Contents

The 102nd Street landfill consists of two parcels, one owned by Olin Corporation and one owned by Hooker Chemical & Plastics Corporation at an area of 22.1 acres (89,000 m2) total.[2] Unlike Love Canal, which it is directly south of, the facility is still owned by Hooker (Occidental) and Olin, who are in the process of cleaning it up. It is part of the original canal excavation from which the Love Canal landfill takes its name. It currently appears to be a large field, as the chemicals are sealed off and buried underneath the soil. Griffon Park lies directly west, and currently, little residential development lies on either side of the area. The area is monitored with air and ground monitoring devices to measure the toxicity of the site.

At an unknown date, chemicals began seeping into the Niagara River. A concrete bulkhead has been constructed on the shore to stop the seepage of chemicals into the river. The area is fenced off on all sides.

1.
Niagara Falls, New York
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Niagara Falls is a city in Niagara County, New York, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 50,193. It is adjacent to the Niagara River, across from the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario, the city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area as well as the Western New York region. While the city was occupied by Native Americans, Europeans who migrated to the Niagara Falls in the mid-17th century began to open businesses. After the 1960s, however, the city and region witnessed an economic decline consistent with the rest of the Rust Belt as industries left the city, globalization has played a large role in the decline of manufacturing in the city. Despite the decline in industry, Niagara Falls State Park. The population, however, has continued to decline from a peak of 102,394 in the 1960s due to the loss of manufacturing jobs in the area, before Europeans entered the area, it was dominated by the Neutral Nation of Native Americans. European migration into the area began in the 17th century, the first recorded European to visit the area was Frenchman Robert de la Salle, accompanied by Belgian priest Louis Hennepin, who was the first known European to see the falls. The influx of newcomers may have been a catalyst for already hostile native tribes to turn to warfare in competition for the fur trade. The City of Niagara Falls was incorporated on March 17,1892 from the villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge, thomas Vincent Welch, a member of the charter committee and a New York state assemblyman and a second-generation Irishman, persuaded Governor Roswell P. Flower to sign the bill on St. Patricks Day, george W. Wright was elected the first mayor of Niagara Falls. By the end of the 19th century, the city was an industrial area. In 1927, the city annexed the village of La Salle from the Town of Niagara, the village was named for the French explorer Robert de la Salle. who built his ship, the Griffon, on the shores of the Niagara River five miles east. Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a demand for industrial products. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators and abrasives were among the major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations, in addition, the falls were incompatible with modern shipping technology. In 1956, the Schoellkopf Power Plant on the river just downstream of the American Falls was critically damaged due to a massive collapse of the Niagara Gorge wall above it. This prompted the planning and construction of one of the largest hydroelectric plants to be built in North America at that time, causing an influx of workers

2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

3.
Landfill
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A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of organized waste disposal, some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material. A landfill also may refer to ground that has filled in with rocks instead of waste materials, so that it can be used for a specific purpose. Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during a large earthquake, afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face, before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load, the weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers, the use of rail-haul permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in the face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other waste, several sprayed-on foam products, chemically fixed bio-solids. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill, factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, in addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a potential revenue stream. Another advantage is having a location for disposal that can be monitored. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues, infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant, pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, eventually, every landfill liner will leak, allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater. Installation of composite liners with flexible membrane and soil barrier is enforced by the EPA to ensure that leachate is withheld, rotting food and other decaying organic waste allows methane and carbon dioxide to seep out of the ground and up into the air

4.
Niagara River
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The Niagara River is a river that flows north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. It forms part of the border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the United States, there are differing theories as to the origin of the rivers name. According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Ongniaahra, the river, which is occasionally described as a strait, is about 58 kilometres long and includes Niagara Falls in its course. The falls have moved approximately 11 kilometres upstream from the Niagara Escarpment in the last 12,000 years, today, the diversion of the river for electrical generation has significantly reduced the rate of erosion. Power plants on the river include the Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations on the Canadian side, together, they generate 4.4 gigawatts of electricity. The International Control Works, built in 1954, regulates the river flow, ships on the Great Lakes use the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, on the Canadian side of the river, to bypass Niagara Falls. The total drop in elevation along the river is 99 metres, the Niagara Gorge extends downstream from the Falls and includes the Niagara Whirlpool and another section of rapids. The Niagara River also features two large islands and numerous smaller islands, grand Island and Navy Island, the two largest islands, are on the American and Canadian sides of the river, respectively. Goat Island and the tiny Luna Island split Niagara Falls into its three sections, the Horseshoe Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and American Falls, unity Island lies further upstream, alongside the city of Buffalo. The Niagara River and its tributaries, Tonawanda Creek and the Welland River, formed part of the last section of the Erie Canal, after leaving Lockport, New York, the Erie Canal proceeds southwest until it enters Tonawanda Creek. The Welland Canals used the Welland River as a connection to the Niagara River south of the falls, allowing traffic to safely re-enter the Niagara River. The Niagara River and Falls have been known outside of North America since the late 17th century, when Father Louis Hennepin and he wrote about his travels in A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America. The Niagara River was the site of the earliest recorded railway in America and it was an inclined wooden tramway built by John Montresor, a British military engineer, in 1764. Called The Cradles and The Old Lewiston Incline, it featured loaded carts pulled up wooden rails by rope and it facilitated the movement of goods over the Niagara Escarpment in present-day Lewiston, New York. Several battles occurred along the Niagara River, which was defended by Fort George and Fort Niagara at the mouth of the river. These forts were important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Queenston Heights took place near the river in the War of 1812. The river was an important route to liberation before the American Civil War, the Freedom Crossing Monument stands on the bank of the river in Lewiston to commemorate the courage of the escaping slaves and the local volunteers who helped them secretly cross the river. In the 1880s, the Niagara River became the first waterway in North America harnessed for large-scale generation of hydroelectricity

5.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states

6.
Love Canal
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Love Canal is a neighborhood within Niagara Falls, New York. Originally intended as a planned community, Love Canal served as a residential place before being purchased by Hooker Chemical Company. After its sale to the school district, Love Canal attracted national attention for the public health problem originated from the massive dumping of toxic waste on the grounds. This event displaced numerous families, leaving them with long-standing health issues and symptoms of high red blood cell counts, consequently, the federal government passed the Superfund law. The resulting cleanup operation under the Superfund law demolished the neighborhood, New York State Health Department Commissioner David Axelrod calls the Love Canal incident a national symbol of a failure to exercise a sense of concern for future generations. The Love Canal incident was especially significant as a situation where the inhabitants overflowed into the wastes instead of the way around. Love Canal is a located in the city of Niagara Falls in the northwestern region of New York state. Bergholtz Creek defines the border with the Niagara River marking the southern border one-quarter mile away. The LaSalle Expressway splits an uninhabited portion of the south from the north, the canal covers 16 acres of land in the central eastern portion. In 1890, William T. Love, an entrepreneur from the Western Railroad Corporation. He prepared plans to construct a community of parks and residences on the banks of Lake Ontario and he gave his name to the ensuing project, envisioning a perfect urban area. After 1892, Loves plan incorporated a shipping lane that would bypass the Niagara Falls, Love quickly lined up backing from financial banks and giants in New York City, Chicago and England. In October 1893, the first factory opened for business, in May 1894, work on the canal had begun. Steel companies and other manufacturers lined up for the chance of opening plants along the Love Canal and he began digging the canal and built a few streets and houses. However, the Panic of 1893 caused investors to drop sponsorship of the project, in addition, Congress passed a law barring the removal of water from the Niagara River, to preserve Niagara Falls. Only one mile of the canal was dug, about 50 feet wide and 10 to 40 feet deep, unfortunately, the Panic of 1907 proved economically disastrous as Love had to abandon the project. The deathblow came with the development of the electrical power economically over great distances by means of an alternating current. No longer was it necessary for industry to locate near the source of electrical power and his financial backers deserted him, and the last piece of the properties owned by his corporation was subjected to mortgage foreclosure and sold at public auction in 1910

7.
Superfund
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Superfund is a United States federal government program designed to fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous substances and pollutants. It was established as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, CERCLA created the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. S. Approximately 70 percent of Superfund cleanup activities historically have been paid for by parties responsible for the cleanup of contamination, the exceptions occur when the responsible party either cannot be found or is unable to pay for the cleanup. Despite the name, the program has suffered from under-funding, as a result, the EPA typically negotiates consent orders with PRPs to study sites and develop cleanup alternatives, subject to EPA oversight and approval of all such activities. The EPA and state agencies use the Hazard Ranking System to calculate a score based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances from a site. A score of 28.5 places the site on the National Priorities List, as of 9 August 2016, there are 1,328 sites listed, an additional 391 have been delisted, and 55 new sites have been proposed. CERCLA was enacted by Congress in 1980 in response to the threat of hazardous waste sites, typified by the Love Canal disaster in New York, and the Valley of the Drums in Kentucky. The initial trust fund to clean up a site where a polluter could not be identified, the EPA published the first Hazard Ranking System in 1981, and the first National Priorities List in 1982. Reagans policies were described as laissez-faire, until the mid-1990s, most of the funding came from a tax on the petroleum and chemical industries, reflecting the polluter pays principle. In 1994, the Clinton administration proposed a new Superfund reform bill, which some environmentalists and industry lobbyists saw as an improvement, the newly elected Republican Congress made numerous unsuccessful efforts to significantly weaken the law. The Clinton Administration then adopted some industry favored reforms as policy, even though by 1995 nearly $4 billion in fees were in the superfund, Congress did not reauthorize to collect these and by 2003 the superfund was empty. By 2013 funding had decreased from $2 billion in 1999 to less than $1.1 billion, from 2000-2015, Congress allocated about $1.26 billion of general revenue to the Superfund program each year. Consequently, less than half the number of sites were cleaned up from 2001 to 2008, the decrease continued during the Obama Administration, and since under the direction of EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy Superfund cleanups decreased even more from 20 in 2009 to a mere 8 in 2014. CERCLA authorizes two kinds of actions, Removal actions. These are typically short-term response actions, where actions may be taken to address releases or threatened releases requiring prompt response, Removal actions are classified as, emergency, time-critical, and non-time critical. These are usually long-term response actions, Remedial actions seek to permanently and significantly reduce the risks associated with releases or threats of releases of hazardous substances, and are generally larger more expensive actions. They can include such as using containment to prevent pollutants from migrating. These actions can be conducted with federal funding only at sites listed on the EPA National Priorities List in the United States, a potentially responsible party is a possible polluter who may eventually be held liable under CERCLA for the contamination or misuse of a particular property or resource

8.
Bulkhead (partition)
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A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an aeroplane. Other kinds of elements within a ship are decks and deckheads. The word bulki meant cargo in Old Norse, sometime in the 15th century sailors and builders in Europe realized that walls within a vessel would prevent cargo from shifting during passage. In shipbuilding, any vertical panel was called a head, so walls installed abeam in a vessels hull were called bulkheads. Now, the term applies to every vertical panel aboard a ship. Bulkhead partitions are considered to have been a feature of Chinese junks, song Dynasty author Zhu Yu wrote in his book of 1119 that the hulls of Chinese ships had a bulkhead build. The 5th-century book Garden of Strange Things by Liu Jingshu mentioned that a ship could allow water to enter the bottom without sinking, texts written by Western writers such as Marco Polo, Niccolò Da Conti, and Benjamin Franklin describe the bulkhead partitions of East Asian shipbuilding. Bulkhead partitions became widespread in Western shipbuilding during the early 19th century, a 19th century book on shipbuilding attributes the introduction of watertight bulkheads to Charles Wye Williams, known for his steamships. Some bulkheads and decks are fire-resistance rated to achieve compartmentalisation, a fire protection measure. On an aircraft, bulkheads divide the cabin into multiple areas, openings in fire-resistance rated bulkheads and decks must be firestopped to restore the fire-resistance ratings that would otherwise be compromised, if the openings were left unsealed. The authority having jurisdiction for such measures varies depending upon the flag of the ship, merchant vessels are typically subject to the regulations and inspections of the Coast Guards of the flag country. Combat ships are subject to the set out by the navy of the country that owns the ship. The term was applied to other vehicles, such as railroad cars, hopper cars, trams, automobiles, aircraft or spacecraft, as well as to containers, intermediate bulk containers. In some of these cases bulkheads are airtight to prevent air leakage or the spread of a fire, the term may also be used for the end walls of bulkhead flatcars. Mechanically, a partition or panel through which pass, or a connector designed to pass through a partition. In architecture the term is used to denote any boxed in beam or other downstand from a ceiling. Head strikes on these elements are commonplace hence in architecture any overhead downstand element comes to be referred to as a bulkhead

9.
Fly ash
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Fly ash, also known as pulverised fuel ash in the United Kingdom, is one of the coal combustion products, composed of the fine particles that are driven out of the boiler with the flue gases. Ash that falls in the bottom of the boiler is called bottom ash, in modern coal-fired power plants, fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, in the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting pollution control equipment. In the US, fly ash is stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, often used as a pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster, pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack. Coal Combustion Residuals are listed in the subtitle D, in that case the ash produced is often classified as hazardous waste. Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are spherical in shape. The major consequence of the cooling is that few minerals have time to crystallize. Nevertheless, some refractory phases in the coal do not melt. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material, siO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse, the main phases encountered are a glass phase, together with quartz, mullite and the iron oxides hematite, magnetite and/or maghemite. Other phases often identified are cristobalite, anhydrite, free lime, periclase, calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals anorthite, gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates, the mercury content can reach 1 ppm, but is generally included in the range 0.01 -1 ppm for bituminous coal. The concentrations of trace elements vary as well according to the kind of coal combusted to form it. In fact, in the case of coal, with the notable exception of boron. Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618, Class F fly ash, the chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the content of the coal burned

10.
Niagara County, New York
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Niagara County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 216,469, the county name is from the Iroquois word Onguiaahra, meaning the strait or thunder of waters. Niagara County is part of the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area, and it is the location of Niagara Falls and Fort Niagara, and has many parks and lake shore recreation communities. In the summer of 2008, Niagara County celebrated its 200th birthday with the first town of the county, when counties were established in the New York colony in 1683, the present Niagara County was part of Albany County. This was a county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory. This county was reduced in size on July 3,1766 by the creation of Cumberland County, on March 12,1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. One of the pieces, Tryon County, contained the western portion. The area then designated as Tryon County now includes 37 counties of New York State, the county was named for William Tryon, colonial governor of New York. In the years prior to 1776, most of the Loyalists in Tryon County fled to Canada, in 1789, Ontario County was split off from Montgomery. In turn, Genesee County was created from Ontario County in 1802, Niagara County was created from Genesee County in 1808. It was, however, larger than the present Niagara County even though it consisted of only the Town of Cambria, from 1814 to 1817, records of Cattaraugus County were divided between Belmont and Buffalo. In 1821, Erie County was created from Niagara County, the county has a number of properties on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,140 square miles. Niagara County is in the western part of New York State, just north of Buffalo and adjacent to Lake Ontario on its northern border. The countys primary geographic feature is Niagara Falls, the riverbed of which has eroded seven miles south over the past 12,000 years since the last Ice Age. The Niagara River and Niagara Falls, are in effect, the ditch for four of the Great Lakes which constitute the worlds largest supply of fresh water. Today, tourists and visitors to the Falls see a flow of water over the Falls. Both the American and Canadian side of the Niagara River have massive electrical power plants, the spectacular Niagara Gorge is the path Niagara Falls has taken over thousands of years as it continues to erode

11.
Occidental Petroleum
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Occidental Petroleum Corporation is a multinational oil and gas exploration and production company with operations in the United States, the Middle East, and Latin America. Headquartered in Houston, Texas, it is one of the largest US oil, often abbreviated as Oxy, in reference to its ticker symbol, the company is ranked on the Forbes Global 2000 and Fortune 500 list. In 2015, it was the 16th largest gas producer and 3rd largest oil producer in Texas, Occidental was founded in 1920 in California. In 1956 Occidental Petroleum came to the attention of Armand Hammer, at Hammers first association with Occidental, the company was run by Dave Harris, Roy Roberts, and John Sullivan. In 1957, Dr. Armand Hammer was elected president and CEO, in 1961, the company discovered the Lathrop Gas Field in the Arbuckle area of the Sacramento basin at Lathrop. Over the next 10 years, Occidental expanded internationally with operations in Libya, Peru, Venezuela, Bolivia, Trinidad, Occidental won exploration rights in Libya in 1965 and operated there until all activities were suspended in 1986 after the United States imposed economic sanctions on Libya. Occidental entered the business with the acquisition of Hooker Chemical Company in 1968,26 years after the contamination at Love Canal. It added to its chemical industries portfolio in 1988 with the purchase for $2 billion of Cain Chemical. In 1990, Dr. Ray R. Irani became Occidental Petroleum Corporations Chairman and he held the additional title of President from 2005 to 2007. Occidental Petroleums compensation policies came under scrutiny in 2007 after it was announced that CEO Ray Irani collected $460 million in stock shares, chazen was named CEO of Occidental to replace Irani. Since 1990, Occidental has gone from a collection of unrelated businesses to one that focuses on oil, during Iranis tenure as CEO, Occidentals market capitalization increased to more than $80 billion from $5.4 billion by 2011. Vicki Hollub, who had worked at Occidental since 1981 and joined the board in 2015, was announced to be the new CEO effective as of the 2016 annual shareholders meeting. Hollub was appointed as president and CEO of Occidental Petroleum in April 2016, becoming the first female to serve as executive officer of a major U. S. oil. In 2015, Oxy was the 16th largest gas producer and 3rd largest oil producer in Texas, the company ranked #364 on the Forbes Global 2000 list in 2015. In 2016, it ranked on the Fortune 500 list. In 2009, Oxy acquired Citigroups controversial Phibro energy-trading business, for its net value of approximately $250 million. The unit was managed by Andrew J. Hall who received compensation of approximately $100 million per year in 2007 and 2008, after the acquisition, the division reported its first losses since the 1990s. In 2016, Phibro was wound down and sold, starting in 1972, Occidental Oil Shale, Inc. a former subsidiary of Occidental Petroleum, began research on a shale oil extraction process

12.
Olin Corporation
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The Olin Corporation is an American manufacturer of ammunition, chlorine, and sodium hydroxide. Based in Clayton, Missouri, it traces its roots to two companies, both founded in 1892, Franklin W. Olins Equitable Powder Company and the Mathieson Alkali Works, after being headquartered for many years in Stamford, Connecticut, it is now headquartered in Clayton, Missouri. The company was started by Franklin W. Olin in East Alton, Illinois, Olin created the company for the purpose of supplying the areas coal mines and limestone quarries with explosives. Olins blasting and gunpowder company expanded into the production of cartridges in 1898, Franklin Olin, along with his two sons John and Spencer, formed the Western Cartridge Company in direct competition with Remington and Winchester. For a time, his competitors were able to get their suppliers to shut off sources of raw materials in an attempt to drive Olin out of business, in order to survive, Olin diversified the activities of the company. The company bought a paper manufacturer, a lead shot facility, an explosive primer facility, a cartridge brass manufacturing facility, the company also started its own brass mill. Together, these became the Western Cartridge Company. Through it, the Olins made a fortune supplying ammunition during World War I, in 1931, Western bought the Winchester Company. Olin merged the two in 1935, forming Winchester-Western, in 1944, the various Olin companies were organized under a new corporate parent, Olin Industries, Inc. Olins New Haven and East Alton plants employed about 17,000 workers each—producing the guns, the war production helped the Olins to become one of the wealthiest American families of the time. Saltville then became a company town. In Saltville it produced chlorine and caustic soda, leaching a considerable amount of methylmercury into the soils and this site was declared a Superfund site in 1982. In 1952, the Mathieson Chemical Company, as it was known by then, acquired the firm of E. R. Squibb & Sons. In 1952, Mathieson bought a controlling interest in the firm of E. R. Squibb & Sons. The Olin Ski Company manufactured camping and skiing gear, Olin Industries and Mathieson Chemical merged in 1954 to form the Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation. The new company had 35,000 employees,46 domestic and 17 foreign plants, the company manufactured phenoxy herbicides and anti-crop agents for Fort Detrick under contract to the U. S. Army Chemical Corps. John Olin retired in 1963, the year, the company brought in hardware experienced executives to run Winchester. The new management team introduced cheap, forged-metal parts into the Winchester line, bodies, homes, and cars were washed as far as seven miles down the valley

Landfill operation in Hawaii. Note that the area being filled is a single, well-defined "cell" and that a protective landfill liner is in place (exposed on the left) to prevent contamination by leachates migrating downward through the underlying geological formation.

The Niagara River (ny-AG-ra) is a river that flows north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. It forms part of the border …

September 2001 satellite image of the Niagara River. Flowing from Lake Erie in the south (bottom of image) to Lake Ontario in the north, the river passes around Grand Island before going over Niagara Falls, after which it narrows in the Niagara Gorge. Two hydropower reservoirs are visible just before the river widens after exiting the gorge. The Welland Canal is visible on the far left side of this image. (Source: NASA Visible Earth)

The American Falls with Goat Island to its right.

Queenston, Ontario, then known as Queenstown, Upper Canada, in a c. 1805 watercolour by army surgeon Edward Walsh. The Niagara River is clearly visible.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes U.S. EPA) is an agency of the federal government of …

Same smokestacks in 1975 after the plant was closed in a push for greater environmental protection

Ruckelshaus sworn in as first EPA Administrator.

A bulldozer piles boulders in an attempt to prevent lake shore erosion, 1973 (photograph by Paul Sequeira, photojournalist and contributing photographer to the Environmental Protection Agency's DOCUMERICA project in the early 1970s)