W.R. Mead, An Historical Geography of Scandinavia (1981); and Kalevi Rikkinen, A Geography of Finland, trans. from Finnish (1992), provide comprehensive surveys. A broad interpretive treatment, with a look at the social customs of Finland, is found in Philip Ward, Finnish Cities: Travels in Helsinki, Turku, Tampere, and Lapland (1987).

Ethnological studies include Aurélien Sauvageot, Les Anciens Finnois (1961); and William A. Wilson, Folklore and Nationalism in Modern Finland (1976). Social life and customs are explored in Aini Rajanen, Of Finnish Ways (1981); Caj Bremer and Antero Raevuori, The World of the Sauna (1986; originally published in Finnish, 1985); Antti Tuuri, The Face of Finland, ed. by Pauli Kojo, trans. from Finnish (1983); and Anneke Lipsanen, The Finnish Folk Year: A Perpetual Diary & Book of Days, Ways, and Customs (1987).

Finland’s economy is discussed in Fred Singleton, The Economy of Finland in the Twentieth Century (1986); Riitta Hjerppe, The Finnish Economy, 1860–1985: Growth and Structural Change (1989; originally published in Finnish, 1988); Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Reviews of National Science and Technology Policy: Finland (1987); Environmental High-Technology from Finland (1986), published by the Ministry of the Environment; Economic Survey (annual), published by the Ministry of Finance; and Finnish Industry, rev. ed. (1982), an overview of developments, published by the Bank of Finland.

Government and politics are analyzed in D.G. Kirby, Finland in the Twentieth Century (1979); Anthony F. Upton, Peter P. Rohoe, and A. Sparring, Communism in Scandinavia and Finland (also published as The Communist Parties of Scandinavia and Finland, 1973); Juhani Mylly and R. Michael Berry (eds.), Political Parties in Finland (1984); Jaakko Nousiainen, The Finnish Political System (1971; originally published in Finnish, 3rd ed., 1967); David Arter, Politics and Policy-Making in Finland (1987); and Risto Alapuro, State and Revolution in Finland (1988); Max Jakobson, Finland in the New Europe (1998); Jorma selovuori, Power and Bureaucracy in Finland, 1809–1998, trans. from Finnish (1999).

General works on Finnish history include John H. Wuorinen, A History of Finland (1965); Eino Jutikkala and Kauko Pirinen, A History of Finland, 4th rev. ed. (1984; originally published in Finnish, 1966); Eino Jutikkala, Atlas of Finnish History, 2nd rev. ed. (1959); Byron J. Nordstrom (ed.), Dictionary of Scandinavian History (1986); Fred Singleton, A Short History of Finland, 2nd ed. (19891998); and Matti Klinge, A Brief History of Finland, trans. from Finnish, 10th ed. (19941997).

More detailed discussions of events in the 19th and 20th centuries are available in Juhani Paasivirta, Finland and Europe: International Crises in the Period of Autonomy, 1808–1914, ed. and abridged by D.G. Kirby (1981; originally published in Finnish, 1978); L.A. Puntila, The Political History of Finland, 1809–1966 (1974; originally published in Finnish, 5th rev. and improved ed., 1971); Anthony F. Upton, The Finnish Revolution, 1917–1918 (1980), a comprehensive analysis, and Finland, 1939–1940 (1974); and Max Jakobson, Finland Survived: An Account of the Finnish-Soviet Winter War, 1939–1940, 2nd enlarged ed. (1984).

Foreign relations are the main topic of Tuomo Polvinen, Between East and West: Finland in International Politics, 1944–1947, ed. and trans. by D.G. Kirby and Peter Herring (1986; originally published in Finnish, 3 vol., 1979–81); Roy Allison, Finland’s Relations with the Soviet Union, 1944–1984 (1985); R. Michael Berry, American Foreign Policy and the Finnish Exception (1987); and Max Jakobson, Finland: Myth and Reality (1987). The Yearbook of Finnish Foreign Policy, published by the Finnish Institute of International Affairs, is another helpful source.