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1 SOCIAL WORK SKILLS A PRACTICE HANDBOOK Pamela Trevithick Open University Press Buckingham Philadelphia

2 Open University Press Celtic Court 22 Ballmoor Buckingham MK18 1XW world wide web: and 325 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA First Published 2000 Copyright Pamela Trevithick, 2000 All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P 0LP. A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library ISBN (pb) (hb) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available Typeset by Type Study, Scarborough Printed in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King s Lynn

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The suggestion that I write a book came several years ago when, quite unexpectedly, I was approached by a stranger after a talk I had given at a National Association for Mental Health (MIND) conference on women and mental health. The stranger was Jo Campling, a well-known editor in the world of social work publishing, to whom I owe special thanks. Without Jo s encouragement, this text would not have been started nor found its way to Jacinta Evans at Open University Press. I am grateful to Jo for so much, particularly her gentle reminders to finish the text. I am also indebted to Jacinta for the skilful way she steered the text to publication, and for the thoughtfulness I have experienced from the staff at Open University Press. In particular, I would like to thank Kate Tadman, Maureen Cox and Janet Howatson for their editorial skills and impressive attention to detail, and Clara Waissbein and Tanya Sellars for their patience in addressing my queries. The comments I received from the external reviewers, Joyce Lishman and Michael Preston- Shoot, were enormously valuable and helped make the text more accessible. I am especially grateful to Michael for his detailed comments and encouragement, and for sharing his knowledge so generously. However, all errors are mine. My greatest thanks go to my friends, Judy Carver and Robert French, without whom this work could not have been completed. Their belief in me, and this text, has sustained me through dark, dismal days when nothing seemed possible. The devoted way they ploughed through different chapters will remain with me always. I would also like to thank my son, Tom, for allowing me to disappear for hours on end without complaint, and Bridget for her help at a crucial time. Tom and Bridget have grown up with this book, and their love has been deeply sustaining. The support given by Charlie Beaton and Donald Branch over the years has been particularly important to me, especially during the final weeks of writing. A special thanks goes to Jane Dennis for

5 viii Social work skills her practical help and dependability, and Julie Selwyn for her inspired comments at a moment that mattered. I would also like to thank other colleagues and friends who helped make this book possible including: Charlotte Ardizzone, Moira Bakehouse, Rosemary Baragwanath, Bill Beaumont, Chryselle Brown, Brian Caddick, Terrell Carver, Roger Clark, Mark Cox and his computer team (Paul Croft, Dave Hurst, David Midwinter, James Watson), Joy Dalton, Marie-Laure Davenport, Jon Doble, Rosemary Evelyn, Elaine Farmer, Eileen Gambrill, Maureen Hanscomb, Mrs Harris, Mushroom Hamilton, Anna Harvey, James Hennefeld, Elaine Kreiger, Hilary Land, Jos Large, Tony Lewis, Kate Lyon, Geraldine Macdonald, Gill McGill, Rachel Mirress, Shailen Nandy, Jean Neumann, Phyllida Parsloe, Rose Perrson, David Quinton, Rosie Tomlinson, Ann Shabbaz, Sue Pollock, Jane Stacey, Chris Stephens, Peter Walker, Liz Wilson and Norma Wilson. I owe a particular thanks to the service users I have worked with over the years, whose stories continue to fuel in me a sense of outrage and an enduring belief in the importance of fairness. Finally, I want to thank my students, particularly my tutees, for their comments on the social work skills unit I taught for nine years, on which this text is based.

6 INTRODUCTION... there are no easy remedies in social work, especially when we are confronted daily with oppression and deprivation... (Coulshed and Orme 1998: 3) The context of social work is changing rapidly. However, one fundamental element remains the same, namely that social work is located within some of the most complex problems and perplexing areas of human experience, and for this reason, social work is, and has to be, a highly skilled activity. The purpose of this text is to describe this skilled activity by providing an account of 50 skills commonly used in social work, and to identify how these skills can be used in practice to enhance our effectiveness and help bring about positive outcomes. It attempts to bridge a gap that currently exists in relation to texts written specifically on the theme of social work skills. This gap has also been noted in relation to skills teaching. According to research undertaken by Marsh and Triseliotis (1996), 51 per cent of students interviewed stated that there was too little social work skills training on their courses. In a list of recommendations, Marsh and Triseliotis conclude that much greater attention [needs to be] paid to the teaching of social work skills using concrete practice situations (1996: 219). This should include better and more applied teaching of psychology (p. 220). In order to develop these skills a toolbox of interventions we need to have a sound theoretical and research base from which to begin to understand people and their situations, and to formulate plans of action appropriate to the circumstances encountered. This involves understanding how experiences are perceived, understood and communicated by people, and how this impacts on behaviour and life situations, both positive and negative. To some extent, this understanding will always be incomplete and uneven because, in the realm of human experience, life is unpredictable and some uncertainty is inevitable (Marris 1996). Improving our practice skills, based on current research and the best evidence available, is a difficult task and one that daunts other professionals in this field, as this quotation from a report from the Cabinet Office notes:

7 2 Social work skills While there is plenty of research available in areas such as education, social services and criminal justice, the coverage is patchy and there is little consensus amongst the research community about the appropriateness of particular methodologies or how research evidence should be used to inform policy and practice. (Major 2000: 1) The complex nature of social work is due, in part, to the fact that it involves working across differences of class, race, gender, age, disability, sexual orientation, religion, culture, health, geography, expectations and outlook on life. Differences can be seen in the different ways that problems are presented, communicated and perceived by individuals and in terms of the solutions sought. There are also differences in the way other disciplines and professions analyse and work with problems. It is not always easy for people seeking help to state their needs or put words to their thoughts and feelings, particularly when these are tangled amid feelings of confusion, fear, humiliation, anger and despair. Then it can be hard for people to remember their strengths and abilities; the courage and determination that have enabled them to get this far. Within this tangled mass of jumbled experiences misunderstandings can easily occur, sometimes with tragic consequences, as the inquiries into the deaths of children known to social services attest (DHSS 1982; Gough 1993). As practitioners we still have more to learn about how to work with people in ways that are clear: ways that shine a torch on what is happening and why, that illuminate possible ways to move things forward and provide evidence of effectiveness or otherwise. This learning is an ongoing process and never complete. Indeed, one way to view every interaction is as a learning experience for both parties. As practitioners we may be learning how to pose questions in ways that offer the greatest chance of being given open and honest responses. Or we may be learning to listen creatively to what is being said, or not said. At the same time, through the process of actually putting words to thoughts, feelings and experiences, service users may be ordering events and emotions, and learning more about their strengths and limitations, and their capacity to cope, or not, when faced with too much strain. They may be using this opportunity to come to terms with experiences that have been unbearable up to that point and, in this difficult process, may be learning how to trust again. Other service users test our skills in different ways, particularly those who have no interest in being helped, who are not motivated to change or who have a different value base (Trotter 1999: 1). This text emphasizes the central importance that communication and interviewing skills play within social work practice. As human beings we are, in fact, always communicating something, although this may not be intelligible to ourselves or to others. It may require some deciphering, which can be likened to learning a different language or, more precisely, a new dialect. As practitioners, to achieve an understanding about what is being communicated

8 Introduction 3 means using everything at our disposal in order to come alongside the experiences of the people with whom we work. From this perspective I do not believe that it is possible to be an effective practitioner without being an effective communicator. This, in turn, implies that, for effective communication to be possible, we have to know ourselves (Dominelli 1998: 10; Lishman 1998: 94). That is, we have to know the boundary of our own thoughts, feelings and experiences and to use these as a basis for understanding others, but without becoming merged, or so distant that we cannot empathize with another person (Thorne 1997: 181 2). This involves being able to take in and communicate what we think and feel using reading, writing, speaking and listening (Smith 1986: 246). The focus for this text is primarily on speaking and listening, although writing and recording skills are covered in Chapter 7. To understand what is happening and why is, I believe, essential if change is to be a possibility. It is also important to be able to enable others to help themselves, which involves practitioners being comfortable in the role of helper. This is not easy to achieve when there is so much confusion and ambivalence within social work about helping others (England 1986: 65; Lishman 1994: 4). The emphasis placed on encouraging people to help themselves, with all the ambiguity this implies, can leave those people adrift who feel unable to care for themselves, for whatever reason. If we offer help, what are our intentions? Does helping others imply that as practitioners we are stuck in compulsive caregiving (Braye and Preston-Shoot 1995: 129) or in a compulsive need to feel superior or to exercise power and control over others? These are central issues within social work because our intentions and actions are important and the people we work with have different capabilities. This makes our work, and the concept of empowerment and partnership, a complex undertaking (Thoburn et al. 1995), and more difficult to achieve than is sometimes suggested. Similarly, good communication involves being able to hear how others gather and form their thoughts and feelings, and the meaning they give to particular experiences. This requires being able to establish a rapport and to form a relationship so that the information gained and experience shared can be consolidated and, hopefully, used to open up new avenues and inform future action. All points of contact and connection can have a profound impact, although we may never know their full significance. As practitioners struggling to balance different demands and tasks, it can be difficult to recognize how important we are to the people we work with. By developing relationships that take account of our importance to each other, and the reciprocal nature of our connection, we are attempting to avoid adding ourselves to the pile of disappointing experiences, failures and let downs that many service users have endured. By remaining within clear professional boundaries, being true to our word, keeping to the commitments we have made, never promising more than we can deliver and responding as closely as possible within agency constraints to the needs identified by the

9 4 Social work skills individual, we are offering the possibility of a new and different experience. If all goes well, this can increase confidence and form a basis from which to explore other relationships and possibilities. Within the confines of inner city or rural neglect or decay, these possibilities may be few and hard to identify but every experience, positive or negative, carries with it the possibility of influencing the next stage in a person s life (Salzberger-Wittenberg 1970: 162). The challenge here is a formidable one, namely how to sort out and work through the barriers within the individual and their social environment that inhibit progress, so that these experiences can be turned into opportunities for growth and change. Positive experiences engender hope and trust, and convey a comforting sense of being understood and accepted. As human beings we have a deepseated wish to be understood, to be accepted for who we are, and for our lives to have meaning and purpose (Howe 1996: 94). This desire is as true for people who come from deprived sectors of the population, who form the vast majority of social work service users, as it is for people who come from other, more advantaged sectors. Although at times this desire for meaning and understanding may elude us, nevertheless most of us continue to yearn for someone who can bring this sense of understanding and meaning into our lives and with it the transformation that this possibility offers. Some find this through religion, while others turn to their families or friends to fulfil this need. Another, smaller cross-section are forced to look to professionals to fulfil these needs, perhaps because they are not loved enough or because the capacity to adapt or to give and take, which is central to the task of relating, has already broken down and needs to be addressed. On the other hand, negative experiences can reaffirm old suspicions and doubts, deepen mistrust, shatter hope and produce even greater despair. Too often service users arrive into the situation with too much negativity and with too little belief in the possibilities that change can offer. Try as we may, we cannot avoid the fact that some service users pose a threat to themselves (Huxley 1997: 133) and/or to others, whether unintentionally (Issac et al. 1986) or not (Hester et al. 1996). These risks have to be acknowledged in any assessment or evaluation process. As far as possible, all judgements, whether positive or negative, should be backed by evidence. If, as practitioners, we can involve ourselves in the experience of relating to another human being, what we ourselves gain from this involvement is that we too can develop and learn from the encounter, about ourselves and about other people. That is our ultimate reward. To be invited to enter another person s world, if only for a brief time and in a limited way, can in itself be a mark of trust and hope and, from this place, so much can happen. The small gains that some service users achieve can feel to them, and to us, like major successes and act as a reminder that some people can travel a long way on a little, while others need much more in order to move their lives forward. That is not to idealize poverty and the sense of shame and social exclusion that can haunt the lives of poor people but it is important to remember that, as human

10 Introduction 5 beings, we are complex and unique individuals and always more than our suffering (Angelou 1994). The context of social work The diverse nature of social work has been made more complex since the 1980s because of the changes that social work has had to embrace, some of which have given rise to confusions and uncertainties (Lishman 1998: 91). The election of the Labour government in 1997 has given rise to other changes. Devolution has resulted in different policies being implemented in England, Wales and Scotland. For example, the Social Work Council envisaged for England is different from the one planned for Scotland. Again, changes put forward for probation services in England and Wales are different from those planned for offender services in Scotland. One philosophy behind some of these changes is a commitment to reduce health and social inequalities through the establishment of national standards and objectives in relation to health and social services and a framework for assessing performance and effectiveness (Huber 1999: 2). These objectives can be seen in initiatives stemming from Quality Protects (DoH 1998a) and Modernising Health and Social Services (1998b) and in the government s commitment to a what works is what counts approach to service delivery (DoH 1998b: 93). Improvements in the quality of care will be overseen through the establishment of a proposed regulatory body, the General Social Care Council, which is due to be established in To achieve these aims, a collaboration between health and social services and interdisciplinary approaches to social care are seen as essential, although this may take different forms in various parts of the United Kingdom. Although the current framework of social work education and training was only established in 1995, it is about to be changed again. The introduction of changes will be linked to the setting up of the Social Work Council and development of the new Code of Conduct for social workers. These changes and proposals, together with the linking of Quality Protects grants with quality of services, will continue to have a profound impact on social work and the range and quality of services provided. If the crisis in recruiting and retaining social workers continues, it is difficult to see how these changes can be implemented without incentives to improve staff morale and performance. Changes in the law Since the late 1980s, there have been three major pieces of leglisation affecting social work practice (Ball 1996: xviii), namely the National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990; the Children Act, England, 1989 and the Criminal Justice Act The last has been substantially amended and superseded by

11 6 Social work skills subsequent legislation (Criminal Justice Act 1993, Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 and Crime and Disorder Act 1998). In addition, there is now a considerable amount of case law emanating from interpretations of the Children Act The introduction of the Family Law Act 1996, particularly its provisions for addressing domestic violence, is an important development for social workers and probation officers. (Legislation closely modelled on the Children Act, England 1989 includes the Children Act, Scotland, 1995 and the Children (Northern Ireland) Order 1997). In support of legislation listed above, codes of practice and guidance are drawn up by the government. These are important because they state government s expectations of local authorities in relation to good practice. For example, guidance issued under section 7(1) of the Local Authority Social Services Act 1970 means that, should local authorities fail to act in accordance with the guidance, a complaint can be made to the ombudsman or it may count as evidence against them in legal proceedings. The difference between regulations, codes and guidance is described as follows: One might sum up the differences between the requirements of these various official documents like this: Regulations say You must/shall ; codes say You ought/should. When guidance explains regulations, it reaffirms the You must messages. However when it goes beyond regulation setting out good practice, it conveys the message that It is highly desirable to... or Unless there is good reason not to, you should... rather than, You must. (Department of Health 1989: 2) I have described these differences in some detail because familiarity with the requirements of government, including the law, could be an important basis from which to argue for certain services to be provided and to endorse antidiscriminatory practice (Braye and Preston-Shoot 1995: 66). Some commentators have suggested that the European legislation when implemented, such as the Human Rights Act, may help service users to secure relevant services. Outline of the text In the first section of this book I look at the theoretical underpinnings to practice. In Chapter 1 I look at how we can use theory and research to enhance our practice skills. In particular I explore what we mean when we use different theoretical terms and identify ten practice choices, giving a case example of their use in practice. In Chapter 2 I give an overview of key psychological concepts. These provide a framework to help us understand other theories and human behaviour. In Chapter 3 I bring theory and practice into closer dialogue by looking at communication, listening and assessment skills, and how we can evidence effectiveness. In the second section I explore how these theoretical concepts relate in practice. I describe 50 skills used within social work on a regular basis, giving

12 Introduction 7 a name to many of the skills practitioners already use but may not have categorized. Other core skills are included, but not described separately. These include communication, interviewing, observation, listening, assessment and decision-making skills, bringing the total number to roughly 56 skills. Since beginning the book, I have encountered other skills worthy of mention but it was not possible to include them all without changing the nature of the book. Some readers may be disappointed not to find certain skills included, such as those associated with particular practice approaches like cognitive-behavioural or client-centred approaches. However, whenever possible I have tried to give references to further reading. Every skill has a theoretical underpinning but the emphasis in this text is on the use of skills in practice, rather than explaining the theoretical root of each skill. That would require a book in its own right, which, hopefully, will one day be written. The perspective I stress throughout this section, and the text as a whole, is that every intervention should have a purpose and, as much as possible, that purpose should be identified clearly and openly as part of the agreement we establish with service users and other key individuals and professionals involved. If we fail at the outset to find agreement or to identify a common purpose this omission is likely to emerge as a difficulty later on. This emphasis on being clear and specific in areas makes our contact with service users more purposeful and also allows us to assess the appropriateness of specific social work methods, approaches, perspectives, interventions and skills in terms of their effectiveness in bringing about desired and agreed outcomes. The focus of this book is on work with individuals, because the individual is located in other social formations, namely the family, group and community. However, the skills described are transferable and can be related to other practice orientations, and to work with service users in different settings. Some points of clarification about the text are worth noting. Throughout, I have described people who come within the remit of social work as service users. This term is not ideal, but nor are others (Stevenson and Parsloe 1993: 6). This dilemma is made more complicated because, in my experience, none of the terms used service users, consumers, recipients of services or clients draw on a language commonly used by people in receipt of social work services. The suggestion that the word client should refer to those who have social work imposed upon them and service users to denote recipients of social work intervention voluntarily entered into is an interesting differentiation (Wise 1995: 116) but not always an easy distinction to draw. Nevertheless, Wise s conceptualization is helpful because it highlights the importance of language, and its limitations. Changing the words we use, while introducing a climate of hope and the chance for a fresh start, cannot in itself ensure that we have fundamentally altered the stigma and oppression that travels with certain oppressed groups. Nor can it ensure that those people are treated better, both within social work and outside. Also on the subject of language, it is remarkable to note, given the historic and present day dominance of women in social work, both as service users and practitioners, how many authors use

13 8 Social work skills the male pronoun he. On occasion I have chosen to highlight how inappropriately this pronoun is used by adding the adverb sic. The interventions identified do not solely refer to work with service users, but can include any other people we encounter during the course of our work (England 1986: 25). Sometimes our colleagues, managers or other professionals need to be supported and challenged in ways that are similar to our interactions with service users. Indeed, Wootton suggests that rather than focusing our attention on service users, many of whom lack the power and resources to change their lives, would not caseworkers do better to get their hands on some of our world s rulers? (Wootton 1959). Although I am an academic-practitioner, the pronoun we refers to the fact that I have written this text as a practitioner. As a result, most case examples tend to describe my experience of working with children and families, which may not feel satisfactory for practitioners working in other fields of social work. I apologize for this. In the case examples all names and other identifiable characteristics have been changed to protect service users identities. In relation to this text, unless stated to the contrary the reader can assume that the situations described refer to service users who have sought our help on a voluntary basis.

14 1 USING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO ENHANCE PRACTICE... to practice without a theory is to sail an uncharted sea; theory without practice is not to set sail at all... (Susser 1968) In this chapter I begin by looking at the tension that exists within social work in the relationship between theory and practice. I analyse how different terms are defined and, drawing on these definitions, identify ten practice choices, using a case example to describe how these choices might be used in practice. The dialogue between theory and practice To be an effective practitioner requires that we have a sound theoretical base. This is not easy to achieve. In the past, there has been a reluctance among some practitioners to embrace theory and research. The stereotypical view is one where theory and research are considered to be irrelevant, obscure, abstract and untranslatable in terms of direct practice. Some practitioners feel that to refer to theory is to lose touch with the realities of social work practice, and likely to be deskilling experience if it leaves us questioning our innate skills, particularly our ability to relate to others. From this perspective it is easy for the split between theory and practice to be reinforced because practitioners have not experienced the benefits and clarity that theory can bring to practice situations. But take, for example, a practitioner working with a distressed child who is struggling to settle into a new placement. This practitioner may find a useful link between theory and practice in Bowlby s (1980) theory of attachment, particularly his concept of separation response (protest, despair and detachment). This may help to illuminate the practitioner s understanding of this child and, in turn, help foster carer(s) and parent(s) to understand and to tolerate certain behaviours. We can, no doubt, choose to look at different writers

15 10 Social work skills in this field (Vygotsky 1932; Piaget 1959; Stern 1985; Wolff 1989; Lindon 1993; Bee 1995) or update our knowledge by referring to more recent research on attachment theory (Murray and Cooper 1994; Holmes 1997; Howe and Fearnley 1999) and relevant texts (Fahlberg 1991; Rutter 1991; Howe 1995; Brandon et al. 1998; Howe 1999). However, I would argue that our practice is impoverished without reference to those theories that attempt to bring together a range of explanations, including current research findings, because these have a bearing on the strategies or interventions that we might choose, or wish to learn about, in order to help children and parents overcome the dilemmas they face (Department of Health 1995a). Similarly, in direct work, we are more likely to recognize key issues or reactions if we have a knowledge base to draw on. The concern that knowledge can be used to gain power over others (Payne 1997: 30) can be addressed in relation to service users by finding ways to share our knowledge with them, so that they have access to the same understanding and the sense of confidence and resilience that knowledge can give. From this perspective, the value of a given theory and research lie in their usefulness in relation to practice and the degree to which they illuminate our understanding and future action (Payne 1998: 124). If any theory can achieve this it has an important contribution to make, even if its value is limited or has to be adapted to fit different settings. In the example given above, attachment theory provides a theoretical framework from which to hypothesize and analyse the behaviour of the child in question. References to present and past research findings attempt to test out those hypotheses put flesh on the bone by looking for evidence for and against the hypothesis put forward, and to develop new hypotheses or theories based on that evidence. The anti-intellectual stance within social work This mistrust of theory has been described as an anti-theoretical or a theoretical stance (Coulshed 1991: 2), as an anti-intellectualism or an intellectual purge (Jones 1996: 204). It is seen when practitioners ignore or dismiss research findings as irrelevant, unrepresentative and too abstract, sometimes because research fails to confirm the unquestioned assumptions and common-sense notions that some practitioners have learned to rely on. This antagonism, however, cannot be explained only in terms of how practitioners have reacted. Jordan suggests that at times academics and researchers have gone about the task of linking theory to practice quite insensitively, sometimes dictating to practitioners not only how they should work, but also what rationale they should follow (Jordan 1990: 13). Also, a degree of wariness is understandable given the fact that some research findings have been critical of practice, and more positive accounts of social work successes tend to be ignored (Cheetham et al. 1992: 2). Others suggest that practitioners fail to see the important part that theory can play because of a confusion about what constitutes a theory, which leads to the mistaken belief

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