted from the subject. the red of the Senegalese tribesman’s headdress contrasts with the blue both of his gown and of the sky.
.USING COLOR CONTRAST 41
Color control. right Although only very small in the frame. In more direct light. drawing immediate attention to a particular area of the image.
Touch of color. above Semi-diffused light from a window on the left helps to control the riot of color provided by the scarves and petals in the background of this photograph.

. The shape of an object is not fixed and you can alter its appearance by changing your camera position. You can also manipulate shape by shooting from below the subject. making some seem larger in relation to others. as well as the apparent size of its different parts. This aerial shot reinforces the twisting nature of the river. Shooting down on a subject can reduce its bulk overall.
Viewpoint and shape It is necessary to look for an unusual viewpoint to convey something of the Amazon River’s huge size. making shape of paramount importance. First. a low afternoon sun has cast a well-defined shadow onto the wall. or by using different lenses. as you would for a silhouette. from very wide-angle to long-focus. Another technique is to use an extreme form of lighting contrast. to suppress all details and allow the subject to become a strong graphic outline of equal-density tone. neutral background that will not compete for attention. the dark outline of the man contrasts with the pastel color of the wall behind.42 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
WORKING WITH SHAPE
One of the most powerful ways to emphasize shape in a photograph is to ensure that.
Competing shapes The presence of two powerful shapes such as the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx in the same image needs careful handling to ensure a well-balanced. Second. harmonious composition. strengthening the element of shape in the composition as a whole. The shape of a subject with a lot of pattern or detail can be emphasized by photographing it against a plain. at least in outline. above Two ways of emphasizing shape in a photograph can be seen in this image. it contrasts strongly with its surroundings in either tone or color.
Using shadows.

below left A low camera angle is used here to show off the striking Gothic silhouette of a ruined abbey against a neutral backdrop of sky. Rim lighting. Both figures are reduced to silhouettes by the strong backlighting. neck. and the diagonally held pole helps unify the composition by bridging the gap between them. helping to direct and then hold attention within the picture boundaries. perfectly outlining her profile.WORKING WITH SHAPE 43
Concentrating attention The close-up figure on the right of this photograph acts as an effective frame and counterbalance to the more distant one.
Silhouette. The sunlight is so intense that a halo of rim lighting has spilled past the subject. and upper body. A high camera position would have shown more of the dark hills behind the building and lessened the impact of its shape. below A dramatic silhouette is achieved by positioning the model directly between the sun and the camera.
.

the pots show a whole range of tones in what is a low-key picture.
.
High-key color. A color photograph can also be described as high. Tone is also used to refer to the visual weight – the perceived darkness or lightness – of an image. In its most extreme form. but most of the image is in shadow.or low-key. while one that is made up mostly of light bright tones and white is referred to as “high-key. In the still life (below right). increasing light levels and lightening dark shadows. Low-key results Low-key pictures do not have to exclude all bright tones. a photograph may consist of just two tones – black and white – with no shades of gray in between. or transparency that can be distinguished from lighter or darker parts. The latter is mainly governed by the intensity and angle of light striking an object and you can manipulate this for effect. however. images are composed of a wide range of intermediary tones between these two extremes.44 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
USING LIGHT AND DARK TONES
The term tone refers to any area of uniform density on a print. negative. below Directional window light bathes one side of this pitcher and bowl in bright illumination that dispels any hint of deep shadow. This high-key result is helped by the white wall behind.” These terms are not restricted just to black and white photography. A photograph consisting of predominantly heavy dark tones and black is known as a “low-key” image. We talk about shades and tints of a color to describe its intensity. and the grays making up a tonal range also form part of our color perception. More often. which acts as a reflector. daylight illuminates one side of the man’s face. In the portrait (right).

There are no strong black or stark white tones.
Bright imagery. Although practically no detail has survived. This image is high contrast because of the presence of both bright white and deep black tones. left The tones in this misty woodland scene all come from the middle of the tonal range. left This low-key image of a windmill has a brooding atmosphere. The sky seems full of foreboding and the dark landscape has a hint of menace. the imagery has an old-world tranquillity and there is an overwhelming feeling of space and emptiness. and so this image is a low-contrast picture. above A combination of smoke and mist has given a lighttoned.
. A red filter is used to darken the sky and other light tones. high-key result.USING LIGHT AND DARK TONES 45
Dark imagery. far left Contrast in a photograph refers to the difference in tone between the brightest highlight and deepest shadow. except for the path in the foreground.
High contrast. Low contrast.

form is shown by the gradation of light and shade. which is also related to the amount of light reflected or absorbed by the subject’s surface.46 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
EMPHASIZING FORM
Whereas shape describes the twodimensional outline of a subject and is recognizable even if an object is backlit with no surface details showing. Note that adjacent to the window. form is least obvious. it is therefore best to avoid harsh. To accentuate form. The still life on these pages was shot in daylight and also with flash to show how the angle of light striking an object affects the sense of form. which tends to produce a gradation in color or tone.
. these lemons are directly lit by natural daylight as well as by reflected light from the white window ledge. frontal lighting and to use angled lighting or sidelighting. so that only one side is lit. Here a light is positioned low down at about the same height as the lemons. In a photograph. where the lemons are most strongly lit. Contrast between the lit and unlit sides is very strong. and the color strength.
Low sidelighting
Light source at 90°
This still life is part of a sequence showing different lighting effects. Lighting that produces a flat color or tone. This in turn emphasizes the surface texture and tactile nature of the subject. with little or no variation across the surface of the subject. form or modeling describes not only the surface characteristics of an object but also its three-dimensional qualities. such as its roundness and substance. tends to suppress the appearance of form.
Natural daylight Positioned by a window.

As a general rule.
. noticeable on the right of the group. there is little sense of roundness. There is a now a gradual transition between light and shade. and. overhead lighting destroys form. which was in very dark shade before. apart from the area near the dividing line between light and shade on each lemon.
Angled lighting
Light source at 45°
An angle of about 45˚ is ideal to give an impression of the form of the lemons.EMPHASIZING FORM 47
Overhead lighting
Light source above
The light is shining down from directly above the still life group.

Depth and texture. directional light of early morning or evening sunshine has been the basis for so many successful landscape photographs. it is easy to imagine the feel of the vegetable’s surface.
.48 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
REVEALING TEXTURE
The appearance of texture in a photograph gives the viewer additional information about the tactile qualities of an object. It is only by seeing the pitted quality of the skin of an orange. right Shot from overhead with weak sunlight striking the front of the cauliflower. Note that the top ridges have all caught the sunlight. raised surface areas and the shadows in the hollows that creates a three-dimensional illusion (see page 46).
Diffused light. since it is the contrast between the lit. while the hollows are filled with deep shadows. The individual hairs on the body of this hornet and the hollows of the fungus are emphasized by the use of strong. or the smooth perfection of a piece of fine porcelain that we can imagine what it would be like to touch the object. below Working in diffused light ensures that the shadows do not hide too much of the surface of this giant tree trunk. directional lighting. The most revealing type of illumination for texture comes from directional lighting. above By photographically enlarging a small object you can record its texture. the coarseness of a length of woven cloth. Tonal contrasts define the tactile qualities of the object and also give the picture an impression of depth.
Magnified texture. This is the reason why the soft.

The directional lighting reveals the texture and adds to the overall composition.
. above left Soft.
Surface sheen. The lighting is subdued. left An old tarpaulin exposed to the weathering effects of the elements has taken on a character of its own. Light and shade. oblique light reveals the texture of otherwise uninteresting pieces of old and weathered wood. above The rusted and peeling surface of this sheet of metal is partly in sunshine and partly in shade.REVEALING TEXTURE 49
Wood surface. Remember that individual surfaces absorb and reflect different quantities of light and must be lit accordingly. since the sheen would be lost and the appearance of texture and form would be diminished if harshly lit.

and forms of this flock of geese. unusual shots are easily missed. following the relentless spiral of this staircase toward a distant highlight. Sometimes pattern is only transitory and is gone in an instant. you can record patterns even when looking at a seemingly random array of subject elements.50 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
DISCOVERING PATTERN
Representing order and harmony.
. A lower camera angle would show more of the background and so dilute the pattern’s impact.
As a photographer. for example. A flock of birds. pattern is something pleasing to the eye. To record the patterns abounding all around us. you need to choose the right viewpoint. a high camera viewpoint is vital. you can draw attention to abstract patterns and repeating forms in the natural world. colors. such as fallen autumn leaves or the frost-covered branches of a tree. can be seen as a collection of repeating colors and shapes. or sunlight on a row of houses may create a pattern of dark triangles in an otherwise bright scene.
PATTERNS IN NATURE
Importance of viewpoint To concentrate attention on the repeating shapes. By carefully selecting your camera position. Without the curiosity to explore different camera angles.
Seeing pattern A vortex of repeating shapes seems to draw the eye upward.

Random pattern. The uniform color of the composition is another vital element. The twisted strands making up the rope itself represent a pattern within a pattern. left Although the pots are not arranged. their repeated curved shapes and the dark circles of their shadowy openings create a sense of pattern. above The pleasing effect pattern has on the eye is illustrated in this detail of two cogs.DISCOVERING PATTERN 51
Layers of pattern. many different layers of pattern can be seen in the overlapping fronds. above In this close-up of an aloe.
. but the interplay of light and shade also reinforces the effect. Isolating design. Not only do the teeth of the cogs themselves form an obvious motif. below A jumble of rope can be framed in the viewfinder to create an interesting design.
Effective detail.

form. Seen in black and white. although now a minority interest. the colors of the door (below). Although linear perspective draws attention to the door itself. pattern.
Distracting color The color content is so overwhelming in the detail of a wall (above) that it does not allow the image to be seen as anything other than a color composition. serve to emphasize the textures. or by printing on a type of paper that gives an overall cold-blue image or a warm-brown one. may not be ideal for black and white treatment. It is also far easier than with color to manipulate the image in the darkroom. The enduring appeal of working in this medium stems from its powerful graphic potential and its ability to evoke mood and atmosphere. Inevitably. in general. and thus subjects such as gardens or natural history. the patchwork effect of the tones leads the eye in different directions around the photograph. and shape. By contrast. a similar detail of a brick wall (left) has visual attributes such as texture. continues to have a band of dedicated adherents.
Dominant color A wide range of tones is the main feature of the black and white picture (right).52 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
THE BENEFITS OF BLACK AND WHITE
Black and white photography. once color is extracted from some scenes they lose much of their impact. Black and white film allows you a lot of flexibility in how the image will look when printed. by giving a weak part of the negative extra exposure through the enlarger to increase local density. You can use a wide range of colored lens filters to change the relative strength of tones within an image.
.

The human form Black and white is ideal for showing the form and modeling of the human body by bringing out subtle gradations of tone.THE BENEFITS OF BLACK AND WHITE 53
Darkroom manipulation An atmosphere of isolation pervades this image of a solitary figure walking along a winding road. Sidelighting accentuates the skin texture so that every line is palpable. The sky in this image is unnaturally dark while the roadside foliage is unnaturally light. the countryside surrounding the road was given extra exposure during printing. To heighten this effect.
. and gives some subjects an unusual appearance. An infra-red or a deep red filter over the lens will exaggerate the tonal shifts when using infra-red film.
Infra-red film Infra-red film is sensitive to wavelengths in ordinary light that are invisible to the naked eye.

a photographer uses the camera viewfinder as the creative space within which to build a pleasing composition. the angle at which to shoot.54 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
FRAMING THE IMAGE
To create a unified effect you need to decide how best to arrange the elements making up the image – what to include or omit. One way of composing a picture is to use a frame within a frame. and how to show one subject element in relation to others. Just as a painter must work within the dimensions of his canvas. the image is simplified.
. In order to emphasize the main subject of a picture you can show it surrounded and balanced by another element.
Stonework surround The foreground stonework through which the distant landscape is viewed gives the scene an added feeling of space and distance. Unwanted details are cut out to focus attention on the building. Framing a building By using an arch as a framing device.

far left The figure is effectively framed by the red curtain as well as by the dark background against which he is highlighted.
Frame effect. you can frame a picture vertically or horizontally. with well-positioned silhouetted figures and the diagonal shape of the platform. By turning the camera around for a vertical shot (left). above The viewer’s gaze is drawn to the group of figures at the window by showing them within a natural frame created by a gap in the wall covered with ivy. In the horizontally framed shot (above).
Framing choices If using a 35mm camera.FRAMING THE IMAGE 55
Balancing shapes. left Careful composition within the viewfinder creates an evocative composition.
. Color contrast. the inclusion of a greater amount of sky helps to dispel the sense of confined space. there is a feeling of being enclosed by the hills rising on either side.

56 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
SELECTING THE VIEWPOINT
The viewpoint from which you photograph a subject determines the apparent relationship between all the objects included in the frame and of those objects to their surroundings.
High viewpoint In an overhead view. shows the scene with clear-cut edges as it will appear in the finished photograph. The viewpoint forces our attention on to the strong fingers that are reminiscent of the sculptural shapes they once produced. Look for ways to simplify the picture by positioning yourself to exclude extraneous detail. The only accurate way to determine the effectiveness of a particular viewpoint is by checking its appearance through the viewfinder. or for unusual ways to present the subject. however. it is the artist’s hands that are the focal point. these colorful toadstools growing on the forest floor seem to glow with an autumnal warmth. Even by simply moving to one side you can show subject elements in a different way. taken from standing height. their impact would be lessened by the inclusion of less of the background. try crouching down so that you are lower than the subject. The viewfinder. While looking through the camera. or try standing on a small stepladder so that you can look down on it.
. Looking at a scene with the naked eye.
Selective viewpoint In this unusual portrait of the sculptor Henry Moore. you are aware of a mass of peripheral information surrounding the area of interest. If taken from a lower camera viewpoint.

Low viewpoint Shooting directly upward produces an extreme viewpoint.SELECTING THE VIEWPOINT 57
Varying the viewpoint This sequence illustrates that there is more than one viewpoint for any subject. The final shot (bottom) is taken from standing height.
. The first image (top) is shot from slightly above and the next (center) at about level with the snake charmer. which conveys the immense size of these ancient Egyptian columns.

flowers are good allies for the landscape photographer. it is the foreground that offers the greatest scope for visual variety. One of the simplest ways to create a different composition from the same subject is to walk around it. providing counterpoint or balance to the main subject. A slightly angled approach means that one of the two visible sides is better lit than the other.
Variation of tone. right By altering your viewpoint you can alter the position of foreground subjects so that they surround the main subject. flowers. This creates a better impression of threedimensional form. here the foliage creates a natural frame around the chapel. With a wide-angle lens. Even if the subject remains relatively unaltered as you move around it. rocks. as straight-on shots can make the building appear very twodimensional. or have had to wait for the right conditions.58 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTU R ES
SHOOTING AROUND THE SUBJECT
While some subjects may only merit a single shot. others deserve more attention – particularly if you have traveled far to a location. All manner of things. Leading the way. Not only will the lighting on the subject change. right The camera angle is particularly important in architecture. Here the white blooms form a visual pathway that leads the eye to the chapel. A distracting background behind a person can be made to disappear. the foreground and background may change radically. and gateways can be used to fill the lower part of the frame. far left Look out for shapes and lines that can be used in the foreground to direct the eye toward the subject. simply by moving a few steps to one side. flowers can be made to take a leading part in the composition. If you adopt a low camera viewpoint. the meandering path leads the viewer’s eye to the rockery garden and the building. there will also be a major impact on the composition. Half frame.
Using color. creating a different balance between highlights and shadows. left Because of their bright hues.
. such as people. In this shot.

the spiky leaves contrast with the rocks and the smooth lines of the building.
Strong shapes. left Here. below The building may be the focal point in this picture. but it does not need to be large in the frame.SHOOTING AROUND THE SUBJECT 59
Central framing. use interesting foreground elements to fill the empty space that is created by the wide angle. it is slightly offset left to right in order to include the sea.
Small focal point. although the house is centered top to bottom. Here. which provides both a sense of place and a feel of harmony and tranquility. This bold approach means that the sky and land dominate the composition.
. bottom When using a wide-angle lens with distant subjects.

Using the horizon.
. Finally. you can indicate that it is farther away from the camera. The man’s feet near the camera seem large in proportion to his head. and aerial perspective is the tendency of colors to become lighter in tone in distant shots. By placing one object behind another. Wide-angle perspective A wide-angle lens produces an exaggerated perspective effect. Diminishing scale. you can make the background appear out of focus. meanwhile. above The camera angle chosen for this view of a mosque in India shows strong linear perspective in the apparently converging sides of the lake. known as overlapping forms. Linear perspective describes the apparent convergence of parallel lines as they recede from the camera. stems from our knowledge that objects of the same size appear to look smaller the more distant they are from the camera. giving the impression that you are looking at a three-dimensional scene.60 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
DEPTH AND PERSPECTIVE
Perspective is a way of using spatial elements to indicate depth and distance in a photograph. There are several different methods of using perspective to create this illusion of depth.
Linear perspective. below The setting sun and the gradation of tones where the sea and sky meet creates an illusion of depth and distance in this scene. by using depth of field.

Another clue to perspective is present in the diminishing scale and apparent size of the trees.
Aerial perspective. By picturing the pillars extending further into the sky.DEPTH AND PERSPECTIVE 61
Vanishing point. far left A mountain lake makes an evocative foreground for the overlapping forms of a range of mountains in the Swiss Alps. Note how the peaks become lighter and bluer in tone as they fade away into the distance.
. left An avenue of trees leads the eye to a fountain.
Diminishing scale. you can imagine them meeting at a distance – the vanishing point. an effect reinforced by linear perspective. above The tapering sides of these classical columns are an example of linear perspective.

it is possible to make parallel lines seem to converge more steeply than usual. by altering viewpoint and focal length.
High viewpoint. pathways. the lines along the glass roof converge in the distance. The lighter tones of the more distant parts of the buildings contributes to the threedimensional effect. above The effects of linear perspective appear most marked when you can photograph the vanishing point within the frame. The result is a strong crisscross pattern.
Coming to a point. the photographer can make the effect of the vanishing point appear more dramatic within a picture. This provides a feeling of depth in the photograph. The lines along the edge of the subway walls and the markings on the platform all converge at the distant tunnel entrance. In this shot. Roads. They learn that lines need to be drawn so that they converge at an appropriate vanishing point. as the lens handles linear perspective automatically and with unfailing accuracy.
. as the skyscraper beyond tapers into the sky. The effect is most frequently seen when shooting skyscrapers from street level. and railtracks can all be used to create powerful angled lines with visible vanishing points if you crouch down and also angle the wide lens down slightly. The photographer has no such problems.62 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTU R ES
USING THE VANISHING POINT
Artists perfect their drawing skills so that perspective looks natural in their work. but it is more dramatic with lines that lead toward the horizon. However. By tilting the camera and by using a wideangle lens. which can be used to emphasize dramatic compositions. left The effect of perspective creates strong diagonal lines.

but the same stretching and squeezing process can also be used with other pictures to exaggerate the effects of linear perspective. The lines of the escalators also draw the eye to this area.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Digital software can be used by photographers to correct converging verticals in architecture. A similar effect is achieved with parallel lines in the horizontal plane (top) using a wideangle lens.
. left The focal point of this monotonal shot is the roof. the top of the building is more distant than the base. Light attracts. so appears narrower.USING THE VANISHING POINT 63
Up to the sky Converging verticals are caused by tilting the lens (above). as the light tone attracts the eye.

then every photograph should contain a foreground.
Tonal separation In this view of ornate steps leading to a church in Portugal. Each element adds to the view of Venice as a whole. which are known as the image planes. and background. you can manipulate the viewer’s interpretation of the composition by leading the eye to explore the picture.
. Well-defined planes Mooring poles define the foreground. and background. you should try to choose a viewpoint that clearly defines one of the image planes as having a dominant compositional role. By ensuring that important subject elements are visible in all three image planes. middle-. two-dimensional object.64 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
DEFINING IMAGE PLANES
Unless you fill the camera frame with a flat. so that the idea you want to convey is not confused or lost. and the church the background. it is the subtle difference in tone that helps separate the fore-. or just one face or side of a three-dimensional object. However. middleground. the gondola the middleground.

it merges the distinction between the image planes. far left The castle in the middle distance dominates this landscape.
Focusing distance. left By using a wide aperture to render the background out of focus.
. Although the fore.DEFINING IMAGE PLANES 65
Merging planes A long lens is used for this shot of the temple at Luxor in Egypt. they are only assigned supporting roles.and background are important. By compressing the perspective.
Middleground. with well-defined image planes.
Foreground detail Although a full and detailed picture. attention is fixed on the railings at the front of the frame. the camera viewpoint emphasizes the foreground statue by showing it against a plain green middleground with the background building reduced in scale. and makes the judgment of depth and distance more difficult.

consists of a number of different subject elements. a duality of focal points makes for a more unusual representation.66 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
BALANCE AND PROPORTION
Practically every photograph.
Balanced shapes In this photograph of artist Graham Sutherland. Balance also applies to color and shape. and also adds interest to the foreground. A much-used pictorial device is to divide the photograph into thirds. above The Taj Mahal is one of the most photographed sites in the world.
. both horizontally and vertically. The photographer must aim to compose the shot so that there is a balance between all of them. Partial view By avoiding the temptation to position the windmills in a symmetrical way. whether it is a visually rich interior or an abstract composition of shapes and colors. however. since this leads to static. The concept of balance and proportion does not mean that a good photograph must be perfectly symmetrical or that the main focal point must be positioned in the center of the frame. In this picture. the camera angle is chosen to balance the shapes of the seated figure and the semisilhouetted tree stump. The boatman moving past balances the temple in the background. Two strong colors or dominant shapes will compete for the viewer’s attention. but if they are positioned in a sympathetic way they can provide an effective pictorial balance. and to place the subject one-third across and one-third up or down the picture. formal images.
Foreground interest. the partial view of the nearest building is balanced by the more distant structure.

the composition verges on the abstract.
.
Dynamic imbalance Although this picture is not at all symmetrical. and geometric forms. the silhouetted figure seems to balance the bulk of the surrounding buildings. In its simplicity. white-clad figure. starkness of tone.B ALANCE AND PROPORTION 67
Human scale The imposing columns of the Egyptian temple of Karnak at Luxor rivet the attention of the viewer. but without the presence of the diminutive. the enormous size of the building could not be appreciated.

Whereas a high horizon accentuates the foreground. harmony. focal length of lens. above Where you position the horizon can have a marked effect on the image. while at other times you may prefer to highlight contrast by juxtaposing different elements or colors. Scenes with landscapes or buildings have many viewpoints. and symmetry. This involves arranging the subject elements to achieve the desired effect. and film accordingly.
. Sometimes you may want to emphasize balance. a tension is established in the photograph. First decide which are the most important elements and then choose the viewpoint. below By framing a vertical subject such as these trees horizontally. Vertical framing would weaken the overall effect.
Positioning the horizon. a low horizon emphasizes the sky. the interpretation of the image depends on the photographer’s skill in framing the subject to exclude details that detract from the main area of interest.
Vertical abstraction.68 HOW TO SEE BETTER PICTURES
SELECTION FOR EFFECT
Before taking a photograph of any subject you should spend some time studying and composing the image in the viewfinder.

you may want to change the composition from horizontal to vertical framing by having only part of the original image enlarged.
. Sometimes it may be impossible to obtain the camera position you ideally want.
Horizontal cropping shows the subject and surroundings
Vertical cropping is used to isolate a detail of the image Close cropping isolates the figure in the photograph
Alternative ways of cropping The full-frame image shows architect Richard Rogers in his home. However.
Horizontal image. so cropping out the foreground or background of the final image may be necessary. Enlarging should only be attempted when the image is sharp overall and there is sufficient visual content. and edit a copy of the file rather than the original.
Vertical image. left A side detail of the original image has been enlarged to become the subject of this version. Cropping can be used to concentrate attention on particular areas of interest in the picture to create balance and harmony. You could crop off one side of the picture to move a subject into an off-center position in the frame. above Cropping in on both sides of the figure and down from the top of the full frame has simplified the visual content of the image and produced a distinctly enclosed feeling. All the pictures on this page show how cropping can alter the appearance of an image to convey several different messages. Use the highest resolution available when shooting to allow for cropping. above Strong vertical cropping of the picture is used to isolate the subject and to eliminate all background detail.SELECTION FOR EFFECT 69
CROPPING AN IMAGE
Although it is always preferable to make major compositional decisions through the camera’s viewfinder before taking a picture. you are not restricted to using the full-frame image once the film is processed. Isolating details.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Digital images are easier to crop precisely than those shot on film. this portrait lacks some of the atmosphere of the scene shown in the uncropped shot. Alternatively. The outlined areas illustrate different ways the image can be cropped.

.

HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES
The difference between an outstanding photograph and an ordinary one can often be the result of a minor adjustment in the angle of a light or a slight shift in viewpoint that totally changes the emphasis of a composition.
. both in the studio and on location. This section reveals exactly how an experienced photographer undertakes a range of real-life photographic sessions and provides an invaluable insight into how to take successful photographs in a variety of situations.

positioned slightly farther away than the main flash. It should also be a visual biography.
Fashion portraits
See pages 76–85
Fill-in light A secondary flash unit. For full-length portraits you will need a room about 20ft (6m) long. or it may be a more formal affair where the photographer has been commissioned to follow a specific assignment. and then adjust them to achieve different effects. softening the quality of the lighting
Photographing people
A portrait can be a photograph taken without the subject’s knowledge. fills in the shadowy areas
What makes a good portrait?
Portraits are not limited to posed shots of immobile subjects. This will leave you free to get to know and reassure the model before you start to take any photographs. there are technical decisions to be made. Try to put your model at ease by having all the camera equipment and lights set up well in advance of the photo session. It allows you complete control of the lighting and is highly adaptable.
Umbrella reflector This has a reflective inner surface that bounces back light directed at it. although it is possible to shoot half-length portraits in a shorter space. who become bored quickly. Start by positioning the lights as shown below. As with all areas of photography. Talking may help the sitter relax and allow you to achieve the desired result – a revealing.
PORT RA I T SET. A good portrait photograph does not just show you the appearance of the subject. Capturing moving subjects on film with flash can make lively.UP
The equipment illustrated here comprises a flexible set-up for a formal portrait photograph. resulting in wonderful and exciting portraits. capturing a sitter’s character and revealing their unique personality. The best photographs move beyond this to capture expressions that give an insight into a person’s character and mood. It is automatically triggered when the main flash fires
. and the camera viewpoint has to be positioned to suit the subject’s face. natural-looking portrait. Do not underestimate the importance of background and setting in your portraits. expressive portraits.
Fill-in light power pack This provides the power for the secondary flash. and giving subjects an activity can have unexpected results. lights must be arranged to achieve specific effects. Photographing people outdoors or in their own environment can add a dimension otherwise missing from a portrait in a studio setting. or to enhance some aspect of the setting. The latter approach works well with children.
Character portraits
See pages 90–91
Background light This additonal flash unit allows you to light the backdrop independently of the main subject
Drawing out a subject
Dramatic portraits
See pages 96–99
Children’s portraits
See pages 120–127
Another important aspect of portrait work is overcoming a subject’s natural apprehension of the camera and lights. Different types of camera and lens are needed for different conditions.72 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
PORTRAITS
Photographs of people often elicit a greater response from the viewer than any other kind of subject.

OVERHEAD PLAN
Backdrop light 21⁄2ft (75cm) Backdrop
5ft (150cm) 3ft (90cm)
21⁄2ft (75cm)
6ft (180cm) Main light Fill-in light Main light Build up your lighting scheme one light at a time.The lens is set level with the model’s face
Tripod Using a tripod leaves you free to adjust lights and check the results in the viewfinder
Main light power pack A 3. which allows you to interact with the subject
Camera and film A 35mm SLR camera with a 100mm longfocus lens.000-joule power pack provides the power source for the main flash unit. with no harsh shadows across her face. Output can be varied in one-stop increments
Synchronization lead The cable runs from the camera to the main power pack.This flash unit is positioned so that light shines at about 45° to the model’s face Camera
EQUIPMENT
•35mm SLR camera and spare film •Range of lenses •Adjustable tripod •Cable release •Flash lighting units •Umbrella reflectors •Power packs •Synchronization lead •Diffuser panels
Light stand Adjustable light stand makes positioning the flash units extremely quick and easy Cable release This frees you from behind the camera. enabling the flash units to fire in sync with the shutter release
. The lighting is soft and gives good tonal separation between the model and background. loaded with ISO 100 film.PORTRAITS 73
Formal portrait This portrait is the result of the set-up below. starting with a main light.

Soft lighting. The three-point arrangement (see pages 72–73) is a good starting point.
Diffuser panel of heavyweight tracing paper on a wooden frame is positioned between the model and the lights
Patterned rug acts as interesting backdrop
Flash lighting unit with umbrella reflector is positioned at 90˚ to the diffuser panel Each light is powered by an individual power pack 35mm camera with an 80mm long-focus lens fixed on a tripod
Cable release
PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused lighting Large diffuser panels made of heavyweight tracing paper are placed in front of the flash units and umbrella reflectors to increase the area of light falling on the model. allows lighting to be manipulated to produce subtle variations. you have greater control and the opportunity to experiment with lighting quality and intensity.
There is no single “correct” lighting set-up for all portraits. shadows increase (left). More obvious changes occur when whole lighting units are removed. placing diffuser panels directly in front of the flash heads and umbrella reflectors (below).74 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CREATING FORMAL PORTRAITS
A studio can be a challenging place to work. It is up to you to transform a stark space into an environment where your subject can be drawn out. However. and you will learn how to manipulate these variables for specific results.
Synchronization lead
. if you have access to a studio. No fill-in light at all results in heavy contrast (above). However.
LIGHTING EMPHASIS
Lighting variations If directional light is used with very little fill-in light.This gives a low-contrast result if both lighting heads are used. below This softly lit portrait is the result of the photo set-up using the diffuser panels. as well as with various shooting angles.

A long synchronization lead connecting the camera to the flash units allows freedom of movement. Different facial features now catch the viewer’s eye. extreme shooting angle may produce •Using anresults. while the line of her jaw and chin is understated. such as tapering features. •For a 35mm SLR use an 80–90mm long-focus lens. A high camera position. unwanted
Low camera angle Kneeling down and shooting up at the model from a low viewpoint changes the portrait’s emphasis.
Hand-held 35mm camera with an 80mm lens Diffuser panel
Flash lighting unit
Umbrella reflector
High camera angle Shooting from a small stepladder gives strong emphasis to the model’s forehead. Before starting to take pictures. By altering the viewpoint of the camera. This approach often results in the face taking on a slightly square appearance.
. Subject in profile A close-up profile is one of the most critical in portrait photography. Moving to the opposite extreme. study all aspects of your model’s face and decide which angles to shoot from for the best effect. while a model shot from below may appear aloof. and cheek bones. you can bring about a variety of interesting and subtle effects. shooting down on the model’s face.
Synchronization lead
PHOTO SET-UP: High viewpoint A little extra height considerably steepens the camera angle. with the chin and jaw looking stronger and squarer. The camera angle may also imply something about personality: shooting from above suggests vulnerability. PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•A three-quarter view of theaface often makes it appear finer and less full than frontal angle. for example. eyes. draws attention to the chin and lower jawline.CREATING FORMAL PORTRAITS 75
VARYING CAMERA ANGLES
A studio is the ideal type of location in which to experiment with different camera angles. •Distortions occur when using a short lens close up. tends to emphasize the forehead and the tops of the cheek bones. and taking the shot from below up toward the face. Lighting is unchanged from the set-up shown on the opposite page.

if you do not want to use a make-up artist. most amateur models will lack confidence and may appear wooden. Note the way in which the model constantly changes her pose in this sequence of pictures. She will be able to vary her facial expression and will be confident in the way she holds herself.
Wide-angle flash lighting head is angled upward at the ceiling
Canvas backdrop painted to give a neutral. In comparison.The flash unit to her left gives three-quarter illumination and is fitted with a softbox diffuser.
USING A PROFESSIONAL MODEL
Modeling is a form of acting that requires experience as well as an attractive face. The flash unit to the model’s right is angled at the ceiling so that its light reflects back down to give a broad spread of illumination.76 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
TAKING FASHION PORTRAITS
Obtaining the services of a professional model for a day’s session is not difficult. a professional model will know how to apply make-up to suit the clothes she is wearing.
PHOTO SET-UP: Fashion portrait Two lights pick the dark-clothed model out from the mottled gray background. mottled-gray effect Reflector board ensures lighting is even 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm long-lens focus
Posed portraits Aim to direct the model into poses that emphasize the shape of her body and the clothes she is wearing. so make sure you have a clear idea of the type of pictures you want before the shoot starts.
Telescopic lighting stand.
Symmetrical shape The model’s almost symmetrical pose highlights the simplicity of her dress. Finally. Model agencies usually charge for their models by the hour. A professional model will know how to react to the camera and how to change her pose to give the clothes an added elegance. A 6 x 6cm camera ensures the quality results demanded by magazines. fitted with castors to make positioning easier Cable release
Wide-angle flash lighting head enclosed within a softbox diffuser
Each light is powered by an individual power pack Power pack
. but it can be expensive.

•Ask someone to assist with hair and make-up. The viewer can appreciate the clothes. and bright. and each and every detail should facilitate that communication. any accessories or props you use should be appropriate to the type of image you want to create and should complement the model’s clothes.
Framing a model The story a photograph tells is partly dictated by how the model is framed.
. their monochromatic coloring. The pearl-studded sunglasses perched on her nose demand the viewer’s special attention. such as this green hat.TAKING FASHION PORTRAITS 77
USING ACCESSORIES
Attention to detail can transform an otherwise ordinary photograph. can complement a model’s clothes and provide a bright finishing touch. the emphasis is on the model’s general appearance. the emphasis of the image is fixed on the model’s face. For a fashion portrait. directing her every movement. Careful selection of accessories is vital: neutral tones can be set off by simple props.
Splash of color The use of props. so that
•Talk to your model.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS a variety of interesting accessories on hand •Keep you can experiment with different props. saturated colors can be complemented by unusual and exciting accessories. Change of mood Confidence and poise are the hallmarks of a good model.
Close-up eyes Viewed in close-up. A portrait should communicate a message to the viewer. With a nearly full-length shot. and how they work together. quickly changing from one pose to the next.

Making use of a prop A silk scarf adds color as well as compositional balance. Whatever setting you choose. directional light
Once you have identified the style of the model’s clothing. since the final images should appear glossier and more attractive than real life. a costume supplier will be able to provide you with everything from period costumes to evening wear. you could use an outdoor environment such as a deserted beach.
Single power pack runs both diffused flash units
Coordinated image The two models have a coordinated look with their matching sequined dresses. When taking fashion portraits. coordinating the appearance of both of them is also essential. This image is emphasized by their linked-arm pose.78 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
STYLING PORTRAITS
Brief models beforehand on the look and style you want to create at the photo session.
PLANNING THE SHOOT
Canvas backdrop is painted to give a realistic blue-sky-andclouds effect
Wide-angle flash lighting head is angled upward at the ceiling so that its light reflects back down to give a broad spread of soft illumination
Flash units are positioned at different heights
Blue background paper is taped down to the floor 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm longfocus lens Cable release
Softbox diffusers produce soft. be prepared to shoot a lot of film to get the most out of the session. If you can afford the expense. be sure that the models look perfect.The models’ faces are illuminated by the two softbox diffusers. If you are working with two models featured in the same shots. and a stylist can help furnish the set. you can turn your attention to choosing a suitable setting.
. Expect to shoot a lot of film to achieve a natural-looking picture.
PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for a styled portrait The set is lit by reflected light from a wide-angled flash directed at the ceiling on the photographer’s left. If you do not have access to a photographic studio or suitable space indoors.

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm long-focus lens
. above If using two models. is more flattering than harsh. directional light
Power pack
Unusual headwear Hats can cause lighting problems by casting shadows over the models’ faces or obscuring their eyes. which tends to emphasize every fine line or misplaced hair. to throw extra light onto the models’ faces. such as from a window or a diffused flash. Critical close-up Always check the models’ appearance by looking through the viewfinder before pressing the shutter. Gentle.
Wide-angle flash unit angled upward to reflect light off the ceiling Painted backdrop
PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for a close-up A wide-angle flash head reflects light bounced off the ceiling. To counter this. as on the opposite page. soft lighting. position them so that each one is seen with her best profile toward the camera.
Flash lighting units are positioned at different heights and angled low to light models’ faces evenly
Stylist makes adjustments to make-up and hair during the shoot
Floor covering
Softbox diffuser produces soft. you can use a longer lens or have the central portion of the picture enlarged during printing. With a normal lens you may have to move very close to your subject to fill the frame with the model’s head and shoulders. make sure the faces are lit independently. the impact of the image can be dramatic if the model is well chosen.
Double profile. as shown in the set-up on the right.STYLING PORTRAITS 79
FILLING THE FRAME
You can achieve a close-up simply by moving the camera position closer to your subject to concentrate attention on facial features and expression.The flash units with softbox diffusers to the photographer’s right are positioned low and angled slightly upward. Alternatively. The correct lighting is essential for close-up portraits. directional light. By excluding other details from the picture.

this will usually show in the pictures. though. and sit between shots. It also provides something for the model to hold on to.
Large studio flash with softbox provides window-like lighting 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 80mm standard lens
Using props. and by playing suitable background music.
. taking head-and-shoulder portraits or fullfigure nudes. and suggesting poses and actions. Make sure that camera gear. you will obtain more successful shots than if you hide quietly behind the camera. left The purpose of the rope in this set-up is not just to provide visual interest and a strong diagonal line. If you keep talking to the model. Create the right ambience from the start by ensuring the studio is not too warm or cold. even small changes in posture. If a sitter is not relaxed.80 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
HOW TO RELAX THE MODEL
Whether using professional models or friends. opposite Often the poses that work best are exaggerated ones. adjust make-up. helping to avoid awkward-looking poses. By using a tripod.
Builder’s tarpaulin provides a naturalcolored. and that the model has somewhere private to change costumes. your photographic session will be more successful if your model is at ease. It is the photographer that is the key. Use lots of film to ensure you get the pose you want. ask the model to laugh or shout as you take the shot. textured background
Changing the poses. To get an exaggerated pose while keeping the effect natural. lighting. will have a major impact on the composition. it is possible to maintain eye contact with the model while giving instructions. this is not so necessary with digital cameras as you can review the actual facial expressions shot after each sequence. left When photographing people. and using a standard lens allows close proximity so there is no need to shout.
PHOTO SET-UP: Communicating with the model The studio set-up can help the model to feel comfortable.
Getting a reaction. or the way they turn their head or body. praising him or her. and backdrops are as ready as possible before the model comes on set.

HOW TO RELAX THE MODEL 81
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Rather than just using those methods traditionally used for portraits.
. For instance. An approach that is particularly timeless. Glossy magazines are always trying to find “new” ways to show a new collection. is the abstract style.
Footstools are not only for model’s comfort. models may be shot reportage-style with ambient light and grainy film. between shots if necessary. or special effects used. but by using close-ups her identity is hidden – putting the whole focus of attention on the clothes. The secret is then to use the thousands of poses that the human body is capable of to frame interesting shapes. The idea is to show the clothing almost in isolation. A digital or film back can be used
Soft. top So as not to distract from the color of the stockings. they ensure her leg stays as still as possible during the shot Plastic material with mirrored surface is used as a silver reflector to soften the shadows 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with 120mm telephoto lens. techniques are borrowed from other genres in the quest for an original look. or to suit the client’s requirements. even lighting is provided by bouncing studio flash unit into a white umbrella
Color match. it is worn by the model.
PHOTO SET-UP: Using digital backs An advantage of a medium-format system camera is that it allows the professional photographer to switch from film to digital. above & right A green backdrop was chosen because green is the complementary color to red.82 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CREATING A STYLE
There are almost as many styles of fashion photography as there are styles of clothing. This ensured that the stockings stand out in the compositions. such as processing print film in chemicals meant for slides to give unusual color balance. it was important that the skirt and shoes were also red.
Color contrast. as is the gray background. The black and silver stool is neutral.

CREATING A STYLE 83
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6 x 6cm camera. 120mm lens. 120mm lens. ISO 100. Defining the style. right Props and background are essential for defining the style of the photograph. 6 x 6cm camera. 1/60 sec. f11. 1/60 sec. 6 x 6cm camera. Alternative approaches communicate comfort and glamor. ISO 100. ISO 100. Changing from a pale green tarpaulin backdrop (above). and fashion shots must convey this. f11. digital back. digital back. f11. below & right Clothes are designed for different purposes. digital back.
. to a black backdrop (left) has created a more stylized low-key effect. 120mm lens.These two shots show ways of depicting different levels of sensuality.The wooden floor and leather chair help to give the impression that this is a candid photograph taken at a cocktail party in a grand country house.84 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
Change of background. above & left Small changes to a set-up can create an entirely different look. 1/60 sec.
Conveying purpose.

ABSTRACT FASHION GALLERY 85
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and you gain the chance to record aspects of his life that could not be witnessed elsewhere. You will have less control over lighting intensity and direction. middle-. directional lighting to capture the subtle texture of the sculpted figures. above Look for the best way to frame your subject in the available space. and space may be cramped with furniture inconveniently arranged.
Diffusing umbrella made of sheer material creates soft directional lighting effect 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with an 80mm lens
Light-colored walls and ceiling are ideal for bouncing flash Flash head positioned high to reflect light from ceiling and walls
Subject and setting.
Power pack
PHOTO SET-UP: Supplementary flash To photograph sculptor Glyn Williams in his studio calls for soft. It is advisable to visit the location beforehand to see if you will need flash or additional equipment.
. and background. you should be prepared for almost any situation – from direct sunlight streaming through a large window. to levels so dim that even fast film will require a wide aperture and still result in a very slow shutter speed. However. Carefully placed statues mark the fore-.
Synchronization lead
Framing a subject. In this shot.The light-colored ceilings and walls make ideal surfaces from which to bounce light. a subject will be more relaxed in his own environment.86 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
TAKING PORTRAITS ON LOCATION
You may have to overcome certain difficulties when you want to take a portrait of a subject in his home or workplace. the sculptures make strong shapes flanking their creator. You can then decide what type of camera to use and at what time of day the light will be most suitable. top The setting is as much the subject of the picture as the sculptor.The low level of natural daylight requires the use of flash lighting.
LIGHTING POTENTIAL
In terms of lighting.

Simulated daylight. left Diffused flash is used to supplement the weak light from an overhead skylight.
Power pack
Natural daylight. high-contrast lighting does give a scene a naturalness that implies a lack of interference. Light entering a room through a window produces a directional effect. above Positioning the sculpture directly below a skylight produces this high-contrast lighting effect. The lighting direction and quality resemble natural light but ensure that the shadow areas are not too dark on the subject’s face.
. If it is not possible to illuminate an interior using natural light. if
•Make sure there are sufficient power points
to run your equipment.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Visit the location before the shoot. you may need to reduce this contrast by the use of fill-in lights and reflectors. you can arrange the flash lighting to simulate some of the characteristics of daylight. •Exclude unwanted clutter from the shot. but the background walls remain in shadow. it is preferable to use natural light to convey the atmosphere of the setting. When taking a portrait. Diffused flash is needed to light the sculptor evenly in the dark interior. lighting near parts of the subject and casting distant corners into shadow.
Take additional lights •daylight is very poor.TAKING PORTRAITS ON LOC ATION 87
Walls are too far away from the light source to affect the overall exposure
Subject is leaning on sculpture to reinforce link with work
6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 150mm longfocus lens
Single flash head with a diffusing umbrella is angled to spotlight the subject’s face
SIMULATING DAYLIGHT
When taking a portrait in a working environment. However. A single flash unit with reflector is positioned to light the subject’s face.
PHOTO SET-UP: Poor natural light Low levels of natural light present lighting problems similar to those on the opposite page.

the background of one of his canvases is as much the subject of the photograph as the artist himself. Ektachrome 200. 1/15 sec. Fujichrome 100.6.
Integrating the background Good photographs work at all levels. f8. And in this portrait of John Bellamy. 6 x 6cm camera. 1/250 sec. from the foreground right through to the background.PORTRAIT GALLERY 89
Color statement The color and abstract flowing shapes of his paintings make an ideal background for this portrait of Terry Frost.
. Lighting is provided by a mixture of bounced flash and daylight. 80mm lens. f5. 50mm lens.The colors of the canvas are emphasized by the artist’s beret and the contrasting vertical stripes of his waistcoat. 6 x 7cm camera.

the intimate atmosphere of the setting is preserved. Similarly.
LIGHTING FOR AN OLDER SUBJECT
To lighten this dark corner.The walls are covered with glasscovered photographs recording long careers spent at sea. A face lined with age speaks volumes about the sitter’s personal history.To prevent these reflections. an informal portrait of a person should tell the viewer something about the sitter’s character. use strong directional lighting to highlight the surface texture. However. PROFESSIONAL TIPS wide-angle include more •Asetting in thelens allows you to atmosphere. if you want to disguise the signs of aging.
. If you want to emphasize the wrinkles and lines that reveal character. with flash unit. and adjust the picture frames accordingly. subtle effect.
•Remove unwanted furniture from the picture area. Diffused or reflected light as used in the images on these pages gives a flattering. make sure •If you are working allowsa you free movement.
PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused flash lighting The location is a long-established reading room for retired sailors and fishermen.90 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CAPTURING CHARACTER
Perhaps the most challenging aspect of taking a portrait photograph is to try to capture something more than just a likeness of the subject. bounced flash is used to reflect light off the side walls Softbox diffuser helps both to soften and direct the light output 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 50mm wide-angle lens
Choosing appropriate lighting is critical when photographing an elderly subject. check the image in the viewfinder. the models are not just vehicles for the clothes they wear. the synchronization lead
Creating atmosphere Lit mainly by reflected light bounced off the side wall. •Use a dulling spray to prevent reflections. Lighting must be adjusted constantly and the image checked in the viewfinder. of the frame for added is •A 35mm SLRandless noticeable than a mediumformat camera may seem less intimidating. you can use a soft-focus filter to blur skin texture. for example. they also need to project a certain image. In fashion portraiture (see page 72). If not treated with care. the flash could cause each picture to reflect light in the form of intense highlights known as hot spots.

above Capturing an unguarded moment is possible here since the subject is totally engrossed in the game and not self-conscious.Try to frame the image to exclude unwanted detail so that everything in the final shot provides valuable clues to the sitter’s character. but follow the mood and atmosphere of the occasion (above).
Compactness of a 35mm SLR camera makes it ideal for hand-holding 80mm long-focus lens is used to isolate a single subject Subject quickly forgets about the photographer and continues playing the game of cards
Character and mood Try to be unobtrusive and avoid drawing attention to the camera. you can isolate one person in the group.
PHOTO SET-UP: Character in close-up By moving in closer with a hand-held 35mm camera and an 80mm long-focus lens. Do not let your subject pose for too long (top). Concentrate on the feature that you most want to emphasize and then wait for the right moment to release the shutter.
. left Setting the subject offcenter establishes a tension in the composition.
Using the setting.C APTURING CHARACTER 91
Candid moment. and the pictures visible behind him suggest something about his history.

Personal details. the horizon is softened. so it is important to choose the conditions with care. the lighting can be balanced by using white reflectors. This chair has been painted by the artist in the colorful stripes that characterize his work. although in the studio you have greater control over the lighting. so as not to distract from the main subject.
. taken shortly before his death at age 87. above & right By combining a telephoto lens with a small aperture. are useful •Hatsto have to props hand for portraits.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Red-colored clothes or accessories
provide immediate impact in portraits.
Sitting the subject in a chair restricts their movement so that you can focus accurately The beach is a natural reflector. was taken at a beach near his home that had been an inspiration for his paintings.92 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
TAKING PORTRAITS OUTDOORS
The advantage of shooting outdoors is that it is much easier to get natural-looking results in daylight than it is in the studio. Outdoors.
Selective focusing. bouncing soft light into the shadow areas of the face Digital SLR with zoom set to around 100mm. Setting up the shot so that the light is at 45 degrees to the subject’s face provides just the right amount of shadow. An ideal compromise is to shoot on a bright day when there is some cloud cover. flat portraits with weak colors. If necessary. Harsh direct sunlight produces strong shadows that can obscure facial details. and often from one minute to the next. while heavily overcast conditions can lead to dull. helping to isolate the head from the background as well as adding visual interest. as well as making people screw up their eyes in an unphotogenic fashion. left Include objects in the shot that tell you more about the subject.The open space provided a vast backdrop to shoot against. the intensity and quality of light varies enormously from day to day. Sitting down provides a low camera angle
PHOTO SET-UP: Sir Terry Frost This portrait of abstract artist Terry Frost.

TAKING PORTRAITS OUTDOORS 93
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there is little space for the flash lighting unit used to supplement the daylight coming through the window. sunny pastel shades. The clutter of color falls away and is replaced by a range of tones – shades of black.
Subject is positioned against a background of sculpted heads
PHOTO SET-UP: Confined spaces In the narrow upstairs hallway of sculptor Glyn Williams’ home. ranging from gray to white (see page 44). Glyn improvised by standing on a plank bridging the stairwell. and so on. leaves little room for the viewer’s imagination. then a black and white picture is another step away from that reality.
. images become much simpler in content. Because we react so strongly to the color content of a photograph. In order to maneuver himself into the correct position in relation to the background of sculpted heads.94 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTAITS
TAKING BLACK AND WHITE PORTRAITS
Black and white film is a medium that attracts those photographers who want an added dimension in the process of image selection and interpretation.
White reflector is set at about 45˚ to the subject Single flash lighting unit is pointing directly at a large circular reflector 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 50mm wide-angle lens
Walls and ceiling help reflect the light
Black and white or color Positioning the subject so that he appears to be part of the collection of sculpted heads works better in black and white than color. some of which are cultural and some personal – fiery red. Color. even when used in a very abstract way.
TONAL VALUES
In black and white pictures. Color also has certain associations with mood. cold blue tones. If you think of a photograph as already being an abstraction of the real scene it records. it can sometimes distract us from looking at other important aspects of the image.

If you convert the image to black and white later you will be able to exercise better tonal control.
.TAKING BLACK AND WHITE PORTRAITS 95
Highlighting elements The way we interpret a picture varies according to whether the image is in color or black and white. In this comical pose the viewer’s eye is drawn to the sculpted hands in the immediate foreground. the sizes of which have been exaggerated by using a wide-angle lens. and also retain the option of using the shot in color. As with the set-up shown on the opposite page.
Single flash lighting unit with an umbrella reflector is positioned opposite the subject 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 50mm wide-angle lens
Winter daylight from window supplements flash lighting
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS often best to •If using a digital camerainitaisblack and whitetake the shot in color rather than shooting mode. With the middleground demanding attention in this way. the overall image lacks the impact of the black and white portrait. it is the colored checks of the subject’s shirt that initially attract the viewer’s eye. the lighting is kept simple with a single flash lighting unit and reflector supplementing the poor natural daylight. provide ideal background and foreground elements for this portrait. Although
the subject’s pose in the color portrait is identical to the black and white version. and white shooting mode •A black will be extremely useful forcan also be used as it visualizing the shot without color before the final version is actually recorded. drawing and sculpting. and a strange perspective is achieved by utilizing the distorting effect a wide-angle lens exerts on the apparent sizes of foreground and background objects.
Sketches taped to the wall behind are lit by a mixture of flash and daylight
PHOTO SET-UP: Subject and background Two aspects of Glyn Williams’ work.

. A red-filtered flash unit with a large softbox diffuser to the right of the photographer provides general. the flash heads are filtered in different colors and the lights lowered to cast long shadows. It is best to make a radical change to the normal color since a minor deviation may look accidental.
Plain. warm illumination all over the set.
Colored filter effects The dancers and the lights illuminating the set are well defined before the addition of the smoke. smoke is released during the shoot for added theatrical impact. You can use strong. trim them to a manageable size and clip or tape them over the lighting heads or the inside surface of a diffuser. the light becomes more scattered and diffused.
You can also alter the color of the lighting for dramatic effect. white backdrop is a good surface for colored flash lights to reflect off Greenfiltered flash head
Blue-filtered flash head Red-filtered flash head and softbox diffuser
Smoke machine produces clouds of white smoke 6 x 6cm camera on a low tripod with an 80mm standard lens
Power pack for main light
Cable release
Synchronization lead
PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting with colored filters Two flash units covered with blue and green gelatin filters respectively are positioned at the back of the set behind the dancers. In the images on these pages.96 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CREATING DRAMATIC PORTRAITS
Injecting drama into a photograph often means using lighting creatively to produce a powerful or unusual interpretation of your subject.
LIGHTING COLOR AND EFFECT
COLORED GELS Colored light filters are usually made of gelatin or plastic. If filters are too large. the figures less distinct.
Smoke effects on lighting When the smoke is added. and areas of color start to merge. In additon. directional light to create a high-contrast portrait with bright highlights and dark shadows that accentuate a subject’s bone structure and facial features. and come in a variety of sizes.

as shown in this sequence.CREATING DRAMATIC PORTRAITS 97
Enhancing effects The exaggerated poses of the modern dancers are given greater dramatic impact by the addition of special-effects smoke.
. can cause the meter to register more light than is present. Exposure compensation Scattered light. Open the aperture an extra half to one f-stop to compensate.

This created an attractive pattern of ripples. so that the model was not obscured from view. to the right density. By using a smoke generator I was able to do the shot on a warm. rather than on a cold. cannot be controlled precisely. The density of fog in shot could then be controlled by the model moving to different parts of the lake. bonfires. Ripples. or dry ice. both outside and in the studio. gray winter’s morning. and may damage camera equipment. I asked the model to move forward as I shot the picture.
. For better control. wind. so getting the exact effect you want is hit and miss. or mist. left For this shot. The smoke. it is best to wait for the smoke to build up. right In order to get a feeling of movement in the water. however. it is more practical to create them artificially. for example.
Model in lake 35mm SLR set up on other side of water A special solution of glycol or glycerol is burnt by an electric smoke generator to make a white fog that floats over the water An assistant controls the machine to create the required smoke effects
PHOTO SET-UP: Morning mist on a lake I wanted to take pictures of the model in a lake against a backdrop of atmospheric mist. This has the advantage that the effect can be added with minimal discomfort.
Keeping your distance. then quickly take as many shots as possible.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS Smoke can be provided artificially by using cigarettes. Real rain. or disperse. The smoke machine was set up on the opposite side of the water from the camera. a mains-powered smoke generator can be hired from specialist theatrical suppliers. Usually. is smoke. This can be used to suggest clouds.98 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
DRAMATIC PORTRAITS OUTDOORS
Rain. and with maximum control over intensity. and fog can sometimes be used to help add ambience to an outdoor portrait. A strategically-placed sprinkler allows you to keep equipment dry and to use brighter lighting conditions. will cause problems with lighting intensity. only mist in the background was required. Whilst these atmospheric effects can be added by waiting for the right conditions. bright summer’s day. fog. A favorite effect.

DRAMATIC PORTRAITS OUTDOORS 99
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Tri-X Pan.
Window light Weak sunlight from a window on the subject’s right provides the only illumination for this picture of a Salvation Army stalwart. f16. Diffused flash is used to supplement the weak sunlight and highlight the fine lines on the subject’s face. 80mm lens. and the farmer’s expression tell of a way of life now extinct.This type of gentle and sympathetic lighting masks some signs of aging and is in keeping with the subject. 1/250 sec.100 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
Tonal contrast. The simple setting. the sculptress Elisabeth Frink. f16. 35mm camera. 105mm lens. above The carefully positioned sculpted heads make an ideal frame within which to place their creator. below A single picture can tell a life story. HP5.6. 80mm lens.
Rural record. 35mm camera. f11. 6 x 7cm camera. 1/60 sec. Tri-X Pan. 80mm lens.
. the clothes on the line.
Making a connection An old woman holding her prized pet pigeon makes for a revealing character portrait. HP5. 35mm camera. 1/30 sec. f5. 1/60 sec.

50mm lens. 6 x 4. 1/60 sec.5cm camera.PORTRAIT GALLERY 101
Framing an idea In any photograph of an artist you might expect the tools of the trade to feature prominently. 120mm lens. HP5. 135mm lens. f16. 35mm camera. f11. f22. top With sidelight revealing fine details.
.
Natural spotlight. Directional flash. Tri-X Pan. it is his hands that are held up to the camera.
Focusing attention Although a face as powerful as this would command attention no matter how it was photographed. 6 x 6cm camera. 1/30 sec. 35mm camera. typographer David Kindersley is thrust forward in the frame. 1/250 sec. f4. 135mm lens. 1/250 sec. yet acting as a frame for his face. positioned as if sizing a block of stone. HP5. above A flash is directed at the subject to throw a band of light over the face. In this portrait of sculptor Henry Moore. Tri-X Pan. a wide lens aperture keeps the depth of field sufficiently narrow to keep details in the background from competing.

102 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
TAKING A SELF PORTRAIT
Self portraiture is a photographic exercise that may require the use of one or two technical aids and a great deal of patience.
DELAYED . and the settings then transferred to the camera. and a chalk mark on the canvas sheet acts as a position guide. An adjustable tripod is essential for positioning the camera at the right height. if you pose close to the camera. the camera’s integral delayed-action timer is used.
Single flash unit is set high and positioned at about 45˚ to the subject
Umbrella diffuser gives direct but softened lighting
Hardboard reflector is positioned on the subject’s shadow side to return some of the light and reduce contrast Synchronization lead 6 x 6cm camera with a l20mm long-focus lens and with shutter set on a delayed timer
Adjustable tripod is positioned so that the camera frames the subject’s head and shoulders
Self-timer sequence Experiment with different poses to record a comic. or serious self portrait. Remember to wind the film on between shots and to reset the timer. The simplest way to take your own portrait is to pose in front of a mirror and to photograph your reflection by holding the camera at waist level. Alternatively. Alternatively. but it can also be a lot of fun. you can trigger the shutter at the precise moment you want by using a long cable release. you can use a long cable release or self-timer and pose in front of the lens. dramatic.
PHOTO SET-UP: Indoor self portrait For this self portrait.ACTION TIMER
Practically all cameras have a delayed-action timer designed for self portraiture. The exposure for these self portraits (above) was calculated using a flash meter.
.The camera is prefocused on the exact spot the subject will occupy. Activating this before pressing the shutter release gives you between 10 and 20 seconds (depending on the camera) to get to your predetermined position.

PHOTO SET-UP: Delayed-action timer A test run timed with a stop watch determines that there is enough time for the subject to take up his position before the delayed-action timer triggers the shutter. Self portrait setting.TAKING A SELF PORTRAIT 103
Photo set-up: Outdoor self portrait The camera is focused and set manually for the distance of the subject from the camera. allowing the shutter to be triggered at will
Silver reflector is used to lighten the subject’s shadow side and even out the lighting contrast across the face
Exposure reading To determine the exposure for these self portraits.
Colors in the scene are warmed up using a color-compensating filter
Viewfinder may have to be covered to keep stray light from affecting exposure 35mm camera with an 85mm lens is set on a delayed-action timer to release the shutter after 20 seconds
. the subject took a reading from the back of his hand while standing where the pictures were to be taken. low down and out of shot.
35mm camera on a tripod with an 85mm long-focus lens Long cable release is held by the subject. below Using a timer allows you to position yourself some distance from the camera. and an extra-long cable release allows the shutter to be released at precisely the right moment.

carefully choreographed and integrated to create a very definite compositional shape.
Undiffused flash unit lights background and subjects
Undiffused flash lighting unit is angled down to lighten tonal value of floor surface and increase exposure on the dancers
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
Flash lighting unit and softbox reflector with front diffusing panel removed to increase the intensity of light
a broad •Aim for light. Two different compositions work in different ways. you need to show that all those involved are somehow associated with each other.
Synchronization lead links camera to power pack
•Soften directional lighting to prevent
shadows falling on any member of the group. aim to convey the sense of group movement. The group seems poised to explode into movement.
Circular group.
Dynamic arrangements Try experimenting with several group arrangements. The solution here is to place the dancers in active poses.
6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with an 80mm standard lens
Background canvas is painted to give a mottled green effect
PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting a group The lighting for group portraits needs to be generalized to create a broad spread of light over a fairly large area. but the other arrangement (right) emphasizes movement. This can be done by arranging the figures so that they all obviously relate. perhaps spread of from wide-angle units. It is possible to use a slow shutter speed to record subject blur (see pages 130–131).Two undiffused flash units at the rear of the set help increase exposure on the dancers and so pull them out of the mottled green background.
ARRANGING A GROUP
When arranging a dynamic subject such as this modern-dance ensemble.
Power pack for main light
Cable release
. Here a matched pair of diffused flash units. but this technique can be problematic in group portraits. opposite Careful attention to the shapes described by the dancers’ bodies produced this circular composition. In all group portraiture.104 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
COMPOSING GROUP PORTRAITS
No matter what type of group portrait you are photographing. The pyramid (above) has greater group cohesion. ensures even lighting. take plenty of shots of each variation of the pose so that there is at least one frame in which every individual is seen to best advantage. one either side of the camera.

COMPOSING GROUP PORTRAITS 105
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as the set-up picture shows. it is always best to ask permission if you think that the person you want to photograph may object.This set-up picture shows how you can stage an expressive and amusing portrait with the cooperation of your subjects. The presence of a camera may make some people self-conscious.
PHOTO SET-UP: Dramatic expression A bustling riverside setting is an ideal location to wait for the reactions of passers-by to this street entertainer’s bizarre guitar-playing technique. In fact. and some subjects may not want their photograph taken.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Candid portraits are easiest to take in public
Riverside location is worth staking out because there is a lot of activity Model is kneeling in front of the camera so that her head is level with the musician
places where lots of people carry cameras. A compact camera or SLR fitted with a zoom lens allows you to distance yourself from your subject.
. Ideally.
•Pretend to take a shot of an accomplice
Small. However. she is deliberately positioned level with the musician and is reacting for the camera. the photographer and his camera should go unnoticed.
•Zoom lenses allow fine-tune cropping and
subject enlargement from one position. and quick and easy to operate.
Natural reaction At first glance. discreet. and often ideal for this type of candid photography.106 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CREATING INFORMAL PORTRAITS
A good informal portrait relies on the photographer working unobtrusively. but use a zoom to focus on your real subject in the background. the model appears to be a casual passer-by.
KEEPING YOUR DISTANCE
Successful photographs depend on awareness as well as being in the right place at the right time with your camera loaded and preset to the correct exposure. fully automatic 35mm SLR with manual focus and fitted with a 28–70mm zoom lens
in the foreground. Modern compact and SLR cameras are lightweight.The model is carefully positioned in the foreground to give the picture added humor and exaggerated theatricality.

all the pictures in a sequence tell a complete story and have greater impact.
Storyboard sequence Each image should work on its own.CREATING INFORMAL PORTRAITS 107
Advance planning This picture is the result of careful advance planning. but when they are viewed together. If you visit the location beforehand and choose your subject carefully you will be able to envisage precisely the type of image you want to recreate.
.

Snaking through the center is the single. 35mm camera. Kodachrome 100. 28mm lens. 35mm camera. 1/60 sec. Always ask permission before taking your picture if you think that a person may object. Strong geometric squares and rectangles. 35mm camera. above The markets of Cairo are full of photo opportunities. top With the air heavy with wood smoke and the threat of rain. f8. Ektachrome 200 .
Unposed perfection. f11.
. f16. the moody light gives atmosphere to this scene of an elderly Romanian couple holding their grandchild.108 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
Monochromatic light. this portrait of a Romanian boy seems to be in an environment almost too painterly to be true.
Street life. and clearly defined blocks of color comprise most of the image. 1/250 sec. 90mm lens. above Although completely unposed. 28mm lens. 1/250 sec.The light is so diffused that the landscape appears monochromatic. sinewy shape of an ancient vine. Fujichrome 400. This portrait of a shopkeeper with his hookah was taken using a long lens.

throws broad.
Gray background paper returns some of the light bounced from the umbrella reflectors
Graphic profile. Remember to keep the room warm and make sure the model feels relaxed. whereas backlighting highlights shape rather than form to create a silhouette. the subject appears as an underexposed shape. and tone.110 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
PHOTOGRAPHING THE NUDE
In the same way as the study of the human figure in fine art is an exercise in drawing and painting technique.
WORKING WITH A LIFE MODEL
Successful nude photographs depend upon there being a good relationship between the life model and photographer.
Flash lighting unit (one either side of the set) with an umbrella reflector. Working indoors assures your subject of privacy and allows you to set up equipment in advance. form. stark shape. The figure is in total shadow and stands out as a bold. above The heavily diffused light reflected from the gray backdrop gives it a mottled appearance. Daylight from a window.
PHOTO SET-UP: Silhouette lighting For a silhouette effect. the background must be much lighter than the subject. or diffused sidelighting from a flash enhances form. so the nude can be used to show the photographer’s skill. The more you involve the model in the picture-taking process. the second power pack is fitted with a slave unit that triggers its flash the instant the first one is fired
. soft beams of light onto the background paper Flat boards are placed either side of the set to stop stray light from the flash units reaching the camera side of the subject and weakening the effect
Adjustable lighting stand makes it possible to change the height and angle of the flash unit
6 x 6cm camera on low tripod with a 120mm long-focus lens
Cable release
Synchronization lead runs from the camera to the main power pack. Lighting the figure offers numerous ways to emphasize skin texture. With the exposure taken for the light background. the better the results are likely to be. A large exposure difference between the two will produce a high-contrast result.

If lighting is used in this way. This type of lighting effect can be achieved relatively easily using natural daylight from a window covered with a large sheet of tracing paper. intimate image. but leaves the form only partly revealed and thus abstracted. Harsh frontal lighting is usually inappropriate for the human figure. This flash unit has a snoot attachment and is pointed at a white reflector board to bounce a narrow beam of light onto the figure. but also directional. It often reveals too much detail. some planes of the body are lit while others grade off into progressively deeper shadow. as the play of light and shade helps flesh out the figure. take •Forlight reading from your brightest part of frame. right Using just the sidelight.
Using a sidelight.PHOTOGRAPHING THE NUDE 111
LIGHTING THE HUMAN FIGURE
Lighting for the human form usually needs to be not only diffused and softened. but a third flash is added.
White reflector board bounces light onto front of the subject Flash head with snoot attachment gives a narrow beam of light
Gray background paper
Flash lighting unit with umbrella reflector lights background Board to prevent light from straying and weakening the effect
Power pack for main light
Synchronization lead runs from camera to main power pack
6 x 6cm camera on a low tripod with a 120mm long-focus lens is level with the seated model
Cable release
PROFESSIONAL TIPS a silhouette.
•Brief the life model beforehand not to
wear tight clothing that may leave marks on the skin.
. resulting in a clinical or an overly suggestive quality.
PHOTO SET-UP: Directional sidelighting The background lights used for the silhouette on the opposite page remain the same. The resulting increase in contrast produces an enigmatic. above The silhouette takes on a fuller.The reflector softens the lighting effect. Enigmatic image. This suggests the contours and shapes of the whole. rounded form. the background drops away.

This can be achieved by setting the manual white balance to a cloudy rather than a daylight setting. Exposure for this darker image is taken from the view outside. softening her outline.
Shadow reading. But by positioning the model in front of the glass. and the highlights are allowed to burn out. exposure is judged from a dark area on her leg. Artists’ studios are traditionally positioned so that they receive light from a bright. the exposure difference between the lit and unlit areas makes for dramatic pictures that emphasize form. above A wall of light floods past the model. Photographing a life model in an indoor setting does not mean that you have to use flash (see page 110). The model is now silhouetted. Normally. open sky rather than from direct sunlight. a wide range of subtle effects is possible using only natural daylight.
Model’s gracefully curved body contrasts with the angularity of the window frame
6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with an 80mm lens
Low camera angle emphasizes the immediate foreground
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS It is often worth trying to make the skintone color slightly warmer than in reality. PORTRAITS
NATURAL LIGHTING FOR THE NUDE
The essential requirement for a photographic session with a life model is guaranteed privacy. Bright reading. to tweak the electronic filtration. the less contrasty the lighting effect. sunny room with a large window or skylight. This may be difficult if you wish to use an outdoor setting. If you have access to a bright. and this type of reflected light is the most sympathetic when photographing the human figure.
PHOTO SET-UP: Natural light source This bright room benefits from a large window.
. opposite As well as lighting. the bigger the light source. the aperture and shutter speed can also be important. but a secluded garden or quiet beach may make suitable locations if there are not too many curious onlookers.112 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES.

NATURAL LIGHTING FOR THE NUDE 113
.

robbing it of clearly differentiated planes. In contrast. Extreme long-focus lenses flatten the subject. left This image uses lighting contrast. Long-focus lenses have a restricted angle of view and facilitate cropping.
LONG . while a wide-angle lens can cause curious distortions.114 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
CREATING ABSTRACT NUDE IMAGES
When viewed through a camera. her front and her lower body below the windowsill are all in heavy shadow and would require a longer exposure time to bring out additional detail. but when filling the frame with a single area such as a torso or upper arm. the curve of her back and buttocks receives direct illumination.
Lighting contrast.FOCUS OR WIDE .
Angular form. exaggerating depth and distance. the human figure can be seen as a series of interacting abstract shapes. Her hair is also hanging forward. casting her face into dark shadow.ANGLE LENS
6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 150mm long-focus lens Window provides the only illumination for the room
Choice of camera position and focal length are vital considerations.
PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting for form By positioning the model on the windowsill. Variations in muscular tension in a model’s body may seem minor when looking at the whole figure. above Asking the model to bring her arm across her body creates a sense of diagonal movement. every little detail is important. to highlight parts of the model’s body.
. rather than lens focal length. Excluding the model’s head focuses attention on the abstract angularity of the form.

and back create an effect that emphasizes abstract form and textural contrasts more than her nudity. shoulders.CREATING ABSTRACT NUDE IMAGES 115
Abstract form As the life model leans against the wall.
Lenses to isolate Longer focal-length lenses are useful when you want to fill the frame with just a small aspect of the figure. the contours of her arms. In this picture a long-focus lens is used to isolate the model’s back.
.

PORTRAYING A MOTHER AND CHILD
The bond that exists between a mother and her newborn child is an enduring theme for photographers. Capturing those feelings of trust and intimacy is easiest when you are photographing members of your own family. With patience you should be able to record natural, spontaneous images, especially if you stay alert to the baby’s shifts in mood.
UNPOSED B ABY PORTRAITS

Babies and young children cannot be directed or persuaded to stay still while you compose the shot in the viewfinder. Always enlist the help of the mother to keep the baby relaxed and happy and to divert its attention away from the camera. With portraits it is usual to take more pictures than you think you will need, but when working with babies you should show greater restraint. Constantly flashing lights, even when heavily diffused, are likely to upset a young baby.
Reflector returns light and keeps shadows from becoming dark

Draped, softly folded muslin is used as a backdrop to create an intimate setting

Private moment, above The reflector is used to brighten the shadows and create a gentle gradation of tones without losing detail.

Open affection, below A happy and relaxed pose shows the mother’s natural pride and is complemented by slightly subdued lighting.

Wide-angle flash head is directed at backdrop

Main flash unit for the mother and child; its effect is softened by bouncing it from an umbrella reflector

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm lens

Individual power pack for each light minimizes the need for cables running across the set

Cable release

PHOTO SET-UP: Soft lighting Bounced light from an umbrella reflector produces diffused light to emphasize the softness of the baby’s skin.The simple background does not compete for the viewer’s attention.

Synchronization lead links the power pack to the camera

PORTRAYING A MOTHER AND CHILD 119

USING A LONG LENS
Flash unit and umbrella reflector is lowered so as not to put too much toplighting on the seated figures Draped muslin background

White cardboard reflector panel

6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 150mm long-focus lens

Although long lenses result in large images of small or distant subjects, they do not necessarily give you the feeling of standing up close to the person being photographed. The longer the lens, the more obvious this effect becomes. For an intimate picture, it is often best to move in closer, if the subject is easily accessible, and to use a standard lens (see pages 16 –17). With a young baby, however, moving in too close with a camera could seem threatening. You may, therefore, need to strike a balance between the ideal focal length and what a young subject seems most comfortable with.
LIGHTING AND FRAMING FLEXIBILITY

Power pack

Synchronization lead

PHOTO SET-UP: Baby portraits Using a long lens allows you to take close-up portraits without altering the camera position.The flash lights and reflectors are positioned to concentrate on the baby.

Cable release

A bonus of working with a long lens is that since you are farther back from your subject, you have more flexibility in where you can place lights and reflectors. You can position lights close to the subject without danger of casting a shadow by partially blocking them. If you have a zoom lens, you will be able to adjust framing, without changing position, to ensure that unwanted parts of the set are excluded from the shot.

Close-ups of baby, above These close-ups are linked by the repetition of gently rounded forms, the soft, directional lighting, and the contrast in scale provided by the mother’s hands. Intimate detail, right For this scene, a long-focus lens produces a detailed close-up. The tight framing excludes unwanted details, and lighting is easier to control over a small area.

•

Include the mother's hands in shots to highlight the difference in scale and skin texture between subjects.

diffused lighting is •Soft,of both mother andbest to capture the skin tones child.

120 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS

TAKING CHILDREN ’ S PORTRAITS
Photographing children requires patience and a sense of humor. In a studio, the space and equipment will all be new and fascinating, and children may well want to touch and ask questions about everything. For good results, try to make the photo session fun – let them look through the camera viewfinder, for example, and answer their questions about what you are doing and why as fully as possible, even while you are shooting.
C AMERA AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Children rarely sit still, so do not try to restrict their movements too much or they may become bored and uncooperative. Flash lighting units should be set to give a broad area of even light, perhaps positioned either side of the set. You will have to be as mobile as your subjects, and a hand-held camera fitted with a telephoto zoom lens will allow you most freedom of movement.
Wide-angle flash lighting unit A wide background is created by draping a curtain of muslin at the back of the set Wide-angle flash lighting units are positioned on either side of the set to give broad frontal illumination

Framing the shot A long lens allows you to photograph your subject without moving in too close. A zoom lens offers greater flexibility – you can fill the frame with a child’s smiling expression (above) or achieve a more formal result as in the halflength portrait (left).

Each light is powered by an individual power pack

Hand-held 35mm camera with a zoom lens

Synchronization lead Power pack

PHOTO SET-UP: Lighting a large set Wide-angle flash lighting units fitted with softbox diffusers give almost shadowless light over the whole set.The lights are positioned low down to suit the height of the subject and the camera viewpoint is set at the child’s eye level.

Full-length portrait A battered skateboard gives the boy something to lean on and adds informality to this full-length portrait.

TAKING CHILDREN’S PORTRAITS 121

WORKING WITH CHILDREN
A 35mm camera is ideal for photographing children since it is lightweight and easy to operate. With a young subject you have to work quickly, and there is little time to focus or to adjust the exposure for each frame. Count on using more film than normal to cover inevitable framing and focusing errors. Many children enjoy having their picture taken, however, the presence of a parent or other adult family member will give a child extra confidence. A parent can also encourage or entertain a child from behind the camera to provoke laughter and smiles.
PROVIDING TOYS AND GAMES

A young child gets bored very easily and has a short attention span. You will need a supply of toys or other props, such as books and games, on hand to provide entertainment. With an interesting toy or a colorful picture book, children will soon become absorbed in what they are doing and forget about the presence of the camera.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS to the child constantly, taking an •Talkhe or she is saying to put the childinterest in what at ease. expensive •Make sure cables, switches, andharm’s way.camera equipment are safely kept out of

•Kneel so that the camera is at the child’s eye level. •Lights need to be positioned lower than normal.
Candid approach, below You must work quickly since a child will not stay still for long. Dancing to music, this three-year-old girl soon forgot about the lights and camera. Center of attention, right This child’s debut in front of the camera is facilitated by her glove puppet. With her prop, she spent an enjoyable 15 minutes as the center of attention.

122 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS

Focusing on the eyes, above When shooting with natural light indoors, you are usually forced to use the widest apertures that the camera has available.This means there is little depth of field. In order to ensure that the portrait looks sharp, focus on the subject’s eyes rather than any other part of the face or body. Digital SLR, 28–80mm zoom lens, ISO 200, f5.6, 1/60 sec. Shooting at eye level, right & far right For natural shots of children, take the camera down to their eye level, rather than tilting the lens. Kneel if necessary. Digital SLR, 28–80mm zoom lens, ISO 200, f5.6, 1/60 sec.

ISO 200. 1/125 sec. 1/60 sec. 28–80mm zoom lens. Having a parent just out of shot. Digital SLR. f5. right This little boy was uncooperative at the beginning of the shoot. natural pose. f2.
Relaxing the subject. Adding his sister to the composition helped to relax him. and kept him in one place long enough to take his picture. reassuring and entertaining the child.
.CHILDREN’S PORTRAIT GALLERY 123
Helpful distractions.8. unhappy child will make an unphotogenic portrait. 28–80mm zoom lens.6. Digital SLR. top & above A grudging. can be helpful for achieving a relaxed. ISO 200.

Weaker shots can be deleted later. and older children can also make cooperative models if you want a more formal portrait (see page 120). then resize for the Internet later. above A high camera viewpoint keeps the children and the circle of sand castles from becoming confused with the breakwater visible in the set-up picture. To avoid distant shots with the children very small in the frame. Young children make ideal subjects for informal. use a long-focus or zoom lens with a range that allows you to fill the frame with the entire group or an individual.
Sand castles. you can show the children against a plain background. Children tend to behave more naturally if you are out of immediate sight.124 HOW TO TA K E BETTER PICTU R ES: PORT R AI TS
PHOTOGRAPHING CHILDREN AT PLAY
Leave nearly any group of children to their own devices and within a few minutes they will have invented some sort of game to play. as well as being used for on-screen images. Successful shots can then also be printed. The attraction of working with children is their boundless energy. for a shoot at high resolution. enthusiasm.
RECORDING C ANDID IMAGES
Once the photo session starts.
Hand-held 35mm camera with an 85mm long-focus lens allows freedom of movement
Subjects are absorbed in play and pay no attention to the camera
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS of •Take lotsyou shots to ensure capture a wide variety of expressions and poses. If taking pictures •family web page. and constantly changing expressions and moods. whereas by taking the shot from a standing position (above).
PHOTO SET-UP: Candid action A quiet beach makes an ideal location for photographing children. candid photographs. Use a fast shutter speed and fast film if you take shots of children on the move. it is often best to keep well on the periphery of the children’s activity.
. The bright colors of the pails and spade give a color lift that helps to compensate for the flat lighting. By squatting down you can position the camera at the children’s eye level (below).

This means using a long-focus lens and selecting a fast shutter speed to freeze the action. above These four pictures taken in rapid succession show a complete action sequence. An aperture of f16 ensures sufficient depth of field. It is important to keep far enough back so as not to interfere with the game.PHOTOGRAPHING CHILDREN AT PLAY 125
Sports sequence. The boy prepares to hit the ball. The tight framing emphasizes the boys’ friendly relationship. Fast film was used because of the poor natural light. and starts to run.
. and a fast shutter speed of 1/500 is used to freeze most movement and overcome camera shake. right This shot captures the peak of action as the boy runs to first base.
Boy with the bat is the main subject
Hand-held 35mm camera with a 70–210mm zoom lens is not too bulky to carry and is also powerful enough to bring one figure up large in the frame
Facial expression. above Changing to a lower camera angle and close focusing with a zoom lens shows the children’s excitement on finding a crab. makes contact.
PHOTO SET-UP: Baseball game The priority in photographing this baseball game is to find the best camera position to photograph the boy with the bat.
Captured action. swings the bat.

126 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
Fancy dress. and having a collection of masks to hand can help you get a selection of unusual portraits at a family gathering or party. f4. 1/125 sec. 14–54mm zoom lens. ISO 200. right Masks not only add color and shape to a shot.
. helping you to capture unusual expressions. they often have an effect on the wearer’s personality.
Change of character. 1/60 sec. Digital SLR. Digital SLR. f4. 14–54mm zoom lens. above & below Children love to dress up. ISO 200.

. right Masks strip away the visual identity of the people wearing them. Digital SLR.The effect of the transformation can often be quite dramatic. 14–54mm zoom lens. f4. 1/60 sec. ISO 200.CHILDREN AT PLAY GALLERY 127
Masks of menace.

Second flash unit with large softbox diffuser provides additional soft light
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
Front flash lighting unit with a large softbox diffuser provides direct. you can take advantage of its movement-stopping characteristics to create unusual action portraits that are full of “frozen” energy. so continuous shooting is not always possible. a shutter speed of 1/30 or 1/15 second would be necessary for correct exposure). or built-in types found on some SLRs and compact cameras – deliver a burst of light of short duration. but it is possible to create similar effects using a single flash unit in a smaller room with neutral-colored walls and ceiling. cameras take •Digitalwrite the data time to
Synchronization lead Single power pack
PHOTO SET-UP: Capturing the moment Four flash units are needed to light this large set. The “freezing” power of this technique stems from the fact that flash units – studio units. for example.128 HOW TO TA K E BETTER PICTU R ES: PORT R AI TS
FREEZING A MOVING FIGURE
When using flash lighting as your sole or principal source of illumination. add-on flashguns. This can make taking action shots difficult.
.
Plain white background does not detract attention from the subjects and is a good surface to bounce the light off Subjects wear brightly colored clothing and are positioned toward the rear of the set
Rear flash lighting unit increases overall light levels and bounces light off the white backdrop to produce a bright background
Anticipating the action To capture the dancer in mid-leap with his legs perfectly horizontal requires anticipation so you can release the shutter at exactly the right moment. your subject would be recorded by light from the flash alone (without flash. while larger units might deliver light in 1/10. you were to use a flashsynchronization speed of 1/125 second at f8.000 second bursts – brief enough to stop any normal subject in its tracks. Focusing manually can help shorten the delay. diffused illumination over the whole set
between •The delay shutter pressing the and the shot being taken can be much longer on some digital cameras than others.
Cable release
6 x 6cm camera with an 80mm standard lens set on a low tripod
after a shot is taken. The longest flash duration from a small unit might be only 1/1000 second.
ARRESTING MOVEMENT
If.

the flash units on either side of the model are fitted with umbrella reflectors and placed in front of diffusing panels made of heavyweight tracing paper.
Shooting rate. creating a more subtle effect
Flash lighting unit with umbrella reflector
Power pack
6 x 6cm camera with an 80mm lens
Synchronization lead
PHOTO SET-UP: Freezing action To create an even spread of light. so fewer flash units are required.The set above is smaller than the one on the opposite page. her expression is good.
. and her skirt and posture convey interrupted.FREEZING A MOVING FIGURE 129
Dynamic portrait. frozen movement. left The brief burst of flash lighting from the two units on either side of the set has perfectly captured the model – her hair is framing her face. A motor drive allows you to take a continuous sequence of exposures with a firing rate of several frames per second. above You need to shoot a lot of film since there is no way of predicting the results at the instant when the flash fires.
Colored backdrop for contrast with blue dress
Diffusing panels scatter light.

130 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
EMPHASIZING MOVEMENT
Movement can be recorded in two ways. for example.The slower the shutter speed. while the second (far right) was shot at f11 and 1/8 second. blurred image to give a different impression of the action.
PHOTO SET-UP: Blurred image If ambient lighting is sufficiently high at the slow shutter speeds used. opposite The ghostly image on the opposite page was shot at f16 and 1/4 second – the slowest shutter speed in the entire sequence.
•Ambient light levels must be kept high. You can freeze a moving subject by using a fast shutter speed (see page 128). Ghostly dancer. the flash would fire a burst of light lasting. a secondary image records after the flashes have fired.
CREATING A GHOST IMAGE
Flash unit fitted with barn-door attachment to highlight the dancer’s skirt and arms Plain white background is unlit so that subject blurring is more apparent Single flash unit with a large softbox diffuser provides diffused illumination over the whole set
To record blurred and frozen detail on the same frame. •Subtle blurring ofif an image may be lost
background is well lit. If. 1/1000 second when you pressed the shutter release. you set an aperture of f11 and a shutter speed of 1/15 second. select an aperture and shutter speed combination (the recommended flashsynchronization speed or one slower) which would result in detail being recorded even if flash were not used. but the subject would continue to move and be recorded on film for all of the 1/15 second exposure.
.
Evocative imagery The first image of the dancer (right) was shot at f11 and 1/15 second. the more obvious the secondary ghost image becomes. say. or you can record a more indistinct. experimenting •Trydifferent shutter with speeds and exposures. PROFESSIONAL TIPS
6 x 6cm camera on a low tripod with an 80mm standard lens Cable release
Power pack
•Lights should be set to isolate the subject
from the background.

EMPHASIZING MOVEMENT 131
.

Football players are moving toward the camera position
Fast action sequence.FOCUS LENS
The most effective action shots are those in which the subject appears large in the frame. Whether a rapid sequence can be taken depends on the size of the buffer memory. such as this. a 500mm lens may be necessary.
USING A LONG . allowing shots to be taken in quick succession. A “burst” rate will only be available for a limited number of shots. above A camera with a motor drive allows you to take dramatic shots. A motor drive attachment on the camera automatically advances the film at a rate of three to four frames per second. A sequence of shots can be taken of a particular move. which can help ensure you capture the decisive moment. but for close-ups of players in mid-field. For most field events. the impact will be lost if you can barely see the action. Find the most suitable camera position before the event starts and then try to interpret how the action will develop so that you can be ready with the camera. and at certain resolution settings.
35mm camera with 200mm longfocus lens and motor drive attachment
Kneeling position close to ground level gives a dramatic viewpoint
. Good results are also more likely if you are familiar with the rules of play. a lens with a focal length of 200mm or longer is ideal.
PHOTO SET-UP: American football The photographer kneels at the sidelines. which temporarily stores data before it is saved permanently.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS A digital camera has no film to wind on. near the action. The small amount of blur due to subject movement imparts a sense of action.132 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
PHOTOGRAPHING SPORTS ACTION
The key to taking successful sports action photographs is anticipation.

This photograph conveys the urgency of the football player’s situation as another player sprints to tackle him.PHOTOGRAPHING SPORTS ACTION 133
MOTOR DRIVE
Flash hot shoe Shutter release button
Lens
Detachable motor drive unit
Many modern 35mm SLRs have autowinders or motor drives built in to the basic camera.
Panned action. it depicts the power and athleticism of the player who is frozen in mid-air. below Although this frozen-action photograph presents the subject in a very unnatural way.These sturdy units can be set simply to advance the film after each exposure or to take up to four frames a second. however. Professional cameras. depending on the selected shutter speed. Use continuous exposure settings in short bursts when shooting dramatic action sequences.
. have separate units that are attached to the base of the camera. Remember that at four frames per second a 36-exposure film will last only nine seconds. The plain background serves to emphasize the figures of the players and the two levels of action – in the air and on the ground. above You can increase the sense of excitement in an action photograph by panning the camera to produce streaks and blurs that exaggerate the impression of movement. Some models can also be programed to take shots at preset intervals.
Frozen action.

and the fast-moving action. Switzerland The large playing area. as the distance of the moving subject is continually changing. keeping the image sharp is difficult. and then shoot when the subject reaches this point. by measuring the subject’s speed and direction. but the digital camera used had a predictive autofocus system that could lock onto the moving subject.134 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
PHOTOGRAPHING ACTION SEQUENCES
A long telephoto lens is essential for many sports. make polo a difficult sport to photograph. However. One solution is to pre-focus on a point you know the subject will pass through. many 35mm and digital SLRs now feature autofocus modes that help focus on a moving subject. so accurate. which means that accurate focusing is crucial. However.
Long telephoto settings provide little depth of field. but is not always easy to use with action subjects.
PHOTO SET-UP: Polo at St. fast focusing is essential Camera is handheld so that each shot can be composed quickly and moved to follow the polo ponies Digital SLR with 50–200mm zoom lens
. Moritz. Long lenses provide limited depth of field. it adjusts the lens up to the moment the shutter actually opens. A predictive AF system not only continually refocuses on the subject until the trigger is fired.

The appeal of this picture is that it not only shows a close-up of the action. The sequence should be sharply recorded with a predictive autofocus system.
. it is wise to take as many shots as possible. When a clear view becomes available. but also the large frozen lake on which this polo tournament is played and the alpine scenery that surrounds it. and taking time to write the image to file. the player with the ball is frequently obscured by other players on the pitch. left One of the difficulties of photographing field sports is that however carefully you choose your viewpoint.PHOTOGRAPHING ACTION SEQUENCES 135
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Some digital cameras are slower to react than film cameras – with a delay as the onboard camera prepares itself for taking the picture.
Wide approach. it is possible to take pictures of sport with a wide-angle lens.
Multiple shots. Setting a lower resolution will improve the camera’s reactions. right Although the range of shots that can be taken are limited.

35mm camera. f8. 1/250 sec. f22.136 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: PORTRAITS
Timing A poolside camera position and careful timing of the shot captures the swimmer’s facial expression. left The right viewpoint is often the vital ingredient of a good action photograph. Ektachrome 200. 35mm camera. Ektachrome 100. f16. this canoeist would be obscured by spray. f8. Ektachrome 200.
Roundup. 135mm lens. 80mm lens. above When you are on vacation look for exciting action images that capture the spirit of the country you are visiting.
Peak of action This boy is photographed at the top of his jump. 1/125 sec.
.This shot of a roundup of wild horses in the Australian outback is given atmosphere by the swirling dust. 35mm camera. An overhead viewpoint shows his descent downstream in a dramatic fashion. before gravity takes over and he falls back to earth. 70mm lens. If taken from the riverside.
Viewpoint. 1/250 sec. 135mm lens. 1/500 sec. Kodachrome 100. 6 x 6cm camera.

adds drama and excitement to this shot. kicked up as the water skier changes direction. a faster shutter speed of at least 1/250 second would be needed to get a sharp image. f8. resulting in the slight blurring of the background scenery despite the very brief shutter speed used. a relatively slow shutter speed is used to freeze movement. Kodachrome 200. 250mm lens. 35mm camera. 1/500 sec. it is necessary to pan the camera. 35mm camera.PORTRAIT GALLERY 137
Direction of movement By adopting a camera position head-on to the action.To keep the rapidly moving subject in focus. 500mm lens. If the hurdler had been photographed from the side. Ektachrome 100. 1/125 sec.
Panning A plume of water.
. f22.

form. It is advisable to begin with one object and gradually build up a composition in which the various parts relate to each other. which is usually arranged as the subject for a picture.
Found still life See pages 150–151
Synchronization lead This links the camera and the flash unit’s power pack. softening the light and diffusing it over a large area
Still life themes See pages 144–145
Light stand Adjustable stand allows you to experiment with the light at different heights until you get the desired effect
Found still life
These are compositions that occur naturally around you. since you have total control over the selection and arrangement of the objects. triggering the flash to fire in time with the shutter release
. Gather everything you may want to incorporate and keep it on a table beside you while you work. The essential point is to collect as many props as possible.
STILL LIFE SET. This allows you to develop your composition carefully.138 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
STILL LIFE
Photographing a still life can serve as an exercise in skill and creativity. honing your understanding of composition and the effects of lighting on objects. A single diffused light is sufficient to provide overall illumination.000-joule power pack. but should fit into a theme – for example. Light output can be varied in one-stop increments
Outside still life See pages 146–147
Photographing food
Simple ingredients such as fresh vegetables and exotic fruits offer a sensuousness and a variety of color and texture not found in other inanimate objects.
Arranging a still life
A still life is an object or group of objects. texture. Like a painter. to a pile of fallen apples.The flash head is positioned at about 90° to the still life Softbox diffuser The front of the diffuser is covered with semi-transparent material. Setting up your own still life can be rewarding. from driftwood on a beach. one piece at a time.
Power pack The flash unit is powered by a 3. tone. may strike you because of their overall arrangement. so you can see how the shadows fall. objects from a certain place or a particular period.UP
The equipment shown here comprises an ideal set-up for photographing a still life subject. A collection of objects in a shop window. Because the subject is inanimate. Ideally.
Lighting See pages 142–143
Light source A single flash unit is the light source for this set-up. or the unusual nature of the items. Use a flash unit with a built-in modeling light. the photographer can use a still life picture to communicate ideas of color. if possible. and composition. for example. you can concentrate more than is usually possible on the lighting and composition. as all the shadows should fall in the same direction. Food photography is a thriving area of commercial photography and professionals use special techniques for enhancing the appearance of food. and “found” still life photographs will demonstrate your ability to see good pictures in day-to-day life.You will also need a reflector to bounce light into the shadows for overall illumination. this single flash unit should be fitted with a softbox diffuser to soften the effect. The items used should not be selected arbitrarily. And the natural world abounds with found still life possibilities.

STILL LIFE 139
Still life group This still life is the result of the set-up below. Soft, directional light from the diffuser on the left-hand side suggests natural light from a window.

Clamp To support the background, you can use a clamp attached to a freestanding pole

Background This should harmonize with the still life without dominating it.The texture of this white board adds interest

White card reflector A simple reflector bounces light back into the shadowy areas. There should not be any accidental shadows

OVERHEAD VIEW
Light source White card reflector

Still life surface The surface on which you arrange the still life should be away from the walls so that you can position the lights to best advantage

11⁄2ft (49cm)

Still life subject 2ft (65cm) Table with additional props

Camera

EQUIPMENT

•Roll film standard, •Range of and longwide-angle,
focus lenses

Camera and film 6 x 6cm camera with a 120mm long-focus lens, loaded with ISO 100 film. It is set so that the lens is level with the still life

Cable release This releases the shutter, reducing the risk of camera shake from hand contact

140 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE

COMPOSING A STILL LIFE
For a successful still life you have to establish some sort of link between the objects used in the composition. This link could be a theme – the objects on this page are all typical of a pastoral lifestyle and could have been found on a farmhouse pantry shelf.
BUILDING UP A COMPOSITION
A wooden storage container is the starting point. A blue bottle is positioned to provide balance. A wire basket filled with eggs confers warmth. Finished still life, below The final addition is a small wooden pestle. Its position keeps the gaze from being drawn to the gap at the bottom. It also reintroduces the warmth and texture of the wood of the storage container, which had become slightly obscured.

Most still life pictures are built up element by element. Begin with the most important object, viewing it through the camera and adjusting its position until you are satisfied. Then add the second component, and again check the image through the viewfinder. In this way you can build up your arrangement piece by piece, making minor adjustments until you are satisfied with the result.

A weathered lamp gives character to the composition.

Adding an old copper pot anchors the still life.

COMPOSING A STILL LIFE 141

ANALYZING A STILL LIFE
A collection of still life objects arranged for the camera should have shared attributes such as shape, color, form, and texture. When you start to take note of these qualities as well as the more obvious thematic connections, your creative scope is widened immeasurably.
B ALANCE AND HARMONY

The most difficult part of creating a still life arrangement is knowing when it is complete. A finished composition should have balance and harmony. The objects should be organized so that they emphasize, rather than detract from, the main focal point. Creating a balanced still life composition is instinctive, but you will recognize it when your eye is drawn from one object to the next, with the characteristics of each adding to your pleasure in the next.
Shape and pattern, above The repeated shapes of fork and spade handles leaning against a fence create a strong pattern in this still life picture.

Triangular group, left A group of bottles defines the apex of a triangle, a classic compositional shape. The bottle at the rear acts as a visual anchor, and the similar shapes and textures of all the bottles give the image unity. Simple grouping, above The appeal of this simple still life is the wealth of detail visible on the two wooden objects as well as their strong shapes.

Placement and balance Although these bottles appear to be arranged in a haphazard fashion on the shelf, they have been deliberately placed so that the densest mass sits in the central portion of the picture frame.

142 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE

LIGHTING A STILL LIFE
How you undertake the lighting for a still life depends largely on the elements making up the composition and the degree of translucency, solidity, or color saturation you want them to take on in the final photograph. Generally soft lighting coming directly from in front of the camera will have a form-flattening effect, and results may appear two-dimensional. In contrast, sidelighting tends to enhance the surface characteristics of objects, but shadows may be cast that obscure surface detail.
OVER - AND UNDERLIGHTING

Overlighting by directing a lot of harsh light at the subject lightens the “visual weight” of the subject elements, but it may also cause colors to appear less saturated and weak. Conversely, underlighting by restricting the amount of light reaching the subject may make objects appear heavier and more solid, and colors, too, may appear darker and stronger. By introducing secondary lights, reflectors, or diffusers, myriad subtle or dramatic lighting effects can be achieved.
PHOTO SET-UP: Directional light A white-painted textured board directly behind the bottles makes a visually interesting backdrop. Lighting is provided by a single flash unit fitted with a softbox diffuser and positioned to one side of the glass bottles, pointing slightly downward. On the far side of the group a reflector throws back some of the light and so lessens the exposure difference between one side of the group and the other.
Lighting head fitted with a diffuser ensures that reflections on the glass bottles are not intense enough to pick up reflections from the flash and other nearby objects Textured white board makes an interesting yet simple background

Form and modeling Diffused sidelighting and a reflector, combined with a textured backdrop that also reflects some of the light, highlight the form and modeling to produce a subtle gradation of tone.
Reflector positioned on the shadow side of the composition makes the exposure more even across the whole arrangement 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a long-focus 120mm lens, which makes it possible to shoot from farther back, lessening the chance of the image appearing as a reflection in the surfaces of the bottles

Table with selection of props to be added to the arrangement if required Power pack is used to power the single flash unit

LIGHTING A STILL LIFE 143

Varying light, left The textured board directly behind the glass bottles is removed for this sequence of three photographs. This leaves the white-painted walls at the back of the set as the effective background. Then, for each shot, the light output from the flash is gradually increased to produce progressively lighter images. Color saturation, far left In the darkest image in the sequence, you can see immediately that the glass bottles appear more solid and heavier than in lighter versions. Note, too, that as the image darkens the red stopper on the bottle on the right seems darker and the color more saturated.

PHOTO SET-UP:Transmitted light Flash lighting is directed at the white background behind the glass bottles so that they are defined solely by the light transmitted through them (left and bottom left).The shape of the bottles becomes the principal element.
Flash heads have umbrella reflectors and are directed at white backdrop to bounce back a large area of very even illumination

The still life should be checked through the viewfinder before the shutter is released

Cable release

White walls at the back of the set reflect back light from the flash 6 x 6cm camera on a tripod with a 120mm lens

Synchronization lead

Backlighting, top Lit from behind, the surface characteristics of the glass disappear. The silhouette of each bottle is defined by a dark line. The red stopper now appears nearly black.

Combined lighting, above A flashgun fired from the camera position gives soft frontal illumination to the glass bottles. Backlighting predominates, but some form has been reinstated.

however. to find the most appropriate background. A suitable background and sympathetic lighting are also important.
•
6 x 6cm camera with a 120mm long-focus lens Objects are linked by their white coloring. a broad spread of reflected. indirect light from a wideangle flash head is angled toward the ceiling and another light is reflected by a white-painted board positioned to the left of the objects.To achieve the desired high-key effect. and the low-key (dark-toned) one is illuminated by daylight and fill-in flash. but provides a contrast in texture with the smooth surface of the objects
PHOTO SET-UP: High-key still life For this simple still life study.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Nearly all still life photography requires
the use of a tripod. provide sufficient illumination so that there is only about a one-stop difference between the main highlights and the deepest shadows. if the digital image is a success there is no need to shoot a final version. When shooting with a digital camera. composition. while the black rims give balance and contrast. the color and reflective nature of the objects dictate the lighting used. Unlike film cameras. without having to worry about the comfort of a model. This could be texture. and to make any subtle corrections to the composition. plastered wall does not compete for attention. and exposure of your selected image in a similar way to how a professional would use a Polaroid back. there is sufficient tonal variation to separate the enameled pots from their surroundings. All of this can be carried out at your own pace. In the pictures on these pages the high-key (light-toned) composition is lit by bright. or age. For a high-key still life.144 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
SELECTING STILL LIFE THEMES
Working with inanimate objects allows you time to select suitable subjects. reflected light. color.
CHOOSING ELEMENTS
Look for some aspect that unifies the items in a composition. shape. function.
Light composition Although composed almost entirely of white. use the LCD screen to check the lighting. and enameled texture
•
Secondary flash head is directed mainly at a reflector but its light also spills over and reflects onto the subject from the rear wall Adjustable tripod can be positioned at appropriate height for still life
Single power pack is the power source for both lighting units
. to position the lights if using flash. rounded shapes.
Wide-angled flash head points at the junction of the ceiling and back wall to give a variety of toplight angles
White.

which suits the subject. Lighting is also low-key.
Hand-held flashgun directed at the wall bounces light onto the objects
35mm camera with a 100mm lens is set on a manually timed exposure Adjustable tripod
Adjustable tripod Silver reflector is positioned opposite the window to reflect soft light onto the kettle’s shadow side
Objects to be included in the next still life shot are ready and prepared nearby
Dark composition An antique kettle and range make an ideal low-key still life subject.
. Even with added light from a flashgun.This lighting is provided by a silver reflector on the object’s shadow side (to reflect the available window light) and a boost of indirect light from a flashgun.SELECTING STILL LIFE THEMES 145
PHOTO SET-UP: Low-key still life This antique kettle and range require additional illumination since there is not much natural daylight in the kitchen. an aperture of f16 requires a long shutter speed of two seconds.

WORKING IN NATURAL LIGHT
6 x 7cm camera with a 120mm long-focus lens
PHOTO SET-UP: Still life with vegetables The vegetables are arranged in a wooden dish in front of a red brick wall. the shapes. you are reliant on natural light – either direct sunlight or. or you can use a flashgun to add highlights or raise the level of exposure. textures. Indoor settings tend to be cluttered and the decor may compete with the subject. however.
Tripod supports the weight of the camera and lens. Diffused rather than direct light is used because of the reflective surface of the eggplants and red onions. yet does not compete for attention
The disadvantage of photographing a still life outdoors lies in the diminished control you have over lighting. It is lit by diffused light from a hazy sky. and colors of the vegetables were all carefully considered. with no direct sunlight. and gives the camera a fixed reference point for checking the composition Background wall adds interest. Outside. You can influence the lighting quality by using reflectors to redirect light into the subject’s shadows and so lessen contrast. Vegetable still life In this well-balanced composition.The light reflected from the surrounding hard surfaces helps lift light levels by about one f-stop and ensures that the exposure is even. preferably. forms. an overcast sky.
.
Hard surface of the paving stones reflects available daylight
Fruit arrangement You can create a still life by confining yourself to one type of food. Working inside. Photographing a subject outside allows you more space to find a setting that makes a positive contribution to the shot. which is made up of colorful fruits arranged in a glass vase. like this composition. and bounce light off the walls and ceiling. you can position lights and reflectors at will.146 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
TAKING OUTSIDE STILL LIFE
The main advantage of working outdoors lies in the range of backgrounds and settings you have at your disposal.

Although the scene looks almost natural. A windbreak prevents unwanted subject movement.
Board is propped against the tree to act as a windbreak to prevent subject movement
Appearance of the subject is carefully checked in the camera viewfinder after every minor adjustment
PROFESSIONAL TIPS professional •Forphotography.TAKING OUTSIDE STILL LIFE 147
Food still life Daylight helps bring out the color and texture of the red and green pasta.
6 x 7cm camera with a 165mm long-focus lens
attention •Care andcritical.
.
•Start by positioning the largest object in the
Tripod and cable release are essential to prevent any slight movement of the camera during the exposure
composition and then build up the other elements around it. the quail eggs were bought and placed in an artificial nest.The use of a long-focus lens means that an aperture of f22 is required to ensure sufficient depth of field. the pink crayfish. •Objectssurfaces can reflective be polished to remove finger marks.
Mirroring art The inspiration for this rustic tableau is a 19thcentury watercolor painting.
PHOTO SET-UP: Spring still life Sunlight filtering through the tree canopy is the light source for this still life of an artificially re-created bird’s nest and eggs. The color contrast and shadows give an impression of depth. and this necessitates a shutter speed of 1⁄4 second. food ingredients must have no marks or bruising. to detail is with shiny. and the slab of stone. color •Background mood of can affect the a still life composition.

or an expanse of grass. more dramatic backdrop for the composition. such as fruit and vegetables.
. with a lighter subject. above A piece of stone creates a textured backdrop. Check also that there is enough difference in tone so that the subject stands out – for instance. opposite Waiting until the hands were in half shadow provided a softer light that suited the delicate shape and color of the broad beans. so that his hands can be held as still as humanly possible
Background texture. This means that it is frequently in sharp focus in the frame.148 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
CHOOSING BACKGROUNDS FOR STILL LIFE
Backgrounds are particularly important in still life. use a darker background.
6 x 6cm mediumformat camera on a sturdy tripod A specialist 120mm macro lens can focus close enough to fill the frame with the subject
Gardener rests arms on back of chair. a digital back is also useful for checking a picture’s composition and exposure. Perfect lighting. Pick the color of the background so that it blends harmoniously with that of the main subject. as well as a natural-looking surface upon which to arrange the freshly-picked peas.
Shot composed so that hands frame the broad beans
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
Some medium-format cameras can take interchangeable digital backs. since they are such a highly visible part of the composition. it will complement the composition if they are placed against a natural-looking background. The man wanted to wash his hands beforehand. so the final image can be recorded digitally as well as on film. but the soil in the creases and under his nails provided a better colored. Like a Polaroid film back. but what is placed underneath it as well.
PHOTO SET-UP: Natural contrast The aim of this shot was to juxtapose the smooth broad beans in their pods with the rough hands of the gardener. the background becomes not only what is behind the arrangement. When photographing natural objects outdoors. As many subjects that are photographed are relatively small. a plank of weathered wood. such as a piece of stone.

CHOOSING B ACKGROUNDS FOR STILL LIFE 149
.

Strewn with cobwebs. can be termed a found still life. The secret is to recognize the picture possibilities of these arrangements. above Sunlight entering through the window adds to the mood of this picture. and drying bulbs. raising light levels and relieving areas of shadow.
35mm camera on a tripod with a 70–210mm zoom lens Collection of objects among the clutter on a garden work bench is isolated in the viewfinder
In one way or another. a weathered watering can. We organize ordinary cooking ingredients in the kitchen so that the ones we use most often are easy to find. The art of photographing found still life lies in finding the appropriate camera angle and using sympathetic lighting so that the final image you have in your mind’s eye becomes the image captured on film. garden tools. right A collection of plant pots. or we change the position of everyday items on a shelf so that they make a more attractive grouping. the glass bottles and scales are a glimpse into the past. makes a harmonious still life with a unity of color.
Nostalgic mood. and in our gardens. and purpose.
NATURAL ORDER AND PATTERN
PHOTO SET-UP: Greenhouse detail The sunlight filtering through the greenhouse creates a dappled lighting effect. all of us tend to impose order on our surroundings – in our homes. but has not been put together specifically to be photographed. Manifestations of this are all around us.
Work bench.150 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
PHOTOGRAPHING FOUND STILL LIFE
Any arrangement of everyday objects that forms a pleasing composition.
. at work. form. The white wall behind the objects acts both as a textured background and as a reflector.

thumbs •Use yourfingers to and index make a frame. left These sticks of rhubarb had just been picked and left on a garden table. to previsualize how the image will appear. and color temperature.
•View a potential still life subject from all
possible angles before deciding on the final camera position.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS can •Lighting a rather transform ordinary arrangement of objects into a captivating composition – depending on its intensity. direction.PHOTOGRAPHING FOUND STILL LIFE 151
Rhubarb. The white background and diffused light shows off the delicate coloration well.
. Be prepared to come back to a found still life at different times of day to see the effect of alternative lighting. But always use the viewfinder for final compositional changes.

so a white cardboard reflector has been added on the left-hand side. 100mm lens. f16.
. Fujichrome 100. directional light coming from a window to the right of this still life is the only illumination. 1/30 sec. too. it is the repetition of shape that forms the common link. Note.The sense of calm would be marred if the contrast between the shadows and highlights were too marked.
Natural sunlight Soft. Kodachrome 200. In this collection of objects. how the arrangement sets up a strong diagonal flow within the frame.152 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: STILL LIFE
Repetition of shape Finding a coherent theme for the objects making up a composition is one of the most difficult aspects of still life photography. 120mm lens. 35mm camera. 1/60 sec. 6 x 7cm camera. f11.

Multifaceted imagery Although the components making up this still life are very simple.6. form. 1/250 sec. Shape and symmetry. the combination of elements with the lighting and background results in a multifaceted image comprising shape. Ektachrome 100.
Dominant color The two principal colors in this composition – the yellow of the sunflowers and the blue of the table top – represent a potentially discordant color combination. f8.STILL LIFE GALLERY 153
Found objects. the intensity of the daylight spotlighting the flowers is such that the yellow relegates all other colors to supporting roles. 28mm lens. Ektachrome 100. Use the viewfinder to isolate found objects. above The repeating shapes and symmetrical composition of these terra-cotta plant pots convey a sense of balance and harmony.
. texture. 1/500 sec. 50mm lens. top A still life does not have to be a collection of objects arranged for the camera. and tone. 35mm camera. Ektachrome 200. discarded boots. such as these old. However. 1/250 sec.The low camera angle introduces a depth that would be missing from an overhead viewpoint. f11. 80mm lens. 1/125 sec. 120mm lens. to form a pleasing composition. 35mm camera. f5. f16. 6 x 6cm camera. Fujichrome 100. 35mm camera.

The height from which you shoot is also critical. Squatting down tends to stress the foreground. Remember that a landscape may look most dramatic toward dusk or in dark stormy light.UP
A 12th-century priory in the heart of the English countryside is the focal point of this landscape picture. with a landscape picture you must work with the prevailing light. and weather conditions. while seen from another. while other sides of the building are in shadow.The camera angle does not show the reflections of any of the clouds in the pool of foreground water.
Water and light See pages 170–175
Dramatic skies See pages 176–179
Lenses for landscapes
A wide-angle lens is ideal for broad panoramas with a wide sky and plenty of foreground. Even if your camera angle is restricted to a single viewpoint. Learning to see and capture on film the potential in a scene is perhaps the hardest part of landscape photography.
The light factor
Unlike an outdoor portrait. If the sky is flat and dull. For example. Look at the scene through the viewfinder to see how landscape features relate as you move around. while gaining extra height may allow you to exclude an unwanted foreground detail. a pool lying at the bottom of a ravine may appear black and lifeless.
Urban landscapes See pages 180–183
.154 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
LANDSCAPES
Landscapes are constantly changing. Depending on the time of day. you should be able to move to the left and right to find the best perspective. This does not mean that you cannot influence how the subject will appear in the photograph. but it does reveal the reflections of the higher parts of the building and the ancient tree to the left.
Viewing a landscape See pages 156–157
Compositional control
Before taking any pictures you should explore the surroundings to find the best viewpoint. the water may be a mirror holding a flawless reflection of blue sky and white clouds.The camera viewpoint and the position of the sun show some sides of the ruins in bright sunlight. conditions that make long exposures essential. It is best to use a tripod and cable release to avoid camera shake. they can take on many different personalities and moods.
LANDSCAPE SET. where a subject can be moved into position for the most beneficial lighting effect. even if you are not working with slow shutter speeds. you can use a long-focus lens to restrict the angle of view to parts of the scene that have maximum impact. from one angle. A landscape may be dramatically improved by the inclusion of a feature in the foreground or when photographed in a particular light.

LANDSC APES 155
OVERHEAD VIEW
Landscape subject Direction of light
300ft (90m)
Camera
Emphasizing elements Using a wide-angle lens emphasizes the pool of water in the foreground and allows more of the blue sky and white clouds to be included in the shot. sunlit and shadowy faces of the buildings create tonal contrasts Tripod A medium-format camera is heavy and best mounted on a tripod for landscape photographs Camera A 6 x 6cm medium-format camera fitted with a 50mm wide-angle lens
EQUIPMENT camera •6 x 6cmfilm and spare
•Range of lenses •Cable release and tripod with
spiked feet
.
Focal point The priory is the main focal point.

so it is important to have a clear idea of how you want the elements to relate to each other. from a high •Shootingminimizes viewpoint the foreground. textures.
35mm camera with a 100mm long-focus lens Platform on roof gives high viewpoint Tripod ensures that the camera is level and steady Distant windmill is made more prominent by the use of a longfocus lens
Distant viewpoint A high camera viewpoint is essential to keep the green field from dominating this landscape. Try to be selective about what you include in the picture.
CHOOSING A DOMINANT ELEMENT
Any landscape is a complicated mixture of colors. from a low •Shootingemphasizes viewpoint the foreground. By careful choice of viewpoint and lens focal length you can decide which elements are important and how you can best arrange them within the confines of the viewfinder. tones. This task is often simplified if you can identify one element as being the main subject.The extra height afforded by shooting from the top of a four-wheel drive car lessens the effect of the field in the foreground and emphasizes the main subject – the windmill in the distance.
.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•If the light istonot a favorable.156 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
VIEWING A LANDSCAPE
Photographing a landscape is more difficult than it seems because it involves translating a three-dimensional panoramic scene complete with all its nuances into a flat image. and perspectives. forms. This viewpoint also assigns the trees in the middleground a subsidiary role as an attractive frame for the windmill. If you simply point the camera in a general way at such a potential jumble of subject matter it is likely to result in an uninspiring picture.
•A landscape composition needs
one principal feature. try find
different viewpoint or wait until the light is in the right direction.
PHOTO SET-UP: High viewpoint Relatively small differences in camera position can create huge shifts of emphasis in a photograph. The 100mm long-focus lens with its narrow angle of view (see page 17) isolates the main subject and crops unwanted elements.

Its curve helps draw the eye to the mill.The merits of the camera viewpoint in terms of composition and lighting are considered in the viewfinder before pressing the shutter release button. The landscape now seems more enclosed than previously.
Placing the horizon A low horizon emphasizes the sky and introduces a feeling of space (top).
35mm camera with a 100mm lens is hand-held to allow greater freedom of movement
Extreme viewpoint Moving in closer to the windmill and pointing the camera up results in an architectural shot that excludes any clue as to the landscape or surrounding elements.
.
Windmill is the main focal point in this landscape view Interesting cloud formations are an important element in this landscape Directional afternoon sun creates contrasting areas of light and shade
Foreground feature Inclusion of the stream in the foreground adds shape and color.VIEWING A LANDSC APE 157
PHOTO SET-UP: Changing the angle Moving in closer to the windmill gives a different emphasis to the landscape. A high horizon shifts the emphasis to the bottom of the frame (above).

form. and texture improve. shot in the soft light of early afternoon. and by dusk the scene has a rosy warmth. color. Mid-morning Although a clear morning. the sun is not yet high in the sky. As the sun climbs.158 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
RECORDING TIMES OF DAY
Light is the key ingredient in a successful landscape photograph. Toward noon the sun is overhead and the contrast between light and shade is intense.
Early afternoon Light. In the afternoon as the sun descends. the angle of light accentuates texture and form. and a grayness hangs over the beach. Dawn light is of low intensity and has a gentleness that softens colors and definition. and texture are evident in this scene. form. The light can be so strong that colors are bleached out and the landscape seems lifeless. Its intensity and the angle at which it illuminates the subject play a vital role in conveying mood. color intensity.
.

It is just possible to discern a hint of pink in the clouds close to the sun. camera height. until by late afternoon (bottom row right) the glass towers are in shadow with a blue sky behind.RECORDING TIMES OF DAY 159
PHOTO SET-UP: Time of day One of the best ways to see how the mood of a landscape is influenced by different light is to take a series of pictures of the same subject throughout the course of a single day. an effect that will intensify as the sun dips below the horizon. the sky turns a warm reddish pink (below).To ensure the framing of all the shots is consistent.
35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle lens Low wall makes a handy support to lean on and ensures that all pictures in the sequence are shot from the same height and camera position
Day to night sequence Dawn at Rio de Janeiro’s Copacabana beach (top row left and right). contrast is extreme. perhaps at mid-morning. and line each shot up with a prominent landmark. in the afternoon. take a careful note of your camera position.
Position of the corner of the pier is carefully noted so that the framing of each picture is identical
Toward sunset With the sun low. such as this seaside pier. Colors intensify as the sun climbs in the sky (bottom row left). and at sunset.
. and focal length. As night falls.

which is the brightest part of the scene. 6 x 6cm camera. left Scenes containing large areas of water tend to be brighter because they reflect available light – even the weak light from a twilight sky.
Afternoon light. Ektachrome 100. 150mm lens.6.The wooden boat and finger of land provide contrast to the pastel pink-green scene.
. 1/250 sec. leaving the rest of the image underexposed. Ektachrome 200.160 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APE
Highlight exposure. f5. 1/250 sec. f8. 135mm lens. 35mm camera. Here the land is darkened by taking an exposure reading from the sky. above The mirrorlike water of this Irish estuary is broken only by the boatman’s oars.

135mm lens.6. 55mm lens. producing almost tangible surface textures. the lens is opened by one f-stop.Wavelengths of blue light are scattered.
. Here.
Monochromatic landscape. Fujichrome 100. Kodachrome 64. giving too high a light reading for the subject. 1/250 sec. f16. left Snow reflects light. f8. and grazing cattle.
Ultra-violet light.
Sunset color.The sun is low in the sky and throws long shadows across the fields.The fact that the landscape is illuminated by light from a deep blue sky rather than direct sunlight also influences the strong color-cast. f5. 1/125 sec. below At sunset the landscape takes on an orange cast. 35mm camera.LANDSC APE GALLERY 161
Snow exposure. relieved only by farm buildings. 1/125 sec. 35mm camera. 35mm camera. 80mm lens. left This aerial composition consists almost exclusively of shades of green. 1/60 sec. 35mm camera. which can result in underexposure. f11. above Large amounts of ultra-violet light contribute to the overall coloration and slight haziness of this scene. and longer red wavelengths illuminate the scene. stone walls. Kodachrome 64. 100mm lens. Ektachrome 200.

The final shot. In order to record an accurate impression. above Gaps between the clouds produce shafts of light. Here.
Moving shadows. However. which must be wiped with a soft.
. changing from second to second. merging and simplifying colors. above A few seconds later. you may need to override the light meter and expose for the highlight to keep the shot from being dominated by the shadow areas. the air is saturated with sea mist and spray at this location overlooking steep cliffs. creating a dark band across the shot. A clear ultraviolet filter (also known as a UV filter) is used to protect the lens. foreground. the foreground is now in deep shadow. and creating a varied vista. distorting perspective. and this presents specific problems when judging exposure. the house. and heavy rain can dramatically alter the appearance of a landscape. and the hills on the horizon are well lit.
EXPOSURE FOR VARIABLE LIGHT
Sturdy tripod is essential in windy conditions because it is impossible to hold the camera steady Clean cloth is used to keep the UV filter clear of moisture 35mm SLR camera with a 135mm mid-telephoto lens
Areas of bright highlight with clear detail immediately stand out in a landscape picture. and appear visually stronger in the frame. and the house and country road are now well illuminated. However.
Foreground in shadow. and it certainly does not need to keep you from taking photographs. a few drops of rain will not cause damage. Although you should always take precautions to protect the camera and lens from getting wet. clean cloth to keep the glass completely clear of moisture. so every minute different parts of the landscape are illuminated. Wet weather does not necessarily lead to bad or uninteresting pictures.The UV filter has no effect on exposure. above The most successful of the three landscape pictures shows a band of shadow in the distance.162 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
CHANGING LIGHT AND WEATHER
In unpredictable weather. light is variable. everything is lit except for the house in the center of the shot.
PHOTO SET-UP:Wet weather conditions Although it is not raining. Storm light. misty conditions. Landscapes do not have to be shot in fair weather – scenes shot in unfavorable conditions can result in spectacular pictures.

below The worsening weather conditions have led to a drop in light levels and a shift in color temperature.
Worsening weather.
. This is shot with the same camera set-up and 135mm lens. producing a more atmospheric blue tinge on the daylight-balanced slide film.
The mist descends.
•Ultraviolet filters protect the lens from rain and mist.CHANGING LIGHT AND WEATHER 163
PROFESSIONAL TIPS weather. varies •In changeable will need lightshoot a rapidly. A few minutes later and the mood of the scene changes completely. and minimize
the blue tinge that UV light creates in coastal and mountain scenes. and you to lot of images in order to have a good final selection. this seascape shows the outline of the rocks quite clearly. right Shot with a 135mm lens.

giving similar ghostly images as when using black and white infra-red film.
. use a deep red filter (such as a Wratten 89B). In the black and white version (below) that same area of the picture is dominated by strong pattern and texture. What might appear distinct and obvious in color often becomes more ambiguous once the color content is removed.164 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
BLACK AND WHITE VERSUS COLOR
If you try to take landscape shots using black and white film in the same way you would use color film. it is the color content of a landscape scene that creates an exciting picture – the bright yellow of a cornfield. The graphic effect of the black and white landscape is emphasized by the directional early evening sunlight. Often. Shoot using the camera’s black and white mode. the resulting photographs are likely to be disappointing.This blocks nearly all visible light.These images were shot within a few minutes of one another from the same camera position.
35mm camera with a 300mm long-focus lens Cable release and tripod ensure that no vibration is transmitted to the camera when the shutter is released Early evening light reveals the color.To harness this ability. however. the myriad shades of green in a forest panorama. and pattern of the landscape
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Many digital cameras can record the invisible infra-red parts of the spectrum. so long shutter speeds and a tripod are necessary.
In black and white photographs.
SIMPLIFIED TONES
Color versus pattern The most striking feature of the color version of the landscape (left) is the colorful russet hues of the rust on the old barn’s roof and sides.
PHOTO SET-UP: Black and white landscape The photographs shown on this page illustrate the difference between a landscape scene shot in color and one shot in black and white. it is the contrast of light and shade and the tonal gradations of white through black that dominate the picture. texture. A tripod is useful to maintain the same framing of shots while cameras loaded with black and white and color film are switched. resulting in a more subtle picture open to a different interpretation. the autumnal reds and golds of a woodland carpeted with fallen leaves.

BLACK AND WHITE VERSUS COLOR 165
Color versus shape Comparing these landscape pictures.
. transforming images into unfamiliar tones and shades. it is the bold shape of the semisilhouetted tree that dominates the black and white version (top). right Objects appear to have different colors because they absorb and reflect different wavelengths of light.
Infra-red film. In the color picture (above) it is the foreground stubble and plowed field that attract immediate attention. Infra-red sensitive film can capture light that is invisible to the eye.

Dappled light through the trees makes bracketing exposures (by using different shutter speeds) a wise precaution 35mm camera with a 28mm shift lens helps avoid converging verticals
Early summer The light filtering through the tree canopy makes exposure difficult. It is best to shoot summer landscapes when the sun is low in the sky.168 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
RECORDING THE CHANGING SEASONS
It is in the temperate regions that seasonal variations in the weather are most distinct. which affects the quality of light.
PHOTO SET-UP: Woodland scene A woodland clearing is the setting for this early summer scene. and overexposure by just one f-stop could rob the scene of its color and density of shadow.
THE CHANGING LANDSC APE
Winter landscape A snow-covered hedgerow and icy country lane have produced a wintry scene of monochromatic simplicity. A wide-angle shift lens (see page 192) is used to avoid distorting perspective by tilting the camera upward. The scene is shot using several shutter speeds to avoid any miscalculation of the exposure. Snow scenes often need slight overexposure to keep the whites free from any appearance of dirtiness. In tropical regions the sun stays high above the horizon and seasonal changes are between wet and dry rather than hot and cold. which restricts photography to mornings and afternoons. the sun stays low in winter and high in summer.
Cable release and tripod are essential to avoid camera shake when using slow shutter speeds
.
The photographic potential of a landscape can be transformed by seasonal changes in light and weather. In temperate regions. Remember that latitude affects the color of the sky. so that it appears a deeper blue at high latitudes.

Summer landscape Viewed against the yellow field.RECORDING THE CHANGING SEASONS 169
Spring landscape. just enough of the trees can be seen to give the picture context. the old tree appears almost silhouetted. Lighting is even across the scene because the tree canopy is not yet fully grown.
. a fall sun infuses this leafy carpet with a fiery bronze. By keeping the camera angle low. left Wild forest flowers such as these bluebells are one of the harbingers of spring. The fully saturated green at the bottom of the frame and the intense blue sky above epitomize summer colors. Fall landscape With no foliage to obscure its path to the ground. Note that the color is more saturated in the shaded foreground.

170 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES

PHOTOGRAPHING WATER AND LIGHT
Light reflected from a lake, river, or pond can enhance an otherwise uninteresting landscape scene. An expanse of water in itself often makes an obvious focal point around which to build your landscape composition. It is also important that you view the scene from different angles and heights. Seen from one particular angle, an area of water may appear emerald green as it reflects light from foliage on nearby hillsides. When viewed from a different angle, the surface of the water may sparkle with bright blue highlights as it mirrors the sky directly above it. When light strikes the water’s surface, the intensity of the reflection provides extra illumination, radically altering the exposure. To record reflected light in water you will probably have to take exposure readings for both the highlight and the shadow and select an aperture somewhere in between.
PHOTO SET-UP: Calm water reflections Looking across this landscaped pond it is obvious that the brightest highlight in the frame is the reflection of the distant trees, vegetation, and blue sky on the water’s calm surface.The lighting is bright and even, coming from a mid-afternoon sky unobscured by clouds.

Tripod-mounted 35mm camera with a 150mm long-focus lens

Distant trees are the principal subject of the photograph

Reflections of the trees and the bright sky appear on the water’s surface

Long-focus lens view In this close-up of the far bank, shot with a long-focus lens, the backlit foliage has taken on a delicate translucency, while light reflecting off the water’s surface looks like a sheet of shimmering silver. The strong afternoon light filters through the trees to create a calm, tranquil image.

PHOTOGRAPHING WATER AND LIGHT 171

PHOTO SET-UP: Sunset reflections Spectacular reflections can be seen looking across a seascape at sunset. A range of different color effects is possible depending on the exposure selected, the most intense resulting from a highlight exposure reading.
Hand-held 35mm camera with 28–70mm zoom lens

Subject is rendered as a silhouette due to highlight exposure reading

Setting sun on the horizon casts a bright reflection on the water

Sunset silhouette By selecting a low camera angle, the seated figure is aligned with the finger of reflected light. A higher camera position would lessen the graphic impact.

COLOR-ENHANCING FILTERS Filters can be used to improve colors or eliminate unwanted reflections. Polarizing filters remove reflections from water surfaces and intensify blue skies. For a warm effect, use a light red skylight filter. A light blue filter, in contrast, cools colors down.

Polarizing filter

Light blue filter

Light red skylight filter

172 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES

CREATING IMAGES OF MOVING WATER
Landscape scenes with moving water have a special charm for photographers. A small area of fast-moving water in an otherwise placid landscape scene introduces a strong contrast – white against blue, turbulence against smoothness and mirrorlike calm. Moving water in a landscape scene allows you to experiment with a variety of shutter speed effects. A rapidly moving mountain stream shot in close-up needs a shutter speed of at least 1/500 or 1/1000 second to capture its motion. If you shoot it at 1/15 second, or even slower, film speed and light levels permitting, you will find that the moving water takes on an entirely different character.
PHOTO SET-UP:Water movement Even very minor changes in camera position can create very different photographs of the same subject. Compare, for example, the appearance of the sea spray in this setup picture with the version opposite, in which a lower viewpoint is taken. Careful selection of exposure and a fast shutter speed are needed to capture and highlight the way in which the light dances on the breaking waves.
35mm with a 28mm wide-angle lens

Frozen movement A fast shutter speed of about 1/500 second is used to freeze the movement of water over the stony bed of this fastflowing stream. A shutter speed this brief often requires the use of fast film and a wide maximum aperture.

Blurred movement A slower shutter speed results in the water appearing soft and blurred. This picture of the stream was shot at 1/4 second. Use a tripod (which keeps the camera steady) and a small aperture to compensate for this length of exposure time.

Rock formation gives added interest to the foreground water

Brief shutter speed effectively stops the movement of the spray and allows a handheld exposure

Low viewpoint, opposite A low viewpoint is selected for maximum impact. The inclusion of the shoreline in the foreground, around which the water is boiling, and the menacing rock in the distance add drama to the breaking waves.

CREATING IMAGES OF MOVING WATER 173

174 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES

PHOTOGRAPHING SEASCAPES
Capturing the sea and its many moods is a constant challenge to the photographer. The extreme variations in appearance associated with the sea are due to the fact that the water not only mirrors the changing moods of the weather, but also magnifies them many times over. Coastal conditions can be very different from the weather just a few miles inland, so it is advisable to check on local conditions by telephoning the local coastguard beforehand. When photographing coastal scenes, time of day is important, since this may dictate the state of the tide, which affects the appearance and accessiblity of the coast you want to photograph. Remember to protect your camera against damage from salt water and sand by cleaning it with a dry cloth after use.
PHOTO SET-UP: Moods of the sea The inclusion of a prominent coastal feature adds interest to what would otherwise be a picture of just the sea and sky. In this photo set-up a majestic arch of limestone rock makes a perfect backdrop for the breaking waves.
Sculpted rock formation is the obvious focal point of this seascape, punctuating the division between sea and sky 35mm camera on a tripod with a 28mm wide-angle lens

Shutter speed, above Selection of a fast or slow shutter speed determines how the movement of the waves will appear. Although the coast here is calm, a shutter speed of 1/250 second still leaves some wave areas blurred.

making slower shutter speeds and/or wider apertures necessary to achieve a correct exposure as the filter color becomes darker. The deep blue filter used with this seascape produces the most normal-looking image and the orange filter results in the most dramatic image.
Seascape with orange filter
Green
Orange
Seascape with yellow filter
Red
Yellow
Yellow/green
Blue Seascape with blue filter
. and light-balancing filters are intended to cut down reflections and correct variations in lighting without changing the overall color.PHOTOGRAPHING SEASC APES 175
SPECIAL .The more the image is underexposed. and orange are the most popular filters for use with black and white film.
Seascape without filter
COLOR FILTERS Color filters are available in a range of hues and strengths for creating special effects with color film.
Filter effects Strongly colored filters are designed for special effects and can radically alter our perception of a scene. These filters can darken a blue sky to emphasize the white of the clouds. There are also filters that produce strong color-casts for dramatic effect. neutral density. Remember that all filters absorb some light. Color filters can also be used with color film to enliven an otherwise uninteresting landscape. gradated. Red. the stronger the color. so you must allow for a longer exposure time.EFFECT FILTERS
Polarizing. All filters subtract some of the light that strikes the glass. yellow.

billowing clouds are partially obscuring the sun.
SUN AND CLOUD EFFECTS
The most dramatic photographic opportunities are when the sun illuminates banks of clouds at an angle or when small. even if the exposure time is brief
The limited angle of view of a long-focus lens fills the frame with the intense yellow of this particular stage of the sunset.176 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
CAPTURING DRAMATIC SKIES
The sky. right Vertical framing emphasizes the contrast between the vivid sunset colors and the black of the landscape. set up your camera on a tripod in advance and wait for the sun to dip below the horizon. above part of the sky so that the landscape appears black.
Sun is just above the horizon and largely obscured by clouds
35mm camera with a 200mm long-focus lens Tripod is always necessary when using a long. Dawn and sunset are the times of day when the colors of the sky are at their most variable and dramatic. Sky and land.
. Shooting the sun itself may create flare spots so it is better to wait until the sun is partly obscured by clouds. heavy lens.The exposure reading is taken for the brightest Close-up view. especially when the weather is changeable. Not only does the sky have an almost endless capacity for color change – from the deepest blues to vibrant gold and crimson – but the variety of cloud formations visible from one location in the course of a single day may be breathtakingly wide. can also make a fascinating pictorial subject in its own right. and usually most photogenic. which may be an important element in a landscape photograph.
PHOTO SET-UP: Sky at sunset In order to photograph the sky at sunset.

Stormy sky.C APTURING DRAMATIC SKIES 177
Obscured sun. while dramatic shafts of light penetrate the gaps beyond and illuminate the peaks of the clouds farther away. Storm cloud formations can change from second to second.
. Instead. frame to give the sky greater accentuate sunset sky. high banks of thunderous cumulus clouds are gathering over the hills flanking a city. this neutralize the colors. •Toreading fromthe colors of apart of the take a light the brightest sky. which will boost the warm glow of the sunset. •When using as digitalmay try todo not use automatic white balance. above In this picture. signalling the onset of a rainstorm.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS the horizon low in the •Keep compositional weight. left When the sun is obscured by clouds. a camera. use the manual setting for cloudy conditions. those closest to the camera position appear dark and menacing.

too. From the angle that this picture was taken.
. 19mm lens. below left Dramatic clumps of cumulus clouds. below right Timing is critical when there are banks of moving clouds and the sun itself is in the shot. Kodachrome 200. Ektachrome 100.178 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
Scale and interest A dramatic sunset scene illustrates just how effectively water or.
Wide-angle view. 1/1000 sec. 135mm lens. texture. f11. 6 x 6cm camera. in this case. A wide-angle lens gives a sense of depth and perspective to the photograph. f8. with cirrus formations above. how the lone figure walking on the beach adds an important element of scale and interest to the composition. 35mm camera. wet sand. Note. transform this sunset sky into a poem of shape. form. 80mm lens. 1/125 sec. mirrors and reflects the colors of the sky. the cloud shields the camera from the intensity of the sun. Ektachrome 100. f16. and color. 1/125 sec. Hidden light. 35mm camera.

1/125 sec. Michael’s Mount in Cornwall. a light reading was first taken from the brightest part of the sky. f8. England. 80mm lens.The result is a stark silhouette dominating the horizon. 50mm lens. 1/125 sec. Ektachrome 100.
. 6 x 6cm camera. f22.The camera was then redirected and the scene photographed.To intensify the strength of a rainbow’s colors.LANDSC APE GALLERY 179
Silhouette lighting For this spectacular view of St. this shot is underexposed by between a half and one full f-stop. Ektachrome 100.
Rainbow hues Rainbows occur when droplets of moisture refract the sun’s rays and split them into their constituent wavelengths. 6 x 7cm camera.

these two images were both taken from the camera position shown in the photo set-up under identical lighting conditions.
Hand-held 35mm camera fitted with a 70–210mm zoom lens
Choose a city landmark as the focal point of the picture
Railings make a convenient place to lean against to steady the camera
Early evening light casts strong shadows on the water’s surface
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Choose a camera positionview that will give a good overall
of the city. or when seen in the context of urban areas awaiting renewal. Color can vary depending on the film brand used (see page 31). Watch for repeating patterns. dramatic shapes. especially when contrasted with more traditional building styles. the use of color. the sides of delivery vans. For example.The location for this picture setup is the Embankment beside the River Thames in London.
Brand color bias The early evening summer light casts shadows over waterfront buildings in dramatic contrast to the lit area behind. can be a fascinating mix of architectural statements. old and new •Contrast betweenan interesting buildings may make subject for photographs. even the written word on billboards. and neon signs. Whereas one picture (above) has a strong green cast and is lighter.180 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
PHOTOGRAPHING URBAN LANDSCAPES
One of the most visually rich photographic resources we have readily at hand is the city. City centers. Paul’s Cathedral. and the view takes in St. long •Use a tripod and asubject detail exposure to record at dusk.
PHOTO SET-UP: London Embankment A personal view of urban life could include landmarks that typify a city for you. contrasts of natural and artificial features. the other picture (left) has a blue cast and is much darker. dominated by towering glass and steel structures.
.

below Finding a high viewpoint from which to shoot is an excellent way of showing tall buildings without the intrusion of converging verticals typical of groundlevel shots. but the composition is full of tension. the high viewpoint shows another aspect of urban topography – the contrast between recently built skyscrapers and lower. below left Framing to give a low horizon imparts great emphasis to the sky in this cityscape. older buildings.PHOTOGRAPHING URB AN LANDSC APES 181
Time of day Cityscapes change radically when viewed at different times of day. taken just after dusk. In this shot. The storm-laden clouds are dramatic in themselves. there is enough daylight to reveal details in the buildings and streets.
. as if the forces of nature are gathering to assault the city below. Selected viewpoint. yet there is also sufficient artificial light to add extra color and interest. Here.
Dramatic sky.

These factors combine to make great lowlight photographs. but street lamps and car lights start to become visible.182 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: LANDSC APES
PHOTOGRAPHING LANDSCAPES AT NIGHT
As night draws near. because of the effect of the tungsten lights on the daylight film. One of the best times to shoot is at dusk. Note how the water reflects the lights along the bridge and riverside. a range of picture-taking opportunities opens up. Bracketing shots by experimenting with several different exposures is essential for night photography. For the subsequent images.
The tripod is essential to prevent camera shake
Colored filters These three pictures were all taken from the position shown in the set-up picture.
PHOTO SET-UP: Luminescent bridge The long shutter speeds mean a tripod is necessary – the high contrast scene makes accurate metering difficult.
. but with a tripod or some other form of camera-steadying device this should not present a problem. so a bracketed sequence with exposures of two. At this time there is still sufficient ambient light to define subject detail and add color to the sky. Make a note of your exposure times and compare these with your processed results. four and eight seconds was taken. Different colored filters were used for dramatic effect. yellow (above) and orange filters (left) were used. however.
EXPERIMENTING WITH EXPOSURE
The structure of the bridge is well defined with lights 35mm camera with a 135mm long-focus lens
As the sky becomes darker. The color is not entirely natural. If you do this regularly you will soon start to build up an instinct for nighttime exposures under a range of different lighting conditions. exposure times increase dramatically. For the first picture of the illuminated bridge no lens filter was used (top).

The length of the streaks of light is determined by the length of the exposure – for the best results.PHOTOGRAPHING LANDSC APES AT NIGHT 183
MOVING LIGHTS AT NIGHT
Some of the most impressive nightscapes are produced when you include moving lights in the frame. to ensure that the lights of the city in the foreground were exposed properly. makes the view more colorful – turning cars crossing the bridge into streaks of red and white light. Set up your camera on a tripod at the side of the road or on a high vantage point overlooking the roadway. above A high roof gives a great view of London’s Big Ben. Tunnel vision. below A full moon is surprisingly bright. created by their taillights and headlights. shutter speeds of around 30 seconds or more are usually necessary.
Light of the moon. These trails add a sense of movement and added interest to a city scene after dark. The tiles of the tunnel roof and walls reflect the red taillights of the cars creating an interesting abstract scene. using the camera’s B-setting. below The dashboard of a moving vehicle is used to support the camera for this shot taken inside a tunnel in New York. Overview. A long exposure turns cars into streaks of red and white. creating a highcontrast scene when included in a nightscape. Here.
DIGITAL SOLUTION
Experiment with the different manual white balance settings to see which works best with the mixture of light sources available. the moon was allowed to burn out.
. The long 40-second exposure.

Is the angle of the light from direct sun casting shadows over the detailing you want to see.
.
Viewpoint and perspective
Some professional cameras allow the normal focusing screen to be removed and replaced by an architectural screen – a grid of parallel vertical and horizontal lines.
ARCHITECTURE SET. This screen is used as a guide to ensure that your framing shows the subject square and perfectly upright. Often it will be a detail or an isolated feature of the building that catches your eye. lens) will be invaluable for including all of the subject in the frame.The only way to achieve an unobstructed view of the building is to stand as close to the railings as possible and shoot over the top of them. From this angle it is not possible to include the whole of the building.184 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is a very broad subject area. Extreme weather conditions. creating interesting patterns of light and shade? If the lighting is not right on one side of the building. It would also have been possible to shoot down from the pathway above. or do you regard those same shadows as a positive asset in your picture. but you will also need to use fast film and long exposures that require a tripod or some other camera-steadying device. but from that angle views of the adjacent street would have been unavoidably included in the shot. then it may be better on the other. or you may have to come back at a different time of day. which make it problematic to photograph. such as mist or fog. Dramatic pictures can result from cloudless or stormy skies.UP
This newly built shopping mall is surrounded by tall metal railings. encompassing both modern. The sky is also a major consideration when photographing buildings.
Using a wide angle lens See pages 188–189
Practical considerations
Outdoor architectural photography is largely dependent on available light. as well as interiors and decorative details.
Using a shift lens See pages 192–193
Working in confined space
Interiors See pages 198–201
Interior details See pages 202–205
If space outside or inside a building is tight. or perspective-control. will add a new dimension to your photographs. state-of-the-art developments and traditional buildings. and bridges and dams. religious centers. Take the time to see how the light reacts with the features you want to emphasize. and to record this a long-focus lens may be the answer. a hand-held flash unit may be useful. so it had to be decided at the outset which part of the building to emphasize. homes both suburban and stately. For lighting a small interior (or a small area of a large one). then a wide-angle lens (and sometimes a shift. but overcast gray skies should be avoided if at all possible. places of work and industry.

The camera is loaded with medium-speed ISO 200 film. directional sunlight results in this contrasty image.
OVERHEAD VIEW
Direction of light
Architectural subject 18ft (6m)
Camera
Camera A 35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle shift lens is used to include the domelike roof of the building without tilting the camera up and causing the vertical lines to converge. The camera angle is such that the railings behind form arcs on either side of the dome.
EQUIPMENT
•35mm SLR camera and spare film •Range of lenses •Adjustable tripod •Flashgun •Reflector
.ARCHITECTURE 185
High-contrast lighting A highlight exposure reading from the strong.

or even suppress them for a more personal interpretation. keep a careful watch for architectural details both above and below your usual eyeline. As you move around the building you are interested in photographing. Look. There is some convergence of the parallel lines. above The dizzying convergence of vertical lines is produced by an extreme camera angle. and decide when the optimum time of day is in terms of lighting for your photographs. Look for the flow or rhythm that the building projects and see how you might enhance these characteristics on film.
Light coming from directly behind the photographer casts a strong forward-pointing shadow
. near ground level and shooting upward. Lenses of varying focal lengths. Try viewing the subject through the camera with a series of different lenses attached before you start to take any pictures. have countless different angles. but the distortion effect is minimal. faces. unless they are slab-sided and featureless towers.186 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
VIEWING A BUILDING
Most buildings.The overall shape of the structure makes a powerful design statement and the geometric arrangement of steel pipes and girders is striking. can influence the appearance of a building dramatically. and features to offer the camera. Usual viewpoint. moods. at how the angle of light strikes the building. or different settings on a zoom. left This picture is taken from slightly farther back than the position shown in the photo set-up. too. This approach imparts a sense of exaggerated height.
Design of building allows plenty of opportunity for picking out interesting architectural details
Glass reflects the blue sky and white clouds – a polarizing filter could be used to cut down these reflections
Hand-held 35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle lens
Extreme viewpoint.
PHOTO SET-UP: Lloyds of London A visually complex building such as the Lloyds Building in London provides innumerable photographic opportunities.

VIEWING A BUILDING 187
Tilting the camera An interpretative approach has been achieved here by photographing the building from an unusual angle.
Abstract pattern A striking way to portray this modern building is to emphasize the abstract pattern produced by the gleaming steel pipes.
Implied movement The camera viewpoint in this shot emphasizes the vertical nature of the architecture and introduces movement in the frame. This effect is created by tilting the camera at an angle to the subject.
.

Moderate wide-angle lenses (with a focal length of around 28mm) allow you to tackle most exteriors.ANGLE LENS
Wide-angle lenses are essential for many architectural subjects. Barrel distortion. Lenses in this focal length range produce a certain amount of distortion that can be inappropriate with some subjects.
Handheld SLR. simply because it is often impossible or impractical to move far enough back to use a longer lens. is useful for shooting smaller rooms. so camera shake is minimized. and when shooting interiors. however. other structures usually restrict your vantage point. above A wide-angle lens gives enough depth of field without using small apertures. walls present an insurmountable hurdle.188 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
USING A WIDE .
. Such ultra-wide lenses also seem to suit modern architecture well. but suits the forms found in many modern landmarks. the bowed lines created by such lenses seem to become part of the design. left The extreme angle of view turns the straight paving stones into curved lines. When outdoors. A lens with an even wider angle (16–20mm). By framing the subject symmetrically.

above Shooting from halfway up the structure gives a fairly undistorted view of both atrium floor and roof.
Leading the eye.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
•To achieve ultra-on wide focal lengths
digital cameras with built-in lenses. use a wide-angle or semifisheye attachment. opposite Many grand-scale interiors look interesting if you look upward at the ceiling. Unusual angles. white balance •Set thefor interiors to manually allow for a mixture of light sources.
.USING A WIDE-ANGLE LENS 189
Elevated position. right Wide-angle lenses can be used to create a strong feeling of linear perspective. converging diagonal lines. or resting the camera on the ground as impromptu support. This may mean lying down on the floor. Photographing this staircase from the bottom step creates strong.

. This frequently produces powerful abstract studies. 11–22mm zoom lens. ISO 200. empty areas in the foreground. Digital SLR. right The use of an ultra-wideangle lens does not always have to be apparent.190 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
Searching for symmetry. 1/250 sec.
Adding curves. and openness of this public building. f4. the white floor tiles help to convey the feeling of space. Digital SLR. 11–22mm zoom lens. f8. ISO 200. right One of the most successful techniques to use with all modern architecture is to search out the shapes and patterns used in the building – and then show these in isolation. 11–22mm zoom lens. but here the distortion has been used to contribute to the composition. far right In most pictures you avoid showing large. 1/60 sec.
Sense of space. 1/60 sec. Here. light.The straight. Digital SLR. rectangular barriers of the balcony have been transformed into a curved shape that echoes the curves seen in the roof. ISO 200. f8.

ISO 200. Here a slightly different approach has been used. it is possible to see how well this ultra-modern structure has been integrated into the historic city around it. 11–22mm zoom lens. 11–22mm zoom lens. the entrance of the new building becomes a frame for the neighboring church. 11–22mm zoom lens. Digital SLR. the same building in Norwich.ARCHITECTURE GALLERY 191
The Forum. 1/60sec. It is such a fascinating. England. ISO 200. 1/250 sec. f8. Digital SLR. f8. right Avoid always showing buildings in isolation.This view shows the entrance with the church framed in the windows. as well as their context.
Ancient and modern. Using an ultra wide-angle lens. ISO 200. Often the neighboring landscape and street scene are important to show their impact. or from. 1/250 sec. By including The Forum small in the frame. Surroundings. f8. Digital SLR.
. well-lit building that wherever you point your camera there is a picture. above right It is sometimes possible to contrast different styles of architecture by photographing old buildings reflected in the mirror-like glass of new ones. above All the pictures in this gallery are taken of.

illustrates the problems of distorted perspective. but details might then look small. downward. allowing you to change the image without having to move the camera. are only available for certain 35mm and digital SLRs.
Before and after These photographs taken with a shift lens (left) and without (far left) show how this lens corrects the appearance of converging vertical lines. This is caused because the back of the camera. and the film plane. perspective distortion tends to be more obvious toward the tops of buildings Sides of the building remain vertical-looking when a shift lens is used
SHIFT LENS A shift. If shot from close-up with a wide-angle lens. The shift control raised the front of the lens.
35mm camera with a 28mm shift lens If a shift lens is not used.
Telephoto lens result. lens alters the appearance of vertical lines. and usually have a fixed wide-angle focal length. or perspective control (PC). left Distortion occurs if a shift lens is not used. This results in the sides of the building appearing to converge at the top. Using a shift lens is the solution to this problem. So instead of tilting the camera to include the top of a building. the building would appear to fall away and topple backward. The base of the structure is closer to the film and seems larger. England. Shift lens result.
PHOTO SET-UP: Perspective problems This 17th-century customs house on a quayside in Kings Lynn. compare the top of the building with the result of the set-up (right). By turning a knob on the lens you can make the front of the lens shift upward. which straightens vertical lines and corrects any perspective distortion. Shift lenses are costly. simply shift the lens upward until the top of the building comes into view on the focusing screen. or sideways. A shift lens has greater covering power than a normal lens. right The sides of the building now appear perfectly square.192 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
USING A SHIFT LENS
The apparent convergence of vertical lines at the top of a picture frame is most noticeable when a camera is tilted up to include the top of a tall building. the top is farther away and appears smaller. you may be able to get all the building in without tilting the camera. By moving back from the subject. are no longer parallel with the subject.
.

35mm camera on a tripod with a 28mm wide-angle shift lens Doorway is lit by diffused daylight that emphasizes the texture of the stonework
Textural emphasis. Bright. or with a general wide-angle shot.The doorway is lit by diffused. especially a large one.
Taken with a 250mm lens setting.
. but with no direct sunlight falling within the picture area. would appear so small in the frame that much of interest could be lost or overlooked. The focal length of the lens required for exterior details is dependent on the size of the feature to be photographed and how close you can get to it. colonnade. Another point to consider is that the lighting might be ideal for features such as a doorway.USING A SHIFT LENS/PHOTOGRAPHING EXTERIOR DETAILS 193
PHOTOGRAPHING EXTERIOR DETAILS
The details on the outside of a building can sometimes tell you more about the building than the whole structure. a gargoyle under the eaves of a cathedral roof may require a lens of at least 300mm for a reasonably sized image. direct sunlight would result in dark shadows that would mask important detail. above The doorway in the set-up picture is lit by diffused daylight that helps bring out the texture of the stone.
PHOTO SET-UP: Architectural details The subject of this set-up is the carved stonework of a church doorway and surround. directional daylight from a bright sky. and so can be studied in detail.
Long lens details Using a long telephoto lens allows you to record architectural details that you might easily miss with the naked eye. a 28mm wide-angle lens may well be needed. For example. or windows. A typical standard zoom lens will provide a range of options. A 28mm wide-angle shift lens is used to make sure there is no perspective distortion caused by converging vertical lines. the elaborate carving on the columns (above left) and the grotesque face of the gargoyle (above) fill the picture frame. An entire building. but unsuitable for the building as a whole. while to include all of the main entrance of that same building.

1/125 sec. f11. left The space in front of this mosque in Istanbul is relieved by placing a figure in the foreground. creating strong contrast between highlights and shadows. 1/125sec. such as this of the Ramesseum (the mortuary temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Luxor in Egypt) are often best taken at midday when the sun is overhead.
Time of day. 35mm camera. producing dramatic contrast against the deep shadows of the unlit surfaces. 35mm camera. 35mm lens. Ektachrome 64. 1/250 sec. 6 x 6cm camera. f16. 50mm lens. f22. Foreground addition. 28mm lens.194 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
Introducing drama. above Photographs of ancient sites. Kodachrome 25. top An intense sun and low camera viewpoint highlight the walls of this Canadian granary.
. Ektachrome 64.

Color content. 24mm lens. left Even when the architectural merits of a building are dubious. 35mm camera. Ektachrome 200. its color content may still make it an eyecatching subject for a photograph.
. green. 1/250 sec. which darkens the blue of the slightly stormy sky.The curved gridwork adds dynamic pattern to the composition. and blue color scheme of this building has immediate impact. 1/60 sec. f8. f16 . white building would have been diminished without the use of a polarizing filter. 35mm camera.ARCHITECTURE GALLERY 195
Intentional distortion. 85mm lens. the towering glass edifice appears almost to be toppling over. right By moving in close to the base of this building and tilting the camera back. 1/250sec. f22. 1/60 sec. above A shadowy wall guides the eye toward the main subject of this scene. top The impact of this stark. 35mm lens. as if giving up its struggle against gravity. Ektachrome 200. 50mm lens. Ektachrome 100. the birthday-cake pink. Lead-in lines. a church on a Greek island. 35mm camera.
Polarizing filter. In the drab surroundings of a Moroccan backstreet. 35mm camera. Ektachrome 200. f22.

primarily associated with working in a confined space and the quality and intensity of the lighting. view of the world. Circular fisheyes.
PHOTO SET-UP: Using a fisheye lens Photographing this old-fashioned kitchen would be difficult without an extreme wide-angle lens. above The bowing of all vertical lines positioned near the frame edges evident in this picture is typical of images taken with extreme wideangle lenses. but distorted. with beams of light entering through welldefined window areas and casting distant parts of the room into shadow.
Unless you want shots of specific details that require the use of a long-focus lens. produce a round image in the center of the film area. use a white cardboard reflector or mirror to bounce light into dark corners or supplement the light using an add-on flash unit.
Extreme views. with a focal length of around 8mm.The front-to-back distance is also very exaggerated. Fisheye converters. Depth of field at every aperture is so great with a 15mm fisheye lens that there is virtually no need to focus. A 15mm fisheye lens fits in as much of the room as possible.This results in extreme distortion – most noticeable at the front of the frame. If this is not the effect you want to achieve.Those that give a full-frame image typically have a focal length of around 15 or 16mm.The angle of view for both is around 180°. a 28mm or 35mm wide-angle lens is best for limited spaces if your aim is to include as much of the room as possible in the shot.
35mm camera with a 15mm fisheye lens Tripod is required to hold camera steady during long exposure of two seconds
Objects are positioned at the front of the frame to emphasize the distortion effect of this extreme wide-angle lens
.ANGLE LENS
FISHEYE LENSES AND CONVERTERS Fisheye lenses give an extreme wide-angle.
USING A WIDE . which produce similar effects. are made for digital cameras with built-in zooms. You will still need to select the most appropriate angle and rearrange furniture if it is a vital element. Relying on natural light can result in strong contrasts.196 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS
Photographing the interiors of buildings has its limitations.

An interior containing a figure requires an even. left Positioning the subject offcenter is a useful device when both the figure and the interior are important. The figure is backlit by natural light and the flash is just used as a fill-in.PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS 197
PHOTO SET-UP: Additional flash lighting The living room of architect Richard Rogers’ ultra-modern home is used as a portrait setting in this picture set-up. but there is now no need to balance them with the natural light. the potential lighting problems are at once lessened.This means you will nearly always have to use additional flash lighting to supplement available light.
6 x 7cm camera with a standard 80mm lens is positioned on a high tripod Two lighting units bounce soft. balanced lighting scheme to light the surroundings as well as the subject. The flash lights become more important.
.
Seated figure. above By positioning the subject away from the skylight. indirect frontlighting onto the seated figure Single lighting unit close to the subject is used to bounce sidelighting off a light-colored canvas
Standing figure.

below This dramatic picture results from the low camera angle in the set-up photo. with the camera looking into the interior. directing the viewer’s gaze to the ceiling. In this way the light will be behind you and the interior features will be lit from the front or side. then a more central camera position may result in the most flexible lighting.
High viewpoint This shot of the entrance hall is taken from a higher angle than the photo setup. Taken from a standard viewpoint. The staircase seems far steeper from this position and the foreground area has been minimized. with a grand staircase leading up past ornamental pillars to a galleried landing. the ceiling is excluded from the picture. The pillars appear to converge. then look for the angle that shows the most revealing or impressive aspects of the particular location. is best viewed from the center of the ground floor to take full advantage of the daylight entering through the windows in the side walls above and behind the camera.198 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
WORKING IN LARGE INTERIORS
Working inside a large interior usually means being selective about what you include in the picture and what you leave out. Often you will find that the best camera position is directly in front of the windows. Low viewpoint.
Low camera viewpoint and use of a wide-angle lens includes the ornate ceiling in shot
35mm camera with a 15mm wide-angle lens is positioned on a short tripod
.
PHOTO SET-UP: Camera viewpoint The marble hall of this stately home. If there are windows in both flanking walls. If you cannot accommodate everything in the frame even by using your widest lens.

For the next shot (below right). especially one with a high ceiling like the church shown in this photo set-up. Rather than firing the flash just once.
Camera shutter is held open throughout the exposure using a locking cable release
PHOTO SET-UP: Painting with light To light the high ceiling in this church. a flash unit is fired from a variety of positions around the interior to direct the light at different parts of the roof. try setting the camera’s shutter to T (time).WORKING IN LARGE INTERIORS 199
FLASH TECHNIQUES
A single burst of light from a hand-held flash unit does not make much of a difference in terms of lighting a large interior.
With and without flash The first picture (below) was taken without flash. An exposure of six seconds gives detail where the light falls. but the roof area is lost in shadow. the shutter was held open while a hand-held flash was fired at different parts of the roof. A tripod is essential if you use this technique during an exposure of many seconds. You may need the help of an assistant to shield the lens while you move between flash positions.
The flash gun is pointed towards the ceiling from various points around the interior
35mm camera on a tripod with a 28mm shift lens
. then press the cable release to lock it open and fire the flash manually as many times as you think you need for a correct exposure.

The color temperature of daylight and flash are the same. Do not. Natural daylight casts shadows into the central aisle. doors. Contrast could have been a problem were it not for the white walls. The high camera position looks over the top of the sink unit and the framing is tight in on the cabinets to avoid the edge of the door frame appearing in the shot. daylight-balanced film.200 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
LIGHTING SIMPLE INTERIORS
Simple interiors can make fascinating subjects for the camera.
35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle lens is positioned on a tripod in one corner of the room Directional daylight from the windows is the only source of illumination
Country kitchen. Whereas large public buildings are designed to project an impersonal public image. turn on any of the room lights unless you want an orange cast.
.
NATURAL LIGHTING
When shooting an interior you must decide whether to rely on natural daylight from windows. left Directional daylight from windows on the left of the frame is the chief illumination for this simple church interior. intimate touches that can reveal much about those who live there.
PHOTO SET-UP: Directional daylight This kitchen is lit solely by light entering through the large windows on the right. so color-casts are not a problem on ordinary. which reflect light and so keep the shadows from becoming too dense. or skylights. adding to the mood and atmosphere of the tranquil scene. or to use artificial lighting such as flash or tungsten lights. however.
Church interior. above This shot is composed in the camera viewfinder to exclude unwanted details. people’s homes are full of private.

LIGHTING SIMPLE INTERIORS 201
Lit by flash Note how evenly the scene is illuminated using fill-in flash.
.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
•Set the white balance manually.
White-painted wall and ceiling make ideal surfaces off which to bounce light Flash lighting head is angled upward toproduce indirect. the scene looks more natural and has an intimate atmosphere. One flash unit is used here to light a corner of the room. In comparison with the shot taken using flash (top). at the image •Lookscreen to make on the sure that there are no extraneous details. in this flash version some of the mood has been lost and the absence of shadows removes the sense of depth. etc.To illuminate this entire bedroom with flash would require a minimum of three lighting units.. reflected illumination
Lit by daylight This picture is taken in natural daylight without using flash. on •Minor marksbe walls. the effect of even lighting is difficult to achieve and can ruin the atmosphere of a room.
particularly if the room is lit by a mixture of lighting sources.
Cable release
35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle lens is positioned on a high tripod
PHOTO SET-UP: Supplementing light Although supplementary flash can be used to light an interior when daylight is not sufficient. However. can removed later using cloning techniques.

PROFESSIONAL TIPS using an ordinary wide-angle •If camera back parallel with the lens. museum. a 70–210mm zoom allows you the flexibility to adjust the size of the subject in the frame without changing position. and it is also useful for keeping the camera in precisely the position you want 35mm camera with a wide-angle 28mm shift lens
If you are shooting in a large public building.
Tripod is essential if you are shooting a long exposure. such as a church. keep the subject to avoid unwanted distortion of perspective. window light alone •Interiors lit by naturalsimple reflector to can be contrasty. you may need a long-focus lens to enlarge the detail in the frame. it is preferable to rely on daylight whenever possible. or stately home. In addition. It is best to use a fast film to avoid blurred pictures caused by slow shutter speeds and to overcome problems of shallow depth of field due to shooting at maximum aperture. In order to keep the lens level and avoid any perspective distortion. and doorways are just some of the interior details that often make a far more revealing and interesting subject for a photograph than the setting as a whole. Natural light lends a moody and atmospheric quality that is almost impossible to achieve with flash or tungsten. windows. Although the levels of ambient light appear high.202 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIOR DETAILS
Stairwells. limiting their use in poor light. camera angles may be restricted. left Space is very restricted on the upper landing of this oak stairway.
. making it difficult to position the tripod and to frame the shot correctly. zoom lenses have small maximum apertures. Remember that you may need to ask permission to use a tripod in a public building. a 28mm wideangle shift lens is used. However. use a lighten shadows. a long four-second exposure using fast film makes the use of a tripod essential.
DETAILS IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS
PHOTO SET-UP: Stairway detail Although flash could be used for a small interior detail such as this stairway.
Framing of detail.

the deeper the color of the glass will appear. the tripod is raised higher than normal by placing its legs on three identical chairs.
PHOTO SET-UP: Stained glass detail It is best to position the camera as level with the window as possible. Always use a tripod and allow long exposure times. use a long-focus lens. stained glass windows are also found in some secular buildings. The light coming through the glass is best from an evenly lit. so that it is neither pointing up nor down. The lower the light levels.PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIOR DETAILS 203
STAINED GLASS WINDOWS
Although most often seen in churches. For successful results. Because of the height of the window being photographed in this photo set-up.
. If the windows are high up. In these pictures (above) there is an even
intensity of color over the glass. Positioning the windows in the viewfinder so that the black metal borders serve to frame the scenes strengthens the resulting effect. overcast sky. try to get as close as possible to the window and level with the detail you want to record.
35mm camera with a 28–70mm wide-angle zoom lens
Chairs are used to raise the camera level with the windows
Tripod is needed to support the camera since low light levels require a long exposure
Subdued lighting Light from a bright but overcast sky usually gives the best results when photographing stained glass.

Indirect lighting. Kodachrome 200. 35mm camera. f8. 1/15 sec. Ektachrome 200. left By selecting the appropriate focal length lens. 35mm camera.204 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ARCHITECTURE
Powerful symmetry. delicate stainedglass windows. 100mm lens. or focal setting on a zoom lens. Ektachrome 100. 35mm lens. Ektachrome 100. such as this ancient wooden door and surround. Harmony of tone. 1/60 sec. f22. 1/125 sec. has created an image composed of harmonious tones. below Overcast light is often the least flattering for architectural work. The lack of contrast in this detail. f22. 6 x 6cm camera. in an otherwise uninteresting scene. however. you can isolate a single detail of architectural merit. 120mm lens. 50mm lens. right Some of the finest architectural features in churches are to be found high above the heads of the worshippers and visitors below: majestic arches. The only black that can be seen is the view into the interior. 35mm camera. f11. framing the window on the other side. and intricately detailed columns and ceilings. far left The ornately carved stonework and marble floor of this building are seen to best advantage when the sun bounces off the walls of the courtyard and indirectly reaches the interior depicted here. 1/125 sec. Focusing on detail.
.

New York.6. 35mm camera. Ektachrome 200. 35mm camera. 50mm lens. 35mm camera. Kodachrome 64. f8. In this picture. 90mm lens.
Graphic imagery By omitting the doors. 1/250 sec. 35mm camera. 35mm camera. Kodachrome 200.Where the tungsten lighting is strongest. graphic image.
.The result is abstract. 135mm lens. 35mm camera. the black of the timbers seen against the white of the infill makes for a strong. windows. 1/60 sec. Kodachrome 64.
Venetian detail These candy-striped mooring poles make the location of the image (Venice) immediately obvious to the viewer. 1/125 sec. 28mm lens. and triangles. 1/125 sec.
Domestic tungsten. the exposure is set for the brightest parts of the scene. f16. and other features of this Tudor house. above When shooting an interior. right All types of architectural styles provide interesting details for the camera lens. 28mm lens. Kodachrome 64. 1/60 sec. 1/60 sec. Fujichrome 100. f11.
Selective geometry. a warm orange color-cast is noticeable. f16. which has a series of spiraling galleries. 85mm lens. the view has been chosen so that the image is composed of geometric shapes – squares. you will often have to rely on the available light. f8.There is no need for a wider angle to communicate more clues as to the identity of the locale. rectangles.This scene of a stairway is lit by a mixture of natural daylight and domestic tungsten bulbs.ARCHITECTURE GALLERY 205
Selective focus The choice of a relatively large aperture to focus on the opaque glass and ironwork of this light fixture renders the background slightly out of focus so that it does not compete for attention.
Interpretative result For this interior view of the Guggenheim Museum. f5.

Macrophotography See pages 210–211
Confined view
Although your view is more restricted when working with natural history subjects than when you are photographing landscapes. but you can move in closer so that your view is of a single plant. Successful nature photography relies to a large degree on you. Second. and then perhaps even closer so that a detail of a single flower is revealed. Finally. An overhanging tree also reduces available light. with the sun hidden behind clouds. think about returning at another time of day when the lighting direction and quality are more favorable.
NATURE SET.UP
Photographing this lily pond requires careful framing with a zoom lens to avoid unwanted details. Third. photography can reveal a unique beauty of form. while the white lilies show up starkly in comparison.
Nature in close-up See pages 208–209
Close-up equipment
Additional close-up equipment such as bellows units and extension tubes allow you to get extremely close to your subject. Close-up photography no longer represents a technical problem. a bluebell patch is a subtle wash of color. conditions change rapidly. color.206 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
NATURE
Photography has an increasingly important role to play in recording the natural world. adjusting your sense of scale. experiment with horizontal and vertical framing: even try framing the subject diagonally if that seems best. As human habitation spreads ever deeper into the landscape. However. use your judgment to find the most appropriate camera angle from which to photograph your subject.
Macro lighting See pages 212–213
Flowers and shrubs See pages 218–219
. submerging meadows and forests. Many modern cameras allow close focusing with ordinary lenses and many zoom lenses also have macro mode settings that let you shoot with the front element almost touching the subject. consider the lighting for your subject and if it is not appropriate. Note how the green of the lily pads seems to be intensified by the heavy shade. and then closer still so that a single flower fills the frame. and texture that might otherwise pass unnoticed. the photographer.
A question of scale
The key to successful nature photography is to move in close to capture the many guises of nature. First. Viewed from a distance. the basic disciplines that are needed to make good pictures in any field of interest still apply. think about the best possible composition and adjust framing to maximize the distribution of color and tone within the frame. and later in the day the sun broke through the clouds to bathe the lilies with direct light and completely change the atmosphere of the scene.The lighting is diffused.

but highlights the difference between the plant and the dark.
EQUIPMENT SLR •35mmand plenty camera of spare film lenses •Range of100mm including a macro lens and •Bellows tubes extension
•Adjustable tripod
. The camera is loaded with medium-speed ISO 200 film
Lighting Dappled light from overhanging tree casts shadows over part of the water and intensifies the color saturation of the leaves and flowers beneath
Effect of sunlight Direct sunlight lessens the contrast between the lily pads and flowers.NATURE 207
OVERHEAD VIEW
Direction of light
Camera and tripod
6ft (2m)
Nature subject
Camera A 35mm camera with a 70–210mm zoom lens set at about 90mm and positioned on a tripod. reflective surface of the surrounding water.

The angle of view of the 150mm lens excludes all other details.208 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURE: NATURE
REVEALING NATURE IN CLOSE UP
Natural history photography is not restricted to those who have specialized macro lenses. use a lens. Small apertures are needed to make sure everything is in focus. Many modern zoom lenses also have a macro mode setting. creating a strong composition of color. To avoid camera shake. which is useful when photographing smaller subjects (see page 210). may not be as great as it seems as the image has already been enlarged when it is displayed on the LCD viewing screen. This problem is made worse because depth of field is even more restricted at close focusing distances. All of the images shown on these pages were taken using a 35mm camera with a 150mm long-focus lens. particularly if a special macro mode is used. known as the depth of field. The amount of magnification. and this often results in long shutter speeds.
PHOTO SET-UP: Close-up on flowers Although the subject is lit by bright daylight. The principal problem with close-up shots using either a long-focus or macro lens is the restricted zone of sharp focus. pattern.
Viewpoint is chosen so that the camera looks down into the open flowers
35mm camera fixed on a tripod with a 150mm long-focus lens
Natural pattern The camera looks into the open trumpets of the lilies. a small aperture of f22 results in a shutter speed of 1/60 second. however. which can introduce problems of camera shake or subject movement.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS cameras •Many digitalfocus allow you to very close to subjects. use a tripod and cable release and choose fast film to speed up exposure. Remember that even at this shutter speed you should wait for any breeze to die down before taking the picture so that subject movement does not spoil the shot.
. and form. which attaches to the front of the camera like a filter. an image •To magnifyclose-up more.

It is always preferable to photograph a subject in a natural setting (top).
Natural setting provides a camouflaged background for the toad Large enclosure to keep the toad from escaping
Tripod is necessary to prevent camera shake during a long exposure
Subject and setting Successful natural history shots require patience and perseverance. Finding your subject in the right surroundings may take a little time but the results make it well worth the effort (above). Careful timing of the shot so that the toad is sitting still on the stone results in a sharp image (left). means using a slow shutter speed
of 1/30 second. Make sure that the enclosure is sufficiently large and try not to handle the subject too much or keep it confined for longer than necessary. whereas even a tiny movement of the toad will cause the picture to be slightly blurred (above). linked with an aperture of f32 to ensure sufficient depth of field for subject and background. and this.
Depth of field The light for this shot is slightly overcast. it is important to confine the animal within an area of its natural habitat.
.REVEALING NATURE IN CLOSE UP 209
35mm camera with a 150mm long-focus lens
PHOTO SET-UP: Mobile subject When photographing a mobile subject such as this toad.

Many zoom lenses have a macro setting that extends the lens beyond its normal range. a white cardboard reflector is propped up on one side to act as a windbreak.
35mm camera on a tripod with a 100mm macro lens White cardboard helps reflect light onto the subject and shield the subject from any air currents Cable release allows you to fire the shutter without touching the camera and perhaps causing vibrations that would spoil the picture
Periwinkle The blue flower is separated from the background by selecting a wide aperture.210 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
MACROPHOTOGRAPHY
Look at a lens when it is focusing on a closeup subject and you will see that as it moves away from the camera body. the closer the focusing distance becomes. close-up photography. A 100mm lens gives greater magnification.
PHOTO SET-UP: Macro lens When working at very close distances. and tripod are so close that they may cast unwanted shadows. Other close-up techniques involve using extension tubes or bellows between the camera body and lens. Lighting for macro shots can be difficult since the camera. lens.To prevent any movement of the flower in this set-up.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Lighting the subject solely with flash will
give you a sharp image if all subject movement cannot be eliminated. even the most minute degree of subject movement will result in a very blurred image.
Length of wire attached to the rear wall is used to hold the flower steady
. use focal length macro available. Depth of field for close-up shots is shallow. This problem can be partly overcome by using a longer 100mm lens rather than a standard 50mm lens on a 35mm camera. allowing more space between the camera and the subject. making accurate focusing critical. you have a •If the longest choice. Ring flash offers the most controllable form of lighting for close-up subjects (see box opposite).The stem of the flower can also be secured using a piece of wire (see inset).
MACRO TECHNIQUES
Macro lenses have greatly extended focusing ranges and they are used for high-definition.

Rose and dew.
Standard bellows
27. Although they can be used for ordinary work. they are designed to give best resolution for subjects very close to the lens. far left The beads of dew add extra interest to this picture of a rose. can be used individually or in combination to alter lens-to-film distance. and extension tubes. Moving the bellows along its track takes the lens closer to or farther away from the subject to alter magnification. Pale rose. For 35mm SLRs and the various medium-format roll-film cameras. left Ring flash produces an almost shadowless result and creates an exposure difference that shows the background subdued by slight underexposure.MACROPHOTOGRAPHY 211
Water lily. the most flexible systems for macro and general close-up work include macro lenses. Sharpness is slightly poorer for distant subjects in comparison with an ordinary lens. bellows.
MACRO AND CLOSE-UP EQUIPMENT The term macrophotography describes film images that are life-sized or larger. The effect is easily achieved by misting the flower with a water spray.
Bellows unit Fitting a bellows onto your camera gives you a wide range of possible image magnifications.
Ring flash for 35mm camera
105mm extension 60mm macro lens
100mm macro lens
Extension tubes Extension tubes.
. above Restricted depth of field emphasizes the flower and gives a sense of depth.
Macro lenses Macro lenses for 35mm wSLRs range from 50mm to 200mm. it gives an almost shadowless light effect. A macro lens is expensive and should be considered only for specialized close-up work. One end of the bellows fits into the camera while the other accepts a normal lens. Designed for use with small close-up subjects.5mm extension
14mm extension
Ring flash This specialized unit has a circular flash tube that fits around the front element of the lens. usually available in sets of three. and so produce fixed degrees of subject magnification.

This can result in problems. the wood background is less intrusive. The differences in these pictures are startling.The snoot attachment ensures that a concentrated beam of light falls onto the subject. color.212 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
LIGHTING FOR INDOOR MACRO
In order to take close-ups of small subjects such as butterflies. Its color and shape are now
more obviously the subject of the photograph.
Adjustable lighting stand 35mm camera with a 100mm macro lens Cable release
Flash lighting unit with a snoot attachment
Directional light Strong.
Power pack
Synchronization lead
PHOTO SET-UP: Diffused toplighting Toplighting is provided by a flash unit fitted with a softbox diffuser.
Enhancing the subject It is important to use the right lighting to enhance your subject’s form.The light is positioned low down to give a strongly directional effect. you often need to position the camera lens extremely close to your subject. insects. A 100mm macro lens makes lighting easier since it allows you to work farther away from your subject. coins. directional light from the right-hand side of this small red butterfly emphasizes the texture and
color contrasts. Although this amount of light may seem overpowering for a small subject.
PHOTO SET-UP: Directional lighting A single flash lighting unit is used in this set-up. lens. since the camera and lens are so close that it may be difficult to get sufficient light where it is needed. with sidelighting used for the first image (far left). or other characteristics. much of the light is lost due to the proximity of the camera. and tripod.
Cable release 35mm camera with a 100mm macro lens Power pack Adjustable lighting stand
Flash lighting unit with a softbox diffuser
Soft lighting This time the small red butterfly has been lit with soft light from above. Sidelighting also highlights the deeply grooved surface of the wood on which the insect has been placed. and diffused toplighting for the second image (left). and the effect of the toplighting is warmer. or jewelry.
Synchronization lead
.

For this image.LIGHTING FOR INDOOR MACRO 213
Blue butterfly. above Although the subject is the same blue butterfly (left). rather than from above. left With some subjects.
.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS a snoot.
•Extremely shallow depth of field associated with close-ups means working with a small aperture.
Gray butterfly. the direction of the lighting will have a profound effect on the way their color is recorded. •A ring flash is useful for lighting a small subject. Here the insect is illuminated by light reflected up through its translucent wings from the surface of the stone. center •Ifa you doofnot have create a cut a hole in the light. strong sidelighting produces a very different picture. of piece card to narrow beam of and •Lighting is easier using a long lensfrom bellows since you are able to work farther away the subject. diffused toplighting was used so the brilliant blue and black-edged coloration of the butterfly’s wings is highlighted.

Wide aperture A large flower can be photographed without specialized equipment. this picture seems to be an abstract pattern of shapes in the long grass. Fujichrome 100. f4. Ektachrome 200. far left In this shot. 1/60 sec. 50mm lens. 90mm lens. 1/125 sec. 150mm lens. 1/60 sec. f16. 6 x 6cm camera. use a wide aperture. the subject is a field of fallen apples. f11.214 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
Light and texture.
. 35mm camera. intense sunlight falls at an angle that accentuates the rich color of the fungus and the texture of the supporting bark. 35mm camera. In fact.To keep the background from being too prominent. Abstract effect. Ektachrome 100. left At first glance.

1/30 sec.To record the frost still clinging to evergreen leaves.
Color rendition The color of the toadstools varies subtly. Ektachrome 200. 35mm camera. winter sunshine has a particular steely clarity not found at other times of the year. f8. 135mm lens. this fern barely showed above the soil.The angles of the flash and natural light must correspond to prevent a double set of shadows.6. 135mm lens (plus extension tube). 35mm camera. Kodachrome 64. 1/15 sec.NATURE GALLERY 215
New life A few days before being photographed.
Supplementary lighting With a tightly framed subject. however. 35mm camera. f22. f16. Part of the fascination of nature photography is the awareness it gives you of the natural cycle of growth and decay. clear. according to where the sunlight and shadows fall. you need to photograph your subject early in the morning before the sun has warmed the surrounding air. 1/30 sec. Fujichrome 100. 100mm macro lens. f5. 1/60 sec. it is possible to supplement lighting with a flashgun. from near white to blue. 35mm camera. 80mm lens. Ektachrome 100.
Early morning Crisp.
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while others may be spring or fall gardens. depending on the plants – some are spectacular in early summer when in full bloom. early morning and late afternoon light usually produce the best results.
THE GARDEN AT ITS BEST
Gardens are at their best at different times of the year. To the naked eye.216 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
PHOTOGRAPHING GARDENS
When taking a picture of a garden setting. midday sunlight. a garden may look most impressive in bright. which tends to be better for recording the color and texture of plants
6 x 7cm camera on a tripod with a 90mm standard lens
Fast-moving water adds vitality to the scene
House and garden. however.
PHOTO SET-UP: Garden as a setting This is a mature garden. though this depends on the size of the garden and the vantage points its design and layout allow. By positioning the camera on the riverbank opposite the house. A standard and a wide-angle lens are generally more useful than longer focal lengths.
Direction of the shadows indicates afternoon sunlight. The time of day is also important.
. the details of the location are less important than the way in which they interact with each other to create a unified whole. and the house is an integral part of the overall setting. on film. above The vantage point shown in the photo set-up results in this charming image of an idyllic country house surrounded by its garden. it is possible to convey some of the atmosphere of the scene.

above At first glance. as here. France. notably the yellow.PHOTOGRAPHING GARDENS 217
Use of color.
.
Leading the eye. appears to be a riot of random color separated by hedges. It could be the repetitive use of color or. However. leads the gaze back toward the château. a statue that seems to compel you to follow its gaze into a sheltered corner of a much larger garden setting. left Many devices can be used to direct attention to a specific area of the picture frame. this formal garden setting at Villandry. the repetition of colors.

resulting in shallow depth of field. or structure. and this in turn requires a wide aperture. telephoto lens •Aused to make can be planting look denser than it is in reality.
EQUIPMENT AND CONDITIONS
The selective angle of view of a long-focus lens is best for filling the frame with an individual plant. opposite Any slight movement will be noticeable when you take photographs of flowers and plants. with the whites and greens acting to cool the warmth of the other colors. Avoid this pitfall by finding an individual plant or group of plants around which to build your composition.The chief attraction of the flowerbed shown in this photo set-up is the coordinated color theme.
Kneeling down on one knee creates a steady camera position
Hand-held 35mm camera with a 90mm long-focus lens Area of flowerbed in direct sunlight contrasts well with the shadowy areas
Intensity of color in the front part of flowerbed is due to the angle of light
PROFESSIONAL TIPS boards •Use large to stop as windbreaks flowers swaying. and reds unites this flowerbed detail.The flowerbed is in shade. above A harmonious theme of lilacs. Wind is the main problem when photographing flowers. mauves. or use a fast shutter speed. If you do not use a windbreak to prevent movement.
. even if the garden as a whole does not have photographic potential. Still image. Gusty conditions require a fast shutter speed to avoid subject movement.
PHOTO SET-UP: Coordinating color By concentrating on flowerbed and planting details you can create an interesting picture. Once you have this focal point. wait for the wind to die down. which accounts for the slight intensifying of the color. pinks. form. photographs of flowerbeds and planted borders can be a disappointing amalgam of discordant color with no particular center of interest.218 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
PHOTOGRAPHING FLOWERS AND SHRUBS
Unless carefully considered.
Flowerbed detail. look for angles that show other parts of the garden in supporting roles to give your picture a coherent structure.

PHOTOGRAPHING FLOWERS AND SHRUBS 219
.

f5. but add extra information and interest to the picture.
Controlled imagery. Kodachrome 64. 90mm lens. exposure on the orchid bloom alone is increased. since the flower is surrounded by other plants and lit only by daylight filtering through the glass. 1/60 sec. allow you to take detailed. f11. Ektachrome 100. focal length. glass-covered conservatory requires a slow shutter speed. Here the bloom dominates the frame. 70mm lens. 35mm camera. opposite By fitting a ring flash to the lens. 80mm lens.The green leaves are softened and out of focus. Fujichrome 100. 35mm camera. below An exotic clivia photographed in a large. 1/15 sec. 6 x 6cm camera. 35mm camera.
Indoor light levels. f11. frame-filling close-ups without going to the expense of using specialized macro equipment. above A combination of aperture.
.220 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
Frame-filling form Large flower heads. such as that of this sunflower. 1/60 sec. f4. and camera distance produces this image of a brilliant red hibiscus flower. making the background appear much darker in comparison.
Ring flash.The ring flash gives almost shadowless illumination of the orchid itself. A wide aperture ensures correct exposure for the dim conditions.6. even though it was taken using only a moderately long lens. 1/125 sec. 100mm lens. Ektachrome 100.

NATURE GALLERY 221
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and visit it at different times of the day to capture the best lighting effect. above This viewpoint records the symmetrical arrangement of clipped box hedges. except that the setting – the garden itself – should be an integral part of the photograph. and the avenue of trees leading to the large brick dovecote. and even classical temples in large gardens.
PHOTO SET-UP: Afternoon light A low. summerhouses. The garden may vary at particular times of the day. try to imagine how the landscape designer planned the garden to be viewed. in certain seasons.
Directional sunlight on the roof of the dovecote creates planes of light and shade
Central viewpoint results in symmetrical composition
Symmetry. Before shooting. since this tends to produce excessive contrast and poor color saturation.222 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
PHOTOGRAPHING GARDEN ARCHITECTURE
It is quite common to find ornate structures.
Hand-held 35mm camera with a 28mm wide-angle lens
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
•Avoid shootinghigh in when the sun is
the sky. The best way to photograph garden architecture does not differ from that used for any other outdoor architecture. For the most harmonious composition. with box hedges and an ornamental fish pond in the foreground. follies.
.
Long shadows indicate that the sun is low in the sky
a camera •Look forcorresponds angle that to the way the garden was originally intended to be viewed. or when seen from a distance. from different viewpoints. try to find the vantage point that shows the garden to best advantage. such as dovecotes. the circular fish pond. bright afternoon sun in a sky strewn with white clouds provides the perfect illumination and backdrop for this building – a large dovecote.

this folly is the perfect backdrop for this small garden. above Framed by lavender and roses. shady corner of the garden makes a slow shutter speed and the use of a tripod essential. The angle of the light adds impact.The need for a small aperture to ensure adequate depth of field results in a long exposure time. left This image successfully captures the romantic and secluded atmosphere evoked by the ruined.
PHOTO SET-UP: Ruined folly The position of this folly in a quiet. much of the light is obscured by the overhanging foliage.
Silent grotto.PHOTOGRAPHING GARDEN ARCHECTECTURE 223
Romantic image. medieval-type folly.
Tripod-mounted 35mm camera with a 50mm standard lens Flower colors help brighten the resulting image Overhanging foliage casts dappled shade over the folly
. Although the day is bright.

and they can make ideal subjects.
35mm camera with a 70–210mm telephoto zoom lens
Decorative urn. rose arches. pergolas. and similar devices are the nonorganic features intended by the garden designer to enhance the beauty of the setting.224 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
RECORDING GARDEN FEATURES
The finishing touches to a landscaped garden are the ornaments used and the focal points created by them. urns. For small garden features and close-ups of larger ones.
Early evening light is striking the statue from an angle of about 45°. apparent in the direction of the shadow
. This lens allows you to exclude extraneous detail. garden seats. but the angle of view is not so narrow that it removes all traces of the setting. above A low camera angle is essential to show the decorative basketweave molding on this garden urn.This lighting direction is best suited to show the bust’s texture and form. it is important to wait until the sun is low in the sky so that the bust is lit from an angle of about 45°. a 35mm SLR camera fitted with a 100mm lens is useful. Statues.
PHOTO SET-UP: Garden statue To photograph this garden statue. which are emphasized by the interaction of light and shade (see page 46).

RECORDING GARDEN FEATURES 225
Garden statue The lichen-covered garden statue in the photo set-up is made to stand out from the surrounding greenery by using a long lens with a restricted angle of view.
.
Selecting a detail. above A telephoto zoom is useful for isolating a garden detail and adjusting subject framing without changing the camera position.

50mm lens.226 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: NATURE
Informal planting A rich and varied planting theme using a mixed color palette has been created by the designer of this garden. unlike the softer. hard-edged greenery. 1/30 sec.
. Fujichrome 100. below The formal topiary shapes in this garden create large blocks of dense. Ektachrome 200. f16. A carefully chosen camera angle allows a tunnel-like view through to the rear of the garden.The yellow rose bushes in the background create a feeling of depth and distance.
Sculpted beauty. f16. 1/250 sec. 35mm camera. 35mm camera. more organic shapes normally associated with garden photography. 35mm lens.

35mm camera. England.
.NATURE GALLERY 227
Water view The early morning light shows up perfectly the shades of green and still water in this shot of the gardens at Stourhead. f16. 1/250 sec. 35mm lens. Fujichrome 100.

the scope for photographing wild animals in their natural habitat is vast. Since most pets. of course.
Wild animals See pages 230–231
Wild animals
Birds See pages 232–233
Most of us normally see wild animals only in zoos. Long-focus lenses allow you to stand back from your subject. When the opportunity for a good shot arises. Today.The rail surrounding the observation platform makes an ideal surface on which to steady the camera during the long exposure.
Early cameras and lenses
Until the early years of the twentieth century. especially dogs and cats. Cameras and lenses were bulky and film so insensitive and slow that long exposures of several minutes were common. are not at all camera shy. Be prepared to shoot a lot of film and select the best shots afterward. with cameras a fraction of their former size. Try for portraits that show your pet’s facial expression. Even if accustomed to the presence of people. pets.228 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS
ANIMALS
Animals have long held a fascination for the photographer. nature reserves. Light levels are not high in the glazed building due to the dense vegetation. you were more likely to be confronted by a photograph of a stuffed collector’s specimen behind a protective glass dome. wild animals should always be approached with caution.UP
The location for this set-up picture is the reptile house in a safari park. you should be prepared to act quickly. and fast film permits a brief shutter speed or small lens aperture for freezing subject movement or creating the necessary depth of field. and animal sanctuaries.
Pets on location See pages 234–235
. wildlife and safari parks. While luck can play a part in taking a successful wildlife photograph. and remember that shots taken from the animal’s eye level usually work better than ones taken from standing height. a knowledge of animal behavior is essential. but the spread of human habitation into the countryside and wilderness areas has brought humans into closer contact with many animal species. and lenses and film hundreds of times faster. as are patience and perseverance. the only pictures you were likely to see of wild animals were of dead specimens. you will be able to move in much closer and use a shorter lens.
ANIMAL SET. Rather than seeing a picture of a bird in flight.
Pet portraits See pages 234–235
Domestic animals
The most readily available animal subjects for photography are.

ANIMALS 229
OVERHEAD VIEW
Direction of light
Animal subject 12ft (3.
SLR •35mmfilm camera and fast
Camera Hand-held 35mm camera fitted with a 70–210mm zoom lens.5m) camera-tosubject distance
Camera
Surroundings Overhanging palm leaves and other vegetation shade the subject and reduce light levels
EQUIPMENT
Tight framing Using a zoom lens allows you to adjust framing to exclude unwanted detail. Low ambient light levels result in a slow shutter speed of only 1/60 second. allowing a slow exposure
.The camera is loaded with fast ISO 400 film
•Tripod if necessary •Range of lenses including long-focus
lenses and converters
Camera support Safety rails surrounding the platform make a suitable surface for steadying the camera Animal subject Crocodile is asleep and oblivious to the camera so subject movement is not a problem.

modern enclosures with high observation walkways offer superb picturetaking opportunities. A long-focus lens with a x2 converter ensures that the framing is tight on the tiger and that none of the resulting shots reveals the encircling safety fences.230 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS
PHOTOGRAPHING WILD ANIMALS
Although bars and wire fences can present a problem when photographing wild animals in captivity. opposite A slight change in the tiger’s posture or facial expression can make all the difference between an ordinary or an outstanding shot. In this shot the tiger momentarily looks back toward the camera. because it ensures that the rich color of the tiger’s coat is well recorded.
. use a long-focus or zoom lens and a wide aperture to restrict angle of view and depth of field. obey all the safety rules and take no risks. A motor drive is useful since you do not have to look up from the viewfinder to advance the film. drive may •A motor animals. is always a risk when using a long-focus lens
Timing. the most important attributes required are patience and timing.
Hand-held 35mm camera with a 135mm long-focus lens and x 2 converter
Patience is required to wait for the subject to adopt a suitable pose
Safety rail makes a convenient support to steady the hand-held camera – camera shake.
Overhead viewpoint The viewpoint shown in the photo set-up results in these photographs in which the subject is seen against a background of grass and foliage. As with all animal photography. The diffused sunlight is excellent.
PHOTO SET-UP:Wildlife park The high walkway at a wildlife park is the perfect vantage point for this photo set-up overlooking a large enclosure of Sumatran tigers. disturb the out the color •Bring animal subject of your by including contrasting vegetation in the shot. Working with an unpredictable subject means that you have to keep your finger on the shutter release at all times.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS In a wildlife park. even at fast shutter speeds.
ELIMINATING UNWANTED ELEMENTS
A high camera position can often eliminate an unattractive background by showing the animal subject against a backdrop of grass or stone. If this is not possible.
Background is excluded from resulting picture by tight framing of animal subject
•
minimum •Take the if you are equipment stalking wildlife.

PHOTOGRAPHING WILD ANIMALS 231
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. making a long-focus lens and tripod essential for detailed close-ups.232 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS
PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS
With their senses of hearing and sight far sharper than our own. which increases the focal length to 600mm Tripod is essential for sharp images because of the slow shutter speed and the weight of the long-focus lens
Many birds. with its head resting on its back. A longfocus lens and converter is useful for recording detailed images of the birds without causing unnecessary stress. To avoid scaring birds.
PHOTO SET-UP: Nesting birds You cannot approach too close to nesting birds since they may damage the eggs or even abandon the nest.
White swan Surrounded by tall reeds. with the bird keeping very still 35mm camera with a 300mm lens and fitted with a x2 converter. Without this direct sunlight. the swan’s white plumage would take on a gray coloration. and lakesides have developed a tolerance of people and can be easily approached.
OBSERVING BIRDS
Canada goose’s nest is well hidden in tall grass. such as common garden visitors.
Canada goose Although in a sleeping position. using natural cover or a manmade shelter if available. and make as little noise as possible. and the surrounding plants would lose their vibrancy of color. wild birds can be difficult subjects to observe and to photograph. this goose is alert to danger. this swan’s nest is sunlit for only a short period each day. A 300mm long-focus lens with a x2 converter is used to avoid getting too close to the subject and possibly frightening it. sanctuaries. it is best to assume that all wild birds will be cautious. and others found in parks. However. keep out of sight. Whether or not your intended subjects will let you come within camera range often depends on whether they regard you as a potential threat or just as a harmless observer.

above This family scene shows a clutch of goslings under the guardianship of two adult geese.These geese are aware of the intruder.
Conveniently located tree provides cover 35mm camera with a 500mm lens Tripod is essential to avoid camera shake because of the combined weight of the camera and lens
Family outing. above Patient observation and a concealed position results in natural-looking pictures.These can increase the focal length by 1.
Geese congregate near the water for a swift escape if necessary
Lighting direction.PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS 233
PHOTO SET-UP: Natural camouflage The less obvious your presence. but with the lake nearby for a quick escape they are not too concerned. A 500mm long-focus lens makes it possible to use natural cover and to be positioned some distance from the subject.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Use a teleconverter to extend the telephoto range of a digital camera with a fixed zoom. the more natural the behavior of the birds that you want to photograph will be. Depth of field with the 500mm lens is shallow and isolates the birds from the surroundings.
.4–3 times.

A useful tip is to remember that most pets respond to their owner. if you are working with an animal that you do not know. a local park. The bubble at the corner of his mouth makes the portrait amusing. who is standing out of shot.
.
DECIDING ON A SETTING
The controlled environment of an indoor setting is ideal if you want a detailed. your back yard. The main difficulty is persuading the animal to stay still long enough to be photographed. For more informal portraits you can choose an outdoor location. the dog’s attention is focused on its owner.234 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS
PHOTOGRAPHING PETS
Many people regard their pet as one of the family. and it could also damage equipment.
Single lighting head fitted with a softbox diffuser produces soft. Depending on the animal being photographed. as well as its distinctive markings and coloring. and on the rubber ball she is holding. However. A large dog can be a danger to those around it if it becomes frightened. wellilluminated. Close-up portrait An endearing image is achieved by closing in on the dog’s face. make sure the owner is present and that it is well trained and not of a nervous disposition. or a beach could make a perfect setting.
Full-length portrait This portrait of a Boxer shows the dog’s stance and facial expression. so it is not surprising that owners often want an animal portrait and that this is a popular area of photography. even illumination on the table
White reflector board is positioned to return light from the flash opposite
Owner makes sure the dog is looking in the right direction for each shot
Cloth covering the table helps reflect additional illumination
6 x 6cm camera with a 120mm longfocus lens
Power pack provides the necessary power for the lighting head
PHOTO SET-UP:Working with pets Animals can be very difficult to photograph in an unfamiliar environment and may need to be restrained. In this set-up. and carefully composed image of your pet.

•Using an autofocus and autoexposure
camera. and a low camera angle ensures that both faces can be clearly seen.
Wet surface of the sand acts as a mirror. The boy lets the dog run along the sand. reflecting the images of the boy and the spotted dog
. a long-focus •Use lens to take zoom many shots in rapid succession. left This close-up image of the boy and dog was taken using a long-focus zoom lens to alter framing without having to change the camera position.
PROFESSIONAL TIPS
35mm camera with a 70–210mm longfocus zoom lens allows a range of framing options Boy squats down beside the dog to restrain him.
PHOTO SET-UP: Pets on location Early morning is chosen for the photographic session because at this time of day the beach is nearly deserted.
Dog on the move. which might distract the dog. bringing their faces level
react •Be readyantoanimal’s quickly to changeable and unpredictable moods. you can give your complete attention to the animal. A long-focus zoom lens is especially useful when the dog is off the leash and running freely. the surface of which throws back reflections.PHOTOGRAPHING PETS 235
A boy and his dog. The dog’s young owner helps to keep his pet’s high spirits in check. above The Dalmatian’s high spirits are illustrated in the first image. as the dog pulls against the leash.

The water is clear and shallow enough to allow sufficient light to filter through from the surface for a hand-held exposure using medium-fast film. Ektachrome 200. Ektachrome 200.
Shooting through mesh. 300mm lens. 35mm camera. 1/60 sec. such as this pair of seals. f8.236 HOW TO TAKE BETTER PICTURES: ANIMALS
Exposure override. f8. a high vantage point is used for this shot of a swimming tiger. 1/60 sec.To disguise its zoo enclosure. 35mm camera. left An unusual camera angle can often hide an unwanted background. 35 mm camera. 1/30 sec. 1/125 sec. Shooting through glass. 35mm camera. 135mm lens. left Some zoos and wildlife parks provide observation windows so that the public can see a different view of the animals. Camera angle. Fujichrome 400. the exposure reading is overridden by increasing the recommended shutter speed by one f-stop.
. 100 mm lens. far left The mesh surrounding this tiger’s zoo enclosure is rendered invisible by placing the front of the camera lens close to the wire and then selecting a wide aperture. f11. Ektachrome 200. 135mm lens. above To prevent overexposure of this toucan perched in sunlight with the dark forest behind. f4.

210mm lens.The shallow depth of field resulting from the aperture separates the small creature from a similarly colored background. f2. Ektachrome 200.8.
Backlighting When any subject is backlit.ANIMAL GALLERY 237
Choice of aperture. f5. 1/2000 sec. such as this puma sunning itself on a log platform. 1/125 sec. above A wide lens aperture is selected for this shot of a tree frog.6.
. 35mm camera. 35mm camera. you need to select a wide aperture (or use a slow shutter speed) to avoid any risk of underexposing the subject. 135mm lens. A very fast shutter speed is used to arrest any sudden movement of the subject or hand-held camera. Fujichrome 100.

.

improved upon. or completely reconstructed using a computer. One of the main advantages of having pictures in a binary form is the ease in which images can be tweaked.
.DIGITAL MANIPULATION
Digital imaging is not just about using filmless cameras. The amount of control you have over the result is far greater than that ever enjoyed in a traditional darkroom.

The key piece of equipment required is a computer.
. negatives or prints need to be converted into digital form.
SOFTWARE
•Adobe Photoshop is the best-known image
manipulation program.240 DIGITAL MANIPULATION
SETTING UP A DIGITAL DARKROOM
Whether you use film or a digital camera. it is essential that the screen is set up to show the image as accurately as possible. Alternatively you can use a desktop scanner.
Computer monitor Fitting a hood around the screen helps minimize surface reflections. The only other essential requirement is the software (see box). The images can be downloaded direct from your digital camera to the computer’s hard drive.
Zip drive Each rewritable disk can store up to 250MB of data. and can be controlled from it
Printer Inkjet models are the most popular choice – but the paper used is key to getting good results External hard drive Low-cost solution for increasing the storage capacity of your computer
Work surface If possible. Some pro digital cameras can record images direct to a PC. To get started in digital image editing.
Keyboard The use of time-saving keyboard shortcuts minimizes effort and results in less strain on the wrists. this set-up procedure must be carried out periodically.
•You can download trial versions of these
and other programs from the web. with the images supplied on CD – or accessed from a password-protected webpage. the slides. and some models have built-in transparency hoods handle negatives and slides. it is costly. practically any relatively recent PC or Mac will be more than sufficient. but are more affordable than rewritable CD-RWs.This can be made from black card Slide scanner Produces high-resolution image files direct from mounted slides or from negative strips
Laptop An alternative to the desktop computer – and can be taken on location. digital manipulation provides a degree of control and craftsmanship over your pictures that is simply not possible in the traditional darkroom. Often cameras and scanners are sold with editing software. This can be done commercially. choose a working environment away from windows. CD-Rs can only be used once. Flatbed models are ideal for prints. if you do not have much space. As you will use the computer screen to judge how much correction an image needs. Some computers and image manipulation packages have utilities that allow you to calibrate the monitor correctly – and as the screen’s color changes over time. Less popular since CD burners have become so inexpensive. items such as scanners and back-up drives need only be plugged in to the computer as and when they are required. it is sensible to choose a plain grey background as your desktop pattern – bright patterns and pictures may lead you to misjudge colors. Or ensure they have efficient blinds or curtains
Disk burner Records blank CDs which store up to 700MB of data. To ensure that your eyes see the image without any distraction.
THE DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHER’S DESK
The ideal workstation has everything positioned within easy reach. However. To work on conventional photographs. Photoshop •Adobe is more Elements affordable – but still provides a great deal of creative control. alternatively use a special film scanner. But since it is designed for pro use. You should also ensure that desk lights and windows do not create reflections on the screen surface.

making them an increasingly popular storage medium for slides. File each with an index print so you can see which images are on which disk Desk lamp Ensure this is adjustable so that it can be angled away from the computer screen. Using a pen to ‘draw’ on a special mat gives you greater control
Lightbox Allows you to view and select the transparencies that you want to scan more easily
useful for removing dust immediately before scanning.
OTHER ITEMS
Computer The main processing unit of the computer can be positioned on the floor to create more desk space CD rack Keep CDs in cases or sleeves to avoid scratching. is
Loupe Magnifying glass allows you to check slides and negatives carefully before they are scanned
Mouse Mouse needs to operate smoothly.
. or operating system. magenta. Some models also offer ‘bleed’ printing. Dye sublimation printers provide prints that look more like traditional photographs by vaporizing colored ribbons so that the dye penetrates the surface of the specially-coated paper. Clean ball mechanism regularly – or use optical type
Graphics tablet An alternative to the computer mouse. for the leads or software supplied with the camera. to create a richer range of tones. as it will be used as a painting tool. to avoid unwanted reflections
key •Comfort isifayou are requirement sitting at your computer for long periods.
Flatbed scanner For digitizing prints – although some models can also handle negatives and slides. Prints can be made from your digital files by commercial labs. especially if printed on photo-grade paper. but can be output at home easily. Keep the glass surface clean and scratch-free
•Old slides and to negatives are likely
be covered in a layer of mold.also compressed air. These can be expensive to run. yellow and black. With each disk having a capacity of nine gigabytes.This will minimize digital touchup work after scanning.
DVD’S Recordable DVDs and drivers continue to fall in cost. they are more space-efficient than CD-Rs – particularly for those working with large image file sizes. Also a solution for computers which have ‘wrong’ sockets.Your chair must support your back and should be at the correct height so that your forearms are horizontal when you are working at the keyboard. Multiformat designs can read several different card types.
CARD READERS An alternative to plugging your camera into your computer is to download your images using a card reader.SETTING UP A DIGITAL DARKROOM 241
CHOOSING A PRINTER
Although digital images could be viewed entirely on PC and TV screen – and shown to others using email and the web – most photographers like to have a hardcopy of at least some of their images. fingerprints and grime. A standard desktop color inkjet printer can produce very reasonable results. Special photo printers use additional inks to the standard cyan. and will maximize image quality. so that shots are printed up to the edge without a white border. or •A blower brush.These should be removed using a special cleaning solution and lint-free cloth – such as PEC-12 and PEC Pads.

Whether you shoot your pictures on film or with a digital camera. Small blemishes to the film or the composition can be removed with the use of the cloning tool. This is achieved most easily using the hue/saturation command in a program such as Photoshop Elements. and then the hue changed to get a more pleasing composition. Compare the image with the original (see page 129). but it is often the straightforward techniques that are the most useful. in ways that simply are not possible with conventional darkroom techniques. below The original image (see page 237) has been rotated. nearly all shots benefit from minor adjustment. Exposure can usually be improved. areas of a picture can be selected by color.
Change of scenery. When retouching images on screen you can see exactly what you are achieving at each stage and can go back one or more steps if you are not happy with the result. which copies neighboring groups of pixels over an offending scratch or unwanted element in a picture.242 DIGITAL MANIPULATION
COMPUTER RETOUCHING
Digital image manipulation software can change pictures in many different ways. An effect similar to using a slow shutter speed has also been added by using a blur filter. reversed. either globally or just in small areas of the image.
. and the feeling of movement has been emphasized by the addition of blur lines. left In this image the backdrop color has been changed to create a stronger contrast with the color of the dancer’s dress. and recropped for this version.
Change of angle. For instance.

above This still life shot is slightly tilted. by cloning them from other areas. but much of the window in the background would be lost from the composition.COMPUTER RETOUCHING 243
Removing picture elements. and to increase the area of blue sky. advertising hoardings. road markings. and unwanted passers-by can be removed with relative ease. Even old pictures shot on film can be manipulated in this way once they have been digitized using a scanner. extra areas of table and window can be added to the shot.
. right Using digital techniques. Litter. cloning techniques have been used to remove the wooden piles from the water.
Original shot. The shot can then be rotated so the verticals are upright without losing any of the photograph’s setting. The image could be cropped traditionally. far left & left One of the advantages of digital manipulation is the ease with which minor tweaks can be made to a composition.
Corrected version. In this shot.

The unsharp mask (USM). was shot on slow film in the studio. allows you to throw out of focus details that were not possible to hide when taking the original shot. meanwhile. the image can be printed again and again without further work. a monochrome shot can be created almost instantly from a color file.
Going for grain Traditionally.
. Gaussian blur. But there are some that merit more regular use. and the chosen settings can also be applied to other shots. atmospheric look (right). by push processing.
Mono conversion Creating a black and white print from a color original traditionally involves copying the film to create an interneg. such as blur and sharpening controls. The original still life (above). once the desired effect is achieved. the effect can be achieved by selecting a filter from a pull-down menu. a grainy effect is created by using a fast film. to improve the apparent sharpness of the shot. most digital filters are best used only occasionally. As with all special effects. a number of these effects recreate those that have been available for decades to photographers using darkroom techniques or optical filters. for instance. The program will often allow you precise control over both the size and the pattern of the grain. but when scanned digitally the shot can be given a grainy. The advantage that the computer brings is in the amount of control that is available over the final result.244 DIGITAL MANIPULATION
DIGITAL FILTER EFFECTS
Most digital manipulation software comes with a variety of special effects that can be added to an image with a single mouse-click. or by selective enlargement of a print. Digitally. Moreover. can be applied in varying degrees to practically every picture once other adjustments have been made. Inevitably. however the original shot was taken. With some programs it is also possible to control the exact tone of gray that each hue becomes. then printing the result. On screen.

has been transformed to look like a watercolor painting (left).
. In this example. The amount of blur can be adjusted until the effect looks convincing.
Watercolor filter There is a wide range of filters available that can be used to add artistic effects to images. or charcoal sketches.DIGITAL FILTER EFFECTS 245
Gaussian blur In the original shot (above). stained-glass windows. The effects can give photographs the appearance of oil paintings. otherwise it is impossible to revert to the original digital image. the people in the background are not sufficiently out of focus and create a distraction to the main subject of the portrait. Using digital manipulation software it is possible to work on a very specific area of a picture. The filters are supplied either with popular programs or separately as plug-ins. Always keep a copy of the original photograph (as a separate file or layer). the background is thrown out of focus using the Gaussian blur filter (left). In this case. etchings. when using this type of effect. sometimes it is necessary to blur different elements by different amounts in order to achieve this. the original image (above). for instance.

The transparency of each layer can be altered. above Two charming individual portraits of brother and sister. It would be nice to capture the two expressions in the same frame. but the girl’s pose and boy’s expression are not quite natural. even when two layers are identical. The solution is to combine elements from more than one shot. and exposure so that they matched well.246 DIGITAL MANIPULATION
COMBINING IMAGES ON COMPUTER
Digital darkroom software provides powerful tools for combining two or more images into one picture. cropped. above With groups.
The original shots. but many programs offer the ability to work in layers. with slight differences between each.
The template. Fortunately. They allow you to undo each stage of your work and avoid irreparable mistakes. right Combining the three different pictures creates a perfect portrait of the children. layers are an important way of structuring your manipulation work. and also means that you can return to a former state by deleting unsuccessful layers. Each shot was put on a separate layer. This allows you to check whether the image has improved by switching layers on or off. This is the best shot of the session. digital imaging allows you to do this without too much difficulty. color. Finished image. with great smiles. and adjusted in size. Layers allow you to work on different elements separately. it is hard to get everyone looking perfect. Whatever your artistic intent. and to include multiple copies of the image.
. and it can be combined with the layer below in different ways. These layer blending modes can be used for a wide range of creative effects. The visible joins between each of the elements were hidden by careful use of the cloning tool. Not only can different elements be cut from one image file and seamlessly inserted into a different picture.

Bottom layer Spectacular sunsets like this make ideal backdrops for using with other images. with pictures combined on separate layers. In this case. but the backdrop is bland. The background of the portrait was removed using the digital rubber so the sunset showed through. and the horizon line distracting.
. The efficiency of the eraser tool was reduced near the outlines of the girls to ensure a seamless result. Combining layers. the image sizes were adjusted to give a feeling of depth and movement.
Action shot. right The two original pictures were put on separate layers. right This photograph uses similar techniques to the above.COMBINING IMAGES ON COMPUTER 247
Top layer This is a nice portrait.

.

and by combining traditional photographic chemistry with software. by darkroom manipulations of both color and black and white originals. This section shows effects that can be achieved by using special films.
.TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
A wide range of photographic techniques can be used to create special-effect photographs that are far removed from normal images.

striking tones are made apparent. To achieve a similar effect. then use high-contrast film developer and print onto high-contrast lith paper. left This film can be used in conjunction with colored filters for a range of special effects. Special films include black and white and color infra-red-sensitive emulsions and high-contrast recording film.
Grain effect. notably the snowy white foliage in this scene. use a fast ISO 3200 emulsion and then develop the film in a grain-enhancing developer. above Atmospheric haze is invisible to black and white infra-red film. appearing near-black. Some elements reflect no infrared. as illustrated (left) and (above left). opposite Film manufacturers go to great lengths to produce ultra-fast emulsions with the minimum amount of graininess. rather than the intervening shades of gray.
. so images taken with it are often rendered with great clarity. Infra-red film is sensitive to the infra-red region of the electromagnetic spectrum and can therefore record images by light that is normally invisible. Special recording film mainly registers black and white. In addition.250 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
SPECIAL FILMS
Using special films is a simple way to create unusual imagery. so you may need to adjust your lens according to the infra-red focusing index (a red or orange line engraved next to the ordinary focus index on the lens barrel). Infra-red radiation comes into focus on a slightly different plane than visible light.
Striking tones. which seems to give the image an almost surreal appearance. use regular black and white emulsion film. The film is usually used in conjunction with an infra-red-transmitting filter over the camera lens. The result will depend on how much individual elements in a scene reflect infra-red radiation.
Color infra-red. which blocks all visible lightwaves. if you want to achieve the type of impressionistic result shown here. However.

High-contrast treatment A scene that is inherently contrasty provides the best starting point for this technique. Using a slow shutter speed has recorded the fairground lights as colorful blurred streaks.SPECIAL FILMS 251
Streaky light effect The atmosphere of this carnival scene at dusk was enhanced by using artificiallight film.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Most digital cameras are sensitive to infrared light.They produce effects similar to blackand-white infra-red film if you use a deep red or special IR filter over the lens – then convert the recorded result to monochrome. this image of a horse and young rider in the burned ruins of a barn was developed in a high-contrast developer to suppress most of the halftones and then printed onto lith paper.
. Photographed on ordinary black and white emulsion.

First experiment by combining different slides on a light box. which fires a rapid burst of flashes during a single exposure. below Many film and digital SLR cameras allow you to combine two or more exposures in the same frame. the film sandwich can simply be loaded into an enlarger and printed in the normal fashion. or to use in the enlarger.
. you can then make repeat exposures either on top of each image or in selected areas.
Double exposure. Here a shot of a dried river bed has been combined with a close-up portrait. Alternatively. too much ambient lighting will cause blurring in the final image. A moving subject will be caught in a different position every time the flash goes off.
Slide sandwich. However.252 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
MULTIPLE IMAGES
There are many ways to create multiple images on film. This can then be rephotographed directly. above l A slide of windmills and one of reflections in water were sandwiched to make this image.
SANDWICHING
The traditional and easiest technique for creating multiple images is to sandwich film originals together in a single slide mount and project the result onto a screen. Such multiple exposures give a textured canvas to an image. then mount the chosen slides for projection or reshooting. One simple method is to use a mini-strobe flashgun. On some cameras it is possible to reset the shutter without advancing the film.

DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Digital manipulation programs allow you to combine images in a number of ways. The model shifted position for each shot.
. Each element is put on a different layer – and can be resized.MULTIPLE IMAGES 253
Strobed action. above The flash used to take this multiple image of a boxer is an amateur unit capable of only six rapid flashes. to suit. Professional plug-in strobe units are also used by athletes to make detailed photographic records of their events. and by experimenting with different blending modes you can create effects that are similar or very different to those with traditional techniques. which are then used to analyze how slight changes in technique could improve their performance. Seeing double. By changing the opacity of each layer. When superimposed. and so on. left For this image the model wore black clothes and was placed in a dark room. color corrected. the images make a dramatic composition. A series of flash-lit shots was taken with the shutter held open on setting B.

Screens can also be used for color. give the sky on the negative extra exposure under the enlarger to balance the picture. The sky in a landscape. respectively. may have been overexposed if the land required extra exposure to define enough detail. for instance. right A shaped piece of dark cardboard known as a dodger was held over the the image of the sculptor Elisabeth Frink on the printing paper for the last quarter of the exposure time under the enlarger. or crayons. Color toning.254 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
BLACK AND WHITE DARKROOM TECHNIQUES
There are many techniques available for working in black and white. In this case. in seconds without chemicals. Local density. copper.
Patterned screens Various effects are possible by printing with patterned screens. pens.
. left Toning solutions not only add color to a print. An image can be toned. opposite Any black and white print produced on fiber-based paper can be selectively colored – using special dyes.
Hand coloring. or introducing color into a print by hand or by chemical toning. the few radical effects here are just a sample. These include printing a negative in combination with a patterned screen to break up the image. for example. and the effect saved so that it can be printed again. Changes you may want to make to an image include rectifying tonal imbalances. and blue.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS Most darkroom effects can easily be achieved on a computer using editing software. they can help to preserve the image. The chimneys (below) were printed with a linear screen and the ponies with a mezzotint (below right). The toners used here are sepia.

BLACK AND WHITE DARKROOM TECHNIQUES 255
.

This is done by exposing the partially developed image (on paper or film) to white light. You can then make prints from this sandwich onto either black and white or color printing paper. A black and white copy negative was then made from it. Lith film sandwiches are made by contact printing a lith film negative to form a lith film positive. then solarized using a color head enlarger. A more advanced technique is to solarize a film negative or positive. a copy negative was made from a 35mm transparency. The color of a film image can be altered by adjusting the filtration of the light used for solarization.256 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
SOLARIZATION AND LITH FILM SANDWICHING
Solarization (also called the Sabattier effect) is a technique for producing a black and white or color image that is part positive. The negative was then solarized and used to make a print on regular black and white printing paper. To solarize. part negative. then placing the two together in register. because the re-exposure flattens contrast considerably. For the best results.
.
Black and white effect A normal black and white print was the starting point for this image. introduce light selectively when a print is partially developed in a tray – using a small flashlight is a handy way to do this. with good results.
Color solarization For this striking image. You can then make as many prints as you want. an image with contrast should be used.

left For this print.The line of the on-screen graph is simply pulled into a U-shaped curve.SOLARIZATION AND LITH FILM SANDWICHING 257
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS The easiest way to create a solarized image digitally is to use the “Curves” control found on programs such as Photoshop.
Black and white lith.
. then contact printed to make a lith film negative. below For this color result. The negative and positive were sandwiched in register. the negative/positive lith film sandwich described above was used together with color printing paper. Color lith. a lith film positive was made.

then expose to light to tint the shadows. The slide and lith mask are then combined in register and printed. With the slide in the enlarger. and the enlarger filtration controls set appropriately. The highlight areas of the slide print as black or gray depending on the density of the lith. but the rest of the print was normally exposed. the paper was exposed for three-quarters of the correct exposure time.258 TRADITIONAL MANIPULATION
COLOR MASKING TECHNIQUES
All the images shown here were printed from slides onto positive/positive color printing paper. doubling the amount of light reaching the paper and creating a pseudosolarization effect.
Shadow mask. make a first exposure. first make print-sized negative and positive masks from the slide. above The shadow colors here were created by first using a positive mask in contact with the printing paper. far left A negative and a positive mask were contact-printed in register to produce this effect. Remove the positive and register the negative mask in contact with the paper. This covered the shadow areas. other areas appear normal. surreal result. which is designed to produce a positive print from a positive original. Another exposure was made with a negative mask. Solarization effect. Flat area mask. A highlight mask is made by contact printing a slide onto high-contrast lith film.
. With the slide in the enlarger and the positive mask in contact with the printing paper. but the enlarger lens aperture was opened one stop. The color response of the prints was manipulated using different types of mask. The positive mask was then removed and the exposure completed. Colored filtration was used to get the eerie. To adjust the colors of the shadow areas. left This print was made in the manner described above.

then reduce the color saturation to zero.
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
•Digital manipulation packages allow you to
“sandwich” different versions of the same image together in different ways. as it was here. Increase the contrast. and you can try out different effects until you get the image you require on screen without wasting paper. if the mask is tinted rather than left as a gray tone. Convert this layer into a “lith” negative by using the “Invert” command. the mask keeps a certain amount of light from shining through the highlight areas of the slide. Depending on the density of tone. your image and copy it onto a separate layer. Also try altering the opacity of the layer. Combine the two layers using a blending tool such as the Difference or Multiply options in Photoshop. dramatic prints with a mixture of real and unreal colors can be produced.
.COLOR MASKING TECHNIQUES 259
Highlight masking This technique involves a lith film negative mask being printed in register with the slide original. effects •To get the open up shown here. However.There are many possibilities.

.

. Taking the picture is only half the creative process.DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT
In a studio environment you have complete control over the lighting. Also included is useful information on systems for viewing and storing slides. and prints. which allows you to concentrate on producing precisely the type of image you want. negatives. It is in the darkroom that you can exercise ultimate control over the final appearance of the image. This section shows all the basic equipment you need to set up a home darkroom. however.

reflectors. however. a home studio should have a goodsized window to supplement any lights used. that of the studio can be kept free of clutter. you will probably need an area about twice that size at least. or to accessories and •Storage shelvesnot closets so storethe working part equipment when in use. lights. square rooms are best. and numerous other items Make-up table Table for cosmetics. and brushes is useful for portraiture and all shots involving life models
In a room with large windows (and ideally a skylight for additional lighting). clamps. you may not need to use flash or other lights if you restrict yourself to working during daylight. floor to vibrations •A solidthe tripodstopthe camera. A darkening shade or blinds can be used to exclude all window light when necessary.
Floor Solid floor is essential to keep movement on the set from causing vibrations that might affect the camera
STUDIO REQUIREMENTS and ceiling to maximize ambient •White wallsand to double as reflectors without lighting levels creating unwanted color-casts. equipment can be stored in a large closet and assembled in about 30 minutes when required.5 x 2. tape. and background papers permanently in place. so a well-lit make-up mirror is essential
Storage shelves Extra storage areas are always useful for camera and lens accessories.262 DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT
THE HOME STUDIO
Many amateur photographers would like to create their own studio but are discouraged from doing so because they mistakenly believe that a studio necessarily requires a lot of space and that this area would have to be permanently set aside. A spare bedroom is excellent for setting up a studio because you can leave camera. then an area measuring about 8 x 8ft (2. lighting units above the
Flash unit Main light is positioned about 45° to the subject
Synchronization lead Links camera to the power pack so that the flash fires at the same time as the shutter is released
. reflectors. such as small still life objects. hair accessories. since they give you the greatest flexibility in positioning lights and reflectors.being transmitted through to to allow you to position •A ceiling high enoughheight of a standing figure. If this is not possible.
SPACE REQUIREMENTS
Neutral-colored walls Walls and ceiling should be painted either white or a pale neutral color so that they reflect light without introducing an unwanted color-cast
The size of a home studio depends on what types of subject you intend to photograph.
WINDOWS AND LIGHTING
Make-up mirror The camera is critical of imperfections. For portraits.5m) will usually be sufficient. If possible. Generally. especially full-length shots. props. If most of your photography involves tabletop subjects. tripod.

Window This gives you the option of using daylight alone or combining daylight and flash
Snoot Conical snoot fits over the lighting head and restricts the spread of light to a narrow beam
Colored gels Large sheets of colored gels are useful for special lighting effects and for filtering daylight to match any tungsten lighting being used
Reflector boards Different-sized reflector boards and surfaces give flexibility Compressed air Can with compressed air is useful for cleaning filters and lenses. It also excludes daylight altogether if necessary
•Dulling spray for minimizing reflections
from shiny objects.THE HOME STUDIO 263
Background paper Selection of differentcolored background papers is essential
Subject on adjustable table A stand or table on which height can be readily adjusted is useful for small-scale subjects
Background supports Telescopic metal supports hold the roll of background paper at various heights
OTHER ITEMS
•Strong clamps for positioning small lights
on shelves and backs of chairs.
Blind An adjustable blind gives a range of lighting options. whenever possible. or multiplug •Doublefor additional adaptors power points. and for removing any dust from the surface of still life objects before shooting Spare lighting head Range of spare heads allows you to adjust the lighting for each subject
Tape Masking or black tape can be used to attach filter gels to lights or windows and to adjust the position of background paper
Umbrella diffuser Light is diffused through the umbrella to provide a softer light source
Camera and tripod The camera should. be mounted on a sturdy.
•Different-length flash synchronization leads
and shutter cable releases for different set-ups. adjustable tripod
Flash meter If possible. etc. choose a light meter that can also be used as a flash meter
Power pack Heavy-duty power source is required for the high output and rapid recycling times required of studio flash units
.

The chemicals used in film and print processing must be diluted in exactly the proportions stated.
FILM AND PRINT PROCESSING
PRACTICAL ADVICE
•All light sources in the darkroom
should be operated by pull-cords. and kept in contact with the film or printing paper for exactly the right time. The essential equipment required is shown on these pages. and a long plastic tube that surrounds the film after processing Color processing unit This thermostatically controlled unit has slots for processing chemicals as well as a motor to keep the film tank or print drum rotating Work top Surface should be resistant to chemical spills
the area around the enlarger.
•All ventilation units should be sealed
to keep outside light from entering the darkroom.
•Useincorrect strength bulbs safelights to
prevent film fogging. is essential. Once the spiral is inside a processing tank and the lid is firmly in place.264 DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT
THE HOME DARKROOM
All you need to set up a home darkroom is a windowless area. but you can use a room that does not have a sink if you use a pail to move processed prints for washing elsewhere.
Total darkness is required when removing an exposed film from its cassette and loading it onto a spiral. and solutions must be brought to the correct temperature. Arrange your darkroom to separate the wet and dry darkroom processes as much as possible. The walls and ceiling of your darkroom can be a light color except for
DARKROOM PROCESSING SIDE
Storage bottles Concertina bottles can be compressed to exclude air. Consistency of time and temperature ensures standardized results. and where the enlarger is found.Tongs must be kept very clean
Large sink with taps For washing film. prints.Try not to splash chemicals onto surrounding surfaces
Squeegee tongs For removing water from film after washing. such as a walk-in closet or a spare room that can be sealed against outside light. Ordinary light switches used with wet hands are potentially dangerous. so that there is a flow of air through the darkroom. which should be black. and equipment
Hose attachment For washing prints
Storage space Large cabinets for accessories and equipment
Heated print dryer This greatly speeds up the print drying process
. the room lights can then be turned on.
Timer Essential for timing processing stages Processing tongs Used for lifting paper between trays Thermometer To check solution temperatures Mixing rod Ensures solutions are properly mixed Safelight Placed above processing trays
Spare processing trays Keep a supply of differentsized processing trays to suit various printing paper sizes
Processing trays These are used for black and white prints. It is best to have running water. The wet side of the room is where all the film and paper processing and washing takes place and the dry side is where unprocessed and processed film and printing paper are handled. Proper ventilation. this helps extend the life of the chemicals Measuring beaker Processing tanks Exposed film is loaded onto spirals before being put in processing tanks Mixing pitcher Chemicals Spirals Plastic funnels Measuring cylinders Film dryer This unit has a thermostatically controlled heating element.

are held in position between the enlarger’s light source and the lens
Bench Work top should have an easy-to-clean surface
Additional printing papers Store little-used or large-sized papers on shelves out of the way
Color analyzer sensor This is held under the lens when a color original is being projected by the enlarger. the metal arms can be adjusted to give differentwidth white borders around the finished print
Compressed air Useful for removing dust and hairs from negatives and for cleaning the enlarger lens Contact printing frame Strips of negatives are loaded into slots on the glass cover and then brought into contact with a sheet of printing paper on the base
Focus magnifier Magnifies a small section of the projected image from the enlarger to ensure focus is accurate
Negative carrier Individual negatives. clean edge. different contrast grades
Wall color The dry side of the darkroom where the enlarger is located should be painted black
Printing easel This holds the paper flat on the enlarger’s baseboard during exposure. It analyzes the color content of the image and recommends exposure times and filter settings
Floor Hard wearing. for black and white printing. easy-to-clean floor made of a nonslip material
Print trimming equipment Gives a straight. It also houses colored printing filters of varying strengths
Light Wall-mounted white light with string pull-cord
Printing papers Different sizes of printing paper are required and. a sharp craft knife can also be used
.THE HOME DARKROOM 265
DARKROOM PRINTING SIDE
Enlarger column The enlarger head can be moved up and down on the column to make different-sized enlargements Timer Easy-to-read timer to check the length of exposure of the printing paper Enlarger head This contains the light source and mixes the light before it reaches the film original and the lens. or short strips of negatives.

AND PROJECTION
Checking and selecting Although subject colors and tones are unlikely to have been altered during processing. CDs break. A costeffective solution is to copy them to CD-R using a disk burner. sleeves can be put in a suspension file system. for quick reference. you will need to create an effective system for storing and cataloging your increasing number of slides. negatives. Slides generally come from the processing laboratory ready-mounted and packed in convenient plastic boxes to protect them from dust. The best way to compare and select slides is on a light box. it is best to check all slides with a magnifying glass for image quality. By inserting a metal hanger through the top.
Screen shows image stored on drive Laser-readable surface
Cursor keys
Recordable CDs
Mini portable hard drive
. STORAGE.
SLIDE CHECKING.
Glass lens
Opaque surface
Durable plastic mount
Mounted slide
Magnifying glass
Light box
35mm color slide 21⁄4in color slide Individual sleeve Window for each transparency 35mm color negative strip
Slides in plastic viewpack
Slides mounted in black card
Lens
Circular slide tray in place Slots for up to 100 slides Slots for up to 50 slides
Standard slide tray
Slide projector
Circular slide tray
DIGITAL ARCHIVING Quality digital images use a lot of memory. mounts. which. for 35mm slides. Projection Projection is the only way to get maximum impact from your slides. usually have about 20–25 pockets. and prints. and files can be accidentally deleted. and will soon fill your camera memory card and PC hard drive. For display.
On/off switch
DIGITAL SOLUTION Keep back-up copies of all your digital images – as hard drives can fail. Prints are best displayed in albums. or frames. but these can be costly and they take up a lot of space. Storage Mounted and unmounted slides can be stored in plastic sleeves.To make room for more shots you must archive your images. Keep negatives in acid-free paper sleeves in a file. SELECTION. When traveling. Slides can also be conveniently stored in projector trays. Projectors accept either round magazines (holding up to 100 slides) or straight ones (holding up to 50 slides). file them in clear plastic sleeves. a batteryrun mini hard drive lets you to store and back-up the contents of many memory cards.266 DARKROOM AND STUDIO EQUIPMENT
VIEWING AND STORING IMAGES
As your interest in photography develops. Some accept both. file the negative contact sheets alongside. mount slides in black card. and. If you want to be able to see all of them at a glance.

as they give an approximate idea of what your negatives will look like when printed and they can be stored adjacent to the negatives in an ordinary ring binder. and almost impossible to compare image quality. Others have wood or aluminum frames.
Framed prints
. Of the many easy framing and mounting kits available.
Contact sheets of miniature prints can be filed alongside their corresponding negatives Each paper negative sleeve can accommodate a strip of six negatives. those shown here use clips to hold the glass and backboard together. special acid-free paper sleeves are available. Others require adhesive “corners” to hold prints in place.VIEWING AND STORING IMAGES 267
VIEWING AND STORING NEGATIVES
Viewing negatives Even with careful scrutiny it is often difficult to make out the details of an image on a negative. mark each page with a date or reference number so that all the images can be readily identified
Color negatives in paper sleeve
Ring binder with paper negative sleeves and contact sheet
Storing negatives Negatives should always be handled and stored very carefully. then mounted in frames for display. Contact sheets are very useful for selecting the best image.
Lightweight glass frame is secured onto backboard with metal clips Print can be cut to size to fit the frame if necessary
Prints are held in place by a thin plastic overlay in this spiral-bound album. so will not damage the film emulsion
Individual sleeve
Negative strip
Hard ring binder protects the contact sheets and negative sleeves. To keep them from getting dirty or damaged. the paper is acid-free. in which every page is covered with a plastic overlay. the dark album pages enhance the photographs
Dark card can be used to create a border around an image
Spiral-bound album with color prints arranged beneath plastic overlay
Framing prints Prints can be enlarged.
VIEWING AND FRAMING PRINTS
Viewing prints Albums for standard-sized prints include those with sticky pages to hold prints in place.

Be sure to use the correct film for the lighting conditions or use a correction filter over the camera lens or light source. Most modern cameras have an automatic exposure control that will
COLOR-CASTS
Overall orange color-cast This usually occurs when film made for use in daylight or flash is exposed indoors by domestic tungsten lighting. Overcome this problem by finding out precisely what type of fluorescent lighting is being used.
Green color-cast
. Attach a clear UV filter to the lens to minimize this problem.
Overall blue color-cast (i) This problem is rare and usually the result of exposing tungstenbalanced film by daylight or by flashlight.
Blue color-cast
Overall green color-cast In outdoor shots.
COLOR AND EXPOSURE PROBLEMS
generally produce good.
Orange color-cast
Faults such as tilted horizons. however. are the typical errors of inexperienced photographers or those working with a camera that is new to them. color-casts are caused by exposing film designed for specific lighting conditions incorrectly. then use the a correction filter. Before exposing each frame. It is unusual for there to be anything wrong with quality or consistency when it leaves the factory. well-exposed images in average conditions (where the subject is frontally lit and the entire frame has evenly distributed light and dark tones). blemish-free photographs. dust. Always use and process film by the date indicated on the carton. use the right film for the lighting conditions. if available. and framing problems that often result in a subject being chopped in half. but it will result in increased exposure times. Remember that film should always be kept in a cool place.268 FAULT FINDER
PICTURE . casts can be corrected or minimized by the printer. and grit. there is no printing stage. checking that the lens is not dusty or smudged. Always check the use-by date on film cartons. Establish a simple routine for camera care. take extra care that the image you see in the viewfinder is the way you want it and that there is nothing obscuring the lens.TAKING ERRORS
Modern camera film is made to very high standards. especially if you are using a compact camera. this usually means that the film is old or has been badly stored. On color print film. such as an orange or blue color-cast. With color slide film. If you consistently experience exposure problems. A green color-cast can result from using old or badly stored film. sharply focused. Many photographers store their film in a refrigerator. This will guarantee a high percentage of successful. which are particularly associated with coastal areas and mountain landscapes. The only cure is patience and attention to detail. or use a correcting filter over the lens. Even own-brand and promotional packs of film should present few problems – they have more than likely been produced by a leading film manufacturer. A polarizing filter can sometimes have a stronger effect than a UV filter. lens obstructions. Again.
C AMERA C ARE AND USE
Some pictures display odd color faults. Use neutral surfaces for bouncing light. or use an appropriate correction filter. Autoexposure problems are most likely to occur if the subject is lit from behind or if it is much lighter or darker than its surroundings. A blue cast can also occur if flash is bounced off a blue-colored surface before reaching the subject. out of direct sunlight. A green cast on photographs taken indoors may mean that daylightbalanced film has been exposed by fluorescent lighting.
Blue color-cast
Overall blue color-cast (ii) A strong blue cast can be caused by a very smoky atmosphere in the room where a shot is taken or excessive amounts of ultra-violet light. An orange cast can also occur if flash is bounced off an orange-colored surface before reaching the subject. Use neutral surfaces for bouncing light. Your fingers or the camera strap can get in the way. have your camera tested and serviced. and that the inside of the camera is free of hair. such as household cleaners and bleaches. and away from all sources of chemical fumes. Such faults usually have nothing to do with film quality. in low humidity. so always use the correct film for the light source.

Subject underexposed
Unsynchronized flash This results in all or part of the image being black. Follow your flash instructions regarding the correct working distance and aperture required for your unit.
Image partially blacked-out
Vignetting This shows as dark edges and corners on an image and can be caused if the spread of light from a flash is inadequate for the angle of view of your lens. check that you have set the flash-synchronization speed (usually 1/125 or 1/60 second) or the lightning flash symbol on the shutter speed dial correctly. Fitting a diffuser over the flash or bouncing a flash off reflective surfaces helps.
Subject overexposed
Flash fall-off This describes underexposure of all or part of a flash-lit subject.PICTURE-TAKING ERRORS 269
COMPOSITIONAL ERRORS
Obstruction If you are using an SLR camera. if the wrong aperture is used.
Vignetted image
. and is most often associated with SLR cameras. This usually happens when the parallax correction marks in the viewfinder of a compact camera are not taken into account. Check that the subject is within the recommended working distance for your flash unit (assuming that you are shooting indoors with enough reflective surfaces to bounce the light back). be sure that your fingers and camera strap are well away from the lens. when a wide-angle lens is used too close to a subject or when a converging vertical distortion results from tilting the camera up to include the top of a tall building. always check the viewfinder before taking a photograph to see if there is anything obscuring the lens. To avoid distortion. be sure always to select the correct lens and camera position. Vignetting on nonflash images can be caused by using the wrong lens hood on a wide-angle lens. If you are using a compact camera. Parallax error This occurs when parts of a subject are accidentally omitted. Also examine your negatives carefully to check that this problem is not due to a printing error. and make sure that you set the correct film ISO number on nonautomatic flash units. If you are using a manual flash. using more than one filter on a lens at the same time.
Tilted image To avoid this problem. so move closer to the subject or select a wider aperture. because they will not appear on the direct vision viewfinder.
Subject partly obscured
Lens obstruction
Image distortion Distortions can be caused by using the wrong type of lens to photograph a particular scene – for example. look carefully through the viewfinder before taking a picture to make sure that the horizon is parallel to the top or bottom of the frame. or the shot is taken too close to the subject. or if the flash has been set with the wrong film speed. flash fall-off is rapid. Frame your subject within the marks and do not come in closer than the nearest recommended focusing distance. On manual cameras. it is caused by the flash firing when the shutter has only partially cleared the film plane.
Distorted image
Subject tilted in frame
FLASH FAULTS
Flash-lit subject overexposed This occurs when the flash is used too close to the subject. Outdoors. or if a polarizing filter is fixed to a lens. set it to the correct film ISO number.

causing light shadow areas and bleached-out highlights. for close-ups. Using a fast film often allows a sufficiently fast shutter speed to be selected. resulting in too little light reaching the film. which causes heavy shadow areas and dull highlights. This occurs when the shutter speed being used is too slow to arrest the rapid movement of part of the subject. are clean and free of scratches. which is a problem if the photographer is relying on shape to make the image interesting. washed-out colors or a distinct lack of image contrast are often caused by a dirty lens or lens filter. Decide which is more important for the composition of the image and set the exposure accordingly. support the camera on a tripod or level surface. Make sure all front lens elements.
Pale image or colors Assuming that it is not a lighting problem.270 FAULT FINDER
CONTRAST AND EXPOSURE
Camera shake This results in multiple images of the subject and general blurring. and. which will avoid the problem altogether. If overexposure happens consistently on an autoexposure camera. the recording ability of film cannot resolve detail in both very bright highlights and deep shadows. artificially lessen contrast by using a flash or a reflector. or find a more head-on camera viewpoint so that subject movement is effectively minimized. If possible. on an SLR.
Image with flat contrast
Image with washed-out colors
Overexposure This is when too much light reaches the film.
Image overexposed
Underexposure Like overexposure. To light an appealing foreground or subject in such conditions. wait until contrast is less extreme.
Double exposure
Subject movement Part of the subject is blurred but all stationary parts of the scene are sharp.
Excessive contrast The shadowy areas of the print are too dark or highlight areas too bright. there may be a problem that needs professional repair. If underexposure happens consistently on an autoexposure camera. The fault lies in selecting the wrong shutter speed/aperture combination for the film speed. This problems occurs often in twilight shots. such as a wall or the roof of a car. Unfortunately. use a faster shutter speed. there may be a problem that needs professional repair. this is when the wrong shutter speed/aperture combination has been selected for the film speed. the back lens element. Adopting a steady. If your camera has a rewind crank. check that it turns in the opposite direction from the direction the film is wound (this means that the film is loaded properly). Alternatively.
Blurred image
Multiple exposure More than one image recorded on the same film frame indicates that the film has not been correctly loaded and is therefore not advancing properly. Be sure to follow the loading instructions in your camera manual carefully. If the shutter speed being used is very slow and likely to result in camera shake.
Image underexposed
. relaxed shooting posture is the best way to avoid it. or. use a fill-in flash to create artificial contrast.
Moving subject blurred Excessive contrast
Flat contrast This is when there is very little difference between the brightest and darkest areas of the image or subject. filters.

dirt. you can occasionally take an extra frame. This usually occurs if extremely fast film is used. If the shutter speed is below 1/30. If you cannot bounce the flashlight from a nearby wall or ceiling before it reaches the subject.
Red eye A subject’s eyes glowing red usually happens when the built-in flash on compact cameras and SLRs is very closely aligned with the lens. use a slower. otherwise bright patches of light (flare) will obscure parts of the film and produce a washed-out image. This happens as a result of the film not advancing. the aperture selected may have resulted in insufficient depth of field.PICTURE-TAKING ERRORS 271
MISCELLANEOUS FAULTS
Unexposed film Processed film that is perfectly clear has never been exposed. Autofocus cameras may focus incorrectly through glass or if the subject is not center-frame. It is most apparent when an image is greatly enlarged – a smaller print minimizes it. use the focus lock (if your camera has one) and consult your camera manual regarding potential autofocus problems. Remember always to rewind the film before removing it. lines. Grain shows up more in the neutral and light-toned areas of an image. An illfitting or loose camera back can also allow enough light in to cause fogging.
Unexposed film frame Image out of focus
Blemishes on print These usually take the form of spots. slight camera shake can also cause this problem.
Overly grainy image
Half-framed image This happens when you try to squeeze an extra frame of film at the end of a roll. usually when you open the back of a camera before rewinding the film. it is worth taking the shot again when you have reloaded.
Film fogged by light
Flare surrounding light source
Grainy image Using the wrong film speed results in an overly grainy image. in case the processing laboratory has to cut into the frame to detach the film from the core or attach a clip to the end while the film is drying. or add extra lighting. use a film that is faster and correct for the available light minus the flash.
Flare Never point the camera directly at a bright light source unless the lens is adequately shaded. Flare can also be caused by fine scratches on the mat-black interior of the camera. Check the inside of the camera whenever you remove a film. To avoid excessive graininess. however.
Out-of-focus spot on image
Subject’s eyes glowing red
Film fogging This happens when non-imageforming light reaches the film.
Half-framed image
. Although film comes in standard lengths. or grit inside the camera. Blemishes or out-of-focus spots are also often due to raindrops on the lens when the photograph was taken. If the subject is off-center. Image out of focus If the final image is partially blurred. finergrain film with an increased exposure time. hair. If the picture is important. Follow the loading instructions in your camera manual carefully and always remember to wind the end of an exposed film back inside the cassette. and scratches on the film caused by dust.

A conveyor-belt system transports the individual sheets of exposed printing paper through another series of chemical baths and hot-air dryers. because hard grades yield fewer intermediate tones. which eliminates more intermediate tones to create a crisper. you may need to print on a softer grade of paper.
BLACK AND WHITE PRINTS
Blurred prints If a negative is sharp but the resulting print blurred. As an aid.272 FAULT FINDER
PRINTING ERRORS
At a large processing laboratory. If details in the highlight areas of a negative do not appear in the corresponding dark areas on the processed print. delivering hundreds of finished prints every hour.
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
The temperature of solutions and the timing of the separate chemical stages of print processing are other major sources of potentially avoidable problems for the home darkroom user. More serious is the contamination of one processing solution with another. use a focus magnifier to view an enlarged part of the projected image on the baseboard prior to exposure. Inspect both sides of a negative each time you load one into the enlarger. Some chemical solutions. the degree of automation in a film laboratory that only a fixed number of chemical solutions can be is not possible or desirable in the home darkroom. however. hair. is by keeping accurate records of the number of prints the likelihood of error. Each film image is printed by an enlarger that automatically analyzes its density and color content and sets the required color filtration and exposure length.
Spots and lines
. more contrasty image. Depending on the volume of film being processed. which scratches easily. or grit on the surface of a negative or positive will result in a blemished and flawed print. have only to be fractionally off the exact working temperatures stated in their accompanying instructions to seriously affect the HOME DARKROOM PROBLEMS color balance of the print. To achieve increased contrast – when there are areas of solid black and bright white present – try using a harder grade of paper. The only way to prevent such blemishes is to keep your darkroom scrupulously clean. It is also worth remembering Naturally. hair. Even one drop of bleach or fixing agent spilled in a developer solution will mean a waste of expensive paper and chemicals. likewise at the printing stage. films requiring the same type of chemical processing (E-6 for most color slides and C-41 for color negatives) are processed in long strips and passed through a series of chemical baths. or similar debris on the negative and are very noticeable on a print. which are constantly monitored to ensure that they are at the correct temperature.
Blurred image
Lack of highlight detail
Soft print with “muddy” tones Black and white prints can sometimes turn out too soft and muddy looking. Also make sure the developer you use is not contaminated. dust. Also use a printing frame to ensure that the printing paper cannot move during exposure. the chemical solutions are constantly renewed to give consistent results. even if filtration and exposure are perfect.
“Muddy” tones
Spots and lines on a print These are generally caused by dust. The most common problems to passing through these solutions before their chemical be avoided are related to darkroom cleanliness. take particular care with the emulsion side. particularly those used in color printing. even though the negative is satisfactory. When cleaning negatives. where used to process prints. Inherent in home processing. Avoid having to throw away you can work creatively on individual images as you ruined printing paper and wasting your creative efforts process them. action is exhausted. first check that the enlarger is focused correctly. Inaccurate highlight detail This can happen even though a negative has been correctly exposed.

magenta. especially around doors and windows. (Note that prints like this can also have a blotchy. uneven image This is usually due to the printing paper being loaded into the processing drum with the emulsion side the wrong way up.) Practice with a spare. Keep a note of the number and size of all prints passing though the solution.) Practice with a spare. Use a thermometer to gauge the exact temperature of a solution before pouring it into a print drum.PRINTING ERRORS 273
COLOR PRINTS FROM NEGATIVES
Brownish streaks on print The most likely cause of brownish streaks appearing on a print is that light hit the paper before exposure and fogged it. or cyan. so that the paper was exposed through the back. the paper was probably placed under the enlarger with the emulsion side face down. that the filter cover is securely in place. If you have a safelight. cyan color-cast. because this is the time when the emulsion is most easily affected. that the filter cover is secure. yellow. so that uneven amounts of each chemical solution reach the emulsion.
White or colored scratches These indicate that the delicate surface of the printing paper has been damaged. so that the paper was exposed through the back. Be very careful at every stage.
Brown streaks
Dark image lacking in contrast Usually caused by exhausted bleach solution. Scratches often come up white. reversed image If a processed print shows a pale image. Read the instructions accompanying the chemicals to determine how often they should be renewed. and if you are using a safelight. especially when still wet. and that the bulb is the right wattage.
Unevenly processed image
Scratches on print
.
Bright magenta color-cast
Blotchy. which destroyed most of the top yellow dye layer. make sure it is the correct type for color printing. waste piece of paper until you are confident you can tell the emulsion side by touch in complete darkness. and that the bulb is of the recommended wattage. A thermostatically controlled processing unit for solutions and print drums makes these critical controls easier to maintain. reversed left to right.
Image reversed
COLOR PRINTS FROM SLIDES
Purple color-cast If the print has a purple colorcast. the paper was slightly fogged by white light before exposure. depending on the depth of the scratch.
Light purple color-cast
Magenta color-cast If a processed print shows a pale image. Be sure that your darkroom is completely sealed against white light. check that it is the correct type for color printing. waste piece of paper until you are confident you can tell the emulsion side by touch in complete darkness. The same happens if the paper is correctly oriented but not enough solution is used. reversed left to right. The correct working temperature of the solution can be found in the instructions accompanying it. but can also be blue.
Heavy shadow areas
Pale. Always handle the paper gently. the paper was probably placed under the enlarger with the emulsion side face down. Discard and replace it before exhaustion point is reached. (Note that prints like this can also have a blotchy.
Lack of contrast
Heavy shadows and color-cast These are probably due to the temperature of the developer solution being incorrect. Seal the darkroom completely against white light. cyan color-cast.

the size of the aperture can be varied by a diaphragm. or stepping. such as a wall. A five-digit reference number on the cassette is also printed on the back of prints to allow you to identify negatives. Bracketing Taking a series of photographs of the same scene with each frame at a different exposure setting. Analogue A non-digital recording system where the strength of the signal is in direct proportion to the strength of the source. usually associated with wide-angle lenses. Also known as ambient or existing light. Blur Unsharp image area caused by camera or subject movement. ceiling. but not including artificial light such as flash. completely used. Bellows See Extension bellows. Each bit has a value of 0 or 1. Burning-in Photographic printing term used to indicate those parts of an image that would benefit from extra exposure. Used for manually timing exposures that are longer than the standard shutter speeds available. Digital files are usually measured in bytes. Ambient light See Available light. Moving the flaps in or out of the light beam controls the spread of light. Bit The basic unit from which any digital piece of data is made up. Available light Light that is normally available in a scene. creating ill-defined haloes around sources of bright light in the image. Aperture Circular opening within a lens that determines the amount of light that is allowed to pass through to reach the film. Aperture priority Type of semi-automatic exposure system whereby the photographer sets the aperture and the camera selects the corresponding shutter speed to ensure correct exposure of the scene. Autofocus A system where the lens is adjusted automatically by the camera to bring the image into sharp focus. Although it is costly and requires a powerful computer. to ensure correct exposure of a scene. which are each made up of 8 bits. Anti-aliasing A method of smoothing diagonal lines in digital images. Each byte can have one of 256 values. The angle of view varies according to the focal length of the lens and the camera format. soft area of lighting. the program offers a wide range of techniques and effects. known as “stops. Aerial perspective Illusion of depth and distance in a photograph due to the lightscattering effect of atmospheric haze. Suitable for PCs and Macs. which enhances the contrast-detection function of the autofocus. which is set to different-sized openings. light would be reflected back from the film base and through the emulsion. This creates a broad. or developed. before it reaches the subject. See also Focal-plane shutter. Antihalation layer Coating of dye on the back of films that absorbs light. Attachment A digital file attached to an e-mail. Artefacts Unwanted information in a digital image. Back-up Copy of a digital file. Backlighting Lighting that illuminates the subject from the rear. AF See Autofocus. as it ensures that the camera is stable at the moment of exposure. Film is automatically loaded from the cassette by the camera. Ball-and-socket head Simple type of cameramounting system found on some tripods. to avoid a staircase. The image area of the format is 30. Useful if a camera is mounted on a tripod. or a limited depth of field. Bluetooth Wireless connection system used to link different computer peripherals and digital devices using radio signals. partly used. It consists of a ball that can be rotated in a cupshaped fixture. caused by limitations in the recording process.7mm. but the user can
choose from three print sizes at the time of shooting. and is equal to 8 bits. Angle of view Most widely separated parts of a scene that a lens is capable of resolving into an acceptable image on a piece of film. kept in case of damage to or deletion of the original. Information about each picture is marked invisibly on the film's magnetic strip. Between-the-lens shutter Shutter system on most compact cameras that is built within the lens itself. Catadioptric lens See Mirror lens. and is returned in the cassette after processing. inaccurate focusing.
Barn doors Set of four hinged metal flaps on a frame that fit around a spotlight. An indicator shows whether the film is unused. Without this layer. Byte Standard unit for measuring memory capacity of digital devices. or reflector. Parts of the image not requiring burning-in must be shaded from the enlarger light during this process. Most exposuremeasuring systems tend to underexpose a backlit subject because the side of the subject facing the lens is in shadow. Array The arrangement of image sensors in a digital device. APS (Advanced Photo System) Miniature film format used for compact cameras and some SLRs. allowing sideways and up-anddown camera movements. or when it is difficult to judge the best exposure. Autofocus illuminator System used in some cameras to assist autofocus in low light situations. The procedure can be mimicked by most digital manipulation programs. such as extra domestic tungsten lighting. See also Tripod. effect created by the individual pixels. CC filter Abbreviation for Color conversion
. On all but the simplest of cameras.
B
B (Bulb) setting Shutter setting found on many cameras that holds the shutter open for as long as the release is depressed. See also Backlight compensation control. allowing the lens to be adjusted correctly.” calibrated in f-numbers. AE See Autoexposure. Useful when you want to select slightly darker or lighter prints than the exposure system would normally produce. A red pattern is projected onto the subject. Bleed A picture that is printed or cut so that the image extends to the edge of the paper. Film speed is also taken into account. and this data is used during printing. Archival Any process or material that is specifically designed to significantly improve the life expectancy of the image. Barrel distortion Design fault. Backlight compensation control Manual exposure control found on many modern cameras that opens the aperture by a predetermined amount to compensate when the main subject is backlit.
C
Cable release Mechanical or electrical device used to trigger the shutter. Autoexposure Camera system designed to set the size of the aperture and/or the shutter speed.274 GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
A
Adobe Photoshop Professional-standard image manipulation software package.2 x 16. that causes vertical lines near the edges of the frame to bulge outward. Cassette Metal or plastic holder for 35mm and APS film. Bounced flash Light from a flash that is first directed at a surface.

however. Compacts use point-and-shoot designs that are easy to carry around. if accurate color balance is essential. Complementary colors In a photographic context. Extensively used for removing blemishes. Compact A type of camera that has a shutter mechanism built into the lens. which correspond to the different tones of the original subject. and lenses with long focal lengths. Dodging Masking selected areas of the image at the printing stage to reduce exposure in that area in relation to the rest of the image. controlling shutter speed. 8-bit color offers 256 distinct colors. often expressed in Kelvin (K). Digital photographs and scans are recorded in RGB (red. Contre jour Another term for backlighting. Clip test Small length of film clipped from the beginning of an exposed roll. Depth of field is increased if a smaller aperture is set. they form white or gray.
Color gamut The range of colors that can be displayed by a computer screen. usually created by incorrect color balance or by a reflection from a strongly-colored object. Diaphragm Adjustable aperture of a lens. Occurs with some cheap camera lenses. but generally limited. Depth of focus Distance that the film plane can be moved without requiring the camera to be refocused. With digital cameras. and exposing them to light. green. whilst the human eye is capable of distinguishing over 16-million colors (32-bit color). the focal length of the lens (or zoom setting). A process that is often recreated with tools available during digital manipulation. This results in the vertical sides of a tall building appearing to converge when the camera is tilted back to include the top. It converts the focused image into an electrical signal. when mixed in the correct proportions. Color management A system that warns you of color gamut problems. this term refers to the colors yellow. It appears as a series of different-colored fringes around the subject. Color depth The amount of color information in a digital image. correct filtration is often necessary when shooting or printing. Depth of field scale Pairs of f-numbers engraved on a lens barrel that indicate the effective depth of field surrounding a subject when the lens is focused on the subject and the desired aperture has been selected. This is processed in advance so that processing times can be adjusted if necessary for the rest of the film. and converts the focused image into an electrical signal. or the further the subject focused on is away from the camera.
D
Daylight-balanced film Film designed to reproduce correct subject colors when exposed in daylight or by the light of electronic flash or blue flash cubes.
. receiving film speed information.000 colors. Downrating Exposing film as if it were less sensitive to light than its ISO rating indicates.GLOSSARY 275
filters – pale color filters designed to provide small changes in color balance when using color slide film. A digital camera can make electronic adjustments using its white balance system.
Cropping Removing unwanted parts of an image by enlarging only part of the frame during printing or digital manipulation. necessary to convert before printing. It is found at the focal plane. Dedicated flash Type of flashgun designed to be used with a specific camera or range of cameras. Yellow. See also Tungsten-balanced film. Allowances for downrated film have to be made during development. It is not. green. hence the fact that digital manipulation processes are often referred to as the digital darkroom. and red. Color balance The matching of film or imaging chip settings to ensure that white and grey tones appear in a picture as they would to the human eye. Useful for moving subjects. the flashgun effectively becomes an extension of that camera’s circuitry. a lens with a shorter focal length is selected. 16-bit color offers over 65. Magenta. or printed by a printer. and the focused distance. and cyan. Films and image sensors are capable of successfully dealing with differing. Depth of field Zone of acceptably sharp focus extending in front of and behind the point of true focus. Contacts are produced by placing the negatives in contact with a sheet of photographic printing paper. With color film. Contrast range A measurement of the difference in brightness between the darkest and lightest part of an image. This range of possible colors may well be different for both – and different from those recorded in the digital file. Also known as pulling. When using color film. Continuous tone Term used in black and white photography to describe a negative or print that has gradations of tone from black to white. Clone tool Facility on many digital image manipulation programs that allows you to replace an area of the image with a copy taken from another part of the image. Digital manipulation software provides a range of tools and techniques that are similar to those of the traditional darkroom. Continuous AF Autofocus setting where the focus is constantly adjusted up until the moment the shutter is fired. color balance is changed electronically using the white balance system. color balance can be changed using filters. The human eye adjusts for the color temperature of different light sources without us realising. but can be converted to the CMYK color space using imaging editing software. found at the focal plane. which are complementary to the primary colors blue. CCD (Charge Coupled Device) An imaging sensor used in digital cameras. where it is inappropriate for the focus distance to be locked once correct focus is initially found. Color-cast Unwanted color tint on an image. and using the exposure meter. and helps to ensure that the colors that are printed look the same as those you see on screen. CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) An imaging sensor used in digital cameras similar to a CCD sensor. Converging verticals An effect usually associated with a wide-angle lens that occurs when the film plane and the subject are not parallel. Many have built-in zooms and either record images digitally or on film. Contact sheet A print with the images from the same roll of film exactly the same size as the negatives. The size of the aperture affects the amount of light reaching the film. Digital manipulation Any alteration to a digital image on a computer that changes its appearance. and Black – the four primary inks used in commercial and desktop printing to produce full-color images. Once attached to the camera. pressing them down under a piece of glass. and the depth of field. dust marks and unwanted subject matter from a digital photograph. Diffuser Any material that is used to scatter and soften light. magenta. Center-weighted metering Type of exposure-measuring system that assumes the subject is placed in the center of the frame so weights the exposure in favor of that area. Color temperature Measurement of the color of light. See CMOS sensor. Colors are complementary to one another if. and blue). CMYK Cyan. Depth of field varies depending on the aperture selected. Chromatic aberration Lens fault that causes the different wavelengths of light to focus on slightly different planes. contrast ranges.

the mount of the filter may be engraved with a filter factor that indicates the additional exposure that has to be given. whether flash was used.
.
F
Feathering Technique used in digital manipulation to soften the edge of a selection or an effect. the information can easily be lost if the image is subsequently saved in an incompatible file format. Flash meter Type of hand-held exposure meter designed to register the very brief burst of light produced by a flash. metering mode. GIF. Emulsion Light-sensitive coating on photographic film and printing paper consisting of silver halides suspended in gelatin. Film back Preloadable film holder designed for use with a medium-format camera. Overall exposure is the product of the intensity of the light. File format The way in which a digital file is saved.
Exposure latitude will depend on the contrast range of the subject. See also Hyperfocal point. dark plate protects the film from accidental exposure.or underexposed and still produce an acceptable result when given standard processing. Through-thelens (TTL) exposure-metering cameras automatically compensate for any extra exposure required. in order to change the appearance of the finished image. Other formats include RAW. It also dictates the amount of information and the detail that is stored. The speed of a film is indicated by its ISO number. Exposure latitude Amount by which a film may be over. and zoom setting. Flash See Electronic flash. EXIF (Exchangeable Image File) Data recorded by many digital cameras as part of the image file. and recommends a shutter speed and aperture to achieve the correct exposure. and recompose the picture and shoot. Extension bellows Close-up attachment for SLR cameras and view cameras that fits between the camera body and the lens. medium-speed films ISO 200–400. the lens is usually set at the hyperfocal point. it is also known as a light meter. extension tubes are made of metal in different lengths and can be used singly or in combination to give different degrees of subject enlargement. Some exposure meters can be used in both continuous light and flashlight. The bellows unit is made of flexible material and mounted on rails.
Film plane Plane on which the film lies in a camera. Flash synchronization speed Fastest shutter speed available that ensures the shutter is fully open when the flash is fired. Film speed The more sensitive a film is to light. Slow films are in the range ISO 50–100. Enlargement Any size of print that is larger than the transparency or negative from which it is produced. when coupled with a small maximum aperture. loaded with the appropriate film. number of pixels used. but the code can also communicate the length of the roll and its exposure latitude. and fast films ISO 800–3200. scanner. Flash fall-off Progressive underexposure of those parts of a subject that are beyond the working distance of the flash. Also used to add highlights if the subject is flatly lit. Exposure Amount of light received by a photographic emulsion or imaging chip. This information can be read by certain software. A certain amount of feathering is necessary with most selective operations so that the joins between images do not show. or light reflected from inside the camera body itself. Depth of field at every aperture is so extensive that focusing may not be necessary. Exposure meter A device that measures the amount of light reflected from or falling onto the subject. aperture. Fill-in light Supplementary lighting from a flash or reflector that is used most often to lighten shadowy areas of the subject and reduce overall contrast. shutter speed. lock the reading into the camera. Flare Non-image-forming light caused by light scattering as it passes through the glass surfaces of a lens. Fast films in general have a wider exposure latitude than slow films. Flash umbrella Umbrella-shaped reflector that casts a broad area of soft. assesses the film speed. Driver A piece of software that is used by a computer to control and communicate with a printer. Fisheye lens Extreme wide-angle lens that produces highly distorted. The results look and feel very similar to traditional photographic prints. renders most subjects relatively sharp. Filter factor Most filters subtract some of the light passing through them. Dye sublimation Printing method used to make high-quality prints from digital image files. A thin. The camera lens is designed to bring images into focus precisely at the film plane to ensure correctly exposed pictures. These usually only tell the camera the film's ISO speed (its sensitivity to light). Fixed-focus lens Lens that is set to one subject distance from the camera and cannot be selectively focused closer than or beyond the subject. Extension tubes Similar in principle to an extension bellows. the light source. but for non-TTL and manual cameras. It is possible to change from black and white to color or from color negative to color transparency film at any time (even halfway through a film). less commonly. including the date and time it was recorded. Used on the simplest of cameras. The format dictates which programs will be able to read and open the file. diffused
E
Electronic flash Type of flash that discharges an electric current through a gas-filled tube to produce a short burst of bright light. exposure mode. DPOF (Digital Print Order Format) Facility available on some digital cameras that allows users to mark the images that they wish to have processed into prints. Digital backs are also available. plastic.276 GLOSSARY
dpi (dots per inch) A measure of the resolution of a printer or other digital device. simply by removing the film back from the camera and attaching another. A digital image can be saved in a wide variety of file formats – the most commonly-used being TIFF and JPEG. Can be built into the camera or hand-held. Flash fall-in See Fill-in light. circular images. which. Filter Glass. the “faster” it is. However. This data automatically records a wide range of information about the picture. or gelatin disks or squares that fit over a camera lens or. exposure compensation used. Each doubling of the ISO number represents a doubling of light sensitivity (for example from ISO 100 to 200 or from ISO 400 to 800). DX coding Black and silver markings on a 35mm film canister that can be read by many cameras. model of camera. and Photoshop. Enlarger Darkroom device that projects the image of a negative or transparency onto a piece of photographic printing paper. the aperture size. and the shutter speed. A useful feature when the subject is backlit or when the main subject is either much lighter or darker than the surrounding scene. sometimes with an angle of view in excess of 200˚. or other peripheral. Exposure lock Feature found on many automatics SLR cameras that allows the photographer to take a light reading from one part of a scene.

Focus lock Feature found on autofocus SLR cameras and many compact cameras that allows the photographer to focus the lens on one part of a scene. Flashgun Any type of add-on flash unit. f-stop See f-number. See Color temperature. Also known as a brolly. A useful feature when the subject is off-center.
. Focusing screen Glass or plastic screen mounted inside the camera that allows the image to be viewed and focused accurately. Infra-red (IR) film Film that is sensitive to invisible infra-red light. This allows digital cameras to allow a range of different sensor sensitivities. Suppose the number is 40 (metres with ISO 100 film). such as a flash.
I
Incident light The light falling on a subject. shutter speed. the internationally agreed film speed rating system that amalgamated the older ASA and DIN scales. equivalent to using film with different ISO ratings.
L
Large-format camera See View camera. so completing a circuit when the shutter is fired.
K
Kelvin (K) Unit of measurement used to describe the color temperature of light sources. Graininess Term describing the visual appearance of irregular clumps of exposed and developed silver halide grains on films and printing papers. and then recompose the picture and shoot. It is the standard format used by most digital cameras (although RAW or TIFF formats may be available for the highest resolution capture settings). which is designed to hold a flashgun securely. Focal length Lenses are most often described by their focal length. and the focal plane. and color balance. Zoom lenses offer a range of focal lengths. The scale of fnumbers is calculated by dividing the focal length of the lens by the effective diameter of the aperture. Graininess is most apparent in light-toned areas of an image. Focal plane Plane at which light from the lens is brought into focus.
H
High-key image An image composed predominantly of light tones or colors. Highlights Brightest parts of an image. so a 110mm lens and an effective aperture diameter of 10mm would equal f11. at 5m (16ft) f8. ISO Abbreviation for International Standards Organization. Granularity Qualitative measurement of the degree of clumping together of silver halide grains within a photographic emulsion. Floodlight Studio light designed to produce a broad beam of light. Focusing Adjustment of the lens-to-film distance in order to achieve a sharp image of the subject. as most AF systems focus on anything that is positioned in the middle of the frame.
Hyperfocal point The nearest point of sharp focus to a camera when a lens is focused on infinity (for a particular aperture). Used in digital cameras as a way of electronically boosting the sensitivity of the imaging chip in lowlight. This produces dark.GLOSSARY 277
light onto the subject when flashlight is bounced off its inside surfaces. Focal-plane shutter Type of shutter consisting of fabric or metal blinds situated just in front of the focal plane. Inverse square law Law that states that a doubling of the distance between a subject and a compact light source. Hot shoe Metal plate usually found on the top of the camera. which can be made even more dramatic by using a red filter. results in a quartering of the light illuminating the subject. Grain Exposed and developed black silver halide grains making up a photographic image. lock that setting into the camera. Moving the aperture ring down one stop (for example from f11 to f8) makes the aperture larger and doubles the amount of light passing through the lens. this is the distance between the optical center of the lens when the lens is focused on infinity. measured in millimeters (mm). A variable amount of compression can be used to vary both the detail stored and the resulting size of the file. Gamma A method for measuring or setting contrast. See also Low-key image. depth of field extends from infinity to a point halfway between it and the camera. Format Size or shape of a film original. or camera viewing area. as opposed to that being reflected by it. then at 10m (33ft) the lens would be set at f4. and so on. f-numbers are also known as f-stops. the focal plane and the film plane must precisely coincide. Colour IR film available but less widespread. Combines the fixed lens of a standard compact camera with SLR features such as adjustable aperture. f-number Series of numbers engraved on the barrel of a lens that represent the sizes of aperture available. Lens apertures can be calculated by dividing the guide number by the distance between the subject and the flash. Electrical contacts on the base of the hot shoe correspond to contacts on the bottom of the flash. Hybrid camera A compact digital camera that is designed to handle like an SLR. tonal range and contrast of a digital image. If the lens is focused at the hyperfocal point. In order to ensure sharp images. moody images. Key light Alternative term for Main light. Moving the aperture ring up one stop (for example from f4 to f5. IX240 Another name for the APS film format.
G
Gain Amplification of an electrical circuit. Focal point Point of light on the optical axis where all rays of light emanating from a given subject converge and come into sharp focus. printing paper.
J
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) A file format used widely for digital images. GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) Digital file format that can be used for saving graphics and images. Histogram Graphical display – used as a way of depicting and manipulating the brightness. Focal-plane shutters are normally found only in cameras with interchangeable lenses. Guide number Measure of the maximum output of an electronic bulb or flashgun that varies according to the film speed used.6) makes the aperture smaller and halves the amount of light passing through the lens. IR film is most commonly used for black-and-white photography because it is relatively insensitive to blue.

Allows the photographer to preview the effects of light and shade. Modeling lamp Low-wattage. The subject should appear reasonably sharp while all stationary parts of the scene are blurred. especially the fall of the shadows that will be produced when the flash fires. and the camera turned either horizontally or vertically and locked securely in any position. Opening up Increasing the size of the aperture to allow more light to reach the film. Layers are an essential way of working for any serious manipulation work. It results in light prints or slides and a reduction in subject contrast. Lenses with wide maximum apertures admit most light. either by exposing it to too bright a light or by allowing the light to act on it for too long.
. Cards of different memory capacity are available. Megabyte (MB) Unit for measuring the capacity of computer memory. which uses a motor inside the camera to advance the film at the beginning of a roll. Monochromatic Describes a photographic image that is solely or predominantly composed of a single color or shades of a single color. The original image can be protected as the background layer. Memory card A removable electronic card used in most digital cameras to save and store digital images. Marquee Selection tool used in digital image manipulation programs that allows you to draw regular shapes – such as ovals or rectangles. 6 x 4.024 bytes (two to the power of ten bytes). Panning Action of turning the camera while the shutter is open to keep pace with a moving subject.5cm and 6 x 7cm – with a variety of panoramic sizes also available. Equal to 1. and rewind the film after the last shot is taken. Linear perspective Sense of depth and distance in a two-dimensional photograph caused by the apparent convergence of parallel lines receding from the camera. Lens Glass or plastic optical instrument that can refract light. Light meter See Exposure meter. either built into the camera or available as an add-on accessory.278 GLOSSARY
Lasso Selection tool used in digital manipulation software. Main light Principal lighting unit that provides illumination for a subject or scene. Also known as a catadioptric or reflex lens. continuousoutput lamp mounted in the lighting head of a flash unit. A photographic lens consists of different-shaped glass elements arranged in groups to form a compound lens. these are known as fast lenses.
Motorized film transport Automatic feature found on many cameras. some elements are convex in shape. The tripod head can be swiveled from side to side or tilted up and down. The rolls of film measure 6cm (2 1⁄4 in) across . The aperture of such lenses is usually fixed at around f8. Lens hood Attachment made of metal or rubber that screws into the filter mount on the front of a lens and prevents unwanted light from reaching the surface of the lens and affecting the image. causing rays of light to converge. Lith film Black-and-white film with a tonal range that is reduced to black and white with only minimal greys. Megapixel Measurement of the resolution of a digital camera. Latent image Invisible image on film or photographic printing paper formed by the action of light from the subject and made visible by the development process. Popular formats include 6 x 6cm. The effect of the mirrors is to reflect light rays up and down the length of the lens to produce a long focal length in a relatively short lens barrel.
M
Macro Term used to describe equipment or features that allow you to take pictures at a closer shooting distance than usual. and so can be used in dimmer lighting conditions or to compensate for faster shutter speeds. Low-key image An image composed predominantly of dark tones or colors. taking picture after picture as long as the trigger is held down. causing rays to diverge. Very important feature on any flash unit if exposure using a flash meter is required.
N
Negative Developed film image in which colors or tones of the original subject are reversed. In a compound lens. Layers can be opaque – or they can be merged with layers below in a number of different ways. LCD (liquid crystal display) Type of display panel used widely on cameras to provide information to the user.but the image size varies from camera to camera. Multiple exposure Technique of making more than one exposure appear on the same image. Motordrive Automatic film advance system. The system allows continuous shooting. LED (light emitting diode) Colored indicator lamp used on many cameras for a variety of purposes. and some concave.
P
Pan-and-tilt head Versatile type of cameramounting system found on some tripods. and are often used as viewing screens on digital cameras. Montage Composite picture made from a number of photographs. to provide a more magnified image. Mirror lens Telephoto lens with mirrors replacing some of the glass elements found in a traditional lens. whilst alterations are made to copy layers. Also used for “painting with light” technique. equal to one million pixels. See also Tripod. Medium-format camera Camera with a picture format larger than 35mm but smaller than a view camera. advance the film after each exposure. Layer Feature available on some digital manipulation software that allows you to lay different versions or elements of an image on top of each other. Sometimes done for special effect but can also occur due to a fault with the film advance system. An intermediate stage in the production of a print. Neutral density filter Gray-colored lens filter that reduces the amount of light reaching the film without affecting color balance. Lens speed Refers to the maximum aperture available with a lens. Allows you to outline an area of an image by drawing a series of points around it. Color LCDs are capable of showing detailed images.
O
Off the film (OTF) A light-reading system that gauges exposure by measuring the amount of light being reflected by the film. Light box Box containing fluorescent tubes with an opaque glass or plastic top used for viewing transparencies. Must be developed with a special lith developer. Magic wand Selection tool used in digital manipulation that lets you select an area of similar color or tone simply by clicking on it. Open flash Button on some flashguns that allows the flash to be fired without exposing the film. Overexposure Occurs if a film receives too much light.

the primary colors are blue. particularly when handling large image files. Reciprocity failure Loss of sensitivity of a photographic emulsion when given either a very brief or a very long exposure. and then developing normally. Polaroid camera Instant camera that produces an image within minutes of exposure. See also Through-the-lens metering. but is produced far more easily using digital image manipulation software. All TTL (through-the-lens) exposuremeasuring systems take a reflected light reading. Portrait lens Short telephoto lens with a focal length of about 90mm (for a 35mm camera). which results in a slight difference in viewpoint between the image as seen in the viewfinder and that recorded on the film. In terms of painters’ pigments. It is also known as contrast-detection or phase-detection autofocus. A single lightsensitive cell in a digital camera's image sensor. such as the sky. Photoflood See Floodlight. Instead of gradual changes in density and color. If possible. Normally a flashgun synchronizes with the point where the first shutter is fully open. the picture is made up of bands of identical color – similar to a painting-by-numbers picture. Reflex camera Camera design that uses a mirror between the lens and focusing screen to correct the upside-down image produced by the lens. Another solution is to move closer to the subject. Predictive autofocus Autofocus setting where the focus is not only constantly adjusted until the shutter is actually fired. yellow. but can interfere with the metering and autofocus systems of many models. It can also be used to eliminate or reduce reflections from non-metallic surfaces such as water or glass. The effect can also be created with manipulation software. Prime lens See Fixed focal length lens. Plug-in Piece of software which adds functionality to an existing computer program.GLOSSARY 279
Panorama A broad. Each print contains its own processing chemicals and is automatically fed out of the camera. Posterization Technique where the number of colors or tones in a photograph is drastically reduced. using effects such as a mosaic filter. Red-eye Fault caused by light reflected from a subject’s eyes when exposed by flash. A particular problem with cameras with built-in flash with telephoto zoom settings – as the angle between flash and lens axis is narrow. Panoramic camera Camera that offers an image size where the width is significantly greater than the height. The camera can therefore track moving subjects more accurately.
. prints or digital images. Pentaprism Five-sided prism usually found on the top of SLR cameras. the term usually refers to the colors blue. and red. Color material may also experience uncorrectable shifts in color balance. whereupon the processing chemicals develop the print. as the blurred after-image created by the ambient light appears behind the line of movement. Its inside surfaces are silvered so that the image produced by the reflex mirror appears in the viewfinder the right way up and correctly oriented left to right. Preview button See Stop-down button. ppi is an indication of the resolution of a digital image produced by a digital camera or scanner. while the second is used in an interchangeable Polaroid back that can be added to specially designed SLR. Printing-in See Burning-in. Pixel Short for picture element. Primary colors In a photographic context. and large-format cameras. Rear curtain sync Facility found on some SLRs and flashguns that synchronizes the flash output with the moment when the second shutter curtain is about to close. providing an increased range of effects and transformations. medium-. using a wider lens setting. Push processing Technique for increasing the sensitivity of a film. It must be rotated in
front of the lens until you achieve the desired effect. Polaroid film There are two types of polaroid film: the first is used in a Polaroid camera. This type of autofocus is widely used on 35mm SLRs and on some other types of camera. rather than in front of it. The film is exposed at a higher-than-normal ISO rating. rather than actively measuring the subject distance. and red. the sprocket holes are located. Some cameras have settings that use a preflash to reduce the size of the irises of the subject’s eyes. Retouching Removing blemishes and/or changing the tonal values of negatives. continuous scene taken either with a panoramic camera or produced by taking a series of different photographs of a scene and joining the individual pictures together to create a panoramic view. Point-and-shoot See Compact Polarizer A filter that only lets through light vibrating in one plane. Reflex lens See Mirror lens. Parallax error Framing error almost always associated with direct vision viewfinders. ppi (points per inch) Also known as pixels per inch. The effect can be achieved in the darkroom. Resolution The ability of a lens. Perspective control lens See Shift lens. Photogram Picture made by placing opaque and/or translucent objects in contact with photographic paper or film. but is also adjusted during the delay between pressing the trigger and the shutter actually opening. Reflected light reading An exposure reading taken by measuring the amount of light reflected back from the subject toward the camera. move the flash unit to one side or bounce the light before it reaches the subject. to minimize the problem. Passive autofocus Autofocus system that adjusts the focus of the lens by looking at the image itself. exposing the paper to light. and is then developed for longer to compensate. Pixelated A digital image in which the individual picture elements that make it up have become visible. When they coincide.
R
RAM (random access memory) A computer’s working memory – the storage area it uses whilst working on files and processing information. Digital manipulation programs can require more RAM than many other computer programs. It can be used to deepen the color of part of a picture. the subject is in focus. Rangefinder Manual focusing system that superimposes two views of the subject. film or digital imaging device to record fine detail. Posterization can also be an unwanted side-effect of digital imaging – caused by over manipulation of the image. Rebate Non-image area on a film in which the frame numbers and. on some films. Circular polarizers avoid such problems. This second type is used by professional photographers to preview the shot before re-taking with the desired film. This is usually due to over-enlargement to poor resolution of the original image. The facility gives more natural-looking images when using slow synch flash with a moving subject. A common feature on autofocus SLRs. Linear polarizers can be used with some cameras. The basic unit used when measuring the maximum resolution of a digital camera or a digital image. Photomicrography Production of largerthan-life images of small subjects by attaching the camera to a microscope. slides. Plug-ins are available for some digital image manipulation programs. Pulling See Downrating. green.

or graphite. be large. so different colored filters are used. often connected to heavy-duty power packs and mounted on adjustable stands. Test strip Strip of printing paper or film that is given a range of trial exposures. Scanner Device that converts a physical image into a digital one. and most also have an extendable central column (on top of which the camera is mounted) for finer height adjustments. and an 80mm lens with 6 x 6cm medium format film. Commonly abbreviated to TTL. Slow sync flash Technique where a slow shutter speed is combined with a burst of flash. A spot meter is used to take a light reading from a specific part of a subject. The two most commonly available camera-mounting heads are ball-and-socket and pan-and-tilt types. Stop-down button Manual control that closes down the aperture to that selected for
exposure. SLR See Single lens reflex. Tripod legs are extendable so that the camera height can be adjusted. Sheet film Large-format film cut to a specific size rather than in roll form. Black and white printing paper is not affected by safelighting. and computer monitors to display or record images. The technique can also be used to ensure that the background receives more exposure than it would otherwise have done. Soft-focus lens Lens designed to produce a slightly soft image. that allows you to control a scanner. Tonal range Range of shades of gray. Tripod Camera-steadying device consisting of three legs and some form of mounting system to hold the camera. and blue. With 35mm format film the standard lens is 50–55mm. Digital images are therefore usually RGB models – but they can be converted to other color models (such as CMYK). Strobe light Low-output flash light that is capable of delivering many thousands of flashes per second. Spotlight Unit that produces a strong beam of light. for example). Transparency See Slide. which moves out of the way when the picture is taken. Slow film See Film speed. natural-looking color-cast. Stop bath Chemical solution (usually weak acid) that halts the action of film or paper developer and neutralizes any developer residues. See Aperture. which can easily be trained on a subject. See Standard lens. Tone An area on a print or negative that has a uniform density and that can be distinguished from other lighter or darker parts. Telephoto lens Lens with a focal length that is longer than the standard lens for the format being used. File sizes can. Spot meter Type of exposure meter with an extremely narrow angle of view. Through-the-lens metering A type of lightmeasuring system used commonly in reflex cameras to measure the light that is reflected from a subject and then passes through the lens. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) Digital image format used to record files with maximum available detail. most usually with the aid of the clone tool. Also commonly known as a transparency or a positive. so preventing contamination of other processing chemicals. Solarization Complete or partial reversal of an image. A mirror is used to reflect the image to the viewing screen. A standard lens reproduces about as much of a scene as you would see with the naked eye (excluding peripheral vision). Stop Another name for aperture. TWAIN (technology without an interesting name) Piece of software. Spotting Removing blemishes or small unwanted areas of detail on a print using a paintbrush and dyes. but the ambient light creates a secondary image that can be useful in suggesting movement. Also known as a perspective control (PC) lens. from another application – such as a digital image manipulation package. Each sheet is used for just one photograph.
.
T
Technical camera See View camera. watercolors. caused by massive overexposure to white light. Stopping down Closing down the aperture. with not all in-focus elements critically sharp. Slow lens See Lens speed. between the extremes of black and white. Also known as a preview button. Standard lens Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the image area of the format with which it is used. which can be distinguished in a photograph. green. and designed to illuminate large areas of a photographic studio or for use on location. Skylight filter Pale amber filter that can be used with color film to introduce a slight. or similar computer peripheral. Shift lens Lens in which some elements can be shifted vertically or horizontally offcenter. The flash usually provides the main illumination. Single lens reflex (SLR) Type of camera in which the viewfinder image shows the subject through the same lens that will be used to expose the film or imaging chip. Similar correction is possible with digital images using manipulation software. The effect can easily be mimicked using digital manipulation software. Shutter Device that controls the moment of exposure and the length of time light is allowed to act on the film to produce an image. to overcome the type of problem encountered when a camera is tilted (to include the tops of tall structures. Shutter priority Type of semi-automatic exposure system whereby the photographer sets the shutter and the camera selects the corresponding lens aperture to ensure correct exposure of the scene. Starburst filter Special effects filter that produces starlike patterns around the sources of light in a photograph.
Slide Positive film image designed to be viewed by projection. See also Between-the-lens shutter and Focal-plane shutter. The three colors used by digital cameras. Roll-film camera See Medium-format camera.280 GLOSSARY
RGB Red.
S
Safelight Low-output darkroom light filtered through an appropriate color (orange is usual) so as not to affect unexposed printing paper. TLR See Twin lens reflex. Transmitted light Light that passes through a transparent or translucent material. A portrait lens may also be a soft-focus lens. Ring flash Circular flash lighting unit that fits around the outside of the front of the lens. Useful with coldlooking scenes and to counteract the tendency of some films to produce a blue cast in shadow areas. Slave unit Fires additional synchronized flashes when the principal flash lighting unit connected to a camera fires. Studio flash Large flash units. scanners. Most often used in close-up photography to produce localized. but most films and color papers will be. The photographer can then judge depth of field on the focusing screen. similar to a driver. shadow-free illumination. however. Snoot Type of flash head used to direct a narrow beam of light over a small area.

Used by artists to give realistic perspective in a twodimensional representation. and 24mm focal lengths. View camera Large-format camera. such as mountainous areas. using individual sheets of 5 x 4in (12. and therefore all the other colors. Very small changes in camera viewpoint can result in considerable differences in finished prints or slides. 28mm. A UV filter may be left on the lens all the time to protect the lens from dirt. Repeated screenings of films. ultraviolet radiation increases the effects of aerial perspective by creating a blue haze. Commonly used wideangle lenses for 35mm-format cameras include 35mm. field.
There are two main designs. where a softfocus negative is sandwiched with the original in order to increase edge contrast. perspective and depth of field. Allowances for uprated film have to be made during development. or baseboard cameras. It ensures that the firing of the flash is synchronized with the opening of the shutter. with a lens panel mounted on a flexible bellows and a ground-glass screen at the image plane for viewing and focusing. Wide-angle lens Lens with a focal length shorter than the diagonal of the film format with which it is used. the position from which the picture is taken in relation to the subject.
W
White balance System by which a digital camera measures the color temperature of a light source and then corrects it so that the whites.
X-sync socket External socket found on some cameras that accepts a cable connecting the shutter to an electronic flashgun used offcamera. Also known as technical. If exposed in daylight without the appropriate correction filter over the lens. Twin lens reflex (TLR) Type of mediumformat camera that uses two lenses of identical focal length mounted one under the other on a lens panel. However. Ultra-violet light Part of the electro-magnetic spectrum beyond visible blue. See also Daylight-balanced film. The effect can be achieved in the darkroom either by holding light away from the edges to create a white vignette (see Dodging) or by giving a large amount of extra exposure to the edges to create a black vignette (see Burning-in). may have a cumulative effect. they are heavy and cumbersome so are best suited to studio use where they can be supported on a heavy stand.
U
Ultra-violet (UV) filter Colorless filter designed to remove excessive ultra-violet from the light passing through the lens. See also Fixedfocus lens. and scratches.GLOSSARY 281
TTL See Through-the-lens metering. Unsharp mask (USM) A facility provided on digital image manipulation programs that allows you to sharpen an image. The viewfinder often contains exposurerelated information around the edges of the screen. UV filter See Ultra-violet filter. Vignette Gradual fading of a photographic image to white or black. Visible spectrum The part of the electromagnetic spectrum between infra-red and ultra-violet that is visible to the naked eye. UV filters do not affect exposure.
V
Vanishing point Point at which parallel lines appear to converge in the distance. In distant scenes. The top lens is used for viewing and focusing and the bottom lens for taking the picture. Takes its name from a printing process. subject colors will appear unnaturally blue. Also known as pushing. Underexposure Occurs if a film or imaging chip receives too little light.
Z
Zoom lens Type of lens designed so that groups of internal elements can be shifted in relation to each other to produce a range of different focal lengths.
X
X-ray fogging A gray veil produced when unprocessed photographic emulsions are exposed to excessive X-ray radiation. This can occur as a result of baggage screening at airports. especially fast films. Viewfinder Viewing system that allows a camera to be aimed and focused accurately. Uprating Exposing film as if it is more sensitive to light than its ISO rating indicates. Some models have interchangeable lenses. Ultraviolet effects can be minimized by using an ultra-violet filter. The monorail camera allows a full. Field cameras have a baseboard to support the bellows and are slightly more portable.7 x 10cm) film or larger. Lenses wider than this may show signs of barrel distortion. appear normally to the human eye. which are changed as paired units. causing dark pictures and a reduction in subject contrast.
. Tungsten-balanced film Film designed to reproduce correct subject colors when exposed in tungsten light. but modern systems use X-ray dosages that should be safe for most emulsions. independent movement of film and lens planes – allowing a high degree of control over image distortion. knocks. Viewpoint In photography.