Italians have
played a major role in the history of immigration to Argentina since the
original boom at the end of the 19th century up until the middle of the
20th century. They have constituted the majority of the immigrants coming
into Argentina. A strong network has been established amongst the Italian
immigrants, which has encouraged and made it possible for their countrymen
to join them. Argentina itself was a welcoming option due to the availability
of jobs and social mobility along with the similar language and culture.
An example of this is Comodoro Rivadavia, on the coast of central Patagonia,
which offered abundant jobs in its oil companies and a growing Italian
community. The main immigration period that is usually focused upon is
from 1880 until 1914 when World War I began, but immigration did not stop
there. The Italians continued immigrating and another large group came
to Argentina after World War II hoping to escape the aftermath of the war.
Amongst these new immigrants were Giuseppe Cambereri and Supina Lopresto
who came to live in Comodoro Rivadavia. Italian immigration to Argentina
maintains similar aspects throughout its history with exceptions in specific
cases and that extends past the boom period into the 20th century, and
into cities besides the capital of Buenos Aires, which has both positive
and negative effects on the immigrants.

The Italians
that immigrated to Argentina during the time period from 1880-1914 represented
all the regions of Italy with 46% from the south, 42% from the north, and
12% from the center of the country. (1) Most of the northern Italians
went to work on the land while the southerners stayed in the cities to
work in the factories. The southerners arrived in Argentina later than
the other Italian immigrants did and most of the land for agriculture was
already taken.

There was
a steady flow of immigrants into Argentina, the majority of whom were males
ranging in age from fourteen to fifty. For every Italian woman in Argentina
there were two men. The immigrants found it easy to adjust to the
new society and, in turn, their host society adapted well to them. When
the immigrants arrived in Argentina, most of them remained in the large
cities in order to build strength in numbers and to establish community
and lifestyle. The majority of the Italians who came decided to permanently
settle in Argentina although there were some who decided to either return
home permanently or alternate between the two countries. The intent of
many in the beginning was to only travel to Argentina temporarily, but
the majority later made the decision not to return. They decided to make
a new life in Argentina by building places for education, establishing
homes, and creating institutions for their new communities.

The occurrence
of Italian immigration rests on several reasons. First of all, Argentine
agriculture was an attractive option to the Italians because they could
work the harvest in Argentina during the European winter. These are the
workers who are referred to as golondrinas because they migrated according
to the weather like swallows. Another reason is the capitalist system,
which underwent major development and began to encourage exchanges of technology,
capital, and laborers between the nations that lined the Atlantic seaboard.
In the political sector were the motives of the Argentine elites, who saw
immigration as a means of aiding in the modernization and civilizing of
their country since European society was seen as more sophisticated.

The Federal
Government became involved in the immigration process through the Constitution
of 1853. Article 25 of the Constitution stated the government’s desire
to promote immigration. Article 20 served as an incentive to the immigrants
because it gave them the same rights as Argentine citizens, while also
allowing for the obtainment of citizenship if they chose to do so. In 1876,
the Law of Immigration and Colonization was created to improve upon the
previous laws that had been created in order to prompt the immigrants to
join in the cultivation of the interior. Italians were desirable because
they could provide labor, work skills, and knowledge of economic development
while also contributing their skills as farmers, artisans, industrial workers,
and businessmen. Also important was that the Italian and Argentine elites
shared similar ideas in that they both wanted to build new nations based
on liberal ideas.

As for the
immigrants’ motive for migrating, many decided to leave Italy because of
the rapid population growth. The economy of the country was unable to absorb
this number of inhabitants due to the fact that it did not grow as fast
as the population did. The rural inhabitants are the ones who suffered
because of their reliance on the agriculture that they produced. This system
failed when crops and land ownership became unpredictable. Another reason
for migration to Argentina is networks of family, relatives, and paesani
(fellow countrymen) who became important in finding places to settle and
work. These people could provide information, advice, and assistance for
the journey to Argentina along with potential jobs and places to live once
they had arrived. Family members were also an excellent source for financial
assistance. Other sources of help were agents who helped those without
any connections, with the most important being the businessmen and professionals
who worked for the railroad and steamship companies. Earning money was
another main reasons for migration to Argentina. The immigrants used some
of the money that they earned to send back to Italy in order to support
family members or to allow them to buy tickets to the New World. Some actually
went to Argentina to make their fortunes and then return to live in Italy.

Italian immigrants
felt at home in Argentina due to the similarities of their cultures, one
of the most important being language. The Italian and Spanish languages
share similar traits, especially in their vocabulary. Italians adjusted
easily to Argentine society because the Argentines placed strong emphasis
on the family and relations with others just as the Italians did. Italians
also constituted a large part of the population and in turn had a large
effect on society.

Most of the
Italians started out as manual laborers due to their qualifications in
that area. They were rewarded for this through good pay, stable jobs and
the possibility for promotion. Italians aided in the creation of the working
class in Argentina because their work skills allowed them to move up in
society. This led to the creation of the working and middle class,
which were situated, between the previous two social categories, the elites
and the non-elites.

The Italians
tended to live within groups that consisted of people from their original
villages or provinces in Italy. The lives of the immigrants revolved around
the neighborhoods where they lived, worked, and shopped in. Services such
as doctors and lawyers were available to the people along with schools,
churches, and mutual aid societies. The businesses that they patronized
were those of people they were related to, friends with, or had come to
trust on a business level. Some local storekeepers provided services such
as selling steamship tickets and sending money and writing letters to relatives
in Italy.

The situation
in Comodoro Rivadavia pertaining to the Italian immigrants was basically
the same as in the rest of Argentina. The Italians came to Argentina for
a variety of reasons, some of which had prompted the earlier immigration
of Italians to Argentina, but there were also new reasons such as the petroleum
industry. Argentina offered a language and culture that was similar to
the Italians. They could receive a higher salary along with better education
and health benefits than in Italy. The economy and social situations in
the European countries after the World Wars were not in the best condition.
There was also the possibility of social mobility for the Italians, which
was not possible at home. They were attracted to the job market, which
included working in the growing petroleum industry. The petroleum companies
that settled in Comodoro Rivadavia after the initial discovery of oil in
the area in 1907 offered flexible occupations and salaries that allow for
new places in the social structure. The political situation in Italy had
been unstable during the nineteenth century due to the process of unification
of the country. Previously, Italy had been divided into three regions with
the north being ruled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the west by the royal
house of Savoy, and the south by the Vatican. Some Italians were forced
to leave due to political reasons, with only a small amount being expelled
or forced to flee due to religious persecution.

As was the
case with the earlier Italian immigrants, there are two main groups that
the Italian immigrants were divided into, being the north and the south.
From 1870 until 1900 the majority of the Italians came from the northern
regions of Liguria, Lombardy, and the Piemonte. Later immigrants from the
southern regions came in 1886 from Campania and in 1900 from Sicily. (2)
Many of these southern Italians came from the province of Calabria. They
worked mainly in agriculture growing grain, grapes, and olives, but also
as shepherds and coal miners. Those from the north had more advantages
from having worked in the industries and this knowledge gave them more
power. The immigrants from the south were often illiterate and poor due
to the jobs they worked in the agrarian sector.

Like other
Italian immigrants many of the immigrants who came to Comodoro Rivadavia
arrived with the intention of returning to Italy. However, there were many
that changed their minds after arriving in Argentina and later sent for
their families. Some even took leave from work without pay in order to
return to Italy to retrieve their spouse and family. The immigrants relied
upon personal relations with people from their own towns and provinces
as their social network.

The arrival
of the Italian immigrants to Comodoro Rivadavia began in 1907 with the
discovery of petroleum. They saw Argentina as an opportunity where they
could temporarily go to work and earn money. Usually only one member of
the family would immigrate and work to either create or increase an inheritance.
Work also provided the opportunity to improve one’s status since social
mobility was a possibility. The workers found they could move either upwards
or downwards in their occupations in Argentina.

In 1917 Yacimientos
Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF), the state oil company, had 38 Italian
workers which comprised 2.71% of their total work force. (3) They
worked a variety of jobs including unskilled laborer, brick mason, foreman,
carpenter, mechanic, etc. The Italians tended to choose jobs that they
had previously performed in Italy. The majority of these workers came into
the company during strikes with most of them only remaining a maximum of
three years. The majority of this group returned to Italy after the end
of World War I. This group had mainly consisted of Italian immigrants who
were single men that were no older than 30 years old. The company housed
the immigrants in metal huts with two or three other company workers. The
few who were married received their own house from YPF. By 1926 there were
196 Italian laborers who composed 5.7% of the total work force. (4)
It was this wave of immigrants who brought their families with them when
they originally immigrated.

The Italian
immigrants composed a large amount of the community of Comodoro Rivadavia.
They contributed 64 of the 959 members of the Padrones Electorales, local
voters’ registries, in 1917. (5) They totaled 29% of the urban middle
class working as professionals, merchants, small business owners, and administrative
employees. This class itself was a result of the social mobility created
by the petroleum companies where the Italians worked. In the working class
the Italian laborers totaled 64% of both the skilled and unskilled workers.
(6) By 1920 the Italians had become the third most important immigrant
group in Comodoro after the Spanish and the Argentines.

The Italians
grew in population over the years to become one of the majority immigrants
groups. Italian immigration only slowed during World War I while immigration
from other European nations came to a halt. In 1920 a new wave hit only
to be stopped in 1929 by the Great Depression. Beginning in 1932 only relatives
of those already residing in Argentina were allowed to enter the country.
The only other group permitted entrance by the Argentine government were
those willing to work in the rural parts of the country, such as the region
of Sarmiento, located 200 km west of Comodoro Rivadavia. There the Italian
immigrants worked in the numerous jobs available on the ranches such as
sheep shearers, shepherds, livestock, agriculture, stablemen and so on.

On October
26, 1919 the Italian Mutual Aid Association in Comodoro Rivadavia came
into existence. It originally consisted of 150 members with only a few
of these members being from the YPF and Astra oil companies –the later
was one of the several private oil companies in the area . The workers
at the companies had no need for the association since they were already
provided with social services. During World War II the Association was
split into two sections due to the new idea of fascism. In the company
town of Kilometro 3 (YPF) the Italian Democratic Society was formed and
in the city of Comodoro Rivadavia proper was the Italian Association. After
the war ended the two sectors reunited in 1946.

The principal
objective of the Italian Mutual Aid Association was to promote the well
being of the immigrants. It served to address questions that arose over
religion and politics while also providing a social network and a venue
for cultural events for its participants. The Association purchased a building
to serve as a headquarters for its own use and also for use by its members.
Those who belonged to the Association were either Italian citizens or the
children of Italians. The members represented 45% of the middle class and
30% working class. (7) The Association was maintained through fees
paid by its members and, in turn, it provided medical assistance and workers’
compensation. An Italian Hospital was also established for the exclusive
use of the Association members.

After the
end of World War II a total of 500,000 Italians came to Argentina. Between
1947-50, 50% of the immigrants were between the ages of 22 and 40. Starting
in 1951 the amount dropped to between 30-40% for this age group. (8)
These immigrants were predominantly male between the years 1945-50 with
a large wave of women arriving in 1954. Of the Italians who arrived during
the years of 1945-60, 74% settled in Buenos Aires or its suburbs. Of those
500,000 immigrants 68% originated in the southern half of the country,
with 29% of this number being from the province of Calabria. (9)
Other popular provinces of post-World War II immigration were Campania,
Abruzzo-Molise, and Sicily. The immigrants from Europe that immigrated
after World War II were trying to escape the devastation caused by the
war. Many countries were undergoing economic crisis and political disruption
due to the end of the war. The United States had also dropped ties that
it had formerly maintained with European nations who possessed potential
immigrants. Argentina, on the other hand, accepted both refugees and displaced
persons from the war.

One of the
most important reasons was the tie established with the Italians immigrants
already living there. Argentina had become a reputable destination for
the Italian immigrants where they knew they would be welcomed and could
find a large Italian community. Italians still used networking and paesani
to establish themselves in the new country. They Italians relied on the
previous immigrants as a base for their community. They secluded themselves
within this community of Italians both socially and politically. At the
same time they continued to maintain their relations with Italy in hopes
that they would soon return.

The Italian
government experienced a large amount of pressure after World War II. The
country had been partially destroyed by the activities of the war. There
was a high unemployment rate followed by the beginnings of problems in
the political and social sectors and instability in the economy. Many wanted
to escape the rules of fascism that had been imposed upon them during the
war. There was also a popular fear concerning the start of another war.
Others desired to immigrate because they desired to either reunite with
their families or had become dissatisfied with their life in Italy. Immigration
became Italy’s escape valve and so few restrictions were posed and this
option was openly encouraged.

Argentina
prepared for the influx of immigrants with the Plan de Gobierno created
by the Peronist goverment for the years 1947-51, when official criteria
for immigration were established. In 1946-47 two groups were created, one
being the Delegación Argentina de Inmigrantes en Europa (DAIE) and
the other was the Comisión de Recepción y Encauzamiento de
Inmigración (CREI). The DAIE was established in Rome to receive
requests from potential immigrants. This agency would then select and notify
the applicants. CREI’s main objective was to present opportunities in the
Argentine job market to the perspective immigrants. The Italian government
aided its emigrants by facilitating the working conditions of the Italian
workers so that they would be equal with the Argentines. In 1948 a document
was created stating the benefits that the Italian immigrants would receive,
which included paid passage, cover of initial expenses upon arrival, and
the opportunity for specialized professions.

Peron’s government
created plans for the large amount of Italian immigrants in 1947 known
as the Primer Plan Quinquenal. These immigrants were in turn attracted
by the offerings made by Peron’s government. The Argentine government planned
for 250,000 to immigrate over a period of five years with 50,000 immigrants
arriving each year. The purpose was to industrialize and modernize Argentina
through the substitution of imports. Political immigration was encouraged
in order to aid in Peron’s plan for developing the state.

In 1948 Argentina
and Italy developed a treaty that dealt with the conditions of immigration.
The Italian government worked to ensure that the workers who emigrated
to Argentina would be safely transported to their destinations. They provided
training and offered courses to the immigrants for specialized occupations.
Living and working conditions along with the paying of workers were inspected
to ensure fair treatment of the immigrants. In turn, the Argentine government
facilitated those immigrants coming to visit, reunite with families, or
develop the labor sector.

Italians who
were involved in agriculture found themselves at home in Argentina since
it was this occupational group of workers that had the smallest rate of
return to Italy. Some Italians chose other occupations and went into fields
such as manufacturing and construction instead. After the war companies
that had been originated in Italy began to be established in Argentina.
Besides contributing businesses, Italy also provided Argentina with technicians,
scientists and artists of all skill levels.

By the mid-1950’s
the flow of Italian immigrants into Argentina had come to a halt.
The amount of Italians returning to Italy had increased due to a variety
of factors. Some had a difficult time in adjusting to a foreign culture.
This is often a result of the Italians secluding themselves from the outside
community and associating only with other Italians. Many of the new wave
Italian immigrants had not bothered to integrate with the rest of the community
because they had their own patrons.

Post-War War
II Italian Immigration to Comodoro Rivadavia: Two Life-Histories

Among the
immigrants who came during the post World War II period were Giuseppe Cambereri
and Supina Lopresto. Both of them emigrated from the province of Calabria
to Comodoro Rivadavia. In spite of their similar regional origin, they
are from different generations and have different perspectives on what
it is to be an immigrant. Giuseppe arrived a few years before Pina and
came of his own free will. Pina was forced to immigrate due her father’s
decision to do so and was unhappy as an immigrant. It is interesting to
compare and contrast their personal experiences with immigration in the
context of the general knowledge of Italian immigration during this time
period discussed above. They shared their experiences in oral histories
interviews conducted during Dickinson College’s Patagonia Mosaic, in January
of 2001. (10)

Giuseppe Cambereri
arrived in Argentina in 1949, when he was 36 years old, after he had finished
fighting in World War II. He was born on March 23, 1916 in the province
of Calabria. He was the youngest of his family with three sisters and four
brothers ahead of him. His family lived on a farm, but his father worked
other jobs at the same time. His father’s main occupation was a brick mason
and he taught this trade to Giuseppe. He only attended school until the
fourth grade and then at the age of 12 he began to work with his father.
Giuseppe’s father died when he was 16 years old and at that point he took
on the responsibility of working and maintaining the family.

He entered
into the military at the age of 17 to serve for a brief period before taking
a break. In 1937 he was called back into the service to fight in the upcoming
war. Giuseppe finished fighting in the war in September of 1943. He traveled
back to his home in Calabria from his station in northern Italy in the
Alps in fear. He would not even speak for fear that the Germans would find
and capture him. Social conditions were still shaky from the war and strong
feelings of anti-Semitism were still present.

He returned
from the war to his wife and family in Calabria and began his old life
again. The war had created fear and restlessness in him and he desired
to escape it and its memories. Giuseppe’s decision to go to Argentina was
influenced by these factors along with his desire to escape post-war Italy.
The war left behind death and destruction while also creating personal
feuding and labor strikes. He wanted to escape war altogether while experiencing
something different. His desire for new experiences was a result of the
changes war had made upon him. He wanted different work and to continue
his father’s legacy of masonry in another part of the world.

When his oldest
sister, Carmela, who had immigrated to Argentina in 1917 with her husband,
became a widow he was called upon to go Argentina in order to help her
out. Giuseppe had high hopes because his sister also told him that she
was doing well with her life in Argentina. His sister had to send documents
calling him to Argentina in order for him to emigrate. Upon his arrival,
Giuseppe lived in Kilometro 5 (also known as Barrio Presidente Ortíz)
in a rented house, while his sister continued to live in a YPF company
house.

Carmela’s
husband had worked for YPF for seven years before he died. After he passed
away the company hired Carmela to clean bathrooms and do laundry in order
for her to support her family. YPF granted Carmela a pension for the 11
years she worked for them plus the 6 for the time her husband worked. When
Giuseppe arrived he used this family connection with his sister to obtain
a job for himself as a contractor for the company. He obtained his materials
from YPF, but did the work on his own. He mainly constructed houses in
the barrios, especially in Kilometro 3 (also known as General Mosconi).
One of his most important projects was building the Eva Perón School.

While still
in the service, Giuseppe had married his wife. When Giuseppe first came
to Argentina in 1949 he left behind his pregnant wife and two sons. It
was not until 1954 that he sent for his family, which then consisted of
the two boys, both 9 and 7 years old, and his daughter Giuseppina, who
was 5. Like his sister he also had to send documents requesting for his
family to come to Argentina. Their journey from Italy to Buenos Aires took
16 days by boat. It was then another three days by boat for them to go
from Buenos Aires to Comodoro Rivadavia.

Ties among
Italians were very strong in Giuseppe’s experience. His knowledge of the
Italian language helped him build connections with other Italians in Comodoro
Rivadavia. He had learned the national dialect during his time in the service,
which helped him communicate with the other Italians in Comodoro. For example
the Minister of Education was Italian and it was he who gave the school
construction job to Giuseppe. The Minister of Education also sold Giuseppe
the land for his sister’s house after the company house was taken away
from her. Giuseppe supervised a group of 40 Italians who helped him in
his construction business. The immigrant network was very important in
establishing oneself since new immigrants looked for old immigrants as
a support system.

Giuseppe became
involved in the Italian Mutual Aid Association from the beginning of his
life in Argentina. He attended meetings, dances, and gave presentations.
The Association held many festivities celebrating Italian festivals. One
of his fondest memories was of the dances where he could dance the Italian
folk dance from Calabria, the tarantella.

Pina Lopresto
arrived in Argentina in 1953 when she was 12 years old along with her 14
years old brother. Pina was born in Calabria, Italy on February 13, 1941.
Her father was away for most of her childhood fighting in World War II
and Pina’s mother was left to care for them. After the war he had been
detained as a prisoner and he did not come back into her life until 1948
when she was 7 years old.

Pina’s father
had come to Argentina one year after his return from the war to visit his
parents in Buenos Aires who had immigrated 40 years earlier. Even though
he was only visiting he had to obtain an immigrant visa. He spent one year
in Buenos Aires before leaving with his friend who had family in Comodoro
Rivadavia. He had not been happy in Buenos Aires and was also pursuing
of a lover, who he never met up with again. He then decided to remain in
Comodoro where he lived with a couple who were the relatives of his friend.

When her father
first arrived in Comodoro there were few inhabitants and little “civilization.”
Pina’s father did encounter a number of other Italians who also hailed
from Calabria. Pina’s father became an associate with a woman who owned
a dry cleaner. He worked and survived on his own without any aid from either
the Argentine or Italian governments.

The couple
with whom Pina’s father lived convinced him to send for his children to
come visit. Pina and her brother joined their father in 1953 while their
mother remained in Italy for another year in order to finalize the renting
of their home while they were gone. It was a long journey for Pina and
her brother to come to Argentina from Italy. First they had to travel from
Calabria to the city of Genova. Then it took 16 days for them to travel
by boat to Argentina. For 10 days they waited to continue with their journey.
Meanwhile they stayed with their uncle in Buenos Aires in the neighborhood
of La Boca where a large Italian immigrant population lived. It took another
3 days for them to travel by boat to Comodoro Rivadavia. Her mother followed
them a year later.

Pina found
herself caring for her father and brother once she arrived in Argentina.
She had to cook, do laundry and buy the groceries. Pina learned Spanish
mainly from working in the dry cleaners. She was supposed to attend a Catholic
girl’s school, but disliked the attention she received because she was
a foreigner. Instead she worked the counter in the store and practiced
with the customers along with the other girls who worked there. She also
found it helpful to read magazines.

Pina did not
like Patagonia or Comodoro and described it as being hell due to the lack
of “civilization” and activity. Unfortunately, Pina and her family could
not return to Italy because of the arrangements they had made to rent their
house. In Pina’s opinion one should stay in their own country despite how
bad conditions may be. She points out how the conditions in Italy began
to improve in the years after the war. She believes that there is too much
suffering in immigrating. People start with nothing and must put forth
a lot of hard work in order to survive. Pina wished to return to Italy
along with her husband, but decided against it once they had three children.
She did not want to put them through the unhappiness that she had experienced.
It was also difficult to return because of the decrease in status. Italians
had gained a certain social and economical status in Argentina and when
they returned to Italy they would be worse off.

Both of these
immigrant stories help to support previous information while presenting
new evidence from a personal perspective. Both immigrants came from the
southern, agricultural part of Italy like so many others. Their families
left Europe in hopes of finding a new life away from the destruction of
war. They share similar stories dealing with transportation, networking,
the close Italian community, details of immigration, etc. The difference
lies in the people themselves due to their ability and desire to adapt
to their new surroundings. Giuseppe considers himself to be Argentine because
Argentina is the country that allowed him to escape from the war. He has
lived in Argentina for 50 years and it is there that he found a good job,
where his family lives and where his life is. In contrast, despite the
36 years that Pina has lived in Argentina, she considers herself to be
Italian and not Argentine especially since she still retains her citizenship
in Italy. Nevertheless she continues to live in Argentina because it is
her children’s home and she does not want to uproot them from it.

These immigration
narratives along with the other information provided in this paper demonstrate
the effect of immigration on Italians outside of Buenos Aires and after
the 1880-1914 boom period in immigration. The Italians journeyed to Argentina
because of the job opportunities it offered along with the possibilities
for social mobility. Argentina also offered a similar language and culture,
which led to a large population of Italian immigrants. This would be an
important factor later on with networking and also in the establishment
of tight Italian communities. In the case of Comodoro Rivadavia, immigrants
came to reap the benefits offered by the petroleum industry and to enjoy
the strong Italian community. Comodoro and its job market also provided
an alternative to the city of Buenos Aires, which not all of the immigrants
took a liking to. There are many different situations of immigration depending
on the time period, destination, job opportunities and so for. Immigration
was not for everyone though, as can be seen in the case of Supina Lopresto.
On the other hand, it was useful for those trying to escape the effects
of the war, as was the case for Giuseppe Cambereri. Italian immigration
into Argentina covers a wide array of places, people, and time periods
that all share basic similarities, but are unique in each situation.

1. Samuel L.
Baily,
Immigrants in the Lands of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires
and New York City, 1870-1914
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999),
26. This book is the main source for the profile of Italian immigration
in Argentina presented in this paper.