Perrett received the British Psychological Society President's Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Knowledge in 2000,[8] the Golden Brain Award of Minerva Foundation in 2002,[9] the Experimental Psychology Society Mid-Career prize (2008),[10] and a British Academy Wolfson Research Professorship (2009–2012).[11]

1.
FRSE
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSE, examples of fellows include Peter Higgs and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Previous fellows have included Melvin Calvin and Benjamin Franklin, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for more examples

2.
Professor
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Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority

3.
Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal

4.
University of St Andrews
–
The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894

5.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses

6.
Mate choice
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Mate choice, also known as intersexual selection, is an evolutionary process in which selection is dependent on the attractiveness of an individuals phenotypic traits. Evolutionary change is possible because the qualities that are desired in a mate are more frequently passed on to each generation over time, mate choice is one of two components of sexual selection, the other being intrasexual selection. Ideas on sexual selection were first introduced in 1871, by Charles Darwin, at present, there are five mechanisms that explain how mate choice has evolved over time. These are direct phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, the Fisherian runaway hypothesis, indicator traits, in systems where mate choice exists, one sex is competitive with same-sex members and the other sex is choosy. There are direct and indirect benefits of being the selective individual, in most species, females are the choosy sex which discriminates among competitive males, but there are several examples of reversed roles. It is preferable for an individual to choose a mate of the same species. Other factors that can have an impact on mate choice include pathogen stress, Charles Darwin first expressed his ideas on sexual selection and mate choice in his book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex in 1871. Darwin proposed two explanations for the existence of such traits, these traits are useful in combat or they are preferred by females. This article focuses on the latter, Darwin treated natural selection and sexual selection as two different topics, although in the 1930s biologists defined sexual selection as being a part of natural selection. In 1915, Ronald Fisher wrote a paper on the evolution of female preference, fifteen years later, he expanded this theory in a book called The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. There he described a scenario where feedback between mate preference and a results in elaborate characters such as the long tail of the male peacock. Thus a female must be selective when choosing a mate because the quality of her offspring depends on it, males must fight, in the form of intra-sexual competition, for the opportunity to mate because not all males will be chosen by females. In 1972, soon after Williams revival of the subject, Robert L. Trivers presented his parental investment theory, Trivers defined parental investment as any investment made by the parent that benefits his or her current offspring at the cost of investment in future offspring. These investments include the costs of producing gametes as well as any other care or efforts that parents provide after birth or hatching, reformulating Batemans ideas, Trivers argued that the sex which exhibits less parental investment will have to compete for mating opportunities with the sex that invests more. The differences in levels of parental investment create the condition that favours mating biases, being choosy must incur a fitness advantage in order for this behaviour to evolve. Two types of benefits are thought to drive the evolutionary mechanisms of mate choice. These benefits include but are not limited to increased quality, increased parental care. There is much support for maintenance of mate choice by direct benefits, indirect benefits increase genetic fitness for the offspring, and thereby increase the parents inclusive fitness

7.
Peer review
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Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work. It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field, peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is used to determine an academic papers suitability for publication. Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs, professional peer review focuses on the performance of professionals, with a view to improving quality, upholding standards, or providing certification. In academia, peer review is common in decisions related to faculty advancement, a prototype professional peer-review process was recommended in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishāq ibn ʻAlī al-Ruhāwī. He stated that a physician had to make duplicate notes of a patients condition on every visit. Professional peer review is common in the field of health care, further, since peer review activity is commonly segmented by clinical discipline, there is also physician peer review, nursing peer review, dentistry peer review, etc. Many other professional fields have some level of peer review process, accounting, law, engineering, aviation, and even forest fire management. Peer review is used in education to achieve certain learning objectives and this may take a variety of forms, including closely mimicking the scholarly peer review processes used in science and medicine. The peer review helps the publisher decide whether the work should be accepted, considered acceptable with revisions, peer review requires a community of experts in a given field, who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review. Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scientific journals, the European Union has been using peer review in the Open Method of Co-ordination of policies in the fields of active labour market policy since 1999. In 2004, a program of peer reviews started in social inclusion and these usually meet over two days and include visits to local sites where the policy can be seen in operation. The meeting is preceded by the compilation of a report on which participating peer countries submit comments. The results are published on the web, the State of California is the only U. S. state to mandate scientific peer review. This requirement is incorporated into the California Health and Safety Code Section 57004, thus, the terminology has poor standardization and specificity, particularly as a database search term

8.
Psychological Science (journal)
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Psychological Science, the flagship journal of the Association for Psychological Science, is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by SAGE Publications. It is one of the most influential journals in psychology, Psychological Science publishes research reports and short commentaries. The journal publishes research articles, short reports, and research reports spanning the entire spectrum of the science of psychology. Psychological Science is a general-interest journal that publishes articles with a general theoretical significance, the articles include topics from cognitive, social, developmental and health psychology, as well as behavioral neuroscience and biopsychology. The journal also publishes studies that employ novel research methodologies and innovative analysis techniques and its editor is D. Stephen Lindsay from the University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Published monthly, the journal appears online and in print with “online first” articles appearing weekly on the journals website, in addition to a large number of institutional subscribers worldwide, the 25,000 members of the Association for Psychological Science receive the journal as part of their membership

9.
Nature (journal)
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Nature is an English multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. Nature claims a readership of about 3 million unique readers per month. The journal has a circulation of around 53,000. There are also sections on books and arts, the remainder of the journal consists mostly of research papers, which are often dense and highly technical. There are many fields of research in which important new advances, the papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards. In 2007 Nature received the Princess of Asturias Award for Communications, the enormous progress in science and mathematics during the 19th century was recorded in journals written mostly in German or French, as well as in English. Britain underwent enormous technological and industrial changes and advances particularly in the half of the 19th century. In addition, during this period, the number of popular science periodicals doubled from the 1850s to the 1860s. According to the editors of these popular science magazines, the publications were designed to serve as organs of science, in essence, Nature, first created in 1869, was not the first magazine of its kind in Britain. While Recreative Science had attempted to more physical sciences such as astronomy and archaeology. Two other journals produced in England prior to the development of Nature were the Quarterly Journal of Science and Scientific Opinion, established in 1864 and 1868 and these similar journals all ultimately failed. The Popular Science Review survived longest, lasting 20 years and ending its publication in 1881, Recreative Science ceased publication as the Student, the Quarterly Journal, after undergoing a number of editorial changes, ceased publication in 1885. The Reader terminated in 1867, and finally, Scientific Opinion lasted a mere 2 years, janet Browne has proposed that far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose. Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made Nature a longer-lasting success than its predecessors and this is what Lockyers journal did from the start. Norman Lockyer, the founder of Nature, was a professor at Imperial College and he was succeeded as editor in 1919 by Sir Richard Gregory. Gregory helped to establish Nature in the scientific community. During the years 1945 to 1973, editorship of Nature changed three times, first in 1945 to A. J. V. Gale and L. J. F. Brimble, then to John Maddox in 1965, and finally to David Davies in 1973. In 1980, Maddox returned as editor and retained his position until 1995, philip Campbell has since become Editor-in-chief of all Nature publications

10.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network

11.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

12.
Chicago Sun-Times
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The Chicago Sun-Times is a daily newspaper published in Chicago, Illinois. It is the paper of the Sun-Times Media Group. The Chicago Sun-Times is the oldest continuously published daily newspaper in the city and it began in 1844 as the Chicago Daily Journal, which was the first newspaper to publish the rumor, now believed false, that a cow owned by Catherine OLeary was responsible for the Chicago fire. The Evening Journal, whose West Side building at 17-19 S. Canal was undamaged, in 1929, the newspaper was relaunched as the Chicago Daily Illustrated Times. The modern paper grew out of the 1948 merger of the Chicago Sun, founded December 4,1941 by Marshall Field III, and the Chicago Daily Times. The newspaper was owned by Field Enterprises, controlled by the Marshall Field family, when the Daily News ended its run in 1978, much of its staff, including Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist Mike Royko, were moved to the Sun-Times. During the Field period, the newspaper had a populist, progressive character that leaned Democratic but was independent of the citys Democratic establishment, although the graphic style was urban tabloid, the paper was well regarded for journalistic quality and did not rely on sensational front-page stories. It typically ran articles from the Washington Post/Los Angeles Times wire service, the advice column Ask Ann Landers debuted in 1943. Ann Landers was the pseudonym of staff writer Ruth Crowley, who answered readers letters until 1955, eppie Lederer, sister of Dear Abby columnist Abigail van Buren, assumed the role thereafter as Ann Landers. Kups Column, written by Irv Kupcinet, also made its first appearance in 1943, Jack Olsen joined the Sun-Times as editor-in-chief in 1954, before moving on to Time and Sports Illustrated magazines and authoring true-crime books. Hired as literary editor in 1955 was Hoke Norris, who covered the civil-rights movement for the Sun-Times. Jerome Holtzman became a member of the Chicago Sun sports department after first being a boy for the Daily News in the 1940s. He and Edgar Munzel, another longtime sportswriter for the paper, famed for his World War II exploits, two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist Bill Mauldin made the Sun-Times his home base in 1962. The following year, Mauldin drew one of his most renowned illustrations, two years out of college, Roger Ebert became a staff writer in 1966, and a year later was named Sun-Times film critic. He continued in this role for the remainder of his life, after the friend wrote a story about it, Grizzard fired Banks. With that, the employees union intervened, a federal arbitrator ruled for Banks and 13 months later. The articles received considerable publicity and acclaim, but a nomination for the Pulitzer Prize met resistance from some who believed the Mirage series represented a form of entrapment. In March 1978, the afternoon publication the Chicago Daily News, sister paper of the Sun-Times

13.
San Jose Mercury News
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The Mercury News, often locally known as The Merc, is an American daily newspaper, published in San Jose, California. It is published by Bay Area News Group, a subsidiary of Digital First Media, formerly published as the San Jose Mercury News, Bay Area News Group announced in March 2016 that the newspaper would be re-branded as The Mercury News as part of a consolidation plan. The Mercury News launched on April 5,2016, the San Jose Mercury was founded in 1851 as the San Jose Weekly Visitor, while the San Jose News was founded in 1883. In 1942, the Mercury purchased the News and continued publishing both newspapers, with the Mercury as the paper and the News as the evening paper. In 1983, the newspapers were merged into the San Jose Mercury News, with morning, the afternoon edition was later abandoned. Because of its location in Silicon Valley, the Mercury News has covered many of the key events in the history of computing, Ridder bought the Mercury and News in 1952. Ridder merged with Knight to form Knight Ridder in 1974, on March 13,2006 The McClatchy Company announced their agreement to purchase Knight Ridder. McClatchy decided that it would be expedient to explore the immediate resale of the Mercury News, on April 26,2006 it was announced that Denver-based MediaNews Group would buy the Mercury News. The suit, which sought to undo the purchase of both the Mercury News and the Contra Costa Times, was scheduled to go to trial on April 30,2007. On April 25,2007, days before the trial was scheduled to begin, in September 2014 the Mercury News moved to downtown San Jose, leaving its purpose-built headquarters that opened in 1967. Cited as reasons for the move were that the presses were no longer on site. Tim Kawakami, a sportswriter, has been a staff employee for many years. Assistant managing editor David Yarnold was also a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 2004 for a corruption investigation. The Mercury News was also named one of the five best-designed newspapers in the world by the Society for News Design for work done in 2001, in August 1996 the Mercury News published Dark Alliance, a series of investigative articles by reporter Gary Webb. The series sparked three federal investigations, but other such as the Los Angeles Times later published articles suggesting that the series claims were overstated. List of newspapers in California San Jose Mercury News West Magazine www. mercurynews. com, the newspapers official website

14.
New Scientist
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New Scientist is a weekly English-language international science magazine, founded in 1956. Since 1996 it has run a website. Sold in retail outlets and on subscription, the magazine covers current developments, news, reviews and commentary on science and it also publishes speculative articles, ranging from the technical to the philosophical. A readers letters section discusses recent articles, and discussions take place on the website. New Scientist, based in London, publishes editions in the UK, the United States, the magazine was founded in 1956 by Tom Margerison, Max Raison and Nicholas Harrison as The New Scientist, with Issue 1 on 22 November, priced one shilling. The British monthly science magazine Science Journal, published 1965–71, was merged with New Scientist to form New Scientist, originally, the cover had a text list of articles rather than a picture. Pages were numbered sequentially for an entire volume, as is the norm for academic journals. Until the 1970s, colour was not used except for on the cover, from the beginning of 1961 The was dropped from the title. From 1965, the front cover was illustrated, since its first issue, New Scientist has written about the applications of science, through its coverage of technology. For example, the first issue included an article Where next from Calder Hall, on the future of nuclear power in the UK, a topic that it has covered throughout its history. In 1964 there was a regular Science in British Industry section with several items, an article in the magazines 10th anniversary issues provides anecdotes on the founding of the magazine. In 1970, the Reed Group, which went on to become Reed Elsevier, Reed retained the magazine when it sold most of its consumer titles in a management buyout to what is now IPC Media. The Grimbledon Down comic strip, by the renowned cartoonist Bill Tidy, issues of New Scientist from Issue 1 to the end of 1989 have been made free to read online. In the first half of 2013, the circulation of New Scientist averaged 125,172. While this was a 4. 3% reduction on the previous years figure, for the 2014 UK circulation fell by 3. 2% but stronger international sales, increased the circulation to 129,585. New Scientist currently contains the sections, Leader, News, Technology, Opinion, Features, CultureLab, Feedback, The Last Word. A Tom Gauld cartoon appears on the Letters page, there are 51 issues a year, with a Christmas and New Year double issue. The double issue in 2014 was the 3, 000th edition of the magazine, the Editor is Rowan Hooper, Editor-in-chief is Sumit Paul-Choudhury and Editor-at-Large is Jeremy Webb

15.
Newsweek
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Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933. It was published in four English language editions and 12 global editions written in the language of the circulation region, between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek underwent internal and external contractions designed to shift the magazines focus and audience while improving its finances. Instead, losses accelerated, revenue dropped 38 percent from 2007 to 2009, in November 2010, Newsweek merged with the news and opinion website The Daily Beast, forming The Newsweek Daily Beast Company, after negotiations between the owners of the two publications. Tina Brown, The Daily Beasts editor-in-chief, served as the editor of both publications, Newsweek was jointly owned by the estate of the late Harman and the diversified American media and Internet company IAC. Newsweek ceased print publication with the December 31,2012, issue and transitioned to an all-digital format, IBT Media relaunched a print edition of Newsweek on March 7,2014. In 2003, worldwide circulation was more than 4 million, including 2.7 million in the U. S, Newsweek publishes editions in Japanese, Korean, Polish, Spanish, Rioplatense Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish, as well as an English language Newsweek International. Russian Newsweek, published since 2004, was shut in October 2010, the Bulletin incorporated an international news section from Newsweek. Based in New York City, the magazine claimed 22 bureaus in 2011, New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago/Detroit, Dallas, Miami, Washington, D. C. Boston and San Francisco, and others overseas in London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Jerusalem, Baghdad, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Beijing, South Asia, Cape Town, Mexico City and Buenos Aires. News-Week was launched in 1933 by Thomas J. C. Martyn and he obtained financial backing from a group of U. S. stockholders which included Ward Cheney, of the Cheney silk family, John Hay Whitney, and Paul Mellon, son of Andrew W. Mellon. Paul Mellons ownership in Newsweek apparently represented the first attempt of the Mellon family to function journalistically on a national scale, the group of original owners invested around $2.5 million. Other large stockholders prior to 1946 were public utilities investment banker Stanley Childs, journalist Samuel T. Williamson served as the first editor-in-chief of Newsweek. The first issue of the magazine was dated 17 February 1933, seven photographs from the weeks news were printed on the first issues cover. In 1937 News-Week merged with the weekly journal Today, which had founded in 1932 by future New York Governor and diplomat W. Averell Harriman. In 1937 Malcolm Muir took over as president and editor-in-chief and he changed the name to Newsweek, emphasized interpretive stories, introduced signed columns, and launched international editions. Over time the magazine developed a spectrum of material, from breaking stories and analysis to reviews. The magazine was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1961, osborn Elliott was named editor of Newsweek in 1961 and became the editor in chief in 1969. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters, edward Kosner became editor from 1975 to 1979 after directing the magazine’s extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974

16.
The Independent
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The Independent is a British online newspaper. The printed edition of the paper ceased in March 2016, nicknamed the Indy, it began as a broadsheet newspaper, but changed to tabloid format in 2003. Until September 2011, the paper described itself on the banner at the top of every newspaper as free from party political bias and it tends to take a pro-market stance on economic issues. The daily edition was named National Newspaper of the Year at the 2004 British Press Awards. In June 2015, it had a daily circulation of just below 58,000,85 per cent down from its 1990 peak. On 12 February 2016, it was announced that The Independent, the last print edition of The Independent on Sunday was published on 20 March 2016, with the main paper ceasing print publication the following Saturday. Launched in 1986, the first issue of The Independent was published on 7 October in broadsheet format and it was produced by Newspaper Publishing plc and created by Andreas Whittam Smith, Stephen Glover and Matthew Symonds. All three partners were former journalists at The Daily Telegraph who had left the paper towards the end of Lord Hartwells ownership, marcus Sieff was the first chairman of Newspaper Publishing, and Whittam Smith took control of the paper. The paper was created at a time of a change in British newspaper publishing. Rupert Murdoch was challenging long-accepted practices of the print unions and ultimately defeated them in the Wapping dispute, consequently, production costs could be reduced which, it was said at the time, created openings for more competition. As a result of controversy around Murdochs move to Wapping, the plant was effectively having to function under siege from sacked print workers picketing outside, the Independent attracted some of the staff from the two Murdoch broadsheets who had chosen not to move to his companys new headquarters. Launched with the advertising slogan It is, and challenging both The Guardian for centre-left readers and The Times as the newspaper of record, The Independent reached a circulation of over 400,000 by 1989. Competing in a market, The Independent sparked a general freshening of newspaper design as well as, within a few years. Some aspects of production merged with the paper, although the Sunday paper retained a largely distinct editorial staff. It featured spoofs of the other papers mastheads with the words The Rupert Murdoch or The Conrad Black, a number of other media companies were interested in the paper. Tony OReillys media group and Mirror Group Newspapers had bought a stake of about a third each by mid-1994, in March 1995, Newspaper Publishing was restructured with a rights issue, splitting the shareholding into OReillys Independent News & Media, MGN, and Prisa. In April 1996, there was another refinancing, and in March 1998, OReilly bought the other 54% of the company for £30 million, brendan Hopkins headed Independent News, Andrew Marr was appointed editor of The Independent, and Rosie Boycott became editor of The Independent on Sunday. Marr introduced a dramatic if short-lived redesign which won critical favour but was a commercial failure, Marr admitted his changes had been a mistake in his book, My Trade

17.
Evolutionary psychology
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Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. The theories and findings of EP have applications in fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics. Evolutionary psychology is an approach that views human nature as the product of a set of evolved psychological adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment. Evolutionary psychology adopts an understanding of the mind that is based on the theory of mind. EP views the brain as comprising many functional mechanisms, called psychological adaptations or evolved cognitive mechanisms or cognitive modules. Some mechanisms, termed domain-specific, deal with recurrent adaptive problems over the course of evolutionary history. Domain-general mechanisms, on the hand, are proposed to deal with evolutionary novelty. EP has roots in psychology and evolutionary biology but also draws on behavioral ecology, artificial intelligence, genetics, ethology, anthropology, archaeology, biology. Most of what is now labeled as sociobiological research is now confined to the field of behavioral ecology, Nikolaas Tinbergens four categories of questions can help to clarify the distinctions between several different, but complementary, types of explanations. Evolutionary psychology focuses primarily on the why, Questions, while traditional psychology focuses on the how. Evolutionary psychology is founded on several core premises, the brain is an information processing device, and it produces behavior in response to external and internal inputs. The brains adaptive mechanisms were shaped by natural and sexual selection, different neural mechanisms are specialized for solving problems in humanitys evolutionary past. The brain has evolved specialized neural mechanisms that were designed for solving problems that recurred over deep evolutionary time, Human psychology consists of many specialized mechanisms, each sensitive to different classes of information or inputs. These mechanisms combine to produce manifest behavior, Evolutionary psychology has its historical roots in Charles Darwins theory of natural selection. In The Origin of Species, Darwin predicted that psychology would develop an evolutionary basis, Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Darwins work inspired William Jamess functionalist approach to psychology, Darwins theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do

18.
Reciprocal altruism
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The concept was initially developed by Robert Trivers to explain the evolution of cooperation as instances of mutually altruistic acts. The concept is close to the strategy of tit for tat used in game theory and this concept finds its roots in the work of W. D. Hamilton, who developed mathematical models for predicting the likelihood of an altruistic act to be performed on behalf of ones kin. Putting this into the form of a strategy in a repeated prisoner’s dilemma would mean to cooperate unconditionally in the first period and behave cooperatively as long as the other agent does as well. If chances of meeting another reciprocal altruist are high enough or the game is repeated for a long amount of time. This distinction leads to the fact that in contrast to reciprocal altruism, there are two additional conditions necessary …for reciprocal altruism to evolve, A mechanism for detecting cheaters must exist. A large number of opportunities to exchange aid must exist, the first two conditions are necessary for altruism as such, while the third is distinguishing reciprocal altruism from simple mutualism and the fourth makes the interaction reciprocal. Condition number five is required as otherwise non-altruists may always exploit altruistic behaviour without any consequences, however, it is pointed out that this “conditioning device” does not need to be conscious. Condition number six is required to avoid cooperation breakdown through backwards induction—a possibility suggested by game theoretical models, the following examples could be understood as altruism. However, showing reciprocal altruism in an unambiguous way requires more evidence as will be shown later, the host signals the cleaner it is about to depart the cleaners locality, even when the cleaner is not in its body. The host sometimes chases off possible dangers to the cleaner, the following evidence supports the hypothesis, The cleaning by cleaners is essential for the host. In the absence of cleaners the hosts leave the locality or suffer from injuries inflicted by ecto-parasites, there is difficulty and danger in finding a cleaner. Hosts leave their element to get cleaned, others wait no longer than 30 seconds before searching for cleaners elsewhere. This constraint imposes both a spatial and a condition on the cleaner and on its host. Both individuals must remain in the physical location, and both must have a long enough lifespan, to enable multiple interactions. Surprisingly, there is evidence that individual cleaners and hosts do indeed interact repeatedly. This example meets some, but not all, of the criteria described in Trivers’s model, in the cleaner-host system the benefit to the cleaner is always immediate. However, the evolution of altruism is contingent on opportunities for future rewards through repeated interactions. In one study, nearby host fish observed cheater cleaners and subsequently avoided them, in these examples, true reciprocity is difficult to demonstrate since failure means the death of the cleaner

19.
Group selection
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Group selection is a proposed mechanism of evolution in which natural selection acts at the level of the group, instead of at the more conventional level of the individual. Early authors such as V. C. Wynne-Edwards and Konrad Lorenz argued that the behavior of animals could affect their survival, from the mid 1960s, evolutionary biologists such as John Maynard Smith argued that natural selection acted primarily at the level of the individual. They argued on the basis of mathematical models that individuals would not altruistically sacrifice fitness for the sake of a group, in 1994 David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, on the grounds that groups, like individuals, could compete. As of yet, there is no consensus among biologists regarding the importance of group selection. Once Darwinism had been accepted, animal behavior was explained with unsubstantiated hypotheses about survival value. In 1962, group selection was used as an explanation for adaptation by the zoologist V. C. Wynne-Edwards. From the mid 1960s, evolutionary biologists argued that natural selection acted primarily at the level of the individual, in 1964, John Maynard Smith, C. M. Experiments from the late 1970s suggested that group selection involving altruism was possible, on the other hand, kin selection is accepted as an explanation of altruistic behavior. Since the 1990s, group selection models have seen a resurgence, some biologists argue that kin selection and multilevel selection are both needed to obtain a complete understanding of the evolution of a social behavior system. In 2010 three authors including E. O. Wilson argued for multi-level selection, including group selection, in 1994 David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober argued that the case against group selection had been overstated. They considered whether groups can have functional organization in the way as individuals. They do not posit evolution on the level of the species, groups that cooperate better might survive and reproduce more than those that did not. Resurrected in this way, Wilson & Sobers new group selection is called multilevel selection theory, Wilson compared the layers of competition and evolution to nested sets of Russian matryoshka dolls. The lowest level is the genes, next come the cells, then the organism level, the different levels function cohesively to maximize fitness, or reproductive success. Multilevel selection theory focuses on the phenotype because it looks at the levels that selection acts upon. For humans, social norms can be argued to reduce individual level variation and competition, MLS theory can be used to evaluate the balance between group selection and individual selection in specific cases. Wilson & Sobers work revived interest in multilevel selection, in a 2005 article, E. O. Wilson argued that kin selection could no longer be thought of as underlying the evolution of extreme sociality, for two reasons. First, he suggested, the argument that haplodiploid inheritance creates a selection pressure towards nonreproductive castes is mathematically flawed

20.
Kin selection
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Kin selection is the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organisms relatives, even at a cost to the organisms own survival and reproduction. Kin altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection, kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced with the number an individual can ensure the production of by supporting others, such as siblings. R. A. Fisher in 1930 and J. B. S, Haldane in 1932 set out the mathematics of kin selection, with Haldane famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. In 1964, W. D. Hamilton popularised the concept, in the same year John Maynard Smith used the actual term kin selection for the first time. The rule is difficult to test but studies of red squirrels appear to confirm it, Hamilton proposed two mechanisms for kin selection. First, kin recognition allows individuals to be able to identify their relatives, second, in viscous populations, populations in which the movement of organisms from their place of birth is relatively slow, local interactions tend to be to be among relatives by default. The viscous population mechanism makes kin selection and social cooperation possible in the absence of kin recognition, in this case, nurture kinship, the treatment of individuals as kin as a result of living together, is sufficient for kin selection, given reasonable assumptions about population dispersal rates. Note that kin selection is not the thing as group selection. In humans, altruism is more likely and on a larger scale with kin than with unrelated individuals, for example. In other species, vervet monkeys use allomothering, where related females such as older sisters or grandmothers often care for young, according to their relatedness, the social shrimp Synalpheus regalis protects juveniles within highly related colonies. Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of kin selection, breeders of cattle wish the flesh and fat to be well marbled together. An animal thus characterised has been slaughtered, but the breeder has gone with confidence to the stock and has succeeded. In this passage the family and stock stand for a kin group and these passages and others by Darwin about kin selection are highlighted in D. J. Futuymas textbook of reference Evolutionary Biology and in E. O. Wilsons Sociobiology, the earliest mathematically formal treatments of kin selection were by R. A. Fisher in 1930 and J. B. S. Haldane fully grasped the basic quantities and considerations in kin selection, but Haldane also joked that he would truly die only to save more than a single identical twin of his or more than two full siblings. If the childs your own child or your brother or sister, there is a chance that this child will also have this gene. If you save a grandchild or a nephew, the advantage is only two and a half to one, if you only save a first cousin, the effect is very slight. If you try to save your first cousin once removed the population is likely to lose this valuable gene than to gain it

21.
Sociobiology
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Sociobiology is a field of scientific study that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to examine and explain social behavior within that context. It is a branch of biology deals with social behavior, and also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics. Within the study of societies, sociobiology is closely allied to Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and it argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. While the term sociobiology can be traced to the 1940s, the concept did not gain recognition until the publication of Edward O. Wilsons book Sociobiology. The new field became the subject of controversy. Sociobiologists responded to the criticism by pointing to the relationship between nature and nurture. E. O. Wilson defines sociobiology as, “The extension of population biology, Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection. It begins with the idea that behaviors have evolved over time and it predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time. This can, among other things, result in the formation of social processes conducive to evolutionary fitness. The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection, behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve ones genes in the population. Genetic mouse mutants have now been harnessed to illustrate the power that genes exert on behaviour, for example, the transcription factor FEV has been shown, through its role in maintaining the serotonergic system in the brain, to be required for normal aggressive and anxiety-like behavior. Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the genome, male mice will instantly attack other males. In addition, FEV has been shown to be required for correct maternal behaviour in mice, Wilson in his 1975 book, Sociobiology, The New Synthesis. However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists, peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid, A Factor of Evolution, written in the early 1890s, is a popular example. Antecedents of modern sociobiological thinking can be traced to the 1960s, the more general term behavioral ecology is commonly used as substitute for the term sociobiology in order to avoid the public controversy. Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, as well as animal behavior. They contend that in order to understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolutionary considerations

22.
Coevolution
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In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each others evolution. Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species, the term coevolution was coined by Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964. Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, Coevolution includes many forms of mutualism, host-parasite, and predator-prey relationships between species, as well as competition within or between species. In many cases, the selective pressures drive an evolutionary arms race between the species involved, Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but researchers have applied it by analogy to fields such as computer science, sociology, and astronomy. Coevolution is evident in the development of relationships between many pairs of organisms, and serving a wide variety of types of mutual benefit. Each fig species has its own fig wasp which pollinates the fig, nevertheless, some ant species can exploit trees without reciprocating, and hence have been given various names such as cheaters, exploiters, robbers and freeloaders. Although cheater ants do important damage to the organs of trees, their net effect on host fitness is difficult to forecast. He first mentioned coevolution as a possibility in On the Origin of Species, modern insect-pollinated flowers are conspicuously coadapted with insects to ensure pollination and in return to reward the pollinators with nectar and pollen. The two groups have coevolved for over 100 million years, creating a network of interactions. Either they evolved together, or at some later stages they came together, likely with pre-adaptations, the term coevolution was coined by Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964, to describe the evolutionary interactions of plants and butterflies. Several highly successful insect groups—especially the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera as well as types of Diptera and Coleoptera —evolved in conjunction with flowering plants during the Cretaceous. However, a group of wasps sister to the bees evolved at the time as flowering plants. At least three aspects of flowers appear to have coevolved between flowering plants and insects, because they involve communication between these organisms. Firstly, flowers communicate with their pollinators by scent, insects use this scent to determine how far away a flower is, to approach it, thirdly, flowers such as some orchids mimic females of particular insects, deceiving males into pseudocopulation. The yucca, Yucca whipplei, is pollinated exclusively by Tegeticula maculata, the moth eats the seeds of the plant, while gathering pollen. The pollen has evolved to become sticky, and remains on the mouth parts when the moth moves to the next flower. The yucca provides a place for the moth to lay its eggs, hummingbirds and ornithophilous flowers have evolved a mutualistic relationship. The flowers have nectar suited to the diet, their color suits the birds vision

23.
Evolutionary approaches to depression
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Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders. Depression has generally been thought of as dysfunction, but it does not increase with age the way organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may have roots, in the same way that others suggest evolutionary contributions to schizophrenia, sickle cell anemia. Psychology and psychiatry have not generally embraced evolutionary explanations for behaviors, major depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease, it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain, in most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the elderly. These patterns are consistent with theories of aging which posit that selection against dysfunctional traits decreases with age. In contrast to these patterns, prevalence of depression is high in all age categories, including otherwise healthy adolescents. In one study of the US population, for example, the 12 month prevalence for a depression episode was highest in the youngest age category. The common occurrence and persistence of a trait like clinical depression with such negative effects early in life is difficult to explain and it has been argued, for example, that Abraham Lincolns lifelong depression was a source of insight and strength. Some even suggest that we arent designed to have happiness as our natural default, the following hypotheses attempt to identify a benefit of depression that outweighs its obvious costs. Such hypotheses are not necessarily incompatible with one another and may explain different aspects, causes, one reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. It motivates the sufferer to cease activities that led to the situation, if possible. In depressed people there is an activity in the regions of the cortex involved with the perception of pain, such as the anterior cingulate cortex. This activity allows the cortex to manifest an abstract negative thought as a physical stressor to the rest of the brain. The behavioral shutdown model states that if an organism faces more risk or expenditure than reward from activities and this model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. A related phenomenon to the behavioral model is learned helplessness. In animal subjects, a loss of control or predictability in the subjects experiences results in a similar to clinical depression in humans. The subject will not attempt to cope with problems, even when placed in a novel environment

24.
Evolutionary aesthetics
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Many animal and human traits have been argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. Evolutionary psychology extends this to psychological traits including aesthetical preferences, such traits are generally seen as being adaptations to the environment during the Pleistocene era and are not necessarily adaptative in our present environment. Examples include disgust of potentially harmful spoiled foods, pleasure from sex and from eating sweet and fatty foods, and fear of spiders, snakes, all known cultures have some form of art. This universality suggests that art is related to evolutionary adaptations, the strong emotions associated with art suggest the same. An important choice for an organism is selecting a good habitat to live in. Humans are argued to have strong aesthetical preferences for landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral environment, the East African savanna is the ancestral environment in which much of human evolution is argued to have taken place. These are all features that are featured in calendar art. A survey of art preferences in different nations found that realistic painting was preferred. Favorite features were water, trees as well as plants, humans. Blue, followed by green, was the favorite color, using the survey, the study authors constructed a painting showing the preferences of each nation. Despite the many different cultures, the paintings all showed a similarity to landscape calendar art. The authors argued that this similarity was in due to the influence of the Western calendar industry. Another explanation is that these features are those evolutionary psychology predicts should be popular for evolutionary reasons, various evolutionary concerns have been argued to influence what is perceived to be physically attractive. Such evolutionary based preferences are not necessarily static but may vary depending on environmental cues, thus, availability of food influences which female body size is attractive which may have evolutionary reasons. Societies with food scarcities prefer larger female body size than societies having plenty of food, in Western society males who are hungry prefer a larger female body size than they do when not hungry. Evolutionary musicology is a subfield of biomusicology that grounds the psychological mechanisms of perception and production in evolutionary theory. It covers vocal communication in non-human animal species, theories of the evolution of human music and it also includes evolutionary explanations for what is considered aesthetically pleasing or not. Darwinian Literary Studies is a branch of criticism that studies literature, including aesthetical aspects

25.
Evolution of emotion
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The study of the evolution of emotions dates back to the 19th century. Evolution and natural selection has been applied to the study of communication, mainly by Charles Darwin in his 1872 work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man. Darwin researched the expression of emotions in an effort to support his theory of evolution and he proposed that much like other traits found in animals, emotions also evolved and were adapted over time. His work looked at not only facial expressions in animals and specifically humans, according to modern evolutionary theory, different emotions evolved at different times. Primal emotions, such as fear, are associated with ancient parts of the brain, filial emotions, such as a human mothers love for her offspring, seem to have evolved among early mammals. Social emotions, such as guilt and pride, evolved among social primates, sometimes, a more recently evolved part of the brain moderates an older part of the brain, such as when the cortex moderates the amygdalas fear response. Evolutionary psychologists consider human emotions to be best adapted to the life our ancestors led in nomadic foraging bands and it was based on observations, both those around him and of people in many parts of the world. One important observation he made was that even in individuals who were blind, body. The main purpose of Darwins work was to support the theory of evolution by demonstrating that emotions in humans, most of the similarities he found were between species closely related, but he found some similarities between distantly related species as well. He proposed the idea that states are adaptive, and therefore only those able to express certain emotions passed on their characteristics. In the 1872 work, Darwin proposed three principles, the first of the three is the principle of serviceable habits, which he defined as useful habits reinforced previously, and then inherited by offspring. He used as an example contracting of eyebrows, which he noted is serviceable to prevent too much light from entering the eyes and he also said that the raising of eyebrows serves to increase the field of vision. He cited examples of people attempting to remember something and raising their brows, the second of the principles is that of antithesis. While some habits are serviceable, Darwin proposed that some actions or habits are carried out merely because they are opposite in nature to a serviceable habit, shrugging of the shoulders is an example Darwin used of antithesis, because it has no service. Shoulder shrugging is an expression, and very opposite of a confident or aggressive expression. The third of the principles is expressive habits, or nervous discharge from the nervous system and this principle proposes that some habits are performed because of a build-up to the nervous system, which causes a discharge of the excitement. Examples include foot and finger tapping, as well as expressions and expressions of anger. Darwin noted that animals rarely make noises, even when in pain

26.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians

27.
Neuroscience
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Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a branch of biology, that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology. It also draws upon fields including mathematics, pharmacology, physics, engineering, Neuroscience has also given rise to such other disciplines as neuroeducation, neuroethics, and neurolaw. The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of neurons to imaging of sensory. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also aided by the study of neural networks. As a result of the number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The earliest study of the system dates to ancient Egypt. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage, early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a cranial stuffing of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence, the view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence, plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul. Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence, abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius, René Descartes, and Thomas Willis also made contributions to neuroscience. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope, the procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific structures in language comprehension and production. During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as an academic discipline in its own right

28.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics

29.
Richard Dawkins
–
Clinton Richard Dawkins FRS FRSL is an English ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author. He is a fellow of New College, Oxford, and was the University of Oxfords Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008. Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene, in 2006, he founded the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science. Dawkins is an atheist, and is known for his criticism of creationism. In The Blind Watchmaker, he argues against the watchmaker analogy, instead, he describes evolutionary processes as analogous to a blind watchmaker in that reproduction, mutation, and selection are unguided by any designer. In The God Delusion, Dawkins contends that a supernatural creator almost certainly does not exist and he opposes the teaching of creationism in schools. Dawkins was born in Nairobi, then in British Kenya, on 26 March 1941 and he is the son of Jean Mary Vyvyan and Clinton John Dawkins, who was an agricultural civil servant in the British Colonial Service in Nyasaland. His father was called up into the Kings African Rifles during World War II and returned to England in 1949 and his father had inherited a country estate, Over Norton Park in Oxfordshire, which he farmed commercially. Dawkins considers himself English and lives in Oxford, England, both his parents were interested in natural sciences, and they answered Dawkinss questions in scientific terms. Dawkins describes his childhood as a normal Anglican upbringing, and that left me with nothing. From 1954 to 1959 Dawkins attended Oundle School in Northamptonshire, an English public school with a distinct Church of England flavour, while at Oundle Dawkins read Bertrand Russells Why I Am Not a Christian for the first time. He studied zoology at Balliol College, Oxford, graduating in 1962, while there and he continued as a research student under Tinbergens supervision, receiving his MA and DPhil degrees by 1966, and remained a research assistant for another year. Tinbergen was a pioneer in the study of behaviour, particularly in the areas of instinct, learning and choice. From 1967 to 1969, he was an assistant professor of zoology at the University of California, during this period, the students and faculty at UC Berkeley were largely opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War, and Dawkins became involved in the anti-war demonstrations and activities. He returned to the University of Oxford in 1970 as a lecturer, in 1990, he became a reader in zoology. He held that professorship from 1995 until 2008, since 1970, he has been a fellow of New College, Oxford and he is now an emeritus fellow. In 1991, he gave the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures for Children on Growing Up in the Universe and he has also edited several journals, and has acted as editorial advisor to the Encarta Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia of Evolution. He is listed as an editor and a columnist of the Council for Secular Humanisms Free Inquiry magazine

30.
Jared Diamond
–
Jared Mason Diamond is an American scientist and author best known for his popular science books The Third Chimpanzee, Guns, Germs, and Steel, Collapse, and The World Until Yesterday. Originally trained in physiology, Diamond is known for drawing from a variety of fields, including anthropology, ecology, geography and he is a professor of geography at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 2005, Diamond was ranked ninth on a poll by Prospect, Diamond was born in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Both of his parents were from East European Jewish families who had emigrated to the United States and his father, Louis Diamond, was a physician, and his mother, Flora Kaplan, a teacher, linguist, and concert pianist. Diamond himself began studying piano at age six, years later he would propose to his wife playing the Brahms Intermezzo in A minor for her. After graduating from Cambridge, Diamond returned to Harvard as a Junior Fellow until 1965, while in his twenties he developed a second, parallel, career in ornithology and ecology, specialising in New Guinea and nearby islands. Later, in his fifties, Diamond developed a career in environmental history and became a professor of geography at UCLA. He also teaches at LUISS Guido Carli in Rome and he won the National Medal of Science in 1999 and Westfield State University granted him an honorary doctorate in 2009. Diamond originally specialized in salt absorption in the gall bladder, because of this academic diversity, Diamond has been described as a polymath. The book traces how humans evolved to be so different from animals, despite sharing over 98% of our DNA with our closest animal relatives. The book also examines the origins of language, art, agriculture, smoking and drug use. It was well received by critics and won the 1992 Rhône-Poulenc Prize for Science Books and his second and best known popular science book, Guns, Germs, and Steel, The Fates of Human Societies, was published in 1997. It asks why Eurasian peoples conquered or displaced Native Americans, Australians, the first part of the book focuses on reasons why only a few species of wild plants and animals proved suitable for domestication. The third part compares the development of production and of human societies among different continents. A television documentary series based on the book was produced by the National Geographic Society in 2005, as in Guns, Germs, and Steel, he argues against explanations for the failure of past societies based primarily on cultural factors, instead focusing on ecology. Among the societies mentioned in the book are the Norse and Inuit of Greenland, the Maya, the Anasazi, the people of Rapa Nui, Japan, Haiti, the Dominican Republic. It was also nominated for the Royal Society Prize for Science Books, in 2008, Diamond published an article in The New Yorker entitled Vengeance Is Ours, describing the role of revenge in tribal warfare in Papua New Guinea. A year later two indigenous people mentioned in the article filed a lawsuit against Diamond and The New Yorker claiming the article defamed them, in 2013, The Observer reported that the lawsuit was withdrawn by mutual consent after the sudden death of their lawyer

31.
W. D. Hamilton
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William Donald Bill Hamilton, FRS was an English evolutionary biologist, widely recognised as one of the most significant evolutionary theorists of the 20th century. He is considered one of the forerunners of sociobiology, as popularized by E. O. Wilson, Hamilton also published important work on sex ratios and the evolution of sex. From 1984 to his death in 2000, he was a Royal Society Research Professor at Oxford University, Hamilton was born in 1936 in Cairo, Egypt, the second of seven children. His parents were from New Zealand, his father A. M. Hamilton an engineer, the Hamilton family settled in Kent. During the Second World War, the young Hamilton was evacuated to Edinburgh and he had an interest in natural history from an early age and would spend his spare time collecting butterflies, and other insects. In 1946 he discovered E. B, fords New Naturalist book Butterflies, which introduced him to the principles of evolution by natural selection, genetics, and population genetics. He was educated at Tonbridge School, where he was in Smythe House, as a twelve-year-old he was seriously injured while playing with explosives his father had. Before going up to the University of Cambridge he travelled in France, as an undergraduate at St. Johns College, he was uninspired by the many biologists hardly seemed to believe in evolution. He was intrigued by Ronald Fishers book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Hamilton was excited by Fishers chapters on eugenics. In earlier chapters, Fisher provided a basis for the genetics of evolution and Hamilton later blamed Fishers book for his getting only a 2,1 degree. Hamilton enrolled in an MSc course in demography at the London School of Economics, under Norman Carrier, later, when his work became more mathematical and genetical, he had his supervision transferred to John Hajnal of the LSE and Cedric Smith of University College London. Hamilton worked through several examples, and eventually realised that the number that kept falling out of his calculations was Sewall Wrights coefficient of relationship, fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity. His two 1964 papers entitled The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior are now widely referenced, the proof and discussion of its consequences, however, involved detailed mathematics, and two reviewers passed over the paper. The third, John Maynard Smith, did not completely understand it either, having his work passed over later led to friction between Hamilton and Maynard Smith, as Hamilton thought Smith had held his work back to claim credit for the idea. The Hamilton paper was printed in the Journal of Theoretical Biology and, recognition of its significance gradually increased to the point that it is now routinely cited in biology books. Much of the discussion relates to the evolution of eusociality in insects of the order Hymenoptera based on their unusual haplodiploid sex-determination system and this system means that females are more closely related to their sisters than to their own offspring. Thus, Hamilton reasoned, an action would be better spent in helping to raise their sisters. What of possible cases where an organism is deliberately harming others without apparent benefit to the self

32.
Peter Kropotkin
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Prince Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin was a Russian activist, scientist, and philosopher, who advocated anarchism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, he attended a school and later served as an officer in Siberia. He was imprisoned for his activism in 1874 and managed to escape two years later and he spent the next 41 years in exile in Switzerland, France and in England. He returned to Russia after the Russian Revolution in 1917 but was disappointed by the Bolshevik form of state socialism, Kropotkin was a proponent of a decentralised communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations of self-governing communities and worker-run enterprises. He also contributed the article on anarchism to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Kropotkin was born in Moscow, into the second-highest level of the Russian aristocracy. His mother was the daughter of a Cossack general and his father, Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, was a prince in Smolensk, of the Rurik dynasty which had ruled Russia before the rise of the Romanovs. Kropotkins father owned large tracts of land and nearly 1,200 male serfs in three provinces, nder the influence of republican teachings, Kropotkin dropped his princely title at age 12, and even rebuked his friends, when they so referred to him. In 1857, at age 14, Kropotkin enrolled in the Corps of Pages at St. Petersburg, Kropotkins memoirs detail the hazing and other abuse of pages for which the Corps had become notorious. In Moscow, Kropotkin developed an interest in the condition of the peasantry, although his work as a page for Tsar Alexander II made Kropotkin skeptical about the tsars liberal reputation, Kropotkin was greatly pleased by the tsars decision to emancipate the serfs in 1861. In St. Petersburg, he read widely on his own account, in 1862, Kropotkin was promoted from the Corps of Pages to the army. The members of the corps had the right to choose the regiment to which they would be attached. For some time, he was aide de camp to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, later he was appointed attaché for Cossack affairs to the governor-general of East Siberia at Irkutsk. The expeditions yielded valuable geographical results, in 1866, Kropotkin began reading the works of the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and other political thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexander Herzen. These readings, along with his experiences among peasants in Siberia and his departure from a family tradition of military service prompted his father to disinherit him, leaving him a prince with no visible means of support. In 1871, he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the Society, accordingly, he refused the offer and returned to St. Petersburg, where he joined the revolutionary party. Kropotkin visited Switzerland in 1872 and became a member of the International Workingmens Association at Geneva, however, he found that he did not like IWAs style of socialism. Instead, he studied the programme of the more radical Jura federation at Neuchâtel and spent time in the company of the leading members, on returning to Russia, Kropotkins friend Dmitri Klements introduced him to the Circle of Tchaikovsky, a socialist/populist group created in 1872. Kropotkin worked to spread propaganda among peasants and workers

2.
The British Academy's royal seal depicts the Greek muse Clio. She was redrawn by designer and illustrator Debbie Cook in 2008.

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Professor Mary Beard, Fellow of the British Academy, filming in Rome, Italy

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Rowan Williams, Fellow of the British Academy

FRSE
–
Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to

1.
The Royal Society building, at the junction of George Street and Hanover Street in the New Town

3.
The cover of a 1788 volume of the journal Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. This is the issue where James Hutton published his Theory of the Earth.

Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, info

1.
A science professor lecturing to university students.

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The Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.

Psychology
–
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be cl

1.
Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind.

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MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.

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Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior.

University of St Andrews
–
The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a var

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College Hall, within the 16th century St Mary's College building

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University of St Andrews shield

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St Salvator's Chapel in 1843

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The "Gateway" building, built in 2000 and now used for the university's management department

Scotland
–
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the

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Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.

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Flag

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The class I Pictish stone at Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.

Mate choice
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Mate choice, also known as intersexual selection, is an evolutionary process in which selection is dependent on the attractiveness of an individuals phenotypic traits. Evolutionary change is possible because the qualities that are desired in a mate are more frequently passed on to each generation over time, mate choice is one of two components of s

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Mate choice is highly visible in lek mating. Along with the black grouse the males gather in a quagmire and the females then arrive and observe the male before choosing one.

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Ronald Fisher in 1913

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The peacock tail in flight, the classic example of a Fisherian runaway

Peer review
–
Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work. It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field, peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, scholar

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A reviewer at the American National Institutes of Health evaluates a grant proposal.

Psychological Science (journal)
–
Psychological Science, the flagship journal of the Association for Psychological Science, is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by SAGE Publications. It is one of the most influential journals in psychology, Psychological Science publishes research reports and short commentaries. The journal publishes research articles, short repo

1.
Psychological Science

Nature (journal)
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Nature is an English multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. Nature claims a readership of about 3 million unique readers per month. The journal has a circulation of around 53,000. There are also sections on books and arts, the remainder of the journal consists mostly of research papers, which are often dense and h

Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving c

1.
Wayback Machine

PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the

1.
PubMed

Chicago Sun-Times
–
The Chicago Sun-Times is a daily newspaper published in Chicago, Illinois. It is the paper of the Sun-Times Media Group. The Chicago Sun-Times is the oldest continuously published daily newspaper in the city and it began in 1844 as the Chicago Daily Journal, which was the first newspaper to publish the rumor, now believed false, that a cow owned by

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The November 19, 2008 front page of the Chicago Sun-Times

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Chuck Neubauer in the former Chicago Sun-Times newsroom, 1998.

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Current Chicago Sun-Times headquarters, located in the River North Point building at 350 North Orleans Street

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Former Chicago Sun-Times headquarters with Wrigley Building and Tribune Tower

San Jose Mercury News
–
The Mercury News, often locally known as The Merc, is an American daily newspaper, published in San Jose, California. It is published by Bay Area News Group, a subsidiary of Digital First Media, formerly published as the San Jose Mercury News, Bay Area News Group announced in March 2016 that the newspaper would be re-branded as The Mercury News as

1.
The December 22, 2011 front page of the San Jose Mercury News

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Mercury News headquarters (1967-2014)

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Sections vary by day of the week, but Business, Sports, and The Valley are standard daily fare.

New Scientist
–
New Scientist is a weekly English-language international science magazine, founded in 1956. Since 1996 it has run a website. Sold in retail outlets and on subscription, the magazine covers current developments, news, reviews and commentary on science and it also publishes speculative articles, ranging from the technical to the philosophical. A read

1.
New Scientist cover, 6 February 2010

Newsweek
–
Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933. It was published in four English language editions and 12 global editions written in the language of the circulation region, between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek underwent internal and external contractions designed to shift the magazines focus and audience while improving its finances. Inste

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Cover of the first issue of News-Week magazine

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January 16, 1939 cover featuring Felix Frankfurter

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The first issue released after the magazine switched to an opinion and commentary format.

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The cover of Newsweek's final print issue under The Newsweek Daily Beast Company ownership.

The Independent
–
The Independent is a British online newspaper. The printed edition of the paper ceased in March 2016, nicknamed the Indy, it began as a broadsheet newspaper, but changed to tabloid format in 2003. Until September 2011, the paper described itself on the banner at the top of every newspaper as free from party political bias and it tends to take a pro

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The Independent front page, 15 February 2014

Evolutionary psychology
–
Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, Evolutionary psychologi

2.
Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor

Reciprocal altruism
–
The concept was initially developed by Robert Trivers to explain the evolution of cooperation as instances of mutually altruistic acts. The concept is close to the strategy of tit for tat used in game theory and this concept finds its roots in the work of W. D. Hamilton, who developed mathematical models for predicting the likelihood of an altruist

Group selection
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Group selection is a proposed mechanism of evolution in which natural selection acts at the level of the group, instead of at the more conventional level of the individual. Early authors such as V. C. Wynne-Edwards and Konrad Lorenz argued that the behavior of animals could affect their survival, from the mid 1960s, evolutionary biologists such as

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Early explanations of social behavior, such as the lekking of blackcock, spoke of "the good of the species". Blackcocks at the Lek watercolour and bodycolour by Archibald Thorburn, 1901.

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Social behavior in honeybees is explained by kin selection: their haplodiploid inheritance system makes workers very closely related to their queen (centre).

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David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober 's 1994 Multilevel Selection Model, illustrated by a nested set of Russian matryoshka dolls. Wilson himself compared his model to such a set.

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Humanity has developed extremely rapidly, arguably through gene-culture coevolution, leading to complex cultural artefacts like the gopuram of the Sri Mariammam temple, Singapore.

Kin selection
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Kin selection is the evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organisms relatives, even at a cost to the organisms own survival and reproduction. Kin altruism is altruistic behaviour whose evolution is driven by kin selection, kin selection is an instance of inclusive fitness, which combines the number of offspring produced

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The co-operative behaviour of social insects like the honey bee can be explained by kin selection.

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Families are important in human behaviour, but kin selection may be based on closeness and other cues.

Sociobiology
–
Sociobiology is a field of scientific study that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to examine and explain social behavior within that context. It is a branch of biology deals with social behavior, and also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics.

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E. O. Wilson, a central figure in the history of sociobiology.

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Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor

3.
Nikolaas Tinbergen, whose work influenced sociobiology.

4.
In the decades after World War II, the term "eugenics" had taken on a negative connotation and became increasingly unpopular within academic science. Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy, as when Eugenics Quarterly became Social Biology in 1969.

Coevolution
–
In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each others evolution. Charles Darwin mentioned evolutionary interactions between flowering plants and insects in On the Origin of Species, the term coevolution was coined by Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964. Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts sele

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Bumblebees and the flowers they pollinate have coevolved so that both have become dependent on each other for survival.

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Old world swallowtail caterpillar on fringed rue

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A flowering yucca plant that would be pollinated by a yucca moth

Evolutionary approaches to depression
–
Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders. Depression has generally been thought of as dysfunction, but it does not increase with age the way organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may hav

1.
Third ventricle

Evolutionary aesthetics
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Many animal and human traits have been argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. Evolutionary psychology extends this to psychological traits including aesthetical preferences, such traits are generally seen as being adaptations to the environment during the Pleistocene era and are not necessarily adaptative in o

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San Rafael Gran Sabana, Venezuela.

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A male peacock does its best to court a female, dancing and displaying its extravagant plumage.

Evolution of emotion
–
The study of the evolution of emotions dates back to the 19th century. Evolution and natural selection has been applied to the study of communication, mainly by Charles Darwin in his 1872 work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man. Darwin researched the expression of emotions in an effort to support his theory of evolution and he proposed that muc

1.
Evolution

Biology
–
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts

Neuroscience
–
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a branch of biology, that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology. It also draws upon fields including mathematics, pharmacology, physics, engineering, Neuroscience has also given rise to such other disciplines as neuroeducation, neuroethics, and neurolaw. The techniq

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The Golgi stain first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.

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Photograph of a stained neuron in a chicken embryo

Charles Darwin
–
Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evol

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Portrait photograph of Darwin, probably taken in 1854 when he was 45 years old and working towards publication of On the Origin of Species

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Painting of seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816.

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As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.

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Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

Richard Dawkins
–
Clinton Richard Dawkins FRS FRSL is an English ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author. He is a fellow of New College, Oxford, and was the University of Oxfords Professor for Public Understanding of Science from 1995 until 2008. Dawkins first came to prominence with his 1976 book The Selfish Gene, in 2006, he founded the Richard Dawkins Found

Jared Diamond
–
Jared Mason Diamond is an American scientist and author best known for his popular science books The Third Chimpanzee, Guns, Germs, and Steel, Collapse, and The World Until Yesterday. Originally trained in physiology, Diamond is known for drawing from a variety of fields, including anthropology, ecology, geography and he is a professor of geography

1.
Jared Diamond

W. D. Hamilton
–
William Donald Bill Hamilton, FRS was an English evolutionary biologist, widely recognised as one of the most significant evolutionary theorists of the 20th century. He is considered one of the forerunners of sociobiology, as popularized by E. O. Wilson, Hamilton also published important work on sex ratios and the evolution of sex. From 1984 to his

1.
W. D. Hamilton, 1996

Peter Kropotkin
–
Prince Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin was a Russian activist, scientist, and philosopher, who advocated anarchism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, he attended a school and later served as an officer in Siberia. He was imprisoned for his activism in 1874 and managed to escape two years later and he spent the next 41 years in exile in Swit

1.
Kropotkin c. 1900 (aged 57)

2.
Kropotkin in Haparanda, 1917

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Kropotkin's friend and comrade Emma Goldman delivers a eulogy before crowds at his funeral, accompanied by Alexander Berkman.