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The Museum’s Collections document the fate of Holocaust victims, survivors, rescuers, liberators, and others through artifacts, documents, photos, films, books, personal stories, and more. Search below to view digital records and find material that you can access at our library and at the Shapell Center.

Oral history interview with Chaya Rachamim

Chaya Rachamim, born in Loosdrecht, Netherlands in 1925, describes growing up in a secular Jewish family; receiving a special education in a school that specialized in teaching about equality, democracy, and anti-militarism; meeting Jewish refugees from Germany; wondering if the Jews would still experience persecution if they had their own country; her introduction to the ideas of Zionism; being sent to Westerbork when the war broke out; her release and escaping further detention to Friesland, where she worked on a dairy farm under an assumed name; staying at the farm for the duration of the war; getting in contact with the Dutch underground, with which her older sister was affiliated; reuniting with her family after the war; her desire to immigrate to Palestine; learning more about dairy farming to be successful in Palestine; and in later life working to have the farmer who hid her during the war to be granted the title “Righteous Gentile.”

Nathan Beyrak conducted the interview with Chaya Rachamim in Israel on May 2, 1998. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Archives received the tapes of the interview on June 10, 1999, as an accretion to the original collection of Israel Documentation Project interviews received by transfer in February 1995.

Funding Note

The production of this interview was made possible by Jeff and Toby Herr.

Restrictions on use. Restrictions may exist. Contact the Museum for further information: reference@ushmm.org

Record last modified: 2018-07-11 15:49:21
This page: https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn503295

Also in Oral history interviews of the Israel Documentation Project

Oral history interviews of the Israel Documentation project recorded by the Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies, the Massuah Institute for the Study of the Holocaust, and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. The 383 interviews in the collection date from 1991 to 2000 with two new additions in 2011, and as an ongoing project, additional interviews will be added. The interviews are recorded in a variety of languages including Hebrew, Yiddish, Polish, Russian, and French. Interviews include survivors of the Holocaust who immigrated to Israel.

Raphael (Rudy) Abarbanel, born in 1920, discusses his family and his childhood in Pirot, Serbia; moving to Belgrade, Serbia; his religious upbringing; joining the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement; his disbelief about events in Germany; the German bombings of Belgrade; being taken from his home; his work in a forced labor group under German control and his attempts to join Communist partisans; escaping from a train in Lom, Bulgaria; joining other refugees in Sofia, Bulgaria; being caught and interned in Albania; forging documents; escaping by boat in February 1944; landing in a British camp for refugees in Bari, Italy; immigrating to Palestine; and settling in a kibbutz in Israel.
Rachel Boyana Abarbanel, born in 1922 in Yugoslavia, discusses her family and childhood in Slavonski Brod, Croatia before the war; joining the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement; joining the communist youth movement; her disbelief about events in Germany; the April 1941 German occupation of Slavonski Brod; German officers occupying her family’s home; wearing the yellow star of David; forced labor; escaping to Pirot, Serbia; living in semi-hiding in Sofia, Bulgaria; attempting to connect with the partisan movement in the mountains; escaping to the Albanian border; being caught and interned by Albanian police; life in Albanian internment camp; escaping by boat to a British camp in Bari, Italy; and immigrating to Palestine.

Sini Adler, born in 1928, discusses his childhood in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); being the only Jewish family in his neighborhood; increasing anti-Jewish restrictions; not knowing about what was happening to Poland’s Jewish community through 1942; being deported to Terezin in March 1943; maintaining his Jewish identity in the camp; being deported to Birkenau in May 1944 in cattle cars; daily life in the camp; being moved to a forced labor camp; the death of his parents; the role his faith played in his survival; being forced to march from Auschwitz in January 1945; the Red Army’s approach; being moved by cattle car for 2 to 3 weeks; arriving in Mauthausen and then Gunskirchen; liberation by the Americans in May 1945; returning to Prague and living in refugee centers; going to England for 6 months; immigrating by boat to Palestine; landing in Jaffa; living in Israel; and his book he published.

Moshe Alpan (born Moshe Elefant) discusses the antisemitism in Vranov, Slovakia before the war; joining Hashomer Hatzair; the anti-Jewish measures and violence; the disbelief of his community at what was happening; becoming active in the Zionist movement as a way to help; organizing the Hashomer Hatzair underground movement in Budapest, Hungary in February 1944; the German occupation of Budapest in March 1944; the Jewish resistance groups; partisan rescue missions; working with the communist underground movement; helping Polish Jews cross into Slovakia; his emotional responses to the events; immigrating to Israel in July 1946; and his philosophical ideas about heroism, being a victim, and resistance.

Tzvi Aviram (b. Heinz Tzvi Abrahamason), born in 1927, discusses his family and childhood in Berlin, Germany; Berlin’s Jewish community; the Nazi rise to power in 1933; life during the Berlin Olympics in 1936; Kristallnancht’s effect on the Jewish community; how wealthy Jews were leaving; war’s outbreak; increasing antisemitism; the British bombing of Berlin in 1940; forced labor; German propaganda; escaping deportation; Zionist groups in Berlin; joining the Hechalutz underground; Jewish property being taken by Germans; being arrested and interrogated in Grosse Hamburger Strasse; escaping from prison; Berlin’s burning in January 1944; reorganization of the underground movement; hearing about the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising; liberation by the Soviets; Americans entering Berlin in July 1945; organizing immigration to Palestine; immigrating to Palestine from France in March 1948; adjusting to life in Israel; and his thoughts about present day Germany.

Zvi Azaria (b. Herman Helfgott), born in 1913, discusses his family and childhood in Beodra, Yugoslavia (present day Novo Miloševo, Serbia); antisemitism in his school; finishing university in 1940 in Vienna, Austria and becoming a rabbi; the Jewish community in Vilikibershki, where he lived; joining the army in Macedonia for six months; bombings in 1940; being taken by train to a camp near Nuremburg, Germany; organizing religious life and cycles in the camp; being transported to other camps, including Langwasser; escaping and marching to Pommern, Germany (Pomerania, Poland and Germany) in 1945; liberation by the British; going to Bergen-Belsen in order to help; providing spiritual guidance to the living; arranging burials; working as part of a rescue operation; and the fate of his family.

Miriam Bakovitz, born in 1921, discusses her family and childhood in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia (present day Bosnia and Herzegovina); joining Hashomer Hatzair; her increasing awareness of the war; encountering refugees between 1938 and 1939; the Germans arrival in Sarajevo in 1941; the deportation of her parents; anti-Jewish violence, including synagogue burnings, deportations, and shootings; being sent to do forced labor at the military camp Maryunvo; being deported to Gakovo (in present day Serbia); hiding under an assumed identity; living with partisans; being arrested and escaping; fighting with communist partisans; violence by Chetniks; German patrols for partisans; traveling by rail to Croatia; working as a medic; the end of the war and liberating a town from German occupation; working as a nurse in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; not being able to find living family members; her experiences in the Yugoslav People's Army after the war; hiding her Jewish identity until her children were 14; and immigrating to Israel in 1972.

Alizah Barukh (née Zarfati), born in 1928 in Salonika, Greece, discusses her family; war with Italy breaking out in 1940; the lack of antisemitism before the war; changing attitudes when the German occupation began in June 1941; wearing the yellow star of David; forced labor; being deported to Auschwitz in March 1943; learning of her family’s fate in the gas chambers; her experience in Auschwitz as part of Mengele's radiation experiments; performing forced labor in the UNION ammunition factory; being sent to Camp Malchow; being ordered to march on May 1, 1945 but instead finding chaos and the retreat of the Germans; how she and others were protected by liberated POWs and stayed with German families for two and a half months; the arrival of Russian forces; returning to Greece; immigrating to Palestine with the help of the Jewish Brigade; traveling by illegal boat to Atlit, Israel; settling in Haifa, Israel and being reunited with family; and having a family of her own in Israel.

Genya Batasheva, born in 1923 in Kiev, Ukraine, discusses her childhood; the famine in 1933; going to school for accounting and becoming a bookkeeper; the German occupation of Kiev, Ukraine; constructing defense positions in the suburbs of Kiev; the round ups of Jews; the massacre at Babi Yar and the murder of her family; telling guards she was Russian; getting fake identity papers; leaving for Kharkiv, Ukraine with her friend Olga Zacharovna Rozhchenko; working in Omsk, Russia for two years; hearing the news that the Soviets liberated Kiev; receiving a letter from her father and joining him in Barnaul, Russia; daily life in Barnaul; her post-war life; and her immigration to Israel due to Russian anti-Semitism.

Ezra Ben Gershom, born in 1922 in Würzburg, Germany, discusses living in Heilbronn, Germany; growing up with his rabbi father; increasing antisemitism in his town and school; working with Zionists; moving to Berlin, Germany in 1942; not registering with the Gestapo; changing residences constantly; his parents’ deportation; arranging for false identity papers; fleeing Germany; reaching Budapest, Hungary in 1943; his arrest and detention in Romania; being freed by Romanian Jewish organizations; his journey to Palestine; his post-war life; and his feelings about the Holocaust.

Sonia Berenshtein, born in 1923, discusses her childhood in Zheludok, Poland (present day Belarus); her family; joining the underground movement in the Dzyatlava ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto in August 1942; hiding in the forest with a partisan group under Hirsch Kaplinski; participating in partisan actions; a typhoid epidemic; liberation by the Soviets; immigrating to Palestine; and her life in Israel.

Tamar Berger (née Karla Wagenburg), born in 1923, discusses her childhood in Anhalt, Germany; her family; attending a Jewish boarding school; her school’s burning in November 1938; being involved in Zionist youth groups; staying at a Jewish orphanage; going to a labor camp near Furstenwalde, Germany and doing agriculture work; her deportation to Auschwitz in 1943; conditions in Auschwitz and Birkenau; joining the band; the importance of music; falling ill; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; being liberated by the British in April 1945; moving to Frankfurt, Germany; being sent to Belgium; immigrating illegally to Israel; and her life in Israel.

Paulina Bergman, born in Gorlice, Poland, recounts her family's orthodoxy; her father's service in World War I; attending Beit Yakov, public school, then gymnasium; summer vacations at her aunt's house in Nowy Sacz; participating in Noʻar ha-Tsiyoni; arrest by Polish police for Zionist activity; attending university in Kraków, Poland; a trip to Italy with her boyfriend; vacationing in Zakopane, Poland; working for the Red Cross; the German invasion; relocating to her father's village; fleeing east; German bombardment; traveling to Skelevka (Felsztyn), Ukraine; reunion with her boyfriend in Sambir, Ukraine; traveling with him to Zabolotiv, Ukraine; obtaining false papers as non-Jews; moving to several villages, including Zagoździe, Poland and Kolomyia, Ukraine; living as non-Jews in Tarnów; assistance from the Judenrat; hiding in a bunker; entering the Tarnów ghetto; forced factory labor; escaping with a friend's child to Kraków; obtaining papers as Polish guest workers through the underground; traveling to Vienna, Austria then Semmering, Austria; working in Hermagor, Austria; sabotaging farm production; assisting prisoners of war; sexual harassment by the farm's owner; transfer to another farm; working at the train station in Villach, Austria; assisting Yugoslav partisans; working in a clinic; smuggling medicine to partisans; liberation by British troops; traveling to Arnoldstein, Tarviso, then Udine, with assistance from a British officer; locating the Jewish Brigade in Bologna, Italy; traveling to Rome; reunion with a cousin; traveling to Venice, then Rome; assistance from the Joint; immigrating to Palestine via Marseille; her incarceration in ʻAtlit; escaping; learning her future husband was alive; joining him in Munich; and visiting Gorlice and Warsaw.

Hella Berlinksi, born 1919 in Poland, discusses her Jewish family life and charities; moving as an infant to Lódz, Poland; her father’s death in 1936; getting married to Jacob Berlinsky in 1939; the German invasion in 1939; Jewish community and life in Lódz; traveling to Piotrkow in January 1940; her employment in the shops sewing clothes; her husband’s deportation to Auschwitz in 1942; moving to Karo with her sister; the realization in November 1944 of the end of the war occurring; a four day trip to Fuerstenberg in train cars; walking to Ravensbrück camp 80 miles north of Berlin; liberation; joining her husband in Bergen-Belsen; and immigrating to Israel.

Josef Binenshtok, born 1919 in Wadowice, Poland, describes the beginning of the war and the racial laws; building barracks in Auschwitz; traveling to the labor camp Ottmuth to build the Berlin Moskva autobahn; arrival of other Jews from Holland, Belgium, and Greece; the shutting down of labor camps and mass extermination camps; traveling to Blechhammer and working to build gas chambers in Blechhammer; traveling by train to Gross Rosen, Buchenwald, Dora, and Sachsenhausen; liberation near Schwerin (Skwierzyna, Poland); living in a displaced persons camp near Bergen-Belsen; and immigrating to Palestine.

Orna Birenbach discusses her return to Poland in 1987 to retrace her earlier life; returning to Warsaw and Krakow; Tarnow in 1941 and the action that took place there in 1942 when 10,000 Jews were killed; what occurred to different family members; the actions and cruelty of a particular commander; her experiences in Plaszow, where she witnessed mass killings; revisiting Auschwitz; and her liberation by the British while she was in Muehlhausen.

Ya’akov Biskovitz, born in 1926, discusses his childhood in Hubicze, Poland; Polish antisemitism; German forces arriving in Hubicze; being deported to Sobibor in May 1924; his work in the Bahnhof commando; escaping Sobibor; meeting Russian partisans; returning to Hubicze in 1943; volunteering for the Polish Army; detonating mines; being jailed in Warsaw, Poland for desertion; escaping to Lublin, Poland; joining a Revisionist party and going to Austria; working in a transit camp for children near Grodzisk Wielkopolski, Poland; immigrating illegally to Palestine and escorting 600 children with him; being caught by the British and interned on Cyprus; living conditions in the camp; entering Israel in 1949; his life in Israel; and witnessing war trials in Germany and giving evidence in the Adolf Eichmann trial.

Matla Blander, born 1931 in Hrubieszów, Poland, discusses her family life with three sisters; leaving the public schools for a private tutor; the influence of her father as a Judenrat police officer; going to Majdanek with her mother; marching to Auschwitz and her mother’s death during the march; the drowning of people at Stutthof; how camp inmates helped on another; and her life before the war.

Avraham Blander, born in Hrubieszów, Poland in 1923, recalls his family's orthodoxy; attending an ORT school; the German invasion; his brother fleeing to the Soviet Union; the Judenrat organizing forced labor and deportation lists; hiding during round-ups; being discovered; having to bury those killed in mass shootings; clearing former Jewish homes and sorting the goods; being deported with his sister and her husband to Budzyn in 1942; working as a locksmith; assistance from German civilian workers; being transferred to Mielec, then to Wieliczka in 1944; being separated from his sister; being transferred to Flossenbürg, then Leitmeritz; sharing extra food received from Czech workers with his brother-in-law; his transfer to Augsbürg, Dachau, and Landau; a death march to Trostberg; his brother-in-law's death; abandonment by the guards; assistance from local Germans; liberation by United States troops; non-Jewish Russian and Polish prisoners killing a cruel German foreman; returning to Hrubieszów; learning his sister and brother had been killed; meeting his future wife; antisemitic violence; their return to Trostberg; getting married; moving to Ulm, Germany and Marseille, France in preparation for immigration to Palestine; assistance from the Jewish Agency and UNRRA; immigrating to Israel in 1948; the births of his three children; and fighting in the Sinai and 1967 wars.

Leon Blatt, born in 1919 in Katowice, Poland, discuses his family; moving to Będzin, Poland at the start of the war then Sosnowiec, Poland; his involvement in the Judenrat; performing forced labor in German factories; organizing an underground movement; creating false papers and helping to smuggle people to Slovakia and Hungary; the liquation of the ghetto in November 1943; living under the false identity Roma Nowakowski; moving to Budapest, Hungary in 1943; joining a Zionist group; being captured at the Romanian border and being sent to Auschwitz; liberation by the Soviets; becoming head of the Jewish community in Sosnowiec; staying in Poland until 1949; living in Germany for 25 years; and his immigration to Israel.

Ben Zion Blushtein, born in 1924 in Domachow, Poland, discusses his family; his experiences with anti-Semitism; the German invasion; how Jews were forced to perform labor; being forced into the ghetto; escaping to join Jewish partisans in the woods; partisan actions against Germans; capturing a German fort; being liberated by the Soviets; living in a displaced persons camp; his family life; and immigrating to Israel.

Alexander Bogen, born in 1916 in Vilna, Poland (present day Vilnius, Lithuania), discusses the bombing of Vilna; the German invasion and occupation; the Russian Army’s retreat; joining refuges to leave for the Soviet zone; ending up in the Vilna ghetto; meeting Abba Kovner and continuing to create art in the ghetto; joining the ghetto underground movement; starting the “Revenge” group of the partisans with Moshe Shultan; challenges facing the partisan movement; immigrating to Israel; and his artistic representations of the Holocaust.

Samuel Borenstein, born in 1918 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his upper-class upbringing and family; his education; being involved in the Zionist movement; the bombing of Warsaw; fleeing to Minsk, Russia (Belarus) through Lodz, Poland and Belarus; living conditions while moving from town to town; joining the partisans in Minsk; living conditions in the woods; partisan actions against Germans and Ukrainians; being wounded in a battle in Bialystok, Poland; anti-Semitism in the hospital; working with Zionist groups to organize illegal immigration to Palestine; organizing groups of partisans for immigration; and crossing Italy to arrive in Palestine.

Sonya Borstein (née Narenchuk), born in1923 in Bielice, Poland, discuses the bombing of her hometown; being deported to a ghetto in Belarus; participating in the underground movement; hiding during the ghetto’s liquidation; being sent to a labor camp; hiding in the woods; joining the Krasna Vardesk partisan group; becoming ill; partisan actions; antisemitism among the Russian partisans being liberated by the Soviets; immigrating to Israel; and adapting to life on a kibbutz.

Rozina Bressler, born in 1927 in Saaz, Sudetenland (Žatec, Czechoslovakia), discusses her family’s attempts to escape in October 1938; being arrested on Kristallnacht by the Gestapo and forced to return to Czechoslovakia; daily life in a Czech village with other refugees; being arrested along with her family in 1942; being deported to Theresienstadt and subsequently Auschwitz; being sent to work in a linen factory in Merseburg, Germany; and being liberated by the Soviets.

Irena Bruner (née Rothberg), born in 1923 in Krakow, Poland, discusses her family; living conditions in the Krakow ghetto; performing forced labor in brush and munitions factories; adaptations to ghetto life; being marched to Plaszow in February 1943; being moved to various concentration camps in Poland; her experiences in the camps; being liberated by the Soviets; and her life after the Holocaust.

Meir Bussak, born in 1912, discusses his childhood in Krakow, Poland; going to study Jewish history in Warsaw, Poland; increasing antisemitism; being expelled from Krakow to a work camp; working for Simens, building railroad tracks; the dismantling of the work camp; being sent to Plaszow; forced labor in the quarry in Plaszow and living conditions; being chosen for Schindler’s factory in Brněnec, Czechoslovakia; his personal connection with Schindler and Schindler’s wife; and liberation by the Soviets.

Simcha Byalovitz, born in 1912, discusses his childhood and family in Izbica, Poland; the outbreak of the war; joining the Polish army as a medic; being taken to a work camp; returning as a medic to the hospital in Izbica during a typhoid epidemic; being deported to Sobibor in April 1943; working in Sobibor’s pharmacy; learning the fate of his family; escaping from Sobibor; surviving in a village near Izbica; being liberated by the Soviets; post-war antisemitism in Poland; moving to Berlin, Germany and then Heidenheim, Germany; immigrating to Israel; and his testimony in war crimes trials for Wagner and Frenzel.

David Kahane, born in 1903, discusses daily life in Grimaylov, Galicia (present day Ukraine); studying to become a rabbi; teaching high school in Lvov, Poland (present day L’viv, Ukraine) from 1929 to 1941; the German invasion in June 1941; German violence against the Jews; the burning of synagogues in August 1941; secret worship in homes; the Judenrat and its role in determining deportations; being deported to Janowska; living and working conditions in the camp; the Jewish police; the observance of holidays in the camp; escaping the camp and hiding in a Greek Orthodox monastery; German crimes in Lvov; mass killings; meeting with a Gestapo man named Blum after the war; and the fate of his friend Rabbi Jecheskel Levin.

Betty Cana, born November 11, 1919 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, discusses being the youngest of five sisters; her family's orthodoxy; attending public school; antisemitic harassment; attending a Jewish school; participating in a Zionist youth group; one sister's immigration to Palestine in 1936; her father's death; preparing to immigrate to Palestine on a Hechalutz kibbutz in Beverwijk; German invasion; returning to Amsterdam; her marriage; operating a children's kibbutz in Elden with her husband; being arrested in October 1942; being deported to Westerbork; the arrival of her mother and one sister; deportation with her mother and husband to Auschwitz in September 1943; being separated from her mother; volunteering for specious medical experiments by Dr. Claus Clauberg to avoid transfer to Birkenau, where she thought she could not survive; sending food and messages to her husband; a camp official saving him from selections; working in the hospital; leading prayer sessions; encountering the camp Kommandant, Rudolf Höss; public hangings; a death march and train transfer to Bergen-Belsen in January 1945; learning one sister was there; receiving extra food from her; contracting typhus; her sister nursing her; liberation by British troops; assistance from the Red Cross; repatriation to Eindhoven; learning her husband had not survived; hospitalization; her illegal immigration by ship to Palestine via Marseille; interdiction by the British; her brief incarceration; reuniting with her sister; her marriage; adopting two children; losing her religious faith in the camps; the prisoner hierarchy and relations among national groups; and chronic health problems resulting from her experiences.

Eli Carmel (né Hans Weinberg), born in Vienna, Austria in 1917, recounts participating in Blau-Weiss; working at a Zionist summer camp with Teddy Kollek; his brother's immigration to Palestine in 1934; attending university; antisemitic harassment; the Anschluss; warnings from their non-Jewish landlord of German raids; moving to Zurich, then Geneva; his arrest in September 1939; his expulsion from Basel to a Gestapo prison in Lörrach; his transfer from prison to prison en route to Sachsenhausen; forced labor in a brick factory; beatings, hunger, and lack of sanitation; public executions; his release in September 1940 because his mother documented he would leave for Shanghai; returning home; traveling with his parents to Graz; illegally entering Yugoslavia; traveling to Zagreb via Maribor; the Jewish community assigning them to live with a non-Jew in Ruma; German invasion; Germans and Ustaša registering Jews; deportation in cattle cars to Zagreb; the Jewish community securing their release through bribes; obtaining false papers; traveling to a village in Italian-occupied territory; his arrest; imprisonment in Fiume (presently Rijeka); transfer 18 months later to Ferramonti; receiving Red Cross packages; escaping; hiding with villagers; liberation by United States troops; immigration to Palestine via Bari and Alexandria; his incarceration in ʻAtlit by the British; his release; serving in the Palmah; relations between national and political groups in Sachsenhausen; Polish Jews praying; his scars from mistreatment; the kindness of the Italians; lack of interest and disbelief from the Israeli public about his experiences until the 1970s; sharing only parts of his story with his children; and a recent visit to Berlin.

Aharon Carmi, born in Opoczno, Poland in 1921, recounts being one of seven children; attending cheder, public school, then Tarbut school; participating in Gordonyah; antisemitic violence; his older brother's immigration to Palestine in 1935; two brothers' conscription; the German invasion; one brother's return; anti-Jewish restrictions; Germans taking community leaders for ransom, including his father; the community paying the ransom; his father's appointment to the Judenrat; ghettoization; working in the family bakery; volunteering in a soup kitchen; his assignment to bury corpses from a killing; hiding with his brother and uncle during a round-up; his capture by Poles; securing their release with a bribe; hiding in a cemetery (a Polish friend brought him food); returning to his parents in the ghetto; transfer with his family to the Ujazd ghetto; escaping from a deportation train with encouragement from his father; Poles offering him shelter, then robbing him; traveling to Warsaw; returning to Opoczno to retrieve buried money to purchase false papers; assistance from Polish family friends; returning to Warsaw; obtaining false papers; his arrest; interrogation and beating by the Gestapo; transfer to the ghetto; forced labor sorting Jewish belongings; escaping; hiding with a Jewish family; contact with Eliezer Geller; joining the Jewish resistance (ZOB); arms training; participating in missions, including arresting collaborators; the ghetto uprising; escaping with a group through the sewers to a forest; David Nowodworski organizing them; obtaining supplies from friendly Poles; other ghetto fighters joining them; receiving weapons from the Polish Communist Party (PPR); moving to another forest; joining Armia Ludova partisans; skirmishes with the right wing Armia Krajowa (AK); a Soviet air drop of weapons and supplies; blowing up German trains; his unit's dissolution; many casualties from German attacks; liberation by Soviet troops; interrogating German POWs; joining the Soviet militia in Minsk Mazowiecki; guarding Jewish refugees; traveling with the Soviet Army to Praga; returning to Minsk Mazowiecki; meeting Abba Kovner in Lublin; interrogating AK members; traveling to Warsaw; meetings with Yitzhak Zuckerman and Marek Edelman; discussions of revenge; returning to Minsk Mazowiecki; his marriage; briefly returning to Opoczno; joining a group immigrating to Palestine; receiving documents as Greek Jews; traveling through Poland to Slovakia, then boarding a Red Cross train to Romania; living three months each in a kibbutz in Alba Iulia, then Bucharest; his illegal emigration by ship from Constanța to Palestine; interdiction by the British; his release; his reunion with his brother; his wife's uncle hosting a Jewish wedding by a rabbi for them; working as a baker; being drafted into the Haganah; and serving in the 1948 Arab-Israel War and 1956 Sinai Campaign. Mr. Carmi also shows photographs.

Manoss Diamant, born in 1921 in Katowice, Poland, discusses his family and childhood; his education; being in a Zionist youth group; escaping to Warsaw, Poland in 1939; being forced into the Sosnowiec ghetto in 1943; being in a resistance group; the activities of the Judenrat who collaborated with Germans; being selected for work by the Germans; his sabotage activities; escaping from the ghetto; working in Austria under an assumed identity; being caught and sent to a camp near Vienna, Austria; passing as a doctor and working in a hospital in Graz, Austria; escaping to Hungary and joining a work group in Budapest; the Germans entering Hungary in March 1944; being liberated by the Soviets in January 1945; and his post-war feelings about perpetrators.

Arie Distel, born in Vilnius, Lithuania, describes his education in Zionist youth group, Hashomer Hatzair; survival in the small ghetto after the German occupation; his participation in the underground; details of the underground’s functions and work; joining a work group outside the ghetto; his transport along with his group to Tartu, Estonia, and then to camps in Soski, Gorodenko, Kurome, Yama (Kingisepp), and Goldfitz; being sent to Stutthof concentration camps; his liberation by French forces; his life in a transition camp; being sent to a youth camp in Magento; joining the 'Revenge' group; joining the Jewish Brigade and awaiting orders; his travel to Germany, Italy, and Palestine; and life in Kibbutz Yakum.

Ya'akov Eisner, born 1904 in Czestochowa, Poland, recounts attending Jewish and Polish schools; starvation during World War I; his marriage and the births of two of his children; leaving his family to work in Paris for two years during the Depression; the German invasion; ghettoization; his mother's murder by Germans in 1942; burying her; his deportation with his wife and children to Treblinka; his selection as a carpenter (his family was killed); sadistic public executions; escaping; assistance from a local non-Jews who brought him to Jewish partisans; fleeing when other non-Jews approached; returning to the Czestochowa ghetto via Warsaw with assistance from non-Jews; his marriage to a cousin; slave labor; being deported; escaping from the train; returning to Czestochowa (now a camp); liberation with his wife by Soviet troops; his immigration to Israel; and being a witness at a war criminal trial of S.S. men in Düsseldorf.

Erna Elerat, born September 1920 in Oswiecim, Poland, recounts her large family's affluence; summering in mountain resorts; participating in Betar; Vladimir Jabotinsky staying at their home; antisemitic harassment beginning in 1933; one year of school in Myslowice; one brother serving in the Polish military; German invasion in 1939; fleeing with her family to Przeworsk; her father continuing to the Soviet zone; finding her brother in Kraków (he had been wounded); their return home; her brief arrest with her sister by Soviets in Tarnów en route to find their father; reunion with him in Lʹviv; a brief stay in Rava Ruʹska; returning home; volunteering with a sister, brother, and his wife for work in November 1940; their deportation to Annaberg; her brother's transfer to Auschwitz (her parents received his ashes shortly thereafter); transfer to Ottmuth; her job in the hospital; poisoning herself; her hospitalization in Krapowice; escaping; joining her family in the Sosnowice ghetto; her transfer back to Annaberg; working in the hospital; her transfer six months later to Parschnitz, then to Markstädt, and back to Parschnitz for a year; learning her father had died; arranging for her mother and sisters to join her; separation from them upon transfer to Blechhammer, then Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943; her assignment to the “medical experiment” barracks; caring for Greek women on whom the experiments were done, most of whom died; her transfer to Union factory; working as a translator, then a supervisor; participating in sabotage; assistance from civilian workers and Wehrmacht; a death march and train transfer with her cousin to Ravensbrück; her transfer by herself to Malchow, then Taucha; escaping with others from a death march; a man hiding them until the arrival of Soviet troops; traveling to Sosnowiec; reunion with her mother and sister; joining a brother in Feldafing displaced persons camp; her family joining them; and testifying against a camp official at the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC).

Ruth Elias, born October 1922 in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, discusses the entry of the Germans into her town March 14, 1939; her family fleeing to a small village near Brno called Pojojitze until 1942; her happy life in the village; the family being caught and sent to Theresienstadt (Terezin); the meticulous German labeling and numbering system; the history of the city and the conditions in the camp; getting married; working as a nurse to the elderly; the creative activities in the camp, including operas, choirs, and concerts; the Red Cross visit and the false beautification efforts; getting pregnant while she was in Theresienstadt; being sent to Auschwitz then Birkenau B-2 “Familienlager”; conditions in the camp and the mistreatment of women in the camp by SS guards; receiving medical exams; experiencing night blindness due to lack of vitamins; being sent to Ravensbrück after it was discovered that she and her friend, Berta, were pregnant; being sent to the Krankenbau barrack; the sadistic SS female guards in the camp; being sent back to Auschwitz, where they pretended to not be Jewish; learning about Mengele’s experiments and meeting him; giving birth and the eventual death of her baby; being sent with Berta to a work in Germany in Taucha bei Leipzig; working in a munitions factory and later a bakery; the Roma and prisoners of war; finding work outside for extra food; the death march; living in Prague after the war; and her immigration to Israel.

Ze'ev Faktor, born in Lódz, Poland in April 1926, describes the arrival of Germans; the establishment of the ghetto; the job of the Judenrat; the hierarchy within the ghetto; working in the ghetto administration and a metal factory; being deported to Auschwitz in 1944 then Birkeanu; the death march in January 1945 to Bolkenhain; the five day train ride to Buchenwald; the liberation by the United States Army; immigrating to Israel; and the psychological effects of the Holocaust on his life.

Yitzhak Finkel, born in Lódz, Poland in April 1917, describes the bombing of Lódz; the creation of the Lódz ghetto; being arrested with 1,500 others and sent to Czestochowa to work in a weapons factory in 1942; being transported to Skarzysko in 1944 by train and then to Pelzerium by train; the conditions in the camps; his experiences of going to Buchenwald and Terezin; his illness at Terezin; the liberation of Terezin; witnessing the trial of Gunther Fuchs in 1962; and his adjustment to life in Israel.

Fela Finkelshtein, born in 1921 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses joining the Beitar youth movement; life in the Warsaw ghetto; joining the Irgun Zvai Leumi underground movement, where she received military training and worked as a messenger; how they smuggled weapons into the ghetto and the plan to escape through the sewers; her deportation to Majdanek, Auschwitz, and Birkeanu; being ill with typhoid fever; surviving the death march; escaping and going into hiding; her liberation by the Soviets; traveling through Lódz, Austria, and Italy; her illegal immigration to Haifa; her immigration to Israel; and the psychological effects of the Holocaust.

Rivka Freed, born July 1, 1923 in Lódz, Poland, discusses moving to Paris, France in 1938; moving to Lyon, France with family in 1940; joining the resistance movement FTI-MOI (Francs-Tireurs et Partisans de la Main-d' oeuvre Immmigree) in 1942 and working as a liaison officer and smuggling weapons; moving to Grenoble, France in 1943 to create a resistance movement there; providing aid in Marseilles and Nice, France; her mother's arrest and deportation in summer 1942 (she never saw her again); her brother's execution as a Resistant in November 1943; blowing up a military fortification (blockhaus); staying in Marseilles until liberation; returning to Paris to look for her family; her post-war life and experiencing depression; and her awards for partisan actions.

Anushka Freiman, born Anja Schmidt in 1918 in Fenibesh, Lithuania, describes long-term antisemitism in Lithuania; moving to Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania where her sister lived; her marriage to a cellist named Misha Shenkor who had escaped to Kovno from the Germans in February 1940; the Russian occupation of Lithuania; deportations to Siberia by the Russians; her relocation to the Kovno ghetto; her separation from her husband and daughter who both perished; her time in Vaivara concentration camp in Estonia; her transfer to Ochsenzoll (Hamburg area) to work in a munitions factory; her transfer to Stutthof and Bergen-Belsen; her liberation by British forces; becoming a translator for the British; the establishment of a central committee and card catalog to search for survivors; her reunion with her brothers in Johannesburg, South Africa; differences in how she and her brothers wanted to remember their experiences during the Holocaust; and marrying her second husband and moving to Israel between 1966 and 1967.

Yaakov Freimark describes working in Auschwitz offloading people; the daily life in Auschwitz and the relationships between prisoners; the various personalities of the Kapos at the camp; resistance in the camp, including the bombing of a crematorium; his memories of various transports; the gypsy camp in Auschwitz and their extermination; being in a transport arriving in Berlin, Germany during a bombing; marching to Oranienburg, Germany; his experiences in Sachsenhausen; a death march to Buchenwald, then Weimar and Theresienstadt; being liberated; traveling to Lodz; working on a kibbutz and the criteria used to choose people to send to Palestine; smuggling a group of Jews out of Vilna (Vilnius, Lithuania); meeting his wife; his feelings after the war, including guilt and thoughts of revenge; and immigrating to Israel in 1949.

Alfred Frenkel, born in 1920 in Breslau, Germany (present day Wroclaw, Poland), discusses his family and childhood; joining a Zionist Hechalutz group and studying carpentry; Kristallnacht; trying to leave Germany; his sister being sent to England; being sent to a Jewish organization in Wieringen, Northern Holland in March 1939; his memories of the Klaus Barbie invading Wieringen in March 1941; being taken to Amsterdam, Netherlands and being sent to live with a family by the Judenrat; working as a courier between Amsterdam and Westerburg, Germany; obtaining false papers and traveling to France; joining the French resistance group Armée Juive and his activities; his arrest and deportation to Buchenwald; being marched west during the camp’s evacuation; escaping the march during an air raid; staying in Liebstadt, Germany after liberation; returning to Holland; working for the Joint in France; sailing to Israel; arriving in Haifa and being detained in Atlit; and living on a kibbutz after his release.

Rudi Fruchter, born March 1922 in Budapest, Hungary, describes antisemitism in Hungary and Romania; being recruited into the Jewish unit of the Hungarian Army; going to the Carpathian mountains as a forced labor group; being deported to Auschwitz to cut hair and translate; singing for the Kapos; moving to a French labor camp near Strassburg and the Maginot Line; returning to the Kochendort German camp October 1944; building camps for Russian POWs; moving by train to Dachau; liberation; looking for friends and family after the war; participating in Yiddish theater; immigrating to Israel; and adjusting to Israeli life.

Moshe Fuchs, born in 1923, discusses his childhood in Lodz, Poland; his involvement with Hashomer Hatzair; the outbreak of war; spending two years with uncles in various Polish towns, including Staszów, Topiyanova, and Klimontov; his activities in a youth movement; bribing Germans to be taken to Skarzysko; the conditions in the camp; escaping into the woods; his relations with villagers, partisans, and Poles; the partisan movement in winter 1943; being liberated by the Soviets; traveling from Romania to Italy; travelling to Palestine illegally through Egypt; and his post-war life in Israel.

Kariel Gardosh, born in 1921, discusses his childhood in Budapest, Hungary; pre-war antisemitism; outbreak of war in 1939; being conscripted for forced labor in the army; working in central Hungary and then Bor, Yugoslavia (Serbia); building train tracks; being marched back towards Hungary; witnessing exterminations in Zamun, Serbia; being taken to a brick factory; witnessing exterminations in Hungary; escaping in October 1944; being hidden by Hungarian train workers; being liberated by Tito partisans in Serbia; joining their fight; obtaining Russian papers; returning to Budapest; joining the Russian army and entering Budapest; learning the fate of his family; and going to Yugoslavia.

Esther Gelbelman, born in 1926 in Kishinev, Romania (present day Chişinău, Moldova), discusses the Soviet confiscation of her family’s store; fleeing the city during bombing raids; moving to Domanovka, Ukraine and being forced into the ghetto; living and working conditions in the ghetto; mass killings; the German guards fleeing as the Russians approached in April 1944 and the dispersal of the prisoners; walking to Karlovka, where they were liberated by the Soviets; being asked to testify about what happened in Bogdanovka; returning to Bogdanovka after 20 years; her efforts to have the graves cared for; and her inability to forget.

Alvin Glazer, born in 1919 in Kromeriz, Czechoslovakia, discusses his studies; having to quit school in 1939 due to the German occupation of Prague; changes in everyday life under the Germans; playing a role in Youth Aliyah; the leadership of the Jewish community, including Otto Zucker, Jakob Edelstein, and Yanovitch; being sent to the Theresienstadt (Terezin) ghetto; helping to prepare the ghetto in November 1941; relocating to the Magdeburg Barracks; and living conditions in the camp.

Menachem Granek, born in 1914, discusses his childhood in Chepitz, Poland; organizing a Betar youth movement in 1931; his schooling; pre-war antisemitism; joining the Polish Army for two years; being taken as a prisoner of war by Germany; being sent to Lipowa camp in Lublin, Poland in July 1940; escaping the camp and returning home; organizing a resistance group; the head of the Judenrat; being conscripted for forced labor for eight months in 1941 and working on the Autostrada with Russian POWs; being injured and going to a hospital in Sosnowiec, Poland; returning home; going to Sosnowiec; helping with the underground movement; escaping deportation; living under an assumed identity in a Mercedes-Benz work camp in Oppeln, Germany; liberation by the Soviets; and illegally immigrating to Israel via France in 1948.

Hanna Greishitzki, born in 1926 in Cluj, Romania, discusses German forces arriving in Cluj in March 1944; the swift implementation of anti-Jewish measures; being forced into the ghetto May 3, 1944; being deported to Auschwitz; conditions on the train; arriving in Auschwitz; being taken to the labor camp Hainichen; working conditions in the factory; atrocities in the camp; marching to trains to take them to Theresidenstadt (Terezin) in April 1945; being very ill; being liberated by Soviets; her life after the war; and dealing with the emotional effects of the war and Auschwitz.

Pnina Papler Grinshpan, born in Nowy Dwor near Warsaw, Poland, describes the creation of the Warsaw ghetto and conditions inside the ghetto; managing to get a job working in the Landau furniture factory; how on April 19, 1943, Germans entered the ghetto and prepared to liquidate it entirely; escaping with several fighters through the sewers to join Antek Zuckerman, who was fighting outside the ghetto walls; joining the partisans in the forest and subsequently joining the Polish resistance in the forests; encounters with Soviet soldiers, escaped war prisoners, and local farmers; how her jobs in the forest consisted mainly of sabotage; her husband, Chaim Grinshpan, who was also a ghetto fighter, and their immigration to Palestine via Bucharest, Romania; and her children and grandchildren.

Willi Groag, born on August 7, 1914, in Olmvetz, Moravia, describes how after Germany invaded Czechoslovakia he tried to leave but was unable to do so; teaching school from 1939 to 1940; going to Hachshara for agricultural training; leaving the farm in January 1942 and anticipating the transport of all Jews from Olmvetz; Willi describes his transport to Terezin, life in the ghetto, his work in the children's house, and transports from Terezin; art in the ghetto and the artists Karl Fleischmann, Peter Kien, Leo Haas, and Ferdinand Bloch; and the Red Cross visits and beautification of the ghetto for those visits.

Eitan Ginat (né Otto Dniyevsky), born in 1920, in Vienna, Austria, describes life in Vienna and the rise of Nazism; his family’s move in 1935 to Belgium, where their father had business connections; his father’s opposition to Zionism; being taken on May 10 with other refugees to a camp in St. Cyprien near the Spanish border; the nearby Gurs camp; being discharged from the camp; he joined the rest of his family near Toulouse; being a student at Montpellier University and emphasizes the strong influence of Zionist organizations; how he and the Zionist Congress members had to go underground when identification papers were required of them; moving to Grenoble, with the help of an Italian Colonel, and registering and living at the university; a training school for counselors that they established and those associated with it who dispersed in August 1943; the extensive underground activities near the university involving moving, hiding Jewish families, and trying to get children to Palestine; being called Toto while he worked with the underground movement; eventually being caught and sent to a labor camp near Karlsruhe, Germany; the war's end and going to Paris, France to complete his PhD; and obtaining a certificate to immigrate to Palestine.

Tova Gurevitz, born in Vilna, Poland (Vilnius, Lithuania), describes her observant family and their life in Vilna; the occupation of Vilna on September 1, 1939 by Russians who turned the city over to Lithuanian rule; life in the Vilna ghetto, particularly cultural activities; the music song in the ghetto; deportations from the ghetto to Estonia and the Ponari massacre; leaving the ghetto shortly before its liquidation and spending eight continuous months hiding with ten others in a hole dug under a pig's stall, which was owned by a peasant family that was paid for this accommodation; how they occupied themselves, writing a diary, and the risks they took; moving to another hiding place for two months; eventually being captured by the Russians and returned to Vilna at the end of July 1944; being recruited to teach children Hebrew; going to Lodz, Germany, Prague, and Paris in order to care for Jewish children and to prepare them for immigration to Palestine; and settling in Israel and her adaptation to that country.

Chaim Gurewitz, born in Lithuania, describes his family and growing up in Panevezys, Lithuania; the growing antisemitism in the late 1930s; Jewish life in Kaunas in the 1930s; his life in the Kaunas ghetto, how they lived, what they ate, and the tasks they were assigned; executions in the ghetto, including the Ninth Fort massacre on October 29, 1941; the escape of prisoners of war and Jews from the Ninth Fort; being taken to the Landsberg concentration camp; life in the camp; being beaten for stealing potatoes; being moved from Landsberg to Dachau in April 1945; trying to return home after liberation and interrogations by Soviets; going to Munich, Germany and being taken care of by Americans; his attempts to memorialize losses; and the need to educate youth about the Holocaust.

Israel Gutman, born in Warsaw, Poland, in 1923, describes joining the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement; life in the ghetto, underground activities, and the Warsaw Ghetto uprising; his transport to Majdanek and subsequent transport to Auschwitz I; the underground activities in Auschwitz; being evacuated in January 1945 from Auschwitz and his arrival in Mauthausen; being in quarantine; daily life in the camp; being liberated on May 5, 1945, and hospitalized in Linz, Austria; going to Italy with the Jewish Brigade to help out those wanting to immigrate to Palestine; his immigration to Palestine and joining a kibbutz; his thoughts on what it means to be Jewish; and the meaning of heroism during the Holocaust.

Shmuel Hacohen, born in Amsterdam, Netherlands on July 7, 1926, discusses his extended family, most of whom were murdered; the food restrictions at the beginning of the war, National Socialism in Holland, and mobilization of the Dutch army; life in Amsterdam after the German invasion, including activities of the Judenrat; how in January 1941 the registration of Jews was organized by the Dutch Interior Ministry; being transported to Westerbork in April 1943; life in the camp, its hierarchy, hospital, concerts, and opera; his transport to Bergen Belsen; the changing conditions of the camp during his time there; the liberation of the camp; being taken to Risa, north of Leipzig, to a Polish POW camp where he contracted typhoid fever; his return to Holland and the post-war antisemitism; and his immigration to Israel and his long period of adjustment to life in Israel.

Hadar ben Zion, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1936, describes his religious family; the walls of the Warsaw ghetto going up; experiencing hunger, food rationing, and seeing people lying on the street dead in the ghetto; how when he was about five or six, his sister would sneak him out of the ghetto, so they could go and sing in courtyards for money and food which they smuggled back to the ghetto; his older sister’s role as a nurse in the ghetto hospital; how she took him to stay at the hospital to save him the deportation that occurred the following day, during which his family was deported; how the hospital staff and his sister were taken away and he escaped the hospital; escaping the ghetto and meeting other Jewish children, with whom he started a life on the streets buying and selling newspapers, cigarettes, and staying overnight in different places; making his living riding on trains and singing; being liberated by Russians; and his memories riding in a Russian tank through the ruins of Warsaw.

Shimon Hamel, born in September 1907, in Strasbourg, France, describes his childhood in an assimilated middle class family; how he became aware of Judaism through his religion classes in a Protestant school; joining a Jewish scout group and became a leader of the scout group, Hatikva; working on a PhD in chemical engineering; being in the cavalry in 1938 and the disarray in the French army; becoming a chemist in the army in 1939; his belief that in 1940 the Jews of Strasbourg knew what was happening to Jews in Germany and what was in store for them; developing an action plan in the winter of 1941 to open homes for children under age 17; how the aim was to save children and to train them to earn a living in agriculture and trades; buying a farm near Lyon, France and remaining there with 27 children for three and a half years; how in April 1944 the scout organization decided to dispense with the farms because of increasing danger; living on a kibbutz in Israel; and visiting France to meet with friends and family.

Chaim Hamer, born in 1924, in Dorna, South Bukovina, describes Jewish life in Dorna, including speaking Hebrew and being in youth movements; attending school and synagogues; antisemitism when Bukovina was taken by the Russians and retaken by the Romanians; his deportation to Mogilev (Mahiliou, Belarus) in 1941; joining a group of young Zionists in 1942; being ordered to go to Torchin to work in a coal mine; his return to Mogilev and his unsuccessful attempt to lead a group of orphans across the Dniester River; functions of the Judenrat in Mogilev and the Pechora camp; his enlistment with the Soviet Army, reaching Riga, Latvia and Smolensk, Russia; returning to Bucharest, Romania and working with youth groups assisting Jewish immigration to Palestine; and his immigration to Israel, meeting his wife, and life in the early stages of the State of Israel.

Helena Hammershmash (née Rosenberg), born in Turka, Ukraine, describes her childhood in a religious, well-to-do family; moving to Czechoslovakia at age 15; joining a Zionist youth group; meeting her future husband in Turka; how the Germans entered Turka in 1941; Ukrainian-led pogroms; Nazi-led Aktions and her interrogation and release by the Gestapo; her escape with her husband and baby to Budapest, Hungary; going with her husband to a refugee camp under assumed identities, passing as non-Jewish Hungarians; being taken to Tokay, Hungary, and subsequently deported from a camp near Yugoslavia in April 1944; her arrival in Auschwitz; conditions in the camp and living in Birkenau in Block 13; the social hierarchy in the camp and the female Kapos; being moved to Auschwitz I; the hanging of some of her friend at the end of 1944; being sent on a death march to Bergen Belsen; getting typhoid fever; being liberated by the British; working as a nurse with the British and later Belgian doctors in the tuberculosis ward; how she hid the evidence she had written down and her poems; being sent by UNRRA to study medicine in Munich, Germany; testifying against the SS in a British military court; meeting up with her husband in Rome, Italy; and their journey to Palestine and life in Israel.

Joseph Hanfeld, born on December 27, 1921, in Borislav (Boryslav), Ukraine, describes his family; the Zionist youth movement; the relations between Jews and non-Jews in Borislav; his childhood and adolescence; Polish politics before World War II and the roots of antisemitism; what happened to the Jews when the Germans entered Borislav; life under the Russians’ progroms; a large Action in June 1942; the Lvov and Yanov camps; escaping a deportation and continuing to work; the establishment and liquidation of the Borislav ghetto; being sent to the Yanovksa work camp; escaping back to Borislav and being sent to Plaszów; working in salt mines in Walewkie and being sent to Mauthausen, where he worked in the stone quarry; being sent to Linz II camp; being liberated by the Americans at Linz; traveling to Budapest, Hungary in 1945; going to Austria and Italy to lead groups of refugees across borders; spending seven months in Belgium organizing refugee camps; going to Marseille, France, and by boat to Palestine; and his views on war crime trials.

Avraham Hass, born in 1923 in Bukovina, Romania, describes his family of Hassidic farmers near the Polish border; life and survival in Ukrainian ghettos; the Judenrat and its uneven treatment of ghetto residents and its collaboration with authorities; his family's expulsion across the Dniester River to Mogilev-Podolskiy, Ukraine; returning home to Soziawa, Romania after liberation and subsequently going to Bucharest, Romania, where he made contact with Hashomer Hatzair, which organized his illegal immigration to Palestine; his detention in a camp in Famagusta, Cyprus; and joining the Haganah and smuggling inmates out of the camp.

Shalom Hertzberg, born 1915 in Bedzin, Poland, discusses his prosperous Zionist family; his daily Talmud studies; being an active member of the Zionist youth movement, Noar Zioni; being recruited to the Polish Army in 1938; being imprisoned by Germans in Krakow, Poland; being helped by non-Jews to get a German identity and to escape; the first Aktion on August 12, 1942; being sent to the Blechhammer camp; the death march of January 1945; liberation April 27, 1945; aiding American intelligence to get information from SS prisoners; returning to a normal life; establishing a Massuah in Israel; and early attitudes about the Holocaust in Israel.

Friedrich Hillman, born in Vienna, Austria in 1919, discusses living in a mixed neighborhood with his parents and his sister; the Germans entering Austria 1938; trying to escape to Czechoslovaka; escaping to Luxembourg; going to Brussels, Belgium with his parents; being sent to a work camp near Perpignan, France in May 1940 and escaping; trying to join the Foreign Legion and cross into Spain; being sent to Drancy and then Auschwitz; going to Gogolin and the conditions there; being sent to Blechhammer; conditions in the camp, including the people, children, women, prostitutes, and black market; hangings in the camp and abuses by Kapos; the escape attempts; going on a three-week march to Gross Rosen; being transported to Buchenwald; the American bombardment of Blechhammer; going to Flossenbürg and Mauthausen; being liberated at Mauthausen; the communist underground at Buchenwald; going to a hospital in Switzerland (St Galien); being reunited with his mother and sister in Brussels; and immigrating to Israel in 1949.

Nechama Hochbaum, born 1924 in Stottz, Poland, discusses moving to Lachowicze, Poland (Liakhavichy, Belarus) in 1934; attending a Jewish high school in Baranovic until 1939; life under the Russian regime; the Germans entering the town at the start of the war and the positive reaction from Poles; working under the S.S.; the establishment of a Judenrat; the aktions and escaping with her sister to the forest for two years; finding her mother and brothers in the ghetto and conditions there; escaping another aktion with her mother but being caught and sent to the ghetto; trying to organize the remaining 100 Jews in the ghetto to escape to the forest and their fear; escaping to the forest and her family’s survival there; attempting to join the partisans; being liberated by Soviets spring 1944 and returning to their town; moving to Lodz and then Germany 1945; going through Italy to Palestine and arriving in Israel 1948.

Peretz Hochman, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1927, describes life in Warsaw before the war; his family; attending Cheder and being in Jewish youth organizations; the beginning of the war; the ghetto, hunger, and smuggling of food; his thoughts and plans; leaving the ghetto and how he and a brother survived on the outside by singing in courtyards; the uprising and burning of the ghetto and his escape through the sewers; how in the winter of 1943 he and his brother joined a group of children selling cigarettes; their contact with partisans, who helped them and provided them with identification; joining the Polish rebel army; being taken as a prisoner of war and sent to camp Lamsdorf (Stalag VIII B Lamsdorf) and then Millberg, where they worked in an airplane factory; being liberated by and then joining the Russian Army; traveling to Krakow, Poland; going to Marseille, France and boarding a Turkish boat to Palestine; being caught by the British and transferred to Atlit and then to Kibbutz Shaar Hagolan in 1946; and his family and post-war life in Israel.

Baruch Hod (né Baruch Van Der Hoeden), born 1924 in Utrecht, Netherlands, discusses his Zionist upbringing; his happy childhood; his father's secularism and Zionism; attending public school; the cordial relations between Jews and non-Jews; his mother's illness; his father's military draft in 1940; the May 1940 invasion of Holland by Germany; the lack of measures and antisemitism against Jews in Holland prewar; the 1941 restrictions; rationing food; wearing the yellow badge starting in 1942; Jewish schools starting; the deportation of the Jewish community; the knowledge of the existence of concentration camps since 1939; the Westerburg camp in Holland; the local non-Jewish community’s solidarity with their Jewish neighbors; the removal of property; obtaining false papers from the underground and hiding in Holland; the underground movement and his participation starting fall 1943; hiding with non-Jews in several locations, including an impoverished farm in Almelo for six months; briefly staying with his older sister, a nurse who lived as non-Jew; his last visit with his mother (she died in a sanatorium); moving to a farm in Lunteren in fall 1943; his capture by Nazis and torture; his escape and the underground movement finding him a safe place; the invasion of south Holland; the liberation by the Canadians, Americans, and British; reunion with family; the psychological effects of the war; joining the Zionist movement; locating hidden Jewish orphans; helping smuggle Jews and weapons to Palestine; meeting his future wife at a Hechalutz orphanage; immigrating to Israel in 1948 and healing from the war; his career as an educator; and attending a reunion of his underground unit in Holland in the 1970s.

Itzchak Huberman, born 1929 in Lodz, Poland, discusses his family; the start of the war; the German invasion; the Lodz ghetto; deportation to Marichin, a youth village for orphans; living in the ghetto; the disbelief about Auschwitz; summer of 1944 and action in the ghetto; deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being moved to Braunschweig work camp; the escape attempts; being sent on a death march to Wattenstedt and Ravensbrück in April 1945; outbreak of dysentery; liberation by Americans May 1945; being taken to hospital in Lubbecke, Germany; going to Sweden for training for Israel immigration; his immigration to Israel; adaptation to life in Israel; the War of Independence and his enlistment in the army; and his life since.

Rachel Kalisher, born in Sokoly, Poland, discusses her education; antisemitism in the public school; her attempt to leave for Israel; the war breaking out in 1939; Germans invading then Russians coming in; the separation of her family due to the “Iron Curtain”; their Russian ID cards; joining the rest of her family with the Russian takeover of Lithuania; the Germany entry into Lithuania; Lithuanian support of Germany; the anti-Jewish laws; being deported in Fall 1941; the Vilna ghetto; stories of the mass killings of Jews by Germans; hiding from forced labor deportations; escaping to the Bialystok ghetto; hiding with a Christian family; the underground movement; the transference of the Vilna ghetto to Lublin in February 1943; hiding in a bunker; arrival of the Russians; searching for a home and being unwelcomed; the remaining 30 Jews in Bialystok; joining the Brechah movement; the arrival of survivors from the camps and the stories emerging; returning to Sokoly; a pogrom in Sokoly by Poles the spring of 1945; joining Dror and being sent to a training farm in Waldenburg; immigrating to Israel with her mother; working with orphan children coming to Israel; joining the Lochamei Hagetaot Kibbutz; teaching school in Israel; and the development of the kibbutz.

Noach Kaplinski, born in 1909, in Slonim, Poland (now Belarus), describes studying medicine at the University of Vilnius; returning to Slonim when World War II broke out; the Soviet Army entering on September 19,1939; being arrested by the Soviets and expelled to Siberia; returning to Slonim and became the head of the hospital there; the mass murders of Jews after the Nazi occupation; the selection and role of the Judenrat and the Slonim ghetto; being marched with 20,000 Jews from other villages, including Masty, Pisc, Wilkomirsk and other villages, to a camp located between Białystok, Poland, and Wilkomirsk; the starvation and transports from the camps; going into hiding for a while and going into the forest to join the partisans; being liberated by Soviet soldiers; waiting six months for a certificate to go to Palestine; his opposition to relations with Germany; and serving as a witness against war criminals.

Avivit Kashiv, born in 1932 in Siauliai, Lithuania, discusses her family; visiting Palestine in 1935; the outbreak of war in Lithuania; the withdrawal of the Russians and the German occupation; her father starting a Zionist underground; how in July 1941 wealthy Jews were sent to Siberia; entering the ghetto in Carcas and conditions there; being in a children’s work group; smuggling food into the ghetto and bartering for food; going to another ghetto in Krakov in September 1943; mass murders committed in the ghettos; her deportation to Stutthof concentration camp; daily conditions at Stutthof; her selection for forced labor, digging an anti-tank ditch; the approach of the Russian front and evacuation of the camp; being marched towards Germany; her liberation by the Russians on January 1945; traveling through abandoned villages to Bialystok, Poland and then to Lodz, Poland; her time in Kibbutz Dror and a kibbutz in Landsberg; and her life before and after immigrating to Israel.

Iakov Kayun, born in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina in January 1905, describes his family and his father’s death in WWI; graduating from business school and working in a bank (Jewrejska Centralna Banka); being drafted in 1926 into the army for 14 months; his various jobs in the 1930s; the beginning of the German occupation; the killing of Jewish community leaders in Sarajevo by Germans and Ustasa; constructing a hiding place in the cellar of a building and creating a passage behind it and with the help; having opportunities to escape but did not want to leave his sister, who was active in the underground; finding out about a major roundup from his sister and their escape to Mostar, Bosnia and Hercegovina; staying in Mostar for three days and then escaping to Dubrovnik, Croatia; being transported to an internment camp on the island of Rab; life in this camp before and after the Italian capitulation; his underground activities such as leading a group of 405 people to a liberated area of St. Juray (Sveti Juraj); joining the partisans; life under communist rule; and his immigration to Israel.

Bronka Klibanski, born in Grodno, Poland (Hrodna, Belarus), in 1923, describes the entry of Germans into Grodno in June 1941; being forced into the ghetto with other Jews on November 1, 1941; entering the ghetto two with her family; being sent to the ghetto in Bialystok, Poland at the end of February; meeting with an underground group and their plans; working in a sewing factory and becoming from malnutrition; being recruited in November 1942 by Mordecai Tenenbaum as a courier and receiving Polish identification papers; passing to the Aryan side and working as a maid; details on Mordecai Tenenbaum and the content of his secret archive, which was discovered and saved; her activities helping people escape from the ghetto, finding sources of weapons for the resistance, and couriering for the Soviet resistance; the uprising in the Bialystok ghetto; her liberation in 1944 in Bialystok; her disappointment after the euphoria of liberation; traveling around Poland to Lódz and Gdansk and visiting displaced persons camps; and her immigration to Israel and work as an archivist at Yad Vashem.

Jack Klinger, born on September 22, 1920, in Poland, describes his family and their move to Trier, Germany when he was five; his father experiencing antisemitism and their subsequent move to Palma de Mallorca, Spain, in 1934; his family’s move to Paris, France when the Germans arrived in Spain in 1936; his unsuccessful attempt to leave Paris before the German occupation; being among 5000 Jews who were taken by train on May 14, 1941 to Pithiviers concentration camp; details about the camp; being transported in June 1942 to Auschwitz; the Polish underground in the camp, the Canada section, Kapos, and saving his brother multiple times; saving people by falsifying records; being selected to go to Birkenau in June 1942; the population of the camp, daily routine, and his work in the records office; being transferred in October 1944 to the Heinkel Werke airplane factory and from there to Kaufering camp near Dachau; his work; being taken in April 1945 to a camp of Russian POWs; he describes this camp, Buchenberg, and the prisoners' survival until liberation by the Americans; being reunited with his parents; being a witness in the trials of two kapos and of SS Hess; experiencing psychological problems and trying to adjust to normal life; and his later immigration to Israel.

Frieda Kobo, born in 1921, describes growing up in Salonika (Thessalonike), Greece within a strong Jewish community; how when Hitler came to power no one knew what to do or how to react; being sent to Auschwitz and her role as supervisor for other girls in Auschwitz; her work in the Kanada barrack; working on the train tracks; working in Brzezinka; music she sang in the camp; being marched on January 18,1944 out of Auschwitz to Gleiwitz and from there by train to Ravensbrück; being transported to camp Mecklenburg, escaped the camp and went to Neustadt, Germany; leaving the Russian zone and getting to the American zone, then to Brussels, Belgium and from there to Athens, Greece; her immigration to Israel; writing an account of her Holocaust experience; and her post-war Holocaust experiences in Israel.

Yehoyakim Kochavi, born in1922, in Berlin, Germany, describes growing up in a non-traditional Jewish family, attending Jewish schools, and encountering antisemitism; being involved in Zionist activities as a young person; leaving for Palestine in 1938 to escape the Nazis; returning to Germany in 1946; learning that his mother had committed suicide and his father had died during the war; living in Israel and not bringing up the past with his children.

Rivka Kooper (née Spinner), born in 1920, in Rzeszow, Poland, describes her family and education; her family moving in 1933 to Krakow, Poland, where she attended school and became active in the Zionist youth movement, Akiva; the arrival of the Germans; the establishment of the Krakow ghetto and life there; deportations and joining the ghetto underground; how she looked Aryan and managed to get a false identification with a false name; selling documents to other Jews for money, which they used to buy weapons; being arrested and sent to Birkenau; life in the camp; being sent in November 1943 to Reichenbach and then to work in a Telefunken plant; moving to Hamburg, then to Bergen-Belsen, and finally to Denmark, where she was liberated; moving to Sweden, where she met her second husband and worked with Zionist youth groups; how she became involved in the Haganah; going to Cyprus then to Israel; and her post-Holocaust life.

Shalom Kooper, born in March 1918 in Poland, describes his upbringing in an ardently Zionist family; his family’s move to Lódz, Poland; his unsuccessful attempt to immigrate to Palestine in 1939 shortly after the outbreak of war; the establishment of the Lódz Ghetto and his experiences there; his work in an orphanage in Lódz; the liquidation of the orphanage; cultural activities in the ghetto and the organization of youth movement; communists in the ghetto; working in a nail factory and a strike there; being deported to Auschwitz, where he stayed for two months; encountering one of his former students, Itzchak (Ilyia) Huberman; the camp orchestra and other cultural activities; experiencing a spiritual crisis; his arrival in Braunschweig, Germany, his work at Siemens at night; his journey to Ravensbrück; being liberated in Wobbelin; moving to Sweden and his work in Jewish schools there; being called to testify in the trial against Bokser after the war; and his immigration to Israel.

Yehuda Arie (Leo) Koretz, born in Hamburg, Germany in July 1928, describes his parents; the fates of family members; how in 1933 his father was appointed chief rabbi in Salonika (Thessalonike), Greece; the implementation of the Nuremberg laws in Salonika in early 1943; the natural ghetto in Salonika; his family being taken to Baron de Hirsch camp, where they stayed until August 2, 1943; being deported to Bergen-Belsen; camp life of Belsen; life in the camp including his jobs, medical care, and the conditions; being evacuated towards the end of the war and his liberation by Soviet soldiers; returning to Salonika and immigration to Palestine; his post-war profession and family; and the rehabilitation of his father's reputation.

Edit (Dita) Kraus, born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) on July 12, 1929, describes her assimilated Jewish family; going into the Terezin (Theresienstadt) ghetto in 1942; participating in cultural activities in the ghetto, including operas, drawing and painting, and taking art lessons from Friedl Brandeis; the death of many of her older relatives in the ghetto; being sent to Auschwitz in December 1943, where she thought about committing suicide; being moved to a work camp in Hamburg, Germany, where she removed debris of collapsed buildings and worked in distilleries along the Elba River; being sent to another forced labor camp, Neugraben, then camp Tiefstock, and then to Bergen Belsen; her return to Prague; and her immigration to Israel.

Mati Landshtein, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1929, describes her family and attending a Jewish school; the Germans entering Warsaw and his family moving to the ghetto in August 1940; his brother being shot to death; his father’s death in 1942; being put on a child transport to Treblinka; escaping the transport and returning to the ghetto; escaping into the woods in 1942 with a group of children; the German and Polish underground; escaping from the forest and working for two different peasants; the 1945 Russian invasion and returning to Warsaw in search for his brother; going to Lodz and becoming a member of a kibbutz; going by boat in 1947 to Palestine via France and Italy; being detained in Cyprus for four months; going to Israel to Kibbutz Govrin then Jaffe; moving to Germany then Brazil; and his post-war family and life in Brazil and Israel.

Abraham Larva, born in 1922, in Siauliai, Lithuania, describes his pre-war life, including joining a Maccabi youth group and attempting to immigrate to Israel; the German entry into Siauliai; being taken to work at a mass burial of Soviet POWs; escaping and working for a peasant, digging ditches at an airport and working in a leather factory until 1943; being sent to work at a camp outside of the ghetto; returning to the ghetto, where he worked in a tannery; life in the ghetto, including schools, songs, weddings, court, hospital, births, and abortions; escaping from the ghetto to the forest with a group of six; life in the forest and meeting with Lithuanian communists who gave them food and weapons; being liberated and joining the Russian Army; returning to a burned-out Siauliai; going to the Landsberg displaced persons camp; receiving a visa from his aunt to go to the United States; and his family and life in Israel.

Naftali Lavie, born on June 23, 1926, in Kraków, Poland, describes living in Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland; how his father was the rabbi of the community in 1935; his Bar Mitzvah in July 1939 in Krakow and what he saw on the way to Krakow and Jewish life in the city; the beginning of the war, including bombings and people fleeing to Russia; the creation, operation, and liquidation of the ghetto there; violence in the ghetto; the burning of synagogues; the expanding population in Piotrków Trybunalski and a typhus epidemic; life in Auschwitz, where he stayed in Block 23 for forty days; Birkenau and how he got out; hearing stories about Chelmno; transports from the ghetto to Treblinka; being transported from the ghetto to Czestochowa with his brother; being evacuated and sent to Buchenwald; the things he carried in his bag; being in Block 52 in Buchenwald then transferred to Block 8; his several jobs; working in Dora-Mittelbau; escaping from an evacuation train; going to Jena, Germany; coming down with typhoid fever; recuperating in a sanitarium in France, near Normandy; and his immigration to Palestine.

Genia Lebel, born in June 1927, in Nis, Yugoslavia (now Serbia), describes living in Nis until she finished kindergarten and the family returned to Belgrade, Serbia; the sudden bombing of Belgrade and the German entry on April 12, 1941; joining her old kindergarten teacher, Yelena, who was working for the partisans; obtaining documents and a new identity; the partisans' organization and their publication and leaflets; being arrested with Yelena on February 22, 1943; her interrogation and torture; being transferred through Serbia-Croatia to Mariburg on the River Drava and the conditions there; her escape, recapture, and transfer to a labor camp; assuming a new identity (Yoran Kalagy from Wiener-Neustadt); her assignments and how her translating skills helped her out on many occasions; going to Berlin, Germany and the bombardments there; how the Gestapo housed them in 31 Oranienburg near the Berlin synagogue that was burned during Kristallnacht; returning to Belgrade; experiencing survivor’s guilt; going back to school; working as a journalist for the paper Politika; seeing Jewish suffering, communism, and antisemitism in postwar Yugoslavia; being a political prisoner and writing a book on that period; being held on Goli otok and Sveti Grgur, where she experienced beatings and hard labor; and her immigration to Israel.

Juergen Levenstein, born in Berlin, Germany 1925, describes joining a Hachshara (Zionist) group to prepare to immigrate to Israel; antisemitism in Berlin after 1938; the closing of the Hachsara group; working in a farm work group in Schnibichen then Grutens; his deportation to Birkeanu; going to Buna to work in the rubber factory; going to Zgoda to work in the cannon factory; being ill in Auschwitz; transferring to Monowitz to work in a factory; being transported to Mauthausen to avoid the oncoming Soviet forces; the liberation by the United States Army; walking to Linz, Austria; being hospitalized for a year with tuberculosis; immigrating to Israel; feelings about post-war Germany; and reflections on what occurred.

Chaim Levkowitz, born April 23, 1921 in Vlonia, Poland, describes the bombing of the town September 1, 1939; the creation of the ghetto; racial laws; the Judenrat; the Jewish police; moving to twelve camps; working in an ammunition factory; working on the Autostrada roadways; marching out of Langenscheid as American forces approached; liberation by the Americans; and the effects and lessons of the Holocaust.

Azriel Levy, born June 1923, describes his life and schooling in Kovno, Poland (Kaunas, Lithuania); the Soviet occupation; German occupation in June 1941; the creation of the ghetto; ghetto institutions and living; joining the partisan movement; getting caught and deported to Landsberg-am-Lech concentration camp in July 1944; escaping from a train to Dachau in April 1945; liberation by the Allies; immigrating to Palestine (Israel) ; and not discussing the Holocaust until the early 1990s.

Vera Levy, born in Zagreb, Yugoslavia (now Croatia), discusses growing up with a Zionist family; the German invasion; what happened to different members of her extended family; the difference between Italians and Croats, between “occupation” and “annexation”; the difficult winter of 1942; escaping to Split, Croatia and life there; being shipped by the Carabinieri between August and November of 1942 by boat along the Adriatic to Zadar, Ipag (Pag Island), and north to Novi Grad (Bosanski Novi) along the Sava River; being guarded by local Italian authorities; being isolated to be kept from partisan influence; being deported to camp Kalinska; self-rule and institutions within the camp; moving to the Island of Rab, Yugoslavia (modern Croatia); being guarded by Italian fascists; the uprising against the fascists when Italy gave up; the youth joining the partisans; remaining people at Rab Island being shipped to Auschwitz; returning to Zagreb, Yugoslavia in 1945; moving to Sarajevo, Yugoslavia (modern Bosnia and Herzegovina) in 1948; and immigrating to Israel in 1950.

Uziel Lichtenberg, born February 1916, discusses his Jewish family’s history in Poland; his family moving to Lodz, Poland in 1929; joining the Polish Army 1938; fighting against Nazis; being taken prisoner and sent to Stalag 2-A; arriving in the Lodz ghetto; escaping to Warsaw March 1940; going to the Kibbutz Grokhuv near Warsaw on the Vistula River; working with the youth Zionist group; leaving the ghetto and going to Slovakia near Poprad; being assigned to visit Slovakia and to organize the youth over the age of 18 for the Maccabi organization; fleeing to Hungary; receiving papers as a Christian Pole to live in Budapest; what happened to his parents in Lodz; being arrested in 1942 and taken to the Hodik military fortress in Buda as a suspect of espionage; being sent to other prisons in Hungary; being released from prison and being part of the Zionist underground in Hungary; and his journey through Constantinople to Israel.

Eda Lichtman (née Fiszer; also known as Ada Lichtman), born 1915 in Jaroslav, Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic), discusses the German invasion; being caught by the Germans; being transported to Sobibor and arriving in the camp; the treatment of prisoners by Ukrainian guards; the camp and living conditions; Eichmann’s visit to the camp; a group of painters from France and Belgium; preparing for the revolt; a prisoner uprising in Sobibor on October 14, 1943; escaping to join the partisan movement; liberation; life after the camps; immigrating to Israel; and her experiences educating people about Sobibor.

Eliezer Lidovski, born October 18, 1908 in Zhetel, Poland (now Dziatlava, Belarus), discusses the arrival of the Soviet troops; being identified as a leader of the Zionist movement; accusations and questioning by the NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) of the Soviet Union; being spared exile to Siberia; being cleared of all charges and his passport was returned; being caught by Germans in Minsk, Belarus; being sent to a military camp outside of Minsk; fleeing the camp; living in the Baranowice ghetto; living with partisans in Rovno, Poland (Ukraine); participating in the NAKAM (the Jewish Avengers); living in Italy with the Jewish Brigade; being caught by the British; internment in Cyprus; immigration to Israel; and adjustment to a new life.

Otto Lingfelder, born on November 29, 1915, in Jakovo, Yugoslavia (now Serbia), describes his early life and the Jewish community of Jakovo; moving to the city of Osijek, Croatia when he was a teenager; his vivid memory of the terrible day when the Germans came to Jakovo in their motorized units; trying escape to the Italian occupied territory with false documents; being taken by the Ustashi one night when they came bursting into the house looking for him; being transported by freight train with many others to Gospic, Croatia and worked several weeks for the local peasants; being rounded up after seven weeks and shipped to Jasenovac in August or September of 1941; living in Jasenovac I, the original section, and the poor living conditions there; his work at the camp, which included building, fencing, and enlarging the camp; working in a shoe shop that was later transferred to Stara Gradiska, Craotia, where he worked for several months; remaining in Stara Gradiska until 1943 when the boot shop was transferred to Lepoglav, Croatia; being sent back to Jasenovac; being transported at the end of 1944 to a factory manufacturing armored vehicles; the massacre of prisoners in Jasenovac; how on April 22, 1945 the last remaining inmates made a prison break, and details about their escape; running with two friends to the forest as the partisans made their attack; being held prisoner by the partisans and sent to Slavonski Brod, Croatia then Lupanje and Osijek; and being released and returning to his home.

Yehoshua Lior, born in 1923 in Lachva (Lakhva), Belarus, describes Lachva and the Jewish community there; life under Soviet rule from 1939 to 1941; the Wehrmacht entering the city on June 8, 1941 and how they took all men fourteen years and older to work; the creation of the ghetto on Passover eve in 1942; his current mission to publicize the Lachva ghetto so that others will know about it; the resistance movement in the ghetto and its young leader, Yitzhak Rochzyn; the revolt during the night of September 2-3, 1942; his escape and encounters with partisans who were not willing to accept him and shot some escapees; the death of his family in the ghetto; joining the Red Army and moving through several countries after the war, including Cyprus; testifying at war crime trials; and immigrating to Palestine in 1947.

Menashe Lorenzy, born in 1934, in Kluzh, Hungary (Cluj-Napoca, Romania), describes his family and his twin sister, Lea; the persecution of Jews by Hungarians and Romanians; the large Jewish community in Kluzh; his father being sent to do forced labor; the Kastner family and the later Kastner trial; being ordered to go to the ghetto in Czilastnocho; the liquidation of the ghetto after two months and being sent with the other inmates to Auschwitz; being marched out of Birkenau to the forest where they were liberated by the Russian Army; going to Katowice, Poland, and was taken with Italian prisoners of war to Belarus to the Slutsk prison camp; his post-war life and family; and how his Holocaust experiences influenced his thinking about the wars in Israel.

Clara Minskberg Ma'ayan, born on December 7, 1915, in Rzeszów, Poland, describes participating in Hanoar Hatzioni; attending the Institute for Judaic Studies in Warsaw; becoming a teacher and worked in the orphanage headed by Janusz Korczak; the Germans entering Rzeszów and her family members being taken to do forced labor; the drowning of Jews on Yom Kippur in 1939; trying to escape the city with her father; the secret meetings of the Hanoar Hatzioni; working in the ghetto and the Judenrat; escaping to Lvov (Lviv), Ukraine, and reuniting with other youth movement leaders from all over Poland; going to Vilna, Poland (Vilnius, Lithuania) in January 1940; her father’s death from dysentery; obtaining false documents from the Japanese ambassador stationed in Vilna and a representative from the Netherlands; returning to the Lvov ghetto, where she worked; getting married; being taken with her husband to Czortkow forced labor camp for three months; hangings in the Lvov ghetto; leaving the ghetto with false papers; living with a Polish woman as a Pole and traveling to Warsaw, Poland; the ghetto in Warsaw; the uprising in August 1944; immigrating through Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania to Palestine on the ship Transylvania; her post-war family; and the relationship of Israelis with the subject of the Holocaust.

Benjamin Maierchik, born in 1917 in Wloclawek, Poland, describes his pre-war family life and the Jewish community of Wloclawek; studying engineering to prepare for immigration to Israel and attending school in Warsaw; joining a Polish artillery unit; escaping and going to Mezerich; going to Brest, Belarus and his work there; moving to L'viv, Ukraine in Spring 1940; being arrested by the Soviets and sent to Rybinsk, where he was part of the project to build the port; Turgenievo camp; the conditions in Turgenievo; joining the Red Army in September 1942 and being sent to the Caucasus and Uzbekistan; joining the Free Polish Army; participating in actions in Smolensk, Russia, in the liberation of Warsaw and Poznan, and in a victory parade in Prague; Polish antisemitism; his journey to Palestine in 1948; and fighting in the Israeli War of Independence.

Avraham Maneleh, born in Benjin (Bedzin), Poland, in 1922, describes his early life and attending school; joining the Gordonia youth movement, a Zionist movement, in 1940; the German occupation of the city and the ghetto; being a member of the leadership of the underground resistance organization, which had a way of saving Jews by obtaining false certificates from Switzerland; receiving a certificate of Paraguayan citizenship; the efforts to save other Jews; being sent with some of his friends to a camp for alien citizens called Titmonic, in upper Bavaria in May 1943; conducting communal life and corresponding with people in Switzerland, Palestine, and Benjin; receiving food from the Red Cross; going for hikes, holding sport activities, and participating in cultural activities under German surveillance; staying in the camp for two years until liberation by the American Army in May 1945; how in the post-war period he helped survivors organize Zionist movements in places like Landsberg and Bergen-Belsen; and going to Palestine where he helped found the Kibbutz Netzer Sereni.

Hela Manesberg (née Finder), born in 1923 in a village near Bochnia, Poland, describes her family; attending school in Bochnia; how in 1939 the Volksdeutsche in the village took all Jewish property; her family’s move to one room in their maid's home; working in the forest; how in 1942 her mother, brother, and sister were taken on a transport after the first action; escaping with her brother and living together in the ghetto until November 1942, where she worked in a knitting workshop; being taken during the third action and transported to Trzebinia near Auschwitz; her arrival at the camp, searches, and physical exams; being taken by train to Auschwitz; escaping the train and returning to Auschwitz as a non-Jewish Pole; being interrogated by Germans and sent to jail in Wadowice, Poland, where she worked for the city as a cleaning woman; being released from jail and going by train to Kalvarija, Lithuania in May 1944; escaping from one Polish family to another, fearing discovery; the Germans retreating and killing all the Poles in the village where she stayed; returning to Bochnia and reuniting with her brother who returned from Siberia; her post-war marriage; and her move to Israel.

Iehudit Maraton, born in 1936 in Reghin, Romania, describes her family; the Jewish community in Reghin; the increase in antisemitism when the Hungarians came; the arrival of Jewish work groups in 1943; the Germans entering her town in 1944; being sent to the ghetto and life there; being sent to Birkenau on May 31, 1944; her arrival at Birkenau and the selection, showers, and supervision by Slovakian Jewish women; being transported after four days to Plaszow, where she worked in the quarry; being marched out to Gross Rosen, where they stayed for two weeks; being transported to Bergen-Belsen; being liberated by the British Army; and her return to Reghin, Romania to search for her family.

Yehuda Marshand, born in Amsterdam, Netherlands on September 27, 1914, describes his family; his childhood; working for a firm that imported metals; meeting his wife, Hetti, in 1935; the arrival of Jewish refugees from Germany in 1938; joining the Dutch Army and becoming an officer; how after the Germans occupied Holland, he met a woman in Amersfoort who was active in the underground and a nobleman who agreed to give him his name so he would have a new identity; living in hiding with a Christian family; going in 1943 to Groningen, where he had to give his documents to the manager of the hotel who had to give them to a German policeman; being captured and sent to 's-Hertogenbosch camp, where Yehuda worked for the Philips factory; being sent to Westerbork, and then Birkenau, Monowitz, Gleiwitz, Dora, and Nordhausen; his post-war life; and immigration to Israel.

Fredka Mazia, born in Sosnowiec, Poland, describes her early Jewish life and Zionist activities; her family’s attempt to leave Sosnowiec but returning home; the German invasion and administration and the establishment and functioning of the Judenrat; her husband, Yuz’ak, and his role in the Judenrat; helping in a hospital; the creation of the ghetto in 1943; deportations including one on August 12, 1942; joining the underground, attempting to help Jews escape; the death of her husband in August 1943; being arrested on a train to Krakow, Poland and imprisoned in Tchebinia then Katowice, where she was interrogated; her attempted suicide; being sent to Myslowice then back to the ghetto in Sosnowiec; returning to Katowice, from there to Zverdin and then to Budapest; getting certificates to go to Palestine by train from Budapest via Istanbul, Syria, and Beirut, Lebanon, and from there by taxi to Palestine; her reception in Palestine, her work in Italy assisting refugees, and her post-war experiences in Israel; and her feelings about the Holocaust.

Iasha Mazubi, born in 1920, in Czuczewicze in Byelorussia, describes his family and childhood; being sent by the Soviets to Lida; the bombing of Lida; how after the German invasion he escaped and returned to Czuczewicze; the Judenrat; the May 1942 assembly and selection of 2000 Jews who were executed; being among the young who were selected to work; the states of mind of people in the ghetto; organizing a group to escape and joining the partisans; life with the partisans and actions in which he participated, such as exploding bridges and trains; how they got ammunition; recruiting young men from the ghetto; a German action against the partisans in August 1943; the Bielski partisans; the deportation of all the Jews from Czuczewicze, including his family, were taken to Lida and then to Sobibor where they were killed; joining the Russian Army and being sent to Lida to be the administrator of a plant and stayed there until May 5; helping to organize the escape of Jews through Austria and Italy to Palestine; getting married in Italy in 1948; and going on a false passport to Israel, where he worked in the arms industry until retirement.

Moshe Meler, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1922, describes his family and being raised Orthodox; being aware of the deportation of Polish Jews from Germany in 1933; the start of the war; the establishment and functioning of the Warsaw Ghetto and its gradual extermination; working in road construction; conditions in the ghetto; being transferred to work in a nearby Opel factory, from which he was able to make periodic visits to the Ghetto; eventually being sent to Majdanek concentration camp and life there; working in a Hasag ammunition plant and being transferred to other labor camps including Skarzysko; being moved to Radom, Poland, into a prison only for a night; being sent to a place near the Felitzia River, where they had to dig trenches against tanks; being moved again to a transition camp, Sedziszow; being in Sedziszow for several months before being moved to Myslowice, where the Hasag factory was located; being moved again to Buchenwald and to Schlesien, and ultimately to the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia; being liberated by Americans; his immigration to Israel; and his post-war work life.

Itzchak Meres, born on October 8, 1932 in Kelme, Lithuania, describes his religious family and attending a Jewish school; the arrival of the Germans; an action in July 1941, during which women and children were taken to a huge barn from where they were taken out in groups and shot, including his mother; escaping the ghetto with his sister; the efforts of a Lithuanian woman and husband to hide them; being handed from one family to another; being taken in by a Lithuanian family who had six children, and staying with them until 1947; keeping in touch with his sister who was taken in by another family; life with a Catholic family, going to church, and learning to pray; and his post-war years; becoming a writer and having difficulty writing about Jewish themes; his novel “Zheltiy Loskut,” which is about life in the Vilnius ghetto; and his life in Israel.

Ya'akov Michaeli, born in Warsaw, Poland, in December 1929, describes his family; the beginning of World War II and going to live with an aunt in the Praga neighborhood, where he worked; having to go back to the ghetto in Warsaw; the typhus epidemic; how he and other youngsters sold things outside the ghetto and smuggled food; escaping to a village from the ghetto with the assistance of a Polish woman; passing as a Christian and working as a shepherd; receiving a false birth certificate from a Polish friend in Praga; moving back to Warsaw, living with a Polish woman, and working as a trader; the ghetto uprising; remaining in Praga; the German retreat in August 1944 and the Russians arrival; joining the Polish underground; being taken prisoner by the Nazis; the POW camp near an Opel factory; his transfer to camp Milberg, where he worked in an airplane factory near Dresden, Germany; being freed on May 3; his work at the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) camp in Italy; and his immigration to Israel.

Litman Mor, born in 1917, in David-Gorodok, Belarus, describes his schooling at Hebrew school; being in the Zionist youth movement; going to Vilna, Poland (Vilnius, Lithuania) in 1931 to attend school; antisemitism in 1933; the presumed and assorted escape options from Vilna during the late 1939 to early 1940 period; how at that time he was more afraid of the Russians who then deported Jews to Siberia than of the Germans; remaining in Vilna and obtaining assorted jobs in order to be saved from forced labor deportation; life in the Vilna ghetto and the crowded conditions; being a member of a five person underground cell working for the Judenrat and printing underground leaflets; escaping from the ghetto and going into the woods where he joined the partisans; being given assignments involving intelligence, getting food, collecting ammunition, and sabotaging airports and trains behind enemy lines; leaving the partisans at the end of the war; attitudes of the partisans towards Jews; spending time as a POW interpreter, assisting refugees to emigrate, and returning to his home and discovering the fate of his family; and his feelings toward Germans, Germany, and the emotional effects of the Holocaust.

Yosef Morgenshtern, born on July 8, 1922 in Subotica, Serbia, describes his family and living in Sremska Mitrovica; the German arrival on April 22, 1941, prior to which his father was then arrested and taken to a camp near Osijek; being arrested with his brother by the Ustashi; the family being taken to Zagreb, Croatia and put into prison; how his family had provided housing to two Jews who fled Germany in the 1930s; being transferred to Gospic; being transported after 20 days to Jasenovac II and his work there; the atrocities at Jasenovac, where he was held for about two months; being sent to Stara Gradiska, where he and his brother were assigned to work at the 'economy,' farm work; witnessing the murder of his brother; his life after liberation, including spending three years with the partisans and having various jobs; and going to Israel in 1947.

Yehuda Mymon, born in 1924 in Kraków, Poland, describes his family; the Jewish community in Kraków; his desires to go to Palestine in 1938 when he was a young scout leader; his knowledge of what was happening in Europe but did not believe it would reach Poland; the beginning of the war and the closing of schools; the underground schools and joining the Akiba movement; the family’s move in fall 1940 out of the ghetto to the suburbs; passing as a non-Jewish Pole and working for the army in road repair; joining the partisans and the actions in which he participated; being arrested and imprisoned; being sent to Auschwitz III, Buna IG Farben factory, where he joined the underground organization; going to the Gleiwitz camp; escaping and being imprisoned by the Soviets; joining a kibbutz group in Bucharest, Romania; joining the 'Revenge' group (Nakam) headed by Abba Kovner, and assisting refugees on their way to Palestine; details about the group’s plans; his feelings of loss at liberation; immigrating to Israel; his return to Poland in 1963 as an Israeli diplomat; and his reunion with a Polish family that had hidden him.

Alfred Naar, born in 1919, in Saloniki (Thessalonike), Greece, describes his family; battling antisemitism; life in the Jewish community; joining the army in 1940 and participating in the war between Greece and Italy; being sent to front near Bulgaria when the war with Germany started; "Black Saturday" in Greece when the Germans collected Jews and imposed special rules; how his family was taken to the ghetto and were transported to Birkenau; his arrival in Birkenau in February 1943; going through the selection process and conditions in the camp; his memories of Kapo Zeppel; meeting Mengele; the sonderkommando; marching to Auschwitz and the subsequent train ride to Warsaw, where he worked in the ruins of the ghetto; the march from Warsaw to Kutno and from there by train to Dachau; being sent to Muhldorf to a work camp; the American bombardments of Munich and the Muhldorf works; being put on a transport train to Poking; being liberated by the Americans; the killing of Germans by the camp inmates; being smuggled by the Jewish Brigade to Italy and from there on the boat Arlozorov to Palestine; being brought to Cyprus by the British; and arriving in Palestine in March 1948.

Zvi Naor, born on September 14, 1924, describes his family; living in Tyszowce, Poland; the burning of their town by the gentiles and moving to Komorov (Komarów-Osada); the arrival of the Germans and the establishment of anti-Jewish rules; being moved into a ghetto; going with his family to Tushab (possibly Tuczapy, Poland); the German’s arrival in Tushab; the murder of many Jews, including his mother, and hiding during the massacre with his sister; finding his friend Shimon; going to live in the Rubyeshov ghetto; going to Budzyn concentration camp; working in road paving; a plan to escape the camp; the execution of many people; being sent to Myelitz camp (possibly Myslowice) and the cruelty of the Jewish guards there; being sent at the beginning of 1944 to Vyelizka (Wieliczka) for several weeks then Flossenbürg; conditions in Flossenbürg; being moved to Litomerice, where he stayed for 10 months; his work in Litomerice and his experiences receiving medical care; being moved to Theresienstadt in April 1945; being liberated by the Russians; going to Italy before immigrating to Palestine; his reflections on his experience and teaching the Holocaust; and testifying in a war crimes trial in Germany after the war.

Shoshana Naor, born in Berlin, Germany in 1925, describes her family; experiencing antisemitism; Kristallnacht; being sent by her family to Denmark where she stayed with a few different families in Copenhagen and in the countryside; her correspondence with her parents and sister; the Danish underground moving her to Sweden where she decided to study to become a nurse; specializing in midwifery; learning the fate of her mother from the Red Cross and trying to immigrate to Israel through Belgium and France; arriving in Haifa after an arduous journey, but not being allowed to disembark; being sent to Cyprus; eventually going to Palestine; and why she felt she survived.

Lili Ofek (née Ticho), born in Vienna, Austria in 1923, describes her large close family who was assimilated but kept Jewish traditions; living in Floridsdorf (21. Bezirk); experiencing antisemitism; her family trying to leave Vienna; going in December 1938 to Holland with a group of children; her trip and arrival in a children's home; her parents’ escape to Czechoslovakia and eventual illegal journey to Palestine; her adjustment and life with 40 other children in Loosdrecht, Netherlands; how she was supposed to leave for Palestine in 1940 but the war broke out in Holland; being saved from going to a labor camp in Germany and taken care of by the Jewish underground; life and conditions in the Loosdrecht children's house; being taken with other children to Westerbork, where they worked in a factory; how she got out of Westerbork to the underground in Amsterdam from there to Rotterdam and from there to a safe house in Sevenum; her post-war work finding hidden children and organizing a children's house in Arnhem; and her reunification with her parents in Palestine.

Menachem Ofen, born in Debica near Krakow, Poland, discusses being a member of Hashomer Hadati; organizing an underground Yeshiva in his attic in the Tarnow ghetto; being involved in religious and spiritual resistance until the summer of 1942; how at the end of 1942 all Jews went into the ghetto in the poor section of town; being sent to Czechowice to work in an airplane factory; work conditions, life in the work camp, and his state of mind; being sent to Flossenbürg, Muelhausen, Sachsenhausen, Braunschweig, and Bergen Belsen; the liberation of Bergen Belsen; his immigration to Israel; and his thoughts about survivor syndrome.

Francis Ofner, born in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia (now Serbia), describes being raised by his grandparents in Schimanovski; his memories of World War I; his university studies in the 1930s; joining Zionist student organizations; studying law in Zagreb, Croatia; founding a revisionist group in Zagreb, which gave paramilitary training; developing the organization called Beitar all over Yugoslavia; the debate between Jabotinski and Weitzmann; Beitar's plans to kill Hermann Goering when he came to Zagreb, but he did not come; the head of the Joint, Spietzer, and how they bribed officials to give permits to refugees to go to Sabac, Serbia; establishing escape routes for refugees; his work in intelligence and his contact with Yugoslavian Intelligence; Germany entering Yugoslavia March 27, 1941; escaping with his wife to Budapest, Hungary, where he managed to get a visa to Turkey; the massacre of Jews and Serbs in Novi Sad; his meetings with Kalman Iure, Immanuel Springman, and Yoel Brand; their rescue work and illegal immigration activities in Turkey; being assigned to monitor radio transmissions; propaganda in occupied countries; and his various activities in Turkey during the war.
Eilie Ofner, born in 1915, discusses her early life in a philanthropic Zionist family; her music studies; her life in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia after the German invasion and the massacre of Jews and Serbians in Novi Sad; meeting her husband and working to help refugees; Schimon Brod, a Turkish citizen and his help in rescue efforts; and the rescue of Romanian Jews.

Leonid Issakovich Okon, born in 1929 in Minsk, Belarus, describes his family; the purges in the late 1930s; the bombing of Minsk when the war started; the German entrance into the city on June 28, 1941 and the hanging of Jews in those first days; the pogroms; the creation of a ghetto; how in 1942 Germans brought Jews from Hamburg and put them in a separate area of the ghetto; working at the Kroll factory carrying cement bags; how in early 1942, a Russian woman, whom his mother paid, took Leonid to the woods, where he found three partisans (two groups included the Belski and Zorin units); performing various missions inside the ghetto that included carrying messages and radio equipment; seeing the hanging of his mother and brother in Minsk; partisan operations and German attacks; joining a group of Soviet Army intelligence agents, who parachuted into partisan territory and served as their guide; how after Minsk was liberated he learned that his father was still alive; the post-war period investigations by the KGB; and his immigration to Israel.

Miriam Pinkoff, born in 1916, in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, describes her family, which has been in Holland since the 16th century; her parents and siblings; growing up on a farm; attending school; teaching in Orvacker School in Bilthoven, Netherlands with Jopp Westerwelt and his wife; the arrival of Jewish refugee children in 1938; returning to Loosdrecht, Netherlands in 1940 to start a school, which allowed Jewish children; becoming interested in Judaism and Zionism; her family’s reaction to the war and the fate of her siblings; the help of the non-Jewish population; her husband’s book; being part of the Dutch underground; hiding fifty children and assisting people to escape; trying to escape to southern France; being arrested and imprisoned in Westerbork and Bergen-Belsen; her life and work in Bergen-Belsen; the Chalutz group in the camp; being evacuated by train and being evacuated after two weeks; immigrating to Palestine; and adapting to life in Israel.
The recording ends with a group meeting between Miriam and her three adult children and includes their reaction to the tapes as well as a discussion of how the Holocaust experience affected the family.

George Politzer, born in April 5,1930 in Cadca, Slovakia, describes his family; attending a Jewish school; having a normal life until 1938; the Jewish community in Cadca; his Orthodox father and progressive communist mother; experiencing antisemitism from schoolmates; the arrest of his mother by the Slovenians in the early 1940s, her release after three months, and her escape to Budapest, Hungary; meeting people who escaped from Auschwitz in 1941 and how no one wanted to believe their stories; fleeing four months after his mother left; leaving in the spring of 1942 and going to Budapest; hiding separately from his parents in an institution for mentally challenged children; his father being caught with his false papers; going to live in Mukacheve, Hungary (now Ukraine) to live with his grandparents; being arrested after the Germans entered Hungary in March 1944; being deported and the journey in a cattle car; going through selection and pretending to be older than he was; receiving a number and being sent to the kinderblock when the guards realized his age; a scarlet fever epidemic; fighting to survive for the sake of his parents; getting sick, being temporarily hidden by his boss, but eventually being sent to the hospital; meeting with one of his previous nannies, who lived in Birkenau and worked in the Canada block; the people he met in the camp; contracting a rare disease; the murder of the Romanies in Lager A; hearing about the uprising in Birkenau; rumors of sexual assault in the camp; his weight loss in the camp; a huge selection in October 1944 and convincing Mengele not to kill him; being sent to work in Heinkel factory in Oranienburg, Germany; being attacked by a dog and hospitalized for three months; being shipped to Mauthausen; escaping the camp when the guards ran away one night; going to Wels, Austria; being treated by German prisoners of war in Hershing (possibly Hörsching); staying in a monastery in Melk for several days; his despair at hearing about his mother’s death; the loss of his faith; returning to Cadca; living in Zilina, Slovakia; smuggling Jews from Hungary to Israel; going to Israel; working on a kibbutz; and his thoughts on Israel.

Artur Posnanski, born on July 30, 1912, in Berlin, Germany, describes his family; being part of a Jewish organization (ILI); working for a Jewish social agency and taking 120 children to Denmark in 1935; bringing 30 children to Sweden in 1938; saving his parents eight times from transports; going to Hafilberg in the province of Brandenburg in 1938; going back to Berlin, where he was conscripted into forced labor; his brother going to Palestine illegally; being transported to camp Monowitz (a sub-camp of Auschwitz); the bombing of his barracks by the English; scarlet fever in the camp; selections in the camps; being moved to Buchenwald; being liberated and the condition of camp at the time of liberation; his post-war family life and immigration to Israel; and his views on post-war Germany.

David Pur, born in Siaulai, Lithuania in October 1924, describes his family and childhood memories; being in the Shomer Hazair youth group; the arrival of Jewish refugees; how in 1940 the Russians entered Siaulai and in 1941 the first German bombing occurred; his family's attempted escape to Russia; being caught by Lithuanian partisans and brought to a prison in Siaulai; the move to the ghetto; life in the ghetto and functions of the Judenrat; the beginning of an underground group, the leadership, and different functions of the group; the Massada and their relationship with partisans; being transported to Stutthof, then Dachau, and then a camp near Utting (Kaufering V), where 400 to 500 Jews from Siaulai were held; being taken back to Dachau; the death march from Dachau and being liberated by the American Army; helping to organize groups in displaced persons camps to go to Israel; going on a boat from France to Israel but being taken by the British to Cyprus; the fate of his mother and sister; eventually getting to Israel; and meeting his wife and her story.

Masha Putermilech (née Gleiterman), born in Warsaw, Poland, describes her mother’s active membership in the BUND; her father being apolitical; her wonderful childhood; being in a youth group; living on Nalewki Street; being 15 years old when the war began; the establishment of the ghetto in Warsaw; working as a seamstress and hiding; being recruited into the fighting organization in the Warsaw ghetto; the ghetto uprising and escaping from the ghetto to Lumyanky, a young forest with short trees; moving 50 kilometers to the Vishkov forest on the bank of the Bug River; meeting Russian partisans; how they obtained food and survived in the forest; meeting her future husband in the forest and how he took care of her and helped her survive; the Warsaw uprising and liberation by the Soviets; immigrating to Israel; and the memorial for the fighters who died in the rebellion of the Warsaw ghetto.

Emanuel Rassin, born in Moscow, Russia to a bourgeois family, describes his memories of the Russian Revolution; his family moving to Paris, France; attending a French boarding school; getting married; joining the army when he was 27 and going to the from for nine months in 1939; his family’s Jewish faith; belonging to the Jewish Zionist scouts led by Robert Gamzon; trying to escape to Morocco with other influential individuals from Bordeaux but being unable to do so; moving to Marseilles and joining the French resistance; the organization of the underground; arranging for forged papers for the combat group and helping Jews escape over the Pyrenees; working with monasteries to hide groups of children; going to Nice then Aiz le Bain; working with Gamzon and Levi to develop an escape route for groups of children into Switzerland; his sister being caught and her death in Mauthausen; how at the end of the war he worked on reuniting hidden children with their families; immigrating to Israel in 1951; and starting the Israel Oil Company.

Ivonne Razon, born in 1928 in Greece, describes living in a Jewish neighborhood; her family; her early life; how one night they heard that their neighborhood (“Baron Hirsch”) was surrounded by a fence and that a ghetto had been established; the start of the transports, but her family not going because her father had Yugoslavian citizenship; being 14 years old when she was sent on a transport to Birkenau; life in the camp; her work digging ditches; working in the Kannada Commando; going to Auschwitz; going on a death march from Auschwitz to Ravensbrück and then Malchow; working as a nurse; being liberated; going into houses and looking for food; entering a Soviet displaced persons camp, where she contracted typhus and had to stay in the hospital for a lengthy time; returning to Greece and immigrating to Palestine; experiencing depression; her difficult adaptation to a new country; and her reasons for telling her story.

Simon-Tov Razon, born in Salonika (Thessalonike), Greece in 1919, describes attending Jewish school; his neighborhood (number 151); being recruited into the Greek Army in 1939; being near the border of Bulgaria and in the mountains for 7 to 8 months in 1940; joining the partisans in 1942; obtaining a false identification card as a Christian with the name Simon Demandopolis; how their partisan base was in the caves in the mountains and there were women among their group; sabotaging the railroad stations; receiving orders to go to the villages and shoot so as to make it seem like they had large forces and thus encourage the farmers to join them; how his partisan division consisted of 3000 people, among them 10 to 15 Jews who got weapons and food from farmers; how after seven months after liberation he met friends from the Jewish Agency; his immigration to Israel; and his adaptation to that society.

Walter Reichmann, born in Vienna, Austria in 1918, describes his family moving to Britchova, Romania (Briceva, Moldova); attending public school and a trade school; belonging to Hashomer Hatzair and Maccabi; the expulsion of Jews to Slovakia in 1938; working in a Balia shoe factory (possibly Bata); moving to Pechov; the anti-Jewish laws in 1939; camp Patrouka; being caught in 1939, jailed, and enlisting in the Slovakian Army; being sent to Camp Zohor to build a canal; being taken to Zilina, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) at the end of 1942; being sent to Auschwitz, Buna, and Birkenau; working in the Canada barrack; the revolt and burning of Crematorium III; kapos; the Red Cross visit in 1943; the clinic in Auschwitz; surviving a death march from Auschwitz, and escaping from a march back to Slovakia; joining a Russian partisan group in the mountains and being sent on a mission to Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); working until being liberated by the Russian Army; digging anti-tank ditches; immigrating to Israel in 1949 with his family and the adjustment; and revisiting camps later in life.

Peretz Revess, born in 1916 in Horitz (Horice), Austro-Hungary (now Czech Republic), describes his family, education, and encounters with antisemitism; becoming a leader of the Maccabi movement in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); how when the Nazis came to power, Peretz's family arranged to escape to Budapest, Hungary; hiding in various locations in Hungary and assisting Joel Brandt in saving others; being liberated and assisting in bringing food to children's homes in Budapest; running the office responsible for children's homes and being responsible for over 1200 children; how most of the budget came from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee; immigrating to Israel and settling in a kibbutz; and the trial of Rudolf Kastner.

Nissan Reznik, born in 1918 in Yekaterinoslav (now Dnipropetrovs'k), Ukraine, describes how when he was a young child his family moved to Pinsk, Belarus; being active in Hanoar Hatzioni; the Jewish reaction to the Soviet occupation; going to the ghetto in Vilnius, Lithuania and joining the ghetto partisans; the underground organization providing training in the use of weapons, boycotting, and attacking German property; false papers and smuggled weapons in the ghetto; going to the Narocz forest and joining Markov’s partisan group; his group no longer being the Nekama and instead being called Komsomolski; how his group of nine prevailed upon Kazimir to allow them to join his partisans and he relented and ordered them to join the Vilnius group in the Kazan forest, where they remained until liberation in June-July 1944; how most of his group was comprised of women; his immigration to Israel on the "Transylvania;" the Israeli war of independence; and his post-war life.

Moshe Rodnitzky, born in 1923, in Svencionys, Lithuania, describes his family; attending technical school in Vilnius, Lithuania; his participation in youth group; the Germans entering Lithuania; escaping with his cousin and three others to Hlybokaye, Belarus; how he and his friends organized an underground unit and how they got weapons; being sent by the Judenrat to work in an ammunition dump; spending four months in the Vilnius ghetto with his family; life in the ghetto underground and the Jewish police; escaping the ghetto with several others and going to the Narocz forest; joining Fedor Markov’s partisan group under; the partisan’s attitude towards Jews; his unit going to the Kazan forest, where munitions were dropped by the Soviets; becoming the unit commander; his first action; how he and a large group of partisans destroyed railroads, fuel tanks, and supply buildings; the winter of 1943 and living in the village of Mankowicze; battling with the Waffen S.S.; going to Vilnius and bringing doctors (including Nissan Reznik) to the forest to help the partisans; several missions his unit went on before going to Berlin, Germany in April 1945; liberation; spending three to four months in a camp near Milan, Italy; his immigration to Palestine; and joining the Haganah in 1947.

Iakov Ronen (né Tybor Rosenberg), born in 1917 in a small town at the intersection of the Polish-Czech border; his family moving to Prešov, Slovakia at age five; being involved with the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement; life in the 1930s, including cultural trends, his Jewish experiences, and idealogical conflicts (the division between communism and fascism in his society and having to choose); his changing roles in the Hashomer Hatzair movement leadership; his activities, mostly supplying school programs, as youth movement activist, between the years 1939 and 1941; the persecution of Jews; escaping to Budapest, Hungary on a Danube boat and joining a penal unit in the Hungarian Army in 1942; escaping to Koszyce (Košice), Slovakia and Prešov; his activities in a youth movement; returning to Budapest, where his activities related to arranging illegal immigration and escapes for youth members; and immigrating to Palestine on March 6, 1944.

Simcha Rotem, born in 1924 in Warsaw, Poland, describes his family and early life; experiencing antisemitism in school; joining the Akiva Zionist youth movement; the first German decrees against Jews; being transferred to the Warsaw ghetto and living conditions inside the ghetto; life in the ghetto, including contact with friends, slave labor, and opportunities to trade for food with gentiles, the Judenrat, and on the black market; being involved in meetings of the resistance movement; going to Czerniakow; not being active in the first uprising; resistance activities and various hiding places; going to Krakow to contact partisan leader Michel Borwicz; the difficult conditions in Krakow prior to capture by the Red Army; and his illegal immigration to Palestine.

Shaul Sadan (né Charles Blaser), born in Rotterdam, Netherlands in 1925, discusses moving to Middelburg, Netherlands in the Zeeland area; his non-observant Jewish family; the respect and lack of antisemitism in the area; the Germans entering May 1940 and destroying Middelburg while taking Jewish property and goods; the family moving to Amsterdam and seeing the Jewish world for the first time; being sent to Westerburg and eventually being sent to Birkenau; volunteering for outside work in Warsaw, Poland and seeing some Nazi medicine being performed; being deported to Dachau then to Kaufering camp III, where he was wounded transferring huge concrete bags; becoming a translator for American units at liberation; returning to the Netherlands to find his father in Amsterdam and his sister elsewhere; the death of his two other sisters and a brother; and his thoughts about the ability to share Holocaust experiences and painful memories of concentration camps.

Gustav Schaumburger, born on December 6, 1925 in the small town Hlyboka, Ukraine; describes his family; his childhood; how in 1940 the Russians took back Bukovina, the Germans retreated, and how it affected daily life; how in May-June 1941 most Jews were ordered to move to a prescribed ghetto area; his family going to the Czernovitz (Chernivtsi) ghetto; life in the ghetto and having to forge and barter for food; being transferred to Mogilev-Podolsk, Ukraine; being liberated by partisans; the partisans distributing arms and ghetto conditions improving; the fates of his siblings; being recruited into the Red Army and sent to build an airport in Belarus; moving to Israel; and discussing his Holocaust experiences.

Leon Schwartz, born in 1923 in Cieszanov (Cieszanów), Poland, discusses his early family life; the Jewish community in Cieszanów; the Germans’ arrival; traveling from town to town to escape the Germans; working in Gogolin, Poland, building the highway between Berlin and Moscow; being taken to Markstaedt-Funfteichen labor camp; conditions in the camp; being sent to Flossenburg; being sent to Regensburg, where he worked on the railway; being liberated by the Americans; traveling within Germany; going aboard the ship the "Haportzim" to Palestine in January 1948; his reunion with his sister; and relaying his Holocaust experiences to his descendants.

Simon Srebnik (also spelled Shimeon Srebnick), born in 1930 in Lodz, Poland, describes the Germans entering Lodz, Poland in 1939 and moving the Jews to a ghetto; life in the ghetto; being caught and sent on a truck to Chelmno, where he was taken to the forest to build the crematorium; the brutal camp commanders; being among five prisoners who were told to lie down at which point he was shot and pretended to be dead; how a group of the craftsmen saw what was happening, took one of the guards prisoner, took his gun, and started shooting Germans; escaping from Chelmno and hiding in a peasant's house; being one of the two survivors of Chelmno and the psychological effect of his experience; and giving evidence at various war crime trials in Israel and Germany.

Yehoshua Shachar, born in 1925 in Debrecen, Hungary, describes his orthodox family; community life and incidents of antisemitism; the Germans entering Hungary in March 1944; the increasing restrictions imposed on the Jewish community; how his mother and her three sons were forced to pack and were pushed with others onto crowded trains; going to Vienna, Austria, where he worked in a school and in farms; being forced to march with thousands to Mauthausen; conditions in the camp; Kapos; being sent on a truck to Gunskirchen; liberation by Americans; escaping the camp when Russians took over and he returned to Vienna to contact the JOINT; finding his family in Debrecen on August 20, 1945; his immigration to Palestine; and his postwar life and family in Israel.

Shlomo Shafir, born in Berlin, Germany in 1924, describes being raised by his father and grandmother in Eitkoven, a small town in the Lithuanian east Prussian border; living with his father who moved to Kovno in 1938; the German take-over on June 22, 1941 and how antisemitism became much worse; moving to the ghetto with his father; editing and working on the underground news; mass killings in the ghetto; being deported with an aunt to Stutthof and then sent to Dachau on July 13, 1944; life in Dachau and his forced labor work; being transferred to Kaufering II and Kaufering I; continuing his extensive underground Zionist activities and even theater; their evacuation by train and march to the central Dachau camp; being liberated on May 2, 1945 and helped by villagers; going to Freimann displaced persons camp with the help of Jewish officers; spending two weeks in St. Ottilien hospital; staying in Bergen Belsen displaced persons camp; and immigrating to Palestine in April 1948.

Shlomo Shapira, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1924, describes his family; joining the Hashomer Hatzair youth movement; Operation Barbarossa and life in the Warsaw ghetto from 1941 to 1942, including death from hunger and typhoid fever; being sent to a labor camp and escaping; receiving a letter from his brother in Tarnów, Poland, which prompted him to escape posing as a Polish Christian; his escape and how he obtained false documents; liberation; his initial encounter with Soviet soldiers; going to Warsaw and seeing the destruction; life in the Föhrenwald refugee camp in Germany, where he learned carpentry; and his immigration to Israel.

Iosef Shapira (Szpiro), born in Warsaw, Poland on August 28, 1930, describes his religious family; experiencing antisemitism; the outbreak of war in 1939 and the establishment of the Warsaw ghetto; life and actions in the Warsaw ghetto; his sisters' survival on the streets; actions in the ghetto; being caught and detained in jail of Jewish police in the ghetto; different smuggling operations by children (he is one of the group described in the book, The Cigarette Sellers of Three Crosses Square by Joseph Ziemian); those involved in cigarette trade; working for peasants; liberation by the Russians in September 1944; life in Jewish children's home in Lodz; going to a displaced persons camp in Germany; preparations for aliya to Palestine; traveling on the SS Theodor Herzl to Palestine but being caught by the British and sent to a camp in Cyprus; and the adjustment to life in Israel.

Shlomo Shein, born in Krakow, Poland in May 1920, describes the German entry into Krakow on September 6; the looting of Jewish homes for three days in December 1939; the ghetto opening in March 1941; the nature of Akiva youth movement; his work in a garage and role as translator between German managers and Polish workers; moving to ghetto and the living conditions; being involved in the underground and obtaining false papers; how Moshe Zuckerman was good at faking rubber stamps; being caught, arrested, and sent to Montelupich prison, Auschwitz, Golleschau, Mauthausen, Oranienberg, Flossenburg, and Ganacker; spending two months in Auschwitz before being transferred to Golleschau, where was involved with quarry work lifting heavy stones; going by train to Mauthausen for one week and then to Oranienberg and Flossenburg until March 1945; working in the Ganacker airport and being marched out of the camp; escaping the march and being taken care of by a Bavarian farmer whose son was in the SS; staying in the Eggenfelden displaced persons camp; the conditions in the DP camp and the black market; his journey to Palestine: traveling as illegal immigrants through several countries, boarding the Atlit, and being caught by the British after a three week trip and sent to Cyprus, where they spent eight months before going to Palestine; living four years in the Kibbutz; and serving in the army during the War of Independence.

Ze'ev Sheinvald, born in July 1921 in Sochaczew, Poland, describes his family; being a member of Betar; the outbreak of war; escaping temporarily to Warsaw, Poland but returning to Sochaczew; being expelled from Sochaczew in February 1940; life in the Warsaw ghetto; escaping from the ghetto and working for Polish peasants; going to the labor camp Skarzysko; being transferred to Buchenwald; being sent to Schlieben to work in the munitions factory; being liberated in Mauthausen; his immigration to Israel; and his disappointment with the reception of Holocaust survivors in Israel.

Shaul Sagiv, born in 1924 in Linden Park, a suburb of Cologne, Germany (possibly Lindenthal), describes his family; his family moving to Arden, Netherlands in 1936; how at the beginning of 1939 the political situation became tense and he joined the Zionist youth organization; Kristallnacht, after which his father moved his business to Arnheim and the whole family moved to Amsterdam; returning to Arnheim when the German army entered Amsterdam; joining the Hachshara in June 1940 and went to a farm to work for a peasant; being ordered in June 1942 to go to a work camp but escaped and returned to work for a peasant; hiding in September with four friends in a forest; leaving after one month and returning to Arnheim; being taken by train to Westerbork, his arrival and initiation into the camp; friction between Dutch and German Jews in camp; how at the beginning of January 1944 the transports started again and he made a plan for his group to escape; his escape to Amsterdam and hiding out with a non-Jewish family while trying to get to France through Belgium; arriving in Paris, France and planning to escape to Spain over the Pyrenees; his train ride to Toulouse and his contact with the underground; his arrival in Spain, where he managed to get a permit to immigrate to Palestine and his adaptation to life in Israel.

Lucia Shimel (née Pinchuk), born in Minsk, Belarus, describes her family moving to Vilnius, Lithuania after the Russian Revolution; growing up in Vilnius and studying pharmacology; experiencing some antisemitism; the outbreak of war; the atmosphere during the German occupation; Germans sending Jews into the Vilna ghetto and her family's entry into ghetto 1; the organization of life in the ghetto; working with the underground and meeting with Abba Kovner; working with a group in Porobanek; forced labor in Bielowaka; hearing about the Ponary massacre; being ordered to assemble and leave the ghetto on September 23, 1943; her arrival and treatment at camp Kaiserwald in Riga, Latvia; being taken by train to Siauliai, Lithuania; being sent to Stutthof; being sent to Krumau with 100 women to dig trenches; being marched at the beginning of January 1945 for six weeks; being rescued by a Polish woman, who took care of her; immigrating to Palestine; and her adjustment to life in Israel.

Elimelech Shklar, born in 1919 in Zuromin, Poland (a village northwest of Warsaw), discusses his Hebrew classes in school; attending public school; the beginning of the attacks against Jews due to the death of Pilsusky in 1935; antisemitic attacks in his college work; planes dropping leaflets to Jews promising them a "new" year in September 1939; the bombing of a Jewish meeting point in the center of Warsaw on Yom Kippur; the forced labor of the local Jews and burning of the synagogue; his deportation on a train to Nowy Dwor (Novi Dvor; Novyy Dvor), Belarus, and ending up in the ghetto of Mlawa, Poland; hearing news about the Warsaw uprising and the conditions there; being deported in a regular passenger train via Czestochowa, Poland to Auschwitz; being sent to Birkenau; attempting to escape and buying a gun for protection; the experimentation done on Jewish women in the camp; the death march from Birkenau on January 18, 1945; being liberated and traveling in the Soviet zone toward Berlin, Germany; his plans to immigrate to Israel via France; and adapting to life in Israel.

The interviewee, born in 1926 in Belitsa, discusses studying in Vilna (Vilnius, Lithuania) before the war; blending in while in Vilna due to her blonde hair; the happiness of being under Soviet control with the invasion; the stealing of property by Soviets; her marriage in 1940 and having a daughter; her husband being taken to the Russian Army; the Germans burning the town as they advanced in 1941; deciding to run to Zetl (Dziatlava, Belarus), a nearby town; the second action in Zetl; going to Dvorets (Dvarets); being in charge of a group of 25 women who had to build a railroad; managing to escape the labor camp and live in the houses and attics of various people; eventually entering the forest and meeting up with partisans; living in a camp near the partisans and having to find food by themselves; the tragic liberation and not knowing where to go or where to return living in Lódz, Poland, for a while and then ended up in the Wittenau displaced persons camp before immigrating to Palestine; her adaptation to life in Israel; and her feelings about the Holocaust and losing her family members.

Amiel Shomroni, born in 1919 in Zagreb, Croatia, describes his family; joining the several youth movements, including Noar Echudi, Shomer Hatzair, and Bnei Akiba (Bnei Akiva); going to Palestine in 1939 but being sent back by the British; studying veterinary medicine; the Germans arrival in 1941 and his family being protected by General Kvatenik, who had been his father's patient; being arrested when the General was dismissed; how he, his wife, daughter, and father hid in a village near the Hungarian border; crossing the border and going by train to Budapest; getting papers to go to Szeged, Hungary; his immigration to Palestine through Romania and Turkey and via train through Syria; and his reflections on his experiences and why he believes he survived and others did not.

Moshe Shutan, born in Svencionys, Lithuania, describes his Bundist family; the arrival of the Germans and some of the Jews obtaining some weapons; hearing Radio Moscow encouraging youth to fight as Partisans in August 1941; also hearing Radio London and Radio Jerusalem; how he and others hid in the ghetto and were not on the official roster of inhabitants; joining the partisans in the Vilna Ghetto; his first assignment was to procure weapons; the various partisan groups and the politics involved with each; the poets Kacherzinsky and Sutzkever joining the partisans; the activities of the partisans in the winter 1944; encountering a retreating German Army on the way to Pleshtchenitz (Pleshchenitsy), Belarus with a Red Army detail; receiving an order to rejoin all other partisans in Minsk, Belarus; being stricken with typhoid fever and sent to the hospital in Minsk, where he stayed for over a month; being inducted into the Red Army in Minsk; leaving Russia in December 1946 through Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and Cyprus; being detained in Cyprus for two years; and finally arriving in Israel in January 1949.

Tzvi Shpigal, born in January 1915 in Budapest, Hungary, describes growing up in Muncacz, Czechoslovakia (Mukacheve, Ukraine); enlisting in the Czech Army but not being able to graduate from officer school because he was Jewish; being sent to several labor camps, including Košice; life in Auschwitz and Birkenau where he worked with twin children, helping to save children; and his present contact with those children.

Avraham Shpoongin (also Abraham Shpungin), born in 1921 in Yakovshtat (Jekabpils), Latvia, describes his village and the Jewish population; relations between the Jews; studying in Rīga, Latvia in 1939; the Russians entering in 1940; Latvian history and Jewish history in Latvia; being sent to the ghetto in Rīga, where he remained until 1942; the first action on November 30, 1941 (the Rumbula Massacre) and the second action in December 1941; the Judenrat; being taken to Kaiserwald transit camp and conditions there; volunteering with 200 others to work in Dondangen (Dundaga), Latvia, where he stayed from 1943 to 1944; the work and conditions in Dondangen; the advance of the Russian front advanced and hiding with a friend in a peasant’s barn for 11 months until May 1945; life in hiding and the help of peasants; and the German surrender and his liberation.

Baruch Shub, born in Vilnius, Lithuania on March 24, 1923, describes his family, who were Lubovitch; attending Cheder; the youth movements in school; attending a scout camp, where Aba Kovner was one of the leaders; the outbreak of war in September 1939; life under the Russian occupation; the entry of the Lithuanian Army; the Jewish community helping refugees; the typhoid epidemic in Vilnius; being caught by the Germans and taken to work unloading trains; the atmosphere in the ghetto, the Judenrat, and the Jewish police; planning to join the partisans, obtaining money and weapons, and contacting the partisans; arriving in the Rudniki forest and looking for partisans; the organization of groups in the forest; his unit being responsible for sabotaging trains; the bombardment and the siege of the forest; volunteering to join a Russian unit at the front and traveling through Eastern Europe after the German surrender; ending up in October 1945 in Bari, Italy at Camp Dror; his nine-day boat ride to Palestine in 1946; and his difficulties entering Israeli society.

Itzhak Shverzentz, born in Berlin, Germany on May 30, 1915, describes his father and Jewish home life; attending school; being in Jewish boy-scouts (Kadimah); antisemitism during his childhood and youth; Enzo Sereni as youth leader; taking refuge in Amsterdam then returning to Germany; taking teachers seminar in Cologne and teaching in southern Germany; working in the Aliyat Hanoar school in Berlin and participation in the youth underground in Berlin; the Kultur Bund; changing his name from Hans Yoachim to Itzchak; Kristallnacht and males being deported to Sachsenhausen concentration camp; posing as an Aryan in September 1942; escaping Berlin through Schafhausen and arriving in Zurich, Switzerland in 1944 to a refugee camp, where there were also German army deserters; his release from the refugee camp; working with a Jewish orphan group from Bergen-Belsen, periodically returning to Germany in order to teach and talk with students about his experiences; and his reactions to neo-Nazism in Germany at present.

Sima Skurkovitz, born in Vilnius, Lithuania in 1924, describes her childhood and attending school; her family and their religious life; incidents of antisemitism; the outbreak of war in 1939 and Lithuania taking over Vilnius; pogroms led by Lithuanians; going to Dobozce with her uncle; returning to Vilnius; the Judenrat and going into the ghetto; ghetto life, including singing and putting on performances; public hangings; the death of her sister in a Ponary massacre at the end of 1943; her activities in the ghetto underground; partisan songs written during the war; her work in Lódz, Poland with the puppet theatre; being taken with her boyfriend by train to Estonia; Sima talks about twenty-five camps; the Vivikoni (Werk IV Sillamäe) camp and her work in the kitchen; the emotional support that singing gave them; aktions in the camps; being taken to camp Narva, Kiviöli, and Stutthof and then taken by train to camp Neuengamme; conditions in the camp and work in the factory; preparing Chanuka celebration in the camp; being transported by train to Bergen-Belsen; being liberated by the British Army; working in a children's camp in Bergen-Belsen after liberation; serving as a witness at war crimes trials; and immigrating to Israel.

Shemshihu Spivack (born in Lithuania in 1920) discusses his family’s move to Palestine and return to Kaunas, Lithuania when he was nine years old; the Soviet Union occupation and trying to escape the Russians; the Germans invading and Lithuanians bombing everything while fleeing; the Germans placing all Jews in the ghetto in Kaunas; going out and trading goods of other ghetto residents for food; the Altestenrat dividing the community and the various abuses towards the groups; mistreatment from the police force; forced labor; the liquidation of the ghetto; being deported to Stutthof; being sent to Landshut, Mühldorf, and Waldlager; escaping from the trains after being forced from Waldlager; liberation by the Americans; being taken to Waldheim, Germany and then to a hospital in Heidelberg, Germany, where he recuperated; and his views of antisemitic Lithuanians.

Jacques (Ya'akov) Strumza, born in 1913, in Saloniki (Thessaloniki), Greece, describes his family; studying electrical engineering in Paris, France; the cultural life in Saloniki; being a violinist in an orchestra; joining the Greek Army and playing in the army band; relations between Jewish and non-Jewish populations in Saloniki; the introduction of the Nuremberg laws in Saloniki in July 1942; the SS closing the Baron von Hirsch quarter and making it into a ghetto in 1943; going on a transport train in April 1943, and arriving in Birkenau; being recruited as a violinist; being transported to Auschwitz as an engineer; working as an engineer in Messerschmidt air plane factory for six months; antisemitism from other inmates; camp life, the underground in the camp, and the revolt and the crematorium explosion; being accused of attempting an escape; the January 1945 death march to Buchenwald and Mauthausen; leaving Mauthausen with the advance of the French Army and being taken to Gusen; Gusen in detail; being liberated by the American Army in May after two weeks; not wanting to return to Greece; being sent to Nice, France, to recuperate; and later going to Palestine.

Tzvi Tatarko (born in Bedzin, Poland, in 1924) discusses his family; attending school in Sosnovitz (Sosnowiec) and Bedzin; the Zionist youth groups in Sosnovitz; the outbreak of war; going with his siblings to Radom; being sent to the large ghetto in Radom, Poland, in 1940 and working in a factory; the 1942 action in a small ghetto; being taken to Shkolna work camp after the Radom ghetto was destroyed; working in an arms factory with 2000 to 3000 other workers; the killing of mothers and children in the camp in winter of 1943; the Judenrat in the ghetto and the Jewish community; the camp changing from a work camp to a concentration camp; the march from Radom to a train in Tomaszów Mazowiecki and from there to Auschwitz and then to Weingens concentration camp; hearing about the Warsaw ghetto uprising; the camp and his work there; the French Army arriving and being liberated in April 1945; the French Army taking them to Neuberg, Germany, to recuperate; leaving Neuberg to search for his sister; going to a kibbutz near Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and leading the group in preparation to go to Israel; his immigration to Israel and adjustment to life there; living after the Holocaust; fighting in the Six Day War after joining the Israeli Army; and the important lessons to be learned from the Holocaust and WWII.

Ruth Tatarko, born in Hrubieszow, Poland, describes how it is difficult for her to remember her experiences in the Holocaust since she blocked most of it; entering school in 1938 in Chelmce, Poland and staying with a teacher; her father enlisting in the Polish Army when the war broke out; hidding with her teacher and passing as Christian; returning home and becoming a messenger in the underground; an action in 1942 and escaping to her teacher’s home; being sent to the work camp Yadkov (possibly Jadów) at the end of 1942; the work and living conditions at the camp and being saved many times by a gestapo named Wagner; being sent to the Mielec camp; working in camp Vielishew (possibly Wieliszew or Wieliczka concentration camp) at an underground airplane factory; being sent to Plaszow; her work and state of mind; joining a transport to Auschwitz; the selections, showers, food, and Kapos; getting sick but recovering; being selected for office work to forge documents; the bombing of the crematorium; being taken in 1944 to Mühlhausen and working in a weapons factory, etching and doing graphic work; being taken to Bergen-Belsen and the horrors of the camp; how she got food and managed to stay alive; being liberated by the British Army; joining a kibbutz (“Nocham”) in Frankfurt am Main, Germany; her relationship with Germans; studing fashion design in Germany; working and teaching in Israel; her regrets of not giving her testimony sooner; the voyage to Israel; and her life in Israel.

Avraham Tory was born Avraham Golub in 1910, in the small town of Lazdijai, Lithuania. Avraham was hiding in Kovno when war broke out on June 22, 1941, and began to write his diary which he kept for three years. He describes life in the Kovno ghetto and life in hiding for four and a half months. He discusses leaving Kovno to go to Vilna, and in February 1945, escaping to Lublin, Poland. He describes the escape route through Bucharest, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, crossing the Austrian border and subsequently into Italy, where he became active in the illegal immigration movement. He arrived in Tel Aviv, Palestine, on October 17, 1947; he discusses his early years in Palestine, as well as the sequence of events that led to the publication of the Kovno Ghetto diary

Zachar Trubakov (born in 1912 in the village, Surazh, Bryanski district, Russia) discusses the family moved to Kiev, Ukraine, where they would live until 1941; avoiding execution by the Gestapo and being taken to the village, Svirek, to work in 1943; the partisan movement and the fakes hired by the Germans to capture Jews; the 100 Jews from Svirek that were taken to Babi Yar and forced to dig up bodies of Jews who had been murdered and then burn the bodies; how three hundred twenty-seven persons tried to escape en masse, but only fourteen survived; how he did not know which way to go after escaping but one man from the village gave them shelter and showed them to the direction of the village, Kerosiry; how his wife and daughter were found soon after and moved to the village, Fastov (Fastiv), to be with his wife's relatives; and how the relatives were afraid to keep them so they stayed with another woman in Fastov until Kiev was freed; writing a book about his experiences; the German treatment of women in the camps; the war crimes trials against the Germans in the camps; the deaths and burial of Jews in Babi Yar and the Germans trying to prove they did not kill the Jews in the camps.

Liza Chapnik, born in Grodno (Hrodna), Belarus, in 1922, describes her religious family; finishing school in 1941; leaving Grodno with her brother and sister, heading to Direchina (possibly Dziarechyn), Belarus, where they satyed with relatives for a few months; going to Slonim, Belarus, in August 1941 and returning to Direchina; returning to Grodno and hiding with her family; the deportation of her family members; members of the underground organization in Grodno making her an identity card with the Polish name Bpozovskaja Marisha; working as a member of the underground organization and moving to Bialystok, Poland; her task of finding a few secret apartments in Bialystok that would be good for her and other members of the underground organization; working with her friends to deliver weapons for people involved in the uprising in Bialystok; delivering secret information about places that were mined by the Germans during occupation; Bialystok and Grodno being freed in July 1944; going to Moscow, Russia in 1945; and living in Israel since 1944.

Sara Umelinsky, born in 1924 in Wlodawa, Poland, describes her Hassidic family; the German invasion and occupation of Wlodawa, the short-lived Soviet takeover, and the subsequent German reoccupation; the murder of the Jewish Polish prisoners of war in 1940; the selection of Jews in Wlodawa to be sent to construct Sobibor camp; the actions against the Jews in Wlodawa; being able to obtain false papers, which a Polish person traveled to Lublin to obtain for her; escaping from Wlodawa after the final action in May 1943; going to Oudampol (Adampol), Poland; deciding to join the partisans and life with them; moving to the partisans family camp in Parczen; going with the partisans to Pinsk, Belarus, and serving as one of the guards of their encampment; antisemitism amongst the partisans; fleeing in March 1944 until they met the Red Army; doing laundry for the army in exchange of salt; getting married to another partisan and moving to Gomel, Belarus, then Minsk, Belarus; the birth of her children in an UNRRA camp in Berlin, Germany; and immigrating to Israel in November 1948 on the American ship the SS Galila.

Zipora Vardi (born in 1928 in Sátoraljaújhely, Hungary) describes her family life; the government’s mistreatment of Jews; the beginnings of war in Europe in 1939; the German occupation of Hungary in 1944; the establishment of a ghetto; arriving in Auschwitz-Birkenau; the death march from Auschwitz-Birkenau on January 18, 1945; arriving in Ravensbrück; being moved to Neustadt-Glewe camp; liberation; her arrival in Szczecin, Poland; traveling to Prague (Czech Republic), Bratislava (Czech Republic), Michalova (Czech Republic), and Budapest (Hungary); going to the displaced persons camp in Wintzenheim, France; and immigrating to Israel.

Avraham Weitzman, born in 1924 in Radom, Poland, describes his parents; his older sister and younger brother; his parents’ successful shoe business; growing up observant; being a member of Hashomer Hadati, Akivah, and Massada; his education; his extended family; the annexation of Austria; the German invasion; his mother’s reluctance to leave; Polish collaborators; the persecution of Jews and restrictions imposed; the black market; the Judenrat (Jewish council); forced labor; Passover in 1940; being sent to study mechanics for 10 months in a weapons factory in 1941; how the Jewish police were selected; the creation of the ghetto; his role in family underground business of selling the hidden leather stock to Polish shoe manufacturers; the conditions in the ghetto and his informal education there; the round ups and deportations; the Judenrat organizing a course on precision mechanics; hearing rumors about atrocities in other towns; the two ghettos in Radom; working in construction in a factory; feeling very isolated and lonely; leaving and working in a coal unloading and distribution plant; not eating bread during Passover in 1943; going to Pionki and working in the bicycle maintenance section; conditions in the barracks; being left behind as most of the prisoners were sent to Auschwitz; his work digging trenches; being sent to Chestochova, Poland, where they boarded a train for Berlin, Germany; being transferred by truck to Oranienburg, Germany, where they entered Sachsenhausen; seeing the words “Arbeit Macht Frei”; receiving an ID number and being quarantined for six weeks; German prisoners in the camp; studying German in the camp from a Nazi paper with the help of a professor from Munich; Yom Kippur in 1944; his uncle’s arrival to the camp; being sent in October 1944 to Glöwen, Germany to work in DAG factory, where Abraham was appointed as manager of the new arrivals; being in charge of food distribution and barracks cleaning; being transferred to Bergen-Belsen; working in a factory in Rathenow, Germany that produced airplane wings; the conditions in Rathenow; liberation in April 1945; going to Berlin to make contact with refugee organizations; returning to Radom; living in Neuruppin, Germany; immigrating to Israel in 1948; UNRRA’s displaced persons camps; helping the Zionists send people to Palestine from 1946 to 1947; and his work preserving Holocaust memories.

Ana Vinocur, born in Lódz, Poland, on September 25, 1926, discusses her family life; the Nazi invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939; establishment of the Lódz ghetto; discussion of Chaim Rumkovsky; the liquidation of the ghetto; arriving in Auschwitz and life there; her arrival and life in Stutthof; a female kapo; singing for an extra ration of bread; contracting tuberculosis; liberation; immigrating to Uruguay; the publication of her book, "A Book Without a Title;" and her work with other survivors in Uruguay.

Misha Vruvlevski (aka Mischa Wasserman or Michal Wroblewski), born in Pinsk, Belarus, on September 29, 1911, discusses his family life and schooling; the pogroms in Poland against the Jews in 1917; moving to Warsaw, Poland, and working for Janusz Korczak at his Jewish orphanage as a nurse for children in the late 1930s; war breaking out on September 1, 1939; moving into the orphanage; the orphanage becoming part of the Warsaw ghetto; buying a railroad ticket to L'viv, Ukraine; moving to Kiev, Ukraine; joining the Red Army near Kiev; joins first Polish Army part of the Soviet Army in 1944; becoming an officer and fighting from Elbe to Berlin, Germany; Cherniakov and the Jewish police in ghetto, Jewish collaborators, and the resistance movement; heading the Korczak committee in the 1960s; moving to Sweden in 1979 to work in orphanages; being honored by UNESCO; and the spread of Korczak’s ideas.

Mira Warbin, born in Vilna, Lithuania, on October 25, 1919, discusses her family life; pre-war antisemitism; going to Częstochowa, Poland to the Hachshara to undergo agricultural training in 1938; war breaking out between Germany and Poland on September 1, 1939; how her father was taken to Ponary, Lithuania and murdered; the establishment of the Vilna ghetto; her work in an experimental agricultural school; the fates of her mother and sister; an encounter with Rushka Korczak; her thoughts about Jacob Gens; meeting Abba Kovner while in the underground; Narocz forest partisans, the Rudnicki underground; antisemitism among partisan groups; arriving in Kazan, Russia; a camp in Kazan, Russia; the liberation of concentration camps; activities with the avengers group; traveling to Romania, Italy, Germany, and France; and immigrating to Israel.

Yaakov Wasserman, born in Kraków, Poland, in 1926, discusses his family life; outbreak of war in Kraków, Poland, when he was 13 years old; working in sugar fields in Prokocice, Poland; being transported to Swoszowice, Poland; being taken in cattle cars to a camp in Prokocim, Poland; life in the Kraków ghetto; working in Plaszów; being taken by truck to Schindler’s camp and then to another camp, where he worked in an airplane factory; the barracks, Kapos, and Jewish police; details about Schindler; being separated from his father and taken to Mauthausen; a march to Gusen I and Gusen II; returning to Mauthausen; arriving in camp Gunskirchen; being liberated by Americans; life in an American displaced persons camp; revenge actions; and travel through Italy to Palestine.

Rita Yamberger Weiss, born in 1926 in Domokos, Romania, discusses her family life; antisemitism; men being taken to Ukraine to clear mine fields; life under the anti-Jewish laws; life in the ghetto; working outside of the ghetto in a hospital; her arrival in Auschwitz-Birkenau; being taken by train to Stutthof; the work camp in Krottingen (Kretinga), Lithuania; working in a Wehrmacht factory shipping uniforms; work, hygiene, and religion in the camp; seeing the bombardment of Memel (Klaipeda, Lithuania); being evacuated to Stutthof; a Ukrainian Blockälteste and the crematorium in the camp; a Polish Kapo; prostitution and births in the camp; getting sick and being saved by a Wehrmacht man when all the other women were taken away; being liberated by the British; being sent to a sanitarium in Neustadt, Germany; being sent to a relocation camp in Schleswig Hollstein; meeting Jewish Brigade soldiers; revenge activities; traveling in Germany to Hamburg, Bergen Belsen, and Feldafing; going to Budapest, Hungary then Romania; traveling through Austria to Vienna, Linz, and Salzburg, and going to Munich, Germany; going to Italy with the help of the Bricha movement; her arrival in Israel in June 1947; the effects of her Holocaust experiences on her life; and her application for restitution.

Mordechai Weiss (born in 1926 in Balassagyarmat, Hungary) discusses his early family life; Jewish life before the war; pre-war antisemitism; the German entrance into Hungary in March 1943; the establishment of the ghetto; working in various unnamed labor camps; being moved closer to Budapest, Hungary, as the Soviet Army advanced; his knowledge of the extermination of Jews in Poland and Eastern Europe; being taken by train to the Austrian border in December 1944; digging anti-tank tunnels in another unnamed labor camp; maintaining his religiosity; being taken to Mauthausen; traveling through Vienna, Austria; the death march leaving Mauthausen; arriving in Gunskirchen; being liberated; returning home and the destruction of his hometown; traveling to Budapest, Hungary; preparing to immigrate to Palestine via Italy; the fate of his immediate family members; holding the Germans responsible for their actions during the Holocaust; relaying the stories of his Holocaust experiences to his children and grandchildren; and the adjustment to life in Israel.

Kalman Wexler, born in January 1920 in Lódz, Poland, discusses his family life; being involved with the Bund movement; pre-war antisemitism; walking to Warsaw, Poland, when the war began and returning to Lódz; the creation of the Lódz ghetto its leadership; hidden radios in the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto; being sent to Oranienburg and Sachsenhausen; being liberated by the Russians; returning to Lódz; and leaving for Israel in 1948.

Shlomo Wolkowitz, born in 1922 in Jagielnica, Tarnopol district, Galicia, Poland (now IAhil'nytsia, Ukraine), describes his family; studying in L'viv, Ukraine; the German invasion; prohibitions and life during that time; the Russians fleeing and the heavy bombing in L'viv in 1941; going to Zolochiv, Ukraine; avoiding a roundup with his uncle; being caught and sent to a former fortress with other Jews, where they were made to remove the bodies of executed Ukrainians and bury them; surviving the subsequent massacre of Jewish forced laborers; staying with his uncle in Zolochiv; moving to Voroniaky, Ukraine; living with a Polish family; making a fake ID; working on a farm; returning to Jagielnica; being detained and tortured by Ukrainian police; his escape from prison and return home; the Judenrat in Jagielnica; a German officer, Ludwig Zemrod, taking over his father’s tobacco factory; an Action in the summer of 1942; a work camp being established nearby; working for Zemrod at the factory; buying a gun; the liquidation of the work camp and hiding in the sewer; escaping to the forest; his friendship with Zemrod; his feelings at the time of liberation; being put in charge of a large metal factory in Chortkev, Ukraine; producing replacement parts for the vehicles used by the Russian army in the southern front; going to Kraków, Poland; living in the displace persons (DP) camp in Steyr, Austria; being transferred to DP camp Braunau, Austria; moving to Salzburg, Austria; immigrating to Israel; working for three years as a representative of an Israeli company in Germany; his encounter with the Zemrod family after the war and getting Yad Vashem to honor them as Righteous Gentiles; testifying against S.S. war criminals; and his relations with Germans and Israelis.

Shlomo Yashuner, born in Vilna (Vilnius), Lithuania, in 1919, discusses his family life; Hashomer Hatzair activities; events in Ponar (Panieri Woods) outside of Vilna; the establishment of the Vilna ghetto in late 1941 and its organization; joining the partisans (“Revenge” group) in late 1943; partisan activities; partisan commanders; returning to Vilna in July 1944 as the Russians entered; traveling in 1945 via Austria, the Alps, and Italy; being detained in Cyprus; and his arrival in Israel.

Bela Yehuda, born in Salonika (Thessalonike), Greece, in 1924, discusses Germans arriving in 1942; being taken to the Jewish section of town; being sent to the Baron Hirsch camp; being sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau; working in a munitions factory; march to Breslau, Germany (Wroclaw, Poland); being taken by train to Ravensbrück; liberation by the American army; life in Berlin, Germany, before being repatriated to Greece; returning to Salonika; and her immigration to Israel in 1963.

Yitzhak Phillip, born in 1906 in Recklinghausen, Germany, discusses his family life; his father’s participation in WWI; his membership in the Maccabi organization; Kristallnacht in Recklinghausen; being sent to Buna in Auschwitz in 1941; working in the Buna tire factory; his friend, Walter Blum; the march from Buna to Gleiwitz; a six day train ride; a camp (possibly Neuengamme) in Germany and the British bombarding the brick factory there; finding a refugee organization and getting papers; traveling to Berlin, Germany, Kissel, Germany, and a Kibbutz in Buchenwald; being sent by the Jewish Brigade to bring groups of refugees from Dusseldorf to Antwerp, Belgium; the camp in Antwerp; being taken by truck to Marseille, France; being taken by boat to Palestine; and returning to Recklinghausen, Germany, for a visit in 1962.

Zvi Za'ira (né Herman Kline), born in 1928 in Szirma, Hungary, discusses his family life; pre-war antisemitism; schools in Szirma; his family wanting him to become a rabbi and being involved with Jewish cultural activities; life for Jews worsening in 1938; the Ukrainians ruling for 11 months with a platform of hatred to the Jews; life under the Czech regime; being taken to the ghetto in May 1944 in Szelicse (Za’ira states that it is an hour walk from Szirma); being sent to Auschwitz and his arrival there; transport to the Warsaw ghetto in a work detachment; walking to Kutno; transport to Dachau to camp number 7 (Kaufering VII or Erpfting Concentration camp); working in the nearby forest; his work disposing of bodies into an open mass grave; experiencing a crisis of belief; liberation; traveling to Pilsen (Czech Republic); going to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); returning to Szirma; and his immigration to Israel from Constanta, Romania, in January 1949.

Pinchas Zabludovitz, born in Poland on January 6, 1924, discusses his family history and growing up in Ciechanow (Cieszanów), Poland; the outbreak of war on September 1, 1939; traveling to Warsaw, Poland; returning to Ciechanow; life under the severe restrictions of the Gestapo; being assigned to work for a German; the treatment of the handicapped; attempting to escape to Russia; being deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau on November 4, 1942; his electrical work in Auschwitz; living in barrack number 16 and the various barracks; his brother hoarding explosives for the underground and the explosion in the crematorium; the wrestler Shimshon Eisen; the 80 km death march; arriving in Gross Rosen; being transported to Dachau; liberation by Americans on May 1, 1945; the reunion with his brothers; and traveling to Israel via Egypt in 1945.

Magda Zalikovitz, born in 1915 in Budapest, Hungary, discusses her early family life; her twin brother; her Zionist upbringing; getting married in 1936; the outbreak of war; the establishment of the Munkacz (Mukachevo, Ukraine) ghetto; arrival in Auschwitz; being selected for the twin group; being forced to run to Ravensbrück; liberation; returning to Munkacz; living in Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic) for five years; her immigration to Israel; and sharing information about her Holocaust experiences with her children.

Mordechai Zeidel, born 1926 in Svenicionys, Lithuania, discusses his family; the arrival of the Germans; escaping to camp Poligon; returning to the ghetto Vilnius; going to Ponar by truck; his cutting trees and dig pits to burn the bodies from the mass graves; the killing of a group of Dutch Jews; escaping from the camp; joining a group of Jewish partisans; escaping an ambush and making it to the Rudninkai forest to Abba Kovner’s partisan unit; life with the partisans; life under the Russians; how he had been sent to Ignalina, Lithuania while his family was sent to Siewierz; participating in the battle to liberate Vilnius; being recruited to the NKVD; going to Palestine and the group he was traveling with; the effects of his Holocaust and World War II experiences; the difficult adjustment to Israel; and telling his children about his experiences.

Hedva Zeliger, born in Marienbad, Czechoslovakia (Mariánské Lázne, Czech Republic), discusses her family life; growing up in Przemysl, Poland; pre-war antisemitism; Jewish life until 1939, and her first encounter with German police; Germans starting a series of Aktions, and establishing an orphanage for the children she found afterwards; the selection and killing of the children in her orphanage; life in the Kolomea (Kolomyia, Ukraine) ghetto; escaping with her husband to Budapest, Hungary; being placed in the Stanislawow (Ivano Frankivsk) prison; being transferred to the Lvov (L'viv) Jewish camp; transferring to Lublin, Poland; her experiences in Majdanek; moving to Lódz, Poland; leaving Poland to immigrate to Israel in 1950; and writing about her Holocaust experiences in her published book.

Elieyzer Zilber, born in Kaunas, Lithuania, March 2, 1925, discusses his early family life; joining the underground movement in pre-Soviet Lithuania; the German invasion of Lithuania; the rise of the nationalists; mass killings of Lithuanian Jews; establishment of Kaunas ghetto; the Judenrat in Kaunas; a major action on October 28, 1941 and the murder of people the next day at the 9th Fort; the underground anti-fascist organization; partisan activity; the cooperation between ghetto underground and partisans; being smuggled from the ghetto to reach partisans; what happened to ghetto inhabitants; Yiddish culture in Vilnius; being in Haim David Ratner’s partisan unit; partisan missions; liberation by the Soviets; his job in the Central Archives of Lithuania after liberation; what happened to his family; and his postwar marriage.
During the interview Mr. Zilber shows pictures of various ghetto resistance leaders.

Dan Zimerman, born in Budapest, Hungary, in 1919, discusses moving to Poprad, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia); his family; joining the Hashomer Hatzair and Hachsara; what they knew about the fate of European Jews in 1939; joining the Slovak Army in 1941; traveling to Bratislava, Slovakia; his parents and two brothers escaping to Budapest, Hungary, and life there; his connections to the underground; making false papers; German invasion of Budapest March 19, 1944; escaping to Romania; hiding in Arad, Romania, and traveling throughout Europe to Haifa, Palestine (Israel).

Pinchas Ziontz, born in September 1930, in Baranow, Poland, discusses his early family life; the outbreak of war in September 1939; the establishment of the Judenrat and the ghetto; escaping from the ghetto and hiding on a farm for a week southwest of Baranow, Poland; leaving the farm and hiding in the forest until June 1942; travel to Kamionka, Poland, where he and his immediate family hid in an aunt's attic; escaping to Konskowola, Poland; returning to Baranow after being away for five months; hiding in the forest in October 1942, next to Pogonow, Poland, until the end of the war; his father managing to buy a hiding place in the straw storage belonging to a Polish farmer where they remained for two months; building bunkers in the forest; contact with the PPR (Polish workers party) partisans; life in the forest; being shot in the leg in the forest; liberation by the Russians; traveling to Lublin, Poland, in September 1944; and his post-war reunion with an aunt.

Arie Zizamski, born1923 in Pruzany, Poland (present day Pruzhany, Belarus), discusses his childhood; rising antisemitism; the invasion of Germans and withdraw of Soviets; the Judenrat and ghetto of Pruzany; arriving at Auschwitz-Birkeanu; going to Buna (Monowitz); going to Buchenwald; entering Czechoslovakia; going to the hospital in Terezin; going to a displaced persons camp in Landsberg and Bergen Belsen; going to Italy by Bricha; illegally migrating by boat to Palestine; being interned in Cyprus; and arriving in Israel in 1948.

Dan Arad (né Theodore Hirschdorf), born in 1922 in Kraków, Poland, discusses his family life; moving to Przemysl, Poland, to avoid the war in August 1939; university in Lvov, Poland (L'viv, Ukraine) until 1942; moving back to the Kraków ghetto in 1942; his father working as a doctor in the hospital and being affiliated with the Judenrat; the two large deportations from the ghetto; working in a repair shop; being transported in September 1943 to Auschwitz; the selection process and being sent to Birkenau after six weeks; life in the camp; escaping from a death march January 19, 1945; returning to Przemysl, Poland; traveling to Bucharest, Romania; joining the Abba Kovner revenge group 1945; and immigrating to Israel.

Alexander Avnon, born Alexander Silberstein March 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses moving to Otwock, Poland 1936; life in the Warsaw ghetto 1940; being smuggled out of the ghetto; living with a Christian woman; traveling to Moscow, Soviet Union; being in jail for vagrancy; being sent to a Polish orphanage; returning to Warsaw in 1945; and immigrating to Palestine (Israel).

Chanan Bachrich (born in Austerlitz, Czechoslovakia (Slavkov u Brna, Czech Republic), on January 2, 1924) discusses his family moving to Prague, Czech Republic; receiving a Zionist education; being thrown out of school when the Nazis entered Czechoslovakia; the Jewish community making lists for transport in 1941; being sent to Terezin (Theresienstadt) along with his mother in 1942; engaging in hard labor, laying heavy cables; forging his worker’s ID and escaping with a friend; going to Krakow, Poland, and passing as German; being caught and sent to Auschwitz in the summer of 1942; leveling the Warsaw ghetto and building a camp inside the ghetto in July 1943; the four day march to Kutno, Poland; travel by cattle train to Dachau; marching to Allach; being liberated by Americans in Allach; returning to Prague; enlisting in the Czech Army; and being in training for Israeli air force and going to Israel with a shipment of airplanes in 1949.

Yaakov Ben-Dror (né Ya'akov van Helde), born in Rotterdam, Holland in 1926, discusses his family life; being sent to a rabbinical seminary high school in Amsterdam in May 1940 because Jewish children were not allowed to register in high school; Nazi bombs destroying his street and killing thousands of people and fleeing with his family; his father being in Spain when his mother died and being placed in a Jewish orphanage for a short period; refugees arriving in Holland; the youth movement in Zichron; leaving in 1940 for Amsterdam; being recruited by a British friend of his father to smuggle microfilm to the Maquis in Paris, France; having to register as a Hitler Youth; being arrested and sent to Westerbork and then to Auschwitz in July 1942; life in the camp, including the work and food; observing selections; roll calls and the disposal of bodies; transporting people to the crematorium and vowing that he would avenge them; his loss of faith in God while in Auschwitz; the “Canada” camp; being sent to Birkenau after six months; the arriving transports; the underground in Birkenau and having his name changed; becoming a Kapo’s assistant; falling ill with typhoid fever; working for a camp commander’s wife; an instance of rebellion in the crematorium when a group of women refused to undress and killed several guards; being sent to Oranienburg; walking to work daily in Ohrdruf; being sent to Buchenwald at the beginning of April 1945 and being loaded into a cattle car with the rest of his commando to avoid Allied bombing; being liberated by the Russians; working as a translator and clothing distributor after the war; returning to Holland and finding some surviving relatives; and eventually leaving for Palestine and working with the Armed forces when he arrived there in 1946.

Itzchak Dugin, born in Vilna (Vilnius), Lithuania in 1916, discusses his family life; working as a printer until 1941; the Germans arriving in Vilna; enforcement of anti-Jewish laws; moving to ghetto II in Vilna; obtaining a work permit to leave the ghetto and working at a gasoline depot; being taken to a work camp in Ponary; digging up corpses; escaping from Ponary in small groups; and meeting up with and joining Russian partisans.

Alexander Alerhand, born in June 1928, in Kraków, Poland, discusses his family; his father being in the Polish reserve and being called up in 1939; the Germans arriving in Kraków; the introduction of anti-Jewish laws; moving to a village with his mother and sister outside of Kraków; subsisting by trading their belongings; living in the Kraków ghetto and working at the airport; escaping from a Belzec transport; and internment in six, unnamed, camps.

Rachel Gliksman (née Halperin), born in May 1924 in Vilna (Vilnius) Lithuania, discusses her family life; attending Tarbut school and belonging to the youth group 'Bnai Yehuda'; Jewish life in Vilnius; the Germans entering Vilna; being moved to the Vilna ghetto; becoming a member of the underground; liquidation of the small and large ghettos; Abba Kovner's plan to lead members of the underground through the sewers to the forest; being caught during her escape and witnessing the hangings in the ghetto; being sent to Kaiserwald; working in an AEG factory; being transported by boat to Stutthof and the horrible conditions there; being transported to a work camp in Torum (Torun, Poland) to work in a factory for communication equipment; being liberated in January 1945; trying to return to Vilnius and the repatriation trains that moved from country to country; going to Warsaw, Poland and Bucharest, Romania where there were organized Jewish communities; immigrating to Israel and being interned in Atlit; joining Abba Kovner's revenge group and went to Europe to help people leave; and immigrating to Israel.

Israel Granatshtein, born April 3, 1930, in Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland, describes growing up in Lódz, Poland; his family life; the beginning of the war and his grandfather taking he and his mother to Lublin, Poland; returning to Lódz then going to Piotrków; life in the ghetto in Piotrków Trybunalski; beginning of the transports in October 1941; abuses from the SS; working in factories; being taken by train to Czestochowa, Poland, where he worked in a weapons factory; being taken by train to Buchenwald in January 1945; being taken to Terezin (Theresienstadt) in April 1945; being liberated by the Russians in May 1945; reuniting with his father; and immigrating to Israel.

Zalman Hochman, born in 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his family life; the outbreak of war in 1939; anti-Jewish legislation; establishment of the Warsaw ghetto; the first Aktion in 1942 and his mother being deported; joining the group, the "cigarette kids" and becoming a cigarette trader from 1943 to 1944; joining the Polish underground and participating in the Warsaw ghetto revolt in 1943; how he and so many others were led to Umschlagplatz, where they were beaten; escaping from a transport train; details about his group; joining the Polish underground with his brother and their assorted sabotage activities; surrendering and being taken by train to Lamsdorf; working in an aircraft plant near Dresden, Germany; the arrival of the Russian Army and being liberated on May 5, 1945; returning to Warsaw, Poland; traveling to Kraków, Poland; immigrating to Palestine; his internment on Cyprus; and feelings about his Holocaust experiences.

Avraham Kapitza, born in Tykocin, Poland, on June 6, 1925, discusses his family life; pre-war antisemitism; the Germans' arrival in 1941; the administration of Tykocin under German occupation; fleeing to Knyszyn, Poland, where he stayed for three weeks; fleeing to Jasionowka, Poland; ending up in the Bialystok ghetto; being taken to Blizin; being sent to Birkenau, where he would have been killed because he was infected with typhoid fever, had it not been for a Jewish commander; being taken to Sosnowiec (Sosnowice) then Mauthausen; being taken to Gunskirchen; being liberated by Americans; traveling to Budapest, Hungary, and Salzburg, Austria; and immigrating to Israel in 1949.

Moshe Keini (né Max Kchechover-Cohen), born in Cologne, Germany, discusses traveling to Holland after Kristallnacht; life in children's home near Rotterdam, Holland; the Nazi occupation of Holland in May 1940; being moved in September 1940 to Loodsrecht, Holland, to another children's home; anti-Jewish laws in Holland; changing hiding places thirteen times in one year; his imprisonment in Antwerp, Belgium; hiding out in a village near Utrecht, Holland; crossing into Belgium with the assistance of Yop Westerwel; the workings of the Westerwel group and their leadership; travel to the south of France and Paris; travel to Bordeaux, France, with forged German transit papers; being sent to Toulouse, France, where he joined the Jewish chapter of the resistance; crossing into Spain in April 1944; life in Barcelona, Spain, for five months; and traveling to Haifa, Israel, on a small Portugese boat called the "Guinee" via Cadiz, Spain, in November 1944.

Eli Laskali (né Erich Lichblauheier), born in 1911 in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), discusses his family; his father's death when he was nine; pre-war antisemitism; studying to be a window decorator, then working in 1930 as a decorative painter in Hamburg, Germany; experiencing antisemitism in Hamburg; returning to Ostrava and working as a poster painter; participating in Tehelet-Lavan; military service; meeting his wife in 1934 and getting married in Andrychów (her hometown) in 1937; his mother's deportation to Poland in 1938; all non-Czech Jews being ordered to be deported to Poland in 1939; escaping to Prague, Czech Republic on the last train before war broke out; joining Hechalutz and being placed on a farm in Dobešice; organizing a group to work for a wealthy peasant near Písek; being transported along with his wife to Bohušovice then walking to Theresienstadt in November 1942; living in the Hechalutz barrack; working in Terezin as a painter of buildings and posters; painting daily life in Terezin and keeping paintings hidden; trading drawings for extra food; being transferred to Germany for forced labor in 1944; returning to Theresienstadt in March 1945; being liberated from Terezin in 1945; immigrating to Palestine with his wife in 1947; and his drawings of life in Theresienstadt, which he destroyed fearing their discovery then recreated after the war.

Marko Menachem, born in Skopje, Yugoslavia (Macedonia) in 1920, discusses his family life; visiting relatives in Istanbul; his mother's sister and her father emigrating from Istanbul to live with them; attending synagogue daily with his grandfather; his mother's death when he was eight; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; attending university in Belgrade, Serbia in 1938; the arrival of the Germans; establishment of anti-Jewish orders; doing forced labor clearing bombing rubble; a Jew, whose entire family had been killed, volunteering for a suicide task to save the group; escaping to his family in Skopje and hiding in the attic and basement of his father's home; his sister's friend providing him with a Bulgarian passport and a job in Cërrik, Albania; enrolling in university in Sofia, Bulgaria; the deportation of foreign Jews in March 1943; returning to Skopje; being rounded-up with his family the next day; his father helping him to escape (his family were all deported); illegally traveling to Tirana, Albania; being arrested and being saved from imprisonment; working for an Albanian who promised him protection; being arrested with his employer for helping his employer's uncle, an official in the German administration; his imprisonment for four years; working as a translator in prison, then as a textbook translator and university lecturer after his release; his marriage and his three daughters; immigrating to Israel in 1991; and he and his employer being proclaimed Albanian heroes in 1993.

Dov Nir (né Sztatfeld), born in Tarnogrod, Poland in 1930, discusses his family life; atmosphere at the beginning of the war in September 1939; escape to the Russian zone to Vinnike, Ukraine; family's move to Unterwalden, Poland, in the Tarnopol region at the beginning of 1941; entering into the Przemysl ghetto in October 1942; life in a work camp; escaping to the forest where they lived from July 1943 to July 1944; liberation by the Russians in July 1944; moving with the Red Army to Przemysl; returning to Tarnogrod; traveling from Lvov, Poland (L'viv, Ukraine) to Kiev, Ukraine; moving to Lublin, Poland and Lodz, Poland to a Jewish children's house, where he prepared for immigration to Palestine; traveling to France; being taken to Cyprus in April 1947; and his immigration to Palestine in December 1947.

Lea Fuchs Portnoy, born in Rafalovka, Ukraine in 1918, discusses her family life; pre-war antisemitism; joining Jewish youth groups; the German entrance in 1941; life in the ghetto; escaping to the forest with her child; shelter given to her by Polish peasants; briefly joining the partisans in the forest; boarding various trains in the direction of Russia; spending time in Kiev, Ukraine; working in an army kitchen; and attempts to return to Rafalovka, Ukraine.

Anka Rochman, born in Warsaw, Poland, discusses pre-war antisemitism; getting married in 1938; the beginning of war in 1939; life in the Warsaw ghetto; food shortages in the ghetto; her husband and a friend building two attached bunkers; hiding with 21 others during round-ups; hiding with her husband, his brother and sister, and others during the ghetto uprising; working in a battery factory in the Warsaw ghetto; a visit by Mordechai Anilevitch; the structure of bunkers and food storage in the Warsaw ghetto in January 1943; some leaving after the larger bunker was destroyed; using drains to obtain food from Poles; her husband negotiating with Poles who killed him; staying with her brother-in-law and sister-in-law in the drains for three more days; exiting to the house of a Pole who helped them; and the Polish uprising; and how she hid in the bunker for nine months and only she and her sister-in-law survived the war.

David Ruher, born on March 10, 1913, in Lublin, Poland, discusses his family life; imprisonment in Bereza-Kartuska, Poland (Biaroza, Belarus) and the Rawicz prison in Rawicz, Poland, for Communist activities; building of the ghetto in Lublin, Poland; finding refuge for his family in the colony of Czechowice, Poland; finding refuge on a farm in Melgiew, Poland; plans to go to Germany; being separated from his father; traveling to Lublin; contact with the underground in Lukow, Poland, in September 1942; witnessing the liquidation of the Jews of Lukow; returning to Lublin in 1944; reuniting with his brother and sister at the end of May 1945; and immigrating to Palestine before 1948.

Vera Tarsi, born on May 20, 1923, in Uzhgorod, Czechoslovakia (Uzhhorod, Ukraine), describes her family; moving to Prague, Czech Republic when she was one-year old; the German entrance into Czechoslovakia in 1939 and her father's attempts to obtain Hungarian passports; moving to Budapest, Hungary through Vienna, Austria in 1942; teaching English and French to two sisters in Budapest; obtaining fake Swiss passports; moving into a protected house on the shores of the Danube in 1944; the Russian army's arrival; working at the newly opened Czech embassy in Budapest; returning to Prague; marrying another survivor; and immigrating to Israel in March 1949.

Ada Willenberg (Vilenberg) (née Lubelchik), born in 1929 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses moving to the Russian side; her father's mobilization in the reserves of the Soviet Army and his death there; returning to Warsaw in 1941; life in the Warsaw ghetto; working in a brush factory; her mother's transport to her death in 1942; being sent with her grandmother into hiding in 1943 with the help of an uncle; obtaining false papers under the name Christina Malinovka; the Majersky family (later recognized as Righteous Gentiles) that hid Ada; being sent to an agricultural site next to Oschatz, Germany between Leipzig and Dresden; returning to Poland in April 1945; beginning dental school; and her immigration to Israel with her husband.

Samuel Willenberg (né Shmuel Vilenberg), born in 1923, in Czestochowa, Poland, discusses moving with his family to Radość, Warsaw, Poland in 1939; joining soldier groups going east to defend Kovel', Ukraine, against attacking Russians; being wounded in the back; escape with his family to Opatow, Poland, where they remained until January 1942, even after the establishment of the ghetto; his mother obtaining non-Jewish identification certificates to ease restrictions; his father painting for food; his two sisters being taken by the police; being sent to work in a metal factory in 1942; the train ride and arrival in Treblinka; the working conditions, the Jewish Capos, the Vorarbeiters in charge, and the German officers’ dog; the camp’s hospital; sorting clothing and bribing Ukrainian guards with the items he found; how the Jan 9th transport brought a violinist, Gold, which led to establishing an orchestra to amuse the Germans; conditions during an important person’s visit; his escape from Treblinka with 30 inmates and three stolen guns; his search for his parents; contact with the Polish underground; being involved with the beginning of the Warsaw Uprising; work and experiences with a brigade of the Polska Armia Ludowa (Polish National Army); conditions in the forest from 1944 to 1945; serving as an officer in the Polish Army from 1945 to 1946; joining a Zionist group in Lodz, Poland; his marriage; immigrating to Israel in 1950; and his adjustment to life in Israel.

Nachman Zonabend, born in Leczyca, Poland in October 1918, discusses attending school; his family moving to Lodz in 1936; attempting to flee Warsaw, Poland when the war began; being captured by Germans and being made to walk to Pszczanow, where many were executed; escaping; returning to Lodz; working in the post office in the Lodz ghetto in June 1940; working in a meat distribution center in the ghetto; the death of his sisters in Treblinka; his lack of knowledge about the fate of his parents; meeting Mendel Grossman; hiding in a bunker; liberation; and immigration to Sweden.

Ya'akov Tzur, born Kurt Cierer in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) in 1925, discusses the annexation of Austria in March 1938; the annexation of the Sudetenland; his mother's journey with Aliya Bet; his cancelled trip to go to England with a group of children in 1939; joining Aliyat Hanoar; enforcement of anti-Jewish laws; his father's work for a company called Monospol; his knowledge about the Warsaw uprising; being sent to Terezin in August 1943; being taken to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being sent to a camp in Heidelberg; being saved from a transport by Mengele; being taken to camp Schwarzheide; being sent to Sachsenhausen in February 1945; his work disabling unexploded bombs in Oranienberg, Germany; life in displaced persons camp in Hamburg; traveling to Prague, Budapest, and Italy; meeting the Jewish brigade, which took him to the displaced persons camp in Rome; traveling to the Capo di Leuca displaced persons camp; joining the Bricha organization; forging papers for aliya; time in Nonantola and Carrara, Italy; being taken to a camp in Famagusta, Cyprus; arrival and adjustment to life in Israel in 1946 in camp Atlit and Kibbutz Naan; and joining the Haganah and Palmach.

Mordechai Livni, born on February 18, 1926 in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), discusses antisemitism in Czechoslovakia; his older brother's travels to Palestine with the Agudath Israel group; the establishment of anti-Jewish laws; life and work in Terezin in July 1943; participation in the beautification project in Terezin before the Red Cross visit; being active with social work and assistance with the elderly in Terezin; conditions in Auschwitz; travel to Kaufering camp number four; creating a model of Kaufering's sleeping quarters, now kept at Yad Vashem; being marched to Dachau; being liberated by the Americans; traveling to Pilsen, Czech Republic; being guided by American transports manned by Czech officers; returning to Prague; his discovery that he was the only survivor from his family left in Europe; his trip to Slovakia, where he worked as a counselor to a group planning to immigrate to Israel; and immigrating with his wife and son to Israel in May 1949.

Ya'akov Lomas, born in 1929 in Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania, discusses his family and life before the war; the Jewish community in Kovno; the Russian entrance into Kovno in 1940-1941; Russian departure and German entrance into Kovno; the liquidation of Seta, Lithuania; moving into the Kovno ghetto; activities of the Judenrat and Jewish police in the Kovno ghetto; fear of and actions within the Kovno ghetto; the 9th Fort liquidation; hiding with his family during an action; the train ride to Dachau to camp number 1; the train stopping at Schtuthof, where women and children were taken out of train; toilet and water problems during the trip; life in the camp; he and his father working in the Moll construction site and his father’s death; receiving packages from the Red Cross; being marched out of the camp; his liberation experience; contacting his uncles in England and the USA with the help of a Jewish American soldier (Ben Marx); life in displaced persons camps near Landsberg; leaving for England in 1946 via France; and immigrating to Israel in 1958.

Vladmimir Mordchilevich, born in 1933 in Minsk, Belarus, discusses his family moving to Moscow, Russia in 1935; his father being arrested in August 1937 and his mother in October 1937; being sent to an orphanage near the city of Vladimir, Russia; not encountering antisemitism as a child; being taken back to Minsk by a teacher; the arrival of German troops in 1941; the establishment of the Minsk ghetto; hiding in a barn with others during a pogrom in November 1941; becoming ill with typhus in the ghetto in January 1942; a section for Jews from Germany in the ghetto; life in the ghetto; sneaking out of the ghetto with other children; leaving ghetto to join the partisans with his brother in May 1943; being taken into the home of a peasant woman; being sent to join 106th family partisan unit that numbered around 150 people; the partisan leader Shalom Zorin; activity in the Nalibocki forest near Lida; being placed in a children's home in Minsk in June 1944 and going to school; being transferred to a children's home in Baranavichy Voblast and being found by his mother; post-war antisemitism; living with his mother in Radashkovichy, 40 km north of Minsk; living with his father in Oshmyany in 1948; moving to Tomsk in Siberia in 1951; moving to Minayevka (in Tomskaia oblast') and life there; mining training; being drafted into the army in 1955; life in the army; enrollment in music school; move to Gomel, Belarus; moving to Kharkov (Kharkiv), Ukraine; and immigrating to Israel in the 1990s.

Israel Beresritzki, born in Lódz, Poland, on May 15, 1925, discusses his childhood before the war; the German entrance into Lódz; anti-Jewish legislation; going to Malch (possibly Malech, Belarus) to live with his grandmother; the arrival of Germans in Malch in October 1941 and the shooting of Jews in the cemetery; escaping Malch; his family fleeing to Bereza (Byaroza); the ghetto in Bereza; traveling to Pruzany; life in the Pruzany ghetto; searching for and joining the partisans; his activities with the partisans; meeting up with the Russian army in July 1944; joining the Russian Army; arriving in Breslau, Germany in April 1945; arriving in Berlin, Germany on May 3, 1945; being captured by Smersh investigators and escaping; being in jail for two and a half years; his work in mining; traveling to Boronovichy; meeting his wife, Miriam; traveling to Vienna, Austria and Italy; and immigrating to Haifa, Israel in 1957.

Elena Malakhovskaia (b. Lachter), born in Odessa, Ukraine in 1934, discusses her family life; the outbreak of war; the roundup of Jews in the Fall of 1941; attempting to survive using false documents; being placed in a village ghetto near Chechelnik, Ukraine, in the spring of 1942; description of life in the Chechelnik ghetto; escaping from the ghetto to Lipetskaya, Russia; her life in a barn in Lipetskaya with her mother pretending to be Ukrainian; memories of Soviet planes and sounds of explosions; emerging from hiding when Soviet tanks came into the village; returning to Odessa; entering school in 1945; and post-war antisemitism.

Eva Kalvariski, born in Komarno, Czechoslovakia in May 1930, discusses the conversion of her family in 1941; fear when Germans entered Komarno; the order to enter the ghetto; being moved to a fortress and daily life; being deported and the hysteria on the train; the arrival and initiation in Auschwitz; traveling by train to camp Plaszow near Krakow, Poland; her work in camp Plaszow; seeing the shooting of POWs; and psychological effects of her experiences.

Iztchak Salomon, born in October 1921 in Bratislava (Pressburg), Slovakia, discusses his childhood years; the move from Hashomer Hatzair to Beitar youth movements; early encounters with Nazism; enlisting in the 6th battalion of the Slovakian Army in 1941; anti-Jewish legislation between 1939-1941; the passage of a new law in 1943 restricting army service of Jews; transferring to the interior ministry where he participated in construction work; living and working conditions in the interior ministry; being transported to Birkenau; working in coal mines in Gleiwitz; walking to Blechhammer; walking from Czestochowa, Poland, to Krakow, Poland to Bratislava, Slovakia; and post-liberation adjustments.

Paul Benedek, born in Tótkomlós, Hungary, in 1931, discusses his childhood and his family life; attending public school; men being taken to work camps in 1942 and his father's draft into a Hungarian slave labor battalion; visiting him; the entrance of Germans and Jews being sent into the ghetto in 1944; ghettoization with his family; his father's election as head of the Judenrat; their transfer to the Debrecen ghetto; daily life in Debrecen; being deported to Vienna, Austria and then to camp Strasshof; being taken to a camp in Geras, Austria, where he engaged in agricultural work; being transported to Bergen-Belsen; life in Bergen-Belsen; being taken to Terezin; liberation by the Russians on May 6, 1945; traveling by train back to Tótkomlós; participating in Zionist groups; completing university in 1953; the Kastner affair; his immigration to Israel in 1956; his career as a journalist; adjustment to life in Israel; the impact of the Holocaust on familial relationships; and a "pecking order" imposed by some survivors who view his experience as less authentic than those who were in Auschwitz.

Yosef Schwartz, born in Lódz, Poland in 1921, discusses his childhood years; attending public school; participating in Hashomer Hatzair and a sports organization, Bar Kochba; his family's Zionist leanings; German entrance into Lódz; one brother's escape to L’viv; a non-Jew smuggling him and his father to Warsaw, Poland to meet this brother and escape to the Soviet Union; attempting to enter the Soviet zone with his brother via Siedlce; being captured by the Soviets and sent back to Warsaw; returning to the Lódz ghetto; working in a carpentry shop in the ghetto, sabotaging furniture he built for the Germans; building sets for the ghetto theater; his brothers working for the Judenrat; one brother working in a bakery (he brought them extra bread); hiding valuables and photographs in a bunker, which they retrieved after the war; his sister's marriage (Rumkowski officiated) and her son's birth; hiding them in their bunker and their deportation; pervasive starvation; clearing the ghetto with a small group after its liquidation in 1944; being deported to Sachsenhausen; beatings and random shootings; working with Mendel Grossman; smuggling extra food to his family; public hangings of those caught smuggling food; the transfer of his father and brothers to Königs Wusterhausen and joining them shortly thereafter; clearing bombing rubble in Berlin, Germany; the Kommandant keeping them from a death march (Grossman perished on the death march) and hiding among them; liberation by Soviet troops on April 25, 1945; the Kommandant's discovery and execution; returning to Lódz; his mother's return; his younger brother's immigration to Palestine; living in Feldafing displaced persons camp; getting married in 1948; immigrating to Israel in 1949; adjustment to life in Israel; the theater and concerts in the ghetto; the work of Mendel Grossman as a clandestine ghetto photographer; the Israelis' lack of interest in his experiences; not sharing his experiences with his children; and the drawings and photographs he had hidden and recovered, including those by Grossman.

Ruth Cohen (originally Runia Zukerbrot), born in Kraków, Poland in 1920, discusses her childhood years; first experiences with antisemitism; German entry into Kraków and anti-Jewish restrictions; the confiscation of family valuables; learning to be a seamstress; being evicted from their home; the slave labor cleaning streets; entering into the Kraków ghetto in March 1941; the role of the Judenrat; their Ukrainian maid trading their valuables for money and food; forced factory labor; her parents hiding her and her brother during a round-up; her parents' deportation in October 1942; being deported to Plaszów, where she worked in a paper factory; Akiba Tannenbaum and his activities; public executions; pervasive fear of being killed by the Kommandant, Amon Goeth; being taken by train to camp Skarzysko after a year in Plaszów; slave labor in Werke C of a HASAG munitions factory, then a privileged office position; being transferred to Czestochowa; slave labor in another HASAG factory; being transferred to Buchenwald then Bergen-Belsen; starvation and sickness resulting in many deaths; being sent two months later to Burgau; caring for a sick prisoner; being transferred to Türkheim, where she was able to escape; receiving assistance from a villager; liberation by United States troops; reunion with her brother; her illegal immigration to Palestine in 1946; her brief incarceration by the British; and attending university; continuing contact with her family's Ukrainian maid; not sharing her experiences until a trip to Poland and a recurring nightmare that stopped after her trip; and she shares photographs and sings a song from Plaszów.

Volter Simoni, born in Vienna, Austria in 1919, discusses activities in the youth section of the Social Democratic party; activities in the Zionist movement until 1938 when he fled Austria; rising antisemitism with the advent of Hitler in 1933; fleeing from Austria to Germany and then to Brussels, Belgium in 1938; his internment in a refugee camp in between Brussels and Antwerp, in Mechelen, Belgium, for fifteen months; learning agriculture in Mechelen camp; leaving Mechelen camp and working in agriculture in Bekkevoort, on the border with Holland where he worked on a private farm; how after the German entrance into Belgium he was returned to Mechelen, which had become a place for Jewish detainees, on July 28, 1942; being sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau in August 1942; working in a quarry in Goleszow; traveling by train to Sachsenhausen in April 1945; being brought to the Henkel factory; marching north to Schwerin, Germany; returning to Belgium; writing his memoir; his immigration to Brazil in 1946; and immigrating to Israel in 1967.

Sara Geler, born in Biala Podlaska, Poland, in 1929, discusses her early family life and childhood; pre-war antisemitism; Germans entering Biala Podlaska; life in the Biala Podlaska ghetto; the Judenrat and Jewish police; hiding during actions; being sent to the Miedzyrzec Podlaski ghetto for nine months; the death of her mother in the Miedzyrzec Podlaski ghetto; being deported to Majdanek; being taken to Skarzysko Kamienna, where she worked in a weapons factory; being sent to Czestochowa in 1944; her work experiences in Czestochowa; and liberation.

Shlomo Kenet (né Kanterowitz), born in Vilna, Poland (Vilnius, Lithuania) in 1921, discusses his childhood years; attending hachsharah (agricultural preparatory school) in Kalisz, Poland; traveling to Lódz, Poland; going to Warsaw, Poland; returning to Vilna, where he resided for two years; maintaining contact with the underground youth movement headed by Abba Kovner; life with the youth group under Soviet rule; entrance of the Germans into Vilna; establishment of the Vilna ghetto; the Judenrat and Yosef Glazman; the members of the Hashomer Hatzair group, including Chaika Grossman, Rushka Korczak, and Vitka Kempner; rumors about Ponar; establishment of the FPO (United Partisans Organization) within the ghetto; his involvement with resistance activities; underground activities in the Narocz forest; joining the revenge group; going to Budapest, Hungary at the end of the war; being sent to Graz, Austria to help groups escape to the Italian border; hearing about the Revenge group (Nakam) and providing logistical support to the group; his travels from Paris to Lyon to Marseille; and later immigration to Israel.

Roman Frister, born in 1928 in Bilsko, Poland, discusses the 1937 Bilsko pogrom; the family's move to Chelm, Poland, Zdolbunov, Ukraine, and Lvov, Poland, where they stayed until the summer of 1941; converting with his family when the Germans arrived; their move to the village of Suchowola, Poland; their escape to Kraków, Poland; pretending to be Poles escaping the Germans; the Kraków ghetto; being sent to Plaszów; in the summer 1943, being transported to a camp near Radom, Poland; working in a Sterkoviza steel factory; escaping at the end of 1944 and joining a partisan group in the forest; his capture and arrival at Auschwitz-Birkenau; work in a weapons factory in Swietochlowice, Poland; being taken by train to Mauthausen; being taken by train to camp Salvenberg, Austria to work as an engraver; being liberated by Americans; his hospitalization in Bratislava, Slovakia for tuberculosis in 1945; and his autobiography.

Ada Givoni (née Rosenzweig), born in Radom, Poland on April 25, 1925, discusses her childhood years; Hashomer Hatzair attendance; traveling to Skaryszew, Poland when the war began; returning to Radom; life in the Radom ghetto; working in an ammunitions factory; her contact with the Judenrat within the Radom ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto in 1944 and being made to walk for two days, during which children and the elderly were shot; being transported via cattle cars to Auschwitz; selections; being sent to work in Sosnowice, Poland; work in the Siemens factory; liberation; immigrating to Israel; and the psychological effects of her Holocaust experiences.

Lea Zalkind (née Mattersdorfer), born on February 26, 1932 in Karlovac, Yugoslavia (Croatia), discusses her childhood years; her family's affluence; visiting Zagreb; cordial relations with non-Jews; the fate of her father at the hands of the Ustasha and his deportation to Zagreb, where he was executed in retaliation for a partisan attack; her landlord's mother-in-law taking her to Kranj, Slovenia; her mother's arrival three weeks later, then her grandmother's; fleeing to Trieste, Italy; being sent to Concordia, Italy; attending an Italian school; her mother working for the local police commander; obtaining false documents in a convent in Nonantola, Italy; living with a priest's sister in Fiorano until the end of the war; her grandmother's death; liberation by partisans; learning her father had been killed; moving to Modena; working with Jewish refugees; immigration to Israel in 1945; sharing her experiences with her husband, but not her children; and a 1975 visit to Karolvac and to her grandmother's grave in the village in which she hid and where they were lovingly welcomed. She also shows documents and photographs.

Miriam Ze'havi (née Gluck), born in 1922, in Santa Maria, Romania (possibly Sinta Maria or Satu Mare, Romania), discusses her early family life and being the youngest of six children; her family's orthodoxy; leaving school after eighth grade to help her mother at home; Hungarian occupation; her brother's draft into a Hungarian slave labor battalion; her father's disbelief when a Polish refugee warned them to flee; German invasion; anti-Jewish restrictions; life in the ghetto in May 1944; transport to Auschwitz; being sent to Stutthof, then to camp Brano two weeks later; her work loading coal trains; her assignment to work in the kitchen of an underground munitions factory; receiving Red Cross packages; her brief hospitalization; her sister stealing food to share with her; a death march; abandonment by the Germans in Gogolin; assistance from Polish villagers; liberation by Soviet troops; traveling to Kraków, Poland; assistance from the Joint; returning home via Lódz, Poland and Czechoslovakia; reuniting with her brother; her marriage in 1946; her daughter's birth in 1947; immigrating to Israel in 1950; adjustment to life in Israel; how it was unusual that all of her siblings survived; and never sharing her experiences with anyone, including her daughter.

Chava Livni (née Eva Furst), born in 1926 in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), discusses her childhood years; her upper class, assimilated family; attending German schools; joining Hachsharah; experiences in the underground finding hiding places for people; forging identification papers and helping refugees who arrived from Poland; partisans who joined the underground; the self-imposed tax by Jews to help underground; her family going into hiding in a village at the end of summer 1944; being transported to Auschwitz; the selection process and conditions in the camp; being taken to Freiburg, Germany to work in an airplane parts factory; being sent to Mauthausen; liberation by Americans on May 5, 1945; returning to Bratislava; traveling to Budapest, Hungary to join an organization to help youth to prepare for aliya to Israel; returning to Bratislava, where she organized a children's home; and immigration to Israel.

Shmuel Tzuk (né Shmuel Zuckerbrot), born on May 14, 1928, in Kraków, Poland, discusses his childhood years; the rabbi from Bels who told his community not to leave; experiencing antisemitism from Polish children; the beginning of the war and the bombardment of the city; escaping to a village near Kraków; working in an air field at the end of 1940; entering the Kraków ghetto in the summer of 1942; friends, the newspaper, and life in the ghetto; hiding during an 'Action'; knowledge of death transports at the end of 1942; being sent to Plaszów in December 1942 and the cruelty of Goeth; being taken in trucks to a camp in Chebinya (Trzebinia), Poland, in March 1943; being sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau in November 1943; the overcrowding, abuse from Kapos, and forced singing in Birkenau; human relations in the camp and suicides; being taken to Fuerstengrube where he worked in coal mines; being sick in the hospital; Polish partisans who were caught building escape route and hanged; a death march; train ride to camp Dora Nordhausen during which the majority of prisoners died; conditions at the camp and work on the underground missile factory; the camp population and being with the children group; a second death march and train ride to Bergen-Belsen; liberation by the British on April 15, 1945; the revenge taken by inmates on Kapos; going to the forest and joining a group of Poles; life in Celle, Germany; traveling back to Poland; reuniting with his parents and sister; life in the displaced persons camp Landsberg and the ORT school; working as a driver in the refugee camp; his immigration to Israel in 1948; Israeli attitudes towards survivors; and visiting Poland in 1989 and telling his children his story.

Daniel Chanoch, born in Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania in 1933, discusses his childhood and family; Kovno and the Jewish community; the split between the Orthodox Jewish community in Slabodka (Vilijampole) and the others in the new town; the German entry and Russian retreat; life in the Kovno ghetto; his mother, her strength and how she influenced his life; hiding during actions within the ghetto; the lists of the Judenrat and how to avoid being listed; youth movement in the ghetto and the underground to which his brother belonged; his family being deported and his mother and sister being dropped off at Stutthof, while he and his father and brother went to camp Landsberg; a German officer taking him as a servant and working in the SS kitchen; being taken with the other children in trucks to Dachau; showers and decontamination and treatment; being taken by train to Birkenau; being taken to camp A and listening to the stories from Russian POWs; the selections; being taken to camp B and his work unloading carriages; life in the camp towards the end; being marched to a train transport in January 1945; arriving in Mauthausen and going to Zeltenlager; being marched to Sankt Florian, Austria in April 1945 and then to camp Gunskirchen; being taken to a camp in Hirshing, Austria; meeting up with the Jewish brigade; traveling with the brigade to Treviso, Italy, to Mestra, Italy; experiences in transit camps in Modena and Bologna, Italy, a sanitarium near Stresa, Italy, and a hospital in Milan, Italy; immigrating to Israel in 1946; and psychological effects from his Holocaust experiences.

Avraham Benesh (né Adolph Benesh), born on November 17, 1906 in Moravia, Czech Republic, discusses his childhood years and family life; his move to Brno, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), to attend law school; activities with the Zionist organization in Brno; enlisting in the army and going to officer school near Terezin; opening an independent bureau in Brno; his family life; the outbreak of WWI in 1914 when he was 8 years old and songs of that time; going to Prague, Czech Republic in 1939 and working with Jacob Edelstein; life in the Terezin (Theresienstadt) ghetto; his work and social and cultural life in Terezin; preparations for the Red Cross visit in spring 1944; transport to Auschwitz; being taken in a cattle train to Dachau and Kaufering IV; the camp and work in the forest, and the cement works from October to April; a typhoid outbreak and other diseases in the camp; social relations in the camp and how he kept his spirits up; a four day death march to camp Allach; liberation by Americans; traveling to Prague to reunite with his mother and brother; involvement with Zionist activities and becoming director of the "JOINT" (American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, JDC) in Prague; immigration to Israel; and Israeli society's treatment of Holocaust survivors.

Reuven Chefetz, born in Brest Oblast in the town of Lakhva in 1924, discusses his family; the three synagogues in Lakhva and the lack of antisemitism; various Jewish organizations in area; the arrival of the Soviets in Lakhva in 1939 and many people being sent to Siberia; entrance of the Germans; establishment of the Lakhva ghetto in the fall of 1941; the Judenrat and Jewish police force in the ghetto; working on the railroad in the town of Luninets, Belarus; attempting to escape from the ghetto and being captured and beaten; the liquidation of the ghetto and the suicide of some of the town’s Jews; escaping during the liquidation; hiding in the forest; moving to the partisan zone; working with partisans attacking German troops; working with partisans in Glusk (Hlusk), Belarus in 1944; joining the advancing Soviet Army and fighting to Warsaw, Poland; fighting in Latvia; being wounded in January 1945 and being sent to a hospital in Vilnius, Lithuania; returning to his unit in Konigsberg, Germany; helping to take the town of Pillau (Baltiisk, Russia); being demobilized in December 1945; returning to Lakhva; living in Pinsk, Belarus; and life in Israel.

Libi Epshtein (née Libiena Haikowa), born on February 25, 1923 in Nová Paka, Czech Republic, discusses her family's assimilation; her family moving to Prague, Czech Republic; her siblings; the German arrival on March 15, 1939; the passage of anti-Jewish laws; managing a small office, which was a front for a black market in gasoline and other products; being transported to Lódz, Poland; life in the Lódz ghetto; the death of her parents in the Lódz ghetto; her depression after the death of her parents; contracting typhoid; work in a phone repair shop in the ghetto; work in a textile shop in the ghetto; her marriage; role of the Jewish ghetto police; mail service in the ghetto; how she and a selected group managed to get housing in the empty hospital; being deported to Oranienburg; people in the camp including the SS women and Kapos; being sent to camp Wittenberg in Germany; the arrival of a group of gypsy women from Czechoslovakia; and the end of the war from her own perspective.

Alexander Ehrlich, born in Lódz, Poland in 1928, describes life before the war; his immediate and extended family; the beginning of the war; attending school until 4th grade; the black market; life in the Lódz ghetto; the synagogues being burned; the Jewish police; the physical effects he experienced from starvation; being sent to Auschwitz; conditions in Auschwitz; his work in Braunschweig for eight months; his transfer to Watenstedt and life in the camp; being taken by train to Ravensbrück; experiencing dysentery; being sent to Sundwigslust; liberation by the Americans; traveling to Lódz after the war; being taken to Kibbutz Waldorf in Germany; living in Bachenburg, Germany; receiving false Red Cross identity and traveling via Prague, Vienna, and Italy to Israel; arrival in Israel; and the psychological effects of the Holocaust and how the Eichmann trial was a turning point for him.

Ester Dante (née Amar), born in Zakinthos, Greece on January 10, 1935, discusses living with her father in Litakia while her mother and sister lived in the ghetto; the Jewish community; bombardments by the Italians and life under Italian fascists; men being taken to work camps; life under German occupation; escaping the village with her brothers; contact with the partisans who warned her not to assemble for fear of deportation; hiding out and being saved by a Greek neighbor; being taken to Athens, Greece to prepare to go to Israel; internment on the island of Cyprus; and adjustment to life in Israel.

Yitzhak Dante (known as Dente Pampiri), born in Corfu, Greece in 1929, discusses the Jewish community that lived in the Hebreica area; the antisemitism he experienced as a child; the Jewish cemetery, life in the ghetto, and the history of Jews in Corfu; the Italian occupation; bombardments by Italians and then by Germans; Black Saturday, an order for all Jews to assemble; being taken by boat to Piraeus, Greece, and then to Athens, Greece; being taken by train to Bulgaria, then Hungary, and arriving in Auschwitz-Birkenau; the layout of the camp; suicides in the camp; sexual assaults by Kapos; being sent to camp Fuerstengrube; being taken by train and marched to camp Dora; being sent by train to Bergen-Belsen; liberation by the British; returning to Corfu, Greece, with help from the Red Cross; and immigration to Israel.

Ben-Tzion Dagan, born in 1927 in Lakhva in western Belarus, discusses his family life; belonging to the Shomer Haleumi movement (part of Hashomer Hatzair); antisemitism he experienced; being sent to build an air strip in Kobryn, near Brisk, just before the war began; the Germans arriving; the men of Lakhva being forced to work; the creation of the ghetto; doing blacksmith work on the railroads and repairing bridges destroyed by the withdrawal of the Russians; working 20km outside the city on September 2, 1942; details about the uprising in the Lakhva ghetto and the loss most of his family; witnessing many suicides; going to Shlakhta, where a Pole unsuccessfully tried to capture him; finding partisans but not being accepted because of his youth; wandering with a friend and passing into Poland; joining partisans in 1943; life with the partisans; antisemitism among the partisans; going to Bialystok and stopping in Lakhva on the way; being mobilized into the Red Army in 1944 and serving for seven years; being sent to a forced labor camp in 1950; immigrating to Israel in 1959; and meeting his brother in Israel.

Genia Gelbershtat (Repski), born in 1925 in Lakhva, Belarus, describes her Orthodox family; attending a Polish school and not experiencing antisemitism; the Russian entrance; arrival of the German army; going into the Lakhva ghetto; refusing to escape so others wouldn't suffer retributions; the burning of the ghetto and being wounded as she escaped; difficulties remembering how she arrived in a partisan family camp located in a village; scouting areas before partisan attacks; various partisan activities; being sent to a base camp and working in a kitchen; the liberation of Slutsk, Belarus; her release and locating her sister in Lakhva, Belarus; traveling with her sister to displaced persons camp Fohrenwald; joining a kibbutz of partisans; her immigration to Israel; and adjustment to life in Israel.

Arie Troitze, born in Švencionėliai, Lithuania in 1926, describes growing up in a comfortable, moderately observant Jewish home; attending Yiddish school; anti-Jewish violence; the pogroms began in 1938, during which the windows of his home were broken; the Soviet occupation beginning in 1939, and the Jews experienced many changes; his brothers' fleeing to the Soviet Union; his father's murder in a mass killing in the forest; being left with his mother; being in round-up with his mother, aunt, and uncle to the Polygon; his mother pushing him to join another child being taken away (everyone else was killed in a mass shooting); living in the Svencionys ghetto with relatives for one and a half years; a visit by Abba Kovner and his contact with Yitzhak Arad; being transferred to Vilnius; non-Jews hiding him and two cousins; returning to the ghetto and living in an orphanage; being transferred to Vivikoni; slave labor repairing train tracks; frequent beatings; transfer by ship from Tallinn to Stutthof; prisoners throwing Kapos overboard; being badly beaten in Stutthof and barely avoiding being sent to the crematorium; being transferred to Buchenwald in late 1944; being hospitalized and witnessing cruel experimental medical procedures; joining a Polish prisoner group to escape selection; returning to the Jewish barracks; hiding in a sewer during selections; joining Polish non-Jewish prisoners upon emerging; liberation by United States troops; working as a translator for the Soviets; participating in arrests of SS; brief imprisonment for suspected collaboration; traveling to Vilnius; a cousin informing him of one brother's death and warning him to flee; joining a Deror kibbutz in Vilna; finding his other brother in Lódz, Poland; moving to Eschwege displaced persons camp; immigrating to Israel in 1949; his marriage and children; visiting Vilnius; helping to organize monuments at the Polygon, where his father had been killed; and nightmares resulting from his experience. He also shows photographs.

Avraham Blubshtein, born in a small town in Czechoslovakia, describes being one of seven children; his family's farm; attending public school and cheder, locally, then in Irshava, Ukraine; his bar mitzvah; attending yeshiva in Uzhhorod, Ukraine; learning to be a tailor in Bergovo (Berehove, Ukraine); the Hungarian occupation; moving to Budapest, Hungary in 1938; joining the Communist party; his arrest; being sent home; returning to Budapest; his sister joining him; anti-Jewish restrictions; a non-Jew helping him escape from a labor detail; returning home, then back to Budapest three weeks later; his draft into a Hungarian slave labor battalion in October 1942; forced labor near Komárom, Hungary, then Transylvania; digging an underground fuel dump; visiting his parents in December 1943; being transferred to German custody in Bucsu, Hungary; digging bunkers; his assignment to the detail obtaining food for the camp in Szombathely, Hungary; a death march to Mauthausen, then Gunskirchen; abandonment by German guards; liberation by United States troops; traveling in a group to Wels displaced persons camp; being hospitalized for typhus; traveling to Prague, Czech Republic; locating relatives with assistance from the UNRRA; reuniting with a sister in Budapest; traveling to Berehove; reuniting with another sister and a brother; traveling to Budapest; his sister and brother returning to Czechoslovakia (they were trapped there when the border closed); and preparing for immigration to Palestine. Mr. Blubshtein notes learning his parents were deported to Auschwitz, and that his father had been in Dachau as well (they did not survive).

Leonid Berenshtein (Leonid Yefimovich Berenshteyn), born in Shpikov (Shpykiv), Ukraine in 1921, recounts his father's death when he was six; moving to Pohrebyshche, Ukraine; his mother's remarriage; moving to Kiev, Ukraine; attending a Jewish school, then entering military school; being assigned to Rostov, Soviet Union, before the outbreak of war; completing training as an artillery officer two days before the German invasion in June; posting to Przemysl; relocating to Korosten'; retreating with his unit through Ukraine and Belarus; witnessing the bombing of civilians; battles in Kiev and Poltava, Ukraine; being wounded; locals assisting him medically, providing false papers, and hiding him; going to Cherkassy, Ukraine; being arrested by police and escaping his imminent execution; briefly staying with his grandmother in Belozër'ye, Ukraine; going to to Smila, then to Ternovka; work at the railroad station in Shevchenkovo, Ukraine; going to Kirovgrad oblast looking for partisans; finding a partisan unit; many operations blowing up trains and battles with Germans; becoming chief of staff of the Pozharskiy Partisan unit (Otriad imeni Pozharskogo); various partisan activities; training near Melitopol', Ukraine; parachuting with others behind German lines; providing assistance to partisan troops; Jews who were partisans; earning two advanced degrees after the war; how he saved many Jews; being honored by several Polish and Czech towns; and writing books about his experiences.

Daniel Avidar, born in 1931 in Vilna, Poland (now Vilnius, Lithuania), describes being the youngest of five children in an affluent family; attending a Hebrew school; the Soviet occupation; his family being scheduled for deportation to Siberia; the German invasion in June 1941; his sister Batya and her children living with them; his sister Dina working as a nurse in the Jewish hospital; ghettoization in September; Batya hiding gold in their basement; breaking valuables they could not bring with them so others could not have them; Dina obtaining a position for Batya at the hospital; Dina switching her documents with Batya so she could claim their father was her husband and her younger siblings her children, thus saving them from round-ups and mass killings; his parents hiding in a bunker in November 1941 during a round-up; Batya hiding Daniel and his siblings at the hospital; returning to find their parents gone; attending school, which was a distraction from hunger and cold; his sister Rivka's death; attending synagogue daily to say Kaddish for her; the rabbi inviting him to attend his yeshiva; finding strength through his Torah studies; a public hanging; learning ghetto songs; working in the locksmith shop; seeing a notice that they were to be deported; Dina dressing him as a girl to keep him with her and pushing him to the men's group once they arrived at Kaiserwald; doing slave labor building railroad tracks; obtaining valuables from newly arrived prisoners; trading with locals for extra food; throwing valuables over the fence to his sisters; visiting with his sisters weekly; being hospitalized for an injury; receiving assistance from two prisoner physicians; a German political prisoner saving him from selection for death; hiding for four weeks while his injury healed; a foreman helping him avoid the children's selection; an SS pushing his hand into a saw; the slow healing of his wound; being transferred on Rosh ha-Shanah 1944 by ship to Stutthof; prisoners chanting Yom Kippur prayers during the journey; continuing contact with Dina; being transferred to Kokoszki (also called Burggraben); slave labor in the Schichau-Werke shipyard; smuggling potatoes back to camp to share with others; a German helping him avoid a fatal beating; a death march in January 1945; liberation by Soviet troops in May; Dina obtaining medication for him; observing a Soviet soldier killing Germans for revenge; their three-month journey to Vilnius; their inability to obtain their family property; avoiding antisemitic violence with help from Poles; traveling to Łódź; joining Hashomer Hatzair; Berihah moving them several times; his illegal immigration to Palestine in 1947; his twenty-five year military career; his loss of faith in God; the importance of his sister and friends to his survival; the camp hierarchies; overcoming pervasive painful memories through helping establish and build Israel and his family; testifying twice at war crime trials in Düsseldorf; sharing his experiences with his children; and going on a trip to Poland in 1992.

Chaia Boiman, born in 1924 in Lachwa (Lakhva), Belarus, discusses her childhood family life; participating in a Zionist youth group with her sisters; one brother's emigration to Palestine in 1933; Soviet occupation; attending a Soviet school; confiscation of her father's store; German invasion; her brother's capture while fighting in the Polish Army and his escape and return; her father's assignment to the Judenrat, led by Dov Lopatin, which met at their home; her father's resignation; her father secretly trading for food with non-Jews and supplying it to others; ghettoization in 1942; forced labor; her brothers organizing resistance with Itshak Rokhchin; escaping during the ghetto uprising; joining a partisan unit with her brother and other escapees; several partisan commanders and their activities; building a forest bunker; conflicts with antisemitic partisans; her brother avenging their family's murders through actions against Germans and collaborators; the death of her brother during battle with the Germans; liberation by Soviet troops in Luninets, Belarus; returning home; visiting her brothers' graves in Lakhva; returning home; visiting her brothers' graves in Lakhva; returning to Luninets; her marriage; working in a Soviet field hospital; following the front to Swiebodzin, Poland; traveling to Lódz, Poland; traveling illegally to Berlin, then Föhrenwald displaced persons camp; illegal immigration to Palestine on the Exodus; being captured by the British; being returned to France; transferring to Pöppendorf, Sengwarden, then Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camps; legally immigrating to Palestine; reuniting with her brother; the births of two daughters; and learning about the fate of her parents and several siblings. She also shows photographs.

Suzi Weiss (née Tieber), born in Znojmo, Czechoslovakia, in 1928, discusses her childhood years; escaping to Brno, Czechoslovakia; her father enlisting in the Czech Army; her father organizing the escape of Austrian Jews to Czechoslovakia; her parents being arrested when she was 12 and staying with an aunt who committed suicide; incidents of antisemitism; being on the first transports in January 1941; arriving in Terezin; Jacob Edelstein's activities; training to be an electrician; the social life in Terezin and the outbreak of typhoid fever; the Willy Grot house; activities of the Shalom Makia Zionist group; theater and concerts in Terezin; being filmed nude swimming for the Germans in Terezin; the transport to Auschwitz; working in clothing storage; a plot to burn the camp; a selection and being separated from her father; being marched to Birkenau women's camp; the resistance group in the camp and their plans; the orchestra playing when they went to work; various women in the camp including Hungarians, lesbians, Czech, and Slovakian; being taken by train to Hamburg; working in a factory and being housed in a grain silo; being sent to camp Neugraben; the march to Bergen-Belsen; liberation by the British; she and her mother traveling by train to Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); reuniting with her father in Brno; meeting her husband who was in the Jewish Brigade; and immigrating to Israel in 1949.

Eta Neuman, born on October 12, 1926, in Poprad, Slovakia, discusses her childhood years; being thrown out of school in 1938; expulsion from Poprad on March 21, 1942; being sent to Auschwitz on March 26, 1942; witnessing women committing suicide on the electric fence; Himmler's visit and the shooting of a few women; the other prisoners; being marched to Birkenau; the Sonderkommando; being moved to block named 'Kanada'; meeting a family of Jewish dwarfs subjected to Mengele's experiments; travel by train to camps near Buchenwald and Ravensbrück; being transferred to Neustadt Glewe; liberation in April 1945; traveling to Bratislava where encountered post-war antisemitism; her activities for the Palestinian Jewish brigade in Czech Republic; helping to smuggle weapons to the Israeli Army; and immigration to Israel in September 1949.

Ya'akov Geler, born in 1924, in Kletsk, Belarus, discusses his family life; life under the Russians between 1939 and 1941; German entrance; activities of the Judenrat; creation of the ghetto; knowledge of groups in the forest; health services in the ghetto and the Jewish police; mass killings in the ghetto; escaping to the forest; life in Baranowice, Poland (Baranavichy, Belarus); escaping to the forest; joining the partisans in the forest in 1942 and the Polish leader Pogachov; his recruitment into the Russian Army; attack on and destruction of Berlin, Germany; his discharge from the army in 1946; his mother's survival; traveling to Lódz, Poland, where he joined the 'Ichud' party in an attempt to go to Palestine; being detained on Cyprus; arriving in Israel in 1949; and adjustment to life in Israel.

Vladmir Shatzman, born in 1916 in Daugavpils, Latvia, discusses family home in Polotsk, Belarus; moving to Leningrad, Soviet Union (Saint Petersburg, Russia); entering military school in 1936; graduating in 1939; being sent to North Caucasus to a radio unit; being based near Cherkassy, Ukraine; seeing action near Smolensk, Russia, where he was wounded; his capture by the Germans; being taken to Borisov (Barysau), Belarus; being taken to Biala Podlaska, Poland, and put into a camp; escaping from the Biala Podlaska camp; taken in by Polish families for a time; going to Biala Podlaska ghetto; acquiring false documentation stating that he worked in an airport; assuming the identity of an Azerbajani; arrest by Ukrainian police; escaping and joining a partisan unit near Kobryn, Belarus; being chosen as head of partisan unit; activities, travels, and operations as a partisan; travels to Leningrad in hopes of finding family; reuniting with his mother; the fates of partisan comrades; traveling to Minsk, Belarus, Biala Podlaska, Poland, Warsaw, Poland, Wilhelmpieckstadt Guben, Germany, Meissen, Germany, Prague, Czech Republic, and Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic; being sent to Linz, Austria in November 1945; being sent back to the Soviet Union in May 1946; his job in Grodno, Belarus as a historian in the Grodno regional museum; returning to Leningrad, Soviet Union; and his immigration to Israel in the late 1980s.

Arie Raich, born in Mezőkovácsháza, Hungary in 1922, recounts being the oldest of six children; his family's poverty; attending public school and cheder; his bar mitzvah; studying in Békéscsaba, Hungary; living with an aunt in Budapest, Hungary; working in a factory; visiting his father in a work camp; the German invasion; working with the Va'adat (Relief and Rescue Committee) under Fülöp Freudiger, a member of the Judenrat, arranging to smuggle Jews to Romania; traveling to Szentes, Hungary then Szeged, Hungary; obtaining blank documents to make false papers; returning to Budapest with his future wife and her relatives; obtaining housing from his former boss; two sisters joining them; preparing forged documents; his arrest and incarceration in Kistarcsa; obtaining a false birth certificate for his release; forging papers resulting in releases for others; obtaining papers for his father and others from Raoul Wallenberg; placing his father in a Swedish safe house; obtaining funds from the committee to provide food for Jewish children in a Red Cross safe house; liberation by Soviet troops; assistance from the Joint; his marriage in 1945; immigrating to Israel via Vienna, Austria; reuniting with his brother; learning his mother and sister were killed in Auschwitz; and not discussing his experiences with his grandchildren, thinking they would not believe him.

Tzila Pinus, born in 1905 in Chernovtsy, Ukraine, discusses moving to Iasi, Romania, to go to school for midwifery; moving to the town of Khotin, Romania (now Ukraine); Soviets coming to the area in 1940; Germans entering Khotin; death of her husband; being sent to camps in Transnistria; walking and being guarded by Romanian and German troops on horseback; Moldovan peasants providing food; stopping in Sokiryany, Ukraine for two weeks; stopping in Ataki, Moldova; travel to Podolsk, Russia; falling ill with typhus in early November 1941; meeting up with relatives and leaving the marching column; the ghetto in Popovtsy; digging roads; obtaining food by collecting potatoes and knitting for a peasant family; liberation; returning to Khotin; going to Chernovtsy; and her immigration to Israel in 1975.

Eta Peleg (née Landau), born in Bardejov, Czechoslovakia (presently Slovakia) in 1921, describes being the oldest of five children; her parents not being very religious; her large extended family in Bardejov; attending public school and her expulsion in 1939 due to anti-Jewish regulations; confiscation of their home and business; hiding during round-ups for deportation; one sister escaping to Hungary; being rounded-up with her sisters to Poprad, Slovakia in early 1942; her deportation to Auschwitz/Birkenau; a cousin greeting them; her brief hospitalization; the trauma of her sister's selection for gassing; her assignment sorting clothing in Canada Kommando; smuggling extra food she found to friends; volunteering to carry dead bodies for extra food and privileges; her reassignment to a lice removal unit, then to the kitchen in late 1944; their evacuation in January 1945; bringing extra food from the kitchen; escaping from the death march; locals assisting her; traveling to Katowice, Poland; liberation by Soviet troops; barely avoiding sexual assault by Soviet soldiers; returning to Bardejov; learning she was the sole survivor of her immediate and extended family; working in Prague, Czech Republic; her marriage in September 1946; her son's birth; immigrating to Israel; and her daughter's birth in 1950.

Eliezer Shvimer, born in Bilke, Carpato, Russia (now in Ukraine) in 1924, describes the life of the Jewish community, youth movements, childhood games, and daily home routine; the Germans entering into Czechoslovakia in 1939 and the Carpats being given to Hungary; Czechs leaving the village and the Hungarians imposing restrictions on the Jews; a group of Jews who did not have the right papers were taken to Podolszyce and killed by the Einsatzgruppen; his father being taken to a labor camp in 1941; being taken by train to Beregszaz (Berehove, Ukraine), a ghetto for the surrounding villages; being transported to Auschwitz and the daily routine; the cruelty of Kapos; being sent by train to Buchenwald in 1944; the barracks, camp routine, the sick barrack, his work, and types of punishment; being taken to Gleina (Tröglitz concentration camp); working in a Braunkohle Benzin AG (Brabag) refinery; a Serb prisoner beating his father; sabotaging the Serb's machine for revenge; an uncle's arrival and assignment to the tailor shop (a privileged position); his uncle arranging his and his father's transfer there; his assignment as the Kapo's personal servant; escaping with his father during the bombing of Dresden then returning to the camp; being loaded on trains that were bombarded by Americans; a death march to Theresienstadt; liberation by Soviet troops; returning home via Prague, Bratislava, and Budapest; joining an uncle in Košice, Slovakia; assisting in organizing illegal immigration to Palestine; immigrating to Israel in 1950; his marriage and his daughter's birth; praying and fasting on Yom Kippur in camps; his father assisting many other prisoners; and the importance of his father's support to his own survival. He also shows photographs.

Shmuel Givony (Tibor Salomon), born in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia) on June 30, 1923, discusses his youth; attending a Jewish German language school; participating in the Bar Kochba swim club; his sister's emigration to England in 1939; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; studying plumbing; his father's death in 1940; the Aryanization of Jewish businesses; war breaking out in September 1941; slave labor for the Hlinka guard; release after four months; his deportation to Sered; his mother hiding with non-Jews; bringing her to Sered and hiding her with a Czech family; his privileged position due to his plumbing skills; prisoners organizing sports and cultural events; joining a group that produced false paper and obtained weapons; assignment as a plumber outside the camp; escaping in 1943; traveling to Rimavská Sobota, Rimavská Sec, then Budapest; assistance from relatives; reconnecting with Hashomer Hatzair; traveling with two friends to Kosice, then Presov, using false papers; working as a plumber; meeting with his friends to maintain his Jewish identity; fleeing to Nitra fearing exposure; attending an underground meeting in Piestany; joining a partisan group; an ambush in Oslany; traveling to Bučovice; battles with Germans in the Slovak Uprising; obtaining permits to travel to Zvolen, then Bratislava; working in a factory as a non-Jew; visiting his mother; working for the underground; his arrest; interrogation by the Gestapo; being deportated to Sered; volunteering for bomb removal in Bratislava; a failed attempt to organize an escape; returning to Sered; volunteering as a welder for Alois Brunner, camp commandant; escaping with two others from a train transport; assistance from Czechs; hiding in Trencín, Slovakia; liberation by Soviet troops; returning home; learning his mother was killed in Ravensbrück; leading a Zionist youth group; traveling to Belgium; and immigrating to Palestine via Cyprus in 1947. He shows false papers he had used.

Kopel Kolpanitzki, born in 1926 in Lakhva, Belarus, discusses his childhood years; living in Sinkevichy during his youth; belonging to several youth movements; war breaking out between Germany and Russia; the German entrance into Lakhva; the establishment of the Judenrat; the passage of anti-Jewish legislation; the establishment of the Lakhva ghetto in the winter of 1941-1942; traveling eastward in an attempt to join the partisans; his sabotage activities as a partisan; meeting up with the Red Army in the forest in 1944; his partisan unit, the general Kopak unit; becoming part of the Red Army; correspondence from father; deserting his unit; traveling from Katowice, Poland to Bratislava, Slovakia, Vienna, Austria, Windsheim, Germany, and Paris, France; his immigration to Israel; being interned on Cyprus; and adaptation to life in Israel.

Yochanan Kalfus, born in Vichyne, Ukraine in 1923, discusses his home life; the German occupation; smuggling food into ghettos in Bochnia, Poland and Kraków, Poland; being recruited to a work camp near Plaszów; working for a firm building rails leading to Auschwitz; work, food, and accommodations in Plaszów; life in the forest as a partisan fighter; Shimon Regel and Gustav Davidson; passing as a non-Jew; the advance of the Russians; liberation; and his immigration to Israel in 1948.

Israel Guler, born in Khmelnik, Ukraine on May 4, 1930, discusses his early family life; the establishment of the Khmelnik ghetto in fall 1941; hiding in the ghetto; securing false documents in order to establish Ukrainian identities; taking a train to Gayvoron (Haivoron), Ukraine in an attempt to go south; returning to Khmelnik; attempting to go south again in December 1942-January 1943; traveling to Zhmerinka, Ukraine; traveling to Murafa, Ukraine; living with a Ukrainian family until the arrival of the Red Army in March 1944; returning to Khmelnik; entering the Kiev Aviation institute in 1949; working for three years in Kazakhstan; working in aviation in L'viv, Ukraine; and immigrating to Israel in 1991.

Aliza Green, born in December 1923 in Spisská Stará Ves, Czechoslovakia (now in Slovakia), discusses her early family life; the arrival of the Germans; anti-Jewish events beginning in 1939; being sent to an uncle in Spišské Podhradie; returning home; confiscation of the family store; her twin sister's death from illness in 1941; deportation with another sister to Poprad, then Auschwitz in March 1942; slave labor hauling bricks in Harmęż, then sorting clothing in Canada Kommando; being transferred to Birkenau; separation from her sister and bringing her food; a fellow prisoner hiding her when she had typhus; bribing a Kapo to visit her brother and father; her father giving her family wedding rings; learning her father and brother were selected for gassing; her sister's selection; slave labor on a farm; sabotaging egg production; receiving extra food knitting for German guards; hospitalization for an appendectomy in Birkenau; a death march before she was healed; a privileged prisoner allowing her to ride on a sled; being transferred to open train cars in Szczecin; arriving in Gross-Rosen then being sent to Ravensbrück; volunteering to work in Malchow; receiving food from the Red Cross; escaping from a death march; receiving assistance from French POWs; her liberation by Soviet troops; living in a refugee camp in Neubrandenburg; traveling to Prague, Czech Republic then Kezmarok, Slovakia seeking her fiancé (he did not return); living with other survivors; her post-war life in Israel; nightmares resulting from her experiences; and sharing her experiences with her older son. She shows photographs and sings songs they made up and sang in Poprad and the camps.

Israel Miller, born in January 1922 in Hanušovce nad Topl'ou, Slovakia, describes being one of six children; one brother's illness and death; attending a Jewish school, then yeshivas in Šurany and Galanta; Slovak independence; anti-Jewish restrictions; forced labor building roads; how the synagogue burned down in 1939 or 1940; escaping with a friend to Sátoraljaújhely, Hungary in 1942; assistance from local Jews; visiting his brother in Košice, Slovakia; traveling to Sárospatak, then Budapest, Hungary; obtaining false papers; being arrested in Budapest and taken to jail, physically abused, and sent to a work camp in Zilina, Slovakia; his sister smuggling money to him in a toothpaste tube; being deported in September 1942 to Auschwitz; processing in Auschwitz and work life; slave labor unloading trains; receiving extra food from a SS guard; public hangings; obtaining a position at Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke (German Equipment Factory) through a friend and working in an indoor plant that manufactured and fixed a variety of items; sharing extra food with prisoners in the hospital; praying with a group, exchanging bread for potatoes during Passover; a death march, then train transfer to Mauthausen in January 1945; being moved to a camp near Vienna, Austria, where they were finally liberated; traveling to Budapest, then home; reuniting with his sister; moving to Bratislava, Slovakia; his marriage in 1947; his illegal immigration to Palestine; serving in the military during the 1948 war; retaining his religious faith in Auschwitz; and his almost fifty grandchildren representing his victory over Hitler.

Sophia Zaitzeva, born in 1923 in Volochisk, Ukraine, discusses her family life; her brother's birth in 1927; entering university in Kiev, Ukraine in 1940; their move to a village for her father's job managing a sugar factory; traveling to Vinnytsia, Ukraine for a tonsillectomy; living with her family in Monastyrishche, Ukraine when the Germans invaded; the confiscation of their home; the murder of five prominent Jewish leaders; her father continuing to manage the factory; her mother informing people she was not Jewish (she did not "look Jewish"); moving into a ghetto area at the edge of Monastyrishche, Ukraine; receiving assistance from an Ukrainian family; a round-up for a mass killing which included her father; escaping with her mother and brother; letters written by her mother after the war that document the family's experiences during German occupation; her mother obtaining false papers; attempting to join partisans; joining a partisan unit headed by Aleksandr V. Kokarev; becoming an intelligence operative; being captured by a German patrol; being sent with her comrades to a gendarme post in Balta, Ukraine; being held in Balta from January to March 1944; keeping their morale up with songs despite torture; escaping with a group of prisoners; hiding with partisan contacts; returning to Vinnytsia; reuniting with her mother and brother; traveling to Moscow, Russia in 1945; completing law school in Kiev; her marriage; having frequent nightmares resulting from her experiences; and immigrating to Israel. She also shows photographs, documents, and publications.

Gad Rozenblat (also Rosenblatt), born on May 15, 1919 in Ignatovka, Ukraine, discusses his family life; Jewish organizations in town; studing in a cheder and in a Polish school; studying at a yeshiva for four years in Lutsk, Ukraine; returning to Ignatovka in 1935; becoming active in Beitar; working as a teacher in a neighboring village; life in Ignatovka, including the community, the emigration of families, and the newspapers he read; the Russian occupation; the war coming to the Ukraine in 1941; the retreat of the Russian Army; the organization of the Judenrat and Jewish police; being sent to a work camp; Jews being ordered to assemble and taken to the ghetto in Sofiovka, Ukraine; becoming part of a Russian partisan group; sabotaging train stations; joining the ninth division of the Kulpak partisan group (Kovpak brigade); traveling to Buczacz, Ukraine, Lachowice, Ukraine, (January 1943) Volyn, Ukraine, Sofiovka, Ukraine, Bragin, Belarus, Delatin, Ukraine, and the Carpats; being wounded in battle in January 1944 and being taken by carriage to Lódz, Poland; being taken by train to a military hospital in Kiev, Ukraine; being taken to a partisan hospital; writing book about the organization of partisan groups; getting married at the end of 1944 and going to Lublin, Poland; meetings with the poet Yitzhak Katzenelson; his thoughts on Abba Kovner and the revenge group; helping to organize groups for aliya to Israel; his immigration to Israel in September 1945; and coping with his war experiences.

Tzvi Isers, born in 1923 in the town of Lenin, Belarus, discusses his childhood years and family life; being two years old when his father was murdered by Russian bandits; his love of learning and studying in a synagogue and Polish schools; being in the pioneer youth movement; his sister immigrating to Palestine in 1931; joining the Komsomol youth movement; life under Soviet rule; German rule; being taken away for forced labor; anti-Jewish edicts; becoming a member of a small resistance group of ten to twelve men in a camp of approximately 600 men; hearing about the mass murder of Jews in Lenin in August 1942; joining partisans comprised of Russian prisoners; the sabotage of German trains heading east to the Russian fronts; arriving in liberated territories; becoming part of the Red Army; being chosen as part of special forces unit in the Red Army; becoming involved in different military operations near the Baltic Sea in the fall of 1944; being wounded during combat; his hospitalization until April 1945; traveling to Moscow, Russia; going to Minsk, Belarus; enrolling in Minsk law school; his marriage; and post-war friendships established with former partisans.

Marek Herman, born in L'viv, Ukraine in 1927, describes being the oldest of four children; his family's poverty; attending a Jewish school; antisemitic harassment; the Soviet occupation; the German invasion; ghettoization; he and his brother living as non-Jews on the Aryan side; smuggling food to his family; the deportation of his mother and sister; bringing food to his father at Janowska; he and his brother being denounced as Jews; escaping during his brother's interrogation; obtaining false papers from a Ukrainian friend; Italian soldiers befriending him; traveling with them when they left L'viv in 1943; living in a children's home in Udine, Italy; being adopted by an Italian soldier; traveling with him by train to Mestre, Italy; the soldier's arrest; escaping with another boy; traveling to Ghemme, Italy; living with his companion's adopted family; traveling to his adoptive family in Canischio, Italy; working on their farm; attending a boarding school in Cuorgnè, Italy; liberation by partisans in 1944; joining them as a translator; fighting in hit-and-run battles; recruitment by the OSS (Office of Strategic Services); serving throughout Italy in Giaveno, Turin, Condove, and elsewhere; being captured by the Germans and escaping; demobilization; returning to L'viv, via Melk, Austria and Kiev, Ukraine; moving with an aunt and uncle to Wrocław, Poland; moving to Rosenheim displaced persons camp; working at a Deror youth summer camp; assisting with illegal immigration to Palestine from Austria through Italy; attending a Haganah training course in Bari, Italy; his immigration to Israel via Naples, Italy; serving in the Palmah; his book about his experiences; and his contact with historians during visits to Italy.

Ziuta Grunhut, born in 1927 in Kraków, Poland, discusses being the younger of two children in an affluent family; her father's architectural business; attending a Polish school; speaking and reading German at home; vacationing in Zakopane; an Austrian cousin living with them after the Anschluss; the increasing tension in 1939; her parents sending her brother to England; vacationing in Muszyna in the summer of 1939; returning home in late August when her father was drafted; his rejection and return; the German invasion on September 1; her father fleeing with his three brothers and a brother-in-law; his return; her expulsion from school; Germans living in their house; doing forced labor clearing snow; a non-Jewish friend taking over her father's business; her father continuing to manage it, thus earning a living; ghettoization; leaving their valuables with Ruzia, their non-Jewish maid; Ruzia bringing them food; her father continuing to work in his former business; her assignment to a factory outside the ghetto; smuggling food back to the ghetto; she and her parents having false documents as Poles; her father's younger brother returning and living with them; deportations beginning in 1942; her mother's brother protecting her mother from deportation (he was in the Jewish police); her father's assignment to help build Płaszów; moving there with her parents in March 1943; continuing to work in the factory outside Płaszów; Ruzia bringing her food to smuggle in and sharing it with others; her father being severely beaten several times; the camp kommandant Amon Goeth killing many, but sparing her and her mother once; her father bringing his sister's two children to Płaszów (they had been with their non-Jewish nanny); the deportation of most of the prisoners in late 1944; how those left behind were made to destroy the buildings and disinter and burn the bodies to destroy evidence of what occurred there; a forced march to Auschwitz/Birkenau on January 14, 1945; separation from her father and the children (the children survived); speaking to her father through the fence the last time she saw him; a death march with her mother, then transport on open trains to Bergen-Belsen; the filth, starvation, and a typhus epidemic; caring for her mother as her condition deteriorated; volunteering for transfer; slave labor in a factory in Venusberg; receiving assistance from friends from Płaszów; being hospitalized for typhus; her mother joining her; a sixteen-day train transport to Mauthausen via Gusen; Czechs bringing food during a stop; her mother's death during the journey; losing her will to live; receiving assistance from the women her mother had enlisted to care for her; a woman giving birth in her barrack; liberation by United States troops on May 5; returning to Ruzia's home in June; reuniting with friends and a cousin; learning her father had been killed; living with her uncle and aunt; being contacted by her brother in February 1946; her marriage to her former boyfriend; visiting her brother in Liverpool in November; returning to her husband in Kraków ten months later; their son's birth in 1948; their futile efforts to emigrate until their 1957 immigration to Israel; her daughter's birth; her husband's death in 1989; testifying at Goeth's trial; details of her camp experiences; the reversal of values and her pervasive fear in camps; the impact of total starvation; and she and her husband sharing their experiences with their children. (She shows documents and photographs at the end of the recording.)

Leib Braverman, born in Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania in 1929, discusses his early family life; pre-war antisemitism; the Germans' arrival; life in the Kovno ghetto; 'aktia' and selections within the ghetto; his travels through Stutthof, Landsberg, and Dachau; his experiences in Auschwitz and Mauthausen; liberation; hospitalization in Linz, Austria; traveling east, in search of news about his family, to such places as Munkacz (Mukacheve), Ukraine, Minsk, Belarus, Vilna, Lithuania, and Kovno; returning to his studies after the war; immigrating to Israel in 1973; and writing a book about his Holocaust experiences.

Daniel Inbar, born in October 1932 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses his family life; the outbreak of war in September 1939; his family moving to Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania; anti-Jewish decrees upon the German arrival; moving to the ghetto in Vilyampolskaya Sloboda or Slobodka (Vilijampole); life and conditions in the ghetto; actions in the ghetto; abolishment of the ghetto in July 1942; arriving in Landsberg; jumping from a train heading to Auschwitz; creating a new personal history with a new name, Jan Janovitch; receiving assistance from a peasant named Costira; the Russian arrival; traveling to Lódz, Poland in February 1946 to search for his family; reuniting with his mother; joining Hashomer Hatzair; being taken to France in 1947 to prepare for immigration to Palestine; arrival in Israel in April 1948; and reuniting with Teresa Costira in 1983.

Itzchak Yudkes, born in Białystok, Poland in 1926, describes being the younger by sixteen years of two children; attending a Taḥkemoni school; his family's Orthodoxy; participating in a Zionist youth group; attending summer camp in Płatkownica in 1938; antisemitic harassment by children; Soviet occupation in September 1939; German invasion in June 1941; witnessing the main synagogue set on fire with hundreds of Jews inside; ghettoization; working at several jobs; his sister, who was blond, trading possessions outside the ghetto for food; hiding with his family during a mass deportation in February 1943; separation from them; learning his sister, her two children, and his mother had been deported; public hanging of a Jew who had resisted; witnessing the revenge killing of a Jew who had revealed other Jews during the deportation; and separation from his father during liquidation of the ghetto; being deported to a work camp; being transferred to Majdanek, then Bliżyn; slave labor in a fabric mill; hospitalization; recovery; assignment to the kitchen; being transferred to Auschwitz/Birkenau in July 1944; assignment with other youths to a Polish children's barrack; fasting on Yom Kippur; transfer with the other children to Oranienburg, Sachsenhausen, then Ohrdruf; slave labor digging in nearby mountains; a German guard allowing him and a friend to eat from a plum tree; transfer to Neubrandenburg, then Ludwigslust in April 1945; being offered cooked human flesh by Soviet prisoners; liberation by United States troops the next day; returning to Poland seeking relatives; joining a kibbutz in Warsaw; preparing for emigration to Palestine in Sosnowiec; moving with the group to Graz; the Jewish Brigade organizing their illegal emigration from Marseille via Belgium; British interdiction; living on kibbutzim; military draft in 1950; his career as a police officer; and how he often felt disembodied and “outside of himself” during his worst experiences.

Yesha'ayahu Falkovich, born on March 21, 1927 in Bialystok, Poland, describes being 12 years old when the war started; his siblings, education, and involvement with the youth movement; Russians taking over the area after a short German stay (shorter than a month); the nationalization of all the Russians; the Russians leaving in 1941; Germans entering and rounding up the men, including his father; the establishment of the ghetto in the area of his father's factory; going into the ghetto and working in gravel production; the liquidation of the ghetto and being sent with his brother on cargo trains towards Treblinka; passing Treblinka and arriving in Majdanek after a short stop in Lublin, Poland; processing in the camp; being sent to Majdanek, Blizyn, Birkenau, Oranienburg, Sachsenhausen, Ohrdruf, back to Sachsenhausen, Neubrandenburg, and Ravensbrück; being liberated by the Americans in Ludwigslust; staying in Graz, Austria for a time then being sent to Föhrenwald displaced persons camp; immigrating to Israel; and his motivation for giving his testimony.

Uri Chanoch, born in Kaunas, Lithuania in 1928, discusses being one of three children; his annual visits with his younger brother, Daniel, to his paternal grandparents in Žasliai; attending a Hebrew gymnasium; his father's car accident in 1938 resulting in a one-year hospitalization; his mother assuming responsibility for his business; Soviet occupation; attending a Soviet camp in Palanga in summer 1941; German invasion in June; Lithuanians separating the Jewish children, locking them in a synagogue, and beating them; their parents sending buses three weeks later to return them home; ghettoization in August; their former maid bringing them food and offering to hide Daniel; his mother refusing but entrusting her with their furniture; orders for the entire population to gather in October during which many were selected; observing them walking to the Ninth Fort the next day (they were killed); a privileged job as a messenger for SA Lieutenant Gustav Hermann, head of the German labor office; being approached to assist the ghetto underground; forming a cadre of four; weekly meetings; obtaining stamped work permits for groups escaping to the partisans; his mother's round-up to the Ninth Fort; Lt. Hermann arranging her release; hiding Daniel during the round-up of children; refusing to divulge his location during a severe beating; losing his job as a result; slave labor in a wood shop; the underground ordering him to escape with a group; retreating back to the ghetto after being fired upon; deportation with his family by cattle car; being separated from his mother and sister during the journey; slave labor in Kaufering; Daniel’s privileged positions in the kitchen; sharing extra food with their father; an order for deportation of children; deciding to remain with his father, in the hope of helping him and thinking Daniel was going to a better place; brutal slave labor building tunnels; believing God had deserted them; a public hanging of escapees; encountering a cousin who died shortly thereafter; his father's transfer (he never saw him again); punishment for taking a potato; reassignment as a messenger due to influence of friends from Kaunas; helping friends; bribing a prisoner doctor to save his best friend; train transfer from Dachau; escaping with three others; liberation by Soviet troops; beating Germans in Schwabhausen for revenge; United States troops stopping them; traveling to Landsberg; U.S. troops assigning them to a German home; humiliating Germans; learning Daniel was in Munich; traveling there with friends; continuing acts of revenge; encountering the Jewish Brigade which organized their trip to Bologna; learning his mother and sister did not survive; reunion Daniel; living in Fiesole for seven months, preparing for emigration to Palestine; communication from relatives in the United States; moving to Modena; departure for Palestine with Daniel from Tradate in June 1946; living on a Youth Aliyah kibbutz; and participating in the Arab-Israel War; the importance of luck and circumstances to survival; native Israelis' contempt for survivors; Daniel's reluctance to discuss their experiences until about ten years ago; emotional visits to camps, Lithuania, and their maid's daughter; and heightened emotions as the years pass. (He names many with whom he was involved and shows photographs.)

Yafa Ulpan, born in Švencionys, Lithuania in 1927, discusses her family and being one of five children; antisemitism in her town affected Jewish schools and businesses; the Russians taking over when the war broke out in 1939 and the confiscation of their houses and store; the Lithuanian partisans took over schools and businesses when Russia and Germany went to war; Jews being arrested and forced to do hard labor; her father being asked to handle the organization of food supplies; how the Lithuanians surrounded their home and stole all of their valuables; her father being taken away, made to dig his own grave, and killed; Jews being assembled and marched at night to Poligon; returning to Švencionys and then to the ghetto; all her friends being sent to camps and her boss saving her by assigning her to agricultural work; being to the Dūkštas (Dukszty) work camp; working in the new Švencionys work camp; going to the Vilnius ghetto through connections and bribes while the others were sent to Kaunas and killed; working outside the ghetto and hiding during police searches; being smuggled out and brought to a Christian woman who hid her; pretending to be Polish; being taken to the Gestapo prison, where she worked cleaning the jail; befriending a guard who helped her escape when all others were shot; being taken to Kielce, Riga, Mežaparks (Kaiserwald), and then Dundaga; being sent with a group to a larger camp en route to Germany, where they marched to the border and were sent to Stutthof; working in a German village for six weeks digging potatoes; being sent to another camp where a Polish guard let her leave on a death march; going after liberation to a village close to Hamburg, Germany; leaving with friends and receiving help from a German; joining a caravan heading for Vilnius; being taken to work in Bydgoszcz, Poland; her future husband Misha, a Jewish Russian officer, taking her to stay with a friend; going to Vilnius to find relatives; going to Lódz, Poland and finding out that her brother and sister had survived; Misha deserting the army and finding her in Lódz; going to Austria; the Jewish Brigade helping them go to Italy, where they lived for two years; getting married in 1946; taking a ship to Israel and being caught by the British and sent to Haifa, Israel in 1947; being placed in a detention camp in Cyprus for 16 months; going to Ra'ananah, Israel in November 1947 then Magdiel, Israel, where her husband worked in an orchard and she opened a fish store; and living in Jaffa, Israel.

Efraim Wolf Shiper, born on September 25, 1916 near the small town of Josefow by the Vistule (Józefów nad Wislą) in Poland, describes his Orthodox family; attending school in Ostrowiec, Poland; joining the Hechalutz youth movement; his family moving to Brussels, Belgium; becoming active with the Bund and Socialist movement in Belgium; the Jewish community; the entrance of the Germans into Belgium; obtaining fake documents; his job in the underground and the work of his wife, Claire; he and his wife managing to secret away his two younger sisters to a farm; his lack of connection with the Judenrat; the reaction of his father to his sons being in the underground; the newspaper they published in the underground; he and Claire being apprehended by the Gestapo; arriving in Malines (Mechelen), Belgium and being there for three months in 1943; making plans to jump off the train if put on a transport; successfully jumping off the train in Tongres (Tongeren), Belgium and going to Liege, Belgium; returning to Brussels; moving to Charleroi, Belgium; considering reversing his circumcision; Claire's abortion; how some people in the pro-Trotsky group volunteered to fight in Spanish Civil War; Claire's work as editor; liberation in August 1944; part of his family immigrating to Israel in 1948; he and Claire going to Uruguay and then Brazil; becoming active in the Zionist movement in the 1960s; immigrating to Israel in 1968; and their daughters’ acclimation to Israel.

Solly Ganor, born on May 18, 1928 in a small town of Heydekrug (Šilutė, Lithuania), describes his early life, the family's move to Kovno (Kaunas, Lithuania), and his encounter with the Japanese consul, Chiune Sugihara; his family’s attempt to flee Russia, but without success; returning to Kovno and ending up in a ghetto in Slobodka (Vilijampole), Lithuania; becoming involved with underground work; hiding books; working at the airport under harsh conditions; the relationship between the Judenrat and the chief rabbi; the Judenrat making of list of people to send to Riga, Latvia; the beginning of Jewish resistance in the ghetto; the relative quiet in the ghetto from 1942 to 1943; the ghetto orchestra; deportations to Estonia; his cousins joining Chaim Yellin’s partisans; the killings in the 9th Fort; his sister's release from the Nazis; a story about Joseph Kagan; being ordered to evacuate the ghetto in July 1944; being taken to Stutthof and later to an outer camp of Dachau, Camp 10 (Kaufering X in Utting am Ammersee, Germany); his father working in the concrete plant; witnessing the suicide of a Jew who pushed a cruel German into pouring concrete; lice in the camp; burying the dead; celebrating his father's birthday with a surprise party; being instructed to take inmates to Dachau in April 1945; evacuating from Dachau along with 8,000 other Jews on a death march; being liberated by Japanese American soldiers; translating for the American doctors who were treating survivors; being sent with his father to recuperate; going to Munich, Germany; working for the American army as a translator in the Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC); working for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. (UNNRA); leaving Germany and boarding a ship in Marseilles, France; arriving in Haifa, Israel in June 1948; and his first years in Israel.

Menachem Katz was born in Berezhany, Poland, in 1925. He describes antisemitic incidents which increased towards 1939 when war broke out. Menachem discusses life under Soviet rule. He talks about bombardment by Germans, their entry into town, and the Soviet withdrawal in July 1941. Menachem describes establishment of the ghetto. In June 1943, he and his father went to a work camp, while his mother remained in the ghetto. Menachem ended up in the forest in hiding, assisted by a peasant. He built a bunker which was destroyed and rebuilt. Menachem survived in the forest by stealing from other peasants. He met others Jews from Berezhany, who were in hiding in the forest and had weapons. Menachem describes life in the forest for an eight month period. He also talks about liberation by the Russians and his return to the village in July 1944, where no Jews remained. He were repatriated to Poland and then with Aliya Bet, traveled to Italy. After two years in a kibbutz in Italy, he went on a boat, the"Bracha Fuld," to Palestine. The British took them to Cyprus where he stayed for eight months. In 1947, he went to Palestine, where he later becomes an architect, raised a family, and wrote a book about his experiences

Ya'akov Movshovich, born in Lódz, Poland in 1925, describes being one of two children; his family's affluence; attending a Polish school, then a Katzenelson school and summer camp; antisemitic harassment of orthodox Jews; volunteering in a civil defense corps during the German invasion; doing forced labor; a German assisting his father receive payment for his store merchandise; ghettoization; receiving food from the same German; attending a school and a haschshara in the ghetto from 1940 to 1941 and how it moved to Marichin (possibly Marysin); slave labor in a shoe factory, then a printing factory; his father working in a wood shop and his mother working in a kitchen; receiving extra food from the manager when a songwriter among them wrote songs (he sings one of them); food shortages and hunger in 1942; hiding with his family during round-ups; their deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1944; arriving in Auschwitz and volunteering to work as a locksmith; being separated from his family; trading his shoes to a Kapo for food; being taken by train to camp Friedland (in Mieroszów, Poland); training, work, and life in the camp; slave labor in an airplane propeller factory; Italian POWs believing he was Italian and giving him food, cigarettes, and a coat; working in the kitchen; throwing food to fellow prisoners; a religious prisoner refusing to eat bread during Passover; making and obtaining weapons to resist if there was a liquidation; the lack of medical treatment in the camp; how escapes were accomplished; receiving assistance from a German guard; abandonment by the Germans; liberation by Soviet troops; traveling to Czechoslovakia, then back to Friedland for six months; traveling to Lódz with a group and one of them being killed en route by Poles; assisting with Jewish emigration to Palestine; immigrating to Israel in 1958; the deaths of almost his entire family in the Holocaust; and the birth of his son. He also shows photographs.

Chanan Akavia, born on July 29, 1927 in Sighet (Sighetu Marmatiei), Romania, describes the Germans entering Hungary in March 1944 when he was a student in the city of Uzhhorod, Ukraine; returning to Sighet; details about his parents and his siblings; the deportation of his family to Auschwitz; his father’s role in the Judenrat (Jewish council); the anti-Jewish laws implemented in Sighet and the ghetto; conditions during the train journey to the camp; being sent to Buna (Monowitz) and placed in Block 44, which was a youth barrack; daily life in the camp; his work for I.G. Farben Industries; his fingers getting crushed and recuperating in the hospital; working in the toy workshop in “Commando 90”; moral dilemmas in the camp; selections in Buna; the hangings; being sent to a factory (Laurahütte; Siemianowice Slaskie, Poland) near Katowice, Poland to build anti-aircraft weapons; having an infected wound and continuing to work; daily bombings; spending the winter in Hannover, Germany; being transferred then sent to Bergen-Belsen; cannibalism; liberation; being hospitalized for months; going to Malmö, Sweden; being diagnosed with tuberculosis; his Swedish nurse, Marta; disagreements among the Jewish and non-Jewish patients; receiving a scholarship to study in a polytechnic in Sweden; his involvement with the Zionist organization Hehalutz; going to Vickelbi, a kind of training farm in preparation for immigration to Eretz Israel; meeting his future wife; the sea voyage to Eretz Israel and arriving in May 1946; his work on the kibbutz (Degania Bet); the War of Independence; his children; taking a post at the Israeli Embassy in Budapest, Hungary in 1964; and his wife’s book.

Moshe Kravitz, born in Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania in 1931, describes his family, including his middle class parents and his older brother; attending a Hebrew-speaking school; how his parents were not very religious, not communists, nor Zionists; not experiencing antisemitism; the Germans entering in June 1941; he and his family escaping on bicycles toward the Russian border and returning after three weeks; their apartment being occupied by Germans; moving into the ghetto, where they lived for three years; Aktions in the ghetto; his family being deported and he and his father being sent to Lansdberg; being taken later to Dachau; being sent to Birkenau; being transported with 25 youth to an agricultural farm about 90 km from Auschwitz; being marched towards Buchenwald as the front began to approach; his arrival and time at Buchenwald prior to liberation; recovering in Switzerland and reconnecting with his mother; immigrating to Palestine in 1946; his early years in Israel as a member of the Youth Aliya; Mikveh Agricultural School; joining the youth Hagana organization; and in 1948, serving two years in the Israeli army. Mr. Kravitz reads from his own writings from the 1940s during the interview.

Yekutiel Shor, born in Bialystok, Poland on February 1, 1928, describes being one of two children; his large, extended family; attending Jewish and Polish schools; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; his father's death in 1938; the brief German invasion in 1939, then the Soviet occupation; the Germans invading again in June 1941; the forcing of 300 Jews into a synagogue, which was then burned; ghettoization; forced factory labor; an action in 1942; hiding during round-ups; his sister being taken from work; round-up by Ukrainians; being beaten unconscious and, upon awakening, seeing his mother shot; being taken to the Blizyn work camp, where he worked in a quarry; trading valuables he found with local Poles for food; sharing with his friend; public executions of escapees; being transferred to Auschwitz/Birkenau, Sachsenhausen, and then Ohrdruf; arriving in Ohrdruf and building an underground tunnel; being taken to Peenemünde, an island near Stettin (Szczecin); the Russian POWs and 860 Jews in the camp; working in an underground facility from which missiles were sent to England; sexual harassment by a German prisoner; the Allied bombings leading to evacuation; a death march to Szczecin, Buchenwald, and then Bergen-Belsen; liberation by British troops; obtaining food from houses in Celle; traveling east; enlisting in the Russian Army; deserting with several others; receiving assistance from a woman in Bydgoszcz, Poland; returning home; finding his house occupied; going to Krakow, Poland and joining a kibbutz where Antek Zukerman was the leader; living in Föhrenwald displaced persons camp; immigrating to Palestine in 1946; being caught by the British and taken to Palestine to the Atlit camp; his uncle getting him out of the camp; joining a kibbutz and then the Palmach; losing a leg in the 1948 Israel-Arab War; his marriage; the births of his two children; and visiting Auschwitz and Bialystok later in life.

Piera Levy Bassi, born on October 19, 1923 in Ferrara, Italy, describes her parents and three sisters; their upper-middle class family; attending a Jewish school for five grades and then finishing in a regular school until 9th grade when Mussolini ordered all Jewish schools closed in 1938; going to a teacher training program; taking her finals in Rome, Italy in 1941 and the separation of Jews and non-Jews during the test; the life of the Jewish community in Ferrara; the relationship between the Jewish and non-Jewish community; the 1938 anti-Jewish laws; being afraid to speak against Mussolini; her father's experience in WWI; her fascist family; being in a fascist youth group and their activities and credo; the Jewish newspaper 'Israel', and 'Ade' the Jewish women organization; learning about Zionism; displaced persons camps supported by Mussolini; her family not leaving because her mother had cancer; food shortages when the war broke out; going to Rome; the German takeover; relatives being taken to Auschwitz; her family separating and hiding; being taken with her mother by bus to a large military school in the middle of Rome; passing as half Christians from Bologna and being allowed to leave; making fake IDs; reuniting with her father and sister; finding work tutoring children; the death of her mother in Rome in 1944 and her burial as a non-Jew, so they wouldn't be discovered; leaving Rome and the Americans arriving; the American soldiers provided; working in the PWD Treasury Department; services in the reopened synagogue in Rome; the reassertion of Jewish identity; joining a group planning to go to Palestine; the trip by boat to Israel; being stopped by the British and taken to Atlit and from there to Kibbutz Sede Eliyahu; getting married to her boyfriend from Italy; visiting Italy in 1948; the birth of her children; and the death of her father.

Shlomo Peter Peleg (né Polizter), born in 1925 in Vienna, Austria, describes growing up in Čadca, Slovakia; his family, including the backgrounds of his parents; being raised in a well-to-do family; attending a Jewish school; living a rather secular lifestyle; attending high school nearby in Žilina, Slovakia; how interactions between Jews and Gentiles was rare in Čadca; local antisemitism; participating in Maccabi; the arrival of Jewish refugees from Germany; how the National Slovakian Hlinka Party made threats on the Jewish population after the Sudetenland crisis; Slovakia declaring its independence; the pro-Nazi Slovak government; Jewish businesses being transferred to non-Jews and other anti-Jewish laws; his life in those years and the youth movement; deportations beginning in February 1942; his fathering being allowed to stay because he was a physician; his family being helped by Lanomicus Vicarious Archbishop; getting papers as a non-Jew (with the name Stephan Markuliak) and finding work 20 kilometers away in a division of the public works; being transferred to his parents’ jurisdiction under his real name; the underground movement getting organized in 1944; the organization of bunkers in preparation for a revolt; the rebellion and the Germans taking command of the village; hiding in the woods for a few weeks; and being liberated by the Russians.

Joseph Lapid, born in 1931 in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia (presently Serbia), discusses being an only child; his secular family's affluence; attending Serbian and Jewish schools; their move to Belgrade; German bombardment; returning to Novi Sad; Hungarian occupation; his father's incarceration in a labor camp; his mother securing his father's release; moving to Budapest; attending Hungarian school, then a Jewish gymnasium; learning of the murders of relatives in the January 1942 mass killing in Novi Sad; returning to Novi Sad; his mother visiting her ill sister in Budapest; German invasion in spring 1944; his father's arrest; bringing him food (he never saw him again); an uncle (a convert to Christianity) supplying him with false papers so he could bring him to join his mother and grandparents in Budapest; receiving a postcard from his father (he had been deported); living in a Swedish safe house in the ghetto; his bar mitzvah; Raoul Wallenberg saving his mother from a round-up; Soviet bombardment; round-up with his mother by the Arrow Cross; their escape; assistance from a non-Jewish acquaintance; returning to the ghetto; liberation by Soviet troops; returning to Novi Sad; attending school; two antisemitic teachers; emigration to Israel in 1948; and military enlistment; having nightmares resulting from his experiences; his efforts as a radio broadcaster to increase awareness of the Holocaust; and visiting Budapest with his son. (He shows a family tree and photographs.)

Chana Weiss, born in 1928 in Fiume, Italy (presently Riejka, Croatia), the third of four children in an orthodox family; their cordial relations with non-Jews; anti-Jewish restrictions beginning in 1938, including losing their Italian citizenship; her brother's emigration to Palestine in 1939; eviction from their apartment; her father's deportation in mid-1940; working with her mother and sister in the family store; evacuation of all the Jews to Lago di Garda for several weeks; returning home; correspondence from her father suggesting they join him; her mother's reluctance to abandon the business; German invasion; traveling to Trieste, then Bolzano; staying one night with her mother's classmate who refused to keep them longer; returning to Trieste; contacting a group from which they obtained false papers; living as non-Jews in Lugo; learning others from Fiume had been caught; arranging to be smuggled to Switzerland; traveling to Milan; her grandfather meeting them; meeting smugglers in Varese; arrest at the border; interrogation; and imprisonment in Como, Varese, then San Vittore in Milan; their transfer to Fossoli a week later; deportation by freight train in May; horrendous conditions; receiving soup once en route from the Red Cross; separation from her mother and one sister upon arrival at Auschwitz/Birkenau (she never saw them again); difficulty believing what others told her about the smokestacks, despite the odor; lighting candles and singing the first Friday night; extreme thirst and starvation; praying to calm herself, then later ceasing to pray; public hangings; her complete sense of isolation when her sister was hospitalized; slave labor in a factory; her own hospitalization; rejoining her sister; abandonment by the Germans; walking to Oświęcim; liberation by Soviet troops; hospitalization; destroying belongings in a German home as revenge; transfer to Opole; traveling to Trieste; joining their father in Milan via Mestre; returning to Fiume; recovering some family belongings; her sister's marriage; and enrolling in nursing school, intending to emigrate to Palestine; and her sense that time passed exponentially slower in Birkenau, and that she and her sister were totally separate and formed their own universe, and each attributing her survival to their being together. (She shows photographs.)

Dov Hershkovitz, born in 1913 in a village in east Czechoslovakia (Carpathian Ruthenia), describes his father’s flour mill; attending religious schools; his five siblings; becoming less religious and more nationalistic-Zionist and being expelled from the Yeshiva with like-minded friends; participating in Hachshara and planning to immigrate to Palestine; serving in the Czech Army for three years and receiving officer training; the experiences of Jews in the army; working in Prague, Czech Republic; moving between army service and Zionist agricultural training in 1938 and 1939; working for the Chalutz Organization and the composition of these groups, social and Jewish issues, and relationships with the Judenrat as well as the Czech and German authorities; the increased tension and German demands; deportations from the village; moving to the Terezin Ghetto; rabbis and synagogues in the ghetto; his various jobs, including his work on the train; being deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau; the selections and conditions in the camp; being transferred to a work camp in Germany; meeting his sister in women’s camp; his work commandos; the lice and widespread typhoid; the Allied air bombardment beginning in 1945 and how it affected the prisoners; getting typhoid; being marched to Dachau; being liberated by the Americans, who took them into SS and Munich hospitals for a two week cleanup and recuperation; going to Prague and finding his wife and some family; resettling in Prague and starting Chalutz reorganization; immigrating to Palestine in 1946; joining a kibbutz; his feelings regarding Israeli attitudes towards the Holocaust and its survivors; how he handled his children’s questions and his own distressing memories; and photos of his old village as well as of his recent group travels throughout the areas where he was during the Holocaust.

Ze'ev Rave (né Verbaum), born in 1923 in Maniewicze (Prylisne), Ukraine, discusses his early family life and schooling; pre-war antisemitism; belonging to the Hechalutz Zionist movement; attending a technical high school in Lvov (L'viv), Ukraine; the German invasion; hiding with Ukrainian neighbors; escaping north to the forest; receiving assistance from Jewish peasants; joining an anti-German Ukrainian man by the name of Krug, who was given guns by the Russians and told to organize partisans; traveling to a small island surrounded by marshes with Krug (possibly Kruk); returning to Maniewicze to find out the fates of his family members; going back to the island; moving to another location in the forest; stealing weapons; antisemitism against Jewish partisans; demolishing trains and rails between Kovel, Ukraine, Rovno, Ukraine, and Kiev, Ukraine; destroying rails and trains on the Minsk-Pinsk Belarus route; hardships endured by women in the forest; Berl Lorger (name also seen as Berl Lorber Malinka), head of the Jewish unit; Stepan Bandera; liberation by the Russians under the command of General Watutin; arriving in Rovnoje, Ukraine; being sent to Zabludow, Poland; going to the university in Kiev, Ukraine; joining Bricha; arrival in Palestine; and his marriage.

Clea Shiffer, born in Germany, describes being the oldest of four children of Polish émigrés; her family moving to Belgium when she was an infant; attending school; working at age 14 to help support her family; joining the Bund; her father's arrest for debt resulting in his deportation to Germany; obtaining money to secure his return; the German invasion; one brother hiding in a monastery; anti-Jewish restrictions; her marriage in 1942; obtaining false papers; her sister's deportation; bribing officials to free an underground member from the Gestapo; her father's round-up and deportation; arrest and deportation to Malines with her husband; life in the camp for three months; reunion with her father; the camp underground preparing escapes from deportation trains; being deported with her father and husband; jumping from the train with her husband (her father was too ill to jump); receiving assistance from a priest; traveling to Liège, Belgium; returning to Brussels, Belgium with assistance from the underground; joining her mother and brother in hiding; aborting a pregnancy; one brother's flight to Switzerland; moving to Charleroi, Belgium with her husband and mother; working for an underground newspaper; visiting her brother in the monastery; liberation; returning to Brussels; the birth and premature death of her child; her brother's return; immigrating to Uruguay, then Brazil; participating in Wizo; immigrating to Israel, and the births of two daughters; her relief upon learning from a chance meeting with a woman who had been on their deportation train that her father had died on the train; testifying at a war crimes trial in Germany; and writing a book.

Tzipora Horovitz (née Fedunia Rosenstein), born in 1933 in Ciobiskis, Lithuania, discusses her family life; the entrance of the Germans then the Russians; life in the ghetto and the role of the Judenrat; the atrocities in the ghetto including the shooting of her brother; going into hiding with her family; being sent to a small work camp; being taken to camp Budzyn; being sent to Majdanek, where she worked in the central laundry; being marched out of Majdanek as the Russians advanced; collapsing during the march and being saved by two escaped political prisoners; residing with a peasant family for two weeks; traveling to Lublin, Poland; returning to Ciobiskis, Lithuania; returning to Lublin and going into an orphanage; reuniting with her surviving aunt and cousin; the relocation of the orphanage to Peterswaldau, Germany (Pieszyce, Poland); traveling to Lódz, Poland; immigrating to Palestine in 1947 after staying in camps in Bratislava (Slovakia), Bad Reichenhall (Germany), and Bergen-Belsen (Germany); her post-war life in Israel; and her return to Poland later in life.

Meir Gecht, born in Kaunus, Lithuania in 1929, describes being an only child; attending a secular Jewish school; the Soviet occupation; German invasion; his father's arrest by Lithuanians (they released him because he was a Lithuanian army veteran); ghettoization; attending a vocational school; his deportation to Stutthof, then Landsberg in July 1944; being separated from his father when he was sent with other children to Dachau; remaining in Dachau for a week and avoiding execution because the crematorium was undergoing repairs; his transfer to Auschwitz/Birkenau; slave labor; a friend arranging to have his number removed from a selection list; a death march and train transfer to Mauthausen; observing cannibalism; a death march to Gunskirchen; abandonment by German guards; walking to Wels, Austria; liberation by United States troops; taking food from German homes; being sent to a displaced persons camp; assistance from the Joint and a Jewish-American soldier; traveling to Budapest, Hungary, then Transylvania; living in a Soviet displaced persons camp; traveling to Orsha, then Vilna; reuniting with his father; learning his mother was alive in the Soviet Union; her arrival in 1946; being drafted into the Soviet military in 1950; serving near Moscow, Russia; discharge in 1954; his marriage to a survivor; the birth of twins; immigrating to Poland, then Israel in 1957 with his parents, wife, and children; the importance of his group of friends to his survival and their annual meetings to the present day; relations between ethnic groups in the camps; the publication in South Africa of his experiences as part of a larger book; and sharing very little of his experiences with his children, not wanting to burden them. He also shows photographs.

Mickal Efrat, born in 1926 in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia (presently Czech Republic), discusses being the younger of two children; her family's assimilated lifestyle; attending a Czech school; cordial relations with non-Jews; participating in a Zionist youth group; expulsion from school in March 1939 due to German occupation; confiscation of the family's business; moving in with her grandparents; her father's deportation for forced labor, her mother leaving to earn money in Prague, and her brother moving to a hachshara; forming a subgroup with four other girls within the Zionist youth groups; her parents' return; studying with her group for a year at a Youth Aliyah school in Prague; their return to Ostrava; deportation with her family to Theresienstadt in fall 1942; living with her group; working in the garden, then the laundry; obtaining extra food for her parents; contacts only with her Zionist friends; her father's death in December; deportation to Auschwitz/Birkenau a year later; separation from her brother; a Greek prisoner helping her and her mother retain their coats and boots; assignment to the family camp; slave labor moving stones; transfer after six months with six girls to a privileged position in a weaving factory; receiving extra food and privileges for her high productivity; occasionally sabotaging her work; sharing food with her brother and the pain of watching him die; harsh treatment by Polish prisoners; her mother's transfer to her work detail; their transfer to Hamburg; slave labor clearing bombing debris; Russian POWs passing her extra food; singing satirical songs to raise their morale; French POWs passing them food and clothing; transfer to Neugraben, then another camp; transfer to Bergen-Belsen after eight months; horrendous conditions; observing cannibalism; liberation by British troops; her mother's transfer by British medical staff; learning she had died shortly thereafter; returning to Prague; living with an uncle and aunt there, then another uncle in Kopřivnice; leaving due to his refusal to return her mother's jewelry and feeling unwelcome; returning to Prague; a couple inviting her to live with them and arranging her entry to art school; meeting young Israelis; joining a Zionist group; and legal emigration to Israel in 1949; not sharing her experiences with Israelis due to their indifference to survivors; feeling comfortable only with fellow Czech survivors; winning prizes in children's literature; nightmares resulting from her experiences; and increasing emotional burdens with the passage of time.

Rachel Ziontz, born in Zamosć, Poland in 1931, describes being one of three children; attending first grade in a Polish school; the German invasion; briefly fleeing with her family to a nearby village; returning home; ghettoization; moving to an aunt's home in Szczelatyn, Poland; a round-up to Grabowiec, Poland; the family being chosen for farm work by a German farmer who knew them; her parents paying a farmer to hide her and her younger brother; overhearing that all the Jews had been killed; the farmer telling them he was taking them to their parents; jumping from the horse carriage en route (her brother didn't jump); seeking her parents in Hrubieszów, Poland; a volksdeutsch who was a family friend briefly hiding her; staying with a group of Jews working in a mill; discovering four Jewish boys hiding in a barn and staying with them; smuggling themselves into a work camp; leaving by herself when the camp was liquidated; a Polish woman obtaining a Polish birth certificate for her; living with villagers; her hospitalization in Zamosć; living with another Polish family; liberation by Soviet troops; remaining with the family for over a year; deciding to "not be Jewish"; conversion; an uncle locating her through the Joint; meeting him in Lublin, Poland; being moved to Jordanbad displaced persons camp; returning to Judaism; going to Marseille, France in 1946; her illegal immigration to Palestine by ship; interdiction by the British; incarceration on Cyprus for seven months; transferring to a kibbutz; defending it during the Arab-Israeli war; her marriage in 1952; the births of her three sons; sharing her story with her children; visiting Zamosć; and feeling guilt over leaving her brother.

Marie Alter, born on January 27, 1923 in Suchdol, Czechoslovakia (now part of Prague, Czech Republic), describes her family and being the youngest and only daughter of three children; how neither of her parents survived the war; a Nazi teacher at her school; being sent to Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen; finding her older brother, who she thought had died, after the war; having many health issues after the war, including tuberculosis; and marrying a man and moving to Israel with him after the war.

Zhenja Gurevich (née Zaretzka), born in Svencionys, Lithuania in 1927, discusses her early family life; attending school and her religious education; the arrival of the Germans; being moved to a former Polish military camp in Poligon, Lithuania; establishment of the ghetto in Svencionys, Lithuania; the death of her mother and two brothers; being sent to work on the railroad being built in Nova Svencionys (Svencioneliai), Lithuania; the underground organization in the Svencionys ghetto, including Markov, a folk-shule teacher who urged people to use a weapon to leave the Svencionys ghetto and ultimately became a partisan commander in the forests; liquidation of the Svencionys ghetto; hiding in the forest; work in the Vilna (Vilnius) ghetto; rebellion in and liquidation of the Vilna ghetto; her work near Riga, Latvia in Strazde, Latvia, moving construction materials; being transferred to Kaiserwald and returning to Strazde; traveling by boat to Stutthof; the evacuation of Stutthof; liberation; being taken to a hospital in Lwówek Slaski, Poland, where she received treatment for typhoid fever; working in a field hospital; traveling back to Vilna via Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania, and eventual arriving in Svencionys; reuniting with a surviving cousin; her marriage in 1947; her arrival in Israel after its independence in 1948; life in Israel; and returning with her daughter, Miriam, to Svencionys on the fiftieth anniversary of liberation.

Martin Moses, born in 1925 in Tirgu Mures, Romania, discusses his early family life; participating in Deror-ha-Bonim; the Hungarian occupation; anti-Jewish restrictions, including his expulsion from school; attending a private school in Budapest, Hungary; obtaining false papers; returning from Budapest in 1943 in order to locate his parents when he heard his town had been ghettoized; his mother being taken away; being sent to Birkenau along with his father; separation from his mother; volunteering for kitchen work; a German guard, and former friend, beating him, then ordering the cook to give him extra soup; being sent with his father to a forced labor camp in Lille, France; working as a painter; being beaten for stealing food; joining his father's group carrying equipment into an underground munitions factory; local children and civilian workers giving them extra food; a public hanging of three escapees; a death march and train transfer to Dachau; his father's hospitalization and death; train transfer; escaping with a group (several were shot); hiding in abandoned houses; liberation by United States troops; transferring to Garmish-Partenkirchen displaced persons camp; prisoners killing a Kapo; working as a driver for the UNRRA; his form of revenge; returning home seeking relatives (none survived); establishing haschsharas in Medias and Turda in Romania; assisting with illegal emigration to Palestine; the arrest of members of his Zionist group; his marriage in 1948; attending university in Timisoara, Romania; immigrating to Israel via Vienna with his wife and mother-in-law in 1959; having physical ailments from the camps; and not attending Holocaust memorial events in order not to relive his experiences.

Genia Brix, born in Szydlowiec, Poland on February 2, 1922, discusses her family life and schooling; belonging to the Hehalutz youth movement; the arrival of the Germans; establishment of the Judenrat and the Jewish police; being mobilized to work for the Germans; the work camp, Wolanów; traveling to the village of Skarzysko, Poland with her brother; her work altering clothes; three different work places, Werk A, B, and C; being evacuated to Czestochowa, Poland by train and being sent to Buchenwald, where the men in the group were left; being sent to Bergen-Belsen with the other women on the train; life in Bergen-Belsen; arriving in Würzburg, Germany; the lack of food and inmates being transferred elsewhere; a forced march to Allach concentration camp; contracting typhoid fever; the arrival of the Americans; reuniting with her brother; her time in Germany after liberation; meeting her husband; immigrating to Israel aboard the Exodus and being interned as an illegal immigrant; arriving in Israel on May 14, 1948; and the psychological effects of her experiences.

Moshe Markovich, born in 1923 in Sevluš, Czechoslovakia (presently Vynohradiv, Ukraine), the oldest of eight children, two of whom died before the war. He recounts his father's trade as a barrel maker; attending a Czech school; extreme poverty; moving to Secǒvce; their improved situation; attending a Slovak school; working with his father from age thirteen; building a machine to improve their process; antisemitic harassment; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; Hungarian occupation in 1938; his father's military draft; visiting him in Uz︠h︡horod; his release several months later; Slovak independence in March 1939; round-up with his brother to Trebisov, then deportation to Žilina in 1942; extreme deprivation and Hlinka guard cruelty; deportation to Auschwitz/Birkenau; slave labor constructing the camp; he and his brother registering as woodworkers; their privileged assignment to the carpentry shop; assisting his brother who was not as skilled; his brother's hospitalization for typhus; learning he had died; making doors for the crematoria; receiving food from Polish civilian workers and a hometown friend who was smuggling goods; Allied bombings; helping a newly arrived Hungarian doctor; meeting with a Red Cross representative and having to lie to him; public executions; prisoners reciting Kol Nidre on Yom Kippur; a death march; spending the night in a barn; hiding with another man when the group left; escaping to a nearby village; trading their valuables for peasant clothing; help from a forest guard to escape to Ostrava; help from a local family; posing as non-Jews with everyone else; his fellow escapee leaving; frequently hearing antisemitic remarks; traveling to Košice, then Secǒvce; meeting other returning Jews; traveling to Uz︠h︡horod, then Sevluš, seeking surviving relatives; traveling to Mukacheve, then Prague; starting a woodworking factory in Humenné with two other survivors; brief arrest for smuggling; and emigration to Palestine via Marseille in 1947; the importance of his mechanical skills to his survival; guilt about his brother's death; his anger at God; shock at prejudice against survivors by native Israelis; difficulty adjusting to Israel; reluctance to discuss the Holocaust until recently; and his daughter's interest in his experiences.

Efraim Fishman, born in Dubrovitsa, Poland (now Dubrovytsia, Ukraine) in 1922, discusses his family life; being the oldest of five children; attending a Tarbut school then gymnasium in Rivne, Ukraine; participating in Hashomer Hatzair, Betar, and Mizrachi; the Soviet occupation; being interrogated by the NKVD due to his Zionist activities; the German invasion; fleeing to Korets', Ukraine; doing forced labor for the German Army; returning to Rivne; life in the Rovna ghetto; forced labor clearing bombing rubble; a non-Jewish friend hiring him to tutor her children and giving him her husband's birth certificate; hiding in her attic during a mass killing in November 1941; traveling to Kovel, Ukraine in March 1942; working in a train station for a German cattle transport company; assisting partisans by providing them with train schedules; working disguised as a Pole in Kovel; working to prepare an airport for large aircraft by reading and interpreting plans in Odessa, Ukraine; being recruited into the Polish army; being sent for training to Charkov (Kharkiv), Ukraine and Lusk, Poland (Luts'k, Ukraine) through November 1944; traveling to Warsaw, Poland, Poznan, Poland, Kohlberg, Germany, Stettin (Szczecin), Poland, and the Oder river; leaving the Polish army; reconnecting with his brother; moving to Vienna, Austria, where he participated in organizing a Hebrew transition school; moving to Palestine in 1947; and the story of his sister's survival.

Chaia Pshititziki, born in 1922 in Kaminʹ-Kashyrsʹkyĭ, Poland (presently Ukraine), discusses being one of three children; attending a Polish school; participating in Hechalutz; Soviet occupation in fall 1939; a Soviet soldier, who lived with them, offering to take her family when the Soviets retreated; her father's decision to remain; German invasion; a round-up that included her father and brother; a relative on the Judenrat ascertaining they had been shot; ghettoization; a Ukrainian friend smuggling food to them; exemption from a mass killing due to their jobs; Romanies, whom her family had helped, assisting her escape an execution; hiding in a bunker with her family and others; discovery by the Germans; escaping to another bunker; a non-Jew hiding her and three women with his wife's sister; observing shootings of Jews; hiding in their rescuers' barn, basement, a bunker, and with another of his wife's sisters; going to the forest during conflicts between Ukrainians and Poles; joining her cousin's friend's partisan unit; meeting her future husband; posing as a man; helping care for children in the family camp; moving to a swamp when a German attack was imminent; traveling to Rafalovka, then Sarny; draft by the Soviet military; being sent to Kiev, then Kharkiv; separation from her future husband; joining his family in Kovelʹ; returning home; leaving after being warned by non-Jews returning Jews were being murdered; reunion with her future husband in Kovelʹ; marriage; traveling to Chełm, Lublin, then Kraków; assistance from the Jewish Brigade; traveling to Budapest, Graz, Modena, then Santa Maria with Beriḥah; visiting Rome and Milan; illegal emigration by ship to Palestine in 1945; staying with her aunt; the births of two daughters; her husband's death in 1948; and being the sole survivor of her immediate family.

Rachel Linial, born in December 1926 in Zdunska Wola, Poland, near Lódz, Poland, discusses her early family life; attending public school; cordial relations with non-Jews; vacationing in Andrzejów; the German invasion; her parents hiding their valuables; eviction from their home; moving to her aunt's home inside the Lódz ghetto; retrieving their valuables; trading them for necessities; her work in a kitchen in the Lódz ghetto; sharing extra food with her family; Chaim Rumkowsky; contracting typhus and hospitalization in the Lódz ghetto; hiding with her sister during round-ups; being deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau in August 1944; working in a munitions factory for 10 days; being transferred with her sister to Bergen-Belsen; being sent to another ammunitions factory in Thuringer; being transferred by train to Elsnig; German guards leaving them extra food; a train transport; escaping during Allied bombings; being captured by German soldiers; her sister being wounded; their separation; liberation by Soviet troops; locating her sister in a Magdeburg hospital and her sister’s death; traveling to Hildesheim, Germany and Antwerp, Belgium; being quarantined in ʻAtlit; immigrating to Palestine; and not sharing her experiences, even with her children.

Zehava Roth, born in 1935 in Żywiec, Poland, discusses being one of two children; living in Bochnia; German invasion; ghettoization; hiding in a bunker during round-ups; an aunt's wedding; separation from her brother during a round-up (they never saw him again); living with an aunt who worked for the Germans; her aunt arranging for a non-Jewish woman to hide her; escaping from the ghetto; the woman taking her to Jews in Prokocim; entering Slovakia illegally with them; living in a Joint camp in Liptovský Mikuláš; intense loneliness; arrest in Košice while attempting to enter Hungary with a group; transfer to a prison in Budapest; an aunt securing her release; moving to Baja, posing as non-Jews; her aunt placing her in an orphanage; German invasion; her aunt moving her to an orphanage in Budapest; leaving during Allied bombings; living on the streets; assistance from the Judenrat, through which she volunteered to go to Romania with a group; their arrest in Debrecen; transfer to Budapest; release; living on the streets, then traveling to Miske; a Jewish couple posing as non-Jews taking her in; liberation by Soviet troops a year later; traveling to Bucharest; deciding to live with a childless wealthy couple, where she was abused; choosing to enter an orphanage; her aunt from Czechoslovakia finding her two years later; living with her in Český Těšín; traveling to London in 1949 with a program for abandoned children; immigrating to Israel via Marseille in 1950; her relatives there not wanting her; having many fears; her lack of trust resulting from her experiences; not sharing them with her children, wanting to shield them; a reunion with the couple that hid her in Miske; and their role as surrogate grandparents to her children.

Heinz Volman (also spelled Wolman), born in 1920 in Frankfurt an der Oder, Germany, recounts being the second of three sons; his father's World War I service in the Russian army and capture in Germany as a prisoner of war (he remained there and established a successful tailoring business); difficulties finding a quorum for his bar mitzvah due to laws against Jews gathering together; his father's trip to Palestine in 1934, then sending his older brother to school there; antisemitic harassment; expulsion from school and an electrician's apprenticeship due to anti-Jewish laws; reluctantly joining his father's business; Nazis vandalizing their home and beating his parents on Kristallnacht and his arrest for defending them; local imprisonment, then transfer to Sachsenhausen with his father; enduring frequent beatings, slave labor, and pointless exercises; his father sharing extra food with him; Martin Niemöller obtaining medication for Jewish prisoners; being released in 1939 based on his pledge to leave Germany; receiving assistance from his father's customer in Berlin during his return home; immigrating to Palestine with his parents via Vienna and Dubrovnik (his younger brother immigrated to Palestine with a children's group); marriage; the births of three children; and receiving compensation for his family's home and for injuries received in Sachsenhausen, which he visited with his daughter. (He shows photographs.)

Elka Farfel, born in Nyasvizh, Poland (Niasvizh, Belarus) in 1920, describes being the oldest of four children; meeting her future husband in 1932; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; Jewish life in her town and the ten synagogues; hearing about Kristallnacht; the Soviet occupation in September 1939 and the atmosphere under the Russians; German invasion in June 1941; anti-Jewish harassment; forced labor; surviving a selection in October with her future husband and their families (almost all other Jews were killed); Magalif (head of the Judenrat) giving them permission to wed; her marriage in February; Magalif discouraging people from escaping so the elderly and children would not be killed; hiding with her husband and father-in-law during the ghetto's liquidation (her family perished); their escape from the ghetto when it was being burned and witnessing the murder of other escaping Jews; her husband writing a book about their experiences; going to the nearby forest; joining the partisans in another forest, where Machwinsky from Lódz, Poland was their commander; life with the partisans; leaving the group; the massacre in Minsk, Belarus; building a bunker in the forest with the Minsk massacre survivors; joining Zorin’s partisan group; the siege of the forest by Germans; her husband becoming gravely ill; Lipshitz, a gynecologist from Minsk, performed abortions in a small field hospital in the forest; helping delivery babies; getting pregnant; the Neufeld family who brought five children to the partisans; partisan activities in May 1943; being liberated by the Russian Army; going to Navahrudak, Belarus then Niasvizh; her husband being a witness in the trials of collaborators; escaping to Lódz in April 1945; going to Germany then France; the day the war ended; being taken to Berlin, Germany to an American camp (possibly Schlachtensee); life in the DP camp Tempelhof; and going to Israel in 1949 through Italy.

Dvora Fuks, born in Belzyce, Poland in 1932, discusses her early family life; being one of four children; her father's lumber mill; celebrating Jewish holidays with her extended family; the arrival of the Germans; anti-Jewish measures; her father being rounded up for random labor; being hidden by non-Jewish neighbors in exchange for money; being discovered in hiding; life in the ghetto; liquidation of the ghetto in May 1943; sneaking into her parents group during a selection and being transported to the Krasnik ghetto; being transferred to Budzyn; hiding with her brother while the rest of the family worked; Commander Feiks killing prisoners; guards shooting prisoners who tried to escape; being sent to Majdanek; cleaning a German overseer's office for extra food; evacuation on foot (her brother being taken by bus) to Krasnik; seeing her father briefly; being sent to Auschwitz; the march out of Auschwitz-Birkenau in January 1945; separation from her family and living in a children's block; her mother and sisters being transferred; joining a cousin's block; a death march and train transfer to Ravensbrück; suffering from hunger; being transferred to Malchow and life in the camp; liberation by the Russians; being taken to a refugee camp; traveling to Lodz, then Lublin; being sent to an orphanage for girls; locating her brother in another orphanage; reuniting with her mother and sisters; moving to Lampertheim displaced persons camp due to antisemitic violence; going to Bergen-Belsen for high school; her immigration to Palestine in April 1948; her marriage; and sharing her experiences with her children and grandchildren.

Fishel Yungman, born in 1921 in Lódz, Poland, discusses being one of four children; his father's bakery; German invasion; fleeing with his family to his paternal grandparents in Rejowiec; Germans compelling them to work; smuggling themselves into the Lódz ghetto two months later; working in his father's bakery; one brother's deportation in September 1940; his deportation to Grunow three days later; slave labor building the Reichsautobahn; adequate food, access to showers, and clean barracks (better conditions than the ghetto); corresponding with his brother through a camp nurse; transfer to Liebenau, then Wittenberge; a serious injury in 1942; transport to the Jewish hospital in Berlin; surgery and convalescence; a non-Jew bringing him extra food; returning to Wittenberge three months later; transfer to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943; slave labor at the camp's farm; hospitalization; trading cigarettes for food; assignment to the kommando preparing the gas chambers for demolition; transfer to Gross-Rosen, then Buchenwald; liberation by United States troops; hospitalization; transfer to the Fulda displaced persons camp; traveling to Bamberg; returning home; reunion with his brother in 1946 (the only survivor of their family); arranging for his brother to enter the Fürth displaced persons camp; his brother's marriage and emigration to Enschede, Netherlands; learning weaving in Kulmbach; joining his brother in 1947; immigration to Israel in 1949; marriage in 1955; participating in the Sinai war; the camp hierarchy based on nationality; nightmares resulting from his experiences; not sharing his experiences with his daughter; attributing his survival to luck and miracles; and not understanding how God allowed the Holocaust, but continuing to believe in a supreme power. (He shows documents and photographs.)

Miriam Eizenshtat (née Kirchenbaum), born on September 3, 1929 in Belzyce, Poland, describes going back and forth between her aunt’s house in Belzyce and her family’s house in Lublin when the war broke out in 1939; being in Belzice when her immediate family was taken; going into the Majdan Tatarski Ghetto; hiding during an “action” once the Polish Army pulled out; being sent in May of 1943 to camp Kraznik then camp Butin (Budzyn); the cruelty of the guard Feig (Feix); being transferred to Butin Kitset, where there was a medical clinic; being taken in cattle trains to Majdanek; the evacuation of Majdanek and being forced to march for a week to Tshmelev, Poland; going by train to Auschwitz and moving to Birkenau; her work splitting rocks and the sadistic guard Maria; her aunt undergoing medical experiments; menstruation in the camp; her feelings of hopelessness; the week-long death march and then being in cattle trains to Ravensbruck; living with Romanies; being taken by train to camp Malchin near Berlin, Germany; conditions in the camp and the children’s block; how in May 1945 the SS left and the Wehrmacht took their place; being marched out of the camp and abandoned by the Germans; being liberated by the Russians; being taken by train to Lodz, Poland and from there to Lublin to a special community house; going to Berlin; going to Lampertheim DP camp administered by UNRRA; going to Bergen Belsen, to the Kibbutz Nocham; immigrating to Israel by taking a train to Italy and then by boat to Israel in 1948; staying with an aunt in Tel Aviv; and marrying a survivor in 1949 and having children.

Nathan Raviv, born in 1928 in Sevluš, Czechoslovakia (presently Vynohradiv, Ukraine), discusses being the older of two children; his aunt's immigration to Palestine in 1933; attending cheder and public school; cordial relations with non-Jews; his father's work as a blacksmith; his bar mitzvah; attending gymnasium in Berehove; returning home after Hungarian occupation; attending a Zionist gymnasium in Mukacheve from 1942 to 1944; German invasion in March; returning home; ghettoization; his aunt's non-Jewish boyfriend smuggling food to them; his mother entrusting valuables with a non-Jewish friend (she returned them to Mr. Raviv after the war); deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau in June; separation from his mother and sister; his father volunteering himself as a blacksmith and him as his assistant; prisoners committing suicide; overwhelming starvation; his father sharing his bread; praying together on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur; public hangings; a death march to Gross-Rosen, then Dachau; the deaths of his uncle and father; liberation by United States troops; returning home via Prague; living with a surviving aunt; traveling to Budapest, intending to immigrate to Palestine; receiving assistance from Beriḥah; reaching the Judenberg displaced persons camp; traveling illegally to Milan; joining Hashomer Hatzair; assistance from UNRRA; selling goods in Rome; transfer to Cinecittà; deferring illegal immigration to Palestine, not wanting to be incarcerated again, but not being allowed to remain in Italy; traveling to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo, then Buenos Aires in 1946; immigration to Israel in 1948; military draft in the Arab-Israel war; marriage; and the births of two children; the importance of being with his father to his survival; suppressing all emotions in the camps; nightmares resulting from his experiences; losing all belief in God; his unresolved emotional struggles; and continuing to question whether his survival was “worth it.” (Mr. R. notes visiting the camps and shows photographs.)

Ester Eisler, born in 1926 in Šal̕a, Czechoslovakia (presently Slovakia), discusses being one of four children; her family's affluence; Hungarian occupation in 1938; her older brother's immigration to Palestine in 1939; certification as a seamstress; German invasion in 1944; ghettoization; arrests and beatings of her father; transfer to the Nové Zámky ghetto; a letter from her brother noting he had documents for their immigration to Palestine; her mother's refusal to leave her relatives; deportation to Auschwitz-Birkenau in May; she and one sister's separation from their family (they never saw them again); useless slave labor; her cousin arranging a privileged position as a seamstress, for which she received extra food; a male prisoner giving her better shoes; transfer to Bergen-Belsen in September, then to Duderstadt in November; slave labor in a munitions factory; a civilian worker leaving her extra food; her sister's death; a death march to Raguhn; hiding with others during the evacuation; their discovery and arrest; the local police releasing them; working for local Germans; liberation by United States troops; assistance from a Jewish soldier with whom she is still in contact; being cared for in Bitterfeld, then Halle; contacting her brother in Palestine; returning home; recovering hidden valuables; sheltering youth preparing to immigrate to Palestine under the auspices of Bene ʻAḳiva; marriage; illegal immigration to Palestine via Marseille in 1946; incarceration on Cyprus; the birth of a sickly child who died; reunion with her brother; the births of her three daughters; having pervasive painful memories; only recently sharing her experiences with her children and grandchildren; and learning five years ago that her sister was buried in the Jewish cemetery in the city of Duderstadt. (She sings a Hungarian song and shows photographs and documents.)

Ya’akov Visgorditzki, born in Kovno (Kaunas), Lithuania on October 19, 1931, describes being one of five children; attending a Jewish school; the Soviet occupation; the German invasion; Jewish relationships with the Poles; fleeing with his family; arrest of his father and older brother; returning home; finding their home occupied by Lithuanians; ghettoization; visiting his brother and father at a work camp (he never saw his father again); his brother's escape; moving to his aunt's home with his sister; his sister caring for him; working in a factory; going to Stutthof after the ghetto's liquidation; separation from the women; his transfer to Landsberg then Dachau in a children's group; being transferred to Auschwitz-Birkenau; receiving extra food from the Sonderkommandos; praying not to be selected for death; being chosen by Dr. Mengele for extermination but at the last minute joining a survivors group; in January 1945 escaping from a march with two Poles and ending up in Katowice and then Gliwice where he became a servant for a Russian officer; going to a refugee camp in Sosnowiec, Poland; a Jewish Soviet officer taking him to Kraków, Poland; a non-Jewish Ukrainian adopting him in 1947; attending school in Kiev, Ukraine; traveling to Kovno in 1950; reuniting with an uncle; learning his sister was alive in Vilnius; joining her; military draft; visiting his Ukrainian adoptive father in 1958; his marriage in 1960; the births of two sons; his sister's immigration to Israel, then his six months later; not sharing his experiences, even with his children, since reliving them causes him pain; and attributing his survival to luck.

Sara “Sabina” Kleinman, born in 1939 in Lublin, Poland, describes her parents’ history; her father being sent to a camp and his death; she and her mother escaping and being taken in by a peasant for a couple of months; hiding in a forest; her mother meeting with partisans but refusing to separate from Sabina; being sent with her mother to the Budzyn camp; how her early camp experiences shaped her character; her relationships with the other children; being sent to Majdanek and separated from her mother, who was sent to Auschwitz; an SS guard taking a liking to her and giving her extra food; being evacuated from Majdanek by bus with other Jewish children and old people; how the Russians intercepted and took the children and old people to the Red Cross; being sent to an orphanage, where her mother eventually found her; her mother remarrying; immigrating to Israel; and finishing school and becoming a nurse.

Shoshana Bak, born in Belz, Ukraine on January 16, 1933, describes her family-owned store before the war; her family’s orthodoxy; experiencing occupation under the Russians and the Germans; her father’s death during an “action” by the Germans; living in a small ghetto near her grandparents’ village until she went into hiding; being captured after eighteen months of hiding; going, with her mother, to the Kamionka ghetto and then the Lvov ghetto; being transported to Auschwitz and then Bergen-Belsen; going to a displaced persons camp in Sweden with her mother; learning that her sister had survived the war; immigrating to Israel in 1946 and meeting her sister there in 1947; serving in the Israeli Army and marrying a man who had not survived the camps; not talking about her war experiences until she was summoned to testify at a Nazi criminal trial in 1967; and not losing her faith in Judaism after the war.

Zundel Gordon, born in 1929 in Kaunas, Lithuania, discusses being the youngest of five siblings; attending a Jewish school; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; Soviet occupation in 1940; participating in Komsomol; visiting relatives in Alytus; German invasion; returning to Kaunas; fleeing with his family to Ukmergė, then Jonava; arrest; bribing a policeman to release them; returning home; their Lithuanian neighbor saving them from a round-up; ghettoization; one brother fleeing to Soviet territory; transfer to a labor camp; working in a munitions factory; brief hospitalization; returning to the ghetto; evacuation of the ghetto in summer 1944; hiding with his family in a bunker; capture; deportation to Stutthof; transfer with a brother and his father to Dachau; assignment to a children's group; transfer of the group to Birkenau; a death march to Althammer in early 1944; transfer to Mauthausen; observing cannibalism; transfer to Gunskirchen in April 1945; receiving Red Cross packages; liberation by United States troops; traveling to Vienna; being sent to a Soviet hospital; returning to Kaunas via L'viv; learning one brother and his father did not survive; reunion with his mother and sister in Vilnius; hospitalization; draft into the Soviet Army in 1950; serving in Kazanʹ; release from the military in 1953; working in Vilnius; marriage; the births of two children; immigration to Israel in 1969; attending annual reunions with the children's group; recently receiving German reparations; and sharing his experiences with his children.

Shlomo Levin, born in the early 1930s in Kovno, Poland (Kaunas, Lithuania), describes his well-educated parents; being in a Betar youth group; the Jewish observances in his family’s home; the Russians occupying Kovno; the Polish refugees arriving; changes in education; the German invasion; killings in the street at the Seventh Fort; moving into the ghetto in Slobodka; his father’s death; the several roundups of Jews who were then killed at the Ninth Fort (Devintasis fortas); learning to be a carpenter in 1942 in a workshop outside the ghetto; the liquidation of the ghetto in Vilna (Vilnius, Lithuania) in 1943 and his family there coming to Kovno to live with them; witnessing a hanging in the ghetto; the ghetto being transformed into a work camp in 1943; the liquidation of the ghetto in April of 1944; being sent to the Kaufering train station, then marching to Landsberg; being sent to Dachau a few days later with the other children; the transport to Auschwitz and arriving on July 31, 1944; working as a carpenter in Auschwitz; some children contracting scarlet fever; the Rosh Hoshanah selection carried out by Dr. Mengele when 60 to 75 children were murdered; the daily schedule; being transferred to D lager; his friendships with the Polish Jewish children; his different jobs in the camp; singing and humming in the camp; being sent on a death march; a bombing while they were on the train; arriving in Mauthausen and the terrible living conditions; cannibalism; going to Gunskirchen; liberation day and the aftermath; meeting an Israeli officer with the Jewish Brigade; going to Munich, Germany; being hospitalized until February; immigrating to Israel; dedicating his life to service in the Palmach, then in the tank corps, and finally the Israeli army; and getting married in 1957.

Chanoch Vilenchik, born in Vilna, Poland (presently Vilnius, Lithuania) in 1920, describes being the oldest of five children; attending a Jewish school; antisemitic harassment; working in a leather store; his active participation in Hashomer Hatzair (Abba Kovner was his group's leader); Lithuanian independence; fleeing briefly to relatives in Lida, Belarus and Maladzechna, Belarus; returning home; the German invasion; the killing of Jews; fleeing to Ashmiany, Belarus; returning when he was caught; ghettoization; forced labor in a dairy factory; smuggling food; obtaining a pistol; participating in the organized resistance; contacts with Yitzhak Wittenberg; hiding in a bunker with his family for two months; their discovery; escaping to the forest; joining the partisans; battles with Germans and the Armia Krajowa; executing captured German soldiers; cooperating with Soviet partisans; liberation by Soviet troops; assignment to locate war criminals in Kaliningrad, Russia; returning home; his marriage; the births of his two daughters; immigrating to Israel in 1957; and how revenge was one of his motivations in the partisans and postwar period.

Kalman Ariele (né Aharonowitch), born in Kovno (Kaunas, Lithuania) in 1928, discusses his family and education; experiencing antisemitism; how life changed when the Russians came to Lithuania; his father being taken to a work camp and killed; Lithuanians robbing Jewish homes; moving to the Kovno ghetto with his mother; being sent to work on the construction of an airport; the orchestra in the ghetto; the Actions in the ghetto and murder of people at the Ninth Fort (Devintasis fortas); the social life in the ghetto; hiding during a Kinder Action; hangings in the ghetto and the killing of Russian POWs; the liquidation of the ghetto and his transport by train to Stutthof; his transfer to Landsberg; being taken, with 16 other boys, to Dachau where he stayed for seven months; his arrival and initiation at Birkenau; his job at Birkenau was to clean up the garbage; the illnesses in camp; ghetto songs; being marched then taken by train to Mauthausen; being marched to camp Gunskirchen; cannibalism; being sick and weak; being liberated by Americans and sent to a hospital in Udine, Italy then one in Milan, Italy; befriending an Italian priest and an Italian partisan named Joseppe Riegler, who later adopted him; attending a conservatory where he learned to play the accordion; immigrating with his adopted father to Israel in 1951; marrying and joining the Israeli Army, where he played in the army band; teaching and performing after the Army; getting married; adopting a girl after the war and having four grandchildren; and reuniting with a group of child survivors every year.

Shoshana Kalfus, born in 1925 in Presov, Slovakia, describes being the second of five children; her father’s furniture store; the traditional non-Zionist beliefs of her family; not experiencing antisemitism until 1941 when all Jews were forced to wear yellow stars and to turn their businesses over to Slovakians; the Jews who were not Slovakian, including her uncle and his family, being sent to Ukraine and killed; the expulsion of Jewish children from schools and the start of deportations in 1942; most children going to Auschwitz and being killed; how she was sick and was allowed to stay in Presov for a month until the Nazis took her to the Deblin-Irena ghetto, near Lublin, Poland; being paid to do agricultural work clearing air fields and being well-treated by the Germans; her father’s death in the ghetto and the disappearance of her mother and brothers; the daily routine in the camp and the available medical treatment; romance in the camp; being taken to Czestochowa, to an ammunition factory; being liberated by the Russians; returning to Czechoslovakia with the help of the Joint Distribution Committee; living for a year with a cousin; joining an Aliya group and moving to Palestine; and joining an uncle in Tel Aviv, Israel; and getting married and having two children.

Elazar Shafrir, born in Kraków, Poland in 1924, discusses being the elder of two children; his sister's birth in 1931; attending private Hebrew schools; antisemitic harassment; his father's communal leadership role, including in Zionist organizations; attending a Zionist congress with him in Switzerland in 1935; assisting German-Jewish refugees; German invasion in September 1939; anti-Jewish restrictions; his father briefly fleeing; his arrest a week after his return; notification of his death in December 1940; receiving assistance from his Polish nanny; his mother apprenticing him as a bookbinder; ghettoization in March 1941; entrusting valuables to his nanny; working in a book bindery, then in a German automobile garage; deportations, one of which included his mother; placing his sister with a neighbor; transfer to Płaszów in March 1943; learning his sister had been killed; slave labor in a paper factory; random killings by Kommandant Amon Göth; public hangings; failing health resulting in his losing hope of survival; developing an escape plan with a friend; hiding beneath barracks for several days; he and his friend crawling under the fences at night; being shot; hiding in a grain storage bin, then with his nanny (she removed the bullet, fed, and clothed them); living with another former Polish employee (his friend went elsewhere); the nanny selling his family valuables to obtain funds and false papers for him, and arranging with the underground for his escape to Hungary; traveling to Piwniczna tied under a freight train; smugglers taking him with a group to Prešov, Košice, then by train to Budapest; living in Balatonboglár as a non-Jew; meeting French prisoners of war who were planning an escape to Turkey; promising to join the French Foreign Legion to join them; traveling with them to Edirne; an Israeli representative negotiating his release from the group; legally immigrating to Palestine in March 1944; his career as a biochemist; sharing his story with his children and grandchildren; visiting Poland with his family in 1986; and believing his successful life and family are his form of revenge. (He shows photographs and documents.)

Daniel Labanovski, born in 1933 in Kaunas, Lithuania, discusses being an only child; his family's affluence; cordial relations with non-Jews; a large and close extended family; attending Jewish school; Soviet occupation; German invasion; ghettoization; his father working in the transport system; telling Germans his parents were out when they hid during round-ups; hiding during the children’s round-up; capture; escape with his father's help; deportation with his parents to Stutthof; separation from his mother (he never saw her again) when they were sent to Landsberg, then, even more painfully, from his father, when he was sent with other children to Dachau; transfer two weeks later to Auschwitz-Birkenau; slave labor; woman prisoners giving him extra food; a death march, then train transfer to Mauthausen; observing cannibalism; conflicts among ethnic prisoner groups; transfer to Gunskirchen; receiving a Red Cross package; abandonment by the guards; walking with others to Wels; liberation by United States troops; assistance from the Joint; a six-month journey returning to Kaunas; learning his father had been killed; reunion with an uncle; living in an orphanage; being smuggled to Ulm; living in an Agudat Israel home; joining a Gordonyah group; traveling to Marseille; illegal immigration by ship to Palestine in 1947; interdiction by the British; incarceration on Cyprus for six months; choosing to live in a Youth Aliyah home; attending an Ort school; military enlistment; marriage; his four children; reunions with the children's group; a recent trip to Kaunas; a futile attempt to trace his family property; and Youth Aliyah helping him in his murdered family's stead. (He shows photographs and documents.)

Michesław (Machislav) Gurvich, born in 1923 in Kraków, Poland, discusses being one of two children; his father's business transporting coal; their poverty; his sister's birth in 1930; assisting in his father's business; antisemitic harassment by Poles; German invasion; a futile attempt to flee east; working with his father delivering flour for the Germans; ghettoization; he and his father smuggling goods while making deliveries; both being interrogated and beaten but not confessing; their release; passing as a non-Jew outside the ghetto (he spoke perfect Polish and was blond); round-ups and deportations; being assigned to take corpses from a mass killing at the hospital to Płaszów; negotiating to prevent his mother's deportation; frequent encounters with his father; an unsuccessful attempt to hide friends from deportation; deportation with his family to Płaszów; separation from his mother and sister; mass killings; slave labor in a warehouse, then the SS kitchen, which provided him with extra food; smuggling food; narrowly escaping being shot by Kommandant Amon Göth; public hangings; deportation of his mother and sister (he never saw them again); deportation to Auschwitz in January 1945; a death march two days later to Oranienburg; transfer to Flossenbürg; a former guard from Płaszów giving him a loaf of bread; transfer to Dresden, Leitmeritz, then Theresienstadt; liberation by Soviet troops; hospitalization in Litoměřice; joining his father in Feldafing; assistance from UNRRA; searching in vain for his mother for months; returning to Feldafing via Berlin; writing a letter on behalf of a guard who had helped him; not sharing his story, even with his wife and children, due to pervasive painful memories and nightmares; the impossibility of trying to “expel his memories from his brain”; and testifying at a war crime trial in Hamburg.

Ester Sheinberger, born in 1927 in Šal̕a, Czechoslovakia (presently Slovakia), discusses being the second of four children; having a wonderful childhood; attending a Jewish school, then public high school; her uncle's immigration to Palestine in 1938; Hungarian occupation; antisemitic harassment by classmates; anti-Jewish restrictions resulting in termination of her father's job in 1942; knitting socks to help support the family; her father's arrest; visiting him in Trnovec; his release; visiting relatives in Nové Zámky; meeting her future husband; his draft into a Hungarian slave labor battalion; German invasion in March; ghettoization; her father's draft for slave labor (she never saw him again); deportation with her family to the Nové Zámky ghetto, then to Auschwitz/Birkenau; separation from her mother and brothers; remaining with an aunt and sister; dehumanizing arrival procedures; refusing to believe what veteran prisoners told them about the smoke stacks; huddling together to keep warm; transfer two weeks later to Langenbielau; slave labor in the Flechtner weaving factory; knitting socks to trade for food; a five-day march to Parschnitz; throwing food to passing male prisoners; fasting on Yom Kippur; transfer back to the Flechtner factory two weeks later; abandonment by German guards in May 1945; liberation by Soviet troops; returning home via Prague and Bratislava; finally realizing that the rest of their family had been killed; reunion with her fiancé; joining a kibbutz in Budapest; marriage; traveling to Belgium; her son's birth in 1947; immigration to Palestine via France; her husband's draft into the Israeli military; and her daughter's birth; and not sharing her experiences with her children until they were adults, not wanting them to be haunted by the Holocaust and her experiences. (She shows photographs and documents, and reads a poem and letter she wrote.)

Yosef Finkelshtein, born in 1921 in Iași, Romania, discusses being the older of two brothers; his elaborate bar mitzvah; cordial relations with non-Jews; summer vacations in Bukovina; visiting an uncle in Bucharest; antisemitism in the late 1930s; completing lyceum in 1940; teaching Latin; forced labor for the Romanian military; round-up with his family to the police station in 1941; his mother's release; deportation in crowded trains to Tîrgu Frumos; being beaten by a police officer; continuing to Stamora Română; jumping from the train en route to obtain water; sharing it with his brother and father; many deaths, including his father and brother; an official, who had been their landlord, pulling him aside; continuing to Călărași; assistance from local Jews; forced labor clearing trees; their return to Iași in September; the painful reunion with his mother, informing her of the deaths of his father and brother; a non-Jewish schoolmate bringing him bread; various forced labor assignments; and testifying against a neighbor who had pointed out Jews during the round-up. (He shows a drawing he made of himself on the deportation train.)

Moshe Shoham, a twin, born in 1929 in Kaunas, Lithuania, recounts his mother's dental practice; his family's affluence; attending a Hebrew school; summering in Kulautuva; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; Soviet occupation; compulsory membership in Komsomol; German invasion in June 1941; ghettoization; round-up of his father, uncle, and grandmother (they never saw them again); working as a carpenter and handyman; his mother hiding him and his twin brother during round-ups; his and his mother's assignments to factory slave labor; his mother treating patients; their deportation to Stutthof, where the women left the train, including his mother; continuing to Dachau with his twin, uncle, and cousin; transfer to Auschwitz/Birkenau ten days later; slave labor collecting corpses; a death march to Althammer; separation from his twin en route to Mauthausen (he never saw him again); assignment to the tent barrack; observing cannibalism; transfer to Gunskirchen; receiving Red Cross packages; liberation by United States troops; hospitalization in Wels; traveling with the Jewish brigade to Santa Maria di Leuca, then Naples; living in a Deror group; legal immigration to Palestine in 1945; military enlistment in 1948; his twenty-eight-year career as an army engineer; and reuniting with his mother when she immigrated to Israel in 1956. (He reads from a book in which the author describes meeting Mr. Shoham in Italy.)

Andrej Kalarosho (né Bernard Gropert), born in 1922 in Botosani, Romania, discusses being the oldest of three children; moving to Iasi, Romania, where his father owned a garage; playing the piano, composing music, and directing plays in high school; how the Jews of his town were accused of signaling enemy planes, rounded up, and deported; the separation from his family and going by cattle car to Calarasi, Moldova; never seeing his family again; returning to Iasi after several months but being so ill that he had to walk on all fours for a year; later receiving a job as a teacher’s assistant; refusing to join the Communist Party; believing that the personal stories of the Jewish Romanian community have never been represented; living in Israel and working in television; and never telling his family or his work colleagues about his experiences during the Holocaust.

Yafa Rais, born in 1923 in Belzec, Poland, describes having a happy childhood; her work on a Ukrainian farm; making contacts with people on the farm and receiving help from them; her transport to Budzyn I and Budzyn II in the Arbeitzlager in February 1944; leaving Budzyn and going by foot to Majdanek; how her family managed to survive on their march from Majdanek to Auschwitz; leaving Auschwitz for Bergen-Belsen; going into a displaced persons camp at the end of the war; marrying in 1946; and illegally going to Israel in January 1949.

Yosef Bau, born in Krakow, Poland in 1920, discusses studying art and German gothic letters, which saved him during the war; fleeing to Olszana in the suburbs when he could not attain an identification card from the Germans after the war; moving into the ghetto with the town’s other Jews in 1941; advertising his skills as a graphic artist and the Germans hiring him; the transfer of his family to the Plaszów camp; having his and his wife’s name added to Schindler’s list because his wife had saved the mother of the list-maker (Mietek Pemper); his wedding in the camp; spending time in Gross Rosen and Breznice, Czechoslovakia; writing poetry in his spare time and his book titled “The World and Myself”; searching for his family after the war and eventually finding his wife in a hospital; living with an acquaintance after the war because someone else was living in their home; and moving to Israel in 1950.

Moshe ben-Ozer, born in 1931 in Semeliskes, Lithuania, describes his father’s work as a merchant; being the second youngest of seven siblings; his family moving to Slobodka, Kaunas, Lithuania; the ghetto being established in their neighborhood; his bar-Mitzvah in the ghetto; hiding during Actions; the ghetto’s liquidation; his entire family leaving together on a train; the women on the train being taken off at Stutthof and the men continuing to Landsberg; being taken by truck to Dachau, where they stayed for one week; their evacuation to Auschwitz-Birkenau by train; his liberation on April 11, 1945 and being gathered with all of the other youth to be fed; finding his father and a sister after the war; staying in Foehrenwald until 1948; joining the Betar movement; joining the underground military movement, the Etzel, and taking an active part in obtaining weapons in Germany; and undergoing military training to prepare for his immigration to Israel in June 1948.

Fishel Rotshtein, born in 1917 in Łódź, Poland, describes being the fifth of eight children; studying to be an engraver until age sixteen; a factory job in that trade; his father's death in 1939; German invasion; a failed attempt to flee with his brother; anti-Jewish restrictions; ghettoization; volunteering for work in Germany six months later to help support his family; deportation to Brójce; slave labor constructing roads; hospitalization in Świebodzin; visits from camp friends; giving them his extra food; transfer to Grunow-Spiegelberge, also doing road construction; working for local farmers and as the camp doctor's aide; transfer in mid-1942 to Eberswalde; improved conditions; assignments in the laundry and as a doctor's assistant; receiving letters from home; prisoners of war sharing potatoes; French POWs offering to hide him; transfer to Auschwitz/Birkenau in summer 1943, then two days later to Buna/Monowitz; slave labor for I. G. Farben; he and a friend obtaining extra soup with gold they had found; trading found goods with Polish civilian workers for food and medication; a beating when he was caught; frequent public hangings; learning his family had arrived in Auschwitz; transfer to Gleiwitz; train transport to Buchenwald; Czechs throwing them food en route; transfer two weeks later to Langenstein; many prisoners being wounded in an Allied bombing en route; slave labor in a quarry for a month; a death march; escaping with a friend; assistance from local Germans; liberation by Soviet troops; returning home; retrieving family photographs from his destroyed home; reunion with two sisters; meeting his future wife; moving to the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp; marriage; his uncle in England arranging their emigration to join him; immigration to join his wife's mother and brother in Israel three years later; how only he, two sisters, and two uncles survived from his large extended family. (He shows photographs.)

Shraga Pode, born in 1924 in Łódź, Poland, discusses being the second of four children; one of his sisters dying in 1934; attending public school; his father's death; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; working at the family store in Kolumna; attending Hashomer camps; German invasion; random forced labor; ghettoization; his grandfather's death days later; joining a hachshara with his older brother in Marysin; starving people from the ghetto taking their crops; returning to the ghetto in January 1941; clandestine Hashomer meetings; being assigned to work in a public kitchen enabling him to give his rations to his mother and siblings; reassignment to a nursing home until spring 1942, then to a factory kitchen; his mother's deportation; remaining with his brother and sister; hiding Zionist youth groups members who had been listed for deportation; arrest by Jewish police in summer 1944; his brother arranging his release; working in a factory kitchen; a speech by Ḥayim Rumkowski, Jewish head of the ghetto, in his workplace; round-up with his siblings; escaping; hiding for a month with a friend in the evacuated ghetto; sneaking into the group clearing the remains of the ghetto; interrogation and beating by Kommandant Hans Biebow; being assigned to clean septic tanks, then clearing the former ghetto; escaping with five others during the Soviet bombardment in January 1945; liberation by Soviet troops; election as the Zionist representative to the Jewish Council; and organizing a Hashomer congress in 1946. (He shows photographs and documents.)

Emrich Gonczi, born in 1925 in Ivanka Pri Nitre, Czechoslovakia (presently Slovakia), discusses being one of two children; cordial relations with non-Jews; attending a local elementary school; high school in Nitra; anti-Jewish laws in March 1939, resulting in school expulsion; training as a dental assistant; confiscation of the family business; deportation by Hlinka guard to Sered in March 1942, then a week later to Majdanek; slave labor building a camp; arrival of his uncle, then his father in April; arranging to be together; observing an officer smothering his uncle in mud; having to sing the “camp song” while marching (he sings it); volunteering with his father and other relatives for transport elsewhere; a prisoner assisting him upon arrival at Auschwitz; slave labor excavating land; an SS guard shooting his father; having to carry his body back to camp; losing his will to live; a cousin encouraging him; deciding to live to take revenge; a privileged assignment in the carpentry shop in summer 1942; assistance from a Polish political prisoner; Slovak women throwing extra food over the fence; sharing it with his relatives; injuring his hand; assistance from a German guard; hospitalization; selection for death; being exempted after Emil De Martini, a German prisoner, notified Dr. Eduard Wirths of his “medical” training; assignment as a medical assistant; improved food and living conditions; learning all his relatives had “disappeared”; increased responsibilities, including assisting in surgeries by mid-1943; transporting prisoners from surgical castrations by Dr. Wladyslaw Dering; saving a friend by switching his registration card with a dead person's; transporting bodies of two hundred Polish officers who were shot in early 1943; having to bring patients to Josef Klehr for killing by injection (he testified against him after the war); envisioning his father's killing which strengthened his resolve to survive despite constant exposure to killings and corpses; distributing smuggled medications; transfer to a laboratory in Rajsko supervised by Dr. Bruno Weber; discovering that shipments of animal meat from which he created cultures was human flesh; a beating for leaving a faucet open resulting in a flood; providing morphine to a German addict in exchange for food for his unit; burning all the files as ordered prior to the January 1945 death march to open train cars; posing as a non-Jew upon arrival at Mauthausen; transfer two weeks later to Ebensee; slave labor building tunnels; volunteering as a medical assistant; learning all prisoners were to be killed in the tunnels; spreading this information so no one entered the tunnels; abandonment by the guards; impromptu killings for revenge; liberation by United States troops the next day; traveling to Bratislava; retrieving a hidden Jewish boy; reunions with relatives; returning to Nitra; reporting the Hlinka guard who put him on a transport (he was not punished); moving to Teplice; marriage in 1945; training as a dentist; testifying at the Frankfurt war crime trials; immigration to Israel in 1963; the many individuals connected with medical facilities in Auschwitz and Rajsko; sharing his experience in Czechoslovakia after the war and the disinterest in it in Israel; and the continuing painful memories and nightmares.

Tzila Prusak, born in Kybartai, Lithuania, discusses being one of two sisters; the family moving to Kaunas; her sister's immigration to Palestine in the early 1930s; marriage in 1938; Soviet occupation; German invasion; a round-up by Lithuanians, including her father and husband; her mother retrieving her father (she never saw her husband again); ghettoization; obtaining work outside the ghetto; smuggling food into the ghetto; hiding her mother during round-ups (her father had been taken); hiding in a bunker, then surrendering; deportation to Stutthof; transfer to Gutowo; assistance from a German soldier; her mother's death; remaining behind, sick with typhus, during the camp's evacuation; liberation by Soviet troops; treatment by physicians; transfer to the Soviet Union; returning to Kaunas; traveling to Vilna, Berlin, then Munich, wanting to join her sister in Palestine; being warned of round-ups by people she knew in the Judenrat; losing her will to live in the camps; the importance of being with her mother to her survival; and never really having ended her Holocaust experience, despite her present life. (The testimony ends abruptly.)

Miriam Hartz Chervenka, born in 1924 in Pohorelice, Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic), describes growing up in a family with a younger sister; her mother’s death in 1938; her family’s and community’s support of Zionism; her father’s occupation as a grains merchant; joining the youth movement; going to school for a time in Brno, Czech Republic; her family moving to Luhacovice, Czech Republic after the Munich Agreement; anti-Jewish laws; going to a learning farm in Dušníky, Czech Republic in 1940 in preparation for her immigration to Palestine; going to Prague, Czech Republic for four months; going to the training farm in Pohorelice; her father’s detainment and death in Mauthausen in 1941; her and her sister’s transport to Theresienstadt; being “adopted” by the members of the Judenrat; an average day in the life of the ghetto; romance in the camp and meeting her future husband; her cousin and her cousin’s parents arriving in the ghetto; the emotional problems of not having a marked burial place for close relatives; evacuations in the camp; getting married in the camp; getting pregnant and having to undergo an abortion; having a tonsillectomy in the ghetto; working in an ammunition factory and in a field; trading for condoms; sports in the ghetto; her journals; hiding during the evacuations; remaining at the camp until its liberation; the Red Cross arriving and not being allowed to leave; sneaking out with her sister with the help of a Russian soldier; going to Prague and reuniting with her husband; immigrating to Israel in December 1948; and the relations between Holocaust survivors and Israelis.

Ze’ev Galperin, born in Kaunus, Lithuania in 1927, describes being one of five children; his very close family; attending Jewish schools; his bar mitzvah; the Soviet occupation; transfer to a public school; German invasion; briefly fleeing east with his parents and brothers (one sister fled to Russia, another to Vilnius); finding their home occupied upon their return; moving to his grandfather's home (his grandfather had been killed); a non-Jewish neighbor bringing them food; moving to the ghetto in Slobodka; his sister's return from Vilnius; his father's privileged position as a painter; working with his father; receiving assistance from German soldiers; an “action” and how people were taken to Fort Nine; songs and jokes from the ghetto; sabotaging the machinery in the factory where he worked; transferring to Šanciai with his family (Kauen-Schanzen concentration camp); being deported to Stutthof one year later; separation from his mother and sister; being transferred to Dachau; his youngest brother's selection with a group of 130 children and deciding to join him; the refusal of the children to be gassed and the German relenting and returning them to a barrack; teaching the children to line up for roll call; being transferred with the children to Auschwitz/Birkenau; his illness and the outbreak of scarlet fever; separation from the children; his transfer to Lieberose, then Sachsenhausen; a German prisoner convincing the officers that Ze'ev was not Jewish; calling himself Vitas Chemalsky so that people would not think he was a Jew; his assignment working with prisoners of war; transfer to a steel mill; Allied bombings destroying the facility, thus saving him from discovery as a Jew; returning to Sachsenhausen; a death march towards Hamburg, Germany; being rescued by the Red Army in a forest near Schwerin, Germany (Skwierzyna, Poland); receiving assistance from the Red Cross; returning home; learning his family was in Vilnius and joining them; learning his youngest brother was in Israel (he thought he was dead); becoming an engineer despite anti-Jewish restrictions; his marriage in 1955; the births of his two children; immigrating to Israel to join the rest of his family (his brother remained in Vilnius); and having reunions with the surviving children he was with in Auschwitz/Birkenau. He also sings ghetto songs and shows photographs.

Kaziemira Bergman, born in Lodz, Poland in 1918, describes her Jewish family; experiencing antisemitism in her early life; joining the Communist Party as an active member; her family’s decision to move to Warsaw after Hitler annexed the Sudetenland; her family’s decision to leave Warsaw and to flee to Russia in 1941 before the ghetto round-up; her return to Warsaw during the ghetto round-up; entering the ghetto on December 24, 1941; conditions in the ghetto and getting typhoid fever; working in a children’s house in the ghetto; her political struggles in the ghetto; her deportations to Majdanek, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen; her liberation by Russian soldiers; finding her family after the war; how experiences during the Holocaust have affected her life since the war; and her move to Israel in 1960.

Eldar Berko, born in September 1924 in Humenne, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), discusses his older brother and two sisters; his nonreligious family; his father’s trucking business, which he worked for when he turned 17; joining the Betar group; songs from Hlinka Gvarda; how he did not know what was going on and how Jews were being treated; being taken to what he believed was a work camp but discovering that it was Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1942; the population of Auschwitz; the Russian POWs; how he and a friend stole food from a Kapo and were punished; the Block Alteste, who was a sadist; his experiences as a Sonderkommando; building the crematoria; one of his friends being hanged for attempting an escape; having an affair with a girl in town, where he went to get supplies; the gypsy camp; being marched out of the camp in January 1945; being taken by train to Gross Rosen; being taken by train to Schongau, Germany, where the Germans left them; the arrival of American troops; returning to Czechoslovakia in July 1945 after his liberation; beginning school to train to be an electrical technician; meeting his wife in 1947; enlisting in the Israeli Military (IDF) in 1948 in Czechoslovakia and then going to Israel; serving two years in the Israeli Army; and then moving to Ramat Tzvi, where he was an electrician.

Edit Kosidois, born in 1926 in Osek, Czechoslovkia (possibly Osek, Severočeský kraj, Czech Republic), describes her childhood; her family’s move to Prague, Czech Republic; her daily life, adolescence, social life, and first boyfriend during the years 1939-1940; the deportations in 1941; being transported with her family to the Lodz ghetto; working in a rug factory; the hanging of someone who tried to escape; her physical and mental condition; singing and reading after work; the poet Lange who died in the ghetto; food rations and the black market; her father being taken in the first selection; being sent to a straw factory where they made shoes in 1943; her illness and the lice infestation; her friendships in the ghetto; her thoughts on Rumkowski; seeing the ghetto burning in August 1944; her deportation to Auschwitz; life in the camp, including the roll calls, Kapos, and food; Mengele’s selection of her to leave the camp; her transport from Auschwitz to Bergen-Belsen; the difficult winter; how the SS women were crueler than the men; her transport to Salzwedel after spending a winter in Bergen-Belsen; becoming a sort of waitress at the new camp; working in an ammunition factory in camp Neuengamme; becoming ill with a skin infection; the bombing of the camp in March 1945; being liberated by Americans on April 14, 1945; being taken out of the camp and housed at a German air force base; being taken to Heidelberg, Germany and returning to Prague at the end of June; getting married after the war but divorcing; her overall thoughts about her war experiences; her move to Israel and marriage to another survivor; and deciding not to have children because of the cruelty of the world.

Channa Drori (née Polakova), born in Prague, Czech Republic on November 4, 1931, describes the farms that her family owned and managed in Olbramovice, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic) before the war; how her family did not observe any of the Jewish holidays; her parents’ divorce when she was a small child; her family deciding not to flee the country and her father putting the farms under a fictitious non-Jewish name and losing their farm; living with her mother in Prague; attending third grade until it was prohibited for the Jews to study in public schools; her teacher continuing to teach Channa and four other Jewish children in her own home; the antisemitism of children in Prague; the introduction of the yellow star; preparations for the deportation to Terezin, Czech Republic; being deported to Terezin on July 16, 1942; reuniting with her father in Terezin; the living conditions in the “Hamburg” block, room 104; the scarlet fever epidemic; daily life and the hospital; participating in Brundibar, a children’s choir; education and the other children in the ghetto; children from Bialystok arriving in Terezin and being gassed to death; the ghetto being beautified in preparation for the Red Cross visit; remaining in the ghetto after her father was transferred to the east; going to Auschwitz after the Red Cross inspection; her transfer to an ammunitions factory in Ederdam; all the prisoners being put on open trains in the direction of Mauthausen in April 1945 and returning to Terezin; her contraction of typhoid fever in 1944; returning to her village after the ghetto’s liberation; learning that she was the sole survivor of her family; immigrating to Israel, where she joined a kibbutz; and her new life in Israel.

Raymond Hegman, born in Strasbourg, France in 1919, describes the shoe store that his family owned; how his family was traditional but not religious; attending public school; his family’s evacuation from Alsace when the Germans invaded; going with his family to their vacation home in Vosges and then settling in Montpellier; staying in southern France for the majority of the war; working with the Jewish Resistance and the French Resistance procuring false baptismal certificates, passage into Switzerland, and hiding places for Jewish refugees; his parents’ escape into Switzerland and the hiding of his sister with a non-Jewish family in another part of France; the young people with whom he worked and describes their reasons for being interested in these activities; studying the Torah every Shabbat evening and listening to the Radio Libre; working for a Jewish relief organization and guarding Axis prisoners after liberation; the survival of all of his immediate family after the war; his parents’ return to Strasbourg; and being shocked by the magnitude of what had happened to those who had been deported to the East.

Gerda Steinfeld (née Kroitzer), born on August 15, 1932 in Hanover, Germany, describes her family; the thriving Jewish community; her father’s service in WWI; her father being forced to retire in 1935; anti-Jewish laws; Jews being forced to live in crowded houses; suffering as a child in those years and not being able to attend school; witnessing one of Hitler’s speeches in a public square; Kristallnacht and the synagogue burning; moving to a nursing home with her family for six months; the growing suicide rates among German Jews; her family discussing emigration; evacuation from Hanover on July 24, 1942; being sent to Terezin; the crowding, lice, and illnesses; becoming ill, possible with TB; her social life in the camp; the deportations to Birkenau; celebrating her Bat-mitzvah; her notebook that contained notes from her lessons in the camps; the theatrical and musical performances in her Block; liberation; returning to Hanover and the destruction there; antisemitism in Hanover in the 1950s; the black market in Hanover; immigrating to Israel; and how her survivor’s guilt moved her to research the Holocaust.

Malka Nomberg (née Weissrosen), born in 1930 in Sandomierz, Poland, describes growing up in a wealthy and prominent family in her community; the German invasion of her town and her family’s decision to hide in their cellars; the Germans discovering their hiding place; the transport of her entire family except for herself and her mother, who remained in hiding; she and her mother being discovered and sent to work at a local high school turned labor camp; being transported to Starczewice, Poland to a weapons factory until 1942; being deported to Auschwitz in 1944; living in Birkenau and meeting her sister there; her transfer to Ravensbrück; the march to Malchow and the Germans fleeing from the oncoming Soviets during the march; witnessing the plunder and raping of a town by the Russians; returning to her hometown with her sister; and sailing from Hamburg, Germany to Palestine where she married and had children.

Shmuel Milo (né Alexander Meller), born in the Suina region of Hungary (in Stakcin, Slovakia) on January 5, 1926, describes being the youngest of three children; his family; attending high school in Suina (Snina, Slovakia); not experiencing antisemitism; the war breaking out; being taken in trucks by Hungarians to the Kolomyya ghetto then to Horodenka, Ukraine and finally to Auschwitz in 1942; being in Block 11 in Auschwitz; being moved back and forth from Auschwitz to Birkenau (Auschwitz II); being in Block 13 in Birkenau; doing construction; the Sonderkommando, Blockalteste, and Stubendienst; the photos of himself and his father from Auschwitz and documents from the camp; his work in the latrines; being in Block 7A in Auschwitz and receiving construction training; falling sick with typhoid going went to the camp infirmary in Block 22 and 23; the orchestra in Auschwitz; conditions in the camp, food, clothing and different jobs; suicides and hangings in the camp; homosexuality and sexual abuse in his block; being transported to Mauthausen, just preceding the Russian’s arrival; being sent to work in Melk for three months; being transferred to Ebensee; working in an underground tunnel until May 7, 1945 when they were liberated by the Americans; returning to Hungary and reuniting with his sister; attending school in Budapest, Hungary for three years; immigrating to Israel; serving in the Israeli Army for 39 years before retiring; and his thoughts about his survival and how he deals with his past.

Sara Mitzelmacher (née Uritz), born on March 15, 1915 in Kovno, Poland (now Kaunas, Lithuania), describes her lower class family; her family moving to Jurbarkas, Lithuania then Ukmerge, Lithuania; attending gymnasium in Kaunas; moving in with a Zionist aunt; returning to Ukmerge and attending a Hebrew high school; her first job as an accountant in Kaunas while she continued to study economics at the university; her sister moving to Palestine; her brother dying in the war; the Russians arriving in Kaunas and firing the Jews from their jobs; the Germans invading and setting up a ghetto; moving to the ghetto; the Jewish police and the Judenrat; working at the airport; being arrested and imprisoned for a month for attempting to sell a diamond ring; spending two years in the ghetto; Actions in the ghetto; being taken to military barracks in Kaunas, called the “Shantz suburbs”; being sent with other women to work on a farm 14 km outside the ghetto; being deported to Gefalag in Krefeld, Germany; being transported with her aunts by train to the Siauliai, Lithuania ghetto; being transported a few days later to Panevezys, Lithuania to the airfield then Stutthof; every day life in Stutthof; escaping and ending up with partisans; going to Bialystok, Poland then to Warsaw, Poland; receiving help from Haikah (Hajka) Grosman; reuniting with her sister in Lódz, Poland; receiving military training prior to going to Palestine; and her immigration to Palestine in May 1948.

Meir Tzoref (né Mark Lev Goldshmit), born on April 14, 1920, describes growing up in Jonava, Lithuania; being one of nine children; living in a very Jewish area; attending a Hebrew school; participating in Zionist activities; joining the communist movement and working in a farmers’ cooperative; the Soviet invasion of Kovno (Kaunas, Lithuania) in 1939; the German invasion of Kovno in 1941 and moving into the Kovno ghetto with his wife; the harshness and difficulties of life in the ghetto; mass murder of Jews from the ghetto; viewing the long line of Jewish youth, including his brother Avraham, being led to the 7th Fort, where the children were killed; being transferred to the ghetto in Slobodka (Vilijampole, Kaunas); registering under a false name to avoid recognition as a communist; the Action at the 9th Fort; joining an underground movement in the ghetto and trying to join the partisans in the forests; his wife giving birth in the ghetto and sneaking out of the ghetto to leave their child at a church; never seeing his wife again after she left the ghetto; German marshals who helped them during his wife’s pregnancy; the black market; the Paneriai massacre; the efforts of Haim Yelin to organize groups of youth to leave the ghetto and join the partisans in the Rudniki forest; being sent to Stutthof and conditions there; after a few months being sent to Dachau; the roll calls and food in the camp; his work building of an underground factory; the death march; their liberation and returning to Kovno; reuniting with his three year old son; and marrying his former sister-in-law and moving to Warsaw, Poland before they immigrated to Israel in 1960.

Peretz Leshem (né Fritz Lichtenstein), born in Saxony, Germany in 1903, describes growing up as one of four children; his father who owned a textile factory; participating in the Zionist youth movement early in his life; joining the German Army for one year; the political parties that arose after WWI; founding another Zionist organization “Jüdiche Wanderbundt” with his friends; returning to Frankfurt, Germany to help reorganize the Bundestag; his marriage to his first wife, Betty Frölich; moving to Palestine in 1926 to Kibbutz Yagur; joining the Mapai (Labor) Party; being sent to Germany to be the director of the Hechalutz near Berlin; writing a book, Strasse zu Rettung; meeting in Vienna, Austria with representatives of the Histadrut; returning to Germany in 1934 to prepare for Aliya Jews in Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Czechoslovakia and Luxemburg; the Histadrut sending him to England to work with the Youth Aliya movement; his activities in Scotland and Ireland; being sent in 1942 to Portugal as head of the Joint to organize the immigration from Spain and Portugal; Wilfrid Israel giving him a list of people who had permits to immigrate to Palestine; the 600-700 refugees in Portugal; meeting refugees in Camp Miranda and the conditions there; opening and heading the office of the Sochnut (Jewish Agency) in Lisbon, Portugal; having to get permission from Germany in order to have a ship from Portugal cross the Mediterranean, and how in January 1944 the refugees from Portugal got on the boat Nyasa and 756 immigrants finally arrived in Haifa, Palestine (Israel); bringing his family from England to Lisbon; getting Franco to ask Hitler to allow 700 refugees from Salonika to enter Spain and then continue to Morocco and Palestine; his dealings with Silberstein, head of the Joint in Switzerland; the Jewish communities in Morocco and Algeria; his thoughts on the Holocaust; and his thoughts on his work during WWII.

Chaim Drori, born near Neresnica, Czechoslovakia in 1930, describes his observant family; his Zionist father, who was also a Communist; having three siblings and how only he and his sister Naomi survived the war; attending Ukrainian school and experiencing antisemitism; the anti-Jewish laws in his town; the difficulty of obtaining goods after the war began; being deported in 1944 to the ghetto in Mátészalka, Hungary; being deported to Birkenau; living in Camp Z, Block 21; witnessing suicides; being sent to Buchenwald; working in a camp for Brabag near the Zeiss factory; the Allied air raids and a successful bombing in August 1944; becoming ill and being sent to the ‘sick camp’ in Buchenwald; the evacuation of the camp and being hidden by the doctors with other sick children in the prostitute block of the camp; being liberated two weeks later and the role of Buchenwald’s underground resistance in liberation; searching for surviving relatives after the war; joining the Zionist youth movement Dror-Hechalutz and preparing to make Aliyah to Palestine; being intercepted during their journey by the British Navy and sent to Cyprus; living in a detention camp in Cyprus from February to September 1947; obtaining an official certificate to go to Palestine; arriving in Palestine and being sent to a processing camp in Atlit; living in Hadera and Hahotrim; studying agriculture and receiving a position in the kibbutz; being sent to Kenya and Zaire as an agricultural advisor; and his large family of both adopted and biological children.

Walter Morgenbesser, born on December 14, 1930 in Spišská Stará Ves, Slovakia, describes being one of seven brother; his father being taken away in October 1944; having to support his family by working for a Wehrmacht officer; he and the rest of his family being rounded up and taken to Auschwitz; being transported to Ravensbrück; the selection and the separation of the men and women; never seeing his mother again; conditions in Ravensbrück; the punishments for stealing food; the Christmas celebrations; the sterilization of the Romani children and wishing to be sterilized to receive an extra portion of bread; being transferred in March 1945 to Sachsenhausen, where he experienced heavy Allied bombardment; seeing the son of Stalin; being liberated on April 22, 1945; fleeing with his father and another from the Russians and going to a refugee camp in Katowice, Poland; going to Košice, Slovakia, which was where his parents were raised; receiving a Czech passport in 1947 with which he immigrated to Israel; and first joining Kubbutz Kfar Masaryk, and later Kibbutz Evron.

Marcel Blum, born in Iași, Romania on May 5, 1924, describes his lower-middle class family; learning to read and write Hebrew and Yiddish; attending a technical school; working in maintenance at a large manor when he was 11 years old; a fascist regime coming to power in 1940; the anti-Jewish restrictions; the Romanian Army inciting a mass pogrom in his town in 1941; being marched and taken by wagon with his father; traveling by day and stopping at night for several days; receiving help from family in Bucharest, Romania; being put into a forced labor camp at a quarry; being selected as a communist rebel and placed against a wall to be shot and being saved by a man who bribed the camp’s officer; being released in September 1941; wearing the yellow star; returning to school and learning that 25 of the teachers had been killed; being sent in 1942 with his father and their male neighbors to a work camp; losing a finger in the camp; the work camp’s daily routine and the conditions; being released to Iași when the Soviets arrived; escaping another work detail but being captured and sentenced to 25 years in prison for desertion; the Soviets giving him amnesty for his crimes; his career as a doctor and publishing articles; his first wife and his daughter; immigrating to Israel in 1989; how false information led to the mass killing of the Jews in Romania; and Holocaust deniers and revisionists in Romania.

Chaia Goldbaum, born in 1933 in Krasnik, Poland, describes being the third of five children in a middle-class family; the war breaking out and her family hiding in their cellar; her father bribing the Gestapo via the Judenrat; Aktions in the ghetto; being discovered in their hiding place but saved from going to the ghetto thanks to a former Gentile nanny that had helped them find homes in which to hide; the Budzyn camp, where her brother and uncles were located and where she worked in the kitchen; being moved to camp K.L.; being protected by her uncles and conditions in the camp; being transferred to Majdanek by truck with her brother and uncles; working in the laundry facility and in berry fields; leaving Majdanek as the Russians approached; being liberated; the children’s houses in Lublin, Poland; experiencing antisemitism from teachers and others; moving to the Polish-German border with an uncle; going to Prague, Berlin, and Bergen-Belsen; immigrating to Palestine and living on a kibbutz before she joined the Israeli Army; and living with those people in Israel who did not experience the Holocaust.

Karl Kosidois, born in Vienna, Austria in 1916, describes growing up in an assimilated family that spoke German at home and only visited the synagogue once a year for the High Holidays; joining the Young Maccabee organization and being exposed to Zionism; his older brother leaving for Palestine in 1935; joining the Austrian Army when he was 21 years old but being asked to leave after the 1938 Anschluss; being sent to Dachau after Kristallnacht but later being freed under the condition that he leave Austria; taking a sojourn in Trieste, Italy on his way to Palestine; having his brother attempt to get him a student permit; meeting Menahem Pressler in Trieste; being sent to the concentration camp at Feramonti in Calabria; his transfer to the camp at Nereto, which was near the Adriatic Sea; fleeing Nereto with his Italian girlfriend who hid him until the end of the war; working in Rome as a musician; arriving in Palestine in 1945; moving from Haifa to Tel Aviv; and joining the Israeli Air Force as a cartographer.

Otto Pressburger, born on June 29, 1923 in Trnava, Czechoslovakia (Slovakia), describes his father, who was a leather merchant; growing up in a financially stable family; being the youngest of five brothers; his family practicing Orthodox Judaism, but all the children were interested in the Zionist movement; experiencing a little antisemitism growing up; the Nazis imposing prohibitions on the Jews of his town in 1938; being sent to a work camp in Trentschin (Trencin, Slovakia) in 1940; escaping and returning home where he built roads; his family being separated and sent to different Nazi camps in March 1942; being sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau; being placed in Block A of Birkenau where he built roads; conditions in the camp; witnessing Nazi guards killing Jews; being sent back and forth between Auschwitz and Birkenau to help erect a school and other camp buildings; being sent also to Harmeze and Budy for short periods to do construction and other work; being in the infamous Block 11 at Auschwitz, where people were shot in its basement; befriending a Kapo, named Kozelchik, who helped him and other Jews be safe and get extra food; how in 1944 resistance against the camps’ Nazis began to increase; being evacuated to Gross-Rosen in January 1945; his group not stopping in Gross-Rosen and continuing on through the Sudetenland; arrived in Karlovy Vary, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); being caught and sent to the camp Muelsen-St. Micheln; escaping disguised as a Czech political prisoner; being caught after an American attack and ended up in the camp Litomerice; being deported to Flossenbürg and escaping with a friend from the train; traveling to the village of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic, where a farmer housed them and was the head of the local underground movement; staying there until the end of the war; returning home and joining a group leaving for Palestine; arriving in Palestine on April 15, 1947; being injured when the British attacked his ship and spending time in a hospital; being transferred to Atlit, where one of his brothers found him; reunited with his mother in Tel Aviv; joining the Israeli Army in 1948; marrying in 1950; and considering Auschwitz as a school for life.

Rivka Peleg, born in 1923 in Kaunas, Lithuania, discusses being the oldest of four children; her father's role in the community as a rabbi; her mother managing their large business; graduating from a Jewish-Lithuanian school; Soviet occupation in 1940; confiscation of the family business; participating in Betar; marriage in 1941; German invasion; round-up of her husband and his father (she never saw them again); returning to her parents' home; round-up of her father (he did not return); one brother's arrest; his release due to the influence of a cousin who was on the Judenrat; the same brother's round-up from which he did not return; ghettoization; slave labor at an airport; she and her sister smuggling food with help from non-Jewish friends with whom they often hid; reassignment to labor at a brush factory; hiding with her siblings during round-ups; learning her other brother had been killed; betrayal when trying to obtain false papers; torture and imprisonment with her sister for six months; release due to their cousin's influence; hiding in a bunker with her sister, mother, and others during the ghetto liquidation; escaping with her sister with help from guards; hiding in a forest in Seirijai; liberation by Soviet troops; returning to university in Kaunas; marriage; immigration to Israel; the permanent psychological scars due to her experiences; and the hurt inflicted upon her by today's youth having no interest in learning about the Holocaust.

Yosef Dotan, born in 1923 in Vel'ký Meder, Slovakia, describes growing up in an upper middle-class family with three siblings; his Hungarian parents; going to a high school in Bratislava, Slovakia; Jewish life in the village; the entrance of the Germans into the Sudeten; leaving his hometown for school and then later moving to Budapest, Hungary to look for work; learning carpentry; being conscripted into the army and in 1944 going to Komárno; being sent to Nagykáta, Hungary; being sent to a professional unit to build a factory; the Jews in his village being sent to Auschwitz in 1944 and the fates of his family members; working in an aluminum factory that was bombed first by the British and then by the Americans; bribing a man in the Wehrmacht who took them to Budapest in a truck; going to the Glass House, which was the home of Zionist organizations; his involvement with the underground movement, providing forged papers; being known by the name Dawei; working with forger David Gur; meeting his future wife; the Kastner trial; liberation by the Russians; helping to gather abandoned Jewish children; organizing the transportation of food supplies from Romania to Budapest; smuggling refugees across the border; going by boat to Haifa, Israel; joining the Haganah; and getting married in 1948.

Moshe Messer, born in 1927 in Włodzimierz Wołynski, Poland (Volodymyr-Volyns'kyi, Ukraine), describes living a traditional life; being one of four children; the relationship between Jews and Ukrainians; his education; celebrating Jewish holidays; the 1939 Russian occupation and refugees being sent to Siberia; the German invasion in 1941; the consolidation of the Jews into a ghetto; the imposed selections for work groups on the Jews of the town; the conditions of living and working in the ghetto until his family decided to go into hiding; how he and his family were discovered in their hiding place and were separated; joining some of his friends and escaping to the forest with the help of a Polish friend; making contact with partisans, who were antisemitic; he and his friends meeting an advance patrol of the Russian Army and were told to march towards Rovno, Poland (Rivne, Ukraine); being unable to find any relatives after the war and deciding to move to Lublin, Poland; immigrating to Palestine in 1948 with the help of Jewish relief groups; his enlistment to fight the Egyptian Army in the Israeli War for Independence; his later release from the army; marrying in 1953; and having three children.

Ada Matulski (née Greenglass), born in Warsaw, Poland, in December 1933, describes growing up with her parents and her pleasant childhood; her neighborhood, where she attended preschool and spent her summers on the countryside until the war broke out; the Nazis confiscating all her family’s belongings and having to move into the Warsaw Ghetto; how in the ghetto parents would hide their children until they returned from work; witnessing terrible sights in the ghetto; her father smuggling her out of the ghetto and staying with a local family using a false ID; how after the Warsaw uprising the Germans exiled the entire population; being forced to leave the family she was staying with because they went to live with their antisemitic relatives in a village; going to another village where she told the people there a made up story and they let her stay; attending church with these people and living with them for almost a year; going to Grójec, where a local family adopted her; leading a normal life, attending school, and doing rather well but living in constant fear of her adoptive father; leaving the village in 1947 by telling a neighbor that she was Jewish and being taken to a Warsaw Jewish institution; developing typhoid fever and being hospitalized; reuniting with her uncle in the hospital; immigrating in 1950 to Israel, where she joined the army, went to nursing school, got married, and had a family; the difficulty she had adjusting to Israel; not talking about her war experiences for many years; and her on-going attempts to hide her constant anxiety about the safety of her family.

Alexander Berger, born on August 15, 1925 in Bratislava, Slovakia, describes his family and being one of three children; attending a Jewish orthodox school even though his family was not very religious; how in 1940 the Jews of Bratislava were sent to a camp in Trnava, Slovakia, where Alexander worked for the railroad; being moved to the camp in Sered, Slovakia in April 1941; going soon after to Majdanek and to Birkenau, where he had a difficult life; his construction unit from Birkenau being transferred to Auschwitz; joining the food distribution center there until he was caught stealing food and sent to a debris clean-up site; finding his sister and keeping in touch; seeing his brother killed; being separated from his sister in January 1945 when they left on death marches; going to Mauthausen and then to Ebensee; surviving the rough and confused conditions of the camp; being liberated by the Americans in May 1945; being in poor health and spending some time recuperating; going to Prague, Czech Republic; joining the S.I.T. group in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic and seeking revenge on former Nazis and fascists; being forced to flee because of his treatment of prisoners; going to Backnang, Germany, where a group of Israelis recruited him to teach them how to use weapons in Merano, Italy; going to Israel in 1948 and joining the Israeli Army without knowing any Hebrew; rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel after serving 28 years in the military; still having nightmares about the war; and he cannot yet share his story with his children.

Tamar Goldshmidt, born in 1933 in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia (presently Slovakia), discusses being one of three children in an affluent family; vacations skiing and in Vienna; her brother's bar mitzvah in Piešt̕any; his immigration to Palestine shortly thereafter; attending a Jewish school; deportation to Žilina with her family in 1942; an influential uncle bribing the commander to release them; returning to Bratislava; hiding in a vineyard outside the city with assistance from her uncle; returning a few weeks later; hiding in an apartment owned by her father's friend; her older sister moving to live with a non-Jewish family in 1944; obtaining false papers; hiding in a factory during German searches; capture; deportation with her parents to Sered; separation from her father when they were transferred to Theresienstadt a few weeks later; forced agricultural labor; attending school; observing a Red Cross visit; liberation by Soviet troops; she and her mother traveling to Prague, Brno, then Bratislava; reunion with her sister and father; joining Maccabi; immigrating to Israel with her youth group in 1949; her family joining her shortly thereafter; marriage; and the births of her two daughters.

Yehuda Beilis, born in Kovno, Poland (Kaunas, Lithuania) in 1927, describes his father, Eliezer, who was a medical doctor and owned a printing shop and real estate; his mother, Hana, who was a dentist; his two older brothers, Chaim and Yosef; speaking Yiddish at home; playing Ping-Pong for the Zionist movement Betar; the Russian occupation; being in a Russian boy scouts group and attending a summer camp in Palanga, Lithuania; the German invasion; his family moving into the ghetto in Slobudka (Vilijampole, Kaunas); being rounded up with his family and taken to the Ninth Fort, where Yehuda’s parents were killed; surviving the massacre and returning to the ghetto, where no one believed his story of the massacre; fleeing the ghetto and hiding on the farm of his uncle’s friend; returning to the ghetto, where the Betar Zionist movement trained him in sabotage and leading resistance actions; saving 22 children from the ghetto with the help of a priest; going back and forth between the farm and the ghetto; the Nazis finding him; the liquidation of the ghetto and being transported to Landsberg; finding a brother in the camp and working hard to save his gravely ill brother; being depressed and occasionally wanting to die; Czech Jewish inmates; being sent to Kaufering IV; cannibalism in the camp; French president Léon Blum sleeping in the bunk next to him; Russian prisoners of war and Yugoslavian partisans led by Tito arriving; being evacuated on a train that was bombarded and escaping with others; going to Landsberg where there was chaos before the evacuation of the camp; the battle the next day and the camp’s liberation; reuniting with his Russian friends, and arming themselves to search for Germans and seek revenge; the foiling of his first attempt to immigrate to Palestine by a Jewish spy who informed the British; his eventual voyage to Palestine at the end of 1945; joining relatives in Tel Aviv, Israel; working in Haifa, Israel; serving in the Israeli Army; and visiting Lithuania.

Ze'ev Drori, born in 1924 in Warsaw, Poland, discusses being the older of two brothers; living in a children's home organized by Janusz Korczak for two years when his father was ill; attending public school; cordial relations with non-Jews; attending a Polish scout camp in summer 1939; German invasion; returning home; ghettoization; working in a Korczak children's home; creating a puppet theater with friends; taking food to his parents; hiding during a round-up (his family and everyone in the children's home were deported); a factory job outside the ghetto; observing the ghetto burning during the uprising; transfer back to the ghetto; deportation to Majdanek; useless slave labor moving rocks; beatings; his belief he would not survive; transfer six months later to Skarżysko; slave labor in a tool factory; a Polish overseer giving him extra food and allowing him to rest when he was too weak to work; transfer to Czestochowa; abandonment by the Germans; walking to Warsaw; losing his will to live; a friend helping him; assistance from the Red Cross and a Jewish organization; working in a Jewish children's home; attending night school; antisemitic harassment by non-Jewish students; traveling with a Deror group to Czechoslovakia; immigration to Palestine by ship; interdiction by the British; incarceration on Cyprus for a year; fighting in the 1948 Arab-Israel war; marriage; the births of his children; and his belief that it is impossible for films to convey the brutality and horrendous conditions of the ghettos and camps.

Shalom Eilati, born in 1933 in Kaunas, Lithuania, discusses being the eldest of two children; attending a Hebrew school; holiday visits to his grandfather, a rabbi in Viduklė; Soviet occupation; transfer to a Yiddish school; German invasion in June 1941; staying in a bunker for three days; anti-Jewish restrictions; ghettoization in August; his father's appointment to the Aeltestenrat, which saved many Jews, as ghetto historian; attending school; a large round-up in fall 1941 from which they were freed; the next morning hearing and seeing mass shootings in the distance at the Ninth Fort and corpses at the round-up area; his father's deportation to Riga, Latvia in February 1942; receiving letters from him through Lithuanian and Latvian friends; his mother smuggling food into the ghetto from her workplace; joining a Zionist group guarding community gardens; public hanging of a friend for smuggling; singing in a choir; his mother's involvement in the ghetto underground, through which he met its leader, Chaim Yellin; his mother taking his sister to hide with Lithuanians; attending an ORT school; hiding during the round-up of children; his mother arranging for him to be smuggled out of the ghetto and hidden with a Lithuanian family in April 1944; being moved to a farm in Liepynai in June; the farmer sending him to hide in the forest; liberation by Soviet troops; traveling to Marijampolė; returning to Kaunas with help from a Soviet officer; living with a Jewish couple for a year; finding personal belongings in the ashes of the ghetto; living in an orphanage for six months; hearing from his father; leaving to join him with a Beriḥah group; capture by Soviets in Vilnius; interrogation by the NKVD; escaping; the Jewish community hiding him, then arranging his travel to join his father in Munich, Germany in March 1946; immigration to Palestine two weeks later; joining his aunt; celebrating his bar mitzvah three weeks after his arrival; nightmares resulting from his experiences; his father's reluctance to share his experiences; difficulty confirming his mother's and sister's deaths; and writing his memoir over the last twenty-three years. (He shows photographs and sings ghetto songs.)

Ruchama Pinkof, born in 1922 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, discusses being the youngest of three children; her mother's death when she was two; attending Jewish, then public school; her father's remarriage; a troubled relationship with her stepmother; participating in Hechalutz; attending a boarding school in 1937; visiting her family on holidays; living briefly with her paternal grandparents; German invasion; her brothers' participation in the underground; one brother wanting to put her in hiding, and her refusal to leave her younger half-siblings; deportation to Westerbork; a close relationship with her cousin; forced agricultural labor; caring for a group of children; hospitalization for polio; her grandparents' arrival; her grandfather's death; transfer to Bergen-Belsen with her grandmother, half-sister, aunt, and father; her older brother's arrival; her aunt and grandmother's release for immigration to Palestine; caring for her half-sister when she was ill; liberation by British troops; hospitalization; transfer to Celle; returning to Amsterdam; transfer to a hospital in Eindhoven where her uncle was a physician; learning one of her older brothers and her father had been killed; transfer to the Jewish hospital in Amsterdam, then by the Red Cross to a sanitarium in Davos; remaining for over two years supported by the Joint; her other older brother's immigration to Palestine; meeting her future husband and immigrating to Israel; her firm belief that she would survive the concentration camps; and her continuing health problems resulting from her experiences. (She shows photographs.)

Miryam Weiszer, born in Miskolc, Hungary on January 20, 1928, describe her five sisters; her family interacting well with their Jewish and non-Jewish neighbors; attending school; their large extended family; the Nazis entering the village on March 19, 1944; people going into hiding; being sent to Auschwitz and the selection process, during which her mother was selected for execution; being sent to Allendorf an der Lumda, where she found better work, living conditions, and participated in various cultural activities; being sent on a death march to Bergen-Belsen and being liberated by Americans; developing friendships with the Americans; traveling to Niedergrentzebach and Ziegenhain, where she encountered the Jewish Brigade; immigrating with her sister, Bracha, to Palestine after many unsuccessful attempts; being sent to a detention camp in Cyprus, where Miryam led a life of activism; meeting heroes of the Kibbutz movements and various Jewish leaders, including Hertzfeld, Ben-Gurion, and Golda Meir; arriving in Israel in the midst of the War of Independence; traveling to Kibbutz Afikim and settling there until the kibbutz was evacuated during the war; and settling in Kibbutz Hahotrim, where she has endured many family tragedies.

Yoel Shtrol, born in 1928 in Oroszmezo, Transylvania (Rus, Romania), describes being one of four; the death of his twin brother and a sister in Auschwitz; the survival of his older brother; working in forestry; attending regular school as well as a cheder; how his family was one of four Jewish families in his village; the strong antisemitism throughout his community; the Hungarian occupation and imposing antisemitic laws; the closing of Jewish schools; going to high school in Cluj (Cluj-Napoca, Romania) and the closing of his school; going to a trade school to learn carpentry; his mother dying in 1940; persecution by the Hungarians and the Germans in 1941; the rule of the Hungarian Nazi party and Jews surviving by giving bribes; his family being allowed to keep their home by allowing it to be used as a brothel; the Jews in Oroszmezo being taken to Dej, Romania and a forced labor camp before being taken to Auschwitz; the transport in the cattle cars; being 16 years old when he was sent to Auschwitz; being sent first to the twins’ barracks and then being taken to the Roma camp to fill a quota; being separated from his family; being taken to Buchenwald two weeks later; the behavior of the Kapos and Lagerälteste; his work carrying rocks back and forth; being taken to Rehmsdorf (Tröglitz), where they worked at the Brabag factory that produced airplane fuel; being sent into the fields when the factory was bombed by the Allies; working as a helper to the chief of the Roma camp and getting extra food; returning to Auschwitz and being taken with others to Mariensberg (Marienbad) in April 1945; escaping to the forest, and being shot at by the Germans; being marched to Terezín (Theresienstadt); being taken to a large building named Camp Hamburg; being liberated by the Russians on May 8; being very sick and being taken in by a Czech family; being taken to a children’s house in Prague, Czech Republic, where he stayed for a year and a half; the children’s state of mind as depressed and hopeless; returning to his village, but not being allowed to enter his home; how antisemitism was worse than before the war; going to Germany and Hungary to search for relatives, but finding none; returning to his village and supporting himself by begging; going to Dej, where his oldest brother found him and took him to live with his family; going to Bucharest, Romania, where he joined an Aliya Bet group and went by boat to Cyprus, where he stayed for six months; being taken with a group of children to Israel in 1947; joining the IDF (Tseva Haganah LeYisra'el) in May 1948; his discharge and studying law; being the director of the immigration absorption department; and the importance of teaching younger generations about the Holocaust.

Jaffa Neuman, born on December 1, 1919 in Lask, Poland, describes being one of seven sisters; going from an early age to a training farm of the youth movement near Warsaw, which was meant to prepare participants to go to Palestine; how in 1938 anti-Jewish measures began in Lask and in 1942 her entire family was sent to the Lodz ghetto; the Nazi-created ghetto in Lask and the Judenrat; the selection in the Lask Ghetto, during which her parents were sent to Chelmno and she and three of her sisters were sent to the Lodz ghetto; working in nearby Kolumna; staying with her sisters after the Lodz ghetto was liquidated; being sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were processed and remained for two weeks; being sent to Bergen-Belsen, where they remained for two months; being sent with her sisters to Geislingen an der Steige, Germany, where they worked in an airplane parts factory for five months; how the factory came under heavy Allied bombardment and how the workers were put on trains that moved back and forth in an attempt to avoid the bombs; being evacuated to Dachau; being liberated by the American Army; how she and her sister, Rachel, spent two years after the war waiting to immigrate to Palestine; spending a year in a detention camp in Cyprus; and arriving in Palestine in 1948 when it was still under British rule.

Ruth Bobek, born in 1934 in Prague, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic), describes his assimilated, Zionist family; having a younger brother; her father’s job as an accountant; not experiencing normal schooling because there was an edict not to accept Jews in government schools; receiving home instruction; her entire family being deported to Terezín (Theresienstadt) in July 1942; living together in a house with 47 other Jews; her father living separately and being part of a work crew that built large projects in different parts of Germany; her mother being in charge of cooking and cleaning for everyone in the house; cultural life in Terezín; the Red Cross visit; working in a sewing workshop outside the ghetto fence; being liberated; returning home where she found no one; moving to Litomeritze, Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic); immigrating to Israel in 1949; not feeling part of Israeli society and only feeling close to the friends she had from the Terezín house; and her life in Israel.

Chaim Chacham, born in 1935 in Iași, Romania, recounts growing up in an affluent family; his father's prominence in the Jewish community and presidency of Mizrahi; his father's arrest in 1940; hiding with his mother and older sister in his father's factory during a mass killing the following day; searching for him among the corpses on the street; his return a few days later; increased antisemitic restrictions and violence, including a public beating of his father; the remaining Jewish community caring for each other; liberation by Soviet troops; fleeing to Bucharest; immigration with his family to Israel in 1950; being greeted in Haifa by Yosef Burg; learning from his father after the war that he had bribed German officials to improve conditions in the Jewish community and brought orphans and others to Israel; his son's reluctance to believe his stories; and traveling to Iași with him, which revived traumatic memories.

Yeshayahu Lichtenstein, born in Ciechanów, Poland in May 1928, describes his religiously traditional family; being one of six children; the German arriving in his town in September 1939; a night curfew being imposed and a Jewish council being established to supply lists of people for labor and other lists of names for expulsion; being made to wear a yellow patch in 1941; the schools being closed and only being able to complete the fourth grade; his Bar Mitzvah; the roundup of all the Jews in town late at night and being taken by trucks to Birkenau, where he, his father, and his brother were separated from his mother and sister; the death of his sister and mother; doing hard labor in Birkenau and being taken to Auschwitz after two weeks; being favored by his Blockälteste and getting better food; working as an electrician assistant on the electric fences in the Romani camp and being treated relatively well; being trained by German civilians as an electrician outside the camp; working as a private servant for the SS supervisor of electricians for about a year; being in one of two groups sent on a two-week death march from Auschwitz to Mauthausen; spending three weeks in Mauthausen; being taken to camp Melk for three months, where prisoners worked in three shifts to build an underground city; being taken to Ebensee to build cement walls against air raids in an underground city; being liberated by the American Army in May 1945; representatives from different countries coming to register people; soldiers from the Jewish Brigade taking him with a group to an orphanage near Milan, Italy; being taken with a group to Cervino, Italy, where he stayed for five months to be schooled and trained; being taken with over 900 other youths by boat to Israel; going to Haifa and then Atlit; going to Kibbutz Hanita for two years with a Youth Aliyah group of about 40 boys and girls; going to Tel Aviv and working in construction; and getting married when he was 26 and raising a family of five children.

Nava Shan, born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now in Czech Republic), discusses being one of four daughters; her assimilated family (she did not know she was Jewish until implementation of Hitler's anti-Jewish laws); working as an actress from childhood; German invasion; working to support her family; her non-Jewish fiancé leaving her due to anti-Jewish laws; joining a Zionist organization and studying Hebrew despite her parents' disapproval; deportation to Theresienstadt; living in a Hechalutz home; acting in a theater directed by Gustav Schorsch (her mother watched her performances); directing children's plays; attending cabarets directed by Kurt Gerron; sham improvements for a Red Cross visit; her sister finding a mattress for her mother; deportation of her parents and sister; liberation by Soviet troops; six months quarantine; returning to Prague; reunion with her youngest sister (another sister also survived); performing again; and immigration to Israel in 1948. (She shows photographs and discusses the publication of her autobiography in Israel.)

Avraham Tomashov, born in 1916 in Dolný Kubín, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (presently Slovakia), discusses being the third of six children; his family's move to Trstená; attending a Jewish school; his family's move to Pestújhely in 1923; his mother's long-term hospitalization; living with relatives; his father's death; one brother's immigration to Palestine in 1933; moving to Bratislava; participating in Mizrahi; working in Ostrava; joining a Mizrahi kibbutz; moving to Nováky; he and his brother boarding a ship for Palestine; being returned to Slovakia; working in Piešt̕any, then Rybany; anti-Jewish restrictions; draft into a slave labor battalion in March 1941; posting to Humenné; visiting his mother once; obtaining false papers from his sister in Žilina; being transferred to Svätý Jur; learning two brothers had been deported; escaping to Bratislava; obtaining false papers from clandestine Zionist groups; traveling illegally to Budapest; working as a non-Jew; German invasion; arrest, interrogation, and beating; escape; hiding with a friend; escaping to Romania with assistance from partisans; the Arad Jewish community hosting them; capture; forced labor in Tîrgu Jiu; release; transfer to Bucharest; assistance from the Joint; working for the Slovak ambassador in Bucharest; bringing aid from the Joint to Cluj and Bratislava; obtaining Red Cross papers; traveling to Uzhhorod; brief incarceration by the Soviets; traveling to Bucharest, then Prague; reunion with his sister, brother-in-law, and brother; helping organize immigration to Palestine for Beriḥah and in Karlovy Vary and Prague; marriage; immigration to Israel in 1948; and the births of two children. (He shows photographs and documents.)

Judith (Yehudit) Koenigsberg, born in 1929 in Nitra, Czechoslovakia, discusses being the oldest of two sisters; her childhood in Nové Zámky; attending a Jewish school; participating in Hashomer Hatzair; Hungarian occupation in 1938; attending a Catholic high school due to the Jewish quota in public schools; learning their relatives in Nitra were being deported; her father bringing his mother and cousins from Nitra to their home; his draft for one month of forced labor in 1943; German invasion in March 1944; anti-Jewish restrictions; abuse from Arrow Cross members; hiding their valuables with a non-Jewish worker and her teacher (both returned them after the war); her father's draft into a Hungarian slave labor battalion; an uncle having her, her mother, sister, grandmother, and cousins smuggled to Nitra; her father's return; hiding during round-ups by Hlinka guard, then in a village with a non-Jewish woman; discovery by Germans; deportation to Sered, then Bergen-Belsen; cruel Polish Kapos; her mother glimpsing her father once; her mother and sister having typhus; becoming sick; liberation by British troops; hospitalization; transfer to the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp; repatriation to Nitra via Prague and Bratislava; reunion with surviving relatives; learning her father had not survived; moving by herself in September 1945 to a Makabi ha-tsaʻir training farm in Bratislava, preparing to immigrate to Palestine; being taken with her group in April 1946 to Vienna, Enns, then Ainring displaced persons camp; being sent back to Nitra when she became very ill; rejoining her group in Belgium; boarding an illegal ship to Palestine in Sète in April 1947; interdiction by the British; incarceration on Cyprus; marriage; her son's birth; arrival in Israel in January 1949; and her mother and sister immigrating to Israel. (Ms. K. shows childhood photographs.)

Sara Karp, born in Bedzin, Poland in 1923, describes being the oldest of six children; her father having a shoe store and a bakery; attending school until she was 15, when she began an apprenticeship as a seamstress; antisemitism before the war; German Jewish refugees arriving in 1939; the German invasion and the burning of the synagogue; Poles luting Jewish homes; her family escaping and returning to find her father’s store had been burned; her father’s death; her family surviving by gradually selling their belongings; her oldest brother being sent to Buchenwald in 1940; the Judenrat sending her to a clothing factory near Auschwitz; Zionist youth activities before and during the war; her family being separated in 1941 and bribing Germans to let her young brother remain with her; the Jewish police taking their house to force her oldest brother out of hiding, but relatives bribing the police; fear, friends, relatives, and the resistance movement; her mother changing their last name to her maiden name, Zemer; going to the ghetto in 1942; the living quarters, hardship, work, hunger, and food stamps from the Judenrat; hearing about the liquidation and hiding in a bunker but the Germans discovering them; being taken to Birkenau; the train ride there; selections; her group of four friends who protected her when she was sick; her work in the crematoria sorting clothing and an explosion that took place at the end of 1944; the hanging of a woman who was involved with the explosion; hearing of an underground movement in Auschwitz; being sent on a death march to Ravensbrück and then Malchow; working in a weapons factory until it was bombed; the Red Cross coming to the camp and taking 300 Polish nationals to Sweden; living in a school building in Malmö, where they were taken care of and fed; being taken two weeks later to Doverstock; being taken by the Israeli Hechalutz to the village of Jungsbrav; working in a chocolate factory; her work at camp Malchow filling bullets and explosives; receiving letters from France from surviving relatives; deciding to go to Israel and going to Kibbutz Dror in Sweden in preparation for Aliyah; the British Army stopping the boat to Israel and spending a year in Cyprus, where she met her husband; and going to Israel in April 1948.

Franz Fuchs, born in Vienna, Austria in 1923, describes being the younger of two sons born to a physician and a housewife; his secular family; attending school; his older brother, Fritz, escaping to France and then to Switzerland during the war; not feeling affected by Kristallnacht; restrictions on Jews being put into place; joining the Hachshara run by Young Maccabi in Germany and being assured they would get certificates to immigrate legally to Israel; their proximity to the Hitler Youth School of Gliding; immigrating to Palestine via Trieste, Italy in July 1939; joining the British Army in 1942 and being part of the transportation corps; volunteering for the British commando; operations in Yugoslavia and Albania; being posted in Egypt; his marriage and life in Palestine; and the fate of his parents.

Shoshana Hartman, born in Hajduböszörmény, Hungary in 1935, describes being the youngest of five daughters; antisemitism; finishing fifth grade in a one-room Jewish school; her religious and liberal family; her maternal grandparents immigrating to Palestine and sending them papers so they could join them in Palestine, but the certificates were intercepted by Kastner and given to others; entering the ghetto around the time of Shavuot in 1944; being transferred to Debrecen, Hungary to a brick factory; being sent to Strasov (Strasshof); working in the fields in Józefów, Poland; being transferred to a weapons factory (formerly a glass factory) in Attnang, Austria; contracting a contagious children’s disease and being sent to another city, Gemünd; being transferred to Theresienstadt in March 1945; her first encounter with inmates who had been in Auschwitz; liberation and reuniting with her entire nuclear family in Budapest, Hungary; life under the Russians and her education; her family immigrating to Israel; detentions by the British; and her life in Israel.

Shalom Kremarski, born in Lodz, Poland in 1925, describes being one of four children; his father passing away before the war began; anti-Jewish edicts and attacks against Jews; life in the Lódz Ghetto; working in Rumkowski’s workshops; the murder of his mother and his brother; life in the Marysin orphanage; the evacuation of the orphanage and staying behind to continue working his old job; being sent to Birkenau; having his arm tattooed; being transferred to Auschwitz; being taught to build and building barracks and factories; attempting to escape from Auschwitz, but being captured and taken to Sachsenhausen, where he took care of horses; being taken on a death march to Mauthausen; returning to Sachsenhausen; being sent to Lieberose (a subcamp of Sachsenhausen); being taken on a death march to Gunskirchen, where the prisoners were forced to lie in the mud and snow for three months; being liberated; being taken to an empty camp in Wels, Austria; members of the Jewish Brigade convincing the survivors to immigrate to Israel; being moved to Bologna, Italy, where they stayed for a year; preparing for the voyage to Israel and her group going to Israel in 1946; being stopped by the British; and going to Kibbutz Poriya and then Kibbutz Alonim.

Leah Kaufman, born circa 1932 in Gertsa, Romania (presently Hertsa, Ukraine), discusses being the youngest of seven children; attending private Hebrew school; her mother's role as a midwife and healer; antisemitic violence; joyful holiday and Sabbath observances; Soviet occupation; Romanian takeover; fleeing with her family after being warned they would be killed; a reprieve from execution when a Romanian soldier recognized her mother as the woman who had delivered him; returning home; a death march to Edineț in fall 1941; continuing to Ataki; her father's murder and disappearance of her brothers; staying overnight in Mohyliv-Podilʹsʹkyĭ, then transfer to Shargorod; one sister's death; transfer with her mother and twin sisters to the Kopaygorod ghetto; smuggling food for her family; her sisters' and mother's deaths; escaping to seek her aunt in Mogilev; a non-Jewish woman feeding and clothing her; continuing her journey; being mauled by dogs; women rescuing and caring for her; finding her aunt in the Mogilev ghetto; living in an orphanage; escaping; living as a non-Jew with a local woman; Jews denouncing her; deportation to Peciora; observing cannibalism; escaping; staying with many peasants en route to Mogilev; staying with the local woman with whom she had previously lived; renouncing her Judaism; moving to a Bucharest orphanage in 1944; apprenticeship as a dressmaker; her brother finding her; moving to an orphanage for children going to Palestine; missing that opportunity due to illness; her other brother finding her; attributing her survival to many simple peasants who helped her; plastic surgery in Canada to repair facial scars from the dog attack; her education there; and abusive treatment by a German psychiatrist when applying for reparations in 1968.

Samuel Rozin, born in Kovno, Poland (Kaunas, Lithuania) in 1926, describes being the youngest of five children; his family being traditional, but not very religious; his father, who owned a merchandise transport business and had earned a medal for heroism as a volunteer firefighter; Jabotinsky’s speech in 1938 in Kovno; studying art; the Russian occupation and the change in atmosphere; learning to speak Russian; the war starting and his family going to Vilna (Vilnius, Lithuania) and returning to Kovno; being transported to the Slobodka ghetto in 1941; his father dying of a heart attack; family members being killed in the Ninth Fort; remaining in the Kovno ghetto until the spring of 1944; getting a rifle and joining the partisans; being trained by Haim Yelin, in Michl Pasternak’s basement; the partisans in the forest; escaping in small groups to join the partisans in the forest; his escape failing and returning to the ghetto; leaving the ghetto again and finding Belarussian partisans in the Rudnicki Forest; his first battle; life with the partisans; sabotaging trains by placing bombs on the tracks; the partisans being surrounded by the Germans and being wounded and surviving by hiding near a river; recovering at the partisan base; being hospitalized for a month and a half; going to Vilna; and wanting to study art but being conscripted into the Russian Army for five years in the engineering corps.

Yehoshua Glick, born in Debrecen, Hungary in 1924, describes being one of three children in a traditional Jewish family; attending religious school and a Jewish high school; how several members of his family were Zionists; Hitler coming to power; his father losing his job; how his brother and sister wanted to immigrate to Palestine, but could not obtain certificates; his whole family moving to Ujpest (now IV. Kerület, Budapest, Hungary); not being allowed to attend school; working in a knitting factory; being called up for forced labor in 1943; his work building roads, unloading trains, and working on fortifications near the Romanian border; the Germans arriving in March 1944; receiving an order to go to Czente (possibly Szente, Hungary) then to Zaita to clear bombing debris; being taken to the front in Galicia to repair roads; being injured in an attack by the Russians; being taken to the Kolomyya prison camp, and later to Volsk, Russia; being sent to another prison camp with Germans, Italians, and Jews; being taken by train to Donbas (Donets); contracting malaria; returning to Hungary, where he was hospitalized; going to Cyprus in 1949, joining his wife; and immigrating to Israel.

Arie Taboh, born in 1925 in Thessalonike, Greece, discusses being the fourth of six children; having a large and close extended family; cordial relations with non-Jews until the rise of a fascist party in the 1930s; his mother's death in 1937; working in a carpentry factory to help support his family; his older brother's marriage and the births of his two children; military draft of two brothers; German invasion; a round-up of Jewish men over 18 in July 1942 for forced labor, including two brothers; a non-Jew taking one of them to his workshop to protect him; ghettoization; starvation; chief rabbi Zvi Koretz giving public assurances about deportations; deportation with his family to Auschwitz-Birkenau in March 1943; his friend Heinz K. translating from German to Greek; separation with his father and brothers from his sisters; slave labor with his brother digging ditches; his father doing odd jobs in the barrack; his brother saving him when he became aggressive toward a guard; assignment with his brother to a privileged factory job; receiving extra food from the non-Jewish workers; smuggling food to his father and friends; learning of the gas chambers and crematoria; his father's selection for gassing; and public hangings; receiving greetings from his sister through other Greek prisoners and learning she had been gassed; his brother's transfer; meeting his sister-in-law; learning of the Sonderkommando uprising; a death march to Gross-Rosen in January 1945; carrying a Greek friend who could no longer walk; train transfer days later to Oranienburg/Sachsenhausen, then to Mauthausen about a month later; registering himself and a friend as non-Jewish political prisoners; harassment by a homosexual Kapo; a severe beating; reunion with his brother; slave labor felling trees; losing his will to live; being hidden by Spanish Catholics; liberation by United States troops; observing revenge killings of Germans; assistance from the Red Cross; trying to follow his brother to Greece; traveling to Salzburg with the Jewish Brigade; living in Modena for several months; assistance from the Joint and UNRRA; illegal immigration by ship to Palestine; interdiction by the British; incarceration on Cyprus for five months; joining his aunt and uncle in Palestine; joining the Haganah; being injured dismantling mines; military service in the 1948 war; marriage; establishing a carpentry business; the births of his two daughters; how fear defined his life in camps; prisoner hierarchies; continuing nightmares and painful memories; sharing his experiences with his family; and visits to his brother in the United States. (He shows a photograph.)

Itamar Orian, born in Warsaw, Poland in 1936, describes living with his educated middle-class parents; experiencing the bombing and plundering of Warsaw by German soldiers at the beginning of the war; his father being in the Polish army and being taken prisoner; living in the ghetto and his mother locking him in his room when she went out; seeing dead bodies on the street, Germans on trucks shooting people in the street, and Germans taking people away on trucks; going to live with his grandfather for a time; living in 1942 with his mother, who worked in a shop during the day while he hid in a bunker; his father’s escape in 1942; escaping the ghetto with his mother and meeting up with his father in Warsaw; his family obtaining false IDs and living in a small apartment; how when the Germans required all the men to work his family hid in a small town nearby until they were liberated by the Russians; his uncle being instrumental in obtaining a position for Itamar’s father in Wroclaw, Poland; his father’s death in 1949; his uncle helping Itamar and his mother return to Warsaw in 1952; studying engineering in Warsaw; immigrating to Israel with his mother in 1956; his Christian friend who saved many Jews; and his views on the sources of antisemitism in Poland.

Moshe Givone, born in 1925 in Borsa Maramures, Romania, describes growing up in a Jewish shtetl in the Carpathian region of Transylvania, Romania; being the ninth of ten children in a very orthodox family, which supported themselves by trading, storekeeping, and farming; the Hungarians entering Borsa Maramures and expelling the Romanians in October 1940; the Hungarians being more antisemitic than the Romanians and taking the Jews’ money and belongings; the beatings and forced labor they endured for almost four years; not attending school and hiding at home; the Germans arriving in March 1944; all the Jews being ordered into the synagogue and crowded together for several days then marched to the ghetto of another town; being shaved and marched to cattle cars for the extremely difficult multiple day journey to Auschwitz; walking through the gates of Auschwitz; the selection, when his sisters, parents, and grandmother were sent to one side and he never saw them again; the survival of some of his older siblings, who had emigrated to Palestine long before the war; observing severe beatings and frequent killings; being sent with about 150 other young men to labor camps, including Sosnowitz (Sosnowiec), Lagischa, and Jaworzno; the deaths of many inmates and some escapes; the Jewish Kapos; being badly injured by a falling coal mine cart; being treated in a hospital, which was bombed in early 1945; being liberated by a Russian soldier; immigrating to Palestine, where life was difficult for five years, until he joined the Israeli Army; his older brother, who had been imprisoned in Russia, also immigrating to Palestine; being conflicted about telling even his wife about his experiences; his feelings about Germans; and his wish for no more wars.

Moshe Greenberg, born in 1928 in Końskie, Poland, discusses being the fifth of six sons; his father who was Hasidic; having a comfortable life; German invasion; attending cheder; his father's arrest, then release weeks later; anti-Jewish restrictions, including wearing the star; his father hiding his store merchandise with a non-Jewish friend; his bar mitzvah in 1941; forced labor; the Polish supervisor who knew his father safeguarding him; former Polish customers continuing to buy merchandise from his father, which provided them with food; losing his belief in God; hiding with his family during round-ups in November 1942; deportation to Skarżysko-Kamienna with his father and three brothers in November 1943 (his mother and youngest brother remained and did not survive); slave labor in a HASAG factory; his father purchasing milk for him and his brothers when they were ill; a Polish civilian worker giving him soap; groups of prisoners praying; brief transfer to Częstochowa, then to Buchenwald; transfer with his brothers to Schlieben; an easy assignment because he was so young; running from an explosion that injured him; treatment in the local hospital; his transfer to the Buchenwald hospital (his brothers faked injuries to join him); sympathetic treatment by a Czech prisoner-doctor; visiting his father; transfer by himself to Dora; a privileged assignment as a messenger due to his German speaking ability; reassignment digging trenches when it was learned he was Jewish; public hanging of an escapee; transfer to Bergen-Belsen; corpses strewn throughout the camp; liberation by British troops; registering to go to Sweden, despite his desire for revenge; traveling to Malmö via Lübeck; kindness from the Swedes; joining a group training for immigration to Palestine; learning in Stockholm that his father and brothers had survived; illegal immigration in winter 1947; interdiction by the British and incarceration in Cyprus; assistance from the Joint; arrival in Israel; living on kibbutzim; marriage in 1949; his father's and brothers' lives in the United States and Israel; visiting Końskie with his son; a trip to Sweden in 1979 at the invitation of the Swedish government; and nightmares resulting from his experiences.

Dov Davidovich, born in 1928 in Kaunus, Lithuania, discusses being the youngest of three children; attending Hebrew school; summer vacations in Kulautuva; his father's death in 1938; Soviet occupation; nationalization of his family's property; summering with an uncle in Jieznas; German invasion; ghettoization; working as a carpenter; his family surviving the large Aktion of October 1941; his sister smuggling food for them; his mother's deportation; witnessing Germans and Lithuanians killing infants during another Aktion; his brother serving in the Jewish police; hiding with his siblings in a bunker during the ghetto's liquidation; discovery; deportation to Stutthof; separation from his sister; transfer with his brother to Dachau; slave labor doing construction; transfer to Landshut, then back to Dachau; train transport and a death march during which his brother was killed; liberation by United States troops in Mittenwald on May 1, 1945; traveling with the Jewish Brigade to Treviso; living in Youth Aliyah camps outside Florence, then Genoa; illegal immigration by ship to Palestine; reunion with a cousin located by the Red Cross; military enlistment in 1948; serving five years; marriage; the births of three children; his brother's help in camps; memory gaps, including his time in Feldafing after liberation; learning his sister had survived; her immigration to Israel in 1972; not sharing his story with his children; and a recent trip to Lithuania with them.

Abraham Hauptman, born in 1925 in eastern Galicia, in the oil-rich Boryslav region; describes growing up in Skhodnitsa (Skhidnytsia, Ukraine); how Ukrainian antisemitism expressed itself daily all through his elementary school days; his older brother, who was mechanically gifted; his father, who was an equestrian-trained driver and had served as such in World War I; his dislike for the heder but loving Gordonia, the Zionist movement; how there were about 500 Jews in Skhodnitsa; the Russians entering the village on September 16, 1939; survivors from the West bringing stories of pogroms, ghettos, and burnings; how there were pogroms in Skhodnitsa and the Ukrainians assisted; his family returning to Boryslav; the Aktions in Boryslav and the division of the ghetto near the Boryslav district of Potok Górny (Upper Potok); escaping certain death many times; the Judenrat; the establishment of the work camp in Boryslav after the fifth Aktion and how Jews were chosen by the German Keller to work there; Jews being able to get on the “Keller List” in exchange for money; working in the camp without being on Keller’s list; being transferred to work in Grazia, where there were gas cisterns; seeing a flier calling for Jews to revolt (it was after the Warsaw ghetto uprising) and it moved the Jews to go underground in the Opaka Forest; the Drogobych ghetto and the organization and location of the underground first in Smilno and then in Opaka; liberation and the pogrom done by the Banderovtzim; attending school after the war; being spared by the principal from going to the Russian front; his father, whom he believed had been killed, showing up eight months after liberation; his father’s service in the Russian Army along the Russia/China border; immigrating to Israel in 1960; and his praise for his mother.

Shoshana Koffler (née Horovitz), born in December 1934 in Tovste, Ukraine, describes her family; being called Rusale; her two older brothers; living with her extended family, including her grandmother and an uncle; her father, who was a grain merchant; experiencing some instances of antisemitism before the war; hearing rumors of the war starting and refugees from Hungary arriving; her father building a bunker in which their family hid; the German invasion in October 1942; she and her family being discovered; escaping with her brother and uncle; returning and finding the body of her grandmother and learning that her brother and parents were sent to Belżyce, Ukraine; living with her uncle and begging for food; escaping into the fields during the second and third Aktions; working with her uncle in the fields for peasants until they heard rumors of more shootings and escaped into the forest; hiding with her uncle for three months during the winter in an abandoned flour mill; being discovered and returning to town, which was under the command of a man named Vati, who protected Jews; living in a labor camp in Tovste with her uncle; cleaning the barracks while her uncle worked in the fields; being liberated by the Russians; the German retreat and walking with others for three months to the Russian border; going to Poland and then Germany; being taken care of by the UNRRA; going to live with relatives in Haifa, Israel in 1949; living with her uncle and brother in Ramleh; getting married; and having two children, to whom she never told details about her experiences.

Chaim Hermelin, born on January 1, 1927 in Radzivilov, Volhynia, Ukraine, describes his father, who owned a printing press and his mother, who was a housewife; having two older siblings; his sister’s death and his brother’s survival; having a Tarbut school education; his family’s Zionist and religious beliefs; his family moving in 1939 to Brody, Ukraine; the Russian invasion in 1941; witnessing deportations to Siberia; the German take over and the almot immediate roundups and killings; his father being shot; the fate of his grandfather; the “Aktions” and witnessing the mass murder of Jews; being forced to move to a ghetto, where he helped organize the underground; the Judenrat and the Jewish police; his job in the ghetto; running away to Piaksi then Komarivka and trying to find work on farms; joining the partisans and transferring to the Red Army as a trainee; being an aide to a major; the major sending him to study mechanics; his job maintaining the “fleet” of wagons and horses and later the vehicles of the army; his brother being taken to the Russian Army; reuniting with his brother over 14 years later in Israel; his parents and sister not surviving; life on the Gordonia kibbutz in Bytom, Poland; his work in the organization of illegal Jewish immigration to Palestine; living in Barletta, Italy; his efforts to get to Palestine and being stopped by the British; spending time in a detention camp in Cyprus, from which he escaped after a period of three months and ten days; how when he returned home, he stopped being observant, but returned to his faith after one of his sons was killed during the Yom Kippur War; and his thoughts on the future of Israel.

Aba Gefen, born in 1920 in Simna (Simnas), Lithuania, discussed the small village of Simna; his traditional family life in a mostly Jewish community; his father’s fabric store and many non-Jewish clients from the surrounding villages; his three younger brothers Binyamin, Yosef, and Yehuda; his early education at the local elementary Jewish school; later studying in the Jewish gymnasium in Marijampolė, Lithuania; his university studies in Kaunas, Lithuania, where he lived for a year until the Soviets arrived; speaking Yiddish, Russian, and Lithuanian at home and learning Hebrew at school; his membership in a Zionist youth organization, Betar, the lack of antisemitic incidents before the war; how Lithuania was known as “Little America,” in stark contrast to what he heard was happening in Poland; helping refugees as a university student in Kaunas until the NKVD ordered him to desist; life under Soviet rule during which there were many deportations to Siberia; the German invasion and subsequent roundups and killings of Jews; Lithuanian collaboration in the persecution of Jews; being taken prisoner along with several thousand Jews by Lithuanians and being marched to the 7th Fort to be killed; the actions of Lithuanian “Shaulists” or “shooters” (a paramilitary organization officially known as the Union of Lithuanian Riflemen or Lietuvos Šaulių Sąjunga; also referred to as šauliai); being one of seven spared from the killing by his association with a former coronel in the Independent Lithuanian Army; his return to Simna, where Shaulists were in charge of deportations under German authorities; the deportation and deaths of his father and second brother; avoiding deportation; the actions of Lithuanian collaborators, including Gedraitis, who was the principal of the Lithuanian school where his brother studied; fleeing with his brother after the third round of deportations; living in hiding on various gentiles’ farms; the execution of the remaining Jews of Simna in a nearby forest; recording the events of his wartime experiences, including the names of antisemites and Lithuanian collaborators in a journal; being identified as a dangerous person among Lithuanians who thought he would use the journal to extract vengeance on them after the war; his position as a contact for refugees who came to Simna from Kaunas; arranging safe passage and hiding for 10 Jews who managed to escape; the names of individuals who hid him and his brother despite the great risk, including the family of Vytautas Šiupienis (see USHMM interview RG-50.473*0130); his liberation and decision to head to the front with this brother; witnessing the last battle between Soviet and German forces; working with Soviet forces in a counterespionage unit; providing the Soviets with the names of Lithuanians who collaborated with the Nazis, thus starting his plans for revenge; being assigned by the NKVD to the local police force; being sent to Alytus, Lithuania, where he was appointed as principal Investigator of the district; bringing collaborators to Alytus, among them the “Shaulists” and those who were with the Independent Lithuanian Army; recognizing the former principal Gedraitis who tried to flee but was shot to death before he could be interrogated; being accused by his superiors of killing Gedraitis himself and having to flee in August 1945; being considered a war criminal among Lithuanian nationalists because of his participation in a battle that killed 14 collaborators; his continued mission of revenge after the war despite admonishments from survivors in small villages in Lithuania; his opinion of many Lithuanians who maintain that they had nothing to do with the persecution of Jews during the war; his registration of his rescuers as “Righteous Gentiles” at Yad Vashem; and the importance of educating teachers in the lessons of the Holocaust.

Richard Vanger (né Ryszard Wanger) discusses his childhood in Warsaw, Poland; pre-war antisemitism and violence; Polish-Jewish relations after the German occupation; fleeing east with his family toward the Soviet-occupied part of Poland; crossing the border between the two zones; conditions his family experienced while fleeing; settling in the village of Stolowicz (Stalovichy, Belarus); the German invasion in 1941; trying to flee farther eastward; being overrun by the German forces in Minsk, Belarus; returning to Stolowicz; relocating into the ghetto; living conditions in the ghetto; his father’s friendly relations with Poles in the town; his parents’ awareness of what was happening to Jews and their plans for him; Polish-Jewish relations during the war; hiding with a Polish woman named Mrs. Tereza and her daughter Jelizaveta Dolenga-Vzhzosek (USHMM interview RG-50.674*0009); being hidden by several different Polish families in surrounding towns and villages; his survival methods including dressing like a girl and acting like a Catholic Pole; the several times he came close to being discovered; the end of the war; reuniting with his aunt who returned from Siberia; living in a Jewish orphanage; immigrating to England; immigrating to Israel in 1970; reuniting with Jelizaveta in 1990; his ongoing relationship with Jelizaveta’s family; differences between his and Jelizaveta’s testimony; his views on antisemitism; and messages he has for contemporary teachers in Poland and Belarus who teach about the Holocaust.

Learn about over 1,000 camps and ghettos in Volume I and II of this encyclopedia, which are available as a free PDF download. This reference provides text, photographs, charts, maps, and extensive indexes.