Gaelic type (sometimes called Irish character, Irish type, or Gaelic script) is a family of insulartypefaces devised for printing Classical Gaelic. It was widely used from the 16th until the mid-18th century (Scotland) or the mid-20th century (Ireland) but is today rarely used. Sometimes all Gaelic typefaces are called Celtic or uncial, though most Gaelic types are not uncials, the "Anglo-Saxon" types of the 17th century are included in this category because both the Anglo-Saxon types and the Gaelic/Irish types derive from the Insular manuscript hand.

The terms Gaelic type, Gaelic script, and Irish character translate the Irish phrase cló Gaelach (pronounced [kɫ̪oː ˈɡˠeːɫ̪əx]). In Ireland the term cló Gaelach is used in opposition to the term cló Rómhánach 'Roman type'.

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Besides the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Gaelic typefaces must include all vowels with acute accents ⟨Áá Éé Íí Óó Úú⟩ as well as a set of consonants with dot above ⟨Ḃḃ Ċċ Ḋḋ Ḟḟ Ġġ Ṁṁ Ṗṗ Ṡṡ Ṫṫ⟩, and the Tironian sign et ⟨⁊⟩, used for agus 'and' in Irish.

Gaelic typefaces also often include insular forms: ⟨ꞃ ꞅ⟩ of the letters ⟨r⟩ and ⟨s⟩, and some of the typefaces contain a number of ligatures used in earlier Gaelic typography and deriving from the manuscript tradition. Lower-case ⟨i⟩ is drawn without a dot (though it is not the Turkish dotless ⟨ı⟩), and the letters ⟨d f g t⟩ have insular shapes ⟨ꝺ ꝼ ᵹ ꞇ⟩.

Many modern Gaelic typefaces include Gaelic letterforms for the letters ⟨j k q v w x y z⟩, and typically provide support for at least the vowels of the other Celtic languages, they also distinguish between ⟨&⟩ and ⟨⁊⟩ (as did traditional typography), though some modern fonts replace the ampersand with the Tironian note ostensibly because both mean 'and'.

The Irish uncial alphabet originated in medieval manuscripts as an "insular" variant of the Latin alphabet, the first Gaelic typeface was designed in 1571 for a catechism commissioned by Elizabeth I to help attempt to convert the Irish Catholic population to Anglicanism.

Typesetting in Gaelic script remained common in Ireland until the mid-20th century. Gaelic script is today used merely for decorative typesetting; for example, a number of traditional Irish newspapers still print their name in Gaelic script on the first page, and it is also popular for pub signs, greeting cards, and display advertising. Edward Lhuyd's grammar of the Cornish language used Gaelic-script consonants to indicate sounds like [ð] and [θ].

In 1996 Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ) created a new corporate logo, the logo consists of a modern take on the Gaelic type face. The R's counter is large with a short tail, the T is roman script while the E is curved but does not have a counter like a lower case E, and the letters also have slight serifs to them. TG4's original logo, under the brand TnaG, also used a modernization of the font, the use of the curved T and a sans-serif A in the word "na". Other Irish companies that have used Gaelic script in their logos including the GAA, Telecom Éireann and An Post, the Garda Síochána uses Gaelic Script on its official seal.

The GAA logo uses the script to incorporate both the English language GAA acronym and the Irish language CLG acronym, the logo more strongly shows the more widely used acronym GAA but taking a closer look a C joins with an L and then to a G lying down.

Unicode treats the Gaelic script as a font variant of the Latin alphabet. A lowercase insular g (ᵹ) was added in version 4.1 as part of the Phonetic Extensions block because of its use in Irish linguistics as a phonetic character for [ɣ].

Unicode 5.1 (2008) added a capital G (Ᵹ) and both capital and lowercase letters D, F, R, S, T, besides "turned insular G", on the basis that Edward Lhuyd used these letters in his 1707 work Archaeologia Britannica as a scientific orthography for Cornish.

Ceanannas (digital font 1993, based on drawings of Book of Kells lettering by Arthur Baker.)

In each figure above, the first sentence is a pangram and reads:Chuaigh bé mhórshách le dlúthspád fíorfhinn trí hata mo dhea-phorcáin bhig,Ċuaiġ bé ṁórṡáċ le dlúṫspád fíorḟinn trí hata mo ḋea-ṗorcáin ḃig,
meaning "A maiden of large appetite with an intensely white, dense spade went through the hat of my good little porker".

The second sentence (bottom line) reads:Duibhlinn/Ceanannas an cló a úsáidtear anseo,
meaning "Duibhlinn/Ceannanas is the font used here".
The second sentence uses the short forms of the letters r and s; the first uses the long forms. See: Long s and R rotunda.

1.
Insular script
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Insular script was a medieval script system invented in Ireland that spread to Anglo-Saxon England and continental Europe under the influence of Irish Christianity. Irish missionaries also took the script to continental Europe, where they founded monasteries such as Bobbio, the scripts were also used in monasteries like Fulda, which were influenced by English missionaries. It is associated with Insular art, of which most surviving examples are illuminated manuscripts and it greatly influenced Irish orthography and modern Gaelic scripts in handwriting and typefaces. Insular script comprised a family of different scripts used for different functions, at the top of the hierarchy was the Insular half-uncial, used for important documents and sacred text. The full uncial, in a version called English uncial, was used in some English centres, then in descending order of formality and increased speed of writing came set minuscule, cursive minuscule and current minuscule. These were used for texts, letters, accounting records, notes. The scripts developed in Ireland in the 7th century and were used as late as the 19th century, works written in Insular scripts commonly use large initial letters surrounded by red ink dots. Letters with ascenders are written with triangular or wedge-shaped tops, the bows of letters such as b, d, p, and q are very wide. The script uses many ligatures and has many unique scribal abbreviations, Insular script was spread to England by the Hiberno-Scottish mission, previously, uncial script had been brought to England by Augustine of Canterbury. The influences of both scripts produced the Insular script system, Insular hybrid minuscule, the most formal of the minuscules, came to be used for formal church books when use of the Irish majuscule diminished. Insular set minuscule Insular cursive minuscule Insular current minuscule, the least formal, brown has also postulated two phases of development for this script, Phase II being mainly influenced by Roman Uncial examples, developed at Wearmouth-Jarrow and typified by the Lindisfarne Gospels. Insular script was used not only for Latin religious books, but also for other kind of book. Insular script was influential in the development of Carolingian minuscule in the scriptoria of the Carolingian empire, in Ireland, Insular script was superseded in c.850 by Late Insular script, in England, it was followed by a form of Caroline minuscule. The Tironian et ⟨⁊⟩ — equivalent of ampersand — was in use in the script and is occasionally continued in modern Gaelic typefaces derived from insular script. There are only a few insular letters encoded, these are shown below, to display the other characters there are several fonts that may be used, three free ones that support these characters are Junicode, Montagel, and Quivira. Carolingian minuscule Gaelic type Hiberno-Saxon art Insular G Tironian et Irish orthography List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts Manual of Latin Palaeography, pfeffer Mediæval An insular minuscule as a Unicode font

2.
Alphabet
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An alphabet is a standard set of letters that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries and logographies, the Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet, the Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an alphabet is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet, in other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants, such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal letters, as in Devanagari. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters, there are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet. Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks, while most alphabets have letters composed of lines, there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. Alphabets are usually associated with an ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order and it also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of numbering ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements. The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word alphabetum, the Greek word was made from the first two letters, alpha and beta. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, aleph, which also meant ox, and bet, in the alphabet song in English, the term ABCs is used instead of the word alphabet. Knowing ones ABCs, in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything, the history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. These glyphs were used as guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs and this script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit, the Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called Proto-Canaanite before ca.1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram and this script is the parent script of all western alphabets

3.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish

4.
Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩

5.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark

6.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as fï¿½r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character

7.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters

8.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font

9.
Celtic art
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Celtic art is a difficult term to define, covering a huge expanse of time, geography and cultures. Early Celtic art is another used for this period, stretching in Britain to about 150 AD. This is the part, but not the whole of, the Celtic art of the Early Middle Ages. Energetic circular forms, triskeles and spirals are characteristic, another influence was that of late La Tène vegetal art on the Art Nouveau movement. Celtic art has used a variety of styles and has influences from other cultures in their knotwork, spirals, key patterns, lettering, zoomorphics, plant forms. As the archaeologist Catherine Johns put it, Common to Celtic art over a wide chronological and geographical span is a sense of balance in the layout. Curvilinear forms are set out so that positive and negative, filled areas, control and restraint were exercised in the use of surface texturing and relief. Very complex curvilinear patterns were designed to precisely the most awkward. The ancient peoples now called Celts spoke a group of languages that had an origin in the Indo-European language known as Common Celtic or Proto-Celtic. This shared linguistic origin was once accepted by scholars to indicate peoples with a common genetic origin in southwest Europe. Archaeologists identified various cultural traits of peoples, including styles of art. The extent to which Celtic language, culture and genetics coincided and interacted during prehistoric periods remains very uncertain, the term Celt was used in classical times as a synonym for the Gauls. Its English form is modern, attested from 1607, then in the 18th century the interest in primitivism, which led to the idea of the noble savage, brought a wave of enthusiasm for all things Celtic and Druidic. The earliest archaeological culture that is conventionally termed Celtic, the Hallstatt culture, comes from the early European Iron Age, other centres such as Brittany are also in areas that remain defined as Celtic today. Other correspondences are between the gold lunulas and large collars of Bronze Age Ireland and Europe and the torcs of Iron Age Celts, the trumpet shaped terminations of various types of Bronze Age Irish jewellery are also reminiscent of motifs popular in later Celtic decoration. The elites of these societies had considerable wealth, and imported large and expensive, sometimes frankly flashy, objects from neighbouring cultures, some of which have been recovered from graves. The work of the German émigré to Oxford, Paul Jacobsthal, remains the foundation of the study of the art of the period, linguists are generally satisfied that the Halstatt culture originated among people speaking Celtic languages, but art historians often avoid describing Halstatt art as Celtic. A famous example is the Greek krater from the Vix Grave in Burgundy and it is a huge bronze wine-mixing vessel, with a capacity of 1,100 litres

10.
Uncial script
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Uncial is a majuscule script commonly used from the 4th to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. Uncial letters were used to write Greek, Latin, and Gothic, early uncial script is likely to have developed from late Old Roman cursive. In the oldest examples of uncial, such as the De bellis macedonicis manuscript in the British Library, all of the letters are disconnected from one another, word separation, however, is characteristic of later uncial usage. As the script evolved over the centuries, the became more complex. Specifically, around AD600, flourishes and exaggerations of the basic strokes began to appear in more manuscripts, ascenders and descenders were the first major alterations, followed by twists of the tool in the basic stroke and overlapping. By the time the more compact minuscule scripts arose circa AD800, some of the evolved uncial styles formed the basis for these simplified, uncial was still used, particularly for copies of the Bible, tapering off until around the 10th century. There are over 500 surviving copies of uncial script, by far the largest number prior to the Carolingian Renaissance, in general, there are some common features of uncial script, ⟨f⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩ are relatively narrow. ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are relatively broad, ⟨m⟩ is formed with curved strokes ⟨⟩, ⟨e⟩ is formed with a curved stroke, and its arm does not connect with the top curve ⟨⟩, the height of the arm can also indicate the age of the script. ⟨l⟩ has a base, not extending to the right to connect with the next letter. ⟨r⟩ has a long, curved shoulder ⟨ꞃ⟩, often connecting with the next letter, ⟨s⟩ resembles the long s ⟨ſ⟩, in uncial it ⟨ꞅ⟩ looks more like ⟨r⟩ than ⟨f⟩. In particular, the bow of the letter ⟨a⟩ is particularly sharp, italian uncial has round letters with flatter tops, and a with a sharp bow, an almost horizontal rather than vertical stem in ⟨d⟩, and forked finials. Insular uncial generally has definite word separation, and accent marks over stressed syllables, probably because Irish scribes did not speak a language descended from Latin. French uncial uses thin descenders, an ⟨x⟩ with lines that cross higher than the middle, and a ⟨d⟩ with a stem, and there are many decorations of fish, trees. Cyrillic manuscript developed from Greek uncial in the ninth century. The earlier form was called ustav, and later developed into semi-ustav script, there is some doubt about the original meaning of the word. Uncial itself probably comes from St. Habeant qui volunt veteres libros, vel in membranis purpureis auro argentoque descriptos, vel uncialibus ut vulgo aiunt litteris onera magis exarata quam codices. Let those who so desire have old books, or books written in gold and silver on purple parchment, or burdens written in uncial letters, the term uncial in the sense of describing this script was first used by Jean Mabillon in the early 18th century. Thereafter his definition was refined by Scipione Maffei, who used to refer to this script as distinct from Roman square capitals, the word, uncial, is also sometimes used to refer to manuscripts that have been scribed in uncial, especially when differentiating from those penned with minuscule

11.
Roman type
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In Latin-script typography, roman is one of the three main kinds of historical type, alongside blackletter and italic. During the early Renaissance, roman and italic type were used separately, today, roman and italic type are mixed, and most typefaces are composed of an upright roman style with an associated italic or oblique style. Popular roman typefaces include Bembo, Baskerville, Caslon, Jenson, Times New Roman, History of western typography Gaelic type Bringhurst, Robert, The Elements of Typographic Style. Often referred to simply as Bringhurst, Elements is widely respected as the current English-language authority on typographic style, nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering, Dover Publications, Inc. The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the originally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. under the title Lettering, The History

12.
Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair
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Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair was a Scottish poet, lexicographer, political writer and memoirist, respected as perhaps the finest Gaelic language poet of the 18th century. He served as a Jacobite military officer and Gaelic tutor to Prince Charles Edward Stuart and he is also known in English as Alexander MacDonald and as The Clanranald Bard or The Great Bard. Born to a notable Highland family, through his great-grandmother Màiri, daughter of Angus MacDonald of Islay and he was the first cousin of the famous Flora MacDonald. The poets father was Maighstir Alasdair who was the Episcopalian Church of Scotland minister for Eilean Fhìonain/Fhianain, who lived at Dalilea in Moidart, where the poet was probably born. There were no schools in the area and so it is thought that the younger Alasdair was educated by his father, the Bard is said to have enjoyed a fine grounding in the ancient corra litir of the Clanranald bards, and in the classics. Alasdair followed in the footsteps of his father and attended the University of Glasgow, and he is said to have left prematurely, however, having married Jane MacDonald of Dalness. He was the catechist of the parish under the Royal Bounty Committee of the Church of Scotland. In 1738 he worked at Kilchoan and the year at Coire a Mhuilinn, Ardnamurchan. The vocabulary was the first secular book to be printed in Scottish Gaelic, Campbell also states, Considering what the early minutes of the S. P. C. K. His whereabouts during the year of 1744 are unknown, early in 1745 he was summoned by the Royal Bounty Committee in Edinburgh, which had heard that he was composing immodest poems in Gaelic. Aware of the landing of Prince Charles Edward Stuart — Bonnie Prince Charlie — Alasdair hastened to join the prince upon his arrival at Loch nan Uamh from Eriskay. These poems were sent to Aeneas MacDonald, the brother of Kinlochmoidart and he was among the first to arrive at Glenfinnan witness the raising of the Standard on 19 August 1745 which signalled the beginning of the campaign. He is also said to have sung his song of welcome, afterwards he became the Tyrtaeus of the Highland Army and the most persuasive of recruiting sergeants. Many of his poems and songs openly glorify the Jacobite cause and satirise those, like Clan Campbell. His first commission was a captaincy in the Clan Ranald Regiment where he was placed in command of 50 cliver fellows whom he recruited in Ardnamurchan. Amongst his other responsibilities, the poet was selected to teach Scottish Gaelic to the due to his skill in the Highland Language. It is also known that he converted to Roman Catholicism during this period, Alasdair served for the duration of the campaign which ended with the crushing defeat at the Battle of Culloden. Even the bards cat was killed lest it might provide food for his wife, for this volume, he composed the poem, An Airce The Ark, a biting satire aimed at the Whigs of Clan Campbell

13.
Acute accent
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The acute accent is a diacritic used in many modern written languages with alphabets based on the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek scripts. An early precursor of the accent was the apex, used in Latin inscriptions to mark long vowels. The acute accent was first used in the orthography of Ancient Greek. In Modern Greek, a stress accent has replaced the pitch accent, the Greek name of the accented syllable was and is ὀξεῖα sharp or high, which was calqued into Latin as acūta sharpened. The acute accent marks the stressed vowel of a word in several languages, Blackfoot uses acute accents to show the place of stress in a word, soyópokistsi leaves. Bulgarian, stress, which is variable in Bulgarian, is not usually indicated in Bulgarian except in dictionaries and sometimes in homonyms that are distinguished only by stress. However, Bulgarian usually uses the accent to mark the vowel in a stressed syllable, unlike Russian. Catalan uses it in stressed vowels, é, í, ó, ú, Dutch uses it to mark stress or a more closed vowel if it is not clear from context. Sometimes, it is used for disambiguation, as in één – een, meaning one. Galician Italian The accent is used to indicate the stress in a word, or whether the vowel is open or wide, or closed, for example, pèsca= Peach, while pésca = fishing. For example, kákhi in that direction but kakhí take something to back there. Leonese uses it for marking stress or disambiguation, Modern Greek marks the stressed vowel of every polysyllabic word, ά, έ, ή, ί, ό, ύ, ώ. Hopi has acute to mark a higher tone, Navajo where the acute marks a higher tone. Occitan Portuguese, á, é, í, ó, ú, stress is irregular in Russian, and in reference and teaching materials, stress is indicated by an acute accent above the stressed vowel. The acute accent can be used both in the Cyrillic and sometimes in the romanised text, Spanish marks stressed syllables in words that deviate from the standardized stress patterns. It is also used to distinguish minimal pairs such as el, also stress-related are the different spellings of the words en/én and et/ét. Then, the points out that there is one and only one of the object. Some loanwords, mainly from French, are written with the acute accent, like filé

14.
Tironian notes
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Tironian notes is a system of shorthand invented by Tiro, Marcus Tullius Ciceros slave and personal secretary, and later his freedman. Tiros system consisted of about 4,000 abstract symbols that were extended in classical times to 5,000 signs, during the medieval period, Tiros notation system was taught in European monasteries and was extended to about 13,000 signs. Tironian notes declined after 1100 but were still in use in the 17th century. Tironian notes can be themselves composites of simpler Tironian notes, the resulting compound still being far shorter than the word it replaces and this accounts in part for the large number of attested Tironian notes, and for the wide variation in estimates of the total number of Tironian notes. Further, the sign can have other variant forms, leading to the same issue. Nicknamed the father of stenography by historians, Tiro was a slave, the only systematized form of abbreviation in Latin at the time was used for legal notations, but it was deliberately abstruse and only accessible to people with specialized knowledge. Otherwise shorthand was improvised for note-taking or writing personal communications and these notations would not have been understood outside of closed circles, Tironian notes, also known as Tironian shorthand, consisted of abbreviations with Latin letters, abstract symbols contrived by Tiro, and symbols borrowed from Greek shorthand. Tiros notes represented prepositions, truncated words, contractions, syllables, according to Di Renzo, Tiro then combined these mixed signs like notes in a score to record not just phrases, but, as Cicero marvels in a letter to Atticus, whole sentences. Dio Cassius attributes the invention of shorthand to Maecenas, and states that he employed his freedman Aquila in teaching the system to numerous others. Isidore of Seville, however, details another version of the history of the system, ascribing the invention of the art to Quintus Ennius. Isidore states that Tiro brought the practice to Rome, but only used Tironian notes for prepositions, there are no surviving copies of Tiros original manual and code, so modern knowledge is on biographical records and copies of Tironian tables from the medieval period. There is evidence that Tiro taught his system to Cicero and his other scribes, on many of the oldest Tironian tables, lines from this speech were frequently used as examples, leading scholars to theorize it was originally transcribed using Tironian shorthand. Scholars also believe that in preparation for speeches, Tiro drafted outlines in shorthand that Cicero used as notes while speaking. In the 15th century Johannes Trithemius, abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Sponheim, discovered the notae Benenses, a psalm, Tironian notes are still used today, particularly, the Tironian et, used in Ireland and Scotland to mean and, and in the z of viz. In blackletter texts it was used in the abbreviation ⟨⁊c. ⟩ = etc. still throughout the 19th century, the Tironian et can look very similar to an r rotunda, ⟨ꝛ⟩, depending on the typeface. In Old English manuscripts, the Tironian et served as both a phonetic and morphological place holder, for instance a Tironian et between two words would be phonetically pronounced ond and would mean and. However, if the Tironian et followed the letter s, then it would be phonetically pronounced sond and this additional function of a phonetic as well as a conjunction placeholder has escaped formal Modern English, for example, one may not spell the word sand as s&. This practice was distinct from the use of &c. for etc. where the & is interpreted as the Latin word et

15.
Typographic ligature
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In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined, the common ampersand developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t were combined. The origin of typographical ligatures comes from the invention of writing with a stylus on fibrous material or clay, the earliest known script, Sumerian cuneiform, includes many cases of character combinations that, over time, gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Ligatures figure prominently in many manuscripts, notably the Brahmic abugidas. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their speed by combining characters. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes, for example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls and those with left-facing bowls were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as h, m, scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the century employed hundreds of such abbreviations. In hand writing, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in atypical fashion by merging their parts or by writing one above or inside the other. While in printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, for example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450, typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, Ligatures began to fall out of use due to their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s also generally avoid them, the trend was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around 1977 with the production of the Apple II. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution, as most of the early PC development was designed for the English language dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped since the mass of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented, some of the world’s greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world’s worst fonts, Ligatures have grown in popularity over the last 20 years due to an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting was Donald Knuths TeX program, now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets, these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor, mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity

16.
Tittle
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A tittle or superscript dot is a small distinguishing mark, such as a diacritic or the dot on a lowercase i or j. The tittle is an part of the glyph of i and j. In most languages, the tittle of i or j is omitted when a diacritic is placed in the usual position. The word tittle is rarely used, the quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. The phrase jot and tittle indicates that every detail has received attention. In the Greek original translated as English jot and tittle are found the words iota, iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet. Alternatively, it may represent yodh, the smallest letter of the Hebrew, a keraia is also used in printing modern Greek numerals. A number of alphabets use dotted and dotless I, both upper and lower case and this practice has carried over to several other Turkic languages, like the Azerbaijani alphabet, Crimean Tatar alphabet, and Tatar alphabet. The other Dene language of the Northwest Territories, Gwich’in, always includes the tittle on lowercase i, there is only one letter I in Irish, but i is undotted in the traditional uncial Gaelic script to avoid confusion of the tittle with the buailte overdot found over consonants. Modern texts replace the buailte with an h, and use the same antiqua-descendant fonts, however, bilingual road signs use dotless i in lowercase Irish text to better distinguish i from í. The letter j is not used in Irish other than in foreign words, in most Latin-based orthographies, the lowercase letter i loses its dot when a diacritical mark, such as an acute or grave accent, is placed atop the letter. However, the tittle is sometimes retained in some languages, in the Baltic languages, the lowercase letter i sometimes retains a tittle when accented. In Vietnamese in the 17th century, the tittle is preserved atop ỉ and ị but not ì and í, in modern Vietnamese, a tittle can be seen in ì, ỉ, ĩ, and í in cursive handwriting and some signage. This detail rarely occurs in computers and on the Internet, due to the obscurity of language-specific fonts, in any case, the tittle is always retained in ị. It is thought that the phrase to a T is derived from the word tittle because long before to a T became popular, the phrase to dot ones Is and cross ones Ts is used literally and also to mean to put the finishing touches to or to be thorough. Dictionary. com – Tittle Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Tittle on Everything2

17.
Dotted and dotless I
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The Turkish alphabet, which is a variant of the Latin alphabet, includes two distinct versions of the letter I, one dotted and the other dotless. The dotless I, I ı, denotes the close back unrounded vowel sound, neither the upper nor the lower case version has a dot. The dotted İ, İ i, denotes the close front unrounded vowel sound, both the upper and lower case versions have a dot. Diyarbakır /dijaɾˈbakɯɾ/ In contrast, the letter j does not have this distinction, with a dot only on the lower case character, in scholarly writing on Turkic languages, ï is sometimes used for /ɯ/. A similar ligature for ffi is also possible, since the unligatured forms are unattractive and the ligatures make the i dotless, such fonts are not appropriate for use in a Turkish setting. However, the fi ligatures of some fonts do not merge the letters and instead space them next to each other, such fonts are appropriate for Turkish, but the writer must be careful to be consistent in the use of ligatures. Most Unicode software uppercases ı to I and lowercases İ to i, thus uppercasing then lowercasing, or vice versa, changes the letters. In the LaTeX typesetting language the dotless ı can be written with the backslash-i command, the İ can be written using the normal accenting method. The C or US English locales do not have these problems, the. NET Framework has special provisions to handle the Turkish i. Many cellphones available in Turkey lack a proper localization, which leads to replacing ı by i in SMS, in one instance, a miscommunication played a role in the deaths of Emine and Ramazan Çalçoban in 2008. A common substitution is to use the character 1 for dotless ı, the casing of the dotless and dotted ı forms differ from other languages. That implies that a case insensitive matching expected by an English person doesnt match the expectations of a Turkish user, the Turkish I is often used as an example of the problems with case insensitivity in computing. Dotted and dotless i are used in other writing systems for Turkic languages, Azerbaijani. Kazakh, The Kazakh alphabet as used in Kazakhstan is Cyrillic, however, Dotted and dotless I, in addition to I with diaraesis are employed in the Latin script versions of the Kazakh Wikipedia and of several governmental websites. The main website of the government of Kazakhstan and the information agency KazInform-QazAqparat offer Turkish-like Latin script along with official Cyrillic one. Tatar, The Tatar alphabet in Russia is officially Cyrillic due to the requirements of Russian federal law, several Romanization schemes exist, which are used on the Internet and some printed publication. Most of them are modelled in different ways on Turkish and employ dotted and dotless I, while some also use I with acute, the only Latin alphabet that ever had official status in Tatarstan, Yañalif, used the character Ь instead of dotless i. Crimean Tatar, The Latin alphabet is used for the Crimean Tatar language

18.
Celtic language
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The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. Modern Celtic languages are spoken on the north-western edge of Europe, notably in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall. There are also a number of Welsh speakers in the Patagonia area of Argentina. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other Celtic diaspora areas of the United States, Canada, Australia, in all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at revitalisation. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as endangered by UNESCO, the spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. SIL Ethnologue lists six living Celtic languages, of four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are the Goidelic languages and the Brittonic languages, the other two, Cornish and Manx, died in modern times with their presumed last native speakers in 1777 and 1974 respectively. For both these languages, however, revitalisation movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and children, taken together, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages as of the 2000s. In 2010, there were more than 1.4 million speakers of Celtic languages, shelta, based largely on Irish with influence from an undocumented source. Some forms of Welsh-Romani or Kååle also combined Romany itself with Welsh language, beurla-reagaird, Highland travellers language Celtic divided into various branches, Lepontic, the oldest attested Celtic language. Anciently spoken in Switzerland and in Northern-Central Italy, from the Alps to Umbria, coins with Lepontic inscriptions have been found in Noricum and Gallia Narbonensis. Celtiberian, anciently spoken in the Iberian peninsula, in parts of modern Galicia, Asturias, La Rioja, Aragón, Cantabria, Old Castile, the relationship of Celtiberian with Gallaecian, in the northwest of the peninsula, is uncertain. Gallaecian, anciently spoken in the former Gallaecia, northwest of the peninsula, Gaulish languages, including Galatian and possibly Noric. These languages were spoken in a wide arc from Belgium to Turkey. Brittonic, including the living languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh, before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language in the Isle of Man. Goidelic, including the living languages Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic, scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to scarceness of primary source data. Other scholars distinguish between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic, putting most of the Gaulish and Brittonic languages in the former group, the P-Celtic languages are sometimes seen as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic and it has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages

19.
Ampersand
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The ampersand is the logogram &, representing the conjunction word and. It originated as a ligature of the et, Latin for. The word ampersand is a corruption of the phrase and per se &, meaning and intrinsically the word, traditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself was repeated with the Latin expression per se. This habit was useful in spelling where a word or syllable was repeated after spelling, e. g. d, o, g—dog would be clear but simply saying a—a would be confusing without the clarifying per se added. It was also common practice to add the & sign at the end of the alphabet as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced as the Latin et or later in English as and. As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in X, Y, Z and this last phrase was routinely slurred to ampersand and the term had entered common English usage by 1837. Through popular etymology, it has been claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications. The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century A. D. during the following development of the Latin script that led up to the Carolingian minuscule the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized, the modern italic type ampersand is a kind of et ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands, since the ampersands roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it. The ampersand often appeared as a letter at the end of the Latin alphabet, similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as used by children. An example may be seen in M. B, moores 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks. The popular Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines X, Y, Z, the ampersand should not be confused with the Tironian et, which is a symbol similar to the numeral 7. Both symbols have their roots in the antiquity, and both signs were used up through the Middle Ages as a representation for the Latin word et. However, while the ampersand was in origin a common ligature in the everyday script, the Tironian et is found in old Irish language script, a Latin-based script generally only used for decorative purposes today, where it signifies agus in Irish. This symbol may have entered the language by way of monastic influence in the time of the early Christian church in Ireland. In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon or a backwards numeral 3 superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also shown as a backwards 3 with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above

20.
Cork (city)
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Cork is a city in Ireland, located in the South-West Region, in the province of Munster. It has a population of 125,622 and is the second largest city in the state, the greater Metropolitan Cork area has a population exceeding 300,000. In 2005, the city was selected as the European Capital of Culture, the city is built on the River Lee which splits into two channels at the western end of the city, the city centre is divided by these channels. They reconverge at the end where the quays and docks along the river banks lead outwards towards Lough Mahon and Cork Harbour. The citys cognomen of the city originates in its support for the Yorkist cause during the English 15th century Wars of the Roses. Corkonians often refer to the city as the capital in reference to the citys role as the centre of anti-treaty forces during the Irish Civil War. Cork was originally a settlement, reputedly founded by Saint Finbarr in the 6th century. Cork achieved an urban character at some point between 915 and 922 when Norseman settlers founded a trading port and it has been proposed that, like Dublin, Cork was an important trading centre in the global Scandinavian trade network. The citys charter was granted by Prince John, as Lord of Ireland, the city was once fully walled, and some wall sections and gates remain today. Neighbouring Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords extorted Black Rent from the citizens to them from attacking the city. The present extent of the city has exceeded the boundaries of the Barony of Cork City. Together, these baronies are located between the Barony of Barrymore to the east, Muskerry East to the west and Kerrycurrihy to the south, the medieval population of Cork was about 2,100 people. It suffered a blow in 1349 when almost half the townspeople died of plague when the Black Death arrived in the town. The then mayor of Cork and several important citizens went with Warbeck to England, oBrien published a third local newspaper, the Cork Free Press. In the War of Independence, the centre of Cork was burnt down by the British Black and Tans, during the Irish Civil War, Cork was for a time held by anti-Treaty forces, until it was retaken by the pro-Treaty National Army in an attack from the sea. The climate of Cork, like the rest of Ireland, is mild oceanic and changeable with abundant rainfall, Cork lies in plant Hardiness zone 9b. Met Éireann maintains a weather station at Cork Airport, a few kilometres south of the city. It should be noted that the airport is at an altitude of 151 metres and temperatures can often differ by a few degrees between the airport and the city itself, there are also smaller synoptic weather stations at UCC and Clover Hill

21.
Catechism
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Catechisms are doctrinal manuals - often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised - a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. The term catechumen refers to the recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism, traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith and General Intercessions. Today, they are characteristic of Western Christianity but are present in Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Before the Protestant Reformation, Christian catechesis took the form of instruction in and memorisation of the Apostles Creed, Lords Prayer, the word catechism for a manual for this instruction appeared in the Late Middle Ages. The use of a question and answer format was popularized by Martin Luther in his 1529 Small Catechism, the format calls upon two parties to participate, a master and a student, or a parent and a child. The Westminster Shorter Catechism is an example, Q, what is the chief end of man. To glorify God and enjoy Him forever, what rule hath God given to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy Him. The word of God which is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments is the rule to direct us how we may glorify. The catechisms question-and-answer format, with a view toward the instruction of children, was a form adopted by the various Protestant confessions almost from the beginning of the Reformation. Among the first projects of the Reformation was the production of catechisms self-consciously modelled after the older traditions of Cyril of Jerusalem, Luthers Large Catechism typifies the emphasis which the churches of the Augsburg Confession placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of the articles of the Christian faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is meant to be memorized and then repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. The catechism, Luther wrote, should consist of instruction in the rule of conduct, which always accuses us because we fail to keep it, the rule of faith, the rule of prayer, and the sacraments. Luthers Small Catechism, in contrast, is written to accommodate the understanding of a child or an uneducated person and it begins, The First Commandment You shall have no other gods. We should fear, love, and trust in God above all things, Catechists not intent on this end, besides fatally injuring the Church, by sowing the materials of dissension in religion, also introduce an impious profanation of baptism. For where can any longer be the utility of baptism unless this remain as its foundation — that we all agree in one faith, the scandal of diverse instruction is that it produces diverse baptisms and diverse communions, and diverse faith. However, forms may vary without introducing substantial differences, according to the Reformed view of doctrine, John Calvin produced a catechism while at Geneva, which underwent two major revisions

22.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537

23.
Edward Lhuyd
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Edward Lhuyd was a Welsh naturalist, botanist, linguist, geographer and antiquary. He is also known by the Latinized form of his name, Lhuyd attended grammar school in Oswestry and went up to Jesus College, Oxford in 1682, but dropped out before his graduation. In 1684, he was appointed assistant to Robert Plot, the Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and replaced him as Keeper in 1690, whilst employed by the Ashmolean he travelled extensively. A visit to Snowdonia in 1688 allowed him to construct for John Rays Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicorum a list of local to that region. After 1697, Lhuyd visited every county in Wales, and then travelled to Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall, and Brittany, in 1701, Lhuyd was made MA honoris causa by the University of Oxford, and he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1708. Lhuyd died of pleurisy in Oxford in 1709 and he was responsible for the first scientific description and naming of what we would now recognize as a dinosaur, the sauropod tooth Rutellum implicatum. Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study published by Lhuyd in 1702, it differs from the language in having a considerably simpler structure. This book is an important source for its description of Cornish. Lhuyd noted the similarity between the two Celtic language families, Brythonic or P–Celtic, and Goidelic or Q–Celtic and he argued that the Brythonic languages originated in Gaul, and that the Goidelic languages originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Lhuyd concluded that as the languages had been of Celtic origin, from the 18th century, the peoples of Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales were known increasingly as Celts, and are regarded as the modern Celtic nations today. The Snowdon lily was at one time called Lloydia serotina after Lhuyd, cymdeithas Edward Llwyd, the National Naturalists Society of Wales, is named after him. The sculptor was John Meirion Morris and the inscription on the plinth, carved by Ieuan Rees, delair, Justin B. and William A. S. The earliest discoveries of dinosaurs, the records re-examined, proceedings of the Geologists Association 113, 185–197. Evans, Dewi W. and Brynley F. Roberts, the Life and Letters of Edward Lhuyd. Roberts, Brynley F. Edward Lhuyd, the Making of a Scientist, williams, Derek R. Prying into every hole and corner, Edward Lhuyd in Cornwall in 1700. Williams, Derek R. Edward Lhuyd, 1660–1709, A Shropshire Welshman, never at rest A biography of Isaac Newton by Richard S. Westfall ISBN0521274354 pp581, Archaeologia Britannica. Downloadable pdf at The Internet Archive, biography of Edward Lhuyd from the Canolfan Edward Llwyd, a centre for the study of science through Welsh. Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library

24.
Cornish language
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Cornish is a Southwestern Brittonic Celtic language native to Cornwall. The language has undergone a revival in recent decades and is considered to be an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage. It is a minority language of the United Kingdom, protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Along with Welsh and Breton, Cornish is descended directly from the Common Brittonic language spoken throughout much of Britain before the English language came to dominate. A process to revive the language was begun in the early 20th century, in 2010 UNESCO announced that its former classification of the language as extinct was no longer accurate. Since the revival of the language, many Cornish textbooks and works of literature have been published, recent developments include Cornish music, independent films, and childrens books. A small number of people in Cornwall have been brought up to be native speakers. The first Cornish language crèche opened in 2010, Cornish is one of the Brittonic languages, which constitute a branch of the Insular Celtic section of the Celtic language family. Brittonic also includes Welsh, Breton and the Cumbric language, the last is extinct, scottish Gaelic, Irish and Manx are part of the separate Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Cornish evolved from the Common Brittonic spoken throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth during the British Iron Age, as a result of westward Anglo-Saxon expansion, the Britons of the southwest were separated from those in modern-day Wales and Cumbria. Some scholars have proposed that this took place after the Battle of Deorham in about 577. The area controlled by the southwestern Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of Wessex over the few centuries. The earliest written record of the Cornish language comes from period, a 9th-century gloss in a Latin manuscript of De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius. The phrase means it hated the gloomy places, a much more substantial survival from Old Cornish is a Cornish-Latin glossary containing translations of around 300 words. The manuscript was thought to be in Old Welsh until the 1700s when it was identified as Cornish. The Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Cornish period, reaching a peak of about 39,000 speakers in the 13th century and this period provided the bulk of traditional Cornish literature, which was used to reconstruct the language during its revival. Most important is the Ordinalia, a cycle of three plays, Origo Mundi, Passio Christi and Resurrexio Domini. Together these provide about 20,000 lines of text, various plays were written by the canons of Glasney College, intended to educate the Cornish people about the Bible and the Celtic saints

25.
Counter (typography)
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In typography, a counter is the area of a letter that is entirely or partially enclosed by a letter form or a symbol. Letters containing closed counters include A, B, D, O, P, Q, R, a, b, d, e, g, o, p, letters containing open counters include c, f, h, i, s etc. The digits 0,4,6,8, and 9 also possess a counter, an aperture is the opening between an open counter and the outside of the letter. The lowercase g has two variants, the single-story has one closed counter and one open counter, the double-story has two closed counters. The digit 4 also has two variants, the closed-top variant has a closed counter, and an open-top has an open counter. Different typeface styles have different tendencies to use open or more closed apertures and this design decision is particularly important for sans-serif typefaces, which can have very wide strokes making the apertures very narrow indeed. Fonts designed for legibility often have very open apertures, keeping the strokes widely separated from one another to reduce ambiguity. Fonts with open apertures include Lucida Grande, Trebuchet MS, Corbel and Droid Sans, all designed for use on low-resolution displays, and Frutiger, FF Meta and others designed for print use. This design trend has become common with the spread of humanist sans-serif designs since the 1980s and the 1990s. Realist or neo-grotesque sans-serif fonts like Helvetica use very closed apertures and this gives these designs a distinctive, compact appearance, but may make similar letterforms hard to distinguish. Closed letterforms on highly condensed realist designs such as Impact and Haettenschweiler make characters such as 8 and 9 almost indistinguishable at small print sizes, figure space Thin space Paren space Counterpunch

26.
TG4
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TG4 is an Irish public service broadcaster for Irish-language speakers. The channel launched on 31 October 1996 and it is available to 98% of homes in Ireland through digital terrestrial television Saorview and is available on Virgin Media Ireland, eVision, Magnet Networks and Sky Ireland. TG4 is also available to watch live and to view previously broadcast programmes from around the world through the TG4 Player. TG4 was formerly known as Teilifís na Gaeilge or TnaG, before a campaign in 1999. TG4 was the national station to be launched in Ireland, after RTÉ One in 1961 and RTÉ Two in 1978. The channel has 650,000 viewers who tune into the channel each day to view a broad programming policy and it has been reported to have a share of 2% of the national television market in the Republic of Ireland and 3% of the national television market in Northern Ireland. The daily Irish-language programme schedule is its service, seven hours of programming in Irish supported by a wide range of material in other languages. TG4 launched its channel in 2012 on Virgin Media Ireland. TG4 TG4 HD TG4 HD launched on 2 October 2012, exclusively on UPC Ireland, the first HD broadcast featured the 2012 TG4 Ladies Gaelic Football Championship final. TG4 HD, similar to RTÉ Two HD, broadcasts mainly sporting programming from national to international events, documentaries, movies and it is anticipated that TG4 will itself start broadcasting its own programming produced in high-definition in the future. Format The channel simulcasts content from TG4 SD and upscales SD content into HD, All other content on the channel will be made available entirely in HD. In 1969, Lelia Doolan, Jack Dowling and Bob Quinn published Sit down and Be Counted, RTÉ and the Irish government had sought to improve the availability of Irish-language programming on RTÉ services. In 1972, RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta was set up to provide Irish-language radio services across the country, All radio and television services provided by RTÉ provided some Irish-language programming. In 1980, a new group called Coiste ar son Teilifís Gaeltachta was set up, in 1987 they set up the pirate television station Telefís na Gaeltachta, after years of delays, including the sudden death of their technician who was to build the transmitter. Eighteen hours of live and pre-recorded programming was broadcast between 2 and 5 November 1987, the transmitter was built at a cost of IR£4,000 through donations from local Gaeltacht communities. In December 1988, further broadcasts were transmitted from three different sites, broadcasting pre-recorded programming, the movement for a national Irish-language television service continued to gain momentum afterwards. In 1989, Ciarán Ó Feinneadha, one of the members of Coiste ar son Teilifís Gaeltachta, moved to Dublin, FTN outlined their demands, A television station to be set up in the Gaeltacht regions serving the Gaeltacht and Irish speakers across the country. It should be linked to RTÉ, but independent from both editorial and organisational points of view, a special authority set up to run it with representatives from RTÉ, the Department of Communications, and Údarás na Gaeltachta

27.
Gaelic Athletic Association
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The Association also promotes Irish music and dance, and the Irish language. It has more than 500,000 members worldwide, assets in excess of €2.6 billion, Gaelic football and hurling are the most popular activities promoted by the organisation, and the most popular sports in the Republic of Ireland in terms of attendances. Gaelic football is also the largest participation sport in Northern Ireland, GAA Handball is the Irish governing body for the sport of handball, while the other Gaelic sport, rounders, is managed by the GAA Rounders National Council. And so, the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded, the architects and founding members were Michael Cusack of County Clare, Maurice Davin, Joseph K. Bracken, Thomas St George McCarthy, P. J. Ryan of Tipperary, John Wise-Power, and John McKay. Up to the century most of the members were farm labourers, small farmers. But from 1900 onwards a new type of person – those who were now being influenced by the Gaelic League — joined the movement and they tended to be clerks, school teachers or civil servants. In 1922 it passed over the job of promoting athletics to the National Athletic, while some units of the Association outside Ireland participate in Irish competitions, the Association does not hold internationals played according to the rules of either Gaelic football or hurling. Compromise rules have been reached with two related sports, hurlers play an annual fixture against a national shinty team from Scotland. The venue alternates between Ireland and Australia, recently, the Irish welcomed the All Australian team at the headquarters of the GAA on 21 November 2015. It was single one-off test match, which led the Irish to reclaim the Cormac McAnallen cup by a score of 56-52, the association has had a long history of promoting Irish culture. Through a division of the known as Scór, the Association promotes Irish cultural activities, running competitions in music. Rule 4 of the GAAs Official Guide states, The Association shall actively support the Irish language, traditional Irish dancing, music, song, and other aspects of Irish culture. It shall foster an awareness and love of the ideals in the people of Ireland. The group was founded in 1969, and is promoted through various Association clubs throughout Ireland. The Association has many stadiums scattered throughout Ireland and beyond, every county, and nearly all clubs, have grounds on which to play their home games, with varying capacities and utilities. The hierarchical structure of the GAA is applied to the use of grounds, the provincial championship finals are usually played at the same venue every year. Croke Park is the Associations flagship venue and is colloquially as Croker or Headquarters. With a capacity of 82,300, it ranks among the top five stadiums in Europe by capacity, having undergone extensive renovations for most of the 1990s, every September, Croke Park hosts the All-Ireland inter-county Hurling and Football Finals as the conclusion to the summer championships

28.
An Post
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An Post is the state-owned provider of postal services in Republic of Ireland. An Post provides a postal service to all parts of the country as a member of the Universal Postal Union. Services provided include, letter post, parcel service, deposit accounts, Swiftpost, an all-Ireland next-day delivery service, and EMS, prior to this the postal service in Ireland had been under the control of the General Post Office that was established in 1660. Today An Post remains one of Irelands largest employers but it has undergone considerable downsizing, in 2014, all parts of An Post made a profit for the first time in 8 years. There are currently approximately 1,100 An Post offices and 121 postal agents across the Republic of Ireland, the Irish government announced the introduction of a postcode system in Ireland from 2008 though An Post was against the system, saying it is unnecessary. The introduction of the system took place on 13 July 2015. All parcel post arriving in Ireland passes through An Posts mail centre in Port Laoise, an Post is involved in a number of subsidiaries. It has complete ownership of some of these, while it is part-owner of others, such as the An Post National Lottery Company and the Prize Bond Company Limited. An Post held the licence granted by the Minister for Finance to run the National Lottery through its subsidiary, all employees of An Post National Lottery Company were seconded from An Post, and as such were employed and paid by An Post rather than by the subsidiary. Since 2014, the National Lottery has been operated by Premier Lotteries Ireland, in 2003, An Post set up a new division to run its post office and transaction services business, entitled An Post Transaction Services or PostTS. It rebranded its post offices network as Post Office or Oifig an Phoist with a new, white-and-red logo and it also introduced a service whereby newsagents could provide some Post Office services, entitled PostPoint. This was thought to have reversed a trend in business. PostTS also expanded abroad, with operations in the UK and Spain, in 2005 PostTS sold its foreign operations. The rebranding effort was partially reversed due to criticism, with the traditional An Post logo restored to Post Offices, at this time this change is complete at almost all premises. On 5 October 2006 An Post signed an agreement for the creation of a joint venture with Fortis to provide financial services through the Post Office network. The new venture will offer a range of products and services to the Irish market, including daily banking, savings products, insurance, mortgages. PostPoint and the insurance business, One Direct, will become part of the new company. On 29 April 2007 a press launch was held for the new bank, the banks savings and investment products include Solid Saver and Sure Investor

29.
Latin alphabet
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The Latin alphabet is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the script of the English language and is often referred to simply as the alphabet in English. It is an alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, the phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters, due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed letters known as roman square capitals, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles that developed to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to being written with a pen. Throughout the ages, many stylistic variations of each letter have evolved that are still identified as being the same letter. From the Cumae alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet was derived, the Latins ultimately adopted 21 of the original 26 Etruscan letters. Gaius Julius Hyginus, who recorded much Roman mythology, mentions in Fab, the Parcae, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos invented seven Greek letters — A B H T I Y. Others say that Mercury invented them from the flight of cranes, which, palamedes, too, son of Nauplius, invented eleven letters, Simonides, too, invented four letters — Ó E Z PH, Epicharmus of Sicily, two — P and PS. The Greek letters Mercury is said to have brought to Egypt, Cadmus in exile from Arcadia, took them to Italy, and his mother Carmenta changed them to Latin to the number of 15. Apollo on the added the rest. The original Latin alphabet was, The oldest Latin inscriptions do not distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, representing both by C, K and Q according to position, K was used before A, Q was used before O or V, C was used elsewhere. This is explained by the fact that the Etruscan language did not make this distinction, C originated as a turned form of Greek Gamma and Q from Greek Koppa. In later Latin, K survived only in a few such as Kalendae, Q survived only before V. G was later invented to distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, it was simply a C with an additional diacritic. C stood for /ɡ/ I stood for both /i/ and /j/, V stood for both /u/ and /w/. K was marginalized in favour of C, which stood for both /ɡ/ and /k/

30.
Insular G
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Insular G is a form of the letter g used in Insular fonts somewhat resembling a tailed z or lowercase delta, used in Great Britain and Ireland. It was first used by the Irish, passed into Old English, Middle English, having re-borrowed the familiar Carolingian g from the Continent, thus used two forms of g as separate letters. The lowercase insular g was used in Irish linguistics as a character for. Its capital was introduced in Unicode 5.1 at U+A77D, the insular g is one of several insular letters encoded into Unicode but few fonts will display all of these symbols although some will display the lowercase insular g and the tironian et. Two fonts that support the characters are Junicode and Tehuti. The insular form of g is used in traditional Gaelic script. Gaelic script Insular script Yogh Drawing an insular G Michael Eversons article On the derivation of YOGH and EZH shows insular g in several typefaces

31.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders

32.
Pangram
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A pangram or holoalphabetic sentence is a sentence using every letter of a given alphabet at least once. Pangrams have been used to display typefaces, test equipment, and develop skills in handwriting, calligraphy, the best known English pangram is The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. An example in another language is Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den großen Sylter Deich, containing all letters used in German and it has been used since before 1800. Short pangrams in English are more difficult to come up with, a perfect pangram contains every letter of the alphabet only once and can be considered an anagram of the alphabet, it is the shortest possible pangram. An example is the phrase Cwm fjord bank glyphs vext quiz, most such examples are not usually understood even by native English speakers, and so arguably are not really English pangrams. Perhaps the most easily understood perfect pangram is Mr Jock, TV quiz PhD, here are some short pangrams using standard written English, not involving abbreviations or proper nouns, Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs. Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz, the five boxing wizards jump quickly. How vexingly quick daft zebras jump, bright vixens jump, dozy fowl quack. Sphinx of black quartz, judge my vow, longer pangrams may afford more opportunity for humor, cleverness, or thoughtfulness. In a sense, the pangram is the opposite of the lipogram, in such scripts, the total number of signs is large and imprecisely defined, so producing a text with every possible sign is impossible. However, various analogies to pangrams are feasible, including traditional pangrams in a romanization, in Japanese, although typical orthography uses kanji, pangrams are required to contain every kana when written out in kana alone, the Iroha is a classic example. In addition, it is possible to create pangrams that demonstrate certain aspects of logographic characters, in Chinese, the Thousand Character Classic is a 1000-character poem in which each character is used exactly once, however, it does not include all Chinese characters. The single character 永 incorporates every basic stroke used to write Chinese characters exactly once, a self-enumerating pangram is a pangrammatic autogram, or a sentence that inventories its own letters, each of which occurs at least once. In the sequel, Sallows built an electronic machine, that performed a systematic search among millions of candidate solutions. Chris Patuzzo was able to reduce the problem of finding a self-enumerating pangram to the Boolean satisfiability problem and he did this by using a made-to-order Hardware description language as a stepping stone and then applied the Tseitin transformation to the resulting chip. The pangram The quick brown fox jumps over the dog. The search successfully comes to an end when the phrase Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs is discovered, panalphabetic window Pangrammatic window Pangrammatic lipogram Heterogram Iroha Isogram Lorem ipsum List of pangrams | Clagnut - originally on Wikipedia Fun With Words, Pangrams

33.
Long s
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The long, medial, or descending s is a form of the minuscule letter s, which was formerly used where s occurred in the middle or at the beginning of a word. The modern letterform was called the terminal, round, or short s, the long s was derived from the old Roman cursive medial s. When the distinction between majuscule and minuscule letter forms became established, toward the end of the eighth century, it developed a more vertical form. During this period, it was used at the end of a word. Thus, the rule that the long s never occurred at the end of a word is not strictly correct, although the exceptions are rare. The double s in the middle of a word was written with a long s. In German typography, the rules are complicated, short s also appears at the end of each component within a compound word. The long s is often confused with the minuscule f, sometimes even having an f-like nub at its middle, but on the left side only, in various Roman typefaces and in blackletter. There was no nub in its italic typeform, which gave the stroke a descender that curled to the left, for this reason, the short s was also normally used in combination with f, for example, in ſatisfaction. The nub acquired its form in the style of writing. What looks like one stroke was actually a wedge pointing downward, the wedges widest part was at that height, and capped by a second stroke that formed an ascender that curled to the right. Those styles of writing and their derivatives in type design had a cross-bar at the height of the nub for letters f and t, in Roman type, except for the cross bar on medial s, all other cross bars disappeared. The long s was used in ligatures in various languages, three examples were for si, ss, and st, besides the German letter ß. The long s survives in Fraktur typefaces, Greek sigma also features an initial/medial σ and a final ς, which may have supported the idea of such specialized s forms. In Renaissance Europe a significant fraction of the class was familiar with Ancient Greek. The present-day German letter ß is considered to have originated in a ligature of ſz, or ſs, some old orthographic systems of Slavonic and Baltic languages used ſ and s as two separate letters with different phonetic values. For example, the Bohorič alphabet of the Slovene language included ſ /s/, s /z/, ſh /ʃ/, in the original version of the alphabet, majuscule S was shared by both letters, later a modified character Š became the counterpart of ſ. Also, some Latin alphabets devised in the 1920s for some Caucasian languages used the ſ for some specific sounds and these orthographies were in actual use until 1938

34.
R rotunda
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The r rotunda, rounded r, is a historical calligraphic variant of the minuscule letter Latin r used in full script-like typefaces, especially blackletters. In this way, it is comparable to other special types used for ligatures or conjoined letters in early modern typesetting. This symbol came in different shapes, all of which were of x-height. The shape of the used in blackletter scripts Textualis as well as Rotunda is reminiscent of half an r, namely. Like minuscules in general, the origins of the letter are in writing as it was common during the medieval period. There are variant forms for the r rotunda glyph, also found in Textura manuscripts is a very narrow second variant, in the form of one solid diamond atop another atop a vertical stroke. Another form found in German typefaces was a variant of that previous and this one can be found used also as the second r of a pair and following e. A fifth form, used in the century in some French italic typefaces, was a derivative either of the Schrift form of the minuscule r. Its form was of a backwards J set just after the same shape rotated 180 degrees and they were separated by a space smaller than the stroke width between them, and the whole character was slanted as though it were cursive. As this typeface had the d that curved to the left, it was used after that character as well. By this time, though, the character was the width as a regular r, so it was maintained because it appeared to its users to have some elegance. The abbreviation etc. was typeset using the Tironian et, as ⁊c. in early prints, later, when typesets would no longer contain a glyph for Tironian et, it became common practice to use the r rotunda glyph instead, setting ꝛc. for etc. Use of the form was never widespread except in blackletter scripts. Modern cursive scripts use a letter r that has a resemblance to the r rotunda, the letter was proposed to be added to Unicode in 2005, in the Latin Extended-D block. As per Unicode 5.1 the encodings are U+A75A Ꝛ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R ROTUNDA, before, the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative had allocated it in the Private Use Area of medievalist fonts at U+F20E and U+F22D. Since the characters are available in Unicode, MUFI recommends that the Unicode code points be used, not the PUA code points. Some fonts treat the glyph as a stylistic variant of r and may make it available by smart font features, e. g. Open Type hist, hlig. Latin Extended-D also has characters for medieval scribal abbreviations, among them is the abbreviation for the syllable rum, consisting of a r rotunda with a cut, resulting in a shape very similar to the astrological symbol for Jupiter

35.
City Hall, Dublin
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The City Hall, Dublin, originally the Royal Exchange, is a civic building in Dublin, Ireland. It was built between 1769 and 1779 to the designs of architect Thomas Cooley and is an example of 18th-century architecture in the city. Located at the top of Parliament Street on the southern side, it stands next to Dublin Castle. The street had been built in 1753, providing a continuation of Capel Street on the bank of the Liffey, across the newly widened Essex Bridge. The external structure is made out of white Portland stone from a quarry in Dorset. The function of the building was to provide a place for Dublins businessmen. It was also close to the then Customs House that stood on the site of todays Clarence Hotel, in the 18th century, meetings were held in South William Street. In 1815 the metal balustrade of the fell, owing to the pressure against it by a crowd. This led to restrictions in the building. In the 1850s, the City Corporation bought the Royal Exchange, the changes included partitions around the ambulatory, the construction of a new staircase from the Rotunda to the upper floors and the sub-division of the vaults for storage. On 30 September 1852, the Royal Exchange was renamed City Hall at the first meeting of Dublin City Council held there, a series of frescos were later added, representing the regions of Ireland. During the 1916 Easter Rising, the City Hall was used as a garrison for the Irish Citizen Army, Sean Connolly seized the building using a key which he obtained as he worked in the motor department and had access to the building. There were 35 people based here, mostly women and it was in this area where the first casualty of the rising, a guard named James O’Brien, occurred at Dublin Castle and he was shot by Sean Connolly while on duty. In total, the siege lasted about 12 hours. The building was restored to its 18th-century appearance at the beginning of the 21st century, most Dublin City Council staff are located in the relatively new and controversial Civic Offices, built from 1979 on the site of a national monument, the Viking city foundations on Wood Quay. Dublin Corporation itself was renamed in the early 21st century as Dublin City Council. Council meetings take place in City Hall, there is an exhibition on the history of Dublin City, called Dublin City Hall, The Story of the Capital, located in the vaults. There is currently little opportunity to see the City Council at work, though the website has raised the questions of greater public access

36.
Dublin Castle
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Dublin Castle off Dame Street, Dublin, Ireland, was until 1922 the seat of the United Kingdom governments administration in Ireland, and is now a major Irish government complex. Most of it dates from the 18th century, though a castle has stood on the site since the days of King John, the first Lord of Ireland. The Castle served as the seat of English, then later British government of Ireland under the Lordship of Ireland, the Kingdom of Ireland, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921, the complex was handed over to the newly formed Provisional Government led by Michael Collins. The castle today is a major tourist attraction and conferencing destination, the building is also used for State dinners and most significantly, the inauguration of the presidents of Ireland. Dublin Castle fulfilled a number of roles through its history, the second in command in the Dublin Castle administration, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, also had his offices there. Over the years parliament and law courts met at the castle before moving to new purpose-built venues and it also served as a military garrison. Castle Catholic was a term for Catholics who were considered to be overly friendly with or supportive of the British administration. Upon formation of the Free State in 1922, the castle assumed for a decade the role of the Four Courts on the Liffey quays which had been damaged during the Civil War. It was decided in 1938 that the inauguration of the first President of Ireland, Douglas Hyde would take place in the castle, two dedicated conference facilities, The Hibernia Conference Centre and The Printworks, were install for the European Presidencies of 1990 and 2013. Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city. The city wall directly abutted the castles northeast Powder Tower, extending north, in 1620 the English-born judge Luke Gernon was greatly impressed by the wall, a huge and mighty wall, foursquare, and of incredible thickness. The Poddle was diverted into the city through archways where the walls adjoined the castle, one of these archways and part of the wall survive buried underneath the 18th-century buildings, and are open to public inspection. The building survived until 1673, when it was damaged by fire, the Court of Castle Chamber, the Irish counterpart to the English Star Chamber, sat in Dublin Castle in a room which was specially built for it about 1570. The Castle sustained severe damage in 1684. Extensive rebuilding transformed it from medieval fortress to Georgian palace, United Irishmen General Joseph Holt, a participant in the 1798 Rising, was incarcerated in the Bermingham Tower before being transported to New South Wales in 1799. In 1884 officers at the Castle were at the centre of a homosexual scandal incited by the Irish Nationalist politician William OBrien through his newspaper United Ireland. In 1907 the Irish Crown Jewels were stolen from the Castle, suspicion fell upon the Officer of Arms, Sir Arthur Vicars, but rumours of his homosexuality and links to socially important gay men in London, may have compromised the investigation

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Pontifical Irish College
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The Pontifical Irish College is a Roman Catholic seminary for the training and education of priests, in Rome. Towards the close of the century, Pope Gregory XIII had sanctioned the foundation of an Irish college in Rome. The project was revived in 1625 by the Irish bishops, in an address to Pope Urban VIII, Cardinal Ludovisi, who was Cardinal Protector of Ireland, resolved to realize at his own expense the desire expressed to the pope by the Irish bishops. A house was rented opposite Sant Isodoro and six went into residence 1 January 1628. Eugene Callanan, archdeacon of Cashel, was the first rector, Father Luke Wadding, the cardinals will directed that the college should be placed under the charge of the Jesuits. Both the heirs and Wadding suspected that provision and disputed it, on 8 February 1635, the Jesuits took charge of the college, and governed it until 1772. A permanent residence was secured, which became the home of the Irish students until 1798, the first Jesuit rector became general of the Society, he was succeeded by Father James Forde who was succeeded in 1637 by Father William Malone, a combatant in controversy with Archbishop Usher. John Brennan, one of Plunketts contemporaries, also became a professor at Propaganda, whence he was appointed Bishop of Waterford, and then Archbishop of Cashel. Soon after came several remarkable students — Ronin Maginn, James Kusack, Bishop of Meath, Peter Creagh, successively Bishop of Cork and Cloyne, and Archbishop of Dublin. Richard Reynolds at the end of his course was kept in Rome at tutor to the children of the Pretender, the college had never more than eight students at a time, and had often so few as five. In other ways, however, the college had its trials, the villa at Castel Gandolfo was sold to the Jesuit novitiate in 1667, and yet the difficulties did not disappear. Complaints as to administration were made, and a Pontifical Commission was deputed to make an official inquiry. Its report was not favourable to the Jesuits, and in September,1772, the college now passed from the care of the Jesuits, and an Italian priest, Abbate Luigi Cuccagni, was made rector. He was a man of acknowledged ability and he is the author of several works which were in high repute in those days, and from the Irish College he edited the Giornale Ecclesiastico di Roma, then the leading Catholic periodical in Rome. The first prefect of studies appointed under his rectorate was Pietro Tamburini, during his prefectship he delivered his lectures on the Fathers which were afterwards published at Pavia. He had to leave the college after four years, the rectorate of Cuccagni came to an end in 1798, when the college was closed by order of Napoleon, and thus we come to the close of another period in its history. During those twenty-six years it quite equalled its previous prestige and he became the first rector of the restored college, and among the first students who sought admission was Francis Mahoney of Cork, known to the literary world as Father Prout. Having set the college well to work, Dr. Blake returned to Ireland, and was succeeded by Dr. Boylan, of Maynooth and he was succeeded by a young priest, later Cardinal Cullen

38.
County Kerry
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County Kerry is a county in Ireland. It is located in the South-West Region and is part of the province of Munster. It is named after the Ciarraige who lived in part of the present county, Kerry County Council is the local authority for the county and Tralee serves as the county town. The population of the county was 147,554 in 2016, Kerry is the fifth-largest of the 32 counties of Ireland by area and the 15th-largest by population. It is the second-largest of Munsters six counties by area, uniquely, it is bordered by only two other counties, County Limerick to the east and County Cork to the south-east. The diocesan see is Killarney, which is one of Irelands most famous tourist destinations, the Lakes of Killarney, an area of outstanding natural beauty are located in Killarney National Park. The tip of the Dingle Peninsula is the most westerly point of Ireland, there are nine historic baronies in the county. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, the county is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and on the north by the River Shannon. Just off the coast are a number of islands, including the Blasket Islands, Valentia Island, skellig Michael is a World Heritage Site, famous for the medieval monastery clinging to the islands cliffs. The county contains the extreme west point of Ireland, Dunmore Head on the Dingle Peninsula, or including islands, Tearaght Island, the most westerly inhabited area of Ireland is Dún Chaoin, on the Dingle Peninsula. The River Feale, the River Laune and the Roughty River flow through Kerry, the North Atlantic Current, part of the Gulf Stream, flows north past Kerry and the west coast of Ireland, resulting in milder temperatures than would otherwise be expected at the 52 North latitude. This means that plants such as the strawberry tree and tree ferns, not normally found in northern Europe. Because of the area and the prevailing southwesterly winds, Kerry is among the regions with the highest rainfall in Ireland. Owing to its location, there has been a reporting station on Valentia for many centuries. The Irish record for rainfall in one day is 243.5 mm, in 1986 the remnants of Hurricane Charley crossed over Kerry as an extratropical storm causing extensive rainfall, flooding and damage. Kerry means the people of Ciar which was the name of the tribe who lived in part of the present county. The legendary founder of the tribe was Ciar, son of Fergus mac Róich, in Old Irish Ciar meant black or dark brown, and the word continues in use in modern Irish as an adjective describing a dark complexion

39.
Blackletter
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Blackletter, also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 to well into the 17th century. It continued to be used for the Danish language until 1875, Fraktur is a notable script of this type, and sometimes the entire group of Blackletter faces is incorrectly referred to as Fraktur. Blackletter is sometimes called Old English, but it is not to be confused with the Old English language, despite the popular, though mistaken, belief that the language was written with blackletter. The Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, language predates blackletter by many centuries, Carolingian minuscule was the direct ancestor of blackletter. Blackletter developed from Carolingian as an increasingly literate 12th-century Europe required new books in different subjects. New universities were founded, each producing books for business, law, grammar, history and these books needed to be produced quickly to keep up with demand. Carolingian, though legible, was time-consuming and labour-intensive to produce and its large size consumed a lot of manuscript space in a time when writing materials were very costly. The term Gothic was first used to describe this script in 15th-century Italy, in the midst of the Renaissance, Gothic was a synonym for barbaric. Flavio Biondo, in Italia Illustrata thought it was invented by the Lombards after their invasion of Italy in the 6th century. Not only were black-letter forms called Gothic script, but any other seemingly barbarian script, such as Visigothic, Beneventan and this in contrast to Carolingian minuscule, a highly legible script which the Humanists called littera antiqua, wrongly believing that it was the script used by the Romans. It was in fact invented in the reign of Charlemagne, although only used significantly after that era, the black letter should not be confused either with the ancient alphabet of the Gothic language, nor with the sans-serif typefaces that are also sometimes called Gothic. Textualis, also known as textura or Gothic bookhand, was the most calligraphic form of black letter, johannes Gutenberg carved a textualis typeface – including a large number of ligatures and common abbreviations – when he printed his 42-line Bible. However, the textualis was rarely used for typefaces afterwards, according to Dutch scholar Gerard Lieftinck, the pinnacle of black-letter use occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries. For Lieftinck, the highest form of textualis was littera textualis formata, the usual form, simply littera textualis, was used for literary works and university texts. Lieftincks third form, littera textualis currens, was the form of black letter, extremely difficult to read and used for textual glosses. Textualis was most widely used in France, the Low Countries, England, some characteristics of the script are, tall, narrow letters, as compared to their Carolingian counterparts. Ascenders are vertical and often end in sharp finials when a letter with a bow is followed by letter with a bow, the bows overlap. A related characteristic is the r, the shape of r when attached to other letters with bows, only the bow and tail were written

40.
Fraktur
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Fraktur is a calligraphic hand of the Latin alphabet and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. From this, Fraktur is sometimes contrasted with the Latin alphabet in northern European texts, similarly, the term Fraktur or Gothic is sometimes applied to all of the blackletter typefaces. Besides the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Fraktur includes the ß, vowels with umlauts, and the ſ. Some Fraktur typefaces also include a variant form of the letter r known as the r rotunda, most older Fraktur typefaces make no distinction between the majuscules I and J, even though the minuscules i and j are differentiated. One difference between the Fraktur and other blackletter scripts is that in the lower case o, the part of the bow is broken. In Danish texts composed in Fraktur, the letter ø was already preferred to the German, Fraktur types for printing were established by the Augsburg publisher Johann Schönsperger at the issuance of a series of Maximilians works such as his Prayer Book or the illustrated Theuerdank poem. In the 18th century, the German Theuerdank Fraktur was further developed by the Leipzig typographer Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf to create the typeset Breitkopf Fraktur, while over the succeeding centuries, most Central Europeans switched to Antiqua, German-speakers remained a notable holdout. Some books at that time used related blackletter fonts such as Schwabacher, however, the predominant typeface was the Normalfraktur and this move was hotly debated in Germany, where it was known as the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute. The shift affected mostly scientific writing in Germany, whereas most belletristic literature, the press was scolded for its frequent use of Roman characters under Jewish influence and German émigrés were urged to use only German script. This radically changed on January 3,1941, when Martin Bormann issued a circular to all public offices which declared Fraktur to be Judenlettern, German historian Albert Kapr has speculated that the régime had realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II. Even with the abolition of Fraktur, some publications include elements of it in headlines, very occasionally, academic works still used Fraktur in the text itself. Notably, Joachim Jeremiass work Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus was published in 1963 using Fraktur, more often, some ligatures ch, ck from Fraktur were used in antiqua-typed editions. That continued mostly up to the offset type period, Fraktur saw a brief resurgence after the War, but quickly disappeared in a Germany keen on modernising its appearance. In this modern decorative use, the rules about the use of long s and short s. Individual Fraktur letters are used in mathematics, which often denotes associated or parallel concepts by the same letter in different fonts. For example, a Lie group is denoted by G. A ring ideal might be denoted by a while an element is a ∈ a, the Fraktur c is also used to denote the cardinality of the continuum, that is, the cardinality of the real line. In model theory, A is used to denote an arbitrary model, in Unicode, Fraktur is treated as a font of the Latin alphabet, and is not encoded separately

41.
Irish orthography
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Irish orthography has evolved over many centuries, since Old Irish was first written down in the Latin alphabet in about the 8th century AD. Prior to that, Primitive Irish was written in Ogham, Irish orthography is mainly based on etymological considerations, although a spelling reform in the mid-20th century simplified the relationship between spelling and pronunciation somewhat. There are three dialects of spoken Irish, Ulster, Connacht, and Munster, some spelling conventions are common to all the dialects, while others vary from dialect to dialect. In addition, individual words may have in any given dialect a pronunciation that is not reflected by the spelling, modern loanwords also make use of j k q v w x y z. Of these, v is the most common and it occurs in a small number of words of native origin in the language such as vácarnach, vác and vrác, all of which are onomatopoeic. It also occurs in a number of colloquial forms such as víog instead of bíog. It is also the only non-traditional letter used to write foreign names, cork, as the eclipsis of s. K is the only not to be listed by Ó Dónaill. H, when not prefixed to a vowel as an aspirate in certain grammatical functions. The letters names are spelt out thus, á bé cé dé é eif gé héis í eil eim ein ó pé ear eas té ú along with jé cá cú vé wae eacs yé zae, tree names were once popularly used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters and this alphabet, together with Roman type equivalents and letter name pronunciations along with the additional lenited letters, is shown below. Use of Gaelic type is today almost entirely restricted to decorative and/or self-consciously traditional contexts, the dot above the lenited letter is usually replaced by a following h in the standard Roman alphabet. The only other use of h in Irish is for words after certain proclitics. Although the Gaelic script remained common until the mid-20th century, efforts to introduce Roman characters began much earlier, the consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes as shown in this table. See Irish phonology for an explanation of the used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis. In most cases, consonants are broad when the nearest vowel letter is one of a, o, u, in spite of the complex chart below, pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from a few simple rules, Fada vowels are always pronounced. Vowels on either side of a vowel are silent. They are present only to satisfy the caol le caol agus leathan le leathan rule

5th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, 1817, top, compared to the 6th edition of 1823; the only change (aside from the elimination of the ct ligature, as in "attraction") was the removal of the long s from the font

The r rotunda (ꝛ), "rounded r", is a historical calligraphic variant of the minuscule (lowercase) letter Latin r used …

The r rotunda (it is the middle letter) in a Latin Bible of AD 1407, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England.

Example from early printing, from a page printed by Pablo Hurus in 1496 in Zaragoza, Spain. The sample includes the types for r rotunda (marked red), ordinary r (marked green), and Tironian et (marked blue).

Comparison of the r rotunda and the normal r in the Leeds Uni typeface

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin …

The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. Only the black symbols are part of the IPA; common additional symbols are in grey.