African-American upper class

The African-American upper class consists of African American professionals in fields such as law, medicine, business and entertainment that have incomes that amount to $200,000 or more.[1] This class, sometimes referred to as the black upper class, the African-American upper middle class or black elite, represents less than 1 percent of the total black population in the United States.[2] This group of African Americans has a history of organizations and activities that distinguish it from other classes within the black community as well as from the white upper class. Many of these traditions, which have persisted for several generations, are discussed in Lawrence Otis Graham’s 2000 book, Our Kind of People: Inside America’s Black Upper Class.

Scholarship on this class from a sociological perspective is generally traced to E. Franklin Frazier's Black Bourgeoisie (first edition in English in 1957 translated from the 1955 French original).

Charts comparing class structure in the United States between 1984 and 2014.

Sources: Department of Labor Statistics (2014). Gilbert, D. (2002) The American Class Structure: In An Age of Growing Inequality. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; Thompson, W. & Hickey, J. (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon; Beeghley, L. (2004). The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. The upper middle class may also be referred to as "Professional class" Ehrenreich, B. (1989). The Inner Life of the Middle Class. NY, NY: Harper-Colins.

Not long after Africans were brought to the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries and sold into slavery, nonconsensual sexual relations (i.e. rape) and consensual sexual relations took place between slave owners and enslaved Africans. The biracial offspring, sometimes referred to as mulattoes, were sometimes not enslaved by their white slave-holding fathers and comprised a large part of the free black population in the American South.[3] In addition to this group, numbers of Africans escaped to freedom during the instability of the American Revolution. Others were manumitted by their enslavers. The free black community in the U.S. had therefore increased considerably by 1800, and although most of these free people were very poor, some were able to acquire farmland or to learn mechanical or artistic trades.[4]

Some runaway slaves served in the Civil War for the Union and at the conclusion of the war, some of those African-American soldiers received 40 acres (160,000 m2) and a mule which contributed to land ownership among African Americans following the emancipation of slaves.

Other former slaves, often light-skinned former house slaves who shared ancestry with their onetime owners and who had acquired marketable skills such as cooking and tailoring, worked in domestic fields or were able to open small businesses such as restaurants and catering firms. Some free blacks in the North also founded small businesses and even newspapers.[5] The members of these families were able to get a head-start on those blacks who were essentially still enslaved by their lack of access to wealth accumulation, particularly when it came to owning their own land.[6]

As a result of Jim Crow laws that prohibited certain rights if a person was of African heritage, many African-Americans were forced to be enterprising by establishing businesses that served their own people. Some of those businesses included black-owned hotels, insurance agencies, funeral homes and various retail stores. A "Black Wall Street" once existed in Greenwood, Tulsa, Oklahoma; and the Georgetown area of Washington D.C. was known for its affluent African American professionals during segregation. In fact, the level of business ownership among African-Americans was the highest during the era of legal segregation. Owing to integration following the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, many black-owned businesses suffered because of their inability to compete with white-owned establishments that had better access to financing[citation needed].

Since the founding of the historically black schools, often attended originally by the children of skilled former slaves who'd been able to establish businesses or farms in the post-war period, several generations of many families have often become alumni of Spelman, Morehouse, Howard, Fisk, Tuskegee, Dillard, and Hampton. While today there are well over one hundred historically black colleges and universities (HBCU's) in the U.S., these early institutions have consistently been the favorites for upper-class blacks.[9] Spelman College, Howard University, and Morehouse College, in particular, have been considered by the Black intelligentsia to be the premier historically black colleges. Spelman College along with Howard University perennially top national rankings for HBCUs and have the two largest endowments of all the HBCUs. Spelman is the only HBCUs ranked as a U.S. News & World Report Top 100 Liberal Arts Colleges, as Howard is the only HBCU to be featured on the publication's National University Rankings.

However, since integration, many children of the black upper class have attended predominantly white colleges and universities.[1] Although, as researchers have noted, "in the first time period covered by the scholars, black colleges were attracting significant numbers of students from professional, middle-class black families [these people] are now the students who are cherry-picked by highly selective, prestigious institutions that weren’t looking for them in the 1970s", said Michael L. Lomax, president of the United Negro College Fund.[2]

A small number of free blacks during the 19th century were also admitted into private, predominately white institutions such as Harvard, Amherst and, again, Oberlin College.[9]

In 1904 Sigma Pi Phi fraternity, also known as the "Boule," was established as the first Greek-letter society for African Americans admitting mainly those African -American men whom had gained considerable amounts of respect within their chose career industry. Within the decade undergraduate college students established fraternities and sororities as small, selective social groups that later developed an emphasis on scholarship and social activism.

Some argue that historically black Greek organizations differ from those that are traditionally all-white because of their importance to blacks long after they have left their respective colleges and universities.[10]

Graham said in his book, Our Kind of People: Inside America’s Black Upper Class, that these sororities and fraternities “are a lasting identity, a circle of lifetime friends, a base for future political and civic activism”.[10]

Over the years, the black upper class has also founded numerous other organizations that allow them to socialize among each other, build their networks and get involved in their communities.

One of the most notable is Jack and Jill of America, Inc., a mother's club for African American women founded in Philadelphia, PA in 1938 by a group of middle and upper middle class mothers who wanted to bring their children together to experience a variety of educational, social and cultural opportunities, which, due to segregation and racism, were not otherwise readily available to African American children, regardless of the socio-economic status of their parents.[11] Today, there are around 218 chapters across the United States and the world. Roughly 30,000 parents and children participate through 9,500 mothers who hold membership.[11] Separated into age groups, children attend monthly activities extensively planned by the mothers of that age group, which may include philanthropic endeavors/community service, pool parties, ski weekends, theater, museums, lectures, college tours, etc. Membership is by invitation-only and, even then, not guaranteed due to the extensive candidate selection process, which may last a year or longer and may include a vote by existing members. Membership is limited to mothers of children between the ages of 2-19. Annual costs of membership, including dues and activity fees, may easily reach thousands of dollars.

National Tots and Teens, Incorporated is another family organization. The organization is unique in that fathers hold membership with the mothers; single father-headed households are eligible for membership. Tots and Teens was founded by Geraldine Jacoway-Ross of Los Angeles, California in May 1952 and in 1953 the second chapter was organized in Baltimore, Maryland.[12] Mrs. Ross had a desire to expose her daughter and other youth to experiences they would not otherwise be able to receive in the segregated and troubled society of that time. This resulted in the establishment of the Tots and Teens Club. Tots and Teens hold a variety of activities for youth and parents such as ski trips, debutante cotillions, volunteer projects, cultural events, etc. Membership requires two families for sponsorship and the first year the family is viewed as a prospective member without full membership status.

Twigs, Incorporated was founded by Clara J. Bostic in Yeadon (Philadelphia) in 1948 as "an association whose objective is to encourage and foster mental, physical, social and cultural development of the children who are members." The organization is national in scope and sponsors a wide variety of activities. The organization has sponsored ACT/SAT prep sessions, book fairs geared toward African-American children, and leadership development for Twigs youth groups. Twigs, Inc. has been known for sponsoring an annual scholarship competition through its chapters for community youth graduating from high school and continuing their education at four-year institutions. The organization has an archival repository housed at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.[13][14]

The LINKS, Incorporated, founded in 1946, requires that each of its members accumulate a substantial number of volunteer hours, and is also known for its numerous annual social activities including debutante cotillions, fashion show luncheons, auctions and balls.[15] Women interested in joining any of the local chapters must be nominated by a current member.[16] Most members are philanthropists, college presidents, judges, doctors, bankers, lawyers, executives, educators or the wives of well-known public figures.[17] There are currently about 12,000 members in 273 chapters in 42 states.[18]

The Girl Friends, Inc., was founded in 1927 in New York City. The group, composed of many individuals from well-respected black upper-class families, has many philanthropic and cultural activities that include raising money for charities and also sponsors social activities for its members.[19] It includes about 40 chapters in major American cities such as Chicago, Los Angeles and Atlanta.[19] There are around 1,300 members. Women are admitted after being nominated by at least two existing members and then approved by at least two-thirds of that particular chapter.

Other prominent women's groups include the Continental Societies, Inc., The Drifters, Inc., the CARATS, Incorporated, The Moles, Inc.,The Pierians, The Carousels, Top Ladies of Distinction(TLOD), the National Smart Set, The National Association of Negro Business and Professional Women's Club, Inc. and the Northeasterners.

There are also a few organizations founded specifically for upper class black men. Some of these include the Sigma Pi Phi Boule, and, to a lesser extent 100 Black Men of America, the Comus Social Club, the Reveille Club, the Hellians (Washington, DC; Baltimore, MD; and, Jackson, MS), The THEBANS, The TUX CLUB, the Consorts, Bachelor-Benedict Club www.bachelor-benedictclub.org, and the National Association of Guardsmen.[20]

It is estimated that 80 percent of upper class blacks own their own homes.[21] This is compared to 66 percent of those earning more than $50,000 and 52 percent of those who earn between $30,000 and $49,999 in income.[21]

The following are a few black business districts/areas/cities that swelled with success during the era of Legal Segregation which also contributed to the rise of the American Black Upper Class. (The following is based on research found in the Library of Congress, the History Center in Atlanta; and the Apex Museum in Atlanta, Georgia along with archives in various historical societies)

^Graham, L. (2000); Howard University, considered among the Black Intelligentsia to be the premier historically black college or university (HBCU) of its day was founded just two years after the close of the Civil War in 1867. Our Kind of People: inside America's Black upper class. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Pg. 10