Introduction: Allusions and References
Present Concrete Images

Shakespeare
skillfully used concrete language to enliven his
writing. Concrete language presents a picture to
the mind. Abstract language, on the other hand,
does not. An example of an abstract word is strength;
an example of a concrete word is Hercules.
One cannot picture strength, but one can picture
someone or something that has strength.
Allusions and direct references both enable
audiences and readers to picture what
Shakespeare is talking about.

Allusions

An allusion is an indirect
reference to a person, a place, a thing, or an
idea in mythology, literature, history, or
everyday life. For example, if the leader of a
country faced a difficult decision that would
affect the lives of millions, he might say, “I
carry the weight of the world on my shoulders.”
His statement would be an indirect reference, or
allusion, to the task of the Greek god Atlas,
who bore the sky on his shoulders. (Sculptors
and painters often depict Atlas as bearing the
world.) Here is another example. Suppose an army general told a
subordinate, “Your plan has about as much chance
of succeeding as attacking Russia in the
winter.” His statement would be an allusion to
two of military history's most famous failures:
Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 and
Hitler's invasion in 1941 of the same country
(then known as the Soviet Union). Both campaigns
ended in disaster for the invaders because
neither Napoleon's French armies nor Hitler's
German armies could cope with the brutal Russian
winter. Both allusions enable audiences and
readers to "see" what Shakespeare is referring
to: (1) carrying the weight of the world on the
shoulders, and (2) a winter landscape.

Direct
References

A direct reference, on the
other hand, is a specific mention of a person, a
place, a thing, or an idea in mythology, literature,
history, or everyday life. For example, a television
baseball announcer might say, “This batter has the
potential to become another Babe Ruth.” Ruth
(1895-1948) was the greatest hitter in baseball when
he played for the New York Yankees in the 1920s and
1930s. In another example, an art critic might
write, “This painter's bold innovations remind me of
the ones Dalí made.” Salvador Dalí (1904-1989) was
famous for his striking surrealist paintings.

Shakespeare frequently used
allusions and direct references. This practice
enabled him to enrich his dialogue and descriptions
with concrete images that helped audiences to
understand his meaning. A lengthy explanation became
unnecessary. Consider this passage: "In breaking [oaths] he is stronger than Hercules" (All's Well That Ends Well,
4.3.109).Here, the speaker is telling a
soldier that a certain captain is such a notorious
liar that he is stronger in breaking a promise than
Hercules is in performing a feat of strength.
At times, an allusion or direct reference may be
obscure. In such a case, the modern reader must use
a dictionary, an encyclopedia, or an annotated copy
of the play or poem to gain a full understanding of
a passage. But, in doing so, the reader develops a
deeper appreciation of Shakespeare's verbal skill
and the beauty of his language.

Examples

In the following passage from Henry VI Part III,
Gloucester uses both allusions and direct references
to boast about the evil schemes he will execute in
order to gain the crown.

I'll
drown more sailors than the mermaid
shall; I'll slay more gazers than the basilisk; I'll play the orator as well as Nestor, Deceive more slily than Ulysses could, And, like a Sinon,
take another Troy.
I can add colours to the
chameleon, Change shapes with Proteus for
advantages, And set the murderous Machiavel to school.
Can I do this, and cannot get a
crown? Tut, were it farther off, I'll
pluck it down. (3.2.190-199)

Mermaid
is an allusion to the sirens in Homer's Odyssey.
These mythological sea nymphs sat on the shore of an
island and sang a song so alluring that passing
seafarers would veer from their course to hear it.
But it was a deadly song, for the ships would run
into rocks near the island. The resulting wreck
would kill all the crewmen. Direct references in
this passage are as follows:

basilisk: Imaginary
animal with a rooster's head and a snake's tail
that could kill observers with its gaze.Nestor:
In Homer's Iliad,
an elderly Greek who, with his sons, participated
in the Trojan War. He was famous for his
oratorical skills.Ulysses:
Roman name for the Greek warrior Odysseus, a hero
of the Trojan War, as recounted in Homer's Iliad
and Odyssey. He was known for his
expertise in concocting deceptive schemes that
benefited him and/or his compatriots. He was the
designer of the Trojan horse.Troy: City in
present-day Turkey that opposed attacking Greeks
in ancient times.Sinon:
Greek warrior who persuaded the Trojans to accept
the Trojan horse and move it into their city,
Troy.Proteus: In Greek
mythology, a minor sea god who could change his
shape at will. Machiavel:
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), an Italian
philosopher, writer, and political scientist who
wrote a book (The Prince) that advised
rulers and would-be rulers how to manipulate
people and events—sometimes unscrupulously—to
achieve or maintain power.

Following are additional examples of allusions and direct
references in Shakespeare's works.

Cromwell, I charge thee,
fling away ambition:By that sin
fell the angels; how can man then,The image of
his Maker, hope to win by’t? (Henry VIII, 3.2.519-521) Direct reference to Thomas Cromwell
(1485?-1540): Under Henry VIII, a secretary to
Cardinal Wolsey, lord chancellor of England, and
later an advisor to the king.

Bell,
book, and candle shall not drive me
back, When gold
and silver becks me to come on. (King John, 3.3.14-15)Allusion to a rite once used by the
Roman Catholic Church to excommunicate a person who
committed a grave offense. During the rite, a bell
was rung. Then a book was closed and candles were
extinguished to symbolize the end of the person's
spiritual life in the church. A thousand
hearts are great within my bosom: Advance our
standards! set upon our foes! Our ancient
word of courage, fair Saint
George, Inspire us
with the spleen of fiery dragons! (Richard III, 5.3.377-380)Direct reference to Saint George,
patron saint of England. George was martyred in AD
303. He was the subject of a legend in which he slew
a dragon and saved a princess.

The eastern
gate, all fiery-red,Opening on Neptune
with fair blessed beams,Turns into
yellow gold his salt green streams. (A Midsummer Night's Dream, 3.2.413-415)Eastern Gate: Allusion to the sun.Neptune: Direct reference to
Neptune,the Roman name for the Greek god of the
sea, Poseidon, in ancient mythology.

I have seen
a medicineThat’s able
to breathe life into a stone,Quicken a
rock, and make you dance canaryWith
spritely fire and motion; whose simple touch,Is powerful
to araise King Pepin, nay,To give
great Charlemain
a pen in his hand,And write to
her a love-line. (All's
Well That Ends Well, 2.1.67-73)Canary: Allusion to an improvised
dance.Pepin: Direct reference to the king
of the Franks from 752 to 768. He is sometimes
referred to as Pepin the Short or Pepin the Younger.Charlemain: Direct reference to
Charlemagne, son of Pepin. Charlemagne became king
of the Franks in 768 and, after conquering various
European territories, became the emperor of his
lands when the pope crowned him in 800. Is thine own heart to thine own
face affected? Can thy right hand seize love upon
thy left? Then woo thyself, be of thyself
rejected, Steal thine own freedom, and
complain on theft. 160Narcissus so himself himself
forsookAnd
died to kiss his shadow in the brook. (Venus and Adonis,
lines 157-162)Direct reference to Narcissus: In classical
mythology, a handsome young man who fell in love with
his own image reflected from spring water. He pined
away and was changed into a flower.

He pours it out, Plutus,
the god of gold, Is but his steward: no meed but
he repays Sevenfold above itself. (Timon of Athens,
1.1.301-303)Direct reference to Plutus, the god of gold
in mythology.

That skull had a tongue in
it, and could sing once. How the knave jowls it to the ground,as
if 'twere Cain's jawbone, that did the first murder! (Hamlet,
5.1.34)Cain's . . .
murder: Allusion and direct reference to
Cain's murder of Abel, his brother, in the Old
Testament's Book of Genesis

The sons of Edward sleep in
Abraham's bosom. (Richard III, 4.3.45)Direct
reference and allusion to the Jewish patriarch
Abraham and to the gospel of Luke, which
refers to"Abraham's
bosom" as the resting place of the righteous
after death

Richard . .
.robb’d the lion of his heart
And fought the
holy wars in Palestine (King John,
2.1.5-6)Allusion
to the great English warrior Richard the
Lion-Hearted (King Richard I, 1157-1199)

Click here to see a
discussion and list of allusions and references to Greek
and Roman mythology in Shakespeare's works.