Acrylamide, a substance classified as a potential carcinogen, occurs in heated
starchy foods at concentrations many times in excess of levels permitted in
drinking water. Early surveys indicated that levels of acrylamide in potato
products such as French fries and potato crisps were the highest of the
foodstuffs investigated. The present project addressed this issue by
determining levels of acrylamide precursors (asparagine and reducing sugars)
in raw potatoes and levels of acrylamide in (i) potato products from different
storage regimes, (ii) spot-sampled potatoes purchased from a local
supermarket, (iii) samples that received pre-treatments and were fried at
different temperatures and (iv) French fries reheated in different ovens.A risk
assessment of the estimated acrylamide intake from potato products for
various cohorts of the Irish population was also conducted.

The forequarter constitutes 50% of the weight of a beef carcase but only
about 25% of its value. To fulfill the objectives of this project, the work was
organised into 4 parts as follows:
1.Characterisation of the available raw material, in terms of properties of
individual muscles seamed out from carcasses of representative types of
animals produced in Ireland.
2.Comparison of yields and operator time for seaming and conventional boning.
3.Utilisation of separated muscles in added-value products using appropriate
tenderising, bonding and forming technology.
4.Transfer of the knowledge and technology to the industry.

The forequarter constitutes 50% of the weight of a beef carcase but only about 25% of its value.To fulfill the objectives of this project, the work was
organised into 4 parts as follows:
1.Characterisation of the available raw material, in terms of properties of
individual muscles seamed out from carcasses of representative types of
animals produced in Ireland.
2.Comparison of yields and operator time for seaming and conventional boning.
3.Utilisation of separated muscles in added-value products using appropriate
tenderising, bonding and forming technology.
4.Transfer of the knowledge and technology to the industry.

This project addressed the prospects of increasing the value of cull cow beef and examined the potential of a number of different management and dietary strategies. In Ireland, the national cow herd contributes 350,000 animals to total beef production annually, which represents 22% of all cattle slaughtered (DAF, 2007). A dominant feature of beef production in Ireland is the disposal of cows from the dairy and beef industries, the time of year at which culling occurs influences the number of cows available for slaughter. Suitability of a cow for slaughter is generally not a consideration for dairy or beef farmers.

Tightening fish quotas and supply shortages for conventional species are causing major difficulties for both fishermen and seafood processors. There is a need, therefore, to explore the potential of underutilised fish species both as fillets or portions and as added-value products. The current project at Ashtown Food Research Centre (AFRC) addressed this issue for a number of underutilised species via (a) sous vide processing (with savoury sauces),(b)marinating (salt- and sugar-based marinades) and (c) via a combination of freeze-chilling and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).A range of physico-chemical and sensory tests was conducted on the products and their shelf-life status was also determined.

Tightening fish quotas and supply shortages for conventional species are causing major difficulties for both fishermen and seafood processors. There is a need, therefore, to explore the potential of underutilised fish species both as fillets or portions and as added-value products. The current project at Ashtown Food Research Centre (AFRC) addressed this issue for a number of underutilised species via (a) sous vide processing (with savoury sauces),(b)marinating (salt- and sugar-based marinades) and (c) via a combination of freeze-chilling and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).A range of physico-chemical and sensory tests was conducted on the products and their shelf-life status was also determined.

Opportunities for exploiting the inherent value of protein-rich meat processing co-products, in the context of increased global demand for protein and for sustainable processing systems, are discussed. While direct consumption maybe the most profitable route for some, this approach is influenced greatly by local and cultural traditions. A more profitable and sustainable approach may be found in recognizing this readily available and under-utilised resource can provide high value components, such as proteins, with targeted high value functionality of relevance to a variety of sectors. Applications in food & beverages, petfood biomedical and nutrition arenas are discussed. Utilization of the raw material in its entirety is a necessary underlying principle in this approach to help maintain minimum waste generation. Understanding consumer attitudes to these products, in particular when used in food or beverage systems, is critical in optimizing commercialization strategies.

Following the introduction of legal identifiers of geographic origin within Europe, methods for confirming any such claims are required. Spectroscopic techniques provide a method for rapid and non-destructive data collection and a variety of chemometric approaches have been deployed for their interrogation. In this present study, class-modelling techniques (SIMCA, UNEQ and POTFUN) have been deployed after data compression by principal component analysis for the development of class-models for a set of olive oil and honey. The number of principal components, the confidence level and spectral pre-treatments (1st and 2nd derivative, standard normal variate) were varied, and a strategy for variable selection was tried. Models were evaluated on a separate validation sample set. The outcomes are reported and criteria for selection of the most appropriate models for any given application are discussed.

The dairy industry faces new technological challenges in order to exploit and maintain some of the bioactive properties of dairy components throughout processing. This review outlines these issues with respect to the two major whey proteins β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) and α-lactalbumin (α-la). Biological activities of both the intact proteins, and peptides derived from the proteins, are discussed e.g. inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), anti-microbial activity, anti-carcinogenic activity, hypocholesterolemic effect, metabolic and physiological effects. The levels necessary to provide beneficial effects and, if available, evidence from clinical trials are reported. Developments in the purification and enrichment of the proteins are discussed, and the technological implications of industrial processing on the bio-activity of the proteins are examined. The supplementation of infant formulas with α-lactalbumin enriched whey proteins is also discussed in light of its potentially improved bioactive properties.

Beef of a consistent quality is required by the meat industry in order to maintain and expand markets. Measurement of beef quality is difficult at factory level. Measurements to indicate the final eating quality are not well developed yet. This project examined novel approaches to this problem using biochemical and physical methods.
The Biochemical indicators of beef quality examined included: pH , Protease activity as a potential indicator of meat tenderness, Cathepsin B and cathepsin B&L activities in relation
to beef ageing, Relationship between cathepsin B and cathepsin B&L activity and WBSF values, Protein fragments as an indication of beef tenderness and Myofibrillar proteins.
The Physical indicators of beef quality examined included: Post-mortem changes in muscle electrical properties and their relationship to meat quality attributes, Near infrared reflectance spectra as indicators of beef quality, Shear force as an indicator of tenderness.

Literature has revealed that “waste” left from the processing of fruit can still
contain a substantial quantity of macro and minor nutrients. The aim of this
thesis was to ascertain the nutritional and structural properties and potential uses
of two fruit by-products [apple pomace (Malus domestica Cv. “Karmijn de
Sonnaville”) and orange pomace (Citrus sinensis L. Cv. “Valencia”)] in glutenfree
bread and extruded snack formulations.
The physicochemical and nutritional properties of the fruit by-products were
initially studied. Apple pomace contained a high level of fibre and pectin. The
isolated pectin was demonstrated to have a high level of methylation which
developed viscous pastes. Orange pomace also had high levels of fibre and
pectin, and it was an abundant source of minerals such as potassium and
magnesium. Orange pomace had a poor gelling ability.
The flour obtained after milling dried orange pomace was used in the formulation
of gluten-free bread with the aid of a response surface design. Due to the fibrous
properties of orange pomace flour, proofing and water addition were also
studied. When added at levels greater than 6%, the loaf volume decreased. The
number of cells per slice also decreased with increasing orange pomace addition.
Inclusion of orange pomace at levels of up to 4% increased crumb softness. An
optimised formulation and proofing time was derived using the optimisation tool;
these consisted of 5.5% orange pomace, 94.6% water inclusion and with 49
minutes proofing. These optimised parameters doubled the total dietary fibre
content of the bread compared to the original control.
The pasting properties, rheology, microstructure and sensory characteristics of
the optimised formulation (batter and bread) were investigated. Pasting results
showed how orange pomace inclusions reduced the final viscosity of the batter,
hence reducing the occurrence of starch gelatinisation. Rheological properties
such as the storage modulus (G') and complex modulus (G*) increased in the
orange pomace batter compared to the control batter. This demonstrates how the
orange pomace as an ingredient improved the robustness of the formulation.
Sensory panellists scored the orange pomace bread comparably to the control
bread.
Milled apple pomace was studied as a potential novel ingredient in an extruded
snack. As extrusion requires the trialling of a number of extruder parameters, a
response surface design was again used to develop an optimised snack. The
parameters studied were apple pomace addition, die head temperature and screw
speed. Screw speed had the most significant impact on extrudate characteristics.
As screw speed increased the favourable extrudate characteristics such as radical
expansion ratio, porosity and specific volume decreased. The inclusion of apple
pomace had a negative effect on extrudate characteristics at levels greater than
8% addition. Including apple pomace reduced the hardness and increased the
crispiness of the snack. Using the optimisation tool, the optimised and validated
formulation and extrusion process contained the following parameters: 7.7%
apple pomace, 150oC die head temperature and a screw speed of 69 rpm.

The overall objective was to devise a rapid chilling system for the Irish lamb processing industry. The objective of the first trial was to assess the effect of ultra-rapid chilling in air at - 4ºC, -10ºC and -20ºC and subsequent ageing on the appearance and tenderness of lamb carcasses. The objective of the next trial was to investigate the effect of carcass splitting, which produces faster chilling rates and reduces skeletal constraint of muscles, on the tenderness of rapidly and conventionally chilled lamb. The next task was to compare the effects of immersion chilling and conventional air chilling on meat tenderness and evaporative weight loss in lamb carcasses. The next task was to assess the level of interest in industry. This required costings of the process and a survey of several lamb processors focusing on
their perceptions of rapid chilling in general, its advantages and disadvantages, and the implications of adopting the new system. The final objective was to introduce the ultra-rapid chilling process to
industry via a factory trial. Lambs were ultra-rapidly chilled and then exported to France for assessment.

Two dimensional Difference Gel Electrophoresis (2-D DIGE) and mass spectrometry were applied to investigate the changes in metabolic proteins that occur over a seven day (day 1, 3 and 7) post mortem ageing period in porcine centrifugal exudate from divergent meat quality phenotypes. The objectives of the research were to enhance our understanding of the phenotype (water holding capacity) and search for biomarkers of this economically significant pork quality attribute. Major changes in protein abundance across nine phenotype-by-time conditions were observed. Proteomic patterns were dominated by post mortem ageing timepoint. Using a machine learning algorithm (l1-regularized logistic regression), a model was derived with the ability to discriminate between high drip and low drip phenotypes using a subset of 25 proteins with an accuracy of 63%. Models discriminating between divergent phenotypes with accuracy of 72% and 73% were also derived comparing respectively, high drip plus intermediate phenotype (considered as one phenotype) versus low drip and comparing low drip plus intermediate phenotype (considered as one phenotype) versus high drip. In all comparisons, the general classes of discriminatory proteins identified include metabolic enzymes, stress response, transport and structural proteins. In this research we have enhanced our understanding of the protein related processes underpinning this phenotype and provided strong data to work toward development of protein biomarkers for water holding capacity.

Iron is essential for human health, but it sometimes causes an unpleasant taste, rusty colour and a decrease in the stability of food products. Previously, we found that ethanol-treated yeast (ETY) cells could remove iron from wine and juice, and reduce the fishy aftertaste induced by iron in wine–seafood pairings. However, the mechanism of iron sorption by ETY cells is undefined; thus, there is no indicator that can be used to estimate the iron sorption capacity of these cells. In this study, we showed that cell wall components are not mainly associated with iron sorption by investigating ETY cells with the cell wall removed. Moreover, plasma membrane permeability was correlated with the iron sorbing capacity of the cells. Microscopic analysis showed that iron accumulated within ETY cells. Proteinase-treated ETY cells had no iron sorbing capacity. On the basis of these results, we conclude that intracellular proteins are involved in iron sorption by ETY cells.

Authentication of foods is of importance both to consumers and producers for e.g. confidence in label descriptions and brand protection respectively. The authentication of beers has received limited attention and in most cases only small data sets were analysed. In this study, Fourier-transform infrared attenuated total reflectance (FT-IR ATR) spectroscopy was applied to a set of 267 beers (53 different brands) to confirm claimed identity for samples of a single beer brand based on their spectral profiles. Skewness-adjusted robust principal component analysis (ROBPCA) was deployed to detect outliers in the data. Subsequently, extended canonical variates analysis (ECVA) was used to reduce the dimensionality of the data while simultaneously achieving maximum class separation. Finally, the reduced data were used as inputs to various linear and non-linear classifiers. Work focused on the specific identification of Rochefort 8º (a Trappist beer) and both direct and indirect (using an hierarchical approach) identification strategies were studied. For the classification problems Rochefort versus non-Rochefort, Rochefort 8º versus non-Rochefort 8º and Rochefort 8º versus Rochefort 6º and 10º, correct prediction abilities of 93.8%, 93.3% and 97.3% respectively were achieved.

In Ireland, the Abattoirs Act, 1988 (Veterinary Examination) (Amendment), 1998 (S.I. No. 6, 1998) empowers the ante mortem veterinary inspector to
reject animals for slaughter or require slaughter under special conditions, based on the level of visible hide contamination. Special conditions for
slaughter include reduced line speed, increased space between animals and increased use of workstation hygiene facilities. Since their introduction in Ireland, cattle regulations have become more stringent and at present, both
category 4 and 5 animals are rejected. However, a procedure for shaving accumulated hardened faeces (faecal clods) from category 4 and 5 animals has
been introduced into most abattoirs, enabling them to reach the cleanliness standard. The potential risk of pathogens surviving in faecal clods on the hide of animals at slaughter is not known.
This study examined:
1. The relationship between livestock cleanliness categories and the amount of contamination on the resultant carcasses.
2. The difference in bacterial contamination on carcasses from category 4 animals dressed without increased use of workstation hygiene facilities
and those dressed with increased use of hygiene facilities.
3. The survival of E. coli O157:H7 in faecal clods

Blown pack spoilage (BPS) represents a significant commercial loss to Irish meat processors. This research discovered that the organisms causing BPS are ubiquitous in the abattoir environment, making eradication very difficult. The risk of BPS is best managed through a process of regular treatment of plant and equipment with a sporicidal agent such as peroxyacetic acid, good hygiene to minimise carcass contamination and removal of the heat shrinkage stage during vacuum packaging as this activates the spores and reduces the time to spoilage.

An estimated 10 to 30% of the population in industrialised countries suffers
food-borne illness annually, resulting in an unacceptable social (human
suffering) and economic (health care and lost working days) cost. Risk
analysis, a proactive preventative approach to food safety, was the focus of the
European Union Risk Analysis Information Network (EU-RAIN) concerted
action project. Funded by the European Commission, this project commenced
in March 2003 and concluded in February 2006.

A complex of α-lactalbumin and oleic acid has previously been shown to induce apoptosis in cancer cells in a number of in vitro and in vivo trials. This complex is called HAMLET or BAMLET, depending on the origin of α-la (human/bovine alpha-lactalbumin made lethal to tumour cells). In the current study, it was shown that bovine β-lactoglobulin (β-lg), upon binding sodium oleate (NaOle), the salt of oleic acid, also acquires cytotoxicity towards tumour cells (human monocytic cells U937), analogously to HAMLET/BAMLET complexes. The properties of the complex were characterized using FIR spectroscopy, HPLC and SDS-PAGE. It was shown that the level of covalent oligomerization (dimers and trimers) of β-lg increased with increasing the molar ratio of sodium oleate NaOle:β-lg in the preparation procedure. At the same time, increasing the molar ratio of NaOle:β-lg increased the cytotoxicity of the complex. The increase in cytotoxicity appeared to be dependent on the amount of bound NaOle in the complex, but not on the content of multimeric forms of β-lg. The NaOle/β-lg complex also showed similarity with BAMLET in penetrating the cell membrane and co-localizing with the cell nucleus. Furthermore, DNA fragmentation studies suggested that tumour cells (U937) treated with the complex died by apoptosis, as in the case of BAMLET, and healthy cells appeared to be less affected by treatment, as shown with model rat adrenal pheochromocytoma cells PC12. In conclusion, β-lg and NaOle can form complexes with apoptosis-inducing qualities comparable to those of BAMLET.

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