Uttar Pradeshthe most populous state of India. Lying in north-central India, it is bordered by Nepal and the Indian state of Uttaranchal Uttarakhand and the country of Nepal to the north, the Indian state of Bihar to the east, the states of Haryāna and Rājasthān and the union territory of Delhi Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh to the westsoutheast, the state of Madhya Pradesh to the south, and the state of Bihār to the east, and the states of Jharkhand and Chhatīsgaṛḥ to the southeast. Uttar Pradesh extends over 89,288 square miles (231,254 square km).On January states of Rajasthan and Haryana and the national capital territory of Delhi to the west. On Jan. 26, 1950, when India became a republic, the state was given its present name, Uttar Pradesh (literally, “Northern State”). Its capital is Lucknow. In November 2000 the state’s northern, Himalayan, provinces were formed into the new state of Uttaranchal, with its capital at Dehra Dūn; the new state has a total area of 24,385 Area 93,933 square miles (63243,157 286 square km). Physical and human geographyThe landPop. (2008 est.) 190,891,000.

Land

Relief

The state can be divided into

four

two physiographic regions:

(1)

the

Himalayan region, (2) the submontane region between the Himalayas and the plains, (3) the

central plains of the Ganges (Ganga) River and its tributaries (part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain)

,

and

(4)

the southern uplands. The

Himalayan region has a highly varied topography, with snow-covered peaks, deep canyons, roaring streams, and gigantic lakes. In the north are the Great Himalayas, which rise to more than 20,000 feet (6,000 metres) and include several prominent peaks, such as Nanda Devi (25,646 feet [7,817 metres]), Kāmet (25,446 feet [7,756 metres]), and Badarīnāth (23,418 feet [7,138 metres]). South of the Great Himalayas are two other Himalayan belts, the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwālik Hills. Within the Shiwāliks are many famous hill resorts, such as Mussoorie, Naini Tāl, and Rānīkhet.

The submontane region consists mostly of a narrow bed of gravel and alluvium called the Bhābar. Along its southern fringes the Bhābar blends into the Terāi area, a damp and marshy tract formerly characterized by thick forests and tall grasses. A significant portion of the Terāi region, however, has suffered deforestation.

About three-fourths of the total area of Uttar Pradesh is

vast majority of Uttar Pradesh lies within the Gangetic Plain, which is composed of alluvial deposits brought down from the Himalayas by the Ganges

River and its tributaries

network. Most of this area is a featureless, though fertile, plain varying in elevation from about 1,000 feet (300 metres) in the northwest to about 190 feet (60 metres) in the extreme east. The southern uplands form part of the highly dissected and rugged Vindhya Range, which rises generally toward the southeast. The elevation of this region rarely exceeds 1,000 feet.

Drainage

The state is well drained by a number of rivers originating in either the Himalayas to the north or the Vindhya Range to the south. The Ganges and its main tributaries—the Yamuna, the

Rāmganga

Ramganga, the Gomati, the

Ghāghara

Ghaghara, and the Gandak—are fed by the perpetual snows of the Himalayas. The Chambal, the Betwa, and the Ken, originating from the Vindhya Range, drain the southwestern part of the state before joining the Yamuna. The Son, also originating in the Vindhya Range, drains the southeastern part of the state and joins the Ganges beyond the state borders (in

Bihār

Bihar).

SoilsAbout two-thirds

Much of the area of Uttar Pradesh is covered by a deep layer of alluvium spread by the slow-moving rivers of the Ganges system. These extremely fertile alluvial soils range from sandy to clayey loam. The soils in the southern part of the state are generally mixed red and black or red-to-yellow.

In the Himalayan and submontane regions, the soils range from gravelly to rich clayey and are mixed with fine sand and humus, producing thick growth of forests in some areas.

Climate

The climate of Uttar Pradesh

varies from moderately temperate in the Himalayan region to tropical monsoon in the central plains and southern upland regions. In the plains the average temperatures vary from 54.5–63.5 °F (12.5–17.5 °C) in January to 81.5–90.5 °F (27.5–32.5

is the tropical monsoon type, with warm weather year-round. Average high temperatures in Lucknow range from about 70 °F (low 20s C) in January to over 100 °F (38 °C) in May and June.

The highest temperature recorded in the state was 121.8 °F (49.9 °C) at Gonda on May 8, 1958.Rainfall

High temperatures of around 120 °F (50 °C) have been recorded at Gonda.

Annual rainfall in the state ranges from 40–80 inches (1,000–2,000 mm) in the east to 24–40 inches (600–1,000 mm) in the west. About 90 percent of the rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon, lasting from about June to September. With most of the rainfall concentrated during this four-month period, floods are a recurring problem and can cause fatalities and heavy damage to crops

, life,

and property, particularly in the eastern part of the state. Periodic failure of monsoons results in drought conditions

and crop failure

.

In the Himalayan region, annual snowfall averaging 10 to 15 feet (3 to 5 metres) is common between December and March.Plant and animal life

The vegetation of Uttar Pradesh consists mostly of scrub. Forests are generally concentrated in the

Himalayan region, the submontane region, and the

southern uplands.

In

Animals of the

Himalayan

region

, common species of trees

include

silver fir, spruce, deodar, and pine. Tropical deciduous forests of sal (an Indian hardwood) and tall grasses are abundant in the submontane region. The forests of the southern uplands consist mostly of scrub.With variegated topography and climate, the submontane region of the state is rich in animal life. In this region are

tigers, leopards, elephants, wild boars,

sloth bears,

and crocodiles, as well as pigeons, doves, wild ducks, partridges,

peafowl

peafowls, blue jays,

quail

quails, and woodpeckers. Several species, such as lions from the Gangetic Plain

and rhinoceros from the Tarai region

, have become extinct. To preserve its wildlife, the state has established

two national parks and

several game sanctuaries.

The Corbett National Park, in the Himalayan foothills (Kumaun Himalayas) about 150 miles (240 km) northeast of Delhi, is one of the showpieces of the state.The people

People

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in

the Indian Union and has

India. In the early 21st century it had an overall population density of

almost

more than twice the national average. The Gangetic Plain

, which supports more than 70 percent

supports the overwhelming majority of the state’s population

, has the state’s highest population densities, with an average of more than 1,000 persons per square mile. In contrast, the density of population is generally less than half that in the southern uplands and less than 100 persons per square mile in the Himalayan region.

Ethnic and linguistic composition

The vast majority of the population belongs to the Aryo-Dravidian ethnic group; only a small minority, in the Himalayan region, displays Asiatic origins. Hindus constitute more than 80 percent of the population, Muslims more than 15 percent, and other religious communities—including Sikhs, Christians, Jainas, and Buddhists—together less than 1 percent. Hindi (the official language of the state) and Urdu are the mother tongues of 85 and 15 percent of the people, respectively. Hindustani, the spoken language of the people, contains the simple words of both languages and is widely understood in the state.

Settlement patternsMore than 80 percent

.

Population composition

Roughly one-fifth of the state’s people belong to groups known as Scheduled Castes (formerly called “untouchables”; groups that officially occupy a low position within the caste system). A tiny percentage of the people belong to Scheduled Tribes (a term generally applied to indigenous peoples who fall outside the predominant Indian social hierarchy). The vast majority of the people, including members of all levels of the caste hierarchy, are Hindus. Muslims are the largest religious minority. There also are relatively small groups of Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists. Hindi is an official language of the state and the mother tongue of most of the people. Urdu, additionally an official language, is primarily spoken by Muslims. The vernacular Hindustani is widely understood.

Settlement patterns

The majority of the state’s population lives in rural areas. The rural settlements are characterized by compact villages in the western part of the state, groupings of hamlets in the eastern part, and a combination of the two in the central part. A

typical

traditional village in Uttar Pradesh is

an assorted, shapeless

a cluster of mud huts with roofs made of thatch (such as straw) or clay tiles

. Although such huts have

and few amenities of modern living

, the process of modernization is evident in some villages

. Villages near the cities

. Cement

, however, are likely to have cement-plastered homes, paved roads,

electricity, and consumer goods, including radios and television sets, are transforming traditional village life.More than half of the urban population lives

and electricity.

Most urban inhabitants live in cities with populations of more than 100,000.

The five

Among the largest cities of Uttar Pradesh are

Kānpur

Kanpur, Lucknow,

Vārānasi

Agra,

Āgra

Varanasi, Meerut, and

Allahābād

Allahabad.

Kānpur

Kanpur, located in the central portion of the state, is the premier industrial city of Uttar Pradesh. Lucknow, the state capital, is

located

about 30 miles (48 km) northeast of

Kānpur

Kanpur.

Vārānasi

Agra, in the western part of the state, is the site of the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (ruled 1628–58) in memory of his wife; it is the most

sacred city of the

famous tourist attraction in India. Varanasi, the city most sacred to Hindus, is one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities.

Allahābād

Meerut, northeast of Delhi, is an important centre of transportation, trade, and industry. Allahabad (on the site of the ancient holy city of

Prayāg

Prayag), located at the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamuna River, is another city sacred to

the

Hindus.

Āgra, located in the southwestern part of the state, is the site of the Tāj Mahal, a mausoleum built by the Mughal emperor Shāh Jahān (ruled 1628–58) in memory of his wife; it is now the most famous tourist attraction in India

.Demographic trends

The population of Uttar Pradesh continues to grow at a high rate. Because of

the

this high growth rate and a substantial reduction in infant mortality in the 20th century, there has been a significant increase in the proportion of young adults and children. The sex ratio also has improved; in 2001 there were 898 females per 1,000 males, up from 876 per 1,000 in 1991. Toward the end of the 19th century, dire poverty and the promise of better opportunities forced many

in

people of the

state

region to migrate to distant lands, such as

Natal (now KwaZulu/Natal,

South Africa

)

, Mauritius, Fiji, and the West Indies. In more recent years, migration from Uttar Pradesh has been mainly

been

to other parts of

the country

India, particularly to large cities such as Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai (Bombay), and Delhi.

The economy

Resources

Economically, Uttar Pradesh is one of the most underdeveloped states in the country. It is largely an agrarian state, and more than three-fourths of the working population is engaged in agricultural pursuits. The state lacks the mineral and energy resources important for industrialization. Silica, limestone, and coal are the only minerals that are found in considerable quantities in Uttar Pradesh; there are small reserves of gypsum, magnesite, phosphorite, and bauxite.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Economy

Agriculture

Agriculture is the mainstay of the state’s economy. The chief crops are rice, wheat,

millet, barley,

and sugarcane. Since the late 1960s, with the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seed for wheat and rice, greater availability of fertilizers, and increased use of irrigation, the state has become

the largest

a major producer of food grains in the country.

Its

Many of its farmers, however, still suffer from two major constraints: small

, noneconomic

landholdings and insufficient resources to invest in the technology

,

required for improved production.

Most of the state’s agricultural landholdings barely provide for the subsistence of the farmers.

Livestock and dairy farming often provide a supplementary source of income

, although the yield of milk is low.

Forests in Uttar Pradesh provide timber for construction, firewood, and raw materials for a number of industrial products, including plywood, paper, and matches. Reforestation programs of the state government have resulted in some increase in forest area as well as in the availability of forest products for industrial uses.

Industry

.

Resources and power

Silica, limestone, and coal are found in considerable quantities in Uttar Pradesh. There also are small reserves of gypsum, magnesite, phosphorite, and bauxite. The national government has supported the development of coal fields in the southeastern area around Mirzapur.

The state often suffers from shortages of power. Installed capacity has greatly increased since Indian independence, but the gap between supply and demand remains wide. Power is generated at the Obra-Rihand complex (in southeastern Uttar Pradesh), one of India’s biggest thermal stations; at a number of hydroelectric power plants in various parts of the state; and at a nuclear power station in the western district of Bulandshahr (near Delhi).

established a number of large factories that manufacture heavy equipment, machinery, steel, aircraft, telephone and electronics equipment, and fertilizers.

An

The national government has funded an oil refinery at Mathura

and the development of coal fields in the southeastern district of Mirzāpur are also major union government projects

. The state government has promoted medium- and small-scale industries.

Industries that contribute most to the

The state’s exports include

handicrafts, carpets, brassware,

such products as footwear,

and

leather goods, and sporting

goods.

gear. Handicrafts constitute a significant portion of exports as well. Carpets from Bhadohi and

Mirzāpur

Mirzapur, for example, are prized worldwide.

Silks

Among other local specialities are the silks and brocades of

Vārānasi

Varanasi, ornamental

brassware

brass ware from

Morādābād, chickan (a type of embroidery) work

Moradabad, chikan embroidery from Lucknow, ebony work from Nagina, glassware from

Fīrozābād

Firozabad, and carved woodwork from

Sahāranpur also are important.

Uttar Pradesh suffers from a chronic shortage of power. Installed capacity has greatly increased since 1951, but the gap between supply and demand has remained wide. Power is generated at the Obra-Rihand complex (in southeastern Uttar Pradesh), one of India’s biggest thermal stations, at a number of hydroelectric power plants in various parts of the state, and at a nuclear power station in the western district of Bulandshahr (near Delhi).

Tourism in the state has great potential, but much of it is untapped. The Himalayan region offers beautiful scenery, opportunities for mountaineering and trekking, and wildlife sanctuaries. Most of this region was once inaccessible, but it is now being opened up with the construction of roads, hotels, and the promotional activities of the government. Other places for tourism in Uttar Pradesh include such Hindu centres as Vārānasi, Allahābād (site of the ancient holy city Prayāg), Ayodhyā, Mathura-Vrindāvan, and Haridwār-Rishikesh; such Buddhist centres as Sārnāth, Kuśinagara, and Srāvastī (Sahet-Mahet); and such historic places as Āgra

Saharanpur.

Tourism

Tourism in the state is of growing economic importance. Many visitors flock to Hindu centres such as Varanasi, Allahabad, Ayodhya, and the Mathura-Vrindavan area; Buddhist centres such as Sarnath, Kasia (site of Kushinagara, where the Buddha died), and Shravasti; and other historic places such as Agra, Lucknow, and Kannauj.

TransportationAlthough most of the

The state’s cities and towns are connected by a vast network of roads

and railways, the condition of the roads and bridges is generally poor, and the railway system suffers from two different gauges of track. Passenger trains are invariably crowded.

, including a number of national highways, and railways. Major cities in Uttar Pradesh are connected by air to Delhi and other large cities of India. The

state’s transportation system also includes the

three inland waterways of the Ganges, Yamuna, and

Ghāghara rivers.Administration and social conditionsGovernmentUttar Pradesh has a parliamentary form of government consisting of an

Ghaghara rivers also are an integral part of the state’s transportation system.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The government of Uttar Pradesh, like that of most other states in India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950 and consists of executive, legislative, and judicial

branch

branches. The executive branch

consists of

comprises the governor

, who is aided

and

advised by

the Council of Ministers

,

(headed by a chief minister), which aids and advises the governor. The governor is appointed by the president of India; the governor in turn appoints the chief minister and the other ministers. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the legislature. The legislature consists of two houses: the upper house, the Legislative Council (

Vidhān

Vidhan Parishad), which

is a permanent body with one-third of its members retiring every two years, and the Legislative Assembly (Vidhān Sabhā

comprises both elected and appointed members; and the lower house, the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), whose members are popularly elected

for a six-year term

. The judiciary

consists of a

includes the High Court, headed by a chief justice

. The state’s High Court is located at Allahābād, but there is also a bench at Lucknow, the state capital

, and a subordinate justice system. Below the state level

there are 13 administrative divisions, as well as 63 districts

, dozens of district governments are responsible for local administration.

EducationThe state has some 20 universities, more than 400 affiliated colleges, a number of medical colleges, and several institutes for specialized studies and research. Although there has been a virtual explosion since the 1950s in the number of schools and students enrolled at all levels, only one-third of the state’s population is literateHealth and welfare

Health care in the state is provided by a number of hospitals and clinics, as well as by private practitioners of allopathic (Western), homeopathic, Ayurvedic (traditional Hindu), and Unanī (traditional Muslim) medicine. Since independence many national and state welfare programs have provided improved opportunities in education, employment, and political representation to members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Education

Beginning in the 1950s, both the number of schools in Uttar Pradesh and the number of students enrolled at all levels grew dramatically. In 1951 only about 12 percent of the population was literate; by 2001 the literacy rate had risen to about 57 percent, a figure close to the national rate. Hindi is the medium of instruction at the primary-school level (English is used at some private schools), Hindi and English are required courses for high school students, and English is generally the medium of instruction at the university level.

Health and welfare

Health care in the state is provided by a number of hospitals and clinics, as well as by private practitioners of allopathic (modern Western), homeopathic, Āyurvedic (traditional Hindu), and Unānī (traditional Muslim) medicine. Except in a few major hospitals, the care provided at the state’s hospitals and clinics is generally poor.

A significant proportion of the state’s population is in Scheduled Castes and Tribes (lower-caste Hindus and “untouchables”). Since independence many union and state welfare programs have provided improved opportunities in education, employment, and political representation to these people

The state has more than a dozen universities, hundreds of affiliated colleges, and several medical colleges. Some of the oldest universities in Uttar Pradesh are Aligarh Muslim University (1875), founded by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan; Banaras Hindu University (1916), founded by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya; and the University of Lucknow (1921). Among the state’s many institutes for specialized studies and research are the Indian Institute of Technology at Kanpur (1959), the Indian Institute of Management at Lucknow (1984), the Indian Institute of Information Technology at Allahabad (1999), and several polytechnic schools, engineering institutes, and industrial training institutes.

Cultural life

The arts

Uttar Pradesh is the springhead of the ancient civilization of the Hindus. A substantial portion of the subcontinent’s ancient Vedic literature had its origin in the area’s many hermitages, as did the great Indian epics the

Rāmāyaṇa

Ramayanaand the

Mahābhārata

Mahabharata(which includes the

Bhagavadgītā

Bhagavadgita[Sanskrit: “Song of

God”

the Lord”]). Sculptures and architecture of the Buddhist-Hindu period (c.600

BC

BCEto

AD

c.1200 CE) have contributed greatly to the Indian cultural heritage. Since 1947 the emblem of the government of India has been based on the four-lion capital of a pillar (

located at Sārnāth near Vārānasi

preserved in a museum at Sarnath, near Varanasi) left by the 3rd-century-BCEMauryan emperor

Aśoka

Ashoka.

Architecture,

paintings

painting, music,

dance, and two languages (Hindi and Urdu)

and dance all flourished during the Mughal period (

1526–1761

16th–18th centuries). Mughal architecture reached its height under the emperor Shah Jahān, who built the spectacular Taj Mahal at Agra. Paintings of the period were generally portraits or illustrations of religious and historic texts.

Although musical instruments have been mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature and music is known to have flourished in the Gupta Period (c. 320–540), much

Much of the musical tradition in Uttar Pradesh also was developed during the period. The

musicians Tānsen

type of music performed by Tansen and Baiju

Bāwra, employed in the court

Bawra, contemporaries of the Mughal emperor Akbar,

are

is still well known in the state and throughout India. The sitar (a stringed instrument of the lute family) and the tabla (consisting of two small drums)

,

—perhaps the two most popular instruments of Indian

music, were

music—were developed in the region during this period. The kathak classical dance style, which originated in

Uttar Pradesh in

the 18th century as a devotional dance in the temples of

Vrindāran

Vrindavan and Mathura, is the most popular form of classical dance in northern India.

There are also local songs and dances of the countryside, and the most popular of the folksongs are seasonal.Uttar Pradesh is the birthplace of Hindi, India’s official language

As the birthplace of Hindi, an official language of the state and the country, Uttar Pradesh is an important centre of Hindi literature. Although various vernacular forms of the language developed over the centuries, literary Hindi (like

present-day

Urdu) did not take its present form

of Khaṛī Bolī (Hindustani)

until the 19th century. Bhartendu Harishchandra (1850–85) of

Vārānasi

Varanasi was one of the first major writers to use this form of Hindi as a literary medium.

Cultural institutions

Among the prominent art museums in Uttar Pradesh are the State Museum at Lucknow

,

; the Archaeological Museum at Mathura

,

; the

Sārnāth

Sarnath Museum, specializing in Buddhist antiquities

,

; the Bharat Kala

Bharan at Vārānasi, and

Bhavan, a museum of art and archaeology at Varanasi; and the Municipal Museum at

Allahābād

Allahabad. Colleges of arts and Hindustani music at Lucknow and the

Prayāg

Prayag Sangeet Samiti

at Allahābād

, a music institute based in Allahabad, have contributed immensely to the development of the fine arts and of classical music in the country.

The Nagri Prachārni

Such organizations as the Nagri Pracharni Sabha, the

Hindī

Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, and the Hindustani Academy have been instrumental in the development of Hindi literature.

Recently the state government has set up an Urdu Academy

In addition, the Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy was set up by the state government for the preservation and enrichment of Urdu literature.

Festivals and holidays

Most of the festivals and holidays in the state are tied to the Hindu calendar.

Some of the important Hindu festivals and holidays celebrated in Uttar Pradesh

They include Dussehra, celebrating the victory of

Rāma

Rama over

Rāvaṇa

Ravana, the symbol of evil on earth;

Dīwālī

Diwali, a festival of lights devoted to

Lakṣmī

Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth;

Śivarātrī

Shivaratri, a day devoted to the worship of the god

Śiva (

Shiva

)

;

Holī

Holi,

the most

a colourful spring festival

of the Hindus

; and

Janmāṣṭamī

Janmashtami, celebrating the birthday of the god Krishna. Important religious occasions for Muslims in Uttar Pradesh include mawlids, birthdays of holy figures; Muḥarram, commemorating the martyrdom of the hero al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿĀli; Ramadan, a month devoted to fasting; and the canonical festivals of

ʿīd are some of the important religious occasions for Muslims in Uttar Pradesh. Buddha Purnim’ā, Mahāvīra Jayantī, Gurū Nanak’s birthday,

ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. Buddha Purnima (also known as Wesak or Vesak), commemorating the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death; Mahavira Jayanti, marking the birthday of the saviour Mahavira; Guru Nanak’s birthday; and Christmas are important to Buddhists,

Jainas

Jains, Sikhs, and Christians, respectively, but are celebrated by people of all faiths. More than 2,000 fairs

are held

take place annually in the state. The largest

fair

religious festival of India, the Kumbh Mela, held at

Allahābād and Haridwār

Allahabad every 12 years, attracts millions of people.

History

The history of Uttar Pradesh can be divided into five periods: (1) prehistory and mythology (up to c. 600 BCBCE), (2) the Buddhist-Hindu (Brahmanic) period (c. 600 BCBCEto c.AD1200 CE), (3) the Muslim period (c. 1200 to c. 1775), (4) the British period (c. 1775 to 1947), and (5) the postindependence period (1947 to the present). Because of its position in the heart of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, it has often been the focal point in the history of all of northern India.

Prehistory and mythology

Archaeology is beginning to has shed new light on the early prehistoric civilization of what is now Uttar Pradesh. The remains of several human skeletons , found in the southern district of Pratāpgarh, area of Partapgarh (Pratapgarh) have been dated to about 10,000 BCBCE. Knowledge Other knowledge of the area prior to the 7th century BCBCEhas largely been gained largely through Vedic literature (of the ancient Indian Vedic religion) and the two great Indian epics, the RāmāyaṇaRamayanaand the MahābhārataMahabharata, which describe the Gangetic Plain within Uttar Pradesh. The scene setting of the MahābhārataMahabharatais the area around Hastināpur Hastinapur, in the western part of the present-day state, while the RāmāyaṇaRamayanais set in eastern Uttar Pradesh in and around AyodhyāAyodhya, the birthplace of Rāma Rama (an incarnation of the god Vishnu and the hero of the story). Two other fountainheads Another fountainhead of mythology in the state are is the area around Vrindāvan and the holy cities of Mathura, where Krishna (another incarnation of Vishnu) was born; and the Himalayan region, known to Hindus as the home of the god Śiva, and nearby Vrindavan.

The Buddhist-Hindu (Brahmanic) period

A systematic history of India and the area of Uttar Pradesh dates to the end of the 7th century BCBCE, when 16 mahājanapadamahajanapadas (great states) in northern India were contending for supremacy. Of these, 7 seven fell entirely within the present-day boundaries of Uttar Pradesh. The Buddha preached his first sermon at Sārnāth near Vārānasi and founded a religion that spread not only across India but also to many distant lands, such as China and Japan. The Buddha is said to have attained parinirvāṇa (freedom of spirit brought about by release from the body) at Kuśinagara, located in the eastern district of Deoria. From the 5th century BCBCEto the 6th century ADCE, Uttar Pradesh the region was mostly under the control of powers centred outside of its present boundariesthe modern boundaries of the state, first at Magadha in present-day Bihār Bihar and later at Ujjain in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Among the great kings of this period who ruled over the state region were Candra Gupta Chandragupta (reigned c.325 or 321–297 BCBCE) and Aśoka (c. 268 or 265–238Ashoka (3rd century BCE), both Mauryan emperors, and as well as Samudra Gupta (c.AD 330–3804th century CE) and Candra Chandra Gupta II (reigned c. 380–415; identified by some scholars as Vikramāditya). Another of its famous rulers was Harṣa A later famous ruler, Harsha (reigned c.606–647); from , was based within the state’s present borders. From his capital at Kānyakubja (near modern Kanyakubja (present-day Kannauj), he was able to control the whole of Uttar Pradesh , as well as parts of Bihārwhat are now Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and Rājasthān.During this period Buddhist and Hindu (Brahmanic) Rajasthan.

Meanwhile, by the 6th century BCE, the ancient Vedic religion had largely evolved into Brahmanism, which in turn would evolve into classical Hinduism by the 2nd century BCE. According to tradition, it was during this period—likely sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE—that the Buddha preached his first sermon at Sarnath, near Varanasi. The religion he founded, Buddhism, spread not only across India but also to many distant lands, such as China and Japan. The Buddha is said to have attained parinirvana (complete nirvana) at Kushinagara (now in Kasia, in eastern Uttar Pradesh).

At first, Buddhist and Brahmanic or Hindu culture flourished side by side. Sculptures and architecture symbolic of replete with Buddhist art symbolism reached its their zenith during the 3rd-century-BCEreign of Aśoka; Ashoka. Hindu art saw its greatest development during the period of rule by the Gupta Period (c. 320–540dynasty (4th to 6th centuries CE). After the death of Harṣa in Harsha, about 647, there was a gradual downfall of Buddhism accompanied by a revival of Hinduism. The chief architect of this revival, Śaṅkarathe philosopher Shankara, born in southern India, visited VārānasiVaranasi, traveled through the plains of Uttar Pradesh, and is thought to have established a the famous temple at Badrīnāth in Badrinath (now in Uttarakhand) in the Himalayas.

The Śaṅkara temple is considered by Hindus as the fourth and last math (centre of Hindu culture).The Muslim period

Although Muslim incursions into the area occurred as early as AD 1000–10301000–30 CE, Muslim rule over northern India was not established until the last decade of the 12th century, when Muḥammad of Ghūr Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām (Muḥammad Ghūrī) defeated the Gāhaḍavālas Gahadavalas (who occupied much of Uttar Pradesh) and other competing dynasties. For nearly 600 years Uttar Pradesh, like much of India, was ruled by one Muslim dynasty or another, each centred in or near Delhi (see Delhi sultanate).

In 1526 Bābur defeated Sultan Ibrāhim Bābur—a descendant of the conquerors Genghis Khan and Timur—defeated Sultan Ibrāhīm Lodī of Delhi and laid the foundation of the most successful of the Muslim dynasties, the Mughals, whose empire, centred in what is now Uttar Pradesh, dominated the subcontinent for more than 200 years. The greatest extent of the empire came under Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), who constructed a grand new capital, Fatehpur SīkriSikri, near ĀgraAgra. His grandson, Shāh Shah Jahān (reigned 1628–58), built at Āgra Agra one of the world’s greatest architectural achievements, the Tāj Taj Mahal (a mausoleum constructed in memory of his favourite wife, who died in childbirth); Shāh . Shah Jahān also built several other architecturally important buildings in Āgra Agra as well as in Delhi.

The Mughal Empire , centred in Uttar Pradesh, promoted the development of a new composite culture. Akbar, its greatest exponent, employed in his court men preeminent in architecture, literature, painting, and music, irrespective of their caste or creed. The conflict between Hinduism and Islām led to the growth of several Several new sects seeking a common meeting ground between these two religions and Hinduism and Islam, as well as between the various castes of India, developed during this period. Rāmānanda Ramananda (c. 1400–70), a Brahman and founder of the (Hindu priest), founded a bhakti(devotional) sect , which that claimed that salvation was not dependent on one’s sex or caste; and Kabīr (1440–1518) , who preached the essential unity of all religions, focused their fight against religious intolerance in Uttar Pradesh. The downfall of the Mughals in the 18th century led to the shifting of the centre of this composite culture from Delhi to Lucknow, the seat of the nawab (ruler) of Avadh Oudh (Ayodhyānow Ayodhya), where art, literature, music, and poetry flourished in an atmosphere of communal harmony.

The British period

The area of present-day Uttar Pradesh was gradually acquired by the East India Company (a British trading company) over a period of about 75 years, from the last quarter of the 18th century to the mid-19th century. Territories wrested from a number of powers in the northern part of the Indian dynasties—the subcontinent—the nawabsin 1775, 1798, and 1801, the Sindias Sindhias of Gwalior (now in 1803Madhya Pradesh), and the Gurkhas in 1816—were of Nepal—were first placed within the British province known as the Bengal Presidency, but in 1833 they were separated to form the North-Western Provinces (initially called the Āgra Agra Presidency). The kingdom of AvadhOudh, annexed by the company in 1856, was united with the North-Western Provinces in 1877under the name United Provinces of Āgra and Oudh (with borders almost identical with present-day Uttar Pradesh); in . The resulting administrative unit had borders almost identical to those of the future state of Uttar Pradesh. In 1902 the name was changed to the United Provinces of Āgra Agra and Oudh .The great mutiny and (later shortened to the United Provinces).

The Indian Mutiny, a widespread revolt against the East India Company in 1857–59 was largely confined to the North-Western 1857–58, was centred in the United Provinces. Sparked by a mutiny of soldiers at Meerut on May 10, 1857, the revolt spread within months to more than 25 cities. In 1858, with the revolt virtually crushed, administration of the North-Western United Provinces and the rest of British India were transferred from the East India Company to the British crown.

With the rise of Indian nationalism beginning in the late 1880s, the United Provinces stood at the forefront of the movement for independence. It gave India many of the most important nationalist political leaders, such as Motilal Nehru, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Purushottamdas Purushottam Das Tandon. Mahatma Gandhi’s noncooperation movement of 1920–22, designed to shake the foundations of the British Empire in India, spread throughout the United Provinces, but mob violence in the village of Chauri Chaura (in the eastern part of the provinces) caused Gandhi to temporarily suspend the movement. The United Provinces was also a centre of Muslim League politics.

During Throughout the British period, there was extensive development of canals, railways, canals, and other means of communications communication within the provinces. The British also promoted the growth of modern education, and a number of colleges and universities—such as the University of Lucknow (founded 1921)—were established.

Postindependence period

universities were established.

Uttar Pradesh since Indian independence

In 1947 the United Provinces became one of the administrative units of the newly independent Dominion of India. Two years later the autonomous states of Tehri-Garhwal and (now in Uttarakhand), Rampur, both and Varanasi, all within its borders, were incorporated into the United Provinces. With the adoption of a new Indian constitution in 1950, the United Provinces was were renamed Uttar Pradesh and became a constituent state of the new Indian UnionRepublic of India.

Since independence, the state has maintained a dominant role within India. It has given the country several prime ministers, including Jawaharlal Nehruand his ; Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, as well as prominent ; and Atal Bihari Vajpayee of the Bharatiya Janata Party. Prominent leaders of national opposition (minority) parties, such as Acharya Narendra Dev, one of the founders of the Praja Socialist Party, and Atal Behari Vajpeyi of the Bharatiya Jan Sangh and Bharatiya Janatā Party. State politics, however, also have hailed from Uttar Pradesh. At the state level, politics have tended to be fractious.

Soon after the formation of Uttar Pradesh, and seldom has any chief minister completed a five-year term.unrest developed in the Himalayan regions of the state. The people there felt that the state’s very large population and physical dimensions made it impossible for the government, seated in Lucknow, to look after their interests. Widespread unemployment and poverty and an inadequate infrastructure contributed to their discontent. Their demand for a separate state gained momentum in the 1990s. Agitation was heightened by a violent incident in Muzaffarnagar on Oct. 2, 1994, when police fired at pro-statehood demonstrators; a number of people were killed. Finally, in November 2000 the new state of Uttaranchal (renamed Uttarakhand in 2007) was carved out of the northwestern part of Uttar Pradesh.

M.B. Mathur, Uttar Pradesh, rev. ed. (1981), is a comprehensive account of the state, covering its land and the people. Y.D. Vaishnava "Ashoka" (Yamunādatta Vaishṇav), Himalayan Districts of Uttar Pradesh (1983), provides general coverage of history and places of interest in this region. A good description of Descriptions of the state government is are found in Pushpa Sharma, Working of Parliamentary Democracy in India: With Special Reference to Uttar Pradesh, 1967–85 (1986); and P.K. Srivastava, State Government and Politics in India: The Formation and Working of the Councils of Ministers in Uttar Pradesh, 1967–90 (1991). Economic issues are treated in Rita Sharma and Thomas T. Poleman, The New Economics of India’s Green Revolution: Income and Employment Diffusion in Uttar Pradesh (1993). Dhirendra K. Vajpeyi, Modernization and Social Change in India (1979), provides an understanding of political and social conditions in postindependence Uttar Pradesh. Christophe Jaffrelot, India’s Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India (2003), discusses the growing political voice of the historically disadvantaged people of the state and region.