About The Authors
This book was originally written by Thomas David Kehoe and published in 2002. In June 2006 he released it under the GFDL li­ cence so that Wikibooks could reproduce it. The original book included this information written by the au­ thor, Thomas David Kehoe, about himself in 2002: Five years ago, I wrote Stuttering: Science, Therapy & Practice. No one would publish it, so I published it myself. I must have done some things right, because my book became the #1 bestseller about stuttering (according to Amazon.com). But over these years I learned more about books many mistakes. My next book was Hearts And Minds: How Our Brains Are Hardwired For Relationships. I wanted to design the book myself. The few books about book design were written before computers, when bookmaking was an obscure art. A reader wrote the follow­ ing review of one such book, on Amazon:
…the book was written long before computers revo­ lutionized the publishing industry, so it has a dis­ tinctly archaic—even obsolete—aura. Vast portions of the text are no longer relevant to modern publishing, and readers who rely on them will be very seriously misled… Unfortunately, students will ﬁnd that there is no modern alternative to this book…Proceed at your own risk, and bear in mind that many other books—none of them wholly satisfactory—must also be consulted for supplementary guidance within this sadly under-documented ﬁeld.

What I found more useful were LATEX manuals, as well as the Chicago Manual of Style (I picked it over other style manuals be­

cause I’m a University of Chicago alumnus). But LATEX was too hard to learn. The Chicago Manual of Style is 900 pages long and doesn’t tell you how to design a book. I wanted a little book like the Elements of Style, by William Strunk and E.B. White, to quick­ ly tell me the basic rules of book design. Traditional Rules vs. “Keep Out Of Trouble” Rules Often in this book you’ll see two, or even three, rules regarding an issue. For the traditional rules of book design, I refer to the Chicago Manual of Style. When I refer to such a rule, I list the chapter and paragraph number from the Chicago Manual of Style (e.g., 12.34), so you can look up the rule. (I’m using the 14th edition.) I also explain what word processors—in particular Microsoft Word—do. Sometimes word processors follow rules different from traditional rules. And often I present novice or “keep out of trouble” rules. These are rules that novices should follow to avoid making awful, obvi­ ous, knock ’em dead mistakes. And, usually, the Chicago Manual of Style lists 14 pages of exceptions to my rule. Professional book designers shouldn’t follow my “keep out of trouble” rules. The rules for choosing between the rules is, if you understand the traditional rules, follow them. If you don’t understand the tradi­ tional rules, follow my “keep out of trouble” rules. If you follow my “keep out of trouble” rules, 99.9% of your readers won’t notice that you didn’t follow traditional rules. Many of the traditional rules are arcane, and known only by book indus­ try professionals. But remember that you may have to “sell” your book to key book industry professionals—e.g., book reviewers— who’ll notice amateur typesetting. In a few places I’ll suggest new ideas that I thought of. These aren’t rules.

¶

DOCUMENTS
Software Applications Choosing the right software application is perhaps the most impor­ tant book design decision. Different software applications are bet­ ter for different books LaTeX, ConTeXt— For Academic Books Written By Nerds You’re writing your Ph.D. dissertation in physics. Your disserta­ tion is 300 pages long, followed by 400 pages of references. Your mathematical formulas go on for pages. Your heart thumps with pleasure when you type commands like
\newcommand{\sumvec}[4]{\anvec{#3}{#4}=#1_1+2#2_1,\ldots,#1_#4+#2_#4}

Donald Knuth is your hero, right up there with Einstein. You use a NeXT computer, circa 1990, because it’s so cool—and because you’re broke. LaTeX and ConTeXt are typesetting languages. Both are based on the older TeX typesetting language. They’ll produce the most professional-looking books. They run on Windows, Macintosh, and UNIX computers. They run fast on the oldest, slowest comput­ ers. The source ﬁles never crash or become corrupted. They’re free (although you’ll spend a few hundred dollars on books). The defaults are set for professional typesetting. If you don’t know what you’re doing, LaTeX and ConTeXt will automatically produce a professional-looking book. Or, at least, they’ll produce an academic-looking book. They’ll put chapter numbers on all your chapters and section numbers on all your sections. They’ll give you a choice of three fonts—Roman, Sans-Serif, and Typewriter.

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Basic Book Design

Of course you can change these default settings. You can install other fonts. Expect to spend three months ﬁguring out how to do that. LaTeX and ConTeXt are difﬁcult to learn. If this sounds like you, download the software (yes, for free) from http://www.latex-project.org/ or http://www.pragma-ade.nl/. Adobe FrameMaker, Corel Ventura Publisher— For Long, Structured Documents You’re a technical writer working for Boeing. Your team of 500 tech writers are working on the operations and repair manuals for the new 797 airliner. One set of manuals will weigh more than the airplane. The manuals will also be available on CD-ROM, and on Boeing’s website. The manuals will be translated into sixteen lan­ guages. The manuals will be updated by your children, your children’s children, and your children’s children’s children, until the last Boe­ ing 797 is retired from the skies. The manuals have many graphics, tables, and cross-references (“see page 16-234b”). The $800 price tag doesn’t concern you. Adobe InDesign, Quark X-Press, Microsoft Publisher— For Advertisements, Brochures, and Websites You’re a graphic designer working for an advertising agency. You create colorful ads, brochures, catalogs, and webpages. For the Beagle Boy jeans catalog, you put a little dog in the cor­ ner of each recto (right-hand) page. Then you get an idea: let’s change the dog’s tail on each page, so that when readers ﬂip through the catalog, they see the dog wagging its tail! You do creative stuff with type. You love to go through your collection of 5000 fonts, pick out just the right one, twist and turn the letters to follow a complicated graphic, change the size and shape of each letter, color the letters with a rainbow of hues (subtly shifting with a gradient), and, ﬁnally, adjusting the kerning to make the words read smoothly. By lunchtime, you’ve written three

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words. You don’t do footnotes or references. You don’t care about typesetting conventions—you break the rules, not follow them! You use the latest Windows or Macintosh computer, with the fastest processor, zigabytes of memory, and big, beautiful monitor. (Adobe Pagemaker is in this category, but is obsolete.) Microsoft Word, Corel WordPerfect— For Writers You write books. You make your books easy to read. You want a word processor that’s easy to use. You know that easy to read means looking conventional, like other books, not breaking new ground. You use graphics and tables, but you try to keep these simple. You expect your work to look professional, but learning arcane typesetting conventions isn’t your hobby. You use footnotes and references. You use indexes and tables of contents. Your book will be printed on paper, not on a CD-ROM or posted onto a website. You need to send your work to your editor, who uses the same software you use. You can afford to buy a middle-of-the-line computer every two or three years.

“Art” vs. Readability Reading is a habitual skill. What you read most often is easiest for you to read. This is why newspapers, magazines, and books are more or less standardized. Basic Book Design will teach you to you’re your document look conventional. Breaking these rules usually makes your book harder to read. I.e., a book that looks “distinctive” and artistic is usually hard to read. Conversely, easy-to-read books usually look boring and con­ ventional. A good compromise is to design a distinctive and artistic cover,

Fonts “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES: 1. Use 12-point Times Roman for text. 2. Use 14-point Helvetica for chapter titles and 12-point Hel­ vetica for section headings. 3. Never use monospaced (a.k.a. “typewriter”) fonts, e.g., Courier. 4. Use unusual fonts only for short items, e.g., the title and au­ thor’s name on the cover, or for chapter titles. 5. Don’t use too many fonts. Three should be enough for al­ most any book. “ADVANCED” RULE: Read The Elements Of Typographic Style, by Robert Bringhurst (2001), for 350 pages of rules about font selection. DEFINITIONS: serif san-serif proportional monospaced x-height points picas subheads large-print book Serif vs. Sans-Serif Fonts are, in general, divided into serif and sans-serif designs. Serif fonts have little curlicues on the ends of the letters. Sans-serif

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fonts don’t. E.g., Times Roman is a serif font.
Helvetica is a sans-serif font.

People don’t read words one letter at a time. They recognize en­ tire words at once. Words are, in general, easier to recognize in a serif font, for three reasons: • The curlicues give the letters a more distinctive shape. • The lower-case letters are relatively smaller (and the uppercase letters relatively larger). This is called x-height. • Readers are used to reading serif fonts. What you read most often is easiest for you to read. Smaller x-height makes serif fonts use less horizontal space. I.e., your book will be shorter if you use a serif font. E.g., the fol­ lowing two sentences are the same font size: The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. (12-point Times) The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. (12-point Helvetica) In 1931, the London Times hired typographers to design a high­ ly readable, compact font. Times Roman is now the most widely used font. It’s chicken-and-egg: Times Roman is easy to read, so it’s widely used; and it’s widely used, so it’s easy to read. Points And Picas 72.27 points make one inch. A point is 0.3515 millimeters. A point is neither metric nor English. Microsoft Word uses exactly 72 points to the inch. I.e., Mi­ crosoft Word points aren’t real typesetting points. This is OK with me! LaTeX uses 72.27 points to the inch. A pica is twelve points, or about one-sixth of an inch, or about

6

Basic Book Design

four millimeters. Chapter And Section Titles Use a different font for chapter titles. Helvetica is a good choice. It’s the most popular sans-serif font. It’s the most distinctive font from Times Roman that is still relatively easy to read. It also looks good in bold. The Chicago Manual of Style (18.28-29) advocates using the same font for text and for section and subsection headings (called subheads). The Chicagoans recommend using ALL CAPS, italics, SMALL CAPS, etc., to differentiate the levels of headings. Don’t use small caps in a heading unless you buy a small caps font. The Small Caps feature that word processors offer you (scal­ ing down capitals) isn’t really small caps. More about this later. If you use a small caps font, make sure the heading font isn’t smaller than the text font. That would confuse readers. ALL CAPS are harder to read. This is OK for short chapter ti­ tles, but not for long subheads. Instead, I suggest using the chapter title font (e.g., Helvetica) for the A-level subheads, and then switching to the text font (e.g., Times Roman) for the B-level subheads. E.g., this book has chap­ ter titles in 14-point Helvetica Neue bold ALL CAPS, section heads in 12-point Helvetica Neue bold Title Case, and subheads in 12-point Times New Roman italic Title Case. Subheads should never be the last item on a page. In Microsoft Word, use Format…Paragraph…Line and Page Breaks…Keep with next to prevent this. Monospaced Fonts A third type of font should be used rarely or never. These are monospaced or typewriter fonts. The most common example is Courier. In contrast, Times Roman, Helvetica, etc. are propor­ tionately-spaced fonts. Monospaced fonts were designed for typewriters. Each letter is

Notice that in Courier, the i and the m are the same width. In Times Roman, the i is narrow and the m is wide. Monospaced fonts are hard to read and take up more space. The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. (12-point Times Roman) The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. (12-point Helvetica) The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. (12-point Courier) Low-Res Fonts If you use a Macintosh, your font library will include several fonts Apple developed in 1984 for the original Macintosh and its Im­ ageWriter printer. These fonts include New York, Geneva. Mona­ co, and Chicago. These were designed to look good at the low 80 dpi resolution of the original Macintosh and its Image Writer print­ er. Modern printers are at least 360 dpi. Don’t use these fonts un­ less you’re trying to make your document have that authentic 1984 birthplace-of-desktop-publishing look. Font Size Too-small fonts are hard to read, especially for older people or people who don’t read much. Too-large fonts look like a children’s book. Your eyes have to move more, and you have to turn more pages. This gets tiring.

Leading “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES: 1. When using book-length lines (65-70 characters per line, including spaces), don’t use single-spaced or double-spaced settings. Instead, use “At Least” settings. 2. When using book-length lines, use two or three points of leading, e.g., 15 points leading with a 12-point font. 3. When using wider lines, e.g., in a letter, use wider leading. Use double-spacing or one-and-a-half spacing. DEFINITIONS leading solid Leading (pronounced like lead, the metal, not lead, what your dog does when walking you) is the space between lines of text. It’s also called spacing, as in single-spaced, double-spaced, etc. Fonts and leading are referred to as two numbers. E.g., “12/13” or “12 on 13 points” is a 12-point font with 13 points of leading. Single-spaced can be the same as the font size (called solid), e.g., a 12-point font on 12-point leading. Or it can be the font size plus one point, e.g., a 12-point font on 13 points of leading is sin­ gle-spaced. Check what your word processor does. A 12-point font with one-and-a-half spacing is 18 points of leading, or 12/18. A 12-point font with double spacing is 24 points of leading, or 12/24.

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Use two or three points of leading. E.g., 11/13, or 12/15. This is easier to read than single-spaced (one point of leading). More than three points of leading is usually unnecessary. Your book will be longer, increasing printing costs. Readers will have to move their eyes more, and turn more pages. Justiﬁcation “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES: 1. Use justified paragraphs. Justiﬁed text has even left and right margins. Unjustiﬁed test has an even left margin and a “ragged right” margin.
This paragraph is justiﬁed. This sentence is in a justiﬁed paragraph. This sentence is also in a justiﬁed paragraph. This sentence is—you guessed it!—also in a justiﬁed paragraph. This paragraph is ragged right. This sentence is in a ragged right paragraph. This sentence is also in a ragged right paragraph. This sentence is—you guessed it!—also in a ragged right paragraph.

Typeset books use justiﬁed text. Justiﬁed text looks nicer. Read­ ers are used to reading justiﬁed text, so justiﬁed text is easier to read. “Ragged right” text improves retention. I.e., if you want readers to remember what you wrote, and especially to return and ﬁnd items they’d read earlier, use of “ragged right” may be justiﬁed (sorry, I couldn’t resist the pun). Just as readers recognize words by their shape, they also remember ideas by the shape of the para­ graph. “Ragged right” text should be used in one other situation. If the column is very narrow, or the font size is very big, or the words are

10

Basic Book Design

very long (e.g., website URLs), justiﬁed text can produce huge white spaces between words, called open lines. Open lines are a sign of amateur typesetting. Instead, set a website URL centered on its own line. If you’re forced to use a narrow column (e.g., ﬂowing text around an illus­ tration), look at it both justiﬁed and “ragged right,” and choose what looks best. Text is always justiﬁed by increasing white space between words, never between letters within words. The latter (called let­ terspacing) would make word shapes difﬁcult to recognize. Text should always be justiﬁed by adding equal amounts of space be­ tween all words on a line. Early word processors (in the 1980s) put two spaces between some words and one space between other words. That looked awful.

Page Size “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES: 1. For books printed on offset printers, use a 6"x9" page size. 2. For books or anything else printed on laser printers (includ­ ing Xerox Docutech printers), use 5.5"x8.5" or 8.5"x11" page size. The standard book size is six inches wide and nine inches tall (6"x9"). Your book will probably be cheapest to print, easiest to read, and easiest to sell (e.g., it’ll ﬁt on bookstore shelves) in this size. Larger books are harder to hold, carry, or put on a shelf. Smaller books lose disproportionately more space to margins, increasing the cost. A 6"x9" book has nearly 20% more text space. But a 6"x9" book costs only about 5% more than a 5.5"x8.5" book. The result is a 15% cost savings. The cover of a 6"x9" book is 15% larger than a 5.5"x8.5" book. The cover is your best advertising space. In a bookstore window,

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passersby are more likely to see a larger book. Setting up your software applications for 6"x9" pages can be tricky. In Microsoft Word, go the File…Page Setup…Settings… Custom Paper Size. Inkjet Printer Limitations If you have an inkjet printer connected to your computer, Mi­ crosoft Word usually won’t allow a 0.5" bottom margin. Depend­ ing on the printer, it may require a minimum 0.56" or 0.67" bottom margin. 0.06 inches may not sound like much, but in a 224-page book, that’s two extra pages. To get around this limitation, tell Microsoft Word you’re using a laser printer. Word should then allow a bottom margin up to 0.2", Alternateively, use the default paper size, e.g., 8.5"x11". Save your document as a PDF file, and use Adobe Acrobat to crop the pages.

and costlier to print. However, I recommend increasing the inside margin (the margin closest to the binding). This makes the book easier to read. Pages tend to curl near the binding. Less light gets into the center of a book. Increase your inner margin to three-quar­ ter-inch. The Chicago Manual of Style (18.17) advocates printing 65 to 70 characters on each line (including spaces). In Microsoft Word, select a line and use Tools…Word Count to count the number of characters. E.g., in the last paragraph, the full lines varied from 63 to 69 characters. If your lines have substantially more than 70 characters, consid­ er using two columns. Make your three outer margins equal. This makes the text look square on the page. E.g., set your margins at three-quarter-inch for the inside, one-half-inch for the outside, one-half-inch for the top margin, and one-half-inch for the bottom margin. Professional book designers will object that books traditionally have a narrower top margin and a wider bottom margin. This looks good if you have a running header but no running footer. I prefer equal margins, to maximize use of the page and reduce page count. As noted above with font choice, using equal margins is a rule to keep novices out of trouble. If you understand traditional book de­ sign don’t follow this rule. Use mirror margins with unequal inner and outer margins, if your document will be bound (e.g., a book).

Headers, Footers, And Page Numbers “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES: 1. Use a running header for the text section of your book. 2. Don’t use footer in books, except for drop folios. 3. Put the page number at the outside margin of the running header 4. Put the chapter title in the recto (right-hand) running head­

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er. 5. Put the book title in the verso (left-hand) running header. DEFINITIONS header footer running header folios drop folio To a typesetter, a header means a chapter or section title. What your word processor calls a header is called a running header by a typesetter. Page numbers (called folios) should start with the ﬁrst page of text as page 1. If you have excessive front matter (e.g., a six-page foreword), use lower-case roman numerals (i, ii, iii…) to number the front matter. Page numbers should at the outer margin of the running header. Use a font family distinctive from the text font family, e.g., Hel­ vetica for the running header if your text is Times Roman. Also use a font size distinctive from the text font size, e.g., 10 points for the page number, if the text is 12 points. The Chicago Manual of Style (1.94) advocates not putting the book title in the verso (left hand) running header. They reason that your readers don’t need to be reminded what book they’re reading. I disagree, in this post-Napster era. When a reader photocopies your book, the title will show on each copy. Put the chapter title in the recto (right-hand) running header. Tab in one-half inch from the verso left margin to start the book ti­ tle. Tab back one-half inch from the recto right margin to end the chapter title. Use the same font for the running header and the page number. Leave a space between the header and the text. A large space is un­ necessary if your running header looks distinctive from the text. I guarantee that at least once you’ll change a chapter title, and

14

Basic Book Design

then forget to change the running header (i.e., at least one running header won’t match the chapter title). To avoid this problem, insert the running header as a cross-reference. In Microsoft Word, open View… Header and Footer. Click in the running header. Open Insert…Cross-Reference. Select Header and Header Text. Select the appropriate chapter title and insert. Don’t use a footer if you want to minimize printing costs. Put all the necessary info into the header. First Page Of Chapters The ﬁrst page of each chapter should not have a header. In Microsoft Word, at the start of each chapter, don’t use a page break. Instead use Insert…Break…Section Break (New Page) to start a new section. Then use View…Header and Footer… Different First Page (the icon has a numeral 1 in it) to remove the header from, and possibly add a footer to, the ﬁrst page of each section. On the ﬁrst page of each chapter, the page number is centered in the footer. This is called a drop folio. Don’t put anything else in this footer. In Microsoft Word, this puts a page number at the bottom of your title page. Work around this bug by putting two page breaks (Insert…Break…Page Break) at the start of your title page. This produces two pages, the ﬁrst of which has nothing but a page num­ ber at the bottom. The second is a blank verso (left hand) page nec­ essary to make your title page a recto (right hand) page. When you ﬁnish your book and save it as a PDF ﬁle, use Adobe Acrobat to delete the ﬁrst two pages. I said that the bottom margin should be one-half inch. The drop folio is an exception to the rule. Put a drop folio a quarter-inch from the bottom of the page.

Number of Pages “KEEP OUT OF TROUBLE” RULES:

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1. For books printed on offset presses, total pages must be multiples of 8, 16, or 32, (e.g., 224 pages, not 220 pages). Ask your printer if you save money by using a multiple of 32. 2. For documents printed on laser printers (including Xerox Docutech printers), any number of pages is possible. 3. Minimize front and back matter, e.g., titles pages. Don’t in­ clude items such as half-title pages unless you know the right way to design them. 4. Ask your printer to use recycled paper and soy-based ink. TRADITIONAL RULES: See the Chicago Manual of Style (1.4-58, 1.82-91) to design the front and back matter pages. Offset presses print books in signatures of eight, sixteen, or thirtytwo pages. E.g., a book can be 224 pages, but not 220 pages. Ask your printer what their presses do. It may be cheaper to print a 224-page book instead of a 216page book. 224 pages is seven thirty-two-page signatures (a signa­ ture is a set of pages printed together). 216 pages is eight signa­ tures: six thirty-two-page signatures, one sixteen-page signature, and one eight-page signature. I.e., the printing press needs to be set up only seven times for a 224-page book, but has to be set up eight times for a 216-page book. Each set-up costs money. Xerox Docutech printers (used for small runs of under 500 books) don’t print in signatures, so can print any number of pages. Excessive Front and Back Pages Why books start with sixteen pages of title pages, contents, ac­ knowledgements, dedication, quotations, etc. makes no sense to me. Every page costs money. Do readers want to spend an extra dollar for pages they don’t read? Ten pages of forewords and introductions will confuse the read­ er—is he or she supposed to read all that? Or can the reader skip

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Basic Book Design

all that and start with Chapter 1? Nobody reads the acknowledgements, except the handful of people you acknowledge. Put it on the copyright page. Nobody reads the excerpted reviews sometimes included in the front of paperbacks. The reader knows that all the excerpts will praise the book, so why read them? Don’t stretch a small book by using a large font size, wide lead­ ing, wide margins, blank pages at the end, etc. Small books can be just as good as big books. Many of the best books ever written are under 100 pages. Environmental Issues Ask your printer to use recycled paper and soy ink. Some printers will do this for no extra cost. Put the recycled logo on your back cover or title page.

Printed with soy ink on recycled paper.

¶

CHAPTERS
Headings And Subheads Set your chapter and section heading leadings in multiples of the text leading. This will align your lines of text on facing pages. E.g., you’re using 15-point leading for your text. Make the chapter headings 45 points and the section headings 30 points. The chapter heading might have a 14-point font, preceded by 20 points above and 11 points below (20+14+11=45). The section headings might have a 12-point font, preceded by 15 points above and 3 points below (15+12+3=30). If you don’t do this, the lines towards the bottom of the recto (right-hand) pages won’t align with the lines towards the bottom of the verso (left-hand) pages. Don’t use relative leading (e.g., single-spaced, double-spaced), especially if your headings are a larger font size than your text. In­ stead, use absolute leading (e.g., 15 points). Numbering Sections If you number your chapters, sections, and subsections, use whole numbers for chapters, the ﬁrst decimal place for sections, the sec­ ond decimal place for subsections, etc. In contrast, the Chicago Manual of Style numbers its sections and subsections consecutively. E.g., its four levels (chapter, sec­ tion, subsection, sub-subsection) are numbered: 6. Spelling and Distinctive Treatment of Words INTRODUCTION 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

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Basic Book Design

SPELLING Preferences of Special Groups
BRITISH VERSUS AMERICAN SPELLING

6.5
SPELLINGS PECULIAR TO PARTICULAR DISCIPLINES

6.6 Plurals
GENERAL RULES

6.7
COMPOUND NOUNS

6.8 6.9
PLURALS IN DICTIONARIES

6.10
PROPER NOUNS

6.11… I.e., the Chicago Manual of Style numbers most—not all—para­ graphs consecutively, restarting the numbers in each chapters. A better way to number subsections is: 6. Spelling and Distinctive Treatment of Words 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 SPELLING 6.2.1 Preferences of Special Groups
6.2.1.1 BRITISH VERSUS AMERICAN SPELLING 6.2.1.2 SPELLINGS PECULIAR TO PARTICULAR…

Unnecessary Sections Each of your lowest-level subsections should have at least two paragraphs. Each next-higher-level section should have at least two subsections. Each chapter should have at least two sections. If you ﬁnd lone paragraphs or sections, consider removing the heading. Bleed Tabs and Thumbnail Indexes Bleed tabs are blocks of black ink (with something written in white in the blocks) at the outer edge of each page in a chapter so that you see black blocks when you look at the edge of the book. Bleed tabs require placing a graphic outside the text margins. A bleed tab is always placed on the outside page edge (never on the inside, top, or bottom of a page). Create the graphic in Adobe Photoshop. You might also be able to create the image in Microsoft Word using View…Toolbars… Drawing or Insert…Picture…Autoshapes. In Microsoft Word, create a table using Table…Insert > Table… Specify one column and one row. Set the initial column width to fit your graphic. Insert your illustration in the table using Insert…Picture…From File…

Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… Set the horizontal alignment to Left or Right, with zero indent. Open the Options window. Set all cell margins to zero. Close these win­ dows. Select and drag the table’s left or right border to fit the illustra­ tion. Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… again. Se­ lect Text Wrapping…Around and open the Positioning window. Click Move With Text. Select Horizontal…Position…Left (or Right) and Horizontal … Position… Page. This aligns the graphic with the edge of the page. Set the Vertical…Position…as you wish (e.g., aligned with a paragraph, or centered down the page). Your printer may want the bleed tabs to extend 1/8" or 1/4" be­

20

Basic Book Design

yond the paper edge (this is what “bleed” means). If so, set Mi­ crosoft Word to use a larger paper size, and let your printer crop the PDF files as he or she wishes. Thumbnail indexes are like bleed tabs, but have paper cut-outs. Expensive dictionaries have these.

Capitalizing Words in Titles Title Case, as done by word processors, capitalizes the ﬁrst letter of each world. The Chicago Manual of Style (7.126-160) makes exceptions to this rule: articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions should not be capitalized in titles, except for the ﬁrst and/or last words in the title. Examples of words not to capitalize in titles in­ clude: a, an, and, but, for, from, into, of, on, or, than, the, to, via, vs., and with, Note that the common title phrase How to… doesn’t capitalize to. About, as, in, and over are sometime prepositions, depending on meaning (look these up in a dictionary if you’re unsure). If you have a copy of the Chicago Manual of Style, note that the title is “The Chicago Manual of Style” not “Chicago Manual of Style.” According to the Chicago Manual of Style (7.135), the ini­ tial the in a title is not capitalized or italicized if the sentence al­ ready precedes the title with the. I.e., drop the initial the from a book title when you have two the’s in a row.

Master Documents If your computer is slow, use master documents. Most word pro­ cessors can make each chapter a separate chapter, then join them together as a book. Moving between chapters will be slower, but saving, typing, etc. will be faster. I’ve never used Microsoft Word in master document mode.

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21

Several people have told me that it’s a “bug-ridden monstrosity.” If this is true, and you need to make master documents, consider an­ other software application, e.g., Adobe FrameMaker.

¶

PARAGRAPHS
Indentation Don’t indent the ﬁrst paragraph of a chapter or section. Only fol­ lowing paragraphs are indented. LaTeX automatically does this. Microsoft Word doesn’t. If you use Microsoft Word, you’ll have to create a new style for “First Paragraph” and manually set all these ﬁrst paragraphs into that style. How Much To Indent? Paragraphs should be indented at least far as the font is high. I.e., if you’re using a 12-point font, indent your paragraphs at least 12 points, or 0.17 inches. Indent no more than the leading. E.g., with 15 points of leading, indent no more than 0.21 inches. Microsoft Word’s default is 0.5 inches. That much indent looks amateurish. It may put too much white space between words on the ﬁrst line. Another sign of amateur design is to put a blank line between paragraphs.

Word Division Hyphenation (called word division) is breaking long words be­ tween lines. The purpose of hyphenation is to reduce the white space between words. A line with little white space is called a close line. A line with wide white spaces is called an open line. A second purpose of hyphenation is to make your document shorter. A sign of amateur design is too much white space between words. A professionally designed book has an even grayness on

Paragraphs

23

each page, not splotchy darker and lighter paragraphs. But another sign of amateur design is bad hyphenation. Follow these rules: • Hyphenate only between syllables. • Don’t hyphenate across a turned page, i.e., from a recto to a verso. • The Chicago Manual Of Style doesn’t allow more than three successive lines to end in hyphens (6.58). In my opinion, this is too liberal; I don’t end two lines in a row with hyphens. • Never hyphenate a website URL. If it’s too long for a line, make a URL into an extract (see below) and break the URL at a backslash. The Chicago Manual Of Style (6.44-49) lists four pages of addi­ tional rules for word division, e.g., not dividing personal names. The Chicago Manual Of Style (6.49) allows dividing words with two letters (but never one letter, 6.48) before the division. It does­ n’t allow leaving two letters after the division (6.49). This makes no sense to me. The reader should be able to recognize the word from the part before the division. The part after the division does­ n’t affect the reader’s recognition of a word. I suggest instead try­ ing to keep four or ﬁve letters before the division, and accepting two letters after a division. E.g., if you know the ﬁrst ﬁve letters, you can guess most words:
You shoul not have a probl readi this sente. (5 letters) Four lett divi are also not hard to read. (4 letters) In con, if you hyp at thr let, it is muc har to rec wor. (3 letters) Re wo fr th ﬁ tw le wo ch ev Va Wh. (2 letters— Recognizing words from the ﬁrst two letters would challenge even Vanna White.)

ently. With Adobe FrameMaker, you specify the minimum number of letters for hyphenation. I suggest setting this at four or ﬁve letters. With Microsoft Word, you enter a minimum space in inches, e.g., 0.5”. This isn’t the length of the letters before the hyphen­ ation. Rather, this is the length of letters before the hyphenation plus the white space before the hyphenated word. This is a better system. If a sentence is open, Microsoft Word hyphenates at three or two letters. If a sentence is close, it hyphenates at four or ﬁve letters. The result is more even grayness. I ﬁnd that with 12-point Times Roman, hyphenation looks best at 0.5”. Condensed Spacing You can eliminate most hyphenation by instead condensing the spacing between letters in words by 0.1 points. The changes in word shapes is almost imperceptible. In some fonts, the word shapes improve (become more readable) slightly. This sentence has character spacing condensed 0.0 points. This sentence has character spacing condensed 0.1 points. This sentence has character spacing condensed 0.2 points. To manually condense a word or line in Microsoft Word, select the text, then go to Format/Font/Character Spacing. Choose Spacing/Condensed. Set this to 0.1 points. To automatically do this—you’ll save at least one line per page —go to Word/Preferences/Compatibility (Microsoft Word X) or Tools/Options/Compatibility (Windows Microsoft Word). Click on “Do full justification like WordPerfect 6.x for Windows,” and then click off “Expand/condense by whole number of points.” When you reduce white space between two letters, it’s called kerning. Letterspacing is reducing the white space between all let­ ters on a line.

Paragraphs

25

Hyphenate Compound Words If two words have a special meaning when used together, they form a compound word. Hyphenate compound words. If you don’t, the reader might get confused.
…the ear splitting log. …the ear-splitting siren.

The former sentence means that the ear was splitting a log, like an ax. The latter sentence means that the siren was loud. I.e., in the former sentence, the ear splits the log. In the latter sentence the siren splits the ear. However, words ending in ly don’t follow this rule. Don’t hy­ phenate two words when the ﬁrst word ends in ly. E.g., “…the beautifully painted staircase.” Hanging Punctuation Professional typesetters extend some punctuation marks, e.g., hy­ phenation, beyond the right margin. Word processors can’t do this.

Widows And Orphans A widow is a short line (one or two words) ending a paragraph at the top of a page. Widows should be avoided. An orphan is the ﬁrst line of a paragraph ending a page. Microsoft Word has automated widow/orphan control, in Format…Paragraph…Line and Page Breaks. I suggest not using it, for two reasons. First, Microsoft Word doesn’t count the number of words in a widow. According to the Chicago Manual of Style (19.40), a ten-word line isn’t a widow, and is acceptable. Second, the Chicago Manual of Style doesn’t say anything about orphans, so I presume these are acceptable. Orphans are al­ ways full lines (never one or two words).

26

Basic Book Design

Quotations And Extracts Consider rewriting long quotations in your own words. Your writ­ ing is likely easier to read, and takes up less space. Plus you’ll have no worries about copyrights or permissions. But sometimes another author writes something better than you can write.
I felt like a punk who’d gone out for a switchblade and come back with a tactical nuke. “Shit,” I said, “screwed again. What good’s a tacti­ cal nuke in a streetﬁght?” — William Gibson, Burning Chrome

Set apart long quotations with a different font family, font size, margins, and leading. If you’re using a serif font (e.g., Times Roman) for your text, the most different font would be sans-serif (e.g., Helvetica). But sans-serif fonts are difﬁcult to read. Instead, use a readable serif font, distinct from your text font. I like Rockwell (used in the above William Gibson quotation). In contrast, Palatino (below) doesn’t look different enough from Times Roman):
I felt like a punk who’d gone out for a switchblade and come back with a tactical nuke. “Shit,” I said, “screwed again. What good’s a tactical nuke in a streetﬁght?” — William Gibson, Burning Chrome

OK, to you it looks different, and Palatino is a beautiful font. But some idiot reader won’t notice that you’ve changed fonts, mar­ gins, and leading, and think that you wrote the quotation. Don’t be subtle. Make things very clear to your readers. Use a font size one point smaller than the text. Use singlespaced leading. Move the margins in one-quarter or one-half inch

Paragraphs

27

on both sides. Add space above and below the quote. Don’t add space between a new section heading and the quotation (your section heading should already have space above and below). Don’t add space if the quote is at the top or bottom of a page. Quotations have one problem I don’t know how to solve. If you change the leading, the lines on the verso and recto pages (lefthand and right-hand pages) won’t align. A page break should never break a quotation (or an extract) with one line above the page break. Extracts An example is called an extract.
This is an example of an extract.

Again, make your extracts look distinctive from your text. If your book has both quotations and extracts, use distinctive fonts, e.g., Rockwell for quotations and Helvetica for extracts. Indentation After Quotations And Extracts Some typesetters don’t indent the ﬁrst paragraph after a quotation or extract. This is a good idea if the left margin of your quotation/extract is close to your paragraph indentation. E.g., you set your paragraph indentation at 0.2”, and your extract left margin at 0.25”. This book has those settings. Because the extracts and paragraphs nearly line up, you might think that the paragraph after an extract was part of the extract. If you make your quotations/extracts and text look distinct, in­ dent the paragraph after a quotation or extract. If your text, quota­ tions, and extracts look similar, don’t indent the ﬁrst paragraph af­ ter a quotation or extract.

28

Basic Book Design

Captions And Legends Illustrations, tables, charts, etc. should have captions or legends. The “keep out trouble” rule is to use Microsoft Word’s Insert… Caption function. The “traditional” rule is to read the Chicago Manual of Style section about this (11.24-43). Bulleted Lists Use a tab between the bullet and the first word. A space will vary in width, if your list has justified text.

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SENTENCES
Spaces Between Sentences Type one space between sentences. LaTeX automatically puts in a wider space between sentences. One LaTeX manual says that this is traditional for English and American typesetters, and that French typesetters don’t use the wider space between sentences. The Chicago Manual of Style doesn’t say anything about this issue. I.e., the “keep out of trouble” rule is one space. I’m not certain of the traditional rule. The “word processor rule” is easy: Mi­ crosoft Word can’t put wider spaces between sentences.

Examples and Rephrasing A good way to write non-ﬁction is to state a general principle, and then give an example. This may confuse readers. I.e., readers may think that your ex­ ample is the rule, or that the rule is merely an example. E.g., “In most species, males are usually larger than females. My father is taller than my mother.” Some reader is sure to object that her mother is taller than her father. Identify the general principle, and identify the example. Examples are easy to identify: precede the example with the phrase “for example” (followed by a comma), or the abbreviation “e.g.” (also followed by a comma). “Like” means “similar to.” Don’t use “like” to mean “for ex­ ample.” General principles are harder to identify. In general, you can identify a principle by preceding the principle with the phrase “in general.” Don’t use colloquialisms, e.g., “roughly speaking,” or, “as a

30

Basic Book Design

rule of thumb,” or “you know what I’m saying?” State the general principle ﬁrst, and then the example. You can start sentences with “I.e.,” or “E.g.,” but when starting a paragraph use the full phrase “In other words,” or “For example,” Rephrasing Another good style is to make a precise statement using technical words, and then rephrase the statement using familiar words. E.g., “Cycle power when the LED indicator is red. In other words, if the red light is on, switch the power off, wait a few seconds, and switch the power on again.” To avoid confusing the reader, identify the rephrasing by pre­ ceding the rephrasing with “for example” (followed by a comma), or “i.e.” (followed by a comma). But, Counterexamples, and Converse Statements The most compelling word is “but.” We’re innately curious to learn that something we believed is wrong, or that there’s a new way of doing something we habitually do. For example, “You thought milk was good for you. But after this commercial break, you’ll hear from a man who says that milk is the worst thing you can put in your body!” You’ll sit through six commercials to hear that interview, even if you don’t drink milk. (Or especially if you don’t drink milk.) This style can also set up humorous lines. E.g., “Men should be emotionally cool when asking a woman out on date. In contrast, jumping up and down excitedly if she says yes, or throwing a tem­ per tantrum is she says no, is unlikely to make a woman respect you.” Buts, counterexamples and converse statements make your writ­ ing compelling and entertaining. But used poorly they’ll confuse the reader. “But” or “however” is used for a false statement followed by a true statement. Identify the false statement as false. Precede it with

Sentences

31

“many people believe,” or “you thought,” etc. Without the iden­ tiﬁer, readers will think that your false statement is true, then feel confused when you state the opposite. “Never start a sentence with but” is a favorite phrase of fourthgrade teachers. But starting a sentence with “but” can be grammat­ ical. I don’t understand where this so-called “rule” came from. Per­ haps “but” was lower-class, and “however” was used by educated persons. “But” and “however” are interchangeable. The phrase “yes, but” should never be used. This phrase com­ municates that the preceding false statement is true, and the fol­ lowing opposite statement is also true. (However, Russians often use the word “a,” which translates to “and but” or “yes but.”) Counterexamples should be identiﬁed by a preceding “in con­ trast.” Don’t use “for example” or “e.g.” to identify counterexam­ ples. Counterexamples aren’t examples. Converse statements are restatements (like “in other words”) of general principles, but you state the opposite. E.g., “In general, men are taller than women. Conversely, women are shorter than men.”

Punctuation In Quotations Question marks and exclamation marks go inside or outside quota­ tions, depending on whether the quoted text used the punctuation mark.
She asked me, “Is this the train to Altoona?” (Correct) Do you really call that “borscht”? (Correct)

about when to put a period outside quotation marks. If you under­ stand these rules, follow them. E.g.,
Yes, this is what they call “borscht”. (Correct)

Spelling And Grammar Checkers Microsoft Word autocorrects many mistyped words. It underlines in red words that it doesn’t recognize. This is helpful. Microsoft Word doesn’t recognize ligatures (two letters joined, usually ﬁ or ﬂ). E.g., it thinks that ofﬁce is misspelled. Microsoft Word underlines grammatical errors in green. If you don’t understand why your grammar checker ﬂagged a sentence, click on Tools…Spelling and Grammar and it will tell you. If you don’t understand its explanation, look it up in a grammar book (e.g., The Chicago Manual Of Style). The Grammarian grammar checker (made by Casady & Greene, http://www.casadyg.com) is more powerful than Microsoft Word’s built-in grammar checker. If your writing is worth money, it’s worth $19.95.

Ideal Reading Grade Level If you’re writing for a general audience, try to write at a sixthgrade reading level. Newspaper and popular magazine (e.g., Peo­ ple) journalists write at the sixth-grade reading level. Above an eighth-grade reading level, you’ll start to lose even sophisticated readers. A reader may have a Ph.D., but that doesn’t mean that he or she wants to make an effort to read difﬁcult prose. Make your reader’s life easier. Microsoft Word reports that reading grade level of the previous two paragraphs as the following average statistics:
Sentences per Paragraph Words per Sentence Characters per Word Passive sentences Flesch Reading Ease Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level 2.5 13.6 5.0 0% 62.3% 7.9

The “Flesch Reading Ease” is the inverse of reading grade level. I.e., a high number is easier to read. Reading grade level is measured by counting the number of let­ ters in each word, the number of words in each sentence, the num­ ber of sentences in each paragraph, and factoring in passive-voice sentences. That sounds simplistic, and many educators have at­ tempted to improve on this simple model, but more sophisticated models don’t work better. Go through your text sentence by sentence, running the reading grade level checker. Whenever it signals that a paragraph is too complex, try to simplify it. Word Length Use sesquipedalian words. Say exactly what you mean, in as few words as possible. Write about speciﬁc concepts, e.g., “abnormal fetal testosterone,” that can’t be said in shorter words. But deﬁne unusual words. E.g., “sesquipedalian” literally means

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Basic Book Design

“measuring one-and-a-half feet long.” But that doesn’t mean eigh­ teen inches. Rather, in rhyming verse, two or three syllables are called a foot. One-and-a-half feet would be three- to ﬁve-syllables. “Sesquipedalian” means a long, multisyllabic word. By using and deﬁning long words, you get the best of both worlds. Sophisticated readers appreciate your precise use of lan­ guage. Unsophisticated readers understand you. (I’d like to see a reading grade level checker that ignores long, deﬁned words.) Sentence Length Write short sentences. Take out unnecessary words and phrases. E.g., “The fact of the matter is…” Look for the phrase “there are.” No sentence needs those two words. Look for repeated phrases. Rewrite without the repeated materi­ al. Use colons and semi-colons rarely: rewrite these sentences as two sentences; or rewrite them as three sentences. Consider replacing a comma with a period. Look for commas followed by and. Consider breaking the sentence at the comma. But too-short sentences annoy readers. If your reading grade level drops below sixth grade, consider joining short sentences into longer sentences. Paragraph Length If you have more than three sentences in a paragraph, consider breaking it into two paragraphs. Passive-Voice Sentences Whenever your grammar checker ﬁnds a passive-voice sentence, rewrite it in the active voice. E.g.,
Newspapers and popular magazines (e.g., People) are

Sentences

35

written at the sixth-grade reading level. (Passive) Newspaper and popular magazine (e.g., People) journalists write at the sixth-grade reading level. (Active)

In a passive-voice sentence, something is happening, but the reader isn’t told who is doing it. In an active-voice sentence, somebody is doing something. Limited-Vocabulary English Technical manuals written for persons who don’t read well (or for whom English is a second language, or when the manual will be translated into another language) are sometimes written in limitedvocabulary English. This consists of about 2000 common English words. You’re not allowed to use other words. Misleading ﬁgures of speech are also forbidden. E.g., switches are switched, not turned. “Turn on the power” is replaced with “switch on the power.” When houses were ﬁrst electriﬁed (about one hundred years ago), light switches moved in circles, and so were turned. Most light switches now move up and down, but some are pushed in and out, and so the verb switch is more accu­ rate. Further Reading Rudolf Flesch developed the “phonics” method of teaching read­ ing. If you can’t read, buy his book Why Johnny Can’t Read. If you can’t write, buy his 1946 book How to Write, Speak and Think More Effectively.

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WORDS
Emphasizing Words Amateur writers emphasize words with CAPITAL LETTERS, un­ derlining, bold, or larger letters. Professional writers instead use italics to emphasize words. Amateurs go on and on with really long emphasized sentences. Sometimes they emphasize entire paragraphs. Professionals emphasize only one word, or a few words. What emphasizing a word in an emphasized sentence? The standard form is that in an italic sentence, the emphasized word is not in italics. Instead consider using bold italics to emphasize a word in an italic sentence. Modiﬁers Don’t use very, really, or just. These words are just never really necessary, and always make you sound very amateurish. (Read that sentence again, removing just, really, and very.) The compound word sky-rocketing means that the speaker is re­ porting a problem someone should do something about—as in, someone other than the speaker. E.g., “Dog poop in parks in skyrocketing!”

Writing Out Numbers The Chicago Manual of Style (8.3) advocates spelling out whole numbers from one through one hundred. However, this makes text less readable (and also longer). Few people see ninety spelled out, but everyone sees 90 often. E.g., advertisements say “90 Days Same As Cash!” I suggest spelling out whole numbers one through twelve, and multiples of ten, through one hundred. Use numerals for all other

Words

37

numbers. Where you switch from written numbers to numerals is unim­ portant. What counts is being consistent. E.g., don’t write “thir­ teen” on one page, and “13” on another. Exceptions include quotations (use what was written in the orig­ inal), money, percentages (e.g., 70% is easier to read than seventy percent), and when a sentence has two or more numbers (e.g., “The average woman moves in with a man at age 20 or 21.”).

Gender To write gender-free text, use the words person and individual. Don’t use they, them, or their to replace he, she, him, her, his or hers. “They” and “their” are plural. “He,” “she,” “him,” and “her” are singular.

Me, Myself and I Avoid mentioning yourself when writing. We naturally talk about ourselves in conversation, so it’s easy to write this way. But it doesn’t sound professional. Use Find to search for “I” and “me”. Rewrite the sentences without mentioning yourself. Or take out the material—it probably doesn’t add anything. Using the phrase “the author” sounds stuffy. Avoid telling personal stories. Stories take up more room than simply stating the point. Like unusual fonts, break this rule if you have a good reason. E.g., your book is a memoir, or a book of personal essays.

E-mailspeak The e-mail smiley face :-) is of great value in informal communica­ tion. Use it when you dash off a quick humorous note. Don’t use it in published materials. Take the time to rewrite hu­

38

Basic Book Design

mor so that it’s funny, without the smiley face. If it’s not clearly funny, take it out. If you type :-) in Microsoft Word, it tries to replace it with its own smiley face. If you save your document as a PDF, the smiley face turns into a J. Don’t use Microsoft Word’s smiley face, unless you’re writing to someone under seven years old. IMHO (in my humble opinion), LOL (laughing out loud), etc. are equally out of place in formal writing. Further Reading If you’re one of the rare writers whose grammar is 99.9% cor­ rect, and you only occasionally have to look up an arcane rule, use the Chicago Manual of Style or a similar tome. For the rest of the world, English teachers have written a variety of short, easy-to-understand grammar books, e.g., The Elements of Style, by William Strunk and E.B. White. Some of these books are more-or-less fun and entertaining to read, especially Woe Is I, by Patricia O’Conner, and its sequels. Also, subscribe to Barbara McNichol’s free monthly e-mail newsletter Word Trippers. Each month she highlights confusing words, such as compliment and complement, or discreet and dis­ crete. Subscribe or read back issues at http://www.barbaramcnichol.com/

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CHARACTERS
Straight Quotes vs. Curly Quotes A sure sign of amateur typesetting is to use "straight quotes" in­ stead of “curly quotes.” Note that curly quotes come in left and right pairs. Single quotes also come in straight (') and curly (‘ ’) varieties. Be sure to use a single-close quote in contractions, e.g., I’ll. Most word processors will automatically substitute curly quotes. To switch this feature on or off in Microsoft Word, go to
Tools…AutoCorrect…AutoFormat As You Type…Replace As You Type "Straight Quotes" With “Smart Quotes”. Then go to (you have to switch the feature on or off in two places) Tools… AutoCorrect…AutoFormat…Replace "Straight Quotes" With “Smart Quotes”.

In LaTeX, type ` (accent mark) and `` (two accent marks) for open single- and double-curly quotes, and ' and '' (two single apos­ trophes) for close single- and double-curly quotes. LaTeX auto­ matically replaces these with the appropriate curly quotes. Note that inch and feet marks are straight quotes, e.g., “he was 6'1" tall.” Contractions Without Preceding Letters Use a close-single-curly-quote in contractions that don’t have a

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Basic Book Design

preceding letter. E.g., “smoke ’em if you’ve got ’em” is a contrac­ tion of, “smoke them if you have got them.” Word processors will instead incorrectly produce “smoke ‘em if you’ve got ‘em.” Some foreign languages put a preﬁx before family names. E.g., the King of Jordan is Abdullah bin Al-Hussein (meaning, “son of the Hussein family”). He can also be referred to as King Hussein. Because Hussein is a contraction of Al-Hussein, some writers use an apostrophe, e.g., ’Hussein (correct) or ‘Hussein (incorrect). Possessive Singular And Plurals The first page of the Elements of Style, by William Strunk and E.B. White, has a mistake. The mistake is of omission, i.e., what’s writ­ ten is true, but misleading. Strunk and White correctly advised forming possessive singular nouns by adding ’s, regardless of the word’s ﬁnal letter. E.g.,
Charles’ friend (Incorrect) Charles’s friend (Correct)

They didn’t explain that the apostrophe replaces a vowel, as a contraction. E.g., we say aloud “Charleszez friend,” not “Charles friend.” What’s misleading is that they didn’t explain what to do with possessive plural nouns. I.e., a reader might think that Strunk and White advised adding ’s to form all possessive nouns. This isn’t correct. Possessive plural nouns add the apostrophe without the s. E.g.,
chimpanzees’ humans’

Here we don’t add an extra syllable, e.g., we don’t say “chim­ panzeeszez” or “humanszez”. The apostrophe without a following s indicates that it’s silent.

Characters

41

Foreign Language Characters Professional typesetters use special characters when needed in for­ eign words. E.g., a soon-to-be-married man is a ﬁancé, and a soon-to-bemarried woman is a ﬁancée. (Both words have the same pronuncia­ tion, so people get them mixed up.) Umlauts are used in “naïve,” German words, and heavy metal bands (e.g., Mötley Crüe). These and many other foreign language characters are available by typing combinations of option or shift-option and other keys. On a Macintosh, look up these combinations in the Key Caps applica­ tion. If you’re unsure where the special characters go in a foreign word (e.g., “pièce de résistance,” note that the ﬁrst accent mark is grave and the second is acute, in other words, they go in opposite directions), get a dictionary. Character Sets Different software applications use different character sets. E.g., what was an ﬁ ligature in one application becomes ≠ in another ap­ plication. Documents look different on Macintosh or Windows computers. The only way around this problem is to strip out special charac­ ters before moving a document from one application to another. E.g., use Find and Replace to change all the ﬁ ligatures to ﬁ (two letters), move the document to the new application, then use Find and Replace to change all the ﬁ (two letters) to ﬁ ligatures. On Webpages When coding a webpage, use the HTML special characters. These are listed in the back of most HTML manuals. E.g., é is &#233; or &eacute;. Some software applications will instead use other char­ acters. Viewers using different applications (e.g., Internet Explorer vs. Netscape), or a different Internet service provider (e.g., Ameri­ ca Online), or a different computer (Windows vs. Macintosh), or

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Basic Book Design

even the same software set to a different character set (at least 28 character sets exist) will see different things on your webpage. HTML uses straight double quotes (") for special purposes, e.g., specifying hyperlinks. If you use straight double quotes in HTML text, you might leave a quote out, and produce a bad link. E.g., you intended to code
Go to the world's <a href="http://www.terraquest.com/antarctica/">"coolest"</a> website.

but you mistakenly typed
Go to the world's <a href="http://www.terraquest.com/antarctica/>"coolest"</a> website.

and so you send your visitors to
http://www.terraquest.com/antarctica/>

which isn’t a webpage. Instead, use &quot; instead of double quotes. Some programmers use two grave accents (``) for an open curly double quote. This is a sign of amateur coding. Instead, use &#145; for left curly single quote, &#146; for right curly single quote, &#147; for left curly double quote, and &#148; for left curly dou­ ble quote.

Dashes Typesetters use at least five widths of dashes: – — hyphenbetween words en-dash between numbers em-dash between phrases

Characters

43

—— 2-em dash ——— 3-em dash

indicates missing letters (rare) indicates omitted word (rare)

In addition, some fonts include a minus sign, and a 3/4-emdash. The hyphen is the narrowest. The hyphen is used between words, e.g., three-quarter-inch. You get it by typing the hyphen key (next to the zero key). The en-dash (as wide as a lower-case n) is the middle width. It’s used between numbers, e.g., 7–9. On a Macintosh, you get it by typing option-hyphen. In LaTeX, it’s two hyphens (--). In HTML, it’s &#150;. The em-dash (as wide as a capital M) is the widest width. It’s used between phrases, e.g., “Farmer John is outstanding in his ﬁeld —or is he standing out in his ﬁeld?” On a Macintosh, you get an em-dash by typing shift-option-hyphen. In LaTeX, it’s three hy­ phens (---). In HTML, it’s &#151;. (Microsoft Word X sometimes has formatting problems when an m-dash is used, e.g., in a bulleted list. A line may look right on your monitor but print incorrectly.) A sign of amateur typesetting is to use two hyphens instead of an em-dash, e.g., “Farmer John is outstanding in his ﬁeld -- or is he standing out in his ﬁeld?” Another sign of amateur typesetting is to put spaces around an em-dash, e.g., “Farmer John is outstanding in his ﬁeld — or is he standing out in his ﬁeld?” Microsoft Word for Macintosh doesn’t break lines after an mdash. Use Find to look for em-dashes between the ﬁrst and second words on a line. Try inserting a space after the m-dash, to see if the ﬁrst word and the m-dash jump to the previous line. (Microsoft Word for Windows does this automatically.) Microsoft Word (for neither Macintosh or Windows) doesn’t break lines before an em-dash. I’m not sure whether starting a line with an em-dash is acceptable (The Chicago Manual of Style does­ n’t say). If you want to do this, you’ll have to manually search for em-dashes between the first and second words on a line, and insert

44

Basic Book Design

a space before the em-dash. Microsoft Word for Windows will break lines after an en-dash (Microsoft Word for Macintosh doesn’t do this). I’m pretty sure this isn’t acceptable, i.e., a range of numbers shouldn’t break across lines. Again, the Chicago Manual of Style doesn’t discuss this.

Ellipsis Amateur typesetters type three periods (...) to indicate removed text in a quotation. Professional typesetters use an ellipsis (…). The problem with three periods is that the amount of space between the periods varies, especially with justiﬁed text. E.g.,
The quick brown fox...jumped. (Incorrect) The quick brown fox. . .jumped. (Incorrect) The quick brown fox . . . jumped. (Incorrect) The quick brown fox…jumped. (Correct)

On a Macintosh, the ellipsis is option-;. In HTML it’s &#133;. Microsoft Word doesn’t break lines at an ellipsis. E.g.,
The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog, and then… the lazy dog took a nap. (Incorrect) The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog, and then… the lazy dog took a nap. (Correct)

Use Find to look at each ellipsis in your book. If the ellipsis fol­ lows the ﬁrst word in a line, try putting a space after or before the ellipsis, to see if that ﬁrst word jumps to the previous line. (The Chicago Manual of Style doesn’t say that you can’t begin a line with an ellipsis, so I presume this is OK.)

Characters

45

Ligatures Typesetters replace the ff, ﬁ, ﬂ, fﬁ, and fﬂ letter combinations with ligatures, or letter combinations. Look more closely (the ligatures are on the right):

fi ﬁ fl ﬂ
Some fonts (especially sans-serif and monospaced fonts) don’t have ligatures. Replacing these letter combinations with ligatures is a sign of professional typesetting. In any Macintosh application, type shiftoption-5 for the ﬁ ligature, and shift-option-6 for the ﬂ ligature. The ff, fﬁ, and fﬂ ligatures aren’t available on the Macintosh. LaTeX automatically substitutes all ﬁve ligatures. The Chicago Manual of Style doesn’t allow using the æ or œ ligatures in English, Greek, or Latin (6.61).

SMALL CAPS
SMALL CAPS ARE WORDS IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS, IN A SMALLER FONT SIZE THAN SURROUNDING TEXT.

TITLE CASE SMALL CAPS USE THE NORMAL FONT SIZE FOR THE FIRST LETTER IN EACH WORD. THE FOLLOWING LETTERS ARE SMALLER. The Chicago Manual of Style (8.41-42, 14.27) advocates using small caps for era designations, e.g., A.D. 1066; 13,500 B.P. (before present). Note that these are abbreviations (not acronyms) and so have periods after each letter. Also note that A.D. and A.H. (for Mus­ lim and Hebrew years) are placed before the year, when all other era designations are placed after the year. The Chicago Manual of Style (14.15) advocates not using small caps for acronyms, e.g., the AFL-CIO.

46

Basic Book Design

The Chicago Manual of Style (18.28-29) suggests using small caps (not in title case) in subheads. I oppose this practice, because subheads shouldn’t use a font smaller than the text font. However, title case small caps may be acceptable. Title case small caps in ta­ ble of contents entries can look good. Small Cap Fonts If you often use small caps, buy a small caps font. A small caps font looks different from caps in a smaller font size. I don’t have an example of a small caps font to compare. The above examples are caps in a smaller font size. I’ve been told that the difference is apparent and “you’ll never go back” if you invest in a small caps font. (I rarely use small caps.) Buy a small caps font that matches your text font (another rea­ son to stay with common fonts, e.g., Times Roman). Instead of choosing Small Caps as a font option, change fonts to your small caps font.

Bullets In a list of items, a sign of amateur typesetting is to use dashes in­ stead of bullets. E.g.,
Book designers have a choice of several software applications: - Adobe FrameMaker - LaTeX - Microsoft Word - Ventura Publisher Book designers have a choice of several software applications: • Adobe FrameMaker • LaTeX

Characters

47

• Microsoft Word • Ventura Publisher

On a Macintosh, the bullet is option-8. Macintosh Microsoft Word’s automated lists features incorrect­ ly uses dashes instead of bullets. Windows Microsoft Word cor­ rectly uses bullets. If you use Microsoft Word’s automated lists feature, and then save your ﬁle in PDF format, check each of your lists. The bullets (or dashes) may be lost when you convert to PDF. If you’re feeling artistic, use a dingbat (an ornamental typeset­ ting character), e.g.,  , t.

¶

FRONT AND BACK MATTER
Table of Contents Most word processors will automatically generate a table of con­ tents. A table of contents should be one or two pages. Readers should be able to glance through it and see what the book is about. If your table of contents is too short, increase the number of levels. If it’s too long, reduce the number of levels. You can put a detailed table of contents after the primary table of contents if necessary. The de­ tailed table of contents can be as long as you wish. Chapter Summaries A table of contents should include a one- or two-line chapter sum­ mary after each chapter title. The summary makes readers want to read the chapter (like the title and subtitle of the book). E.g.,
Chapter 3: The Announcement………..…....……36
Brad and Carol always wanted kittens—but for lunch?

Microsoft Word can’t do chapter summaries automatically. You’ll have to run your table of contents, and then type in each chapter summary. This is tedious, if you have to run your table of contents several times (e.g., you add or move a chapter). Before sending your book to the printer, check the table of con­ tents page numbers. Nothing makes a book look more amateurish than a table of contents that doesn’t match the page numbers. E.g., Chapter Three is supposed to start on page 36, but actually starts on page 37.

Front And Back Matter

49

Indexes The plural of index can be indexes or indices. Most word processors automatically generate indexes. To gen­ erate an index, ﬁrst write a concordance. This is a list of words that you want indexed. You type the concordance in two columns. The ﬁrst column is the words to be indexed. The second column is how the words will appear in the index. Your word processor may not be smart enough to ﬁnd capital and lower case, or singular and plural versions of a word, so you’ll have to type each word in four variations. E.g.,
chimpanzee Chimpanzee chimpanzee Chimpanzees chimp chimpanzees chimpanzees chimpanzees chimpanzees chimpanzees

You then run Automark to insert hidden index entries into your text, and then generate the index. Make hidden text visible (on Microsoft Word, the ¶ icon in the Standard Toolbar). Look through your front and back matter (e.g., title page, copyright page, table of contents, etc.) for index entries. Remove these manually. I.e., don’t index your title page, etc. If Microsoft Word were smarter, you would select the text portion of your book, then tell Microsoft Word to automark only this section. Read your index. You’ll ﬁnd mistakes, words you shouldn’t have indexed, and words you forgot to include. Change your con­ cordance and rerun your index. Microsoft Word doesn’t remove hidden index entries before it automarks. I.e., if you remove “chimpanzees” from your concor­ dance, then run Automark with the new concordance, “chim­ panzees” will again appear in your new index. You’ll have to switch on hidden text (with the ¶ icon in the Standard Toolbar), search for each word, ﬁnd the hidden index entry, and manually delete it. This is tedious. Microsoft Word should remove (or ask if

The Chicago Manual of Style (8.69-70) advocates leaving off certain digits in number ranges, e.g., 1113–21, rather than 1113– 1121. Explaining their rules takes two pages. If you understand it, use it. Otherwise, use all the digits. Format your index in two columns. Format it single-spaced. You may want to use a font size one point smaller than your text. If you replace an index, Microsoft Word may reset your index in a default font, rather than use the font that you previously speciﬁed. I.e., you may need to change the font for your index every time you replace the index.

Footnotes Footnotes look like this.* Use footnotes sparingly. Footnotes are a primitive form of multiple formatting. E.g., us­ ing Adobe FrameMaker, you could write one book, marking out beginning and advanced material, then print out a beginner-level book and an advanced-level book. Footnotes are usually advanced material, of interest to few read­ ers. If you want every reader to read the footnote, it should be in the text, not in a footnote. The problem with footnotes is that many readers will read the footnotes, even if they shouldn’t. The footnote breaks up their reading ﬂow, and gives them information they don’t need. Or the reader misses the asterisk identifying a footnote. The
*

This is a footnote.

Front And Back Matter

51

reader then reads the footnote when he or she gets to the bottom of the page. Out of context, the footnote doesn’t make sense. The reader’s curiosity is piqued, so he or she goes back and tries to ﬁnd the asterisk that the footnote goes with. This breaks the ﬂow and wastes the reader’s time, again for useless information. A long footnote near the bottom of a page can mess up your page breaks. Some software applications will break such a footnote onto the next page, which further confuses readers. Footnotes are usually in a smaller font, so take up relatively lit­ tle space. But the horizontal bar setting apart the footnote takes up one or more lines. You may be able to adjust this amount of space (I thought by using Format…Style…Footnote Separator, but this doesn’t seem to work now in Microsoft Word), but, in general, footnotes take up more space than working the material into your text. Use footnotes in your ﬁrst draft. On the next draft, remove un­ necessary footnotes. If a footnote is necessary, work it into the text. Consider putting the footnote somewhere else in the book. The editing process includes much rearranging and reorganization ma­ terial—an important footnote may actually be text that belongs in another chapter.

References References identify the source of your information. In the book de­ sign biz, this is called documentation. Why Use References? Scientiﬁc and academic books use references. Mainstream non-ﬁc­ tion generally doesn’t use references. However, non-ﬁction authors should change this habit. In recent years, several popular non-ﬁc­ tion authors, e.g., Stephen Ambrose, have been discovered to have (apparently unintentionally) plagiarized material from other au­ thors. These were major embarrassments for the authors. Get in the habit of referencing everything as you write.

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Basic Book Design

Which Reference Style? The Chicago Manual of Style (15.2) advocates two choices for ref­ erences: • Humanities style, listing the sources used in each chapter in an endnotes section at the end of the book, without putting references in the text. • Author-Date style, listing the primary author’s last name, fol­ lowed by the year of publication, in parentheses in text. The Au­ thor-Date style looks like this (Thistlethwaite, 1987). A bibliogra­ phy at the end of the book lists the sources in alphabetical order. A third method, citing references in the text by number, with an endnotes section at the back of the book, is “much less satisfactory,” according to the Chicago Manual of Style (15.3). This third method looks like this.63 I disagree with the Chicagoans. The Humanities style is difﬁcult for the reader to look up a reference. A chapter may have fifty ref­ erences. How will the reader know which fact came from what source? The Author-Date style (Humpdragon, 1943) interrupts the read­ er’s concentration (Fartso, 1992), especially if you have many ref­ erences (Spitzenburger, 1999), or if the referenced names are fun­ ny (Bender-Over, 1969). In contrast, readers who don’t care about your sources can easi­ ly ignore reference numbers;64 yet readers who need to look up a fact can easily ﬁnd your source.65 The Chicago Manual of Style (15.3) gives two reasons against reference numbers. First, if your readers are familiar with your sources, they’ll recognize Author-Date references at a glance, without looking in your endnotes. E.g., Professor Balderdash sees that you’ve quoted Dr. Titzlinger’s seminal 1973 paper on brassiere dynamics. The other reason is that “additions and deletions cannot be made without changing numbers in both text references and list.” True enough with the software available in 1993, when 14 th edition

Front And Back Matter

53

of the Chicago Manual of Style was published. But, in 2002, Mi­ crosoft Word and LaTeX automatically number your references. Adding and deleting references is easy. Adobe FrameMaker also numbers references, with the caveat that if you add or delete num­ bers, you have to tell FrameMaker to redo the numbers before you send your book to the printer (also easy). With automated referencing, don’t use ibid to repeat references. If you remove the ﬁrst reference, the following ibid reference will be incorrect. It would be cool if Microsoft Word automatically printed ibid when consecutive references are identical, but I doubt that’ll happen any time soon. Adobe InDesign, Quark X-Press, and Adobe Pagemaker don’t number references. Users of these software applications have to use either the Humanities or the Author-Date style. (I’ve heard that plug-ins are available for automatically numbering footnotes, for about $200. I haven’t used the plug-ins.) Put Your Endnotes On Your Website Here’s a radical idea. Don’t put your endnotes section at the back of your book. Instead, put your endnotes on your book’s website. My book Hearts And Minds has nearly 400 references. This takes up 21 pages, in a single-spaced, 10-point font. Printing the end­ notes would add a dollar to the book’s price. 99% of my readers will never look up a reference. I think they’d rather keep their dol­ lar. Or you could include the endnotes in your hardcover edition, and leave the endnotes out of the paperback edition. The few read­ ers who want to look up a references would have to go to the li­ brary. They’ll have to use the library anyway to get the referenced document, so you’re not making them take an extra trip. Reference Number Rules Reference numbers always follow punctuation, except for a dash. E.g., a reference number goes after a comma,45 not before a peri­ od46.

54

Basic Book Design

Never put a reference number (or footnote mark) in a chapter or section title. Use the text font for reference numbers. Changing fonts will distract the reader. Reference numbers should be invisible to read­ ers, unless they look for the reference numbers. Superscript numbers should be half the point size of the text. E.g., with 12-point text, use 6-point reference numbers. The num­ ber then ﬁts in the upper half of the text line. I.e., the top of refer­ ence numbers line up with the top of the capital letters. (Microsoft Word does this automatically.) If your book will be printed on high-quality paper, consider go­ ing one point smaller, e.g., 5-point reference numbers with 12point text. The numbers will be less intrusive, yet still legible. Reference Format
“The great thing about standards is that there are so many of them.” — heard from an electronics engineer

The Chicago Manual of Style (16.32-96) advocates referencing books by author (followed by a period), title (followed by a colon), subtitle (followed by a comma), city of publication (followed by a colon), publisher (followed by a comma), and year of publication (followed by a period). E.g.,
Caro, Robert A. Lyndon B. Johnson: The Path to Power. New York: Vintage, 1990.

I presume that this confusing array of periods, commas, and colons was planned so that no two punctuation marks are consecu­ tive. I.e., if the above example were written with each ﬁeld separat­ ed by a comma, you’d be confused:
Caro, Robert A., Lyndon B. Johnson, The Path to Power,

Front And Back Matter

55

New York, Vintage, 1990.

Is Lyndon B. Johnson the title of the book, or a second author? That format leaves out the most important item for identifying a book: the International Standard Book Number (ISBN). E.g., the above book about Lyndon Johnson is ISBN 0679729453. And why list the city where the publisher has its main ofﬁce? Did publishers once enjoy visits from readers? The Chicago Manual of Style (15.185) advocates including page numbers only with numbered reference citations, not with Humani­ ties or Author-Date bibliographies. I suggest including page num­ bers with all references. Make life easier for your readers—and yourself, if you have to look up a fact ten years from now. Reference Databases The Internet solves all these problems. Instead of typing refer­ ences, you can now download the information from a reference database. You’ll save time and mistakes. When you ﬁnish writing your book, you can reformat the data into different standards at the click of a mouse. E.g., your editor re­ fuses to let you include ISBN numbers. One mouse click and the ISBN numbers are gone. Then the editor quits to work for another publisher, and a new editor takes over your book. The new editor likes your suggestion to use ISBN numbers. You click your mouse again, and the ISBN numbers return. If you use Windows and Microsoft Word or Corel WordPerfect, I’ve heard good reports about Citation (about $200, or about $80 for students, http://citationonline.net/). For Macintosh Microsoft Word, use Endnote (about $250, http://www.endnote.com). If you use another software application, you may be able to use Citation or Endnote independently. Your endnotes will be a sepa­ rate document, which you can save as a PDF and attach to your book.

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Basic Book Design

Referencing Websites But the Internet has introduced further problems. How to reference websites, e-mail newsletters, discussion forums, etc. is under de­ bate. Cover your bases and include as much information as you can ﬁnd: URL, author’s name, webpage title, date, etc.

Cross-References Cross-references, e.g., “see page 23,” can be useful in technical and other non-ﬁction books. Some software applications do crossreferences, e.g., Adobe FrameMaker and Microsoft Word. Writing “more about this later” or “as previously noted” is easy, but not helpful to a reader. Get in the habit of instead using crossreferences. Cross-referencing a chapter or section is easy. In Microsoft Word, go to Insert…Cross-reference. Select Reference type… Heading and Insert reference to…Heading text. Select the chapter or section, and “see ‘Housetraining Your Aardvark’” appears in your text. If you change the chapter title, the cross-reference auto­ matically changes. Also get into the habit of captioning your figures (e.g., illustra­ tions, graphs), tables, and equations. Then cross-reference the fig­ ure in your text. Even if your figure is on the same page with the text describing it, tell your reader (in other words) “I want you to look at this now.” This improves the flow of your book. Don’t put figures before the point where you want your reader to look at the figure. Put the figure after that point, even this forces the figure to the next page. Microsoft Word can cross-reference two other types of objects (not counting footnotes and endnotes, which I don’t recommend cross-referencing). Any numbered item in a list can be cross-refer­ enced. Lastly, you can insert a hidden bookmark anywhere, and cross-reference the bookmark. You select any text (e.g., a person’s name) and go to Insert…Bookmark. You can then cross-reference

Front And Back Matter

57

that selected text.

Recommended Books Every non-fiction book should have a “Recommended Books” sec­ tion at the end. Then sell the recommended books on your website. Selling books on a website is easy. You sign up with Amazon Associates (http://www.amazon.com/associates/). You choose the books you want to sell. Amazon gives you hyperlinks to put on your website. Amazon will also give you pictures of the books, etc. When your website visitors decide to buy a book, they click on your website’s link, which takes them to Amazon. Amazon then pays you 5-10% of the price. You don’t need to stock or ship any­ thing. Setting up your webpage takes an hour or so. After that, Amazon sends you a check every month. 5-10% may not sound like much (bookstores get 40%). But that’s all the author gets in royalties! Many authors get less than that. E.g., your publisher pays you 8% royalties. You persuade your readers to buy, on average, one recommended book from your website. Amazon sends you checks for about 8% of these sales. You’ve doubled your royalties! In your “Recommended Books” section, write a short review of each book. Include a small picture of the cover (get these from Amazon). When your book is available, upload all your reviews to Ama­ zon (in the reader reviews section of each book’s webpage). List your name as “So-And-So, author of How To Start A Successful Donut Shop,” or whatever. Amazon customers looking at the books you reviewed will see your name and book title, and possi­ ble order your book. Hearts And Minds had some extra (blank) pages, so I added a list of all the books that I quoted or mentioned in my text. I includ­ ed the page number, so readers could go back and reread a quota­ tion or see what I’d said. This required using Microsoft Word’s bookmarks and cross-references feature (see above).

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Basic Book Design

¶

GRAPHICS
“A picture tells a thousand words,” yet few authors include graph­ ics in their books.

Ornaments Ornaments are, in general, small graphics used in repeating ele­ ments of your book. E.g., every chapter of Hearts And Minds end­ ed with a heart:

♥
The last chapter ended with two hearts.

♥♥
A detective novel might end each chapter with a dagger. A book about cats might end each chapter with a cat. Chapter ends are a good place to use an ornament, because nothing on the page tells the reader that the chapter is over (except for unimaginative white space). Chapter starts are another place for an ornament. You might frame each chapter title with a corner:

♥

MY CHAPTER TITLE

♥

Running headers and footers are another place for ornaments. Dingbat fonts, e.g., Zapf Dingbats, Wingdings, Woodtype Or­ naments, etc., are collections of small ornaments and other typo­ graphic bits (e.g., arrows, stars, checkmarks, checkboxes). Word processors handle dingbats as text, not as graphics. Dingbats re­ quire no special skills to use, and don’t slow down your computer.

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Basic Book Design

Find these by searching the World Wide Web for “dingbat fonts” or “page ornaments.” I recommend http://www.web-elegance.com/ Using ornaments is a sign of traditional book design. Modern book designers tend not to use ornaments. I suggest that novices use ornaments, but sparingly. Using the wrong style of ornaments for your book, or overdoing ornaments, looks amateurish.

Charts And Graphs If you have to present numerical information, consider using a graph (chart and graph are synonyms). To design effective graphs, read The Visual Display Of Quanti­ tative Information, by Edward Tufte (1983). Most spreadsheets, e.g., Microsoft Excel, produce graphs fairly easily. You can copy a Microsoft Excel graph directly into a Mi­ crosoft Word document. This may be a good idea with a graphic that you update regularly, e.g., a sales chart in weekly company newsletter. Updating the spreadsheet may automatically update the word processor document. But if you don’t expect to update the ﬁle, don’t copy directly between Excel and Word. When save your document as a PDF ﬁle, you may lose your graph. Instead, copy your graph into Adobe Photoshop, clean it up as necessary, adjust the size, and save it in a standard graphic format (e.g., PICT, JPEG, etc.). Then insert it into your document.

Illustrations New technology has made creating and printing black and white il­ lustrations easy and inexpensive. Color illustrations are still expensive and difficult. This section is about using black and white illustrations. If you want to use col­ or illustrations, talk to your printer.

Graphics

61

Your printer may suggest putting all the illustrations in an 8page signature in the middle of the book. Don’t accept that—it looks old-fashioned and makes the book harder to read. Instead, ask your printer to use paper that can reproduce pho­ tographs. Such paper costs only a few pennies more per book. Resolution The “keep out of trouble” rule is that photos should be at least 300 dots per inch (dpi). More resolution is better, but will slow down your computer. Line art (e.g., graphs) should be 1200 dpi. Image Sources The “keep out of trouble” rule is to go to a pro lab and pay them $$$ to scan your original slides or negatives. A cheaper alternative is to have a photo store catering to ama­ teurs scan your negatives. If a photo will be small in your book, you don’t need a pro-resolution (25 megapixel) scan. Avoid scanning prints. The quality will be, in general, worse than a direct scan of a negative or slide. Also avoid using photos you downloaded from the World Wide Web. Most website photos are about 72 dpi. Adjusting Photos For Printing When scanning a photo, set the gamma curve at 1.7, the highlight dot to 2%, and the shadow dot to 90%. This lightens the image, and compensate for the tendency black ink to oversaturate and darken an image. Use Adobe Photoshop to adjust photos after scanning, before printing. (I’ve heard that Jasc Software Paint Shop Pro is also good, and is less expensive.) With black and white, use Image…Mode…Grayscale. Then use Image…Adjustments…Auto Levels to adjust brightness and con­ trast. If you scanned your photo as suggested above, you should be able to skip the next four paragraphs. If you someone else scanned

62

Basic Book Design

the image, make the following adjustments. Open Image…Adjustments…Curves. Click your mouse on the center of the graph, where it reads Input: 50%, Output: 50%. Drag your mouse down until this reads Input: 50%, Output: 35%. This lightens the midtone detail (e.g., faces). Next, open Windows…Info. Then open Image… Adjustments… Levels (not …Auto Levels). Move your cursor over your image. The cursor should change to an eyedropper. Move the eyedropper cursor over the darkest areas of your image. In the Info window, you should see K: 98%/98% or similar numbers. Adjust the two black triangles in the Levels window (one for Input, the other for Output) until the second number reads 90% in the darkest area of the image. You’ve lightened the darkest area to prevent oversatu­ rating black ink on the paper. Next, move your eyedropper cursor over the lighest areas of your image. Adjust the two white triangles in the Levels window (one for Input, the other for Output) until the second number reads 2% or 3% in the lightest area of the image. Lastly, move your eyedropper cursor over faces. The K: value should read between 5% and 40% (partly depending on skin color). Adobe Photoshop can do many other effects. E.g., you can dodge or burn to lighten or darken selected areas; crop the image; or erase a background. For more information, visit http://www.scantips.com. File Formats Many computer graphic ﬁle formats are available. The difference between ﬁle formats for websites and for printing is that websites need compression. I.e., ﬁles need to be as small as possible, to get through a 56K (or slower) modem without making the viewer wait. But you’ll give your book to your printer on a Zip disk or CDROM, where ﬁle size won’t be an issue. Printers generally avoid compressed ﬁle formats because the image quality is slightly de­ graded.

Graphics

63

The two common compressed ﬁle formats are JPEG (or .jpg) and GIF (.gif). If you use JPEG ﬁles, set the compression at High or Maximum. Don’t use GIF ﬁles for printing—this format limits the number of colors or gray tones. The two common uncompressed formats are TIFF (.tif) and PICT (.pct). These ﬁles will be about ten times larger than JPEG ﬁles. Printers usually ask for TIFF ﬁles. Most word processors will work with all four ﬁle formats, plus dozens of others, if your ﬁles are small. E.g., Microsoft Word is happy with a quarter-inch orna­ ment in any ﬁle format. But Microsoft Word handles large ﬁles poorly. It can only han­ dle large ﬁles as PICT format with JPEG compression (choose High compression). Any other ﬁle format will show as “grayed out” or look blurry. Sometimes Microsoft Word displays an image on your monitor well, but prints it poorly. For a 3"x4" image, Mi­ crosoft Word can handle up to about 800 dpi. It can’t handle 1200 dpi images (unless the image is smaller). Whenever you add an im­ age of that size, your computer will slow down noticeably. With about a dozen such images, you’ll need a fast computer to get any work done.

Placing Illustrations Stay Out Of Trouble Rules Limit yourself to four illustration placements: • Large illustrations centered horizontally. • Small illustrations with captions to the side. • Small illustrations with text flowing around. • Small ornament placement was discussed earlier. Large illustrations: Horizontally center the illustration. Put the caption below the illustration. The caption should be in a different style (font family, font size, font weight, leading) than

64

Basic Book Design

the text. Usually the caption should be single-spaced. Don’t put text (other than the caption) below a large illustration. Readers may miss text below a large illustration. Anchor the graphic to the bottom of a page. Don’t anchor it the top of a page unless it fills the entire page. Have your text flow above and below the illustration, but not on the sides. E.g., a paragraph may have two line above the illustra­ tion, and three lines on the next page.
“Pilots pleased over their victory during the Marshall Islands attack, grin across the tail of an F6F Hellcat on board the USS Lexington, af­ ter shooting down 17 out of 20 Japanese planes heading for Tarawa,” November, 1943. Photo by Comdr. Edward J. Steichen. National Archives and Records Administration, General Records of the De­ partment of the Navy, 1798-1947; 80-G-470985;
http://www.nara.gov/exhall/picturing_ the_century/galleries/worldﬂames.html

In Microsoft Word, create a table using Table…Insert > Table… Specify one column, one row, and auto initial column width. Insert your illustration in the table (Insert…Picture…From File…). Select the graphic and then use Format…Paragraph… to set the alignment to Center. Set indentation and space above and below at zero. Set Line spacing to Single (an Exact leading specification, e.g., 15 points, will cut off the top or bottom of the graphic). Close the Format…Paragraph… window. Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… Again set the horizontal alignment to Center, with zero indent. Select Text Wrapping…Around and open the Positioning win­ dow. Select Vertical…Position…Bottom and Vertical…Position… Margin. Unclick Move With Text. This anchors the illustration at the bottom of a page. Put a full paragraph of text above the table. If you go to View… Page Layout you should see your illustration at the bottom of the page, with part of the paragraph above the illustration, and the rest

Graphics

65

of the paragraph at the top of the next page. If not, move para­ graphs above or below the illustration until you’re satisfied. Don’t break paragraphs—the last line above the illustration won’t be jus­ tified, and the next line will be indented. Small illustrations with captions to the side:

As far as I am concerned, I never really lived until I met Ronnie. Oh, I know that this is not the popular admission these days.…But Ronnie is my reason for being happy. Without him, I’d be quite miser­ able and have no real purpose or direction Nancy Reagan1 in life. — Nancy Reagan

Use this format if a small illustration has a long caption. The above example has two captions, one short (“Nancy Reagan”) and one long (the quotation). The caption should be on the right side, if you expect your reader to look at the illustration first, then read the caption. In Microsoft Word, create a table using Table…Insert > Table… Specify two columns, one row, and auto initial column width. In­ sert your illustration in the table (Insert…Picture…From File…). Select the graphic and then use Format…Paragraph… to set the alignment to Left. Set indentation and space above and below at ze­ ro. Set Line spacing to Single (an Exact leading specification, e.g., 15 points, will cut off the top or bottom of the graphic). Close the Format…Paragraph… window. Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… Again set the horizontal alignment to Left, with zero indent. Select Text Wrapping…None. Open the Options window. Set all cell margins to zero. Close these windows.

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Select and drag the table’s center border to fit the illustration. Enter your long caption in the other window and format as nec­ essary. Small illustrations with text flow around: Use this format for small illustrations without captions, or with short captions. Place the illustration against the right margin. Flow text around the illustration. Don’t place the illustration against the left margin. This is harder to read. Because you in­ dent the first line of each paragraph, and the text in­ dents to flow around a left-side illustration, readers will unconsciously pause in the middle of a sentence and think, “This is a new paragraph.” This may seem minor, but the goal of the book designer is to not make readers think (about anything other than the author’s presen­ tation of ideas). To reiterate, small illustrations go on the left margin if you have a long caption for the reader to read after looking at the illustration. Small illustrations go on the right margin if no caption or a short caption accompanies the illustration. Don’t center an illustration if text is on both sides. I.e., don’t make readers read part of sentence and then skip over the illustration to read the rest of the sentence. Set the illustration to move with the paragraph it’s part of. The primary rule to vertically align a small illustration is to not leave “widows and orphans,” i.e., a single line of text above or be­ low the illustration. The secondary rule is to center the illustration with the para­ graph it’s related to. This is rule is usually not followed because it often conflicts with the primary rule. To reiterate these rules: • If the illustration goes with the first paragraph on a page,

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anchor the illustration against the top page margin. • If the illustration goes with the first paragraph on a section, align the illustration with the top of the first paragraph of the sec­ tion (below the subhead). • If the illustration goes with the last paragraph on a page, anchor the illustration against the bottom page margin. • If the illustration goes with a long paragraph that isn’t the first or last paragraph on the page, center the illustration in the paragraph, if this results in at least two lines of text above and be­ low the illustration. • If the illustration goes with a short paragraph that isn’t the first or last paragraph on the page, align the illustration with the top of the paragraph.

Vertically center the illustration with the paragraph it goes with. If possible, make the paragraph taller than the illus­ tration, so the first line (or lines) of the paragraph is above the illustration, and the last line (or lines) of the paragraph is below the illustration. Vertically align the illustration with the adjoining lines of text. This is the first of two useless sentences inserted to make another line below the illustration. This is the second useless sentence. However, if the paragraph is the last paragraph on the page, an­ chor the illustration to the bottom page margin. The rule here is “don’t put text under an illustration.” I.e., if you vertically centered the illustration in the paragraph with one full line after the illustra­ tion, the first words in the last line would look somewhat like an orphan. In Microsoft Word, create a table using Table…Insert > Table… Specify one column, one row, and auto initial column width. Insert your illustration in the table (Insert…Picture…From File…). Select the graphic and then use Format…Paragraph… to set the alignment to Right. Set indentation and space above and below at

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zero. Set Line spacing to Single (an Exact leading specification, e.g., 15 points, will cut off the top or bottom of the graphic). Close the Format…Paragraph… window. Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… Again set the horizontal alignment to Right, with zero indent. Open the Options window. Set all cell margins to zero. Close these windows. Select and drag the table’s left border to fit the illustration. Select the table and go to Table…Table Properties… again. Se­ lect Text Wrapping…Around and open the Positioning window. Click Move With Text. Select Vertical…Position…0" and Vertical…Position… Paragraph. This aligns the top of the illustration with the top of the paragraph. Microsoft Word can’t automatically vertically center a table with a paragraph. You have to do this manually. Close the window and Microsoft Word should go into Page Layout mode, showing you the position of the illustration in its paragraph. If you want to put lines above the illustration, go back to Table…Table Properties…Vertical…Position… Enter the line spacing in points, e.g., 15 pt for one line of 15-point leading (Mi­ crosoft Word won’t recognize “15 pts” or “15 points”). Microsoft Word will then convert your points measurement into inches (you can also enter a measurement in inches). Close the window again and look at the Page Layout mode. If the numbers of lines above and below the illustration looks right, now adjust the vertical alignment of the illustration compared to the text lines. Stay in Page Layout mode. Select the graphic and go to Format…Paragraph…Spacing…Before. Add a few points of spacing and look at the result in Page Layout mode. Repeat until it looks right. Advanced Illustration Placement Drop Shadows Boring charts would look better with a drop shadow. I’ve found

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no way to do this. Adobe Illustrator creates drop shadows, but when the file is saved as a PDF or pulled into Photoshop the drop shadow is lost. Microsoft Word and Adobe Photoshop don’t create drop shadows.

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COVERS
In a bookstore, the front cover advertises the book. When a poten­ tial buyer picks up the book, he or she is likely to read the back cover before deciding to buy your book. Design a cover that sells the book. Begin by creating a full-page mock ad in the publication best suited for the book. E.g., if your book is about skydiving, design an ad for Skydiving Magazine. Whatever you would put in the ad, put on your cover. Go through your bookshelf and pick out books with effective covers. You’ll likely ﬁnd few such books. Often a cover looks nice, but tells you little about the book. Sometimes covers don’t even look nice, as if the publisher didn’t care about the cover.

Graphics Software Use Adobe Illustrator. It’s expensive and hard to learn, but it does everything you need (you’ll need a lot of effects to produce a great cover). Your printer will want an Adobe Illustrator ﬁle, along with a PDF ﬁle. Likely your printer will have to adjust something. Your book may turn out to be thicker or thinner than expected, and the printer will have to change the spine width. Or the printer needs more or less bleed (the extra quarter-inch around the cover that gets trimmed off). Or the ink colors aren’t matching. With an Adobe Illustrator ﬁle, your printer will be able to easily ﬁx prob­ lems. Create the back cover, spine, and front cover on one sheet. That’s how the cover will be printed. Add a quarter-inch bleed around it. E.g., for a 6"x9" book, set up Adobe Illustrator for a 13"x9.5" cover.

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Hardcover vs. Paperback Paperback books are cheaper to print, but wear out after about ﬁve people readings. This isn’t usually a problem, as most books are read only once. The exception is libraries. It’s cheaper for a library to pay $40 for a hardcover (called case bound) that 100 patrons can borrow, than to buy twenty $10 paperbacks. If durability isn’t an issue for you, there’s no reason to print a hardcover edition. The binding will cost about $2 more to print. Let’s look at the price, based on the bestseller The Map That Changed The World: William Smith And The Birth Of Modern Ge­ ology, by Simon Winchester (2001):
Hardcover back Retail Wholesale (40% discount) Publisher (55% discount) Printing and shipping Publisher’s proﬁt $26 $15.60 $11.70 $4.50 $7.20 Paper$13.95 $8.37 $6.28 $2 $4.28

The customer pays $12 extra, for the publisher to get $3 more proﬁt. But the high price might cut sales in half. The publisher might have made more proﬁt going straight to paperback. Books usually get only one marketing campaign. E.g., review­ ers review new books, not reissued paperbacks. If you think your book will have substantial word-of-mouth sales (like Divine Se­ crets Of The Ya-Ya Sisterhood, by Rebecca Wells), you may better off publishing in paperback, selling more books at a lower proﬁt per book, and then waiting for word-of-mouth momentum to build greater sales (and proﬁts). Consider publishing in a paperback with a price halfway be­ tween hardcover and paperback:

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Retail Wholesale (40%) Publisher (55%) Printing Publisher’s proﬁt

Hard $26 $15.60 $11.70 $4.50 $7.20

Paper1 $13.95 $8.37 $6.28 $2 $4.28

Paper2 $19.95 $11.97 $8.98 $2 $6.98

The publisher makes the same $7 per book proﬁt on the $19.95 paperback or on the $26 hardcover. Sales volume should be greater with the $19.95 price, so total proﬁts should be higher.

Title And Subtitle A book’s title is usually its most important cover element. Think of lots of titles and subtitles for your book. Ask people which is best. Usually the title is a catchy or cute phrase. The subtitle then de­ scribes the book. E.g.,
Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mount Everest Disaster The Difference Between God and Larry Ellison: Inside Oracle Corporation Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus: A Practical Guide for Improving Communication and Getting What You Want in Your Relationships

Titles should be short. If it can’t be read at a glance, potential buyers will skip it. 10-12 words for the title and subtitle are ideal. In contrast, Men Are From Mars… is 22 words. The title is catchy, but the subtitle could have been edited to Improving Communica­ tion In Relationships (totaling 12 words).

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Try omitting your title. Try omitting your subtitle. Swap the ti­ tle and subtitle. If you have a title (or a subtitle) that’s both catchy and descriptive, use it alone. Fiction books don’t usually have subtitles. Brandable Titles Think of the title as a brand name. If you wrote a series of books, what part of the title would you repeat to identify the sequels? E.g.,
“A” Is For Alibi “B” Is For Burglar “C” Is For Corpse “D” Is For Deadbeat Men Are From Mars, Women Are From Venus Mars And Venus On A Date Mars And Venus In The Bedroom Mars And Venus In The Bathroom Windows For Dummies Football For Dummies Wine Coolers For Dummies Spotted Hyenas For Dummies

Copyright And Trademark Issues For Titles Titles can’t be copyrighted. But titles can be trademarked. But trademarks are invalid if they’re too descriptive (e.g., Aviation Magazine). Some states will protect titles under unfair competition laws. See the books recommended below in the copyright section. Title Design The title should be BIG. Use the biggest font size that ﬁts. Use a font that communicates something. E.g.,

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STONE AGE WOULD BE GOOD FOR A BOOK ABOUT THE FLINTSTONES. YUBBA-DUB­ BA-DOO!

Edwardian Script Would Look Nice For A Romance.
Herculanum would be good for a book set in ancient Greece.

USE ALL CAPS TITLE CASE FOR THE TITLE. Use Title Case for the subtitle and author’s name. The title and subtitle should look different. Use the same font for the title, subtitle, and author’s name. Use the same size font (smaller than the title size) for the subtitle and author’s name. Don’t make the reader’s brain work too hard by switching fonts or colors, especially if you selected an unusual font. The reader needs to glance at cover but not dwell on it. The cover should grab the reader’s attention and then send him or her to the back cover. If you decide to color the text, leave a thin black outline around each letter. In Adobe Illustrator, select the text, then click on the Fill (X) and Stroke (X) boxes near the bottom of toolbar. You should get the font in white with a black outline (or black with a white outline, because selected text has inverted colors). Doubleclick the Stroke (X) box to open the color palette. Choose the ﬁll color. Under the Windows menu, open the Stroke window. Adjust the stroke weight. Numbers In Titles Don’t start your title with a long number—readers won’t be able to ﬁnd your book on a bookshelf arranged alphabetically. E.g., 1812 Overture: The Incredible Story Behind Tchaikovsky’s Masterpiece would be hard to ﬁnd on a shelf. A better title would be Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture: The Incredible Story Behind The

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Masterpiece.

Front Cover Cover Illustration Book covers, like advertisements, should have an illustration. If the book’s subject matter can be shown visually (e.g., skydiv­ ing), choosing an illustration should be straightforward. For an abstract book, consider whether the title suggests an im­ age. E.g., my book Hearts And Minds: How Our Brains Are Hard­ wired For Relationships suggested hearts, brains, wiring, and rela­ tionships. A picture of a brain might suggest that the book was hard to read, so I avoided that image. Instead, I had an artist draw a man and a woman holding giant electrical plugs. The male plug and female socket added sexual connotations, so I added hearts around them to instead communicate romantic connotations. A third choice is to use a beautiful photo or artwork that has nothing to do with the subject. E.g., Self-Therapy For The Stutter­ er, by Malcolm Fraser, has a beautiful photo of two men ﬁshing on a lake at sunrise. The title communicated clearly what the book was about, and the subject is difﬁcult to show visually, so this was a good choice. Art On A Budget Cover illustrations can be expensive. This is why many books don’t have cover illustrations. The cover artist simply chooses ap­ propriate fonts and colors, and is done in four hours. You may be able to save money by using a photo that you took. Or use a public domain photo. Or you can create the illustration yourself. Even if you think you “can’t draw,” you’ll be surprised what you can do if you try. You may able to start with clip art and spiff it up in Adobe Illustra­ tor. Instead of hiring a professional cover designer for $60-

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125/hour, you may be able to hire an art student for $10-15/hour. Celebrity Endorsement Ask the bestselling authors in your ﬁeld to endorse your book. If they like to make money, they’ll be happy to see their name (and the title of their book) advertised on the cover of your book. Ask other celebrities, if they have some connection to the sub­ ject. E.g., a book about stuttering could be endorsed by Mel Tillis. To ﬁnd a celebrity’s address, do an Internet search, call the celebrity’s publisher, or ask a librarian to help you. If possible, call or e-mail before you send the book. Write three cover endorsements. Put these in a cover letter, ask­ ing the celebrity to either pick one or write his or her own endorse­ ment. Include your manuscript (some celebrities only want to see a sample chapter). Use a readable font size and family. Older readers should be able to read the celebrity endorsement without reading glasses. 13or 14-point Times Roman is a good choice. Black And White Covers First design your cover in black and white. If you expect to print less than 5000 books, black and white covers will save you consid­ erable money. Designing ﬁrst in black and white forces you to make optimal use of fonts, illustrations, etc. If your cover looks snappy in black and white, it’ll look even snappier in color. If it looks blah in black and white, it’ll look only somewhat less blah in color. Also, some catalogs will show your book in black and white. When you ﬁnish your color design, look at it in black and white. Open your ﬁle in Adobe Photoshop, then go to Image…Mode… Grayscale. Some printers can give you a good deal on a two-color cover. E.g., you might make the title red, and rest of the cover black and white.

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The Language Of Color Choosing colors for your cover is almost as important as choosing a title. Different colors have different meanings: • Green symbolizes fertility and life. • Red symbolizes blood, ﬁre, and passion. • Blue symbolizes relaxation or “going with the ﬂow” of life, blue-sky optimism, or the denim clothes of reliable, working class people. • Brown is down-to-earth, humble, and reliable. • Gold is wealth. • Yellow is feminine, cheerful, sunny. • Purple is royal. • Orange is conspicuous, “look at me!” • White is pure, innocent, or abstract. • Black is serious or morbid. • Gray and beige are emotionless, inconspicuous, trying to pass without being noticed. Within each color, different shades subtly alter the meaning. Colors That Show Wear Don’t use large white areas, unless your covers will have ﬁlm lam­ inate. Don’t use large black areas with ﬁlm laminate, because it shows ﬁngerprints. Either way, you’ll get many returns. Use a variety of medium colors, without large patches of one color. CMYK vs. RGB Use CMYK color. In Adobe Illustrator, this is under File…Document Color Mode. CMYK means “Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, black.” These are the four colors of ink used in four-color printing presses (and inkjet printers). In contrast, RGB means “Red, Green. Blue.” These are the three colors of computer monitors (and video). The difference is that you can produce any color by adding cyan, ma­

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genta, and yellow together; or by subtracting red, green, and blue from each other. Paper reﬂects light, computer monitors produce light. As you pile on more color to paper, it gets darker. As your switch on more pixels on your computer monitor, it gets brighter. (Printers also use black ink because it’s cheaper and looks sharper than colored ink.) Use RGB mode for artwork that will be seen on computers, e.g., for a website. For artwork that will be printed on paper, use CMYK mode. When you print your artwork, the colors might not match what you saw on your computer monitor. To avoid this problem, use pri­ mary colors where possible. If you use pure cyan, magenta, yellow, or black, all printers will produce what you expected. Pure red, green, and blue should also print consistently. This may sound uninspired, but you can get a wide range of shades by adjusting the density of a color. E.g., 20% pure red (actually, 20% magenta, 20% yellow, 0% cyan, 0% black) is light pink. Three-Dimensionality A sign of amateur design is a ﬂat-looking, two-dimensional cover. Professional cover designers have several ways to make a sheet of paper look three-dimensional. You could put a hologram on the cover, or use a printing press that stamps out parts of the cover. Those choices are expensive. Or you could use large blocks of negative colors, e.g., green text on an orange background. This creates the optical illusion of the text ﬂoating in front of the background. But that looks garish. The two preferred methods are gradients and drop shadows. These work in black and white or in color. A black and white cover with gradients and drop shadows can be more eye-catching than the same cover in color without gradients or drop shadows. A gradient is a smooth transition from light to dark (e.g., 15% yellow to 25% yellow) or between two colors. E.g., you’ve decided to use 20% yellow for your background color. Instead, use 15% yellow behind the book’s title, and 25% yellow around the edges

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of the book. This will look like a spotlight is shining on the title. It will draw the viewer’s eye away from the edges of the book, to the title. In Adobe Illustrator, select your background frame, then click on the Gradient tool or go to Window…Gradient. For a drop shadow in Adobe Illustrator, select the object, then go to Filter…Stylize…Drop Shadow. Or go to Effect…Stylize… Drop Shadow. Drop shadows only work on vector objects, not raster objects. Vector objects include squares, lines, circles, etc. Raster objects in­ clude photographs and scanned artwork. To put a drop shadow be­ hind a photograph, you must draw a vector object (e.g., a box) around the photograph.

Back Cover Use the same color scheme on the front and back covers. Don’t make the reader’s brain work too hard when he or she is thinking of buying your book. Subject Code The upper left corner of your back cover should tell bookstore em­ ployees where to put your book. E.g., Self-Help, Reference, Biog­ raphy, etc. Use the BASIC subject categories (used by bookstores), not LOC or DDC numbers (used by libraries). If your back cover lacks color, put the subject code in the same color (and font) text as the front cover title. ISBN Bar Code And Price The lower right corner of your back cover should have the ISBN number, bar code, and price. Without a bar code, bookstores can’t sell your book. An International Standard Book Number (ISBN) uniquely iden­ tiﬁes your book. Booksellers and wholesalers require this number.

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Publishers get ISBN numbers from http://www.isbn.org (a division of R.R. Bowker) When you have an ISBN number and you’ve decided on the price, order the bar code from AccuGraphiX http://www.bar-code.com If you order with a credit card, they usually e-mail an EPS ﬁle within 24 hours. You then place the EPS ﬁle in your Adobe Illustrator layout. Use a white background for the bar code. Don’t change the size or shape of the bar code—use it exactly as AccuGraphiX sent it to you (usually 1.83 inches wide). If you need a larger barcode (e.g., your cover will be printed on cheap paper incapable of reproducing ﬁne lines), talk to AccuGraphiX about making a larger barcode for you. Type the price below the bar code. The price should be both dis­ creet and obvious—you don’t want to shock readers with the price before they’re “sold” on the book (“$19.95 for a paperback!?!”), but they should easily ﬁnd the price when they look. 12-point Hel­ vetica bold is good. Put the Canadian price in parentheses and reg­ ular (not bold) font. Look up the Canadian price at http://www.xe.net/ucc/ Round the Canadian price down, not up. You’ll get the same wholesale price, Canadians will pay less, and the wholesaler loses the difference. Author Photo Spend the money for a good author photo. Send the author to a “makeover photo studio” with a hair stylist. The background should be white. If you have to use a non-stu­ dio photo, use Adobe Photoshop’s eraser to remove the back­ ground. Back Cover Reviews If you did your celebrity endorsements well, you should have got­ ten back several longer endorsements, from lesser-known celebri­

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ties. Put one or two of these in the lower half of the back cover. Back Cover Text The back cover text is your primary text advertising. Brieﬂy de­ scribe what the book is about, in as few words as possible. Then say why the reader wants to read it. What will the reader get out of the book? You may want to use bullet points for the three, four, or ﬁve beneﬁts the reader will receive. Make your beneﬁt points mysterious and intriguing. E.g.,
• What you should never eat on an airplane.

sounds better than
• Foods that airlines don’t refrigerate properly.

Better yet, put page numbers after the mysterious points, e.g.,
• What you should never eat on airplane (page 37).

The reader then turns to page 37. Make sure these are killer pages. I.e., if a reader only read that one page, he or she is hooked. In contrast, if the one food you should never eat on an airplane is shellﬁsh, readers will say, “So what? No airplane serves shellﬁsh.” The front cover sent to reader to the back cover. The back cover sends the reader to the best pages inside the book. Consider starting with reader beneﬁts, and putting the descrip­ tion last. E.g., “Do you want full, thick, beautiful hair? Hair that people will admire and envy? The Spray-On Hair Book will tell you how to use products advertised on late-night television…” Use a readable font for the back cover text. Older readers should be able to read it without reading glasses. 13-point Times Roman on 15-point leading is a good choice.

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Spine To calculate spine thickness, ask the printer for the paper stock’s rating for sheets per inch, and divide by the number of pages. E.g., for a 224-page book, you select a 60# offset recycled stock, which is rated 448. Divide 448 by 224 pages. Your book’s spine needs to be one-half-inch wide. Spine Colors Use the same color scheme on the spine that you used on the front cover. It’s annoying for a reader to recall that your book was black with yellow lettering, and look through his bookshelf and not ﬁnd a black spine with yellow lettering—because you decided that yellow spine with black letters would look nicer. If you must use different colors for the spine and front cover, make the spine the same color as either the back cover (or vice ver­ sa). This allows for adjusting the thickness of the book during binding. Dark (or bright red) lettering, in a large, readable font, on a light background will make more bookstore customers read your book’s spine. Conversely, customers will ignore a difficult to read spine. Spine Font Use the same font on the spine that you used for the title. Again, the font will help the reader recognize your book. Use ALL CAPS. This avoids descenders, allowing you to use a larger font size. Spines are usually read vertically. That would be ﬁne if you wrote in Japanese, but reading vertical English is a problem. One solution is to stack the letters, e.g., M Y B O

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O K T I T L E Stacking the letters destroys the shapes of the words. You force the reader sound out each word one letter at a time. If your spine is thick and the words are short, you could stack the words, e.g., MY BOOK TITLE A third choice—used by 95% of book designers—is to put the type the letters normally, and force the reader to bend his or her neck sideways 90°. This makes life easy for the book designer, and hard for the reader. The worst design is to use an italic font. Italics lean 10° for­ wards. To read an italic spine, the reader has to bend his neck 100°. I have a unique solution to this problem. I use reverse italics on the spine. In Adobe Illustrator, I select the text, then go to Object …Transform…Shear. I lean the font back 10°. The reader than has to bend his neck only 80°. When read horizontally, it looks like italics. Perhaps a typographer could design a font that is readable lean­ ing back 45°. European books have the spine text reading up, not down. An italic font would be a good choice for a European book.

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Colophon At the bottom of the spine, put the publisher’s logo (called a colophon). Few publishers have a recognizable logo that would make read­ ers buy your book. Exceptions include O’Reilly for computer books, or Nolo Press for law books. If your publisher’s logo isn’t a selling point, consider instead using a graphical element from the front cover. E.g., my book Hearts And Minds had three hearts on the cover, so I put on heart on the spine. A reader who saw my cover will more easily recognize my book on a bookshelf. Special Covers For Reviewers I’ve heard that certain reviewers will only review a bound galley. This is an old type of cover, without artwork. These reviewers want to see a book many months before the publication date. They won’t read books with cover art. They think that cover art means that the book has been printed (i.e., they aren’t getting an advance copy). They’re unaware that inkjet and laser printers can print art­ work in minutes, instead of months.

¶

LEGAL ISSUES
I’m not an attorney. The following isn’t legal advice. This chapter is intended to brieﬂy familiarize a novice about the principal legal issues in publishing. The end of this chapter recommend several books for further reading.

Copyright The Copyright Act of 1976 automatically grants certain rights to an author, photographer, or other creative person from the moment he or she ﬁxes his or her creation in some tangible form, e.g., writes on paper, photographs on ﬁlm, etc. No registration is necessary. To use a created work, you must get permission from the creator. Copyright lasts the creator’s lifetime, plus ﬁfty years. Fair Use A publisher may use short pieces of an author’s work (e.g., a quo­ tation), without permission. This is called fair use. If the quotation is longer than 300 words (about a page), it’s un­ likely to be fair use. Quotations shorter than 300 words from a book may be consid­ ered fair use. Factors affecting fair use include: • The length of the original work. If the original work was a ten-word haiku poem, quoting more than one word will ex­ ceed fair use. • Quotations in advertisements are never fair use. More about this distinction below, in the “Right of Publicity” section. • The “heart of the work.” Sometimes a book has a few para­ graphs that are the “heart of the work,” and the rest of the book is about those paragraphs. Quoting those paragraphs, isn’t fair use. • The effect on the market for the original work. If your quota­

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tion hurts the sales of the quoted work, it’s not fair use. Photographs and other graphic works are rarely fair use, be­ cause these are more creative than factual. An exception might be a small section of a map. Pre-1978 Works The Copyright Act of 1909 covers works created before January 1, 1978. Under the old Act, works were copyrighted for 75 years after the date of copyright. I.e., anything created before 1927 is now in the public domain. Also, some works created between 1927 and 1978 may not have been copyrighted or renewed properly. Public Domain Works in the public domain are not copyrighted. Any American can used public domain works, without permission from anyone. Work created by or for the federal government is automatically in the public domain. When looking for book illustrations, I sug­ gest that you start looking at the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov) and National Archives and Records Admini­ stration (http://nara.gov) websites. The latter website has excellent photos of Presidents and wars. The website also features photographers commissioned by the fed­ eral government, e.g., Dorothea Lange’s photographs of migrant workers in California in the 1930s, and Ansel Adams’s pho­ tographs of the national parks in the 1940s. Look at other federal websites. E.g., if your book is about avia­ tion, go to the National Air & Space Museum website. Sometimes a photographer donates photos to the federal gov­ ernment, but doesn’t transfer the copyright to the federal govern­ ment. If you’re not certain that the photographer was a federal em­ ployee, do your best to contact the photographer and check.

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Right Of Publicity If you use an individual’s name or likeness in an advertisement, you must get the individual’s permission. A person’s likeness includes his or her name, signature, image (e.g., a photograph or painting), voice, or other identiﬁable charac­ teristic. E.g., a Michigan company sold portable toilets under the name “Here’s Johnny” (Carson v. Here’s Johnny, 698 F.2d 831, 6th Cir. 1983). Because those two words were used every night on the Tonight Show to introduce Johnny Carson, Carson successfully sued the company. You may use anyone’s likeness for editorial purposes. “Editori­ al” is also called “news,” “newsworthy,” or “non-commercial.” A common misconception is that “non-commercial” means giv­ en away free, perhaps by a non-proﬁt organization. Whether your publication is commercial or non-commercial has nothing to do with the price. Editorial means (in this context)
…the use a person’s name or likeness for scholar­ ship, cultural, historical, educational, political, and public interest purposes or for news reporting…even if the work is more entertaining than newsworthy. — Lloyd Jassin and Steven Schechter, The Copyright Permission And Libel Handbook

Advertising is the opposite of editorial. If you use a person’s name or likeness to sell something, you need the person’s permis­ sion. Using a person’s name or likeness within a book isn’t advertis­ ing. The reader doesn’t usually see the inside of a book until after he or she buys the book. Everything inside a book is editorial. On your book’s cover or in advertising for your book, you can use the name and likeness of the person your book is about without right of publicity permission. E.g., Sports Illustrated used a photo­

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graph of New York Jets’ quarterback Joe Namath in an article about the Super Bowl. An advertisement for the magazine showed the article, with Namath’s photo. Namath sued, claiming that his image had been used in an advertisement. The court ruled in favor of the magazine. You can’t use the name or likeness of an individual unrelated to your book on the cover or in advertising for the book. E.g., if Cat Fancy magazine used Joe Namath’s photo in an advertisement, and the magazine had never written an article about Joe Namath, the magazine would need his permission.

Right Of Privacy Invasion of privacy has three forms. Intrusion Upon Seclusion You may not take photographs or record a person in his or her home without his or her consent. This legal concept sometimes ex­ tends to other private places, to photos of the inside of the person’s home, or to “hidden camera” or “hidden microphone” use any­ where. Private Facts Details of an individual’s sexual relationships, personal hy­ giene, contents of personal letters, etc., are off limits to the news media, except when such facts are “newsworthy.” False Light Publicity Inventing quotes or ﬁctional events to portray a person falsely to the public, or using photos out of context to imply scandalous activity, is unlawful.

Libel Libel is a false statement that harms the reputation of a person or

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business. Because the First Amendment guarantees free speech, prosecut­ ing a libel case is difﬁcult. Conversely, defending a libel case is easy. To win a libel lawsuit, • The plaintiff must prove that the statement was false. The de­ fendant (the publisher) doesn’t have to prove that the state­ ment was true. If the publisher can prove that the statement is true, the judge will dismiss the case. I.e., truth is an abso­ lute defense for libel. • The plaintiff must prove monetary damages. Vague claims of anguish or suffering don’t work. • Some state laws require that the plaintiff contact the publish­ er within a certain time, provide proof that the allegedly li­ belous statement was false, and ask the publisher to retract the statement. If the publisher complies, no libel case is pos­ sible. • Libel laws vary widely from state to state. No federal libel law exists. Defendants have many defenses against libel claims, including: • Parody can say almost anything about anyone, e.g., that Jerry Falwell lost his virginity with his mother in an outhouse (Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46, 1988). • Anyone can say almost anything about politicians. • Questions are not statements, so are never libelous. E.g., “Bill Gates is an idiot” might be libelous, but “Is Bill Gates an idiot?” isn’t libelous. • Statements of opinion are never factual, so are never li­ belous. E.g., “In my opinion, Bill Gates is an idiot” isn’t li­ belous. • Reviews and critiques are shielded from libel claims. • The publisher’s intention sometimes matters. If the plaintiff can’t prove malicious intent, he or she might not win.

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Getting Permissions Contact a celebrity’s agent by doing a websearch for the celebrity’s ofﬁcial website. Or ask a librarian to help you contact the celebrity. An honest, informed agent will say, “If you want to cover your bases in case there’s a legal problem, we’ll sell you permission.” But be skeptical when a celebrity’s agent says that you “have to” pay for permission to use the celebrity’s name or likeness. I’ve had a celebrity’s agent tell me that, because my book wasn’t free, it was commercial and so I had to pay $$$$ to mention the celebrity. Another agent said that she owned the “right to use” a photo in the public domain (every American has that right), and I could pay her for the “right to use” the photo. Further Reading The Copyright Permission And Libel Handbook, by Lloyd J. Jassin and Steven C. Schechter (1998), covers copyright, libel, right of publicity, and right of privacy in one book. I also recommend the Copyright Handbook, by Stephen Fish­ man (1997, 4th edition, Nolo Press). That book only covers copy­ right. Libel, Slander, And Related Problems, by Robert D. Sack and Sandra S. Baron (1994), is the authoritative book on libel issues. “Invasion of Privacy and the Media: The Right ‘To Be Let Alone’,” by John A. Bussian and Paul J. Levine (available at http://www.ﬂabar.org/), covers right of publicity and right of priva­ cy.

¶

BEFORE SENDING YOUR BOOK TO THE PRINTER
Go through your book and pick out the best chapter, the chapter that grabs readers, then knocks ’em dead. Put that chapter ﬁrst. Put the next-best chapter second, and so on. E.g., I’m reading a book about the 1967 Six Day War. The ﬁrst 170 pages cover the diplomatic history between the Israelis and Arabs. Then, in the ﬁrst minutes of the war, the Israeli Air Force destroyed the Egyptian Air Force on the ground. Casualties were minimal on both sides. That chapter is exciting! The author could have put it ﬁrst, and then said, “Now let’s examine the diplomatic situation that led up to this incredible battle…” If your book doesn’t hook readers in the ﬁrst chapter, they’ll put it aside and never get to the exciting stuff.

Copyeditors When hiring a copy editor, ask what type of books the editor has worked on. Law books require legal copyeditors, math books re­ quire math copyeditors, etc. You may dislike a copyeditor’s style. Some copyeditors like to rewrite your work into long, complex sentences. Others like to make your work easier to read. Communicate what you want. Be wary of copyeditors who quote a fee (e.g., $5/page) without seeing your book. Give the copyeditor your manuscript and a check for $50. See what he or she does with the ﬁrst chapter, and his or her estimate for the book. If your budget is tight, call a university English or journalism department. A student should be able to ﬁnd your most glaring mistakes, for a fraction of a professional copyeditor’s fee. A stu­ dent may not notice arcane mistakes, but neither will most of your readers.

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Most copyeditors are booked three to six months in advance. This can force you into an undesirable tradeoff with last-minute author changes. On the one hand, you could allow the author to add new material, rewrite sections, etc. up to press time. Whenever the author makes changes, typos creep in. On the other hand, you could require the author to hand in the finished manuscript three months before press time. The book then goes to the copyeditor and production. The book won’t have typos, but the content won’t be as good as a book that the author continued to polish.

Asking For Feedback By nature, writers enjoy sitting alone and writing. If we enjoyed talking as much as we enjoy writing, we’d be politicians. But feed­ back will make you a better writer. Beginners need to be told what they’re doing right. Experts need to be told what they’re doing wrong. Your friends and family want to make you happy. They’ll point out the good parts of your writing. If you’re a beginning writer, show your work to your friends and family. If you’re an expert writer, showing your work to your friends and family will be a waste of time. They won’t point out your mis­ takes. Instead, seek critical feedback. Criticism always stings at ﬁrst, but then you look at your book and say, “Yes, I never thought of it that way. If I rewrite that sec­ tion it’s much better.” Experts thank critics. You’ll want timely feedback. Within a month is ideal. Getting a letter pointing out a mistake in something you wrote ten years ago is useless. You want private feedback. The New York Times book reviewer may point out ﬁfty mistakes in your book. That’s good—but if ten million people read his or her review, that’s not good. You want feedback from many readers. Your literary agent and your editor are two opinions. Get at least twenty opinions. You want feedback from typical readers. Your literary agent

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and your editor probably have master’s degrees in English Litera­ ture. They read carefully, with comprehension. Instead, seek feed­ back from readers named Murphy. Anything they can misunder­ stand, they will misunderstand. But average readers aren’t good at articulating their thoughts. They like or dislike something, but can’t say why. This is why they’re not writers. Different Books, Different Feedback With my first book, Stuttering: Science, Therapy & Practice, get­ ting feedback was difficult. I mailed out dozens of copies, and less than one in ten recipients read the book. The only substantive criti­ cism came from two journal reviewers, whose reviews totaled 26 pages. These reviews came out more than two years after I submit­ ted the book. Luckily—or unluckily—I’d chosen a printer who used a Xerox Docutech printer. I fixed the corrections, rewrote the book, and printed a new edition. One of the reviewers was furious when she found out I’d done this. My second book, Hearts And Minds, was a little easier to get feedback on, as more people are interested in relationships. This time, I asked people in advance before mailing them copies. Still, only one in five people who said they’d read the book did (some people told me they’d started it and “gotten busy”—in reality, got­ ten bored—which is useful feedback). Substantial feedback came from a few experts, a few friends, and the Amazon “dummy” re­ viewers (more about this below). My third book, Multifactoral Stuttering Therapy, has been as difficult as my first book to get feedback on. (But I’m not trying as hard, as it’s my second book on the subject.) So far, I’m pleasantly surprised at the excellent feedback I’ve gotten on Basic Book Design. I put the book on my website and asked for feedback on various newsgroups and websites. It helps that the book is short—I get comments within hours and days, not weeks and months. (This supports my contention that most books

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should be under 100 pages.) Different books require different approaches for feedback. With a technical book, ask experts in your field. Don’t be surprised if they say they’re “too busy,” which translates to you’re not as im­ portant as they are (especially if you don’t have a contract with a major publisher). With a general audience book, the next section details the unique way I found to get honest feedback from typical readers. Dummy Books For Dummies Make a dummy webpage on Amazon. Give your book an alternate title, make up a ﬁctitious author’s name, create a different cover, and put on a different ISBN number. Submit the dummy book to Amazon. Have a “print-on-demand” printer make ﬁfty copies. Go through Amazon’s top 100 reviewers, looking for reviewers who review books similar to yours, who provide their e-mail ad­ dresses. Offer to mail them your book. Treat these people nicely — they’re the best reviewers, and their feedback is worth its weight in gold. Then go through the Amazon reader reviews for books similar to yours. Look for readers who provided their e-mail addresses. Offer to give them your book (either printed or downloaded from your website), if they’ll review it on Amazon. Mail out the books. In a month you’ll see the reviews appearing on Amazon. Be prepared for shocks. With Hearts And Minds, sev­ eral people reported items that weren’t in the book (some favor­ ably, some critically!). Expect misinterpretations and misunder­ standings. Rewrite your book. Then tell Amazon that you’ve cancelled publication of the dummy book, and ask them to remove it from their database. E-mail the people who wrote positive reviews and ask them to repost their reviews when the real book is published. Offer to send them a copy of the rewritten book. This isn’t dishonest. Publishers cancel books all the time. I doubt that Amazon will forbid it, because few other authors will go

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to this much trouble to get honest feedback. If many writers did this, Amazon could set up a discussion forum for authors to post requests for reviewers.

Pre-Printing Checklist  Search for “there are” and rewrite these sentences.  Search for “, and”. Consider breaking these sentences into two sentences.  Search for just, very, really, and actually, and remove.  Search for “ly-” and remove the hyphen.  Consistently use either “for example” or “e.g.”  Consistently use either “in other words” or “i.e.”  Search periods following quotations marks.  Search for two spaces after periods, question marks, and excla­ mation marks.  No hidden index entries in the front or back matter (e.g., title page, table of contents).  Use a grammar checker to ﬁnd passive voice sentences, and rewrite in active voice.  Check capitalization in all chapter and section titles.  Search for repeated carriage returns, and remove.  Replace ﬁ anf ﬂ with ligatures.  M-dashes breaking at line breaks.  Ellipses breaking at line breaks.  Automated hyphenation on. No too-short or too-long word di­ visions.  First paragraph of chapters, sections, and subsections not in­

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dented.  Chapter titles in running headers correct.  First page of chapters don’t have headers, instead have drop fo­ lios (page number in footer).  Title page, ﬁrst page, etc. on recto (right-hand) pages.  No widows.  Number of pages fits into signatures (e.g., 224 pages).  Graphics neither too dark not too light.  Table of contents page numbers correct.  Index page numbers correct.  Crop PDF ﬁle pages to page size.  Bar code price correct. The price is the smaller bar code to the right. Above you’ll see a number. It will start with a 5, if your price is in American dollars. Ignore the ﬁrst digit. The rest of the number is your price. E.g., “51995” means US$19.95.  Canadian Price. Use the latest exchange rate to check this.

Recommended Newsgroups And Websites Suzanne S. Barnhill wrote many “tips and tricks” for Windows Mi­ crosoft Word, in a webpage entitled “Tips and tricks for copy fit­ ting,” at http://www.mvps.org/word/FAQs/Formatting/FitCopy.htm The MacWorld magazine (http://www.macworld.com/) forum for “Design And Publishing” has knowledgeable professionals who can answer questions for Macintosh users. Several Usenet newsgroups may help you: • microsoft.public.word.formatting.longdocs is for book and document designers using Microsoft Word.

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• comp.text.tex is for LaTeX, ConTeXt, etc., users. • comp.publish.prepress will answer questions you have about printing color, using Quark, etc. • alt.publish.books will answer questions about ISBN num­ bers, working with distributors, etc. Announce your book to distributors and bookstores by creating an ONIX file at http://www.netread.com/. The $150/title fee may seem stiff at first, but after you’ve hassled with Amazon, Ingram, and twenty other booksellers, you’ll appreciate NetRead.com.

¶ ¶

BACK COVER Basic Book Design isn’t another book about grammar rules, freeing your inner writer, or ﬁnding a publisher. It’s about making your books, documents, and newsletters look professional. No other book tells you: • Which fonts will make readers devour your book—and which fonts will make them put your book aside. • Common mistakes that make your newsletter look amateur. • Designers’ tricks to save printing costs and make documents look better. • The free software that works better than Adobe Pagemaker, Quark X-Press, or Microsoft Publisher. • Work-arounds to avoid bugs in Microsoft Word. • When you need permissions from both the photographer and the person depicted in the photo—and when you need neither. • The government agency that will give you completely free photos by famous photographers such as Ansel Adams and Dorothea Lange. “The money-saving tips will pay for this book 100 times over.” — A. F. Amos Person “Strunk & White for the computer age!”

0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommer­ cially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and pub­ lisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copy­ left license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a

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free program should come with manuals providing the same free­ doms that the software does. But this License is not limited to soft­ ware manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We rec­ ommend this License principally for works whose purpose is in­ struction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", be­ low, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permis­ sion under copyright law. A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work contain­ ing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language. A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter sec­ tion of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's over­ all subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position re­ garding them. The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose ti­

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tles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the no­ tice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any In­ variant Sections then there are none. The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images com­ posed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not "Trans­ parent" is called "Opaque". Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-con­ forming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not

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generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes on­ ly. The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the mate­ rial this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Ac­ knowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" accord­ ing to this definition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the no­ tice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License ap­ plies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading

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or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you dis­ tribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cov­ er Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legi­ bly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally promi­ nent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addi­ tion. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legi­ bly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document num­ bering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using publicstandard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of

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Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previ­ ous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same ti­ tle as a previous version if the original publisher of that ver­ sion gives permission. B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the prin­ cipal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this re­ quirement. C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher. D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

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E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifica­ tions adjacent to the other copyright notices. F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a li­ cense notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice. H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Ti­ tle, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and pub­ lisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previ­ ous sentence. J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Doc­ ument for public access to a Transparent copy of the Docu­ ment, and likewise the network locations given in the Docu­ ment for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network lo­ cation for a work that was published at least four years be­ fore the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the con­ tributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a

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section may not be included in the Modified Version. N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "En­ dorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or ap­ pendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no materi­ al copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles. You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it con­ tains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by vari­ ous parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative defini­ tion of a standard. You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one pas­ sage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previ­ ously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous pub­ lisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this Li­ cense give permission to use their names for publicity for or to as­ sert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

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5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodi­ fied, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Dis­ claimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "His­ tory" in the various original documents, forming one section Enti­ tled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowl­ edgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements." 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

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You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other sepa­ rate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the le­ gal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may dis­ tribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special per­ mission from their copyright holders, but you may include transla­ tions of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the orig­

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inal English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Pre­ serve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other at­ tempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this Li­ cense. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version num­ ber. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the op­ tion of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any ver­