Note Taking Study Guide THE GREEK ROOTS OF DEMOCRACY

Transcription

1 SECTION Note Taking Study Guide THE GREEK ROOTS OF DEMOCRACY Focus Question: What ideas arose in ancient Greece that contributed to the development of democratic values in the modern world? As you read this section in your textbook, complete the following table to identify main ideas about ancient Greek rulers and philosophers. Rulers and Philosophers Solon Ideas Pisistratus Cleisthenes Pericles Socrates Plato Aristotle 6

2 SECTION Section Summary THE GREEK ROOTS OF DEMOCRACY The ancient Greeks built small, independent city-states. Each was a political unit made up of a city and the surrounding lands. The two most influential city-states were Sparta and Athens. While Sparta stressed stern discipline, Athens glorified the individual and extended political rights to more citizens. In many Greek city-states, the government started as a monarchy and evolved into an aristocracy. The Spartan government included two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. It was in Athens that the idea of democracy first took root. Under an aristocracy, Athenian wealth and power had grown. Discontent, however, spread among ordinary people; merchants and soldiers resented the power of the nobles. This discontent led to the rise of tyrants, who often won the support of the merchant class and the poor by making reforms that helped these groups. The Athenian tyrant Cleisthenes broadened the role of ordinary citizens in government and set up a genuine legislature. In this way, tyrants moved Athens toward democracy. After winning the Persian Wars, Athens emerged as the most powerful city-state in Greece. Under the able statesman Pericles, the government became more democratic. Pericles believed that all male citizens, regardless of wealth or social class, should take part in government. In addition to serving in the Athenian assembly, male citizens over 30 years of age served on a jury for a year. In a civic speech, Pericles praised the Athenian form of government, stating that power was in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people. Greek philosophers also contributed greatly to the development of Western political thought. The philosopher Socrates was a longtime defender of democracy. He maintained that the duties of the individual included submitting to the laws of the state. His student Plato rejected democracy and, instead, argued that the state should regulate every aspect of its citizens lives to provide for their best interests. Plato s most famous student, Aristotle, favored a constitutional government and the rule of law. Aristotle argued that even rulers must be subject to the law. This principle lies at the heart of all modern constitutional governments. READING CHECK In which Greek city-state did the idea of democracy first take root? VOCABULARY STRATEGY What does the word civic mean in the underlined sentence? Note that the word civic comes from the Latin word for citizen. Use your prior knowledge of the word citizen and context clues to help you figure out what civic means. READING SKILL Identify Main Ideas What were Plato s main ideas about government? Review Questions. How did tyrants win the support of the people? 2. How did Pericles directly involve male citizens in Athens government? 7

3 SECTION 2 Note Taking Study Guide THE ROMAN REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE Focus Question: How did the government of Rome develop into an empire? A. As you read Establishing a Republic in your textbook, complete the following chart to understand the effects of changes in Rome s government. From Monarchy to Republic Effects B. As you read From Republic to Empire in your textbook, complete the following chart to identify causes and effects of Rome s development from a republic to an empire. Causes Effects From Republic to Empire 8

4 SECTION 2 Section Summary THE ROMAN REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE In 509 B.C., after driving out the Etruscans, the Romans set up a new government called a republic. The Romans thought a republic would keep any individual from gaining too much power. The 300 members of the republic s senate were all patricians the landholding upper class. Senators, who served for life, made the laws. Each year, the senators elected two consuls from among the patricians. The consuls supervised the business of government and commanded Rome s armies. In the event of war, the senate might choose a dictator to temporarily take complete control over the government. The common people, or plebeians, made up the bulk of the Roman population. In time, the plebeians influenced government to have the laws written down in the Twelve Tables. They also gained the right to elect their own officials, called tribunes. The tribunes could veto laws passed by the senate that were harmful to plebeians. As Rome s political system evolved, its armies expanded Roman power into the eastern Mediterranean. On the north coast of Africa, the Romans also destroyed the city-state of Carthage and established themselves as masters of the western Mediterranean. Expansion, however, created problems. At issue was who should hold power the senate or popular political leaders looking to enact reforms. Soon Rome was plunged into civil war. One military commander, Julius Caesar, emerged from the chaos and seized control. Although Caesar kept the senate and other features of the republic, he forced the senate to make him dictator. Jealous and fearful of his power, Caesar s enemies stabbed him to death. Caesar s grand-nephew Octavian became the new ruler. The senate gave Octavian the title Augustus Caesar, and he became the first emperor. During the time known as the Pax Romana, the Roman empire brought peace, order, unity, and prosperity to the lands it ruled. Trade flowed freely to and from distant lands in Africa and Asia. Merchants carried ivory, gold, spices, silk, and other commodities. People spread ideas as they traveled. The greatest legacy of Rome, however, was the establishment of justice through the law. In the 400s, the emperor Justinian, in what was now the eastern Byzantine empire, reformed the Roman law code. Later, this code influenced the Christian church and medieval monarchs. Review Questions. Why did the Romans set up a republic? READING CHECK Which Roman ruler forced the senate to name him dictator? VOCABULARY STRATEGY What does commodities mean in the underlined sentence? What clues to its meaning can you find in the nearby words? Circle the words in the sentence that could help you learn what commodities means. READING SKILL Understand Effects Identify two effects of Roman rule under the empire. 2. How did Roman expansion in the Mediterranean affect Rome? 9

5 SECTION 3 Note Taking Study Guide PRINCIPLES OF JUDAISM Focus Question: Why did the concept of law mean so much to the Jewish people? As you read this section in your textbook, complete the chart below by listing positive and negative events in Jewish history that were effects of obedience or disobedience to God s laws. Positive Events Negative Events 0

6 SECTION 3 Section Summary PRINCIPLES OF JUDAISM Most of what we know about the ancient Israelites, or the Jews, comes from the Torah, their most sacred text. The story begins with Abraham, who, in Canaan, founded what became the Israelite nation. Later, a famine forced many Israelites to migrate to Egypt, where they spent more than 400 years as enslaved workers. An Israelite named Moses finally led his people in their exodus from Egypt. To the Israelites, each event in their history reflected God s plan for them. They were monotheistic, believing in one God. Their belief in this one God dominated their lives. In this way their beliefs differed from those of nearby peoples. Other ancient peoples invoked particular gods as special protectors, believing that such gods were tied to certain places. The Israelites believed that God had made a covenant with Abraham and his descendants. God promised not only to protect the Israelites but also to provide them with a homeland. To fulfill their part of the covenant, the Israelites believed that they had to remain faithful and obedient to God s laws. The Torah set out many laws, including the Ten Commandments. The first four Commandments stress religious duties of the individual toward God, such as keeping the Sabbath, a holy day for rest and worship. The other Commandments set out rules for individual conduct toward others. Often in Israel s history, spiritual leaders emerged to interpret God s will. These prophets warned that failure to obey God s law would lead their people to disaster. Other prophets preached a strong code of ethics. The Israelites saw their leaders as fully human and bound to obey God s law. In this way, the culture and religion of Judaism contributed to the rise of another important democratic concept, the rule of law. The Babylonian Captivity in 586 B.C. marked the start of the diaspora, or scattering of the Jews. When that captivity ended, not all Jews returned to Canaan, later called Palestine. The scattering of the Jews went on for centuries. In 63 B.C., Rome conquered Jerusalem, the capital of the independent Jewish state of Judea in Palestine. Now the Roman general Pompey turned Judea into a Roman province. READING CHECK To what democratic concept did Judaism contribute? VOCABULARY STRATEGY What does the word invoked mean in the underlined sentence? The word comes from the Latin word vocare, which means to call. Use the meaning of the Latin root and context clues to help you figure out what invoked means. READING SKILL Understand Effects What did the Israelites believe would happen if they failed to obey God s law? Review Questions. How did the religious beliefs of the Israelites differ from those of other ancient peoples? 2. How is the Torah related to the Israelites covenant with God?

7 SECTION 4 Note Taking Study Guide THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY Focus Question: How did Christianity develop from Judaism into a powerful, independent religion? As you read this section in your textbook, complete the flowchart below by identifying causes and effects related to the rise of Christianity. Jesus Attracts Followers Effects: Christianity Spreads Church Gains Power Effects: Effects: 2

8 SECTION 4 Section Summary THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY Early in the Pax Romana, Christianity emerged in the Roman provinces of Galilee and Judea. Its leader was a Jewish man named Jesus. Almost all that we know about his life comes from the New Testament Gospels. Among other things, they relate that Jesus preached in Jerusalem. Twelve close followers, or apostles, helped him. Large crowds gathered to hear Jesus, especially when word spread that he had performed miracles. Jesus teachings were rooted in Jewish law, but he interpreted the law in new ways. He promised to bring salvation and eternal life to anyone who would believe in him. He emphasized God s love and taught the need for justice, morality, and service to others. But Jewish leaders were concerned that Jesus teaching might trigger a revolt and a Roman crackdown. They had Jesus arrested. Roman authorities crucified him. The Gospels state that Jesus rose from the dead. After these events, the apostles and other followers spread Jesus teachings. Paul, a Jew from Asia Minor, brought Jesus teachings to Gentiles, or non-jews. He helped to make Christianity separate from Judaism and to develop into a world religion. However, for a time Christianity remained a sect within Judaism. The main difference between this sect and traditional Judaism was the Christian focus on Jesus as the messiah and the center of their faith. Rome had a long history of tolerance of varied religions, but that tolerance did not extend to Christianity. Christians refused to make sacrifices to the emperor and would not honor Roman gods. Although the Romans persecuted Christians, Christianity continued to spread. Gradually, the scattered Christian communities organized a structured church hierarchy made up of clergy, such as priests and bishops. During the Middle Ages, the Christian church became the most powerful force in Europe. In the West, the shared heritage of Jews and Christians is known as the Judeo-Christian tradition. At the heart of this tradition are the moral and ethical principles put forth in the Bible. These principles are the basic assumptions behind many Western beliefs, including fair treatment, or justice. READING CHECK Who was Paul? VOCABULARY STRATEGY What does the word hierarchy mean in the underlined sentence? The word hierarchy is a synonym for the words order and rank. Use these synonyms and any context clues to help you figure out what hierarchy means. READING SKILL Identify Causes and Effects Why did the Roman empire not tolerate Christianity, and what was the result? Review Questions. What did Jesus promise to those who believed in him? 2. What was the main difference between the new Christian sect and traditional Judaism? 3

9 SECTION 5 Note Taking Study Guide DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN ENGLAND Focus Question: How did Parliament emerge victorious in the struggle for political power in medieval England? As you read this section in your textbook, complete the chart below with the multiple causes of the developments in democracy that took place in England. Growth of Royal Power Evolving Traditions of Government Triumph of Parliament 4

10 SECTION 5 Section Summary DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENTS IN ENGLAND During the early Middle Ages, European monarchs needed protection from invasion. In response to this need for security, a new system of rule known as feudalism evolved. In this system, lesser lords pledged their service and loyalty to greater lords, with the greatest lord the king at the top of the feudal pyramid. Royal power continued to grow. When William the Conqueror became king of England, he had a census taken and used this information to build an efficient system of tax collecting. Later, during the reign of King Henry II, judges traveled throughout England to enforce royal laws. The decisions of these royal courts became the foundation of English common law. Unlike local feudal laws, common law applied to the whole of England. It standardized laws and punishments. English kings repeatedly clashed with nobles and the church, as each tried to dominate in England. Out of those power struggles evolved new traditions of government. For example, the document called the Magna Carta contained two very important principles that citizens had certain rights and that even the monarch must obey the law. As Parliament developed, it won the right to approve any new taxes. In this way Parliament could check, or limit, the power of the monarch. In 625 when Charles I became king, he ruled as an absolute monarch. He tried to dissolve Parliament and run the government without it. The struggle between Charles I and Parliament became so great that civil war erupted. Parliament s forces, led by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the king s troops. After a trial, Charles I was executed a clear signal that no English ruler in the future could ignore the rule of law. After some later turmoil, Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary of Orange. Before they could be crowned, they had to accept the English Bill of Rights, which restated the traditional rights of English citizens, such as trial by jury. It also abolished cruel or unjust punishments and affirmed the principle of habeas corpus. The English Bill of Rights established a type of government called a limited monarchy. English rulers had to obey the law and work with Parliament. These events in England s history were important to the development of democracy. READING CHECK What document did William and Mary have to accept before they could become monarchs of England? VOCABULARY STRATEGY What does the word dominate mean in the underlined sentence? The word comes from the Latin word dominus, which means master. Use the meaning of the Latin root and context clues to help you learn what dominate means. READING SKILL Recognize Multiple Causes Identify the causes of civil war between Parliament and Charles I. Review Questions. How did common law differ from feudal laws? 2. What principles did the English Bill of Rights establish? 5

The Greek Roots of Democracy Chapter 1 Section 1 Objectives How democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens How Greek philosophers viewed reason, democracy, tyranny, and rule of law City-States

SSWH3 THE STUDENT WILL EXAMINE THE POLITICAL, PHILOSOPHICAL, AND CULTURAL INTERACTION OF CLASSICAL MEDITERRANEAN SOCIETIES FROM 700 BCE TO 400 CE. A. COMPARE THE ORIGINS AND STRUCTURE OF THE GREEK POLIS,

Chapter 5: Rome and the Rise of Christianity, 600 B.C. A.D. 500 Rome began as a small village and became the seat of power of one of the greatest empires the world has known. The Romans were greatly influenced

Ancient Rome Unit Plan Name: Laura Johnson Unit Overview This unit will focus on Ancient Rome, the rise of the Roman Republic, the transition of that republic to an empire, and the fall of that empire.

Bible history timeline By George Konig and Ray Konig www.konig.org Below is a list of some historical events that are important to the study of the Bible and its prophecies. The research for this Biblical

Unit 5 Lesson 3 The Early Hebrews Lesson 3 The Early Hebrews Directions Fill in the Blank Read each sentence. Fill in the blank with the word from the word pair that best completes each sentence. 1. After

The Rise of Democratic Ideas Prologue Important ideas that led to modern democracy can be traced back through history The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome Ancient Greece Cities develop in small fertile

Unit 7 Lesson 2 The Republic and Roman Expansion Lesson 2 The Republic and Roman Expansion 1. checks and balances a. A government with three parts 2. civic duty b. The most powerful elected officials in

The Roman Republic The Growth and Expansion January 4, 2016 AIM: To what extent does the political legacy of Ancient Rome continue today? DO NOW: Prepare for outline quiz. Homework: Outline The Rise of

Chapter 7 Section 1 Founding the Roman Republic Identify the role of geography played in Italy s and Rome s development Describe the form of government of the Roman Republic Explain the Conflict of the

1 Chapter 8 The Rise of Ancient Rome Section 1 The Roman Republic Section 2 The Roman Empire Notebook Number Mr. Graver Old World Cultures Name Period 2 Just when you thought an Empire couldn t get any

WORLD HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY: ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS Students in grade six expand their understanding of history by studying the people and events that ushered in the dawn of the major Western and non- Western

CHAPTER 3 Section 4 European Kingdoms and Feudalism Germanic states emerged in the former Western Roman Empire and created a new European civilization. European Kingdoms and Feudalism (cont.) By 500 A.D.,

Name Date Mastering the Content Circle the letter next to the best answer. Assessment: From Republic to Empire 1. Which of the following did Rome do during the first period of expansion, before 264 B.C.E.?

CARCI Middle School Pt. 1 The Roman Republic 1 The Roman Republic The ancient city of Rome was at the center of the peninsula we now call Italy. After being ruled by kings, the Romans formed a republic.

Sixth Grade Social Studies District Curriculum Map Early Humans and the Rise of Civilizations Chapters 1-6 People have evolved through the uses and discoveries of technologies Learnings Communities and

Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile How did geography influence ancient Egypt? What were the main features and achievements of Egypt s three kingdoms? How did trade and warfare affect Egypt and Nubia? The Egyptian

CHRISTIANITY AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE How did the Roman Empire help the spread of Christianity? HOW DID THE ROMAN EMPIRE HELP THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY? Areas controlled by the Romans were generally peaceful.

Ancient Rome Geography I. The Italian Peninsula shares much of its weather with Like Greece, Italy is a a. Surrounded by water from the, and b. North is blocked by I Italy is divided in half by IV. Area

Name: Class: Date: Study Guide for Ancient Greece The Romans so admired them, that they adopted many of their cultural ideas. Even today, Greek art, ideas, and mythology still play an important role in

The Roman Republic Geography Rome s location helped it become a major power in the ancient world. The geography of Italy made land travel difficult but helped the Romans prosper. Most of Italy is covered

1 Note Taking Study Guide EMPIRES OF INDIA AND CHINA As you read this section in your textbook, complete the outline below to summarize information about the religions and empires of India and China. I.

7th Grade World Civilization Objectives Unit One Beginning of Human Civilization Unit Students will explain the historic development and achievements of the early civilizations. Explain how geography played

Rome: From Village to Empire Topography and Geography Like Greece, Italy is a mountainous peninsula Apennines & Alps Fertile plains in the north below the Alps Favorable climate, fertile land and constant

SEPTEMBER WHI.1 Historical Research and Geographical Analysis *(ongoing throughout year) identify, analyze, and interpret primary and secondary sources use maps, globes, artifacts, pictures identify major

Geography and the Rise of Rome The Big Idea Main Ideas Rome s location and government helped it become a major power in the ancient world. The geography of Italy made land travel difficult but helped the

Section 4 Step-by-Step Review and Preview Students have learned how trade influenced the civilizations of Africa and Asia. Now they will read about the development of civilization in Europe. SECTION Cinnamon,

Rise of the Roman Republic Timeline 509 BCE: Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome, was overthrown by a group of patricians upset over his abuse of power. The Roman Republic was proclaimed. 494 BCE:

Name Date Assessment: From the Crusades to New Muslim Empires Mastering the Content Circle the letter next to the best answer. 1. Which of the events below was a result of the event in the headline? Seljuk

1. What were the important geographic features of ancient Rome that shaped where people lived and what they were able to grow on the land? Cities by rivers On top of hills for defense Alps Mountains Apennines

Sparta was the greatest military power in the Greek city-states Spartans lived in harsh conditions, without luxuries, to make them tough fighters. There is much less information about the Spartans than

CHAPTER 10 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Study Guide Answers 1. Describe the geography of Italy. In geography terms, Italy is a peninsula. It has a rugged landscape with many mountains and hills. It is surrounded

SECTION 1 Note Taking Study Guide THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE Focus Question: What made the Byzantine empire rich and successful for so long, and why did it finally crumble? As you read this section in your textbook,

Leading up to the New Testament In this lesson, we will look at the history of Israel. We will also pay attention to the growing Jewish expectation for coming of a Messiah and developments in the Jewish

St. Michael-Albertville High School Teacher: Derek Johnson World History I (Master) September 2014 CEQ: Early Civilizations 1. Explain how the first 1. I can explain how the first cities emerged. Early

History of Law in Society Laws in Canada Our legal system has its origins in many cultures including aspects of Mosaic Law, Greek Law, Roman Law, French Law, and British Laws. In Canada, we are also influenced

The Establishment of the Roman Republic (c) Student Handouts, Inc. www.studenthandouts.com Geography of Rome Protection for Rome and Italy Rome built on seven hills Alps Barrier to the north Seas Barriers

NM UNIT 8: Rome Benchmark 1-A. New Mexico: explore and explain how people and events have influenced the development of New Mexico up to the present day: the relationships among ancient civilizations of

CHAPTER 10 & CHAPTER 13, SECTON 1 STUDY GUDE Define Pax Romana- What are the dates of Pax Romana? Which emperors mark the beginning and end of Pax Romana in the Roman Empire? Beginning End Who was emperor

SECTION 1 Note Taking Study Guide THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE Focus Question: What made the Byzantine empire rich and successful for so long, and why did it finally crumble? As you read this section in your textbook,

Life in the Forum Complete the worksheet on the table for Bellwork Homework: Progress reports must be signed and brought back by Friday (5 points) Objectives: I can compare the system of Greek democracy

Name Date Assessment: The Rise of the Roman Republic 1. Who first ruled early Rome? A. Etruscan kings B. military consuls C. Roman senators D. plebeian assemblies 2. According to legend, events on a visit

11 Easy Reading Edition September 4 10 The Choice of Grace 1 SABBATH SEPTEMBER 4 READ FOR THIS WEEK S LESSON: Romans 10; Romans 11. MEMORY VERSE: So here is what I ask. Did God turn his back on his people?

SECTION 1 EARLY PEOPLE OF THE AEGEAN Focus Question: How did the Minoans and Mycenaeans shape early Greek civilizations? As you read the section in your textbook, complete the table below to record the

2. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam The world religions that arose in the Middle East Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share some common traits. The most important is monotheism, the belief in a single,

1 American Revolution - Issues and Events Ending of the French - Indian War (1763) Britain - We expect the colonists to pay for the protection of the British Army! Colonies - We refuse to pay for taxes

Sixth Grade Unit 5: The Development of Rome Suggested Length of Time: 10 Weeks Overarching Standards: 6.7 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the

18 Who Jesus Is LESSON 1 Finding Out About Jesus Who do you think Jesus is? Some people say He was a great teacher. Others say He was a prophet, a philosopher, a Western god, or a good man whose example

E.Q. What were the causes and effects of the Crusades? Background Information http://jwwartick.com Background Information Three major religious groups all claimed Jerusalem, in the land of Palestine, as

Paul s Ministry Session 1 A New Name, Paul s Conversion Session 1 Paul s Conversion Jesus saved Saul from his sins As soon as the Church was established in Jerusalem and began to grow exponentially, the

The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic Chapter 2: The Republic Matures By Dallin Hardy The Government of Rome Two groups of Romans Patricians Large landowners Allowed to hold public office Plebeians Craftsmen

8.2 Government in Athens Essential Question: What factors shaped government in Greece? Ancient Greece Big Idea: The people of Athens tried many different forms of government before creating a democracy.

Unit 9 Lesson 5 Popes, Kings and Challenges to the Church Lesson 5 Popes, Kings and Challenges to the Church Directions Read each False statement below. Replace each underlined word with one from the word

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE Origins of the Ottoman Empire After Muhammad s death in 632 A.D., Muslim faith & power spread throughout Middle East Islam Map By 1215, foreign invaders (Mongols from eastern Asia) took

1 1 The Structure of the Bible MEMORIZE: 2 Timothy 3:16 All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: G od

Christianity and Fall of the Roman Empire Lecture Notes ** MAKE SURE YOU EMAIL OR SEE ME DURING AC LAB IF THERE IS SOMETHING ON HERE YOU DON T UNDERSTAND THIS WILL FOLLOW ALONG WITH YOUR TEXTBOOK READING

Open Learning School for In Service Training and Development Introducing the New Testament A11A Part A: The Gospels and Acts Open Learning School for In Service Training and Development William Booth College

I. Introduction Unity in Christ September 16, 2012 Ephesians 2:11-22 Since, as a whole, the Jews in Ephesus wanted nothing to do with Paul and his so-called Messiah, the church in Ephesus was made up largely

The Greeks 500 300 BC Greek City States Early Greek sates called polis Usually built around a market or fortified hill top called an acropolis Greek City-State Political Monarch - ruled by a single person

Unit 5 Lesson 4 Jewish Beliefs and Texts Lesson 4 Jewish Beliefs and Texts Fill in the Blank Read each sentence. Fill in the blank with the word from the word pair that best completes each sentence. 1.

Let s Begin On March 15th, 44 BCE, Roman dictator Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of about 60 of his own senators. Why did these self-titled Liberators want him dead? And why did Brutus, whose

Ancient Rome Week 1 Students will be able to describe the transition from a Republic to an Empire. ANCIENT ROME Students will be able to describe the transition from a Republic to an Empire; the Rise and

Rome Part II: The Rise of Christianity, Byzantium, and the Fall of the West. Development of Christianity Religion is extremely important to Rome They believe that peace and prosperity depend upon a right

Essential Questions: What were indulgences? Why was Martin Luther opposed to the sale of indulgences? Why did Roman Catholic Church officials respond to Luther s ninety-five theses with the eventual excommunication