O'DOCHARTAIGH ASSOCIATES

ANNOTATED DISASTER MENTAL HEALTH REFERENCES

Workers and Victims

Aguilera, David M. and Planchon, Lynn A.The American Psychological Association-
California Psychological Association Disaster Response Project: Lessons from
the past, guidelines for the future. Special Section: Trauma, disaster planning,
and psychological services. Professional Psychology Research and Practice;
1995 Dec Vol 26(6) 550-557.
The American Psychological Association-California Psychological
Association Disaster Response Project provided valuable lessons about response
at the local and state levels. The authors offer guidelines from the experiences
of pioneers of organized disaster response and from published accounts on how
to set up disaster response networks, the necessary training to become a disaster
response volunteer, and how to maintain a disaster response team (e.g., tools
needed, psychologists' roles, cultural diversity, and interprofessional camaraderie).
Also described are the following: interventions for stress responses from victims,
helpers, and children; special problems of social disasters; implications of
media presence; and psychologists' roles in educating the public and government
agencies about disaster response. Finally, the future of disaster response in
the mental health profession is discussed.Ahearn, Fred and Cohen, Raquel. Annotated bibliography on mental health
research in disasters. National Institute of Mental Health. Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984.
This bibliography represents the first comprehensive scholarly bibliography
relating the trauma of disaster to victim mental health. Materials are organized
by the following topics: theories of disaster and disaster behavior, physical
and mental health effects of disaster, coping and recovery, social and organizational
response to disaster, mental health services for disaster victims, and prevention
programs.Bowenkamp, ChristineThe Los Angeles civil unrest: Implications for future
mental health counseling interventions. Special issue: Disasters and crises:
A mental health counseling perspective Journal of Mental Health
Counseling; 1995 Jul Vol 17(3) 301-311.
Outlines the sequence of events in the Los Angeles riots of 1992 and briefly
summarizes several of the underlying causes that precipitated the event. The
psychological reactions of victims and emergency responders are described.
Crisis interventions used to minimize the emotional after effects are discussed.
It is suggested that all communities, no matter what their size, can benefit by
including a disaster mental health component in their overall disaster planning.Bromet, Evelyn and Dunn, Leslie. Mental health of mothers nine months after
the Three Mile Island accident. The Urban and Social Change Review 14(2):
12-15, 1981.
The incident at Three Mile Island nuclear reactor began on March 28, 1979,
and was considered potentially life-threatening. This study on the mental
health of mothers living near Three Mile Island focuses on the relationship
between social support systems and symptoms of anxiety and depression. A sample
of 328 mothers were interviewed 9 months after the accident; the results were
compared with reactions of 133 mothers living near a less problematic nuclear
facility.Carr, Vaughan J.; Lewin, T.J.; Webster, R.A.; Hazell, P.L.; et alPsychosocial sequelae of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake: I. Community
disaster experiences and psychological morbidity 6 months post-disaster.
Psychological Medicine; 1995 May Vol 25(3) 539-555.
A stratified random sample of 3,007 Australian adults completed a
screening questionnaire 6 months after the 1989 Newcastle earthquake. Information
was obtained on initial earthquake experiences and reactions, use of specific
services, social support, coping strategies, and psychological morbidity. Two
weighted indices of exposure were developed: a threat index and a disruption
index. Levels of exposure to threat and disruption events were significant
predictors of morbidity on both the General Health Questionnaire and Impact
of Event Scale, as were coping style and gender. Effects of exposure to threat
and disruption were largely additive; higher exposure was associated with
greater use of support services, higher perceived stressfulness, and more
severe psychological morbidity. Use of avoidance as a coping strategy, female
gender. lower social support, and being older were also associated with higher
post-disaster psychological distress.Cohen, Raquel and Ahearn, Frederick. Handbook for mental health care of disaster
victims. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1980.
Developed as a guide for disaster workers, this book covers three major themes:
disaster behavior, disaster planning, and postdisaster psychological intervention.
Concepts of stress and crisis; loss, mourning, and grieving; social and emotional
resources; and coping and adaptation are discussed.Dingman, Robert L. and Ginter, Earl J.Disasters and crises: The role of mental
health counseling. Special Issue: Disasters and crises: A mental health counseling
perspective. Journal of Mental Health Counseling; 1995 Jul Vol 17(3) 259-263.
Provides a brief overview of events that have contributed to the development of
what currently constitutes disaster-crisis mental health counseling, an area of
counseling that has gained increased clinical attention and empirical focus within
the field of mental health counseling. Topics discussed include the significance
and need for disaster-crisis counseling and organizational efforts in this field
by the American Red Cross, the American Counseling Association, and the American
Mental Health Counselors Association.Dingman, Robert L.The mental health counselor's role in Hurricane Andrew.
Special Issue: Disasters and crises: A mental health counseling perspective.
Journal of Mental Health Counseling; 1995 Jul Vol 17(3) 321-335.
Discusses the role of disaster workers in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew,
focusing on mental health workers. The effects on disaster workers are discussed,
followed by some reported experiences of workers as well as victims. Hurricane
Andrew generated the first successful test of the Disaster Mental Health Services
(DMHS) of the American Red Cross in a large disaster. DMHS recorded 28,474 mental
health interventions during the operation. Many lessons were learned. New positions
were identified, interdisciplinary cooperation was enhanced, and creative
interventions were developed and became standard. Mental health interventions and
various skills needed by disaster mental health counselors are discussed.Erikson, Kai. Loss of communality at Buffalo Creek. American Journal of
Psychiatry 133(3): 302-305, 1976.
The 1972 Buffalo Creek slag flood killed 125 persons and permanently disrupted
the lives of the 4,000 survivors. They suffered not only individual but also
collective trauma - damage to the fabric of community. Effects were delayed until
the rebuilding phase. After the destruction of the social network and hasty
resettlement, victims perceived new neighbors as less moral than themselves and
felt isolated from the community.Fain, R.M. and Schreier, R.A.Disaster, stress and the doctor. Medical
Education; 1989 Jan Vol 23(1) 91-96.
Discusses how, in most casualty departments and high stress areas, there exist
informal procedures and practices to deal with the psychological reactions of
medical staff to extreme stressors. However, these are often not adequate in
preventing long-term effects. It is suggested that a formal intervention model
be formulated. The model should include the setting up of a preventive program
that starts with the appropriate selection of staff; development of peer and
supervisory support through team building; and the education of doctors, nurses,
and other health professionals on the possible personal and team effects in
the wake of the disaster.Farberow, Norman. Training manual for human service workers in major disasters.
National Institute of Mental Health. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1983.
This manual is designed to train mental health and crisis workers in handling
the emotional needs of natural disaster victims. The basic principles of crisis
intervention and supportive treatment found to be most effective in postdisaster
work, including outreach procedures and "curbstone" therapy, are discussed.
Pretraining and training processes are described, as well as the burnout
syndrome and options for managing this problem.Farberow, Norman and Gordon, Norma. Manual for child health workers in
major disasters. National Institute of Mental Health. Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.
Children are a vulnerable group with special needs after a disaster. Since
a highly trained staff is not always available in a disaster situation, this
manual is meant to serve as a guide to the establishment of services to meet
emotional problems that result when a major disaster disrupts the child's
functioning. The framework for intervention procedures with children during
and after disasters is described.Fraser, James and Spicka, Douglas. Handling the emotional response to disaster:
The case for American Red Cross/community mental health collaboration.
Community Mental Health Journal 17(4): 255-264, 1981.
The theory, rationale, and a wqorking model for integrating community resources
during times of disaster is the theme of this analysis. A collaborative approach,
based upon the Dayton, Ohio area model, is presented as a means for meeting the
emotional needs of disaster victims by linking the efforts of the American Red
Cross and four community mental health centers. This approach makes use of
various resources, provides skill and knowledge lacking in the individual agency,
and provides a preventive factor.Gist, Richard and Stolz, Stephanie. Mental health promotion and the media:
Community response to the Kansas City hotel disaster. American Psychologist
37(10): 1136-1139, 1982.
On July 17, 1981, a hotel disaster in Kansas City, Missouri killed 111 persons
and injured more than 200 others. Discussed is a threefold community-wide
response, involving mental health centers and other agencies, which was immediately
shaped to address the mental health needs of victims, survivors, rescuers, and
the entire community.Gleser, Goldine; Green, Bonnie; and Winget, Carolyn. Prolonged psychosocial
effects of disaster: A study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
Many Buffalo Creek flood survivors still bear the grim emotional and psychological
reminders associated with the disaster. In a survey conducted by the University
of Cincinnati, three-fourths of the respondents still experience nightmares
associated with the disaster 2 years after its occurrence. Similarly, local
mental health professionals in the area report a higher incidence of severe
anxiety, depression, belligerence, and alcohol abuse associated with the
disaster.Jacobs, Gerard A.The development of a national plan for disaster mental health:
Special Section: Trauma, disaster planning, and psychological services.Professional
Psychology Research and Practice; 1995 Dec Vol 26(6) 543-549.
In this article, the author provides a history of the development of the
national plan for disaster mental health, discusses its present state, and provides
some suggestions for the future of theory, research, and practice in the field.
The focus is on the provision of mental health services in the emergency phase
of a disaster, rather than on the long-term follow-up. Consequently, the focus
is on the American Red Cross's disaster mental health program and, to a lesser
extent, the American Psychological Association's Disaster Response Network.Kaniasty, Krzysztof and Norris, Fran H.In search of altruistic community:
Patterns of social support mobilization following Hurricane Hugo American
Journal of Community Psychology; 1995 Aug Vol 23(4) 447-477.
12 months after Hurricane Hugo, 498 White and 502 Black disaster victims and
non-victims were asked about social support that had been exchanged following
the hurricane. Victims received and provided very high levels of tangible,
informational, and emotional support. Disaster exposure was a strong predictor
of help received and a modest predictor of help provided. Post-disaster help
was not distributed equally and disaster exposure was more strongly related
to social support in some groups than in others. Race, education, and age c
consistently moderated the impact of disaster exposure on receipt of post-
disaster support. Blacks and less educated victims received less help than
similarly affected victims who were White or more educated. The relative dis-
advantage of being old in receiving support was not the case for those elderly
disaster victims who experienced threats to their lives or health.Lindy, Jacob; Grace, Mary; and Green, Bonnie. Survivors: Outreach to a
reluctant population. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 51(3): 468-478, 1981.
This article discusses the development of an outreach program by mental health
professionals following the fire at the Beverly Hills Supper Club, Southgate,
Kentucky (1977), which killed 165 persons and totally destroyed the club. The
purpose of the outreach program was to identify survivors at risk for long-
term impairment and to offer preventive services. Four methods of outreach
were used: media, community case finding, special groups, and direct phone
contact.Lindy, Jacob and Lindy, Joanne. Planning and delivery of mental health
services in disaster: The Cincinnati experience. The Urban and
Social Change Review 14(2), 1981.
A mental health preparedness plan for the Greater Cincinnati area
was developed based on the concepts of knowledge, sanction, information
processing, needs assessment, and action. Elements of the plan were: (1) the
department disaster coordinator, (2) disaster assessment team, (3) roster of
available clinicians, (4) central communications point, and (5) an activation
procedure. The plan was tested following the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire
and the calamity at the Cincinnati Riverfront Coliseum Concert (1979).Massey, Kimberly B.Analyzing the uses and gratifications concept of audience
activity with a qualitative approach: Media encounters during the 1989 Loma
Prieta earthquake disasterJournal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media;
1995 Sum Vol 39(3) 328-349.
Diaries and narratives produced by 29 college students during the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake served as the data for a qualitative analysis grounded in the
conventional philosophy, if not the traditional methodology, of the uses and
gratifications perspective. 299 individual media episodes were interpreted.
Audience activity before, during, and after media exposure was studied through
the application of the Typology of Audience Activity which demonstrated the
operation of the 9 types of media activity proposed by its creators. Conclusions
call for the re-direction (rather than abandonment) of audience-based research
away from general-trend audience consumption and towards more specific cultural
interaction of people with media.Morgan, JaneAmerican Red Cross Disaster Mental Health Services: Implementation
and recent developments. Special Issue: Disasters and crises: A Mental health
counseling perspective. Journal of Mental Health Counseling; 1995 Jul Vol 17(3)
291-300.
The American Red Cross Disaster Mental Health Services program uses a multi-
disciplinary approach to deliver crisis intervention to disaster workers and
victims in the aftermath of a hurricane. This model was used for the first time
in 1992 in response to Hurricane Andrew and is now a part of all major disaster
operations involving the American Red Cross. The author discusses the impetus for
development of the program, the early implementation of the program, and ongoing
challenges in the further development of this approach to disaster services. Since
1992, the basic level training course has been offered to approximately 3,000
participants.Parad, Howard; Resnik, H.L.P.; and Parad, Libbie, eds.Emergency and
Disaster Management: A mental health sourcebook.
This book consists of a series of articles on mental health interventions
in a variety of natural and technological disasters. Community resources
for such interventions are explored and include natural family and community
networks, schools, mental health and social service systems, and business
groups working with social service agencies. Ways of mobilizing rapid community
response to disaster, and ways of outreach at the time of disaster and in
the months afterwards, are discussed; exemplary programs are described in
detail.Pearlman, Laurie Anne and Mac-Ian, Paula S.Vicarious traumatization: An
empirical study of the effects of trauma work on trauma therapists. Special
Section: Trauma, disaster planning, and psychological services.Professional
Psychology Research and Practice; 1995 Dec Vol 26(6) 558-565.
This study examined vicarious traumatization (i.e. the deleterious effects
of trauma therapy on the therapist) in 188 self-identified trauma therapists.
Participants completed questionnaires about their exposure to survivor clients'
trauma material as well as their own psychological well-being. Those newest
to the work were experiencing the most psychological difficulties (as measured
by the Traumatic Stress Institute Belief Scale) and Symptom Checklist-90-
Revised (L. Derogatis, 1977) symptoms. Trauma therapists with a personal trauma
history showed more negative effects from the work than those without a personal
history. Trauma work appeared to affect those without a personal trauma history
in the area of other-esteem. The study indicates the need for more training
in trauma therapy and more supervision and support for both newer and survivor
trauma therapists.Sank, Lawrence. Primary prevention and treatment in a health
maintenance organization. American Psychologist 34(4): 334-338, 1979.
In March 1977, members of the Hanafi Muslim sect seized and held
hostages at three sites in Washington, DC. The greatest number, more than 100
persons, were held in the B'Nai B'Rith national headquarters for 39 hours.
Many of these hostages seffered emotional after effects from this ordeal. The
mental health staff of a Washington area health maintenance organization,
to which many of the B'Nai B'Rith hostages belonged, made its services available
to all these men and women, regardless of their health insurance coverage.
Treatment interventions followed a primary prevention model using a broad-
spectrum behavioral group approach.Tierney, Kathleen and Baisden, Barbara. Crisis Intervention
Programs for Disaster Victims in Smaller Communities. National Institute
of Mental Health. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.
The disaster-related mental health needs of residents of small
communities geographically removed from large urban centers is the focus of
this report. The psychological effects of the Buffalo Creek, West Virginia
flood (1972) and the Xenia, Ohio, tornado (1974) are contrasted. Six small
communities having experienced natural disasters were matched with six similar
nondisaster communities. The findings set forth guidelines for the planning
and operations of disaster-related emergency health programs at the community
level.Zarle, Thomas; Hartsough, Don; and Ottinger, Donald. Tornado
recovery: The development of a professional-paraprofessional response to a
disaster. Journal of Community Psychology 2:311-320, 1974.
This paper discusses emergency services and recovery operations in
the small Indiana community city of Monticello, which was hit by a series
of tornados in 1974. Recovery efforts evolved into three distinct phases that
were relative to the disaster community's evident and prevailing needs. Initially,
it was necessary to devote time to developing the program and to training
paraprofessional workers. During the first months of recovery, the disaster
victims' needs were most immediate, and it seemed most appropriate to use a
response that focused on the acute effects of the disaster. By the third
phase of the project, the needs of both victims and other members of the
community were more related to the long process of rebuilding. In this respect,
the focus of the program shifted from a referral-based crisis intervention
response to a coordinated outreach program grounded in both social systems
theory and crisis intervention.