Ascetical Theology

Advanced Information

Classically, ascetical theology has been defined as the branch of
theology dealing with the ordinary means of Christian perfection,
e.g., the disciplined renunciation of personal desires, the
imitation of Christ, and the pursuit of charity. On this level it
has been distinguished since the seventeenth century from moral
theology (which deals with those duties essential for salvation and
thus the avoidance of mortal and venial sins) and mystical theology
(which deals with the extraordinary grace of God leading to infused
contemplation and is thus a passive reception rather than an active
pursuit). The borderline between moral and ascetical theology is
hazy at best, while the distinction between it and mystical
theology is often denied altogether.

This fact becomes particularly clear when ascetical theology is
divided in its usual manner into the purgative, illuminative, and
unitive ways. The purgative way, which stresses the cleansing of the
soul from all serious sin, clearly overlaps moral theology. The
unitive way, which focuses on union with God, can easily include
mystical theology. Only the illuminative way, the practice of
positive Christian virtue, remains uncontested. Yet this threefold
division of ascetical theology has been firmly established since
Thomas Aquinas, although its roots can be traced to Augustine and
earlier. Thus it is wisest to take ascetical theology in its
broadest sense, meaning the study of Christian discipline and the
spiritual life.

The basis of ascetical theology is in the NT

It was Jesus who spoke
of fasting (Matt. 9:15; Mark 9:29), celibacy (Matt. 19:12), and the
renunciation of possessions (Matt. 19:21; Mark 10:28; Luke 9:57 -
62; 12:33). More importantly Jesus called for a general self-renunciation,
a "taking up" of one's "cross" in order to follow him
(Mark 8:34). The Sermon on the Mount forms the directive for this
lifestyle, closing with a call to a disciplined life
(Matt. 7:13 - 27). One must also include the call for constant
watchfulness (Matt. 24:42; 25:13, or "abiding" in John). Paul picked
up this theme with his call for self discipline (1 Cor. 9:24 - 27),
his exhortation to put off the "old man" (Eph. 4:22) or to put to
death the flesh (Col. 3:5), and his demand that Christians walk by
the Spirit (Rom.8; Gal. 5). Similar examples could be discovered in
James, John, or Peter. It is the unified witness of the NT that the
Christian life is a discipline, a struggle, and that success in this
struggle is enabled by the grace of God or his Spirit.

The postapostolic church, beginning, perhaps, with the Shepherd of
Hermas, began producing works on how this discipline was to be
pursued; that is, how the goal of perfect charity and fellowship
with God was to be gained. Spiritual teaching was quickly connected
first with martyrdom as its highest good and then, partially under
the influence of Neoplatonism, with virginity as a type of living
martyrdom. As the church became one with the Roman Empire, it was
the monastic movement which took up and defended the rigor of the
early period; this was to be the home of ascetical theology for much
of the succeeding church history, producing the works of the desert
fathers, Basil and the Eastern tradition of spiritual direction, and
later the medieval monastic tradition, following in the steps of
Augustine.

In the Reformation period ascetical theology split into several
different streams, some of which were more influenced by the
medieval stress on the meditation on and identification with the
human life of Christ and others more by the spiritual
internalization of the life of Christ in the Devotio Moderna as seen
especially in Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ. The most
radical stream was the Anabaptist one, which aimed at a disciplined
church with primitive purity: the whole church fulfilled the
monastic ideal of imitating Christ. The Catholic stream focused more
upon a group of elect "first class" Christians (Francis de Sales,
Ignatius's Spiritual Exercises), preserving the tradition of deep
meditation on the human sufferings of Christ. Lutheran pietism and
especially Calvinist Puritanism mediated ascetical theology to
their respective traditions with their stress on holy lives (Richard
Baxter, and in some respects William Law's Serious Call). Finally,
there is the whole holiness tradition, beginning with John Wesley.

If these are classified as radical, catholic, state church, and
holiness, one can find a place within these categories for the
Quakers and others who, knowingly or unconsciously, repeat the calls
of spiritual directors and writers on ascetical theology down the
ages (e.g., Richard Foster, Watchman Nee, or George Verwer).

The common themes of ascetical theology in whatever its clothing are
the following:

(1) a stress on the call of God and thus on God's
enabling grace to live the Christian life; ascetical theology is
neither Pelagianism nor legalism in its basic forms;

(2) a demand that one forsake sin, including practices that much of
the church might find acceptable for ordinary church people; this
demand is usually related to literal following of the NT ethic;

(3) a call to mortify the flesh and its desires, to discipline oneself,
which in its best forms is not connected to a Neoplatonic dualistic
anthropology (this theme and the previous one form the purgative way);

(4) an invitation to follow Christ and apply oneself to those
virtues which he commanded;

(5) a call to self surrender to God's will as an act of radical
faith, at times in the form of virtually a conversion experience
or a second work of grace (the illuminative way); and

(6) an expectation that through quiet prayer and
meditation one will become closer to God and experience him
spiritually as "the living word" (Anabaptist) or even as
one's divine spouse (Catholic tradition, e.g., John of the Cross).

This last is the unitive way. While all of this can become a very
individualistic seeking of perfection, the best writers of the
tradition are aware of the body of Christ and thus formed their own
groups to jointly pursue the goal and / or expected that the pursuit
of perfection would lead to a deeper service to the whole body of
Christ (e.g., Fenelon).

In either its narrower classical sense or its broader sense
including a large Protestant tradition ascetical theology is
essentially that part of moral and pastoral theology which aims at
the renewal of individuals and the church, deeper spiritual
experience, and true holiness in primitive simplicity. As such it is
a theological discipline indispensable to the proper functioning of
the church.

Ascetical Theology

Catholic Information

Ascetics, as a branch of theology, may be briefly defined as the scientific
exposition of Christian asceticism. Asceticism (askesis, askein), taken in its
literal signification, means a polishing, a smoothing or refining. The Greeks
used the word to designate the exercises of the athletes, whereby the powers
dormant in the body were developed and the body itself was trained to its full
natural beauty. The end for which these gymnastic exercises were undertaken was
the laurel-wreath bestowed on the victor in the public games. Now the life of
the Christian is, as Christ assures us, a struggle for the kingdom of heaven
(Matthew 11:12). To give his readers an object-lesson of this spiritual battle
and moral endeavour, St. Paul, who had been trained in the Greek fashion, uses
the picture of the Greek pentathlon (1 Corinthians 9:24). The exercises to be
assumed in this combat tend to develop and strengthen the moral stamina, while
their aim is Christian perfection leading up to man's ultimate end, union with
God. Human nature having been weakened by original sin and ever inclining toward
what is evil, this end cannot be reached except at the price of overcoming, with
God's grace, many and serious obstacles. The moral struggle then consists first
of all in attacking and removing the obstacles, that is the evil concupiscences
(concupiscence of the flesh, concupiscence of the eyes, and pride of life),
which effects of original sin serve to try and test man (Trid., Sess. V, De
peccato originali). This first duty is called by the Apostle Paul the putting
off of "the old man" (Ephesians 4:22). The second duty, in the words of the same
Apostle, is to "put on the new man" according to the image of God (Ephesians
4:24). The new man is Christ. It is our duty then to strive to become like unto
Christ, seeing that He is "the way, and the truth, and the life" (John 14:6),
but this endeavour is based on the supernatural order and, therefore, cannot be
accomplished without Divine grace. Its foundation is laid in baptism, whereby we
are adopted as sons of God through the imparting of sanctifying grace.

Thenceforth, it must be perfected by the supernatural virtues, the gifts of the
Holy Ghost, and actual grace. Since, then, ascetics is the systematic treatise
of the striving after Christian perfection, it may be defined as the scientific
guide to the acquisition of Christian perfection, which consists in expressing
within ourselves, with the help of Divine grace, the image of Christ, by
practising the Christian virtues, and applying the means given for overcoming
the obstacles. Let us subject the various elements of this definition to a
closer examination.

A. Nature of Christian Perfection

(1) To begin with, we must reject the false conception of the Protestants who
fancy that Christian perfection, as understood by Catholics, is essentially
negative asceticism (cf. Seberg in Herzog-Hauck, "Realencyklopädie für prot.
Theologie", III, 138), and that the correct notion of asceticism was discovered
by the Reformers. There can be no doubt as to the Catholic position, if we but
hearken to the clear voices of St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure. For these masters
of Catholic theology who never tired of repeating that the ideal of asceticism
upheld by them was the ideal of the Catholic past, of the Fathers, of Christ
Himself, emphatically state that bodily asceticism has not an absolute, but only
a relative, value. St. Thomas calls it a "means to an end", to be used with
discretion. St. Bonaventure says that bodily austerities "prepare, foster, and
preserve perfection" (ad perfectionem præparans et ipsam promovens et
conservans; "Apolog. pauperum", V, c. viii). In proof of his thesis, he shows
that to put an absolute value on bodily asceticism would lead to Manichæism. He
also points to Christ, the ideal of Christian perfection, who was less austere
in fasting than John the Baptist, and to the founders of religious orders, who
prescribed fewer ascetic exercises for their communities than they themselves
practised (cf. J. Zahn, "Vollkommenheitsideal" in "Moralprobleme", Freiburg,
1911, p. 126 sqq.). On the other hand, Catholics do not deny the importance of
ascetic practices for acquiring Christian perfection. Considering the actual
condition of human nature, they declare these necessary for the removal of
obstacles and for the liberation of man's moral forces, thus claiming for
asceticism a positive character. A like value is put upon those exercises which
restrain and guide the powers of the soul. Consequently, Catholics actually
fulfil and always have fulfilled what Harnack sets down as a demand of the
Gospel and what he pretends to have looked for in vain among Catholics; for they
do "wage battle against mammon, care, and selfishness, and practise that charity
which loves to serve and to sacrifice itself" (Harnack, "Essence of
Christianity"). The Catholic ideal, then, is by no means confined to the
negative element of asceticism, but is of a positive nature.

(2) The essence of Christian perfection is love. St. Thomas (Opusc. de
perfectione christ., c. ii) calls that perfect which is conformable to its end
(quod attingit ad finem ejus). Now, the end of man is God, and what unites him,
even on earth, most closely with God is love (1 Corinthians 6:17; 1 John 4:16).
All the other virtues are subservient to love or are its natural prerequisites,
as faith and hope; Love seizes man's whole soul (intellect, will), sanctifies
it, and fuses new life into it. Love lives in all things and all things live in
love and through love. Love imparts to all things the right measure and directs
them all to the last end. "Love is thus the principle of unity, no matter how
diversified are the particular states, vocations, and labours. There are many
provinces, but they constitute one realm. The organs are many, but the organism
is one" (Zahn, l. c., p. 146). Love has, therefore, rightly been called "the
bond of perfection" (Colossians 3:14) and the fulfilment of the law (Romans
13:8). That Christian perfection consists in love has ever been the teaching of
Catholic ascetical writers. A few testimonies may suffice. Writing to the
Corinthians, Clement of Rome says (1 Corinthians 49:1): "It was love that made
all the elect perfect; without love nothing is acceptable to God" (en te agape
ateleiothesan pantes oi eklektoi tou theou dicha agapes ouden euareston estin to
theo; Funk, "Patr. apost.", p. 163). The "Epistle of Barnabas" insists that the
way of light is "the love of him who created us" (agapeseis ton se poiesanta;
Funk, l. c., p. 91), "a love of our neighbour that does not even spare our own
life" (agapeseis ton plesion sou hyper ten psychen sou), and it affirms that
perfection is nothing else than "love and joy over the good works which testify
to justice" (agape euphrosyns kai agalliaseos ergon dikaiosynes martyria). St.
Ignatius never wearies in his letters of proposing faith as the light and love
as the way, love being the end and aim of faith ("Ad Ephes.", ix, xiv; "Ad
Philad.", ix; "Ad Smyrn.", vi). According to the "Didache", love of God and of
one's neighbour is the beginning of the "way of life" (c. i), and in the
"Epistle to Diognetus" active love is called the fruit of belief in Christ. The
"Pastor" of Hermas acknowledges the same ideal when he sets down "a life for
God" (zoe to theo) as the sum-total of human existence. To these Apostolic
Fathers may be added St. Ambrose (De fuga sæculi, c. iv, 17; c. vi, 35-36) and
St. Augustine, who regards perfect justice as tantamount to perfect love. Both
St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure speak the same language, and their authority is
so overpowering that the ascetical writers of all subsequent centuries have
faithfully followed in their footsteps (cf. Lutz, "Die kirchl. Lehre von den
evang. Räten", Paderborn, 1907, pp. 26-99).

However, though perfection is essentially love, it is not true that any degree
of love is sufficient to constitute moral perfection. The ethical perfection of
the Christian consists in the perfection of love, which requires such a
disposition "that we can act with speed and ease even though many obstacles
obstruct our path" (Mutz, "Christl. Ascetik", 2nd ed., Paderborn, 1909). But
this disposition of the soul supposes that the passions have been subdued; for
if is the result of a laborious struggle, in which the moral virtues, steeled by
love, force back and quell the evil inclinations and habits, supplanting them by
good inclinations and habits. Only then has it really become "a man's second
nature, as it were, to prove his love of God at certain times and under certain
circumstances, to practise virtue and, as far as human nature may, to preserve
his soul even from the slightest taints" (Mutz, l. c., p. 43). Owing to the
weakness of human nature and the presence of the evil concupiscence (fomes
peccati: Trid., Sess. VI, can. xxiii), a perfection that would exclude every
defect cannot be attained in this life without a special privilege (cf. Proverbs
20:9; Ecclesiastes 7:21; James 3:2). Likewise, perfection, on this side of the
grave, will never reach such a degree that further growth is impossible, as is
clear from the mind of the Church and the nature of our present existence
(status vioe); in other words, our perfection will always be relative. As St.
Bernard says: "An unflagging zeal for advancing and a continual struggle for
perfection is itself perfection" (Indefessus proficiendi studium et iugis
conatus ad perfectionem, perfectio reputatur; "Ep. ccliv ad Abbatem Guarinum").
Since perfection consists in love, it is not the privilege of one particular
state, but may be, and has as a fact been, attained in every state of life (cf.
PERFECTION, CHRISTIAN AND RELIGIOUS). Consequently it would be wrong to identify
perfection with the so-called state of perfection and the observance of the
evangelical counsels. As St. Thomas rightly observes, there are perfect men
outside the religious orders and imperfect men within them (Summa theol., II-II,
Q. clxxxiv, a. 4). True it is that the conditions for realizing the ideal of a
Christian life are, generally speaking, more favourable in the religious state
than in the secular avocations. But not all are called to the religious life,
nor would all find in it their contentment (cf. COUNSELS, EVANGELICAL). To sum
up, the end is the same, the means are different. This sufficiently answers
Harnack's objection (Essence of Christianity) that the Church considers the
perfect imitation of Christ possible only for the monks, while she accounts the
life of a Christian in the world as barely sufficient for the attainment of the
last end.

(3) The ideal, to which the Christian should conform and towards which he should
strive with all his powers both natural and supernatural, is Jesus Christ. His
justice should be our justice. Our whole life should be so penetrated by Christ
that we become Christians in the full sense of the word ("until Christ be formed
in you"; Galatians 4:19). That Christ is the supreme model and pattern of the
Christian life is proved from Scripture, as e.g. from John, xiii, 15, and I
Peter, ii, 21, where imitation of Christ is directly recommended, and from John,
viii, 12, where Christ is called "the light of the world". Cf. also Rom., viii,
29, Gal., ii, 20, Phil., iii, 8, and Heb., i, 3, where the Apostle extols the
excellent knowledge of Jesus Christ, for whom he has suffered the loss of all
things, counting them but as dung, that he may gain Christ. Of the numerous
testimonies of the Fathers we only quote that of St. Augustine, who says: "Finis
ergo noster perfectio nostra esse debet; perfectio nostra Christus" (P. L.,
XXXVI, 628; cf. also "In Psalm.", 26, 2, in P. L., XXXVI, 662). In Christ there
is no shadow, nothing one-sided. His Divinity guarantees the purity of the
model; His humanity, by which He became similar to us, makes the model
attractive. But this picture of Christ, unmarred by addition or omission, is to
be found only in the Catholic Church and, owing to her indefectibility, will
always continue there in its ideal state. For the same reason, the Church alone
can give us the guarantee that the ideal of the Christian life will always
remain pure and unadulterated, and will not be identified with one particular
state or with a subordinate virtue (cf. Zahn, l. c., p. 124). An unprejudiced.
examination proves that the ideal of Catholic life has been preserved in all its
purity through the centuries and that the Church has never failed to correct the
false touches with which individuals might have sought to disfigure its
unstained beauty. The individual features and the fresh colours for outlining
the living picture of Christ are derived from the sources of Revelation and the
doctrinal decisions of the Church. These tell us about the internal sanctity of
Christ (John 1:14; Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 1:9; etc.). His life overflowing with
grace, of whose fulness we have all received (John 1:16), His life of prayer
(Mark 1:21, 35; 3:1; Luke 5:16; 6:12; 9:18; etc.), His devotion to His heavenly
Father (Matthew 11:26; John 4:34; 5:30; 8:26, 29), His intercourse with men
(Matthew 9:10; cf. 1 Corinthians 9:22), His spirit of unselfishness and
sacrifice, His patience and meekness, and, finally, His asceticism as revealed
in his fastings (Matthew 4:2; 6:18).

B. Dangers of the Ascetical Life

The second task of ascetical theology is to point out the dangers which may
frustrate the attainment of Christian perfection and to indicate the means by
which they can be avoided successfully. The first danger to be noticed is evil
concupiscence. A second danger lies in the allurements of the visible creation,
which occupy man's heart to the exclusion of the highest good; to the same class
belong the enticements of the sinful, corrupt world (1 John 5:19), that is,
those men who promulgate vicious and ungodly doctrines and thereby dim or deny
man's sublime destiny, or who by perverting ethical concepts and by setting a
bad example give a false tendency to man's sensuality. Thirdly, ascetics
acquaints us not only with the malice of the devil, lest we should fall a prey
to his cunning wiles, but also with his weakness, lest we should lose heart.
Finally, not satisfied with indicating the general means to be used for waging a
victorious combat, ascetics offers us particular remedies for special
temptations (cf. Mutz, "Ascetik", 2nd ed., p. 107 sqq.).

C. Means for Realizing the Christian Ideal

(1) Prayer, above all, in its stricter meaning, is a means of attaining
perfection; special devotions approved by the Church and the sacramental means
of sanctification have a special reference to the striving after perfection
(frequent confession and communion). Ascetics proves the necessity of prayer (2
Corinthians 3:5) and teaches the mode of praying with spiritual profit; it
justifies vocal prayers and teaches the art of meditating according to the
various methods of St. Peter of Alcantara, of St. Ignatius, and other saints,
especially the "tres modi orandi" of St. Ignatius. An important place is
assigned to the examination of conscience, and justly so, because ascetical life
wanes or waxes with its neglect or careful performance. Without this regular
practice, a thorough purification of the soul and progress in spiritual life are
out of the question. It centres the searchlight of the interior vision on every
single action: all sins, whether committed with full consciousness or only half
voluntarily, even the negligences which, though not sinful, lessen the
perfection of the act, all are carefully scrutinized (peccata, offensiones,
negligentioe; cf. "Exercitia spiritualia" of St. Ignatius, ed. P. Roothaan, p.
3). Ascetics distinguishes a twofold examination of conscience: one general
(examen generale), the other special (examen particulare), giving at the same
time directions how both kinds may be made profitable by means of certain
practical and psychological aids. In the general examination we recall all the
faults of one day; in the particular, on the contrary, we focus our attention on
one single defect and mark its frequency, or on one virtue to augment the number
of its acts.

Ascetics encourages visits to the Blessed Sacrament (visitatio sanctissimi), a
practice meant especially to nourish and strengthen the divine virtues of faith,
hope, and charity. It also inculcates the veneration of the saints, whose
virtuous lives should spur us on to imitation. It is plain that imitation cannot
mean an exact copying. What ascetics proposes as the most natural method of
imitation is the removal or at least the lessening of the contrast existing
between our own lives and the lives of the saints, the perfecting, as far as is
possible, of our virtues, with due regard to our personal disposition and the
surrounding circumstances of time and place. On the other hand, the observation
that some saints are more to be admired than imitated must not lead us into the
mistake of letting our works be weighted with the ballast of human comfort and
ease, so that we at last look with suspicion on every heroic act, as though it
were something that transcended our own energy and could not be reconciled with
the present circumstances. Such a suspicion would be justified only if the
heroic act could not at all be made to harmonize with the preceding development
of our interior life. Christian ascetics must not overlook the Blessed Mother of
God; for she is, after Christ, our most sublime ideal. No one has received grace
in such fulness, no one has co-operated with grace so faithfully as she. It is
for this reason that the Church praises her as the Mirror of Justice (speculum
justitioe). The mere thought of her transcendent purity suffices to repel the
alluring charms of sin and to inspire pleasure in the wonderful lustre of
virtue.

(2) Self-Denial is the second means which ascetics teaches us (cf. Matthew
16:24-25). Without it the combat between spirit and flesh, which are contrary to
each other (Romans 7:23; 1 Corinthians 9:27; Galatians 5:17), will not lead to
the victory of the spirit (Imitatio Christi, I, xxv). How far self-denial should
extend is clear from the actual condition of human nature after the fall of
Adam. The inclination to sin dominates both the will and the lower appetites;
not only the intellect, but also the outer and the inner senses are made
subservient to this evil propensity. Hence, self-denial and self-control must
extend to all these faculties. Ascetics reduces self-denial to exterior and
interior mortification: exterior mortification is the mortification of
sensuality and the senses; interior mortification consists in the purification
of the faculties of the soul (memory, imagination, intellect, will) and the
mastering of the passions. However, the term "mortification" must not be taken
to mean the stunting of the "strong, full, healthy" (Schell) life; what it aims
at is that the sensual passions do not gain the upper hand over the will. It is
precisely through taming the passions by means of mortification and self-denial
that life and energy are strengthened and freed from cumbersome shackles. But
while the masters of asceticism recognize the necessity of mortification and
self-denial and are far from deeming it "criminal to assume voluntary
sufferings" (Seeberg), they are just as far from advocating the so-called
"non-sensual" tendency, which, looking upon the body and its life as a necessary
evil, proposes to avert its noxious effects by wilful weakening or even
mutilation (cf. Schneider, "Göttliche Weltordnung u. religionslose
Sittlichkeit", Paderborn, 1900, p. 537). On the other hand, Catholics will never
befriend the gospel of "healthy sensuality", which is only a pretty-sounding
title, invented to cloak unrestricted concupiscence.

Special attention is devoted to the mastering of the passions, because it is
with them above all else that the moral combat must be waged most relentlessly.
Scholastic philosophy enumerates the following passions: love, hatred, desire,
horror, joy, sadness, hope, despair, boldness, fear, anger. Starting from the
Christian idea that the passions (passiones, as understood by St. Thomas) are
inherent in human nature, ascetics affirms that they are neither sicknesses, as
the Stoics, the Reformers, and Kant maintain, nor yet harmless, as was asserted
by the Humanists and Rousseau, who denied original sin. On the contrary, it
insists that in themselves they are indifferent, that they may be employed for
good and for evil, and that they receive a moral character only by the use to
which the will puts them. It is the purpose of ascetics to point out the ways
and means by which these passions can be tamed and mastered, so that, instead of
goading the will to sin, they are rather turned into welcome allies for the
accomplishment of good. And since the passions are inordinate in as far as they
turn to illicit things or exceed the necessary bounds in those things which are
licit, ascetics teaches us how to render them innocuous by averting or
restraining them, or by turning them to loftier purposes.

(3) Labour, also, is subservient to the striving after perfection. Untiring
labour runs counter to our corrupt nature, which loves ease and comfort. Hence
labour, if well-ordered, persistent, and purposeful, implies self-denial. This
is the reason why the Catholic Church has always looked upon labour, both manual
and mental, as an ascetic means of no small value (cf. Cassian, "De instit.
coenob.", X, 24; St. Benedict, Rule, xlviii, li; Basil, "Reg. fusius tract." c.
xxxvii, 1-3; "Reg. brevius tract.", c. lxxii; Origen, "Contra Celsum", I, 28).
St. Basil is even of the opinion that piety and avoidance of labour are
irreconcilable in the Christian ideal of life (cf. Mausbach, "Die Ethik des hl.
Augustinus", 1909, p. 264).

(4) Suffering, too, is an integral constituent of the Christian ideal and
pertains consequently to ascetics. But its real value appears only when seen in
the light of faith, which teaches us that suffering makes us like unto Christ,
we being the members of the mystic body of which He is the head (1 Peter 2:21),
that suffering is the channel of grace which heals (sanat), preserves
(conservat), and tests (probat). Finally, ascetics teaches us how to turn
sufferings into channels of heavenly grace.

(5) The Virtues are subjected to a thorough discussion. As is proved in dogmatic
theology, our soul receives in justification supernatural habits, not only the
three Divine, but also the moral virtues (Trid., Sess. VI, De justit., c. vi;
Cat. Rom., p. 2, c. 2, n. 51). These supernatural powers (virtutes infusoe) are
joined to the natural faculties or the acquired virtues (virtutes acguisitoe),
constituting with them one principle of action. It is the task of ascetics to
show how the virtues, taking into account the obstacles and means mentioned, can
be reduced to practice in the actual life of the Christian, so that love be
perfected and the image of Christ receive perfect shape in us. Conformable to
the Brief of Leo XIII, "Testem benevolentiæ" of 22 Jan., 1899, ascetics insists
that the so-called "passive" virtues (meekness, humility, obedience, patience)
must never be set aside in favour of the "active" virtues (devotion to duty,
scientific activity, social and civilizing labour); for this would be tantamount
to denying that Christ is the perpetual model. Rather, both kinds must be
harmoniously joined in the life of the Christian. True imitation of Christ is
never a brake, nor does it blunt the initiative in any field of human endeavour.
On the contrary, the practice of the passive virtues is a support and aid to
true activity. Besides, it not rarely happens that the passive virtues reveal a
higher degree of moral energy than the active. The Brief itself refers us to
Matt., xxi, 29; Rom., viii, 29; Gal., v, 24; Phil., ii, 8; Heb., xiii, 8 (cf.
also Zahn, l. c., 166 sqq.).

D. Application of the Means in the Three Degrees of Christian Perfection.
Imitation of Christ is the duty of all who strive after perfection. It lies in
the very nature of this formation after the image of Christ that the process is
gradual and must follow the laws of moral energy; for moral perfection is the
terminus of a laborious journey, the crown of a hard-fought battle. Ascetics
divides those who strive after perfection into three groups: the beginners, the
advanced, the perfect; and correspondingly sets down three stages or ways of
Christian perfection: the purgative way, the illuminative way, the unitive way.
The means stated above are applied with more or less diversity according to the
stage which the Christian has reached. In the purgative way, when the appetites
and inordinate passions still possess considerable strength, mortification and
self-denial are to be practised more extensively. For the seeds of the spiritual
life will not sprout unless the tares and thistles have first been weeded out.
In the illuminative way, when the mists of passion have been lifted to a great
extent, meditation and the practice of virtues in imitation of Christ are to be
insisted on. During the last stage, the unitive way, the soul must be confirmed
and perfected in conformity with God's will ("And I live, now not I; but Christ
liveth in me": Galatians 2:20). Care must, however, be taken not to mistake
these three stages for wholly separate portions of the striving after virtue and
perfection. Even in the second and the third stages there occur at times violent
struggles, while the joy of being united with God may sometimes be granted in
the initial stage as an inducement for further advance (cf. Mutz, "Aszetik," 2nd
ed., 94 sq.).

E. Relation of Ascetics to Moral Theology and Mysticism

All these disciplines are concerned with the Christian life and its last end in
the next world; but they differ, though not totally, in their mode of treatment.
Ascetical theology, which has been separated from moral theology and mysticism,
has for its subject-matter the striving after Christian perfection; it shows how
Christian perfection may be attained by earnestly exercising and schooling the
will, using the specified means both to avoid the dangers and allurements of sin
and to practise virtue with greater intensity. Moral theology, on the other
hand, is the doctrine of the duties, and in discussing the virtues is satisfied
with a scientific exposition. Mysticism treats essentially of "union with God"
and of the extraordinary, so-called mystic prayer. Though also those phenomena
which are accidental to mysticism, such as ecstasy, vision, revelation, fall
within its scope, yet they are by no means essential to the mystic life (cf.
Zahn, "Einführung in die christl. Mystik", Paderborn, 1908). It is true that
mysticism includes also matter of ascetics, such as the endeavour of
purification, vocal prayer, etc.; but this is done because these exercises are
looked upon as preparatory to the mystical life and must not be discarded even
in its highest stage. Nevertheless, the mystical life is not merely a higher
degree of the ascetical life, but differs from it essentially, the mystical life
being a special grace granted to the Christian without any immediate merit on
his part.

F. Historical Development of Asceticism

(1) The Holy Bible

Abounds in practical instructions for the life of Christian perfection. Christ
himself has drawn its outlines both as to its negative and positive
requirements. His imitation is the supreme law (John 8:12; 12:26), charity the
first commandment (Matthew 22:36-38; John 15:17); the right intention is that
which imparts value to the exterior works (Matthew 5-7), while self-denial and
the carrying of the cross are the conditions for His discipleship (Matthew
10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; Luke 9:23; 14:27). Both by His own example (Matthew
4:2) and His exhortations (Matthew 17:20; Mark 9:28) Christ recommended fasting.
He inculcated sobriety, watchfulness, and prayer (Matthew 24:42; 25:13; 26:41;
Mark 13:37; 14:37). He pointed to poverty as a means of gaining the kingdom of
heaven (Matthew 6:19; 13:22; Luke 6:20; 8:14; 12:33; etc.) and counselled the
rich youth to relinquish everything and to follow Him (Matthew 19:21). That this
was a counsel and not a strict command, given in view of the particular
attachment of the youth to the things of this world, is shown by the very fact
that the Master had twice said "keep the commandments", and that he recommended
the renunciation of all earthly goods only on the renewed inquiry after the
means that lead to perfection (cf. Lutz, l. c., against the Protestants Th.
Zahn, Bern, Weiss, Lemme, and others). Celibacy for God's sake was praised by
Christ as worthy of a special heavenly reward (Matthew 19:12). Yet marriage is
not condemned, but the words, "All men take not this word, but they to whom it
is given", imply that it is the ordinary state, celibacy for God's sake being
merely a counsel. Indirectly, Christ also commended voluntary obedience as a
means for attaining the most intimate union with God (Matthew 18:4; 20:22, 25).
What Christ had outlined in his teachings the Apostles continued to develop. It
is especially in St. Paul that we find the two elements of Christian asceticism
brought out in well-defined terms: mortification of inordinate desires as the
negative element (Romans 6:8, 13; 2 Corinthians 4:16; Galatians 5:24; Colossians
3:5), union with God in all our thoughts, words, and deeds (1 Corinthians 10:31;
Galatians 6:14; Colossians 3:3-17), and active love of God and our neighbour
(Romans 8:35; 1 Corinthians 13:3) as the positive element.

(2) Fathers and Doctors of the Church

With the Bible as a basis, the Fathers and Doctors of the Church explained
particular features of the Christian life in a more coherent and detailed
manner. The Apostolic Fathers called the love of God and man the sun of
Christian life, which, animating all virtues with its vital rays, inspires
contempt of the world, beneficence, immaculate purity, and self-sacrifice. The
"Didache" (q.v.), which was intended to serve as a manual for catechumens, thus
describes the way of life: "First, thou shalt love God, who created thee;
secondly, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself; whatever thou wishest that
it should not be done to thee, do not to others." Following probably the
"Didache", the so-called "Epistle of Barnabas", written at the end of the second
century, represents the Christian life under the figure of the two ways, that of
light and that of darkness. Two Epistles, which purport to come from the pen of
St. Clement, but were probably written in the third century, exalt the life of
virginity, if grounded on the love of God and accompanied by the corresponding
works, as heavenly, divine, and angelic. We also mention St. Ignatius of
Antioch, of whose letters St. Polycarp says that they contain "faith and
patience and all edification in the Lord", and the "Pastor" of Hermas, who in
the twelve commandments inculcates simplicity, truthfulness, chastity, meekness,
patience, continence, confidence in God, and perpetual struggle against
concupiscence. With the third century the works on Christian asceticism began to
show a more scientific character. In the writings of Clement of Alexandria and
Gregory the Great ("Moral.", XXXIII, c. xxvii; cf. also Cassian, "Coll,", IX,
XV) there may be observed traces of the threefold degree which was afterwards
systematically developed by Dionysius the Areopagite. In his "Stromata" Clement
sets forth the full beauty and grandeur of "true philosophy". It is particularly
remarkable that this author delineates, even in its details, what is now known
as ethical culture, and that he endeavours to harmonize it with the example
given by Christ. The life of the Christian is to be ruled in all things by
temperance. Following out this idea, he discusses in a casuistic form food and
drink, dress and love of finery, bodily exercises and social conduct. Beginning
with the fourth century, a twofold line of thought is discernible in the works
on Christian life: one speculative, laying stress on the union of the soul with
God, the Absolute Truth and Goodness; the other practical, aiming principally at
instruction in the practice of the Christian virtues. The speculative element
prevailed in the mystical school, which owes its systematic development to
Pseudo-Dionysius and which reached its highest perfection in the fourteenth
century. The practical element was emphasized in the ascetical school with St.
Augustine as its chief representative, in whose footsteps followed Gregory the
Great and St. Bernard.

It may suffice to detail the principal points on which the writers prior to the
medieval-scholastic period dwelt in their instructions. On prayer we have the
works of Macarius the Egyptian (d. 385) and of Tertullian (d. after 220), who
supplemented his treatise on prayer in general by an explanation of the Lord's
Prayer. To these two must be added Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258), who wrote "De
oratione dominica", and St. Chrysostom (d. 407). Penance and the spirit of
penance were treated by Tertullian (De poenitentia), Chrysostom ("De
compunctione cordis", "De poenitentia"), and Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386) in his
second catechetical instruction. That the life of the Christian is a warfare is
amply illustrated in St. Augustine's (d. 430) "De agone christiano" and in his
"Confessions". Chastity and virginity were treated by Methodius of Olympus (d.
311) in his "Convivium", a work in which ten virgins, discussing virginity,
demonstrate the moral superiority of Christianity over the ethical tenets of
pagan philosophy. The same subject is discussed by the following Fathers:
Cyprian (d. 258); Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) in his "De virginitate"; Ambrose (d.
397), the indefatigable eulogist and champion of the virginal life; Jerome in
his "Adversus Helvidium de virginitate" and "Ad Eustachium"; Chrysostom (d. 407)
in his "De virginitate", who, though extolling virginity as a heavenly life, yet
recommends it only as a counsel; Augustine in his works "De continentia", "De
virginitate", "De bono viduitatis".

On patience we have the works of Cyprian, Augustine, and Tertullian's "De
patientia", in which he speaks of this virtue as an invalid might speak of
health to console himself. Chrysostom's "De jejunio et eleemosyna" discusses
fasting. Almsgiving and good works are encouraged in Cyprian's "De opere et
eleemosynis" and in Augustine's "De fide et operibus". The value of labour is
explained in "De opere monachorum" by St. Augustine. Nor are treatises on the
different states of life wanting. Thus St. Augustine's "De bono conjugali"
treats of the married state; his "De bono viduitatis" of widowhood. A frequent
subject was the priesthood. Gregory of Nazianzus, in his "De fuga", treats of
the dignity and responsibility of the priesthood; Chrysostom's "De sacerdotio"
exalts the sublimity of this state with surpassing excellence; St. Ambrose in
his "De officiis", while speaking of the four cardinal virtues, admonishes the
clerics that their lives should be an illustrious example; St. Jerome's
"Epistola ad Nepotianum" discusses the dangers to which priests are exposed;
finally, the "Regula pastoralis" of Gregory the Great inculcates the prudence
indispensable to the pastor in his dealings with different classes of men. Of
prime importance for the monastic life was the work "De institutis coenobiorum"
of Cassian. But the standard work from the eighth to the thirteenth century was
the Rule of St. Benedict, which found numerous commentators. Of the saint or
rather his Rule St. Bernard says: "lpse dux noster, ipse magister et legifer
noster est" (Serm. in Nat. S. Bened., n. 2). Illustrations of the practice of
Christian virtues in general were the "Expositio in beatum Job" of Gregory the
Great and the "Collationes Patrum" of Cassian, in which the various elements of
Christian perfection were discussed in the form of dialogues.

(3) The Medieval-Scholastic Period

The transition period up to the twelfth century exhibits no specially noteworthy
advance in ascetical literature. To the endeavour to gather and preserve the
teachings of the Fathers we owe Alcuin's "De virtutibus et vitiis". But when in
the twelfth century speculative theology was celebrating its triumphs, mystical
and ascetical theology, too, showed a healthy activity. The results of the
former could not but benefit the latter by placing Christian morality on a
scientific basis and throwing ascetical theology itself into a scientific form.
The pioneers in this field were St. Bernard (d. 1156) and Hugh and Richard of
St. Victor. St. Bernard, the greatest mystical theologian of the twelfth
century, also holds a prominent place among ascetical writers, so that Harnack
calls the "religious genius" of the twelfth century. The basic idea of his
works, especially prominent in his treatise "De gratia et libero arbitrio", is
that the life of the Christian should be a copy of the life of Jesus. Like
Clement of Alexandria, he, too, lays down precepts for the regulation of the
necessities of life, as food and dress, and for the implanting of God's love in
man's heart, which would sanctify all things ("Apologia", "De præcepto et
dispensatione"). Many are the steps by which love ascends till it reaches its
perfection in the love for God's sake. Among his ascetical writings are: "Liber
de diligendo Deo", "Tractatus de gradibus humilitatis et superbiæ", "De moribus
et officio episcoporum", "Sermo de conversione ad clericos", "Liber de
consideratione".

Frequent allusions to St. Augustine and Gregory the Great are scattered through
the pages of Hugh of St. Victor (d. 1141), so much so that he earned the
distinction of being called a second Augustine by his contemporaries. He was
undoubtedly the first to give to ascetical theology a more or less definite,
scientific character. The ever-recurring theme of his works is love. But what he
aimed at above all in his writings was to lay bare the psychological bearings of
mystical and ascetical theology. Noteworthy are his works: "De vanitate mundi",
"De laude caritatis", "De mode orandi", "De meditatione". His pupil, Richard of
St. Victor (d. 1173), though more ingenious and systematic, is yet less intent
upon practical utility, except in his work "De exterminatione mali et promotione
boni". The great theologians of the thirteenth century, who were no less famous
for their scholastic "Summæ" than for their ascetical and mystical writings,
brought ascetical teaching to its perfection and gave it the definite shape it
has retained as a standard for all future times. No other epoch furnishes such
convincing proof that true science and true piety are rather a help than a
hindrance to each other. Albert the Great, the illustrious teacher of the great
Thomas, who was the first to join Aristotelean philosophy with theology and to
make philosophy the handmaid of theology, was at the same time the author of
excellent works on ascetics and mysticism, as, e.g., "De adhærendo Deo", the
ripest fruit of his mystic genius, and "Paradisus animæ", which was conceived
along more practical lines. To St. Thomas we owe the ascetic work "De
perfectione vitæ spiritualis"; in it he explains the essence of Christian
perfection so lucidly that his line of argumentation may even in our days serve
as a model. His other works, too, contain ample material of value both for
ascetics and for mysticism.

The Seraphic Doctor, St. Bonaventure, "treats of mystic theology", to use the
words of Leo XIII, "in a manner so perfect that the unanimous opinion of the
most expert theologians regards him as the prince of mystic theologians". Of his
authentic works the following deserve to be mentioned: "De perfectione
evangelica", "Collationes de septem donis Spiritus sancti", "Incendium amoris",
"Soliloquium", "Lignum vitæ", "De præparatione ad Missam", "Apologia pauperum".
From the pen of David of Augsburg, a contemporary of these great masters, we
have an ascetic instruction for novices in his book entitled "De exterioris et
interioris hominis compositione". He leads the reader along the three well-known
ways, purgative, illuminative, and unitive, purposing to make the reader a
spiritual man. By severely disciplining the faculties of the soul and
subordinating the flesh to the spirit, man must restore the original order, so
that he may not only do what is good, but likewise do it with ease. There
remains to be mentioned the "Summa de vitiis et virtutibus" of Peraldus (d. c.
1270). The fourteenth century is characterized throughout by its mystical
tendencies. Among the works which this period produced, Henry Suso's "Booklet of
Eternal Wisdom deserves special mention on account of its highly practical
value. Pre-eminent in the fifteenth century were Gerson, Dionysius the
Carthusian, and the author of the "Imitation of Christ". Relinquishing the
ideals of the mystic writers of the fourteenth century, Gerson attached himself
again to the great scholastic writers, thus avoiding the vagaries which had
become alarmingly frequent among the mystics. His "Considerationes de theologia
mystica" shows that he belongs to the practical school of asceticism. Dionysius
the Carthusian is esteemed as a highly gifted teacher of the spiritual life.
Both mysticism properly so called and practical asceticism owe valuable works to
his pen. To the latter category belong: "De remediis tentationum", "De via
purgativa", "De oratione", "De gaudio spirituali et pace interna", "De quatuor
novissimis".

The "Imitatio Christi", which appeared in the middle of the fifteenth century,
deserves special attention on account of its lasting influence. "It is a classic
in its ascetical unction and perfect in its artistic style" (Hamm, "Die
Schönheit der kath. Moral", Munich-Gladbach, 1911, p. 74). In four books it
treats of the interior spiritual life in imitation of Jesus Christ. It pictures
the struggle which man must wage against his inordinate passions and perverse
inclinations, the indulgence of which sullies his conscience and robs him of
God's grace: "Vanity of vanities and all is vanity, except to love God and serve
Him alone" (Vanitas vanitatum et omnia vanitas præter amare Deum et illi soli
servire: I, i). It advises mortification and self-denial as the most efficacious
weapons in this struggle. It teaches man to establish God's kingdom in his soul
by the practice of virtues according to the example of Jesus Christ. It finally
leads him to union with Christ by exciting love for him as well as by pointing
out the frailty of all creatures: "It is necessary to leave the beloved thing
for the beloved, because Jesus wishes to be loved above all things" (Oportet
dilectum propter dilectum relinquere, quia Jesus vult solus super omnia amari:
II, xvii). The thoughts of the "Imitation" are thrown into epigrams so simple
that they are within the mental grasp of all. Though the book betrays that the
author was well versed not only in Scholastic philosophy and theology, but also
in the secrets of the mystical life, yet this fact never obtrudes itself on the
reader, nor does it obscure the meaning of the contents. There are a number of
quotations from the great doctors Augustine, Bernard, Bonaventure, and Thomas,
from Aristotle, Ovid, and Seneca; yet these do not mar the impression that the
whole work is the spontaneous outburst of an intensely glowing soul. It has
often been said that the teachings of the "Imitation" are "unworldly" and show
little appreciation for science. But, to judge the work aright, one must take
into consideration the peculiar circumstances of the time. Scholasticism had
entered on a period of decline and had lost itself in intricate subtleties;
mysticism had gone astray; all classes had been more or less infected with the
spirit of licentiousness. It is conditions like these that give us the key to
interpret phrases such as the following: "I would rather feel compunction than
know how to define it" (Opto magis sentire compunctionem quam scire ejus
definitionem) or "This is the highest wisdom: through contempt of the world to
strive for the kingdom of heaven" (Ista est summa sapientia: per contemptum
mundi tendere ad regna coelestia).

(4) Modern Times

During the sixteenth century St. Teresa and St. Ignatius of Loyola stand out
most prominently owing to the wide-felt influence which they exerted upon the
religion of their contemporaries, an influence that is still at work through
their writings. The writings of St. Teresa arouse our admiration by the
simplicity, clearness, and precision of her judgment. Her letters show her to be
an enemy of everything that smacks of eccentricity or singularity, sham piety or
indiscreet zeal. One of her principal works, the "Way to Perfection", though
written primarily for nuns, also contains apposite instructions for those who
live in the world. While teaching the way to contemplation, she yet insists that
not all are called to it and that there is greater security in the practice of
humility, mortification, and the other virtues. Her masterpiece is the "Castle
of the Soul", in which she expounds her theory of mysticism under the metaphor
of a "castle" with many chambers. The soul resplendent with the beauty of the
diamond or crystal is the castle; the various chambers are the various degrees
through which the soul must pass before she can dwell in perfect union with God.
Scattered throughout the work are many hints of inestimable value for asceticism
as applied in everyday life. This fact is undoubtedly due to the well-founded
conviction of the saint that even in extraordinary states the ordinary means
must not be set aside altogether, so that illusions may be guarded against (cf.
J. Zahn, "Introduction to Mysticism" p. 213).

In his "Exercitia spiritualia" St. Ignatius has left to posterity not only a
grand literary monument of the science of the soul, but also a method
unparalleled in its practical efficacy of strengthening the willpower. The
booklet has appeared in numberless editions and revisions and, "despite its
modest guise, is in reality a complete system of asceticism" (Meschler). The
four weeks of the Exercises acquaint the exercitant with the three degrees of
the spiritual life. The first week is taken up with cleansing the soul from sin
and from its inordinate attachment to creatures. The second and third weeks lead
the exercitant along the illuminative way. The portrait of Christ, the most
lovable of all men, is outlined before his eyes, so that he can contemplate in
the humanity the reflex of Divine light and the supreme model of all virtues.
The meditations of the fourth week, the subject of which are the resurrection
etc., lead to union with God and teach the soul to rejoice in the glory of the
Lord. It is true, there are many rules and regulations, the sequence is most
logical, the arrangement of the meditations follows the laws of psychology; yet
these exercises do no violence to the free will, but are meant to strengthen the
faculties of the soul. They do not, as has often been asserted, make the
exercitant a powerless instrument in the hands of the confessor, nor are they a
mystic flight to heaven, accomplished by means of a compulsion which intends a
rapid advance in perfection by a mechanical process (Zöckler, "Die Tugendlehre
des Christentums", Gütersloh, 1904, p. 335). Their marked intellectualism, so
frequently objected to, in no way constitutes a hindrance to mysticism
(Meschler, "Jesuitenaszese u. deutsche Mystik" in "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach",
1912). On the contrary, they make man's moral will truly free by removing the
hindrances, while, by cleansing the heart and by accustoming the mind to
meditative prayer, they are an excellent preparation for the mystical life.
Louis of Granada, O. P. (d. 1588), also belongs to this period. His work "La
guia de pecadores" may justly be styled a book full of consolation for the
erring. His "El memorial de la vida cristiana" contains instructions which take
the soul from the very beginning and lead her to the highest perfection. Louis
of Blois (Blosius), O. S. B. (d. 1566), is of a mind kindred to St. Bernard. His
"Monile spirituale" is the best known of his numerous works. Thomas of Jesus (d.
1582) wrote the "Passion of Christ" and "De oratione dominica".

A great number of ascetical writers sprang up during the seventeenth century.
Among them St. Francis de Sales stands out most prominently. According to
Linsemann, the publication of his "Philothea" was an event of historical
importance. To make piety attractive and to adapt it to all classes whether
living in Court circles, in the world, or in a monastery, this was his aim and
in this he succeeded. Of a mild and sweet temperament, he never lost sight of
the habits and particular circumstances of the individual. Though unwavering in
his ascetical principles, he yet possessed an admirable facility for adapting
them without constraint or rigidity. In the practice of mortification he
recommends moderation and adaptation to one's state of life and to personal
circumstances. Love of God and of man: this he puts down as the motive power of
all actions. The spirit of St. Francis pervades the whole of modern asceticism,
and even today his "Philothea" is one of the most widely read books on
asceticism. "Theotimus", another work of his, treats in the first six chapters
of the love of God, the rest being devoted to mystical prayer. His letters, too,
are very instructive. Attention may be called to the new edition of his works
(Euvres, Annecy, 1891 sqq.). "Il combattimento spirituale" of Scupoli (d. 1610)
was spread very widely and earnestly recommended by Francis de Sales.

Surin, S.J. (d. 1665), wrote his important "Catéchisme spirituel" at a time when
he was subject to interior trials (cf. Zahn, "Mystik", p. 441). The book
appeared in many editions and translations, but was placed on the Index. The
edition of Fr. Fellon, S.J. (1730), and the latest edition of Fr. Bouix (Paris,
1882) probably do not fall under this prohibition, because in them the errors
have been corrected. After Surin's death appeared: "Les fondements de la vie
spirituelle" (Paris, 1667); "Lettres spirituelles" (ib., 1695); "Dialogues
spirituels" (ib., 1704). Gasper Druzbicki, S.J. (d. 1662), is the author of a
considerable number of ascetical works both in Polish and in Latin, many of
which were translated into other languages. There are two complete editions of
his works: one published at Ingolstadt (1732) in two folios, the other at Kalisz
and Posen (1681-91). Among his numerous works are: "Lapis lydius boni spiritus";
"Considerationes de soliditate veræ virtutis"; "De sublimitate perfectionis";
"De brevissima ad perfectionem via"; "Vota religiosa". The "Mystica theologia
Divi Thomæ" of Thomas à Vallgornera, O.P. (d. 1665), published at Barcelona,
(1662 and 1672) and at Turin (1890), is almost exclusively made up of quotations
from St. Thomas and is a rich storehouse of ascetical material. From the pen of
Cardinal Bona, O. Cist. (d. 1674), we have: "Principia et documents vitæ
christianæ" (Rome, 1673) and "Manuductio ad coelum" (Rome, 1672 and 1678), both
of which works, remarkable for their simplicity and practical utility, were
frequently re-edited; the still valuable "De sacrificio Missæ"; "De discretione
spirituum"; "Horologium asceticum". Complete editions of his works appeared at
Antwerp, Turin, Venice. Morotius, O. Cist., in his "Cursus vitæ spiritualis"
(Rome, 1674; new ed., Ratisbon, 1891), follows closely the lead of St. Thomas.
The "Summa theologiæ mysticæ" (new ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1874) is the best and
most widely read work of Philip of the Blessed Trinity (d. 1671), the
philosopher among the mystic writers. He wrote in the spirit of St. Thomas,
following definite scientific principles and showing their practical application
in the spiritual life. Anthony of the Holy Ghost, O. C. D. (d. 1674), was a
disciple of the author just named. His "Directorium mysticum" (new ed., Paris,
1904), dominated by the spirit of. his master, was written for the instruction
of his pupils. He is also the author of the following works: "Seminarium
virtutum" (3rd ed., Augsburg and Würzburg, 1750), "Irriguum virtutum" (Würzburg,
1723), "Tractatus de clericorum ac præcipue sacerdotum et pastorum dignitate",
etc. (Würzburg, 1676).

In the course of the eighteenth century a number of valuable works on asceticism
and mysticism were published. To Neumeyer, S.J. (d. 1765), we owe the "Idea
theol. ascet.", a complete, scientifically arranged epitome. Rogacci, S.J. (d.
1719), wrote "Del uno necessario", an instruction in the love of God, which
ranks high in ascetical literature and was translated into several languages.
Among the best literary productions, and widely read even today, is Scaramelli's
(d. 1752) "Direttorio ascetico". The author treats asceticism apart from
mysticism. A treatise on the virtues is contained in Dirkink, S.J., "Semita
perfectionis" (new ed., Paderborn, 1890). Designed along broad lines is the
"Trinum perfectum" (3rd ed., Augsburg, 1728) by Michael of St. Catherine.
Katzenberger, O.F.M., wrote "Scientia salutis" (new ed., Paderborn, 1901).
Schram's "Institutiones theol. mysticæ" (2 vols.) combines asceticism with
mysticism, though the author is at his best in the ascetical parts. St.
Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787), rightly called the "Apostolic Man", published a
large number of ascetic works, full of heavenly unction and tender-hearted
piety. The best-known and most important of them are: "Pratica di amar Gesù
Cristo" (1768), "Visita al SS. Sacramento", perhaps the most widely read of all
his ascetical works: "La vera sposa di Gesù Cristo" (1760), a sure guide to
perfection for countless souls.