Background

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are inflammatory reactions initiated by mononuclear leukocytes. The term delayed is used to differentiate a secondary cellular response, which appears 48-72 hours after antigen exposure, from an immediate hypersensitivity response, which generally appears within 12 minutes of an antigen challenge. These reactions are mediated by T cells and monocytes/macrophages rather than by antibodies. They are also termed type IV hypersensitivity reactions.

Delayed hypersensitivity is a major mechanism of defense against various intracellular pathogens, including mycobacteria, fungi, and certain parasites, and it occurs in transplant rejection and tumor immunity. The central role of CD4+ T cells in delayed hypersensitivity is illustrated in patients with AIDS. Because of the loss of CD4+ cells, the host response against intracellular pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis is markedly impaired. The bacteria are engulfed by macrophages but are not killed.

Pathophysiology

The cellular events that result in delayed hypersensitivity reactions primarily involve T cells and macrophages. First, local immune and inflammatory responses at the site of foreign antigen up-regulate endothelial cell adhesion molecule expression, promoting the accumulation of leukocytes at the tissue site. The antigen is engulfed by macrophages and monocytes and is processed and presented to a T cell that has a specific receptor for that processed antigen. Macrophages secrete interleukin (IL)–1, IL-2, IL-6, and other lymphokines. Cytotoxic T cells can also be activated. The recruited macrophages can form giant cells. The characteristic histologic appearance of the macrophage–T-cell infiltrate is a granuloma. This type of infiltrate in the tissue is called granulomatous inflammation.

Several variants of DTH exist, and their precise pathophysiologic mechanisms are slightly different. For example, in contact hypersensitivity reactions, the epidermis is involved; in pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), lung tissue is involved.

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Epidemiology

Frequency

DTH reactions are extremely common. Persons of any age can be affected, but infants may not have the fully-developed immune capability to elicit a reaction.

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Michael R Simon, MD, MA Clinical Professor Emeritus, Departments of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine; Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Oakland University William Beaumont University School of Medicine; Adjunct Staff, Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Internal Medicine, William Beaumont Hospital

The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous authors Walter Duane Hinshaw, DO; Gregory Paul Neyman, MD; and Stephen Mark Olmstead, DO; to the development and writing of this article.