"It must be stressed that, contrary to
common belief, building with earth is not a simple
technology. The mere fact that natives of many countries have been
building their houses with earth since thousands of years does not
mean that the technology is sufficiently developed or known to
everyone. It is indeed the lack of expertise that brings about poor
constructions, which in turn gives the material its ill reputation.
However, with some guidance, virtually anyone can learn to build
satisfactorily with earth, and thus renew confidence in one of the
oldest and most versatile building materials."

"A yaodong (窰洞) is a
dugout used as an
abode or
shelter in China.
Yaodongs are common in north
China, especially
on the
Loess
Plateau. The history of yaodongs goes back centuries, and they continue to
be used.

Description

Yaodongs are usually
carved out of a generally vertical side of a loess hill. If the side
is not vertical, it must be cut vertical. The silty soil is soft and
easy to dig. The cross section of a yaodong is similar to that of a
cave: a rectangle in the lower part connected to a semicircle in the
upper part. The width at the floor is from 3 to 4 meters, and the
highest point in the ceiling is around 3 meters or higher. The depth
of a yaodong can be 5 meters or more. Windows and doors are
installed at the opening of the yaodong. The inner side wall is
usually plastered with lime to make it white. A platform called
kang is built to be used as a bed. A fireplace is built beside
the kang and the smoke and hot gas go through the built-in channels
inside the kang to heat it before exiting to outdoor through
a chimney.

The hill, which is
practically infinite in thickness, that separates the indoor space
and outdoor serves as an effective insulator that keeps the inside
of a yaodong warm in cold seasons and cool in hot seasons.
Consequently, very little heating is required in winter, and in
summer, it is as cool as an air-conditioned room.

More elaborate yaodongs
may have a facade built with stones with fine patterns carved on the
surface.

Yaodongs can also be
constructed with stones or bricks as stand-alone structures. Often,
three or more yaodongs in a row are constructed. First, stones or
bricks are used to build the arch-shaped structure, and then soil is
used to fill up the external space above the arches to make a thick
and flat roof.

The most famous yaodongs
in China are perhaps those in Yan'an. The communists led by Mao
Zedong headquartered there in 1935-1948 and lived in yaodongs. Edgar
Snow visited Mao and his party in Yan'an and wrote Red Star Over
China. An estimated 40 million people in northern China live in
yaodongs.

5.1.2. Tunesien: Höhlenwohnungen in
Matmâta = مطماطة

"Matmâta or
Metmata is a small Berber speaking town in southern Tunisia.
Some of the local Berber residents live in traditional underground "troglodyte"
structures.

The structures typical for the village are created by digging a
large pit in the ground. Around the perimeter of this pit artificial
caves are then dug to be used as rooms, with some homes comprised of
multiple pits, connected by trench-like passageways. This type of
home was made famous by serving as the location of the Lars
Homestead, home to Luke Skywalker, his Aunt Beru Lars and Uncle Owen
Lars for the Star Wars movies. The Lars Homestead was in fact
the Hotel Sidi Driss, which offers traditional troglodyte
accommodations. One of Call of Duty 2 missions takes place in
Matmâta as part of North African Campaign.

History

Ancient history

The history of this
extraordinary place is not known, except from tales carried from
generation to generation. The most probable one says that
underground homes were first built in ancient times, when the Roman
empire sent two Egyptian tribes to make their own homes in the
Matmata region, after one of the Punic wars, with permission to kill
every human being in their way. The dwellers of the region had to
leave their homes and to dig caves in the ground to hide from those
invaders, but they left their underground shelters in the night to
attack invaders, which appeared to be very effective in sending the
killer groups away from Matmata. A myth was made those days, that
monsters emerge from beneath the ground and kill land usurpers. In
any case, the underground settlements remained hidden in very
hostile area for centuries, and no one had any knowledge of their
existence until 1967.

The way of survival in
those severe conditions was difficult: since Tunisia is famous for
massive olive oil production, the men went searching for work north
of the villages every spring, when the olive season began, getting
back home in autumn, when the season was over. They were usually
paid in olive oil, which they traded for other goods (in present
days for money), and thus provided enough food, clothes and other
things for normal life of their families.

Modern rediscovery

It was not generally known
until 1967 that there were regular settlements in this area besides
wandering nomad tribes. That year, intensive rains that lasted for
22 days innundated the troglodyte homes and caused many of them to
collapse. In order to get help from the authorities, a delegation
was sent to the community center of the region in the town of
Gabes. The visit came as a surprise, but help was provided, and
the above ground settlement of Matmata was built. However, most of
the people continued their lives in re-built underground homes, and
only a few of the families moved to the new surface dwellings.

Today, Matmata is a
well-known tourist attraction, and most of the population lives on
tourism and folklore exhibitions in their homes."

"Super Adobe is a form of Earthbag
Construction that was developed by Iranian architect Nader Khalili.
The technique uses long snake-like sand bags to form a beehive
shaped compressive structure that employs arches, domes, and vaults
to create single and double-curvature shell structures that are
strong and aesthetically pleasing. It has received growing interest
for the past two decades in the Natural building and Sustainability
movements. Due to Super Adobe’s inexpensive nature, ease in
construction, and use of locally available materials, it has also
been proposed for use as a long term emergency shelter. Super Adobe
is also known as Superadobe (one word), and also Superblock, but
never Super Block.

History

Although it is not known exactly how long,
Earth bag shelters have been used for decades, primarily as
implements of refuge in times of war. Military infantrymen have used
sand filled sacks to create bunkers and barriers for protection
prior to World War I. In the last century more peaceful earthbag
buildings have undergone extensive research and are slowly beginning
to gain worldwide recognition as a plausible solution to the global
epidemic of housing shortages. German architect Frei Otto is said to
have experimented with earth bags, as is more recently Gernot Minke.
The technique’s current pioneer is Nader Khalili who originally
developed the Super Adobe system in 1984 in response to a NASA call
for housing designs for future human settlements on the Moon and on
Mars. His proposal was to use moon dust to fill the plastic Super
Adobe tubes and Velcro together the layers (instead of barbed wire).
Some projects have been done using bags as low-tech foundations for
Straw-bale construction. They can be covered in a waterproof
membrane to keep the straw dry. In 1995 15 refugee shelters were
built in Iran, by Nader Khalili and the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) in response to refugees from the Persian Gulf War.
According to Khalili the cluster of 15 domes that was built could
have been repeated by the thousands. Unfortunately the government
dismantled the camp a few years later. since then, the Super Adobe
Method has been put to use in Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Belize, Costa
Rica, Chile, Iran, India, Siberia, and Thailand, as well as in the
U.S.

Methodology

Materials

Many different materials can be used to
construct Super Adobe. Ideally you would have barbed wire, earth or
sand, cement or lime, and Super Adobe fabric tubing (available from
Cal-Earth), but the bags can be polypropylene, burlap, or some other
material. What is important is that they are UV resistant or else
quickly covered in plaster, in this regard you can even use grocery
bags that are twisted shut and formed into balls. Virtually any fill
material will actually work including un-stabilized sand, earth,
gravel, crushed volcanic rock, rice hulls, etc. If the fill material
is weak the bags have to be really strong and UV resistant, or else
plastered right away. The material can be either wet or dry, but the
structure is more stable when the tube's contents have been
moistened. Other materials needed include, water, shovels, tampers,
scissors, large plugs or pipes (for windows), and small buckets or
coffee cans for filling the sacks. If you decide to go the quicker
way, then electric or pneumatic tampers can make the tamping easier,
electric or gas powered bucket chain that can reach 7m or higher
would eliminate the need of manual filling of sacks or tubing using
coffee cans or small pails.

Process

The foundation for the structure is formed by
digging a 12” (aprox. 30,5 cm) deep circular trench with a 8’-14’ (aprox.
2,44-4,26 meter) diameter. 2-3 layers of the polypropylene filled
sand tubes (Super Adobe fabric tubing) are set below the ground
level in the foundation trench. A rope is anchored to the ground in
the center of the circle and used like a compass to trace the shape
of the base. Another rope is fastened to the ground on the inside
base of the wall and used as a guide to shape the interior radius of
the opposite wall of the dome. Ropes can be used from several points
around the inside of the base to ensure accuracy of the finished
dome. Or you can use a metal pipe and arm unit that is easier to
keep level and in-line. On top of each layer of tamped, filled
tubes, a loop of barbed wire is placed to help stabilize the
location of each consecutive layer. Window voids can be placed in
two ways, either by rolling the filled tube back on itself around a
circular plug (forming an arched header) or by waiting for the earth
mixture to set and sawing out a Gothic or pointed arch void. A round
skylight can even be the top of the dome.

It is not recommended to exceed the 14’ (mt
4,26) diameter design in size, but many larger structures have been
created by grouping several beehives together to form a sort of
connected village of domes. Naturally this lends itself to
residential applications, some rooms being for sleeping and some for
living. There is a 32' (mt 9,75) dome being constructed in the St.
Ignacio area of Belize, which when finished will be the centre dome
of an eco-resort complex.

Finishing

Once the corbelled dome is complete, it can be
covered in several different kinds of exterior treatments, usually
plaster. Khalili developed a system that used 85% earth and 15%
cement plaster and which is then covered by “Reptile”, a veneer of
grapefruit sized balls of concrete and earth. Reptile is easy to
install and because the balls create easy paths for stress, it
doesn't crack with time. There are many different possibilities.
Some Super Adobe buildings have even been covered by living grass, a
kind of Green roof but covering the entire structure. Any exterior
treatment and building details would need to be adapted to a
region’s specific climatic needs.

Emergency
shelters

According to Khalili's website in an
emergency, impermanent shelters can be built using only dirt with no
cement or lime, and for the sake of speed of construction windows
can be punched out later due to the strength of the compressive
nature of the dome/beehive. Ordinary sand bags can also be used to
form the dome if no Super Adobe tubes can be procured; this in fact
was how the original design was developed. There is a great
potential for long-term emergency shelters with Super Adobe because
of the simplicity of construction. Labor can be unskilled and high
physical strength or formal training is unnecessary for the workers,
so women and children are able to substantially contribute to the
construction process. Local resources can be used with ease, Super
Adobe is not an exact art and similar materials may be substituted
if the most ideal ones are not readily available. In an interview
with an AIA (American Institute of Architects) representative, Nader
Khalili, super adobe’s founder and figure head said this about the
emergency shelter aspects of Super Adobe: “A 400-square-foot (37 m2)
house, with bedroom, bathroom, kitchen, and entry-I call it the
Eco-Dome-can be put up in about four weeks, by one skilled and four
unskilled people. Emergency shelters can go up much more quickly.
After the Gulf War, the United Nations sent an architect here. We
trained him, and he went to the Persian Gulf and put them up with
refugees as they arrived at the camps. Every five incoming refugees
put up a simple structure in five days. It's emergency shelter, but
if you cover it with waterproofing and stucco, it will last for 30
or more years.”

Sustainability

Super Adobe and other forms of Earth-Bag
Construction are considered sustainable for several reasons. First
of all, the system is extremely cheap and easy to build. Soil can be
taken right from the site and the bags can be obtained for free or
for a low cost. The technique demands few skills. Anyone can learn
to do it, which makes this building technique accessible to low
income communities. Additionally, the building can be erected very
quickly, building with bags goes quicker then with any other
Earth-building technique (i.e. Cob, Adobe, etc). Also, the system is
very flexible, allowing for alterations in design and construction.
This makes customizing a design to a specific individuals needs
while the home is under construction relatively unencumbered
compared to post permit alterations in modern day construction.
Super Adobe is increasingly being realized as a Green building
technique. Building sustainably does not just entail a focus on the
health of the inhabitants of the structure or the environmental
impacts of a certain technique or material. The ethics or social and
economic impact of the technique and materials must also be
considered. Sustainability implies a level of social awareness
paramount to a healthy building culture. Super Adobe’s major
ingredient is earth, which is non-toxic and readily available. If
the earth is not from the immediate site than locating a nearby
source is generally not terribly difficult, such close proximity to
a materials source decreases the materials embodied energy, another
focus of sustainability. In terms of energy conservation the walls
are very thick and have significant thermal mass, which reduces
heating and cooling costs as well as provides sound insulation,
structural integrity, fire and pest protection. Like traditional
adobe or concrete structures the walls are heated throughout the
day, while maintaining a comfortable temperature on the inside. Then
the heat is released slowly throughout night also contributing to a
comfortable interior temperature. Another vital emphasis in green,
or sustainable design is a structures connection to its natural
environment. In the same interview with the AIA representative
mentioned previously, Nader Khalili said this about his reason for
creating the Super Adobe technique of construction. “I was searching
for a way to create a building that was totally in harmony with
nature, that could be available to everybody around the world.”

Properties

Super Adobe has also been proven to be
competitively strong by modern western construction standards.
Strength and resiliency tests done at Cal-Earth under the
supervision of the ICBO (International Conference of Building
Officials) showed that under static load testing conditions
simulating seismic, wind, and snow loads, the Super Adobe system
exceeded by 200 percent the 1991 Uniform Building Code Requirements.
Due to this, California granted its first permit for the Earth Bag
Construction for the Hesperia Museum and Nature Center. Earth bag
shelters have since been built in the U.S., Mexico, Canada, the
Bahamas, and Mongolia. Like many Sustainable building techniques,
sand bag construction has gained interest in the public eye as
environmental consciousness increases.

Criticisms

Structural
design issues

Several building departments
have required that substantial changes be made to designs to meet
seismic building codes. Most building codes require positive
vertical connections between structural members, but since Super
Adobe is reinforced by barb wire placed between sand bag layers, no
positive connection exists between bag layers to contain dynamic
vertical loads and prevent separation. The Eco-Dome constructed at
the Pomona College Organic Farm, in Los Angeles County, for example
included a reinforcing rebar and welded wire mesh faced in shotcrete
on both the inner and outer surfaces.

Architectural
design issues

Some architects criticize
Cal-Earth designs as being a 'regressive technique'. In a New York
Times article11 Peter Berman, a Montana architect, raised
objections over economy of scale. Berman asserts that technology
should be foremost in architecture and that buildings should be
'lighter, stronger and more transparent'. Moreover, Berman has
stated that he does not view Khalili as a professional, due in most
part to his rejection of industrialized processes and products,
stating the issues of installing "standard windows and doors".

High labor
costs

As an experimental/developmental
technique Super Adobe has been criticized as being overly-expensive,
since the construction is so proportionally labor-intensive.[citation
needed] Super Adobe, for this reason, is well suited for
communal, volunteer constructions, or for places where the cost of
labor is low.[citation
needed] Within a commercial model, Mr. Khalili estimated
that a four-bedroom, 2,000-square-foot (190 m2) house
would cost $75,000 to build, including labor, materials and
utilities.[citation
needed]

Poor insulation

The Cal-Earth Eco-Dome design has U-Factors of
0.103 (9.7 R-value) for 18-inch (460 mm) thick walls and 0.253 (3.9
R-value) for a 6-inch (150 mm) thick roof. It should be noted that
materials with a low R-value and high thermal mass and specific heat
constants typically perform much better than their insulating
qualities simulate.

Use of energy
intensive or petroleum-based materials

In the
Super Adobe process, cement is mixed with earth in the ratio of 15
percent or more (for the external waterproofing material only). A
Cal-Earth design, such as the double Eco-Dome, requires 70,000 lb
(32,000 kg) of Portland cement for a structure having less than 800
interior square feet.[citation
needed] Also, since earth contains materials such as clay
or organic matter that interfere with the binding properties of
cement, it may result in inefficient use of cement. In soils with
high clay content, Cal-Earth recommends increasing the percentage of
cement or lime. Alternatively, petroleum based materials such as
asphalt emulsion are applied to the exterior surfaces of the
structure for weatherproofing. (However, there are no design
restrictions on the waterproofing material, so conceivably any
material can be used.)

"Fujian Tulou
(simplified Chinese:
福建土楼; traditional Chinese: 福建土樓;
pinyin: Fújiàn Tǔlóu) is a unique Chinese rammed earth building of
the Hakka and other people in the mountainous areas in southwestern
Fujian, China. They are mostly built between the 12th to
the 20th centuries.[1]
Tulou is usually a large enclosed building, rectangular or circular
in configuration, with a very thick weight supporting earth wall (up
to 6 feet thick) and wooden skeletons, from three to five stories
high, housing up to 80 families. These earth buildings usually have
only one main gate, guarded by 4-5 inch thick wooden doors
reinforced with an outer shell of iron plate. The top level of these
earth buildings has gun holes for defense against bandits.

In the 80s, Fujian Tulou had
being variously called "Hakka tulou", "earth dwelling", "round
stronghouse" or simply "tulou". Since the 90s, scholars in Chinese
architecture have standardized on the term Fujian Tulou. It
is incorrect to assume that all residents of tulou were Hakka
people, because there were also large number of southern Fujian
people lived in Tulous. Fujian Tulou is the official name
adopted by UNESCO.

Part of Hakka tulou belong
to Fujian Tulou category. All south Fujian Tulou belongs to Fujian
Tulou category, but do not belong to "Hakka tulou".

Furthermore, "Fujian Tulou"
is not a synonym for "tulou", but rather a special subgroup of the
latter. There are more than 20,000 tulous in Fujian, while there are
only three thousand plus "Fujian Tulou".

Fujian Tulous is defined
as: "A large multi storey building in southeast Fujian mountainous
region for large community living and defense, built with weight
bearing rammed earth wall and wood frame structure."[2]

There are about three
thousand plus Fujian Tulous located in southwestern region of Fujian
province, mostly in the mountainous regions of Yongding County of
Longyan City and Nanjing County of Zhangzhou City."

5.7. Geschichteter Lehm = stacked earth (Lehmwellerbau = cob)

"Cob is a building
material consisting of clay, sand, straw, water, and earth, similar
to adobe. Cob is fireproof, resistant to seismic activity, and
inexpensive. It can be used to create artistic, sculptural forms and
has been revived in recent years by the natural building and
sustainability movements.

History and usage

Cob is an ancient building
material, that has possibly been used for construction since
prehistoric times. Cobwork (tabya) first appeared in the
Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 11th century and was first described
in detail by Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century. Cobwork later spread
to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards.[1]

Cob structures can be
found in a variety of climates across the globe; In the UK it is
most strongly associated with counties of Devon and Cornwall in the
West Country; the Vale of Glamorgan and Gower peninsula in Wales;
Donegal Bay in Ulster and Munster, South-West Ireland; and
Finisterre in Brittany where many homes have survived over 500 years
and are still inhabited. Many old cob buildings can be found in
Africa, the Middle East, Wales, Devon, Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany
and some parts of the eastern United States. Traditionally, English
cob was made by mixing the clay-based subsoil with straw and water
using oxen to trample it. The earthen mixture was then ladled onto a
stone foundation in courses and trodden onto the wall by workers in
a process known as cobbing. The construction would progress
according to the time required for the prior course to dry. After
drying, the walls would be trimmed and the next course built, with
lintels for later openings such as doors and windows being placed as
the wall takes shape.

The walls of a cob house
were generally about 24 inches thick, and windows were
correspondingly deepset giving the homes a characteristic internal
appearance. The thick walls provided excellent thermal mass which
was easy to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. Walls with a
high thermal mass value act as a thermal flywheel inside the home.
The material has a long life span even in rainy climates, provided a
tall foundation and large roof overhang are present.

Modern cob
buildings

When
Kevin McCabe built a two-storey, four bedroom cob house in England
in 1994, it was reputedly the first cob residence built in the
country in 70 years. His methods remained very traditional; the only
innovations he added were using a tractor to mix the cob itself, and
adding sand or shillet (a gravel of crushed shale) to reduce the
shrinkage.

From 2002 to 2004,
sustainability enthusiast Rob Hopkins initiated the building of a
cob house for his family, the first new one in Ireland in about one
hundred years. It was undertaken as a community project, but
destroyed by an unknown arsonist shortly before completion.[2]

In 2006, a modern,
four-bedroom cob house in Worcestershire, UK, designed by Associated
Architects sold for £745 000. Cobtun House was built in 2001 and won
the Royal Institute of British Architects' Sustainable Building of
the Year award in 2005. The total construction cost was £300 000,
but the metre-thick cob outer wall cost only £20 000.[3]

In the Pacific Northwest
of North America there has been a resurgence of cob building both as
an alternative building practice and one desired for its form,
function and cost effectiveness. There are more than ten cob houses
in the Southern Gulf Islands of British Columbia built by Pat
Hennebery, Tracy Calvert, Elke Cole and the Cobworks workshops.

In 2007, Ann and Gord
Baird began constructing a two-storey cob house in Victoria, British
Columbia for an estimated $210,000 CDN. The 2,150 sq. ft. home
includes heated floors, solar panels and a southern exposure for
passive solar heating.
[4]

The building process known
as "Oregon Cob" is one which was refined by Welsh architect Ianto
Evans and researcher Linda Smiley in the 1980s. Oregon Cob
integrates the variation of wall layup technique which uses loaves
of mud mixed with sand and straw with a rounded architectural
stylism.[5][6]

Reference Works

Building With Cob,
A Step by Step Guide by Adam Weismann and Katy Bryce.
Published by Green Books ; 2006, ISBN 1-903998-727.

"Adobe is a
natural building material made from sand, clay, and water, with some
kind of fibrous or organic material (sticks, straw, dung), which is
shaped into bricks using frames and dried in the sun. It is similar
to cob and mudbrick. Adobe structures are extremely durable and
account for some of the oldest extant buildings on the planet. In
hot climates, compared to wooden buildings, adobe buildings offer
significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, but they
are known to be particularly susceptible to seismic damage in an
event such as an earthquake.citation
needed]

Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in
the Middle East, North Africa, South America, southwestern North
America, and in Spain (usually in the Mudéjar style). Adobe had been
in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern
United States, Mesoamerica, and the Andean region of South America
for several thousand years, although often substantial amounts of
stone are used in the walls of Pueblo buildings.1]
(Also, the Pueblo people built their adobe structures with handfuls
or basketfuls of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to the
making of bricks.) Adobe brickmaking was used in Spain already in
the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age, from the eighth century B.C. on.
Chazelles-Gazzal 1997:49-57] Its wide use can be attributed to its
simplicity of design and make, and the cheapness thereby in creating
it.2]

A distinction is sometimes
made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of
ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines, some of which
are as much as from one to two yards (2 m) long

Etymology

The word adobe
(pronounced
/əˈdoʊbiː/) has come to us over some 4000 years with little
change in either pronunciation or meaning: the word can be traced
from the Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 BC) word dj-b-t "mud
i.e., sun-dried] brick." As Middle Egyptian evolved into Late
Egyptian, Demotic, and finally Coptic (c. 600 BC), dj-b-t
became tobe "mud] brick." This evolved into Arabic al-tub
(الطّوب al "the" + tub "brick") "mud] brick," which
was assimilated into Old Spanish as adobe
aˈdobe], still with the meaning "mud brick." English borrowed
the word from Spanish in the early 18th century.

In more modern English
usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture
that is popular in the desert climates of North America, especially
in New Mexico. (Compare with stucco).

Composition of adobe

An adobe brick is a composite
material made of clay mixed with water and an organic material such
as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains clay and
sand. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the
brick to dry evenlycitation
needed]. Dung offers the same advantage and is also added
to repel insects.citation
needed] The mixture is roughly half sand (50%), one-third
clay (35%), and one-sixth straw (15%).

Bricks are made in an open
frame, 25 cm (10 inches) by 36 cm (14 inches) being a reasonable
size, but any convenient size is acceptable. The mixture is molded
by the frame, and then the frame is removed quickly. After drying a
few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow
drying in shade reduces cracking.

The same mixture to make
bricks, without the straw, is used for mortar and often for plaster
on interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used
lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.citation
needed]

The brick’s thickness is
preferred partially due to its thermal capabilities, and partially
due to the stability of a thicker brick versus a more standard size
brick. Depending on the form that the mixture is pressed into, adobe
can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying time is even
and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks.
Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar or wooden
posts. Experience has shown that straw, cement, or manure added to a
standard adobe mixture can all produce a strong brick.citation
needed] A general testing is done on the soil content
first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear
container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated
liquid. After the jar is sealed the container is shaken vigorously
for at least one minute. It is then allowed to sit on a flat surface
until the soil sediment has either collected on the bottom or
remained a blended liquid. If the sediment collects on the bottom,
that indicates there is a high clay content and is good for adobe.
If the mixture remains a liquid, then there is little clay in the
soil and using it would yield weak bricks. Abode was then used by
the Mayans

The largest structure ever
made from adobe (bricks) was the Bam Citadel, which suffered serious
damage (up to 80%) by an earthquake on
December 26,
2003. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in
Peru, with 100 million signed bricks, the ciudellas of Chan Chan and
Tambo Colorado, both in Peru.

Thermal properties

An adobe wall can serve as a
significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in
the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In desert and other
climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass
of adobe levels out the heat transfer through the wall to the living
space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input
of heat from the sun (radiation) and from the surrounding air
(convection) before they warm through to the interior and begin to
transfer heat to the living space. After the sun sets and the
temperature drops, the warm wall will then continue to transfer heat
to the interior for several hours due to the time lag effect. Thus a
well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very
effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily
fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has
contributed to its longevity as a building material. In addition,
the exterior of an adobe wall can be covered with glass to increase
heat collection. In a passive solar home, this is called a Trombe
wall.

Adobe wall construction

When building an adobe
structure, the ground should be compressed because the weight of
adobe bricks is significantly greater than a frame house and may
cause cracking in the wall. The footing is dug and compressed once
again. Footing depth depends on the region and its ground frost
level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24" and 14", much
larger than a frame house because of the weight of the walls. Adobe
bricks are laid by course. Each course is laid the whole length of
the wall, overlapping at the corners on a layer of adobe mortar.
Adobe walls usually never rise above 2 stories because they're load
bearing and have low structural strength. When placing window and
door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support
the bricks above. Within the last courses of brick, bond beams are
laid across the top of the bricks to provide a horizontal bearing
plate for the roof to distribute the weight more evenly along the
wall. To protect the interior and exterior adobe wall, finishes can
be applied, such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco. These finishes
protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied
periodically, or the walls can be finished with other nontraditional
plasters providing longer protection.

Adobe roof

The traditional adobe roof
has been generally constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water,
sand, and other available organic materials. The mixture was then
formed and pressed into wood forms producing rows of dried, earth
bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood
and plastered into place with more adobe. For a deeper understanding
of adobe, one might examine a cob building. Cob, a close cousin to
adobe, contains proportioned amounts of soil, clay, water, manure,
and straw. This is blended, but not formed like adobe. Cob is spread
and piled around a frame and allowed to air dry for several months
before habitation. Adobe, then, can be described as dried bricks of
cob, stacked and mortared together with more adobe mixture to create
a thick wall and/or roof.

Roof
materials

Depending on the materials available, a roof can be assembled using
lengths of wood or metal to create a frame work to begin layering
adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the
frame work has been performed using a steel framing and a layering
of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even
load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob
and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated
with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even
drying and prevent major cracking.

Traditional
adobe roof

More
traditional adobe roofs were often flatter than the familiar steeped
roof as the native climate yielded more sun and heat than mass
amounts of snow or rain that would find use in precipitous roofs.
Moisture, however, is often foe to a composite of mud and organic
matter, so the introduction of cement is often more common to help
ward off any undue water damage. It is at this turn that sense is
required before the construction of any adobe is begun; be sure that
the location for such a structure is similar to the climate it
naturally comes from (that is, a hot, arid climate.) Cool and moist
climates would do well with moisture precautions planned out.

Raising
a traditional adobe roof

To raise a flattened adobe roof, beams of wood or
metal should be assembled and span the extent of the building. The
ends of the beams should then be fixed to the tops of the walls
using the builder’s preferred choice of attachments. Taking into
account the material the beams and walls are made from, choosing the
attachments may prove difficult. In combination to the bricks and
adobe mortar that are laid across the beams creates an even
load-bearing pressure that can last for many years depending on
attrition.

Once the beams are laid
across the building, it is then time to begin the placing of adobe
bricks to create the roof. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks
slightly larger in width to ensure a larger expanse is covered when
placing the bricks onto the beams. This wider shape also provides
the future homeowner with thermal protection enough to stabilize an
even temperature through out the year. Following each individual
brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least
an inch thick to make certain there is ample strength between the
brick’s edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during
the seasons where the arid climate does produce rain.

Attributes

Adobe roofs can be inherently
fire-proof, an attribute well received when the fireplace is kept
lit during the cold nights, depending on the materials used. This
feature leads the homeowner and builders to begin thinking about the
installation of a chimney, a feat regarded as a necessity in any
adobe building. The construction of the chimney can also greatly
influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra
need for care in choosing the right materials. An adobe chimney can
be made from simple adobe bricks and stacked in similar fashion as
the surrounding walls. Basically outline the location and perimeter
of the hearth, minding the safety elements common to a fireplace,
and begin to stack and mortar the walls with pre-made adobe bricks,
cut to size.

"Wattle and daub (or
wattle-and-daub) is a building material used for making walls,
in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is
daubed with a sticky material usually made of some combination
of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. Wattle and daub has
been used for at least 6,000 years, and is still an important
technique in many parts of the world. Many historic buildings
include wattle and daub construction, and the technique is becoming
popular again in more developed areas as a sustainable building
technique.

Construction

The wattle is made by weaving thin branches
(either whole, or more usually split) or slats between upright
stakes. The wattle may be made as loose panels, slotted between
timber framing to make infill panels, or it may be made in place to
form the whole of a wall.

Daub is generally created from a mixture of
certain ingredients from three categories: binders, aggregates and
reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay,
lime, chalk dust and limestone dust. Aggregates give the mix its
bulk and dimensional stability through materials such as earth,
sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement is provided by
straw, hair, hay or other fibrous materials, and helps to hold the
mix together as well as to control shrinkage and provide
flexibility.[1] The
daub may be mixed by hand, or by treading – either by humans or
livestock. It is then applied to the wattle and allowed to dry, and
often then whitewashed to increase its resistance to rain.

This process is similar in modern architecture
to lath and plaster, a common building material for wall and ceiling
surfaces, in which a series of nailed wooden strips are covered with
plaster smoothed into a flat surface. In some regions this building
method has itself been overtaken by drywall construction using
plasterboard sheets."

6.2.1. International - international - นานาชาติ

6.2.1.1. Uni-terra - Networking university education in earth
building

Uni-terra is a networking
platform for the global exchange of information, experience and
know-how in earth architecture and building with earth at an
academic level.

Its aim is to facilitate
knowledge transfer and to support the development of expertise in
the field and its long-term availability for future generations.

Benefits

Many universities and
academic institutions around the world offer courses on building
with earth. Some are actively engaged in earth architecture, others
offer individual courses at recurring but irregular intervals. Many
are not or only sporadically represented online.

Uni-terra provides
departments or academic institutions with a permanent means of
presenting themselves and their activities. This serves several
purposes:

The exchange of
knowledge and a greater awareness of research activities,
publications and planned events.

A source of
information for students interested in earth architecture and
building with earth.

Mutual empowerment
and the creation of a stronger lobby for earth architecture and
building with earth.

Potential partnership
opportunities, through joint research initiatives and an
exchange of personnel among institutes.

Who is it for?

Personnel and students of
departments and faculties at universities or colleges, as well as
research and other educational institutions concerned with and
actively engaged in the field of earth architecture and building
with earth.

Who is behind uni-terra?

Uni-terra is an initiative
by the Dachverband Lehm e.V, the German Association for Building
with Earth. The DVL is a registered non-profit
organisation dedicated to promoting building with earth at several
levels. It has established building regulations for the use of earth
as a building material, and developed a training programme for best
practice in building.

In addition to providing
general information on building with earth, the
DVL
also aims to support the continuing implementation of appropriate
earth building practice for future generations through academic
teaching and research. Uni·terra aims to supports this aspect at an
international level."

6.2.2. Europa - Europe - ทวีปยุโรป

The Italian National
Association Cities of the Raw Earth aims to channel the
experience of Italian municipalities with high numbers of
earthen building stock. Currently focussing on the regions
Abruzzo (CEDTERRA) and Sardinia.

The Documentation
Centre on Raw Earth Buildings sees itself as a documentation
centre for promoting the knowledge of raw earth as a building
material, supporting research and the upkeep of local heritage
and building methods

The Centro da Terra is
a newly founded registered association for the promotion of new
earthen architecture in Portugal and the preservation of
existing built heritage. It aims to become a forum for
discussion about earthen building materials and techniques, and
a centre for continuing the tradition of building with earth

The Gaiapolis
Foundation is a non-profit NGO for
building with earth in Bulgaria. It’s activities include the
investigation, dissemination and application of different
earthen building technologies for the construction of social
housing. Through the provision of courses for construction
workers it aims to enable poorer areas to provide their own
housing and shelter.

Arhiterra is a
multidisciplinary work group founded in December 2005 by a
number of architects, members of the Romanian Architects Order,
proposing a sensitive yet much-welcomed topic: the contemporary
way of living joint with the present environmental policies –
traditional construction techniques, natural materials,
alternative habitats and efficient use of resources under
extreme conditions. See also the
Arhiterra Picasa Gallery.

“Sdružení Hlinìného
Stavitelství” is the Czech Republic Earthen Architecture
Association based in Brno. The association promotes the use of
clay in new buildings and the protection and preservation of
existing clay houses as a part of Czech cultural heritage. Hlína
organises courses and excursions and hosts an annual “Healthy
Houses” conference.

Founded in 1982 as a
non-government organisation, Interaccion was established to
promote the protection and restoration of the cultural and
architectural heritage of building with traditional (earthen)
materials in Spain. As part of this the Research Centre
Navapalos was set up as a centre for the investigation and
experimentation with traditional materials, techniques and
structures (adobe, rammed earth, hybrid techniques).
Reconstruction work has been put into practice in the town of
Navapalos (Soria).

Lerbyggeföreningen i
Sverige is the Swedish Earth Building Organisation. The purpose
of the organisation is to provide a platform for information
and knowledge, and promote earth as a building material in
combination
with other sustainable materials and techniques.

NJH
(Norsk jord- og halmbyggeforening) is the Norwegian Earth and
Strawbuilder Organisation and promotes building with straw bales
as well as with earth. Its membership spans a broad range of
professions. It provides information, keeps regular contact with
its members, organises workshops, takes part in national
professional events and is in the process of establishing links
with other like-minded and organisations and professional
bodies. At present in Norwegian language only.

Along with the
development and implementation of training courses for both the
individual and academic institutions, the Irish Earthen
Architecture Centre wishes to establish a monitoring system to
deliver competence in earthen architecture to the wider
audience: To revive the rural craft skills of earth building, as
a consequence of knowledge gained from both current research and
local tradition; To ensure the conservation of existing earthen
architecture; To promote earth as a contemporary building
material; to provide a “centre” for advice and training.

6.2.3. Asien - Asia - ทวีปเอเชีย

"Abari is a socially and environmentally committed research, design and
construction firm that examines, encourages, and celebrates the vernacular
architectural tradition of Nepal. Nepal posses sophisticated traditional
knowledge of natural materials like adobes, bamboos, stones and reed, and Abari
as a research and design firm tries to promulgate these materials into
contemporary design practices."

6.2.3.2.2. Über das Auroville Earth Institute

"The Auroville Earth Institute was previously
named the Auroville Building Centre/Earth Unit, which had been
founded by HUDCO, Government of India, in 1989.

The Auroville Earth Institute is researching, developing,
promoting and transferring earth-based technologies, which are
cost and energy effective. These technologies are disseminated
through training courses, seminars, workshops, manuals and
documents. The Institute is also offering various services, and
provides consultancy within and outside India.

The emphasis is focused on the research and
development of earth based technologies and their dissemination
through training courses. The most promoted technology is today
Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (CSEB).

One of the aims of the Auroville Earth Institute is to give
people the possibility to create and build for themselves their
own habitat, while using earth techniques.

The Auroville Earth Institute is part of a
world network with CRATerre (The International Centre for
Earth Construction), ABC Terra in Brazil, and a number of
Indian NGO's. A training convention has been passed with the School
of Architecture of Grenoble, France, for giving long-term training
courses to their students.

The Auroville Earth Institute is today the
representative for Asia of the UNESCO Chair "Earthen
Architecture, Constructive Cultures and Sustainable Development".
This Chair aims to accelerate the dissemination of scientific
and technical know-how on earthen architecture amongst the
higher education institutions, in the following three domains:
environment and heritage, human settlements, and economy and
production.

The Auroville Earth Institute is also partner of BASIN South
Asia – Regional Knowledge Platform and it provides
information and guidance to whoever asks for it.

The training course activities and the endeavour to promote raw
earth as a building material for sustainable and cost effective
development has brought, over a period of fifteen years, a
series of twelve awards:Eleven national awards and one international award

The training course activities and the endeavour to promote raw
earth as a building material for sustainable and cost effective
development has brought, over a period of fifteen years, a
series of awards:Ten national awards and one international award

The Auroville Earth Institute is presently in the process to get
governmental certification for the research and training course
activities. We plan to conduct a one-year curriculum to students
of various levels. Note that this one-year curriculum is being
progressively organised and it will not be started before a few
years, the time for the Auroville Earth Institute to be
restructured and to build new premises. We will be able to give
these diplomas:

Post diploma "Specialisation in earth
architecture" to architects and engineers

Diploma "Technician in earth architecture" to
educated people, for setting up entrepreneurships

Diploma "Master mason earth builder" to
uneducated people

The Auroville Earth Institute has become over the year a team of
building partners, whose achievements have been possible only
through their teamwork. Everybody plays an indispensable role in the
team, which is composed today of 15 permanent and very dedicated
workers, for construction sites and office work.

SATPREM MAINI

Satprem
is a French national born on 18th May 1959 at Bône,
Algeria. Soul of the Auroville Earth Institute, he is the
director of the Institute. He works as an architect and builder,
consultant, researcher, trainer and lecturer.

He graduated in France and he has an architect master and a
postgraduate master degree in Earthen Architecture. He is now
the representative for Asia of the UNESCO Chair "Earthen
Architecture, Constructive Cultures and Sustainable Development.

He is an occasional consultant of the United Nations (UNESCO,
UNIDO, UNDP, UNCHS / Habitat); a member of CRATerre/EAG
(International Centre of Earth Construction, France), an
honorary member of ABC Terra (Brazilian Centre for Earth
Construction), a member of the German Network of earth builders
(Dachverband Lehm e.V.), a member of ISET (the Indian Society of
Earthquake Technology), and a member INHAF (India Habitat
Forum).

PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY OF SATPREM

Since the early 1980's, his endeavour has
been based on the adaptation and renaissance of traditional
techniques, use of local materials, participation of
individuals and the reconsideration of the role of the
architect: from creator and builder to animator and
psychologist. Since 1985, the endeavour to revive
traditional techniques and local materials has been
essentially based on the use of raw earth as a building
material.

With this background, the field of action was oriented for
several years towards humanitarian help and small-scale
training in developing countries. But this quest was
unsatisfactory and imperfect, as the main dimension was
missing, namely Spirituality. While conducting a training
course in India, the circle was closed. Auroville was
discovered, and the choice of a new and different life
decided upon.

Since 1989, Satprem's life has been dedicated to Auroville,
India and the World for the recognition of our Mother Earth,
while using its matter for the sake of sustainable
developments. His life is a burning brazier offered to the
Lord and is dedicated to Karma Yoga, the work done as an
offering to the Divine, for the Lord's Action upon Earth.
The research which is been conducted on the earth as a
building material is focussed upon discovering the
consciousness hidden within the material. The contact with
this consciousness helps the latter to evolve, as well as
our own consciousness.

Satprem’s fields of research and action are based in
Auroville, for building the first city of a new era. His
expertise and intervention are not limited to Auroville, and
his services are offered worldwide. 26 countries benefited
of his services over the last 20 years, for periods varying
from a few days to a few years. Since 1989, Satprem has
trained more than 5,200 people, mostly Indian nationals, but
also 651 people from 52 other nations.

Today, the architectural research being conducted by Satprem
integrates symbols and a holistic approach to life. A life
where men and women must melt themselves into the
environment, while using sustainable techniques and energies,
and evolve spiritually so as to rediscover again their
cosmic origins. Since 1992, the Sanskrit surname Satprem,
meaning Truth and Love, has replaced the birth surname,
Serge.

T. AYYAPPAN

Ayyappan is an Indian national born
on 18th February 1971 at Edayanchavadi, Tamil
Nadu - India. He followed a standard education in his
village, and became over the years a very skilful, dedicated
and trustful technician. Today he is the right arm of
Satprem, and works as a draftsman, site supervisor,
researcher and trainer.

A TEAM OF BUILDING PARTNERS

The Auroville Earth Institute
has become over the years a team of building partners, whose
achievements have been possible only through their teamwork.
Everybody plays an indispensable role in the team, which is
composed of 15 permanent and very dedicated workers, for
construction sites and office work.

BUILDING INFRASTRUCTURE

The following premises are available at
the Auroville earth Institute. All of them are accessible in
a way or another to the trainees.

BUILDING

PURPOSE

AREA (m2)

Auroville Earth Institute
office

Administration of the unit
and drafting room for the students.

60

Documentation resource centre

Library for books, slides,
videos, photos. Only books are directly accessible
to the students. Slides can be consulted upon
request.

25

Conference hall

Lectures with or without
slide show and video. Study room for the students.

48

Exhibition and drafting room

Presentation of soil samples,
earth based technologies and other appropriate
building technologies. This room is also used as a
drafting room during the AVD courses.

59

Laboratory

For soil analysis.

26

Workshop

Maintenance of the equipment.

13

Trainees storeroom

Small equipment for the
training courses.

14

Training shed 1

Practical exercises for
masonry.

52

Training shed 2

Practical exercises for
masonry.

46

Open courtyard

Circulation and practical
exercises.

50

Blockyard

Production of CSEB.

75

Dormitory for men

For 10 men.

30

Dormitory for men

For 15 men.

50

Dormitory for women

For 5 women.

18

Trainees kitchen

Common hall and kitchen for
the trainees.

39

Student guesthouse

Room for long term students

23

Toilets

Toilets for the Unit and the
trainees' boarding.

10

Pre-casting shed & storeroom

For casting pieces for
researches or building sites

76

Various things & circulations

Various infrastructure,
access to various buildings, staircases, galleries,
etc.

6.2.4. Afrika - Africa - ทวีปแอฟริกา

"The Egyptian Earth
Construction Association (EECA) is an Egyptian non-governmental /
non-profit organization founded in 1997 (Registry
No. 367/1997, Ministry of Social Affairs), concerned with
Appropriate Building Technology (ABT) as a tool for sustainable
development and community building. Based on that approach, we are
working to develop, apply, and disseminate alternative building
technologies that are appropriate for the Egyptian context."

A Columbian foundation
for the promotion and investigation of earthen building among
academics, architects, engineers and other building
professionals in Columbia. The foundation conducts academic and
technical investigations and has arranged conferences on earthen
building and appropriate technology in Latin America.

PROTERRA is multilateral international project and
technical cooperative whose focus is the dissemination of earth
construction technologies within productive sectors to impact
the social policies of Latin American countries. At present
PROTERRA has more than 50 members
including universities, research centers and companies from 15
Latin American countries. (Spanish and Portuguese language
website)

6.2.5.1. Ecosur

"The EcoSouth Network is a dynamic entity,
moving with finesse between the grassroots and e-mail connections.
Structure is less important than contacts among people and
organizations; in a sense it exists beyond, in spite of, and instead
of, structure.

At the first Latin
American MCR Seminar in 1991 some twenty tile producers from eleven
countries created the Latin American MCR Network. Guidelines for
networking focused upon sharing information, contacts among
producers, exchange of specialties, elaboration of quality controls
and norms, applied investigation, education and marketing, as well
as development of affordable equipment in Latin America.

A Spanish language
newsletter has circulated throughout Latin America since that time
and reaches most MCR producers, as well as organizations and other
interested parties. Since 1994 an English version has circulated
through Asia, Africa and Europe.

Soon, however, the
participants noted that their interests went far beyond tiles, to
embrace the entire habitat. In 1996 the Network expanded its scope
to include other technologies and changed its name to reflect the
enriched scope: EcoSouth, the Network for an Ecologically and
Economically Sustainable Habitat. It coined the word "ecomaterials"
to define construction materials that are ecologically and
economically viable, and organized the first international
Ecomaterials conference in 1998, followed by another in 2001,
drawing participants from Africa, Asia, Europe and most Latin
American countries.

EcoSouth also embraces
academic investigation, sometimes involving students theses.
Research from sustainability of MCR to the energy embodied in
construction materials, which involves collaboration among Latin
American and European universities, have occupied the minds of
Network participants. An international ad hoc team of European and
Canadian universities, is currently investigating the use of waste
biomass as raw material for alternative cement.

In addition to
semi-industrial technologies such as MCR and alternative cement
(CP40), EcoSouth also propagates traditional sun-baked clay bricks
(adobe) as another choice for walls, as well as cyclop concrete.
With walls and roofs somewhat resolved, it fosters bicycles as a
viable means of transportation.

EcoSouth addresses the
great housing deficit in southern countries, especially the vast
majority of people who have no adequate roof over their heads. MCR
remains the backbone of the Network, and EcoSouth has played a major
role in its technology transfer throughout and beyond Latin America.

While we still rely on
basic communication techniques, at the same time we send documents
in seconds from Ecuador to Zimbabwe, or Nicaragua to Bangladesh.
This balancing act requires skill and the commitment of the
participants. They must be able to mount mules with a computer in
their hands!"

The AASW aims to champion earth construction
of yesterday, today and tomorrow with a view to being a voice within the
earth building community. Its goals are to share knowledge about earthen
construction and to participate with other earth construction organizations.
It hosts regularl conferences and membership meetings and publishes the
results of the conferences as proceedings.

"Cal-Earth is at the cutting edge of Earth
Art and Ceramic Architecture technologies today. Founded and
directed by the internationally renowned architect and author Nader
Khalili in 1986, it's scope spans technical innovations published by
NASA for lunar base construction, to design and development of
housing for the world's homeless for the United Nations.

Cal-Earth is a non-profit foundation dedicated
to research and education of the public in environmentally oriented
arts and architecture. It's philosophy is based on the equilibrium
of the natural elements of earth, water, air, and fire, and their
Unity at the service of the arts and humanity."

6.2.7. Ozeanien - Oceania - โอเชียเนีย

EBANZ, the Earth Building Association of New
Zealand, produces a bi-monthly newsletter sent to all members covering many
aspects of earth building, and also provides equipment, literature, and
expertise to its members in New Zealand. EBANZ
aims to facilitate networking between its members and all those interested
in the earthen building.

Earth Building Research Forum,
University of Technology, Sidney,
Australien

The Earth Building Research Forum was established by the Faculty of
Architecture and Building at the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
to investigate material properties and constructional aspects of
earthbuilding, with particular reference to cement stabilised pressed earth
bricks.