Madhya Pradeshstate of India. As its name implies—madhya means “central” and pradesh means “region” or “state”—it is situated in the heart of the country. The state has no coastline and no international frontier. It is bounded by the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the southwest, and Rajasthan to the northwest. The capital is Bhopal, in the west-central part of the state. Area 119,016

square miles (

308,252

square km). Pop.

(2008 est

.

) 69,279,000.

Land

Madhya Pradesh lies over a transitional area between the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the north and the Deccan plateau in the south. Its physiography is characterized by low hills, extensive plateaus, and river valleys.

Relief

The elevation of Madhya Pradesh ranges from 300 to 3,900 feet (90 to 1,200 metres). In the northern part of the state the land rises generally from south to north, while in the southern part it increases in elevation toward the west. Important ranges of hills are the Vindhya Range, in the west, and its northern branch, the Kaimur Hills, both of which reach elevations of 1,500 feet (460 metres), and the Satpura, Mahadeo, and Maikala ranges, in the south, which have elevations of more than 3,000 feet (900 metres). The Dhupgarh Peak (4,429 feet [1,350 metres]), near Pachmarhi in south-central Madhya Pradesh, is the state’s highest point. Northwest of the Vindhya Range is the Malwa Plateau (1,650 to 2,000 feet [500 to 600 metres]). Other features include the Rewa Plateau, in the rugged eastern region of the Vindhya Range, the Bundelkhand Upland, north of the Vindhyas, the Madhya Bharat Plateau, in the extreme northwest, and the Baghelkhand Plateau, in the northeast.

Drainage and soils

Madhya Pradesh contains the source of some of the most important rivers in the Indian peninsula: the Narmada, the Tapti (Tapi), the Mahanadi, and the Wainganga (a tributary of the Godavari). The Chambal forms the state’s northern border with Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Other rivers include tributaries of the Yamuna and the Son (itself a tributary of the Ganges [Ganga]).

Soils in Madhya Pradesh can be classified into two major groups. Fertile black soils are found in the Malwa Plateau, the Narmada valley, and parts of the Satpura Range. Less-fertile red-to-yellow soils are spread over much of eastern Madhya Pradesh.

Climate

The climate in Madhya Pradesh is governed by a monsoon weather pattern. The distinct seasons are summer (March through May), winter (November through February), and the intervening rainy months of the southwest monsoon (June through September). The summer is hot, dry, and windy; in Bhopal, low temperatures average in the upper 70s F (about 25 °C), while high temperatures typically reach the low 100s F (about 40 °C). Winters are usually pleasant and dry, with daily temperatures normally rising from about 50° (about 10 °C) into the upper 70s F (about 25 °C). Temperatures during the monsoon season usually range from the low 70s F (low 20s C) to the upper 80s F (low 30s C).

The average annual rainfall is about 44 inches (1,100 mm). In general, precipitation decreases westward and northward, from 60 inches (1,500 mm) or more in the east to about 32 inches (800 mm) in the west. The Chambal valley in the north averages less than 30 inches (750 mm) of rainfall per year. Most parts of Madhya Pradesh receive almost all of their precipitation in the monsoon months; however, there is considerable rainfall over the northern part of the state in December and January.

Plant and animal life

In the early 21st century, official statistics indicated that nearly one-third of the state’s total area was forested, but satellite imagery revealed the proportion to be closer to one-fifth. An even smaller percentage of Madhya Pradesh consists of permanent pasture or other grazing land. The main forested areas include the Vindhya Range, the Kaimur Hills, the Satpura and Maikala ranges, and the Baghelkhand Plateau. Among the state’s most notable trees are teak and sal (Shorea robusta), both of which are valuable hardwoods; bamboo; salai (Boswellia serrata), which yields a resin used for incense and medicine; and tendu, the leaves of which are used for rolling bidis (Indian cigarettes).

The forests abound in large mammals, such as tigers, panthers, bears, gaurs (wild cattle), and many types of deer, including chital (spotted deer), sambar, blackbucks, and the rare barasingha (swamp deer). The woodlands also are home to many species of birds. Madhya Pradesh has a number of national parks and many wildlife sanctuaries, of which the best known are Kanha National Park, in the southeastern part of the state, for the barasingha; Bandhavgarh National Park, in the east, for the endangered white tiger; and Shivpuri (Madhav) National Park, in the north, where there is a bird sanctuary. The Kanha National Park has a sanctuary for tigers, and the National Chambal Sanctuary (administered jointly with Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh), in the northwest, has been established for the conservation of (freshwater) Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica), as well as crocodiles, gavials (crocodile-like reptiles), and various large terrestrial animals.

People

Population composition

About one-fifth of the people in Madhya Pradesh are officially classified as members of Scheduled Tribes (a category embracing indigenous peoples who fall outside the predominant Indian social hierarchy). Among the most prominent of these tribes are the Bhil, Baiga, Gond, Korku, Kol, Kamar, and Maria. Non-Scheduled peoples, who hold a higher status within the Indian social system, make up most of the remaining four-fifths of the state’s population.

Hindi, the official state language, is also the language most widely spoken in Madhya Pradesh. Eastern Hindi dialects, represented by Bagheli and Awadhi, are spoken in the southern and eastern parts of the state and in the upper Narmada River valley. Bundeli, a Western Hindi dialect, is spoken in the central and northwestern districts of Madhya Pradesh; Malvi, recognized by some as a Western Hindi dialect as well, is the speech of western Madhya Pradesh.

The second most important language in terms of the number of speakers is Marathi. Urdu, Oriya, Gujarati, and Punjabi are each spoken by sizable numbers. Also spoken are Telugu, Bengali, Tamil, and Malayalam. The Bhil speak Bhili, and the Gond speak Gondi.

Most of the people are Hindus. There are, however, significant minorities of Muslims, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists. There is also a small Sikh population.

Settlement patterns

Roughly three-fourths of the population of Madhya Pradesh is rural, but the distribution of this population is very uneven. Densely populated rural regions are confined largely to the river valleys—the upper Wainganga, the lower Chambal, and the Narmada—and to scattered patches on the Malwa Plateau in western Madhya Pradesh. The largest urban areas are Bhopal, in west-central Madhya Pradesh; Indore, in the west; and Jabalpur (Jubbulpore), in the east-central region. Other major cities include Gwalior, in the north, Ujjain, in the west, and Sagar (Saugor), in the central part of the state.

Economy

Agriculture

Agriculture is the basis of Madhya Pradesh’s economy. Less than half of the land area is cultivable, however, and its distribution is quite uneven because of variations in topography, rainfall, and soils. The main cultivated areas are found in the Chambal River valley and on the Malwa and Rewa plateaus. The Narmada valley, covered with river-borne alluvium, is another fertile region.

Agriculture in Madhya Pradesh is characterized by low productivity and the use of nonmechanized methods of cultivation. Because only a portion of the sown area is irrigated, the state’s agriculture has remained heavily dependent on rainfall; some regions often suffer from drought. Irrigation in Madhya Pradesh is carried out primarily by means of canals, wells, and tanks (village lakes or ponds).

The most important crops are wheat, sorghum (jowar), corn (maize), rice, and pulses (legumes such as peas, beans, or lentils). Rice is grown principally in the east, where there is more rainfall, while in central and western Madhya Pradesh wheat and sorghum are more important. The state is one of the largest producers of soybeans in India. Other crops include linseed, sesame, sugarcane, and cotton, as well as various millets, which are grown in hilly areas.

Livestock and poultry farming also are prominent in Madhya Pradesh. The state contains a significant portion of the country’s livestock—cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and pigs. In addition, the state’s many rivers, canals, ponds, and reservoirs support a fisheries industry.

Resources and power

Madhya Pradesh is rich in minerals, though these resources have yet to be fully exploited. There are large reserves of coal and important deposits of iron ore, manganese ore, bauxite, limestone, dolomite, copper, fireclay, and kaolin (china clay). At Panna, in the northeast, there are diamond reserves.

The state is well endowed with hydroelectric power potential, and a number of hydroelectric projects have been developed jointly with neighbouring states. Madhya Pradesh also draws a portion of its power from several thermal stations located within the state. Most of these thermal plants are coal-fired.

Manufacturing

Overall, Madhya Pradesh has remained an industrially underdeveloped state. However, there are several centres of large- and medium-scale manufacturing, most notably in Indore, Gwalior, Bhopal, and Jabalpur, where industrial estates have been established as part of planned development. The principal government-sponsored industries include paper milling, cement production, and the manufacture of heavy electrical items, microelectronics, and optical fibres. Cement works and paper mills also have been established in the private sector, as have facilities for the production of sugar, textiles (cotton, wool, silk, and jute), lumber, flour, and various seed and vegetable oils. Other products of Madhya Pradesh include fertilizer, synthetic fibres, and chemicals.

Of the state’s small-scale enterprises, the hand-loom industry has flourished, with saris (garments worn by Indian women) made in Chanderi, gold and silver thread embroidery produced in Bhopal, and carpets woven in Gwalior. The artisans of Gwalior also produce handmade pottery. Jabalpur and Sagar are well-known centres for the manufacture of bidis (hand-rolled cigarettes).

Transportation

In comparison with most other Indian states, Madhya Pradesh has a somewhat less developed infrastructure and communication network. Although served by several national highways, the state has a low density of roads, especially in remote rural areas. However, the construction of bridges across the Narmada and other rivers has greatly helped the development of all-weather traffic routes. The main railroads that pass through the state were originally laid down to connect the ports of Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay), and Kolkata (Calcutta) with their hinterlands. Important railway junctions include Bhopal, Ratlam, Khandwa, and Katni. Airports at Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore, Jabalpur, and Khajuraho offer domestic service.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The structure of the government of Madhya Pradesh, like that of most other states of India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, who is appointed by the president of India. The governor is aided and advised by the Council of Ministers, which is headed by a chief minister and is responsible to the elected, unicameral Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). Madhya Pradesh has High Court benches at Indore, Gwalior, and Jabalpur, from which appeals can be made to the Supreme Court of India. Lower courts include district courts and family courts.

At the local level, the state is divided administratively into a number of divisions, which in turn are subdivided into numerous districts. Each division is headed by a commissioner and each district by a collector. The collector exercises both executive and magisterial power. Since 1962 the lowest level of local administration has been entrusted to village panchayats (village councils). In addition, official grievance-redressal committees help to solve local problems.

Health and welfare

Every district in Madhya Pradesh has at least one hospital, typically in an urban centre, and hundreds of community and primary health centres and subcentres spread across the rural areas. The state also has several eye hospitals, mental hospitals, and other specialized facilities for the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis, venereal disease, and rabies, which, along with filariasis and leprosy, have remained major health concerns. Gwalior has a cancer research centre. Malaria, which was formerly endemic throughout Madhya Pradesh, has been virtually eradicated.

The government has implemented several social welfare programs, including adult literacy classes and various schemes directed toward the special problems of rural youths, the Scheduled Tribes, and members of other traditionally marginalized communities. There are also a number of programs for women and girls, which include informal social service clubs called mahila mandals, schemes for helping rural women with problems of motherhood, and programs that make education available to girls from economically disadvantaged families. Grants-in-aid are given to social welfare and physical welfare institutions, while the government operates leprosy clinics, as well as homes for the impoverished or otherwise needy citizens.

Education

Roughly two-thirds of the state’s population is literate. There are schools for primary, middle, and high school education, as well as specialized schools for polytechnics, industrial arts, and crafts. Madhya Pradesh has a number of state universities; among these, the Dr. Harisingh Gour University (1946; formerly University of Saugar), located at Sagar, and Vikram University (1957), in Ujjain, are the oldest and best-known, while the music school at Khairagarh is one of the finest in India. Jabalpur has an agricultural university, and there is an institute of journalism and public relations in Bhopal.

Cultural life

The arts

Art and architecture

Ancient temples, fortresses, and cave works reflect the rich history of Madhya Pradesh. In the foothills of the Vindhya Range, prehistoric paintings dating from roughly 10,000 bce adorn the walls of the Bhimbetka rock shelters (designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2003). In west-central Madhya Pradesh, one of the state’s oldest historical monuments is the stupa (Buddhist mound forming a memorial shrine) at Sanchi, near Vidisha. Originally constructed by Ashoka, emperor of India from about 265 to 238 bce, the stupa was expanded by the Shunga kings, who ruled the area during the 2nd and 1st centuries bce. The remains of another stupa, dating to about 175 bce, were excavated in Bharhut, near Satna, and are now housed in the Indian Museum at Kolkata; the distinctive narrative style of decoration found on this stupa is known as Bharhut sculpture.

Some of the most remarkable ancient artwork of Madhya Pradesh is found in caves. The Bagh caves, near the western town of Mhow, are adorned with paintings on Buddhist topics that date roughly to the 5th century ce. Stemming from about the same period (4th to 7th century) are the Udayagiri caves (Brahmanical and Jaina monasteries), near Vidisha, which exhibit artwork and rock-cut architecture similar to those of the well-known Udayagiri caves in the neighbouring state of Orissa.

The Khajuraho temples, in northern Madhya Pradesh, are widely recognized for their erotic art; they were built by the Chandela kings, who ruled in the region roughly from the early 9th to the mid-11th century. The 14th- and 15th-century palaces and mosque at Mandu, near the western town of Dhar, and the Gwalior fort—perhaps the most impressive of the residences of the former princes of Madhya Pradesh—also constitute notable architectural achievements.

Oral tradition

Many traditions of the tribal peoples of Madhya Pradesh have remained strong, and a great deal of indigenous mythology and folklore has been preserved. The pardhan (bards of the Gond community) continue to sing of the legendary deeds of Lingo-pen, the mythical originator of the Gond people. The Pandwani is the Gond equivalent of the Mahabharata (one of the two great Hindu epics), while the Lachmanjati legend is the Gond equivalent of the Ramayana (the other great Hindu epic). All tribes have myths and legends regarding their origin. Some songs are associated with the celebration of particular life events, such as birth and marriage, while other songs accompany various styles of dance. Folk literature, riddles, and proverbs are other components of the state’s rich oral-traditional heritage.

Cultural institutions

The state has several well-known annual cultural events, such as Kalidas Samaroh (for the visual and performing arts) in Ujjain, Tansen Samaroh (classical music) in Gwalior, and a dance festival in Khajuraho, where artists from all over India participate. In Bhopal there is a unique multifaceted cultural complex, the Bharat Bhavan, which functions as a meeting ground for artists from various fields; the sprawling complex houses a museum, a library, an open-air theatre, and a number of conference halls. The state has important yearly religious melas (gatherings) in Mandsaur (Mandasor) and Ujjain, both in the Malwa region of western Madhya Pradesh.