Two types of social contradictions - those between ourselves and the enemy and those among the people themselves confront
us. The two are totally different in their nature.

On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (February 27, 1957), first pocket ed.. p. 2.

To understand these two different types of contradictions correctly, we must first be clear on what is meant by "the
people" and what is meant by "the enemy" . . . At the present stage, the period of building socialism, the
classes, strata and social groups which favour, support and work for the cause of socialist construction all come within the
category of the people, while the social forces and groups which resist the socialist revolution and are hostile to or sabotage
socialist construction are all enemies of the people.

Ibid. pp. 2-3.

In the conditions prevailing in China today, the contradictions among the people comprise the contradictions within the
working class, the contradictions within the peasantry, the contradictions within the intelligentsia, the contradictions
between the working class and the peasantry, the contradictions between the workers and peasants on the one hand and the
intellectuals on the other, the contradictions between the working class and other sections of the working people on the one
hand and the national bourgeoisie on the other, the contradictions within the national bourgeoisie, and so on. Our People's
Government is one that genuinely represents the people's interests; it is a government that serves the people.
Nevertheless, there are still certain contradictions between the government and the people. These include contradictions among
the interests of the state, the interests of the collective and the interests of the individual; between democracy and
centralism; between the leadership and the led; and the contradiction arising from the bureaucratic style of work of certain
government workers in their relations with the masses. All these are also contradictions among the people. Generally speaking,
the people's basic identity of interests underlies the contradictions among the people.

Ibid. pp. 3-4.

The contradictions between the enemy and us are antagonistic contradictions. Within the ranks of the people, the
contradictions among the working people are non-antagonistic, while those between the exploited and the exploiting classes have
a non-antagonistic aspect in addition to an antagonistic aspect.

Ibid., p. 3.

In the political life of our people, how should right be distinguished from wrong in one's words and actions? On the
basis of the principles of our Constitution, the will of the overwhelming majority of our people and the common political
positions which have been proclaimed on various occasions by our political parties and groups, we consider that, broadly
speaking, the criteria should be as follows:

Words and actions should help to unite, and not divide, the people of our
various nationalities.

They should be beneficial, and not harmful, to socialist transformation and
socialist construction.

They should help to consolidate, and not undermine or weaken, the people's
democratic dictatorship.

They should help to consolidate, and not undermine or weaken, democratic
centralism.

They should help to strengthen, and not discard or weaken, the leadership of
the Communist Party.

They should be beneficial, and not harmful, to international socialist unity
and the unity of the peace-loving people of the world. Of these six criteria, the most important are the socialist path and the
leadership of the Party.

Ibid., pp. 57-58.

The question of suppressing counterrevolutionaries is one of a struggle between us and the enemy, a contradiction between us
and the enemy. Among the people, some see this question in a somewhat different light. Two kinds of persons hold views
different from ours. Those with a Rightist way of thinking make no distinction between the enemy and us and take the enemy for
our own people. They regard as friends the very persons whom the broad masses regard as enemies. Those with a "Left"
way of thinking magnify contradictions between ourselves and the enemy to such an extent that they take certain contradictions
among the people for contradictions with the enemy and regard as counter-revolutionary persons who are actually not
counter-revolutionaries. Both these views are wrong. Neither can lead to the correct handling of the question of suppressing
counter-revolutionaries or to a correct assessment of this work.

Ibid., p. 25.

Qualitatively different contradictions can only be resolved by qualitatively different methods. For instance, the
contradiction between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie is resolved by the method of socialist revolution; the contradiction
between the great masses of the people and the feudal system is resolved by the method of democratic revolution; the
contradiction between the colonies and imperialism is resolved by the method of national revolutionary war; the contradiction
between the working class and the peasant class in socialist society is resolved by the method of collectivization and
mechanization in agriculture; contradiction within the Communist Party is resolved by the method of criticism and
self-criticism; the contradiction between society and nature is resolved by the method of developing the productive forces. . .
. The principle of using different methods to resolve different contradictions is one that Marxist-Leninists must strictly
observe.

"On Contradiction" (August 1937), Selected Works, Vol. I, pp. 321-22.

Since they are different in nature, the contradictions between us and the enemy and the contradictions among the people must
be resolved by different methods. To put it briefly, the former is a matter of drawing a clear distinction between us and the
enemy, and the latter a matter of drawing a clear distinction between right and wrong. It is, of course, true that the
distinction between the enemy and us is also a matter of right and wrong. For example, the question of who is in the right, we
or the domestic and foreign reactionaries, the imperialists, the feudalistic and bureaucrat-capitalists, is also a matter of
right and wrong, but it is in a different category from questions of right and wrong among the people.

On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (February 27, 1957), 1st pocket ed., pp. 5-6.

The only way to settle questions of an ideological nature or controversial issues among the people is by the democratic
method, the method of discussion, of criticism, of persuasion and education, and not by the method of coercion or repression.
To be able to carry on their production and studies effectively and to arrange their lives properly, the people want their
government and those in charge of production and of cultural and educational organizations to issue appropriate orders of an
obligatory nature. It is common sense that the maintenance of public order would be impossible without such administrative
regulations. Administrative orders and the method of persuasion and education complement each other in resolving contradictions
among the people. Even administrative regulations for the maintenance of public order must be accompanied by persuasion and
education, for in many cases regulations alone will not work.

Ibid., pp. 11-12.

Inevitably, the bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie will give expression to their own ideologies. Inevitably, they will
stubbornly express themselves on political and ideological questions by every possible means. You cannot expect them to do
otherwise. We should not use the method of suppression and prevent them from expressing themselves, but should allow them to do
so and at the same time argue with them and direct appropriate criticism at them. We must undoubtedly criticize wrong ideas of
every description. It certainly would not be right to refrain from criticism, look on while wrong ideas spread unchecked and
allow them to monopolize the field. Mistakes must be criticized and poisonous weeds fought wherever they crop up. However, such
criticism should not be dogmatic, and the metaphysical method should not be used, but efforts should be made to apply the
dialectical method. What is needed is scientific analysis and convincing argument.

Ibid., pp. 55-56.

To criticize the people's shortcomings is necessary, . . . but in doing so we must truly take the stand of the people
and speak out of whole-hearted eagerness to protect and educate them. To treat comrades like enemies is to go over to the stand
of the enemy.

Contradiction and struggle are universal and absolute, but the methods of resolving contradictions, that is, the forms of
struggle, differ according to the differences in the nature of the contradictions. Some contradictions are characterized by
open antagonism and others are not. In accordance with the concrete development of things, some contradictions, which were
originally non-antagonistic, develop into antagonistic ones, while others which were originally antagonistic develop into
non-antagonistic ones.

"On Contradiction" (August 1937), Selected Works, Vol. I, p 344.

In ordinary circumstances, contradictions among the people are not antagonistic. However, if they are not handled properly,
or if we relax our vigilance and lower our guard, antagonism may arise. In a socialist country, a development of this kind is
usually only a localized and temporary phenomenon. The reason is that the system of exploitation of man by man has been
abolished and the interests of the people are the same.

On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People (February 27, 1957), 1st pocket ed., p. 14.

In our country, the contradiction between the working class and the national bourgeoisie belongs to the category of
contradictions among the people. Largely, the class struggle between the two is a class struggle within the ranks of the
people, because the Chinese national bourgeoisie has a dual character. In the period of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, it
had both a revolutionary and a conciliationist side to its character. In the period of the socialist revolution, exploitation
of the working class for profit constitutes one side of the character of the national bourgeoisie, while its support of the
Constitution and its willingness to accept socialist transformation constitute the other. The national bourgeoisie differs from
the imperialists, the landlords and the bureaucrat-capitalists. The contradiction between the national bourgeoisie and the
working class is one between the exploiter and the exploited, and is by nature antagonistic. Nevertheless, in the concrete
conditions of China, this antagonistic class contradiction can, if properly handled, be transformed into a non-antagonistic one
and be resolved by peaceful methods. However, it will change into a contradiction between ourselves and the enemy if we do not
handle it properly and do not follow the policy of uniting with, criticizing and educating the national bourgeoisie, or if the
national bourgeoisie does not accept this policy of ours.

Ibid., p. 4-5.

It [the counter-revolutionary rebellion in Hungary in 1956] was a case of reactionaries inside a socialist country, in
league with the imperialists, attempting to achieve their conspiratorial aims by taking advantage of contradictions among the
people to foment dissension and stir up disorder. This lesson of the Hungarian events merits attention.