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Non-domestic violence related assault

In this section of the report, the findings from a review of community-based crime prevention strategies that have as a primary goal a reduction in non-domestic violence related assault are presented. Following a brief review of the literature examining issues relating to the prevention of violence, a summary of the evidence in support of intervention types as reviewed by the research team, an explanation of how they work and the characteristics of successful strategies are outlined.

Preventing non-domestic violence related assault

Assault is broadly defined as

[the] direct (and immediate/confrontational) infliction of force, injury or violence upon a person or persons or the direct (and immediate/confrontational) threat of force, injury or violence where there is an apprehension that the threat could be enacted (ABS 2011: 29).

Within this broad definition, BOCSAR categorises assaults as either domestic violence related or non-domestic violence related. Whether an assault is classified as domestic violence related is determined by the relationship between the offender and victim. If the offender and victim are currently (or have been previously) in a domestic relationship (ie intimate partners, ex-partners, family members as well as those who live together in the same residence), the assault is defined as domestic violence related. An offender who commits a non-domestic violence related assault is not in a domestic relationship (either present of past) with the victim.

Recent BOCSAR data suggests that there are a number of trends associated with non-domestic violence related assaults committed in New South Wales. In particular, the data suggests that a high number of non-domestic violence related assaults are:

The same data also suggests that the majority of non-domestic violence related assault victims are male. In particular, 20–29 year old males appear to be at greater risk of victimisation. Further, 20–29 year old males account for a large proportion of the offender population (BOCSAR 2012).

There is a considerable body of evidence surrounding the characteristics of effective violence prevention strategies. This draws on both past systematic reviews of prevention strategies as well as research into the relationship between certain risk factors—relating to the individual, family, peer, community or environment—and violent crime. For example, research into the prevention of alcohol-related violence in entertainment precincts has suggested that effective strategies are those that aim to:

Similarly, a recent systematic review of youth violence prevention programs and good practice in preventing violence involving young people highlighted the importance of designing strategies that are:

inclusive and engage young people in the development and implementation of interventions;

supported by effective interagency collaboration between stakeholders such as police, schools, service providers, community groups and young people;

age, gender, culturally and developmentally appropriate, as well as being tailored to the needs of different groups and the context in which they are being delivered;

considerate of the peer, family, school, community and environmental factors that may exert some level of influence over the young person’s behaviour; and

part of a broader strategy that incorporates multiple interventions to address both social and environmental factors associated with young people’s involvement in crime, including a balance between proactive crime prevention strategies and ensuring timely responses to offending behaviour when it occurs (Bodson et al. 2008; Hemphill & Smith 2010).

Findings from the review

A comprehensive summary of the findings from a review of strategies designed to reduce non-domestic violence related assault is presented in Tables 5 and 6. In Table 5, the evidence is described in relation to the various categories of violence prevention interventions and in Table 6, important considerations with respect to the requirements for implementation and suitability of the interventions for local government are highlighted. Strategies examined as part of this review are described in Table 7. Overall, the review identified 41 studies that met the criteria for inclusion and of these, 27 studies reached at least level three on the SMS. Therefore, it is possible to draw a number of conclusions about the effectiveness of specific interventions (or combinations of interventions) and their impact on non-domestic violence related assault.

Clear role for local government in leading the development and implementation of comprehensive strategies targeting alcohol-related violence in entertainment precincts, as well as facilitating community involvement and engagement

Local government is recognised as a key partner in liquor accords. Liquor accords are an important vehicle for the delivery of comprehensive community-based strategies

Requires longer term support and therefore, longer term funding

Potentially costly, particularly if there is an education component (over and above mandatory RSA training)

Requires support from police and licensing authorities

Extensive guidance on establishing liquor accords available online from the Office of Liquor, Gaming and Racing

Comprehensive responses to gang-related violence

The interventions that were delivered as part of these responses to gang-related violence could potentially involve local government working closely with community-based organisations to implement outreach services, mobilise communities, and to develop and implement awareness campaigns

All of the strategies reviewed in this research were implemented in the United States to address gang-related violence. Relevance to the Australian and specifically, NSW context uncertain

However, the underlying principles and intervention components appear relevant to strategies that attempt to reduce violence between groups (eg between different ethnic groups) involving young people, or violence that is related to drug trafficking and distribution

Comprehensive strategies are costly and must be implemented in full to be most effective

Requires support from police and strong enforcement targeting violence

Access control (specifically street closures)

Local government are responsible for the installation and maintenance of roads and pathways in residential neighbourhoods

The decision to implement street closures should be based on a clear assessment of both the access routes for offenders and implications for local residents

Potential application of principles underpinning street closures

Street lighting

Improving street lighting is a common strategy implemented by local government to prevent crime

There is evidence that in those circumstances in where it is effective, street lighting can be a cost-efficient approach to reducing crime

Mentoring

Local government may not be the primary agency responsible for implement mentoring projects; however, it can offer support for the agencies or groups providing the service. The specific needs of these agencies and what local government can provide would depend on the agency and would be best negotiated between the two

Has been identified in reviews of local government crime prevention plans as a common strategy to address offending behaviour (generally) among at-risk young people

Evidence in support of mentoring as a violence prevention measure appears mixed

Potentially expensive to deliver to large numbers of young people

Programs are more effective when the mentoring relationship is longer in duration and involves more frequent contacts; implications for costs

Brief interventions

As with mentoring, the primary responsibility for delivering brief intervention projects rests outside of local government. However, local government may be able to facilitate referrals and contact with young people

Potentially cost effective as an offender-focused intervention to reduce violence

Suitability for brief interventions in a community setting needs to be considered, given that both evaluations identified participants in emergency departments

The review highlights that there are various forms of non-domestic violence related assault that occurs in different contexts. They differ in terms of the type of violence, the location of violence and the groups that are targeted. The responses to the different forms of violence vary accordingly. The review identified strategies targeting the following forms of violence:

There was considerable variation across the different forms of non-domestic violence related assault in terms of the number of evaluations meeting the criteria for inclusion that could be located by the research team. This became more apparent once the search was limited to those strategies that were delivered by community-based organisations, including local government.

For example, there was considerable evidence in relation to effective strategies targeting youth violence, but these strategies were most frequently delivered in schools or involved direct service provision targeted at high-risk families (Hemphill & Smith 2010; WHO 2010). School-based crime prevention, particularly those strategies focused on changing the school environment or curriculum, have been shown to be effective in reducing crime, substance use, antisocial behaviour and aggression and improving school attendance (Gottfredson, Wilson & Najaka 2006). Further, there is strong evidence to show that early intervention programs—such as home visitation programs, parent education plus preschool and school-based child training with parent training—are extremely effective in reducing aggression (Farrington & Welsh 2006). However, these strategies are not particularly suited to being implemented by local government, nor are they suited to short-term grant funding.

Similarly, reviews of supply reduction strategies to reduce alcohol-related harms have identified a range of different approaches that have been effective in reducing alcohol consumption and in many cases, alcohol-related harms such as assault (NDRI 2007). However, strategies such as pricing and taxation measures fall outside the role of local government. Further, while there is considerable evidence of a relationship between outlet density and alcohol-related problems (eg Chikritzhs, Catalano & Pascal 2007, and local government play an important role in development applications and planning of entertainment precincts, strategies that aim to reduce violence through more effective planning have not been subjected to evaluation (which is not surprising, given that many entertainment precincts are already well established).

A number of interventions delivered by community-based organisations have been found by previous systematic reviews to show some promise as crime prevention strategies that may impact upon violence. For example, there is some evidence that afterschool recreation programs can be effective in reducing crime among juvenile offenders, although the impact of these programs is limited in duration and to a defined area (Welsh & Hoshi 2006). There is also evidence that community-based mentoring is a promising (and potentially cost effective) approach to reducing offending and targeting risk factors such as drug use and poor academic performance (Newburn & Souhami 2005; Welsh & Hoshi 2006). As is evident below, the findings from this review with respect to the impact of these particular interventions on violence is more circumspect.

This is, in part, due to the fact that the evidence from these studies often does not measure violence as a key outcome (or have the prevention of violence as a primary objective), instead relying on more general outcomes such as arrests, or measures of delinquency or antisocial behaviour. While some systematic reviews have included studies that measure the impact of interventions on risk and protective factors for violence (WHO 2010), the AIC was reluctant to draw upon research findings where the impact on violence was not directly or indirectly measured. By limiting evaluations to those where there is a short-term measurable impact on violence (or not), the study may inadvertently exclude strategies that deliver longer term improvements by addressing risk and protective factors that may, in time, lead to a reduction in crime.

Interventions supported by evidence of effectiveness

Strategies targeting violent crime that were evaluated frequently involved multiple interventions being delivered in combination. As such it was not always possible, at least from the information provided, to determine which of the interventions delivered was the primary intervention. Even more problematic was attempting to determine which of the interventions was responsible for the observed outcomes, or the relative contribution of the different interventions to the overall impact of the strategy.

Nevertheless, there were a number of interventions that were identified as being supported by evidence of effectiveness. For multicomponent strategies, the research team grouped strategies in accordance with the problems they sought to address and context in which they were delivered. This included:

Other strategies supported by evidence of effectiveness in the prevention of non-domestic violence related assault included:

access control measures targeted at reducing violence by minimising conflict between groups in known high-risk locations (2 studies reviewed, both showing evidence of effectiveness, one of which also involved the application of CPTED principles);

Interventions with limited evidence of effectiveness

In general, strategies that appeared to be ineffective were those that encountered issues relating to the implementation of the strategy. These strategies encountered issues such as:

a lack of community support or involvement over the life of the project, often because the project did not engage the community in the project in its initial stages or devolve responsibility for the running of the program to the community.

aspects of the project being delivered inconsistently or not at all, often because there was a lack of funding to implement the interventions as planned, difficulties in engaging the target group or because there was external pressure to implement the project as soon as possible.

These issues were also common, albeit to a lesser extent, among those projects that were found to have some evidence of effectiveness. Among those interventions for which evaluations could be located, two intervention types were not supported by evidence of effectiveness. These were:

interventions that aimed to improve surveillance from members of the community, either as part of a formal community patrol or as part of their day to day activity (ie natural surveillance); and

interventions that restrict access to certain products or aim to limit the ability of potential offenders to access weapons or tools that increase their ability or risk of offending (2 studies, one involved a firearm buyback and the other replaced glassware in bars with tempered glass).

The evidence around mentoring was mixed. Among the seven studies reviewed that involved mentoring for young people at risk of becoming a violent offender (often in conjunction with the provision of support services), only two found that mentoring had a positive impact on the level of violence among the target population. This is consistent with the findings from a review undertaken by Joliffe and Farrington (2008) who concluded that, while a promising intervention, there was little conclusive evidence that mentoring reduced reoffending.

There was also a notable lack of evidence surrounding the impact of a number of common strategies frequently included in crime prevention plans or implemented by local government to reduce violence, such as:

community-based afterschool programs or school holiday recreation projects; and

The challenges associated with finding evaluations of community-based afterschool projects warrants further explanation. A large-scale evaluation of 15 afterschool programs offering academic assistance, social skills training and recreational or enrichment activities (predominantly sports and arts and crafts) examined the impact of these programs on delinquent behaviour, finding positive results (Gottfredson et al. 2004). This review did not focus on specific outcome measures for violence. The majority of research into the relationship between afterschool programs, recreation and violence involved studies that correlated the availability of or participation rates in recreational programs with trends in violence rates for a given area or group of individuals, for which the evidence was mixed (Gottfredson et al. 2004; Mahoney, Stattin & Magnusson 2001; Mahoney, Stattin & Lord 2004). The absence of studies relating to these types of interventions may therefore reflect the fact that these projects target young people and their involvement in criminal and antisocial behaviours generally. These studies rely on broad outcome measures that do not distinguish between involvement in personal and property crime (ie do not identify the impact on assault as a specific outcome) and were therefore excluded from this review.

Eight studies showed a decline in the number or rate of assaults within the target area following implementation of the planned intervention. One study showed no effect and for another project, the effect was uncertain

Evidence from a number of high-quality international studies that community-driven strategies are effective in reducing violence

Evidence from Australian studies more circumspect with regards to positive outcomes

Appears that initial reductions in violence may not be sustained over time

One study showed some evidence of displacement to adjacent areas

Entertainment precincts with high rates of alcohol-related violence and other harms during peak periods for alcohol consumption

Encourages premise operators to consider the implications of their management practices and discourages premise management and operational practices that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Prevents potentially aggressive patrons from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence (in this case, alcohol)

Prevents potentially aggressive patrons from being able to access locations where there are potential victims or where provocation may occur

Introduces or improves formal or informal surveillance of licensed premises to increase the perceived risk among licensees that breaches of the liquor act will be detected and prosecuted

Manipulates the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

Must be supported by strong enforcement of liquor licensing legislation by police and licensing authorities

Combination of strategies to address multiple contributing factors to violence appears to have a cumulative effect in terms of reducing alcohol-related assaults

Thorough analysis of the local problem to determine the precise factors that contribute to the high rate of alcohol-related violence and tailor the combination of interventions accordingly

Instigated by the local community (as in local police, licensees, local government and in some cases community representatives) and maintained a strong focus on community involvement throughout the life of the strategy

High degree of commitment and support for the project among licensees

Mobilising community support for the project through promoting the project to the wider community

Comprehensive responses to gang-related violence

(Some combination of)

Awareness campaign—community members and media delivered strong anti-violence message and information about the program

Support services—gang members offered access to job training and development opportunities, substance abuse treatment; connecting at-risk youths with services like social welfare

Community patrol—social service workers, community representatives and probation and parole officers actively patrolled the community, providing an outreach service and assistance to gang members

Community engagement and mobilisation—proactively sough community input, rallies, marches and prayer vigils to promote message, rapid response to incidents, faith-based leaders promote message and provide counselling and support

Not applicable

Five studies were reviewed that involved comprehensive strategies to address gang-related violence. All of these strategies were implemented in metropolitan communities in the United States with high levels of gang-related activity

Three strategies demonstrate a positive impact on gang-related violence

In one strategy, there was an increase in gang crime. However, this increase was lower than the comparison area (uncertain effect)

In the remaining strategy, there was evidence of an increase in homicides and assaults (no control group). There was also evidence of displacement to surrounding areas (undesirable effect)

Residential neighbourhoods where there are high rates of gang-related violence and high degree of community opposition to violence

Prevents offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence

Increase an offender’s perceived risk of crime, the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of crime to discourage them from committing an offence

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk among gang members that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations where their risk of offending might be increased

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders

Effective strategies were all based on the same model (Operation Ceasefire)

Strategies that aimed to intervene to prevent violence appear to be more effective as short-term responses than those that attempt to prevent gang membership

Effective strategies were informed by operational intelligence that identified high-risk areas and factors contributing to violence between gangs

Appears to be most effective when combines support services for gang members along with enforcement. However, strong enforcement crucial to success of project

Strategies that actively engage the community representatives (especially respected members of the community) in program development and implementation of patrol, awareness raising and support strategies more likely to be effective

Outreach component actively targeting gang members in communities and providing direct support and assistance important

Access control (specifically, street closures)

Barricades placed in high crime thoroughfares to prevent access to residential neighbourhoods

CPTED—changed access points to streets to make outsiders more noticeable (one strategy)

Two strategies were reviewed and both demonstrated a significant reduction in violence (one evaluation included a control group, the other did not)

One study showed some evidence of displacement

Situations in which there is a high degree of conflict between users in a well-defined space

In one strategy, barricades were installed as part of a larger response to gang violence

Makes target enclosures harder to penetrate to increase the perceived effort associated with a crime

Prevents potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential victims or where provocation may occur

Manipulating the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

In both projects, identifying which streets should be closed was informed by a thorough and detailed analysis of crime patterns

In one project, street closures were implemented as part of a strategy to redevelop the neighbourhood

Barriers need to be installed at the end of streets that act as thoroughfares

Creating defensible space may be contingent on their being a cohesive community to begin with; the same intervention may not be as effective In fragmented communities

Street lighting

Involves the placement or improvement of lighting to increase visibility in public spaces and thoroughfares

Also included as part of community-based strategies to reduce alcohol-related violence (2 studies)

Seven studies were reviewed that involved improved street lighting as the sole intervention

Evidence of a significant decline in violent crime from four studies; two in housing estates, one in commercial/residential areas and one in a city centre

Evidence of a decline in one high-quality study where street lighting was the sole intervention and there was a comparison group

Remaining three studies showed no effect of street lighting on crime; all three were implemented in residential neighbourhoods

Specific circumstances in which street lighting is most effective is unclear

Some evidence that it works more effectively in stable homogeneous communities

Appears to work most effectively in residential areas with high-density housing

Improving lighting in poorly lit areas serves to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and can minimise conflict between potential victims and offenders

Lighting can increase an offender’s perceived risk of detection and discourage them from committing an offence

Improved lighting in thoroughfares that are poorly lit and are potential targets for offenders

Improved lighting may act as a catalyst for further changes in the community, leading to an increase in community pride and additional changes to the physical environment

The relationship between improved lighting and non-domestic violence related assault not clearly established

Mentoring

Involves a more experienced person taking on a role advising a less experienced person

Characterised by contact between individuals that have had contact with the criminal justice system, or are at risk of becoming involved in offending or antisocial behaviour, with positive role models

These role models are usually older and more experienced, and provide support, guidance and encouragement to the less experienced young person

Generally involves long-term contact between mentor and young person

Mentoring is frequently delivered alongside support services that aim to provide some type of customised support for individuals (typically on an individual basis but also in small groups)

This often involves individual case management or an assessment of an individual’s needs, with a view to improving access to essential services (such as counselling, emergency accommodation etc) by way of referrals

Evidence of effectiveness of mentoring projects in reducing aggression and violence mixed.

Seven studies were reviewed that involved some form of mentoring

Two mentoring projects showed a positive impact on violent behaviour among young people

Two projects appeared to have no effect on violent offending, for two projects the effects were uncertain and one project had no impact on violence and adverse long-term outcomes in terms of future involvement in crime

Appears to work most effectively when targeted at younger individuals identified as being at risk of becoming involved in violence, based on early signs of aggression or delinquent behaviour

The support, guidance and counselling often delivered as part of a mentoring project builds a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with conflict resolution, life, social and anger management skills to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

By matching at-risk young people with a suitable role model, mentoring can also help to alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders

Mentoring can intervene at key developmental stages (such as the transition to high school) to alleviate risk factors (eg negative peer influence) and enhance protective factors (eg pro-social support networks)

Taking account of young people’s views in the design of the program

Ensure mentors need to be able to refer young people to appropriate support services as required; as such, may be more effective if mentoring incorporated into wider range of services

Projects involving more frequent contact more likely to be effective

Services offered to participants by mentors (or as part of program) need to be targeted to the needs of individuals

Coordination of services to mentored youth, particularly over time as they age

High-quality mentors who exhibit relevant skills and attributes

(For Indigenous mentoring projects)

Strong links with Indigenous communities and services

Based on an understanding of the historical, cultural and social background factors that influence young Indigenous peoples’ lives

Adequate consultation with and promotion in Indigenous communities

Sensitivity to cultural requirements in matching Indigenous mentors and young people

In one of the strategies, parents received three home visits with health educator to discuss family needs and facilitate service use and parental monitoring

In both strategies, the control group received community resources to facilitate contact with services

Not applicable

Two studies were reviewed that involved brief interventions delivered to youths identified in emergency departments

Both utilised a high-quality research design and found that participation in a brief intervention had a positive impact in terms of aggression and peer violence

Effective when targeted at youths who have recently suffered an injury and are attending an emergency department

Brief interventions can help to build a young person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the problem solving and conflict resolution skills, developed through role play, to avoid situations in which their risk of offending or victimisation might be increased

Importance of being able to deliver the intervention in full where there are multiple sessions

Unclear whether identifying recently injured youths through emergency department is a key to success, or whether the program could be delivered to youths identified in other settings

a: Limited to those interventions for which there was more than one evaluated strategy

b: Based on those mechanisms that were identified for effective strategies

Suitability for implementation by local government

While there are some questions regarding the relevance of gang-related violence prevention in the NSW context, the interventions that were reviewed as part of this research project are suitable for implementation by local government, either as the lead agency or in partnership with police, private businesses and community-based organisations. Local government were an important stakeholder involved in a number of the strategies targeting alcohol-related violence among the Australian studies reviewed as part of this project. Similarly, the NSW CPD has been responsible for leading large scale multicomponent strategies involving a number of different stakeholders targeting alcohol-related violence in a major entertainment precinct.

Nevertheless, there are a number of important considerations for the funding of these projects through a grants program (see Table 6).

Nature of problem—escalating levels of late-night assault and violence occurring in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—patrons and service staff

Target location—Townsville, Cairns and Mackay, Queensland

Community engagement and mobilisation—community represented on the working group and program developers held a community forum to provide community with an opportunity to provide suggestions and raise concerns

Rules and regulations for business—working group established a code of conduct for licensees

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or that might be used as an excuse

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

(Desirable effect)

Intervention—significant decreases in physical and non-physical aggression and violence, particularly in Cairns (88.3%)

Nature of problem: Escalating rates of violent crime in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries: Mix of urban, suburban and rural sites

Target location: California and South Carolina (US)

Education-type project: Service providers given information about and, training in, responsible service of alcohol standards

Police enforcement: Stricter enforcement of drink-driving offences, and the sale of alcohol to under-age patrons

Awareness campaign: Media campaign to raise community awareness of program and harms of binge drinking

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Research methods and source of data—surveys and interviews, hospital discharge data

Level on SMS—3

Homel et al. (1994)

Surfers Paradise Safety Action Project

Target crime—alcohol-related assault and disorder

Nature of problem—escalating rates of violent crime in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—patrons and service staff

Target location—Surfers Paradise, Queensland

Community engagement and mobilisation—community represented on the working group and program developers held a community forum to provide community with an opportunity to provide suggestions and raise concerns

Rules and regulations for business—working group established a code of conduct for licensees

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or that might be used as an excuse

(Desirable effect)

Intervention—decrease in incidents of physical and non-physical violence occurring in licensed establishments, most notable after Code of Practice was introduced into the majority of venues. Increase in street offences eg rude language

Negative displacement of offending behaviour

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after

Research methods and source of data—observations, police records and surveys

Level on SMS—2

Maguire and Nettleton (2003)

Tackling Alcohol-related Street Crime (TASC) Project

Target crime—assault and disorder

Nature of problem—escalating levels of late-night assault and violence occurring in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—licensed establishments and fast-food joints

Target location—Cardiff city centre and Cardiff Bay, Wales

Education type project—training to all licensed establishment staff, developed an education program about the dangers of irresponsible drinking behaviours for school age children

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture.

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or which might be used as an excuse

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Manipulate the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

(Desirable effect)

Intervention—39.85 percent decrease in assaults committed within Ballarat CBD—down from 133 in 2002–03 to 80 in 2003–04. A 47.54 percent decrease in assaults committed in licensed premises, reduction of 33.33 percent in public places

No evidence of displacement of crime to surrounding suburbs

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after

Research methods and source of data—project administrative data, police records and interviews

Nature of problem—escalating rates of violent crime in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—patrons and service staff

Target location—Geelong, Vic

Education-type project—service providers given information about and training in safe alcohol service standards

Police enforcement—stricter enforcement of liquor licensing laws and the sale of alcohol to underage patrons

Access control—stopped patrons from accessing bars/pubs after certain times

Rules and regulations for business—established a code of practice for licensees, endorsed by key project stakeholders, with particular focus on refusing service to intoxicated patron, underage drinking, drink promotions and pub-hopping

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or which might be used as an excuse

Rules and regulations for business—established a code of practice for licensees, endorsed by key project stakeholders, with particular focus on refusing service to intoxicated patron, underage drinking and drink promotions

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or that might be used as an excuse

(Null effect)

Intervention v comparison—no significant reductions among any of the harm indicators when compared with control area. Assaults appeared to increase over time, most likely due to increased police presence

Intervention—no measurable improvements in responsible service practices by bar staff

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—police records, interviews, surveys, observational and pseudo-patron data

Nature of problem—escalating rates of violent crime in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—offenders 15– 29 years

Target location—two low-income, ethnic minority neighbourhoods. High crime rates and alcohol-related problems. North and South Sacramento, United States

Police enforcement—stricter enforcement of existing alcohol laws

Education-type project—service providers given information about and training in safe alcohol service standards

Community engagement and mobilisation—community support for the scheme facilitated through consultations and an extensive media campaign

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or that might be used as an excuse

(Desirable effect)

Intervention v comparison—statistically significant reductions in assaults recorded by police and emergency medical service

Intervention—sale of alcohol to minors increased significantly in the second site (61%)

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—police and emergency medical service records, surveys

Nature of problem—escalating rates of violent crime in and around licensed establishments

Target group or beneficiaries—patrons and service staff

Target location—Stockholm CBD

Education-type project—gave service providers information about and training in safe alcohol service standards

Police enforcement—stricter enforcement of existing alcohol laws

Community engagement and mobilisation—established a committee to raise community awareness of the scheme and increase knowledge concerning alcohol-related harms

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence or that might be used as an excuse

Nature of problem—crime statistics for the Sydney CBD were significantly higher when compared with other areas in Sydney and New South Wales. Correspondingly, fear of victimisation among resident populations is high

Target location—Central city area of Sydney, New South Wales

Community patrol—presence of security guards at taxi ranks

CCTV—cameras installed in crime hotspots and monitored by trained staff

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Manipulate the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur.

(Uncertain effect)

Intervention—in the 12 month post-intervention period:

robbery with a weapon decreased by 31 percent

non-residential serious assault increased by seven percent

non-residential common assault increased by 12 percent

robbery without a weapon increased by five percent

Adjacent—non-residential serious assault increased by 81 percent, non-residential common assault by six percent, robbery without a weapon by 64 percent

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before-after

Research methods and source of data—resident surveys and interviews, police records

Level on SMS—2

Braga et al. (2001)

Boston Gun Project’s Operation Ceasefire

Target crime—gang-related homicide and assaults involving guns

Nature of problem—escalating rates of youth homicide, usually committed by gang members,

Target group or beneficiaries—gangs and gang members.

Target location—Boston, United States

Awareness campaign—community members and media delivered strong anti-violence message and information about the program

Awareness campaign—community members and media delivered strong anti-violence message and information about the program

Community engagement and mobilisation—proactively sought community input through rallies, marches and prayer vigils to promote message of the scheme. Faith-based leaders promoted the scheme provided counselling and support

Police enforcement: Stricter enforcement of existing laws

Increase an offender’s perceived risk of crime, the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of crime to discourage them from committing an offence

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders or that might be used as an excuse for offending

(Desirable effect)

Intervention v comparison—analysis of seven intervention sites (of 25 in operation) and comparison areas showed significant declines in actual and attempted shootings in three areas due to the program; a decline in gun-related homicide in three sites (of which one was found to be due to the program); a decline in shooting density in six sites (3 due to program)

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control (control variables and major cities across United States)

Research methods and source of data—interviews, surveys observations and police records

Target location—neighbourhood characterised by very high homicide rates, intense gang violence and predominantly Puerto Rican population. Community politically and culturally fragmented due to socio-demographic shifts

Encourage individuals (potential targets or individuals who facilitate access to targets) to consider the implications of their actions and discourage behaviour that may create opportunities for crime to occur and/or encourage behaviour that minimises opportunities for crime to occur

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Increase an offender’s perceived risk of crime, the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of crime to discourage them from committing an offence

(Undesirable effect)

Intervention—monthly homicide rates increased in one site, decreased in two. Average number of assaults increased in all three sites

Adjacent—negative displacement effect. Increase in gun assaults in the Southside and Hill District spill over areas, an increase in aggravated assaults in Southside and a decrease in aggravated assault in Hill District

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, some control

Research methods and source of data—police and administrative records, observations and interviews

Nature of problem—neighbourhoods identified as hotspots for gang-related crime

Target group or beneficiaries—gangs and gang members

Target location—Los Angeles, United States

Access control—barricades placed in high-crime thoroughfares

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

(Desirable effect)

Intervention—decrease in homicide and assaults. Annual homicide rate dropped from seven victims to one during the 24 month post-intervention period. Assault fell from 190 to 138. Robbery remained constant

Comparison—constant homicide and assault rates

Adjacent—no evidence of displacement

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—police records

Level on SMS—3

Stone and Stevens (1999)

Target crime—assault (including robbery using force) and homicide

Nature of problem—high rates of assaults against taxi-drivers in United States

Target location—citywide Baltimore, United States

Access control—installation of plastic partitions between the taxi driver and passengers

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

Manipulate the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

Increase an offender’s perceived risk of crime, the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of crime to discourage them from committing an offence

(Null effect)

Intervention v comparison—no significant different between crime rates (over 29 month post-intervention period) in the intervention and control areas

No evidence of displacement or diffusion of benefits

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—police records

Level on SMS—3

O’Donnell et al. (1998) Reach for Health Community Youth Service

Target crime—assault, threatened assault and possession of a weapon

Nature of problem—increasing rates of violence among students, especially within African-American and Hispanic populations

Target group or beneficiaries–at-risk youths

Target location—large, public and urban middle school. Serves an economically disadvantaged community. School noted for large minority population, high health risk factors and low academic achievement. NYC, United States

Education-type project—curriculum teaches students to deal with risky situations in constructive and peaceful ways

Diversionary activities—community services provides at-risk students with opportunities to develop community bonds

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders or that might be used as an excuse for offending

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations where there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

(Desirable effect)

Intervention—children who participated in the community services program and Reach for Health curriculum were less likely to self-report exhibiting violent behaviours at six month follow up

Risk-reduction curriculum in combination with community service was more effective at changing behaviours than education by itself

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—surveys

Level on SMS—3

Grossman and Tierney (1998)

Big Brothers and Big Sisters

Target crime—crime and antisocial behaviour

Nature of problem—high rates of offending amongst at-risk youths eg those coming from single parent households

Target group or beneficiaries—program aimed at youths—generally 10–16 years

Target location—BBBS is available in most US states

Mentoring—at-risk youths are connected with an unrelated adult. Mentors support clients and teach them to cope with peer pressure, think through the consequences of their actions, to stay in school and help them to become involved in socially acceptable activities

Mentoring—youths returning from JRA facility are connected with a trusted adult who volunteers to meet weekly with the young person in the community and assists setting and fulfilling educational and vocational goals, provides support to prevent drug use and crime

Intervene to address the underlying factors that contributed to an offender’s behaviour in the first place, and support their transition back into the community

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders or that might be used as an excuse for offending

(Null effect)

Intervention v comparison—at 12 month follow up, the mentored group reoffended at a lower rate than comparison group for violent felonies. However the gap converges by 24 and 36 months. Difference was not significant at any point

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation of design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—recidivism data

Level on SMS—3

O’Donnell, Lydgate and Fo (1979)

The Buddy System

Target crime—crime and antisocial behaviour

Target group or beneficiaries–multi-ethnic children, teens and youth (10 to 17 years) with academic or behavioural problems

Target location—United States

Mentoring—promotes interaction between youth and older role models. Provides a mentor from the community to multi-ethnic older children, teens and youth children who have been referred to the program by schools, police, courts, social welfare agencies, or community residents

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

(Undesirable effect)

Intervention v comparison—program did not improve educational outcomes and employment-related outcomes, and did not reduce crime (including violent crime) in late teens or early twenties

Intervention v comparison—long-term follow-up suggested program appeared to have some detrimental effects on crime and involvement with the criminal justice system

Evaluation focus: Outcome

Evaluation design: Randomised experiment, control

Research methods and source of data: Survey, achievement tests and school administrative records

Level on SMS—5

St James-Roberts et al. (2005)

Youth Justice Board Mentoring Schemes 2001–2004

Target crime—crime and antisocial behaviour Nature of problem—hard to reach young people and young people with literacy and numeracy needs, and who had offended or who were at risk of offending

Target location—80 community mentor projects across England and Wales

Mentoring—involves establishing a trusting relationship in which a more experienced person helps and provides a role model for someone who is less experienced. Competency focused, in that they set out to teach basic literacy, numeracy, social, or life skills in the hope that such skills will help the young people to interact better with their social and physical environments and so improve their prospects

Address the underlying factors that contributed to an offender’s behaviour in the first place and support their transition back into the community

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations where their risk of offending might be increased

(Null effect)

Intervention v comparison—some evidence that the program was successful in reintegrating targeted young people into education, training and community

Intervention v comparison—depth study showed that there was a small reduction in self-reported violent offending during the 12 month post-intervention period, but this was consistent across intervention and control group

Intervention v comparison—according to reconviction data, there was a reduction in the rate of offending, consistent across intervention and control group

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—administrative data, interviews with sample of participants and control group and reconviction data

Level on SMS—3

...beyond (2004)

Panyappi

Target crime—crime and antisocial behaviour

Nature of problem—increasing rates of Indigenous young people frequenting the inner city area of Adelaide and becoming involved in offending behaviour

Target group or beneficiaries—aimed at young Indigenous people (10–14 years) who are identified as being at risk of offending and have begun to, or already have, disengaged from education

Mentoring project—connected at-risk youths with an unrelated adult. Mentors support clients and teach them to cope with peer pressure, think through the consequences of their actions, to stay in school and help them to become involved in socially acceptable activities

Support services—mentors would connect clients and their families with support services such as welfare and unemployment

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders or that might be used as an excuse for offending

(Uncertain effect)

Intervention—the likelihood of offending decreased for participants, even for children who had had an extensive offending history. Majority of children (80%) decreased their rate of offending by at least 25 percent

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after

Research methods and source of data—interviews, focus groups, program statistics and administrative data

Level on SMS—2

Hanlon et al. (2002)

Baltimore City Youth Bureaus

Target crime—crime and antisocial behaviour

Nature of problem—previous surveys had found that these communities had high rates of drug use, poverty, financial dependence, teenage pregnancies and health problems

Target group or beneficiaries—inner city, primarily African American, youth at risk for the development and progression of a deviant lifestyle because of drug use, delinquent behaviour or expulsion from school

Target location—Baltimore, United States

Support services—individual counselling by clinic personnel involving individual case management and improving access to essential services by way of referrals

Mentoring—structured group approach involving representative role models from the community (college students) delivering both individual help and structured activities/presentations in areas such as social and life skills, cultural heritage, enhancement of self-esteem and conflict resolution. Also sponsored holiday celebration activities and field trips

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations where their risk of offending might be increased

Alleviate (or minimise the impact of) stressors (relating to the individual or environment) that may influence the behaviour of potential offenders or that might be used as an excuse for offending

(Desirable effect)

Intervention v comparison—participants receiving therapist-based intervention less likely to experience peer violence three months after their emergency department visit. Alcohol consequences also less common among therapist and computer brief intervention groups at six months follow up

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—self-administered questionnaire by participants and control group

Level on SMS—5

Cheng et al. (2008)

Target crime—aggression, fighting and injury

Nature of problem—high rates of homicide and violence, emergency department setting identified as an important point of contact with young people to intervene to reduce violence

Target group or beneficiaries—adolescents (aged 10–15 years) seeking care in emergency department for peer-related assaults and their family

Target location—Washington, United States

Personal development—experienced mentors implemented a six session problem solving curriculum with youth (including conflict management, role playing and goal setting) in their home and community. Parents received three home visits with health educator to discuss family needs and facilitate service use and parental monitoring. Control group received community resources and two follow-up calls to facilitate service

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Build a person’s resilience to offending by providing them with the resources, skills, knowledge and ability to avoid situations in which their risk of offending might be increased

Prevent potential offenders from being able to access locations in which there are potential targets (property or people) or where provocation may occur

(Uncertain effect)

Intervention—initial decrease in offences against the person (47 to 31 offences). Two years after its introduction (1996) offending rates increased almost to pre-intervention levels (42). However, offending rates had dropped again by the end of 1996 (33)

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after

Research methods and source of data—administrative data and police records

Police enforcement—less obtrusive policing tactics and working with the bikie community

Introduce or improve formal or informal surveillance to increase the perceived risk that committing an offence will result in identification or capture

Manipulate the physical environment (built or landscape) to improve surveillance, define ownership of spaces and minimise conflict between users

Increase an offender’s perceived risk of crime, the perceived effort of crime or reduce the anticipated rewards of crime to discourage them from committing an offence.

(Uncertain effect)

Intervention—fewer arrests made at Phillip Island when compared with previous Grand Prix site in Sydney. Thirty-six spectators arrested from a crowd of almost 241,000

Evaluation focus—process and outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, some control

Research methods and source of data—administrative data, attendee surveys and police records.

Level on SMS—2

Callahan, Rivara and Koepsell (1996). Seattle Gun Buy-Back Program

Target crime—gun-related assaults, robberies and homicides

Nature of problem—ready availability of guns and escalating levels of gun-related violence in United States

Target location—Seattle

Weapon restrictions/control—community organisations bought guns back from the community in exchange for money

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence

(Null effect)

Intervention—during the six month post-intervention period there were no significant changes in gun-related homicides, assaults and robberies. However, firearm related admissions to hospital decreased, but not significantly

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after

Research methods and source of data—administrative data, surveys and interviews

Level on SMS—2

Warburton and Shepherd (2000)

Target crime—alcohol-related assault

Nature of problem—bar glassware is responsible for about 10 percent of assault injuries that present to UK emergency units and usually lead to permanent disfiguring scars

Target location—series of bars and pubs in South Wales, West Midlands and West of England

Weapon restrictions/control—introduced toughened bar glasses, which are six times more impact resistant than regular glasses. When they break usually disintegrate into ‘lumps’, which are less likely to cause lacerations

Prevent offenders from being able to access the resources they need in order to commit an offence

(Null effect)

No statistical difference between groups in terms of number or severity of injuries inflicted on staff by bar glasses

Intervention—during six month post-intervention period, injuries as a result of spontaneous shattering of glasses increased

Evaluation focus—outcome

Evaluation design—before–after, control

Research methods and source of data—staff surveys and interviews, and pub records