That Reptile Blog » Venomous Snakeshttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog
- Reptile, Amphibian and Exotic Pet Care and InformationFri, 27 Feb 2015 19:18:48 +0000en-UShourly1http://wordpress.org/?v=4.1.1Rear Fanged Snakes: Fascinating, Venomous, and Not a Good Pet Choicehttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2015/02/06/rear-fanged-snakes-fascinating-venomous-not-good-pet-choice/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2015/02/06/rear-fanged-snakes-fascinating-venomous-not-good-pet-choice/#commentsFri, 06 Feb 2015 19:38:50 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=5255The term “rear fanged” is applied to a variety of unrelated snakes that possess a venom-producing gland and 1-3 enlarged, grooved maxillary teeth in the rear of the mouth. We do not yet know how many species possess these venom-conducting teeth (“rear fangs”), but evidence indicates that snake venom evolved some 60 million years ago ...

The term “rear fanged” is applied to a variety of unrelated snakes that possess a venom-producing gland and 1-3 enlarged, grooved maxillary teeth in the rear of the mouth. We do not yet know how many species possess these venom-conducting teeth (“rear fangs”), but evidence indicates that snake venom evolved some 60 million years ago – before non-venomous snakes came into being. Therefore, all present day species may have evolved from venomous ancestors, and may possess at least the traces of venom glands. The rear-fanged snakebites I’ve dealt with in the course of my career have elicited only mild reactions. Some rear-fanged species, however, have caused fatalities – two very “famous” fatalities, in fact (please see below).

Snakes Best Kept in Zoos

As individual sensitivities and other factors can greatly affect one’s reaction to a bite, even “mildly venomous” species must be considered as potentially dangerous. A lifetime of experience as a zookeeper and herpetologist has taught me that it is impossible for a private snake owner to adequately prepare for or treat a venomous snakebite at home, or, prior to a bite, to arrange for treatment in a hospital.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Rishaada

Until we learn more about them, rear fanged snakes are best considered as suitable for display in zoos rather than private collections. Tentacled Snakes (Erpeton tentaculatum) and certain others may be an exception, but I advise consulting a herpetologist and an experienced medical doctor if you feel compelled to acquire a rear-fanged snake of any species.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Rishaada

Overview

Rear fanged snakes are classified in the huge family Colubridae (the “Typical Snakes”), but are not necessarily closely-related to one another. The term is applied to a variety of species that possess the venom-producing Duvernoy’s Gland. One, two, or three of the maxillary teeth in the rear of the mouth are enlarged and bear grooves on their front surfaces. Venom released by the Duvernoy’s Gland flows down these grooves and into a prey animal or foe. A period of “chewing”, in the manner of cobras and other Elapids, may be necessary in order to fully discharge the venom.

This method of introducing toxins into a wound is rather ineffective when compared to that employed by rattlesnakes and other Viperids. Also, many rear fanged species produce venom that is most or only effective against the specific animals upon which they feed. Therefore, not all present a threat to people.

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However, much remains to be learned. For example, Boomslangs (Dispholidus typus) and Twig Snakes (Thelotornis kirtlandi) were not widely believed to be dangerous until each killed a prominent herpetologist! (I use “widely” because both were feared by local people).

Size

At an adult size of 8 inches, North and South America’s Crowned Snakes, (Tantilla spp.), are the smallest rear fanged species known.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Seshadri.K.S

Widely-distributed through much of Southeast Asia, the 7-foot-long Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophila), is the largest. This spectacular snake’s size and striking coloration render it much desired in the trade, and many are held in private collections. Those I’ve kept in zoos have remained high-strung and difficult to work with. Fatalities have not, as far as I know, been attributed to their bites, but large individuals can store up a substantial quantity of venom – I’d leave these beauties alone!

Others, such as the Mangrove Snake (Boiga dendrophila), are generalists that consume a variety of creatures, including birds and mammals. The tiny Crowned Snakes, Tantilla spp., limit their diet to earthworms, centipedes, beetle grubs, and other invertebrates.

“Harmless Snakes” with Venom

Recent research has shown that 2,000 or more snake species, many considered “harmless”, likely produce true venom. Most do not have efficient rear fangs, and produce toxins that pose no danger to people, but this does point out the need for caution and research.

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2015/02/06/rear-fanged-snakes-fascinating-venomous-not-good-pet-choice/feed/10Working with Spitting Cobras…and Getting Snake Venom in My Eyes!http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/11/18/working-spitting-cobrasand-getting-snake-venom-eyes/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/11/18/working-spitting-cobrasand-getting-snake-venom-eyes/#commentsTue, 18 Nov 2014 20:30:59 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=5055Working with Spitting Cobras has been a fascinating, if sometimes un-nerving, experience. In addition to being able to deliver venom via biting or ejection through the air, Spitting Cobras also have the alertness and speed that is typical of nearly all the world’s 353 Elapid species. On two occasions, I’ve had to re-capture a total ...

Working with Spitting Cobras has been a fascinating, if sometimes un-nerving, experience. In addition to being able to deliver venom via biting or ejection through the air, Spitting Cobras also have the alertness and speed that is typical of nearly all the world’s 353 Elapid species. On two occasions, I’ve had to re-capture a total of 6 escaped Red Spitting Cobras (Naja pallida) – once because a man helped his little son to kick in the glass of an exhibit at the Bronx Zoo! (please see article linked below) But despite these incidents, and decades of working closely with related species, the only venom to wind up in my eyes came not from a Spitter, but rather courtesy of a species that “cannot spit” – the Western Diamondback Rattlesnake (Crotalus atrox).

Illegal Rattlesnakes: Live and Cooked

Most of the obvious risks associated with venomous snake care are easy to avoid (in a reputable zoo, that is…one cannot properly prepare for a bite delivered by a snake in a private collection). When working with Spitting Cobras, for example, safety glasses are always worn. Emergencies occur, of course, and then you must sometimes make do without. In the escape mentioned earlier, for example, I arrived on the scene not knowing that Red Spitting Cobras were involved, and I had to immediately evacuate visitors, many of whom were children, from the area.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gary Stolz

But, as in most fields, the greatest dangers arise from unexpected situations – those that we don’t imagine or believe can happen. This was the case one day when I was in a Bronx Zoo holding area, checking on some newly-arrived Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes. The snakes had been confiscated the night before, in a store in NYC, of all places. Several police officers had entered following a report of a burglary, and found snakes instead of criminals. The snakes, mainly Western Diamondbacks, were being held in a variety of slip-shod containers; several dead individuals were in cooking pots, alcoholic drinks, and “medicines”. As usual, the Bronx Zoo was summoned.

“Hey…Rattlesnakes Can’t Spit”

Co-workers and I had installed the snakes in screen-topped aquariums in an isolation room at the zoo’s Reptile House. As is dictated by protocol (and common sense!), I was careful not to lean on any screen tops as I checked the animals. All were highly agitated. Unable to see one individual clearly through the tank’s glass side, I peered down into the screen top. The snake struck at the top, and I instantly felt a splash of liquid in both eyes.

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The standard wisdom is that only Spitting Cobra venom can cause eye damage. In the rare event that another type of venom enters the eye, it needs merely to be washed out; a follow-up with a doctor, to assure that an infection does not take hold, should follow. But this incident was unique for two reasons. First, the force of the snake’s strike against the screening had propelled the venom into my eyes. Second, I had just returned to work following a cornea transplant. There were numerous stitches in my eye, and they were not all that stable.

I felt a stinging sensation (which is not typical for other than Spitting Cobra venom) and thought that perhaps the venom had seeped under my cornea through the stitches. I wondered if the transplant could be ruined, and if I might suffer a typical envenomation as well, once the venom moved further along in my body.

Just When You Thought You Had Seen Everything…

The Bronx Zoo’s snakebite protocol relies upon the NYC Police Department for transport to the hospital. Fortunately, several NYPD Officers are always on the grounds. I was on friendly terms with all – one, in fact, was a former BZ animal keeper, and all were top-notch. It’s hard to surprise an officer who’s spent some time in the Bronx, but I did a good job that day! In less time than I could imagine, I was at Jacobi Hospital being attended to by a young doctor who, after some time in a busy Bronx emergency room, thought he had seen it all!

All went smoothly, and I suffered no symptoms of envenomation. It would have been interesting to learn if the venom had entered my body via a cornea stitch, but in those years Bronx hospitals were unbelievably busy (often with unbelievable, at least to me, cases) and there was no time for speculation or experimentation – I was shuttled out as quickly as I’d arrived!

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/11/18/working-spitting-cobrasand-getting-snake-venom-eyes/feed/10Venomous Snakes: Care and Habits of the Cottonmouth or Water Moccasinhttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/09/03/venomous-snakes-care-habits-cottonmouth-water-moccasin/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/09/03/venomous-snakes-care-habits-cottonmouth-water-moccasin/#commentsWed, 03 Sep 2014 12:42:49 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=4771Big and bold, the Cottonmouth or Water Moccasin is one of the most frequently-encountered of the USA’s venomous snakes. Stories of its alleged ferocity abound, and many folks living within its range are convinced that it goes out of its way to attack people. I’ve had the chance to work with this impressive serpent at ...

Big and bold, the Cottonmouth or Water Moccasin is one of the most frequently-encountered of the USA’s venomous snakes. Stories of its alleged ferocity abound, and many folks living within its range are convinced that it goes out of its way to attack people. I’ve had the chance to work with this impressive serpent at the Bronx and Staten Island Zoos (Note: venomous snakes should never be kept in private collections), and to observe it in the wild, and have found its actual habits to be far more interesting than the supposed ones! From scavenging road-killed pigs to turning up in areas far north of where most people “expect” it, the Cottonmouth is full of surprises. Today I’ll focus on the natural history and captive care of the Eastern Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorous picivorous), with some comments on the 2 related subspecies.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Ltshears

Description

Most Eastern Cottonmouths are olive to dark brown in color, and are patterned with irregular, dark cross-bands. However, nearly-black, pattern-less individuals are common, and hybrids (which vary in appearance) occur where its range overlaps with that of the Florida and Western Cottonmouths.

They are stoutly built, and this makes adults appear larger than their actual size. Most average 3 to 5 feet in length, but occasional “giants” turn up. The published record length is 6 feet, 2 inches…but there’s no shortage of people who will claim to have seen, or even killed, Cottonmouths twice or three times as large (note – they haven’t!).

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by John Sullivan Cali

Several of the larger, non-venomous water snakes of the American Southeast are often confused with the Cottonmouth, as they are superficially similar in appearance and share the same habitat. And if you’ve ever tried catching a large Brown or Florida Green Watersnake, you’ll understand why most “non-herpers” give these irascible brutes as wide a berth as they do Cottonmouths!

The Cottonmouth is classified in the family Viperidae, and is most closely-related to the Copperheads and various Cantils of Mexico and Central America.

Range

The Eastern Cottonmouth is found from southeastern Virginia to eastern Alabama and Georgia. I grew up associating Cottonmouths with Florida’s swamps and canals, and indeed it is there that the Florida Cottonmouth, (A. p. conanti) thrives in good numbers. I was surprised to learn, however, that the Western Cottonmouth(A. p. leucostoma)ranges much further north than I expected – to southern Illinois and eastern Missouri.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Moni3

Habitat

Cottonmouths are typically found in and along slow-moving bodies of water such as swamps, marshes, canals, rice fields, ponds and weedy lakes. However, they will forage in fields, open woodlands and around farms, often far from water. Individuals in many populations hunt mainly by night, especially during the summer, but they bask in the daytime.

In the northern sections of their range, Cottonmouths hibernate in subterranean dens on land, often on hillsides far from water. Hibernation sites may be shared with copperheads, rattlesnakes, water snakes, ratsnakes and other species.

Status

Cottonmouths can be quite common in suitable habitat and in protected areas such as the Everglades, but are threatened in some regions by wetland drainage. Basking Cottonmouths are said to be used for “target practice” in some places…not much of a challenge, given their size and immobility when basking, I imagine!

Longevity

Zoo specimens have reached at least age 24; several under my care were in their late teens, and still full of spunk. Longevity in the wild has not been well-documented, as far as I know.

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Reproduction

In most populations,females breed every-other-year, usually in August and September. The young, 1-16 in number, are born alive and are 7-13 inches in length. They are reddish-brown and vividly marked, and use their bright yellow tail tips to lure frogs, lizards, and other prey. Sexual maturity is reached in 3-4 years.

Diet

Cottonmouths take a wider range of prey than do most other snakes, and even scavenge road-kills. I was once very surprised to read a journal note (Herpetologica?) describing a large individual consuming chunks of fat from a dead pig!

The usual diet is extremely varied, and may include catfish, bream, eels and other fish, sirens, amphiumas and other salamanders, frogs, hatchling alligators, small turtles, lizards, snakes, ducks and other birds, and mammals such as rice rats, muskrats and voles.

I once housed a colony of Green Anoles with a pair of Cottonmouths at the Bronx Zoo. Whenever I tossed roaches or crickets in for the lizards, the Cottonmouths would move about in an apparent search for food. I’m wondering if youngsters consume insects as well; the closely-related Copperhead has been observed feeding upon cicadas and grasshoppers.

Cottonmouths under my care were fed minnows, shiners, trout, goldfish, mice and rats; I’ve always meant to try crayfish, but unfortunately did not. Like many fish-eating snakes, they seemed perpetually hungry. The opening of their exhibit door, with or without the scent of food, generally elicited a mad rush forward. All those I’ve kept adjusted well to captivity – thrusting them away with a snake hook did nothing to damper their desire to feed!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Hydriz

Additional Information

The name “Cottonmouth” arose from this species’ threat display – when cornered, it throws back its head and gapes widely to expose the cottony-white interior of the mouth. If this fails to dissuade the intruder, the snake strikes repeatedly. Basking animals usually drop into the water and swim away, either below or at the surface, when disturbed.

Classification of Cottonmouths and other Vipers

Cottonmouths and their relatives, collectively known as “pit vipers”, are placed in the family Viperidae and subfamily Crotalinae, along with palm vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads and related species. They are considered to be the most advanced, or highly evolved, of all snakes.

Crotalids, or pit-vipers, possess a sophisticated sensory organ (the “pit”) that detects the infra-red rays produced by birds and mammals. Located between the eye and nostril, this organ is far more sensitive than the heat receptors that have evolved among the boas and pythons. The arrangement of the heat receptors within the pit viper’s sensory organs are replicated in the brain and integrated with visual information received there. The pit may thus be considered more of an “imaging device” than mere heat receptor, and likely provides detailed information concerning the size and shape, as well as location, of warm-blooded animals. Aided by these unique organs, pit vipers are able to hunt and escape predators even in complete darkness.

Vipers possess long, hinged fangs that fold back against the roof of the mouth when not in use. Venom is injected with a single bite, in the manner of a hypodermic needle. The snake then retires and allows the prey to run off, and follows its scent trail once the stricken animal has expired. This strategy spares vipers the injuries that can be inflicted by prey animals upon snakes such as cobras, which must hold on while injecting venom. When attacking frogs, fish and other relatively benign prey, however, Cottonmouths hold onto the animal after striking.

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/09/03/venomous-snakes-care-habits-cottonmouth-water-moccasin/feed/2Venomous Snake Identification: the Best Online Guide for US Specieshttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/06/02/venomous-snake-identification-best-online-guide-us-species/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/06/02/venomous-snake-identification-best-online-guide-us-species/#commentsMon, 02 Jun 2014 14:04:22 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=4542As the weather warms, snake identification requests are becoming more common on my blog. Of most concern to those unfamiliar with reptiles is the possibility of encountering venomous species. Often, a fleeting glance is all that has been had, and identification proves very difficult. So today I’d like to direct folks to some useful online ...

As the weather warms, snake identification requests are becoming more common on my blog. Of most concern to those unfamiliar with reptiles is the possibility of encountering venomous species. Often, a fleeting glance is all that has been had, and identification proves very difficult. So today I’d like to direct folks to some useful online and published resources that are useful to review before a snake is sighted as well as after. Of course, please continue to post your questions and observations as well…some species are quite distinctive, and other times the location of the sighting or certain behaviors can be used to narrow down the possibilities.

I’ve been involved with snake bite response efforts through the Bronx Zoo and other organizations for most of my working life, and have learned that, in the USA, most bites occur when people disturb snakes or keep venomous species as “pets”. Worldwide, the situation is different, with an astonishing number of people being bitten, often fatally, in the course of their daily activities (please see the article linked under “Further Reading”). Please heed the cautions provided below.

Note: The following information should not be used to determine if a snake is safe to handle or approach, nor should any other printed guideline. Aberrations in color or pattern, injuries, hybridization and other factors – including the very real possibility of escaped non-native “pets” – can render identification impossible to all but a well-seasoned expert. Concerning exotic escapees, bear in mind that we still have much to learn…and that two prominent herpetologists were killed by snakes thought to be relatively harmless! Also, please note that the flood of both accurate and outright ridiculous information on the internet sometimes inspires a feeling of false confidence in the inexperienced, and gives credence to the old saying “A little knowledge is a dangerous thing”!

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The primary resources listed here are based on Florida’s venomous snakes. However, Florida is home to representatives of each type native to the USA, and the state’s museums and universities have a long history of fine educational efforts in this area. Specifics as to species found in other parts of the country will vary…please see the notes on field guides, and post below if you would like a guide to the species present in your state or region.

University of Florida Website

Prepared by the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Dealing with Snakes – IS IT VENOMOUS? provides a great overview of the 4 general types of venomous snakes found in the USA – copperheads, rattlesnakes, cottonmouths and coral snakes. The most easily-recognizable characteristics of each are highlighted, which makes it simpler for inexperienced observers to decide whether a harmless or venomous snake has passed their way.

You can also view individual pages on each of Florida’s venomous snakes. These include additional characteristics, habitat notes, photos, range maps and other useful details.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Rkillcrazy

Florida Museum of Natural History Website

The FMNH Snake Identification Key is based on the detailed identification tools used by professional herpetologists and serious snake-watchers. However, it has been modified to focus on color and pattern only – those characteristics that tend to catch the average observer’s attention, and which are easier to recall than finer details. Once you’ve eliminated characteristics that do not fit the snake you’ve seen, and have made a tentative identification, you can click on a photo and see if it matches your observation.

Using keys to identify a snake can be fun, and it’s easy to turn the process into a game that children will enjoy and benefit from.

Field Guides

I’ve relied on the Peterson Field Guides and their predecessors since childhood, and they remain the gold standard for on-site reptile and amphibian (and other animal) identifications. There is also a “first field guide” series and a wonderful field guide coloring book for children. Please check here for further information on these.

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/06/02/venomous-snake-identification-best-online-guide-us-species/feed/0The World’s Most Venomous Snakes: Working with Mambas and King Cobrashttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/04/17/the-worlds-most-venomous-snakes-working-with-mambas-and-king-cobras/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/04/17/the-worlds-most-venomous-snakes-working-with-mambas-and-king-cobras/#commentsThu, 17 Apr 2014 20:28:20 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=4436The dangers posed by a specific snake species depends upon a great many factors (please see below). It is clear, however, that venomous snakes are a serious health concern…according to a recent study, each year’s 4.5 million venomous snakebites result in 100,000 deaths and 250,000 permanent disabilities (figures are approximate, please see the article linked ...

The dangers posed by a specific snake species depends upon a great many factors (please see below). It is clear, however, that venomous snakes are a serious health concern…according to a recent study, each year’s 4.5 million venomous snakebites result in 100,000 deaths and 250,000 permanent disabilities (figures are approximate, please see the article linked below for details). Certain large constrictors have also caused fatalities. In the course of field research in Venezuela, I observed a Green Anaconda attack a co-worker in what clearly was a feeding attempt. Please see “Further Reading”, below, to read about both this incident and a recent study of human predation by Reticulated Pythons. Today I’ll focus on the 2 most dangerous species that I’ve found most challenging as captives – the world’s largest and Africa’s longest venomous snakes, the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) and the Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis).

A Note on “The Most Dangerous”

Widespread species that adapt well to human presence, such as Puff Adders, bite far more people than do, for example, sea snakes and others that might have more potent venom, but which rarely encounter humans. Wild Black Mambas readily colonize farms and villages, benefitting from the increased availability of shelter and food (rodents, nesting birds). King Cobras, on the other hand, tend to live in more undisturbed habitats. Venom evolution, a snake’s size, the availability of antivenin, individual sensitivities and a host of other considerations also complicate the issue.

Cobras and mambas are classified in the family Elapidae, which contains 354 members. Among them we find several species that are considered to be high-strung and aggressive when confronted. While King Cobras and Black Mambas often retreat if able, encounters in homes, barns or, in my case, zoo exhibits, may lead to attacks. And the large size attained by each increases both the potential strike range and the amount of venom that may be delivered by a bite.

Another difficulty presented to zookeepers is the fact that cobras and mambas are hard to move via a snake hook. Incredibly-fast and quick to figure out what’s going on, they more often than not land on the floor when being “hooked”.

For safety’s sake, I try to rely upon hunger and other “hands-off” tricks when relocating these formidable creatures (please see below), but that is not always possible. While rummaging through a storage area in the Bronx Zoo’s reptile house, I once found a homemade shield used decades ago by keepers entering the King Cobra exhibit. One keeper in particular was said to become very concerned if the cobras seemed hungry, or their cage needed servicing; armed with his shield, he would enter quite often (the King Cobras under my care moved into their shift cage when I needed to enter…or else they remained hungry!).

“Curious Cobras”

Those who work with King Cobras often describe them as “curious”. I can’t disagree, although when servicing their exhibits I found this trait to be un-nerving, to say the least! Actually, all cobra species I’ve cared for exhibited an unusual degree of alertness, and responded immediately to what was going on around them. For example, both Egyptian and King Cobras, perhaps sensing my footsteps in the service area behind their exhibits, would rear up and face the small sliding window I looked through before opening their exhibit doors. As I slid back the window’s cover, a cobra was nearly always peering back at me…in a lifetime of working with snakes, I’ve not seen this done by any other species.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Hari Prasad

My most harrowing King Cobra incident involved an escaped individual at an airport. Fortunately, I went the “brains over brawn” route and emerged unscathed – much to the disappointment of the several young onlookers who expected a battle! Please see this article for the details.

How Do You Get a Black Mamba into a Pillow Case?

This disturbing question confronted me when I was called upon to ship the Staten Island Zoo’s resident specimen to another institution. If anything, mambas are faster and harder to deal with than cobras…individuals cornered in homes have quickly caused multiple fatalities. An adult can deliver 120 mg of venom in a single bite, and the lethal dose is only 10-15 mg, so this is not a creature to be taken lightly. Again, I shamelessly used under-handed tricks to accomplish my task…please see this article for the details.

King Cobra and Black Mamba Natural History

While much is made of the dangers posed by these snakes, less attention is paid to the details of their lives in the wild. Mamba and cobra diets, breeding behaviors, threat displays and colonization of human-dominated landscapes are especially fascinating, and quite unique. I’ve written about their natural behaviors in the articles linked below.

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/04/17/the-worlds-most-venomous-snakes-working-with-mambas-and-king-cobras/feed/0Most Dangerous Snake in USA? Rattlesnake Study Provides Cluehttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/03/03/most-dangerous-snake-in-usa-rattlesnake-study-provides-clue/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/03/03/most-dangerous-snake-in-usa-rattlesnake-study-provides-clue/#commentsMon, 03 Mar 2014 18:55:28 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=4267I’ve spent decades working with venomous snakes, setting-up snakebite protocols in zoos, and responding to snakebite emergencies. Today, I’m sometimes criticized for my strong stand against the keeping venomous snakes in private collections. But I have learned that, even under the best of circumstances, treatment can be hampered by gaps in our knowledge. For example, ...

I’ve spent decades working with venomous snakes, setting-up snakebite protocols in zoos, and responding to snakebite emergencies. Today, I’m sometimes criticized for my strong stand against the keeping venomous snakes in private collections. But I have learned that, even under the best of circumstances, treatment can be hampered by gaps in our knowledge. For example, we know that the chemical characteristics of venom vary over the ranges of certain species. This can affect treatment, and, as we’ll see below, may mean the difference between life and death for a victim. In fact, the venom of some Southern Pacific Rattlesnakes is so unique that it is unaffected by the antivenin currently in use! Are they the most dangerous snake in the USA?

Rattlesnake Venom and Antivenin

We’ve known for some time that the venoms of most snakes contain both haemotoxic (attacking blood vessels) and neurotoxic (attacking nerves) properties, with one or the other predominating. The venoms of several rattlesnakes have both, but the effects of most are haemotoxic in nature.

The antivenin administered to rattlesnake bite victims was formulated with that rule in mind. A single antivenin is used to treat bites from any of the 34 species native to the USA.

The Most Dangerous Snake in the USA? One Subspecies, Two Distinct Venoms

The Southern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri) is considered to be one of the most medically significant rattlesnakes in the USA. Researchers from the University of Queensland analyzed the venoms produced by two separate populations of this species. The populations studied are located in southern California, within a two hour’s drive from one another.

Southern Pacific Rattlesnakes living near Phelan, CA. produce fairly “typical” rattlesnake venom that attacks the blood vessels of a victim with anticoagulants and other compounds.

However, Southern Pacific Rattlesnakes living near Idyllwild, CA – 2 hours away by car – manufacture venom that could not be more different than that of their Phelan neighbors. Highly neurotoxic in action, this venom kills by paralyzing the nervous system (as is commonly seen in cobra bites).

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Rkillcrazy

Why Evolve Unique Venom?

Over time, certain prey animals evolve resistances to the venoms of their major snake predators. Snakes may respond with evolutionary changes of their own. Venom may eventually become “fine-tuned” to kill one or several specific prey animals.

For example, the venom of Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) living in New England is more effective against the most common local prey animal (gray squirrels, I believe) than against other creatures. Further south, cottontail rabbits predominate in the diet, and the venom’s chemical make-up reflects this. Timber Rattlesnakes living on St. Catherine’s Island off Georgia (formerly used by the Bronx Zoo to breed endangered species) seem to produce especially virulent venom, at least where dogs are concerned.

The Southern Pacific Rattlesnake populations mentioned above represent the greatest known venom variation within a species, and the distance involved is the shortest documented. Researchers theorize that the isolation of the Idyllwild population, which occupies mountain ridges near and over 4,000 feet above sea level, partially accounts for their unique venom.

Questions remain as to why neurotoxic venom has evolved among these snakes. One proposed explanation is found in the nature of the habitat, which is rocky and studded with caves and crevices. Rattlesnakes bite their prey and then withdraw, tracking their victims once they have expired. Perhaps the fast-acting neurotoxic venom allows snakes to more easily locate their victims. This may not be a consideration for snakes living in prairies and other open habitats.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by José Reynaldo da Fonseca

Complications for Snakebite Victims

As mentioned earlier, the antivenin administered to rattlesnake bite victims in the USA was formulated to counteract the effects of “typical” rattlesnake venom, which is largely haemotoxic in nature. It is believed that people bitten by a Southern Pacific Rattlesnake living near Idyllwild would not be helped by this antivenin.

Certain populations of Mojave Rattlesnakes, C. scutulatus and the Neo-Tropical Rattlesnake, C. durissus, have long been known to contain neurotoxins. If I recall correctly from my days at the Bronx Zoo, bites from these species were treated with a mix of 2-3 antivenins (I’ve not checked current treatment recommendations; please post below if you need further information).

An abstract of original article (Journal of Proteomics, 24 Jan 2014) is available here.

Hi, my name is Frank Indiviglio. I’m a herpetologist, zoologist, and book author, recently retired from a career spent at several zoos, aquariums, and museums, including over 20 years with the Bronx Zoo.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2014/03/03/most-dangerous-snake-in-usa-rattlesnake-study-provides-clue/feed/13Venomous Reptiles – Newly Discovered Viper is an Endangered Specieshttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/06/20/venomous-reptiles-newly-discovered-viper-is-an-endangered-species/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/06/20/venomous-reptiles-newly-discovered-viper-is-an-endangered-species/#commentsThu, 20 Jun 2013 15:23:08 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=3542Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Guifarro’s Palm Pit Viper (Bothriechis guifarroi), recently described as a new venomous reptile species in the journal Zookeys, may already be in danger of extinction. In an attempt to draw attention to its plight, the newfound snake has been named after Mario Guifarro, a conservationist murdered for his work within its habitat. ...

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. Guifarro’s Palm Pit Viper (Bothriechis guifarroi), recently described as a new venomous reptile species in the journal Zookeys, may already be in danger of extinction. In an attempt to draw attention to its plight, the newfound snake has been named after Mario Guifarro, a conservationist murdered for his work within its habitat. Three other arboreal pit vipers have been uncovered in recent years (please see below)…each also faces an uncertain future.

I’ve had the good fortune of working with several Bothriechis species at the Bronx and Staten Island Zoos. Although somewhat similar in external appearance, each inhabits a unique habitat, or niche within a habitat, and they can teach us a great deal about how snakes evolve and partition resources. Guifarro’s Palm Pit Viper is the 10th species to be included in the genus (the last to be described was B. thalassinus, in the year 2000), but I’m sure more await discovery.

Rare Species in a Threatened Habitat

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Al Coritz

Guifarro’s Palm Pit Viper inhabits northern Honduras’ highland cloud forest region. It is the 15th endemic species (animals found nowhere else) to be found in the area, which has now been designated as the Taxiguat Wildlife Refuge. It is not known whether this snake occurred elsewhere in the past, as the surrounding forests have been largely destroyed to make way for cattle ranches and other uses.

Although similar in appearance to neighboring species, Guifarro’s Palm Pit Viper’s nearest relative actually resides in Costa Rica. Further studies should reveal insights into how this group of snakes evolved into the similar but distinct species we know today.

Mario Guifarro, for whom the snake is named, was an outspoken critic of development in the region and supported the rights of the indigenous Tawahka people. He was murdered him in 2007, apparently by opponents of his conservation activities.

Other Newly-Discovered Arboreal Vipers

Snake enthusiasts were pleased to learn of the recent discoveries of brilliantly-colored arboreal vipers in Africa, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Esquilo

Tanzania yielded Matilda’s Horned Viper, Atheris matildae, while the Ruby-Eyed Green Viper, Cryptelytrops rubeus and the Yellow-Eyed Green Viper, C. cardumonensi were uncovered in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, all face severe habitat loss and other threats. Please see the articles linked below for further information on these and other new species and their unique habitats.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook . Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/06/20/venomous-reptiles-newly-discovered-viper-is-an-endangered-species/feed/2Venomous Pythons? – Snakebite Victims Benefit from New Researchhttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/14/venomous-pythons-snakebite-victims-benefit-from-new-research/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/14/venomous-pythons-snakebite-victims-benefit-from-new-research/#commentsTue, 14 May 2013 15:40:59 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=3351Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that ...

]]>Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. In recent years, researchers have found toxins in a wide array of snakes and lizards formerly believed to be harmless…even the Bearded Dragon is not above suspicion (please see below), but venomous pythons? While working at the Bronx Zoo, I was several times called upon to assist in confiscating snakes that had appeared in the pet trade before we learned of their potentially lethal venom (i.e. Asian Watersnakes, genus Rhabdophis). All evidence of toxicity must be taken seriously…bear in mind that both the Boomslang and Savanna Twig Snake were thought to be harmless until each killed a prominent herpetologist! The recent discovery of toxins in the mucus of certain pythons poses a unique and unexpected concern for snakebite victims.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by CorneliusA

Python Venom

Studies at the University of Queensland have revealed the presence of toxins in the mucus of several python species. Described as “relic venom”, they occur in only trace amounts. In common with many other snakes, pythons may have relied upon venom at some point in their evolutionary history. Although they no longer utilize venom to overcome prey or defend themselves, pythons continue to produce some toxic compounds. While some snakes bear toxins that target specific animals (i.e. Tentacled Snakes, Erpeton tentaculatum, which prey upon fish), python toxins seem to have no use, and pose no danger to people.

The toxin molecules thus far identified in pythons differ from those found in any known venomous snake. Being so chemically unique, they are of great interest to those seeking to develop new chemical compounds and medicines.

Implications for Snakebite Victims

Potential problems arise when a person is bitten by a snake that has not been identified. In such cases, a highly-sensitive venom detection kit is used to determine if toxins are present in the victim. The harmless toxins found in python mucus can trigger a positive response following a python bite, and may result in the unnecessary administration of antivenin (medicines used to counteract snake venom).

In addition to being extremely expensive, antivenin triggers violent allergic reactions in many people. If not treated properly, anaphylactic shock and death can result. Unnecessary treatment also depletes antivenin stocks, which are often difficult to replace. The potential for such problems is greatest in Australia, which is home to a wide variety of both pythons and venomous snakes.

Famous Herpetologists Killed by “Harmless Snakes”

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by TimVickers

Until rather recently, snakes in the family Colubridae (which contains those “typical snakes” with which most people are familiar) were considered relatively harmless. The family’s venomous members are rear-fanged, and it was believed that their seemingly ineffective venom-delivery systems posed little threat to people.

In 1957, however, world-renowned herpetologist Karl P. Schmidt was bitten by a Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) while working at the Chicago Field Museum. At the time, the Boomslang was not believed to be dangerously-venomous. Unconcerned by the fact that a single fang had punctured his thumb, Mr. Schmidt took notes on his symptoms and did not seek medical treatment. He expired the next day. By the early 1970’s, several other deaths had been attributed to this African Colubrid.

Another African rear-fanged snake, the Savanna Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis), took the life of another prominent herpetologist, Robert Mertens, in 1972. Once considered harmless, this species had been implicated in several deaths by 1972. As any snake enthusiast knows, Mr. Mertens’ work is beyond reproach, but for some reason he decided to hand-feed a captive Twig Snake. He succumbed to the resulting bite after a period of three weeks.

Other Dangerous Colubrid Snakes

Fatalities have also been attributed to bites from the Yamakagashi (Rhabdophis tigrinus), a semi-aquatic Japanese snake. I was involved in confiscations of several related species in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, when they sometimes appeared in US pet stores.

Uploaded to Wikipedia by One dead president

The bites of a number of other “harmless” snakes have caused severe reactions, and all may be capable of causing human fatalities. In fact, the venom of the Blanding’s Treesnake (Boiga blandingi) is as toxic as that of certain cobras. It and related species, such as the Mangrove Snake – a high strung species that I found very difficult to work with in zoo exhibits – should be treated with extreme caution. Other potentially deadly species include Latin America’s Road Guarder (Conophis leneatus) and various Racers in the genera Alsophis and Philodryas.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

Thanks, until next time,

Frank Indiviglio

Further Reading

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/14/venomous-pythons-snakebite-victims-benefit-from-new-research/feed/6Africa’s Deadliest Snake? Black Mamba Habits, Venom and Behaviorhttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/07/africas-deadliest-snake-black-mamba-habits-venom-and-behavior/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/07/africas-deadliest-snake-black-mamba-habits-venom-and-behavior/#commentsTue, 07 May 2013 18:11:37 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=3329Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As any experienced reptile enthusiast knows, accounts concerning the size and aggressive nature of various snakes are usually highly exaggerated. The Black Mamba, however, comes close to living up to the legends that surround it, and has long been among the most feared of all African snakes. In the course of ...

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here.As any experienced reptile enthusiast knows, accounts concerning the size and aggressive nature of various snakes are usually highly exaggerated. The Black Mamba, however, comes close to living up to the legends that surround it, and has long been among the most feared of all African snakes. In the course of a lifetime spent working with venomous snakes in the wild and captivity, I’ve come to regard it as deserving of a special degree of respect. Today we’ll take a look at its natural history and behavior.

Description

The Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s many venomous snakes. It is slender in build and averages 8-9 feet in length, but 14 footers have been recorded. Also very agile and fast-moving, several individuals have been clocked at 12.5 miles per hour. Black Mambas often travel about with the head held high, in a manner similar to that of North America’s Black Racer.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

The “black” part of its common name is derived from the color of mouth’s interior, which is displayed when the animal is threatened (North America’s Cottonmouth behaves in a similar fashion). The body color may be various shades of brown, olive or gray, but is never black.

Venom

Classified with cobras, sea snakes, coral snakes and related species in the family Elapidae, the Black Mamba produces highly toxic venom that acts upon the nervous and circulatory systems. An adult mamba can deliver 100-120 mg of venom in a single bite. Since the lethal dose for humans is a mere 10-15 mg, the severity of a bite cannot be over-estimated. The danger is compounded by the fact that Black Mambas often administer multiple bites in rapid succession.

Before the development of antivenin, Black Mamba bites were almost always fatal. Unfortunately, antivenin is not available to those Africans most at risk. In fact, of the 1.5 million people bitten by venomous snakes annually in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 10% are treated with antivenin; at least 7,000 people die as a result, while another 14,000 suffer limb amputations (please see article linked below for further information). Concerning Black Mamba bites, the fatality rate remains at or near 100% in the many rural areas that are not adequately supplied with antivenin.

According to most observers, mambas will flee if able when approached by people. Much to my chagrin, zoo specimens tend to stand their ground, as retreat options are limited! The same may be said of those surprised in buildings or other enclosed areas. Drawn by rodents and nesting birds, Black Mambas are not uncommon in and around buildings in some regions. There are well-documented instances of multiple deaths being caused by single Black Mambas that have fallen from roofs onto people sleeping below.

Disturbed mambas raise the first third of the body off the ground and flare a narrow skin flap that lies along the neck. The mouth is held open, exposing the jet black interior, as the animal hisses and moves its head from side to side.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by deror avi

Range

Two subspecies have been described.Dendroaspis p. polylepis ranges from Ethiopia to South Africa. A widely separated population occurs in parts of tropical West Africa, but the extent of this part of the range is not well-studied.D. p. antinori is confined to Ethiopia, Somalia, northern Kenya and northern Uganda.

Three additional mamba species, all highly arboreal, also occur in Africa – the Eastern Green Mamba (D. angusticeps, please see photo), the Western Green Mamba (D. viridis), and the Jameson’s Mamba (D. jamesoni).

Habitat

The Black Mamba inhabits open forests, wooded savannahs, rocky thorn scrub and the fringes of the Kalahari Desert, but also colonizes farms and villages. Although largely terrestrial, it climbs well and often shelters in tree hollows, thatched roofs and arboreal termite mounds.

There is some evidence that specific home ranges are maintained, and that the same shelter may be utilized for quite long periods of time.

Diet

Birds, mammals (shrews, hyrax, rodents, bats), snakes, and lizards

Activity

In most regions, Black Mambas are diurnal, but seek shelter during the hottest part of the day. There is evidence of nocturnal and crepuscular activity patterns among some populations as well.

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Gerhardt Nieuwoudt

Reproduction

Males wrestle for dominance during the mating season (please see photo). Females deposit 6-17 eggs in mammal burrows, termite mounds, tree hollows and similar sites. The hatchlings average 15-24 inches in length. Black Mambas grow very quickly, with well-fed individuals reportedly reaching a length of 6 feet within their first year of life.

Status of Wild Populations

Detailed studies are lacking, but Black Mambas appear to adapt well to human presence. Agricultural expansion has increased the likelihood of mamba encounters and bites. Given the danger that this species poses to people, it is likely that efforts to eliminate it from developed areas will continue.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.

]]>http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/07/africas-deadliest-snake-black-mamba-habits-venom-and-behavior/feed/0Black Mamba Memories – Working with one of the World’s Deadliest Snakeshttp://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/03/black-mamba-memories-working-with-one-of-the-worlds-deadliest-snakes/
http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/2013/05/03/black-mamba-memories-working-with-one-of-the-worlds-deadliest-snakes/#commentsFri, 03 May 2013 15:03:28 +0000http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog/?p=3302Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a small boy, I devoured the books of Messrs.’ Ditmars, Kauffeld, Whittaker, Sanderson and others who sought out snakes in their natural habitats. The formidable Black Mamba, (Dendroaspis polylepis), accorded respect by all, was given a special place of honor by legendary snake man C.J.P. Ionides in Mambas and Maneaters. ...

Hello, Frank Indiviglio here. As a small boy, I devoured the books of Messrs.’ Ditmars, Kauffeld, Whittaker, Sanderson and others who sought out snakes in their natural habitats. The formidable Black Mamba, (Dendroaspis polylepis), accorded respect by all, was given a special place of honor by legendary snake man C.J.P. Ionides in Mambas and Maneaters.Although I was eager to expand my snake hunting experiences, these authors convinced me that this longest of Africa’s venomous snakes was better observed than handled. Fate intervened, however, and I wound up working closely with what has been described as “Africa’s deadliest snake”. Accounts of the recent escape of a Black Mamba from the Pretoria Zoo brought an experience of my own back to mind…

Uploaded to Wikipedia Commons by Tad Arensmeier

Handling Mambas and Cobras

Zoo-based reptile keepers such as I handle thousands of venomous snakes over the course of their careers. A snake hook generally fits the bill for routine tasks. The Black Mamba, King Cobra and several related species, however, present special challenges, especially when they reach full size. Quick, high-strung, and seemingly more alert and intelligent than others, many Elapids (cobras, mambas and their relatives) are difficult to move via snake hooks….all old reptile keepers have their stories. You can read about my adventures with an escaped King Cobra in this article.

I was fortunate in having had the benefit of working with several older, well- experienced keepers, and had no illusions about “proving” myself when it came to cobras and mambas. I feel that “discretion is the better part of valor” where they are concerned, a belief confirmed by observations made in the course of responding to many snakebite emergencies over the years. Whenever possible, I relied upon shift cages or other “tricks” (please see article below) when I needed to move a mamba.

You Want Me to Do What with the Black Mamba?!

But there came I time when, as consultant for the renovation of the Staten Island Zoo’s reptile house, I was called upon to capture a large Black Mamba and ready it for shipment to another zoo. The snake, a large adult, had not been on a snake hook or otherwise manipulated in years. A shift cage was attached to its exhibit, and the exhibit door was not opened for cleaning unless the snake was locked away in the shift.

Snakes in transit are confined in pillow cases or similar cloth bags, which are tied tightly and then placed into a second bag. Generally a straightforward task… but not with an aggressive, 9 foot-long snake that can flip off a snake hook or exit a bag in the blink of an eye!

After some consideration, I decided to lure rather than force the mamba into a bag. I found a bag of the right size and secured it with duct tape to the opening that led from the exhibit into the shift cage. I then acclimated the snake to feeding within the bag. Black Mambas have fast metabolisms by snake standards, and generally consume quite a bit more food than similarly-sized individuals of other species…hatchlings have been known to reach 6 feet in length within by within one year. Hunger can, therefore, sometimes be used to manipulate them.

You can bet I kept our Black Mamba very hungry prior to shipment! This is standard practice when shipping any snake, as stress can induce regurgitation and related problems, but to be honest I was far more concerned with my stress levels than the mamba’s! When it came time to confine the snake, I rubbed the inside of the bag with a mouse and opened the shift door. Happily, the mamba shot it without hesitation.

I was careful to secure the bag’s opening with a long handled tong, after which I lifted the now violently-moving package into a large plastic garbage can. As is done when packing all snakes, I pulled the neck and 2 feet or so of the bag out of the can, and then placed the can’s lid securely on top. Thus, the snake was confined in that part of the bag which remained within the can, and the lid prevented it from reaching the bag’s neck (or my hand). I could now safely tie the bag by hand, and then secure it further with a cable tie.

I think that some of my younger co-workers would have preferred a more dramatic capture, but I was quite pleased with myself (as was the zoo’s curator and the doctor who had been placed on notice at the local hospital!).

Natural History

Occasionally approaching 14 feet in length, the Black Mamba is the longest of Africa’s venomous snakes, and its venom is among the most toxic to be found on the continent. Add to this a wide range, the ability to colonize farms and villages, and a propensity to bite multiple times in quick succession when threatened, and it becomes clear why this a creature of much concern and deserving of detailed study. Yet it remains difficult to separate mamba fact from fiction. I’ll cover Black Mamba lore and natural history in the near future.

Please check out my posts on Twitterand Facebook. Each day, I highlight breaking research, conservation news and interesting stories concerning just about every type of animal imaginable. I look forward to hearing about your interests and experiences as well, and will use them in articles when possible.

Please also post your questions and comments below…I’ll be sure to respond quickly.