A Brief History of Human Anatomy

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1 A Brief History of Human AnatomybyJohn CornellI. The Influence of the Ancient GreeksII. The Roman Empire, 50 to 1050III. Arabian Medicine, 800 to 1100IV. The Middle Ages and Renaissance, 1050 toV. Modern Anatomy, 1543 to PresentVI. The Problem of Not Enough CadaversVII. Anatomy TodayVIII. Conclusions1

2 I. The Influence of the Ancient GreeksA. Apollo and AsclepiusB. The Staff of Asclepius versus the Caduceus of HermesC. Hippocrates: Plato and AristotleD. Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria2

5 V Credit: Wellcome Library, London A surgeon extracting a guinea worm from a man's leg, in the background is a similar scene after a successful operation, a surgeon is holding a long worm. Photograph of a halftone after an engraving by J. Luyken after himself. By: Jan Luyken Size: image 30.4 x 23.4 cm. Collection: Iconographic Collections Library reference no.: ICV No Full Bibliographic Record Link to Wellcome Library CatalogueDracunculis sp., the guinea worm, is found in the middle east, Africa, and India. (Luvken, n.d.)5

7 Hippocrates(ca B.C.E.)“... anatomy is the foundation of medicine ... and should be based on the form of the human body.” (Hippocrates 2009 and Persaud, 1984, p.33)7

8 The Hippocratic OathI swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Health, and All-heal, and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this Oath and this stipulation- to reckon him who taught me this Art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart knowledge of the Art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my Art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice or not, in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot! (Oath of Hippocrates)

10 Historia animalium, De partibus animalium, De generatione animaliumHistoria animalium, De partibus animalium, De generatione animalium. Translated into Latin by Theodore of Gaza in the 15th Century. (“Medicine and Biology”)10

19 (Urine wheel, complete, 1364)“One circular diagram or "color wheel" for uroscopy, labeled "Tabula urinarum," showing 20 jordans or urine flasks containing urines of various colors indicating different states of "digestion" (in the understanding of humoral physiology). Each flask is attached by a line to a balloon of text inscribed with a summary of the state of digestion and often the prognosis. The captions of the two flasks which face each other at 12 o'clock, for example, read "reddish color of urine, or beautiful gold" and "pinkish color of urine, or oriental crocus." The "balloon" to which the left flask is attached reads "These two urines signify completion of digestion, while the right one belongs to a group linked to a "balloon" reading "these four urines signify exessive digestion." In contrast to these relatively favorable prognoses, the dark colored jordans at five o'clock are linked to a balloon reading, "these urines signify death." Adj. text: 14th century physician's belt book in Latin. [Abstract]”Germany, ca. 1350England, 1364(Urine flasks in text, 1350)(Urine wheel, complete, 1364)19

20 Blood letting Points England, 1364“One diagrammatic human figure on points for bloodletting, labeled "Imago phlebotomiae." A rudimentary figure, male, outlined in black, hair colored brown, lips and cheeks red. Face, torso, hands and feet detailed in black ink. 15 circles surround the figure, each containing the names of particular veins in black and/or red ink, one in black. Each circle or "balloon" also mentions the condition or disease which calls for bloodletting at that sight. A red line joins each "balloon" to the site of the respective vein. Adj. text: 14th century physician's belt book in Latin. [Abstract]”(Bloodletting figure or phlebotomy man, 1364)20

21 The Blessings of Surgery from Practica chiurgiae (cThe Blessings of Surgery from Practica chiurgiae (c. 1170): hot water to soften broken ribs, removal of arrows, opening the chest and abdomen, a lung operation, an operation on the intestines, and a man suffering from a phlegmatic abscess. (Blessings of surgery, 1170)21

35 Table 3 of the Tabulae Sex shows the where the natural spirit is sweated through to the left ventricle. Pneuma from the lungs combines with natural spirits to produce vital spirits. The vital spirits are converted by the rete mirabile into animal spirits.(Vesalius, 1973, p. 241)35

45 L Credit: Wellcome Library, London Valves in forearm From: Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus By: William Harvey Published: G. FitzerFrankfurt 1628William Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood was probably based on Fabricius’ description of the valves in the veins.(Valves in arm, n.d.)45

46 (Rare anatomical texts – 18th century, 2010)“CHESELDON, William. Osteographica, or, The Anatomy of the Bones . . London: [1733?]William Cheseldon ( ) was distinguished as a surgeon in several large hospitals in London.The title page of this work illustrates the camera obscura technique that he employed. The concept, a forerunner of the modern camera, dates back to antiquity. The image of the object being drawn is projected through a small hole onto a canvas where it can be traced at its natural size.”William Cheseldon ( )(Rare anatomical texts – 18th century, 2010)

54 VIII. ConclusionsA. Western Anatomy retains traditions that originated in the ancient Greek and Roman Empires.B. The Dark Ages produced few significant developments in Anatomy.C. Modern Anatomy began with the work of Andreas Vesalius in 1543.D. New teaching methods in Anatomy produced shortages in cadavers.E. Changes in thinking in religious beliefs lead to increased donations of cadavers for medical education.F. Improvements in illustration, the use of the computers, and the application of NMR, Radiography, and Ultrasound techniques have revolutionized, our approaches to the study of anatomy.