Contents

Brother's history began in 1908 when the Yasui Sewing Machine Co. was established in Nagoya, Japan. In 1955, Brother International Corporation (US) was established as their first overseas sales affiliate; in 1958 a European regional sales company was established in Dublin. The corporate name was finally changed to Brother Industries, Ltd. in 1962. Brother entered the printer market during its long association with Centronics.

In December 2011, Brother diversified its offerings by acquiring Nefsis, an innovator in web-based remote collaboration and conferencing software.[3]

In November 2012, Brother announced that it had built the last UK-made typewriter at its north Wales factory. Saying that it had made 5.9 million typewriters in its factory in Wrexham since it opened in 1985, the firm donated the last machine to London's Science Museum.[4]

In 2010, the sewing divisions of Brother Industries around Europe were consolidated into one larger company called "Brother Sewing Machines Europe GmbH", with a turnover in excess of €80 million, it is the 4th largest company under the Brother Industries Ltd umbrella of organisations.

1.
Ticker symbol
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A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing

2.
Tokyo Stock Exchange
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The Tokyo Stock Exchange, which is called Tōshō or TSE/TYO for short, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the fourth largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization of its listed companies. It had 2,292 listed companies with a market capitalization of US$4.09 trillion as of April 2015. In July 2012 a planned merger with the Osaka Securities Exchange was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission, the resulting entity, the Japan Exchange Group, was launched on January 1,2013. The TSE is incorporated as a kabushiki gaisha with nine directors, four auditors and its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo, or Kabuto-chō, which is the largest financial district in Japan. Its operating hours are from 8,00 to 11,30 a. m. from April 24,2006, the afternoon trading session started at its usual time of 12,30 p. m. Stocks listed on the TSE are separated into the First Section for large companies, the Second Section for mid-sized companies, as of October 31,2010, there are 1,675 First Section companies,437 Second Section companies and 182 Mothers companies. Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading, see, Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Other TSE-related institutions include, The exchanges press club, called the Kabuto Club, which meets on the third floor of the TSE building. Most Kabuto Club members are affiliated with the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Kyodo News, Jiji Press, or business television broadcasters such as Bloomberg LP, the Kabuto Club is generally busiest during April and May, when public companies release their annual accounts. On 15 June 2007, the TSE paid $303 million to acquire a 4. 99% stake in Singapore Exchange Ltd. The Tokyo Stock Exchange was established on May 15,1878, as the Tokyo Kabushiki Torihikijo under the direction of then-Finance Minister Okuma Shigenobu, trading began on June 1,1878. In 1943, the exchange was combined with ten other stock exchanges in major Japanese cities to form a single Japanese Stock Exchange, the combined exchange was shut down and reorganized shortly after the bombing of Nagasaki. The Tokyo Stock Exchange reopened under its current Japanese name on May 16,1949, a new facility, called TSE Arrows, opened on May 9,2000. In 2010, the TSE launched its Arrowhead trading facility, in 2001, the TSE restructured itself as a stock company, before this time, it was structured as an incorporated association with its members as shareholders. The interruption in trading was the worst in the history of the exchange, trading was suspended for four-and-a-half hours. Mizuho failed to catch the error, the Tokyo Stock Exchange initially blocked attempts to cancel the order, on 11 December, the TSE acknowledged that its system was at fault in the Mizuho trade. On 21 December, Takuo Tsurushima, chief executive of the TSE, and two other senior executives resigned over the Mizuho affair. On January 17,2006, the Nikkei 225 fell 2. 8%, its fastest drop in nine months, the Tokyo Stock Exchange closed early on January 18 due to the trade volume threatening to exceed the exchanges computer systems capacity of 4.5 million trades per day

3.
Printer (computing)
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In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper or similar physical media. The worlds first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine, the plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, by 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed, expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the price point. Even the desire for printed output for offline reading while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers, today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral. Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest and these devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace. Personal printers are designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer. These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a copy of a given document. However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute, however, this is offset by the on-demand convenience. Some printers can print documents stored on cards or from digital cameras. Networked or shared printers are designed for high-volume, high-speed printing and they are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm. The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm, a virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. It is called a printer by analogy with a printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper. The choice of print technology has an effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents. Some printer technologies dont work with certain types of physical media, cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected. The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink, banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. The following printing technologies are found in modern printers, A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text

4.
Machine
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A machine is a tool containing one or more parts that uses energy to perform an intended action. Machines are usually powered by chemical, thermal, or electrical means, historically, a power tool also required moving parts to classify as a machine. However, the advent of electronics has led to the development of power tools without moving parts that are considered machines, a simple machine is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of more complex machines exist. Examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular machines, computers, television, the word machine derives from the Latin word machina, which in turn derives from the Greek. The word mechanical comes from the same Greek roots, however, the Ancient Greeks probably have borrowed the word mekhane from the ancient Hebrews. The ancient Greeks were familiar with the Hebrew Scriptures and language, a wider meaning of fabric, structure is found in classical Latin, but not in Greek usage. This meaning is found in late medieval French, and is adopted from the French into English in the mid-16th century, in the 17th century, the word could also mean a scheme or plot, a meaning now expressed by the derived machination. The modern meaning develops out of specialized application of the term to stage engines used in theater and to siege engines. Simple Machines are commonly reckoned to be Six in Number, viz. the Ballance, Leaver, Pulley, Wheel, Wedge, compound Machines, or Engines, are innumerable. The word engine used as a synonym both by Harris and in later language derives ultimately from Latin ingenium ingenuity, an invention, perhaps the first example of a human made device designed to manage power is the hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge. A wedge is a machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force. The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines, lever, pulley and he discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Later Greek philosophers defined the five simple machines and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. Heron of Alexandria in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can set a load in motion, lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, however the Greeks understanding was limited to statics and did not include dynamics or the concept of work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, the complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche. He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, the classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci, but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons and were developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. The word mechanical refers to the work that has produced by machines or the machinery

5.
Nagoya
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Nagoya is the largest city in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is Japans third-largest incorporated city and the fourth most populous urban area and it is located on the Pacific coast on central Honshu. It is the capital of Aichi Prefecture and is one of Japans major ports along with those of Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, Yokohama, Chiba and it is also the center of Japans third-largest metropolitan region, known as the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. As of 2015,2.28 million people lived in the city, the citys name was historically written as 那古野 or 名護屋. One possible origin is the adjective nagoyaka, meaning peaceful, the name Chūkyō is also used to refer to Nagoya. Notable examples of the use of the name Chūkyō include the Chūkyō Industrial Area, Chūkyō Metropolitan Area, Chūkyō Television Broadcasting, Chukyo University, oda Nobunaga and his protégés Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu were powerful warlords based in the Nagoya area who gradually succeeded in unifying Japan. In 1610, Tokugawa Ieyasu moved the capital of Owari Province from Kiyosu, about seven kilometers away, during this period Nagoya Castle was constructed, built partly from materials taken from Kiyosu Castle. During the construction, the town around Kiyosu Castle, consisting of around 60,000 people. Around the same time, the nearby ancient Atsuta Shrine was designated as a waystation, called Miya, on the important Tōkaidō road, a town developed around the temple to support travelers. The castle and shrine towns formed the city, during the Meiji Restoration Japans provinces were restructured into prefectures and the government changed from family to bureaucratic rule. Nagoya was proclaimed a city on October 1,1889, and designated a city on September 1,1956, Nagoya became an industrial hub for the region. Its economic sphere included the famous pottery towns of Tokoname, Tajimi and Seto, as well as Okazaki, other industries included cotton and complex mechanical dolls called karakuri ningyō. Mitsubishi Aircraft Company was established in 1920 in Nagoya and became one of the largest aircraft manufacturers in Japan, the availability of space and the central location of the region and the well-established connectivity were some of the major factors that lead to the establishment of the aviation industry there. Nagoya was the target of US air raids during World War II, the population of Nagoya at this time was estimated to be 1.5 million, fourth among Japanese cities and one of the three largest centers of the Japanese aircraft industry. It was estimated that 25% of its workers were engaged in aircraft production, important Japanese aircraft targets were within the city itself, while others were to the north of Kagamigahara. It was estimated that produced between 40% and 50% of Japanese combat aircraft and engines, such as the vital Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter. The Nagoya area also produced machine tools, bearings, railway equipment, metal alloys, tanks, motor vehicles, the bombing continued through the spring of 1945, and included large-scale firebombing. Nagoya was the target of two of Bomber Command’s attacks and these incendiary attacks, one by day and one by night, devastated 15.3 square kilometres

6.
Aichi Prefecture
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Aichi Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region. The region of Aichi is also known as the Tōkai region and it is the focus of the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. Originally, the region was divided into the two provinces of Owari and Mikawa, after the Meiji Restoration, Owari and Mikawa were united into a single entity. Nagoya Prefecture was renamed to Aichi Prefecture in April 1872, and was united with Nukata Prefecture on November 27 of the same year, the government of Aichi Prefecture is located in the Aichi Prefectural Government Office in Nagoya, which is the old capital of Owari. The Expo 2005 World Exposition was held in Seto and Nagakute, ayuchi is the original form of the name Aichi, and the Fujimae tidal flat is all that remains of the earlier Ayuchi-gata. It is now a protected area and it measures 106 km east to west and 94 km south to north and forms a major portion of the Nōbi Plain. With an area of 5,153.81 km2 it accounts for approximately 1. 36% of the surface area of Japan. The highest spot is Chausuyama at 1,415 m above sea level, due to its robust economy, for the period from October 2005 to October 2006, Aichi was the fastest growing prefecture in terms of population, beating Tokyo, at 7.4 per cent. Thirty-eight cities are located in Aichi Prefecture and these are the towns and villages in each district, Companies headquartered in Aichi include the following. Companies such as Fuji Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Motors, Pfizer, Sony, Suzuki, Bodycote, as of 2001, Aichi Prefectures population was 50. 03% male and 49. 97% female. 139,540 residents are of foreign nationality, the sports teams listed below are based in Aichi. Other popular sites in Aichi include the tour of the Toyota car factory in the city by the name, the monkey park in Inuyama, and the castles in Nagoya, Okazaki, Toyohashi. Most attractions are man-made destinations, dealing with the history or modern marvels. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Aichi travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website Aichi Now-Official Site for Tourism Aichi Aichi, HOME of the Samurai Spirit Oda, Nobunaga Tokugawa, Ieyasu

7.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon

8.
Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs

9.
Multi-function printer
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A typical MFP may act as a combination of some or all of the following devices, E-mail Fax Photocopier Printer Scanner MFP manufacturers traditionally divided MFPs into various segments. The segments roughly divided the MFPs according to their speed in pages-per-minute, two color MFPs of a similar speed may end in the same segment, despite having potentially very different feature-sets, and therefore very different prices. Many MFP types, regardless of the category they fall into, also come in a printer only variety and this can even occur with devices where the scanner unit physically appears highly integrated into the product. As of 2013, almost all manufacturers offer multifunction printers. They are designed for home, small business, enterprise and commercial use, naturally, the cost, usability, robustness, throughput, output quality, etc. all vary with the various use cases. However, they all generally do the functions, Print, Scan, Fax. In the commercial/enterprise area, most MFP have used technology, while the personal, SOHO environments. Typically, inkjet printers have struggled with delivering the performance and color-saturation demanded by enterprise/large business use, however, HP has recently launched a business-grade MFP using inkjet technology. In any case, instead of rigidly defined segments based on speed, more general definitions based on intended target audience and capabilities are becoming much more common as of 2013. These devices focus on scan and print functionality for home use, an All-in-one will always include the basic functions of Print and Scan, with most also including Copy functionality and a lesser number with Fax capabilities. In the past, these devices were not networked, and were generally connected by USB or Parallel. As of 2013 even inexpensive all-in-one devices support ethernet and/or wi-fi connections, All-in-one devices may have features oriented to home and personal use that are not found in larger devices. These functions include smart-card readers, direct connection to digital cameras, the print engine of most All-in-one devices is based either on a home desktop inkjet printer, or on a home desktop laser printer. They may be black-and-white or colour capable, laser models provide a better result for text while inkjet gives a more convincing result for images and they are a cheaper multifuncional. To create a Lightscribe image takes about 10 to 25 minutes, a large desktop or small freestanding unit, designed for Small Office/Home Office use. Often, the factor of the MFP depends on the options added. SOHO MFPs are usually networked, however may also be connected via USB or, less frequently, SOHO MFPs may have basic finishing functionality such as duplexing, stapling and hole-punching, however this is rare. In general, document output offset, sorting and collation are standard capabilities, by comparison to an All-in-one product, a SOHO MFP is more likely to have an automatic document feeder, greater fax capabilities and faster output-performance

10.
Desktop computer
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A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard, disk storage, a keyboard and mouse for input, and a monitor, and, often. The case may be oriented horizontally or vertically and placed either underneath, beside, an all-in-one desktop computer typically combines the case and monitor in one unit. Early computers took up the space of a whole room, minicomputers generally fit into one or a few refrigerator-sized racks. The very first programmable calculator/computer was marketed in the half of the 1960s. More desktop models were introduced in 1971, leading to a model programmable in BASIC in 1972 and this one used a smaller version of a minicomputer design based on read-only memory and had small one-line LED alphanumeric displays. They could draw computer graphics with a plotter, over the course of the 1990s, desktop cases gradually became less common than the more-accessible tower cases that may be located on the floor under or beside a desk rather than on a desk. Not only do these tower cases had more room for expansion, Desktop cases, particularly the compact form factors, remain popular for corporate computing environments and kiosks. Some computer cases can be positioned either horizontally or upright. While desktops have long been the most common configuration for PCs, notably, while desktops were mainly produced in the United States, laptops had long been produced by contract manufacturers based in Asia, such as Foxconn. This shift led to the closure of the many desktop assembly plants in the United States by 2010, battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006, in 2008, it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, the change in sales of form factors is due to the desktop iMac moving from affordable to upscale and subsequent releases are considered premium all-in-ones. The decades of development means that most people already own desktop computers that meet their needs and have no need of buying a new one merely to keep pace with advancing technology. Recently, some analysts have suggested that Windows 8 has actually hurt sales of PCs in 2012, the post-PC trend has seen a decline in the sales of desktop and laptop PCs. The decline has been attributed to increased power and applications of computing devices, namely smartphones. Among PC form factors, desktops remain a staple in the market but have lost popularity among home buyers

11.
Fax
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Fax, sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material, normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner. Since the 1980s, most machines modulate the audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black. Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and he received British patent 9745 on May 27,1843 for his Electric Printing Telegraph. Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bains design and demonstrated a telefax machine, the Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone. In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process. The Western Union Deskfax fax machine, announced in 1948, was a machine that fit comfortably on a desktop. As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America, in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today’s fax machines. A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29,1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile, commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T Corporation transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, around 1952 or so, Finch Facsimile, a highly developed machine, was described in detail in a book, it was never manufactured in quantity. By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Unions Telecar telegram delivery vehicles, in the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite. Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts, in 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name or Long Distance Xerography. This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would set the standard for fax machines for years to come. Up until this point facsimile machines were expensive and hard to operate. In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller and this unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line. This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes, the first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication. By the late 1970s, many companies around the world, entered the fax market, very shortly after a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market

12.
Sewing machine
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A sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric and other materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies, home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type. Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance. Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal, a German-born engineer working in England was awarded the first British patent for a device to aid the art of sewing. His invention consisted of a pointed needle with an eye at one end. In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design and his machine was meant to be used on leather and canvas material. His sewing machine used the chain stitch method, in which the machine uses a thread to make simple stitches in the fabric. Saints machine was designed to aid the manufacture of leather goods, including saddles and bridles, but it was also capable of working with canvas. Although his machine was advanced for the era, the concept would need steady improvement over the coming decades before it could become a practical proposition. In 1804, a machine was built by the Englishmen Thomas Stone and James Henderson. An Austrian tailor, Josef Madersperger, began developing his first sewing machine in 1807 and he presented his first working machine in 1814. The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier, the patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830, and in the same year, he opened the first machine-based clothing manufacturing company in the world to create army uniforms for the French Army. However, the factory was burned down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their following the issuing of the patent. A model of the machine is exhibited at the London Science Museum, the machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop. The first American lockstitch sewing machine was invented by Walter Hunt in 1832 and his machine used an eye-pointed needle carrying the upper thread and a falling shuttle carrying the lower thread. The curved needle moved through the fabric horizontally, leaving the loop as it withdrew, the shuttle passed through the loop, interlocking the thread. The feed let the machine down, requiring the machine to be stopped frequently, Hunt eventually lost interest in his machine and sold individual machines without bothering to patent his invention, and only patenting it at a late date of 1854. In 1842, John Greenough patented the first sewing machine in the United States, the British partners Newton and Archibold introduced the eye-pointed needle and the use of two pressing surfaces to keep the pieces of fabric in position, in 1841

13.
Typewriter
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A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for writing characters similar to those produced by printers movable type. A typewriter operates by means of keys that strike a ribbon to transmit ink or carbon impressions onto paper, typically, a single character is printed on each key press. The machine prints characters by making ink impressions of type elements similar to the used in movable type letterpress printing. At the end of the century, the term typewriter was also applied to a person who used a typing machine. After its invention in the 1860s, the quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by writers, in offices. As with the automobile, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights, historians have estimated that some form of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come up with a workable design. Some of the early typing instruments, In 1575 an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazzetto, invented the scrittura tattile, in 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. In 1802 Italian Agostino Fantoni developed a particular typewriter to enable his blind sister to write, in 1808 Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter. He also invented carbon paper to provide the ink for his machine, in 1823 Italian Pietro Conti di Cilavegna invented a new model of typewriter, the tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo. In 1829, William Austin Burt patented a machine called the Typographer which, the Science Museum describes it merely as the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented, but even that claim may be excessive, since Turris invention pre-dates it. Even in the hands of its inventor, this machine was slower than handwriting, Burt and his promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent, so the invention was never commercially produced, because the typographer used a dial, rather than keys, to select each character, it was called an index typewriter rather than a keyboard typewriter. Index typewriters of that era resemble the squeeze-style embosser from the 1960s more than they resemble the modern keyboard typewriter, by the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, from 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production. Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was developed as an aid to the blind, in 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti. It was a machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed. In 1861, Father Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood, in that same year the Brazilian emperor D

14.
Knitting machine
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A knitting machine is a device used to create knitted fabrics in a semi or fully automated fashion. There are numerous types of knitting machines, ranging from simple spool or board templates with no moving parts to highly complex mechanisms controlled by electronics, all, however, produce various types of knitted fabrics, usually either flat or tubular, and of varying degrees of complexity. Pattern stitches can be selected by hand manipulation of the needles, or with push-buttons and dials, mechanical punch cards, or electronic pattern reading devices and computers. Early flat bed stocking frames had low carbon steel bearded needles where the tips were reflexed, the needle were supported on a needle bar that passed back and forth, to and from the operator. The beards were simultaneously depressed by a presser bar, a few simple devices permit knitting without needles for toy or hobby purposes. The simplest of these is spool knitting, followed by knitting boards or knitting looms, yarn is wound around the pins, various patterns of winding produce different textured knitting. A needle or special tool is used to transfer the loops of yarn from around the pins, either off the pins or to other pins. Knitting boards can produce complex designs, other semi-mechanical knitting devices are available. Double bed machines have two flat beds facing each other, in order to produce purl and plain rib fabrics plus a variety of multi patterns, ribbing attachments can be added to single bed machines to achieve a similar result. Late 20th century domestic/studio models typically use up to 200 latch-hook needles to hold the stitches in fine, standard, a carriage or cam box is passed across the bed of needles causing the needle movements required to produce each next stitch. By means of selection methods, e. g. punch cards. Thus needles will knit or not, and the unknitted yarn portions will lie under or over the needle or be held in the needle hook, needles can be placed in holding position to allow short row shaping. In the most modern machines, punchcards have been replaced by computer control, automatic patterning machines can knit two-colour Fair Isle patterns automatically, and have machine stitch patterning features such as plating and knitweaving. Plating refers to knitting with two strands of yarn that are held in such a way one is in front of the other. Plated effects can be striking in a ribbed fabric. Knitweaving refers to a technique in which a piece of yarn, often heavier than the knitted fabric, is carried along. With knitwoven fabric, the side is the right side of the fabric. The fine and standard models have the option of a lace carriage

15.
Major appliance
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A major appliance, or domestic appliance, is a large machine in home appliance used for routine housekeeping tasks such as cooking, washing laundry, or food preservation. An appliance is different from a plumbing fixture because it uses electricity or fuel, major appliances differ from small appliances because they are bigger and not portable. They are often considered fixtures and part of estate and as such they are often supplied to tenants as part of otherwise unfurnished rental properties. Major appliances may have electrical connections, connections to gas supplies, or special plumbing. This limits where they can be placed in a home, many major appliances are made of enamel-coated sheet steel which, in the middle 20th century, was usually white. The term white goods in contrast to brown goods, is used, primarily where British English is spoken. In the United States, the white goods can also refer to linens. In New Zealand whiteware may be used, elsewhere a term from pottery, since major appliances in a home consume a significant amount of energy, they have become the objectives of programs to improve their energy efficiency in many countries. Energy efficiency improvements may require changes in construction of the appliances, in the early days of electrification, many major consumer appliances were made by the same companies that made the generation and distribution equipment

16.
Machine tool
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A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping, all machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus the relative movement between the workpiece and the tool is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent. The precise definition of the machine tool varies among users. While all machine tools are machines that help people to make things, today machine tools are typically powered other than by human muscle, used to make manufactured parts in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation. With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the production of interchangeable parts. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools and this lathe produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest. The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various concepts, First is the spindle concept itself. The machine slide, which has many forms, such as dovetail ways, box ways, Machine slides constrain tool or workpiece movement linearly. If a stop is added, the length of the line can also be accurately controlled, tracing, which involves following the contours of a model or template and transferring the resulting motion to the toolpath. Cam operation, which is related in principle to tracing but can be a step or two removed from the traced elements matching the reproduced elements final shape. For example, several cams, no one of which matches the desired output shape. Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams, later, electromechanical solutions and soon electronic solutions were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity, accuracy and precision, efficiency, as an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is practical to make them only with machine tools. In the 1930s, the U. S. National Bureau of Economic Research referenced the definition of a tool as any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal. The narrowest colloquial sense of the reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf, thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools

17.
Label printer
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A label printer is a computer printer that prints on self-adhesive label material and/or card-stock. A label printer with built-in keyboard and display for use is often called a label maker. Label printers are different from ordinary printers because they need to have special feed mechanisms to handle rolled stock, common connectivity for label printers include RS-232 serial, Universal Serial Bus, parallel, Ethernet and various kinds of wireless. Label printers have a variety of applications, including supply chain management, retail price marking, packaging labels, blood and laboratory specimen marking. Label printers use a range of label materials, including paper. Several types of print mechanisms are used, including laser and impact. There are two types of thermal printer. Direct thermal printers use heat sensitive paper, direct thermal labels tend to fade over time, if exposed to heat, direct sunlight or chemical vapors, the life is shortened. Therefore, direct thermal labels are used for short duration applications. On the other hand, thermal printers use heat to transfer ink from ribbon onto the label for a permanent print. Some thermal transfer printers are capable of direct thermal printing. Using a PVC vinyl can increase the longevity of the life as seen in pipe markers. There are three grades of ribbon for use with thermal transfer printers, wax is the most popular with some smudge resistance, and is suitable for matte and semi-gloss paper labels. Wax/resin is smudge resistant, suitable for paper and some synthetic labels. Resin alone is scratch and chemical resistant, suitable for coated synthetic labels, when printing on continuous label stock, there is a tendency for the print location to shift slightly from label to label. To ensure registration of the print area with the media, many label printers use a sensor that detects a gap, notch. This allows the printer to adjust the intake of label stock so that the print aligns correctly with the media, label printer capabilities vary between home, corporate and industrial-oriented models. Desktop label printers are designed for light to medium-duty use with a roll of stock up to 4 wide

18.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794

19.
Hepburn romanization
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The system was originally proposed by the Romanization Club in 1885. The revised edition by Romaji-Hirome-kai in 1908 is called standard style romanization, Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in Japan as a replacement of Japanese script. In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the two, the ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers during the Occupation of Japan, but was reissued in 1954. In 1972, a version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI standard Z39. 11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO3602, the ANSI Z39. 11-1972 standard was consequently deprecated on October 6,1994. As of 1978, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, in addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki, although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. In many other areas where it de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations, at shrines, temples, English-language newspapers and media use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, local and foreign, on Japan. Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn, there are many variants of Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are, Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburns dictionary and this variant is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p, e. g. Shimbashi for 新橋. Modified Hepburn, also known as Revised Hepburn, in which the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used, in Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses, Railway Standard, which follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji. All JR railways and other major railways use this type for station names, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard, which follows the modified Hepburn style. This is used for road signs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard, a permissive standard which explicitly allows the use of non-Hepburn romaji in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, rendering the syllabic n as m before b, m, p, details of these variants can be found below. The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburns dictionary are primarily of historical interest, supporters argue that Hepburn is not intended as a linguistic tool. The long vowels are indicated by macrons

20.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit

21.
Centronics
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Centronics Data Computer Corporation was an American manufacturer of computer printers, now remembered primarily for the parallel interface that bears its name. Centronics began as a division of Wang Laboratories, founded and initially operated by Robert Howard and Samuel Lang, the group produced remote terminals and systems for the casino industry. Printers were developed to print receipts and transaction reports, Wang spun off the business in 1971 and Centronics was formed as a corporation in Hudson, New Hampshire with Howard as president and chairman. The Centronics Model 101 was introduced at the 1970 National Computer Conference, the print head used an innovative seven-wire solenoid impact system. Based on this design, Centronics later made the claim to have developed the first dot matrix impact printer, a business relationship developed when Centronics needed reliable manufacturing of the printer mechanisms—a relationship that would help propel Brother into the printer industry. Hugel would later become vice president of Centronics. Print heads and electronics were built in Centronics plants in New Hampshire and Ireland, mechanisms were built in Japan by Brother, in the 1970s, Centronics formed a relationship with Canon to develop non-impact printers. No products were produced, but Canon continued to work on laser printers. In 1977, Centronics sued competitor Mannesmann AG in a patent dispute regarding the spring used in the print actuator. In 1975, Centronics formed an OEM agreement with Tandy and produced DMP, the 6000 series band printers were introduced in 1978. By 1979 company revenues were over $100 million, in 1980, the Mini-Printer Model 770 was introduced—a small, low-cost desktop serial matrix printer. This was the first printer built completely in-house, and there were problems, flaws in the microprocessor led to a recall and a stoppage of manufacturing for a year. During this period, Epson, Brother and others began to market share. 1980 also saw the introduction of the E Series 900 and 1200 LPM band printers, in 1982, Control Data Corporation merged their current printer business unit, CPI, into Centronics and at the same time invested $25 million in the company, effectively taking control from Howard. Control Data controlled the company until 1986 when CDCs interest was acquired by a group of investors affiliated with Drexel Burnham Lambert, the Drexel interest was acquired by Centronics in 1987. The LineWriter 400 band printer was introduced in 1983, closely followed by the faster LineWriter 800 band printer in 1984, the LineWriter series would continue through 1995. The GLP was a series of low-end serial matrix printers introduced in 1984, the relationship with Brother continued with several of the PrintStation models being produced from rebadged Brother products. Exclusive rights to market Trilog color matrix printers was acquired in 1984, advanced Terminals and BDS Computer Australia Pty Ltd were purchased in 1986

22.
Audenshaw
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Audenshaw is a town in Tameside, Greater Manchester, England, on the River Tame 1.8 miles south-west of Ashton-under-Lyne and 4.9 miles east of Manchester. Historically part of Lancashire, in 2001, Audenshaw had a population of 13,000, by the 2011 Census the population had decreased to 11,419. The name Audenshaw derives from Aldwin, a Saxon personal name, Nico Ditch, an early-medieval linear earthwork possibly built as a defensive barrier against Vikings, runs through the area. During the Middle Ages, Audenshaw was a division of the township of Ashton, Audenshaws urbanisation and expansion largely coincided with developments in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and the Victorian era. In the 1870s, many of Audenshaws inhabitants were employed in hat-making, cotton-spinning, calico-printing, in 1894, the area became Audenshaw Urban District in the poor law union of Ashton-under-Lyne. In 1974, it part of the Metropolitan Borough of Tameside. The name Audenshaw is a corruption of its earlier name Aldwinshagh which derives from Aldwin, Nico Ditch, a medieval linear earthwork, runs through the area. Stretching 6 miles from Ashton Moss in the east to just east of Stretford in the west, the origin of the ditch is unclear. Despite the legend, the U-shape of the ditch – as opposed to the usual V-shape of military earthworks – and the absence of an associated bank indicates that Nico Ditch was probably a boundary marker. Although it is thought to be earlier, the earliest documented reference to Nico Ditch is in a charter detailing the granting of land in Audenshaw to the monks of the Kersal Cell. In the document, dating from 1190 to 1212, the ditch is referred to as Mykelldiche, in 1877, part of the original village of Audenshaw was demolished to make way for the three Audenshaw Reservoirs. Also destroyed to allow the construction of the reservoirs was a section of Nico Ditch, the division of Audenshaw spanned the village of Audenshaw, and the outlying settlements of Danehead, Hooleyhill, Littlemoss, North-street, Walkmill, Waterhouses and Woodhouses. This arrangement persisted until the creation of Audenshaws first local authority, Audenshaw Local Board of Health was a regulatory body responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the locality. Audenshaw is represented in Parliament by the Denton and Reddish constituency, at 53°28′27. 5″N 2°6′44″W,160 miles north-northwest of central London and 5 miles east of Manchester, Audenshaw stands at the head of the Dane valley. Guide Bridge is an area of Audenshaw, according to the Office for National Statistics, at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001, Audenshaw had a population of 12,790. The 2001 population density was 10,860 inhabitants per square mile, of those over 16 years old,28. 4% were single,43. 3% married, and 8. 8% divorced. Audenshaws 5,260 households included 29. 0% one-person,38. 5% married couples living together,8. 8% were co-habiting couples, of those aged 16–74,33. 4% had no academic qualifications, similar to the Tameside average, but above that of England. In 1951 the breakdown of social class in Audenshaw was recorded as 22. 7% middle class and 19. 3% working class, by 1971, this had changed to 23.4 middle class and 17. 2% working class

23.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry

24.
Jones Sewing Machine Company
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As Chadwick & Jones they manufactured sewing machines at Ashton-under-Lyne until 1863. Their machines used designs from Howe and Wilson produced under licence, thomas Chadwick later joined Bradbury & Co. William Jones opened a factory in Guide Bridge, Manchester in 1869. In 1893 a Jones advertising sheet claimed that this factory was the Largest Factory in England Exclusively Making First Class Sewing Machines, the firm was renamed as the Jones Sewing Machine Co. Ltd and was acquired by Brother Industries of Japan, in 1968. The Jones patent for his popular Serpent Neck model appeared in 1879, the machines pictured employ a transverse boat shuttle mechanism forming a lock stitch. Old Sewing Machines and How They Work More examples of Jones machines

25.
Zhuhai
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Zhuhai is a prefecture-level city on the southern coast of Guangdong province in China. Located in the Pearl River Delta, Zhuhai borders Jiangmen to the northwest, Zhongshan to the north, Zhuhai was one of the original Special Economic Zones established in the 1980s. Zhuhai is also one of Chinas premier tourist destinations, being called the Chinese Riviera, according to a report released in 2014 by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Zhuhai is the most livable city in China. Zhuhai borders the Macau Special Administrative Region, and is 140 kilometres southwest of Guangzhou and its territory includes 146 islands and a coastline of 690 kilometres. Some of the latter are actually closer to Hong Kong than to the Zhuhai mainland. The jurisdiction of Nei Lingding Island, located in the Pearl River estuary was transferred from Zhuhai to Shenzhen in 2009, average highs in January and July are 18 and 32 °C respectively. It never snows and a frost has never recorded in the city centre. Conversely, extreme heat waves do not occur as they do further inland, Zhuhai became a city in 1979, a year before it was designated as one of the first Special Economic Zones of China. The establishment of Zhuhai as an SEZ allowed the Chinese Central Government and economy to have access to the Macau and consequently. As a result, Zhuhai is now a city in the Pearl River Delta region according to the new general urban plan approved by the State Council. The implementation of Special Economy Zone intended for the city to become a key city, science and education city, scenic and tourism city. The outstanding geographic location, a range of supporting infrastructure. Utilized foreign investment reached US$10.344 billion in 2008, among the top 500 enterprises worldwide,19 of them have investment projects in Zhuhai such as ExxonMobil, BP, Siemens, Carrefour and Matsushita. Hong Kong is the largest overseas investor in Zhuhai, accounting for 22% of total utilized foreign investment in 2002, Zhuhai hi-tech zone is located in the north of Zhuhai, which is very close to downtown. Furthermore, technological resources are centralized in our zone, there is also a development in hi-tech industries which is leading by software. The hi-tech zone is the showcase for Zhuhais scientific development, Zhuhai Free Trade Zone Zhuhai Free Trade Zone was founded in 1996 with the State Councils approval, occupying 3 km2. A Zhuhai FTZ Administrative Committee was set up in June 1997, by the end of 2006, there had been over 200 companies registered in the Free Trade Zone, including more than 150 foreign-funded enterprises, and the total investment amount was 1 billion US dollars. Their combined sales were more than 1.3 billion US dollars or 10% of all the sales in the world

26.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing

27.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government

28.
Machine factory
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A machine factory is a company, that produces machines. These companies traditionally belong to the industry sector in comparison to a more consumer oriented. Today many companies make more sophisticated smaller machines, and they belong to the light industry, the economic sector of machine factories is called the machine industry. The machinery factories came into existence in the course of the Industrial Revolution, late 18th century most production machines, were still made of wood and manufactured in local workshops. In the first half of the 19th century gradually the wooden machinery got replaced by metal machine, the machine building gradually broke loose from the textile industry and independent companies emerged specializing in textile machinery, machine tools, locomotives, large steam engines, etc. Most companies in countries as England, France and Germany kept making their own special tools, lintsen recalled that only shortly before 1850, there is clear evidence of success in the effort to build machines with machines. A number of so-called machine tools - lathes, planers, drills, but even these standardization of parts did not mean the end of the individual craftsmanship in the machine industry. The first machine tools offered for sale were constructed by Matthew Murray in England around 1800. in the 1830s James Nasmyth had somewhat to his surprise, discovered, that there was really a market emerging for readymade lathes, planers, drills and flat banks. That demand partly originated from the building the Lancashire textile machinery, and partly from the new phenomenon. The fast-growing rail network had locomotives, equipped repair shops, tracks, in the second part of the 19th century more and more machine factories were started. These companies partly grew out of iron foundries, shipyards, forges, many production machines were sold to machine shops, where parts and consumer products were produced. Early 20th century several motorcycle and automobile manufacturers began their own machine factories, nowadays, many of the contemporary machine factories are smaller in size and belong to the light or medium metal. This type of companies generally produce specific production machines and /or devices, some of these types of companies have been around for decades, others are constantly created. Agricultural machinery is used in the operation of an agricultural area or farm. These are produced by agricultural machinery manufacturers, and farming machines factories, an engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines burn a fuel to create heat, electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others—such as clockwork motors in wind-up toys—use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, home appliances are electrical/mechanical machines which accomplish some household functions, such as cooking or cleaning. Major appliance, or domestic appliance, or white goods, brown goods usually require high technical knowledge and skills, while white goods may need more practical skills and brute force to manipulate the devices and heavy tools required to repair them

29.
Manchester City F.C.
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Manchester City Football Club is a football club in Manchester, England. Founded in 1880 as St. Marks, they became Ardwick Association Football Club in 1887, the club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003, having played at Maine Road since 1923. After losing the 1981 FA Cup Final, the club went through a period of decline, having regained their Premier League status in the early 2000s, the club was purchased in 2008 by Abu Dhabi United Group and has become one of the wealthiest in the world. Since 2011 the club have won five major honours, including the Premier League in 2012 and 2014, by 2014–15, Manchester City had the sixth-highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of €463.5 million. In 2016, Forbes magazine estimated they were the sixth most valuable football club. City gained their first honours by winning the Second Division in 1899, with it promotion to the highest level in English football. A fire at Hyde Road destroyed the main stand in 1920, in the 1930s, Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing to Everton in 1933, before claiming the Cup by beating Portsmouth in 1934. The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, after relegation to the Second Division in 1963, the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 against Swindon Town in January 1965. In the summer of 1965, the management team of Joe Mercer, in the first season under Mercer, City won the Second Division title and made important signings in Mike Summerbee and Colin Bell. Further trophies followed, City won the FA Cup in 1969, before achieving European success by winning the European Cup Winners Cup in 1970, beating Górnik Zabrze 2–1 in Vienna. City also won the League Cup that season, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy, the club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching the final of the 1974 League Cup. Former United player Denis Law scored with a backheel to give City a 1–0 win at Old Trafford, the final trophy of the clubs most successful period was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2–1 in the League Cup final. A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s, Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on unsuccessful signings, such as Steve Daley. A succession of managers then followed – seven in the 1980s alone, under John Bond, City reached the 1981 FA Cup final but lost in a replay to Tottenham Hotspur. The club were relegated from the top flight in the 1980s. However, this was only a respite, and following Reids departure Manchester Citys fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of the Premier League upon its creation in 1992, after two seasons in Division One, City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their countrys third league tier, after 1. After relegation, the club underwent off-the-field upheaval, with new chairman David Bernstein introducing greater fiscal discipline, under manager Joe Royle, City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in a play-off against Gillingham

30.
Electronics industry in Japan
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The Japanese electronics industry is the largest consumer electronics industry in the world, though the share of these Japanese companies gradually declined by competition from South Korea and Taiwan. Japan still has a number of companies that produce television, camcorders, audio and video players, japans foreign direct investment in the consumer electronics industry was motivated by protectionism and labor costs. After three years of voluntary export restraints, seven Japanese firms located plants in the United States by 1980, since the beginning of the 21st century a number of the largest Japanese electronics companies have struggled financially and lost market share, particularly to South Korean and Taiwanese companies. Japanese companies have lost their dominant position in categories including portable media players, TVs, hit hard by the economic crisis of 2008 Sony, Hitachi, Panasonic, Fujitsu, Sharp, NEC and Toshiba reported losses amounting to $17 billion. By 2009, Samsung Electronics operating profit was more than two times larger than the operating profit of nine of Japan’s largest consumer electronic companies. Japans education system has also highlighted as a possible contributing factor. One response to the challenges has been a rise in company mergers, JVC and Kenwood merged, and Renesas Technology and NEC Electronics -the semiconductors arm of NEC- to merge forming Renesas Electronics. In a similar move, in 2009 Panasonic acquired a stock majority of Sanyo. Also some of the bigger players resorted to merging some of their operations as Hitachi, Casio and NEC, and Fujitsu and Toshiba, did with their cellphone business. On 15 November 2011, facing competition from Samsung and LG, Sony, Toshiba and Hitachi signed a deal to merge their LCD businesses. As of 2013, most Japanese companies no longer enjoy the reputation they did about one to two decades ago. Currently, the consumer electronics market is dominated by South Korean. Only a few Japanese companies have significant international market share, and are known internationally. The future of the Japanese electronics industry is debated and its estimated that 16% of the worlds gold and 22% of the worlds silver is contained in electronic technology in Japan. loc. gov/frd/cs/

31.
Alps Electric
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Alps Electric Co. Ltd. is a Japanese multinational corporation, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, producing electronic devices, including switches, potentiometers, sensors, encoders and touchpads. The company was established in 1948 as Kataoka Electric Co. Ltd. since June 22,2012, the President has been Toshihiro Kuriyama and Chairman is Masataka Kataoka. Alps is also known for the Alpine brand of car audio. The Alps Electric Group has R&D, production and sales bases located in Japan and around the globe—in the Americas, Europe, Southeast Asia, Korea, Alps Group comprises 84 subsidiary companies,25 through Alps Electric,32 through Alpine Electronics and 27 through Alps Logistics. The company is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and a constituent of the Nikkei 225 stock index, Alps Automotive division focuses on provision of custom products and modules, including control panels and steering modules, for specific vehicle models, and components compatible with any vehicle. Alps Electric focuses on human-machine and machine-machine interfaces for home appliances, mobile devices, Alps touchpad hardware is developed and manufactured by the Cirque Corporation, which they acquired in 2003, however, the parent company continues to write their own drivers. They are mostly found in Sony, Toshiba and Dell notebooks and they also manufacture keyboards for Apple computers, including the original Macintosh and the first iMac. Wiki collection of works on Alps Electric

32.
Alpine Electronics
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Alpine Electronics, Inc. is the consumer electronics subsidiary of the Japanese electronics component manufacturer Alps Electric, specializing in car audio and navigation systems. Alpines engineering headquarters are in Iwaki, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, Alpine also has manufacturing facilities in Brazil, Hungary, Mexico, China, and Thailand. In 2006, 76% of Alpines revenues came from OEM sales, BMW and Honda have offered unbranded audio systems manufactured by Alpine, and companies such as Dodge and Jaguar Cars have offered co-branded Alpine audio systems in their vehicles. Established in 1967 as Alps-Motorola — a joint venture between Alps Electric and U. S. -based Motorola — it became Alpine Electronics, Inc. in 1978 when Alps bought out Motorolas share of the company. Alpine offers a range of items, including in-car multimedia, amplifiers, speakers, subwoofers. In 2008, Alpine introduced a line of marine sound system products. The five stripes in the Alpine logo were added in 1987, originally light blue to contrast with the letters which were in dark blue, they were later changed to one colour. The stripes stand for different aspects of Alpines philosophy,2011 introduction of ICS-X8 worlds first MirrorLink enabled Mobile Media Station Other innovations have included the Alpine F#1 Status systems and V12 AccuClass-D power amplifiers. At the Alpine Museum in Japan there is a model 7307 radio/tape recorder shot by an American using a. 45-caliber pistol at a distance of 4 feet, the owner, frustrated with the performance of the product, shot the unit and returned it to Alpine. This gesture brought home to Alpine the importance of product quality, Alpine introduced the first aftermarket Interface Adapter for iPod in 2004, letting users experience optimized sound quality and control of digital music files in the car. In 2008, Alpine introduced a line of iPod integration Digital Media Receivers. In 2009, Alpine introduced the first double-din iPod digital media station, Alpine continues to develop in-vehicle navigation aftermarket and OEM devices. In 2004, Alpine introduced the NVE-N872A in 2005, the DVD-based NVE-N872A was Alpines fourth generation satellite-linked navigation system, based on an Alpine in-vehicle navigation platform, which won J. D. Power awards four times in six years. In 2006, Alpine introduced their first portable device, the PMD-B100. In 2008, Alpine introduced the PND-K3, an all-in-one portable navigation plus Bluetooth hands-free system, in 2009, Alpine introduced the PND-K3msn with information like traffic and weather updates. The 1986 Buick Grand National, modified by SpeakerWorks in Orange, the black Buick won the Alpine Car Audio Nationals II Pro Unlimited division in 1988, and IASCAs Pro unlimited title in 1989,1990, and 1991 before being retired by its owner, Richard Clark. Its sound system is composed of five model 3545 amplifiers and the model 7909 headunit, the companys UK office, Alpine UK had a yellow Lamborghini Diablo SE30 Jota with the registration L666 LAM which was often seen at shows and events. The U. S. office, Alpine of America, Inc, the company later sold off the Luxman brand in 1994 to concentrate fully on the car audio business

33.
Anritsu
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Anritsu Corporation is a Japanese multinational corporation in the telecommunications electronics equipment market. A global pioneer for producing the worlds first wireless telephone network, in Japan, Anritsus first predecessor, Sekisan-sha, was founded in 1895. Annaka Electric Company followed, producing wireless transmitters and the worlds first wireless telephone service and it was formed with the merger of two companies, the Annaka Corporation and Kyoritsu Electric in Japan in 1931. In 1990, Anritsu acquired Wiltron Company in the United States, net sales in FY2008 were ¥84 billion. It has been listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange since 1961, as of 2009, it employed 3,700 employees in 20 countries. Products include network call trace, service assurance, customer management, microwave, radio frequency, and optical signal generators, spectrum analyzers. Anritsu Corporation Global Anritsu Company North America

34.
Audio-Technica
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Audio-Technica Corporation, is a Japanese company that designs and manufactures professional microphones, headphones, phonographic magnetic cartridges, and other audio equipment. Audio-Technica was established in 1962 in Tokyo, Japan by Hideo Matsushita as a phonograph cartridge manufacturer and its first products were the AT-1 and the AT-3 MM stereo phono cartridges. Business rapidly developed and Audio-Technica expanded into other fields, in 2008, the company celebrated the 20th anniversary of supplying microphones for US Presidential Debates. For their 50th anniversary, Audio-Technica celebrated at Consumer Electronics Show 2012, debuting their AT-LP1240-USB USB DJ Turntable and their booth also featured a dubstep dance video, Audio 911, by dancer Marquese Nonstop Scott produced by video production company The DVI Group. In 1965, the received an award from the Agency of Industrial Science. In 1969, the company began exporting phono cartridges worldwide and launched the first microcassette recorders, in 1972, Audio-Technica established its US arm in Stow, Ohio and started shipping VM phono cartridges to European manufacturers. In 1974, the companys first headphones are launched, the AT-700 series, throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Audio-Technica microphones and cartridges received numerous awards. In 1992, the AT4033 condenser microphone is chosen the best microphone of 1991 at the Audio Engineering Society convention, Audio-Technica was one of the earliest manufacturers of headset microphones for stage use, starting in 1990. One of their most famous products was a battery-operated, portable record player called Mister Disc that was sold in the U. S. in the early 1980s. 13 patents were involved in bringing the feature to fruition, as company engineers modified many different elements of construction and operation. Over 50 existing Audio-Technica microphone models have been upgraded with the new RFI-resistant technology

35.
Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time

36.
Casio
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Casio Computer Co. Ltd. is a multinational consumer electronics and commercial electronics manufacturing company headquartered in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Its products include calculators, mobile phones, digital cameras, electronic musical instruments and it was founded in 1946, and in 1957 released the worlds first entirely electric compact calculator. Casio was a digital camera innovator, and during the 1980s and 1990s. Casio was established in April 1946 by Tadao Kashio, an engineer specializing in fabrication technology. Kashios first major product was the pipe, a finger ring that would hold a cigarette. Japan was impoverished immediately following World War II, so cigarettes were valuable, after seeing the electric calculators at the first Business Show in Ginza, Tokyo in 1949, Kashio and his younger brothers used their profits from the yubiwa pipe to develop their own calculators. Most of the calculators at that time worked using gears and could be operated by using a crank or using a motor. Toshio possessed some knowledge of electronics, and set out to make a calculator using solenoids, the desk-sized calculator was finished in 1954 and was Japans first electro-mechanical calculator. Another distinguishing innovation was the use of a display window instead of the three display windows used in other calculators. In 1957 Casio released the Model 14-A, sold for 485,000 yen, the worlds first all-electric compact calculator,1957 also marked the establishment of Casio Computer Co. Ltd. In the 1980s, its budget electronic instruments and its line of home electronic musical keyboard instruments became popular. The company also became known for the wide variety and innovation of its wristwatches. It was one of the earliest manufacturers of quartz watches, both digital and analog and it also began selling calculator watches during this time. In the 1970s and 80s, Casio was known for its electronic calculators, today, Casio is most commonly known for making durable and reliable digital watches. The G-Shock range of shock resistant watches is popular, with the 1983 G-Shock DW-5600C being highly sought-after by collectors, Casio made a variety of digital watches with in-built games in the 1980s and 90s, which were highly popular at the time. Casio also makes products for local markets, including a Prayer Compass watch designed to help Muslims pray on time, note, This is a list of selected calculators. Figures in parentheses imply approximate year of introduction, note, This is a list of selected models. Wiki collection of works on Casio

37.
Chino Corporation
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CHINO Corporation is a Japanese professional manufacturer of measuring/controlling instruments and instrumentation system. Furthermore, Chino manufactures and supplies systems for measuring instruments. In 1913, Kazuo Chino founded private company named Chino Works at Shitaya and he started manufacture and sell chemical machinery and rubber products first. Then he manufacture and sell physics and chemistry instruments, electric bath and measuring instruments though. He built a new factory at Nakamaru, Itabashi and resumed business again, in 1936, established stock organization named Chino Works, Ltd. The new factory was burnt down again by an air raid during the Second World War though, in that case original electronic recorder and oscillation type indicating controller were a big hit with commercialization. In 1962, listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, Second Section, in 1979 listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, in 1986, renamed to CHINO Corporation to commemorate the 50th anniversary. CHINO has 12 subsidiary companies including six global, three factories,21 domestic sales branches and 37 overseas dealers/distributors in 34 countries to the present. 1962-Listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, Second Section 1963-Established Fujioka Factory, 1979-Listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, First Section 1983-Established CHINO Works America Inc. 1986-Renamed to CHINO CORPORATION 1989-Established KOREA CHINO CORPORATION, 1990-Completion of Head Office and R & D Building. 1992-Established YAMAGATA CHINO CORPORATION 1993-Established CHINO Service Corporation, 1993-Established Shanghai DAHUA-CHINO Instrument Co. Ltd. 1994-Chino Standard Office acquired the Certification of the Thermometer Calibration Company from Japan Calibration Service System, 1994-Acquired the Certification of ISO9001 for Fujioka Factory. 1996-Established CHINO-LAXSONS Ltd. 1997– Acquired the Certification of ISO9001 for Kuki Factory 1998-Acquired 100% capital shares of SANKI KEISO Co. Ltd. Ltd, 2006-Acquired 100% capital shares of TOKYO SEIKO Co. Ltd. Acquired 100% capital shares of ASAKAWA Lens Works Co, Ltd. Senko corporation renamed to the chino Softex Co. Ltd. 2009-Acquired 100% capital shares of CHINO-LAXSONS Private Limited, and renamed CHINO CORPORATION India Pvt. Ltd, 2012-Absorbed Yamagata CHINO CORPORATION. Established CHINO CORPORATION Limited 2014-Acquired 100% capital share of ULVAC-RIKO, Inc. 2015-Absorbed Chino Service Corporation Measurement and control equipment Recorder, controller and consumer equipment are in this category, Recently, thermal imaging Camera named released in April 2014 won the Good Design Award 2014 in category of equipment and facilities for manufacture, development or production. And calibration equipment has been adopted as national standard not only in national standard institute. Asakawa Lens Works deals with design and manufactures of optical instruments Ars has engaged with circuit designing and holding package technology of high-density wireless module, Shanghai Dahua-CHINO instrument is a sales and service support organization of recorders, controllers, radiation thermometers and instrumentation in China

38.
Citizen Watch
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Citizen Holdings Co. Ltd. is the core company of a Japanese global corporate group based in Tokyo, Japan. The company was founded as Shokosha Watch Research Institute in 1918 and it is known as the manufacturer of Cincom precision lathe machine tools and Citizen watches. The trade name originated from a pocket watch Citizen sold in 1924 and it is one of the worlds largest producers of watches. Eco-Drive watches use a battery recharged by a solar panel hidden under the watch face, in the rare and discontinued Eco-Drive Duo series, the solar power was supplemented by an automatic quartz power source. There was also an Eco-Drive Thermo model that exploited temperature differentials between the skin temperature and ambient temperature to recharge the battery. However, the only Eco-Drive system described on the Citizen Watch official web site is the one depending solely on light to recharge, features similar to the Eco-Drive have been developed by other manufacturers like Casio and Junghans. All Citizen Eco-Drive movements are made in Japan but the case or the bracelet may also be made in China, some watches, such as the Skyhawk A-T line feature Radio Controlled Timekeeping. The watches can synchronize with radio clocks in Japan, North America, the watch actually tracks two time zones—home and world—but synchronizes to the home zone. When traveling, the user may swap the home and world zones—thereby enabling proper time signal reception on a different continent while retaining the other time, the day, date, and Daylight Saving Time settings are also set automatically when the watch is synchronized. These features are comparable to the synchronization with atomic clocks found in Casio Wave Ceptor watches, the Perpetual Chrono A-T is another of Citizens radio controlled watches. The watch syncs with the clocks in Colorado or Germany depending on signal strength. It also incorporates the technology which means it will never require a battery. Citizen also produces the Independent Watches line, featuring a more modern, depending on the market, these watches may be labelled Secret, Lighthouse brands among others. The Deployant Clasp with a Push Button is a clasp available for many Citizen watch bracelet bands, apart from watches, Citizen also manufactures calculators and small electronic organizers. Some non-watch devices such as televisions and computer printers, have been marketed under the Citizen brand name. In the 1980s, a number of electronic games were sold under the Q&Q brand. In the early-mid 1990s, Citizen partnered with Compaq Computer Corporation to build notebook computers in Japan for the Japan, Citizen Watch Co. Ltd. – manufacture and sale of watches and clocks. Japan CBM Corporation – sales of timepieces, including the Q & Q brand, Citizen Systems Japan Co. Ltd. – sales of business and consumer electronic devices including calculators

39.
Cosina
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Cosina Co. Ltd. is a designer and manufacturer of cameras and lenses, and a glassmaker, based in Nakano, Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Cosina is the successor to Nikō, a set up as a manufacturer of lenses in 1959. In 1966, it started to manufacture 35 mm compact cameras and 8 mm cine cameras, in 1968 it started a glassworks, Nikō changed its name to Cosina in 1973. The name Cosina has previously appeared on compact and SLR cameras for 135 film, the CS-2 and CS-3 SLRs were introduced in 1978, followed in 1980 by the CT-1, CT-7, CT-10 and CT-20, the CT-1G in 1982 and the CT-9 in 1986. Cosina SLR cameras used either the M42 lens mount or the Pentax K lens mount, however, Cosina is probably better known as a manufacturer of cameras and camera components for other brands. This rangefinder camera was adopted as the chassis for several excellent camera models, including the Minolta 7SII, Revue 400 SE, Prinz 35 ER. In 1982, Cosina began to manufacture lenses in a variety of SLR manufacturers lens mounts, in 1991, it started to produce glass molded aspheric lenses, and in 1996 plastic molded aspherical lenses. Cosina began producing cameras in 1997. Having obtained the rights to the brand Voigtländer from Ringfoto in Germany, Cosina introduced a Voigtländer 15 mm f/4.5 and 25 mm f/4 lens and the Voigtländer Bessa-L body in 1999. On April 26,2010, Cosina joined the Micro Four Thirds System Standard Group Cosinas Voigtländer products are referred to as Cosina Voigtländer. The name Cosina now appears on lenses for various SLR mounts, Cosina manufactured the rangefinder camera Rollei 35 RF for Rollei Fototechnic, and is acknowledged to have manufactured the Epson digital rangefinder camera R-D1 as well. Its manufacture of a new Zeiss Ikon rangefinder camera with Leica M-mount, and Zeiss lenses in Leica bayonet mount was announced in October 2004, and it is already producing these. All these cameras use film showing Cosinas unique position in the market filling the gap in demand for quality film cameras. A Cosina design, the 1982 Cosina CX-2, was copied by the Russian optical firm LOMO as the popular Lomo LC-A, Cosina manufactures manual focus SLR lenses for Carl Zeiss with Leica, Nikon, Pentax, Canon EOS, and M42 screw mounts. Cosina products are distributed in Japan by Kenko

A water-powered mine hoist used for raising ore. This woodblock is from De re metallica by Georg Bauer (Latinized name Georgius Agricola, ca. 1555), an early mining textbook that contains numerous drawings and descriptions of mining equipment.