In RCM, (Royal Coneservatory of Music) a level 8 theory definition for the term “ostinato” would be referred to as “a recurring rhythmic or melodic pattern.” The repeating idea may be a rhythmic pattern, part of a tune, or a complete melody in itself.[3] Both ostinatos and ostinati are accepted English plural forms, the latter reflecting the word's Italian etymology. Strictly speaking, ostinati should have exact repetition, but in common usage, the term covers repetition with variation and development, such as the alteration of an ostinato line to fit changing harmonies or keys.

If the cadence may be regarded as the cradle of tonality, the ostinato patterns can be considered the playground in which it grew strong and self-confident.

Within the context of film music, Claudia Gorbman defines an ostinato as a repeated melodic or rhythmic figure that propels scenes that lack dynamic visual action.[5]

Ostinato plays an important part in improvised music (rock and jazz), in which it is often referred to as a riff or a vamp. A "favorite technique of contemporary jazz writers", ostinati are often used in modal and Latin jazz and traditional African music including Gnawa music.[6]

The term "ostinato" has essentially the same meaning as the medieval Latin word "pes", the word "ground" as applied to classical music, and the word "riff" in contemporary popular music.

Ostinato are used in 20th-century music to stabilize groups of pitches, as in Stravinsky's The Rite of SpringIntroduction and Augurs of Spring.[3] A famous type of ostinato, called the Rossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza. This style was emulated by other bel canto composers, especially Vincenzo Bellini; and later by Wagner (in pure instrumental terms, discarding the closing vocal cadenza).

Applicable in homophonic and contrapuntaltextures they are "repetitive rhythmic-harmonic schemes", more familiar as accompanimental melodies, or purely rhythmic.[7] The technique's appeal to composers from Debussy to avant-garde composers until at least the 1970s "... lies in part in the need for unity created by the virtual abandonment of functional chord progressions to shape phrases and define tonality".[7] Similarly, in modal music, "... relentless, repetitive character help to establish and confirm the modal center".[6] Their popularity may also be justified by their ease as well as range of use, though, "... ostinato must be employed judiciously, as its overuse can quickly lead to monotony".[6]

Ostinato patterns have been present in European music from the Middle Ages onwards. In the famous English canon "Sumer Is Icumen In", the main vocal lines are underpinned by an ostinato pattern, known as a pes:

Later in the medieval era, Dufay’s 15th century chanson Resvelons Nous features a similarly constructed ostinato pattern, but this time 5 bars long. Over this, the main melodic line moves freely, varying the phrase-lengths, while being “to some extent predetermined by the repeating pattern of the canon in the lower two voices.”[8]

Ground bass or basso ostinato (obstinate bass) is a type of variation form in which a bass line, or harmonic pattern (see Chaconne; also common in Elizabethan England as Grounde) is repeated as the basis of a piece underneath variations.[9]Aaron Copland[10] describes basso ostinato as "... the easiest to recognize" of the variation forms wherein, "... a long phrase—either an accompanimental figure or an actual melody—is repeated over and over again in the bass part, while the upper parts proceed normally [with variation]". However, he cautions, "it might more properly be termed a musical device than a musical form."

One striking ostinato instrumental piece of the late Renaissance period is “The Bells”, a piece for virginals by William Byrd. Here the ostinato (or ‘ground’) consists of just two notes:

William Byrd, The Bells

William Byrd, The Bells

In Italy, during the seventeenth century, Claudio Monteverdi composed many pieces using ostinato patterns in his operas and sacred works. One of these was his 1650 version of “Laetatus sum”, an imposing setting of Psalm 122 that pits a four note “ostinato of unquenchable energy.”[11] against both voices and instruments:

Later in the same century, Henry Purcell became famous for his skilful deployment of ground bass patterns. His most famous ostinato is the descending chromatic ground bass that underpins the Lament at the end of his opera Dido and Aeneas:

Purcell, Dido's Lament ground bass

Purcell, Dido's Lament ground bass

While the use of a descending chromatic scale to express pathos was fairly common at the end of the seventeenth century, Richard Taruskin points out that Purcell shows a fresh approach to this musical trope: “Altogether unconventional and characteristic, however, is the interpolation of an additional cadential measure into the stereotyped ground, increasing its length from a routine four to a haunting five bars, against which the vocal line, with its despondent refrain (‘Remember me!’), is deployed with marked asymmetry. That, plus Purcell’s distinctively dissonant, suspension-saturated harmony, enhanced by additional chromatic descents during the final ritornello and by many deceptive cadences, makes this little aria an unforgettably poignant embodiment of heartache.”[12] See also: Lament bass.
However, this is not the only ostinato pattern that Purcell uses in the opera. Dido’s opening aria “Ah, Belinda” is a further demonstration of Purcell’s technical mastery: the phrases of the vocal line do not always coincide with the 4-bar ground:

“Purcell’s compositions over a ground vary in their working out, and the repetition never becomes a restriction.”[13] Purcell’s instrumental music also featured ground patterns. A particularly fine and complex example is his Fantasia upon a Ground for three violins and continuo:

The first variation that Bach builds over this ostinato consists of a gently syncopated motif in the upper voices:

Bach C minor Passacaglia Variation 1

Bach C minor Passacaglia Variation 1

This characteristic rhythmic pattern continues in the second variation, but with some engaging harmonic subtleties, especially in the second bar, where an unexpected chord creates a passing implication of a related key:

Bach C minor Passacaglia Variation 2

Bach C minor Passacaglia Variation 2

In common with other Passacaglias of the era, the ostinato is not simply confined to the bass, but rises to the uppermost part later in the piece:

Ostinatos feature in many works of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Mozart uses an ostinato phrase throughout the big scene that ends Act 2 of the Marriage of Figaro, to convey a sense of suspense as the jealous Count Almaviva tries in vain to incriminate the Countess, his wife, and Figaro, his butler, for plotting behind his back. A famous type of ostinato, called the Rossini crescendo, owes its name to a crescendo that underlies a persistent musical pattern, which usually culminates in a solo vocal cadenza.

In the energetic Scherzo of Beethoven’s late C sharp minor Quartet, Op. 131, there is a harmonically static passage, with “the repetitiveness of a nursery rhyme”[14] that consists of an ostinato shared between viola and cello supporting a melody in octaves in the first and second violins:

Beethoven Op 131 Trio from Scherzo, bars 69–76

Beethoven Op 131 Trio from Scherzo, bars 69–76

Beethoven reverses this relationship a few bars later with the melody in the viola and cello and the ostinato shared between the violins:

Beethoven Op 131 Trio from Scherzo, bars 93–100

Beethoven Op 131 Trio from Scherzo, bars 93–100

Both the first and third acts of Wagner’s final opera Parsifal feature a passage accompanying a scene where a band of Knights solemnly processes from the depths of forest to the hall of the Grail. The “Transformation music” that supports this change of scene is dominated by the iterated tolling of four bells:

Debussy featured an ostinato pattern throughout his Piano Prelude “Des pas sur la Neige”. Here, the ostinato pattern stays in the middle register of the piano – it is never used as a bass. “Remark that the footfall ostinato remains nearly throughout on the same notes, at the same pitch level... this piece is an appeal to the basic loneliness of all human beings, oft-forgotten perhaps, but, like the ostinato, forming a basic undercurrent of our history.”[15]

Of all the major classical composers of the Twentieth Century, Stravinsky is possibly the one most associated with the practice of ostinato. In conversation with the composer, his friend and colleague Robert Craft remarked “Your music always has an element of repetition, of ostinato. What is the function of ostinato?” Stravinsky replied; “It is static – that is, anti-development; and sometimes we need a contradiction to development.”[16] Stravinsky was particularly skilled at using ostinatos to confound rather than confirm rhythmic expectations. In the first of his Three Pieces for String Quartet, Stravinsky sets up three repeated patterns, which overlap one another and never coincide. "Here a rigid pattern of (3+2+2/4) bars is laid over a strictly recurring twenty-three-beat tune (the bars being marked by a cello ostinato), so that their changing relationship is governed primarily by the pre-compositional scheme."[17] “The rhythmical current running through the music is what binds together these curious mosaic-like pieces.”[18]

A subtler metrical conflict can be found in the final section of Stravinsky’s Symphony of Psalms. The choir sing a melody in triple time, while the bass instruments in the orchestra play a 4-beat ostinato against this. “This is built up over an ostinato bass (harp, two pianos and timpani) moving in fourths like a pendulum."[19]

Many instruments south of the Sahara Desert play ostinato melodies.[clarification needed] These include lamellophones such as the mbira, as well as xylophones like the balafon, the bikutsi, and the gyil. Ostinato figures are also played on string instruments such as the kora, gankoqui bell ensembles, and pitched drums ensembles. Often, African ostinatos contain offbeats or cross-beats, that contradict the metric structure.[20] Other African ostinatos generate complete cross-rhythms by sounding both the main beats and cross-beats. In the following example, a gyil sounds the three-against-two cross-rhythm (hemiola). The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats.[21]

Popular dance bands in West Africa and the Congo region feature ostinato playing guitars. The African guitar parts have drawn from a variety of sources, including the indigenous mbira, as well as foreign influences such as James Brown-type funk riffs. However, the foreign influences are interpreted through a distinctly African ostinato sensibility. African guitar styles began with Congolese bands doing Cuban "cover" songs. The Cuban guajeo had a both familiar and exotic quality to the African musicians. Gradually, various regional guitar styles emerged, as indigenous influences became increasingly dominant within these Africanized guajeos.[22]

As Moore states, "One could say that I – IV – V – IV [chord progressions] is to African music what the 12-bar blues is to North American music."[23] Such progressions seem superficially to follow the conventions of Western music theory. However, performers of African popular music do not perceive these progressions in the same way. Harmonic progressions which move from the tonic to the subdominant (as they are known in European music) have been used in Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony for hundreds of years. Their elaborations follow all the conventions of traditional African harmonic principles. Gehard kubik concludes:

The harmonic cycle of C–F–G–F [I–IV–V–IV] prominent in Congo/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music—(Kubik 1999).[24]

A guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns. The guajeo is a hybrid of the African and European ostinato. The guajeo was first played as accompaniment on the tres in the folkloric changüí and son.[25] The term guajeo is often used to mean specific ostinato patterns played by a tres, piano, an instrument of the violin family, or saxophones.[26] The guajeo is a fundamental component of modern-day salsa, and Latin jazz. The following example shows a basic guajeo pattern.

David Brackett (1999) defines riffs as, "... short melodic phrases", while Richard Middleton (1999)[29] defines them as "short rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic figures repeated to form a structural framework". Rikky Rooksby[30] states, "A riff is a short, repeated, memorable musical phrase, often pitched low on the guitar, which focuses much of the energy and excitement of a rock song."

BBC Radio 2, in compiling its list of 100 Greatest Guitar Riffs, defined a riff as, "The main hook of a song and must be played principally by a guitar. It often begins the song, but is repeated throughout it, giving the song its distinctive voice."[31]

The term riff entered musical slang in the 1920s,[32] and is used primarily in discussion of forms of rock music or jazz. "Most rock musicians use riff as a near-synonym for musical idea."[33] The etymology of the term is not clearly known. Some sources explain riff as an abbreviation for rhythmic figure or refrain.[34]Charlie Parker's 1945 recording "Thriving From a Riff" may have popularized the term.[citation needed]

Use of the term has extended to comedy, where riffing means the verbal exploration of a particular subject, thus moving the meaning away from the original jazz sense of a repeated figure that a soloist improvises over, to instead indicate the improvisation itself—improvising on a melody or progression as one would improvise on a subject by extending a singular thought, idea or inspiration into a bit, or routine.

Neither of the terms 'riff' or 'lick' are used in classical music. Instead, individual musical phrases used as the basis of classical music pieces are called ostinatos or simply phrases. Contemporary jazz writers also use riff- or lick-like ostinatos in modal music. Latin jazz often uses guajeo-based riffs.

The term 'riff driven' describes a piece of music that relies on a repeated instrumental riff as the basis of its most prominent melody, cadence, or (in some cases) leitmotif. Riff-driven songs are largely a product of jazz, blues, and post-blues era music (rock and pop).[36] The musical goal of riff-driven songs is akin to the classical continuo effect, but raised to much higher importance (in fact, the repeated riff is used to anchor the song in the ears of the listener). The riff/continuo is brought to the forefront of the musical piece and often is the primary melody that remains in the listener's ears. A call and response often holds the song together, creating a "circular" rather than linear feel.[37]

In jazz, fusion, and related genres, a background vamp provides a performer with a harmonic framework supporting improvisation. In Latin jazzguajeos fulfill the role of piano vamp. A vamp at the beginning of a jazz tune may act as a springboard to the main tune; a vamp at the end of a song is often called a tag.

"Take Five" begins with a repeated, syncopated figure in 54 time, which pianist Dave Brubeck plays throughout the song (except for Joe Morello's drum solo and a variation on the chords in the middle section).

The music from Miles Davis's modal period (c.1958–1963) was based on improvising songs with a small number of chords. The jazz standard "So What" uses a vamp in the two-note "Sooooo what?" figure, regularly played by the piano and the trumpet throughout. Jazz scholar Barry Kernfeld calls this music vamp music.[full citation needed]

The Afro-Cuban vamp style known as guajeo is used in the bebop/Latin jazz standard "A Night in Tunisia". Depending upon the musician, a repeating figure in "A Night in Tunisia" could be called an ostinato, guajeo, riff, or vamp. The Cuban-jazz hybrid spans the disciplines that encompass all these terms.

In gospel and soul music, the band often vamps on a simple ostinato groove at the end of a song, usually over a single chord. In soul music, the end of recorded songs often contains a display of vocal effects—such as rapid scales, arpeggios, and improvised passages. For recordings, sound engineers gradually fade out the vamp section at the end of a song, to transition to the next track on the album. Salsoul singers such as Loleatta Holloway have become notable for their vocal improvisations at the end of songs, and they are sampled and used in other songs. Andrae Crouch extended the use of vamps in gospel, introducing chain vamps (one vamp after the other, each successive vamp drawn from the first).[45]

1970s-era funk music often takes a short one or two bar musical figure based on a single chord one would consider an introduction vamp in jazz or soul music, and then uses this vamp as the basis of the entire song ("Funky Drummer" by James Brown, for example). Jazz, blues, and rock are almost always based on chord progressions (a sequence of changing chords), and they use the changing harmony to build tension and sustain listener interest. Unlike these music genres, funk is based on the rhythmic groove of the percussion, rhythm section instruments, and a deep electric bass line, usually all over a single chord. "In funk, harmony is often second to the 'lock,' the linking of contrapuntal parts that are played on guitar, bass, and drums in the repeating vamp."[42]

In musical theater, a vamp, or intro, is the few bars, one to eight, of music without lyrics that begin a printed copy of a song.[46] The orchestra may repeat the vamp or other accompaniment during dialogue or stage business, as accompaniment for onstage transitions of indeterminate length. The score provides a one or two bar vamp figure, and indicates, "Vamp till cue", by the conductor. The vamp gives the onstage singers time to prepare for the song or the next verse, without requiring the music to pause. Once the vamp section is over, the music continues to the next section.

The vamp may be written by the composer of the song, a copyist employed by the publisher, or the arranger for the vocalist.[46] The vamp serves three main purposes: it provides the key, establishes the tempo, and provides emotional context.[47] The vamp may be as short as a bell tone, sting (a harmonized bell tone with stress on the starting note), or measures long.[47] The rideout is the transitional music that begins on the downbeat of the last word of the song and is usually two to four bars long, though it may be as short as a sting or as long as a Roxy Rideout.[48]

In Indian classical music, during Tabla or Pakhawaj solo performances and Kathak dance accompaniments, a conceptually similar melodic pattern known as the Lehara (sometimes spelled Lehra)[49] or Nagma is played repeatedly throughout the performance. This melodic pattern is set to the number of beats in a rhythmic cycle (Tala or Taal) being performed and may be based on one or a blend of multiple Ragas.

The basic idea of the lehara is to provide a steady melodious framework and keep the time-cycle for rhythmic improvisations. It serves as an auditory workbench not only for the soloist but also for the audience to appreciate the ingenuity of the improvisations and thus the merits of the overall performance. In Indian Classical Music, the concept of 'sam' (pronounced as 'sum') carries paramount importance. The sam is the target unison beat (and almost always the first beat) of any rhythmic cycle. The second most important beat is the Khali, which is a complement of the sam. Besides these two prominent beats, there are other beats of emphasis in any given taal, which signify 'khand's (divisions) of the taal. E.g. 'Roopak' or 'Rupak' taal, a 7-beat rhythmic cycle, is divided 3–2–2, further implying that the 1st, 4th, and 6th beats are the prominent beats in that taal. Therefore, it is customary, but not essential, to align the lehara according to the divisions of the Taal. It is done with a view to emphasize those beats that mark the divisions of the Taal.

The lehara can be played on a variety of instruments, including the sarangi, harmonium, sitar, sarod, flute and others. The playing of the lehara is relatively free from the numerous rules and constraints of Raga Sangeet, which are upheld and honoured in the tradition of Indian Classical Music. The lehara may be interspersed with short and occasional improvisations built around the basic melody. It is also permissible to switch between two or more disparate melodies during the course of the performance. It is essential that the lehara be played with the highest precision in Laya (Tempo) and Swara control, which requires years of specialist training (Taalim) and practice (Riyaaz). It is considered a hallmark of excellence to play lehara alongside a recognised Tabla or Pakhawaj virtuoso as it is a difficult task to keep a steady pulse while the percussionist is improvising or playing difficult compositions in counterpoint. While there may be scores of individually talented instrumentalists, there are very few who are capable of playing the lehra for a Tabla / Pakhawaj solo performance.
[50]

^Fast, Susan; et al. (2001). In the house of the Holy: Led Zeppelin and the power of Rock Music (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 33. The song (Black Dog) represents a defining moment in the genre of hard rock, combining the elements of speed, power, an artful and metrically clever riff. ISBN0-19-511756-5.

1.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers

2.
Motif (music)
–
It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still maintains its identity as a musical idea. The smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity, a harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or rhythm. A melodic motif is a formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic motif is the term designating a characteristic rhythmic formula, a motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a motif is a cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif is an idea at the opening of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the time placing it in the background, even if it is. strong. Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces, musical development uses a distinct musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced throughout a piece or section of a piece of music, guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic development has its roots in the sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti. Motivic saturation is the immersion of a motive in a composition. The use of motives is discussed in Adolph Weiss The Lyceum of Schönberg, hugo Riemann defines a motif as, the concrete content of a rhythmically basic time-unit. Anton Webern defines a motif as, the smallest independent particle in a musical idea, arnold Schoenberg defines a motif as, a unit which contains one or more features of interval and rhythm presence is maintained in constant use throughout a piece. Head-motif refers to a musical idea of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. It may also be called a motto, and is a frequent device in cyclic masses

3.
Phrase (music theory)
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In music theory, a phrase is a unit of musical meter that has a complete musical sense of its own, built from figures, motifs, and cells, and combining to form melodies, periods and larger sections. Terms such as sentence and verse have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax, john D. White defines a phrase as, the smallest musical unit that conveys a more or less complete musical thought. Phrases vary in length and are terminated at a point of full or partial repose, edward Cone analyses the typical musical phrase as consisting of an initial downbeat, a period of motion, and a point of arrival marked by a cadential downbeat. Charles Burkhart defines a phrase as Any group of measures that has degree of structural completeness. What counts is the sense of completeness we hear in the not the notation on the page. To be complete such a group must have an ending of some kind …, phrases are delineated by the tonal functions of pitch. They are not created by slur or by legato performance …, a phrase is not pitches only but also has a rhythmic dimension, and further, each phrase in a work contributes to that works large rhythmic organization. In common practice phrases are often four bars or measures long culminating in a more or less definite cadence. A phrase will end with a weaker or stronger cadence, depending on whether it is an antecedent phrase or a consequent phrase, however, the absolute span of the phrase is as contestable as its pendant in language, where there can be even one-word-phrases. Thus no strict line can be drawn between the terms of the phrase, the motiv or even the separate tone, discovering a works phrase rhythm is a gateway to its understanding and to effective performance. The term was popularized by William Rothsteins Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music, techniques include overlap, lead-in, extension, expansion, reinterpretation and elision. A phrase member is one of the parts in a phrase separated into two by a pause or long note value, the second of which may repeat, sequence, or contrast with the first

4.
Repetition (music)
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Repetition is important in music, where sounds or sequences are often repeated. It may be called restatement, such as the restatement of a theme, while it plays a role in all music, with noise and musical tones lying along a spectrum from irregular to periodic sounds, it is especially prominent in specific styles. A literal repetition of a passage is often indicated by the use of a repeat sign. Repetition is a part and parcel of symmetry—and of establishing motifs and you find a melodic or rhythmic figure that you like, and you repeat it throughout the course of the melody or song. This sort of repetition. helps to unify your melody, its the equivalent of a steady drumbeat. However, too much of a thing can get annoying. If you repeat your figure too often, it start to bore the listener. Memory affects the music-listening experience so profoundly that it would be not be hyperbole to say that without memory there would be no music, as scores of theorists and philosophers have noted. music is based on repetition. Music works because we remember the tones we have just heard and are relating them to the ones that are just now being played, theodor Adorno criticized repetition and popular music as being psychotic and infantile. There is no universal norm or convention for the amount or type of repetition, all music contains repetition - but in differing amounts, thus Middleton distinguishes between discursive and musematic repetition. A museme is a unit of meaning, analogous to morpheme in linguistics. Discursive repetition is at the level of the phrase or section and he gives paradigmatic case, the riff and the phrase. Musematic repetition includes circularity, synchronic relations, and openness, discursive repetition includes linearity, rational control, and self-sufficiency. Discursive repetition is most often nested in larger repetitions and may be thought of as sectional, put more simply, musematic repetition is simple repetition of precisely the same musical figure, such as a repeated chorus. Discursive repetition is, both repetitive and non-repetitive, such as the repetition of the rhythmic figure with different notes. Therefore, they would repeat parts of their song at times, making music like sonata very repetitive, Repetition is important in musical form. The repetition of any section of ternary form results in expanded ternary form, types of repetition include exact repetition, repetition after digression, and nonrepetition. Copland and Slatkin offer Au clair de la lune and Ach. du lieber Augustin Play as examples of aba, at the tone level, repetition creates a drone

5.
Part (music)
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A part is a strand or melody of music played by an individual instrument or voice within a larger work. Parts may be referred to as a part or an inner part. Part-writing is the composition of parts in consideration of harmony and counterpoint, in the context of polyphonic composition the term voice may be used instead of part to denote a single melodic line or textural layer. The term is generic, and is not meant to imply that the line should necessarily be vocal in character, allen Forte defines a voice thus, By voice we mean the succession of notes performed by a single human voice or single-line instrument. Codex Calixtinus contains the earliest extant decipherable part music, part writing is derived from four-voice chorales written by J. S. The late baroque era composer wrote a total of 371 harmonized chorales, today most students reference Albert Riemenschneiders 1941 compilation of Bach chorales. Part writing is a technique that involves writing a piece of music for one or more parts. Briefly, it, may be defined as Part-writing and it has also been defined, happily, as the art of combining melodies. In other words, laws of combination, and laws of progression, individual, in musical forms, a part may refer to a subdivision in the structure of a piece. This is for example the case in the widely used ternary form, in this form the first and third parts are musically identical, or very nearly so, while the second part in some way provides a contrast with them. In this meaning of part, similar terms used are section, strain, or turn

6.
Classical music
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Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th

7.
Maurice Ravel
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Joseph Maurice Ravel was a French composer, pianist and conductor. He is often associated with impressionism along with his elder contemporary Claude Debussy, in the 1920s and 1930s Ravel was internationally regarded as Frances greatest living composer. After leaving the conservatoire Ravel found his own way as a composer, developing a style of great clarity, incorporating elements of baroque, neoclassicism and, in his later works, jazz. He liked to experiment with form, as in his best-known work, Boléro. He made some arrangements of other composers music, of which his 1922 version of Mussorgskys Pictures at an Exhibition is the best known. As a slow and painstaking worker, Ravel composed fewer pieces than many of his contemporaries. Among his works to enter the repertoire are pieces for piano, chamber music, many of his works exist in two versions, a first, piano score and a later orchestration. Some of his music, such as Gaspard de la nuit, is exceptionally difficult to play. Ravel was among the first composers to recognise the potential of recording to bring their music to a wider public, from the 1920s, despite limited technique as a pianist or conductor, he took part in recordings of several of his works, others were made under his supervision. Ravel was born in the Basque town of Ciboure, France and his father, Pierre-Joseph Ravel, was an educated and successful engineer, inventor and manufacturer, born in Versoix near the Franco-Swiss border. His mother, Marie, née Delouart, was Basque but had grown up in Madrid, in 19th-century terms, Joseph had married beneath his status – Marie was illegitimate and barely literate – but the marriage was a happy one. Both Ravels parents were Roman Catholics, Marie was also something of a free-thinker, a trait inherited by her elder son and he was baptised in the Ciboure parish church six days after he was born. The family moved to Paris three months later, and there a younger son, Édouard, was born and he was close to his father, whom he eventually followed into the engineering profession. Maurice was particularly devoted to their mother, her Basque-Spanish heritage was an influence on his life. Among his earliest memories were folk songs she sang to him, the household was not rich, but the family was comfortable, and the two boys had happy childhoods. Ravel senior delighted in taking his sons to factories to see the latest mechanical devices, in later life, Ravel recalled, Throughout my childhood I was sensitive to music. My father, much better educated in art than most amateurs are, knew how to develop my taste. There is no record that Ravel received any formal schooling in his early years

8.
Popular music
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Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated

9.
Donna Summer
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LaDonna Adrian Gaines, better known by her stage name Donna Summer, was an American singer, songwriter, and actress. She gained prominence during the era of the late 1970s. Summer has reportedly sold over 140 million records, making her one of the worlds best-selling artists of all time and she also charted two number-one singles on the R&B charts in the U. S. and one number-one in the U. K. Summer earned a total of 32 hit singles on the U. S. Billboard Hot 100 chart in her lifetime, with 14 of those reaching the top ten. She claimed a top 40 hit every year between 1975 and 1984, and from her first top ten hit in 1976, to the end of 1982, she had 12 top ten hits, more than any other act. She returned to the Hot 100s top five in 1983, and her most recent Hot 100 hit came in 1999 with I Will Go With You. While her fortunes on the Hot 100 waned through those decades, while influenced by the counterculture of the 1960s, Summer became the lead singer of a psychedelic rock band named Crow and moved to New York City. Joining a touring version of the musical Hair, she left New York and spent several years living, acting, and singing in Europe and she became known as the Queen of Disco, while her music gained a global following. Summer died on May 17,2012, at her home in Naples, in her obituary in The Times, she was described as the undisputed queen of the Seventies disco boom who reached the status of one of the worlds leading female singers. Giorgio Moroder described Summers work with him on the song I Feel Love as really the start of electronic dance music, in 2013, Summer was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In December 2016, Billboard Magazine ranked her as the 6th most successful dance artist of all-time, laDonna Adrian Gaines was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Andrew and Mary Gaines, and was one of seven children. She was raised in the Boston neighborhood of Mission Hill and her father was a butcher and her mother was a schoolteacher. Summers performance debut occurred at church when she was eight years old and she later attended Bostons Jeremiah E. Burke High School where she performed in school musicals and was considered popular. In 1967, just weeks before graduation, Donna left for New York where she joined the rock band Crow. After they were passed on by a label that was only interested in the bands lead singer. Summer stayed in New York and auditioned for a role in the counterculture musical and she landed the part of Sheila, and agreed to take the role in the Munich production of the show, moving there after getting her parents reluctant approval. Summer eventually became fluent in German, singing songs in that language, and participated in the musicals Ich bin ich, Godspell. Within three years, she moved to Vienna, Austria, and joined the Vienna Volksoper and she briefly toured with an ensemble vocal group called FamilyTree, the creation of producer Günter Yogi Lauke

10.
Giorgio Moroder
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Giovanni Giorgio Moroder is an Italian singer, songwriter, DJ and record producer. Moroder is frequently credited with pioneering Italo disco and electronic dance music, when in Munich in the 1970s, he started his own record label called Oasis Records, which several years later became a subdivision of Casablanca Records. Moroder also composed the soundtrack for the film Midnight Express, which won an Academy Award, in 1990, he composed Unestate italiana, the official theme song of the 1990 FIFA World Cup. He also created a score of songs for performers including David Bowie, Kylie Minogue, Irene Cara, Janet Jackson, Madleen Kane, Melissa Manchester, Blondie, Japan, Moroder has stated that the work of which he is most proud is Berlins Take My Breath Away. What a Feeling earned him the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1986 and 1983, Moroder was born Giovanni Giorgio Moroder on 26 April 1940 in Urtijëi in South Tyrol, Italy. He came to prominence in 1969, when his recording Looky Looky and he then made a name for himself in studios around Germany in the early 1970s. That same year he co-wrote and produced the seminal Donna Summer hit single I Feel Love, the following year he released Chase, the theme from the film Midnight Express. Chase is often used on the American syndicated late-night radio show Coast to Coast and was used as an entrance theme for wrestlings group The Midnight Express. These songs achieved some success in the United Kingdom, the United States and across Europe. The full film score for Midnight Express won him his first Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1979, in 1979 Moroder released his album E=MC². Text on the albums cover stated that it was the first electronic live-to-digital album and he also released three albums between 1977–1979 under the name Munich Machine. In 1980, he composed and produced two soundtrack albums, the first for Foxes and the second for American Gigolo. A double album of the Foxes soundtrack was released on the disco label Casablanca Records which includes Donna Summers hit single On the Radio, the Foxes soundtrack also contains a song titled Bad Love, written and performed by the singer-actress Cher and produced by Moroder. The American Gigolo soundtrack featured the Moroder-produced Call Me by Blondie, the combined club play of the albums tracks was number two for five weeks on the disco/dance charts. In 1982 he wrote the soundtrack of the movie Cat People, in 1983, Moroder produced the soundtrack for the film Scarface. During its initial release, the album was available in a few countries. Notable Moroder-produced tracks included Scarface by Paul Engemann, Rush Rush by Debbie Harry, in 1984, Moroder compiled a new restoration and edit of the silent film Metropolis and provided it with a contemporary soundtrack. This soundtrack includes seven pop music tracks from Pat Benatar, Jon Anderson, Adam Ant, Billy Squier, Loverboy, Bonnie Tyler and Freddie Mercury

11.
I Feel Love
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I Feel Love is a song by American singer-songwriter Donna Summer from her fifth album I Remember Yesterday. It peaked at six on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Outside the United States, I Feel Love topped the charts in Australia, the track was produced by Italian musician Giorgio Moroder, an early adopter of electronic sequencers and four-four beats. The song became popular in High Energy discos, in 2006 Slant Magazine ranked the song 1st in its list of 100 Greatest Dance Songs. Before I Feel Love, most disco recordings had been backed by acoustic orchestras although all-electronic music had been produced for decades, Moroder went to work on the song with Bellotte in his Musicland studio in Munich. We wanted to conclude with a song, he said. Unusually for a track of that era, Moroder composed the backing track. He introduced a degree of variety by altering the songs key at regular intervals and layering in Summers repetitive, the song is in the key of E flat major and C major, with electronic dance flavor, and choruses and interludes. The song would garner Summer her first American Music Award nomination for Favourite Female Soul/R&B Artist, according to David Bowie, then in the middle of recording of his Berlin Trilogy with Brian Eno, its impact on the genres direction was recognized early on, One day in Berlin. Eno came running in and said, I have heard the sound of the future and he puts on I Feel Love, by Donna Summer. He said, This is it, look no further and this single is going to change the sound of club music for the next fifteen years. Which was more or less right, Music critic Vince Aletti wrote that, The pace is fierce and utterly gripping with the synthesizer effects particularly aggressive and emotionally charged. He went on to predict that the track should easily equal if not surpass the success of Love to Love You Baby in the clubs, the album version lasts for almost six minutes. It was extended for release as a 12 maxi-single, the version included on the 1989 compilation The Dance Collection. The song was edited on the 7 format, the fade-in opening sound reaching maximum volume sooner. The song peaked at six on the Billboard Hot 100 chart the week of November 12,1977. It reached number nine on the Soul Singles Chart in October 1977 and its 1995 remix peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play. In the United Kingdom, I Feel Love peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart in July 1977, the 1982 and 1995 remixes of the song peaked at number 21 and number eight on the chart respectively, and sales of these physical singles totalled 956,400

12.
The Verve
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The Verve were an English rock band formed in Wigan in 1990 by lead vocalist Richard Ashcroft, guitarist Nick McCabe, bass guitarist Simon Jones and drummer Peter Salisbury. Guitarist and keyboard player Simon Tong became a member at a later date, beginning with a psychedelic sound, by the mid-1990s the band had released several EPs and three albums. It also endured name and line-up changes, break-ups, health problems, drug abuse, the bands commercial breakthrough was the 1997 album Urban Hymns, one of the best-selling albums in UK Chart history. The album features the hit singles Bitter Sweet Symphony, The Drugs Dont Work, soon after their commercial peak, the Verve broke up in April 1999, citing internal conflicts. During an eight-year split, Ashcroft dismissed talk of a reunion, saying, the bands original line-up reunited in June 2007, embarking on a tour later that year and releasing the album Forth in August 2008, which spawned the hit single Love Is Noise. Amid revived tensions, the broke up for the second time in 2009. The founding members of the Verve met at Winstanley Sixth Form College, in Wigan, the band was initially known as just Verve, and their first gig was at a friends 18th birthday party at the Honeysuckle Pub, in Wigan, on 15 August 1990. Most of the early material was created through extensive jam sessions. Fronted by singer Richard Ashcroft, the caused an buzz in early 1991 for their ability to captivate audiences with their musical textures. Those first 3 singles reached the first spot in the UK Indie charts, the band saw some support from these early days in the United States in some music scenes in big cities like New York connected with psychedelic music. 1993s A Storm in Heaven was the bands debut, produced by record producer John Leckie. Blue was released as the single and again managed to enter in the UK Top 75 at No.69. The album was a success, but was only a moderate commercial success. The second single from the album, Slide Away, topped the UK indie rock charts, during this period the band played a number of gigs with Oasis who, at the time, were relatively unknown. In 1994, the released the album No Come Down. It was the bands first release under the name The Verve, the band then played on the travelling U. S. alternative rock festival, Lollapalooza, in the summer of 1994. A new mix of Blue was released in the U. S. to promote the band, however, the band were performing again the very next day. Ashcroft later recalled, At the start, it was an adventure, the bands physical and mental turmoil continued into the chaotic recording sessions of the bands second album, 1995s A Northern Soul, produced by Owen Morris

13.
Bitter Sweet Symphony
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Bitter Sweet Symphony is a song by English alternative rock band The Verve, and is the lead track on their third studio album, Urban Hymns. Consequently, Mick Jagger and Keith Richards were added to the songwriting credits, Bitter Sweet Symphony was released on 16 June 1997 by Hut Recordings as the first single from the album, reaching number two on the UK Singles Chart and stayed in the chart for three months. MTV played the video of the song frequently, in it, Richard Ashcroft sings the song while walking down a busy London pavement, oblivious to what is going on around and refusing to change his stride or direction throughout. In 1999, the song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song, the Rolling Stones song is itself strongly inspired from The Last Time from the Staple Singers. The Verve relinquished all of their royalties to Klein, owner of ABKCO Records, the Verve bassist Simon Jones said, We were told it was going to be a 50/50 split, and then they saw how well the record was doing. They rung up and said we want 100 percent or take it out of the shops, you dont have much choice. After losing the composer credits to the song, Ashcroft commented, This is the best song Jagger and Richards have written in 20 years, on Ashcrofts return to touring, the song traditionally ended the set list. Ashcroft also reworked the single for VH2 Live for the music channel VH1, also shows that ultimately take away the dressing, take away the strings, take away the sample, theres an actual song there. In a Cash for Questions interview with Q magazine published in January 1999 and he replied, Im out of whack here, this is serious lawyer shit. If The Verve can write a song, they can keep the money. In 1999, Andrew Oldham also sued for royalties after failing to receive the mechanical royalties he claimed he was owed, after receiving his royalties, Oldham joked that he bought a pretty presentable watch strap compared to the watch Jagger and Richards would get with the money. In an interview with Uncut Magazine, Oldham stated, As for Richard Ashcroft, well, songwriters have learned to call songs their children, and he thinks he wrote something. This was certainly the most successful track Ive done, noted producer Youth, I think Richard had actually cut a version with John Leckie but, by the time I came on board, he didnt want to do the song. I persuaded him to have a go at cutting a version and it was only once wed put strings on it that he started getting excited. Then, towards the end, Richard wanted to chuck all the album away, All I could say was, I really think you should reconsider. He repeatedly bumps into passers-by in a fashion, narrowly avoids being hit by a car. At the end of the video, the rest of The Verve join Ashcroft, and this then leads into the beginning of the video for The Drugs Dont Work. The music video was nominated for a number of awards, including three MTV Awards at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards

14.
Rhythm
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Rhythm generally means a movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions. In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a scale, of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the delivery of the lyrics is one of the most important elements of the style. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as timed movement through space, in recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty, Godfried Toussaint, William Rothstein, and Joel Lester. In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words. In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk, other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that certain features of human music are widespread. The perception and abstraction of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural selection. Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, some types of parrots can know rhythm. There is not a report of an animal being trained to tap, peck. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm, Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan, for information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala. For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and this consists of a series of identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time. It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation, faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels. Rhythms of recurrence arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups. Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, a durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. A rhythmic gesture is any pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit

15.
Melody
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London

16.
Variation (music)
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In music, variation is a formal technique where material is repeated in an altered form. The changes may involve harmony, melody, counterpoint, rhythm, timbre, Variation forms include ground bass, passacaglia, chaconne, and theme and variations. Ground bass, passacaglia and chaconne are typically based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive harmonic basis and are typically continuous evolving structures. Theme and variation forms are based specifically on melodic variation, in which the fundamental musical idea. This form may in part have derived from the practical inventiveness of musicians, Court dances were long, Variation forms can be written as free-standing pieces for solo instruments or ensembles, or can constitute a movement of a larger piece. Most jazz music is structured on a pattern of theme. 56, Elgars Enigma Variations, Francks Variations Symphoniques, and Richard Strausss Don Quixote, both Schuberts Death and the Maiden Quartet and Trout Quintet take their titles from his songs used as variation movements. Although the first isolated example emerged in the 14th century, works in theme-and-variation form first emerge in the sixteenth century. Possibly the earliest published example is the diferencias for vihuela by Luis de Narváez, a favorite form of variations in Renaissance music was divisions, a type in which the basic rhythmic beat is successively divided into smaller and smaller values. Keyboard works in form were written by a number of 16th-century English composers, including William Byrd, Hugh Aston. Outstanding examples of early Baroque variations are the ciaccone of Claudio Monteverdi, in the Classical era, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as the first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K.331, or the finale of his Clarinet Quintet. 103, the Drumroll, and the Variations in F minor for piano, ludwig van Beethoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for instance the Diabelli Variations, Op.120, others form single movements or parts of movements in larger works, such as first movement of the Piano Sonata No. 12, Op.26, or the variations in the movement of the Third Symphony. Variation sets also occur in several of his works, such as the slow movement of his String Quartet No. 12, Op.127, the movement of his final Piano Sonata No. 32, Op.111, and the third movement of the Ninth Symphony. Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own lieder as themes, amongst them is the slow movement of his string quartet Death and the Maiden D.810, an intense set of variations on his somber lied of the same title

17.
Musical development
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In classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition. It refers to the transformation and restatement of initial material, development is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end. Development is carried out upon portions of material treated in many different presentations and combinations at a time, listeners may apprehend a tension between expected and real results, which is one element of surprise in music. In sonata form, the section is called the development. Typically, in section, material from the exposition section is developed. In some older texts, this section may be referred to as free fantasia, according to the Oxford Companion to Music there are several ways of developing a theme. These include, The division of a theme into parts, each of which can be developed in any of the ways or recombined in a new way. Similarly, two or more themes can be developed in combination, in cases, themes are composed with this possibility in mind. Alteration of pitch intervals while retaining the original rhythm, rhythmic displacement, so that the metrical stress occurs at a different point in the otherwise unchanged theme. Sequence, either diatonically within a key or through a succession of keys, the Scherzo movement from Beethovens Piano Sonata No.15 in D major, Op 28 shows a number of these processes at work on a small scale. Developing variation Fugue#Development Secondary development Sequence

18.
Harmony
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In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant

19.
Key (music)
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In music theory, the key of a piece is a group of pitches, or scale upon which a music composition is created in classical, Western art, and Western pop music. Notes and chords other than the tonic in a piece create varying degrees of tension, the key may be in the major or minor mode, although major is assumed in a phrase like this piece is in C. Popular songs are usually in a key, and so is classical music during the common practice period, longer pieces in the classical repertoire may have sections in contrasting keys. Methods that establish the key for a piece can be complicated to explain. The key signature is not always a reliable guide to the key of a written piece, occasionally, a piece in a mode such as Mixolydian or Dorian is written with a major or minor key signature appropriate to the tonic, and accidentals throughout the piece. Pieces in modes not corresponding to major or minor keys may sometimes be referred to as being in the key of the tonic. A piece using some type of harmony, resolving e. g. to A. An instrument may be said to be in a key, an unrelated usage referring to the pitches considered natural for that instrument. For example, modern trumpets are usually in the key of B♭, a key relationship is the relationship between keys, measured by common tones and nearness on the circle of fifths. The key usually identifies the tonic note and/or chord, the note and/or major or minor triad that represents the point of rest for a piece. For example, the key of G includes the following pitches, G, A, B, C, D, E, and F♯, and its corresponding tonic chord is G—B—D. Most often at the beginning and end of traditional pieces during the common practice period, a key may be major or minor. Music can be described as being in the Dorian mode, or Phrygian, languages other than English may use other key naming systems. Although many musicians confuse key with scale, a scale is a set of notes typically used in a key, while the key is the center of gravity. All of these notes and chords, however, are used in patterns that serve to establish the primacy of the tonic note. Cadences are particularly important in the establishment of key, even cadences that do not include the tonic note or triad, such as half cadences and deceptive cadences, serve to establish key because those chord sequences imply a unique diatonic context. Short pieces may stay in a single key throughout, more elaborate pieces may establish the main key, then modulate to another key, or a series of keys, then back to the original key. In the Baroque it was common to repeat a phrase of music, called a ritornello

20.
Musical improvisation
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Sometimes musical ideas in improvisation are spontaneous, but may be based on chord changes in classical music, and many other kinds of music. One definition is a performance given extempore without planning or preparation, another definition is to play or sing extemporaneously, by inventing variations on a melody or creating new melodies, rhythms and harmonies. Improvisation is often done within a harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisation is a part of some types of 20th-century music, such as blues, jazz. Throughout the eras of the Western art music tradition, including the Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Bach, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, and many other famous composers and musicians were known especially for their improvisational skills. Improvisation might have played an important role in the monophonic period, the earliest treatises on polyphony, such as the Musica enchiriadis, indicate that added parts were improvised for centuries before the first notated examples. However, it was only in the century that theorists began making a hard distinction between improvised and written music. Handel, Scarlatti, and Bach all belonged to a tradition of solo keyboard improvisation, in the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. At the same time, some contemporary composers from the 20th, in Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances. In Indian, Afghani, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi classical music, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines a raga as a melodic framework for improvisation and composition. Keyboard players likewise performed extempore, freely formed pieces, the pattern of chords in many baroque preludes, for example, can be played on keyboard and guitar over a pedal tone or repeated bass notes. Such progressions can be used in other structures and contexts, and are still found in Mozart. Bach, for example, was fond of the sound produced by the dominant seventh harmony played over, i. e. suspended against. This shift of roles between treble and bass is another definitive characteristic, finally, in keeping with this polarity, the kind of question and answer which appears in baroque music has the appearance of fugue or canon. This method was a favorite in compositions by Scarlatti and Handel especially at the beginning of a piece, improvised accompaniment over a figured bass was a common practice during the Baroque era, and to some extent the following periods. Improvisation remains a feature of playing in some church services and are regularly also performed at concerts. Dietrich Buxtehude and Johann Sebastian Bach were regarded in the Baroque period as highly skilled organ improvisers, maurice Duruflé, a great improviser himself, transcribed improvisations by Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire. Olivier Latry later wrote his improvisations as a compositions, for example Salve Regina, Classical music departs from baroque style in that sometimes several voices may move together as chords involving both hands, to form brief phrases without any passing tones

21.
Modal jazz
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Modal jazz is jazz that uses musical modes rather than chord progressions as a harmonic framework. Originating in the late 1950s and 1960s, modal jazz is epitomized by Miles Daviss 1958 composition Milestones,1959 album Kind of Blue, and John Coltranes classic quartet from 1960–64. Other important performers include Woody Shaw, Bill Evans, Herbie Hancock, Wayne Shorter, McCoy Tyner, Larry Young, Pharoah Sanders, Joe Henderson, Chick Corea, in bebop as well as in hard bop, musicians use chords to provide the background for solos. A song starts out with a theme that introduces the chords for the solos and these chords repeat throughout the whole song, while the soloists play new, improvised themes over the repeated chord progression. By the 1950s, improvising over chords had become such a dominant part of jazz and this inversion technique led to a modal sound throughout Tizols work. Towards the end of the 1950s, spurred by the experiments of composer and bandleader George Russell and they chose not to write their pieces using conventional chord changes, but instead using modal scales. Musicians employing this technique include Miles Davis, Freddie Hubbard, Bill Evans, Herbie Hancock, among the significant compositions of modal jazz were So What by Miles Davis and Impressions by John Coltrane. So What and Impressions follow the same AABA song form and were in D Dorian for the A sections, the Dorian mode is the natural minor scale with a raised sixth. Other compositions include Davis Flamenco Sketches, Bill Evans Peace Piece, Miles Davis recorded one of the best selling jazz albums of all time in this modal framework. Kind of Blue is an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz, included on these sessions was tenor saxophonist John Coltrane who, throughout the 1960s, would explore the possibilities of modal improvisation more deeply than any other jazz artist. The rest of the musicians on the album were alto saxophonist Cannonball Adderley, pianists Bill Evans and Wynton Kelly, bassist Paul Chambers and this record is considered a kind of test album in many conservatories focusing on jazz improvisation. The compositions So What and All Blues from Kind of Blue are considered jazz standards. Davis has acknowledged the role played by Bill Evans, a former member of George Russells ensembles. Another great innovator in the field of jazz is pianist Herbie Hancock. He is well known for working in Miles Daviss Second Great Quintet, Herbie Hancock recorded a number of solo albums, the pieces haunting repeating vamps in the rhythm section and the searching feeling of the entire piece has made Maiden Voyage one of the most famous modal pieces. Miles Davis was effusive in his praise for Jamals influence on him, his playing, and his music, Adderley, Coltrane, and Davis at the Twilight of Bebop, The Search for Melodic Coherence

22.
Latin jazz
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Latin jazz is a genre of jazz with Latin American rhythms. Although musicians continually expand its parameters, the term Latin jazz is generally understood to have a specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. Some Latin jazz typically employs rhythms that either have an analog in Africa. The two main categories of Latin jazz are, Afro-Cuban jazz—jazz rhythmically based on Cuban popular dance music, Afro-Brazilian jazz—includes bossa nova and jazz samba. African American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban musical motifs in the 19th century, the habanera was the first written music to be rhythmically based on an African motif. The habanera rhythm can be thought of as a combination of tresillo, wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the New Orleans clave, although technically, the pattern is only half a clave. Handy has a bass line. I began to suspect there was something Negroid in that beat. Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo/habanera to be an ingredient of jazz. The habanera rhythm can be heard in his hand on songs like The Crave. Now in one of my earliest tunes, “New Orleans Blues, in fact, if you can’t manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz—Morton. Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, buddy Bolden, the first known jazz musician, is credited with creating the big four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march, as the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm. It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz, because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed and it may also account for the fact that patterns such as. Remained one of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazz—Schuller, caravan, written by Juan Tizol and first performed in 1936, is an early proto-Latin jazz composition. The first jazz piece to be overtly based in-clave, and therefore, the tune was initially a descarga with jazz solos superimposed, spontaneously composed by Bauzá. The right hand of the Tanga piano guajeo is in the known as ponchando

23.
Music of Africa
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The traditional music of Africa, given the vastness of the continent, is historically ancient, rich and diverse, with different regions and nations of Africa having many distinct musical traditions. Traditional music in most of the continent is passed down orally and is not written, the music and dance of the African diaspora, formed to varying degrees on African musical traditions, include American music and many Caribbean genres, such as soca, calypso and zouk. Latin American music genres such as the rumba, conga, bomba, cumbia and samba were also founded on the music of enslaved Africans, and have in turn influenced African popular music. North Africa is the seat of ancient Egypt and Carthage, civilizations with strong ties to the ancient Near East, eventually, Egypt fell under Persian rule followed by Greek and Roman rule, while Carthage was later ruled by Romans and Vandals. North Africa was later conquered by the Arabs, who established the region as the Maghreb of the Arab world, like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa, its music has close ties with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes. North African music has a range, from the music of ancient Egypt to the Berber. The regions art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabic and Andalusian classical music, with these may be grouped the music of Sudan and of the Horn of Africa, including the music of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Somali music is pentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic scale such as the major scale. The music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a fundamental modal system called qenet, of which there are four modes, tezeta, bati, ambassel. Three additional modes are variations on the above, tezeta minor, bati major, some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence. The ethnomusicological pioneer Arthur Morris Jones observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Sub-Saharan African music traditions constitute one main system, similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the profound homogeneity of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principles. African traditional music is frequently functional in nature, performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience. None of this is performed outside its intended context and much of it is associated with a particular dance. Some of it, performed by musicians, is sacral music or ceremonial. The southern region includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia, the central region includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, including Pygmy music. Southern, Central and West Africa are similarly in the broad Sub-Saharan musical tradition, besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex hard melisma and yodel, a wide array of musical instruments are used. Additionally, string instruments are used, with the lute-like oud. Other percussion instruments include many rattles and shakers, such as the kosika, rain stick, bells, also, Africa has lots of other types of drums, and lots of flutes, and lots of stringed and wind instruments

24.
Gnawa music
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Gnawa music is a rich Moroccan repertoire of ancient African Islamic spiritual religious songs and rhythms. Its well-preserved heritage combines ritual poetry with music and dancing. The music is performed at lila, entire communal nights of celebration dedicated to prayer and healing guided by the Gnawa maalem, or master musician, though many of the influences that formed this music can be traced to sub-Saharan West-Africa, its traditional practice is concentrated in Morocco. Nowadays, Gnawa music has spread through other countries in Africa and Europe. The Moroccan language often replaces K with G, which is how the Kanawa, the history of the Gnawi is closely related to the famous Moroccan royal Black Guard, which became today the Royal Guard of Morocco. Gnawa music is one of the major musical currents in Morocco, moroccans overwhelmingly love Gnawa music and Gnawas Maalems are highly respected, and enjoy an aura of musical stardom. In a Gnawa song, one phrase or a few lines are repeated over and over, in fact, a song may last several hours non-stop. But because they are suited for adepts in a state of trance, they go on and on, the melodic language of the stringed instrument is closely related to their vocal music and to their speech patterns, as is the case in much African music. It is a language that emphasizes on the tonic and fifth, with quavering pitch-play, especially pitch-flattening, around the third, the fifth and this is the language of the blues. Gnawa music is characterized by instrumentation, the large heavy iron castanets known as qraqab and a three -string lute known commonly as a hajhuj are central to Gnawa music. The rhythms of the Gnawa, like their instrumentations are distinctive, particularly Gnawa is characterized by interplay between triple and duple meters. The big bass drums mentioned by Schuyler are not typically featured in a traditional setting. Gnawa have venerable stringed-instrument traditions involving both bowed lutes like the gogo and plucked lutes like the gimbri, a bass instrument. The Gnawa also use large drums called tbel in their ritual music, the Gnawa hajhuj has strong historical and musical links to West African lutes like the Hausa halam, a direct ancestor of the banjo. Gnawa hajhuj players use a technique which 19th century American minstrel banjo instruction manuals identify as brushless drop-thumb frailing, the brushless part means the fingers do not brush several strings at once to make chords. Gnawas perform a liturgy, called lila or derdeba. The ceremony recreates the first sacrifice and the genesis of the universe by the evocation of the seven manifestations of the divine demiurgic activity. It calls the seven saints and supernatural entities represented by seven colors, the derdeba is jointly animated by a maâlem at the head of his troop and by moqadma or shuwafa who is in charge of the accessories and clothing necessary to the ritual

25.
Gioachino Rossini
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Gioachino Antonio Rossini was an Italian composer who wrote operas, as well as some sacred music, songs, chamber music and piano pieces. A precocious composer of operas, he made his debut at the age of eighteen. His best-known operas include the Italian comedies Il barbiere di Siviglia, Litaliana in Algeri and he also wrote a string of serious operas in Italian, including works such as Tancredi, Otello and Semiramide. The semi-serious opera La Gazza Ladra has one of Rossinis most celebrated overtures, after moving to Paris in 1824, he eventually started to write in French. His last opera, the epic Guillaume Tell, replete with its iconic overture, after composing thirty-nine significant operas in nineteen years Rossini retired from the theatre in 1829. Later, he was affected by physical and mental illnesses and for decades wrote relatively little apart from a setting of the Stabat Mater. A return to Paris from Italy in 1855 was followed by better health, during these, he presented salon music in the form of songs, piano pieces and small chamber ensembles that he called Sins of Old Age. He considered the last of these Sins to be the unusually scored Petite messe solennelle that he wrote in 1863, Rossini had been the most popular opera composer in history, and he was one of the most renowned public figures of his time. A rapid and prolific composer, he was quoted as joking, Give me the laundress bill, a tendency for inspired, song-like melodies is evident throughout his scores, earning him the nickname The Italian Mozart. Use of a build up of orchestral sound over a repeated phrase—commonly known as a Rossini crescendo—also prompted the nickname Signor Crescendo. Gioachino Antonio Rossini was born into a family of musicians in Pesaro and his father, Giuseppe, was a horn player and inspector of slaughterhouses. His mother, Anna, was a singer and a bakers daughter, Rossinis father was sympathetic to the French Revolution and welcomed Napoleons troops when they arrived in northern Italy. When Austria restored the old regime, Rossinis father was sent to prison in 1799, Rossinis mother took him to Bologna, making a living as leading singer at various theatres of the Romagna region. Her husband would ultimately join her in Bologna, during this time, Rossini was frequently left in the care of his aging grandmother, who had difficulty supervising the boy. He remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher while his father played the horn in the orchestras of the theatres at which his wife sang and these qualities made him a subject for ridicule in the eyes of the young Rossini. He was eventually taken from Prinetti and apprenticed to a blacksmith, in Angelo Tesei, he found a congenial music master, and learned to sight-read, play accompaniments on the piano and sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age. Important products of this period are six sonate a quattro, or string sonatas, the original scores, dating from 1804 when the composer was twelve, were found in the Library of Congress in Washington D. C. In 1805, he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Ferdinando Paers Camilla and he was also a capable horn player, treading in the footsteps of his father

26.
Dynamics (music)
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In music, dynamics are instructions in musical notation to the performer about the loudness at which to play a note or phrase. More generally, dynamics may also include aspects of the execution of a given piece. The two basic dynamic indications in music are, p or piano, meaning soft, more subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by, mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning half soft. Mf, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning half loud, più p, standing for più piano and meaning softer. Più f, standing for più forte and meaning louder, use of up to three consecutive fs or ps is also common, pp, standing for pianissimo and meaning very soft. Ff, standing for fortissimo and meaning very loud, ppp, standing for pianississimo and meaning very very soft. Fff, standing for fortississimo and meaning very loud. Some pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three consecutive fs or ps, in Holsts The Planets, ffff occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by organ and fff occurs several times throughout the work. It also appears in Heitor Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No,4, and in Liszts Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale Ad nos, ad salutarem undam. Igor Stravinsky used ffff at the end of the finale of the Firebird Suite, ffff is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op. 3-2. Shostakovich even went as loud as fffff in his fourth symphony, gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses a marking of fffff, along with a footnote directing pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood. On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the movement of his Symphony No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp, another more extreme dynamic is in György Ligetis Études No. 13, which has at one point a ffffff and progresses to a ffffffff, in the baritone passage Era la notte from his opera Otello, Verdi uses pppp. Steane and others suggest that such markings are in reality a strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the singer actually to attempt a pppp, dynamic indications of this kind are relative, not absolute. Mp does not indicate a level of volume, it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p. Interpretations of dynamic levels are mostly to the performer, in the Barber Piano Nocturne. Another instance of performers discretion in this piece occurs when the hand is shown to crescendo to a f

27.
Vincenzo Bellini
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Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini was an Italian opera composer, who was known for his long-flowing melodic lines for which he was named the Swan of Catania. Other sources of information come from correspondence saved by other friends, C Bellini was the quintessential composer of the Italian bel canto era of the early 19th century, and his work has been summed up by the London critic Tim Ashley as. Also hugely influential, as much admired by composers as he was by the public. Verdi raved about his long, long, long melodies, wagner, who rarely liked anyone but himself, was spellbound by Bellinis almost uncanny ability to match music with text and psychology. Liszt and Chopin professed themselves fans, of the 19th-century giants, only Berlioz demurred. Those musicologists who consider Bellini to be merely a melancholic tunesmith are now in the minority, the genuine triumph of I puritani in January 1835 in Paris capped a significant career. Certainly, Capuleti, La sonnambula, Norma, and I puritani are regularly performed today, only nine months later, Bellini died in Puteaux, France at the age of 33. Born in Catania, at the part of the Kingdom of Sicily. His grandfather, Vincenzo Tobia Bellini, had studied at the conservatory in Naples and, in Catania from 1767 forward, had been an organist and teacher, as had Vincenzos father, by the age of five, he could apparently play marvelously. The document states that Bellinis first five pieces were composed when he was just six years old and at seven he was taught Latin, modern languages, rhetoric, and philosophy. Author Herbert Weinstock regards some of these accounts as no more than myths, not being supported from other, additionally, he makes the point in regard to Bellinis apparent knowledge of languages and philosophy, Bellini never became a well-educated man. After 1816, Bellini began living with his grandfather, from whom he received his first music lessons, soon after, the young composer began to write compositions. Among them were the nine Versetti da cantarsi il Venerdi Santo, by 1818, Bellini had independently completed several additional orchestral pieces. He was ready for further study, for well-off students, this would include moving to Naples. While his family wasnt wealthy enough to support that lifestyle, Bellinis growing reputation could not be overlooked and his break came when Stefano Notabartolo, the duca di San Martino e Montalbo and his duchess, became the new intendente of the province of Catania. They encouraged the man to petition the city fathers for a stipend to support his musical studies. This was successfully achieved in May 1819 with unanimous agreement for a pension to allow him to study at the Real Collegio di Musica di San Sebastiano in Naples. The young Bellini was to live in Naples for the eight years

28.
Richard Wagner
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Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works and he described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and his advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres, greatly influenced the development of classical music. His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music, Wagner had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many novel design features. The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed at the annual Bayreuth Festival, until his final years, Wagners life was characterised by political exile, turbulent love affairs, poverty and repeated flight from his creditors. His controversial writings on music, drama and politics have attracted extensive comment, notably, since the late 20th century, where they express antisemitic sentiments. The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century, his influence spread beyond composition into conducting, philosophy, literature, Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig, where his family lived at No. 3, the Brühl in the Jewish quarter and he was baptized at St. Thomas Church. He was the child of Carl Friedrich Wagner, who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service, and his wife, Johanna Rosine. Wagners father Carl died of typhus six months after Richards birth, afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carls friend, the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer. In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married—although no documentation of this has found in the Leipzig church registers. She and her family moved to Geyers residence in Dresden, until he was fourteen, Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer. He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father, Geyers love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson, and Wagner took part in his performances. In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel, in late 1820, Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzels school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. He struggled to play a scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear. Following Geyers death in 1821, Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule, at the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Webers opera Der Freischütz, which he saw Weber conduct. At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright and his first creative effort, listed in the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis as WWV1, was a tragedy called Leubald. Begun when he was in school in 1826, the play was influenced by Shakespeare

29.
Homophony
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In music, homophony is a texture in which a primary part is supported by one or more additional strands that flesh out the harmony and often provide rhythmic contrast. This differentiation of roles contrasts with equal-voice polyphony and monophony, historically, homophony and its differentiated roles for parts emerged in tandem with tonality, which gave distinct harmonic functions to the soprano, bass and inner voices. A homophonic texture may be homorhythmic, which means all parts have the same rhythm. Chorale texture is another variant of homophony, initially, in Ancient Greece, homophony indicated music in which a single melody is performed by two or more voices in unison or octaves, i. e. monophony with multiple voices. Homophony as a term first appeared in English with Charles Burney in 1776, the choral arrangement of four voices has since become common in Western music. Homophony began by appearing in sacred music, replacing polyphony and monophony as the dominant form, however, some traditional devices, such as repeated chords, are still used. Jazz and other forms of popular music generally feature homophonic influences. Homophony has appeared in several cultures, perhaps particularly in regions where communal vocal music has been cultivated. When explorer Vasco da Gama landed in West Africa in 1497, singers normally harmonize voices in homophonic parallelism moving in parallel thirds or fourths. This type of model is also, implemented in instrumental music where voices are stacked in thirds or fourths. Homophonic Parallelism is not restricted to thirds and fourths, however all harmonic material adheres to the system the particular tune or song is based on. The use of harmony in sixths is common in areas where a scale system is used. For instance, the Fang people of Gabon use homophony in their music, in eastern Indonesia, two-part harmonies are common, usually in intervals of thirds, fourths or fifths. In melody-dominated homophony, accompanying voices provide chordal support for the lead voice, some popular music today might be considered melody-dominated homophony, voice typically taking on the lead role, while instruments like piano, guitar and bass guitar normally accompany the voice. Monody is similar to melody-dominated homophony in that one becomes the melody

30.
Counterpoint
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In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction

31.
Texture (music)
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In music, texture is how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall quality of the sound in a piece. For example, a thick texture contains many layers of instruments, one of these layers could be a string section, or another brass. The thickness also is changed by the amount and the richness of the playing the piece. The thickness varies from light to thick, a pieces texture may be changed by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo, and rhythms used. An example is the Scherzo from Schubert’s piano sonata in B major, the first four bars are monophonic, with both hands performing the same melody an octave apart, Bars 5-9 are homophonic, with all voices coinciding rhythmically, Bars 11-20 are polyphonic. There are three parts, the top two moving in parallel, the lowest part imitates the rhythm of the upper two at the distance of three beats. The passage climaxes abruptly with a silence, After the silence. Many composers use more than one type of texture in the piece of music. A simultaneity is more than one complete musical texture occurring at the same time, a more recent type of texture first used by György Ligeti is micropolyphony. Other textures include polythematic, polyrhythmic, onomatopoeic, compound, style brisé Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker. Music, In Theory and Practice, seventh edition, vol, arranging Music for the Real World, Classical and Commercial Aspects. Hanning, Barbara Russano, Concise History of Western Music, based on Donald Jay Grout & Claudia V. Paliscas A History of Western Music, published by W. W. Norton & Company, New York, Copyright 1998. Melody, Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, in Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by Gary Wittlich, pp. 270–301. In Proceedings of the ICMC2005 – International Computer Music Conference, monophony, Grove Music Online, edited bymDeane Root. What to Listen for in Music, revised edition, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Frobenius, Wolf, Peter Cooke, Caroline Bithell, and Izaly Zemtsovsky, Polyphony, hyer, Brian, Homophony, Grove Music Online, edited by Deane Root. Trajectory, Material, Process, and Flow in Robert Morris’s String Quartet Arc, perspectives of New Music 52, no. A Guide to Musical Texture with multimedia

32.
Experimental music
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The practice became prominent in the mid-20th century, particularly in North America. John Cage was one of the earliest composers to use the term and one of experimental musics primary innovators, utilizing indeterminacy techniques and seeking unknown outcomes. Also, in America, a distinct sense of the term was used in the late 1950s to describe computer-controlled composition associated with composers such as Lejaren Hiller. Harry Partch as well as Ivor Darreg worked with other tuning scales based on the laws for harmonic music. For this music they developed a group of experimental musical instruments. Musique concrète, is a form of music that utilises acousmatic sound as a compositional resource. Elements of experimental music include indeterminate music, in which the composer introduces the elements of chance or unpredictability with regard to either the composition or its performance. The Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, under the leadership of Pierre Schaeffer, publication of Schaeffers manifesto was delayed by four years, by which time Schaeffer was favoring the term recherche musicale, though he never wholly abandoned musique expérimentale. John Cage was also using the term as early as 1955, according to Cages definition, an experimental action is one the outcome of which is not foreseen, and he was specifically interested in completed works that performed an unpredictable action. Rebners lecture extended the concept back in time to include Charles Ives, Edgard Varèse, nyman opposes experimental music to the European avant-garde of the time, for whom The identity of a composition is of paramount importance. David Cope also distinguishes between experimental and avant garde, describing music as that which represents a refusal to accept the status quo. That is, for the most part, experimental music studies describes a category without really explaining it and this was an attempt to marginalize, and thereby dismiss various kinds of music that did not conform to established conventions. In 1955, Pierre Boulez identified it as a new definition makes it possible to restrict to a laboratory. He concludes, There is no such thing as experimental music … and it is therefore not a genre, but an open category, because any attempt to classify a phenomenon as unclassifiable and elusive as experimental music must be partial. Furthermore, the indeterminacy in performance guarantees that two versions of the same piece will have virtually no perceptible musical facts in common. The term experimental music was used contemporaneously for electronic music, particularly in the early musique concrète work of Schaeffer, a number of early 20th-century American composers, seen as precedents to and influences on John Cage, are sometimes referred to as the American Experimental School. These include Charles Ives, Charles and Ruth Crawford Seeger, Henry Cowell, Carl Ruggles, for this music they both developed custom-built musical instruments often characterized as experimental instruments. La Monte Young is known for using this technique when he began working on his minimal drone pieces which consisted of layers of sounds in different pitches

33.
Chord progression
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A chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of musical chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition, in tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals, a chord may be built upon any note of a musical scale, therefore a seven-note scale allows seven basic chords, each degree of the scale becoming the root of its own chord. A chord built upon the note A is an A chord of some type The harmonic function of any particular chord depends on the context of the chord progression in which it is found. The diatonic harmonization of any major results in three major triads. They are based on the first, fourth, and fifth scale degrees and these three triads include, and therefore can harmonize, every note of that scale. The same scale also provides three relative minor chords, one related to each of the three major chords, separate from these six common chords there is one degree of the scale, the seventh, that results in a diminished chord. In addition, extra notes may be added to any chord, if these notes are also selected from the original scale the harmony remains diatonic. If new chromatic intervals are introduced then a change of scale or modulation occurs and this in turn may lead to a resolution back to the original key, so that the entire sequence of chords helps create an extended musical form. In western classical notation, chords built on the scale are numbered with Roman numerals, other forms of chord notation have been devised, from figured bass to the chord chart. These usually allow or even require an amount of improvisation. Diatonic scales such as the major and minor scales lend themselves well to the construction of common chords because they contain a large number of perfect fifths. Such scales predominate in those regions where harmony is an part of music, as, for example. Alternation between two chords may be thought of as the most basic chord progression, many well-known pieces are built harmonically upon the mere repetition of two chords of the same scale. The Isley Brothers Shout uses I - vi throughout, three-chord tunes, though, are more common, since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords, in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, often the chords may be selected to fit a pre-conceived melody, but just as often it is the progression itself that gives rise to the melody. (Common in Elizabethan music, this also underpins the American college song Goodnight Ladies, is the exclusive progression used in Kwela, similar progressions abound in African popular music. They may be varied by the addition of sevenths to any chord or by substitution of the minor of the IV chord to give, for example

34.
Mode (music)
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In the theory of Western music, mode generally refers to a type of scale, coupled with a set of characteristic melodic behaviours. This use, still the most common in recent years, reflects a tradition dating to the Middle Ages, regarding the concept of mode as applied to pitch relationships generally, Harold S. being in the domain of mode. This synthesis between tonus as a tone and the older meaning associated with an octave species was done by medieval theorists for the Western monodic plainchant tradition. Since the end of the century, the term mode has also applied to pitch structures in non-European musical cultures, sometimes with doubtful compatibility. The word encompasses several additional meanings, however, authors from the ninth century until the early eighteenth century sometimes employed the Latin modus for interval. A scale is a series of pitches that, with the key or tonic as a reference point, defines that scales intervals. The concept of mode in Western music theory has three stages, in Gregorian chant theory, in Renaissance polyphonic theory, and in tonal harmonic music of the common practice period. In all three contexts, mode incorporates the idea of the scale, but differs from it by also involving an element of melody type. By the early 19th century, the mode had taken on an additional meaning. At the same time, composers were beginning to conceive of modality as something outside of the system that could be used to evoke religious feelings or to suggest folk-music idioms. Early Greek treatises describe three interrelated concepts that are related to the later, medieval idea of mode, scales, tonoi—, and harmonia —pl. harmoniai—this third term subsuming the corresponding tonoi but not necessarily the converse. The association of ethnic names with the octave species appears to precede Aristoxenus. Depending on the positioning of the tones in the tetrachords. The diatonic genus, the genus, and the enharmonic genus. The framing interval of the fourth is fixed, while the two internal pitches are movable. Within the basic forms, the intervals of the chromatic and diatonic genera were varied further by three and two shades, respectively, the term tonos was used in four senses, as note, interval, region of the voice, and pitch. We use it of the region of the voice whenever we speak of Dorian, or Phrygian, or Lydian, in Ptolemys system, therefore there are only seven tonoi. Pythagoras also construed the intervals arithmetically, in their diatonic genus, these tonoi and corresponding harmoniai correspond with the intervals of the familiar modern major and minor scales

35.
Canon (music)
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In music, a canon is a contrapuntal compositional technique or texture that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration. The initial melody is called the leader, while the imitative melody, the follower must imitate the leader, either as an exact replication of its rhythms and intervals or some transformation thereof. Repeating canons in which all voices are identical are called rounds—Row, Row, Row Your Boat. Why are some composers fascinated with canons, Canons are not unlike puzzles and other brainteasers, from just a few rules, you can achieve so much. Plus, canons have the appeal of any puzzle, there is the initial challenge, the mystery of solving it, and the feeling of satisfaction you get from completing it. Accompanied canon is a canon accompanied by one or more independent parts which do not take part in imitating the melody. Only in the 16th century did the word canon begin to be used to describe the strict, imitative texture created by such a procedure. The word is derived from the Greek κανών, Latinised as canon, which means law or norm and this rule was usually given verbally, but could also be supplemented by special signs in the score, sometimes themselves called canoni. Canons featured in the music of the Italian Trecento and the 14th century music of France, a famous example from Italy is “Tosto che l’Alba” by Gheraldo da Firenze. In both France and Italy, canons were often used to illustrate hunting songs. The Italian word for hunting is “caccia”, the French word “chace. ”A well-known French Chace is the anonymous “Se je chant”. ”Guillaume de Machaut also used the 3-voice “chace” form in movements from his masterpiece Le Lai de la Fontaine. Referring to the setting of the stanza of this work. Like the Trinity itself, a well-wrought chace can be far more than the sum of its parts, and this particular chace is possible Machaut’s greatest feat of subtilitas. In Dufay’s song “Resvelons nous, amoureux”, the two voices are in canon, but the upper part is what David Fallows describes as a “florid top line”. Bach and Handel featured canons in their works,2, Beethoven’s works feature a number of passages in canon. The following comes from his Symphony No,4, Antony Hopkins describes the above as “a delightfully naïve canon. ”An even subtler example comes from Beethoven’s Piano Sonata 29 Op.106. Wilfrid Mellers describes the section of the scherzo movement, as “mysterious”, with a metrical ambiguity that “makes the melodic phrases irregular. ”When the tune is repeated, it is “now in the left hand. In canon with the bass line. ”Mellers concludes, “Here contrapuntal oneness serves to control any airy floating in the asymmetry, it is not merely the wide-spread texture that sounds hollow

36.
Sumer Is Icumen In
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Sumer Is Icumen In is a medieval English round or rota of the mid-13th century. The title translates approximately to Summer Has Come In or Summer Has Arrived, the song is composed in the Wessex dialect of Middle English. Although the composers identity is today, it may have been W. de Wycombe. The manuscript in which it is preserved was copied between 1261 and 1264 and this rota is the oldest known musical composition featuring six-part polyphony. The British Library now retains this manuscript, a rota is a type of round, which in turn is a kind of partsong. To perform the round, one begins the song. The length between the start and the cross corresponds to the notion of a bar, and the main verse comprises six phrases spread over twelve such bars. In addition, there are two lines marked Pes, two each, that are meant to be sung together repeatedly underneath the main verse. These instructions are included in the manuscript itself, Hanc rota cantare possum quatuor socii, a paucio/ribus autem quam a tribus uel saltem duobus non debet/ dici preter eos qui dicunt pedem. Tacen/tibus ceteris unus inchoat cum hiis qui tenent pedem, et cum uenerit/ ad primam notam post crucem, inchoat alius, et sic de ceteris. / Singuli de uero repausent ad pausacionis scriptas et/non alibi, spacio unius longe note. Sumer Is Icumen In in modern notation, The celebration of summer in Sumer Is Icumen In is similar to that of spring in the French poetic genre known as the reverdie, however, there are grounds for doubting such a straightforward and naïve interpretation. It is the bird, the wrong season, and the wrong language for a reverdie

37.
Guillaume Du Fay
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Guillaume Du Fay was a Franco-Flemish composer of the early Renaissance. A central figure in the Burgundian School, he was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the composers in Europe in the mid-15th century. His unique and complex motet Nuper rosarum flores demonstrates the influential exchange of ideas among artists around the world during the early Renaissance period. From the evidence of his will, he was born in Beersel, in the vicinity of Brussels, the illegitimate child of an unknown priest. She moved with her son to Cambrai early in his life, in June 1414, aged around 16, he had already been given a benefice as chaplain at St. Géry, immediately adjacent to Cambrai. Later that year, on the evidence of music composed, and he likely stayed there until 1418, at which time he returned to Cambrai. From November 1418 to 1420 he was a subdeacon at Cambrai Cathedral, in 1420 he left Cambrai for Italy – first to Rimini and then to Pesaro, where he worked for the Malatesta family. Several of his compositions can be dated to this period, they contain references to Italy. There he met the composers Hugo and Arnold de Lantins, who were also among the musicians of the Malatesta household, in 1424 Du Fay returned to Cambrai, because of the illness and subsequent death of the relative with whom his mother was staying. By 1426, however, he had returned to Italy, in Bologna, he entered the service of Cardinal Louis Aleman, the papal legate. While in Bologna he became a deacon, and by 1428 he was ordained priest, Cardinal Aleman was driven from Bologna by the rival Canedoli family in 1428, and Du Fay also left, going to Rome. He became a member of the Papal Choir, the most prestigious musical establishment in Europe, serving first Pope Martin V, by this time his fame had spread, and he had become one of the most respected musicians in Europe. As a consequence, honors in the form of benefices came to him from churches in his homeland, in 1434 he was appointed maistre de chappelle in Savoy, where he served Duke Amédée VIII. He had left Rome because of a crisis in the finances of the choir while seeking to escape the turbulence. Eugene at this time lived in exile at the church of Santa Maria Novella. In 1437 Du Fay visited the town, when Niccolò died in 1441, the next Marquis maintained the contact with Du Fay, and not only continued financial support for the composer but copied and distributed some of his music. At this time Du Fay returned to his homeland, arriving in Cambrai by December of that year, in order to be a canon at Cambrai, he needed a law degree, which he obtained in 1437, he may have studied at University of Turin in 1436. One of the first documents mentioning him in Cambrai is dated 27 December 1440, Du Fay was to remain in Cambrai through the 1440s, and during this time he was also in the service of the Duke of Burgundy

38.
Bass line
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It is also used sometimes in classical music. In solo music for piano and pipe organ, these instruments have an excellent lower register that can be used to play a deep bassline, on organs, the bass line is typically played using the pedal keyboard and massive 16 and 32 bass pipes. Basslines in popular music often use riffs or grooves, which are simple, appealing musical motifs or phrases that are repeated, with variation. The bass differs from other voices because of the role it plays in supporting and defining harmonic motion. It does so at levels ranging from immediate, chord-by-chord events to the harmonic organization of a entire work. Bassline riffs usually emphasize the chord tones of each chord, which helps to define a songs key, at the same time, basslines work along with the drum part and the other rhythm instruments to create a clear rhythmic pulse. The type of rhythmic pulse used in basslines varies widely in different types of music, in swing jazz and jump blues, basslines are often created from a continuous sequence of quarter notes in a mostly scalar, stepwise part called a walking bass line. In Latin, salsa music, jazz fusion, reggae, electronica, in bluegrass and traditional country music, basslines often emphasize the root and fifth of each chord. In classical music such as string quartets and symphonies, basslines play the same harmonic and rhythmic role, however, most popular musical ensembles include an instrument capable of playing bass notes. In the 1890s, a tuba was often used, from the 1920s to the 1940s, most popular music groups used the double bass as the bass instrument. Starting in the 1950s, the bass guitar began to replace the bass in most types of popular music, such as rock and roll, blues. By the 1970s and 1980s, the bass was used in most rock bands. The double bass was used in some types of popular music that recreated styles from the 1940s and 1950s such as jazz, traditional 1950s blues, jump blues, country. In some popular bands, keyboard instruments are used to play the bass line. In organ trios, for example, a Hammond organ player performs the basslines using the pedal keyboard. In some types of music, such as hip-hop or house music. Basslines are especially important in many forms of dance and electronic music, such as electro, drum and bass, dubstep, and most forms of house and trance. In these genres, basslines are almost always performed on synthesizers, either physical, such as the Minimoog, chinese orchestras use the zhōng ruǎn and dà ruǎn for creating basslines

39.
Chaconne
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In this it closely resembles the passacaglia. Alex Ross describes the origins of the chacona as actually having been a sexily swirling dance that appeared in South America at the end of the sixteenth century, the dance became popular both in the elite courts and in the general population. Un sarao de la chacona is one of the earliest known examples of a chacona, the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica claims the chaconne was a slow dance, introduced into Spain by the Moors. Outstanding examples of early baroque chaconnes are Monteverdis Zefiro torna and Es steh Gott auf by Heinrich Schütz, one of the best known and most masterful and expressive examples of the chaconne is the final movement from the Violin Partita in D minor by Johann Sebastian Bach. This 256-measure chaconne takes a plaintive four-bar phrase through a kaleidoscope of musical expression in both major and minor modes. After the Baroque period, the fell into decline during the 19th century. However, the form saw a substantial revival during the 20th century. Both are usually in triple meter, begin on the beat of the bar. Francesca Caccini, Ciaccona Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Ciacona in D major for violin and basso continuo, another in the Partita no. 12, from the Sonate da camera a tre, doi violini, e violone o cembalo Girolamo Frescobaldi, Four ciaccone for harpsichord from Toccate d’intavolatura di cimbalo et organo, partite di diverse arie. 2 in D minor for solo violin Luigi Boccherini, Chaconne that represents Hell. in imitation of the one by M. Gluck, finale to Symphony in D minor, op. 12, no.4 in E minor, Op.98, finale Heinrich Reimann, Ciacona in F minor,51, for organ Jean Françaix, Chaconne for harp and string orchestra Gunnar de Frumerie, Chaconne op. 8, for piano Philip Glass, Echorus for two violins and string orchestra Philip Glass, Symphony No,3, third movement Philip Glass, Violin Concerto No. 13, for piano György Ligeti, Hungarian Rock, Chaconne, for harpsichord Douglas Lilburn, Chaconne, for Piano Frank Martin, Chaconne, for cello and piano Carl Nielsen, Chaconne, op. 32, for piano Henri Pousseur, Chaconne for solo violin Knudåge Riisager, Chaconne,50, for orchestra Poul Ruders, Chaconne for solo guitar Franz Schmidt, Chaconne in C♯ minor, for organ. Act 4, Scene 2 Paulo Galvão, Chacoinas in A minor for baroque guitar, jennifer Higdon, Chaconni, second movement from her violin concerto Krzysztof Penderecki, Ciaccona in memoria Giovanni Paolo II per archi from Polish Requiem. Francesco Tristano Schlimé, Chaconne/Ground Bass for piano, roman Turovsky, Chaconnes in C major, C minor and D minor for baroque lute. Simon Andrews, Chaconne, 2nd movement of Symphony No.1 For the heart is an organ of fire Marc-André Dalbavie, Ciaccona for orchestra

40.
Music in the Elizabethan era
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During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, English art and high culture reached a pinnacle known as the height of the English renaissance. Elizabethan music experienced a shift in popularity from sacred to secular music, professional musicians were employed by the Church of England, the nobility, and the rising middle-class. Elizabeth I was very fond of music and played the lute and she also felt that dancing was a great form of physical exercise and employed musicians to play for her while she danced. During her reign, she employed about 70 musicians, the interests of the queen were expected to be adopted by her subjects. All noblemen were expected to be proficient in playing the lute, music printing led to a market of amateur musicians purchasing works published by those who received special permission from the queen. Despite Englands departure from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534, English did not become the language of the Church of England until the reign of Elizabeths stepbrother Edward VI. His reign saw many revisions to the function within the Anglican Church until it was frustrated by the succession of Catholic Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth re-established the Church of England and introduced measures of Catholic tolerance. The most famous composers for the Anglican Church during Queen Elizabeths reign were Thomas Tallis and his student William Byrd, both composers were Catholics and produced vocal works in both Latin and English. Secular vocal works became popular during the Elizabethan Era with the importation of Italian musicians and compositions. The music of the late Italian madrigal composers inspired native composers who are now labelled as the English Madrigal School and these composers adapted the text painting and polyphonic writing of the Italians into a uniquely English genre of madrigal. Thomas Morley, a student of William Byrds, published collections of madrigals which included his own compositions as well as those of his contemporaries, instrumental music was also popular during the Elizabethan Era. The most popular solo instruments of the time were the virginal, the virginal was a popular variant of the harpsichord among the English and one of Elizabeths favourite instruments to play. Numerous works were produced for the instrument including several collections by William Byrd, namely the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, the lute made of sheepgut was the most popular instrument of the age. Lutes could be played as solo instruments or as accompaniment for singers, compositions of the latter variety were known as lute song. The most popular Elizabethan composer for the lute and of songs was John Dowland. Several families of instruments were popular among the English people and were employed for the music making. If all of the instruments in an ensemble were of the family they were considered to be in consort. Mixed ensembles were said to be in broken consort, both forms of ensembles were equally popular

41.
Aaron Copland
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Aaron Copland was an American composer, composition teacher, writer, and later a conductor of his own and other American music. Copland was referred to by his peers and critics as the Dean of American Composers, the open, slowly changing harmonies in much of his music are typical of what many people consider to be the sound of American music, evoking the vast American landscape and pioneer spirit. He is best known for the works he wrote in the 1930s and 1940s in an accessible style often referred to as populist. Works in this include the ballets Appalachian Spring, Billy the Kid and Rodeo, his Fanfare for the Common Man. In addition to his ballets and orchestral works, he produced music in other genres including chamber music, vocal works, opera. After some initial studies with composer Rubin Goldmark, Copland traveled to Paris and he studied three years with Boulanger, whose eclectic approach to music inspired his own broad taste. Determined upon his return to the U. S. to make his way as a composer, Copland gave lecture-recitals, wrote works on commission. He found composing orchestral music in the modernist style he had adapted abroad a financially contradictory approach and he shifted in the mid-1930s to a more accessible musical style which mirrored the German idea of Gebrauchsmusik, music that could serve utilitarian and artistic purposes. During the Depression years, he traveled extensively to Europe, Africa, during the late 1940s, Copland became aware that Stravinsky and other fellow composers had begun to study Arnold Schoenbergs use of twelve-tone techniques. After he had exposed to the works of French composer Pierre Boulez, he incorporated serial techniques into his Piano Quartet, Piano Fantasy, Connotations for orchestra. From the 1960s onward, Coplands activities turned more from composing to conducting and he became a frequent guest conductor of orchestras in the U. S. and the UK and made a series of recordings of his music, primarily for Columbia Records. Aaron Copland was born in Brooklyn, New York, on November 14,1900 and he was the youngest of five children in a Conservative Jewish family of Lithuanian origins. While emigrating from Russia to the United States, Coplands father, Harris Morris Copland, Copland was however unaware until late in his life that the family name had been Kaplan, and his parents never told him this. His father was a staunch Democrat, the family members were active in Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes, where Aaron celebrated his Bar Mitzvah. Not especially athletic, the young man became an avid reader. Coplands father had no musical interest and his mother, Sarah Mittenthal Copland, sang, played the piano, and arranged for music lessons for her children. Of his siblings, oldest brother Ralph was the most advanced musically and his sister Laurine had the strongest connection with Aaron, she gave him his first piano lessons, promoted his musical education, and supported him in his musical career. A student at the Metropolitan Opera School and a frequent opera-goer, Copland attended Boys High School and in the summer went to various camps

42.
Virginals
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The virginals or virginal is a keyboard instrument of the harpsichord family. It was popular in Europe during the late Renaissance and early baroque periods, a virginal is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord with only one string per note running more or less parallel to the keyboard on the long side of the case. Many, if not most, of the instruments were constructed without legs, later models were built with their own stands. The mechanism of the virginals is identical to the harpsichords, in that its strings are plucked by plectra mounted in jacks. Its case, however, is rectangular, and the choir of strings—one per note—runs roughly parallel to the keyboard. The strings are plucked either at one end, as with the harpsichord, or, in the case of the muselar, nearer the middle, producing a richer, the origin of the name is obscure. It may derive from the Latin virga meaning a rod, perhaps referring to the jacks that rest on the ends of the keys. Another possibility is that the name derives from the virgin, as it was most commonly played by young women, or from its sound. A further view is that the name derives from the Virgin Mary as it was used by nuns to accompany hymns in honour of the Virgin. Thus, the masterworks of William Byrd and his contemporaries were often played on full-size, Italian or Flemish harpsichords, contemporary nomenclature often referred to a pair of virginals, which implied a single instrument, possibly a harpsichord with two registers, or a double virginals. Like the harpsichord, the virginals has its origins in the medieval psaltery to which a keyboard was applied and it has 32 courses of strings set in motion by striking the fingers on projecting keys, giving a dulcet tone in both whole and half steps. It is called a virginal because, like a virgin, it sounds with a gentle, the OED records its first mention in English in 1530, when King Henry VIII purchased five instruments so named. Small early virginals were played either in the lap, or more commonly, rested on a table, spinet virginals were made principally in Italy, England and Flanders. The keyboard is placed left of centre, and the strings are plucked at one end and this is the more common arrangement for modern instruments, and an instrument described simply as a virginal is likely to be a spinet virginals. The cases of Italian instruments were made of wood and were of delicate manufacture. Early Italian virginals were usually hexagonal in shape, the following the lines of the strings and bridges. From about 1580 however, nearly all virginals were rectangular, the Italian models often having a case like harpsichords from that country. There are very few surviving English virginals, all of them late and they generally follow the Flemish construction, but with a vaulted lid

43.
William Byrd
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William Byrd (/bɜːrd/, birth date variously given as c. 1539/40 or 1543 –4 July 1623, was an English composer of the Renaissance. He wrote in many of the current in England at the time, including various types of sacred and secular polyphony, keyboard. He produced sacred music for use in Anglican services, although he became a Roman Catholic in later life. Thanks largely to the research of John Harley, knowledge of Byrds biography has expanded in recent years, according to Harley, Thomas Byrd, the grandson of Richard Byrd of Ingatestone, Essex, probably moved to London in the 15th century. Thereafter succeeding generations of the family are described as gentlemen, William Byrd was born in London, the son of another Thomas Byrd about whom nothing further is known, and his wife, Margery. The specific year of Byrds birth is uncertain, in his will, dated 15 November 1622, he describes himself as in the 80th year of my age, suggesting a birthdate of 1542 or 1543. However a document dated 2 October 1598 written in his own hand states that he is 58 yeares or ther abouts, Byrd had two brothers, Symond and John, who became London merchants, and four sisters, Alice, Barbara, Mary, and Martha. There is no evidence concerning Byrds early musical training. His two brothers were choristers at St. Pauls Cathedral, and Byrd may have been a chorister there as well under Simon Westcote, although it is possible that he was a chorister with the Chapel Royal. A reference in the material to the Cantiones sacrae published by Byrd. According to Anthony Wood, Byrd was bred up to musick under Tho and it was probably composed near the end of the reign of Queen Mary Tudor, who revived Sarum liturgical practices. A few other compositions by Byrd also probably date from his teenage years, Byrds first known professional employment was his appointment in 1563 as organist and master of the choristers at Lincoln Cathedral. Residing at what is now 6 Minster Yard Lincoln, he remained in post until 1572. His period at Lincoln was not entirely trouble-free, for on 19 November 1569 the Dean, since Puritanism was influential at Lincoln, it is possible that the allegations were connected with over-elaborate choral polyphony or organ playing. A second directive, dated 29 November, issued detailed instructions regarding Byrds use of the organ in the liturgy, on 14 September 1568, Byrd married Julian Birley, it was a long-lasting and fruitful union which produced at least seven children. The 1560s were also important formative years for Byrd the composer, Byrd had also taken serious strides with instrumental music. The seven In Nomine settings for consort, at least one of the consort fantasias, all these show Byrd gradually emerging as a major figure on the Elizabethan musical landscape. Some sets of variations, such as The Hunts Up

44.
Claudio Monteverdi
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Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was an Italian composer, gambist, singer, and Catholic priest. Monteverdi is considered a transitional figure between the Renaissance and the Baroque periods of music history. Monteverdi wrote one of the earliest operas, LOrfeo, which is the earliest surviving opera still regularly performed, Claudio Monteverdi was born in 1567 in Cremona, Duchy of Milan. His father was Baldassare Monteverdi, a doctor, apothecary and amateur surgeon and he was the oldest of five children. During his childhood, he was taught by MarcAntonio Ingegneri, the maestro di cappella at the Cathedral of Cremona, the Maestro’s job was to conduct important worship services in accordance with the liturgy of the Catholic Church. Monteverdi learned about music as a member of the cathedral choir and he also studied at the University of Cremona. His first music was written for publication, including some motets and sacred madrigals, in 1582 and 1583. His first five publications were, Sacrae cantiunculae,1582, Madrigali Spirituali,1583, Canzonette a tre voci,1584, and the five-part madrigals Book I,1587, and Book II,1590. He worked at the court of Vincenzo I of Gonzaga in Mantua as a vocalist and viol player, in 1602, he was working as the court conductor and Vincenzo appointed him master of music on the death of Benedetto Pallavicino. In 1599 Monteverdi married the court singer Claudia Cattaneo, who died in September 1607 and they had two sons and a daughter. Another daughter died shortly after birth, in 1610 he moved to Rome, arriving in secret, hoping to present his music to Pope Paul V. His Vespers were printed the year, but his planned meeting with the Pope never took place. In 1612 Vincenzo died and was succeeded by his eldest son Francesco, heavily in debt, due to the profligacy of his father, Francesco sacked Monteverdi and he spent a year in Mantua without any paid employment. His 1607 opera LOrfeo was dedicated to Francesco, the title page of the opera bears the dedication Al serenissimo signor D. Francesco Gonzaga, Prencipe di Mantoua, & di Monferato, &c. By 1613, he had moved to San Marco in Venice where and he quickly restored the musical standard of both the choir and the instrumentalists. The musical standard had declined due to the mismanagement of his predecessor. The managers of the basilica were relieved to have such a musician in charge. In 1632, he became a priest, Lincoronazione especially is considered a culminating point of Monteverdis work

45.
Henry Purcell
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Henry Purcell was an English composer. Although incorporating Italian and French stylistic elements into his compositions, Purcells legacy was a uniquely English form of Baroque music, Purcell was born in St Anns Lane, Old Pye Street Westminster – the area of London later known as Devils Acre – in 1659. Henry Purcell Senior, whose older brother Thomas Purcell was also a musician, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal, Henry the elder had three sons, Edward, Henry and Daniel. Daniel Purcell, the youngest of the brothers, was also a composer who wrote the music for much of the final act of The Indian Queen after Henry Purcells death. Henry Purcells family lived just a few hundred yards west of Westminster Abbey from 1659 onwards, after his fathers death in 1664, Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle Thomas, who showed him great affection and kindness. Thomas was himself a gentleman of His Majestys Chapel, and arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister, Henry studied first under Captain Henry Cooke, Master of the Children, and afterwards under Pelham Humfrey, Cookes successor. Henry was a chorister in the Chapel Royal until his voice broke in 1673, when he became assistant to the organ-builder John Hingston, who held the post of keeper of wind instruments to the King. Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old and it is assumed that the three-part song Sweet tyranness, I now resign was written by him as a child. After Humfreys death, Purcell continued his studies under Dr John Blow and he attended Westminster School and in 1676 was appointed copyist at Westminster Abbey. Henry Purcells earliest anthem Lord, who can tell was composed in 1678 and it is a psalm that is prescribed for Christmas Day and also to be read at morning prayer on the fourth day of the month. In 1679, he wrote songs for John Playfords Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues and an anthem, the dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known, perhaps the most notable example is the anthem They that go down to the sea in ships. The challenging work opens with a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostlings range, beginning on the upper D, in 1679, Blow, who had been appointed organist of Westminster Abbey in 1669, resigned his office in favour of his pupil. Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, between 1680 and 1688 Purcell wrote music for seven plays. It was written to a libretto furnished by Nahum Tate, and performed in 1689 in cooperation with Josias Priest, a dancing master, priests wife kept a boarding school for young gentlewomen, first in Leicester Fields and afterwards at Chelsea, where the opera was performed. Both works run to less than one hour, at the time, Dido and Aeneas never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular in private circles. The composition of Dido and Aeneas gave Purcell his first chance to write a musical setting of a dramatic text. It was his opportunity to compose a work in which the music carried the entire drama. The story of Dido and Aeneas derives from the source in Virgils epic the Aeneid

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Diatonic and chromatic
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They are very often used as a pair, especially when applied to contrasting features of the common practice music of the period 1600–1900. These terms may mean different things in different contexts, very often, diatonic refers to musical elements derived from the modes and transpositions of the white note scale C–D–E–F–G–A–B. In some usages it includes all forms of scale that are in common use in Western music. Chromatic most often refers to structures derived from the chromatic scale, in ancient Greece there were three standard tunings of a lyre. These three tunings were called diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic, and the sequences of four notes that they produced were called tetrachords, a diatonic tetrachord comprised, in descending order, two whole tones and a semitone, such as A G F E. In the chromatic tetrachord the second string of the lyre was lowered from G to G♭, in the enharmonic tetrachord the tuning had two quarter tone intervals at the bottom, A G F E. For all three tetrachords, only the two strings varied in their pitch. The term cromatico was occasionally used in the Medieval and Renaissance periods to refer to the coloration of certain notes, in works of the Ars Nova from the 14th century, this was used to indicate a temporary change in metre from triple to duple, or vice versa. This usage became common in the 15th century as open white noteheads became the standard notational form for minims. These uses for the word have no relationship to the meaning of chromatic. The term chromatic began to approach its modern usage in the 16th century, Medieval theorists defined scales in terms of the Greek tetrachords. The gamut was the series of pitches from which all the Medieval scales notionally derive, the origin of the word gamut is explained at the article Hexachord, here the word is used in one of the available senses, the all-encompassing gamut as described by Guido dArezzo. The intervals from one note to the next in this Medieval gamut are all tones or semitones, recurring in a pattern with five tones. The semitones are separated as much as they can be, between alternating groups of three tones and two tones, here are the intervals for a string of ascending notes from the gamut. This would include the major scale, and the minor scale. There are specific applications in the music of the Common Practice Period, most, but not all writers, accept the natural minor as diatonic. Among such theorists there is no agreed general term that encompasses the major, inclusive usage Some writers consistently include the melodic and harmonic minor scales as diatonic also. For this group, every scale standardly used in common practice music, mixed usage Still other writers mix these two meanings of diatonic, and this can lead to confusions and misconceptions

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Dido and Aeneas
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Dido and Aeneas is an opera in a prologue and three acts, written by the English Baroque composer Henry Purcell with a libretto by Nahum Tate. The dates of the composition and first performance of the opera are uncertain and it was composed no later than July 1688, and had been performed at Josias Priests girls school in London by the end of 1689. Some scholars argue for a date of composition as early as 1683, the story is based on Book IV of Virgils Aeneid. It recounts the love of Dido, Queen of Carthage, for the Trojan hero Aeneas, a monumental work in Baroque opera, Dido and Aeneas is remembered as one of Purcells foremost theatrical works. It was also Purcells only true opera, as well as his only all-sung dramatic work, one of the earliest known English operas, it owes much to John Blows Venus and Adonis, both in structure and in overall effect. The influence of Cavallis opera Didone is also apparent and he also composed songs for two plays by Nahum Tate, The Sicilian Usurper and Cuckold-Haven. Dido and Aeneas was Purcells first all-sung opera and derives from the English masque tradition, originally based on Nahum Tates play Brutus of Alba, or The Enchanted Lovers, the opera is likely, at least to some extent, to be allegorical. The prologue refers to the joy of a marriage between two monarchs, which could refer to the marriage between William and Mary. In a poem of about 1686, Tate alluded to James II as Aeneas, who is misled by the machinations of the Sorceress and her witches into abandoning Dido. The same symbolism may apply to the opera and this explains the addition of the characters of the Sorceress and the witches, which do not appear in the original Aeneid. It would be noble, or at least acceptable, for Aeneas to follow the decree of the Gods, no score in Purcells hand is extant, and the only seventeenth-century source is a libretto, possibly from the original performance. The earliest extant score, held in the Bodleian Library, was copied no earlier than 1750, no later sources follow the act divisions of the libretto, and the music to the prologue is lost. The first of the arias to be published separately was Ah, the most famous aria of the work is When I am laid in earth, popularly known as Didos Lament. Both arias are formed on a ground bass. Didos Lament has been performed or recorded by far from the typical operatic school, such as Klaus Nomi, Ane Brun. It has also been transcribed or used in scores, including the soundtrack to the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers. It is played annually by a band at the Cenotaph remembrance ceremony. The music is thought by some to be too simple for Purcell in 1689, the work is scored for four-part strings and continuo

Blues progressions influenced a great deal of 20th century American popular music

The Mills Brothers' recording of "Till Then" looked forward both to the end of World War II and to the popular music of the 1950s. (Courtesy of the Fraser MacPherson estate c/o Guy MacPherson)

The key note or tonic of a piece of music is called note number one, the first step of the ascending scale. Chords built on each scale degree are numbered in the same way so that, for example, in the key of C, the progression E minor - F - G can be generally described as a three - four - five progression.

The harmonious major triad is composed of three tones. Their frequency ratio corresponds approximately 6:5:4. In real performances, however, the third is often larger than 5:4. The ratio 5:4 corresponds to an interval of 386 cents, but an equally tempered major third is 400 cents and a Pythagorean third with a ratio of 81:64 is 408 cents. Measurements of frequencies in good performances confirm that the size of the major third varies across this range and can even lie outside it without sounding out of tune. Thus, there is no simple connection between frequency ratios and harmonic function.

In music, texture is how the tempo, melodic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the …

Homophony in Tallis' "If ye love me," composed in 1549. The voices move together using the same rhythm, and the relationship between them creates chords: the excerpt begins and ends with an F major triad.