r
1
HALLEY'S COMET
A comet is an object that travels around the sun leaving a bright trail
behind. For more than two thousand years, the return of Halley's Comet has
been observed and recorded on Earth every 76 years. Its 1986 visit,
however, was the first time that humans took a close look at its nucleus. One
spacecraft went within a few hundred kilometres of the nucleus. Two Soviet
craft, Vega 1 and Vega 2, came within 10,000 km of the nucleus on March
6th and March 9th; and the European Space Agency's Giotto space probe
passed within 600 km of Halley's Comet on March 14th. Pioneer Venus
Orbiter found that the cloud of gases and dust which make up the tail spread
over a region about 20,000,000 km across, 15 times larger than the Sun.
Scientists also discovered that the comet was losing about ten metres of
material from its surface every orbit, suggesting a lifetime of about only
] ,000 orbits - in about 100,000 years it will disappear.
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Halley's Comet was first seen more than 2000 years ago.
2. In 1986, two of the spacecraft which observed Halley's Comet were from
the Soviet Union.
3. The sun measures 20,000,000 km across.
4. Halley's Comet has a lifetime of about 100,000 years left because it is
losing material from its surface every orbit.
B.
1. How often can Halley's Comet be observed from Earth?
2. What is the tail of Halley's Comet made up of?
1
2
HIGH-RISE
In October 1981, newspapers in the USA and the UK reported
plans for a 169-storey building in Chicago. If this is built, it will be
almost twice as tall as the 384-metre Empire State Building in New
York.
5 Since the early days of civilised man, buildings have been getting
higher all the time. Today, all large cities have tall buildings, either for
use as offices or as flats. These are called high-rise buildings. The
tallest of a]i in fact, are not used for offices or for living, but are
special structures for radio and television. For instance,Warsaw Radio
10 Mast in Poland, which is 646 metres tall, is the tallest of such
structures. The world's tallest office building is the Sears Tower in
Chicago. This has 110 storeys, and reaches a height of 443 metres.
16,700 people work inside the building, and there are more than one
hundred lifts for their use.
15 But why do we have high buildings? Is there any real advantage?
The most common reason given is that in many cities there is a lack of
space.
The island of Manhattan, New York City, is a good example of
this. Here, office space is very expensive. There is no more land.
20 Buildings have to go up. The same reason is given for high office
buildings in Tokyo, London and other large cities of the world.
But what about people? Is it really necessary to build high
buildings for people to live in?
Today, there are many who believe high buildings actually damage
25 people's minds and feelings. These people believe high-rise buildings:
-have no advantages, except for their owners and for banks
-are not cheap to build
-do not help create open space
-destroy the landscape
30 -cause crime
-are not good for children
-are expensive to look after
High-rise buildings lower the quality of life. The following reports
show this.
35 Report from England, 1967: The higher people live off the ground,
the more likely they are to suffer from mental illnesses. Women,
because they spend most time at home, suffer most.
2
3. The report from Denmark .
a) shows more people live in high-rise buildings in Denmark than in other
countries
b) states the disadvantages of high-rise buildings for children
c) shows how women living in high-rise buildings suffer
d) says that crime rate is higher in high-rise buildings in Denmark than in other
countries
4. Which of the following is not true?
a) The tallest buildings in the world are special structures used as offices.
b) When people live in high-rise buildings, they are cut off from real life.
c) High-rise buildings are still built although they have many disadvantages.
d) Mental illnesses increase especially among women who live in high-rise
buildings.
3
ATOMS (1)
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that have the properties
of the chemical elements - hydrogen, oxygen, iron, and so on. They
are so small that it is impossible to see them even with a high-powered
microscope. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms in different
5 chemical combinations. Water, for instance, is a compound of two
elements, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. However,
some elements, such as gold and diamonds exist uncombined.
Ninety-two elements occur naturally. They range from the lightest,
hydrogen, to the heaviest, uranium. Each of the elements has been
10 assigned a number - 1 for hydrogen, 8 for oxygen, 29 for copper, 92
for uranium. They are usually arranged on a chart called the periodic
table, which puts elements with the same chemical properties in the
same column. Thus, all inert gases, such as helium, appear in one
column in the periodic table.
15 The formulation of the atomic theory is one of the great
achievements of science. It has enabled us to understand the properties
of the elements, the basic building blocks of all matter, so that we
know which elements can combine with each other. The science of
chemistry is based on our understanding of atoms and their behaviour
20 in interacting with one another.
Another science called nuclear physics came into being to study the
structure of the atom itself. As scientists investigated the atom, it
became apparent that the atom was not a solid piece of matter, but was
made up of even smaller particles. The first subatomic particle that
4
25 scientists identified was the electron, a tiny piece of matter with a
negative electric charge. The weight of an electron was very small
indeed - approximately one eighteen-hundredth of the weight of a
hydrogen atom, the lightest of all the elements. Scientists came to
believe that the electrons orbited the nucleus of the atom, in which
30 almost all of the weight of the atom was concentrated. It is now
known that electrons revolve around the nucleus at incredibly fast
rates of speed.
For many years scientists did many different kinds of experiments
and all had the same idea about the structure of atoms. However, when
35 they managed to obtain more evidence, they had to modify the atomic
theory. There was not just one kind of particle in the nucleus of an
atom; there were two. One of these has a positive electric charge and
is called a proton. The other is neutral, that is, it has no electric charge.
For this reason, it was called a neutron.
A. Complete the following sentences.
1. Helium (line 13) is a(n) .
2. Elements (line 17) are .
3. An electron (line 25) is a(n) .
4. If something is neutral (line 38), it .
B. What do.the following refer to?
1. They' (line 8): Elements which
2. 'It' (line 16):
3. 'all' (line 34): all
4. 'these' (line 37): these
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. The theory about the structure of atoms has changed through years.
2. An electron is heavier than a hydrogen atom.
3. Electrons turn around the nucleus at a low speed.
D.
1. In what way are gold and diamonds different from other elements?
2. What does nuclear physics study?
E. Complete the following statement.
The periodic table arranges elements according to
5
4
MUSIC OR NOISE?
Vibration is movement and sound that comes from objects which
vibrate. For example, guitar strings, when touched, vibrate and make a
sound; and drum skins, when hit, vibrate and make a sound.
Vibrations are described in terms of amplitude and frequency. In the
5 case of a guitar, the amplitude. or loudness, is the distance the string
moves; and in the case of a drum, the skin moves at a certain speed
and vibrates a certain number of times each second. If the skin, or the
string, vibrates 440 times per second, then we say it has a frequency of
440 Hertz (or 440 Hz for short). If it moves faster or slower, then it
10 has a higher or lower frequency.
The human ear cannot detect all sounds. Sounds must have a
certain amplitude, and a frequency between 40 Hz and 16,000 Hz.
Vibrations above or below these will not be detected by the human ear
even if they are extremely loud. Many animals have better hearing
15 than us. Dogs, for example, can hear higher frequencies; and bats can
hear sounds with incredibly high frequencies - up to 48,000 Hz.
The vibrating object first causes the molecules in the air around it
to vibrate at the same frequency and amplitude. These molecules then
cause other molecules to vibrate and so it continues until molecules of
20 air inside our ears vibrate. Finally our eardrums vibrate and cause
minute, i.e. very small, electrical signals to be sent to the brain.
All sounds come from vibrations. But not all sounds are the same.
Some are pleasant to hear, such as music. Others are unpleasant and
these we call noise. What's the difference between the two? This is a
25 difficult question to answer. But the sounds of musical instruments,
which are usually good to hear, do have a special characteristic:
musical instruments, such as the guitar and the drum, vibrate at more
than one frequency. Thus, when a guitar string produces the note of A,
the vibration of greatest amplitude has a frequency of 440 Hz. But.
30 there are vibrations of other frequencies present, too. They have less
amplitude, and so we do not consciously hear them. But thev add to
the sound and form a pattern of frequencies which is pleasant to hear.
This is called harmonics. It is harmonics which help us to identify the
musical instrument we hear.
35 Of course, there are other characteristics of music, too. One of
these is rhythm, the sequence of sounds. Rhythm is not exclusive to
musical sound; but it is one of the factors which help make music
pleasant to hear.
6
5
THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES
'Aborigines' are the first or original inhabitants of a country. The
Australian Aborigines have lived in Australia for over 40,000 years. At one
stage in their history, there were possibly over a million Aborigines.
However, -when the first white settlers arrived in the 18th century and stole
their land, many Aborigines died fighting to protect it. Today, only about
100,000 survive. Although some still live a traditional life in remote desert
areas of the Australian outback, many now live in poor conditions in cities
and towns.
They have suffered for two hundred years from white exploitation.
However, the Australian government has recently given some land back to
them including 'Uluru'. This huge rock, in the centre of Australia, is of great
importance to the Aborigines.
Although winning back this land is encouraging, the Aboriginal people
know there is a long way to go before they win back the rest of their land.
1. When did Aborigines arrive in Australia?
2. Why is the population of the Australian Aborigines smaller now?
3. Where do most of the Australian Aborigines live?
4. What is 'Uluru'?
8
6
AQUIFERS
The water on the earth is recycled constantly in a process known as
the hydrologic cycle. First, the water in the oceans evaporates. It
changes into vapour and forms clouds in the sky. Water accumulates
in clouds and returns to the surface of the earth in some form of
5 precipitation, which can be either rain, snow, or ice. When the water
reaches the earth's surface, it runs off into streams, rivers, lakes, and at
last, into the oceans, where the cycle begins again. The water on the
surface of the eartli and in the atmosphere is known as the
hydrosphere. Not all precipitation goes into rivers. Some of it seeps
10 into the ground by a process called infiltration. This water collects
under the earth's surface and is groundwater.
Groundwater is important for two reasons. First, 95 per cent of the
earth's water is in the oceans. It is salty and useless for plants, animals,
or humans. Fresh water, which people can use for drinking or for
15 agriculture, is either on the earth's surface in lakes and rivers or
underground. Surface water is .05 per cent of the earth's water while
underground water is 4 per cent of the earth's water. Consequently,
groundwater provides 95 per cent of the available fresh water on the
earth. Second, groundwater is important not only because of the size
20 of the supply, but also because of its dependability. It is always
available since it does not depend on seasonal precipitation.
Today, there seems to be a problem with groundwater. Until
recently, groundwater was clean. It was not necessary to purify it
before people drank it. However, for many years, people have been
25 burying garbage and poisonous wastes underground. These poisons
have polluted the groundwater in many places. Therefore, it is unsafe
for human use unless the dirty and harmful substances are removed
first.
Aquifers are geologic formations that allow groundwater to
30 accumulate and move through them. Although they are often called
underground rivers, these formations are not like surface rivers. The
water accumulates in one area underground. The amount of water an
aquifer contains is enough to be easily pumped out for use.
People have been using groundwater for many years. With an
35 increasing population, the need for water has also increased. Some
cities depend only on groundwater for their water supply. They are
using underground water very quickly. In some places the water
supply may soon be used up, and there will be no water for a large
population. One example of this is Tucson, Arizona, which is located
9
40 in the Sonora desert in southwestern United States. It is on a very
large aquifer which supplies water for the area at the present. The
aquifer provides water for an increasing population in the city and for
agriculture throughout southern Arizona. At the present time, the city
is using 225,000 acre feet of water per year, 75,000 acre feet are being
45 returned to the aquifer through the natural processes of the hydrologic
cycle. Therefore, people are using about three times more water than
nature is supplying. The water table, which is the level of the water in
the aquifer, is dropping lower every year. Some wells have already
gone dry and have either been closed or drilled deeper. Scientists
50 predict that the supply of water in the aquifer will run out in twenty to
eighty years.
Aquifers contain a generous supply of water. They are large, easily
available, and mostly clean. Still, people who depend only on aquifers
for their water supply must use their water carefully. Their lives and
60 their children's lives depend on conserving the water they have.
A. What do the following mean?
1. 'infiltration' (line 10): the process by which
2. 'groundwater' (line 11):
3. to purify (line 23): to
4. to provide (line 42): to
5. 'conserving' (line 60):
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Precipitation can be in various forms.
2. Groundwater exists whether there is precipitation or not.
3. Oceans contain 95 per cent of the fresh water on the earth.
4. As groundwater is polluted, people do not use it any more.
5. Groundwater moves through aquifers.
6. In surface rivers the water accumulates in one area.
7. Half of the water that people in Tucson use returns to the aquifer.
8. Tucson is an agricultural area.
9. 'Water table' is a term related to the level of water in a well.
C.
1. Write two sources of fresh water that are on the earth's surface.
2. How do people obtain water from an aquifer?
3. What happens to a well that goes dry?
10
7
EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS
After rising steadily for almost a century, standards of education in
the public schools of Europe and North America have come to a
standstill. In fact, in the opinion of many parents and employers, they
are actually falling. More and more children are leaving school at an
5 early age. Naturally, they have very little knowledge of reading and
writing. Thus, the number of illiterate people is increasing, bringing
about a social problem once again. With dropout rates of twenty-seven
per cent in high schools and fifty per cent in colleges, the American
education system is clearly in trouble. In Europe, the number of
10 children who leave school is going up too, though lower than that in
the United States.
There are various factors that cause the decrease in educational
standards. Some people say that overcrowding and lack of discipline
are major factors. Others say that much importance has been given to
15 subjects like art and drama. However, more practical subjects have
been neglected. For many teachers, on the other hand, the problem is
not of falling standards but of rising expectations of parents and
employers. According to these teachers, the demands of parents and
employers are getting higher and this is causing the problem.
20 Whether or not standards in public schools are actually falling,
many parents feel that the only way to secure a good education for
their children is to send them to private schools, which generally have
smaller classes and stricter discipline. The popularity of such schools
is growing steadily, despite the high tuition. In the United States, for
25 example, eleven per cent of all school children attend private schools;
in Europe, over sixteen per cent do so.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 6, 'illiterate' means .
a) leaving school at an early age
b) having very little knowledge of reading and writing
c) becoming an increasing social problem
2. Line 7, 'dropout rates' are .
a) the number of illiterate people
b) a decreasing rate of school leavers
c) the number of children leaving school
11
8
SCHOOL FOR CHANGE
"It demands your total concentration, energy and capabilities. In
return it gives you the best friends you could ever wish for. More
important than this, you get the opportunity to discover yourself."
According to Heidi Meyer, a former student of Atlantic College, that
5 makes the college such a good place for education.
Atlantic College is the world's first residential sixth form college
and this week it is 25 years old. The college was founded at St. Donats
Castle, in South Wales, by Kurt Hahn to promote peace and
international understanding through education.
10 Atlantic College students are from 70 countries. They study for the
International Baccalaureate diploma. This course was pioneered at the
college during the early 1970's and now, it is offered at more than 350
colleges across the world. Six subjects are studied and some British
experts are considering it as a replacement for A-levels.
15 "It is rather like the proposed national curriculum," said Jeff Neuss,
the college's head of chemistry. "Everyone has to study his or her
native language, a modern foreign language, a humanities subject, a
science and maths. As a result of this broad curriculum, all our
students become intellectual adults while studying their own subjects.
20 Thus, we have scientists who can write essays, and art specialists who
are numerate and competent in science."
Academic work is only one part of the college. It also wants to be
part of the community. Therefore, k expects students to undertake
community services that include sea rescue and running its 50-acre
25 farm. "We were the first co-ordinated beach and inshore rescue
service in Britain and we developed the Atlantic class of inshore
lifeboats now used as standard by the RNLI," said Neuss. 'We are
officially responsible for safety along a 15-mile stretch of coastline.
Our lifeboats have saved 150 lives."
30 Every summer, the students run courses for physically and mentally
handicapped young people. They visit London to teach English to
Bangladeshi youngsters and run a Youth Training Scheme course for
local teenagers. And the students maintain their own college buildings
and classrooms.
35 Atlantic College offers an unusually diverse educational
experience, but how are students selected? "Academic ability and
school recommendation are of course taken into consideration as in all
colleges. However, applicants without the personal qualities of
tolerance and a willingness to mix with others can't possibly get into .
13
40 our college," said Neuss.
The fees are £6,400 a year, but scholarships ensure there is no
discrimination on financial grounds. Some countries, such as Norway,
allocate funds to allow Ethiopian refugees to attend.
The college gives its students a wide perspective on world affairs,
45 said Monica Moreno, a Brazilian: "Immediately after you arrive, a
learning process starts which makes you realise your own roots and
carries an irresistible force for change and understanding of others."
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'it' (line 23):
2. 'that' (line 24):
3.'they'(line 31):
4. 'others' (line 47): other
B.
1. According to Heidi Meyer, why is Atlantic College a good place for education?
2. What was the purpose of Kurt Hahn in starting the college?
3. What do students receive when they graduate from Atlantic College?
4. For the students of the college, what is the benefit of taking so many courses?
5. Write two kinds of social work that the students do during summer.
a)
b)
•6. What are the necessary qualities to become a student at Atlantic College?
14
9
THE OLYMPIC GAMES
When the next Olympic Games begin, satellites will carry TV pictures of
the opening ceremony to millions of people thousands of miles away. From
their armchairs these people will be able to see their country's athletes
competing in events and maybe winning a bronze, silver or even gold
medal.
When we consider the size, the spectacle and the commercialism of the
modem Olympic Games, it is difficult to remember that they started in
Olympia in Greece in 776 BC with only one race, a sprint, for which the
prize for the winner was an olive wreath.
The idea of an international Olympic Games was conceived by a
Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, and, appropriately, the first modern
Olympic Games opened in Athens in 1896. Nowadays, major cities compete
to host the Olympic Games, not just for the honour the Games bring, but for
the vast amount of profit a host country can make.
The games have also become politically important. They can now be
seen by nearly every country in the world and are, therefore, an ideal
platform for political statements. When Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan
in 1980, many countries in the West, including Britain and the United
States, bovcotted the Moscow Games. In 1984 some countries decided not
to send teams to the Los Angeles Games because they felt there was not
enough security .
In circumstances like these, the Olympic ideal and spirit comes into
question. And for athletes, there is less value in winning a gold medal if the
best of the world's athletes are not competing. The question is - how much
longer will the Games survive if nations continue to use them as a political
platform?
1. What makes it possible to watch Olympic Games on TV?
2. What medals can athletes win?
3. What was the only race in the first Olympic Games?
4. What was the prize given to a winner in the first Olympic Games?
15
5. Who does the idea of International Olympic Games belong to?
6. Where were the first modern Olympic Games held?
7. Where do Olympic Games take place now?
8. When was Afghanistan invaded?
9. Which countries boycotted the Moscow Games?
10. Why didn't some countries take part in Los Angeles Games?
10
TRAVEL AND TOURISM
A report recently prepared for a large international travel service
and banking company found out that travel and tourism accounted for
almost $ 2 trillion of the sales in 1987, making it the largest source of
employment in the world. Personal travel constituted about two thirds
5 of this, leaving the rest for business and government travel. The
biggest spenders on personal travel were the US, Japan, Germany,
Britain and France; and in most of these developed countries it was
the third largest item of household spending after housing and food.
Tour operators say the industry is experiencing "a second
10 revolution". In the first, Europe revolutionised travel with the cheap
package holiday within the continent, which transformed many
Mediterranean economies. More recently, tourists have begun to travel
further away. Until the mid-1980's, the market was limited to the rich
on the one hand and the backpackers on the other.
15 Rising incomes and expectations have changed all that. Travellers
who are tired of the Mediterranean or those who can afford second
holidays in the winter expect the package holiday concept to be
extended to intercontinental destinations. By chartering 500-seat
jumbo jets and booking hotels and apartments in Florida and the
20 Caribbean, tour operators have made formerly luxury tourist spots
available to a lower-income market.
16
Although this poses risks which developing countries have not
faced before, the benefits are more immediately apparent. The
Caribbean Tourist Association estimates that the industry now
25 provides jobs directly or indirectly for 330,000 people in the region.
Others put the figure higher. Some estimates put Third World
employment in travel and tourism at more than 50 million.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'this* (line 5):
2. 'if (line 7):
3. 'those' (line 16):
4. 'the region' (line 25):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. To account for (line 2) is to .
a) prepare b) find out c) constitute
2. Line 14, 'backpackers' are .
a) people who travel long distances
b) travellers who are not rich
c) tourists from the Mediterranean
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. In developed countries, more money is spent on personal travel than on
business and government travel.
2. In most of the developed countries housing and food are the two largest
items of household spending.
J. The cheap continental package holiday is the revolution that is being
experienced now.
4. Since the mid-1980's, only the rich have been travelling to intercontinental
destinations.
5. Some tourists do not want to travel to the Mediterranean any more.
D.
1. How did the cheap package holiday affect Mediterranean countries?
17
2. What have tour operators done to make it possible for the lower-income group to
travel to luxury spots?
a) :
b) ,
3. What is the benefit of travel and tourism for developing countries?
11
HARRODS: A DIFFERENT WORLD
Welcome to Harrods - a different world for a million reasons.
Harrods is the largest store in Europe with goods displayed in 60
windows and 5.5 hectares of selling space. In one year over 14 million
purchases are made in the 214 departments where you can buy
5 anything from a pin to an elephant - if you can convince the manager
of the Pet Department that you are a suitable elephant owner, that is!
Harrods stocks a wide and exciting range of merchandise in every
department. It is because of this policy that Harrods can give the
customer a choice of goods which is unique in its variety and which
10 no other store can match: Harrods stocks 100 different whiskies,
including 57 single malts, 450 different cheeses, 8,000 dresses, 500
types of shins and 9,000 ties to go with them. Moreover, it has a staff
of 4,000, rising to 6,000 at Christmas time.
Harrods has a world-wide reputation due to several reasons in
15 addition to those mentioned above. It offers a number of special
services to its customers. These include a bank, an insurance
department, a travel agency and a theatre ticket agency. Another
reason is the range of exported goods. £40 million worth of goods are
exported annually from Harrods and the Export Department can deal
20 with any customer purchase or order and will p'^ck and send goods to
any address in the world. Recently, for example, six bread rolls were
sent to New York, a handkerchief to Los Angeles, and a £5,000 chess
set to Australia. It is this first-class service that has made Harrods so
famous.
25 Harrods sells 5 million different products, not all of which are
actually kept in stock in the store itself. To handle this enormous
range, a new computerised warehouse is being built. It will be the
largest Warehouse in Britain and the second largest in Europe and will
deal with a wider range of goods than any other distribution centre in
18
30 the world. Thanks to its modern technology, a customer will be able to
order any product (for example, a dining table or a dishwasher) from
any assistant in the store. The assistant will be able to check its
availability immediately on a computer screen, decide with the
customer on a suitable delivery date and time and then pass the order
35 directly to the warehouse through the computer. The time of delivery
will be guaranteed to within one hour.
A. What do the following refer to?
1.'them'(line 12):
2. 'its modern technology' (line 30): the modern technology of
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 7, 'merchandise' is another name for .
a) stores b) goods c) customers
2. Line 14, to have a 'reputation' is to .
a) deal with customers
b) be well-known
c) offer special services
1. What is Harrods' policy7
2. What kind of a change takes place at Harrods at Christmas?
3. Why is the warehouse being built?
4. Write down the stages that take place between the order and the delivery of a
product.
a) .
b) i
c) :
19
J_2
WORK MATTERS
Debbie Mason, 24, is a stewardess with Virgin Atlantic. She told
Sue Wheeler about her life on Richard Branson's airline and what it
takes to get on in this high-flying job.
Some time ago, I was working in an office when I saw a picture of
5 Richard Branson and read about him starting a new airline, Virgin. I
sent him a letter saying I was interested in working for him. After a
successful interview, I began their four-week training course. The
personnel officers say it's usually obvious at the start whether
somebody has the right qualities or not. Personality is very important.
10 You have to be flexible, attractive, and able to smile when duty calls -
even if you don't feel like it. Obviously you don't need airline
experience, but nursing, or other work with people, is useful.
The training course is really common sense although the practical
side includes things like life-boat sessions in a swimming pool, fire
15 fighting in a smoke-filled room and learning how to deliver a baby. In
reality, though, you end up dealing mainly with travel sickness. The
point is you have to be prepared for everything.
I work on flights from Gatwick to New York or Miami. Only 10%
of my work involves serving people. The emphasis is on safety and
20 that's what we're here for. Before every flight there's a briefing where
the crew are asked questions on first-aid and safety.
Those who claim that working in such a job makes you look much
older than you really are have a point. I also think this job ages you.
On flights to New York I'm on board from 2:15 in the afternoon until
25 nearly midnight our time. I have to drink eight pints of water per flight
to prevent my body from dehydrating, but it is nearly impossible to
consume that much. So my skin is probably suffering. But I think
these are minor disadvantages. When we get to New York it's only
6:55 pm American time and we usually go out and have a party!
30 I fly about four or five times in 28 days, which means I work hard
for two or three days, then take time off. I get at least eight days off
every month, so it doesn't feel like most other fulltime jobs. I get four
weeks holiday a year, three of which have to be in the winter. But as
one of the advantages of this job is being able to fly with any airline
35 for 10% of the normal cost, I can afford to go to far away places in
search of winter sun.
It's a sociable job on board and off. There are only 220 crew
members in total so there is a close relationship among us. This means
20
things are very friendly and I think it's obvious to the passengers that
40 we're having a good time, which helps them relax. When people leave
Virgin to work for other airlines they often miss the intimacy of a
small company and come back. But although the social life with
Virgin is fabulous, outside it is non-existent. Friends and family know
my time off is precious, but even at home I'm sometimes on standby.
45 The job puts a strain on any romance. Happily, my boyfriend works
for Virgin too, and we choose to work a 'married roster' which means
we fly together all the time. It's either this or taking the chance of
bumping into each other once in a while.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'that much' (line 27):
2. 'it' (line 43):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. If something 'ages' (line 23) you, it .
a) makes you look older
b) takes most of your time
c) affects your age
2. Dehydrate (line 26) is to .
a) feel ill while flying
b) lose too much water
c) drink a lot of liquid
3. Line 4 1 , 'intimacy' is .
a) making something obvious
b) working 'or a small company
c) having a close relationship
4. Bump into (line 48) means .
a) work together
b) meet by chance
c) find romance
5. The main aim of the training course is to .
a) train the personnel to fight a fire
b) teach the personnel how to deal with travel sickness
c) give an idea about all rescue techniques
d) prepare the personnel for unexpected things
21
6. Which of the following is not correct?
a) Debbie's job is different from many full-time jobs.
b) She can get a holiday of two weeks in the summer.
c) She used to work in an office before she got her present job.
d) She is attractive, flexible and can smile when necessary.
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. A person can work for Virgin Atlantic only if s/he is experienced.
2. Debbie can fly cheaply on any airline.
13
LAYING INSOMNIA TO REST
by Susan Gilbert
When the task at hand is to get a good night's sleep, trying hard is
not the way to succeed. Twisting and turning in search of a
comfortable position in bed makes your body do the opposite of what
it is supposed to do at night. Instead of slowing down, your heartbeat
5 races. Instead of relaxing, your muscles twitch. You watch the clock
and wonder what you're doing wrong.
Ten million people in the United States alone are seeking medical
help for chronic insomnia - difficulty in falling asleep or staying
asleep. For years it has been called a symptom of a number of
10 psychological problems, such as depression, that somehow alter the
body's sleep pattern. Sleep specialists agree that psychological
problems are a cause of insomnia, but also say bad habits can have the
same effect. These include too little daytime activity and, ironically,
its opposite, too much exercise.
15 "Insomniacs usually begin losing sleep over some problem, such as
a serious illness in the family," says psychiatrist Robert Watson. "But
unlike other people," he adds, "they continue to have trouble sleeping
- for months, even years." According to Joyce and Kales, two
psychiatrists at Penn State University in Pennsylvania, insomniacs
20 present a consistent personality profile. They take things hard, feel
they haven't lived "the right kind of life," and are nervous and tense.
Psychiatrists say insomniacs share another trait. Thomas Coates of
the University of California says, "another characteristic common to
insomniacs is that they spend an excessive amount of time thinking
25 about sleep." Contrary to the image of bad sleepers as workaholics,
Coates's study indicates that insomniacs spend more time relaxing
22
than others do. He thinks their relative inactivity during the day may
alter the body's "clock." Instead of signalling the brain to slow down
at night, the clock calls for more activity.
30 Sleeping late on weekends can also disrupt your body's clock. This
is a bad habit Robert Watson makes patients change at the Sleep
Disorders Centre. He tells them to rise at the same time each day, even
after a night of poor sleep. "After a while," he says, "sleep improves."
Even though it tires you out, exercise won't guarantee a sound
35 sleep. If it is too strenuous, especially just before bedtime, it can drive
your pulse too high, causing a restless night. Joyce and Kales use
moderate afternoon exercise, along with methods such as
psychotherapy to treat severe insomniacs.
What is the best tiling to do on occasional sleepless nights? Forget
40 sleeping pills. They can actually cause insomnia after three days, by
altering the brain's chemistry. Watson recommends drinking milk or
eating cheese or tuna, because they are rich in natural sleep-producing
aids.
"There's something to the old-fashioned remedy of drinking warm
45 milk before bedtime," Watson says. Warming it won't make any
difference, but it will help you relax.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 22, 'trait' means .
a) difficulty b) characteristic c) image
2. Line 35, 'strenuous' means .
a) tiring b) restless c) high
3. According to Robert Watson, is a bad habit of insomniacs.
a) the body clock which is disrupted
b) going to bed late on weekends
c) sleeping longer than usual on weekends
d) getting up at the same time every morning
4. Experts do not recommend sleeping pills as they .
a) are not natural
b) can change the chemistry of the brain
c) don't contain sleep producing aids
d) Both (a) and (b).
23
14
ACUPUNCTURE
Acupuncture, the method of treating diseases by using needles, is
based on the Chinese model of health and disease. In this model, there
are three main systems in the body. The first two of these are the
circulatory and nervous systems as in the western view but,
additionally, there is a sort of energy movement.
5 The Chinese believe that all forms of life are controlled by two
basic movements of energy. One is outward moving and the other is
inward moving. When an outward movement reaches its limit, it
changes direction and starts to move inwards. Similarly, when an
inward movement reaches its limit, ü changes direction and starts to
K) move outwards. The operation is like a pump, and this constant
pumping movement may be seen in almost every form of life - the
human heart, for example.
Understanding this idea of energy movement is important when
looking at the theory behind Chinese Acupuncture. In this theory.
15 there is a life force which consists of inward and outward moving
energy in each person. Inward moving energy tends to increase
activity and the other produces calm. The health of the body depends
on the balance between the two. If this balance is disturbed, diseases
occur.
20 The Chinese also discovered that this movement takes place around
the body along 26 channels called meridians. Each one of these is
connected to a different part of the body and has a different function.
Diseases also occur when a meridian is blocked. To help unblock
energy channels, doctors place needles in different parts of the body,
25 but to cure the disease the needles have to be placed in the right place
and have the right depth.
The earliest acupuncture needles were made of stone. These would
have been used when the first books were written about acupuncture
4,500 years ago. The Chinese later used needles made of bone and
30 then of different metals such as iron and silver. Today, they are made
of steel.
The Chinese first believed that the needle itself cured the disease.
However, this was before it was discovered that there are certain
points along the meridians which are connected to various parts of the
35 body, such as the stomach and the heart.
There are over 800 different needle points in the body. The doctor
examines the patient and decides which part of his or her body are
over-active or under-active; in other words, the doctor finds out where
25
there is too much or too little energy. When the acupuncture points
40 have been found, needles are placed in the skin at various depths.
They are then left there for different periods of time, which might be
as short as a few seconds.
A major recent development has been the use of acupuncture in
medical operations. In such cases, it is used instead of anaesthetics, in
45 order to take away the pain felt by the patient. In China today, this use
of acupuncture is extremely common in both major and minor
operations, even operations on the heart.
In the East there are nearly three million doctors who regularly use
acupuncture. It is taught in several Russian universities. And even in
50 Europe and America there are thousands of doctors who have now
learnt how to use acupuncture. The West, however, uses only one part
of the technique intensively; that is, the use of needles to relieve pain
during operations.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'these' (line 3):
2. 'other' (line 6):
3. 'if (line 9):
4. 'this theory' (line 14):
5. 'the other' (line 17):
6. 'these' (line 21):
7. These' (line 27):
8. 'there' (line 41):
9. 'which' (line 41):
10. 'such cases' (line 44):
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. According to the Chinese, the energy movement in the body can be
observed in the working of the human heart.
2. Knowing about the energy movement in the body is necessary to
understand how acupuncture works.
3. The life force in the theory of acupuncture refers to the balanced
movement of energy in the human body.
4. The outward moving energy in the human body makes a person very
active.
5. Energy channels in the body are called meridians when they are blocked.
26
15
MAISIE'S AMAZING MENAGERIE
An ambulance and the RSPCA were both called to the home of
Maisie MacDonald yesterday in the centre of Glasgow. A doctor
visiting the house in answer to an emergency call discovered the most
bizarre collection of animals who share the house with Maisie. While
5 the ambulance was speeding to the local hospital with 83-year-old
Maisie, a team of RSPCA vets and Edinburgh zoo-keepers were trying
to solve the problem of who would look after Maisie's pets during her
stay in hospital.
John Mclnnes, the Head Keeper at Edinburgh Zoo, had this to say:
10 'I have never seen so many different kinds of animals in anybody's
home. I am staggered that anyone could look after so many creatures,
especially at the age of 83! Maisie has done a wonderful job and none
of the animals has been neglected in any way.'
Alan Marsh, 32, an assistant keeper, said, 'She has close to two
15 dozen cats in there and four fairly big dogs, but they're not interested
in fighting. It's unusual to find such placid animals as these. They live
mainly on the ground floor. The rest of the house is huge. There seems
to be something different in every room.'
RSPCA Inspector, Bill Miles, told our reporter, "We are making
20 every effort to keep Maisie's pets alive and well until she is released
from hospital. I think we will have to consider the possibility of
fostering many of them with families around Glasgow! The others can
be taken to the zoo."
So what exactly did they find in Maisie's house? There were cages
25 of birds of all shapes and colour going up the three {lights of stairs. A
goat and several families of rabbits shared a room on the first floor.
The bathroom had been taken over by a pair of mallard ducks and a
Canada goose, a giant fish tank in another bedroom housed a
collection of terrapins and salamanders. Yet another fish tank held a
30 pair of baby alligators. But the top floor was the most surprising of all.
A fully grown tiger was living in the attic! However, the zoo-keepers
reported that it was as tame as a kitten and they had no trouble
persuading it to get into the van to go to the zoo.
From her hospital bed Maisie, suffering from a broken hip, said,
35 "My animals are my whole life. I was cleaning out Rajah the tiger's
room this morning when he got too playful and knocked me down. I
managed to drag myself out and called one of the dogs. I often send
him to the post office with a note to get things for me, so this time I
sent him with a note asking for help. Everyone has been so kind, but
40 I'm terribly worried about my pets."
28
16
MARGARET MEE
Artist, adventurer, explorer, botanist and rain forest conservationist
are some ways of describing Margaret Mee, a remarkable woman who
spent the last 36 years painting the Amazon flora.
In 1956, at the age of 47, the already accomplished artist made her
5 first Amazon expedition to observe, collect and paint the flowers of
the region. Thus began a series of 15 expeditions, the last of which
was in May of 1988, successfully to fulfill her dream to paint the
flowers of the rare moonflower cactus that grows along the Rio Negro
and flowers for only one night a year.
10 It was an inspiring sight to watch this frail-looking woman setting
out on an expedition in a dugout canoe with only one Indian guide.
She experienced many hardships and deprivations on expeditions but
always returned full of enthusiasm and with many notebooks and
sketches, as well as plant specimens to grow carefully in her home in
15 Rio de Janeiro until thev produced flowers to paint.
She was one of the greatest women explorers of this century. She
became known beyond the botanical community and Brazil when, in
1968, she published a beautiful folio book of her paintings entitled
'Flowers of the Brazilian Forests' to be followed by another in 1980,
20 'Flowers of the Amazon'. Her paintings are distributed around the
world in botanical institutions, private and public collections.
She fell in love with the Amazon ecosystem as she studied and
painted its flora. However, the period during which she worked
coincided with the time when the Amazon rain forest was being
25 destroyed. Consequently, Margaret Mee became ont of the leading
defenders of rain forests and her recent lectures always had a strong
conservation message, born out of a deep understanding of the
complex ecosystem.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'the already accomplished artist' (line 4):
2. 'they' (line 15):
3. 'another' (line 19): another
30
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Margaret Mee is 47 years old.
2. The purpose of Mee's last expedition to the Amazon was to protect the
nature.
3. Mee didn't have any difficulties on expeditions.
1. Why is it so difficult to paint the flowers of the rare moonflower cactus?
2. Why did Margaret Mee collect plant specimens?
3. What was happening to the rain forests while Ma rgaret Mee was working in the
Amazon?
17
YOUR HELPING HAND CAN
TURN DESPAIR INTO HOPE
It is difficult for people living in a prosperous country to imagine
what it is like to grow up in one of the poor countries in Africa, Latin
America and Asia.
In many developing countries, millions of children die from
5 malnutrition and disease before they even reach adulthood. For those
who survive, life is cruelly hard. They live in the most basic kind of
hut. Their water for drinking, washing and cooking comes from the
local river or stream. They have to work from dawn till dusk, almost
from the time they can walk. And for much of the year they go
10 hungry. An average family income is $ 10 to 15 a month. Worse still,
they lack the opportunity to improve their lives because there is no
education or training in practical skills. This is what we in 'World
Family' are working to change - and we need your help to succeed.
31
W h a t We Are Doing
15 In 25 countries of Africa, Asia, Central and South America we are
giving poor people a chance to improve their own lives through
setting up small-scale development projects. We are helping to build
schools, dig wells, provide medicines and - most important of all -
teach the skills the people need. To give just one example, in the
20 Embu area of Kenya we are helping to equip and run a mobile clinic
to improve child care; providing textbooks for the local school;
helping to build tanks to conserve rainwater; and training local people
in agricultural and income generating skills.
We know that we cannot really help the world's poor by giving
25 them handouts. Nor can we impose preconceived Western solutions
on them since the solutions which are forced upon people turn out to
be useless in many cases. Our approach is to help people solve their
problems in their own way.
What You C a n Do To Help
30 Today we are asking you to join our worldwide family and to hold
out a helping hand to a child who urgently needs it. You can do it
now, by agreeing to sponsor a child. Your sponsorship can give them
the chance to go to school or provide some of the other things that
many of us take for granted. That is, we never question the availability
35 of these things because we have no doubts about their existence. In
addition to this, it can give their families the chance to learn basic
hygiene and health care. And it can start their communities on the
long and gradual process of raising their living standards.
Because you are sponsoring one particular youngster, you'll have
40 the joy of seeing the difference that your help makes. You'll see the
child growing up - learning, developing and gaining in strength and
confidence over the years - through letters, photographs and regular
progress reports.
You can play a vital role in our work. As a sponsor, the help that
45 you give will go towards practical development work to benefit a
whole family and community. That's because we realise that we
cannot improve the life of an individual child without supporting and
strengthening the family, and raising the living standards of the
community as a whole.
32
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are probably one of the most frightening and
destructive happenings of nature that man experiences. The effects of
an earthquake are often terrible. Earthquakes have caused the death of
many human beings, much suffering, and great damage. Today, the
5 study of earthquakes has grown greatly as scientists all over the world
study the causes of earthquakes. Scientists hope that their studies will
improve the ways of predicting earthquakes and also develop ways to
reduce their destructive effects.
The scientific study of earthquakes is somewhat new. Until the
10 18th century, few factual descriptions of earthquakes were recorded.
In general, people did not understand the cause of earthquakes. Many
believed that they were a punishment from God. One early theory was
that earthquakes were caused by air rushing out of caverns deep in the
interior of the earth.
15 On November 1, 1755, a serious earthquake occurred near Lisbon,
Portugal. Shocks from the quake were felt in many parts of the world.
After the quake, Portuguese priests were asked to observe the effects
and to make written records. These records were the first scientific
steps to write down the effects of an earthquake. Since that time,
20 detailed records have been kept of almost every major earthquake.
Most earthquakes occur in areas around the Pacific Ocean. This
belt of areas is called the 'ring of fire' and includes the Pacific coasts
of North and South America, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, Southeast
Asia, and Australia. Half a million people within the 'ring of fire' have
25 died because of earthquakes and much valuable property has been
severely damaged or destroyed.
An earthquake is the oscillatory, sometimes violent, movement of
the earth's surface that comes after a release of energy in the crust of
the earth. Most destructive quakes are caused by the dislocation of the
30 crust. Forces from beneath the surface of the earth cause the crust to
bend and then break and the rocks on the surface move into a new
position. The breaking of the rocks causes vibrations called 'seismic
waves'. These vibrations travel from the source of the earthquake to
distant places along the surface of the earth. The seismic waves cause
35 the entire planet to tremble or ring like a bell.
The vibrations produced by earthquakes are discovered, recorded,
and measured by instruments called seismographs. Vibrations are of
two general types: surface waves and body waves. Surface waves
travel along the earth's surface and body waves travel through the
34
40 earth. Surface waves usually have the strongest vibrations and
probably cause most of the damage done by earthquakes.
Currently, scientists are making studies to predict earthquakes. At
the present time, scientists do not have the knowledge required to
predict the time and size of earthquakes. However, a large group of
45 scientists at the National Centre for Earthquake Research in
California, has been able to predict the areas where earthquakes might
occur. Research at the centre about the physical and chemical nature
of rocks and their behaviour under the force of an earthquake will help
engineers to design and build structure for areas that often suffer from
50 earthquakes.
A. Complete the following sentences.
1. Line 48, 'their behaviour' refers to the behaviour of .
2. The 'ring of fire* is the belt of areas around the Pacific Ocean where
3. Seismographs
the vibrations caused by earthquakes.
4 One characteristic of surface waves, which cause most of the damage done by
earthquakes, is that they .
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Scientists hope to reduce the harmful effects of earthquakes by studying
the nature.
2. Scientists at the National Centre for Earthquake Research in California can
predict the time and size of earthquakes.
C. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 13, 'caverns' are probably .
a) earthquakes occurring in the interior of the earth
b)-strong winds caused by earthquakes
c) rivers and lakes in major earthquake areas
d) deep holes under the ground
35
19
VITAMINS
In the early days of sea travel, seamen on long voyages lived
exclusively on salted meat and biscuits. Many of them died of scurvy,
a disease of the blood which harms the teeth and causes white spots on
the skin and general exhaustion. On one occasion, in 1535, an English
5 ship arrived in Newfoundland with its sailors desperately ill. The men
were saved by Iroquois Indians who gave them vegetable leaves to
eat. Gradually it was realized that scurvy was caused by some lack in
the sailors' diet although nothing was known about vitamins at that
time and Captain Cook, on his long voyages of discovery to Australia
10 and New Zealand, established the fact that scurvy could be warded off
by making the sailors eat fresh fruit and vegetables.
Nowadays, it is understood that a diet which contains nothing
harmful may result in serious diseases if certain important elements
are missing. These elements are called 'vitamins'. Quite a number of
15 such substances are known and they are given letters to identify them;
A, B, C, D, and so on. Different diseases are associated with lack of
particular vitamins. Even a slight lack of vitamin C, for example, the
vitamin most plentiful in fresh fruit and vegetables, is thought to
increase significantly the possibility of catching cold easily.
20 The vitamins necessary for a healthy body are normally supplied by
a good mixed diet including a variety of fruit and green vegetables.
However, when people try to live on a very restricted diet, for
example, during long periods of religious fasting, i.e. when people
stop eating for religious purposes, or when trying to lose weight, it is
25 necessary to make special efforts to supply the missing vitamins.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'them' (line 6): ___
2. 'such substances' (line 15):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 2, 'exclusively' means .
a) expensively b) only c) luxuriously d) rarely
2. Line 10, 'warded off' means .
a) encouraged b) observed c) supplied d) avoided
37
20
LIFE IN SPACE
We haven't conquered space. Not yet. We have sent some 20 men
on camping trips to the moon, and the USA and the Soviet Union have
sent people to spend restricted lives orbiting. Earth. Several trips have
been made into space to show that ordinary (non- astronaut) scientists
5 can live and work in space - for a few days only. All these are
marvellous technical and human achievements, but none of them
involves living independently in space. The Russians need food and
even oxygen sent up from Earth. It is only in fiction, and in space
movies, that people spend long periods living more or less normally
10 deep in space.
But in about a decade - say, by the year 2010 - this may have
changed. There could be settlements in space where adventurers
would lead normal lives. The idea of a space settlement seems like
science fiction - but it is not. It is based on plans produced by efficient
15 people: engineers and scientists, headed by Gerard O'Neill of
Princeton University. These people are keen on space research, of
course, but they are not dreamers.
The settlement is a large wheel, a tube more than 400 ft in diameter
bent into a ring. The wheel spins gently once a minute. It is this gentle
20 circular movement that makes this settlement different from the space
shuttles, because the spin produces a force that feels like gravity.
Every space trip has shown that the human body needs gravity if it is
to continue functioning normally. Nobody would want to live for long
in a space settlement where everything - people and equipment and
25 the eggs they were trying to fry - moved weightlessly around.
With gravity, life in space can be based on our experience on Earth.
We can have farming and factories and houses and meeting - places
that are not designed by guesswork. The need for gravity is one of the
reasons for building a space colony, rather than sending settlers to an
30 existing location such as the moon or the planets. The moon is
inhospitable; its gravity is tiny - and any one place on the moon has 14
days of sunlight followed by 14 of night, which makes agriculture
impossible and means solar energy cannot be used.
In the settlement, which floats in permanent sunlight, the
35 day-length is controlled by a huge mirror about a mile in diameter.
This mirror floats weightlessly above the ring of the settlement. The
sunlight is constant during the 'daytime', so farming is far more
productive than it can be on Earth. The aim is to provide a diet similar
to that on Earth, but with less 'fresh meat. The farms will be arranged
39
40 in layers with fish ponds and rice paddies on the top layer; wheat
below; vegetables, soya, and maize on the lower layers.
The population of the settlement is fixed at about 10,000 people. In
this way, farm output can be accurately planned: about 64 square
metres of vegetables, fruits and grains will be needed for each person,
45 and just over five square metres of grass land. The place where the
people live won't look very different from modern small towns on
Earth, and this is deliberate. Science fiction films show only huge
glass tower blocks, but real-life space settlers won't want these.
Throughout history, settlers have tried to put up buildings like the
50 ones they left behind, because these are familiar. Space settlers will do
the same.
And where would the settlement be? "At L5, of course," say the
experts. This reference describes a point on the moon's orbit around
Earth, equidistant from the moon and Earth, where the gravitational
55 forces of the two bodies balance. (The L stands for Lagrange, a French
mathematician who listed a number of 'balance' points.) Those who
intend to settle in space have formed an L5 society. And the members
are not at all impractical eccentrics.
A. Line 55, 'the two bodies' refers to .
B. Mark the best choice.
1. To spin (line 19) means to .
a) live in a wheel of over 400 ft in diameter
b) turn around a central point
c) be different from other space shuttles
d) produce a force similar to gravity
2. Lines 30-31, The moon is inhospitable' means it is .
a) an ideal place for settlers
b) a location that already exists
c) unsuitable for a settlement
d) not easy to find its location
3. Line 43, 'farm output' is .
a) what is produced on a farm
b) an agricultural settlement area
c) accurate planning on a farm
d) the amount of grass land for each person
40
21
SPACE TOURISM
Japan's Shimizu Corporation is making plans for the day that there
are regular flights into space, not by astronauts, but by tourists and
sightseers. Shimizu's space project office prepared the plan for a $28
billion space hotel with the technical guidance of Bell & Trotti of the
5 United States. It is not the first proposal of its kind. Since the first
days of space exploration, people have speculated about the possibility
of cosmic pleasure trips. In 1967, the founder of the Hilton hotel
chain, Barron Hilton, told the American Astronautical Society that he
hoped to see the first orbital Hilton in his lifetime.
10 In spite of the advances in technology, Japan's National Space
Development Agency is doubtful about the future of space travel.
Shimizu, however, is optimistic and is even planning to put a new
generation of space planes into operation around the year 2010 to start
commercial space travel and tourism.
15 Space planes will replace the current generation of spacecraft. Not
only will they be able to take off and land like jets, but they will also
have the power to leave the atmosphere altogether. The United States,
France, Britain, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union are all planning
hypersonic space planes.
20 There are common features to the designs of space planes; they will
use a single booster stage to reach their orbit. They will be totally
re-usable and will be propelled to hypersonic speeds by revolutionary
engines that can take in oxygen from the atmosphere or on-board
supplies. Current generation spacecraft are limited by the vast amount
25 of fuel. It takes about five tonnes of fuel to put a spacecraft into orbit.
But by using a rocket motor that can take in oxygen from the
atmosphere, the burden of liquid oxygen can be cut down to the
amount that is required when the air becomes too rare .
A cost effective and safe aero-spaceplane will mark a major turning
30 point for the space industry and the birth of space-tourism. Then the
first destination for the rich, the fashionable and the adventurous will
be the space hotel, a space station in low earth orbit. As the
aero-spaceplane closes in on Tokyo Orbital International, passengers
will witness a hotel that looks quite unlike any on Earth because the
35 need to build it piece by piece - by assembling a series of
prefabricated modules - makes it an odd-shaped structure.
Space tourism will not be cheap - estimates of the cost range from
tens of thousands to millions of dollars, depending on the trip,
timescale and available technology. Forinstance, technical consultant
42
40 David Ashford and Dr. Patrick Collins of Imperial College estimate
that the cost per seat could fall from $4 million in the space shuttle to
$ 10,000 in a'spacebus'.
As for whether space-tourism will occur at all, we can draw from
the example of air travel. In the past 60 years, the number of people
45 who crossed the Atlantic has grown from a handful of people to some
25 million. Once the new generation of space vehicles under
development take to the skies, the prospect of commercial space
flights within the next 60 years seems inevitable.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they' (line 16):
2. 'any' (line 34):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Shimizu Corporation .
a) is the first to propose a hotel in space
b) is more optimistic about space travel than the Japanese National Space
Development Agency
c) is able to plan a space hotel without assistance
d) believes that cosmic pleasure trips will be possible in this century
2. The new generation of spacecraft will .
a) have to stay within the earth's atmosphere
b) be designed by many countries working together
c) have to carry large amounts of fuel
d) be able to get oxygen from the atmosphere
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. The space hotel will look odd since it will have to be made up of a series of
prefabricated modules.
2. One of the factors which will determine the cost of space tourism will be
the available technology.
3. It will be cheaper to travel by spacebus than by space shuttle.
4. Within the next 60 years 25 million people will have made space flights.
•-:•-, II
43
22
ADVERTISING
As a marketing term, 'promotion' is a company's efforts to
influence customers to buy. A company may have a fine product or
service to offer and it may be priced correctly, but these won't mean
much unless it reaches its target market. Promotion, which aims to
5 reach the customers in that market and persuade them to buy, includes
the elements of giving information and influencing customer
behaviour. In other words, it includes all selling activities. The most
important of these activities are personal selling, sales promotion,
public relations and advertising. Most companies combine these
10 activities to communicate with their customers, but more money is
spent on advertising than on other types of promotion.
All of us have been influenced to buy certain products because of
some form of advertising. It is universally accepted that advertising
conveys selling messages better than other techniques in certain
15 situations.
As a tool of marketing, advertising generally serves the following
purposes: to persuade present customers to increase their buying, to
slow down the flow of present customers away from the product and
to increase the flow of customers toward the advertised product. But
20 the overall purpose of advertising is to influence the level of product
sales and, as a result, to increase the manufacturer's profits.
To determine the effectiveness of advertising, its results should be
evaluated. A practical way to measure its effectiveness is through
increased sales volume. Sales for a period of time following an
25 advertising campaign can be compared with those for a previous
period.
Advertising can be classified into certain types, depending on its
use and purpose. The first type is product advertising, which is
designed to sell a definite and identified product. It usually describes
30 the product's features and good qualities and it may even emphasize
its price. Product advertising is used to sell both consumer and
industrial goods, which have different marketing characteristics. The
second type is institutional advertising. This type tries to create a
favourable attitude toward the company offering to sell a product.
35 This type of advertising may not influence immediate sales but it tries
to increase the sales in the long-run. For example, a manufacturer may
run an institutional advertisement to tell the public about the
company's efforts to reduce air pollution. Big companies can afford to
spend money on institutional advertising. Another type of advertising
44
40 is national advertising, which is used to sell nationally distributed
products by using a medium or nationwide circulation. It is generally
associated with advertising by the manufacturer rather than by a
retailer or local advertiser. The fourth type is local advertising. It is
placed by a local merchant and differs from national advertising by
45 being more specific in terms of price, quality and quantity. In national
advertising, the purpose is to build a general demand for a product that
may be sold in many stores. In local advertising, the stress is on the
store where the product is sold. Finally, there is corrective advertising,
which takes place to correct specific false or misleading claims that
50 might have been made in previous advertising. These corrective
advertisements are generally ordered by courts to rectify earlier
misleading advertisements.
For an advertising message to reach its audience, some type of
carrier must be chosen. In the field of advertising, these carriers are
55 called 'media'. The success of advertising depends both on the
message and the medium selected. The media most commonly used
for advertising purposes are newspapers, magazines, direct mail, radio
and television. Television is a very popular medium because it has the
advantage of combining sight, sound, motion and demonstration. And
60 for most viewers, it does all this in colour, which is a unique
combination for advertisirm. Another advantage of TV is that it
appeals to all age groups. On the other hand, its message is short-lived
and production costs are high. Expenditures (or TV advertising are the
second largest after the newspaper, which is the leading medium.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'those' (line 25):
2. 'If (line 29):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. To convey (line 14) means to .
a) change b) influence c) communicate d) combine
2. To rectify (line 51) means to .
a) make a false claim b) correct c) advertise d) distribute
3. Promotion
a) is having a fine and correctly priced product or service
b) includes all selling activities
c) is a very popular type of advertising
d) is the most important activity of companies
45
WINDS
Like all gases, air constantly moves. Masses of air, warm or cool,
wet or dry, move across land and sea and bring about weather
changes. During this process, one air mass replaces another.
When air is heated, it expands. Hot air is less dense than cold air.
For this reason, it rises and leaves behind an area of low pressure.
Unlike hot air, cold air has a large density. Instead of rising, it presses
heavily on the earth's surface. Therefore, it produces an area of high
pressure. Since gases always try to move from high to low pressure,
winds are caused by the flow of cold air which tries to replace the
rising hot air.
Why is there such a difference in the temperature of the air at
various places on earth? There are two major global air patterns on
Earth. One is from the poles towards the equator and the other is from
the equator towards the poles. On the earth's surface, the poles are
always cold and the equator hot. Cold air comes down from the polar
regions. Since the distance from the poles to the equator is so great,
the cold air from the poles warms up on the way. Similarly, the hot
equatorial air becomes cooler on its way to the poles and this is what
causes the difference in temperature. These winds do not blow in the
north-south direction, but they are diverted. The rotation of the earth is
the cause of this change in direction. These two major global air
patterns cover thousands of kilometres.
Besides these air patterns, there are smaller cycles which cover
hundreds of kilometres. These smaller air patterns form because of
smaller changes in temperature. For example, the air above the ground
is heated by the ground whereas the air above the sea is colder. As a
result, the cool air moves from the sea to the land, forming a 'sea
breeze'. During the night, the land is cooler than the sea (since water
heats up and cools down more slowly) and the breeze blows from the
land to the sea. This wind is called a 'land breeze'.
Winds that blow very powerfully can develop into storms, which
can turn into hurricanes. Actually, no one knows why some of the
storms become hurricanes and others do not. A hurricane forms over
tropical seas, it moves, and when it reaches the land or a colder part of
the sea, it slowly diminishes, dies out. A hurricane can be 1000
kilometres in diameter. The centre of the hurricane is called the 'eye'.
The speed of the wind in a hurricane can range from 150 kph.
(kilometres per hour) to 300 kph. All hurricanes originate close to the
equator. Hurricanes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans are known as
47
40 'typhoons'.
Sometimes storms can also develop into tornadoes. These resemble
hurricanes but form over land. Tornadoes can occur anywhere on
Earth but are mostly observed over the central United States. A
tornado, like a hurricane, is a strong wind spinning and turning around
45 a core. Unlike a hurricane, it contains a partial vacuum.
The wind speed of a tornado is about 300 kph., but sometimes it
can reach 800 kph. Scientists do not know exactly how tornadoes
form. It is thought that when warm moist air meets the cold air from
the north, it causes clouds to form and storms to develop. This brings
50 about an uprush of warm air, which is known as a tornado. When a
tornado passes over a house, for example, the low pressure at the
centre causes the air in the house to expand suddenly and, as a result,
the building explodes.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'it' (line 5):
2. These' (line 41):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 20, 'diverted' probably means .
a) directed
b)changed
c) blown
d) rotated
2. Hot air rises because it .
a) leaves behind an area of low pressure
b) is not as dense as cold air
c) produces areas of high pressure
d) has a large density
3. Winds form due to the .
a) flow of cold air into a low pressure area
b) fact that hot air presses on the earth's surface
c) flow of hot air into a high pressure area
d) fact that air is a gas
48
24
i n ııw ıı mı IMI • ıı • ı ıı m u i n n — I I I I T I I I T I T I I 111— !•- — •n-- "-| --i 1 i Tiir ı -ii—r i—ii— -'il - ••
DYNAMITE
The use of dynamite has become as much an art as a science. Sixty
years ago, dynamiters placed explosives around a building which they
wanted to demolish, or destroy. When they blew it up, the
environment was covered with pieces of bricks and rocks. This doesn't
5 happen anymore. Today we can control explosions because scientific
blasting techniques (new methods of causing an explosion) have been
developed in recent years. Nowadays, holes are made in the base of a
building and these are filled with enough dynamite to knock out -
destroy - the building's supports and make it fall down. Dynamite has
10 become the most efficiently controlled source of releasable energy
available. Therefore, it is the most often used explosive. More than a
billion pounds of dynamite is exploded by blasting experts annually in
the United States, most of it in mines and quarries, i.e. places where
stone for building purposes is taken from the ground. Other
15 increasingly important areas in which this explosive is used are
construction work (roads, bridges, buildings, etc.), gas and oil-well
drilling, recovering iron from sunken ships, and fire-fighting.
Controlled explosions are mostly used in areas of dense population.
For example, subway construction crews in New York often use
20 dynamite underground without the people above being aware of it.
In an explosion, the solid particles inside a dynamite stick are
immediately transformed into hot expanding gases, which force and
powerfully push aside rocks, steel or anything nearby.
One of the examples of blasting with precision occurred in 1944,
25 when engineers built a 13-mile tunnel through a Colorado mountain.
Starting on opposite sides of the mountain, they met in the middle
with great accuracy — only a one centimeter error at the point where
the two parts of the tunnel joined. Another example is Gutzon
Borglum's use of dynamite to form the faces of Washington,
30 Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt in the rocks at Mount
Rushmore, in South Dakota.
Many dynamiters claim that precision blasting became an art in
July of 1930 at the Saguenay River Power Project, Quebec. A power
station had been built, but to provide water for it, they needed to turn
35 the water from the river into another channel. Ordinary methods had
failed so Sam Russell, a blasting expert, was asked for advice. He had
a brilliant idea. He built a cement block weighing 11,000 tons. He said
that he was going to drop u into the river and thus block, or stop, the
flowing water. Many people thought he was mad, but Russell calmly
50
40 put 1,000 pounds of dynamite into holes under the cement block.
When the dynamite detonated, the block moved into the right place
with a roar that could be heard miles away.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'these' (line 8):
2. 'they' (line 26):
3. 'it' (line 38):
B. What do the following mean?
1. 'blasting' (line 6):
2. 'quarries' (line 13):
3. 'precision' (line 24):
C. Mark the best choice.
Line 42, a 'roar' is probably a(n) .
a) machine b) loud noise c) explosive material d) cement block
D. Mark the statements as True (T), False (F) or No Information (Nl).
1. When dynamite was first used, people did not place the explosive in holes
in the base of a building.
2. The United States uses more dynamite than any other country.
3. Most of the dynamite that is being consumed in the United States is used
in construction work.
4. Controlled explosions can be used underground in cities.
5. The use of dynamite in the opening of the tunnel in Colorado was
unsuccessful because there was a major error in calculation.
6. Borgium used dynamite to construct a tunnel at Mount Rushmore.
7. When Sam Russell first explained his plan for blocking the water,
everybody thought it was an excellent idea.
E.
1. Why is dynamite the most often used explosive?
2. What happens inside a dynamite stick when it explodes?
3. Why was it necessary to change the direction of the Saguenay River?
51
25
A LAND OF IMMIGRANTS
The USA is a land of immigrants. Between 1815 and 1914, the world
witnessed the greatest peaceful migration in its history: 35 million
people, mostly Europeans, left their homelands to start new lives in
1 America. Why did these people risk everything by leaving their homes
and families to see what the New World had to offer? How had the Old
World disappointed them?
First, what forced emigrants to make the momentous decision to
leave? One major cause of the exodus among European people was the
rise in population which led to 'land hunger'. Another was politics.
2 Nationalism brought about increased taxation and the growth of armies,
and many young men fled eastern Europe to avoid military service. Also,
the failure of the liberal revolutions in Europe caused the departure of
hundreds of thousands of refugees.
Physical hunger provided another pressing reason. Between 1845 and
1848, the terrible potato famine in Ireland ended in the deaths of one
million Irish people and the emigration of a further million who wished
3 to escape starvation. Following the collapse of the economy of southern
Italy in the 1860s, hundreds of thousands decided to staii afresh in
America.
In short, people chose to leave their homes for social, economic and
4 religious reasons. As a result, by 1890 among a total population of 63
million, there were about nine million foreign-born Americans.
But what were the attractions? First of all, there was the promise of
land which was so scarce in Europe. Next, factories were calling out for
workers, and pay and working conditions were much better than back
5 home. Men were needed to build the long railroads, and settlers were
needed to populate new towns and develop commerce. There was the
space for religious communities to practise their faith in peace and
comparative isolation.
This immigration meant that by around the 1850's Americans of
non-English origin had started to. outnumber those of English exfraction.
As we know, there were losers. To start with, there were those
6 immigrants who were brought to the land by force, the slaves, to be used
as a source of cheap labour for the tobacco plantations of the South. Nor
should we forget the equally awful fate of the American Indians. By
1860, there were 27 million free whites, four million slaves and a mere
488,000 free blacks.
7 Nowadays, the USA is still seen by millions as the Promised Land.
Gone are the days when you could buy US citizenship for one dollar.
52
Yet, even though entry is strictly limited, refugees continue to find
7 freedom and people from poorer countries a better way of life. As
always, it remains a magnet to the ambitious and the energetic who are
ready to commit themselves to the land that gives them a second chance.
A. Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following.
. 1. great migration of masses (paragraph 2):
2. important and urgent (paragraph 3):
3. failure (paragraph 3): ;
4. not much or enough (paragraph 5):
5. origin (paragraph 6):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. The lives of the 19th century European people were difficult because .
a) of the peaceful relationships among the nations of Europe
b) the population was going down gradually
c) there were too many of them, which caused a shortage of land
d) they had decided to leave their homelands for the USA
2. What is not given as a reason for emigration in the text?
a) Avoidance of military service.
b) Politics.
c) The search for adventure.
d) Economy.
3. Approximately how much of the American population was made up of
foreign-born Americans in 1890?
a) One seventh. b) One third. c) A half. d) One fifth.
4. Which of the following is mentioned as an attraction of the USA in the text?
a) There were opportunities to get a good education.
b) Jobs were available. (
c) People could lead a long and healthy life.
d) All of the above.
5. Which of the following is not true?
a) The story of the American Indians is as sad as that of the slaves.
b) Despite the strictly limited entry, people still go to the USA hoping to find a
better life.
c) Religious communities'found peace and isolation in the USA.
d) Millions of people, most of whom were Europeans, migrated to the USA in
the 18th century.
53
c.
1. What were the results of the potato famine that took place in Ireland between
1845 and 1848?
a) . ! : !
b)
2. Why were more men needed in the USA?
a)
b)
3. Why were the slaves brought to the USA?
26
TERESINA
From a radio programme.
This week's programme of Facts and Opinions is about Teresina,
one of the most rapidly developing cities in the southern hemisphere.
Teresina was a small sleepy city of just over 500,000 people until the
government discovered huge deposits of bauxite, tin and other mineral
5 reserves in the mountainous regions of the south-east. Within months
this discovery had a tremendous effect on the city and the life of its
inhabitants, who were soon having difficulty adapting themselves to
the sophisticated demands of the late twentieth century.
People used to call Teresina the Garden of the. South because of its
10 tree-lined avenues and 50 public parks. Anyone visiting the city today
will find it difficult to understand how it earned that name. Nowadays,
the city is rapidly becoming a megapolis, not much different from
many other great cities in the Third World. Since the discoveries in
the south-east, thousands of people from all over the country have
15 flooded into the city. The population, according to statistics released
last year, has quadrupled in the last twenty years. Over half of these
people live in the shanty towns* on the hills surrounding the city or in.
the spreading suburbs, without electricity or a proper sewage system.
But there is also incredible wealth in the city. Luxurious apartment
20 blocks are springing up all over the city, as well as extravagant houses
with swimming pools.
54
Nowhere can the effects of this sudden and rapid change be better
seen than in the transformation of the city's open public places.
Nowadays, only five of the parks and squares survive. In their place
25 eight-lane highways, viaducts, tunnels and complex intersections have
now invaded this formerly tranquil city. And the green forests around
the city that once were full of wildlife of all kinds no longer exist
except where a few small clumps of trees remind us of what it used to
belike.
30 Due to the dramatic increase in population, over 700,000 vehicles
are on the streets of Teresina today. Accident rates are terrifying. The
World Traffic Organisation (WTO) believes that the city has one of
the highest accident records in the world. The old people of Teresina
do not want to think of what has happened to their once beautiful city
35 but prefer to remember the days when there were plenty of fish in the
rivers and streams, plenty of rice in the fields, and herds of
water-buffaloes that grazed peacefully around.
* Shanty towns arc areas where poor people live in dwellings built from tin, cardboard, or
another materia! which is not very strong.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'that name' (line 11):
2. 'in their place' (line 24): in the place of
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 7,'inhabitants'are .
a) cities where rapid development takes place
b) people who discover something
c) people living in a place regularly
d) effects that are difficult to adapt to
2. To spring up (line 20) means to .
a) release
b) appear
c) lack
d) rent
3. A water-buffalo (line 37) .
a) is a kind of animal
b) is something that old people have
c) pollutes the rivers and streams
d) is a kind of rice
55
27
THE WHALE
Whales belong to a group of mammals called catecea. Unlike fish, they
are mammals; that is, they are air-breathing, warm-blooded animals which
nourish (feed) their young with milk. Their sizes vary from the small
porpoise whale - less than 1.5 metres long - to the largest animal that has
ever lived on earth - the blue whale. It can exceed 30 metres in length and
150 tonnes in weight. If such a whale accidentally swam ashore and were
unable to get back to the sea, it would be crushed to death by its own
weight.
The whale looks like a fish but there are important differences in its
external structure. Its tail consists of a pair of large, flat, horizontal paddles,
whereas the tail of a fish is vertical. Fish breathe the oxygen dissolved in
water through their gills. Gills are found on both sides of the head and
contain blood vessels which pick up oxygen as water passes through them.
Unlike fish, whales have lungs and, for this reason, have to come to the
surface to breathe in or release air. Most large whales can stay underwater
for up to 20 minutes. The sperm whale, however, is an exception. It can dive
to 3000 metres and stay below for more than an hour. Unlike fish, whales
have blow holes, or nostrils, on top of their large heads. A whale breathes
out through this blow hole. When the breath is released, it condenses in the
air making a cloud of moisture or a spout.
The whale's skin is almost hairless, smooth and shiny and it covers a
thick layer of fat called 'blubber'. This is up to 30 cm in thickness and serves
to conserve heat and body fluids. The eyes seem very small compared to its
huge body. Nevertheless, whales have very good vision. They have no
external ears, yet their hearing is excellent.
There are two main groups of whale: toothed and toothless. The former
includes the dolphin, the porpoise, the killer whale and the sperm whale.
Some examples of the latter are the grey, the humpback, the right and the
blue whales. Toothed whales have rows of carved teeth which they use to
grasp their food. Some large toothed species, like the killer, feed on other
large mammals such as the porpoise while others- e.g. the sperm whale - eat
smaller forms of marine life like octopuses and squids.
The toothless whales, or 'baleen whales', have no functional teeth.
Instead, they have brushy plates of whalebone called 'baleen' hanging from
the upper jaw. These strain small fishes from the water. In other words,
these whales feed on marine animals that are caught by a filtering process.
Their diet consists mainly of 'krill', which can be found in masses in the
oceans cf the world. Whales live in oceans throughout the world, they travel
in schools-, that is, in groups, and often migrate thousands of miles.
57
The whale has been hunted by man for many centuries mainly for its
blubber. This substance is used in cosmetics, the manufacture of margarine
and the softening of leather. The waxy substance called 'spermaceti', which
is found in the head of a sperm whale, for instance, is used to make soap.
'Ambergris', another waxy substance found in every whale's intestine, is
used in the manufacture of perfume, where it serves to improve the scent.
The whale has also been hunted for its meat, which is eaten by both
humans and animals. In fact, in Japan it has been a major source of protein
for many centuries. The commercial value of the whale has led to a serious
decrease in the whale population and it is unfortunate that in the near future,
extinction of some types of whales seems inevitable.
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. The smallest whale is the porpoise whale.
2. Most whales can stay underwater for more than an hour.
3. Blubber is a layer ot fat that covers the skin of a whale.
4. Porpoises eat sperm whales, octopuses and squids.
5. The grey whale is a member of the baleen group.
6. 'Krill' is part of a whale's body.
7. Whales prefer to live alone.
8. 'Spermaceti' and 'ambergris' are waxy substances found in all whales.
9. Whale meat is used in the production of animal food.
10. All whales will soon become extinct.
B. Fill in each box with one word only.
Differences Between the Fish and the Whale
Fish Whale
position of the tail
organs for breathing and nostrils
58
C. Use words from the passage to complete the following chart.
Mammals
Whales
the right whale
D. Fill each blank with a suitable adjective that describes each item.
Physical features of the whale:
skin: • . -.• — • i
eyes:,
vision:
hearing:
59
28
— W i l l III ! • I I • • • ! • • IIILLJIIMJL—J»l I I H I I I W I W H W H J I W U W I I 1 I I 1 • . • . • • • • • » • • • • • l » . * J » » 1 M l l M W I u m « W ^ « > > l l | J i l M 1 W
DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
It is generally believed by scientists that millions of years ago plant
life originated in the water, and that new forms of plant life that could
live on land developed gradually. This would not have been possible if
an effective transport system had not evolved inside the plant to
5 distribute food, water, and minerals. Plants use both their leaves and
roots to obtain food. The leaves, for example, capture the energy from
the sunlight and hold it for future use in molecules of sugar. This
sugar is later transported to the various other growing parts - the
young branches, the growing fruit, the stem, and the roots. The roots,
10 on the other hand, pick up water and minerals from the soil. The sap,
the liquid in a plant, transports them to the leaves and the other
growing parts. Since nutrients often have to be distributed over long
distances, an efficient transport system is necessary. One of the best
examples of this transport system can be seen in the giant sequoia tree,
15 in California. This tree sends down to the ends of its roots sugars that
are made in the leaves hundreds of feet up in the air. And the ends of
the roots may be a hundred feet away from the base of the tree. Plants
have three systems that make possible the interchange of substances
among various parts of the plant body. These are the food transport
20 system, the water transport system and the air transport system.
The food transport system is the most delicate of the three. It can be
easily damaged because it is alive. Wounds, heat and exposure of the
plant to toxic chemicals all damage the system that transports food. If
you cut a branch and put it in water, it may seem alive for many days
25 or even weeks; yet the food transport system stops functioning soon
after the branch is cut from the tree.
The water transport system is much less delicate than the food
transport system. Water transport takes place in long strong tubes
called capillaries. These consist of dead cells. A German scientist once
30 cut down a tree and then placed the base in a tub containing picric
acid. The yellow, poisonous acid moved up to the top of the tree.
There it killed the leaves, but the water transport system itself was not
affected by the poison.
When you cut through a tree trunk or branch, you notice two
35 different tissues: the bark and the wood. The food transport system
flows through the bark and the water transport system through the
wood. These transport tissues wear out as the tree grows, so they are
continually replaced. Every year new water- transporting tubes appear
in new bark. The tissue responsible for this rejuvenation is a very thin
60
40 layer of cells. These cells form a tissue called the cambium. Being
conveniently located between the wood and the bark, the cambium
can easily receive the water, minerals and food necessary for
producing fresh bark and wood tissue.
The air transport system consists of air spaces between cells.
45 Unlike desert plants, marsh plants have especially well developed air
transport systems. This is mainly because marsh plants live on soft,
wet land. So their roots are not exposed to much oxygen. The leaves
of marsh plants can transport oxygen from the stomata, which are
small openings on the surface of a leaf, through the stem to the roots.
50 It is because of these transport systems that a plant can function as the
whole organism that it is.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. "if (line 7):
2. 'them' (line 11):
3. 'these' (line 29):
4. 'there' (line 32):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 21, 'delicate' probably means something that .
a) can be easily damaged
b) is alive
c) is damaged
d) is toxic
2. Line 39, 'rejuvenation' probably means the .
a) production of new cells
b) destruction of live cells
c) transportation of water
d) wearing out of the bark and wood tissue
3. The function of the transport system is to .
a) evolve inside the plant
b) distribute food, water and minerals
c) develop land plants
d) obtain sugar from the green leaves
6.
29
U.S. PUBLIC SCHOOLS
There are many people in the U.S. today who are not satisfied
with the education that their children are receiving in the public
schools. They are very worried about a number of developments ı
that are taking place there. However, not all of these people are
5 worried about the same things. In fact, they often do not agree
about the problems in public education.
One group of people is concerned about the quality of the
education which young people are receiving. According to these
parents, their children are not learning enough in school, and some
10 researchers agree with them. For example, according to recent
studies, the number of high school students who cannot read is
increasing not decreasing. Also the number of students who have 2
difficulty with simple mathematics is increasing. Even students
who graduate from high school and go to college show a
15 depressing lack of knowledge. In a geography class at a large
university, 40% of the students could not find London on a map,
41% could not find Los Angeles, and almost 9% could not find the
city where they were attending college.
There arc a number of possible reasons for the increase in the
20 number of students who are not receiving a good basic education.
First, classes are sometimes too large. In some city schools, for
example, there are often between forty and fifty students in a class.
Then, there are many teachers who do not know enough about the
subjects that they are teaching. The college programmes which
25 train future teachers are not always good and do not always attract
the top students. But the problems are not always the fault of the
teachers or the education system. Often students who do not want 3
to learn behave badly and disturb the classes. As a result, the
students who are really interested in their school subjects cannot
30 learn much in these classes. Finally, according to some people,
television is also to blame for the lack of success of the public
schools. Young people often watch six or more hours of television
a day. They do not take time for their homework. They grow to
depend on television for entertainment and information, and,
35 therefore, they cannot see any reason for reading in this modern
world. All the entertainment and information they want comes from
television, not from books.
A second group of people is dissatisfied with the public schools 4
for very different reasons. These people usually have very
63
40 conservative beliefs about life. They do not like the changes which
they see every day in American society, and they disagree with
many of the ideas which their children hear and read about in
school. For example, they are against the sex education classes that 4
some schools give. For them, sex education is not a suitable subject
45 for schools. They also object to schoolbooks that describe the lives
of mothers who work outside the home or of parents who are
divorced. They do not like history books which criticize the U.S.
for mistakes made in the past. They are even against dictionaries
that define one or two dirty words.
50 There are, however, many other people who completely disagree
with the ideas and actions of these conservatives. "They are trying
to limit our freedom. We must protect our children's right to learn
about many different ideas," these parents say. Thus, in the U.S. 5
today there is a lot of discussion about very important questions in
55 education. Who will decide school programmes and books? Does
the government have the right to decide? Do the school
administrators have the right to decide? Can teachers decide? Do
only parents have the right to decide the things that their children
learn in school? Watch television and read news magazines; you
will hear a lot of different answers to these questions.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'there' (line 4):
2. 'them' (line 10):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Which of the following does recent educational research show?
a) The number of high school students who cannot read is decreasing.
b) The number of high school students who cannot read is increasing.
c) Students who graduate from high school are good at all subjects.
d) Students at a large university are especially good in geography classes.
2. What is the main idea of the second paragraph?
a) In the U.S. there is a general dissatisfaction with public school education.
b) According to some people, students are not learning enough in the public
schools.
c) There is a lot of discussion about the public schools in the U.S. today.
d) There are several reasons for the failure of the public schools.
64
30
UNTITLED
'•<'''• ' '
Companies can increase the money with which they run their
business in a number of ways. Besides borrowing money and buying
on credit, they can use some other processes of financing. Two ways
of increasing money are described here. First, they may provide
5 bonds. Bonds are a special kind of promissory note, a written promise
to pay back the money owed. They can be in various currencies, or
forms of money used in different countries, such as the pound in
England or the mark in Germany. These bonds can easily be resold to
other people or to other countries. The company that uses bonds
10 guarantees to pay a particular amount of money as interest regularly
for a certain period of time. This continues until the time when the
company has to pay back the money owed. Payments of interest must
be made on time; it doesn't matter whether the company is making
earnings or losing money. Another process companies may use is to
15 provide other forms of promissory notes called stocks. Bonds and
stocks are opposite methods of providing money for a company. The
people who buy stocks provide capital which is invested in the
business. They have a share in the profits and in making decisions, but
they must also share the losses. The people who own stocks receive
20 dividends, that is, periodic payments of the earnings oi a company. On
the other hand, according to the law, the people who own bonds have
no control over the decisions of the company.
A. Line 4, 'they' refers to .
B. What do the following mean in the text?
1. 'currencies' (line 6):
2. 'dividends' (line 20):
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. People who buy stocks cannot take part in deciding how the company will
manage its business.
2. Companies have to pay interest only if they have been earning money.
3. Bonds and stocks are two of the ways of increasing money.
66
31
DISASTER AT SEA
Along the coast of the United States, the U.S. Coast Guard helps
ships that get into difficulty at sea. The Coast Guard, like the Navy, is
controlled by the U.S. government. It receives the money that it needs
from the government; therefore, its ships, planes, and helicopters are
5 very modern.
In Great Britain the system is very different. There are a small
number of men, called lifeboatmen, who go out to help ships in
trouble. These brave men often risk their lives, but they receive no
money for their work. They live in small towns on the coast, and most
10 have other jobs. The special lifeboats that they need are provided by
the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (R.N.L.I.), a private group
which depends completely on money from private people. The
R.N.L.I. does not accept any money from the government. As a result,
it cannot always buy the best and most modem lifeboats. For example,
15 ten years ago, British researchers began to criticize the lifeboats which
were in use at that time. According to their studies, the lifeboats never
sank, but they turned over in certain sea conditions and stayed upside
down in the water. However, there was a new kind of lifeboat that did
not turn over. The R.N.L.I, began to buy this safer kind of boat, but it
20 could only buy one every year.
Some years ago, on the southwestern coast of England, a lifeboat
station that did not have the new type of lifeboat received a radio call
from a small ship that was sinking. The call came in the middle of the
worst storm in forty years. The sea was very rough, but the lifeboat
25 went out to try to save the men on the sinking ship. Two hours later,
the radio of the lifeboat stopped, and nothing more was heard from
them. One day later a helicopter found the lifeboat. It was lying upside
down in the sea. Probably a large wave hit it and turned it over.
Everyone in the lifeboat had died. No one had survived.
30 The news of the disaster shocked the people of Great Britain. A
number of people began, to criticize the lifeboat system. In their
opinion, the U.S. system is better. "We cannot send brave men out in
boats which aren't safe," they said. "They need the best boats which
money can buy. The government must control the lifeboat system."
35 Today, however, the system remains the same.
68
HOW TO USE THE READER'S GUIDE
The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature is a subject and author
list of many (but not all) magazine articles published in the U.S. This
list, called an index, is sent to U.S. libraries every two weeks so that
interested people can find out quickly what current information is
5 available. For university or college students who must frequently do
research, this list of subjects written about in magazines of general
interest can be valuable. Learning to use The Reader's Guide is,
therefore, important to all university students in the U.S.
The content of The Reader's Guide consists of subject and author
10 entries to periodicals; that is, magazines published regularly. This
information is listed alphabetically. After the subject or author's name,
information is given which tells the student where to find the
magazine article. For example, if you want to look up the subject
'Education', you should look up the letter 'E' and then find the word
15 'Education'. If you want to look up an author whose last name is
'Rodriquez', you should look up the letter 'R' and then find the word
'Rodriquez'. Under the subject or the author listing, you will find
articles listed, in alphabetical order, about that subject or by that
author. Each article is listed by the first word in the title of the article
20 except for the words 'a', 'an', and 'the'; these initial words are not
considered in the alphabetizing of articles.
The Reader's Guide also has two kinds of cross-references; that is,
information about other places to look in The Reader's Guide for more
articles about a subject. After a heading, you might find the word 'see'
25 which is followed by other subject headings also found in the index.
For example, 'Higher Education' isn't a subject heading in The
Reader's Guide; if you look up 'Higher Education' you will find: "see
Universities and Colleges". Then you will look under 'U' for
universities. The other kind of cross-reference is 'see also'. For
30 instance, if you look for 'Education', The Reader's Guide will list
articles about education, but it also says: "see also: Adult Education,
Elementary Education, Special Education". If you are interested in any
of those headings, you can look them up in The Reader's Guide.
70
PALEOGEOGRAPHY
To answer questions about the ancient geography of the earth in
order to make comparisons with the present day geography, it is
necessary to make maps of the lands and seas that existed during past
ages. This process of reconstructing ancient geography is called
5 paleogeography (from the Greek word palaious, meaning ancient).
Like a modern day detective, the geologist must search for clues
about the nature of the ancient geography among the rocks. The clues
are of two main kinds: the types of fossils preserved in rocks and the
properties of the rocks themselves. By studying these clues, the
10 geologist gains direct knowledge about the distribution of the lands
and seas and also the natural environment of the area, such as climate,
the temperature and salinity, i.e. the salt content, of the water, and the
downhill direction of slopes on the earth's surface. The last item is
very important in helping the geologist to guess where the mountains
15 and basins were located in the geologic past.
The distribution of fossils (skeletons, shells, leaf impressions,
footprints, and dinosaur eggs) in rocks can provide information about
the ancient distribution of lands and seas. For example, the remains of
corals and clamshells (sea animals) in very old limestone deposits
20 indicate that the area was once part of a shallow sea. Similarly, when
the remains of ancient animals, such as horses and camels, are found,
it can be assumed that the area was dryland or that land was nearby.
Fossils can also show the depth and temperature of ancient waters.
For example, certain kinds of shelled sea animals live in shallow
25 water, others in deep water. Certain kinds of present day coral need
warm and shallow tropical salt waters to be able to live. When similar
types of coral are found in ancient limestone, it can be surmised that
the area at one time had a warm, tropical climate.
The properties of rocks are also important clues about the ancient
30 past and are used as guides to reconstruct paleogeography. In 1863,
the famous naturalist, Louis Agassiz, helped to.solve a mystery about
the origin of certain kinds of rocks, containing a mixture of sand, silt
and clay. Some experts thought the rocks originated during the
Biblical flood, but others suggested that they were caused by
35 sediment, i.e., anything left behind from melting icebergs.
After a summer in the Swiss Alps studying glaciers and glacial
deposits, Agassiz discovered that the rocks found, for example, in
much of Europe had been spread by large continental glaciers.
Much of what Agassiz saw could be explained only by glacial
72
40 action. Because a glacier is a solid mass of ice, it moves slowly, and
as it moves, it picks up all sizes of debris: in other words, the scattered
remains of broken particles, ranging from huge rocks to silt and clay.
As the ice melts, all the debris is left behind in the form of a layer or
material of many kinds.
45 Using these two important clues - fossils and rocks - plus other
information, geologists are able to reconstruct ancient geography to
make comparisons with the earth's present geography. By comparing
these, geologists know that the appearance of the earth's continents
has been constantly changing over the centuries. And this changing of
50 the earth's surface is still going on today, but |t is so gradual that
people are aware of the change only occasionally. Earthquakes and the
formation of new volcanoes are two spectacular actions used by nature
to change the face of continents.
Truly, we live in a changing world.
A. Below, you will find some words from the passage and their dictionary
definitions. Mark the definition which is the meaning of the word in the text.
1. slope (line 13)
i. lie or to move at an angle from the horizontal or vertical
ii. cause to slope
iii. stretch of ground that is not flat
iv. in a graph (of a point of a plane curve) slope of the line that is tangent to a
curve at a point
2. surmise (line 27)
i. infer something from little or no evidence; guess
ii. the idea or opinion based on little evidence; guess
iii. act or process of surmising
3. guide (line 30)
i. one who guides, especially one who is employed to lead or conduct tours
y
ii. something that directs or influences
iii. show the way to; lead
iv. direct the course or motion of
4. deposit (lines 19,37)
i. put money or valuables in a bank for safe keeping
ii. set or lay. down
iii. leave as a layer
iv. something put in a place for safe keeping
v. something given as partial payment
vi. something that has settled as a layer over a period of time
73
34
A CASE FOR SAFETY
During the late 1970's about 1,500 pedestrians, most of whom were
teenagers, were killed or badly injured on the roads in Britain. By the
1980's, the figure had doubled.
There was a debate about the relentless rise in these figures at the
European Road Safety Year Conference in London, where various people
expressed their opinions on the topic:
Frank West, Chairman of the Pedestrians' Association:
This killing of pedestrians, especially children, is a national disaster
but it is obscured by the decline in road casualties as a whole. Among
reasons for that general decline are stronger cars, the wearing of seat
belts and less walking. The result is that people think the roads are
safer, although for pedestrians they are becoming more and more
dangerous. We know from the work of Professor Ian Howarth at the
University of Nottingham that most casualties occur in residential
areas hardly because children ignore drivers, but it is just the other
way round. We need to narrow the roads and use policemen to slow
down cars. We also want to see better policing and improved driver
training as well. In Norway, you get a driving licence only after
passing two tests. You receive a temporary licence after the first but it
is made permanent only after passing another test, a year later.
Something similar should be introduced for new drivers in Britain.
Reducing casualties among the ten- fourteen-year-olds presents
special difficulties. Such children are beginning to explore on their
own and tend to give up the basic niles for crossing roads taught at
school. They begin to cross the roads by copying adults, learning the
dangerous and difficult trick of choosing a gap in the traffic, and
marching right into the road. Whatever the case is, children can be
excused but not adults. We do not want to see another 3,000
pedestrians, especially young boys and girls, killed or hurt in the
1990's.
75
David Smith,
The Department of Transport, Head of Road Safety:
• !
We are aware that the decline in casualties among motorists seems
likely to leave pedestrians the largest single road-user casualty group
in the 1990's. Therefore, any required action for reducing casualties to
the minimum will be taken.
Peter Bottomley, Minister for Roads:
We advise town planners and road safety engineers to switch their
attention from vehicles to people. A third of all journeys are made
entirely on foot. Most other journeys involve walking to some degree.
That must make pedestrians the most important class of road users.
Too often planners and road safety engineers seem to forget that.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. According to Frank West, .
a) most pedestrians, especially children could avoid accidents by walking less
b) British roads are safer for pedestrians despite what people think
c) there would be fewer casualties if children wore seat belts
d) the general decrease in road casualties obscures the increase in deaths of
children on the roads
2. The reason for most accidents in towns is .
a) children not obeying rules for crossing roads
b) drivers not paying enough attention
c) children ignoring vehicles and drivers
d) drivers who have a temporary driving licence
3. West refers to Norway because .
a) they know how to educate children about traffic
b) fewer people are killed on the roads than Britain
c) they have a better driving test system than Britain
d) their police are more strict with drivers
76
35
CHANGES IN WORLD CLIMATE
Although the weathermen's forecasts for a month ahead are only a
little better than guesswork, they are now making long-term forecasts
into the next century with growing confidence. For the dominant trend
in the world's climate in the coming decades will, scientists say, be a
5 predictable result of man's activities.
At the start of the industrial revolution nearly two centuries ago,
man innocently set off a gigantic experiment in planetary engineering.
Unaware of what he was doing, he spared no thought for the
consequences. Today, the possible outcome is alarmingly clear, but
10 the experiment is unstoppable. Within the lifetimes of many of us, the
earth may become warmer than it has been for a thousand years. By
the middle of the next century, it may be warmer than it has been
since before the last Ice Age. And the century after that may be hotter
than any in the past 70 million years.
15 Superficially, a warmer climate may seem welcome. But k could
bring many hazards - disruption of crops in the world's main
food-producing regions, famine, economic instability, civil unrest and
even war.
In the much longer term, melting of the great ice-caps of Greenland
20 and Antartica could raise sea-levels throughout the world. The average
sea-level has already risen a foot since the turn of the century, and if
the ice-caps disappear entirely, it. would rise by nearly 200 feet.
Complete melting might take many centuries, but even a small
increase in sea-level would threaten low-lying parts of the world such
25 as the Netherlands.
The man-made agent of climatic change is the carbon dioxide that
has been pouring out of the world's chimneys in ever-increasing
quantities since the industrial revolution began. And in the past few
years, scientists have begun to suspect that there is a second
30 man-made source of carbon dioxide which may be as important as the
burning of fossil fuels, namely the steady destruction of the world's
great forests. Trees and other vegetation represent a huge stock of
carbon removed from circulation like money in a bank. As the vast
tropical forests are cut down, most of the carbon they contain finds its
35 way back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
The amount of CO2 (carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere is still tiny.
But it has climatic effects out of all proportion to its concentration. It
acts rather like the glass in a greenhouse, letting through short-wave
radiation from the sun, but trapping the longer-wave radiation by
78
40 which the earth loses heat to outer space.
Computer studies have suggested that if the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere were to be twice that of today's,
there would be a rise of between 2°C and 3°C in average temperature.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they' (line 2):
2. 'it* (line 15):
3. 'if (line 22):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 16, 'hazards' probably means .
a) advantages b) benefits c) problems d) precautions
2. Line 39, 'trapping' probably means .
a) not allowing to pass
b) making easier to pass
c) letting through a surface
d) losing heat
3. Which of the following cannot be one of the results of a warmer world climate?
a) An increase in food production.
b) Wars between countries.
c) The death of millions of people from starvation.
d) Economic instability.
4. Scientists predict that, in the long term, .
a) there will be a Third World War
b) all countries will be flooded
c) the sea-level will not rise noticeably
d) the polar ice-caps might melt completely
5. Man has changed the world's climate by .
a) building chimneys
b) using up more carbon dioxide
c) decreasing industrialisation
d) destroying forests and burning fossil fuels
79
6. If the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increases considerably,
a) the world will become warmer
b) we can expect colder weather •
c) plants will tend to grow faster *'
d) we will have to destroy more forests
. ~ • . - . .
7. Weathermen believe that our future climate will be the direct result of
a) clever long-term forecasts
b) scientific experiments
c) planets' changing course
d) man's activities
36
VENOM THERAPY
The stings of bees, wasps, hornets and yellow jackets can have
life-threatening, sometimes fatal, results in minutes - even in persons
who have been stung previously without suffering more than pain,
redness, and swelling. Fatal reactions probably are more common than
5 once thought. It was discovered, for example, that some deaths caused
by heart attacks at tennis courts, golf courses, or pools were in fact the
result of insect stings.
Fortunately, people who have experienced bad reactions need no
longer restrict their outdoor activities and live in fear of 'next time'. A
10 reliable immunization treatment has been developed; it consists of
increasing a person's tolerance with a series of injections of
increasingly greater amounts of the venom - i.e. the poison produced
by an insect - to which an individual is sensitive. In just two or three
hours, a patient receives three injections of venom into his arm. While
15 the third might contain 100 times the quantity of the first, it still would
be less than the amount in a single sting. Approximately once a week
for six weeks the patient receives additional injections, building up to
the equivalent of two stings. This maintenance dose is then given
monthly.
20 Venom therapy will cost about $200 to $300 per patient per year,
for the venom itself, plus fees for physicians' services and for
laboratory work. Venom therapy currently is considered appropriate
only for people who have experienced generalized body reaction
affecting the skin, respiratory or vascular systems. Others who do not
show any sign of reaction should avoid this therapy.
80
37
ANTISEPTICS
An antiseptic is a substance which destroys bacteria or keeps them
from increasing. Today, many types of antiseptics such as alcohol,
iodine, iodoform and formalin are manufactured and used quite
commonly. In addition to these manufactured antiseptics, the body
5 itself has certain ways in which it defends itself against bacteria or
germs. Tears, sweat, saliva (the fluid in the mouth) and blood contain
substances which resist common infections. The greatest of nature's
antiseptics are the white corpuscles in the blood, which are called
phagocytes. These have the important quality of being able to
10 consume harmful bacteria that enter the blood stream or infect a part
of the body. When such bacteria are present in the body, the
phagocytes rush to the infected spot and devour the invaders. The
phagocytes arc usually strong enough to destroy the bacteria unless
the latter increases in number too quickly.
15 In the same way that bacteria attack human beings and cause
infections, so they attack meat and vegetables and other food, making
them go bad. Bacteria need favourable conditions to grow. These
include moisture, and a fairly warm atmosphere. Thus, meat which
has to be kept for a long time is frozen, and this makes it too cold for
20 bacteria to grow until it is thawed out again.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'the latter* (line 14):
2. 'they' (line 16):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 7, 'resist' probably means .
a) cause b) fight against c) defend d) increase
2. Line 12, 'devour' probably means to .
a) enter b) infect c) consume d) rush
3. Line 12, 'the invaders' are probably the
a) phagocytes b) bacteria c) infected spots d) human beings
4. Line 20, 'thawed out' is the opposite of .
a) cold . b) moist c) fairly warm d) frozen
83
38
HOW TO BE A HAPPIER MOTHER
All research agrees on loving care as an essential ingredient in
healthy child development. But there is increasing doubt that the 24-
hour-a-day, seven-day-a-week mother is the best way to provide it.
Two recent studies have come up with the same result: 40 per cent of
5 the mothers who stay at home with children under five are depressed.
Doctor Michael Rutter and Doctor Steward Prince, among others.
have shown that depressed mothers produce depressed, neurotic and
backward children. There are many other mothers who, without being
depressed, are exhausted and, therefore, oppressed by the unending
10 repetitive task of caring for a baby, or by the constant demands of a
young child, and so get less pleasure from their children than they
might. A full-time mother at home is very likely to feel imprisoned
and depressed. A depressed mother can be psychologically very
damaging to her child because she will certainly not be able to give
15 proper attention to k. There is good evidence that withdrawal of
attention is more harmful to children than physical absence.
Therefore, a husband with common sense will certainly agree to make
arrangements so that the mother can take some time off to pursue her
own interests. He may choose to stay at home and take over the
20 responsibility or a baby sitter may be employed. Any arrangement will
do the mother good as long as '& is regular and doesn't involve
renegotiation every time. For instance, once a week, a completely free
day and evening during which the mother is relieved of all
responsibility is optimal. She can visit friends, go to a museum, or
25 spend all morning buying a pair of shoes and she needn't come back
until she feels like it. The only rule is that she must go out, not stay at
home doing housework. It is actually best of all if arrangements are
made so that parents can regularly spend a night out together.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'if (line 3):
2. 'others' (line 6): other
3. 'she' (line 14):
4. 'if (line 15):.
5. 'He' (line 19):
6. 'if (line 21): [ ,
7. 'which* (line 23):
85
39
TELESCOPE SITES
Today, telescopes are built at remote sites chosen for the quality of
their observing conditions. Such sites are preferred because the sky is
dark. Near big cities, the light from the cities causes light pollution,
which interferes with the observation of the sky. Higher altitudes are
5 more suitable, since there the humidity is very low and the atmosphere
is quite calm.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 1, 'remote' means .
a) isolated
b) crowded
c) well-lit
d) famous
2. To interfere with (line 4) means to .
a) improve
b) help
c) protect against
d) cause difficulty in
3. Line 5, 'there' refers to .
a) in humid areas
b) in the sky
c) in the atmosphere
d) at higher altitudes
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Telescopes are built near cities to obtain light from cities for a better
observation of the sky.
2. The higher the altitude, the higher the humidity.
. .. '
87
40
FOOD FOR THE STARVING
The number of people who die as a result of starvation is increasing
every day; People don't always die just because they don't eat; they die
because they are so weakened from lack of food that they get ill very
easily. Very few people die of measles in Great Britain. Measles is
5 just a childhood disease that most of us experience and shake off in a
week or two. For those whose bodies are weakened by starvation,
however, measles is a killer. And so are hundreds of other diseases.
Last year about 30,000,000 people died of such minor diseases. That's
the equivalent of the majority of the population of Great Britain. There
10 can be no doubt that if those people had gotten proper food, many of
tiiem would still be alive today.
Firms in this country are currently spending millions of pounds
manufacturing meat. Not meat from cows but completely synthetic,
artificial meat. They are making it out of a certain kind of fungus and
15 from other vegetable matter. By adding flavour and other constituents,
this 'meat' is said to be indistinguishable from the meat taken from
animals. It has the same protein and other beneficial elements that a
pound of steak or chicken contains and we are assured that within a
few years we will be eating it as readily as we now eat lamb or beef.
20 A large number of us will be extremely hesitant about this synthetic
foodstuff and therefore, the firms involved will have to spend many
more millions on persuading us, through advertising, that we really
need the new food. So, by the time the first vegetable sausage sizzles
in our frying pans, millions of pounds will have been spent on the
25 research, manufacture and selling of the new product.
If it is true that such meat can be produced, if it is true that it really
is as good as the real thing, and if it is going to be cheap, these
products should not be directed at those who already have enough
food but at those who have none. Let the major firms forget about
30 spending millions trying to persuade us to eat it and use their
marvellous new invention to feed the vast mass of the world's
population who have never even seen meat. Haifa loaf of bread is better
than none: synthetic meat is better than an occasional handful of rice.
Every year the major agricultural countries of the world produce
35 too much of certain products - the quantity is beyond what is needed
or consumed. Milk, vegetables and the like go off quickly as they
cannot be efficiently stored. Modern food technology has presented us
with the ability to freeze and to dehydrate (or freeze-dry) food. Could
we hot be sensible and make use of this surplus of products by
88
40 processing them to give them longer life and flying them out to where
they are needed?
Those countries which sometimes have too much should make their
surplus available in some form to those which have too little. Don't
tell me that it would cost too much money. If a tenth of what is spent
45 on advertising, packaging, and distributing food is creamed off and
spent on processing it for the starving, we would save a great many
lives.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. To shake off (line 5) means .
a) to recover from b) to die of c) to have d) to protect against
2. Line 14, 'fungus' is probably a kind of .
a) meat b) vegetable c) synthetic fiber d) fruit
3. Line 27, 'the real thing' probably refers to .
a) synthetic meat D) artificial food
c) natural meat <j) manufactured products
4. Lines 32-33, 'Half a loaf of bread is better, than none' probably means .
a) it is better to give the starving people real meat rather than synthetic meat
b) it is better to give the starving people synthetic food rather than no food at all
c) half a loaf of bread is better than a handful of rice
d) half a loaf of bread is better than half a pound of synthetic meat
5. Line 43, 'those' refers to .
a) countries b) surplus products c) poor people d) many lives
6. Which statement summarises the first paragraph?
a) Very few people die of measles in the world today.
b) 30 million people died of measles last year.
c) More people would survive minor diseases with proper food.
d) A few children in Great Britain die of measles because of poor food.
7. Tne producers of synthetic meat will .
a) supply those who are starving with the surplus of products
b) have to spend millions on advertising
c) find it difficult to sell it to those who have never seen meat
d) be hesitant about eating it
89
8. Which of the following states the main idea of the text? .
a) The people in developed countries are not keen on eating synthetic foods.
b) More could be done to help the starving people of the world.
c) Synthetic meat has greater nutritional value than lamb or beef.
• d) Modern food technology enables us to store food efficiently.
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
r
1. It would cost less to save the lives of starving people than to persuade
people in the West to eat synthetic meat.
2. One tenth of what is spent on advertising, packaging and distributing is
spent on helping the starving masses of the world.
3. Surplus food could be processed and sent to poor countries.
4. Modern food technology is being used to make life easier for poor people.
5. Today, the majority of the starving population eat dehydrated food
products.
41
KEYS TO QUICKER LEARNING
At a dinner party two men were discussing The Right Stuff, a book
about the Mercury space programme. While Ted went on and on about
the technical details he had picked up from the book, Dan offered only
a few comments. "Ted got so much more out of the reading than T did."
5 Dan later said "Is he more intelligent than I am?"
The two men had similar educational backgrounds and intelligence
levels. It was later discovered that Ted just knew how to learn better
than Dan did. Ted had made his brain more absorbent by using a few
simple skills.
10 For years, experts had believed that an individual's ability to learn
was a fixed capacity. During the last two decades, however, leading
psychologists and educators have come to think otherwise. "We have
increasing proof that human intelligence is expandable," says Jack
Lochhead, director of the Cognitive Development Project at the
15 University of Massachusetts in Amherst. "We know that with proper
skills people can actually improve their learning ability."
Moreover, these skills are basic enough so that almost anyone can
master them with practice. Here, gathered from the ideas of experts
across the country, are several proven ways to boost your learning
20 ability.
90
1. Look at the big picture first. When reading new, unfamiliar
material, scan it first. Skim subheads, photocaptions and any available
summaries. This previewing will help anchor in your mind what you
then read.
25 2. Practise memory-enhancing techniques. These techniques, also
called mnemonics, transform new information into more easily
remembered formulations. For instance, to a student who cannot spell
the word arithmetic, a teacher can teach a sentence that remains
locked in mind for years: "A rat in Tom's house may eat Tom's ice
30 cream." The first letters of each word spell arithmetic. Although
mnemonics were once dismissed by researchers, they are now
considered an effective means of boosting memory - doubling or even
tripling the amount of new material that test subjects can retain.
3. Organise facts into categories. In studies at Stanford University,
35 students were asked to memorize 112 words. These included names of
animals, items of clothing, types of transportation, and occupations.
For one group, the words were divided into these four categories. For
a second group, the words were listed at random. Those who studied
the material in organised categories consistently outperformed the
40 others, recalling two to three times more words. For example, to
remember the names of all former U.S. presidents in proper order,
cluster the leaders into groups - those before the War of 1812, those
from 1812 until the Civil War, those from the Civil War to World War I,
and those after World War I. By thus organising complex material into
45 logical categories, you create a permanent storage technique.
4. Discover your own learning style. What's your style? Try some
self-analysis. What, for example, is your approach to putting together
an unassembled item? Do you concentrate better in the morning or in
the evening? In a noisy environment or a quiet one? In a library or in
50 your own room? Make a list of all the pluses and minuses you can
identify. Then use this list to create the learning environment best for
you. Whichever style works for you, the good news is that you can
expand your learning capacity. And this can make your life fuller and
more productive.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. "Ted got so much more out of the reading than I did" (line 4) can be rephrased
as
a) "Ted got more reading materials than I did."
b) "Ted prefers to read outside but I don't."
c) "I didn't read as much as Ted did."
d) "Ted learned more about the material than I did."
91
42
THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
In the mid-1800's scientists wanted to know whether the atom was
really indivisible. They also wanted to know why atoms of different
elements had different properties.
A major breakthrough came with the invention of the Crookes' tube.
5 or cathode-ray tube. What is a cathode-ray tube and how does it work?
Everybody knows that some substances conduct electric current;
that is, they are conductors, while other substances do not. But with
enough electrical power, a current can be driven through any
substance - solid, liquid, or gas. In the cathode-ray tube, a high
10 voltage electric current is driven through a vacuum. The tube contains
two pieces of metal, called electrodes. Each electrode is attached by a
wire to the source of an electric current. The source has two terminals,
positive and negative. The electrode attached to the positive electric
terminal is called the anode; the electrode attached to the negative
15 terminal is called the cathode. Crookes showed that when the current
was turned on, a beam moved from the cathode to the anode; in other
words, the beam moved from the negative to the positive terminal.
Therefore, the beam had to be negative in nature.
The German physicists in Crookes's time favoured the wave theory
20 of cathode rays because the beam travelled in straight lines, like water
waves. But the English physicists favoured the particle theory. They
said that the beam was composed of tiny particles which moved very
quickly - so quickly that they were hardly influenced by gravity. That
was why the particles moved in a straight path. Notice how an
25 experimental observation led to two different theories.
Crookes proposed a method to solve the dilemma. If the beam was
composed of negative particles, a magnet would deflect them. But if
the beam was a wave, a magnet would cause almost no change in
direction. Particles would also be more easily deflected by an electric
30 field. In 1897, the English physicist J.J. Thomson used both these
techniques - magnetic and electric - to show that the rays were
composed of particles. Today we call these particles electrons. (The
term electron was suggested by the Irish physicist George Stoney, in
1891, to represent the fundamental unit of electricity.) In 1911, a
35 young American physicist named Robert Millikan determined the
mass of the electron: 9.11 x 10-28 grams. (To get an idea of how small
this is, notice that minus sign up there in the exponent, and think of all
the zeros we would have to put before the 9 if we wrote the entire
number as a decimal.)
93
40 Next, someone had to prove that the electrons weren't coming from
the electricity, but were being given off by the metal electrodes. Proof
that metals do give off electrons came from the laboratories of Philipp
Lenard, a German physicist. In 1902, he showed that ultraviolet light
directed onto a metal makes it send out, or emit, electrons. This effect,
45 known as the photoelectric effect, indicated that atoms contain
electrons.
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. If there is sufficient electrical power, even a solid or liquid may conduct
electricity.
2. J.J. Thomson named the electron.
3. In the number 9.11x10-28, the -28 tells us how many zeros to add before
the number.
4. Photoelectric effect has shown that all elements contain electrons.
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Lines 4-5, "A major breakthrough came with the invention of the Crookes" tube,
or cathode-ray tube' can be rephrased as
a) "The invention of the Crookes' tube was a successful development."
b) "The invention of the Crookes' tube prevented people from learning more
about the cathode-ray tube."
c) "The cathode-ray tube was invented by Crookes."
d) "Despite the invention of the cathode-ray tube, a lot about atoms remained
unknown."
2. Line 19, 'favoured' means .
a) supported b) proved c) acquired d ) resisted
3. Line 26, 'dilemma' means .
a) the difficulty of making an experimental observation
b) the basis of most experiments in physics
c) the problem of making a choice between two theories
. d) the technique used for moving particles in a straight path
4. Line 27, 'deflect' means .
a) turn into iron c) electrify
b) cause to change direction d) make photoelectric
94
5. The function of this passage is to .
a) describe how a cathode tube works
b) show how the electron and its properties were discovered
c) show the reader the superiority of German scientists
d) inform the reader about the contributions of Robert Milükan
43
INFLATION
Inflation has attracted more public interest than any other aspect of
economics, for the simple reason that everyone finds himself
immediately affected by it. The common belief is that inflation is
necessarily a negative occurrence but there are various reasons why
5 this might not be the case. Let us consider some of the arguments.
Simply described, inflation is the situation where increased wage
demands result in higher prices of consumer goods, which causes
further increased wage demands. This is called an inflation spiral. The
following example will make this point clear. The workers in the car
10 industry demand and receive a wage increase. This causes producers
to increase the market price of cars in order to make a profit. People
see that they cannot so easily afford to buy cars and, as a result, they
ask for higher wages in order to maintain the same standard of living
as before. These new wage increases result in rising prices for goods
15 and services in all sectors of the economy. Car industry workers now
face higher prices so they demand higher wages. A side effect of this
spiral is that workers in other industries may ask for similar increases
before any price rises occur, simply because they feel that they, too,
should have more money.
20 The general effects of inflation can be discussed according to
whether they are largely positive or largely negative. The positive
effects will be considered first and may be divided into two main
groups: effects on prices and wages and effects on loans. The
consumer discovers he has to pay more for goods and services
25 although he can find himself better off than other groups of workers if
his wages increase faster than theirs. In this way, income gaps
between low-paid and high-paid workers can be narrowed by allowing
low-paid workers to have a larger increase. Everybody gets a rise, but
some receive more than others. Obviously, if all wages are increased
30 by the same percentage as prices in general, no change in standard of
living takes place.
The effect of inflation on loans is beneficial to the borrower. In
other words, loans reduce in value so that a borrower only has to pay
95
back the nominal value of the loan and not its true, or real, value. This
35 benefits the borrower, as the following example shows. A student
borrows £10,000 to study medicine and become a doctor. This is the
amount that a qualified doctor earns in 1 1/2 years. When the student
pays back the loan six years later, £10,000 is the equivalent of only
nine months' salary. Even if normal interest rates are added to the
40 loan, this will not significantly change the final result.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they' (line 18):
2. 'they' (line 21):
3. 'he' (line 25):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. What is the function of this text?
a) To explain the causes and effects of inflation.
b) To persuade the reader to do something about inflation.
c) To inform how much the workers in car industry suffer from inflation.
d) To explain why inflation has only negative effects.
2. Inflation attracts so much interest because .
a) all people are affected by inflation at once
b) there is a common belief that inflation is a negative occurrence
c) several reasons contribute to the increase in inflation
d) higher prices of consumer goods are due to high wage demands
3. Which of the following is the main idea of the second paragraph?
a) People cannot easily afford to buy cars during times of inflation.
b) During a period of inflation, workers in the car industry might demand a wage
increase.
c) The relationship between increasing prices and wages is an inflation spiral.
d) Car manufacturers have to increase the price of their product because of
inflation.
4. Which of the following is emphasized most in the fourth paragraph?
a) A doctor earns 210,000 in 1 1/2 years.
b) It is an advantage to borrow in times of inflation.
c) It costs £10,000 to study to be a doctor.
d) Normal interest rates are added to borrowed money.
96
II
FRESH WATER
Today, finding a source of fresh water is becoming more and more
difficult. Many of our streams, rivers and lakes have been
contaminated with sewage, and many towns and cities obtain their
drinking water from these same streams, rivers and lakes. To prevent
5 this constant contamination, sewage treatment plants are being built in
many places. These are capable of converting sewage into pure
drinkable water.
Another way to solve the problem of fresh water is to make use of
the most abundant source of water we have: the sea. If we could learn
10 to get potable water from sea water easily and cheaply, we would
solve the problem. Man cannot live on sea water directly because of
the high proportion of minerals (mainly salt) in it. More than 2% of
salt in a solution is dangerous for the human body. Sea water contains
3.5% of salt. Such a high quantity causes dehydration in human body;
15 that is, the body loses the liquids necessary for life. Thus, it is
necessary to reduce the percentage of salt in sea water to an acceptable
level before using n. A number of methods can be used to do this. The
most common method is distillation. Sea water is heated until the
water evaporates and the salt is left behind. The steam then condenses
20 into pure water. Another method is freezing. When this is done, the
water freezes first, leaving the salt behind. The ice is then removed
and pure water is obtained. A third method is called reverse osmosis.
Pure water molecules are separated from the salt molecules under
great pressure.
25 Recently scientists have been working on a completely new idea:
The idea of obtaining fresh water from the air. Winds coming from the
sea carry a lot of water vapour. This vapour condenses into water if it
strikes something cold. If scientists can build a large condenser, then
they can collect and store fresh water easily. Unfortunately, the main
30 problem with all of the mentioned methods is their high cost. That's
why scientists are looking for ways of reducing the cost.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. These' (line 6):
2. 'it' (line 17):
3. 'to do this' (line 17):
98
45
MINERALS
Minerals are substances which are crystalline solids and which occur
naturally. There are more than twenty different minerals in the body. Three
of the most important minerals are calcium, phosphorus, and iron. Calcium
and phosphorus work together. The bony skeletons of vertebrate animals,
including man, are composed of calcium phosphate. If people have enough
calcium and phosphorus, their bones and teeth will be strong and hard. In
addition, their muscles, nerves, and heart will work properly. Calcium
makes up about 2% of the human body. About 99% of that amount is
contained in the teeth and bones. Milk and hard cheeses are the best sources
of calcium. After the age of 19, people need only 400 to 500 milligrams of
calcium a day. Phosphorus, on the other hand, makes up 1.1% of the human
body. A number of high-energy compounds found in our bodies, such as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), contain phosphorus. ATP is capable of
transferring as well as storing energy in living cells and is responsible for
energy necessary for physical activity.
Iron is a mineral which makes the blood look red and which carries
oxygen for our normal physical activities. All lean meats - especially liver -
whole grains, nuts, some vegetables, and dried fruits are good sources of
this mineral. Iron deficiency results in a disease called anemia. Anemic
people do not have enough iron in their blood, and this causes their hearts to
beat faster so that their bodies can get more oxygen. Such people, therefore,
get tired easily, and their skins sometimes look rather white.
A.
1. What two criteria does a subtance have to fulfill in order to be called a 'mineral'?
a)
b)
2. What are the minerals absolutely essential for our bodies?
3. What does deficiency in calcium and phosphorus cause in a person's body?
a)
b)
100
4. Where does the body store most of the calcium?
5. What type(s) of minerals do people need if they want to have sufficient energy to
play tennis, for instance?
6. How much calcium does a
a) fifteen-year-old person need?
b) thirty-year-old person need?
a)
b)
B. Complete the following according to the information in the passage.
1. Iron is essential in blood because
2. are food items rich in calcium.
3. Anemia is caused
4. An anemic person may show certain symptoms or signs. Two of these are:
a)
b)
46
A MISUNDERSTANDING
One of those misunderstandings which sometimes occurs when the
gasman comes to call has brought puzzlement and ultimate good
fortune into the domestic lives of two Essex women. Mrs. May
Bradbrook and Mrs. Brenda Kerr live in Alton Gardens, Westcliff-on
5 -Sea. Mrs. Bradbrook's home is number 40 and the Kerr residence is
number 14. The difficulties began when Mrs. Bradbrook decided that
the time had come to purchase a new cooker. She placed her order
with the North Thames Gas Board, but the official who took the
details misheard her address.
10 Paperwork duly went through for the delivery and installation of a
new gas cooker at number 14, Alton Gardens. When the gasmen
arrived with it, there was nobody at home. They were relieved,
however, to find a considerate note saying, "Key next door." Mrs.
101
Kerr was expecting a visit from the Eastern Electricity Board that day
15 and had made arrangements for a neighbour to let them in. When the
gas board appeared instead, the neighbour assumed that she had
misunderstood Mrs. Kerr and handed over the key. The new cooker
was installed and Mrs. Kerr's old one taken away.
Shortly afterwards, an aggrieved Mrs. Bradbrook telephoned the
20 gas board saying that she had waited in all day but the cooker had not
come. Inquiries were started. Meanwhile, Mrs. Kerr got home to find
• the unexpected and gleaming appliance in her kitchen. Clearly,
something was amiss but before Mrs. Kerr could get down to deciding
how to sort it out, she had an urgent priority. She had to cook her
25 husband's tea. There was no other appliance in the house, so she used
the new cooker.
The board, having heard from Mrs. Bradbrook and contacted its
gasmen, was swift to realise the error. It assured Mrs. Bradbrook that
there would be no further delay in getting the cooker to her. After all,
30 it had only to travel a short way up the road.
But - Mrs. Bradbrook pointed out - it was no longer the new cooker
she had ordered, was it? It had been used. The gas board saw her point
and found that it also had a problem at number 14. It had assured Mrs.
Kerr that her old cooker would be returned pronto. But it turned out
35 that the cooker had been broken up for scrap immediately after it was
taken away.
Both women had clearly suffered 'some inconvenience,' as the
board acknowledged. The upshot of the affair is that Mrs. Bradbrook
now has the cooker originally intended for her, but at a 20 per cent
40 discount of £30. Mrs. Kerr has been given a reconditioned "good as
new" cooker worth an estimated £350 to replace her scrapped one.
And the North Thames Gas Board is some £380 out of pocket.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 19, 'aggrieved' means .
a) upset b) confident c) tactful d) timed
2. Line 28, 'swift' means .
a) inquisitive b) gentle c) quick d) insensitive
3. Both Mrs. Bradbrook and Mrs. Kerr live in Alton Gardens and a mix-up occurred
because .
a) Mrs. Bradbrook gave the wrong address to a gas board official
b) Mrs. Kerr placed an order for a new gas cooker
c) someone at the gas board took the wrong message
d) Mrs. Bradbrook went out to work leaving a message next door for the
gasmen
102
47
DOWNTOWN FIRE SURVIVOR
22-year-old Angela Medeiros was one of the lucky ones. She
survived the blazing inferno that ravaged the forty-storey Torres
building in downtown Sao Paolo yesterday. At least thirty people are
• known to have lost their lives in the fire that raged for over twelve
5 hours. The final count is expected to be far higher as desperate
relatives try to locate missing members of their families.
Angela was indeed lucky to survive. She worked on the twentieth
floor, just three floors above where the fire is believed to have started
as a result of an electrical fault in an air-conditioner.
10 Her first impression that something was wrong was when she saw a
column of thick black smoke rising past the window of her office.
"There was no sound of an alarm or anything," she said. "Just the cries
of people screaming and running all over the place. It was terrible. My
first thought was to cover myself with water, and I rushed to the
15 bathroom. It was a very strange reaction. When I came out there was
no one in the office; I was the only one there."
What followed was a nightmare. She tried to get to the emergency
staircase, but by this time the smoke was too thick and she knew that
she could either stay where she was or make an attempt to reach the
20 roof, twenty floors above, where there was a helicopter landing-pad.
She decided to stay where she was and managed to open a window
and struggle out onto a ledge. It was then that she realised that she was
probably safe. The fire had passed through her floor and although
flames were everywhere, she could at least breathe. Her instinct told
25 her to stay where she was and wait for rescue. "Somewhere I had read
that the new ladders on the fire engines could be extended to reach the
twentieth floor," she explained. "I hoped h was true!"
What happened over the next seven hours defies description. She
witnessed people desperately throwing themselves out of the windows
30 of the floors above her. She admits that she was tempted to do the
same. She was afraid that no one would see her and that she would not
be able to hold on. "I just prayed, and thought of my mother and father
and the family, and about the holiday we were going to have in two
weeks' time."
35 She was rescued after someone in the crowd below alerted firemen
to the small figure huddled against a ledge in a corner of the twentieth
storey. "I saw the ladder moving up towards me," said Angela, "but I
must have lost consciousness, because that's the last thing I remember.
The next thing I recall was waking up in the ambulance."
104
WAS IT SOMETHING THEY ATE?
Pirkko Mononen's father, aged 59, died of a heart attack. He was
one of nine children from a farming family; seven of them died the
same way. Pirkko's husband, Heikki, knows how she feels. His father
and mother had heart trouble and for both of them the third attack was
5 fatal.
Their case is not unusual for Pirkko and Heikki, aged 46 and 47.
They live in Finland, where the death rate from heart disease used to
be the highest in the world. Not any more, though, as Scotland and
Northern Ireland have taken over the lead.
10 The Mononens took part in a novel experiment. Their blood
cholesterol levels were measured. They and 29 other families in their
village then swapped their diet for the fresh vegetables and low
saturated fat intake of an Italian community in the south of Naples.
The experiment changed their eating habits. It was part of a
15 long-term state programme backed by the World Health Organisation.
In 1971, MPs presented a petition from local people begging the
government to do something about the alarming number of middle -
aged men dying prematurely from heart attacks. At the start of the
project, there were about 250 fatal attacks in the area each year.
20 Today, that number has been reduced by about 100. An initial survey
had showed smoking and diet to be the key factors. Sour and salty
flavours were popular, meals were large, and milk was drunk at the
table instead of water, wine or beer.
The Finland-Italy experiment caught people's imagination. Pirkko
25 laughs when she confesses they ate no spaghetti over the six-week
trial. "I prepared all kinds of Finnish traditional dishes, but I used
vegetable fat instead of lard." The couple won a free trip to Police, the
village chosen for the other half of the experiment, and saw a big
difference. The Italians used the fat on meat to make soap instead of
30 eating it as they do here," said Heikki. His cholesterol level almost
halved during the trial. Now, they have switched to low-fat milk - in
spite of keeping a herd of dairy cows - and grow their own vegetables.
In the last ten years, people have been cleverly persuaded not to eat
high-fat food. Housewives were taught new methods of food
35 preparation, and special 'Long Life Parties' were organised where
families would eat together. Between 1969 and 1979, deaths among
middle-aged men in the area fell by 27%.
106
49
TOWARDS A WORKING RENAISSANCE
In historical times, many societies operated a two-tier (a tier is a
level in a system or organisation) system made up of people who
controlled and those who worked and were controlled. Work was not
an activity to be enjoyed. However, another group of people emerged
5 alongside this system. They were the merchants and artisans.
Merchants worked for profit, and artisans (people skilled in arts and
crafts) worked for wages. These were the people who first gave us the
idea of work as paid employment.
Today, people need to work in the same way they need to eat and
10 drink. This is what we call the 'work ethic'. (An ethic is an idea or
moral belief that influences the behaviour, attitudes and philosophy of
life of a group of people.) People work for the money they need in
order to live well, but there is another reason beyond this basic
motivation which makes people want to work. Work gives people a
15 feeling of being useful.
In a pre-industrial society, the work ethic did not exist. Work and
leisure went together and only part of Sunday was taken as time off. In
this society, singing, talking, drinking and gossiping went together
with work. With the emergence of the work ethic, leisure and holidays
20 were separated from work, thus changing the former ordinary social
system of interaction. During the Industrial Revolution, for most people,
work was so unpleasant that leisure was considered as a kind of
freedom. Yet, in spite of the fact that life was hard and work was
tiring, people slowly changed from having to work to wanting to
25 work. Today, the work ethic is so strong that people feel it is their
right to work.
The questions we should perhaps be asking ourselves are, firstly,
whether we really like our jobs and secondly, even if we like them,
whether they are really necessary. Many kinds of work are
30 disappearing as natural resources are used up and new technologies
appear. For example, computers are already replacing people in order
to do boring, repetitive jobs and to improve efficiency. To a large
extent, the price of labour, as compared with the cost of the new
equipment, determines which jobs will be replaced. However, the new
35 technologies will create new jobs both in the computer field and in the
leisure industry.
It has been predicted that new technology could result in a period
of growth and prosperity. This, however, does not mean that the
ever-growing number of unemployed people will drop. What it means
108
40 is that finance and resources will become available to improve social
services, education and the health service. The quality of life can be
improved with better facilities and a significant increase in the
workforce behind the services.
It has taken more than a hundred years to reduce the working week
45 from 60 to 55 hours, then 48, 44 and now 40. The next step will be a
reduction to 35 and then, perhaps, to 32 hours. The current five-day
working week will become a four-day or even a three-day event. In
order to achieve this shortened working span, paid holidays will
probably be increased and the age of retirement will be lowered.
50 However, attitudes to work must change as well. Community life
ought to become more important and the leisure industry needs to be
expanded to cater for the needs of both young and old people, all of
whom will have more spare time. In Europe, only France has taken
this problem seriously enough to appoint a government official
55 responsible for 'free-time'.
Making changes in the education system could solve a lot of
problems. In fact, creativity and sensibility could start a totally new
period, perhaps a new 'Working Renaissance'.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'this society' (line 18):
2. 'they' (line 29):
3. 'all of whom" (lines 52-53):
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. The two-tier system consisted of working people and another group who
controlled them.
2. Today, people work only because they need to eat and drink.
3. Improvements in technology cause many kinds of work to disappear.
4. Leisure industry will become more important if the working hours are
reduced and the retirement age is lowered.
C. Mark the best choice.
1. To emerge (line 4) means to .
a) work
b) control
c) begin to appear
d) enjoy an activity
109
50
| | •| . .-lt \ \ \ I • 1.1.Ill •!..• ! ! • ! • • Illl III || || I I I |- I I I . I I W i l l I I
CRIMES
Every community in the world recognises certain activities as crimes.
Because of this, each has developed its own way of dealing with crimes
1 and has chosen a number of different punishments to match them. So,
society identifies crimes, administers justice, and then imposes suitable
punishments.
It is surprising, however, how much the various societies of the world
differ in the areas of crime, justice and punishment. What may be a crime
in one country is often perfectly acceptable in another. For example, as
you may know, jaywalking, that is, not crossing the road at the proper
2 crossing place, is illegal in areas of the world such as North America,
but in other areas, quite legal. As well as deciding what is legal and what
is illegal, societies must also decide whether a crime is petty or serious.
For example, carrying a gun is a very serious offence in some countries,
but a very petty one in others.
Similarly, the ways of administering justice differ from country to
country. In some countries a person is considered innocent until he is
proved guilty, but in others the opposite is true. In other words, in the
3 former it is the job of the authorities to prove that the person has
committed a crime whereas in the latter it is the individual's task to prove
his innocence.
Crimes vary, systems of justice vary, but the greatest variation
between countries is in the methods of punishment that they use. For
example, a person convicted of theft in some parts of the Middle East
might face a severe penalty, whereas the same crime would receive a
4 relatively lenient punishment in some Scandinavian countries. Denmark
provides a good example of the more lenient approach to crime and
punishment. About half the people sent to prison there go to what is
called an 'open prison'. In these prisons, the inmates are allowed to wear
their own clothes, provide their own food, bring in their own furniture
and have their own radios or television in the cell.
They are not locked in their cells at night, although each prisoner is
given a key to his own cell and can lock the door at night if he wishes.
5 Most open prisons in Denmark also have special rooms where prisoners
can entertain friends, husbands or wives unsupervised, in privacy and
comfort, for at least an hour a week.
After four weeks in a Danish open prison, a prisoner is normally
entitled to a 'holiday' outside the prison. Usually he is allowed out of
6 prison for one weekend every three weeks. Of course, prisoners do not
have to leave the prison every three weeks - they can save up their
111
weekends away and take a break of up to eight days if they prefer.
Prisoners in open prisons in Denmark are also allowed out for a whole
6 range of activities such as buying clothes, visiting the doctor or simply
going for a walk with their visitors. If a prisoner needs to leave the prison
for educational purposes - attending a course or receiving technical
training - then, in certain circumstances, he may be allowed to spend the
night outside the prison.
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Every society has a different way of dealing with crimes.
2. An individual has to prove his innocence wherever he lives.
3. The method of punishment is the biggest difference between countries.
4. Theft is severely punished in Scandinavia.
5. Nearly half of Denmark's population lives in open prisons.
6. In some Danish prisons uniforms are not required.
7. Prisoners in Denmark can spend the night outside prison any time they
want to.
B. Find words or phrases in the text that mean the same as the following.
1. not crossing the road at the proper place (paragraph 2):
2. crime (paragraph 2):
3. not guilty (paragraph 3):
4. punishment (paragraph 4):
5. prisoners (paragraph 4):
6. having the right to do something (paragraph 6): being
C.
1. In what way does Denmark differ from some Middle Eastern countries?
2. How long does a Danish prisoner have to spend in prison before he can go out
for the first time?
3. Write two kinds of activities that Danish prisoners can go out for.
1 n
51
AN OBSESSION WITH REPTILES
J John Cheetham's magnificent obsession with reptiles began when he
was a schoolboy in his hometown of Oldham, Lancashire.
A glimpse from the top of a bus of alligators basking in the sun at
Manchester's famous Belle Vue Zoo set his imagination racing. He took
every opportunity of visiting the zoo, and the more he saw of the
creatures that seemed to have stepped out of the remote past, the more his
fascination grew, until it embraced all reptiles. When he was 11, he
bought a baby alligator from a local pet shop. It was the first step to
2 becoming the only private collector of giant reptiles in Britain. It was
also to lead to John's appearing with his own alligators and pythons in
films and on television. And that same pet alligator is still with John,
although he's grown a little during the 27 years they've been together. Big
Boy, a magnificent specimen of Alligator Mississippiansis, found in the
southern states of North America, is now 10 ft. long and weighs 19 stone.
Big Boy and John have appeared with Roger Moore in Live and Let
Die and Moonraker. Big Boy has also featured in Clash of the Titans and
2 on TV advertisements. James Bond fans have seen quite a bit of John
without realising it. It was his legs that did the spectacular dash to safety
over the backs of alligators in Live and Let Die.
Among John's other pet reptiles to star in films are Aristotle, a
14-ft-long reticulated python aged six, and Pythagoras, a 14-ft Indian
4 python who, at eighteen, is the grand old man among the snakes.
Aristotle and Pythagoras both featured in the underwater wrestling scene
in Moonraker with John in a friendly tussle, although the eventual result
on film looks deadly serious.
John's collection also includes a giant tortoise, snapping turtles, the
c largest legless lizards or slowworms found in the world, and Nile
crocodiles. Most of the giant reptiles in John's collection are housed at
Beaver Water World, Tatsfield, which is owned by Jeff Wheeler, his
friend and partner.
Collecting giant reptiles might seem a strange hobby for John, a
teacher at Dorton House School for the Blind at Seal, near Sevenoaks.
£ But John often introduces pupils to his pet snakes, letting them touch and
hold them. John lets blind children and anyone else handle the pythons
without any fear that they will attack. They are benign creatures. "All
they want is a quiet life," he said.
113
BEYOND DRUGS
Below is the true story of Sue Usiskin, who suffers from epilepsy, a
brain condition which causes a person suddenly to lose consciousness
and sometimes to have violent fits.
Sue Usiskin was in a crowded Chinese restaurant with her
5 family when she had an epileptic fit. Her husband Andrew helped
her into a safe and comfortable position on the floor, held her hand
while the fit lasted and, while she lay there recovering, he and the
children started their meal. Then they settled her in a chair and
carried on eating. "At first, everyone in the restaurant was ı
10 absolutely horrified," laughs Sue. "Then, as we were leaving, a
woman rushed over to congratulate Andrew on how naturally he
had handled it all. She had realised that it must happen a lot."
Unfortunately for Sue, it does happen a lot. She is one of the 20%
of sufferers from epilepsy whose fits cannot be completely
15 controlled by drugs. She suffers at least three a month.
She is an inspiring example of someone who has not let epilepsy
control her life. She has shared that inspiration in a new book, 2
Living With Epilepsy, co-written with Dr. David Chadwick,
consultant neurologist at Walton Hospital, Liverpool.
20 The indignity of, as she puts it, "collapsing on the ground in a
noisy jerking heap" has long since ceased to worry her, although
naturally it is never pleasant, but she has vivid memories of how, as
a teenager, friends ran screaming from her when she had a fit in the
playground at school. That she didn't lose all her self-confidence at 3
25 that time is all due, she believes, to her parents. "They never tried
to limit my activities because of what people might think if I had a
fit and how it might affect me. On the contrary, I was encouraged
to make an extra effort to overcome my difficulties and not allow
them to become an excuse for doing less," she says.
30 "I tell people I am likely to see regularly that I suffer from
epilepsy, and explain what they should do if I have a fit. I say, if I
suddenly get up and lie on the ground, make sure I am away from 4
anything I could hurt myself against, then stay with me and hold
my hand. That makes them much more confident and comfortable."
35 She is adamant that children should be helped to understand
what is going on and how to help right from the time they can
crawl. "From a very early age, mine were used to seeing Andrew 5
kneeling down with me, showing concern and protection. He
always included them - he would encourage them to stroke my
115
40 face. They soon knew what to do and they could do it right, if 5
tearfully."
Her son, Oliver, is now 15 and Anna 12. "They are at the
self-conscious stage and my fits must be an embarrassment to
them. They have both gone through phases of being tense and 6
45 anxious. But we have supported their feelings, whatever they are,
and the fact that they are not frightened to voice them must be
good."
She has always been very practical in her approach to coping.
When the children were babies, she would never change them on
50 the bed from where they might fall if she had a fit, or bath them if
she were alone in the house with them. She uses casserole-style 7
saucepans rather than long-handled ones which are easier to knock
over. She chooses not to swim or ride or take escalators because
she personally isn't comfortable about the risks. But she has never
55 avoided going out for fear of what might happen.
Her own and her children's courage in that respect have been
enormous. Once, when Oliver was two, she was dragged out of a
taxi by the driver, who thought she was drunk, and was left to have
a fit in the street in the pouring rain. On another occasion, she 8
60 crumpled to the floor just inside a building society and the staff
refused to come out and help because they thought she was a 'front'
for a hold-up.
The children, when young, often had to tiy to dissuade
onlookers in the street or shops from calling an ambulance, and Sue
65 herself has often had to suffer having spoons thrust between her 9
teeth to stop her biting her tongue (incorrect: only something soft,
like the bunched edge of a towel, is suitable).
She is not bitter about such experiences, except where her
children suffered, and looks back on many with humour. "This is
70 my life and I've known no other for so long. 1 just get on and live
it." But she is very keen to combat all the ignorance and prejudice. 10
Once someone said to her that she must be very grateful to Andrew
for marrying her and that shocked her. Conversely, she feels that
doctors often over-estimate the quality of life that someone in her
75 position can achieve. She regularly gives talks to medical students
and GP trainees to give them a truer picture of epilepsy.
"I'm still terrified every time I have a fit," she says. "It is quite
something to lose all control for three or four minutes. Believe me,
it is a long time and I sometimes go unconscious after. It doesn't
80 get easier. After a fit, it's like having a really heavy hang-over for 11
the next two or three days. But there are positives, too. When you
know what the rougher side of life can deal you, trivial things don't
worry you at all. I never get upset if the washing machine breaks
down."
116
5. How did Sue's friends at school react when she had a fit?
6. What helped Sue maintain her self-confidence?
7. How does Sue think that her fits affect her children now?
8. What were the things she avoided doing when her children were babies?
9. What should be done to stop epileptics biting their tongues during a fit?
10. How long does an epileptic fit last?
53
DOUBLE GLAZING
From The Observer.
If you are considering double glazing, you must already have
insulated your roof and walls. In an 'ordinary' home you lose 25 per
cent of heat through the roof and 35 per cent through the walls, so •
they must be your priorities, unless your house is made of windows.
5 New buildings now have to meet new standards of insulation
and are often fitted with double glazing when built. Usually this 2
factory-made double glazing does not just add to the comfort, but is
very well designed and actually looks quite good.
Still, it's a difficult decision to double glaze an existing home,.
10 since you're going to have to spend a lot of money on what will 3
save you about 10 per cent of the heating bill in an ordinary small
house.
Of course, there are other benefits besides the financial one. The
room will be much more comfortable. You won't get a chilly
15 feeling when sitting near the window and draughts will be fewer. 4
So, on the whole, if you have money, double glazing is not a
foolish investment, though even good double glazing won't be as
118
effective as a brick wall!
Double glazing is not just 'Double Glazing'. There are several
20 ways of achieving it. You can install 'replacement windows' with
two sheets of single glass. Or you can have 'secondary windows',
either fixed to the existing window or sealed to it. Secondary
windows are cheaper, can often be installed by the owner, but are
not likely to be so efficient as replacement windows.
25 If you want to do the job yourself, the simplest form of double
glazing is the applied frame method, which means fixing a second
pane of glass directly onto the original frame using beading or
special frame sections. The most important thing is that any
opening in the second leaf should be completely blocked with a
30 long-lasting material. Points to check are : that condensation will
not occur between the two panes; that you will be able to open
'openable' windows, (or that you're prepared to give up that
luxury); that you will be able to clean the window and that you
have some other way of letting fresh air in.
35 If you think that by double glazing you automatically insulate
against sound too - think again. To have a noise insulating effect,
the two leaves will need a gap of 110 mm or 200 mm; so double
glazing with noise insulation needs to be specially made. It is more
difficult to make it look nice and to fit it into the existing window
40 openings. Moreover, with this gap it won't work as well for heat
insulation. So, if you don't live directly under Concorde's flight
path, it will hardly be worth insulating for sound.
A. Which paragraph focuses on each of these ideas as the main idea? Write the
number of the paragraph in the blank.
1. Double glazing is expensive.
2. You can do your own double glazing if you are careful enough.
3. There are mainly two ways of double glazing.
4. In a house, mainly the roof and the walls should be insulated.
5. Double glazing is useful.
6. A special kind of double glazing is required for noise insulation.
B. What do the following refer to?
1. 'one' (line 13):
2. 'it' (line 22):
3. that luxury'(lines 32-33):
119
54
PARACHUTING
Over the past 25 years or so, there has been a sharp increase in the
popularity of parachuting as a sport. Parachuting can be learnt at a
parachute club. The training is extremely strict. The instructor makes
sure that the beginner has learnt and understood everything before the
5 first jump is made.
Like all parachutists, the beginner must wear two parachutes - a
main one on the back and a slightly smaller reserve one on the front.
Trainee parachutists do not open their parachutes themselves. By law,
they have to make their first six descents using a parachute opened
10 automatically by a 15-foot nylon static line fixed to the aeroplane. It
takes about 2.7 seconds for the jumper's weight to pull on the line, and
thus open the parachute.
Trainees are taught how to 'spreadeagle' - to lie stomach down and
stretch their arms and legs out to slow down their fall. In this way.
15 they descend at about 120 miles per hour before the parachute opens,
whereas an experienced sky-diver, descending headfirst, can travel at
over 200 mph. Novices jump from a height of about 2,500 feet, while
experienced freefallers may jump from well over 7,000 feet, waiting
until they are within 2,000 feet off the ground before pulling the
20 ripcord to open their parachutes.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'one' (line 7):
2. 'they' (line 9): __
3. 'In this way" (line 14):
4. 'their parachutes' (line 20): the parachutes of
B. What do the following mean?
1. 'descents' (line 9):
2. 'Novices' (line 17):
121
55
JOIN GREENPEACE TODAY!
The natural world is under violent assault from man. The seas and
rivers are being poisoned by radioactive wastes, by chemical discharges
1 and by the dumping of dangerous toxins and raw sewage. The air we
breathe is polluted by smoke and fumes from factories and motor
vehicles; even the rain is poisoned.
2 It's little wonder forests and lakes are being destroyed and everywhere
wildlife is disappearing. Yet, the destruction continues.
Governments and industries throughout the world are intensifying
3 their efforts to extract the earth's mineral riches and to plunder its living
resources.
The great rain-forests and the frozen continents are seriously
threatened in the same way. Despite the warnings of the scientific
4 community and the deep concern of millions of ordinary people,
governments and industries don't even consider changing their policies.
The threat is there in spite of the fact that we can create
environmentally-clean industries, harness the power of the sun, wind and
5 waves for our energy needs and manage the finite resources of the earth
in a way that will safeguard our future and protect all the rich variety of
life-forms which share this planet with us.
6 But there is still hope. The forces of destruction are being challenged
across the globe - and at the spearhead of this challenge is Greenpeace.
Wherever the environment is in danger, Greenpeace has made a
7 stand. Its scientific presentations and peaceful direct actions at sea and on
land have shocked governments and industries into an awareness that
Greenpeace will not allow the natural world to be destroyed. Those
actions have also won the admiration and support of millions.
8 Now you can strengthen the thin green line; you can make your voice
heard in defence of the living world by joining Greenpeace today.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Which of these statements is not mentioned in the text?
a) Drinking water is polluted.
b) Radioactive waste poisons the sea.
c) Sewage isn't processed.
d) Cars and factories poison the air.
123
56
BACK TO NATURE
For centuries town and country have been regarded as being in
opposition to each other. It has been suggested that the superficial
differences between the two - wide open spaces contrasting with brick
and concrete - are less important than the contrasting attitudes of town
5 and country.
I am a city person who always says that, given the choice, I would
prefer to live in the country away from the dirt and noise of a large
city. I tell others that if it weren't for my job, I would immediately
head out for the open spaces and go back to nature in a village buried
10 in the country. But do I perceive the country as it really is?
Cities can be frightening places. The majority of the population live
in massive tower blocks, noisy, squalid and impersonal. The sense of
belonging to a community tends to disappear when you live fifteen
floors up. All you can see from your window is the sky, or other
15 blocks of flats. Children become aggressive and nervous - cooped up
at home all day, with nowhere to play; their mothers feel isolated from
the rest of the world. Strangely enough, whereas in the past the
inhabitants of one street all knew each other, nowadays people on the
same floor in tower blocks don't even say hello to each other.
20 Country life, on the other hand, differs from this kind of isolated
existence in that a sense of community generally binds the inhabitants
of small villages together. People have the advantage of knowing that
there is always someone who will help them. But country life has
disadvantages, too. While it is true that you may be among friends in a
25 village, it is also true that you are cutoff from the exciting and important
events that take place in cities. There is little possibility of going to a
new show or the latest movie. Shopping becomes a major problem,
and for anything unusual you have to go to the nearest large town. The
city-dweller who leaves for the country is often depressed by the
30 stillness and quietness.
Which, then, is better to live in, the country or the city? The latter
causes stress and a feeling of isolation - constant noise damages the
senses. But one of its main advantages is that you are at the centre of
things, and that life doesn't finish at half-past nine at night. The former
35 has the advantage of peace and quiet, but suffers from the
disadvantage of being cut off. Some people have found (or rather
bought) a compromise between the two; they have moved to villages
not too far from large urban centres. These people generally have
nearly as much sensitivity as the plastic flowers they leave behind -
125
40 they are polluted with strange ideas about change and improvement
which they force on to the unwilling original inhabitants of the
villages.
What, then, of my dreams of having a small cottage in the country?
I'm keen on the idea, but you see there is my cat, Toby. I'm not at all
45 sure that he would like all that fresh air and exercise in the long grass.
No, he would rather have the electric imitation coal fire any day.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. The latter* (line 31):
2. The former* (line 34):
3. 'the two' (line 37):
4. These people' (line 38):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 2, 'superficial' means .
a) natural b) important c) only on the surface d) related to inner quality
2. Line 10, 'perceive' means .
a) see b) satisfy c) agree d) stimulate
3. Line 25, 'cut off from' means .
a) prevented from b) led to c) compensated by d) deprived of
4. Line 37, 'compromise' means .
a) promise of company c) varied concept
b) intermediate solution d) isolated answer
5. The writer says that in the country you are .
a) cut off from anyone who will help you
b) unable to see shows, films and major events
c) never able to find stillness and quietness
d) made to live in an isolated way
6. Most city people who move to the country .
a) try to change the village people with their ideas
b) want to take their plastic flowers with them
c) live far away from the cities they work in
d) bring the city noise and dirt pollution with them
126
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Can earthquakes be predicted? Scientists are working on programs
to predict where and when an earthquake will occur. They hope to
develop an early warning system to save lives. Scientists who do this
work are called seismologists.
5 Earthquakes are the most dangerous and deadly of all natural
events. They occur in many parts of the world. Giant earthquakes have
been recorded in Iran, China, Guatemala, Chile, India, and Alaska.
Two of the biggest earthquakes that were ever recorded took place in
China and Alaska. These earthquakes measured about 8.5 on the
10 Richter Scale. The Richter Scale was devised by Charles Richter in
1935 and is used for comparing the energy level of earthquakes. An
earthquake that measures 2 on the scale can be felt, but causes little
damage. One that measures 4.5 on the scale can cause slight damage,
and an earthquake that has a reading of over 7 can cause major
15 damage.
How do earthquakes occur? Earthquakes are caused by the
movement of rocks along cracks, or faults, in the earth's surface. The
fault is produced when rocks near each other are pulled in different
directions. The best-known fault in North America is the San Andreas
20 fault in the state of California in the United States.
The nations that are actively involved in earthquake prediction
programs include Japan, China, Russia, and the United States. These
countries have set up stations in areas of their countries where
earthquakes are known to occur. These stations are ready for warning
25 signs that show the weakening of rock layers before an earthquake.
Many kinds of seismic instruments are used by these places to watch
the movements of the earth's surface. One of the instruments is a
seismograph. It can follow vibrations in rock layers thousands of
kilometers away. Tiltmeters are used to record surface movement
30 along fault lines. Seismologists use gravimeters to measure and record
changes in local gravity. The scientists also check water in deep wells.
They watch for changes in the water level and temperature, which are
signs of movement along faults.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'one' (line 13):
2. 'which' (line 32):
128
58
MARKETING
Marketing, which is sometimes called distribution, includes all the
business activities connected with the movement of goods and services from
producers to consumers. Marketing consists of both physical activities such
as transporting, storing and selling goods, and a series of decisions related to
any part of the process of moving goods from the producer to the consumer.
Marketing operations include product planning, buying, storage, pricing,
promotion, selling, credit, and marketing research.
The ability to recognise future trends is as important as knowing the
present conditions in marketing. Producers must know why consumers buy,
where and for what purpose. Through market research, the producer tries to
predict what the customer will want and, through advertising, attempts to
influence what the customer will buy.
In most countries, manufacturers obviously spend a lot of money on
advertising their goods. We cannot walk down the street, watch television or
read a newspaper without being 'attacked' by advertisements. Doubtless,
many people think that too much money is spent on advertising. "Wouldn't
it be better," they say, "to spend all this advertising money on improving the
product or service, or on projects to help poor people?" Advertising,
however, is essential for a manufacturer's survival. It is vital to keep the
name of the product in front of the public. Otherwise, sales will fall.
Another manufacturer of the same kind of product may continue advertising
and his name will be the one that people remember when they go shopping.
And his sales will increase.
Some people will then almost certainly say, "But why should two or
more companies produce the same things? Surely, it is more economical for
each company to produce a different product. Then, there would be little or
no need for any advertising." But there is a sensible economic answer to this
argument as well. Competition between companies is vital because it helps
to improve the quality of the product and to keep prices down. The result is
a better and cheaper product for the public. Since competition is essential,
advertising is vital.
A. Define marketing.
Marketing is a process
59
POPULATION GROWTH
It is widely believed that the world's population has exploded because of
the improvements in medical science, which has naturally led to improved
standards of public health. Infant mortality has.been greatly reduced and the
average length of life has been extended on a great scale.
Demographers, or population statisticians, are less alarmed by the
absolute rise in the world population figures than by the increase in the rate
of growth. They estimate that it will take only about 30 years for the world
population to double. Pessimists expect this soaring growth to continue until
the limits of food, space and natural resources are forced.
It is not easy to find solutions to problems caused by population growth.
In fact, effective action is lacking because of our inability to decide exactly
where the problems lie. For example, many millions of people do not have
enough to eat, but at the same time we could argue that the world is not
over-populated in relation to its food supply at the present time. The total
cultivable land is more than 15 billion acres. Using modem agricultural
methods, we could produce more than enough food for the present
population of about 5 billion.
It appears, then, that the world's population could be almost three times
as large before there is a serious shortage of food. But it is unlikely that all
the cultivable land would be used for food production. If this were done,
there would not be any land left to meet man's increasing demand for
houses, factories, airports, roads and other facilities.
A. Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. death in infancy (paragraph 1):
2. population statisticians (paragraph 2):
3. extremely rapid increase (paragraph 2):
4. suitable for agriculture (paragraph 3):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Which of the following is not a consequence of the improvements in medical
science?
a) Fewer deaths in infancy.
b) Longer length of life.
c) Decrease in population.
d) Higher public health standards.
2. Demographers are alarmed more by .
a) the rise in the number of people in the world
b) the increase in the rate of population growth
c) the solutions to the problem caused by population growth
d) the people who argue that the world is not over-populated
3. We can say that the world is not over-populated if we consider
a) its present food supply
b) the increasing demand for housing
c) the serious shortage of food
d) the problems caused by population growth
4. If all the cultivable land were used for food production,
a) there would be a serious shortage of food
b) the population growth would be controlled
c) no land would be left for housing and other facilities
d) part of the world population would not have enough to eat
60
LASERS IN MEDICINE
A laser is a very strong beam of light which is very different from
ordinary light. Today, doctors use lasers in some eye operations. They
use them when operating on a patient who has a detached (i.e.
separated) retina. The retina is the inner back part of the eye, the part
5 that senses light. Light from an object must strike the retina for seeing
to occur.
In the past, a detached retina caused blindness in the eye. Now, the
laser makes delicate eye operations possible, and a detached retina no
longer means the loss of sight. By carefully directing this super light
10 beam, the doctor can weld the retina to the rest of the eye again. The
welding of the retina takes less than a thousandth of a second and is
done without anesthesia. Anesthetizing the patient is not necessary,
because the patient feels no pain.
Doctors also want to use lasers in operations on people who have
15 heart diseases. In the United States and Canada alone, more than 1.5
million people suffer from heart diseases every year. Most of these are
related to the flow of blood through the coronary arteries, which
supply the majority of the blood to the heart. People who have a heart
disease have a high amount of cholesterol in their blood. Cholesterol
20 builds up fatty deposits called 'plaques' on the inner walls of the
133
arteries. As the plaques get bigger, the opening of the artery gets
smaller. When it is completely closed, blood stops flowing and the
heart attack occurs.
Some doctors are planning to use lasers to destroy these fatty
25 deposits in the near future. More studies are needed, but some doctors
feel this plan will be beneficial for heart patients. At present, though,
lasers have many other uses in hospitals; they are used in sterilizing
instruments, stopping bleeding and removing birthmarks.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'them' (line 3):
2. 'these' (line 16):
3. 'this plan' (line 26):
B. Scan the text and find the definitions of the following.
1. retina:
2. plaques:
C.
1. What are the present uses of lasers in hospitals?
a)
b)
c)
d) ,
2. How are doctors planning to use lasers in the future?
3. How can doctors weld the retina to the eye again?
4. When do heart attacks occur?
D. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. In the past, it was impossible to avoid blindness caused by a detached
retina.
2. The welding of the retina still requires a long and difficult operation.
3. Medicine is given to the patient to reduce pain in eye operations with laser.
4. Most blood reaches the heart through the coronary arteries.
5. Cholesterol can leave fatty deposits in the arteries.
134
61
ENGINEERING IN CHARGE
Do you realise that every time you take a step, the bones in your
hip are subjected to forces between four and five times your body
weight? When you are running, this force is increased further still.
What happens if, through disease, a hip-joint ceases to be able to
5 resist such forces? Like all fantasies, the Bionic Man has an element
of reality in n and for many years, hip-joints and other body joints
have been replaceable partially or completely. It is, after all, a simple
ball and socket joint; it has certain loads imposed on it; it needs
reliability over a defined life, and it must contain materials compatible
10 with the working environment. Any engineer will recognise these as
characteristic of a typical engineering problem, which doctors and
engineers have worked together to solve in order to bring a fresh lease
of life to people who would otherwise be incapacitated.
This typifies the way in which engineers work to help people and
15 create a better quality of life. The fact that this country has the most
efficient agricultural industry in the world is another prime example.
Mechanical engineers have worked with farmers, horticulturalists and
biologists to produce fertilisers, machinery and harvesting systems.
The paintings of Brueghel show farmers in the sixteenth century
20 wading through shoulder-high cereal crops. This team effort has now
produced crops uniformly waist-high or less so that they are more
suitable for mechanical harvesting. Similar advances with other crops
have released people from hard and boring jobs for more creative
work, while machines harvest crops more efficiently with less waste.
25 Providing more food for the rapidly increasing population is yet
another role for the mechanical engineer.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'such forces' (line 5):
2. 'if (line 6):
3. "If (line 7):
4. 'another prime example' (line 16): another prime example of
5. 'this team effort' (line 20): the team effort of
135
B. What are the four characteristics which make the replacement of a hip-joint to
be considered as a typical engineering problem?
a)
b)
c)
,d) ,
62
FOOD FOR THE WORLD
By the year 2000, the world population is expected to be about
7,000 million. This great increase in the world population, or
'demographic explosion' as it has been called, will cause many
problems: shortage of housing, shortage of facilities and psychological
5 stress. But the biggest problem of all will be the shortage of food. In
1973, in West and Central Africa, there were serious deficiencies of
basic foods such as corn, rice, milk and meat. This was partly because
of natural disasters such as drought (not enough rain) and floods, that
is, too much rain, but basically it was because of a real shortage of
10 these foods. Everywhere in the world, the prices of basic foods rose
and it became impossible for many people to buy enough of them.
Nutritional experts estimated that half the world's population was
under-nourished and that millions were near starvation. And in 1973,
the population of the world was only half of what U may be in the year
15 2000!
Agricultural experts are trying to increase the output of food in the
world without great increase in price. They are working on projects
for breeding plants and animals which are bigger, grow faster and are
resistant to diseases. In India, for example, new strains of rice have
20 been developed, which has greatly increased yields. In Mexico,
excellent new varieties of wheat have been produced by Dr. Norman
E. Borlaug, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his
work.
However, increasing yields in this way may be expensive, and may
25 require large quantities of fertiliser to 'feed' the land. If the population
continues to grow, more and more agricultural land will be needed for
housing. For many years now, experts have been experimenting with
techniques of cultivating plants by using mixtures of chemical
compounds and water only. This is called 'hydroponics', and if it
30 becomes economical, vegetables and fruit could be produced in
136
factories instead of fields. In addition, agricultural scientists have been
cross-breeding livestock - cattle, pigs, chickens, etc. - to produce
better animals.
Mechanisation is another way of producing more food. Machines
35 can do work faster, more efficiently and more cheaply than man and
they are being used in industrialised countries to do almost all farming
jobs.
One of the best hopes scientists have for solving the food crisis is
to find new sources of food, especially protein. Experimental food is
40 now being produced from petroleum, from seaweed and from other
surprising raw materials.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. This' (line 7):
2. them' (line 11): .
3. 'if (line 14):
4. 'they' (line 36):
B. What do the following mean?
1. 'drought' (line 8):
2. 'livestock' (line 32):
C.
1. Why were there serious deficiencies of food in Africa?
2. What will the world population probably be in the year 2000?
3. Where have new strains of rice been developed?
4. What did Borlaug produce?
5. What is experimental food being produced from?
6. What are the basic foods mentioned in the passage?
137
7. What is "demographic explosion'?
8. What problems will arise due to the demographic explosion?
a)
b)
c)
d)
9. How are agricultural experts trying to increase the output of food in the world?
a)
b)
c)
d)
10. What is 'hydroponics'?
63
CRUDE OIL
Many years ago, when most people got their water directly from
wells under the ground, they were sometimes annoyed by a dark liquid
which came out of the ground and contaminated the water. It smelled
bad and was extremely dirty. Some people discovered that it was good
5 for caulking boats - it prevented water from getting in through the
cracks in the wood. Others found it was a good medicine for the
stomach. However, most people didn't like it. Today, we have a rather
different opinion on this substance known as crude oil.
In 1855, a young teacher at Yale University, Benjamin Silliman,
10 became interested in crude oil. He soon found that it could be used as
a fuel for heating and lighting. After the first oil well started
production, the age of oil was just around the corner. Today, LP. Getty
and Howard Hughes, two of the richest men in the world, both have
fortunes based on oil - the former on the Standard Oil Co. and the
15 latter on a highly efficient oil-drilling bit.
The first oil from the sea was produced some decades ago by the
off-shore drilling rigs in Maracaiba Bay, Venezuela. There, the water
138
is shallow and the oil is very near the surface. The tropical forest
comes right down to the water's edge, and today it seems to continue
20 into the sea. The oil is quite easy to get out in this area, but men are
now also drilling in more difficult areas like the cold, deep North Sea
between Great Britain and Norway.
The petroleum which comes out of the ground cannot really be used
for anything. It must first be refined. Refineries are huge 'factories'
25 where crude oil is separated into 'fractions', which are commonly
known as gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil and fuel oil.
Then, these fractions must be distributed by pipeline or tanker to the
final distributors, such as petrol stations, which sell them to the users.
Every person in industrial societies depends on crude oil. Its
30 fractions provide fuel for electricity generators, power for vehicles,
heat for homes and materials for clothing. In the future, we may use
some of its fractions to produce food.
The question is: how long will the world's reserves of crude oil
last? We use more and more oil every year. Crude oil is a
35 non-renewable resource and one day it will probably run out. Many
things will be different when this happens, but the most interesting
and important question is what alternative sources of energy will be
successfully developed.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. "if (line 6):
2. 'both' (line 13):
3. There' (line 17):
4. 'this' (line 36):
B. What do the following mean?
1. 'caulking' (line 5):
2. 'crude oil* (line 25):
C.
1. Why were people annoyed by the dark liquid in their wells?
2. What was crude oil used for before 1855?
139
64
A FAMILIAR STORY
The voice on the other end of the line was insistent. "We need that
contract and we need it badly. You know how bad our financial situation is
at the moment - this contract could be the difference between life and death
for us. I don't care how you do it, but you must get that contract." Tony
Adamson put down the phone and sighed. He felt that his boss in London
just did not understand how difficult things were for him in Zalesia. He
knew that in reality his company had very little chance of getting the
contract, which was to supply a large amount of furniture and other
equipment to the new University of Zalesia. There were too many other
companies interested - bigger companies that he knew would be able to
offer equal quality, and probably a much better price.
Adamson's only hope was that he might be able to get the contract
through a personal contact that he had inside the Ministry. During his three
years as Eduquip's Marketing Manager in the area, he had developed a
strong personal friendship with Elua Tahi, an official in the Ministry who
Adamson knew was on the committee that was dealing with the University
project. It wasn't unusual for contracts in Zalesia to be given because of
friendship rather than price. Maybe, Adamson thought, he had more chance
than he thought.
The next day, Adamson went to see Tahi in his office. For the first half
hour they chatted about personal topics, and then Adamson introduced the
subject of the contract. "This contract is important to you, isn't it?" said
Tahi. Adamson nodded. "Yes, and we need your support on the committee.
You've bought equipment from Eduquip before, for the Zalesian schools.
You know our quality is good, and our delivery dates are reliable. Why
change to a supplier you don't know, who might cause you problems?"
"Yes," said Tahi. "Well, I'll see what I can do. But there are a lot of other
companies interested too, of course. Oh, by the way, while you're here,
there's a favour that I wanted to ask you." "Sure," said Adamson. "Anything
I can do." "My wife has to have an operation, and she wants to have it in
England. Obviously it's going to be expensive, and you know our
government's rules about taking money out of the country. She really needs
$2000 waiting for her when she arrives in England. There's no way it could
be organised, I suppose?"
For a moment Adamson was too surprised to speak. Tahi was clearly
asking for a bribe. There was really no reason for him to be surprised - he
knew that bribery was normal business practice in Zalesia, even though
there were strict laws against it. Any company representative caught
offering bribes to government officials risked up to five years'
141
imprisonment. But he had always previously thought that Tahi was different
from the majority of Zalesian officials - that was why he had become so
friendly with him. So far in Zalesia, Adamson had managed never to do
anything that could be considered more than a small favour in order to win a
contract. He did not believe in bribery, and certainly had no wish to spend
any time in a Zalesian jail.
Tahi obviously noticed Adamson's confusion. "Don't worry," he said. "If
it's a problem for you, there are others I can ask." His meaning was clear. If
Eduquip didn't pay the bribe, another company would.
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Tahi probably works at the Ministry of Education.
2. Having a personal contact doesn't play a role in getting a contract in
Zalesia.
3. If you live in Zalesia, you can take a great sum of money out of the
country.
4. If a company representative is caught getting a bribe, he is sent to prison.
5. Tony was sure Tahi would ask for a bribe.
6. Tony doesn't approve of bribery.
7. Except for some small favours, Tony had done nothing until then to win a
contract.
8. Tahi implied that the company that paid the bribe would get the contract.
B.
1. What does the company Tony works for produce?
2. Why was the contract so important for the company?
3. Why was it less possible for Tony's company to get the contract than the bigger
companies who were interested?
4. What reasons did Tony give while trying to persuade Tahi to help them get the
contract?
5. In what way did Tony think Tahi was different from other Zalesian officials?
"I A r\
65
THE CINEMA
The first moving pictures were developed in the 1890's by W.K.L.
Dickson, an Englishman working in the USA. He called his system
the Kinetoscope. It wasn't the cinema as we know it at all. The
pictures were very small and only one person at a time could watch.
5 The earliest Kinetoscope used sound separately recorded on a
phonograph (an ancestor of the gramophone and record player). But
there were many problems involved in getting the picture and sound
together, that is, synchronising. As a result, the Kinetoscope was
popularised in its silent form. The same principle was developed by
10 the Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumiere. They called their system
the Cinematographe and, between 1895 and 1900, succeeded in
exporting it to other parts of Europe, to India, Australia and Japan.
The Cinematographe used a large screen, but the films were still very
short - only about a minute long. Like the popularised Kinetoscope, it
15 was a silent system.
The early films were all made with fixed cameras. This greatly
limited what could be achieved and made these early films more like
the theatre than the modern cinema. So, an important improvement
was the use of a moving camera, which could turn from side to side
20 and also move about to follow the action. The Great Train Robbery
was the first important experiment in the use of a moving camera. It
was made in 1903 by Edwin Porter, an American, and lasted eight
minutes. In the following years, films became much longer and the
screens larger. Other changes were introduced too, but it was not until
25 the early 1920's that an effective sound system was developed. Lee de
Forest, another American, found a way of photographing the sound
waves which accompanied the action. This solved the major problem
of sound-picture synchronisation. A strange consequence of having
sound was that, for a few years, the cameras were once again made a
30 part of a complex device and this sound-proofing system was so large
that it could not be moved about easily.
The last major change in the cinema was the development of
colour. Coloured photography had been possible from the 1860's, but
early films were normally black and white and any colouring was
35 painted on by hand - an expensive, slow and not very effective
technique. In 1922, the first real colour films were produced, using a
two-colour system called Technicolor. In this system, they filmed
whole sequences in one colour but the attempts to mix colours to get
realistic effects were not very successful. In 1932, Technicolor was
1 /lO
40 improved by the use of three main colours and the same system is
used today. Colour took longer to be generally accepted than sound. It
was expensive and people often felt that it was less realistic than black
and white. This was partly, of course, because the quality was not
always very high and so the pictures could look very strange. Since
45 the 1930's, there have been many improvements in the techniques of
the cinema, and the style of acting has changed a good deal. But after
fifty years, the basics - moving pictures, colour and sound - are still
the same.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'It' (line 21):
2. This* (line 27):
3. 'it' (line 31):
4. 'the same system' (line 40):
B.
1. In what ways were the Kinetoscope and the Cinematographe similar and
different? (Give one example for each.)
2. Why were the early films more like the theatre than the modern cinema?
3. What are the two improvements in the techniques of the cinema mentioned in
the second paragraph?
a) :
b)
4. Why was the achievement of Lee de Forest important?
5. What was the disadvantage of using the Forest's system?
6. How were black and white movies made coloured?
7. What was the purpose of mixing colours in the Technicolor system?
8. Did people accept colour films immediately? Why / Why not?
1 A A
66
THE GORILLA
The gorilla is something of a paradox in the African scene. One
thinks one knows him very well. For a hundred years or more, he has
been killed, captured, and imprisoned in zoos. His bones have been
mounted in natural history museums everywhere, and he has always
5 exerted a strong fascination upon scientists and romantics alike. He is
the stereotyped monster of the horror films and the adventure books,
and an obvious (though not perhaps strictly scientific) link with our
ancestral past.
Yet, the fact is we know very little about gorillas. No really
10 satisfactory photograph has ever been taken of one in a wild state, no
zoologist, however intrepid, has been able to keep the animal under
close and constant observation in the dark jungles in which he lives.
Carl Akeley, the American naturalist, led two expeditions in the
1920's, and now lies buried among the animals he loved so much. But
15 even he was unable to discover how long the gorilla lives, or how or
why it dies; nor was he able to define the exact social pattern of the
family groups, or indicate the final extent of their intelligence. All this
and many other things remain almost as much a mystery as they were
when the French explorer Du Chaillu first described the animal to the
20 civilised world a century ago. The Abominable Snowman, who haunts
the imagination of climbers in the Himalayas, is hardly more elusive.
A. What do the following mean?
1. 'captured' (line 3):
2. 'mounted' (line 4):
3. 'stereotyped' (line 6):
4. 'link' (line 7):
5.'intrepid' (line 11):
6. 'constant' (line 12): .
7. 'indicate' (line 17):
8. 'extent' (line 17):
9. 'elusive' (line 21):
145
B.
1. Why is the gorilla something of a paradox in the African scene?
2. What are the three basic facts about the gorilla which Carl Akeley, the American
naturalist, failed to find out?
a)
b)
c)
67
SPACE TRAVEL
People have always wanted to know more about the other planets
in our universe. Long ago, they found out that our eartli is not flat but
round, and that the moon goes round the sun. Telescopes were built to
see planets far away in space better. But, of course, this was never
5 enough. Men have always thought about visits to other planets and
many people have written stories about journeys in space and what
men hoped to find there. Often the ideas in these stories are strange
and wrong. We know that now because real men have visited space
and can tell us what life there is like.
10 The work of scientists in the last twenty years has shown the world
that men can travel outside the earth's atmosphere in spaceships.
These scientists all worked on the same idea: space travel. But it is sad
that they did not work together. There were two teams who worked
separately, one in the USSR and one in the USA. Many of them were
15 Germans who left their country in 1945 after the Second World War.
Wernher Von Braun, who worked for the USA, was the most famous
one. They all tried to build rockets to go into space. Each of these
countries wanted to be the first in space. So a race into space was
started.
20 In 1957, the world outside the USSR learned a new word: 'sputnik'.
This is the Russian word for a satellite, a planet which goes round and
round another planet. A real satellite (like the moon, which is the
earth's satellite) makes a circle round its planet, called an orbit.
Sputnik I, which was a small satellite, went into the earth's orbit and
25 sent back radio signals. Then, after a month, Sputnik 2 followed. And
this time, Laika, a dog, was aboard.
146
Then the USA came into the race. The first satellite they tried to
send into space caught fire. The second, Explorer I, went into orbit
without any problems and sent back a lot of interesting information
30 about the earth's atmosphere.
For a journey to the moon, scientists had to build new spaceships.
These new spaceships, called 'probes', could move in space freely.
Again the Americans tried several times, but could not launch their
first moon probe. The Soviets also had problems with their probes,
35 called Luniks. At last, Lunik 3 reached the moon and went into orbit
round it. For the first time people on earth saw pictures of the other
side of the moon.
In 1961, the Soviets were ready to take a risk. Yuri Gagarin flew
into space. This 27-year-old Soviet was the first real spaceman. His
40 spaceship made one orbit of the earth, and then landed safely. A few
weeks later, the first American astronaut, Alan Shepard, followed him
into space. Soon more Americans and more Soviets saw the world
from space. They said it was very beautiful. Flights continued and
men stayed in space longer and longer.
45 Finally, in 1969, after long preparations, the USA was ready for the
longest space journey in all those years. Apollo 11 was sent to the
moon with three astronauts. They brought back rock pieces and moon
dust for the scientists to examine.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'there' (line 7):
2.'one' (line 17):
3. This' (line 21):
4. 'him* (line 41):
5. 'if (line 43):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 4, 'this' refers to .
a) planets far away in space
b) telescopes
c) seeing planets better
d) learning about the earth
2. Line 8, 'that' refers to
a) the ideas in the stories
b) the strange stories
c) what the men hoped
d) that the ideas are wrong
147
68
EXPLORATION FOR OIL
Petroleum, or oil, is the world's most important source of energy. It is
produced in more than sixty countries throughout the world, but there are
mainly six important petroleum producing regions in the world. The
problem is: how can we determine the possible regions for oil? Drilling a
well is a difficult and expensive operation. Therefore, an oil company first
looks for good indications, or signs, of oil in an area. The aim of this
exploration is to discover the best areas for drilling.
There are four stages in the process of exploration: aerial surveys, a
geological survey, a geophysical survey and exploration drilling.
In an aerial survey, a survey of the area is made from an aeroplane. There
are two different types of aerial survey: the photographic and the magnetic.
During the former, photographs are taken from an aeroplane, showing the
most important geological features on the earth's surface. Maps are made
from these photographs. During the magnetic survey, the earth's magnetism
is recorded. Rock formations under the earth's surface differ from place to
place. As a result, the intensity of the earth's magnetism and the thickness of
the rocks are not the same everywhere. The measurements are analysed and
in this way information is obtained about the rock formations. The
geologists then look for signs of oil in these formations. If the indications
are good, exploration continues.
A geological survey is the next stage. Certain rock formations are visited.
By examining these structures, geologists learn about the shape and
direction of the rock formations under the surface. Samples of rock are
taken to the laboratory and analysed. If the samples contain fossils, these
will indicate the age of the rock. Fossils of marine animals show that there
may be oil in the area.
Geophysical surveys are used to confirm the results of geological
surveys. During a geophysical survey, an explosion is made on the earth's
surface. The rocks under the earth vibrate. These vibrations, called seismic
waves, travel down into the earth. Some of them, however, are reflected by
rock layers under the surface and 'heard' by special equipment. The waves
are recorded on a seismogram. Analysis of this information shows the depth
and type of rock formations.
All these surveys can help to locate structures under the earth's surface.
But still there may be no oil. There is only one way to be sure, and that is to
drill a well. The first wells are called exploration wells or wildcats. A
wildcat without any oil is called a dry hole. A discovery well is wildcat with
some oil. When oil is discovered, several more wells are drilled in the same
field. These are known as production wells.
149
Exploration for oil is a long, difficult and expensive process. However, it
reduces drilling, which saves money.
1. What is the third stage in the process of exploration for oil?
2. What is a discovery well?
3. What is the only one way to be sure that there is oil under the earth's surface?
4. Why are seismic waves recorded on a seismogram during the geophysical
survey?
5. Why are certain rock formations visited during a geological survey?
6. Why are the intensity of the earth's magnetism and the thickness of the rocks
not the same everywhere?
69
THE COMPUTER
With a tremendous roar from its rocket engine, the satellite is sent up into
the sky. Minutes later, at an altitude of 300 miles, this tiny electronic moon
begins to orbit the earth. Its radio begins to transmit a staggering amount of
information about the satellite's orbital path, the amount of radiation it
detects, and the presence of meteorites. Information of all kinds races back
to the earth. No human being could possibly copy down all these facts,
much less remember and organize them. But an electronic computer can.
The marvel of the machine age, the electronic computer, has been in use
only since 1946. It can do simple computations - add, subtract, multiply, and
divide - with lightning speed and perfect accuracy. It can multiply two
10-digit numbers in 1/1,000 second, a problem that would take an average
person five minutes to do with pencil and paper. Some computers can work
500,000 times faster than any person can.
150
Once it is given a 'program'; that is, a carefully worked-out set of
instructions devised by a technician trained in computer language, a
computer can gather a wide range of information for many purposes. For the
scientist, it can get information from outer space or from the depths of the
ocean. In business and industry, the computer prepares factory inventories,
keeps track of sales trends and production needs, mails dividend checks, and
makes out company payrolls. It can keep bank accounts up to date and make
out electric bills. If you are planning a trip by plane, the computer will find
out what route to take and what space is available.
Not only can the computer gather facts, it can also store them as fast as
they are gathered and can pour them out whenever they are needed. The
computer is really a high-pov/ered 'memory' machine that "has all the
answers" - or almost all. What is the most efficient speed for driving a car
through the New York-New Jersey tunnels? What brand of canned goods is
the most popular in a particular supermarket? What kind of weather will we
have tomorrow? The computer will flash out the answers in a fraction of a
second.
Besides gathering and storing information, the computer can also solve
complicated problems that once took months for people to do. For example,
within sixteen hours an electronic brain named CHEOPS (which stands for
Chemical Engineering Optimization System) solved a difficult design
problem. First, it was fed all the information necessary for designing a
chemical plant. After running through 16,000 possible designs, it picked out
the plan for the plant that would produce the most chemical at the lowest
cost. Then, it issued a printed set of exact specifications. Before CHEOPS
solved this problem, a team of engineers having the same information had
worked for a year to produce only three designs, none of which was as
efficient as the computer's.
At times computers seem almost human. They can 'read' handprinted
letters, play chess, compose music, write plays, and even design other
computers. Is it any wonder that they are sometimes called 'thinking'
machines?
Not even computers can predict the future, but the benefits of computers
are becoming more obvious every day.
a) Computers are being used in space travel. Rockets, satellites and
spaceships are guided by computers.
b) Computers are being used in aviation. They are used in the training of
airline pilots. Computers also direct the flight of planes from one city to
another, control their air speeds and altitudes, and even land them.
c) Computers are being used in medicine. They are used in analyzing
blood samples, in diagnosing disease, and in prescribing medication. They
also keep records of the tissue types of patients waiting for organ
transplants.
Even though they are taking over some of the tasks that were once
151
accomplished by our own brains, computers are not replacing us - at least
not yet. Our brain has more than 10 billion cells. A computer has only a few
hundred thousand parts. For some time to come, then, we can safely say that
our brains are at least 10,000 times more complex than a computer. How we
use them is for us, not the computer, to decide.
1. What was the name of the electronic brain that designed the chemical plant?
2. How long did it take CHEOPS to work out the design problem?
3. What kind of information was CHEOPS fed?
4. What plan did it pick out?
5. How long had a team of engineers been working on the same information?
6. What is guided by computers?
7. What uses do computers have in aviation?
8. How do computers help doctors?
9. How many cells does the human brain have?
10. How many times more complex are our brains than a computer?
152
70
ELECTRON THEORY
At one time, students used to be told: "We don't know what
electricity is, we don't know how electricity goes through a solid
wire," etc. The electron theory explains these things clearly and
simply. In addition, il explains the true meaning of voltage, resistance,
5 etc. Therefore, an understanding of the electron theory is basic to the
understanding of the electrical and electronic theory.
Scientists now agree that our universe is basically dependent on
two factors, one of which is matter, the other, energy. Matter is
anything that occupies space and has weight. It can exist in any of the
10 three forms: solid, liquid or gas.
Matter is composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The proton
has a positive charge. This component has very little weight. The
neutron has no charge, but it supplies almost all the weight of matter.
The electron has a negative charge. It also has very little weight. If we
15 could look at the structure of a piece of copper, we would find that it
consists of a specific number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
arranged in some particular way. In a piece of iron, a certain number
of protons, neutrons, and electrons are arranged in a different way.
The proton of iron is identical to that of copper and other elements.
20 They are all made up of the same components. It is the arrangement of
these components that makes them different.
The electrons of an atom are arranged in shells around the nucleus.
The electrons in the last shell are called 'valence' electrons and the
electrical properties of a material are dependent on the number of such
25 electrons. Atoms with less than four valence electrons give up one or
more electrons, and the fewer the valence electrons, the easier this
becomes. Atoms with more than 4 electrons in their last shell take one
or more additional electrons. The conduction of electricity is made
possible by the free electrons in the outer shell.
30 Metals are good conductors of electricity as they have less than 4
valence electrons. These electrons aren't strongly attached to the
nucleus, but the ones in the inner shell are. Therefore, in a metal, they
can move easily from one nucleus to another.
HYDROPONICS
Hydroponics is the technique of growing plants in water. It is
generally thought that plants need soil for growing. In fact, what they
need is the nutrients (vitamins and minerals) and moisture contained
in the soil and these can be supplied through water, as well as through
5 soil.
Hydroponics is not a new process. As long ago as the 1690's, an
English physician tried growing plants in water in a laboratory
experiment. However, it was not until the 1800's that German
researchers used this method to develop many of the formulas for
10 plant nutrient solutions still in use today.
About a generation ago, hydroponics moved out of the research
laboratory into practical use. In the past 40 years, hydroponic farming
has progressed in a number of areas, especially in those where water is
in short supply and temperatures are too extreme for ordinary
15 agriculture. This is because hydroponic farming is the only
economical solution in such desert areas.
Each year, more than 2.7 million kilograms of vegetables and fruit
arc produced by hydroponic farming. These are mostly tomatoes but
cucumbers, lettuce and melons are also grown. On hydroponic farms,
20 each tomato plant produces an average of 6 kilograms of fruit twice a
year - a total of 12 kilograms every year. An ordinary soil-grown
plant, on the other hand, produces only a total of 9 kilograms per year.
In hydroponic farming, plants are grown in greenhouses. The
greenhouses measure 8 by 39 metres and consist of steel frames
25 covered with strong transparent plastic that is resistant to weather and
lets in a maximum amount of light. The plants are fed by inorganic
nutrients dissolved in water which is supplied by a plastic pipeline.
The feeding and watering system is automated. Electric sensing
devices (sensors) determine when the plants are hungry or thirsty. The
30 sensors send messages which automatically start the water and
nutrient delivery system. When the sensors 'know' that the plant have
had enough, the system turns off automatically.
Nothing is left to chance within the greenhouses. Temperature,
humidity and air circulation are carefully controlled. Air conditioning
35 and heating equipment keep the temperature at 29°C by day and 18°C
by night.
In recent years, hydroponic farming has expanded to many parts of
the world. An application of the method has occurred in Italy, for
example, where the largest hydroponic installation - 50,000 square
35 expansion of such a bar, due to heating, may be used to operate
switches and valves.
In a gas refrigerator, there is a reservoir containing ammonia water.
When the lower gas flame is burning, the ammonia water rises
through the tube to the 'generator'. The upper gas flame drives off the
40 ammonia gas, which passes into the 'condenser'. The cold air around
the condenser rapidly brings down the temperature of the gas. Then
the cooled gas, now condensed into a liquid, passes into the
'evaporator', which contains hydrogen. In the evaporator, the ammonia
expands rapidly, especially since its expansion in hydrogen is greater
45 than it would be in air. This rapid expansion greatly lowers its
temperature. It is the cooling of the gas in the evaporator which lowers
the temperature of the whole refrigerator and freezes the water in the
ice-cube trays.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'it' (line 4):
2. 'they' (line 11):
3. 'doing so' (line 11):
4. 'do* (line 13):
5. 'one' (line 18):
6. 'Many' (line 19):
7. MV (line 31):
8. 'if (line 32):
9. 'such a bar" (line 35):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. In selecting a good refrigerant, we must choose one that .
a) evaporates quickly
b) is cheap
c) is not explosive
d) All of the above.
2. When a substance in gaseous form is allowed to pass through a small hole,
a) unlike the molecules of evaporating liquids, it absorbs heat energy from its
surroundings
b) like the molecules of evaporating liquids, it absorbs heat energy from its
surroundings
c) it might absorb heat energy from its surroundings
d^ it absorbs heat energy from the pump
73 • ••
[ p a g e — w — — ı — M I • • - •' •-.-——.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ . _ — _ _ r _ r _ 1 > _ _ T 1 _ | r r _ — f | — [ — _ — r r | [ r r _ n — | — y _ _ - n — [ _ • , — m — I T _ T _ — E B B M W — — w — — w — w —
ANTI-RADIATION PILLS FOR FAMILIES
By Jenny Hope
Nearly 1,000 people living near Britain's oldest nuclear power station are
to be given anti-nuclear pills. It is the first time the tablets - potassium
iodate - have been issued for emergency use to the public. The move has
been ordered by Gloucestershire County Council as part of a plan in case of
an accident at the Berkeley Power Station, which is 20 years old. The
council thinks such a safety improvement is necessary before the power
station's operating licence can be extended until the year 2000.
The anti-radiation tablets stop the thyroid gland from absorbing harmful
radioactive iodine by flooding it with a harmless form of the chemical. They
have only ever been taken once in Britain. That was when they were issued
two years ago to the workers at Hinkley Point Power Station in Somerset
during a leak of radioactive gas on the site. The tablets will be given to 100
people living and working on 28 farms near the Berkeley Power Station and
750 people working in factories in the industrial area near the reactor and
will be taken only if there is a leakage in the plant.
Privately, the council is worried that distributing the tablets will cause
unnecessary alamı among the population.
Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Anti-radiation pills are potassium iodate tablets which prevent people from
taking in radioactive iodine.
2. The tablets will be distributed to workers employed at the Berkeley Power
Station.
3. Anti-radiation pills are distributed only to be used if there is an accident at
the power station.
4. The panic caused by the distribution of the tablets has been prevented by
the explanations of the council.
5. In Britain, the tablets were first given to the workers at Hinkley Point Power
Station.
1^Q
74
CROCODILES
Crocodiles are formidable enemies of man and most of the stories
about them arise from tragic real experiences. At least 6 of the 23 species
1 in the crocodile family will attack and eat human beings if they can, and
many of the others are large enough to cause serious injury.
The well-known Nile crocodile, found from Egypt to the Cape of
Good Hope, has a length of 5 metres. It is reported that crocodiles kill up
to 1,000 people every year along the banks of the River Nile. Equally
large and dangerous is the man-eating salt water crocodile, whose habitat
2 ranges from India and China to northern Australia. The largest of all is
the Madagascar crocodile, which may grow to 9 metres or longer, and the
most dangerous is the Estuarine crocodile, which probably kills over
2,000 people each year.
Crocodiles have narrow, pointed snouts and rows of teeth in the lower
jaw. The teeth can be seen even when the mouth is closed. The body is
3 protected by thick leathery plates and the animal has webbed feet as well
as a powerful, flattened tail. Baby crocodiles are greenish grey with black
crossbands whereas most adults are olive coloured.
Sewage and garbage attract crocodiles by providing a rich diet which
unfortunately inflames their aggression. That's probably why there are
constant horror stories about the danger of crocodiles growing in sewage
systems and waste dumps of big cities in Africa. However, this is
4 certainly true for the city of Manzini in Swaziland, where the health
officials captured man-eating crocodiles and put them to work in the city
sewers and dumps to gobble up garbage. Now, the job is done cheaply
and effectively!
Among the many legends about crocodiles, there are those of living to
be a hundred years old. However, most crocodiles live for about fifty
years. The oldest official age recorded is that of a crocodile which was
5 born in Dresden Zoo in Germany in 1880 and which was recorded as
being still alive in 1937. In fact, it might have lived on much longer if the
zoo had not been completely destroyed in the Second World War.
Hatred has made the hunting of crocodiles so popular that the world
population of them has been drastically reduced. Some 16 species are
6 now almost extinct - among them the rare Cuban crocodile, which has
been reduced to a mere 300 individuals living in a protected sanctuary in
Cuba.
75
CAT
1 High on a hill in Mid-Wales near Machynlleth, a group of idealists
have shown that man can harmlessly draw energy from nature.
In the past 13 years, this group, some 30 adults with their children, has
2 demonstrated the success of harnessing the energy of the sun, the wind
and the rain to generate sufficient power for their needs.
Although they were not taken seriously by locals as the 'hippies in the
hills' when they first moved to the disused mining site a few miles from
3 Machynlleth, their projects and enthusiasm have won them the support of
the local people, big business, and international respect.
Opposed to the government's plans for both nuclear power and coal,
the Centre for Alternative Technology is striving for a programme using
renewable fuels which would protect the planet's future. "The way the
4 world is going, we could actually run out of known forms of energy
before we actually blow ourselves up," says Tim Kirby, an engineering
graduate and CAT's technical officer.
The centre uses windmills, water turbines and soku: panels to heat and
5 effectively provide for all its facilities, and the group believes that there
is no reason why such technology should not power the entire UK.
The CAT people live off the land, on organically-grown fruit and
vegetables and naturally-bred animals. Some are vegetarian; all believe
6 in a low meat diet. Most members of staff live on the site; others choose
to emulate the lifestyle in the surrounding area.
While most of us were complaining about the lack of sunshine this
summer, water pipes heated from solar panels at Machynlleth were red
hot after just a couple of hours of autumnal sun. "Few people realise the
7 power of the sun's rays." says Mr. Kirby. He claims that the owner of a
house with a wall of solar panels now pays around £75 a year on fuel
bills as opposed to £500 for the average house.
A. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. make a great effort to get something done (paragraph 4):
2. imitate, copy (paragraph 6):
162
76
MATHEMATICS
To meet the demands of industry, technology, and other sciences,
mathematicians have had to invent new branches of mathematics and
expand the old ones. They have built a superstructure of new ideas
that people who are trained in the classical branches of the subject
5 would hardly recognise as mathematics at all.
Applied mathematicians have been dealing with the world's
problems successfully, while pure mathematicians seem almost to
have lost touch with the real world. To them, mathematics is an art
and they don't care much whether it will ever have any practical use.
10 By applying the concepts of mathematics to worldly problems, the
applied mathematician can often brush away the obscuring details and
reveal simple patterns. Celestial mechanics, for example, enables
astronomers to calculate the positions of the planets at any time in the
past or future. Now, this ancient branch of mathematics has suddenly
15 become very practical for calculating the orbits of Earth satellites.
Applied mathematicians, who are interested in worldly problems,
have learned to solve many of them that were almost impossible to
solve ten or twenty years ago. They have developed new statistical
methods for controlling quality in high-speed industrial mass
20 production. They have built the basis for Operations Research, which
businessmen use to plan production and distribution. They have dealt
with the complexities of human behaviour through 'game theory',
which applies to military and business strategy. They have analysed
the design of automatic controls for such complicated systems as
25 factory production lines and supersonic aircraft. Now they are ready to
tackle many problems of space travel.
Mathematicians have begun to turn their attention to the biological
and social sciences as these sciences have started to use mathematics.
The bond between mathematics and life sciences has been
30 strengthened by a group of applied mathematics specialties, such as
biometrics, psychometrics and econometrics.
Now that they have electronic computers, mathematicians are
solving problems that they could never solve a few years ago. In a few
minutes, they can get an answer that previously would have required
35 months or even years of calculation. Furthermore, in designing
computers and programming them to carry out instructions,
mathematicians have had to develop new techniques. Computers have
contributed very little to pure mathematical theory, but they have been
used to test certain relationships among numbers.
\&A
ATOMS (2)
In 1805, the English chemist and physicist, John Dalton, stated that
all matter consists of small particles which he called 'atoms'.
Dalton's theory, which helped to explain many different
observations that he and other scientists had made, has been supported
5 and changed by scientists since his time, but it is basic to an
understanding of chemistry and biology today.
The word 'atom' comes from a Greek word which means
'indivisible'. However, scientists in our century have found that atoms
are not indivisible. All atoms are made up of different combinations of
10 three smaller particles: electrons, neutrons and protons. Electrons are
the main units of electricity and they carry a negative electrical charge
(-). Protons carry a positive electrical charge (+). Neutrons, as their
name suggests, are neutral. They carry no electrical charge.
How are these particles arranged inside the atom? The protons and
15 neutrons together form the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus is in the
centre and occupies a very small amount of the total space of the
atom. All the rest of the empty space in the atom is used by the rapidly
moving electrons. As a result of these rapid movements of electrons,
an 'electron cloud' is formed around the nucleus. They seem to be
20 everywhere at once. The number of electrons outside the nucleus
equals the number of protons inside the nucleus. Thus, an atom is
electricallly balanced, or neutral. All chemical reactions involve only
electrons, which travel around the nucleus in different orbits. These
electrons can interact with the electrons of another atom to form
25 compounds. The nucleus of an atom is not changed in a chemical
reaction. It is changed only in nuclear reactions, which occur, for
example, in radioactive minerals and in atomic reactors.
Atoms of different elements differ from one another in the number
of protons, neutrons and electrons. On the other hand, atoms of the-
30 same element always have the same number of protons and electrons,
although they may differ in the number of neutrons. These are called
isotopes. For example, over 99% of all the oxygen atoms in nature are
made up of 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons. This is known as the
Oxygen-16 isotope. 16 is the sum of the number of protons and
35 neutrons. (The number of electrons is not included in this number
because the number of electrons is the same as that of protons.)
However, there is also a small amount of the Oxygen-18 isotope,
whose atoms contain 8 protons and 10 neutrons.
Isotopes are important in biology because they can be used in
166
40 following many processes in living cells. Radioactive isotopes are the
most useful ones for this purpose. The nuclei of radioactive isotopes
are not stable. They give off radiation and finally come apart. The
radiation can be detected with a Geiger counter. For example, the
radioactive isotope of carbon, Carbon-14, has helped biologists to
45 follow the path of carbon in many complicated reactions inside living
cells.
Many of the chemical elements which occur in nature are made up
of mixtures of non-radioactive isotopes with stable nuclei. Others are
composed of radioactive isotopes. In addition, radioactive isotopes of
50 all the chemical elements can be produced artificially. These are
called radioisotopes.
The most important source of radioisotopes is the atomic reactor,
which yields large quantities of some isotopes from the fission of
uranium. Other radioisotopes may be produced by the bombardment
55 of suitable elements by neutrons in the reactor and some others by
nuclear reactions.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'if (line 5):
2. 'these particles' (line 14):
3. 'If (line 26):
4. 'they' (line 31):
5. 'Others' (line 48): Other
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Compounds are formed .
a) as a result of the rapid movements of the electrons
b) because electrons travel in different orbits around the nucleus
c) when the nucleus is changed in nuclear reactions
d) when the electrons of an atom interact with those of another atom
2. A chemical reaction .
a) helps to form an 'electron cloud' around the nucleus
b) causes no change in the nucleus and it involves only electrons
c) causes the electrons to move in different orbits
d) causes a change in the arrangement of all the particles of an atom
3. Which of the following statements is true?
a) The nuclei of radioactive isotopes give off radiation and they are stable.
b) There are several ways of producing radioisotopes artificially.
c) The number of protons, neutrons and electrons are always the same in the
atoms of the same element.
d) Both (a) and (b).
167
78
TRANCE
The word 'hypnosis' comes from the Greek word 'hypnos', which
means 'sleep1. Although it is hard to define hypnosis, because it has
many aspects and degrees, it might be said that hypnosis is a kind of
trance (a sleeplike condition) in which the subject responds strongly to
5 the suggestions of the hypnotist. It is difficult to know exactly what
changes hypnotism produces in the functioning of the nervous system
or the personality.
There are many theories on hypnosis, but no single theory is
accepted as completely explaining all aspects of hypnosis. One of the
10 oldest theories regards hypnosis to be a form of sleep. This concept
originated in 1784, and was further developed by Ivan Pavlov.
However, this theory is contradicted by evidence which indicates that
the hypnotized person is not asleep: the knee reflex, which is absent in
sleep, is present in the hypnotic state, and recordings of brain waves
15 show the typical patterns of the state in which we are awake.
Methods of putting a subject into a trance have changed in recent
years. Very few modern hypnotists use the old method of staring into
the subject's eyes. Instead, they use methods which emphasize
relaxing or even sleep. The subject sits in a comfortable chair while
20 the hypnotist talks quietly, giving the subject directions and
suggestions which lead him slowly into a trance. The hypnotist
watches for signs for this state. For example, many subjects don't talk
when they are in a trance. Instead of talking, they nod or shake their
heads when they have to answer the questions the hypnotist asks them.
25 The hypnotic trance may be classified according to its degree,
which depends partly on the hypnotist and partly on the subject.
In a light trance, the eyes are closed, breathing becomes slower and
the subject is able to carry out simple suggestions. The subject is
usually unable to open his eyes or move his amis if the hypnotist tells
30 him that he cannot.
In a medium-deep trance, the subject is able to experience feeling
of movement even though he is not moving. After coming out of the
trance, the subject may not remember what happened during the time
he was in a trance.
35 In a deep trance, the hypnotist can produce very unusual effects.
For example, he may tell the subject that, when he comes out of the
trance, he will think that he sees a clock on the wall and that he will
look at it and say it is midnight even though it's four o'clock in the
afternoon. When he comes out of the trance, the subject will do what
168
40 he is told to do, but he may not remember anything about what
happened in the trance.
In contrast to many people who can be put into a deep trance quite
easily, there are others who are not affected at all. The number of such
people constitutes about 20% of the population, but this percentage
45 may be higher among people who are 55 or older. Also, subjects who
try too hard to fall into a trance may actually be difficult to hypnotize
just like those who are afraid or suspicious of hypnosis or the
hypnotist. People who resist the process can't be hypnotized either.
However, some experimenters have reported that it was easier to
50 hypnotize people who did not know they were being hypnotized.
These subjects were patients who needed treatment for various kinds
of nervous conditions. They were simply told that the doctor would
teach them how to relax.
Contrary to popular belief, there is no possibility of the subject not
55 awakening as a result of an accident to the hypnotist. It is also not true
that a hypnotized subject is completely under the will or power of the
hypnotist.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. This concept' (line 10):
2. 'him' (line 21):
3. 'he' (line 36):
4. 'such people* (lines 43-44):
5. These subjects' (line 51):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. The theory which regards hypnosis as a form of sleep .
a) is still accepted by many scientists
b) was first established by Ivan Pavlov in 1784
c) cannot be accepted because of the evidence which proves just the opposite
d) Both (b) and (c).
2. In modern methods of hypnotic trance .
a) everything depends on the hypnotist
b) relaxing plays an important role
c) most hypnotists prefer to stare into the subject's eyes
d) subjects are asked not to talk while they are in a trance
169
3. Which of the following statements is true?
a) There are theories which explain hypnosis satisfactorily.
b) If something happens to the hypnotist after hypnotizing a subject, the subject
may not come out of the trance.
c) The hypnotist can take every subject completely under his power.
d) After coming out of medium-deep or deep trances, the subjects may not
remember what happened during the trance.
C. What kind of people are likely to be difficult or impossible to hypnotize?
a) :
b)
79
STAYING UNDERWATER
Until man invented ways of staying underwater for more than a few
minutes, the wonders of the world below the sea were almost
unknown. The main problem, of course, was air. How could air be
supplied to swimmers below the surface of the sea? Pictures made
5 about 2,900 years ago in Asia show men swimming under the surface
with air bags tied to their bodies. A pipe from the bag carried air into
the swimmer's mouth. Yet, little progress was made in the invention of
diving devices until about 1490, when the famous Italian painter,
Leonardo da Vinci, designed a complete diving suit.
10 In 1680, an Italian professor invented a large air bag with a glass
window to be worn over the diver's head. To 'clean' the air, a
breathing pipe went from the air bag, through another bag to remove
moisture, and then again to the large air bag. The plan did not work,
but it gave later inventors the idea of moving air around in diving
15 devices.
In 1819, a German, Augustus Siebe, developed a way of forcing air
into the head-covering by a machine operated above the water.
Finally, in 1837 he invented the 'hard-hat suit', which was to be used
for almost a century. It had a metal covering for the head and an air
20 pipe attached to a machine above water. It also had small openings to
remove unwanted air. But there were two dangers to the diver inside
the hard-hat suit. One was a sudden rise to the surface, caused by too
great a supply of air. The other was the crushing of the body, caused
by a sudden dive into deep water. The sudden rise to the surface could
25 kill the diver; a sudden dive could force his body up into the head
covering, which could also result in death.
170
Gradually, the hard-hat suit was improved so that the diver could
be given a constant supply of breathable air. The diver could then
move around under the ocean without worrying about his air supply.
30 During the 1940's, diving underwater without a special suit became
popular. Instead, divers used a breathing device and a face-mask, i.e.,
a small covering worn on the face made of rubber and glass. To
increase the swimmers' speed another new invention was used -
rubber shoes shaped like giant duck feet called flippers. The
35 manufacture of snorkels, which are rubber breathing pipes, made it
possible for the divers to float on the surface of the water, observing
the marine life below them. A special rubber suit which prevented
heat loss made diving comfortable enough to collect samples of plant
and vegetable life even in icy waters.
40 The most important advance, however, was the invention of a
self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, which is called a
'scuba'.
Invented by two Frenchmen, Jacques Yves Cousteau and Emile
Gagnan, the scuba consists of a mouthpiece joined to one or two tanks
45 of compressed air which are attached to the diver's back. The scuba
makes it possible for a diver-scientist to work 200 feet underwater - or
even deeper - for several hours. As a result, scientists can now move
around freely at great depths, learning about the wonders of the sea.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. The other* (line 23): The other
2. 'them' (line 37):
3. 'which' (line 45):
1. How was fresh air supplied to the diver inside the hard-hat suit?
2. How was unwanted air removed from the hard-hat suit?
3. What were the dangers to the diver inside the hard-hat suit?
a)
b)
171
80
DISTILLING OIL
When plants and animals die, they normally decay, helped along by
fungi and bacteria in the environment. Once decomposed, they
provide nutrients for living organisms, and the respiration of fungi and
bacteria causing decay releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5 Over a period of several hundred million years, however,
comparatively small amounts of organic material have remained under
layers of silt, soil or volcanic rock and, as there is no oxygen, have not
fully decomposed. Instead, they have formed deposits of coal, natural
gas and oil, often located far below the land surface or the sea-bed.
10 Oil is usually found in porous rock under a layer of hard rock
which prevents it from escaping. It can, then, only be reached by
drilling. The initial rush of oil out of a drill pipe is caused by the
pressure of the gas compressed immediately above the oil deposits. In
time, this pressure decreases and the oil has to be pumped to the
15 surface.
Raising oil from below the sea-bed is an immensely difficult and
dangerous operation. Although drilling engineers are exposed to high
winds and heavy seas, they have to make test bores to see if it is worth
exploring further. After they are satisfied that they have found an
20 oilfield, they set up a platform. The quality of the oil which is piped
up to the surface varies, but it all has to be brought ashore. This is
done either by pumping it along pipelines or carrying it in tankers. In
the North Sea, as they are constantly threatened by the weather, the
big oil companies have, on the whole, preferred pipelines. In other
25 locations, where they are favoured by better weather conditions, they
often use tankers.
The crude oil raised directly from wells is not yet ready for use. It
has to be refined. The first stage in this process is fractional distillation
in a fractionating column. Those fractions, such as petrol and
30 kerosene, which are lighter and more volatile, move towards the top of
the column before condensing. The heavy residual fuel at the base of
the column is extremely impure.
The fractional distillation of crude oil results in the production of
several useful substances, all of them normally liquids except the gas
35 from the top of the column and the solid residue at the base. Straight
petrol, which vaporizes between 30° and 200° Centigrade, is used
(when mixed with petrol produced from kerosene and heavy gas oil)
as fuel for motor cars. The gas, which boils between 20° and 164°C,
also has a use - many households rely on it for heating and cooking.
173
40 Kerosene has, of course, become invaluable as the fuel consumed by
jet planes. It boils between 200° and 300°C, whereas heavy gas oil
and fuel oil vaporize within the range 300°C. The former is used to
produce diesel fuel for lorries, buses and some cars, and the latter is
redistilled to produce other fractions. The heavier fractions, such as
45 petroleum jelly and paraffin, the former with a boiling point over
350°C and the latter with a melting point between 52° and 57°C, have
a variety of uses. Petroleum jelly is a useful lubricant and is used on
the skin, and paraffin is the main component of wax candles. The
pitch and tar at the bottom of the column, which boil at over 430°C,
50 are used to make asphalt. So, there is little wastage.
But distillation does not produce enough high grade petrol to meet
today's high demand. The petrol offered for sale to motorists is a
mixture of straight petrol and distilled petrol produced by chemical
modification from certain other distillates.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they* (line 2):
2. 'this process' (line 28):
3. 'the latter' (line 46):
4. 'which' (line 49):
1. What prevents total decomposition of dead plants and animals?
2. Why can oil only be reached by drilling?
3. How can oil be brought ashore from an oil platform?
4. What determines the method used for bringing oil ashore?
174
81
PATTERNS OF OCEAN LIFE
A striking example of how man can drastically alter the
interdependence patterns of ocean life has occurred off the coasts of
southern California. In the nineteenth century, these waters had a large
population of that busy little animal called the sea otter, which ate sea
5 urchins*, which, in turn, fed on large brown algae called kelp. Sea
otters almost totally disappeared due to fur traders who encouraged
hunters to kill off otters for their valuable furs. With the disappearence
of the otter, sea urchins started to reproduce in vast numbers, leading
to a great increase in their population. This caused sea urchins to
10 almost entirely exhaust kelp beds. At this point, man had replaced the
original balance of nature with a new pattern: The sea urchins, which
previously had been the prey of the sea otter, had become the
predator* and the kelp had become the new prey. As the kelp began to
disappear, sea urchins began to starve. With the reduction of the
15 urchin population, the kelp managed to reproduce and increase their
numbers. Yet, the sea urchins again increased and so on. A cycle
taking from 10 to 12 years started to repeat itself.
A further step came when sewage pollution caused an additional
destruction of kelp - not because sewage kills kelp but because sewage
20 feeds sea urchins, which once again increased in numbers with this new
source of food. If sea otters had been present in sufficient quantities, the
kelp beds would still be abundant. In order to re-establish the proper
balance in the eco-system, marine biologists have put forward a
number of solutions. In time and with the help of man, nature may
25 regain its previous order.
* sea urchin: a small ball-shaped sea animal with a hard shell and many sharp points
* predator: an animal that lives by killing and eating other animals
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'these waters' (line 3):
2. 'this new source of food' (lines 20-21):
B. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. change (paragraph 1):
2. completely, totally (paragraph 1):
3. use up (paragraph 1):
176
4. but (paragraph 1):
5. more than enough (paragraph 2):
6. propose, suggest (paragraph 2):
C.
1. Why did the number of sea otters in California fall abruptly?
2. What was the cause of the exhaustion of the kelp beds?
GROWING UP
When we are young, the house where we live is our whole world.
Everything is provided for us - food and shelter, warmth and love. We
obey our parents without question, because if mummy and daddy say
it, it must be right. Every experience we have is classified as good or
5 bad according to their reaction. We quickly learn to do those things
which earn their praise, and to avoid doing those things which upset
them and earn their disapproval.
As we grow older, we are more and more exposed to outside
influences - school, friends and other adults. We soon start to realise
10 that there are other values which are different from those our parents
hold. For example, your parents have told you that some words, such
as 'bloody', are swear words, and they have forbidden you to use them.
However, in your friend's house, everyone - children and grown-ups -
says things like 'Bloody hell!' when they are annoyed and no-one
15 seems to think that there is anything wrong with it. You are confused;
you wonder what the right thing to do is. You try to resolve the
conflict of values between two groups of people - your parents on the
one hand, and your friend's parents on the other - for whom you have
equal respect. Eventually what happens is that we start to lead double
20 lives; we reserve some forms of behaviour for the home, and others
for the world outside the home.
The real conflict starts when we reach adolescence. We begin to
question everything and everyone, including our parents and their
values, because we want to establish our own independent values.
25 Unfortunately, as long as we are living at home and are dependent on
our parents, we cannot lead our own lives according to our own views
177
of right and wrong. The trouble is that if our parents give us more
freedom, we are bound to make mistakes, and they will wonder if they
have given us too much freedom. On the other hand, if parents allow
30 too little freedom, their teenage children are likely to become resentful
and rebellious.
Somewhere between the two extremes, it ought to be possible to
find a sort of 'democratic' alternative, which allows children the
freedom to grow up and to make their own decisions, including
35 mistakes, but which also offers them help and protection when they
need it.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. "those" (line 10):
2. 'them" (line 12):
3. 'others' (line 20): other
4. 'the two extremes' (line 32):
B. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. do what you are told to do (paragraph 1):
2. adults (paragraph 2):
3. a feeling of approval and liking (paragraph 2):
4. state of disagreement (paragraph 3):
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Children believe that their parents know the best.
2. Outside influences affect children more and more as they grow up.
3. Questioning the people and the values around us starts during
adolescence.
4. Teenagers begin to live according to their own values as soon as they
determine them.
5. Parents should have total control over their children's acts and decisions.
D.
1. How do children decide whether an experience is good or bad?
2. How do we try to resolve the conflict of values?
3. When do parents think that they have given their children too much freedom?
178
LONELINESS
Loneliness is a curious thing. Most of us can remember feeling
most lonely when we were not in fact lonely at all,.but when we
were surrounded by people. Everyone has experienced, at some 1
time, that utter sense of isolation that comes over you when you are
5 at a party. It suddenly seems to you as if everybody knows
everybody; everybody, that is, except you.
This feeling of loneliness, which can overcome you when you
are in a crowd, is very difficult to get rid of. People living alone are 2
advised to tackle their loneliness by joining a club or a society, by
10 going out and meeting people. Does this really help?
There are no easy solutions. Your first day at work or at a new
school is a typical situation in which you are likely to feel lonely.
You feel lonely because you feel left out of things. You feel that 3
everybody else is full of confidence and knows what to do, but you
15 are helpless. The fact of the matter is that, in order to survive, we
all put on a show of self-confidence to hide our uncertainties and
doubts. Therefore, it is wrong to assume that you are alone.
The trouble is that you may not be able to hide the fact that you
are lonely, and the miserable look on your face might put people 4
20 off. Thus, trying to look reasonably cheerful is a good starting point
to combat loneliness.
The next thing to avoid is finding yourself in a group where you
are a stranger; that is, you are in the sort of group where all the
people already know each other. There is a natural tendency for
25 people to stick together. You will do yourself no good by trying to
establish yourself in a group which has so far managed to do very
well without you. Groups generally resent intrusion, not because
they dislike you personally, but because they have already had to
work quite hard to turn the group into a functioning unit. To 5
30 include you means having to go over a lot of ground again, so that
you can learn their 'language' and get involved in their conversation
at their level. In fact, the surest way of getting to know others is to
have an interest in common with them. There is no guarantee that
you will then like each other, but at least part of your life will be
35 filled with sharing experiences with others. It is much better than
feeling alone. If all this seems to be a rather pessimistic view of
life, you have to accept the fact that we are all actually alone and
that loneliness is sometimes unavoidable.
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84
CHOOSING A CAREER
One of the first things we try to find out about people is what their job is.
It helps us to define their status. We can judge where they stand socially,
r and estimate how much they earn. However, it is more interesting to know
how a man comes to choose his job than what he does.
The trouble is that we often choose a career for the wrong reasons. Take,
for instance, those people who 'follow in father's footsteps', either entering
the same trade or profession, or inheriting the family business. John decides
to become a doctor because his father was a doctor. In fact, the word
'decides' is too strong; he probably never even thought about it. Funnily
enough, some people make the opposite decision, namely that whatever else
they might do, they will certainly not do what their father did. Our teachers
are the first to persuade us to choose a specific career, probably because we
are top students in that subject. We may also be persuaded by people whom
we admire to select a career for which we are unsuited.
The attitude of our parents toward our choice of career is interesting.
They are quite pleased when we announce our intention to study medicine,
disappointed when we switch to languages and overjoyed when we finally
start to study law. Clearly, they have a definite idea of the benefits different
jobs will bring. Even though they appear to leave the choice entirely to their
children, they know that their children will eventually respect their wishes.
Apart from these pressures from parents, teachers and other people, we
may choose a career due to factors such as the attractiveness of the
profession or the prospect of earning a lot of money in a short time. It ought
to be easy to choose a career. We only have to do those things for which we
have a natural talent. It is a pity, therefore, that we have to decide about our
future at a stage in our lives when we can easily be influenced by factors
which have little or nothing to do with the main issue.
A. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. calculate approximately (paragraph 1):
2. a particular kind of work (paragraph 2):
3. receiving money or property from someone who has died (paragraph 2):
4. the way someone thinks or feels about something (paragraph 3):
181
85
POWERS OF THE HUMAN BODY
The human body is made up mainly of bone, muscle and fat.
Some 639 different muscles make up about 45 per cent of the body
weight. Each of these muscles has four different and measurable
qualities. It can produce force which can be "measured as strength of
5 muscle. It can also store energy which permits it to work for
extended periods of time independent of circulation. In addition, a
muscle can shorten or be stretched. The combination of these four
qualities of muscle is referred to as muscular power.
If muscles are to function efficiently, they must be continually
10 supplied with energy fuel. This is accomplished by blood, which
carries the energy fuels from the lungs and digestive system to the
muscles. The blood is forced through the blood vessels by the
heart. The combined capacity to supply energy fuels to the working
muscles is called organic power.
15 The capacity and efficiency with which your body can function
depend on the degree of development of both your muscular and
organic powers through regular exercise. However, the level to
which you can develop these powers is influenced by such factors
as the type of body you have, the food you eat, presence or absence
20 of disease, rest and sleep. You are physically fit only when you
have developed your muscular and organic power.
Genetics and health determine the top limits to which your
physical capacity can be developed. This is known as your
'potential physical capacity'. This potential capacity varies from
25 individual to individual. Most of us, for example, could train for a
lifetime and never come close to running a four-minute mile simply
because we weren't built for it. The top level at which you can
perform physically right now is called your 'acquired capacity'
because it has been acquired or developed through physical activity
30 in your daily routines.
You can avoid wastage of energy by acquiring a level of
physical capacity well above the level required to perform your
normal daily tasks. This can be done by supplementing your daily
physical activity with a balanced exercise program performed
35 regularly. Your capacity increases as you progressively increase the
load on your muscular and organic systems.
183
86
MEDICINE IN THE SEVENTIES
The successes and failures of scientific medicine came sharply into focus.
New technology was available, but a more questioning attitude to drugs
emerged.
On 25 July 1978, a girl called Louise Brown became the world's first
'test-tube baby'. An egg from her mother's body had been successfully
fertilized in a laboratory. For childless couples, the technique invoked new
hope. Was it possible to manipulate human reproduction even more
dramatically? Scientists developed 'cloning' in the seventies. It means
reproducing several identical living things from a single original. Gardeners
have practised it for centuries by taking cuttings from one plant to produce
others. Scientists managed to clone frogs, and people suggested that it might
be possible to clone humans, too. Ira Levin examined the idea in his novel
The Boys from Brazil. In it, cells from Hitler's body are implanted in women
around the world to create a whole race of Hitlers. This was a terrible
fantasy. But despite its possibility, most scientists rejected the idea that a
complex organism such as the human body could ever be cloned.
In 1979, Dr. Geoffrey Hounsfield won the Nobel Prize for physiology by
developing the body scanner. This revolutionized X-ray techniques by
scanning the body from all angles in three-dimensional sections. Drugs
came under careful scrutiny. The morning sickness drug, Thalidomide, was
found to produce deformed children, and the drug company was forced to
pay millions of pounds in compensation. Doubts also grew about the
contraceptive pill. Women over 35 who were heavy smokers were advised
not to use it because of its dangerous side effects. In contrast, natural
medicine became hugely popular, especially acupuncture, an ancient
Chinese method of anaesthetizing patients by sticking pins into points in the
nervous system.
A. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. raised; activated (paragraph 1):
2. did not accept (paragraph 1):
3. made great changes in (paragraph 2):
4. observation; examination (paragraph 2):
185
87
SHARKS:
MAGNIFICENT AND MISUNDERSTOOD
Dr. E. Clark is a famous biologist and professor of zoology at the
University of Maryland. In this article, she has described her research
on sharks.
My early experiments with shark behaviour at Cape Haze
5 surprised a great many scientists - including, I must admit, myself.
The experiments showed how easily many types of sharks learned 1
to distinguish between right and wrong targets, which is a skill they
developed as quickly as laboratory while rats.
More recent studies of sharks' brains, sensory systems, and types
10 of behaviour contradict popular misconceptions of sharks as stupid,
unpredictable eating machines, with nothing more than primitive
brains and a good sense of smell. In fact, sharks are as predictable 2
as any animal - even one's wife or husband - if one takes time to
study and get to know them. Those of us who have had an
15 opportunity to dive frequently with sharks do so, knowing that it is
far safer to swim with these animals than to drive on an average
city street or highway.
The last few years have produced exciting new knowledge about
sharks. Barely a decade ago, there were only 250 accepted species;
20 today, that number has climbed by a hundred. Sharks are a great
deal more sophisticated than we once thought, and we now know
that they have a higher sensitivity to electric fields than any animal 3
ever studied. They have also been shown to orient to Earth's
magnetic field. Sharks can match laboratory white rats in certain
25 learning tests, and they have a surprisingly long retention span.
Thus, they are hardly the primitive and senseless creatures that man
has mistaken them for.
For the most part, the normal shark diet consists of fishes,
mollusks, and crustaceans. Few sharks actually hunt or feed on
30 marine mammals. No shark normally feeds on man. Most shark
attacks on humans are bite-and-release or slashing types of actions 4
that suggest warnings rather than attempts to kill. We accept the
fact that a dog bites a stranger if the latter invades its territory. Are
the rare shark attacks on humans caused by the similar invasion of
35 what the shark considers its territory?
When we consider the rarity of shark attacks among hundreds of 5
millions of swimmers each year, we should ask ourselves a moral
187
question: Because we like to swim and dive in an environment
unnatural to our species, is it right for us to kill off tens of thousands
40 of harmless inhabitants of that environment to ensure our peace of
mind? We have invented many sports that are more hazardous than
going into the sea. When we kill ourselves at these, we blame no 5
one else and simply accept the risks. But when it comes to sharing
the sea, v/e insist that sharks take all the risks. With further research
45 we may one day be able to predict sharks' behaviour with great
accuracy. When that day comes, I feel certain we will recognize
that sharks present no threat to mankind.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'a skill1 (line 7):
2. 'them' (line 14):
3. 'do so' (line 15):
4. 'our species' (line 39):
5. 'that environment' (line 40):
6. 'these' (line 42):
B. Find v/ords in the text which mean the opposite of the following.
1. primitive (paragraph 3):
2. safe (paragraph 5):
C. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. the period of time that something learnt is kept in memory (paragraph 3) :
2. private area (paragraph 4):
D. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. The experiments in Cape Haze showed that one can train sharks.
2. Sharks are animals which have primitive brains with a good sense of smell.
3. Today, there are more than 300 accepted species of sharks.
4. Sharks are sensitive to electric fields but not to Earth's magnetic field.
5. Sharks eat mainly fish, some mammals and man in order to feed
themselves.
6. Sharks rarely attack swimmers.
7. The writer thinks that our peace of mind is more important than sharks'
right to live.
188
88
ELECTRIC SHOCKS
Most of us fear an electric shock, yet we know little about what is
safe and v/hat is not when we handle electricity. For example, most of
the time we are cautious about handling electrical devices which seem
to be complicated in structure, but do not worry about turning off the
5 electricity with a wet hand. Maybe you don't mind placing your radio
or the hair drier on the wet surface in the bathroom.
Body fluids are not as good conductors as metals. Their resistance
is much higher. For example, a current of 20 microamperes flowing
directly through the heart can bring about death. On the other hand, a
10 current of 100 to 200 microamperes through electrodes on the chest
triggers the regular beating of the heart, after the heart has stopped.
The reason for such a big difference in the effects of the two values is
that the first current is sent directly to the heart and the second has to
pass through the fluids of the body, which have a greater resistance.
15 As you can see, in an electric shock, it is the current that matters, not
the voltage.
One thing about the injuries associated with electric shocks is that,
most of the time, they arise from involuntary body movements in
response to the current. For example, the current may cause you to
20 lose your balance and to fall off a ladder. Sometimes, the victim
freezes with the current, maybe because some muscles are paralyzed
for a moment, and he cannot let go of the thing he is holding. As he
keeps holding the object, there will be more current sent through the
body.
25 One other thing about electric shocks is the burns they cause. When
the skin burns, a low resistance path is established for the current and
now the current can cause more damage.
Some electrical appliances require earthing. With these appliances,
if the insulation becomes frayed, the leakage is carried to the ground,
30 without doing any harm. Most of the time, people use extension cables
without the earthing or make incorrect connections. It is not safe to do
so. Always use the proper extensions and connections.
One other mistake made by most people is to wind thick wires
around fuses, to prevent the fuse from blowing frequently. The fuses
35 are there for safety, to prevent the overloading of the current. If they
do not blow, then the excess current may cause damage to the
electrical appliances or even cause a fire.
Briefly, it is not safe to play with electricity. Never forget that your
body resistance is lowered greatly when it is wet. Always be careful
189
40 with electricity, but never panic. If you see someone caught up in an
electric shock, before you reach out to rescue him, go to the fuse box
and shut off the circuit at the main inlet.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they' (line 25):
2. 'if (line 39):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 3, 'cautious' means .
a) ignorant b) curious c) worried d) careful
2. Line 11, 'triggers' means .
a) increases b) starts c) stops d) decreases
3. Line 21, 'freezes' means .
a) becomes very cold c) holds on tightly
b) is unable to move d) becomes electrified
4. Line 29, 'frayed' means .
a) worn out b) harmful c) renewed d) overloaded
5. We don't usually worry about turning off the electricity with a wet hand because
we .
a) know that it is safe to do so
b) don't mind handling simple electrical devices
c) don't fear an electric shock
d) know a great deal about electricity
6. Injuries related to electric shocks are mostly due to the .
a) involuntary response of the body to the shock
b) type of appliance in which there was a leak
c) voltage of the electric shock
d) Both (b) and (c).
7. Lines 31-32, 'It is not safe to do so' means it is not safe to .
a) use extension cables without earthing
b) carry the leakage to the ground
c) make incorrect connections
d) Both (a) and (c).
190
1. Why does a low voltage electric current applied directly through the heart cause
death while a higher one applied through electrodes on the chest does not?
2. Why does burnt skin enable the current to cause more damage?
3. What kind of misuse of electricity may cause fire?
89
STRESS
Stress is considered to be a natural part of the contemporary
world. Everybody is exposed to a certain amount of stress.
Nonetheless, it should be made clear that stress doesn't occupy a
greater place in our lives today than it did in the past. Although
5 cavemen didn't have to worry about the stock market or the atomic
bomb, they worried about being eaten by a bear while they were 1
asleep or about dying of hunger - things that few people worry
much about today. It's not that people suffer more stress today, it's
just that they think they do. Everybody thinks that he or she is
10 under the greatest stress. The truth is that everybody actually is
under stress because if we really managed to avoid stress
completely, we would be dead.
Stress is the response of the body to any demand. Stress is the
state you are in, not the agent that produces it, which is called a
15 stressor. Cold and heat are stressors. However, having a highly
developed central nervous system, man most frequently suffers
from stress due to emotional stressors. The thing for the average 2
person to remember is that all the demands that you make - whether
on your brain or on your liver or your muscles or your bones -
20 cause stress. For example, stress can occur under deep anesthesia,
when your emotions are not engaged, or in animals that have no
nervous system, or even in plants.
There are two ways of telling when someone is under stress.
One, not accessible to the public, is biochemical and neurological -
25 measuring blood pressure, hormone levels, the electric activity of 3
the brain and so on. Nevertheless, there are other indicators that
anyone can judge. No two people react the same way, but the usual
191
responses are an increase in pulse rate and an increased tendency to
sweat. You will also become more irritable and will sometimes 3
30 suffer insomnia, even long after the stressor agent is gone. You will
usually become less capable of concentrating and you will have an
increased desire to move about.
There are various causes of stress. They differ in various
civilizations and historical time periods. At certain times, disease
35 and hunger were the predominant causes. Another, now and then, is 4
warfare or the fear of war. At the moment, the most frequent causes
of distress in man are psychological, e.g., lack of adaptation or not
having a code of behaviour.
The secret code to coping with stress is not to avoid stress but 'to
40 do your own thing'. It implies doing what you like to do and not
what you are forced to do. It is really a matter of learning how to 5
live, how to behave in various situations, to decide: "Do I really
want to take over my father's business or want to be a musician?" If
you really want to be a musician, then be one.
A. Find words / phrases in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. modern (paragraph 1):
2. can be seen, noticed by (paragraph 3):
3. signs (paragraph 3):
4. main (paragraph 4):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 14, 'if refers to .
a) a stressor
b) any demand
c) the agent that produces stress
d) the state you are in
2. Line 24, 'One' refers to .
a) a way
b) stress
c) someone
d) blood pressure
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. There was as much stress in the past as there is today.
2. A person can suffer from stress even when he is unconscious.
192
3. All symptoms of stress disappear as soon as the stressor agent
disappears.
4. The causes of stress have never changed throughout history.
1. Why are emotional stressors the most frequent causes of stress in man?
2. What does the author mean by 'doing your own thing' in the fifth paragraph?
90
BAD WATER
Few things are as insidious as bad water. It's dangerous for you
and your children, but you usually can't tell if you have it. And if
you do, you may not be able to find out where the problems are \
coming from. Water can carry some of our most serious diseases -
5 typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis - yet still look clear in the glass. We
may do battle over how we get our water and develop it, but we
fear for its quality.
This issue is being dealt with currently. There is a necessity to
prevent pollution by passing laws which will maintain safe
10 drinking water. However, this is difficult because it has become 2
increasingly apparent that the sources of pollution are not just
institutions that can be controlled by specific laws. The burden of
pollution belongs to all of us.
Water's nature itself is a part of these complications. This simple
15 structure of hydrogen and oxygen has even been called the 3
universal solvent. It takes into solution a vast number of
substances, that is, dissolves them, but those it cannot dissolve are
simply carried along.
Human beings have put this characteristic to work in thousands
20 of ways. We wash with it; we flush with it; we mix it with
chemicals to spray on our fields. We use it to make paint and
plastic. We wash our workshop, garage and factory with it. But this 4
remarkable utility also means that it's very hard to put anything out
of water's reach. Consequently, a lot of things we don't want in
25 water get there anyway. If you pour poison on the ground, even in
the most barren desert, water will pick it up molecule by molecule,
193
and because water is always going somewhere, it will take it away. 4
Technically, water pollution can be divided into two types:
point-source pollution (waste dumped by factories or sewage 5
30 plants) and nonpoint-source pollution. In many ways, the second is
the larger problem.
Nonpoint-source pollution is what happens when you spill oil on
the garage floor, then wash it down. It happens when a soybean
field is sprayed with pesticides and then it rains. It happens when 6
35 someone throws a dead battery into a valley, Water picks it all up
and adds it to the system. Water is in serious jeopardy because
we're not paying much attention to anything except pollution from
a pipe.
All this shows that a change is coming - a fundamental change
40 in the way we use and think about water. It's no use pointing
fingers at industry. The only way to make progress is to have 7
everyone realize that nonpoint-source pollution is the major cause
of water pollution and to convince them that it is no longer possible
to ignore fresh water.
A. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. unpleasant, develops without being noticed (paragraph 1):
2. clear, obvious (paragraph 2):
3. infertile (paragraph 4):
4. danger (paragraph 6):
5. basic (paragraph 7):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 8, This issue' refers to .
a) how we obtain our water
b) how we process our water
c) how we are uncertain about the quality of our water
d) how dirty water affects our children's health negatively
2. Lines 22-23, 'this remarkable utility' refers to .
a) the difficulty of keeping water clean
b) washing with water
c) flushing with water
d) the multiple uses of water
104
91
VIDEOS FOR KIDS:
FUN YES - FACTS YES - VIOLENCE NO
"We are determined to provide parents with the opportunity to
choose, quality family viewing instead of the crime and murder that
dominates so much of TV aimed at 'children. Our new Children's
Television department dynamically fulfills that commitment," says Gil
5 Grosvenor from National Geographic Society, whose first home-video
series for children - Really Wild Animals - is geared for youngsters
between the ages of five and ten.
The series is hosted by Spin, a cartoon globe-on-the-go who
introduces young viewers to the ways Earth's inhabitants live, use
10 their environment, and care for one another. For instance, children see
renowned scientist Jane Goodall studying the social structure of
chimps and discover that these primates, just like humans, comfort
their young.
Really Wild Animals begins with three video cassettes: Swinging
15 Safari, Wonders Down Under, and Deep Sea Dive. Six more are
scheduled. The videos are entertaining and educational, and packed
with animals - from African lions to Australia's spiny anteater.
Spin roams the world, speaking in the many voices of actor Dudley
Moore. Spin presents a soap opera about colobus monkeys, a Western
20 about sea horses, and a segment on lifestyles of the weird and little:
about a fish called a mudskipper, a marsupial called a quoll, and a
mammal that flies - the fruit bat. Each video includes mini-
documentaries about animals. Original music accompanies the stories.
Andrew Wilk, executive producer and vice president for Children's
25 Television, says: "We chose to start with a home-video series because
we wanted involved viewers. When kids run VCRs themselves, they
watch with concentration instead of zapping from channel to channel."
Children four and under will soon have their own home-video
series in a format designed to appeal to that age. Called Geo Kids, the
30 series will premier in the fall of 1998.
"With this major new commitment, we hope to give children a
running start toward a future where they can connect with the exciting,
living world in all its variety and fullness."
196
92
MIDDLE EAST WATER:
CRITICAL RESOURCE
By Priit J. Vesilind
Fresh water, life itself, has never come easy in the Middle East.
The rainfall only comes in winter,- and drains quickly through the
semiarid land, leaving the soil to bake and to thirst until next
November. The region's accelerating population, expanding
5 agriculture, industrialization, and higher living standards demand
more fresh water. Drought and pollution limit its availability. War
and mismanagement squander it.
Scarcity is only one element of the crisis. Inefficiency is another, as
is the reluctance of some water-poor nations to change priorities from
10 agriculture to less water-intensive enterprises. Some experts suggest
that if nations would share both water technology and resources, they
could satisfy the region's population, currently 159 million. But in this
patchwork of ethnic and religious rivalries, water seldom stands alone
as an issue. It is entangled in the politics that keep people from
15 trusting and seeking help from one another. Here, where water, like
truth, is precious, each nation tends to find its own water and supply
its own truth.
My journey starts in spring-time, high in the Anti-Taurus
Mountains of southern Turkey. The generous snows of the Turkish
20 mountains have brought little wealth to the semiarid plains of the
southeast. Without irrigation, they have yielded only one crop a year.
But now Turkey has finally begun to harness its waters. I can see the
Euphrates swelling with backup from the great Atatürk Dam. Soon its
waters will rush through the world's two largest irrigation tunnels - 25
25 feet in diameter - to revitalize the Harran Plain 40 miles away. The
Atatürk' will also generate nine billion kilowatt-hours of electricity a
year. Eventually, 22 dams will impound the waters of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, which also rises in eastern Turkey, all part of an
ambitious and diverse development scheme called the Southeastern
30 Anatolia Project.
On the Harran, now lush with spring grass, the mood is optimistic.
At a government experimental farm at Koruklu, agronomists test
patches of peaches, pecans, nectarines, pomegranates, and grapes as
candidate crops for the coming waters. Local farmers attend irrigation
35 classes with anticipation.
199
The massive 'Atatürk' sits 40 miles north of the city of Urfa. It is
essentially an immense pile of rocks guarded by men with machine
guns. With officials, I drive along its mile-long top. What looked like
pebbles from a distance grow into car-size pieces of rock, each placed
40 according to size, like a mosaic, by a machine with a monstrous ami.
The blue-green Euphrates thunders below the dam with power that
seems closer to electricity than water.
When nations share the same river, the upstream nation is under no
legally binding obligation to provide water downstream. But the
45 downstream nation can claim historical rights of use and press for fair
treatment. In 1989, President Turgut Özal alarmed Syria and Iraq by
announcing that Turkey would hold back the flow of the Euphrates for
a month to start filling the 'Atatürk'. To offset the loss, Turkey
increased the flow for two months before the cutback, but even this
50 did not prevent an outburst of criticism.
If seen as a commodity, water can be packaged, bought and sold,
and may soon move between nations like wheat. But political mistrust
hampers many promising schemes. In 1987, Turkey proposed a "peace
pipeline" of water from two Turkish rivers - the Ceyhan and the
55 Seyhan - that flow south into the Mediterranean. The dual pipelines
would deliver potable water to millions in Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,
and other Arab Gulf states. Nevertheless, few nations were receptive,
and the concept sits in limbo.
"In this region," Turkish Foreign Ministry official Burhan Ant told
60 me in Ankara, "interdependence is understood as the opposite of
independence. Every country here seeks a kind of self-sufficiency in
every field because they don't trust the others."
A. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. November is the month when the rainfall starts in the Middle East.
2. The soil in the southeast is rich due to the snows of the Turkish mountains.
3. Peaches, pecans, nectarines, pomegranates and grapes are grown by the
local farmers in Koruklu.
4. There is no international law which states that a country which shares the
same river with others has to provide water for them.
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 21, 'they' refers to .
a) people b) mountains c) snows d) plains
2. Line 49, 'this* refers to Turkey's .
a) holding back the water flow of the Euphrates
b) increasing the flow for two months before the cutback
c) announcing that there would be a hold-back of water flow
d) filling the Atatürk Dam for future use
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93
THE BERMUDA TRIANGLE (1)
Around 1975, a number of books were written about strange things
which occurred in the Bermuda Triangle, a part of the Atlantic Ocean
off the southeast coast of the U.S. They told the stories of planes and
ships that disappeared for no understandable reason and were never
5 found again. They told about ships which were found undamaged but
with no one on them. According to these books, more than 1,000
people disappeared in the Triangle from 1945 to 1975.
According to some writers, there were no natural explanations for
many of the disappearances, so they suggested other explanations. For
10 example, according to one writer, some strange and terrible power
exists in the Triangle. According to another writer, people from space
are living at the bottom of the Atlantic, and sometimes they need
human sailors and airmen for their research. These ideas were not
scientific, but they were good advertisements, which made the books
15 about the Bermuda Triangle immediate successes.
However, the books give little evidence to support their unusual
ideas. In addition, these books ignore at least three important facts that
suggest natural reasons for many of the occurrences. First, messages
from some of the ships and aircraft which later disappeared give us
20 evidence of problems with navigational instruments. Similar stories
are told by officers who were on duty on planes and ships which
finally managed to come through the Triangle without disaster.
Second, the weather in this part of the Atlantic Ocean is very
unpredictable. Dangerous storms that can cause problems even for
25 experienced pilots and sailors can begin suddenly and without
warning. Finally, the Bermuda Triangle is very large, and many
people, both experienced and inexperienced, sail and fly through it.
Perhaps the figure of 1,000 deaths in thirty years shocks some people,
but, in fact, the figure is not unusual for an area of ocean that is so
30 large and that is crossed by so many ships.
The evidence which exists, therefore, supports one conclusion
about the Bermuda Triangle: we do not need stories about people from
space or strange unnatural powers to explain the disappearances.
202
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'them' (line 6):
2. 'they' (line 9):
3. 'they' (line 12):
4. 'if (line 27):
B. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. took place (paragraph 1):
2. something that supports a belief (paragraph 3):
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. All the books about the Bermuda Triangle give natural explanations for the
things that happen there.
2. The books about the Bermuda Triangle sold very well.
3. The writer of this passage is shocked by the large number of deaths in the
Bermuda Triangle between 1945 and 1975.
4. None of the planes or ships which disappeared reported any problems
before their disappearance.
94
THE BERMUDA TRIANGLE (2)
The Bermuda Triangle, which is sometimes called 'The Graveyard
of the Atlantic', is one of the greatest mysteries of the world. This is
an area of the western Atlantic between Bermuda and Florida, almost
triangular in shape, where at least a hundred ships and planes and over
5 a thousand people have disappeared since 1945. No wreckage has ever
been discovered in the area; that is, no bodies, life boats, or any other
evidence of disaster have been found. It is as if these planes, ships and
people had never existed. In some cases, a normal radio message was
sent from the airplane reporting that everything was fine. Then, a few
10 minutes later, the radio seemed to break down. In others, a weak
S.O.S. message was received but the airplane disappeared before ships
or other airplanes could be sent to help. Sometimes in perfect weather,
there were strange references to fog and loss of direction. In the
extraordinary case of five U.S. navy planes which disappeared on a
15 regular flight from Florida, the rescue plane sent to find them also
disappeared. A strange white light is a characteristic of the sea in this
203
area. It is interesting to know that not only was this light observed by
the astronauts on their way to space, but it was also seen by Columbus
over four hundred years ago. It is not yet known if this light has any
20 connection with the strange disappearances.
Many theories have been suggested to explain all these mysterious
happenings in the Bermuda Triangle. Some people belive that they are
caused by activity from outer space. Others think that they are caused
by some undiscovered source of energy or by some dimension of time
25 or space which is not known by man. There is no answer yet, but
scientists are working hard to find one.
A. What do the following refer to?
L'them" (line 15):
2. 'if (line 18):
3. 'they' (line 22):
4. 'Others' (line 23): Other
5. 'one' (line 26):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. The Bermuda Triangle is located .
a) in Bermuda c) between Bermuda and Florida
b) in a triangle d) near the Graveyard of the Atlantic
2. The strangest fact about the happenings in the Bermuda Triangle is .
a) that bodies have been found c) that ships and planes have never existed
b) the lack of evidence of disaster d) the appearance of wreckage in the area
3. Before the airplanes disappeared, .
a) odd reports about the weather were sometimes received
b) a ship was sent to look for them
c) S.O.S. messages were never sent
d) the pilots always reported that there were no problems
4. The strange white light in the area was .
a) the cause of the disappearances c) unknown four centuries ago
b) noticed by the astronauts d) a theory suggested by scientists
5. The disappearances .
a) are caused by people from outer space
b) take place in the unknown time dimension
c) are due to a recently discovered energy source
d) haven't been explained by scientists yet
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95
ATTITUDES TOWARDS MONEY
Americans these days are very concerned with the economy. It
seems more people are having to learn to spend less and to spend
wisely due to the hard times we are experiencing. However, people's
attitudes towards money differ.
5 The misers accumulate money in banks if their income is large, or
in the house stuffed in mattresses or under the living room rug if they
are low income people. They seem almost obsessed with the idea of
saving. The misers deprive themselves of many things and most live
miserably in order to hoard their wealth. My 90-year-old neighbor,
10 having gained the sympathy of the neighbors, often collected groceries
and money from them. She dressed shabbily and lived in a
deteriorated house. After her death, it was discovered that this old
woman had left thousands of dollars to the church and other
organizations. She left nothing to her family.
15 The spenders are people who cannot seem to hold on to their
money. They have a tendency to spend too much on too many
unnecessary things. They are often too generous, buying elaborate
gifts for friends and family. Credit cards in some spenders' hands are
often dangerous weapons. They become addicted to using them only
20 to regret it later when the bills come in and they are unable to pay.
Other spenders like to gamble and this can also be destructive if it
turns into a vice. Many spenders do not necessarily throw their money
away but give it to charities for good causes, simply because they
enjoy giving. My Uncle Mario is a big spender. He makes over
25 $25,000 a year, but he never has any money in his savings account
because he spends his entire paycheck each week on necessities and
luxuries. Last week he spent $500 on a new moped, not because he
needed one, but because he thought it would be fun to own one. As a
result of his spending, every year in April he has to borrow money to
30 pay his taxes because he has spent it all.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. A 'deteriorated house' (line 12) .
a) contains many unnecessary things
b) is decorated badly
c) is in a bad condition
d) is a place where old people live
205
96
OVER-AMPLIFICATION
Hearing specialists used to worry about loud noise as a cause of
deafness only in industrial and military situations. They knew that
eight hours of daily exposure, year in and year out, to the noise of the
proverbial boiler factory would eventually result in permanent, or
5 irreversible, hearing loss. People who used drills were particularly
susceptible. Then they learned that the same thing happened to
aviators. And after jets came into existence, the hazard applied to
ground crews at airports and flight-deck personnel aboard aircraft
carriers - hence came the introduction of insulated, noise-absorbing
10 plastic earmuffs.
In discotheques and rock 'n' roll joints, the trouble is not so much in
the instruments themselves, or the small area. The blame goes to the
electronic amplifiers. An old-fashioned military band, playing a march
in Central Park, generated as much sound. However, the sound was
15 not amplified, but was dissipated in the open air. A trombonist sitting
in front of a tuba player might be a bit deaf for an hour or so after a
concert; then his hearing returned to normal. A microphone hooked up
to a public address system intensified the sound but did not
appreciably increase the hearing hazard. What did was multiple mikes
20 and speakers, and the installation of internal mikes in such instruments
as guitars and bousoukis.
The man who had the problem closest to home, and studied it there,
was George T. Singleton, an ear, nose and throat man at the
University of Florida. He noticed that, when he picked up his teenage
25 daughter Marsha after a dance, she couldn't hear what he said in the
car on the way home. Singleton recruited a research team and tested
the hearing of ten fourteen-year-old ninth-graders an hour before a
dance. Then, the investigators went to the dance hall, and found the
average sound intensity to be very high in the middle of the dance
30 floor. Directly in front of the band, it peaked to extremely high levels.
The test crew had to move forty feet outside the building before the
level dropped to a safe, but still uncomfortable, level.
After the dance, the kids' hearing was tested again. Despite the
youthful resiliency of their inner ears, all had suffered at least
35 temporary hearing impairment. The greatest damage was in the
high-frequency speech range, involving consonantal sounds, similar to
the loss felt by oldsters who complain that "everybody mumbles
nowadays".
Why do the youngsters immerse themselves in noise that is so
207
40 uncomfortable to their elders? A Florida teenager explained: "The
sounds embalm you. They numb you like tranquilizers. You don't
want to hear others talk. You don't want to talk. You don't know what
to say to each other, anyway." So, why listen? And, eventually, how?
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 6, They' refers to .
a) people who used drills c) workers in the boiler factory
b) people exposed to loud noise d) hearing specialists
2. To be 'dissipated* (line 15) means to .
a) be made inaudible c) be tolerated
b) become less or disappear d) become safer
3. Line 20, 'internal mikes' means .
a) a group of microphones used to amplify the sound
b) speakers to which musical instruments are connected
c) the strings of instruments like guitars and bousoukis
d) microphones inside musical instruments
4. If something 'numbs' (line 41) you, .
a) it makes you unable to speak
b) you can't decide how to behave
c) you don't feel any physical sensation
d) it makes you unable to hear
5. led to the introduction of insulated, noise-absorbing plastic
earmuffs.
a) The hazards of airports c) The introduction of jet airplanes
b) The noise of aviators d) Aircraft carriers
6. Old-fashioned military bands were different from discotheques and rock 'n' roll
joints in that .
a) they only played marches in big parks
b) the sound the instruments produced was not amplified
c) they had fewer instruments
d) they didn't generate a lot of sound
208
97
THE CYCLAMATE CONTROVERSY
At the center of the cyclamate discussion is Dr. Jacqueline Verrett, a
Food and Drug Administration research scientist for many years who, since
1966, has been testing cyclamate on chicken embryos. Of a total of 4,000
embryos injected, 15% have shown deformities: feet attached directly to the
hip, toes fused together, 'flipper' legs, malformed spines and missing
pelvises. An earlier FDA test had shown chromosome breakage in rats that
were injected with cyclohexylamine, a metabolic product of cyclamate.
Concluded Dr. Verrett, "I don't recommend cyclamate for chicks, and I don't
recommend it for people." After discussing the results of her work on a
television program, she drew an immediate rebuttal from the FDA
Commissioner Dr. Herbert Ley. "Cyclamates are safe within the present
state of knowledge and scientific opinion available to me," he said.
There have been other warnings about the widely used sweetener. Last
November, the FDA was advised by the National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, that use of cyclamates should be restricted. As a
result, the agency last April began considering new labeling requirements
for artificially sweetened foods and beverages. The labels would indicate
cyclamate content in milligrams and would recommend a maximum daily
intake of 3,500 mg for adults and 1,200 for children. But the FDA has not
yet given any indication about when, or if, it will establish the requirements.
The ban on cyclamates, ordered by the Health Education and Welfare
Secretary Robert Finch last week, might hit millions of weight-watchers in
the waistline, but it is a real disappointment to the rich diet-food industry. In
the 20 years since cyclamates were discovered, sales of products containing
the non-nutritive sweeteners have risen to $1 billion annually.
Worst hit will be the processors of foods containing the sweetener. Most
of the cyclamate supply now goes into diet drinks, which have gained at
least a 15% share of the market for soft drinks. There is some question
whether diet drinkers will switch back to sugar-sweetened drinks or just
give it all up in favor of water. Cyclamates are also used in puddings,
gelatins, salad dressing, jams and jellies, ice cream and practically all diet
foods. The producers of 'cured' bacon commonly use cyclamates, which are
cheaper than sugar. Cyclamates even go into the making of children's
flavored vitamins, pickles and dog food.
Diet drinks containing cyclamates must be removed from shelves by
January 1st. The announcement took some producers unawares. Instead of
trying to fight the ban, Coca-Cola officials say that they are experimenting
with other formulae for their diet drinks, and will probably switch to some
other low-calorie sweetener. PepsiCo, which was obviously not caught
210
napping, immediately announced that it will begin marketing within a few
weeks cyclamate-free Diet Pepsi-Cola 'with a touch of real sugar'.
A.
1. What is cyclamate?
2. What do flipper legs or missing pelvises exemplify?
3. Why did the FDA begin to consider new labeling requirements for artificially
sweetened foods and beverages?
4. Who will the ban on cyclamates affect most?
5. In which kind of food is the most cyclamate used?
6. What may diet-drinkers do after the ban on cyclamates is put into practice?
7. When is the ban on cyclamates officially starting?
B. Mark the statements as True (T), False (F) or No Information (Nl).
1. Dr. Herbert Ley doesn't object to the use of cyclamates.
2. Children can tolerate a lower amount of cyclamates than adults.
3. Cyclamate is not nutritive.
4. Producers invest much more money in diet foods than in conventional
ones.
5. Cyclamates cost producers more money than real sugar.
6. There has been a growing interest in diet foods in the last twenty years.
7. Cyclamates are also used in dog food.
8. There are labels on containers indicating the cyclamate content of the
product.
9. PepsiCo tried to fight the ban on cyclamates but couldn't get the authorities
to change their minds.
211
98
A GOOD LIFE
The people of the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia have
long been famous for attaining extremely old ages. Arab and Persian
chronicles from centuries ago noted the existence of these longevous
peoples. The latest Soviet census reports that 70 per cent of all people
5 reaching 110 years or more live in the Caucasus region. An
anthropologist described meeting a woman of 139 years. This does not
seem old at all, however, compared to her first cousin, who reached
146 and her great-grandfather, who lived to be 160. When we consider
that most people in the United States expect to live only half that long
10 and that people in some parts of the developing world will live only
one third that long, we cannot help wondering what the causes of such
long life are. Is it exercise, diet, physical environment, cultural
environment, or what? Anthropologists have concluded that exercise
and diet are not as important as a steady way of life with certain
15 cultural expectations and roles.
The people in most of the region of the Caucasus Mountains have a
slow, regular, rhythmic life style. There is continuity in all of the
physical aspects of their life. First, most of the Caucasians live in
mountain villages in a pastoral setting. They work as farmers, herders,
20 or gardeners. Their lives are regulated by the rising of the sun, the
steady rhythm of the growing cycle, the harvest, and the setting sun.
Most of the longevous people have always held the same jobs. They
learned their jobs young, and have continued in the same job until
they are well past 100, some working until they are 120 or 130. The
25 outdoor work and the mountainous terrain provide a good deal of
exercise. Anthropologists feel that while exercise contributes to
longevity, the rhythmic lifestyle is more important. There is also
continuity in diet. The people of the Caucasus very much enjoy their
traditional food and have no inclination to change it. They have eaten
30 the same lean meat, grains, fruits, and vegetables from childhood to
old age. Traditionally, Caucasians are lean people who do not overeat.
Like exercise, anthropologists conclude that it is not the diet itself that
is the secret for long life, although it does contribute. The real secret is
the continuity in diet from birth to death. The consistent, unchanged
35 diet and regular dietary rhythm allow the body and its digestive
system to become entirely adjusted. Therefore, physiological stress on
the digestive system is at a minimum. The overall evenness of pace in
the Caucasian way of life makes for a feeling of well-being and
encourages longevity.
212
40 Another important cause of longevity among the Caucasians is a
stable cultural environment with certain expectations. First, the goals
of the Caucasians do not overreach the possibilities of attainment.
Unlike many Americans who want to be chairmen of the boards or
presidents of the companies, goals which they can never attain, the
45 goals of the Caucasians tend to be realistic and attainable within their
cultural milieu. Their goals are more people-oriented. They
concentrate on being hospitable and generous towards others, goals
which are not only attainable, but also contribute to the overall
well-being of the social group. Because the goals of the Caucasians
50 are realistic and attainable, emotional tensions are reduced. This
contributes to long life. Second, the normal expectation within the
region is for long life. Individuals expect to live far beyond the age of
100. On the other hand, the cultural expectation of people in the
United States is for a maximum life span of about 80 years. These
55 cultural expectations become self-fulfilling prophecies. Further, the
Caucasians do not expect the old people to sit idly by, but to participate
actively in all phases of life. A stable environment with realistic goals
and expectations is a second cause for longevity among the
Caucasians.
60 Finally, longevity is also encouraged by the role of old people in
the family and in the community. The Caucasians have large extended
families of maybe 300 people or more. This provides a large network
of people with mutual rights and obligations. The aged are respected
as heads of the family. They make decisions about money, marriages,
65 land sales, and other matters. They are also expected to be affectionate
toward their grand-children. The old people are also respected in the
community. They continue to vote, hold office and so make decisions
which will affect the future of the entire community. Because of their
important place in the family and in the community, the aged retain a
70 feeling of individual self-worth and importance. Retaining a positive
self image reduces physical and mental problems, thus encouraging a
longer life.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'these longevous peoples' (lines 3-4):
2. This* (line 50):
3. This' (line 62):
B. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 29, 'inclination' has the same meaning as .
a) resistance b) determination c) ambition d) wish
213
3. What is the role of the old in the Caucasian family?
4. Why do old Caucasians have a positive self-image?
99
"TO SLEEP, PERCHANCE TO DREAM..."
Sleep is broken into five distinct parts - Stages 1 through 4, plus REM, an
acronym for rapid eye movement. REM and non-REM sleep are quite
different, as different from each other as each is from being awake. Much
remains unknown about each of the five sleep stages. Most dreaming occurs
during REM sleep, a period when the eyeballs move rapidly beneath the
closed lids. And whether they remember or not, all adults dream, usually
four to six times a night.
Three types of mood are strongly related to some specific stage of sleep.
Our friendly, aggressive, and sleepy feelings all relate to Stage 2 sleep,
which accounts for most of our total sleep hours. Our friendly and sleepy
feelings, but not our aggressive feelings, are affected as well by Stages 3
and 4, and by how long it takes us to fall asleep.
This means that if you get less sleep than normal - and people vary a
great deal in how much sleep they normally require - you awake more
friendly, more aggressive, but less sleepy. Researchers knew from their
earlier work that sleep determines if people feel happier. Yet, when they
studied the various sleep stages, they found no correlation between sleep
physiology and the unhappy mood. They were puzzled by this. Clearly sleep
made a difference, but that difference didn't relate to how much time one
spent in each of the various sleep stages.
The researchers decided the key to whether we feel happy or unhappy
after sleep must lie in sleep's psychological component - our dreams. So,
they began studying dream content - what dreamers dreamed and who
appeared in their dreams - to see how it affected mood.
These findings have emerged from eight years of sleep and dream
research at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Cincinnati, Ohio:
- While sleep affects how sleepy, friendly, aggressive, and unhappy we
feel after awakening, feelings of happiness or unhappiness depend
most strongly on our dreams.
- Each of us has a special dream character, a type of person whose
appearance in our dreams makes us feel happier when we awake.
21S
- What we dream at night isn't as important to how we feel in the
morning as the number of people who populate our dreams. The more
people we see, the better we feel.
- Our sleep influences our mood. Our mood, in turn, affects our
performance. And throughout the day, our levels of mood and
performance remain closely linked.
Mark the statements as True (T), False (F) or No Information (Nl).
1. Rapid eye movements during sleep usually indicate that you are dreaming.
2. The amount of sleep required is the same for everybody.
3. People have difficulty in remembering their dreams if it has taken them a
long time to fall asleep.
4. If few people appear in your dream, you are likely to feel bad when you
wake up.
5. A person can perform well even if s/he is not in a good mood.
6. More time is spent in Stage 2 sleep than in other stages.
7. People wake up after Stage 4 sleep.
100
ELEMENTS
There are over 100 elements in nature. Each element is
composed of an innumerable group of atoms which are identical
with one another and different from the atoms that make up the y
other elements. Normally they are found in pairs or in
5 combinations with other kinds of atoms. We call these
arrangements of atoms 'molecules'.
Why do some atoms combine while others do not? What
determines the manner in which atoms combine? The answers have
to do with the electrons that circle the nucleus of the atom. As we
10 know, an atom is composed of three kinds of particles: protons and
neutrons, which are found in a very small region at the center of the
atom, and electrons, which orbit the nucleus. The number of 2
electrons in an atom is the same as the number of protons, and this
number determines the chemical properties of the element. The
15 number of neutrons in the atoms of a given element is not constant,
though it is usually slightly greater than the number of protons. The
orbits of the electrons about the nucleus are something like the
orbits of the planets in our solar system about the sun, except that
216
each atomic orbital can contain only a certain maximum number of
20 electrons. For example, the first atomic orbital, corresponding to
the planet Mercury, can contain as many as two electrons, no more;
the second atomic orbital, corresponding to the planet Venus, can
contain as many as eight electrons, no more; and so on. The inner
orbitals of atoms are the first to take electrons, and because of 2
25 certain factors that depend upon energy, atoms like to have their
last, outer orbital full. The inert gases - Helium, Neon, Argon,
Krypton, Xenon, and Radon - are elements whose atoms have full
electron orbitals. Consequently, these elements do not combine
with other elements; they are chemically inactive, inert. The atoms
30 of all other elements tend to combine with other atoms so as to fill
up their electron orbitals.
Hydrogen atoms always have a single electron and a single
proton, so their electron shell (orbital) is one electron short of being
full. In the gaseous state, two hydrogen atoms are combined to
35 form a single molecule (H2). Each electron circling about both
nuclei makes it appear as if there were only one electronic orbital.
Oxygen atoms have eight electrons, two of which fill the first 3
orbital; the remaining six are contained in the second orbital,
leaving the second orbital two short of the preferred number eight.
40 Often in nature we find a molecule where two hydrogen atoms
have given their electrons to a single oxygen atom, which fills the
second orbital of the oxygen atom. This arrangement of oxygen and
hydrogen is very stable. This molecule is called 'water'.
The carbon atom has four of its six electrons in its outer orbital.
45 Depending upon how you look at it, it has either four too few or
four too many electrons in its outer orbital. It is willing either to
borrow or to lend four electrons. When carbon combines with 4
oxygen, the carbon atom gives two electrons to each of two oxygen
atoms; the result is the gas carbon dioxide (CO2), which is quite
50 common in nature.
Chemical reactions are simply the arrangements and
rearrangements atoms and molecules go through to have full 5
electron orbitals. Any destruction or creation of molecules is a
chemical reaction.
1. Use your own words for expressing the general idea of the first paragraph.
2. Use your own words for expressing the general idea of the second paragraph.
217
BURGER TO GO - HOLD THE PLASTIC
Polystyrene foam is one of the great success stories of modern
industry. Light, shock-resistant, insulating and cheap to make, it
shows up everywhere: in disposable coffee cups, in boxes that hold
fast-food hamburgers, as packing 'peanuts' for safe shipping. But the
5 stuff has a serious downside as well. Polystyrene is bulky, taking up
space in landfills; as a plastic, it takes decades to decompose; its
manufacture causes the release of hazardous chemicals; and the
market for recycling it is hopelessly limited. Environmentalists have
argued for years that the foam should simply be banned.
10 They now have an unlikely ally: McDonald's. America's largest
fast-food chain and frequent target of environmental protests
announced last week that it would begin phasing out foam packaging
within 60 days at its 8,500 U.S. restaurants. The move came as a
surprise. The company has long said the containers were not
15 necessarily a problem and had planned a $100 million campaign to
recycle them. But ecology-minded customers were increasingly
unhappy with the packages. As a result, McDonald's is making the
phaseout part of a broad pro-environment initiative that the company
is developing in partnership with the Washington-based Environmental
20 Defense Fund.
McDonald's will probably replace its foam hamburger boxes with
material similar to the thin paper used to wrap its smallest sandwiches.
That is not a perfect solution either. The paper is not yet recyclable,
and while it does break down in landfills, its production requires
25 cutting down trees. But it takes up 90% less space than foam when
discarded, and McDonald's is testing a paper-recycling technique in
some of its California stores. If it can find alternatives, the chain may
also replace its polystyrene plates and coffee cups.
One possible substitute for some uses of polystyrene comes straight
30 from nature. To replace the plastic-foam pellets that are used to
protect delicate merchandise during shipping, at least two companies
in California are trying to market a biodegradable, in fact, edible,
alternative: popcorn. The drawbacks are that it is more expensive to
produce than polystyrene pellets and tends to attract rodents and
35 insects. Nonetheless, a handful of mail-order companies and other
shippers in the U.S., Canada and Europe have begun packing with
popcorn (butter and salt not included). Such small innovations, along
with dramatic shifts by companies like McDonald's, may someday
eliminate a major insult to the environment.
219
102
ANTIQUES REPAIRS
Some time ago, I discovered that one of the chairs in my front hall
had a broken leg. I didn't foresee any great difficulty in getting it
mended, as there are a whole lot of antique shops in Pimlico Road,
which is three minutes' walk from my flat. So, I set forth one morning
5 carrying the chair with me. I went into the first shop confidently
expecting a friendly reception, with a kindly man saying: "What a
charming chair. Yes, that's quite a simple job. When would you want
it back?"
I was quite wrong. The man I approached wouldn't even look at it. I
10 wasn't too concerned; after all, it was only the first try and there are
many more shops on both sides of the road.
The reaction at the second shop, though slightly politer, was just
the same, and at the third and the fourth, so I decided that my
approach must be wrong.
15 I entered the fifth shop with some confidence because 1 had
concocted a plan. I placed the chair gently on the floor so as not to
disturb the damaged leg and said "Would you like to buy a chair?"
The rather fierce proprietor looked it over carefully and said, "Yes, not
a bad little chair. How much do you want for it?" "£20," I said. "OK,"
20 he said, "I'll give you £20." "It's got a slightly broken leg," I said.
"Yes, I saw that; it's nothing. Don't worry about it."
Everything was going to plan and I was getting excited. "What will
you do with it?" I asked. "Oh, it will be very saleable once the repair is
done. I like the bit of old green velvet on the top. I shall leave that -
25 yes, very saleable." "I'll buy it," I said. "What d'ye mean? You've just
sold it to me," he said. "Yes I know, but I've changed my mind. As a
matter of fact, it is just what I'm looking for - I've got its pair at home.
I'll give you 27 quid for it." "You must be crazy," he said. Then
suddenly the penny dropped and he smiled and said, "I know what you
30 want. You want me to mend your chair, don't you?" "You're plumb
right," I said.
"And what would you have done if I had walked in and said,
'Would you mend this chair for me?' Would you have repaired it?"
"No, I wouldn't have done it," he said. "We don't do repairs - not
35 enough money in it and too much of a nuisance. However, I'll mend
this chair for you - shall we say a fiver?" He was a very nice man and
thought the whole episode rather funny.
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103
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
In 334 B.C., with an army of 35,000 men, Alexander crossed into Asia
Minor. In addition to soldiers, the former student of Aristotle brought along
scientists to study plant and animal life and to chart the terrain. After
capturing the coast of Asia Minor, Alexander marched into Syria and
defeated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. Rather than pursuing the
fleeing Persian king, Darius III, Alexander stayed with his master plan,
which included the capture of coastal ports in order to crush the Persian
navy. He captured Tyre, thought to be an impregnable city, and advanced
into Egypt. Grateful to Alexander for having liberated them from Persian
rule, the Egyptians made him pharaoh. Alexander appointed officials to
administer the country and founded a new city, Alexandria.
Having destroyed or captured the Persian fleet, Alexander moved into
Mesopotamia in pursuit of Darius in 331 B.C. The Macedonians defeated
the numerically superior Persians at Gaugamela, just east of the Tigris
River, but Darius escaped. After stopovers at Babylon and at Persepolis,
which he burned in revenge for Xerxes' destruction of Athens more than
150 years earlier, Alexander resumed the chase. When he finally caught up
with Darius, the Persian king was already dead, killed by Persian
conspirators.
Alexander relentlessly pushed deeper into Asia, crossing from
Afghanistan into north India, where he defeated the king of Pontus in a
costly battle. When Alexander announced plans to push deeper into India,
his troops, exhausted and far from home in a strange land, resisted. Yielding
to their wishes, Alexander returned to Babylon in 324 B.C. In these
campaigns, Alexander proved himself to be a superb strategist and leader of
men. Winning every battle, Alexander's army had carved an empire that
stretched from Greece to India. Future conquerors, including Caesar and
Napoleon, would read of Alexander's career with fascination and longing.
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Alexander brought Aristotle to Asia Minor.
2. Alexander's master plan was to destroy the Persian army first.
3. The Persians had invaded Egypt before Alexander did.
4. Alexandria's name was changed by Alexander.
5. The Persian army had more soldiers than Alexander's army.
6. Alexander didn't forgive even the oldest enemies of his country.
224
7. The Macedonians finally captured Darius and killed him.
8. The whole of India was invaded by Alexander's army.
9. It took only ten years for Alexander to expand his empire from Greece to
India.
10. Caesar and Napoleon admired Alexander's achievements.
104
THE MIDDLE AGES IN EUROPE
In the late Middle Ages, Latin Christendom was afflicted with severe
economic problems. The earlier increases in agricultural production did not
continue. Limited use of fertilizers and limited knowledge of conservation
exhausted the topsoil. As more grazing lands were converted to the
cultivation of cereals, animal husbandry decreased, causing a serious
shortage of manure needed for arable land. Intermittent bouts of prolonged
heavy rains and frost also hampered agriculture. From 1301 to 1314, there
was a general shortage of food, and from 1315 to 1317, famine struck
Europe. Throughout the century, starvation and malnutrition were
widespread.
Other economic problems abounded. A silver shortage, caused by
technical problems in sinking deeper shafts in the mines, led to the
debasement of coins and spiraling inflation, which hurt the feudal nobility in
particular. Prices for manufactured luxury goods, which the nobility craved,
rose rapidly. At the same time, the dues that the nobility collected from
peasants diminished. To replace their revenues, lords and knights turned to
plunder and warfare.
Compounding the economic crisis was the Black Death, or bubonic
plague. This disease was carried by the fleas on brown rats, and probably
first struck Mongolia in 1331-32. From there it crossed into Russia. Carried
back from Black Sea ports, the plague reached Sicily in 1347. Spreading
swiftly throughout much of Europe, the plague attacked an already
declining and undernourished population. The first crisis lasted until 1351,
and other serious outbreaks occurred in later decades. The crowded cities
and towns had the highest mortalities. Perhaps twenty million people - about
one-quarter to one-third of the European population - perished in the worst
human disaster in recorded history.
Deprived of many of their intellectual and spiritual leaders, the
panic-stricken masses drifted into immorality and hysteria. Frenzied forms
of religious life and superstitious practices became popular. Flagellants
marched from region to region beating each other with sticks and whips in a
225
desperate effort to please God, who they believed had cursed them with the
plague. In addition to flagellation and superstition, black magic, witchcraft,
and sexual immorality found eager supporters. Dress became increasingly
ostentatious and bizarre. Art forms concentrated on morbid scenes of
decaying flesh, dances of death, and the torments of Hell. Sometimes this
hysteria was directed against the Jews, who were accused of causing the
plague by poisoning the wells. Terrible massacres of Jews occurred despite
the pleas of the papacy.
A. Write what the dates below indicate.
1. 1301-1314:
2. 1315-1317:
3. 1331-1332:
4. 1347:
5. 1351:
B. Find the following information.
1. What 'flagellants' are:
2. The number of people who died due to the plague:
3. Four examples of practices to illustrate the hysteria that occurred after the
plague:
a)
b)
c)
d)
C.
1. Why was the population in Europe 'already declining and undernourished' when
the plague struck them? (Give two reasons.)
a)
b)
2. Why did the cities and towns have the highest mortality rates from the plague?
3. Why did the panic stricken masses drift into immorality and hysteria?
4. Why do you think dress and art forms became increasingly exaggerated and
morbid?
5. Were.the Jews really responsible for the plague? Explain.
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105
PARENTAL AUTHORITY
Disillusionment with one's parents, however good and adequate
they may be both as parents and as individuals, is to some degree
inevitable. Most children have a very high ideal of their parents that
can hardly stand up to realistic evaluation unless the parents
5 • themselves have been unsatisfactory. Parents would be greatly
surprised and deeply touched if they realised how much belief their
children usually have in their character and infallibility, and how much
this faith means to a child. If parents were prepared for this adolescent
reaction, and realised that it was a sign that the child was growing up
10 and developing valuable powers of observation and independent
judgement, they would not be very hurt, so they would not drive the
child into opposition by resenting and resisting it.
The adolescent, with his passion for sincerity, always respects a
parent who admits that he is wrong, or ignorant, or even that he has
15 been unfair or unjust. What the child cannot forgive is the parents'
refusal to admit these charges if the child knows them to be true.
Victorian parents believed that they kept their dignity by retreating
behind an unreasoning authoritarian attitude; in fact, they did nothing
of the kind, but children were then too cowed to let them know how
20 they really felt. Today, we tend to go to the other extreme, but, on the
whole, this is a healthier attitude both for the child and the parent. It is
always wiser and safer to face up to reality, however painful it may be
at the moment.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'their' (line 6):
2. 'this faith' (line 8):
3. 'it' (line 12):
4. 'these charges' (line 16):
5. 'the other extreme' (line 20):
B.
1. What would be the two results if parents were prepared for the adolescent
reaction of their children?
a)
b)
227
2. What kind of a parent does the adolescent respect?
3. Why did Victorian parents believe that they could keep their dignity by retreating
behind authority?
106
TWO VIEWS OF DIVORCE
The increasing divorce rate can be seen as a 'product of conflict
between the changing economic system and its social and
ideological superstructure (notably the family)'. In advanced
capitalist industrial societies, there is an increasing demand for
cheap female wage labour. Wives are encouraged to take up paid
employment not only because there is a demand for their services,
but also because the capitalist controlled media has raised 'material
aspirations' which regulate the demand for desirable goods. These
material aspirations can only be satisfied by both spouses working
as wage earners. However, conflict results from the contradiction
between female wage labour and the normative expectations which
surround married life. 'Working wives' are still expected to be
primarily responsible for housework and raising children. In
addition, they are still expected, to some degree, to play a
subservient role to the male head of the household. These
normative expectations contradict the wife's role as a wage earner
since she is now sharing the economic burden with her husband.
Conflict between the spouses can result from this contradiction, and
conflict can lead to marital breakdown.
While laws and procedures regulating divorce were altered, the
divorce rate tended to increase quickly and since each new piece of
legislation made divorce more readily available, the rate rose
rapidly for a time before leveling off. Today there is one divorce in
Britain for every three marriages. (In the USA the rate is one in
two.) Many people have suggested that the higher divorce rates
reflect an underlying increase in marital instability; the problem
with this argument is that we have no way of knowing how many
228
'unstable' or 'unhappy' marriages existed before legislation made it
possible to dissolve them in a public (and recordable) form. Some
commentators have gone further and argued that more permissive
divorce laws in themselves cause marital breakdown. But we can
certainly be sceptical of such a view, suggesting as it does that happily
married couples can suddenly be persuaded to abandon their
relationship, propelled by the attraction of a new divorce law. A
more plausible explanation for rises in the divorce rate after the
passage of a law is that unhappily married couples were for the first
time given access to a legal solution to pre-existent marital
problems; in other words, changes in divorce laws are less likely to
cause marital breakdown than to provide new types of solutions
where breakdown has already occurred.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'their' (Text 1):
2. 'this argument' (Text 2):
3. 'them' (Text 2):
4. 'such a view' (Text 2):
1. What is the effect of the rise in 'material aspirations' on female employment?
2. Explain the contradiction between the female wage labour and the normative
expectations of married life.
3. Give two of the opinions on the rise in the divorce rate after the introduction of
legislation making divorce more readily available.
a)
b)_
4. Each text examines divorce from a different approach. Write down the
difference.
229
107
SUCCESS
In our culture, success in itself implies no superior virtue. A book is not
necessarily a superior one because it makes the best seller lists. Most books
that achieve this distinction appeal to the mass market and are generally
supported by extensive publicity. While success in the business world may
require a high degree of business acumen, this quality has never before been
considered a personal virtue. Today it is the achievement that counts, not the
personal qualities of the individual. Sometimes success is achieved by
qualities that are anything but virtuous. Until his downfall, Hitler was
considered a success by a great many people throughout the world. Of
course, success may attend the individual with superior abilities; however,
what is acknowledged is not the personal virtue of the individual but his
achievement.
The actual accomplishment is often relatively unimportant. The author of
six good books may be less of a success than the writer of one best seller.
What does count is the recognition. Without recognition one cannot be
considered a public success.
To achieve success means to rise above the crowd, to stand out from the
mass of people and be recognized as an individual. For the writer, it means
that what he says or writes is now regarded as important. "He counts" is the
way one successful author was described. Before his success, he didn't
'count' although what he wrote before his success may have had greater
value than his subsequent work. Through success he had become important.
We see this all the time. As soon as a person becomes successful, he is
listened to with respect. Since he has 'made it,' his words may tell the rest of
us who are still staiggling the secret of his good fortune. The successful
person is important to all who wish to be successful.
1. What is the relationship between superior personal qualities and success?
2. How would you define a writer who 'counts'?
3. Why is a successful person important to all who wish to be successful?
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108
JAPANESE FREEDOM
To secure their political authority and to preserve peace, the Tokugawa
shoguns isolated Japan from the rest of the world in 1639. Christianity was
banned. Except for some Chinese and a small Dutch contingent, who lived
closely supervised lives in Nagasaki harbour, all foreigners were expelled
from Japan. Not only were Christian books barred but also any book, even a
Chinese translation, dealing with any Western subject. The Japanese were
forbidden on pain of death to leave their homeland. Vessels were restricted
in size so that they could be used only in coastal trade and not in overseas
commerce.
1. What was the reason for the Tokugawa shoguns' isolation of Japan from the rest
of the world?
2. Were all foreigners really expelled from Japan? Explain.
3. Why were Christianity and Christian books banned?
4. What happened to the Japanese who tried to leave the country?
5. Why were smaller ships made?
231
109
_••••—•••! -mm • in» • i- i n i • l _ M _ — i m „ , •• • _ _ _ _ _ • ! ••• •• • •• - in • _ . ! ! • ı ı ı •• • ı _•> ı i u m LIII b m _ t •• r . , ı •_ _ _ _ • • • • • • — • i—i
THE HEALING POWER OF BELIEF
For the past two years, I have been studying cancer survivors at
UCLA, trying to find out why it is that some people respond much
better to their treatment than do others. At first, I thought that some
patients did well because their illnesses were not as severe as the
5 illnesses of others. On closer scrutiny, however, I discovered that
severity of the illness was only one of a number of factors that
accounted for the difference between those who get well and those
who don't. The patients I am talking about here received, upon
diagnosis, whatever therapy - medication, radiation, surgery - their
10 individual cases demanded. Yet, the response to such treatments was
hardly uniform. Some patients fared much better in their therapies
than others.
What was it, then, that was different? Was there any one thing that
all survivors had in common? Yes. I have found that the major
15 characteristics of these survivors were very similar. Among the
similarities are:
• They all had a strong will to live.
• They were not panicky about their illness.
• They had confidence in their ability to persevere.
20 • Despite all the forecasts to the contrary, they believed they could
make it.
• They were capable of joyous response.
• They were convinced that their treatment would work.
The Placebo Effect
25 The mind-body effect should not be surprising in view of the
experience over the years with placebos. The temi 'placebo' is used to
describe a 'pill' that contains no medical ingredients but that often
produces the same effect as genuine medication. Placebos provide
ample proof that expectations can have an effect on body chemistry.
30 According to a recent article on placebos in Medical World News,
studies conducted over the past 25 years have shown that placebos
satisfactorily relieved symptoms in an average of 35 per cent of
patients tested. These symptoms include: fever, severe post-operative
pain, anginal pain, headache, and anxiety, among other complaints.
35 The explanation for this strange phenomenon is that the human mind
can create actual changes in body chemistry as a result of what it
believes. If, for example, a person believes that a certain medication
contains a substance that can accomplish a specific need, the body
232
tends to move in that direction.
40 An increasing number of scientists now contend that the body's
healing system and its belief system are closely related. That is why
hope, faith, and the will to live can be vital factors in the struggle
against disease. The belief system converts positive expectations into
plus factors in any contest against illness.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'such treatments' (line 10):
2. 'this strange phenomenon' (line 35):
B. Fill in the blanks with the words from the passage.
1. is very careful study or observation. (Paragraph 1)
2. If you , you keep trying and do not give up. (Paragraph 2)
3. Something that is is real and exactly what it appears to be,
and is not fake or imitation. (Paragraph 3)
4. (A) of something is evidence or facts showing that it is true
or that it exists. (Paragraph 3)
5. is the determination to do something. (Paragraph 4)
6. A is a struggle to win power or control. (Paragraph 4)
C.
1. At the beginning of his studies, how did the doctor explain the difference in the
responses of patients?
2. What is a placebo?
3. Why is a patient who takes a placebo likely to get well?
233
110
MEMORY
Memory, like sweatshirts, comes in three sizes. There is a sensory
storage system which can hold information for only a very brief time period.
Next is a short-term storage which can hold a small amount of information.
Finally, you have a long-term storage system which holds vast amounts of
information.
What psychological processes are involved in remembering a stimulus
which is briefly perceived, such as the license number of a car?
Psychologists have discovered that a stimulus is maintained in a sensory
storage system which holds information for less than a second. The sensory
storage system is called iconic memory if visual stimuli are involved or
echoic memory if the stimulation is auditory.
Your sensory storage system appears to operate in a fairly automatic
way. There seems to be no voluntary action you can take to prolong the life
of information from sensory storage without using the next stage of
memory, called short-term memory (STM), or primary memory.
Information can be recycled in short-term memory by a process called
rehearsal. When rehearsal is prevented or disrupted, information in
short-term memory is lost and so cannot enter long-term memory (LTM).
However, once information has entered long-term memory, rehearsal is no
longer necessary to guarantee that information is not forgotten. While
preventing items from being forgotten is the major difficulty in short-term
memory, long-term memory suffers from the opposite problem. There is so
much information contained in long-term memory that locating and
retrieving this information can be quite difficult. Indeed, psychologists
distinguish between information which is available in long-term memory
and that which is accessible. All information in long-term memory is
considered available; that is, it can be remembered under the proper
circumstances. But only that information which actually is remembered is
accessible. Thus, accessible information is always available, but available
information cannot always be accessible. The process of obtaining memory
information from wherever it is stored is called retrieval. In order for
information to be accessible, it must first be retrieved. Retrieval of
information from long-term memory is a difficult process and is not always
successful. Retrieval from short-term memory is considerably easier, and
many models of short-term memory assume that if an item is available in
short-term memory, it is automatically .accessible.
While information in short-term memory is coded primarily by acoustic
features (how the words sound when spoken), information in long-term
memory is organized primarily according to what the words mean. While
234
interference in short-term memory is based upon acoustic relationships,
interference in long-term memory occurs among semantically related words.
The most dramatic distinction between short and long-term memory
systems lies in their respective capacities - the number of items each system
can store. Short-term memory has a very limited capacity compared to the
almost unlimited storage capacity of long-term memory.
1. Where do the sounds we hear first go?
2. What is necessary for a piece of information to be transmitted to LTM?
3. What problem does LTM suffer from? Why?
4. What does 'the information is available in LTM' mean?
5. How do STM and LTM differ in terms of available and accessible information?
6. In which memory system would the words 'seat' and 'chair' be confused? Why?
7. What is the main difference between STM and LTM?
235
Ill
EDUCATION IN BRITAIN
Education in Britain is primarily the responsibility of local
educational authorities although the central government lays down
guidelines and provides or withholds money. From the end of the
Second World War until the 1960's, education under state control
5 depended on the '11-plus' examination, taken by all pupils between the
ages of eleven and twelve. The most successful went to grammar
schools or direct-grant schools, while the rest went to secondary
modern schools. Since the 1960's, almost all local authorities have
introduced comprehensive schools, where all pupils attend the same
10 school, even though there is usually an attempt to separate them
according to ability once they are there. Local authorities where the
Labour Party is usually in control tend, by now, to be almost
completely comprehensive; those where the Conservatives hold power
have been more resistant to the change.
15 Throughout this period, the public schools, which are private in all
except name, have continued to exist, independent of the state system.
Some became direct-grant schools, accepting students who had passed
the 11-plus examination and were paid for by local authorities, but this
system came to an end in many cases when a Labour-controlled local
20 authority refused to go on paying the grants because of its
commitment to comprehensive education.
The public debate in England and Wales between the supporters of
comprehensive schools and those who want to retain or revive
grammar schools continues unabated. Every year statistics are
25 produced to demonstrate that comprehensive schools provide better
education than grammar schools (and in some cases, better than the
prestigious private sector). These statistics are immediately
contradicted by others proving the opposite. The local authorities
have, on the whole, been converted to the comprehensive system, in
30 some cases with enthusiasm, in others with marked reluctance. Yet,
the real complication of the debate stems from the fact that although
arguments are usually stated in educational terms, almost all of them
are based on political opinions.
It is clear that those local authorities that have abolished grammar
35 schools completely were determined that their experiment should
succeed because of their belief that it is just as wrong to separate
children by intelligence as by social class. Such authorities tend to
associate grammar schools with the private sector they would also like
to abolish if they had the opportunity. In their view, any system that
236
40 differentiates between children strengthens class barriers, and the fact
that more upper-class children tend to go to university is not evidence
that comprehensive schools are inferior; it is merely further evidence
of the discrimination that already exists in society.
The defenders of grammar schools use examination results to show
45 that children reach their maximum potential when placed with others
of similar intelligence and point out that even in comprehensive
schools they are put in different classes according to ability. It is
difficult to believe, however, that this defence is inspired purely by a
desire for academic excellence.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'them' (line 10):
2.'those'(line 13):
3. 'the opposite' (line 28):
4. 'if (line 42):
B.
1. Which students were sent to modern secondary schools until the 1960's?
2. What is the usual procedure followed in comprehensive schools for new
students?
3. Which type of school is favoured by the Conservatives?
4. How do 'public schools' contradict their name?
5. What is the real basis of argument for and against comprehensive schools?
6. What is the reason for local authorities' abolishing grammar schools?
7. Why are some authorities against the private sector?
8. According to the defenders of grammar schools, what is necessary for students
to be successful?
237
112
WHAT IS YOUR BEST TIME OF DAY?
Organisms exhibit biological rhythms. Some are short and can be
measured in minutes or hours. Others last days or months. The idea that
our bodies are in constant flux is fairly new and goes against traditional
1 medical training. In the past, many doctors were taught to believe the
body has a relatively stable, or homeostatic, internal environment. Any
fluctuations were considered random and not meaningful enough to be
studied.
As early as the 1940's, however, some scientists questioned the
homeostatic view of the body. Franz Halberg, a young European scientist
working in the United States, conducted a series of experiments on mice
and noticed that the number of white blood cells in these animals was
dramatically higher and lower at different times of the day. Gradually,
2 such research spread to the study of biological rhythms in human beings,
and the findings were sometimes startling. For example, the time of day
when a person receives X-ray or drug treatment for cancer can affect
treatment benefits and ultimately mean the difference between life and
death.
This new science, the study of biological rhythms in human beings, is
called chronobiology, and the evidence supporting it has become
increasingly persuasive. Along the way, the scientific and medical
3 communities are beginning to rethink their ideas about how the human
body works, and gradually what had been considered a minor science just
a few years ago is being studied in major universities and medical centers
around the world.
With their new findings, they are teaching us things that can literally
change our lives - by helping us organize ourselves so we can work with
4 our natural rhythms rather than against them. This can enhance our
outlook on life as well as our performance at work.
Because they are easy to detect and measure, more is known of daily -
or circadian (Latin for 'about a day') - rhythms than other types. The most
obvious daily rhythm is the sleep / wake cycle. But there are other daily
cycles as well: temperature, blood pressure, hormone levels. Amid these
• and the body's other changing rhythms, you are simply a different person
5 at 9 a.m. than you are at 3 p.m. How you feel, how well you work, your
level of alertness, your sensitivity to taste and smell, the degree with
which you enjoy food or take pleasure in music - all are changing
throughout the day. Most of us seem to reach our peak of alertness
around noon. Soon after that, alertness declines, and sleepiness may set
in by mid-afternoon.
238
Your short-term memory is best during the morning - in fact, about 15
per cent more efficient than at any other time of day. So, students, take
6 heed: when faced with a morning exam, it really does pay to review your
notes right before the test is given.
Long-term memory is different. Afternoon is the best time for
learning material that you want to recall days, weeks or months later.
Politicians, business executives or others who must learn speeches would
be smart to do their memorizing during that time of day. If you are a
student, it would be better for you to schedule your more difficult classes
7 in the afternoon, rather than in the morning. You should also try to do
most of your studying in the afternoon, rather than late at night. Many
students believe they memorize better while burning the mid-night oil
because their short-term recall is better during the wee hours of the
morning than in the afternoon. But short-term memory won't help them
much several days later, when they face the exam.
A. Fill in the blanks with words from the passage.
1. Something that is in a state of is characterized by continuous
changes. (Paragraph 1)
2. Something that is happens or is chosen without a definite
plan, pattern or purpose. (Paragraph 1)
3. means finally, after a long and often complicated series of
events. (Paragraph 2)
4. To something means to improve its value, quality, or
attractiveness. (Paragraph 4)
B.
1. What led to the study of biological rhythms in human beings?
2. How can we change our lives positively?
3. What are the daily cycles mentioned in the passage?
4. When are the majority of people most alert?
5. Why is it better to study in the afternoon?
239
113
A NEW ICE AGE (1)
Over the past several years, researchers have dug deep into Atlantic
sea-floor sediments and Greenland glaciers to study the chemistry of ancient
mud and ice, and they are increasingly convinced that climate change is
anything but smooth. "The transition from warm to frigid can come in a
decade or two - a geological snap of the fingers", says Gerard Bond, a
geophysicist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Observatory: "The
data have been coming out of Greenland for maybe two or three decades.
But the first results were really so suprising that people weren't ready to
believe them."
There is a growing understanding as well that ice ages are not uniformly
icy, nor interglacial periods, i.e., periods between ice ages, unchangingly
warm. About 40,000 years ago, for example, right in the middle of the last
ice age, the world warmed briefly, forcing glaciers to retreat. And while the
current interglacial period has been stably temperate, the previous one,
according to at least one study, was evidently interrupted by frigid spells
lasting hundreds of years. If that period was more typical than the present
one, humanity's invention of agriculture, and thus civilization, may have
been possible only because of a highly unusual period of stable temperature
- a fluke.
Just 150 years ago, the notion that much of the Northern Hemisphere had
once been covered by thick sheets of ice was both new and highly
controversial. Within a few decades, though, most scientists were convinced
and began looking for explanations. Several suggested that astronomical
cycles were involved, and by the 1930's the Yugoslav astronomer Milium
Milankovitch had constructed a coherent theory. The ice ages, he argued,
were triggered by changes in the shape of the earth's slightly oval orbit
around the sun and in the planet's axis of rotation. Studies of the chemical
composition of ocean-floor sediments, which depend on climatic conditions
when the material was laid down, more or less supported Milankovitch's
predicted schedule of global glaciation.
According to Milankovitch's cycles, an ice age could start sometime
within the next 1,000 or 2,000 years. But geophysicists have realized for
years that while the cycles are real and influence climate, they alone cannot
explain ice ages. For one thing, Milankovitch's timing of glaciation may be
broadly correct, but major glacial episodes happen when his cycles call for
minor ones, and vice versa.
240
114
A NEW ICE AGE (2)
Just as last week's tremors were destroying highways, buildings and lives
in Southern California, an even deadlier natural disaster was advancing
slowly but inexorably south from Canada into the U.S. By midweek a huge
mass of frigid arctic air had practically paralyzed much of the Midwest and
East. Temperatures in dozens of U.S. cities dropped to all-time lows: -30°C
in Pittsburgh; -32°C in Akron, Ohio, and Clarksburg; -33°C in Indianapolis.
Chicago schools closed because of cold weather for the first time in history,
Federal Government offices shut down in Washington, and East Coast cities
narrowly escaped widespread power cuts due to the overuse of electric
utilities to keep homes heated. Hundreds of motorists in New Jersey had to
be rescued by snowmobile from an impassably icy highway, and thousands
of homeless crammed into New York City's shelters to avoid freezing. By
week's end, the unprecedented cold wave had killed more than 130 people.
Whatever happened to global warming? Scientists have issued
apocalyptic warnings for years, claiming that gases from cars, power plants
and factories are creating a greenhouse effect that will boost the temperature
dangerously over the next 75 years or so. But if last week is any indication
of winters to come, it might be more to the point to start worrying about the
next Ice Age instead. After all, human-induced warming is still largely
theoretical, while ice ages are an established part of the planet's history. The
last one ended about 10,000 years ago; the next one - for there will be a next
one - could start tens of thousands of years from now. Or tens of years. Or it
may have already started.
A. Find the words which mean the same as the following.
1. approaching (paragraph 1):
2. almost, not completely (paragraph 1):
3. not done or known before (paragraph 1):
4. cause something to increase (paragraph 2):
5. sign (paragraph 2):
B.
1. Which U.S. city had the lowest temperature?
242
115
PROOF AGAINST HEART ATTACKS
Does a drink a day keep heart attacks away? Over the past 20 years,
numerous studies have found that moderate alcohol consumption -
say, one or two beers, glasses of wine or cocktails daily - helps to
prevent coronary heart disease. Last week a report in the New England
5 . Journal of Medicine added strong new evidence in support of that
theory. More importantly, the work provided the first solid indication
of how alcohol works to protect the heart.
In the study, researchers from Boston's Brigham and Women's
Hospitals and Harvard Medical School compared the drinking habits
10 of 340 men and women who had suffered recent heart attacks with
those of healthy people of the same age and sex. The scientists found
that people who sip one to three drinks a day are about half as likely to
suffer heart attacks as nondrinkers are. The apparent source of the
protection: those who drank alcohol had higher blood levels of
15 high-density lipoproteins, or HDL's, the so-called good cholesterol,
which is known to ward off heart disease.
As evidence has mounted, some doctors have begun recommending
a daily drink for cardiac patients. But most physicians are not ready to
recommend a ritual happy hour for everyone. The risks of teetotaling
20 are nothing compared with the dangers of too much alcohol, including
high blood pressure, strokes and cirrhosis of the liver - not to mention
violent behaviour and traffic accidents. Moreover, some studies
suggest that even moderate drinking may increase the incidence of
breast and colon cancer. Until there is evidence that the benefits of a
25 daily dose of alcohol outweigh the risks, most people won't be able to
take a doctor's prescription to the neighbourhood bar or liquor store.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'that theory' (lines 5-6):
2. 'those' (line 11):
B. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. many (paragraph 1):
2. dependable, positive (paragraph 1):
3. to drink, taking only a small amount (paragraph 2):
4. to prevent something bad (paragraph 2):
244
116
FROM THE OTHER SIDE
OF THE GENERATION GAP
Contrary to the impression that grandmothers are delighted to help
their grown daughters and care for their grandchildren, a study of
multi-generational families indicates that many older women resent
the frequent impositions of the younger generations on their time and
5 energy.
"Young women with children are under a lot of pressure these
days, and they expect their mothers to help them pick up the pieces,"
noted Dr. Bertram J. Cohler, a behavioral scientist at the University of
Chicago. "This is often the strongest source of resentment on the part
10 of Grandmother, who has finished with child-caring and now has her
own life to live. Grandmothers like to see their children and
grandchildren, but in their own time."
Dr. Cohler is the director of a study, supported by the National
Institute of Aging, of 150 working-class families that live in a
15 Midwestern suburb. He and a collaborator, Dr. Henry U. Grunebaum
of Harvard Medical School, have already completed an intensive
investigation of four such families in New England, summarizing their
findings in a book, Mothers, Grandmothers and Daughters, published
recently by Wiley-Interscience for professional audiences.
20 Dr. Cohler tells of a middle-aged Boston woman who works as a
seamstress all week and for her church on Sundays. Every Saturday
(her only day off) her daughter and family visit, expecting Mother to
make lunch, shop and visit. "That's not how she wants to grow old,"
said Dr. Cohler, who was told by the older woman: "My daughter
25 would never speak to me if she knew how mad I get."
In all the four New England families studied, the older women
resented the numerous phone calls and visits from their grown
daughters, who often turned to their mothers for advice, physical
resources, affection and companionship as well as baby-sitting
30 services. "American society keeps piling on the burdens for older
people, particularly those in their 50's and 60's," Dr. Cohler said in an
interview here. "They are still working and taking care of their grown
children and maybe also their aged parents. Sometimes life gets to be
too much. That's one reason many of them move far away, to Florida
35 or Sun City (Arizona). Older people need more space and time to
attend to their own affairs and friends. Young people don't understand
this, and that's part of what creates tension between generations."
He has found that, contrary to what the younger generations may
246
think, older people have an enormous amount to do. "More than half
40 of working-class grandmothers still work, and if they're retired they
have activities in the community that keep them occupied," he said.
"Each generation has got to appreciate the unique needs of the other,"
Dr. Cohler went on. "The younger generation has to realize that
grandparents have busy, active lives and that they need privacy and
45 more space for themselves. Moreover, the older generation has to
realize that continuing to be part of the family is important to the
younger generation and that they need help and support."
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'who* (line 28):
2. 'They' (line 32):
3. 'this1 (line 37):
4. 'that' (line 41):
5. 'the other' (line 42): the other
6. 'they* (line 47):
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Young women want their mothers to help them solve their problems.
2. Grandmothers want their children and grandchildren to visit them as often
as possible.
3. Some grandparents move far away to have more time for themselves.
4. One of the women Dr. Cohler spoke to complained about her daughter.
C.
1. Who finances Dr. Cohler's study?
2. What kind of families did Dr. Cohler investigate?
3. What do younger people have to realize?
247
117
LEARNING IT AT HOME
Learning a language at home via a home study course is often the
most convenient, though not necessarily the most efficient. You can go at
your own pace and needn't adjust your schedule to accommodate a
regular class. Sets of recorded lessons are available at book and record
stores or by mail order. They usually cover only the more common
languages, and most do not go beyond the needs of the casual tourist.
The tapes and records consist of groups of phrases and conversations you
learn by repetition. A set of four to six tapes and accompanying
workbook might cost about $125.
Taped lessons used by the Foreign Service Institute's School of
Language Studies to train diplomats are more complete and cover a
wider range of languages. The State Department does not market these
tapes directly, but they are available by writing to Order Section,
National Audio-Visual Center, General Services Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20409. The price for a basic course of about 20
cassette tapes and a text is $100 or so; the more cassettes, the higher the
price. Delivery generally takes four to six weeks after receipt of your
order.
If you want to earn credits toward a degree or prepare yourself to read
foreign literature, consider a university correspondence course. A one
semester course generally costs about $135 for beginners, postage not
included. Any audio materials used may involve extra cost. Course
quality is comparable to on-campus offerings. All assignments are
reviewed by a professor or instructor and then returned, usually within a
week.
Language courses are included among the 12,000 courses listed in The
Guide to Independent Study Through Correspondence Instruction,
prepared by the National University Continuing Education Association.
It is available in libraries or from Peterson's Guides, P.O. Box 2123,
Princeton, N.J. 08540, for $4.50 plus $1.25 for postage and handling.
One caveat about university correspondence courses: if your object is •
to achieve minimal conversational skills, either for business or pleasure,
you may not be willing to expend the effort required for these courses,
according to Dr. Robert Batchellor, associated with the NUCEA guide.
Self-instruction requires a commitment of at least ten hours per week.
The National Association of Self-Instructional Language Programs
(NASILP) assists schools in designing and operating self-instruction
programs based on tape learning supplemented by text and tutorials and
eligible for college credit. NASILP keeps up with all of the options,
248
£ including commercial programs, and will help you find a course to fit
your specifications, whether or not it is a NASILP product.
A. Match each word with one of the meanings. There are more letters than
numbers.
a t 0s end
1. schedule (paragraph!) ) P or use energy, time, money, etc.
b) something which takes up your time
b e c a u s e of t h e
2. caveat (paragraph 5) responsibilities you have
c) designed for professional use
_ .. . . _. d) aim or purpose
3. object (paragraph 5
r 3 , . . . . ., .. .
' e) giving detailed information about a
specific subject
4. expend (paragraph 5) f) something suitable for or connected with
something else
5. commitment (paragraph 5) g) a warning that you have to take
something into account before you act
n a
6. eligible (paragraph 6) > P ,an t h a t 9 i v e s a l i s t of e v e n t s . jobs, etc.
together with the times each thing should
be done
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Most home study courses are prepared for people studying foreign
literature.
2. Tapes of home study courses for diplomats are not found on the market.
3. The exact price of a set of home study course is $125.
4. University correspondence courses are not nearly as good as those
offered at universities.
5. People taking a university correspondence course are given assignments
regularly.
6. According to Dr. Batchellor, university correspondence courses are not
suitable for those who aim to achieve only conversational skills.
C.
1. What are the advantages of home study courses?
2. How can you get the tapes of home study courses?
249
3. How does a person taking a home study course learn the phrases?
4. How much does a one-semester university correspondence course usually cost?
5. Who prepares The Guide to Independent Study Through Correspondence
Instruction?
6. How much do you have to pay only for the delivery of the guide?
118
ANIMAL PREDATORS
No doubt the greatest single leap in human prehistory was the one we
made from being helpless prey to becoming formidable predators (animals
which hunt and eat others) of other living creatures, including, eventually,
the ones with claws and fangs. This is the theme that is acted out over and
over, obsessively, in the initiation rites of tribal cultures. In the drama of
initiation, the young (usually men) are first humiliated and sometimes
tortured, only to be 'reborn' as hunters and warriors. Very often the initial
torment includes the threat of being eaten by costumed humans or actual
beasts. Orokaiva children in Papua New Guinea are told they will be
devoured like pigs; among Indians of the Pacific Northwest, the initiates
were kidnapped or menaced by wolves; young Norwegian men, at least in
the sagas, had to tackle bears single-handedly.
As a species, we've been fabulously successful at predation. We have
enslaved the wild ungulates, turning them into our cattle and sheep, pushing
them into ever narrower habitats. We have tamed some of the wolves and
big cats, trivializing them as household pets. We can dine on shark or
alligator fillets if we want, and the only bears we're likely to know are the
ones whose name is teddy. In fact, horror movies wouldn't be much fun if
real monsters lurked outside our cinemas. We can enjoy screaming at the
alien or the monster or the blob because we know, historically speaking, it
was our side that won.
But the defeat of the animal predators was not a clear-cut victory for us.
With the big land carnivores out of the way, humans decided that the only
worthwhile enemies were others like themselves - 'enemy' individuals or
tribes or nations or ethnic groups. The criminal stalking his victim, the
250
soldiers roaring into battle, are enacting an archaic drama in which the other
player was originally non-human, something either to eat or be eaten by. For
millenniums now, the earth's scariest predator has been ourselves.
In our arrogance, we have tended to forget that our own most formidable
enemies may still be of the non-human kind. Instead of hungry tigers or
fresh-cloned dinosaurs, we face equally deadly microscopic life forms. It
will take a whole new set of skills and attitudes to defeat HIV or the TB
bacterium - not the raging charge on the field of battle, but the cunning
ambush of the lab.
A. Match each word with one of the meanings.
1. initiation rite a) family of animals with hoofs and claws
2. devour b) fight
3. tackle c) train; make useful and safe
4. ungulates d) a large frightening object having no distinct shape
5. tame e) the ceremony of introducing someone to a special group
6. blob f) eat up quickly and hungrily
7. archaic g) a period of thousand years
8. millennium h) belonging to the distant past
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Human beings have always fallen helpless victims to other predators.
2. The initiation rites in tribal cultures aimed to prepare the young for a life as
fearless, bold warriors.
3. Wild animals no longer exist as dangerous enemies to human kind.
4. We scream at horror movies because the monsters we see on the screen
may any time appear in our real lives.
5. Once they took control of animals, human beings started to act in a
non-human way.
6. Deadly microscopic life forms will cause less trouble for human beings
than big wars in the future.
251
119
SAVE THE JUNGLE - SAVE THE WORLD
The so-called 'jungle' of popular imagination, the tropical rain forest belt
stretching around our planet at the Equator, has taken some 60 million years
to evolve to its present state. It is, quite simply, the most complex, most
important ecosystem on Earth.
Homo Faber, Man the Builder, has tragically always seen the jungle as
something alien, an environment to be vanquished, replaced with his own
constructions. In the past twenty years, the rate of pillage has increased
alarmingly and huge tracts of verdant, beautiful forest - an irreplaceable
treasure house of living things - has often given way to wasteland. The
evidence is that Man will redouble his destructive efforts until the forest
'system' is smashed, and the jungle will function no more.
Many experts gloomily predict that the tropical rain forests will finally
vanish around the end of our century. Well done, 20th century!
What are the burning reasons that drive men to destroy our monumental
inheritance?
Man seldom does anything for entirely rational reasons; usually, the less
rational his 'reasons', the more he defends them with short-term economic
arguments. That is one of the modern lessons in ecology.
"We need the land for people," runs the argument. Well, many people
already inhabit the tropical forest belt. There, native tribes have their own
'low-impact' life style, hunting, trapping, practising a little cultivation.
Perhaps not idyllic, it is, nevertheless, a life style that does not endanger the
forest ecosystem.
We stress a little cultivation because, paradoxically, the forest soil is
often infertile; trees and green plants thrive on the compost of their fallen
foliage, which is rapidly broken down and recycled as nutrients. So, when
the jungle is cleared to plant crops, there is no means of putting fertility
back into the soil. Many governments spend much time 'resettling' people in
deforested areas as part of so-called forward-looking development projects,
but the crop yield is meagre, and brief: the soil soon makes its point.
Erosion and flooding also tend to follow deforestation.
"We need the timber," continues the argument. Well, the forests have
always been generous with their riches - so far as they are able. They are not
limitless. They are being exhausted at ever increasing speed. Forest ecology,
wisdom in planning and less greed could keep Man and the delicate rain
forest relationship in balance indefinitely. This is our last great store house,
our last wonderland.
253
120
TIGHTEN YOUR BELT
The fact is that the energy crisis has been with us for a long time
now, and will be with us for an even longer time. Whether Arab oil
flows freely or not, it is clear to everyone that world industry 1
cannot be allowed to depend on so fragile a base. The supply of oil
5 can be shut off at whim at any time, and in any case, the oil wells
will all run dry in thirty years or so at the present rate of use.
New sources of energy must be found, and this will take time,
but it is not likely to result in any situation that will ever restore
that sense of cheap and copious energy we have had in times past. 2
10 We will never again dare indulge in indiscriminate growth. For an
indefinite period from here on in, mankind is going to advance
cautiously, and consider itself lucky that it can advance at all.
To make the situation worse, there is as yet no sign that any
slowing of the world's population is in sight. Although the birthrate
15 has dropped in some nations, including the United States, the
population of the world seems sure to pass six billion and perhaps 3
even seven billion as the twenty-first century opens. The food
supply will not increase nearly enough to match this, which means
that we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and
20 marketing food.
Taking all this into account, what might we reasonably estimate
supermarkets to be like in the year 2001? To begin with, the world
food supply is going to become steadily tighter over the next thirty
years - even here in the United States. By 2001, the population of
25 the United States will be at least two hundred and fifty million and 4
possibly two hundred and seventy million, and the nation will be
hard put to expand food production to fill the additional mouths.
This will be particularly true since the energy pinch will make it
difficult to continue using the high-energy method of agriculture
30 that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.
It seems almost certain that by 2001 the United States will no
longer be a great food-exporting nation and that, if necessity forces 5
the exporting of food, it will be at the price of belt-tightening at
home.
35 This means, for one thing, that we can look forward to an end to
the 'natural food' trend. It is not a wave of the future. All the
'unnatural' things we do to food are required to produce more of the 6
food in the first place, and to make it last longer afterward. It is for
that reason that we need and use chemical fertilizers and pesticides
255
40 while the food is growing, and add preservatives afterward.
In fact, as food items will tend to decline in quality and decrease
in variety, there is very likely to be increasing use of flavouring
additives. Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its
population to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable
support for all, people will have to accept more artificiality.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'this' (line 7):
2. 'this' (line 18):
3. 'that' (line 30):
4. 'if (line 33):
B. Match each word / phrase with one of the meanings. There are more letters
than numbers.
a
1. fragile (paragraph 1) > extraordinarily
b) shortage
2. at whim (paragraph 1) c) w j t h c a r e
3. restore (paragraph 2) d) delicate / not strong
4. copious (paragraph 2) e) bring back
f
5. cautiously (paragraph 2) > advance / improve
. g) plentiful / abundant
6. pinch (paragraph 4) h) w j m o u t a p y s t f o n g r e a S Q n or p u r p o s e
C.
1. How long are oil supplies likely to last?
2. The author says the US will no longer be a great food-exporting nation by 2001
What is the reason for this?
3. Why is it necessary to use chemical fertilizers, pesticides and preservatives?
4. What does man have to do if he wants to maintain his 'natural food' trend?
256
121
GALDIKAS AND ORANGUTANS
Birute Galdikas remembers the scene very well. She was in a cluttered
London flat, anxious and awestruck, with her two heroes: Dian Fossey, the
strong-willed American studying the mountain gorillas in Africa, and the
elegant Briton Jane Goodall, famous for her discoveries about chimpanzees'
humanlike abilities. Presiding was their common mentor, the
paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey. He was preparing Galdikas, then a
bookish young graduate student at the University of California, for the wilds
of Borneo and life among the great apes. As Leakey jotted down campfire
recipes, Galdikas turned to Goodall and asked, "What will I do when I get
there?" Replied Goodall: "You'll go out and find orangutans."
More than 20 years later, Galdikas, now 46, is still following that advice.
In a remote peat swamp forest of Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the
island of Borneo, she is conducting the longest study of wild orangutans
ever undertaken. The youngest of Leakey's so-called trimates, the trio of
women he picked to help plumb the origins of humanity's special nature,
Galdikas has shed new light on the social patterns of the orangutan, literally
'man of the forest' in Malay, one of our closest relatives.
In the process, she has endured malaria, typhoid, dengue fever and skin
burns from toxic tree sap. Like Fossey, who was murdered in 1985,
Galdikas has been led, through her scientific work, to campaign for the
protection of the endangered apes and their dwindling rain-forest habitat.
Only 30,000 to 50,000 orangutans remain in Borneo and Sumatra. Galdikas'
advocacy put her at odds with Indonesian authorities, who at one point
threatened to end her work.
Long-lived and highly intelligent, orangutans dwell and travel high in the
rain-forest canopy, revealing themselves only to the dedicated. As a result
of her years in a 40-sq-km study area in the Tanjung Puting National Park,
Galdikas has been able to follow individuals from infancy. She has learned
that the orangutans there have their first offspring at the age of 16.
Subsequent births, always a single infant, come every eight years, the
longest birth interval of any known wild species. Zoo orangutans reproduce
much faster. If her findings are true for all wild populations, she says,
"orangutans are much more vulnerable to extinction than anyone thought."
Experts believed that big male orangutans fight with one another, but no
modem scientist had seen a battle until Galdikas, who waited months for
such a confrontation. "At the end there was blood and tufts of hair all over
the forest floor," she says. But the battle was broken off well short of
permanent injury or death. A solitary creature, the orangutan does not live in
groups or families like other great apes. But she has found indications of a
257
subtle social system: at times adolescent males and females travel together
without mating, almost as friends, evidence that one of our closest relatives
is not completely asocial.
A. Complete the following table about Borneo orangutans.
1.
characteristics
2.
habitat rain-forest canopy
1. at very long intervals, i.e.
reproduction 2. always at a time
3. have the first
1.
social behaviour 2. , but not completely
asocial
'e.q.
B.
1. What do the three women mentioned in the passage have in common?
2. What is the significance of Galdikas' study?
3. Why has she campaigned for the orangutans and their habitat?
258
122
THE LONG HABIT
Just like our remotest ancestors, we refrain from talking about death,
despite the great distance we have come in understanding some of the
profound aspects of biology. We have as much distaste for talking about
personal death as for thinking about it; it is an indelicacy. Death on a grand
scale does not bother us in the same special way: we can sit around a dinner
table and discuss war, involving 60 million volatilized human deaths, as
though we were talking about bad weather; we can watch abrupt bloody
death every day, in colour, on films and television, without blinking back a
tear. It is when the numbers of dead are very small and very close that we
begin to think in scurrying circles. At the very center of the problem is the
naked cold deadness of one's own self, the only reality in nature of which
we can have absolute certainty, and it is unmentionable, unthinkable. We
may be even less willing to face the issue at first hand than our predecessors
because of a secret new hope that maybe it will go away. We like to think,
hiding the thought, that with all the marvelous ways in which we seem now
to lead nature around by the nose, perhaps we can avoid the central problem
if we just become - next year, say - a bit smarter.
"The long habit of living," said Thomas Browne, "indisposeth us to
dying." These days, the habit has become an addiction: we are hooked on
living; the tenacity of its grip on us, and ours on it, grows in intensity. We
cannot think of giving it up, even when living loses its zest - even when we
have lost the zest for zest.
We have come a long way in our technological capacity to put death off,
and it is imaginable that we might learn to stall it for even longer periods,
perhaps matching the life spans of the Abkhasians, who are said to go on for
a century and a half. If we can rid ourselves of some of our chronic,
degenerative diseases, cancer, strokes, and coronaries, we might go on and
on. It sounds attractive and reasonable, but it is no certainty.
We long for longevity, even in the face of plain evidence that long, long
lives are not necessarily pleasurable in the kind of society we have arranged
thus far. We will be lucky if we can postpone the search for new
technologies for a while, until we have discovered some satisfactory things
to do with the extra time. Something will surely have to be found to take the
place of sitting on the porch re-examining one's watch.
259
123
— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — i———————•——•—•—••—M^——•————
GIOVANNA AMATI: ONE FAST WOMAN
What makes a glamorous young woman want to risk life and limb on
the track?
"Motor racing is a passion. For me it's so deep I can't live without it,"
1 says speed-loving Giovanna Amati, a 27-year-old Italian who is widely
acknowledged to be one of the fastest women drivers around.
As a member, last year, of the British-based team GA Motor-sports,
she competed in Formula 3000 races in a car twice as powerful as a
Jaguar XJS. She raced at 180 mph in a class that has won a reputation for
aggressive competitiveness, with many drivers taking dramatic risks to
make their mark. This year, however, she is without the money necessary
to race in F3000, a group that is just one step below Formula 1, so she is
2 competing as a guest driver at circuits around the world while looking for
the right sponsorship package. "I don't want to be decoration at the track"
she says. "I want to win." Determination shines through this beautiful
woman's every move and every word. When she was 15, she used to ride
a 350cc motorcycle around her native city of Rome, hiding it from her
parents. A year later, she bought a 500cc machine and she still keeps a
motorcycle at home today.
Despite opposition from her father, a Roman industrialist, Giovanna
3 pursued her driving ambition, joining a racing school where she won the
graduates race in 1980. From there she has worked her way up
successive formulas.
Motor racing is a sport still heavily dominated by men. Some men,
4 particularly fellow Italians, find their ego dented when they're beaten by
her, says Giovanna.
She spends as much time working with the mechanics as she does on
5 the track. "I love everything about the cars. You have to enjoy the
mechanical side and be able to explain exactly why you think the car is
not performing correctly."
Vital factors in achieving racing success are physical fitness and
mental attitude. "You can't afford to get tired. You're often racing for one
6 and a half hours in temperatures of around 30 degrees. In tennis, if you
miss a ball, you lose a point. In motor racing a mistake can cost you your
life."
When she's in Rome, Giovanna works out every day with her coach at
7 the sports clinic she attends. "I do a lot of skipping to build up stamina,
weight training for strength and many reaction exercises." Her diet and
health are monitored by a nutritionist who analyses her blood and adjusts
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7 her eating plans accordingly.
The risks in racing are huge and drivers have to rise above them. "You
don't think about accidents," says Giovanna. "You feel sorry, of course, if
8 someone is injured but you can't let yourself dwell on it - that would
make you slow down."
Motor racing also demands sacrifices. "You risk everything - as well
as your life, you risk losing your friends and your security. I do miss not
9 having a man but I have to be number one when I'm with a man; he must
be there to care for me when I am at home - and that's very difficult to
find."
• The glamorous, big money image of racing holds little appeal. "There
are people who race for the money," says Giovanna, "but I don't. And
10 you don't go to parties - you have to sleep, to relax . If I wanted to go to
parties, I'd be at home in Rome."
A. Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. strong, deep and uncontrollable feeling (paragraph 1):
2. striking (paragraph 2):
3. followed (paragraph 3):
4. gradually became better in (paragraph 3):
5. damaged or hurt (paragraph 4):
6. necessary (paragraph 6):
7. carefully observed (paragraph 7):
8. think about (paragraph 8):
B. Mark the best choice.
The main idea of the sixth paragraph is that .
a) racing at high temperatures makes the driver lose his physical balance
b) tiredness is the cause of fatal racing accidents
c) a race driver should be both physically and mentally fit
d) motor racing is more difficult than playing tennis
C. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Competitors entering Formula 3000 races have to spend money out of
their own pockets or have sponsors.
2. Amati doesn't enjoy riding motorcycles.
3. Male drivers have readily accepted Amati as a competitor.
4. The mechanical side of racing is as important as the skill shown on the
race-track.
5. Amati does three main kinds of exercise at the sports clinic.
262
D.
1. What is one of the greatest risks in motor racing?
2. How does Giovanna rise above the risks?
3. Is she optimistic or pessimistic about accepting men into her private life? Why?
124
THE FIRES OF CHRISTMAS
Eyes looked skyward for rain, but the only clouds were of
smoke. Heat and wind around Sydney last week dried a path for
more than 150 fires to blaze in the worst natural disaster to hit the
country in the 200 years since British settlers arrived. By week's
5 end more than 400,000 hectares were alight. At least four people
had died; scores of homes had been destroyed and thousands of 1
people had been evacuated. With highways and rail lines closed to
the north, access to Australia's largest city was limited. The shells
of the Sydney Opera House, the city's landmark, are normally a
10 bright and shiny white in the sunshine, but last week they were a
dull orange.
The first fires began in the northern part of the state of New
South Wales a few days after Christmas. By early last week there
was a quilt of 40 blazes. By Wednesday there were 80, Thursday 2
15 90, Friday 150. A quarter of the state was under threat, from the
Queensland border to the New South Wales southern coast. Sydney
Was bracketed by fires to the north, south and west.
Hundreds of people made dramatic escapes, taken off threatened
shores by surf-boats or lifted by helicopters as flames neared
20 remote camping spots. An old woman, carried from her home,
clutched a framed picture to her heart. In places like Newcastle and
Lake Macquarie, skies were black and the Sun orange. "It's like 3
being on another planet," said Jill Allen, who works near Lake
Macquarie. "It looks.like a storm coming. We wish it was."
25 Beaches were covered with ash and charred leaves. In Pittwater, a
picturesque inlet just north of Sydney, a flotilla of yachts, dinghies
and ferries evacuated several hundred people from the densely
263
wooded shores. 3
Compounding the tragedy was the fact that nature's persistence
30 had been abetted. Authorities said perhaps half the blazes were the
work of arsonists. A $100,000 reward was offered after news that
some fires had been deliberately lit. Police soon received an
estimated 850 phone calls from people claiming to have seen 4
arsonists. Authorities have arrested 11 people, including at least
35 two teenagers. A 13-year-old boy is to appear in the Children's
Court in Sydney in connection with one blaze. There was public
outrage that a Sydney hotel had threatened to dismiss an employee
who is a volunteer fire fighter unless he returned to work.
The disaster, however, also brought out the best in some people.
40 Residents risked their own homes to help save those of their
neighbours; general stores opened their shelves to people battling
blazes. At the front line, the thousands of fire fighters were
tenacious, but the battle was unequal, even with the help of troops
and fire fighters brought in from other states. Because of the fires' 5
45 spread and ferocity, authorities could only hope to protect lives and
minimize property damage. Beyond that, other allies were needed.
In one meeting, John Fahey, the premier of New South Wales,
called for help from "the weather and God above to fight the
intense fires." Neither seemed to be cooperating. Meteorologists
said no rain was likely for the next few days.
A. What do the following refer to?
1. 'they' (line 10):
2. 'those' (line 40):
B. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. sent or carried to a place of safety (paragraph 1):
2. held tightly in the hand (paragraph 3):
3. a group, used especially to refer to a group of small ships (paragraph 3):
4. people who set fire to a place on purpose (paragraph 4):
5. a very strong feeling of anger and shock (paragraph 4):
6. being determined, not giving up easily (paragraph 5):
7. the quality of being violent, or aggressive and intense (paragraph 5):
264
125
GENETIC GEOGRAPHY
It's far from perfect, but researchers unveil the first complete map of all
23 pairs of human chromosomes.
The first maps of the new world, drawn back in the age of Columbus and
Magellan, were pitifully primitive. The early European explorers and
cartographers thought that America was just a narrow strip of land and that
the Pacific Ocean was small enough for a galleon to cross in a couple of
weeks. But despite all their shortcomings, those first stabs at mapmaking
captured the imaginations of adventurers and spurred more voyages of
discovery.
In much the same way, today's explorers of the genetic frontier have
doggedly navigated the 23 pairs of human chromosomes in their search for
various genes - not always sure which landmarks to trust, or how far away
the goal was. The hunt will now be easier, thanks to last week's
announcement that an international team of scientists, led by Dr. Daniel
Cohen at the Center for the Study of Human Polymorphism in Paris, has
produced the first fully-fledged - if still rough - map of the human genome.
"This is a major step forward," says David Ward, a Yale geneticist who has
been analyzing the map for errors. "It's a first pass, and it will have its warts.
But it's still significant."
Composed of long chains of DNA containing perhaps 100,000 genes, the
human genome is far too vast to analyze all at once. So scientists use special
enzymes to chop the chromosomes into small manageable pieces and pick
out small identifiable stretches - called markers - on each segment. When
researchers are searching for a disease gene, they look for a marker that is
common to all people who suffer from that ailment. If one is found, then the
defective gene is probably located somewhere near that marker. The
problem is that although the gene hunters know where the marker is located
on the chromosome, they don't necessarily know how close it lies to the
suspect gene.
That's why Cohen's new map will come in handy. To produce it, his
group sliced many sets of chromosomes into thousands of segments and put
each piece into a yeast cell. The cells then made thousands of copies of
every piece of the human DNA. By studying different possible
arrangements, Cohen's computerized machines were able to figure out the
positions of a whole list of common markers as well as the proper order of
the pieces.
Cohen's laboratory now has in storage multiple copies, or clones, of
about 33,000 chromosome segments. So if gene hunters want to search the
266
area around a particular marker, they can request copies of the relevant
DNA segments. Says Cohen: "You can call and say, 'I need this and this
clone,' and you'll get it in two days."
Anyone wanting a description of the entire map should be able to obtain
it through a computer: Cohen has promised to feed the information into the
Internet, the global communications network most heavily used by
scientists. "It should be equally available to all the world," he says.
The ultimate goal for biologists is to determine the exact sequence of all
the chemical components of all 100,000 genes. That will give scientists the
full, detailed genetic instructions for a human being. But since that map will
contain 3.5 billion separate points, it probably won't be completed until after
the turn of the century.
A. The following points are not in order. Arrange them in the order in which they
are mentioned.
a) the procedures followed in the search of a disease gene
b) the length of time needed for the completion of the map of the human
genome
c) the network of communications scientists commonly use
d) where Dr. Cohen conducts his studies
e) how the map of the human genome was produced
f) what the human genome consists of
g) who has analyzed the map of the human genome
B.
1. What were the shortcomings of the first geographical maps?
2. How do scientists cut chromosomes into small pieces?
3. What are clones?
4. Why is it important to determine the exact sequence of the chemical
components of genes?
267
126
GENETIC MANIPULATION
Ever since man the hunter and gatherer gave up his nomadic way of life
and began to tend stock and grow crops, he has been involved with genetic
manipulation. Firstly, in ignorance, simply by choosing to rear particular
animals or plants which were in some way advantageous to his developing
lifestyle, and then much later, since the science of genetics began to
develop, man has been engaged in breeding programmes designed to
produce varieties of plants and animals exhibiting the specific
characteristics which fit them to his various needs.
As man's exploitation of natural resources has continued and industries
have developed based on the synthetic ability of micro-organisms,
particularly the bacteria and fungi, his need for knowledge of the
fundamental principles of the genetics of these organisms has increased and
the new science of molecular genetics has emerged. The discipline seeks to
understand the molecular base of inheritance and the way in which the
information encoded by deoxy-ribonucleic acid (DNA) is utilized by the
living cell.
Advances in the field of recombinant DNA research over the past decade
have given the geneticist the techniques required to mobilize individual
genes, that is, specific sequences of DNA which code the amino acid
structure of single proteins, and then transfer these genes from a donor to a
recipient organism, thus conferring on the recipient the ability to synthesize
the gene product. This is the practice of genetic manipulation as we
understand the term today and which has become a cornerstone of the new
Biotechnology. Now, in addition to searching in nature for wild
micro-organisms capable of producing specific products, a process which is
often long and tedious and sometimes unrewarding, microbial hosts can be
tailored for specific purposes by introducing foreign genes into them. The
source of this foreign DNA can be microbial, animal, or plant and thus
microbial hosts can be converted into biosynthetic factories capable of
making a wide diversity of materials needed in every aspect of our lives
from food and fuel to agriculture and medicine.
Most recombinant DNA experiments are designed to transfer specific
genetic information from a donor organism to a recipient cell so that the
newly acquired gene will be expressed and will result in the production of a
'foreign' protein. In order to do this, the DNA to be transferred must first be
isolated from the donor organism and inserted into a DNA carrier or vector
molecule which will be used to transfer it into its new host.
The ease with which fragments of DNA can be cut out of large DNA
molecules, present in the chromosomes of plants and animals, and inserted
268
into vectors, has been assisted greatly by the discovery within the last 20
years of a group of enzymes known as restricted endonucleuses. These
enzymes recognize specific base sequences on DNA molecules and cut
them precisely within or near that sequence. There are currently some three
hundred of these enzymes known and some forty or so are commercially
available in a highly-purified form.
The enormous growth of interest and input of capital into researching the
applications of recombinant DNA research over the past decade is evidence
of the potential benefit to man which these techniques can provide.
Independent of its use for fundamental research in molecular genetics, a
field which has provided and will continue to provide invaluable
information to both academic and applied geneticists, recombinant DNA
technology has already made important contributions in several areas of
applied science.
A. The following list of points are not in order. Arrange them in the order in which
they are mentioned.
a) how DNA transfer is carried out
b) specific examples of micro-organisms
c) the scope of molecular genetics
d) man's involvement in genetic manipulation
e) the sources of foreign DNA
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Early man's preference to grow particular plants is considered to be a kind
of genetic manipulation.
2. The emergence of molecular genetics led to the onset of industries based
on the synthetic ability of micro-organisms.
3. Genetic manipulation now is mainly the practice of transferring individual
genes from one organism to another.
4. Only wild micro-organisms can act as hosts to foreign DNA.
5. Enzymes are used to identify and isolate DNA sequences.
6. There are about forty enzymes in the group known as restricted
endonucleuses.
C.
1. What is a gene?
2. What happens when specific genetic information is transferred to a recipient
cell?
269
127
THE TREASURE OF KING PRIAM OF TROY
For Heinrich Schliemann, a German-born amateur archaeologist
digging in the heat and dust of western Turkey in 1873, it was the
discovery of a lifetime: the legendary treasure of King Priam of Troy,
1 celebrated by Homer in the Iliad. Painstakingly and perilously excavated,
smuggled in pieces to Schliemann's residence in Greece and revealed to
an astonished world a short time later, the find was the biggest news in
archaeology until King Tut's tomb was discovered in 1922.
Last week, nearly a half-century after it disappeared from a Berlin
Bunker in the chaos at the end of World War II, King Priam's treasure
surfaced again. "I have held these dull gold vessels," said Yevgeni
Sidorov, the Russian Minister of Culture, in Literaturnaya Gazeta. "They
look modest, but the feeling of heat and energy of many millenniums
2 takes your breath away." Sidorov confirmed that King Priam's trove was
captured by the Red Army when it sacked Berlin in 1945. That had long
been suspected. In a 1991 article in the magazine ART News, Konstantin
Akinsha and Grigorii Kozlov, two Soviet writers with access to secret
KGB documents, first reported that the Russians had spirited the treasure
away.
The Russians eventually plan to exhibit the collection, which
originally included a large silver vase containing about 9,000 gold
objects, half a dozen bracelets, a bottle and several gold cups. But Irina
Antonova, director of Moscow's Pushkin Museum, could not say exactly
3 how much of Priam's treasure was actually in Moscow. "Since these
items have been kept according to a regime of strict conservation, where
only one person had access to them," she said, "and since scholars were
able to see the treasures for just a few days, it is difficult to say now what
there is and in what quantities."
The original gatherer of the trove was no upright Indiana Jones sort
but a multilingual adventurer who never hesitated to inflate his own
legend. After obtaining U.S. citizenship, perhaps by fraud, Schliemann
divorced his Russian wife and married a Greek mail-order bride. He then
travelled to Turkey, where, as an American, it was easy for him to get a
4 permit to dig for history. Uncovering evidence of seven cities on the site
of Troy, he determined from his reading of Homer, which he treated as
gospel, that it was the second, or "burnt," city to which the Iliad referred.
Modern scholars are increasingly skeptical that Homer was Schliemann's
muse, pointing to the fact that Schliemann's Troy dates from around
2500-2200 B.C., far too old for the saga, which takes place around 1250
B.C.
270
Turkey as well as Germany and Russia will probably lay claim to the
treasure. Schliemann's original right to the treasure was contested by
Turkey and decided in a Turkish court in 1880; the wealthy prospector
5 was fined a nominal sum, although the Royal Museums of Berlin chipped
in 50,000 gold franks to placate angry Turkish authorities. PAID IS
PAID! screamed a headline in a Berlin newspaper last week.
Possession, however, is nine-tenths of the law, and the Russians are
unlikely to give the treasure up gracefully. In the meantime, the only sure
6 thing is that lawyers of several nations will engage in a battle that will
make the Achilles-Hector struggle look like a picnic before the gates of
Troy. Wherever it really was.
A. Find words in the text which mean the same as the following.
1. taken out of ground (paragraph 1):
2. treasure (paragraph 2):
3. means of reaching (paragraph 3):
4. cause to stop feeling angry (paragraph 5):
5. in a pleasant way (paragraph 6):
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. King Priam's treasure was transported legally to Greece by Schliemann.
2. The Russians secretly carried the treasure from Berlin to Russia at the end
of the Second World War.
3. The whole treasure was originally kept in a large silver vase.
4. It is not exactly known whether the whole or parts of the treasure are in
Russia.
5. The writers Akinsha and Kozlov were first told about the treasure by Irina
Antonova.
6. Schliemann married a Greek probably to make matters concerning the
treasure easier for himself.
7. There are doubts about the treasure really dating from the time of Homer's
saga.
8. Turkey took Schliemann to court for stealing the treasure.
9. The Royal Museums of Berlin tried to prevent Schliemann from paying the
fine and getting the treasure.
10. Two nations will be claiming the treasure in the future.
271
128
SINGAPORE'S TRAFFIC POLICY
Singapore possesses all the ingredients for traffic disaster. The island
city-state has a large population (3 million), a limited land area (626.4
sq.km), booming economic growth and one of the highest automobile
densities in the world (81 per km of roadway, vs. 43 in Japan and 17 in the
U.S.). In other rapidly growing Asian metropolises, like Bangkok, Taipei
and Seoul, such conditions have wreaked bumper-to-bumper bedlam- in the
streets. Yet, Singapore's traffic moves smoothly. Much of the explanation
lies in sound urban planning and an effective mass-transit system.
Traffic-flow engineering - like restricted zones that bar automobiles without
a special permit - also helps. But the main thing that keeps gridlock at bay is
the government's decree that the car population can grow no faster than the
road network - some 2% to 3% a year. That policy, though effective at
avoiding road snarls, has led to the highest car prices in the world.
For starters, all cars are slapped with a 45% import tariff. Then owners
must pay a one-time registration fee of $600, plus an additional charge
equal to 150% of the car's market value. When even those regulations failed
to stem the natural demand, Singapore, in 1990, unveiled its toughest
requirement yet: the Certificate of Entitlement, a permit available only in
limited numbers that prospective car buyers must obtain before making their
purchases. COEs are sold through a complex auction system; the prices vary
each month depending on the number of bidders.
The result is that buying a car can be far costlier in some months than in
others. January's COE prices hit record highs: $10,061 for a Honda Civic
(up $2,208 since December), $11,212 for a Honda Accord (up $2,242).
When added to the basic costs of the car, import duties and registration fees,
it means that a Civic would cost around $40,780, an Accord would run
some $56,600.
Oh yes, and since the government wants to cut down not only congestion
but also air pollution, all new cars sold after next July will require catalytic
converters, adding about $1,200 to the price. And all this merely gets the car
to the driveway. The owner must then pay annual road taxes. These fees
vary with the size of the vehicle, averaging $690 for a Civic and $1,200 for
an Accord. The cumulative result of these schemes: automobile sales for
1991 were down 10% from the previous year, to 24,000.
Anyone seeking to avoid all these extra costs by holding onto an old
clunker runs into another welter of regulations. An owner gets a substantial
credit toward the registration and permit for a replacement only if the
previous car is scrapped before it is 10 years old. Cars dating back 10 years
or more are socked with an annual road-tax surcharge of 10%; those 14
272
years or older pay a 50% surcharge.
Singaporeans are sympathetic to the government's goal of keeping traffic
moving, but the mood has soured as COEs have soared in price, placing the
ownership of an automobile beyond the reach of all but the very wealthy -
or the very desperate.
A. Provide the following information.
1. Singapore's population: •
2. Singapore's land area:
3. Singapore's automobile density: ;
4. what COE stands for:
5. the total cost after taxes of a Honda Civic:
6. the total cost after taxes of a Honda Accord:
7. the cost of catalytic converters:
8. the number of cars sold in 1991:
9. the annual road-tax surcharge for cars which are 10 years and older:
10. the annual road-tax surcharge for cars which are 14 years and older:
B. Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Singapore has a higher automobile density than Japan.
2. Bangkok, Taipei and Seoul have serious traffic problems.
3. All Singaporean citizens face two extra charges or taxes when buying a
car.
4. COEs are sold at a fixed price.
5. The Singaporean government doesn't care about the air pollution caused
by traffic.
6. Despite all efforts, car sales in Singapore increased in 1991.
7. The government discourages people from using cars which are over 10
years old.
8. The traffic moves smoothly in Singapore.
9. Singaporeans disapprove of the price of the COEs.
10. The government control on cars and traffic is very weak in Singapore.
•
273
129
SPEED KILLS
Every western country save one believes that maxim and has national
speed limits to make the point, reducing • pollution in the bargain.
1 Germany, where some locals guard the entitlement to drive 200-plus
km/h as though it were a natural right and visitors prize a freedom denied
at home, remains the exception: there is only one limit on most of the
superhighways, and that is the car's performance.
But the days of warp drive on the autobahn may be numbered. As a
result of a recent court decision on liability incurred by superfast drivers,
2 new obstacles to high speed are rising. The ruling won applause from an
ever more vocal chorus of speed-limit advocates. Defenders of no-limit
driving are as determined as ever but look like an increasingly isolated
minority.
A long-standing proposal by the Green Party to lower superhighway
speed to 100 km/h divided the public more or less evenly in the late
1980's. "But more recently," says pollster Jochen Hansen of the
Allensbach Institute, "there has been a greater inclination to see 130
km/h as a good standard." The latest survey, commissioned by the
3 Environment Ministry, confirms that 72% of Germans would like to see a
national speed limit, with most citing 120 km/h, also advocated by police
organizations, as a reasonable possibility. Environmentalists cite a litany
of studies to show that higher speed means increased CO2,
ozone-damaging N2O (nitrogen oxide) and particulate emissions as well
as increased fuel consumption.
However broad such support, it has not been able to dent the political
influence of auto enthusiasts and carmakers. The latter, who make up one
of Germany's most powerful industries and account for 1 in every 7 jobs,
4 argue that speed limits would deprive the likes of Mercedes-Benz, BMW
and Porsche of a key competitive advantage: the right to say their cars
are engineered to the driving standard of the autobahn, known the world
over for uncapped speed.
Why German car buffs are so militant in their determination to drive
fast remains a subject of much speculation. Some argue that the
automobile is the supreme symbol of Germany's postwar economic
achievement and its obsession with quality products, others suggest that
5 the autobahn is the only place where individuals living in one of the
world's most regulated societies can vent aggression. No-limit supporters
have the government's ear: Chancellor Helmut Kohl has sworn none will
be introduced on his watch.
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130
THE RAYS ARE NOT COLOURED
Newton first understood, more than 200 years ago, that "the Rays, to
speak properly, are not coloured," and "Colours in the Object are nothing
but a disposition to reflect this or that sort of Ray more copiously than the
rest..." Yet colour seems so compellingly to be a property of an object that
few among us doubt the obvious. Indeed, the insights of Newton, supported
by two centuries of scientific elaboration, are not fully appreciated even by
the practitioners of colour, such as the artist and the paint manufacturer, let
alone the man in the street.
W.D.Wright is a physicist and one of the fathers of the CIE (Commission
International de l'Eclairage) system of colour specification. Despite the
proven usefulness of this system, Wright admits that it "does not give
precise information about the spectral composition of the light or any exact
information about the sensation..." Accordingly, Wright's interests, reflected
in this book, have extended well beyond classical colourimetry to the use of
colour in art and television, the teaching of colour in schools, and the
practical and theoretical problems presented by colour-defective vision.
The difficult problem raised by the coloured appearance of objects
provides a recurring theme for some of the nine essays of this slim volume.
Is it possible that the man in the street is right to believe what he sees?
Wright struggles hard to find a proper basis for restoring colour to the
object. He notes that the main task of vision, for which colour is not
necessary, is to render objects visible. Although the initial basis for colour
vision does lie in the spectral modification of light by the object - just as
Newton discerned - such modified light is far from the only basis for colour
perception. Somehow, Wright says, colour projects light back out to, is
modified by, and becomes an inherent property of the object.
Most of the book consists of the texts of invited lectures delivered from
1951 to 1966. It is easy to see why Wright is so often asked to speak. His
remarks are lucid and reflect his enthusiasm for a subject with which he has
had more than 40 years of experience. Most of the material will be readily
understood by the non-expert. The lectures point more to problems than
solutions since they do not attempt to deal with a large percentage of the
experimental evidence bearing upon the topics discussed.
276
131
THE SHAME AND PAIN OF SUDDEN RUIN
Walter Armanini, a city councilor, was en route to his Milan office on
May 19, 1992 when his car phone rang. "There are people waiting for you at
the office," said a colleague. "They won't give their names, and they won't
go away." Armanini's first thought was that the strangers might be
kidnappers. When the men introduced themselves as detectives, there to
arrest him for soliciting $125,000 in kickbacks, Armanini, 56, knew his life
would never be the same. He was permitted to return home and pack a bag.
One of the arresting officers advised him to change out of the dark suit he
was wearing: "You won't need it where you're headed."
Armanini's destination was Milan's San Vittore prison, which he had
often passed without really looking at it. "I never thought about what
happened inside," he says. "It wasn't a part of my world. Sometimes, out of
superstition, I'd make a sign as I went past to ward off evil."
He found himself in evil's midst. He posed for mug shots, holding a
number across his chest, and was fingerprinted. As he walked to his cell,
there was a roar from the inmates. "They knew I'd been arrested, and they
were laughing and shouting at me to stop stealing because there'd be
nothing left for them."
Armanini was among the first to be arrested in Operation Clean Hands, a
corruption probe that has swept up more than 2,500 members of Italy's
business, political and government elite. The profound despair of facing ruin
and imprisonment has led 12 of them to commit suicide, a reaction
Armanini says he understands. Although he endured the humiliation of a
televised trial and was sentenced to four years, the horror that stays with
him most palpably is the 41 days he spent at San Vittore. "I can still smell
the urine in the halls, hear the barking of the guard dogs outside, see the
flash of the searchlight overhead," he says. "I just can't get those things out
of my mind."
He spent his first night in a 2-m by 3-m cell with a suspected murderer.
"I felt so alone, so scared, as if I were already condemned to spend my life
here," he recalls. "I wouldn't let myself think about my wife or my daughter.
I didn't want even the thought of them to enter this place."-
Transferred to the isolation ward after three days, he was already
thinking like a prisoner. "I noticed that nothing they gave us could be used
as a weapon. The dishes and spoons were plastic. The bed sheet was to'o
flimsy to hang yourself. When we took exercise, it was in an area open to
the wind, but there were bars overhead. The place was full of excrement
from the dogs that barked all night and kept me awake until 5."
At his trial, Armanini admitted to shaking down businessmen on behalf
9.78
of the Socialist Party. "I never thought of it as illegal," he says. Now free,
pending an appeal, he says he is frequently accosted on the street and called
a thief, "I just want back the life I had," he says. Trapped in a nightmare he
cannot escape, he yeams for a dream that cannot be.
Mark the statements as True (T) or False (F).
1. Armanini was arrested on May 19, 1992.
2. It can be inferred that kidnapping is quite common in Italy.
3. Armanini was wearing a dark süit when he was arrested.
4. He expected to be put into San Vittore prison.
5. He was treated kindly and with tolerance in prison.
6. More than 2,500 people have been arrested in Operation Clean Hands.
7. Armanini thought about escaping from San Vittore after spending 41 days
there.
8. He constantly thought about his family while in prison.
9. The thought of committing suicide may have crossed his mind while in
prison.
10. Armanini supported the Socialist Party.
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132
POLLUTION (1)
Pollution has already become an international problem. Even
countries with little industry have reason to be alarmed by the
appalling situation. Industries and individuals dump waste materials
into rivers, oceans, and even local water supplies. Farmers use
5 chemical insecticides to protect their crops, but these chemicals, which
remain in the soil and water for long periods of time, also endanger
many other living things. Already, many species of plant and animal
life face complete destruction. Their disappearance will harm others, as
the natural food supply is reduced. This chain of events may ultimately
10 result in a serious imbalance in nature which could endanger all living
creatures, including man.
Thus, all nations should make an attempt to stop pollution. At the
present time, it seems more likely that man's future will be determined
by his success or failure in preserving a healthy environment than by a
15 worldwide famine, disease or war.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 8, Their disappearance' refers to the disappearance of .
a) chemical insecticides c) natural food supply
b) soil and clean water d) plant and animal life
2. Chemical insecticides used by farmers .
a) are harmful for the crops c) are dangerous for many living things
b) remain in the soil for a short time d) protect many species of animal life
3. The balance of nature will be affected negatively by .
a) the destruction of some plants and animals
b) dangerous living things
c) the crops protected by the environment
d) many species of plant and animal life
4. Which of the following is the least likely to determine mankind's future?
a) His success in solving the pollution problem.
b) A worldwide disaster.
c) His ability to preserve a healthy environment.
d) The attempts to stop pollution.
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133
RECYCLING WASTE
The amount of garbage produced each day is growing at an
alarming rate. Many big cities all over the world face a crisis because
they are running out of space to dump wastes.
One of the solutions to this problem is recycling, that is, reusing
materials. Years ago, milk bottles, beer bottles, and soft drink bottles
were reused repeatedly; and many drink companies offered deposits
for their bottles to encourage the public to return them. With the
increasing use of inexpensive tin cans and plastic containers, however,
glass returnables became less and less popular despite the slight effort
10 that was required to return them.
When waste disposal became a problem, interest in recycling was
revived. Companies began to promote their returnable bottles (which
had never completely disappeared from the market) once again. In
addition, a new 'recycling industry' sprang up, and the term 'recycling'
15 took on a new meaning: it meant not only reusing a finished product
such as a bottle but also breaking down glass bottles and paper
products from the old. Recycling centers, where people can bring their
empty bottles and old papers, have been set up in both small and large
towns in many industialised countries.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 12, 'revived' means .
a) rejected b) removed c) renewed d) reported
2. Glass bottles became less popular .
a) due to the possibility of using them repeatedly
b) when companies offered to pay deposits for them
c) although it was difficult to return them
d) because cheap tin cans and plastic containers took their place
3. As a result of the recent interest in recycling, .
a) companies increased the use of returnable bottles
b) returnable bottles disappeared from the market
c) companies introduced reusable glass bottles into the market
d) it became difficult to find a disposal place for empty bottles
4. Which of the following is not included in the new concept of recycling?
a) Breaking down used products into their raw materials.
b) Manufacturing new products from the used ones.
c) Producing waste materials to be used in recycling.
d) Reusing an already finished product.
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134
OCEANS
Nations, as well as individuals, have always used the oceans - for fishing,
trade, and pleasure - with little concern for anyone else's rights. The oceans
used to be large enough for everyone. As the world has grown 'smaller'
through improved communications and transportation and increased
population growth, the oceans have become more crowded. It is now
possible for a nation to go far from its coasts to fish and trade, and each year
many of the new nations develop fishing and trading fleets. Instead of the
large empty ocean that once existed, it is now filled with many people who
are interested in using its resources. This results in strong competition
among nations. Since each nation has different needs and aims, problems
eventually arise.
Nations are beginning to realize that laws must be established to protect
the resources in the oceans - its fish and animals, its plant life, and its
minerals. However, due to the long practice of free use of the oceans, it is
difficult for man to accept the need for these laws.
Mark the best choice.
1. The oceans .
a) used to be more crowded than they are now
b) have always been used tor fishing and trade
c) have always caused problems among nations
d) affected the improvements in communications and transportation
2. The increasing interest in the resources of the oceans has led to .
a) an increase in the needs of nations
b) a rise in population growth
c) the development of new nations
d) problems among nations '
3. Man has to establish laws .
a) to use the oceans' resources freely
b) not to harm the oceans' resources
c) to start competition among nations
d) not to serve the varying needs of nations
4. Which of the following is true?
a) The laws made to protect oceans' resources have been ineffective.
b) Many nations develop new fishing and trading fleets because the world has
grown smaller.
c) It will be difficult for man to accept the laws on the use of the oceans'
resources.
d) Nations must realize that they can use the oceans' resources.
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135
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SURGERY
In early years of this century there was little specialization in
surgery, i.e. cutting into a part of the body. A good surgeon was
capable of performing almost every operation that had been devised
up to that time. Today, the situation is different. Operations that were
5 not even dreamed of fifty years ago are now being carried out. The
heart can be safely opened and its valves repaired. Clogged blood
vessels can be cleaned out, and broken ones mended or replaced. A
lung, the whole stomach, or even part of the brain can be removed
and still allow the patient to live a comfortable and satisfactory life.
10 However, not every surgeon wants to, or is qualified to carry out every
type of modern operation.
The boundaries of surgery have widened remarkably in this
century. Its safety has increased too. Deaths from most operations are
about 23% of what they were in 1910 and surgery has extended in
15 many directions, for example to certain types of birth defects in
newborn babies and, at the other end of the scale, to life-saving
operations for old people. The hospital stay after surgery has been
shortened to as little as a week for most major operations. Most
patients are out of bed the day after an operation and may be back at
20 work in two or three weeks.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 6, 'Clogged' means .
a) replaced b) broken c) removed d) blocked
|
2. Line 14, 'they' refers to .
a) the boundaries of surgery
b) deaths after operations
c) directions in operations
d) most modern operations
3. Surgeons in the early years of this century .
a) could perform every operation known today
b) were less specialized than the modern ones
c) had to specialize more than the modern ones
d) were able to carry out heart operations
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4. The second paragraph is mainly about .
a) the improvements in modern surgery
b) the importance of hospital stay after surgery
c) the percentage of operations in this century
d) the operations of the past and today
5. Which of the following is true?
a) In modern surgery all types of operations can be carried out by any surgeon.
b) Open heart surgery has been possible since the decrease in deaths from
operations.
c) Even the removal of a major organ doesn't prevent the patient from leading a
healthy life today.
d) Today only one fourth of all patients who have operations recover.
136
ULTRASONICS
Some of the world's most interesting and useful sounds cannot be heard
at all. Ultrasonics - the 'too-high-to-hear sounds' - can be used to drill, cut
weld, clean, and inspect for cracks and flaws. Like all sounds, they travel in
waves through the air or any other medium, but they have a far higher
frequency than the sounds we hear.
Human ears can detect sound waves that vibrate from 20 to 20,000 times
per second. Bats can hear up to 50,000 vibrations per second. But when
scientists talk about ultrasonics they can mean billions of vibrations per
second.
Special vibrators produce these high-frequency sounds. One, the
transducer, is made by sandwiching a thin slice of quartz crystal between
two metal plates and passing an electric current through it. When this
happens, the crystal expands and contracts by a tiny amount - but enough to
generate the pressure waves needed. Ordinary sound waves spread in all
directions, but because of their high frequency, ultrasonics can be more
easily directed into a beamand made to do useful work.
They can be used to detect invisible cracks in metal because the sound
waves travel at a different speed through the crack than through the metal.
Dishes and clothes can be washed with them because of the pulsations they
set up in liquid.
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137
DESERT PLANTS
Only specialized plants can survive the climate of a desert because
deserts are regions with very little rainfall. The entire yearly rainfall
occurs during a few days or weeks in spring. For the remaining ten or
eleven months of the year, desert plants must survive without rain.
5 There are two types of desert plants: annuals and perennials. Desert
annuals, such as grasses and flowers, survive from one year to the next
by existing through the long, hot, dry season in the form of seeds.
These seeds remain inactive if the right amount of rain does not fall. If
there isn't enough rain, they wait until the following year or even the
10 next. Another factor that helps these plants to survive is the fact that
their life cycles are short. If they get the right amount of rainfall, the
seeds grow into plants which flower, then form new seeds and finally
die, all in just a few days or weeks. By the time the water from the
spring rains disappears - just a few weeks after it falls - the desert
15 annuals don't need any.
Desert perennials also have special characteristics which enable
them to survive as plants for several years. Nearly all perennials have
a well-developed root system below ground (which enables the plant
to absorb the maximum amount of water possible in a short time) and
20 a comparatively small shoot system, that is, leaves and branches
(which limits water loss).
Another characteristic of many desert perennials is their deciduous
habit; that is, after the rainy season they lose their leaves to prepare for
the long, dry season, just as trees in wetter climates lose theirs to
25 prepare for the winter. This reduces their water loss during the dry
season to a minimum. Then, in the next rainy season they come fully
alive once more, and grow new branches, leaves and flowers, just as
the desert annuals do.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 15, 'any' refers to .
l
a) time b) seeds c) water d) plants
2. Line 24, 'theirs' refers to .
a) the trees in wetter climates
b) the perennials which have a deciduous habit
c) the new branches, leaves and flowers of annuals
d) the leaves of trees in wetter climates
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138
AMARANTH
Amaranth is a kind of high-protein grain. It may easily be grown
in many areas which are unable to support other crops. ı
Agriculturalists think it is a promising crop which may help feed a
hungry population in the future.
5 It is not a new idea to grow amaranth as a foodstuff. In Mexico
during the sixteenth century, the Aztecs cultivated it. The plant was
an important part of their diet. It has been shown that the Aztecs
harvested close to 6,000 metric tons of the grain each year. 2
However, when Cortes and his Spanish army invaded Mexico, they
10 destroyed the crop completely. Today only a few wild and
uncultivated kinds of amaranth exist, and it is rarely used as food in
Mexico.
It has been discovered that amaranth is a highly nutritious food.
The plant's seed is high in protein, and it contains an important
15 amino acid called lysine. Amino acids are organic compounds that 3
are the building blocks of protein. Lysine is an essential amino acid
that is missing in wheat, rice, and com. The leaves of some
varieties compare in taste and nutritional value with spinach and
other vegetable greens.
20 Amaranth can be ground into flour and made into baked foods.
Bread made from amaranth flour is heavy and very compact when 4
compared with the light and airy bread common in North America.
The flour can also be used for cakes, cookies, and crackers, as well
as high-protein breakfast cereals and snack foods.
25 It is true that breeding a wild plant into a major food crop such
as wheat requires much research time. Agriculturalists know that it
has taken hundreds of years of breeding different varieties of corn
to get the better kinds we have today. They have to go through the
same time-consuming stages to grow amaranth as a crop. Presently 5
30 there are several problems. Because it is a wild plant, it is hard to
predict the date when the crop will be ready to be harvested. It is
also impossible to know the expected height of the individual
plants or how much a given amount of seed can produce. It is
important, for economic reasons, to breed a plant of standard height
35 and one that can be harvested at a specific time each year.
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139
DREAMS
Dreams have always held a universal attraction. A lot has been
said and written about them. Although most dreams happen
spontaneously, dream activity may be stimulated by external
influences. 'Suffocation' dreams are connected with the breathing
5 difficulties of a heavy cold, for instance. Internal disorders such as
indigestion can cause vivid dreams, and dreams of racing fire-engines
may be caused by the ringing of an alarm bell.
Experiments have been carried out to investigate the connection
between deliberately inflicted pain and dreaming. For example, a
10 sleeper hurt slightly with a pin perhaps dreams of fighting and
receiving a serious wound. Although the dream is stimulated by the
physical discomfort, the actual events of the dream depend on the
associations of the discomfort in the mind of the sleeper.
A dreamer's eyes often move rapidly from side to side. Since
15 people born blind do not dream visually and do not show this eye
activity, it is thought that the dreamer may be scanning the scene in
his dream. A certain amount of dreaming seems to be a human
requirement - if a sleeper is woken up every time his eyes begin to
move fast, effectively depriving him of his dreams, he will make more
20 eye movements the following night.
Of the many theories of dreams, Freud's is probably the best
known. According to Freud, in our dreams, we return to the modes of
thought characteristic of early childhood. Our thinking becomes
pictorial and non-logical and expresses ideas and wishes hidden deep
25 in our minds.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 9, 'inflicted' means .
a) caused . c) satisfied /
b) noticed d) motivated
2. The first paragraph is mainly about .
a) the probable causes of dreams
b) the effects of dreams on the mind
c) some experiments on dreaming
d) the strangeness of our dreams
?QO
3. If a person is hurt slightly while sleeping, . •
a) he may have spontaneous dreams
b) his dreams are shaped by the effects of the pain on the mind
c) the pain will immediately stop the dream activity
d) no connection can be observed between the pain and his dreams
4. People who are able to see .
a) dream in exactly the same way as blind people
b) need dreams more than blind people
c) have eye movements during dreaming
d) require different reasons for dreaming
5. The fourth paragraph is mainly about .
a) the consequences of our childhood dreams
b) Freud and the dreams we had in early childhood
c) different theories on dreaming
d) the Freudian explanation of dreams
6. Which of the following statements is true?
a) Our hidden wishes prevent dream activity.
b) Humans need a certain amount of dreaming.
c) Dreams cannot be caused by physical discomfort.
d) The ideas of the sleeper have no influence on his dreams.
140
POLLUTION (2)
Ecology means the study of the inter-relationships of plants,
animals, human beings and their environments. Environment is
everything that affects the quality of your life: the air you breathe, the
water you drink or swim in, your flat or house, the number of people,
5 the traffic, the noise and streets, shops, parks, countryside, seaside,
factories, farming, mining.-
The different kinds of pollution are all connected. What happens to
the air affects the land. What happens to the land affects the water.
And what happens to the water affects the air.
10 Man has been polluting the earth for a very long time. At first,
when the environment got dirty, people moved to a cleaner place, but
the rise in population and the developing industry have changed that,
and we can't do it any more. There are new kinds of waste, such as
plastics, and new chemicals which are very hard to destroy. So, the
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15 earth is becoming dirtier.
Every year about 150,000,000 tons of dirt, sprays and gases go into
the air over the USA. Air pollution damages paint and metal, makes
our clothes dirty, stops the growth of plants and can also cause many
diseases and death. There are two main causes of air pollution: fumes
20 from cars, trucks and buses, and fumes from industry. In large cities,
cars alone are responsible for about 80 per cent of the air pollution.
Gasoline engines give off a gas called carbon monoxide, which has no
colour or smell. This gas will make you sleepy, give you a headache
and can finally kill you. Scientists say that breathing the air of New
25 York is like smoking forty cigarettes a day.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 13, 'do it' refers to .
a) pollute the earth c) move to another place which is cleaner
b) develop industry d) increase the population
2. Line 22, 'which' refers to .
a) gasoline b) carbon monoxide c) gasoline engine d) air pollution
3. Ecology means the study of the relationship .
a) of animals to plants
b) of plants and animals to man
c) between all living things and their environment
d) of plants and animals to institutions
4. The problem with new kinds of waste and chemicals is that they .
a) are very hard to destroy c) affect industry
b) are becoming dirtier <j) have developed industry
5. 80% of the air pollution in big cities comes from .
a) industry and cars b) industry c) dirt, sprays and gases d) cars
6. Which of the following statements is true?
a) Fumes from cars affect the weather.
b) People iq New York smoke about 40 cigarettes a day.
c) Carbon monoxide can kill people.
d) There is air pollution only in large towns.
•
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141
THE ELECTRIC EEL
There are a number of different kinds of electric fish living in the
various rivers and oceans of the world. They can generate electricity
up to several hundred volts. The most powerful electric fish are the
electric catfish and the electric eel.
5 The electric eel lives in South America. Its special organs can
generate a very powerful electric current, which is enough to light
twelve light bulbs. The eel uses this electric charge to kill its prey -
mainly fish and frogs - and to keep its enemies away.
The electric eel manufactures the electric current in its tail, where
10 thousands of cells are linked together and form a kind of 'charging'
machine. The electric shock from the eel lasts only a fraction of a
second.
Electric eels can sometimes be nearly two meters long. As they
move through the water, they send out weak electrical charges and
15 these create an electric field around them. These charges help them to
locate their prey when some other sea animals enter the electrical field
and cause a change in the current impulses.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 15, 'them' refers to .
a) weak electric charges
b) the electric eels
c) their prey
d) other sea animals
2. Electric eels use their electric current to kill their prey and also .
a) the electric shock from the eel lasts only a short time
b) to form a kind of 'charging' machine
c) fish and frogs
d) to warn or frighten their enemies
3. When some other sea animals enter the electric field of the eels, .
a) they send out weak electrical charges
b) they are killed
c) they generate electricity
d) there is a change in the current impulses
293
142
SMOKING
There is some disagreement on whether Sir Walter Raleigh, the
16th century adventurer and explorer, introduced tobacco into Europe,
or only popularised the habit of smoking. Either way, he was not
aware of the harm he was doing to future generations.
5 Smoking, of course, was not always as popular as it is today. It was
mostly men who smoked, and it was considered a slightly dirty and
unpleasant habit. After dinner, the men would 'go' to the 'smoking
room' in their 'smoking jackets' before lighting their cigars and pipes.
Cigarettes are relatively recent and they have become more available
10 (as with so many other things) by the arrival of mass production. By
the First World War, smoking had left the 'smoking room' and had
joined the people. This popularity of the cigarette continued in the
inter-war years. By that time, the relaxing qualities of cigarettes had
been known and to this Hollywood added another attraction. With a
15 cigarette dangling from your lips, you too could be like Humphrey
Bogart, or James Cagney, or Betty Grable - or - whoever your idea of
the attractive film star was. It is funny that the act of smoking dried
leaves could be considered to make you look better but so it was. The
young people in the 1930's and 1940's first took up smoking as a mass
20 habit. This was the period when the pressures of living first began to
be so great that people needed the relaxing qualities of nicotine.
It was not until much more recently, however, - within the last ten
or twenty years - that we have realised what has happened to us. We
no longer smoke for the purpose of relaxation, or after-dinner social
25 enjoyment; today's smoker lights a cigarette over his breakfast coffee,
continues throughout the day, and puts out his last cigarette just before
he turns off the light at night. He smokes as if his life depends on it -
but he knows that his life may depend on his not smoking. The
connections between lung cancer, rapidly becoming one of the largest
30 killers in modern society, and smoking have been demonstrated, but
we still cannot give up. Governments are beginning to take action
against smoking - but without too much interest, for tobacco is one of
the most profitable sources of tax. The British Government took*the
enormous step of ordering the cigarette manufacturers to print a
35 warning that "Smoking Can Damage Your Health" on the side of all
cigarette packets. The only effect of this is that smokers need a few
extra cigarettes to further relax their terrified nerves.
Do you smoke? Can you run for the bus without being short of
breath? Can you smell the flowers in spring? Is your house full of
294
40 finished and half-finished cigarettes? Do you spend the first ten
minutes of every morning coughing?
Look, I've got an idea. Let's give up smoking. Well, anyway... let's
give it up tomorrow.
Oh, Walter Raleigh! What have you done to us?
Mark the best choice.
1. In the past .
a) smoking was less popular because of Raleigh
b) smoking was more popular than it is now
c) not many women smoked
d) only dirty men smoked
2. Cigarettes gained popularity because of .
a) mass production
b) their relaxing qualities
c) the attraction Hollywood added
d) all of the above
3. Line 18, 'so it was' refers to .
a) it was funny to consider smoking to make you look better
b) the act of smoking was funny but this was considered to be better
c) dried leaves could be smoked and this was funny
d) smoking was considered to make you look better
4. The young people of the 1930's and 1940's .
a) became smokers when they grew up
b) needed the relaxing qualities of nicotine
c) became smokers to look like film stars
d) thought the act of smoking was funny
5. Nowadays, smokers .
a) donl realise how dangerous smoking is
b) smoke for social enjoyment and relaxation
c) have realised the dangers of smoking and are giving it up
d) know they might die if they continue smoking
295
6. The step taken by the British Government .
a) made people smoke a little more
b) helped decrease the number of smokers
c) was not interesting for cigarette manufacturers
d) caused a decrease in the tax income
7. This passage has been written .
a) as an attempt to make people stop smoking
b) as an attempt to explain why smoking is not really dangerous
c) to give a serious history of smoking
d) to point out all the dangers of smoking
143
DDT
It is clear that some chemicals can damage the health of animals
and humans. However, this is not the only problem that can be caused
by the careless use of chemicals. Chemicals can also disturb the
ecological balance of the environment. If the ecological balance is
5 disturbed, the consequences can be extremely serious.
The history of DDT illustrates this problem. DDT, a chemical
which kills insects, at first seemed to be a perfect answer to many
problems. It would control insects that caused dangerous diseases, as
well as insects that caused billions of dollars of damage to crops every
10 year. Governments permitted and even encouraged the use of DDT.
Farmers in many countries began to spray it on their crops. The
immediate results were good: damage to crops went down, and profits
went up. However, the chemical had effects which the scientists had
not predicted. First, it also killed insects which were the natural
15 enemies of the harmful insects and which were, therefore, beneficial
to farmers. Second, and perhaps worse, DDT did not kill every
harmful insect. A few insects, which had natural resistance to the
chemical, survived and multiplied. In a few years, there were large
numbers of insects which were not affected by DDT, and there were
20 fewer insects which could act as natural controls on these new*
'super-insects'. Finally, it became clear that DDT was not solving the
insect problem. In fact, it was making the problem worse. It then
became necessary to find a second cure for the effects of the first!
296
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 6, this problem' refers to .
a) chemicals damaging the health of animals and humans
b) the careless use of chemicals
c) chemicals' disturbing the ecological balance of the environment
d) the extremely serious consequences
2. DDT was first viewed favourably because .
a) it helped control certain diseases and crop damage
b) all its effects were predictable
c) its use was encouraged by governments
d) it did not harm humans or animals
3. Scientists couldn't realise that .
a) the use of DDT would increase the agricultural profits
b) DDT would also kill certain insects which were useful
c) the type of insects which DDT destroyed would later grow a resistance
d) the immediate results of DDT usage would be good
4. If a farmer used DDT today, in five years' time .
a) he would have no problems with harmful insects
b) his situation would not be different
c) insects might create an even greater problem for him
d) his profits would eventually rise to unexpected levels
144
DRY FOOD
Food contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats and vitamins and these
are vital to life. Food must be fresh when we eat it. If it is bad, it can
make us ill. There are two main agents which turn food bad; fungi
(such as yeast and various moulds) and bacteria. These are
5 micro-organisms which cannot make their own food. So they live and
grow on our food. Moulds, for example, usually grow on bread. Yeast
can spoil fresh food but it also has some very useful properties. For
hundreds of years people have used it in the making of bread and
wine.
10 In order to grow and multiply, all these micro-organisms need food,
water, warmth and, in some cases, air. The methods we use to
preserve our food make conditions dry and very cold; unsuitable for
the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms.
297
15 The great distances which often separate the producer of food from
the consumer in the 20th century make effective food preservation
vital. But most preservation processes destroy many important
vitamins and proteins. One of the tasks of food technologists today is
to find ways of preserving food without losing these important
20 substances.
In hot countries people dry food simply by the heat of the sun. In
this way, it is possible to reduce the moisture level in most fruits to
between 5% and 15%. This level is low enough to stop the growth of
micro-organisms. Some other kinds of food go through a process
25 called dehydration. In this process, hot and dry air passes over the
food and absorbs as much moisture as possible. This method is usually
used for drying tea and coffee. Another way of preserving food is
putting it into cans or bottles and heating it up to a temperature of
100°C or 120°C for about ten minutes because high temperatures kill
30 micro-organisms in food.
There are several other ways of preserving food. One of them is
freezing the food to a temperature between -30°C and -40°C. Some
people still use two very old methods: salting and smoking. Salt stops
the growth of micro-organisms and smoking removes some of the
35 moisture in the food.
Certain acids and chemicals are useful preservers because they stop
the action of micro-organisms. For example, we can use vinegar, an
acidic liquid, to preserve eggs, onions and some vegetables. One of
the newest methods is radiation. It is very effective because it kills not
40 only the micro-organisms but also their spores (small cells which
fungi or other micro-organisms produce in order to reproduce the
organism). In this way, it stops their reproduction.
Mark the best choice.
1 .Line 8, 'it' refers to .
a) fresh food b) yeast c) bread d) mould
2. Lines 19-20, 'these important substances' refers to .
a) ways of preserving food
b) one of the tasks of food technologists
c) vitamins and proteins
d) most preserving methods
3. Line 28, 'if refers to .
a) food b) tea c) coffee ' d) this method
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BLUE-JEANS
It has been more than 130 years since Levi Strauss invented
blue-jeans and they are still very popular today. Farmers and workers
wear them to work in; children wear them to play in. Others wear
them because they are comfortable. Before the 1950's, blue-jeans were
5 popular only in the West and Southwest. Today, almost everyone
wears them. Americans buy about 500 million pairs of jeans a year.
That's more than two pairs per person. Of course, blue-jeans are also
popular in other parts of the world. In these areas, people buy about
200 million pairs of jeans.
10 Levi Strauss and Company makes about one-third of all the jeans in
the United States and about one-seventh of those in other countries. In
fact, for a long time, people used the word Levi's1 as a synonym for
blue-jeans. That's because 'Levi's' were the first jeans. The inventor
was a German immigrant named Levi Strauss.
15 Levi Strauss left Germany in 1848, when he was a young man. He
came to New York City to be near his two brothers. For two years, he
worked as a salesman. He worked hard, but he didn't earn much
money. Then, he decided to go to San Francisco. Gold was discovered
in California in 1848, so many people left their homes and jobs in the
20 east and they moved to mining camps in California, hoping to find
gold and become rich. Some of them oM<i, but many did not.
When Levi went West, he brought some canvas (a very strong
cloth) with him. He wanted to sell it to the miners for making tents.
His canvas was the wrong kind for tents, so nobody bought it, but
25 Levi found another use for it. A miner told Levi that he needed a
good, strong pair of pants because digging for gold was hard work.
When Levi heard that, he made a pair of canvas pants for the miner.
The miner paid Levi 6 dollars in gold dust and told the other miners
about 'those pants of Levi's*. Levi quickly sold a lot of pants, so he
30 wrote to his brothers in New York and told them to send him more
canvas, but they sent him some heavy cotton cloth called 'denim',
much of which came from Genes (the French name for the city of
Genoa, Italy). Levi changed the spelling of Genes to 'jeans'. He called
his new pants blue-jeans.
35 In 1853, Levi and his brothers opened a small clothing business in
San Francisco. Today they make and sell about 250 million pieces of
clothing a year - from women's clothes to men's suits, and of course,
blue-jeans.
300
146
THE REBIRTH OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT
There is a popular belief that the feminist movement, which
became very popular and powerful in the early 1970's, caused women
to be dissatisfied with their traditional roles as wives, mothers, and
homemakers. These women then began to find more satisfying work
5 outside the home. This, however, is not an accurate picture of the
connection between working women and the feminist movement.
Although feminism, or women's liberation, has been an important
factor in the changes which have occurred in the role of women since
1970, it did not begin these changes.
10 There are two primary causes for the increase in the number of
American women who work outside the home. First, between the end
of World War II and the early 1960's, the population of the country
was growing rapidly, and this growth created a need for more
teachers, more medical assistants and nurses, more social workers,
15 more secretaries, and more store assistants. Therefore, a large number
of jobs became available in service industries. These types of
occupations had two important features in common: (1) they were jobs
which were already traditionally held by women, and (2) in
comparison with jobs which were traditionally held by men, they were
20 poorly paid. They were, therefore, jobs that did not usually attract
men.
The availability of new jobs that men did not want, however, is not
by itself an adequate explanation for the rise in the number of working
women. It. does not answer the question of why women wanted to
25 work. The second cause of the increase in the number of working
women is the economic pressures which forced married women,
especially young married women, to look for work outside the home.
In the 1960's, people in the U.S. began to expect a higher standard of
living; they wanted the expensive consumer goods that U.S. industry
30 was producing. However, often the husband's earnings did not permit
the family to buy the new kitchen appliances, the color television, the
new clothes, the furniture, and the second automobile which seemed
so necessary. It became necessary for wives to increase the family's
income, and so women began to take the service jobs that were
35 becoming available.
It is clear, therefore, that the increase in the number of working
women began before the feminist movement was reborn in the late
1960's. In fact, many experts argue that the increase created the
modern feminist movement. Working women were the cause, not the
302
40 result, of women's liberation. According to these experts, economic
conditions and the experiences of these working women were the
main factors in the development of the feminist movement in the
1970's.
A. Mark the best choice.
1. Line 9, 'it' refers to . .
a) an important factor
b) the role of women
c) an accurate picture
d) feminism
2. Line 24, 'It' refers to _
a) the availability of jobs in service industries
b) the availability of new jobs that men did not want
c) the rise in the number of working women
d) an adequate explanation .
Women wanted to work outside the home because .
a) housework did not satisfy them
b) they wanted a better standard of living
c) the new household appliances gave them a lot of free time
d) finding a new job was very easy
What is the connection between the feminist movement and the increase in the
number of working women in the1960's?
a) These two developments have no connection.
b) The feminist movement made women unhappy with their traditional roles as
wives and mothers. As a result, more women took employment outside the
home.
c) There was a rapid increase in the number of working women, and this
increase led to the reappearance of feminism.
d) The rising cost of living caused many men to force their wives to think more
seriously about careers.
.
303
147
COOPERATIVE EDUCATION
'Cooperative education' is a significant innovation in university
education programs and it has found increasing favor in recent years.
Cooperative education makes full-time work in industry, business, or
government a part of the program. Thus, by alternating semesters of
5 study with work related to that study, 'co-op' students receive valuable
job training while earning money for tuition. The program makes
advanced schooling more meaningful and realistic.
Universities like the idea of cooperative education, not only for its
educational value but also because such programs aid them in
10 expanding enrollments. With a large number of students spending
time away from school working, universities can accept more students
without increasing the number of buildings and teaching staff. The
business community welcomes the well-trained employees into jobs
before and after graduation.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 2, V refers to .
a) university education c) a significant innovation
b) cooperative education d) education programs
2. Line 9, 'them' refers to .
a) enrollments b) educational values c) universities d) programs
3. Which of the following states the main idea of the first paragraph?
a) Job training in industry, business or government has always been a part of a
university education program.
b) Students cannot afford to go to university because tuition is too high.
c) Cooperative education programs at universities involve full-time work in
industry, business and government.
d) Many universities have adopted a cooperative education program because
students benefit both financially and professionally from such a program.
4. Universities that make cooperative education part of their program .
a) increase the number of teaching staff to give better education
b) have to increase the number of buildings since they accept more students
c) can provide education for more students than a university without a 'co-op'
program
d) accept students that have had training in the business community
304
148
THE EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS
The ancient Egyptian civilization, famous for its mighty pyramids,
lasted for more than 3000 years. During this time Egypt was ruled by
about at least 30 dynasties, ruling families of kings or queens. The
pyramids were constructed as tombs, i.e., as burial places for the
5 Egyptian kings and their families. Originally, during the First and
Second Dynasties, which lasted until about 2665 B.C., kings of Egypt
constructed a type of tomb called 'the mastaba'. A mastaba looked like
a low, rectangular shoebox.
The first typical pyramid was built in 2650 B.C. during the Third
10 Dynasty. This pyramid was built for King Zoser by an architect named
Imhotcp as a series of giant steps or stairs. It, along with the others of
its type, is called the Step Pyramid. It was really simply a pile of steps
each higher and smaller than the one before. The Step Pyramid of
King Zoser was different from the later pyramids because it was never
15 covered with stone to give it a smooth surface.
Actually, it was not until the Fourth Dynasty that the most famous
pyramids were built. These are located near the town of Giza, on the
west bank of the River Nile, just outside the capital city of Egypt,
Cairo. The largest of these pyramids is known as the Great Pyramid. It
20 was built for King Khufu, who was called Cheops by the Greeks, and
so the pyramid is sometimes called the Pyramid of Cheops. It has been
estimated that 2,300,000 blocks of limestone were used to build the
Great Pyramid. The blocks weigh average 2,500 kilos each, the largest
stone block weighing about 15,000 kilos. The base of the pyramid
25 covers 5.3 hectares - an area large enough to hold ten football Fields.
In terms of height, the pyramid used to be 147 meters high, but today
the top ten meters are missing, and the entire outer limestone covering
has been taken away.
Mark the best choice.
1. King Zoser's pyramid was different from others because .
a) it was rectangular, like a shoe box
b) it was built during the Fourth Dynasty
c) it didn't have a smooth surface covered with stone
d) it didn't have a series of huge steps or stairs
2. Line"!3, 'one* refers to .
a) the pyramid b) the step c) the stone d) the type
305
3. The Great pyramid .
a) has a base ten times as large as a football field
b) is made up of 2,500 stones weighing 15,000 kilos each
c) is 147 meters high
d) is still covered with limestone
4. Which of the following is correct?
a) The most famous Eygptian pyramids are called mastabas.
b) A Greek called Cheops built the Great Pyramid for King Khufu.
c) All pyramids built during the first four dynasties were similar in shape.
d) An architect named Imhotep built the first step pyramid.
149
GHOSTS
Herr Adam is a lawyer working in Rosenheim, a small town in
Bavaria, West Germany. In the summer of 1967, the telephones in his
office seemed to go wrong. He called in Siemens, who had installed
the phones, but they couldn't find a fault. He then called in the Post
5 Office. They replaced the Siemens phones with official Post Office
ones and put meters that showed calls being made in the office.
On 10th October, for example, forty-six calls were made in fifteen
minutes from 7.42 to 7.57 a.m.! The phones were replaced by ones
which had locks. There was still no improvement: between five and
10 six hundred calls were made in one week. When he saw the bills, Mr.
Adam thought that someone at the Post Office was pocketing his
money! A serious row developed between him and the Post Office
Accounts Department.
Then, on 20th October 1967, all the office fluorescent lights came
15 out of their sockets and fused. They were mended by a local
electrician, but exactly the same thing happened again. The German
Electricty Board took over the case. Paul Brunner, Auxiliary Works
Manager, arrived on 15th November 1967. The next day, instruments
were installed to measure the electricity coming into the office. At the
20 same time as light bulbs exploded and the photocopier went wrong,
abnormal amounts of electricity were recorded. These were so
extreme that the instruments broke down. Readings from the central
supply and then from the generator nearby were normal, however.
The electricity was coming from somewhere else, but where? In the
25 same month, a girl was cut by flying glass, lights began to swing and
pictures on the walls changed places. Paul Brunner realised that this
306
was beyond him and handed the matter over to two of Germany's
leading physicists, Dr. Karga and Dr. Zicha. They were fascinated and
did their own research. They could find no answer except that there
30 was some external force that activated the electrics in the office and
the telephones. They, in turn, handed the case over to
parapsychologist Professor Bender and the police.
Professor Bender and the police centred their attention on the
people working in the office and noticed that one office clerk in
35 particular, Anne-Marie Schneider, showed signs of stress at the time
of the happenings although she wasn't aware of ]t. Professor Bender
noticed that the strange happenings began at 7.30 a.m., the time that
this girl began work, and stopped completely when she took a week's
holiday. On her return, things went from bad to worse. Desk drawers
40 kept flying open and, on one occasion, a cash-box opened and the
money inside fell onto the floor. The office was in chaos and
everyone, including Anne-Marie, was terrified. Mr. Adam decided to
ask her to leave.
From the day she left, the office returned to normal and there has
45 been no other explanation other than ghosts for all these strange
happenings.
Mark the best choice.
1. Problems with telephones occurred .
a) at the Post Office
b) in a lawyer's office
c) in Siemens
d) at the Electricity Board
2. Line 12, 'row' probably means .
a) agreement b) argument c) treatment d) payment
3. Mr. Adam blamed the Post Office for .
a) refusing to replace his phones
b) installing faulty phones in his office
c) locking all his office phones
d) sending him high telephone bills
4. Paul Brunner .
a) was hurt by flying glass and handed the case over to physicists
b) could not solve the problem and so gave up his investigation
c) received help from Dr. Karga and Dr. Zicha to do his investigation
d) worked with the police until the end of the problem
307
/'
150
TRAVELLERS' TALES
Every year, a magazine called Executive Travel organises a
competition to find the Airline of the Year. Travellers from all over
the world are invited to vote for the most efficient, the most punctual,
the safest and the friendliest airline. The winner in 1985 was British
5 Airways. The competition asked travellers what they expected most
from an airline, and the results were as follows:
Punctual departures and arrivals 35%
Attentive cabin staff 35%
Comfort 18%
10 Safety 9%
Good food and wine 3%
The competition also invited travellers to tell their most horrific
stories of international travel. Replies included six hijacks, fifty-three
cases of engine failure or troubles with landing, eleven lightning
15 strikes, twenty-three bomb scares, thirteen cases of food poisoning,
eleven near misses and two accidents with airport trucks.
Bad flying experiences begin on the ground, naturally. One
American airline managed to double-book an entire 747, but this is
nothing compared to what happened on an internal flight on a certain
20 African airline. The flight had been overbooked three times. The local
military solved the problem by insisting that all passengers should run
round the plane twice, the fastest getting the seats. An overbooked
flight that was going from Heathrow to America gave one traveller a
bit of a shock. Dressed only in trousers, shirt and socks, he had been
25 allowed by the stewardess to leave the aircraft to speak to a friend. He
returned a few minutes later to find the 747 closed up and about to
start moving - with his shoes, wallet, passport and luggage inside.
Banging frantically on the door got him back inside. A similar event
was experienced by a businessman on a flight from Bangladesh.
30 Passengers were waiting for take-off when there was a sudden
hysterical banging on the door. At first, the cabin crew paid no
attention. The banging continued. When the door was finally opened,
the pilot got in.
One frequent flier lost a certain amount of confidence when the
35 cabin staff asked him to sit in the lavatory during take-off so that they
could occupy the seats nearest the emergency exit on a flight between
London and Manchester. For nervous fliers, a shocking journey was
one between Gatwick and Montpellier, during which they had to
watch pieces of the engine falling off. Another passenger was asked to
o no
40 hold the aircraft door closed at take-off and landing.
Baggage is a rich source of horror stories. There was the unlucky
businessman who left Chicago in minus-6 weather. He was going to
an important meeting in Dallas, where the temperature was 32-plus.
Unfortunately, his suitcase had gone to Los Angeles, where it spent
45 the next two days. The customers he was trying to impress were more
than a little surprised to see him going round in a thick suit, heavy
overcoat and fur hat.
Mark the best choice.
1. The competition mentioned in the text was organised by .
a) the Airline of the year
b) Executive Travel
c) British Airways
d) travellers all over the world
2. Competition results showed that .
a) the majority thought comfort was most important
b) two thirds were interested in good food and wine
c) less than ten per cent considered safety important
d) none cited punctuality as an important point
3. The stories told by travellers included .
a) more hijacks than cases of engine failure
b) no problems with food served on the planes
c) only disasters which took place on the ground
d) a number of accidents with airport trucks
4. Line 18, 'this' refers to .
a) one American airline
b) double-booking the flight
c) an experience on the ground
d) management of an airline
5. On one occasion in Africa, the passengers had to run round the plane .
a) to get seats
b) because they were in trouble with the local military
c) to buy tickets for an internal flight
d) because they were late
310
151
JOB CENTRE LEAFLET
Thousands of jobs come into our Job Centres and Employment 1
1 Offices every week, but they get snapped up quickly. So,
although we shall do all we can to help you, it's important for
1
İ you to do all you can to help yourself. This leaflet tells you how. 1
m
<<?
§
1 1
1 -jobs available locally or elsewhere I
|| 1 Registered for work
i will consider youregisteredavailable jobs. - training for a new job 1
If Once you have
for the
for work, we
You must also register for work at the Job
- your suitability fora training course, du­
ring which you get an allowance I
I
Centre in order to claim unemployment - loans to help you look for, and move to,
m
a. pay. But you actually apply for pay at the work in other fields
local Unemployment Office. Even though you have a clear idea of the ||
sort of job and pay you want, you may i§
| 2 Getting a job find that something different will suit ||
you quite well. Keep this in mind when ||
Jobs that come in arc noted on cards and you're talking with the Employment Ad- S
displayed in the office window as soon as viser and don't slick to one job only.
possible. You can call in at any time to
look at the jobs displayed.
4 If you don't find a job on your %
Half the people who find jobs through
first visit I
Job Centres or Employment Offices find
them in this way.
1
Come into our office as often as you can || •///.
The receptionist is here to help you, so if to look at the jobs on display here.
you see a job that looks right for you, tell Good vacancies are coming in all the
the receptionist, giving the reference time, but they do go quickly. Don't rely
number on the card. on being told about them just because
you've been registered for employment.
I 3 If you want further help with If you can't get to the office every day ea­
I finding a job sily, come in whenever you can - and en­
quire by telephone as often as you like.
I If you want more help or advice, don't It'll help you to find a job faster if you
forget that's what we're here for. Our
keep in touch.
I
Employment Advisers can help you with 1
things like:
- thinking about the different sorts of jobs
1 you could do - and which are best for
E» you
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315
152
LANZAROTE
People usually regard the presence of even a single volcano in their
particular geographical region as a cause of great concern, but the
inhabitants of the Island of Lanzarote live in the shadows of over two
hundred volcanoes, most of which now lie sleeping. Lanzarote, one of the
Canary Islands belonging to Spain, is located about eighty miles off the
western coast of Morocco in Africa.
The inhabitants of Lanzarote are known for their courage and
adaptability. Their island is an arid, treeless land, but its agricultural output
is impressive. Because there is very little rain, farmers use volcanic cinder
to capture and retain wetness in the earth. They even dare to plant crops in
the desert sand that is a condition of their daily existence. An unusual land,
Lanzarote proves man's ability to overcome the obstacles in his natural
environment.
Mark the best choice.
1. What is the present condition of volcanoes on Lanzarote?
a) Most of the volcanoes present a threat to the inhabitants of the island.
b) A great many volcanoes are still erupting.
c) The presence of volcanoes makes agriculture almost impossible on the
island.
d) The majority of volcanoes are inactive.
2. Which of the following is not true for Lanzarote or its inhabitants?
a) Lanzarote's inhabitants are brave and flexible people.
b) Lanzarote is a dry land without trees.
c) Lanzarote is located off the southern coast of Africa.
d) Lanzarote's inhabitants grow crops in the desert to survive.
314
153
SPEED LIMIT
According to a recent survey, a large majority of Americans are in
favor of retaining the present 55-mile-an-hour speed limit.' This speed
limit was imposed in 1973 when fuel shortages became crucial.
Seventy-five per cent of the persons surveyed think that the law is a
5 good one. They point to the decrease in the highway death rate or to
the saving of fuel as reasons for their opinion. Easterners and older
people, rather than young adults, are more likely to argue for retention
of the law.
Only twenty-three per cent of the people surveyed favor a higher
10 speed limit for trucks. Their view is supported by the trucking
industry, which contends that truck engines work more efficiently at
higher speeds, and that trucks traveling at higher speeds reach markets
more quickly, thereby saving consumers money. However, some of
the persons polled argue that trucks on certain highways are already
15 involved in a disproportionate number of fatal accidents.
Mark the best choice.
1. The original reason for the 55-mile-per-hour speed limit was that .
a) large trucks were causing many accidents
b) a majority of the people voted for it
c) a fuel shortage was developing
d) there was a sudden increase in highway death rate
2. do not seem to argue for keeping the speed limit.
a) 23% of the people cj Young people
b) Old people d) 75 % of the people
3. Truckers want a higher speed limit for trucks .
a) although few trucks are involved in accidents
b) as trucks cannot save money by using little fuel
c) only if they do not transport consumer goods
d) because trucks run better at higher speeds
4. To contend (line 11) means to .
a) be satisfied b) claim c) refuse d) be doubtful
315
154
THE TORNADO
One of the most feared occurrences in nature is the tornado. The area
most frequently the target of this violent windstorm is the Great Plains, the
region extending from the Rockies to the Mississippi, and from Canada
down through Texas. When warm, moist air meets with cooler, drier air at
low levels, a tornado often occurs. Prior to the formation of the familiar
funnel-shaped cloud, the sky is very clear. Then, a black line suddenly
appears. As this black area moves in, the fast wind becomes hot and moist
and a deep stillness encircles the landscape. Because the air pressure drops
steadily during a tornado, breathing becomes difficult. Insects fall to the
ground, unable to balance themselves in flight. Suddenly, a black funnel
resembling a giant whip dips down out of the sky, destroying whatever it
touches, and then retreats. Although a tornado usually destroys property
rather than lives, an average of 120 people die yearly as a result of these
violent storms. It is obvious why the tornado is feared throughout the Great
Plains.
Mark the best choice.
1. Before a tornado occurs .
a) there are funnel-shaped clouds in the sky c) there are cold freezing winds
b) the sky is very dark d) the sky is cloudless
2. During a tornado, insects .
a) are unable to fly
b) die immediately due to atmospheric pressure
c) breathe at an increasing rate
d) are seldom affected by the heat and moisture
3. As a tornado occurs .
a) hot, dry air encounters cold, damp air
b) air pressure gets progressively lower
c) the black funnel in the sky disappears
d) breathing gets easier
4. Which of the following statements is true?
a) A black line in the sky is a sign that the tornado is over.
b) A tornado is most destructive before the funnel-shaped cloud is formed.
c) The wind is fast, hot and humid during a tornado.
d) Tornadoes are more dangerous for people than for property.
316
155
TRAVEL INSURANCE
On their way to southern Spain last summer, George and Jean
Glover stopped outside the city of Seville for a lunch-time picnic.
They left their car by the road and walked down to the cool waters of
a river for a very pleasant meal. When they returned to their car, they
5 were horrified to discover that the back window had been forced and
smashed. It took a while to sort out what had gone, mostly small
things like their camera, tape player and tapes, a few clothes lying on
the back seat - fortunately, they hadn't bothered with the suitcases.
It suddenly dawned on Jean that she had left her handbag in the car,
10 contaning their passports, travellers' cheques, cash, ferry tickets, car
keys and front-door keys. "It was appalling. How could I have been so
stupid? In London, I'd never have left my handbag in the car," recalls
Jean.
Initially, they both felt like driving back to the ferry and going
15 home. But they knew they had to report the theft to the police. And
they had to call their motor insurance company to arrange for a new
back window. The travel insurance company, which ran a 24-hour
emergency assistance service, advised them to call a neighbour, who
had a key for their house, to ask her to get the locks changed. They
20 were also advised to speak to the local Consular Office to arrange
emergency passports.
The travellers' cheque company arranged an immediate
replacement of their holiday money.
Bit by bit, they realised that all was not lost, and they managed to
25 continue with what turned out to be a very enjoyable holiday. "But if
we hadn't had the help and advice available through our travel
insurance company, we'd have been totally lost."
Incredibly, there are many people like the Glovers who run into
trouble abroad, yet have no travel insurance. That's why these days
30 people taking a package holiday are normally obliged by the tour
operators to have travel insurance; if they don't take the policy offered
in the brochure, then they have to show that they have made
alternative arrangements. There is no such safety net for people
travelling independently, but, thanks largely to newspaper horror
35 stories of uninsured tourists having to sell their houses in order to
meet £100,000 bills for medical treatment in the States, most travellers
abroad appreciate the need to take out insurance.
317
MEETING THE CAPTAIN
{adaptedfrom "The Captain and The Enemy" by Graham Greene)
I am now in my twenty-second year and yet the only birthday
which I can clearly distinguish among all the rest is my twelfth, for it
was on that damp and misty day in September I met the Captain for
5 the first time. I can still remember the wetness of the ground under my
gym shoes and how the blown leaves made the courtyard slippery as I
ran recklessly to escape from my enemies between one class and the
next. I slithered and stopped abruptly while my pursuers went
whistling away, because there, in the middle of the courtyard, stood
10 our formidable headmaster talking to a tall man in a bowler hat, a rare
sight already at that date, so that he looked a little like an actor in
costume. He carried a walking-stick over his shoulder at the slope,
like a soldier with a rifle. I had no idea who he might be, nor, of
course, did I know that he had won me the previous night, in a
15 backgammon game with my father.
I slid so far that I landed on my knees at the two men's feet, and
when I picked myself up the headmaster was glaring at me from under
his heavy eyebrows. I heard him say, "I think this is the one you want
- Baxter Three. Are you Baxter Three?"
20 "Yes, sir," I said.
The man, whom I would never come to know by any more
permanent name than the Captain, said, "What does Three indicate?"
"He is the youngest of three Baxters," the headmaster said, "but not
one of them is related by blood."
25 "That puts me in a bit of a quandary." the Captain said. "For which
of them is the Baxter I want? The first name, unlikely as it may sound,
is Victor. Victor.Baxter - the names don't pair very well."
"We have little occasion here for first names. Are you called Victor
Baxter?" the headmaster inquired of me sharply.
30 "Yes, sir," I said after some hesitation, for I was unwilling to admit
to a name which I had tried unsuccessfully to hide from my friends. I
knew very well that Victor - for some obscure reason - was one of the
unacceptable names, like Vincent or Marmaduke.
"Well then, I suppose that this is the Baxter you want, sir. Your
35 face needs washing, boy."
The stern morality of the school prevented me from telling the
headmaster that it had been quite clean until my enemies had splashed
it with ink.
319
157
SHOPLIFTING
In the past, most shoplifters agreed that the January sales offered
wonderful opportunities for the hard-working thief. With the shops so
crowded and the staff so busy, it did not require any extraordinary
talent to steal one or two little things and escape unnoticed. It was
5 known, in the business, as 'hoisting'. But the hoisting game is not what
it used to be. Even at the height of the sales, shoplifters today never
know if they are being watched by one of those mechanical balls (with
small cameras hidden inside) hanging from the ceilings of so many
department stores, above the most desirable goods. As if that was not
10 trouble enough for them, they can now be filmed at work and obliged
to attend a showing of their performance in court.
Sel fridges was the first big London store to install videotape
equipment to watch its sales floors. In October last year, the store won
its first court case for shoplifting using as evidence a videotape clearly
15 showing a couple stealing dresses. It was an important test case which
encouraged other stores to install similar equipment.
When the balls, called sputniks, first made an appearance in shops,
it was widely believed that their only function was to frighten
shoplifters. Their somewhat ridiculous appearance, the curious holes
20 and red lights going on and off, certainly made the theory believable.
It did not take long, however, for serious shoplifters to start showing
suitable respect. Soon after the equipment was in operation at
Selfridges, store detective Brian Chadwick was sitting in the control
room, watching a woman secretly putting bottles of perfume into her
25 bag.
"As she turned to go," Chadwick recalled, "she suddenly looked up
at the sputnik and stopped. She could not possibly see that the camera
was filming her because it is completely hidden, but she probably had
a feeling that I was looking at her. For a moment she paused, then she
30 returned to the counter and started putting everything back. When she
had finished, she opened her bag towards the sputnik to show it was
empty and hurried out of the store without a sign of regret on her
face."
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 5, 'hoisting' probably means .
a) having sales b) escaping c) stealing d) having talent
321
158
ILLEGAL TAPES
British pop stars Phil Collins and Duran Duran are to join an
international campaign in London this week to stop the production of
illegal tapes of the Live Aid concert for famine relief, held last July in
London and Philadelphia. Members of Duran Duran told The Sunday
5 Times, "Producing illegal tapes of something like Live Aid is criminal.
These people are exploiting the means that should help feed starving
Africans."
The illegal tapes, manufactured by several different companies in
Indonesia, have become best-sellers in the Far and Middle East,
10 making profits estimated at millions of dollars. Now IFPVP, the
International Federation of Phonogram and Videogram Producers,
which represents more than 600 record companies worldwide, is
asking the British government to bring economic pressure on the
Indonesian government to stop the illicit trade. The packaging of the
15 .unlawful tapes is produced to a high professional standard, bearing the
Live Aid logo, a guitar in the shape of Africa, and the words "For
Africa famine relief."
"Their packaging makes people believe that the money is going to
Africa," says Dave Laing of IFPVP. The federation received reports of
20 at least 30 illegal versions of the tapes sold in many countries such as
Singapore, Malaysia and Portugal, where you can, in fact, easily get
the real ones. Indonesia has not signed international copyright
conventions, and the federation says no legal action can be taken
against the people in that country. "It's big business," says Laing. "The
25 people who manufacture these tapes have large factories and their own
relationships with the authorities."
A spokesman for the Indonesian government in London last week
denied any knowledge of the tapes' being manufactured or sold in his
country although he acknowledged that production of illegal tapes in
30 southeast Asia in general was a major problem. "It is shameful that
this is happening in our country," he said. "And our government will
take action once the facts have been determined."
Mark the best choice.
1. Phil Collins and Duran Duran .
a) want to make a new tape for the people of Africa
b) have decided to organise an international federation
c) want to prevent the Live Aid tapes being sold illegally
d) have decided to hold another Live Aid concert in July
^91
159
JORVIK - THE LOST VIKING CAPITAL
A thousand years- ago, York was one of the largest, richest and
most famous cities in the whole of Britain. In the 10th century, it was
described as being packed with a huge population, and traders from all
parts, especially Danes. People called it Jorvik, and knew it as the
5 capital of the North of England, and one of Europe's greatest trading
ports. It owed its prosperity to the hard work of Viking settlers from
Scandinavia, who had captured it in 866.
Most of the city's buildings were made of wood, and have long
since been demolished, or have burnt down or rotted away. In some
10 parts of modern York, however, near the rivers of Ouse and Foss,
which run through the centre of the city, archaeologists have found
that remains of Jorvik do still survive. They are buried deep below the
streets and buildings of the 20th century city. Here the damp soils
have preserved the wooden buildings. Whole streets of houses, shops
15 and workshops are found although not in very good condition. All the
rubbish left by the people of Jorvik in and around their homes is still
there as well.
Between 1976 and 1981, archaeologists from the York
Archaeological Trust dug up a part of this lost and forgotten city and
20 found four rows of buildings. Some of the remains were so well
preserved - even down to boots and shoes, pins and needles, plants
and insects - that every aspect of life at the time could be
reconstructed.
The York Archaeological Trust decided to convert the place into a
25 museum and try to tell the story of Jorvik as it was a thousand years
ago. To do so, it built the Jorvik Viking Centre in the huge hole
created by the archaeologists. Two of the rows of buildings were
reconstructed as we think they were. A further two were preserved just
as the archaeological team discovered them, the ancient beams set out
30 as they were found in the late 1970's, deep below the new shopping
centre, where they have lain for centuries.
In the Jorvik Viking Centre, people from the 20th century journey
back in time to the 10th century in cars, which silently move through
the place. Meanwhile, modem time travellers watch the townspeople
35 buying and selling, working and playing, in an atmosphere full of the
sights, sounds and smells of 10th century Jorvik.
325
160
CHILDREN AND LEARNING
A child learning to talk notices a thousand times a day the difference
between the language he uses and the language those around him use. Bit by
bit, he makes the necessary changes to make his language like other
people's. In the same way, children learn to do all the other things without
being taught - to walk, run, climb, whistle, ride a bicycle - by comparing
their own performances with those of more skilled people, and slowly
making the needed changes. Yet, at school we never give a child a chance to
find out his mistakes for himself, let alone correct them. We do it all for
him. We act as if we think that he will never notice a mistake unless it is
pointed out to him, or correct it unless he is made to. Soon, he becomes
dependent on the teacher.
Let him work out, with other children if he wants, what this word means,
whether this is a good way of saying or doing this or not. In mathematics or
science, give him the answer book. Let him correct his own papers. Our job
should be to show only the way to get the right answer when the child tells
us he can't find a way himself. Let's end all this nonsense of grades, exams,
marks. Let us throw them all out, and let the children learn what all
educated persons must some day learn, how to measure their own
understanding, how to know what they know or do not know. The idea that
there is a body of knowledge to be learnt at school and used for the rest of
one's life is nonsense in a world as complicated and rapidly changing as
ours. Anxious parents and teachers say, "But suppose they fail to learn
something essential, something they will need to get on in the world?" Don't
worry! If it is essential, they will go out into the world and learn it.
Mark the best choice.
1. What does the writer think is the best way for children to learn things?
a) Observing what other people do.
b) Having their mistakes corrected.
c) Listening to explanations from skilled people.
d) Having various skills taught.
2. The passage suggests that learning to speak and learning to ride a bicycle .
a) require more time than other skills to develop
b) can develop more easily than adult skills
c) are quite different from learning adult skills
d) are basically the same
327
3. The writer believes that teachers should .
a) always tell children the correct answers
b) point out children's mistakes to them
c) encourage children to get help from one another
d) measure children's understanding
4. Children's progress at school should only be estimated by .
a) educated persons c) teachers and parents
b) the children themselves d) the changing world
5. The author fears that children will grow up into adults who are
a) too independent of others c) unable to think for themselves
b) too critical of themselves d) unable to use essential information
161
MAKING YOUR WORKPLACE SAFER
Preventing Accidents
Clearly a major way to prevent accidents before they occur is for the trade
union safety representative to carry out regular and effective inspections of
the workplace. Recognised safety representatives have the following legal
rights:
*To carry out a formal inspection every three months.
*To carry out an immediate additional inspection
- when an accident has occurred,
- when a disease has been contracted,
- when there has been a change in working conditions,
- when new information becomes available concerning hazards.
* To investigate members' complaints.
Near Misses
All union members should be encouraged to report 'near misses' that happen
to themselves or others. Near misses are events such as slipping on wet
floors, items falling off shelves and just missing people, loose guards on
machinery, and fires that are quickly put out, that could have injured people
but which, by luck, did not. Reporting such events to the safety
representative may prevent a serious accident in the future.
328
When An Accident Happens
Union safety representatives should have an agreement with management
on being informed as soon as possible of all accidents. Only under that
condition will it be possible to reach the scene of the accident immediately
to follow these procedures:
*Make sure it is safe to approach.
*Make sure anyone injured is receiving attention.
*Insist that nothing is removed or altered until inquiries are complete.
*Check the accident is recorded in the accident book and that the record
is not concerned with blaming the victim, but is an accurate description.
*Take statements from the injured person(s), if possible, and other
witnesses. Remind witnesses they do not have to give statements to the
management by law.
*Check that the factory inspector has been informed, if required by law.
*Sketch accident area, take photographs, if possible, and samples of
defective equipment or chemicals.
Only if these procedures are carried out properly will it be possible for
safety representatives to find out the real cause of the accident.
Mark the best choice.
1. The text is mainly about ,.
a) the type of accidents in a workplace
b) the precautions to be taken before and after an accident occurs in a
workplace
c) the description of a safe workplace
d) the procedures to choose a safety representative in a workplace
2. If an accident has occurred, the safety representative has the right to .
a) carry out an inspection every three months
b) change working conditions
c) consult management
d) carry out an inspection immediately
3. If you saw something fall off a shelf and just miss another worker, you should
a) call a meeting to investigate it
b) report it to the management immediately
c) report it to the safety representative
d) leave the worker to report it himself
329
162
FUTURE OF RAIL TRANSPORT
Unfortunately, England's highest main-line railway station hangs on to
life by a thread. Deserted and unmanned since it was officially closed in
1970, Dent, situated high in the hills of Yorkshire, wakes up on six summer
weekends each year, when a special charter train unloads walkers, sightseers
and people who simply want to catch a train from the highest station, onto
its platforms. However, even this limited existence may soon be brought to
an end. Dent station, situated on the Carlisle railway line, is said to be the
most scenic in the country, but no amount of scenic beauty can save the line
from British Rail's financial problems. This year, for the sake of economy,
the express trains which used to pass through Dent station have been put
onto another route. It is now an open secret that British Rail sees no future
for this railway line. Most of its trains disappeared some time ago. The
stations on it, besides its bridge, built on a grand scale a century ago, are
falling down. It is not alone. Half a dozen railway routes in the north of
England are facing a similar threat. The problem is a worn out system and
an almost total lack of means to repair it. Bridges and tunnels are showing
their age, the wooden supports for the tracks are rotting and engines and
coaches are getting old.
On major lines between large cities, there is no problem. These lines still
make a profit and money can be found to maintain them, but on the country
branch line the story is rather sad. As a track wears out, it is not replaced.
Instead, speed limits are introduced, making journeys longer than necessary
and discouraging customers who live in the country and who travel only
from time to time. If a bridge is dangerous, there is often only one thing for
British Rail to do: go out and find money from another source. This is
exactly what it did a few months ago, when a bridge at Bridlington station
was threatening to fall down. Repairs were estimated at £200,000 and
British Rail was delighted, and rather surprised, when the local authorities
of two nearby towns offered half that amount between them. This was a
good solution, which the British Rail can always make use of.
Mark the best choice.
1. Since 1970, Dent station .
a) has been used only for a part of the year
b) has had no express trains passing through
c) has been visited by hill walkers only
d) has not been used at all
331
!63__
GLOBAL WARMING
According to scientists at the Meteorological Office and the University
of East Anglia, who have recently completed their analysis of global
temperatures, the eighties were the earth's wannest decade since records
began. Their findings show that six of the ten warmest years so far have
occurred during the 1980's, with 1988 the hottest of all.
Since 1900, average temperatures have risen by about 0.5°C, which fits
in well with predictions from climatologists about how human activities
should have warmed the planet. The factors that contribute to the warming
up of the atmosphere are mainly carbon dioxide gas, produced by the
burning of fossil fuels and forests, pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons,
used in refrigerators, and methane.
Climatologists predict that by midway through the next century,
temperatures may have risen by as much as 4°C. Happening so quickly, that
could catastrophically reduce mankind's ability to grow food, destroy or
severely damage what wildlife and wildernesses remained and raise sea
levels, flooding coastal cities and farmland. Phil Jones, senior researcher at
the University of East Anglia, said: "If we are changing the climate, we
should do something now rather than wait until the warming is more
severe."
Dr. Paul Heaton and Dr. David Parker of the Meteorological Office
gathered together temperature records from about 1000 different locations
spread across every continent and compared them with the average for those
places from 1951 to 1990. The research also included temperatures
measured on ships. The scientists found 1989 was 0.23°C above the 1951-
80 average, and 1988 was 0.31 above. They agree with American
researchers that the wannest years during this century were the eighties, and
the tendency may be for the nineties to be even hotter!
Mark the best choice.
1. Which of the following is not given as a cause of global warming?
a) Chlorofluorocarbons.
b) The burning of fossil fuels.
c) Pollutants from cars.
d) Methane.
333
COMETS
from Illustrated London News, 1985
There can be few people who have not heard of comets, but there
are still a great many non-scientists who have no real idea of what a
comet is. The most popular mistake is to assume that a comet streaks
5 across the sky and disappears in a few seconds. In fact, all comets are
very distant - far beyond the top of the earth's atmosphere - and you
cannot see them moving. If you see an object moving visibly, it
certainly cannot be a comet. It will be either an artificial satellite,
thousands of which have been launched since the Space Age opened
10 with Russia's Sputnik 1 in October, 1957, or else a meteor. Of course,
İİ can also be a weather balloon or a high-flying aircraft.
Comets belong to the Sun's family, or solar system, but they are
quite unlike planets. They are not solid and rocky; a comet consists of
an icy central part (or nucleus), a head (or coma) and a tail or tails
15 made up of tiny particles of 'dust' together with extremely thin gas.
Comets may be enormous (the head of the Great Comet of 1843 was
larger than the Sun), but they are very light since the nucleus, the only
relatively massive part of a comet, cannot be more than a few miles in
diameter. If a comet fell to the earth, it would only cause local
20 damage.
Comets move around the Sun. In almost all cases their paths (or
orbits) are elliptical, and except for Halley's Comet, all the really
bright comets take thousands or even millions of years to complete
one circuit. This means that we cannot predict them. During the last
25 century, several were seen but in our own time they have been
extremely rare. The last really 'great' comet was that of 1910, though
there have been others which have become bright enough to be seen
with the naked eye. Halley's Comet is unique because it appears every
76 years, and it has been seen regularly since well before the time of
30 Christ; there is even a Chinese record of it dating back to 1059 B.C.
However, it was only recently that astronomers realised that there was
something unusual about it.
W>
165
EFFECTS OF SNOW
It is interesting to observe the effect that the arrival of snow has on
people in different countries. There are those countries for whom the
arrival of the first snow showers is an expected annual event. There
are those countries for whom the arrival of snow at any time of the
5 year would be almost unheard of, and would be regarded as a major
climatic catastrophe, or even a miracle.
But there are countries between these two 'extremes' that normally
expect snow some time over the winter months, but never receive it
regularly or in the same quantities every year. For them (and Britain is
10 a prime example of such a country), the arrival of snow quite simply
creates havoc. Within hours of the first snowfalls, however light,
roads (including motorways) are blocked, train services are disrupted
and bus services to suburbs and country districts are withdrawn.
Normal communications quickly begin to suffer as well; telephone
15 calls become difficult and the post immediately takes twice as long as
usual. And almost within hours there are also certain shortages -
bread, vegetables and other essentials - not because all these things
can no longer be produced or even delivered, although deliveries are
disrupted, but mainly because people panic and go out and stock up
20 with food and so on - 'just in case'.
Bui why does snow have this effect? After all, the Swiss, the
Austrians and the Canadians don't have such problems. The answer is
quite simply a lack of planning and preparation - and we can't blame
the weather forecasters for that. We have to remember, however, that
25 equipment needed for dealing with snow and ice costs money. To
keep the roads clear, for example, requires snowploughs and vehicles
to spread grit or salt. The argument against investing in snowploughs
in a country like Britain is that they are only used for a few days in
any one year, and that money could more usefully be put into other
30 things such as the hospital system, social services, helping the elderly,
and so on.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 7, 'extremes' refers to the types of .
a) climates b) snow showers c) countries d) annual events
337
166
NUCLEAR THREAT
Many of the scientific achievements that we take for granted today
have reached far beyond the dreams of scientists and science fiction
writers of just seventy-five years ago. One of the most spectacular of
these scientific accomplishments was the splitting of the atom. Life
5 has never been the same since that event. From microwave ovens to
electrical power and nuclear medicine, to ships that can sail the seas
for as long as twelve years without refueling, the atom provides a
better life for many of the inhabitants of the earth. Yet, this same
power that is used today to detect genetic disorders in unborn children
10 or to destroy a malignant cancer cell was the destructive force that
killed over one hundred thousand people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
at the end of World War II. The splitting of the atom, the unleashing
of its terrific power, poses the greatest single threat known to
humanity. We now have the power to destroy in a matter of minutes a
15 civilisation that has taken centuries to develop. Never before has the
power for such potential good or such total destruction existed.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 4, 'accomplishments' has the same meaning as .
a) dreams b) achievements c) studies d) investigations
2. is not an example of the atom providing a better life for humans.
a) Detecting genetic disorders in unborn children
b) Destroying a malignant cancer cell
c) Destroying a civilisation
d) Fueling ships
3. Which of the following is not mentioned in the text?
a) Splitting the atom was one of the greatest dreams of scientists seventy-five
years ago.
b) Earlier scientists didn't even dream of splitting the atom.
c) The splitting of the atom is the biggest danger to the human race.
d) There is no power that can create the same effects as those produced by the
atom.
339
167
ACID RAIN
Acid rain is rain, snow, or fog that contains high amounts of
sulphuric or nitric acid. To some extent, acidic rain occurs naturally
and can have a beneficial effect - for instance, serving as fertilizer.
But, when the acidity of the precipitation is abnormally high over a
5 prolonged period, it can overwhelm the ability of water and woods
(and buildings, statues, car finishes, fish, game, and humans) to
accommodate it. When this happens, lakes and trees may die, game
species may weaken, and human health may be endangered. Those
who have studied the current crisis believe it to be the result of high
10 acid levels caused primarily by sulphur dioxide emissions from
coal-fired utility plants and nitrogen oxide emissions from
automobiles. These pollutants are either transformed to acid in the air
or deposited on the ground in dry form, combining with ground water
to form sulphuric or nitric acid.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 12, These pollutants' refers to .
a) coal-fired utility plants and automobiles
b) emissions from various plants
c) sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
d) high levels of acid
2. Acid rain is particularly dangerous when it .
a) falls heavily for a long time c) is deposited in dry form
b) combines with ground water d) causes lakes and trees to die
168
NICOTINE ADDICTION
A large-scale campaign to alert smokers to the dangers of filling the
lungs with carcinogenic smoke has been undertaken in many countries.
Cigarette promotions have been banned on television in several major areas,
and there has been endless discussion of how to discourage children from
taking up the habit. Gruesome films are shown of pathetic hospital patients
in the advanced stages of lung cancer. A few smokers have responded
340
intelligently and given up, but many others have become so alarmed that
instead they have been forced to light up an extra cigarette to calm their
shattered nerves. In other words, although the problem is at last being dealt
with, it is by no means solved.
The great error of the anti-smoking campaigners is that they rarely stop
and ask the basic question: why do people want to smoke in the first place?
They seem to think it has something to do with drug addiction - with the
habit-forming effects of nicotine. There is an element of this certainly, but it
is by no means the most important factor operating. Many people do not
even inhale their smoke and can be absorbing only minute amounts of the
drug, so the causes of their addiction to cigarettes must be sought elsewhere.
The answer clearly lies in the act of oral intimacy involved in holding the
object between the lips and this answer almost certainly applies as the basic
explanation for the full inhalers as well. Until this aspect of smoking is
properly investigated, there will be little long-term hope of eliminating it
from our stressed, comfort-seeking cultures.
Mark the best choice.
1. The purpose of the anti-smoking campaign is to .
a) ban cigarette advertisements on television
b) discourage children from starting smoking
c) show films of patients suffering from lung cancer (
d) make smokers aware of the harmful effects of smoking
2. As a result of the campaign, .
a) there has been an increase in the number of smokers
b) some people even started to smoke more cigarettes
c) the problem of smoking has been partly solved
d) cigarette consumption has decreased dramatically
3. According to anti-smoking campaigners, people go on smoking mainly because
of .
a) the feeling of comfort that cigarettes give them
b) their addiction to taking drugs
c) the habit-forming effects of nicotine
d) the psychological satisfaction of holding the cigarette between the lips
141
169
LOOKING FOR A PARTNER?
In India, parents have traditionally found husbands or wives for
their sons and daughters. Today, the parents are using a new technique
in their search: advertisements in the Sunday newspapers. Every
Sunday morning millions of Indians settle down with a cup of tea and
5 the special weekend issues of their newspapers, just as Americans do.
But here, with the marriage season approaching, many of them turn
quickly to a Sunday feature that is particularly Indian - the columns of
marriage advertisements in which young people seek husbands and
wives.
10 In addition to helping young people find suitable marriage partners,
these advertisements reflect the changes that are occurring in Indian
society. The thousands of advertisements published each week
increasingly reflect social changes that are coming to this traditional
society. For example, although women are still usually described in
15 terms of appearance or skills in "the wifely arts", information about
their earning power is entering more and more in the advertisements.
This portrays the arrival of the working wife in India.
Divorce, which used to be almost unheard of in India, is sometimes
now mentioned in the advertisements as in the case of a'woman whose
20 advertisement explained that she had been "the innocent.party" when
her marriage broke up.
As a sign of the slight loosening of the rigid caste (social class)
system, a number of advertisements promise "caste not important", or
"girl's abilities will be main consideration". The majority of them,
25 however, still require not only caste but also a certain home region or
ethnic origin.
Because of high unemployment and a generally poor standard of
living here, one of the best attractions a marriage advertisement can
offer is a permit to live abroad, especially in Canada or the United
30 States. A person who has one can get what he wants.
One recent Sunday in Madras, for example, a Punjabi engineer
living in San Francisco advertised for a "beautiful slim bride with
lovely features knowing music and dance". And a man whose
advertisement said that he had an American immigration permit was
35 able to say, "Only girls from rich, well-connected families need
apply".
342
11. Which of the following statements is true?
a) The caste system has become totally unimportant for the Indians.
b) Although caste isn't required any longer, ethnic origin and home regions are
still important in marriage.
c) A girl's abilities are the major requirements for marriage in India nowadays.
d) Caste, home region and ethnic origin are still important for most Indians.
12. The last paragraph gives an example of .
a) the qualities that a person with an immigration permit can ask for and expect
to get
b) the kind of advertisement a Punjabi engineer would give
c) a marriage advertisement from the Madras newspapers
d) the importance Indian men attach to having wives who know music and
dance
170
SEX DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Feminist organizations showed people that discrimination existed
everywhere. They showed that it was difficult! for women to?eriter
various professions. In 1972, for example, only 9.3% of doctors and
dentists were women, only 4% of all lawyers and judges were female,
5 and only 13% of all medical students were women. It was also shown
that society preferred to promote men to the positions of highest
responsibility - even in traditionally female professions. For example,
although more than 90% of elementary school teachers in 1970 were
women, more than 80% of the directors were men. In addition, in
10 many areas of employment, women received lower wages than men
for the same work.
According to feminists, this discrimination was made possible by
the attitude of society to women. The U.S. society traditionally
perceives women primarily as childraisers and homeworkers. Men
15 have traditionally been the breadwinners, who support their families
with their incomes. Therefore, when women began to work outside the
home, their income did not seem to be as important as the income of
their husbands. There was a belief that a man's wages needed to be
enough to support his family. This idea was then used to justify higher
20 wages for men than for women.
Feminists argued that these attitudes were based only on tradition
and not on any law of nature. It is true, of course, that a woman's
344
biological function requires her to remain at home for some time
before and after a child is born. This is a fact of life. Only women can
25 bear children. However, this does not necessarily mean that the
woman has to raise the children and manage the house while the
husband works outside the home. No law of nature forces people to
accept these roles. A woman has the right to choose between a career
as a full-time mother and housewife and a career outside the home. Or
30 she can combine the two careers if her husband is prepared to assist
her. Only tradition, not nature, prevents this.
Therefore, feminists argue, attitudes toward women and their roles
in society must change. If society needs women workers, it must
permit them to have the same opportunities as men. If men want the
35 economic benefits of working wives, they will have to accept changes
in the traditional system of male and female responsibilities. Since the
early 1970's, feminist organizations have protested the lack of equality
for women and have demanded an end to sex discrimination. They
have tried to educate both men and women; they have attempted to
40 show people that attitudes toward the roles of men and women can be
more flexible. It is possible, they argue, for women and men to share
the responsibilities of supporting and raising a family.
Mark the best choice.
i
t '
1. Line 1, 'discrimination' means .
a) being well-paid • • •• c) treating differently*
b) difficulty in finding jobs d) being promoted
2. Line 14, 'perceives' means .
a) prefers b) sees c) enables d) creates
3. Line 25, 'bear' means .
a) bring up b) support c) staricf d) give birth to
4. Line 30, 'assist' means \ .
a) replace b) help c) accompany d) manage
5. Line 34, 'them' refers to .
a) feminists c) attitudes toward women
b) women workers d) women's roles
6. Line 35, 'benefits' means .
a) advantages b) demands c) uses d) responsibilities
14S
171
THE AGONY COLUMN
There is one part of women's magazines that every man reads. It is
the section popularly known as the 'agony column', where women, and
increasingly men, write for advice on what are sometimes referred to
as 'affairs of the heart'. The person who answers these letters usually
5 has a very reassuring sort of name, which suggests a gentle
middle-aged lady of great wisdom and experience, but who at the
same time is as homely and approachable as your favourite aunt. At
one time, it used to be widely believed that the letters were, in fact, all
made up by someone on the editorial staff, and that the 'Aunt Mary'
10 who provided the answers was, in fact, a fat man with a beard, who
drank like a fish, smoked like a chimney and was unfaithful to his
wife. Although this may be true in some cases, the majority of advice
columns today are completely genuine, and the advisory staff are
highly-qualified people with a deep understanding of human
15 problems. At one time the letters, which were published and answered
in full, dealt with problems of a very general emotional nature. The
recurrent themes were loneliness, unhappiness in marriages and
problems of adolescence. Occasionally, only the answers were
published, not the letters themselves. Much of the fun in reading them
20 lay in trying to work out the problem that led to such peculiar answers.
Agony columns have undergone great change. Nowadays,
everything is much more explicit, and questions of the most intimate
kind are fully dealt with. As the agony columns have become more
professional and more frank, a lot of the fun has gone out of them.
25 This is undoubtedly a good thing because there is something sad about
our tendency to laugh at the misfortunes of our fellow men. In
addition, agony columns are no longer restricted to emotional
problems. Problems of various natures are now dealt with. For
example, the advice columns get a lot of letters from people who are
30 distressed about what they believe to be terrible physical deformities.
Others are terrified of. meeting people because they suffer from
shyness, or are convinced that they are unattractive. If is not really
funny to be so self-conscious about your appearance, or so lacking in
self-confidence, that you stay in your room instead of going out and
35 meeting people. If they do nothing else, the agony columns let you
know that you are not the only one who is suffering from that
particular problem.
The advisers seem to be on much more dangerous ground when
they start to give advice on the most delicate and intimate aspects of
347
40 human relationships. We cannot doubt either their good intentions or
their understanding of human nature. But it is risky business to advise
a married couple on how to save their marriage when what you know
about them is only what they reveal to you in a short letter. Not only
that, but the chances are that you only get one side of the story
45 because only one of the partners will write to tell you about the
shortcomings of the other. It is difficult to know how you can usefully
answer such letters.
To their credit, the best advisers always make the point that without
knowing more, they must limit themselves to general advice, and in
50 some cases will .even offer to enter into private correspondence in
order to get more information and consequently to give more useful
advice. Without doubt, they are, in their way, performing a valuable
social service. If they were not, the agony columns would soon dry up
for lack of interest, and more importantly for lack of confidence.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 4, 'affairs of the heart' means .
a) heart diseases c) love matters
b) physical illnesses d) family problems
2. |_ine 13, 'genuine' means .
a) imaginary b) depressing c) real d) professional
3. Line 20, 'peculiar* means .
a) dangerous b) usual c) common d) strange
4. Line 22, 'explicit' means .
a) strictly personal c) easily discussed
b) clearly expressed d) completely different
5. It used to be thought that readers' problems were dealt with by a .
a) kind middle-aged lady c) team of qualified advisers s
b) man lacking good character d) woman from the editorial staff
6. The people who deal with readers' problems nowadays are generally
a) qualified people who understand such problems
b) women who have a wide experience of life
c) chosen from amongst homely and approachable aunts
d) people who have experienced similar problems
348
172
BETTER REFRIGERATORS: THE COLD FACT
One-fifth of the electricity used in the average U.S. home feeds the
steel box that dominates the kitchen. America's 110 million
refrigerators tax utilities and they also release pollutants.
Power plants would produce 115 billion pounds of carbon dioxide a
5 year running those appliances and they would eat 77 billion
kilowatt-hours of electricity - if all were 1993 models. Many are older,
so the true figures are higher. In addition, 275 million pounds of
ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used as a refrigerant and
in insulation are time bombs in current models.
10 However, much more efficient refrigerators will hit the market
within the next year or two. To encourage improvements, 24
companies sponsored a contest to build the best new prototype. The
two finalists are Frigidaire and Whirlpool, and the winner, soon to be
announced, will collect 30 million dollars. Key innovations will
15 doubtless include a vacuum-sealed insulation system, polymer door
gaskets and compressors, and improved refrigerating and defrosting
cycles.
"We call the new technology 'the golden carrot' because of the
incentives," says Mike L'Ecuyer of the Environmental Protection
20 Agency. If current models were that good, carbon dioxide emissions
would drop by at least 28 billion pounds. Power consumption - and
consumers' bills - would drop by 25 percent. And by 1998 all new
models must be CFC free.
Mark the best choice.
1. Lines 1 -2, 'the steel box' refers to the ________ .
a) electricity b) U.S. home c) kitchen d) refrigerator
2. What are 'time bombs' (line 9) in current models?
a) 275 million pounds of ozone. C) Insulation systems.
b) Chlorofluorocarbons. d) True figures.
3. Which of the following is not new for a refrigerator?
a) It has a vacuum-sealed insulation system.
b) CFCs are used as a refrigerant.
c) It has an improved defrosting cycle.
d) Door gaskets and compressors are made of polymer.
350
4. One disadvantage of a refrigerator which is not mentioned in the text is that it
a) releases pollutants
b) uses up too much electricity
c) is power consuming
d) is too cold to keep fresh fruit
173
HUMAN INFANTS
One of the unfortunate features of the human condition is that the natural
exploratory behaviour of human infants has to be restricted, especially in
conditions of civilization, where the hazards of traffic, electricity, gas, stairs
and many other complex dangers have been added to those which are found
in primitive, rural circumstances. We are forced to overprotect our children
psychologically, because we live in an artificial environment. We also tend
to guard them too carefully in situations where this is not necessary, because
small children are ill-equipped to look after themselves when surrounded by
the dangerous trappings of civilization.
In a recent experiment, Eleanor Gibson constructed a 'visual cliff; that is,
a floor which appears to end in a steep drop, but which is actually safe since
the floor continues as a sheet of tough glass. Babies crawl to the apparent
edge, but will not take the risk of crawling onto the glass even if encouraged
to do so, since they are already aware of the danger of the drop. This is not
to say that it is safe to leave a baby on the edge of a real cliff, since the child
may turn round and fall off backwards.
The pioneer doctors who started the Peckham Health Centre discovered
that quite tiny children could be safely left in the sloping shallow end of a
swimming bath. Provided no adult interfered with them, they could teach
themselves to swim, exploring the water gradually and never going beyond
the point at which they began to feel unsafe. Similarly, children would teach
themselves to ride bicycles and use gymnasium equipment, and did so more
confidently and quickly than if adults tried either to urge them on or warn
them to be careful.
351
174
r
GANDHI INDIAN RESTAURANT
T e l : 811966
A U n i q u e Experience in I n d i a n C u i s i n e Original Recipes
Opening night at the Gandhi Restaurant You can choose from a menu which of-
brought cries of praise and delight from fers curries and tandoories, knowing each
customers when they tasted different sam- one is specially cooked for you, with indi-
ples of the unique cuisine on Monday vidual care and attention, according to
night. strict original recipes, by a top London
Officially opened by County Councillor, chef, formerly of Covent Garden.
Mr. Tony Peaston, the Candhi offers the And after you have sampled the spicy
discerning diner authentic Indian dishes, delights of your main course, you can se-
many available for the first time in Hamp- lect from a choice of original Indian sweets
shire. to temper your palate.
The secret lies in the preparation - only Relaxing in the comfortable surround-
authentic Indian herbs and spices are used ings of the restaurant, you can have a hot
to individually prepare each special dish, towel to freshen yourself or clean your fin-
following ancient recipes, many handed gers between courses - another touch of In-
down through generations of Indian dian living.
chefs. The Gandhi Restaurant, situated at 139
High Standard Kingston Road, Portsmouth is fully li-
censed and open seven days a week.
"I've travelled extensively and dined at
many Indian restaurants throughout the You can pop in for a traditional Indian
country, but rarely have I tasted Indian lunch between 12 and 2.30 pm or enjoy a
food of such a high standard," extolled languid evening meal, when the restaurant
Councillor Peaston. is open from 6 pm to midnight.
"Whilst Gandhi himself was a leader of But take care to book in advance, as de-
men, the Gandhi Restaurant could be mand for this cuisine is expected to be
considered the leader of a new breed of high, so avoid disappointment by tele-
Indian cuisine in Hampshire," he added. phoning Portsmouth 811966.
"By far the best curry we have had in the As proof of confidence in your enjoy-
Portsmouth area," was the comment of ment, the Gandhi is offering a 10 per cent
Havant diners, Mr. and Mrs. Jim Cairns of discount on the cost of your meal, when
Dcnvilles. you produce this advertisement within
three months of the opening.
"We enjoyed the different menu and
found the advice of the staff, explaining The staff at the Candhi look forward to
how each dish was prepared, very helpful serving you with your first taste of truly
for deciding on our choice of menu," they authentic Indian cuisine in this area - and
said. they know you will come back again and
again.
Such glowing comments reflect the
exclusive nature of the dishes available at
the Gandhi Restaurant.
353
175
STONEHENGE
On a fine midsummer morning, dawn breaks slowly over Salisbury Plain.
For a full hour before sunrise, Stonehenge, that prehistoric circle of standing
stones, stands out in eerie silence against the first yellow-green light of day.
In the shadow of the great stones, the modern-day 'druids', people clothed in
the religious robes and hoods of the ancient Celtic priests, have begun their
annual ceremony of fire and water, celebrating the dawning of the year's
longest day. Only a few lucky people are allowed to watch the ritual inside
the stone circle itself. These are people with official passes: journalists,
photographers, television cameramen and the villagers of nearby Amesbury.
Outside, a small crowd has gathered beyond the protective barbed-wire
fence constructed to save the stones from the inquisitive touch of countless
tourists whose busy fingers have gradually worn away the surface of many
stones.
The sight they have all come to see begins a few seconds after 5 am,
when the first rays of the sun appear over the edge of the horizon. It is the
start of an event precisely planned by the people who built Stonehenge, a
temple to the Sun, almost 4,000 years ago.
And yet no one knows for certain who erected the stone-circles or why
they did so. The reason for this is simple: the builders had no writing. The
architects of Stonehenge could therefore not leave behind them any
documents or inscriptions to explain why they chose to build this
extraordinary construction on Salisbury Plain; why they mixed local stones
with others cut more than 200 miles away; why they demolished and rebuilt
it several times in the course of a thousand years; or why they balanced
huge stones on top of each other in a style more suited to building in wood.
But Stonehenge is no isolated mystery, for it is just one of a thousand
prehistoric stone circles scattered throughout the British Isles and northern
France. They have survived because they were built in what are now remote
and sparsely inhabited regions: perhaps thousands of others have not stood
the test of time and have been deliberately destroyed or absorbed into the
landscape.
Mark the best choice.
1. The dawn celebrations at Stonehenge could be described as .
a) a demonstration of Celtic priests
b) religious in style
c) a modern ritual
d) dangerously primitive
•
-W
2. What do local people have in common with the media people?
a) Official connections with Amesbury and Salisbury Plain.
b) An interest in photography.
c) Special viewing opportunities.
d) A belief that the annual ritual brings good luck.
3. The purpose of the barbed-wire fence is to .
a) prevent people digging up the surface of the ground
b) protect the druids from the attentions of numerous tourists
c) make it impossible to steal the stones
d) prevent visitors from damaging the stones
4. Certain features of Stonehenge are .
a) almost impossible to understand
b) the result of bad workmanship and poor architectural taste
c) examples of mixed religious faiths
d) unexplained despite the inscriptions that they bear
5. Stonehenge and other similar sites have survived because they were
a) carefully tested by their builders
b) built far away in northern France
c) built on private land
d) situated in quiet and isolated areas
176
HISTORY OF FARMING
Knowledge of farming was brought into Central Europe by immigrants
from the Middle East and appears to have spread widely and rapidly during
5000 B.C. This spread was encouraged by the presence of extensive areas
of fertile soils which could be worked easily and successfully by the fairly
simple techniques and equipment of the first fanners in Central Europe.
Access to this desirable soil was made easy by the use of routes along
natural waterways, such as the Danube and the Rhine. These factors helped
the peasant farming economy to adjust to the environment successfully.
Without this adjustment to the environment, there would have been little
opportunity for further advance, either in technology or in social
organisation.
The earliest farmers brought with them the knowledge of agriculture and
356
of related crafts and skills which had been developed in the Middle East.
These included such techniques as the making of pottery and stone tools,
and the building of houses and farm buildings. The advance from a hunting
to a farming economy was important not only in respect of food-winning,
but also because the yearly farming cycle provided the farmers with a rest
from the continual search for food. The hunting economy normally
demanded full-time hard work to get food.
House construction, too, needed to adapt. Whereas, the flat-roofed,
sun-dried mud-brick houses of the Middle East were ideally suited to its
warm, dry climate, the moist European climate required something more
suitable to withstand strong winds and keep off rain.
Mark the best choice.
1. What contributed to the spread of farming in Central Europe?
a) The mildness of the climate.
b) Advanced technology and natural waterways.
c) The large numbers of farmers.
d) Favourable conditions for the cultivation of land.
2. What was the key to further success in technology or in social organisation?
a) The ability to adapt.
b) Easy access to the farms.
c) Efficient social organisation.
d) The use of rivers to transport equipment.
3. When early farmers arrived in Central Europe, they .
a) found out that Central Europe was a highly-developed region
b) had more knowledge about agriculture than the farmers living there
c) had difficulty in adapting to the environment
d) had to shift to the hunting economy
4. A farming economy was preferable to a hunting economy because .
a) it did not require such a large area of land
b) it was better suited to the needs of Europeans
c) it provided a plentiful supply of food
d) it reduced the time spent obtaining food
5. The Middle Eastern style of house construction was .
a) ideally suited to Central European farming conditions
b) based on the use of stone tools
c) a reflection of its climate
d) ideal for keeping out wind and rain
357
177
FELT IMAGE
When you close your eyes and try to think of the shape of your own
body, what you imagine (or, rather, what you feel) is quite different from
what you see when you open your eyes and look in the mirror. The image
you feel is much vaguer than the one you see. And if you lie still, it is
impossible to imagine yourself as having any particular size or shape.
When you move, when you feel the weight of your arms and legs and the
natural resistance of the objects around you, the 'felt' image of yourself
becomes clearer. It is almost as if it were created by your own actions and
the sensations they cause.
The image you create for yourself has rather strange proportions: certain
parts feel much larger than they look. If you poke your tongue into a hole in
one of your teeth, it feels enormous; you are often surprised by how small it
looks when you inspect it in the mirror.
But although the 'felt' image may not have the shape you see in the
mirror, it is much more important. It is the image through which you
recognise your physical existence in the world. In spite of its strange
proportions, it is all one piece, and since it has a consistent right and left and
top and bottom, it allows you to locate new sensations when they occur. It
allows you to find your nose in the dark, scratch itches and point to a pain.
Mark the best choice.
1. The 'felt' image of oneself is clearer .
a) in an upright position with eyes closed
b) when you look in the mirror
c) in a lying position with eyes open
d) when you start to move
2. The 'felt* image .
a) has a certain size and shape
b) has different proportions from the real image
c) is created by actions and the related sensations
d) makes you feel the natural resistance of the objects around you
3. Which of the following is not correct about the 'felt' image?
a) It is more important than what you see in the mirror.
b) It makes you aware of your physical being.
c) It allows you to locate new sensations.
d) It makes you feel that your body is larger than it really is.
358
178
FALL OF THE MEDITERRANEAN
Apart from the nine-mile-wide Strait of Gibraltar, the
Mediterranean is landlocked, virtually unable to cleanse itself. It takes
80 years for the water to be renewed, far too slow a process to cope
with the remorseless rush of pollution.
5 For centuries, the people of the Mediterranean have used the sea for
their wastes. Weak coastal currents keep sewage and industrial waste
close to the shore and gently spin floating oil and tar towards the
beaches. And the sea's feeble currents can do little to help remove
them. Vast areas of the shallows of the Mediterranean - the beaches -
10 are awash with bacteria and it doesn't take long for these to reach
people.
An even greater danger is involved in the seafood dishes that add
so much pleasure to holiday menus. Shellfish are prime carriers of
many of the most vicious diseases of the area. They often grow amid
15 pollution. And even if they don't, they are infected by the popular
practice of 'freshening them up' - throwing filthy water over them in
markets.
Mark the best choice.
1. The Mediterranean cannot cleanse itself as .
a) there is only one strait linking it to the ocean
b) it has been used for waste disposal for centuries
c) the Strait of Gibraltar is only nine miles wide
d) the land around it is densely populated
2. Coastal currents in the Mediterranean .
a) are too weak to remove the wastes
b) carry oil and tar away from the beaches
c) flow too close to the shore
d) cause the wastes to float offshore
3. Line 10, 'these' refers to .
• a) bacteria b) the beaches c) vast areas d) the shallows
4. Shellfish that grow in unpolluted areas .
a) add pleasure to holiday menus
b )are much safer than those'growing in polluted seas
c) may still carry disease
d) have to be kept fresh by throwing filthy water over them
359
179
YOUNG CITY BUILDERS
"My children really understand solar power and geothermal energy," says
a second grade teacher in Saugus, California. "Some of them are building
solar collectors and turbines for their energy course." These young scientists
are part of the City Building Educational Program, a unique curriculum for
kindergarten through twelfth grade that uses the process of city planning to
teach basic reading, writing, and math skills.
The children don't just plan any city. They map and analyze the housing,
energy and transportation requirements of their own community and project
its needs in 100 years. With the help of an architect consultant who visits
the classroom once a week, they invent new ways to meet these needs and
build styrofoam models of their creations. "Designing buildings of the
future gives children a lot of freedom," says Doreen Nelson, the teacher
who developed this program. "They are able to use their own space-age
fantasies and inventions without fear of criticism, because there are no
wrong answers in a future context. In fact, as the class enters the final
model-building phase of the program, an elected 'mayor' and 'planning
commission' make all the design decisions for the model city, and the
teacher steps back and becomes an adviser."
Mark the best choice.
1. The City Building Educational Program .
a) was designed by an architect consultant
b) is a curriculum developed for kindergarten children only
c) was devised to teach children some basic skills
d) aims to develop an awareness of housing and energy
2. Which of the following is not correct about the program?
a) The students are given an opportunity to develop the general skill of
problem-solving.
b) The teacher herself picks some students for the planning commission.
c) The students are allowed to use their imagination freely.
d) The teacher is not actively involved in making decisions for the design of the
model city.
360
180
MINNIE
Deep in the far west of Cornwall, England, Minnie, a typical
Himalayan bear, is sleeping peacefully through the winter, unaware
that she may not survive to enjoy waking in the spring. Her owner,
Mr. Ken Trengoved, has been told that unless he pays a £153.60
5 license fee, the bear he has owned since she was born may have to be
destroyed. To Mr. Trengoved, however, the demand represents an
impossible amount, for he has only an old-age pension on which to
live.
The local authorities have only recently found out about Minnie
10 and have to demand a fee according to the law: the Dangerous
Wildlife Act, 1976.
Mr. Trengoved, who lives in a caravan in the mountains, said: "The
last thing in the world I want to lose is Minnie, who has been my
friend for 20 years. She is only halfway through her life." Minnie, who
15 stands more than 2 metres tall and weighs 180 kg, is kept nearby the
caravan, in a secure cage within a wired area which she shares with
dogs, cats, horses and rabbits. Mr. Trengoved said: "I love animals but
Minnie is special. Even if she was taken away to somewhere else, I
don't think she would live long, for this is her home."
20 Mr. Bob Reason, the local health officer, said: "We have no option
but to collect this license fee. If Mr. Trengoved cannot find the
money, then perhaps a new home could be found for Minnie in a zoo
or circus. The last thing we would like to do is to destroy her." He said
the license fee was high because to comply with the law, the bear would
25 have to be examined by a veterinarian specializing in wild animals.
Mr. Reason said that since Minnie's story had become known, some
local people had contacted the authorities offering financial help to
Mr. Trengoved, so it is possible that this story will have a happy
outcome. Our hopes no doubt will be shared by Minnie, who, deep in
30 hibernation, is probably dreaming of honey.
Mark the best choice.
1. Which of the following could be an alternative title?
a) Circus Bear Released c) Dangerous Bear Destroyed
b) Bear in Danger d) Ministry Forbids Bear
2. Minnie is
a) 20 years old c) a baby bear
b) lives in the Himalayas d) lives in a cave in Cornwall
361
181
HOW CRUCIAL IS DREAMING?
For a long time, night dreaming was thought to interfere with the
necessary rest that sleep provides. However, experiments have
indicated that dreams are not only a normal part of the sleep process
but also vital to psychological health. Dr. William Dement of the
5 Sleep Center of Mount Sinai Hospital, who is conducting extensive
experiments on the significance of dreaming, reports that subjects
whose dreams were interrupted regularly exhibited emotional
disturbances such as hypertension, anxiety, irritability, and
concentration difficulties. "One of the subjects, " Dement reported,
10 "quit the study in panic and two insisted on stopping, because the
stress was too great." It was also observed that in five subjects there
was considerable increase in appetite, i.e. they ate a lot, during the
period of dream deprivation. As soon as the subjects were allowed to
dream again, all psychological disturbances vanished.
15 More drastic experiments in Edinburgh, Scotland, supported these
findings. Volunteers who were kept awake for very long periods
dreamed considerably more than usual when finally permitted to
sleep. It is as though a pressure to dream builds up. That is, the more
your dreaming is restricted, the more you are inclined to dream when
20 allowed to sleep. If dream suppression is carried on long enough, the
result is serious disorders in the personality and, therefore,
experiments conducted in this area should be monitored by
professionals only.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 1, "to interfere with' means to .
a) improve
b) disturb
c) recover from
d) extend
2. Line 4, 'vital' means .
a) essential
b) unimportant
c) useless
d) efficient
363
182
UNDERSTANDING TEENAGE CULTS
This is a British newspaper article which tries to explain why teenagers
are attracted to certain teenage 'cults' - groups whose beliefs and behaviour
are considered strange, unnatural, or harmful but which become very
popular or fashionable for a short period of time.
Ever since the early 1950's, there have been attempts to explain why youth
cults happen. None of them has been entirely convincing.
The Reaction Theory
Teenagers want to show how different they are from their parents and,
perhaps more importantly, their older brothers and sisters. If the last fashion
had long hair and wide trousers, then the next one will have short hair and
narrow trousers. There seems to be a lot of tmth in this.
The Global Village Theory
Because of films, records, television and radio, teenagers are aware of what
their contemporaries are doing all around the English-speaking v/orld.
Almost as soon as there were hippies in San Francisco, we had them too. A
problem with this theory is that the time has to be right for a style to be
adopted. The main influence on teenagers remains their friends.
The Teenage Idol Theory
Teenagers imitate the people they look up to, chiefly film stars and pop
performers. When David Bowie used eye shadow, so did many of his male
fans. However, this only succeeds if the pop star is in tune with the v/ay
youth culture is already going.
The Technology Theory
Many developments in teenage culture were possible only because of new
technology. Electric guitars plus amplification meant you could have pop
groups and pop festivals. The transistor radio made pop music inevitable.
The Drug Culture Theory
This theory suggests that the nature of a youth cult is determined by the
drugs that it takes. Speed (amphetamine) equals aggression and energy -
think of punks and skinheads. Pod (cannabis) equals relaxation and
mysticism - think of hippies. Even 'ordinary' society has its drugs, such as
alcohol, nicotine, coffee, etc. But maybe the style came before the drug.
365
The Capitalist Domination Theory
Youth culture happened because commerce understood that teenagers had
money to spend and worked out ways of making them buy more records,
clothes and concert tickets. This does not account for cults that were
anti-consumerist like the punks and hippies.
The Class Theory
This is a sophisticated left-wing theory. Youth cults assert the solidarity of
young people who are victimized by society. Skinheads take aspects of
working class culture to an extreme. They almost enjoy people looking
down on them.
There is no simple explanation. My own research points to these general
observations. Firstly, cults don't arrive fully-formed, flourish and then die.
They are constantly changing and their message evolving. Secondly,
teenagers only join a cult if it feels right, but most kids want to be
something and cults give them something to be.
Mark the best choice.
1. In general, young people are most influenced by .
a) their social class b) their friends c) pop stars d) their parents
2. Which statement best sums up the Global Village Theory?
a) Young people need to be independent.
b) People of the same age unite.
c) Efficient communication leads to copying.
d) Big business causes change.
3. The Drug Culture Theory suggests .
a) young people are alienated C) nicotine isn't a drug
b) skinheads are relaxed d) everybody takes drugs
4. Which of the following theories does the writer seem to accept the most?
a) The Reaction Theory.
b) The Pop Idol Theory.
c) The Class Theory.
d) The Capitalist Domination Theory.
5. The writer concludes that cults .
a) make kids join them
b) are evil
c) provide an identity
d) stay the same
366
183
A LONELY PARADISE
The New Zealand weekend tells you a great deal about this country
of three million people and ninety million sheep. The first carpenter to
land in New Zealand went on strike the moment his feet touched the
beach in the 1840's. "I'm on strike for a forty-hour week," he said,
5 thinking of all those free weekends. Like so many of the settlers, he
was determined not to bring the mistakes of the old world with him. A
man called Charles Parnell then became the leader of a strong union
movement and negotiated agreements with employers to carry out
wishes like these. By 1900, workers had their free weekend, women
10 had the right to vote and the foundations of a welfare state had been
laid.
Many of the settlers were Anglo-Saxon Christians, mostly
Protestants, and for them the weekend was equally important. They
made sure that Sunday was a day of rest. The kiwi weekend (the kiwi
15 bird is the national emblem of New Zealand) has not changed much
since. The cities are silent, and everything is closed.
Christians influenced New Zealand life in other ways too. They felt
strongly that drinking alcohol was sinful and, in the early days, the
country was 'dry' (without alcohol). Until 1968, pubs closed at 6 pm
20 and, even now, they close at 10 pm. What is more, hotels are still only
allowed to sell alcohol with meals on Sundays. This is remarkable
when you think how many hard-living gold-hunters came to New
Zealand when gold was found in Otago and on the west coast of the
South Island in the 1860's, and then stayed on. They brought a totally
25 different set of values with them, but it was the original settlers, the
Protestants and trade unionists, who laid the foundations of
present-day New Zealand.
The paradoxes, or conflicting side of New Zealand life remain,
however. The people are very conservative; and yet the socialist
30 government in the early 1980's became famous for its efforts to create
a nuclear-free zone. It has a reputation as a successful multi-racial
society, where the island's original inhabitants, the Maoris, have
always mixed peacefully with the white population. The number of
Maoris has, however, gone down dramatically. When they started
35 using European arms, tribal wars became a blood bath and, for them,
European illnesses such as measles and the common cold were killers.
As the Maoris slowly took to Christianity, their culture and
community life suffered too, and they certainly had no say in the
setting up of the State. Recently, though, things have improved and
i>fn
40 steps are being taken to increase their birth rate and preserve their way
of life.
The main attraction of New Zealand for visitors, of course, is its
scenery. It varies as you move from a sub-tropical climate in North
Auckland to the bleak cold climate of Steward Island off the coast of
45 the South Island. In the North Island, there are hot springs and a
number of active volcanoes. There have been earthquakes during
which whole mountains move and ships suddenly find themselves on
dry land. In the south-west of the South Island there is the Fiordland,
where 6000-foot emerald-green mountains plunge vertically down
50 into the deep blue of the sea. A landscape of this kind makes men and
women seem very small and insignificant and also makes
communication and travel difficult. Even nowadays there is no regular
ferry service between Wellington in the North Island and Christchurch
in the South across the Cook Strait, as this is one of the most
55 dangerous stretches of water in the world. Wellington, the capital city,
is beffeted by almost continuous strong winds as the warm air from
the north of the country meets the cold air from the Cook Strait.
It is understandable that those who came from Europe settled there
with the intention of creating a mini-England in the South Pacific.
60 White New Zealanders usually enjoy a life style similar to that of the
upper classes in England. But now they are beginning to come to
terms with a Polynesian culture and question whether they are New
Zealanders or merely a group of Europeans who look on Britain as
their mother country.
Mark the best choice.
1. In New Zealand, .
a) people work at the weekend
b) there are often strikes
c) no inhabitants existed before the 1840's
d) there are more sheep than people
2. Thanks to the union movement, in New Zealand .
a) women are entitled to vote
b) a welfare state is being founded
c) agreements with employers are negotiated
d) workers have to fight for free weekends
3. Due to the attitude towards alcohol in the country, .
a) Christians influenced the lifestyle
b) hotels do not sell alcohol except on Sundays
c) drinking alcohol is considered sinful
d) Both (b) and (c).
368
184
SHOPAHOLISM
After splashing out three hundred pounds on ten pairs of shoes, a young
girl found that shopping developed into an obsession which left her with
debts totaling over fifty thousand pounds. This condition, known as
'shopaholism' is on the increase all over the country. It often begins in quite
a small way as it did with Diane. She used to go shopping to cheer herself
up whenever she was depressed. It began with small items of underwear or
bath products and make-up, and developed into buying complete outfits, and
clothes she didn't need.
The current trend for making credit easily available and tempting young
people to get credit cards and store cards is largely responsible, according to
the government, who are trying to crack down on easy credit for under-18s.
Withdrawing credit cards can help, but for serious 'shopaholics' the need to
buy remains, and the habit can only be broken by treating the symptoms in
the same way as a drug addict or an alcoholic.
Mark the best choice.
1. Shopaholism is .
a) having debts amounting to great sums of money
b) going shopping whenever you feel depressed
c) not being able to resist buying the items you don't need
d) not considered an obsession
2. Diane probably .
a) needs to buy a lot of clothing c) has a lot of money to spend
b) uses credit cards for shopping d) can't stand buying unnecessary things
3. The government .
a) are encouraging people to get credit cards and store cards
b) are in the trend of making credit cards easily available for under-18s
c) are intending to make store cards as easily available as credit cards
d) think easily available credit cards lead to unnecessary shopping
4. Serious shopaholics .
a) should get some kind of psychological treatment
b) can be considered drug addicts or alcoholics
c) would stop buying if they didn't have credit cards
d) have a habit which can never be broken
370
185
FOOD AID
Food aid is a lifesaver in many situations, but in other cases it does
more harm than good. Only 10% of all food aid sent is used for vital
emergency relief. The remainder is distributed in a variety of ways,
but rarely gets out to the poor. Increasingly, countries come to rely on
5 it and are less willing to encourage their own farmers to grow food.
For many communities food aid means drastically altered diets and
loss of livelihoods. Locally grown food can't compete with food aid
and prices fall. Low prices drive farmers out of business. The result:
communities become more dependent on food from outside and less
10 able to feed themselves. As less food is produced, less work is
available. Families leave their homes and drift to the towns in search
of work. There they swell the ranks of the unemployed.
Mark the best choice.
1. Generally. 90% of food aid .
a) is stored in various ways
b) is used in emergencies
c) doesn't reach the poor
d) is distributed to the people in need
2. Line 5, 'if refers to .
a) the remainder
b) food aid
c) food
d) emergency relief
3. Food aid causes .
a) a fall in the prices of locally grown food
b) a healthier diet for the poor
c) farmers to grow their own food
d) a competition between governments and farmers
4. The main reason for farmers leaving their homes is .
a) the high rate of unemployment in towns
b) that they become dependent on food aid
c) the reduced food production in towns
d) that they are left without jobs
371
186
DISASTERS IN THE THIRD WORLD
In the Third World, droughts and floods are not the unexpected disasters
we always imagine. In the Sahel region of Africa, drought is practically part
of the environmental cycle, and in Asia everyone knows that floods will
occur regularly. In Britain, we have a 'disaster' every year. It gets so cold
that little grows for months - we call it winter. Throughout that time,
supermarket shelves bulge with food and most of us manage to keep warm.
The difference is that in the Third World countries the poor just can't cope.
For the pastoralist, drought kills his cattle and his future. For the poor in
Calcutta, the recent floods meant total destruction of homes and livelihoods.
Yet, the rich in those countries remain untouched. Their land is irrigated,
their homes well built, their credit is good.
Mark the best choice.
1. In the Third World countries
a) everyone expects a severe winter to cause disasters
b) the rich people are not affected by disasters
c) disasters like floods and droughts are unexpected
d) Both (b) and (c).
Which of the following statements is true?
a) According to the author, winters in Britain are a disaster.
b) Floods are natural in the Sahel region of Africa.
c) The British people do not suffer a lot from winter.
d) Both (a) and (c).
• - :
372
187
COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE
IN THE HOME-RAISED CHIMPANZEES
Although often misunderstood, the scientific rationale for rearing a
chimpanzee in a human household is to find out just how far the ape
can go in absorbing the civilizing influences of the environment. To
what degree is it capable of responding like a child and to what degree
5 will genetic factors limit its development? At least six comprehensive
studies by qualified investigators have been directed wholly or partly
to this problem. All of these studies employed young chimpanzees as
subjects and some also had in-house child controls whose day-to-day
development could be compared directly with that of the experimental
10 animal. In general, the results of this sort of research show that the
home-raised chimp adapts rapidly to the physical features of the
household. It does many things as well as a human child and some of
them better (for example, those involving strength and climbing).
By far the greatest deficiency shown by the ape in the human
15 environment is its lack of language ability. This eliminates the verbal
communication which humans enjoy, and with it the vast amount of
social intercourse and learning which are dependent upon language.
Even amid human surroundings, a chimp never prattles or babbles as a
young child does when beginning to talk. Although it imitates the
20 behavior of others readily, it seems to lack the ability for vocal
imitation. The neural speech centers of the brain are no doubt deficient
in this respect and it is possible also that the larynx and speech organs
are incapable of producing the complex sound patterns of human
language. One long-time attempt to teach a home-raised chimp to
25 pronounce human words succeeded only in getting the animal to
mouth unvoiced whispers of the words 'mama', 'papa', 'cup', and 'up'.
At the same time, a chimpanzee in the home, as in the wild state,
uses gestures or movements as communicating signals. This suggests
the possibility of training a home-raised ape to employ a standardized
30 system of gestures as a means of two-way communication. Such an
investigation is now under way, using a gesture language devised for
the deaf. Considerable progress has already been made in both the
receiving and sending of gesture signals by this method. The technique
seems to offer a much greater likelihood of success than other methods
35 of intercommunication between chimpanzees and humans.
373
188
THE MOTHER OF MODERN DANCE:
MARTHA GRAHAM
The name Martha Graham is practically a synonym for the still young art
form known as modern dance, which dates from her pioneering days in the
late 1920's. Often seen as a rebellion against the 350-year-old tradition of
classical ballet, modem dance is the world's first lasting alternative to that
tradition. Graham has been rightly called a genius and one of the greatest
artists the United States has ever produced. Yet, as she is now over 90 years
old, many people have wondered whether her legend will survive.
This question is more to the point because change has certainly been a
major factor in Graham's career. In the early 1920's, Graham came to feel
that the radical changes brought by World War I required a new and
different style of dancing. After attending a famous dance school in
California called Denishawn, she and two other dancers made a dramatic
breakaway from the Denishawn dance company. In 1927, a reporter for the
New York Times coined the term 'modern dance' to describe their new and
innovative style.
Graham's early dances of the 1930's were stark and simple; these contrast
with the poetic theater pieces of the 1940's and even more sharply with the
complex dance-dramas based on Greek mythology that characterized the
1950's and 1960's. In these, several performers would each portray different
aspects of the same character's personality. Often, scenes from the past,
present, and future would occur at the same time, making it impossible to
distinguish clearly one period of time from another.
Even the dancers themselves don't look the same as they once did. The
full-bodied dancers of the past, whose weight gave them a certain power,
have been replaced by thinner dancers with a lighter style. In Graham's
view, these younger dancers are the product of diets and vitamins, but by
using them, she has kept pace with the changing times. "The absolute thing
is now," she says, "change is the only constant."
Not surprisingly, Graham's changes of direction have caused
controversy, and some of her most devoted admirers have been upset by her
new work that does not fit their memories of her past. She protested
strongly when, in 1984, an application for grant money was refused by a
foundation that felt the artistic standards of her company were not what they
used to be.
Yet, despite the changes and controversy, one of Graham's beliefs has
remained fixed over the years: that dance expresses emotion we often try to
hide and cannot express in words. "I don't want to be understandable," she
declared. "I want to be felt."
376
Graham's dances are open to many interpretations, and like abstract
painters, she invites the viewer to bring his or her emotions to the work, to
complete the picture. She remembers being influenced by Wassily
Kandinsky when, as a young woman, she happened to see a painting of his -
a slash of red against a field of blue - and decided, "I will dance like that."
Mark the best choice.
1. Modern dance is associated with the name Martha Graham .
a) because she was the first to dance in the modern style
b) as she is one of the best artists in the USA
c) due to her rebellious personality as a young woman
d) since she is the person who devised the term
2. Martha Graham .
a) changed her career following the social transformations brought by World
War I
b) persuaded other dancers to leave the Denishawn dance company
c) believed that a new style of dancing was necessary to go with the changes
after the war
d) left the dance company after she became famous enough to make changes
in the world of dance
3. Graham's early dances .
a) were based on themes derived from Greek mythology
b) were different from the dance-dramas as they avoided complexity
c) were based on the different types of human personality
d) were influenced by the style of performers of the 1930's
4. In the plays and dance-dramas of the mid-1900's, .
a) the same artist played different aspects of a character's personality
b) there was only one main character
c) scenes from different periods took place at the same time
d) Both (b) and (c).
5. In the past, .
a) it was desirable for dancers to be well-built
b) dancers were not as powerful as they are now
c) dancers had a different style
d) Both (a) and (c).
377
189
BEING AN ! AU PAIR': SOME FACTS
The idea of working 'au pair', with full board and pocket money in return
for help in the home, has been welcomed by thousands of girls coming from
countries outside Britain. Many of them want to practise the English they
have learned at school but cannot afford to live away from home without
some kind of work to provide them with at least the necessities of life.
The aim of practising the language may be weaker in some girls than the
desire to enjoy the freedom of being away from home and the excitement of
living in a large city like London. The idea of working seriously for their
living may be unattractive. It is experiences with the kind of girl who
returns home at all hours of the night or not at all, is always complaining
when asked to do anything, cannot be trusted to do the simplest thing
properly, neglects her studies and gets into various kinds of trouble, that
make many employers hesitate about taking a second 'au pair' into their
home.
But the faults are not all on one side and many 'au pair' girls also have
good cause for complaint, some of them becoming depressed and unhappy
as a result. Unfortunately far too few girls who are attracted by the idea of
earning their living in another land are prepared for the various difficulties
that may await them.
It is essential that any girl who takes a post of this kind should be at least
eighteen years old, and be sensible, practical and well able to look after
herself. Wherever possible she should go to a family she knows something
about possibly from a friend who has already worked with them. In any case
she should make sure she has a letter from her employer stating clearly her
terms of employment: exactly what she is expected to do (whether minding
children or helping with light housework), how long she will be expected to
work each week and her free days and half-days for attending language
classes. She should be promised a single room of a satisfactory standard and
she will want to eat with the family to have the opportunity of practising the
language with them. Her earnings will not be high, but her employer will
probably pay her return travel expenses, if the girl is prepared to stay with
the same family all the time.
Two other pieces of advice are important. A girl should keep with her
travellers' cheques of a sufficient value to pay for her journey home in case
it becomes necessary to return urgently. In addition, she should know the
addresses of one or two organisations which can give help and advice if
there are problems. Several of these organisations exist in London and other
large centres.
379
190
THE MENACE OF THE MICRO
Hardly a week goes by without some advance in technology that
would have seemed incredible 50 years ago. Over the past 20 years,
computers have completely revolutionized our lives. Yet, we can
expect the rate of change to accelerate rather than slow down within
5 our lifetimes. The next 25 years will see as many changes as have
been witnessed in the past 150.
These developments in technology are bound to have a dramatic
effect on the future of work. By 2010, new technology will have
revolutionized communications. People will be transmitting messages
10 down telephone lines that previously would have been sent by post. A
postal system which has essentially been the same since the Pharaohs
will virtually disappear overnight. Once these changes are introduced,
not only postmen but also clerks and secretaries will vanish in a
paper-free society. All the routine tasks they perform will be carried
15 on a tiny silicon chip. As soon as this technology is available, these
people will be as obsolete as the horse and cart after the invention of
the motor car. One change will make thousands, if not millions,
redundant.
Even people in traditional professions, where expert knowledge has
20 been the key, are unlikely to escape the effects of new technology.
Instead of going to a solicitor, you might go to a computer which is
programmed with all the most up-to-date legal information. Indeed,
you might even come up before a computer judge who would, in all
probability, judge your case more fairly than a human counterpart.
25 Doctors, too, will find that an electronic competitor will be able to
carry out a much quicker and more accurate diagnosis and recommend
more efficient courses of treatment.
In education, teachers will be replaced by teaching machines far
more knowledgeable than any human being. What's more, most
30 learning will take place in the home via video conferencing. Children
will still go to school though, until another place is created where they
can make friends and develop social skills through play.
What, you may ask, can we do to avoid the threat of the dole*
queue? Is there any job that will be safe? First of all, we shouldn't hide
35 our heads in the sand. Unions will try to stop change, but they will be
fighting a losing battle. People should get computer literate as this just
might save them from professional extinction. After all, there will be a
few jobs left in law, education and medicine for those few individuals
who are capable of writing and programming the software of the
381
40 future. Strangely enough, there will still be jobs like rubbish collection
and cleaning as it is tough to programme tasks which are largely
unpredictable.
If we accept that people have the need to work, then an option
might well be to introduce compulsory job sharing and to limit the
45 length of the working week. Otherwise, we could find ourselves in an
explosive situation where a technocratic elite is both supporting, and
threatened by, vast numbers of unemployed. Whether the future is one
of mass unemployment or greater freedom and leisure will depend on
how change is managed over this difficult period and how the
50 relationship between work and reward is viewed.
* dole: money given to the unemployed by the government
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 13, 'virtually* means .
a) slowly b) completely c) unlikely d) partly
2. Line 16, 'obsolete' means .
a) rewarding b)essential c) unnecessary d) efficient
3. Line 23, 'come up before' means .
a) face b) cope with c) perceive d) pay attention to
4. Line 37, 'extinction' means .
a) contribution b) disappearance c) investment d) independence
5. The writer thinks that changes .
a) occur daily in our century
b) will take place faster in the near future
c) could slow down within our lifetimes
d) are less dramatic today than those in the past
6. By 2010, .
a) postmen will have lost their jobs
b) there will no longer be routine tasks to be performed
c) people will no longer send messages
d) more people will be working in the field of communications
382
191
DATA ENCRYPTATION
In recent years, computer programmers have tried to make it easy
for people to use computer systems. Unfortunately, in some situations
the systems are too easy to use; they don't have enough restrictions to
safeguard secret information or to prevent an unauthorized person
5 from using that information. Therefore, several methods have been
devised to prevent computer crime. One of them is data encryptation.
When secret personal and financial data is transmitted to and from
remote terminals, it must be encrypted (translated into a secret code)
at one end and decrypted (translated back into plain text) at the other.
10 Since it is impractical to keep secret the algorithms that are used to
encrypt and decrypt data, these algorithms are designed so that their
operation depends on a certain data item called the key. It is the key
that is kept secret. Even if you know all the details of the encrypting
and decrypting algorithms, you cannot decrypt any messages unless
15 you know the key that was used when they were encrypted. For
instance, the National Bureau of Standards has adopted an algorithm
for encrypting and decrypting the data processed by federal agencies.
The details of the algorithm have been published in the Federal
Register. Plans are under way to incorporate the algorithm in special
20 purpose microprocessors, which anyone can purchase and install in his
computer. So the algorithm is available to anyone who bothers to buy
one of the special purpose microprocessors. But the operation of the
algorithm is governed by a sixty-four-bit key. Since there are about
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 possible sixty-four-bit keys, no one
25 is likely to discover the correct one by chance. And, without the
correct key, knowing the algorithm is useless.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 4, 'an unauthorized person' means a person who .
a) has no official permission to do something
b) has no right to restrict or control others
c) doesn't know anything about the subject
d) doesn't know how to write something
2. One can decrypt messages only if he knows .
a) all the details of the encrypting and decrypting algorithms
b) the key used while the messages were encrypted
c) that algorithms are used to encrypt and decrypt data
d) that the key is kept secret for security measures
384
3. The algorithm adopted by the National Bureau of Standards can only be used if
a person .
a) reads the details of the algorithm in the Federal Register
b) incorporates the algorithm in special purpose microprocessors
c) knows the algorithm
d) buys a special purpose microprocessor
4. As the operation of the algorithm is governed by any one of the
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 possible sixty-four-bit keys .
a) one can discover it only by chance
b) discovering it by chance is not possible
c) one should know the algorithm
d) no one can get the correct key
192
PESTICIDE CONTROL
One of the reasons the use of pesticides in farming should be
severely restricted and controlled is that pesticides kill 'good' and 'bad'
insects indiscriminately. You may think the more dead insects the
better, but some insects are actually beneficial to farmers. By spraying
5 their fields with toxic pesticides, they destroy the good with the bad.
One example of a useful insect is the honeybee. In the United States,
nearly 100 crops with a famı value of $1 billion annually depend on
the honeybee for pollination, fertilization with pollen. However,
honeybees gather poison as they search for pollen. As a result, they
10 are steadily being exterminated by the very people they are helping.
Today, there are 20% fewer honeybee colonies in the United States
than there were ten years ago. Farmers agree that honeybees are the
most efficient way to pollinate their crops. Yet, with their use of
pesticides, they are surely eliminating their best friends.
Mark the best choice.
1. The use of pesticides should be restricted because .
a) the more dead insects the better
b) they destroy both bad and good insects
c) they are used all over the world
d) farmers spray their fields with toxic pesticides
2. Line 10, 'exterminated* means .
a) polluted b) helped c) fed d) killed
385
3. Line 13, 'Yet' means .
a) Therefore b) Because c) However d) Moreover
193
TOXIC CHEMICAL LEAKS
Deadly chemical leaks are much more common in the United States
than most people realize. According to recent reports from the
government, there are at least four serious leaks each day in the
United States. The direct effects of this escape of chemicals into the
5 environment are devastating. In the last five years, because of toxic
chemical leaks, at least 135 deaths have occurred, an estimated 4,700
injuries have resulted, and nearly 200,000 people have been forced
from their homes.
Mark the best choice.
1. A chemical leak (line 1) is the .
a) escape of chemicals into the environment
b) preservation of chemicals in the environment
c) production of chemicals in the United States
d) consumption of chemicals in homes
2. If something is 'devastating' (line 5) it .
a) escapes b) forces c) destroys d) improves
3. Which of the following is not mentioned as a result of toxic chemical leaks?
a) People have died.
b) People have been injured.
c) People have realized the danger.
d) People have left their homes.
^R6
194
THE STORY OF THE TELEPHONE
"Mr Watson, come here please; I want you."
With these commonplace words a new era was ushered in. That sentence
marked the achievement of a man who changed the face of the world in his
lifetime. For the speaker was Alexander Graham Bell, and the sentence was
the first to be spoken and received over the telephone.
Although telegrams had been in use for some time and the equipment
was in some ways similar, the morse-code being tapped out on the same
telegraph wires, it was not sophisticated enough to pick up speech. No other
invention has surpassed the usefulness of the telephone.
Alexander Bell was bom on March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh. His genius was
inherited from his father, who was a famous teacher of elocution, and an
expert on phonetics. Even as a boy his mind was inventive, but in 1870
Bell's health began to fail and there were fears of tuberculosis. So, he left his
native country with his father and went to Canada. Two years later he was
in Boston, where he set up a school for training teachers of the deaf and he
also gave instruction in the mechanics of speech. Here he started
experimenting on a machine which he believed would make the deaf 'hear'.
While he was doing this, he accidentally came across the clue for the correct
principles of telephony. "If," he said, "a current of electricity could be made
to vary in intensity precisely as the air varies in density, during the
production of sound, I should be able to transmit speech telegraphically. "
So, he turned to studying the workings of a deaf man's ear, and the
movement of air while a sound is produced.
By February 15, 1876, Bell had filed an application for a patent for his
'improvement in telegraphy' at the United States Patent Office. Only two
hours later, Elisha Gray of Chicago filed an application for almost the same
invention! The great Edison, A.E. Dolbear and Daniel Drawbraugh were all
working in the same field: all claimed the invention or part of the invention
of the telephone. The great telephone war was on! There was hardly any
time to spare.
Bell and his assistant, Watson, hid themselves in two rooms of a cheap
Boston boarding house, rigged up apparatus and worked day and night
trying to transmit and receive sentences spoken by the human voice over the
telephone. On the afternoon of March 10, 1876, Watson was in the
basement with the receiver to his ear. Suddenly he started. Words - real
distinguishable words - had come through at last. Sharply and clearly the
sentence came through, "Mr Watson, come here, please; I want you."
Watson flung down the receiver, rushed up the stairs like a schoolboy,
clearing them two at a time, and burst into Bell's room, shouting, "I heard
you; I could hear what you said!"
That year Bell exhibited his telephone at the Centennial Exposition at
Philadelphia. Nobody thought much of the invention at first, until Don
Pedro, the Emperor of Brazil, picked up the receiver. Bell at the other end of
the wire, recited the famous soliloquy from 'Hamlet', "To be or not to be....".
"My God!" cried the Emperor, "It speaks!" The telephone was from that
moment given pride of place in the exhibition. Bell soon withdrew from
active work on the telephone and settled down in a fine country home at
Baddeck, Nova Scotia and devoted himself to invention. He interested
himself in dynamic flight, sheep breeding and a universal language based on
the phonetics of the English language. He perfected a hydroplane and
claimed he had invented a breathing apparatus for explorers and travellers
through the deserts. Although nothing has come of any of these inventions,
work is still being carried out on the telephone.
Nowadays, of course, the telephone has developed in ways that Bell
would never have imagined. Radio telephones, car telephones, international
link-ups via satellite have all combined to allow immediate, clear
communication between any two people anywhere in the world. But modern
technology has not really done anything but improve on Bell's original
invention. It was Bell who made it possible for two people to talk to each
other when separated by a great distance.
Years after Bell's invention, there is a story told of a woman whom he
met at a social gathering. When she was introduced to the great inventor,
she expressed pleasure in meeting him and then said smilingly, "But often I
wish you had never been born." Bell looked startled and hurt and then he
smiled and said, "I sympathise. I never use the beast."
The most extraordinary thing is that Bell hated the telephone and he
hardly ever used it. He stuffed his telephone bell with paper, to prevent it
from interrupting his work.
Mark the best choice.
1. The words "Mr Watson, come here please; I want you," were important because
a) they were the words of the first telephone call
b) Bell wanted to tell Watson about his new invention
c) they were spoken by Alexander Graham Bell
d) they were the words of the first telegram
2. Telegrams were similar to the telephone in that
a) they had been in use for some time
b) messages were sent by the tapping of the morse-code
c) both systems used the same wires
d) they were not sophisticated enough to pick up speech
388
195
TEENAGE VANDALISM
The image of the teenage vandal as an isolated, lonely, anti-social figure
has been shattered by a school survey which shows that most hooligans are
regular attenders at youth clubs and enjoy going to an organised disco. The
profile of a typical vandal built up by teachers and police in Blyth,
Northumberland, paints a picture of a sociable youth who is likely to be an
enthusiastic cyclist and a football fan.
Nearly two-thirds of 2,500 children who answered a questionnaire in
Northumberland secondary schools admitted acts of vandalism. Most
blamed unemployment and also their parents for not being strict enough.
Many said they would commit vandalism again.
In a preliminary analysis of 1,600 anonymous replies, Northumbria
police and the Keep Britain Tidy Group - who commissioned the survey -
found that 84 per cent of the teenagers thought there was little or nothing
wrong with dropping litter. Almost two-thirds felt the same about damaging
garden plants, 40 per cent saw "little or nothing wrong" with torturing a pet
and 6 per cent felt that there was little or nothing wrong with setting fire to a
building.
Most children said the answer to vandalism was to give children more to
do, while some thought inflicting punishments of all kinds and having more
police on the streets could be the answer. About half said they were most
likely to listen to their parents, but only eight per cent said they would listen
to a youth club leader.
Mark the best choice.
1. Most people think that teenage vandals .
a) are fond of cycling and football
b) attend youth clubs and go to discos
c) are lonely and anti-social people
d) cause problems for the police and teachers
2. The questionnaire shows that .
a) many of the children regret committing vandalism
b) parents should be less strict towards their children
c) most of the children have committed vandalism
d) vandalism is not as serious a problem as people think
3. According to the results of the survey, which of the following is the least
acceptable act of vandalism?
a) Dropping litter. c) Torturing a pet.
b) Damaging garden plants, d) Setting fire to a building.
391
4. According to most of the children taking part in the survey, .
a) a youth club leader can persuade teenagers not to commit vandalism
b) a change in parental attitude would not stop vandalism
c) vandalism can only be stopped by inflicting strict punishment
d) vandalism can be stopped by getting children involved in various activities
196
LANGUAGE LEARNING
Once you realise that no method of language teaching is going to give
you the ability to speak a foreign tongue to business standards in a few
weeks, the selection of a system of teaching becomes a simple calculation of
time, money and need.
There are three levels of language ability - tourist, social and fluent - and
the gaps between them are huge. Most of us are aware that the schoolboy
German that gets us into hotels and through supermarkets is not sufficient to
keep up a pleasant dinner party conversation. Similarly, the ability to join in
such a conversation, which is about as much as most of us could hope to
achieve, is a long way from a full intelligent grasp of the language and its
culture.
For a quick introduction to the basics, I prefer the cassette/book system.
Language books alone cannot offer the necessary pronunciation skills, skills
which you are going to need in order to understand, for example, the train
announcements on the Moscow underground. Cassettes, however, have
proved a great aid for the language student.
The essential requirement when learning a language, even at that level,
remains effort. The more willingness the student brings to the task, the
easier the course will be. For European languages that effort comes a little
easier. The Londoner learning French or the Parisian learning English can
readily find newspapers, radio stations and restaurants where the language is
used and can thus become familiar with that culture before his visit. If the
tongue is to be Tamil or Serbo-Croat, the task is a little more difficult. With
languages such as French and German, it is also possible to listen to, or
record, the BBC Schools programmes, which are always helpful.
There is no question, however, that the best teaching, and obviously the
most expensive, is in the classroom, the very best being a one-to-one
teaching basis,that is, private tutoring. For this, you will be paying a few
hundred pounds per week and it is important to check carefully on the
chosen place of learning. Language teaching attracts some dishonest
establishments. Watch out for the school that promises an ability to 'reach
the moon' after a couple of hours in the language lab!
392
197
These two letters appeared in a radio and TV magazine.
Sir,
Last Saturday I watched the TV programme on the latest
Grand Prix motor race and noticed how much advertising
there was. In particular, the leading car (and the one
that eventually won) was almost constantly on the screen:
it was painted to look like a packet of well-known
cigarettes. Not only that, but the car was, on more than
one occasion, referred to by the reporter not by the name
of the driver or the motor company, but by the name of the
product.
Since the football team that I support is not allowed to
wear shirts advertising anything when their matches are
being televised, isn't this a case of 'double standards'?
The rule preventing sportsmen and sportswomen from
carrying advertisements on television is a good one. Keep
it and enforce it. To take one example, what is the
effect, I wonder, on the young and old, of the apparent
connection between cigarette smoking and an exciting sport
like motor-racing?
L.H. Gray
Sir,
What a ridiculous situation our television companies find
themselves in with regard to sports and advertising!
I watched a televised football match in which the players
did not carry any advertisements on their shirts, and yet
there was advertising all around. (Do the TV producers
think we viewers are blind or something?) And when a
well-known international player was interviewed after the
match, both he and the interviewer referred by name to the
cosmetics firm that finances the team! And as if that
were not enough, the sports item that followed was the
National Bank Golf Tournament.
Advertising is all around us every day. Long live
advertising, I say, and let the television companies
recognise it and allow football players, athletes, racing
drivers and others to wear sponsors' advertisements. At
least we would all know where we were!
(Mrs.) R.P. Laing, Bristol
394
Mark the best choice.
1. L.H. Gray would like to see .
a) advertising banned from televised sport
b) smoking made illegal
c) more programs on motor racing
d) less sport on TV
2. Mrs. Laing believes that .
a) sportsmen on TV should be allowed to have advertisments on their clothes
b) advertising cigarettes should be banned at football matches
c) advertising on TV should be forbidden
d) golf tournaments should not be financed by banks
3. Which of the following do both L.H. Gray and Mrs. Laing agree on?
a) Sportsmen should be allowed to advertise on TV.
b) TV sports should allow advertising except for drink and cigarettes.
c) TV companies must get rid of their 'double' standards.
d) Reporters should be allowed to advertise.
198
WIND POWER
In its search for alternatives to fossil-fuel energy sources, science is
looking back in history at the windmill. Small windmills once were seen
everywhere in rural America, but most were abandoned with the emergence
of rural electrification programs in the 1930's. Now energy shortages and
rising petroleum prices have brought renewed interest in putting the wind to
work. Some scientists estimate that with enough investment in research and
development, windmills could supply 20 per cent of U.S. electrical needs by
the year 2000.
The Sandia Laboratories in New Mexico are testing an altogether
different device that looks more like a giant eggbeater than a conventional
windmill. Its principal advantage is that its symmetrical shape catches wind
from any direction.
All designers of new windmills face one very old problem, however:
what to do when the wind dies. One solution would be to use windmills to
pump water uphill into storage reservoirs. When the wind stops, the water
would be released to drive hydraulic turbines.
Meanwhile, U.S. ranchers and farmers in the southwest are so eager to
395
utilize wind power that New Mexico State University is offering a special
course in the operation and maintenance of windmills built a generation ago.
Mark the best choice.
1. Scientists are trying to make use of wind power by means of windmills because
a) they were abandoned about 50 years ago
b) there is a need for alternatives to fossil-fuel energy sources
c) they were all small and used before the 1930's
d) they try to catch the wind from any direction
2. The problem faced by the designers of new windmills .
a) is to pump water into storage reservoirs
b) has no satisfactory solution
c) is what to do when there is no wind
d) can be solved by hydraulic turbines
3. Which of the following statements is true?
a) The device which is being tested in New Mexico is not a satisfactory one at
all.
b) 20% of the U.S. total energy need can be generated by windmills.
c) People who are interested in making use of the wind are given a special
course in operating new windmills.
d) Although there are problems to be faced, windmills can be useful after a
certain period of research and development.
199
HYDRO-ELECTRIC AND TIDAL POWER
In addition to the established energy sources such as gas, coal, oil and
nuclear, there are a number of other sources that we ought to consider. Two
of these are hydro-electric and tidal power.
These two sources are similar in that they are both renewable. However,
hydro-electric power is more widely used than tidal. In fact, a substantial
amount of electricity is already produced in HEP stations world-wide,
whereas tidal stations are still in the very early stages of development.
As far as geographical location is concerned, HEP schemes are to be
found on lakes and rivers, while tidal schemes are constructed only in
estuaries where tidal variation is great. Unfortunately, these are few in
number. At present HEP stations are found mainly in Norway, Canada,
Sweden and Brazil, whereas tidal plants are in operation in France, the CIS
396
and China.
As regards capital outlay, both require very high investment. On the
other hand, generating costs are quite low in both cases. In fact, a
large-scale HEP plant is capable of producing power more cheaply than
conventional sources, such as coal, oil and nuclear plants. Tidal power also
compares favourably with nuclear and oil generated electricity, in terms of
production costs. Like HEP stations, tidal barrages have a long
life-expectancy. It is estimated that they can operate for over 100 years.
With respect to continuity of supply, tidal stations differ from HEP schemes
in that they often can only supply power intermittently. HEP stations,
however, provide a constant supply of electricity.
Turning now to environmental impact, tidal plants do not seem to create
too many problems. In contrast, HEP stations often involve the flooding of
large amounts of agricultural land, the destruction of ecological habitats,
and may even cause a change in the climate of the area.
Both tidal power and HEP have one big disadvantage in that if the
demand for power exists at any distance from the generating plant,
transmitting the electricity is expensive.
Mark the best choice.
1. Hydro-electric power stations are used more widely than tidal-power stations
because they .
a) cost less c) are geographically less limited
b) are renewable d) are still in the early stages of development
2. Which of the following statements is true?
a) HEP stations can produce cheaper power than conventional plants but tidal
power plants cannot.
b) The capital and generating costs of hydro-electric and tidal power plants are
both low.
c) HEP stations are not likely to operate for over a hundred years.
d) Tidal stations are not capable of supplying a continuous flow of electricitiy.
3. With the construction of tidal plants, .
a) the climate of the area does not necessarily change
b) the ecological habitats are often destroyed
c) transmission costs of electricity are reduced
d) flooding of agricultural lands cannot be prevented
397
200
GREGORY MENDEL
An Augustinian monk named Gregory Mendel was the first person to
make precise observations about the biological mechanism of inheritance.
This happened over a hundred years ago in an Austrian monastery, where
Mendel spent his leisure hours performing experiments with pea plants of
different types. He crossed them carefully and took notes about the
appearance of various traits, or characteristics, in succeeding generations.
From his observations, Mendel formed a set of rules, now known as the
'Mendelian Laws of Inheritance', which were found to apply not only to
plants but to animals and human beings as well. This was the beginning of
the modern science of genetics.
Mark the best choice.
1. When did Mendel perform his experiments?
a) In ancient times.
b) In the 1860's.
c) When the modern science of genetics was introduced.
d) At the beginning of this century.
2. Mendel made observations on plants .
a) because his education was on this subject
b) for he enjoyed doing experiments in his free time
c) so that he could earn money
d) Both (a) and (c).
3. Which of the following can the 'Mendelian Laws of Inheritance' be applied to?
a) Plants.
b) Animals.
c) Human beings.
d) All of the above.
"-> A O
201
ANTI-SMOKING CAMPAIGNS
Stopping cigarette smoking has become a big problem for all
governments. In democratic countries, the economic strength of the
tobacco industry is so great that measures taken by governments to
protect the rights of nonsmokers cannot be applied effectively. In
5 some undemocratic countries, on the other hand, governments cannot
be trusted and they lack the motivation to deal with the problem. And
under any political system, social conditioning and chemical
habituation make banning tobacco a formidable task and one that
would take a long time. Yet, current information campaigns are failing
10 as worldwide use increases faster than the population.
Totally banning cigarette smoking so far has been unsuccessful in
all countries. An alternative approach includes either the prohibition
of smoking in the workplace and public buildings or the strict
limitation of smoking to specified areas. This movement may be the
15 greatest success of the information campaign against tobacco. Its
leaders insist that despite the continued sale, advertising, and use of
tobacco, nonsmokers have every right not to be exposed to the
carcinogens, carbon monoxide, and irritants in tobacco smoke. Such a
campaign can have three important effects.
20 First, by banning the use of tobacco from places where nonsmokers
would be exposed, thousands of lives may be saved. Second, forcing
smokers to give up their habit while in the presence of nonsmokers
will provide them with an added force to quit. If smokers must get
through working days without smoking, then they are more likely to
25 be able to quit completely. And third, by stigmatizing tobacco use as
dangerous and antisocial, the campaign for nonsmokers' rights can
accomplish a goal of all anti-smoking information campaigns: to make
smoking socially unattractive.
Interestingly, nonsmokers have important supporters in the
30 workplace: their employers. Companies, at least in the United States,
are rapidly realizing that most of their employees do not smoke and do
not like to breathe the smoke of others, and that smokers cost
employers money. Surveys indicate that inefficiency and ill-health
attributable to smoking waste about 7% of a smoker's working time.
35 Smokers also add to insurance and cleanup costs, and lower the
morale of nonsmoking employees.
onn
202
LONELINESS PREVAILS
According to a survey specially commissioned for The Sunday
Times Magazine, approximately 25 per cent of the population are
lonely. Elderly people, particularly those who move to a new area on
retirement, may be isolated from their families and friends. Illness,
5 disability and fear of going out alone also combine to turn many
pensioners into prisoners in their own homes. Teenagers also find it
difficult to make friends within their age group because their natural
shyness and self-consciousness may make them awkward in the
company of their peers and the opposite sex. Single parents feel cut
10 off from a couple-orientated society. Divorce can be shattering to the
self-respect. Divorced people may miss the companionship of even the
most unsatisfactory marriage as, of course, do the widowed. With so
many social contacts being made through work, unemployment can
also lead to loneliness.
Mark the best choice.
1. Old people who may feel particularly lonely.
a) have been to prison
b) have to live on low incomes
c) are not healthy enough to move around easily
d) are in a position to start a new career
2. Line 9, 'peers' means .
a) older people
b) other young people
c) confident people
d) experienced people
3. The widowed .
a) may miss the company of the dead partner even if their marriage was not
happy
b) won't feel as lonely as the divorced in a couple-orientated society
c) probably had the most unsatisfactory marriages and lost their self-respect
d) are different from divorced people in that they don't need companionship
401
203
THE ORDER OF INVENTIONS
The order in which inventions are made is very important, much
more important than has ever been realised, because we tend
automatically to think that later inventions are better than earlier ones.
A moment's thought will show this is not so. If, for example, a solution
5 to today's urban traffic problems was proposed in the shape of a small
man-powered two-wheeled vehicle which would make the motor car
look like a complicated, inefficient and over-powered device, we
would greet it as a great technological breakthrough. "The bicycle
makes the car obsolete!" we would cry. Unfortunately, the bike came
10 first, so we shall always unconsciously see it as a simpler version of
the car.
Other things which may have been invented too early are the radio
and the railway train. Consider also the zip. Zips represent a
technological advance on buttons, being faster and more complete.
15 However, they are also more likely to come apart, break, malfunction,
stick and catch. Buttons can only go wrong if the thread is faulty.
Even then, buttons can be mended by the user. Zips rarely can.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 4, 'this is not so" means that .
a) we should not think automatically
b) the order of inventions is not important
c) we should not accept inventions easily
d) later inventions are not always better than earlier ones
2. If the bicycle were invented now, .
a) people would not welcome it as they did in the past
b) people would still prefer cars to bicycles
c) it would be seen as an earlier version of the car
d) the car would appear unsuitable for Us purpose
3. Although buttons were invented earlier than zips, .
a) they are. still more reliable
b) they are faster than zips
c) they represent a technological advance
d) they malfunction easily
/i n o
204
INTELLIGENCE
When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get a
good score on a certain kind of test, or even the ability to do well in
business; these are at best only indicators of something larger, deeper, and
far more important. By intelligence we mean a style of life, a way of
behaving in various situations, and particularly in new, strange, and
puzzling situations. The true test of intelligence is not how much we know
how to do, but how we behave when we don't know what to do.
The intelligent person, young or old, meeting a new situation or problem,
opens himself up to it; he tries to perceive everything about it. Besides, he
thinks about it instead of about himself or what it might cause to happen to
him; he grapples with it boldly, imaginatively, resourcefully, and if not
confidently, at least hopefully. If he fails to master it, he looks without
shame or fear at his mistakes and learns what he can from them. This is
intelligence.
Mark the best choice.
1. According to the first paragraph, intelligence .
a) can be described as a rich, new and surprising life style
b) is basically the ability to cope with new or confusing situations
c) is indicated by success in school or business
d) can be measured by the amount of knowledge we have
2. We are told that intelligent people .
a) carefully consider what will happen to them in a difficult situation
b) avoid being involved in a new situation
c) successfully overcome every problem they are faced with
d) learn from their mistakes even if they fail
Am.
205
YOUR PERSONALITY AND YOUR HEART
Cardiologists divide us into two types according to how our personality
affects our heart. Type A individuals are highly competitive, fast acting,
rapid talking, and thus more exposed to stress whilst B types drown in the
milk of human kindness and are indifferent to the passage of time. It is an
uncomfortable fact that A types die twice as frequently from heart disease as
B types, even when the risks of cigarettes, alcohol and cream cakes are
taken into account.
Personality is genetically determined; that is, A-type parents usually get
A-type children. But the environment has a more important effect. One
place where children soak up A-type behaviour is school, which is, by its
very nature, a highly competitive institution. Too many schools adopt the
'win at all costs' principle and measure their success by sporting
achievements. What I can't forgive actually is not the current emphasis on
making children compete against their friends or against the clock, but the
system in which competitive A types are provided with more opportunity to
succeed than their B-type fellows.
By far, the worst form of competition in schools is the disproportionate
emphasis on examination. Rather than concentrating on those things they do
well, pupils are forced to compete by exams. For those who will inevitably
fail, however, this kind of competition is definitely harmful.
Obviously, it is neither practical nor desirable that all A youngsters
change into B's. The world needs both types, and schools have an important
duty to try to fit a child's personality to his possible future employment. If
the preoccupation of schools with academic work was lessened, more time
might be spent teaching children better values. Perhaps selection for the
caring professions, such as medicine, should be made not only by good
grades but also by such considerations as sensitivity, kindness and honesty.
Mark the best choice.
1. Type B individuals suffer less from heart disease .
a) because they are aggressive and competitive
b) although they lead more stressful lives
c) unless they smoke, drink or eat as much as type A's
d) even if they have unhealthy eating and drinking habits
404
206
THE FLEA MARKET
On any weekend at sunrise, while most of the country still sleeps, vans,
pickup trucks, campers, and cars crammed with every conceivable item
gather in empty parking lots and fairgrounds across the U.S. By noon, the
scene overflows with thousands of people who have come to bargain and
look around this mad carnival called the flea market.
People have traded and bartered for centuries. Whatever else the flea
market may appear to be, its purpose is the sale and exchange of goods.
Whether they are knowledgeable collectors or just plain bargain hunters,
people are drawn to the flea market by the enormous amount and variety of
merchandise offered. The possibility of finding something truly valuable
before anybody else does makes shopping at a flea market a treasure hunt.
For many buyers, the ritual of bargaining at a flea market is more fun
than the bargain itself. It's not the money they save that gives them a feeling
of accomplishment; it's the satisfaction of playing an ancient game.
Satisfaction also comes from the nature of a flea-market exchange. After
you negotiate your price, taking your time, it is 'cash and carry' - the dealer
pockets your money, you go home with your purchase, and that's that. You
got what you wanted, and the dealer got what he or she wanted. In today's
world of credit cards, the flea market takes you back to a time when life was
simpler and money had more meaning.
The people who set up stalls at the flea market, vendors, may have
nothing in common during their weekday lives, but over the weekend their
diversity becomes community. A Chinese couple sells embroidered slippers
next to a punk teenager displaying cat's-eye sunglasses across from another
dealer's plastic potted plants. On the street, they would probably never talk
to each other. Here they do.
What do these 'fleas' have in common here? Perhaps it is a belief in
getting ahead, in becoming economically self-sufficient, and in taking
control of their own lives. Vendors willingly give up the security of a
nine-to-five job in exchange for freedom: freedom from rigid working
hours; freedom from the world of inflation and taxation; freedom to choose
when, where, and what they will sell; freedom to be what they want to be.
A<\&
207
SLEEP LOSS
It was civilization that created the dilemma of sleep loss. The sun
presumably dictated the habits of ancient people: when it was up they were
awake, and when it went down they slept. The discovery of fire probably
allowed the first change in that pattern. As flames lit the dark, surely some
adventurous souls delayed bedtime. But sweeping change came only a
century ago with the introduction of the light bulb. U.S. inventor Thomas
Edison's glowing device permitted cheap, safe and efficient illumination
throughout the darkest nights. By the end of World War II, Americans were
sleeping about eight hours a night.
Today new cultural and economic forces are combining to turn the U.S.
into a 24-hour society. Many TV stations, restaurants and supermarkets
operate through the day and night. Business is increasingly plugged into
international markets that require round-the-clock monitoring and frequent
travel across time zones.
But not all sleeplessness is caused by hectic schedules. Clinical sleep
disorders are a major contributor to the national drowsiness. Many
Americans suffer from nocturnal myoclonus, a condition in which their legs
twitch throughout the night and break up their sleep. About 3 million adults,
mostly overweight men, are afflicted with sleep apnea. In this disorder,
muscles in the upper airway regularly sag and fail to keep the passage open.
The struggle to take in airt can result in snoring that rivals a jackhammer,
though sufferers are often oblivious. "A person with apnea might not even
be aware that he woke up 500 to 1,000 times last night because the arousals
are so brief," says psychologist Thomas Roth, Chief of Henry Ford
Hospital's Sleep-Disorder Center in Detroit. Both apnea and myoclonus can
be treated, once diagnosed.
By far the most common complaint resulting in lack of sleep is insomnia;
About a third of all Americans have trouble falling asleep or staying asleep -
problems that result in listlessness and loss of alertness during the day. Most
of the time the distress is temporary, brought on by anxiety about a problem
at work or a sudden family crisis. But sometimes sleep difficulties can
extend for months and years. Faced with a chronic situation, insomniacs
frequently medicate themselves with alcohol or drugs. Doctors warn that in
most cases sleeping pills should not be taken for longer than two or three
weeks. Such drugs can lose their effectiveness in time, and it takes larger
and larger doses to work. People run the risk of becoming dependent on the
pills.
Because so few studies have been done, scientists cannot make definitive
comparisons between American sleep patterns and those of other countries.
But many researchers believe that all industrialized nations are experiencing
40R
208
DANGEROUS WASTE
Most industries produce waste products which can be difficult or
dangerous to dispose of. Coal and oil fired power stations produce
enormous amounts of waste. A large coal power station will send 17 million
tons of flue gas out of its chimney each year. It will also make around 2
million tons of ash, a fine white powder which is difficult to dispose of.
Nuclear power stations also produce waste. The problem is that this waste is
radioactive, and is dangerous unless kept safely away from living creatures.
High-level waste is the radioactive 'ash' from used nuclear fuel. This
waste must be prevented from mixing with the environment until the
radioactivity has decayed to safe levels. Radioactivity, unlike other poisons
which are with us forever, disappears with time. So the highly radioactive
'ash' begins to lose its activity as soon as it is taken out of the reactor. It is
normally kept at the bottom of a deep tank of water at the power station for
several months. At the end of a year 90 per cent of the radioactivity is gone.
At the end of 10 years 99 per cent would have ceased to exist. But what's
left of this high-level waste is still very dangerous and will go on being so
for thousands of years. However, the volume is not great, which makes
storage comparatively simple. The total amount produced for the entire
nuclear programme since 1956 would take up about the space of a pair of
semi-detached houses - less than 1,500 cubic metres.
Intermediate-level wastes are far less radioactive. Currently, they are
contained in solid concrete stores. The quantities involved are larger - about
2,500 cubic metres each year. There are no technical or safety-related
advantages in storing these wastes for long periods. Plans are being
developed to dispose of these wastes either deep underground or deep under
the seabed. In the meantime, they will be specially encapsulated in cement
to make them easier to store and handle.
Low-level wastes consist of gases and liquids as well as solid laboratory
refuse - protective clothing, gloves, used syringes and tissues. Much of the
radioactive waste from hospitals and industry is low-level. The gases and
liquids can, with government authorisation, be released directly into the
environment, where they quickly become diluted to a level that presents no
appreciable risk. At present, the low-level solid wastes are disposed of in a
shallow disposal site at Drigg, Cumbria. In the longer term they can be put
in the same repository as the intermediate-level wastes - either deep
underground or under the seabed. Our only 'vested interest' in nuclear waste
is to dispose of it without harm to the public. Surely the most balanced
approach you could wish for.
410
209
LET YOUR MIND WANDER
Until recently daydreaming was generally considered either a waste of
time or a symptom of neurotic tendencies, and many psychiatrists claimed
that habitual daydreaming was evidence of maladjustment or an escape from
life's realities and responsibilities. As with anything carried to excess,
daydreaming can be harmful when 'fantasy addicts' withdraw from people
and can no longer cope with reality. Then their mental health is impaired.
But such extremes are relatively rare, and there is a growing body of
evidence to support the fact that most people suffer from a lack of
daydreaming rather than an excess of it. We are now beginning to learn how
valuable it really is and that when individuals are completely prevented
from daydreaming, not only are they less able to deal with the pressures of
day-to-day existence, but also their self-control and self-direction become
endangered.
Daydreaming, science has discovered, is an effective relaxation
technique. Results of experiments conducted by psychotherapists indicate
that daydreaming significantly contributes to intellectual growth, powers of
concentration, attention span, and the ability to interact and communicate
with others.
Contrary to popular belief, incessant and conscious effort at solving a
problem is, in reality, one of the most inefficient ways of treating it.
Effective solutions to severe problems frequently occur when conscious
attempts to solve them have been suspended. Inability to relax, to let go of a
problem, often prevents its solution.
A life lived without fantasy and daydreaming is a seriously impoverished
one. Each of us should put aside a few minutes daily, taking short 10-15
minute vacations. Daydreaming is highly beneficial to your psychological
and mental well-being and you'll find that this modest, inexpensive
investment in time will add up to a more creative, more imaginative, more
satisfied, and more self-fulfilled you. It offers us a fuller sense of being
intensely alive from moment to moment, and this, of course, contributes
greatly to the excitement of life.
Mark the best choice.
1. Today it is believed that .
a) daydreaming is an escape from life's realities and responsibilities
b) symptoms of neurotic tendencies* are due to occasional daydreaming
c) mental health won't be impaired unless daydreaming becomes an addiction
d) anything carried to excess can be the cause of habitual daydreaming
/I 1 0
210
THE BEAUTY OF NUMBERS
The beauty of numbers is in their precision. They express exactly
how much, neither more nor less. Numbers reveal relationships more
clearly and more accurately than any other language. Once numbers
are correctly established, they eliminate all differences of opinion.
5 Eight fingers are more than seven fingers.
Suppose that we are interested in contrasting employment practices
in economically developed countries with those in underdeveloped
countries. The United States of America and the People's Republic of
China are good examples. A study of these two countries reveals a
10 startling set of numbers.
Distribution of farm employment is by far the most surprising.
Seventy-five per cent of all the people gainfully employed in China
work on farms; only 4 per cent work on farms in the United States.
This is a fundamental distinction, for it tells us something of the effort
15 necessary to stay alive in these two countries.
Farm employment in China is so high that only 15 per cent of the
workers are available to carry on trade, commerce, manufacturing, and
other special services. The same group of occupations in the United
States is carried on by 85 per cent of the work force.
20 These figures indicate that a well-developed economy places great
emphasis on manufacturing, trade, commerce, and services. The raw
materials on which these functions are based are obtained efficiently
with a small manpower commitment. Underdeveloped countries
exhaust their manpower resources in the effort to obtain enough food.
25 The people who make life comfortable for the rest of us are the
doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, artists, hairdressers, repairmen,
cobblers, entertainers, civil servants, and military personnel. Imagine
the price paid by the Chinese with only 4 per cent of their gainfully
employed population working in service jobs! The same category
30 makes up 24 per cent of the gainfully employed population of the
United States.
That is quite a difference. Without manufacturing, trade, and
commerce there can be little in the way of consumer goods available
to the people. The United States was in this position in the eighteenth
35 and early nineteenth centuries. At that time, the population was
centered on the farms and forced to make many things for themselves.
This is exactly what we saw in China as the 1970s came to a close.
Science, aided by a new technology, especially the availability of
abundant farm machinery, will put an end to the China we once knew.
414
40 The lesson here is not really one in economics. It rests with an
understanding of numbers. Counting things gives reliable information
and permits us to draw reliable conclusions. There is a formal beauty
and uncompromising power in measurement.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 1, 'precision' means .
a) exactness b) establishment c) difference d) elimination
2. Line 14, 'for' means .
a) however b) moreover c) because d) therefore
3. Underdeveloped countries .
a) can get raw materials with little manpower
b) emphasize manufacturing, trade, commerce and services
c) employ only 4 per cent of their population in service industries
d) use a lot of manpower to get enough food
4. Which of the following is true?
a) China has been able to satisfy all its basic needs through food production.
b) In a few years, China will produce more farm products than the United
States.
c) Science and new technology will change the job distribution in China.
d) The year 1970 was a turning point for the Chinese economy.
5. Which of the following is not true?
a) Correctly established numbers eliminate all differences of opinion.
b) In the eighteenth century, most Americans lived on farms.
c) More consumer goods are available in well-developed economies.
d) Twenty-four per cent of American workers work on farms.
6. The purpose of this text is to show that .
a) the U.S. is in a better economic situation than China
b) the information provided by numbers is dependable
c) many sciences, such as economics, are based on numbers
d) the economy of China is based on agriculture
415
211
CRITICAL THINKING IS WELCOME
An increasing number of teachers, from kindergarten through
college, have altered lesson plans to include the art of thinking. Many
others are being trained so that they can shift the classroom emphasis
away from just giving pupils information and move toward making
5 them think about the issues raised by that information. Educators say
that students have become obsessed with getting the right answers on
tests and so they are weak at analyzing what they are learning and at
grasping implications. These weaknesses, the educators say, will
affect the students' ability to make future decisions about career and
10 marriage, what candidates to vote for and what products to buy. "It's
not just the ability to remember things^and feed them back on tests
that detennines how well you're going to do in life," said Dr. Heidi
Jacobs, a professor at Teachers College at Columbia University. "It's
the ability to solve problems and reflect and to, in fact, think
15 critically."
Unfortunately, about 80 per cent of class questions, according to
Dr. Jacobs, are designed simply to have students recall information.
Moreover, the pressure to raise student performance on standardized
tests created an exaggerated stress on memorized information. In
20 reaction to this, more teachers have begun to support the movement to
teach critical thinking in schools. While schools and teachers have
always assumed that thinking was part of their mission, educators are
now making the teaching of thinking skills a more formal part of their
programs. For example, there has been a dramatic push in the last few
25 years by at least 28 states and hundreds of schools to re-train teachers
and revise curriculums.
In the early 1980's, reports by several influential commissions
claimed that it was vital to improve reasoning abilities for a
population that would have to adjust to sweeping changes in
30 technology in a more competitive world. Since 1985, the California
State University system has required its one million students to take a
course in critical thinking before they can graduate. New York City's
Board of Education created a Reasoning Skills Unit to prepare
analytical questions to be used by the teachers of various subjects.
35 Such questions will encourage students to think about what they have
been taught and use the information in a more practical way. Students
are now being taught analytical skills such as inferring explanations,
supporting an argument, judging the credibility of a source, verifying
an observation, identifying underlying assumptions, and designing
40 experiments so that a particular variable can be controlled.
416
Articles on teaching the concept of 'critical thinking' have been
published in educational journals since the late 1970's. Starting in the
1980's, supporters have set up three professional associations and
currently publish six journals. In fact, the critical-thinking movement
45 has become so strong that it now has three factions: teachers who say
thinking should be taught separately, those who argue that it should be
only integrated into the normal curriculum, and those who believe that
both these approaches are equally applicable.
Even in teaching mathematics, some supporters suggest that
50 instructors move away from the assumption that there is always one
correct answer. Instead, they say, students should be encouraged to
explain how they arrived at a different answer. Mr. Ewen, a math
teacher, said he could accept 6 as a plausible answer to "What is 29
divided by 5?" if the student provided a reasonable explanation. A
55 student, he said, might calculate that 29 chips divided into piles of 5
each will yield 6 piles, even though one of the piles is shorter than the
others. "The greatest discoveries," he added, "have come from people
who have looked at a standard situation and seen it differently."
Mark the best choice.
1. Until recently, .
a) there was an attempt to make pupils analyze the information given to them
b) lesson plans were altered so as to include the art of thinking
c) the job of a teacher involved teaching the skills of thinking
d) education aimed mainly at getting the pupils to give correct answers on tests
2. To make healthy decisions in the future, students should .
a) learn how to do well on tests
b) be able to remember things well
c) learn to analyze what they learn
d) be able to solve math problems easily
3. More teachers now support the movement to teach critical thinking in schools
a) to increase student performance on standardized tests
b) as they consider thinking as an important part of their job
c) although success in life does not depend on how well you do on an exam
d) to show their reaction to the unnecessary emphasis on memorizing
417
212
LEARNING TO READ
A child takes great pleasure in becoming able to read some words.
But the excitement fades when the texts the child must read force him
to reread the same word endlessly. Word recognition - 'decoding' is
the term used by educational theorists - deteriorates into empty rote
5 learning when it does not lead directly into the reading of meaningful
content. The longer it takes the child to advance from decoding to
meaningful reading, the more likely it becomes that his pleasure in
books will evaporate. A child's ability to read depends unquestionably
on his learning pertinent skills, but he will not be interested in learning
10 basic reading skills if he thinks he is expected to master them for their
own sake. That is why so much depends on what the teacher, the
school, and the textbooks emphasize. From the very beginning, the
child must be convinced that skills are only a means to achieve a goal,
and that the only goal of importance is to become literate; that is, he
15 should start to enjoy literature and benefit from what it has to offer.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 2, 'fades' probably means .
a) increases b) disappears c) reaches the top d) starts
2. Line 9, 'pertinent' probably means .
a) related b) separate c) interesting d) boring
3. From the writer's point of view, we may conclude that a child who reads mainly
by rote decoding .
a) will learn how to read intelligently
b) will never learn how to read
c) will not gain much joy and satisfaction from reading
d) will come to enjoy literature later in life
4. We may conclude from this selection that, as a skill, decoding is .
a) worthless
b) important only as a part of a larger effort to enjoy literature
c) supported by teachers, schools, and textbooks as the most important reading
skill
d) still being explored as a new area for teaching reading
/HO
5. If the writer examined a children's reading text that read: "Run, Jim, run. Run to
Tim. Tim and Jim run to Tom", we could predict that he would .
a) disapprove quite strongly
b) approve enthusiastically
c) have no real opinions one way or the other
d) want teachers and parents to read the text aloud to children
213
RUMOUR
A rumour is a widespread report that is unproved in fact. It often serves
to provoke, or to increase, antisocial collective behaviour. Rumour must be
distinguished from lack of communication, for the rapid spread of rumour
may very well be due to effective communication. The term rumour refers
not to a method of its communication, but to its content. Under crowd
conditions, it becomes difficult to check the source and accuracy of the
information one receives, and thus to evaluate it, and so rumours are acted
on as if they were true information. Rumour often arises because of a lack
of information. People want to know what is happening, and so the rumour
fills that need. Rumour may also be created as a rationalisation of or
justification for emotional excesses and collective behaviour.
Mark the bası cholco.
1. The meaning of rumour lies in .
a) lack of communication
b) effective communication
c) its content
d) social behaviour
2. The spread of a rumour can be prevented by .
a) finding justifications for emotional excesses
b) controlling collective behaviour
c) acting on it as true information
d) checking its source and accuracy.
As\r\
214
HOTEL WORK
Within a few days of starting work, I had grasped the main principles on
which the hotel was run. The thing that would astonish anyone coming for
the first time into the service quarters of a hotel would be the fearful noise
and disorder during the rush hours. It is something so different from the
steady work in a shop or a-factory that it looks at first sight like mere mad
management. But it is really quite unavoidable and part of the whole. Hotel
work is not particularly hard, but by its nature it comes in rushes and cannot
be economised. You cannot, for instance, grill a steak two hours before it is
wanted; you have to wait till the last moment, by which time a mass of other
work has accumulated, and then do it all together in frantic haste. The result
is that at meal-times everyone is doing two men's work, which is impossible
without noise and quarrelling. Indeed, the quarrels are a necessary part of
the process, for the pace would never be kept up if everyone did not accuse
everyone else of idling. It was for this reason that during the rush hours the
whole staff raged and cursed like demons. A girl in the bakery, aged sixteen,
used swear words that would have defeated a taxi driver. But we were not
losing our heads and wasting time; we were just stimulating one another for
the effort of packing four hours' work into two hours.
What keeps a hotel going is the fact that the employees take a genuine
pride in their work, beastly and silly though it is.
Mark the best choice.
1. The service quarters of a hotel differs from a shop or factory in .
a) its disorderly orderliness
b) its orderliness
c) its bad management
d) its peaceful atmosphere
2. The personnel in the service quarters of a hotel often quarrel .
a) because they are really angry with each other
b) for some workers are really lazy
c) as a result of wrong orders given by their superiors
d) in order to keep the work tempo fast
3. The author hotel work.
a) hates
b) is an outsider to
c) shows considerable sympathy towards
d) thinks it is extremely difficult to do
421
215
CAN WAR BE ABOLISHED?
By Bertrand Russell.
Is it possible to persuade mankind to live without war? War is an
ancient institution which has existed for at least six thousand years. It
5 has always been cruel and usually foolish, but in the past the human
race managed to live with it. Modern ingenuity has changed this.
Either Man will abolish war, or war will abolish Man. For the present,
it is nuclear weapons which may, before long, offer an even greater
threat. If we succeed in abolishing nuclear weapons, our work will not
10 be done. It will never be done until we have succeeded in abolishing
war. To do this, we need to persuade mankind to look upon
international questions in a new way, not as contests of force, in which
the victory goes to the side which is most skillful in massacre, but by
arbitration in accordance with agreed principles of law. It is not easy
15 to change age-old mental habits, but this is what must be attempted.
There are those who say that the adoption of this or that ideology
would prevent war. I believe this to be a profound error. All ideologies
are based upon dogmatic assertions which are, at best, doubtful, and at
worst, totally false. Their adherents believe in them so fanatically that
20 they are willing to go to war in support of them.
The movement of world opinion during the past two years has been
very largely such as we can welcome. It has become a commonplace
that nuclear war must be avoided. Of course, very difficult problems
remain in the international sphere, but the spirit in which they are
25 being approached is a better one than it was some years ago. It has
begun to be thought, even by the powerful men who decide whether
we shall live or die, that negotiations should reach agreements even if
both sides do not find these agreements wholly satisfactory. It has
begun to be understood that the important conflict nowadays is not
between East and West, but between Man and the H-bomb.
Mark the best choice.
1. This passage implies that war is now .
a) more cruel than in the past
b) as cruel as in the past
c) less cruel than in the past
d) not cruel at all
422
216
CHERNOBYL
One of the most disturbing predictions following the near meltdown of
the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on April 26, 1986, was that cancer cases
would eventually begin to rise in areas where fallout from the accident
landed. What no one suspected was that it would happen so soon, or that
many of the first victims would be children. Two reports in Nature, one by
the World Health Organisation and one by health officials in Belarus, the
ex-Soviet Republic immediately downwind from Chernobyl, indicate that
childhood thyroid cancer has jumped from an average of four cases a year to
about 50. In the Gomel region, hit first by the radiation, the thyroid cancer
rate is now about 80 times the world average. "The only reasonable
explanation," write the Belarus officials, "is that it is a direct consequence of
the accident at Chernobyl."
In retrospect, the phenomenon makes sense: the thyroid gland tends to
concentrate iodine ingested by the body, and radioactive iodine was released
in bulk during the accident. Moreover, radiation is known to cause thyroid
cancer, and children are especially susceptible. But previous studies of
nuclear accidents in Britain and the U.S. and studies of nuclear-weapons
testing in Japan and the South Pacific failed to prove a conclusive
fallout-cancer correlation. The probable difference this time: the radiation
was more highly concentrated and hit a heavily populated area.
Mark the best choice.
1. Which of the following statements is true?
a) In Belarus, childhood thyroid cancer cases increased ten times after the
Chernobyl accident.
b) In Gomel, the thyroid cancer rate now is 80 times higher than it used to be.
c) It was known that the first cancer cases would appear in about six years.
d) Nobody could predict that the first cancer cases would be children.
2. Which of the following statements is not true?
a) The radioactive fallout from Chernobyl contained iodine.
b) Previous nuclear studies by the British and the Americans proved that
nuclear fallout caused cancer.
c) Thyroid glands are responsible for absorbing the iodine in the body.
d) The present high rate of cancer is due to the highly crowded areas being
exposed to intense radiation.
424
217
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN PERSPECTIVE
The nineteenth century brought about the greatest expansion of wealth
the world had ever known. Its sources lay in the industrialisation of Europe
and the techniques for assuring the continuance of this growth were by no
means exhausted or compromised in 1900. There had not only been a vast
and accelerating flow of commodities available only in (relatively) tiny
quantities a century before, but whole new ranges of goods had come into
existence. Oil and electricity had joined coal, wood, wind and water as
sources of energy. A chemical industry existed which could not have been
envisaged in 1800. Growing power and wealth had been used to tap
seemingly inexhaustible natural resources, both agricultural and mineral.
Railways, electric trams, steamships, motor cars and bicycles gave millions
of men a new control over their environment; they accelerated travel from
place to place and eased transport for the first time since animals had been
harnessed to cans thousands of years before. In terms of consumption, or of
the services to which they had access, or in the enjoyment of better health,
even the mass of the population in developed countries were much better off
in 1900 than their predecessors a hundred years before.
In spite of this cheerful picture, doubts could break in. Even if what
might happen in the future were ignored, contemplation of the cost of the
new wealth and doubts about the social justice of its distribution were
troubling. Most people were still terribly poor, whether or not they lived in
rich countries, where the illogicality of this was particularly more striking
than in earlier times. Another change in the way men thought about their
condition arose over their power to get a livelihood at all. It was not new
that men should be without work. What was new was that situations could
suddenly arise in which the operation of blind forces of boom and slump
produced millions of men without work concentrated in great towns. This
was 'unemployment', the new phenomenon for which a new word had been
needed. Nor were the cities themselves yet rid of all the evils which had so
struck the first observers of industrial society. By 1900 the majority of
western Europeans were town-dwellers and they lived in more than 140
cities of over 100,000 inhabitants in 1914. In some of them, millions of
people were living in cramped, badly-maintained housing, under-provided
with schools and fresh air, let alone amusement other than that of the street,
and this often in sight of the wealth their society helped to produce. 'Slums'
was another word invented by the nineteenth century.
425
218
CHILD-RAISING
Marianne Hardwick was timid and unadventurous, her vitality
consumed by physical activity and longing, her intelligence by
indecisiveness, but this had less to do with the innate characteristics of
the weaker sex (as her father, Creighton Montgomery, called it) than
5 with the enfeebling circumstances of her upbringing. Creighton
Montgomery had enough money to mould his daughters according to
his misconceptions: girls were not meant to fend for themselves, so he
protected them from life. This meant that Marianne Montgomery grew
up without making any vital choices for herself. Prevented from
10 acquiring the habits of freedom and strength of character which grow
from decision-making, very rich girls whose parents protect them in
such a crippling fashion are the last representatives of Victorian
womanhood. Though they may have the boldest manners and most
up-to-date ideas, they share their great-grandmothers' humble
15 dependence.
Most parents these days have to rely on their force of personality
and whatever love and respect they can inspire to exert any influence
over their children at all, but there is still an awful lot of parental
authority that big money can buy. Multi-millionaires have more of
20 everything than ordinary mortals, including more parent power, and
their sons and daughters have about as much opportunity to develop
according to their own inclinations as they would have had in the age
of absolute monarchy.
The great divide between the generations (so much taken for
25 granted that no one remarks on it any longer) is the plight of the lower
and middle classes, whose children begin to drift away as soon as they
are old enough to go to school. The parents cannot control the school,
and have even less say as to what company and ideas the child will be
exposed to; nor can they isolate him from the public mood, the spirit
30 of the age. It is an often-heard complaint of the middle-class mother,
for instance, that she must let her children watch television for hours
on end every day if she is to steal any time for herself. The rich have
no such problems; they can keep their offspring busy from morning to
night without being near them for a minute more than they choose to
35 be, and can exercise almost total control over their environment. As
for schooling, they can hand-pick tutors with sound views to come to
the children, who may never leave the grounds their parents own, in
town, in the country, by the sea, unless for an exceptionally secure
boarding school or a well-chaperoned trip abroad. It would have been
i
427
40 easier for little Marianne Montgomery to go to Cairo than to the
nearest newsstand.
Mark the best choice.
1. Line 36, 'sound views' refers to ideas which are .
a) universally acceptable c) healthy
b) favoured by the parents d) loud
2. Marianne was .
a) unmarried b) physically active c) decisive d) unprotected
3. Creighton Montgomery .
a) was able to make the right judgments for Marianne's life
b) had great admiration for the opposite sex
c) lived very close to his daughter all her life
d) controlled Marianne's life by means of his money
4. Most women who lived in Queen Victoria's time .
a) had strong will-power c) were dependent on the men in their lives
b) were very shy among people d) had up-to-date ideas
5. The children of lower and middle class parents .
a) have strictly controlled education
b) are isolated from the spirit of the age
c) become independent at an early age
d) have little to say about the company and ideas they are exposed to
6. Which of the following statements is true?
a) Money is as important a factor as love and respect in all children's accepting
parental authority.
b) Multi-millionaires are unfortunate people because their children don't respect
them.
c) Rich fathers resemble absolute monarchs.
d) The generation gap is greater between rich parents and their children.
7. Which of the following statements best sums up the main idea of the passage?
a) Creighton Montgomery was especially devoted to his daughter.
b) The rich can control their children's lives without being near them.
c) Marianne Montgomery-Hardwick lived a very protected life.
d) Ver^ rich girls are usually Victorian and old-fashioned.
428
219 M ııı ı - i • in i i mi
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HEROES
Heroes are not new. Every age produces its quota of individuals who
distinguish themselves from other members of their community by some
superior achievement. Their praise serves as an inspiration for others to
follow their example. The image of the hero is that of an individual who
embodies a virtue to the highest degree. That virtue may be courage,
wisdom, or faith, but it is always a personal attribute that is made evident by
the hero's achievements. The hero does not strive for recognition. The
motivation for his actions cannot be egotistical or he would not be a true
hero.
Mark the best choice.
1. The most important aspect of the definition of a hero is .
a) achievement
b) wisdom
c) recognition
d) egotism
2. A hero must create a desire in others to .
a) ignore his virtues
b) think he is a new kind of man
c) follow his example
d) recognise him regardless of anything he does
Aia
220
THE OCEAN vs. THE BODY
The ocean cannot be dissociated from any of our problems. Though not
always given proper credit, it is nonetheless a vital factor in the 'production'
of climate, storms, agriculture, health, war and peace, trade, leisure, and
creative art. It is not merely a weather-regulating system and a source of
food, cattle feed, fuel, and minerals. More generally, it absorbs vast
quantities of the carbon dioxide generated by the combustion of fossil fuels,
it releases a major part of the oxygen we breathe, and it acts as a powerful
buffer to slow down or to prevent such calamities as quick variations in the
sea level. The human body is made up of much more water than all its
components combined. A dehydrated human being would weigh little more
than 30 pounds. Our flesh is composed of a variety of cells, each one of
which contains a miniature ocean, less salty than today's ocean but
comprising all the salts of the sea, probably the built-in heritage of our
distant ancestry, when some mutating fish turned into reptiles and invaded
the newly-formed land.
Mark the best choice.
1. We may infer that the author believes that .
a) the ocean does not always get the attention it should as human beings try to
solve their problems
b) the ocean is polluted
c) the ocean is not a weather-regulating system
d) oceans cause a number of problems for humanity
2. The writer believes that between the physical makeup of the ocean
and the human body.
a) there is not much of a relationship
b) there is no evidence to suggest a relationship
c) we must study the possible relationship
d) there is much confusion
3. According to the author, which of the following is not affected by the ocean?
a) paintings
b) tourism
c) hurricanes
d) the Sun
4^0
221
BRAINS
It is interesting to compare the brain of a very large dinosaur with the
brain of an equally large modern mammal like the whale. The largest
dinosaurs weighed as much as 100 tons. Whales also weigh as much as 100
tons and are, as the dinosaurs were in their time, the largest animals alive
today. The brain of a large whale is a huge mass of gray matter, nearly a
foot and a half across, that weighs about 20 pounds. The possessor of this
mammoth brain is an intelligent animal. Some whales have a remarkable
memory' capacity; they can memorize a complex whale song that goes on
for hours, and repeat it note for note a year later. The brains of the largest
dinosaurs, on the other hand, such as Supersaurus, were only the size of an
orange, and weighed about half a pound. Yet, that small amount of gray
matter had to exercise control over the same 100-ton bulk that is
commanded by the 20-pound brain of the largest whales.
Scientists who specialize in the study of brains and intelligence have
plotted charts of brain weight against body weight for many kinds of
animals. They find that when the ratio of brain weight to body weight is as
small as it was in the Supersaurus, the behavior of the animal is stereotyped,
automatic, and unintelligent. The reason is clear: a large body has many
large muscles and needs many nerve fibers for its coordination. When that
large body is controlled by a small brain, every neuron in this brain must be
used to move the body through its basic survival routines: find food! flee
from the predator! and so on.
The Supersaurus was not an unusually stupid dinosaur, and dinosaurs
were not unusually stupid reptiles. In fact, dinosaurs had normal intelligence
for reptiles. Of course, there was a spread in braininess among the
dinosaurs. But the same is true among modem mammals; plant-eaters like
the cow are among the least intelligent mammals, while alert carnivores like
the wolf are among the most intelligent. However, the dinosaurs as a group
were generally less intelligent than the early mammals as a group. This held
then, and still holds today, all the way up and down the scale of sizes. A
little lizard, for example, has a considerably smaller brain than a chipmunk
of the same size and displays a far less flexible repertoire.
Mark the best choice.
1. A Supersaurus and a modern whale .
a) have about the same live weight
b) have about equal intelligence
c) have brains the size of oranges
d) live underwater
A1\
222
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HOW TO LIVE TO BE A HUNDRED
For adults who remain physically childlike in old age, there has to be a
sustained enthusiasm for some aspect of life. People who want a long life
with an alert old age should never retire. If they are forcibly retired, they
should immerse themselves in some new, absorbing activity.
Some people are naturally more physically active than others, and are at
a considerable advantage, providing their activities are not the result of
stress. Such activities as walking and gardening prolong life spectacularly
because they are 'non-intensive' forms of all-over bodily movement. The
more earnest ageing exercisers display a conscious or unconscious anxiety
about their health. If they take exercise too seriously, it will work against
them. Older individuals who take up intensive athletic activity are usually
people who fear declining health. Yet, it is crucial that physical exercise - as
we grow past the young spoilsman stage - should be extensive rather than
intensive and, above all, fun.
A calm temperament favours longevity. Those who are sharply
aggressive, emotionally explosive or naggingly anxious are at a grave
disadvantage. But it is important to make a distinction between calmly
relaxed and passively lazy. Relaxation does not contradict the idea of
passionate interest. Indeed, zest for living, eagerness to pursue chosen
subjects are vital in long life.
Thinking about 'the good old days', complaining about how the world is
deteriorating, criticising the younger generations are sure signs of an early
funeral.
Being successful is a great life-stretcher, and can even override such
life-shorteners as obesity and fondness for drink. But, in gaining success,
individuals should not overstress themselves. And success must always be
measured in personal terms. A hill-shepherd may feel just as successful in
his own way as a Nobel Laureate.
Long-lived individuals seem to be more concerned with what they do
than who they are. They live outside themselves rather than dwelling on
their own personalities.
In personal habits, the long-lived are generally moderate. Extremes of
diet are not common. A mixed diet seems to favour longevity. Puritanical
arguments about smoking and drinking have little to support them. Many
long-lived individuals enjoy nicotine and alcohol - in moderation.
Most long-lived people have a sense of self-discipline. That does not
imply a harsh military-style masochism, but the ordering of life and the
imposition of a pattern on the events of the day. The man who lives long
because he walks a mile a day does so because he does it every day, as part
433
of an organised existence.
Over and over, during my researches, it emerged that long life goes with
a 'twinkle in the eye'. A sense of humour, impishness, a feeling that life is
fun, are strong weapons against ageing. The sour-faced puritan and the
solemn bore soon begin to lose ground, leaving their more amused
contemporaries to enjoy the last laugh.
Most important of all, we should always keep in mind that nothing is to
be gained by a head-in-the-sand avoidance of the facts of life and death. The
healthiest solution is to accept that one's span on Earth is limited and then to
live every day, in the present, and to the full.
Mark the best choice.
1. Retirement is not recommended because .
a) it keeps you alert in old age
b) it may take away the enthusiasm of life
c) other activities can never replace a real job
d) people who retire become physically active
2. Non-intensive forms of physical activity .
a) display an unconscious anxiety about one's health
b) become less popular as people get older
c) contribute to longevity to a great extent
d) work against the people who do them
3. People with a calm temperament .
a) are usually aggressive and emotionally explosive
b) are usually lazy and don't have many interests
c) may live longer than anxious ones
d) have a stronger zest for living
4. may cause an early death.
a) Being happy with one's present status
b) Lack of interest in world affairs
c) Getting on with young people
d) Thinking too much about the past
5. A life-stretcher is .
a) anything that allows you to live longer
b) a kind of activity that you are fond of
c) something that can never be measured
d) something that causes too much stress
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223
IMPORTANCE OF EARLY EXPERIENCES
We are becoming increasingly self-conscious about the importance of
harmonious parent-child relationships as more and more evidence is
collected about the ill-effects of family disruptions on the emotional
development of the young child. Prof. Clarke, however, believes that the
emphasis in studies of the long-term effects of early experience is
misplaced. In his Maudsley lecture, last ' week, to the Royal
Medico-Psychological Association, he suggested that experiences in the
first few months of life (generally believed to be the critical period for
emotional development) will have no long-term effect unless they are
continually reinforced, and this hypothesis, he said, is supported by much
published work that at first sight seems to contradict it.
One of the most famous studies on maternal deprivation is the Harlows'
work on motherless monkeys. Infant rhesus monkeys reared in isolation
were unable to make normal social contacts in adult life, and few succeeded
in reproducing. The females which did produce offspring were either
indifferent or hostile towards their young. Deprivation of maternal care
certainly had a deleterious effect on the development of the monkeys'
behaviour, but an important point that has been overlooked, said Professor
Clarke, was that the females became better mothers in successive
pregnancies: their behaviour could still be modified by experiences in adult
life.
In human beings, too, the formative years probably last much longer than
was previously supposed. Studies of the association between the death of a
close relative and subsequent depressive illness in children, for example,
showed that those aged 10-14 years were the most vulnerable. Some years
ago, two distressing cases in the USA gave psychologists an opportunity to
study the effects of isolation in children. Two young children, in different
parts of the country, were discovered to have been kept locked up for
several years, almost since birth. Deprived of human contacts, neither had
learned to speak, but within a few years of their release, one of these
children, who had been given more encouragement and expert teaching than
the other, had learned to speak and read, her I.Q. was normal, and she
seemed to be emotionally stable. Severe sensory deprivation in early life
had not so far seriously affected her later development. In America, Burt
carried out a simple experiment to test the extinction of memory and the
significance of reinforcement in learning. When his son was 15 months old,
he began to read to him a short passage in Greek and he repeated the
passage at frequent and regular intervals until he was 3 years old. This
material was reinforced at the age of 5, 8, and 14 years, at which time the
436
boy's powers of recall were compared to newly learned material. At 5 years,
he relearned the prelearned passage considerably faster than the new
material, but by the age of 14 the effect of prelearning was extinguished.
Our views on the importance of early experiences have been influenced
to some extent by animal studies. Some birds, for example, become attached
to the mother at a very early age; if the mother is not there, the young may
become attached to a human being, a bird of a different species, or an
inanimate object. It is commonly believed, Professor Clarke added, that
human babies show a similar sensitive period of fairly short duration but
ending less abruptly than in geese or ducks. But when we come to think of
it, it seems much more likely that behaviour in a slowly maturing species
such as ours should remain plastic for a long time.
Mark the best choice.
1. It is evident that .
a) parent-child relationships are harmonious
b) disturbance in the family affects children negatively
c) people are getting more self-conscious
d) emotional development of children is determined* by parents
2. According to Professor Clarke, experiences in the first few months of life
a) have no long-term effect on emotional development
b) should be continually reinforced
c) may affect emotional development
d) Both (b) and (c).
3. There is a lot of published work which Prof. Clarke's hypothesis.
a) contradicts
b) seems to support
c) is based on
d) supports
4. People had not noticed before that the Harlows' work proved .
a) the monkeys got worse and more hostile as they got older
b) the behaviour of female monkeys could be changed for the better
c) being reared in isolation led to inability to make normal social contacts
d) females reared in isolation were not loving towards their young
All
1
TT'i "i i -T -i - ı •
ı • I i
• - • if ' i ii' i m n — — • — M — — — i • I • M W M W W M M W W W B 1 B M W W W M W W M M M — — — — — —
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The phrase emotional intelligence was coined by Yale psychologist Peter
Salovey and the University of New Hampshire's John Mayer five years ago
to describe qualities such as understanding one's own feelings, empathy for
the feelings of others and 'the regulation of emotion in a way that enhances
living'. Their notion is about to bound into American conversation, handily
shortened to EQ, thanks to a new book, Emotional Intelligence (Bantam) by
Daniel Goleman. This New York Times science writer, who has a PhD in
psychology from Harvard and a gift for making even the chewiest scientific
theories digestible to lay readers, has brought together a decade's worth of
behavioral research into how the mind processes feelings. His goal, he
announces on the cover, is to redefine what it means to be smart. His thesis:
when it comes to predicting a person's success, brain power as measured by
IQ and standardized achievement tests may actually matter less than the
qualities of mind once thought of as 'character', before the word began to
sound quaint in the US.
Goleman is looking for antidotes to restore 'civility to our streets and
caring to our communal life'. He sees practical applications everywhere in
America for how companies should decide whom to hire, how couples can
increase the odds that their marriage will last, how parents should raise their
children and how schools should teach them. When street gangs become
substitutes for families, when school-yard insults end in stabbings, when
more than half of marriages end in divorce, when the majority of the
children murdered in the U.S. are killed by parents and step-parents - many
of whom say they were trying to discipline the child for behaviour such as
blocking the TV or crying too much - it suggests a need for remedial
emotional education. While children are still young, Goleman argues, there
is a 'neurological window of opportunity' since the brain's prefrontal
circuitry, which regulates how we act on what we feel, probably does not
mature until mid-adolescence.
EQ is not the opposite of IQ. Some people are blessed with a lot of both,
some with little of either. What researchers have been trying to understand
is how they complement each other; how one's ability to handle stress, for
instance affects the ability to concentrate and put intelligence to use. Among
the ingredients for success, researchers now generally agree that IQ counts
for only 20%; the rest depends on everything from social class to luck to the
neural pathways that have developed in the brain over millions of years of
human evolution.
Emotional life grows out of an area of the brain called the limbic system,
specifically the amygdala, where primitive emotions such as fear, anger,
439
disgust and delight originate. Millions of years ago, the neocortex was
added, enabling humans to plan, learn and remember. Lust grows from the
limbic system; love, from the neocortex. Animals such as reptiles, which
have no neocortex, cannot experience anything like maternal love. This is
why baby snakes have to hide to avoid being eaten by their parents.
Humans, with their capacity for love, will protect their offspring, allowing
the brains of the young time to develop. The more connections there are
between the limbic system and the neocortex, the more emotional responses
are possible.
If emotional intelligence has a cornerstone on which most other
emotional skills depend, it is a sense of self-awareness, of being smart about
what we feel. A person whose day starts badly at home may be grouchy all
day at work without quite knowing why. Once an emotional response comes
into awareness - or, physiologically, is processed through the neocortex -
the chances of handling it appropriately improve. Scientists refer to
'metamood', the ability to pull back and recognize that what I'm feeling is
anger - or sorrow, or shame.
Mark the best choice.
1. It can be inferred from the text that .
a) the term 'emotional intelligence' was first used by Daniel Goleman
b) EQ is the understanding of one's own and others' feelings and the ordering of
one's own emotions in order to lead a better life
c) Goleman's book examines the behavioral research of the last couple of years
on how the mind processes feelings
d) Goleman's book is written in a highly complex language
2. According to Goleman, a person's success can be predicted best by giving the
priority to .
a) character b) l.Q. c) achievement tests d) brain power
3. In his examples of practical applications, Goleman does not mention
a) marriages b) street gangs c) universities d) companies
4. Goleman thinks that the brain's prefrontal circuitry .
a) is responsible for co-ordinating acting and feeling
b) becomes mature before the age of ten
c) functions better in parents than in step-parents
d) is better developed in married people
5. A person's success depends least on his .
a) l.Q. b) social class c) luck d) neural pathways
A AC\
6. The neocortex .
a) serves as an area of primitive emotions
b) had developed in the brain before the limbic system
c) enables the humans to regulate their primitive emotions
d) doesnt have as important a function as the amygdala has
7. When a person is in a 'metamood', he .
a) is angry c) acts in a shameful way
b) analyzes himself d) is unaware of himself
225
ESCAPE OF A KILLER VIRUS
Two years ago, on a remote island off the coast of South Australia,
government scientists began testing a form of biological warfare. Under
supposedly tight quarantine restrictions, researchers on Wardang Island
introduced the calicivirus into animal test groups. Death from this particular
infectious agent is swift. As the blood of the victims begins to clot,
restricting the brain's oxygen supply, they become lethargic; within 30 hours
they are dead from acute respiratory and heart failure.
No one paid much attention to these pestilent experiments until this year,
when they suddenly got out of hand. By October researchers realized that
the virus had escaped from the test sites and spread throughout the 30-sq-km
island. As scientists tried in vain to contain the outbreak, their worst fears
were soon realized: casualties began to appear on the mainland. But even as
the death count surged into the millions and the disease reached as far as the
Flinders Ranges 800 km away, Australians didn't panic. In fact, many
cheered, since the victims of the plague were old enemies, the country's
vexatious rabbits.
For most Australians, the benign image of the rabbit conveyed by Peter
Rabbit simply doesn't apply. Ever since a landowner imported and released
12 wild rabbits in 1859, they have multiplied into a ravenous horde that
nibbles away at the nation's crops and agricultural profits. Planning for
systematic extermination programs began in the 1940's, when an estimated
1 billion rabbits were devouring produce, causing land erosion and
destroying native habitats. Government scientists introduced myxomatosis,
an anti-rabbit virus from Brazil, in 1950. Though the campaign reduced the
rabbit population to 100 million within two years, the survivors later built
up immunity and restocked their numbers.
441
In 1984, a virus that began sweeping through China's rabbit population
gave Australians new hope. Harmless to humans, rabbit calicivirus disease
(RCD) was introduced to Europe in the '80s, probably via smuggled rabbit
products, and has helped bring rabbit populations down to tolerable levels.
Impressed by the well-documented results, Australia's Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation imported a batch of the
virus from the Czech Republic in 1991. After three years of safety tests,
they set up the experimental station on Wardang Island for field trials. Tests
convinced the CSIRO that the virus posed no threat to other Australian
animal species or to humans, so plans had been made to release RCD at
seven sites on the mainland in February 1998, following further research
and a period of public debate.
Then came the outbreak. So far an estimated 5 million rabbits have died,
and the epidemic continues to move north and east. Few people would miss
the $500 million in damage the rabbits cause each year, but in the aftermath
of the Ebola scare in Africa, the ease with which the calicivirus eluded its
human handlers has raised some troubling issues. Embarrassed CSIRO
scientists believe the disease was spread by bush flies that came into contact
with the infected rabbits and were then blown onto the mainland by freak
winds. The government has imported 100,000 doses of Cylap vaccine to
save pet and laboratory rabbits, and the CSIRO is trying to persuade the
public that no damage to the environment or human health will result from
the virus' premature release.
Environmentalists have also voiced concern that a sudden disappearance
of rabbits could have unfortunate effects on the wildlife food chain. One
possibility is that foxes and feral cats, which depend on rabbits for food,
could instead turn to small native fauna, some of which are endangered
species.
For the moment at least, fanners are overjoyed about the killer virus.
"This is the most exciting development for the Australian environment in
years," says David Lord, a fourth-generation farmer, whose 66,000-hectare
spread near Broken IIill has some 750,000 unwelcome guests.
Mark the best choice.
1. The calicivirus .
a) infects the blood of human beings
b) was experimented with on a 30 sq. mile site
c) spread to the Australian mainland from Wardang Island
d) caused great worry among the Australians farmers
2. The Australians don't like rabbits because they .
a) eat the crops c) cause land erosion
b) cause financial loss d) All of the above.
442
Mark the best choice.
1. Most people are extremely frightened of travelling by airplane; , they
prefer to travel by another means of transport even if it takes longer.
a) provided that b) in that case c) therefore d) rather
2. He wanted to learn German so much that he went to Germany to study the
language. , when he came back, he still couldn't communicate.
a) In contrast b) However c) On the contrary d) Although
3. The appliance department couldn't sell their products at that price. ,
they decided to make a reduction.
a) Consequently b) In addition c) Because d) Otherwise
4. That country imports more goods than it exports and there is also the problem of
inflation. , it is going through a period of economic depression.
a) In brief b) In that case c) Since d) For example
5. several solutions to the problem have been proposed, the most
appropriate one hasn't been chosen yet.
a) Even if b) Even though c) Since d) In spite of
Many psychologists say that rough, aggressive sports like boxing or soccer are a
way for both players and viewers to release their anger, (6) they help to
lessen feelings of violence. In fact, many people see international games as a way
to build goodwill and understanding among nations. (7) , there are other
psychologists who argue that taking part in aggressive sports does not eliminate
feelings of violence; (8) , it builds them up. They also say that violent acts
that often occur on the playing field affect the fans as well. (9) , violence
in sports can cause violence in people watching those sports.
6. a) provided that 7. a) Moreover 8. a) on the contrary 9. a) Whereas
b) and thus b) Consequently b) since b) In other words
c) although c) Unless " c) such as c) In spite of
d) of course d) However d) although d) Fortunately
AAA
This is a report written by a hotel inspector.
REPORT ON MY VISIT TO HOTEL DU LAC
For the most part, I found things to be operating smoothly and efficiently. The staff
seemed hard working and courteous. (10) , as soon as I checked in, a
very polite porter was right there to take my luggage and escort me to my room.
(11) , the facilities and service were very good, especially those
connected with the front desk, the lobby, and the dining room.
I must report a few concerns, though. (12) , the elevator service was
slow. This is not surprising when you consider that there are only two elevators
serving a hotel of sixteen floors. Moreover, the air conditioning in my room was
difficult to adjust to a comfortable level. (13) , I had to ask for help from
one of the staff and he used tools to make the adjustment. (14) , the
carpeting on the main staircase was faded and worn. For aesthetic reasons as well
as for reasons of safety, it should be replaced.
(15) , if the problems mentioned in this report are corrected, the hotel will
merit an excellent quality rating, including its service, staff and facilities.
10. a) As a result 11. a) However 12. a) Furthermore
b) In short b) In addition b) Therefore
c) For example c) Because c) Meanwhile
d) Even though d) In case d) First
13. a) If 14. a) Although 15. a) In conclusion
b) In short b) As a result b) Yet
c) In fact c) Finally c) Accordingly
d) Unless d) Of course d) That is
There are many sources of danger related to the use of nuclear reactions to supply
us with energy. First, the radioactive material must travel from its place of
manufacture to the power station. (16) the power stations themselves are
solidly built, the containers used for the transport of the material are not. (17) ,
there are only two methods of transport available, namely road or rail, and both of
these involve close contact with the general public (18) the routes are
sure to pass near, or even through, heavily populated areas.
(19) , there is the problem of waste. All nuclear power stations produce
wastes that in most cases will remain radioactive for thousands of years. It is
impossible to make these wastes non-radioactive. (20) , they must be
stored in one of the several ways that scientists have developed. (21) ,
they may be buried under the ground or dropped into abandoned mines, or sunk in
the sea. (22) , the problem still remains as these methods do not
445
eliminate the danger; they only provide a temporary solution. An earthquake could
easily crack the containers open.
(23) , there is the problem of accidental exposure due to a leak or an
explosion at the power station. As with the other two possible dangers, this is not very
likely, so it does not provide a serious objection to the nuclear program. (24) ,
it can happen.
.(25). separately, these three types of risks are not a great cause for
concern. Taken together, however, the probability of disaster is extremely high.
16. a) Although 17. a) Consequently 18. a) if 19. a) As a result
b) That is b) Unfortunately b) since b) For instance
c) In contrast c) Despite this c) but c) On the contrary
d) Because d) Unless d) meanwhile d) Secondly
20. a) Therefore 21. a) Unlike 22. a) Moreover
b) In other words b) On the other hand b) That is
c) Since c) For instance c) However
d) In case d) Besides d) On the contrary
23. a) Because 24. a) Nevertheless 25. a) Provided that
b) Finally b) Therefore b) Afterwards
c) Even though c) In conclusion c) Although
d) In fact d) Moreover d) To sum up
Heart disease, that is the decrease or disorder of cardiac output, is the leading
cause of death in the world today (26) it has wide-reaching effects on
the body. (27) , when the amount of blood pumped by the heart
decreases, the transport of oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues decreases.
(28) , the transport of carbon dioxide and other products of metabolism to
the lungs and kidneys becomes less efficient and so less effective in eliminating
toxic elements from the body. (29) , the body is slowly poisoned by its
own toxic wastes. Finally, the distribution of hormones and other substances that
regulate cell function decreases as the blood from the heart decreases. (30) ,
heart disease cannot be considered as a simple destruction of one part of the body.
26. a) because 27. a) Therefore 28. a) In contrast
b)or b) Thus b) Furthermore
c) so c) For example c) Hence
d) although d) That is d) Despite this
446
29. a) On the contrary 30. a) In other words
b) In addition b) However
c) Consequently c) Meanwhile
d) Besides d) Afterwards
Fill in each blank with a suitable connector from the list. There are more connectors
than you need. There may be more than one answer to certain blanks.
as nevertheless in addition on the other hand
furthermore such as therefore since
however so although and
because yet thus nonetheless
I.
Feudalism was dying in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the strong
nation-state was taking the place of this old system of small, private states. These
modern nation-states were well organised and could wage wars using many more
soldiers than before. (31) more soldiers were involved in the
fighting, wars became bloodier and large armies were very common. Guns began
to be used instead of other weapons, (32) swords and spears.
Before this, soldiers had worn suits made of metal, which protected them against
spears and swords. These suits of armour were expensive, (33)
only rich people could fight wars. (34) , armour could not protect
the soldier against fire-arms. Gunpowder, a substance used in all guns or
firearms, therefore, became an important part of war. Wars were no longer fought
by rich people with suits of armour. The common person, using firearms and
gunpowder, became more important as a soldier. (35) ,
gunpowder helped to facilitate the transition from feudalism to the nation-state.
II.
There is much discussion today about whether economic growth is desirable. At
an earlier period, our desire for material wealth may have been justified. Now,
(36) , this desire for more than we need is causing serious
problems. (37) we have good intentions, we may be producing
too much, too fast.
Those who criticise economic growth argue that we must slow down
(38) they believe that society is approaching certain limits on
growth. These include the fixed supply of natural resources and the continuing
increase in the world's population. (39) , there are the possible
447
negative effects of industry on the natural environment. As society reaches these
limits, economic growth can no longer continue, and the quality of life will
decrease.
People who want more economic growth, (40) , argue that even
at the present growth rate there are still many poor people in the world. These
proponents of economic growth believe that only more growth can create the
capital needed to improve the quality of life in the world. (41) ,
they argue that only continued growth can provide the financial resources required
to protect our natural surroundings from industrialisation.
Fill in each blank with a connector from the list. Use each only once.
however although in spite of nevertheless
(42) its difficulties, life in the university can be considered the
best years of one's life. (43) , it is not appreciated by most
students. As soon as a student enters the campus, he finds liberty, adult
friendships, team work and all sorts of recreation he has missed all his life.
(44) , he can hardly find time to benefit from all these
opportunities because of the density of his academic calendar. To my way of
thinking, (45) a university student's life may be loaded with
different courses and academic studies, he can still find time to enjoy the social
activities on the campus.
448