The Interpretation of Dreams (German: Die Traumdeutung) is a 1899 book by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in which the author introduces his theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what would later become the theory of the Oedipus complex. Freud revised the book at least eight times and, in the third edition, added an extensive section which treated dream symbolism very literally, following the influence of Wilhelm Stekel. Freud said of this work, "Insight such as this falls to one's lot but once in a lifetime."[1]

The book was first published in an edition of 600 copies, which did not sell out for eight years. The Interpretation of Dreams later gained in popularity, and seven more editions were published in Freud's lifetime.[2]

Because of the book's length and complexity, Freud also wrote an abridged version called On Dreams, the original text is widely regarded as one of Freud's most significant works.

Contents

Freud spent the summer of 1895 at Schloss BelleVue[3] near Grinzing in Austria, where he began the inception of The Interpretation of Dreams; in a 1900 letter to Wilhelm Fliess, he wrote in commemoration of the place:

"Do you suppose that some day a marble tablet will be placed on the house, inscribed with these words: 'In this house on July 24, 1895, the secret of dreams was revealed to Dr. Sigm. Freud'? At the moment I see little prospect of it." — Freud in a letter to Wilhelm Fliess, June 12, 1900

While staying at Schloss Bellevue, Freud dreamed his famous dream of 'Irma's injection',[4] his reading and analysis of the dream allowed him to be exonerated from his mishandling of the treatment of a patient in 1895.[5] In 1963, Belle Vue manor was demolished, but today a memorial plaque with just that inscription has been erected at the site by the Austrian Sigmund Freud Society.

Dreams, in Freud's view, are all forms of "wish fulfillment" — attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past (later in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud would discuss dreams which do not appear to be wish-fulfillment). Because the information in the unconscious is in an unruly and often disturbing form, a "censor" in the preconscious will not allow it to pass unaltered into the conscious. Freud introduced the term 'manifest content' to describe what the dream recalled.[6]

During dreams, the preconscious is more lax in this duty than in waking hours, but is still attentive: as such, the unconscious must distort and warp the meaning of its information to make it through the censorship, as such, images in dreams are often not what they appear to be, according to Freud, and need deeper interpretation if they are to inform on the structures of the unconscious.

Freud used to mention the dreams as "The Royal Road to the Unconscious", he proposed the 'phenomenon of condensation'; the idea that one simple symbol or image presented in a person's dream may have multiple meanings. For this very reason, Freud tried to focus on details during psychoanalysis and asked his patients about things they could even think trivial (i.e. while a patient was describing an experience in their dream, Freud could ask them: "was there any sign upon the walls? What was it?").

As Freud was focusing upon the biologic drives of the individual (a fact that alienated him from several colleagues of his like Breuer, Jung and Adler), he stated that when we observe a hollow object in our dreams, like a box or a cave, this is a symbol of a womb, while an elongated object is a symbol for penis. Due to these statements, Freud attracted much criticism from those who believed him a "sexist" or "misanthrope", as he was alleged to have overemphasised the role of instinct, as though he believed people were "wild beasts". Michael Jacob's later research into dreams has indicated that the manifest content may be more important than Freud allowed for and that such scientific study of dreams is more suited to the scientific study of dreams.[7]

An abridged version called On Dreams was published in 1901 as part of Lowenfeld and Kurella's Grenzfragen des Nerven und Seelenlebens. It was re-published in 1911 in slightly larger form as a book.[8]On Dreams is also included in the 1953 edition and the second part of Freud's work on dreams, Volume Five, The Interpretation of Dreams II and On Dreams. It follows chapter seven in The Interpretation of Dreams and in this edition, is fifty three pages in length.[9] There are thirteen chapters in total and Freud directs the reader to The Interpretation of Dreams for further reading throughout On Dreams, in particular, in the final chapter. Immediately after its publication, Freud considered On Dreams as a shortened version of The Interpretation of Dreams, the English translation of On Dreams was first published in 1914 and the second English publication in the James Strachey translation from 1952.[10] Freud investigates the subject of displacement and our inability to recognize our dreams; in chapter VI, page 659, he states: "It is the process of displacement which is chiefly responsible for our being unable to discover or recognize the in the dream-content" and he considers the issue of displacement in chapter VIII, page 671 as: "the most striking of the dream-work."[11]

"In the following pages, I shall demonstrate that there exists a psychological technique by which dreams may be interpreted and that upon the application of this method every dream will show itself to be a senseful psychological structure which may be introduced into an assignable place in the psychic activity of the waking state. I shall furthermore endeavor to explain the processes which give rise to the strangeness and obscurity of the dream, and to discover through them the psychic forces, which operate whether in combination or opposition, to produce the dream, this accomplished by investigation will terminate as it will reach the point where the problem of the dream meets broader problems, the solution of which must be attempted through other material."[12]

Freud begins his book in the first chapter titled "The Scientific Literature on the Problems of the Dream" by reviewing different scientific views on dream interpretation, which he finds interesting but not adequate,[13] he then makes his argument by describing a number of dreams which he claims illustrate his theory.

Freud describes three main types of dreams: 1. Direct prophecies received in the dream (chrematismos, oraculum); 2. The foretelling of a future event (orama, visio) 3, the symbolic dream, which requires interpretation (Interpretation of Dreams 5).

Much of Freud's sources for analysis are in literature. Many of his most important dreams are his own — his method is inaugurated with an analysis of his dream "Irma's injection" — but many also come from patient case studies.

Memorial plate in commemoration of the place where Freud began The Interpretation of Dreams, near Grinzing, Austria

The Interpretation of Dreams was first published in an edition of only 600 copies, and these took eight years to sell. The work subsequently gained popularity, and seven more editions were printed in Freud's lifetime, the last in 1929,[2] the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler wrote to Freud in October 1905 that he was convinced of the correctness of The Interpretation of Dreams as soon as he read it.[14]

Otto Rank read The Interpretation of Dreams in 1905 and was impressed by the work. Rank was moved to write a critical reanalysis of one of Freud's own dreams, and perhaps partly for this reason came to Freud's attention, it was with Rank's help that Freud published the second edition of The Interpretation of Dreams in 1909.[15] The mythologist Joseph Campbell described the book as an "epochal work" noting that it was "based on insights derived from years devoted to the fantasies of neurotics".[16]Max Schur, Freud's physician and friend, has provided evidence that the first dream that Freud analyzed, his so-called "Irma dream" was not very disguised, but actually closely portrayed a medical disaster of Emma Steinbeck, one of Freud's patients.[17] The psychologist Hans Eysenck argued in Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985) that the dreams Freud cites not only do not support his dream theory, but actually disprove it.[18]

The first translation from German into English was completed by A. A. Brill, a Freudian psychoanalyst. Years later, an authorized translation by James Strachey was published, the most recent English translation was performed by Joyce Crick.

^Storr, Anthony (1989). Freud: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN978-0-19-285455-1. While staying at the Schloss Bellevue

^Storr, Anthony (1989). Freud: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN978-0-19-285455-1. While staying at the Schloss Bellevue [...] Freud had dreamed his famous dream of 'Irma's Injection'

^Storr, Anthony (1989). Freud: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 41. ISBN978-0-19-285455-1. "Freud had dreamed his famous dream of 'Irma's Injection'. "Freud's reading of the dream was that it was an attempt to absolve him from the responsibility of mishandling the treatment of a particular patient".

^Storr, Anthony (1989). Freud: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN978-0-19-285455-1. Freud introduced the term 'manifest dream' to describe what the dreamer recalled

^Jacobs, Michael (1992). Sigmund Freud. London: Sage Publication. p. 35. ISBN0-8039-8464-2. "the manifest content may be more important than Freud allowed for" and "that such scientific study of dreams as appears in that books is more suited to the scientific study of dreams than to dream work in psychoanalytic therapy itself" (Jacobs 35)

^Freud, Sigmund (1953). The Interpretation of Dreams (Second Part) and On Dreams. London: The Hogarth Press. pp. 631–633 contents page 659 671 686. ISBN0-7012-0067-7. "It is the process of displacement which is chiefly responsible for our being unable to discover or recognize the dream-thoughts in the dream-content" (page 659). "The heart of the problem lies in displacement" (page 671).

Marinelli, Lydia and Andreas Mayer A. (2003) Dreaming by the Book: Freud's 'The Interpretation of Dreams' and the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement, New York: Other Press. ISBN1-59051-009-7 (Mayer and Marinelli explore textual changes in different versions of The Interpretation of Dreams and offer an historical account of how the book became the founding text of the psychoanalytic movement).

Sigmund Freud
–
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing h

A. A. Brill
–
Abraham Arden Brill was an Austrian-born psychiatrist who spent almost his entire adult life in the United States. He was the first psychoanalyst to practice in the United States, Brill was born in Kańczuga, Austrian Galicia. He arrived in the United States alone and penniless at the age of 15, working continuously to finance his studies, he eventu

1.
Abraham A. Brill.

James Strachey
–
James Beaumont Strachey was a British psychoanalyst, and, with his wife Alix, a translator of Sigmund Freud into English. He is perhaps best known as the editor of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. He was a son of Lt-Gen Sir Richard Strachey and Lady Strachey, called the enfant miracle as his father was 70,

Dream interpretation
–
Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to dreams. In modern times, various schools of psychology and neurobiology have offered theories about the meaning, most people currently appear to interpret dream content according to the Freudian theory of dreams in countries, as found by a study conducted in the United States, India, and S

Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city si

Vienna
–
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, V

Psychosexual development
–
Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associ

Unconscious mind
–
The unconscious mind consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations. Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior, the term was coined by th

1.
An iceberg is often (though misleadingly) used to provide a visual representation of Freud's theory that most of the human mind operates unconsciously.

Consciousness
–
Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the na

Id, ego and super-ego
–
The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the

1.
"The ego is not sharply separated from the id; its lower portion merges into it.... But the repressed merges into the id as well, and is merely a part of it. The repressed is only cut off sharply from the ego by the resistances of repression; it can communicate with the ego through the id." (Sigmund Freud, 1923)

Libido
–
Libido, colloquially known as sex drive, is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors, biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and

Defence mechanisms
–
A defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct, defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used

1.
The iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.

Alfred Adler
–
Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his

1.
Alfred Adler

Wilfred Bion
–
Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theo

1.
Wilfred Bion

2.
Wilfred Bion in uniform in 1916

Josef Breuer
–
Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He p

1.
Josef Breuer

Max Eitingon
–
Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperi

Erik Erikson
–
Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a pr

1.
Erik Erikson

Anna Freud
–
Anna Freud was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She was the 6th and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and she followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Freud as

Erich Fromm
–
Erich Seligmann Fromm was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, Erich Fromm was born on March 23,1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his studies in 1918 at the University

1.
Fromm in 1970

Karen Horney
–
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views and this was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freuds theory of p

1.
Karen Horney

Ernest Jones
–
Alfred Ernest Jones, FRCP, MRCS was a British neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world. Ernest Jones was born in Gowerton, Wales, a village on the

Carl Jung
–
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psych

Melanie Klein
–
Melanie Reizes Klein was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst who devised novel therapeutic techniques for children that influenced child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was an innovator in object relations theory. Born in Vienna of Jewish heritage, Klein first sought psychoanalysis for herself from Sándor Ferenczi when she was living

1.
Melanie Klein in 1952

2.
Melanie Klein c. 1900

3.
A dinner to celebrate Melanie Klein's 70th birthday

4.
Melanie Klein in 1950s

Jacques Lacan
–
Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20

1.
Jacques Lacan

Ronald Laing
–
Ronald David Laing, usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness – in particular, the experience of psychosis. Laing was associated with the movement, although he rejected the label. Politically, he was regarded as a thinker of the New Left, Laing was born in the Govanhill district of Glasgow on

Otto Rank
–
Otto Rank was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. In 1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris, for the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the United States. Rank thus became the first paid member of the psychoanalytic movement, Freud considered Rank, with whom he w

Wilhelm Reich
–
Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals, he coined the phrase the sexual revolution, during the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism

1.
Reich in his mid-20s

2.
Reich in 1900.

3.
Staff of the Vienna Ambulatorium, 1922. Eduard Hitschmann is seated fourth from the left, Reich fifth, and Annie Reich first on the right.

4.
Reich lived for a time on Berggasse in Vienna (seen here in 2010), where Freud lived at number 19

Sabina Spielrein
–
Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein was a Russian physician and one of the first female psychoanalysts. She also met, corresponded, and had a relationship with Sigmund Freud. One of her more famous analysands was the Swiss developmental psychologist and she worked as a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, teacher and paediatrician in Switzerland and Russia. In a

1.
Memorial plaque at former residence of Sabina Spielrein in Berlin, Germany

2.
Memorial plaque on the house where Sabina Spielrein lived at 83 Pushkin St, Rostov-on-Don. The sign says: "In this house lived the famous student of C. G. Jung and S. Freud, psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein (1885-1942)"

Susan Sutherland Isaacs
–
Susan Sutherland Isaacs, CBE was a Lancashire-born educational psychologist and psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of children, for Isaacs, the best way for children to learn was by developing their independence. She believed that the most effective way to achieve this was through play, Isaacs was born i

1.
Susan Isaacs, 1910s

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
–
Psychopathology of Everyday Life is a 1901 work by Sigmund Freud, based on Freuds researches into slips and parapraxes from 1897 onwards. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life became perhaps the best-known of all Freuds writings, the Psychopathology was originally published in the Monograph for Psychiatry and Neurology in 1901, before appearing in b

1.
The German edition

Beyond the Pleasure Principle
–
Beyond the Pleasure Principle is a 1920 essay by Sigmund Freud that marks a major turning point in his theoretical approach. Previously, Freud attributed most human behavior to the sexual instinct, with this essay, Freud went beyond the simple pleasure principle, developing his theory of drives with the addition of the death drive. In sections IV a

The Ego and the Id
–
The Ego and the Id is a prominent paper by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. It is a study of the human psyche outlining his theories of the psychodynamics of the id, ego and super-ego. The study was conducted over years of research and was first published in 1923. The Ego and the Id develops a line of reasoning as a groundwork for explaining variou

1.
The Ego and the Id

International Psychoanalytical Association
–
The International Psychoanalytical Association is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, on an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi, in 1902 Sigmund Freud started to meet every week with colleagues to discuss his work, and so the Psychological Wedne

1.
The symbol of the International Psychoanalytical Association is a picture of Oedipus and the Sphinx, with the organisation's name shown in Trajan typeface.

German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other member

1.
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)

2.
The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into German by Martin Luther helped establish modern German

Oedipus complex
–
In psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex is a childs desire, that the mind keeps in the unconscious via dynamic repression, to have sexual relations with the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex originally refers to the desire of a son for his mother. A childs identification with the parent is the successful resolution of the complex. Men

Wilhelm Stekel
–
Wilhelm Stekel was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freuds earliest followers, and was once described as Freuds most distinguished pupil. He later had a falling-out with Freud, who announced in November 1912 that Stekel is going his own way and his works are translated and published in many languages. Born in Boiany

1.
Wilhelm Stekel

Grinzing
–
Grinzing was an independent municipality until 1892 and is today a part of Döbling, the 19th district of Vienna. Grinzing lies in the northwest of Vienna and, with an area of 613.52 hectares, is the largest suburb in the district of Döbling. The border then runs along the Hungerbergstraße to mark the boundary to Unterdöbling, before following the c

1.
Latisberg hill, seen from Cobenzl.

2.
Grinzing

3.
The parish church in Grinzing

4.
Grinzing, to the north, around 1900

Wilhelm Fliess
–
Wilhelm Fliess was a German Jewish otolaryngologist who practised in Berlin. He developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection that have not been accepted by modern scientists. He is today best remembered for his personal friendship and theoretical collaboration with Sigmund Freud. Fliess developed several theo

1.
Fliess (right) and Sigmund Freud in the early 1890s.

Dream
–
A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. Dream interpretation is the attempt at drawing meaning from dreams and searching for an underlying message, the scientific study of dreams is called oneirology. Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement

Wish fulfillment
–
Wish fulfillment is the satisfaction of a desire through an involuntary thought process. Wish fulfillment can occur in dreams or in daydreams, in the symptoms of neurosis and this satisfaction is often indirect and requires interpretation to recognize. Sigmund Freud coined the term in 1900 in a text titled The Interpretation of Dreams. According to

1.
Jacob saw the ladder led to heaven, but Freud might have called it a phallic symbol

Jung
–
JUNG is an open source graph modeling and visualization framework written in Java, under the BSD license. The framework comes with a number of layout algorithms built in, as well as analysis algorithms such as graph clustering and it provides a mechanism for annotating graphs, entities, and relations with metadata. JUNG also facilitates the creatio

1.
A shortest path from a Russian word " рапорт " (raport) to a word " труд " (work, labour) found in a thesaurus of the Russian Wiktionary by the Dijkstra's algorithm. A shortest path computation on a graph was implemented within the JUNG.

Misanthrope
–
Misanthropy is the general hatred, distrust or contempt of the human species or human nature. A misanthrope or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings, the words origin is from the Greek words μῖσος and ἄνθρωπος. The condition is often confused with asociality, misanthropy has been ascribed to a number of writers of satire, such a

Eugen Bleuler
–
Bleuler was born in Zollikon, a town near Zürich in Switzerland, to Johann Rudolf Bleuler, a wealthy farmer, and Pauline Bleuler-Bleuler. He studied medicine in Zürich and following his graduation in 1881 he worked as an assistant to Gottlieb Burckhardt at the Waldau Psychiatric Clinic in Bern. Leaving this post in 1884 he spent one year on medical

1.
Eugen Bleuler

Joseph Campbell
–
Joseph John Campbell was an American mythologist, writer and lecturer, best known for his work in comparative mythology and comparative religion. His work covers many aspects of the human experience, Campbells magnum opus is his book titled The Hero with a Thousand Faces in which he discusses his theory of the journey of the archetypal hero found i

Hans Eysenck
–
Hans Jürgen Eysenck, PhD, DSc was a German-born psychologist who spent his professional career in Great Britain. He is best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, at the time of his death, Eysenck was the living psychologist most frequently cited in the peer-reviewed scientific journal literature. Eysenck was born in Berlin, Germa

1.
Hans Eysenck

2.
Eysenck and his wife Sybil

Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire
–
Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire is a book by psychologist Hans Eysenck, in which Eysenck criticizes Sigmund Freud and argues that psychoanalysis is unscientific. The revised edition has a preface by the widow, Sybil Eysenck. The book received negative reviews. Eysenck argues that psychoanalysis is unscientific and that its theories are base

1.
Cover of the first edition

Auguste Forel
–
Auguste-Henri Forel was a Swiss myrmecologist, neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and eugenicist, notable for his investigations into the structure of the human brain and that of ants. For example, he is considered a co-founder of the neuron theory, Forel is also known for his early contributions to sexology and psychology. From 1978 until 2000 Forel’s i

1.
The Social World of Ants

2.
Auguste-Henri Forel towards the end of his life

Oskar Vogt
–
Oskar Vogt was a German physician and neurologist. He and his wife Cécile Vogt-Mugnier are known for their extensive cytoarchetectonic studies on the brain and he was born in Husum, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Vogt studied medicine at Kiel and Jena, obtaining his doctorate from Jena in 1894, the Vogts met in 1897 in Paris, and eventually married i

3.
Bronze bust of Oskar Vogt located in the biomedical Berlin-Buch Campus at the former Institute for Brain Research.

4.
Plaque for Oskar and Cécile Vogt on the building of the Institute for Brain Research in Berlin-Buch. The plaque was created in 1965 by sculptor Axel Schulz.

Jean-Martin Charcot
–
Jean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. He is known as the founder of neurology, and his name has been associated with at least 15 medical eponyms, including Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. Charcot has been referred to as the father of French neurology and his work greatly influenced the developing fields of

3.
Charcot demonstrating hypnosis on a " hysterical " Salpêtrière patient, "Blanche" (Blanche Wittmann), who is supported by Dr. Joseph Babiński (rear). Note the similarity to the illustration of opisthotonus (tetanus) on the back wall.

Pierre Janet
–
Pierre Marie Félix Janet was a pioneering French psychologist, philosopher and psychotherapist in the field of dissociation and traumatic memory. He is ranked alongside William James and Wilhelm Wundt as one of the fathers of psychology. Janet studied under Jean-Martin Charcot at the Psychological Laboratory in the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Par

2.
The first edition of Psychopathia Sexualis (1886), by Richard von Krafft-Ebing.

3.
Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing with his wife, Marie Luise.

Freud, Biologist of the Mind

1.
Cover of the first edition

International Standard Book Number

1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital

2.
A. A. Brill
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Abraham Arden Brill was an Austrian-born psychiatrist who spent almost his entire adult life in the United States. He was the first psychoanalyst to practice in the United States, Brill was born in Kańczuga, Austrian Galicia. He arrived in the United States alone and penniless at the age of 15, working continuously to finance his studies, he eventually graduated from New York University in 1901 and obtained his M. D. from Columbia University in 1903. Ernest Jones commented with admiration, He might have called a rough diamond. Brill spent the next 4 years working at Central Islip State Hospital on Long Island, Brill married Dr. K. Rose Owen, with whom he had two children. He died at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York in March 2,1948, after studying with Eugen Bleuler in Zurich, Switzerland, he met Freud, with whom he maintained a correspondence until Freuds death in 1939. He campaigned for recognition of his field, lectured at Columbia University. He maintained a practice as well. In 1911 he founded the New York Psychoanalytic Society and later helped found the American Psychoanalytic Association, the library of the New York Psychoanalytic Institute is named in his honor. Although opposed in principle to Lay analysis - psychoanalysis, during the 1930s he played a key role in finding employment for psychiatric professionals exiled from Nazi Europe. Once sympathetic to homosexuals, he revised his views and wrote in 1940 that even so-called classical inverts are not entirely free from some paranoid traits, E. L. Bernays consulted with Brill on the subject of womens smoking

A. A. Brill
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Abraham A. Brill.

3.
James Strachey
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James Beaumont Strachey was a British psychoanalyst, and, with his wife Alix, a translator of Sigmund Freud into English. He is perhaps best known as the editor of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. He was a son of Lt-Gen Sir Richard Strachey and Lady Strachey, called the enfant miracle as his father was 70, Some of his nieces and nephews, who were considerably older than James, called him Jembeau or Uncle Baby. His parents had thirteen children, of ten lived to adulthood. At Cambridge, Strachey fell deeply in love with the poet Rupert Brooke and he was himself pursued by mountaineer George Mallory—conceding to his sexual advances—by Harry Norton, and by economist John Maynard Keynes, with whom he also had an affair. His love of Brooke was a constant, however, until the death in 1915. On the imposition of conscription in 1916, during World War I. James was assistant editor of The Spectator, and a member of the Bloomsbury Group or Bloomsberries when he became familiar with Alix Sargant Florence and they moved in together in 1919 and married in 1920. Soon afterwards they moved to Vienna, where James began a psychoanalysis with Freud and he would claim to Lytton that his analysis provided a complete undercurrent for life. Freud asked the couple to translate some of his works into English, a. degrees, no medical qualifications. no experience of anything except third-rate journalism. The only thing in my favour was that at the age of thirty I wrote a letter out of the blue to Freud, a year later, I was made a full member. So there I was, launched on the treatment of patients, with no experience, with no supervision and he concluded wryly that the modern curriculum vitae is essential. Whether it is possible for it to become over-institutionalized is an open question, is it worthwhile to leave a loophole for an occasional maverick. If the curriculum vitae had existed forty years ago, you wouldnt have had to listen to these remarks tonight, nevertheless, Freud had decided that the Stracheys should become members of the Society. To be sure their conflicts have not been decided, but we need not wait so long, James Strachey characterised the battle between the two women in his own wryly sensible way, My own view is that Mrs K. has made some highly important contributions. But that it’s absurd to make out that they cover the subject or that their validity is axiomatic. On the other hand, I think it is equally ludicrous for Miss F. to maintain that is a Game Preserve belonging to the F. family, Strachey published three articles in the International Journal of Psychoanalysis between 1930 and 1935. In the first, on Some Unconscious Factors in Reading, he explored the oral ambitions, taking in words, by hearing or reading, both unconsciously meaning eating – something of central significance for reading addictions as well as for neurotic disturbances of reading

4.
Dream interpretation
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Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to dreams. In modern times, various schools of psychology and neurobiology have offered theories about the meaning, most people currently appear to interpret dream content according to the Freudian theory of dreams in countries, as found by a study conducted in the United States, India, and South Korea. People appear to believe dreams are particularly meaningful, they assign more meaning to dreams than to similar waking thoughts, however, people do not attribute equal importance to all dreams. People appear to use motivated reasoning when interpreting their dreams and they are more likely to view dreams confirming their waking beliefs and desires to be more meaningful than dreams that contradict their waking beliefs and desires. One of the earliest written examples of dream interpretation comes from the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh dreamt that an axe fell from the sky. The people gathered around it in admiration and worship, Gilgamesh threw the axe in front of his mother and then he embraced it like a wife. His mother, Ninsun, interpreted the dream and she said that someone powerful would soon appear. Gilgamesh would struggle with him and try to overpower him, eventually they would become close friends and accomplish great things. She added, That you embraced him like a wife means he will never forsake you, while this example shows the tendency to see dreams as mantic, Ninsuns interpretation anticipates a contemporary approach. The axe, phallic and aggressive, symbolizes a male who will start as aggressive, to embrace an axe is to transform aggression into affection and camaraderie. Later, a compendium of omens, the Dream Book or Iškar Zaqīqu was assembled. In ancient Egypt, priests acted as dream interpreters, hieroglyphics depicting dreams and their interpretations are evident. Dreams have been held in considerable importance through history by most cultures, the ancient Greeks constructed temples they called Asclepieions, where sick people were sent to be cured. It was believed that cures would be effected through divine grace by incubating dreams within the confines of the temple, Dreams were also considered prophetic or omens of particular significance. Artemidorus of Daldis, who lived in the 2nd century AD, although Artemidorus believed that dreams can predict the future, he presaged many contemporary approaches to dreams. He thought that the meaning of an image could involve puns. For example, Alexander, while waging war against the Tyrians, Artemidorus reports that this dream was interpreted as follows, satyr = sa tyros, predicting that Alexander would be triumphant. Freud acknowledged this example of Artemidorus when he proposed that dreams be interpreted like a rebus, in medieval Islamic psychology, certain hadiths indicate that dreams consist of three parts, and early Muslim scholars recognized three kinds of dreams, false, patho-genetic, and true

5.
Leipzig
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Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways

Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig

6.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north

Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna

7.
Psychosexual development
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Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. e. The tendency to place objects in the mouth, the id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality, every action is based upon the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the ego is forming during the oral stage, two factors contribute to its formation, in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world. Weaning is the key experience in the oral stage of psychosexual development. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, the style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. If the child obeys the id, and the yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a sense of self, because it was the parents will, and not the childs ego. The third stage of development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the childs genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. In the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex and this psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the stage, a girls decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex. The boy focuses his libido upon his mother, and focuses jealousy, Electra, Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father, thus, moreover, after the phallic stage, the girls psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girls Oedipal conflict to be more intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially. Psychologic defense, In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, in a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. The genital stage affords the person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts, as in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. Hence, the stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex

8.
Unconscious mind
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The unconscious mind consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations. Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior, the term was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes. Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts, the repository of forgotten memories, and it has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a habit, being unaware. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, while sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself. Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious, the term unconscious was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Some rare earlier instances of the term unconsciousness can be found in the work of the 18th-century German physician, the idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine, william Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept, psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind and it plays an important role in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into the mind and the unconscious mind. Later was then divided into the id and the superego. In this theory, the unconscious refers to the processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness, the mind, the preconscious. He believed that significant psychic events take place below the surface in the unconscious mind and he interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression

Unconscious mind
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An iceberg is often (though misleadingly) used to provide a visual representation of Freud's theory that most of the human mind operates unconsciously.

9.
Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it

10.
Id, ego and super-ego
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The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent, the earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the imago, then one feels the dictatorial thou shalt to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freuds work, the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and these different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. Freuds proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term unconscious, the id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a humans basic, instinctual drives. Id is the component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our needs, wants, desires. The id contains the libido, which is the source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. We approach the id with analogies, we call it a chaos, in the id, …contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation, nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time. Developmentally, the id precedes the ego, i. e. the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. The mind of a child is regarded as completely id-ridden, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses. The id knows no judgements of value, no good and evil, instinctual cathexes seeking discharge—that, in our view, is all there is in the id. It is regarded as the reservoir of libido, the instinctive drive to create—the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. For Freud, the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world, Freud considered that the id, the whole person. Originally includes all the instinctual impulses, the destructive instinct as well, as eros or the life instincts. The reality principle that operates the ego is a mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs

Id, ego and super-ego
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"The ego is not sharply separated from the id; its lower portion merges into it.... But the repressed merges into the id as well, and is merely a part of it. The repressed is only cut off sharply from the ego by the resistances of repression; it can communicate with the ego through the id." (Sigmund Freud, 1923)

11.
Libido
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Libido, colloquially known as sex drive, is a persons overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Sex drive is influenced by biological, psychological and social factors, biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act upon the nucleus accumbens regulate libido in humans. Social factors, such as work and family, and internal factors, like personality and stress. Sex drive can also be affected by conditions, medications, lifestyle and relationship issues. A person who has extremely frequent or a suddenly increased sex drive may be experiencing hypersexuality, while the opposite condition is hyposexuality. A person may have a desire for sex, but not have the opportunity to act on that desire, psychologically, a persons urge can be repressed or sublimated. On the other hand, a person can engage in activity without an actual desire for it. Multiple factors affect human sex drive, including stress, illness, pregnancy, Sexual desires are often an important factor in the formation and maintenance of intimate relationships in humans. A lack or loss of desire can adversely affect relationships. Changes in the desires of any partner in a sexual relationship, if sustained and unresolved. The infidelity of a partner may be an indication that a partners changing sexual desires can no longer be satisfied within the current relationship, problems can arise from disparity of sexual desires between partners, or poor communication between partners of sexual needs and preferences. A person is sex starved or sexually frustrated when they have a libido, sigmund Freud defined libido as the energy, regarded as a quantitative magnitude. Of those instincts which have to do all that may be comprised under the word love. It is the energy or force, contained in what Freud called the id. Freud pointed out that these drives can conflict with the conventions of civilised behavior. Excessive use of ego defenses results in neurosis, a primary goal of psychoanalysis is to bring the drives of the id into consciousness, allowing them to be met directly and thus reducing the patients reliance on ego defenses. Freud viewed libido as passing through a series of stages within the individual. According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the libido is identified as psychic energy, defined more narrowly, libido also refers to an individuals urge to engage in sexual activity, and its antonym is the force of destruction termed mortido or destrudo

12.
Defence mechanisms
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A defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct, defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used. In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered as the basis for defence mechanisms. Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life, an ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope, one resource used to evaluate these mechanisms is the Defense Style Questionnaire. The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model, according to this theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle, instant gratification of ones own desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual impulses in humans, such as aggression, for example, when the id impulses conflict with the superego, unsatisfied feelings of anxiousness or feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To reduce these unpleasant feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms, Freud believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated with psychosexual stages. Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality, Id, The id is the reservoir of the libido. It is a selfish, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification, superego, The superego contains internalised societal and parental standards of good and bad, right and wrong behaviour. They include conscious appreciations of rules and regulations as well as those incorporated unconsciously, ego, The ego acts as a moderator between the pleasure sought by the id and the morals of the superego, seeking compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as the sense of time and place. In the ego, there are two ongoing processes, there is no logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process, by contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organised in a coherent way. The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the egos place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. Guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany anxiety, the signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. Defence mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, the list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical consensus on the exact number. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties has been attempted, different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms

Defence mechanisms
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The iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.

13.
Alfred Adler
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Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his psychology Individual Psychology. Adler was the first to emphasize the importance of the element in the re-adjustment process of the individual. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Alfred Adler was born at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim, then a village on the fringes of Vienna, and today part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus. He was third of the seven children of a Hungarian-born, Jewish grain merchant, others contend that he was the second of the children. Alfreds younger brother died in the bed next to him, when Alfred was only three years old, Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old, at the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, Your boy is lost. At that point, he decided to be a physician and he was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at University of Vienna, he specialized as an eye doctor and his clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into organ inferiorities and compensation. In 1902 Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal group that included Rudolf Reitler. The group, the Wednesday Society, met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freuds home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, a long-serving member of the group, Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later. He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freuds circle and this departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which diverged from Freuds. While Adler is often referred to as a pupil of Freuds, in fact this was never true, they were colleagues, in 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freuds, Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adlers group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents and their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freuds ideas on dreams and credited him with creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization

Alfred Adler
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Alfred Adler

14.
Wilfred Bion
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Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theories of projective processes and developed new conceptual tools. Bions ideas are highly unique, so that he remained larger than life to almost all who encountered him and he has been considered by Neville Symington as possibly the greatest psychoanalytic thinker. after Freud. Bion was born in Mathura, North-Western Provinces, India, and he was demobilised on 1 September 1921, and was granted the rank of captain. The full citation for his DSO reads, Awarded the Distinguished Service Order, T. /2nd Lt, Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, Tank Corps. For conspicuous gallantry, and devotion to duty, when in command of his tank in an attack he engaged a large number of enemy machine guns in strong positions, thus assisting the infantry to advance. When his tank was put out of action by a hit he occupied a section of trench with his men and machine guns. He moved about in the open, giving directions to other tanks when they arrived and he also got a captured machine gun into action against the enemy, and when reinforcements arrived he took command of a company of infantry whose commander was killed. He showed magnificent courage and initiative in a most difficult situation, after World War I, Bion studied history at The Queens College, Oxford, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1922, then studying medicine at University College London. This was to prove an important influence on Bions interest in group behavior and it did, however, bring him into fruitful contact with Samuel Beckett. He wanted to train in Psychoanalysis and in 1938 he began an analysis with John Rickman. These ideas on the psychoanalysis of groups were taken up and developed by others such as S. H. Foulkes, Rickman, Bridger, Main. It was less a guide for the therapy of individuals within or by the group, the book quickly became a touchstone work for applications of group theory in a wide variety of fields. During the war Bions wife, Betty Jardine, gave birth to a daughter and his daughter, Parthenope, became a highly regarded psychoanalyst In Italy. She died prematurely, in a car crash in Italy in 1998, as his interest in psychoanalysis increased, he underwent training analysis, between 1946 and 1952, with Melanie Klein. He met his wife, Francesca, at the Tavistock in 1951. He joined a group of Kleins students, who were developing Kleins theory of the paranoid-schizoid. He produced a series of original and influential papers on the analysis of schizophrenia, and the specifically cognitive, perceptual

15.
Josef Breuer
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Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He passed his exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university. Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system, the mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with Anna O. a woman suffering from paralysis of her limbs, Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping and she also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure. Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”, Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped set him up in medical practice. Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method, Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”, the two men became increasingly estranged. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis, another one of his daughters, Margarete Schiff, perished in Theresienstadt on September 9,1942. Breuers granddaughter, Hanna Schiff, died imprisoned by the Nazis. Das Verhalten der Eigenwärme in Krankheiten, die Selbststeuerung der Athmung durch den Nervus vagus. In, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, math. -naturw, bemerkungen zu Senators „Beiträge zur Lehre von der Eigenwärme und dem Fieber“. Über die Function der Bogengänge des Ohrlabyrinthes, beiträge zur Lehre vom statischen Sinne

Josef Breuer
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Josef Breuer

16.
Max Eitingon
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Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperial Russia, the son of a successful fur trader Chaim Eitingon. When he was twelve the family moved to Leipzig, before completing his dissertation, Eitingon worked as an intern at Eugen Bleulers Burghölzli Clinic in Zurich. In 1907 he was sent by Bleuler to meet Freud, and in 1908-9 underwent five weeks of analysis with Freud and he completed his dissertation, Effect of an epileptic attack on mental associations, with Carl Jungs help, and settled in Berlin. In 1913 he married Mirra Jacovleina Raigorodsky, an actress with the Moscow Art Theater, during World War I Eitingon became an Austrian citizen, joining the army as a doctor and using hypnosis to treat soldiers with war trauma. Settling in Berlin after the war, he was invited by Freud to join the secret Psychoanalytic Committee, Eitingon financed the building of a polyclinic, using Freuds son Ernst Freud as architect. Eitingon, Karl Abraham and Ernst Simmel ran the clinic until the rise of Nazism in 1933, at the 1925 Bad Homburg Congress, Eitingon proposed that the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training should be made an international standard under an International Training Commission. Eitingon was appointed president of the ITC, and kept the position until his death in 1943, after the family business suffered in the US Great Depression, Eitingon was forced for the first time to take a patient to earn his living. In 1932 he had a cerebral thrombosis, on Freuds advice, Eitingon left Germany in September 1933 and emigrated to Palestine. In 1934 he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Association in Jerusalem, however, despite Freuds recommendation, he did not manage to gain a chair in psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Eitingon died on 30 July 1943 in Jerusalem, and is buried on Mount Scopus, genie, Talent und Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse 2 539-540. Gott und Vater, Imago 3, 90-93 Ein Fall von Verlesen, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 3, zur psychoanalytischen Bewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 8, 103-106. Report of the Berlin Psychoanalytical Polyclinic, Bulletin of the International Psychoanalytical Association 4,254

17.
Erik Erikson
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Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Eriksons mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen and she was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Eriks biological father except that he was a Danish gentile, on discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt, Germany, where Erik was born on June 15,1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. Following Eriks birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, in 1905 she married Eriks Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homberger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsens name was changed to Erik Homberger, the development of identity seems to have been one of Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent “identity confusion” in his European days. “My identity confusion, ” he wrote was at times on “the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis. ”Erikson’s daughter writes that her father’s “real psychoanalytic identity” was not established until he “replaced his stepfather’s surname with a name of his own invention. ”During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion, at temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic, at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, after graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out. Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos. During this period he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious and he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult, simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and this and his Montessori diploma were to be Eriksons only earned academic credentials for his lifes work. In 1931 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer, during their marriage Erikson converted to Christianity. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of requirements, the family left for the United States. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, while at Yale he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his familys surname from his adoptive fathers name of Homberger to Erikson

Erik Erikson
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Erik Erikson

18.
Anna Freud
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Anna Freud was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She was the 6th and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and she followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Freud as the 99th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Anna Freud was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895 and she was the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She grew up in comfortable bourgeois circumstances and she had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud. It seems that in general, she was competitive with her siblings. The close relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family and she was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899, Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness, Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school, instead she learned from her father and this was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work, commentators have noted how in the dream of little Anna. little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912, suffering from a depression and anorexia, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. In 1914 she passed the test to work as an apprentice at her old school. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as an apprentice for third, fourth. She finally quit her career in 1920, due to multiple episodes of illness. Her first analysis was conducted by her father Sigmund Freud from 1918 to 1922, jacques Van Rillaer describes this incestuous analysis. She presented the paper Beating Fantasies and Daydreams to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, in 1923, Anna Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and it became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany

19.
Erich Fromm
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Erich Seligmann Fromm was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, Erich Fromm was born on March 23,1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his studies in 1918 at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence. During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber, psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers, Fromm received his PhD in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922. During the mid-1920s, he trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmanns psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg and he began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930 he joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training, after the Nazi takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved first to Geneva and then, in 1934, to Columbia University in New York. Together with Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, Fromm belongs to a Neo-Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought, Horney and Fromm each had a marked influence on the others thought, with Horney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for Horney. Their relationship ended in the late 1930s and he was on the faculty of Bennington College from 1941 to 1949, and taught courses at the New School for Social Research in New York from 1941 to 1959. When Fromm moved to Mexico City in 1949, he became a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and he taught at UNAM until his retirement, in 1965, and at the Mexican Society of Psychoanalysis until 1974. In 1974 he moved from Mexico City to Muralto, Switzerland, all the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books. Indeed, Escape from Freedom is viewed as one of the works of political psychology. His second important work, Man for Himself, An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics, first published in 1947, taken together, these books outlined Fromms theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromms theory of human nature. Central to Fromms world view was his interpretation of the Talmud and he began studying Talmud as a young man under Rabbi J. Horowitz and later under Rabbi Salman Baruch Rabinkow, a Chabad Hasid. While working towards his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, Fromm studied the Tanya by the founder of Chabad, Fromm also studied under Nehemia Nobel and Ludwig Krause while studying in Frankfurt. Fromms grandfather and two great grandfathers on his fathers side were rabbis, and an uncle on his mothers side was a noted Talmudic scholar. However, Fromm turned away from orthodox Judaism in 1926, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals, the cornerstone of Fromms humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eves exile from the Garden of Eden. However, Fromm distinguished his concept of love from unreflective popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical love. Fromm also asserted that few people in society had respect for the autonomy of their fellow human beings

Erich Fromm
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Fromm in 1970

20.
Karen Horney
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Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views and this was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freuds theory of penis envy and she disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. As such, she is classified as Neo-Freudian. Karen Horney was born Karen Danielsen on 16 September 1885 in Blankenese, Germany and her father, Berndt Wackels Danielsen, was Norwegian but had German citizenship. He was a captain in the merchant marine, and a Protestant traditionalist. Her mother, Clotilde, née van Ronzelen, known as Sonni, was also Protestant and she was said to be more open-minded than Berndt, and yet she was depressed, irritable, and domineering toward Karen. Karens elder brother was also named Berndt, and Karen cared for him deeply and she also had four elder half-siblings from her fathers previous marriage. However, there was no contact between the children of her father’s two marriages, according to Horneys adolescent diaries her father was a cruel disciplinary figure, who also held his son Berndt in higher regard than Karen. Instead of being offended or feeling indignation over Karens perceptions of him, despite this, Karen always felt deprived of her fathers affection and instead became attached to her mother. From roughly the age of nine Karen became ambitious and somewhat rebellious and she felt that she could not become pretty, and instead decided to vest her energies into her intellectual qualities — despite the fact she was seen by most as pretty. At this time she developed a crush on her older brother and she suffered the first of several bouts of depression — an issue that would plague her for the rest of her life. In 1904, when Karen was 19, her left her father. Against her parents wishes, Horney entered medical school in 1906, the University of Freiburg was in fact one of the first institutions throughout Germany to enroll women in medical courses—with higher education only becoming available to women in Germany in 1900. By 1908, Horney had transferred to the University of Göttingen, attending several universities was common at the time to gain a basic medical education. Through her fellow student Carl Müller-Braunschweig - who later became a psychoanalyst - she met the business student Oskar Horney, the couple moved to Berlin together, where Oskar worked in industry while Karen continued her studies at Charité. Within the space of one year, Karen gave birth to her first child and she entered psychoanalysis to help her cope. Her first analyst was Karl Abraham in 1910, then she moved to Hanns Sachs, Karen and Oskar had three daughters

Karen Horney
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Karen Horney

21.
Ernest Jones
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Alfred Ernest Jones, FRCP, MRCS was a British neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, Jones was the first English-speaking practitioner of psychoanalysis and became its leading exponent in the English-speaking world. Ernest Jones was born in Gowerton, Wales, a village on the outskirts of Swansea. His father was a colliery engineer who went on to establish himself as a successful business man, becoming accountant. His mother, Mary Ann, was from a Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire family which had relocated to Swansea, Jones was educated at Swansea Grammar School, Llandovery College, and Cardiff University in Wales. Jones studied at University College London and meanwhile he obtained the Conjoint diplomas LRCP, a year later, in 1901, he obtained an M. B. degree with honours in medicine and obstetrics. Within five years he received an MD degree and a Membership of the Royal College of Physicians in 1903 and he was particularly pleased to receive the Universitys gold medal in obstetrics from his distinguished fellow-Welshman, Sir John Williams. After obtaining his degrees, Jones specialised in neurology and took a number of posts in London hospitals. It was through his association with the surgeon Wilfred Trotter that Jones first heard of Freuds work, having worked together as surgeons at University College Hospital, he and Trotter became close friends, with Trotter taking the role of mentor and confidant to his younger colleague. They had in common a wide-ranging interest in philosophy and literature, as well as a growing interest in Continental psychiatric literature, by 1905 they were sharing accommodation above Harley Street consulting rooms with Joness sister, Elizabeth, installed as housekeeper. Trotter and Elizabeth Jones later married, appalled by the treatment of the mentally ill in institutions, Jones began experimenting with hypnotic techniques in his clinical work. Jones first encountered Freuds writings directly in 1905, in a German psychiatric journal in which Freud published the famous Dora case-history, Joness early attempts to combine his interest in Freuds ideas with his clinical work with children resulted in adverse effects on his career. In 1906 he was arrested and charged with two counts of indecent assault on two adolescent girls whom he had interviewed in his capacity as an inspector of schools for mentally defective children. At the court hearing Jones maintained his innocence, claiming the girls were fantasising about any inappropriate actions by him, the magistrate concluded that no jury would believe the testimony of such children and Jones was acquitted. In 1908, employed as a pathologist at a London hospital, Jones duly obliged but, before conducting the interview, he omitted to inform the girl’s consultant or arrange for a chaperone. Subsequently, he faced complaints from the parents over the nature of the interview. Joness first serious relationship was with Loe Kann, a wealthy Dutch émigré referred to him in 1906 after she had become addicted to morphine during treatment for a kidney condition. It ended with Kann in analysis with Freud and Jones, at Freuds behest, a tentative romance with Freuds daughter, Anna, did not survive the disapproval of her father

22.
Carl Jung
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Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. His work has been not only in psychiatry but also in anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy. As a notable research scientist based at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen Bleuler, he came to the attention of the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, the two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated on an initially joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw in the man the potential heir he had been seeking to carry on his new science of psychoanalysis. Jungs researches and personal vision, however, made it impossible for him to bend to his older colleagues dogma and this break was to have historic as well as painful personal repercussions that have lasted to this day. Jung was also an artist, craftsman and builder as well as a prolific writer, many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the out of each individuals conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the unconscious, the psychological complex. Carl Gustav Jung was born in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on 26 July 1875 as the second and first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung and their first child, born in 1873 was a boy named Paul who survived only a few days. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk, and his second wife. Preiswerk was antistes, the given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author and editor. When Jung was six months old, his father was appointed to a prosperous parish in Laufen. Emilie Jung was an eccentric and depressed woman, she spent considerable time in her bedroom where she said that spirits visited her at night, although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck. Jung had a relationship with his father. Jungs mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for a physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jungs unmarried sister in Basel, Emilie Jungs continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her sons attitude towards women — one of innate unreliability

23.
Melanie Klein
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Melanie Reizes Klein was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst who devised novel therapeutic techniques for children that influenced child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was an innovator in object relations theory. Born in Vienna of Jewish heritage, Klein first sought psychoanalysis for herself from Sándor Ferenczi when she was living in Budapest during World War I, there she became a psychoanalyst and began analysing children in 1919. Allegedly two of the first children she analysed were her son and daughter, in 1921 she moved to Berlin, where she studied with and was analysed by Karl Abraham. Although Abraham supported her work with children, neither Klein nor her ideas received much support in Berlin. However, impressed by her work, British psychoanalyst Ernest Jones invited Klein to come to London in 1926. Klein had a influence on the theory and technique of psychoanalysis. As a divorced woman whose academic qualifications did not even include a bachelors degree, after the arrival of Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalyst daughter, Anna Freud, in London in 1938, Klein’s ideas came into conflict with those of Continental analysts who were migrating to Britain. This division remains to the current time, apart from her professional successes, Klein’s life had a number of tragic events. She was youngest of four children and her much loved elder sister died at the age of eight, when Klein was four, and she was made to feel responsible for her brother’s death. Her academic studies were interrupted by marriage and children and her daughters analyst at the time, Edward Glover, openly challenged Klein in the British Society meetings. Mother and daughter were not reconciled before Kleins death, and Schmideberg did not attend Kleins funeral and she was an atheist, but she never forgot her Jewish roots. Although Klein questioned some of the assumptions of Sigmund Freud. Klein was the first person to use traditional psychoanalysis with young children and she was innovative in both her techniques and her theories on infant development. Strongly opinionated, and demanding loyalty from her followers, Klein established an influential training program in psychoanalysis. She is considered one of the co-founders of object relations theory, in psychological terms, Eros, the postulated sustaining and uniting principle of life, is thereby presumed to have a companion force, Thanatos, which seeks to terminate and disintegrate life. Both Freud and Klein regarded these forces as the foundations of the psyche. These primary unconscious forces, whose matrix is the id

24.
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses

Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Lacan

25.
Ronald Laing
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Ronald David Laing, usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness – in particular, the experience of psychosis. Laing was associated with the movement, although he rejected the label. Politically, he was regarded as a thinker of the New Left, Laing was born in the Govanhill district of Glasgow on 7 October 1927, the only child of David Park MacNair Laing and Amelia Glen Laing. Laing described his parents – his mother especially – as being somewhat odd and he was educated initially at Sir John Neilson Cuthbertson Public School and after four years transferred to Hutchesons Grammar School. Described variously as clever, competitive or precocious, he studied mainly Classics, particularly philosophy and he was also a musician, being made an Associate of the Royal College of Music. He chose to go on to study medicine at the University of Glasgow, during his medical degree he set up a Socratic Club, of which the philosopher Bertrand Russell agreed to be President. Laing failed his final exams on his first attempt, in 1950, in 1953 Laing left the Army and worked at the Glasgow Royal Mental Hospital, becoming the youngest consultant in the country. During this period Laing also participated in a discussion group in Glasgow, organised by Karl Abenheimer. In 1956 Laing went on to train on a grant at the Tavistock Institute in London, widely known as a centre for the study, at this time, he was associated with John Bowlby, D. W. Winnicott and Charles Rycroft. He remained at the Tavistock Institute until 1964, in 1965 Laing and a group of colleagues created the Philadelphia Association and started a psychiatric community project at Kingsley Hall, where patients and therapists lived together. The Norwegian author Axel Jensen contacted Laing at Kingsley Hall after reading his book The Divided Self, Jensen was treated by Laing and subsequently they became close friends. Laing often visited Jensen onboard his ship Shanti Devi, which was his home in Stockholm, in October 1972, Laing met Arthur Janov, author of the popular book The Primal Scream. Though Laing found Janov modest and unassuming, he thought of him as a jig man, Laing sympathized with Janov, but regarded his primal therapy as a lucrative business, one which required no more than obtaining a suitable space and letting people hang it all out. Many former colleagues regarded him as a brilliant mind gone wrong, Laing was seen as an important figure in the anti-psychiatry movement, along with David Cooper, although he never denied the value of treating mental distress. Hence, according to Laing, psychiatry was founded on an epistemology, illness diagnosed by conduct. His attitude to recreational drugs was quite different, privately, he advocated an anarchy of experience and his mother Amelia, according to some speculation and rumour about her behaviour, has been described as psychologically peculiar. These admissions were to have consequences for Laing as they formed part of the case against him by the General Medical Council which led to him ceasing to practise medicine. He died at age 61 of an attack while playing tennis with his colleague

26.
Otto Rank
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Otto Rank was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. In 1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris, for the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the United States. Rank thus became the first paid member of the psychoanalytic movement, Freud considered Rank, with whom he was more intimate intellectually than his own sons, to be the most brilliant of his Viennese disciples. Encouraged and supported by Freud, Rank, completed the Gymnasium or college-preparatory high school, attended the University of Vienna and his thesis, on the Lohengrin Saga, was published as a book in 1911, the first Freudian doctoral dissertation to be published as a book. Rank was one of Freuds six collaborators brought together in a committee or ring to defend the psychoanalytic mainstream as disputes with Adler. Rank was the most prolific author in the ring besides Freud himself, extending psychoanalytic theory to the study of legend, myth, art and he worked closely with Freud, contributing two chapters on myth and legend to later editions of The Interpretation of Dreams. Ranks name appeared underneath Freuds on the page of Freuds greatest work from 1914 until 1930. Between 1915 and 1918, Rank served as Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association which Freud had founded in 1910, everyone in the small psychoanalytic world understood how much Freud respected Rank and his prolific creativity in expanding psychoanalytic theory. Freud announced to the circle, full of jealous rivals. But there was no such phase in Freud’s theories, the Oedipus complex, Freud explained, was the nucleus of the neurosis and the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy – indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time anyone in the inner circle had dared to suggest that the Oedipus complex might not be the supreme causal factor in psychoanalysis. Rank was the first to use the term “pre-Oedipal” in a public forum in 1925. In a 1930 self-analysis of his own writings, Rank observes that the pre-Oedipal super-ego has since been overemphasized by Melanie Klein, without any reference to me. After some hesitation, Freud distanced himself from The Trauma of Birth, I am boiling with rage, Freud told Sándor Ferenczi then Ranks best friend. The characteristic of that time, remembers Sándor Radó, who was in analysis with Karl Abraham from 1922 to 1925, was a neglect of a human emotional life. Adds Rado, Everybody was looking for oral, pregenital, All emotional experience by human beings was being reduced by analysis to a derivative, no matter how disguised, of libido. For Freud, emotion was always sexual, derived from a dangerous Id that must be uprooted, Where Id was, Freud said famously. “Libido, ” according to Freud’s 1921 work on Group Psychology, increases in emotion, according to Freud, are unpleasurable

27.
Wilhelm Reich
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Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of analysts after Sigmund Freud. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals, he coined the phrase the sexual revolution, during the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of The Mass Psychology of Fascism at police. After graduating in medicine from the University of Vienna in 1922, Reich became deputy director of Freuds outpatient clinic and he said he wanted to attack the neurosis by its prevention rather than treatment. From the 1930s he became a controversial figure, and from 1932 until his death in 1957 all his work was self-published. In 1940 he started building orgone accumulators, devices that his patients sat inside to harness the reputed health benefits, leading to newspaper stories about sex boxes that cured cancer. Charged with contempt in 1956 for having violated the injunction, Reich was sentenced to two years imprisonment, and that summer over six tons of his publications were burned by order of the court. He died in prison of heart failure just over a year later, Reich was born the first of two sons to Leon Reich, a farmer, and his wife Cäcilie in Dobzau, Galicia, then part of Austria-Hungary, now in Ukraine. There was a sister too, born one year after Reich, shortly after his birth the family moved to Jujinetz, a village in Bukovina, where his father ran a cattle farm leased by his mothers uncle, Josef Blum. His father was by all accounts a cold and jealous man, both parents were Jewish, but decided against raising the boys as Jews. Reich and his brother, Robert, were brought up to speak only German, were punished for using Yiddish expressions, as an adult Reich wrote extensively, in his diary, about his sexual precocity. He wrote of visits to brothels, the first when he was 15. He also developed sexual fantasies about his mother, writing when he was 22 that he masturbated while thinking about her, Reich was taught at home until he was 12, when his mother was discovered having an affair with his live-in tutor. Reich wrote about the affair in 1920 in his first published paper, Über einen Fall von Durchbruch der Inzestschranke, presented in the third person as though about a patient. He wrote that he would follow his mother when she went to the bedroom at night, feeling ashamed and jealous. He briefly thought of forcing her to have sex with him, in the end, he did tell his father, and after a protracted period of beatings, his mother committed suicide in 1910, for which Reich blamed himself. With the tutor ordered out of the house, Reich was sent to a gymnasium in Czernowitz. It was during this period that a skin condition appeared, diagnosed as psoriasis and he visited brothels every day and wrote in his diary of his disgust for the women. His father died of tuberculosis in 1914, and because of rampant inflation the fathers insurance was worthless, Reich managed the farm and continued with his studies, graduating in 1915 with Stimmeneinhelligkeit

Wilhelm Reich
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Reich in his mid-20s
Wilhelm Reich
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Reich in 1900.
Wilhelm Reich
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Staff of the Vienna Ambulatorium, 1922. Eduard Hitschmann is seated fourth from the left, Reich fifth, and Annie Reich first on the right.
Wilhelm Reich
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Reich lived for a time on Berggasse in Vienna (seen here in 2010), where Freud lived at number 19

28.
Sabina Spielrein
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Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein was a Russian physician and one of the first female psychoanalysts. She also met, corresponded, and had a relationship with Sigmund Freud. One of her more famous analysands was the Swiss developmental psychologist and she worked as a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, teacher and paediatrician in Switzerland and Russia. In a thirty-year professional career, she published over 35 papers in three languages, covering psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, psycholinguistics and educational psychology. Her best known and perhaps most influential published work in the field of psychoanalysis is the essay titled Destruction as the Cause of Coming Into Being and she was born in 1885 into a wealthy Jewish family in Rostov-on-Don, Russian Empire. Her mother Eva Lublinskaya was the daughter and granddaughter of rabbis from Yekaterinoslav, Eva trained as a dentist, but did not practise. Sabinas father Nikolai Spielrein was an agronomist, after moving from Warsaw to Rostov, he became a successful merchant. On her birth certificate, Sabina appeared as Sheyve Naftulovna, but throughout her life and she was the eldest of five children. All three of her brothers later became eminent scientists, one of them, Isaac Spielrein, was a Soviet psychologist, a pioneer of work psychology. From her early childhood, Sabina was highly imaginative and believed that she had a calling to achieve greatness. However, her parents marriage was turbulent and she experienced physical violence from both of them and she suffered from multiple somatic symptoms and obsessions. Some commentators believe she may have sexually abused by someone in the family. She attended a Froebel school followed by the Yekaterinskaya Gymnasium in Rostov and she learned to speak three languages fluently. During her teens, she continued to be troubled emotionally and became infatuated first with her history teacher, while at school, she resolved to go abroad to train as a doctor, with the approval of her rabbinic grandfather. At the end of her schooling she was awarded a gold medal, after an unsuccessful stay in a Swiss sanatorium, where she developed another infatuation with one of the doctors, she was admitted to the Burghölzli mental hospital near Zurich in August 1904. Its director was Eugen Bleuler, who ran it as a community with social activities for the patients including gardening, drama. One of Bleulers assistants was Carl Jung, afterwards appointed as deputy director, in the days following her admission, Spielrein disclosed to Jung that her father had often beaten her, and that she was troubled by masochistic fantasies of being beaten. Bleuler ensured that she was separated from her family, later requiring her father and she made a rapid recovery, and by October was able to apply for medical school and to start assisting Jung with word association tests in his laboratory

Sabina Spielrein
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Memorial plaque at former residence of Sabina Spielrein in Berlin, Germany
Sabina Spielrein
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Memorial plaque on the house where Sabina Spielrein lived at 83 Pushkin St, Rostov-on-Don. The sign says: "In this house lived the famous student of C. G. Jung and S. Freud, psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein (1885-1942)"

29.
Susan Sutherland Isaacs
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Susan Sutherland Isaacs, CBE was a Lancashire-born educational psychologist and psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of children, for Isaacs, the best way for children to learn was by developing their independence. She believed that the most effective way to achieve this was through play, Isaacs was born in 1885 in Turton, Lancashire, the daughter of William Fairhurst, a journalist and Methodist lay preacher, and his wife, Miriam Sutherland. Isaacs mother died when she was six years old, shortly afterwards she became alienated from her father after he married the nurse who had attended her mother during her illness. Aged 15, she was removed from Bolton Secondary School by her father because she had converted to atheistic socialism and she stayed at home with her stepmother until she was 22. She was first apprenticed to a photographer and then she began her career as a governess for an English family. In 1907, Isaacs enrolled to train as a teacher of children at the University of Manchester. Isaacs then transferred to a course and graduated in 1912 with a first class degree in Philosophy. She was awarded a scholarship at the Psychological Laboratory in Newnham College, Cambridge, Isaacs also trained and practised as a psychoanalyst after analysis by the psychoanalyst John Carl Flugel. She became a member of the newly formed British Psychoanalytical Society in 1921. She began her own practice that same year, Isaacs also helped popularise the works of Klein, as well as the theories of Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud. Between 1924 and 1927, she was the head of Malting House School in Cambridge, the school fostered the individual development of children. Children were given freedom and were supported rather than punished. The teachers were seen as observers of the children who were seen as research workers and her work had a great influence on early education and made play a central part of a childs education. Isaacs strongly believed that play was the childs work, between 1929 and 1940, she was an agony aunt under the pseudonym of Ursula Wise, replying to readers problems in several child care journals, notably The Nursery World and Home and School. Her department had a influence on the teaching profession and encouraged the profession to consider psychodynamic theory with developmental psychology. Isaacs argued that it is important to develop skills to think clearly. Developing a childs independence is beneficial to their development as an individual, parents were viewed as the main educators of their children with institutionalised care for children before the age 7 being potential damaging

Susan Sutherland Isaacs
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Susan Isaacs, 1910s

30.
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
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Psychopathology of Everyday Life is a 1901 work by Sigmund Freud, based on Freuds researches into slips and parapraxes from 1897 onwards. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life became perhaps the best-known of all Freuds writings, the Psychopathology was originally published in the Monograph for Psychiatry and Neurology in 1901, before appearing in book form in 1904. It would receive twelve foreign translations during Freuds lifetime, as well as numerous new German editions, however, in such a popular and theory-light text, the sheer wealth of examples helped make Freuds point for him in an accessible way. A new English-language translation by Anthea Bell was published in 2003, among the most overtly autobiographical of Freuds works, the Psychopathology was strongly linked by Freud to his relationship with Wilhelm Fliess. Freud writes in his introduction, During the year 1898 I published an essay on the Psychic Mechanism of Forgetfulness. I shall now repeat its contents and take it as a starting-point for further discussion and he might give plausible reasons for this forgetting preference for proper names, but he would not assume any deep determinant for the process. Explaining wrong actions with the help of psychoanalysis, just as the interpretation of dreams, can be used for diagnosis. Considering the numerous cases of such deviations, he concludes that the boundary between the normal and abnormal human psyche is unstable and that we are all a bit neurotic, such symptoms are able to disrupt eating, sexual relations, regular work, and communication with others. Freuds conclusion is that, The unconscious, at all events and this state of affairs cannot be elucidated by any comparison from any other sphere. By virtue of this theory every former state of the content may thus be restored. Sometimes called the Mistake Book, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life became one of the classics of the 20th century. Freud realised he was becoming a celebrity when he found his cabin-steward reading the Mistake Book on his 1909 visit to the States, the Rat Man came to Freud for analysis as a result of reading the Psychopathology of Everyday Life. Through its stress on what Freud called switch words and verbal bridges, french author Michel Onfray argues that The Psychopathology of Everyday Life is not scientific. Jacques Bénesteau writes that Freud added lies in each edition, Sigmund Freud, Richard Wollheim, Publisher, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-28385-4 Sebastiano Timpanaro, The Freudian Slip Full text in archive. org

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
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The German edition

31.
Beyond the Pleasure Principle
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Beyond the Pleasure Principle is a 1920 essay by Sigmund Freud that marks a major turning point in his theoretical approach. Previously, Freud attributed most human behavior to the sexual instinct, with this essay, Freud went beyond the simple pleasure principle, developing his theory of drives with the addition of the death drive. In sections IV and V, Freud posits that the process of creating living cells binds energy and it is the pressure of matter to return to its original state which gives cells their quality of living. The process is analogous to the creation and exhaustion of a battery and this pressure for molecular diffusion can be called a death-wish. The compulsion of the matter in cells to return to a diffuse, thus, the psychological death-wish is a manifestation of an underlying physical compulsion present in every cell. Freud also stated the differences, as he saw them. Beyond the Pleasure Principle is a difficult text, as Ernest Jones, one of Freuds closest associates and a member of his Inner Ring, put it, the train of thought by no means easy to follow. And Freuds views on the subject have often been considerably misinterpreted, what have been called the two distinct frescoes or canti of Beyond the Pleasure Principle break between sections III and IV. If, as Otto Fenichel remarked, Freuds new classification has two bases, one speculative, and one clinical, thus far the clinical, Freud begins with a commonplace then unchallenged in psychoanalytic theory, The course of mental events is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle. A strong tendency toward the pleasure principle, does not seem to necessitate any far-reaching limitation of the pleasure principle. Freud proceeds to look for evidence, for the existence of hitherto unsuspected forces beyond the pleasure principle and he found exceptions to the universal power of the pleasure principle—situations. With which the pleasure principle cannot cope adequately—in four main areas, childrens games, as exemplified in his grandsons famous fort-da game, from these cases, Freud inferred the existence of motivations beyond the pleasure principle. Remembering it as something belonging to the past, a compulsion to repeat, Freud still wanted to examine the relationship between repetition compulsion and the pleasure principle. Although compulsive behaviors evidently satisfied some sort of drive, they were a source of direct unpleasure, somehow, no lesson has been learnt from the old experience of these activities having led only to unpleasure. In spite of that, they are repeated, under pressure of a compulsion, asserting that the first task of the mind is to bind excitations to prevent trauma, he reiterates the clinical fact that for a person in analysis. The compulsion to repeat the events of his childhood in the transference evidently disregards the pleasure principle in every way, Freud begins to look for analogies repetition compulsion in the essentially conservative. The lower we go in the scale the more stereotyped does instinctual behavior appear. He thus found his way to his concept of the death instinct

Beyond the Pleasure Principle
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Beyond the Pleasure Principle

32.
The Ego and the Id
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The Ego and the Id is a prominent paper by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. It is a study of the human psyche outlining his theories of the psychodynamics of the id, ego and super-ego. The study was conducted over years of research and was first published in 1923. The Ego and the Id develops a line of reasoning as a groundwork for explaining various psychological conditions, pathological and non-pathological alike. These conditions result from powerful internal tensions—for example, 1) between the ego and the id, 2) between the ego and the ego, and 3) between the love-instinct and the death-instinct. The book deals primarily with the ego and the effects these tensions have on it, the ego—caught between the id and the super-ego—finds itself simultaneously engaged in conflict by repressed thoughts in the id and relegated to an inferior position by the super-ego. And at the time, the interplay between the love instinct and the death instinct can manifest itself at any level of the psyche. The outline below is an exegesis of Freuds arguments, explaining the formation of the aforementioned tensions, all concepts in The Ego and the Id are built upon the presupposed existence of conscious and unconscious thoughts. On the first line, Freud states, there is nothing new to be said, the division of mental life into what is conscious and what is unconscious is the fundamental premise on which psycho-analysis is based. It would be simple to assume that the unconscious and the conscious map directly onto the id. Freud argues that the supposedly conscious ego can be shown to possess unconscious thoughts when it unknowingly resists parts of itself. Thus, a kind of unconscious thought seems to be necessary, a process that is neither repressed nor latent, but which is nonetheless an integral part of the ego. A new framework is required, one that further examines the status of the ego, before defining the ego explicitly, Freud argues for a manner in which unconscious thoughts can be made conscious. The difference, then, is a connection to words The goal of psychoanalysis and he goes on to note that the ego is essentially a system of perception, so it must be closely related to the preconscious. Thus, two components of ego are a system of perception and a set of unconscious ideas. Its relationship to the id, therefore, is a close one. The ego merges into the id and he compares the dynamic to that of a rider and a horse. The ego must control the id, like the rider, but at times, likewise, the ego must, at times, conform to the desires of the id

The Ego and the Id
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The Ego and the Id

33.
International Psychoanalytical Association
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The International Psychoanalytical Association is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, on an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi, in 1902 Sigmund Freud started to meet every week with colleagues to discuss his work, and so the Psychological Wednesday Society was born. By 1908 there were 14 regular members and some guests including Max Eitingon, Carl Jung, Karl Abraham, Society became the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society. In 1907 Jones suggested to Jung that a meeting should be arranged. The meeting took place in Salzburg on April 27,1908, Jung named it the First Congress for Freudian Psychology. It is later reckoned to be the first International Psychoanalytical Congress, even so, the IPA had not yet been founded. The IPA was established at the next Congress held at Nuremberg in March of 1910 and its first President was Carl Jung, and its first Secretary was Otto Rank. Sigmund Freud considered an organization to be essential to advance his ideas. In 1914 Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement, the IPA is the world’s primary accrediting and regulatory body for psychoanalysis. The IPAs aims include creating new psychoanalytic groups, stimulating debate, conducting research, developing training policies and it organizes a large biennial Congress. Its administrative offices are at The Lexicon in Central London, Latin America—Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies of Latin America, North America—North American Psychoanalytic Confederation, which also includes Japan and Korea. Each of these three bodies consists of Constituent Organisations and Study Groups that are part of that IPA region, the IPA has a close working relationship with each of these independent organisations and values them highly, but they are not officially or legally part of the IPA. The IPAs members qualify for membership by being a member of a constituent organisation, Study Groups are bodies of analysts which have not yet developed sufficiently to be a freestanding society, but that is their aim. Erich Fromm questioned this organization and finds that the association is organized according to standards rather dictatorial. Elisabeth Roudinesco notes that IPA professionalizing psychoanalysis has become a machine to manufacture significant and she also notes that in France, Lacanian colleagues looked IPA as bureaucrats who had betrayed psychoanalysis in favor of an adaptive psychology in the service of triumphant capitalism. She speaks of the IPA Legitimist Freudianism, we mistakenly called orthodox, among Roudinescos other criticisms, she talks about homophobia in the IPA, considered as a disgrace of psychoanalysis. It should be noted that one of the three training models in the IPA, is due to Lacans ideas and their perspectives regarding the training. Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research International Psychoanalytical Association

International Psychoanalytical Association
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The symbol of the International Psychoanalytical Association is a picture of Oedipus and the Sphinx, with the organisation's name shown in Trajan typeface.

34.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

35.
Oedipus complex
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In psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex is a childs desire, that the mind keeps in the unconscious via dynamic repression, to have sexual relations with the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex originally refers to the desire of a son for his mother. A childs identification with the parent is the successful resolution of the complex. Men and women who are fixated in the Oedipal and Electra stages of their psychosexual development might be considered mother-fixated and father-fixated, in adult life, this can lead to a choice of a sexual partner who resembles ones parent. Oedipus refers to a 5th-century BC Greek mythological character Oedipus, who kills his father, Laius. A play based on the myth, Oedipus Rex, was written by Sophocles, modern productions of Sophocles play were staged in Paris and Vienna in the 19th century and were phenomenally successful in the 1880s and 1890s. The Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud, attended. ”Freud described the character Oedipus, A six-stage chronology of Sigmund Freuds theoretic evolution of the Oedipus complex is, Stage 1. After his fathers death in 1896, and having seen the play Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles, as Freud wrote in a 1897 letter, I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be an event in early childhood. Proposes that Oedipal desire is the complex of all neuroses. Complete Oedipus complex, identification and bisexuality are conceptually evident in later works, applies the Oedipal theory to religion and custom. Investigates the feminine Oedipus attitude and negative Oedipus complex, later the Electra complex, in the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex—his son–father competition for possession of mother. The boy directs his libido upon his mother, and directs jealousy, psycho-logic defense—In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the id and the drives of the ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, the second defense mechanism is identification, in which the boy or girl child adapts by incorporating, to his or her ego, the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent. As a result of this, the boy diminishes his castration anxiety, in the case of the girl, this facilitates identifying with mother, who understands that, in being females, neither of them possesses a penis, and thus are not antagonists. Therefore, the satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Oedipus complex are most important in developing the male infantile super-ego. This is because, by identifying with a parent, the boy internalizes Morality, thereby, he chooses to comply with societal rules, rather than reflexively complying in fear of punishment. Moreover, his admitting to wanting to procreate with mother was considered proof of the sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent

36.
Wilhelm Stekel
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Wilhelm Stekel was an Austrian physician and psychologist, who became one of Sigmund Freuds earliest followers, and was once described as Freuds most distinguished pupil. He later had a falling-out with Freud, who announced in November 1912 that Stekel is going his own way and his works are translated and published in many languages. Born in Boiany, Bukovina, he wrote a book called Auto-erotism, A Psychiatric Study of Onanism and Neurosis and he is also credited with coining the term paraphilia to replace perversion. He analysed, among others, the psychoanalysts Otto Gross and A. S. Neill, as well as Freuds first biographer and his autobiography was published in 1950. since taught me to form a truer estimate of the extent and importance of symbolism in dreams. Considering obsessional doubts, Stekel said, In anxiety the libido is transformed into organic and somatic symptoms, in doubt, the more intellectual someone is, the greater will be the doubt component of the transformed forces. Doubt becomes pleasure sublimated as intellectual achievement, Stekel wrote one of a set of three early Psychoanalytic studies of psychical impotence referred to approvingly by Freud, Freud had written a preface to Stekels book. Related to this may be Stekels elaboration of the idea that everyone, Freud credited Stekel as a potential forerunner when pondering the possibility that in the order of development hate is the precursor of love. This is perhaps the meaning of an assertion by Stekel, which at the time I found incomprehensible, to the effect that hate and not love is the primary emotional relation between men. The same work is credited by Otto Fenichel as establishing the symbolic significance of right and left. right meaning correct, when a lover satisfies himself with the possession of a womans shoe and considers the woman herself as secondary or even disturbing and superfluous. Stekel also deals differently than Freud with the problem of perversion, a lot of perversions are defense mechanisms of the moral “self”, they represent hidden forms of asceticism. To Freud, the primal sexual venting meant health, while neuroses were created because of repressing sexual drives and this type is created in the conditions of sexual licentiousness while being opposed to doing it at the same time. In the latter instance, Stekel holds that fetichism is the patients unconscious religion, complaining of Freuds tendency to indiscretion, Ernest Jones wrote that he had told him the nature of Stekels sexual perversion, which he should not have and which I have never repeated to anyone. On sado-masochism, Stekel has described the essence of the act to be humiliation. Stekel was also an innovator in technique. devis a form of short-term therapy called active analysis which has much in common with some form of counselling. Stekel maintained that in every child there slumbered a creative artist, Stekel committed suicide in London by taking an overdose of Aspirin to end the pain of his prostate and the diabetic gangrene. He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 29 June 1940 and his ashes lie in section 3-V of the Garden of Remembrance but there is no memorial. He was married twice and left two children, Stekels autobiography was published posthumously, edited by his former personal assistant Emil Gutheil and his wife Hilda Binder Stekel. A biographical account appeared in The Self-Marginalization of Wilhem Stekel by Jaap Bos and Leendert Groenendijk, a quote misattributed to Stekel is referenced in The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger

Wilhelm Stekel
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Wilhelm Stekel

37.
Grinzing
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Grinzing was an independent municipality until 1892 and is today a part of Döbling, the 19th district of Vienna. Grinzing lies in the northwest of Vienna and, with an area of 613.52 hectares, is the largest suburb in the district of Döbling. The border then runs along the Hungerbergstraße to mark the boundary to Unterdöbling, before following the course of the Kaasgraben, finally, the border turns northwestward and continues via the Himmelstraße and the Spießweg to the edge of the city of Vienna, which separates Grinzing from Weidling. Grinzing is characterised by numerous forested ridges of the Wienerwald, Hermannskogel, the tallest hill in Vienna, lies on the border to Lower Austria. There are also other well-known hills, including the Reisenberg, Latisberg, Vogelsangberg, Hungerberg, Grinzing’s woods are home to several streams, including the Schreiberbach, which runs untouched through the Wildgrube almost as far as Nußdorf. The Reisenbergbach begins to the west of the Reisenberg and makes its way through Grinzing, the headwaters of the Arbesbach also lie in the west of Grinzing. A further notable characteristic of the area are its grapevines, especially on the Reisenberg and Hungerberg hills, the name Grinzing means of the people who belong to a man named Grinzo. Many German words ending in ing are indicators of membership to a Sippe, a version of the name Grinzing first appears in 1114, when it was called Grinzigan. The village of Grinzing came into the possession of the noble house Grunzinger in the 11th century, the Grunzinger built the Trummelhof, the remains of which can still be seen in the house at number 30 in the Cobenzlgasse. This former manor was supposedly named because it was built on top of Roman ruins. The village was inhabited primarily by vintners and day labourers, who served land-owning monasteries, in the 14th century, the last of the Grunzinger, Rüdiger von Gründsing, died, and in 1350 he was buried in the Minoritenkirche in Vienna. Thereafter, Grinzing fell within the jurisdiction of the Klosterneuburg Monastery, the church Zum heiligen Kreuz was erected in 1426. Grinzing suffered greatly in the following the Middle Ages. In 1484, Matthias Corvinus laid waste to the village, while in 1529 the Ottoman Turks inflicted heavy damage, in 1604, a major fire destroyed sections of the village and in 1683 the Turks once again ruined the newly reconstructed houses. Grinzing nonetheless developed better than its neighbours, in 1713, there were 70 houses, but the plague hit the village hard. More than half of houses were infected, and 129 people died. This seriously stunted the village’s growth, in 1783, the church in Grinzing was elevated to the status of a parish church, it was financed through the dissolution of several religious orders in the area by Joseph II. However, the pace of development in the village remained slow in the following decades, in 1795, there were 83 houses

Grinzing
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Latisberg hill, seen from Cobenzl.
Grinzing
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Grinzing
Grinzing
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The parish church in Grinzing
Grinzing
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Grinzing, to the north, around 1900

38.
Wilhelm Fliess
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Wilhelm Fliess was a German Jewish otolaryngologist who practised in Berlin. He developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection that have not been accepted by modern scientists. He is today best remembered for his personal friendship and theoretical collaboration with Sigmund Freud. Fliess developed several theories, such as vital periodicity, forerunner of the popular concepts of biorhythms. His work never found favor, though some of his thinking – such as the idea of innate bisexuality– was incorporated into Freuds theories. Fliess believed men and women went through mathematically fixed sexual cycles of 23 and 28 days, another of Fliesss ideas was the theory of nasal reflex neurosis. This became widely known following the publication of his controversial book Neue Beitrage und Therapie der nasaelen Reflexneurose in Vienna in 1892, on Josef Breuers suggestion, Fliess attended several conferences with Sigmund Freud beginning in 1887 in Vienna, and the two soon formed a strong friendship. Through their extensive correspondence and the series of meetings, Fliess came to play an important part in the development of psychoanalysis. Together, Fliess and Freud developed a Project for a Scientific Psychology, Fliess wrote about his biorythmic theories in Der Ablauf des Lebens. Eckstein haemorrhaged profusely in the following the procedure, almost to the point of death as infection set in. Freud consulted with another surgeon, who removed a piece of surgical gauze that Fliess had left behind, eckstein was left permanently disfigured, with the left side of her face caved in. Despite this, she remained on good terms with Freud for many years. Fliess also remained friends with Freud. He even predicted Freuds death would be around the age of 51, Freud died at 83 years of age. Freud ordered that his correspondence with Fliess be destroyed and it is only known today because Marie Bonaparte purchased Freuds letters to Fliess and refused to permit their destruction. His son Robert Fliess was also a psychoanalyst and a writer in that field. He devised the phrase ambulatory psychosis, jeffrey Masson claimed that Fliess sexually molested his son Robert and that this caused Fliess to undermine Freuds investigation of the seduction theory because of its implications for his life. His niece Beate Hermelin was an experimental psychologist, who worked in the UK, medical science has given a highly negative verdict to Fliess theories

Wilhelm Fliess
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Fliess (right) and Sigmund Freud in the early 1890s.

39.
Dream
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A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. Dream interpretation is the attempt at drawing meaning from dreams and searching for an underlying message, the scientific study of dreams is called oneirology. Dreams mainly occur in the rapid-eye movement stage of brain activity is high. REM sleep is revealed by continuous movements of the eyes during sleep, at times, dreams may occur during other stages of sleep. However, these tend to be much less vivid or memorable. The length of a dream can vary, they may last for a few seconds, people are more likely to remember the dream if they are awakened during the REM phase. The average person has three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven, however, Dreams tend to last longer as the night progresses. During a full eight-hour night sleep, most dreams occur in the two hours of REM. Opinions about the meaning of dreams have varied and shifted through time, most people today appear to endorse the Freudian theory of dreams – that dreams reveal insight into hidden desires and emotions. Other prominent theories include those suggesting that dreams assist in memory formation, problem solving, the earliest recorded dreams were acquired from materials dating back approximately 5000 years, in Mesopotamia, where they were documented on clay tablets. In the Greek and Roman periods, the believed that dreams were direct messages from one and/or multiple deities, from deceased persons. Some cultures practiced dream incubation with the intention of cultivating dreams that are of prophecy, Sigmund Freud, who developed the psychological discipline of psychoanalysis, wrote extensively about dream theories and their interpretations in the early 1900s. He explained dreams as manifestations of ones deepest desires and anxieties, furthermore, he believed that virtually every dream topic, regardless of its content, represented the release of sexual tension. In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud developed a technique to interpret dreams and devised a series of guidelines to understand the symbols. In modern times, dreams have been seen as a connection to the unconscious mind and they range from normal and ordinary to overly surreal and bizarre. Dreams can have varying natures, such as being frightening, exciting, magical, melancholic, adventurous, the events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware. Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur to the person or give a sense of inspiration, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia left evidence of dreams dating back to 3100 BC. According to these early recorded stories, gods and kings, like the 7th century BC scholar-king Assurbanipal, in his archive of clay tablets, some accounts of the story of the legendary king Gilgamesh were found

40.
Wish fulfillment
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Wish fulfillment is the satisfaction of a desire through an involuntary thought process. Wish fulfillment can occur in dreams or in daydreams, in the symptoms of neurosis and this satisfaction is often indirect and requires interpretation to recognize. Sigmund Freud coined the term in 1900 in a text titled The Interpretation of Dreams. According to Freud, wish fulfillment occurs when unconscious desires are repressed by the Ego and Superego and this repression often stems from guilt and taboos imposed by society. Dreams are attempts by the unconscious to resolve some repressed conflict

Wish fulfillment
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Jacob saw the ladder led to heaven, but Freud might have called it a phallic symbol

41.
Jung
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JUNG is an open source graph modeling and visualization framework written in Java, under the BSD license. The framework comes with a number of layout algorithms built in, as well as analysis algorithms such as graph clustering and it provides a mechanism for annotating graphs, entities, and relations with metadata. JUNG also facilitates the creation of tools for complex data sets that can examine the relations between entities as well as the metadata attached to each entity and relation. JUNG provides a framework that makes it easy to construct tools for the interactive exploration of network data. Users can use one of the layout algorithms provided, or use the framework to create their own custom layouts, in addition, filtering mechanisms are provided which allow users to focus their attention, or their algorithms, on specific portions of the graph

Jung
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A shortest path from a Russian word " рапорт " (raport) to a word " труд " (work, labour) found in a thesaurus of the Russian Wiktionary by the Dijkstra's algorithm. A shortest path computation on a graph was implemented within the JUNG.

42.
Misanthrope
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Misanthropy is the general hatred, distrust or contempt of the human species or human nature. A misanthrope or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings, the words origin is from the Greek words μῖσος and ἄνθρωπος. The condition is often confused with asociality, misanthropy has been ascribed to a number of writers of satire, such as William S. Gilbert and William Shakespeare. Jonathan Swift is widely believed to be misanthropic, molières play The Misanthrope is one of the more famous French plays on this topic. Less famous, but more contemporary is the 1970 play by Françoise Dorin, Un sale égoïste which takes the point of view of the misanthrope, fernando Pessoas factless autobiography The Book of Disquiet has been described as misanthropic. In Western philosophy, misanthropy has been connected to isolation from human society, and when it happens to someone often. There is a difference between philosophical pessimism and misanthropy, immanuel Kant said that Of the crooked timber of humanity, no straight thing can ever be made, and yet this was not an expression of the uselessness of mankind itself. Kant further stated that hatred of mankind can take two forms, aversion from men and enmity towards them. The condition can arise partly from dislike and partly from ill-will and this might be thought of as more of a criticism of conformity rather than people in general. Certain thinkers such as Ibn al-Rawandi, a skeptic of Islam, and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi often expressed misanthropic views

43.
Eugen Bleuler
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Bleuler was born in Zollikon, a town near Zürich in Switzerland, to Johann Rudolf Bleuler, a wealthy farmer, and Pauline Bleuler-Bleuler. He studied medicine in Zürich and following his graduation in 1881 he worked as an assistant to Gottlieb Burckhardt at the Waldau Psychiatric Clinic in Bern. Leaving this post in 1884 he spent one year on medical study trips to Jean-Martin Charcot in Paris, to Bernhard von Gudden in Munich, thereafter he returned to Zürich to take a post as an intern at the Burghölzli, a university hospital. In 1886 Bleuler became the director of a clinic at Rheinau. It was noted at the time for being backward, and Bleuler set about improving conditions for the patients resident there, Bleuler returned to the Burghölzli in 1898 where he was appointed director. Following his interest in hypnotism, especially in its introspective variant and he favorably reviewed Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freuds Studies on Hysteria. Like Freud, Bleuler believed that mental processes could be unconscious. He encouraged his staff at the Burghölzli to study unconscious and psychotic mental phenomena, influenced by Bleuler, Carl Jung and Franz Riklin used word association tests to integrate Freuds theory of repression with empirical psychological findings. As a series of letters demonstrates, Bleuler performed a self-analysis with Freud, beginning in 1905. Bleuler remained interested in Freuds work, citing him favourably, for example, in his often reprinted Textbook of Psychiatry. He also supported the nomination of Freud for the Nobel Prize in the late twenties, Bleuler introduced the term schizophrenia to the world in a lecture in Berlin on 24 April 1908. However, perhaps as early as 1907 he and his colleagues had been using the term in Zurich to replace Emil Kraepelins term dementia praecox. He revised and expanded his concept in his seminal study of 1911, Dementia Praecox, oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Like Kraepelin, Bleuler argued that dementia praecox, or the schizophrenias, was fundamentally a disease process characterized by exacerbations and remissions. No one was completely cured of schizophrenia—there was always some sort of lasting cognitive weakness or defect that was manifest in behavior. Bleuler wrote in 1911, When the disease process flares up, it is correct, in my view, to talk in terms of deteriorating attacks. Of course the term recurrence is more comforting to a patient, the eugenic sterilization of persons diagnosed with schizophrenia was advocated by Bleuler. He believed the central characteristics to be the product of a process of splitting between the emotional and the intellectual functions of the personality. He favoured early discharge from hospital into a community environment to avoid institutionalisation, Bleuler also explored the concept of moral idiocy, and the relationship between neurosis and alcoholism

Eugen Bleuler
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Eugen Bleuler

44.
Joseph Campbell
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Joseph John Campbell was an American mythologist, writer and lecturer, best known for his work in comparative mythology and comparative religion. His work covers many aspects of the human experience, Campbells magnum opus is his book titled The Hero with a Thousand Faces in which he discusses his theory of the journey of the archetypal hero found in world mythologies. Since publication of The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Campbells theory has been applied by a wide variety of modern writers. His philosophy has been summarized by his own often repeated phrase, Joseph Campbell was born in White Plains, New York, the son of Josephine and Charles William Campbell. He was from an upper-middle-class Irish Catholic family, during his childhood, he moved with his family to nearby New Rochelle, New York. In 1919 a fire destroyed the home in New Rochelle. In 1921 Campbell graduated from the Canterbury School in New Milford, while at Dartmouth College he studied biology and mathematics, but decided that he preferred the humanities. He transferred to Columbia University, where he received a BA in English literature in 1925, at Dartmouth he had joined Delta Tau Delta. An accomplished athlete, he received awards in track and field events, in 1924 Campbell traveled to Europe with his family. In 1927 Campbell received a fellowship from Columbia University to study in Europe, Campbell studied Old French, Provençal and Sanskrit at the University of Paris in France and the University of Munich in Germany. He learned to read and speak French and German, on his return to Columbia University in 1929, Campbell expressed a desire to pursue the study of Sanskrit and Modern Art in addition to Medieval literature. Lacking faculty approval, Campbell withdrew from graduate studies, later in life he said while laughing but not in jest that it is a sign of incompetence to have a PhD in the liberal arts, the discipline covering his work. With the arrival of the Great Depression a few later, Campbell spent the next five years living in a rented shack on some land in Woodstock. There, he contemplated the next course of his life engaged in intensive. He later said that he would divide the day into four four-hour periods, I would get nine hours of sheer reading done a day. And this went on for five years straight, Campbell traveled to California for a year, continuing his independent studies and becoming close friends with the budding writer John Steinbeck and his wife Carol. On the Monterey Peninsula, Campbell, like John Steinbeck, fell under the spell of marine biologist Ed Ricketts, Campbell began writing a novel centered on Ricketts as a hero but, unlike Steinbeck, did not complete his book. Bruce Robison writes that Campbell would refer to days as a time when everything in his life was taking shape

45.
Hans Eysenck
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Hans Jürgen Eysenck, PhD, DSc was a German-born psychologist who spent his professional career in Great Britain. He is best remembered for his work on intelligence and personality, at the time of his death, Eysenck was the living psychologist most frequently cited in the peer-reviewed scientific journal literature. Eysenck was born in Berlin, Germany and his mother was Silesian-born film star Helga Molander, and his father, Eduard Anton Eysenck, was a nightclub entertainer who was once voted handsomest man on the Baltic coast. His mother was Lutheran and father Catholic, Eysenck was brought up by his maternal grandmother. An initial move to England in the 1930s became permanent because of his opposition to the Nazi party and my hatred of Hitler and the Nazis, and all they stood for, was so overwhelming that no argument could counter it. Because of his German citizenship, he was unable to gain employment. Eysenck was Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London and he was a major contributor to the modern scientific theory of personality and a brilliant teacher who helped found treatment for mental illnesses. Eysenck also created and developed a distinctive model of personality structure based on empirical factor-analytic research. In 1981, Eysenck became a member of the World Cultural Council. He was the editor of the international journal Personality and Individual Differences. His son Michael Eysenck is also a psychology professor. Hans Eysenck died of a tumour in a London hospice in 1997. A chapter in Uses and Abuses of Psychology entitled What is wrong with psychoanalysis, the Psychology of Politics Race, Intelligence and Education. Eysenck’s attitude was summarised in his autobiography Rebel with a Cause, I always felt that a scientist owes the world only one thing, if the truth contradicts deeply held beliefs, that is too bad. Tact and diplomacy are fine in international relations, in politics, perhaps even in business, in only one thing matters. He was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto, in this book, Eysenck suggests that political behavior may be analysed in terms of two independent dimensions, the traditional left-right distinction, and how tenderminded or toughminded a person is. Eysenck suggests that the latter is a result of a persons introversion or extraversion respectively, colleagues critiqued the research that formed the basis of this book, on a number of grounds, including the following. Eysenck claims that his findings can be applied to the British middle class as a whole, scores were obtained by applying the same weight to groups of different sizes

Hans Eysenck
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Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck
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Eysenck and his wife Sybil

46.
Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire
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Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire is a book by psychologist Hans Eysenck, in which Eysenck criticizes Sigmund Freud and argues that psychoanalysis is unscientific. The revised edition has a preface by the widow, Sybil Eysenck. The book received negative reviews. Eysenck argues that psychoanalysis is unscientific and that its theories are based on no legitimate base of observation or experiment and have the only of speculation. Eysenck argues that the veracity of psychoanalysis is testable through traditional means. Eysenck calls Freud, a genius, not of science, but of propaganda, not of proof, but of persuasion, not of the design of experiments. According to Eysenck, Freud set back the study of psychology, Eysenck argues that the dreams Freud cites in The Interpretation of Dreams do not really support his theories, and that Freuds examples actually disprove his dream theory. He accepts Elizabeth Thorntons argument, made in Freud and Cocaine, also published as The Freudian Fallacy, that Freuds patient Anna O. suffered from tuberculous meningitis. Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire was reviewed by psychologist Stuart Sutherland in the Times Higher Education Supplement, David Berry in New Statesman, Berry reviewed Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire negatively, calling it an ill-considered, illogical banality. Stuewe gave the book a review, calling Eysencks approach to testing psychoanalytic theory rigorously scientific. Lichtenstein in the Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies, Chris Brand in Behaviour Research and Therapy, and Michael H. Stone in the American Journal of Psychiatry. He described Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire as a popularization of Eysencks articles and books criticizing psychoanalysis, malcolm Macmillan, writing in Freud Evaluated, described Eysenck as one of several authors to have argued that Anna O. suffered from an organic malady. He observed these authors provide conflicting accounts of what malady Anna O. suffered from, author Richard Webster, writing in Why Freud Was Wrong, suggested that Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire contains many cogent criticisms of Freud. However, he criticized Eysenck for accepting uncritically Thorntons argument that Freuds patient Anna O. suffered from tuberculous meningitis

Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire
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Cover of the first edition

47.
Auguste Forel
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Auguste-Henri Forel was a Swiss myrmecologist, neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and eugenicist, notable for his investigations into the structure of the human brain and that of ants. For example, he is considered a co-founder of the neuron theory, Forel is also known for his early contributions to sexology and psychology. From 1978 until 2000 Forel’s image appeared on the 1000 Swiss franc banknote, born in villa La Gracieuse, Morges, Switzerland, Forel had a diverse and mixed career as a thinker on many subjects. He was appointed professor of psychiatry in 1879 at the University of Zurich Medical School and he not only ran the Burghölzli asylum there, but continued to publish papers on insanity, prison reform, and social morality. Forel named his home as La Fourmilière —the Ant Colony, around 1900 Forel was a eugenicist. Forel suffered a stroke paralyzed his right side in 1912. He died in Yvorne at age 82, forels prize essay on the ants of Switzerland was published in three parts in a Swiss scientific journal, beginning in 1874. The work was reissued as a volume in 1900, at which time it was also translated into English. His myrmecological five-volume magnum opus, Le Monde Social des Fourmis, was published in 1923, forels predilection for finding in ants the analogs of human social and political behaviors was always controversial. In the foreword to his 1927 edition of British Ants, their history and classification, Donisthorpe opined. To protest against the ants being employed as a weapon in political controversy. In my opinion a work is not the appropriate means for the introduction of political theories of any kind. But in 1937, the work was excerpted in Sir J. A, hammertons Outline of Great Books with praise for its relevance to the study of human psychology and as the most important contribution to insect psychology ever made by a single student. Less controversially, Forel first described in 1877 the zona incerta area in the brain and he gave it this name as it a region of which nothing certain can be said. Forel International School is named after him, les Fourmis de la Suisse, Systématique, notices anatomiques et physiologiques, architecture, distribution géographique, nouvelles expériences et observations de moeurs. Dr. V. Buttel Reepen in den Jahren, 1911-1912, Fourmis de Rhodesia, etc. recoltees par M. Arnold, le Dr. H. Brauns et K. Fikendey. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique, Le monde social des fourmis du globe comparé à celui de l’homme. Serina Heinen, „Zwischen Evolutionstheorie und Menschheitsreligion - Der Schweizer Monist, Bahai und Eugeniker Auguste Forel“ in, darwin und die Folgen für Religionstheorie und Philosophie, Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer 2010

Auguste Forel
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The Social World of Ants
Auguste Forel
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Auguste-Henri Forel towards the end of his life

48.
Oskar Vogt
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Oskar Vogt was a German physician and neurologist. He and his wife Cécile Vogt-Mugnier are known for their extensive cytoarchetectonic studies on the brain and he was born in Husum, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Vogt studied medicine at Kiel and Jena, obtaining his doctorate from Jena in 1894, the Vogts met in 1897 in Paris, and eventually married in 1899. The Vogts were close to the Krupp family and this institute served as the basis for the 1914 formation of the Kaiser Institut für Hirnforschung, of which Oskar was a director. There, he had students from countries who went on to prominent careers including Korbinian Brodmann. This institute gave rise to the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research in 1945, as a clinician, Vogt used hypnotism until 1903 and wrote papers on the topic. In particular, Vogt had an intense interest for localizing the origins of genius or traits in the brain, Vogt married the French neurologist Cécile Vogt-Mugnier. They met in Paris in 1897 while he was working with Joseph Jules Dejerine and his wife, Augusta Marie Dejerine-Klumke. Because of their scholarly interests, the Vogts collaborated for a long period. The Vogts had two daughters, both accomplished scientists in their own right, Marthe Vogt was a neuropharmacologist who became a Fellow of the Royal Society, marguerite Vogt started as a developmental geneticist working in Drosophila, then moved to the US in 1950. She developed methods to culture poliovirus with Renato Dulbecco and she was a faculty member at The Salk Institute for Biological Studies where she worked on viral transformation and cellular immortalization of cancer cells. Vogt was a socialist, involved with the led by Mme Fessard who knew him personally. He was never a Communist, although he did interact with the Soviets on a number of occasions and they sent him several researchers, including N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij. He helped to establish the institute in Moscow. Vogt was opposed to the Nazi Party, gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach helped fund a small hospital in Schwarzwald near Neustadt when Vogt was dismissed in 1936 from his position with the Kaiser Wilhelm Brain Research Institute. Vogt was the editor of the prominent Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie published in German, French and this later became The Journal für Hirnforschung. Vogt had a longstanding interest in localizing functions in the brain, in 1924, Vogt was one of the neurologists asked to consult on Lenin’s illness and was given his brain for histological study after Lenins death. He found that Lenins brain showed a number of giant cells

Oskar Vogt
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Professor Vogt investigating histological sections from Lenin's brain.
Oskar Vogt
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Korbinian Brodmann, Cécile Vogt-Mugnier, Oskar Vogt, Max Borcherdt, and Max Lewandowsky.
Oskar Vogt
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Bronze bust of Oskar Vogt located in the biomedical Berlin-Buch Campus at the former Institute for Brain Research.
Oskar Vogt
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Plaque for Oskar and Cécile Vogt on the building of the Institute for Brain Research in Berlin-Buch. The plaque was created in 1965 by sculptor Axel Schulz.

49.
Jean-Martin Charcot
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Jean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. He is known as the founder of neurology, and his name has been associated with at least 15 medical eponyms, including Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. Charcot has been referred to as the father of French neurology and his work greatly influenced the developing fields of neurology and psychology, modern psychiatry owes much to the work of Charcot and his direct followers. He was the foremost neurologist of late nineteenth-century France and has called the Napoleon of the neuroses. Born in Paris, Charcot worked and taught at the famous Salpêtrière Hospital for 33 years and his reputation as an instructor drew students from all over Europe. In 1882, he established a clinic at Salpêtrière, which was the first of its kind in Europe. Charcot was a part of the French neurological tradition and studied under and he married a rich widow, Madame Durvis, in 1862 and had two children, Jeanne and Jean-Baptiste, who later became a doctor and a famous polar explorer. He was accused of being an atheist and he named and was the first to describe multiple sclerosis. Summarizing previous reports and adding his own clinical and pathological observations, the three signs of Multiple sclerosis now known as Charcots triad 1 are nystagmus, intention tremor, and telegraphic speech, though these are not unique to MS. Charcot also observed cognition changes, describing his patients as having a marked enfeeblement of the memory and he was also the first to describe a disorder known as Charcot joint or Charcot arthropathy, a degeneration of joint surfaces resulting from loss of proprioception. He researched the functions of different parts of the brain and the role of arteries in cerebral hemorrhage, Charcot was among the first to describe Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. The announcement was made simultaneously with Pierre Marie of France and Howard Henry Tooth of England, the disease is also sometimes called peroneal muscular atrophy. Charcots studies between 1868 and 1881 were a landmark in the understanding of Parkinsons disease, among other advances he made the distinction between rigidity, weakness and bradykinesia. He also led the disease formerly named paralysis agitans to be renamed after James Parkinson and he also noted apparent variations on PD, such as Parkinsons disease with hyperextension. Charcot received the first European professional chair of clinical diseases for the system in 1882. Charcot is best known today, outside the community of neurologists, for his work on hypnosis, Charcot first began studying hysteria after creating a special ward for non-insane females with hystero-epilepsy. He discovered two forms of hysteria among these women, minor hysteria and major hysteria. His interest in hysteria and hypnotism developed at a time when the public was fascinated in animal magnetism and mesmerization

50.
Pierre Janet
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Pierre Marie Félix Janet was a pioneering French psychologist, philosopher and psychotherapist in the field of dissociation and traumatic memory. He is ranked alongside William James and Wilhelm Wundt as one of the fathers of psychology. Janet studied under Jean-Martin Charcot at the Psychological Laboratory in the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris and he first published the results of his research in his philosophy thesis in 1889 and in his medical thesis, Létat mental des hystériques, in 1892. He earned a degree in medicine the following year in 1893 and he was a member of the Institut de France from 1913, and was a central figure in French psychology in the first half of the 20th century. Janet was one of the first people to allege a connection between events in a subjects past life and his or her present-day trauma, and coined the words dissociation and subconscious. His study of the passion or rapport between the patient and the hypnotist anticipated later accounts of the transference phenomenon. Janet established a model of the mind in terms of a hierarchy of nine tendencies of increasingly complex organisational levels. James made note of aspects of automatism and the apparent multiple personalities of patients variously exhibiting trances. James was apparently fascinated by these manifestations and said, How far the splitting of the mind into separate conciousnesses may obtain in each one of us is a problem. M. Janet holds that it is possible where there is an abnormal weakness. Controversy over whose ideas came first, Janets or Sigmund Freuds and this provoked angry attacks from Freuds followers, and thereafter Freuds own attitude towards Janet cooled. However, after what Freud saw as his backpedalling in 1913, he said, the charge of plagiarism stung Freud especially. A balanced judgement might be that Janets ideas, as published, did indeed form part of Freuds starting point, carl Jung studied with Janet in Paris in 1902 and was much influenced by him, for example equating what he called a complex with Janets idée fixe subconsciente. Jung wrote of the debt owed to Janet for a deeper and more knowledge of hysterical symptoms. Alfred Adler openly derived his inferiority complex concept from Janets Sentiment dincomplétude, in 1923, Janet wrote a definitive text on suggestion, La médecine psychologique, and in 1928-32 published several definitive papers on memory. He received a doctorate from Harvard in 1936. Of his great synthesis of psychology, Henri Ellenberger wrote that this requires about twenty books. Academic philosophy and the sciences in nineteenth - century France