Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess suo jure of Auvergne and Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours, and the mother of King Francis I of France. She was politically active and served as the Regent of France in 1515, in 1525–1526 and in 1529.

At age eleven, Louise married Charles of Orléans, Count of Angoulême, on 16 February 1488 in Paris, she only began living with him when she was fifteen, though.[2] Despite her husband having two mistresses, the marriage was not unhappy[3] and they shared a love for books.

The household of Charles was presided over by his châtelaine Antoinette de Polignac, Dame de Combronde, by whom he had two illegitimate daughters, Jeanne of Angoulême and Madeleine. Antoinette became Louise's lady-in-waiting and confidante, her children were raised alongside Louise's own.[4] Charles had another illegitimate daughter, Souveraine, by Jeanne le Conte, who also lived in the Angoulême chateau, she would later arrange marriages for her husband's illegitimate children.[2]

Their first child, Marguerite, was born on 11 April 1492; their second child, Francis, was born on 12 September 1494.

When her husband fell ill after going out riding in the winter of 1495, she nursed him and suffered much grief when he died on 1 January 1496.[5]

When she was widowed at the young age of 19, Louise deftly maneuvered her children into a position that would secure for each of them a promising future. Though they remained in Cognac for two years,[6] she moved her family to court at the ascension of King Louis XII, her husband's cousin.

Louise had a keen awareness for the intricacies of politics and diplomacy, and was deeply interested in the advances of arts and sciences in Renaissance Italy, she made certain that her children were educated in the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, also helped by her Italian confessor, Cristoforo Numai from Forlì. She commissioned books specifically for them and she taught Francis Italian and Spanish.[7]

When Louis XII became ill in 1505, he determined that Francis should succeed him and both Louise and his wife Anne of Brittany should be part of the regency council,[8] he recovered and Francis became a favourite of the king, who eventually gave him his daughter Claude of France in marriage on 8 May 1514. Following the marriage, Louis XII designated Francis as his heir.

Her mother having been one of the sisters of the last dukes of the main branch of Bourbon, after the death of Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon, in 1521, Louise, on basis of proximity of blood, advanced claims to the Duchy of Auvergne and other possessions of the Bourbons. This led her (supported by her son) in rivalry against Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Suzanne's widower, whom she proposed to marry in order to settle the Bourbon inheritance issue. When her suit was insultingly rejected by Charles, Louise instigated efforts to undermine him, this led to Charles' exile and his attempt to regain his lost status by waging war against the King. He died in 1527 having failed to regain his lost lands and titles. Louise recovered Auvergne from confiscations and became duchess in the name of her son.

Louise of Savoy remained politically active on behalf of her son in the early years of his reign especially, during his absences, she acted as regent on his behalf. Louise served as the Regent of France in 1515, during the king's war in Italy, and again from 1525 to 1526, when the king was at war and during his time as prisoner in Spain.

In 1524, she sent one of her servants, Jean-Joachim de Passano, to London to open unofficial negotiations with Cardinal Wolsey for a peace treaty; the negotiations were not a success, although they may have prepared the ground for the Treaty of the More the following year.

Louise of Savoy symbolically taking over the "rudder" in 1525, and requesting the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, here shown lying at her feet enturbanned.

She initiated friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire by sending a mission to Suleiman the Magnificent requesting assistance, but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia;[9] in December 1525, a second mission was sent, led by John Frangipani, which managed to reach Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, with secret letters asking for the deliverance of King Francis I and an attack on the Habsburg. Frangipani returned with a positive answer from Suleiman, on 6 February 1526, initiating the first steps of a Franco-Ottoman alliance.[9]

She was the principal negotiator for the Treaty of Cambrai between France and the Holy Roman Empire, concluded on 3 August 1529, that treaty, called "the Ladies' Peace", put an end to the second Italian war between the head of the Valois dynasty, Francis I of France, and the head of the Habsburg dynasty, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The Treaty temporarily confirmed Habsburg hegemony in Italy, the treaty was signed by Louise of Savoy for France and her sister-in-law, Margaret of Austria, for the Holy Roman Empire.

1.
Marguerite de Navarre
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Marguerite de Navarre, also known as Marguerite of Angoulême and Margaret of Navarre, was the princess of France, Queen of Navarre, and Duchess of Alençon and Berry. She was married to Henry II of Navarre and her brother became King of France, as Francis I, and the two siblings were responsible for the celebrated intellectual and cultural court and salons of their day in France. Marguerite is the ancestress of the Bourbon kings of France, being the mother of Jeanne dAlbret, whose son, Henry of Navarre, succeeded as Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon king. As an author and a patron of humanists and reformers, she was a figure of the French Renaissance. Samuel Putnam called her The First Modern Woman, Marguerite was born in Angoulême on 11 April 1492, the eldest child of Louise of Savoy and Charles, Count of Angoulême. On 16 February 1488, her father, Charles, married eleven-year-old Louise, the daughter of Philip II of Savoy and Margaret of Bourbon, Louise was considered one of the most brilliant feminine minds in France and she named their first-born, Marguerite, after her own mother. Two years after Marguerites birth, the family moved from Angoulême to Cognac, where the Italian influence reigned supreme, Marguerites brother, Francis, later to be King Francis I of France, was born there on 12 September 1494. She had several half-siblings, from illegitimate relationships of her father, another half-sister, Souveraine, was born to Jeanne le Conte, also one of her fathers mistresses. Her father died when she was four, her one-year-old brother became heir presumptive to the throne of France. Thanks to her mother, who was nineteen when widowed, Marguerite was carefully tutored from her earliest childhood. The young princess was to be called Maecenas to the ones of her brothers kingdom. Never, she wrote, shall a man attain to the love of God who has not loved to perfection some creature in this world. When Marguerite was ten, Louise tried to marry her to the Prince of Wales, who would later become Henry VIII of England, perhaps the one real love in her life was Gaston de Foix, Duc de Nemours, nephew of King Louis XII. Gaston went to Italy, however, and died a hero at Ravenna, at the age of seventeen Marguerite was married to Charles IV of Alençon, aged twenty, by the decree of King Louis XII. With this decree, Marguerite was forced to marry a generally kind, had become the bride of a laggard and a dolt. She had been bartered to save the royal pride of Louis, there were no offspring from this marriage. After the death of Queen Claude, she took in her two nieces Madeleine and Marguerite, for whom she would continue to care during her second marriage, after the death of her first husband in 1525, Marguerite married Henry II of Navarre. Ferdinand II of Aragon had invaded the Kingdom of Navarre in 1512, and Henry ruled only Lower Navarre, the independent principality of Béarn, a Venetian ambassador of that time praised Marguerite as knowing all the secrets of diplomatic art, hence to be treated with deference and circumspection

Marguerite de Navarre
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Marguerite de Navarre
Marguerite de Navarre
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Statue of Marguerite of Angoulême, in the gardens of the city hall of Angoulême
Marguerite de Navarre
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Marguerite de Navarre, from a crayon drawing by François Clouet, preserved at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris
Marguerite de Navarre
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Hinchliff's engraving of Marguerite of Navarre, from an 1864 English edition of the Heptaméron

2.
Francis I of France
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Francis I was the first King of France from the Angoulême branch of the House of Valois, reigning from 1515 until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and he succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died without a male heir. Francis reign saw important cultural changes with the rise of absolute monarchy in France, the spread of humanism and Protestantism, Jacques Cartier and others claimed lands in the Americas for France and paved the way for the expansion of the first French colonial empire. For his role in the development and promotion of a standardized French language, he became known as le Père et Restaurateur des Lettres. He was also known as François au Grand Nez, the Grand Colas, following the policy of his predecessors, Francis continued the Italian Wars. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony, he sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. When this was unsuccessful, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with the Muslim sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time. Francis was born on 12 September 1494 at the Château de Cognac in the town of Cognac, which at that time lay in the province of Saintonge, today the town lies in the department of Charente. Francis was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. His family was not expected to inherit the throne, as his third cousin King Charles VIII was still young at the time of his birth, as was his fathers cousin the Duke of Orléans, later King Louis XII. However, Charles VIII died childless in 1498 and was succeeded by Louis XII, the Salic Law prevailed in France, thus females were ineligible to inherit the throne. Therefore, the four-year-old Francis became the heir presumptive to the throne of France in 1498 and was vested with the title of Duke of Valois. In 1505, Louis XII, having fallen ill, ordered that his daughter Claude and Francis be married immediately, Claude was heiress to the Duchy of Brittany through her mother, Anne of Brittany. Following Annes death, the took place on 18 May 1514. Louis died shortly afterwards and Francis inherited the throne and he was crowned King of France in the Cathedral of Reims on 25 January 1515, with Claude as his queen consort. As Francis was receiving his education, ideas emerging from the Italian Renaissance were influential in France, some of his tutors, such as François Desmoulins de Rochefort and Christophe de Longueil, were attracted by these new ways of thinking and attempted to influence Francis. His academic education had been in arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, reading, spelling, Francis came to learn chivalry, dancing, and music and he loved archery, falconry, horseback riding, hunting, jousting, real tennis and wrestling. He ended up reading philosophy and theology and he was fascinated with art, literature, poetry and his mother, who had a high admiration for Italian Renaissance art, passed this interest on to her son

3.
House of Savoy
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The House of Savoy is one of the oldest royal families in the world, being founded in 1003 in the historical Savoy region. Through gradual expansion, it grew from ruling a small county in that region to the attainment of the rank of king in 1713, the Savoyard kings of Italy were Victor Emmanuel II, Umberto I, Victor Emmanuel III, and Umberto II. The last monarch ruled for a few weeks before being deposed following the Constitutional Referendum of 1946, the name derives from the historical region of Savoy in the Alpine region between what is now France and Italy. Over time, the House of Savoy expanded its territory and influence through judicious marriages, from rule of a small region on the French/Italian border, the dynastys realm included nearly all of the Italian Peninsula by the time of its deposition. The house descended from Humbert I, Count of Sabaudia, Humberts family are thought to have originated from near Magdeburg in Saxony, with the earliest recording of the family being two 10th century brothers, Amadeus and Humbert. Though Sabaudia was originally a county, later counts were diplomatically skilled. Two of Humberts sons were bishops at the Abbey of Saint Maurice on the River Rhone east of Lake Geneva and this diplomatic skill caused the great powers such as France, England, and Spain to take the counts opinions into account. Piedmont was later joined with Sabaudia, and the name evolved into Savoy, the people of Savoy were descended from the Celts and Romans. In 1494, Charles VIII of France passed through Savoy on his way to Italy and Naples, during the outbreak of the Italian war of 1521-1526, Emperor Charles V stationed imperial troops in Savoy. In 1536, Francis I of France invaded Savoy and Piedmont taking Turin by April of that year, Charles III, Duke of Savoy, fled to Vercelli. He served Philip II as Governor of the Netherlands from 1555 to 1559, in this capacity he led the Spanish invasion of northern France and won a victory at St. Quentin in 1557. He took advantage of various squabbles in Europe to slowly regain territory from both the French and the Spanish, including the city of Turin and he moved the capital of the duchy from Chambéry to Turin. The 17th century brought economic development to the Turin area. Charles Emmanuel II developed the port of Nice and built a road through the Alps towards France, and through skillful political manoeuvres territorial expansion continued. Savoy rule over Sicily lasted only seven years, the crown of Sicily, the prestige of being kings at last, and the wealth of Palermo helped strengthen the House of Savoy further. In 1720 they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance, on the mainland, the dynasty continued its expansionist policies as well. In 1798, Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate, eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna. In the meantime, nationalist figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini were influencing popular opinion, the Kingdom of Italy was the first Italian state to include the Italian Peninsula since the fall of the Roman Empire

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Hautecombe Abbey, where many of the dukes are buried.
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House of Savoy
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Map of Kingdom of Sardinia.

4.
Philip II, Duke of Savoy
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Philip II, surnamed the Landless, was the Duke of Savoy for a brief reign from 1496 to 1497. He was the granduncle of the previous duke Charles II, however, he was not the heir general of the previous duke, there being several females before him in the line of succession. To ensure male inheritance to the Savoy line, his eldest son Philibert was married to his cousin, however, the plan did not succeed, the girl died at age twelve. The children of the daughters of Philips eldest brother Duke Amedeo IX of Savoy were next in line, despite the fact that Cyprus and Jerusalem did not bar succession in female line, Philip however took those claims and used those titles as well. His male successors in Savoy also continued to do so, thus giving their ducal title a higher and he spent most of his life as a junior member of the ducal family. His original apanage was the district of Bresse, close to the French and Burgundian border, but it was lost and therefore Philip received his sobriquet the Landless, or Lackland

Philip II, Duke of Savoy
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Coat of Arms of the Counts of Savoy

5.
Auvergne (province)
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The history of the Auvergne dates back to the early Middle Ages, when it was a historic province in south central France. It was originally the feudal domain of the Counts of Auvergne, christianized by Saint Austremoine, Auvergne was quite prosperous during the Roman ages. After a short time under the Visigoths, it was conquered by the Franks, during the earlier medieval period, Auvergne was a county within the duchy of Aquitaine and as such part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century. In 1225, Louis VIII of France granted Poitou and Auvergne to his third son Alfonso, on Alfonsos death in 1271, Auvergne along with the County of Toulouse, Poitou and the Comtat Venaissin reverted to the royal domain. The Middle Ages, especially the 10th to 13th centuries, were a period of development for Auvergne, with the building of famous abbeys. In the year 1095, the historic Council of Clermont was held there and its wide autonomy was ended by King Philippe-Auguste of France, who linked it to the royal possessions. The region is famed for its charcuterie, which is celebrated in La Mangona festivals in many Auvergnat villages, for its cheeses, Auvergne is also the site of several major hydroelectric projects, mainly located on the Dordogne, Cère, and Truyère rivers. The region is also quite touristic, thanks to its landscapes, Auvergnat, a variety of the Occitan language, was historically spoken in the Auvergne. Aubrac oxen, a breed, are raised in the Aubrac hills. The Auvergne emigrants, together with other Aveyron and Italian emigrants, composer Joseph Canteloube based Songs of the Auvergne, his well-known piece for voice and orchestra, on folk music and songs from the Auvergne. Singer-songwriter Georges Brassens composed Chanson pour lAuvergnat, composer Camille Saint-Saëns composed Rhapsodie dAuvergne in 1884, based upon folk songs from the Auvergne. Vercingetorix, King of the Arverni, leader of the Gallic resistance against Julius Caesar. Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette, born in Auvergne, was a hero in both France and the United States for his roles in the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolution. Pierre-Andre Coffinhal, Jacobin leader and vice-president of the Revolutionary Tribunal, was born in Auvergne, a close friend of Robespierre, he was executed following the events of the 9 Thermidor. Jean-Baptiste Carrier was a French Revolutionary born in Yolet of Auvergne and he was famous for his brutality towards his enemies. In 1794, he was guillotined upon the conviction of the National Convention, sylvester II, pope and scholar, born Gerbert of Aurillac, a significant player in the transition from the Carolingians to the Capetians. The Dalfi dAlvernha or Dauphin dAuvergne, troubadour and patron of troubadours, Count of Clermont and Montferrand Joseph Canteloube, French composer. Guy Debord, writer and leader of the Situationist International, acquired a house in the region in 1975

6.
House of Bourbon
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The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre

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The castle of Bourbon-l'Archambault
House of Bourbon
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House of Bourbon
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Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon King of France
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Dynastic group portrait of Louis XIV (seated) with his son le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson the duc d'Anjou, later Louis XV, and Madame de Ventadour, his governess, who commissioned this painting some years later; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII in the background.

7.
Philibert II, Duke of Savoy
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Philibert II, surnamed the Handsome or the Good, was the Duke of Savoy from 1497 until his death. Born in Pont-dAin, Philibert was the son of Philip the Landless, who until 1496 was a member of the ducal family. In 1496, Philiberts father surprisingly succeeded as Duke, when his underaged grandnephew Duke Charles II of Savoy died, the same year, the 16-year-old Philibert married the 9-year-old Yolande Louise of Savoy, his cousin and the only sister of the deceased young duke. She was daughter of Duke Charles I of Savoy, the Warrior and she was the heir-general of her brother, father, grandfather, and her grandmother Yolande of France, the eldest surviving daughter of king Charles VII of France. Her birthright, after the death of her brother, was the succession of the kingdoms of Cyprus, Jerusalem, after a brief reign, Philip II died in 1497 and Philibert succeeded as Duke of Savoy. The young couple then at last advanced their claims, and took the titles Queen and King of Cyprus, Jerusalem, in 1499, the 12-year-old first wife of Philibert died, childless. Her heir was her first cousin, Princess Charlotte of Naples, Philibert continued to use the titles of Cyprus etc. despite the death of his first wife. His next marriage tied him into the web of alliances around the Habsburgs, in 1500, he married Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy, the only daughter of Maximilian I and his first wife Mary of Burgundy, the duchess of Burgundy. She had previously married to John, Prince of Asturias, heir to the thrones of Aragon. Early in Philiberts reign, his first cousin Charles VIII of France died in 1498, the next king, Louis XII, would invade Italy the following year and conquer most of Naples. Louis would also conquer Milan, which neighboured Savoy to the east, Philibert died in 1504 at the age of 24. Because he had no children, he was succeeded by his young half-brother Charles III, Philibert married, Yolande Louise of Savoy, daughter of his first cousin, Charles I of Savoy. Margaret of Austria who was Governor of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands, there were no children from this marriage

8.
Charles III, Duke of Savoy
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Charles III of Savoy, often called Charles the Good, was Duke of Savoy from 1504 to 1553, although most of his lands were ruled by the French between 1536 and his death. He was a son of Philip the Landless, an aged younger son of the ducal family. His grandparents were Duke Louis of Savoy and Anne of Cyprus, as a child, there were next to no expectations for him to succeed to any monarchy. He was christened as a namesake of the then-reigning Duke, Charles I of Savoy, however, Charless father was not the heir general of the deceased duke, only the male heir. Jerusalem, Cyprus and certain other claims and possessions could go to a different heir, Charless father was not ready to relinquish those, and he took such titles to his own titulary, staking a claim. He also had Yolande marry his son, Philibert the Handsome, in 1496, in 1497, Charless half-brother Philibert succeeded their father as Duke of Savoy, etc. Philibert however died childless in 1504, surprisingly, and now Charles succeeded, Charles faced down challenges to his authority, including from Philibert Berthelier. After Yolandes death in 1499, the de jure rights of Jerusalem, Charles however, as some sort of heir-male, took those titles, which his successors also used. In 1713, Charless great-great-great-grandson Victor Amadeus II of Savoy received confirmation to that title from the Kings of Spain and France, in response to the riots between Catholic and Protestants within Geneva, Charles launched a surprise attack in July 1534, but his army was beaten back. A second siege in October 1535 was attempted, and again Charles army was defeated when forces from Berne arrived to assist Geneva, Charles was allied with the Habsburg camp in Western European politics, where Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V battled for ascendancy. France invaded Savoy in 1536, and held almost all of Charles possessions and he spent the rest of his life practically in exile, at the mercy of relatives. He died in 1553 and was succeeded by his surviving child. He was the duke who imprisoned François Bonivard, the prisoner of Chillon in 1530, Charles married Beatrice of Portugal, daughter of Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon. Beatrice was both first cousin and sister-in-law of the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

Charles III, Duke of Savoy
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Charles III, Duke of Savoy

9.
Anne de Beaujeu
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Anne of France was a French princess and regent, the eldest daughter of Louis XI by Charlotte of Savoy. Anne was the sister of Charles VIII, for whom she acted as regent during his minority, during the regency she was one of the most powerful women of late fifteenth-century Europe and was referred to as Madame la Grande. Anne was born at the Chateau of Genappe in Brabant on 3 April 1461 and her brother, Charles would later succeed their father as Charles VIII of France. Her younger sister Joan became for a period, a queen consort of France as the first wife of Louis XII. Anne was originally betrothed to Nicholas, Duke of Lorraine and was created Viscountess of Thouars in 1468 in anticipation of the marriage. However, Nicholas broke the engagement to pursue Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, Anne was just twelve years old at the time. During the minority of Annes brother, Charles VIII of France, Peter, as regent of France, Anne was one of the most powerful women in the late fifteenth century, and she was referred to as Madame la Grande. Annes regency overcame many difficulties, including unrest amongst the magnates who had suffered under Louis XIs oppressions. Concessions, many of which sacrificed Louiss favourites, were made, Louis tried to obtain the regency, but the Estates General sided with her. She gave her support to Henry Tudor against his rival, King Richard III of England, when he sought her aid to oust Richard, who was deemed by many to have been a usurper. Anne supplied him with French troops for the 1485 invasion which culminated at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August, when Charles ended the regency in 1491, both Anne and Peter fell victim to the wrath of the new queen, whose duchys independence had been compromised. Anne and Peter produced only one surviving child, Suzanne, born 10 May 1491, Suzanne succeeded Peter as suo jure Duchess of Bourbon on his death in 1503. Anne, however, had always been the dominant member in her marriage and remained the administrator of the Bourbon lands after his death. In addition to having had a strong, formidable personality, Anne was an intelligent, shrewd. Her father had termed her the least foolish woman in France, Anne was dark-haired with a high forehead, a widows peak, and finely-arched eyebrows. She was further described as having had clear brown eyes, direct in their gaze, a sharp, haughty nose, thin lips, thin hands, Anne was responsible for the housing and education for many of the aristocracys children including Diane de Poitiers and Louise of Savoy. She is credited with instructing these people with the new refined manners such as not using their fingers to wipe their noses. Louise of Savoy would act as regent several times when her son Francis was king, by being raised by Anne, she was able to learn about France and its governance from up close

Anne de Beaujeu
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Portrait of Anne of France, from a triptych by Master of Moulins
Anne de Beaujeu
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Depiction of Anne and St. John the Evangelist
Anne de Beaujeu
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Triptych which depicts St. Anne presenting Anne and her daughter Suzanne

10.
Charles VIII of France
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Charles VIII, called the Affable, French, lAffable, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. He succeeded his father Louis XI at the age of 13 and his elder sister Anne of France acted as regent jointly with her husband Peter II, Duke of Bourbon until 1491 when the young king turned 21 years of age. During Annes regency, the great lords rebelled against royal centralisation efforts in a known as the Mad War. Preoccupied by the succession in the Kingdom of Hungary, Maximilian failed to press his claim. Upon his marriage, Charles became administrator of Brittany and established a union that enabled France to avoid total encirclement by Habsburg territories. The coalition formed against the French invasion of 1494-98 finally drove out Charles army, Charles died in 1498 after accidentally striking his head on the lintel of a door. Since he had no heir, he was succeeded by his cousin Louis XII of France from the Orléans cadet branch of the House of Valois. Charles was born at the Château dAmboise in France, the surviving son of King Louis XI by his second wife Charlotte of Savoy. Charles succeeded to the throne on 30 August 1483 at the age of 13 and he was regarded by his contemporaries as possessing a pleasant disposition, but also as foolish and unsuited for the business of the state. She would rule as regent, together with her husband Peter of Bourbon, Charles was betrothed on 22 July 1483 to the 3-year-old Margaret of Austria, daughter of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria and Mary, Duchess of Burgundy. The marriage was arranged by Louis XI, Maximilian, and the Estates of the Low Countries as part of the 1482 Peace of Arras between France and the Duchy of Burgundy. Margaret brought the Counties of Artois and Burgundy to France as her dowry, in 1488, however, Francis II, Duke of Brittany, died in a riding accident, leaving his 11-year-old daughter Anne as his heiress. The Regent Anne of France and her husband Peter refused to countenance such a marriage, however, since it would place Maximilian and his family, the Habsburgs, on two French borders. The French army invaded Brittany, taking advantage of the preoccupation of Frederick III and his son with the succession to Mathias Corvinus. Anne of Brittany was forced to renounce Maximilian and agree to be married to Charles VIII instead, in December 1491, in an elaborate ceremony at the Château de Langeais, Charles and Anne of Brittany were married. The 14-year-old Duchess Anne, not happy with the arranged marriage, however, Charless marriage brought him independence from his relatives and thereafter he managed affairs according to his own inclinations. Queen Anne lived at the Clos Lucé in Amboise, there still remained the matter of Charles first betrothed, the young Margaret of Austria. Although the cancellation of her betrothal meant that she by rights should have returned to her family, Charles did not initially do so

11.
Lady-in-waiting
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A lady-in-waiting or Court Lady is a female personal assistant at a court, royal or feudal, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was often a noblewoman from a family in good society, although she may or may not have received compensation for the service she rendered, a lady-in-waiting was considered more of a companion to her mistress than a servant. In courts where polygamy was practiced, a lady was formally available to the monarch for sexual services. Lady-in-waiting or court lady is often a term for women whose relative rank, title. The development of the office of lady-in-waiting in Europe is connected to that of the development of a royal court, in the late 12th-century, the queens of France are confirmed to have had their own household, and noblewomen are mentioned as ladies-in-waiting. A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, within certain traditional states of the Bini and Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the queen mothers and high priestesses were considered ritually male due to their social eminence. Due to this fact, they were often attended on by women who belonged to their harems in much the way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created, the first rank of the female courtiers was the Obersthofmeisterin, who was second in rank after the empress herself, and responsible for all the female courtiers. Second rank belonged to the ayas, essentially governesses of the imperial children, the rest of the female noble courtiers consisted of the Hoffräulein, unmarried females from the nobility who normally served temporarily until marriage. The Hoffräulein could sometimes be promoted to Kammerfräulein, the Austrian court model was the role model for the princely courts in Germany. The German court model in turn became the model of the early modern Scandinavian courts of Denmark. The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a court was founded. The ladies-in waiting have historically been chosen by the Queen herself from among the Catholic noble houses of Belgium, the chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthday, princess Clementine was given a Dame by her father, a symbolic act of adulthood. When the Queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation and this system has formally remained roughly the same. However, in practice, many offices have since then left vacant. For example, in recent times, Maids of Honour have only appointed for coronations. The duties of ladies-in-waiting at the Tudor court were to act as royal companions, Tudor queens often had wide personal latitude in selection of their ladies-in-waiting

12.
Cognac, France
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Cognac is a commune in the Charente department in southwestern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, Cognac is situated on the river Charente between the towns of Angoulême and Saintes. The majority of the town has built on the rivers left bank. The town is situated on one of the routes to Santiago de Compostela. Cognac is 400 kilometres southwest of Paris, unknown prior to the 9th century, the town was subsequently fortified. During the Hundred Years War, the town changed sides on several occasions as the result of fighting and treaties in the region. Francis I granted the town the right to trade salt along the river, guaranteeing strong commercial success, the inhabitants of the town are known as Cognaçais. The towns medieval quarter Vieux Cognac runs from the Tours Saint-Jacques, alongside the river, the area contains many unusual buildings, built between the 15th and 18th centuries, situated on narrow cobbled streets. Many contain sculptures of the salamander, the symbol of King François I, as well as gargoyles, the Château des Valois, an important medieval trading post. The town gives its name to one of the worlds best-known types of brandy or eau de vie, drinks must be made in certain areas around the town of Cognac and must be made according to strictly-defined regulations to be granted the name Cognac. Cognac is a spirit in that it is double-distilled. This process can be viewed in one of the many Grande Marque Cognac houses which all have visitor centres, most central in the town are Hennessy, Martell, Otard, Camus and Remy Martin. About 15 km East of Cognac is Jarnac, home to Courvoisier and it is the Cellar masters skill that ensures that a brands Cognac is recognisable regardless of when it is produced since he can blend multiple eaux de vie to achieve the right taste for his house. Different qualities of Cognac are produced by all brands, and include VS, VSOP and these are controlled by the length of time the Cognac is allowed to mature in oak barrels, a minimum time being required at each grade level. The longer the Cognac matures in the barrel the smoother it will generally become, once it is bottled no further development takes place. Most houses still have barrels of Cognac dating back to the 19th century sitting in their cellars waiting for fine blending by the Cellar Master, francis I was born in the towns castle in 1494. The towns main square is named after him and a statue of the king on horseback towering over his enemies stands at the centre, the French poet Octavien de Saint-Gelais was born in Cognac in 1468. Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, born in Cognac in 1838 discovered the elements Gallium in 1875, jean Monnet, one of the founding fathers of the European Union was born in Cognac in 1888

Cognac, France
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Cognac
Cognac, France
Cognac, France
Cognac, France

13.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history

14.
Cristoforo Numai
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Christopher Numar of Forli was an Italian Franciscan, who became Minister general of the Friars Minor and cardinal. In his youth he studied at Bologna and, after joining the Friars Minor, was sent to complete his studies at Paris, in 1520 he became Bishop of Alatri and Bishop of Isernia in Italy, and in 1526 Bishop of Riez in Provence. He took refuge in Ancona, but died the year as a consequence of the inflicted injuries. His remains were transferred back from Ancona to Rome, and placed in the Church of Ara Coeli, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Christopher Numar of Forli. Luke Wadding, Annales Minorum ad annum 1517, XVI, nn. xxiv and xxxv Sbaralea, Supplementum, Pt. I,207 Picconi, Cenni biografice sugli uomini illustri della francescana provincia di Bologna, I,380. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles

Cristoforo Numai
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Christopher Numar of Forli

15.
Duke of Anjou
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The Count of Anjou was the ruler of the county of Anjou, first granted by Charles the Bald in the 9th century to Robert the Strong. Ingelger and his son were viscounts of Angers until Ingelgers son Fulk the Red assumed the title of Count of Anjou, Ingelgers male line ended with Geoffrey II, Count of Anjou. Subsequent counts of Anjou were descended from Geoffreys sister Ermengarde of Anjou and Geoffrey II and their agnatic descendants, who included the Angevin kings of England, continued to hold these titles and property until the French monarchy gained control of the area. Thereafter the titles Count of Anjou and, after 1360, Duke of Anjou were granted several times, usually to members of the French ruling houses of Valois and Bourbon. The title was held by Philippe, a grandson of King Louis XIV, since then, some Spanish legitimist claimants to the French throne have borne the title even to the present day, as does a nephew of the Orléanist pretender. In 1204, Anjou was lost to king Philip II of France and it was re-granted as an appanage for Louis VIIIs son John, who died in 1232 at the age of thirteen, and then to Louiss youngest son, Charles, later the first Angevin king of Sicily. In 1290, Margaret married Charles of Valois, the brother of king Philip IV of France. He became Count of Anjou in her right, in 1328, Philip of Valois ascended the French throne and became King Philip VI. At this time, the counties of Anjou, Maine, on 26 April 1332, Philip granted the county to his eldest son, John, Following Johns ascension to the throne as John II in 1350, the title once again reverted to the royal domain. The dukes contributed greatly to social reform in the 1300s and 1400s, on the death of Charles IV, Anjou returned to the royal domain. After the death of Henry, Count of Chambord, only the descendants of Philip V of Spain remained of the line of Louis XIV. The most senior of these, the Carlist claimant to the Spanish throne, some of them used the courtesy title of Duke of Anjou. At the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936, the Capetian seniority passed to the exiled King of Spain, Alfonso XIII. In 1941, Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia, succeeded his father Alfonso XIII as the male of Louis XIV. He then adopted the title of Duke of Anjou, on December 8,2004, Henry, Count of Paris, Duke of France, Orléanist Pretender to the French throne, granted his nephew Charles Philippe the title of Duke of Anjou. For him, the title was available since 1824, because he doesnt recognize his cousins courtesy title, list of Countesses and Duchesses of Anjou Anjou Titles of the counts and dukes of Anjou in the 11-16th centuries from contemporary documents with bibliography

16.
Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon
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Suzanne de Bourbon was suo jure Duchess of Bourbon and Auvergne from 1503 to her death alongside her co-regent and spouse Charles de Bourbon. Suzanne was born the child and only daughter of Peter II, Duke of Bourbon by his wife and Anne of France. From 1483 to 1491, Suzannes parents served as co-regents of France during the minority of Annes younger brother, further, Annes younger sister, Joan, was queen of France as wife of Louis XII of France, who succeeded Charles VIII in 1498. Suzanne had a brother named Charles who was born in 1476. After this death, Suzannes father grew concerned about the succession to the Bourbon lands and he had no surviving sons or brothers. By the Salic law which prevailed in France, his heir presumptive was Louis de Bourbon-Montpensier, head of the Montpensier family, Montpensier was Suzannes second cousin as their grandfathers had been brothers. The year 1498 was also that in which Annes brother King Charles VIII died suddenly in an accident, the succession of France itself was in controversy, because the nearest agnatic dynast, Louis XII was a distant second cousin once removed to Charles VII. Indeed, it was due to the Salic law that Louis rather than Anne had acceded to the throne of France, in 1503, Peter died and Suzanne became duchess regnant. Her mother Anne became regent during Suzannes minority, Anne was not in favour of this arrangement because of the political complications it would certainly cause, since Bourbon-Montpensier would definitely pursue his dynastic claim. However, Peter prevailed and the contract of betrothal was signed on 21 March 1501 at Moulins, Alençon being eleven years old, two years later, and before the wedding could be solemnised, Peter died of a fever. Incidentally, Louis of Montpensier had also died before this, and had succeeded by his younger brother Charles III of Bourbon-Montpensier. With Peter and Louis both dead, the issues which had plagued their relationship could also be laid to rest, on 10 May 1505, at Château du Parc-les-Moulins, Suzanne was married to her second cousin Charles de Bourbon. Charles was immediately made co-ruler of the Bourbon lands, after the wedding, the duke and duchess of Bourbon made a tour through their domains along with Anne, something they would repeat many times during their reign. An heir was born to Charles and Suzanne on 17 July 1517 and was baptised François in October 1517, in honour of Charles good friend, the child was given the title Comte de Clermont. However, he died after living for only a few months, later, Suzanne also gave birth to stillborn twins. Suzanne died at Château de Châtellerault in 1521 and she was buried in Souvigny Priory, Souvigny. Her health had been throughout her last years. Her mother, who had always been fearful about her daughters health, Suzannes husband Charles kept his position as Duke of Bourbon after her death

Suzanne, Duchess of Bourbon
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Suzanne

17.
The Bourbons
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The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre

The Bourbons
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The castle of Bourbon-l'Archambault
The Bourbons
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House of Bourbon
The Bourbons
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Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon King of France
The Bourbons
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Dynastic group portrait of Louis XIV (seated) with his son le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson the duc d'Anjou, later Louis XV, and Madame de Ventadour, his governess, who commissioned this painting some years later; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII in the background.

18.
Charles III, Duke of Bourbon
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He was also the Constable of France from 1515 to 1521. Also known as the Constable of Bourbon, he was the last of the feudal lords to oppose the King of France himself. He commanded the Imperial troops of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in what known as the Sack of Rome in 1527. Charles was born at Montpensier, the son of Gilbert. Clara was a daughter of Federico I Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua, Gilbert died in 1496, and his elder son Louis II, Count of Montpensier died unwed in 1501, leaving Charles the heir to the familys titles and extensive lands in Auvergne. On 10 May 1505, Charles married his second cousin, Suzanne. It was a match, intended to settle the question of succession to the Bourbon estates, which had arisen because Suzannes father. Charles was the scion of the next-senior Bourbon line, and thus the heir male of the House of Bourbon, with the marriage, Charless position as Duke of Bourbon became undisputed. However, Francis was uneasy with the proud and wealthy duke, the death of his wife in 1521 provoked the final breach between Charles and Francis I. Suzanne had left all her estates to Charles, but the Kings mother, Louise of Savoy, claimed them as the heir in proximity in blood, due to their previous entailments. She proposed to settle the question by marrying Charles, he refused the proposal because Louise was over forty-five years of age, on behalf of his mother, Francis confiscated a portion of the Bourbon estates before the lawsuit had even been opened. Seeing no hope of prevailing, Charles made an agreement to betray his King. The Emperor, the Constable, and King Henry VIII of England devised a plan to partition France. This however came to nothing because the plot was discovered, Charles was stripped of his offices and he fled into Italy in 1523. In 1524, he drove the French under Bonnivet from Lombardy, the Emperor gave Duke Charles command of a mixed Spanish-German army sent to chastise Pope Clement VII. He neglected to supply this army with money or food, though Clement arranged a truce with the Emperor, the army continued its advance, reaching Rome in May 1527. By Suzanne, Charles was the father of twins and of Francis of Bourbon, however, the county of Montpensier and dauphinate of Auvergne were later returned to his sister Louise

Charles III, Duke of Bourbon
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An engraving of Charles, Duke of Bourbon
Charles III, Duke of Bourbon
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A 19th-century portrait of Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, by Bernard Gaillot
Charles III, Duke of Bourbon
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A supposed portrait of the Connetable de Bourbon, by Jean Clouet

19.
Cardinal Wolsey
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Thomas Wolsey was an English churchman, statesman and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. When Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, Wolsey became the Kings almoner, the 1515 appointment of Wolsey as a cardinal by Pope Leo X gave him precedence even over the Archbishop of Canterbury. The highest political position Wolsey attained was Lord Chancellor, the Kings chief adviser, in that position, he enjoyed great freedom and was often depicted as an alter rex. After failing to negotiate an annulment of Henrys marriage to Catherine of Aragon and he retreated to York to fulfill his ecclesiastical duties as Archbishop of York, a position he nominally held, but had neglected during his years in government. He was recalled to London to answer to charges of treason — a common charge used by Henry against ministers who fell out of favour —, Thomas Wolsey was born about 1473, the son of Robert Wolsey of Ipswich and his wife Joan Daundy. Widespread traditions identify his father as a butcher and a cattle dealer, Wolsey attended Ipswich School and Magdalen College School before studying theology at Magdalen College, Oxford. On 10 March 1498 he was ordained as a priest in Marlborough, Wiltshire and remained in Oxford, first as the Master of Magdalen College School, between 1500 and 1509 he held the living of Church of Saint Mary, Limington, in Somerset. In 1502 he left and became a chaplain to Henry Deane, archbishop of Canterbury and he was then taken into the household of Sir Richard Nanfan, who made Wolsey executor of his estate. After Nanfans death in 1507, Wolsey entered the service of King Henry VII, Wolsey benefitted from Henry VIIs introduction of measures to curb the power of the nobility - the king was willing to favour those from more humble backgrounds. Henry VII appointed Wolsey royal chaplain, in this position Wolsey served as secretary to Richard Foxe, who recognized Wolseys innate ability and dedication and appreciated his industry and willingness to take on tedious tasks. Thomas Wolseys remarkable rise to power from humble origins testifies to his intelligence, administrative ability, industriousness, ambition for power, in April 1508, Wolsey was sent to Scotland to discuss with King James IV rumours of the renewal of the auld alliance. Wolseys rise coincided with the accession of the new English monarch, Henry VIII, whose character, policies and diplomatic mindset differed significantly from those of his father. In 1509 Henry appointed Wolsey to the post of Almoner, a position that gave him a seat on the Privy Council, providing an opportunity to raise his profile and to establish a rapport with the King. A factor in Wolseys rise was the young Henry VIIIs relative lack of interest in the details of governing during his early years, Henry soon appointed to his Privy Council individuals more sympathetic to his own views and inclinations. Warham and Foxe, who failed to share the Kings enthusiasm for the French war which started in 1512, fell from power, in 1515, Warham resigned as Lord Chancellor, probably under pressure from the King and from Wolsey, and Henry appointed Wolsey in his place. Wolsey carefully tried to destroy or neutralise the influence of other courtiers, Wolseys rise to a position of great secular power paralleled his increased responsibilities in the Church. He became a Canon of Windsor in 1511, the year that he became a member of the Privy Council. In 1514 he was made Bishop of Lincoln, and then Archbishop of York in the same year, Pope Leo X made him a cardinal in 1515, with the titular church S. Cæciliæ trans Tiberim

Cardinal Wolsey
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Sampson Strong 's portrait of Cardinal Wolsey at Christ Church (1610)
Cardinal Wolsey
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Banner of the arms of Cardinal Wolsey as Archbishop of York, impaling his personal arms (viewer's right) with the arms of his office as Archbishop of York (viewer's left)
Cardinal Wolsey
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"Cardinal Woolsey" (an archaic spelling) by an unknown artist c.1520. Detail from an oil on panel in the National Portrait Gallery, London

20.
Franco-Ottoman alliance
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The alliance was exceptional, and caused a scandal in the Christian world. Carl Jacob Burckhardt called it the sacrilegious union of the lily, the Habsburg Empire thus entered in direct conflict with the Ottomans. Some early contacts seem to have taken place between the Ottomans and the French, Louis XI refused to see the envoys, but a large amount of money and Christian relics were offered by the envoy so that Djem could remain in custody in France. Djem was transferred to the custody of Pope Innocent VIII in 1489, France had already been looking for allies in Central Europe. The ambassador of France Antonio Rincon was employed by Francis I on several missions to Poland, at that time, following the 1522 Battle of Bicoque, Francis I was attempting to ally with king Sigismund I the Old of Poland. Finally, in 1524, a Franco-Polish alliance was signed between Francis I and the king of Poland Sigismund I and this situation forced Francis I to find an ally against the powerful Habsburg Emperor, in the person of Suleiman the Magnificent. The alliance was an opportunity for both rulers to fight against the rule of the Habsburg, the objective for Francis I was clearly to find an ally in the struggle against the House of Habsburg, although this policy of alliance was in reversal of that of his predecessors. The pretext used by Francis I to seal an alliance with a Muslim power was the protection of the Christians in Ottoman lands, King Francis was imprisoned in Madrid when the first efforts at establishing an alliance were made. A first French mission to Suleiman seems to have been sent right after the Battle of Pavia by the mother of Francis I, Louise de Savoie, but the mission was lost on its way in Bosnia. The Ottomans were also attracted by the prestige of being in alliance with such a country as France. Meanwhile, Charles V was manoeuvring to form a Habsburg-Persian alliance with Persia, envoys were sent to Shah Tahmasp I in 1525, and again in 1529, pleading for an attack on the Ottoman Empire. In 1528 also, Francis used the pretext of the protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire to again enter into contact with Suleiman, in his 1528 letter to Francis I Suleiman politely refused, but guaranteed the protection of Christians in his states. He also renewed the privileges of French merchants which had obtained in 1517 in Egypt. Francis I lost in his European campaigns, and had to sign the Paix des Dames in August 1529 and he was even forced to supply some galleys to Charles V in his fight against the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans would continue their campaigns in Central Europe, and besiege the Habsburg capital in the 1529 Siege of Vienna, in early July 1532, Suleiman was joined by the French ambassador Antonio Rincon in Belgrade. Antonio Rincon presented Suleiman with a magnificent four-tiered tiara, made in Venice for 115,000 ducats, Rincon also described the Ottoman camp, Astonishing order, no violence. Merchants, women even, coming and going in perfect safety, life as safe, as large and easy as in Venice. Justice so fairly administered that one is tempted to believe that the Turks are turned Christians now, Ottoman embassies were sent to France, with the Ottoman embassy to France led by Hayreddin Barbarossa, and the Ottoman embassy to France led by representatives of Suleiman

21.
Treaty of Cambrai
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Shocked by the defeat of the French in the Italian War of 1521, Pope Clement VII, together with the Republic of Venice, began to organize an alliance to drive Charles V from Italy. Francis, having signed the Treaty of Madrid, was released from his captivity in Madrid and returned to France, where he quickly announced his intention to assist Clement. Thus, in 1526, the League of Cognac was signed by Francis, Clement, Venice, Florence, and the Sforza of Milan, Henry VIII of England, thwarted in his desire to have the treaty signed in England, refused to join. The League quickly seized Lodi, but Imperial troops marched into Lombardy, the Colonna, meanwhile, organized an attack on Rome, defeating the Papal forces and briefly seizing control of the city in September 1526, they were soon paid off and departed, however. Charles V now gathered a force of landsknechts under Georg Frundsberg and a Spanish army under Charles of Bourbon, the two forces combined at Piacenza and advanced on Rome. Francesco Guicciardini, now in command of the Papal armies, proved unable to resist them, and his escape allowed by the Swiss Guards last stand. The looting of Rome, and the consequent removal of Clement from any role in the war. On 30 April 1527, Henry VIII and Francis signed the Treaty of Westminster, doria, however, soon deserted the French for Charles. The siege collapsed as plague broke out in the French camp, killing most of the army along with Foix, following the defeat of his armies, Francis sought peace with Charles. The final Treaty of Cambrai, signed on 5 August, removed France from the war, leaving Venice, Florence, Charles, having arrived in Genoa, proceeded to Bologna to meet with the Pope. Clement absolved the participants of the sack of Rome and promised to crown Charles, the Republic of Florence alone continued to resist the Imperial forces, which were led by the Prince of Orange. Alessandro de Medici was then installed as Duke of Florence, the Black Bands of Giovanni, Infantry and Diplomacy During the Italian Wars. Pisa, Pisa University Press, Edizioni Plus,2005, New York, St. Martins Press,1994. MHQ, The Quarterly Journal of Military History 18, no, translated by Isola van den Hoven-Vardon. New York, Oxford University Press,2002, garden City, New York, Doubleday, Doran & Co.1937. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe, Gunpowder, Technology, baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press,1997. Florence, The Biography of a City, New York, W. W. Norton & Company,1993. Pavia 1525, The Climax of the Italian Wars, a History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century

22.
House of Valois
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The House of Valois was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. They succeeded the House of Capet to the French throne, and were the house of France from 1328 to 1589. Junior members of the family founded cadet branches in Orléans, Anjou, Burgundy, the Valois descended from Charles, Count of Valois, the second surviving son of King Philip III of France. Their title to the throne was based on a precedent in 1316, the Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and after the reign of Philip IV from 1285 to 1313. Philip had left three surviving sons and a daughter, each son became king in turn but died young without male heirs, leaving only daughters who could not inherit the throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, the French succession became more problematic, in 1328 three candidates had plausible claims to the throne, Philip, Count of Valois, son of Charles of Valois, who was the closest heir in male line and a grandson of Philip III. Because his father was the brother of the late Philip IV, he was therefore a nephew of Philip IV, further, Charles IV had chosen him as the regent before his death. Philip, Count of Évreux, another nephew of Philip IV and he strengthened his position by marrying Joan of France, daughter of Louis X. Edward III of England, son of Isabella of France, daughter and only surviving child of Philip IV. Edward claimed to be the heir as a grandson of Philip IV, in England, Isabella of France claimed the throne on behalf of her son. Like the French, the English law of succession did not allow the succession of females, the French rejected Isabellas claims, arguing that since she herself, as a woman, could not succeed, then she could not transmit any such right to her son. Thus the French magnates chose Philip of Valois, who became Philip VI of France, the throne of Navarre went its separate way, to Joan of France, daughter of Louis X, who became Joan II of Navarre. Because diplomacy and negotiation had failed, Edward III would have to back his claims with force to obtain the French throne, for a few years, England and France maintained an uneasy peace. Eventually, an escalation of conflict between the two led to the confiscation of the duchy of Aquitaine. Instead of paying homage to the French king, as his ancestors had done and these events helped launch the Hundred Years War between England and France. The Hundred Years War could be considered a war of succession between the houses of Valois and Plantagenet. The early reign of Philip VI was a one for France. The new king fought the Flemings on behalf of his vassal, the count of Flanders, Edward IIIs aggression against Scotland, a French ally, prompted Philip VI to confiscate Guyenne. In the past the English kings would have to submit to the King of France, but Edward, having descended from the French kings, claimed the throne for himself

House of Valois
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Arms of the King of France since 1376

23.
Habsburg
–
The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance

Habsburg
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House of Habsburg
Habsburg
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Growth of the Habsburg Empire in Central Europe.
Habsburg
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A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the Battle of Mühlberg (1547) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green, but do not include the lands of the Holy Roman Empire over which they presided, nor the vast Castilian holdings outside of Europe, particularly in the New World.
Habsburg
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Spanish branch's family tree with connections to Emperors' branch

24.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Habsburg Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556, through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned nearly four square kilometers and were the first to be described as the empire on which the sun never sets. Charles was the heir of three of Europes leading dynasties, the Houses of Valois-Burgundy, Habsburg, and Trastámara and he inherited the Burgundian Netherlands and the Franche-Comté as heir of the House of Valois-Burgundy. From his own dynasty, the Habsburgs, he inherited Austria and he was also elected to succeed his Habsburg grandfather, Maximilian I, as Holy Roman Emperor, a title held by the Habsburgs since 1440. Charles was the first king to rule Castile and Aragon simultaneously in his own right, the personal union, under Charles, of the Holy Roman Empire with the Spanish Empire resulted in the closest Europe would come to a universal monarchy since the death of Louis the Pious. France recovered and the wars continued for the remainder of Charless reign, enormously expensive, they led to the development of the first modern professional army in Europe, the Tercios. The struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary and the Mediterranean, after seizing most of eastern and central Hungary in 1526, the Ottomans’ advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. A lengthy war of attrition, conducted on his behalf by his younger brother Ferdinand, in the Mediterranean, although there were some successes, Charles was unable to prevent the Ottomans’ increasing naval dominance and the piratical activity of the Barbary Corsairs. Charles opposed the Reformation and in Germany he was in conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League who were motivated by religious and political opposition to him. Once the rebellions were quelled the essential Castilian and Burgundian territories remained mostly loyal to Charles throughout his rule, Charles’s Spanish dominions were the chief source of his power and wealth, and they became increasingly important as his reign progressed. In the Americas, Charles sanctioned the conquest by Castillian conquistadors of the Aztec, Castillian control was extended across much of South and Central America. The resulting vast expansion of territory and the flows of South American silver to Castile had profound long term effects on Spain. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery. Upon Charles’s abdications, the Holy Roman Empire was inherited by his younger brother Ferdinand, the Spanish Empire, including the possessions in the Netherlands and Italy, was inherited by Charles’s son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century, Charles was born in 1500 as the eldest son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile in the Flemish city of Ghent, which was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life and he was tutored by William de Croÿ, and also by Adrian of Utrecht. He also gained a decent command of German, though he never spoke it as well as French, a witticism sometimes attributed to Charles is, I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men and German to my horse

25.
Comet
–
Community of Metros is a system of international railway benchmarking. CoMET consists of metro systems from around the world. Each metro has a volume of at least 500 million passengers annually, the four main objectives of CoMET are, To build measures to establish metro best practice. To provide comparative information both for the board and the government. To introduce a system of measures for management and these objectives were discussed in detail at the CoMET Annual Meeting 2016, hosted by SMRT Trains of SMRT Corporation. The meeting was held at Singapore in November 2016, in the UITP conference of 1982, London Underground and Hamburger Hochbahn decided to create a benchmarking exercise to compare their two railways with additional data for other 24 metro systems. The project was successful despite the fact that metros were very different in sizes, structures, however, CoMET used the Key Performance Indicator innovatively to solve the problem. In 1994, the Mass Transit Railway of Hong Kong proposed to London Underground, Berlin U-Bahn, New York City Subway, thus, the metros can exchange performance data and investigate best practice amongst similar heavy metros. These five metros are later known as the Group of Five, over time, other large transit systems joined the group. For example, Mexico City Metro, São Paulo Metro and Tokyo Metro joined in 1996, with eight members in total, the group became known as the Community of Metros. Following the success of the CoMET, the Nova group was created in 1998 as another benchmarking association, the Nova is currently consisted of 14 metro systems from around the world. Later, Moscow Metro joined the CoMET in 1999, madrid Metro transferred from Nova to CoMET in 2004. Santiago Metro and Beijing Subway joined in 2008, taipei Metro was the last member to join the CoMET which also joined in 2010

26.
Bourbon kings of France
–
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre

Bourbon kings of France
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The castle of Bourbon-l'Archambault
Bourbon kings of France
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House of Bourbon
Bourbon kings of France
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Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon King of France
Bourbon kings of France
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Dynastic group portrait of Louis XIV (seated) with his son le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson the duc d'Anjou, later Louis XV, and Madame de Ventadour, his governess, who commissioned this painting some years later; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII in the background.

27.
Henry IV of France
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Henry IV, also known by the epithet Good King Henry, was King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, baptised as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother Jeanne dAlbret, Queen of Navarre, he inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on the death of his mother. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, and later led Protestant forces against the royal army. Henry, as Head of the House of Bourbon, was a direct descendant of Louis IX of France. Upon the death of his brother-in-law and distant cousin Henry III of France in 1589 and he initially kept the Protestant faith and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear Frances crown as a Protestant. To obtain mastery over his kingdom, after four years of stalemate, as a pragmatic politician, he displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the era. Notably, he promulgated the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants and he was assassinated in 1610 by François Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. Considered a usurper by some Catholics and a traitor by some Protestants, an unpopular king immediately after his accession, Henrys popularity greatly improved after his death, in light of repeated victories over his enemies and his conversion to Catholicism. The Good King Henry was remembered for his geniality and his concern about the welfare of his subjects. He was celebrated in the popular song Vive le roi Henri, Henry was born in Pau, the capital of the joint Kingdom of Navarre with the sovereign principality of Béarn. His parents were Queen Joan III of Navarre and her consort, Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, although baptised as a Roman Catholic, Henry was raised as a Protestant by his mother, who had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion, on 9 June 1572, upon his mothers death, he became King of Navarre. At Queen Joans death, it was arranged for Henry to marry Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II, the wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre began in Paris, several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henrys wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and he was made to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism at Tours and he named his 16-year-old sister, Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years, Henry became heir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the Catholic Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Because Henry of Navarre was the senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice

28.
Louis of Savoy
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Louis I was Duke of Savoy from 1440 until his death in 1465. He was born at Geneva the son of Antipope Felix V and Mary of Burgundy, on 1 November 1433, at Chambéry, he married Princess Anne of Cyprus, an heiress of the Kingdom of Cyprus and the defunct Kingdom of Jerusalem. The family lived in Allaman Castle, Vaud/Switzerland and as Count de Vaud, Savoy tried to conquer the Duchy of Milan, then under the Repubblica Ambrosiana, in 1453 he received the Shroud of Turin from Margaret de Charny. It was held by the House of Savoy until 1946, at the end of the Kingdom of Italy, Louis died at Lyon in 1465, while returning from France. Louis, Count of Geneva, King of Cyprus, marguerite, married firstly in December 1458 Giovanni IV Paleologo, Marquis of Montferrat and secondly Pierre II de Luxembourg, Count of St. Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, Marle, and Soissons. Janus, Count of Faucigny and Geneva, married Helene of Luxembourg, daughter of Louis de Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, charlotte, married King Louis XI of France. Agnes, married François dOrléans, Duke of Longueville and their son is Louis I dOrléans, duc de Longueville. Maria, married Louis of Luxembourg, Count of St. Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, bona, married Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan. Giacomo, Count of Romont, Lord of Vaud, François, Archbishop of Auch and Bishop of Geneva

Louis of Savoy
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Duke Louis I of Savoy

29.
Margaret III, Countess of Flanders
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Margaret III was the last Countess of Flanders of the House of Dampierre, as well as Countess of Artois and Countess Palatine of Burgundy. She was the surviving child and heir of Louis II. In 1355, the young Margaret married Philip of Rouvres, grandson and heir of Odo IV and he was count of Burgundy and Artois, Duke of Burgundy, and became Count of Auvergne and Boulogne. Following Philips death from an accident in 1361, Margaret was widowed. King John II of France claimed the duchy for the kingdom of France, in 1364 Philip the Bold, Johns youngest son, was granted the duchy, and subsequently married Margaret. Margarets second marriage to Philip the Bold took place in 1369, when Margarets father died in 1384, she and Philip inherited the counties of Artois, Burgundy, Flanders, Nevers, and Rethel. Philip died in 1404, and Margaret died the next year, with her death, the House of Dampierre came to an end and the County of Flanders lost its independence to Burgundy. It came under the rule of her son, John the Fearless, the Dampierres, originally only counts of Flanders, had through a clever marriage policy managed to inherit the counties of Nevers and Rethel. Through her grandmother, a daughter of King Philip V of France and her eldest son, John the Fearless, succeeded her husband in 1404 as Duke of Burgundy and her as Count of Burgundy, Count of Artois, and Count of Flanders. In 1406 her younger son Anthony inherited Brabant and Limburg, Nevers and Rethel were at first, in her lifetime, given to her eldest sons John and Anthony, but after Johns accession to the duchy, Nevers went to her youngest son Philip. Rethel was given to Philip in 1402 when it became clear that Anthony would inherit Brabant, in Burgundy, the château de Germolles offered by Philip the Bold to Margaret of Flanders in 1381 was embellished by the princess. Largely preserved, it is one of the best example of the princely residences in France at the end of the Middle Ages

30.
John I, Count of La Marche
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John of Bourbon, was the second son of James I, Count of La Marche and Jeanne of Châtillon. He was captured as a man at the Battle of Poitiers. After the death of his father and elder brother following the Battle of Brignais and he took an active part in the Hundred Years War, and became Governor of Limousin after helping reconquer it from the English. Later he joined Bertrand du Guesclin in his campaign of 1366 in Castile, in 1374, his brother-in-law Bouchard VII, Count of Vendôme died, and John became Count of Vendôme and Castres in right of his wife. He joined the campaign of Charles VI1382 in Flanders and fought in 1392 in Brittany and he rebuilt the castles of Vendôme and Lavardin. On 28 September 1364, he married Catherine of Vendôme, countess of Vendôme and daughter of John VI, Count of Vendôme. He had seven children by Catherine, James II, Count of La Marche and Castres Isabelle, famiglietti, Tales of the Marriage Bed from Medieval France, Picardy Press,1992

John I, Count of La Marche
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John I and Catherine

31.
Charlotte de Bourbon-La Marche
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Charlotte de Bourbon was the Queen consort of Cyprus and titular Queen consort of Armenia and Jerusalem through her marriage to King Janus of Cyprus. She was his wife and the mother of his six legitimate children. It was Charlottes influence which was instrumental in the revival of French culture at the court in Nicosia. Charlotte was born in France in 1388, one of the seven children of John I, Count of La Marche and she had three brothers and three sisters. She also had an illegitimate half-brother by her fathers relationship with a mistress, Charlottes paternal grandparents were James I, Count of La Marche and Jeanne de Châtillon, and her maternal grandparents were Jean VI, Count of Vendôme and Jeanne of Ponthieu. On 25 August 1411, at Saint Sophias Cathedral in Nicosia, Cyprus, Charlotte married as his wife, King Janus of Cyprus and Armenia. He was the son of King James I of Cyprus and Helvis of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, Janus and Charlotte had been married by proxy on 2 August 1409 in Melun, France. A document dated 10 January 1409, records the arrangements for Charlottes voyage from Venice to Cyprus, the chronicle of Amadi records the arrival in Cyprus of damisella Carlotta de Borbon, moglie de re Zegno and her marriage on 25 August 1411. Charlottes lavish retinue which accompanied her to Cyprus included many musicians, Janus was a member of the prominent and extensive Lusignan dynasty, which was also his family name. He had divorced his first wife, Anglesia Visconti several years earlier, the marriage of Janus and Charlotte was described as a cornerstone in the revitalisation of French culture in the Lusignan court that characterised Januss rule. Following her marriage, she established a socièté courtoise at the royal court at Nicosia. Together Janus and Charlotte had six children, Jacques de Lusignan King John II of Cyprus and Armenia and titular King of Jerusalem and he married firstly Amadea of Montferrat, he married secondly Helena Palaiologina, by whom he had two daughters including Queen Charlotte of Cyprus. By his Greek mistress Marietta de Patras, he had an illegitimate son Jacques, unnamed twin, died in early infancy. Unnamed twin, died in early infancy, Anne de Lusignan, married Louis, Duke of Savoy, by whom she had nineteen children. Marie de Lusignan, betrothed to Philippe de Bourbon, Lord of Beaujeu, King Janus had three illegitimate children by an unnamed mistress. Charlotte died on 15 January 1422 of the plague and she was buried in the Royal Monastery of Saint Dominics in Nicosia. She is also an ancestress of the current British Royal Family, Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Kings of Cyprus Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Maine

Charlotte de Bourbon-La Marche
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Janus (left) and Charlotte (right)

32.
Louis II, Duke of Bourbon
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Louis de Bourbon, called the Good, son of Peter de Bourbon and Isabella de Valois, was the third Duke of Bourbon. The teenage Louis inherited the duchy from his father Duke Peter I after his death in the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and its objective was to suppress piracy based in the city of Mahdia, but the siege was unsuccessful. Duke Louis died at Montlucon in 1410, at the age of 72 or 73, archaeologia, or miscellaneous tracts relating to antiquity, Vol.20,236 Housley, Norman, The later Crusades, 1274-1580, from Lyons to Alcazar, Oxford University Press,1992

Louis II, Duke of Bourbon
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Duke Louis II of Bourbon

33.
John I, Duke of Bourbon
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Jean de Bourbon was Duke of Bourbon, from 1410 to his death and Duke of Auvergne since 1416. He was the eldest son of Louis II and Anne of Auvergne, through his mother, John inherited the County of Forez. During the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War he took sides against the Burgundians, John was captured at the Battle of Agincourt and died a prisoner in London, in spite of the payment of several ransoms, and promises to support the king of England as king of France. In 1400 in Paris, he married his niece Marie, Duchess of Auvergne, daughter of John, Duke of Berry, who inherited the Auvergne title from her father. They had three sons, Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Bourbon Louis of Bourbon, Count of Forez Louis de Bourbon, bennett, Michael, Agincourt 1415, triumph against the odds, Osprey Publishing,1991

John I, Duke of Bourbon
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John I, Duke of Bourbon

34.
Charles I, Duke of Bourbon
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Charles de Bourbon was the oldest son of John I, Duke of Bourbon and Marie, Duchess of Auvergne. In 1425, Charles renewed his earlier betrothal by marrying Agnes of Burgundy, Charles entered a relationship with Jeanne de Bournan, together they had Louis de Bourbon, Count of Roussillon. Louis founded the House of Bourbon-Roussillon, Louis is known for his many services to the State. As a reward for his loyalty and dedication to Louis XI during the League of the Public Weal conflict, Louis XI gave him in marriage his legitimized daughter Jeanne de Valois. Charles served with distinction in the Royal army during the Hundred Years War, while maintaining a truce with his brother-in-law and otherwise enemy, Philip III. Both dukes were reconciled and signed an alliance by 1440 and he was present at the coronation of Charles VII where he fulfilled the function of a peer and conferred knighthood. Despite this service, he took part in the Praguerie in 1439–1440, when the revolt collapsed, he was forced to beg for mercy from the King, and was stripped of some of his lands. He died on his estates in 1456, unmarried Louis de Bourbon, one of the first Knights of the Order of Saint-Michel, appointed by letters patent of Louis XI in 1469. Renaud de Bourbon, abbot of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Archbishop of Narbonne from 1473 to 1482, pernoud, Régine, Marie-Véronique Clin, Prof. Jeremy duQuesnay Adams, and Bonnie Wheeler, Joan of Arc, Vaughan, Richard, Philip the Good

Charles I, Duke of Bourbon
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Stone statue of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon in the abbey church of Souvigny

35.
John, duke of Berry
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John of Berry or John the Magnificent was Duke of Berry and Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. He was the son of King John II of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, his brothers were King Charles V of France, Duke Louis I of Anjou. He is primarily remembered as a collector of the important illuminated manuscripts and other works of art commissioned by him and he was born at the castle of Vincennes on 30 November 1340. When Poitiers was ceded to England in 1360, John II granted John the newly raised duchies of Berry, by the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny, signed that May, John became a hostage of the English Crown and remained in England until 1369. Upon his return to France, his brother, now King Charles V, appointed him lieutenant general for Berry, Auvergne, Bourbonnais, Forez, Sologne, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, and Normandy. Upon the death of his older brother Charles V in 1380, his son and heir, Charles VI was a minor, so Berry and his brothers, following the death of Louis of Anjou in 1384, Berry and his brother Burgundy were the dominant figures in the kingdom. John was also stripped of his offices in Languedoc at that time, Berry and Burgundy bided their time, and were soon able to retake power, in 1392, when the King had his first attack of insanity, an affliction which would remain with him throughout his life. The two royal dukes continued to rule until 1402, when the king, in one of his moments of lucidity, took power from them and gave it to his brother Louis, Duke of Orléans. Simon of Cramaud, a canonist and prelate, served the Duke in his efforts to find a way to end the Great Western schism that was not unfavorable to French interests, in his later years, John became a more conciliatory figure in France. It was largely due to his urging that Charles VI and his sons were not present at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and he died a few months after the battle, which proved as disastrous as he had feared, on June 151416 in Paris. In 1389 he married his wife, Joan II, Countess of Auvergne. John of Berry was also a patron who commissioned among other works the most famous Book of Hours. His spending on his art collection severely taxed his estates, works created for him include the manuscripts known as the Très Riches Heures, the Belles Heures of Jean de France, Duc de Berry and the Turin-Milan Hours. Goldsmiths work includes the Holy Thorn Reliquary and Royal Gold Cup, among the artists working for him were the Limbourg Brothers, Jacquemart de Hesdin and André Beauneveu. The web site of the Louvre says of him, Emmerson, key Figures in Medieval Europe, An Encyclopedia. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–

John, duke of Berry
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Image of John, Duke of Berry from the Très Riches Heures
John, duke of Berry
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Joan of Auvergne and Boulogne
John, duke of Berry
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John of Berry
John, duke of Berry
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A portrait of John kneeling in prayer

36.
Marie, Duchess of Auvergne
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Not to be confused with Marie I, Countess of Auvergne Marie of Berry, suo jure Duchess of Auvergne, Countess of Montpensier was the daughter of John, Duke of Berry, and Joanna of Armagnac. She acted as administrator for her third husband John I, Duke of Bourbon, Marie was born about the year 1375, the youngest daughter of John the Magnificent, Duke of Berry and Joanna of Armagnac. Through her father, a collector of antiquities, art patron and bibliophile. She had three brothers, Charles, Louis, and John, and one sister, Bonne. The first of Maries three marriages took place on 29 May 1386 in the Cathedral of Saint-Etienne at Bourges, aged about 11, Maries father gave her a dowry of 70,000 francs, he gave Louis, his son-in-law, the county of Dunois. The festivities at the wedding de ces jeunes enfants are described in Jean Froissarts Chronicles, there were no children from this marriage, and Louis died on 15 July 1391. On 27 January 1393 a marriage contract was drawn up for Marie and Philip of Artois, Count of Eu. They were married the month at the Palais du Louvre in Paris, King Charles VI of France himself paid for the festivities. Marie was now about 18, Philip was about 35, having been born in 1358 and she was to bear him two sons and two daughters. The King appointed Philip Constable in 1392, Philippe went on Crusade and fought alongside his friend Jean Le Maingre, marshal of France at the disastrous Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September 1396. Both were captured, and Philippe died some months later in captivity at Micalizo, now called Mihalıççık and their eldest son, Philippe, died on 23 December in the same year and is also buried in Eu. Jointly with her widowed sister-in-law, Jeanne of Thouars, Marie was appointed guardian of the three surviving children of her marriage with Philippe, Charles, Bonne and Catherine, aged about three, Charles succeeded his father as Count of Eu. His revenues were held for him until he came of age by three trustees, Marie herself, her father, and her uncle Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Marie married her third husband John of Bourbon at the Kings Palace in Paris on 21 June 1401. The contract had been signed at Paris on 27 May 1400 after complex negotiations and he was appointed Grand Chamberlain of France on 18 March 1408 and succeeded his father as Duke of Bourbon on 19 August 1410. In the illustration for the month of April, the noblemen and women in the foreground are grouped around a couple agreeing to be married. According to Patricia Stirnemann, referencing Saint-Jean Boudin, the scene, although not painted until about 1410, raymond Cazelles disputes this, arguing that the couple are Maries niece Bonne of Armagnac and Charles, Duke of Orléans, who were to marry in 1411. A May Day celebration among nobles takes place in the foreground of the illustration for the month of May, details appear to confirm that the house of Bourbon is represented. Both Cazelles and Stirnemann believe that the woman seen in the foreground, riding on a white horse and these scholars do not agree as to which of the accompanying men is John of Bourbon

Marie, Duchess of Auvergne
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Marie of Berry and her third husband John of Bourbon. Guillaume Revel, Armorial d'Auvergne: BNF Français 22297 f. 17r
Marie, Duchess of Auvergne
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The wedding of Philip of Artois and Marie of Berry. Jean Froissart, Chroniques: BL Harleian MS 4380 f. 6r
Marie, Duchess of Auvergne
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The month of May. Marie of Berry is seen centre foreground, riding a white horse, at her marriage to John of Bourbon. The Palais de la Cité where she was married may be the building in the centre background. Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry: Musée Condé

37.
Joanna of Armagnac
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Joan of Armagnac was a French noblewoman of the Armagnac family, being the eldest daughter of Count John I of Armagnac and his wife Beatrice of Clermont. She became Duchess of Berry by her marriage to John, Duke of Berry in 1360 and she married John, Duke of Berry, son of John II of France and his first wife Bonne of Bohemia. Joannas daughter, also called Bonne, was the mother of Antipope Felix V. Emmerson, key Figures in Medieval Europe, An Encyclopedia

Joanna of Armagnac
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Joanna, John and their children

38.
John the Fearless
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John the Fearless, also known as John of Valois and John I of Burgundy, was Duke of Burgundy from 1404 to 1419. He was a member of the Burgundian branch of the Valois Dynasty, for a period of time, he served as regent of France on behalf of his first cousin King Charles VI of France, who suffered from severe mental illness. John was born in Dijon on 27 May 1371 to Philip II the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1385, a double wedding for the Burgundian family took place in Cambrai. The marriage took place after John cancelled his engagement to Catherine of France, before his accession to the Duchy of Burgundy, John was one of the principal leaders of the French forces sent to aid King Sigismund of Hungary in his war against Sultan Bayezid I. John fought in the Battle of Nicopolis of 25 September 1396 with such enthusiasm, despite his personal bravery, his impetuous leadership ended in disaster for the European expedition. He was captured and did not recover his liberty until the year after an enormous ransom was paid. Both men attempted to fill the vacuum left by the demented king. John played a game of marriages by exchanging his daughter Margaret of Burgundy for Michelle of Valois, for her part, Margaret was married to Louis, Duke of Guyenne, the heir to the French throne from 1401 until his death in 1415. For all his concentration on aristocratic politics, John nonetheless did not overlook the importance of the class of merchants. Louis tried to gain the favour of the wife of Charles VI, Queen Isabeau of France and this did not improve relations between John and the Duke of Orléans. Soon the two descended into making open threats. Their uncle, John, Duke of Berry, secured a vow of solemn reconciliation on 20 November 1407, the order, no one doubted, had come from the Duke of Burgundy, who shortly admitted to the deed and declared it to be a justifiable act of tyrannicide. After an escape from Paris and a few skirmishes against the Orléans party, in the treaty of Chartres, signed on 9 March 1409, the King absolved the Duke of Burgundy of the crime, and he and Louis son Charles pledged a reconciliation. A later edict renewed Johns guardianship of the Dauphin, even with the Orléans dispute resolved in his favour, John did not lead a tranquil life. Chief among these allies was his father-in-law Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, because of this alliance, their faction became known as the Armagnacs in opposition to the Burgundians. With peace between the factions solemnly sworn in 1410, John returned to Burgundy and Bernard remained in Paris, at this time, King Henry V of England invaded French territory and threatened to attack Paris. During the peace negotiations with the Armagnacs, Henry was also in contact with John, despite this, he continued to be wary of forming an alliance with the English for fear of destroying his immense popularity with the common people of France. When Henry demanded Burgundys support for his claim to be the rightful King of France, John backed away and decided to ally himself with the Armagnacs

John the Fearless
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John the Fearless
John the Fearless
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Double groat or 'Braspenning', struck under John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy
John the Fearless
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Miniature showing John the Fearless' assassination painted by Master of the Prayer Books
John the Fearless
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John's tomb, photo by Eugene Trutat

39.
Agnes of Burgundy, Duchess of Bourbon
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Agnes of Burgundy, duchess of Bourbon and Auvergne, countess of Clermont, was the daughter of John the Fearless and Margaret of Bavaria. Her maternal grandparents were Albert I, Duke of Bavaria and Margaret of Brieg and her paternal grandparents were Philip the Bold and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders. Isabella was mother of Mary of Burgundy, unmarried OReilly, Elizabeth Boyle, How France Built Her Cathedrals

Agnes of Burgundy, Duchess of Bourbon
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Agnes of Burgundy

40.
Albert I, Duke of Bavaria
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Duke Albert I KG, was a feudal ruler of the counties of Holland, Hainaut, and Zeeland in the Low Countries. Additionally, he held a portion of the Bavarian province of Straubing, his Bavarian ducal lines appanage, Albert was the third son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor from his second wife Empress Margaret, who was the daughter of William III, Count of Holland and Hainaut. Albert was originally a younger son, apportioned at best an appanage and he was only 10 years old when his father died, leaving most of his Bavarian inheritance to his eldest half-brother, Louis V, Duke of Bavaria, but also some appanages to the younger sons. His elder brother, William V, Count of Holland, had engaged in a struggle with their mother, obtaining Holland and Zeeland from her in 1354. William was supported by the party of burghers of the cities and they were opposed in this by the Hook faction, the party of disaffected nobles who were supporters of Empress Margaret. Margaret had been Countess of Holland, Zeeland and Hainault in succession to her brother William IV, who was killed in battle. She had resigned her sovereignty in favour of her son William V, however, Williams insanity resulted in the appointment of the then 22-year-old Albert as governor of his brothers territories from 1358 onwards. During Alberts regency, affairs ran smoothly and trade improved, troubles between the two political parties, the Hoeks and Kabeljauws, remained barely beneath the surface. William lived for thirty years. Albert did not formally succeed him until his death in 1388, by time he had already arranged the marriage of his daughters to a number of Imperial princes. The eldest daughter to have children was Margaret, her son Philip III, in Alberts own reign, troubles erupted between the Hoeks and the Kabeljauws because of a woman. Albert always had mistresses, but this time his attentions were drawn to Aleid van Poelgeest and she was considered very beautiful and was able to gain political influence which was resented. A plot was hatched among the Hoeks as well as members of Alberts household, on 22 September 1392 Aleid was murdered in The Hague. In his rage Albert persecuted the Hoeks, by sword and fire, even his own son and heir, William, did not feel safe and went to live in Hainault. During his last years, Albert fought the Frisians and they were beaten time and time again, but were never completely conquered. On Alberts death in 1404, he was succeeded by his eldest son, a younger son, John III, became Bishop of Liège. However, on Williams death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and Williams daughter Jacqueline of Hainaut and this would be the last episode of the Hook and Cod wars and would lead to the counties being placed into Burgundian hands. Johanna of Bavaria, married Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, Margaret of Bavaria, married in Cambrai in 1385 John the Fearless

41.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg

42.
Louis I, Duke of Anjou
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Louis I was the second son of John II of France and the founder of the Angevin branch of the French royal house. Bonne of Bohemia gave birth to him at the Château de Vincennes and his father appointed him Count of Anjou and Count of Maine in 1356, and then raised him to the title Duke of Anjou in 1360 and Duke of Touraine in 1370. In 1382, as the son of Joan I, he succeeded to the counties of Provence. He also inherited from her a claim to the kingdoms of Naples and he was already a veteran of the Hundred Years War against the English when he led an army into Italy to claim his Neapolitan inheritance. He died on the march and his claims and titles fell to his son and namesake, Louis II, Louis was present at the Battle of Poitiers, in the battalion commanded by his brother Charles, the Dauphin. They hardly fought and the group escaped in the middle of the confrontation. Although humiliating, their flight allowed them to capture by the English. King John II and Louis younger brother Philip were not so fortunate and were captured by the English, commanded by Edward and their ransom and peace conditions between France and England were agreed in the Treaty of Brétigny, signed in 1360. Amongst the complicated items of the treaty was a clause that determined the surrender of 40 high-born hostages as guarantee for the payment of the kings ransom, Louis, already Duke of Anjou, was in this group and sailed to England in October 1360. However, France was not in good condition and further installments of the debt were delayed. As consequence, Louis was in English custody for more than the expected six months. He tried to negotiate his freedom in a negotiation with Edward III of England and. On his return to France, he met his fathers disapproval for his unknightly behavior, from 1380 to 1382 Louis served as regent for his nephew, King Charles VI of France. In 1382 Louis left France in the year to claim the throne of Naples following the death of Queen Joanna I. She had adopted him to succeed her, as she was childless and did not wish to leave her inheritance to any of her close relatives and he was also able to succeed her as count of Provence and Forcalquier. The expedition, counting to some 40,000 troops, was however unsuccessful, amadeus fell ill and died in Molise on 1 March 1383 and his troops abandoned the field. Louis asked for help from his nephew in France, who sent him an army under Enguerrand of Coucy. The latter was able to conquer Arezzo and then invade the Kingdom of Naples and he soon sold Arezzo to Florence and returned to France

Louis I, Duke of Anjou
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15th-century portrait of Louis

43.
Louis II of Naples
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Louis II was King of Naples from 1389 until 1399 and Duke of Anjou from 1384 until 1417. He was a member of the House of Valois-Anjou, born in Toulouse, Louis II was the son of Louis I of Anjou, King of Naples, and Marie of Blois. He came into his Angevin inheritance, which included Provence, in 1384, with his rival Charles of Durazzo, of the senior Angevin line, most towns in Provence revolted after the death of his father. His mother then raised an army and they traveled from town to town, Louis was recognized as Count of Provence in 1387. He founded a university in Aix-en-Provence in 1409, in 1386, Charles of Durazzos son, the underage Ladislaus, was expelled from Naples soon after his father died. Louis II was crowned King of Naples by the Avignonese antipope Clement VII on 1 November 1389 and he was ousted in turn by his rival in 1399. In 1409, Louis liberated Rome from Ladislaus occupation, in 1410, as an ally of the antipope John XXIII he attacked Ladislaus, eventually Louis lost his Neapolitan support and had to retire. His claim to Naples passed to his son, Louis III and he married his first cousin once removed Yolande of Aragon in Arles in 1400, giving him a possibility of inheriting the throne of Aragon through her right. Her father, King John I of Aragon had died in 1396 and his son Louis was bethrothed to Catherine of Burgundy, a daughter of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. However, after John instigated a mob attack on the Dauphin of France, he, the betrothal to Catherine was repudiated, which caused the enmity of the Duke of Burgundy. He was not present at the Battle of Agincourt, because he had a bladder infection, after the battle, he fled from Paris to join his wife and children at Angers. Louis II died at his chateau of Angers, the county town of Anjou, Louis and Yolande had five surviving children, Louis III of Anjou, titular King of Naples, Duke of Anjou. René of Anjou, King of Naples, Duke of Anjou, Charles of Le Maine, Count of Maine. Marie of Anjou, married 1422 at Bourges Charles VII of France, Yolande, married firstly Philip I, Duke of Brabant and secondly in 1431, Francis I, Duke of Brittany. The Good King, René of Anjou and Fifteenth Century Europe

Louis II of Naples
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Louis II of Naples.

44.
Louis III of Naples
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Louis III was titular King of Naples from 1417 to 1426, Count of Provence, Forcalquier, Piedmont, and Maine and Duke of Anjou from 1417 to 1434, and Duke of Calabria from 1426 to 1434. He was the eldest son and heir of Louis II of Anjou, the throne of Aragon fell vacant in 1410 when king Martin I of Aragon died. Louis mother Yolande was the daughter of sonless King John I of Aragon. They claimed the throne of Aragon for the young Louis, however, unclear though they were, the succession rules of Aragon and Barcelona at that time were understood to favor all male relatives before any female. Martin died without surviving issue in 1410, and after two years without a king, the Estates of Aragon by Compromise of Caspe in 1412 elected Infante Ferdinand of Castile as the next King of Aragon. Ferdinand was the son of Eleanor of Aragon and John I of Castile. The family however had secured some Aragonese lands in Montpellier and Roussillon, Yolande and her sons regarded themselves as heirs of higher claim and began to use the title of Kings of Aragon. From this inheritance forward, Louis and Yolande were called the King and Queen of Four Kingdoms, those four being Sicily, Jerusalem, Aragon, of those, only the mainland part of Sicily was ever directly held by Louis, and only briefly. Louis also had claims on the title Latin Emperor, which his grandfather Louis I had purchased in 1383, Pope Martin V invested Louis III on 4 December 1419 as King of Sicily. This was in contrast with the will of the childless and aged queen of the Italian kingdom, Joanna II, in 1420 Louis disembarked in Campania and besieged Naples, but had to flee at the arrive of an Aragonese fleet. Alfonso entered the city in 1421 and Louis lost the support of the Pope, however, when the relationships between Alfonso and queen suddenly worsened after the arrest of Joannas lover and prime minister, Gianni Caracciolo, the queen moved to Aversa where Louis joined her. He was adopted and named heir in lieu of Alfonso, giving him the title of Duke of Calabria, when Alfonso had to return to Aragon, the kingdom was pacified. Louis moved to his possession in Calabria, where he lived with Margaret of Savoy, daughter of Amadeus VIII. Louis could never become king effectively, as he died of malaria at Cosenza in 1434, after Joannas death the following year, his brother René of Anjou was named King of Naples. The Good King, René of Anjou and Fifteenth Century Europe, amedeo Miceli di Serradileo, Una dichiarazione di Luigi III dAngiò dalla città di San Marco, Archivio Storico per la Calabria e la Lucania, Rome, XLIII,1976, pp. 69–83

Louis III of Naples
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Louis III

45.
Charles IV, Duke of Anjou
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He succeeded his father as Count of Maine, Guise, Mortain and Gien in 1472. He succeeded his uncle René I of Naples in 1480 as fifth Duke of Anjou and Count of Provence, renés surviving daughter Yolande received Bar and was already Duchess of Lorraine. He also used the title of Duke of Calabria, in token of the claims to Naples he inherited from René, in 1474 he married Joan of Lorraine, daughter of Frederick II of Vaudémont, but they had no children. He died on 10 December 1481 and he willed his inheritance to his cousin Louis XI of France, whose heirs thus obtained a claim to the affairs of Italy, pursued in the next decades. Medieval European Coinage, Volume 14, South Italy, Sicily, Counts and Dukes of Anjou Counts and Dukes of Maine Counts of Provence Dukes of Guise

Charles IV, Duke of Anjou
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Coat of arms of Charles V

46.
Philippe Charles, Duke of Anjou
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Philippe-Charles of France, Duke of Anjou was the fifth child and second son of Louis XIV of France, King of France and his wife, the Infanta Maria Teresa of Spain, and as such was a Fils de France. He was baptised at the Chapelle des Tuileries à Paris on 24 March 1669, according to Nancy Mitford, the Queen, his mother, suggested it many times. While at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Anjou died of a chest infection, like his elder sister, upon his death, the appanage of the Duchy of Anjou reverted to the Crown, and was given to his younger brother, Louis François. Philippe Charles was buried on 12 July 1671, at the Basilica of Saint-Denis, at the death of the Duchess of Montpensier in 1693, her fortune went to her direct and legal heir, the House of Orléans

Philippe Charles, Duke of Anjou
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Philippe was one of the three children of Louis XIV alive at the time the portrait of his family was painted, in 1670.

47.
Louis XV of France
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Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years

Louis XV of France
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Louis XV by Hyacinthe Rigaud (1730)
Louis XV of France
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Signature
Louis XV of France
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The duke of Brittany with his father Louis, Duke of Burgundy, his grandfather Louis, Le Grand Dauphin and his great-grandfather King Louis XIV in 1709. The future Louis XV, not yet born, is not on the painting.
Louis XV of France
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Two Louis d'or, 1717, depicting a very young Louis XV

48.
Philippe, Duke of Anjou
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Philippe de France, fils de France, Duke of Anjou was a French Prince and second son of king Louis XV of France and Marie Leszczyńska. He was the Duke of Anjou from birth, Philippe de France was born at the Palace of Versailles to the young,20 year old King Louis XV of France and his wife, the 27 year old Queen of France Maria Leszczyńska on the 30 August 1730. He was the son and fifth child to be born to the royal family. Named Philippe, that was the name of the second son - the first being called Louis. He was created the Duke of Anjou at birth, this title was associated with the second son, the little Philippe grew up at Versailles with his brother the Dauphin and their twin sisters Madame Élisabeth Madame de France and Madame Henriette Madame de Navarre. In March 1732, Philippe saw the birth of the future Madame Adélaïde, the next year his older sister Marie Louise de France died at Versailles on 19 February 1733 of a Common cold. She had been known as Madame Louise and named after her parents, always a sickly child, Philippe was cared for by a group of female attendants, as royal children were cared for by women until the age of 5. As part of their superstitious beliefs, the women mixed in earth from the grave of Saint Medard with his food. As a result, Philippe died at Versailles on 7 April 1733 at the age of 2 and he was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis outside Paris. Doctors reported that large amounts of earth were found in his intestines,30 August 1730 –7 April 1733, His Royal Highness The Duke of Anjou

Philippe, Duke of Anjou
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"Prince Philippe blowing bubbles": a depiction of Philippe on a snuffbox in the Walters Museum.

49.
Louis XVIII of France
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Louis XVIII, known as The Desired, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1814 to 1824 except for a period in 1815 known as the Hundred Days. Until his accession to the throne of France, Louis held the title of Count of Provence as brother of King Louis XVI, on 21 September 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and deposed King Louis XVI, who was later executed by guillotine. When the young Louis XVII, Louis XVIs son, died in prison in June 1795, during the French Revolution and Napoleonic era, Louis XVIII lived in exile in Prussia, the United Kingdom and Russia. When the Sixth Coalition finally defeated Napoleon in 1814, Louis was placed in what he, Napoleon escaped from his exile in Elba, however, and restored his French Empire. Louis XVIII fled and a Seventh Coalition declared war on the French Empire, defeated Napoleon, Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than a decade. The Bourbon Restoration regime was a constitutional monarchy, as a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIIIs royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814, Frances new constitution. Louis had no children, therefore, upon his death, the passed to his brother, Charles. Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning, as his successor Charles X abdicated and both Louis Philippe I and Napoléon III were deposed. Louis Stanislas Xavier, styled Count of Provence from birth, was born on 17 November 1755 in the Palace of Versailles, the son of Louis, Dauphin of France and he was the grandson of the reigning King Louis XV. As a son of the Dauphin he was a Fils de France, Louis Stanislas was christened Louis Stanislas Xavier six months after his birth in accordance with Bourbon family tradition, being nameless before his baptism. By this act, he also a Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The former died in 1761, leaving Louis Auguste as heir to their father until the Dauphins own premature death in 1765, the two deaths elevated Louis Stanislas to second in the line of succession, while Louis Auguste acquired the title Dauphin. Louis Stanislas found comfort in his governess, Madame de Marsan, Governess of the Children of France, as he was her favourite among his siblings. Louis Stanislas was taken away from his governess when he turned seven, Antoine de Quélen de Stuer de Caussade, Duke of La Vauguyon, a friend of his father, was named his governor. Louis Stanislas was an intelligent boy, excelling in classics and his education was of the same quality and consistency as that of his older brother, Louis Auguste, despite the fact that Louis Auguste was heir and Louis Stanislas was not. Louis Stanislas education was religious in nature, several of his teachers were men of the cloth. La Vauguyon drilled into young Louis Stanislas and his brothers the way he thought princes should know how to withdraw themselves, to like to work, and to know how to reason correctly. In the same month his household was founded, Louis was granted titles by his grandfather, Louis XV, Duke of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Perche

50.
Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime
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Alfonso Carlos was the second son of Infante Juan of Spain, Count of Montizón and Archduchess Maria Beatrix of Austria-Este. Since his parents separated when he was young, he and his brother were raised in Modena under the tutelage of his maternal uncle Duke Francis V of Modena. In 1868 Alfonso Carlos joined the Papal Zouaves which had formed to defend the Papal States from the army of the Kingdom of Italy. In 1869 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, in September 1870 he fought for the pope during the Capture of Rome where he defended the Porta Pia. When he was ordered to surrender, he refused to give up his sword which had belonged to his grandfather Carlos V and he escaped to Toulon in a French naval ship. In 1872 Alfonso Carlos joined the armies of his older brother Carlos, Duke of Madrid and he was appointed commanding general of the Royal Army of Catalonia and distinguished himself at the Battle of Alpens in July 1873 and the siege of Cuenca in July 1874. In spite of successes, however, the Carlists eventually lost the war which was over by February 1876. Alfonso Carlos spent most of the rest of his life in Austria where he owned castles at Puchheim and at Ebenzweier near Altmünster, and he devoted himself to the abolition of duelling. In order to gain support, he wrote a book on the topic in French. He used his social contacts to encourage the establishment of anti-duelling leagues in the German Empire, France, Austria, Italy, Hungary, Belgium. On October 2,1931, at the age of 82, Alfonso Carlos succeeded his nephew Jaime, Duke of Madrid as Carlist claimant to the throne of Spain and he issued several manifestos to his Spanish followers including one in August 1932 and another in June 1934. He affirmed that he would be succeeded by whoever follows me according to the Salic law, when the Spanish Civil War broke out, Alfonso Carlos instructed his Carlist followers to cooperate with the Nationalists under the command of General Francisco Franco. On September 28,1936, Alfonso Carlos was hit by a truck as he crossed a street in Vienna. His body was buried in the chapel of his castle at Puchheim, the obituary for Alfonso Carlos in The Times described him as a great gentleman. Alfonso Carlos was the last male descendant of Infante Carlos. With his death the position of senior male descendant of King Charles IV of Spain passed to the deposed King Alfonso XIII of Spain, Maria das Neves accompanied Alfonso Carlos on many of his military campaigns in Spain. The Effort to Abolish the Duel, The North American Review 175, the Fight Against Duelling in Europe, The Fortnightly Review 90, 169-184. Resumé de lhistoire de la création et du développement des ligues contre le duel et pour la protection de lhonneur dans les pays de lEurope de fin novembre 1900 à fin octobre 1908

51.
Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia
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Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia, Duke of Anjou, RE, was the second son of King Alfonso XIII of Spain and his wife Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg. He was born in the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso in Segovia Province, because he was deaf, as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the Spanish throne for himself and his descendants on 21 June/23 June 1933. He was then created the title for life of Duke of Segovia by King Alfonso XIII, after his fathers death in 1941, he proclaimed himself the senior legitimate male heir of the House of Capet, heir to the French throne, and head of the House of Bourbon. He then took the title of Duke of Anjou and became, in the opinion of French legitimists and he was known to most French legitimists as Henri VI, though to a minority as Jacques II. In 1921, he became the 1, 153rd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and Knight with Collar of the Order of Charles III and they have two sons and three grandchildren. Gonzalo, Duke of Aquitaine he married, Carmen Harto on 18 April 1983 and he remarried Maria de las Mercedes Licer on 25 June 1984 and they were divorced on 31 January 1989. He remarried again Emanuela Protalongo on 30 June 1984 and they were separated on 7 March 1986, gonzalo and Emanuela were also married in a religious ceremony on 17 September 1992. He has a daughter and five grandsons. In the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church and of the French legitimists, the second marriage produced no children. His first wife remarried in Vienna, on 21 November 1949, to Antonio Sozzani, son of Cesare Sozzani and wife Cristina Alemani, on 6 December 1949, Don Jaime retracted his renunciation of the throne of Spain. On 3 May 1964, he took the title Duke of Madrid as head of the Carlist branch of the Spanish succession. On 19 July 1969, Don Jaime definitively renounced the Spanish succession in favour of his nephew, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Don Jaime died in St. Gall Cantonal Hospital in Switzerland on 20 March 1975. He is buried at the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, zavala, José M. Don Jaime, el trágico Borbón, la maldición del hijo sordomudo de Alfonso XIII. Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros,2006, Emanuela de Dampierre, memorias, esposa y madre de los Borbones que pudieron reinar en España. Madrid, Esfera de los Libros,2003, riddere af Elefantordenen 1559–2009, Odense, Syddansk Universitetsforlag,2009. ISBN8776744345 Royal House of Spain Royal House of France Princely House of Ruspoli

Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia
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Infante Jaime

52.
Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou
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Louis Alphonse of Bourbon, Duke of Anjou is a member of the Royal House of Bourbon, and one of the current pretenders to the defunct French throne as Louis XX. He is also related to the British royal family, being the grandson of Queen Victoria of England. Louis Alphonse is a great-grandson of King Alfonso XIII of Spain, through his mother, he is also a great-grandson of Spains former dictator General Francisco Franco. Louis Alphonse was born in Madrid, the son of Alfonso de Borbón, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz. Alfonso was at time the dauphin according to those who supported the claim of his father, Infante Jaime. On 20 March 1975, the Infante Jaime died, Alfonso then asserted his claim to be both Head of the House of Bourbon and Legitimist claimant to the throne of France. As such, he took the title Duke of Anjou, Louis Alphonses parents separated in 1982, and their Catholic marriage was annulled in 1986. From that date Louis Alphonse was recognised as the apparent to his father by the Legitimists. As such, he was given the additional title Duke of Bourbon on 27 September 1984 by his father, on 30 January 1989, his father died in a skiing accident near Vail, Colorado. Later, in 1994 Louis Alphonse would receive 150 million pesetas following a lawsuit against Vail Associated, Louis Alphonse was recognised by some members of the Capetian dynasty as Chef de la Maison de Bourbon and took the title Duke of Anjou, but not his fathers Spanish dukedom. He is considered the rightful pretender to the French throne by adherents of the Legitimist movement, louis’ father was elected by the French Society of the Cincinnati to be the representative of Louis XVI. On 16 June 1994, Louis Alphonse was elected to succeed his father as the representative of Louis XVI, in accordance to the statutes of this society, he represents the French king by order of succession as the eldest male of the senior collateral line. In addition to his Spanish citizenship, Louis Alphonse acquired French nationality through his grandmother, Emmanuelle de Dampierre. He attended the Lycée Français de Madrid, obtaining his COU in June 1992 and he worked several years for BNP Paribas, a French bank in Madrid. Although he regularly visited France, where his mother lived for several years, Louis Alphonses engagement to marry Venezuelan María Margarita Vargas Santaella, the daughter of Victor Vargas, was announced in November 2003. They were married civilly in Caracas on 5 November 2004 and religiously on 6 November 2004 in La Romana, none of the members of the Spanish royal family attended the wedding. As from 2005, the couple resided in Venezuela, where he worked at Banco Occidental de Descuento, however, they currently live in Madrid. Louis Alphonse and Maria Margarita had their first child, a daughter, named Eugénie, on 5 March 2007, at Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami and she was baptised at the papal nunciature in Paris in June 2007

Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou
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Louis Alphonse

53.
Margaret of Savoy, Duchess of Anjou
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Margaret of Savoy, was a daughter of Amadeus VIII of Savoy and Mary of Burgundy. By her three marriages, she held a number of titles, including Duchess of Anjou, Duchess of Calabria, Countess of Maine, Countess of the Palatinate. Margaret was one of seven born to Amadeus VIII, Count of Savoy. A few of her siblings included Louis, Duke of Savoy and Mary and her paternal grandparents were Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy and Bonne of Berry. Her maternal grandparents were Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and Margaret III, Margaret married firstly Louis, Duke of Anjou, the titular King of Naples. He was a son of Louis II of Anjou and Yolande of Aragon and their first marriage contract is dated on 31 Mar 1431. She became known as the Duchess of Anjou and they had no children, and he died in 1434. In 1445, Margaret next married Louis IV, Count Palatine of the Rhine and he was a son of Louis III, Elector Palatine and his second wife Matilda of Savoy. Margaret became Countess of the Palatinate through this alliance and their marriage lasted only four years, as Louis died on 13 August 1449. They had one son, Philip, Elector Palatine, thirdly, she married in Stuttgart 11 November 1453 Ulrich V, Count of Württemberg. They were both the others third spouses and she added the title Countess of Württemberg to her many titles through this alliance. From this marriage they had the children, Margaret, married 23 April 1469 to Count Philip I of Eppstein-Königstein. Philippine, married 22 April/4 June 1470 to Count James II of Horn, helene, married in Waldenburg 26 February 1476 to Count Kraft VI of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein. Margaret died on 30 September 1479

Margaret of Savoy, Duchess of Anjou
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Margaret of Savoy (far right), pictured with her third husband Ulrich V, Count of Württemberg and his previous two wives.

54.
Margaret of Savoy, Countess of Saint-Pol
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Margaret of Savoy, also known as Marguerite de Savoie or Margherita di Savoia, was the eldest surviving daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy. She was the wife of Margrave John IV of Montferrat and later the wife of Pierre II de Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol, of Brienne, de Ligny, Marle, margarets numerous descendants included Mary, Queen of Scots, and King Henry IV of France. Margaret was born in April 1439 in Turin, Italy, the eldest surviving daughter and one of the nineteen children of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan, Princess of Cyprus. In December 1458 at Casale, she married her first husband, John IV, Margrave of Montferrat and he was a condottiere for the Republic of Venice during the Wars in Lombardy which were a series of conflicts fought between Venice and Milan, and their various allies. Margaret brought a dowry of 100,000 scudi, and in return received Trino, Morano, Borgo San Martino, the marriage was childless, although he fathered several illegitimate children. He died on 19 January 1464, leaving her a widow at the age of twenty-five. Marie married secondly, François de Bourbon, Count of Vendôme, by whom she had six children including Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, Mary, Queen of Scots, King Henry IV of France, and the Lorraine Dukes of Guise were Maries direct descendants. Françoise of Luxembourg, Dame dEnghien, married Philip of Cleves-Ravenstein, Captain General of Flanders, margaret died at Bruges on 9 March 1483, less than six months after her husband Pierre, and she was buried at the Abbey of Happlaincourt. Margaret was survived by her two daughters, Marie and Françoise, her three sons having died in early infancy. Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Savoy Charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Champagne, Nobility www. Worldroots. com, Descendants of Amadeus III of Savoy, Leo van de Pas

Margaret of Savoy, Countess of Saint-Pol
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The Savoy family coat of arms.

55.
Charlotte of Savoy
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Charlotte of Savoy was queen of France as the second spouse of Louis XI. She served as regent during the absence in 1465, and was a member of the royal regency council during her sons minority in 1483. She was a daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne of Cyprus and her maternal grandparents were Janus of Cyprus and Charlotte de Bourbon-La Marche. Her maternal grandmother, for whom she was named, was a daughter of John I, Count of La Marche. She was one of 19 children,14 of whom survived infancy, on 11 March 1443, when Charlotte was just over a year old, she was betrothed to Frederick of Saxony, eldest son of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony. For reasons unknown, the betrothal was annulled, less than eight years later on 14 February 1451, Charlotte married Louis, Dauphin of France, eldest son of Charles VII of France and Marie of Anjou. The bride was nine years old and the groom twenty-seven, the marriage, which had taken place without the consent of the French king, was Louis second, his first spouse, Margaret of Scotland, had died childless in 1445. Upon her marriage, Charlotte became Dauphine of France, on 22 July 1461, Charlotte became Queen of France. The following year, she became ill and was close to death by August 1462. Although she recovered, her health was weakened, Louis XI did not keep much of a representational court life. Charlotte was interested in literature and praised for the taste and excellence of her personal library and she left a collection of about one hundred manuscripts, which would become the genesis of the Bibliothèque nationale of France. Charlotte served as regent in September 1465, Charlotte was widowed in 1483, when Louis XI was succeeded by their son Charles VIII, who was still a minor. In practice, her daughter Anne took control over France as regent during the minority of Charles, Charlotte died on 1 December 1483 in Amboise, just a few months after her spouses death. She is buried with him in the Notre-Dame de Cléry Basilica in Cléry-Saint-André in the arrondissement of Orléans, Charlotte became the mother of eight children, but only three survived infancy. Joan, who was briefly Queen of France as the first spouse of Louis XII Francis Charles VIII, Francis Upon the death of her daughter, Anne, Charlottes line became extinct, her granddaughter, Suzanne having died in 1521 without surviving issue

Charlotte of Savoy
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Portrait of Charlotte of Savoy, a 19th-century engraving based on a sculpture c. 1472

56.
Bona of Savoy
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Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Milan was the second spouse of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan and a member of the noble Italian House of Savoy. She served as regent of Milan during the minority of her son 1476–1481, born in Avigliana, Turin, Bona was a daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan of Cyprus. She was one of nineteen children and her many siblings included, Amadeus IX of Savoy, Philip II, Duke of Savoy, Louis of Savoy, Count of Geneva, Marguerite of Savoy and Charlotte of Savoy, who married King Louis XI. In 1464, Bona was to have been betrothed to Edward IV of England and she married Galeazzo Maria Sforza on 9 May 1468. Hermes Maria Sforza, Marquis of Tortona, bianca Maria Sforza, in January 1474, married firstly Philibert I, Duke of Savoy, on 16 March 1494, married secondly, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, she had no issue by her two husbands. Anna Maria Sforza, married Alfonso I dEste, later Duke of Ferrara, bonas husband was assassinated, on 26 December 1476 at the age of 32 by three young noblemen on the porch of the cathedral church of San Stefano in Milan. Galeazzo was succeeded after his 10-year reign by his 7-year-old son Gian Galeazzo Sforza under the regency of Bona, but dissensions soon arose between the regent and her brother-in-law, Ludovico Maria Sforza, nicknamed Il Moro. In the first encounter Bona and her chief counsellor, Cicco Simonetta, were victorious, in order to obtain his re-admission, Ludovico, took advantage of the rivalry between Tassino and Simonetta. The fall and execution of Simonetta followed, from 1479 the real government of Milan lay in the hands of Ludovico, whose power was further secured in 1480, when he seized his nephew Gian, deprived him of the duchy and assumed control. Consequently, Bona was obliged to leave Milan and Ludovico was left to rule unchallenged, Bona of Savoy commissioned the Sforza Book of Hours manuscript, which was painted in about 1490 by a famous court artist, Giovan Pietro Birago. She used the book, which contained devotional texts and is considered to be one of the most outstanding treasures of the Italian Renaissance

Bona of Savoy
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Bona of Savoy

57.
Margaret of Savoy, Vicereine of Portugal
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Margaret of Savoy was the last Habsburg Vicereine of Portugal. In Portuguese she is known as Duquesa de Mântua, being by marriage the Duchess of Mantua and she was born in Turin, as the fifth child of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and Infanta Catherine Micaela of Spain, the daughter of Philip II of Spain. She was married to the future Francis IV, Duke of Mantua, the wedding was celebrated in Turin. In 1612 Margarets husband succeeded his father, Vincent I, as Duke of Mantua and their marriage produced three children, but only one daughter, Maria, survived childhood. Indeed, it had brought to the Mantuan princely dynasty by the marriage of Margherita Paleologa, Margravine of Montferrat. Accordingly, Marias claims were asserted and Dowager Duchess Margaret required to be made her regent in Montferrat, Duchess Margarets daughter Maria was in 1627 married to Charles, the eldest son of the distant Gonzaga heir-male, in order to join two of the Mantuan claims. They had to war, but in the end their line prevailed and they commanded universal recognition as Dukes of Mantua. She had ancestral links to Portugal, two of her great-grandmothers had been daughters of king Manuel I of Portugal. In 1635, after the demise of the Count of Basto, she was named by her cousin Philip IV of Spain Vicereine of Portugal, at the time in a union with Spain. As a result of the Portuguese revolution of 1640, Vasconcelos was assassinated, the Portuguese proclaimed the duke of Braganza as their new king. Margaret was surrounded in her headquarters in Lisbon, and her support collapsing, at her death, both her grandchildren had already produced great-grandchildren for her. Margaret had three children Maria, married Charles II Gonzaga, duke of Nevers, in 1627

58.
Isabella of Savoy
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Isabella of Savoy was a daughter of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and Catherine Michelle of Spain. Her maternal grandparents where Philip II of Spain and Elisabeth of Valois, her grandparents were Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy and Margaret of France. She was the Hereditary Princess of Modena, dying before her husband succeeded to the Duchy of Modena in 1628. Isabella was born in Turin to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy and his wife Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain, in Turin on 22 February 1608 she married Alfonso, Hereditary Prince of Modena, this was a happy marriage, Alfonso was loving and loyal towards his wife. Within two years Isabella bore Alfonso a son, Francesco who would one day succeed his father as Duke of Modena, when Isabella died on 28 August 1626 Alfonso was heartbroken, he never remarried and died in 1644. She died as a result of childbirth and before her husband became duke so she was never Duchess of Modena

Isabella of Savoy
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Isabella of Savoy

59.
Princess Luisa Cristina of Savoy
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Princess Luisa Cristina of Savoy was a Princess of Savoy by birth and the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy. She married her uncle Prince Maurice of Savoy but had no children and she was the owner of the future Villa della Regina. She was a first cousin of Louis XIV of France and Charles II of England, Luisa Cristina was born at the Castello del Valentino in Turin. She was the eldest daughter of the future Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and her birth was greeted with excitement as prior to her birth, her parents had lost a son and heir and were expecting another son. However, being a female and due to the salic law, Luisa Cristina was said to have been illegitimate and the fruit of her mothers supposed affair with a French courtier named Pommeuse. As a child, two of her brothers succeeded their father who became ruler of Savoy in 1630 and her father died in 1637 and was succeeded quickly by her brother Francis Hyacinth who died in 1638 and was followed by another brother Charles Emmanuel II. Her mother took over a regency which was disputed by her uncles Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano, the two brothers conspired against Christine Marie claiming the regency between the two of them causing a war in Savoy. The war resulted in Thomas Francis and Maurice fleeing to Spain for support which came to nothing and her mother was soon victorious in the ensuing wars thanks to French support in the form of her brother, Louis XIII. Returning to Savoy, Luisa Cristina was soon engaged to Maurice as part of a reconciliation between Christine Marie, Luisa Cristina married Maurice in Turin on 18 August 1642. Maurice had previously been a cardinal and had to receive permission from Pope Urban VIII who consented to the match, the thirteen-year-old bride and forty-nine-year-old Maurice moved to Nice where Maurice was the governor of the city – another part of the reconciliation. Her husband died in 1657 of a stroke leaving Luisa Cristina a widow aged twenty seven and her husband willed her his large art collection as well as his huge debts. In Turin she lived at her husbands villa outside Turin and she also did much to improve the structure under the direction of Amedeo di Castellamonte. She also commissioned Guarino Guarini to carry out works on churches in Savoy, Luisa Cristina died at the villa and left the property to her nephews consort, the French born Anne Marie dOrléans

Princess Luisa Cristina of Savoy
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Princess Luisa Cristina

60.
Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy
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Henriette Adelaide of Savoy, was the wife of the Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria. She had much influence in her adopted country and with her husband did much to improve the welfare of the Electorate of Bavaria. Born at the Castello del Valentino in Turin, she was the older of twin girls, on 7 October 1637 she lost her father Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy, when she was just one year old. Her mother, Christine of France, was the daughter of Henry IV of France, after the death of her father, her mother served as Regent of Savoy on behalf of two of Henriette Adelaides brothers, Francis Hyacinth, then Charles Emmanuel II after the older brother died. Her uncles Prince Maurice of Savoy and Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano, intrigued against their sister-in-law, when the first heir Francis Hyacinth died in 1638, the brothers Maurice and Thomas started the Piedmontese Civil War with Spanish support. The two parties in the war were known as the principisti and madamisti, with the support of her brother, King Louis XIII of France, Marie Christine was able to defeat the challenge to her rule. On 8 December 1650 Henriette married Ferdinand Maria, heir to the Electorate of Bavaria future, the next year he became Elector upon the death of his father Maximilian. Henriette Adelaide had a influence on Bavarian foreign affairs in favor of France. This led to an alliance between France and Bavaria against Austria, one of the results of the alliance was the marriage of Henriettes eldest daughter Maria Anna and her cousin Louis, Dauphin of France, in 1680. She had a role in the building of Nymphenburg Palace. Many Italian artists were invited to Munich, and she also introduced Italian opera to the court of Bavaria, Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria married Louis, Dauphin of France, and had issue, the present King of Spain descends from her. Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, married Maria Antonia of Austria and had issue, joseph Clemens of Bavaria Elector and Archbishop of Cologne. Violante Beatrix of Bavaria married Ferdinando de Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany, in addition, the Electress suffered three miscarriages, in June 1661, March 1664 and 1674. 50, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1905, pp. 198–200, cornelia Kemp, Das Herzkabinett der Kurfürstin Henriette Adelaide in der Münchner Residenz. Eine preziöse Liebeskonzeption und ihre Ikonographie Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst 33,1982, ISSN 0077-1899, reinhold Baumstark, Abbild und Überhöhung in der höfischen Malerei unter Henriette Adelaide und dem jungen Max Emanuel Hubert Glaser, Kurfürst Max Emanuel. I, Zur Geschichte und Kunstgeschichte der Max-Emanuel-Zeit, hirmer, Munich 1976, ISBN 3-7774-2790-X, pp. 171–205. Else Strobl, Adelheid, Neue Deutsche Biographie,1, Berlin, Duncker & Humblot, pp. 58–59, Media related to Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy at Wikimedia Commons

Princess Henriette Adelaide of Savoy
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Henriette Adelaide of Savoy

61.
Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Marie Jeanne of Savoy was born a Princess of Savoy and became the Duchess of Savoy by marriage. First married by proxy to Charles of Lorraine in 1662, Lorraine soon refused to recognise the union and she married Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy in 1665 who was her kinsman. The mother of the future Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia who saw the elevation of the House of Savoy to kings and she acted as Regent of Savoy from 1675 in the name of her son Victor Amadeus II, who was her husbands successor. Her regency officially ended in 1680, but she maintained power until her son banished her from further influence in the state in 1684 and she left a considerable architectural legacy in Turin, and was responsible for the remodelling of the Palazzo Madama, which was her private residence. At the time of her death she was the mother of the King of Sardinia as well as grandmother of two other kings, Louis I of Spain and Louis XV of France. Marie Jeanne Baptiste de Savoie was born at the Hôtel de Nemours in Paris, through her mother, Marie Jeanne was a great grand daughter of Henry IV of France via her father César de Bourbon, Légitimé de France, whose mother was Gabrielle dEstrées. This made her a half-first-cousin once removed of Louis XIV and a relation to most Catholic royalty at that time and she was a member of the Nemours cadet branch of the House of Savoy, which had settled in France in the sixteenth century. Marie Jeanne grew up with her sister Marie Françoise, Mademoiselle dAumale who was born in 1646 and she was styled as Mademoiselle de Nemours prior to marriage. As a young girl she frequented the salon of the famous Madame de La Fayette who later introduced Marie Jeanne into correspondence with Madame de Sévigné and these relationships would give her insight to the French court during her years as regent. Her father died in 1652, killed in a duel with his brother-in-law François, for the next several years she and her family were under the guardianship of her paternal uncle Henri II the new Duke of Nemours, though Marie Jeanne had inherited many of her fathers income sources. At Henris death in 1659 the duchy of Nemours reverted to the crown, with two young daughters, her mother Élisabeth looked to her maternal family for support in getting them properly settled. Élisabeths mother was a princess of Lorraine and her family wanted a match with Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy, who was the son of Christine Marie of France. Christine Marie summoned Marie Jeanne, her mother, and sister to Turin in 1659 for inspection, Charles Emmanuel showed a keen interest in Marie Jeanne as a potential wife. However, his mother had been warned by Cardinal Mazarin of Marie Jeannes ambitious nature, Christine Marie arranged a marriage between her son and Françoise Madeleine dOrléans, who proved suitably docile for the controlling mother. This wedding took place in 1663, having returned to France, Mademoiselle de Nemours caught the attention of the dashing Prince Charles of Lorraine, heir of the Duke of Lorraine. The court of Portugal had previously requested her hand in marriage, Charles rank was similar to that of the Duke of Savoy and the match was pursued by Marie Jeannes mother. She became engaged to Charles on 4 February 1662, the match was a popular one with the French court, and the union was supported by Queen Anne. However, when the Treaty of Montmartre was signed two days later, the duchies of Lorraine and Bar were surrendered to Louis XIV and this left the duke of Lorraine landless, and drove him to join the imperial court

Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Marie Jeanne by Robert Nanteuil, 1678
Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Marie Jeanne with her husband and son in 1666 by an unknown artist
Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Marie Jeanne in widows clothing by an unknown artist, held at the Ducal Palace of Modena.
Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours
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Arms as Duchess of Savoy

62.
Maria Francisca of Savoy
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Maria Francisca of Savoy was twice queen consort of Portugal as the spouse of two Portuguese kings. She first became queen of Portugal at the age of 20 on the day of her marriage to Afonso VI, since the marriage was never consummated, she was able to obtain an annulment. On 28 March 1668, she married Afonsos brother, the Infante Peter, Duke of Beja, Maria Francisca became queen of Portugal for the second time when Peter succeeded his brother as Peter II in 1683. She herself died later that year, Maria Francisca was born in Paris as the younger daughter of Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours, and Élisabeth de Bourbon. Elisabeth was a granddaughter of Henry IV of France and his mistress Gabrielle dEstrées and her only surviving sibling was Marie Jeanne of Savoy. Prior to marriage she was styled Mademoiselle dAumale, a derived from the duchy of Aumale which was a property of her father. She departed from La Rochelle aboard the Vendôme, upon her arrival in Portugal, she became known as Maria Francisca Isabel de Sabóia. She was deeply disappointed with her new life at the court of Portugal, the wedding with King Afonso took place on 2 August 1666. She soon saw fit to participate in a coup that ended the government of Luís de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 3rd Count of Castelo Melhor, in cooperation with her brother-in-law. As the Portuguese Restoration War continued, the incapable King Afonso VI became dominated by members of the nobility. The queen began an affair with her brother-in-law, Peter, queen Maria Francisca and the kings brother Peter sponsored a revolt that forced the king to abdicate his powers and consent to an exile in Terceira in the Azores. She was revolted at her impotent and fat husband King Afonso, months after her annulment, Maria Francisca married the Infante Peter, now the Prince Regent of Portugal. In 1669 she gave birth to a daughter, Isabel Luísa Josefa of Portugal, the Braganza dynasty was at the brink of extinction, and Peter needed heirs, yet Maria Francisca was unable to produce further issue. When Afonso died in 1683, Peter succeeded him as Peter II of Portugal and Maria Francisca became queen again —, Maria Franciscas only child, the Infanta Isabel Luísa, died unmarried at age 22. Peter remarried to Maria Sofia of the Palatinate, who produced the much-needed heir and she was first buried at the Convent of the Francesinhas, then moved in 1912 to the Braganzas Pantheon at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora. Maria Giovanna Battista of Savoy-Nemours, daughter, consort, and Regent of Savoy, queenship in Europe 1660-1815, The Role of the Consort

63.
Maria Luisa of Savoy
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Maria Luisa of Savoy was a Savoyard princess and the first wife of Philip V of Spain. She acted as Regent of Spain and had influence over her husband. She is closely associated with Princesse des Ursins, throughout her life, Maria Luisa remained close to her older sister Maria Adelaide who later married Louis, Duke of Burgundy, the eldest grandson of Louis XIV. In her youth, Maria Luisa was described as playful and fun loving and had received a good education, Philip V of Spain, a French prince, was recently crowned King of Spain upon the death of childless Charles II. In order to enforce his authority over Spain due to his French birth, Philip V decided to maintain ties with Victor Amadeus II. Maria Luisa was wed by proxy to Philip V on 12 September 1701 at the age of thirteen and was escorted to Nice. While in Nice, she was greeted by Pope Clement XI who gave her the Golden Rose on 20 September as a gift for the young princess. Within a week, she sailed from Nice for Antibes and was taken to Barcelona, the official marriage took place on 2 November 1701. The Princesse des Ursins was a member of the household of the Queen and she would maintain great influence over Maria Luisa as her Camarera mayor de Palacio, chief of the household to the young queen, who was still a child. As Philip V, contrary to the custom of the time, actually shared a bedroom with Maria Luisa and she was also said to be very beautiful and intelligent. Unlike what was normal for a Spanish monarch, he slept in her bed the entire night. In 1702, Philip V was obliged to leave Spain to fight in Naples as part of the ongoing War of Spanish Succession, during her husbands absence, Maria Luisa acted as Regent from Madrid. She was praised as a ruler, having successfully implemented various changes in government and insisted upon all complaints being investigated. Her leadership encouraged the reorganization in the junta and, in doing this, inspiring people, despite being only fourteen at that time, Maria Luisas effective regency made her admired in Madrid and throughout Spain. After her husbands return in 1703, she resumed her role as queen consort, in 1704, the Princesse des Ursins was exiled at the order of Louis XIV, devastating Maria Luisa. However, in 1705, the Princesse returned to Madrid, much to the joy of the young queen, Maria Luisa gave birth to the couples first child, Infante Luis Felipe in 1707. Maria Luisa gave birth to three children, two of whom would survive infancy. Towards the end of her life, the Queen became ill and she eventually died from the effects of tuberculosis on 14 February 1714

Maria Luisa of Savoy
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Maria Luisa of Savoy

64.
Princess Eleonora of Savoy
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Eleonora of Savoy was a Savoyard princess, the eldest daughter of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and his second wife Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. Eleonora Maria Teresa di Savoia was the child and eldest daughter of Charles Emmanuel III, King of Sardinia and his second wife. She was born at the Royal Palace of Turin, the city residence of the Savoyard royal family and she received the forename of her maternal grandmother, Eleonore of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort. Her maternal cousins included Victor Amadeus II, Prince of Carignano and his sister the future princesse de Lamballe. Her paternal cousins included Ferdinand VI of Spain, who was king of Spain at the time of her birth and she was born to a relatively happy marriage between her parents. Her paternal grandmother Anne Marie dOrléans died in August 1728 when Eleonora was six months old and her mother died in 1735 when Eleonora was six. Thus she was the highest ranking female at the Savoyard court until the marriage of her brother, Eleonora, and her sister Maria Luisa, were proposed as brides for Louis, Dauphin of France, eldest son of Louis XV of France who was their first cousin. The marriage never materialised due to negotiations with the Spanish which led to the dauphin marrying Maria Teresa. Her two nieces, Princesses Maria Giuseppina and Maria Teresa would later marry two sons of Louis, Dauphin of France in 1771 and 1773 respectively, the spinster princess died at the Castle of Moncalieri, Turin at the age of 53. She was buried in the Royal Basilica of Superga overlooking Turin and her sister in law Maria Antonietta died at Moncalieri in 1785. 28 February 1728 –14 August 1781 Her Royal Highness Princess Eleonora of Savoy

Princess Eleonora of Savoy
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Princess Eleonora

65.
Princess Maria Felicita of Savoy
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Princess Maria Felicita of Savoy ) was a princess of the House of Savoy, the third daughter of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and his second wife, Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. A religious woman, she died unmarried, born at the Royal Palace of Turin, she was the third daughter of Charles Emmanuel III, King of Sardinia and his second wife Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg. Her mother died in 1735 when she was just four years old and her father married again in 1737 to Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, the youngest sister of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles Emmanuel III and Elisabeth Therese went on to have three children, including the Duke of Chablais and her maternal cousins included Victor Amadeus, Prince of Carignan and his younger sister the future princesse de Lamballe, both of which were born at the court of Savoy. Her paternal cousins included Ferdinand VI of Spain, who was king of Spain at the time of her birth and she was a very religious woman and never married. She founded, with Giovanni Battista Canaveri, a home in her native Turin for widows and it was made possible due to an act she had her brother implement, Convitto per donne nubili e vedove, for women in the Kingdom of Sardinia. On 6 December 1798, the French First Republic declared war on Sardinia and her brother Charles Emmanuel was forced to abdicate all his territories on the Italian mainland and to withdraw to the island of Sardinia. As Charles Emmanuel took little interest in the rule of what was left of his kingdom, he and Clotilde lived in Rome, Maria Felicita went with her nephew to live as fugitives in Italy. She died in Rome unmarried and was buried at the Royal Basilica of Superga overlooking Turin and she outlived all her siblings except the Duke of Chablais. 19 March 1730 –13 May 1801 Her Royal Highness Princess Maria Felicita of Savoy

66.
Princess Marie Louise of Savoy
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Princess Marie-Louise Thérèse of Savoy-Carignan was a member of a cadet branch of the House of Savoy. She was married at the age of 17 to Louis Alexandre de Bourbon-Penthièvre, Prince de Lamballe, after her marriage, which lasted a year, she went to court and became the confidante of Queen Marie Antoinette. She was killed in the massacres of September 1792 during the French Revolution, Marie Thérèse was born in Turin. Her father was Louis Victor, Prince of Carignano, a grandson of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. Her mother, Landgravine Christine of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, was the daughter of Ernest Leopold and her aunts included, Polyxena of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg, the wife of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia and Caroline, Princess of Condé and wife of Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon. Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé was another first cousin who was at the French court, in 1768, at the age of nineteen, Marie Thérèse became a widow when her husband died of a venereal disease at the Château de Louveciennes. She inherited her husbands fortune, making her wealthy in her own right. She lived at the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris and at the Château de Rambouillet, more than one saw the beginning of an intimacy between the two women that later gave them so much trouble. In May, she went to Fontainebleau, and was presented by the king to her cousin. She was present at the birth of the future Louis-Philippe of France in Paris in October 1773 and her importance in courtly high society would eventually be eclipsed by that of Yolande de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac, who arrived at Versailles in 1775. Marie Thérèse was by nature reserved and there was never any gossip about her private life, the princesse de Lamballe accompanied the Royal Family to the Tuileries Palace after the Womens March on Versailles in October 1789. In Paris, her salon served as a place for the queen. Nonetheless, she went to the Tuileries out of loyalty to Marie Antoinette, Marie Thérèse continued her services to the Queen until the attack on the palace on 10 August 1792, when the Royal Family took refuge in the Legislative Assembly. Marie Thérèse was later imprisoned in the Temple, after the Legislative Assembly was taken, on 19 August, she and the Marquise de Tourzel, governess to the royal children, were separated from the Royal Family and transferred to the La Force prison. On 3 September, she was brought before a hastily assembled tribunal which demanded she take an oath to liberty and equality and to swear hatred to the King. She agreed to take the oath to liberty but refused to denounce the King, Queen and monarchy, upon which her trial ended with the words. She was immediately taken to the street and thrown to a group of men who killed her within minutes, some reports allege that she was raped and her breasts sliced off in addition to other bodily mutilations, and that her head was cut off and stuck on a pike. Other reports say that it was brought to a nearby café where it was laid in front of the customers, other reports state that the head was taken to a barber in order to dress the hair to make it instantly recognizable, though this has been contested

67.
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Maria Theresa of Savoy was a princess of Savoy by birth and the wife of Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, grandson of Louis XV and younger brother of Louis XVI. Some nineteen years after her death, her husband assumed the throne of France as King Charles X, Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy was born at the Royal Palace in Turin during the reign of her grandfather Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia. The daughter of the apparent and his wife, Victor Amadeus and Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain, she was the couples third daughter. She was raised with her sister Princess Maria Giuseppina who was three years her senior and whom she would join later as a member of the family of France. Following a series of alliances, Maria Theresa was betrothed to the Count of Artois. Artois had previously intended to marry Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon. However the union never took place as her rank was much lower than Artois who, Maria Theresa married the count in a proxy ceremony at the Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi before her official marriage, which took place at the Palace of Versailles on 16 November 1773. This marriage was the second of three Franco-Savoyard marriages that would take place four years. As her husband was the grandson of a king, the newly named Marie Thérèse held the rank of granddaughter of France and this rank allowed her to maintain the style of Royal Highness that she had enjoyed from birth as the granddaughter of the king of Sardinia. However, at Versailles, the simple style Madame la comtesse dArtois was used instead, Maria Theresa was one of the most disliked figures at the French court of the time, although she avoided the worst of the abuse directed at her sister-in-law Marie Antoinette. The Count of Mercy-Argenteau, who corresponded with Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa regarding Marie Antoinette, said that she was silent, Maria Theresa was not regarded as a beauty at Versailles, but her complexion was generally admired. She was a cousin of the famous Princess Marie Louise of Savoy, Princess of Lamballe and she was also a cousin of the Prince of Condé, who would later be instrumental in leading a large counter-revolutionary army of émigrés. Roughly a year after Maria Theresas arrival at Versailles, she became pregnant with her first child, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, the next year she gave birth to a daughter Sophie, who was known as Mademoiselle as the most senior unmarried princess at court. She died at the age of six in 1783 and her second son, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, was born in 1778. Her last child, Marie Thérèse dArtois, presumably named after her mother, Maria Theresa fled France with her husband shortly after the storming of the Bastille, which marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Some time after, she took refuge in her homeland of Savoy and she died in exile at Graz, in 1805. Because she died before her husband became king of France, she remained Countess of Artois and she was buried in the Imperial Mausoleum next to Graz Cathedral. Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême married Marie Thérèse of France, had no issue, Sophie, Mademoiselle dArtois died in childhood

Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Marie Thérèse by Jean-Baptiste André Gautier-Dagoty (1740–1786), with a bust of her husband and holding a portrait of her mother
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Signature
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Marie Thérèse with her three surviving children, by Charles Leclercq, 1783.

68.
Princess Maria Anna of Savoy
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Maria Anna of Savoy was a Princess of Savoy by birth and Duchess of Chablais by her marriage to her uncle. Maria Anna was the fourth but third surviving daughter of her parents and their younger surviving sister, Maria Carolina, married Anthony of Saxony. Three of her brothers were the last three Kings of Sardinia from the line of the House of Savoy, the future Charles Emmanuel IV, Victor Emmanuel I. After the death of the last one in 1831 without issue, the wedding took place on 19 March 1775 at the Chapel of the Holy Shroud in Turin. They had no children but had a union, although they were close. Their official residence were the Palazzo Chiablese and the Ducal Castle of Agliè and she had good relationships with her sisters-in-law Marie Clotilde of France, Princess of Piedmont and Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, Duchess of Aosta. When in December 1798 the Republic of France invaded the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Duke and Duchess of Chablais left Turin and moved to Sardinia, where they remained until the end of 1799. Then they left the island and settled in Rome at the Papal States, in 1805, they spent a few months in Florence as guests at King Louis I of Etruria, and his wife Queen Maria Luisa. In Italy, the Duke of Chablais was given control of the Army of Italy which contained French troops and he took part in the Battle of Loano. Benedetto, Duke of Chablais died on 4 January 1808 in Rome, in 1816 the now Dowager Duchess of Chablais received her younger brother Charles Felix their cousin Charles Albert. However, Maria Anna didnt returned to her immediately, in 1820 she acquired the Villa Rufinella in Frascati near Rome. Only at the beginning of 1824 Maria Anna returned to Piedmont, where in the Castle of Moncalieri meet her brothers, the former King Victor Emmanuel I and the new monarch Charles Felix. In the summer of the year, together with Charles Felix and his wife Maria Cristina she made a trip to Savoy. Maria Anna died at the Palazzina di caccia of Stupinigi in Turin in 1824 aged 66 and was buried at the Royal Basilica of Superga. She bequeathed all her properties, including the Palazzo Chiablese, the Ducal Castle of Agliè and the Villa Rufinella in Frascate, to her brother Charles Felix

69.
Princess Maria Teresa of Savoy
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Maria Teresa of Savoy, was the wife of Charles II, Duke of Parma. Maria Teresa was born in Palazzo Colonna in Rome, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia and of his wife and she had a twin sister Maria Anna. The two princesses were baptised by Pope Pius VII and their godparents were their maternal grandparents, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and his wife Maria Beatrice Ricciarda dEste. In the Museo di Roma can be seen a painting of the baptism, Maria Teresa spent the majority of her childhood in Cagliari on the island of Sardinia, where her family had taken refuge from the armies of Napoleon I of France. In 1814 her father was restored to rule in Piedmont and the returned to Turin. She had hoped to marry her cousin Charles Albert of Savoy who in 1817 married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, on 5 September 1820, in Lucca, Maria Teresa married Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca. They had two children, Luisa Francesca di Paola Teresa Maria Anna Clothilde Beatrice, Carlo Giuseppe Maria Vittorio Baldasarre, Duke of Parma. Maria Teresa was beautiful, tall, regal with a noble, Charles Louis, Prince of Lucca was handsome and they were said to be the best looking royal couple of their time. She was a religious woman committed to her Catholic faith. Charles Louis lived largely for his own pleasure often ignoring his governmental responsibilities and they lived most of their married life apart from each other. Even if there was no love, Charles Louis later commented, on 13 March 1824, Charles Louis mother died, and he succeeded her as Duke Charles I of Lucca, Maria Teresa became Duchess of Lucca. Neglected by her husband who had affairs, she turned increasingly towards religion and grew disdainful of court life and entertainments. He sometimes dragged her in his travels and in 1829 she accompanied him visiting the court of Saxony and their relationship, cold from the beginning, deteriorated quickly with time. After 1840 she lived in religious seclusion in Pianore. She was very attached to her own Sardinian family and lived a life dedicated to religion and she surrounded herself by her confessor and her homeopathic doctors. Her husband visited her but he commented that her weak intellect, the revolution broke out in March 1848. In March 1849 Charles abdicated as duke of Parma and was succeeded by their son, Maria Teresa lived mostly at her villa at Viareggio, particularly after the assassination of her son in 1854. There she built a chapel as a memorial for her son, later she lived in a villa in San Martino in Vignale on the hills just north of Lucca served only by her confessor and the administrator of the property

Princess Maria Teresa of Savoy
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Maria Teresa of Savoy

70.
Maria Cristina of Savoy
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Maria Cristina of Savoy was the first Queen consort of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies. She died as a result of childbirth, Maria Cristina was the youngest daughter of King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia and Archduchess Maria Teresa of Austria-Este. Her maternal grandparents were Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and Maria Beatrice Ricciarda dEste, Ferdinand was the fourteenth child and third son born to Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Maria Theresa of Austria. Maria Beatrice was the eldest daughter of Ercole III dEste and Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina, Duchess of Massa, on 21 November 1832, Maria Cristina married Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies. The bride was twenty years old and the groom twenty-two, Maria Cristina was described as beautiful but also timid and shy, modest and reserved, she was never comfortable at the royal court. Her relationship to Ferdinand was not happy, and he had little patience for her nervous modesty and she died at the age of 23, after having given birth 5 days before to her only child, Francis II of the Two Sicilies. Her beatification took place on 25 January 2014 at the Basilica of Santa Chiara,14 November 1812 –21 November 1832, Her Royal Highness Princess Maria Cristina of Savoy, Princess of Sardinia. 21 November 1832 –21 January 1836, Her Majesty The Queen of the Two Sicilies, posthumously,10 July 1872 –6 May 1937, Servant of God Maria Cristina of Savoy, Queen of the Two Sicilies. 6 May 1937 –25 January 2014, Venerable Servant of God Maria Cristina of Savoy,25 January 2014 – present, Blessed Maria Cristina of Savoy, Queen of the Two Sicilies

71.
Princess Maria Clotilde of Savoy
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Maria Clotilde of Savoy was born in Turin to Vittorio Emanuele II, later King of Italy and his first wife Adelaide of Austria. She was the wife of Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Maria Clotilde was the eldest of eight children born to Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia by his first wife and cousin Archduchess Adelaide of Austria. Her father would become the King of a united Italy as Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Maria Clotildes paternal grandparents were Charles Albert of Sardinia and Maria Theresa of Tuscany and her maternal grandparents were Archduke Rainer of Austria and Elisabeth of Savoy. Rainer was a son of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. On 30 January 1859 she was married in Turin to Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, another factor in their unhappy marriage were the circumstances leading up to their espousal. Maria Clotilde had been only 15 when they were married, while he had been over 37 years old, in the events leading up to their marriage, she had been vehemently against it, and had unhappily agreed to it. The marriage had also been negotiated out of political reasons during the conference of Plombières. As Maria Clotilde was too young at the time for marriage, Napoléon Joseph had had to wait until the following year and her husband was unfaithful, and she was active within charities. Maria Clotilde was described as proud, bigoted and dutiful. During a discussion of the way of dressing, Maria Clotide pointed out to Empress Eugenie that she should not forget that she was born. When Eugenie complained of the fatigue of the French Court on one occasion, Maria Clotilde replied We do not mind, you see and she was also described however as pious and modest. For Frances part, Napoléon Joseph was ill-regarded and had known to carry on a number of affairs both before and during his marriage. Their official reception into Paris on 4 February was greeted very coldly by Parisians, not out of disrespect for a daughter of the King of Savoy, but instead out of dislike for her new husband. Indeed, all her life, public sympathy tended to lean in her favor, she was regarded as retiring, charitable, pious. They were forced to flee, however, and their family enjoyed an estate in the town of Prangins near Lake Geneva that they resided in. After Maria Clotildes father Victor Emmanuel died in 1878, she returned to Turin, during this period, their daughter mostly resided with her mother in the Castle of Moncalieri, but her two sons stayed mainly with their father. It was in Italy that their mother withdrew herself from society to dedicate herself to religion, after the revolution, she lived the rest of her life in Moncalieri, where she spent her days devoting herself to religion

72.
Margherita of Savoy
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Princess Margherita of Savoy, was the Queen consort of the Kingdom of Italy by marriage to Umberto I. Margherita was born to Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa and Princess Elisabeth of Saxony and her father died in 1855, and her mother remarried morganatically to Major Nicholas Rapallo. She was educated by countess Clelia Monticelli di Casalrosso and her Austrian governess Rosa Arbesser, reportedly, she was given a more advanced education than most princesses at the time, and displayed a great deal of intellectual curiosity. As a person, she was described as sensitive, proud and with a force of will without being hard. To her appearance, she was described as a tall, stately blonde, initially, she was suggested to marry prince Charles of Romania. After the wedding, the crown prince settled in Naples. On 11 November 1869, Margherita gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, Prince of Naples, later Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and their son was therefore to remain their only child. Margherita was raised with the idea of monarchy with the ideal of enlightened despotism. She became an asset in this role with her ability to say and do the right things to effectively arouse public enthusiasm. In January 1871, after the unification of Italy and the proclamation of Rome as the capital of Italy. Margherita became queen of Italy upon the succession of Umberto to the throne 9 January 1878, in the critical situation that year, with the king and the pope as well as an assassination attempt against the new king, Umberto reportedly asked Margherita of politic advise. She founded cultural institutions, notably the Società del Quartetto, Queen Margherita also fostered loyalty toward the monarchy by social and charitable work. She frequently visited and acted as the benefactor of hospitals, schools and institutions for children, the queen, however, was close to her son and strengthen her relation to him even further after his wedding. Queen Margherita was also involved in affairs, viewing democracy as a potential threat to the monarchy. As a nationalist, she did not hesitate to support First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1896, in contrast to Umberto, as a center figure of the conservative forces, she supported the repressive actions toward the rioters in Milan in 1898, which lead to the Bava-Beccaris massacre. At 4,554 metres the Capanna Regina Margherita, remains the highest hut in Europe, Margherita later accepted the position of Honorary President of the Ladies Alpine Club. On 29 July 1900 Umberto I, after the murders by anarchists Giovanni Passannante and Pietro Acciarito, was killed by another anarchist. Margherita was met with an amount of sympathy as the widow of an assassinated monarch

Margherita of Savoy
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Princess Margherita

73.
Princess Yolanda of Savoy
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Princess Yolanda of Savoy was the eldest daughter of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and his wife Princess Elena of Montenegro, and the sister of Umberto II, the last king of Italy. She was born Principessa Iolanda Margherita Milena Elisabetta Romana Maria di Savoia in Rome, as a young woman she was a great sportswoman, particularly interested in swimming and riding. After her marriage Yolanda lived in the town of Pinerolo, southwest of Turin, in 1946, Yolanda and her family went into voluntary exile with her father in Alexandria, Egypt. After King Victor Emmanuels death, Yolanda and her returned to Italy. Yolanda died in a hospital in Rome and is buried in Turin, on 9 April 1923 at the Quirinal Palace in Rome, she married Giorgio Carlo Calvi, Count of Bergolo. Giorgio Calvi di Bergolo, died of pneumonia at six days old, Vittoria Calvi di Bergolo, married Guglielmo. Guia-Anna Calvi di Bergolo, married in 1951 to Carlo Guarienti, had issue, Maria Faldivia Guarienti, Delfinella Guarienti, married Ranieri Randaccio and had issue. Pier Francesco Calvi, Count of Bergolo, married in 1958 to Marisa Allasio, had issue, Carlo Giorgio Calvi, Count of Bergolo, Anda Calvi di Bergolo. Iolanda and Calvi Meet Italian Court, New York Times, April 9,1923, Iolanda Wedded to Her War Hero While Crowd Cheers, New York Times, April 10,1923, p.1 and 3. Royal Wedding in Rome, The Times, April 10,1923, Princess Yolandas Wedding, The Times, April 12,1923, p.16. Princes Jolanda, New York Times, October 18,1986, p.9

Princess Yolanda of Savoy
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Princess Yolanda

74.
Princess Mafalda of Savoy
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Princess Mafalda Maria Elisabetta Anna Romana of Savoy was the second daughter of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and his wife Elena of Montenegro. The future King Umberto II of Italy was her younger brother, in childhood she was close to her mother, from whom she inherited a love for music and the arts. During World War I, she accompanied her mother on her visits to Italian military hospitals, on 23 September 1925, at Racconigi Castle, Mafalda married Prince Philipp of Hesse, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and grandson of German Emperor Frederick III. Prince Philipp and his brother Christoph, were members of the National Socialist party, Prince Philipps marriage to Princess Mafalda put him in position to act as intermediary between the National Socialist government in Germany and the Fascist government in Italy. On the evening of the 26th March 1935 she was present at an informal diplomatic dinner given by Adolf Hitler in the Reich Presidents House in Berlin and she sat next to Anthony Eden. However, during World War II, Adolf Hitler believed Princess Mafalda was working against the war effort, so did Hitlers Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, who called her the worst bitch in the entire Italian royal house. Early in September 1943, Princess Mafalda travelled to Bulgaria to attend the funeral of her brother-in-law, King Boris III. While there, she was informed of Italys surrender to the Allied Powers, that her husband was being held under house arrest in Bavaria, on her arrival at the German embassy, Mafalda was arrested, ostensibly for subversive activities. Princess Mafalda was transported to Munich for questioning, then to Berlin, on 24 August 1944, the Allies bombed an ammunition factory inside Buchenwald. The conditions of the camp caused her arm to become infected. She died during the night of 26–27 August 1944, her body was reburied after the war at Kronberg Castle in Hesse. After the air raid of 24 August 1944, the princess was wounded in the arm and Dr. Schiedlausky, camp medical office, performed the arm amputation, but his patient did not survive due to loss of blood. Her naked body was dumped into the crematorium, where Father Joseph Thyl, dug it out of the heap, covered her up. Thyl cut off a lock of the hair, which was smuggled out of camp to be kept in Jena. Her death was not confirmed until after Germanys surrender to the Allies in 1945, in 1997, the Italian government honored Princess Mafalda with her image on a postal stamp. Princess Mafalda married Philipp, Landgrave of Hesse on 23 September 1925 at Racconigi Castle near Turin and they had the following children, Prince Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse married Princess Tatiana of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg Had issue. Prince Heinrich Wilhelm Konstantin Viktor Franz, Unmarried-no issue, Prince Otto Adolf Married 1st on 5 April 1965 in Munich and 6 April 1965 in Trotsberg Angela Mathilde Agathe von Doering. Married 2nd on 28 December 1988 to Elisabeth Marga Dorothea Bönker, Princess Elisabeth Margarethe Elena Johanna Maria Jolanda Polyxene, married 26 Feb and 28 Feb 1962 in Frankfurt am Main to Count Friedrich Karl von Oppersdorf

Princess Mafalda of Savoy
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Princess Mafalda and Philipp of Hesse on their wedding day, 23 September 1925
Princess Mafalda of Savoy
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Princess Mafalda with sons Moritz and Heinrich in the 1930s

75.
Princess Bona Margherita of Savoy-Genoa
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Princess Bona of Savoy-Genoa was a daughter of Prince Thomas, Duke of Genoa and Princess Isabella of Bavaria. Bona was the third of six born to Prince Thomas, Duke of Genoa. Her father was a grandson of King Charles Albert of Sardinia, among her siblings were Ferdinando, 3rd Duke of Genoa, Filiberto, 4th Duke of Genoa, and Eugenio, 5th Duke of Genoa. Her mother Isabella was a granddaughter of Ludwig I of Bavaria, through her aunt Margherita of Savoy, she was a cousin of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Bona was born at Castle dAgliè, Piedmont and her father had bought the eleventh-century castle shortly before his marriage with Isabella. On 8 January 1921, Bona married her cousin, Prince Konrad of Bavaria. He was the youngest son of Prince Leopold of Bavaria and Archduchess Gisela of Austria, through his father, he was a great-grandson of Ludwig I of Bavaria, and through his mother was a grandson of Franz Joseph I of Austria. The wedding took place at Castle Agliè in Piedmont, Italy and it was attended by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, Crown Prince Umberto, and the Duke of Aosta, among others. The wedding is notable for being the first royal marriage between two enemy houses since World War I began and ended and it was also remarkable as a gathering of royalty representing the Houses of Habsburg, Savoy, and Wittelsbach. The couple had two children, Princess Amalie Isabella of Bavaria, married 25 August 1949 at Lugano Count Uberto Poletti Galimberta de Assandri, Prince Eugen of Bavaria, married Countess Helene von Khevenhüller-Metsch, no issue. At the end of the Second World War, Prince Konrad was arrested by the French military at Hinterstein. He was brought to Lindau and temporarily interned in the hotel Bayerischer Hof, together with others the German Crown Prince Wilhelm. Princess Bona, who worked during the war as a nurse and she was prohibited from entering Germany and was not reunited with her family until 1947. In later years Prince Konrad worked on the Board of German automaker NSU, Bona died on 2 February 1971 in Rome. Her tomb can be found in the church of the Andechs Abbey and her husband Prince Konrad died on 6 September 1969

Princess Bona Margherita of Savoy-Genoa
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Princess Bona shortly after her marriage to Prince Konrad in May 1921.

76.
Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy
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Maria Gabriella di Savoia was the third child of the Prince and Princess of Piedmont, born in Naples, Italy in 1940. Her older siblings were Princess Maria Pia and Prince Vittorio Emanuele, while the younger was Princess Maria Beatrice. Her parents, married since 1930, were together, as her mother confessed in an interview many years later. Being Catholics, her parents never divorced, educated in Switzerland, Maria Gabriella also took courses in a school associated with the Louvre in Paris. After her fathers death, and with her brothers approval, she launched the King Umberto II Foundation in Lausanne, dedicated to preserving the history and she participated in numerous cultural presentations and organized an exhibit in Albertville during the 1992 Olympics. At the beginning of the 21st century she co-authored a number of books, in the 1950s, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, then divorced from his second wife, indicated his interest in marrying Princess Maria Gabriella. Pope John XXIII reportedly vetoed the suggestion, in an editorial about the rumors surrounding the marriage of a Muslim sovereign and a Catholic princess, the Vatican newspaper, LOsservatore Romano, wrote that the match constituted a grave danger. She married Robert Zellinger de Balkany on 12 February 1969 in Sainte-Mesme, the religious wedding was celebrated later on 21 June 1969 at Eze-sur-Mer. The couple separated in 1976 and divorced in November 1990 and they had one child, Marie Elizabeth Zellinger de Balkany, married Olivier Janssens on 31 October 2002 and has three children, Gabriella Luise Maria Janssens, Tommaso Janssens. Diario di una monarchia, co-written with Romano Brancalini, gioielli di Casa Savoia, co-written with Stefano Papi. Vita di corte in casa Savoia, co-written with Stefano Papi, ISBN 978-8837024130 Jewellery of the House of Savoy, co-written with Stefano Papi

Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy
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Maria Gabriella of Savoy in 1960

77.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

78.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format