Venous Thromboembolism Overview

Transcription

1 Venous Thromboembolism Overview Elisabeth M. Battinelli, MD, PhD*, Devon L. Murphy, BS, Jean M. Connors, MD KEYWORDS Deep vein thrombosis Pulmonary embolism Anticoagulation Thrombosis and its associated complications are a common cause of death throughout the world. Each year, more than 200,000 new cases of venous thromboembolism (VTE) are diagnosed and 30% of these patients die in the first 30 days after diagnosis. In addition, many patients suffer long-term physical consequences from the thrombotic event, resulting in an adverse quality of life and millions of dollars spent for health care. The pathogenesis of thrombosis results from abnormalities in many components of the vascular and coagulation systems. In 1856, Virchow first described the pathogenesis of thrombosis as the result of defects in the vessel wall, platelets, and coagulation proteins. The interplay of these 3 factors became known as the Virchow triad. Thrombi that form within the venous system are rich in fibrin, resulting from disruption in the coagulation process in areas of blood stasis. In normal circumstances, the endothelial lining of blood vessels is not a thrombotic surface. Surveillance and maintenance by cellular components of blood interact with the endothelial cells to inhibit thrombus formation. Blood cells, such as platelets, release several antithrombotic factors, such as thrombomodulin and plasmin, which regulate the tissue factor pathway inhibitor system as well as the antithrombin systems. As this is occurring, the platelets limit their own coagulation response with aggregation directly inhibited by prostacyclins and nitric oxide. When the endothelial surface becomes damaged, the platelets become activated and they no longer guard the endothelium but instead perpetuate the coagulation response. Exposure of vascular collagen in the damaged endothelium also leads to activation of the normal mechanisms of hemostasis, including the coagulation cascade, through exposure of tissue factor leading to hemostasis in the wrong place. The coagulation cascade is the main mediator of this process. Both the tissue factor mediated pathway (extrinsic) and the contact-mediated pathway (intrinsic pathway) The authors have no relationships to disclose. Hematology Division, Brigham and Women s Hospital/Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA * Corresponding author. address: Hematol Oncol Clin N Am 26 (2012) doi: /j.hoc hemonc.theclinics.com /12/$ see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

2 346 Battinelli et al are based on the systematic activation of inactive enzyme precursors known as serine proteases, which then reflexively lead to activation of the next coagulation factor protein within the coagulation cascade in a chain reaction mechanism (Fig. 1). The final steps lead to cross-linking of fibrin with stabilization of the emerging platelet plug culminating in the formation of a thrombus. The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are essential to this process, with the main mediator being tissue factor. When tissue factor is released as a result of vascular endothelial injury, factor VII is activated and complexes with tissue factor, setting off the cascade. The steps of coagulation are now set into place with this complex, which next initiates activation of factor X and factor IX. Activation of factor X is essential for conversion of prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin through the prothrombinase complex on activated platelets. The activated platelets are key players in the thrombotic response and act as the glue that mediates the coagulation cascade. They release many procoagulant proteins, including tissue factor, resulting in uncontrolled hemostasis at the site of vascular injury. 1 The release of these coagulation factors initiates a self-renewing process as the activated platelets recruit additional platelets to the area of injury, establishing the site of thrombus formation. These platelets further activate and become tethered together by binding to exposed glycoprotein Ib-V-IX in damaged collagen through interaction with Von Willebrand factor. More platelets are recruited to the growing thrombus through another receptor present on the platelet surface, GPIIb/IIa, which becomes activated upon platelet activation and undergoes a conformational change leading to increased affinity for fibrinogen, which leads to fibrin deposition. The culmination of this process is internal activation of platelets leading to release of even more proteins including, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), serotonin, and thromboxane A 2, all of which are essential for recruitment of more platelets to the growing thrombus. Coagulation is initiated at the molecular level but rapidly progresses to the cellular level, then microvascular level, and ultimately the macrovascular level. Large thrombi can be organ damaging and life threatening. This article reviews the presentation and Intrinsic Pathway contact with vascular injury Extrinsic Pathway Factor XII Factor XIIa tissue damage Factor Xia Factor XI Tissue Factor Factor IX Factor IXa Factor VIIa Factor VII Factor X Factor Xa Factor X Factor Va, Factor VIIIa Fibrinogen (Factor I) Prothrombin (Factor II) Thrombin Fibrin Fig. 1. The coagulation cascade. Factor XIII Factor XIIIa

3 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 347 diagnosis of VTE. Initial treatment of acute VTE is straightforward, noncontroversial, and is covered briefly here. Areas that are less well defined and for which data are limited and conflicting are reviewed in greater detail. These areas include duration of anticoagulation, bridging anticoagulation, treatment of superficial venous thrombosis, and VTE prophylaxis for travel. Two other areas covered in this article include new oral anticoagulants and testing for thrombophilias. VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM (VTE): PRESENTATION Patients who develop all 3 components of the Virchow triad of vascular stasis with endothelial damage and hypercoagulability, as described earlier, can form thrombus in a deep vein of sufficient size to result in clinical symptoms. Development of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) alone is roughly twice as common as pulmonary embolism (PE), although the incidence of PE may be underestimated. 2 Those patients who present with classic symptoms of DVT or PE in the context of situations in which the index of clinical suspicion is increased can be readily diagnosed with appropriate testing. Table 1 shows the percentages of patients experiencing clinical signs and symptoms of DVT and PE. 3 VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM (VTE): DIAGNOSIS Many of these signs and symptoms, especially those associated with PE, can be the result of other pathologic processes. Making the diagnosis of VTE requires both Table 1 Clinical signs and symptoms of DVT and PE Percentage of Patients Signs and Symptoms Experiencing Symptoms Clinical Signs and Symptoms of DVT Swelling 88 Pain 56 Tenderness 55 Warmth 42 Erythema 34 Homan sign 13 Palpable cord 6 Clinical Signs and Symptoms of PE Dyspnea 77 Chest pain 55 Hemoptysis 13 Syncope 10 Sudden death Rare Tachypnea 70 Tachycardia 43 Hypoxia 18 Hypotension 10 Data from Anderson FA, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, et al. A population based perspective of the hospital incidence and case fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The Worcester DVT study. Arch Int Med 1991;151:933 8.

4 348 Battinelli et al clinical assessment and appropriate diagnostic testing, because clinical diagnosis alone is frequently wrong. Radiographic imaging is required. Missing a diagnosis of DVT or PE can lead to unnecessary morbidity and mortality. However, of the estimated 1 million patients who undergo diagnostic vascular ultrasound each year, only 12% to 25% have positive results. 4 Strategies to decrease the cost burden of negative tests have been studied. Clinical prediction models to determine pretest probability, many of which incorporate use of D-dimer testing and diagnostic algorithms, have been developed to decrease radiographic testing. These models have not yet been validated in large randomized control trials Detailed reviews of the strategies for diagnosing DVT and PE are covered elsewhere. 13,14 This article briefly reviews the approach to diagnosis of DVT and PE. When an extremity DVT is suspected based on clinical presentation and examination, compression duplex ultrasound should be the first diagnostic test. This noninvasive test has high sensitivity (89% 100%) and specificity (86% 100%), especially for proximal DVT (97% and 94% respectively) Venography is rarely used because it requires iodine-based contrast dye, is invasive, and can be technically difficult to perform because of the challenge of obtaining adequate venous access. Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) is excellent for visualization of the pelvic veins and can image proximal veins in the groin and thigh but has high cost and is less commonly available. MRV should not be considered as a first-line test for diagnosis of DVT in an extremity. Making the diagnosis of PE can be more complex because the list of differential diagnoses associated with presenting signs and symptoms is extensive and imaging to evaluate for PE is more invasive and costly. Helical computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTA) for diagnosis of PE is the most commonly used test. It has replaced VQ scanning and conventional pulmonary angiography, both of which are significantly more time consuming and cumbersome to perform and provide less information about alternative diagnoses. A definitive diagnosis of another disorder can be made in 50% to 60% of those cases in which PE is not present on CTA. 16 Computed tomography (CT) requires iodine contrast dye and alternative methods must be used in patients with iodine allergy or significant renal failure. MRV is an excellent alternative for those with iodine allergy. As discussed elsewhere, the positive and negative predictive values of CTA vary with the pretest probability of PE. 17 VTE can occur in other vascular beds including the cerebral sinuses and abdominal vessels. VTE in these locations are often diagnosed with imaging studies for the evaluation of acute onset of headache or abdominal pain. Routine intravenous (IV) contrast CT scanning can usually detect thrombus; however, dedicated CT may be required to adequately define the extent of thrombosis. Patients who have thrombosis in these locations should undergo thorough evaluation for precipitating factors and prothrombotic conditions, including antiphospholipid antibodies and myeloproliferative neoplasms. VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM (VTE): INITIAL TREATMENT Anticoagulation therapy should be initiated once a diagnosis of VTE has been made. The initial goal of therapy is to prevent thrombus propagation and embolization, and to allow for natural fibrinolysis to occur. In a small number of clinical situations, such as in patients with significant hemodynamic compromise or limb-threatening acute venous occlusion, thrombectomy and catheter-directed thrombolysis should be considered. Many groups have made detailed and comprehensive guidelines for use of initial anticoagulant therapy for VTE, including the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), American College of Physicians, and American Academy of Family

5 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 349 Physicians. The ninth edition of the ACCP Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis Guidelines were released on February 8, These guidelines are derived by consensus agreement after review of available data. The quality and strength of the data are reflected in the grade of the recommendation. The ACCP guidelines are an excellent review of the current data and give evidence-based recommendations for management of antithrombotic therapy; however, individual patient circumstances may dictate modifications of these recommendations for appropriate and successful treatment. All patients diagnosed with acute VTE should be treated with rapid-onset anticoagulant therapy. In the United States, the only rapid-onset or immediate-onset agents are parenteral. In the European Union in December 2011, rivaroxaban, a new oral direct Xa inhibitor, was the first new oral anticoagulant approved for up-front monotherapy of DVT. The parenteral agents include IV unfractionated heparin (UFH) titrated to partial thromboplastin time (PTT), subcutaneous (SC) UFH, which is monitored with PTT, SC weight-based dose UFH without monitoring, SC low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), or SC fondaparinux (a synthetic pentasaccharide Xa inhibitor that works through antithrombin). Although high-quality data from well-controlled studies support the use of any of these agents, LMWH and fondaparinux are preferred agents compared with any type of administration of UFH, as discussed later. Appropriately selected patients can be treated as outpatients, with no need for hospital admission. The largest number of well-run studies of initial outpatient therapy for DVT have been conducted using LMWHs. These studies show that a variety of types of LMWH are as effective and safe as IV UFH administered in a hospital setting. The use of outpatient therapy significantly affects cost-effectiveness analyses in favor of LMWH and outpatient treatment. For many reasons, initial use of LMWH has become standard of care for treatment of VTE, and is endorsed as such by the ACCP ninth edition guidelines. The hematology consultant needs to consider several factors when recommending the preferred anticoagulant and inpatient versus outpatient management. These factors include the severity of symptoms, the patient s hemodynamic stability, the risk for major bleeding, the ability to comply with directions, and the availability of outpatient medical support. The availability of the brand of LMWH in local outpatient pharmacies affects the decision about which LMWH is prescribed. Warfarin can be started on the same day as diagnosis of VTE and initiation of parenteral heparin therapy in those patients who will be treated with warfarin. Parenteral therapy must be continued for at least 5 days, even if the International Normalization Ratio (INR) is in the therapeutic range of 2.0 to 3.0, because it can take this long for levels of prothrombin to decline to reach the full anticoagulant effect of warfarin. Warfarin can also cause a transient hypercoagulable state due to a rapid decline in protein C and protein S levels, rarely leading to warfarin-induced skin necrosis. 19 DURATION OF ANTICOAGULATION THERAPY The initiation of anticoagulation therapy for acute VTE addresses the primary goal of preventing clot propagation and embolization. The secondary goal of preventing recurrent VTE then needs to be considered. The duration of anticoagulation therapy to prevent recurrent VTE is controversial. Conflicting guidelines from different medical societies have been developed with variable fixed time periods recommended. As new data from well-designed studies are presented, evidence-based guidelines are emerging, however, decision making for an individual patient is a complex, risk-benefit analysis. The consultant needs to consider the benefit of continued anticoagulation to mitigate

6 350 Battinelli et al the patient s risk of recurrent VTE versus the patient s risk of bleeding on anticoagulation therapy. One of the biggest determinants in the assessment of an individual patient s possibility for recurrent VTE is whether the VTE event was provoked by a transient or reversible risk factor or whether it was unprovoked or idiopathic. Unprovoked and idiopathic are used interchangeably during this discussion. These terms refer to VTE events in patients in whom a provoking or causative risk factor is not identified. Generally accepted transient risk factors for VTE include bed rest or hospitalization for 3 or more consecutive days within 12 weeks; surgery or general anesthesia within 12 weeks; trauma within 12 weeks; casting or immobilization, especially of the lower extremity; prolonged travel, greater than 4 to 6 hours; combined estrogen and progesterone oral contraceptive use; and pregnancy and the postpartum state. 20 For patients who are in either category of provoked or unprovoked VTE, the assessment of risk and decision for duration of anticoagulation can be straightforward. However, many patients are not in these provoked or unprovoked categories and require individualized assessment. Consensus guidelines support 3 to 6 months of anticoagulation therapy for a provoked VTE. 18,21 23 Studies show that 6 weeks is an insufficient duration of therapy because of a high risk of recurrent VTE. The VTE recurrence rate at 2 years is nearly doubled for 6 weeks compared with 6 months of anticoagulation therapy (18.1% vs 9.5%). 24 A meta-analysis of well-conducted randomized clinical trials shows that the risk of VTE recurrence at 12 months is 40% lower in patients treated for 12 to 24 weeks compared with those treated for 3 to 6 weeks, with no significant difference in major bleeding risk. 25 In this analysis, patients who have only transient risk factors for VTE also benefit from longer anticoagulation treatment; however, the benefit of longer anticoagulation is greater in patients with idiopathic VTE. 25 The risk of recurrent VTE in patients with transient risk factors is estimated at 4% to 5.8% in the first year, and declines after that time period. 14,26 The annual risk of major bleeding while on warfarin therapy is 1% to 3%. 27 The risk/benefit ratio in a patient with provoked VTE and no other risk factors favors discontinuation of anticoagulation after 3 to 6 months. For patients with persistent risks associated with recurrent VTE and for those with idiopathic VTE, the optimal duration of anticoagulation therapy after the first 3 to 6 months of treatment is harder to define. 28,29 In one randomized trial, patients with idiopathic VTE were anticoagulated for 3 versus 24 months. The VTE recurrence rate was higher in the shorter duration treatment group (27.4% vs 1.3% per patient year). This study was stopped at 10 months after interim analysis revealed this significant difference in VTE recurrence rates. Major nonfatal bleeding rate was 3.8% (3 of 79 patients over 10 months of anticoagulation). 30 Similar studies and meta-analyses all suggest that longer duration of anticoagulation therapy decreases recurrence rates; however, the benefit seems to be gained only while the patient is on anticoagulation therapy. In one study of prolonged duration of anticoagulation, final analysis at 3 years revealed no difference in recurrence rate for those patients with idiopathic PE treated for 3 to 6 months versus 12 months (11.2% vs 9.1%). 31 This group found similar results in a study of 3 months versus 12 months of anticoagulation for idiopathic DVT. At 1 year, the recurrent DVT rate was 8.3% for the 3-month arm and 0.7% for the 12-month arm. At 3 years, the DVT recurrence rates were equal at 15.8% and 15.7%. 32 The decreased risk of recurrent VTE with anticoagulation therapy must be weighed against the risk of bleeding. Many factors affect bleeding risk. Advanced age, renal failure, diabetes, cerebrovascular disease, malignancy, and concomitant use of antiplatelet therapy increase bleeding risk. 33,34 Bleeding risk is the highest at initiation of anticoagulation, 0.8% per day with UFH in one study. 33 In one registry, risk of major bleeding was 2.4% during the first 3 months of warfarin therapy. 35 As noted

7 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 351 previously, the estimated annual risk of bleeding with oral vitamin K antagonist (VKA) therapy is 3%. 27 Fatal bleeding events have been reported to occur in 20% of major bleeds, with annual case fatality of 0.6%. In a study of patients with recurrent VTE, indefinite duration of anticoagulation prevented 0.43 episodes of recurrent thromboembolism per month per 100 patients, but at a rate of 0.20 major hemorrhages per month. 14,36 A recent large meta-analysis of major bleeding in patients on anticoagulation longer than 3 months found a rate of 2.7 major bleeds per 100 patient years, with a case fatality rate of 9.1%. 37 Patients with very high risk for recurrent VTE and an unprovoked event clearly benefit from an indefinite duration of anticoagulation because the risk and consequences of recurrence are significantly greater than the risk of bleeding. High-risk patient populations include those patients with multiple recurrent idiopathic events who have failed off anticoagulation therapy; patients with antiphospholipid syndrome; patients with active cancer and VTE; patients with high-risk inherited thrombophilia and unprovoked VTE, including those with protein S, protein C, and antithrombin deficiencies, homozygous factor V Leiden; or compound factor V Leiden/prothrombin gene G20210A heterozygotes. Strong data for VTE recurrence rates in the inherited thrombophilias are lacking; however, risk is extrapolated from data for risk for first VTE event. 14 Individual patient assessment of bleeding risk may affect the decision for indefinite anticoagulation despite the high risk of recurrent VTE in any of these patient groups, especially in those with malignancy. In one study, the 1-year incidence of recurrent thrombosis was 21% for patients with cancer compared with 6.8% for patients without cancer; however, the 12-month cumulative incidence of major bleeding was 12.4% in patients with cancer and 4.9% in other patients. 38 Many patients with VTE do not clearly fit into the categories of provoked or unprovoked with high risk of recurrence. They often have a unique combination of risks that give them an intermediate risk of recurrence that can be difficult to quantify or to place neatly into the category of provoked VTE and no need for further anticoagulation or the unprovoked category with high risk that benefits from anticoagulation despite bleeding risk. Many balk at the idea of lifelong anticoagulation therapy. Risk for major bleeding events is a substantial concern but also the economic and psychological burden of testing and impact on lifestyle are significant concerns. Rather than trying to rigidly categorize patients into groups favoring or not favoring indefinite anticoagulation therapy, individual risk assessments should be performed. A detailed patient history, as well as family history, events surrounding the development of VTE, severity of symptoms at presentation, and clot burden should be reviewed. Patient preference for ongoing anticoagulation is also a significant factor that is incorporated in the decision-making process. Some patients are willing to take the risk of approximately 10% to 12% per year of recurrent VTE and forgo anticoagulation, whereas for others the risk and concern for developing fatal PE is too high. Strategies to help determine individual risk of recurrence have been developed and evaluated. Testing D-dimer levels and use of flexible duration of anticoagulation instead of a fixed time period have been studied. Clinical prediction tools to better quantify individual risk of recurrence and of bleeding risk have been designed and are being validated. Trials of lower intensity anticoagulation have also been performed. The development of new oral anticoagulants that do not require monitoring might significantly affect the risk-benefit analysis for some patients. D-dimer levels have been used to risk stratify patients with idiopathic VTE into groups with high risk and low risk of recurrence. In most studies, patients with idiopathic VTE complete a specified course of anticoagulant therapy and then have D-dimer levels measured, often 1 month after discontinuation of anticoagulation.

8 352 Battinelli et al Several studies and meta-analyses have been performed confirming that patients with increased D-dimer levels have a significantly higher risk of recurrent VTE than those with normal levels. In one randomized study, patients with positive levels who remained on anticoagulation had a recurrence rate of 2%. Those who had normal levels and came off anticoagulation had a recurrence rate of 4.4%. Those with positive levels allocated to no anticoagulation had an annual recurrence rate of 10.9% A recent meta-analysis of 1818 patients with unprovoked VTE showed that the timing of D-dimer testing after stopping anticoagulation, patient age, and threshold D-dimer level for positive results (250 mg/l vs 500 mg/l) did not affect the ability of the D-dimer level to distinguish risk for recurrent VTE. 42 In a prospective cohort study, the PROLONG II study, serial D-dimer levels were evaluated in patients with an unprovoked VTE who had a normal D-dimer level 1 month after stopping anticoagulation. Patients who developed positive D-dimer levels during the ensuing year had increased risk of recurrence compared with those whose D-dimer levels remained normal. A newly positive test at 3 months that remained positive conferred a hazard ratio of 7.9 for recurrence (27 per 100 patient years vs 2.9 per 100 patient years). Patients who developed a positive result after 3 months had an intermediate risk of recurrence at 11.1 per 100 patient years. 43 Another approach to determining risk for recurrence is to repeat imaging studies to assess for recanalization. Residual thrombosis at the time of discontinuation of anticoagulant therapy is a risk for recurrent VTE, with a hazard ratio of A randomized trial was performed by the same investigators to assess fixed duration of anticoagulation versus flexible duration of anticoagulation based on serial ultrasound assessments of DVT. Patients assigned to fixed-duration treatment received 3 months for provoked DVT and 6 months for unprovoked DVT. Those assigned to flexible duration had anticoagulation stopped at 3 months if there was complete recanalization of veins, or continued for up to 9 months for provoked DVT and 21 months for unprovoked. The numbers of patients in each group were insufficient to detect effectiveness and risk of major bleeding. Overall, the rates of recurrent DVT were significantly lower at 11.9% in those receiving flexible-duration treatment versus 17.2% receiving fixed-duration treatment. 45 Clinical prediction rules have been designed that incorporate these and other factors that have been shown to increase the risk of recurrence in patients with an unprovoked VTE. These factors include (1) male gender, (2) increased body mass index (>30 kg/m 2 ), and (3) initial presentation with symptomatic PE versus proximal DVT versus isolated calf vein thrombosis. 28,29,46 Two scoring systems have recently been developed to predict risk of recurrence after idiopathic VTE. The Vienna Prediction Model uses a nomogram to obtain a number value to predict individual risk. Several potential risk factors, including biochemical markers of thrombosis, were assessed. The factors that most strongly predicted recurrence included (1) male sex, (2) PE, and (3) increased D-dimer level after stopping anticoagulation. Another clinical scoring system that goes by the mnemonic men and HERDOO2 (male sex and signs of postthrombotic syndrome, including hyperpigmentation of the lower extremities, edema or redness of either leg, a D-dimer level >250 mg/l, obesity [body mass index >30 kg/m 2 ], and older age [>65 years]) has been developed based on prospective data. It is currently being validated in a larger patient population. 47,48 The use of a lower INR target, or lower intensity warfarin anticoagulation therapy, has been assessed in 2 large, double-blind, randomized studies. The proposed benefits of lower intensity are similar reduction in recurrent VTE risk but with lower risk of bleeding, and need for less frequent INR testing. In the PREVENT (Prevention of Recurrent Venous Thromboembolism) trial, a target INR of 1.5 to 2.0 was compared

9 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 353 with placebo in patients with idiopathic VTE after a median of 6.5 months of fullintensity warfarin treatment. There was a 64% reduction in risk of recurrent VTE events in the 255 patients assigned to low-intensity warfarin (7.2 per 100 patient years) compared with 253 patients assigned to placebo (2.6 per 100 patient years, hazard ratio 0.36, 95% confidence interval ). The rates of major bleeding were not statistically different at 0.4 per 100 patient years in the placebo group and 0.9 per 100 patient years in the low-intensity warfarin arm. In the ELATE (Extended Lowintensity Anticoagulation for Unprovoked Venous Thromboembolism) trial, patients completed 3 or more months of standard anticoagulant therapy and were then randomized to low-intensity warfarin with a target range of 1.5 to 2.0 or conventional intensity with the standard 2.0 to 3.0 range. The low-intensity arm had a recurrent VTE rate of 1.9 events per 100 patient years; the conventional arm had 0.7 recurrent VTE events per 100 patient years. There was no difference in rates of major bleeding between the 2 arms. The low-intensity group had 1.1 major bleeds per 100 patient years and the conventional-intensity group had 0.9 per 100 patient years. A criticism of the ELATE trial is the unexpectedly low bleeding risk compared with most previously published results in the 2.0 to 3.0 arm. INR tests were performed every 24 days in the conventional warfarin arm and every 26 days in the low-intensity arm. Time in therapeutic range values were reported and were 63% for the low-intensity arm and 69% for the conventional-intensity arm. Although these values are high, they are now routinely reported by many dedicated anticoagulation management services and may be attainable in a community setting. Compared with no long-term anticoagulant therapy, the low-intensity groups from both studies experienced a 76% risk reduction for recurrent VTE; the conventional-intensity arm had a greater than 90% risk reduction. 49,50 The WARFASA (Warfarin vs Aspirin) study was presented at the American Society of Hematology conference in Four-hundred and two carefully selected patients with idiopathic VTE were randomized to receive aspirin 100 mg daily or placebo after 6 months of warfarin treatment. Patients on treatment with aspirin had a recurrent VTE rate of 5.9% per patient year compared with 11.0% per patient year in the placebotreated group (hazard ratio 0.57). Bleeding rates were the same in each group and were extremely low. Risk reduction with aspirin was 40%. In some patients with idiopathic VTE, such as those with high risk of bleeding with conventional anticoagulation, those with a first idiopathic event and otherwise low-risk assessment, and those who do not want to comply with anticoagulation treatment, aspirin could offer some level of protection against recurrence; however, further analysis, longer follow-up, and headto-head comparison with warfarin is required before this approach can be fully endorsed. 51 Patients who have had an unprovoked VTE have an increased risk of recurrent VTE if anticoagulation therapy is stopped. Current consensus is to treat for a minimum of 6 months with full-intensity anticoagulation therapy, usually with warfarin. Extending treatment past 6 months with full-intensity warfarin therapy results in the most significant decrease in risk for recurrent events, but with the costs of increased bleeding risk, monitoring, and impact on quality of life. For patients in whom the risk-benefit analysis of continued duration of anticoagulation is not straightforward, an individualized risk-benefit assessment using a variety of the strategies described earlier is performed by most clinicians in the decision-making process. Patient preference is also considered. Although many of these approaches, such as vascular reimaging and use of D-dimer algorithms, have not been rigorously validated, they are widely practiced. Because of the lack of definitive data, none of these practices has been endorsed by any major society s guidelines. Clinicians in practice need to make decisions despite

10 354 Battinelli et al the sometimes conflicting results of trials and the differences of expert opinions. The use of D-dimer testing, repeat vascular imaging, and use of clinical prediction rules or scoring systems can help the clinician decide on an appropriate treatment course for the individual patient. This decision should be reevaluated as new data emerge that better define the true risk of recurrent VTE for an individual patient. NEW ORAL ANTICOAGULANTS New oral anticoagulants have been developed with the goal of replacing warfarin, the only oral anticoagulant available for more than 50 years. Warfarin is associated with many unfavorable characteristics, including slow onset of action, slow return to normal hemostasis, narrow therapeutic window, many significant drug and dietary interactions, and need for frequent testing, that make it cumbersome to manage. These new agents have been developed to improve on these limitations of warfarin. They all target either Xa or thrombin (see Fig. 1). They bind directly to the coagulation factor and prevent its activity, whereas warfarin impairs vitamin K epoxide activity, resulting in abnormal hepatic synthesis of several coagulation factors that are not able to be activated (II, VII, IX, X). The direct binding of these new oral agents to their targets results in rapid onset of anticoagulant activity within 2 to 3 hours of ingestion. The new oral agents have a wide therapeutic window in comparison with warfarin. Dabigatran and rivaroxaban are 2 new oral anticoagulants currently available in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia. Apixaban has completed, or is nearing completion, of phase III studies for multiple use indications and will be seeking approval in the near future. Dabigatran is a direct thrombin inhibitor. Rivaroxaban and apixaban target Xa. Both dabigatran and rivaroxaban have been approved in the United States for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, and for VTE prophylaxis following elective knee and hip replacement. 52,53 Many more new anticoagulants are in various stages of development in the highly competitive anticoagulant arena. Investigational study design has played a critical role in assessing the results of the trials of these new agents. Both primary efficacy and safety event rates are low, requiring the enrollment of large numbers of patients to satisfy statistical significance. For example, 18,000 patients were enrolled in the study of dabigatran in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. 54 Each of the 3 study arms was assigned 6000 patients. In the study of apixaban in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, more than 18,000 patients were randomized to 2 treatment arms with 9000 in each arm. 55 Demonstrating equivalency, or noninferiority, for a new agent compared with warfarin has been the first step in assessing efficacy. Comparison of safety profiles, or rates of major and nonmajor bleeding, is important. Bleeding risk is the most significant risk factor associated with warfarin use, and nonmajor bleeding is a specific reason for decreased quality of life for patients on warfarin. 56 Dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban have been shown to be noninferior or superior to warfarin in efficacy, with similar or decreased rates of major bleeding across all use indications. Regulatory approval has hinged on demonstration of superiority in either efficacy, safety, or both. Due to limitations and differences in study design, patient populations, rigorousness of warfarin management, and lack of head-to-head trials, the efficacy of the new oral anticoagulants cannot be directly compared with each other. The new oral anticoagulants promise to improve on the efficacy, safety, and lifestyle issues associated with warfarin. They have yet to be approved for treatment of acute VTE in the United States; however, rivaroxaban was approved for this indication in the European Union in December Its approval was based on a carefully designed

11 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 355 study using rivaroxaban as monotherapy (ie, without the need for a parenteral agent) from the time of diagnosis of acute DVT. It showed noninferiority to warfarin in acute VTE treatment with no difference between rivaroxaban and warfarin in major bleeding. Rivaroxaban was superior to placebo in preventing DVT recurrence after the initial 6 months of treatment. 57 Dabigatran was started after 5 days of parenteral anticoagulation with LMWH. Dabigatran was also noninferior to warfarin in efficacy, with a similar safety profile. 58 A phase III trial of apixaban in acute VTE has not yet been completed. In the next few years, the treatment of acute VTE and the prevention of recurrent VTE may change significantly if these new oral anticoagulants become available for this use indication. Overall, they all have at least similar efficacy and similar safety profiles compared with warfarin. Further data from longer duration of use in broader patient populations, including postmarketing data derived from patients with atrial fibrillation, will provide more information on safety. Differences in metabolism and clearance must be considered when determining which agent to use. Dabigatran is primarily cleared by the kidneys, whereas apixaban is cleared by the liver, and rivaroxaban by both. Differences in frequency of administration and side effect profiles will also allow clinicians to choose the agent that best fits the individual patient s needs. Improvements in the management of warfarin therapy, with home testing, self-dosing, and improved patient education, make warfarin a continued option, especially for those with renal or hepatic insufficiency. Rigorous cost-effectiveness analyses of new agents versus warfarin need to be performed and need to include all costs associated with anticoagulant management, and not just drug cost, before decisions and policies are made that determine the role of these agents in VTE treatment. Although warfarin is inexpensive compared with the costs of these new agents, the costs associated with the management of warfarin dose by trained staff may equal or exceed the costs of a new agent. Accessibility to test facilities, cost of home monitors and test strips, and other patient-centered costs also need to be considered. The rate of major bleeding and adverse outcomes with potential lifelong sequelae requiring more intensive medical care should also factor into the analyses. The treatment of VTE will become personalized medicine with duration of anticoagulation determined by individualized risk assessments and with a wider range of choice of oral anticoagulants that offer improvement compared with current therapy. SUPERFICIAL VENOUS THROMBOSIS One of the more common presentations of thrombotic disorders is superficial VTE (SVT). Although it is not considered as serious an event as a DVT, it still causes substantial adverse consequences and is a risk factor for development of DVT. 59,60 It has been estimated that approximately 125,000 people in the United States will suffer from SVT in the next year. 61 Just as for DVT, the same risk factors seem to be important in development of SVT, including prolonged periods of immobilization, trauma, obesity, underlying hypercoagulable state, oral contraceptives or hormone use, malignancy, and autoimmune disorders. 59 In addition, the presence of varicose veins seems to provide a structural nidus that increases the clotting risk, resulting in higher rates of SVT. The main focus of SVT management is the prevention of progression to other VTE. It has been estimated that 6.8% to 40% of SVT cases progress to deep vein thrombotic events. 62 As is evident from this wide range, it is difficult to estimate what percentage of patients with SVT will go on to other VTE. Studies that measure the risk of DVT progression from SVT are plagued with poor design strategies including differences

12 356 Battinelli et al in the tests used to make the diagnosis, standardization of patient characteristics, description of SVT event itself, as well as flawed statistical analysis. To determine what factors might increase the risk of developing a DVT, a large prospective investigation was performed. 63 The goal of the study was to find risk factors that help to establish which patients would be at risk for having a concurrent DVT at the time of presentation with the SVT. In the study, 788 patients with SVT were followed. Risk factors that increased the chance of having a simultaneous DVT included (1) age greater than 75 years, (2) active cancer, and (3) inpatient status at the time of presentation. The presence of a varicosity was not associated with increased risk of having a concurrent DVT. The risk of subsequent DVT development in patients with varicosities was not addressed. The study did investigate the overall rate of developing a VTE by 3 months, and male gender and inpatient status were risk factors. Others have suggested that location of the SVT is important for identifying which patients are at risk of developing VTE. Most SVTs occur in the saphenous vein (60% 80%). There are 3 ways in which an SVT can progress to a DVT. The clot can progress from the saphenofemoral junction (SFJ) into the common femoral vein; traverse through the knee perforators into the popliteal vein; or travel through the ankle perforators into the tibial and peroneal veins. Initial studies by Chengelis and colleagues 64 showed that 90% of the events occur through the SFJ. In a study by Verlato and colleagues, 65 SVT in the thigh provided substantial risk for adverse events. The presence of SVT in the saphenous vein has been associated with the highest likelihood of becoming DVTs, and full anticoagulation should be considered. 64 Some have tried to look at the proximity of the clot to the SFJ to base decisions on who needs to be considered for aggressive treatment because of the risk of conversion to DVT. Initial studies by Lohr and colleagues 66 suggested that a cutoff of 3 cm near the SFJ should be considered significant and warrant surgical intervention. Sullivan and colleagues, 67 in a meta-analysis, proposed that all incidences of SVT occurring above the knee in the great saphenous vein should be treated with anticoagulation. Further support of the aggressive nature of clots near the SFJ came from the randomized control trial by Prandoni and colleagues, 68 which showed that patients with SVT within 2 to 3 cm of the SFJ were at risk for clot progression even if they received anticoagulation therapy. Although there was a decrease in the rate of SVT progression in the therapeutic group, the difference was minimal with progression occurring in 8.6% of those who received prophylactic anticoagulation and 7.2% of those on the therapeutic dosing regimen. This study further supports the importance of location in risk stratifying which patients are at increased risk of clot progression. In our experience, an aggressive approach using treatment in this patient population is warranted and, for this reason, we agree with consideration of anticoagulation in those at risk of progression. SVT has traditionally been treated conservatively with methods aimed at reducing pain and suffering, including warm compresses, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents, and compression stockings. This disorder is difficult to treat because it does not consist of just thrombosis alone; it is associated with an inflammatory state as well. The development of an SVT usually occurs in areas of trauma to the external skin or direct damage to the endothelial layer of the blood vessel, leading to inflammation within the vessel through leukocyte activation and edema, increasing the risk of thrombosis. An area of varicosity is more likely to have diminished blood flow that may be associated with increased risk of thrombosis through venous stasis changes. Another factor that can lead to endothelial injury and subsequent thrombosis is intravenous catheter placement. In patients with malignancy, a migratory form of SVT can

13 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 357 occur in which repeated thrombosis develops within the superficial venous system. This type of VTE was originally described by Trousseau and can be a harbinger for impending cancer diagnosis and worsening disease burden. However, recent studies have suggested that, at least for some cases, a more aggressive approach may be warranted. Because there is little consensus within the medical community regarding appropriate treatment of this condition, the range of available treatment modalities is diverse, including everything from no treatment to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs or full-intensity anticoagulation. 69,70 However, this problem has been compounded by a lack of adequately controlled randomized trials. These studies have left many questions regarding dosing of anticoagulation and length of treatment. Initial work by Belcaro and colleagues 62 established the important role of anticoagulation as a means of decreasing the rate of progression of SVT. In this open study, patients with SVT were randomized to conservative treatment versus treatment with anticoagulants. In the control group who received no anticoagulation, the incidence of DVT was as high as 7.7%, whereas no patient who received anticoagulation progressed to DVTs. Marchiori and colleagues 59 studied low and high doses of heparin to treat VTE and there was less progression in those who received the high-dose regimens. However, this trial has been criticized for its small patient numbers. A more rigorous trial was performed by Quenet and colleagues. 71 This was a double-blind study in which 436 patients were randomized to placebo group, prophylactic dosing of LMWH, or therapeutic dosing of LMWH. Although there was no statistically significant difference observed between the groups after 10 days of treatment, the rate of recurrence of SVT was lower in those who had been treated versus those in the placebo group. The most rigorous trial to address this issue, and the most compelling evidence for treatment of SVT, was presented by the CALISTO (Comparison of Arixtra in Lower Limb Superficial Vein Thrombosis with Placebo) trial in which the efficacy of fondaparinux (Arixtra) for reducing symptomatic VTE complications was addressed. 72 In this study, patients with SVT received prophylactic doses of fondaparinux at 2.5 mg once daily for 45 days. This study showed that the rate of PE or DVT was 85% lower in the group that received the fondaparinux compared with the placebo group, at least up to 77 days after the initial event. The incidence of adverse events such as bleeding was negligible. The investigators concluded that treatment with fondaparinux at a dose of 2.5 mg per day for 45 days was an effective means of decreasing the chance of an SVT leading to a DVT or PE, and that the side effects of this treatment were minimal. Although these studies clearly establish the benefit of anticoagulation in patients with SVT, questions still remain regarding the length of anticoagulation, dosing regimen, and the agent of choice. It is our experience that patients presenting with SVT at risk of progression should be managed with anticoagulation and repeated ultrasound to monitor efficacy of treatment and to guide decisions regarding length of treatment. TRAVEL-RELATED VENOUS THROMBOSIS The mechanism underlying the increased risk of thrombotic events in association with air travel is not well elucidated. The most compelling argument for associated risk seems to be from the venous stasis that occurs during the immobility that is required for air travel. 73 The overall estimate is that air travel for a prolonged period of time confers a 2-fold to 4-fold increased risk of having a VTE The risk can be substantial, with one group reporting that the risk of DVT increases by 26% for every 2-hour

14 358 Battinelli et al increment of air travel. 20 The period of vulnerability to development of VTE extends from time of travel out to 8 weeks after returning from the trip. 77 It is generally thought that those who have a higher propensity for clotting events are the most at risk for air travel related thrombosis. For this reason, individual risk assessments need to be performed on patients to determine whether or not any interventions are needed to decrease their overall risk burden during travel. Preexisting risk factors for developing VTE include recent surgery, active malignancy, previous spontaneous VTE, previous travel-related VTE, or underlying hypercoagulable state. 78,79 Others have suggested that presence of other comorbidities, including congestive heart failure and stroke, also increase the risk of developing a thrombotic event. 80 Having more than 1 risk factor is also suspected to have a cumulative effect in terms of overall risk assessment according to an Australian study. 81 Preventing these thrombotic events should be the main goal for all air travelers. There are several conservative measures that can be taken to help diminish the occurrence. These measures include adequate mobility; avoidance of constrictive clothing; focused exercises to improve flow to lower extremities; avoidance of any agents that increase sedentary state, such as alcohol or sedating drugs; and use of compressing stockings. 82,83 For those patients with perceived higher risk of VTE, such as those with prior events, anticoagulation therapy is a reasonable option. However, few studies have been performed in this population to validate the use of anticoagulation and to confirm agent of choice, dosing, and timing interval of administration. In our practice, based on experience and minimal clinical data, we generally advise our patients with higher overall risk of VTE to use LMWH prophylactically with dosing a few hours before flying as a single dose. The use of aspirin is not effective in this population to prevent venous-related events. 84 Recent guidelines from ACCP 9th edition provided some guidance for patients with risk factors for travel-related VTE. For patients traveling a long distance who have an increased risk of VTE, such as previous history of VTE, recent surgery or trauma, an active malignancy, estrogen use, or known thrombophilic disorder, they recommend aggressive prevention through increased ambulation and calf muscle exercises and the use of compression stockings during travel (grade 2C). They recommend against the regular use of aspirin or anticoagulants for prevention of VTE, including in those with asymptomatic thrombophilia. 18 HYPERCOAGULABLE WORK-UP Several heritable and acquired risk factors negatively affect a patient s risk of developing a VTE. Genetic risk factors that are associated with increased risk of VTE include mutations in factor V (Leiden) and prothrombin 20210, as well as mutations leading to deficiencies in antithrombin, protein C, and protein S. Acquired risk factors include the development of antiphospholipid antibodies and their associated anticardiolipins. The use of tests to assess the presence of these factors to establish overall thrombotic risk is controversial. Approximately 5% of the white population has at least 1 mutation for factor V Leiden, and 15% to 20% of patients who carry this mutation develop a VTE This point mutation prevents protein C from effectively acting on factor V to limit its activity, leading to hypercoagulability. Another common genetic mutation associated with VTE is the prothrombin gene (G2021A) mutation, which is carried by approximately 2% of the population and may be present in approximately 5% to 15% of persons with VTE. 89 Patients with this mutation have a higher level of prothrombin than normally found because of decreased ability to degrade the protein precursor messenger

15 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 359 RNA. Patients who carry both of these mutations simultaneously are referred to as compound heterozygotes. These patients are particularly vulnerable to clotting, with a 20-fold increased risk of having a clotting event. Deficiencies in normally present anticoagulant proteins also can account for the hypercoagulable state. Antithrombin III deficiency, which is associated with a frequency of 1 in 300 in the general population, and in 3% to 5% of those with thrombotic events, leads to a 50-fold increased risk in severe cases. The population frequencies of mutations in other genes that are responsible for other coagulation factors, such as in protein C or protein S, are estimated to be 1 in 500 individuals. Deficiency of these proteins is associated with a 10-fold increased thrombotic risk. It was previously thought that genetic mutations in the genes important for methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase and hyperhomocysteinemia increased the risk of venous thromboembolic events; however, this causation has been shown to be less likely. 90 The incidence of increased factor VIII, IX, and XI being associated with thrombotic risk is controversial. Deficiencies in fibrinolytic proteins may also contribute to the overall hypercoagulable state leading to disfibrinolysis disorders such as congenital plasminogen deficiency, deficiency of tissue plasminogen activator, or congenital plasminogen activator increases. The main acquired risk factor associated with the hypercoagulable state that is known to be important in both venous and arterial thrombosis is the acquisition of antiphospholipid antibodies. These antibodies represent a family of antibodies against phospholipids, such as cardiolipins, and phospholipid binding proteins, such as b 2 glycoprotein I. The mechanisms responsible for thrombosis remain to be elucidated, with some proposed mechanism for hypercoagulability including inhibition of protein C, antithrombin, and annexin A5 expression; binding and activation of platelets; enhanced endothelial cell tissue factor expression; and activation of the complement cascade. 91 For a diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome to be made, the presence of both clinical events and laboratory evidence of the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies must be present. 92 In addition, the cutoff values for levels of anticardiolipins have been established for diagnosing this syndrome. The issue of who to undertake a hypercoagulable work-up on is always controversial. In general, random screening for thrombophilias is not recommended because this does not always directly affect treatment decisions. Screening asymptomatic individuals is even more controversial because, although prophylactic anticoagulation could be offered during high-risk situations, there are no data to support the longterm use of prophylactic anticoagulation in asymptomatic patients. Others would state that having the knowledge of an inherited thrombophilia can directly affect patients ability to be more proactive about their health care and make informed decisions. In some situations, it is advisable to screen for thrombophilia. Until more clinical data are available, individual risk assessments need to direct which individuals undergo a thrombophilia work-up. There is an advantage to knowing about homozygous carrier states as well as the presence of multiple genetic defects that overall increase the risk of having a clotting-related event. Also, antithrombin deficiency can have serious impact on thrombotic risk, especially in women who are pregnant. These women should be offered anticoagulation for the duration of their pregnancy, which greatly diminishes their thrombotic risk. BRIDGING: ANTICOAGULATION BRIDGING FOR INVASIVE PROCEDURES At some point, almost every patient on long-term anticoagulation requires an invasive procedure that necessitates stopping anticoagulation to prevent excess

16 360 Battinelli et al procedure-related bleeding. For patients on short-acting parenteral LMWH or fondaparinux, or the new short-acting oral direct Xa or thrombin inhibitors, stopping the anticoagulant before the procedure is simply a matter of holding for the appropriate amount of time so that enough half-lives have passed for the anticoagulant effect to reverse; usually 24 to 72 hours. However, warfarin has such a long duration of effect on coagulation factors that it must be stopped for 5 days before the procedure to reach baseline hemostasis. Bridging is the term used when a short-acting anticoagulant, usually a parenteral LMWH, is used both in the few days before the procedure after stopping warfarin, and often after the procedure, until therapeutic anticoagulation is again achieved with warfarin. The number of patients on warfarin anticoagulation for primary stroke prevention in cardiovascular disorders, such as in atrial fibrillation or with mechanical heart valves, or for secondary VTE prophylaxis, has increased significantly in the last 2 decades. Bridging strategies have developed in tandem with the increasing numbers of patients on warfarin and with the advent of LMWH, making it easier to bridge in the outpatient setting rather than admit for IV UFH. These strategies have developed without the benefit of data from randomized controlled trials. The use of bridging anticoagulation was based on perceived thromboembolic risk in the absence of anticoagulation, especially in patients with mechanical heart valves. Current critical review and new data raise many questions about the use of bridging anticoagulation. The intent of bridging is to minimize periprocedural thromboembolic events and bleeding risks. The primary indication for anticoagulation drives the VTE risk, whereas the type of procedure defines the risk of bleeding. Many studies published in the last 10 to 12 years were cohort studies that did not use tight bridging protocols. Results were often conflicting, with some studies reporting low rates of thrombotic events at 0.7% in a selected patient population with perceived moderate risk of thrombotic event in which warfarin was stopped without LMWH bridging. In a similar patient population, the estimated thrombotic event risk of 0.016% was considered too high; hence, warfarin was continued for certain selected dermatologic procedures with no documented increase in bleeding. 93,94 The largest study on anticoagulation bridging published to date was from a prospective registry study of 1293 patients. 93 The most common indications for long-term anticoagulation in this registry were atrial fibrillation (n 5 550), VTE (n 5 144), and mechanical prosthetic heart valves (n 5 132). The most common procedures were colonoscopy (n 5 324), dental (n 5 323), or cataract surgery (n 5 116). Only 108 of the 1293 patients (8.3%) were bridged. Most patients were simply instructed to omit warfarin for up to 5 days before surgery and to resume warfarin on postoperative day zero. Thromboembolism occurred in none of the bridged patients but in 0.6% of the nonbridged patients. In contrast, major hemorrhage occurred in 3.7% of the bridged patients but in only 0.2% of the nonbridged patients. Based on the low observed risk of thrombotic event, the investigators suggested that bridging may be unnecessary for most patients. The investigators also suggested that routine bridging increases the bleeding risk, leading to more risk than benefit. Despite the lack of high-quality data from randomized controlled trials, efforts have been made to develop practice guidelines to help the clinician determine optimal management for the individual patient. These guidelines are adapted from riskstratification schemes that estimate risk of stroke or VTE and are used in the nonperioperative setting (CHADS 2 [congestive heart failure, hypertension, age >75 years, diabetes, prior stroke or transient ischemic attack] and CHA 2 DS 2 VASc [congestive heart failure; hypertension; age 75 years; diabetes mellitus; prior stroke, transient ischemic attack, or thromboembolism; vascular disease; age years; sex

17 Venous Thromboembolism Overview 361 category, ie, female gender]). 95,96 Patients who may benefit from bridging include those with recent thrombosis or with history or risk factors that suggest a high risk of repeat thrombosis when not fully anticoagulated, such as patients with mechanical mitral valve replacement, prior stroke, active cancer diagnosis, new DVT or PE within 3 months of procedure, or prior thromboembolism during perioperative warfarin interruption. 18 In these patients, warfarin is held for 5 days before surgery and generally an LMWH at full dose is started 4 days before surgery. The last dose of LMWH is given 24 hours before surgery. Anticoagulation with LMWH is then generally resumed 24 to 72 hours after surgery, depending on when hemostasis is thought to be satisfactory and on the bleeding risk associated with the type of surgery. In some patients at extremely high risk for thrombotic event or VTE, or at extremely high risk of bleeding, IV UFH with its short half-life can be used to bridge the patient. It is started when the INR is at 2.0 and stopped 4 to 6 hours before surgery. In addition to its shorter half-life compared with LMWH, it can be fully reversed with protamine and its anticoagulant effect readily monitored by PTT testing. Guidelines for risk of bleeding are based on type of surgery, with general consensus developed for those procedures deemed high, intermediate, and low risk for bleeding. In patients who undergo surgery with high risk of bleeding, postoperative LMWH is often not restarted or is resumed at a later time such as 48 to 72 hours after surgery, and often with a prophylactic dose. Surgical procedures with high bleeding risk include major cardiac surgery, intracranial surgery, intraspinal surgery, major vascular surgery, major orthopedic surgery, and major cancer surgery. 18,97 Urogenital surgery, including prostate and bladder resection surgeries, have an increased risk of bleeding caused by local endogenous urokinase activity. Some minor surgeries and nonsurgical procedures have been deemed high risk for bleeding given anatomic or local factors. These procedures include colon polypectomy if the polyp stalk is greater than 1 cm, prostate or kidney biopsy, and cardiac pacemaker or defibrillator placement. 97 There are many questions about bridging that have yet to be answered, including which patients truly benefit from bridging and whether a full or prophylactic dose of LMWH should be used. A randomized controlled trial of bridging sponsored by the National Institutes of Health is currently being conducted in the United States. The BRIDGE (Bridging Anticoagulation in Patients who Require Temporary Interruption of Warfarin for an Elective Procedure or Surgery) trial is enrolling patients with chronic atrial fibrillation who require temporary interruption of warfarin treatment, and will attempt to answer some of these questions. Patients with newly diagnosed VTE should have surgical procedures deferred until 12 weeks after the VTE diagnosis, if possible, because these patients are at high risk for recurrent VTE if anticoagulation is interrupted. 18 If the surgery cannot be postponed, bridging strategies should be used. Anticoagulation should be resumed at 24 hours after surgery or as soon as deemed safe from a bleeding standpoint, with the goal of reaching full-dose anticoagulation as quickly as possible. Patients with a more remote history of VTE should be assessed for need for bridging based on the information provided earlier, taking into account all VTE and thrombotic event risks as well as risk for bleeding. 98 SUMMARY Patients with VTE present with a wide range of findings and factors that affect management. Decision making in VTE management is a fluid process that should be reevaluated as new data emerge and individual circumstances change. There is

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