The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF; French: Forces armées canadiennes, FAC), or Canadian Forces (CF) (French: Forces canadiennes, FC),[10] are the unified armed forces of Canada, as constituted by the National Defence Act, which states: "The Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada and consist of one Service called the Canadian Armed Forces."[10]

During the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s.

However, since the end of the Cold War, as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has moved much of its defence focus "out of area", the Canadian military has also become more deeply engaged in international security operations in various other parts of the world – most notably in Afghanistan since 2002.

Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy,[18] introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Specifically, the Canadian Armed Forces are tasked with having the capacity to:

Conduct daily domestic and continental operations, including in the Arctic and through NORAD (the North American Aerospace Defense Command);

Support a major international event in Canada, such as the 2010 Winter Olympics;

Respond to a major terrorist attack;

Support civilian authorities during a crisis in Canada such as a natural disaster;

Lead and/or conduct a major international operation for an extended period; and

Deploy forces in response to crises elsewhere in the world for shorter periods.[19]

Consistent with the missions and priorities outlined above, the Canadian Armed Forces also contribute to the conduct of Canadian defence diplomacy through a range of activities, including the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés,[20] participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g. the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation,[21] and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.

The first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, Canadian troops were called to participate in European theatres, the Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War.

Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, and completed 72 international operations. Canadian soldiers, sailors, and aviators came to be considered world-class professionals through conspicuous service during these conflicts and the country's integral participation in NATO during the Cold War, First Gulf War, Kosovo War, and in United Nations Peacekeeping operations, such as the Suez Crisis, Golan Heights, Cyprus, Croatia, Bosnia, Afghanistan, and Libya. Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world, as well as the largest volunteer army ever fielded.[22]Conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle. Originally, Canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world, but with the fall of the Soviet Union, new data based on Japanese and Soviet sources found that to be incorrect.[23]

After the 1980s, the use of the "Canadian Armed Forces" name gave way to "Canadian Forces";[citation needed] The "Canadian Armed Forces" name returned in 2013.

Land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts, the nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve. They have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), at the request of the Government of Afghanistan.

At sunset a convoy of Canadian armoured vehicles watches over the area near Khadan Village, Afghanistan.

The Armed Forces are today funded by approximately $20.1 billion annually[27] and are presently ranked 74th in size compared to the world's other armed forces by number of total personnel, and 58th in terms of active personnel, standing at a strength of roughly 68,000, plus 27,000 reservists, 5000 Rangers, and 19,000 supplementary reserves, bringing the total force to approximately 119,000.[28] The number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020, and the number of active to at least 70,000; in addition, 5000 rangers and 19,000 supplementary personnel will be serving. If this happens the total strength would be around 124,000,[29] these individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queen's Regulations and Orders and the National Defence Act.

In 2008 the Government of Canada made efforts, through the Canada First Defence Strategy, to modernize the Canadian Armed Forces, through the purchase of new equipment, improved training and readiness, as well as the establishment of the Canadian Special Operations Regiment. More funds were also put towards recruitment, which had been dwindling throughout the 1980s and '90s, possibly because the Canadian populace had come to perceive the CAF as peacekeepers rather than as soldiers, as shown in a 2008 survey conducted for the Department of National Defence, the poll found that nearly two thirds of Canadians agreed with the country's participation in the invasion of Afghanistan, and that the military should be stronger, but also that the purpose of the forces should be different, such as more focused on responding to natural disasters.[30] Then CDS, Walter Natynczyk, said later that year that while recruiting has become more successful, the CF was facing a problem with its rate of loss of existing members, which increased between 2006 and 2008 from 6% to 9.2% annually.[31]

Canadian Armed Forces personnel carry the coffin of a comrade who was killed onto an aircraft at Kandahar Air Field, 1 February 2009

The 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment (main battle tanks, artillery, unmanned air vehicles and other systems) to support the mission in Afghanistan, it has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called "core capabilities" (such as the air force's medium range transport aircraft fleet – the C-130 Hercules – and the army's truck and armoured vehicle fleets). In addition, new systems (such as C-17 Globemaster III strategic transport aircraft and CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift helicopters) have also been acquired for the Armed Forces, although the viability of the Canada First Defence Strategy continues to suffer setbacks from challenging and evolving fiscal and other factors, it originally aimed to:

Increase the number of military personnel to 70,000 Regular Forces and 30,000 primary Reserve Forces;

In the 1950s, the recruitment of women was open to roles in medicine, communication, logistics, and administration, the roles of women in the CAF began to expand in 1971, after the Department reviewed the recommendations of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women, at which time it lifted the ceiling of 1,500 women personnel, and gradually expanded employment opportunities into the non-traditional areas—vehicle drivers and mechanics, aircraft mechanics, air-traffic controllers, military police, and firefighters. The Department further reviewed personnel policies in 1978 and 1985, after Parliament passed the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. As a result of these reviews, the Department changed its policies to permit women to serve at sea in replenishment ships and in a diving tender, with the army service battalions, in military police platoons and field ambulance units, and in most air squadrons.[32]

In 1987, occupations and units with the primary role of preparing for direct involvement in combat on the ground or at sea were still closed to women: infantry, armoured corps, field artillery, air-defence artillery, signals, field engineers, and naval operations, on 5 February 1987, the Minister of National Defence created an office to study the impact of employing men and women in combat units. These trials were called Combat-Related Employment of Women.[32]

All military occupations were open to women in 1989, with the exception of submarine service, which opened in 2000. Throughout the 1990s, the introduction of women into the combat arms increased the potential recruiting pool by about 100 percent, it also provided opportunities for all persons to serve their country to the best of their abilities. Women were fully integrated in all occupations and roles by the government of Jean Chrétien, and by 8 March 2000, even allowed to serve on submarines.[32]

All equipment must be suitable for a mixed-gender force. Combat helmets, rucksacks, combat boots, and flak jackets are designed to ensure women have the same level of protection and comfort as their male colleagues, the women's uniform is similar in design to the men's uniform, but conforms to the female figure, and is functional and practical. Women are also provided with an annual financial entitlement for the purchase of brassiere undergarments.[32]

Canada's Armed forces operate out of 27 Canadian Forces bases (CFB) across the country, including NDHQ, this number has been gradually reduced since the 1970s with bases either being closed or merged. Both officers and non-commissioned members receive their basic training at the Canadian Forces Leadership and Recruit School in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. Officers will generally either directly enter the Canadian Armed Forces with a degree from a civilian university, or receive their commission upon graduation from the Royal Military College of Canada. Specific element and trade training is conducted at a variety of institutions throughout Canada, and to a lesser extent, the world.

The RCAF and Joint Task Force (North) (JTFN) also maintain at various points throughout Canada's northern region a chain of forward operating locations, each capable of supporting fighter operations. Elements of CF-18 squadrons periodically deploy to these airports for short training exercises or Arctic sovereignty patrols.

Among other things, the Information Management Group is responsible for the conduct of electronic warfare and the protection of the Armed Forces' communications and computer networks. Within the group, this operational role is fulfilled by the Canadian Forces Information Operations Group, headquartered at CFS Leitrim in Ottawa, which operates the following units: the Canadian Forces Information Operations Group Headquarters (CFIOGHQ), the Canadian Forces Electronic Warfare Centre (CFEWC), the Canadian Forces Network Operation Centre (CFNOC), the Canadian Forces Signals Intelligence Operations Centre (CFSOC), the Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Leitrim, and the 764 Communications Squadron. In June 2011 the Canadian Armed Forces Chief of Force Development announced the establishment of a new organization, the Directorate of Cybernetics, headed by a Brigadier General, the Director General Cyber (DG Cyber). Within that directorate the newly established CAF Cyber Task Force, has been tasked to design and build cyber warfare capabilities for the Canadian Armed Forces.[35][36]

The Health Services Group is a joint formation that includes over 120 general or specialized units and detachments providing health services to the Canadian Armed Forces, with few exceptions, all elements are under command of the Surgeon General for domestic support and force generation, or temporarily assigned under command of a deployed Joint Task Force through Canadian Joint Operations Command.[37][38]

The Canadian Armed Forces have a total reserve force of approximately 50,000 primary and supplementary that can be called upon in times of national emergency or threat, for the components and sub-components of the Canadian Armed Forces Reserve Force, the order of precedence follows:

Approximately 26,000 citizen soldiers, sailors, and airpersons,[28] trained to the level of and interchangeable with their Regular Force counterparts, and posted to CAF operations or duties on a casual or ongoing basis, make up the Primary Reserve, this group is represented, though not commanded, at NDHQ by the Chief of Reserves and Cadets, who is usually a major general or rear admiral, and is divided into four components that are each operationally and administratively responsible to its corresponding environmental command in the Regular Force – the Naval Reserve (NAVRES), Land Force Reserve (LFR), and Air Reserve (AIRRES) – in addition to one force that does not fall under an environmental command, the Health Services Reserve under the Canadian Forces Health Services Group.

The Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service (COATS)[40] consists of officers and non-commissioned members who conduct training, safety, supervision and administration of nearly 60,000 cadets aged 12 to 18 years in the Canadian Cadet Movement. The majority of members in COATS are officers of the Cadet Instructors Cadre (CIC) branch of the CAF. Members of the Reserve Force Sub-Component COATS who are not employed part-time (Class A) or full-time (Class B) may be held on the "Cadet Instructor Supplementary Staff List" (CISS List) in anticipation of employment in the same manner as other reservists are held as members of the Supplementary Reserve.

The Canadian Rangers, who provide surveillance and patrol services in Canada's arctic and other remote areas, are an essential reserve force component used for Canada's exercise of sovereignty over its northern territory.

Although the Canadian Armed Forces are a single service, there are three similar but distinctive environmental uniforms (DEUs): navy blue (which is actually black) for the navy, rifle green for the army, and light blue for the air force. CAF members in operational occupations generally wear the DEU to which their occupation "belongs." CAF members in non-operational occupations (the "purple" trades) are allocated a uniform according to the "distribution" of their branch within the CAF, association of the branch with one of the former services, and the individual's initial preference. Therefore, on any given day, in any given CAF unit, all three coloured uniforms may be seen.

The uniforms of the CAF are sub-divided into five orders of dress:[41]

Only service dress is suitable for CAF members to wear on any occasion, barring "dirty work" or combat, with gloves, swords, and medals (No. 1 or 1A), it is suitable for ceremonial occasions and "dressed down" (No. 3 or lower), it is suitable for daily wear. Generally, after the elimination of base dress (although still defined for the Air Force uniform), operational dress is now the daily uniform worn by most members of the CF, unless service dress is prescribed (such as at the NDHQ, on parades, at public events, etc.). Approved parkas are authorized for winter wear in cold climates and a light casual jacket is also authorized for cooler days, the navy, most army, and some other units have, for very specific occasions, a ceremonial/regimental full dress, such as the naval "high-collar" white uniform, kilted Highland, Scottish, and Irish regiments, and the scarlet uniforms of the Royal Military Colleges.[42]

The Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force each have a distinctive service dress uniform differentiated by colour, cut and headdress.

Authorized headdress for the Canadian Armed Forces are the: beret, wedge cap, ballcap, Yukon cap, and tuque (toque). Each is coloured according to the distinctive uniform worn: navy (white or navy blue), army (rifle green or "regimental" colour), air force (light blue). Adherents of the Sikh faith may wear uniform turbans (dastar) (or patka, when operational) and Muslim women may wear uniform tucked hijabs under their authorized headdress. Jews may wear yarmulke under their authorized headdress and when bareheaded, the beret is probably the most widely worn headgear and is worn with almost all orders of dress (with the exception of the more formal orders of Navy and Air Force dress), and the colour of which is determined by the wearer's environment, branch, or mission. Naval personnel, however, seldom wear berets, preferring either service cap or authorized ballcaps (shipboard operational dress), which only the Navy wear. Air Force personnel, particularly officers, prefer the wedge cap to any other form of headdress. There is no naval variant of the wedge cap, the Yukon cap and tuque are worn only with winter dress, although clearance and combat divers may wear tuques year-round as a watch cap. Soldiers in Highland, Scottish, and Irish regiments generally wear alternative headdress, including the glengarry, balmoral, tam o'shanter, and caubeen instead of the beret. The officer cadets of both Royal Military Colleges wear gold-braided "pillbox" (cavalry) caps with their ceremonial dress and have a unique fur "Astrakhan" for winter wear, the Canadian Army wears the CG634 helmet.

The Federal Government now factors in military related spending from departments such as Veterans Affairs, Public Works, and the Treasury Board when calculating "defence spending".[7] Defence spending should not be confused with "national defence spending".

It is believed that this move was made in order to improve Canada's defence related NATO reporting metrics.[43]

1.
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer

Royal Canadian Air Force
–
Badge of Air Command, replaced by new RCAF badge in 2013
Royal Canadian Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
CC-177 Globemaster III
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
A CF-18 Hornet fires an AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile at a MQM-107E Streaker aerial target drone during a "Combat Archer" mission

2.
Ottawa
–
Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock

3.
Ontario
–
Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions

4.
Monarchy of Canada
–
The Monarchy of Canada is at the very core of both Canadas federal structure and Westminster-style of parliamentary and constitutional democracy. The monarchy is the foundation of the executive, legislature, and judiciary in the federal, the Canadian sovereign is the personification of the Canadian state and, as a matter of constitutional law, is Canada. The current Canadian monarch, since 6 February 1952, is Queen Elizabeth II, as such, Elizabeths son, Prince Charles, is heir apparent. Although the person of the sovereign is shared with 15 other independent countries within the Commonwealth of Nations, each countrys monarchy is separate. However, the Queen is the member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. While some powers are only by the sovereign, most of the monarchs operational and ceremonial duties are exercised by his or her representative. In each of Canadas provinces, the monarch is represented by a lieutenant governor, as the territories are not sovereign, they do not have a viceroy. As all executive authority is vested in the sovereign, their assent is required to allow for bills to become law and for letters patent, Canada is one of the oldest continuing monarchies in the world. The emergence of this arrangement paralleled the fruition of Canadian nationalism following the end of the First World War and culminated in the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony, hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor general on behalf of the Privy Council. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. This is because, in law, the Crown never dies. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the rules of succession to their respective crowns requires the consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701, in 1936, King Edward VIII abdicated and any possible future descendants of his were excluded from the line of succession. As the Statute of Westminster 1931 disallowed the UK from legislating for Canada, including in relation to succession, the latter was deemed by the Cabinet in 1947 to be part of Canadian law, as is the Bill of Rights 1689, according to the Supreme Court of Canada. The Department of External Affairs included all succession-related laws in its list of acts within Canadian law, certain aspects of the succession rules have been challenged in the courts

5.
Governor General of Canada
–
The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime

6.
Minister of National Defence (Canada)
–
Both are responsible to the Minister. The Queen of Canada is the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces and has authority on all orders. The minister is responsible, through the tenets of responsible government, to Parliament for the management, any orders and instructions for the Canadian Armed Forces are issued by or through the Chief of the Defence Staff. The Department of National Defence exists to aid the minister in carrying out his responsibilities, the current Minister of National Defence is Harjit Sajjan. Historically, the position was pre-dated by the Minister of Militia, during World War II, the Minister of National Defence was assisted by two subordinate ministers, the Minister of National Defence for Air and Minister of National Defence for Naval Services. The portfolio was merged into a ministry following the end of the war

Minister of National Defence (Canada)
–
Incumbent Harjit Sajjan since 4 November 2015
Minister of National Defence (Canada)

7.
29th Canadian Ministry
–
The Twenty-Ninth Canadian Ministry is the combined Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, and Ministers that began governing Canada shortly before the opening of the 42nd Parliament. The original members were sworn in during a ceremony held at Rideau Hall on November 4,2015 and those who were not already members of the Queens Privy Council for Canada were sworn into the Privy Council in the same ceremony. The Cabinet currently consists of 30 members, including the prime minister, when the ministry was first sworn in, with fifteen men and fifteen women, it became the first gender-balanced cabinet in Canadian history. List of Prime Ministers of Canada List of current Parliamentary Secretaries of Canada

8.
Jonathan Vance
–
Jonathan Holbert Jon Vance CMM MSC CD is a Canadian Army general who serves as Chief of the Defence Staff of the Canadian Armed Forces. Born in Kingston, Ontario, Vance joined the Armed Forces in 1982 and was commissioned upon graduation from Royal Roads Military College in 1986. He served as deputy commander of the Allied Joint Force Command Naples and he went on to be Commander of the Canadian Joint Operations Command in September 2014 and Chief of Defence Staff on 17 July 2015. Vance holds a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Military and Strategic Studies from Royal Roads Military College, and his father was Canadian General Jack Vance. Vance has received the orders and decorations during his military career. By virtue of his position, he serves as an Aide-de-camp to the Governor General of Canada

Jonathan Vance
–
General Jonathan Vance, CDS
Jonathan Vance

9.
Canadian dollar
–
The Canadian dollar is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, or sometimes Can$ or C$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and it is divided into 100 cents. Canadas dollar is the fifth most held reserve currency in the world, accounting for approximately 2% of all global reserves, behind only the U. S. dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating, the new Canadian pound was equal to four US dollars, making one pound sterling equal to 1 pound,4 shillings, and 4 pence Canadian. Thus, the new Canadian pound was worth 16 shillings and 5.3 pence sterling, the 1850s was a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. In 1851, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly passed an act for the purposes of introducing a sterling unit in conjunction with decimal fractional coinage. The idea was that the coins would correspond to exact amounts in relation to the U. S. dollar fractional coinage. This gold standard was introduced with the gold sovereign being legal tender at £1 = US$ 4.86 2⁄3, no coinage was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was legal tender and all other silver coins were demonetized. The British government in principle allowed for a decimal coinage but nevertheless held out the hope that a unit would be chosen under the name of royal. However, in 1857, the decision was made to introduce a decimal coinage into the Province of Canada in conjunction with the U. S. dollar unit, in 1859, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with decimal denominations for the first time. In 1860, the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia followed the colony of Canada in adopting a system based on the U. S. dollar unit. In the following year, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with the shown in dollars. The U. S. dollar was created in 1792 on the basis of the weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. As such, the Spanish dollar was slightly more than the U. S. dollar, and likewise. In 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were united in a called the Dominion of Canada. In 1871, Prince Edward Island went decimal within the U. S. dollar unit, however, the currency of Prince Edward Island was absorbed into the Canadian system shortly afterwards, when Prince Edward island joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873. The Canadian Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act in April 1871, tying up loose ends as to the currencies of the various provinces, the gold standard was temporarily abandoned during the First World War and definitively abolished on April 10,1933

Canadian dollar
–
$5 gold Canadian coin from 1914. Reverse side shown depicting a shield with the arms of the Dominion of Canada. The coin weighs 8.36 grams and is 90% gold giving it 7.524 grams of gold. It has a diameter of 21.59 mm and a thickness of 1.82 mm at the rim.
Canadian dollar
–
2011 Polymer notes (Frontier Series)
Canadian dollar
–
$1 Dominion of Canada note issued in 1898.
Canadian dollar
–
Bank of Montreal, 10 dollars (1935) First note printed for the series.

10.
Bombardier Aerospace
–
Bombardier Aerospace is a division of Bombardier Inc. It is headquartered in Dorval, Quebec, Canada, after acquiring Canadair in 1986 and restoring it to profitability, in 1989 Bombardier acquired the near-bankrupt Short Brothers aircraft manufacturing company in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The aerospace company now accounts for half of Bombardier Inc. s revenue. It also manufactured the Bombardier 415 amphibious water-bomber, and the Global Express, the CSeries, which Bombardier offers in several size versions, is competing with the Airbus A318 and Airbus A319, the Boeing 737 Next Generation 737-600 and 737-700 models, and the Embraer 195. The launch customer for the CSeries, Lufthansa, signed a letter of intent for up to 60 aircraft and 30 options in 2008, the manufacturing complex in Montreal was redeveloped by Ghafari Associates to incorporate lean manufacturing of its CSeries aircraft. In January 2012, the company began manufacturing simple structures such as controls for the CRJ series from a transitional facility near Casablanca, Morocco. On 30 September 2013 it broke ground on its permanent facility, the consortium would include Korea Aerospace Industries and Korean Air Lines. In November 2012, the signed the largest deal in its history, with Swiss business jet operator VistaJet. The deal included an option for Bombardier to manufacture and sell an additional 86 Global jets, in April 2013, Canadas Porter Airlines placed a conditional order for 12 CSeries aircraft, with options for another 18. However, this was conditional on the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport allowing jets to use the facilities, studies underway included an environmental assessment, master planning exercise and preliminary runway design. In 2015, the Government of Canada announced that it would not approve a change to allow jets at the airport, in January 2014, Bombardier Inc. cut 1,700 employees from Bombardier Aerospace to save costs due to a 19 percent drop in orders in 2013. In July the same year, Bombardier reorganized its structure in response to its underperformance. President Guy Hachey retired and Bombardier Aerospace was split into three divisions, business aircraft, commercial aircraft and aerostructures, and engineering services, as part of the corporate overhaul,1,800 jobs were cut. On 29 October 2015 Bombardier announced a US$4. 9-billion third-quarter loss, Bombardier also said it would cancel its Learjet 85 program, taking another US$1. 2-billion writedown and cancelling the 64 outstanding orders. Particularly because of the CSeries, the debt had reached approximately $9 Billion. Bombardier shares fell 17.4 per cent on that day, on 17 February 2016, Bombardier announced its 2015 profits were $138 million before taking a $5.4 billion write-down. That same week, the company announced it would cut 7,000 jobs. At the time, the company had only 243 firm orders and letters of intent and commitment for another 360, most of these were for the CS300 model

11.
CAE Inc.
–
CAE Inc. is a Canadian manufacturer of simulation technologies, modelling technologies and training services to airlines, aircraft manufacturers, defense customers, and healthcare specialists. CAE was founded in 1947, and has manufacturing operations and training facilities in 35 countries, in 2016, the companys annual revenue was CAD $2.512 billion. CAE sells flight simulators and training devices to airlines, aircraft manufacturers and it licenses its simulation software to various market segments and has a professional services division. The simulators include basic training devices CAE 400XR and CAE 500XR and these simulators are available for commercial use. In 2016, the company sold 53 Full-Flight Simulators, in 2001, CAE Inc. acquired BAE Systemss Flight Simulation and Training division, formerly known as Reflectone Inc, a publicly listed company founded in 1939, and based in Tampa, Florida. Reflectone sold flight simulators to the military and provided training on its premises. CAE conducts airline pilot training and business jet pilot training in its 50 aviation training centres worldwide, in the United States, the firm is a supplier of initial and recurrency training for airlines such as JetBlue and non-airline based companies, including charter and cargo operators. In December 2001 the firm acquired Simuflite training centers in Dallas, Texas and Morristown, New Jersey, the facility at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is the largest business aviation training facility in the world at 426,000 sq ft, with 34 simulators and approximately 450 employees. In February 2016, CAE Inc. acquired one of its competitors, Lockheed Martin Commercial Flight Training, CAE also operates the CAE Oxford Aviation Academy, the largest ab initio flight training network in the world, with a fleet of over 220 aircraft and seven campuses worldwide. CAE purchased Medical Education Technologies Inc. a Sarasota-based company renowned notably for its innovative patient simulator and this acquisition brought a direct sales force in the U. S. close customer relationships and a worldwide distributor network. Today, CAEs healthcare simulation solutions business unit is a leader in medical simulation training technology to improve patient safety in clinical settings. The actual CEO, Marc Parent, was named in this role in October 2009 and he has more than 25 years of experience in the aerospace industry. Born in Montreal, Mr. Parent is a graduate of Mechanical Engineering from Montreal’s École Polytechnique, in October 2008, CAE was named one of Canadas Top 100 Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc. and was featured in Macleans newsmagazine. Official site CAE Global Academy Official site

CAE Inc.
–
Full flight simulators at the CAE centre in Brussels

12.
Meggitt
–
Meggitt PLC is a British engineering business specialising in aerospace equipment. It has its headquarters at Bournemouth Airport in Dorset and it is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index. The Company was established in the 1940s as a machine tool business based in Halifax known as Willson Lathes and it went public in 1947 and in 1964 acquired an engineering business in Dorset known as Meggitt. The Company subsequently changed its name from Willson Lathes to Meggitt Holdings, in 1983 it was acquired by Nigel McCorkell and Ken Coates together with 3i Group in a management buy-in. In 1986 it bought Bestobell, another engineering business. In 2004 it acquired the design and manufacturing division of the Dunlop Standard Aerospace Group for circa £700 million, in 2007 Meggitt acquired K&F Industries, the parent company of the Aircraft Braking Systems Corporation, for circa £930 million. In 2010, Meggitt acquired Pacific Scientific Aerospace from Danaher, Meggitt owns Securaplane, maker of the battery charger for the GS Yuasa lithium cobalt oxide batteries for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner fleet grounded in January 2013. The investigation found that the Securaplane battery charger was not at fault for any defective batteries, in 2013, Meggit also bought the company, PiezoTech LLC. PiezoTech is a company specializing in ceramics and ultrasounds. In May 2013 Stephen Young, the companys Chief Financial Officer succeeded CEO Terry Twigger, in 2015, it carried out an acquisition of the composites division of EDAC, worth roughly £228.3 million. The Group is organised as follows, Meggitt BTT-3 Banshee Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom Official site Yahoo profile

Meggitt
–
Meggitt PLC

13.
Colt Canada
–
Colt Canada is a firearms manufacturer owned by United States based Colt and located in Kitchener, Ontario, Canada. In addition, the company exports firearms internationally, known foreign customers include Norway, Denmark and The Netherlands. The companys main products are the C7 rifle and derivatives which are manufactured under a licence of Colt Defense USA, Colt Canada describes itself as the Canadian governments Centre of Excellence for small arms and the Canadian Forces sole supplier of the C7 family of rifles

Colt Canada
–
Colt Canada Corporation

14.
Kongsberg Gruppen
–
At the beginning of 2016 Kongsberg had revenues of NOK17,032 million, and 7,688 employees in more than 25 countries. The company is headquartered in Kongsberg and it comprises four business areas, Kongsberg Maritime Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace Kongsberg Protech Systems Kongsberg Digital Kongsberg is a continuation of Kongsberg Weapons Factory. After KV’s restructuring in 1987, defence activities continued as the company Norsk Forsvarsteknologi, in 1995 the company changed its name to Kongsberg Gruppen. Kongsberg was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange in 1993 and is a public company, the Norwegian Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries is the largest shareholder with a 50.001 percent interest. Markets outside of Norway pose a growing and increasingly important part of business, the company’s origin and background dates back to the early 1600s. The discovery of silver in the mountains around Kongsberg in 1624 meant that the city became an important mineral resource for the Danish Norwegian kingdom. When the Danish-Norwegian union was dissolved about 200 years later there was a need to build up a defence that would contribute to independence. There was a need for a defence industry, and Kongsberg already had expertise after centuries of mining. On 20 March 1814 Poul Steenstrup founded Kongsberg Vaabenfabrik,1814 was an important year for Norway. The nation wrote its constitution and in conjunction to this Kongsberg Weapons Factory was founded by mining superintendent Poul Steenstrup on March 20,1814, the weapons factory was one of the nations first industrial factories. Kongsberg Silver Mines experienced a recession and as a consequence Kongsberg suffered distress, there was a need to create new jobs. In addition Norway was marked by the desire for independence. Kongsbergs mining traditions - established over several centuries - provided a basis for building a knowledge-based business. Skilled mining engineers were now assigned to develop the new cornerstone company, the Weapons Factory quickly began producing rifles for the Norwegian Armed Forces. A number of models were developed and delivered throughout the 19th century, the major international breakthrough came in 1888 when director Ole Herman Johannes Krag and corps gunsmith Erik Jørgensen showcased a new type of rifle. International breakthrough came with the Krag–Jørgensen rifle in 1892, the rifles mechanism proved to be something quite revolutionary in the arms industry. The Krag–Jørgensen rifle was first adopted as a rifle by the Danish Army in 1889. Three years later the rifle became a world-known concept when the United States decided to equip their soldiers with the rifle, the Krag turned out to be one of the first major export contracts for the Norwegian industry

15.
Raytheon
–
The Raytheon Company is a major U. S. defense contractor and industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in weapons and military and commercial electronics. It was previously involved in corporate and special-mission aircraft until early 2007, Raytheon is the worlds largest producer of guided missiles. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959, the company has around 63,000 employees worldwide and annual revenues of approximately US$25 billion. More than 90% of Raytheons revenues were obtained from military contracts and, as of 2012, as of 2015, it is the third largest defense contractor in the United States by defense revenue. Raytheons headquarters moved from Lexington, Massachusetts, to Waltham, Massachusetts and its focus, which was originally on new refrigeration technology, soon shifted to electronics. The companys first product was a rectifier that was based on Charles Smiths earlier astronomical research of the star Zeta Puppis. The electron tube was christened with the name Raytheon and was used in a battery eliminator and this made it possible to convert household alternating current to direct current for radios and thus eliminate the need for expensive, short-lived batteries. In 1925, the changed its name to Raytheon Manufacturing Company and began marketing its rectifier, under the Raytheon brand name. In 1928 Raytheon merged with Q. R. S, Company, an American manufacturer of electron tubes and switches, to form the successor of the same name, Raytheon Manufacturing Company. In 1933 it diversified by acquiring Acme-Delta Company, a producer of transformers, power equipment, by the 1930s, it had already grown to become one of the worlds largest vacuum tube manufacturing companies. Within a few months of being awarded the contract, Raytheon had already begun to mass manufacture magnetron tubes for use in radar sets, at wars end in 1945 the company was responsible for about 80 percent of all magnetrons manufactured. During the war Raytheon also pioneered the production of radar systems. Raytheon ranked 71st among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, Raytheons research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheons Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food, in 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use. In 1945, the company expanded its electronics capability through acquisitions that included the Submarine Signal Company, with its broadened capabilities, Raytheon developed the first guidance system for a missile that could intercept a flying target. In 1948, Raytheon began to manufacture guided missiles, in 1950, its Lark missile became the first such weapon to destroy a target aircraft in flight. Raytheon then received military contracts to develop the air-to-air Sparrow and ground-to-air Hawk missiles—projects that received impetus from the Korean War, in later decades, it remained a major producer of missiles, among them the Patriot antimissile missile and the air-to-air Phoenix missile. In the same year, it changed its name to Raytheon Company, in the 1950s, Raytheon began manufacturing transistors, including the CK722, priced and marketed to hobbyists

16.
North-West Rebellion
–
The Métis believed that Canada had failed to protect their rights, their land and their survival as a distinct people. He had a force of a couple hundred Métis and a number of Aboriginal at Batoche in May 1885. Despite some notable victories at Duck Lake, Fish Creek and Cut Knife. Riel was captured and put on trial and he was convicted of treason and despite many pleas across Canada for amnesty, he was hanged. Riel became the martyr to Francophone Canada and ethnic tensions escalated into a major national division that was never resolved. Although only a few hundred people were affected in Saskatchewan. A much more important long-term impact was the bitter alienation French speakers across Canada showed, Laurent, St. Louis, and Duck Lake on or near the South Saskatchewan River. In 1882, surveyors began dividing the land of the newly formed District of Saskatchewan in the concession system. The Métis lands were laid out in the system of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their French-Canadian culture. Not having clear title the Métis feared losing their land which, in 1884, the Métis asked Louis Riel to return from the United States, where he had fled after the Red River Rebellion, to appeal to the government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response, the role of aboriginal peoples prior to—and during—the outbreak of the rebellion is often misunderstood. A number of factors have created the misconception that the Cree, thus, widespread dissatisfaction with the treaties and rampant poverty spurred Big Bear, a Cree chief, to embark on a diplomatic campaign to renegotiate the terms of the treaties. When the Cree initiated violence in the spring of 1885, it was almost certainly unrelated to the revolt of Riel, in both the Frog Lake Massacre and the Siege of Fort Battleford, small dissident groups of Cree men revolted against the authority of Big Bear and Poundmaker. For Riel and the Métis, several factors had changed since the Red River Rebellion, the railway had been completed across the prairies in 1883, though sections were still under construction north of Lake Superior, making it easier for the government to get troops into the area. In addition, the North-West Mounted Police had been created, developing a local force. Riel lacked support from English settlers of the area as well as the majority of tribes. Riels claim that God had sent him back to Canada as a prophet caused Catholic officials to try to minimize his support, the Catholic priest, Albert Lacombe, worked to obtain assurances from Crowfoot that his Blackfoot warriors would not participate in a rebellion. Map of Battle Sites Chronology of Events The District of Saskatchewan, to the east, the Carrot River sub-district with 1,770 people remained quiet

17.
First World War
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

18.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

19.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S

20.
October Crisis
–
The October Crisis occurred in October 1970 in the province of Quebec in Canada, mainly in the Montreal metropolitan area. Members of the Front de libération du Québec kidnapped the provincial cabinet minister Pierre Laporte, in response, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act. The kidnappers murdered Laporte, and negotiations led to Crosss release, the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa, and the Mayor of Montreal, Jean Drapeau, supported Trudeaus invocation of the War Measures Act, which limited civil liberties. The police were enabled with far-reaching powers, and they arrested and detained, without bail,497 individuals, the Quebec government also requested military aid to the civil power, and Canadian Forces deployed throughout Quebec, they acted in a support role to the civil authorities of Quebec. At the time, opinion polls throughout Canada, including in Quebec, the response, however, was criticized at the time by prominent politicians such as René Lévesque and Tommy Douglas. From 1963 to 1970 the Quebec nationalist group Front de libération du Québec detonated over 95 bombs, other targets included Montreal City Hall, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, armed forces recruiting offices, railway tracks, and army installations. By 1970,23 members of the FLQ were in prison, October 5, Montreal, Quebec, Two members of the Liberation Cell of the FLQ kidnap British Trade Commissioner James Cross from his home. The kidnappers are disguised as delivery men bringing a package for his recent birthday, once the maid lets them in, they pull out a rifle and a revolver and kidnap Cross. The terms of the note are the same as those found in June for the planned kidnapping of the U. S. consul. At this time, the police do not connect the two, October 8, Broadcast of the FLQ Manifesto in all French- and English-speaking media outlets in Quebec. Members of the Chenier cell of the FLQ kidnap Laporte, October 11, The CBC broadcasts a letter from captivity from Pierre Laporte to the Premier of Quebec, Robert Bourassa. October 12, General Gilles Turcot sends troops to patrol the Montreal region, lawyer Robert Lemieux is appointed by the FLQ to negotiate the release of James Cross and Pierre Laporte. The Quebec Government appoints Robert Demers, October 13, Prime Minister Trudeau is interviewed by the CBC with respect to the military presence. In a combative interview, Trudeau asks the reporter, Tim Ralfe, when Ralfe asks Trudeau how far he would go Trudeau replies, Just watch me. October 14, Sixteen prominent Quebec personalities, including René Lévesque and Claude Ryan, FLQs lawyer Robert Lemieux urges Université de Montréal students to boycott classes in support of FLQ. October 15, Quebec City, The negotiations between lawyers Lemieux and Demers are put to an end, the Government of Quebec formally requests the intervention of the Canadian army in aid of the civil power pursuant to the National Defence Act. All three opposition parties, including the Parti Québécois, rise in the National Assembly and agree with the decision, on the same day, separatist groups are permitted to speak at the Université de Montréal. The rally frightens many Canadians, who view it as a prelude to outright insurrection in Quebec

October Crisis
–
Troop movements during the surrender of the Chenier Cell
October Crisis
–
A postal box in Montreal bearing the graffiti FLQ oui (FLQ yes) in July 1971. The FLQ conducted several bombings of post boxes which typically bore a decal of the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada.
October Crisis
–
Canadian forces stand guard in downtown Montreal. (Image: Montreal Gazette October 18, 1970)

21.
Gulf War
–
The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991

22.
Bosnian War
–
The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina

23.
Oka Crisis
–
The Oka Crisis or Oka Resistance was a land dispute between a group of Mohawk people and the town of Oka, Quebec, Canada, which began on July 11,1990, and lasted until September 26,1990. Sûreté du Québec Corporal Marcel Lemay was killed by a bullet, the dispute was the first well-publicized violent conflict between First Nations and the Canadian government in the late 20th century. The crisis developed from a dispute between the town of Oka and the Mohawk community of Kanesatake, Quebec. The town of Oka was developing plans to expand a golf course and it included pineland and a burial ground, marked by standing tombstones of their ancestors. The Mohawks had filed a claim for the allegedly sacred grove and burial ground near Kanesatake. The Mohawk claimed that the grant included about nine square miles reserved exclusively for their use. Although the Sulpician Seminary was supposed to hold the land in trust for them, in 1868, one year after Confederation, the chief of the Oka Mohawk people, Joseph Onasakenrat, wrote a letter to the seminary condemning it for illegally holding the land and demanding its return. The petition produced no results for the Mohawks, in 1869 Onasakenrat attacked the seminary with a small armed force, after giving the missionaries eight days to hand over the land. Local authorities ended this stand-off with force, in 1936, the seminary sold the remaining territory for development and vacated the area, under protest by the local Mohawk community. At the time still kept cattle on the common land. In 1961, the city built a private golf course. The Mohawk filed suit against its construction but, by the time the case was heard, construction also began on a parking lot and golf greens adjacent to the Mohawk cemetery. In 1977, the band filed a land claim with the federal Office of Native Claims regarding the land. The claim was accepted for filing, and funds were provided for research of the claim. Nine years later, the claim was rejected, on the grounds of failing to meet key legal criteria, in March 1989, the Club de golf dOka announced plans to expand the golf course by an additional 9 holes. Protests by Mohawks and others, as well as concern from the Quebec Minister of the Environment, led to negotiations, the tensions between native and non-native people in Canada have been high around communities bordering reserves, mainly over competing uses of land. Such tensions contributed to the Oka Crisis, in addition, he had approved development of sixty luxury condominiums in a section of the pines. As the Office of Native Claims had rejected the Mohawk claim on the three years earlier, his office did not consult the Mohawk on the plans

Oka Crisis
–
Ronald "Lasagna" Cross, an aboriginal activist, confronts a Royal 22nd Regiment perimeter sentry while surrounded by media
Oka Crisis
–
Pte. Patrick Cloutier, a 'Van Doo' perimeter sentry, and Mohawk Warrior Brad Larocque, a University of Saskatchewan economics student, face off during the Oka Crisis (Image: Shaney Komulainen of Canadian Press, September 1, 1990)
Oka Crisis
–
Richard Nicholas stands atop an overturned Sûreté du Québec van as part of the barricade. Photograph by Tom Hanson, Canadian Press.
Oka Crisis
–
Members of the Seton Lake Indian Band blockade the BC Rail line in support of Oka, while a Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer looks on. Later in the day, several of the elders protesting were arrested and a confrontation with the band community ensued as Mounties marched the squad cars holding those arrested through the reserve en route to Lillooet.

24.
Iraq War
–
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that toppled the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces. An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3–4 years of conflict and it became re-involved in 2014 at the head of a new coalition, the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict continue. The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U. S. joined by the United Kingdom and several allies, launching a shock. Iraqi forces were overwhelmed as U. S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Baathist government, President Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year, the United States responded with a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U. S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Barack Obama, the U. S. formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011. Select U. S. officials accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship, after the invasion, no substantial evidence was found to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced heavy criticism within the U. S. in the aftermath of the invasion, Iraq held multi-party elections in 2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office until 2014, the al-Maliki government enacted policies that were widely seen as having the effect of alienating the countrys Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. The Iraq War caused hundreds of thousands of civilian, and thousands of military casualties, the majority of casualties occurred as a result of the insurgency and civil conflicts between 2004 and 2007. A1990 Frontline report on The arming of Iraq said, Officially, most Western nations participated in an arms embargo against Iraq during the 1980s. Western companies, primarily in Germany and Great Britain, but also in the United States, sold Iraq the key technology for its chemical, missile, any Western governments seemed remarkably indifferent, if not enthusiastic, about those deals. N Washington, the government consistently followed a policy which allowed and perhaps encouraged the growth of Saddam Husseins arsenal. The Western arming of Iraq took place in the context of the Iran-Iraq War, prior to September 2002, the CIA was the George W. Bush administrations main provider of intelligence on Iraq. The agency was out to disprove linkage between Iraq and terrorism the Pentagon adviser told me, the U. N. had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance. This was confirmed by The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, during 2002, Bush repeatedly warned of military action against Iraq unless inspections were allowed to progress unfettered. In accordance with U. N. Security Council Resolution 1441, Iraq agreed to new inspections under United Nations Monitoring, as part of its weapons inspection obligations, Iraq was required to supply a full declaration of its current weapons capabilities and manufacturing

25.
Somali Civil War
–
The Somali Civil War is an ongoing civil war taking place in Somalia. It grew out of resistance to the Siad Barre regime during the 1980s, the clan-based armed opposition groups eventually managed to overthrow the Barre government in 1991. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the vacuum and turmoil that followed. In 1990–92 customary law temporarily collapsed due to the fighting and this precipitated the arrival of UNOSOM I UN military observers in July 1992, followed by larger peacekeeping forces. Factional fighting continued in the south, in the absence of a central government, Somalia became a failed state. The UN withdrew in 1995, having incurred significant casualties, after the collapse of the central government, there was some return to customary and religious law in most regions. In 1991 and 1998, two regional governments were also established in the northern part of the country. This led to a decrease in the intensity of the fighting. In 2000, the Transitional National Government was established, followed by the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, the trend towards reduced conflict halted in 2005, and sustained and destructive conflict took place in the south in 2005–07. However, the fighting was of a lower scale and intensity than in the early 1990s. In 2006, Ethiopian troops seized most of the south from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union, the ICU then splintered into more radical groups, notably Al-Shabaab, which have since been fighting the Somali government and the AU-mandated AMISOM peacekeeping force for control of the country. Somalia topped the annual Fragile States Index for six years between 2008 and 2013, in October 2011, following preparatory meetings, Kenyan troops entered southern Somalia to fight Al-Shabaab, and to establish a buffer zone inside Somalia. Kenyan troops were integrated into the multinational force in February 2012. The Federal Government of Somalia was later established in August 2012, International stakeholders and analysts have subsequently begun to describe Somalia as a fragile state, which is making some progress towards stability. In May 1986, Barre suffered serious injuries in an accident near Mogadishu. He was treated in a hospital in Saudi Arabia for head injuries, broken ribs, lieutenant General Mohamed Ali Samatar, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in an effort to hold on to power, Barres ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council became increasingly authoritarian and arbitrary. This caused opposition to his regime to grow, Barre in turn tried to quell the unrest by abandoning appeals to nationalism, relying more and more on his own inner circle, and exploiting historical clan animosities

26.
2011 Libyan Civil War
–
The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council. In early March, Gaddafis forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before reaching Benghazi, a further UN resolution authorised member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya, and to use all necessary measures to prevent attacks on civilians. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but fighting continued, throughout the conflict, rebels rejected government offers of a ceasefire and efforts by the African Union to end the fighting because the plans set forth did not include the removal of Gaddafi. On 16 September 2011, the National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the representative of Libya. Muammar Gaddafi remained at large until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed in Sirte, the National Transitional Council declared the liberation of Libya and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011. In the aftermath of the war, a low-level insurgency by former Gaddafi loyalists continued. A much greater issue has been the role of militias which fought in the civil war and these unresolved issues led directly to a second civil war in Libya. Muammar Gaddafi was the head of the Free Officers, a group of Arab nationalists that deposed King Idris I in 1969 in a bloodless coup and he abolished the Libyan Constitution of 1951, considering it a neocolonial document. From 1969 until 1975 standards of living, life expectancy and literacy grew rapidly, in 1975 he published his manifesto The Green Book. He officially stepped down from power in 1977, and subsequently claimed to be merely a figurehead until 2011. Under Gaddafi, Libya was theoretically a decentralized, direct democracy state run according to the philosophy of Gaddafis The Green Book, according to Freedom House, however, these structures were often manipulated to ensure the dominance of Gaddafi, who reportedly continued to dominate all aspects of government. WikiLeaks disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafis mastery of tactical maneuvering and this extended even to his own sons, as he repeatedly changed affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival. Both Gaddafi and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, however, officially denied that he held any power, while he was popularly seen as a demagogue in the West, Gaddafi always portrayed himself as a statesman-philosopher. According to several Western media sources, Gaddafi feared a coup against his government. The Libyan Army consisted of about 50,000 personnel and its most powerful units were four crack brigades of highly equipped and trained soldiers, composed of members of Gaddafis tribe or members of other tribes loyal to him. One, the Khamis Brigade, was led by his son Khamis, local militias and Revolutionary Committees across the country were also kept well-armed. By contrast, regular units were poorly armed and trained. By the end of Gaddafis 42 years rule, Libyas population had a per capita income of $14,000, a broadly secular society was imposed

2011 Libyan Civil War
–
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Libyan National Security Adviser Mutassim Gaddafi in 2009
2011 Libyan Civil War
2011 Libyan Civil War
–
Protests on Al Oroba Street, Bayda, 13 January 2011
2011 Libyan Civil War
–
Graffiti in Benghazi, drawing the connection to the Arab Spring

27.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth

French language
–
The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100 Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".

28.
Armed forces
–
The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly

29.
Primary Reserve
–
The reserve force is represented, though not commanded, at the national level by the Chief of Reserves and Cadets. This is usually a general or Rear Admiral. The Naval Reserve is the formation of the Royal Canadian Navy. It is organized into 24 Naval Reserve Divisions, shore-based training facilities located in communities across the country, each NRD has a small cadre of full-time reservists and regular force members to coordinate training and administration, but is for the most part directed by the divisions part-time leadership. Training is conducted year round with regular force counterparts at the three Canadian Forces Fleet Schools and reservists frequently deploy on regular force ships to augment ships companies. The Naval Reserve supplies all personnel for the 12 Kingston-class Maritime Coastal Defence Vessels, the Naval Reserve has a funded manning level of 4,000. The Army Reserve of the Canadian Army is the largest part of the Primary Reserve and it is sometimes referred to by its original and historic name, the Militia. During operations the Army Reserve is tasked to provide trained and equipped troops to augment the regular army. It forms the framework needed to raise an army during wartime. This fighting mission has not changed much since the Second World War and this perpetuates the regimental system in the reserve army so that it is available as such for the timely absorption of recruits in case of war or in aid of the civil power. Such as when the need may one day arise, to call out more than 26,000 supplementary reservists and cadet instructors, to reinforce the order of battle, however, in practice the regimental system exists as an important military institution for Canada. In addition to the tactical contribution provided for today’s Total Force they also provide a deep-rooted community tie, the true strength of the Army Reserve is the strong connection that the extended regimental family fosters with the community. Many of these activities are overseen by the honorary colonel. Although the vast Canadian geography and demographic factors impact unit composition they mostly functions in much the same way, during peacetime the Regimental establishment will only be the equivalent of a much reduced battalion of a couple hundred troops and less in some cases. The regiment’s subordinate units consist of one training company that may include a platoon devoted to inducting recruits, the Training Company provides candidates for basic courses run at the brigades Battle School and combat arms training conducted at the Divisional Training Centre. Once the soldiers are trade-qualified, they return to their units to serve in the company that is ready. Each unit will usually deploy a reduced company of two platoons, one of these consisting of younger soldiers who have just passed through qualification training. The battle group is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel selected on a rotational basis from one of the brigade units

30.
Canadian Rangers
–
Formally established on May 23,1947, a primary role of this part-time force is to conduct surveillance or sovereignty patrols as required. The Canadian Rangers are a force made up of Inuit, First Nations, Métis and non-Aboriginals, however. Canadian Rangers are paid when formally on duty according to the rank they hold within their patrol, the 5000 Canadian Rangers are split between five Canadian Ranger Patrol Groups Canadian Army units, commanded by Lieutenant Colonels and each allocated to a Canadian Division. Each CRPG is unique in its make-up, according to its area of responsibility, its geography, and its ethnic make-up. For instance,3 CRPG, headquartered in Borden Ontario, has a province as its area of operations. Thus the unit structures between 3 CRPG and 4 CRPG are very different, in all cases, it is the job of the Army full-time staff allocated to the CRPGs to lead and administer the Canadian Ranger patrols in their unit. The Patrols themselves are located in remote, isolated, and/or coastal communities around Canada. Canadian Ranger patrols are approximately 30 members strong and are led by sergeants, modern Canadian Rangers can trace their history back to the Pacific Coast Militia Rangers. Some of the officers of the PCMR were Lieutenant-Colonel C. W. Peck, Lieutenant-Colonel A. L. Coote. The Pacific Coast Militia Rangers were officially disbanded on September 30,1945, each Canadian Ranger is issued a red Canadian Ranger sweatshirt, CADPAT pants, combat boots, baseball cap, safety vest, rifle and navigation aids. They are expected to be mostly self-reliant regarding equipment, however, they are also provided with a small amount of patrol-level stores. They are reimbursed for the use of vehicles and equipment and are paid for this use according to the nationally established equipment usage rates. Items that a Canadian Ranger could be reimbursed for include snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, watercraft, trailers, pack horses, sled dog teams, and a variety of tools and equipment. Since 1941, Canadian Rangers have been issued the.303 British calibre Lee–Enfield No 4 rifle and this led Canadian purchasing agents to look to American sources for rifles. At the time the most popular style of rifle in the North American West was the. 30WCF lever action. As such, purchasers figured the Winchester 94/64 and Marlin 1936 would be easy for the Rangers to figure out and it remained in service for over 70 years and proved to be most reliable in the Canadian Arctic environment. 62×51mm NATO and.308 Winchester ammunition. Approximately 10,000 rifles were to be giving the system a service life of about 30 years. With project management provided by Director Land Resources and the new rifles were to be manufactured under licence by Colt Canada, the tender was cancelled in October 2011

Canadian Rangers
–
Canadian Rangers, 2011.
Canadian Rangers
–
Shield of the Canadian Rangers

31.
Department of National Defence (Canada)
–
The Department of National Defence, commonly abbreviated as DND, is a Canadian government department responsible for defending Canadas interests and values at home and abroad. National Defence is the largest department of the Government of Canada in terms of budget as well as staff and it also is the department with the largest number of buildings. The Department is headed by the Deputy Minister of National Defence, who is the Department’s senior civil servant, the Department of National Defence exists to aid the minister in carrying out his responsibilities within the Defence Portfolio, and provides a civilian support system for the Canadian Armed Forces. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces is a separate and distinct organization from, and is not part of. The Department of National Defence is currently headed by Deputy Minister John Forster, the Department of National Defence was established by the National Defence Act, which merged the Department of Militia and Defence, the Department of Naval Services, and the Air Board. The National Defence Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada on June 28,1922, the Minister of National Defence, as the member of cabinet responsible to Parliament for National Defence, heads the Defence Team. The Department of National Defence is headed by the Deputy Minister of National Defence, under the Deputy Minister are a variety of associate deputy and assistant deputy ministers who are responsible for various aspects of the department. The Deputy Minister is appointed by the Governor General on behalf of the Queen of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, there are also a variety of offices and support organizations which report to both the Chief of Defence Staff and the Deputy Minister. The Department is not responsible for all of these organizations itself, the Canadian Forces are a distinct and separate entity from the Department of National Defence

32.
Government of Canada
–
The Government of Canada or more formally Her Majestys Government, is the federal government of Canada, a country in North America, composed of 10 provinces, Ottawa, and 3 territories. The head of government is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, whose party the Liberal Party of Canada won the majority of seats in the Canadian Parliament in the 2015 Canadian federal election, in Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of institutions or specifically the Queen-in-Council. Further elements of governance are outlined in the rest of the Canadian constitution, which includes written statutes, court rulings, in Canadian English, the word government is used to refer both to the whole set of institutions that govern the country, and to the current political leadership. In federal department press releases, the government has sometimes referred to by the phrase Government. The same cabinet earlier directed its press department to use the phrase Canadas New Government, as per the Constitution Acts of 1867 and 1982, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political. The executive is formally called the Queen-in-Council, the legislature the Queen-in-Parliament. The government is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her privy council, however, the Privy Council—consisting mostly of former members of parliament, chief justices of the supreme court, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, one of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic government is always in place, which means appointing a prime minister to thereafter head the Cabinet. The monarch and governor general typically follow the advice of their ministers. The royal and viceroyal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations, politicians can sometimes try to use to their favour the complexity of the relationship between the monarch, viceroy, ministers, and parliament, and the publics general unfamiliarity with it. Per democratic tradition, the House of Commons is the dominant branch of parliament, the Senate, thus, reviews legislation from a less partisan standpoint. The Constitution Act,1867, outlines that the general is responsible for summoning parliament in the Queens name. After a number of sessions, each parliament comes to an end via dissolution. As a general election typically follows, the timing of a dissolution is usually politically motivated, the sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the fount of justice. However, she does not personally rule in cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust. Below this is the Federal Court, which cases arising under certain areas of federal law. It works in conjunction with the Federal Court of Appeal and Tax Court of Canada, in some cases, however, the jurisdictions of the federal and provincial parliaments may be more vague. For instance, the federal parliament regulates marriage and divorce in general, other examples include the powers of both the federal and provincial parliaments to impose taxes, borrow money, punish crimes, and regulate agriculture

33.
Title and style of the Canadian monarch
–
The title and style of the Canadian sovereign is the formal mode of address of the monarch of Canada. The form is based on those that were inherited from the United Kingdom and France, the mode of address currently employed is a combination of a style that originates in the early 17th century and a title established by Canadian law in 1953. When composed in 1953, this format was consistent with the titles in her other realms. However, after 40 years of Elizabeths reign, only Canada and Grenada retain this title, all others, aside from the UK itself, removed the reference to the United Kingdom. The monarch is addressed by the title Queen of Canada. For example, Elizabeth II said in 1973. it is as Queen of Canada that I am here, Queen of Canada and of all Canadians, not just of one or two ancestral strains. Although the Queens Canadian titles include Defender of the Faith/Défenseur de la Foi, Defender of the Faith thus has a more vague meaning in the Canadian title, alluding only to the monarchs belief in a higher power. Prime Minister Louis St. Also, while the sovereign holds the nominal title Head of the Commonwealth, the use of the styles of address Highness and Majesty originated in the United Kingdom, where they were used from the 12th century onward. Unlike in the United Kingdom, where the sovereign is referred to in treaties and on British passports as Her Britannic Majesty, however, from time to time, the style will be Her Canadian Majesty so as to differentiate from foreign sovereigns. Canadian styles of address are officially maintained by the Department of Canadian Heritages Protocol Office, following Canadian Confederation, Prime Minister of Canada John A. This wish was not fulfilled, however, and Canada inherited the full British title when the country gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1931. At the time, Robert Gordon Robertson, then a member of the Cabinet Secretariat, opined that Canadians would not like the title King of Canada, have not thought of themselves as citizens of either a republic or a monarchy. It is not a separate office, the new legislation conferred publicly and legally the reality of a unique constitutional monarchy for Canada, thereby fulfilling the vision of the Fathers of Confederation. The Royal Style and Titles Act was amended in 1985, though it did not alter the Queens title in any way

Title and style of the Canadian monarch
–
Elizabeth II, the first Canadian monarch to be titled Queen of Canada

34.
United States Armed Forces
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President

35.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

36.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
–
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved

North Atlantic Treaty Organization
–
The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
–
Flag
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
–
The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
–
Reforms made under Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Warsaw Pact.

37.
NORAD
–
Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command center are located at Peterson Air Force Base in El Paso County, near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center, the NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian three-star general or equivalent. CINCNORAD maintains the NORAD headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base near Colorado Springs, with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. S. Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors, ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces, both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace. Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba and it was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace, the Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, which are designated as the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector, both Sector Operations Control Centers are co-located at CFB North Bay Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status, in 1996 CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg. Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville, All squadrons fly the McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP, the Continental NORAD Region is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States. CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force/AFNORTH and its headquarters is located at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The First Air Force became responsible for the USAF air defense mission on 30 September 1990, AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command. 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises State Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH. The primary weapons systems are the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft and it plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region,1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations, NORAD was recommended by the Joint Canadian-U. S. The 1958 international agreement designated the NORAD commander always be a United States officer, agreed the commands primary purpose would be…early warning and defense for SACs retaliatory forces. The RCAFs 1950 ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System, was discontinued and on 31 January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps was deactivated

NORAD
–
NORAD Regions and Sectors
NORAD
–
NORAD Emblem
NORAD
–
The 25-ton North blast door in the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker is the main entrance to another blast door (background) beyond which the side tunnel branches into access tunnels to the main chambers.
NORAD
–
NORAD/ USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center prior to the Cheyenne Mountain Realignment.

38.
History of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
The history of the Royal Canadian Navy goes back to 1910, when the naval force was created as the Naval Service of Canada and renamed a year later by King George V. The Royal Canadian Navy is one of the three commands of the Canadian Forces. In 1968, the RCN was amalgamated with the Canadian Army, the naval force was known as Maritime Command until 2011, when the environmental command was renamed as the Royal Canadian Navy. During the early years of the 20th century, there was growing debate within the British Empire as to the role the Dominions would play in defence, because of the developing naval arms race with Germany, a key part of this discussion focused on naval issues. After extensive political debates, Canadian politicians chose the latter option, on 29 March 1909, George Foster introduced a resolution in the House of Commons calling for the establishment of a Canadian Naval Service. The resolution was not successful, however, on 12 January 1910, a request to change name of the Naval Service of Canada to Royal Canadian Navy on 30 January 1911, brought a favourable reply from King George V on 29 August of that year. The naval college was established in the dockyard at Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1911 as Royal Naval College of Canada, the Royal Naval College was established to impart a complete education in Naval Science. Graduates were qualified to enter the Imperial or Canadian Service as midshipmen although a Naval career was not compulsory, the program aimed to develop both the physical and mental including discipline, the ability to obey and take charge, and honour. Candidates had to be between their fourteenth and sixteenth birthdays on 1 July following the examination, the original Royal Naval College of Canada facilities were destroyed in December 1917 in the Halifax Explosion. What could be salvaged was moved to HMCS Stone Frigate at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, the Royal Canadian Naval College moved in 1919 to a building in the naval dockyard at Esquimalt, British Columbia. The college was closed in 1922, to form the nucleus of its new navy, and to train Canadians for the countrys planned fleet of five cruisers and six destroyers, Canada acquired two ships from Great Britain. The cruiser HMCS Rainbow was the first ship commissioned into Canadas navy on 4 August 1910, at Portsmouth and she arrived at Esquimalt on 7 November 1910, and carried out fishery patrols and training duties on Canadas west coast. These initial plans encountered significant setbacks following Lauriers defeat in the 1911 federal election, the new Conservative government, led by Robert Borden, had opposed the Naval Service Act while they were in opposition. At the urging of the Admiraltys First Sea Lord Sir Winston Churchill and this plan was far more costly than Lauriers original plan of the Canadian-built fleet, and would reap no benefits to Canadian industries whatsoever. On 5 December 1912, Borden introduced the Naval Aid Bill as a contribution to the British Royal Navy. The Act was soundly defeated by the Liberal-majority Senate two weeks later, the Royal Canadian Navy now found itself in limbo, with very limited funds for operations, two obsolescent cruisers, and no prospect of new ships being built or acquired. Despite the problems of early years, some Canadians were still active supporters of a national navy. Building on earlier, unofficial efforts, a volunteer reserve came into being in May 1914 as the Royal Naval Canadian Volunteer Reserve and its initial establishment was 1,200 men, and it was divided into three distinct geographic areas, Atlantic, Pacific, and Lake

History of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
HMCS Rainbow in 1910
History of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
Royal Naval College of Canada c. 1912-3
History of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
Royal Naval College of Canada c. 1913
History of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
Recruiting poster featuring HMCS Rainbow

39.
Canadian Confederation
–
Canadian Confederation was the process by which the British colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were united into one Dominion of Canada on July 1,1867. Upon confederation, the old province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec, along with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, over the years since Confederation, Canada has seen numerous territorial changes and expansions, resulting in the current configuration of ten provinces and three territories. Canada is a federation and not an association of sovereign states. It is nevertheless considered to be among the worlds more decentralized federations. To contemporaries of Confederation the con- prefix indicated a strengthening of the centrist principle compared to the American federation, the term is now often used to describe Canada in an abstract way, such as in the Fathers of Confederation. Provinces and territories became part of Canada after 1867 are also said to have joined, or entered into. The term is used to divide Canadian history into pre-Confederation and post-Confederation periods. All the former colonies and territories that became involved in the Canadian Confederation on July 1,1867, were part of New France. Nova Scotia was granted in 1621 to Sir William Alexander under charter by James VI, the British acquired present-day mainland Nova Scotia by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 and the Acadian population was expelled by the British in 1755. They called Acadia Nova Scotia, which included present-day New Brunswick, the rest of New France was acquired by the British by the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War. From 1763 to 1791, most of New France became the Province of Quebec, however, in 1769 the present-day Prince Edward Island, which had been part of Acadia, was renamed St Johns Island and organized as a separate colony. It was renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798 in honour of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the first English attempt at settlement had been in Newfoundland, which would not join the Confederation until 1949. The Society of Merchant Venturers of Bristol began to settle Newfoundland and Labrador at Cupers Cove as far back as 1610, in the wake of the American Revolution, an estimated 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America. The British created the colony of New Brunswick in 1784 for the Loyalists who settled in the western part of Nova Scotia. The War of 1812 and Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the border with the United States from the Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains in Western Canada. As a result of Durhams report, the British Parliament passed the Act of Union 1840, the new province was divided into two parts, Canada West and Canada East. Governor General Lord Elgin granted ministerial responsibility in 1848, first to Nova Scotia, in the following years, the British would extend responsible government to Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. The area which constitutes modern-day British Columbia is the remnants of the Hudsons Bay Companys Columbia District and New Caledonia District following the Oregon Treaty

Canadian Confederation
–
1885 photo of Robert Harris ' 1884 painting, Conference at Quebec in 1864, to settle the basics of a union of the British North American Provinces, also known as The Fathers of Confederation. The original painting was destroyed in the 1916 Parliament Buildings Centre Block fire. The scene is an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and Quebec City conference sites and attendees.
Canadian Confederation
–
Hon George-Étienne Cartier
Canadian Confederation
–
Map of the Eastern British Provinces in North America at the time of Canadian Confederation, 1867.
Canadian Confederation
–
Delegates of the Charlottetown Conference on the steps of Government House, September 1864.

40.
Red River Rebellion
–
For a period it had been a territory called Ruperts Land under control of the Hudsons Bay Company. The Rebellion was the first crisis of the new government faced following Canadian Confederation in 1867. The Canadian government had bought Ruperts Land from the Hudsons Bay Company in 1869 and appointed an English-speaking governor and he was opposed by the French-speaking, mostly Métis inhabitants of the settlement. Before the land was transferred to Canada, McDougall sent out surveyors to plot the land according to the square township system used in Ontario. The Métis, led by Riel, prevented McDougall from entering the territory, McDougall declared that the Hudsons Bay Company was no longer in control of the territory and that Canada had asked for the transfer of sovereignty to be postponed. The Métis created a government, to which they invited an equal number of Anglophone representatives. Riel negotiated directly with the Canadian government to establish Manitoba as a province, meanwhile, Riels men arrested members of a pro-Canadian faction who had resisted the provisional government. They included an Orangeman named Thomas Scott, Riels government tried and convicted Scott, and executed him for threatening to murder Louis Riel. Canada and the Assiniboia provisional government soon negotiated an agreement, in 1870, the national legislature passed the Manitoba Act, allowing the Red River Colony to enter Confederation as the province of Manitoba. The Act also incorporated some of Riels demands, such as provision of separate French schools for Métis children, after reaching agreement, Canada sent a military expedition to Manitoba to enforce federal authority. Now known as the Wolseley Expedition, it consisted of Canadian militia, outrage grew in Ontario over Scotts execution, and many eastern folk demanded that Wolseleys expedition arrest Riel for murder and suppress what they considered to be rebellion. Riel peacefully withdrew from Fort Garry the day the troops arrived, warned by many that the soldiers would harm him, and denied amnesty for his political leadership of the rebellion, Riel fled to the United States. The arrival of troops marked the end of the Rebellion, during the late 1860s the Red River Colony of Ruperts Land was changing rapidly. It had developed under the aegis of the Hudsons Bay Company and they had been confirmed on this territory by Queen Anne, who had evicted from it Louis XIV and his subjects through the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Further notice was given when in 1763 George III dispossessed Louis XV of nearly all his North American colonies in the Treaty of Paris. Historically, the population had been composed mainly of Francophone Métis, who developed an ethnicity of mixed First Nations-French descent and a unique culture during the decades of the fur trade. During the 18th and 19th centuries, they married among themselves, establishing a tradition of the men working as trappers, guides and interpreters to fur traders, Métis women also were sometimes active in the trade, as among several influential families in Sault Ste. Marie in the early 19th century in which the husbands were European, the Métis culture was based in the French language and Roman Catholic religion

41.
British North America
–
British North America refers to the former territories of the British Empire in mainland North America. The term was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America and these territories today form modern-day Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. British colonization of North America, began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1775, on the eve of the American Revolution, the British Empire included 20 territories in the Western Hemisphere northeast of New Spain. Nova Scotia was split into modern-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in 1784, the part of Quebec retained after 1783 was split into the primarily French-speaking Lower Canada and the primarily English-speaking Upper Canada in 1791. After the War of 1812, the Treaty of 1818 established the 49th parallel as the United States–British North America border from Ruperts Land west to the Rocky Mountains. Britain gave up Oregon south of the 49th parallel, which was part of the Hudsons Bay Companys Columbia District, the boundary of British North America with Maine was clarified by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The Canadas were united into the Province of Canada in 1841, the former Province of Canada was split back into its pre-1841 parts, with Canada East renamed Quebec, and Canada West renamed Ontario. These were the four provinces of Canada. In 1870, Ruperts Land was annexed to Canada as the Northwest Territories, British Columbia, the British colony on the west coast north of the 49th parallel, joined as Canadas sixth province in 1871, and Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. The boundary of British Columbia with Washington Territory was settled by arbitration in 1872, the Arctic Archipelago was ceded by Britain to Canada in 1880 and added to the Northwest Territories. Subsequently, large sections of the NWT were split off as new territories or provinces, in 1949 the island of Newfoundland, and its associated mainland territory of Labrador, joined Canada as the tenth province. This agreement was implemented when the British Parliament passed the Constitution Act of 1982 at the request of Parliament of Canada. From 1783 to 1801 it was administered by the Home Office and by the Home Secretary, then from 1801 to 1854 under the War Office and Secretary of State for War, when the Colonial Office was re-established it was under the responsibility of the Colonial Secretary. Prince Edward Island Terms of Union, the Peopling of British North America, An Introduction excerpt and text search Cooke, Jacob E. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies Foster, Stephen, ed. British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries excerpt and text search,11 essays by scholars Garner, the franchise and politics in British North America, 1755–1867 Gipson, Lawrence Henry. The British Empire Before the American Revolution, extremely comprehensive study, Pulitzer Prize Morton, the Kingdom of Canada, A General History from Earliest Times Savelle, Max. Empires To Nations, Expansion In America 1713-1824 online

42.
The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
–
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. It is part of 33 Canadian Brigade Group, 4th Canadian Division and is headquartered in Cornwall, the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders originated in Cornwall, Ontario, on 3 July 1868, as the 59th Stormont and Glengarry Battalion of Infantry. 154th Battalion, CEF The battalion was called out on service on 24 May 1870. It served on the St. Lawrence River frontier until it was removed from service on 1 June 1870. Details of the 59th Stormont and Glengarry Regiment were placed on service on 6 August 1914 for local protection duties. The battalion was subsequentlty disbanded on 17 July 1917 and those details called out on active service were disbanded on 31 December 1940. The regiment mobilized the The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders and it was redesignated as the 1st Battalion, The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders, CASF on 7 November 1940. The unit embarked for Great Britain on 19 July 1941. On D-Day,6 June 1944, it landed in Normandy, France, as part of the 9th Infantry Brigade, 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, the overseas battalion was disbanded on 15 January 1946. The regiment mobilized the 3rd Battalion, The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders, CIC and this battalion was disbanded on 24 May 1946. The regiment contributed an aggregate of more than 20% of its strength to the various Task Forces which served in Afghanistan between 2002 and 2014. In the list below, battle honours in capitals were awarded for participation in operations and campaigns. Those battle honours in bold type are emblazoned on the regimental colour, in 1804, veterans of the Glengarry Fencibles, a Highland regiment that served in Europe with the British Army, settled just north of the American Revolutionary War veterans. The first militia unit west of Montreal was organized at Cornwall in 1787 under the command of Major John Macdonnell, during the War of 1812, the area militia and the Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles helped the British Army fight off the Americans. For a long time, breaks in continuity with the pre-Confederation period denied the regiment the Niagara battle honour. After 1814, and Stormont and Dundas counties soon had two regiments each and Glengarry County had four. All units fought the rebels of 1837–1838, two in Lower Canada and three at the 1838 Battle of the Windmill, where 10 militiamen were killed and 13 wounded, the 1855 Militia Act introduced voluntary service, and the United Counties raised four independent companies in 1862. Nine Stormont and Glengarry men served in the Second Boer War, the 154th Battalion went overseas but was broken up to reinforce the Iron Second, the 21st and 38th Battalions and the 4th Canadian Mounted Rifles

The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
–
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
–
The camp flag of the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders.
The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
–
The regimental colour of the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders.
The Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders

43.
City of Halifax
–
Halifax, legally known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, is the capital of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The municipality had a population of 403,131 in 2016, the regional municipality consists of four former municipalities that were amalgamated in 1996, Halifax, Dartmouth, Bedford, and the Municipality of Halifax County. Halifax is an economic centre in Atlantic Canada with a large concentration of government services. Agriculture, fishing, mining, forestry and natural gas extraction are major resource found in the rural areas of the municipality. Additionally, Halifax has consistently placed in the top 10 for business friendliness of North and South American cities, the first permanent European settlement in the region was on the Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the 2nd Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War. Cornwallis brought along 1,176 settlers and their families, St. Margarets Bay was first settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, Nova Scotia during the American Revolution. The resulting explosion, the Halifax Explosion, devastated the Richmond District of Halifax, killing approximately 2,000 people, the blast was the largest artificial explosion before the development of nuclear weapons. Significant aid came from Boston, strengthening the bond between the two coastal cities, the municipal boundary thus now includes all of Halifax County except for several First Nation reserves. Since amalgamation, the region has officially been known as the Halifax Regional Municipality, on April 15,2014, the regional council approved the implementation of a new branding campaign for the region developed by the local firm Revolve Marketing. The campaign would see the region referred to in promotional materials simply as Halifax, mayor Mike Savage defended the decision, stating, Im a Westphal guy, Im a Dartmouth man, but Halifax is my city, we’re all part of Halifax. Because when I go and travel on behalf of this municipality, metropolitan Halifax is a term used to describe the urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour, including the Halifax Peninsula, the core of Dartmouth, and the Bedford-Sackville areas. It is the Statistics Canada population centre of Halifax, the dense urban core is centred on the Halifax Peninsula and the area of Dartmouth inside of the Circumferential Highway. The suburban area stretches into areas known as Mainland Halifax to the west, Cole Harbour to the east and this urban area is the most populous on Canadas Atlantic coast, and the second largest coastal population centre in the country after Vancouver, British Columbia. Halifax currently accounts for 40% of Nova Scotias population, and 15% of that of Atlantic Canada, Halifaxs urban core is home to a number of regional landmark buildings and retains significant historic buildings and districts. The downtowns office towers are overlooked by the fortress of Citadel Hill with its iconic Halifax Town Clock, Dalhousie Universitys campus is often featured in films and documentaries. Dartmouth also has its share of historic neighbourhoods and this has resulted in some modern high rises being built at unusual angles or locations

44.
Royal Navy
–
The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive

45.
2nd Canadian Division
–
The 2nd Canadian Division is responsible for Canadian Army operational readiness in the province of Quebec, Canada. The present command was created 2013 when Land Force Quebec Area was redesignated, the division draws its historical lineage from formations that existed during the First and Second World Wars. During the First World War, the division fought on the Western Front before being disbanded in 1919 and it was reformed on 1 September 1939, as part of the First Canadian Army, at the outbreak of the Second World War, adopting the designation 2nd Canadian Infantry Division. On 19 August 1942, with air and naval gunfire support, the Germans were well prepared and, despite being reinforced, the Canadians sustained heavy losses and had to be evacuated, fewer than half their number returning to the United Kingdom. Following a period of reconstruction and retraining in 1942–44, the division joined II Canadian Corps as part of the Second British Army for the Allied Invasion of Normandy, 2nd Division saw significant action from 20 July to 21 August in the battles for Caen and Falaise. The division was deactivated shortly after the end of the war, the formation of the 2nd Canadian Division began in May 1915 in Britain, following the arrival of a large contingent of soldiers from Canada. The 2nd Division remained in Great Britain only a time before embarking for the Western Front in September 1915. It joined the 1st Canadian Division to form the Canadian Corps, the division was under the command of Major General R. E. W. Turner, and its members spent a long and bitterly cold winter in a Belgian section of the front between Ploegsteert Wood and St. Eloi, south of Ypres, the 2nd Canadian Division served on the Western Front until the Armistice of 11 November 1918. 4th Canadian Brigade, 18th Battalion Canadian Infantry,1 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 19th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 20th Battalion Canadian Infantry, October 1914 –11 November 1918, 21st Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 5th Canadian Brigade, 22nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. 21 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 24th Battalion Canadian Infantry,22 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 25th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 28 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 26th Battalion Canadian Infantry,2 November 1914 –11 November 1918. 6th Canadian Brigade 27th Battalion Canadian Infantry,21 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 28th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 29th Battalion Canadian Infantry,24 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 31st Battalion Canadian Infantry. 16 November 1914 –11 November 1918, to the 2nd Canadian Engineer Brigade. The fighting power of this lay in its constituent infantry brigades

46.
Suez Crisis
–
The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale

Suez Crisis
–
Damaged Egyptian equipment
Suez Crisis
–
The location of the Suez Canal, which connects the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.
Suez Crisis
–
Port Said, at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the Mediterranean.
Suez Crisis
–
Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies led an international committee in negotiations with Nasser in September 1956, which sought to achieve international management of the Canal. The mission was a failure.

47.
Invasion of Normandy
–
The Western Allies of World War II launched the largest amphibious invasion in history when they assaulted Normandy, located on the northern coast of France, on 6 June 1944. The invaders were able to establish a beachhead as part of Operation Overlord after a successful D-Day, Allied land forces came from the United States, Britain, Canada, and Free French forces. The Normandy invasion began with overnight parachute and glider landings, massive air attacks, the invasion began and during the evening the remaining elements of the airborne divisions landed. Land forces used on D-Day sailed from bases along the south coast of England, Allied forces rehearsed their D-Day roles for months before the invasion. On 28 April 1944, in south Devon on the English coast,749 U. S. soldiers and sailors were killed when German torpedo boats surprised one of these landing exercises, Exercise Tiger. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allied forces conducted an operation, Operation Fortitude, aimed at misleading the Germans with respect to the date. There were several leaks prior to or on D-Day, through the Cicero affair, the Germans obtained documents containing references to Overlord, but these documents lacked all detail. Double Cross agents, such as the Spaniard Juan Pujol, played an important role in convincing the German High Command that Normandy was at best a diversionary attack. After being told, Eisenhower reduced Miller to lieutenant colonel and sent him back to the U. S. where he retired, another such leak was General Charles de Gaulles radio message after D-Day. He, unlike all the leaders, stated that this invasion was the real invasion. This had the potential to ruin the Allied deceptions Fortitude North, in contrast, Gen. Eisenhower referred to the landings as the initial invasion. A full moon occurred on 6 June, Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. The weather was fine during most of May, but deteriorated in early June, the Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night. It seemed possible that everything would have to be cancelled and the returned to their embarkation camps. The next full moon period would be nearly a month away, at a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhowers chief meteorologist forecast a brief improvement for 6 June. Commander of all forces for the invasion General Bernard Montgomery. Commander of the Allied Air Forces Air Chief Marshal Leigh Mallory was doubtful, on the strength of Staggs forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed. As a result, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, some troops stood down and many senior officers were away for the weekend

Invasion of Normandy
–
Into the Jaws of Death by Robert F. Sargent. Assault craft land one of the first waves at Omaha Beach. The U.S. Coast Guard caption identifies the unit as Company E, 16th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division.
Invasion of Normandy
–
U.S. soldiers march through Weymouth, Dorset en route to board landing ships for the invasion of France.
Invasion of Normandy
–
D-day assault routes into Normandy.
Invasion of Normandy
–
Off Omaha Beach, American Liberty ships – 'Corn Cobs' were scuttled to provide a makeshift breakwater during the early days of the invasion.

48.
Battle of the Scheldt
–
Led by Guy Simonds, the battle took place in northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands during World War II from October 2 to November 8,1944. The well-established Wehrmacht defenders staged an effective delaying action, during which the Germans flooded the Scheldt Estuary, both land and water were mined, and the Germans defended their line of retreat with artillery and snipers. But the advance halted with the British in possession of Antwerp, little was done about the blocked port of Antwerp during September because Operation Market Garden was to form a buffer between Germany and Antwerp, which it succeeded in doing. In the meantime, German forces in the Scheldt were able to deploy defensively, the first attacks occurred on September 13. In early October after operation Market Garden, Allied forces led by the Canadian First Army set out to bring the give the port of Antwerp access to the sea, Montgomery then decided that the importance of Antwerp was such that the actual capture of Dunkirk could be delayed. Under command at that time was Canadian II Corps, with the Polish 1st Armoured Division, 49th and 52nd Divisions attached, Montgomery promised the support of RAF Bomber Command in attacking the German fortifications and that of the USAAF 8th Air Force On the day concerned. The 51st Infantry Division was to give up its transport to enable the movement of forces into position for the battle, abandoning the capture of Dunkirk freed the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division. The plan for opening the Scheldt estuary involved four main operations conducted over daunting geography, the first task was to clear the area north of Antwerp and secure access to South Beveland. Second was to clear the Breskens pocket north of the Leopold Canal, third, dubbed Operation Vitality, was the capture of South Beveland. The final phase would be the capture of Walcheren Island, which had been fortified into a powerful German stronghold, as part of the Atlantic Wall, Walcheren Island was considered to be the strongest concentration of defences the Nazis had ever constructed. The Polish 1st Armoured Division headed for the Dutch-Belgian border further east, an attack was mounted in the vicinity of Moerkerke, crossing the canals and establishing a bridgehead before counter-attacks forced a withdrawal with heavy casualties. The 1st Polish Armoured Division enjoyed greater success to the east as it advanced northeast from Ghent, on October 2, the Canadian 2nd Division began its advance north from Antwerp. Stiff fighting at Woensdrecht ensued on October 6, the objective of the first phase, the Germans—reinforced by Battle Group Chill—saw the priority in holding there, controlling direct access to South Beveland and Walcheren Island. There were heavy casualties as the Canadians attacked over open, flooded land, driving rain, booby traps and land mines made advance very difficult. On October 13, what would come to be known as Black Friday, the Calgary Highlanders were to follow up with a more successful action, and their Carrier Platoon succeeded in taking the rail station at Korteven. Heavy fighting at Hoogerheide also ensued, but by October 16, Woensdrecht was secured, cutting the link to South Beveland. The Canadians had achieved their first objective, but suffered heavy casualties, at this point, recognizing the opportunity, Field-Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery issued a directive that made the opening of the Scheldt estuary the top priority of 21st Army Group. To the east, the British Second Army attacked westward to clear the Netherlands south of the Maas River, meanwhile, Simonds concentrated forces at the neck of the South Beveland peninsula

49.
Battle of the Atlantic
–
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. At its core was the Allied naval blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of war and it was at its height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and these forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from September 13,1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on June 10,1940, as an island nation, the United Kingdom was highly dependent on imported goods. Britain required more than a million tons of imported material per week in order to be able to survive and fight. In essence, the Battle of the Atlantic was a war, the Allied struggle to supply Britain. From 1942 onwards, the Axis also sought to prevent the build-up of Allied supplies, the defeat of the U-boat threat was a pre-requisite for pushing back the Axis. The outcome of the battle was a victory for the Allies—the German blockade failed—but at great cost,3,500 merchant ships and 175 warships were sunk for the loss of 783 U-boats. The name Battle of the Atlantic was coined by Winston Churchill in February 1941 and it has been called the longest, largest, and most complex naval battle in history. The campaign started immediately after the European war began, during the so-called Phoney War and it involved thousands of ships in more than 100 convoy battles and perhaps 1,000 single-ship encounters, in a theatre covering millions of square miles of ocean. The Allies gradually gained the hand, overcoming German surface raiders by the end of 1942 and defeating the U-boats by mid-1943. The first meeting of the Cabinets Battle of the Atlantic Committee was on March 19, Churchill claimed to have coined the phrase Battle of the Atlantic shortly before Alexanders speech, but there are several examples of earlier usage. Following the use of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany in the First World War, countries tried to limit, even abolish, the effort failed. or active resistance to visit or search. This made restrictions on submarines effectively moot, in 1939, the Kriegsmarine lacked the strength to challenge the combined British Royal Navy and French Navy for command of the sea. Instead, German naval strategy relied on commerce raiding using capital ships, armed merchant cruisers, submarines and these ships immediately attacked British and French shipping. U-30 sank the ocean liner SS Athenia within hours of the declaration of war—in breach of her orders not to sink passenger ships, much of the early German anti-shipping activity involved minelaying by destroyers, aircraft and U-boats off British ports. With the outbreak of war, the British and French immediately began a blockade of Germany, the Royal Navy quickly introduced a convoy system for the protection of trade that gradually extended out from the British Isles, eventually reaching as far as Panama, Bombay and Singapore. Convoys allowed the Royal Navy to concentrate its escorts near the one place the U-boats were guaranteed to be found, each convoy consisted of between 30 and 70 mostly unarmed merchant ships

Battle of the Atlantic
–
Officers on the bridge of an escorting British destroyer stand watch for enemy submarines, October 1941.
Battle of the Atlantic
–
VizeadmiralKarl Dönitz, commander of German U-boats (BdU), 1935–1943; Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy, 1943–1945.
Battle of the Atlantic
–
The German submarine base in Lorient
Battle of the Atlantic
–
A U-boat shells a merchant ship which has remained afloat after being torpedoed

50.
List of countries by size of armed forces
–
This is a list of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel. It includes any government-sponsored soldiers used to further the domestic and foreign policies of their respective government, the term country is used in its most common use, in the sense of state which exercises sovereignty or has limited recognition. The list consists of columns which can be sorted by clicking on the title, The names of the states. The number of personnel on active duty that are currently serving full-time in their military capacity. The number of personnel in the reserve forces that are not normally kept under arms. The number of personnel in paramilitary forces, armed units that are not considered part of a formal military forces. The total number of military and paramilitary personnel, and the ratio per thousand inhabitants, as military forces around the world are constantly changing in size, no definitive list can ever be compiled. Some countries, such as Italy and Japan, have only volunteers in their forces, while others, such as Mauritius and Panama, have no national armies. The following list is sourced from the 2014 edition of The Military Balance published annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, center for Strategic and International Studies. The Gulf Military Balance in 2010, center for Strategic and International Studies. Center for Strategic and International Studies

List of countries by size of armed forces
–
Countries by number of active soldiers (2009)

51.
List of countries by number of active troops
–
This is a list of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel. It includes any government-sponsored soldiers used to further the domestic and foreign policies of their respective government, the term country is used in its most common use, in the sense of state which exercises sovereignty or has limited recognition. The list consists of columns which can be sorted by clicking on the title, The names of the states. The number of personnel on active duty that are currently serving full-time in their military capacity. The number of personnel in the reserve forces that are not normally kept under arms. The number of personnel in paramilitary forces, armed units that are not considered part of a formal military forces. The total number of military and paramilitary personnel, and the ratio per thousand inhabitants, as military forces around the world are constantly changing in size, no definitive list can ever be compiled. Some countries, such as Italy and Japan, have only volunteers in their forces, while others, such as Mauritius and Panama, have no national armies. The following list is sourced from the 2014 edition of The Military Balance published annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, center for Strategic and International Studies. The Gulf Military Balance in 2010, center for Strategic and International Studies. Center for Strategic and International Studies

List of countries by number of active troops
–
Countries by number of active soldiers (2009)

52.
Canadian Special Operations Regiment
–
The Canadian Special Operations Regiment is a highly trained, mobile, special operations forces unit. CSOR is a battalion-sized, light infantry special operations unit part of Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. CSOR is capable of conducting and enabling a broad range of missions, including action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism. CSOR is a Tier 2 special operations force, in April 2005, the Canadian governments new defence policy statement was made public. It included a concept of first responders for international tasks consisting of special forces supported by one of the light battalions. This concept of operations is similar to the US Armys 75th Ranger Regiment and this eventually led to the formation of the Canadian Special Operations Regiment, although CSOR was not to be limited to a supporting role. In the main, the Canadian Special Operations Regiment enables special operations and, specifically, JTF2, thus, however, particularly in out-of-area operations, we see that the Canadian Special Operations Regiment would be the more appropriate organization to put to the task. — Colonel Barr, commander CANSOFCOM, in Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on National Security, recruiting for the new unit took place in early 2006, and the first CSOR selection course took place with approximately 175 candidates. The ceremony included a demonstration including rappelling from helicopters. It was also announced that the second training serial of CSOR recruits would take place in early 2007, the regiment suffered its first casualty on 24 June 2011, Master-Corporal Francis Roy died in a non-combat incident while deployed in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan. In 2013, the competed in an international Special Forces Competition held in Jordan, coming in 3rd place after Chinese Special Police teams took 1st. Andrew Joseph Doiron became the units first casualty directly related to the war on terror when he was killed by fire from Kurdish Forces. The regiment has maintained a presence in Afghanistan since 2006, in support of the Canadian, Canadian Special Operations Forces serving in Afghanistan by André Gauthier were commissioned to honour members of Canadian Special Operations Regiment. The command is composed of CSOR and 427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron in Petawawa, Joint Task Force 2 near Ottawa, Colonel Jamie Hammond was the first commanding officer of the Canadian Special Operations Regiment, followed by Lieutenant-Colonel Greg Smith, followed by Lieutenant-Colonel John Vass. The current commanding officer is Lieutenant Colonel Steven Hunter, devils Brigade Canadian Airborne Regiment 2nd Commando Regiment, Australian Special Operations Regiment with similar tasking. 75th Ranger Regiment, US Army Special Operations Regiment with similar tasking, official Website Special Operations Vehicle Requirements by Canadian American Strategic Review Special Force CBC Documentary

Canadian Special Operations Regiment
–
Canadian Special Operations Regiment
Canadian Special Operations Regiment
–
Members of the regiment during a freefall jump out of a U.S. Air ForceC-17 Globemaster III during Emerald Warrior 2013, Hurlburt Field, Florida.
Canadian Special Operations Regiment
–
Canadian special operations soldier descends in front of Mt. Rainier onto Fort Lewis, Wash., with U.S. 1st Special Forces

53.
Walter Natynczyk
–
Walter John Walt Natynczyk, CMM MSC CD is a retired Canadian Army general who has served as Deputy Minister of Veterans Affairs since 2014. He was the President of the Canadian Space Agency from 2013 to 2014, before joining the regular Canadian Army, Natynczyk spent five years in the Royal Canadian Air Cadets. Natynczyk joined the Canadian Forces in August 1975 and he attended Royal Roads Military College and Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean, graduating in 1979 with a degree in Business Administration. His formative years were spent on NATO duty in West Germany with The Royal Canadian Dragoons in troop command, in 1983, Natynczyk assumed duties as a Squadron Commander at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario. In 1986, he commenced a five-year regimental tour in Petawawa, serving in staff and squadron command appointments. On completion of Canadian Forces Command and Staff College, he served on the Army Staff in St. Hubert, in June 1995, Natynczyk was assigned to the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff within National Defence HQ in Ottawa. He then commanded his regiment for two years, leading the Dragoons during domestic operations in the Ottawa region during the 1998 Ice Storm, Natynczyk returned to Bosnia in 1998 as the Canadian Contingent Commander. On his return to Ottawa in March 1999, he was appointed J3 Plans and Operations during the period of deployments to Kosovo, Bosnia, East Timor and Eritrea. Natynczyk attended the U. S. Army War College, and was subsequently appointed Deputy Commanding General, III Corps, Natynczyk led the Corps 35,000 soldiers, consisting of 10 separate brigades, stationed throughout the Iraq Theatre of Operations. He was later awarded the Meritorious Service Cross specifically for his efforts in Operation Iraqi Freedom January 2004 to January 2005. Upon his return to Canada, he assumed command of the Land Force Doctrine and he was subsequently appointed Chief of Transformation, where he was responsible for implementation of the force restructuring and the enabling processes and policies. Natynczyk was promoted to lieutenant general, and assumed the responsibilities of the Vice Chief of Defence Staff on June 28,2006, on June 6,2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper appointed Natynczyk as the next Chief of the Defence Staff, replacing retiring General Rick Hillier. Natynczyk was promoted to general, and installed as CDS on July 2,2008, General Natynczyk transferred his appointment at a change of command ceremony in 2012. On February 16,2012, in Washington, the U. S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Martin Dempsey, on August 6,2013, he was appointed president of the Canadian Space Agency by Prime Minister Stephen Harper. He was appointed Deputy Minister of Veterans Affairs, effective November 3,2014 during the Harper ministry and continued in his role under Justin Trudeau

54.
CH-47 Chinook
–
The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is an American twin-engine, tandem rotor heavy-lift helicopter. Its primary roles are troop movement, artillery placement and battlefield resupply and it has a wide loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage and three external ventral cargo hooks. With a top speed of 170 knots the helicopter was faster than contemporary 1960s utility helicopters and attack helicopters, the CH-47 is among the heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name is from the Native American Chinook people, the Chinook was designed and initially produced by Boeing Vertol in the early 1960s, it is now produced by Boeing Rotorcraft Systems. It is one of the few aircraft of that era – along with the fixed-wing Lockheed C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft – that remain in production and frontline service, with over 1,200 built to date. The helicopter has been sold to 16 nations with the U. S. Army, in late 1956, the United States Department of the Army announced plans to replace the Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave, which was powered by piston engines, with a new, gas turbine-powered helicopter. Turbine engines were also a key feature of the smaller UH-1 Huey utility helicopter. Following a design competition, in September 1958, a joint Army–Air Force source selection board recommended that the Army procure the Vertol medium transport helicopter, however, funding for full-scale development was not then available, and the Army vacillated on its design requirements. Vertol began work on a new tandem-rotor helicopter designated Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1957, in June 1958, the U. S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for the aircraft under the YHC-1A designation. The YHC-1A had a capacity for 20 troops, three were tested by the Army for deriving engineering and operational data. However, the YHC-1A was considered by most of the Army users to be too heavy for the assault role, the decision was made to procure a heavier transport helicopter and at the same time upgrade the UH-1 Huey as a tactical troop transport. The YHC-1A would be improved and adopted by the Marines as the CH-46 Sea Knight in 1962, the Army then ordered the larger Model 114 under the designation HC-1B. The pre-production Boeing Vertol YCH-1B made its initial hovering flight on 21 September 1961, in 1962 the HC-1B was redesignated the CH-47A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system. It was named Chinook for the Chinook people of the Pacific Northwest, the CH-47 is powered by two Lycoming T55 turboshaft engines, mounted on each side of the helicopters rear pylon and connected to the rotors by driveshafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at 2,200 horsepower each, the counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an anti-torque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it sensitive to changes in the center of gravity. If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors, the sizing of the Chinook was directly related to the growth of the Huey and the Armys tacticians insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility effort, improved and more powerful versions of the CH-47 have been developed since the helicopter entered service

CH-47 Chinook
–
CH-47 Chinook
CH-47 Chinook
–
HC-1B during in-flight evaluation
CH-47 Chinook
–
A CH-47 in a training exercise with US Navy Special Warfare, in July 2008
CH-47 Chinook
–
A CH-47F practicing the Pinnacle maneuver whereby soldiers are deposited without the helicopter landing.

55.
Joint Support Ship Project
–
The Queenston class is a class of naval auxiliaries for the Royal Canadian Navy. The class began as the Joint Support Ship Project, a Government of Canada procurement project for the RCN that is part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy. It will see the RCN acquire two multi-role vessels to replace the Protecteur-class auxiliary oiler replenishment vessels that were operated by the RCN, the project has suffered from considerable delays. Originally announced in 2004, a contract for the construction of ships was to have been signed in 2009 which would have seen the first vessel available for operational service in 2012. In 2010 the federal government grouped the Joint Support Ship Project under the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy which was finalized in October 2011. On 2 June 2013, it was announced that ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems Canadas Berlin-class replenishment ship was selected as the basis for the design of the Joint Support Ship Project. The Canadian vessels will be a variant of the Berlin class, as the design had to be optimized for Seaspans yard in Victoria, British Columbia. In order to speed construction of the Queenston-class naval auxiliaries, the delivery of the new icebreaker, CCGS John G. Diefenbaker. On 25 October 2013, the Minister of National Defence announced the JSS has been named Queenston class with two named, HMCS Queenston and HMCS Châteauguay. Their namesakes are the Battle of Queenston Heights and the Battle of Châteauguay, a possible third ship in the class could be built, to be named HMCS Cryslers Farm, also named after a battle from the War of 1812. The vessels will also have facilities as well as a large helicopter deck with two landing spots, hangar space for four helicopters, and a roll-on/roll-off deck for vehicles onto a dock. Ship particulars The JSS will have a crew of up to 199 personnel plus its air detachment and mission personnel for a total of 239 onboard accommodations. The JSS will be capable of reaching higher than 20 kn. Joint headquarters support Naval communications Land communications Air communications In 2004 the federal government announced that it was commencing the Joint Support Ship Project. Originally, there were four syndicates vying for the contract, led by Irving Shipbuilding, BAE Systems, ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems Canada, two design finalists were selected in November 2006, ThyssenKrupp and SNC-Lavalin ProFac. Under the two remaining proposals, the ships will be built in either Marystown, Newfoundland or Victoria, British Columbia, a contract for final design and construction was expected in 2008, with the first ship of the class entering service in 2012. This news was met with criticism as it would leave MARCOM without an underway replenishment capability for two years, on 22 August 2008 the Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Christian Paradis announced the termination of two procurement processes involving the shipbuilding industry. In the same month Defence Minister Peter MacKay suggested that the stimulus package would deal with MARCOMs shipbuilding needs

56.
Arctic Patrol Ship Project
–
The Harry DeWolf-class offshore patrol vessel is a Government of Canada procurement project for the Royal Canadian Navy that is part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy. The class was referred to as Arctic Offshore Patrol Ship. In July 2007 the federal government announced plans for acquiring six to eight icebreaking warships for the RCN, the lead ship of the class was announced as Harry DeWolf in September 2014, and four additional ships were named in January 2015. Construction of the ships Harry DeWolf and Margaret Brooke started in September 2015 and September 2016 at Halifax Shipyards, both ships are expected to be delivered and in-service by 2018. Max Bernays and William Hall will begin construction in 2017, with Max Bernays to be delivered by late 2019, Frédérick Rolette and the Robert Hampton Gray, are planned to be in service by 2021 and 2022, respectively. Both Harry DeWolf and Margaret Brooke are planned to be retired from service, in 2006 Prime Minister Stephen Harper had spoken about building three to four icebreakers capable of travelling through thick ice in the Arctic Ocean. This announcement was met some controversy, and the proposed ships have been called slush-breakers, by Dr. Gary Stern, a scientist aboard CCGS Amundsen. However, it is notable that of the nineteen Canadian Coast Guard icebreakers currently in service, in April 2013, the Rideau Institute and the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives released a report on the proposed AOPS. The report was written by UBC Professor Michael Byers and Stewart Webb, the reports conclusion was that Canada would be better suited to have purpose built ships, namely icebreakers for the Arctic and offshore patrol vessels for the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. Design is usually projected to consume 10–20% of the project cost, the projected design cost of the ship class is $288 million, versus an expert cost estimate that they should only cost $10–15 million to design. The Norwegians spent $100 million for the design and fielding of the first unit. The Danish built two ships for $105 million, and the Irish did the same for $125 million, however, in an effort to drive down costs, Irving Shipbuilding could only project building five ships with the option to build a sixth only if it came under budget. The budget for the project was increased from $3.1 billion to $3.5 billion to insure a cash buffer, on 13 April 2015 the government announced a second ship would be named Margaret Brooke in honour of Margaret Brooke. During the Second World War, Brooke, a nursing sister, was decorated for her actions during the sinking of the passenger ferry SS Caribou. The fourth ship will be named for William Hall, a Victoria Cross winner from Nova Scotia who was the first black person to be awarded the VC for actions during the Siege of Lucknow. The fifth ship will be named for Frédérick Rolette, a French-Canadian sailor of the Royal Navy who, on 18 June 2015 it was reported that the construction of test modules for the lead ship of the class Harry DeWolf was underway. The first sections of keel were placed on 11 March 2016, in September 2016, it was announced that construction had begun on Margaret Brooke and that 50 of 64 modular pieces of Harry DeWolf had been completed. The vessels design was intended to incorporate a conventional icebreaking bow for cruising

57.
Canadian Special Operations Forces Command
–
Canadian Special Operations Forces Command is a command of the Canadian Armed Forces. It is responsible for all special operations that are capable of responding to terrorism and threats to Canadians. The IRTF is the highest readiness task force available to the Government of Canada and it is composed of personnel from all CANSOFCOM units and is led by JTF2. Its primary focus is counter-terrorism operations, domestic or international, tasks include, but are not limited to, hostage rescue, direct action, CBRN response, sensitive site exploitation, counter-proliferation, and maritime special operations. Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Task Force and this Task Force is based on the personnel and capabilities of CJIRU and includes the CANSOFCOM contribution to Canada’s National CBRNE Response Team, led by the RCMP. It provides technical response to CBRN incidents and can be enabled by the capabilities of other CANSOFCOM units as required, at the request of the Government of Canada, the CBRN Task Force can also conduct counter-proliferation operations and be deployed internationally. Tasks include, but are not limited to, reconnaissance, surveillance, sampling, limited decontamination for Task Force personnel, TF Arrowhead is a scalable, agile force able to respond to threats and incidents around the globe on short notice. While it is focused, it can also be deployed in Canada. It is a high readiness SOTF capable of deploying to a crisis for short periods of time. It is composed of personnel from all four units in the Command and is led by CSOR, TF Arrowhead represents an initial response that could be a precursor to the deployment of another SOTF or conventional task force. Small teams of CANSOFCOM personnel perform tasks that fall outside the scope of the three standing task forces, SOF teams generally deploy for short periods of time, typically not longer than six months. SOF teams are made up of personnel and capabilities from all four units, on September 12,2005, Colonel David Barr was appointed the provisional commander of the CANSOFCOM. During his tenure as commander, Colonel Barr also deployed to Afghanistan as commander of the Canadian special operations force in Operation Enduring Freedom. Major-General Michael Rouleau, OMM MSC CD is the current commander of the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command, the current command chief warrant officer is Chief Warrant Officer Daniel Brissette, MSM CD. With ceremonial and service dress, navy members wear caps with tan bands, army members wear tan berets. Canadian Joint Operations Command United States Special Operations Command United Kingdom Special Forces Special Operations Command Official CANSOFCOM Webpage, the Standing Committee on National Security and Defence Evidence, November 20,2006 No Ordinary Men - SOF Missions in Afghanistan - Bernd Horn

Canadian Special Operations Forces Command
–
Badge of CANSOFCOM

58.
Canadian Joint Operations Command
–
The Canadian Joint Operations Command is one of the two unified commands of the Canadian Armed Forces, the other one being the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. The command was stood up on 5 October 2012 to officially replace the three former organizations, the command team is composed of a three-star commander, assisted by three two-star deputy commanders, one for each of the three main components. CJOCs role is to anticipate and conduct Canadian Forces operations, and develop, the continental component consists of six regional joint task forces. In five of these JTFs, the commander also commands a division or a maritime force. On 1 April 2015, 1st Canadian Division was transferred from the Canadian Army to CJOC, military history of Canada Official website

Canadian Joint Operations Command
–
Badge of CJOC

59.
Constitution of Canada
–
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty

60.
Declaration of war
–
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one state goes to war against another. The declaration is a speech act by an authorized party of a national government. The legality of who is competent to declare war varies between nations and forms of government, in many nations, that power is given to the head of state or sovereign. In other cases, something short of a declaration of war, such as a letter of marque or a covert operation. The official international protocol for declaring war was defined in the Hague Convention of 1907 on the Opening of Hostilities, in addition to this, non-state or terrorist organizations may claim to or be described as declaring war when engaging in violent acts. These declarations may have no standing in themselves, but they may still act as a call to arms for supporters of these organizations. A definition of the three ways of thinking about a declaration of war was developed by Saikrishna Prakash. He argues that a declaration of war can be seen from three perspectives, Categorical theory, under which the power to declare war includes the power to all decisions to enter war. This means that the power to declare war in effect rests with the ability to engage in combat, pragmatic theory, which states that the power to declare war can be made unnecessary by an act of war in itself. Formalist theory, under which the power to declare war constitutes only a formal documentation of executive war-making decisions and this sits closest to traditional legal conceptions of what it is to declare a war. An absolute declaration of war declares war absolutely due to the failure of negotiations over the grievances and remedies found in the conditional declaration and it ends absolutely the state and condition of peace, replacing it with the state and condition of war until such time as peace is restored. Degree of justification of the war A reasoned declaration of war justifies the resort to war by stating the grievances that have made peace intolerable, an unreasoned declaration of war does not justify the resort to war, or does so only minimally. Degree of perfection with which the act was made A perfect declaration of war is a formal, solemn speech act made in accordance with the proper laws, rites. An imperfect declaration of war is an informal, unsolemn speech act not made in accordance with the laws, rites. The practice of declaring war has a long history, the ancient Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh gives an account of it, as does the Old Testament. However, the practice of declaring war was not always strictly followed, the primary multilateral treaties governing such declarations are the Hague Conventions. The utility of formal declarations of war has always been questioned, the Hague Convention of 1907 called Convention Relative to the Opening of Hostilities gives the international actions a country should perform when opening hostilities. Neutral Powers, nevertheless, cannot rely on the absence of notification if it is established that they were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war

61.
Westminster system
–
The Westminster system is a parliamentary system of government modelled after that which developed in the United Kingdom. This term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the seat of the British parliament, the system is a series of procedures for operating a legislature. However, some colonies have since adopted either the presidential system or a hybrid system as their form of government. Examples include Queen Elizabeth II, the governors-general in Commonwealth realms, or the presidents of many countries, exceptions to this are Ireland and Israel, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the latter possesses no reserve powers whatsoever. A head of government, known as the minister, premier. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected Members of Parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the political party. An exception to this was Israel, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in 1996,1999 and 2001, an independent, non-partisan civil service which advises on, and implements, decisions of those ministers. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes, a parliamentary opposition with an official Leader of the Opposition. A legislature, often bicameral, with at least one elected house – although unicameral systems also exist, a lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by withholding Supply, passing a motion of no confidence, or defeating a confidence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated or forced into a general election independently, a parliament which can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time. Another parallel system of principles also exists known as equity. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK amongst others which mix common law with legal systems. Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries use the Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part. The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster System is quite complex, in essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, in the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the President is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the Prime Minister of India and the Council of Ministers. In Israel, however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet, as an example, the Prime Minister and Cabinet generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions

Westminster system
–
The British Houses of Parliament are situated within the Palace of Westminster, in London
Westminster system
–
Parliament House, Canberra, Australia
Westminster system
–
The Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House) building in New Delhi, India
Westminster system
–
The Parliament building in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

62.
Cabinet of Canada
–
The Cabinet of Canada is a body of ministers of the Crown that, along with the Canadian monarch, and within the tenets of the Westminster system, forms the government of Canada. For practical reasons, the Cabinet is informally referred to either in relation to the minister in charge of it or the number of ministries since Confederation. The current cabinet is the Trudeau Cabinet, which is part of the 29th Ministry, the interchangeable use of the terms cabinet and ministry is a subtle inaccuracy that can cause confusion. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, which has come to be the council in the phrase Queen-in-Council, the prime minister thereafter heads the Cabinet. The governor general appoints to the Cabinet persons chosen by the prime minister—John A, throughout the 20th century, Cabinets had been expanding in size until the Cabinet chaired by Brian Mulroney, with a population of 40 ministers. Cabinet itself—or full Cabinet—is further divided into committees, other Cabinet committees include, Operations, Social Affairs, Economic Growth and Long-Term Prosperity, Foreign Affairs and Security, Environment and Energy Security. Each committee is chaired by a minister whose own portfolio normally intersects with the mandate of the committee he or she is chairing. The most important minister, following the premier, is the Minister of Finance, while other high-profile ministries include foreign affairs, industry, justice, there are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the Queen. Public inquiries and Royal Commissions are also called through a Royal Warrant issued by the Queen or Governor-in-Council, all Cabinet meetings are held behind closed doors and the minutes are kept confidential for thirty years, Cabinet members being forbidden from discussing what transpires. Decisions made must be unanimous, though this occurs at the prime ministers direction. However, the Cabinets collective influence has been seen to be eclipsed by that of the prime minister alone, savoie quoted an anonymous minister from the Liberal Party as saying Cabinet had become a kind of focus group for the Prime Minister, while Simpson called cabinet a mini-sounding board. Coyne wrote in 2015, Cabinet does not matter and it does not govern, that is the job of the prime minister, and of the group of political staff he has around him, and of the bureaucracy beyond them. John Robson criticised the use of the ministers name to identify the Cabinet. Each party in Her Majestys Loyal Opposition creates a shadow cabinet, with each member thereof observing and critiquing one or more actual Cabinet portfolios and offering alternative policies. Its members are often, but not always, appointed to a Cabinet post should the leader of their party be called to form a government, the Liberal Party of Canada won the federal election of October 19,2015 with a majority of seats in the House of Commons. The Cabinet was sworn-in on November 4, with Justin Trudeau appointed as prime minister, initially, five members of Cabinet were appointed by orders-in-council on November 4 as ministers of state, but styled without the traditional of state in their titles. These were the Ministers of Science, Small Business and Tourism, Sport and Persons with Disabilities, Status of Women, Ministers are listed according to the Canadian order of precedence, Notes Reference to current cabinet ministers Cabinet Minister responsibilities

63.
Prime Minister of Canada
–
Canadian prime ministers are styled as The Right Honourable, a privilege maintained for life. The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions, the prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch. There are no age or citizenship restrictions on the position of prime minister itself, while there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly. However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister, two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate. Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and that convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario. Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election, Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat. The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majestys pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term, once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies. Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime ministers party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, if, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. This option was last entertained in 1925, however, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Caucuses may choose to follow rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote. Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime ministers will in extreme, for transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister, all of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime ministers annual salary of CAD$170,400. Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax. In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name, of the first eight premiers of Canada, the Canadian Heraldic Authority has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark, Pierre Trudeau, John Turner, Brian Mulroney, the written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title, The Right Honourable, Prime Minister of Canada

64.
Air Commodore
–
Air commodore is a one-star rank and the most junior general rank of the air-officer which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force. The name of the rank is always the full phrase and is never shortened to Commodore, Air commodore is a one-star rank and the most junior air officer rank, being immediately senior to group captain and immediately subordinate to air vice-marshal. It has a NATO ranking code of OF-6 and is equivalent to a commodore in the Royal Navy or a brigadier in the British Army or the Royal Marines, unlike these two ranks, however, it has always been a substantive rank. In other NATO forces, such as the United States Armed Forces and the Canadian Armed Forces, the equivalent rank in the Womens Auxiliary Air Force, Womens Royal Air Force and Princess Marys Royal Air Force Nursing Service was air commandant. In the present-day RAF, air commodores typically hold senior appointments within groups, however, during the inter-war period, and in the case of the contemporary No.83 Expeditionary Air Group, the air officer commanding held or holds air commodore rank. In the Air Training Corps, an air commodore holds ultimate authority over the cadet organisation as the Commandant Air Cadets. On 1 April 1918, the newly created RAF adopted its officer rank titles from the British Army, with officers at what is now air commodore holding the rank of brigadier-general. In response to the proposal that the RAF should use its own titles, it was suggested that the RAF might use the Royal Navys officer ranks. However, the title based on the Navy rank was preferred. The rank insignia is a band on a broad black band worn on both the lower sleeves of the tunic or on the shoulders of the flying suit or the casual uniform. On the mess uniform, air commodores wear a gold ring on both lower sleeves. The command flag of an air commodore has one narrow red band running through the centre and is rectangular with a section giving it two tails. It is the only RAF command flag of this shape and it is similar in shape to that of a Royal Navy commodores broad pennant, the vehicle star plate for an air commodore depicts a single white star on an air force blue background. RAF air commodores are classed as air officers and as such have two rows of oak leaves on the peak of their service dress hats. The reigning monarch may appoint honorary air commodores for RAF flying squadrons and stations, for example, Prince Charles is RAF Valleys honorary air commodore and Winston Churchill was 615 Squadrons honorary air commodore. As the title suggests, this is a position bestowed by the reigning monarch. It is designed to strengthen the bond between the unit and the individual and promote the role of the air force amongst the public. Serving officers, such as Prince Harry, may be granted an equivalent appointment to the honorary rank, in such cases the individual is made an honorary air commandant and they retain their regular rank

Air Commodore
–
Air Commodore JV Paul, Indian Air Force
Air Commodore
–
Churchill in his air commodore's uniform at the 1943 Tehran Conference

65.
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
–
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, commonly abbreviated as SJSR, is a city in eastern Montérégie in the Canadian province of Quebec, about 40 kilometres southeast of Montreal. It is situated on the west bank of the Richelieu River at the northernmost navigable point of Lake Champlain, the results of the 2011 Census stated that the citys population was 92,394, the number of residents was estimated at 94,636 in 2014. Historically, the city has been an important transportation hub, the first railway line in British North America connected it with La Prairie in 1836. The Chambly Canal extends 20 kilometres north along the west bank of the river and provides modern freight passage to Chambly, the canal has one lock near the downtown core of St-Jean-sur-Richelieu. In the winter, the city builds a skating rink on the canal near the lock, in the summer, the embankment on the east side of the canal has a 20-kilometre cycling path. The French built Fort Saint-Jean in the seventeenth century, known to early English settlers as St. Johns, it provided an important communication link during the French and Indian Wars. During the American Revolutionary War control of the town changed several times as British. Today St-Jean is a centre for textiles, food and wood products. It hosts an Area Support Unit of the Canadian Forces, which functions as a primary recruit, until 1995 ASU St-Jean was also home to Le Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean, a bilingual military academy. From 1995 to 2007, however, the remaining military university in Canada was the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston. The college continued to provide programs for French-speaking entries to the Canadian forces. The federal government reopened the college at St. In 2001 the city and several adjoining communities were merged into the new regional county municipality with a population to 79,600 and this merger was requested by the five municipalities involved and was not part of the municipal fusions imposed by the Quebec government the following year. Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu is located on the banks of the Richelieu River, the city is the seat of Le Haut-Richelieu RCM and of the judicial district of Iberville. The amalgamated municipalities were, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu Saint-Luc Iberville Saint-Athanase LAcadie French English The city is divided in 5 sectors which refer to the former municipalities, each sectors contains different neighbourhoods, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu is home to the Carrefour Richelieu regional shopping mall which has 115 stores. The Ville de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu public transit system provides commuter and local bus services, according to the 2006 Census, about 23,855 residents work full-time in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, while 5,750 commute to work in Montreal on a daily basis. A further 1,810 residents work in Longueuil every day,855 work in Brossard,795 in Chambly, the highway continues south for some 24 km before ending at Saint-Sébastien. Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu has its own airport, Saint-Jean Airport, and is also close to Montreal Pierre-Elliot Trudeau International Airport

Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
–
Old Saint-Jean and the Saint-Jean-l'Evangeliste church at sundown
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
–
A LAV III in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu during the 2011 floods.
Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu
–
Chambly Canal

66.
CFB Esquimalt
–
Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt is Canadas Pacific Coast naval base and home port to Maritime Forces Pacific and Joint Task Force Pacific Headquarters. The present dockyard and drydock, known as HMC Dockyard Esquimalt, today it serves as the Canadian Naval Headquarters in the Pacific. Due to their significance in Canadian naval history, four sites at CFB Esquimalt have been designated the Esquimalt Naval Sites National Historic Site of Canada, CFB Esquimalt Naval & Military Museum is located at HMCS Naden. Building 20, part of Naden Museum Square is a Municipal Heritage Property, building 37 part of the Naden Museum Square is also a Municipal Heritage Property and is also on the Canadian Register of Historic Places. HMCS Naden was named after the Dominion Government Ship Naden, which was commissioned as a tender for the Royal Naval College of Canada from 1918 to 1922 for training in sail, the museum is affiliated with, CMA, CHIN, OMMC and Virtual Museum of Canada. CFB Esquimalt operates a bus service to provide intra-base transportation, the Lookout is the base newspaper, which covers local, national and international news with specific interest to Navy and Canadian Forces members and family issues. Other properties that are part of CFB Esquimalt include the Albert Head training area near Albert Head, Metchosin and it occupies approximately 88 hectares,4 of which are developed as training facilities. Fort Albert Head was established in the late 1800s along with Fort Rodd Hill and other installations, to provide defence for the Strait of Juan de Fuca. During the summer months of June, July and August the area houses the Albert Head Air Cadet Summer Training Centre, Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental Test Range at Nanoose Bay is also part of CFB Esquimalt. The facility provides non-explosive technical testing of sonobouys, torpedoes and other equipment, Naval Radio Station Aldergrove in the Fraser Valley houses transmitting and receiving equipment for long distance communications

67.
Quebec City
–
Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec

68.
3rd Canadian Division
–
The 3rd Canadian Division is a formation of the Canadian Army. It was first created as a formation of the Canadian Corps during the First World War and it was stood down following the war and was later reactivated as the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division during the Second World War. The second iteration served with distinction from 1941 to 1945, taking part in the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944, a duplicate of the 3rd Canadian Division was formed in 1945 to serve on occupation duty in Germany, and was disbanded the following year. In 2013, Land Force Western Area, a military organization in western Canada, was ordered to be redesignated as 3rd Canadian Division. On 6 June 2014, the 3rd Canadian Division adopted the insignia, traditions, from the middle of 1916, the division has been identified by a distinctive French-Grey patch worn on the uniforms of its soldiers. The 3rd Canadian Division was formed in France in December 1915 under the command of Major-General Malcolm Mercer and its members served in France and Flanders until Armistice Day. While with the 3rd Division at Ypres, Mercer became the highest-ranking Canadian officer killed in action during the First World War. On the same day, Brigadier V. A. Williams, commanding the 8th Infantry Brigade, became the highest-ranking Canadian officer captured in the First World War, also at the Battle of Mount Sorrel. Mercer was replaced by Louis Lipsett, who commanded the division until September 1918, shortly before he too was killed in action on 14 October 1918, Major-General Frederick Loomis closed out World War I as the commander. 7th Infantry Brigade, The Royal Canadian Regiment, December 1915 –11 November 1918, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry. 24 December 1915 –11 November 1918, 42nd Battalion Canadian Infantry, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 49th Battalion Canadian Infantry. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 8th Infantry Brigade, 1st Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 2nd Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918, 4th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, CEF. December 1915 –11 November 1918, 5th Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles, December 1915 –11 November 1918. 9th Infantry Brigade, 43rd Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 52nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –11 November 1918, 58th Battalion Canadian Infantry, January 1916 –11 November 1918, 60th Battalion Canadian Infantry. January 1916 –30 April 1917, April 1917 –11 November 1918. 8 January 1916 – May 1917, 123rd Canadian Pioneer Battalion, to the 3rd Canadian Engineer Brigade

3rd Canadian Division
–
Canadian soldiers headed for Juno Beach aboard LCAs
3rd Canadian Division
–
3rd Canadian Division formation patch
3rd Canadian Division
–
Canadian Soldiers landing on Juno beach from an LCA
3rd Canadian Division
–
Canadian Troops land at 'Nan White' Beach at Bernières-sur-Mer

69.
2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group
–
2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group is a Canadian Forces brigade group that is part of 4th Canadian Division of the Canadian Army. It is currently based in CFB Petawawa, one of its three infantry battalions is under the administration of 5th Canadian Division and is stationed at CFB Gagetown in New Brunswick. 2 Field Ambulance is under its operational control, official website Military history of Canada History of the Canadian Army Canadian Forces List of armouries in Canada

2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group
–
2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group

70.
Artillery
–
Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company

Artillery
–
French naval piece of the late 19th century
Artillery
–
French soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War 1870–71.
Artillery
–
British 64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loaded (RML) Gun on a Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, Bermuda. This is a part of a fixed battery, meant to protect against over-land attack and to serve as coastal artillery.
Artillery
–
7-person gun crew firing a US M777 Light Towed Howitzer, War in Afghanistan, 2009.

71.
Battalion
–
A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term varies by nationality and branch of service. Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and is divided into a number of companies, a battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the word battalion is associated with the infantry, the term was first used in Italian as battaglione no later than the 16th century. It derived from the Italian word for battle, battaglia, the first use of battalion in English was in the 1580s, and the first use to mean part of a regiment is from 1708. The battalion must, of course, have a source of re-supply to enable it to sustain operations for more than a few days, the battalion is usually part of a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organizational model used by that service. The bulk of a battalions companies are often homogeneous with respect to type, a battalion includes a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support company. The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry and some including the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. It was formerly used in the Royal Engineers, and was used in the now defunct Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Other corps usually use the term regiment instead, an infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its regiment. It normally has a company, support company, and three rifle companies. Each company is commanded by a major, the officer commanding, the HQ company contains signals, quartermaster, catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer, mechanised units usually have an attached light aid detachment of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers to perform field repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in it, and, as of 2012, with successive rounds of cutbacks after the war, many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion. A battalion group or battlegroup consists of a battalion or armoured regiment with sub-units detached from other military units acting under the command of the battalion commander. In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units of between 100–200 soldiers that include an operationally ready, field-deployable component of approximately a half-company apiece, the nine regular force infantry battalions each contain three or four rifle companies and one or two support companies. Canadian battalions are generally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller reserve battalions may be commanded by majors, with the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a battalion is called an afdeling. Combat companies consist of infantry, combat engineers, or tanks, in the latter case, the unit is called an eskadron, which translates roughly to squadron

72.
Infantry
–
Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice

Infantry
–
Early 20th-century infantry: The Royal Irish Rifles at the Battle of the Somme (July–November 1916) during the First World War (1914–18).
Infantry
–
Janissaries are a very important example in the evolution of the modern infantry.
Infantry
–
20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in 1941, during the Second World War (1939–45).
Infantry
–
19th-century infantry: Brigadier General Winfield Scott leads American line infantry into the Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814) in Canada, during the Anglo–American War of 1812 (1812–15).

73.
Land Force Quebec Area
–
The 2nd Canadian Division is responsible for Canadian Army operational readiness in the province of Quebec, Canada. The present command was created 2013 when Land Force Quebec Area was redesignated, the division draws its historical lineage from formations that existed during the First and Second World Wars. During the First World War, the division fought on the Western Front before being disbanded in 1919 and it was reformed on 1 September 1939, as part of the First Canadian Army, at the outbreak of the Second World War, adopting the designation 2nd Canadian Infantry Division. On 19 August 1942, with air and naval gunfire support, the Germans were well prepared and, despite being reinforced, the Canadians sustained heavy losses and had to be evacuated, fewer than half their number returning to the United Kingdom. Following a period of reconstruction and retraining in 1942–44, the division joined II Canadian Corps as part of the Second British Army for the Allied Invasion of Normandy, 2nd Division saw significant action from 20 July to 21 August in the battles for Caen and Falaise. The division was deactivated shortly after the end of the war, the formation of the 2nd Canadian Division began in May 1915 in Britain, following the arrival of a large contingent of soldiers from Canada. The 2nd Division remained in Great Britain only a time before embarking for the Western Front in September 1915. It joined the 1st Canadian Division to form the Canadian Corps, the division was under the command of Major General R. E. W. Turner, and its members spent a long and bitterly cold winter in a Belgian section of the front between Ploegsteert Wood and St. Eloi, south of Ypres, the 2nd Canadian Division served on the Western Front until the Armistice of 11 November 1918. 4th Canadian Brigade, 18th Battalion Canadian Infantry,1 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 19th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 20th Battalion Canadian Infantry, October 1914 –11 November 1918, 21st Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 5th Canadian Brigade, 22nd Battalion Canadian Infantry. 21 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 24th Battalion Canadian Infantry,22 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 25th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 28 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 26th Battalion Canadian Infantry,2 November 1914 –11 November 1918. 6th Canadian Brigade 27th Battalion Canadian Infantry,21 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 28th Battalion Canadian Infantry. 19 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 29th Battalion Canadian Infantry,24 October 1914 –11 November 1918, 31st Battalion Canadian Infantry. 16 November 1914 –11 November 1918, to the 2nd Canadian Engineer Brigade. The fighting power of this lay in its constituent infantry brigades

Land Force Quebec Area
–
Sgt. Harold Marshall of the Calgary Highlanders' Sniper Platoon
Land Force Quebec Area
–
2nd Canadian Infantry Division formation patch
Land Force Quebec Area
–
Soldiers' corpses from the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division following the Dieppe Raid
Land Force Quebec Area
–
Canadian troops at Groningen

74.
North American Aerospace Defense Command
–
Headquarters for NORAD and the NORAD/United States Northern Command center are located at Peterson Air Force Base in El Paso County, near Colorado Springs, Colorado. The nearby Cheyenne Mountain Complex has the Alternate Command Center, the NORAD commander and deputy commander are, respectively, a United States four-star general or equivalent and a Canadian three-star general or equivalent. CINCNORAD maintains the NORAD headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base near Colorado Springs, with an accurate picture of any aerospace or maritime threat. S. Both the CONR and CANR regions are divided into eastern and western sectors, ANR is supported by both active duty and reserve units. Active duty forces are provided by 11 AF and the Canadian Armed Forces, both 11 AF and the CAF provide active duty personnel to the ROCC to maintain continuous surveillance of Alaskan airspace. Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters is at CFB Winnipeg, Manitoba and it was established on 22 April 1983. It is responsible for providing surveillance and control of Canadian airspace, the Royal Canadian Air Force provides alert assets to NORAD. CANR is divided into two sectors, which are designated as the Canada East Sector and Canada West Sector, both Sector Operations Control Centers are co-located at CFB North Bay Ontario. The routine operation of the SOCCs includes reporting track data, sensor status, in 1996 CANR was renamed 1 Canadian Air Division and moved to CFB Winnipeg. Canadian air defense forces assigned to NORAD include 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Cold Lake, Alberta and 425 Tactical Fighter Squadron at CFB Bagotville, All squadrons fly the McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan may be directed to land and be inspected by RCMP, the Continental NORAD Region is the component of NORAD that provides airspace surveillance and control and directs air sovereignty activities for the Contiguous United States. CONR is the NORAD designation of the United States Air Force First Air Force/AFNORTH and its headquarters is located at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The First Air Force became responsible for the USAF air defense mission on 30 September 1990, AFNORTH is the United States Air Force component of United States Northern Command. 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH comprises State Air National Guard Fighter Wings assigned an air mission to 1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH. The primary weapons systems are the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft and it plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and ensures air sovereignty and provides for the unilateral defense of the United States. In its role as the CONUS NORAD Region,1 AF/CONR-AFNORTH also performs counter-drug surveillance operations, NORAD was recommended by the Joint Canadian-U. S. The 1958 international agreement designated the NORAD commander always be a United States officer, agreed the commands primary purpose would be…early warning and defense for SACs retaliatory forces. The RCAFs 1950 ground observer system, the Long Range Air Raid Warning System, was discontinued and on 31 January 1959, the United States Ground Observer Corps was deactivated

North American Aerospace Defense Command
–
NORAD Regions and Sectors
North American Aerospace Defense Command
–
NORAD Emblem
North American Aerospace Defense Command
–
The 25-ton North blast door in the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker is the main entrance to another blast door (background) beyond which the side tunnel branches into access tunnels to the main chambers.
North American Aerospace Defense Command
–
NORAD/ USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center prior to the Cheyenne Mountain Realignment.

75.
Wing (military aviation unit)
–
In military aviation, a wing is a unit of command. In most military services, a wing is a relatively large formation of planes. In Commonwealth countries a wing usually comprises three squadrons, with several wings forming a group, each squadron will contain around 20 planes. On its establishment in 1912, the British Royal Flying Corps was intended to be an inter-service, combined force of the British Army and Royal Navy. Given the rivalry existed between the army and navy, new terminology was used, in order to avoid marking the corps out as having an army or navy ethos. While the term wing had been used in the cavalry, its general use predominated. Accordingly, the wing, with its allusion of flight, was chosen as the term of subdivision and the corps was split into a Military Wing. Each wing consisted of a number of squadrons, by 1914, the naval wing had become the Royal Naval Air Service, and gained its independence from the Royal Flying Corps. The Royal Flying Corps was amalgamated with the Royal Naval Air Service in 1918, the RFC usage of wing was maintained in the new service. In most Commonwealth air forces, as well as some others, in these air forces a wing is inferior to a group. Originally all wings were commanded by a wing commander. From World War II onwards, operational flying wings have usually been commanded by group captains, a wing may also be used for non-flying units, such as the infantry forces of the RAF Regiment. Additionally, RAF stations are divided into wings. In 2006, expeditionary air wings were established at the RAFs main operating bases and these expeditionary air wings consist of the deployable elements of the main operating base and other supplementary forces. Expeditionary air wings may be subordinated to an air group. In the British Air Training Corps, a wing consists of a number of squadrons within a geographical area. In this context, a wing is inferior to a region which is made up of six wings, in all, there are 36 Air Training Corps wings in six regions within the United Kingdom, each of which is commanded by a RAFVR wing commander. The size of a wing follows US usage, it varies greatly, in the 1990s, the Canadian Forces Air Command altered the structure of those bases under its control, declaring them to be Wings under the overall control of 1 Canadian Air Division in Winnipeg

76.
2 Canadian Air Division
–
The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer

2 Canadian Air Division
–
Badge of Air Command, replaced by new RCAF badge in 2013
2 Canadian Air Division
2 Canadian Air Division
–
CC-177 Globemaster III
2 Canadian Air Division
–
A CF-18 Hornet fires an AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile at a MQM-107E Streaker aerial target drone during a "Combat Archer" mission

77.
British Columbia
–
British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest

78.
Nova Scotia
–
Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians

79.
North Bay, Ontario
–
North Bay is a city in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is the seat of Nipissing District, and takes its name from its position on the shore of Lake Nipissing, the site of North Bay was on the main canoe route west from Montreal. Apart from First Nations tribes, voyageurs and surveyors, there was activity in the Lake Nipissing area until the arrival of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1882. The CPR started its expansion from Callander Station, Ontario. That was the point where the Canada Central Railway extension ended, the CCR was owned by Duncan McIntyre who amalgamated it with the CPR and became one of the handful of officers of the newly formed CPR. The CCR started in Brockville and extended to Pembroke and it then followed a westward route along the Ottawa River passing through places like Cobden, Deux-Rivières, and eventually to Mattawa at the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa Rivers. It then proceeded cross-country towards its destination, Bonfield. Duncan McIntyre and his contractor James Worthington piloted the CCR expansion, Worthington continued on as the construction superintendent for the CPR past Bonfield. He remained with the CPR for about a year until he left the company, McIntyre was uncle to John Ferguson who staked out future North Bay after getting assurance from his uncle and Worthington that it would be the divisional and a location of some importance. In 1882, John Ferguson decided that the bay of Lake Nipissing was a promising spot for settlement. North Bay was incorporated as a town in 1891, the first mayor was John Bourke. More importantly, Bourke developed the western portion of North Bay after purchasing the interest of the Murray Brothers from Pembroke, the land west of Klock Avenue was known as the Murray block. Bourke Street is named after John Bourke, Murray Street is named after the Murrays. During construction of the T&NO, silver was discovered at Cobalt, the Canadian Northern Railway was subsequently built to North Bay in 1913. The Georgian Bay Canal was a transportation system that proposed to connect the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. The entire passageway from the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing and down the French River to Georgian Bay was surveyed in the first decade of the 20th century. Financing was an obstacle and, as time passed, transportation patterns changed and interfered with the earlier practicality of the giant venture. Despite this, there were groups who hoped it would happen as late as 1930

North Bay, Ontario
–
Main Street at Ferguson Street
North Bay, Ontario
–
Downtown North Bay, 1905
North Bay, Ontario
–
North Bay is the gateway to Northern Ontario
North Bay, Ontario
–
A beach on Lake Nipissing in West Ferris, a neighbourhood of North Bay

80.
Joint Task Force (North)
–
JTFN is headquartered in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, and is part of Canadian Joint Operations Command. Canadian Forces Northern Area was dissolved in 2006 and replaced by Joint Task Force North of the new Canada Command, Canada Command has since been absorbed by the newly formed Canadian Joint Operations Command, established in 2012. JTFN is currently commanded by Brigadier-General G. D. Loos, OMM, JTFN has received increasing national attention in recent years with greater emphasis being made on Canadas claim to arctic sovereignty. Each summer, hundreds of Canadian soldiers participate in Operation Nanook, the operation has been held annually since 2007. S

81.
Canadian Operational Support Command
–
The Canadian Operational Support Command was one of seven commands of the Canadian Forces from 2006 to 2012. The command was replaced by the Canadian Joint Operations Command in October 2012, as a separate command, CANOSCOM provided the CF with combat support and service for both domestic and international missions. CANOSCOM consisted of approximately 1,100 soldiers from all branches of the Canadian Forces who provided support to thousands of Canadian Forces members involved in many missions. CANOSCOM commanded the Canadian Forces Joint Support Group, the Canadian Forces Joint Signal Regiment, CANOSCOM had oversight over 16 units and formations

Canadian Operational Support Command
–
Badge of CANOSCOM

82.
Special operations forces
–
Special forces and special operations forces are military or police units trained to conduct special operations. The term special forces in the United States refers to the U. S. Armys forces, in Russian-speaking countries special forces are typically called spetsnaz, an acronym for special purpose. Likewise, Russian speakers refer to special forces of nations as spetsnaz, for example. Special Forces would be referred to as amerikanski spetsnaz in Russian, other significant roles lay in reconnaissance, providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities. Hamilcar Barca in Sicily had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day, in the late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In Japan, ninjas were used for reconnaissance, espionage and as assassins, bodyguards or fortress guards, during the Napoleonic wars, rifle and sapper units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines. The British Indian Army deployed two special forces during their wars, the Corps of Guides formed in 1846 and the Gurkha Scouts. During the Second Boer War the British Army felt the need for specialised units became most apparent. This unit was formed in 1900 by Lord Lovat and early on reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, after the war, Lovats Scouts went on to formally become the British Armys first sniper unit. Additionally, the Bushveldt Carbineers, formed in 1901, can be seen as an unconventional warfare unit. Modern special forces emerged during the Second World War, in 1940, the British Commandos were formed following Winston Churchills call for specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast. A staff officer, Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke, had already submitted such a proposal to General Sir John Dill, Dill, aware of Churchills intentions, approved Clarkes proposal and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place. The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos, each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men. In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre, in February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units, the training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training. The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to any of the volunteers. Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an 8-mile march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot, exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness, speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip-line over Loch Arkaig, all while carrying arms and full equipment

Special operations forces
–
Polish GROM special forces troops at Umm Qasr during the 2003 invasion of Iraq
Special operations forces
–
Japanese drawing of the archetypical ninja, from a series of sketches (Hokusai manga) by Hokusai.
Special operations forces
–
British Army scouts in South Africa (1893): Frederick Russell Burnham (middle); Hon. Maurice Gifford (right)
Special operations forces
–
The British Commandos were the prototype for the modern special forces. Volunteers had to undergo an arduous training course.

83.
Joint Task Force 2
–
Joint Task Force 2 is an elite special operations force of the Canadian Armed Forces. The unit is based at Dwyer Hill, near Ottawa, Ontario. Much of the information regarding Joint Task Force 2 is classified, in early 1993, the unit was activated with just over 100 members, primarily drawn from the Canadian Airborne Regiment and Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry. They were given the SERT facility on Dwyer Hill Road near Ottawa as their own base of operations, and permanently parked a Greyhound bus, however two daily newspapers in Quebec revealed the operation just days before it was to go into action, and it was cancelled. JTF2 forces were inserted into Bosnia, operating in two-to-four-man teams hunting for Serbian snipers who were targeting UN forces at the sniper alley. They were scheduled to free approximately 55 hostages in Operation Freedom 55, in 1996, JTF2 deployed to Haiti to advise the security forces of President René Préval on methods to repel the revolutionary army, train local SWAT teams and raid weapons smugglers in Port-au-Prince. According to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, JTF2 was also in Haiti at the time that Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was ousted from power in 2004 and they protected the Canadian embassy and secured the airport. However, in Sean M. Maloneys book Enduring the Freedom and this prompted an outcry in Parliament as MPs were never informed these operations were underway. In 2004, an estimated 40 members of JTF2 serving with Task Force K-Bar were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation by the U. S. government for service in Afghanistan. While serving with Task Force K-Bar, Vice Admiral Robert Harward and he went on to say that the unit is providing direct support to the Afghan government and is targeting the Taliban leadership in southern Afghanistan. He stated that trying to neutralize those leaders is a key part of their role. Involvement of JTF2 was not confirmed by Canadian officials, there has been much speculation in the Canadian media on possible JTF2 operational deployments. Vice-Admiral Dean McFadden also confirmed that JTF2 would take a role in securing the 2010 Winter Olympics and 2010 Winter Paralympics, JTF2 has also acted as bodyguards to Canadians travelling abroad, notably accompanying Lieutenant-General Maurice Baril and Raymond Chrétien to Zaire in November 1996. When photographs provided to the media were revealed to show the faces of JTF2 forces, in 1998, they accompanied General Romeo Dallaire to Tanzania where he was due to testify against a Rwandan Hutu official accused of complicity in the 1994 genocide. They similarly accompanied war crimes prosecutor Louise Arbour into Kosovo, the unit was believed to be operating with the Special Air Service and Special Boat Service in Operation Mobile, the Canadian operation in the 2011 Libyan civil war. As of 2014 the unit is believed to be in Iraq as training personnel, the Canadian Government has not denied or confirmed JTF2s involvement. On 21 December 2006, a Federal Court judge rejected a request to proceed with a court martial against an unnamed JTF2 officer, because court martial requests require that the accused be named, the judge suggested that they explore other avenues to proceed with the court martial. JTF2 has acknowledged the death of one member, master Corporal Anthony Klumpenhouwer,25, died on April 18,2007, after falling off a communications tower in Kandahar, Afghanistan

84.
427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron
–
427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron is a tactical helicopter unit that provides aviation support to Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. The squadron is based at CFB Petawawa, Ontario with a fleet of Bell CH-146 Griffon helicopters and it was founded as No.427 Squadron RCAF. 427 Squadron started as a squadron formed at Croft, England on 7 November 1942. Re-equipped with Handley Page Halifax Mk V aircraft, the squadron flew intensely until early 1944 when it replaced its inventory with Halifax Mk III aircraft. This fleet saw the greatest number of missions and in more than a years time they were then replaced by Avro Lancaster bombers prior to the end of World War II. The Lancasters were used for Prisoner of War repatriation until the end of May 1946,427 was stood down on 1 June 1946. The squadron was reformed on 1 August 1952 at RCAF Station St Hubert as 427 Fighter Squadron, flying Canadair Sabres, on 1 February 1968, unification integrated 427 into the new Canadian Forces. The squadron was disbanded on 1 July 1970. 427 came back into existence as 427 Tactical Helicopter Squadron at CFB Petawawa, on 1 February 2006, command of 427 was transferred to Canadian Special Operations Forces Command, as it took on a full-time role of special operations aviation support. Shortly thereafter, it was renamed as,427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron, the squadron has a dedicated concrete helipad, measuring 150 ft ×150 ft, at Petawawa Heliport

427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron
–
427 Squadron badge

85.
Canadian Forces Health Services Group
–
The Canadian Forces Health Services Group is a formation of the Canadian Forces within the Military Personnel Command reporting to the Chief of Military Personnel. The groups national headquarters is located in the former National Defence Medical Centre in Ottawa,1 Health Services Group is commanded by Colonel Marc Bilodeau. In turn the Canadian Forces Environmental Medicine Establishment is the component of the Defence Research. The School of Operational Medicine conducts all Flight Surgeon training, in addition, it offers courses at various levels in Diving Medicine, to Physicians, Medical technicians and Physician Assistants. The Canadian Forces School of Survival and Aeromedical Training in Winnipeg, Manitoba provides initial, the training covers diverse topics including life support equipment and human factors, search and evasion as well as disorientation and night vision

Canadian Forces Health Services Group
–
Canadian Forces Health Services Group

86.
Major General
–
Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general

87.
Arctic
–
The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear

88.
Sovereignty
–
Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a term designating supreme authority over some polity. It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation, derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, and is still actively debated and it has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority, Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy. The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that, The imperium of the people is transferred to the Emperor, the Emperor is not bound by the law. Emperor is the law making and abiding force, Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, although he did not use the term expressly. Classical Ulpians statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times, Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom, Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life. 1380–1400, the issue of sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucers Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women and we desire most from men, From men both lund and poor, To have sovereignty without lies. For where we have sovereignty, all is ours, Though a knight be ever so fierce and it is our desire to have master Over such a sir. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, in his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler, however, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the law of the state. Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”. With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings. During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State

89.
Uniforms of the Canadian Forces
–
The Uniforms of the Canadian Armed Forces are the official dress worn by members of Canadas military while on duty. With unification in 1968 all branches started wearing the new Canadian Forces CF rifle green uniform, the present distinctive environmental uniforms in different colours for the army, navy and air force were introduced in the late 1980s and are generally similar to their pre-1968 counterparts. Full formal dress uniforms for ceremonial parades and other special occasions, No.1, Service Dress uniform with medals and ceremonial accoutrements. No. 1A, Service Dress uniform with medals, but no ceremonial accoutrements, regimental uniforms are normally not provided at public expense, purchase of these uniforms is done either by individuals or by various regiments out of non-public funds. No. 1C, Patrol dress or the Navy high-collared white jacket, No. 1D, No. 1C worn with ribbons instead of medals. Formal evening attire for mess dinners, Mess Dress is not provided at public expense, however, all commissioned officers of the Regular Force are required to own Mess Dress within six months of being commissioned. No.2, Full mess kit with dinner jackets, cummerbunds or waistcoats, No. 2A, No.2 with summer white jacket. No. 2B, No.3 with white shirt and bow tie. No. 2C, No. 3B with a cummerbund and without ribbons or name tag, No. 2D, Air Force members are permitted to continue wearing the unified CAF pattern of mess dress. Also called a walking-out or duty uniform, it is the equivalent of the business suit, it is the standard uniform for appearing in public. No.3, Tunic and necktie, with medal ribbons, No. 3A, No.3 with jacket removed, worn only indoors, within DND buildings. No. 3B, Short-sleeved shirt, without tunic or tie, No. 3C, Shirt and sweater, with or without tie, worn in place of No. 3B in cooler weather. No. 3D, Alternative tan uniform with optional shorts, worn in tropical climates, Work dress, as it was commonly known, was a more informal uniform, originally for day-to-day wear in garrison or on base, out of the public eye. It usually consisted of trousers and either a dress shirt or work shirt, with an optional sweater. Work dress and the Army garrison dress have been phased out, No.5 dress, Operational dress uniforms are designed for wear in combat conditions. They are intended to be adjusted for comfort and practicality, therefore only naval combat dress has lettered variants, with the elimination of work/garrison dress, operational dress uniforms are now commonly worn whenever service dress is impractical. Naval Combat Dress, Worn by all RCN personnel, consists of black trousers and jacket with a blue shirt, made of Nomex for fire protection and designed for wear by ships crews. No.5, Full NCD, including jacket No. 5A, No.5 without jacket No. 5B, No. 5A with sleeves rolled No. 5D, No. 5B with shorts, Worn only aboard ship in hot climates

Uniforms of the Canadian Forces
–
Infantry from the 3rd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry in CADPAT combat clothing
Uniforms of the Canadian Forces
–
The Royal Canadian Navy (pictured here), Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force use distinctive uniforms for ceremonial and daily wear. When deployed, all Canadian Armed Forces personnel wear the operational uniform that is most appropriate for the working environment, regardless of whether they are in the Navy, Army or Air Force.
Uniforms of the Canadian Forces
–
Memorial Stained Glass window, Class of 1933, Royal Military College of Canada
Uniforms of the Canadian Forces
–
Canadian Military 1942

90.
Anorak
–
A parka or anorak is a type of coat with a hood, often lined with fur or faux fur. The Caribou Inuit invented this kind of garment, originally made from caribou or seal skin, some Inuit anoraks require regular coating with fish oil to retain their water resistance. The words anorak and parka have been used interchangeably, but they are somewhat different garments, the word anorak comes from the Kalaallisut word annoraaq. It did not appear in English until 1924, a definition is a beaded item worn by Greenland women or brides in the 1930s. In the early 1950s it was made from nylon, but changed to poplin by 1959, when it was featured in Vogue magazine as a fashion item. In 1984, The Observer used the term to refer to the type of people who wore it and subsequently, in the United Kingdom, the word parka is derived from the Nenets language. In the Aleutian Islands the word simply means animal skin and it first entered the English written record in a 1625 work by Samuel Purchas. The Inuit who speak Inuktitut use parkas and have various terms related to them as follows, up until about two years of age, the child nestles against the mothers back in the amaut, the built-in baby pouch just below the hood. The pouch is large and comfortable for the baby, the mother can bring the child from back to front for breast-feeding or for eliminatory functions without exposure to the elements. This traditional eastern Arctic Inuit parka, designed to keep the warm and safe from frostbite, wind and cold. The outer shell material also was changed to a sage green cotton-nylon blend, with respective percentages 80–20, 65–35 and it gained the common name of snorkel parka because the hood can be zipped right up leaving only a small tunnel for the wearer to look out of. This is particularly effective in very cold, windy weather although it has the added liabilities of seriously limiting the field of vision, earlier hoods had genuine fur ruffs on the hoods, later versions used synthetic furs. Original manufacturers of this parka for the government included Skyline, Southern Athletic, Lancer, Greenbrier, Workroom For Designers, Alpha, and Avirex. The basic N-3B parka design was copied and sold to the market by many manufacturers with varying degrees of quality. The 1970s / 1980s civilian version of the parka was made in many colours - navy blue, green, brown, black, maroon, grey, royal blue, sky blue, most having an orange diamond quilted nylon lining. Although a very small number did have alternative coloured linings such as yellow, pale blue, there were many popular brands in addition to lots of unbranded versions and each having their own unique features. For instance the Campri/Campari branded ones had the pocket flap opening the way around on the hand warmer pockets. Popular brands available were Lord Anthony, Campri, Campari, Wakefields, Keynote, Skyways, Brutus, Fosters, JonJo, Crossbow, and Milletts

91.
Military beret
–
Berets have been a component of the uniforms of many armed forces throughout the world since the mid-20th century. Berets are in some countries particularly associated with units, who often wear berets in more unusual colours. The French Chasseurs alpins, created in the early 1880s, were the first regular unit to wear the beret as a standard headgear. These mountain troops were issued with a uniform which included several features which were innovative for the time, notably the large and this was so unfamiliar a fashion outside France that it had to be described in the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1911 as a soft cap or tam oshanter. The beret is not so useful in conditions for the modern infantryman, who requires protective helmets. The beret was found useful as a uniform for armored-vehicle crews. German AFV crews in the late 1930s also adopted a beret with the addition of a crash helmet inside. The color black became popular as a headdress, since it did not show oil stains picked up inside the interior of a vehicle. Black berets continue to be worn by armored regiments in many armies, an unusual form of beret is the camo beret, mostly issued to special forces. Countries that have issued camouflage berets include Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, PRC, Denmark, Ecuador, Israel, Paraguay, Panama, Philippines, Portugal, South Africa, South Korea, and Thailand. As recorded below the beret is now worn by military personnel of the majority of nations around the globe. Most berets are used by senior enlisted personnel and officers, the beret colours are as follows, The Armed Forces continue to wear Soviet-style berets, which are draped to the right in most circumstances. When appearing in public on parade, the berets are draped to the side so that the insignia shows to observing dignitaries. Blue berets are worn in the Royal Australian Air Force, in all cases, the beret is bashed to the right, and a badge or insignia is worn above the left eye. Berets are common in most parts of the Army, and are worn for special occasions. Since World War II they have adopted by all units. Berets vary in colour according to the regiment, and carry a badge which is of gilt for officers, silver for non-commissioned officers, members of cavalry units all wear silver coloured badges. Berets vary in colour according to the branch, and carry a crest pin resembling the units insignia

92.
Garrison cap
–
A side cap is a foldable military cap with straight sides and a creased or hollow crown sloping to the back where it is parted. It is known as a cap or flight cap, a wedge cap. It follows the style originated with the so-called Austrian cap in the 1890s. There was also a version known as the torin, which had a much more curved top line when viewed from the side. Both Austrian and torin types were distinguished by the inclusion of a section for warming the ears. These two styles are used by officers of some British units and continue to include this feature. In appearance the cap is similar to the glengarry, but differs by a lack of the tartan, or check trim, toorie and it has been associated with various military forces from the time of World War I to the present day, and various youth organizations. Other terms for this cap in semi-official and or slang usage include garrison cover, flight cap, side cap, overseas cap, envelope hat, piss-cutter, chip hat, bider, cunt cap. All ranks of the Royal Australian Air Force are entitled to wear the garrison cap with appropriate cap badge in service dress. The piping of the cap for air officers is light blue. The RAAF is the branch of the Australian Defence Force entitled to wear the garrison cap. The field service cap was originally adopted army-wide in 1939, the coloured field service cap was a variant permitted for private purchase and worn only when off duty. These were in the colours of the regiment or corps of the wearer, for Canadian Forces members who wear air force uniform, the blue wedge cap is authorized for wear with all orders of dress, save for the combat uniform. It is properly worn on the side of the head, centred front and back. Cap badges are worn on the side, with the centre of the badge 6.5 centimetres from the front of the cap centred between the flap and the top seam. The cap worn by general officers is embellished with silver piping, Air force military police in dress uniform wear a scarlet flash in the front of their wedge caps showing 1 centimetre. Air force members of Canadian Special Operations Forces Command wear a tan flash in the front of their wedge caps, prior to Unification in 1968, the Royal Canadian Air Force wore uniforms similar to those worn by the Royal Air Force, including a blue wedge cap. With the advent of the Distinct Environmental Uniform, the wedge cap returned

93.
Canadian military fur wedge cap
–
The Canadian military fur wedge cap, envelope busby, or colloquially The Astrakhan is a uniform hat worn by the Canadian military and RCMP. The outside of the cap is covered in real or synthetic fur and is shaped like a wedge. When not being worn the cap folds flat, often the cap is patterned such that the front of the crown will be slightly higher than the back. On one side of the military style fur wedge cap hangs a flat flap made of cloth or wool that extends from the crown to the bottom of the cap, the colour of the bag was determined by the regimental colours. The bag is very similar to that worn with the busby, because of the caps passing resemblance to the hussar busby author and researcher James J. Boulton dubbed it the envelope busby. Today the RCMP wear the Yukon pattern of fur cap that is similar to the Russian ushanka style, the other police unit that still regularly wears the fur wedge cap is the Toronto Police Mounted Unit as part of their full dress uniform. The Canadian military also wore the cap from about the end of the 19th century, the bag was coloured rifle green. In Canadian Forces nomenclature it is known as Cap, Man’s Winter, Fur, exactly when the fur cap stopped being in general issue is unclear, however, it is still being worn today by the officer cadets of the Royal Military College of Canada. As an example William Avery Bishop, Canadian flying ace, can be wearing the cap during his days in Royal Military College of Canada. The fur wedge cap is prominently featured in the Cecil B, deMille film North West Mounted Police, with the mounted police characters all wearing the cap despite the fact that the movie is set in the summer time. A civilian version of the cap without the bag was fashionable in Canada during the 1970s

Canadian military fur wedge cap
–
Billy Bishop wearing the fur wedge cap or "Astrakhan" as a cadet, ca. 1914

94.
Turban
–
A turban is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear primarily by Sikh men, wearing turbans is common among Sikhs, including women, who refer to it as a Dastar. In certain other faith communities, the headgear also serves as a religious observance, including among Shia Muslims, greeks, in ancient times, wore a distinctive style of turbans. Additionally, turbans have often been worn by nobility, regardless of religious background and they are also sometimes donned to protect hair or as a headwrap for women following cancer treatments. The origins of turbans are uncertain, an early attestation for knowledge of the turban is found in the Roman author Ovids Metamorphoses, dating to the 1st century BC. Ovid recounts the myth that Midas king of the Phrygians, an Indo-European people of central Turkey, the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, who lived 570–632, is believed to have worn a turban in white, the most holy colour. Many Muslim men choose to wear green, because it represents paradise, in parts of North Africa, where blue is common, the shade of a turban can signify the tribe of the wearer. Contemporary turbans come in shapes, sizes and colours. Turban wearers in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, the cloth is usually under five meters in length. Some elaborate South Asian turbans may also be formed and sewn to a foundation. Turbans can be large or quite modest depending upon region, culture. Traditionally, turban has been the name of a type of headwear worn by women in Western countries, the wearing of such turbans by women in Western societies is less common than it was earlier in the 20th century. They are usually sewn to a foundation, so that they can be donned or removed easily, Turbans are commonly worn in the Horn of Africa by Muslim clerics, as well as Ethiopian Orthodox Christian priests. The headwrap has a presence in the region, where it was frequently sported by Sultans, Wazirs. Prominent historical Islamic leaders in the region that are known to have worn turbans include Sheikh Abadir Umar Ar-Rida. The colored turban, Ghabanah, is an inherited cultural turban in the regions of Hijaz. The Hijazi turbans with different shapes are the extension of the turban of Islamic prophet Muhammad who lived in Mecca and Madinah. There are several types of Ghabanah, perhaps the most famous is the yellow, that made in Aleppo, that characterized by different inscriptions, colorful turbans are the national costume in Oman, and also are common in some regions in south of Yemen and Hadhramaut

95.
Dastar
–
A Dastaar or Pagṛi or Pagg, is an item of headgear associated with Sikhism and is an important part of the Sikh culture. Wearing a Sikh dastaar, or turban, is mandatory for all Amritdhari Sikh men and women, among the Sikhs, the Dastaar is an article of faith that represents honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. The Khalsa Sikh men and women, who keep the Five Ks, wear the turban partly to cover their long, the Khalsa Sikhs regard the Dastaar as an important part of the unique Sikh identity. The Dastaar has been an important part of the Sikh religion since the time of the First Guru, Guru Angad Dev honoured Guru Amar Das with a special Dastaar when he was declared the next Guru. At the time when Guru Ram Das passed on, Guru Arjun Dev was honoured with the Dastaar of Guruship, guriyaee pag Arjan Ladhi Guru Gobind Singh, the last human Sikh Guru, wrote, Kangha dono vaqt kar, paag chune kar bandhai. Take good care of your hair, do not cut or damage your hair. In the Khalsa society, the turban signifies many virtues, Spirituality The Dastaar is a symbol of spirituality, honour and self-respect The Dastaar is also a symbol of honour and self-respect. In the Punjabi culture, those who have served the community are traditionally honoured with turbans. Responsibility Rasam Pagri is a ceremony in North India, Rasam Pagri takes place, when a man passes away and his oldest son takes over the family responsibilities by tying the turban in front of a large gathering. It signifies that now he has shouldered the responsibility of his father, piety and moral values The Dastaar also signifies piety and purity of mind. In the Punjabi society, the Khalsa Sikhs are considered as protectors of the weak, in the older times, the Khalsa warriors moved from village to village at night, during the battles. When they needed a place to hide from the enemy, the womenfolk, a saffron-colored turban is especially identified with courage, sacrifice and martyrdom. Friendship and relationship Pag Vatauni is a Punjabi custom, in which the men exchange Dastaars with their closest friends, once they exchange turbans they become friends for life and forge a permanent relationship. They take a pledge to share their joys and sorrows under all circumstances. Exchanging turban is a glue that can bind two individuals or families together for generations, sayings There are many Punjabi idioms and proverbs that describe how important is a Dastaar in ones life. Bhai Gurdas writes, Tthande khuhu naike pag visar aya sir nangai Ghar vich ranna kamlia dhussi liti dekh kudhange The Dastaar is considered an important part of the unique Sikh identity, the bare head is not considered appropriate as per gurbani. If a Sikh wants to one with his/her Guru, he/she must look like a guru. Guru Gobind Singh stated, Khalsa mero roop hai khaas, maintaining long hair and tying Dastaar is seen as a token of love and obedience of the wishes of Sikh gurus

Dastar
–
A Sikh man wearing a dastar to cover his hair
Dastar
–
Manmohan Singh, the former Prime Minister of India, wearing a dastar. The turban is the most recognized symbol of the Sikh community.
Dastar
–
Nihang Abchal Nagar (Nihangs from Hazur Sahib), 1844. Shows turban-wearing Sikh soldiers with chakrams
Dastar
–
Sikh men are easily recognized by their distinctive turbans

96.
Patka
–
A Dastaar or Pagṛi or Pagg, is an item of headgear associated with Sikhism and is an important part of the Sikh culture. Wearing a Sikh dastaar, or turban, is mandatory for all Amritdhari Sikh men and women, among the Sikhs, the Dastaar is an article of faith that represents honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. The Khalsa Sikh men and women, who keep the Five Ks, wear the turban partly to cover their long, the Khalsa Sikhs regard the Dastaar as an important part of the unique Sikh identity. The Dastaar has been an important part of the Sikh religion since the time of the First Guru, Guru Angad Dev honoured Guru Amar Das with a special Dastaar when he was declared the next Guru. At the time when Guru Ram Das passed on, Guru Arjun Dev was honoured with the Dastaar of Guruship, guriyaee pag Arjan Ladhi Guru Gobind Singh, the last human Sikh Guru, wrote, Kangha dono vaqt kar, paag chune kar bandhai. Take good care of your hair, do not cut or damage your hair. In the Khalsa society, the turban signifies many virtues, Spirituality The Dastaar is a symbol of spirituality, honour and self-respect The Dastaar is also a symbol of honour and self-respect. In the Punjabi culture, those who have served the community are traditionally honoured with turbans. Responsibility Rasam Pagri is a ceremony in North India, Rasam Pagri takes place, when a man passes away and his oldest son takes over the family responsibilities by tying the turban in front of a large gathering. It signifies that now he has shouldered the responsibility of his father, piety and moral values The Dastaar also signifies piety and purity of mind. In the Punjabi society, the Khalsa Sikhs are considered as protectors of the weak, in the older times, the Khalsa warriors moved from village to village at night, during the battles. When they needed a place to hide from the enemy, the womenfolk, a saffron-colored turban is especially identified with courage, sacrifice and martyrdom. Friendship and relationship Pag Vatauni is a Punjabi custom, in which the men exchange Dastaars with their closest friends, once they exchange turbans they become friends for life and forge a permanent relationship. They take a pledge to share their joys and sorrows under all circumstances. Exchanging turban is a glue that can bind two individuals or families together for generations, sayings There are many Punjabi idioms and proverbs that describe how important is a Dastaar in ones life. Bhai Gurdas writes, Tthande khuhu naike pag visar aya sir nangai Ghar vich ranna kamlia dhussi liti dekh kudhange The Dastaar is considered an important part of the unique Sikh identity, the bare head is not considered appropriate as per gurbani. If a Sikh wants to one with his/her Guru, he/she must look like a guru. Guru Gobind Singh stated, Khalsa mero roop hai khaas, maintaining long hair and tying Dastaar is seen as a token of love and obedience of the wishes of Sikh gurus

Patka
–
A Sikh man wearing a dastar to cover his hair
Patka
–
Manmohan Singh, the former Prime Minister of India, wearing a dastar. The turban is the most recognized symbol of the Sikh community.
Patka
–
Nihang Abchal Nagar (Nihangs from Hazur Sahib), 1844. Shows turban-wearing Sikh soldiers with chakrams
Patka
–
Sikh men are easily recognized by their distinctive turbans

97.
Glengarry
–
It is normally worn as part of Scottish military or civilian Highland dress, either formal or informal, as an alternative to the Balmoral bonnet or tam o shanter. The Royal Regiment of Scotland wears the glengarry with diced band and it was only in the 1850s that the glengarry became characteristic undress headgear of the Scottish regiments of the British Army. By 1860, the glengarry without a border and usually with a feather had been adopted by pipers in all regiments except the 42nd. The diced bands on glengarries were either in red, white and blue for royal regiments or red, white, the toories on top could be red, royal blue or black, according to regiment. The Black Watch and Queens Own Cameron Highlanders, however, wore glengarries without dicing and The 93rd Highlanders were unique in wearing a simple red and this was said to commemorate the stand of the 93rd Sutherland Highlanders at the Battle of Balaclava immortalized as The Thin Red Line. Between 1868 and 1897, the glengarry was also worn as a cap for most British soldiers until replaced by the short-lived field service cap. When this was revived in 1937, the Dress Regulations for the Army, the glengarry continued to be worn in dark blue by all regiments of the Scottish Division up to their final amalgamation into the Royal Regiment of Scotland in 2006. In parade dress, it was worn by all regiments except the Black Watch, who wore the blue bonnet, and musicians of some regiments. The Cameronians wore a rifle green glengarry up until their disbandment in 1968. The blue glengarry currently worn by the Royal Regiment of Scotland has red, blue and white dicing, a red toorie, black silk cockade and this last is a tradition taken from the Royal Scots and Kings Own Scottish Borderers. Other Commonwealth military forces that have Scottish and Highland regiments also make use of the glengarry, the headdress worn by Irish Armys Cavalry Corps is called a Glengarry but is more similar to the caubeen in appearance, than to the Scottish headdress of the same name. It was designed in 1934 for the Cavalry Corps as a more practical headdress than the peaked cap in the confines of their armoured cars. The Glengarry is the colour as the armys service dress uniform with a black band. The cap badge is worn over the left eye, Officers in the RDF wear a similar Glengarry but with green band and ribbons as part of their service dress uniform. Army pipers and drummers wear a black Glengarry with a band and ribbons. The glengarry is worn by members of staff at the Palace of Holyroodhouse. The glengarry is also worn by civilians, notably civilian pipe bands. In this context, it most often has a red toorie, in pipe bands, women often also wear the glengarry

98.
Caubeen
–
The caubeen /kɔːˈbiːn/ is an Irish beret, formerly worn by peasants. It has been adopted as the dress of Irish regiments of Commonwealth armies. The name caubeen dates from late 18th century Irish, and literally means old hat and it is derived from the Irish word cáibín, meaning little cape, which itself is a diminutive form of cába, meaning cape. In the British Army, the caubeen is officially known as the bonnet, Irish, in 1916, the British army regiment the Irish Guards established a pipe band. The pipers uniform was a mix of service dress and bandsman dress. The khaki bonnet was named caubeen by the Guards pipers, and was similar to an oversized beret, the two had different quartermaster codes, meaning that the caubeen was not simply a tam o shanter with the toorie cut off, but a purpose-made article in its own right. In World War II, a number of British army regiments adopted both khaki and rifle-green caubeens as their headdress, replacing the GS cap, the Royal Ulster Rifles did not get a band until 1948, so they did not receive their black hackles until 1947. In 1937, the London Irish Rifles extended the caubeens wear to the entire regiment, in World War II, they were the only soldiers to wear the caubeen until 1944, when the 2nd Battalion of the London Irish were serving with the Irish Brigade in Italy. The 2nd Battalion of the Inniskilling Regiment started wearing caubeens made from Italian soldiers greatcoats in January 1944, in February 1944, the British Army fortuitously made the general service cap the new standard undress cap. The caubeen passed muster, as the form of the GS cap had not been formalized at the time. In 1947, the wearing of the caubeen was later extended to all of the regiments in the post-war North Irish Brigade. The Royal Irish Rangers were granted the wearing of the caubeen with the Irish Fusiliers green hackle and it continues to be worn by the Royal Irish Regiment, created by the amalgamation of the Royal Irish Rangers and the Ulster Defence Regiment in 1992. A blue caubeen, with hackle of three stripes in colours matching the Royal Signals stable belt, was worn by officers, warrant officers. Sergeants wear an anodised metal Royal Signals cap badge, while officers, the modern caubeen is worn very high on the off-side, which makes it resemble a tilted rimless Balmoral bonnet. It is often made with narrow black tapes that are worn tied neatly in the back and it is traditionally rifle green in colour, and typically worn with a unit insignia pinned on the off side of the cap. The caubeen remains the headdress for the 2nd Battalion, the Irish Regiment of Canada and it is a Primary Reserve light infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces. The regiment was formed in Toronto in 1915 as 1 Battalion Irish Regiment, the regiment also wear an OSaffron tartan kilt and scarlets. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the dress was in slow decline, but more recently

Caubeen
–
Royal Irish Rangers uniforms
Caubeen
–
A British army caubeen with a cap badge and green hackle

99.
Canadian Coast Guard
–
The Canadian Coast Guard is the coast guard of Canada. The coast guard operates 119 vessels of varying sizes and 22 helicopters, the Canadian Coast Guard is headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario and is a Special Operating Agency within Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Unlike armed coast guards of some nations, the CCG is a government marine organization without naval or law enforcement responsibilities. Naval operations in Canadas maritime environment are exclusively the responsibility of the Royal Canadian Navy, enforcement of Canadas maritime-related federal statutes may be carried out by peace officers serving with various federal, provincial or even municipal law enforcement agencies. The CCGs responsibility encompasses Canadas 202, 080-kilometre long coastline, the longest of any nation in the world and its vessels and aircraft operate over an area of ocean and inland waters covering approximately 2.3 million square nautical miles. Canadian Coast Guard services support government priorities and economic prosperity and contribute to the safety, accessibility and security of Canadian waters, the CCG’s mandate is stated in the Oceans Act and the Canada Shipping Act. The Canada Shipping Act gives the powers, responsibilities and obligations concerning, aids to navigation, Sable Island, search and rescue, pollution response. As a special operating agency within the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, however, the CCG is one of several federal departments and agencies that have been granted heraldic symbols. The CCG badge was approved in 1962. Blue symbolizes water, white represents ice, and dolphins are considered a friend of mariners, the motto Saluti Primum, Auxilio Semper translates “Safety First, Service Always”. In addition to the Coast Guard Jack, distinctive flags have been approved for use by senior CCG officials including the Honorary Chief Commissioner, the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary was granted a flag and badge by the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 2012. Originally a variety of departments and even the navy performed the work which the CCG does today. Lifeboat stations had been established on the east and west coasts as part of the Canadian Lifesaving Service and these stations maintained, sometimes sporadically in the earliest days, pulling lifeboats manned by volunteers and eventually motorized lifeboats. After the Department of Marine and Fisheries was split into separate departments, during the inter-war period, the Royal Canadian Navy also performed similar duties at a time when the navy was wavering on the point of becoming a civilian organization. Laws related to customs and revenue were enforced by the division of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. A government reorganization in 1936 saw the Department of Marine and its Marine Service, along several other government departments and agencies. Following the Second World War, Canada experienced an expansion in ocean commerce. One of the more notable inheritances at the time of formation was the icebreaker Labrador, a period of expansion followed the creation of the CCG between the 1960s and the 1980s

100.
Upholder/Victoria-class submarine
–
The Upholder/Victoria-class submarines, also known as the Type 2400, are diesel-electric fleet submarines designed in the UK in the late 1970s to supplement the Royal Navys nuclear submarine force. They were decommissioned with the end of the Cold War after a length of service in the Royal Navy. In 1998, Canada purchased the submarines and a suite of trainers from the Royal Navy to replace the decommissioned Oberon class of submarines and their service lives have been marred with incidents that have kept them nonoperational. In the late 1970s the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence proposed a submarine design to replace the Oberon class. The new submarine class was intended to provide a more cost-effective alternative for training, the announcement for the new design took place in September 1979. Five designs were put forward, with the MoD selecting the 1, however, the need for export potential upped the displacement limit to 2,400 tons to allow for flexibility in construction if the need for alternative machinery and systems arose. The Vickers Shipbuilding & Engineering Ltd, Type 2400 diesel-electric patrol submarine design was selected. The design displaces between 2, 168–2,220 tons surfaced and 2, 400–2,455 tons submerged, the submarines are 230 feet 7 inches long overall with a beam of 25 feet and a draught of 17 feet 8 inches. The submarines had a complement between 44 and 47 with the Royal Navy, the submarines have a single-skinned, teardrop-shaped hull constructed from NQ1 high tensile steel. The hull is fitted with acoustic tiles to reduce the submarines acoustic signature. The class has a reported depth of over 650 feet. The submarines are powered by a single-shaft diesel-electric system and they are equipped with two Paxman Valenta 1600 RPS SZ diesel engines, each driving a 1. 4-megawatt GEC electric alternator. There are two 120-cell Chloride batteries, the batteries have a 90-hour endurance at 3 knots. The ship is propelled by a 4. 028-megawatt GEC dual armature electric motor turning a fixed pitch propeller. This gives the subs a maximum speed of 12 knots on the surface and 20 knots submerged and they have a 200-ton diesel capacity, giving a range of 8,000 nautical miles at 8 knots and 10,000 nautical miles at snorting depth. The class is equipped with six 21-inch torpedo tubes in the bow, in British service, the submarines were supplied with up to 18 Marconi Mk 24 Tigerfish Mod 2 torpedoes, they were also capable of using UGM-84 Sub-Harpoon missiles. They could also be adapted for use as a minelayer, up to 35 targets could be tracked, and automatic guidance could be provided for four torpedoes against four separate targets. Components from the control system of the Oberon-class submarines were installed

101.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

102.
Canadian Forces Chief Warrant Officer
–
The Canadian Forces Chief Warrant Officer or CFCWO is the senior non-commissioned member appointment in the Canadian Forces. The post was created in 1978, with the first appointment of CWO Robert Osside, the CFCWO holds the substantive rank of Chief Warrant Officer or Chief Petty Officer 1st Class. Even if the incumbent is a Naval Chief Petty Officer, the appointment title remains Canadian Forces Chief Warrant Officer. The rank insignia of the CFCWO is the Coat of Arms of Canada in coloured thread, surrounded by a wreath of twenty maple leaves in gold thread, the cap badge is the Coat of Arms of Canada, in full-colour metallic thread

103.
List of Canadian peacekeeping missions
–
Canada’s role in the development of peacekeeping during the 20th century led to the establishment of Canada as a prominent world power. Canadas commitment to multilateralism has been related to peacekeeping efforts. Canadian Nobel Peace Prize laureate Lester B. Pearson is considered to be the father of modern United Nations Peacekeeping, prior to Canada’s role in the Suez Canal Crisis, Canada was viewed by many as insignificant in issues of the world’s traditional powers. Canada’s successful role in the conflict gave Canada credibility and established it as a nation fighting for the good of all the world’s nations. Since 1995, however, Canadian direct participation in United Nations peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined and that number decreased largely because Canada began to direct its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than through the UN. Below is a list of major peacekeeping missions undertaken by Canada from 1956 to present

104.
Royal Flying Corps Canada
–
The Royal Flying Corps Canada was a training organization of the British Royal Flying Corps located in Canada during the First World War. As the war progressed, Great Britain found that it needed more trained aircrew, Training was provided both by the Curtiss Aviation School at Long Branch near Toronto and Hanlans Point on Toronto Island, and in the United States. The British realized that thousands of Canadians and Americans had joined British flying operations and more wanted to join, Canada also had space for such facilities. After much negotiation with the Canadian government, the RFC, commanded in Canada by Lieutenant-Colonel Cuthbert Hoare, stations were opened at Camp Borden, Beamsville, Hamilton, North Toronto, and Deseronto. The Curtiss JN-4 was used for training,500 Avro 504Ks had been ordered but only one had completed in Canada before the war ended in November 1918. Hoare made several agreements with U. S. Brigadier-General George O. Squier, Squier had overall responsibility for the US Army’s air service, which was short of flight instructors. The RFC released five experienced American pilots to the US Army, the RFC would also train many US Army flight personnel,400 pilots,2,000 ground-crew members, and 20 equipment officers. These Americans would then collect aircraft and equipment from the UK, ten American squadrons would train in Canada during the summer of 1917, while RFC squadrons were allowed to train during the winter in Fort Worth, Texas. During the last two years of the war 3135 pilots and 137 observers trained in Canada and Texas for both the RFC and the new Royal Air Force, of these trainees,2,624 went to Europe for operational duty. Hunt, C. W. Dancing in the Sky, The Royal Flying Corps in Canada, Toronto, Ontario, Tonawanda, New York, Dundurn Press. Morton, Desmond, Granatstein, J. L. Marching to Armageddon - Canadians, Toronto, Clark, Irwin and Co. Ltd. A History of the Air Services in Canada, archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Into the Blue, Pilot Training in Canada, 1917–1918, Aviation in Canada, 1917-1918, Being a brief account of the work of the Royal Air Force, Canada, the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board, and the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited

Royal Flying Corps Canada
–
Lecture on rigging, School of Aviation, Royal Flying Corps Canada, University of Toronto
Royal Flying Corps Canada
–
Curtiss JN-4 aircraft C332 of the Royal Flying Corps Canada on a training flight in Ontario in 1917

105.
New France
–
The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe

New France
–
A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain in 1612.
New France
–
Flag
New France
–
Champlain's Habitation c. 1608
New France
–
A map of western New France, including the Illinois Country, by Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688.

106.
Compagnies Franches de la Marine
–
The Compagnies Franches de la Marine were an ensemble of autonomous infantry units attached to the French Royal Navy bound to serve both on land and sea. These troupes constituted the principal force of France capable of intervening. Independent companies of the navy and colonial regulars, were under the authority of the French Minister of Marine, who was responsible for the French navy, overseas trade. In New France, they were the regular soldiers from 1685 to 1755. The Compagnies ceased to exist in Canada after the fall of Montreal in 1760, in 1992 the Canadian Forces Naval Reserve revived the Compagnies as a historical re-enactment unit which has toured the country. The furthest origin of the French colonial forces dates back to the creation by Cardinal Richelieu of the hundred Compagnies Ordinaires de la Mer and these units were accordingly destined to serve as soldiers on board naval vessels of the Marine Royal. Desertions, floods, lack of funds and interest reduced considerably the initial effects, Richelieu accordingly created in 1626 the Régiment la Marine, which he is the owner and honorary commandant. Harboring the white pavilion, the regiment illustrated capability by combats all along the provincial coast until the Lérins Islands, out large of Cannes, and in the Bay of Biscay. These regiments did not have a duration of service, Régiment du Havre, Régiment des Îles. Louis XIII created the Régiment des Vaisseaux, the latter was reformed another time by Cardinal Mazarin under the designation of Régiment Vaisseau-Mazarin in 1664. The regiment was then designated Régiment Vaisseau-Provence in 1658, then Régiment Royal-Vaisseaux in 1669 and they adorned for the first time the grey-white uniform with blue vest. The four regiments of la marine were transferred from the secretariat of La Marine to that of the secretariat of La Guerre, such was put in effect to meet the successive military war demands of the reign of Louis XIV, wanting to control all French units. The regiments have left the French Navy conserved then, only that of a naval designation, the Marine Royale had proud allure in 1671, France was able to align 196 naval vessels. Colbert decided accordingly to create 100 companies of guardian-soldiers destined to defend the naval vessels, however, these men were redirected again towards the French Army by Louvois in 1673. Starting this date, the naval and marine officers were obliged to recruit themselves their crew, owing to the presence of « levées » on the war or commercial sea ports, similar to the « marine press », the officers garrisoned their naval ships with defenders. However, the system found its limits quickly, the recruits were often lacking discipline and experience. A vicious circle and a pride for the performing French naval, by 1690, it became clear that the forces onboard ships were not capable of defending the French colonies, and so another force was created with that specific mission in mind. This force was called the Compagnies Franches de la Marine

107.
Canadian Forces Naval Reserve
–
The Canadian Forces Naval Reserve or NAVRES is the Primary Reserve component of the Royal Canadian Navy, as part of the unified Canadian Forces. The headquarters of the Naval Reserve is in Quebec City and oversees the operation of 24 Naval Reserve Divisions located across Canada, the Royal Canadian Naval Reserve dates back to the Royal Naval Canadian Volunteer Reserve, and the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve. The Naval Reserve was formed in 1945 replacing the unit and was renamed with the current title in 1968 following the unification of the Canadian Forces. Respond to domestic safety operations with trained sailors and small boat expertise, provide specific unique skill sets for security missions for the Royal Canadian Navy. Augment the fleet on any platform or shore capacity for defence missions, provide the linkage for the Royal Canadian Navy to local communities. The Naval Reserve fills a number of roles within the Total Force Plan, most particularly, the Naval Reserve is tasked with providing the crew members for the KINGSTON-Class Maritime Coastal Defence Vessels. Naval Reservists are individuals engaged in their lives while pursuing a military career. They train and work for the Navy in the evenings, on weekends and during the summer period and they can be students, teachers, lawyers, delivery persons, secretaries, or other members of society. Most serve on a basis, with no obligation to participate in any mission overseas. However, many employment opportunities and deployments are available to those Reservists who volunteer for them. Commander Naval Reserve Commodore M. B, mulkins Commodore David W. Craig Commodore Jennifer Bennett Commodore Bob Blakely Formation Chief Naval Reserve Chief Petty Officer 1st Class David R

Canadian Forces Naval Reserve
–
Britannia Yacht Club display cabinet in the Commodore's boardroom features Thomas G. Fuller 's uniform, sword and a memorial trophy awarded annually to the Canadian Forces Naval Reserve unit achieving the topmost state of combat readiness
Canadian Forces Naval Reserve

108.
Fleet of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
The RCN fleet comprises the Pacific Fleet at Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt, and the Atlantic Fleet at CFB Halifax. CFB Halifax is home port for the 18 vessels of the Canadian Atlantic Fleet and situated in Halifax, the Canadian Armed Forces are currently constructing a new naval facility at Nanisivik, Baffin Island, to provide a summer port for RCN patrols in the Canadian arctic. With the loss of command-and-control and resupply capabilities in 2015, the RCN is classified as a Rank 5 navy on the Todd-Lindberg classification system, dropping from Rank 3. In 2011, the government restored the name of the Royal Canadian Navy. Commissioned vessels are designated as Her Majestys Canadian Ship, minor ships as Patrol Craft Training, the Halifax-class frigates are multi-role vessels with anti-submarine, anti-aircraft and anti-ship capability. In response to recent global security interests, the role of the class has shifted from open ocean to littoral engagement, innovations in operational tactics have allowed the vessels of this class to adapt to new asymmetric surface threats. To date, seven of the ships have been refitted. Each holds a complement of 225 officers and crew, all ships of the class are named after major Canadian cities. The Victoria class are diesel-electric fleet submarines designed in the late 1970s to supplement the Royal Navys nuclear submarine force and they were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War. In 1998, Canada purchased the submarines to replace the aging Oberon-class submarines, refit for Canadian service included the removal of Sub-Harpoon missile firing and mine-laying capabilities, installation of torpedo launch systems and upgrades to weapons and fire control systems. The Kingston-class coastal defence vessel are multi-role vessels built and launched from the mid- to late-1990s and are crewed by a combination of Naval Reserve, each vessel displaces 970 t and runs with a complement of between 31 and 47 officers and crew. Their main missions are counter narcotics, coastal surveillance, sovereignty patrol, route survey, the ships capabilities include a mechanical minesweeping system, a route survey system, and a bottom object inspection vehicle. Orca-class ships are used for one-to-six-week long at sea naval officer training. Regular force Boatswains, Engineers and Naval communicators serve in these ships to train junior officers and they also patrol coastal waters for pollution infractions and fishing violations, and are frequently tasked for search and rescue operations. They operate year-round in the waters of British Columbia. The RCN is undergoing a complex program of capacity expansion, ship life extension, modernization, the Nanisivik Naval Facility currently under construction on Baffin Island in the arctic will provide shore services for fleet operations in the arctic during the four month summer season. Construction has begun on the 5–6 Harry DeWolf-class vessels under the Arctic Patrol Ship Project, the commercial containership MS Asterix is currently being converted into a fleet supply vessel, to meet operational requirements until the 2 new Queenston-class auxiliary vessels are completed. In addition to the component, the Canadian Armed Forces have begun replacing aging CH-124 Sea King helicopters serving in the RCN

Fleet of the Royal Canadian Navy
–
Proposal Joint Support Ship

109.
HMCS Halifax (FFH 330)
–
HMCS Halifax is a Halifax-class frigate that has served in the Royal Canadian Navy and Canadian Forces since 1992. Halifax is the ship in her class which is the name for the Canadian Patrol Frigate Project. She is the vessel to carry the designation HMCS Halifax. She carries the classification symbol FFH330. In July 1983, the government approved the budget for the design and construction of the first batch of six new frigates of which Halifax was a part. As built, the Halifax-class vessels displaced 4,750 long tons and were 134.65 metres long overall and 124.49 metres between perpendiculars with a beam of 16.36 metres and a draught of 4.98 metres. That made them larger than the Iroquois-class destroyers. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of 29 knots and a range of 7,000 nautical miles at 15 knots while using their diesel engines, using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of 3,930 nautical miles at 18 knots. The Halifax class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. As built the Halifax-class vessels deployed the CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a bear trap system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to sea state 6. For anti-aircraft self-defence the ships are armed with the Sea Sparrow vertical launch surface-to-air missile in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. A Raytheon/General Dynamics Phalanx Mark 15 Mod 21 Close-In Weapon System is mounted on top of the hangar for last-ditch defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the gun on the forecastle is a 57 mm /70 calibre Mark 2 gun from Bofors. The gun is capable of firing 2. 4-kilogram shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than 17 kilometres, the torpedo decoy is the AN/SLQ-25A Nixie towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ships radar warning receiver, the CANEWS, SLQ-501, two Thales Nederland SPG-503 fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD-C AN/SQS-510 hull mounted sonar, the sonobuoy processing system is the GD-C AN/UYS-503. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare, the FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ-501 CANEWS, an IBM multi-link datalink processing system was installed along with two Raytheon Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars

110.
HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331)
–
HMCS Vancouver is a Halifax-class frigate, of the Royal Canadian Navy launched on 8 July 1989, as the second vessel of her class. She is currently based at CFB Esquimalt on the west coast of Canada and she is the third vessel to be named after Vancouver, British Columbia. As built, the Halifax-class vessels displaced 4,750 long tons and were 134.65 metres long overall and 124.49 metres between perpendiculars with a beam of 16.36 metres and a draught of 4.98 metres. That made them larger than the Iroquois-class destroyers. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of 29 knots and a range of 7,000 nautical miles at 15 knots while using their diesel engines, using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of 3,930 nautical miles at 18 knots. The Halifax class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. As built the Halifax-class vessels deployed the CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a bear trap system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to sea state 6. For anti-aircraft self-defence the ships are armed with the Sea Sparrow vertical launch surface-to-air missile in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. A Raytheon/General Dynamics Phalanx Mark 15 Mod 21 Close-In Weapon System is mounted on top of the hangar for last-ditch defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the gun on the forecastle is a 57 mm /70 calibre Mark 2 gun from Bofors. The gun is capable of firing 2. 4-kilogram shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than 17 kilometres, the torpedo decoy is the AN/SLQ-25A Nixie towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ships radar warning receiver, the CANEWS, SLQ-501, two Thales Nederland SPG-503 fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD-C AN/SQS-510 hull mounted sonar, the sonobuoy processing system is the GD-C AN/UYS-503. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare, the FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ-501 CANEWS, an IBM multi-link datalink processing system was installed along with two Raytheon Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars. Furthermore, Rheinmetalls Multi-Ammunition Soft kill System, known as MASS DUERAS was introduced to replace the Plessey Shield decoy system, the frigates keel was laid down on 19 May 1988 by Saint John Shipbuilding at Saint John, New Brunswick, the second ship of her class. Vancouver was launched on 8 July 1989, after commissioning, she was assigned to CFB Esquimalt, British Columbia on Vancouver Island as the first Halifax-class frigate to be based there. From May to July 1994, the took part in the RIMPAC naval exercise off the coast of Hawaii

HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331)
–
HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331) in foreground.
HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331)
–
A square-rigged British ship of the line sailing west on the ocean.

111.
HMCS Toronto (FFH 333)
–
HMCS Toronto is a Halifax-class frigate that has served in the Canadian Forces since 1993. Toronto is the ship in her class which is the name for the Canadian Patrol Frigate Project. She is the vessel to carry the designation HMCS Toronto. When not on operations she is assigned to Maritime Forces Atlantic and is based at CFB Halifax, Toronto serves on MARLANT missions protecting Canadas sovereignty in the Atlantic Ocean and enforcing Canadian laws in its territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone. In July 1983, the government approved the budget for the design and construction of the first batch of six new frigates of which Toronto was a part. As built, the Halifax-class vessels displaced 4,750 long tons and were 134.65 metres long overall and 124.49 metres between perpendiculars with a beam of 16.36 metres and a draught of 4.98 metres. That made them larger than the Iroquois-class destroyers. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of 29 knots and a range of 7,000 nautical miles at 15 knots while using their diesel engines, using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of 3,930 nautical miles at 18 knots. The Halifax class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. As built the Halifax-class vessels deployed the CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a bear trap system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to sea state 6. For anti-aircraft self-defence the ships are armed with the Sea Sparrow vertical launch surface-to-air missile in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. A Raytheon/General Dynamics Phalanx Mark 15 Mod 21 Close-In Weapon System is mounted on top of the hangar for last-ditch defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the gun on the forecastle is a 57 mm /70 calibre Mark 2 gun from Bofors. The gun is capable of firing 2. 4-kilogram shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than 17 kilometres, the torpedo decoy is the AN/SLQ-25A Nixie towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ships radar warning receiver, the CANEWS, SLQ-501, two Thales Nederland SPG-503 fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD-C AN/SQS-510 hull mounted sonar, the sonobuoy processing system is the GD-C AN/UYS-503. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare, the FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ-501 CANEWS, an IBM multi-link datalink processing system was installed along with two Raytheon Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars

112.
HMCS Calgary (FFH 335)
–
HMCS Calgary is a Halifax-class frigate that has served in the Canadian Forces and Royal Canadian Navy since 1995. Calgary is the vessel in her class and the second vessel to carry the designation HMCS Calgary. She was built as part of the Canadian Patrol Frigate Project, Calgary began the FELEX refit in June 2012. She is assigned to Maritime Forces Pacific and is homeported at CFB Esquimalt, Calgary serves on MARPAC missions protecting Canadas sovereignty in the Pacific Ocean and enforcing Canadian laws in its territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone. In July 1983, the government approved the budget for the design and construction of the first batch of six new frigates of which Calgary was a part. As built, the Halifax-class vessels displaced 4,750 long tons and were 134.65 metres long overall and 124.49 metres between perpendiculars with a beam of 16.36 metres and a draught of 4.98 metres. That made them larger than the Iroquois-class destroyers. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of 29 knots and a range of 7,000 nautical miles at 15 knots while using their diesel engines, using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of 3,930 nautical miles at 18 knots. The Halifax class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. As built the Halifax-class vessels deployed the CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a bear trap system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to sea state 6. For anti-aircraft self-defence the ships are armed with the Sea Sparrow vertical launch surface-to-air missile in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. A Raytheon/General Dynamics Phalanx Mark 15 Mod 21 Close-In Weapon System is mounted on top of the hangar for last-ditch defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the gun on the forecastle is a 57 mm /70 calibre Mark 2 gun from Bofors. The gun is capable of firing 2. 4-kilogram shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than 17 kilometres, the torpedo decoy is the AN/SLQ-25A Nixie towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST. The ships radar warning receiver, the CANEWS, SLQ-501, two Thales Nederland SPG-503 fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge and one on the raised radar platform immediately forward of the helicopter hangar. The sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD-C AN/SQS-510 hull mounted sonar, the sonobuoy processing system is the GD-C AN/UYS-503. This involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare, the FELEX program comprised upgrading the combat systems integration to CMS330. A Telephonics IFF Mode 5/S interrogator was installed and the Elisra NS9003A-V2HC ESM system replaced the SLQ-501 CANEWS, an IBM multi-link datalink processing system was installed along with two Raytheon Anschütz Pathfinder Mk II navigation radars

113.
HMCS Fredericton (FFH 337)
–
HMCS Fredericton is a Halifax-class frigate that has served in the Canadian Forces since 1994. Fredericton is the ship in her class which is based on the Canadian Patrol Frigate Project. She is the vessel to carry the name. Fredericton serves on MARLANT missions protecting Canadas sovereignty in the Atlantic Ocean and enforcing Canadian laws in its territorial sea, Fredericton has also been deployed on missions throughout the Atlantic and to the Indian Ocean, specifically the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea on anti-terrorism operations. Fredericton has also participated in several NATO missions, patrolling the Atlantic Ocean as part of Standing Naval Force Atlantic, the frigate is assigned to Maritime Forces Atlantic and is homeported at CFB Halifax. As of 7 July 2016 Fredericton has been commanded by Commander Yves Tremblay, Fredericton was ordered in December 1987 as part of the second batch of frigates. As built, the Halifax-class vessels displaced 4,750 long tons and were 134.65 metres long overall and 124.49 metres between perpendiculars with a beam of 16.36 metres and a draught of 4.98 metres. That made them larger than the Iroquois-class destroyers. This gives the frigates a maximum speed of 29 knots and a range of 7,000 nautical miles at 15 knots while using their diesel engines, using their gas turbines, the ships have a range of 3,930 nautical miles at 18 knots. The Halifax class have a complement of 198 naval personnel of which 17 are officers and 17 aircrew of which 8 are officers. As built the Halifax-class vessels deployed the CH-124 Sea King helicopter, the ships have a helicopter deck fitted with a bear trap system allowing the launch and recovery of helicopters in up to sea state 6. For anti-aircraft self-defence the ships are armed with the Sea Sparrow vertical launch surface-to-air missile in two Mk 48 Mod 0 eight-cell launchers placed to port and starboard of the funnel. A Raytheon/General Dynamics Phalanx Mark 15 Mod 21 Close-In Weapon System is mounted on top of the hangar for last-ditch defence against targets that evade the Sea Sparrow. As built, the gun on the forecastle is a 57 mm /70 calibre Mark 2 gun from Bofors. The gun is capable of firing 2. 4-kilogram shells at a rate of 220 rounds per minute at a range of more than 17 kilometres, the vessels also carry eight 12.7 mm machine guns. The torpedo decoy is the AN/SLQ-25A Nixie towed acoustic decoy from Argon ST, the ships radar warning receiver, the CANEWS, SLQ-501, and the radar jammer, SLQ-505, were developed by Thorn and Lockheed Martin Canada. Two Thales Nederland SPG-503 fire control radars are installed one on the roof of the bridge, the sonar suite includes the CANTASS Canadian Towed Array and GD-C AN/SQS-510 hull mounted sonar and incorporates an acoustic range prediction system. The sonobuoy processing system is the GD-C AN/UYS-503 and this involved upgrading the command and control, radar, communications, electronic warfare and armament systems