Sample records for solar system comet

The nature, history, and evolution of comets are considered. Cometary ions, formed by photoionization and other processes, are forced into a highly structured ion tail by the interaction with the solar wind. The importance of comets to solar-system studies lies in the possibilities that they are well-preserved samples of either the interstellar cloud which collapsed to form the solarsystem or the planetesimals from which the outer planets accumulated, and that they provided either the prebiotic complex molecules from which life evolved or some volatiles necessary for the evolution of these molecules.

This paper presents an assessment of delivered payload capability for a number of selected rendezvous missions to periodic comets with launch opportunities through the years 1986-1996. These missions are chosen using a selection criteria that considers both expected scientific interest and earth-based sighting considerations. Some 22 mission opportunities are found that satisfies the selection criteria. Spacecraft performance is presented for each mission opportunity based on use of a space shuttle, a twin stage inertial-upper-stage, and a conceptual solar-electric-propulsion-system with a nominal rendezvous 50 days before comet perihelion. Additional trajectory and propulsion enhancements are investigated for several comet rendezvous missions in order to improve spacecraft performance. An indirect transfer trajectory for an Encke mission is shown to offer substantial delivered payload. In addition the use of concentrator solar arrays is considered for several of the more interesting comet missions.

In this review presented at the Royal Society meeting, "Cometary Science After Rosetta", I present an overview of studies of small solarsystem objects that exhibit properties of both asteroids and comets (with a focus on so-called active asteroids). Sometimes referred to as "transition objects", these bodies are perhaps more appropriately described as "continuum objects", to reflect the notion that rather than necessarily representing actual transitional evolutionary states between asteroids and comets, they simply belong to the general population of small solarsystem bodies that happen to exhibit a continuous range of observational, physical, and dynamical properties. Continuum objects are intriguing because they possess many of the properties that make classical comets interesting to study (e.g., relatively primitive compositions, ejection of surface and subsurface material into space where it can be more easily studied, and orbital properties that allow us to sample material from distant parts of the sol...

I will focus my talk around four outstanding problems concerning comets and the early SolarSystem. How were comet nuclei formed, and what was their initial size distribution? In which way could suchicy planetesimals have delivered volatiles to the planetary embryos in the terrestrial planet region? How large was the Sun's birth cluster, and what implications does this have for the origin of the Oort Cloud? Finally, in the framework of the Nice Model, which consequences are likely to follow from alargely cometary bombardment of the Moon and terrestrial planets during the LHB?

Newly discovered Manx comets show low levels of sublimation at perihelion indicating significantly lower volatile abundance compared to typical long period comets. The S-class spectrum of Manx comet C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS) indicates that they may have formed in the inner solarsystem and were later perturbed to the highly eccentric orbits observed today (Meech et al. 2016). We used the Pan-STARRS1 observation history and its Moving Object Processing System (MOPS) (Denneau et al. 2013) to model Manx detections since Pan-STARRS has been the primary discovery source of Manx comets. A synthetic Manx population was generated according to the Wiegert and Tremaine (1999) model and processed through MOPS to determine the expected Pan-STARRS1 detections and the corresponding detection efficiencies for Manx comets as a function of each orbital parameter and object size. The population of normal long period comets (LPCs) was modeled in the same fashion. Unbiased populations for LPCs and Manx comets were computed by correcting the real comet populations with the detection efficiencies. Finally, the ratio of the bias corrected number of Manx comets to LPCs is compared to the predictions of various solarsystem formation models.References:Meech, K. J. et al. (2016), Science Advances 2, 4, id. E1600038.Denneau, L. et al. (2013), Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 125, 926, 357-395Wiegert, P. and Tremaine, S. (1999), Icarus, 137, 1, 84-121.

We reconsider the hypothesis of a vast cometary reservoir surrounding the SolarSystem - the Oort cloud of comets - within the framework of Milgromian Dynamics (MD or MOND). For this purpose we build a numerical model of the cloud, assuming the theory of modified gravity QUMOND. Adopting popular pair $\

We reconsider the hypothesis of a vast cometary reservoir surrounding the solarsystem - the Oort cloud of comets - within the framework of Milgromian dynamics (MD or MOND). For this purpose we built a numerical model of the cloud, assuming the theory of modified gravity, QUMOND. In modified gravity versions of MD, the internal dynamics of a system is influenced by the external gravitational field in which the system is embedded, even when this external field is constant and uniform, a phenomenon dubbed the external field effect (EFE). Adopting the popular pair ν(x) = [1-exp(-x1 / 2)] -1 for the MD interpolating function and a0 = 1.2 × 10-10 m s-2 for the MD acceleration scale, we found that the observationally inferred Milgromian cloud of comets is much more radially compact than its Newtonian counterpart. The comets of the Milgromian cloud stay away from the zone where the Galactic tide can torque their orbits significantly. However, this does not need to be an obstacle for the injection of the comets into the inner solarsystem as the EFE can induce significant change in perihelion distance during one revolution of a comet around the Sun. Adopting constraints on different interpolating function families and a revised value of a0 (provided recently by the Cassini spacecraft), the aforementioned qualitative results no longer hold, and, in conclusion, the Milgromian cloud is very similar to the Newtonian in its overall size, binding energies of comets and hence the operation of the Jupiter-Saturn barrier. However, EFE torquing of perihelia still play a significant role in the inner parts of the cloud. Consequently Sedna-like orbits and orbits of large semi-major axis Centaurs are easily comprehensible in MD. In MD, they both belong to the same population, just in different modes of their evolution.

Cometary nuclei are messengers from the early solarsystem; they contain key information from the time when planets were forming, and even earlier - some contain material from the natal interstellar cloud. During the first 500 million years of Earth's existence, comets likely delivered vast quantities of pre-biotic organic material along with water for its oceans. The most easily modified forms of matter -the ices, low-temperature-refractory organics, and refractory minerals - hold special significance for understanding these processes. More than two dozen parent volatile species can be characterized directly from Earth-based observatories. Hyakutake and Hale-Bopp were the first bright comets to be studied with powerful new astronomical facilities. A wealth of new information on cometary organic composition was obtained, including the discovery of symmetric hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, acetylene) by infrared spectroscopy and the detection of six new parent volatiles at radio wavelengths. Since then, larger telescopes and even more powerful instruments have become available, permitting in-depth investigation of much fainter comets. With the powerful cross-dispersed cryogenic infrared echelle spectrometer (NIRSPEC, at the 10-m Keck-2 telescope), ten parent volatile species can be characterized in about two hours, eliminating many sources of systematic error. Six Oort cloud comets have been studied with it since 1999. The apparition of two bright comets in spring 2004 doubled the number of comets in which more than a dozen parent volatiles were quantified. The compositions of eleven Oort-cloud comets (including comet Halley and the deceased comet C/1999 S4 LINEAR) and two Jupiter-family comets (Encke, G-Z) will be compared and discussed in the context of chemical diversity in the giant-planets' nebular region. Implications for the delivery of water and pre-biotic organics to the early Earth will be mentioned. Mumma, M. J. et al. (2001), Ap. J. 546, 1183-1193. Mumma

The presence of crystalline silicates in the comae of comets, inferred through infrared observations, has been a long-standing puzzle. Crystalline silicates are unexpectedif comets are composed of pristine interstellar material, since interstellar silicates are almost entirely amorphous. Heating to> 1100 K can anneal silicates to crystallinity,but no protoplanetary heating sources have been identified that were sufficiently strong to heat materials in the outer nebula to such high temperatures. This conundrum led to the suggestion that large-scalemixing was important in theprotoplanetary disk. Reports of refractory calcium - aluminum-rich inclusion-like objects and large concentrations of noble gases in Stardust samples underscore the need for such mixing. However, the evidence from the Stardust samples until now has been largely anecdotal, and it has not been possible to place quantitative constraints on the mixing fraction. Here we report synchrotron-based X-ray microprobe measurements of the relative concentrations of the chemical state of iron in material from a known comet, the Jupiter-family comet 81P/Wild2. We find that the comet is rich in iron sulfides. The elemental S/Fe ratio based on the sulfide concentration, S/Fe> 0.31(2 sigma), is higher than in most chondritic meteorites. We also found that Fe-bearing silicates are at least 50percent crystalline. Based on these measurements, we estimate the fraction psi of inner nebular material in 81P/Wild2. With the lower bound on the crystalline Fe-bearing silicate fraction, we find that psi> 0.5. If the observed S depletion in the inner solarsystem predated or was contemporaneous with large-scale mixing, our lower bound on the S/Fe ratio gives an upper bound on psi of ~;; 0.65. This measurement may be used to test mixing models of the early solarsystem.

Comets have been proposed to consist of unprocessed interstellar materials together with a variable amount of thermally annealed interstellar grains. Recent studies of cometary solids in the laboratory have shown that comets instead consist of a wide range of materials from across the protoplanetary disk, in addition to a minor complement of interstellar materials. These advances were made possible by the return of direct samples of comet 81P/Wild 2 coma dust by the NASA Stardust mission and recent advances in microscale analytical techniques. Isotopic studies of 'cometary' chondritic porous interplanetary dust particles (CP-IDPs) and comet 81P/Wild 2 Stardust samples show that preserved interstellar materials are more abundant in comets than in any class of meteorite. Identified interstellar materials include sub-micron-sized presolar silicates, oxides, and SiC dust grains and some fraction of the organic material that binds the samples together. Presolar grain abundances reach 1 weight percentage in the most stardust-rich CP-IDPs, 50 times greater than in meteorites. Yet, order of magnitude variations in presolar grain abundances among CP-IDPs suggest cometary solids experienced significant variations in the degree of processing in the solar nebula. Comets contain a surprisingly high abundance of nebular solids formed or altered at high temperatures. Comet 81P/Wild 2 samples include 10-40 micron-sized, refractory Ca- Al-rich inclusion (CAI)-, chondrule-, and ameboid olivine aggregate (AOA)-like materials. The O isotopic compositions of these refractory materials are remarkably similar to their meteoritic counterparts, ranging from 5 percent enrichments in (sup 16) O to near-terrestrial values. Comet 81P/Wild 2 and CP-IDPs also contain abundant Mg-Fe crystalline and amorphous silicates whose O isotopic compositions are also consistent with SolarSystem origins. Unlike meteorites, that are dominated by locally-produced materials, comets appear to be composed of

Since the discovery of the first main-belt comet (MBC), 133P/Elst-Pizarro, the dynamical origin of cometary objects in the asteroid belt has been the subject of great interest. The comet-like activity of MBCs appears to be driven by the sublimation of water ice, which is intriguing given studies showing that icy objects from the asteroid belt region could have been a significant primordial source of terrestrial water. However, while dynamical modeling of the first three known MBCs (Haghighipour, 2009, M&PS, 44, 1863-1869) favored in-situ formation as the most probable scenario for the origin of these objects, the possibility that MBCs could be interlopers from the outer solarsystem has never been definitively ruled out. The Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter, T_J, is commonly used to characterize the dynamical origin of a small solarsystem object. Asteroids believed to have formed in situ in the asteroid belt generally have T_J>3 and comets which are presumed to have formed in the outer solarsystem generally have T_J3, suggesting that they formed in situ, but we are interested in investigating whether objects with T_Jfact evolve onto stable main-belt orbits with T_J>3. We have studied this issue by integrating the orbits of a large number of test particles with T_J values close to 3 (2.8 3 that are dynamically unstable over typical cometary dynamical lifetimes. Intriguingly, we also find that a small fraction of particles with T_J fact evolve onto orbits similar to those of certain known MBCs, specifically those with large eccentricities or inclinations. This suggests that an outer solarsystem origin for those MBCs cannot be excluded. We will discuss the implications of these results for our understanding of the origin of the MBCs, as well as their utility as tracers of ice in the inner solarsystem.

Comets, comet-like objects and their fragments are the most plausible source for the dust in both the inner heliosphere and planetary debris discs around other stars. The smallest size of dust particles in debris discs is not known and recent observational results suggest that the size distribution of the dust extends down to sizes of a few nanometres or a few tens of nanometres. In the SolarSystem, electric field measurements from spacecraft observe events that are explained with high-velocity impacts of nanometre-sized dust. In some planetary debris discs an observed mid- to near-infrared emission supposedly results from hot dust located in the vicinity of the star. And the observed emission is characteristic of dust of sizes a few tens of nanometres. Rosetta observations, on the other hand, provide little information on the presence of nanodust near comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. This article describes why this is not in contradiction to the observations of nanodust in the heliosphere and in planetary debris discs. The direct ejection of nanodust from the nucleus of the comet would not contribute significantly to the observed nanodust fluxes. We discuss a scenario that nanodust forms in the interplanetary dust cloud through the high-velocity collision process in the interplanetary medium for which the production rates are highest near the Sun. Likewise, fragmentation by collisions occurs near the star in planetary debris discs. The collisional fragmentation process in the inner SolarSystem occurs at similar velocities to those of the collisional evolution in the interstellar medium. A question for future studies is whether there is a common magic size of the smallest collision fragments and what determines this size. This article is part of the themed issue 'Cometary science after Rosetta'.

When within the inner solarsystem, comets possess gaseous atmospheres. The gases therein are ionized, and eventually join the solar wind. This thesis describes an investigation of the interaction of comets with the solar wind. The work begins with an overview of the processes involved in the comet-solar wind interaction region, and the domains and boundaries that exist in the region. A review of remote observations of cometary ions is given. The characteristics of visible plasma features are summarized, together with the theories proposed to explain them. An overview of the Giotto spacecraft and its instruments, and a description of its mission to two comets are presented. Ground-based observations were obtained of the ion features present in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake. The morphologies and motions of the comet's plasma features are described. The formation of tail rays was captured during a high temporal resolution image sequence. A gas production rate estimate is derived from the observations, and a model of ray morphologies is proposed, based partly upon observational evidence. 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova and C/1996 Q1 Tabur were also observed; however, no strong ion features were detected. An analysis of the plasma features of 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup then follows. A description of the solar wind conditions at that comet during the Giotto encounter is given, and an estimate of its production rate is made. Ground-based observations of Grigg-Skjellerup are compared to in-situ Giotto data. Morphological features were detected in ground-based images; it is proposed that they could have been linked to certain solar wind discontinuities. A qualitative description of a model of ion ray formation then follows. The thesis concludes with a summary of the main results.

The oxygen isotopic compositions of anhydrous minerals in carbonaceous chondrites reflect mixing between a O-16-rich and O-17, O18-rich reservoir. The UV photodissociation of CO (i.e. selfshielding) has been proposed as a mass-independent mechanism for producing these isotopically distinct reservoirs. Self-shielding models predict the composition for the CO gas reservoir to be O-16-rich, and that the accreting primordial dust was in isotopic equilibrium with the gaseous reservoir [1, 2]. Self-shielding also predicts that cometary water, presumed to represent the O-17, O-18-rich reservoir, should be enriched in O-17 and O-18, with compositions of 200 -1000per mille, and that the interaction with this O-17, O-18-rich H2O reservoir altered the compositions of the primordial dust toward planetary values. The bulk composition of the solar nebula, which may be an approximation to the 16O-rich gaseous reservoir, has been constrained by the Genesis results [3]. However, material representing the O-17, O-18-rich end-member is rare [4], and dust representing the original accreting primordial dust has been challenging to conclusively identify in current collections. Anhydrous dust from comets, which accreted in the distal cold regions of the nebula at temperatures below approximately 30K, may provide the best opportunity to measure the oxygen isotope composition of primordial dust. Chondritic porous interplanetary dust particles (CP-IDPs) have been suggested as having cometary origins [5]; however, until direct comparisons with dust from a known comet parent body were made, link between CP-IDPs and comets remained circumstantial. Oxygen isotope analyses of particles from comet 81P/Wild 2 collected by NASA's Stardust mission have revealed surprising similarities to minerals in carbonaceous chondrites which have been interpreted as evidence for large scale radial migration of dust components from the inner solar nebula to the accretion regions of Jupiter- family comets [6

Viewed from a cosmic perspective, Earth is a dry planet yet its oceans are enriched in deuterium by a large factor relative to nebular hydrogen. Can comets have delivered Earth's water? The question of exogenous delivery of water and organics to Earth and other young planets is of critical importance for understanding the origin of Earth's water, and for assessing the possible existence of exo-planets similar to Earth. Strong gradients in temperature and chemistry in the proto-planetary disk, coupled with dynamical models, imply that comets from the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Disk reservoirs should have diverse composition. The primary volatiles in comets (ices native to the nucleus) provide the preferred metric, and taxonomies based on them are now beginning to emerge [1,2,3]. The measurement of cosmic parameters such as the nuclear spin temperatures for H2O, NH3, and CH4, and of enrichment factors for isotopologues (D/H in water and hydrogen cyanide, N-14/N-15 in CN and hydrogen cyanide provide additional important tests for the origin of cometary material. I will provide an overview of these aspects, and their implications for the origin of Earth's water and prebiotic organics.

Thrill young astronomers with a journey through our SolarSystem. Find out all about the Inner and Outer Planets, the Moon, Stars, Constellations, Asteroids, Meteors and Comets. Using simplified language and vocabulary, concepts such as planetary orbits, the asteroid belt, the lunar cycle and phases of the moon, and shooting stars are all explored.

Comets, fine-grained matrices of chondrites, and chondritic interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) are each composed of both crystalline and amorphous silicates. The primitive solar nebula, in which comets and asteroids accreted, was formed from the collapsed core of a Giant Molecular Cloud, that, in turn, condensed from materials present in the interstellar medium (ISM). Despite observations that reveal the presence of crystalline magnesium silicate minerals in the shells of very high mass-loss-rate stars [1,2], typical silicate grains in the ISM are most likely to be amorphous, given their relatively long residence time in such a high radiation environment. An upper limit of 3% crystalline grains can be derived from their non-detection in spectra of ISM solids [3]. If the vast majority of grains that enter the primitive solar nebula are amorphous, then the observation of crystalline dust in comets and primitive chondrite matrices indicates the action of specific processes required to transform the amorphous starting materials into the crystals that are observed.

Main-belt comets (MBCs) have attracted a great deal of interest since their identification as a new class of bodies by Hsieh and Jewitt in 2006. Much of this interest is due to the implication that MBC activity is driven by the sublimation of volatile material (presumed to be water ice) presenting these bodies as probable candidates for the delivery of a significant fraction of the Earth’s water. An interesting characteristic of these objects is that while similar to comets, they have comae and dusty tails, they resemble asteroids, dynamically (i.e., their Tisserand numbers with respect to Jupiter, Tj, are larger than 3). The Tisserand parameter is a conserved quantity in the restricted three-body problem, and the Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter is frequently used to distinguish between asteroids (Tj>3), which are thought to be stable on Gyr timescales, and comets (Tjfact not as distinct as the common use of the Tisserand parameter would suggest. We studied the dynamical evolution of test particles with Tisserand numbers ranging from 2.8 to 3.2 to explore the behavior of solarsystem objects (such as MBCs) with Tj values close to the canonical asteroid-comet boundary of 3. We find, as expected, that Tj is not a hard boundary between asteroids and comets, and that we can expect to find objects that are dynamically stable (over the time period of integrations) with Tj3. Dynamical stability can be seen to be a function of not just Tj, but also other orbital elements such as the eccentricity and aphelion distance. We will report on the detailed findings of our analysis and discuss their implications for the origin of MBCs.

The dust tails of comets similar to Hale-Bopp can scatter as much optical light as does the Earth. Space-based observatories such as the Terrestrial Planet Finder or Darwin that will detect extra-solar terrestrial planets also will be able to detect extra-solarcomets.

The recent spacecraft encounters with comets Giacobini-Zinner and Halley have led to an enormous increase in our knowledge of comets, including their dust, neutral gas, plasma, and magnetic field environments. The latter has in turn led to better understanding of the nature of the solar wind interaction with the well developed atmosphere of a comet. The post-encounter understanding of this interaction is reviewed, underscoring the differences with pre-encounter reasoning. The problems outstanding in this area are emphasized.

Periodic comets move around the Sun on elliptical orbits. As such comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (hereafter 67P) spends a portion of time in the inner solarsystem where it is exposed to increased solar insolation. Therefore given the change in heliocentric distance, in case of 67P from aphelion at 5.68 AU to perihelion at ~1.24 AU, the comet's activity—the production of neutral gas and dust—undergoes significant variations. As a consequence, during the inbound portion, the mass loading of the solar wind increases and extends to larger spatial scales. This paper investigates how this interaction changes the character of the plasma environment of the comet by means of multifluid MHD simulations. The multifluid MHD model is capable of separating the dynamics of the solar wind ions and the pick-up ions created through photoionization and electron impact ionization in the coma of the comet. We show how two of the major boundaries, the bow shock and the diamagnetic cavity, form and develop as the comet moves through the inner solarsystem. Likewise for 67P, although most likely shifted back in time with respect to perihelion passage, this process is reversed on the outbound portion of the orbit. The presented model herein is able to reproduce some of the key features previously only accessible to particle-based models that take full account of the ions' gyration. The results shown herein are in decent agreement to these hybrid-type kinetic simulations.

The recent in-situ measurements of the plasma-neutral gas environment of comet Halley by the GIOTTO and VEGA spacecraft have confirmed the global theory of the comet-solar wind interaction. The ionopause, cometopause, and bow shock distances are the primary predictions of the model, although various momentum collisional cross-sections can also be estimated. With this greater confidence in the global model, the sharp Sunward intensity decrease in the spatial H2O+ profiles observed for comet Halley between 2.14 AU pre- and post-perihelion are interpreted as the cometopause boundary. This interpretation may then be used to determine the solar wind conditions local to the comet.

The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AlA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) viewed a comet as it passed through the solar corona on 2011 July 5. This was the first sighting of a comet by a EUV telescope. For 20 minutes, enhanced emission in several of the AlA wavelength bands marked the path of the comet. We explain this EUV emission by considering the evolution of the cometary atmosphere as it interacts with the ambient solar atmosphere. Water ice in the comet rapidly sublimates as it approaches the Sun. This water vapor is then photodissociated, primarily by Ly-alpha, by the solar radiation field to create atomic Hand O. Other molecules present in the comet also evaporate and dissociate to give atomic Fe and other metals. Subsequent ionization of these atoms can be achieved by a number of means, including photoionization, electron impact, and charge exchange with coronal protons and other highly-charged species. Finally, particles from the cometary atmosphere are thermalized to the background temperature of the corona. Each step could cause emission in the AlA bandpasses. We will report here on their relative contribution to the emission seen in the AlA telescopes.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration — The proposed Phase II investigation will focus on the development of spacecraft systems required to obtain a sample from the nucleus of a comet, hermetically seal...

National Aeronautics and Space Administration — The proposed Phase I investigation will focus on the development of spacecraft systems required to obtain a sample from the nucleus of a comet, hermetically seal the...

We analyze findings of the Stardust mission that brought to the Earth dust from the 81P/Wild 2 coma. Just as the data of the Deep Impact mission to 9P/Tempel 1, they are at odds with the widely accepted condensation/sublimation comet paradigm. They fit rather well to the approach assuming ejection of nuclei of short-period comets from moon-like bodies of the type of Galilean satellites in rare (six to seven events in 4.5 aeons) global explosions of their massive icy envelopes saturated by 2H2+O2, products of the electrolysis of ice. This approach offers an explanation, in particular, for the jet activity of comets, which is sustained by combustion of the 2H2+O2+organics mixture ignited and complemented by the solar radiation. Combustion accounts also for other observations, in particular, the presence in the dust of products of high-temperature (800-900 K) metamorphism. The presence of minerals forming at still higher temperatures (~1400-2000 K), just as the undoubtedly planetary origin of some long-period co...

Observations of comets in Sun-grazing orbits that survive solar insolation long enough to penetrate into the Suns inner corona provide information on the solar atmosphere and magnetic field as well as on the makeup of the comet. On 6 July 2011, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) observed the demise of comet C2011 N3 (SOHO) within the low solar corona in five wavelength bands in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV). The comet penetrated to within 0.146 solarradius (100,000 kilometers) of the solar surface before its EUV signal disappeared.

Charge exchange (CX) has emerged in X-ray emission modeling as a significant process that must be considered in many astrophysical environments—particularly comets. Comets host an interaction between solar wind ions and cometary neutrals to promote solar wind charge exchange (SWCX). X-ray observatories provide astronomers and astrophysicists with data for many X-ray emitting comets that are impossible to accurately model without reliable CX data. Here, we utilize a streamlined set of computer programs that incorporate the multi-channel Landau-Zener theory and a cascade model for X-ray emission to generate cross sections and X-ray line ratios for a variety of bare and non-bare ion single electron capture (SEC) collisions. Namely, we consider collisions between the solar wind constituent bare and H-like ions of C, N, O, Ne, Na, Mg, Al, and Si and the cometary neutrals H2O, CO, CO2, OH, and O. To exemplify the application of this data, we model the X-ray emission of Comet C/2000 WM1 (linear) using the CX package in SPEX and find excellent agreement with observations made with the XMM-Newton RGS detector. Our analyses show that the X-ray intensity is dominated by SWCX with H, while H2O plays a secondary role. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that CX cross sections have been implemented into a X-ray spectral fitting package to determine the H to H2O ratio in cometary atmospheres. The CX data sets are incorporated into the modeling packages SPEX and Kronos.

Spectacular and mysterious objects that come and go in the night sky, comets have dwelt in our popular culture for untold ages. As remnants from the formation of the Solarsystem, they are objects of key scientific research and space missions. As one of nature's most potent and dramatic dangers, they pose a threat to our safety--and yet they were the origin of our oceans and perhaps even life itself. This beautifully illustrated book tells the story of the biggest and most awe-inspiring of all comets: those that have earned the title "Great." Robert Burnham focuses on the Great comets Hyakutake in 1996 and Hale-Bopp in 1997, which gripped attention worldwide because, for many, they were the first comets ever seen. He places these two recent comets in the context of their predecessors from past ages, among them the famous Comet Halley. Great Comets explains the exciting new discoveries that have come from these magnificent objects and profiles the spaceprobes to comets due for launch in the next few years. The book even takes a peek behind Hollywood's science-fiction fantasies to assess the real risks humanity faces from potential impacts of both comets and asteroids. For everyone interested in astronomy, this exciting book reveals the secrets of the Great Comets and provides essential tools for keeping up to date with comet discoveries in the future. Robert Burnham has been an amateur astronomer since the mid-1950s. He has been a senior editor of Astronomy magazine (1986-88) and is the author of many books and CD-ROMS, including Comet Hale-Bopp: Find and Enjoy the Great Comet and Comet Explorer.

Theories of the nature and origin of comets are discussed in a historical review covering the period from ancient times to the present. Consideration is given to the ancient controversy as to the atmospheric or celestial nature of comets, Renaissance theories of comet orbits, superstitions regarding the effects of comets, Kant's (1755) theory of solar-system origin, the nineteenth-century discovery of the relationship between comets and meteor showers, and the continuing solar-system/interstellar debate. Oort's (1950) model of a comet swarm surrounding the solarsystem is examined in detail; arguments advanced to explain the formation of comets within this model are summarized; and the question of cometary catastrophism is addressed.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration — To probe the interior of a comet, we are going to employ Radar Reflection Imager (RRI) Instrument on an orbiting platform. While orbiting around the comet at a safe...

Is your library up to date on the SolarSystem? When the International Astronomical Union redefined the term "planet," Pluto was stripped of its designation as the solarsystem''s ninth planet. New Views of the SolarSystem looks at scientists'' changing perspectives on the solarsystem, with articles on Pluto, the eight chief planets, and dwarf planets. Brilliant photos and drawings showcase the planets, asteroids, comets, and more, providing a stunning collection of vivid and detailed images of the solarsystem.

We report the results of 15 hr of Chandra observations of comet 2P/Encke 2003 on November 24. X-ray emission from comet Encke was resolved on scales of 500-40,000 km, with unusual morphology due to the presence of a low-density, collisionally thin (to charge exchange) coma. A light curve with peak-t

In the last few decades, the exploration of our solarsystem has revealed fascinating details about the worlds that lie beyond our Earth. This lavishly illustrated book invites the reader on a journey through the solarsystem. After locating our planetary system in the Universe, Brunier describes the Sun and its planets, the large satellites, asteroids, and comets. Photographs and information taken from the latest space missions allow readers to experience spectacular scenes: the lunar plains scarred by asteroid impacts, the frozen deserts of Mars and Europa, the continuously erupting volcanoes of Io and the giant geysers of Triton, the rings of Saturn and the clouds of Venus and Titan, and the powerful crash of the comet Shoemaker-Levy into Jupiter. Inspired by the extraordinary photographs and incisive text, readers of SolarSystem Voyage will gain a greater appreciation of the hospitable planet we call home. Serge Brunier is chief editor of the journal Ciel et Espace, a photojournalist, and the author of many nonfiction books aimed at both specialists and the general public. His previous books include Space Odyssey (Cambridge, 2002), Glorious Eclipses with Jean-Pierre Luminet (Cambridge, 2000), and Majestic Universe (Cambridge, 1999).

Physics and Chemistry of the SolarSystem is a broad survey of the SolarSystem. The book discusses the general properties and environment of our planetary system, including the astronomical perspective, the general description of the solarsystem and of the sun and the solar nebula). The text also describes the solarsystem beyond mars, including the major planets; pluto and the icy satellites of the outer planets; the comets and meteors; and the meteorites and asteroids. The inner solarsystem, including the airless rocky bodies; mars, venus, and earth; and planets and life about other stars

Asteroids, comets and other primitive solarsystem bodies are key sources of information on the early solarsystem, on volatiles and organics delivered to the terrestrial planets, and on processes of planetary formation now observed in operation around other stars. Whether asteroids (in various size classes) are rubble piles or monolithic, and whether any porosity or internal voids contain volatiles, are first-order questions for understanding the delivery of volatiles to the early Earth, and for assessing impact hazards. Information on bulk composition aids discrimination between types and origins of primitive bodies, .e.g., the degree of aqueous alteration and bound-water content of carbonaceous chondrite bodies, and the volatile mass fraction of comets. Radar and radio methods can provide direct information on bulk composition, micro- and macro-porosity, body-scale internal structure, and on whether voids in rocky materials are volatile- or vacuum-filled. Such methods therefore figure prominently in current missions to primitive bodies (e.g., CONSERT) and in a variety of proposed missions. Radio transmitters necessary for conventional methods, however, add considerably to spacecraft mass and power requirements. Moreover, at many wavelengths most useful for radio sounding, powerful radio emission from the Sun strongly interferes with conventional signals. Here we present initial results from an investigation of how solar radio emission could serve as a natural resource for probing interiors of primitive bodies, rather than as interference. We briefly review methods for using stochastic radio illumination (aka noise radar methods), and illustrate the characteristics of solar radio emission relevant to mission design (e.g., observed intervals between emission events of specified intensity for different points in the solar cycle). We then discuss methods for selecting and interpreting observations in terms of interior properties, for bodies is different size classes

Suitable for ages 10-17, this work takes a look at the developments in research about the solarsystem, including articles on Pluto, the eight chief planets, and dwarf planets. It includes photos and drawings that showcase the planets, asteroids, comets, and also a collection of images of the solarsystem.

Full Text Available The outer solarsystem extends beyond a heliocentric distance of 5 AU. It contains the giant planets and their systems (rings and satellites, the Kuiper belt, the comets (except those which approach episodically the inner solarsystem and, at its outer edge, the Oort cloud. The outer solarsystem physically corresponds to the region located outside the « snow line » which corresponded to the distance of ice condensation in the protodolar disk, and thus made the frontier between the terrestrial and the giant planets at the time of the planets’ formation. The outer solarsystem is charaterized by a very large variety of ob jects, even within a given class of ob jects. Each of the giant planet has its own properties, as well as each of the outer satellites and the ring systems ; all are the products of specific conditions which determined their formation and evolution processes. The existence of the Kuiper belt, suspected on theoretical bases since the 1940s, has been confirmed since 1992 with the observation of over 1200 trans-neptunian ob jects. Thanks to the the developments of more and more performing groundbased instrumentation and the use of large telescopes, these ob jects are now studies in a statistical way, both dynamically and physically, and these studies are precious for constraining the early formation models of the solarsystem.

Observations of comets in Sun-grazing orbits that survive solar insolation long enough to penetrate into the Sun's inner corona provide information on the solar atmosphere and magnetic field as well as on the makeup of the comet. On 6 July 2011, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) observed the demise of comet C/2011 N3 (SOHO) within the low solar corona in five wavelength bands in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV). The comet penetrated to within 0.146 solar radius (~100,000 kilometers) of the solar surface before its EUV signal disappeared. Before that, material released into the coma--at first seen in absorption--formed a variable EUV-bright tail. During the final 10 minutes of observation by SDO's Atmospheric Imaging Assembly, ~6 × 10(8) to 6 × 10(10) grams of total mass was lost (corresponding to an effective nucleus diameter of ~10 to 50 meters), as estimated from the tail's deceleration due to interaction with the surrounding coronal material; the EUV absorption by the comet and the brightness of the tail suggest that the mass was at the high end of this range. These observations provide evidence that the nucleus had broken up into a family of fragments, resulting in accelerated sublimation in the Sun's intense radiation field.

Comet C/2002 S2, a member of the Kreutz family of sungrazing comets, was discovered in white-light images of the Large Angle and Spectromeric Coronagraph Experiment coronagraph on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) on 2002 September 18 and observed in H I Lyα emission by the SOHO Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer (UVCS) instrument at four different heights as it approached the Sun. The H I Lyα line profiles detected by UVCS are analyzed to determine the spectral parameters: line intensity, width, and Doppler shift with respect to the coronal background. Two-dimensional comet images of these parameters are reconstructed at the different heights. A novel aspect of the observations of this sungrazing comet data is that, whereas the emission from most of the tail is blueshifted, that along one edge of the tail is redshifted. We attribute these shifts to a combination of solar wind speed and interaction with the magnetic field. In order to use the comet to probe the density, temperature, and speed of the corona and solar wind through which it passes, as well as to determine the outgassing rate of the comet, we develop a Monte Carlo simulation of the H I Lyα emission of a comet moving through a coronal plasma. From the outgassing rate, we estimate a nucleus diameter of about 9 m. This rate steadily increases as the comet approaches the Sun, while the optical brightness decreases by more than a factor of 10 and suddenly recovers. This indicates that the optical brightness is determined by the lifetimes of the grains, sodium atoms, and molecules produced by the comet.

Rosetta followed comet 67P from low activity at more than 3 AU heliocentric distance to peak activity at perihelion and then out again. We study the evolution of the dynamic plasma environment using data from the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC). Observations of cometary plasma began in August 2014, at a distance of 100 km from the comet nucleus and at 3.6 AU from the Sun. As the comet approached the Sun, outgassing from the comet increased, as did the density of the cometary plasma. Measurements showed a highly heterogeneous cold ion environment, permeated by the solar wind. The solar wind was deflected due to the mass loading from newly added cometary plasma, with no discernible slowing down. The magnetic field magnitude increased significantly above the background level, and strong low frequency waves were observed in the magnetic field, a.k.a. the "singing comet". Electron temperatures were high, leading to a frequently strongly negative spacecraft potential. In mid to late April 2015 the solar wind started to disappear from the observation region. This was associated with a solar wind deflection reaching nearly 180°, indicating that mass loading became efficient enough to form a solar wind-free region. Accelerated water ions, moving mainly in the anti-sunward direction, kept being observed also after the solar wind disappearance. Plasma boundaries began to form and a collisionopause was tentatively identified in the ion and electron data. At the time around perihelion, a diamagnetic cavity was also observed, at a surprisingly large distance from the comet. In late 2016 the solar wind re-appeared at the location of Rosetta, allowing for studies of asymmetry of the comet ion environment with respect to perihelion. A nightside excursion allowed us to get a glimpse of the electrodynamics of the innermost part of the plasma tail. Most of these phenomena are dependent on the small-scale physics of comet 67P, since for most of the Rosetta mission the solar wind

Gravitational features are a fundamental source of information to learn more about the interior structure and composition of planets, moons, asteroids and comets. Gravitational field modeling typically approximates the target body with a sphere, leading to a representation in spherical harmonics. However, small celestial bodies are often irregular in shape, and hence poorly approximated by a sphere. A much better suited geometrical fit is achieved by a tri-axial ellipsoid. This is also mirrored in the fact that the associated harmonic expansion (ellipsoidal harmonics) shows a significantly better convergence behavior as opposed to spherical harmonics. Unfortunately, complex mathematics and numerical problems (arithmetic overflow) so far severely limited the applicability of ellipsoidal harmonics. In this paper, we present a method that allows expanding ellipsoidal harmonics to a considerably higher degree compared to existing techniques. We apply this novel approach to model the gravitational field of comet 6...

Discovering the SolarSystem Barrie W. Jones The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Discovering the SolarSystem is a comprehensive, up-to-date account of the SolarSystem and of the ways in which the various bodies have been investigated and modelled. The approach is thematic, with sequences of chapters on the interiors of planetary bodies, on their surfaces, and on their atmospheres. Within each sequence there is a chapter on general principles and processes followed by one or two chapters on specific bodies. There is also an introductory chapter, a chapter on the origin of the SolarSystem, and a chapter on asteroids, comets and meteorites. Liberally illustrated with diagrams, black and white photographs and colour plates, Discovering the SolarSystem also features: * tables of essential data * question and answers within the text * end of section review questions with answers and comments Discovering the SolarSystem is essential reading for all undergraduate students for whom astronomy or planetary science are components of their degrees, and for those at a more advanced level approaching the subject for the first time. It will also be of great interest to non-specialists with a keen interest in astronomy. A small amount of scientific knowledge is assumed plus familiarity with basic algebra and graphs. There is no calculus. Praise for this book includes: ".certainly qualifies as an authoritative text. The author clearly has an encyclopedic knowledge of the subject." Meteorics and Planetary Science ".liberally doused with relevant graphs, tables, and black and white figures of good quality." EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union ".one of the best books on the SolarSystem I have seen. The general accuracy and quality of the content is excellent." Journal of the British Astronomical Association

All magnetized planets in our solarsystem (Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) interact strongly with the solar wind and possess well developed magnetotails. It is not only the strongly magnetized planets that have magnetotails. Mars and Venus have no global intrinsic magnetic field, yet they possess induced magnetotails. Comets have magnetotails that are formed by the draping of the interplanetary magnetic field. In the case of planetary satellites (moons), the magnetotail refers to the wake region behind the satellite in the flow of either the solar wind or the magnetosp

SolarSystem Astrophysics: A Text for the Science of Planetary Systems covers the field of solarsystem astrophysics beginning with basic tools of spherical astronomy, coordinate frames, and celestial mechanics. Historical introductions precede the development and discussion in most chapters. After a basic treatment of the two- and restricted three-body system motions in Background Science and the Inner SolarSystem, perturbations are discussed, followed by the Earth's gravitational potential field and its effect on satellite orbits. This is followed by analysis of the Earth-Moon system and the interior planets. In Planetary Atmospheres and the Outer SolarSystem, the atmospheres chapters include detailed discussions of circulation, applicable also to the subsequent discussion of the gas giants. The giant planets are discussed together, and the thermal excesses of three of them are highlighted. This is followed by chapters on moons and rings, mainly in the context of dynamical stability, comets and meteors, m...

The forthcoming Rosetta-Philae mission to comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko provides a novel opportunity to observe the variable nature of the solar wind interaction with a comet over an extended range of heliocentric distance. We use a simple analytical one-dimensional MHD model to estimate the sizes of the two most prominent features in the global structure of the solar wind interaction with a comet. When the heliocentric distance of the comet reaches d ≤ 1.51 AU, we expect a sharp shock to be observed, whose size would increase monotonically as the comet approaches the Sun, reaching a value ≅ 15, 000 km at perihelion (d ≅ 1.29 AU). Upstream of the shock, we expect the velocity-space distribution of the picked up cometary ions to be essentially gyrotropic. A well-defined ionopause is predicted when d ≤1.61 AU, though its size is expected to be only ≅25 km at perihelion, and it is expected to be susceptible to the 'flute' instability due to its small size. Consequently, we expect the magnetic field to penetrate all the way to the surface of the nucleus. We conclude with a brief discussion of the response of the comet's plasma environment to fast temporal variations in the solar wind.

On July 6,2011, the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AlA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) observed a comet in most of its EUY passbands. The comet disappeared while moving through the solar corona. The comet penetrated to 0.146 solar radii ($\\simapprox.100,000 km) above the photosphere before its EUY faded. Before then, the comet's coma and a tail were observed in absorption and emission, respectively. The material in the variable tail quickly fell behind the nucleus. An estimate of the comet's mass based on this effect, one derived from insolation, and one using the tail's EUY brightness, all yield $\\sim 50$ giga-grams some 10 minutes prior to the end of its visibility. These unique first observations herald a new era in the study of Sun-grazing comets close to their perihelia and of the conditions in the solar corona and solar wind. We will discuss the observations and interpretation of the comet by SDO as well as the coronagraph observations from SOHO and STEREO. A search of the SOHO comet archive for other comets that could be observed in the SDO; AlA EUY channels will be described

Views of the SolarSystem has been created as an educational tour of the solarsystem. It contains images and information about the Sun, planets, moons, asteroids and comets found within the solarsystem. The image processing for many of the images was done by the author. This tour uses hypertext to allow space travel by simply clicking on a desired planet. This causes information and images about the planet to appear on screen. While on a planet page, hyperlinks travel to pages about the moons and other relevant available resources. Unusual terms are linked to and defined in the Glossary page. Statistical information of the planets and satellites can be browsed through lists sorted by name, radius and distance. History of Space Exploration contains information about rocket history, early astronauts, space missions, spacecraft and detailed chronology tables of space exploration. The Table of Contents page has links to all of the various pages within Views Of the SolarSystem.

1. Beliefs and superstitions relative to comets; 2. Cometary astronomy up to the time of Newton; 3. The motions and orbits of comets; 4. Periodical comets; 5. Periodical comets; 6. The world of comets and cometary systems; 7. Physical and chemical constitution of comets; 8. Physical transformations of comets; 9. Mass and density of comets; 10. The light of comets; 11. Theory of cometary phenomena; 12. Comets and shooting stars; 13. Comets and the earth; 14. Physical influences of comets; 15. Some questions about comets; Tables.

All of the fields that K2 observes are near the ecliptic plane in order to minimize the spin-up of the spacecraft in response to the effects of solar irradiation. The fields observed by K2 are thus rich in SolarSystem objects including planets, asteroids and trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). K2 has already performed observations of Neptune and its large moon Triton, 68 Trojan and Hilda asteroids, 5 TNOs (including Pluto) and Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Springs). About 10,000 main-belt asteroids that fell into the pixel masks of stars have been serendipitously observed. Observations of small bodies are especially useful for determining rotation periods. Uranus will be observed in a future campaign (C8), as will many more small SolarSystem bodies. The status of various K2 SolarSystem studies will be reviewed and placed within the context of our current knowledge of the objects being observed.

SolarSystem Astrophysics opens with coverage of the atmospheres, ionospheres and magnetospheres of the Earth, Venus and Mars and the magnetosphere of Mercury. The book then provides an introduction to meteorology and treating the physics and chemistry of these areas in considerable detail. What follows are the structure, composition, particle environments, satellites, and rings of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, making abundant use of results from space probes. SolarSystem Astrophysics follows the history, orbits, structure, origin and demise of comets and the physics of meteors and provides a thorough treatment of meteorites, the asteroids and, in the outer solarsystem, the Kuiper Belt objects. The methods and results of extrasolar planet searches, the distinctions between stars, brown dwarfs, and planets, and the origins of planetary systems are examined. Historical introductions precede the development and discussion in most chapters. A series of challenges, useful as homework assignments or as foc...

Comet composition and properties provide information on chemical and physical processes that occurred in the early Solarsystem, 4.6 Gyr ago. The study of comets and of star-forming regions both help for a better understanding of the formation of planetary systems. A review of our present knowledge of cometary composition is presented. We also discuss laboratory studies that would be helpful for data analysis.

Are you up to date on the solarsystem? When the International Astronomical Union redefined the term ""planet,"" Pluto was downgraded to a lower status. New Views of the SolarSystem looks at scientists' changing perspectives, with articles on Pluto, the eight chief planets, and dwarf planets. Brilliant photos and drawings showcase the planets, asteroids, comets, and more, providing a stunning collection of vivid images.

Are you up to date on the solarsystem? When the International Astronomical Union redefined the term ""planet,"" Pluto was downgraded to a lower status. New Views of the SolarSystem 2013 looks at scientists' changing perspectives, with articles on Pluto, the eight chief planets, and dwarf planets, new missions, updates for ongoing missions, newly-discovered moons, and updated tables. Brilliant photos and drawings showcase the planets, asteroids, comets, and more, providing a stunning collection of vivid images.

This module on solarsystem economics is one of six in a series intended for use as supplements to currently available materials on solar energy and energy conservation. Together with the recommended texts and references (sources are identified), these modules provide an effective introduction to energy conservation and solar energy technologies.…

The discovery of x-ray emission from comet Hyakutake was surprising given that comets are known to be cold. Observations by x-ray satellites such as the Röntgen Satellite (ROSAT) indicate that x-rays are produced by almost all comets. Theoretical and observational work has demonstrated that charge-exchange collisions of highly charged solar wind ions with cometary neutral species can explain this emission. X-ray observations of comets and other solarsystem objects may be used to determine the structure and dynamics of the solar wind.

Experiencing the most extreme environment our solarsystem has to offer, so-called "Sungrazing" comets approach, penetrate, and on rare occasion survive passage through, the several million degree solar corona on a surprisingly routine basis. Discoveries of such comets occur on average every 3-days in data recorded by the ESA/NASA SOHO and NASA STEREO satellites, with 17-years of near-continuous observations by SOHO having led to the discovery of over 2,300 new comets to date. In this talk I will provide a brief introduction and status update for the "Sungrazing Comets" project that enables the discovery and recording of these objects. I will then present an overview of the instruments that discover these "Sungrazing comets", explaining how their unique design gives us a window into an otherwise unobservable world, and finally will discuss the tremendous scientific value that they bring to both the solar and cometary communities.

The second edition of SolarSystem Astrophysics: Planetary Atmospheres and the Outer SolarSystem provides a timely update of our knowledge of planetary atmospheres and the bodies of the outer solarsystem and their analogs in other planetary systems. This volume begins with an expanded treatment of the physics, chemistry, and meteorology of the atmospheres of the Earth, Venus, and Mars, moving on to their magnetospheres and then to a full discussion of the gas and ice giants and their properties. From here, attention switches to the small bodies of the solarsystem, beginning with the natural satellites. Then comets, meteors, meteorites, and asteroids are discussed in order, and the volume concludes with the origin and evolution of our solarsystem. Finally, a fully revised section on extrasolar planetary systems puts the development of our system in a wider and increasingly well understood galactic context. All of the material is presented within a framework of historical importance. This book and its sist...

The metal budgets in some white dwarf (WD) atmospheres reveal that volatile-rich circumstellar bodies must both exist in extrasolar systems and survive the giant branch phases of stellar evolution. The resulting behaviour of these active asteroids or comets which orbit WDs is not well-understood, but may be be strongly influenced by sublimation due to stellar radiation. Here we develop a model, generally applicable to any extrasolar system with a main sequence or WD star, that traces sublimation-induced orbital element changes in approximately km-sized extrasolar minor planets and comets traveling within hundreds of au. We derive evolution equations on orbital timescales and for arbitrarily steep power-law sublimation dependencies on distance, and place our model in a Solarsystem context. We also demonstrate the importance of coupling sublimation and general relativity, and the orbital consequences of outgassing in arbitrary directions. We prove that nongravitational accelerations alone cannot result in orbi...

Comets are surrounded by an extended gas and dust coma. Neutral particles are continuously ionized by solar irradiation and then picked-up by the solar wind. This leads to a complex interaction between the neutral gas coma and the solar wind, which changes over the course of the comet's orbit around the Sun. The European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft has been in orbit around comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko since August 2014. Rosetta carries several instruments to investigate the comet's nucleus and surrounding neutral gas coma and plasma. Part of the payload is the Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis (ROSINA) that consists of two mass spectrometers and a pressure sensor. ROSINA was designed to measure the neutral gas abundance and composition and low energy ions in the coma in situ. ROSINA observations have shown that the coma is very heterogeneous both in total density and composition of the neutral gas. This heterogeneity is driven in large part by the complex shape of the nucleus and the varying illumination conditions associated with the comet's rotation. In this presentation we will show the time-dependent distribution of the major volatiles around the comet constrained by ROSINA observations. Furthermore we will investigate the impact of the highly non-symmetric neutral gas coma on the interaction of the solar wind with the comet.

Full Text Available Small solarsystem bodies like asteroids and comets have escaped planetary accretion. They are the oldest and best preserved witnesses of the formation of the solarsystem. Samples of these celestial bodies fall on Earth as meteorites and interplanetary dust. The STARDUST mission also recently returned to Earth cometary dust from comet 81P/Wild 2, a Jupiter Family Comet (JFC. These samples provide unique insights on the physico-chemical conditions and early processes of the solarsystem. They also contain some minute amount of materials inherited from the local interstellar medium that have survived the accretion processes in the solarsystem.

Comets provide important clues to the physical and chemical processes that occurred during the formation and early evolution of the SolarSystem, and could also have been important for initiating prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth. Comets are comprised of molecular ices, that may be pristine inter-stellar remnants of SolarSystem formation, along with high-temperature crystalline silicate dust that is indicative of a more thermally varied history in the protosolar nebula. Comparing abundances of cometary parent volatiles, and isotopic fractionation ratios, to those found in the interstellar medium, in disks around young stars, and between cometary families, is vital to understanding planetary system formation and the processing history experienced by organic matter in the so-called interstellar-comet connection. We will present a comparison of molecular abundances in these comets to those observed in others, supporting a long-term effort of building a comet taxonomy based on composition.

By analyzing the motions of test particles observed remotely in the tail of Comet Encke, we demonstrate that the solar wind undergoes turbulent processing enroute from the Sun to the Earth and that the kinetic energy entrained in the large-scale turbulence is sufficient to explain the well-known anomalous heating of the solar wind. Using the heliospheric imaging (HI-1) camera on board NASA's STEREO-A spacecraft, we have observed an ensemble of compact features in the comet tail as they became entrained in the solar wind near 0.4 AU. We find that the features are useful as test particles, via mean-motion analysis and a forward model of pickup dynamics. Using population analysis of the ensemble's relative motion, we find a regime of random-walk diffusion in the solar wind, followed, on larger scales, by a surprising regime of semiconfinement that we attribute to turbulent eddies in the solar wind. The entrained kinetic energy of the turbulent motions represents a sufficient energy reservoir to heat the solar wind to observed temperatures at 1 AU. We determine the Lagrangian-frame diffusion coefficient in the diffusive regime, derive upper limits for the small scale coherence length of solar wind turbulence, compare our results to existing Eulerian-frame measurements, and compare the turbulent velocity with the size of the observed eddies extrapolated to 1 AU. We conclude that the slow solar wind is fully mixed by turbulence on scales corresponding to a 1–2 hr crossing time at Earth; and that solar wind variability on timescales shorter than 1–2 hr is therefore dominated by turbulent processing rather than by direct solar effects.

Earth and space science figure prominently in the National Science Education Standards for levels 5-8 (NRC 1996). The Earth in the SolarSystem standard focuses on students' ability to understand (1) the composition of the solarsystem (Earth, Moon, Sun, planets with their moons, and smaller objects like asteroids and comets) and (2) that…

Earth and space science figure prominently in the National Science Education Standards for levels 5-8 (NRC 1996). The Earth in the SolarSystem standard focuses on students' ability to understand (1) the composition of the solarsystem (Earth, Moon, Sun, planets with their moons, and smaller objects like asteroids and comets) and (2) that…

This reference surveys resources of astronomical information including books and articles about the solarsystem, Mercury, Venus, Earth, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors. Also included is a list of seven available slide sets about the solarsystem. (CW)

We present preliminary results of the first 3-D fully kinetic and electromagnetic simulations of the solar wind interaction with 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at 3 AU, before the comet transitions into its high-activity phase. We focus on the global cometary environment and the electron-kinetic activity of the interaction. In addition to the background solar wind plasma flow, our model includes also plasma-driven ionization of cometary neutrals and collisional effects. We approximate mass loading of cold cometary oxygen and hydrogen using a hyperbolic relation with distance to the comet. We consider two primary cases: a weak outgassing comet (with the peak ion density 10x the solar wind density) and a moderately outgassing comet (with the peak ion density 50x the solar wind density). The weak comet is characterized by the formation of a narrow region containing a compressed solar wind (the density of the solar wind ion population is 3x the value far upstream of the comet) and a magnetic barrier ( 2x to 4x the interplanetary magnetic field). Blobs of plasma are detached continuously from this sheath region. Standing electromagnetic waves are excited in the cometary wake due to a strong anisotropy in the plasma pressure, as the density and the magnetic field magnitude are anti-correlated.The moderate mass-loading case shows more dynamics at the dayside region. The stagnation of the solar wind flow is accompanied by the formation of elongated density stripes, indicating the presence of a Rayleigh-Taylor instability. These density cavities are elongated in the direction of the magnetic field and encompass the dayside ionopause. To conclude, we believe that our results provide vital information to disentangle the observations made by the Rosetta spacecraft and compose a global solar wind - comet interaction model.

Observations on organic molecules and compounds containing biogenic elements in the interstellar medium and in the primitive bodies of the solarsystem are reviewed. The discovery of phosphorus molecular species in dense interstellar clouds, the existence of organic ions in the dust and gas phase of the comas of Comet Halley, and the presence of presolar, deuterium-hydrogen ratios in the amino acids of carbonaceous chondrites are discussed. The relationships between comets, dark asteroids, and carbonaceous chondrites are examined. Also, consideration is given to the chemical evolution of Titan, the primitive earth, and early Mars.

During the planet formation process, billions of comets are created and ejected into interstellar space. The detection and characterization of such interstellar comets (also known as extra-solar planetesimals or extra-solarcomets) would give us in situ information about the efficiency and properties of planet formation throughout the galaxy. However, no interstellar comets have ever been detected, despite the fact that their hyperbolic orbits would make them readily identifiable as unrelated to the solarsystem. Moro-Mart\\'in et al. 2009 have made a detailed and reasonable estimate of the properties of the interstellar comet population. We extend their estimates of detectability with a numerical model that allows us to consider "close" interstellar comets, e.g., those that come within the orbit of Jupiter. We include several constraints on a "detectable" object that allow for realistic estimates of the frequency of detections expected from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) and other surveys. The inf...

Water is ubiquitous in the Universe, and also in the SolarSystem. By setting the snow line at its condensation level in the protosolar disk, water was responsible for separating the planets into the terrestrial and the giant ones. Water ice is a major constituent of the comets and the small bodies of the outer SolarSystem, and water vapor is found in the giant planets, both in their interiors and in the stratospheres. Water is a trace element in the atmospheres of Venus and Mars today. It is very abundant on Earth, mostly in liquid form, but it was probably also abundant in the primitive atmospheres of Venus and Mars. Water is found in different states on the three planets, as vapor on Venus and ice (or permafrost) on Mars. Most likely, this difference has played a major role in the diverging destinies of the three planets.

Planetary science deals with a wide variety of natural materials in a wide variety of environments. These materials include metals, minerals, ices, gases, plasmas, and organic chemicals. In addition, the newly defined discipline of astrobiology introduces biological materials to planetary science. The environments range from the interiors of planets with megapascal pressures to planetary magnetospheres, encompassing planetary mantles, surfaces, atmospheres, and ionospheres. The interplanetary environment includes magnetic and electrical fields, plasma, and dust. In order to understand planetary processes over these vast ranges, the properties of materials must be known, and most of the necessary information comes from the laboratory. Observations of the bodies and materials in the SolarSystem are accomplished over the full range of the electromagnetic spectrum by remote sensing from Earth or spacecraft. Comets exemplify this; molecular and atomic identifications are made from the hard ultraviolet to radio wavelengths, while X-rays are emitted as comets interact with the solar wind. Gamma rays from the surfaces of the Moon and asteroids are diagnostic of the mineral and ice content of those bodies; eventually, gamma rays will also be observed by probes to comets. A number of planetary materials are available in the laboratory for extensive Study: rocks from the Moon, Mars, several asteroids, as well as dust from comets (and perhaps the Kuiper Belt) are closely studied at every level, including atomic (isotopic). Even pre-solar interstellar grains isolated from meteorites are scrutinized for composition and crystalline structure. Beyond the materials themselves, various agents and processes have altered them over the 4.6-Gy age of the SolarSystem. Solar radiation, solar wind particles, trapped magnetospheric particles, cosmic rays, and micrometeoroid impacts have produced chemical, physical, and morphological changes in the atmospheres and on the surfaces of all

The physical basis of chaos in the solarsystem is now better understood: in all cases investigated so far, chaotic orbits result from overlapping resonances. Perhaps the clearest examples are found in the asteroid belt. Overlapping resonances account for its Kirkwood gaps and were used to predict and find evidence for very narrow gaps in the outer belt. Further afield, about one new ``short-period'' comet is discovered each year. They are believed to come from the ``Kuiper Belt'' (at 40 AU or more) via chaotic orbits produced by mean-motion and secular resonances with Neptune. Finally, the planetary system itself is not immune from chaos. In the inner solarsystem, overlapping secular resonances have been identified as the possible source of chaos. For example, Mercury, in 10^{12} years, may suffer a close encounter with Venus or plunge into the Sun. In the outer solarsystem, three-body resonances have been identified as a source of chaos, but on an even longer time scale of 10^9 times the age of the solar ...

The Stardust spacecraft collected thousands of particles from comet 81P/Wild 2 and returned them to Earth for laboratory study. The preliminary examination of these samples shows that the nonvolatile portion of the comet is an unequilibrated assortment of materials that have both presolar and solarsystem origin. The comet contains an abundance of silicate grains that are much larger than predictions of interstellar grain models, and many of these are high-temperature minerals that appear to have formed in the inner regions of the solar nebula. Their presence in a comet proves that the formation of the solarsystem included mixing on the grandest scales.

Higher eukaryotic organisms cannot live without oxygen; yet, paradoxically, oxygen can be harmful to them. The oxygen molecule is chemically relatively inert because it has two unpaired electrons located in different pi * anti-bonding orbitals. These two electrons have parallel spins, meaning they rotate in the same direction about their own axes. This is why the oxygen molecule is not very reactive. Activation of oxygen may occur by two different mechanisms; either through reduction via one electron at a time (monovalent reduction), or through the absorption of sufficient energy to reverse the spin of one of the unpaired electrons. This results in the production of reactive oxidative species (ROS). There are a number of ways in which the human body eliminates ROS in its physiological state. If ROS production exceeds the repair capacity, oxidative stress results and damages different molecules. There are many different methods by which oxidative stress can be measured. This manuscript focuses on one of the methods named cell gel electrophoresis, also known as "comet assay" which allows measurement of DNA breaks. If all factors known to cause DNA damage, other than oxidative stress are kept constant, the amount of DNA damage measured by comet assay is a good parameter of oxidative stress. The principle is simple and relies upon the fact that DNA molecules are negatively charged. An intact DNA molecule has such a large size that it does not migrate during electrophoresis. DNA breaks, however, if present result in smaller fragments which move in the electrical field towards the anode. Smaller fragments migrate faster. As the fragments have different sizes the final result of the electrophoresis is not a distinct line but rather a continuum with the shape of a comet. The system allows a quantification of the resulting "comet" and thus of the DNA breaks in the cell.

The next several years are an exciting time in the exploration of the solarsystem. NASA and its international partners have a veritable armada of spaceships heading out to the far reaches of the solarsystem. We'll send the first spacecraft beyond our solarsystem into interstellar space. We'll launch our first mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt and just our second to Mercury (the first in 30 years). We'll continue our intensive exploration of Mars and begin our detailed study of Saturn and its moons. We'll visit asteroids and comets and bring home pieces of the Sun and a comet. This is truly an unprecedented period of exploration and discovery! To facilitate access to information and to provide the thematic context for these missions NASA s SolarSystem Exploration Program and SolarSystem Exploration Education Forum have developed several products.

The next several years are an exciting time in the exploration of the solarsystem. NASA and its international partners have a veritable armada of spaceships heading out to the far reaches of the solarsystem. We'll send the first spacecraft beyond our solarsystem into interstellar space. We'll launch our first mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt and just our second to Mercury (the first in 30 years). We'll continue our intensive exploration of Mars and begin our detailed study of Saturn and its moons. We'll visit asteroids and comets and bring home pieces of the Sun and a comet. This is truly an unprecedented period of exploration and discovery! To facilitate access to information and to provide the thematic context for these missions NASA s SolarSystem Exploration Program and SolarSystem Exploration Education Forum have developed several products.

In response to the new information gained about the SolarSystem from recent space probes and space telescopes, the experienced science author Dr. John Wilkinson presents the state-of-the art knowledge on the Sun, solarsystem planets and small solarsystem objects like comets and asteroids. He also describes space missions like the New Horizon’s space probe that provided never seen before pictures of the Pluto system; the Dawn space probe, having just visited the asteroid Vesta, and the dwarf planet Ceres; and the Rosetta probe inorbit around comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko that has sent extraordinary and most exciting pictures. Those and a number of other probes are also changing our understanding of the solarsystem and providing a wealth of new up close photos. This book will cover all these missions and discuss observed surface features of planets and moons like their compositions, geisers, aurorae, lightning phenomena etc. Presenting the fascinating aspects of solarsystem astronomy this book is a c...

Calibrated in kilowatt hours per square meter, the solar counter produced by Dodge Products, Inc. provides a numerical count of the solar energy that has accumulated on a surface. Solar energy sensing, measuring and recording devices in corporate solar cell technology developed by Lewis Research Center. Customers for their various devices include architects, engineers and others engaged in construction and operation of solar energy facilities; manufacturers of solarsystems or solar related products, such as glare reducing windows; and solar energy planners in federal and state government agencies.

In a recent opinion piece, Denis Duboule has claimed that the increasing shift towards systems biology is driving evolutionary and developmental biology apart, and that a true reunification of these two disciplines within the framework of evolutionary developmental biology (EvoDevo) may easily take another 100 years. He identifies methodological, epistemological, and social differences as causes for this supposed separation. Our article provides a contrasting view. We argue that Duboule’s pre...

Solar tracking systems, as well as methods of using such solar tracking systems, are disclosed. More particularly, embodiments of the solar tracking systems include lateral supports horizontally positioned between uprights to support photovoltaic modules. The lateral supports may be raised and lowered along the uprights or translated to cause the photovoltaic modules to track the moving sun.

The infrared and microwave domains have proved to be privileged tools to study the physical and chemical properties of small bodies of the SolarSystem. After a review of the recent results obtained on comets and asteroids in these wavelength ranges, we forecast the major outcomes that can be expected from their observations with the Herschel Space Observatory (hereafter referred as to FIRST, the former denomination). This prospect is focussed on: 1) observations of water rotational lines in comets to measure water outgassing and study water excitation in the coma and its kinematics; 2) observations of HDO in comets to constrain solar nebula models and formation scenarii of comets; 3) the study of surface properties of asteroids.

Mission to Catch a Comet! Comets have inspired awe and wonder since the dawn of history. Many scientists today believe that comets crashed into Earth in its formative period spewing organic molecules that were crucial to the growth of life. Comets may have formed about the same time as the giant planets of our solarsystem (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) - about 4.6 billion years ago. Some scientists think that comets and planets were both made from the same clumps of dust and ice that spewed from our Sun's birth; others think that these roving time capsules are even older than that, and that they may contain grains of interstellar stuff that is even older than our solarsystem.

analysis of the data gathered during the Comet Halley encounter during 1987 resulted in a body of literature asserting that all comets contain substantial percentages of hydrocarbon solids. These solids appear to have a strong similarity to petrochemicals. Arguments are made that the amount of hydrocarbon material in the accessible comets of the inner Solarsystem can substantially exceed the known reserves of hydrocarbons on Earth. An example is given of at least one conceptually simple method to use comet material as feedstock for space transportation schemes that can move masses through the solarsystem comparable to the mass carried by oil supertankers. The presentation concludes we need to send prospecting and assay probes to a sampling of the accessible comets to determine the amount of hydrocarbons and the form and location of materials needed for space transportation systems.

Comets have inspired wonder, excitement and even fear ever since they were first observed. They contain material from early in the life of the SolarSystem, held in deep-freeze. This makes them key in our understanding of the formation and evolution of many SolarSystem bodies. Recent ground- and space-based observations have changed much in our understanding of comets. Comets and How to Observe Them gives a summary of our current knowledge and describes how amateur astronomers can contribute to the body of scientific knowledge of comets. This book contains many practical examples of how to construct comet light-curves, measure how fast a comet’s coma expands, and determine the rotation period of the nucleus. All these examples are illustrated with drawings and photographs.

Nine years after the publication of Comets and the Origin and Evolution of Life, one of the pioneering books in Astrobiology, this second edition revisits the role comets may have played in the origins and evolution of life. Recent analyses of Antarctic micrometeorites and ancient rocks in Australia and South Africa, the continuing progress in discovering complex organic macromolecules in comets, protostars and interstellar clouds, new insights into organic synthesis in comets, and numerical simulations of comet impacts on the Earth and other members of the solarsystem yield a spectacular wea

Context. 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P/C-G) is a short-period Jupiter family comet with an orbital period of 6.55 yr. Being the target comet of ESA's Rosetta mission, 67P/C-G has become one of the most intensively studied minor bodies of the solarsystem. The Rosetta Orbiter and the Philae Lander have brought us unique information about the structure and activity of the comet nucleus, as well as its activity along the orbit, composition of gas, and dust particles emitted into the coma. However, as Rosetta stayed in very close proximity to the cometary nucleus (less than 500 km with a few short excursions reaching up to 1500 km), it could not see the global picture of a coma at the scales reachable by telescopic observations (103 - 105 km). Aims: In this work we aim to connect in-situ observations made by Rosetta with the morphological evolution of the coma structures monitored by the ground-based observations. In particular, we concentrate on causal relationships between the coma morphology and evolution observed with the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) in the Canary Islands, and the seasonal changes of the insolation and the activity of the comet observed by the Rosetta instruments. Methods: Comet 67P/C-G was monitored with the NOT in imaging mode in two colors. Imaging optical observations were performed roughly on a weekly basis, which provides good coverage of short- and long-term variability. With the three dimensional modeling of the coma produced by active regions on the southern hemisphere, we aim to qualify the observed morphology by connecting it to the activity observed by Rosetta. Results: During our monitoring program, we detected major changes in the coma morphology of comet 67P/C-G. These were long-term and long-lasting changes. They do not represent any sudden outburst or short transient event, but are connected to seasonal changes of the surface insolation and the emergence of new active regions on the irregular shaped comet nucleus. We have also

The focus in the present Ph.D. thesis is on the active use of solar energy for domestic hot water and space heating in so-called solar combi systems. Most efforts have been put into detailed investigations on the design of solar combi systems and on devices used for building up thermal stratifica...... Image Velocimetry measurement method. The theoretical investigations are based on the transient simulation program TrnSys and Computational Fluid Dynamics. The Ph.D. thesis demonstrates the influence on the thermal performance of solar combi systems of a number of different parameters...

Cometary particles returned by the Stardust Discovery Mission are primarily silicate materials of solarsystem origin. Some of the grains were formed at high temperatures close to the Sun, but then transported far out to the Kuiper belt region of the solarsystem before being incorporated in the comet.

We run simulations to determine the expected distribution of orbital elements of nearly isotropic comets (NICs) in the outer solarsystem, assuming that these comets originate in the Oort Cloud at thousands of AU and are perturbed into the planetary region by the Galactic tide. We show that the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) should detect and characterize the orbits of hundreds to thousands of NICs with perihelion distance outside 5 AU. Observing NICs in the outer solarsystem is our only way of directly detecting comets from the inner Oort Cloud, as these comets are dynamically excluded from the inner solarsystem by the giant planets. Thus the distribution of orbital elements constrains the spatial distribution of comets in the Oort cloud and the environment in which the solarsystem formed. Additionally, comet orbits can be characterized more precisely when they are seen far from the Sun as they have not been affected by non-gravitational forces.

The goal of this thesis was to develop a laboratory prototype of a solar tracking system, which is able to enhance the performance of the photovoltaic modules in a solar energy system. The operating principle of the device is to keep the photovoltaic modules constantly aligned with the sunbeams, which maximises the exposure of solar panel to the Sun’s radiation. As a result, more output power can be produced by the solar panel. The work of the project included hardware design and implemen...

The goal of this thesis was to develop a laboratory prototype of a solar tracking system, which is able to enhance the performance of the photovoltaic modules in a solar energy system. The operating principle of the device is to keep the photovoltaic modules constantly aligned with the sunbeams, which maximises the exposure of solar panel to the Sun’s radiation. As a result, more output power can be produced by the solar panel. The work of the project included hardware design and implemen...

Full Text Available The present status of our knowledge about the accretion process of Uranus and Neptune is discussed, emphasising in the possible origin of the orbital structure at the time of formation of the outer solarsystem. The most important influences of this process over the entire solarsystem are also discussed: in the inner planetary region, contributing to the formation of the planetary atmospheres and water reservoirs; in the asteroid and Kuiper belts, sculpting their primordial structures, and in the outer edge of the solarsystem, building up the Oort cloud of comets.

To unravel the origins of life on Earth and possibly elsewhere remains one of mankind's most important discoveries. Basic building blocks of life are widespread in planetary systems in our Milky Way and other galaxies. Extraterrestrial material delivered to young terrestrial planetary surfaces in the early history of our solarsystem through asteroids, comets and meteorites may have provided significant raw material for the emergence of life on Earth. Since August 2014 the comet rendezvous mission Rosetta has monitored the evolution of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko during its approach to the Sun and observed numerous volatiles and complex organic compounds on the comet surface. Several asteroid sample return missions as well as the improved analyses of key meteorites increase our knowledge about the organic inventory that seeded the young planets. Prokaryotic, anaerobic bacteria, which are approximately 3.5 billion years old, represent the first evidence for life on Earth. Since then, life has evolved to high complexity and adapted to nearly every explored environment on our planet. Extreme life on Earth has expanded the list of potentially habitable solarsystem environments. However, our neighbor planet Mars is the most promising target to search for life within our solarsystem. Data from the Curiosity rover show regions that were habitable in the past, traces of organic carbon and active CH_4 in the Martian atmosphere at present. Recent discoveries such as the plumes from the southern polar region of Enceladus and plume activity on Europa strengthen the long-standing hypothesis that moons in our solarsystem contain substantial bodies of water and are probably habitable. Since decades, a fleet of robotic space missions target planets, moons and small bodies to reveal clues on the origin of our solarsystem and life beyond Earth. This lecture will review and discuss past, current and future space missions investigating habitability and biosignatures in our

Comets are considered as the most primitive objects in the SolarSystem. Their composition provides information on the composition of the primitive solar nebula, 4.6 Gyr ago. The radio domain is a privileged tool to study the composition of cometary ices. Observations of the OH radical at 18 cm wavelength allow us to measure the water production rate. A wealth of molecules (and some of their isotopologues) coming from the sublimation of ices in the nucleus have been identified by observations in the millimetre and submillimetre domains. We present an historical review on radio observations of comets, focusing on the results from our group, and including recent observations with the Nan\\c{c}ay radio telescope, the IRAM antennas, the Odin satellite, the Herschel space observatory, ALMA, and the MIRO instrument aboard the Rosetta space probe.

We evaluated several concepts for a new survey for small objects in the SolarSystem. We designed a highly novel survey for comets in the outer region of the SolarSystem, which exploits the occultations of relatively bright stars to infer the presence of otherwise extremely faint objects. The populations and distributions of these objects are not known; the uncertainties span orders of magnitude! These objects are important scientifically as probes of the primordial solarsystem, and programmatically now that major investments may be made in the possible mitigation of the hazard of asteroid or comet collisions with the Earth.

The exploration of our solarsystem is one of humanity's greatest scientific achievements. The last fifty years in particular have seen huge steps forward in our understanding of the planets, the sun, and other objects in the solarsystem. Whilst planetary science is now a mature discipline - involving geoscientists, astronomers, physicists, and others - many profound mysteries remain, and there is indeed still the tantalizing possibility that we may find evidence of life on another planet in our system.Drawing upon the latest results from the second golden age of SolarSystem exploration, aut

Full Text Available Chondrites and comets have accreted primitive materials from the early solarsystem. Those materials include organics, water and other volatile components. The most primitive chondrites and comets have undergone few modifications on their respective parent bodies and can deliver to laboratories components that were present at the origin of the protosolar nebula. Here I present a review of the organic material and volatile components that have been studied in the most primitive chondrites, and the last data from the stardust mission about the cometary record. This paper focuses on materials that can be studied in laboratories, by mass spectrometry, ion probes or organic chemistry techniques.

The aim of this study is first to determine the gravity field of the comet 67P Churyumov-Gerasimenko and second to derive the solar component of the precession rate and nutation coefficients of the spin axis of the comet nucleus, i.e. without the direct, usually larger, effect of outgassing. The gravity field, and related moments of inertia, are obtained from two polyhedra, that are provided by the OSIRIS and NAV-CAM experiments on Rosetta, and are based on the assumption of uniform density for the comet nucleus. We also calculate the forced precession rate as well as the nutation coefficients on the basis of Kinoshita's theory of rotation of the rigid Earth and adapted it to be able to indirectly include the effect of outgassing on the rotational parameters. The 2nd degree denormalized Stokes coefficients of comet 67P C-G turn out to be (bracketed numbers refer to second shape model) C20 = -6.74 [-7.93] * 10^-2, C22 = 2.60 [2.71] * 10^-2 consistent with normalized principal moments of inertia A/MR^2 = 0.13 [...

EUV images of Comet Lovejoy (C/2011 W3) from the AIA show striations related to the magnetic field structure in both open and closed magnetic regions. The brightness contrast implies coronal density contrasts of at least a factor of 6 between neighboring flux tubes over scales of a few thousand km. These density structures imply variations in the Alfven speed on a similar scale. They will drastically affect the propagation and dissipation of Alfven waves, and that should be taken into account in models of coronal heating and solar wind acceleration. In each striation, the cometary emission moves along the magnetic field and broadens with time. The speed and the rate of broadening are related to the parallel and perpendicular components of the velocities of the cometary neutrals when they become ionized. We use an MHD model of the coronal magnetic field and the theory of pickup ions to compare the measurements with theoretical predictions, in particular with the energy lost to Alfven waves as the cometary ions...

This module on solarsystem design fundamentals is one of six in a series intended for use as supplements to currently available materials on solar energy and energy conservation. Together with the recommended texts and references (sources are identified), these modules provide an effective introduction to energy conservation and solar energy…

The International Rosetta Mission was launched on 2nd March 2004 on its 10 year journey to rendezvous with comet 67P Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Rosetta performed comet orbit insertion on the 6th of August 2014, after which it characterised the nucleus and orbited it at altitudes as low as a few kilometres. In November 2014 Rosetta delivered the lander Philae to perform the first soft landing ever on the surface of a comet. The critical landing operations have been conducted with remarkable accuracy and will constitute one of the most important achievements in the history of spaceflight. After this critical operation, Rosetta began the escort phase of the comet in its journey in the SolarSystem heading to the perihelion, reached in August 2015. Throughout this period, the comet environment kept changing with increasing gas and dust emissions. A first phase of bound orbits was followed by a sequence of complex flyby segments which allowed the scientific instruments to perform in depth investigation of the comet environment and nucleus. The unpredictable nature of the comet activity forced the mission control team to implement unplanned changes to the flight plan prepared for this mission phase and to plan the whole mission in a more dynamic way than originally conceived. This paper describes the details of the landing operations and of the main comet escort phase. It also includes the mission status as achieved after perihelion and the findings about the evolution of the comet and its environment from a mission operations point of view. The lessons learned from this unique and complex operations phase and the plans for the next mission phases, which include a mission extension into 2016, are also described.

of the comet's dust and vapour, and also rates of escape of vapour, which will help in assessing the loss of material from Comet Hale-Bopp during this visit to the Sun's vicinity. "Watch out for some fascinating news," says Thijs de Graauw of Groningen University, who is in charge of the SWS instrument used in this study. "What excites me is the opportunity we shall have to compare dusty Comet Hale-Bopp, seen in the SolarSystem, with dusty objects far away among the stars which seem to be made of similar materials. Infrared astronomy has a special ability to unify cosmic chemistry at all scales from little dust grains in the Earth's vicinity to vast and distant galaxies." The dust itself interests the infrared astronomers, not least because their view of the Universe at large is spoiled to some extent by dust left behind by comets. Together with fine debris from asteroids, the comet dust makes a bright infrared band around the sky, which corresponds with the zodiacal light sometimes seen by eye, slanting above the horizon at twilight. ISO's predecessor, the US-Dutch-UK infrared astronomical satellite IRAS, found trails of comet dust much longer and more persistent than the familiar comet tails. ISO has seen a trail from Comet Kopff. By detecting dust grains that are typically much larger than those seen by visible light, ISO scientists hope to learn more about the dust's long-term behaviour in the SolarSystem. A series of images of Comet Hale-Bopp, obtained by the camera ISOCAM in October 1996, is the subject of continuing analysis. Leading this work in progress is Philippe Lamy of Marseille, France. "We hope to unveil the nucleus of the comet," Professor Lamy explains. "In principle, the Hubble Space Telescope can see finer details by visible light, but the contrast of the nucleus against the bright surrounding coma is superior at infrared wavelengths. This is because the thermal emission from the nucleus is very large and can be detected thanks to the high

Physics and Chemistry of the SolarSystem, 2nd Edition, is a comprehensive survey of the planetary physics and physical chemistry of our own solarsystem. It covers current research in these areas and the planetary sciences that have benefited from both earth-based and spacecraft-based experimentation. These experiments form the basis of this encyclopedic reference, which skillfully fuses synthesis and explanation. Detailed chapters review each of the major planetary bodies as well as asteroids, comets, and other small orbitals. Astronomers, physicists, and planetary scientists can use this state-of-the-art book for both research and teaching. This Second Edition features extensive new material, including expanded treatment of new meteorite classes, spacecraft findings from Mars Pathfinder through Mars Odyssey 2001, recent reflections on brown dwarfs, and descriptions of planned NASA, ESA, and Japanese planetary missions.* New edition features expanded treatment of new meteorite classes, the latest spacecraft...

We use numerical simulations of the orbital evolution of stray Kuiper Belt objects to relate the number of comets striking the planets to the number of Jupiter-family comets observed in the inner solarsystem. Cratering rates are obtained by accounting for gravitational focusing, cratering efficiency, and an intuitive average of the various available calibrations of cometary mass. The most telling craters are those of Triton, a retrograde moon in a prograde system. It is well-known that much of Triton's surface is relatively young. Less well-known is that Triton features the most startling hemispheric cratering asymmetry in the solarsystem: fresh impact craters are almost exclusively limited to the leading hemisphere. It would seem that Triton has been colliding almost exclusively with planetocentric debris. If so, then we conclude that Triton's trailing hemisphere is less than 10 million years old. Recent too must be the event that cratered the leading hemisphere. Once admitted we must consider planetocentric cratering of other, prograde satellites. In particular, the lack of a strong apex-antapex asymmetry on Ganymede is not as good an argument for nonsynchronous rotation as we once thought. Rather, many or most of Ganymede's craters might prove to be secondaries, most likely made by ejecta launched into orbit about Jupiter, only to return not too much later, like the insatiable shards of Texas in Armageddon II: The New Millenium.

Comets are primitive conglomerates of the solarsystem containing a mixture of frozen gases, refractory grains, and carbonaceous particles rich in biogenic elements. The dramatic display of comets is mostly caused by a cloud of micrometer-sized dust particles that leave the comet nucleus when frozen gases sublimate as they approach the Sun. Analyses of cometary dust captured in the stratosphere together with data obtained from space missions to comets have revealed the presence of a great variety of organic molecules. Since substantial amounts of cometary dust were gently deposited on Earth, their organic content could have played a major role in prebiotic processes prior to the appearance of microorganisms. This review discusses the description and implications for life of the organic content of comets and cometary dust.

To compare the extent of potential inter-laboratory variability and the influence of different comet image analysis systems, in vivo comet experiments were conducted using the genotoxicants ethyl methanesulfonate and methyl methanesulfonate. Tissue samples from the same animals were processed and analyzed-including independent slide evaluation by image analysis-in two laboratories with extensive experience in performing the comet assay. The analysis revealed low inter-laboratory experimental variability. Neither the use of different image analysis systems, nor the staining procedure of DNA (propidium iodide vs. SYBR® Gold), considerably impacted the results or sensitivity of the assay. In addition, relatively high stability of the staining intensity of propidium iodide-stained slides was found in slides that were refrigerated for over 3 months. In conclusion, following a thoroughly defined protocol and standardized routine procedures ensures that the comet assay is robust and generates comparable results between different laboratories.

A comprehensive review is given of the most recent findings on the solarsystem. The physical processes in the sun are presented, their interactions in the interplanetary space, and the planets and moons of the solarsystem. The sun and the moon are discussed in great detail. The text is supplemented by excellent satellite pictures, including the latest pictures of Jupiter, Saturn, and their moons.

The appearance of folding ion rays in cometary comae is still not very well understood, so our aim is to gain more insight into the role of the local solar wind in the formation of these structures. Comet C/2004 Q2 (Machholz) was intensively monitored during its closest approach to Earth (January 2005) with the CCD camera Merope mounted on the Flemish 1.2m Mercator telescope, in three different bands (Geneva U and B and Cousins I). Spectacular ion rays, thin ionic structures rapidly folding tailward, were recorded in the U band during one night, January 12th. Data from the SOHO satellite that was extrapolated corotationally to the position of the comet showed that the ion rays were formed during a sudden change in the in-situ solar wind state. We were able to succesfully correlate a high-speed solar wind stream with the appearance of folding ion rays. To our knowledge, this is the first clear observational evidence that folding ion rays in cometary comae are produced by a sudden change in the local solar wind...

VJHK colors for a number of asteroids and eight comets at various solar distances and levels of activity were obtained, and the observations are interpreted in terms of a two-component mixing model in which outer solarsystem interplanetary bodies are viewed as mixtures of ice and dark carbonaceous-type (RD and C) dirt. It is inferred that the observed comets have comae, and perhaps surfaces, of dirty ice or ice dirt grains colored by an RD-dirt component. This inference is supported by systematics of an 'alpha index' based on VJHK colors and empirically correlated with albedo and ice/dirt ratio. Among comets the alpha index correlates with solar distance in a way that suggests comets emit dirty ice grains which are stable at large solar distance but from which the ice component sublimes and leaves dirt grains at small solar distance.

Published information on solar powered irrigation systems is presented. Thermal solarsystems, thermoelectric solarsystems, and photovoltaic solarsystems are included. A bibliography and survey of on-going work is presented. (WHK)

The Origins Space Telescope (OST) is the mission concept for the Far-Infrared Surveyor, a study in development by NASA in preparation for the 2020 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey. Origins is planned to be a large aperture, actively-cooled telescope covering a wide span of the mid- to far-infrared spectrum. Its imagers and spectrographs will enable a variety of surveys of the sky that will discover and characterize the most distant galaxies, Milky-Way, exoplanets, and the outer reaches of our Solarsystem. Origins will enable flagship-quality general observing programs led by the astronomical community in the 2030s. The Science and Technology Definition Team (STDT) would like to hear your science needs and ideas for this mission. The team can be contacted at firsurveyor_info@lists.ipac.caltech.edu.In the SolarSystem, OST will provide km/sec resolution on lines from planet, moons and comets. OST will measure molecular abundances and isotope ratios in planets and comets. OST will be able to do continuum surveys for faint moving sources such as Kuiper Belt Objects, enabling a census of smaller objects in the Kuiper Belt. If the putative Planet IX is massive enough to be self-luminous, then OST will be able to detect it out to thousands of AU from the Sun.

We review the reservoirs of methane clathrates that may exist in the different bodies of the SolarSystem. Methane was formed in the interstellar medium prior to having been embedded in the protosolar nebula gas phase. This molecule was subsequently trapped in clathrates that formed from crystalline water ice during the cooling of the disk and incorporated in this form into the building blocks of comets, icy bodies, and giant planets. Methane clathrates may play an important role in the evolution of planetary atmospheres. On Earth, the production of methane in clathrates is essentially biological, and these compounds are mostly found in permafrost regions or in the sediments of continental shelves. On Mars, methane would more likely derive from hydrothermal reactions with olivine-rich material. If they do exist, martian methane clathrates would be stable only at depth in the cryosphere and sporadically release some methane into the atmosphere via mechanisms that remain to be determined. In the case of Titan, most of its methane probably originates from the protosolar nebula, where it would have been trapped in the clathrates agglomerated by the satellite's building blocks. Methane clathrates are still believed to play an important role in the present state of Titan. Their presence is invoked in the satellite's subsurface as a means of replenishing its atmosphere with methane via outgassing episodes. The internal oceans of Enceladus and Europa also provide appropriate thermodynamic conditions that allow formation of methane clathrates. In turn, these clathrates might influence the composition of these liquid reservoirs. Finally, comets and Kuiper Belt Objects might have formed from the agglomeration of clathrates and pure ices in the nebula. The methane observed in comets would then result from the destabilization of clathrate layers in the nuclei concurrent with their approach to perihelion. Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations show that methane-rich clathrate

Full Text Available Increasing energy consumption, shrinking resources and rising energy costs will have significant impact on our standard of living for future generations. In this situation, the development of alternative, cost effective sources of energy has to be a priority. This project presents the advanced technology and some of the unique features of a novel solarsystem that utilizes solar energy for space heating and water heating purpose in residential housing and commercial buildings. The improvements in solar technology offers a significant cost reduction, to a level where the solarsystem can compete with the energy costs from existing sources. The main goal of the project is to investigate new or advanced solutions for storing heat in systems providing heating. which can be achieved using phase change material(PCM.A phase change material with a melting/solidification temperature of 50ºC to 60ºC is used for solar heat storage. When the PCM undergoes the phase change, it can absorb or release a large amount of energy as latent heat. This heat can be used for further applications like water heating and space heating purposes. Thus solar thermal energy is widely use

The Poynting-Robertson effect from sunlight impinging directly on a particle which orbits a SolarSystem body (planet, asteroid, comet) is considered from the Sun's rest frame. There appear to be no significant first-order terms in V(sub b)/c for circular orbits, where V(sub b) is the body's speed in its orbit about the Sun and c is the speed of light, when the particle's orbital semimajor axis is much smaller than the body's orbital semimajor axis about the Sun as is mainly the case in the SolarSystem.

The SolarSystem Educators Program is a nationwide network of highly motivated teachers who lead workshops that show other teachers in their local communities how to successfully incorporate NASA materials and research into their classes. Currently there are 57 SolarSystem Educators in 37 states whose workshops are designed to assist their fellow teachers in understanding and including standards-based NASA materials into their classroom activities. SolarSystem Educators attend a training institute during their first year in the program and have the option of attending subsequent annual institutes. The volunteers in this program receive additional web-based mission-specific telecon trainings in conjunction with the SolarSystem Ambassadors. Resource and handout materials in the form of DVDs, posters, pamphlets, fact sheets, postcards and bookmarks are also provided. Scientists can get involved with this program by partnering with the SolarSystem Educators in their regions, presenting at their workshops and mentoring these outstanding volunteers. This formal education program helps optimize project funding set aside for education through the efforts of these volunteer master teachers. At the same time, teachers become familiar with NASA's educational materials with which to inspire students into pursuing careers in science, technology, engineering and math.

The sites and materials involved in solarsystem sputtering of planetary surfaces are reviewed, together with existing models for the processes of sputtering. Attention is given to the interaction of the solar wind with planetary atmospheres in terms of the role played by the solar wind in affecting the He-4 budget in the Venus atmosphere, and the erosion and differentiation of the Mars atmosphere by solar wind sputtering. The study is extended to the production of isotopic fractionation and anomalies in interplanetary grains by irradiation, and to erosion effects on planetary satellites with frozen volatile surfaces, such as with Io, Europa, and Ganymede. Further measurements are recommended of the molecular form of the ejected material, the yields and energy spectra of the sputtered products, the iosotopic fractionation sputtering causes, and the possibility of electronic sputtering enhancement with materials such as silicates.

Full Text Available For the lack of real-time performance of browser technology in existing Web-based real-time monitoring system, takes use of SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics and the Comet to design a new Web-based real-time monitoring system. In this system, JSON (JavaScript Object Notation is the data transmission carrier, Comet is the key technology for system communication and data transmission, and SVG is a chart drawing tool in the browser side. So this system has a good real-time and is rich in the form of show.

as the likely presence of a large amount of gas in addition to the dust around these fragments. Material from the formation of the solarsystemComet LINEAR moves in an exceedingly elongated orbit and it is making one of its first approaches to the Sun, perhaps even the first one. It is therefore a "new" comet in which unaltered material from the formation of the solarsystem some 4.5 billion years ago may still be present. For this reason, the splitting of its nucleus is of particular interest to the astronomers: by spectroscopic observations, they may be able to observe directly such material and hence to learn more about the processes that took place at the time of the formation of the solarsystem. Interested observers may find the location of this comet in the sky (the "ephemeris") at the May 2001 Events webpage at Sky & Telescope . Results about the disintegration of another comet just published Last year, the nucleus of another Comet LINEAR (designated C/1999 S4) disintegrated completely. It was observed extensively with the ESO VLT and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), cf. PR Photo 20/00. Quite by chance, a series of research papers based on those and other observations of that comet are being published in today's issue of the research journal Science. Notes [1]: Information about this comet has been published by the IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) on several IAU Circulars : IAUC 7564 (discovery on January 3, 2001 and provisional orbit); IAUC 7600 (ephemerides and brightness estimates; March 20, 2001); IAUC 7605 (observations of a rapid brightening; March 30, 2001); IAUC 7611 (brightness estimates; April 19, 2001); IAUC 7616 (first observations of splitting into two fragments on April 30, 2001); IAUC 7620 (brightness estimates; May 5, 2001); IAUC 7625 (some brightening of component "A" on May 9-10, 2001); IAUC 7627 (detailed report on the ESO VLT observations described in this Press Release; May 17, 2001). [2]: These observations were

Considered to be relics from SolarSystem formation, comets may provide the vital information connecting Solar Nebula and its parent molecular cloud. Study of chemical and physical properties of comets is thus important for our better understanding of the formation of SolarSystem. In addition, observing organic molecules in comets may provide clues fundamental to our knowledge on the formation of prebiotically important organic molecules in interstellar space, hence, may shed light on the origin of life on the early Earth. Comet 103PIHartley 2 was fIrst discovered in 1986 and had gone through apparitions in 1991, 1997, and 2004 with an orbital period of about 6 years, before its latest return in 2010. 2010 was also a special year for Comet 103PIHartley 2 because of the NASA EPOXI comet-flyby mission.

Most comets are volatile-rich bodies that have recently entered the inner solarsystem following long-term storage in the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud reservoirs. These reservoirs feed several distinct, short-lived "small body" populations. Here, we present new measurements of the optical colors of cometary and comet-related bodies including long-period (Oort cloud) comets, Damocloids (probable inactive nuclei of long-period comets) and Centaurs (recent escapees from the Kuiper belt and precursors to the Jupiter family comets). We combine the new measurements with published data on short-period comets, Jovian Trojans and Kuiper belt objects to examine the color systematics of the comet-related populations. We find that the mean optical colors of the dust in short-period and long-period comets are identical within the uncertainties of measurement, as are the colors of the dust and of the underlying nuclei. These populations show no evidence for scattering by optically-small particles or for compositional gra...

Report describes solar modular domestic-hot-water and space-heating system intended for use in small single family dwelling where roof-mounted collectors are not feasible. Contents include design, performance, and hardware specifications for assembly, installation, operation, and maintenance of system.

Although solar drainback systems have been used for a long time, they are still generating questions regarding smooth functioning. This paper summarises publications on drainback systems and compiles the current knowledge, experiences, and ideas on the technology. The collective research exhibits...... of this technology has been developed, with a brief description of each hydraulic typology. The operating modes have been split into three stages: filling, operation, and draining, which have been studied separately. A difference in the minimal filling velocities for a siphon development in the solar loop has been...

A low-cost, high-efficiency dish-Stirling solar thermal-electric power system is being developed for test in 1981. System components are the solar concentrator, receiver, fossil fuel combustor, thermal energy storage (TES), engine-generator, and power processing. System conceptualization is completed and design is in progress. Two receiver alternatives are being evaluated, a direct-coupled receiver-engine configuration with no TES and a heat pipe receiver with TES. System cost projections are being made. Goals for the system development task are (1) to develop an advanced dish-Stirling technology, utilizing a team of industrial contractors, (2) to demonstrate that technology at the system level, and (3) to determine how to achieve low production cost.

This book concentrates on some of the odd aspects of comets and asteroids. Strange behavior of comets, such as outbursts and schisms, and how asteroids can temporally act as comets are discussed, together with the possible threat of Centaurs-class objects like the Taurid complex. Recent years have seen the distinction between comets and asteroids become less prominent. Comets in "asteroid" orbits and vice versa have become almost commonplace and a clearer view of the role of small bodies in the formation of the SolarSystem and their effect on Earth has become apparent. Seargent covers this development in detail by including new data and information from space probes. .

Possible connections between comets and the origin of life on earth are discussed. The orbital evolution of comets and their origin are considered within a framework for the origin of the solarsystem, with particular attention given to the origin of the biosphere, and the origin of the Oort cloud. Evidence suggesting that cometary nuclei are undifferentiated throughout is considered, and a model of the average composition of a mean new comet is obtained from observational data which is similar to that of an interstellar frost. The chemistry of the model composition giving rise to the species observed in cometary spectra is considered, as well as the relations of cometary to cosmic abundances of oxygen, carbon and sulfur. The characteristics of possible sites for prebiotic chemistry, including interstellar clouds, the protosolar nebula, comets in the Oort cloud, periodic comets and the primitive earth, are examined, and a possible role of comets in bringing the interstellar prebiotic chemistry to earth is suggested.

Most comets are volatile-rich bodies that have recently entered the inner solarsystem following long-term storage in the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud reservoirs. These reservoirs feed several distinct, short-lived “small body” populations. Here, we present new measurements of the optical colors of cometary and comet-related bodies including long-period (Oort cloud) comets, Damocloids (probable inactive nuclei of long-period comets) and Centaurs (recent escapees from the Kuiper belt and precursors to the Jupiter family comets). We combine the new measurements with published data on short-period comets, Jovian Trojans and Kuiper belt objects to examine the color systematics of the comet-related populations. We find that the mean optical colors of the dust in short-period and long-period comets are identical within the uncertainties of measurement, as are the colors of the dust and of the underlying nuclei. These populations show no evidence for scattering by optically small particles or for compositional gradients, even at the largest distances from the Sun, and no evidence for ultrared matter. Consistent with earlier work, ultrared surfaces are common in the Kuiper belt and on the Centaurs, but not in other small body populations, suggesting that this material is hidden or destroyed upon entry to the inner solarsystem. The onset of activity in the Centaurs and the disappearance of the ultrared matter in this population begin at about the same perihelion distance (∼10 AU), suggesting that the two are related. Blanketing of primordial surface materials by the fallback of sub-orbital ejecta, for which we calculate a very short timescale, is the likely mechanism. The same process should operate on any mass-losing body, explaining the absence of ultrared surface material in the entire comet population.

We have observed C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS), a recently discovered object on a cometary orbit coming from the Oort cloud that is physically similar to an inner main belt rocky S-type asteroid. Recent dynamical models successfully reproduce the key characteristics of our current solarsystem; some of these models require significant migration of the giant planets, whereas others do not. These models provide different predictions on the presence of rocky material expelled from the inner solarsystem in the Oort cloud. C/2014 S3 could be the key to verifying these predictions of the migration-based dynamical models. Furthermore, this object displays a very faint, weak level of comet-like activity, five to six orders of magnitude less than that of typical ice-rich comets on similar Orbits coming from the Oort cloud. For the nearly tailless appearance, we are calling C/2014 S3 a Manx object. Various arguments convince us that this activity is produced by sublimation of volatile ice, that is, normal cometary activity. The activity implies that C/2014 S3 has retained a tiny fraction of the water that is expected to be present at its formation distance in the inner solarsystem. We may be looking at fresh inner solarsystem Earth-forming material that was ejected from the inner solarsystem and preserved for billions of years in the Oort cloud.

Full Text Available Asteroid 1983 SA, well known as 3552 Don Quixote, is one of Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs which is the most probable candidate for the cometary origin, or otherwise as Jupiter-Family-Comets (JFCs. The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of 3552 Don Quixote to be ejected from the SolarSystem. This paper presents an orbital evolution of 100 hypothetical asteroids generated by cloning 3552 Don Quixote. Investigation of its orbital evolution is conducted by using the SWIFT subroutine package, where the gravitational perturbations of eight major planets in the SolarSystem are considered. Over very short time scales (220 kyr relative to the SolarSystem life time (10 Gyr, the asteroid 3552 Don Quixote gave an example of chaotic motion that can cause asteroid to move outward and may be followed by escaping from the SolarSystem. Probability of ejection within the 220 kyr time scale is 50%.

Humans have always had the vision to one day live on other planets. This vision existed even before the first person was put into orbit. Since the early space missions of putting humans into orbit around Earth, many advances have been made in space technology. We have now sent many space probes deep into the Solarsystem to explore the planets and…

Humans have always had the vision to one day live on other planets. This vision existed even before the first person was put into orbit. Since the early space missions of putting humans into orbit around Earth, many advances have been made in space technology. We have now sent many space probes deep into the Solarsystem to explore the planets and…

Since 2006, the details of bodies making up our solarsystem have been revised. This was largely as a result of new discoveries of a number of planet-like objects beyond the orbit of Pluto. The International Astronomical Union redefined what constituted a planet and established two new classifications--dwarf planets and plutoids. As a result, the…

Since 2006, the details of bodies making up our solarsystem have been revised. This was largely as a result of new discoveries of a number of planet-like objects beyond the orbit of Pluto. The International Astronomical Union redefined what constituted a planet and established two new classifications--dwarf planets and plutoids. As a result, the…

During the last few years our knowledge about the X-ray emission from bodies within the solarsystem has significantly improved. Several new solarsystem objects are now known to shine in X-rays at energies below 2 keV. Apart from the Sun, the known X-ray emitters now include planets (Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn), planetary satellites (Moon, Io, Europa, and Ganymede), all active comets, the Io plasma torus (IPT), the rings of Saturn, the coronae (exospheres) of Earth and Mars, and the heliosphere. The advent of higher-resolution X-ray spectroscopy with the Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories has been of great benefit in advancing the field of planetary X-ray astronomy. Progress in modeling X-ray emission, laboratory studies of X-ray production, and theoretical calculations of cross-sections, have all contributed to our understanding of processes that produce X-rays from the solarsystem bodies. At Jupiter and Earth, both auroral and non-auroral disk X-ray emissions have been observed. X-ray...

Asteroids and comets are remnants from the era of SolarSystem formation over 4.5 billion years ago, and therefore allow us to address two fundamental questions in astronomy: what was the nature of our protoplanetary disk, and how did the process of planetary accretion occur? The objects we see today have suffered many geophysically-relevant processes in the intervening eons that have altered their surfaces, interiors, and compositions. In this chapter we review our understanding of the origins and evolution of these bodies, discuss the wealth of science returned from spacecraft missions, and motivate important questions to be addressed in the future.

We study the characteristics of a series of disturbances observed on February 10--11, 1982 by the plasma analyzer and the magnetometer on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) obtained in the solar wind upstream of Venus. We conclude that the events were associated with the propagation of a solar wind disturbance of coronal origin and not with an encounter with a comet or other local outgassing object (Russell et al., 1983). The plasma analyzer spectra clearly show the presence of increases in He/sup + +/ and they argue strongly against Russell et al.'s interpretation. The peak in magnetic field magnitude on February 11 is identified as the magnetic signature of a thin, trailing ''filament'' at the end of a series of solar initiated events. Corresponding increases in He/sup + +/ and magnetic field fluctuations were observed near earth by ISEE-3 about a day later, and this strongly supports the concept of a solar origin.

In Robotic Exploration of the SolarSystem, Paolo Ulivi and David Harland provide a comprehensive account of the design and managment of deep-space missions, the spacecraft involved - some flown, others not - their instruments, and their scientific results. This third volume in the series covers launches in the period 1997 to 2003 and features: - a chapter entirely devoted to the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn; - coverage of planetary missions of the period, including the Deep Space 1 mission and the Stardust and Hayabusa sample returns from comets and asteroids; - extensive coverage of Mars exploration, the failed 1999 missions, Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the twin rovers Spirit and Opportunity. The story will continue in Part 4.

The aim of the chapter is to summarize our understanding of the compositional distribution across the different reservoirs of small bodies (main belt asteroids, giant planet trojans, irregular satellites of the giant planets, TNOs, comets). We then use this information to i) discuss current dynamical models (Nice and Grand Tack models), ii) mention possible caveats in these models if any, and iii) draw a preliminary version of the primordial compositional gradient across the solarsystem before planetary migrations occured. Note that the composition of both planetary satellites (the regular ones) and that of the transient populations (NEOs, centaurs) is not discussed here. We strictly focus on the composition of the main reservoirs of small bodies. The manuscript's objective is to provide a global and synthetic view of small bodies' compositions rather than a very detailed one, for specific reviews regarding the composition of small bodies, see papers by Burbine (2014) for asteroids, Emery et al. (2015) for J...

We review the reservoirs of methane clathrates that may exist in the different bodies of the SolarSystem. Methane was formed in the interstellar medium prior to having been embedded in the protosolar nebula gas phase. This molecule was subsequently trapped in clathrates that formed from crystalline water ice during the cooling of the disk and incorporated in this form in the building blocks of comets, icy bodies, and giant planets. Methane clathrates may play an important role in the evolution of planetary atmospheres. On Earth, the production of methane in clathrates is essentially biological, and these compounds are mostly found in permafrost regions or in the sediments of continental shelves. On Mars, methane would more likely derive from hydrothermal reactions with olivine-rich material. If they do exist, martian methane clathrates would be stable only at depth in the cryosphere and sporadically release some methane into the atmosphere via mechanisms that remain to be determined.

The measurements of the Doppler shifts of the Fraunhofer lines, scattered by the dust grains in the solar F-corona, provides the insight on the velocity field of the dust and hence on its origin. We report on such measurements obtained during the total eclipse of March 29, 2006. We used a Fabry-P\\'erot interferometer with the FOV of 5.9 degrees and the spectral resolution of about 5000 to record Fraunhofer spectral lines scattered by the dust of the F-Corona. The spectral region was centered on the MgI 5172.69 A line. The measured line-on-sight velocities with the amplitude in the range from -10 to 10 km/s show that during our observations the dust grains were on the orbit with a retrograde motion in a plane nearly perpendicular to the ecliptics. This indicates their cometary origin. Indeed, at the end of March, 2006, SOHO recorded several sungrazing comets with the orbital elements close to what was deduced from our measurements. We conclude that the contribution of comets to the dust content in the region c...

An overview is given of spacecraft observations of plasma waves in the solarsystem. In situ measurements of plasma phenomena have now been obtained at all of the planets except Mercury and Pluto, and in the interplanetary medium at heliocentric radial distances ranging from 0.29 to 58 AU. To illustrate the range of phenomena involved, we discuss plasma waves in three regions of physical interest: (1) planetary radiation belts, (2) planetary auroral acceleration regions and (3) the solar wind. In each region we describe examples of plasma waves that are of some importance, either due to the role they play in determining the physical properties of the plasma, or to the unique mechanism involved in their generation.

Full Text Available Introduction: Drug delivery systems could induce cellular toxicity as side effect of nanomaterials. The mechanism of toxicity usually involves DNA damage. The comet assay or single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE is a sensitive method for detecting strand damages in the DNA of a cell with applications in genotoxicity testing and molecular epidemiology as well as fundamental research in DNA damage and repair. Methods: In the current study, we reviewed recent drug delivery researches related to SCGE. Results: We found that one preference for choosing the assay is that comet images may result from apoptosis-mediated nuclear fragmentation. This method has been widely used over the last decade in several different areas. Overall cells, such as cultured cells are embedded in agarose on a microscope slide, lysed with detergent, and treated with high salt. Nucleoids are supercoiled DNA form. When the slide is faced to alkaline electrophoresis any breakages present in the DNA cause the supercoiling to relax locally and loops of DNA extend toward the anode as a ‘‘comet tail’’. Conclusion: This article provides a relatively comprehensive review upon potentiality of the comet assay for assessment of DNA damage and accordingly it can be used as an informative platform in genotoxicity studies of drug delivery systems.

We propose to measure the dust and organics of an unknown bright comet or comet outburst with this CY3 Target-of-Opportunity (ToO) proposal. A 5-27 micron spectrum coupled with 11, 19, and 31 micron dual-band photometry of a ToO bright comet with FORCAST will address our two primary goals: 1) characterize the coma dust mineralogy; and 2) identify organics in the critical 5-8 micron region. The crystalline fraction of comet dust has become a benchmark for models of heating and radial transport in our protoplanetary disk. In addition, by measuring the wavelengths, relative intensities, and feature asymmetries of crystalline peaks at 11.2, 19, and 23.5, 27.5, and 33 micron, the shapes of forsterite crystals can be constrained and their condensation temperatures inferred by comparison with theoretical and experimental data. Observations of cometary organics probe the unknown precursor materials that were transformed by heat into 'macromolecular carbon' found ubiquitously in carbonaceous chondrite samples from primitive asteroids. Thermal models fitted to FORCAST observations of a bright ToO comet determine the dust properties and the comet's dust properties links to the physical and chemical conditions in the solar nebula, and help to fulfill the SOFIA Science Case for Evolution of Our SolarSystem. We define a CY3 ToO bright comet as an unpredictable cometary outburst event or a comet discovered after the CY3 submission deadline that produces a comet with an integrated brightness of Veye within 2 months of discovery. FORCAST 5--31.5 micron observations of a bright comet will enable the study of dust mineral compositions and organic materials, will enable the search for controversial species including PAHs, phyllosilicates and carbonates, and will add to 17 comets with model-constrained silicate crystalline fractions.

Presents a contemporary picture of the solarsystem, including a description of the Earth, Mars, Venus, cratered worlds, exotic rocks and ices, and giant planets. It is pitched at an introductory level and assumes no previous knowledge of planetary astronomy. Little mathematics is used in the text and the numerous graphs and diagrams are kept as simple as possible. End of chapter exercises are provided. The book can be used as an end in itself, or as a preparation for more advanced study, for which references are given.

Comets are remnants from the early solarsystem that retain the volatiles (ices) from the cold outer proto-planetary disk (beyond 5 AU) where they formed. Comet nuclei were among the first objects to accrete in the early solar nebula and many of them were subsequently incorporated into the growing giant planets. Gravitational scattering redistributed the remaining comet population by either sending them to the inner solarsystem, where they may have enriched the early biosphere, or scattering them into their present-day dynamical reservoirs. Since this early time, comets have been orbiting the Sun relatively untouched by processing mechanisms, until their orbits are perturbed towards the inner solarsystem. As such, they are believed to be among the most primitive objects in the solarsystem and may be representative of the material from which the solarsystem formed. Of particular interest is their icy volatile composition since other solarsystem objects have either lost or have had significant modifications to their volatile compositions since their formation. Many of the volatiles observed in comets are also important prebiotic species. For example, H2CO is a chemical precursor to sugars and HCN and NH3 are precursors of amino acids. Studying comets is therefore a vital link to understanding the origin and evolution of our planetary system and life on Earth. We obtained high-resolution, near-infrared spectroscopic observations of Comet C/2007 N3 (Lulin) on 30 January - 1 February 2009 with NIRSPEC on Keck II. Lulin is an Oort Cloud comet with a very large aphelion distance, suggesting that it may have been dynamically new. We report production rates of H2O, C2H6, HCN, C2H2, CH4, NH3, H2CO, CH3OH, and CO. We also report two cosmogonic parameters: D/H ratio in H2O and CH4, and isomeric spin temperatures. The implications for comet formations scenarios are discussed.

Comets have been invoked in numerous studies as a potentially important source of dust and gas around stars, but none has studied the thermo-physical evolution, out-gassing rate, and dust ejection of these objects in such stellar systems. In this paper we investigate the thermo-physical evolution of comets in exo-planetary systems in order to provide valuable theoretical data required to interpret observations of gas and dust. We use a quasi-3D model of cometary nucleus to study the thermo-physical evolution of comets evolving around a single star from 0.1 to 50 AU, whose homogeneous luminosity varies from 0.1 to 70L⊙. This paper provides thermal evolution, physical alteration, mass ejection, lifetimes, and the rate of dust and water gas mass productions for comets as a function of the distance to the star and stellar luminosity. Results show significant physical changes to comets at high stellar luminosities. The mass loss per revolution and the lifetime of comets depend on their initial size, orbital parameters and follow a power law with stellar luminosity. The models are presented in such a manner that they can be readily applied to any planetary system. By considering the examples of the SolarSystem, Vega and HD 69830, we show that dust grains released from sublimating comets have the potential to create the observed (exo)zodiacal emission. We show that observations can be reproduced by 1 to 2 massive comets or by a large number of comets whose orbits approach close to the star. Our conclusions depend on the stellar luminosity and the uncertain lifetime of the dust grains. We find, as in previous studies, that exozodiacal dust disks can only survive if replenished by a population of typically sized comets renewed from a large and cold reservoir of cometary bodies beyond the water ice line. These comets could reach the inner regions of the planetary system following scattering by a (giant) planet.

Control of Solar Energy Systems details the main solar energy systems, problems involved with their control, and how control systems can help in increasing their efficiency. After a brief introduction to the fundamental concepts associated with the use of solar energy in both photovoltaic and thermal plants, specific issues related to control of solarsystems are embarked upon. Thermal energy systems are then explored in depth, as well as other solar energy applications such as solar furnaces and solar refrigeration systems. Problems of variable generation profile and of the contribution of many solar plants to the same grid system are considered with the necessary integrated and supervisory control solutions being discussed. The text includes material on: · A comparison of basic and advanced control methods for parabolic troughs from PID to nonlinear model-based control; · solar towers and solar tracking; · heliostat calibration, characterization and off...

A "waypoints" concept is given that eliminates the impact of launch delays for missions to study transient celestial events e.g., comets/asteroids reaching the inner solarsystem for the first apparition.

This artist's concept illustrates two planetary systems -- 55 Cancri (top) and our own. Blue lines show the orbits of planets, including the dwarf planet Pluto in our solarsystem. The 55 Cancri system is currently the closest known analogue to our solarsystem, yet there are some fundamental differences. The similarities begin with the stars themselves, which are about the same mass and age. Both stars also host big families of planets. Our solarsystem has eight planets, while 55 Cancri has five, making it the record-holder for having the most known exoplanets. In fact, 55 Cancri could have additional planets, possibly even rocky ones that are too small to be seen with current technologies. All of the planets in the two systems have nearly circular orbits. In addition, both planetary systems have giant planets in their outer regions. The giant located far away from 55 Cancri is four times the mass of our Jupiter, and completes one orbit every 14 years at a distance of five times that between Earth and the sun (about 868 million kilometers or 539 million miles). Our Jupiter completes one orbit around the sun every 11.9 years, also at about five times the Earth-sun distance (778 million kilometers or 483 million miles). Fifty-five Cancri is still the only known star besides ours with a planet in a distant Jupiter-like orbit. Both systems also contain inner planets that are less massive than their outer planets. The differences begin with the planets' masses. The planets orbiting 55 Cancri are all larger than Earth, and represent a 'souped-up' version of our own solarsystem. In fact, this is the first star that boasts more giant planets than our sun! The arrangement of the planetary systems is also different. The inner four planets of 55 Cancri are all closer to the star than Earth is to the sun. The closest, about the mass of Uranus, whips around the star in just under three days at a distance of approximately 5.6 million kilometers (3.5 million miles). The second

High-resolution spectroscopy in the near-infrared spectral range is a powerful tool to investigate chemical composition and isotopic fractionation.Comets are the best preserved relic of the enfant stages of the solarsystem. By targeting biologically relevant species in cometary comae and retrieving isotopic (e.g. D/H) and spin isomeric (e.g., ortho- and para- water) ratios, we can study the formation and evolution of solarsystem matter, address the origin of Earth's oceans and characterize the delivery of organic matter that was essential for the appearance of life on early Earth. We initiated the first high resolution spectral survey of comets ever conducted in the 0.9-2.5 μm range, targeting C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy), C/2013 US10 (Catalina) and C/2013 X1 (Panstarrs) with GIANO - the near-IR high resolution spectrograph on Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG). In comet Lovejoy, we detected eight ro-vibrational bands of H2O (Faggi et al., 2016, ApJ in press), emission from the red-system of CN, and many other emission lines whose precursors are now being identified. In this talk we will present a new quantum mechanical solar fluorescence model for the CN red system and the retrievals obtained with it from our cometary spectra. These observations open new pathways for cometary science in the near-infrared spectral range (0.9-2.5 μm) and establish the feasibility of astrobiology-related scientific investigations with future high resolution IR spectrographs on 30-m class telescopes, e.g., the HIRES spectrograph on the E-ELT telescope. This work is part of Sara Faggi's Ph.D. thesis project. NASA's Planetary Astronomy Program supported GLV and MJM through funding awarded under proposal 11-PAST11-0045 (M. J. Mumma, PI ).

When comet nuclei approach the Sun, the increasing energy flux through the surface layers leads to sublimation of the underlying ices and subsequent outgassing that promotes the observed emission of gas and dust. The ejection of dust requires that the forces binding the dust particles to the comet nucleus must be overcome by the forces caused by the sublimation process. This relates to the question of how large the tensile strength of the overlying dust layer is. Homogeneous layers of micrometer-sized dust particles reach tensile strengths of typically $10^3$ to $10^4$ Pa. This exceeds by far the maximum sublimation pressure of water ice in comets. It is therefore unclear how cometary dust activity is driven. To solve this paradox, we used the model by Skorov and Blum (Icarus 221, 1-11, 2012), who assumed that cometesimals formed by gravitational instability of a cloud of dust and ice aggregates and calculated for the corresponding structure of comet nuclei tensile strength of the dust-aggregate layers on the...

Active solarsystems for air heating are a straightforward yet efficient way of using solar energy to heat spaces, ventilation air and even domestic hot water. They offer important advantages over solar water systems, improved comfort and fuller use of solar gains compared with many passive solarsystems and are a natural fit with mechanically ventilated buildings. Solar air systems become more economical when they serve multiple functions such as providing a sound barrier, a weatherskin, sunshading, inducing cooling and even electricity supply (hybrid PV/air). Thirty-five different buildings with successfully installed exemplary solar air systems in climates ranging from Canada and Norway to Italy are described and documented. The building types cover single family houses, apartment buildings, schools, sports halls, and industrial commercial buildings with six different configurations of solar air systems used. Each building is described over several pages, with plans, performance details and illustrations provided. An accompanying product catalogue identifies suppliers of the necessary equipment and offers advice on product selection. As well as giving architects and designers invaluable advice based on the experience from these projects, this book also illustrates clearly the wide range of applications and the many benefits of solar air systems. (author)

On 28 November 2013, comet C/2012 S1 better known as comet ISON should have passed within two solar radii of the Suns surface as it reached perihelion in its orbit. But instead of shining in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths as it grazed the solar surface, the comet was never detected by EUV instruments. What happened to comet ISON?Missing EmissionWhen a sungrazing comet passes through the solar corona, it leaves behind a trail of molecules evaporated from its surface. Some of these molecules emit EUV light, which can be detected by instruments on telescopes like the space-based Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO).Comet ISON, a comet that arrived from deep space and was predicted to graze the Suns corona in November 2013, was expected to cause EUV emission during its close passage. But analysis of the data from multiple telescopes that tracked ISON in EUV including SDO reveals no sign of it at perihelion.In a recent study, Paul Bryans and DeanPesnell, scientists from NCARs High Altitude Observatory and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, try to determine why ISON didnt display this expected emission.Comparing ISON and LovejoyIn December 2011, another comet dipped into the Suns corona: comet Lovejoy. This image, showingthe orbit Lovejoy took around the Sun, is a composite of SDO images of the pre- and post-perihelion phases of the orbit. Click for a closer look! The dashed part of the curve represents where Lovejoy passed out of view behind the Sun. [Bryans Pesnell 2016]This is not the first time weve watched a sungrazing comet with EUV-detecting telescopes: Comet Lovejoy passed similarly close to the Sun in December 2011. But when Lovejoy grazed the solar corona, it emitted brightly in EUV. So why didnt ISON? Bryans and Pesnell argue that there are two possibilities:the coronal conditions experienced by the two comets were not similar, orthe two comets themselves were not similar.To establish which factor is the most relevant, the authors first demonstrate that both

One of the most important successes in astronomical observations has been to determine the limit of the SolarSystem. It is said that the first man able to measure the distance Earth-Sun with only a very slight mistake, in the second century BC, was the wise Greek man Aristarco de Samos. Thanks to Newtońs law of universal gravitation, it was possible to measure, with a little margin of error, the distances between the Sun and the planets. Twelve-year old students are very interested in everything related to the universe. However, it seems too difficult to imagine and understand the real distances among the different celestial bodies. To learn the differences among the inner and outer planets and how far away the outer ones are, I have considered to make my pupils work on the sizes and the distances in our solarsystem constructing it to scale. The purpose is to reproduce our solarsystem to scale on a cardboard. The procedure is very easy and simple. Students of first year of ESO (12 year-old) receive the instructions in a sheet of paper (things they need: a black cardboard, a pair of scissors, colored pencils, a ruler, adhesive tape, glue, the photocopies of the planets and satellites, the measurements they have to use). In another photocopy they get the pictures of the edge of the sun, the planets, dwarf planets and some satellites, which they have to color, cut and stick on the cardboard. This activity is planned for both Spanish and bilingual learning students as a science project. Depending on the group, they will receive these instructions in Spanish or in English. When the time is over, the students bring their works on their cardboard to the class. They obtain a final mark: passing, good or excellent, depending on the accuracy of the measurements, the position of all the celestial bodies, the asteroids belts, personal contributions, etc. If any of the students has not followed the instructions they get the chance to remake it again properly, in order not

Almost ten years after its launch and after 6000 million kilometers, the spacecraft Rosetta reached its destination orbit about 20 kilometers Comet 67P / Churyumov-Gerasimenko and make down to its surface to Philae module. With this initiative, the European Space Agency aims who know better how the solarsystem was in its origins, with the information it has collected and will collect this celestial body remains almost unchanged since billions of years. The probe continues its journey. (Author)

TRAPPIST (TRAnsiting Planets and PlanetesImals Small Telescope) is a 60-cm robotic telescope that has been installed in June 2010 at the ESO La Silla Observatory [1]. Operated from Liège (Belgium) it is devoted to the detection and characterisation of exoplanets and to the study of comets and other small bodies in the SolarSystem. We describe here the hardware and the goals of the project and give an overview of the comet production rates monitoring after three years of operations. The telescope and observatory --- TRAPPIST's optical tube unit is a Ritchey-Chretien 0.6 meter telescope with a focal length of 4.8 meter. It is associated with a German equatorial mount that is, thanks to its direct drive system, extremely fast (up to 50 deg/s), accurate (tracking accuracy without autoguider better than 2'' in 10 min), and free of periodic error. The instrument is a Peltier cooled commercial camera equipped with a Fairchild 3041 back-illuminated 2k×2k chip. The pixel scale is 0.64''/pixel. Three read-out modes are available, the shortest read-out time being 2s. The total field of view of the camera is 22'×22'. It is associated to a custom-made dual filter wheel. One of the filter wheel contains broad band filters (Johnson B, V, R, Cousins Ic, Sloan z, and a special I+z filter), while the other contains the narrow-band NASA HB cometary filters (OH, NH, CN, CO+, C3, and C2 gaseous species; UC, BC, GC and RC solar continuum windows and a NaI D filter) [2]. The telescope is protected by a 5 meter diameter dome that was totally refurbished and automatized. The observatory is fully robotic and equipped with a weather station, an UPS and webcams. The la Silla site is excellent with more than 300 clear nights per year and the telescope has proven to be very reliable with a small amount of technical downtime. Comet monitoring --- For relatively bright comets (V alert is given and can bring important information on the nature of comets. In addition to providing the

"Right now, solar electric propulsion is being looked at very seriously," says Michael Piszczor, chief of the photovoltaic and power technologies branch at Glen Research Center. The reason, he explains, originates with a unique NASA mission from the late 1990s. In 1998, the Deep Space 1 spacecraft launched from Kennedy Space Center to test a dozen different space technologies, including SCARLET, or the Solar Concentrator Array with Refractive Linear Element Technology. As a solar array that focused sunlight on a smaller solar cell to generate electric power, SCARLET not only powered Deep Space 1 s instruments but also powered its ion engine, which propelled the spacecraft throughout its journey. Deep Space 1 was the first spacecraft powered by a refractive concentrator design like SCARLET, and also utilized multi-junction solar cells, or cells made of multiple layers of different materials. For the duration of its 38-month mission, SCARLET performed flawlessly, even as Deep Space 1 flew by Comet Borrelly and Asteroid Braille. "Everyone remembers the ion engine on Deep Space 1, but they tend to forget that the SCARLET array powered it," says Piszczor. "Not only did both technologies work as designed, but the synergy between the two, solar power and propulsion together, is really the important aspect of this technology demonstration mission. It was the first successful use of solar electric propulsion for primary propulsion." More than a decade later, NASA is keenly interested in using solar electric propulsion (SEP) for future space missions. A key issue is cost, and SEP has the potential to substantially reduce cost compared to conventional chemical propulsion technology. "SEP allows you to use spacecraft that are smaller, lighter, and less costly," says Piszczor. "Even though it might take longer to get somewhere using SEP, if you are willing to trade time for cost and smaller vehicles, it s a good trade." Potentially, SEP could be used on future science missions

Comets are rich in volatile materials, of which roughly 80% (by number) are water molecules. Considerable progress is being made in identifying the other volatile species, the abundances of which should enable us to determine whether comets formed primarily from ice-covered interstellar grains, or from material that was chemically processed in the early solar nebula. Here we report the detection of acetylene (C2H2) in the infrared spectrum of comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake). The estimated abundance is 0.3-0.9%, relative to water, which is comparable to the predicted solid-phase abundance in cold interstellar clouds. This suggests that the volatiles in comet Hyakotake may have come from ice-covered interstellar grains, rather than material processed in the accretion disk out of which the SolarSystem formed.

Comet D/1770 L1 (Lexell) made the closest observed pass by a comet to the Earth at approximately 0.015 AU on 1 July 1770. A naked-eye object observed by many astronomers of the time, it was subsequently lost: the best contemporary estimates had it removed from its 1770 orbit by Jupiter in 1779 and sent to the outer SolarSystem.Near-Earth asteroid 2010 JL33 has an orbit similar to that followed by Lexell's comet during its observed apparition. However, this NEA's nominal orbit, which is well-known on the basis of a decade-long arc which includes radar observations, does not approach the Earth at the correct time to be Lexell's comet. That is, unless modest non-gravitational forces are applied, in which case the famous near-miss can be reproduced.Modern measurements of 2010 JL33 together with those Lexell's comet made in the 18th century -which include motion exceeding 40 degrees per day on the sky at closest approach- provide exquisite constraints on the dynamical processes at work, cometary, Yarkovsky or other. I will discuss the implications of and the conditions required for asteroid 2010 JL33 to be, in fact, long-lost comet Lexell.

This Instructor's Guide for a Solar Heating System Curriculum is designed to accompany the Student Manual and the Progress Checks and Test Manual for the course (see note), in order to facilitate the instruction of classes on solar heating systems. The Instructor's Guide contains a variety of materials used in teaching the courses, including…

This Student Manual for a Solar Heating System curriculum contains 22 units of instructional materials for students to use in a course or courses on solar heating systems (see note). For each unit (task), objectives, assignment sheets, laboratory assignments, information sheets, checkpoints (tests), and job sheets are provided. Materials are set…

As an astronomy instructor I am always looking for commonly experienced Earthly phenomena to help my students and me understand and appreciate similar occurrences elsewhere in the solarsystem. Recently I wrote short "TPT" articles on frost and precipitation. The present article is on winds in the solarsystem. A windy day or storm might…

As an astronomy instructor I am always looking for commonly experienced Earthly phenomena to help my students and me understand and appreciate similar occurrences elsewhere in the solarsystem. Recently I wrote short "TPT" articles on frost and precipitation. The present article is on winds in the solarsystem. A windy day or storm might motivate…

As an astronomy instructor I am always looking for commonly experienced Earthly phenomena to help my students and me understand and appreciate similar occurrences elsewhere in the solarsystem. Recently I wrote short "TPT" articles on frost and precipitation. The present article is on winds in the solarsystem. A windy day or storm might…

Asteroids and comets are surviving members of the vast planetesimal population that was distributed across the early solarsystem. They appear to be a diverse set of bodies but we present evidence from comet samples that the body-to-body diversity of the initial rocky component mix in planetesimals may have declined with distance from the Sun. Laboratory measurements of the minor element Mn in olivine collected from Comet Wild 2 suggests that the micron-sized rocky crystalline contents of this comet formed in numerous inner solarsystem environments. The results are consistent with a scenario where silicates such as olivine form at incandescent temperatures in multiple environments and then mix as they are transported to distant cold regions where silicates could accrete with ice and organics to form comets. Accreting far from silicate formation regions, many ice-rich planetesimals are likely to have started with similar complex mixtures of diverse rocky components formed in various high-temperature environments. This contrasts with asteroidal meteorite parent bodies whose silicates retain regional properties that give different chondrite classes their distinctive properties.

This paper describes the potential role of an evolutionary family of advanced space nuclear power systems (solid core reactor, gas core reactor, and thermonulcear fusion systems) in the detailed exploration of SolarSystemcomets and in the use of interstellar comes to support migratory journeys to the stars by both human beings and their smart robot systems. 14 refs., 5 figs., 2 tabs.

The Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) is best known for its contributions to the science of extragalactic transients. However, the same large-area observations of the sky that yield detections of extragalactic transients can also be used to characterize, and discover, solarsystem objects. In this talk I will review the work of the PTF collaboration in the area of solarsystem science, in particular observations of asteroids and comets. Specific topics that will be covered include: characterization of asteroid rotation periods through observation of their synoptic light curves, transient activity of comets, and detection of small (less than 20 meter!) near-earth asteroids. Several of the investigations undertaken using PTF are prototypes of those that will be possible using the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) which will have 10-20 times more capability for observations of solarsystem objects. ZTF will become operational later in 2017.

The Gaia ESA space mission will provide astrometric observations of a large number of celestial bodies, with unprecedented accuracy, and in an homogenous reference frame (to become the optical ICRF). The Gaia satellite is monitoring regularly the whole celestial sphere, with one complete scan in about 6month, down to approximately magnitude V≤20.7. It will provide after its nominal lifetime, (5 years, 2014-2019) about 70 astrometric points for several hundred thousands of solarsystem objects, asteroids from the Near-Earth region to Centaurs and bright TNOs, as well as planetary satellites and comets. The highly precise astrometric and photometric data is bound to lead to huge advances in the science of small Small SolarSystem Bodies (e.g. Tanga et al. 2016 P\\&SS, Hestroffer et al. 2014 COSPAR #40 ; Mignard et al. 2007 EMP).The first Gaia data release (GDR#1) is foreseen for Q3-2016 and will provide highly precise positions of selected stars down to mag V≈20. While solarsystem objets data is foreseen for the next data release (in 2017), science of SolarSystem will also highly benefit from the Gaia stellar catalogue. We will present the status of the satellite and Gaia mission, and details on the stellar data that will be published in this GDR#1. We discuss the catalogue content, number of stars, parameters and precisions, and the process of cross-matching and validation. We also touch upon the construction of combined Tycho-Gaia TGAS catalogue.A Gaia data daily processing is devoted to the identification of SolarSystem Objects. During this process the detection of new (or critical) objects arises and leads to the triggering of scientific alerts to be found on the web gaiafunsso.imcce.fr. We have also set up an international follow-up network called Gaia-FUN-SSO to validate the detection in space. For this goal, in case of detection the observational data must be sent to the MPC by the observers. Besides, Gaia should benefit for the classical astrometric

We investigate the relationship among the angular orbital elements --- the longitude of the ascending node, Omega, the inclination, i, and the argument of perihelion, omega --- of dwarf sungrazing comets of the Kreutz system, whose catalogued orbits were derived using a parabolic gravitational approximation. While in a plot of omega against Omega the major and dwarf sungrazers follow a similar law, in a plot of i against Omega they behave differently. The major sungrazers fit a curve of invariable (reference) apsidal orientation, whereas the dwarf comets lie along a curve that makes with it 15 deg. While the perihelion longitude of dwarf sungrazers is statistically constant, the perihelion latitude increases systematically with Omega. A perturbation analysis indicates that this is due to an acceleration normal to the orbit plane. The culprit is neglect of an erosion-driven acceleration in the motions of the dwarf sungrazers, as illustrated by computing, for several test SOHO/STEREO sungrazers, orbital solutio...

Interplanetary dust pervades the inner SolarSystem, giving rise to a prominent glow above the horizon at sunrise and sunset known as the zodiacal light. This dust derives from the disintegration of comets as they approach the Sun and from collisions among main-belt asteroids. The Earth accretes roughly 4x10(exp 6) kg/year of 1 - 1,000 micron dust particles as they spiral into the Sun under the influence of Poynting-Robertson drag and solar wind drag. Samples of these grains have been collected from deep sea sediments, Antarctic ice and by high-altitude aircraft and balloon flights. Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) collected in the stratosphere have been classified by their IR spectra into olivine, pyroxene, and hydrated silicate-dominated classes. Most IDPs have bulk major and minor element abundances that are similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Hydrated silicate-rich IDPs are thought to derive from asteroids based on their mineralogy and low atmospheric entry velocities estimated from peak temperatures reached during atmospheric entry. Anhydrous IDPs are typically aggregates of 0.1 - approx. 1 micron Mg-rich olivine and pyroxene, amorphous silicates (GEMS), Fe, Nisulfides and rare spinel and oxides bound together by carbonaceous material. These IDPs are often argued to derive from comets based on compositional similarities and high atmospheric entry velocities that imply high eccentricity orbits. Infrared spectra obtained from anhydrous IDPs closely match remote IR spectra obtained from comets. The most primitive (anhydrous) IDPs appear to have escaped the parent-body thermal and aqueous alteration that has affected meteorites. These samples thus consist entirely of grains that formed in the ancient solar nebula and pre-solar interstellar and circumstellar environments. Isotopic studies of IDPs have identified silicate stardust grains that formed in the outflows of red giant and asymptotic giant branch stars and supernovae]. These stardust grains

The second edition of SolarSystem Astrophysics: Background Science and the Inner SolarSystem provides new insights into the burgeoning field of planetary astronomy. As in the first edition, this volume begins with a rigorous treatment of coordinate frames, basic positional astronomy, and the celestial mechanics of two and restricted three body system problems. Perturbations are treated in the same way, with clear step-by-step derivations. Then the Earth’s gravitational potential field and the Earth-Moon system are discussed, and the exposition turns to radiation properties with a chapter on the Sun. The exposition of the physical properties of the Moon and the terrestrial planets are greatly expanded, with much new information highlighted on the Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars. All of the material is presented within a framework of historical importance. This book and its sister volume, SolarSystem Astrophysics: Planetary Atmospheres and the Outer SolarSystem, are pedagogically well written, providing cl...

). However, it is still too early to draw conclusions on the design of solar combi systems. Among others, the following questions needs to be answered: Is an external domestic hot water preparation more desirable than an internal domestic hot water preparation? Is a stratification manifold always more...... desirable than a fixed inlet position? This paper presents experimental investigations of an advanced solar combi system with thermal stratification manifold inlets both in the solar collector loop and in the space heating system and with an external domestic hot water preparation. Theoretical...... investigations are carried out for different solar combi system types by means of the simulation program Trnsys (Klein et al., 1996) and the multiport store model (Drück, 2000) with input to the models determined by the experiments. The work is carried out within the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme...

Comets and asteroids have endured impacts from other solarsystem bodies that result in outcomes ranging from catastrophic collisions to regolith evolution due to micrometeorid bombardment of the surface ices and refactory components. Experiments designed to better understand these relics of solarsystem formation have been conducted on Earth in a laboratory setting, as well as in space through, e.g., the Deep Impact Mission to Comet Tempel 1. Deep Impact fired a high-speed impactor into the roughly 6 km nucleus of the comet. The ejecta plume generated by the impact was studied by both spacecraft instrumentation and groundbased telescopes.

investigations are carried out for different solar combi system types by means of the simulation program Trnsys (Klein et al., 1996) and the multiport store model (Drück, 2000) with input to the models determined by the experiments. The work is carried out within the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme...

A central issue for understanding the formation and evolution of matter in the early SolarSystem is the relationship between the chemical composition of star-forming interstellar clouds and that of primitive SolarSystem materials. The pristinemolecular content of comets, interplanetary dust particles and carbonaceous chondrites show significant bulk nitrogen isotopic fractionation relative to the solar value, 14N15N 440. In addition, high spatial resolution measurements in primitive materials locally show even more extreme enhancements of 14N15N 100.

Ices, organics and minerals recording the chemical evolution of the outer regions of the early solar nebula are the main constituents of comets. Because comets maintain the nearly pristine nature of the cloud where they formed, the analyses of their composition, structure, thermodynamics and isotope ratios will increase our understanding of the processes that occurred in the early phases of the solarsystem as well as the Interstellar Medium (ISM) Cloud that predated the formation of the solar nebula [1]. While the deep impact mission aimed at determining the internal structure of comet Temple1's nuclei [e.g. 3], the stardust mission sample return has dramatically increased our understanding of comets. Its first implications indicated that some of the comet material originated in the inner solarsystem and was later transported outward beyond the freezing line [4]. A wide range of organic compounds identified within different grains of the aerogel collectors has demonstrated the heterogeneity in their assemblages [5]. This suggests either many histories associated with these material or possibly analytical constraints imposed by capture heating of Wild2 material in silica aerogel. The current mission ROSETTA, will further expand our knowledge about comets considerably through rigorous in situ analyses of a Jupiter Family Comet (JFC). As the next generation of comet research post ROSETTA, we present the comet nuclei sample return mission IT - ROCKS (International Team - Return Of Comet's Key Samples) to return several minimally altered samples from various locations of comet 88P/Howell, a typical JFC. The mission scenario includes remote sensing of the comet's nucleus with onboard instruments similar to the ROSETTA instruments [6, 7, 8] (VIS, IR, Thermal IR, X-Ray, Radar) and gas/dust composition measurements including a plasma science package. Additionally two microprobes [9] will further investigate the physical properties of the comet's surface. Retrieving of the

During the last decade we have discovered sources of accessible water in some form nearly everywhere in the solarsystem. Water ice has been found on the planet Mercury; probably on the Earth`s Moon; on Mars; on near Earth objects; on comets whose orbits frequently come close to that of Earth`s orbit; probably on Ceres, the largest inner asteroid; and on comets previously and incorrectly considered to be out of practical reach. The comets also provide massive quantities of hydrocarbons, similar to oil shale. The masses of either water or hydrocarbons are measured in units of cubic kilometers. The water is key to space transportation because it can be used as a rocket propellant directly, and because thermal process alone can be used to convert it and hydrocarbons into hydrogen, the highest performing rocket propellant. This presentation outlines what is currently known about the locations of the water ice, and sketches the requirements and environments of missions to prospect for and assay the water sources.

In the present work we investigate the possible relationship of long-period comets with five large and distant trans-Neptunian bodies (Sedna, Eris, 2007 OR_{10}, 2012 VP_{113} and 2008 ST_{291}) in order to determine the probability of the transfer of a part of this kind of comets to the interior of the SolarSystem. To identify such relationships, we studied the relative positions of the comet orbits and listed TNOs. Using numerical integration methods, we have examined dynamical evolution of the comets and have found one encounter of comet C/1861J1 and Eris. The encounter was found at a distance of 0.0386 AU in the period of 2400 years before the comet discovery. Results are discussed.

A Solar Thermal Electricity generating system also known as Solar Thermal Power plant is an emerging renewable energy technology, where we generate the thermal energy by concentrating and converting the direct solar radiationat medium/high temperature (300∫C ñ 800∫C). The resulting thermal energy is then used in a thermodynamic cycleto produce electricity, by running a heat engine, which turns a generator to make electricity. Solar thermal power is currently paving the way for the most cost-effective solar technology on a large scale and is heading to establish a cleaner, pollution free and secured future. Photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal technologies are two main ways of generating energy from the sun, which is considered the inexhaustible source of energy. PV converts sunlight directly into electricity whereas in Solar thermal technology, heat from the sun's rays is concentrated to heat a fluid, whose steam powers a generator that produces electricity. It is similar to the way fossil fuel-burning power plants work except that the steam is produced by the collected heat rather than from the combustion of fossil fuels. In order to generate electricity, five major varieties of solar thermal technologies used are:* Parabolic Trough Solar Electric Generating System (SEGS).* Central Receiver Power Plant.* Solar Chimney Power Plant.* Dish Sterling System.* Solar Pond Power Plant.Most parts of India,Asia experiences a clear sunny weather for about 250 to 300 days a year, because of its location in the equatorial sun belt of the earth, receiving fairly large amount of radiation as compared to many parts of the world especially Japan, Europe and the US where development and deployment of solar technologies is maximum.Whether accompanied with this benefit or not, usually we have to concentrate the solar radiation in order to compensate for the attenuation of solar radiation in its way to earthís surface, which results in from 63,2 GW/m2 at the Sun to 1 kW/m2 at

A global analysis of the ro-vibrational spectra of 19 bands in the comet-tail (A2Пi-X2Σ+) system of the 12C16O+cation is presented,and the precise molecular constants of the vibrational levels involved are obtained via a weighted nonlinear least-squares fitting procedure.Furthermore,the resultant precise equilibrium molecular constants enable us to achieve accurate Rydberg-Klein-Rees (RKR) potential curves for both the A and X states,yielding the accurate FranckCondon factor and band origin of each band in this system.

We study the influence of outer solarsystem architecture on the structural evolution of the Oort Cloud (OC) and the flux of Earth-crossing comets. In particular, we seek to quantify the role of the giant planets as ''planetary protectors''. To do so, we have run simulations in each of four different planetary mass configurations to understand the significance of each of the giant planets. Because the outer planets modify the structure of the OC throughout its formation, we integrate each simulation over the full age of the solarsystem. Over this time, we follow the evolution of cometary orbits from their starting point in the protoplanetary disk to their injection into the OC to their possible re-entry into the inner planetary region. We find that the overall structure of the OC, including the location of boundaries and the relative number of comets in the inner and outer parts, does not change significantly between configurations; however, as planetary mass decreases, the trapping efficiency (TE) of comets into the OC and the flux of comets into the observable region increases. We determine that those comets that evolve onto Earth-crossing orbits come primarily from the inner OC but show no preference for initial protoplanetary disk location. We also find that systems that have at least a Saturn-mass object are effective at deflecting possible Earth-crossing comets but the difference in flux between systems with and without such a planet is less than an order of magnitude. We conclude by discussing the individual roles of the planets and the implications of incorporating more realistic planetary accretion and migration scenarios into simulations, particularly on existing discrepancies between low TE and the mass of the protoplanetary disk and on determining the structural boundaries of the OC.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration — Eyes on the SolarSystem is a software package developed by NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology using data provided by NASA's...

The James Webb Space Telescope will enable a wealth of new scientific investigations in the near- and mid- infrared, with sensitivity and spatial-spectral resolution greatly surpassing its predecessors. In this paper, we focus upon SolarSystem science facilitated by JWST, discussing the most current information available concerning JWST instrument properties and observing techniques relevant to planetary science. We also present numerous example observing scenarios for a wide variety of SolarSystem targets to illustrate the potential of JWST science to the SolarSystem community. This paper updates and supersedes the SolarSystem white paper published by the JWST Project in 2010 (Lunine et al., 2010). It is based both on that paper and on a workshop held at the annual meeting of the Division for Planetary Sciences in Reno, NV in 2012.

All over the world the peak demand load is increasing and the load factor is decreasing year-by-year. The fossil fuel is considered insufficient thus solar energy systems are becoming more and more useful, not only in terms of installation but monitoring of these systems is very crucial. Monitoring becomes very important when there are a large number of solar panels. Monitoring would allow early detection if the output falls below required level or one of the solar panel out of 1000 goes down. In this study the target is to monitor and control a developed solar panel by using available internet foundation. This web-enabled software will provide more flexibility over the system such as transmitting data from panel to the host computer and disseminating information to relevant stake holders barring any geographical barrier. The software would be built around web server with dynamic HTML and JAVA, this paper presents the preliminary design of the proposed system.

There are at least four unexplained anomalies connected with astrometric data. perhaps the most disturbing is the fact that when a spacecraft on a flyby trajectory approaches the Earth within 2000 km or less, it often experiences a change in total orbital energy per unit mass. next, a secular change in the astronomical unit AU is definitely a concern. It is increasing by about 15 cm yr{sup -1}. The other two anomalies are perhaps less disturbing because of known sources of nongravitational acceleration. The first is an apparent slowing of the two Pioneer spacecraft as they exit the solarsystem in opposite directions. Some astronomers and physicists are convinced this effect is of concern, but many others are convinced it is produced by a nearly identical thermal emission from both spacecraft, in a direction away from the Sun, thereby producing acceleration toward the Sun. The fourth anomaly is a measured increase in the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit. Here again, an increase is expected from tidal friction in both the Earth and Moon. However, there is a reported unexplained increase that is significant at the three-sigma level. It is produent to suspect that all four anomalies have mundane explanations, or that one or more anomalies are a result of systematic error. Yet they might eventually be explained by new physics. For example, a slightly modified theory of gravitation is not ruled out, perhaps analogous to Einstein's 1916 explanation for the excess precession of Mercury's perihelion.

Many celestial bodies in the SolarSystem are surrounded by gaseous envelopes. Chemical evolution of the gaseous envelopes of icy astrophysical objects of different masses and sizes (dust particles with icy mantles, icy planetesimals, comets and KBOs, icy satellites in the Jovian and Saturnian systems, and etc.) is determined by the complex influence of a large number of interrelated processes including: - photolysis by the solar XUV (soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet) radiation, - radiolysis by the solar wind/magnetospheric plasma, - catalysis on the icy surface, - chemical exchange between the surface and atmosphere, - chemical changes in the gas composition of the envelope. These physical and chemical processes are initiated by the solar forcing, and are characterized by strongly differing time scales and the degrees of non-equilibrium. Theoretical predictions of the composition and chemical evolution of near-surface atmospheres of the icy astrophysical objects are of great importance for assessing the biological potential of these objects (Herbst and van Dishoeck, 2009). The water vapour is usually the dominant parent species in such gaseous envelope because of the ejection from the object’s icy surface due to the thermal outgassing, non-thermal photolysis and radiolysis and other active processes at work on the surface (Shematovich 2008). The photochemistry of water vapour in the near-surface atmospheric layer (Shematovich, 2008, 2012) and the radiolysis of icy regolith result in the supply of the atmosphere by an admixture of H _{2}O, H _{2}, O _{2}, OH and O with thermal and suprathermal kinetic energies. Returning molecules have a species-dependent behaviour in the impact with icy surface and non-thermal energy distributions for the chemical radicals. The suprathermal radicals OH, H, and O entering the regolith can drive the radiolytic chemistry. Chemical complexity of the near-surface atmosphere of the icy astrophysical object arises due to both

Most comets are volatile-rich bodies that have recently entered the inner solarsystem following long-term storage in the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud reservoirs. These reservoirs feed several distinct, short-lived "small body" populations. Here, we present new measurements of the optical colors of cometary and comet-related bodies including long-period (Oort cloud) comets, Damocloids (probable inactive nuclei of long-period comets) and Centaurs (recent escapees from the Kuiper belt and precursors to the Jupiter family comets). We combine the new measurements with published data on short-period comets, Jovian Trojans and Kuiper belt objects to examine the color systematics of the comet-related populations. We find that the mean optical colors of the dust in short-period and long-period comets are identical within the uncertainties of measurement, as are the colors of the dust and of the underlying nuclei. These populations show no evidence for scattering by optically small particles or for compositional gradients, even at the largest distances from the Sun, and no evidence for ultrared matter. Consistent with earlier work, ultrared surfaces are common in the Kuiper belt and on the Centaurs, but not in other small body populations, suggesting that this material is hidden or destroyed upon entry to the inner solarsystem. The onset of activity in the Centaurs and the disappearance of the ultrared matter in this population begin at about the same perihelion distance (˜10 AU), suggesting that the two are related. Blanketing of primordial surface materials by the fallback of sub-orbital ejecta, for which we calculate a very short timescale, is the likely mechanism. The same process should operate on any mass-losing body, explaining the absence of ultrared surface material in the entire comet population. The data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the

Photovoltaic (PV) technology is a clean and environmentally friendly technology that does not require any fuels. The high reliability of operation and little need for maintenance makes it ideally suited for rural areas. Today PV systems are used in Nepal to power telecommunications centres, navigational aids, in pumping systems for irrigation and drinking water, and for household electrification. A solar home system consists of a PV module, a battery, a charge controller and 3-4 fluorescent light bulbs with fixture. The system provides power for lighting and operation of household appliances for several hours. The success of donor supported programs have shown that solar home systems can be a practical solution for many rural households. In 1996 the Government of Nepal launched a subsidy program for solar home systems, which dramatically has increased the demand for solar home systems among rural customers. This report includes a survey of 52 households with solar home systems in two villages. The field-study shows that the villagers are very happy with their systems and the technical performance of the systems in both villages is satisfactory. The study also shows the positive impact electricity has on education, health, income generation and quality of life. The beneficiaries of introducing electricity in remote areas are the children and the women 39 refs, 18 tabs. Examination paper

Comets are among the handful of objects with very low albedos, in the 0.02-0.06 range. Dark material is common in the outer SolarSystem, but analysis of the spectra and albedo of this material by spacecraft including Cassini and New Horizons shows that it is diverse, covering a range of compositions. Some is neutral-colored in the visible, such as that found on Phoebe, while some is very red, such as that on the surfaces of D-type asteroids or the low-albedo side of Iapetus. The different types of low-albedo material may reflect both compositional diversity, including contamination by volatiles or darkening agents, and divergent alteration histories. The key question is whether a particular sub-type of low albedo material is pristine - an unprocessed accumulation of interstellar dust - or an end product of polymerization and photolysis into ever more complex materials. Comets have albedos similar to the leading hemisphere of Iapetus, the surface of Titan, and the lowest-albedo C-type and D-type asteroids. Observations by the WISE and NEOWISE cameras show that comets have consistently low albedos (1). The first quantitative measurement of low-albedo material in the Kuiper Belt, from which comets such as Jupiter Family Comets including 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko come, shows that even this material is not as dark as that found on comets (2). Results from both Stardust (3) and more recently Rosetta (4, 5) show that cometary surfaces contain prebiotic molecules, including the amino acid glycine. Other very low albedo objects have also been connected to complex organic molecules: on Iapetus, PAHs have been detected (6), and Titan's surface is believed to be covered with hydrocarbons produced in its haze layer (7). The presence of organic molecules, including complex ones, could be the unique characteristic of the very darkest material. The delivery of pre-biotic material from comets to the young Earth could represent a key link in the origins of terrestrial life. (1

Recent developments of millimeter astronomy have led to the discovery of more and more complex molecules in the interstellar medium. In a similar way, attempts have been made to detect complex molecules in the atmospheres of the most primitive bodies of the SolarSystem, i.e. outer planets and comets, as well as in Titan's atmosphere. An important progress has been achieved thanks to the continuous development of infrared astronomy, from the ground and from space vehicles. In particular, an important contribution has come from the IRIS-Voyager infrared spectrometer with the detection of prebiotic molecules on Titan, and some complex organic molecules on Jupiter and Saturn. Another important result has been the observation of carbonaceous material in the immediate surroundings of Comet Halley's nucleus. In the near future, the search for organic molecules in the outer SolarSystem should benefit from the developments of large millimeter antennae, and in the next decade, from the operation of infrared Earth-orbiting spacecrafts (ISO, SIRTF).

Investigation of small SDHW systems based on smart solar tanks are presented. The domestic water in a smart solar tank can be heated both by solar collectors and by means of an auxiliary energy supply system. The auxiliary energy supply system – in this study electric heating elements – heats up...... systems, based on differently designed smart solar tanks and a traditional SDHW system were investigated by means of laboratory experiments and theoretical calculations. The investigations showed that the yearly thermal performance of SDHW systems with smart solar tanks is 5-35% higher than the thermal...... performance of traditional SDHW systems. Estimates indicate that the performance/cost ratio can be improved by up to 25% by using a smart solar tank instead of a traditional tank when the backup energy system is electric heating elements. Further, smart solar tanks are suitable for unknown, variable, large...

Comet nuclei are the most primitive bodies in the solarsystem. They have been created far away from the early Sun and it is supposed that their material has been altered the least since their formation. This volume presents the results of a scientific workshop on comet nuclei and is written by experts working on interstellar clouds, star-forming regions, the solar nebula, and comets. The articles formulate the current understanding and interconnectivity of the various source regions of comet nuclei and their associated compositions and orbital characteristics. This includes a discussion on the transport of materials into the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud regions of the solarsystem. The distinction between direct measurements of cometary material properties and properties derived from indirect means are emphasized with the aim to guide future investigations. This book serves as a guide for researchers and graduate students working in the field of planetology and solarsystem exploration. It should also help to ...

This book, the first in a series of forthcoming volumes, consists of topical and timely reviews of a number of carefully selected topics in solar systemn science. Contributions, in form of up-to-date reviews, are mainly aimed at professional astronomers and planetary scientists wishing to inform themselves about progress in fields closely related to their own field of expertise.

Over the past couple decades, thousands of extra-solar planetshave been discovered orbiting other stars. The exoplanets discovered to date exhibit a wide variety of orbital and compositional properties; most are dramatically different from the planets in our own SolarSystem. Our classical theories for the origins of planetary systems were crafted to account for the SolarSystem and fail to account for the diversity of planets now known. We are working to establish a new blueprint for the origin of planetary systems and identify the key parameters of planet formation and evolution that establish the distribution of planetary properties observed today. The new blueprint must account for the properties of planets in inner solarsystems, regions of planetary systems closer to their star than Earth’s separation from the Sun and home to most exoplanets detected to data. I present work combining simulations and theory with data analysis and statistics of observed planets to test theories of the origins of inner solars, including hot Jupiters, warm Jupiters, and tightly-packed systems of super-Earths. Ultimately a comprehensive blueprint for planetary systems will allow us to better situate discovered planets in the context of their system’s formation and evolution, important factors in whether the planets may harbor life.

Full Text Available The results on shock phenomena in dusty plasmas of the SolarSystem are reviewed. The problems of dust ion acoustic bow shock in interaction of the solar wind with dusty cometary coma and formation of transient atmospheres of atmosphereless cosmic bodies such as Moon, Mercury, asteroids and comets are considered. The latter assumes the evolution of meteoroid impact plumes and production of charged dust grains due to the condensation of both the plume substance and the vapor thrown from the crater and the surrounding regolith layer. Physical phenomena occurring during large meteoroid impacts can be modeled with the aid of active rocket experiments, which involve the release of some gaseous substance in near-Earth space. New vistas in investigation of shock processes in natural dusty plasmas are determined.

NASA's Stardust spacecraft returned samples from comet 81P/Wild 2 to Earth in January 2006. Examinations of the organic compounds in cometary samples can reveal information about the prebiotic organic inventory present on the early Earth and within the early SolarSystem, which may have contributed to the origin of life. Preliminary studies of Stardust material revealed the presence of a suite of organic compounds including several amines and amino acids, but the origin of these compounds (cometary- vs. terrestrial contamination) could not be identified. We have recently measured the carbon isotopic ratios of these amino acids to determine their origin, leading to the first detection of a coetary amino acid.

Spacecraft missions have resolved the nuclei of six periodic comets and revealed a set of geologically intriguing and active small bodies. The shapes of these cometary nuclei are dominantly bilobate reflecting their formation from smaller cometesimals. Cometary surfaces include a diverse set of morphologies formed from a variety of mechanisms. Sublimation of ices, driven by the variable insolation over the time since each nucleus was perturbed into the inner SolarSystem, is a major process on comets and is likely responsible for quasi-circular depressions and ubiquitous layering. Sublimation from near-vertical walls is also seen to lead to undercutting and mass wasting. Fracturing has only been resolved on one comet but likely exists on all comets. There is also evidence for mass redistribution, where material lifted off the nucleus by subliming gases is deposited onto other surfaces. It is surprising that such sedimentary processes are significant in the microgravity environment of comets. There are many enigmatic features on cometary surfaces including tall spires, kilometer-scale flows, and various forms of depressions and pits. Furthermore, even after accounting for the differences in resolution and coverage, significant diversity in landforms among cometary surfaces clearly exists. Yet why certain landforms occur on some comets and not on others remains poorly understood. The exploration and understanding of geologic processes on comets is only beginning. These fascinating bodies will continue to provide a unique laboratory for examining common geologic processes under the uncommon conditions of very high porosity, very low strength, small particle sizes, and near-zero gravity.

Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) is unique in that it is a dynamically new comet derived from the Oort cloud reservoir of comets with a sun-grazing orbit. Infrared (IR) and visible wavelength observing campaigns were planned on NASA's Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) and on National Solar Observatory Dunn (DST) and McMath-Pierce Solar Telescopes, respectively. We highlight our SOFIA (+FORCAST) mid- to far-IR images and spectroscopy (approx. 5-35 microns) of the dust in the coma of ISON are to be obtained by the ISON-SOFIA Team during a flight window 2013 Oct 21-23 UT (r_h approx. = 1.18 AU). Dust characteristics, identified through the 10 micron silicate emission feature and its strength, as well as spectral features from cometary crystalline silicates (Forsterite) at 11.05-11.2 microns, and near 16, 19, 23.5, 27.5, and 33 microns are compared with other Oort cloud comets that span the range of small and/or highly porous grains (e.g., C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) and C/2001 Q4 (NEAT) to large and/or compact grains (e.g., C/2007 N4 (Lulin) and C/2006 P1 (McNaught)). Measurement of the crystalline peaks in contrast to the broad 10 and 20 micron amorphous silicate features yields the cometary silicate crystalline mass fraction, which is a benchmark for radial transport in our protoplanetary disk. The central wavelength positions, relative intensities, and feature asymmetries for the crystalline peaks may constrain the shapes of the crystals. Only SOFIA can look for cometary organics in the 5-8 micron region. Spatially resolved measurements of atoms and simple molecules from when comet ISON is near the Sun (r_hPierce, the Solar-Stellar Spectrograph also will target ISON (320-900 nm, R approx. 21,000, r_h<0.3 AU). Assuming survival, the intent is to target ISON over r_h<0.4 AU, characteristic of prior Na detections.

Equation of motion for a comet in the Oort cloud is numerically solved. Orbital evolution of the comet under the action of the gravity of the Sun and the Galaxy is presented for various initial conditions. Oscillations of the Sun with respect to the galactic equatorial plane are taken into account. Real values of physical quantities concerning the gravitational action of the galactic neighbourhood of the Sun are important. The results are compared with currently used more simple models of the galactic tide. It turns out that physically improved models yield results which significantly differ from the results obtained on the basis of the conventional models. E.g., the number of returns of the comets into the inner part of the SolarSystem are about two times greater than it is in the conventional models. It seems that a comet from the Oort cloud can be a source of the dinosaurs extinction at about 65 Myr ago. A close encounter of a star or an interstellar cloud disturbed a comet of the Oort cloud in the way th...

Papers on exobiology and primitive solarsystem bodies are presented, covering topics such as observational astrochemistry, interstellar dust as a source of organic molecules in Comet Halley, the origin of the P/Halley dust component, polymeric organic molecules in Comet Hally, organic ions in the atmosphere of Comet Halley, and organic solids produced from C/H/O/N ices by carged particles. Other topics include cometary organics and the 3.4-micron spectral feature, organic compounds in carbonaceous chondrites, macromolecular carbon compounds on the dark surfaces of asteroids and comets, results concerning Titan, a possible ocean on Europa, comets as a source of preformed material for prebiotic evolution, and the Gas-Grain Simulation Facility on the Space Station. In addition, consideration is given to the origin of precursors of organic molecules during evaporation of meteorites and rocks, the origin of organics on clays, and chemical evolution of primitive solarsystem bodies.

In recent years, studies have shown that there are many similarities between comets and asteroids. In some cases, it cannot even be determined to which of these groups an object belongs. This is especially true for objects found beyond the main asteroid belt. Because of the lack of comet fragments, more progress has been made concerning the chemical composition of asteroids. In particular, the SMASSII classification establishes a link between the reflecting spectra and chemical composition of asteroids and meteorites. To find clues for the chemical structure of comets, the parameters of all known asteroids of the SMASSII classification were compared to those of comet groups like the Encke-type comets, the Jupiter-family comets, and the Halley-type comets, as well as comet-like objects like the damocloids and the centaurs. Fifty-six SMASSII objects similar to comets were found and are categorized as comet-like asteroids in this work. Aside from the chemistry, it is assumed that the available energy on these celestial bodies plays an important role concerning habitability. For the determination of the available energy, the effective temperature was calculated. Additionally, the size of these objects was considered in order to evaluate the possibility of a liquid water core, which provides an environment that is more likely to support processes necessary to create the building blocks of life. Further study of such objects could be notable for the period of the Late Heavy Bombardment and could therefore provide important implications for our understanding of the inner workings of the prebiotic evolution within the SolarSystem since the beginning.

In recent years, studies have shown that there are many similarities between comets and asteroids. In some cases, it cannot even be determined to which of these groups an object belongs. This is especially true for objects found beyond the main asteroid belt. Because of the lack of comet fragments, more progress has been made concerning the chemical composition of asteroids. In particular, the SMASSII classification establishes a link between the reflecting spectra and chemical composition of asteroids and meteorites. To find clues for the chemical structure of comets, the parameters of all known asteroids of the SMASSII classification were compared to those of comet groups like the Encke-type comets, the Jupiter-family comets, and the Halley-type comets, as well as comet-like objects like the damocloids and the centaurs. Fifty-six SMASSII objects similar to comets were found and are categorized as comet-like asteroids in this work. Aside from the chemistry, it is assumed that the available energy on these celestial bodies plays an important role concerning habitability. For the determination of the available energy, the effective temperature was calculated. Additionally, the size of these objects was considered in order to evaluate the possibility of a liquid water core, which provides an environment that is more likely to support processes necessary to create the building blocks of life. Further study of such objects could be notable for the period of the Late Heavy Bombardment and could therefore provide important implications for our understanding of the inner workings of the prebiotic evolution within the SolarSystem since the beginning.

Although the development of ideas about cometary motion has been investigated in several projects, a comprehensive and detailed survey of physical theories of comets has not been conducted. The available works either illustrate relatively short periods in the history of physical cometology or portray a landscape view without adequate details. The present study is an attempt to depict the details of the major physical theories of comets from Aristotle to the age of Laplace. The basic question from which this project originated was simple: how did natural philosophers and astronomers define the nature and place of a new category of celestial objects--the comets--after Brahe's estimation of cometary distances? However, a study starting merely from Brahe without covering classical and medieval thought about comets would be incomplete. Thus, based on the fundamental physical characteristics attributed to comets, the history of cometology may be divided into three periods: from Aristotle to Brahe, in which comets were assumed to be meteorological phenomena; from Brahe to Newton, when comets were admitted as celestial bodies but with unknown trajectories; and from Newton to Laplace, in which they were treated as members of the solarsystem having more or less the same properties of the planets. By estimating the mass of comets in the 1800s, Laplace diverted cometology into a different direction wherein they were considered among the smallest bodies in the solarsystem and deprived of the most important properties that had been used to explain their physical constitution during the previous two millennia. Ideas about the astrological aspects of comets are not considered in this study. Also, topics concerning the motion of comets are explained to the extent that is helpful in illustrating their physical properties. The main objective is to demonstrate the foundations of physical theories of comets, and the interaction between observational and mathematical astronomy, and

An attempt to determine spatial location of the main source of short-period comet nuclei was made. There were carried out numerical calculations for orbit evolution of Jupiter family comets, comets with middle-period orbits and bodies of Centaur group. On the basis of the calculations it was shown, that orbital evolution of the solarsystem small bodies is mainly going in the direction of the semi-major axes increase. It belongs to the bodies which can undergo approaches the planets, and orbital evolution of which is mainly going due to the gravitational forces. Such result is confirmed by qualitative analysis of changes of small body semi-major axes under approaches the planets. The conclusion was drawn that the main source of nuclei of Jupiter family comets is apparently situated at distances from the Sun not more than 6 AU.

Comets are uniquely pristine bodies providing unique insights about the formation of our SolarSystem. In this work, we focus on a dynamically new comet as it enters the inner SolarSystem for the first time after residing for billion of years in the Oort Cloud. Such comets are particularly important because they are thought to be not differentiated by solar radiation and they are supposed to have a large quantity of organic matter close to the surface. Here we report the results of a search for NH3(1,1) emission at 23.7 GHz towards comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) using a new dual-feed K band receiver mounted on the Medicina 32-m antenna. We observed the comet close to its perihelion, from 25 to 29 November 2013, when its heliocentric distance changed from 0.25 AU to 0.03 AU. We derive an upper limit of Q(NH3) of about 2.5×1029 mol s-1 on 26 November, that is consistent with the last peak of water production rate of ∼2×1030 mol s-1 within the last few days before the perihelion.

As remnant bodies left over from the formation of the SolarSystem, comets offer clues to the physical conditions and architecture of the protosolar nebula. The Rosetta spacecraft, which included an orbiter and a lander that were built and managed by the European Space Agency with NASA contributing four instruments and scientific expertise, was the first mission to orbit and study a comet through a perihelion passage. The targeted Jupiter-family comet 67P/ Churyumov-Gerasimenko, is seemingly two distinct planetesimals stuck together. The comet has not melted or been processed substantially, except for its outer layers, which consist of reaccreted dust and a crust of heated, devolatized, and annealed refractory materials and organics. The exceptionally low density (0.53 gm/cc) of 67P/ implies it is a rubble pile. The comet also appears to contain a hierarchy of building blocks: smaller spherically shaped meter-sized bodies can be seen in its interior, and even smaller cm-sized pebbles were imaged by the camera as the spacecraft made a soft crash landing on the comet’s surface on 30 September 2016. The unexpected discovery of molecular oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen imply that 67P/ was formed under cold conditions not exceeding 30K. The discovery of many organic compounds, including the amino acid glycine, lends support to the idea that comets, which originate in the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud, brought the building blocks of life to Earth. More laboratory data on organic compounds would help to identify additional organic compounds on the comet. The differences between cometary and terrestrial D/H ratios suggest that comets are not the primary source of terrestrial water, although data on more comets is needed to confirm this result.Besides being primordial objects offering a window into the formation of solarsystems, comets are astrophysical laboratories, ejecting dust and charged particles into the plasma comprising the solar wind. Several unusual phenomena

The computer program SYSOPT, intended as a tool for optimizing the subsystem sizing, performance, and economics of integrated wind and solar energy systems, is presented. The modular structure of the methodology additionally allows simulations when the solar subsystems are combined with conventional technologies, e.g., a utility grid. Hourly energy/mass flow balances are computed for interconnection points, yielding optimized sizing and time-dependent operation of various subsystems. The program requires meteorological data, such as insolation, diurnal and seasonal variations, and wind speed at the hub height of a wind turbine, all of which can be taken from simulations like the TRNSYS program. Examples are provided for optimization of a solar-powered (wind turbine and parabolic trough-Rankine generator) desalinization plant, and a design analysis for a solar powered greenhouse.

The Triple F (Fresh From the Fridge) mission, a Comet Nucleus Sample Return, has been proposed to ESA's Cosmic Vision program. A sample return from a comet enables us to reach the ultimate goal of cometary research. Since comets are the least processed bodies in the solarsystem, the proposal goes far beyond cometary science topics (like the explanation of cometary activity) and delivers invaluable information about the formation of the solarsystem and the interstellar molecular cloud from which it formed. The proposed mission would extract three sample cores of the upper 50 cm from three locations on a cometary nucleus and return them cooled to Earth for analysis in the laboratory. The simple mission concept with a touch-andgo sampling by a single spacecraft was proposed as an M-class mission in collaboration with the Russian space agency ROSCOSMOS.

This patent is concerned with a steering device for solar photo-pannels laid in row in order to minimize the cast shadow of each pannel on the others, while maintaining a required land use (the pannels are disposed according to a centered hexagonal lattice). The device is designed to set a whole row of pannels according to the azimuthal orientation of the sun. It is composed of a set of (at least) two side rod drives situated at each side of the row and coupled to the pannel. The pannels are moved by the action of two (or more) traction ropes.

This paper shows that, using only a modest extrapolation of current phased-array radar and massively parallel processor computer technologies, radar transmitter in the outer solarsystem or in interstellar space could be used to detect comets passing within 1 or 2 AU of the transmitter. It discusses how this potential development could be instrumental to the colonisation of the outer solarsystem and beyond. This development is germane to contemporary investigations of the population of the Oort cloud as well as to the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) question.

Complete residential solar-heating and hot-water system, when installed in highly-insulated energy-saver home, can supply large percentage of total energy demand for space heating and domestic hot water. System which uses water-heating energy storage can be scaled to meet requirements of building in which it is installed.

A solar-powered adsorption-desorption refrigeration and air conditioning system uses nanostructural materials made of high specific surface area adsorption aerogel as the adsorptive media. Refrigerant molecules are adsorbed on the high surface area of the nanostructural material. A circulation system circulates refrigerant from the nanostructural material to a cooling unit.

This paper presents results on a highly efficient experimental solar thermophotovoltaic (STPV) system using simulated solar energy. An overall power conversion efficiency of 6.2% was recorded under solar simulation. This was matched with a thermodynamic model, and the losses within the system, as well as a path forward to mitigate these losses, have been investigated. The system consists of a planar, tungsten absorbing/emitting structure with an anti-reflection layer coated laser-microtextured absorbing surface and single-layer dielectric coated emitting surface. A GaSb PV cell was used to capture the emitted radiation and convert it into electrical energy. This simple structure is both easy to fabricate and temperature stable, and contains no moving parts or heat exchange fluids.

The unprecedented sensitivity and angular resolution of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will make it NASA’s premier space-based facility for infrared astronomy. This 6.5-meter telescope, which is optimized for observations in the near and mid infrared, will be equipped with four state-of-the-art instruments that include imaging, spectroscopy, and coronagraphy. These instruments, along with the telescope’s moving target capabilities, will enable the infrared study of solarsystem objects with unprecedented detail. A new white paper (Norwood et al., 2014) provides a general overview of JWST observatory and instrument capabilities for SolarSystem science, and updates and expands upon an earlier study by Lunine et al. (2010). In order to fully realize the potential of JWST for SolarSystem observations, we have recently organized 10 focus groups to explore various science use cases in more detail on topics including: Asteroids, Comets, Giant Planets, Mars, Near Earth Objects, Occultations, Rings, Satellites, Titan, and Trans-Neptunian Objects. The findings from these groups will help guide the project as it develops and implements planning tools, observing templates, the data pipeline and archives so that they enable a broad range of SolarSystem Science investigations. The purpose of this presentation is to raise awareness of the JWST SolarSystem planning, and to invite participation of DPS members with our Focus Groups and other pre-launch activities.References:Lunine, J., Hammel, H., Schaller, E., Sonneborn, G., Orton, G., Rieke, G., and Rieke, M. 2010, JWST Planetary Observations within the SolarSystem, http://www.stsci.edu/jwst/doc-archive/white-papers.Norwood, J., Hammel, H., Milam, S.,Stansberry, J., Lunine, J., Chanover, N., Hines, D., Sonneborn, G., Tiscareno, M., Brown, M. and Ferruit, P., 2014, ArXiv e-prints, 1403.6845.

Ices have been detected and mapped on the Earth and all planets and/or their satellites further from the sun. Water ice is the most common frozen volatile observed and is also unambiguously detected or inferred in every planet and/or their moon(s) except Venus. Carbon dioxide is also extensively found in all systems beyond the Earth except Pluto although it sometimes appears to be trapped rather than as an ice on some objects. The largest deposits of carbon dioxide ice is on Mars. Sulfur dioxide ice is found in the Jupiter system. Nitrogen and methane ices are common beyond the Uranian system. Saturn’s moon Titan probably has the most complex active chemistry involving ices, with benzene (C6H6) and many tentative or inferred compounds including ices of Cyanoacetylene (HC3N), Toluene (C7H8), Cyanogen (C2N2), Acetonitrile (CH3CN), H2O, CO2, and NH3. Confirming compounds on Titan is hampered by its thick smoggy atmosphere. Ammonia was predicted on many icy moons but is notably absent among the definitively detected ices with the possible exception of Enceladus. Comets, storehouses of many compounds that could exist as ices in their nuclei, have only had small amounts of water ice definitively detected on their surfaces. Only one asteroid has had a direct detection of surface water ice, although its presence can be inferred in others. This chapter reviews some of the properties of ices that lead to their detection, and surveys the ices that have been observed on solid surfaces throughout the SolarSystem.

Comets are the frozen reservoirs of the early solar nebula and are made of ice and dust. The determination of the properties for cometary dust provides us insight into both the early-solar-nebula environment and the formation process of the planetary system. A silicate feature is often observed in comet spectra in the mid-infrared region and may be used for probing the early history of the solarsystem. In most cases, the feature shows the existence of crystalline silicate (for example, 11.3 microns) together with amorphous silicate [1,2]. Since the crystallization of silicates from amorphous ones generally requires high-temperature annealing above 800 K (e.g., [3,4]), it is believed that the crystalline silicate grains produced at the inner part of the disk were transported to the outer cold regions where the comet nuclei formed. Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) is a long-period Oort Cloud comet, discovered in September 2012. In particular, comet ISON is a sungrazing comet, which was predicted to pass close by the Sun and the Earth and becoming a bright object. Mid-infrared observations of this new comet and investigation of the 10-micron silicate feature help us understand the formation of crystalline silicate grains in the early solar nebula. We conducted observations of comet ISON in the mid-infrared wavelength region with the Cooled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer (COMICS) on the Subaru Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii [5,6,7]. The observation of comet ISON was carried out on 2013 October 19 and 21 UT. Since the weather conditions were not so good when we observed, we carried out N-band imaging observations (8.8 and 12.4 microns) and N-band low-resolution spectroscopy. The spectrum of comet ISON can be fit with the 260--265-K blackbody spectrum when we use the regions of 7.8--8.2 and 12.4--13.0 microns as the continuum. The spectrum has only a weak silicate excess feature, which may be able to attribute to small amorphous olivine grains. We could not detect a clear

Environmental data for decentralized solar photovoltaic systems have been generated in support of the Technology Assessment of Solar Energy Systems program (TASE). Emphasis has been placed upon the selection and use of a model residential photovoltaic system to develop and quantify the necessary data. The model consists of a reference home located in Phoenix, AZ, utilizing a unique solar cell array-roof shingle combination. Silicon solar cells, rated at 13.5% efficiency at 28/sup 0/C and 100 mW/cm/sup 2/ (AMI) insolation are used to generate approx. 10 kW (peak). An all-electric home is considered with lead-acid battery storage, dc-ac inversion and utility backup. The reference home is compared to others in regions of different insolation. Major material requirements, scaled to quad levels of end-use energy include significant quantities of silicon, copper, lead, antimony, sulfuric acid and plastics. Operating residuals generated are negligible with the exception of those from the storage battery due to a short (10-year) lifetime. A brief general discussion of other environmental, health, and safety and resource availability impacts is presented. It is suggested that solar cell materials production and fabrication may have the major environmental impact when comparing all facets of photovoltaic system usage. Fabrication of the various types of solar cell systems involves the need, handling, and transportation of many toxic and hazardous chemicals with attendant health and safety impacts. Increases in production of such materials as lead, antimony, sulfuric acid, copper, plastics, cadmium and gallium will be required should large scale usage of photovoltaic systems be implemented.

System that substitutes solar cells directly in the path of the radiation incident on the test volume and uses a dc bridge-null system was developed. The solar cell is affixed to a heat sink mounted on each of three arms for each solar lamp. Control of the radiation from the solar lamps is automatic.

Dusty plasmas are commonly found in the solarsystem and in the rest of space. In this paper we briefly describe some of the more common dusty plasmas: the rings of Saturn, dust tails of comets, dust streams from Jupiter, and noctilucent clouds in the upper atmosphere. We also discuss some of the theoretical issues related to grain charging, dust particle dynamics, waves in dusty plasmas, and dusty plasma crystals.

The Encyclopedia of the SolarSystem, Third Edition-winner of the 2015 PROSE Award in Cosmology & Astronomy from the Association of American Publishers-provides a framework for understanding the origin and evolution of the solarsystem, historical discoveries, and details about planetary bodies and how they interact-with an astounding breadth of content and breathtaking visual impact. The encyclopedia includes the latest explorations and observations, hundreds of color digital images and illustrations, and over 1,000 pages. It stands alone as the definitive work in this field, and will serve

This book examines the planets and other objects in space that make up the solarsystem. It also shows how technology helps students learn about our neighbors in space. The suggested age range for this book is 3-8 with a guided reading level of Q-R. The Fry level is 3.2.

This book examines the planets and other objects in space that make up the solarsystem. It also shows how technology helps students learn about our neighbors in space. The suggested age range for this book is 3-8 with a guided reading level of Q-R. The Fry level is 3.2.

Comets are icy objects that orbitally evolve from the trans-Neptunian region into the inner solarsystem, where they are heated by solar radiation and become active due to the sublimation of water ice. Here we perform simulations in which cometary reservoirs are formed in the early solarsystem and evolved over 4.5 Gyr. The gravitational effects of Planet 9 (P9) are included in some simulations. Different models are considered for comets to be active, including a simple assumption that comets remain active for {N}{{p}}(q) perihelion passages with perihelion distance qmodel is compared to observations. The orbital distribution of ecliptic comets (ECs) is well reproduced in models with {N}{{p}}(2.5)≃ 500 and without P9. With P9, the inclination distribution of model ECs is wider than the observed one. We find that the known Halley-type comets (HTCs) have a nearly isotropic inclination distribution. The HTCs appear to be an extension of the population of returning Oort-cloud comets (OCCs) to shorter orbital periods. The inclination distribution of model HTCs becomes broader with increasing {N}{{p}}, but the existing data are not good enough to constrain {N}{{p}} from orbital fits. {N}{{p}}(2.5)> 1000 is required to obtain a steady-state population of large active HTCs that is consistent with observations. To fit the ratio of the returning-to-new OCCs, by contrast, our model implies that {N}{{p}}(2.5)≲ 10, possibly because the detected long-period comets are smaller and much easier to disrupt than observed HTCs.

Reports on technological advancements in the fields of solar collectors, thermal storage systems, and solar heating and cooling systems. Diagrams aid in the understanding of the thermodynamics of the systems. (CP)

The 2011 Decadal Survey for planetary science released by the National Research Council of the National Academies identified Comet Surface Sample Return (CSSR) as one of five high priority potential New Frontiers-class missions in the next decade. The main objectives of the research described in this publication are: develop a concept for an end-to-end system for collecting and storing a comet sample to be returned to Earth; design, fabricate and test a prototype Dynamic Acquisition and Retrieval Tool (DART) capable of collecting 500 cc sample in a canister and eject the canister with a predetermined speed; identify a set of simulants with physical properties at room temperature that suitably match the physical properties of the comet surface as it would be sampled. We propose the use of a dart that would be launched from the spacecraft to impact and penetrate the comet surface. After collecting the sample, the sample canister would be ejected at a speed greater than the comet's escape velocity and captured by the spacecraft, packaged into a return capsule and returned to Earth. The dart would be composed of an inner tube or sample canister, an outer tube, a decelerator, a means of capturing and retaining the sample, and a mechanism to eject the canister with the sample for later rendezvous with the spacecraft. One of the significant unknowns is the physical properties of the comet surface. Based on new findings from the recent Deep Impact comet encounter mission, we have limited our search of solutions for sampling materials to materials with 10 to 100 kPa shear strength in loose or consolidated form. As the possible range of values for the comet surface temperature is also significantly different than room temperature and testing at conditions other than the room temperature can become resource intensive, we sought sample simulants with physical properties at room temperature similar to the expected physical properties of the comet surface material. The chosen

Remote investigations of the ancient solarsystem matter has been traditionally carried out through the observations of long-period (LP) comets that are less affected by solar irradiation than the short-period counterparts orbiting much closer to the Sun. Here we summarize the results of our decade-long survey of the distant activity of LP comets. We found that the most important separation in the dataset is based on the dynamical nature of the objects. Dynamically new comets are characterized by a higher level of activity on average: the most active new comets in our sample can be characterized by afrho values >3--4 higher than that of our most active returning comets. New comets develop more symmetric comae, suggesting a generally isotropic outflow. Contrary to this, the coma of recurrent comets can be less symmetrical, ocassionally exhibiting negative slope parameters, suggesting sudden variations in matter production. The morphological appearance of the observed comets is rather diverse. A surprisingly la...

When is a minor object in the solarsystem a comet? And when is it an asteroid? Until recently, there was little doubt. Any object that was found to display a tail or appeared diffuse was a comet of ice and dust grains, and any that didn't, was an asteroid of solid rock. Moreover, comets normally move in rather elongated orbits, while most asteroids follow near-circular orbits close to the main plane of the solarsystem in which the major planets move. However, astronomers have recently discovered some `intermediate' objects which seem to possess properties that are typical for both categories. For instance, a strange object (P/1996 N2 - Elst-Pizarro) was found last year at ESO ( ESO Press Photo 36/96 ) which showed a cometary tail, while moving in a typical asteroidal orbit. At about the same time, American scientists found another (1996 PW) that moved in a very elongated comet-type orbit but was completely devoid of a tail. Now, a group of European scientists, by means of observations carried out at the ESO La Silla observatory, have found yet another object that at first appeared to be one more comet/asteroid example. However, continued and more detailed observations aimed at revealing its true nature have shown that it is most probably a comet . Consequently, it has received the provisional cometary designation P/1997 T3 . The Uppsala-DLR Trojan Survey Some time ago, Claes-Ingvar Lagerkvist (Astronomical Observatory, Uppsala, Sweden), in collaboration with Gerhard Hahn, Stefano Mottola, Magnus Lundström and Uri Carsenty (DLR, Institute of Planetary Exploration, Berlin, Germany), started to study the distribution of asteroids near Jupiter. They were particularly interested in those that move in orbits similar to that of Jupiter and which are located `ahead' of Jupiter in the so-called `Jovian L4 Lagrangian point'. Together with those `behind' Jupiter, these asteroids have been given the names of Greek and Trojan Heroes who participated in the famous Trojan war

The Encyclopedia of the SolarSystem provides a series of comprehensive and authoritative articles written by more than 50 eminent planetary and space scientists. Each chapter is self-contained yet linked by cross-references to other related chapters. This beautifully designed book is a must for the library of professional astronomers and amateur star-gazers alike, in fact for anyone who wishes to understand the nature of our solarsystem.Key Features* Cross-referenced throughout for easy comprehension* Superbly illustrated with over 700 photos, drawings, and diagrams, including 36 color plates* Provides 40 thematically organized chapters by more than 50 eminent contributors* Convenient glossaries of technical terms introduce each chapter* Academic Press maintains a web site for the Encyclopedia at www.academicpress.com/solar; Author-recommended web resources for additional information, images, and research developments related to each chapter of this volume, are available here

The Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Plant is located in the northwest of Mexico, lat. 32{sup o}39', long. 115{sup o}21' in the northern hemisphere. A solar-geothermal hybrid system is proposed in order to increase the steam flow during the present geothermal cycle, adding a solar field of parabolic trough concentrators. Energy is supplied to the geothermal flow from wells in order to increase the steam generation rate. This configuration will increase the capacity factor of the system by generating additional steam during the peak demand hours. The parabolic trough solar field is evaluated in North-South and East-West orientation collector alignments. A proposal to obtain an increase of 10% in steam flow is evaluated, as the increase in flow is limited by the content of dissolved salts, so as to avoid a liquid phase with high salt concentrations. The size of the parabolic troughs field was obtained. (author)

An analysis is presented for the photometric data on comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) from observations at a large heliocentric distance (~4.1 AU). Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) displays intense activity despite the relatively large heliocentric distance. The morphology of the comet's coma is analyzed. The following parameters are measured: the color indices V-R, the normalized spectral gradient of the reflectivity of the comet's dust S', and the dust production rate Afρ. A numerical simulation is performed for the evolution of the comet's orbit after a close encounter with Mars. The most probable values are obtained for the Keplerian orbital elements of the comet over a hundred-year period. The comet's orbit remains nearly parabolic after passing the orbits of all the SolarSystem planets.

It is well recognized and accepted that the interpretation and analysis of any type of remote planetary spectroscopic observation requires that basic molecular parameters be available. Furthermore, the newly developed capabilities of air, ground, and space borne spectrometers trained on bodies in the solarsystem are producing results which are extremely difficult to understand on the basis of available data. This is particularly true in the case of spectral features arising from gases and volatiles condensed as ices. With the objective to continue to extend the understanding of spectroscopic observations of solarsystem objects (including comets) , laboratory studies of both gas phase molecules and ices and dusts are proposed.

With the availability of considerably more data, we revisit the question of how special our SolarSystem is, compared to observed exoplanetary systems. To this goal, we employ a mathematical transformation that allows for a meaningful, statistical comparison. We find that the masses and densities of the giant planets in our SolarSystem are very typical, as is the age of the SolarSystem. While the orbital location of Jupiter is somewhat of an outlier, this is most likely due to strong selection effects towards short-period planets. The eccentricities of the planets in our SolarSystem are relatively small compared to those in observed exosolar systems, but still consistent with the expectations for an 8-planet system (and could, in addition, reflect a selection bias towards high-eccentricity planets). The two characteristics of the SolarSystem that we find to be most special are the lack of super-Earths with orbital periods of days to months and the general lack of planets inside of the orbital radius of Me...

Impact rates in the Pluto-Charon system are dominated by comets from the proposed Kuiper Belt, 30 to 50 AU from the Sun. Such collisions excite the eccentricity of Charon's orbit, which then decays due to tidal dissipation. Charon's eccentricity approaches a quasi-steady state, which can be used to constrain the total number and mass of comets in the Kuiper Belt. Unfortunately, the current upper limit on Charon's orbital eccentricity must be reduced by more than a factor of ten before useful constraints can be set.

The COMET attitude determination and control system, using inverse dynamics and a novel torque distribution/momentum management technique, has shown great flexibility, performance, and robustness. Three-axis control with two wheels is an inherent consequence of inverse dynamics control which allows for reduction in spacecraft weight and cost, or alternatively, provides a simple means of failure-redundancy for three-wheel spacecraft. The control system, without modification, has continued to perform well in spite of large changes in spacecraft mass properties and mission orbit altitude that have occurred during development. This flexibility has obviated imposition of early stringent ADACS design constraints and has greatly reduced commonly incurred ADACS modification costs and delay associated with program maturation.

As an astronomy instructor, I am always looking for commonly observed Earthly experiences to help my students and me understand and appreciate similar occurrences elsewhere in the solarsystem. Recently I wrote a short TPT article on frost. This paper is on the related phenomena of precipitation. Precipitation, so common on most of the Earth's…

As an astronomy instructor, I am always looking for commonly observed Earthly experiences to help my students and me understand and appreciate similar occurrences elsewhere in the solarsystem. Recently I wrote a short TPT article on frost. This paper is on the related phenomena of precipitation. Precipitation, so common on most of the Earth's…

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS 1993) states that by the end of fifth grade, students should understand that a model, such as those depicting the solarsystem, is a smaller version of the real product, making it easier to physically work with and therefore learn from. However, for students and even adults,…

This review is one of a series of assessments and reviews prepared in the public interest by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The purpose of this review is to outline the potential achievements of solarsystem exploration and suggest a course of action which will maximize the rewards to mankind. A secondary purpose is…

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS 1993) states that by the end of fifth grade, students should understand that a model, such as those depicting the solarsystem, is a smaller version of the real product, making it easier to physically work with and therefore learn from. However, for students and even adults,…

Within our solarsystem, the planets, moons, comets and asteroids all have plasma interactions. The interaction depends on the nature of the object, particularly the presence of an atmosphere and a magnetic field. Even the size of the object matters through the finite gyroradius effect and the scale height of cold ions of exospheric origin. It also depends on the upstream conditions, including position within the solar wind or the presence within a planetary magnetosphere. Soon after ESA's Rosetta reached comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko, NASA's Maven and ISRO's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) reached Mars, and ESA's Venus Express mission was completed, this issue explores our understanding of plasma interactions with comets, Mars, Venus, and moons in the solarsystem. We explore the processes which characterise the interactions, such as ion pickup and field draping, and their effects such as plasma escape. Papers are based on data from current and recent space missions, modelling and theory, as we explore our local part of the 'plasma universe'.

We developed an appropriate Absorption chiller to "Solar cooling system" in 2010. In addition, we added the improvement to the machine. "Solar cooling system" can be easily constructed with the machine. and, we constructed the demonstration plant, and verified the utility

Comets provide important clues to the physical and chemical processes that occurred during the formation and early evolution of the SolarSystem, and could also have been important for initiating prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth [1]. Comets are comprised of molecular ices, that may be pristine interstellar remnants of SolarSystem formation, along with high-temperature crystalline silicate dust that is indicative of a more thermally varied history in the protosolar nebula [2]. Comparing abundances of cometary parent volatiles, and isotopic fractionation ratios, to those found in the interstellar medium, in disks around young stars, and between cometary families, is vital to understanding planetary system formation and the processing history experienced by organic matter in the so-called interstellar-comet connection [3]. We have conducted observations, at primarily millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths, where molecular emission is easily resolved, towards comets to determine important cosmogonic quantities, such as the ortl1o:pal'a ratio and isotope ratios, as well as probe the origin of cometary organics. Comets provide important clues to the processes that occurred during the formation and early evolution of the SolarSystem. Past observations, as well as laboratory measurements of cometary material obtained from Stardust, have shown that comets appear to contain a mixture of the products from both interstellar and nebular chemistries. A major observational challenge in cometary science is to quantify the extent to which chemical compounds can be linked to either reservoir.

A full-scale Dish-Stirling system experiment, at a power level of 25 kWe, has been tested during 1981 on the Test Bed Concentrator No. 2 at the Parabolic Dish Test Site, Edwards, CA. Test components, designed and developed primarily by industrial contractors for the Department of Energy, include an advanced Stirling engine driving an induction alternator, a directly-coupled solar receiver with a natural gas combustor for hybrid operation and a breadboard control system based on a programmable controller and standard utility substation components. The experiment demonstrated practicality of the solar Stirling application and high system performance into a utility grid. This paper describes the design and its functions, and the test results obtained.

A full-scale Dish-Stirling system experiment, at a power level of 25 kWe, has been tested during 1981 on the Test Bed Concentrator No. 2 at the Parabolic Dish Test Site, Edwards, CA. Test components, designed and developed primarily by industrial contractors for the Department of Energy, include an advanced Stirling engine driving an induction alternator, a directly-coupled solar receiver with a natural gas combustor for hybrid operation and a breadboard control system based on a programmable controller and standard utility substation components. The experiment demonstrated practicality of the solar Stirling application and high system performance into a utility grid. This paper describes the design and its functions, and the test results obtained.

With this CY5 Target-of-Opportunity (ToO) proposal, we propose to measure the dust and organic grains of a yet-to-be-discovered comet or a comet that outbursts. A 5-27 micron spectrum coupled with 11, 19, and 31 micron dual-band photometry of a ToO comet with FORCAST will address our two primary goals: 1) characterize the coma dust mineralogy; and 2) identify organics in the critical 5-8 micron region. Observations of cometary organics probe the unknown precursor materials that were transformed by heat into macromolecular carbon found ubiquitously in carbonaceous chondrite samples from primitive asteroids. Thermal models fitted to FORCAST observations of a ToO comet determine the dust properties and the comet's dust properties link to the physical and chemical conditions in the solar nebula, and help to fulfill the SOFIA Science Case for Evolution of Our SolarSystem. The crystalline fraction of comet dust has become a benchmark for models of heating and radial transport in our protoplanetary disk. By measuring the wavelengths, relative intensities, and feature asymmetries of crystalline peaks at 11.1, 19, and 23.5, 27.5, and 33 micron, the shapes of forsterite crystals can be constrained and their condensation temperatures inferred by comparison with theoretical and experimental data. We impose the requirement that a CY4 ToO comet have an expected surface brightness of 430 mJy/arcsec-squared, such as from helio- and geo-centric distances of 1 and 1.2 AU and with an Afrho 3000 cm; that is, a relatively bright comet. From 1995 through 2015, there were ten comet apparitions with Veye within 2 months of discovery. FORCAST 5-31.5 micron observations of a ToO comet will enable the study of dust mineral compositions and organic materials, will enable the search for controversial species including PAHs, phyllosilicates and carbonates, and will add to the sample of less than 2 dozen comets with good SNR spanning mid- to far-IR wavelengths.

The Stardust spacecraft collected thousands of particles from comet 81P/Wild 2 and returned them to Earth for laboratory study. The preliminary examination of these samples shows that the nonvolatile portion of the comet is an unequilibrated assortment of materials that have both presolar and solarsystem origin. The comet contains an abundance of silicate grains that are much larger than predictions of interstellar grain models, and many of these are high-temperature minerals that appear to have formed in the inner regions of the solar nebula. Their presence in a comet proves that the formation of the solarsystem included mixing on the grandest scales. Stardust was the first mission to return solid samples from a specific astronomical body other than the Moon. The mission, part of the NASA Discovery program, retrieved samples from a comet that is believed to have formed at the outer fringe of the solar nebula, just beyond the most distant planet. The samples, isolated from the planetary region of the solarsystem for billions of years, provide new insight into the formation of the solarsystem. The samples provide unprecedented opportunities both to corroborate astronomical (remote sensing) and sample analysis information (ground truth) on a known primitive solarsystem body and to compare preserved building blocks from the edge of the planetary system with sample-derived and astronomical data for asteroids, small bodies that formed more than an order of magnitude closer to the Sun. The asteroids, parents of most meteorites, formed by accretion of solids in warmer, denser, more collisionally evolved inner regions of the solar nebula where violent nebular events were capable of flash-melting millimeter-sized rocks, whereas comets formed in the coldest, least dense region. The samples collected by Stardust are the first primitive materials from a known body, and as such they provide contextual insight for all primitive meteoritic samples. About 200 investigators

The purpose of this paper focuses on the experimental pre-treatment of biomass in agricultural site using solar energy as power source and contribution of common use and efficiency solar dryer system for consumer. The main purpose of this design for solar cabinet dryer is to dry biomass via direct and indirect heating. Direct heating is the simplest method to dry biomass by exposing the biomass under direct sunlight. The solar cabinet dryer traps solar heat to increase the temperature of the ...

as those seen in the spectra of seven comet comae. The comet comae present silicate features with two distinct shapes, either trapezoidal, or more rounded, the latter apparently due to enhanced emission near 8 to 8.5 μm. The surfaces of Tempel 2, Arend-Rigaux, and Hektor best agree with the comae that present trapezoidal features, furthering the hypothesis that the surfaces of these targets must have high porosities in order to exhibit a spectrum similar to a comet coma. An emissivity minimum at 15 μm, present in the spectra of Tempel 2, Arend-Rigaux, Hektor, and Agamemnon, is also described, the origin of which remains unidentified. The compositional similarity between D-type asteroids and comets is discussed, and our data supports the hypothesis that they have similar origins in the early SolarSystem.

Full Text Available Objective: Interstitial lung disease (ILD and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH are common complications of systemic sclerosis (SSc. Echocardiography evaluates PAH, and chest sonography detects even mild ILC as ultrasound lung comets (ULC, i.e. multiple comet-tails fanning out from the lung surface and originating from subpleural interlobular septa thickened by fibrosis. Aim: to assess ILaD and PAH by integrated cardiac and chest ultrasound in SSc. Methods: We enrolled 30 consecutive SSc patients (age= 54±13 years, 23 females in the Rheumatology Clinic of Pisa University. In all, we assessed systolic pulmonary arterial pressure (SPAP, from maximal velocity of tricuspid regurgitation flow, and ULC score with chest sonography (summing the number of ULC from each scanning space of anterior and posterior right and left chest, from second to fifth intercostal space. All patients underwent plasma assay for anti-topoisomerase antibodies (anti-Scl70, and antiicentromere associated with development of pulmonary involvement. Twenty-eight patients also underwent high resolution computed tomography, HRCT (from 0= no fibrosis to 3= honey combing. Results: ULC number - but not SPAP - was correlated to HRCT fibrosis and presence Scl-70 antibodies. ULC number was similar in localized or diffuse forms (16±20 vs 21±19, p=ns and was unrelated to SPAP (r=0.216, p=ns. Conclusions: Chest sonography assessment and ULC allow a complete, simple, radiation-free characterization of interstitial lung involvement in SSc - all in one setting and with the same instrument, same transducer and the same sonographer. In particular, ULC number is associated with HRCT evidence of lung fibrosis and presence of Scl-70 antibodies.

After addressing strange cosmological hypotheses in Weird Universe, David Seargent tackles the no-less bizarre theories closer to home. Alternate views on the SolarSystem's formation, comet composition, and the evolution of life on Earth are only some of the topics he addresses in this new work. Although these ideas exist on the fringe of mainstream astronomy, they can still shed light on the origins of life and the evolution of the planets. Continuing the author's series of books popularizing strange astronomy facts and knowledge, Weird Astronomical Theories presents an approachable exploration of the still mysterious questions about the origin of comets, the pattern of mass extinctions on Earth, and more. The alternative theories discussed here do not come from untrained amateurs. The scientists whose work is covered includes the mid-20th century Russian S. K. Vsekhsvyatskii, cosmologist Max Tegmark, British astronomers Victor Clube and William Napier, and American Tom Van Flandern, a special...

A solar-powered adsorption-desorption refrigeration and air conditioning system that uses nanostructural materials such as aerogels, zeolites, and sol gels as the adsorptive media. Refrigerant molecules are adsorbed on the high surface area of the nanostructural material while the material is at a relatively low temperature, perhaps at night. During daylight hours, when the nanostructural materials is heated by the sun, the refrigerant are thermally desorbed from the surface of the aerogel, thereby creating a pressurized gas phase in the vessel that contains the aerogel. This solar-driven pressurization forces the heated gaseous refrigerant through a condenser, followed by an expansion valve. In the condenser, heat is removed from the refrigerant, first by circulating air or water. Eventually, the cooled gaseous refrigerant expands isenthalpically through a throttle valve into an evaporator, in a fashion similar to that in more conventional vapor recompression systems.

The TRNSYS simulation program was used to evaluate the performance of active charge/passive discharge solarsystems with water as the working fluid. TRNSYS simulations are used to evaluate the heating performance and cooling augmentation provided by systems in several climates. The results of the simulations are used to develop a simplified analysis tool similar to the F-chart and Phi-bar procedures used for active systems. This tool, currently in a preliminary stage, should provide the designer with quantitative performance estimates for comparison with other passive, active, and nonsolar heating and cooling designs.

The Sunday Times Bestseller In Wonders of the SolarSystem - the book of the acclaimed BBC TV series - Professor Brian Cox will take us on a journey of discovery where alien worlds from your imagination become places we can see, feel and visit. The Wonders of the SolarSystem - from the giant ice fountains of Enceladus to the liquid methane seas of Titan and from storms twice the size of the Earth to the tortured moon of Io with its giant super-volcanoes - is the SolarSystem as you have never seen it before. In this series, Professor Brian Cox will introduce us to the planets and moons beyond our world, finding the biggest, most bizarre, most powerful natural phenomena. Using the latest scientific imagery along with cutting edge CGI and some of the most spectacular and extreme locations on Earth, Brian will show us Wonders never thought possible. Employing his trademark clear, authoritative, yet down-to-earth approach, Brian will explore how these previously unseen phenomena have dramatically expanded our ho...

In presenting the basics of solar heating and hot water systems, this publication is organized from the general to the specific. It begins by presenting functional and operational descriptions of solar heating and domestic hot water systems, outlining the basic concepts and terminology. This is followed by a description of solar energy utilization…

A hybrid solar lighting distribution system and components having at least one hybrid solar concentrator, at least one fiber receiver, at least one hybrid luminaire, and a light distribution system operably connected to each hybrid solar concentrator and each hybrid luminaire. A controller operates all components.

A hybrid solar lighting system and components having at least one hybrid solar concentrator, at least one fiber receiver, at least one hybrid luminaire, and a light distribution system operably connected to each hybrid solar concentrator and each hybrid luminaire. A controller operates each component.

Through the laboratory study of ancient solarsystem materials such as meteorites and comet dust, we can recognize evidence for the same star-formation processes in our own solarsystem as those that we can observe now through telescopes in nearby star-forming regions. High temperature grains formed in the innermost region of the solarsystem ended up much farther out in the solarsystem, not only the asteroid belt but even in the comet accretion region, suggesting a huge and efficient process of mass transport. Bi-polar outflows, turbulent diffusion, and marginal gravitational instability are the likely mechanisms for this transport. The presence of short-lived radionuclides in the early solarsystem, especially (60)Fe, (26)Al, and (41)Ca, requires a nearby supernova shortly before our solarsystem was formed, suggesting that the Sun was formed in a massive star-forming region similar to Orion or Carina. Solarsystem formation may have been "triggered" by ionizing radiation originating from massive O and B stars at the center of an expanding HII bubble, one of which may have later provided the supernova source for the short-lived radionuclides. Alternatively, a supernova shock wave may have simultaneously triggered the collapse and injected the short-lived radionuclides. Because the Sun formed in a region where many other stars were forming more or less contemporaneously, the bi-polar outflows from all such stars enriched the local region in interstellar silicate and oxide dust. This may explain several observed anomalies in the meteorite record: a near absence of detectable (no extreme isotopic properties) presolar silicate grains and a dichotomy in the isotope record between (26)Al and nucleosynthetic (nonradiogenic) anomalies.

This volume in the Greenwood Guides to the Universe series covers asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets-those small bodies that revolve the Sun-and provides readers with the most up-to-date understanding of the current state of scientific knowledge about them. Scientifically sound, but written with the student in mind, Asteroids, Comets, and Dwarf Planets is an excellent first step for researching the exciting scientific discoveries of the smallest celestial bodies in the solarsystem.||The book will introduce students to all of the areas of research surrounding the subject, answering many intr

Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) collected in the Earth's stratosphere derive from collisions among asteroids and by the disruption and outgassing of short-period comets. Chondritic porous (CP) IDPs are among the most primitive SolarSystem materials. CP-IDPs have been linked to cometary parent bodies by their mineralogy, textures, C-content, and dynamical histories. CP-IDPs are fragile, fine-grained (less than um) assemblages of anhydrous amorphous and crystalline silicates, oxides and sulfides bound together by abundant carbonaceous material. Ancient silicate, oxide, and SiC stardust grains exhibiting highly anomalous isotopic compositions are abundant in CP-IDPs, constituting 0.01 - 1 % of the mass of the particles. The organic matter in CP-IDPs is isotopically anomalous, with enrichments in D/H reaching 50x the terrestrial SMOW value and 15N/14N ratios up to 3x terrestrial standard compositions. These anomalies are indicative of low T (10-100 K) mass fractionation in cold molecular cloud or the outermost reaches of the protosolar disk. The organic matter shows distinct morphologies, including sub-um globules, bubbly textures, featureless, and with mineral inclusions. Infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry studies of organic matter in IDPs reveals diverse species including aliphatic and aromatic compounds. The organic matter with the highest isotopic anomalies appears to be richer in aliphatic compounds. These materials also bear similarities and differences with primitive, isotopically anomalous organic matter in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The diversity of the organic chemistry, morphology, and isotopic properties in IDPs and meteorites reflects variable preservation of interstellar/primordial components and SolarSystem processing. One unifying feature is the presence of sub-um isotopically anomalous organic globules among all primitive materials, including IDPs, meteorites, and comet Wild-2 samples returned by the Stardust mission.

During the planet formation process, billions of comets are created and ejected into interstellar space. The detection and characterization of such interstellar comets (ICs) (also known as extra-solar planetesimals or extra-solarcomets) would give us in situ information about the efficiency and properties of planet formation throughout the galaxy. However, no ICs have ever been detected, despite the fact that their hyperbolic orbits would make them readily identifiable as unrelated to the solarsystem. Moro-Martín et al. have made a detailed and reasonable estimate of the properties of the IC population. We extend their estimates of detectability with a numerical model that allows us to consider “close” ICs, e.g., those that come within the orbit of Jupiter. We include several constraints on a “detectable” object that allow for realistic estimates of the frequency of detections expected from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) and other surveys. The influence of several of the assumed model parameters on the frequency of detections is explored in detail. Based on the expectation from Moro-Martín et al., we expect that LSST will detect 0.001-10 ICs during its nominal 10 year lifetime, with most of the uncertainty from the unknown number density of small (nuclei of ˜0.1-1 km) ICs. Both asteroid and comet cases are considered, where the latter includes various empirical prescriptions of brightening. Using simulated LSST-like astrometric data, we study the problem of orbit determination for these bodies, finding that LSST could identify their orbits as hyperbolic and determine an ephemeris sufficiently accurate for follow-up in about 4-7 days. We give the hyperbolic orbital parameters of the most detectable ICs. Taking the results into consideration, we give recommendations to future searches for ICs.

The distinction between asteroids and comets, is based in their observational qualities rather than in their orbital characteristics. Comets show activity when they reach the interior SolarSystem. Asteroids from the outer Belt, may have compound of the same volatile material, dust and organic molecules than comets, but they didn't approach enough to the Sun, to show activity. From the compositional point of view, it is a bit arbitrary or at least difficult to distinguish between asteroids from the external main belt and comets. The firsts may be very similar to comets, or at least be objects of intermediate characteristics. The Hildas asteroids, in 3:2 mean motion with Jupiter, have great quantity of volatiles. The main source of Jupiter Family Comets (JFC) is the transneptunian region, but less than 10 % of them comes from the Troyan swarms. In this article we study the Hilda family as another probable source of JFC. We perform numerical simulations and follow the dynamical evolution of Hildas escaped from the resonance. From the 391 particles that escaped from the resonance, 386 (98.7 %) live at least for 1000 years as JFC. The mean life time in this zone is 1.4 × 106 years. The escape rate of an Hilda asteroid, with diameter D greater than 1 km. Is 1.1 × 10-4, so, there is 65 Hildas with D > 1km. (the typical size of a comet) in the JFC region. Therefore, the contribution of Hilda asteroids to the population of comets is important.

This book provides a comprehensive analysis of various solar based hydrogen production systems. The book covers first-law (energy based) and second-law (exergy based) efficiencies and provides a comprehensive understanding of their implications. It will help minimize the widespread misuse of efficiencies among students and researchers in energy field by using an intuitive and unified approach for defining efficiencies. The book gives a clear understanding of the sustainability and environmental impact analysis of the above systems. The book will be particularly useful for a clear understanding

Recent JPL absolute excitation and charge exchange cross sections, and measurements of lifetimes of metastable levels in highly-charged ions (HCIs) are reported. These data provide benchmark comparisons to results of theoretical calculations. Theoretical approaches can then be used to calculate the vast array of data which cannot be measured due to experimental constraints. Applications to the X-ray emission from comets are given.

Inner SolarSystem bodies are depleted in volatile elements relative to chondrite meteorites, yet the source(s) and mechanism(s) of volatile-element depletion and/or enrichment are poorly constrained. The timing, mechanisms and quantities of volatile elements present in the early inner SolarSystem have vast implications for diverse processes, from planetary differentiation to the emergence of life. We report major, trace and volatile-element contents of a glass bead derived from the D'Orbigny angrite, the hydrogen isotopic composition of this glass bead and that of coexisting olivine and silicophosphates, and the 207Pb-206Pb age of the silicophosphates, 4568 ± 20 Ma. We use volatile saturation models to demonstrate that the angrite parent body must have been a major body in the early inner SolarSystem. We further show via mixing calculations that all inner SolarSystem bodies accreted volatile elements with carbonaceous chondrite H and N isotope signatures extremely early in SolarSystem history. Only a small portion (if any) of comets and gaseous nebular H species contributed to the volatile content of the inner SolarSystem bodies. This article is part of the themed issue 'The origin, history and role of water in the evolution of the inner SolarSystem'.

We study the influence of outer SolarSystem architecture on the structural evolution of the Oort Cloud (OC) and the flux of Earth-crossing comets. In particular, we seek to quantify the role of the giant planets as "planetary protectors". To do so, we have run simulations in each of four different planetary mass configurations to understand the significance of each of the giant planets. Because the outer planets modify the structure of the OC throughout its formation, we integrate each simulation over the full age of the SolarSystem. Over this time, we follow the evolution of cometary orbits from their starting point in the protoplanetary disk to their injection into the OC to their possible re-entry into the inner planetary region. We find that the overall structure of the OC, including the location of boundaries and the relative number of comets in the inner and outer parts, does not change significantly between configurations; however, as planetary mass decreases, the trapping efficiency (TE) of comets i...

We propose a novel deep space propulsion method called the Comet Hitchhiker. The concept is to perform momentum exchange with small bodies (i.e., asteroid and comet) using an extendable/retrievable tether and a harpoon. Unlike previously proposed tethered fly-by, the use of extendable tether enables to change the relative speed with a target. Hence Hitchhiker would be a prospective means of providing orbit insertion deltaV, particularly for rendezvous missions to small bodies in the outer SolarSystem such as Kuiper belt objects and Centaurs, which are not easily manageable with chemical propulsion or solar electric propulsion. Furthermore, by applying regenerative brake during a hitchhike maneuver, a Hitchhiker can harvest energy. The stored energy can be used to make a departure from the target by quickly retrieving the tether, which we call a inverse hitchhike maneuver. By repeating hitchhike and inverse Hitchhike maneuvers, a Hitchhiker could perform a mission to rendezvous with multiple targets efficiently, which we call a multi-hitchhike mission. We derive the basic equation of Hitchhiker, namely the Space Hitchhike Equation, which relates the specific strength and mass fraction of tether to achievable ?V. We then perform detailed feasibility analysis through finite element simulations of tether as well as hypervelocity impact simulations of the harpoon using the Adaptive Mesh Refinement Objected-oriented C++ (AMROC) algorithm. The analysis results suggest that a hitchhike maneuver with deltaV = approximately 1.5km/s is feasible with flight proven materials such as Kevlar/Zylon tether and tungsten harpoon. A carbon nanotube tether, combined with diamond harpoon, would enable approximately 10 km/s hitchhike maneuver. Finally, we present two particular mission scenarios for Hitchhiker: Pluto rendezvous and a multi-hitchhike mission to the Themis family asteroids in the main belt.

We propose a novel deep space propulsion method called the Comet Hitchhiker. The concept is to perform momentum exchange with small bodies (i.e., asteroid and comet) using an extendable/retrievable tether and a harpoon. Unlike previously proposed tethered fly-by, the use of extendable tether enables to change the relative speed with a target. Hence Hitchhiker would be a prospective means of providing orbit insertion deltaV, particularly for rendezvous missions to small bodies in the outer SolarSystem such as Kuiper belt objects and Centaurs, which are not easily manageable with chemical propulsion or solar electric propulsion. Furthermore, by applying regenerative brake during a hitchhike maneuver, a Hitchhiker can harvest energy. The stored energy can be used to make a departure from the target by quickly retrieving the tether, which we call a inverse hitchhike maneuver. By repeating hitchhike and inverse Hitchhike maneuvers, a Hitchhiker could perform a mission to rendezvous with multiple targets efficiently, which we call a multi-hitchhike mission. We derive the basic equation of Hitchhiker, namely the Space Hitchhike Equation, which relates the specific strength and mass fraction of tether to achievable ?V. We then perform detailed feasibility analysis through finite element simulations of tether as well as hypervelocity impact simulations of the harpoon using the Adaptive Mesh Refinement Objected-oriented C++ (AMROC) algorithm. The analysis results suggest that a hitchhike maneuver with deltaV = approximately 1.5km/s is feasible with flight proven materials such as Kevlar/Zylon tether and tungsten harpoon. A carbon nanotube tether, combined with diamond harpoon, would enable approximately 10 km/s hitchhike maneuver. Finally, we present two particular mission scenarios for Hitchhiker: Pluto rendezvous and a multi-hitchhike mission to the Themis family asteroids in the main belt.

A large variety of solar combi systems are on the market, but it is still too early to draw conclusions on optimum design of solar combi systems. Among others, the following questions need to be answered: Is an external domestic hot water preparation more desirable than an internal? What...... is the advantage by using inlet stratifiers? To answer the questions, theoretical investigations are carried out for differently designed solar combi systems. The work is carried out within the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme of the International Energy Agency (IEA SHC), Task 32 Advanced storage concepts...... for solar houses and low energy buildings....

Context. We investigate the formation and evolution of comet nuclei and other trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) in the solar nebula and primordial disk prior to the giant planet orbit instability foreseen by the Nice model. Aims: Our goal is to determine whether most observed comet nuclei are primordial rubble-pile survivors that formed in the solar nebula and young primordial disk or collisional rubble piles formed later in the aftermath of catastrophic disruptions of larger parent bodies. We also propose a concurrent comet and TNO formation scenario that is consistent with observations. Methods: We used observations of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by the ESA Rosetta spacecraft, particularly by the OSIRIS camera system, combined with data from the NASA Stardust sample-return mission to comet 81P/Wild 2 and from meteoritics; we also used existing observations from ground or from spacecraft of irregular satellites of the giant planets, Centaurs, and TNOs. We performed modeling of thermophysics, hydrostatics, orbit evolution, and collision physics. Results: We find that thermal processing due to short-lived radionuclides, combined with collisional processing during accretion in the primordial disk, creates a population of medium-sized bodies that are comparably dense, compacted, strong, heavily depleted in supervolatiles like CO and CO2; they contain little to no amorphous water ice, and have experienced extensive metasomatism and aqueous alteration due to liquid water. Irregular satellites Phoebe and Himalia are potential representatives of this population. Collisional rubble piles inherit these properties from their parents. Contrarily, comet nuclei have low density, high porosity, weak strength, are rich in supervolatiles, may contain amorphous water ice, and do not display convincing evidence of in situ metasomatism or aqueous alteration. We outline a comet formation scenario that starts in the solar nebula and ends in the primordial disk, that reproduces these

Polarimetry is currently enjoying a rejuvenation in planetary, astrophysical and exobiology applications from characterization of various solarsystem objects (planetary atmospheres, comets, satellites, ring systems, asteroids, dust, etc.) to detection and characterization of exoplanets and identification of biological markers. Although ground-based observations of the planets and their satellites are restricted to small phase angles, important results have been obtained with polarimetry. Incident starlight is linearly polarized by planetary atmospheres due to multiple light scattering by atmospheric aerosols and hazes (sulphuric acid on Venus; dust storms and ice clouds on Mars; variations in hydrocarbon hazes from equator to poles on Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus). In Saturn's rings, anisotropic multiple scattering effects are observed and exhibit variations often in few days or weeks, with mutual interactions and gravitational resulting in organized structures. The curves of polarization for atmosphereless SolarSystem objects (such as the Moon, planetary satellites and asteroids) are diagnostic of the micro-texture of the surface, and demonstrate that most of them have their surfaces covered with a regolith of fine material, a function of particle size and regolith packing density. These properties are a function of the composition of the parent bodies. An example is the recent discovery of a class of large inversion angle asteroids, displaying spinel features in their spectra and indicative of the oldest surfaces in the SolarSystem. Linear and circular polarization of comets provides information about the composition and wavelength dependence of the dust, indicative of new, active comets vs. older comets. Measuring the degree of linear polarization can diagnose physical conditions of the scattering surface and is complementary to photometry and spectroscopy for the remote analysis of small solarsystem objects. In addition, measuring the linear

Two comets were observed with EUVE in late 1994. Both comet Mueller and comet Borrelly are short-period comets having well established orbital elements and accurate ephemerides. Spectra of 40 ksec were taken of each. No evidence for emission lines from either Helium or Neon was detected. We calculated limits on the production rates of these atoms (relative to solar) assuming a standard isotropic outflow model, with a gas streaming speed of 1 km/s. The 3-sigma (99.7% confidence) limits (1/100,000 for He, 0.8 for Ne) are based on a conservative estimate of the noise in the EUVE spectra. They are also weakly dependent on the precise pointing and tracking of the EUVE field of view relative to the comet during the integrations. These limits are consistent with ice formation temperatures T greater than or equal to 30 K, as judged from the gas trapping experiments of Bar-Nun. For comparison, the solar abundances of these elements are He/O = 110, Ne/O = 1/16. Neither limit was as constraining as we had initially hoped, mainly because comets Mueller and Borrelly were intrinsically less active than anticipated.

XMM-Newton and Chandra have revealed the multiplicity of X-ray emissions from planets, comets and minor bodies in our solarsystem. This presentation will review the main findings so far and will look forward to the unique contributions that XMM-Newton can continue to provide in solarsystem exploration. As a prime example, Jupiter's polar regions show bright soft X-ray aurorae with a line-rich spectrum arising from charge exchange interactions of atmospheric neutrals with local and/or solar wind high charge-state heavy ions. At energies above ˜3 keV the auroral X-ray spectrum is featureless, pointing to an origin from electron bremsstrahlung. Jupiter's atmosphere scatters solar X-rays, so that the planet's disk displays an X-ray spectrum that closely resembles that of solar flares. The arrival of Juno at Jupiter this July will enable in situ measurements simultaneous with XMM-Newton observations, offering unique opportunities to validate models developed to describe the planet's behaviour. Unlike Jupiter, Mars and Venus lack a strong magnetic field, yet they show X-ray emissions from their disks and exospheres, via solar X-ray scattering and charge exchange. Future XMM-Newton observations of solarsystem targets, under different solar activity conditions, will provide ever deeper insights into their close relationships with their parent star.

The paper describes the ongoing research project “Competitive solar heating systems for residential buildings”. The aim of the project is to develop competitive solar combisystems which are attractive to buyers. The solar combisystems must be attractive compared to traditional energy systems, both....... In Denmark and Norway the focus is on solar heating/natural gas systems, and in Sweden and Latvia the focus is on solar heating/pellet systems. Additionally, Lund Institute of Technology and University of Oslo are studying solar collectors of various types being integrated into the roof and facade......, are the universities: Technical University of Denmark, Dalarna University, University of Oslo, Riga Technical University and Lund Institute of Technology, as well as the companies: Metro Therm A/S (Denmark), Velux A/S (Denmark), Solentek AB (Sweden) and SolarNor (Norway). The project consists of a number of Ph...

The Moon is an archive of impact cratering in the SolarSystem throughout the past 4.5 billion years. It preserves this record better than larger, more complex planets like the Earth, Mars and Venus, which have largely lost their ancient crusts through geological reprocessing and hydrospheric/atmospheric weathering. Identifying the parent bodies of impactors (i.e. asteroid bodies, comets from the Kuiper belt or the Oort Cloud) provides geochemical and chronological constraints for models of SolarSystem dynamics, helping to better inform our wider understanding of the evolution of the SolarSystem and the transfer of small bodies between planets. In this review article, we discuss the evidence for populations of impactors delivered to the Moon at different times in the past. We also propose approaches to the identification and characterisation of meteoritic material on the Moon in the context of future lunar exploration efforts.

The Moon is an archive of impact cratering in the SolarSystem throughout the past 4.5 billion years. It preserves this record better than larger, more complex planets like the Earth, Mars and Venus, which have largely lost their ancient crusts through geological reprocessing and hydrospheric/atmospheric weathering. Identifying the parent bodies of impactors (i.e. asteroid bodies, comets from the Kuiper belt or the Oort Cloud) provides geochemical and chronological constraints for models of SolarSystem dynamics, helping to better inform our wider understanding of the evolution of the SolarSystem and the transfer of small bodies between planets. In this review article, we discuss the evidence for populations of impactors delivered to the Moon at different times in the past. We also propose approaches to the identification and characterisation of meteoritic material on the Moon in the context of future lunar exploration efforts.

Future solar and hydrogen hybrid systems are discussed in terms of the evolving hydrogen economy. The focus is on distributed hydrogen, relying on the same distributed-energy strengths of solar-photovoltaic electricity in the built environment. Solar-hydrogen residences, as well as solar parks, are presented. Landarea issues are evaluated, and the economics and potential of these approaches are examined in terms of roadmap predictions on PV and hydrogen pathways. (orig.)

Comets have been invoked in numerous studies as a potentially important source of dust and gas around stars, but none has studied the thermo-physical evolution, out-gassing rate, and dust ejection of these objects in such stellar systems. We investigate the thermo-physical evolution of comets in exo-planetary systems in order to provide valuable theoretical data required to interpret observations of gas and dust. We use a quasi 3D model of cometary nucleus to study the thermo-physical evolution of comets evolving around a single star from 0.1 to 50 AU, whose homogeneous luminosity varies from 0.1 to 70 solar luminosities. This paper provides mass ejection, lifetimes, and the rate of dust and water gas mass productions for comets as a function of the distance to the star and stellar luminosity. Results show significant physical changes to comets at high stellar luminosities. The models are presented in such a manner that they can be readily applied to any planetary system. By considering the examples of the So...

Systems analysis activities at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) related to energy storage in solar applications are described, and the purpose, methods and, where available, the results of each study are summarized. Areas of investigation include storage of electrical and thermal energy in solar total energy systems, a theoretical investigation of the value of storage, and the national fuel displacement potential of semi-passive solar storage walls. Investigations of the cost effectiveness of a spectrum of passive solar storage devices and the value of several possible improvements in these devices constitutes BNL's contribution to the Solar Applications Analysis for Energy Storage (SAAES) project.

Based on the calculation of the single-factor impact values of the parameters of a triple stage tower-type of solar desalination unit by utilizing a single-factor analyzing method, the influences of the cost of solar heating system, the cost of hot water tank, the costs of desalination unit...... and yearly electrical power, the life time of solar desalination unit and the yearly yield of fresh water, on the cost of the fresh water production of the solar desalination unit are studied. It is helpful to do the further investigation on solar desalination systems for reducing the cost of fresh water...

The work accomplished by the Aerospace Corporation from April 1973 through November 1979 in the mission analysis of solar thermal power systems is summarized. Sponsorship of this effort was initiated by the National Science Foundation, continued by the Energy Research and Development Administration, and most recently directed by the United States Department of Energy, Division of Solar Thermal Systems. Major findings and conclusions are sumarized for large power systems, small power systems, solar total energy systems, and solar irrigation systems, as well as special studies in the areas of energy storage, industrial process heat, and solar fuels and chemicals. The various data bases and computer programs utilized in these studies are described, and tables are provided listing financial and solar cost assumptions for each study. An extensive bibliography is included to facilitate review of specific study results and methodology.

I show that the size-distribution of small scattered-disk trans-neptunian objects when derived from the observed size-distribution of Jupiter Family comets (JFCs) and other observational constraints implies that a large percentage (94-97%) of newly arrived active comets within a range of 0.2-15.4 km effective radius must physically disrupt, i.e., macroscopically disintegrate, within their median dynamical lifetime. Additional observational constraints include the numbers of dormant and active nuclei in the near-Earth object (NEO) population and the slope of their size distributions. I show that the cumulative power-law slope (-2.86 to -3.15) of the scattered-disk TNO hot population between 0.2 and 15.4 km effective radius is only weakly dependent on the size-dependence of the otherwise unknown disruption mechanism. Evidently, as JFC nuclei from the scattered disk evolve into the inner SolarSystem only a fraction achieve dormancy while the vast majority of small nuclei (e.g., primarily those with effective radius Morbidelli, A., Dones, L., Jedicke, R., Wiegert, P.A., Bottke Jr., W.F. [2002]. Science 296, 2212-2215) suggesting that all types of comet nuclei may have similar structural characteristics even though they may have different source regions and thermal histories. The typical disruption rate for a 1 km radius active nucleus is ∼5 × 10-5 disruptions/year and the dormancy rate is typically 3 times less. We also estimate that average fragmentation rates range from 0.01 to 0.04 events/year/comet, somewhat above the lower limit of 0.01 events/year/comet observed by Chen and Jewitt (Chen, J., Jewitt, D.C. [1994]. Icarus 108, 265-271).

Although high-resolution spectra of the CN red-system band are considered useful in cometary sciences, e.g., in the study of isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen in cometary volatiles, there have been few reports to date due to the lack of high-resolution (R ≡ λ/Δλ > 20,000) spectrographs in the near-infrared region around ˜1 μm. Here, we present the high-resolution emission spectrum of the CN red-system band in comet C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy), acquired by the near-infrared high-resolution spectrograph WINERED mounted on the 1.3 m Araki telescope at the Koyama Astronomical Observatory, Kyoto, Japan. We applied our fluorescence excitation models for CN, based on modern spectroscopic studies, to the observed spectrum of comet C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy) to search for CN isotopologues (13C14N and 12C15N). We used a CN fluorescence excitation model involving both a “pure” fluorescence excitation model for the outer coma and a “fully collisional” fluorescence excitation model for the inner coma region. Our emission model could reproduce the observed 12C14N red-system band of comet C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy). The derived mixing ratio between the two excitation models was 0.94(+0.02/-0.03):0.06(+0.03/-0.02), corresponding to the radius of the collision-dominant region of ˜800-1600 km from the nucleus. No isotopologues were detected. The observed spectrum is consistent, within error, with previous estimates in comets of 12C/13C (˜90) and 14N/15N (˜150).

Comet Halley is currently approaching the inner solarsystem. Four spacecrafts (NASA's spacecraft, two Russian Vega probes and the Japanese MS-T5 spacecraft) have already been launched to encounter the comet in March 1986. Two additional Halley probes (the European Giotto spacecraft and another Japanese Planet-A probe) will be launched in mid-85 to join the armada. Observations of dust emissions from Halley's Comet are discussed. The evaporation of cometary ices causes the emission of particulates from the nucleus. These observations will be used to determine the fly-by strategy of the Giotto spacecraft by taking into account the distribution of dust in the vicinity of the nucleus and the associated hazard for the space mission.

Procedures that could be followed for cooperative agreements between countries with large ground station antennas to help provide mission telemetry support for increasing solarsystem exploration are outlined. It is noted that mission cost reductions, and thereby greater chances that missions will be approved, are offered by the opportunity to make planetary probes multinational efforts. The Canberra station is a suitable site for the Japanese Planet A Halley's comet intercept probe. The French have requested U.S. cooperation in developing VLBI stations in the L-band to receive signals from the Venus balloons and landers being sent as part of a joint French-Soviet mission to Venus and Halley's comet. The construction of the stations would extend the capabilities already present with NASA's deep space network, particularly for tracking the Voyager visits to Uranus and Neptune.

In the development and utilization of new energy sources, the solar energy and wind energy are paid more attention by various countries, and have become a new field of energy development and utilization of the highest level, the most mature technology, the most widely used and commercial development conditions for new energy. But both the traditional wind power system and solar power system have the characteristic of energy instability. Therefore, wind-solar hybrid power system was proposed i...

The Large UV/Optical/IR (LUVOIR) Surveyor is one of four mission concepts under study as a next-generation space observatory in the post Webb Telescope era. LUVOIR is envisioned as a large, 10 m class, remotely serviceable observatory with a suite of advanced-technology instruments designed to leap beyond the current generation of space-based telescopes to explore fundamental astrophysical phenomena on all scales. A 24-member science and technology definition team (STDT) represents all sectors of the astronomy and technologist communities, and it is charged with identifying the observational challenges best addressed with LUVOIR and the instrumental innovations that are required to achieve them.This presentation describes the developing science case for LUVOIR as a SolarSystem observatory for the study of Sun-planet interactions, thick and sublimation based atmospheres, the small body populations in the inner and outer solarsystem, surface volatility, and planet/satellite surfaces. We will provide an overview of several key science and technical drivers for each scientific target and how they can be addressed with a LUVOIR facility. We also solicit community input to refine these individual programs and to identify additional areas of emphasis in the development of a final report to NASA.

In 2004, Big Bear Solar Observatory in California, USA launched a project for construction of the world's largest aperture solar telescope (D = 1.6m) called New Solar Telescope(NST). University of Hawaii (UH) and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute(KASI) partly collaborate on the project. NST is a designed off-axis parabolic Gregorian reflector with very high spatial resolution(0.07 arcsec at 5000A) and is equipped with several scientific instruments such as Visible Imaging Magnetograph (VIM), InfraRed Imaging Magnetograph IRIM), and so on. Since these scientific instruments are focused on studies of the solar photosphere, we need a post-focus instrument for the NST to study the fine structures and dynamic patterns of the solar chromosphere and low Transition Region (TR) layer, including filaments/prominences, spicules, jets, micro flares, etc. For this reason, we developed and installed a fast imaging solar spectrograph(FISS) system on the NST withadvantages of achieving compact design with high spectral resolution and small aberration as well as recording many solar spectral lines in a single and/or dual band mode. FISS was installed in May, 2010 and now we carry out a test observation. In this talk, we introduce the FISS system and the results of the test observation after FISS installation.

Close approach comets (SolarSystem formation. A low-risk, versatile, multispectral camera with integrated filters in a 6U spacecraft bus is capable of high spatial resolution mapping of the four primary volatile species CO2, H2O, CO, and organics. Simultaneous mmapping of these bands and two thermal channels will enable studying the dynamical activity of the nucleus. Assuming deployment from a launch platform above the Earth's gravity well, we find intercept trajectories using current propulsion systems.

Solar thermal power plants collect solar heat by means of collectors. Thus, solar thermal power plants support the heating and supply warm water for the showers. The implementation of solar thermal power plants is interesting especially for the exchange of the heating system as well as in the new house.

The original presence on cometary nuclei of frozen volatiles such as methane, ammonia and water makes them ideal sites for the formation and condensed-phase polymerization of hydrogen cyanide. We propose that the non-volatile black crust of comet Halley consists largely of such polymers. Dust emanating from Halley's nucleus, contributing to the coma and tail, would also arise partly from these solids. Indeed, secondary species such as CN have been widely detected, as well as HCN itself and particles consisting only of H, C and N. Our continuing investigations suggest that the yellow-orange-brown-black polymers are of two types: ladder structures with conjugated -C=N- bonds, and polyamidines readily converted by water to polypeptides. These easily formed macromolecules could be major components of the dark matter observed on the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn, as well as on outer solarsystem bodies such as asteroids, moons and other comets. Implications for prebiotic chemistry are profound. Primitive Earth may have been covered by HCN polymers either through cometary bombardment or by terrestrial happenings of the kind that brought about the black crust of Halley. The resulting proteinaceous matrix could have promoted the molecular interactions leading to the emergence of life.

CN radical has the strong electronic transition moments in optical wavelength region and CN has extensively observed in comets. Especially, the CN violet system (B2Σ+—X2Σ+) has been observed by using high-resolution spectroscopic technique in order to infer the isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen in comets via 12C14N, 13C14N and 12C15N. However, the wavelength range for this system (~388 nm) is severely extinct if a comet is close to the Sun (we have to observe the comet at low elevations from the ground-based observatories). On the other hand, CN radical also has the strong electronic transition in near-infrared (~1.1 microns), the CN red system (A2Πi—X2Σ+). Although there are few reports on the high-resolution spectra of this band in comets, this wavelength region is not severely affected by the telluric extinction and considered as the new window for the observations of the carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios in comets.High resolution near-infrared spectra of comet C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy) using the WINERED (R~3x104) spectrometer mounted on the 1.3-m Araki telescope at Koyama Astronomical Observatory were acquired on UT 2013 Nov 30. The heliocentric and geocentric distances were 0.91 AU and 0.49 AU, respectively. We detected strong emission lines of the CN red system (0,0) at around 1.1 microns. The rotational line intensities of this band approximately follow the Boltzmann distribution at ~300K for our observations. We present the detailed analysis of the CN red system in comet C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy) and discuss about the isotopic ratios in CN.This research program is supported by the MEXT --- Supported Program for the Strategic Research Foundation at Private Universities, 2014 - 2018 and partially supported by JSPS, 15J10864.

We study the dynamics of large dust grains >1 micron with orbits outside of the heliosphere (beyond 250 AU). Motion of the SolarSystem through the interstellar medium (ISM) at a velocity of 26 km/s subjects these particles to gas and Coulomb drag (grains are expected to be photoelectrically charged) as well as the Lorentz force and the electric force caused by the induction electric field. We show that to zeroth order the combined effect of these forces can be well described in the framework of the classical Stark problem: particle motion in a Keplerian potential subject to an additional constant force. Based on this analogy, we elucidate the circumstances in which the motion becomes unbound, and show that under local ISM conditions dust grains smaller than ~100 microns originating in the Oort Cloud (e.g. in collisions of comets) beyond 10000 AU are ejected from the SolarSystem under the action of the electric force. Orbital motion of larger, bound grains is described analytically using the orbit-averaged H...

, as well as with normal flat-plate collectors was calculated under Danish weather conditions. It is found that, for small SDHW systems with a combi tank design, an increase of 25% -55% net utilized solar energy can be achieved by using these evacuated tubular collectors instead of normal flat......-plate collectors. For solar heating plants, the yearly energy output from these evacuated tubular collectors is about 40%-90% higher than the output from typical flat-plate collectors at an operation temperature of about 50°C.......Recently different designed evacuated tubular solar collectors were introduced on the market by different Chinese companies. In the present study, investigations on the performance of four different Chinese evacuated tubular collectors and of solar heating systems using these collectors were...

Life as we know it requires water in contact with a rocky planetary surface. In the SolarSystem, water and other volatiles must have been delivered to a dry Earth from planetesimals, where asteroids in the outer main belt and Jupiter-Saturn region are excellent candidates. The first extrasolar analog of these rocky and water-rich planetesimals was reported between ESS II and III (Farihi et al. 2013, Science, 342, 218), and there is now evidence for additional examples. These results imply an underlying population of large, extrasolar planetesimals formed near a snow line, and suggesting a common mechanism for water delivery to habitable exoplanets.I will present Hubble, Spitzer, and ground-based data that demonstrate the confirmed and likely water-rich nature of exo-asteroids identified in a growing number of white dwarf planetary systems. These extreme solarsystems formed and evolved around A-type (and similar) stars -- now firmly retired -- and the asteroid debris now orbits and pollutes the white dwarf with heavy elements, including oxygen in excess of that expected for oxide minerals. The abundance patterns are also carbon-poor, indicating the parent bodies were not icy planetesimals analogous to comets, but instead similar in overall composition to asteroids in the outer main belt.Importantly, these remnant exoplanetary systems imply architectures similar to the SolarSystem, where a giant planet exterior to a snow line perturbs rocky asteroids on the interior. Thus, they appear to share basic characteristics with HR 8799, Vega, Fomalhaut, and epsilon Eridani where two disks of debris are separated by giant planet(s), with one belt near the snow line. If such archictectures are as common as implied by polluted white dwarfs, then at least 30% of 1.2-3.0 Msun stars have both the tools and ingredentients for water delivery in their terrestrial planet zones.

CINE calculates infrared pumping efficiencies that can be applied to the most common molecules found in cometary comae such as water, hydrogen cyanide or methanol. One of the main mechanisms for molecular excitation in comets is the fluorescence by the solar radiation followed by radiative decay to the ground vibrational state. This command-line tool calculates the effective pumping rates for rotational levels in the ground vibrational state scaled by the heliocentric distance of the comet. Fluorescence coefficients are useful for modeling rotational emission lines observed in cometary spectra at sub-millimeter wavelengths. Combined with computational methods to solve the radiative transfer equations based, e.g., on the Monte Carlo algorithm, this model can retrieve production rates and rotational temperatures from the observed emission spectrum.

This report presents a graphical methodology for the preliminary evaluation of solar thermal energy plants by Air Force base civil engineers. The report is organized as a Guidebook with worksheets and nomograms provided for rapid estimation of solar collector area, land area, energy output, and thermal power output of a solar thermal plant. Flat plate, evacuated tube, parabolic trough, and parabolic dish solar thermal technologies are considered.

Comets often display narrow dust jets but more diffuse gas comae when their eccentric orbits bring them into the inner solarsystem and sunlight sublimates the ice on the nucleus. Comets are also understood to have one or more active areas covering only a fraction of the total surface active with sublimating volatile ices. Calculations of the gas and dust distribution from a small active area on a comet's nucleus show that as the gas moves out radially into the vacuum of space it expands tangentially, filling much of the hemisphere centered on the active region. The dust dragged by the gas remains more concentrated over the active area. This explains some puzzling appearances of comets having collimated dust jets but more diffuse gaseous atmospheres. Our test case is 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, the Rosetta mission target comet, whose activity is dominated by a single area covering only 4% of its surface.

The SolarSystem formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a condensation of matter inside a molecular cloud. Trying to reconstruct what happened is the goal of this chapter. For that, we put together our understanding of Galactic objects that will eventually form new suns and planetary systems, with our knowledge on comets, meteorites and small bodies of the SolarSystem today. Our specific tool is the molecular deuteration, namely the amount of deuterium with respect to hydrogen in molecules. This is the Ariadne's thread that helps us to find the way out from a labyrinth of possible histories of our SolarSystem. The chapter reviews the observations and theories of the deuterium fractionation in pre-stellar cores, protostars, protoplanetary disks, comets, interplanetary dust particles and meteorites and links them together trying to build up a coherent picture of the history of the SolarSystem formation. We emphasise the interdisciplinary nature of the chapter, which gathers together researchers from differe...

Solar energy can be utilized mainly in heat generation and electricity production. International energy agency (IEA) shows, in a comparative study on the world energy consumption that in 2050 solar arrays installation will provide about 45% of world energy demand. Solar energy is one of the most important renewable energy source which plays a great role in providing energy solutions. As known there is wide variety of types of collectors and applications of solar energy. This paper aimed to make a short review on solar energy systems, according to types of collectors and applications used.

Solar energy is rapidly advancing as an important means of renewable energy resource. More energy is produced by tracking the solar panel to remain aligned to the sun at a right angle to the rays of light. This paper describes in detail the design and construction of a prototype for solar tracking system with two degrees of freedom, which detects the sunlight using photocells. The control circuit for the solar tracker is based on a PIC16F84A microcontroller (MCU). This is programmed to detect the sunlight through the photocells and then actuate the motor to position the solar panel where it can receive maximum sunlight.

My proposal is to share my artistic exploration of a comet through the bodily senses, while finding inspiration in scientific data. I will present my artwork as a slideshow, showcasing: large scale paintings, ceramic sculptures, music and interactive augmented reality. The Rosetta mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) to comet 67P/ Churyumov-Gerasimenko is remarkable. The scientific investigation of the comet's composition, atmosphere, dust, vapor, surface and internal structure are crucial to help researchers understand the origin of the solarsystem and our own planet. Sight: Paintings Rosetta mission discovered that the water on the comet is different from the water on Earth; as measured with the ROSINA-DFMS instrument on Rosetta, water on 67P contains approximately 3 times more hydrogen­deuterium oxide - HDO, than found in Earth's oceans. In the art studio I re-create water that is close in composition to the water on the comet, by concentrating the level of HDO. With this water I paint large scale watermedia paintings, based on the photographs by Rosetta (OSIRIS, Nav. Cam.). Touch: Sculptures While exploring the comet's three-dimensional form, I focus more deeply on the composition of the comet. Stoneware clay and my choice of a glaze both include iron oxide, a common constituent of meteorites and comets. Hearing: Music An audio piece "A Singing Comet", by Manuel Senfft, based on the Rosetta Plasma Consortium data, inspired me to make a musical piece. In collaboration with clarinetist Lee Mottram (Wales) and composer Takuto Fukuda (Japan) we created an electro­acoustic composition in which we tell the story of comets visiting our SolarSystem, repeating their cycle, curving around the sun and releasing water, carrying away dust to form their tails. Smell In collaboration with The Open University, UK, postcards with a smell of the comet were created, introducing the chemical components of the comet. The smell was recreated by combining several molecules

showed a good degree of similarity. With the boiler model, various simulations of solar domestic hot water heating systems were done for different hot water demands and collector sizes. The result shows that the potential of fuel reduction can be much higher than the solar gain of the solar thermal...... system. For some conditions the fuel reduction can be up to the double of the solar gain due to a strong increase of the system efficiency. As the monitored boilers were not older than 3 years, it can be assumed that the saving potential with older boilers could be even higher than calculated...

Installation information is given for a solar heating system installed in Concho Indian School at El Reno, Oklahoma. This package includes a system Operation and Maintenance Manual, hardware brochures, schematics, system operating modes and drawings.

Design package for complete residential solar-heating system is given. Includes documents and drawings describing performance design, verification standards, and analysis of system with sufficient information to assemble working system.

Design package for complete residential solar-heating system is given. Includes documents and drawings describing performance design, verification standards, and analysis of system with sufficient information to assemble working system.

The success of the UK policy to reduce carbon emissions is partly dependent on the ability to persuade householders to become more energy efficient, and to encourage installation of domestic solarsystems. Solar power is an innovation in the UK but the current policy of stimulating the market with grants is not resulting in widespread adoption. This case study, using householders in central England, investigates householder attitudes towards characteristics of solarsystems and identifies som...

Full Text Available We present in this paper, the principles of the measurement system for solar radiation, and our implementation using Web based data logging concept. The photocurrent produced by Silicon PN junction is used as a solar radiation transducer, to make it more viable we have used commercially available solar panels as our transducers. Using a silicon solar cell as sensor, a low cost solar radiometer can be constructed. The photocurrent produced by solar cell is electronically tailored to be measured and stored by our web based data acquisition and monitoring system. Measurement using real solar cell array gives a good measure of actual producible energy by solar arrays. Our portable instrument can be used in remote sites and substitutes the solar monitor and integrator, Current data of solar radiation can be monitored using Ethernet interface available in all PC, Laptops. We store the data into a secure digital card which can be retrieved to plot and analyse the data. We have developed system hardware and software based on ATmega32 AVR Microcontrollers and ENC28J60 Ethernet PHY and MAC network interface chip by Microchip. So the global irradiance data are obtained after correction using the instantaneous measurement of ambient temperature which allows us to calculate the junction temperature and consequently improve the precision of measurement of our data acquisition system.

Full Text Available Abstract Background Recently, manufactured nano/microparticles such as fullerenes (C60, carbon black (CB and ceramic fiber are being widely used because of their desirable properties in industrial, medical and cosmetic fields. However, there are few data on these particles in mammalian mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. To examine genotoxic effects by C60, CB and kaolin, an in vitro micronuclei (MN test was conducted with human lung cancer cell line, A549 cells. In addition, DNA damage and mutations were analyzed by in vivo assay systems using male C57BL/6J or gpt delta transgenic mice which were intratracheally instilled with single or multiple doses of 0.2 mg per animal of particles. Results In in vitro genotoxic analysis, increased MN frequencies were observed in A549 cells treated with C60, CB and kaolin in a dose-dependent manner. These three nano/microparticles also induced DNA damage in the lungs of C57BL/6J mice measured by comet assay. Moreover, single or multiple instillations of C60 and kaolin, increased either or both of gpt and Spi- mutant frequencies in the lungs of gpt delta transgenic mice. Mutation spectra analysis showed transversions were predominant, and more than 60% of the base substitutions occurred at G:C base pairs in the gpt genes. The G:C to C:G transversion was commonly increased by these particle instillations. Conclusion Manufactured nano/microparticles, CB, C60 and kaolin, were shown to be genotoxic in in vitro and in vivo assay systems.

The solarsystem's Oort cloud can be perturbed by the Galactic tide and by individual passing stars. These perturbations can inject Oort cloud objects into the inner parts of the solarsystem, where they may be observed as the long-period comets (periods longer than 200 years). Using dynamical simulations of the Oort cloud under the perturbing effects of the tide and 61 known stellar encounters, we investigate the link between long-period comets and encounters. We find that past encounters were responsible for injecting at least 5% of the currently known long-period comets. This is a lower limit due to the incompleteness of known encounters. Although the Galactic tide seems to play the dominant role in producing the observed long-period comets, the non-uniform longitude distribution of the cometary perihelia suggests the existence of strong -- but as yet unidentified -- stellar encounters or other impulses. The strongest individual future and past encounters are probably HIP 89825 (Gliese 710) and HIP 14473, ...

Emphasis in cometary spectroscopy is on production rates, becuase they open the door to more fundamental clues about the origin and the history of the solarsystem, through the understanding of comet chemistry. In order to establish production rates quantitatively, suggestion are provided, in particular: to study the lifetimes of all hypothetical parents, against all processes of decay, namely photodissociations, photoionizations and ion-molecule reactions; and to study the velocity of all molecular fragments resulting from all the decay processes, through the balance sheet of the energy distribution before and after each decay process.

Full Text Available For the storage tank of a solarsystem for domestic hot water production was analyzed the insulation thickness and material influence. To this end, it was considered a private house, occupied by 3 persons, located in zone I of thermal radiation, for which has been simulated the domestic hot water production process. The tank outlet hot water temperature was considered of 45°C. For simulation purposes, as insulation materials for the storage tank were taking into account glass wool and polyurethane with various thicknesses. Finally, was carried out the comparative analysis of two types of tanks, in terms of the insulation thickness influence on the solar fraction, annual solar contribution and solar annual productivity. It resulted that polyurethane is the most advantageous from all points of view.

A novel theory will be presented based in part on astronomical observations, plasma physics experiments, principles of physics and forensic techniques. The new theory correctly predicts planetary distances with a 1% precision. It accounts for energy production mechanism inside all of the planets including our Earth. A log-log mass-luminosity plot of G2 class stars and solarsystem planets results in a straight line plot, whose slope implies that a fission rather than a proton-proton fusion energy production is operating. Furthermore, it is a confirmation that all our planets had originated from within our Sun. Other still-born planets continue to appear on the Sun's surface, they are mislabeled as sunspots.

Oort cloud comet nuclei, especially their interiors, have remained cool enough to retain highly volatile molecules such as CO2, CO, and CH4. At these low temperatures the composition of comet dust remains stable. Thus, observations of comet dust may reveal information on cometary origins, including dust formation processes and the spatial distribution of refractory materials in the early outer SolarSystem. We examine IRTF/BASS, IRTF/MIRSI, Gemini/T-ReCS, and VLT/VISIR mid-infrared spectra of six Oort cloud comets: C/2004 Q2 (Machholz), C/2009 P1 (Garradd), C/2011 L4 (Pan-STARRS), C/2012 F6 (Lemmon), C/2013 US10 (Catalina) (from Woodward et al. in prep.), and C/2014 Q1 (Pan-STARRS). The shapes of their 10-μm silicate bands are similar, trapezoidal with a crystalline silicate peak at 11.2 to 11.3 μm. However, there are some differences on the short-wavelength end of the spectrum, and the relative strengths of the silicate bands vary from 12% to 45% above the pseudo continuum. These variations are due to dust grain size, porosity, and composition. We fit each spectrum with our comet dust thermal model to quantify the relative amounts of the major dust species: "amorphous" silicates, crystalline silicates, and low albedo (e.g., carbonaceous) dust. These results are presented, and comapred to other Oort cloud comets already modeled in the literature in order to better understand the distribution of dust in the comet formation zone.This research was supported by NASA's Planetary Astronomy Program grant NNX13AH67G and at The Aerospace Corporation by the Independent Research and Development program.

Current cometary orbits provide information on their recent dynamical history. However, determining a given comet's formation region from its current dynamical state alone is complicated by radial migration in the proto-planetary disk and by dynamical interactions with the growing giant planets. Because comets reside for long periods of time in the outer SolarSystem, the ices contained in their nuclei (native ices) retain a relatively well-preserved footprint of when and where they formed, and this in turn can provide clues to conditions in the formation epoch. As a comet approaches the Sun, sublimation of its native ices releases parent volatiles into the coma where they can be measured spectroscopically. The past to - 15 years have seen the advent of infrared spectrometers with high sensitivity between about 2.8 and 5.0 micron, enabling a taxonomy among comets based on abundances of parent volatiles (e.g., H2O, CO, CH4, C2H6, HCN, CH30H, H2CO, NH3). Such molecules are of keen interest to Astrobiology, as they include important pre-biotic species that likely were required for the emergence of life on Earth and perhaps elsewhere. Approximately 20 comets have thus far been characterized, beginning with C/1996 82 (Hyakutake) in 1996. Molecular production rates are established through comparison of observed emission line intensities with those predicted by quantum mechanical fluorescence models. Abundances of parent volatiles (relative to H2O) vary among even the relatively small number of comets sampled, with the most volatile species (CO and CH4) displaying the largest variations. Techniques developed for measuring parent volatile abundances in comets will be discussed, as will possible implications for their formation.

Current cometary orbits provide information on their recent dynamical history. However, determining a given comet's formation region from its current dynamical state alone is complicated by radial migration in the proto-planetary disk and by dynamical interactions with the growing giant planets. Because comets reside for long periods of time in the outer SolarSystem, the ices contained in their nuclei (native ices) retain a relatively well-preserved footprint of when and where they formed, and this in turn can provide clues to conditions in the formation epoch. As a comet approaches the Sun, sublimation of its native ices releases parent volatiles into the coma where they can be measured spectroscopically. The past to - 15 years have seen the advent of infrared spectrometers with high sensitivity between about 2.8 and 5.0 micron, enabling a taxonomy among comets based on abundances of parent volatiles (e.g., H2O, CO, CH4, C2H6, HCN, CH30H, H2CO, NH3). Such molecules are of keen interest to Astrobiology, as they include important pre-biotic species that likely were required for the emergence of life on Earth and perhaps elsewhere. Approximately 20 comets have thus far been characterized, beginning with C/1996 82 (Hyakutake) in 1996. Molecular production rates are established through comparison of observed emission line intensities with those predicted by quantum mechanical fluorescence models. Abundances of parent volatiles (relative to H2O) vary among even the relatively small number of comets sampled, with the most volatile species (CO and CH4) displaying the largest variations. Techniques developed for measuring parent volatile abundances in comets will be discussed, as will possible implications for their formation.

Asteroids and other Small SolarSystem Bodies (SSSBs) are currently of great scientific and even industrial interest. Asteroids exist as the permanent record of the formation of the SolarSystem and therefore hold many clues to its understanding as a whole, as well as insights into the formation of planetary bodies. Additionally, SSSBs are being investigated in the context of impact risks for the Earth, space situational awareness and their possible industrial exploitation (asteroid mining). In all these aspects, the knowledge of the geophysical characteristics of SSSB surface and internal structure are of great importance. Given their size, constitution, and the evidence that many SSSBs are not simple monoliths, these bodies should be studied and modelled as self-gravitating granular systems in general, or as granular systems in micro-gravity environments in particular contexts. As such, the study of the geophysical characteristics of SSSBs is a multi-disciplinary effort that lies at the crossroads between Granular Mechanics, Celestial Mechanics, Soil Mechanics, Aerospace Engineering and Computer Sciences.

Full Text Available Asteroids and other Small SolarSystem Bodies (SSSBs are currently of great scientific and even industrial interest. Asteroids exist as the permanent record of the formation of the SolarSystem and therefore hold many clues to its understanding as a whole, as well as insights into the formation of planetary bodies. Additionally, SSSBs are being investigated in the context of impact risks for the Earth, space situational awareness and their possible industrial exploitation (asteroid mining. In all these aspects, the knowledge of the geophysical characteristics of SSSB surface and internal structure are of great importance. Given their size, constitution, and the evidence that many SSSBs are not simple monoliths, these bodies should be studied and modelled as self-gravitating granular systems in general, or as granular systems in micro-gravity environments in particular contexts. As such, the study of the geophysical characteristics of SSSBs is a multi-disciplinary effort that lies at the crossroads between Granular Mechanics, Celestial Mechanics, Soil Mechanics, Aerospace Engineering and Computer Sciences.

this process is almost always accompanied by a significant brightening. For instance, the nucleus of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up into at least 21 individual pieces when it passed very close to Jupiter on July 8, 1992; this was the reason that it became bright enough to be detected some eight months later. In the case of SW-3, the opening of rifts and the subsequent splitting took place far from any planet and must in some way have been caused by increased solar heating. Nevertheless, it is not yet known exactly which physical and chemical processes are involved. It will now be interesting to continue the observations of the individual nuclei as long as possible. From accurate positional measurements, it may later become possible to perform a backwards extrapolation and determine the exact conditions of the splitting process (time, involved forces) and thereby cast more light on the physical aspects of this event. SW-3: Still a Possible Rosetta Target? The break-up of a solarsystem object is a dramatic and relatively rare event. We are here directly witnessing the ageing of a comet, perhaps even the prelude to its death. Earlier measurements indicate that the diameter of SW-3's nucleus is smaller than about 3 kilometres, but since we do not know the size of the pieces that broke off (this may be indicated by how long they will remain active), nor their number (we may only see the largest), we cannot yet determine with any certainty the remaining lifetime of the main nucleus. At the first glance, this seems to indicate that SW-3 must be removed from the list of potential targets for the Rosetta mission - we cannot risk that it no longer exists when the space probe arrives ! On the other hand, due to the break-up there is now a lot of ``fresh'' cometary material on the surface of the nucleus and around it, i.e. matter that has remained unchanged since the beginning of the solarsystem, some 4,500 million years ago. The possibility to gain direct access to a sample of

ATHENA studies of the solarsystem will offer some of the deepest insights in the complex workings of planetary magnetospheres and exospheres; ATHENA will answer many of the questions that have only started to be tackled by Chandra and XMM-Newton and will add in a major way to our understanding of the interactions of space plasmas with magnetised and un-magnetised bodies in the solarsystem. The non-dispersive character of X-IFU spectroscopy will enable Jupiter's auroral and disk X-ray emissions, and that from the Io Plasma Torus, to be mapped spatially and spectrally at high resolution; it will also enable surface composition analysis through fluorescence spectra of the Galilean satellites. ATHENA will establish how planetary exospheres, such as that of Mars, and comets respond to the interaction with the solar wind, in a detailed and global way that other observatories or in situ measurements cannot provide. With its remarkably improved sensitivity over current X-ray telescopes, ATHENA will push the search for auroral X-ray emission on Saturn to much fainter limits, and set very sensitive constraints on Uranus X-ray emission. ATHENA will explore the magnetic interplay between stars and planets in X-rays by searching for X-ray spectral variability over the planet's orbital phases and for systems of different orbital eccentricity, and will investigate ingress/eclipse/egress effects for transiting hot-Jupiter exoplanets; again instrumental to this will be the vastly improved signal-to-noise ratio provided by ATHENA over that achievable by XMM-Newton or Chandra.

Wind loads on solar energy systems are not covered by current wind loading standards. This paper describes results of a parametric study into the wind loads 0on solar energy systems,. which are placed on flat roofs. Wind tunnel measurements have been carried out on a number of configurations. The

Report describes solar heating system composed of warm-air solar collector, logic control unit, and switching and transport unit, that meets government standards for installation in residential dwellings. Text describes system operation and performance specifications complemented by comprehensive set of subcomponent design drawings.

A large variety of solar combi systems are on the market, but it is still too early to draw conclusions on optimum design of solar combi systems. Among others, the following questions need to be answered: Is an external domestic hot water preparation more desirable than an internal? What is the a...

The suitability of the electronically controlled circulation pump type UPE 2000 from Grundfos for large solar heating systems was elucidated.......The suitability of the electronically controlled circulation pump type UPE 2000 from Grundfos for large solar heating systems was elucidated....

Wind loads on solar energy systems are not covered by current wind loading standards. This paper describes results of a parametric study into the wind loads 0on solar energy systems,. which are placed on flat roofs. Wind tunnel measurements have been carried out on a number of configurations. The re

Two general categories are discussed concerning the evolution of the solarsystem: the dualistic view, the planetesimal approach; and the monistic view, the nebular hypothesis. The major points of each view are given and the models that are developed from these views are described. Possible applications of gamma ray astronomical observations to the question of the dynamic evolution of the solarsystem are discussed.

Wind loads on solar energy systems are not covered by current wind loading standards. This paper describes results of a parametric study into the wind loads 0on solar energy systems,. which are placed on flat roofs. Wind tunnel measurements have been carried out on a number of configurations. The re

Report describes solar heating system composed of warm-air solar collector, logic control unit, and switching and transport unit, that meets government standards for installation in residential dwellings. Text describes system operation and performance specifications complemented by comprehensive set of subcomponent design drawings.

102-page report analyzes long-term economic performance of a prepackaged solar energy assembly system at a dormitory installation and extrapolates to four additional sites about the U.S. Method of evaluation is f-chart procedure for solar-heating and domestic hotwater systems.

Solar Thermal Systems summarizes the theoretical and practical knowledge gained from over 20 years of research, implementation and operation of thermal solar installations. This work provides answers to a variety of key questions by examining current solar installations, drawing upon past experiences and making proposals for future planning.- how do system components and materials behave under continuous operation?- which components have proven themselves and how are they used properly?- what are the causes of defects and how can they be avoided?- how long is the service life of modern solar i

This paper discusses some important, though often ignored, technical and economic issues of distributed solar power systems: protection of the utility system and nonsolar customers requires suitable interfaced equipment. Purchase criteria must mirror reality; most analyses use life-cycle costing with low discount rates - most buyers use short payback periods. Distributing, installing, and marketing small, distributed solarsystems is more costly than most analyses estimate. Results show that certain local conditions and uncommon purchase considerations can combine to make small, distributed solar power attractive, but lower interconnect costs (per kW), lower marketing and product distribution costs, and more favorable purchase criteria make large, centralized solar energy more attractive. Specifically, the value of dispersed solarsystems to investors and utilities can be higher than $2000/kw. However, typical residential owners place a value of well under $1000 on the installed system.

Comets provide important clues to the physical and chemical processes that occurred during the formation and early evolution of the SolarSystem, and could also have been important for initiating prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth [I]. Comets are comprised of molecular ices, that may be pristine interstellar remnants of SolarSystem formation, along with high-temperature crystalline silicate dust that is indicative of a more thermally varied history in the protosolar nebula [2]. Comparing abundances of cometary parent volatiles, and isotopic fractionation ratios, to those found in the interstellar medium, in disks around young stars, and between cometary families, is vital to understanding planetary system formation and the processing history experienced by organic matter in the so-called interstellar-comet connection [3]. In the classical picture, the long-period comets probably formed in the nebular disk across the giant planet formation region (5-40 AU) with the majority of them originating from the Uranus-Neptune region. They were subsequently scattered out to the Oort Cloud (OC) by Jupiter. The short-period comets (also known as ecliptic or Jupiter Family Comets - JFC) reside mainly in the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt where they were formed. Given the gradient in physical conditions expected across this region of the nebula, chemical diversity in this comet population is to be expected [4,5]. We have conducted observations of comets I 03P/Hartley 2 (JFC) and C/2009 PI (Garradd) (OC), at primarily millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths, to determine important cosmogonic quantities, such as the ortho:para ratio and isotope ratios, as well as probe the origin of cometary organics and if they vary between the two dynamic reservoirs.

Long before women were allowed to become Fellows of the Royal Society, or obtain university degrees, one woman managed to get her voice heard, her discovery verified and her achievement celebrated. That woman was Caroline Herschel, who, as this paper will discuss, managed to find ways to fit comet discoveries into her domestic life, and present them in ways that were socially acceptable. Caroline lived in a time when strict rules dictated how women (and men) should behave and present themselves and their work. Caroline understood these rules, and used them carefully as she announced each discovery, starting with this comet which she found in 1786. Caroline discovered her comets at a time when astronomers were mainly concerned with position, identifying where things were and how they were moving. Since her discoveries, research has moved on, as astronomers, using techniques from other fields, and most recently sending experiments into space, have learned more about what comets are and what they can tell us about our solarsystem. Caroline's paper marks one small, early step in this much bigger journey to understand comets. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

Full Text Available We present in this paper, the principles of themeasurement system for solar radiation, and ourimplementation using Web based data loggingconcept.The photocurrent produced by Silicon PNjunction is used as a solar radiation transducer, tomake it more viable we have used commerciallyavailable solar panels as our transducers. Using asilicon solar cell as sensor, a low cost solarradiometer can be constructed. The photocurrentproduced by solar cell is electronically tailored to bemeasured and stored by our web based dataacquisition and monitoring system. Measurementusing real solar cell array gives a good measure ofactual producible energy by solar arrays. Ourportable instrument can be used in remote sites andsubstitutes the solar monitor and integrator,Current data of solar radiation can be monitoredusing Ethernet interface available in all PC,Laptops. We store the data into a secure digital cardwhich can be retrieved to plot and analyse the data.We have developed system hardware andsoftware based on ATmega32 AVR Microcontrollersand ENC28J60 Ethernet PHY and MAC networkinterface chip by Microchip.So the global irradiance data are obtained aftercorrection using the instantaneous measurement ofambient temperature which allows us to calculatethe junction temperature and consequently improvethe precision of measurement of our dataacquisition system

SOHO's comet discoveries would be one fewer without a recent bonus from SWAN. This instrument's name unpacks into Solar Wind Anisotropies, and it was provided by the French Service d'Aéronomie and the Finnish Meteorological Institute. SWAN looks away from the Sun to survey atomic hydrogen in the SolarSystem, which glows with ultraviolet light and is altered by the solar wind. The instrument also sees large clouds of hydrogen surrounding comets, produced by the break-up of water molecules evaporating from the comets' ice. In December 1999 the International Astronomical Union retrospectively credited SWAN and SOHO with finding Comet 1997 K2 in SWAN full-sky images from May to July 1997. It made number 93 on the SOHO scorecard. This comet remained outside the orbit of the Earth even at its closest approach to the Sun. Although it was presumably a small, faint comet, the gas cloud grew to a width of more than 4 million kilometres. "The discovery was a surprise," said Teemu Mäkinen, a Finnish member of the SWAN group. "Our normal procedure is to observe hydrogen clouds of comets detected by other people. In that respect, SWAN on SOHO is the most important instrument now available for routinely measuring the release of water vapour from comets." When Comet Wirtanen, the target for ESA's Rosetta mission (2003), made its most recent periodic visit to the Sun, it pumped out water vapour at a rate of 20,000 tons a day, according to the SWAN data. For the great Comet Hale-Bopp the rate reached 20 million tons a day and SWAN watched its hydrogen cloud grow to 70 million kilometres -- by far the largest object ever seen in the SolarSystem.

The Philippines is surrounded by coastal areas and these areas can be a potential source for potable water. This study aims to design and construct a solar powered desalination system using Fresnel lens. The experimental study was conducted using polluted salt water for the sample and desalination was carried out using the designed system. The desalination system was composed of the solar concentrator, solar still and the condenser system. The Fresnel lens was made of acrylic plastic and was an effective solar concentrator. Solar stills made of dark colored glass bottles were effective in absorbing the solar energy. The condenser system made of polybutylene and polystyrene were effective in condensing the vapor at ambient temperature. The shortest time of vaporization of the salt water was at 293 sec and the optimum angle of position of the lens was 36.42°. The amount of condensate collected was directly proportional to the amount of salt water in the solar still. The highest mean efficiency of the designed set-up was 34.82%. The water produced by the solar powered desalination system using Fresnel lens passed the standards set by WHO (World Health Organization) for drinking water.

Prebiotic molecules derive from abiotic organic molecules, radicals, and ions that pervade the universe at temperatures as high as several 1000 K. Here we review the role of organic molecules that condensed at low temperatures before or during comet formation in the early history of the SolarSystem. Recent spacecraft encounters and ground-based observations of carbon-rich volatile and dust components of comet comae provide a broad database for the investigation of these organic molecules. New laboratory data for some potential cometary organics are presented. Probable icy organic constituents of the nucleus and CHON particles as likely candidates for the distributed sources of gas-phase organic species in the coma are discussed. There is broad agreement that many organic molecules observed in the coma originate from the dust that must have existed in the solar nebula at the time and place of comet formation. We conclude that complex organic molecules found in comets may be a source of prebiotic molecules that led to the origins of life.

range of temperatures in cavities and voids at different depths just beneath the crust of a comet. The possibility that liquid water may exist over a wide range of temperatures on comets significantly enhances the possibility that these bodies may harbor niches suitable for microbial communities and ecosystems. Such niches would by ideal for the growth of psychrophilic, mesophilic, and possibly even thermophilic chemolithotrophs and photoautotrophs such as the motile filamentous cyanobacteria (e.g., Calothrix, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, and Spirulina) that can grow in geothermal springs and geysers at temperatures ranging from 320K to 345K and in cold polar desert soils. This paper reviews the observational data in support of the hypothesis that liquid water can exist in permafrost-like active regions just beneath the surface of comets when near perihelion and provides additional arguments in support of the hypothesis that comets, carbonaceous meteorites, and asteroids may have played a significant role in the origin and evolution of the Biosphere and in the distribution of microbial life throughout the SolarSystem.

range of temperatures in cavities and voids at different depths just beneath the crust of a comet. The possibility that liquid water may exist over a wide range of temperatures on comets significantly enhances the possibility that these bodies may harbor niches suitable for microbial communities and ecosystems. Such niches would by ideal for the growth of psychrophilic, mesophilic, and possibly even thermophilic chemolithotrophs and photoautotrophs such as the motile filamentous cyanobacteria (e.g., Calothrix, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, and Spirulina) that can grow in geothermal springs and geysers at temperatures ranging from 320K to 345K and in cold polar desert soils. This paper reviews the observational data in support of the hypothesis that liquid water can exist in permafrost-like active regions just beneath the surface of comets when near perihelion and provides additional arguments in support of the hypothesis that comets, carbonaceous meteorites, and asteroids may have played a significant role in the origin and evolution of the Biosphere and in the distribution of microbial life throughout the SolarSystem.

The main features of 1P/Halley chaotic dynamics can be described by a two dimensional symplectic map. Using Mel'nikov integral we semi-analytically determine such a map for 1P/Halley taking into account gravitational interactions from the Sun and the eight planets. We determine the Solarsystem kick function ie the energy transfer to 1P/Halley along one passage through the Solarsystem. Our procedure allows to compute for each planet its contribution to the Solarsystem kick function which appears to be the sum of the Keplerian potential of the planet and of a rotating circular gravitational dipole potential due to the Sun movement around Solarsystem barycenter. We test the robustness of the symplectic Halley map by directly integrating Newton's equations over $\\sim 2.4\\cdot 10^4$ yr around Y2K and by reconstructing the Solarsystem kick function. Our results show that the Halley map with fixed parameters gives a reliable description of comet dynamics on time scales of $10^4$ yr while on a larger scales the ...

National Aeronautics and Space Administration — We propose a concentrated photovoltaic electric power system for lunar operations called C-Lite Lunar. The novel technology produces a near-term solar array system...

A series of computer simulations was performed to evaluate the effects of component air leakage on system thermal performance for a typical residential solar heating system, located in Madison, Wisconsin. Auxiliary energy required to supplement solar energy for space heating was determined using the TRNSYS computer program, for a range of air leakage rates at the solar collector and pebble bed storage unit. The effects of heat transfer and mass transfer between the solar equipment room and the heated building were investigated. The effect of reduced air infiltration into the building due to pressurized by the solar air heating system were determined. A simple method of estimating the effect of collector array air leakage on system thermal performance was evaluated, using the f CHART method.

The solar thermal markets, different types of solarsystems for hot water and space heating, the dimensioning and the components of solar heating systems, the properties of the systems are reviewed in this presentation

Full Text Available The purpose of this paper focuses on the experimental pre-treatment of biomass in agricultural site using solar energy as power source and contribution of common use and efficiency solar dryer system for consumer. The main purpose of this design for solar cabinet dryer is to dry biomass via direct and indirect heating. Direct heating is the simplest method to dry biomass by exposing the biomass under direct sunlight. The solar cabinet dryer traps solar heat to increase the temperature of the drying chamber. The biomass absorbs the heat and transforms the moisture content within the biomass into water vapour and then leaves the chamber via the exhaust air outlet. This problem however can be solved by adopting indirect solar drying system. High and controllable temperatures can be achieved as a fan is used to move the air through the solar collector. This project has successfully created a solar cabinet dryer that combines both direct and indirect solar drying systems and functions to dry biomass as well as crops effectively and efficiently with minimal maintenance. Hence, it is indeed a substitution for conventional dryers which are affordable to local farmers.

Life on Earth depends on an aqueous biochemistry, and water is a key component of habitability on Earth and for likely other habitable environments in the solarsystem. While water is ubiquitous in the interstellar medium, and plays a key role in protoplanetary disk chemistry, the inner solarsystem is relatively dry. We now have evidence for potentially thousands of extrasolar planets, dozens of which may be located in their host star’s habitable zones. Understanding how planets in the habitable zone accrete their water, is key to understanding the likelihood for habitability. Given that many disk models show that Earth formed inside the water-ice snow line of our solarsystem, understanding how the inner solarsystem received its water is important for understanding the potential for other planetary systems to host habitable worlds. Boundaries for the timing of the water delivery are constrained by cosmochemistry and geochemistry. Possible scenarios for the delivery of water to the inner solarsystem include adsorption on dust from protoplanetary disk gas, chemical reactions on the early earth, and delivery from planetesimals forming outside the water-ice snow line. This talk will set the stage for understanding the isotopic and geochemical markers along with the dynamical delivery mechanisms that will help uncover the origins of Earths water. This introduction will provide an overview for understanding the distribution of water in the solarsystem, in particular for the inner solarsystem and terrestrial planets—and the details will be developed in the subsequent talks. Additionally information will be presented regarding new inner solarsystem reservoirs of water that can shed light on origins (the main belt comets), and new research about water in the Earth.

The solar heating system installed at the Lutz-Sotire Partnership Executive East Office Building, Stamford, Connecticut is described. The Executive East Office Building is of moderate size with 25,000 sq ft of heated space in 2 1/2 stories. The solarsystem was designed to provide approximately 50 percent of the heating requirements. The system components are described. Appended data includes: the system design acceptance test, the operation and maintenance manual, and as-built drawings and photographs.

The report describes research to develop a marketable passive solarsystem incorporating a solar chimney in which heated air rises and produces a natural convection air flow within a double envelope construction. The equipment consists of a heat capturing element, another element to distribute and accumulate heat and a control system. Research activities involved: the study of feasible configurations and performance requirements; the design of a selected configuration; a computerized simulation of the system; and the development of two prototype modules to be lab tested at a facility equipped with real time data acquisition systems. The coordinated effort strove to obtain a multi-use system capable of providing summer cooling, as well as, winter heating and a system which would be accepted by both the construction industry and potential home buyers.

The transfer of organic compounds from interstellar space to the outskirts of a protoplanetary disk, their accretion into cometary objects, and the transport of the latter into the inner solarsystem by orbital diffusion throw a new light on the central problem of exobiology. It suggests the existence of a cosmic mechanism, working everywhere, that can supply prebiotic compounds to ubiquitous rocky planets, in search of the proper environment to start life in many places in the Universe. Under the heading of chemistry of the cometary nucleus, the following topics are covered: radial homogeneity of the nucleus; the dust-to-ice ratio; nature of the dust grains; origin of the dust in comets; nature of the volatile fraction; the CO distribution in comet Halley; dust contribution to the volatile fraction; elemental balance sheet of comet Halley; quantitative molecular analysis of the volatile fraction; and isotopic ratios. Under the heading of exogenous origin of carbon on terrestrial planets the following topics are covered: evidence for a high-temperature phase; from planetesimals to planets; a veneer of volatile and organic material; and cometary contribution.

Anomalously fractionated isotopic material is found in many primitive SolarSystem objects, such as meteorites and comets. It is thought, in some cases, to trace interstellar matter that was incorporated into the Solar Nebula without undergoing significant processing. We will present the results of models of the nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon fractionation chemistry in dense molecular clouds, particularly in cares where substantial freeze-taut of molecules on to dust has occurred. The range of fractionation ratios expected in different interstellar molecules will be discussed and compared to the ratios measured in molecular clouds, comets and meteoritic material. These models make several predictions that can be tested in the near future by molecular line observations, particularly with the GBT.

The overarching goals for the remote sensing and robotic exploration of our solarsystem and exoplanetary systems are: (1) understanding the formation of planetary systems and their diversity; and (2) search for habitability. These goals can be realized with the inclusion of spectrophotopolarimetry as a complementary approach to standard techniques of imaging and spectroscopy. Since all objects have unique polarimetric signatures, like fingerprints, much can be learned about the scattering object. Although polarization, in general, is elliptical by nature, special cases such as linear and circular polarimetric signatures provide insight into the various types of scattering media and are valuable tools to be developed. Additionally, spectral dependence of polarization is important to separate the macroscopic (bulk) properties of the scattering medium from the microscopic (particulate) properties of the scattering medium. The search for habitability can benefit from spectrophotopolarimetry. While linear polarization of reflected light by solarsystem objects (planetary atmospheres, satellites, rings systems, comets, asteroids, dust, etc.) provides insight into the scattering characteristics of aerosols and hazes in atmospheres and surficial properties of atmosphereless objects, circular polarization and related chirality) or handedness, a property of molecules that exhibit mirror-image symmetry, similar to right and left hands) can serve as diagnostic of biological activity. All known life forms on earth are chiral and pre-dominantly left-handed. However, many of these applications suffer from lack of detailed observations, instrumentation, dedicated missions and numerical/retrieval methods. I will present a review of the field, with advances made in instrumentation, measurements and applications to prospective missions.

Knowledge of the primordial isotope composition of Pb in the SolarSystem is critical to the understanding of the early evolution of Earth and other planetary bodies. Here we present new Pb isotopic data on troilite (FeS) nodules from a number of different iron meteorites: Canyon Diablo, Mundrabilla, Nantan, Seeläsgen, Toluca (IAB-IIICD), Cape York (IIIA), Mt Edith (IIIB), and Seymchan (pallasite). Lead abundances and isotopic compositions typically vary from one troilite inclusion to another, even within the same meteorite. The most primitive Pb was found in three leach fractions of two exceptionally Pb-rich Nantan troilite nodules. Its 204Pb/ 206Pb is identical to that of Canyon Diablo troilite as measured by Tatsumoto et al. [M. Tatsumoto, R.J. Knight, C.J. Allègre, Time differences in the formation of meteorites as determined from the ratio of lead-207 to lead-206, Science 180(1973) 1279-1283]. However, our measurements of 207Pb/ 206Pb and 208Pb/ 206Pb are significantly higher than theirs, as well as other older literature data obtained by TIMS, while consistent with the recent data of Connelly et al. [J.N. Connelly, M. Bizzarro, K. Thrane, J.A. Baker, The Pb-Pb age of Angrite SAH99555 revisited, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72(2008) 4813-4824], a result we ascribe to instrumental mass fractionation having biased the older data. Our current best estimate of the SolarSystem primordial Pb is that of Nantan troilite, which has the following isotopic composition: 204Pb/ 206Pb = 0.107459(16), 207Pb/ 206Pb = 1.10759(10), and 208Pb/ 206Pb = 3.17347(28). This is slightly less radiogenic than the intercept of the bundle of isotopic arrays formed in 207Pb/ 206Pb- 204Pb/ 206Pb space by our measurements of Canyon Diablo, Nantan, Seeläsgen, Cape York, and Mundrabilla, as well as literature data, which, in spite of rather large uncertainties, suggests a common primordial Pb component for all of these meteorites. The radiogenic Pb present in most of these irons is dominantly

Full Text Available The solaR package allows for reproducible research both for photovoltaics (PV systems performance and solar radiation. It includes a set of classes, methods and functions to calculate the sun geometry and the solar radiation incident on a photovoltaic generator and to simulate the performance of several applications of the photovoltaic energy. This package performs the whole calculation procedure from both daily and intradaily global horizontal irradiation to the final productivity of grid-connected PV systems and water pumping PV systems.It is designed using a set of S4 classes whose core is a group of slots with multivariate time series. The classes share a variety of methods to access the information and several visualization methods. In addition, the package provides a tool for the visual statistical analysis of the performance of a large PV plant composed of several systems.Although solaR is primarily designed for time series associated to a location defined by its latitude/longitude values and the temperature and irradiation conditions, it can be easily combined with spatial packages for space-time analysis.

Full Text Available Solar energy is increasingly used togenerate electricity for individual households. There isa wide variety of solar panel technologies, whichshould be tested at an individual level during theirlifetime. In this paper, the development of a testingstation at the University of Debrecen is presented. Thetesting system can be used for research andeducational purposes and for in field applicationsequally well.

A combined solar energy collector, fluid chiller and energy storage system is disclosed. A movable interior insulated panel in a storage tank is positionable flush against the storage tank wall to insulate the tank for energy storage. The movable interior insulated panel is alternately positionable to form a solar collector or fluid chiller through which the fluid flows by natural circulation.

Based on the calculation of the single-factor impact values of the parameters of a triple stage tower-type of solar desalination unit by utilizing a single-factor analyzing method, the influences of the cost of solar heating system, the cost of hot water tank, the costs of desalination unit and y...

There are at least four unexplained anomalies connected with astrometric data. Perhaps the most disturbing is the fact that when a spacecraft on a flyby trajectory approaches the Earth within 2000 km or less, it often experiences a change in total orbital energy per unit mass. Next, a secular change in the astronomical unit AU is definitely a concern. It is increasing by about 15 cm yr$^{-1}$. The other two anomalies are perhaps less disturbing because of known sources of nongravitational acceleration. The first is an apparent slowing of the two Pioneer spacecraft as they exit the solarsystem in opposite directions. Some astronomers and physicists are convinced this effect is of concern, but many others are convinced it is produced by a nearly identical thermal emission from both spacecraft, in a direction away from the Sun, thereby producing acceleration toward the Sun. The fourth anomaly is a measured increase in the eccentricity of the Moon's orbit. Here again, an increase is expected from tidal friction ...

During the week of July 16, 1994, comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, broken into 20 plus pieces by tidal forces on its last orbit, smashed into the planet Jupiter, releasing the explosive energy of 500 thousand megatons. A team of observers from LLNL used the LLNL Speckle Imaging Camera mounted on the University of California`s Lick Observatory 3 Meter Telescope to capture continuous sequences of planet images during the comet encounter. Post processing with the bispectral phase reconstruction algorithm improves the resolution by removing much of the blurring due to atmospheric turbulence. High resolution images of the planet surface showing the aftermath of the impact are probably the best that were obtained from any ground-based telescope. We have been looking at the regions of the fragment impacts to try to discern any dynamic behavior of the spots left on Jupiter`s cloud tops. Such information can lead to conclusions about the nature of the comet and of Jupiter`s atmosphere. So far, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed expanding waves from the G impact whose mechanism is enigmatic since they appear to be too slow to be sound waves and too fast to be gravity waves, given the present knowledge of Jupiter`s atmosphere. Some of our data on the G and L impact region complements the Hubble observations but, so far, is inconclusive about spot dynamics.

Comets are very interesting objects for scientists, since their composition reflects how the SolarSystem was when it was very young and still 'unfinished', more than 4600 million years ago. Comets have not changed much since then. By orbiting Comet Wirtanen and landing on it, Rosetta will collect essential information to understand the origin and evolution of our SolarSystem. It will also help discover whether comets contributed to the beginnings of life on Earth. In fact comets are carriers of complex organic molecules, that - delivered to Earth through impacts - perhaps played a role in the origin of living forms. Furthermore, “volatile” light elements carried by comets may have also played an important role in forming the Earth’s oceans and atmopshere. “Rosetta is one of the most challenging missions ever undertaken so far”, says Prof. David Southwood, ESA Director of Science, “No one before attempted a similar mission, unique for its scientific implications as well as for its complex and spectacular interplanetary space manoeuvres”. Before reaching its target in 2011, Rosetta will circle the Sun almost four times on wide loops in the inner SolarSystem. During its long trek, the spacecraft will have to endure some extreme thermal conditions. Once it is close to Comet Wirtanen, scientists will take it through a delicate braking manoeuvre; then the spacecraft will closely orbit the comet, and gently drop a lander on it. It will be like landing on a small, fast-moving cosmic bullet that still has - at present - an almost unknown 'geography'. An amazing 8-year interplanetary trek Rosetta is a 3-tonne box-type spacecraft about 3 metres high, with two 14-metre long solar panels. It consists of an orbiter and a lander. The lander is approximately 1 metre across and 80 centimetres high. It will be attached to the side of the Rosetta orbiter during the journey to Comet Wirtanen. Rosetta carries 21 experiments in total, 10 of them on the lander. They will

Development of a solar powered irrigation system has been discussed in this paper. This system would be SCADA-based and quite useful in areas where there is plenty of sunshine but insufficient water to carry out farming activities, such as rubber plantation, strawberry plantation, or any plantation, that requires frequent watering. The system is powered by solarsystem as a renewable energy which uses solar panel module to convert Sunlight into electricity. The development and implementation of an automated SCADA controlled system that uses PLC as a controller is significant to agricultural, oil and gas monitoring and control purpose purposes. In addition, the system is powered by an intelligent solarsystem in which solar panel targets the radiation from the Sun. Other than that, the solarsystem has reduced energy cost as well as pollution. The system is equipped with four input sensors; two soil moisture sensors, two level detection sensors. Soil moisture sensor measures the humidity of the soil, whereas the level detection sensors detect the level of water in the tank. The output sides consist of two solenoid valves, which are controlled respectively by two moistures sensors.

All nations of the world depend on fossil fuels for their energy needs. However the obligation to reduce CO{sub 2} and other gaseous emissions in order to be in conformity with the Kyoto agreement is the reason behind which countries turn to non-polluting renewable energy sources. In this paper the pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels is initially presented followed by a study on the environmental protection offered by the two most widely used renewable energy systems, i.e. solar water heating and solar space heating. The results presented in this paper show that by using solar energy, considerable amounts of greenhouse polluting gases are avoided. For the case of a domestic water heating system, the saving, compared to a conventional system, is about 80% with electricity or Diesel backup and is about 75% with both electricity and Diesel backup. In the case of space heating and hot water systems the saving is about 40%. It should be noted, however, that in the latter, much greater quantities of pollutant gases are avoided. Additionally, all systems investigated give positive and very promising financial characteristics. With respect to life cycle assessment of the systems, the energy spent for manufacture and installation of the solarsystems is recouped in about 1.2 years, whereas the payback time with respect to emissions produced from the embodied energy required for the manufacture and installation of the systems varies from a few months to 9.5 years according to the fuel and the particular pollutant considered. Moreover, due to the higher solar contribution, solar water heating systems have much shorter payback times than solar space heating systems. It can, therefore, be concluded that solar energy systems offer significant protection to the environment and should be employed whenever possible in order to achieve a sustainable future. (Author)

The recent successful rendezvous of the Stardust spacecraft with comet Wild-2 will be followed by its return of cometary dust to Earth in January 2006. Results from two separate dust impact detectors suggest that the spacecraft collected approximately the nominal fluence of at least 1,000 particles larger than 15 micrometers in size. While constituting only about one microgram total, these samples will be sufficient to answer many outstanding questions about the nature of cometary materials. More than two decades of laboratory studies of stratospherically collected interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) of similar size have established the necessary microparticle handling and analytical techniques necessary to study them. It is likely that some IDPs are in fact derived from comets, although complex orbital histories of individual particles have made these assignments difficult to prove. Analysis of bona fide cometary samples will be essential for answering some fundamental outstanding questions in cosmochemistry, such as (1) the proportion of interstellar and processed materials that comprise comets and (2) whether the SolarSystem had a O-16-rich reservoir. Abundant silicate stardust grains have recently been discovered in anhydrous IDPs, in far greater abundances (200 5,500 ppm) than those in meteorites (25 ppm). Insight into the more subtle O isotopic variations among chondrites and refractory phases will require significantly higher precision isotopic measurements on micrometer-sized samples than are currently available.

Conditions in the protosolar nebula have left their mark in the composition of cometary volatiles, thought to be some of the most pristine material in the solarsystem. Cometary compositions represent the end point of processing that began in the parent molecular cloud core and continued through the collapse of that core to form the protosun and the solar nebula, and finally during the evolution of the solar nebula itself as the cometary bodies were accreting. Disentangling the effects of the various epochs on the final composition of a comet is complicated. But comets are not the only source of information about the solar nebula. Protostellar disks around young stars similar to the protosun provide a way of investigating the evolution of disks similar to the solar nebula while they are in the process of evolving to form their own solarsystems. In this way we can learn about the physical and chemical conditions under which comets formed, and about the types of dynamical processing that shaped the solar syste...

The nucleus of comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) passed within 141,000?km of Mars on 19 October 2014. Thus, the cometary coma and the plasma it produces washed over Mars for several hours producing significant effects in the Martian magnetosphere and upper atmosphere. We present observations from Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN's (MAVEN's) particles and field's instruments that show the Martian magnetosphere was severely distorted during the comet's passage. We note four specific major effects: (1) a variable induced magnetospheric boundary, (2) a strong rotation of the magnetic field as the comet approached, (3) severely distorted and disordered ionospheric magnetic fields during the comet's closest approach, and (4) unusually strong magnetosheath turbulence lasting hours after the comet left. We argue that the comet produced effects comparable to that of a large solar storm (in terms of incident energy) and that our results are therefore important for future studies of atmospheric escape, MAVEN's primary science objective.

TRAPPIST (TRAnsiting Planets and PlanetesImals Small Telescope) is a 60-cm robotic telescope that has been installed in June 2010 at the ESO La Silla Observatory [1]. Operated from Liège (Belgium) it is devoted to the detection and characterisation of exoplanets and to the study of comets and other small bodies in the SolarSystem. A set of narrowband cometary filters designed by the NASA for the Hale-Bopp Observing Campaign [2] is permanently mounted on the telescope along with classic Johnson-Cousins filters. We describe here the hardware and the goals of the project. For relatively bright comets (V < 12) we measure several times a week the gaseous production rates (using a Haser model) and the spatial distribution of several species among which OH, NH, CN, C2 and C3 as well as ions like CO+. The dust production rates (Afrho) and color of the dust aredetermined through four dust continuum bands from the UV to the red (UC, BC, GC, RC filters). We will present the dust and gas production rates of the brightest comets observed in 2014: C/2012 K1 (PANSTARRS), C/2014 E2 (Jacques), C/2013 A1 (Siding Springs) and C/2013 V5 (Oukaimeden). Each of these comets have been observed at least once a week for several weeks to several months. Light curves with respect to the heliocentric distance will be presented and discussed. [1] Jehin et al., The Messenger, 145, 2-6, 2011.[2] Farnham et al., Icarus, 147, 180-204, 2000.

Between 1920 and 1960 astronomers began working with scientists in other fields in order to better understand the nature of the solarsystem. Researchers made wide-ranging attempts to solve such problems as the nature of lunar and terrestrial craters, the origin of comets and meteors, and the birth of the solarsystem. While often tinged with controversy, this work provided the foundation for planetary science in the space age. Exploiting previously unused archival material, Ronald Doel investigates this emerging interdisciplinary scientific community and its influence on astronomy, meteorology, geology, and geophysics. He examines how studies in planetary science were influenced by shifts in institutional mandates, new research techniques, and Cold War government-military funding. Above all, the book explores an important branch of what is now called the environmental sciences. This book will interest historians of science as well as astronomers.

We present a method to identify distant solarsystem objects in long-term wide-field asteroid survey data, and conduct a search for them in the Pan-STARRS1 (PS1) image data acquired from 2010 to mid-2015. We demonstrate that our method is able to find multi-opposition orbital links, and we present the resulting orbital distributions which consist of 154 Centaurs, 255 classical Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), 121 resonant TNOs, 89 Scattered Disc Objects (SDOs) and 10 comets. Our results show more than half of these are new discoveries, including a newly discovered 19th magnitude TNO. Our identified objects do not show clustering in their argument of perihelia, which if present, might support the existence of a large unknown planetary-sized object in the outer solarsystem.

Dwindling nonrenewable energy resources and rising energy costs have forced the United States to develop alternative renewable energy sources. The United States' solar energy industry has seen an upsurge in recent years, and photovoltaic holds considerable promise as a renewable energy technology. The purpose of this case study was to explore homeowner's awareness of the benefits of solar energy. Disruptive-innovation theory was used to explore marketing strategies for conveying information to homeowners about access to new solar energy products and services. Twenty residential homeowners were interviewed face-to-face to explore (a) perceived benefits of solar energy in their county in Ohio, and (b) perceptions on the rationale behind the marketing strategy of solar energy systems sold for residential use. The study findings used inductive analyses and coding interpretation to explore the participants' responses that revealed 3 themes: the existence of environmental benefits for using solar energy systems, the expensive cost of equipment associated with government incentives, and the lack of marketing information that is available for consumer use. The implications for positive social change include the potential to enable corporate leaders, small business owners, and entrepreneurs to develop marketing strategies for renewable energy systems. These strategies may promote use of solar energy systems as a clean, renewable, and affordable alternative electricity energy source for the 21st century.

Manual for prototype solar-heating system gives detailed installation procedures for each of seven subsystems. Procedures for operation and maintenance are also included. It discusses architectural considerations, building construction considerations, and checkout-test procedures.

Compilation contains design, performance, and hardware specifications in sufficient detail to fabricate or procure materials and install, operate, and maintain complete modular solar heating and hot water system for single family size dwellings.

Detailed 93-page report describes Arlington, Virginia racquetball club which obtains heat and hot water for its support area from solar collectors. Report explains modes of operation of system and details of acceptance-test plan.

Report contains preliminary design information for two solar-heating and hot water systems presently under development. Information includes quality control data, special tooling specifications, hazard analysis, and preliminary training program for installation contractors.

Compilation contains design, performance, and hardware specifications in sufficient detail to fabricate or procure materials and install, operate, and maintain complete modular solar heating and hot water system for single family size dwellings.

A solar energy control system for a hot air type solar energy heating system wherein thermocouples are arranged to sense the temperature of a solar collector, a space to be heated, and a top and bottom of a heat storage unit is disclosed. Pertinent thermocouples are differentially connected together, and these are employed to effect the operation of dampers, a fan, and an auxiliary heat source. In accomplishing this, the differential outputs from the thermocouples are amplified by a single amplifier by multiplexing techniques. Additionally, the amplifier is corrected as to offset by including as one multiplex channel a common reference signal.

An introduction is given by the editor of the book ''Solar Air Systems - Built Examples'' describing all the examples of buildings in the volume. It outlines all the different types of collectors together with diagrams, and maps showing the location of some of buildings throughout Europe and North America. An explanation is given of the solar air system and its applications. (UK)

The solarsystem started to form about 4.56 Gyr ago and despite the long intervening time span, there still exist several clues about its formation. The three major sources for this information are meteorites, the present solarsystem structure and the planet-forming systems around young stars. In this introduction we give an overview of the current understanding of the solarsystem formation from all these different research fields. This includes the question of the lifetime of the solar protoplanetary disc, the different stages of planet formation, their duration, and their relative importance. We consider whether meteorite evidence and observations of protoplanetary discs point in the same direction. This will tell us whether our solarsystem had a typical formation history or an exceptional one. There are also many indications that the solarsystem formed as part of a star cluster. Here we examine the types of cluster the Sun could have formed in, especially whether its stellar density was at any stage hi...

Report contains results of performance tests on complete system for solar space and hot-water heating system that uses commercially available components. Results were used to determine system suitability for field installation and to generate performance data base for comparison with future tests on field installed systems.

This paper discusses the influence of the two main climatic features (solar radiation and temperature) on the performance of passive solarsystems in West Germany. Evaluations were made for the four climatic zones - German Lowlands, German Highlands, Alp Foreland, Alps. These zones differ in solar radiation, temperature and diurnal temperature swings. To evaluate different passive solarsystems (direct gain, Trombe wall, water wall) a prototypical dwelling was designed which responded to the environmental conditions. The calculations of the ''Solar Savings Fraction'' (SSF) of each systems were made with a program based on the 'LCR-method'. The paper concludes that although the heating requirements decrease with decreasing latitude and altitude, the SSF is nearly the same for all parts of Germany. They are in a range of +- 5%. This is due to the fact that two main climatic features solar radiation and temperature balance each other. In northern Germany the man solar radiation level is low and so is the number of heating degree days. The conditions in southern Germany are reverse.

The delivery of glycolaldehyde (GLA) and ethylene glycol (EG) could be could be important for understanding the origin of life. GLA, the simplest sugar, is a building block for ribose, the backbone of RNA; EG is a reduced alcohol variant of GLA, found to be created by the impact of GLA under simulated cometary impact conditions (McCaffrey et al. 2014). GLA and EG have been found in regions of the interstellar medium and recently on nearly isotropic comets (NICs), which originate in the Oort Cloud. NICs are long period comets (P > 200 years) and have orbits that are nearly randomly inclined to the ecliptic plane (Mumma & Charnley et al. 2011). Based on impact experiments that assess survivability of these molecules (McCaffrey et al. 2014), we aim to determine the mass of GLA and EG that could have been delivered on comets since the formation of the SolarSystem. The focus of the current study is to determine the abundances of GLA and EG on C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp), C/2012 F6 (Lemmon), C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy 2013), and C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy 2014), all of which have been found to possess at least one of these molecules. Using published values of observed production rates of water, GLA, and EG (e.g., Biver et al. 2015), we have estimated a range of masses of these molecules of interest on their host comets. Even with a high degree of uncertainty in comet diameters and volumes, we estimate that 109 to 1017 kg of these molecules could be delivered by a single comet, and that 108 to 1017 kg could have survived the impact.

Recent work in the literature has advocated using the Earth-Moon-planetoid Lagrangian points as observables, in order to test general relativity and effective field theories of gravity in the solarsystem. However, since the three-body problem of classical celestial mechanics is just an approximation of a much more complicated setting, where all celestial bodies in the solarsystem are subject to their mutual gravitational interactions, while solar radiation pressure and other sources of nongravitational perturbations also affect the dynamics, it is conceptually desirable to improve the current understanding of solarsystem dynamics in general relativity, as a first step towards a more accurate theoretical study of orbital motion in the weak-gravity regime. For this purpose, starting from the Einstein equations in the de Donder-Lanczos gauge, this paper arrives first at the Levi-Civita Lagrangian for the geodesic motion of celestial bodies, showing in detail under which conditions the effects of internal stru...

Having been profoundly stimulated by the seminal work of Viktor V. Sobolev, I have been involved in multi-decadal research in the fields of radiative transfer, electromagnetic scattering by morphologically complex particles and particulate media, and planetary remote sensing. Much of this research has been done in close collaboration with other "descendants" of Academician Sobolev. This tutorial paper gives a representative overview of the results of extensive numerical simulations (in the vast majority carried out in collaboration with Michael Mishchenko) used to analyze remote-sensing observations of Solarsystem objects and based on highly accurate methods of the radiative transfer theory and direct computer solvers of the Maxwell equations. Using the atmosphere of Jupiter as a proving ground and performing T-matrix and radiative-transfer calculations helps demonstrate the strong effect of aerosol-particle shapes on the accuracy of remote-sensing retrievals. I then discuss the application of the T-matrix method, a numerically exact solution of the vector radiative transfer equation, and the theory of coherent backscattering to an analysis of polarimetric radar observations of Saturn's rings. Numerical modeling performed by using the superposition T-matrix method in application to cometary dust in the form of aggregates serves to reproduce the results of polarimetric observations of the distant comet C/2010 S1. On the basis of direct computer solutions of the Maxwell equations, it is demonstrated that all backscattering effects predicted by the low-density theories of radiative transfer and coherent backscattering can also be identified for media with volume packing densities typically encountered in natural and artificial environments. This result implies that spectacular opposition effects observed for some high-albedo atmoshereless Solarsystem bodies can be attributed to coherent backscattering of sunlight by regolith layers composed of microscopic particles.

Full Text Available - Automatic system has brought many revolutions in the existing technologies. One among the technologies, which has greater developments, is the solar powered automatic shrimp feeding system. For instance, the solar power which is a renewable energy can be an alternative solution to energy crisis and basically reducing man power by using it in an automatic manner. The researchers believe an automatic shrimp feeding system may help solve problems on manual feeding operations. The project study aimed to design and develop a solar powered automatic shrimp feeding system. It specifically sought to prepare the design specifications of the project, to determine the methods of fabrication and assembly, and to test the response time of the automatic shrimp feeding system. The researchers designed and developed an automatic system which utilizes a 10 hour timer to be set in intervals preferred by the user and will undergo a continuous process. The magnetic contactor acts as a switch connected to the 10 hour timer which controls the activation or termination of electrical loads and powered by means of a solar panel outputting electrical power, and a rechargeable battery in electrical communication with the solar panel for storing the power. By undergoing through series of testing, the components of the modified system were proven functional and were operating within the desired output. It was recommended that the timer to be used should be tested to avoid malfunction and achieve the fully automatic system and that the system may be improved to handle changes in scope of the project.

The prime directive of our research project is to comprehend the chemical evolution of the SolarSystem and how life began and developed on Earth. This will be achieved by understanding the formation of carbon-, hydrogen-, oxygen-, and nitrogen-bearing (CHON) molecules in ices of Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) and on comets by reproducing the space environment in laboratory experiments. A study of these KBOs is important because they resemble natural ‘time capsules’ at a frozen stage before life developed on Earth. We follow the methodology that a comparison of the molecules formed in the experiments with the current composition of KBOs provides an exceptional potential to reconstruct the composition of icy, outer SolarSystem bodies at the time of their formation billions of years ago. Here, we present resent results of laboratory experiments simulating the interaction of ionizing radiation with low temperatures ices and mixtures relevant to the chemistry of KBOs and comets. Special attention is given to the reaction mechanisms on the synthesis of astrobiologically important molecules; amino acids, sugars, amines, carboxylic acids, and dipeptides

The \\emph{Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer} has surveyed the entire sky at four infrared wavelengths with greatly improved sensitivity and spatial resolution compared to its predecessors, the \\emph{Infrared Astronomical Satellite} and the \\emph{Cosmic Background Explorer}. NASA's Planetary Science Division has funded an enhancement to the \\WISE\\ data processing system called "NEOWISE" that allows detection and archiving of moving objects found in the \\WISE\\ data. NEOWISE has mined the \\WISE\\ images for a wide array of small bodies in our SolarSystem, including Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), Main Belt asteroids, comets, Trojans, and Centaurs. By the end of survey operations in February 2011, NEOWISE identified over 157,000 asteroids, including more than 500 NEOs and $\\sim$120 comets. The NEOWISE dataset will enable a panoply of new scientific investigations.

The operation and uses of solar cells and the National Photovoltaic Program are briefly described. Eleven DOE photovoltaic application projects are described including forest lookout towers; Wilcox Memorial Hospital in Hawaii; WBNO daytime AM radio station; Schuchuli Indian Village; Meade, Nebraska, agricultural experiment; Mt. Laguna Air Force Station; public schools and colleges; residential applications; and Sea World of Florida. (WHK)

In this paper we present the results of an analysis on a large part of the existing Image data from the OSIRIS camera system onboard the Rosetta Spacecraft, in which stars of sufficient brightness (down to a limiting magnitude of 6) have been observed through the coma of Comet 67/P Churyumov-Gerasimenko ("C-G"). Over the course of the Rosetta main mission the Coma of the comet underwent large changes in density and structure, owed to the changing insolation along the orbit of C-G. We report on the changes of the stellar signals in the wavelength ranges, covered by the filters of the OSIRIS Narrow-Angle (NAC) and Wide-Angle (WAC) cameras.Acknowledgements: OSIRIS was built by a consortium led by the Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Göttingen, Germany, in collaboration with CISAS, University of Padova, Italy, the Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille, France, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucia, CSIC, Granada, Spain, the Scientific Support Office of the European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, Madrid, Spain, the Universidad Politéchnica de Madrid, Spain, the Department of Physics and Astronomy of Uppsala University, Sweden, and the Institut für Datentechnik und Kommunikationsnetze der Technischen Universität Braunschweig, Germany.

An evaluation of the application of the high extralunar flux in pre-mare times to more general problems of early solarsystem history is attempted by combining the results of dynamic studies with lunar chronological data. There is a twofold to fourfold contrast in the integral impact flux between the Apollo 14 and 16 sites and the older mare surfaces. This is judged insufficient to account for the contrasting lithology between these two sites: basalts and soil breccias in the maria, annealed breccias and impact melts in the highlands. Therefore, these rocks and their ages (3.9-4.0 b.y.) are thought to predate the surfaces in which they are found. Estimation of the flux needed to produce these lithologies, and difficulties associated with extrapolating this further back in lunar history give support to the "cataclysm" hypothesis of Tera, Papanastassiou, and Wasserburg. Dynamical studies permit separate evaluation of the possible sources for both the "normal" flux during the first 600 million years of lunar history and the "peak" that apparently occurred 4.0 billion years ago. The most likely sources for the normal flux are comets from the vicinity of Uranus and Neptune. The most promising source for the peak is tidal disruption by Earth or Venus of a Ceres-size asteroid initially in a Mars-crossing orbit. Alternative possibilities are suggested.

The ISOPHOT Serendipity Survey (ISOSS) covered approximately 15 % of the sky at a wavelength of 170 micron while the ISO satellite was slewing from one target to the next. By chance ISOSS slews went over many solarsystem objects (SSOs). We identified the comets, asteroids and planets in the slews through a fast and effective search procedure based on N-body ephemeris and flux estimates. The detections were analysed from a calibration and scientific point of view. Through the measurements of the well-known asteroids Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta and the planets Uranus and Neptune it was possible to improve the photometric calibration of ISOSS and to extend it to higher flux regimes. We were also able to establish calibration schemes for the important slew end data. For the other asteroids we derived radiometric diameters and albedos through a recent thermophysical model. The scientific results are discussed in the context of our current knowledge of size, shape and albedos, derived from IRAS observations, occ...

While regular astronomical image archive searches can find images at a fixed location, they cannot find images of moving targets such as asteroids or comets. The SolarSystem Object Image Search (SSOIS) at the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre allows users to search for images of moving objects, allowing precoveries. SSOIS accepts as input either an object designation, a list of observations, a set of orbital elements, or a user-generated ephemeris for an object. It then searches for observations of that object over a range of dates. The user is then presented with a list of images containing that object from a variety of archives. Initially created to search the CFHT MegaCam archive, SSOIS has been extended to other telescopes including Gemini, Subaru/SuprimeCam, WISE, HST, the SDSS, AAT, the ING telescopes, the ESO telescopes, and the NOAO telescopes (KPNO/CTIO/WIYN), for a total of 24.5 million images. As the Pan-STARRS and Hyper Suprime-Cam archives become available, they will be incorporated as well. The SSOIS tool is located on the web at http://www.cadc-ccda.hia-iha.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/en/ssois/.

The discovery of new objects in modern wide-field asteroid and comet surveys can be enhanced by first identifying observations belonging to known solarsystem objects. The assignation of new observations to a known object is an attribution problem that occurs when a least squares orbit already exists for the object but a separate fit is not possible to just the set of new observations. In this work we explore the strongly asymmetric attribution problem in which the existing least squares orbit is very well constrained and the new data are sparse. We describe an attribution algorithm that introduces new quality control metrics in the presence of strong biases in the astrometric residuals. The main biases arise from the stellar catalogs used in the reduction of asteroid observations and we show that a simple debiasing with measured regional catalog biases significantly improves the results. We tested the attribution algorithm using data from the PS1 survey that used the 2MASS star catalog for the astrometric re...

This paper reviews our current understanding of the possible birth environments of our SolarSystem. Since most stars form within groups and clusters, the question becomes one of determining the nature of the birth aggregate of the Sun. This discussion starts by reviewing SolarSystem properties that provide constraints on our environmental history. We then outline the range of star-forming environments that are available in the Galaxy, and discuss how they affect star and planet formation. The nature of the solar birth cluster is constrained by many physical considerations, including radiation fields provided by the background environment, dynamical scattering interactions, and by the necessity of producing the short-lived radioactive nuclear species inferred from meteoritic measurements. Working scenarios for the solar birth aggregate can be constructed, as discussed herein, although significant uncertainties remain.

"Theory and simulations of solarsystem plasmas" aims to highlight results from microscopic to global scales, achieved by theoretical investigations and numerical simulations of the plasma dynamics in the solarsystem. The theoretical approach must allow evidencing the universality of the phenomena being considered, whatever the region is where their role is studied; at the Sun, in the solar corona, in the interplanetary space or in planetary magnetospheres. All possible theoretical issues concerning plasma dynamics are welcome, especially those using numerical models and simulations, since these tools are mandatory whenever analytical treatments fail, in particular when complex nonlinear phenomena are at work. Comparative studies for ongoing missions like Cassini, Cluster, Demeter, Stereo, Wind, SDO, Hinode, as well as those preparing future missions and proposals, like, e.g., MMS and Solar Orbiter, are especially encouraged.

An orientable deployed solar array system for 1-5 kg weight nanospacecraft is described, enhancing the achievable performance of these typically power-limited systems. The system is based on a deployable solar panel system, previously developed with cooperation between Laboratorio di Sistemi Aerospaziali of University of Roma “la Sapienza” and the company IMT (Ingegneria Marketing Tecnologia). The system proposed is a modular one, and suitable in principle for the 1U, 2U and 3U standard Cubesat bus, even if the need for three axis attitude stabilization makes it typically preferred for 3U Cubesats. The size of each solar panel is the size of a lateral Cubesat surface. A single degree of freedom maneuvering capability is given to the deployed solar array, in order to follow the apparent motion of the sun as close as possible, given the mission requirements on the spacecraft attitude. Considerable effort has been devoted to design the system compatible with the Cubesat standard, being mounted outside on the external spacecraft structure, without requiring modifications on the standard prescriptions. The small available volume is the major constraint, which forces to use miniaturized electric motor technology. The system design trade-off is discussed, leading to the selection of an architecture based on two independently steerable solar array wings.

Design brochure for commercially-available solar-heating system is valuable to architects, engineers, and designers. It contains information on system configuration, system sizing, and mechanical layout. Drawings and specifications of all components and typical installation details are included in appendix.

A collection of quarterly reports from the AiResearch Manufacturing Company covering the period July 12, 1976, through December 31, 1977, is presented. AiResearch Manufacturing Company is developing eight prototype solar heating and cooling systems. This effort calls for the development, manufacture, test, system installation, maintenance, problem resolution, and performance evaluation. The systems are 3, 25 and 75-ton size units.

photoautotrophs and chemolithotrophs such as the motile filamentous cyanobacteria (e.g., Calothrix, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, and Spirulina) that grow in geothermal springs and geysers of Earth at temperatures ranging fiom 320K to 345K and are also found growing in cold polar desert soils. The mineralized remains of morphotypes of all of these cyanobacteria have also been found in the Orgueil CI1 and the Murchison CN2 carbonaceous meteorites that may derive from cometary parent bodies. Observational results that support the hypothesis that liquid water can in active regions just beneath the surface of comets and that comets, carbonaceous meteorites, and asteroids may have played a significant role in the origin and evolution of the Biosphere and in the distribution of microbial life throughout the SolarSystem.

We have developed an automated software system of identifying solar active regions, filament channels, and coronal holes, those are three major solar sources causing the space weather. Space weather forecasters of NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center produce the solar synoptic drawings as a daily basis to predict solar activities, i.e., solar flares, filament eruptions, high speed solar wind streams, and co-rotating interaction regions as well as their possible effects to the Earth. As an attempt to emulate this process with a fully automated and consistent way, we developed a software system named ASSA(Automated Solar Synoptic Analysis). When identifying solar active regions, ASSA uses high-resolution SDO HMI intensitygram and magnetogram as inputs and providing McIntosh classification and Mt. Wilson magnetic classification of each active region by applying appropriate image processing techniques such as thresholding, morphology extraction, and region growing. At the same time, it also extracts morphological and physical properties of active regions in a quantitative way for the short-term prediction of flares and CMEs. When identifying filament channels and coronal holes, images of global H-alpha network and SDO AIA 193 are used for morphological identification and also SDO HMI magnetograms for quantitative verification. The output results of ASSA are routinely checked and validated against NOAA's daily SRS(Solar Region Summary) and UCOHO(URSIgram code for coronal hole information). A couple of preliminary scientific results are to be presented using available output results. ASSA will be deployed at the Korean Space Weather Center and serve its customers in an operational status by the end of 2012.

A solar energy system including a pedestal defining a longitudinal axis, a frame that is supported by the pedestal and that is rotateable relative to the pedestal about the longitudinal axis, the frame including at least one solar device, and a wind vane operatively connected to the frame to urge the frame relative to the pedestal about the longitudinal axis in response to wind acting on the wind vane.

The activity of most comets within 3AU of the Sun is dominated by the sublimation of frozen water, the most abundant ice in comets. Some comets, however, are active well beyond the water-ice sublimation limit. Studying distantly active comets provides valuable opportunities to explore primitive bodies when water-ice sublimation is largely dormant, which is the case for most of a comet's lifetime. Beyond 4 AU, super-volatiles such as CO or CO2 are thought to play a major role in driving observed activity. Carbon monoxide is of special interest because it is a major contributor to comae and has a very low sublimation temperature. Three bodies dominate the observational record and modeling efforts for distantly active small bodies: the long-period comet C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp and the short-period comets (with centaur orbits) 29P/Schwassmann Wachmann 1 and 2060 Chiron. Hale-Bopp's long-period orbit means it has experienced very little solar heating in its lifetime and is analogous to dynamically new comets making their first approach to the Sun. Because Chiron and 29P have much smaller orbits closer to the Sun, they have experienced much more thermal processing than Hale-Bopp and this is expected to have changed their chemical composition from their original state. We point out that the observed CO production rates and line-widths in these three distantly active objects are consistent with each other when adjusted for heliocentric distance. This is particularly interesting for Hale-Bopp and 29P, which have approximately the same radius. The consistent CO production rates may point to a similar CO release mechanism in these objects. We also discuss how observed radio line profiles support that the development and sublimation of icy grains in the coma at about 5-6 AU is probably a common feature in distantly active comets, and an important source of other volatiles within 6 AU, including H2O, HCN, CH3OH, and H2CO.

The results of a feasibility study which showed that a low-temperature, high-efficient thermionic power system can efficiently convert solar energy to electrical energy without heat transport, as required by most solar thermal systems are described. A 3-dimensional (2-axis tracking) 93 sq m parabolic solar concentrator, consisting of mirrors on a foam glass substrate and designed to a concentration ratio (mirror area/aperture area) of 2000 is considered for producing a design temperature of 1100 C at an efficiency of 74%. A tracking subsystem must track the sun at an accuracy of a nominal plus or minus 1.0 degree for maximum use of the sun's energy. Each complete solar thermionic power system unit rated at about 20 kWe peak can generate approximately 48,000 kWh/yr. In addition, a thermal energy conversion system can be cascaded within the thermionic power system so that the high quality waste heat can be further utilized to increase the net electrical output. Potential applications of a solar thermionic power generation system are remote sites, apartment house complexes, heating and cooling, hydrogen production and large power stations.

The dynamically new comet C/2011 L4 (Pan-STARRS) is one of the brightest comets observed since the great comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp). Here, we present our multi-wavelength observations of C/2011 L4 during its in-bound passage to the inner solarsystem. A strong absorption band of water ice at 2.0 μm was detected in the near-infrared spectra, obtained with the 8 m Gemini-North and 3 m Infrared Telescope Facility Telescopes. The companion 1.5 μm band of water ice, however, was not observed. Spectral modeling shows that the absence of the 1.5 μm feature can be explained by the presence of sub-micron-sized fine ice grains. No gas lines (i.e., CN, HCN, or CO) were observed pre-perihelion in either the optical or the submillimeter. We derived 3σ upper limits for the CN and CO production rates. The comet exhibited a very strong continuum in the optical and its slope seemed to become redder as the comet approached the Sun. Our observations suggest that C/2011 L4 is an unusually dust-rich comet with a dust-to-gas mass ratio >4.

Solar subsystems and components were identified and conceptual structure was developed for architectural solar energy heating and cooling systems. Recent literature related to solar energy systems was reviewed and analyzed. Solar heating and cooling system, subsystem, and component data were compared for agreement and completeness. Significant…

One of the main aims of the ESA Rosetta mission is to study the origin of the solarsystem by exploring comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at close range. In this paper we discuss the origin and evolution of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in relation to that of comets in general and in the framework of current solarsystem formation models. We use data from the OSIRIS scientific cameras as basic constraints. In particular, we discuss the overall bi-lobate shape and the presence of key geological features, such as layers and fractures. We also treat the problem of collisional evolution of comet nuclei by a particle-in-a-box calculation for an estimate of the probability of survival for 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko during the early epochs of the solarsystem. We argue that the two lobes of the 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko nucleus are derived from two distinct objects that have formed a contact binary via a gentle merger. The lobes are separate bodies, though sufficiently similar to have formed in the same environment. ...

The Rosetta mission and its exquisite measurements have revived the debate on whether comets are pristine planetesimals or collisionally evolved objects. We investigate the collisional evolution experienced by the precursors of current comet nuclei during the early stages of the SolarSystem, in the context of the so-called "Nice Model". We consider two environments for the collisional evolution: (1) the trans-planetary planetesimal disk, from the time of gas removal until the disk was dispersed by the migration of the ice giants, and (2) the dispersing disk during the time that the scattered disk was formed. Simulations have been performed, using different methods in the two cases, to find the number of destructive collisions typically experienced by a comet nucleus of 2km radius. In the widely accepted scenario, where the dispersal of the planetesimal disk occurred at the time of the Late Heavy Bombardment about 4Gy ago, comet-sized planetesimals have a very small chance to survive against destructive colli...

The Rosetta mission has been taking measurements of its target Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko sinceearly 2014 and will complete operations at the end of September 2016. The mission Science Management Plan,in 1994, laid out the the prime goals and themes of the mission. These five themes were:1) To study the global characterization of the Nucleus, the determination of the dynamics properties ,surface morphology and composition of the comet.2) Examination of the Chemical, Mineralogical and isotopic compositions of volatiles and refractoriesin a cometary nucleus.3) Physical interrelation of volatile and refractories in a cometary nucleus4) Study the development of cometary activity and the process in the surface layer of thenucleus and in the inner coma5) The origins of comets, the relationship between cometary and interstellar material and theimplications for the origin of the solarsystem,To cover all aspects of the Rosetta mission in this special Show case session, this abstracts isone of 5, with this particular presentation focusing on theme 5.Several scenarios for comet nucleus formation have been proposed, such as hierarchical agglomeration,or gravitational collapse of pebble swarms created either by turbulent eddies or by streaming instabilities.In addition, the question of survival of such primordial nuclei versus severe collisional processinghas been debated. The pros and cons of these hypotheses are discussed in the light of Rosetta's discoveries.

Laboratory analysis of cometary samples have been enabled by collection of cometary dust in the stratosphere by high altitude aircraft and by the direct sampling of the comet Wild-2 coma by the NASA Stardust spacecraft. Cometary materials are composed of a complex assemblage of highly primitive, unprocessed interstellar and primordial solarsystem materials as well as a variety of high temperature phases that must have condensed in the inner regions of the protoplanetary disk. These findings support and contradict conclusions of comet properties based solely on astronomical observations. These sample return missions have instead shown that there is a continuity of properties between comets and asteroids, where both types of materials show evidence for primitive and processed materials. Furthermore, these findings underscore the importance and value of direct sample return. There will be great value in comparing the findings of the Stardust cometary coma sample return mission with those of future asteroid surface sample returns OSIRIS-REx and Hayabusa II as well as future comet nucleus sample returns.

The objective is to study one of these primordial objects at close quarters by placing a lander on its surface and chasing, with an orbiter, the comet for millions of kilometres through space. Comets - among the oldest (4.6 billion years!) and last altered objects in the solarsystem - are regarded as the building blocks from which the planets formed. Thus the Rosetta's discoveries will allow the scientists to learn more about birth and evolution of the planets and about the origin of life on the Earth. The final design of the Rosetta orbiter will be revealed for the first time at the Royal Society in London on 1 July when a 1:4 scale model will be unveiled by ESA's Director of Science, Prof.. Roger Bonnet. (The full size version of the spacecraft is 32 metres across, so large that it would stretch the entire width of a football pitch. Almost 90 of this is accounted for by the giant solar panels which are needed to provide electrical power in the dark depths of the SolarSystem). "Rosetta is a mission of major scientific importance," said Prof. Bonnet. "It will build on the discoveries made by Giotto and confirm ESA's leading role in the exploration of the SolarSystem and the Universe as a whole." The timing of this event has been chosen to coincide with the London meeting of the Rosetta Science Working Team and the second Earth flyby of the now non-operational Giotto spacecraft. In addition, the opening of the British Museum's 'Cracking Codes' Exhibition, for which the Rosetta Stone is the centrepiece, is set to take place on 10 July. The Rosetta mission. Rosetta is the third Cornerstone in ESA's 'Horizon 2000' long-term scientific programme. It will be launched by Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou spaceport in French Guiana in January 2003. In order to gain sufficient speed to reach the distant comet, Rosetta will require gravity assists from the Earth (twice) and Mars. After swinging around Mars in May 2005, Rosetta will return to Earth's vicinity in October 2005 and

The Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) has observed two sun-grazing comets as they passed through the solar atmosphere. Both passages resulted in a measurable enhancement of Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) radiance in several of the AIA bandpasses. We explain this EUV emission by considering the evolution of the cometary atmosphere as it interacts with the ambient solar atmosphere. Molecules in the comet rapidly sublimate as it approaches the Sun. They are th...

Open cycle cooling systems are particularly suitable for utilizing solar energy. In all these systems the adsorption and absorption phenomena are very important, hence they are described separately. The cycles used are essentially two: the Baum-Kakabaev cycle using liquid absorbers and the dehumidification/humidification cycle where also adsorbent substances can be utilized. Solar energy is used in the regeneration process of dehumidifying substances. Reactivation modes can be various: suitability of one mode or the other can depend on the climate of the site where the system is installed.

Full Text Available The basic circuits of multifunctional solarsystems of air drainage, heating (hot water supply and heating, cooling and air conditioning are developed on the basis of open absorption cycle with a direct absorbent regeneration. Basic decisions for new generation of gas-liquid solar collectors are developed. Heat-mass-transfer apparatus included in evaporative cooling system, are based on film interaction of flows of gas and liquid and in them, for the creation of nozzle, multi-channel structures from polymeric materials and porous ceramics are used. Preliminary analysis of multifunctional systems possibilities is implemented.

Formation and evolution of water in the SolarSystem and the origin of water on Earth constitute one of the most interesting questions in astronomy. The prevailing hypothesis for the origin of water on Earth is by delivery through water-rich small Solarsystem bodies. In this paper, the isotopic and chemical evolution of water during the early history of the solar nebula, before the onset of planetesimal formation, is studied. A gas-grain chemical model that includes multiply-deuterated species and nuclear spin-states is combined with a steady-state solar nebula model. To calculate initial abundances, we simulated 1 Myr of evolution of a cold and dark TMC1-like prestellar core. Two time-dependent chemical models of the solar nebula are calculated over 1 Myr: (1) a laminar model and (2) a model with 2D turbulent mixing. We find that the radial outward increase of the H2O D/H ratio is shallower in the chemo-dynamical nebular model compared to the laminar model. This is related to more efficient de-fractionation...

Infrared spectra of material captured from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft reveal indigenous aliphatic hydrocarbons similar to those in interplanetary dust particles thought to be derived from comets, but with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse interstellar medium. Similarly, the Stardust samples contain abundant amorphous silicates in addition to crystalline silicates such as olivine and pyroxene. The presence of crystalline silicates in Wild 2 is consistent with mixing of solarsystem and interstellar matter. No hydrous silicates or carbonate minerals were detected, which suggests a lack of aqueous processing of Wild 2 dust.

Fully automated detection of comets in wide-field surveys remains a challenge, as even highly successful comet-finding surveys like Pan-STARRS rely on a combination of both automated flagging algorithms and vetting by human eyes. To take advantage of the long-noted superiority of the human eye over computer algorithms in certain types of pattern recognition, particularly when dealing with a range of target morphologies of interest, we have created a citizen science website with the aim of allowing the general public to aid in the search for active asteroids, which are objects that occupy dynamically asteroidal orbits yet exhibit comet-like dust emission due to sublimation, impact disruption, rotational destabilization, or other effects. Located at comethunters.org, the Comet Hunters website was built using the Zooniverse Project Builder (https://www.zooniverse.org/lab), and displays images of known asteroids obtained either from archival data obtained between 1999 and 2014 by the Suprime-Cam wide-field imager mounted on the 8-m Subaru telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii, or more contemporary data obtained by the Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) wide-field imager also on the Subaru Telescope as part of the ongoing HSC Subaru Strategic Program (SSP) survey. By using observations from such a large-aperture telescope, most of which have never been searched for solarsystem objects, much less cometary ones, we expect that volunteers should be able to make genuinely scientifically significant discoveries, and also provide valuable insights into the potential and challenges of searching for comets in the LSST era. To date, over 13,000 registered volunteers have contributed 350,000 classifications. We will discuss the design and construction of the Comet Hunters website, and also discuss early results from the project.This work uses data generated via the Zooniverse.org platform, development of which was supported by a Global Impact Award from Google, and by the Alfred P. Sloan

We present the results of "snapshot" numerical integrations of test particles representing comet-like and asteroid-like objects in the inner SolarSystem aimed at investigating the short-term dynamical evolution of objects close to the dynamical boundary between asteroids and comets as defined by the Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter, TJ (i.e., TJ = 3). As expected, we find that TJ for individual test particles is not always a reliable indicator of initial orbit types. Furthermore, we find that a few percent of test particles with comet-like starting elements (i.e., similar to those of Jupiter-family comets) reach main-belt-like orbits (at least temporarily) during our 2 Myr integrations, even without the inclusion of non-gravitational forces, apparently via a combination of gravitational interactions with the terrestrial planets and temporary trapping by mean-motion resonances with Jupiter. We estimate that the fraction of real Jupiter-family comets occasionally reaching main-belt-like orbits on Myr timescales could be on the order of ∼ 0.1-1%, although the fraction that remain on such orbits for appreciable lengths of time is certainly far lower. For this reason, the number of JFC-like interlopers in the main-belt population at any given time is likely to be small, but still non-zero, a finding with significant implications for efforts to use apparently icy yet dynamically asteroidal main-belt comets as tracers of the primordial distribution of volatile material in the inner SolarSystem. The test particles with comet-like starting orbital elements that transition onto main-belt-like orbits in our integrations appear to be largely prevented from reaching low eccentricity, low inclination orbits, suggesting that the real-world population of main-belt objects with both low eccentricities and inclinations may be largely free of this potential occasional Jupiter-family comet contamination. We therefore find that low-eccentricity, low-inclination main

The solarsystem has changed dramatically since its birth, and so did our understanding of it. A considerable research effort has been invested in the past decade in an attempt to reconstruct the solarsystem history, including the earliest stages some 4.5 billion years ago. The results indicate how several processes, such as planetary migration and dynamical instabilities, acted to relax the orbital spacing of the outer planets, and provided the needed perturbation to explain the present planetary orbits that are not precisely circular and coplanar. Here we highlight this work and illustrate the key results in a computer simulation that unifies several recently developed theories. The emerging view represents another step away from the initial perception of the solarsystem as part of unchanging heavens.

Cryovolcanism is defined as the extrusion of liquids and vapors of materials that would be frozen solid at the planetary surface temperatures of the icy bodies of the outer solarsystem. Active cryovolcanism is now known to occur on Saturn's moon Enceladus and on Neptune's moon Triton and is suspected on Jupiter's moon Europa, while evidence for past cryovolcanic activity is widespread throughout the outer solarsystem. This chapter examines the mechanisms and manifestations of cryovolcanism, beginning with a review of the materials that make up these unusual ‘‘magmas’’ and the means by which they might erupt and concluding with a volcanologist's tour of the farthest reaches of the solarsystem.

The paper describes the ongoing research project “Competitive solar heating systems for residential buildings”. The aim of the project is to develop competitive solar combisystems which are attractive to buyers. The solar combisystems must be attractive compared to traditional energy systems, both...... from an economical and architectural point of view. The project includes education, research, development and demonstration. The project started in 2003 and will be finished by the end of 2006. The participants of the project, which is financed by Nordic Energy Research and the participants themselves.......D. studies in Denmark, Sweden and Latvia, and a post-doc. study in Norway. Close cooperation between the researchers and the industry partners ensures that the results of the project can be utilized. By the end of the project the industry partners will be able to bring the developed systems onto the market...

The investigation of plasma tails of comets is an important part of comet research. Different classifications of plasma tails of comets are proposed. Plasma acceleration in the tails is investigated in sufficient detail. Several cometary forms are explained. Plasma tails of Mars and Venus were observed during the first studies of these planets. They are associated with the capture of ionized atoms and exosphere molecules by the solar wind magnetized plasma flow. Distinct plasma tails of Mars and Venus are caused by the mass loading of the solar wind with heavy ions. It was shown that the transverse dimension of the tails of Mars, Venus, and comets can be quite accurately determined by production rate of the obstacle to the solar wind flow. While plasma tails of Mars and Venus are investigated by in situ measurements from spacecraft, observations of comet tails from the Earth make it possible to see the entire object under study and to monitor changes in its structure. A certain similarity of cometary and planetary tails can be explained by the nonmagnetic nature of both types of bodies. Thus, it is reasonable to suppose that investigations of plasma tails of comets can supplement the information obtained by in situ methods of the study of the planets. In this paper, plasma tails of comets, presumably analogous to the plasma tails of Mars and Venus, have been identified on modern photographs of comets (more than 1500 photographs viewed). Only quasi-steady laminar tails are considered. They are divided into two types: double structures and outflows. The paper attempts to define the 3D structure of double structures and to determine certain characteristics of outflows.

This book gives a detailed introduction to the thousands and thousands of smaller bodies in the solarsystem. Written for interested laymen, amateur astronomers and students it describes the nature and origin of asteroids, dwarf planets and comets, and gives detailed information about their role in the solarsystem. The author nicely reviews the history of small-world-exploration and describes past, current and future space craft missions studying small worlds, and presents their results. Readers will learn that small solarsystem worlds have a dramatically different nature and appearance than the planets. Even though research activity on small worlds has increased in the recent past many of their properties are still in the dark and need further research.

The orbits of the large celestial bodies in our SolarSystem are stable for very long times, as can be shown by numerical simulation. This gives the erroneous impression of perpetual stability of the system. It is only when we study the orbital distribution of the numerous minor bodies in the SolarSystem that we discover the rich variety of complex dynamical processes that have in fact shaped our system. During the last decade, enormous progress has been made, in understanding the evolution of the system over the last ~3.9 Gy. However, it also became clear that, in order to unveil its behaviour during the first ~700 million years of its lifetime, we have to find convincing explanations for observations that appear as details of its dynamical architecture. In the following we are going to show how the two best known - and up to now unexplained - observations in the SolarSystem, namely (i) the heavily cratered surface of the Moon and (ii) the elliptic (and not circular) motion of the planets, lead us to the discovery of the chaotic sculpting of the SolarSystem [1]-[3].

Introduction: One of the greatest successes of the Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (GR) was the correct prediction of the precession of perihelion of Mercury. The closed form expression to compute this precession tells us that substantial GR precession would occur only if the bodies have a combination of both moderately small perihelion distance and semi-major axis. Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance (MOID) is a quantity which helps us to understand the closest proximity of two orbits in space. Hence evaluating MOID is crucial to understand close encounters and collision scenarios better. In this work, we look at the possible scenarios where a small GR precession in argument of pericentre (ω) can create substantial changes in MOID for small bodies ranging from meteoroids to comets and asteroids.Analytical Approach and Numerical Integrations: Previous works have looked into neat analytical techniques to understand different collision scenarios and we use those standard expressions to compute MOID analytically. We find the nature of this mathematical function is such that a relatively small GR precession can lead to drastic changes in MOID values depending on the initial value of ω. Numerical integrations were done with package MERCURY incorporating the GR code to test the same effects. Numerical approach showed the same interesting relationship (as shown by analytical theory) between values of ω and the peaks/dips in MOID values. Previous works have shown that GR precession suppresses Kozai oscillations and this aspect was verified using our integrations. There is an overall agreement between both analytical and numerical methods.Summary and Discussion: We find that GR precession could play an important role in the calculations pertaining to MOID and close encounter scenarios in the case of certain small solarsystem bodies (depending on their initial orbital elements). Previous works have looked into impact probabilities and collision scenarios on

This paper emphasizes the connection between solar and extra-solar debris disks: how models and observations of the SolarSystem are helping us understand the debris disk phenomenon, and vice versa, how debris disks are helping us place our SolarSystem into context.

Recent results of solarsystem planets observed with the Japanese X-ray astronomy satellite Suzaku are reviewed. Thanks to the low instrumental background and good energy resolution, X-ray CCDs onboard Suzaku are one of the best probes to study diffuse X-ray emission. An overview of the Suzaku data of Jupiter and Earth is presented, along with preliminary results of Mars. Firstly, diffuse hard X-ray emission is discovered in 1-5 keV at Jovian radiation belts. Its spectrum is represented by a power-law continuum with a photon index of ˜1.4. This emission could originate from inverse-Compton scattering of solar photons by tens MeV electrons. Secondly, variable diffuse soft X-rays are serendipitously found during observations in the directions of the north ecliptic pole and galactic ridge. Good time correlations with the solar wind and emission lines found in the X-ray spectra are firm evidences of a solar wind charge exchange emission with Earth’s exosphere. Thirdly, diffuse X-ray emission from Martian exosphere via the solar wind charge exchange is investigated for the first time at solar minimum. A stringent upper limit on the density of the Martian exosphere is placed from the Suzaku data.

A major breakthrough is described in the accuracy of SolarSystem dynamical tests of relativistic gravity. The breakthrough was achieved by factoring in ranging data from Viking Landers 1 and 2 from the surface of Mars. Other key data sources included optical transit circle observations, lunar laser ranging, planetary radar, and spacecraft (Mariner 9 to Mars and Mariner 10 to Mercury). The SolarSystem model which is used to fit the data and the process by which such fits are performed are explained and results are discussed. The results are fully consistent with the predictions of General Relativity.

A major breakthrough is described in the accuracy of SolarSystem dynamical tests of relativistic gravity. The breakthrough was achieved by factoring in ranging data from Viking Landers 1 and 2 from the surface of Mars. Other key data sources included optical transit circle observations, lunar laser ranging, planetary radar, and spacecraft (Mariner 9 to Mars and Mariner 10 to Mercury). The SolarSystem model which is used to fit the data and the process by which such fits are performed are explained and results are discussed. The results are fully consistent with the predictions of General Relativity.

This book describes methods for adaptive control of distributed-collector solar fields: plants that collect solar energy and deliver it in thermal form. Controller design methods are presented that can overcome difficulties found in these type of plants:they are distributed-parameter systems, i.e., systems with dynamics that depend on space as well as time;their dynamics is nonlinear, with a bilinear structure;there is a significant level of uncertainty in plant knowledge.Adaptive methods form the focus of the text because of the degree of uncertainty in the knowledge of plant dynamics. Parts

The present century has been a disappointing one for comets, but past centuries often featured spectacular, unforgettable comet shows that dominated the night (and even daytime) sky for months: comets that outshone Venus or even the Moon, whose spectacular tails stretched more than halfway across the sky or were weirdly split, and whose apparition was held responsible for everything from wars to unusually good wine vintages. Published to coincide with the first naked-eye appearance of Comet Hale-Bopp, perhaps our own comet of the century, this book is an irresistible guide to comet facts and lore throughout history.

The solar dynamic power system design and analysis study compared Brayton, alkali-metal Rankine, and free-piston Stirling cycles with silicon planar and GaAs concentrator photovoltaic power systems for application to missions beyond the Phase 2 Space Station level of technology for all power systems. Conceptual designs for Brayton and Stirling power systems were developed for 35 kWe and 7 kWe power levels. All power systems were designed for 7-year end-of-life conditions in low Earth orbit. LiF was selected for thermal energy storage for the solar dynamic systems. Results indicate that the Stirling cycle systems have the highest performance (lowest weight and area) followed by the Brayton cycle, with photovoltaic systems considerably lower in performance. For example, based on the performance assumptions used, the planar silicon power system weight was 55 to 75 percent higher than for the Stirling system. A technology program was developed to address areas wherein significant performance improvements could be realized relative to the current state-of-the-art as represented by Space Station. In addition, a preliminary evaluation of hardenability potential found that solar dynamic systems can be hardened beyond the hardness inherent in the conceptual designs of this study.

The paper proposes a new solar position sensor used in tracking system control. The main advantages of the new solution are the robustness and the economical aspect. Positioning accuracy of the tracking system that uses the new sensor is better than 1°. The new sensor uses the ancient principle...... of the solar clock. The sensitive elements are eight ordinary photo-resistors. It is important to note that all the sensors are not selected simultaneously. It is not necessary for sensor operating characteristics to be quasi-identical because the sensor principle is based on extreme operating duty measurement...... (bright or dark). In addition, the proposed solar sensor significantly simplifies the operation of the tracking control device....

Meteorites are fragments from solarsystem bodies, dominantly asteroids. A small fraction is derived from the Moon and from Mars. These rocks tell a rich history of the early solarsystem and range from solids little changed since the earliest phases of solid matter condensation in the solar nebula (chondrites) to material representing asteroidal metamorphism and melting, impact processes on the Moon and even aqueous alteration near the surface of Mars. Meteorites are very rare. Currently many meteorites result from searches in Antarctica and the hot deserts of North Africa and Arabia. The present high find rate likely represents a unique short-term event, asking for a careful management of this scarce scientific resource.

The system is composed of a warm air collector, a logic control unit and a universal switching and transport unit. The collector was originally conceived and designed as an integrated roof/wall system and therefore provides a dual function in the structure. The collector serves both as a solar energy conversion system and as a structural weather resistant skin. The control unit provides totally automatic control over the operation of the system. It receives input data from sensor probes in collectors, storage and living space. The logic was designed so as to make maximum use of solar energy and minimize use of conventional energy. The transport and switching unit is a high-efficiency air-handling system equipped with gear motor valves that respond to outputs from the control system. The fan unit was designed for maximum durability and efficiency in operation, and has permanently lubricated ball bearings and excellent air-handling efficiency.

The completed system was composed of three basic subsystems: the collector system consisting of 3,264 square feet of Owens Illinois evacuated glass tube collectors; the storage system which included a 5,000 gallon insulated steel tank; and the distribution and control system which included piping, pumping and heat transfer components as well as the solemoid activated valves and control logic for the efficient and safe operation of the entire system. This solar heating system was installed in an existing facility and was, therefore, a retrofit system. Extracts from the site files, specifications, drawings, installation, operation and maintenance instructions are included.

Presents a history of unmanned missions of exploration of our SolarSystem. This book provides technical descriptions of the spacecraft, of their mission designs and of instrumentations. It discusses scientific results together with details of mission management. It covers missions from the 1950s and some of the other missions and their results.

A few new wrinkles have been added to the popular activity of building a scale model of the solarsystem. Students can learn about maps and scaling using easily accessible online resources that include satellite images. This is accomplished by taking advantage of some of the special features of Google Earth. This activity gives students a much…

Solar electricity is a viable, environmentally sustainable alternative to the world's energy supplies. In support, this work examines the various technical parameters of photovoltaic systems. It analyzes the study of performance and yield (including optical, thermal, and electrical parameters and interfaces).

Elementary students find it difficult to connect the apparent motion of objects in the sky with how celestial objects actually move in the solarsystem. As a university astronomy education researcher, the author has been investigating methods to help children learn astronomy through workshops and summer camps at science museums and planetariums.…

A few new wrinkles have been added to the popular activity of building a scale model of the solarsystem. Students can learn about maps and scaling using easily accessible online resources that include satellite images. This is accomplished by taking advantage of some of the special features of Google Earth. This activity gives students a much…

The idea of sending students and the general public on a walk through a scale model of the solarsystem in an attempt to instill an appreciation of the relative scales of the sizes of the objects compared to the immense distances between them is certainly not new. A good number of such models exist, including one on the National Mall in…

Elementary students find it difficult to connect the apparent motion of objects in the sky with how celestial objects actually move in the solarsystem. As a university astronomy education researcher, the author has been investigating methods to help children learn astronomy through workshops and summer camps at science museums and planetariums.…

The idea of sending students and the general public on a walk through a scale model of the solarsystem in an attempt to instill an appreciation of the relative scales of the sizes of the objects compared to the immense distances between them is certainly not new. A good number of such models exist, including one on the National Mall in…

Solar-powered air heater supplies part or all of space heating requirements of residential or commercial buildings and is interfaced with air to water heat exchanger to heat domestic hot water. System has potential application in drying agricultural products such as cotton, lumber, corn, grains, and peanuts.

Forecast systems for predicting real-time solar energy generation are being developed along similar lines to those of more established wind forecast systems, but the challenges and constraints are different. Clouds and aerosols play a large role, and for tilted photovoltaic panels and solar concentrating plants, the direct beam irradiance, which typically has much larger forecast errors than global horizontal irradiance, must be utilized. At MDA Information Systems, we are developing a forecast system based on first principles, with the well-validated REST2 clear sky model (Gueymard, 2008) at its backbone. In tuning the model and addressing aerosol scattering and surface albedo, etc., we relied upon the wealth of public data sources including AERONET (aerosol optical depth at different wavelengths), Suominet (GPS integrated water vapor), NREL MIDC solar monitoring stations, SURFRAD (includes upwelling shortwave), and MODIS (albedo in different wavelength bands), among others. The forecast itself utilizes a blend of NWP model output, which must be brought down to finer time resolution based on the diurnal cycle rather than simple interpolation. Many models currently do not output the direct beam irradiance, and one that does appears to have a bias relative to its global horizontal irradiance, with equally good performance attained by utilizing REST2 and the model global radiation to estimate the direct component. We will present a detailed assessment of various NWP solar energy products, evaluating forecast skill at a range of photovoltaic installations.

Questions related to the formation and the characteristics of comets are discussed, and it is suggested that an evolutionary link exists between comets, prebiotic organic synthesis, and the origin of life as it is known. Fundamental questions about the solar wind interaction with comets, are considered, giving attention to the ionization mechanisms in the different cometary regions, the presence of field-aligned currents, and the cometary plasma tail. It is pointed out that some of the questions will soon be answered when the NASA-ESA International Cometary Explorer (ICE) goes through the tail of Giacobini-Zinner in September 1985, and when a five spacecraft fleet arrives at comet Halley in March 1986. 14 references.

We present a solar recharging system for nickel-cadmium cells of interest in areas where batteries for hearing aids are difficult to obtain. The charger has sun cells at the top. Luminous energy is converted into electrical energy, during the day and also at night if there is moonlight. The cost of the charger and hearing aid is very low at 35 US$. The use of solar recharging for hearing aids would be useful in alleviating the problems of deafness in parts of developing countries where there is no electricity.

A solar tracking system is designed to optimize the operation of solar energy receivers. The objective of this paper is proposing a new tracking system structure with two axis. The success strategy of this new project focuses on the economical analysis of solar energy. Therefore it is important...... to determine the most cost effective design, to consider the costs of production and maintenance, and operating. The proposed tracking system uses a new solar sensor position with an adaptive feature....

Contemporary Systems has taken its Series V Solar Heating System and developed it to a degree acceptable by local codes and regulatory agencies. The system is composed of the Series V warm air collector, the LCU-110 logic control unit and the USU-A universal switching and transport unit. The collector was originally conceived and designed as an integrated roof/wall system and provides a dual function in the structure. The collector serves both as a solar energy conversion system and as a structural weather resistant skin. The collector can be fabricated in any length from 12 to 24 feet. This provides maximum flexibility in design and installation. The LCU-110 control unit provides totally automatic control over the operation of the system. It receives input data from sensor probes in collectors, storage and living space. The logic is designed so as to make maximum use of solar energy and minimize use of conventional energy. The USU-A transport and switching unit is a high-efficiency air-handling system equipped with gear motor valves that respond to outputs from the control system. The fan unit is designed for maximum durability and efficiency in operation, and has permanently lubricated ball bearings and excellent air-handling efficiency.

Within IEA Task 14 (Advanced SolarSystems) a working group was established dealing with large advanced solar energy systems (the Large Systems Working group). The goal of this working group was to generate a common base of experiences for the design and construction of advanced large solarsystems.

Within IEA Task 14 (Advanced SolarSystems) a working group was established dealing with large advanced solar energy systems (the Large Systems Working group). The goal of this working group was to generate a common base of experiences for the design and construction of advanced large solarsystems.

Different types of energy transfer are presented from the literature and are approached and commented on. It follows from these articles that energy transfer in addition to solar irradiation is less well understood by contemporary scientist. The transformation of energy between kinetic and potential energy in planetary orbits might be of crucial importance for understanding energy transfer between celestial bodies and the development of commensurabilities. There is evidence pointing to interactions (friction) between space and satellites producing volcanism. The reversible transfer of energy between the orbit of Moon and Earth's rotational energy is crucial to the creation of the 13.6-day and 27.3-day periods in both solar variables and Earth bound climate variables. It is hypothesized that the Earth-Moon system is modulating the sunspot numbers and creating both these periods, and that the great planets are responsible for the 11 yr solar cycle.

The system is described, showing that energy conversion and storage functions are combined in a novel way. Here, small silicon solar cells are immersed in an electrolyte and the current generated by the cells is used directly to electrolyze a halogen acid, for example, HBr. The hydrogen and bromine produced can be stored separately until needed and then recombined in a fuel cell to give electrical energy on demand. The fuel cell HBr product is returned to the solar chemical convertor, thus completing the closed loop energy cycle. In summarizing the achievements to date, it is noted that feasibility demonstration of a 13% array electrical efficiency prepared by a laboratory process and 10% array efficiencies have been obtained from potentially scalable solar cell and array processes.

To date, weve discovered nearly 2000 confirmed exoplanets, as well as thousands of additional candidates. Amidst this vast sea of solarsystems, how special is our own? A new study explores the answer to this question.Analyzing DistributionsKnowing whether our solarsystem is unique among exoplanetary systems can help us to better understand future observations of exoplanets. Furthermore, if our solarsystem is typical, this allows us to be optimistic about the possibility of life existing elsewhere in the universe.In a recent study, Rebecca Martin (University of Nevada, Las Vegas) and Mario Livio (Space Telescope Science Institute) examine how normal our solarsystem is, by comparing the properties of our planets to the averages obtained from known exoplanets.Comparing PropertiesSo how do we measure up?Densities of planets as a function of their mass. Exoplanets (N=287) are shown in blue, planets in our solarsystem are shown in red. [MartinLivio 2015]Planet masses and densitiesThose of the gas giants in our solarsystem are pretty typical. The terrestrial planets are on the low side for mass, but thats probably a selection effect: its very difficult to detect low-mass planets.Age of the solarsystemRoughly half the stars in the disk of our galaxy are younger than the Sun, and half are older. Were definitely not special in age.Orbital locations of the planetsThis is actually a little strange: our solarsystem is lacking close-in planets. All of our planets, in fact, orbit at a distance that is larger than the mean distance observed in exoplanetary systems. Again, however, this might be a selection effect at work: its easier to detect large planets orbiting very close to their stars.Eccentricities of the planets orbitsOur planets are on very circular orbits and that actually makes us somewhat special too, compared to typical exoplanet systems. There is a possible explanation though: eccentricity of orbits tends to decrease with more planets in the system. Because

Comets are currently believed to be a mixture of interstellar and nebular material. Many of the volatiles in comets are attributed to interstellar chemistry, because the same species of carbonaceous compounds are also observed in ices in interstellar molecular (ISM) clouds. Comets are thus likely to be a relatively pristine reservoir of primitive material and carbonaceous compounds in our solarsystem. They could be a major contributor to the delivery of prebiotic organic compounds, from which life emerged through impacts on early Earth. Mass spectrometers are very powerful tools to identify unknown chemicals, and much progress bas been made in miniaturizing mas spectrometers for space applications. Most miniatu rized mass spectrometers developed to date, however, are still relatively large, power hungry, complicated to assemble, and would have significant impact on space flight vehicle total payload and resource allocations.

Our knowledge of main-belt comets (MBCs), which exhibit comet-like activity likely due to the sublimation of volatile ices, yet orbit in the main asteroid belt, has increased greatly since the discovery of the first known MBC, 133P/Elst-Pizarro, in 1996, and their recognition as a new class of solarsystem objects after the discovery of two more MBCs in 2005. I review work that has been done over the last 10 years to improve our understanding of these enigmatic objects, including the development of systematic discovery methods and diagnostics for distinguishing MBCs from disrupted asteroids (which exhibit comet-like activity due to physical disruptions such as impacts or rotational destabilization). I also discuss efforts to understand the dynamical and thermal properties of these objects.

Images taken by the Stardust mission during its flyby of 81P/Wild 2 show the comet to be a 5-kilometer oblate body covered with remarkable topographic features, including unusual circular features that appear to be impact craters. The presence of high-angle slopes shows that the surface is cohesive and self-supporting. The comet does not appear to be a rubble pile, and its rounded shape is not directly consistent with the comet being a fragment of a larger body. The surface is active and yet it retains ancient terrain. Wild 2 appears to be in the early stages of its degradation phase as a small volatile-rich body in the inner solarsystem.

There is provided a climate control system for a parked vehicle that includes a solar panel, thermostatic switch, fans, and thermoelectric coolers. The solar panel can serve as the sole source of electricity for the system. The system affords convenient installation and removal by including solar panels that are removably attached to the exterior of a vehicle. A connecting wire electrically connects the solar panels to a housing that is removably mounted to a partially opened window on the vehicle. The thermostatic switch, fans, and thermoelectric coolers are included within the housing. The thermostatic switch alternates the direction of the current flow through the thermoelectric coolers to selectively heat or cool the interior of the vehicle. The interior surface of the thermoelectric coolers are in contact with interior heat sinks that have air circulated across them by an interior fan. Similarly, the exterior surface of the thermoelectric coolers are in contact with exterior heat sinks that have air circulated across them by an exterior fan.

The Ulysses spacecraft has been orbiting the Sun on a highly inclined ellipse almost perpendicular to the ecliptic plane (inclination 79 deg, perihelion distance 1.3 AU, aphelion distance 5.4 AU) since it encountered Jupiter in 1992. The in-situ dust detector on board continuously measured interstellar dust grains with masses up to 10^-13 kg, penetrating deep into the solarsystem. The flow direction is close to the mean apex of the Sun's motion through the solarsystem and the grains act as tracers of the physical conditions in the local interstellar cloud (LIC). While Ulysses monitored the interstellar dust stream at high ecliptic latitudes between 3 and 5 AU, interstellar impactors were also measured with the in-situ dust detectors on board Cassini, Galileo and Helios, covering a heliocentric distance range between 0.3 and 3 AU in the ecliptic plane. The interstellar dust stream in the inner solarsystem is altered by the solar radiation pressure force, gravitational focussing and interaction of charged gr...

We present new color results of cometary nuclei obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) whose superior resolution enables us to accurately isolate the nucleus signals from the surrounding comae. By combining with scrutinized available data obtained with ground-based telescopes, we accumulated a sample of 51 cometary nuclei, 44 ecliptic comets (ECs) and 7 nearly-isotropic comets (NICs) using the nomenclature of Levison [Levison, H.F., 1996. In: Rettig, T.W., Hahn, J.M. (Eds.), Completing the Inventory of the SolarSystem. In: ASP Conf. Ser., vol. 107, pp. 173-192]. We analyze color distributions and color-color correlations as well as correlations with other physical parameters. We present our compilation of colors of 232 outer SolarSystem objects—separately considering the different dynamical populations, classical KBOs in low and high-inclination orbits (respectively CKBO-LI and CKBO-HI), resonant KBOs (practically Plutinos), scattered-disk objects (SDOs) and Centaurs—of 12 candidate dead comets, and of 85 Trojans. We perform a systematic analysis of all color distributions, and conclude by synthesizing the implications of the dynamical evolution and of the colors for the origin of the minor bodies of the SolarSystem. We find that the color distributions are remarkably consistent with the scenarios of the formation of TNOs by Gomes [Gomes, R.S., 2003. Icarus 161, 404-418] generalized by the "Nice" model [Levison, H.F., Morbidelli, A., VanLaerhoven, Ch., Gomes, R., Tsiganis, L., 2008. Icarus 196, 258-273], and of the Trojans by Morbidelli et al. [Morbidelli, A., Levison, H.F., Tsiganis, K., Gomes, R., 2005. Nature 435, 462-465]. The color distributions of the Centaurs are globally similar to those of the CKBO-HI, the Plutinos and the SDOs. However the potential bimodality of their distributions allows to possibly distinguish two groups based on their (B-R) index: Centaur I with (B-R)>1.7 and Centaurs II with (B-R)<1.4. Centaurs I could be composed of

The supply of potable water from polluted rivers, lakes, unsafe wells, etc. is a problem of high priority. One of the most effective methods to obtain low cost drinking water is desalination. Advanced water treatment system powered by Solar Energy and based on electrodialysis for water desalination and purification, is suggested. Technological and economic evaluations and the benefits of the suggested system are discussed. The Advanced Water Treatment System proposed clears water not only from different salts, but also from some infections, thus decreasing the count of diseases which are caused by the usage of non-clear water. Using Solar Energy makes the system stand alone which is convenient to use in places where power supply is problem.

Results of a theoretical study of the interactions between interstellar grains streaming through the solarsystem and the solar wind are presented. It is shown that although elongated core-mantle interstellar particles of a characteristic radius of about 0.12 microns are subject to a greater force due to radiation pressure than to gravitational attraction, they are still able to penetrate deep inside the solarsystem. Calculations of particle trajectories within the solarsystem indicate substantial effects of the solar activity cycle as reflected in the interplanetary magnetic field on the distribution of 0.12- and 0.0005-micron interstellar grains streaming through the solarsystem, leading to a 50-fold increase in interstellar grain densities 3 to 4 AU ahead of the sun during years 8 to 17 of the solar cycle. It is noted that during the Solar Polar Mission, concentrations are expected which will offer the opportunity of detecting interstellar grains in the solarsystem.

The reasons for the intrinsic brightness variations of up to 500 percent on time scales as short as a few hours detected by Sekanina (1984) in Comet Halley between October 1982 and February 1984 are discussed. It is shown that solar wind-modulated electrostatic dust blowoff from the night side of the comet is consistent with the observed brightness variations. The variations coincide with the encounter of high-speed streams with the comet. The stream's propagation time to the comet and the sun's rotation during this transit were used to locate the stream origin on the coronal surface, and the results are shown.

In our present understanding of the SolarSystem, small bodies (asteroids, Jupiter Trojans, comets and TNOs) are the most direct remnants of the original building blocks that formed the planets. Jupiter Trojan and Hilda asteroids are small primitive bodies located beyond the `snow line', around respectively the L4 and L5 Lagrange points of Jupiter at ˜5.2 AU (Trojans) and in the 2:3 mean-motion resonance with Jupiter near 3.9 AU (Hildas). They are at the crux of several outstanding and still conflicting issues regarding the formation and evolution of the SolarSystem. They hold the potential to unlock the answers to fundamental questions about planetary migration, the late heavy bombardment, the formation of the Jovian system, the origin and evolution of trans-neptunian objects, and the delivery of water and organics to the inner planets. The proposed Trojans' Odyssey mission is envisioned as a reconnaissance, multiple flyby mission aimed at visiting several objects, typically five Trojans and one Hilda. It will attempt exploring both large and small objects and sampling those with any known differences in photometric properties. The orbital strategy consists in a direct trajectory to one of the Trojan swarms. By carefully choosing the aphelion of the orbit (typically 5.3 AU), the trajectory will offer a long arc in the swarm thus maximizing the number of flybys. Initial gravity assists from Venus and Earth will help reducing the cruise time as well as the ΔV needed for injection thus offering enough capacity to navigate among Trojans. This solution further opens the unique possibility to flyby a Hilda asteroid when leaving the Trojan swarm. During the cruise phase, a Main Belt Asteroid could be targeted if requiring a modest ΔV. The specific science objectives of the mission will be best achieved with a payload that will perform high-resolution panchromatic and multispectral imaging, thermal-infrared imaging/ radiometry, near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy, and

A detailed design report for a retrofitted solar heating and cooling system for a 1780 square foot office building is presented. The system is composed of a 400 square foot flat plate collector, a 2,000 gallon storage tank, a gas auxiliary boiler, a duct distribution system utilizing a hot water duct coil and water-to-air heat pump, and a hot water preheater. The control system, data acquisition system, technical data, and maintenance procedure are discussed. Detailed specifications, circuits, and drawings for the components are included. (WHK)

Earth-crossing asteroids and comets pose a long-term hazard to life and property on Earth. Schemes to mitigate the impact threat have been studied extensively but tend to focus on asteroid diversion while neglecting the possibility of a comet threat. Such schemes often demand physically intercepting the target by spacecraft, a task feasible only for targets identified decades in advance in a restricted range of orbits. A threatening comet is unlikely to satisfy these criteria and so necessitates a fundamentally different approach for diversion. Comets are naturally perturbed from purely gravitational trajectories through solar heating of their surfaces which activates sublimation-driven jets. Artificial heating of a comet, such as by a high-powered laser array in Earth orbit, may supplement natural heating by the Sun to purposefully manipulate its path to avoid an impact. The effectiveness of any particular laser array for a given comet depends on the comet's heating response which varies dramatically depending on factors including nucleus size, orbit and dynamical history. These factors are incorporated into a numerical orbital model using established models of nongravitational perturbations to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of using high-powered laser arrays in Earth orbit or on the ground to deflect a variety of comets. Simulation results suggest that orbital arrays of 500m and 10GW operating for 10 min=d over 1 yr may be adequate for mitigating impacts by comets up to 500m in diameter. Continuously operating ground-based arrays of 100m and 10GW may be similarly effective when appropriately located.

Karthik, K.(Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY, United States of America); Shirvram, B.

2008-01-01

Solar flares are enormous explosions on the surface of the sun and they release energy of the order of billion megatons of TNThis energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiations such as alpha, gamma, and ultraviolet rays. When exposed to high doses of radiation like 2-15 kilorad (Si), silicon integrated circuits in satellite communication systems fail to operate properly, thus affecting the performance of communication systems. Therefore, the major issue that needs to be addressed is the ...

The evolution of the entire planetary system has been numerically integrated for a time span of nearly 100 million years. This calculation confirms that the evolution of the solarsystem as a whole is chaotic, with a time scale of exponential divergence of about 4 million years. Additional numerical experiments indicate that the Jovian planet subsystem is chaotic, although some small variations in the model can yield quasi-periodic motion. The motion of Pluto is independently and robustly chaotic.

The author discusses the issue of providing solar home systems to primarily rural areas from the perspective of how to commercialize the process. He considers two different approaches, one an open market approach and the other an exclusive market approach. He describes examples of the exclusive market approach which are in process in Argentina and Brazil. Coming from a banking background, the business aspects are discussed in detail. He points out the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches toward developing such systems.

Over the past five years solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems have matured and are now being deployed on a much larger scale. The traditional small-scale remote area power supply systems are still important and village electrification is also a large and growing market but large scale, grid-connected systems and building integrated systems are now being deployed in many countries. This growth has been aided by imaginative government policies in several countries and the overall result is a growth rate of over 40% per annum in the sales of PV systems. Optimistic forecasts are being made about the future of PV power as a major source of sustainable energy. Plans are now being formulated by the IEA for very large-scale PV installations of more than 100 MW peak output. The Australian Government has announced a subsidy for a large solar photovoltaic power station of 154 MW in Victoria, based on the concentrator technology developed in Australia. In Western Australia a proposal has been submitted to the State Government for a 2 MW photovoltaic power system to provide fringe of grid support at Perenjori. This paper outlines the technologies, designs, management and policies that underpin these exciting developments in solar PV power.

In this paper we present the new concept of combined solar and wind energy systems for buildings applications. Photovoltaics (PV) and small wind turbines (WTs) can be install on buildings, in case of sufficient wind potential, providing the building with electricity. PVs can be combined with thermal collectors to form the hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems. The PVs (or the PV/Ts) and WT subsystems can supplement each other to cover building electrical load. In case of using PV/T collectors, the surplus of electricity, if not used or stored in batteries, can increase the temperature of the thermal storage tank of the solar thermal unit. The description of the experimental set-up of the suggested PV/T/WT system and experimental results are presented. In PV/T/WT systems the output from the solar part depends on the sunshine time and the output of the wind turbine part depends on the wind speed and is obtained any time of day or night. The use of the three subsystems can cover a great part of building energy load, contributing to conventional energy saving and environment protection. The PV/T/WT systems are considered suitable in rural and remote areas with electricity supply from stand-alone units or mini-grid connection. PV/T/WT systems can also be used in typical grid connected applications.

Solarsystem exploration in recent years has completely captured the interest of the public worldwide, and we as scientists can play a unique role in disseminating this information. The public wants to hear from us about the latest results from the Pluto flyby, to see the newest Titan image, to hear stories of the plucky Philae comet lander and to hear our thoughts on the Earth-like exoplanet, even if we are not directly involved in these missions or discoveries. They trust us, because they know our background makes us viable judges of the value of these endeavors. The public relies on us to distill the material, which is typically science-jargon-rich, into something inspiring and digestible by them in the time they have available. The best way to start reaching out is to find and distribute what most excites us, because it is clearly obvious when we’re truly excited about something as opposed to just regurgitating the latest and greatest. If you like the latest picture from MSL because it looks like your back yard, show a picture of the two next to each other. We should be familiar with, and even solicit, the different outreach platforms, such as such as social media of various kinds, public talks in all shapes and forms, news venues, including radio and TV, and popular articles. Finally, we need to know our audience, prepare and practice. I have never given the exact same outreach talk twice, because the audience is always slightly different. The last two public talks I gave were carefully worded, practiced and even partly memorized, which gave me an edge of preparedness that allowed me to be more dynamic. Being involved in outreach, in the best way for you, will make you happier and better focused in your research, will ensure the public supports NASA, and will make a positive impact in the lives of many people.

MOdified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) is an interesting alternative to dark matter in extragalactic systems. We here examine the possibility that mild or even strong MOND behavior may become evident well inside the solarsystem, in particular near saddle points of the total gravitational potential. Whereas in Newtonian theory tidal stresses are finite at saddle points, they are expected to diverge in MOND, and to remain distinctly large inside a sizeable oblate ellipsoid around the saddle point. We work out the MOND effects using the nonrelativistic limit of the T$e$V$e$S theory, both in the perturbative nearly Newtonian regime and in the deep MOND regime. While strong MOND behavior would be a spectacular ``backyard'' vindication of the theory, pinpointing the MOND-bubbles in the setting of the realistic solarsystem may be difficult. Space missions, such as the LISA Pathfinder, equipped with sensitive accelerometers, may be able to explore the larger perturbative region.

The study of Comet Halley in 1986 was a tremendous success for cometary science. In March of that year, six spacecrafts passed through Comet Halley as close as 600 km from the nucleus and made the in situ measurements of various kinds. These space missions to Comet Halley and that of the ICE spacecraft to Comet Giacobini-Zinner combined with studies, both ground-based and above the atmosphere, have increased our knowledge of cometary science in a dramatic way.This new edition of Physics of Comets incorporates these new and exciting findings. The emphasis of the book is on the physical processe

Photography of the nucleus of comet Halley is the goal of several planned space missions. The nucleus of a comet is surrounded by a cloud of dust particles. If this cloud is optically thick, it will prevent observation of the nuclear surface. Broadband photometry of nine comets has been analyzed to determine the visibility of their nuclei. Only in the case of comet West near perihelion was the dust dense enough to interfere with imaging. Comparison of the visual brightness of the well-observed comets with that of Halley in 1910 leads to the conclusion that the nucleus of Halley can be imaged without significant obscuration by the dust.

Solar water heating systems installed at Tempe, Arizona and San Diego, California are described. The systems consist of the following: collector, collector-tank water loop, solar tank, conventional tank, and controls. General guidelines which may be utilized in development of detailed installation plans and specifications are provided along with instruction on operation, maintenance, and installation of solar hot water systems.

This research project aimed to identify and analyze Mexican primary school students' ideas about the components of the solarsystem. In particular, this study focused on conceptions of the solarsystem and representations of the dynamics of the solarsystem based on the functional and structural models that students make in school. Using a…

This research project aimed to identify and analyze Mexican primary school students' ideas about the components of the solarsystem. In particular, this study focused on conceptions of the solarsystem and representations of the dynamics of the solarsystem based on the functional and structural models that students make in school. Using a…

This research project aimed to identify and analyze Mexican primary school students' ideas about the components of the solarsystem. In particular, this study focused on conceptions of the solarsystem and representations of the dynamics of the solarsystem based on the functional and structural models that students make in school. Using a…

Viewing and Imaging the SolarSystem: A Guide for Amateur Astronomers is for those who want to develop their ability to observe and image SolarSystem objects, including the planets and moons, the Sun, and comets and asteroids. They might be beginners, or they may have already owned and used an astronomical telescope for a year or more. Newcomers are almost always wowed by sights such as the rings of Saturn and the moons of Jupiter, but have little idea how to find these objects for themselves (with the obvious exceptions of the Sun and Moon). They also need guidance about what equipment to use, besides a telescope. This book is written by an expert on the SolarSystem, who has had a lot of experience with outreach programs, which teach others how to make the most of relatively simple and low-cost equipment. That does not mean that this book is not for serious amateurs. On the contrary, it is designed to show amateur astronomers, in a relatively light-hearted—and math-free way—how to become serious.

An evaluation of several solar concentrator-based systems for producing oxygen from lunar regolith was performed. The systems utilize a solar concentrator mirror to provide thermal energy for the oxygen production process. Thermal energy to power a Stirling heat engine and photovoltaics are compared for the production of electricity. The electricity produced is utilized to operate the equipment needed in the oxygen production process. The initial oxygen production method utilized in the analysis is hydrogen reduction of ilmenite. Utilizing this method of oxygen production a baseline system design was produced. This baseline system had an oxygen production rate of 0.6 kg/hr with a concentrator mirror size of 5 m. Variations were performed on the baseline design to show how changes in the system size and process (rate) affected the oxygen production rate. An evaluation of the power requirements for a carbothermal lunar regolith reduction reactor has also been conducted. The reactor had a total power requirement between 8,320 to 9,961 W when producing 1000 kg/year of oxygen. The solar concentrator used to provide the thermal power (over 82 percent of the total energy requirement) would have a diameter of less than 4 m.

The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST; http://lsst.org) will be a large-aperture, wide-field, ground-based telescope that will survey half the sky every few nights in six optical bands from 320 to 1050 nm. It will explore a wide range of astrophysical questions, ranging from performing a census of the SolarSystem, to examining the nature of dark energy. It is currently in construction, slated for first light in 2019 and full operations by 2022.The LSST will survey over 20,000 square degrees with a rapid observational cadence, to typical limiting magnitudes of r~24.5 in each visit (9.6 square degree field of view). Automated software will link the individual detections into orbits; these orbits, as well as precisely calibrated astrometry (~50mas) and photometry (~0.01-0.02 mag) in multiple bandpasses will be available as LSST data products. The resulting data set will have tremendous potential for planetary astronomy; multi-color catalogs of hundreds of thousands of NEOs and Jupiter Trojans, millions of asteroids, tens of thousands of TNOs, as well as thousands of other objects such as comets and irregular satellites of the major planets.LSST catalogs will increase the sample size of objects with well-known orbits 10-100 times for small body populations throughout the SolarSystem, enabling a major increase in the completeness level of the inventory of most dynamical classes of small bodies and generating new insights into planetary formation and evolution. Precision multi-color photometry will allow determination of lightcurves and colors, as well as spin state and shape modeling through sparse lightcurve inversion. LSST is currently investigating survey strategies to optimize science return across a broad range of goals. To aid in this investigation, we are making a series of realistic simulated survey pointing histories available together with a Python software package to model and evaluate survey detections for a user-defined input population. Preliminary

The economic analysis of the solar energy system, is developed for Torgus and four other sites typical of a wide range of environmental and economic conditions in the continental United States. This analysis is accomplished based on the technical and economic models in the f-chart design procedure with inputs taken on the characteristics of the installed system and local conditions. The results are expressed in terms of the economic parameters of present worth of system cost over a projected twenty year life, life cycle savings, year of positive savings and year of payback for the optimized solar energy system at each of the analysis sites. The sensitivity of the economic evaluation to uncertainties in constituent system and economic variables is also investigated. Results demonstrate that the solar energy system is economically viable at all of the five sites for which the analysis was conducted.

Comets are supposedly the most primitive objects in the solarsystem, preserving the earliest record of material from the nebula out of which our Sun and planets were formed, and thus holding crucial clues on the early phases of the solarsystem formation and evolution. For most small bodies in the solarsystem we can only access the surface properties, whereas active comet nuclei lose material from their subsurface, so that understanding cometary activity represents an unique opportunity to assess their internal composition, and by extension the composition, the temperature and pressure conditions of the protoplanetary disk at their place of formation.The ESA/Rosetta mission is performing the most thorough investigation of a comet ever made. Rosetta is measuring properties of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at distances between 5 and hundreds of km from the nucleus. However, it is unable to make any measurement over the thousands of km of the rest of the coma. Fortunately, the outer coma is accessible from the ground. In addition, we currently lack an understanding of how the very detailed information gathered from space-based observations can be extrapolated to the many ground-based observations that we can potentially perform. Combining parallel in situ observations with observations from the ground therefore gives us a great opportunity, not only to understand the behavior of 67P, but also to other comets observed exclusively from Earth. As part of the many observations taken from the ground, we have performed a spectral mapping of 67's coma using two IFU instruments mounted on the VLT: MUSE in the visible, and SINFONI in the near-infrared. The observations, carried out in March 2016, will be presented and discussed.

Energy savings for a number of new solar heating systems in one family houses have been determined by means of information on the energy consumption of the houses before and after installation of the solar heating systems. The investigated solar heating systems are marketed by Velux Danmark A/S, Sonnnenkraft Scandinavia A/S and Batec Solvarme A/S. Solar domestic hot water systems as well as solar combi systems are included in the investigations The houses have different auxiliary energy supply systems: Natural gas boilers, oil fired burners, electrical heating and district heating. Some of the houses have a second auxiliary energy supply system. The collector areas vary from 1.83 m{sup 2} to 9.28 m{sup 2}. Some of the solar heating systems are based on energy units with a new integrated natural gas boiler and a heat storage for the solar heating system. The existing energy systems in the houses are for most of the houses used as the auxiliary energy systems for the solar heating systems. The yearly energy savings for the houses where the only change is the installation of the solar heating system vary from 300 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector to 1300 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector. The average yearly energy savings is about 670 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector for these solar heating systems. The energy savings per m{sup 2} solar collector are not influenced by the solar heating system type, the company marketing the system, the auxiliary energy supply system, the collector area, the collector tilt, the collector azimuth, the energy consumption of the house or the location of the house. The yearly energy savings for the houses with solar heating systems based on energy units including a new natural gas boiler vary from 790 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector to 2090 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector. The average yearly energy savings is about 1520 kWh per m{sup 2} solar collector for these solar heating systems. The energy savings per m{sup 2} solar collector for

Complete air-collector system to meet needs of single-family dwelling is designed to operate in any region of United States except extreme north and south. Design can be scaled up or down to accomodate wide range of heating and hot-water requirements for single-family, multi-family, or commercial buildings without significantly changing design concept.

(Abstract only) Comets are leftovers from the early solarsystem and may have played a role in delivering water and organics to the prebiotic Earth. Because comets may preserve a record of the early solarsystem conditions, they are the focus of small body missions. The EPOXI (Extrasolar Planet Observation and Characterization (EPOCh) + Deep Impact Extended Investigation (DIXI) = EPOXI) flyby of the nucleus of comet 103P/Hartley 2 provided us with physical properties of the nucleus and clear evidence of chemical heterogeneity with CO2-driven jets as a dominant volatile loss mechanism at perihelion compared to subsurface water-ice sublimation. An international Earth-based observation campaign played a complementary role to the in-situ data, providing recovery images of the comet at large distances, physical information about the nucleus size, and from a coordinated multiwavelength program nearly continuous coverage from August 2010 through encounter on 4 November 2010. From the Earth-based campaign it was clear that comet Hartley 2 had a small nucleus (0.57 km radius), with a rotation period near 16.4 hours prior to the onset of activity. As the activity developed the periodicity was found to change significantly over a period of months. The highly active nucleus had long- and short-term gas production variability with peak activity shortly after perihelion. The comet's activity has been photometrically monitored (as scattered light from the dust coma) from the time of recovery to the present, and the nearly continuous coverage of the comet from August 2010 into 2011 would not have been possible without the amateur contributions. Using these brightness data, we have developed an ice sublimation model to estimate the amount of dust emitted from the comet (and hence the total scattered light) as a function of heliocentric distance as it is driven by a gas flow. The model includes nucleus ices: H2O, CO2, CO, and H2O sublimating from the large chunks seen both from the