If there are numbers in the research paper, the research is quantitative

Degree to which findings of quantitative research can be applied to other individuals is referred to as generalizability.

Qualitative

Approach to structuring knowledge that emphasize verbal descriptions and the meaning of the experience for the individual

More holistic in nature

National Institute of Nursing Research

Defines priorities of nursing research

Promotes research by supporting grants and conducting research

Priorities: NINR Strategic Plan released in 2006 – there are four current areas of research emphasis at NINR

Promoting Health and Preventing Disease

Improving Quality of Life

Eliminating Health Disparities

Setting Directions for End-of-Life Research

National Institute of Nursing Research Mission

Promote and improve the health of communities, families, populations, and individuals.

Enhance science and healthcare by integrating the biological and behavioral sciences, applying new technologies, promoting health equity, and developing scientists of the future.

Purpose of IRB (international review boards)

Review groups responsible for ensuring that researchers do not engage in unethical research or poorly designed studiesall research goes in front of the boards

Review research proposals

Must ensure human rights are not being violated

International Review Board members

lawyers, lay persons, clergy, nurses, etc…

Basic Research

Pure research. Used to obtain empirical data which can be used to develop, refine, or test a theory.

Applied Research

Used to gain knowledge that can be used in a practical setting.

Experiemental Research

Researcher manipulates or controls a variable while observing the effect on other variables.

Control group and experimental group

Non-experimental Research

Descriptive type of research

No manipulation/experimentation

Retrospective Research

Examines data collected in the past

Chart review

Prospective Research

Examines data collected in the present

Taking BP measurements

No data collection from past or future

Cross-Sectional Research

Collects data at one point in time; no follow-up

Longitudinal Research

Collects data at different intervals over time

May lose subjects over time

Nuremberg Code

Developed in 1947 as a result of the Nuremberg trials.

Nazi medical experiments in 1930s and 40s – subjects could not refuse participation – used POWs and racial “enemies”

Sections of the Nuremberg Code:

Voluntary consent of human subjects

Experiment expected to yield fruitful results

Experiment should avoid necessary physical and mental suffering

Human subject should be able to bring experiment to an end

The degree of risk should not exceed the importance of solving the problem

The experiment should only be conducted by scientifically qualified persons

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Begun by U.S. Public Health Service in 1932

Studied African Americans with Syphilis compared to a control group without Syphilis

Men were not informed they were part of research study

Treated men with known non-effective drug after discovery of Penicillin as effective treatment

Despite death rate for the men with Syphilis being twice as high as those in the control group, study was continued until 1972

Groups requiring special protection in research

Children

Mentally Handicapped

Prisoners

All vunerable inndividuals

Peer review

reviewers chosen by the editor for their expertise as clinicians, researchers, and/or administrators

More scientifically valid

How to tell if a journal is refereed:

Limit search to refereed journals when using search engine such as EBSCO

Check the editorial statement or instructions to authors (usually in the first few pages of the journal or at the end) for references to the peer-review process

Physical cues: If we are not familiar with a publication or its reputation we can turn to other physical cues such as looking at the masthead or publication information which appears usually just inside the front or back cover. Sometimes it will be clearly stated that a publication is peer reviewed or refereed

Use random selection from population to get sample then randomly assign into groups (control and experimental) from sample

Stratified Random Sampling

Type of sampling in which population divided into subpopulation, or strata, on the basis of one or more variables, and a simple random sample is drawn from each strata

Used when researcher knows some of the variables in the population which are critical to achieve representativeness

Example: If using ethnicity as strata: Researcher knows target population contains 60% Caucasians, 20% African American, 15% Hispanic, 5% other. Will select random sample from each stratum; either equal numbers from each strata, or sample that is equivalent to the target population proportions for each strata.

Cluster Sampling

Groups are randomly selected instead of individuals

Researcher first constructs sampling frame with list of all the groups (cities, states, institution, organizations) with which elements of the identified population can be linked

Randomized sample of these groups (cities, states etc) are then used in the study

Selection of members of these groups may then be made by random or stratified random sampling (multistage sampling) if done in several stages

This is used when researchers want to obtain geographically dispersed groups or researcher is unable to develop a sampling frame

Systematic Sampling

System when individuals of population are selected from a list by taking every kth individual

All members of the population do not have an independent chance of being selected for the sample

Considered type of probability sampling if the population list is randomly ordered

Example: Between 1984 and 1986, 4000 mothers of toddlers who were born full-term and who were delivered vaginally or by cesarean section (sampling frame) were identified. To select 146 mothers from the list of 4,000, every 27th subject was selected

Examples of Probability Sampling

Simple Random

Stratified Random

Cluster

Systematic

Examples of Nonprobablility Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Network Sampling

Quota Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Does not use random selection

Sample subjects are not selected from the larger group of subjects

Researcher collects data from whomever is available and meets the study criteria

Just happened to be in the right place at the right time

Example: A classroom of students; Patients who attend a clinic on a specific day; A sample composed of every 5th patient who enters the emergency room on a given day; Subjects who attend a support group

Snowball Sampling

Also called Network Sampling

Relies on subjects identifying other subjects with similar characteristics

Example: Researcher has found subjects with necessary criteria, he or she asks their assistance in finding other subjects with similar characteristics; Women who have had a pregnancy loss recruit other women that they know who have also had a pregnancy loss for the study

Quota Sampling

The strata of the population are identified based on specific characteristics

The quota for each stratum is determined, and subjects are solicited via convenience sampling

Done to ensure that subject types are included which are likely to be underrepresented in a purely convenience sample

Example: Quota sampling was used to achieve appropriate sample representation by gender, at a ratio of 4 males to 1 female. Gender subgroups were then stratified by prebaseline CD4 cell counts….

Purposive Sampling

Researcher “hand-picks” certain cases to be in the study

Usually with qualitative studies

Chosen subjects are those though to best represent the phenomenon being studied and to be typical of the population

Example: Subjects were clients of an output methadone treatment program for opiate addicts….subjects had either used illegal injection drugs themselves, or were the sexual partners of men who did. Purposive sampling was used to capture the richness of a wide range of perspectives. Subjects were selected on the basis of race or ethnicity, personal history of drug abuse and treatment, and personal experience with AIDS….

What type of sampling method is best if you want to generalize to a larger population

Random Sampling

Rigor

striving for excellence that involves discipline, adherence to detail, and strict accuracy

Triangulation

using various combinations of research designs or instruments in the same study, or use of both quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data about a phenomenon.looking at the issue from different angles

Generalizability

Degree to which findings of quantitative research can be applied to other individuals

What are the steps in the research process?

1. Selecting and defining the problemw

2. Selecting a research design (quantitative or qualitative)

3. Collecting data

4. Analyzing data

5. Using the research findings

Declaration of Helsinki introduced what concept?

Informed Concent

Beneficence

right to freedom from harm and discomfort, right to protection from exploitation, respect for human dignity