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1 SPINOZA S VERSION OF THE PSR: A Critique of Michael Della Rocca s Interpretation of Spinoza by Erich Schaeffer A thesis submitted to the Department of Philosophy In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Queen s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (March, 2014) Copyright Erich Schaeffer, 2014

2 Abstract Michael Della Rocca has provided an influential interpretation of Spinoza relying heavily on the principle of sufficient reason. In order to challenge this interpretation, I identify three assumptions Della Rocca makes about the PSR and demonstrate that it is not clear Spinoza shares them. First, Della Rocca contends that the PSR is unlimited in scope. I show that the scope of Spinoza s version of the PSR is ambiguous. While it is clear that substances and modes are included, it is unclear just how widely the scope extends. Second, Della Rocca argues that the PSR demands there are no illegitimate bifurcations. I argue that Della Rocca s account of illegitimate bifurcations is too strong. I show that Spinoza offers a distinction in explanatory types that should be considered illegitimate and inexplicable according to Della Rocca s definition of illegitimate bifurcations. Third, Della Rocca argues that explanations which satisfy the demands of the PSR must be in terms of the concepts involved. I show that Spinoza does not use conceptual explanations. Instead, in almost all cases, the explanations Spinoza relies on to satisfy the demands of the PSR are in terms of a thing s cause. ii

3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Jon Miller. He provided me with my first exposure to the Ethics and his guidance and helpful feedback throughout the writing process has been invaluable. I also thank my committee members, Prof. Stephen Leighton and Prof. Henry Laycock for taking the time to read this thesis and present their comments and criticisms. Finally, special thanks to my family and friends who have helped me every step of the way. This project would not have been completed without their support. iii

5 Chapter 1 Introduction While many commentators and readers have recognized the importance of the principle of sufficient reason in Spinoza s philosophy 1, few have argued that it is as essential to his thought as Michael Della Rocca. For Della Rocca, the principle of sufficient reason [hereon referred to as the PSR] takes center stage. He systematically examines the Ethics to show how the PSR underlies, and is motivated by, most of Spinoza s philosophical positions. Spinoza s philosophy Della Rocca argues, is characterized by perhaps the boldest and most thoroughgoing commitment ever to appear in the history of philosophy, to the intelligibility of everything. 2 Despite Della Rocca s insistence that Spinoza builds the notion of intelligibility [that is, the PSR] into the heart of his metaphysical system, on the face of it, the PSR plays little role in the actual demonstrations of the Ethics. Spinoza articulates the PSR only two, or arguably three, 3 times, and it is only used explicitly in two arguments, found in the second scholium to proposition eight of part one [1p8s2], and in the second demonstration to proposition eleven of part one [1p11d2]. 4 For a work written in the geometric style, it would be quite odd for Spinoza to be motivated by a commitment to the PSR, yet not explicitly refer to it in 1 For instance, in his influential book, A Study of Spinoza s Ethics, Jonathan Bennett identifies the principle of sufficient reason as one of five aspects of Spinoza s thinking which lie deeper than any of his argued doctrines and [is] so influential in his thought (p. 29). 2 Della Rocca, Spinoza, p As we will see, the two explicit uses are 1p8s2 and 1p11d 2. Along with those two, Della Rocca also argues that 1a2 should be read as a statement of the PSR (Spinoza, p.4-5; A Rationalist Manifesto, p. 80; Rationalism Run Amok, p. 35). 4 To help the reader follow along, I have included complete arguments of 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 in Appendix A. 1

6 a demonstration. It would be odd, but not impossible. The lack of reference to the PSR may raise some doubt about this interpretation, but the lack of explicit use alone does not warrant that we simply put aside such an interpretation of the Ethics. Indeed, Della Rocca s interpretation is far too important and well-argued to be put aside. As well, it is hard to read Della Rocca s work and not be swept into his interpretation and its ability to make sense of some of Spinoza s wonderfully bizarre and challenging positions. It is certainly possible that Spinoza relied implicitly on the PSR throughout the Ethics, and Della Rocca has argued convincingly of this fact. As a result, if we want to challenge Della Rocca, we must engage with the text itself to see whether the Spinoza of the Ethics is the same as Della Rocca s Spinoza. It seems to me that there are at least two different ways that one could challenge Della Rocca s interpretation of Spinoza. One could examine Della Rocca s individual arguments and interpretations to show how his use of the PSR misrepresents a Spinozistic doctrine. For instance, one could examine Della Rocca s argument to show that, for Spinoza, to be is to be intelligible and try to uncover if and where he went wrong. Alternatively, one could put individual arguments aside and attempt to challenge the basic assumptions that Della Rocca makes about Spinoza. In this thesis, I will employ this latter strategy. I would like to argue that the version of the PSR that Della Rocca attributes to Spinoza does not necessarily reflect Spinoza s own use of the PSR. As we will see, the two arguments in the Ethics that invoke the PSR do not clearly accord with Della Rocca s important assumptions about Spinoza s version of the PSR. 2

7 1.1 Versions of the PSR My claim is that Spinoza s version of the PSR may not reflect Della Rocca s Spinoza. But what is a version of the PSR? To understand what I mean, let us begin with a definition. We can define the PSR as the principle that everything has an explanation. By treating explains as a two-place predicate that holds between an explanandum and an explanans, we can symbolize this initial definition of the PSR. E(x,y): x is an explanation for y E, Everything has something which explains it I think this definition is in need of much clarification and can amount to very different positions. In order to clarify and distinguish between possible interpretations of this initial definition, we must provide an account for each of the variables in the expression. x: the things in need of explanation What is the scope of everything? While our definition specifies that all x s have an explanation, we do not know what the scope of x is; we do not know what items are in the set of things in need of an explanation. Can we assume that absolutely everything has an explanation? Every existing or non-existing thing, phenomenon or feature; every possible or conceivable proposition, state of affairs, fact, event, etc.? Or, should we assume that only a certain subset of these items require an explanation? Perhaps only contingent propositions require explanations, as Alexander Pruss has argued 5 ; or perhaps any item can come under the scope of the 5 Pruss describes that his version of the PSR holds that, [n]ecessarily, every true or at least every contingent true proposition has an explanation (3). He reasons that [w]e simply do not have a good handle on the nature of explanations of necessary propositions and so cannot include them into the scope of the PSR. See Alexander Pruss The Principle of Sufficient Reason: A Reassessment, especially pages

8 PSR as Della Rocca argues. 6 Let us imagine a universe populated by four propositions, two necessary and two contingent. In this universe, there exists explanations for only the contingent propositions. For Pruss, this universe satisfies the PSR, whereas for Della Rocca, this universe violates the PSR. The scope of the variable x must be defined, and until defined, the PSR can have distinct meanings and truth values. The nature of the predicate E What is the nature of the relation explains? We know that the variables in E are related to each other such that the former explains the latter, but we must present an account of the character of this relation. What kinds of explanations are acceptable? Are explanations nomological, mathematical, conceptual, intentional, causal, grounding, etc.? Does y explain x because y is the metaphysical ground of x, or is y explanatory because it is the cause of x, etc. Further, we could ask what kind of cause is y. Is y the final cause of x, or is y the efficient cause of x? Do different phenomena call for different explanations or, to satisfy the demands of the PSR, must everything have one kind of explanation? For instance, if human actions are included into the scope of the PSR, one might argue that the appropriate kind of explanation will be intentional: y explains an action x because y was a person s intention or desire for x. In contrast, we will likely not want to attribute such 6 See Della Rocca s PSR. In this paper, Della Rocca defends the PSR on his own terms. In his defence, he formulates the PSR as the forlorn principle according to which, for each thing (object, state of affairs, or whatever) that exists, or obtain, there is an explanation of its existence, there is a reason that it exists. Even though Della Rocca s views on the PSR seem to mirror his views on Spinoza s PSR, it is important to keep Della Rocca s views on the PSR distinct from the versions he attributes to Spinoza. For the remainder of this thesis, I will not be considering Della Rocca s independent views on the PSR, but will be focusing only on the version of the PSR he attributes to Spinoza. 4

9 intentions or desires to explain the movement of rocks. Here too we find that the account of explanations offered will change the meaning of the PSR. y: the explanatory items What can feature as an explaining item? This too is in need of some clarification. Do the explaining things have the same ontological status as the explained thing? For instance, if we are explaining a finite object, will the explanation of that finite object itself be a finite object, or can we explain it by an infinite thing? Can y be identical to x, that is, can something be self-explanatory, or must explanations refer to something distinct from the thing being explained? Moreover, does the explaining item refer to a single entity, or can it refer to a collection of things? For instance, if we are talking about nomological explanations, then y will not refer to a single thing, but to two different things: existing conditions and laws of nature. 1.2 Michael Della Rocca s Spinoza The upshot of all this analysis is that the PSR can amount to very different positions depending on how one defines and restricts the variables. While we may speak of the PSR, in fact, there are many different possible versions of the PSR. This is important to keep in mind when interpreting Spinoza. If there are various ways of interpreting the PSR, we cannot presume that Spinoza adopts a specific version of it, and we must be careful not to attribute to Spinoza a version that he does not uphold. Now, Della Rocca makes three key assumptions about Spinoza s version of the PSR. First, the PSR is unlimited in scope; second, the PSR demands that we reject illegitimate bifurcations in nature; and third, the PSR demands that explanations are in terms of explicability itself. 5

10 First, the PSR is unlimited in scope. Della Rocca s Spinoza requires that any feature in his metaphysical system must have an explanation. Features such as causation, representation, inherence, consciousness, power, and all others must be explicable. As Della Rocca explains in the case of causation: What is it for one thing to cause another? What is it in virtue of which a causal relation obtains? It is natural to think that there must be some informative account to be had here. Yes, there are obviously cases of causation, but it is not enough just to point and say that that s a causal relation. We want to know what such cases have in common and what it is for a causal relation to be present. What is it for one even to make another occur? To put it vividly, what does the oomph of causation consist in? 7 For Della Rocca s Spinoza, no feature, thing, or phenomenon is off limits from the PSR. Anything that lacks an explanation would be a brute, that is, inexplicable, fact, and for Spinoza, brute facts are anathema. Second, the PSR requires the rejection of inexplicable bifurcations in nature. Della Rocca ties Spinoza s demand for explicability with his naturalism. Della Rocca defines Spinozistic naturalism as the thesis that everything in the world plays by the same rules; there are no things that are somehow connected with each other but that are not governed by the same principles. 8 Spinoza s naturalism emerges most clearly in the preface to part three of the Ethics. There, Spinoza argues that it is a mistake to conceive man in nature as a dominion within a dominion and to believe that man disturbs, rather than follows, the order of nature. Instead, Spinoza argues that 7 Della Rocca, A Rationalist Manifesto, p Della Rocca, Spinoza, p. 5. 6

11 Nothing happens in nature which can be attributed to any defect in it, for nature is always the same, and its virtues and powers of acting are everywhere one and the same, i.e., the laws and rules of nature, according to which all things happen, and change from one form to another, are always and everywhere the same. So the way of understanding the nature of anything, of whatever kind, must also be the same, viz. through the universal laws and rules of nature. (3Pref) Spinoza here is talking specifically about the Affects, and men s way of living. Affect is Spinoza s favoured term for the emotions, and is tightly bound to human action. 9 Spinoza s critique in the preface is directed towards philosophers (specifically Descartes) who treat the human way of living and acting as distinct from all other things in nature. Della Rocca extends Spinoza s critique in the preface beyond human interactions with nature to any phenomena which are related but operate according to different principles. He claims that the preface amounts to the view that there are no illegitimate bifurcations in reality. 10 He explains that, In general, for Spinoza, whenever there is a dominion within a dominion, that is, whenever there are two kinds of things that operate according to different principles and are related to each other in some way, then the ways in which these things are related to each other are disturbances and ultimately, inexplicable, that is they would violate the PSR. In this way, we can see that Spinoza s naturalism as driven by his rationalist denial of brute facts. 11 As we can see, Della Rocca links Spinoza s naturalism to his PSR. If two related things play by different rules, there must be an explanation for their relation, but 9 The affects are understood explicitly in terms of the possibility of a body or mind acting. 3d3: By affect I understand affections of the Body by which the Body s power of acting is increased or diminished, aided or restrained, and at the same time, the ideas of those affections. 10 Ibid. p Ibid. p. 7. 7

12 Della Rocca contends no such explanation is possible. Let us say we have two related items a and b. If both a and b are ultimately explicable in terms of some more general laws, there would be no problem present. In that case, neither a nor b is being treated as a dominion within a dominion. However, if a does not operate according to the same rules as b, then there is no way to account for the relation between the two. Both a and b would be operating according to brute local laws which are not derivable from the general laws at work. As a result, the PSR demands that we reject these bifurcations. Della Rocca invokes the PSR to show that any bifurcation between related items must be, and is rejected by Spinoza. For example, Della Rocca invokes the PSR to show that, for Spinoza, there cannot be a legitimate distinction between representational and non-representational mental features. If there were a distinction between these two features, then Della Rocca s Spinoza would ask, in virtue of what are these features both specifically mental features? 12 Here we have two related phenomena two kinds of mental features and each seems to operate according to different principles insofar as one is able to enter into the space of reasons, whereas the other is not. On Della Rocca s reading, Spinoza s naturalism and his commitment to the PSR demand that there must be some reason in virtue of which both representational and non-representational mental features are mental features. The distinction cannot be a brute fact. Della Rocca contends that there is no such reason. He writes: If we grant, because of the PSR, that there must be such an explanation, what would it be. It s hard to see what kind of answer would be legitimate on Spinozistic terms. 12 Della Rocca, Rationalism Run Amok, p

13 One might say that these features are both mental because each is such that one can be conscious of it But this doesn t get us very far because we can now ask in virtue of what are representational features and qualitative features both accessible to consciousness? So this explanation really amounts, in Spinoza s eye s, to no explanation at all. 13 Without an explanation, Della Rocca collapses the distinction between representational and non-representational mental features. Specifically, he argues that, for Spinoza, mental features can only be representational; to allow mental features to be non-representational would countenance brute facts. I am glossing over much important detail here. What is relevant for our purposes is to see that Della Rocca thinks Spinoza rejects inexplicable bifurcations in all cases. Rather than allowing inexplicable bifurcations in nature, the PSR leads to a drive for unification. 14 Della Rocca argues that Spinoza collapses distinctions between the existence of modes and substances, inherence, causation and conception, mental features, necessary and possible truths, and others, in part, based on his naturalism. Finally, the PSR demands that explanations be in terms of explicability itself. Della Rocca attributes to Spinoza a twofold use of the PSR. Della Rocca argues that the demand for explicability circles back onto itself: first, one demands that each thing have an explanation, and, second, one sees that this thing is just a form of explicability or conceivability itself. Spinoza, Della Rocca argues, singlemindedly digs and digs until we find that the phenomenon in question is nothing but some form of intelligibility itself, of explicability 15 itself Ibid., p Della Rocca, Spinoza, p Della Rocca uses the words explicability, intelligibility and conceivability interchangeably throughout his works, indicating that he thinks these terms are synonymous. 9

14 After accepting the demand that a feature like causation must have an explanation, Della Rocca invokes the demand for explicability again to argue that the only acceptable explanation of causal connections must be in terms of explicability. He writes, What, then, must the connection be, if it is not brute? I think that for one who insists on an explanation of causation it must be some kind of conceptual necessity. In a case in which a is the total cause of b, if a causes b, then the claim that if a occurs then b occurs must be conceptually true, true somehow by the virtue of the concepts of a and b. If the connection between a and b were not settled by the very notions of a and b, if it were some kind of fact beyond the concepts at work here, then it would be unclear why this connection holds, and indeed the connection would, I believe, be ultimately inexplicable. For the question would always remain unanswered, unless we could see the concepts of a and b as themselves the source of the connection. 17 As we can see, Della Rocca thinks that the PSR demands that explanations ultimately are conceptual. Consider an example of a cue ball striking an eight ball. If a committed rationalist demanded that I give an account to explain the movement of the eight ball, I might respond by saying, the cue ball was the cause of the eight ball s movement. At first glance, this seems like a perfectly reasonable explanation. The rationalist, however, remains unsatisfied. He continues his pestering: you claim that y explains x because y is the cause of x, but what is it for y to be the cause of x, what is the basis for the connection between causally related items? My rationalist interlocutor is applying the PSR a second time to demand that my causal explanation must itself be explicable. Similarly, if I were to claim that y is the cause of x because there is a necessary connection of some kind between these two items, 16 Della Rocca, Spinoza, p Della Rocca, A Rationalist Manifesto, p

15 the rationalist would contend that a necessary connection between the causal relata is itself brute unless there is a further account of what this necessary connection consists of. The only type of explanation that will satisfy the PSR is an explanation in terms of the conceptions involved. As Della Rocca explains, if the connection is not an extra-conceptual fact, but is instead conceptually grounded, then the connection would be completely explicable. It would be explicable in precisely the same way that, to pick a simple case, the connection between being a bachelor and being an unmarried man is explicable. It makes no sense to try to dig deeper at this point and ask: why does this conceptual connection between being a bachelor and being an unmarried man hold? In the end, this connection is self-explanatory and to ask this question is a manifestation of a failure to grasp properly or fully the conceptions of these properties. In a similar way, once we claim that if a occurs then b occurs is conceptually true, then we cannot ask why this conceptual connection holds without betraying a misunderstanding of the concepts involves in that claim or at least a failure to grasp those concepts completely. 18 A proper conception of the eight ball will involve the concept of the cue ball; I cannot properly conceive the movement of the eight ball without also conceiving the cue ball. Now, Della Rocca thinks Spinoza upholds this account of causation. He argues that, for Spinoza, causal connections are grounded in and stem from conceptual connections. 19 Indeed, he argues the reason Spinoza accepts this view of causation is, in part, due to his rationalism. 20 For present purposes, it is not important whether Della Rocca s account of causal relations is either representative of Spinoza s treatment of causation or is plausible as an account of causation itself. 18 Ibid., p Della Rocca, Spinoza, p Ibid., p

16 What is important is that the second demand for explicability characteristic of the twofold use of the PSR places a general restriction on acceptable explanations. Put simply, explanations are either in terms of explicability itself or explanations rest on brute facts. For a thoroughgoing rationalist like Spinoza, any explanation which does not bottom out in conceivability itself would ultimately rest on a brute fact. For one committed to the PSR, an explanation which itself rests on a brute fact really amounts, in Spinoza s eyes, to not explanation at all. 21 The only possible kind of explanation for any fact, feature, or phenomenon must be conceptual in nature: y explains x because the concept of x involves the concept of y. Only when we see that the relation between the explanandum and the explanans is conceptual will the rationalist s demand for conceivability be satisfied. 1.3 Spinoza s PSR In order to test whether or not these are fair assumptions, in what follows I will examine Spinoza s two uses of the PSR closely. One of the best ways to help understand any of Spinoza s views is to see how Spinoza himself uses and relies on them. By seeing how Spinoza employs and relies on a view, one sees what it amounts to, and what it entails. As previously mentioned, Spinoza only uses the PSR explicitly in two arguments in the Ethics. Given that these are the only two explicit uses of the PSR, they will be crucial to help determine what version of the PSR we can attribute to Spinoza. The content of the arguments in 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 is not crucial. The fact that Spinoza is arguing that there is only one substance of the same nature in 1p8s2 and that he is arguing for the necessary existence of God 21 Della Rocca, Rationalism Run Amok, p

17 in 1p11d2 is not important for our purposes. Instead, I will only go through the parts of both of these arguments that will help us determine whether Della Rocca s assumptions about Spinoza are supported by Spinoza s own understanding of the PSR. Now, I do not think that Della Rocca s assumptions are self-evident. In what follows, I will go through each assumption in turn to show that Della Rocca s Spinoza does not accord with the Spinoza of the Ethics. In chapter two, I will examine Della Rocca s claim that the scope of the PSR is absolutely unlimited. I will argue that, despite Della Rocca s claim that all items are in need of explanation, Spinoza only explicitly extends the PSR to substances and modes. Without a further argument to show that Spinoza would be willing to extend beyond substances and modes, it is not self-evident that the scope of the PSR extends as widely as Della Rocca believes. In chapter three, I will examine the claim that the PSR demands that there are no illegitimate bifurcations in nature. I will argue that, in both 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 Spinoza introduces a bifurcation in explanatory types. Problematically, this bifurcation seems to violate Della Rocca s own account of Spinozistic naturalism. I will argue that rather than attributing to Spinoza a contradiction, it is more likely that Della Rocca attributes to Spinoza a stronger version of naturalism than Spinoza upholds. In chapter four, I will examine the claim that Spinozistic explanations must be conceptual in nature. Supplementing 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 with evidence from various elements of part one, I will show that Spinoza thinks explanations are causal in nature, not conceptual. Nonetheless, Della Rocca could maintain his thesis and claim that causal explanations ultimately amount to conceptual explanations 13

18 because the PSR requires that causation is reducible to conception. Here too, I will show that Della Rocca provides insufficient evidence to support the reduction of causation to conception. 14

19 Chapter 2 The Twofold Use of the PSR: Unlimited Scope Let us begin with Della Rocca s first assumption concerning the scope of the PSR. While Della Rocca argues that the scope of Spinoza s PSR is unlimited to include any feature or thing, we will see that the scope of Spinoza s PSR extends only to substances and modes. 2.1 All Things Have an Explanation We can start with 1p8s2. In the second Scholium to proposition eight, Spinoza articulates the PSR in the following way: There must be, for each existing thing, a certain cause on account of which it exists. Notice that in 1p8s2, Spinoza demands that there must be an account, that is, an explanation, for each existing thing. While this may seem too vague to be of much consequence, Spinoza is quite clear on what kinds of things exist. See, for instance, 1p4d and 1p6c. 22 1p4d: Whatever is, is either in itself or in another (by 1a1), [in other words] i.e. (by D2 and D5), outside the intellect there is nothing except substances and their affection. 1p6c: For in nature there is nothing except substances and their affections, as is evident from 1a1, 1d3, and 1d5. I think the natural way to understand the demand that there be an account for each existing thing is in light of passages like these. For Spinoza, the things that exists are either substances or modes. As a result, the scope of PSR in 1p8s2 contains all substances and modes. 22 See also 1p15d: except for substances and modes there is nothing. 15

20 We find that Spinoza attributes a similar scope to the PSR in 1p11d2. The relevant passage of 1p11d2 states that: For each thing there must be assigned a cause, or reason, as much for its existence as for its nonexistence. For example, if a triangle exists, there must also be a reason or cause why it exists; but if it does not exist, there must also be a reason or cause which prevents it from existing, or which takes its existence away. Spinoza writes that there must be a cause, or reason for each thing, and that this cause or reason must be able to explain that thing's existence or nonexistence. Given that the only things that can exist in Spinoza s system are substances and modes, we find that Spinoza is consistent in his stance that the scope of the PSR extends to all substances and modes. Notice, as well, that Spinoza extends the scope of the PSR to include non-existing items. For Spinoza, even non-existing things must have an explanation. Spinoza is explicit about this in 1p11d2; whether a triangle exists or not, it must have an explanation. This means there are four kinds of things included in the scope of the PSR: (1) existing modes, (2) non-existing modes, (3) existing substances, and (4) non-existing substances. What about other phenomena that are not things, other features, such as causation, conception, inherence, truth, adequacy, etc. that Della Rocca argues must have an explanation? One straightforward way of dealing with these features is by demonstrating that they are either substances or modes. For, given what we have seen so far, if these features are either substances or modes, then they too must have an explanation. Unfortunately, it is not self-evident that these things fit into these ontological categories. Take for instance, the feature of inherence. As we have seen, if inherence is a substance or a mode, it requires an explanation. Let us start with the possibility that inherence is a mode. Spinoza defines modes as the 16

21 affections of substance, or that which is in another through which it is conceived (1d5). The definition itself refers to the relation of being in another thing. Rather than being something that is subsumable under this definition, the inherence relation is part of the definition itself. I take this as evidence that, for Spinoza, inherence is not itself a mode. If inherence is not a mode, is it a substance? This too is unlikely. Given that God is the only substance, inherence cannot be a substance. Moreover, inherence too is part of the definition of substance and so we can offer the same argument as we did above. If these features are not substances and modes, 23 can we conclude that they are exempt from the demands of the PSR? It is not that straightforward. Even if these features are not themselves substances or modes, Spinoza s statement of the PSR may still require that they be explicable. If features like inherence are not substances or modes, and if the things that exist are either substances or modes, then it seems that these features do not exist. As we have seen, in 1p11d2, Spinoza extends the scope of the PSR to include non-existing things as well. If non-existing things must also be explicable, and if features like inherence do not exist, then it turns out that these features are covered by the scope of the PSR. Perhaps the scope of the PSR is unlimited after all Della Rocca brought the following problem to my attention during the Spinoza Symposium held at Queen s University on November 18, If I will deny that a feature like inherence is not a substance or a mode, then what is it? As I explain below, rather than being a substance or a mode itself, inherence seems to be a relation that holds between two entities. But that leaves us with another question: if relations are not substances and modes, then how do they fit into Spinoza s ontology? Spinoza is explicit that except for substances and modes there is nothing (1p15d). If, as Spinoza says, nothing but substances and modes exist, and if inherence is not a substance or a mode, Spinoza is violating his ontological minimalism. Indeed, Spinoza does not say that except for substance, modes, and relations between the two, there is nothing. 24 Professor Henry Laycock brought this objection to my attention. 17

22 Nonetheless, we still have reason to be hesitant of the unlimited scope reading of 1p8s2 and 1p11d2. A careful reading of both 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 indicates that it is things [ rei ] that are bound by the scope of the PSR, and it is the existence or nonexistence of these things that must be explicable. Unfortunately, Spinoza does not explain precisely what he means by the word things in these two propositions. We can be certain that things does include substances and modes. While Spinoza never provides a general account of things in the Ethics, he does define substance in a way which implies it is a thing 25, and, in later propositions, Spinoza refers to modes as things 26 as well. Moreover, Spinoza s use of the PSR in both 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 indicates that by things he means at least substances and modes. Beyond substance and modes, it is not clear what else, if anything, is a thing that requires an explanation. Returning to the example of inherence, it is not clear that inherence is itself a thing. Instead, inherence seems to be a relation between things. If inherence is not itself a thing, then it may be outside the scope of the PSR and does not need an explanation. As far as I can tell, Spinoza does not offer a general theory of relations in the Ethics. He does not explain whether we should regard relations as things, or if he considered them as qualities or properties of things rather than things themselves. Should we assume that, by things Spinoza means absolutely everything, or should we rely on a restricted reading of things? The fact that Spinoza only applies the PSR to substances and modes in 1p8s2 and 1p11d2, and the fact that he does not 25 1d3: By substance I understand what is in itself and is conceived through itself, i.e., that whose concept does not require the concept of any other thing [ rei ], from which it must be formed. The claim that I can know substance without knowing any other thing seems to imply that substance itself is a thing. 26 Consider 1p33: Thing [ res ] could have been produced by God in no other way, and in no other order than they have been produced. The things produced by God are the modes. 18

23 provide explicit explanations or accounts of relations anywhere else in Ethics may support the restricted scope reading of the PSR. However, these facts are not conclusive. It may be the case that relations are also things and so require an explanation even if Spinoza does provide explicit explanations for them. Simply put, without clarifying the meaning of the word things, the two statements of the PSR will remain ambiguous, and because of this ambiguity, commentators cannot assume that absolutely everything is included in the scope of the PSR. Instead, I would contend that the onus is on commentators to demonstrate and provide evidence that items other than substances and modes demand explanations. 2.2 Restricted Scope and Violations of the PSR As far as I can tell, Della Rocca does not provide an argument to show that the PSR must have unlimited scope. 27 Nonetheless, I think we can construct a PSR-style argument to show that Spinoza cannot both be committed to the PSR and limit the 27 One could interpret Della Rocca s reading of 1a2 as an argument for the unlimited scope of the PSR. 1a2 states: That which cannot be conceived through another thing must be conceived through itself. While it may not be clear how this directly supports the PSR, Della Rocca insists that we should read this axiom as a statement of the PSR. In support of his claim, Della Rocca offers a quick three-step argument: [P1] Spinoza says, in effect, that each thing must be conceived through something (either itself or another thing). [P2] For Spinoza, to conceive of a thing is to explain it. [C] Thus, in presupposing in 1a2 that everything can be conceived through something, Spinoza presupposes that everything is able to be explained, he builds the notion of intelligibility into the heart of his metaphysical system. (Spinoza, 4-5) Let us grant Della Rocca s second premise and allow the substitution of explained for conceived without changing the meaning of 1a2. Even if we grant his reading of this axiom, I do not think it supports the view that the PSR is unlimited in scope. First, 1a2 remains unused in the Ethics. As a result, it is not clear how much we can infer from this axiom. Second, the conceived through relation only seems to hold for substances and between substances and modes: a substance is conceived through itself, and a mode is conceived through substance. Spinoza does not talk about other features being conceived through something. As a result, if 1a2 is an articulation of the PSR, it seems to support the limited scope interpretation of the PSR. 19

24 scope of the PSR to existing and non-existing substances and mode. Specifically, one can argue that it would be a brute fact if one were to exclude certain items from the scope of the PSR. Here is a possible, extra-textual, argument to that effect: Show: There cannot be a class of items that has no explanation 1) Assume: There is a class of items that has no explanation 2) If an item is not included in the scope of the PSR, then there must be a reason why that item is outside the scope of the PSR 3) There is no explanation for why things should be excluded from the scope of the PSR 4) Something without an explanation is a brute fact 5) But Spinoza, a proponent of the PSR, denies the existence of brute facts 6) Therefore, no item can be excluded from the scope of PSR, contrary to our assumption It seems that, in principle, Spinoza must include absolutely everything into the extension of explicable items, and not just substances and modes. While Della Rocca does not present an argument like this, it does seem to be in line with his interpretation of Spinoza. Should we accept this argument? I do not think so. I think we have good reason not to accept it. First, step four is misleading. While Spinoza provides no reason in either 1p8s2 or 1p11d2 that explains why he limits the scope of the PSR, we cannot conclude from the fact that we do not have an explanation, that there is no explanation. It is certainly possible that Spinoza has a reason that he wants to limit the PSR to just substances and modes. Perhaps Spinoza thinks that only substances and modes are amenable to explanations. The point is, we simply do not know why Spinoza limits the scope of the PSR as he does, and our ignorance of such a reason does not allow us to conclude that there is no possible reason for excluding items from the scope of the PSR. Second, what we are discussing is the scope of Spinoza s PSR, yet in steps three and five, we presume that absolutely everything would be 20

25 included in the scope of his version of the PSR. Given that very assumption is under investigation, this move begs the question. We cannot demand that an item has an explanation if it is excluded from the collection of things that are in need of an explanation. Yet, this is precisely what we do in step three. Similarly, an item is a brute fact only if that fact is bound by the PSR in the first place. We cannot accuse Spinoza of admitting brute facts in step five unless that item is covered by the scope of the PSR. Put otherwise, brute facts are brute only if they are in need of explanation. However, the only items that we know are bound by the PSR are substances and modes. To presume otherwise would need a separate argument that does not invoke the PSR itself. As a result, unless there is a substance or a mode without an explanation, we cannot accuse Spinoza of allowing brute facts simply by limiting the scope of the PSR. This argument might work to show that a thoroughly committed rationalist must accept a PSR with an unlimited scope. Indeed, it may be the case that a committed rationalist should just bite the bullet and adopt the position that absolutely everything is in need of an explanation. However, my aim is not to discover the most acceptable version of the PSR; I am only trying to uncover Spinoza s version of the PSR. And we cannot presume from the outset that absolutely everything must have an explanation simply because a perfect rationalist must. It is possible that Spinoza is less than a perfect rationalist; perhaps he upheld a watered-down version of the PSR 28 where not every item was bound by it. 28 This phrase comes from Della Rocca. In Spinoza, he refers to Alexander Pruss s defence of a PSR that only demands that contingent propositions have explanations and does not entail necessitarianism as a watered down version of the PSR. (Spinoza, p. 313.) 21

26 This much is clear: at least substances and modes are in the scope of the PSR. I must be careful not to overextend my arguments. I cannot claim that a feature like inherence is, or must be, excluded from the scope of the PSR. I can only claim that it is not self-evident that it is included. Similarly, I have not provided an argument to show that only four kinds of things are included in the scope of the PSR; all I have shown is that there are at least four items covered by the PSR. It is certainly possible that Spinoza thinks we could invoke the PSR to demand an explanation for something other than substances and modes. However, given that we have no evidence that Spinoza extends the PSR beyond substances and modes in the two arguments in which he invokes the PSR, I contend that if one wants to argue that Spinoza s PSR extends beyond these things, then one must have an argument to show that Spinoza himself was willing to do so. 22

27 Chapter 3 The PSR and Naturalism: Illegitimate Bifurcations in Nature We can now move from the scope of the PSR to the second assumption concerning inexplicable bifurcations. As we will see, what Spinoza tells us about explanations challenges Della Rocca s view on inexplicable bifurcations. While I will not be able to provide a complete account of explanations here, I want to show that, contrary to Della Rocca, Spinoza thinks that explanations themselves are bifurcated. Moreover, we will see that this bifurcation in explanatory types is not inexplicable, but is grounded in the different natures of substances and modes. 3.1 Bifurcations in Explanations First, let us show that Spinoza thinks that there is a bifurcation in explanations. Spinoza is consistent in both 1p8s2 and 1p11d2 that there are two different ways of explaining the existence of a thing. In 1p8s2, after claiming that each thing must have a cause which explains it, he claims: That this cause, on account of which a thing exists, either must be contained in the very nature and definition of the existing thing (viz. that it pertains to its nature to exist) or must be outside it. Here, Spinoza is distinguishing between two types of causes that can account for, or explain, a thing s existence. Either a thing s causal explanation must be contained in the very nature and definition of the existing thing, or the cause which explains it will be outside or external to the thing. Spinoza consistently employs this distinction between causal explanations in 1p11d2. Immediately after claiming that everything must have a reason or cause that can account for its existence or nonexistence, Spinoza claims that this reason, or cause, must either be contained in 23

28 the nature of the thing, or be outside it. Moreover, Spinoza holds that in the second type of explanation, the explanatory item that is external to the thing is the order of nature. I will not discuss what Spinoza thinks the definition or nature of a thing is, or what he means by the order of nature here. I will address these difficulties in the next chapter. All I would like to point out is that Spinoza consistently holds that explanations are bifurcated. There are explanations in terms of the thing s nature or definition, and explanations in terms of a thing s external cause or the order of natue. Second, let us show that Spinoza thinks that these two types of explanations are appropriate for different kinds of things. I think that this is quite straightforward. Spinoza thinks that substance can be explained only in terms of its nature alone. As he explains in 1p8s2: since it pertains to the nature of a substance to exist its definition must involve necessary existence, and consequently its existence must be inferred from its definition alone. As well, in 1p11d2, Spinoza also claims that the nature of substance explains its existence. In contrast, the explanation appropriate for modes is not in terms of its nature. Instead, one must go outside the definition or concept of a thing and refer to that thing s external causes to explain why it exists. Spinoza consistently uses modes as examples of things explained externally in both arguments. As a result, we can see that substances and modes are explained in different ways. 3.2 Is the Explanatory Bifurcation Illegitimate? Problematically, Della Rocca s Spinoza should not allow this bifurcation in explanations. Recall that Della Rocca argues, 24

29 whenever there are two kinds of things that operate according to different principles and are related to each other in some way, then the ways in which these things are related to each other are disturbances and ultimately, inexplicable, that is they would violate the PSR. 29 As we can see, the criteria for illegitimate bifurcations are quite general. For any two kinds of things, if those two things are related and those two things operate according to different principles, then the relation that holds between these two things is inexplicable. Given this very general account of illegitimate bifurcations, Della Rocca s Spinoza could offer the following argument against himself. The explanatory principles of substance differ from the explanatory principles of modes. Substances and mode are different kinds of things, and substances and modes are related to each other. But, by our definition of illegitimate bifurcations, if two kinds of things operate according to different principles and are related to one another, then this relation is inexplicable. That is, if the explanation for substance is different from the explanation for modes, but substances and modes are related, then the substance-mode relation itself should be inexplicable. It seems, then, that Spinoza s account of explanatory types conflicts with naturalism and, ultimately, the demand for explicability. Rather than holding that different things be explained according to different explanations, it seems Spinoza should hold that all things be explained the same way, either through their nature alone or through their external causes. While Spinoza does not seem to think that all things in nature must be explained the same way, perhaps he is just mistaken. It is possible that Spinoza is admitting a brute fact into his system by accident, and that his commitment to rationalism demands 29 Della Rocca, Spinoza, p

30 that all things are explainable either by their natures alone or by the order of nature alone. Yet, the bifurcation in explanatory principles is not inexplicable. Spinoza has good reason to uphold the view that certain things call for certain explanations. In the case of substance, Spinoza argues in 1p7 that it pertains to the nature of substance to exist. If the essence or nature of a thing involves existence, a clear conception of the essence of substance is sufficient to explain a substance s existence. That is, substance is of such a nature that it can be explained in terms of its nature alone. However, we can dig even deeper here. We can show that not only is the nature of substance sufficient to explain it, but that there is no other possible explanation for substance. In the last three paragraphs in the demonstration of 1p11d2, Spinoza offers a rather complex argument to show that there is no possible explanation for the non-existence of God. He argues that, if we assume that God does not exist, then the PSR demands that there must be an explanation why God does not exist. But, Spinoza writes, if there were such a reason, or cause, it would have to be either in God s very nature or outside it, i.e., in another substance of another nature. For if it were of the same nature, that very supposition would concede that God exists. But a substance which was of another nature would have nothing in common with God (by 1P2), and therefore could neither give him existence nor take it away. Within that argument, we find Spinoza explaining why only certain explanations are appropriate for substance. In this argument, Spinoza relies on three previous demonstrations: 1p5: In nature there cannot be two or more substance of the same nature or attribute. 26

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