Transcript

1.
Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
135
The Struggle of Measurement of Attitudes Related to the
Superstitious Beliefs
Tülin Acar
Parantez Education Research Consultancy Center, Ankara, Turkey
E-mail of the corresponding author: totbicer@gmail.com
Abstract
The aim of the scale which is developed is to measure attitudes related to superstitious beliefs. The aim of
developing the scale is to separate individuals who believe superstitious beliefs within the frame of the scale
items (having superstitious beliefs) and individuals who don't believe these each other. 70 items, which are
scaled with five points likert scale, are adapted to two separate sample group and the psychometric
characteristics of the scale are examined. The significance of difference between averages of sub-super group of
item scores and statistics of explanatory factor analysis, item-total correlations and Cronbach Alpha Coefficient
are evaluated on the first sample group and the final form of 23 items is created. By collecting data from the
second sample of the final form which is created, the power of the scale items to represent the structure is tested
with the explanatory factor analysis. It is concluded that the dependability of the final form of 23 items is high
and the evidences obtained in relation to the construct validity are suitable. It is observed that participants'
attitudes related to the superstitious beliefs differentiate in terms of variables of gender and educational
backgrounds.
Keywords: superstitious belief, attitudes, development of scale
1. Introduction
People's daily lives are full of many rational and superstitious behaviors. Superstitious beliefs and behaviors
differ from culture to culture and are indispensible for the culture people experience. That is, sometimes the
superstitious beliefs significantly affect decisions, which people take in their daily life, and their behaviors. The
most important element which enables the superstitious beliefs to maintain continuity is its benefit to people and
the belief of anxiety recover. According to Zhang (2012), the superstitious beliefs have significant effects on
individuals when they make decision at risk. As long as individual think that the superstitious beliefs and
behaviors is beneficial to themselves, they continue making them even if they know that the superstitious beliefs
and behaviors are irrational. So, as long as people have the desire of knowing the future, the will of being safe,
despair and fear, the superstitious beliefs will maintain continuity (Köse and Ayten, 2009).
It is said that the sources of many superstitious beliefs are based on antiquity societies such as Egypt, Indian,
Phoenicia, Persian, Babel and Hellene (Karaca, 2001). Mostly future anxiety and despairs related to various
topics maintain the superstitious beliefs and they guide future in some way and convert to future in their favor
(Karaca, 2001). So, the starting point of superstitious beliefs is the sensorial properties such as fear and anxiety
in the human nature. Turkish meaning of superstitious belief is unnecessary belief and it is defined as "The
superstitious belief is to depend on an unsound and unfounded idea." (Gencan and Karadağ, 1978). It is possible
that the superstitious belief can be evaluated as the paranormal beliefs (Aarnio, 2007). According to Tobacyk
who has studies related to the topic, the paranormal belief is defined as "phenomenon keeping out the essential
boundaries of science" (Arslan, 2010). So, the superstitious beliefs should not be merely thought as a part of
religion. It is observed that people in different cultures, religions and even languages present some common
superstitious beliefs. That is, even if material, which is used in sorcery and the superstitious beliefs, is taken from
religion, the existence of innate power is accepted in words and practices which are used (Hökelekli, 1998).
According to Kayıklık (2005), the beliefs of people, who gain profound religious experiences with various
reasons, maturate depending on these experiences. If we compare with this state, in the superstitious beliefs,
changes which occur in the lives of people enable people's superstitious beliefs to maturate in the result of
experiences. That is, according to Freud, beliefs related to postmortem are vital sources of satisfaction which is
created by human psychology for consoling nuisances, pains and sufferings in this life. They are originated from
fear and fright which are provoked by death and the psychological shock which people go towards healing these
beliefs (Hökelekli, 1998).
Another opinion is that our cognitive sense practice to sense by establishing various connections between events
and objects but in this process, sometimes wrong connections can be seen. These connections form the origin of
superstitious belief by consolidating in time (Köse and Ayten, 2009). According to Russell (2005), "As long as
you don't comprehend the certain difference between blind faith and sense and emotional values and real values,
it is not possible that a real improvement can't be seen." Many theorists indicate in their studies that by
increasing logic and common sense, it is possible that a fall can be seen in the effect of the superstitious beliefs
(Barut, 2008; Arslan, 2004; Ayhan and Yarar, 2005).

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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
136
Zezelj, Pavlovic, Vladisavljevic and Radivojevic (2009) stated in their studies that the superstitious beliefs is not
truly equal to attitudes because the superstitious beliefs have some certain characteristics and these
characteristics aren't required to be the characteristics of attitudes. It is observed that many writers are in
agreement about that the superstitious beliefs are beliefs against rationalist norms in the society (Delacroix and
Guillard, 2008).
1.1 The measurement of Attitudes
According to Bloom’a (1971), human behaviors have three elements as cognitive, emotional and psychomotor.
Attitudes also occur as the psychological variables which direct human behaviors and are back to behaviors.
Attitude is defined as the tendency of giving learned negative or positive reaction against certain object, state,
institute, concept or other people (Tezbaşaran, 1997). So, individual has the tendency of directing to emotion,
opinion and behavior related to the attitude object. Thurstone (1931) defined attitude as the levels of negative or
positive emotions related to a psychological object.
At the same time, attitudes are typical behaviors. Typical behaviors are features such as what individual make in
the state, which s/he experiences, and dreaming about how s/he behaves without any forces, attitude, personality
and clothes (Erkuş, 2012). It should not be forgotten that attitudes have three elements as cognitive, emotional
and perfomartive. Individual's opinion about the attitude element is cognitive element; her/his reaction of
emotion and excitement is emotional element and her/his motor behavior is behavioral element.
1.2 The aim of Study
The aim of developing the scale is to separate individuals who believe superstitious beliefs within the frame of
the scale items (having superstitious beliefs) and individuals who don't believe these each other. In one way, it is
study of development of scale. Another aim of study is to evaluate how participants' attitudes related to the
superstitious beliefs differentiate in terms of gender and the educational backgrounds. It is possible that Tobacyk
(2004)'s study about the paranormal belief scale development with 26 items and seven sub-dimensions and
Huque and Chowdhury (2007)'s studies about the superstitious belief scale development with 31 items can be
encountered. However, it is observed that the items of these scales are not dependant from the cultural features
of society in which is lived.
At the same time, this study is important for the determination of relations between individuals' superstitious
beliefs and different behaviors. When studies about education are evaluated, individuals' features such as
anxieties, perceptions, academic achievements can be related with their superstitious beliefs and the superstitious
beliefs can be dealt as a factor which affects to success.
2. Method
2.1 Sample
The release of attitudes and beliefs is between 13-21 years (Hökelekli, 1998, p. 280). According to Özkalp
(2004), a significant part of attitudes are created in the first 20-25 years of life. With this reason, individuals who
compose sample are formed individuals above 18 year. So, the intended population on which the scale can be
practiced is adults. In other words, the group which measured feature is expected to be observed is adults.
2.2 The Tool of Data Collection
The tool of data collection consists of items with quinary likert type. In the preparation of scale items, the study
of writing composition with the topic of "what is your superstitious beliefs and why" is carried out on 10-15
adults. Individuals, who write composition, are regarded to be heterogeneous in terms of age, profession and
gender. With compositions and as a result of relevant literature search, a pre-trying form with 70 items is created.
The attitude statements, which form the testing form, are made prepared to the practice especially in terms of the
writing principles of the attitude statement (Tezbaşaran, 1997) and by regarding experts' views. While 42 % of
items in the testing form consist of (60%) positive statements, 28 % of them consist of (40%) negative
statements.
2.3Process
Regarding positive and negative items in the scale items, the scores of scale are obtained. While positive
statements are graded as strongly disagree 1, disagree 2, indecisive 3, agree 4 and strongly agree 5, negative
statements are graded as strongly disagree 5, disagree 4, indecisive 3, agree 2 and strongly disagree 1.
Individuals, who have high superstitious beliefs and believe in them, take high scores from the scale and
individuals who don't believe in them take low scores from the scale.
The pilot scheme is carried out in two stages. In the first stage, the scale with 70 items is carried out 100
individuals and after data, which are obtained, made prepared to analysis, for the distinctiveness of scale items,
the difference between averages of sub and super-groups is regarded and the significance level of difference is
tested with t test. The explanatory factor analysis is evaluated for the construct validity; Cronbach Alpha
coefficient and item-total correlations are evaluated with the internal consistency of items and the final form is
created. In the second stage, the final form is carried out on 947 individuals. The feature of attitude related to the
superstition belief is the implicit variable and the items of scale are observed variables. They are subjected to

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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
138
It is observed that 52 is the degree of freedom and in 0.01 significance level, critical t value is 2.66 and eleven
items are under the critical value, in other words, there is no the significance difference between averages of sub-
super groups (p>0.01). 3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 16, 19, 24, 57, 58 and 68th
items are extracted from the scale and the
working on remained items is maintained with the confirmatory factor analysis.
4.2 First Stage: Findings Related to the Confirmatory Factor Analysis for the Construct Validity
For the determination of factorial structure of the scale with remained 59 items and at the same time, the study of
validity, the principal component method and the confirmatory factor analysis are carried out. In the first
explanatory factor analysis which is carried out, the graph of the basic values is firstly examined and as to the
graph of the basic values, it comes up that items show a structure with one factor.
When the explanatory factor analysis is carried out in the second time by limiting with one factor, the factor
charges are evaluated. It is stated that in the process of the development of scale, the factor charge is required to
be at least 0.30 and the difference between two high charge values is required to be at least 0.10 (Çokluk,
Şekercioğlu and Büyüköztürk, 2010; Tabachnick and Fidel, 2001, p. 622-623). So, since the factor charge of two
items, particularly 28th
and 31st
items, is below to 0,30 value, the item, which has the lowest factor charge (31st
item), is extracted and the change of the factor charge is observed. In the processes of factor analyses which are
carried out, the factor charges of 31st
, 28th
and 13th
items are respectively extracted from the scale with the reason
that they are not suitable. When the explanatory factor analysis is carried out again with remained 56 items, the
values of the factor charge of items and the results of variance which is explained, KMO statistic and Bartlett
sphericity test are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The Results of the Explanatory Factor Analysis
item no factor loading item no factor loading
m69 0,751 m48 0,500
m45 0,717 m50 0,500
m60 0,672 m49 0,496
m36 0,650 m62 0,490
m63 0,645 m67 0,489
m33 0,634 m54 0,488
m42 0,619 m52 0,486
m44 0,617 m40 0,485
m4 0,608 m64 0,479
m61 0,576 m37 0,476
m10 0,563 m46 0,473
m22 0,562 m39 0,470
m5 0,560 m56 0,464
m41 0,558 m38 0,463
m29 0,553 m23 0,460
m70 0,551 m25 0,439
m55 0,547 m53 0,418
m59 0,539 m32 0,406
m65 0,538 m8 0,394
m30 0,532 m21 0,383
m27 0,532 m20 0,377
m1 0,530 m51 0,373
m47 0,529 m18 0,371
m35 0,528 m26 0,360
m2 0,517 m34 0,348
m43 0,513 m17 0,342
m11 0,513 m66 0,334
m14 0,503 m15 0,328
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy= 0.723
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity = 3250,488 df=1540 p=0.000
Variance Explained with One factor =%26,34
KMO statistic is 0,723. So, this statistic is higher than 0.50 and it shows that the number of samples for data is
enough (Kalaycı, 2005, p. 322). Also, the results of Bartlett sphericity test test the suitability of data for the

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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
139
factor analysis. So, it is observed that data are suitable to the factor analysis for these data (p<0.05). The factor
charges belonging to the scale items show variability between 0.328 and 0.751.
When the results of the factor graph belonging to the Eigenvalues values are examined, it is observed that 56
items are more specifically collected under one factor. As seen in the graph of the eigenvalues, the eigen value in
the first factor is 14.751 and the eigen value in the second factor is 3.016. In the evaluations of one dimension,
the extents of eigenvalues in the first and second factors in the line chart are compared. Since the eigen value in
the first factor is much higher than the eigen value in the second factor, it can be said that the assumption of one
dimension of the scale is met (http://work.psych.uiuc.edu/irt/dim_main.asp). Cronbach Alpha means the internal
consistency of 56 trying items and its reliability co-efficient is calculated as 0.946. It is observed that there are
acceptable reliability coefficient on account of the fact that the reliability coefficient in the meaning of the
internal consistency is higher than the value of 0.70. Coefficients of the internal consistency are not tested in the
lack hypothesis and so, the lower limit of acceptable reliability co-efficient is 0.70 (Erkuş, 2003). The item-total
correlations of items which are calculated are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Item-Total Correlations
Item no
Item Total
Correlations
Item no
Item Total
Correlations
m1 0,497 m40 0,460
m2 0,482 m41 0,541
m4 0,581 m42 0,589
m5 0,534 m43 0,469
m8 0,380 m44 0,583
m10 0,523 m45 0,681
m11 0,477 m46 0,449
m14 0,471 m47 0,498
m15 0,312 m48 0,472
m17 0,318 m49 0,476
m18 0,344 m50 0,477
m20 0,350 m51 0,350
m21 0,368 m52 0,460
m22 0,543 m53 0,388
m23 0,432 m54 0,457
m25 0,412 m55 0,522
m26 0,346 m56 0,435
m27 0,495 m59 0,507
m29 0,531 m60 0,644
m30 0,508 m61 0,543
m32 0,386 m62 0,454
m33 0,609 m63 0,614
m34 0,326 m64 0,460
m35 0,502 m65 0,503
m36 0,615 m66 0,316
m37 0,462 m67 0,474
m38 0,436 m69 0,726
m39 0,443 m70 0,528
It is expected that the scale items and coefficients of the internal consistency are higher than the value of 0.30
(Atılgan, Kan and Doğan, 2009, p.325). It is observed that the attitude items and item-total correlations, which
are developed in the study, show variability between 0.312 and 0.726.
As evaluating the significance of difference between averages of sub and super-group, the factor charges
obtained from the explanatory factor analysis and item-total correlations, remained 56 items are determined from
the scale of 71 items and 23 items are chosen from these items for the final practice. When choosing items, items
which have the highest t value in the test of average difference of sub and super-group, experts' views and the
distribution of negative and positive items are especially regarded. Since the confirmatory factor analysis
generates interpretable results in big samples, as the second stage, the scale of 23 items is carried out on group of
947 individuals and data are collected again.

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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
140
4.3 Seconf Stage: Findings Related to the Explanatory Factor Analysis for the Construct Validity
The confirmatory factor analysis unlike the explanatory factor analysis is used for confirming a factorial
structure, which is specified by researcher, or testing a theoretical model/theory which is specified before (Kline,
2005). To test theoretically the construct validity of "The Attitude Scale of the Superstitious Belief" which is
prepared as one dimension, the confirmatory factor analysis is carried out. 11 of the final scale of 23 items which
is practiced on 947 individuals (947 individuals' reactions to the scale items are obtained from the internet by
way of various social networks, e-mail groups and forums which show the heterogeneous characteristic in terms
of job, age and gender six years after the first pilot practice.) are positive and 12 of it are negative. When the
premise of normality with multi-dimensional isn't met in the confirmatory factor analysis, it is solved with
Weighted Least Squares (Yılmaz and Çelik, 2009). In these study, the premise of normality with multi-
dimensional is not met and so, the possibility method is at most used in the predictions. It is found as GFI 0.95,
AGFI 0.94, S-RMR 0.07 and RMSEA 0.053 from the accordance indexes which are evaluated. It is clearly seen
from these accordance indexes, for GFI and AGFI, 0.90 and values above it; for S-RMR accordance index, 0.10
and values below it and for RMSEA, 0.05 and values below it highly accord with the model which is suggested
(Çokluk, Şekercioğlu and Büyüköztürk, 2010; Ceylan and Berberoğlu, 2007). It is observed that the statistic of
rate of similarity chi-square is X2
(230)=833.53, P<0.01 and the rate of the value of chi-square to the extent of
independence is 3.62. So, according to X2
/ Sd rate, data are attuned in the medium level.
The values of factor charge (Lambda) of the scale items after the confirmatory factor analysis, the square (R2
) of
multi-correlation which determined the power of relation between each items and the implicit variable and t
values which show the significance of relation of the attitude scale related to the superstitious beliefs which
consists of 23 items are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. DFA Statistics Related to the Scale Items
Lamda R2
t value
1-Some numbers bring good lock to me. 0,75 0,46 31,28
2-People who are colored-eye hex. 0,69 0,31 20,34
3-There is no object to which I believe its luck. 0,44 0,07 9,3
4-When eye trembles, despair or happiness are experienced. 0,51 0,29 18,28
5-Fortunetelling is emotional exploitation. 0,74 0,35 24,03
6-When palm itches, money comes or goes 0,68 0,37 24,71
7-When somebody hear a bad word, s/he should pull her/his ears and
knock on wood.
0,42 0,07 8,83
8-There is no blind, bad luck. 0,77 0,28 19,38
9-Zodiac affects our behaviors. 0,86 0,36 25,49
10-People should not believe palm-reading. 0,71 0,41 26,46
11-The superstitious beliefs are the adaptation of people. 0,81 0,45 31,29
12-People should not trust in fortunes 0,71 0,41 27,39
13-People should not believe in tarot. 0,63 0,28 21,61
14-Staring at space is a sign of the coming of guests. 0,61 0,44 25,33
15-I don't think as "When I feel my ears burning, somebody badly
speaks about me."
0,56 0,12 12,57
16- It is not possible to know the future. 0,54 0,23 16,54
17-In nights, cutting nails brings bad luck. 0,27 0,14 9,85
18- Breaking mirror in thirteenth Friday of a month brings to grief. 0,22 0,24 11,8
19- Daily zodiac interpretations is not right, real 0,71 0,33 21,54
20- Blue bead should be worn against the evil eye. 0,84 0,37 25,55
21- When owl signs, it isn't brought bad luck. 0,21 0,01 4,05
22-People don't believe in the dream interpretations. 0,57 0,18 15,46
23- People don't make a wish by going mausoleums. 0,63 0,23 18,65
According to the results of the confirmatory factor analysis, t values of all items are found significance (p<0.01).
In other words, it can be said that, the scale items efficiently represent the implicit variable related to the
superstition beliefs. When variances (R2
) are evaluated, the first item "Some numbers bring good lock to me
(0.46)." reveals at most to the implicit variable related to the superstition beliefs and the twenty first item "When
owl signs, it isn't brought bad luck (0.01)." reveals at least to the implicit variable related to the superstition
beliefs. It is significant that 21st
item make a little contribution to the implicit variable but t value is significance.
In following practices, 21st
item is changed as "At nights, hearing owl's voice isn't sign to bad luck." and
answerers understand better this item. So, it is thought that this item leads to increase variance which is
explained.
In the extent of sample of 947 individuals, Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient, which gives the data of

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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.5, No.21, 2014
141
internal consistency of 23 items, is calculated as 0.824.
4.4 The effect of Variables of Gender and the Education Backgrounds
Whether or not 947 participants' attitudes related to the superstitious beliefs, which are measured, differentiate as
to their gender and educational backgrounds is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Attitudes in Terms of Variables of Gender and the Education Backgrounds
N Mean Std. deviation t /F Sig.
Gender
women 430 2,29 0,61
t=7,237 0,000**
men 517 2,00 0,60
Educational status
primary education 114 2,51 0,72
F=16,906 0,000**
high school 96 2,08 0,56
Associate/license 443 2,08 0,57
Graduate 291 2,09 0,61
**p<0.01
According to results, participants' attitudes related to the superstitious beliefs differentiate in terms of their
genders (t=7,237; p<0.01). It is found that women's attitudes, which are measured, are relatively higher than
men's attitudes. Participants' attitudes related to the superstitious beliefs also differentiate in terms of their
educational backgrounds (F=16,906; p<0.01). Since the group variances are homogenous, when the results of
LSD test are evaluated from the multi-group comparisons, it is between the attitudes related to the superstitious
beliefs of participants, whose educational background is elementary school and attitudes, which are measured, of
participants whose educational background are higher than them.
Arslan (2005) came through in his study that individuals' anxiety levels of the superstitious beliefs affect from
variables such as "gender, socio-economic level in society, education and job". It is found in some studies which
examine the relation of gender and the superstitious beliefs that women's tendency to believe the superstitious
beliefs and the supernatural events is higher than men (Aarnio, 2007; Ayten and Köse, 2009). In this study, a
similar finding occurs. It is observed that as increasing intelligence and the educational level, individuals'
superstitious beliefs decrease (Ayten and Köse, 2009). It is observed in this study that as increasing the
educational level, measured averages of attitudes related to the superstitious beliefs show a decrease.
5. Result and Suggestions
In this study, the process of development of attitude scale related to the superstitious beliefs is dealt. In this study,
the construct validity and reliability of the scale are evaluated on two different sample groups. The scale which is
prepared as 70 items are practiced on 100 individuals and it is seen that the difference of eleven items between
averages of sub-and super-groups isn't significance. After these items are extracted from the scale, the
explanatory factor analysis is practiced on remained items and as to the results, more three items are extracted
from the scale. Fewer scales are formed among remained 56 items. The scale is arranged as 23 items and is
practiced by reaching a sample of 947 individuals. Also, the theoretical structure of the scale is tested with the
confirmatory factor analysis. The relations of all items to measure the structure are found to be significance in
the confirmatory factor analysis. It is observed that the internal consistency of scale is high in each sample group
and different number of items. It is thought that structures which can be measured with fewer items increase the
tendency of answerers to answer. Scales with fewer items decrease distraction and exhaustion because of
shortening the time to answer and increase the motivation of answerers. That is, while a sample of 100
individuals can be reached with the scale of 70 items in longer time periods, a sample of 947 individuals can be
reached with the scale of 70 items in less time periods.
In the scale which is developed in this period, the cross validation of items in sub-samples (gender, the
educational backgrounds and etc.) should be tested. By practicing the scale scores with different scales, their
studies can be practiced as to the external criterion. Its relations with scales such as religious attitude scale (Ok,
2007), Superstitious belief anxiety scale (Arslan, 2005), Central epistemological beliefs scale (Oksal, Şanşekerci
and Bilgin, 2006) can be tested and discussed.
References
Aarnio, K. (2007). Paranormal, superstitious, magical, and religious beliefs. [Online] Retrieved on 28 December
2012 at https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/19774/paranorm.pdf?sequence=2
Arslan, M. (2004). Kültürel Bağlamda Din, Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi IV, Sayı: 1, 189–205.
Arslan, M. (2005). Kişilerin Batıl İnanç Kaygı Düzeylerinin Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi. Değerler
Eğitimi Dergisi, 2(6), 7–34
Arslan, M. (2010). Paranormal İnanç Ölçeğinin Türkçe Versiyonunun Geliştirilmesi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik
Çalışması, İ.Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi. 1(2) 23–40
Atılgan, H., Kan, A. ve Doğan, N. (2009). Eğitimde Ölçme ve Değerlendirme, Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık, 3.Baskı
Ayhan, İ. ve Yarar, F. (2005). Batıl İnançların Psikolojisi. Pivolka, 4 (17), 15–19

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