BIG DATA: CATALYST FOR A PRIVACY CONVERSATION

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1 BIG DATA: CATALYST FOR A PRIVACY CONVERSATION JOSEPH JEROME * INTRODUCTION In Captain America s latest big screen adventure, his arch-enemy is neither some diabolical super villain nor a swarm of space aliens. 1 Instead, it s big data. 2 The 21st century is a digital book, the Captain is told. 3 Your bank records, medical histories, voting patterns, s, phone calls, your damn SAT scores! [Our] algorithm evaluates people s past to predict their future. 4 In popular imagination, big data can apparently do everything and anything. Its evangelists would suggest data holds near magical potential to change the world, 5 while skeptics increasingly worry that it poses the biggest civil rights threat of our generation. 6 Even if reality likely falls somewhere in between, there is little question that the advent of big data has altered our conversations about privacy. Privacy has been in tension with technological advances since Louis Brandeis worried that recent inventions and business methods such as the widespread availability of the Kodak camera to consumers necessitated a right to be let alone. 7 Yet the phenomenon of big data, alongside the emerging Internet of Things, 8 makes it ever more difficult to be left entirely alone. The ubiquitous * Joseph Jerome is Policy Counsel at the Future of Privacy Forum in Washington D.C. where he focuses on big data and issues around the emerging Internet of Things. Previously, he served as National Law Fellow at the American Constitution Society, where he organized programming on topics involving civil liberties and national security. 1. Josh Bell, What Captain America Has to Say About the NSA, FREE FUTURE: PROTECTING CIVIL LIBERTIES IN THE DIGITAL AGE (Apr. 18, 2014, 10:41 AM), https://www.aclu.org/blog/ national-security-technology-and-liberty/what-captain-america-has-say-about-nsa. 2. Id. 3. Id. 4. Id. 5. See RICK SMOLAN, HUMAN FACE OF BIG DATA (2012). For additional examples of how big data can specifically be used to empower vulnerable populations, see FUTURE OF PRIVACY FORUM, BIG DATA: A TOOL FOR FIGHTING DISCRIMINATION AND EMPOWERING GROUPS (2014), available at Discrimination-and-Empowering-Groups-Report1.pdf. 6. See, e.g., ROBINSON + YU, CIVIL RIGHTS, BIG DATA, AND OUR ALGORITHMIC FUTURE (2014), Civil Rights Principles for Era of Big Data, THE LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (2014), [hereinafter Civil Rights Principles]; Alistair Croll, Big Data Is Our Generation s Civil Rights Issue, and We Don t Know It, SOLVE FOR INTERESTING (July 31, 2012), com/big-data-is-our-generations-civil-rights-issue-and-we-dont-know-it/. 7. Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 HARV. L. REV. 193, 195 (1890). 8. Michael Chui et al., The Internet of Things, MCKINSEY Q. (Mar. 2010), available at Bill

2 214 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 collection and unparalleled use of personal information is breaking down some of society s most common conceptions of privacy. 9 Law and policy appear on the verge of redefining how they understand privacy, and data collectors and privacy advocates are trying to present a path forward. This Article discusses the rise of big data and the role of privacy in both the Fourth Amendment and consumer contexts. It explores how the dominant conceptions of privacy as secrecy and as control are increasingly untenable, leading to calls to focus on data use or respect the context of collection. It argues that the future of privacy will have to be built upon a foundation of trust between individuals and the technologies that will be watching and listening. I. THE RISE OF BIG DATA Big data has only recently gone mainstream. 10 Prior to 2012, big data was a buzzword used by engineers and scientists to describe advances in digital communications, computation, and data storage. 11 While some computer scientists remain skeptical of the term, 12 big data has commonly come to represent the drastic increase in the volume, variety, and velocity of data that can be analyzed. 13 Whatever the technical definition of the term, the idea of big data has become something more. A. What Is Big Data? danah boyd and Kate Crawford suggest that big data is a cultural, technological, and scholarly phenomenon with its own mythology about the untold value of data. 14 Acting almost as heralds of big data s potential, Viktor Mayer-Schönberger and Kenneth Cukier tout the transformation of our entire world into oceans of data that can be explored and that can provide us with a new perspective on reality. 15 The size and scope of the data now available Wasik, Welcome to the Programmable World, WIRED (May 14, 2013), gadgetlab/ 2013/05/internet-of-things/. 9. Helen Lewis, Like It or Not, Privacy Has Changed in the Facebook Age, GUARDIAN (Mar. 12, 2013, 4:32 PM), 10. Big Data, GOOGLE TRENDS, cmpt=q (showing interest in the term exploding since 2011). 11. Randal E. Bryant, Randy H. Katz, & Edward D. Lazowska, Big-Data Computing: Creating Revolutionary Breakthroughs in Commerce, Science, and Society, COMPUTING COMMUNITY CONSORTIUM, (Dec. 22, 2008), 12. See Cesar A. Hidalgo, Saving Big Data From Big Mouths, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN (Apr. 29, 2014), 13. The Big Data Conundrum: How to Define It?, MIT TECH. REV. (Oct. 3, 2013), 14. danah boyd & Kate Crawford, Critical Questions for Big Data: Provocations for a Cultural, Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon, 15 INFO., COMM., & SOC Y 662, 663 (2012). 15. VIKTOR MAYER-SCHÖNBERGER & KENNETH CUKIER, BIG DATA: A REVOLUTION THAT

3 2014] BIG DATA 215 promises new insights and new forms of value that will fundamentally change how we interact with one another, the pair argue. 16 Yet these bold expectations also mean that big data has become something of an amorphous concept, meaning different things to different audiences in different contexts. 17 A better takeaway is to understand big data as shorthand for the broader datafication of society. 18 While data analytics crunch the numbers, datafication is being fueled by another buzzword: the emerging Internet of Things. 19 The Internet of Things is commonly understood to describe the growing network of devices that are linked together through wired and wireless communications technologies embedded in physical devices, from the average smartphone to intelligent thermostats 20 and pills that can actually monitor a patient s digestive tract. 21 By 2015, twenty-five billion devices are projected to be connected to the Internet; this number could double to fifty billion devices by the end of the decade. 22 Simply going about our everyday lives creates a vast trail of digital exhaust that can reveal much about us. 23 The story of our lives now exists in digital form, yet individuals may be only passively aware of what story their data tells. Recent debates over the value of metadata illustrate this point. 24 In the immediate aftermath of revelations of the National Security Agency s (NSA) surveillance programs, government officials stressed that the NSA s action did not include the content of any communications 25 and was limited to just metadata, 26 largely implying that WILL TRANSFORM HOW WE LIVE, WORK, AND THINK 97 (2013). 16. Id. at What Is Big Data?, (Sept. 3, 2014), berkeley.edu/what-is-big-data/; Alan Charles Raul, Don t Throw the Big Data Out with the Bathwater, POLITICO MAG. (April 29, 2014), dont-throw-the-big-data-out-with-the-bath-water html#.u-oyypeyamq. 18. Jeff Bertolucci, Big Data s New Buzzword: Datafication, INFO. WEEK (Feb. 25, 2013, 11:13 AM), 19. Chui, supra note 8; see also Wasik, supra note NEST LABS, https://nest.com/ (last visited Sept. 1, 2014). 21. Nick Bilton, Disruptions: Medicine That Monitors You, N.Y. TIMES (Jun , 11:00 AM), 22. DAVE EVANS, THE INTERNET OF THINGS: HOW THE NEXT EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNET IS CHANGING EVERYTHING 3 (2011), available at innov/iot_ibsg_0411final.pdf. 23. James Manyika et al., Big Data: The Next Frontier for Innovation, Competition, and Productivity, MCKINSEY & CO. (2011), available at technology/big_data_the_next_frontier_for_innovation. 24. See, e.g., Jameel Jaffer & Eric Posner, Is the N.S.A. Surveillance Threat Real or Imagined?, N.Y. TIMES (June 9, 2013), 25. Press Gaggle, Deputy Principal Press Secretary Josh Earnest and Secretary of Education Arne Duncan, en Route Mooresville, NC (June 6, 2013), available at

4 216 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 looking at mere metadata could hardly present a privacy issue. On some level, this distinction makes sense: individuals are quick to assume that their actual conversations whether in person, over the phone, or through messaging reveal more about themselves than a data trail. But our data trails are, in fact, highly sensitive pieces of information. 27 Smart grid technologies, for example, are not only a complete evolution in how electricity systems operate, 28 but the sensor data they produce also offer a rich source of behavioral information at a granular level: Whether individuals tend to cook microwavable meals or meals on the stove; whether they have breakfast; the time at which individuals are at home; whether a house has an alarm system and how often it is activated; when occupants usually shower; when the TV and/or computer is on; whether appliances are in good condition; the number of gadgets in the home; if the home has a washer and dryer and how often they are used; whether lights and appliances are used at odd hours, such as in the middle of the night; whether and how often exercise equipment such as a treadmill is used. Combined with other information, such as work location and hours, and whether one has children, one can see that assumptions may be derived from such information. 29 In a way, our digital exhaust is increasingly defining us as individuals. At the same time, big data is also changing how we understand this information. Mayer- Schönberger and Cukier suggest that big data is propelling us toward a world of correlation rather than causation. 30 They highlight the notion that big data brings about the end of theory, and that with enough information, numbers can whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/06/06/press-gaggle-deputy-principal-press-secretary-joshearnest-and-secretary. 26. Ed O Keefe, Transcript: Dianne Feinstein, Saxby Chambliss Explain, Defend NSA Phone Records Program, WASH. POST, June 6, 2013, 27. Jonathan Mayer & Patrick Mutchler, MetaPhone: The Sensitivity of Telephone Metadata, WEB POL. (Mar ), Jane Mayer, What s the Matter with Metadata?, NEW YORKER (June 6, 2013), (suggesting that metadata is much more intrusive than content ). 28. See generally EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL, A POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR THE 21ST CENTURY GRID: ENABLING OUR SECURE ENERGY FUTURE (2011), available at microsites/ostp/nstc-smart-grid-june2011.pdf. 29. FUTURE OF PRIVACY FORUM & INFORMATION AND PRIVACY COMMISSIONER, SMART PRIVACY FOR THE SMART GRID: EMBEDDING PRIVACY INTO THE DESIGN OF ELECTRICITY CONSERVATION (2009), available at 30. MAYER-SCHÖNBERGER & CUKIER, supra note 15, at 61.

5 2014] BIG DATA 217 literally speak for themselves. 31 For example, they point to the personalization and recommendation engines used by Amazon or Netflix as examples of data systems that only know the what and not the why. 32 Netflix embraced this shift to correlation when it bet that its original programming effort, House of Cards, would be a major success. 33 Data suggested that David Fincher movies and films starring Kevin Spacey were especially popular on the service no one knows why exactly but these data points were enough for Netflix to commit $100 million to bring the two together. 34 Unchecked, the insights we can uncover in data can turn into what Mayer- Schönberger and Cukier cleverly term the dictatorship of data. 35 While the pair use that term to caution against fixating on data such that we fail to appreciate its limitation, 36 it may well refer to large structural shifts in power away from individuals and toward opaque data collectors. Evgeny Morozov provocatively suggests that information-rich societies have reached a point where they want to try to solve public problems without having to explain or justify themselves to citizens. 37 Many of the insights derived from data can be used for good or for ill, but that is true of any piece of information. The larger worry is that these insights are being uncovered at great expense to individual autonomy. The dictatorship of data arises as we are now faced with uses of data that produce accurate, efficient, or otherwise beneficial results but are still somehow unfair. 38 B. Big Data s Big Worries Big data has often been identified as one of the biggest public policy challenges of our time. 39 Recognizing this, in January 2014, President Obama 31. Id. 32. Id. at House of Cards, NETFLIX.COM, (last visited Sept. 1, 2014). 34. David Carr, Giving Viewers What They Want, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 24, 2013, Andrew Leonard, How Netflix is Turning Viewers into Puppets, SALON (Feb. 1, 2013), viewers_into_puppets/. 35. MAYER-SCHÖNBERGER & CUKIER, supra note 15, at Id. 37. Evygeny Morozov, The Real Privacy Problem, MIT TECH. REV. (Oct. 22, 2013), 38. See Chris Calabrese, Legislative Director ACLU, Panel Discussion on Civil Rights and Big Data (Mar. 14, 2014), available at big_data. 39. Jules Polonetsky et al., How To Solve the President s Big Data Challenge, IAPP PRIVACY PERSPECTIVES (Jan. 31, 2014), https://www.privacyassociation.org/privacy_perspectives/ post/how_to_solve_the_presidents_big_data_challenge.

6 218 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 began a comprehensive review of how big data is impacting society. 40 The ensuing report has been an important conversation starter; a significant finding of the administration s effort is that big data has the potential to undermine traditional protections that govern how personal information is used in housing, credit, employment, health, education, and the marketplace. 41 Moving forward, policy makers may need to weigh compelling benefits to national security, public health and safety, and sustainable development against new risks to personal autonomy from high-tech profiling and discrimination, increasingly-automated decision making, inaccuracies and opacity in data analysis, and strains in traditional legal protections. 42 Worries about big data come in many different flavors, but they all largely derive from the ability of data analysis to better discriminate among individuals. Big data is fundamentally about categorization and segmentation. 43 Data analytics harness vast pools of data in order to develop elaborate mechanisms to more efficiently organize categories of information. 44 The challenge, however, is determining where value-added personalization and segmentation end and harmful discrimination begins Better Price Discrimination. Improvements in differential pricing schemes or price discrimination are often used as an example of how data analytics can harm consumers. 46 Price discrimination describes situations where one consumer is charged a different price for the exact same good based upon some variation in the customer s willingness to pay. 47 Differential pricing is not a new concept, and in fact, it happens every day. Airlines have long been considered the world s best price discriminators. 48 The cost of a flight is often carefully tied to where a passenger is flying and the type of people they are flying with. 49 Price discrimination makes basic economic sense, and it need not 40. See generally EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, BIG DATA: SEIZING OPPORTUNITIES, PRESERVING VALUES (2014), available at data_privacy_report_5.1.14_final_print.pdf. 41. Id. at iii. 42. Civil Rights Principles, supra note Howard Fienberg, Can Big Data and Privacy Coexist?, MARKETING RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (Sept. 13, 2013), 44. Michael Schrage, Big Data s Dangerous New Era of Discrimination, HBR BLOG NETWORK (Jan. 29, 2014, 8:00 AM), 45. Id. 46. See Fed. Trade Comm n, Spring Privacy Series: Alternative Scoring Products (Mar. 19, 2014), 47. Id. 48. Scott McCartney, The Most Expensive Airports to Fly To, WALL ST. J. (May 22, 2014), online.wsj.com/news/articles/sb Id. As a result, it currently costs more for U.S. travelers to fly to Europe than vice versa

7 2014] BIG DATA 219 necessarily be a bad thing. What has changed in the age of big data, however, is the granularity at which firms can engage in price discrimination. Historically, prices could vary based upon the quantity of a good purchased, such as bulk order discounts, or prices could be based upon broad consumer categorizations, such as higher car insurance rates for young drivers. 50 With big data, we are moving toward a world where it is much easier to identify individual characteristics in such a way that every individual is charged based on their exact willingness to pay. 51 This type of price discrimination used to be incredibly challenging, if impossible. Access to information in this fashion creates winners and losers. 52 For much of the twentieth century, consumers were in many ways the ultimate winners: pricing was largely democratized as consumers were offered products and services on identical terms. 53 The rise of the Internet initially provided consumers with an even greater advantage through the promise of quick comparison shopping, but the subsequent proliferation of tracking technologies and data sharing has made archaic any suggestion that the Internet is merely an impersonal tool for use by consumers. 54 While some recognize this information exchange as a basic improvement in market efficiency, 55 some consumers will necessarily lose in the process. Sophisticated consumers may be in a better position to take advantage of these shifts, but having access to so much granular data on individuals will ensure some are sorted into disfavored categories. 56 The larger worry is that big data can and is being used to exploit or manipulate certain classes of consumers. 57 Moreover, individuals are both unaware of what is happening and how it is because the U.S. has a stronger economy and quite literally can afford higher prices. 50. Adam Ozimek, Will Big Data Bring More Price Discrimination? FORBES (Sept. 1, 2013, 10:48 AM), 51. Id.; see also Lior Strahilevitz, Toward a Positive Theory of Privacy Law, 126 HARV. L. REV. 2010, (2013); Fed. Trade Comm n, supra note See generally Strahilevitz, supra note Fed. Trade Comm n, supra note 46 (Joseph Turow describing how pricing has evolved over time); Strahilevitz, supra note 51, at Jennifer Valentino-DeVries et al., Websites Vary Prices, Deals Based on Users Information, WALL ST. J., Dec. 24, 2012, THOMAS M. LENARD & PAUL H. RUBIN, THE BIG DATA REVOLUTION: PRIVACY CONSIDERATIONS, (2013), available at thebigdatarevolutionprivacyconsiderations.pdf. 56. See, e.g., Joseph Jerome, Buying and Selling Privacy: Big Data s Different Burdens and Benefits, 66 STAN. L. REV. ONLINE 47 (2013); Fed Trade Comm n, supra note 46. (discussing how easily and opaquely companies can make it harder for consumers to get better deals, Ashkan Soltani posed the basic question: [W]ho wants to be included in [a] higher priced consumer category? ). 57. Fed. Trade Comm n, supra note 46.

8 220 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 happening. 58 While recognizing the legitimate value of price discrimination, the White House s Big Data Review cautioned that the capacity for data analytics to segment the population and to stratify consumer experiences so seamlessly as to be almost undetectable demands greater review Filter Bubbles & Surveillance. Because so much of this data collection and analysis happens passively and without any active participation by individuals, individuals are caught behind a sort of data-driven one-way mirror. The resulting concern is that big data allows large data collectors, be they industry or government, to know more about an individual than that individual knows about himself or herself. Even if organizations have the best of intentions, the knowledge gained from analysis of big data can quickly lead to over-personalization. Profiling algorithms can create echo chambers that create feedback loops that reaffirm and narrow an individual s thoughts and beliefs. 60 Eli Pariser first explained how filter bubbles could occur by pointing to Google s increasing efforts to improve and personalize searches: Pariser noted that one friend who entered Egypt into Google search saw information about the then-occurring Egyptian revolution while another received a list of travel agents and top tourist attractions. 61 Over time, this has not only raised large questions about individual autonomy, but it also may pose a serious risk to core democratic values. By automatically sorting us into ideological or culturally segregated enclaves, there are worries that filter bubbles may lead to increased polarization. 62 As Joseph Turow explains, the industrial logic behind the[se] activities makes clear that the 58. FRONTLINE: United States of Secrets (PBS television broadcast) (transcript available at (Barton Gellman: Corporate America and law enforcement and national security state know so much about us. And we know so little about them. We know so little about what they re doing, how they re doing it. ) 59. EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, BIG DATA: SEIZING OPPORTUNITIES, PRESERVING VALUES 47 (2014), may_1_2014.pdf. 60. See Cynthia Dwork & Deirdre Mulligan, It s Not Privacy, and It s Not Fair, 66 STAN. L. REV. ONLINE 35 (2013); see generally JOSEPH TUROW, THE DAILY YOU: HOW THE NEW ADVERTISING INDUSTRY IS DEFINING YOUR IDENTITY AND YOUR WORTH (2011); see also CASS R. SUNSTEIN, REPUBLIC.COM.2.0 (2009). 61. See, e.g., ELI PARISER, THE FILTER BUBBLE: HOW THE NEW PERSONALIZED WEB IS CHANGING WHAT WE READ AND HOW WE THINK (2012). More recently, Christian Rudder, one of the founders of OkCupid, suggested that Google s search autocomplete function was the site acting not as Big Brother but as older Brother, giving you mental cigarettes that could reinforce and perpetuate stereotypes or inaccuracies based on collective misinformation. CHRISTIAN RUDDER, DATACLYSM: WHO WE ARE (WHEN WE THINK NO ONE S LOOKING) 132 (2014). 62. But see Farhad Manjoo, The End of the Echo Chamber, SLATE (Jan. 17, 2012, 11:00 AM), a_study_of_250_million_facebook_users_reveals_the_web_isn_t_as_polarized_as_we_thought _html (discussing Facebook study that suggests link-sharing is not as polarizing as assumed).

9 2014] BIG DATA 221 emerging marketplace will be far more an inciter of angst over social difference than a celebration of the American salad bowl. 63 While filter bubbles present one end result of ubiquitous data collection and analysis, surveillance may be equally likely to shape individual behavior. Surveillance, like filter bubbles, can encourage like-mindedness and conformity, as well as anxiety and a general chilling effect on civil discourse. 64 For example, pervasive web tracking presents the possibility that people may avoid certain searches or sources of information out of fear that accessing that information would reveal interests, medical conditions, or other characteristics they would prefer be kept hidden. 65 Combined with a lack of transparency about how this information is being used, individuals may feel anxiety over consequential decisions about them being made opaquely, inducing a sense of powerlessness. 66 A survey in November 2013 revealed just how much revelations about the extent of NSA surveillance had begun to chill speech. 67 Twenty-four percent of writers surveyed admitted they had engaged in self-censorship in and phone conversations, and sixteen percent had avoided conducting Internet searches of visiting websites that could be considered controversial or suspicious. 68 Examples of controversial subjects included national security, mass incarceration, drug policy, pornography, and even general criticism of the U. S. government A New Civil Rights Movement. Recently, critics, including some of the United States leading civil rights organizations, have argued that big data could be the civil rights issue of this generation. 70 The fear is that data determinism or the dictatorship of data could work to undermine equal opportunity and equal justice through either hidden or new forms of discrimination. 71 Big data could achieve these harms by contributing to currently illegal practices, allowing otherwise unlawful activity to go undetected due to a lack of transparency or access surrounding data analysis. 72 Alternatively, big data 63. JOSEPH TUROW, NICHE ENVY: MARKETING DISCRIMINATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE 2 (2006). 64. Chris Chambers, Indiscriminate Surveillance Fosters Distrust, Conformity, and Mediocrity: Research RAWSTORY.COM (Aug. 26, 2013), 26/indiscriminate-surveillance-fosters-distrust-conformity-and-mediocrity-research/. 65. FELIX WU, BIG DATA THREATS 2 (2013), available at 66. Id.; see also Matt Stroud, The Minority Report: Chicago s New Police Computer Predicts Crimes, But Is It Racist?, VERGE (Feb. 19, 2014, 9:31 AM), /the-minority-report-this-computer-predicts-crime-but-is-it-racist. 67. PEN AMERICA, CHILLING EFFECTS: NSA SURVEILLANCE DRIVES U.S. WRITERS TO SELF- CENSOR 6 (2013), available at PEN%20American.pdf. 68. Id. 69. Id. 70. Croll, supra note 6; Civil Rights Principles, supra note Civil Rights Principles, supra note Pam Dixon, On Making Consumer Scoring More Fair and Transparent, IAPP PRIVACY

10 222 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 may introduce societal biases that may impact protected classes or otherwise vulnerable populations disproportionately or unfairly. 73 Some have argued that more data could actually mitigate arbitrariness or gut instinct in decision-making, 74 but even if algorithms produce the correct decision, that does not mean the decision is necessarily fair. Take the example of an Atlanta man who returned from his honeymoon to find his credit limit slashed from $10,800 to $3,800 because he had used his credit card at locations where others were likely to have a poor repayment history. 75 Is this a sensible decision for a credit card company to take, or does it remain somehow fundamentally unfair? Many of our key anti-discrimination laws work to address classifications or decisions that society has deemed either irrelevant or illegitimate. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act, for example, explicitly forbids creditors from asking about a candidate s marital status or plans to have children. 76 An even better example is the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, which prohibits employers from using an applicant s or an employee s genetic information as the basis of an employment decision, and it also limits the ability of health insurance organizations to deny coverage based solely on a genetic predisposition to develop a disease. 77 As a matter of public policy, our laws make a point of excluding genetic information that could no doubt lead to more accurate decision-making. Moreover, big data can introduce new forms of discrimination due to bias errors or incomplete data, and it may make intentional discrimination harder to detect. 78 As Kate Crawford explains, not all data is created or even collected equally and there are signal problems in big-data sets dark zones or shadows where some citizens and communities are overlooked or underrepresented. 79 PERSPECTIVES (Mar.19, 2014), https://www.privacyassociation.org/privacy_perspectives/post/on_ making_consumer_scoring_more_fair_and_transparent. 73. See Kate Crawford, The Hidden Biases in Big Data, HBR BLOG NETWORK (Apr.1, 2013), 74. LENARD & RUBIN, supra note 55, at See Lori Andrews, Facebook Is Using You, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 4, 2012, nytimes.com/ 2012/02/05/opinion/sunday/facebook-is-using-you.html U.S.C (2006). 77. Pub. L. No , 122 Stat. 881 (2008). 78. Solon Barocas & Andrew Selbst, Big Data s Disparate Impact 3 (2014) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author). 79. Kate Crawford, Think Again: Big Data, FP.COM (May 9, 2013), com/articles/2013/05/09/think_again_big_data; see also Crawford, supra note 73 (Crawford discusses the now infamous example of Boston s StreetBump app, which allowed residents to report potholes through a mobile app. The city quickly realized that wealthy residents were far more likely to own smartphones and cars and, thus, the map of potential potholes reflected only where the wealthy were most likely to travel.); see also Jonas Lerman, Big Data and Its Exclusions, 66 STAN. L. REV. ONLINE 55 (2013), (Lerman argues that big data could end up excluding some

11 2014] BIG DATA 223 Discriminatory data begets discriminatory decisions. The privacy challenge is that many of these risks are abstract or inchoate. They are not easily mapped to recognizable harms or are difficult to link to accepted privacy risks. To what degree they even represent real challenges to society or are mere boogeyman scenarios or hypothetical horribles 80 remains an open question. Yet it is against this backdrop that big data is on a collision course with our traditional privacy frameworks. II. THE ROLE OF PRIVACY Like big data, privacy also suffers from a multiplicity of meaning. Thomas McCarthy suggested that privacy, like freedom or liberty, has become a powerful rhetorical battle cry within a plethora of unrelated contexts. 81 As a result, privacy has become entangled with policy debates ranging from education reform 82 to the future of robotics. 83 Scholars have wrestled with how to understand and define privacy, and ultimately to describe its value. 84 For example, Daniel Solove has suggested that privacy works as a set of protections against a variety of distinct but related problems. 85 He proposes a comprehensive privacy taxonomy that focuses on activities that invade privacy, but his notion that privacy is multifaceted also helps to explain why different privacy theories are deployed within different contexts. Two of the broadest and most common conceptions of privacy consider privacy to be about either (1) secrecy or (2) members of society, as a result.). 80. Adam Thierer, Planning for Hypothetical Horribles in Tech Policy Debates, TECH. LIBERATION FRONT (Aug. 6, 2013), 81. J. Thomas McCarthy, THE RIGHTS OF PUBLICITY AND PRIVACY 1-3, 5-65 (1992) (discussing section 1.1(B)(1) and section 5.7(D)). 82. Benjamin Herold, inbloom to Shut Down Amid Growing Data-Privacy Concerns, EDWEEK (Apr. 21, 2014, 10:33 AM), inbloom_to_shut_down_amid_growing_data_privacy_concerns.html. 83. Mark Stephen Meadows, Is Surveillance the New Business Model for Consumer Robotics?, ROBOHUB (May 6, 2014), 84. See generally HELEN NISSENBAUM, PRIVACY IN CONTEXT: TECHNOLOGY, POLICY, AND THE INTEGRITY OF SOCIAL LIFE, PART II (2009) (giving an overview of competing theories); see also DANIEL SOLOVE, UNDERSTANDING PRIVACY 1-12 (2008); see also Ken Gormley, One Hundred Years of Privacy, 1992 WIS. L. REV (looking at how privacy intersects different legal categories). 85. SOLOVE, supra note 84, at 171.

12 224 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 control. 86 Privacy-as-secrecy is often invoked in debates about the relationship between government prerogatives and individual privacy, while privacy-ascontrol predominates within the context of consumer privacy. 87 Both theories are increasingly challenged by technology and big data in particular. A. Fourth Amendment Protections: Privacy as Secrecy Traditionally, privacy was viewed as being roughly analogous to secrecy. 88 Privacy-as-secrecy has been a particularly dominant theme in the U.S. Supreme Court s Fourth Amendment search jurisprudence since Katz v. United States. 89 Decided in 1967, Katz emerged in an environment where new, more sophisticated surveillance technologies forced the Court to re-conceive how Fourth Amendment protections work. 90 In Katz, FBI agents had attached a bug to the outside of a public telephone booth in order to monitor the defendant s communications without first obtaining a warrant. 91 Ignoring a lack of any physical trespass a factor that had previously dominated the Court s thinking 92 the Court clearly had secrecy on its mind when it held that what an individual seeks to preserve as private, even in an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected. 93 Katz is most famous, however, for producing Justice Harlan s concurrence discussing whether or not individuals may have a reasonable expectation of privacy. 94 The test for determining whether one has a reasonable expectation of 86. See generally Bruce Schneier, Privacy and Control, SCHNEIER ON SECURITY (Apr. 6, 2010, 7:47 AM), https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2010/04/privacy_and_con.html ( To the older generation, privacy is about secrecy. And, as the Supreme Court said, once something is no longer secret, it s no longer private. But that s not how privacy works, and it s not how the younger generation thinks about it. Privacy is about control. ). 87. David E. Sanger, In Surveillance Debate, White House Turns Its Focus to Silicon Valley, N.Y. TIMES (May 2, 2014), 88. Richard A. Posner, The Right of Privacy, 12 GA. L. REV. 393 (1978) (exploring a concept of privacy as concealment of facts and communications); DANIEL J. SOLOVE, THE DIGITAL PERSON: TECHNOLOGY AND PRIVACY IN THE INFORMATION AGE (2004) (discussing a secrecy paradigm ). 89. Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967). 90. See Ric Simmons, From Katz to Kyllo: A Blueprint for Adapting the Fourth Amendment to Twenty-First Century Technologies, 53 HASTINGS L.J. 1303, 1305 (2002). 91. Katz, 389 U.S., at Orin S. Kerr, The Curious History of Fourth Amendment Searches, SUP. CT. REV (2013). 93. Id. 94. In time, Justice Harlan s concurring opinion effectively became the holding of the Katz opinion. See, e.g., Peter Winn, Katz and the Origins of the Reasonable Expectation of Privacy Test, 40 MCGEORGE L. REV. 1, 6-7 (2009) ((citing Minnesota v. Carter, 525 U.S. 83, 97 (1998)) (suggesting the Katz test has come to mean the test enunciated by Justice Harlan s separate concurrence in Katz )); see also Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 740 (1979) (expressly adopting

13 2014] BIG DATA 225 privacy claims to be an objective assessment of what society reasonably regards as private. 95 Yet this test involves a degree of circularity: judicial rulings are to be guided by societal expectations, but societal expectations are necessarily shaped by judicial rulings. As Justice Alito recently noted, the Katz test regularly causes judges to confuse their own expectations of privacy with those of the hypothetical reasonable person to which the Katz test looks. 96 In fact, as Christopher Slobogin has shown, the U.S. Supreme Court s conclusions about society s privacy expectations are often misguided, ignoring both positive law governing ordinary citizens and public opinion generally. 97 As a result, in practice, the Katz test often serves as a one-way ratchet against privacy. This is particularly true when privacy is exclusively understood as being related to secrecy. The Katz test does this by insisting that anything a person knowingly exposes to the public, even in his own home or office, is not a subject of Fourth Amendment protection. 98 As a result, the law treats any partial exposure and any risk of exposure of private matters as functionally exposing that concern to the entire world, relinquishing any privacy rights an individual may have as a result. 99 For example, even though society generally frowns upon sifting through a neighbor s trash, the U.S. Supreme Court has determined trash is knowingly exposed to the public and therefore, no reasonable expectation of privacy can be claimed should the government wish to search it. 100 The logical result of treating privacy as secrecy is the much maligned thirdparty doctrine, which governs the collection of information from third parties in criminal investigations. 101 The Court has repeatedly held that individuals have Justice Harlan s reasonable expectation of privacy formula as the rule of Katz). 95. United States v. White, 401 U.S. 745, 786 (1971) (Harlan, J., dissenting); see also Lewis R. Katz, In Search of a Fourth Amendment for the Twenty-First Century, 65 IND. L.J. 549, 560 (1990) (calling the subjective prong useless ); Simmons, supra note 90, at 1312 (calling any subjective element meaningless ). 96. United States v. Jones, 132 S. Ct. 945, 962 (2012); see also Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27, 34 (2001). 97. See generally CHRISTOPHER SLOBOGIN, PRIVACY AT RISK: THE NEW GOVERNMENT SURVEILLANCE AND THE FOURTH AMENDMENT (2007). 98. Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967). 99. See, e.g., Sherry F. Colb, The Supreme Court Decides the GPS Case, United States v. Jones, and the Fourth Amendment Evolves, JUSTIA VERDICT (Feb. 15, 2012), justia.com/2012/02/15/the-supreme-court-decides-the-gps-case-united-states-v-jones-and-thefourth-amendment-evolves-2. For a more extensive discussion of the analytical missteps the Court has made, see also Sherry F. Colb, What Is A Search? Two Conceptual Flaws in Fourth Amendment Doctrine and Some Hints of A Remedy, 55 STAN. L. REV. 119, 122 (2002) Compare California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988), with id. at 45 ((Brennan, J., dissenting) ( Scrutiny of another s trash is contrary to commonly accepted notions of civilized behavior. )) See Orin Kerr, In Defense of the Third-Party Doctrine, 107 MICH. L. REV. 561, (2009), available at

14 226 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 no reasonable expectation of privacy in information provided to a third party. 102 In United States v. Miller, the Court found that individuals had no expectation of privacy in their bank records because a depositor takes the risk that their information could be shared even if the information is revealed on the assumption that it will be used only for a limited purpose and the confidence placed in the third party will not be betrayed. 103 Miller was cited again in Smith v. Maryland, which dealt with phone records captured and recorded by pen register devices. 104 According to the U.S. Supreme Court, when the defendant used his phone, he voluntarily conveyed numerical information to the telephone company and exposed that information to its equipment in the ordinary course of business. 105 Crucially, the third-party doctrine applied even where the telephone company had entirely automated its record process. 106 This suggests that there is no legal difference between the disclosure of information to a human being or an automated system, which with the development of the Internet, effectively eliminated any possibility of Fourth Amendment protection for online data. 107 As we now know, Smith v. Maryland provided key constitutional support for the NSA s controversial bulk metadata collection program under Section 215 of the Patriot Act. 108 This, despite the fact the U.S. Supreme Court has cautioned that any dragnet-type law enforcement practices like twenty-four hour surveillance of any citizen, might receive heightened scrutiny under the Fourth Amendment. 109 The series of disclosures by Edward Snowden in 2013 have produced many legal challenges, and in Klayman v. Obama, the District Court granted a preliminary injunction against a NSA surveillance program on the grounds that it was impossible to navigate these uncharted Fourth Amendment waters using as my North Star a case that predates the rise of cell phones. 110 Technology often appears to challenge the judiciary as a whole and the U.S. Supreme Court in particular. 111 When privacy and technology collide, the result is often more confusion than anything. A perfect example of this was the recent unanimous finding in United States v. Jones that sustained warrantless use of a 102. See, e.g., United States v. Miller, 425 U.S.435 (1976) Id. at Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) Id. at Id. at Matthew Tokson, Automation and the Fourth Amendment, 96 IOWA L. REV. 581, 600 (2011) In re Application of the Federal Bureau of Investigation for an Order Requiring the Production of Tangible Things from [redacted], pdf United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276, 284 (1983) Klayman v. Obama, 957 F. Supp. 2d 1, 37 (D.D.C. 2013) Lawrence Hurley, In U.S., When High-Tech Meets High Court, High Jinks Ensue, REUTERS (May 9, 2014, 1:12 PM),

15 2014] BIG DATA 227 GPS-tracking device violated the Fourth Amendment. 112 While the Court was unanimous in finding a Fourth Amendment violation, the justices splintered in explaining why a violation had occurred. 113 In a concurring opinion authored by Justice Alito, four justices relied on the Katz test to hold that any long-term monitoring violated the defendant s reasonable expectation of privacy. 114 Led by Justice Scalia, four justices embraced a trespass rationale, which Justice Sotomayor joined to create a five-vote majority while also agreeing with Justice Alito s analysis. 115 The Jones decision was considered puzzling and confusing, leaving many of the case s privacy implications unanswered. 116 Justice Alito ominously conceded that a diminution of privacy may be inevitable, and suggested further that society may find it worthwhile to trade convenience and security at the expense of privacy. 117 Alone among her colleagues, Justice Sotomayor recognized the looming threat of pervasive government surveillance. 118 New technologies, she observed, permit the government to collect more and more data and cost less and less to implement. 119 The technological invasion of citizens privacy was clearly susceptible to abuse and over time could alter the relationship between citizen and government in a way that is inimical to democratic society. 120 Moreover, she challenged not just the third-party doctrine but the Court s entire understanding of society s reasonable expectation of privacy. 121 Faced with an influx of new surveillance technologies, she argued that it is now time to reconsider the premise that an individual has no reasonable expectation of privacy in information voluntarily disclosed... to some member of the public for a limited purpose, suggesting that the courts should cease[] to treat secrecy as a prerequisite for privacy United States v. Jones, 132 S. Ct. 945, 954 (2012) Id Id. at Id. at See Orin Kerr, Why United States v. Jones is Subject to So Many Different Interpretations, VOLOKH CONSPIRACY (Jan. 30, 2012), see also Tom Goldstein, Why Jones is Still Less of a Pro-Privacy Decision Than Most Thought, SCOTUSBLOG (Jan. 30, 2012), (conclusion slightly revised Jan. 31) Jones, 132 S. Ct. at Id. at See Kevin Bankston & Ashkan Soltani, Tiny Constables and the Cost of Surveillance: Making Cents Out of United States v. Jones, YALE L.J (Jan. 9, 2014) org/forum/tiny-constables-and-the-cost-of-surveillance-making-cents-out-of-united-states-v-jones Jones, 132 S. Ct. at Id Id. at 957.

16 228 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 B. Consumer Privacy: Privacy as Control Alan Westin famously defined privacy as the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others. 123 According to Westin, individuals engage in a continuous process of personal adjustment that weighs individual privacy interests against their social desires. While notions about reasonable expectations of privacy can occasionally inform consumer privacy issues, 124 consumer privacy is dominated by an understanding of privacy as privacy-as-control. From Do Not Call registries to informed consent requirements under various health and financial privacy laws, privacy is promoted by giving individuals choices about their own information flows. The 2012 White House Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights builds on this. 125 The document places a principle of individual control front and center, before any other consumer right, declaring that [c]onsumers have a right to exercise control over what personal data companies collect from them and how they use it. 126 Individual control is expressed throughout a number of traditional Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPPs). The FIPPs are the bedrock of modern privacy law. 127 Similar to how technological changes motivated Katz, 128 the FIPPs emerged in the early 1970s against a backdrop of government surveillance scandals and rising worries about the use of early automated data systems. 129 They established a framework for both the public and private sectors to implement procedures governing the collection, use, and disclosure of personal information. 130 These principles were incorporated into the Privacy Act of 123. See Alan Westin, Privacy and Freedom, 25 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 166 (1968) 124. See, e.g., Christopher Wolf, Supreme Court in Warrantless GPS Tracking Case Offers Little Guidance in Consumer Privacy Context, HOGAN LOVELLS CHRONICLE OF DATA PROTECTION (Jan. 24, 2012), see also Dominic Rushe, Google: Don t Expect Privacy When Sending to Gmail, GUARDIAN (Aug. 14, 2013), Consumer Data Privacy in a Networked World: A Framework for Protecting Privacy and Promoting Innovation in the Global Digital Economy, THE EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT (2012), [hereinafter Privacy Bill of Rights] Id. (emphasis added) Robert Gellman, Fair Information Practices: A Basic History (Aug. 3, 2012), see also Memorandum, Hugo Teufel III, Chief Privacy Officer, Dep t of Homeland Security, Privacy Policy Guidance Memorandum (Dec. 29, 2008), available at Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967) Gellman, supra note Id.

17 2014] BIG DATA , 131 which governs the collection and use of data by federal agencies, and over time, were further embraced as the basis of global privacy law. 132 The FIPPS have a degree of flexibility built into their application, and at different times, different principles have been emphasized ranging from the rights of individuals to the obligations of data collectors. However, from their earliest formulation, the FIPPs stressed the ability for individuals (1) to find out what information exists about them in records and how that information is used, (2) to prevent information obtained for one purpose to be used or made available for other purposes without consent, and (3) to be allowed to correct or amend identifiable records. 133 In the United States, the chief privacy regulator, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) embraces notice as the must fundamental principle of privacy protection. 134 In the process, the FTC has either watered down or excluded many traditional FIPPs. 135 Instead, individual control is largely governed through a notice-and-choice regime. In an ideal world, notice-andchoice captures the personal adjustment process or the decision-making process that Westin s definition envisions. Notice informs the individuals of the consequences of sharing their information, while choice ostensibly implements the individual s ultimate decision. There is wide acknowledgement that the notice-and-choice framework has significant limitations at best, and at worst, provides only the barest illusion of control. As the President s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology describes it, only in some fantasy world do individuals actually read these notices, understand their legal implications (consulting their attorneys if necessary), negotiate with other providers of similar services to get better privacy treatment, and only then click to indicate their consent. 136 Vast majorities do not read privacy policies nor would they have the time to, 137 and studies have shown that privacy choices can be easily manipulated. 138 Former FTC Chairman 131. Privacy Act of 1974, 5 U.S.C. 552(a) (2009) Gellman, supra note 127, at DEPT. OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY S ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON AUTOMATED PERSONAL DATA SYSTEMS (1973) [hereinafter HEW Report], available at FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION, PRIVACY ONLINE: A REPORT TO CONGRESS (1998) Gellman supra note 127, at 11; see also Fred H. Cate, The Failure of Fair Information Practice Principles, in CONSUMER PROTECTION IN THE AGE OF INFORMATION ECONOMY 343 (Jane K. Winn ed., 2006), available at EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT, PRESIDENT S COUNCIL OF ADVISORS ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT BIG DATA AND PRIVACY: A TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 38 (2014) [hereinafter PCAST] Aleecia M. McDonald & Lorrie Faith Cranor, The Cost of Reading Privacy Policies, 4 I/S: J. L. & POL Y FOR THE INFO. SOC Y 543 (2008) See, e.g., Alessandro Acquisti Leslie John & George Loewenstein, What Is Privacy Worth? (2010) (unpublished manuscript), available at papers/acquisti-isr-worth.pdf.

18 230 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 Jon Liebowitz even conceded that notice and choice has not worked quite as well as we would like. 139 Control can and should mean more than rote notice-and-choice. The Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights suggests that consumers be given usable and accessible mechanisms to implement their choices that are calibrated to the sensitivity of the data being collected and the sensitivity of the potential uses of that information 140. However, calls for better user empowerment or privacy management tools are not new, 141 and as a practical matter, entities ranging from social networks like Facebook to data brokers like Acxiom offer users various dashboards to give users some ability to declare their own preferences and terms of engagement. But meaningful choice faces numerous cognitive hurdles. An October 2012 piece in the Harvard Business Review posits that individuals should only part with their privacy when the value is clear, explaining that [t]his is where the homework needs to be done. You need to understand the motives of the party you re trading with and what [he] ha[s] to gain. These need to align with your expectations and the degree to which you feel comfortable giving up your privacy. 142 However, requiring individuals to do homework just to browse the Internet is a large ask. As discussed above, individuals neither read nor understand the average privacy policy or terms of use. Even assuming they did, it would still be impossible to understand the motives of third-parties. Truly informed choices are hard to achieve, and the status quo is a world where individuals frequently consent to the collection, use, and disclosure of their personal information when it is not in their self-interest. 143 III. BIG DATA S RELATIONSHIP WITH PRIVACY Conceptions of privacy as secrecy or control break down when intimate details of our lives can be revealed simply in the course of carrying out mundane tasks. Since the revelation several years ago that Target was able to predict a teenager s pregnancy before her family was even aware of it, 144 it has become 139. Fred Cate, Looking Beyond Notice and Choice, PRIVACY & SECURITY LAW REPORT (Mar. 29, 2010), available at ead6c2ada0c5/looking_beyond_notice_and_choice_3.10.pdf Privacy Bill of Rights, supra note Lorrie Faith Cranor, Necessary But Not Sufficient: Standardized Mechanisms for Privacy Notice and Choice, 10 J. ON TELECOMM. & HIGH TECH. L. 273 (2012) (discussing the rise and fall of the P3P tool); see also Omer Tene & Jules Polonetsky, Big Data for All: Privacy and User Control in the Age of Analytics, 11 NW. J. TECH. & INTELL. PROP. 239, (2013) (advocating for the featurization of data) Chris Taylor & Ron Webb, A Penny for Your Privacy?, HBR BLOG NETWORK (Oct. 11, 2012, 11:00 AM), Daniel J. Solove, Privacy Self-Management and the Consent Dilemma, 126 HARV. L. REV. 1880, 1895 (2013) Charles Duhigg, How Companies Learn Your Secrets, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 16, 2012,

19 2014] BIG DATA 231 apparent that corporate America, as well as government authorities, know far more about individual citizens than they let on. Even where individuals take affirmative steps to keep information secret or to tightly control it, privacy has given way to transparency. Recently, another woman went to great lengths to try and hide her pregnancy from data collectors. 145 As the Target example illustrates, identifying pregnant consumers is a particular high priority not only are pregnant women valuable from a data perspective, 146 but the arrival of children can be a potent time to lock in customer loyalty. 147 In order to hide her pregnancy, Janet Vertesi had to not only avoid social networks, but ensure her friends and family also made no mention about her pregnancy online. 148 To look for baby-information online, she relied on Tor, the anonymous web browser. 149 She relied on cash for any babyrelated purchases, avoiding credit cards and store-loyalty cards. 150 While this protected her privacy from a consumer-facing perspective, her activities also raised red flags that pointed to potential criminal activity. 151 For example, when her husband attempted to buy $500 in gift cards with cash, a notice from Rite Aid informed him the company had a legal obligation to report excessive transactions to law enforcement. 152 Meaningful secrecy has become impossible, and controls are increasingly inadequate or confusing and unused. 153 In 1996, science-fiction author David Brin posited the rise of the Transparent Society, where the proliferation of smaller and smaller surveillance devices would give society the choice between either an illusion of privacy or a system of accountability enforced by everyone watching everyone. 154 While the transparent society has itself been criticized for not recognizing unequal allocation of power and authority (e.g., in the relationship between citizen and law enforcement or employee and employer), 155 Brin s point that we move beyond illusions of privacy is important. Evgeny Morozov castigates privacy advocates for focusing on rethinking privacy Matt Petronzio, How One Woman Hid Her Pregnancy From Big Data, MASHABLE (Apr. 26, 2014), Id. (According to Vertesi, the average value of a person s marketing data is just ten cents, but a pregnant woman s is worth $1.50.) See generally id Id Id Id Id Id See generally JULIA ANGWIN, DRAGNET NATION: A QUEST FOR PRIVACY, SECURITY, AND FREEDOM IN A WORLD OF RELENTLESS SURVEILLANCE (2014) David Brin, The Transparent Society, WIRED (Dec. 1996), available at wired.com/wired/archive/4.12/fftransparent.html?topic=&topic_set= Bruce Schneier, The Myth of the Transparent Society, SCHNEIER ON SECURITY (Mar. 6, 2008), https://www.schneier.com/essay-208.html.

20 232 INDIANA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 48:213 controls, when privacy debates instead need to be infused with larger ethical principles. 156 Our current reality more closely captures Brin s notion of an illusion of privacy without accountability. 157 Our legal and policy frameworks have clung to antiquated conceptions of privacy even as activities within the public and private sectors have become increasingly opaque while individuals more transparent. The past year s revelations of NSA surveillance programs provide a stark illustration of how one-sided our transparent society has become. 158 Despite repeated assurances from government officials that the programs were under very strict supervision by all three branches of government, 159 at different times it has been demonstrated that Congress had been caught largely unaware. 160 This accountability breakdown also exists within the judiciary, as well as within the executive branch itself. 161 A chain of misunderstandings within the Department of Justice ultimately misled the U.S. Supreme Court about a key fact in Clapper v. Amnesty International, which considered warrantless surveillance under Section 702 of the FISA Amendments Act of In Clapper, a collection of U.S. lawyers and journalists had sued alleging that their electronic exchanges with overseas contacts were being monitored without a warrant. 163 Section 702 would eventually be revealed as the authority underlying NSA PRISM program, which facilitates extensive surveillance of foreigners and can also incidentally acquire information about U.S. citizens. 164 In February 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court avoided the underlying privacy questions and dismissed Clapper on standing grounds, asserting that it was speculative whether the Government will imminently target communications to which respondents are parties. 165 Though 156. Evygeny Morozov, The Real Privacy Problem, MIT TECH. REV. (Oct 22, 2013), (viewing the ethical need for privacy to require sabotag[ing] the system, and he would likely not view proposals to respect context or engage in data use-based considerations to adequately protect privacy) See Brin, supra note Barack Obama, President, United States, Remarks on NSA (June 7, 2013), available at (describing the NSA surveillance program) Id Darren Samuelsohn, Hill Draws Criticism Over NSA Oversight, POLITICO (Mar. 2, 2014, 10:14 PM), html See id. (explaining that blame has been placed on a variety of entities and individuals) Clapper v. Amnesty Int l, 133 S. Ct (2013) Id. at Glenn Greenwald, NSA Prism Program Taps Into User Data Of Apple, Google and Others, GUARDIAN (June 6, 2013), Clapper, 133 S. Ct. at 1148.

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