3 Learning ObjectivesUnderstand the factors that influence rail transit capacityUnderstand the differences between design (practical) capacity and maximum (theoretical capacity), and why the TCQSM focuses on design capacityBe familiar with the process used by the generalized rail capacity methodLearn about situations when the generalized method needs to be modified, or other analysis tools used

4 Changes in 3rd EditionSignificant new material on the respective roles of simulation and sketch planning tools in evaluating rail capacityDiscussion of the role of the vehicle–platform interface in influencing capacityUpdated material on on-street rail preferential treatmentsCapacity equations adjusted for consistent presentation with other parts of the manualEquations produce the same results as beforeCompanion spreadsheets updated

6 Capacity DefinedCapacity concepts originally presented in the TCQSM Overview presentationLine capacity definitionThe maximum number of trains that can pass a given location during a given time period at a specified level of reliabilityPerson capacity definitionThe maximum number of people that can be carried past a given location during a given time period under specified operating conditions; without unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction; and with reasonable certaintyUnless otherwise specified, whenever the TCQSM uses the term “capacity”, a design (practical, achievable) capacity is meantMaximum capacity is only achievable when service is 100% reliable, passenger demand never varies, passengers fill every available space on every trip, etc.Scheduling for maximum, instead of design, capacity results in unstable, unreliable serviceWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

7 Line Capacity Factors Dwell time Signal system Operating marginMinimum headwayJunctionsTurnbacksPower supplyWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.New York City

8 Dwell TimeHow long a train is stopped to serve passengers at a stationStation dwell times are the major component of headways at short frequenciesContributing factorsPassenger volumesDistribution of passengers along platformNumber and width of train doorsVehicle heightWheelchair lift/ramp deploymentOn-board crowdingPassenger behavior (stepping aside, holding doors)On-board fare collection, if usedUnused time with doors openWaiting-to-depart time with doors closedWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.San Diego Trolley

9 Illustrative Impact of Dwell Time on Line CapacityWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Base condition assumes 30-second dwell times, 20-second operating margin, 50-second minimum train separation

10 Train Signaling SystemDetermines the minimum safe spacing between trainsThe more accurately a train’s position is known, the closer together that trains can operate, resulting in higher train throughputOther possible elements:Positive train control (commuter rail)Automatic train operationAutomatic train supervisionWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Denver LRT

11 Signal System Types Fixed block Cab signaling Moving blockProvides a coarse indication of train locationThree-aspect system (red/yellow/green) requires one empty block between trainsCab signalingCab signaling sets authorized, safe train speedsAuthorized speeds displayed in driver’s cabProblems with signal visibility reduced or eliminatedA typical selection of reference speeds would be 50, 40, 30, 20, and 0 mphMoving blockAlso called transmission-based or communication-based signaling systemsRequires continuous or frequent two-way communication with each train, and precise knowledge of a train’s location, speed, and length, and of fixed details of the line—curves, grades, interlockings, and stationsComputer calculates the next stopping point of each train and commands the train to brake, accelerate, or coast accordinglyWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

13 Operating Margin An allowance for longer-than-average dwellsIf a train dwells for more than (average dwell time) + (operating margin) and the following train is scheduled for the minimum headway, the following train will be delayedIf the full line capacity is being used, each succeeding train will be delayed (a cascade of delays) until headways increase to the point that the delay is absorbedWhen possible, TCQSM recommends:Existing operations: 2 standard deviations of dwell time (only 2.5% of dwells will potentially cause delays)Planning future operations: 15–25 secondsWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

14 Illustrative Impact of Operating Margin on Line CapacityWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Base condition assumes 45-second average dwell time, 0-second operating margin, 50-second minimum train separation

15 Minimum Non-interference HeadwaySum of:Critical station average dwell timeOperating marginSafe train separation time (signaling system)Dividing the non-interference headway into 3,600 seconds per hour and rounding down gives the line capacityAssumes no sharp curves or steep grades entering the critical station that would reduce capacity (see previous signaling slide graph)Also need to check junctions, turnbacks, and power supply restrictions that can also constrain capacity (discussed next)We will discuss all three types in this sequence.

16 Distance–Time Plot of Two Successive TrainsWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Source: TCRP Report 13: Rail Transit Capacity Braking and acceleration curves omitted for clarity

17 Junctions Flat junctions: tracks cross at gradeTrain movements through conflict points must be controlledCrossing train movement must be coordinated with train movements in both directions of the line being joinedMay support 2-minute headways, but train interference resultsGrade-separate junctions at 150- to 180-second headways if possible (flying junctions)We will discuss all three types in this sequence.Flat junction, Pittsburgh

18 Line MergesEven with flying junctions, line merges can create operational problems:Train on one line arrives late to fill its slot, delaying the next train on the other lineMay not be able to sustain as much capacity as a similar line that has no line mergesWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Flying junction, ParisBlue Line, Washington, DC

19 TurnbacksTypically handle two trains at once in high-capacity situationsTime in turnback cannot exceed twice the line headway without creating a capacity constraintWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

20 Turnback Operation Time in turnback includes: Passenger service timeTime for driver to switch ends of the train and perform inspections (can occur during passenger service time)Time to clear crossover in advance of turnbackOperating marginWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Hatfield Government Center Station, Hillsboro, Oregon

21 Alternative Turnback ConfigurationsSubstitute a new driver, positioned at the opposite end of the platformCrossovers in front of and beyond terminal stationMultiple drop-off platformsTurning loopWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

22 Propulsion Power ConstraintsElectrical (traction) power systemsNumber of trains in a section of track limited by the capability of the substation serving that section to supply powerEven though the train control system may support short headways continuously, the power supply may only support them temporarily (i.e., until the maximum number of trains the substation is capable of powering has been reached)Locomotive-hauled commuter railNumber of cars per train limited by locomotive horsepower and other constraintsMaximum 8 cars per train typical, newer models of high-horsepower trains can pull 10–12 carsWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Pittsburgh

23 Typical Line Capacity ValuesLight rail, designed for economy, rather than maximum capacity: 20 trains per hourFixed-block (red-yellow-green): 30 trains per hourCab control, 8-car trains: trains/hourMoving block, 8-car trains: trains/hourAll values assume that the critical dwell time is under 60 seconds and there are no line mergesWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

25 Peak Hour FactorPeak hour factor accounts for variations in passenger demand during an hour, reserving capacity so that surges in demand do not result in pass-ups or passenger loading standards being exceededTypical values (use local values when available):Heavy rail: 0.80Light rail: 0.75Commuter rail: 0.60We will discuss all three types in this sequence.Derived from TCRP Report 13: Rail Transit Capacity Vancouver, BC, Broadway Station inbound, 10/27/94

26 Loading DiversityPassengers do not arrive at an even rate throughout an hourPassengers may not be spread out evenly among all cars of train due to:Distribution of station entrance locations along lineLocations of connections at transfer stationsNot all offered capacity will be usedWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Toronto, Wellesley Station southbound, 1/11/95 The rear two cars are closest to the platform exit at a major transfer station. Source: TCRP Report 13: Rail Transit Capacity

27 Difference Between Maximum and Design CapacityMaximum (theoretical) capacityBased on the shortest time a following train can pass a signal location at the same speed as the preceding train, based on train control and signal system characteristics and critical station dwell timeMaximum person capacity also assumes that every car of every train can be fully loaded with passengersDesign (practical) capacityDesign capacity is less than maximum capacity, due to variations in train operator and equipment performance, the need for recovery time to preserve the operational reliability of the system, and the need to allow for passenger loading diversityCapacity decreases with higher line speeds, because of increasing safe stopping distancesWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

29 Generalized Method Applicable to most types of rail transitModifications to the generalized method (discussed later) forCommuter railAutomated guideway transitSeparate method for ropewaysWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

30 Step 1: Determine the Non-interference HeadwayDetermine the maximum load point (critical) stationDetermine the control system’s minimum train separationDetermine the average dwell time at the critical stationSelect an operating marginNon-inteference headway = Critical station average dwell time + Minimum train separation + Operating marginWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

31 Step 2: Determine the Minimum Headway Based on ROWThis step is skipped for grade-separated railRight-of-way (ROW) types considered:Single-track, two-way operation headwayTwo times (time for a train to traverse the section + operating margin + average station dwell time in section, if any)On-street operation headwayGreater of (twice the traffic signal cycle length) or (headway based on average dwell time at critical station)Station departures adjacent to grade crossingsMay need to increase dwell time to account for gate-lowering time, when the gates are manually activated to minimize delay to cross-street trafficMinimum headway is the highest of the applicable ROW headwaysWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

32 Step 3: Determine the Limiting Junction HeadwayThis step is skipped when there are no at-grade (flat) junctionsMajor factors influencing junction headways:Train control separationTrain lengthMaximum line speedSwitch angle (influences speed of trains switching to new track)Operating marginWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

33 Step 4: Check Power Supply LimitationsMay be a factor when more frequent headways are being considered for an existing rail lineQuality of service improvementsConstruction of a new branch that adds more service to an existing lineOriginal system may have been designed economically, with enough substations to meet short- and mid-term needs, but not enough to support the minimum headway allowed by the train control systemEach situation is uniqueWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

35 Step 6: Check Terminal Layover (Turnback) TimeLocations to check:Terminal stationsIntermediate turnback points, if some trains will be short-turned (turned back before the end of the line)Major factors:Distance from crossover to the stationPlatform lengthTerminal layover timeDwell timeTime for driver to change ends and perform necessary inspectionsFor a 2-berth station, if the time for train maneuvers and terminal layover time is more than twice the controlling headway, then:Consider operational or physical changes to improve turnback timeIf changes aren’t possible, then the turnback time becomes the headway constraintWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

39 Commuter Rail CapacityCommuter rail capacity determination is inexactMany commuter rail operators do not own the tracks they use; therefore the number of trains they can operate will depend on negotiations with the host railroadPerformance of diesel locomotives used by U.S. commuter operators varies considerablyThe number of platforms available at terminal stations may constrain capacityIn cases where lines are shared with other users (e.g., freight rail, intercity passenger rail) or where diesel locomotives are used, simulation may be the only way to determine capacityTCQSM does not provide commuter rail capacity equations, but instead discusses the factors that affect capacityWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

40 Commuter Rail: Consumers of Track CapacityTrains (not all use the same amount)As the number of trains increases—particularly when only a single track is available—the average speed of all trains decreasesTrain meets generate delay and increase the chances of additional meetsImpact of meets more severe when different classes of trains (e.g., passenger and freight) with diferent operating characteristics meetTrack patrolsTrack maintenanceTrack deterioration requiring temporary speed restrictionsPassenger station stopsIndustrial switchingFreight yard interactionsTrain or train control system failuresIncidents (e.g., crossing accidents, deer, and trespassers)WeatherWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

41 Commuter Rail: Train Throughput FactorsMix of trains on the lineFreight trains require longer signal blocks due to train length, resulting in longer times to traverse a block and thus lower capacityDirectionality of trains on the lineUnidirectional serviceService in both directionsNumber of tracksNumber of available platforms at terminal stationsOperating practicesAll-stopZoned expressTrain storage capacity after terminal stationsDwell time generally not as critical as for other types of rail transitGenerally unidirectional passenger flowsLongest dwells typically occur at stations with multiple platformsWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

42 Commuter Rail: Ways to Improve CapacityDouble trackingReduces the number of train meetsNeeds to be at least 3 signal blocks in length (4.5–7.5 miles) to be effectiveCan be very expensive when bridges, tunnels, or additional right-of-way is requiredAdding and lengthening sidingsRelatively short lengths of double track where one train stops and waits for anotherReduces variable delay waiting for the other train to passProviding higher-speed siding entries and exitsTrains can enter and exit the mainline faster, reducing fixed delayTrain control system improvementsInfrastructure improvementsTrack upgrades may permit higher speeds, but may not add capacityJunctions, freight yards, switching operationsWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

43 Automated Guideway Transit (AGT) CapacityAll AGT systems are proprietaryLarge variations in technology, acceleration characteristics, vehicle sizesNon-transit AGT systems can have very different passenger demand and loading characteristics from public transitAirport shuttles: Few seats, passengers with luggage, loading diversity fluctuates with flight arrivals (very crowded to nearly empty)“Leisure” systems (amusement parks, casinos): All riders seated, passenger queues to board ensure that all seats are filled at peak times or even the entire service dayPossibility for off-line stationsAllows vehicles to overtake each other when not stoppingGeneralized method can be applied with suitable modifications to account for these differencesWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Metromover, Miami

44 Ropeway Capacity Vehicles are hauled by a rope (wire cable)Two main types:Reversible systemsAerial trams, funicularsOne or two vehicles shuttle back and forth between the terminal stationsCapacity a function of dwell time, line length, line speed, number of vehiclesContinuously circulating systemsGondolas, ski lifts, cable-propelled AGTFixed set of vehicles circulate around a loopCapacity a function of line speed, spacing between vehicles/carriersGenerally difficult to add capacity once a system has been installed, without major reconstructionWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.Portland Aerial Tram

45 Rail Transit Capacity Analysis ToolsSketch planning tools (e.g., TCQSM)Initial planning-level analysisGet an “in-the-ballpark” result that can be confirmed later with simulationRapidly reduce multiple alternatives to a small number of promising onesComparative analysis of multiple modesSingle-line networks or simple systems, without complex junctionsProjects with limited resources or rapid turnaround timesDynamic simulation modelsComplex networks, with multiple branch lines and junctionsMajor or complex terminalsMultiple types of stopping patternsNon-electric or shared-track commuter rail operationsInvestment-grade analysisRequires sufficient time and resources for detailed analysisWe will discuss all three types in this sequence.

46 More InformationTCRP Report 165: TCQSM—Chapter 8, Rail Transit CapacitySpreadsheets implementing the generalized method and for single-track, two-way operation provided on the accompanying CD-ROMTCRP Report 13: Rail Transit CapacityThe basis for many of the TCQSM’s methodsThe TCQSM is available as:Free individual printed copies and PDF downloads through the TCRP Dissemination ProgramFree PDF downloads directly from TCRP (Publications section) or simply do an Internet search for the report number (e.g., TCRP Report 165)Individual or multiple copy purchases from the TRB Bookstore