Biology: Immune System and Monoclonal Antibodies Essay

Antigens are initially used in the process and artificial antibodies are produced.

Remember:
Antigens are any substance that is foreign to an organism’s own body.
Antibodies are specific; they bind to and attack one particular antigen. Some antibodies, once activated by the occurrence of a disease, continue to confer resistance against that disease.

Details of the process used

1. A mouse is immunized by injection of an antigen to stimulate the production of antibodies targeted against the specific antigen.
2. Antibodies are produced by the mouse in the spleen. After several weeks of immunisation, blood samples are obtained for measurement of serum antibodies in the mouse. If the amount of antibodies present is high, then cell fusion can be performed. If the amount of antibodies is too low, the mouse can be boosted until an adequate amount of antibodies are produced.
3. Mouse is euthanized, spleen is removed and antibody forming (B-Lymphocyte) cells are isolated from the mouse's spleen.
4. The antibody forming cells and the malignant tumour cells called myelomas are then fused together with a chemical, polyethylene glycol, which disrupts cell membranes and allows the two cells to fuse. The resulting hybrid cell is able to grow on a specific medium in which neither the spleen cells nor the pure myeloma cells can grow. The hybrid cell will possess the property of the immortal character of the tumour cell and the specific antibody production.
5. The hybridomas are then screened for antibody production. Those that function properly are grown in a culture. Each hybridoma produces relatively large quantities of identical antibody molecules. By allowing the hybridoma to multiply in culture, it is possible to produce a population of cells, each of which produces identical antibody molecules. These antibodies are called "monoclonal antibodies" because they are produced by the identical offspring of a single, cloned antibody producing cell.
6. The hybridoma and their clones can be injected into another mouse where the ascites fluid which contains monoclonal antibodies is harvested from the mouse (in vivo) or they can be they can be grown in mass culture to produce specific antibodies (in vitro).

Describe the outcome of the biotechnological process
Monoclonal antibodies can be used:
In measuring protein and drug levels in serum
To protect against disease
To diagnose a wide variety of illnesses
To detect the presence of drugs, viral and bacterial products, and other unusual or abnormal substances in the blood
To detect a variety of diseases such as breast and prostate cancer.
In home pregnancy kits – antibodies present in the kit reacts with a hormone secreted by an embryo and present in the mother’s urine.
To treat cancer, bacterial poisoning and snake bite.

Some examples of monoclonal antibodies in common use are:
OKT3 – binds to a molecule on the surface of T cells in order to prevent acute rejection of organs.
Herceptin – binds to a receptor for epidermal growth factor that is found on some tumour cells. It is effective against solid tumours.
Abciximab - Inhibits the clumping of platelets by binding the receptors on their surface. Helpful in preventing re-clogging of the coronary arteries in patients who have undergone angioplasty.

Evaluate the efficiency of the process
At the moment, the processes used to obtain Monoclonal antibodies rely heavily on the use of…

relief from symptoms, may benefit others later
Against- may be less effective than previous, cost
Defence against disease
Lysosome enzyme in tear
Cilia and mucus in trachea
Sweat glands in skin
Acidic pH of stomach
Phagocytosis
There immune system is divided into non-specific and specific response.
Non-specific- is always the same and is effective against a wide range of pathogens and substances considered non-self.
Phagocytosis is the term used to describe how a phagocyte engulfs a foreign…

understand the molecular biology of the human immunodeficiency virus and the pathogenesis of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. The experimental concepts and methodology involved with enzyme-linked immune sorbent (ELISA) assays will be introduced in the context of the clinical screening of serum samples for antibodies to the HIV virus.
Background:
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease characterized by the progressive deterioration of an individual's immune system. The immunological…

Biology Assignment 6
The human body has natural protection which is called the immune system. This acts to prevent or exclude harm by pathogens.
The human body is often described as being 'at war'. By this, it is meant that the body is constantly under attack from things that are trying to do it harm. These include toxins, bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. All of these can, under the right conditions, cause damage and destruction to parts of the body and if these were left unchecked…

must first have a brief overview of the body and its immune system.
Immune System
The body’s defense mechanisms can be split into two groups; non-specific and specific defense mechanisms. Non-specific mechanisms basically are the barriers that keep pathogens from penetrating the body. For example the epithelial membranes that cover the body, the strong acidity of the stomach killing pathogens before they have the opportunity to infect the system; these are just a couple, there are many others. Specific…

of enhancing immune response is unclear.
Vitamin B6. Several studies have suggested that a vitamin B6 deficiency can depress aspects of the immune response, such as lymphocytes’ ability to mature and spin off into various types of T and B cells. Supplementing with moderate doses to address the deficiency restores immune function, but megadoses don’t produce additional benefits. And B6 may promote the growth of tumors.
Vitamin C. The jury is still out on vitamin C and the immune system. Many studies…

antigens and antibodies in the body’s immune response including the involvement of plasma cells, macrophages and antigen-presenting cells.
The specific immune response relies on the lymphocytes, of which there are two main kinds, each with a number of sub-types. Both types respond to foreign (non-self) antigens, such as proteins on the surface of bacteria and viruses. Macrophages are also involved, engulfing bacteria and displaying the non-self antigens. They alert the immune system to the presence…

training 4 days a week and doing the same monotonous activities over and over will at first result in improvements however once focus and motivation have ceased, performance will follow. If, however variety inn relation to training various energy systems and muscle groups is incorporated extra training sessions can be incorporated. Yet if these principles are not included anything over 3 training sessions a week for those under the age of 16 can have negative effects and be classed as overtraining…

contact with an infected area. They also can be transmitted by the air, water, animal bites and sexual intercourse.
4. The body system that fights off pathogens and infection is called the immune system. The immune system several defenses the first one is the skin. Second, sense the body has openings such as the nose and mouth the immune system builds mucous to trap the incoming pathogens. The last defenses once a pathogen gets into the body is that B cells and T cells are sent to attack…

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