form of political system which emerged in Northern & Western Europe, and European North America

“a system of government in which people rule themselves, either directly or indirectly (through chosen officials) but in either case subject to constitutional restraints on the power of the majority” (D&F, 269)

Robert Dahl argues historic sources include:

Greek city-state: assemblies, officials elected by lottery

Roman Empire & Italian city-states: election of important officials

Northern Europe: Ting (local assemblies) and Althing (national assembly); elected king responsible to Ting and limits on his power; equality among citizens

commonality: limited to ‘free men’; oppressive of ‘others’, esp. women; often popular rule gave way to one-person or one-group rule; only few participated or believed in the underlying ‘logic’

four operating principles:

1. equality of political rights: right to vote and right to engage in civic duties & public offices

2. majority rule: each vote counts equally, so majority vote wins

majority = 50%+1

plurality = the most

qualified majority = certain number above 50%+1

unanimity = everyone agrees / votes for the same option

3. political partication: representative democracy

population votes for leaders who rule

leaders rule (laws & policy & expenditures) within the constraints of the law