ironFechemical element, metal of Group VIII VIIIb of the periodic table, the most used and cheapest metal.

Occurrence, uses, and properties.

Iron makes up 5 percent of the Earth’s crust and is second in abundance to aluminum among the metals and fourth in abundance behind oxygen, silicon, and aluminum among the elements. Iron, which is the chief constituent of the Earth’s core, is the most abundant element in the Earth as a whole (about 35 percent) and is relatively plentiful in the Sun and other stars. In the crust the free metal is rare, occurring as terrestrial iron (alloyed with 2–3 percent nickel) in basaltic rocks in Greenland and carbonaceous sediments in the United States (Missouri) and as a low-nickel meteoric iron (5–7 percent nickel), kamacite. Nickel-iron, a native alloy, occurs in terrestrial deposits (21–64 percent iron, 77–34 percent nickel) and in meteorites as taenite (62–75 percent iron, 37–24 percent nickel). (For mineralogical properties of native iron and nickel-iron, see native elements [table].) Meteorites are classified as iron, iron-stone, or stony according to the relative proportion of their iron and silicate-mineral content. Iron is also found combined with other elements in hundreds of minerals; of greatest importance as iron ore are hematite, magnetite, limonite, and siderite. The metal is extracted by smelting with carbon (coke) and limestone. For specific information on the mining and production of iron, see Industries, Extraction and Processing: Iron.

The average quantity of iron in the human body is about 4.5 g (about 0.004 percent), of which approximately 65 percent is in the form of hemoglobin, which transports molecular oxygen from the lungs throughout the body; 1 percent in the various enzymes that control intracellular oxidation; and most of the rest stored in the body (liver, spleen, bone marrow) for future conversion to hemoglobin. Red meat, egg yolk, carrots, fruit, whole wheat, and green vegetables contribute most of the 10–20 milligrams of iron required each day by the average adult. For the treatment of hypochromic anemias (caused by iron deficiency), any of a large number of organic or inorganic iron (usually ferrous) compounds are used.

Iron, as commonly available, nearly always contains small amounts of carbon, which are picked up from the coke during smelting. These modify its properties, from hard and brittle cast irons containing up to 4 percent carbon to more malleable low-carbon steels containing less than 0.1 percent carbon. Three true allotropes of iron in its pure form occur. Delta iron, characterized by a body-centred-cubic crystal structure, is stable above a temperature of 1,394° C (2,541° F). Below this temperature there is a transition to gamma iron, which has a face-centred-cubic structure and is paramagnetic (weakly affected by a magnet); its ability to form solid solutions with carbon is important in steelmaking. At 912° C (1,674° F) there is a transition to paramagnetic alpha iron, which is also body-centred cubic in structure. Below 770° C (1,420° F), alpha iron becomes ferromagnetic, indicating a change in electronic structure but no change in crystal structure; above 770° C (its Curie point) it loses its ferromagnetism altogether. Alpha iron is a soft, ductile, gray-white metal of high tensile strength. Natural iron is a mixture of four stable isotopes: iron-56 (91.66 percent), iron-54 (5.82 percent), iron-57 (2.19 percent), and iron-58 (0.33 percent). Iron-57, which exhibits a marked Mössbauer effect (recoil-free gamma-ray resonance absorption), has been used in studying magnetism and hemoglobin derivatives and for making a very precise nuclear clock.

Compounds.

The most important oxidation states of iron are +2 and +3, though a number of +4 and +6 states are known. Iron(II) compounds Compounds of iron in the +2 state are designated ferrous and contain the pale green Fe2+ ion or complex ions. Iron(III) compounds Compounds of iron in the +3 state are called ferric and contain the Fe3+ ion (which is yellow to orange to brown, depending on the extent of hydrolysis) or complex ions.

Three oxygen compounds of iron are known: iron(II) oxide, or ferrous oxide, FeO; iron(III) oxide, or ferric oxide, Fe2O3; and ferrosoferric oxide, or ferroferric oxide, Fe3O4, which contains iron in both +2 and +3 oxidation states. Ferrous oxide is a greenish to black powder used primarily as a pigment for glasses. It occurs in nature as the mineral wuestite and it can be prepared by heating an iron(II) a ferrous compound in the absence of air or by passing hydrogen over ferric oxide. Ferric oxide is a reddish-brown to black powder that occurs naturally as the mineral hematite. It can be produced synthetically by igniting virtually any ferrous compound in air. Ferric oxide is the basis of a series of pigments ranging from yellow to a red known as Venetian red. The finely powdered red form, often called jewelers’ rouge, is used for polishing precious metals and diamonds, as well as in cosmetics. Ferric oxide forms a number of hydrates with variable structures and compositions. A common form is iron rust, produced by the combined action of moisture, carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the air on metallic iron. Ferrosoferric oxide occurs as the mineral magnetite in the form of magnetic, black or red-black crystals. It is prepared by passing steam over red-hot iron. The oxide is widely employed in ferrites, substances with high magnetic permeability and high electrical resistivity used in certain computer memories and coatings for magnetic tape. It is also used as a pigment and a polishing agent.

The action of sulfuric acid on iron results in the formation of two sulfur compounds: iron(II) sulfate, or ferrous sulfate, FeSO4, which is commonly available as the heptahydrate FeSO4·7H2O; and iron(III) sulfate, or ferric sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3. Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate, known in commerce as green vitriol, or copperas, is obtained as a by-product of industrial processes using iron ores that have been treated with sulfuric acid. It serves as a starting material for the manufacture of various other iron(II) ferrous compounds and as a reducing agent. It is also employed in making inks, fertilizers, and pesticides and for iron electroplating. Ferric sulfate is produced on a large scale by adding sulfuric acid and an oxidizing agent (e.g., nitric acid or hydrogen peroxide) to a hot solution of iron(II) ferrous sulfate. It is used to make iron alums and other iron(III) ferric compounds; as a coagulant in water purification and sewage treatment; and as a mordant (fixative) in textile dyeing and printing.

With chlorine, iron forms another group of industrially important compounds: iron(II) chloride, or ferrous chloride, FeCl2; and iron(III) chloride, or ferric chloride, FeCl3. Ferrous chloride is obtained as yellow-green deliquescent (moisture-absorbing) crystals by passing dry hydrogen chloride gas over red-hot iron. It also can be prepared in hydrated form, FeCl2·4H2O, by dissolving metallic iron in hydrochloric acid. It is used in the dye industry as a mordant and as a reducing agent. Ferric chloride is generally prepared from ferrous chloride through the action of chloride or nitric acid. It is used to make many other iron(III) ferric compounds and as a chlorinating agent for silver, copper, and some organic compounds. Treating a solution of trivalent iron Fe3+with the complex iron cyanide hexacyanoferrate (II)ion, [Fe(CH6CN6)]4-, yields a deep-blue precipitate called Prussian blue (q.v.). This pigment has a slight reddish tint and is employed in paints, enamels, and lacquers.

A number of iron compounds have been found medically useful. For example, ferrous gluconate, Fe(C6H11O7)2·2H2O, and ferric pyrophosphate, Fe4(P2O7)·xH2O, are among the compounds frequently used to treat anemia. Various ferric salts, which act as coagulants, are applied to wounds to promote healing.