Neoshamanism

Jorge Nopawtzin Guaderrama, a modern Aztec shaman, uh-hah-hah-hah. Aztec cuwture had a compwex priesdood, not shamans, and de contemporary Aztec shamanic revivaw represents a form of neoshamanism.

Neoshamanism refers to "new"' forms of shamanism, or medods of seeking visions or heawing. Neoshamanism comprises an ecwectic range of bewiefs and practices dat invowve attempts to attain awtered states and communicate wif a spirit worwd.[1] Neoshamanic systems may not resembwe traditionaw forms of shamanism. Some have been invented by individuaw practitioners, dough many borrow or gain inspiration from a variety of different indigenous cuwtures. In particuwar, indigenous cuwtures of de Americas have been infwuentiaw.[2][3]

The word "shaman" originates from de Evenki word "šamán".[4] The Tungusic term was subseqwentwy adopted by Russians interacting wif de indigenous peopwes of Siberia,[5] and den appwied very broadwy by western andropowogists to many, diverse spirituaw systems dat share some kind of practice of cawwing upon, and mediating wif, spirit beings.

Neoshamanism is not a singwe, cohesive bewief system, but a cowwective term for many phiwosophies and activities. However, certain generawities may be drawn between adherents. Most bewieve in spirits and pursue contact wif de "spirit-worwd" in awtered states of consciousness which dey achieve drough drumming, dance, or de use of endeogens. Most systems might be described as existing somewhere on de animism/pandeism spectrum.[6] Some neoshamans were not trained by any traditionaw shaman or member of any American indigenous cuwture, but rader wearn independentwy from books and experimentation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Many attend New Age workshops and retreats, where dey study a wide variety of ideas and techniqwes, bof new and owd.[2][3]

Some members of traditionaw, indigenous cuwtures and rewigions are criticaw of neoshamanism, asserting dat it represents an iwwegitimate form of cuwturaw appropriation, or dat it is noding more dan a ruse by frauduwent spirituaw weaders to disguise or wend wegitimacy fabricated, ignorant and/or unsafe ewements in deir ceremonies.[7][8]
According to York (2001) one difference between neoshamanism and traditionaw shamanism is de rowe of fear.[9] Neoshamanism and its New Age rewations tend to dismiss de existence of eviw, fear, and faiwure. "In traditionaw shamanism, de shaman’s initiation is an ordeaw invowving pain, hardship and terror. New Age, by contrast is a rewigious perspective dat denies de uwtimatewy [sic] reawity of de negative, and dis wouwd devawue de rowe of fear as weww."[10]

The 2011 United Kingdom census made it possibwe to write in a description of one's own choosing for "Rewigion". The figures for Engwand and Wawes show dat from just over 80,000 peopwe sewf-identifying as Pagan, 650 wrote in de description "Shamanism".[11]

Contents

"Core Shamanism", which formed de foundations for most contemporary neoshamanism, is a system of practices syndesized, invented and promoted by Michaew Harner in de 1980s, based on his reading of andropowogicaw texts about indigenous peopwes in de Americas, primariwy de Pwains Indians.[1] Harner, who was not himsewf indigenous to de Americas, asserted dat de ways of severaw Norf American tribes share "core" ewements wif dose of de Siberian shamans.[1][2][3] Many non-Native American readers bewieve dat Harner's ideas were representative of actuaw traditionaw indigenous ceremonies, when dey were not actuawwy very accurate according to subseqwent critics.[2] Some members of dese tribes assert dat Harner's ideas or representations were not in any way accurate,[2][3] nor do dey caww deir spirituaw weaders "shamans".[2][12]

Harner professes to describe common ewements of "shamanic" practice found among indigenous peopwe worwd-wide, having stripped dose ewements of specific cuwturaw content so as to render dem "accessibwe" to contemporary Western spirituaw seekers.[13] Harner awso founded de Foundation for Shamanic Studies which cwaims to aid indigenous peopwe preserve or even re-discover deir own spirituaw knowwedge.[14]

Core shamanism does not howd a fixed bewief system, but instead focuses on de practice of "shamanic journeying" and may awso rewy on de novews of Carwos Castaneda. Specific practices incwude de use of rapid drumming in an attempt to attain "de shamanic state of consciousness," rituaw dance, and attempted communication wif animaw tutewary spirits, cawwed "power animaws" by Harner."[15]

"Power animaw" is a broad animistic and neoshamanic concept dat was introduced into de Engwish wanguage in 1980 by Michaew Harner in The Way of de Shaman.[15] In Harner's view, power animaws are much wike de famiwiar spirits of European occuwtism, which aid de occuwtist in deir metaphysicaw work.[15]

The use of dis term has been incorporated into de New Age movement, where it is often mistaken for being de same as a totem in some indigenous cuwtures.[3] The concept has awso entered popuwar cuwture in various forms, such as in de 1999 fiwm (and earwier novew) Fight Cwub, when de narrator attends a cancer support group. During a creative visuawization exercise, he is towd to see himsewf entering a cave where he wiww meet his power animaw. When he does, he imagines a penguin is speaking to him.[16]

Critics Daniew C. Noew and Robert J. Wawwis see Harner's teachings as based on cuwturaw appropriation and a misrepresentation of de various cuwtures by which he cwaims to have been inspired.[17] Geary Hobson sees de New Age use of de term "shamanism" as a cuwturaw appropriation of Native American cuwture by white peopwe who have distanced demsewves from deir own history.[2] Critics such as Noew and Wawwis bewieve Harner's work, in particuwar, waid de foundations for massive expwoitation of indigenous cuwtures by "pwastic shamans" and oder cuwturaw appropriators. Note, however, dat Noew does bewieve in "audentic western shamanism" as an awternative to neoshamanism.[17]

^ abcHarner, Michaew The Way of de Shaman, uh-hah-hah-hah. 1980, new edition, HarperSanFrancisco, 1990, ISBN0-06-250373-1

^ abcdefgHobson, G. "The Rise of de White Shaman as a New Version of Cuwturaw Imperiawism." in: Hobson, Gary, ed. The Remembered Earf. Awbuqwerqwe, NM: Red Earf Press; 1978: 100-108.

^ abcdeAwdred, Lisa, "Pwastic Shamans and Astroturf Sun Dances: New Age Commerciawization of Native American Spirituawity" in: The American Indian Quarterwy issn, uh-hah-hah-hah.24.3 (2000) pp.329-352. Lincown: University of Nebraska Press.

^May, James (18 Feb 2002). "Man cwaiming to be Nordern Cheyenne "Shaman" convicted on eight fewony counts". Indian Country Today Media Network.: "A wetter from de Nordern Cheyenne Tribaw Counciw obtained by Indian Country Today and signed by dree tribaw counciw members, said dat Cagwe is in no way associated wif de tribe...The wetter furder stated dat de Nordern Cheyenne do not use de term "shaman" when referring to deir rewigious weaders"