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1 Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex Author(s): Heidi Hartmann Source: Signs, Vol. 1, No. 3, Women and the Workplace: The Implications of Occupational Segregation (Spring, 1976), pp Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: Accessed: 29/08/ :08 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact

2 THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex Heidi Hartmann The division of labor by sex appears to have been universal throughout human history. In our society the sexual division of labor is hierarchical, with men on top and women on the bottom. Anthropology and history suggest, however, that this division was not always a hierarchical one. The development and importance of a sex-ordered division of labor is the subject of this paper. It is my contention that the roots of women's present social status lie in this sex-ordered division of labor. It is my belief that not only must the hierarchical nature of the division of labor between the sexes be eliminated, but the very division of labor between the sexes itself must be eliminated if women are to attain equal social status with men and if women and men are to attain the full development of their human potentials. The primary questions for investigation would seem to be, then, first, how a more sexually egalitarian division became a less egalitarian one, and second, how this hierarchical divison of labor became extended to wage labor in the modern period. Many anthropological studies suggest that the first process, sexual stratification, occurred together with the increasing productiveness, specialization, and complexity of society; I would like to thank many women at the New School for sharing their knowledge with me and offering encouragement and debate, in particular, Amy Hirsch, Christine Gailey, Nadine Felton, Penny Ciancanelli, Rayna Reiter, and Viana Muller. I would also like to thank Amy Bridges, Carl Degler, David Gordon, Fran Blau, Grace Horowitz, Linda Gordon, Suad Joseph, Susan Strasser, and Tom Vietorisz for helpful comments. 137

3 Hartmann 138 for example, through the establishment of settled agriculture, private property, or the state. It occurred as human society emerged from the primitive and became "civilized." In this perspective capitalism is a relative latecomer, whereas patriarchy,1 the hierarchical relation between men and women in which men are dominant and women are subordinate, was an early arrival. I want to argue that, before capitalism, a patriarchal system was established in which men controlled the labor of women and children in the family, and that in so doing men learned the techniques of hierarchical organization and control. With the advent of public-private separations such as those created by the emergence of state apparatus and economic systems based on wider exchange and larger production units, the problem for men became one of maintaining their control over the labor power of women. In other words, a direct personal system of control was translated into an indirect, impersonal system of control, mediated by society-wide institutions. The mechanisms available to men were (1) the traditional division of labor between the sexes, and (2) techniques of hierarchical organization and control. These mechanisms were crucial in the second process, the extension of a sex-ordered division of labor to the wage-labor system, during the period of the emergence of capitalism in Western Europe and the United States. The emergence of capitalism in the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries threatened patriarchal control based on institutional authority as it destroyed many old institutions and created new ones, such as a "free" market in labor. It threatened to bring all women and children into the 1. I define patriarchy as a set of social relations which has a material base and in which there are hierarchical relations between men, and solidarity among them, which enable them to control women. Patriarchy is thus the system of male oppression of women. Rubin argues that we should use the term "sex-gender system" to refer to that realm outside the economic system (and not always coordinate with it) where gender stratification based on sex differences is produced and reproduced. Patriarchy is thus only one form, a male dominant one, of a sex-gender system. Rubin argues further that patriarchy should be reserved for pastoral nomadic societies as described in the Old Testament where male power was synonomous with fatherhood. While I agree with Rubin's first point, I think her second point makes the usage of patriarchy too restrictive. It is a good label for most male-dominant societies (see Gayle Rubin, "The Traffic in Women," in Toward an Anthropology of Women, ed. Rayna Reiter [New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975]). Muller offers a broader definition of patriarchy "as a social system in which the status of women is defined primarily as wards of their husbands, fathers, and brothers," where wardship has economic and political dimensions (see Viana Muller, "The Formation of the State and the Oppression of Women: A Case Study in England and Wales," mimeographed [New York: New School for Social Research, 1975], p. 4, n. 2). Muller relies on Karen Sacks, "Engels Revisited: Women, the Organization of Production, and Private Property," in Woman, Culture and Society, ed. Michelle Z. Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1974). Patriarchy as a system between and among men as well as between men and women is further explained in a draft paper, "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a New Union," by Amy Bridges and Heidi Hartmann.

4 Capitalism and Patriarchy 139 labor force and hence to destroy the family and the basis of the power of men over women (i.e., the control over their labor power in the family).2 If the theoretical tendency of pure capitalism would have been to eradicate all arbitrary differences of status among laborers, to make all laborers equal in the marketplace, why are women still in an inferior position to men in the labor market? The possible answers are legion; they range from neoclassical views that the process is not complete or is hampered by market imperfections to the radical view that production requires hierarchy even if the market nominally requires "equality."3 All of these explanations, it seems to me, ignore the role of men-ordinary men, men as men, men as workers-in maintaining women's inferiority in the labor market. The radical view, in particular, emphasizes the role of men as capitalists in creating hierarchies in the production process in order to maintain their power. Capitalists do this by segmenting the labor market (along race, sex, and ethnic lines among others) and playing workers off against each other. In this paper I argue that male workers have played and continue to play a crucial role in maintaining sexual divisions in the labor process. Job segregation by sex, I will argue, is the primary mechanism in capitalist society that maintains the superiority of men over women, because it enforces lower wages for women in the labor market. Low wages keep women dependent on men because they encourage women to marry. Married women must perform domestic chores for their husbands. Men benefit, then, from both higher wages and the domestic division of labor. This domestic division of labor, in turn, acts to weaken women's position in the labor market. Thus, the hierarchical domestic division of labor is perpetuated by the labor market, and vice versa. This process is the present outcome of the continuing interaction of two interlocking systems, capitalism and patriarchy. Patriarchy, far from being vanquished by capitalism, is still very virile; it shapes the form modern capitalism takes, just as the development of capitalism has transformed patriarchal institutions. The resulting mutual accommodation between patriarchy and capitalism has created a vicious circle for women. My argument contrasts with the traditional views of both neoclas- 2. Marx and Engels perceived the progress of capitalism in this way, that it would bring women and children into the labor market and thus erode the family. Yet despite Engels's acknowledgment in The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (New York: International Publishers, 1972), that men oppress women in the family, he did not see that oppression as based on the control of women's labor, and, if anything, he seems to lament the passing of the male-controlled family (see his The Condition of the Working Class in England [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1968], esp. pp ). 3. See Richard C. Edwards, David M. Gordon, and Michael Reich, "Labor Market Segmentation in American Capitalism," draft essay, and the book they edited, Labor Market Segmentation (Lexington, Ky.: Lexington Books, forthcoming) for an explication of this view.

5 Hartmann 140 sical and Marxist economists. Both ignore patriarchy, a social system with a material base. The neoclassical economists tend to exonerate the capitalist system, attributing job segregation to exogenous ideological fac- tors, like sexist attitudes. Marxist economists tend to attribute job segregation to capitalists, ignoring the part played by male workers and the effect of centuries of patriarchal social relations. In this paper I hope to redress the balance. The line of argument I have outlined here and will develop further below is perhaps incapable of proof. This paper, I hope, will establish its plausibility rather than its incontrovertability. The first part of this paper briefly reviews evidence and explanations offered in the anthropological literature for the creation of dominance-dependence relations between men and women. The second part reviews the historical literature on the division of labor by sex during the emergence of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution in England and the United States. This part focuses on the extension of malefemale dominance-dependence relations to the wage-labor market and the key role played by men in maintaining job segregation by sex and hence male superiority. Anthropological Perspectives on the Division of Labor by Sex Some anthropologists explain male dominance by arguing that it existed from the very beginning of human society. Sherry Ortner suggests that indeed "female is to male as nature is to culture."4 According to Ortner, culture devalues nature; females are associated with nature, are considered closer to nature in all cultures,5 and are thus devalued. Her view is compatible with that of Rosaldo,6 who emphasizes the public-private split, and that of Levi-Strauss, who assumes the subordination of women during the process of the creation of society. 4. Sherry B. Ortner, "Is Female to Male as Nature Is to Culture?" Feminist Studies 1, no. 2 (Fall 1972): "The universality of female subordination, the fact that it exists within every type of social and economic arrangement, and in societies of every degree of complexity, indicates to me that we are up against something very profound, very stubborn, something that cannot be remedied merely by rearranging a few tasks and roles in the social system, nor even by rearranging the whole economic structure" (pp. 5-6). 5. Ortner specifically rejects a biological basis for this association of women with nature and the concomitant devaluation of both. Biological differences "only take on significance of superior/inferior within the framework of culturally defined value systems" (ibid., p. 9). The biological explanation is, of course, the other major explanation for the universality of female subordination. I, too, deny the validity of this explanation and will not discuss it in this paper. Female physiology does, however, play a role in supporting a cultural view of women as closer to nature, as Ortner argues persuasively, following DeBeauvoir (ibid., pp ). Ortner's article was reprinted in Woman, Culture, and Society in slightly revised form. 6. Michelle Z. Rosaldo, "Woman, Culture, and Society: A Theoretical Overview," in Woman, Culture, and Society.

6 Capitalism and Patriarchy 141 According to Levi-Strauss, culture began with the exchange of women by men to cement bonds between families-thereby creating society.7 In fact, Levi-Strauss sees a fundamental tension between the family (i.e., the domestic realm in which women reside closer to nature) and society, which requires that families break down their autonomy to exchange with one another. The exchange of women is a mechanism that enforces the interdependence of families and that creates society. By analogy, Levi-Strauss suggests that the division of labor between the sexes is the mechanism which enforces "a reciprocal state of dependency between the sexes."8 It also assures heterosexual marriage. "When it is stated that one sex must perform certain tasks, this also means that the other sex is forbidden to do them."9 Thus the existence of a sexual division of labor is a universal of human society, though the exact division of the tasks by sex varies enormously.10 Moreover, following Levi-Strauss, because it is men who exchange women and women who are exchanged in creating social bonds, men benefit more than women from these social bonds, and the division of labor between the sexes is a hierarchical one.1 While this first school of anthropological thought, the "universalists," is based primarily on Levi-Strauss and the exchange of women, Chodorow, following Rosaldo and Ortner, emphasizes women's confinement to the domestic sphere. Chodorow locates this confinement in the mothering role. She constructs the universality of patriarchy on the universal fact that women mother. Female mothering reproduces itself via the creation of gender-specific personality structures.12 Two other major schools of thought on the origins of the sexual divison of labor merit attention. Both reject the universality, at least in 7. Claude Lfvi-Strauss, "The Family," in Man, Culture and Society, ed. by Harry L. Shapiro (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971). 8. Ibid., p Ibid., pp "One of the strongest field recollections of this writer was his meeting, among the Bororo of central Brazil, of a man about thirty years old: unclean, ill-fed, sad, and lonesome. When asked if the man was seriously ill, the natives' answer came as a shock: what was wrong with him?-nothing at all, he was just a bachelor. And true enough, in a society where labor is systematically shared between men and women and where only the married status permits the man to benefit from the fruits of woman's work, including delousing, body painting, and hair-plucking as well as vegetable food and cooked food (since the Bororo woman tills the soil and makes pots), a bachelor is really only half a human being" (p. 341). 10. For further discussion of both the universality and variety of the division of labor by sex, see Melville J. Herskovits, Economic Anthropology (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1965), esp. chap. 7; Theodore Caplow, The Sociology of Work (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), esp. chap For more on the exchange of women and its significance for women, see Rubin. 12. Nancy Chodorow, Family Structure and Feminine Personality: The Reproduction of Mothering (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming). Chodorow offers an important alternative interpretation of the Oedipus complex (see her "Family Structure and Feminine Personality" in Woman, Culture, and Society).

7 Hartmann 142 theory if not in practice, of the sex-ordered division of labor. One is the "feminist-revisionist" school which argues that we cannot be certain that the division of labor is male supremacist; it may be separate but equal (as Levi-Strauss occasionally seems to indicate), but we will never know because of the bias of the observers which makes comparisons impossible. This school is culturally relativist in the extreme, but it nevertheless contributes to our knowledge of women's work and status by stressing the accomplishments of females in their part of the division of labor.'3 The second school also rejects the universality of sex-ordered division of labor but, unlike relativists, seeks to compare societies to isolate the variables which coincide with greater or lesser autonomy of women. This school, the "variationist," is subdivided according to the characteristics members emphasize: the contribution of women to subsistence and their control over their contribution, the organization of tribal versus state societies, the requirements of the mode of production, the emergence of wealth and private property, the boundaries of the private and public spheres.14 A complete review of these approaches is impossible here, but I will cite a few examples from this literature to illustrate the relevance of these variables for the creation of a sex-ordered division of labor. Among the!kung, a hunting and gathering people in South West Africa, the women have a great deal of autonomy and influence.15 Draper argues that this is the result of (1) the contribution of percent of the community's food by the women and their retention of control over its distribution; (2) equal absence from the camp and equal range and mobility of the male hunters and the female gatherers (the women are not dependent on the men for protection in their gathering range); (3) the flexibility of sex roles and the willingness of adults to do the work of the opposite sex (with the exception that women did not hunt and men did not remove nasal mucous or feces from children!); (4) the absence of physical expression of aggression; (5) the small size (seventeen to sixty-five) of and flexible membership in living groups; (6) 13. Several of the articles in the Rosaldo and Lamphere collection are of this variety (see particularly Collier and Stack). Also, see Ernestine Friedl, "The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality," Anthropological Quarterly 40, no. 3 (July 1967): For an example of one particular emphasis, Leavitt states: "The most important clue to woman's status anywhere is her degree of participation in economic life and her control over property and the products she produces, both of which factors appear to be related to the kinship system of a society" (Ruby B. Leavitt, "Women in Other Cultures," in Woman and Sexist Society, ed. Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran [New York: New American Library, 1972], p. 396). In a historical study which also seeks to address the questions of women's status, Joanne McNamara and Suzanne Wemple ("The Power of Woman through the Family in Medieval Europe: ," Feminist Studies 1, nos 3-4 [Winter-Spring 1973]: ) emphasize the private-public split in their discussion of women's loss of status during this period. 15. Patricia Draper, "!Kung Women: Contrasts in Sexual Egalitarianism in Foraging and Sedentary Contexts," in Toward an Anthropology of Women.

8 Capitalism and Patriarchy 143 a close, public settlement arrangement, in which the huts were situated in a circle around the campfire. In the late 1960s when Draper did her fieldwork, some of the!kung were beginning to settle in small villages where the men took up herding and the women agriculture, like other groups (e.g., the Bantu) who were already settled. The agriculture and the food preparation were more time consuming for the women than gathering had been and, while they continued to gather from time to time, the new agricultural pursuits kept the women closer to home. The men, in contrast, through herding, remained mobile and had greater contact with the world outside the!kung: the Bantus, politics, wage work, and advanced knowledge (e.g., about domesticated animals). These sex roles were maintained with more rigidity. Boys and girls came to be socialized differently, and men began to feel their work superior to the women's. Men began to consider property theirs (rather than jointly owned with the women), and "[r]anking of individuals in terms of prestige and differential worth ha[d] begun..."16 Houses, made more permanent and private, were no longer arranged in a circle. The women in particular felt that the group as a whole had less ability to observe, and perhaps to sanction, the behavior of people in married couples. Doubtless these changes occurred partly because of the influence of the male-dominated Western culture on the!kung. The overall result, according to Draper, was a decrease in the status and influence of women, the denigration of their work, and an increase, for women, in the importance of the family unit at the expense of the influence of the group as a whole. The delineation of public and private spheres placed men in the public and women in the private sphere, and the public sphere came to be valued more. Boserup, in Woman's Role in Economic Development, writes extensively of the particular problems caused for women when Third World tribal groups came into contact with Western colonial administrations.17 The usual result was the creation or strengthening of male dominance as, for example, where administrations taught men advanced agricultural techniques where women were farmers, or schooled men in trading where women were traders. The Europeans encouraged men to head and support their families, superseding women's traditional responsibilities. Previous to colonization, according to Leavitt: "In regions like Africa and Southeast Asia, where shifting agriculture and the female farmer predominate, the women work very hard and receive limited support from their husbands, but they also have some economic independence, considerable freedom of movement, and an important place in the community.... In traditional African marriages the woman is expected to support herself and her children and to feed the family, 16. Ibid., p Ester Boserup, Woman's Role in Economic Development (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970).

9 Hartmann 144 including her husband, with the food she grows."18 Boserup supports this view of the economic role of women before the influence of Europeans began to be felt. Europeans also entrusted local governance to male leaders and ignored women's traditional participation in tribal society. That the women had highly organized and yet nonhierarchical governmental structures, which were unknown and ignored by the colonists, is illustrated by the case of the Igbo in Nigeria. Allen reports that Igbo women held mikiri, or meetings, which were democratic discussions with no official leaders and "which articulated women's interests as opposed to those of men."19 The women needed these meetings because they lived in patrilocal villages and had few kinship ties with each other, and because they had their own separate economic activities, their own crops, and their own trading, which they needed to protect from men. When a man offended the women, by violating the women's market rules or letting his cows into the women's yam fields, the women often retaliated as a group by "sitting on a man"-carrying on loudly at his home late at night and "perhaps demolishing his hut or plastering it with mud and roughing him up a bit."20 Women also sometimes executed collective strikes and boycotts. With the advent of the British administrators, and their inevitably unfavorable policies toward women, the Igbo women adapted their tactics and used them against the British. For example, in response to an attempt to tax the women farmers, tens of thousands of women were involved in riots at administrative centers over an area of 6,000 square miles containing a population of 2 million people. The "Women's War," as it was called, was coordinated through the market mikiri network.21 Allen continues to detail the distintegration of the mikiri in the face of British colonial and missionary policies. In a study of a somewhat different process of state formation, Muller looks at the decline of Anglo-Saxon and Welsh tribal society and the formation of the English nation-state, a process which occurred from the eighth to the fifteenth century. Muller writes: The transition from tribe to state is historically probably the greatest watershed in the decline in the status of women.... This is not to deny that in what we call "tribal," that is, pre-state, society there is not a wide variation in the status of women and even that in certain pre-state societies, women may be in what we would consider an abject position vis a vis the men in that society... We 18. Leavitt, pp. 412, Judith Van Allen, " 'Sitting on a Man': Colonialism and the Lost Political Institutions of Igbo Women," Canadian Journal of African Studies 6, no. 2 (1972): Ibid., p Ibid., pp The British naturally thought the women were directed in their struggle by the men, though very few men participated in the riots.

10 Capitalism and Patriarchy 145 believe that the causes for these variations in status can be found, as in the case of State Societies, in the material conditions which give rise to the social and economic positions therein.22 Muller stresses that, in the Welsh and Anglo-Saxon tribes, "the right of individual maintenance was so well entrenched that these rights were not entrusted to a patriarchal head of a nuclear family, but were, rather, vested in the larger social group of the gwely [four-generation kinship group]."23 Both men and women upon adulthood received a share of cattle from the gwely. The cattle provided their personal maintenance and prevented an individual from becoming dependent upon another. Thus, although in the tribal system land inheritance was patrilineal and residence patrilocal, a married woman had her own means of economic subsistence. Women were political participants both in their husbands' and in their natal lineages. Like a man, a woman was responsible for her children's crimes, and she and her natal lineages (not her spouse's) were responsible for her crimes. Tribal customs were, however, undermined by the emergence of the state. "... we can observe the development of public-as opposed to social-male authority, through the political structure imposed by the emerging state. Since the state is interested in the alienation of the tribal resource base-its land and its labor power -it finds it convenient to use the traditional gender division of labor and resources in tribal society and places them in a hierarchical relationship both internally (husband over wife and children) and externally (lords over peasants and serfs)."24 The king established regional administrative units without regard to tribal jurisdictions, appointed his own administrators, bypassed the authority of the tribal chiefs, and levied obligations on the males as "heads" of individual households. Tribal groups lost collective responsibility for their members, and women and children lost their group rights and came under the authority of their husbands. Woman's work became private for the benefit of her husband, rather than public for the benefit of the kin group. As Muller points out, there must have been tendencies evident in tribal society that created the preconditions for a hierarchical, male-dominated state, for it was not equally likely that the emerging state would be female. Among these tendencies, for example, were male ownership of land and greater male participation in military expeditions, probably especially those farther away Muller, p. 1. I am very grateful to Viana Muller for allowing me to summarize parts of her unpublished paper. 23. Ibid., p Ibid., p The examples of the!kung, the Igbo, the Anglo-Saxons, and the groups discussed by Boserup all suggest that the process of expansion of state or emerging-state societies and the conquest of other peoples was an extremely important mechanism for

11 Hartmann 146 This summary of several studies from the third school of anthropology, the variationist school, points to a number of variables that help to explain a decrease in woman's social status. They suggest that increased sexual stratification occurs along with a general process of social stratification (which at least in some versions seems to depend on and foster an increase in social surplus-to support the higher groups in the hierarchy). As a result, a decrease in the social status of woman occurs when (1) she loses control of subsistence through a change in production methods and devaluation of her share of the division of labor; (2) her work becomes private and family centered rather than social and kin focused; and/or (3) some men assert their power over other men through the state mechanism by elevating these subordinate men in their families, using the nuclear family against the kin group.26 In this way the division of labor between men and women becomes a more hierarchical one. Control over women is maintained directly in the family by the man, but it is sustained by social institutions, such as the state and religion. The work in this school of anthropology suggests that patriarchy did not always exist, but rather that it emerged as social conditions changed. Moreover, men participated in this transformation. Because it benefited men relative to women, men have had a stake in reproducing patriarchy. Although there is a great deal of controversy among anthropologists about the origins of patriarchy, and more work needs to be done to establish the validity of this interpretation, I believe the weight of the evidence supports it. In any case, most anthropologists agree that patriarchy emerged long before capitalism, even if they disagree about its origins. In England, as we have seen, the formation of the state marks the end of Anglo-Saxon tribal society and the beginning of feudal society. Throughout feudal society the tendencies toward the privatization of family life and the increase of male power within the family appear to strengthen, as does their institutional support from church and state. By the time of the emergence of capitalism in the fifteenth through eigh- spreading hierarchy and male domination. In fact, the role of warfare and imperialism raises the question of whether the state, to establish itself, creates the patriarchal family, or the patriarchal family creates the state (Thomas Vietorisz, personal communication). Surely emerging patriarchal social relations in prestate societies paved the way for both male public power (i.e., male control of the state apparatus) and the privatization of patriarchal power in the family. Surely also this privatization-and the concomitant decline of tribal power-strengthened, and was strengthened by, the state. 26. This point is stressed especially by Muller but is also illustrated by the!kung. Muller states: "The men, although lowered from clansmen to peasants, were elevated to heads of nuclear families, with a modicum of both public power [through the state and religion] and a measure of private power through the decree of the Church-State that they were to be lords over their wives" (p. 35).

12 Capitalism and Patriarchy 147 teenth centuries, the nuclear, patriarchal peasant family had become the basic production unit in society.27 The Emergence of Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution in England and the United States The key process in the emergence of capitalism was primitive accumulation, the prior accumulation that was necessary for capitalism to establish itself.28 Primitive accumulation was a twofold process which set the preconditons for the expansion of the scale of production: first, free laborers had to be accumulated; second, large amounts of capital had to be accumulated. The first was achieved through enclosures and the removal of people from the land, their subsistence base, so that they were forced to work for wages. The second was achieved through both the growth of smaller capitals in farms and shops amassed through banking facilities, and vast increases in merchant capital, the profits from the slave trade, and colonial exploitation. The creation of a wage-labor force and the increase in the scale of production that occurred with the emergence of capitalism had in some ways a more severe impact on women than on men. To understand this impact let us look at the work of women before this transition occurred and the changes which took place as it occurred.29 In the 1500s and 1600s, agriculture, woolen textiles (carried on as a by-industry of ag- 27. Both Hill and Stone describe England during this period as a patriarchal society in which the institutions of the nuclear family, the state, and religion, were being strengthened (see Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism [New York: Schocken Books, 1964], esp. chap. 13; Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, , abridged ed. [New York: Oxford University Press, 1967], esp. chap. 11). Recent demographic research verifies the establishment of the nuclear family prior to the industrial revolution (see Peter Laslett, ed., Household and Family in Past Time [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972]). Because of limitations of my knowledge and space, and because I sought to discuss, first, the concept and establishment of patriarchy and second, its transformation in a wage-labor society, I am skipping over the rise and fall of feudal society and the emergence of family-centered petty commodity production and focusing in the next section on the disintegration of this family-centered production, creation of the wage-labor force, and the maintenance of job segregation in a capitalist context. 28. See Karl Marx, "The So-called Primitive Accumulation," in Capital, 3 vols. (New York: International Publishers, 1967), vol. 1, pt. 8; Stephen Hymer, "Robinson Crusoe and the Secret of Primitive Accumulation," Monthly Review 23, no. 4 (September 1971): This account relies primarily on that of Alice Clark, The Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1920). Her account is supported by many others, such as B. L. Hutchins, Women in Modern Industry (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1915); Georgiana Hill, Women in English Lifefrom Medieval to Modern Times, 2 vols. (London: Richard Bentley & Son, 1896); F. W. Tickner, Women in English Economic History (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1923); Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1930; reprinted 1969).

13 Hartmann 148 riculture), and the various crafts and trades in the towns were the major sources of livelihood for the English population. In the rural areas men worked in the fields on small farms they owned or rented and women tended the household plots, small gardens and orchards, animals, and dairies. The women also spun and wove. A portion of these products were sold in small markets to supply the villages, towns, and cities, and in this way women supplied a considerable proportion of their families' cash income, as well as their subsistence in kind. In addition to the tenants and farmers, there was a small wage-earning class of men and women who worked on the larger farms. Occasionally tenants and their wives worked for wages as well, the men more often than the women.30 As small farmers and cottagers were displaced by larger farmers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, their wives lost their main sources of support, while the men were able to continue as wage laborers to some extent. Thus women, deprived of these essential household plots, suf- fered relatively greater unemployment, and the families as a whole were deprived of a large part of their subsistence.3' In the 1700s, the demand for cotton textiles grew, and English merchants found they could utilize the labor of the English agricultural population, who were already familiar with the arts of spinning and weaving. The merchants distributed materials to be spun and woven, creating a domestic industrial system which occupied many displaced farm families. This putting-out system, however, proved inadequate. The complexities of distribution and collection and, perhaps more important, the control the workers had over the production process (they could take time off, work intermittently, steal materials) prevented an increase in the supply of textiles sufficient to meet the merchants' needs. To solve these problems first spinning, in the late 1700s, and then weaving, in the early 1800s, were organized into factories. The textile fac- tories were located in the rural areas, at first, in order both to take advantage of the labor of children and women, by escaping the restric- 30. Women and men in England had been employed as agricultural laborers for several centuries. Clark found that by the seventeenth century the wages of men were higher than women's and the tasks done were different, though similar in skill and strength requirements (Clark 1920, p. 60). Wages for agricultural (and other work) were often set by local authorities. These wage differentials reflected the relative social status of men and women and the social norms of the time. Women were considered to require lower wages because they ate less, for example, and were expected to have fewer luxuries, such as tobacco (see Clark and Pinchbeck throughout for substantiation of women's lower standard of living). Laura Oren has substantiated this for English women during the period (see n. 60 below). 31. The problem of female unemployment in the countryside was a generally recognized one which figured prominently in the debate about poor-law reform, for example. As a remedy, it was suggested that rural families be allowed to retain small household plots, that women be used more in agricultural wage labor and also in the putting-out system, and that men's wages be adjusted upward (see Ivy Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, , pp ).

14 Capitalism and Patriarchy 149 tions of the guilds in the cities, and to utilize waterpower. When spinning was industrialized, women spinners at home suffered greater unem- ployment, while the demand for male handloom weavers increased. When weaving was mechanized, the need for handloom weavers fell off as well.32 In this way, domestic industry, created by emerging capitalism, was later superseded and destroyed by the progress of capitalist industrialization. In the process, women, children, and men in the rural areas all suffered dislocation and disruption, but they experienced this in different ways. Women, forced into unemployment by the capitalization of agriculture more frequently than men, were more available to labor, both in the domestic putting-out system and in the early factories. It is often argued both that men resisted going into the factories because they did not want to lose their independence and that women and children were more docile and malleable. If this was in fact the case, it would appear that these "character traits" of women and men were already established before the advent of the capitalistic organization of industry, and that they would have grown out of the authority structure prevailing in the previous period of small-scale, family agriculture. Many historians suggest that within the family men were the heads of households, and women, even though they contributed a large part of their families' subsistence, were subordinate.33 We may never know the facts of the authority structure within the preindustrial family, since much of what we know is from prescriptive literature or otherwise class biased, and little is known about the point of view of the people themselves. Nevertheless, the evidence on family life and on relative wages and levels of living suggests that women were subordinate within the family. This conclusion is consonant with the anthropological literature, reviewed in Part I above, which describes the emergence of patriarchial social relations along with early societal 32. See Stephen Marglin, "What Do Bosses Do? The Origins and Functions of Hierarchy in Capitalist Production," Review of Radical Political Economics 6, no. 2 (Summer 1974): , for a discussion of the transition from putting out to factories. The sexual division of labor changed several times in the textile industry. Hutchins writes that the further back one goes in history, the more was the industry controlled by women. By the seventeenth century, though, men had become professional handloom weavers, and it was often claimed that men had superior strength or skill-which was required for certain types of weaves or fabrics. Thus, the increase in demand for handloom weavers in the late 1700s brought increased employment for men. When weaving was mechanized in the factories women operated the power looms, and male handloom weavers became unemployed. When jenny and waterframe spinning were replaced by mule spinning, supposedly requiring more strength, men took that over and displaced women spinners. A similar transition occurred in the United States. It is important to keep in mind that as a by-industry, both men and women engaged in various processes of textile manufacture, and this was intensified under putting out (see Pinchbeck 1969, chaps. 6-9). 33. See Clark; Pinchbeck; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963).

15 Hartmann 150 stratification. Moreover, the history of the early factories suggests that capitalists took advantage of this authority structure, finding women and children more vulnerable, both because of familial relations and because they were simply more desperate economically due to the changes in agriculture which left them unemployed.34 The transition to capitalism in the cities and towns was experienced somewhat differently than in the rural areas, but it tends to substantiate the line of argument just set out: men and women had different places in the familial authority structure, and capitalism proceeded in a way that built on that authority structure. In the towns and cities before the transition to capitalism a system of family industry prevailed: a family of artisans worked together at home to produce goods for exchange. Adults were organized in guilds, which had social and religious functions as well as industrial ones. Within trades carried on as family industries women and men generally performed different tasks: in general, the men worked at what were considered more skilled tasks, the women at processing the raw materials or finishing the end product. Men, usually the heads of the production units, had the status of master artisans. For though women usually belonged to their husbands' guilds, they did so as appendages; girls were rarely apprenticed to a trade and thus rarely become journeymen or masters. Married women participated in the production process and probably acquired important skills, but they usually controlled the production process only if they were widowed, when guilds often gave them the right to hire apprentices and journeymen. Young men may have married within their guilds (i.e., the daughters of artisans in the same trade). In fact, young women and girls had a unique and very important role as extra or casual laborers in a system where the guilds prohibited hiring additional workers from outside the family, and undoubtedly they learned skills which were useful when they married.35 Nevertheless, girls appear not to have been trained as carefully as boys were and, as adults, not to have attained the same status in the guilds. Although in most trades men were the central workers and women the assistants, other trades were so identified by sex that family industry did not prevail.36 Carpentry and millinery were two such trades. Male carpenters and female milliners both hired apprentices and assistants 34. In fact, the earliest factories utilized the labor of poor children, already separated from their families, who were apprenticed to factory owners by parish authorities. They were perhaps the most desperate and vulnerable of all. 35. Hutchins, p. 16 (see also Olive J. Jocelyn, English Apprenticeship and Child Labor [London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912], pp , on the labor of girls, and Clark, chap. 5, on the organization of family industry in towns). 36. The seventeenth century already found the crafts and trades sex divided. Much work needs to be done on the development of guilds from the point of view of shedding light on the sexual division of labor and on the question of the nature of women's organizations. Such work would enable us to trace more accurately the decline in women's status from the tribal period, through feudalism, to the emergence of capitalism.

16 Capitalism and Patriarchy 151 and attained the status of master craftspersons. According to Clark, although some women's trades, such as millinery, were highly skilled and organized in guilds, many women's trades were apparently difficult to organize in strong guilds, because most women's skills could not be easily monopolized. All women, as part of their home duties, knew the arts of textile manufacturing, sewing, food processing, and to some extent, trading. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the family industry system and the guilds began to break down in the face of the demand for larger output. Capitalists began to organize production on a larger scale, and production became separated from the home as the size of establishments grew. Women were excluded from participation in the industries in which they had assisted men as they no longer took place at home, where married women apparently tended to remain to carry on their domestic work. Yet many women out of necessity sought work in capitalistically organized industry as wage laborers. When women entered wage labor they appear to have been at a disadvantage relative to men. First, as in agriculture, there was already a tradition of lower wages for women (in the previously limited area of wage work). Second, women appear to have been less well trained than men and obtained less desirable jobs. And third, they appear to have been less well organized than men. Because I think the ability of men to organize themselves played a crucial role in limiting women's participation in the wage-labor market, I want to offer, first, some evidence to support the assertion that men were better organized and, second, some plausible reasons for their superiority in this area. I am not arguing that men had greater organizational abilities at all times and all places, or in all areas or types of organization, but am arguing here that it is plausible that they did in England during this period, particularly in the area of economic production. As evidence of their superiority, we have the guilds themselves, which were better organized among men's trades than women's, and in which, in joint trades, men had superior positions-women were seldom admitted to the hierarchical ladder of progression. Second, we have the evidence of the rise of male professions and the elimination of female ones during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The medical profession, male from its inception, established itself through hierarchical organization, the monopolization of new, "scientific" skills, and the assistance of the state. Midwifery was virtually wiped out by the men. Brewing provides another example. Male brewers organized a fellowship, petitioned the king for monopoly rights (in exchange for a tax on every quart they brewed), and succeeded in forcing the numerous small-scale brewsters to buy from them.37 Third, throughout the formative period 37. See Clark, pp , for the brewers, and pp , for the medical profession.

17 Hartmann 152 of industrial capitalism, men appear to have been better able to organize themselves as wage workers. And as we shall see below, as factory production became established men used their labor organizations to limit women's place in the labor market. As to why men might have had superior organizational ability during this transitional period, I think we must consider the development of patriarchal social relations in the nuclear family, as reinforced by the state and religion, a process briefly described above for Anglo-Saxon England. Since men's superior position was reinforced by the state, and men acted in the political arena as heads of households and in the households as heads of production units, it seems likely that men would develop more organizational structures beyond their households. Women, in an inferior position at home and without the support of the state, would be less likely to be able to do this. Men's organizational knowledge, then, grew out of their position in the family and in the division of labor. Clearly, further investigation of organizations before and during the transition period is necessary to establish the mechanisms by which men came to control this public sphere. Thus, the capitalistic organization of industry, in removing work from the home, served to increase the subordination of women, since it served to increase the relative importance of the area of men's domination. But it is important to remember that men's domination was already established and that it clearly influenced the direction and shape that capitalist development took. As Clark has argued, with the separation of work from the home men became less dependent on women for industrial production, while women became more dependent on men economically. From a position much like that of the African women discussed in Part I above, English married women, who had supported themselves and their children, became the domestic servants of their husbands. Men increased their control over technology, production, and marketing, as they excluded women from industry, education, and political organization.38 When women participated in the wage-labor market, they did so in a position as clearly limited by patriarchy as it was by capitalism. Men's control over women's labor was altered by the wage-labor system, but it was not eliminated. In the labor market the dominant position of men was maintained by sex-ordered job segregation. Women's jobs were lower paid, considered less skilled, and often involved less exercise of 38. Ibid., chap. 7. Eli Zaretsky ("Capitalism, the Family, and Personal Life," Socialist Revolution, nos. 13, 14 [1973]), follows a similar interpretation of history and offers different conclusions. Capitalism exacerbated the sexual division of labor and created the appearance that women work for their husbands; in reality, women who did domestic work at home were working for capital. Thus according to Zaretsky the present situation has its roots more in capitalism than in patriarchy. Although capitalism may have increased the consequence for women of the domestic division of labor, surely patriarchy tells us more about why men didn't stay home. That women worked for men in the home, as well as for capital, is also a reality.

18 Capitalism and Patriarchy 153 authority or control.39 Men acted to enforce job segregation in the labor market; they utilized trade-union associations and strengthened the domestic division of labor, which required women to do housework, child care, and related chores. Women's subordinate position in the labor market reinforced their subordinate position in the family, and that in turn reinforced their labor-market position. The process of industrialization and the establishment of the factory system, particularly in the textile industry, illustrate the role played by men's trade-union associations. Textile factories employed children at first, but as they expanded they began to utilize the labor of adult women and of whole families. While the number of married women working has been greatly exaggerated,40 apparently enough married women had followed their work into the factories to cause both their husbands and the upper classes concern about home life and the care of children. Smelser has argued that in the early factories the family industry system and male control could often be maintained. For example, adult male spinners often hired their own or related children as helpers, and whole families were often employed by the same factory for the same length of working day.41 Technological change, however, increasingly made this difficult, and factory legislation which limited the hours of children, but not of adults, further exacerbated the difficulties of the "family factory system." The demands of the factory laborers in the 1820s and 1830s had 39. William Lazonick argues in his dissertation, "Marxian Theory and the Development of the Labor Force in England" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1975), that the degree of authority required of the worker was often decisive in determining the sex of the worker. Thus handloom weavers in cottage industry were men because this allowed them to control the production process and the labor of the female spinners. In the spinning factories, mule spinners were men because mule spinners were required to supervise the labor of piecers, usually young boys. Men's position as head of the family established their position as heads of production units, and vice versa. While this is certainly plausible, I think it requires further investigation. Lazonick's work in this area (see chap. 4, "Segments of the Labour Force: Women, Children, and Irish") is very valuable. 40. Perhaps 25 percent of female textile factory workers were married women (see Pinchbeck, p. 198; Margaret Hewitt, Wives and Mothers in Victorian Industry [London: Rockliff, 1958], pp. 14 ff.). It is important to remember also that factory employment was far from the dominant employment of women. Most women worked as domestic servants. 41. Neil Smelser, Social Change and the Industrial Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), chaps Other researchers have also established that in some cases there was a considerable degree of familial control over some aspects of the work process. See Tamara Hareven's research on mills in New Hampshire; e.g., "Family Time and Industrial Time: The Interaction between Family and Work in a Planned Corporation Town, ,"Journal of Urban History 1, no. 3 (May 1975): Michael Anderson, Family Structure in Nineteenth Century Lancashire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), argues, based on demographic data, that the "practice of allowing operatives to employ assistants, though widespread, can at no period have resulted in a predominantly parent-child pattern of employment" (p. 116). Also see Amy Hirsch's treatment of this question in her "Capitalism and the Working Class Family in British Textile Industries during the Industrial Revolution," mimeographed (New York: New School for Social Research, 1975).

19 Hartmann 154 been designed to maintain the family factory system,42 but by 1840 male factory operatives were calling for limitations on the hours of work of children between nine and thirteen to eight a day, and forbidding the employment of younger children. According to Smelser this caused parents difficulty in training and supervising their children, and to remedy it male workers and the middle and upper classes began to recommend that women, too, be removed from the factories.43 The upper classes of the Victorian Age, the age that elevated women to their pedestals, seem to have been motivated by moral outrage and concern for the future of the English race (and for the reproduction of the working class): "In the male," said Lord Shaftesbury, "the moral effects of the system are very sad, but in the female they are infinitely worse, not alone upon themselves, but upon their families, upon society, and, I may add, upon the country itself. It is bad enough if you corrupt the man, but if you corrupt the woman, you poison the waters of life at the very fountain."44 Engels, too, appears to have been outraged for similar reasons: "... we find here precisely the same features reappearing which the Factories' Report presented,-the work of women up to the hour of confinement, incapacity as housekeepers, neglect of home and children, indifference, actual dislike to family life, and demoralization; further the crowding out of men from employment, the constant improvement of machinery, early emancipation of children, husbands supported by their wives and children, etc., etc."45 Here, Engels has 42. "[The factory operatives'] agitation in the 1820's and 1830's was one avenue taken to protect the traditional relationship between adult and child, to perpetuate the structure of wages, to limit the recruitment of labourers into industry, and to maintain the father's economic authority" (Smelser, p. 265). Lazonick argues that the workers' main interest were not in maintaining their familial dominance in industry but in maintaining their family life outside industry. According to Smelser, agitation before 1840 sought to establish equal length days for all workers, which would tend to maintain the family in the factory, whereas after 1840 male workers came to accept the notion that married women and children should stay at home. 43. The question of the motives of the various groups involved in passing the factory acts is indeed a thorny one. Women workers themselves may have favored the legislation as an improvement in their working conditions, but some undoubtedly needed the incomes longer hours enabled. Most women working in the mills were young, single women who perhaps benefited from the protection. Single women, though "liberated" by the mills from direct domination in their families (about which there was much discussion in the 1800s), were nevertheless kept in their place by the conditions facing them in the labor market. Because of their age and sex, job segregation and lower wages assured their inability to be completely self-sufficient. Ruling-class men, especially those associated with the larger firms, may have had an interest in factory legislation in order to eliminate unfair competition. Working-class and ruling-class men may have cooperated to maintain men's dominant position in the labor market and in the family. 44. From Mary Merryweather, Factory Life, cited in Women in English Life from Medieval to Modern Times, 2: 200. The original is recorded in Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 3d ser., House of Commons, June 7, Frederick Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (London: Geo. Allen & Unwin, 1892), p. 199.

20 Capitalism and Patriarchy 155 touched upon the reasons for the opposition of the male workers to the situation. Engels was apparently ambivalent about whose side he was on, for, while he often seems to share the attitudes of the men and of the upper classes, he also referred to the trade unions as elite organizations of grown-up men who achieved benefits for themselves but not for the unskilled, women, or children.46 That male workers viewed the employment of women as a threat to their jobs is not surprising, given an economic system where competition among workers was characteristic. That women were paid lower wages exacerbated the threat. But why their response was to attempt to exclude women rather than to organize them is explained, not by capitalism, but by patriarchal relations between men and women: men wanted to assure that women would continue to perform the appropriate tasks at home. Engels reports an incident which probably occurred in the 1830s. Male Glasgow spinners had formed a secret union: "The Committee put a price on the heads of all blacklegs [strikebreakers]... and deliberately organized arson in factories. One factory to be set on fire had women blacklegs on the premises who had taken the places of men at the spinning machines. A certain Mrs. MacPherson, the mother of one of these girls, was murdered and those responsible were shipped off to America at the expense of the union."47 Hostility to the competition of young females, almost certainly less well trained and lower paid, was common enough. But if anything, the wage work of married women was thought even less excusable. In 1846 the Ten Hours' Advocate stated clearly that they hoped for the day when such threats would be removed altogether: "... It is needless for us to say, that all attempts to improve the morals and physical condition of female factory workers will be abortive, unless their hours are materially reduced. Indeed we may go so far as to say, that married females would be much better occupied in performing the domestic duties of the household, than following the never-tiring motion of machinery. We therefore hope the day is not distant, when the husband will be able to provide for his wife and family, without sending the former to endure the drudgery of a cotton mill."48 Eventually, male trade unionists realized that women could not be removed altogether, but their attitude was still ambivalent. One local wrote to the Women's Trade Union League, organized in 1889 to encourage unionization among women workers: "Please send an organizer to this town as we 46. Ibid., p. xv. 47. Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1968), p Smelser, p Similarly, Pinchbeck quotes from a deputation of the West Riding Short-Time Committee which demands "the gradual withdrawal of all females from the factories" because "home, its cares, its employments, is woman's true sphere." Gladstone thought this a good suggestion, easily implemented by appropriate laws, e.g., "forbidding a female to work in a factory after her marriage and during the life-time of her husband" (Pinchbeck, p. 200, n. 3, from the Manchester and Salford Advertiser [ January 8, 15, 1842]).

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