A simultaneous referendum was supposed to be held in Abyei on whether to become part of Southern Sudan but it has been postponed due to conflict over demarcation and residency rights.[4]

On 7 February 2011, the referendum commission published the final results, with 98.83% voting in favour of independence.[5] While the ballots were suspended in 10 of the 79 counties for exceeding 100% of the voter turnout, the number of votes were still well over the requirement of 60% turnout, and the majority vote for secession is not in question.

The predetermined date for the creation of an independent state was 9 July 2011.[6]

The prerequisites for the referendum included a census, which was used to define how wealth and political power will be apportioned between regions, the census was the basis of a voter registration process, which was also used for the national elections in 2010, which in turn set the stage for the referendum. The census was delayed three times. Problems included disagreements between the north and south over what they are obliged to do by the Naivasha Agreement, funding difficulties and an enormous logistical challenge; in the south, unmapped minefields from the war continue to make movement difficult, while up to five million Sudanese are nomadic. Up to two million internally displaced persons from the south remain in camps around Khartoum, in the center of the country, while refugees remain in Uganda and Kenya. A further complication results from the conflict in Darfur to the west, where civilians who have fled attacks refuse to take part in census out of fear that the government would use the results against them. Darfuri rebel groups are unanimous in their denunciation of the planned census, while the Justice and Equality Movement group has threatened to attack any census-taker.[9]

There were disagreements between the National Congress Party (NCP) and the SPLA/M about what proportion of voters will have to be in favour of independence (the NCP wanted at least 75% support required), whether Southern Sudanese living in the north should be allowed to vote, and the post-referendum separation process (including the division of the national debt).[10] Modest progress was made in early September 2010, but disagreements on fundamental points remain.[11]

It is envisaged that "popular consultations" in South Kordofan and Blue Nile, without a clear reference to referendums and/or independence, would raise concerns about the future of these regions.[12][13]

According to the terms of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (or CPA),[14] in October 2009, the central government of Sudan and the South Sudanese government agreed that turnout would have to be at least 60% of 3.8 million voters would be necessary to validate. In this case, a simple majority vote in favour of independence would result in secession for South Sudan;[15][16] should the turnout be insufficient in the first referendum, a second one will be held within sixty days.[17]

Sudanese officials have said throughout campaigning that, regardless of their pro-unity or pro-separatist stance, the ultimate aim was a peaceful transition. Vice President Kiir acknowledged his administration had failed to deliver "the dividends of peace," and noted that a campaign to confiscate arms was a solution to maintaining stability.[18]

Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir said that the southern region had a right to choose to secede and that the referendum was helpful because unity "could not be forced by power." He also said he would respect the outcome of the vote and support the south.[19] However, he also said that though secession was a right it may not resolve issues for the south: "The stability of the south is very important to us because any instability in the south will have an impact on the north. If there is a war in your neighbour's house, you will not be at peace, the south suffers from many problems. It's been at war since 1959, the south does not have the ability to provide for its citizens or create a state or authority."

Negotiations continue between the ruling parties in the north and south on potential post-referendum arrangements—looking at future issues such as citizenship, security, finance and wealth sharing. Minister of Petroleum Mr. Deng said he fears that an immediate budget cut for the north would ignite a war. "In order to avoid conflict, we could look to a phase-out arrangement whereby you provide the north some [oil] until they get an alternative.”[20] The pipeline to export southern oil currently cuts through the north, and the south has not begun construction on a pipeline that would avoid that route; in an article published by the Washington Post on 21 September 2010, Deng noted that an interim agreement could help both north and south and result in a “win-win”. The northern government said it would assume most of the country's $38bn debt if secession was voted upon.[21]

National campaigns were being held by both parties to address issues of potential clashes ahead of the referendum. President Al-Bashir wanted to reassure and assuage tension surrounding the issue of citizenship rights in the case of south Sudan secession, he said that even if southerners opted for secession, "the sentimental unity and social relations between north and south Sudan will remain standing." Al-Bashir vowed that the rights of southern citizens staying in the north after secession would be safeguarded, saying that his party would not allow anyone to infringe on the rights of southerners in the north, their properties, freedoms and residence regardless of citizenship.[22]

The northern Justice and Peace Forum Party advocated separation of the country citing unity as a "bad forced marriage." Its chairman Al Taieb Mustafa said that the prospective support for the referendum would be "the real independence day for Sudan."[23]

On 8 January, the mood in Juba, the southern capital, and the wider region was said to be jubilant with final pro-secession rallies celebrating independence in advance.[14]

Early during the referendum process, an Egyptian proposal was made to have a confederation between the north and south of the country. However, President Omar al-Bashir said it was not being considered because the issue of the referendum was about "unity or separation. Our brothers in the south are refusing at the moment the proposal of confederation. If the separation was the result of the referendum, the two sides are going to negotiate over the future of relations between them."[24]

Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi later went to Sudan to try to assuage the conflict, though both had previously called for the country to stay united. Egypt's Foreign Minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit said the meeting sought to ensure the referendum could be held in a "climate of freedom, transparency and credibility, reflecting the will of the sons of the south" and also that both the South and North could strengthen bonds.[25]

Talks on resolving the status and of the eligibility criteria for voters in the disputed Abyei region broke down in October 2010, although both the central ruling NCP and southern SPLM said their respective teams "will meet again in Ethiopia toward the end of October to continue their discussions, the parties continue to commit themselves to their mutual goal of avoiding a return to conflict."[26]

Didiri Mohammad Ahmad, an NCP official, said it was "not possible" to hold the referendum on the future of Abyei on time, and it could be delayed for months or be settled without a vote, he added that "We agreed that in the next talks we will try to look for other alternatives."[27]

Sudan’s Defense Minister, Abdel Rahim Mohammed Hussein, suggested the vote may have to be postponed. "According to the reality on the ground...border issues and Abyei must be resolved within the framework of one nation because doing so in the framework of two countries open[s] the door for foreign interference. The referendum is not a goal but a tool to consolidate and promote security and stability, this [UDI] is illegal and will not be recognised by the African Union or the other [organisations] because it would contradict the peace agreement and its procedures."[28] Sudan's UN ambassador Daffa-Alla Elhag Ali Osman told the Security Council that "It is evident that any attempt to conduct the plebiscite before achieving an acceptable settlement between the two parties [in Abyei] will mean only a return to war."[29] The United States said it was working to avoid the "danger" that would follow the failure to hold the referendum.[30]

The government Sudan asked the UN for the printing of ballots for the referendum as diplomats and the electoral commission warned of any further delay would miss the deadline to hold the election.[31]

Bishtina Mohammed El Salam of the Misseriya, who dominate the region along with the Dinka tribe, said he would not accept Abyei's seceding and joining the south even though the latter favoured secession. "If the Dinka take this decision – to annex Abyei to the south – there will be an immediate war without any excuse. We think they should be reasonable and think about it, they should know that those who are pushing them to take that decision will not give them any back-up."[33]

In the Blue Nile, African ethnic groups such as the Berta, Anuak and Koma are dominant in the South, the Northern part, however, has an Arab majority, although the enclave of Ingessana in Tabi Hills[34] is mostly Animist and was targeted by the northern forces during the civil war.[35] The total population stands at 832,112 according to the Election Commission,[36] during the 2010 provincial elections, the NCP won 29 out of the 48 seats, while the SPLM won 17 seats. In the National Assembly elections, the NCP won 6 out of the 10 seats, while the SPLM got 4.[37] However, the SPLM accused the NCP of fraud, the separate gubernatorial election was won by the SPLM candidate, who polled almost 5% votes more than his NCP rival.[38]

The Nuba Mountain was home to some 1,000,000 ethnic Nuba during the 1980.[39] A total of 99 different tribes used to live in this region.[40] When the civil war broke out during the late 1980s, the Nuba aligned with the SPLA, the vast majority of Nuba were taken as prisoners of war and forcibly relocated to camps in North Kordofan and Khartoum. When the fighting ended, only about half the population survived, the rest either surrendered and moved north or were killed during the fighting. After the signing of the peace accord, some of the Nuba returned to the mountains, but the tribal elders refused to re-admit them into the tribes as they feared the abductees (mostly young men) were too Islamised, they were finally allowed back into the tribal fold after a 6-month re-education camp.[39]

The SPLA controls four counties in Southern Kordofan: Lagawa, Kadugli, Rashad and Dilling;[41] in 2005, the Arab dominated West Kordofan was merged in to South Kordofan, resulting in Arabs gaining a majority in the new province.

The 2008 census reported the total population of South Kordofan at 1,406,404 (though the SPLA claims many ethnic Nuba living in remote regions were not counted), this figure includes the Abyei region and it is not known how many are Nuba, Ngok and Baggara. During the 2010 National Assembly election, the NCP won 13 out of the 17 seats, while the SPLM won 4 seats,[37] the gubernatorial elections were postponed to 2011.

During the 2010 Presidential elections, the NCP received 69.3% of the votes in South Kordofan and 56.6% in Blue Nile, while the SPLM received 18.5% of the votes in South Kordofan and 32.7% in Blue Nile.[42]

Ahmed Harun of NCP defeated Abdelaziz al-Hilu of the SPLM in the 2011 South Kordofan Gubernatorial elections. Harun received 201,455 votes compared to Hilu's 194,955 votes. NCP won 33 seats in the legislature to SPLM's 22 seats.[43] SPLM refused to acknowledge the results, accusing the NCP of voter intimidation and electoral fraud.[44]

President Omar al-Bashir said dual citizenship would not be allowed. According to the CPA, 20 percent of civil service jobs were reserved for southerners, which would then be lost if the country splits.[53]

Questions were also asked about the status of tribes such as the Nuba and Misseriya of South Kordogan that inhabit the border regions with South Sudan.[54]

When questioned in a poll 97% of South Sudanese answered that they would be voting for independence.[55]

An early poll of 1,400 individuals was carried out by a coalition of civil society organizations in Southern Sudan prior to the January referendum, indicating that 97 percent of voters would likely vote for secession. According to John Andruga, chairman of the coalition, 100 percent of respondents in the states of Unity and Eastern Equatoria would vote for secession. A similar survey carried out one year prior by the US-based National Democratic Institute had indicated that 90 percent of voters would vote for secession.[56]

Authorities in both the north and south of Sudan have been accused of harassment and intimidation against the media in order to avoid dissenting coverage. Rights groups warned the media could be slapped with further restrictions.[57]

The Youth and Sports Minister, Haj Majid Suwar, of the National Congress Party (NCP) suggested the government "may not recognise the results" and would "talk to ... the USA and the UN and the AU and say that the Sudan People's Liberation Movement didn't fulfill the CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement" by allowing open campaigning and the withdrawal of their soldiers from southern areas.[58] He also said that the potential borders between them would have to be drawn up pending redeployment of the SPLM's forces to the 1956 border.[59]

Salva Kiir, the president of the southern region and the first vice president of Sudan, said that the referendum's timing was important as there was "a risk of a return to war in case of delay or denial of this exercise, and it would be on a very massive scale."[60] Kuol Deim Kuol, the spokesman for the SPLM's military, accused the NCP of "just looking for a pretext of starting war" and called Suwar a "war monger."[59]

Sudan's president, Omar Hassan al-Bashir, accused the SPLM of breaching the terms of the peace deal, and warned of a return to conflict if the disputes were not settled before the referendum, despite that, he said he was committed to holding the referendum, but insisted on settling differences over the shared border and how to share oil, debt and Nile river water.[61]

The NCP accused the SPLM of discouraging southerners who were living in the north of the country from registering, as the SPLM threatened not to recognise the referendum if its demands were not met.[62] Southerners in the North were reluctant to vote because of fears of being uprooted from their homes.[63] Muslims in the border provinces of the South also expressed fear of a campaign of violence that could be unleashed as a consequence of the referendum.[64] Many feared a return to civil war, should the referendum fail because of the increasingly heated rhetoric.[65] Along with Chad, Sudan sought to secure the border area ahead of the referendum.[66]

In addition to warnings of civil war, it was also read that a possible civil war could involve the Lord's Resistance Army and bring Uganda into the conflict.[67]

Despite rifts amongst Southern parties, more than 20 parties ironed over their differences to put a show of unity before the referendum.[68] Saudi Arabian Foreign Minister Saud al-Faisal also said the referendum could "reignite violence...rather than bring peace," while he said the vote must be "fair and free."[69]

The United States extended sanctions against Sudan on 1 November 2010 in order to pressure the government to stick to the referendum deadline,[70] the US then offered to drop Sudan from a US list of state-sponsors of terrorism if the two referenda were held on time and the results were respected.[71] They again partook in a statement before the referendum in lauding al-Bashir's statement to respect the vote.[72]

Following concerns from the UN about delays, representatives of both regions affirmed a commitment to hold the referendum on time;[73] a media campaign was also launched to raise awareness and increase the turnout.[74]

Minni Minnawi, the only Sudan Liberation Army faction signatory to the Darfur Peace Agreement, quit the agreement and resigned his post as Special Advisor to the President, saying the deal had failed, he consequently moved to Juba in the south saying the referendum would be successful as southerners "reject the policy of this [Khartoum] government" and the north would then be a "failed state." In return the government declared Minnawi an "enemy" and closed his Khartoum office.[75]

In December 2010, the Constitutional Court agreed to carry out an investigation into a petition filed by local lawyers seeking the dissolution of the electoral body that was organising the referendum.[76]

Despite calls from the government in southern Sudan that northerners living in the south should be protected, some northerners who were uncertain of their future in an independent state started heading north.[77]

Questions were asked if a positive vote on the referendum would set a precedent for other secessionist movements on the African continent. An Al Jazeera English analysis said a few reasons for seeking secession were: a lack of expertise by post-colonial political elites in governing their respective countries and managing natural resources; the impact of the Cold War where many African countries took sides, rendering sovereignty ineffective; tribal prejudices and preferential service that dominate African politics; failure of governments to provide basic freedoms such as guaranteeing full citizenship for all.

Citing these examples, it asked where such a precedent for secession could lead: East Sudan and Darfur, Nigeria or South Africa, as two important members of the African Union the latter two could be reluctant to support a new independent southern Sudan as a recognition thereof could "send a very clear message to these groups in their struggle for autonomy."[79]

Domestic observation organisations also deployed Sudanese men and women to observe the process, these included the Sudanese Network for Democratic Elections (SuNDE),[87] the Sudan Domestic Elections Monitoring Programme (SuDEMOP)[88] and the Sudanese Group for Democracy and Elections (SuGDE). Other[which?] national civil society organisations were also accredited as observers.

Normally, the UN does not deploy electoral observers, however, in response to a request from the parties of the CPA, the United Nations Secretary-General’s Panel on the Referenda in the Sudan was established,[89] the panel is composed of three senior officials, former Tanzania President Benjamin Mkapa, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Portugal António Monteiro, and Bhojraj Pokharel, a former Chairman of the Election Commission of Nepal, who are appointed by and report to the UN Secretary-General. The panel made periodic visits to Sudan during the referendum period and is supported by field reporting officers and stakeholder-observer liaison officers.

Registration for the vote started on 15 November with Salva Kiir's appeal for registering en masse. Many of those who fled South Sudan during the civil war returned in the months and weeks leading up to the referendum, with some southern politicians trying to have them play a role in swinging the vote towards independence.[90][91] Almost four million citizens registered before the deadline on 5 December; as the stream of returnees continued unabated, however, many arrived too late to register for the referendum.[92][93]

Voting on the referendum began on 9 January 2011, on 12 January, after three days of voting, representatives of the SPLA/M announced that, according to their estimates, the 60 percent turnout threshold required for the referendum's validity (corresponding to around 2.3 million voters) had been reached. Official confirmation came later the same day, when the referendum commission released a statement announcing that turnout would "exceed" the required 60 percent threshold.[94] Jimmy Carter expressed his belief on 13 January that the referendum would likely meet international standards for both the conduct of the vote and freedom of voters,[95] the United Nations reported that preliminary results would be expected by 2 February 2011, with final results expected within the following two weeks.[94][96]

According to preliminary counts reviewed by the Associated Press, consisting of 30,000 ballots in 10 polling stations, the sample had a 95% turnout with 96% in favour of secession, 3% in favour of unity[97] and the rest invalid. Mohamed Ibrahim Khalil, chairman of the referendum commission, said 83 percent of eligible voters in the south and 53 percent in the north had voted,[98] the South Sudan Referendum Commission affirmed the validity of the vote, however the vote was still ongoing at the time.[99]

Southerners living in Darfur were given the opportunity to vote in the referendum from special polling stations as some tribes advocated unity and others supported separation with a possible ominous precedence for Darfur itself.[102] Polling stations were also set up in eight countries with large South Sudanese populations, namely Australia, Canada, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, the United Kingdom and the United States;[103] in the United States, where an estimated 25,000 to 50,000 South Sudanese reside, polling booths were opened in eight states: Virginia, Massachusetts, Illinois, Texas, Tennessee, Nebraska, Arizona and Washington.[104] Similar polling booths were set up in the Canadian cities of Calgary and Toronto, to cater to the South Sudanese population there; an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 Sudanese[clarification needed] live in Canada, about 2,200 of whom had registered to vote in either of the two cities.[103]

Members of the South Sudanese diaspora have been split as to their support for or against separation; members of some tribes advocate unity, while members of other tribes supported separation. Some Canadian Sudanese have called for a boycott of the referendum, accusing the International Organization for Migration, which was tasked with operating the vote in that country, of "being influenced by the government in Khartoum."[103] Calgary-based journalist Mading Ngor of The New Sudan Vision dismissed these claims as "a conspiracy theory," adding "It's a very fragmented community here along tribal lines."[103] Although over 99% of those in the South voted for independence, 42% of those who lived in the north at the time voted for unity.[105]

Several days before voting began, the SPLA/M and a rebel faction led by Lieutenant General George Athor in Jonglei State agreed to a ceasefire agreement after nearly a year of fighting, meaning a halt to military operations, troop movement and recruitment by either side. The agreement was seen as important for a "peaceful voting environment".[106]

The day before voting began, at least six people were killed in clashes between South Sudan security forces and a pro-Khartoum Sudan militia in Unity state. One person was also killed in clashes between the Misseriya tribe and police in Abyei, the SPLA/M said the fighting started a day earlier because of the Misseriya.[107] One day into the vote, on 10 January, a further 6 people were killed in clashes near Abyei,[21] bringing the total to 30 dead in that region.[108]

U.S. Senator John Kerry said that the referendum represented a "new chapter" for Sudan.

Domestic

As of 15 January, Radio France Internationale reported that the Sudanese central government in Khartoum had begun to recall ambassadors named by the SPLA as part of the CPA and had stopped shipping material for passports to Juba.[109] Sudan also became the first state to recognise South Sudan.

International

President of the United States Barack Obama said the result of the vote were "inspiring" as voters decided "their own future [and marked] another step forward in Africa's long journey toward justice and democracy", he also said that the United States would recognise South Sudan's independence when it is formalised in July.

Salva Kiir met the leaders of the Polisario FrontMohammed Abdel-Aziz at an African Union summit. Abdel-Aziz congratulated Kiir for on a successful referendum process, he lauded "the wisdom and courage" of people of South Sudan people for a peaceful resolution of the conflict and expressed his hope that post-referendum arrangements and agreements could be finishing in the interim period before statehood. He also briefed Kiir of the Western Sahara's process to a similar referendum.[110]

The precedence of the vote was seen as important because most African states' borders were decided during colonial times which resulted in a heterogeneous mix of religions, ethnicities and cultures, the Organisation of African Unity, however, refrained from redrawing boundaries for the fear that wars of secession could be sparked.[111]

1.
South Sudan
–
South Sudan, officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city and it was planned that the capital city would be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel in the future before civil war broke out. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile, following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon developed and ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following a referendum passed with 98. 83% of the vote. It is a United Nations member state, a state of the African Union, of the East African Community. In July 2012, South Sudan signed the Geneva Conventions, South Sudan has suffered ethnic violence and has been in a civil war since 2013, as of 2016 it has the second highest score on the Fragile States Index. The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Acholi, Anyuak, Bari, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi, Zande, the Azande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century—established the regions largest state of Equatoria Region. The Dinka are the largest, Nuer the second largest and Azande are the third-largest ethnic group in South Sudan while the Bari are fourth-largest. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, in the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society and this domination continued into the 20th century. The major reasons include the history of British policy preference toward developing the Arab north. After Sudans first independent elections in 1958, the ignoring of the south by Khartoum led to uprisings, revolt. As of 2012, peoples include Acholi, Anyuak, Azande, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Bari, Boya, Didinga, Dinka, Jiye, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Mundari, Murie, Nilotic, Nuer, Shilluk, Toposa and Zande. Slavery had been an institution of Sudanese life throughout history, the slave trade in the south intensified in the 19th century and continued after the British had suppressed slavery in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Annual Sudanese slave raids into non-Muslim territories resulted in the capture of thousands of southern Sudanese. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians, Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypts first governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, the Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai, european colonial maneuverings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok, Britain and France almost went to war over the region

2.
Politics of South Sudan
–
The politics of South Sudan concern the system of government in the Republic of South Sudan, a country in East Africa, and the people, organisations, and events involved in it. On January 9,2005, the Government of Southern Sudan was established after the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, John Garang, the former rebel leader of the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army/Movement, became President of the Government of Southern Sudan and Vice President of Sudan. A constitution was adopted in December 2005, on July 2005 Garang died in a helicopter crash in Uganda, and was succeeded in both posts by Salva Kiir Mayardit, with Riek Machar as Vice-President of Southern Sudan. A referendum on independence for Southern Sudan was held from 9 to 15 January 2011, voting on the referendum began on January 9,2011. Official confirmation came later the day, when the referendum commission released a statement announcing that turnout would exceed the required 60 percent threshold. Mohamed Ibrahim Khalil, chairman of the commission, said 83 percent of eligible voters in the south and 53 percent in the north had voted. Over 90% of those who voted supported independence, which was granted on July 9. In July 2013, Kiir dismissed all his ministers, including Vice President Riek Machar, however, Machar said it was a step towards dictatorship and that he would challenge Kiir for the presidency. On 14–15 December 2013, an attempted coup détat was put down, in the meantime, the SPLM factionalised into the SPLM-Juba led by President Salva Kiir and the SPLM-IO led by former Vice President Riek Machar. Kiir told the session of the United Nations General Assembly that Machar was to blame for the conflict. Kiir also dismissed his ethnic colleague Rebecca Garang, widow of the SPLMs founder John Garang, the talks were led by Nhial Deng Nhial and Deng Alor for the government and rebels, respectively. The rebels lead negotiator was then due to be replaced by Taban Deng Gai, at the same time, the government expressed optimism at the resolution. Both sides then agreed to the governments 30-month proposal for rule by a unity government. While the interim period was agreed, the period was still in dispute with the government wanting three months and the rebels asking for a month. Some people seemed to agree on certain points, so they have to go back and consult with the principals. The interim government will be formed once you have a political solution, there must be a political agreement so that you have an interim government to implement what has been agreed upon. In principle that has been accepted by the government and it also followed IGAD giving the groups 45 days from August to work out a transition agreement. At fighting near the compound of the United Nations, Juba, in mid-November, despite an agreement to unconditionally end the fighting, hostilities took place in three provinces with each side blaming each other

3.
Constitution of South Sudan
–
The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan,2011 was drafted by a Southern Sudan Constitutional Drafting Committee. It was published in April 2011, a version of the constitution was ratified on 7 July 2011 by the South Sudan Legislative Assembly. It came into force on the day of independence of South Sudan after being signed by the president of the republic, the Constitution replaced the existing 2005 Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan. The constitution establishes a system of government headed by a President who is Head of State, Head of Government. The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan,2011,9 July 2011, henneberg, Ingo, Text comparison of the Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan and the Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan text comparison by the University of Freiburg

4.
Salva Kiir Mayardit
–
Salva Kiir Mayardit is a South Sudanese politician who has been President of South Sudan since its independence in 2011. Prior to independence, he was President of the Government of Southern Sudan, as well as First Vice President of Sudan, in the late 1960s, Kiir joined the Anyanya battalion in the First Sudanese Civil War. By the time of the 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, he was a low-ranking officer. In 1983, when Dr John Garang joined a mutiny he had been sent to put down, Kiir. Dr. Garang De Mabior had advanced knowledge and experience from both the United States and the Sudan. Kiir eventually rose to head the SPLA, the SPLMs military wing when Dr. John Garang was killed in a helicopter crash, rumours to remove Kiir from his post as SPLA Chief of Staff in 2004 nearly caused the organization to split. Following the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement formally ending the war in January 2005, Dr. John Garang was sworn in as the Vice President of the Republic of Sudan. After the death of Dr. John Garang in a crash on 30 July 2005, Kiir was chosen to succeed to the post of First Vice President of Sudan. Kiir was re-elected with 93% of the vote in the 2010 Sudanese election, following his re-election, Omar al-Bashir reappointed Kiir as the First Vice President of Sudan in accordance with the interim constitution. South Sudanese voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence from Sudan in January 2011, on 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent state, with Kiir as its first president. His presidency was characterized as a period of reconstruction, albeit one marred by with internal, among these were the Heglig Crisis, which caused a border war with Sudan, and an internal political crisis in which attempts were made to overthrow him. On 18 June 2013, Kiir issued an order lifting the immunity of two ministers in the government pending investigations into an alleged corruption case in which they appeared to be implicated. He also issued an order suspending Cabinet Affairs Minister Deng Alor Kuol, in July 2013, Kiir sacked his entire cabinet, including his vice president, Riek Machar, ostensibly to reduce the size of government. However, Machar said that it was a step towards dictatorship and he also dismissed Taban Deng Gai as Governor of Unity State. Kiir told Radio Netherlands Worldwide that homosexuality is not in the character of Southern Sudanese people and it is not even something that anybody can talk about here in southern Sudan in particular. It is not there and if anybody wants to import or to export it to Sudan, it not get the support and it will always be condemned by everybody. He then went on the refer to homosexuality as a mental disease, after rumors about a planned coup surfaced in Juba in late 2012, Kiir began reorganizing the senior leadership of his government, party and military on an unprecedented scale. In January 2013, he replaced the general of the national police service with a lieutenant from the army

5.
James Wani Igga
–
James Wani Igga is a South Sudanese politician who is currently serving as Vice President South Sudan. He was previously Speaker of the National Legislative Assembly and secretary general of the SPLM, Igga is variously described to stem from the Bari and Zande ethnic groups and he is a Roman Catholic. Igga joined the South Sudanese rebels in 1985, training in Cuba and he rose through the SPLA ranks rapidly, and by 1987 Igga had the rank of Major and commanded the Shakus Battalion. The same year he served as Zonal Commander of Central Equatoria, Igga was reportedly well-respected among civilians. Igga was one of the SPLAs most senior representatives during negotiations with SPLA-Nasir and he represented Garang as the head of the SPLA-Torit delegation at peace talks in Nairobi in November 1991. In 1993 Igga accompanied Garang to Nairobi for a seminar in June 1993. Igga had known Lam Akol, one of the Nasir leaders, as chairman of the SPLM Political Affairs Commission, Igga established the Technical Committee of Intellectuals in February 2000. This Committee was tasked with planning the civil administration of Southern Sudan, in addition, Igga was appointed caretaker governor of Upper Nile State for the transition period. Igga read out the proclamation of independence when the Sudans divided, President Salva Kiir appointed Igga as vice president on 23 August 2013 to replace Riek Machar, whom he had dismissed a month previously. He will be required to resign as speaker, Igga was unanimously confirmed by the National Assembly on 26 August

6.
National Legislature (South Sudan)
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The National Legislature of South Sudan is the legislature of South Sudan. The National Legislature consists of, The National Legislative Assembly, the National Legislature has its seat in Juba, South Sudan. Members of the National Legislature and the Council of Ministers are eligible for membership of state legislatures or state councils of ministers, a member of the National Legislative Assembly cannot also be a member of the Council of States. The term of the National Legislature shall be four years from July 9,2011, the Constitution is a transitional Constitution and the terms relating to future general elections are not contained in it. However, there are included for by-elections should vaccancies arise during the first four-year period. The establishment of the National Legislature is one of the new institutions created upon the independence of South Sudan in 2011, in substance, it is also a successor to the Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly, itself established in 2005 by the Constitution of Southern Sudan. Politics of South Sudan List of legislatures by country Legislative branch Bicameralism Official website

7.
Judiciary of South Sudan
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The Judiciary of Southern Sudan, or JOSS, is a constitutionally mandated government branch that oversees the court systems of South Sudan. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of South Sudan is the head of the judiciary, the current Chief Justice is justice Chan Reec Madut. The institution was created after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement took effect in 2005, the highest court is the Supreme Court of South Sudan. The second tier involves the Courts of Appeal, below the Courts of Appeal are the High Courts, other courts and tribunals on smaller scales will be created as deemed necessary. Gurtong. net - Judiciary of South Sudan

8.
Administrative divisions of South Sudan
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South Sudan, officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city and it was planned that the capital city would be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel in the future before civil war broke out. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile, following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon developed and ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following a referendum passed with 98. 83% of the vote. It is a United Nations member state, a state of the African Union, of the East African Community. In July 2012, South Sudan signed the Geneva Conventions, South Sudan has suffered ethnic violence and has been in a civil war since 2013, as of 2016 it has the second highest score on the Fragile States Index. The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Acholi, Anyuak, Bari, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi, Zande, the Azande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century—established the regions largest state of Equatoria Region. The Dinka are the largest, Nuer the second largest and Azande are the third-largest ethnic group in South Sudan while the Bari are fourth-largest. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, in the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society and this domination continued into the 20th century. The major reasons include the history of British policy preference toward developing the Arab north. After Sudans first independent elections in 1958, the ignoring of the south by Khartoum led to uprisings, revolt. As of 2012, peoples include Acholi, Anyuak, Azande, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Bari, Boya, Didinga, Dinka, Jiye, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Mundari, Murie, Nilotic, Nuer, Shilluk, Toposa and Zande. Slavery had been an institution of Sudanese life throughout history, the slave trade in the south intensified in the 19th century and continued after the British had suppressed slavery in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Annual Sudanese slave raids into non-Muslim territories resulted in the capture of thousands of southern Sudanese. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians, Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypts first governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, the Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai, european colonial maneuverings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok, Britain and France almost went to war over the region

9.
States of South Sudan
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The States of South Sudan were created out of the three historic former provinces of Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria, and Greater Upper Nile. The 28 states are divided into 180 counties. In October 2015, South Sudans President Salva Kiir issued a decree establishing 28 states in place of the 10 previously established states, the decree established the new states largely along ethnic lines. A number of opposition parties challenged the constitutionality of this decree, in November the South Sudanese parliament approved the creation of the new states. In January 2017, President Salva Kiir decreed a further subdivision of the country from 28 into 32 states, the declaration was not recognised by the South Sudanese government. The Sudan Tribune reported on 1 January 2015 that Machar appointed military governors for several of his declared states, list of current state governors in South Sudan ISO 3166-2, SS States of Sudan — of the Republic of Sudan. Media related to Maps of states of South Sudan at Wikimedia Commons States of South Sudan

10.
Elections in South Sudan
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Elections in South Sudan refer to the electoral process and the elections in South Sudan. South Sudan has never had a national election, however the most recent sub-national election was in 2010 for the presidency of the regional government of Southern Sudan and for the unicameral, 170-member Legislative Assembly. In 2010, the South Sudanese independence referendum,2011 was held resulting in a majority in favour of independence. This was despite difficulties and irregularities

11.
South Sudanese general election, 2018
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General elections were scheduled to be held in South Sudan by 9 July 2015, the first since independence. However, in light of an alleged coup attempt and continuing conflict in the country this has been thrown into doubt. Following the independence of South Sudan, Riek Machar was inaugurated as the first vice president to President Salva Kiir, in July 2013, the entire cabinet, including Machar, was dismissed by Kiir on the ostensible reason to decrease the size of government. However, Machar said that this was a step towards dictatorship on the part of Kiir, in December 2013 a related coup détat was put down. While civil war ensued, at the end of September 2014 an IGAD-mediated resolution was agreed upon that would lead to the federalisation of the countrys governance. The transitional constitution required the election to be held by 9 July 2015, Kiir told the Warrap parliament that a lack of funds to conduct a census and complete the new constitution could result in a delay of the election. The South Sudan parliament voted in April 2015 to amend the countrys transitional 2011 constitution to extend the presidential and parliamentary term until 9 July 2018

12.
Foreign relations of South Sudan
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The foreign relations of South Sudan are the relations between the Republic of South Sudan and sovereign states and international organizations. The establishment of the relationships followed the formation of the South Sudanese state on 9 July 2011, South Sudans former parent country Sudan became the first state in the world to recognize South Sudan. Since independence, South Sudan has sought to shed its reliance on Sudan, reportedly planning to introduce the Swahili language, Sudan was the first country to recognise the independence of South Sudan on 8 July 2011,1 day prior to independence. Four other states followed suit on 8 July, over 25 countries had recognised the country on 9 July, including all permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. On 14 July 2011, South Sudan was admitted as a member of the United Nations without a vote or objections raised by its members. Both before and after South Sudan admission to the UN, many states have issued official statements about its diplomatic recognition. In less than half a year the number of recognitions reached over 115, the United States upgraded its Juba consulate to an embassy on 9 July 2011, as did France. Also Sudan has announced that it plans to open an embassy in Juba, upon independence, the United Kingdom has opened an embassy in South Sudan, as well. On 16 September 2011, the ambassadors of the United Kingdom and Norway presented their credentials, credentials were presented on 15 November of that year by Chinese, German and Kenyan ambassadors. According to Indian officials, the country will upgrade its consulate in Juba to an embassy, South Sudan became a member of the United Nations on 13 July 2011. It joined the African Union on 27 July 2011, South Sudan has also been assured membership in the Arab League, should it decide to pursue membership, though it could also opt for observer status. It may also seek membership in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Sudan is considered very likely to join the EAC, but an exact timetable for admission has not yet been mooted publicly. Bangladesh recognizes the independence of South Sudan on July 20,2011, china recognizes the independence of South Sudan on July 9,2011. Essam Sharaf, Prime Minister of Egypt after the Arab Spring-inspired revolution in 2011 made his first foreign visit to Khartoum, Egypt was one of four countries to recognise South Sudan as an independent state on the first day. On 28 July 2011, it was announced that diplomatic ties had been established between the two countries. This is considered a significant boon to Israel, as Sudan does not have relations with Israel. Economic ties show the most potential, as of 23 July 2011, several Israeli companies are already in talks for various business deals. Israel is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, who are now ready to return to their native country, the Republic of Korea government is providing for the South Korean military to South Sudan in UN Mission in South Sudan

13.
Human rights in South Sudan
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Human rights in South Sudan are a contentious issue, owing at least in part to the countrys violent history. The Constitution of South Sudan describes the country as “a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-lingual, multi-religious, part One of the Constitution also states that “South Sudan is founded on justice, equality, respect for human dignity and advancement of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Part Two of the Constitution of South Sudan includes the Bill Rights and provides a description of rights and liberties protected under the Constitution. ”The Bill covers a wide range of rights in political, civil, economic, social, and cultural spheres and places an emphasis on the rights of women, children. The Bill also protects freedoms, such as freedom from torture, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of worship, the national army, called the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army, is often accused of attacking civilians on suspicion of aiding rebels. Human Rights Watch alleges that both the SPLA and the group led by Johnson Olony were responsible for atrocities. The South Sudan Liberation Movement led by Peter Gadet rebelled against the SPLA led government, to put down the rebellion, it was alleged that the SPLA set fire to over 7,000 homes in Unity state in May 2011. Beginning in March 2012, security forces executed a disarmament campaign called Operation Restore Peace among the Murle people in Jonglei state, amnesty International researchers claim these security forces committed widespread torture against civilians, including children as young as 18 months. A Human Rights Watch report describes how the SPLA allegedly burned and looted homes, destroyed schools, churches, the disarmament exercise initiated ended with little success. Amnesty international claimed the army suffocated to death in a container more than 60 people accused of supporting the opposition. During the war for independence, more died at each others hands than were killed by northerners as a result of the infighting. In the Bor massacre in 1991, an estimated 2000 civilians were killed by SPLA-Nasir and armed Nuer civilians, in 2010, prior to South Sudanese independence the following year, the CIA issued a warning that over the next five years. A new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan, the Nuer White Army of the Lou Nuer released a statement to wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer’s cattle. Activists, including Minority Rights Group International, warned of genocide in Jonglei, the South Sudanese Civil War has killed up to 300,000 civilians, including notable atrocities such as the 2014 Bentiu massacre. There are ethnic undertones between the Dinka and Nuer in the fighting, the United Nations rights office has described the situation in the country as one of the most horrendous human rights situations in the world. It accused the army and allied militias as allowing fighters to rape women as form of payment, as well as cattle in a agreement of do what you can. A2015 United Nations report accused the army of gang raping and burning alive of girls, a 2015 African Union report accused both sides of rape, torture and forced cannibalism. After South Sudan gained its independence in 2011, Salva Kiir Mayardit was elected president, beginning in 2014, Kiir and the ruling elites have ruled the country in an increasingly opaque manner. The public had little say in policymaking and was ignored in discussions of the creation of a new constitution, in 2015, Salvar Kiir threatened to kill journalists who reported against the country

14.
United Nations Mission in South Sudan
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The United Nations Mission in South Sudan is the newest United Nations peacekeeping mission for the recently independent Republic of South Sudan, which became independent on 9 July 2011. UNMISS was established on 8 July 2011 by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1996, UNMISS is since December 2016 headed by Special Representative of the Secretary-General David Shearer who succeeded Ellen Margrethe Løj. As of August 2015, it is composed of 12,523 total personnel,11,350 military and it is headquartered in the South Sudanese capital Juba. The mission was established by Security Council Resolution 1996 and extended to 15 July 2013 by Resolution 2057, india has supplied 2,237 troops, the Deputy Force Commander is Indias Brigadier General Asit Mistry, while the force commander is Ghanas Major General Delali Johnson Sakyi. In a July 2012 speech, a day after the extension of the mission, Johnson discussed the missions protection of civilians and the documenting and verification of incidents. On 21 December 2012, a civilian UNMISS helicopter was shot down over Jonglei State, five people, including four Russian crewmembers, on board the aircraft were killed. On 9 April, five Indian UNMISS troops and seven civilian UN employees were killed in an ambush in Jonglei while escorting a UN convoy between Pibor and Bor. Nine further UN employees, both military and civilian, were wounded and some remain missing, four of the civilians killed were Kenyan contractors working to drill water boreholes. One of the soldiers was a lieutenant-colonel and one of the wounded was a captain. According to South Sudans military spokesman, the convoy was attacked by David Yau Yaus rebel forces that they believe are supported by the Sudanese government, UNMISS said that 200 armed men were involved in the attack and that their convoy was escorted by 32 Indian UN peacekeepers. The attackers were equipped with rocket propelled grenades, a UN spokesman said that the fierce resistance put up by Indian peacekeepers forced the rebels to withdraw and saved the lives of many of the civilians. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called the killings a war crime, United Nations Assistant Secretary-General Anthony Banbury praised the bravery of the Indian soldiers. Indias Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, paid his tribute to the brave soldiers, about 2,200 Indian Army personnel are deployed in South Sudan as a part of the UNMISS mission. Fighting that spread as a result of the 2013 South Sudanese coup détat attempt led to the deaths of two Indian peacekeepers, while another soldier was wounded in Akobo, Jonglei, on 19 December. On 24 December, the UNSC voted to double the existing 7,600 troops in the mission. Following this incident President Salva Kiir accused the UN of sheltering armed opposition forces in their UN Mission, Salva Kiir also accused the UN of an attempted take over of his leadership. On Thursday 17 April 2014,58 people were killed and at least 100 people wounded when a mob stormed the UN base in Bor. A crowd of people who pretended they were visiting the base to present a peaceful petition opened fire on some of the 5,000 civilians who had taken shelter in the UN base, of those killed,48 were civilians, while 10 were among the attackers

15.
United Nations Mission in Sudan
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The mandate of UNMIS ended on 9 July 2011, the UNSC officially ended the mission on 11 July 2011, with a drawdown by 31 August 2011. Equipment and personnel will be transferred to UNISFA and UNMISS and its most well-known employee was journalist Lubna al-Hussein, who resigned in order to waive her immunity. According to the UN Facts and Figures, Khartoum, Sudan Duration, March 2005 to July 2011 Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of Mission, there is a small African Union force on the ground that will in time be incorporated into the U. N. force. Troops will be located in 6 different Sectors, with observers in charge of observing the ceasefire. Force protection will be provided by various contributing countries, Sectors are divided as such, Sector 2, Bahr el Ghazal, Sector Headquarters Wau, Troop Contributing Countries Kenya and China. This sector include the states of Western Bahr el Ghazal, Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warab, Sector 3, Upper White Nile, Sector Headquarters Malakal, Troop Contributing Country India. This sector includes the states of Jonglei, Unity and Upper Nile, Sector 4, Nuba Mountains, Sector Headquarters Kadugli, Troop Contributing Country Egypt. This sector has the boundaries as the former Southern Kordofan Province when Greater Kordofan was sub-divided into two provinces. Sector 5, Southern Blue Nile, Sector Headquarters Damazin, Troop Contributing Country Pakistan and this sector consists of Blue Nile State. Sector 6, Abyei, Sector Headquarters Abyei, Troop Contributing Country Zambia and this sector includes the disputed oil region surrounding and extending north from the town of Abyei. There is also an increase of well armed criminal elements that could see the UN as a lucrative target, the strategic end state is determined as, a. A stable Sudan capable of conducting a peaceful referendum 61/2 years after the Mandate in South Sudan, the ability for South Sudan to determine Sudanese unity or peaceful secession. The ability for Abyei to determine unification with Bar el Gazhal or separate status within North Sudan. Brigadier Moinuddin Ahmed of the Pakistan Army, who was Deputy Force Commander of the United Nations peace-keeping mission in Sudan, was assassinated on 22 Oct 2009, during his visit to Pakistan. Approved budget for the period between July 1,2006 to June 30,2007, $1,079,530,000

16.
Referendum
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A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to vote on a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new law, in some countries it is synonymous with a plebiscite or a vote on a ballot question. Some definitions of plebiscite suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country, however, some other countries define it differently. For example, Australia defines referendum as a vote to change the constitution, the addition of the verb sum to a gerundive, denotes the idea of necessity or compulsion, that which must be done, rather than that which is fit for doing). This determines the form of the plural in English, which according to English grammar should be referendums, the use of referenda as a plural form in English is thus insupportable according to the rules of both Latin and English grammar alike. The Latin plural gerundive referenda, meaning things to be referred, compare also, Agenda those matters which must be driven forward, from ago, to drive, Memorandum, that matter which must be remembered, from memoro, to call to mind, etc. The name and use of the referendum is thought to have originated in the Swiss canton of Graubünden as early as the 16th century. Today, a referendum can also often be referred to as a plebiscite, for example, Australia defines referendum as a vote to change the constitution, and plebiscite as a vote that does not affect the constitution. In contrast, Ireland has only held one plebiscite, which was the vote to adopt its constitution. Of that which has most definitely already occurred and this is in line with Eamon De Valeras oft stated belief that the people do not have the right to do wrong which in this context means to reject his new Eire constitution. The term referendum covers a variety of different meanings, a referendum can be binding or advisory. In some countries, different names are used for two types of referendum. From a political-philosophical perspective, referendums are an expression of direct democracy, however, in the modern world, most referendums need to be understood within the context of representative democracy. Australia ranked second with dozens of referendums, a referendum usually offers the electorate a choice of accepting or rejecting a proposal, but this is not necessarily the case. In Switzerland, for example, multiple choice referendums are common and this question can be resolved by applying voting systems designed for single winner elections to a multiple-choice referendum. Swiss referendums get around this problem by offering a separate vote on each of the options as well as an additional decision about which of the multiple options should be preferred. In the Swedish case, in both referendums the winning option was chosen by the Single Member Plurality system, in other words, the winning option was deemed to be that supported by a plurality, rather than an absolute majority, of voters. In the 1977, Australian referendum, the winner was chosen by the system of preferential instant-runoff voting, the 1992 New Zealand poll, was counted under the two-round system, as were polls in Newfoundland and Guam, for example

17.
Sudan
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Sudan, also known as North Sudan since South Sudans independence and officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northern Africa. It is the third largest country in Africa, the River Nile divides the country into eastern and western halves. Before the Sudanese Civil War, South Sudan was part of Sudan, Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria, Meroë and others, most of which flourished along the Nile. During the pre-dynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were identical, by virtue of its proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by the 6th century, and Islamized in the 15th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa and also the third largest country in the Arab world and its capital is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a representative democratic federal republic. The politics of Sudan are regulated by an organization called the National Assembly. The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law, the countrys place name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān, or the lands of the Blacks, during the fifth millennium BC migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed social hierarchy over the centuries become the Kingdom of Kush at 1700 BC. The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and it was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all the way to the Sinai, pharaoh Piye attempted to expand the empire into the Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Sennacheribs successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa, Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an Assyrian colony, however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his successor Ashurbanipal sent an army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani. During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Meroë, in ancient Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia

18.
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
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The Comprehensive Peace Agreement, also known as the Naivasha Agreement, was an accord signed on January 9,2005, by the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement and the Government of Sudan. The CPA was meant to end the Second Sudanese Civil War, develop democratic governance countrywide and it also set a timetable for a Southern Sudanese independence referendum. The peace process was encouraged by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, as well as IGAD-Partners, the process resulted in the following agreements, The Machakos Protocol, signed in Machakos, Kenya on 20 July 2002. Agreement on broad principles of government and governance, on 11 October 2007, the SPLM withdrew from the government of national unity, accusing the central government of violating the terms of the CPA. The SPLM announced that it was rejoining the government on 13 December 2007, northern Sudanese troops finally left Southern Sudan on 8 January 2008. A referendum was held from 9 to 15 January 2011 to determine if South Sudan should declare its independence from Sudan and it became independent as the Republic of South Sudan on 9 July 2011

19.
Khartoum
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Khartoum is the capital and second largest city of Sudan and the state of Khartoum. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile, flowing north from Lake Victoria, the location where the two Niles meet is known as al-Mogran. The main Nile continues to north towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. The origin of the word, Khartoum, is uncertain, one theory argues that khartoum is derived from Arabic khurṭūm, probably referring to the narrow strip of land extending between the Blue and White Niles. Some scholars speculate that the word derives from the Nubian word, Agartum, other Beja scholars suggest Khartoum is derived from the Beja word, Hartoom. Additionally, the dream interpreting magicians in Genesis 41,8 are referred to as חַרְטֻמֵּ֥י, suggesting that in ancient times the word already existed. In 1821, Khartoum was established 24 kilometres north of the ancient city of Soba, by Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Egypts ruler, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who had just incorporated Sudan into his realm. Originally, Khartoum served as an outpost for the Egyptian Army and it also became a focal point for the slave trade. Later, it became the center of Sudan and official capital. On 13 March 1884, troops loyal to the Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad started a siege of Khartoum, the siege ended in a massacre of the Anglo-Egyptian garrison. On 26 January 1885, the damaged city fell to the Mahdists. On 2 September 1898, Omdurman was the scene of the bloody Battle of Omdurman, in 1973, the city was the site of an anomalous hostage crisis in which members of Black September held 10 hostages at the Saudi Arabian embassy, five of them diplomats. The US ambassador, the US deputy ambassador, and the Belgian chargé daffaires were murdered, a 1973 United States Department of State document, declassified in 2006, concluded, The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat. In 1977, the first oil pipeline between Khartoum and the Port of Sudan was completed, throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Khartoum was the destination for hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing conflicts in neighboring nations such as Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Uganda. Many Eritrean and Ethiopian refugees assimilated into society, while others settled in large slums at the outskirts of the city, since the mid-1980s, large numbers of refugees from South Sudan and Darfur fleeing the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War and Darfur conflict have settled around Khartoum. In 1991, Osama bin Laden purchased a house in the affluent al-Riyadh neighborhood of the city and he lived there until 1996, when he was banished from the country. The destruction of the factory produced diplomatic tension between the U. S. and Sudan, the factory ruins are now a tourist attraction. The sudden death of SPLA head and vice-president of Sudan, John Garang, the riots finally died down after Southern Sudanese politicians and tribal leaders sent strong messages to the rioters

20.
Sudan People's Liberation Army
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The Sudan Peoples Liberation Army is the army of the Republic of South Sudan. The SPLA was founded as a movement in 1983 and was a key participant of the Second Sudanese Civil War. Throughout the war, it was led by John Garang de Mabior, following John Garangs death in 2005, Salva Kiir was named the new Commander-in-Chief of SPLA. As of 2013, the SPLA was estimated to have 210,000 soldiers, the SPLA is divided into divisions of 10, 000-14,000 soldiers. Following South Sudans independence in 2011, the SPLA became the new regular army. In 1983 a number of mutinies broke out in the barracks of the Sudanese army in the southern regions and these mutineers would form the nucleus of SPLA. By June 1983 the majority of mutineers had moved to Ethiopia, the Ethiopian governments decision to support the nascent SPLA was a means of exacting revenge upon the Sudanese government for their support of Eritrean rebels. SPLA was led by Commander-in-Chief John Garang de Mabior, SPLA struggled for a united and secular Sudanese state. Garang stated that the struggle of the South Sudanese was the same as that of marginalized groups in the north, such as the Nuba, until 1985, SPLA directed its public denouncements of the Sudanese government specifically at Nimeiri. During the years followed, SPLA propaganda denounced the Khartoum government as a family affair that played on sectarian tensions. SPLA denounced the introduction of sharia law in September 1983, in the village of Bilpam, the first full-fledged SPLA battalion graduated in 1984. The name Bilpam would carry a symbolic importance for SPLA for years to come. After Bilpam, other SPLA training camps were established at Dimma, Bonga, in the mid-1980s the SPLA armed struggle had blocked the development projects of the Sudanese government, such as the Jonglei Canal and the Bentiu Oil Fields. SPLA launched its first advance in Equatoria in 1985-1986, during this campaign, SPLA were confronted by a number of pro-government militias. The conduct of SPLA forces was chaotic, with atrocities against the civilian population. The SPLA drove out around 35,000 Ugandan refugees back into Uganda, SPLA had a complicated relationship with Anyanya II. Anyanya II forces blocked the expansion of SPLA between 1984 and 1987, as Anyanya II attacked SPLA recruits heading towards the SPLA based in Ethiopia, Anyanya II also attacked civilians believed to be SPLA supporters. The conflict between Anyanya II and SPLA had a dimension, as Anyanya II sought to build an independent South Sudanese state

21.
Abyei
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The capital of Abyei Area is Abyei Town. Under the terms of the Abyei Protocol, the Abyei Area was declared, on a basis, to be simultaneously part of the states of South Kurdufan. In contrast to the borders of the district, the Abyei Protocol defined the Abyei Area as the area of the nine Ngok Dinka chiefdoms transferred to Kordofan in 1905. In 2005, a border commission established this to be those portions of Kordofan south of 10°22′30″ N. This revised border has now endorsed by all parties to the dispute. The Sudan Tribune claims that the Dajo people were located in the region of Abyei prior to the seventeenth century, from at least the eighteenth century Abyei was inhabited by the agro-pastoralist Ngok Dinka, a sub-group of the Dinka of Southern Sudan. At the establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, the Messiria were predominantly located in the province of Kordofan, in 1905, after continued raids by the Messiria into Ngok Dinka territory, the British redistricted the nine Ngok Dinka chiefdoms into Kordofan. The two peoples began to take separate paths with the onset of the First Sudanese Civil War, the Ngok Dinka were thus drawn to the Anyanya, while the Messiria were favored by the Khartoum-based government and became firmly associated with the north. The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement that ended the war included a clause that provided for a referendum allowing Abyei to choose to remain in the north or join the autonomous South. This referendum was never held and continued attacks against Ngok Dinka led to the creation of Ngok Dinka unit in the small Anyanya II rebellion, which began in Upper Nile in 1975. The discovery of oil in the area, among other north-south border regions, the Ngok Dinka unit of Anyanya II formed one of the foundations of the rebel movement at the beginning of the Second Civil War in 1983. Many Ngok Dinka joined the rebels upon the outbreak of hostilities, partially as a result of their early entry into the war, many Ngok Dinka rose to leadership positions in the Sudan People’s Liberation Army, becoming closely associated with John Garang. In contrast, the Messiria joined the hostilities on the side of the government in the mid-1980s and they formed frontline units as well as Murahleen, mounted raiders that attacked southern villages to loot valuables and slaves. By the end of the war the fighting had displaced most Ngok Dinka out of Abyei. The status of Abyei was one of the most contentious issues in the negotiation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the first protocol signed, the 2002 Machakos Protocol, defined Southern Sudan as the area as of independence in 1956. It thus excluded the SPLA strongholds in Abyei, the Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile and this would potentially mean that these regions would become part of a nation of South Sudan after the 2011 independence referendum. The government blocked these attempts, stating that the Machakos Protocol had already delineated the border for the Three Areas in favor of the north, the deadlock was finally broken by pressure from the United States. U. S. presidential envoy John Danforth circulated a draft agreement, the Protocol on the resolution of the Abyei conflict put Abyei into a special administrative status government directly by the presidency

22.
Darfur
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Darfur is a region in western Sudan. It was named Dardaju while ruled by the Daju, who migrated from Meroë circa 350 AD, Darfur was an independent sultanate for several hundred years, incorporated into Sudan by Anglo-Egyptian forces in 1916. The region is divided into five states, Central Darfur, East Darfur, North Darfur, South Darfur. Because of the war in Darfur between Sudanese government forces and the population, the region has been in a state of humanitarian emergency since 2003. Darfur covers an area of 493,180 square kilometers, approximately the size of Spain and it is largely an arid plateau with the Marrah Mountains, a range of volcanic peaks rising up to 3,042 meters of topographic prominence, in the center of the region. The regions main towns are Al Fashir and Nyala, there are four main features of its physical geography. The whole eastern half of Darfur is covered with plains and low hills of sandy soils, known as goz, in many places the goz is waterless and can only be inhabited where there are water reservoirs or deep boreholes. While dry, goz may also support rich pasture and arable land, to the north the goz is overtaken by the desert sands of the Sahara. Many wadis have pans of alluvium with rich soil that are also difficult to cultivate. Western Darfur is dominated by the feature, basement rock. Basement rock is too infertile to be farmed, but provides sporadic forest cover that can be grazed by animals, remote sensing has detected the imprint of a vast underground lake under Darfur. The potential water deposits are estimated at 49,500 km2, the lake, during epochs when the region was more humid, would have contained about 2500 km3 of water. It may have dried up thousands of years ago, some conjectures include the area of Darfur as part of the Proto-Afro-Asiatic Urheimat in distant prehistoric times, though numerous other theories exclude Darfur. Most of the consists of a semi-arid plain and thus appears unsuitable for developing a large. The Tunjur replaced the Daju in the century and the Daju established new headquarters in Abyei, Denga, Darsila. The Tunjur sultans intermarried with the Fur and sultan Musa Sulayman is considered the founder of the Keira dynasty, Darfur became a great power of the Sahel under the Keira dynasty, expanding its borders as far east as the Atbarah River and attracting immigrants from Bornu and Bagirmi. During the mid-18th century conflict between rival factions wracked the country, and external war pitted Darfur against Sennar and Wadai. When Ahmads successor, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, himself an Arab of Southern Darfur from the Ta’isha tribe, demanded that the pastoralist tribes provide soldiers, several tribes rose up in revolt

23.
Eastern Front (Sudan)
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The Eastern Front is a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan along the border with Eritrea, particularly the states of Red Sea and Kassala. The Eastern Fronts Chairman is Musa Mohamed Ahmed and their place was taken in February 2004 after the merger of the larger Beja Congress with the smaller Rashaida Free Lions, two tribal based groups of the Beja and Rashaida people, respectively. The Justice and Equality Movement, a group from Darfur in the west. Both the Free Lions and the Beja Congress stated that government inequity in the distribution of oil profits was the cause of their rebellion. They demanded to have a say in the composition of the national government. The Eastern Front was strengthened after 17 Beja rioters were killed by police in Port Sudan in late January 2005, the Eritrean government in Asmara supported the Eastern Front apparently in retaliation for Sudanese support to the Eritrean Islamist factions. The Eastern Front also demand the liberation of Halaib Triangle from Egyptian occupation and its restitution to Sudanese sovereignty, the Eastern Front had threatened to block the flow of crude oil, which travels from the oil fields of the south-central regions to outside markets through Port Sudan. A government plan to build an oil refinery near Port Sudan was also threatened. The government was reported to have three times as many soldiers in the east to suppress the rebellion and protect vital infrastructure as in the widely reported Darfur region. There were also rumors that the government is considering unleashing militias, similar to the Janjaweed of the Darfur conflict, against the Rashaida, the Eritrean government in mid-2006 dramatically changed their position on the conflict. The International Crisis Group suggests this is because they want to any conflict on their Sudanese border in case of war with Ethiopia. They were successful in their attempts and on 19 June 2006, the agreement covers security issues, power sharing at a federal and regional level, and wealth sharing in regard to the three Eastern states Kassala, Red Sea and Al Qadarif. It also established an Eastern Sudan States Coordinating Council to enhance coordination and cooperation between the three states, alliance of Revolutionary Forces of West Sudan Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement Q&A, Sudans eastern rebellion. Full text of the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement, UN Peacemaker A breakthrough, blog post by UN envoy to Sudan Jan Pronk,21 October 2006 Crisis briefing on east Sudans insurgency from Reuters AlertNet

24.
South Kordofan
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South Kordofan is one of the 18 wilayat or provinces of Sudan. It has an area of 158,355 km² and a population of approximately 1,100,000 people. Kaduqli is the capital of the state and it is centered on the Nuba Hills. It was erroneously believed that South Kordofan is the state in Sudan that is producing oil. Oil has since been discovered in White Nile State in larger quantities, under the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, residents of South Kordofan were to hold popular consultations in 2011 to determine the constitutional future of the state. However, South Kordofan governor Ahmed Haroun suspended the process and violence followed, Haroun had previously been charged with war crimes against civilians and crime against humanity by the International Criminal Court. Although South Kordofan is part of Sudan, it is home to many pro South Sudan communities, especially in the Nuba Mountains, in 2009 and 2010 a series of conflicts between rival nomadic tribes in South Kordofan caused a large number of casualties and displaced thousands. On June 6,2011 armed conflict broke out between the forces of Northern and Southern Sudan, ahead of the independence of the South on July 9. This followed an agreement for both sides to withdraw from Abyei, on June 20, the parties agreed to demilitarize the contested area of Abyei where Ethiopian peacekeepers will be deployed

25.
Blue Nile (state)
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Blue Nile, called Central from 1991 until 1994, is one of the eighteen states of the Republic of Sudan. It was established by presidential decree nº3 in 1992 and is named after the Blue Nile River and it has an area of 45,844 km² and an estimated population of 1,193,293. The Central Bureau of Statistics quoted the population at 832,112 in the 2006 census, Ad-Damazin is the capital of the state. The state of Blue Nile is home to the Roseires Dam, the region is host to around forty different ethnic groups. Its economic activity is based upon agriculture and livestock and increasing mineral exploitation, in 2011, residents of Blue Nile were scheduled to hold ill-defined popular consultations to determine the constitutional future of the state, per the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. It appears that the consultations have been postponed indefinitely, the State is sub-divided into six districts, Ad-Damazin Al Kormok Ar Roseires Tadamon Bau or Baw Qeissan History and geography UN Work Plan for Blue Nile State

26.
Sudanese general election, 2010
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General elections were held in Sudan between 11 and 15 April 2010, extended from the original end date of 13 April. The elections were held to elect the President and National Assembly of Sudan, as well as the President, the election brought to the end the transitional period which began when the decades-long Second Sudanese Civil War ended in 2005. Early results on 20 April showed that President Omar al-Bashirs party National Congress was well ahead, on 26 April, full results were announced and al-Bashir was confirmed as the winner by having received 68. 24% of the vote. However, on 2 April 2009, the electoral commission pushed the back to 6 February to 21 February 2010. The elections will entail, national presidential and parliamentary, the south Sudanese presidency, state governors, the voting will be early in the month so results may be fielded late in the month. The electoral commission released the date after the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for President Bashir on 4 March 2009, on 11 June 2009, it was rumoured that the elections might be delayed for a short time once more. This was immediately rejected by the government, however, it was announced on 30 June 2009 that the election would be postponed until 5 April to 12 April 2010 after problems with the national census. It is unknown if the Darfurian amalgamation referendum, due to place in July 2010. It was again postponed to 15–30 April 2008, on 12 April 2008, a few days before the census was slated to start, the SPLM withdrew from the census, stating that they wanted IDPs to return to their homes before the census would take place. However, it was agreed on 14 April 2008 to start the census on 22 April 2008 instead and it was finished by 6 May 2008 Preliminary results that hit the press in early July claimed a population of about 38 million, with 3.8 million in Southern Sudan. This strongly contradicted former estimates of at least 8 million residents in the south, however, the Central Bureau of Statistics quickly denied these figures, saying no numbers had yet been released. The full results of the census were announced on a conference by Central Bureau of Statistics on 12 May 2009. The total of Sudans population were reported as 39,154,490, the election law was passed on 8 July 2008. The law is based on an electoral system, utilizing the benefits of majoritarian, proportional representation. The border constituency report was completed by the National Elections Committee in November 2009, some state politicians have appealed the report and their concerns have been printed in a report published on the National Elections Committee website. Despite these objections, it is likely that the borders will remain. An explanation of the complaints were delineated in a 71-page report by the Rift Valley Institute in 2010. A Sudanese official has stated that elections would be held in 99% of Darfur, SPLM leader Salva Kiir Mayardit has stated he will contest the presidential election

27.
Internally displaced person
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An internally displaced person is someone who is forced to flee his or her home but who remains within his or her countrys borders. They are often referred to as refugees, although they do not fall within the definitions of a refugee. At the end of 2014, it was estimated there were 38.2 million IDPs worldwide, the highest level since 1989, the first year for which global statistics on IDPs are available. The countries with the largest IDP populations were Syria, Colombia, Iraq, in this way, the document intentionally steers toward flexibility rather than legal precision as the words in particular indicate that the list of reasons for displacement is not exhaustive. However, as Erin Mooney has pointed out, global statistics on internal displacement generally count only IDPs uprooted by conflict, moreover, a recent study has recommended that the IDP concept should be defined even more narrowly, to be limited to persons displaced by violence. It is very difficult to get accurate figures for internally displaced persons because populations arent constant, IDPs may be returning home while others are fleeing, others may periodically return to IDP camps to take advantage of humanitarian aid. While the case of IDPs in large camps such as those in Darfur, western Sudan, are relatively well-reported, it is difficult to assess those IDPs who flee to larger towns. It is necessary in many instances to supplement official figures with additional information obtained from operational humanitarian organizations on the ground, thus, the 24.5 million figure must be treated as an estimate. Additionally, most official figures include those displaced by conflict or natural disasters. Development-induced IDPs often are not included in assessments and it has been estimated that between 70 and 80% of all IDPs are women and children. 50% of internally displaced people and refugees were thought to be in areas in 2010. A2013 study found that these protracted urban displacements had not been given due weight by international aid, the study argues that this protracted urban displacement needs a fundamental change in the approach to those who are displaced and their host societies. They note that re-framing responses to urban displacement will also involve human rights and development actors, an updated country by country breakdown can be found online. The problem of protecting and assisting IDPs is not a new issue, in international law it is the responsibility of the government concerned to provide assistance and protection for the IDPs in their country. It has been estimated that some 5 million IDPs in 11 countries are without any significant humanitarian assistance from their governments, unlike the case of refugees, there is no international humanitarian institution which has the overall responsibility of protecting and assisting the refugees as well as the internally displaced. A number of organizations have stepped into the breach in specific circumstances. guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. The UNHCR has traditionally argued that it not have a general competence for IDPs even though at least since 1972 it had relief. However, in cases where there is a specific request by the UN Secretary General, in 2005 it was helping some 5.6 million IDPs, but only about 1.1 million in Africa

28.
Refugee
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A refugee, generally speaking, is a displaced person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and who cannot return home safely. Such a person may be called an asylum seeker until granted refugee status by the state or the UNHCR if they formally make a claim for asylum. The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the United Nations Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United Nations have a second Office for refugees, which is the UNRWA. This however is solely responsible for supporting Palestinian refugees and it refers to shelter or protection from danger or distress, from Latin fugere, to flee, and refugium, a taking refuge, place to flee back to. In Western history, the term was first applied to French Huguenots, after the Edict of Fontainebleau, who again migrated from France after the Edict of Nantes revocation. The word meant one seeking asylum, until around 1914, when it evolved to mean one fleeing home and this legal concept of a refugee was expanded by the Conventions 1967 Protocol. European Unions minimum standards definition of refugee, underlined by Art, in UN parlance, the concept of refugee also includes descendants of refugees but only in the case of two specific groups, viz. Palestinian refugees and Sahrawi refugees. The UN does not consider refugee status to be hereditary for any other group, the UNHCR also protects people in refugee-like situations. It gives credence to the notion that personal individualized ‘fear of being persecuted’ is the reason for needing support. War, upheaval, famine and pestilence do not in the conventional definition make for refugee status. It does not matter that civilian deaths as a proportion of deaths in war escalated to 10% in World War I and it only matters that persons fear the persecution of their state. Furthermore, not all reasons for seeking asylum in another country satisfy the definition of refugee according to article 1A of the 1951 Refugee Convention, fleeing droughts and hunger, fleeing economic hardship, natural disasters and not even war or terror satisfied the definition of 1951. The idea that a person who sought sanctuary in a place could not be harmed without inviting divine retribution was familiar to the ancient Greeks. However, the right to asylum in a church or other holy place was first codified in law by King Æthelberht of Kent in about AD600. Similar laws were implemented throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, the related concept of political exile also has a long history, Ovid was sent to Tomis, Voltaire was sent to England. By the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, nations recognized each others sovereignty, the term refugee is sometimes applied to people who might fit the definition outlined by the 1951 Convention, were it to be applied retroactively. The repeated waves of pogroms that swept Eastern Europe in the 19th, beginning in the 19th century, Muslim people emigrated to Turkey from Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes, various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I

29.
Uganda
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Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, Uganda is the worlds second most populous landlocked country after Ethiopia. The southern part of the country includes a portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya. Uganda is in the African Great Lakes region, Uganda also lies within the Nile basin, and has a varied but generally a modified equatorial climate. Uganda takes its name from the Buganda kingdom, which encompasses a portion of the south of the country. The people of Uganda were hunter-gatherers until 1,700 to 2,300 years ago, beginning in 1894, the area was ruled as a protectorate by the British, who established administrative law across the territory. Uganda gained independence from Britain on 9 October 1962, luganda, a central language, is widely spoken across the country, and several other languages are also spoken including Runyoro, Runyankole, Rukiga, and Luo. The president of Uganda is Yoweri Museveni, who came to power in January 1986 after a protracted guerrilla war. The ancestors of the Ugandans were hunter-gatherers until 1, 700-2,300 years ago, Bantu-speaking populations, who were probably from central Africa, migrated to the southern parts of the country. According to oral tradition, the Empire of Kitara covered an important part of the lakes area, from the northern lakes Albert and Kyoga to the southern lakes Victoria. Bunyoro-Kitara is claimed as the antecedent of the Buganda, Toro, Ankole, some Luo invaded the area of Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the current Omukama of Bunyoro-Kitara. Arab traders moved inland from the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa in the 1830s and they were followed in the 1860s by British explorers searching for the source of the Nile. British Anglican missionaries arrived in the kingdom of Buganda in 1877 and were followed by French Catholic missionaries in 1879, the British government chartered the Imperial British East Africa Company to negotiate trade agreements in the region beginning in 1888. From 1886, there were a series of wars in Buganda. Because of civil unrest and financial burdens, IBEAC claimed that it was unable to maintain their occupation in the region, in the 1890s,32,000 labourers from British India were recruited to East Africa under indentured labour contracts to construct the Uganda Railway. Most of the surviving Indians returned home, but 6,724 decided to remain in East Africa after the lines completion, subsequently, some became traders and took control of cotton ginning and sartorial retail. British naval ships unknowingly carried rats that contained the bubonic plague and these rats spread the disease throughout Uganda. From 1900 to 1920, a sleeping sickness epidemic in the part of Uganda, along the north shores of Lake Victoria

30.
Kenya
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Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community. Its capital and largest city is Nairobi and it is bordered by Tanzania to the south and southwest, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers 581,309 km2, and had a population of approximately 48 million people in January 2017, Kenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya. Further inland are highlands in Central and Rift Valley regions where tea, in the West are Nyanza and Western regions, there is an equatorial, hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes, Kenya is known for its world class athletes in track and field and rugby. The African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period, by the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nations residents, European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony, Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, the capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East, agriculture is a major employer, the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also an economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc, the Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, if so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it, as misspelled it. In the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told Kĩ-Nyaa or Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa probably because the pattern of black rock, the Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name. Ludwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version, others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation /ˈkɛnjə/

31.
War in Darfur
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The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfurs non-Arabs. The other side is made up of groups, notably the SLM/A and the JEM, recruited primarily from the non-Arab Muslim Fur, Zaghawa. The African Union and the United Nations also have a joint peacekeeping mission in the region, estimates of the number of human casualties range up to several hundred thousand dead, from either combat or starvation and disease. Mass displacements and coercive migrations forced millions into refugee camps or across the border, former US Secretary of State Colin Powell described the situation as a genocide or acts of genocide. The Sudanese government and the JEM signed an agreement in February 2010. The JEM has the most to gain from the talks and could see semi-autonomy much like South Sudan, however, talks were disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the Tolu agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, vowed to boycott negotiations, Darfur, Arabic for the home of the Fur—was not a traditional part of the states organized along the upper Nile valley but instead organized as an independent sultanate in the 14th century. It was first annexed to the Egyptian Sudan in 1875 and then surrendered by its governor Slatin Pasha to the Mahdia in 1883, subsequently, Darfur remained a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of the Sudan. There are several different explanations for the origins of the present conflict, one explanation involves the land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture. Water access has also identified as a major source of the conflict. The Darfur crisis is also related to a second conflict, in southern Sudan, civil war has raged for decades between the northern, Arab-dominated government and Christian and animist black southerners. Yet another origin is conflict between the Islamist, Khartoum-based national government and two groups based in Darfur, the Sudan Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, american University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid. Alan Dershowitz labeled Sudan an example of a government that actually deserve the appellation apartheid, former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler echoed the accusation. The rebels first military action was an attack on an army garrison on 25 February 2002. The government had been aware of a rebel movement since an attack on the Golo police station in June 2002

32.
Justice and Equality Movement
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JEM advocates replacing the dictatorship of Omar al-Bashir and the ruling Congress Party with a civil, democratic state that respects the rights of Sudans various ethnic groups, women, and youth. The JEM further committed itself to these principles when it signed the New Dawn Charter in January 2013, JEM claim to possesses forces numbering around 35,000 and an ethnically diverse membership. According to critics it is not the rainbow of tribes it claims to be, as most Jem members, in October 2007, the JEM attacked the Defra oilfield in the Kordofan region of Sudan. The Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company, a Chinese-led consortium, controls the field, the next month, a group of 135 Chinese engineers arrived in Darfur to work on the Defra field. Ibrahim told reporters, We oppose them coming because the Chinese are not interested in human rights, the JEM claims that the revenue from oil sold to China funds the Sudanese government and the Janjaweed militia. On the morning of December 11,2007, Khalil Ibrahim claimed that JEM forces fought, Khartoum officials, however, denied that any oil fields had come under attack. Ibrahim said that the attack was part of a JEM campaign to rid Sudan of Chinese-run oilfields and they have been warned many times. In May 2008, JEM engaged in its most famous operation against the Sudanese government when it attacked the Sudanese capital of Khartoum, the operation ended with heavy battles in the western part of the Sudanese capital that included the governments use of army helicopters to repel the JEM advance. Following this battle, Eltahir Elfaki, the General Secretary of JEMs legislative council, vowed that the war would henceforth be fought across the country, from the beginning, Jem is a national movement and it has a national agenda. Khalil Ibrahim declared that This is just the start of a process, in April 2013, JEM and its allies in the Sudan Revolutionary Front engaged in many successful attacks against Sudanese government forces. As part of the offensive, JEM and the SRF also gained control of Abu Korshola, in its bid to retake control, the Sudanese Armed Forces engaged in indiscriminate air raid campaigns. On May 27, the forces withdrew in order to allow humanitarian aid to be delivered to the areas residents. Since then, opposition continue to engage in offensive operations

33.
National Congress (Sudan)
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The National Congress or National Congress Party is the governing official political party of Sudan. It is headed by Omar al-Bashir, who has been President of Sudan since he seized power in a coup on 30 June 1989. The party follows ideologies such as Islamism, Pan-Arabism, and Arab nationalism, as the sole political party in the state, its members quickly came to dominate the entire Sudanese parliament. Reportedly, al-Turabi was suspended as Chairman of National Congress Party after he urged a boycott of the Presidents re-election campaign, al-Turabi was subsequently imprisoned in 2000 on allegations of conspiracy before being released in October 2003. This merger later disintegrated with the launch of the Sudanese Socialist Union Party, the utility of the elections was questioned due to their boycotting by the Democratic Unionist Party and the Umma Party. At those legislative elections, December 2000, the party won 355 out of 360 seats, at the presidential elections of the same year, its candidate Omar al-Bashir won 86. 5% of the popular vote and was re-elected. National Congress Party members continue to dominate the Lawyers Union and heads of most of North Sudans agricultural, South Sudan voted in favour of secession. On July 14,2008, ten criminal charges were announced against President Omar al-Bashir, and subsequently a warrant for his arrest has been issued, but has yet to be executed. His political rival was Vice President Salva Kiir Mayardit, who was leader of the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army. A Cautious Welcome for Sudans New Government, by Michael Johns, arrest Warrant for Sudans President Bashir, Arabs Are Leaving Themselves out of the International Justice System Sudan Electionnaire

34.
Omar al-Bashir
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Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir is a Sudanese politician, the president of Sudan and head of the National Congress Party. Since then, he has elected three times as President in elections that have been under scrutiny for corruption. In the Darfur region, he oversaw the war in Darfur that has resulted in death tolls that are about 10,000 according to the Sudanese Government, but most sources suggest between 200,000 and 400,000. The civil war has displaced over 2.5 million people out of a population of 6.2 million in Darfur and has created a crisis in the diplomatic relations between Sudan and Chad. The rebels in Darfur lost the support from Libya after the death of Muammar Gaddafi, in July 2008, the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Luis Moreno Ocampo, accused al-Bashir of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Darfur. The court issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir on 4 March 2009 on counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, however, on 12 July 2010, the Court issued a second warrant containing three separate counts. The new warrant, as with the first, were delivered to the Sudanese government, the indictments do not allege that Bashir personally took part in such activities. Instead, they say, he is suspected of being criminally responsible, some international experts think it is unlikely that Ocampo has enough evidence. The courts decision is opposed by the African Union, League of Arab States, Non-Aligned Movement, Al-Bashir was born in Hosh Bannaga, just north of the capital, Khartoum, to a family of Arab descent. He belongs to Al-Bedairyya Al-Dahmashyya, a Bedouin tribe belonging to the larger Jaalin coalition and he received his primary education there, and his family later moved to Khartoum where he completed his secondary education. Al-Bashir is married to his cousin Fatima Khalid, Al-Bashir does not have any children of his own. Al-Bashir joined the Sudanese Army in 1960, Al-Bashir studied at the Egyptian Military Academy in Cairo and also graduated from the Sudan Military Academy in Khartoum in 1966. He quickly rose through the ranks and became a paratroop officer, later, al-Bashir served in the Egyptian Army during the Yom Kippur War in 1973 against Israel. In 1975, al-Bashir was sent to the United Arab Emirates as the Sudanese military attaché, after his return home al-Bashir was made a garrison commander. In 1981, al-Bashir returned to his background when he became the commander of an armoured parachute brigade. Under al-Bashirs leadership, the new government suspended political parties. He then became Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation, and assumed the posts of chief of state, prime minister, chief of the armed forces, the executive and legislative powers of the council were later given to al-Bashir completely. On 12 December 1999, al-Bashir sent troops and tanks against parliament and ousted Hassan al-Turabi, Al-Bashir was elected president in the 1996 national election and Hassan al-Turabi was elected to a seat in the National Assembly where he served as speaker of the National Assembly during the 1990s

35.
The Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C

36.
Confederation
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A confederation is a union of sovereign states, united for purposes of common action often in relation to other states. Confederalism represents a form of inter-governmentalism, this being defined as ‘any form of interaction between states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence. The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably, likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government, and the distribution of powers among them is highly variable. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations, other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems. Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have a right of secession. … The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member’, under a confederal arrangement, in contrast with a federal one, the central authority is relatively weak. Decisions made by the government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states. They are therefore not laws acting directly upon the individual, also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus and not by majority, which makes for a slow and inefficient government. For example, C. E. some aspects of a confederation in Le Soir, also in Le Soir, Professor Michel Quévit of the Catholic University of Leuven wrote that the Belgian political system is already in dynamics of a Confederation. Nevertheless, the Belgian regions lack the necessary autonomy to leave the Belgian state, as such, federal aspects still dominate. Also, for policy and public finances, the federal state dominates the other levels of government. The increasingly confederal aspects of the Belgian Federal State appear to be a reflection of the profound cultural, sociological. Parties that strongly advocate Belgian unity and appeal to voters of both communities play usually only a role in nationwide general elections. This makes Belgium fundamentally different from countries like Switzerland, Canada, Germany. In those countries, national parties regularly receive over 90% of voter support, in Canada, the word confederation has an additional, unrelated meaning. Confederation refers to the process of establishing or joining the Canadian federal state, in modern terminology, Canada is a federation and not a confederation. However, at the time of the Constitution Act,1867, confederation was the normal British, therefore, on July 1,1867, Canada became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire with a federal structure under the leadership of Sir John A. Macdonald. The provinces involved were the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia, later participants were Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and finally Newfoundland in 1949

37.
Hosni Mubarak
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Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak is a former Egyptian military and political leader who served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011. Before he entered politics, Mubarak was an officer in the Egyptian Air Force. He served as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rose to the rank of air marshal in 1973. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor and he was appointed Vice-President of Egypt by President Anwar Sadat in 1975 and assumed the presidency on 14 October 1981, eight days after Sadats assassination. Mubaraks presidency lasted almost thirty years, making him Egypts longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha, who ruled the country from 1805 to 1848, Mubarak stepped down after 18 days of demonstrations during the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president, on 13 April 2011, a prosecutor ordered Mubarak and both of his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power. Mubarak was then ordered to trial on charges of negligence for failing to halt the killing of peaceful protesters during the revolution. These trials began on 3 August 2011, on 2 June 2012, an Egyptian court sentenced Mubarak to life imprisonment. After sentencing, he was reported to have suffered a series of health crises, on 13 January 2013, Egypts Court of Cassation overturned Mubaraks sentence and ordered a retrial. On retrial, Mubarak and his sons were convicted on 9 May 2015 of corruption, Mubarak is detained in a military hospital and his sons were freed 12 October 2015 by a Cairo court. He was acquitted on 2 March 2017 by Court of Cassation and he was released on 24 March 2017. Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, after leaving high school, he joined the Egyptian Military Academy where he received a bachelors degree in Military Sciences in 1949. Mubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units, some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers, in 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a commander, then as a base commander. In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academys commander when he was credited with doubling the number of Air Force pilots, two years later, he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force. In 1972, Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defense, on 6 October 1973, the Egyptian Air Force launched a surprise attack on Israeli soldiers on the east bank of the Suez Canal. Egyptian pilots hit 90% of their targets, making Mubarak a national hero, the next year he was promoted to Air Chief Marshal in recognition of service during the October War of 1973 against Israel

38.
Muammar Gaddafi
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Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, commonly known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He governed Libya as Revolutionary Chairman of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and he was initially ideologically committed to Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, but he came to rule according to his own Third International Theory. Gaddafi was born near Sirte to an impoverished Bedouin family and he became an Arab nationalist while at school in Sabha, later enrolling in the Royal Military Academy, Benghazi. Within the military he founded a cell which, in a 1969 coup. Now in power, Gaddafi converted Libya into a republic governed by his Revolutionary Command Council, an Islamic modernist, he introduced sharia as the basis for the legal system and promoted Islamic socialism. In 1973, he initiated a Popular Revolution with the formation of General Peoples Committees, purported to be a system of direct democracy and he outlined his Third International Theory that year, publishing these ideas in The Green Book. In 1977, Gaddafi transformed Libya into a new socialist state called the Jamahiriya, officially he adopted a symbolic role in governance but remained head of both the military and the Revolutionary Committees responsible for policing and suppressing dissent. A particularly hostile relationship developed with the United States, United Kingdom, from 1999, Gaddafi rejected Arab socialism and encouraged economic privatisation, rapprochement with Western nations, and Pan-Africanism, he was Chairperson of the African Union from 2009–10. Amid the 2011 Arab Spring, protests against widespread corruption and unemployment broke out in eastern Libya, the situation descended into civil war, in which NATO intervened militarily on the side of the anti-Gaddafist National Transitional Council. The government was overthrown and Gaddafi, who had retreated to Sirte, was captured and killed by NTC militants, a highly divisive figure, Gaddafi dominated Libyas politics for four decades and was the subject of a pervasive cult of personality. Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi was born in a tent near Qasr Abu Hadi and his family came from a small, relatively un-influential tribal group called the Qadhadhfa, who were Arabized Berber in heritage. His mother was named Aisha, and his father, Mohammad Abdul Salam bin Hamed bin Mohammad, was known as Abu Meniar, nomadic Bedouins, they were illiterate and kept no birth records. His parents only surviving son, he had three older sisters, Gaddafis upbringing in Bedouin culture influenced his personal tastes for the rest of his life, he preferred the desert over the city and would retreat there to meditate. According to later claims, Gaddafis paternal grandfather, Abdessalam Bouminyar, was killed by the Italian Army during the Italian invasion of 1911, at World War IIs end in 1945, Libya was occupied by British and French forces. Although Britain and France intended on dividing the nation between their empires, the General Assembly of the United Nations declared that the country be granted political independence. In 1951, the UN created the United Kingdom of Libya, a state under the leadership of a pro-Western monarch, Idris. Gaddafis earliest education was of a nature, imparted by a local Islamic teacher. Subsequently moving to nearby Sirte to attend school, he progressed through six grades in four years

39.
Ahmed Aboul Gheit
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Ahmed Aboul-Gheit is an Egyptian diplomat who has been Secretary-General of the Arab League since July 2016. Aboul-Gheit served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt from 11 July 2004 to 6 March 2011, in December 2005, he began mediating the Chad-Sudan conflict. He was succeeded as Minister of Foreign Affairs by ICJ judge Nabil Elaraby in March 2011 and he was elected as Secretary-General of the Arab League in March 2016. Born in Heliopolis in Cairo on 12 June 1942, Aboul Gheit was originally from the city of Port Said, in 1999 he was the head of Egypts permanent delegation to the United Nations. Regarding the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy in 2006, he said this was an unfortunate statement. Aboul Gheit was elected as Secretary-General of the Arab League in March 2016, however, his election was not without some League members opposition due to his old age

Official opening of MONUSCO’s photo exhibition organized in the framework of the 70th anniversary of the United Nations. In the photo are the Head of MONUSCO, Martin Kobler (1st left), Lambert Mende (middle), and the Director of MONUSCO Public Information Division, Charles Antoine Bambara, commenting on a picture showing an internally displaced person.

Gaddafi at an Arab summit in Libya in 1969, shortly after the September Revolution that toppled King Idris I. Gaddafi sits in military uniform in the middle, surrounded by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser (left) and Syrian President Nureddin al-Atassi (right).

Omar al-Bashir (R), the president of Sudan, watches a ceremony celebrating the birth of South Sudan with Salva Kiir Mayardit, the former commander of the rebels who fought Bashir and now the president of the world's newest nation.