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Distribution

Range Description

In the Indo-West Pacific, this species is found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northern Indian Ocean, the central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.

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Ecology

Habitat

Habitat and Ecology

This species is found in shallow and deeper environments. It forms sub-massive to massive colonies. This species is found on subtidal rock and rocky reefs, in the outer reef channel, on the back and foreslope, and in lagoons. This species is found to 40 m.

Species in this genus are usually most abundant at mid depth. This genus is a common and extremely important reef-building coral in the western Atlantic (Wood 1983). It forms massive colonies that are usually rounded or lobed in shallow water and flattened or plate-like on deep reefs (Wood 1983).

TTTGGTATTGGAGCCGGTCTAATTGGGACTGCTTTT---AGTATGCTTATACGATTGGAGCTTTCTGCGCCAGGCGCTATGTTAGGTGAT---GATCATCTTTATAATGTAATTGTAACAGCACATGCTTTTATTATGATTTTTTTTTTAGTAATGCCGGTTATGATTGGGGGGTTTGGAAACTGGTTAGTGCCATTA---TATATTGGGGCACCGGATATGGCGTTCCCCCGATTAAATAATATTAGTTTTTGGTTATTACCACCTGCTTTGTTTTTATTGTTAGGCTCTGCTTTTGTTGAACAAGGCGCAGGAACGGGATGAACGGTTTATCCTCCTCTTTCTGATATTTATGCGCACTCTGGGGGTTCTGTTGACATG---GTTATTTTTAGTCTTCATTTGGCTGGGGTTTCTTCTATCTTAGGAGCTATAAACTTTATTACAACGATTTTCAACATGCGAGCCCCTGGTGTTTCTTTTAATAGAATGCCTTTGTTTGTTTGGTCTATTTTAATAACTGCTTTTTTATTACTTTTATCTTTGCCTGTGTTAGCGGGT---GCAATTACTATGTTATTAACAGATCGAAATTTTAATACAACTTTTTTTGATCCTTCTGGAGGTGGTGATCCTATTTTATTCCAACATTTATTTTGGTTT-- end --

Other sequences that do not yet meet barcode criteria may also be available.

ACTGCTTTTAGTATGCTTATACGATTGGAGCTTTCTGCGCCAGGCGCTATGTTAGGTGAT---GATCATCTTTATAATGTAATTGTGACAGCACATGCTTTTATTATGATTTTTTTTTTAGTAATGCCGGTTATGATTGGGGGGTTTGGAAACTGGTTAGTGCCATTATATATTGGGGCACCAGACATGGCGTTCCCCCGATTAAATAATATTAGTTTCTGGTTATTACCACCTGCTTTGTTTTTATTGTTAGGCTCTGCTTTTGTTGAACAAGGCGCAGGAACGGGATGAACGGTTTATCCTCCTCTTTCTGATATTTATGCGCACTCTGGGGGTTCTGTTGACATGGTTATTTTTAGTCTTCATTTGGCTGGGGTTTCTTCTATCTTAGGAGCAATAAACTTTATTACAACGATCTTCAATATGCGAGCCCCTGGTGTTTCTTTTAATAGAATGCCTTTGTTTGTTTGGTCTATTTTAATAACTGCTTTTTTATTACTTTTATCTTTGCCTGTGTTAGCGGGTGCAATTACTATGTTATTAACAGATCGAAATTTTAATACAACTTTTTTTGATCCTTCTGGAGGTGGTGATCCTATTTTATTCCAACATTTATTTTGGTTTTTTGGGCAT-- end --

The most important known threat for this species is extensive reduction of coral reef habitat due to a combination of threats. Specific population trends are unknown but population reduction can be inferred from estimated habitat loss (Wilkinson 2004). It is widespread and common throughout its range and therefore is likely to be more resilient to habitat loss and reef degradation because of an assumed large effective population size that is highly connected and/or stable with enhanced genetic variability. Therefore, the estimated habitat loss of 20% from reefs already destroyed within its range is the best inference of population reduction since it may survive in coral reefs already at the critical stage of degradation (Wilkinson 2004). This inference of population reduction over three generation lengths (30 years) does not meet the threshold of a threat category and this species is Least Concern. However, because of predicted threats from climate change and ocean acidification it will be important to reassess this species in 10 years or sooner, particularly if the species is also observed to disappear from reefs currently at the critical stage of reef degradation.

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Trends

Population

There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.

The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years.See the Supplementary Materialfor further details on population decline and generation length estimates.

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Threats

The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 78. It is harvested in Fiji, and probably also in Indonesia (though there is no species-specific export quota in this country).

In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.

Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil et al. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.

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Management

Conservation Actions

All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species range fall within Marine Protected Areas.

Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.

Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.