Aotearoa (often translated as "land of the long white cloud")[16] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.[17] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.[18] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).[19] In 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm.[15] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[20] Note that for each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.

History

The Māori people are most likely descended from people who emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands. After a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[21]

New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation[22] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations[23] suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,[18][24] concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.[25] Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other. At some point, a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands (which they named Rēkohu) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[26][27] The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of TaranakiMāori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862, only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.[28]

The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.[29] In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[30] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[29] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artifacts and water.[31] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[32] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[33] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[34] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[35]

In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.[36] The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.[37] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[37] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[38] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[39] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington[40] and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa,[41] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[42] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[43]

New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colonyof New Zealand on 1 July 1841.[44] The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.[45] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.[45] (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)[45] Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait.[46] Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.[47]

In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. Accordingly, the title "Dominion of New Zealand" dates from 1907.[50][51] In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.[45]

Elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.[69] Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief Justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.[72] The current Prime Minister is John Key, since the 2008 election. He secured a third term in office for his National Government in the 2014 election.[73]

New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice,[74] includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.[59] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government.[59] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.[75]

New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states,[76][77] with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.[78] The country rates highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 68%.[79]

Foreign relations and military

Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.[80] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."[81]

In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[82] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[83] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[84] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[85] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[86][87] Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[88] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[89]In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the population of New Zealand.[90]

Local government and external territories

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[111] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[112] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[113] and sporting rivalries.[114]

Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[111][115] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.[116] The 249 municipalities[116] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[117] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[116] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.[118][119] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[119] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[120]

New Zealand is long and narrow (over 1,600 kilometres (990mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250mi)),[131] with about 15,000km (9,300mi) of coastline[132] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500sqmi).[133] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[134]

Climate

New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10°C (50°F) in the south to 16°C (61°F) in the north.[145] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4°C (108.32°F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6°C (−14.08°F) in Ranfurly, Otago.[146] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.[147] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[148] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[149] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.[150] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[145]

The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in New Zealand's six largest cities. The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February, but the South Island cities are warmest in January.

Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for the six largest cities of New Zealand[151]

Biodiversity

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years[152] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation, and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[153][154] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family.[155][156] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[155] and 40% of these are endemic.[157] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[158] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[159]

Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[160] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[161] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[162]

Since human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[164] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas.[174][175][176][177]

Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.[180] With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[181] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[182] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community[183] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression.[184] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.[185] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.[186][187] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free trade economy.[188][189]

Unemployment peaked above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[191] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low of 3.4% in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[192] However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[193][194] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[195] At May 2012, the general unemployment rate was around 6.7%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13.6%.[196] In the September 2014 quarter, unemployment was 5.4%.[197] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[198] that still continue today.[199] Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[200] In recent years, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[201][202]

Trade

New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[203] particularly in agricultural products.[204] Exports account for 24% of its output,[132] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[205] Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom.[132] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[206][207] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[132]Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supporting 9.6% of the total workforce in 2010.[208] International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1% in the year to October 2010[209] and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5% annually up to 2015.[208]

Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.

Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[180] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[180] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities[210] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[211] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[212] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[213] In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21% ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports,[214] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[215] Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2%, wool 6.3%, fruit 3.5% and fishing 3.3%. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[216] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[217][218]

Infrastructure

The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[220][221]

New Zealand's transport network comprises 93,805 kilometres (58,288mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124mi) of motorways,[222] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565mi) of railway lines.[132] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[223] The railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by Transdev.[224] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[225] Most international visitors arrive via air[226] and New Zealand has six international airports, but currently only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.[227]

The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.[228]Chorus, which was split from Telecom in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. As of 2012, the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.[229]

Demography

New Zealand's historical population (black) and projected growth (red).

As of June 2016, the population of New Zealand is estimated at 4.69 million and is increasing at a rate of approximately 2.1% per year.[230] New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 73.0% of the population living in the seventeen main urban areas (i.e. population 30,000 or greater) and 53.7% living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.[231] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world's fourth most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey.[232]

Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males.[233] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline.[234] New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialised nations, with 20% of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger.[132] By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[234] In 2008, the leading cause of premature death was cancer, at 29.8%, followed by ischaemic heart disease, 19.7%, and then cerebrovascular disease, 9.2%.[235]

Ethnicity and immigration

In the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%), of which two-thirds live in the Auckland region.[238][n 7]
The population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[239]

The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies.[245] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[246] German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[247] Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[248] Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[249] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[250]

Language

English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 96.1% of the population.[4]New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[252] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.[253]

After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[254] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[255] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[256] and is spoken by 3.7% of the population.[4][n 8] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[258]Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.

As recorded in the 2013 census, Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%),[n 9] followed by Hindi (1.7%), "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 1.3%) and French (1.2%).[4] About 20,000 people use New Zealand Sign Language.[259] It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[260]

Religion

Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world.[261] In the 2013 census, 55.0% of the population identified with one or more religions, including 49.0% identifying as Christians. Another 41.9% indicated that they had no religion.[n 10][262] The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism (12.6%), Anglicanism (11.8%), Presbyterianism (8.5%) and "Christian not further defined" (i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 5.5%).[262] The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.4%) are also Christian.[263] Other significant minority religions include Hinduism (2.3%), Buddhism (1.5%) and Islam (1.2%). The indigenous Māori Christians tend to be associated with the Anglican and Catholic churches, while Pacific people tend to be Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic and Latter-day Saint adherents.[262]

Education

Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.[264] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[265] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[132] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[264] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[266] in addition to private training establishments.[267] In the adult population 14.2% have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4% have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4% have no formal qualification.[268] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the seventh best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.[269]

Culture

Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval.[270] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[271][272] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[273] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[274] More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[275]

Men at their camp site displaying a catch of rabbits and fish, 1909. European settlers, with their rustic lifestyle, developed a rugged and unassuming national identity.[276]

The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[276] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[277] At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[278] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[254] In the 1960s, as higher education became more available and cities expanded[279] urban culture began to dominate.[280]

New Zealand's national icons are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The native silver fern is a national emblem and appears on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[281] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[281]

Art

As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[282] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[283] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[284] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[285]

Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[286] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[287] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[288] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as "noble savages", exotic beauties or friendly natives.[288] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism.[289] During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[290] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[282][291]

Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[292]Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[293] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[294] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[295][296] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[296]

Literature

Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[297] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[298] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[299] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[300] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[301]

Media and entertainment

New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[302] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South-East Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.[303] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments[304] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.[305] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[306][307]Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[308] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[302] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[309] The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.[310] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.[311]

Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[318]Rugby union is considered the national sport[319] and attracts the most spectators.[320]Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) is popular among young people.[320][321] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[321] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[322]Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.[323] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[324]

Cuisine

The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, drawing inspiration from Europe, Asia and Polynesia.[333] Popular ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, crayfish (lobster), dredge oysters, whitebait, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish),[334]kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova, the national dessert. A hāngi is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven. After European colonisation, Māori began cooking with pots and ovens and the hāngī was used less frequently, although it is still used for formal occasions such as tangihanga.[335]

↑ The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,<ref>"The New Zealand Land Cover Database". New Zealand Land Cover Database 2. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment. 1 July 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2011.

↑ New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand(PDF) (Report). p.89. Retrieved 15 November 2015. In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.

↑ "Population clock". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2016. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.

↑ Lewis, Martin W.; Kären E. Wigen (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.32. ISBN0-520-20742-4. Interestingly enough, the answer [from a scholar who sought to calculate the number of continents] conformed almost precisely to the conventional list: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania (Australia plus New Zealand), Africa, and Antarctica.

↑ Evans, N. "Up From Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review. 46 (16): 47–51.

↑ Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis. Routledge. 2016. p.125. ISBN9781317008521.

↑ Wayne Arnold (2 August 2007). "Surviving Without Subsidies". New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2015. ... ever since a liberal but free-market government swept to power in 1984 and essentially canceled handouts to farmers ... They went cold turkey and in the process it was very rough on their farming economy

↑ Winkelmann, Rainer (2000). "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s". The International Migration Review. The Center for Migration Studies of New York. 33 (1): 33–58. doi:10.2307/2676011. JSTOR2676011. Journal subscription required

↑ Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Māori News. Retrieved 20 February 2008. Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today ‘Pakeha’ is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other

↑ "Sport, Fitness and Leisure". New Zealand Official Yearbook. Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Retrieved 21 July 2008. Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.