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The protozoa include about 65,000 species. Most members are harmless inhabitants of the water and soil. A few species are parasites responsible for millions of infections in humans per year. Biology of the Protozoa

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Trophozoite: – Motile and feeding stage – Requires ample food and moisture to remain active Cyst: – Dormant, resting stage – Formed when conditions become unfavorable for growth and feeding – Important factor in spread of disease Life Cycles and Reproduction

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Amoebic dysentery: – Entamoeba histolytica – Fourth most common protozoan infection in the world – Disease is transmitted through ingestion of food or water contaminated with human feces Infective Amoebas: Entamoeba

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1. Green algae are theorized to be the ancestors of land plants. 2. Red algae are the source of agar. 3. Brown algae include kelp and other large ocean “seaweeds.” 4. Golden algae include diatoms, which produce massive amounts of O₂ gas 5. Fire algae include dinoflagellates responsible for producing “red tides,” they can show bioluminescence 6. Euglena can be autotrophs OR heterotrophs

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Red algaeAgar agar

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Nori – sushi wrap (red algae)

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Brown algae - kelp

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Edible brown algae

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Golden algae - diatoms

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Fire algae a dinoflagellatebioluminescence

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Florida red tideDead fish due to red tide

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Dead sea turtle due to red tide

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THE KINGDOM FUNGI

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Fungi are: a) important decomposers b) they produce antibiotics c) serve as a source of food mushrooms, truffles, blue cheese, yeast used to make beer, bread and wine

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a) Plasmodium vivax and other Plasmodium species - Anopheles mosquitoes are biological vectors of these protozoa that cause MALARIA - quinine derivative drugs are the tx of choice but are becoming less effective due to drug resistant stains of the protozoa - insecticide resistant mosquitoes strains are also developing - a vaccine has been sought and may be available in the future - chills, fever, headache, vomiting, death

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Restricted to a belt extending around the equator 300 million new cases reported per year, 90% in Africa 1 million deaths annually Malaria

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Female Anopheles

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Malaria kills an estimated 1 million people every year.

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Bed nets are currently one of the best protections against malaria.

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b) Borrelia burgdorferi - the etiologic agent of LYME DISEASE - transmission occurs through the bite of a deer tick - a classic bull’s eye rash may be seen after being bitten by a tick - get prompt antibiotic treatment!

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Lyme Disease

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Know how to remove a tick.

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Bull’s eye rash from Lyme disease

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c) Rickettsia rickettsii - etiologic agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) - vector is the tick - small animals act as reservoirs - most cases occur in the eastern and southeastern U.S. - sudden headaches, fever, rash when in contact with ticks and dogs; may lead to death when untreated

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American dog tick Skin rash associated with RMSF

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d) Rickettsia prowazekii - etiologic agent of epidemic TYPHUS - the vector is the human body louse - high fever, frontal headache, muscle pain followed by a rash - common during wars and in areas where poverty and famine exist

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Human body louseTyphus rash

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Typhus is common in conditions of overcrowding and poor hygeine Fumigation for lice

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e) Yersinia pestis - etiologic agent of the PLAGUE - vector is the rat flea - the term “black” plague comes from the black spots patients exhibit on their skin that come from clogged and broken capillaries - “black”, pneumonic and bubonic plague all comes from the same bacteria - there is a vaccine with variable protection

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f) Viral Encephalitis - St Louis, Eastern Equine (EEE), Western Equine (WEE), Venezuelan Equine (VEE) and West Nile occur in the U.S. - vector is the mosquito - St Louis is most common in the U.S. - horses get viral encephalitis and have a vaccine - “sentinel” test chickens and rabbits exist in cages throughout the state to detect outbreaks - most people recover, the elderly and very young are most at risk

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g) Other ARBOVIRUSES - YELLOW FEVER is spread by Aedes aegyptii mosquito vectors and other mosquitoes - there is a yellow fever vaccine often required for travelers from yellow fever infected countries - DENGUE FEVER is also caused by Aedes aegyptii mosquito vectors - there is no vaccine currently

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Yellow Fever

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Dengue Fever

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h) Trypanosoma cruzi - etiologic agent of CHAGA’S DISEASE - vector is the reduviid bug (“kissing bug”) - found in central and south America - this protozoan affects the circulatory system

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Romana’s signCardiovascular effects

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i) Trypanosoma brucei - etiologic agent of African Sleeping Sickness - vector is the tsetse fly - prophylactic drugs are not of much use

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Louis Pasteur coined the term “virus” which means poison in latin. All types of cells appear to have viruses that can affect them. Are viruses alive? Although they can reproduce and evolve, they don’t share the other characteristics of living things, especially since VIRUSES ARE NOT MADE OF CELLS!

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Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. Viruses are very species and cell type specific: - usually a virus infects one or two closely related species of organisms and typically only certain cells in those organisms. ANTIBIOTICS ARE USELESS AGAINST VIRUSES since viruses have no cell parts, antibiotics (which attack cell parts) don’t destroy viruses.

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To see a virus we need an electron microscope. Each individual virus particle is called a VIRION.

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All virions contain a protein coat (capsid) and either DNA or RNA but never both; some viruses may also be enveloped.

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CoronavirusInfluenza

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HIVRabies

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HOW DO VIRUSES REPLICATE? - in bacteria there are two general cycles that viruses take to cause infections and disease a) the lytic cycle is acute and rapid b) the lysogenic cycle is chronic and prolonged

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The LYTIC CYCLE is when a virion attaches to a bacterial cell, invades, takes over the cell to produce more virions and then quickly lyses (bursts) the cell releasing viral progeny (offspring). a) attachment b) injection of DNA or RNA c) viral genome causes bacterial cell to make new virions d) lysis and death of the host cell to release virions

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The Lytic Cycle of Viral Reproduction

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The LYSOGENIC CYCLE is when a virion invades the host cell and the viral genetic material becomes incorporated into the host genetic material; where it is replicated and can lie dormant for generation after generation of binary fission. Stresses to the cell cause the prophage to remove itself from the chromosome association causing the lytic cycle to occur in the infected cell.

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The Lysogenic Cycle of Viral Reproduction

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A prophage is the viral DNA when it is inserted into the host cell’s genetic material; in animal cell viruses this same phenomenon is termed a provirus.

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YouTube video of influenza attack

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In humans, viruses can also follow a short or long course of infection and presentation of signs and symptoms. - animal viruses that persist for a long time are called latent viruses (the term provirus replaces the word prophage when referring to animal cell viruses, such as HIV) a) herpes simplex is latent b) herpes zoster (VZV) is latent

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Herpes simplex I- cold sores/fever blisters

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Herpes is a latent virus that lingers in the body, eruptions occur usually due to various forms of stress.

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Herpes simplex 2 - genital herpes

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Herpes keratitis- corneal infection with herpes simplex

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Shingles is the latent form of chicken pox, both are caused by the same virus HHV3 Shingles on faceShingles on abdomen

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Mononucleosis is often called the “kissing disease” although sharing drinking vessels and sneezing are often more common methods of transmission Monospot rapid test

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Epstein-Barr virus: Shares morphological and antigenic features with other herpesviruses Latency and ability to splice into host cell DNA allows it to evade the host immune response More than 90% of the world’s population has been infected with EBV Infectious Mononucleosis

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Splenomegaly is common with “mono”

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Hepatitis B can be transmitted in other ways besides sex; there is a vaccine to protect people from the virus

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Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver that can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer

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Hepatitis C is also oncogenic but there is NO vaccine that can be used to prevent this disease.

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Human Papilloma Virus (Genital warts)

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It appears that there are even smaller infectious particles than even viruses! VIROIDS are naked pieces of RNA known to infect plants. PRIONS are proteinaceous infectious particles that cause diseases like BSE, vCJD, kuru, and scrapie.

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Viroids affecting hops, citrus and nectarines

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Prions are denatured proteins that apparently can cause infections and disease

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Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow disease” – these cows are often one source of “downer cows”

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Kuru was a disease that occurred in the native tribes of New Guinea, when the victorious tribes would cannibalize the losers; the nervous tissue was infected with prions which would infect those eating the brain.

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Scrapie, due to a prion, causes “downer sheep”

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1. Explain the scientific theory concerning the origin of life on earth and how eukaryotic cells theoretically arose from prokaryotic cells. 2. Be able to classify microorganisms by kingdom and know the text microbiologists refer to for bacterial classification. 3. Be able to draw, define and explain the functions of the different parts of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 4. Know the purpose of the glycocalyx, cell wall, cell membrane as a part of a bacterial cell’s cell envelope. 5. Be able to draw and name the various shapes and arrangements of bacterial cells. 6. Explain the differences between the structures of gram + and gram – cell walls. Describe the specific effect penicillin and lysozyme have on bacterial cell walls. 7. Be able to explain the steps in the gram staining procedure and explain why each step is important to produce the final results. 8. Be able to explain the steps in the acid fast staining procedure and explain why each step is important to produce the final results; predict when you would want to do an acid fast stain on a patient sample. 9. Begin your knowledge of tuberculosis and be able to differentiate the purpose of the PPD injection versus the BCG injection. 10. Be able to draw a cell membrane and compare and contrast the processes of diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport and phagocytosis.

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11. Explain your knowledge about a cell’s protoplasm (cytoplasm) and contrast how bacterial intracellular structure differs from that of eukaryotic cells. 12. Compare and contrast the chromosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, be able to explain the function of plasmids and the processes of binary fission, conjugation, transformation and transduction. 13. Explain the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes. 14. Draw to identify flagellar arrangements in bacteria and be able to compare and contrast bacterial flagella from eukaryotic flagella. 15. Explain the significance of bacterial endospores and know what human pathogens are endospore producing; know how endospore producing bacteria are stained. 16. In the kingdom Protista, know the subkingdoms and phyla of the microbes mentioned in the notes. Be able to discuss each of the microbes mentioned from the lecture packet notes. 17. In the kingdom Fungi, be able to discuss each of the fungi mentioned from the lecture packet notes. 18. In the kingdom Animalia, be able to discuss each worm infestation and insect- transmitted disease from the lecture packet notes. 19. Know which common human diseases are due to viral infections and be able to compare and contrast the lytic cycle of viral reproduction from the lysogenic cycle. Know why antibiotics are not recommended for viral infections.

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20. Explain the anatomy of a virus and be able to discuss each viral infection mentioned in the lecture packet notes. 21. Be able to discuss which viruses are oncogenic. 22. Contrast viruses from viroids and prions and be able to discuss the prion-caused infections mentioned in the lecture packet notes.