Sample records for supernova winds ii

One of the outstanding unsolved riddles of nuclear astrophysics is the origin of the so called ''p-process'' nuclei from A = 92 to 126. Both the lighter and heavier p-process nuclei are adequately produced in the neon and oxygen shells of ordinary Type IIsupernovae, but the origin of these intermediate isotopes, especially {sup 92,94}Mo and {sup 96,98}Ru, has long been mysterious. Here we explore the production of these nuclei in the neutrino-driven wind from a young neutron star. We consider such early times that the wind still contains a proton excess because the rates for {nu}{sub e} and positron captures on neutrons are faster than those for the inverse captures on protons. Following a suggestion by Froehlich et al. (2005), they also include the possibility that, in addition to the protons, {alpha}-particles, and heavy seed, a small flux of neutrons is maintained by the reaction p({bar {nu}}{sub e}, e{sup +})n. This flux of neutrons is critical in bridging the long waiting points along the path of the rp-process by (n,p) and (n,{gamma}) reactions. Using the unmodified ejecta histories from a recent two-dimensional supernova model by Janka, Buras, and Rampp (2003), they find synthesis of p-rich nuclei up to {sup 102}Pd. However, if the entropy of these ejecta is increased by a factor of two, the synthesis extends to {sup 120}Te. Still larger increases in entropy, that might reflect the role of magnetic fields or vibrational energy input neglected in the hydrodynamical model, result in the production of numerous r-, s-, and p-process nuclei up to A {approx} 170, even in winds that are proton-rich.

In an attempt to constrain the astrophysical conditions for the nucleosynthesis of the classical r-process elements beyond Fe, we have performed large-scale dynamical network calculations within the model of an adiabatically expanding high- entropy wind (HEW) of type IIsupernovae (SN II). A superposition of several entropy-components (S) with model-inherent weightings results in an excellent reproduction of the overall Solar System (SS) isotopic r-process residuals (N{sub r,{center_dot}}), as well as the more recent observations of elemental abundances of metal-poor, r-process rich halo stars in the early Galaxy. For the heavy r-process elements beyond Sn, our HEW model predicts a robust abundance pattern up to the Th, U r-chronometer region. For the lighter neutron-capture region, an S-dependent superposition of (i) a normal {alpha}-component directly producing stable nuclei, including s-only isotopes, and (ii) a component from a neutron-rich {alpha}-freezeout followed by the rapid recapture of {beta}-delayed neutrons ({beta}dnrpar; emitted from the far-unstable seed nuclei is indicated. In agreement with several recent halo-star observations in the 60

The exact conditions for the supernova high-entropy wind (HEW) as one of the favored sites for the rapid neutron-capture (r-) process still cannot be reproduced selfconsistently in present hydrodynamic simulations. Therefore, we have performed large-scale network calculations within a parameterized HEW model to constrain the necessary conditions for a full r-process, and to compare our results with recent astronomical observations. A superposition of entropy trajectories with model-inherent weightings results in an excellent reproduction of the overall solar-system isotopic abundances (Nr,⊙) of the "main" r-process elements beyond Sn. For the lighter r-elements, our model supports earlier qualitative ideas about a multiplicity of nucleosynthesis processes in the Fe-group region. In the high-entropy-wind scenario, these suggestions are quantified, and the origin of the "missing" abundances to Nr,⊙ is determined to be a rapid primary charged-particle (α-) process, thus excluding a classical "weak" neutron-capture component. This explains the recent halo-star observations of a non-correlation of Cu-Ge and Sr-Zr with metallicity [Fe/H] and r-process enrichment [Eu/H]. Moreover, for the first time a partial correlation with the "main" r-process is identified for Ru and Pd.

The X-ray emission from a simulated massive stellar cluster is investigated. The emission is calculated from a 3D hydrodynamical model which incorporates the mechanical feedback from the stellar winds of three O stars embedded in a giant molecular cloud (GMC) clump containing 3240 M⊙ of molecular material within a 4 pc radius. A simple prescription for the evolution of the stars is used, with the first supernova (SN) explosion at t = 4.4 Myr. We find that the presence of the GMC clump causes short-lived attenuation effects on the X-ray emission of the cluster. However, once most of the material has been ablated away by the winds, the remaining dense clumps do not have a noticeable effect on the attenuation compared with the assumed interstellar medium (ISM) column. We determine the evolution of the cluster X-ray luminosity, LX, and spectra, and generate synthetic images. The intrinsic X-ray luminosity drops from nearly 1034 erg s-1 while the winds are `bottled up', to a near-constant value of 1.7 × 1032 erg s-1 between t = 1 and 4 Myr. LX reduces slightly during each star's red supergiant stage due to the depressurization of the hot gas. However, LX increases to ≈1034 erg s-1 during each star's Wolf-Rayet stage. The X-ray luminosity is enhanced by two to three orders of magnitude to ˜1037 erg s-1 for at least 4600 yr after each SN explosion, at which time the blast wave leaves the grid and the X-ray luminosity drops. The X-ray luminosity of our simulation is generally considerably fainter than predicted from spherically symmetric bubble models, due to the leakage of hot gas material through gaps in the outer shell. This process reduces the pressure within our simulation and thus the X-ray emission. However, the X-ray luminosities and temperatures which we obtain are comparable to similarly powerful massive young clusters.

While from the energetic point of view SNRs are viable sources of Galactic CRs, the issue of whether they can accelerate protons up to PeV remains unsolved. Here we discuss particle acceleration at the forward shock of SN and discuss the possibility that the escaping particle current may excite a non-resonant instability that in turn leads to the formation of resonant modes confining particles close to the shock and increasing the maximum energy. This mechanism works throughout the expansion of the SN explosion, from the ejecta dominated (ED) to the Sedov-Taylor (ST) phase. Because of their higher explosion rate,we focus on type II SNae expanding in the slow, dense red supergiant wind. When the explosion occurs in such winds, the transition between the ED and the ST phase is likely to take place within a few tens of years. As a result, the spectrum of accelerated particles shows a break in the slope, at the maximum energy (EM) achieved at the beginning of the ST phase. Above this energy, the spectrum becomes steeper but remains a power law than developing an exponential cutoff. We show that for type II SNae typical parameters, proton EM can easily reach PeV energies, confirming that type II SNRs are the best candidate sources for CRs at the knee. We have tried to fit KASCADE-Grande, ARGO -YBJ and YAC1-Tibet Array data with our model but we could not find any parameter combination that could explain all data sets. Indeed the recent measurement of the proton and helium spectra in the knee region, with the ARGO-YBJ and YAC1-Tibet Array, has made the situation very confused. These measurements suggest that the knee in the light component is at 650 TeV, appreciably below the overall spectrum knee. This finding would resolve the problem of reaching very high energies in SNae, but, on the other hand, it would open a critical issue in the transition region between Galactic and extragalactic CRs.

While the high-entropy wind (HEW) of Type IIsupernovae remains one of the more promising sites for the rapid neutron-capture (r-) process, hydrodynamic simulations have yet to reproduce the astrophysical conditions under which the latter occurs. We have performed large-scale network calculations within an extended parameter range of the HEW, seeking to identify or to constrain the necessary conditions for a full reproduction of all r-process residuals N r,sun = N sun-N s,sun by comparing the results with recent astronomical observations. A superposition of weighted entropy trajectories results in an excellent reproduction of the overall N r,sun pattern beyond Sn. For the lighter elements, from the Fe group via Sr-Y-Zr to Ag, our HEW calculations indicate a transition from the need for clearly different sources (conditions/sites) to a possible co-production with r-process elements, provided a range of entropies are contributing. This explains recent halo-star observations of a clear noncorrelation of Zn and Ge and a weak correlation of Sr-Zr with heavier r-process elements. Moreover, new observational data on Ru and Pd also seem to confirm a partial correlation with Sr as well as the main r-process elements (e.g., Eu).

Type IIsupernovae (SNs) light curves show a remarkable range of shapes. Data have been collected for the 12 Type II SNs that have light curve information for more than four months past maximum. Contrary to previous reports, it is found that (1) the decay rate after 100 days past maximum varies by almost an order of magnitude and (2) the light curve shapes are not bimodally distributed, but actually form a continuum. In addition, it is found that the extinctions to the SNs are related to the light curve shapes. This implies that the absorbing dust is local to the SNs. The dust is likely to be part of a circumstellar shell emitted by the SN progenitor that Dwek (1983) has used to explain infrared echoes. The optical depth of the shell can get quite large. In such cases, it is found that the photons scattered and delayed by reflection off dust grains will dominate the light curve several months after peak brightness. This 'light echo' offers a straightforward explanation of the diversity of Type II SN light curves.

The hierarchical model of galaxy formation, despite its many successes, still suffers from the so--called ``angular momentum'' and ``overcooling'' problems. Supernovae--driven winds and their associated feedback on galaxy formation was proposed as a possible solution. It turned out that a proper modelling of supernovae explosions within a turbulent InterStellar Medium (ISM) is a difficult task. Recent advances have been obtained using a multiphase approach to solve for the thermal state of the ISM, plus some additional recipes to account for the kinetic effect of supernovae on the galactic gas. We describe here our implementation of supernovae feedback within the RAMSES code, and apply it to the formation and evolution of isolated galaxies of various masses and angular momenta. We have explored under what conditions a galactic wind can develop, if one considers only a quiescent mode of star formation. It turns out that, because of the ram pressure of infalling material from the gaseous halo, only moderately efficient winds appear, and in rather low mass (<1011 M_⊙) dark matter haloes.

Feedback from supernovae is an essential aspect of galaxy formation. In order to improve subgrid models of feedback, we perform a series of numerical experiments to investigate how supernova explosions shape the interstellar medium (ISM) in a disc galaxy and power a galactic wind. We use the FLASH hydrodynamic code to model a simplified ISM, including gravity, hydrodynamics, radiative cooling above 104 K and star formation that reproduces the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation. By simulating a small patch of the ISM in a tall box perpendicular to the disc, we obtain subparsec resolution allowing us to resolve individual supernova events. The hot interiors of supernova explosions combine into larger bubbles that sweep-up the initially hydrostatic ISM into a dense, warm cloudy medium, enveloped by a much hotter and tenuous medium, all phases in near pressure equilibrium. The unbound hot phase develops into an outflow with wind speed increasing with distance as it accelerates from the disc. We follow the launch region of the galactic wind, where hot gas entrains and ablates warm ISM clouds leading to significantly increased mass loading of the flow, although we do not follow this material as it interacts with the galactic halo. We run a large grid of simulations in which we vary gas surface density, gas fraction and star formation rate in order to investigate the dependencies of the mass loading, β equiv dot{M}_wind/dot{M}_star. In the cases with the most effective outflows, we observe β = 4; however, in other cases we find β ≪ 1. We find that outflows are more efficient in discs with lower surface densities or gas fractions. A simple model in which the warm cloudy medium is the barrier that limits the expansion of the blast wave reproduces the scaling of outflow properties with disc parameters at high star formation rates. We extend the scaling relations derived from an ISM patch to infer an effective mass loading for a galaxy with an exponential disc, finding that the

Context. Core-collapse Supernovae (CC-SNe) descend from progenitors more massive than about 8 M⊙. Because of the young age of the progenitors, the ejecta may eventually interact with the circumstellar medium (CSM) via highly energetic processes detectable in the radio, X-ray, ultraviolet (UV) and, sometimes, in the optical domains. Aims: In this paper we present ultraviolet, optical and near infrared observations of five Type II SNe, namely SNe 2009dd, 2007pk, 2010aj, 1995ad, and 1996W. Together with few other SNe they form a group of moderately luminous Type II events. We investigate the photometric similarities and differences among these bright objects. We also attempt to characterise them by analysing the spectral evolutions, in order to find some traces of CSM-ejecta interaction. Methods: We collected photometry and spectroscopy with several telescopes in order to construct well-sampled light curves and spectral evolutions from the photospheric to the nebular phases. Both photometry and spectroscopy indicate a degree of heterogeneity in this sample. Modelling the data of SNe 2009dd, 2010aj and 1995ad allows us to constrain the explosion parameters and the properties of the progenitor stars. Results: The light curves have luminous peak magnitudes (-16.95 < MB < -18.70). The ejected masses of 56Ni for three SNe span a wide range of values (2.8 × 10-2 M⊙ < M(56Ni)< 1.4 × 10-1 M⊙), while for a fourth (SN 2010aj) we could determine a stringent upper limit (7 × 10-3 M⊙). Clues of interaction, such as the presence of high velocity (HV) features of the Balmer lines, are visible in the photospheric spectra of SNe 2009dd and 1996W. For SN 2007pk we observe a spectral transition from a Type IIn to a standard Type II SN. Modelling the observations of SNe 2009dd, 2010aj and 1995ad with radiation hydrodynamics codes, we infer kinetic plus thermal energies of about 0.2-0.5 foe, initial radii of 2-5 × 1013 cm and ejected masses of ~5.0-9.5 M⊙. Conclusions: These

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) is a series of three interlocking imaging and spectroscopic surveys, carried out over an eight-year period with a dedicated 2.5m telescope located at Apache Point Observatory in Southern New Mexico. The SDSS Supernova Survey was one of those three components of SDSS and SDSS-II, a 3-year extension of the original SDSS that operated from July 2005 to July 2008. The Supernova Survey was a time-domain survey, involving repeat imaging of the same region of sky every other night, weather permitting. The primary scientific motivation was to detect and measure light curves for several hundred supernovae through repeat scans of the SDSS Southern equatorial stripe 82 (about 2.5? wide by ~120? long). Over the course of three 3-month campaigns SDSS-II SN discovered and measured multi-band lightcurves for ~500 spectroscopically confirmed Type Ia supernovae in the redshift range z=0.05-0.4. In addition, the project harvested a few hundred light curves for SNe Ia and discovered about 80 spectroscopically confirmed core-collapse supernovae (supernova types Ib/c and II).

Stellar winds and supernova (SN) explosions of massive stars (`stellar feedback') create bubbles in the interstellar medium (ISM) and insert newly produced heavy elements and kinetic energy into their surroundings, possibly driving turbulence. Most of this energy is thermalized and immediately removed from the ISM by radiative cooling. The rest is available for driving ISM dynamics. In this work we estimate the amount of feedback energy retained as kinetic energy when the bubble walls have decelerated to the sound speed of the ambient medium. We show that the feedback of the most massive star outweighs the feedback from less massive stars. For a giant molecular cloud (GMC) mass of 105 M⊙ (as e.g. found in the Orion GMCs) and a star formation efficiency of 8 per cent the initial mass function predicts a most massive star of approximately 60 M⊙. For this stellar evolution model we test the dependence of the retained kinetic energy of the cold GMC gas on the inclusion of stellar winds. In our model winds insert 2.34 times the energy of an SN and create stellar wind bubbles serving as pressure reservoirs. We find that during the pressure-driven phases of the bubble evolution radiative losses peak near the contact discontinuity (CD), and thus the retained energy depends critically on the scales of the mixing processes across the CD. Taking into account the winds of massive stars increases the amount of kinetic energy deposited in the cold ISM from 0.1 per cent to a few per cent of the feedback energy.

The most massive stars on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), or the so-called super-AGB stars, are thought to produce supernovae triggered by electron captures in their degenerate O+Ne+Mg cores. Super-AGB stars are expected to have slow winds with high mass-loss rates, so their circumstellar density is high. The explosions of super-AGB stars are therefore presumed to occur in this dense circumstellar environment. We provide the first synthetic light curves for such events by exploding realistic electron-capture supernova progenitors within their super-AGB winds. We find that the early light curve - that is, before the recombination wave reaches the bottom of the hydrogen-rich envelope of supernova ejecta (the plateau phase) - is not affected by the dense wind. However, after the luminosity drop following the plateau phase, the luminosity remains much higher when the super-AGB wind is taken into account. We compare our results to the historical light curve of SN 1054, the progenitor of the Crab Nebula, and show that the explosion of an electron-capture supernova within an ordinary super-AGB wind can explain the observed light curve features. We conclude that SN 1054 could have been a Type IIn supernova without any extra extreme mass loss, which was previously suggested to be necessary to account for its early high luminosity. We also show that our light curves match Type IIn supernovae with an early plateau phase or the so-called Type IIn-P supernovae, and suggest that they are electron-capture supernovae within super-AGB winds. Although some electron-capture supernovae can be bright in the optical spectral range due to the large progenitor radius, their X-ray luminosity from the interaction does not necessarily get as bright as other Type IIn supernovae whose optical luminosities are also powered by the interaction. Thus, we suggest that optically bright X-ray-faint Type IIn supernovae can emerge from electron-capture supernovae. Optically faint Type IIn supernovae

ports the following spectroscopic observations of supernovae based on spectra (range 320-1000 nm) obtained with the SuperNova Integral Field Spectrograph (Aldering et al 2002, SPIE, 4836, 61) on the University of Hawaii 2.2-meter telescope. Classifications were performed using Superfit (Howell et al 2002, BAAS, 34, 1256) or SNID (Blondin & Tonry, 2007, ApJ, 666, 1024). Heliocentric redshifts listed to two decimal places are measured from supernova features; all others are published values or measured by us from host galaxy features.

We point out that the commonly assumed condition for galactic outflows, that supernovae (SNe) heating is efficient in the central regions of starburst galaxies, suffers from invalid assumptions. We show that a large filling factor of hot (≥10{sup 6} K) gas is difficult to achieve through SNe heating, irrespective of the SN's initial gas temperature and density, its uniformity, or its clumpiness. We instead suggest that correlated supernovae from OB associations in molecular clouds in the central region can drive powerful outflows if the molecular surface density is >10{sup 3} M {sub ☉} pc{sup –2}.

The author presents new measurements of the type Ia SN rate from the SDSS-IISupernova Survey. The SDSS-IISupernova Survey was carried out during the Fall months (Sept.-Nov.) of 2005-2007 and discovered ~ 500 spectroscopically confirmed SNe Ia with densely sampled (once every ~ 4 days), multi-color light curves. Additionally, the SDSS-IISupernova Survey has discovered several hundred SNe Ia candidates with well-measured light curves, but without spectroscopic confirmation of type. This total, achieved in 9 months of observing, represents ~ 15-20% of the total SNe Ia discovered worldwide since 1885. The author describes some technical details of the SN Survey observations and SN search algorithms that contributed to the extremely high-yield of discovered SNe and that are important as context for the SDSS-IISupernova Survey SN Ia rate measurements.

I report photometry and spectroscopy for 16 Type IIsupernovae (SNe) observed during the Calan/Tololo, SOIRS, and CTIO SN programs, a valuable resource for astrophysical studies. I perform a detailed assessment of the performance of the "expanding photosphere method" (EPM) in the determination of extragalactic distances. EPM proves very sensitive to the many steps involved in the analysis which can make it an art instead of an objective measurement tool. To minimize biases I implement objective procedures to compute synthetic magnitudes, measure true photospheric velocities, interpolate velocities, estimate dust extinction and realistic errors. While EPM performs well during the initial phases of SN evolution, I find distance residuals as large as 50% as the photosphere approaches the H recombination temperature. Despite the effort to lend credence to EPM, it proves necessary to exercise great care to avoid biasing the results. The main sources of uncertainties are observational errors (8%), dilution factors (11%), velocity interpolations (12%), and dust extinction (14%). The EPM Hubble diagram suggests the true error in an individual EPM distance is 20%. I find values of 63 +/- 8 and 67 +/- 7 km s-1 Mpc-1 for the Hubble constant, depending on the redshift sample chosen for the analysis. This result is independent of the extragalactic distance scale which yields 65 +/- 5 from Cepheid/SNe la distances. From four objects the comparison of EPM and Tully-Fisher yields D(EPM)/D(TF) = 0.82 +/- 0.12. I derive bolometric corrections for plateau SNe (SNe II-P) that permit me to obtain reliable bolometric luminosities from BVI photometry. Despite the great diversity displayed by SNe II-P, the duration of the plateau is approximately the same and the luminosities and expansion velocities measured in the middle of the plateau prove highly correlated. From the luminosity of the exponential tail I obtain 56Co masses ranging between 0.02 and 0.28 M⊙ , and some evidence that SNe

We use the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IISupernova Survey (SDSS-II SNS) data to measure the volumetric core collapse supernova (CCSN) rate in the redshift range (0.03 < z < 0.09). Using a sample of 89 CCSN, we find a volume-averaged rate of 1.06 ± 0.19 × 10{sup –4}((h/0.7){sup 3}/(yr Mpc{sup 3})) at a mean redshift of 0.072 ± 0.009. We measure the CCSN luminosity function from the data and consider the implications on the star formation history.

It has been suggested that Type IIsupernovae with rapidly fading light curves (a.k.a. Type IIL supernovae) are explosions of progenitors with low-mass hydrogen-rich envelopes which are of the order of 1 M⊙. We investigate light-curve properties of supernovae from such progenitors. We confirm that such progenitors lead to rapidly fading Type IIsupernovae. We find that the luminosity of supernovae from such progenitors with the canonical explosion energy of 1051 erg and 56Ni mass of 0.05 M⊙ can increase temporarily shortly before all the hydrogen in the envelope recombines. As a result, a bump appears in their light curves. The bump appears because the heating from the nuclear decay of 56Ni can keep the bottom of hydrogen-rich layers in the ejecta ionized, and thus the photosphere can stay there for a while. We find that the light-curve bump becomes less significant when we make explosion energy larger (≳2 × 1051 erg), 56Ni mass smaller (≲0.01 M⊙), 56Ni mixed in the ejecta, or the progenitor radius larger. Helium mixing in hydrogen-rich layers makes the light-curve decline rates large but does not help reducing the light-curve bump. Because the light-curve bump we found in our light-curve models has not been observed in rapidly fading Type IIsupernovae, they may be characterized by not only low-mass hydrogen-rich envelopes but also higher explosion energy, larger degrees of 56Ni mixing, and/or larger progenitor radii than slowly fading Type IIsupernovae, so that the light-curve bump does not become significant.

The metallicity of a supernova progenitor, together with its mass, is one of the main parameters that can rule the progenitor's fate. We present the second study of nearby supernova (SN) host galaxies (0.005 II; they all have 12 + log (O/H) ≃ 8.50 within 0.02 dex. The total galaxy metallicities are also very similar, and we argue that the reason is that our sample only consists of SNe discovered in massive galaxies (log (M/M⊙) > 10 dex) by targeted searches. We neither found evidence that the metallicity at the SN location differs from the average metallicity at the galactocentric distance of the SNe. By extending our SN sample with published metallicities at the SN location, we are able to study the metallicity distributions for all SN subtypes split into SN discovered in targeted and untargeted searches. We confirm a bias toward higher host masses and metallicities in the targeted searches. By combining data from targeted and untargeted searches, we found a sequence from higher to lower local metallicity: SN Ia, Ic, and II show the highest metallicity, which is significantly higher than those of SN Ib, IIb, and Ic-BL. Our results support the scenario according to which SN Ib result from binary progenitors. Additionally, at least part of the SN Ic are the result of single massive stars that were stripped of their outer layers by metallicity-driven winds. We studied several proxies of the local metallicity that are frequently used in the literature and found that the total host

Recent observations suggest that some supernovae may be the result of an explosion into an optically thick circumstellar material, the product of pre-explosion mass loss (wind) by the progenitor star. This scenario has been studied previously both analytically and numerically. However, many previous studies base their analysis on the diffusion approximation for radiation transfer, which is inappropriate in the optically thin outer layers of the wind. Here we study the deviations from diffusion and calculate light curves more accurately using a Monte Carlo approach to photon transfer. We distinguish between 'compact' winds, for which the diffusion approximation is appropriate, and 'extended' winds, which require a more delicate treatment of the radiation. We show that this effect is more significant than that of the light-travel time difference to a distant observer, which has a secondary influence on the light curves of extended-wind systems. We also comment on the applicability of the widely used flux-limited diffusion approximation in this context: we find that it generally does not reproduce the Monte Carlo results. The flux-limited diffusion approximation leads to results that are not only quantitatively but also qualitatively wrong in the extended-wind regime.

Shell-type Supernova remnants (SNRs) have long been known to harbour a population of ultra-relativistic particles, accelerated in the Supernova shock wave by the mechanism of diffusive shock acceleration. Experimental evidence for the existence of electrons up to energies of 100 TeV was first provided by the detection of hard X-ray synchrotron emission as e.g. in the shell of the young SNR SN1006. Furthermore using theoretical arguments shell-type Supernova remnants have long been considered as the main accelerator of protons - Cosmic rays - in the Galaxy; definite proof of this process is however still missing. Pulsar Wind Nebulae (PWN) - diffuse structures surrounding young pulsars - are another class of objects known to be a site of particle acceleration in the Galaxy, again through the detection of hard synchrotron X-rays such as in the Crab Nebula. Gamma-rays above 100 MeV provide a direct access to acceleration processes. The GLAST Large Area telescope (LAT) will be operating in the energy range between 30 MeV and 300 GeV and will provide excellent sensitivity, angular and energy resolution in a previously rather poorly explored energy band. We will describe prospects for the investigation of these Galactic particle accelerators with GLAST.

Wide-field surveys will soon be discovering Type Ia supernovae (SNe) at rates of several thousand per year. Spectroscopic follow-up can only scratch the surface for such enormous samples, so these extensive data sets will only be useful to the extent that they can be characterized by the survey photometry alone. In a companion paper we introduced the Supernova Ontology with Fuzzy Templates (SOFT) method for analyzing SNe using direct comparison to template light curves, and demonstrated its application for photometric SN classification. In this work we extend the SOFT method to derive estimates of redshift and luminosity distance for Type Ia SNe, using light curves from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and Supernova Legacy Survey (SNLS) as a validation set. Redshifts determined by SOFT using light curves alone are consistent with spectroscopic redshifts, showing an rms scatter in the residuals of rms z = 0.051. SOFT can also derive simultaneous redshift and distance estimates, yielding results that are consistent with the currently favored ΛCDM cosmological model. When SOFT is given spectroscopic information for SN classification and redshift priors, the rms scatter in Hubble diagram residuals is 0.18 mag for the SDSS data and 0.28 mag for the SNLS objects. Without access to any spectroscopic information, and even without any redshift priors from host galaxy photometry, SOFT can still measure reliable redshifts and distances, with an increase in the Hubble residuals to 0.37 mag for the combined SDSS and SNLS data set. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we predict that SOFT will be able to improve constraints on time-variable dark energy models by a factor of 2-3 with each new generation of large-scale SN surveys.

Wide-field surveys will soon be discovering Type Ia supernovae (SNe) at rates of several thousand per year. Spectroscopic follow-up can only scratch the surface for such enormous samples, so these extensive data sets will only be useful to the extent that they can be characterized by the survey photometry alone. In a companion paper we introduced the Supernova Ontology with Fuzzy Templates (SOFT) method for analyzing SNe using direct comparison to template light curves, and demonstrated its application for photometric SN classification. In this work we extend the SOFT method to derive estimates of redshift and luminosity distance for Type Ia SNe, using light curves from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and Supernova Legacy Survey (SNLS) as a validation set. Redshifts determined by SOFT using light curves alone are consistent with spectroscopic redshifts, showing an rms scatter in the residuals of rms{sub z} = 0.051. SOFT can also derive simultaneous redshift and distance estimates, yielding results that are consistent with the currently favored {Lambda}CDM cosmological model. When SOFT is given spectroscopic information for SN classification and redshift priors, the rms scatter in Hubble diagram residuals is 0.18 mag for the SDSS data and 0.28 mag for the SNLS objects. Without access to any spectroscopic information, and even without any redshift priors from host galaxy photometry, SOFT can still measure reliable redshifts and distances, with an increase in the Hubble residuals to 0.37 mag for the combined SDSS and SNLS data set. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we predict that SOFT will be able to improve constraints on time-variable dark energy models by a factor of 2-3 with each new generation of large-scale SN surveys.

Context. Spectral modelling of type IIsupernova atmospheres indicates a clear dependence of metal line strengths on progenitor metallicity. This dependence motivates further work to evaluate the accuracy with which these supernovae can be used as environment metallicity indicators. Aims: To assess this accuracy we present a sample of type IIsupernova host H ii-region spectroscopy, from which environment oxygen abundances have been derived. These environment abundances are compared to the observed strength of metal lines in supernova spectra. Methods: Combining our sample with measurements from the literature, we present oxygen abundances of 119 host H ii regions by extracting emission line fluxes and using abundance diagnostics. These abundances are then compared to equivalent widths of Fe ii 5018 Å at various time and colour epochs. Results: Our distribution of inferred type IIsupernova host H ii-region abundances has a range of ~0.6 dex. We confirm the dearth of type IIsupernovae exploding at metallicities lower than those found (on average) in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The equivalent width of Fe ii 5018 Å at 50 days post-explosion shows a statistically significant correlation with host H ii-region oxygen abundance. The strength of this correlation increases if one excludes abundance measurements derived far from supernova explosion sites. The correlation significance also increases if we only analyse a "gold" IIP sample, and if a colour epoch is used in place of time. In addition, no evidence is found of a correlation between progenitor metallicity and supernova light-curve or spectral properties - except for that stated above with respect to Fe ii 5018 Å equivalent widths - suggesting progenitor metallicity is not a driving factor in producing the diversity that is observed in our sample. Conclusions: This study provides observational evidence of the usefulness of type IIsupernovae as metallicity indicators. We finish with a discussion of the

Recent searches for supernova IIp progenitors in external galaxies have led to the identification of red objects with magnitudes and colours indicative of red supergiants, in most cases implying quite low luminosities and hence masses well below 10Msol. Stellar models, on the other hand, do not predict explosions from objects below 9 Msol. What does our knowledge of local red supergiants tells us about the expected properties of such objects?We have carried out a comprehensive spectroscopic and photometric study of a sample of hundreds of red supergiants in the Milky Way and both Magellanic Clouds. We have explored correlations between different parameters and the position of stars in the HR diagrams of open clusters. At solar metallicty, there is strong evidence for a phase of very heavy mass loss at the end of the red supergiant phase, but the existence of such a phase is still not confirmed at SMC metallicities. Objects of ~ 7Msol, on the other hand, become very dusty in the SMC, and appear as very luminous Miras.Among Milky Way clusters, we find a surprising lack of objects readily identifiable as the expected 7 to 10 Msol red supergiants or AGB stars. We are carrying out an open cluster survey aimed at filling this region of the HR diagram with reliable data. Finally, we will discuss the implications of all this findings for the expected properties of supernova progenitors, as it looks unlikely that typical red supergiants may explode without undergoing further evolution.

The application of the cryogenic concept to various types of tunnels including Ludwieg tube tunnel, Evans clean tunnel, blowdown, induced-flow, and continuous-flow fan-driven tunnels is discussed. Benefits related to construction and operating costs are covered, along with benefits related to new testing capabilities. It is noted that cooling the test gas to very low temperatures increases Reynolds number by more than a factor of seven. From the energy standpoint, ambient-temperature fan-driven closed-return tunnels are considered to be the most efficient type of tunnel, while a large reduction in the required tunnel stagnation pressure can be achieved through cryogenic operation. Operating envelopes for three modes of operation for a cryogenic transonic pressure tunnel with a 2.5 by 2.5 test section are outlined. A computer program for calculating flow parameters and power requirements for wind tunnels with operating temperatures from saturation to above ambient is highlighted.

We present photometric and spectroscopic observations of ASASSN-13co, an unusually luminous Type IIsupernova and the first core-collapse supernova discovered by the All-Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae (ASAS-SN). First detection of the supernova was on UT 2013 August 29 and the data presented span roughly 3.5 months after discovery. We use the recently developed model by Pejcha and Prieto to model the multi-band light curves of ASASSN-13co and derive the bolometric luminosity curve. We compare ASASSN-13co to other Type IIsupernovae to show that it was unusually luminous for a Type IIsupernova and that it exhibited an atypical light curve shape that does not cleanly match that of either a standard Type II-L or Type II-P supernova.

We apply the Standardized Candle Method (SCM) for Type II Plateau supernovae (SNe II-P), which relates the velocity of the ejecta of a SN to its luminosity during the plateau, to 15 SNe II-P discovered over the three season run of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-IISupernova Survey. The redshifts of these SNe-0.027 < z < 0.144-cover a range hitherto sparsely sampled in the literature; in particular, our SNe II-P sample contains nearly as many SNe in the Hubble flow (z > 0.01) as all of the current literature on the SCM combined. We find that the SDSS SNe have a very small intrinsic I-band dispersion (0.22 mag), which can be attributed to selection effects. When the SCM is applied to the combined SDSS-plus-literature set of SNe II-P, the dispersion increases to 0.29 mag, larger than the scatter for either set of SNe separately. We show that the standardization cannot be further improved by eliminating SNe with positive plateau decline rates, as proposed in Poznanski et al. We thoroughly examine all potential systematic effects and conclude that for the SCM to be useful for cosmology, the methods currently used to determine the Fe II velocity at day 50 must be improved, and spectral templates able to encompass the intrinsic variations of Type II-P SNe will be needed.

The original proposal for this LTSA grant was for X-ray studies of pulsars, and especially pulsar wind nebulae and what they could tell us about pulsar properties, especially their space velocities. By any metric, this program has been very successful. No fewer than 14 papers on directly related topics (and several dozen more on related topics) have been published in refereed journals with the PI as lead or co-author, all observational results that have had significant impact on the field. These include the first X-ray detection of the "Duck" pulsar, a clear demonstration that estimated pulsar ages can be off by over an order of magnitude (via observations of the young supernova remnant G11.2-0.3) and the detection of the first pulsar wind nebula around a millisecond pulsar. These publications have also resulted in 4 press releases. Moreover, they also represent the thesis work of two PhD students at MIT (Froney Crawford and Mike Pivovaroff) and one postdoctoral fellow, Bryan Gaensler, now Assistant Professor at Harvard.

The principal optical properties of type I supernovae are summarized. These include the light curve and the spectrum. The spectra consist of broad bands with very little continuum. According to the theory presented, the observed light is principally fluorescence, excited in the medium surrounding the supernova by ultraviolet radiation originating from the explosion. It is proposed that the spectrum that impinges on the fluorescent medium while emission is taking place must fall abruptly across the Lyman edge of He II. Such a filtering action is plausibly provided by a much denser internal region, rich in helium, immediately surrounding the exploding object. This will form a Stromgren sphere during the time the intense UV pulse is passing through it. The dense region also slows down the photons below the edge by Thomson scattering, thereby spreading out the UV pulse in time. Various proposed mechanisms for the production of ionization in the Gum nebula are discussed.

What are Type II-Linear supernovae (SNe II-L)? This class, which has been ill defined for decades, now receives significant attention - both theoretically, in order to understand what happens to stars in the ˜15-25 M⊙ range, and observationally, with two independent studies suggesting that they cannot be cleanly separated photometrically from the regular hydrogen-rich SNe II-P characterized by a marked plateau in their light curve. Here, we analyse the multiband light curves and extensive spectroscopic coverage of a sample of 35 SNe II and find that 11 of them could be SNe II-L. The spectra of these SNe are hydrogen deficient, typically have shallow Hα absorption, may show indirect signs of helium via strong O I λ7774 absorption, and have faster line velocities consistent with a thin hydrogen shell. The light curves can be mostly differentiated from those of the regular, hydrogen-rich SNe II-P by their steeper decline rates and higher luminosity, and we propose to define them based on their decline in the V band: SNe II-L decline by more than 0.5 mag from peak brightness by day 50 after explosion. Using our sample we provide template light curves for SNe II-L and II-P in four photometric bands.

A survey of Type IIsupernovae explosion models has been carried out to determine how their light curves and spectra vary with their mass, metallicity, and explosion energy. The presupernova models are taken from a recent survey of massive stellar evolution at solar metallicity supplemented by new calculations at subsolar metallicity. Explosions are simulated by the motion of a piston near the edge of the iron core and the resulting light curves and spectra are calculated using full multi-wavelength radiation transport. Formulae are developed that describe approximately how the model observables (light curve luminosity and duration) scale with the progenitor mass, explosion energy, and radioactive nucleosynthesis. Comparison with observational data shows that the explosion energy of typical supernovae (as measured by kinetic energy at infinity) varies by nearly an order of magnitude—from 0.5 to 4.0 × 1051 ergs, with a typical value of ~0.9 × 1051 ergs. Despite the large variation, the models exhibit a tight relationship between luminosity and expansion velocity, similar to that previously employed empirically to make SNe IIP standardized candles. This relation is explained by the simple behavior of hydrogen recombination in the supernova envelope, but we find a sensitivity to progenitor metallicity and mass that could lead to systematic errors. Additional correlations between light curve luminosity, duration, and color might enable the use of SNe IIP to obtain distances accurate to ~20% using only photometric data.

A survey of Type IIsupernovae explosion models has been carried out to determine how their light curves and spectra vary with their mass, metallicity, and explosion energy. The presupernova models are taken from a recent survey of massive stellar evolution at solar metallicity supplemented by new calculations at subsolar metallicity. Explosions are simulated by the motion of a piston near the edge of the iron core and the resulting light curves and spectra are calculated using full multi-wavelength radiation transport. Formulae are developed that describe approximately how the model observables (light curve luminosity and duration) scale with the progenitor mass, explosion energy, and radioactive nucleosynthesis. Comparison with observational data shows that the explosion energy of typical supernovae (as measured by kinetic energy at infinity) varies by nearly an order of magnitude-from 0.5 to 4.0 x 10{sup 51} ergs, with a typical value of approx0.9 x 10{sup 51} ergs. Despite the large variation, the models exhibit a tight relationship between luminosity and expansion velocity, similar to that previously employed empirically to make SNe IIP standardized candles. This relation is explained by the simple behavior of hydrogen recombination in the supernova envelope, but we find a sensitivity to progenitor metallicity and mass that could lead to systematic errors. Additional correlations between light curve luminosity, duration, and color might enable the use of SNe IIP to obtain distances accurate to approx20% using only photometric data.

Wolf-Rayet stars are known to eject winds. Thus, when a Wolf-Rayet star explodes as a supernova, a fast (≳ 40, 000 km s{sup –1}) shock is expected to be driven through a wind. We study the signal expected from a fast supernova shock propagating through an optically thick wind and find that the electrons behind the shock driven into the wind are efficiently cooled by inverse Compton over soft photons that were deposited by the radiation-mediated shock that crossed the star. Therefore, the bolometric luminosity is comparable to the kinetic energy flux through the shock, and the spectrum is found to be a power law, whose slope and frequency range depend on the number flux of soft photons available for cooling. Wolf-Rayet supernovae that explode through a thick wind have a high flux of soft photons, producing a flat spectrum, νF {sub ν} = Const, in the X-ray range of 0.1 ≲ T ≲ 50 keV. As the shock expands into an optically thin wind, the soft photons are no longer able to cool the shock that plows through the wind, and the bulk of the emission takes the form of a standard core-collapse supernova (without a wind). However, a small fraction of the soft photons is upscattered by the shocked wind and produces a transient unique X-ray signature.

We present the discovery of a red supergiant star that exploded as supernova 2003gd in the nearby spiral galaxy M74. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the Gemini Telescope imaged this galaxy 6 to 9 months before the supernova explosion, and subsequent HST images confirm the positional coincidence of the supernova with a single resolved star that is a red supergiant of 8(+4)(-2) solar masses. This confirms both stellar evolution models and supernova theories predicting that cool red supergiants are the immediate progenitor stars of type II-plateau supernovae. PMID:14739452

Supernova (SN) cosmology without spectroscopic confirmation is an exciting new frontier, which we address here with the Bayesian Estimation Applied to Multiple Species (BEAMS) algorithm and the full three years of data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IISupernova Survey (SDSS-II SN). BEAMS is a Bayesian framework for using data from multiple species in statistical inference when one has the probability that each data point belongs to a given species, corresponding in this context to different types of SNe with their probabilities derived from their multi-band light curves. We run the BEAMS algorithm on both Gaussian and more realistic SNANA simulations with of order 10{sup 4} SNe, testing the algorithm against various pitfalls one might expect in the new and somewhat uncharted territory of photometric SN cosmology. We compare the performance of BEAMS to that of both mock spectroscopic surveys and photometric samples that have been cut using typical selection criteria. The latter typically either are biased due to contamination or have significantly larger contours in the cosmological parameters due to small data sets. We then apply BEAMS to the 792 SDSS-II photometric SNe with host spectroscopic redshifts. In this case, BEAMS reduces the area of the {Omega}{sub m}, {Omega}{sub {Lambda}} contours by a factor of three relative to the case where only spectroscopically confirmed data are used (297 SNe). In the case of flatness, the constraints obtained on the matter density applying BEAMS to the photometric SDSS-II data are {Omega}{sup BEAMS}{sub m} = 0.194 {+-} 0.07. This illustrates the potential power of BEAMS for future large photometric SN surveys such as Large Synoptic Survey Telescope.

We discovered two transient events in the Kepler field with light curves that strongly suggest they are type II-P supernovae. Using the fast cadence of the Kepler observations we precisely estimate the rise time to maximum for KSN2011a and KSN2011d as 10.5±0.4 and 13.3±0.4 rest-frame days respectively. We find the progenitor radius of KSN2011a (280±20 R⊙) to be significantly smaller than that for KSN2011d (490±20 R⊙) but both have similar explosion energies of 2.0±0.3 ×1051 erg.The rising light curve of KSN2011d is an excellent match to that predicted by simple models of exploding red supergiants (RSG). However, the early rise of KSN2011a is faster than the models predict possibly due to the supernova shockwave moving into pre-existing wind or mass-loss from the RSG. A mass loss rate of 10-4 M⊙ yr-1 from the RSG can explain the fast rise without impacting the optical flux at maximum light or the shape of the post-maximum light curve.No shock breakout emission is seen in KSN2011a, but this is likely due to the circumstellar interaction suspected in the fast rising light curve. The early light curve of KSN2011d does show excess emission consistent with model predictions of a shock breakout. This is the first optical detection of a shock breakout from a type II-P supernova.

We present an analysis of the host galaxy dependencies of Type Ia Supernovae (SNe Ia) from the full three year sample of the SDSS-IISupernova Survey. We re-discover, to high significance, the strong correlation between host galaxy type and the width of the observed SN light curve, i.e., fainter, quickly declining SNe Ia favor passive host galaxies, while brighter, slowly declining Ia's favor star-forming galaxies. We also find evidence (at between 2 to 3{sigma}) that SNe Ia are {approx_equal} 0.1 magnitudes brighter in passive host galaxies, than in star-forming hosts, after the SN Ia light curves have been standardized using the light curve shape and color variations: This difference in brightness is present in both the SALT2 and MCLS2k2 light curve fitting methodologies. We see evidence for differences in the SN Ia color relationship between passive and star-forming host galaxies, e.g., for the MLCS2k2 technique, we see that SNe Ia in passive hosts favor a dust law of R{sub V} {approx_equal} 1, while SNe Ia in star-forming hosts require R{sub V} {approx} 2. The significance of these trends depends on the range of SN colors considered. We demonstrate that these effects can be parameterized using the stellar mass of the host galaxy (with a confidence of > 4{sigma}) and including this extra parameter provides a better statistical fit to our data. Our results suggest that future cosmological analyses of SN Ia samples should include host galaxy information.

All stars with an initial mass greater than 8Msun, but not massive enough to encounter the pair-production instability, eventually form a degenerate core and collapse to form a compact object, either a neutron star or a black hole.At the lower mass end, these massive stars die as red-supergiant stars and give rise to Type IIsupernovae (SNe). The diversity of observed properties of SNe II suggests a range of progenitor mass, radii, but also explosion energy.We have performed a large grid simulations designed to cover this range of progenitor and explosion properties. Using MESA STAR, we compute a set of massive star models (12-30Msun) from the main sequence until core collapse. We then generate explosions with V1D to produce ejecta with a range of explosion energies and yields. Finally, all ejecta are evolved with CMFGEN to generate multi-band light curves and spectra.In this poster, we focus our attention on the properties of low-energy explosions that give rise to low-luminosity Type II Plateau (II-P) SNe. In particular, we present a detailed study of SN 2008bk, but also include other notorious low-energy SNe II-P like 2005cs, emphasising their non-standard properties by comparing to models that match well events like SN 1999em. Such low-energy explosions, characterised by low ejecta expansion rates, are more suitable for reliable spectral line identifications.Based on our models, we discuss the distinct signatures of low-energy explosions in lower and higher mass models. One important goal is to identify whether there is a progenitor-mass bias leading to such events.

Consistency between Carnegie Supernova Project (CSP) and SDSS-IISupernova Survey ugri measurements has been evaluated by comparing Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and CSP photometry for nine spectroscopically confirmed Type Ia supernova observed contemporaneously by both programs. The CSP data were transformed into the SDSS photometric system. Sources of systematic uncertainty have been identified, quantified, and shown to be at or below the 0.023 mag level in all bands. When all photometry for a given band is combined, we find average magnitude differences of equal to or less than 0.011 mag in ugri, with rms scatter ranging from 0.043 to 0.077 mag. The u-band agreement is promising, with the caveat that only four of the nine supernovae are well observed in u and these four exhibit an 0.038 mag supernova-to-supernova scatter in this filter.

Consistency between Carnegie Supernova Project (CSP) and SDSS-IISupernova Survey ugri measurements has been evaluated by comparing Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and CSP photometry for nine spectroscopically confirmed Type Ia supernova observed contemporaneously by both programs. The CSP data were transformed into the SDSS photometric system. Sources of systematic uncertainty have been identified, quantified, and shown to be at or below the 0.023 mag level in all bands. When all photometry for a given band is combined, we find average magnitude differences of equal to or less than 0.011 mag in ugri, with rms scatter ranging from 0.043 to 0.077 mag. The u-band agreement is promising, with the caveat that only four of the nine supernovae are well observed in u and these four exhibit an 0.038 mag supernova-to-supernova scatter in this filter.

I present analytic approximations for some issues related to condensation of graphite, TiC, and silicon carbide in oxygen-rich cores of supernovae of Type II. Increased understanding, which mathematical analysis can support, renders researchers more receptive to condensation in O-rich supernova gases. Taking SN 1987A as typical, my first analysis shows why the abundance of CO molecules reaches an early maximum in which free carbon remains more abundant than CO. This analysis clarifies why O-rich gas cannot oxidize C if {sup 56}Co radioactivity is as strong as in SN 1987A. My next analysis shows that the CO abundance could be regarded as being in chemical equilibrium if the CO molecule is given an effective binding energy rather than its laboratory dissociation energy. The effective binding energy makes the thermal dissociation rate of CO equal to its radioactive dissociation rate. This preserves possible relevance for the concept of chemical equilibrium. My next analysis shows that the observed abundances of CO and SiO molecules in SN 1987A rule out frequent suggestions that equilibrium condensation of SUNOCONs has occurred following atomic mixing of the He-burning shell with more central zones in such a way as to reproduce roughly the observed spectrum of isotopes in SUNOCONs while preserving C/O > 1. He atoms admixed along with the excess carbon would destroy CO and SiO molecules, leaving their observed abundances unexplained. The final analysis argues that a chemical quasiequilibrium among grains (but not gas) may exist approximately during condensation, so that its computational use is partially justified as a guide to which mineral phases would be stable against reactions with gas. I illustrate this point with quasiequilibrium calculations by Ebel and Grossman that have shown that graphite is stable even when O/C >1 if prominent molecules are justifiably excluded from the calculation of chemical equilibrium.

We present visual-wavelength photometry and spectroscopy of supernova (SN) 2008S. Based on the low peak luminosity for a SN of MR = -13.9 mag, photometric and spectral evolution unlike that of low-luminosity SNe, a late-time decline rate slower than 56Co decay, and slow outflow speeds of 600-1000 km s-1, we conclude that SN 2008S is not a true core-collapse SN and is probably not an electron-capture SN. Instead, we show that SN 2008S more closely resembles an "SN impostor" event like SN 1997bs, analogous to the giant eruptions of luminous blue variables (LBVs). Its total radiated energy was ~1047.8 erg, and it may have ejected 0.05-0.2 M sun in the event. We discover an uncanny similarity between the spectrum of SN 2008S and that of the Galactic hypergiant IRC+10420, which is dominated by narrow Hα, [Ca II], and Ca II emission lines formed in an opaque wind. We propose a scenario where the vastly super-Eddington (Γ ≈ 40) wind of SN 2008S partly fails because of reduced opacity due to recombination, as suggested for IRC+10420. The range of initial masses susceptible to eruptive LBV-like mass loss was known to extend down to 20-25 M sun, but estimates for the progenitor of SN 2008S (and the similar NGC 300 transient) may extend this range to lsim15 M sun. As such, SN 2008S may have implications for the progenitor of SN 1987A.

We discovered two transient events in the Kepler field with light curves that strongly suggest they are type II-P supernovae (SNe II-P). Using the fast cadence of the Kepler observations we precisely estimate the rise time to maximum for KSN2011a and KSN2011d as 10.5 ± 0.4 and 13.3 ± 0.4 rest-frame days, respectively. Based on fits to idealized analytic models, we find the progenitor radius of KSN2011a (280 ± 20 R⊙) to be significantly smaller than that for KSN2011d (490 ± 20 R⊙), but both have similar explosion energies of 2.0 ± 0.3 × 1051 erg. The rising light curve of KSN2011d is an excellent match to that predicted by simple models of exploding red supergiants (RSG). However, the early rise of KSN2011a is faster than the models predict, possibly due to the supernova shock wave moving into pre-existing wind or mass-loss from the RSG. A mass-loss rate of 10-4M⊙ yr-1 from the RSG can explain the fast rise without impacting the optical flux at maximum light or the shape of the post-maximum light curve. No shock breakout emission is seen in KSN2011a, but this is likely due to the circumstellar interaction suspected in the fast rising light curve. The early light curve of KSN2011d does show excess emission consistent with model predictions of a shock breakout. This is the first optical detection of a shock breakout from a SNe II-P.

We present BVRIJHK-band photometry of six core-collapse supernovae, SNe 1999bw, 2002hh, 2003gd, 2004et, 2005cs, and 2006bc, measured at late epochs (>2 yr) based on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and the Gemini North, and WIYN telescopes. We also show the JHK light curves of supernova impostor SN 2008S up to day 575 because it was serendipitously in our SN 2002hh field of view. Of our 43 HST observations in total, 36 observations are successful in detecting the light from the SNe alone and measuring magnitudes of all the targets. HST observations show a resolved scattered light echo around SN 2003gd at day 1520 and around SN 2002hh at day 1717. Our Gemini and WIYN observations detected SNe 2002hh and 2004et as well. Combining our data with previously published data, we show VRIJHK-band light curves and estimate decline magnitude rates at each band in four different phases. Our prior work on these light curves and other data indicate that dust is forming in our targets from days {approx}300 to 400, supporting SN dust formation theory. In this paper we focus on other physical properties derived from late-time light curves. We estimate {sup 56}Ni masses for our targets (0.5-14 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -2} M{sub Sun }) from the bolometric light curve of each of days {approx}150-300 using SN 1987A as a standard (7.5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -2} M{sub Sun }). The flattening or sometimes increasing fluxes in the late-time light curves of SNe 2002hh, 2003gd, 2004et, and 2006bc indicate the presence of light echoes. We estimate the circumstellar hydrogen density of the material causing the light echo and find that SN 2002hh is surrounded by relatively dense materials (n(H) >400 cm{sup -3}) and SNe 2003gd and 2004et have densities more typical of the interstellar medium ({approx}1 cm{sup -3}). We analyze the sample as a whole in the context of physical properties derived in prior work. The {sup 56}Ni mass appears well correlated with progenitor mass with a slope of 0

Type IIP supernovae (SNe IIP) have recently been proposed as metallicity (Z) probes. The spectral models of Dessart et al. (2014, MNRAS, 440, 1856) showed that the pseudo-equivalent width of Fe ii λ5018 (pEW5018) during the plateau phase depends on the primordial Z, but there was a paucity of SNe IIP exhibiting pEW5018 that were compatible with Z < 0.4 Z⊙. This lack might be due to some physical property of the SN II population or to the fact that those SNe have been discovered in luminous, metal-rich targeted galaxies. Here we use SN II observations from the untargeted (intermediate) Palomar Transient Factory [(i)PTF] survey, aiming to investigate the pEW5018 distribution of this SN population and, in particular, to look for the presence of SNe II at lower Z. We perform pEW5018 measurements on the spectra of a sample of 39 (i)PTF SNe II, selected to have well-constrained explosion epochs and light-curve properties. Based on the comparison with the pEW5018 spectral models, we subgrouped our SNe into four Z bins from Z ≈ 0.1 Z⊙ up to Z ≈ 2 Z⊙. We also independently investigated the Z of the hosts by using their absolute magnitudes and colors and, in a few cases, using strong-line diagnostics from spectra. We searched for possible correlations between SN observables, such as their peak magnitudes and the Z inferred from pEW5018. We found 11 events with pEW5018 that were small enough to indicate Z ≈ 0.1 Z⊙. The trend of pEW5018 with Z matches the Z estimates obtained from the host-galaxy photometry, although the significance of the correlation is weak. We also found that SNe with brighter peak magnitudes have smaller pEW5018 and occur at lower Z. The data are available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (ftp://130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/587/L7

Understanding the properties of Population III (Pop III) stars is prerequisite to elucidating the nature of primeval galaxies, the chemical enrichment and reionization of the early intergalactic medium, and the origin of supermassive black holes. While the primordial initial mass function (IMF) remains unknown, recent evidence from numerical simulations and stellar archaeology suggests that some Pop III stars may have had lower masses than previously thought, 15-50 M{sub Sun} in addition to 50-500 M{sub Sun }. The detection of Pop III supernovae (SNe) by JWST, WFIRST, or the TMT could directly probe the primordial IMF for the first time. We present numerical simulations of 15-40 M{sub Sun} Pop III core-collapse SNe performed with the Los Alamos radiation hydrodynamics code RAGE. We find that they will be visible in the earliest galaxies out to z {approx} 10-15, tracing their star formation rates and in some cases revealing their positions on the sky. Since the central engines of Pop III and solar-metallicity core-collapse SNe are quite similar, future detection of any Type II SNe by next-generation NIR instruments will in general be limited to this epoch.

In this paper, we study the 'standardized candle method' using a sample of 37 nearby (redshift z < 0.06) Type II plateau supernovae having BVRI photometry and optical spectroscopy. An analytic procedure is implemented to fit light curves, color curves, and velocity curves. We find that the V-I color toward the end of the plateau can be used to estimate the host-galaxy reddening with a precision of {sigma}(A{sub V}) = 0.2 mag. The correlation between plateau luminosity and expansion velocity previously reported in the literature is recovered. Using this relation and assuming a standard reddening law (R{sub V} = 3.1), we obtain Hubble diagrams (HDs) in the BVI bands with dispersions of {approx}0.4 mag. Allowing R{sub V} to vary and minimizing the spread in the HDs, we obtain a dispersion range of 0.25-0.30 mag, which implies that these objects can deliver relative distances with precisions of 12%-14%. The resulting best-fit value of R{sub V} is 1.4 {+-} 0.1.

The collapse of a 1.17 solar mass iron core is numerically followed through infall to 100 ms past core bounce, and the emergent neutrino spectra during each phase are highlighted. It is found that, even with fairly optimistic conditions for producing a strong, sustained core-bounce shock wave, the prompt shock stalls within 9 ms of core bounce at a radius of less than 250 km. It appears that a radical change in the character of the progenitor core or in our understanding of the relevant physics of stellar collapse is needed before the direct mechanism for type IIsupernovae can become viable. Expanding the number of neutrino types from one to six magnifies the debilitating effect of neutrino loss on shock propagation. At shock breakout, prompt bursts of all neutrino types are observed. The luminosities of the nonelectron types show a sudden turn-on in luminosity while that of the electron neutrinos steadily increases throughout infall as a result of accelerating electron capture.

We present first results on the quantitative spectroscopic analysis of the photospheric-phase of type IIsupernovae (SN). The analyses are based on the model atmosphere code, CMFGEN, of Hillier & Miller (1998) which solves the radiative transfer and statistical equilibrium equations in expanding outflows under the constraint of radiative equilibrium. A key asset of CMFGEN is its thorough treatment of line-blanketing due to metal species. From its applicability to hot star environments, the main modifications to the source code were to allow a linear velocity law, a power-law density distribution, an adaptive grid to handle the steep H recombination/ionization front occurring in some SN models, and a routine to compute the gray temperature structure in the presence of large velocities. In this first paper we demonstrate the ability of CMFGEN to reproduce, with a high level of accuracy, the UV and optical observations of a sample of well observed type II SN, i.e. SN1987A and SN1999em, at representative stages of their photospheric evolution. Two principal stages of SN are modeled that where hydrogen is fully ionized, and that in which H is only partially ionized. For models with an effective temperature below ~8000 K, hydrogen recombines and gives rise to a steep ionization front. The effect of varying the location of the outer grid radius on the spectral energy distribution (SED) is investigated. We find that going to 5-6 times the optically-thick base radius is optimal, since above that, the model becomes prohibitively large, while below this, significant differences appear because of the reduced line-blanketing (which persists even far above the photosphere) and the truncation of line-formation regions. To constrain the metallicity and the reddening of SN, the UV spectral region of early-time spectra is essential. We find that the density of the photosphere and effect of line blanketing decline as the spatial scale of the SN increases. The density distribution is

The PTF (ATEL #1964; http://www.astro.caltech.edu/ptf/) reports the discovery of a new supernova, PTF10hny. The supernova was discovered by Oarical, an autonomous software framework of the PTF collaboration, on June 10 UT at RA(J2000) = 15:04:25.29 and DEC(J2000) = +49:24:03.0 at a magnitude of 19.8 in R-band (calibrated with respect to the USNO catalog) in the galaxy MCG +08-27-062 (z=0.027). The supernova was not detected down to mag 21 in previous PTF images taken during 2010 (3-sigma).

This paper presents a sample of multi-band, visual-wavelength light curves of 51 type IIsupernovae (SNe II) observed from 1986 to 2003 in the course of four different surveys: the Cerro Tololo Supernova Survey, the Calan Tololo Supernova Program (C&T), the Supernova Optical and Infrared Survey (SOIRS), and the Carnegie Type IISupernovae Survey (CATS). Near-infrared photometry and optical spectroscopy of this set of SNe II will be published in two companion papers. A list of the SNe II used in this study is presented in Table1. The first object in our list is SN 1986L and it is the only SN observed with photoelectric techniques (by M.M.P and S.K., using the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) 0.9m equipped with a photometer and B and V filters). The remaining SNe were observed using a variety of telescopes equipped with CCD detectors and UBV(RI)KCz filters (see Table5). The magnitudes for the photometric sequences of the 51 SNe II are listed in Table4. In every case, these sequences were derived from observations of Landolt standards (see Appendix D in Hamuy et al. 2001ApJ...558..615H for the definition of the z band and Stritzinger et al. 2002AJ....124.2100S for the description of the z-band standards). Table5 lists the resulting UBVRIz magnitudes for the 51 SNe. (3 data files).

We live in a Universe that is getting bigger faster. This astonishing discovery of Universal acceleration was made in the late 1990s by two teams who made observations of a special type of exploded star known as a `Supernova Type Ia'. (SNeIa) Since the discovery of the accelerating Universe, one of the biggest questions in modern cosmology has been to determine the cause of that acceleration - the answer to this question will have far reaching implications for our theories of cosmology and fundamental physics more broadly. The two main competing explanations for this apparent late time acceleration of the Universe are modified gravity and dark energy. The Dark Energy Survey (DES) has been designed and commissioned to find to find answers to these questions about the nature of dark energy and modified gravity. The new 570 megapixel Dark Energy Camera is currently operating with the Cerro-Tololo Inter American Observatory's 4m Blanco teleccope, carrying out a systematic search for SNeIa, and mapping out the large scale structure of the Universe by making observations of galaxies. The DES science program program which saw first light in September 2013 will run for five years in total. DES SNeIa data in combination with the other DES observations of large scale structure will enable us to put increasingly accurate constraints on the expansion history of the Universe and will help us distinguish between competing theories of dark energy and modified gravity. As we draw to the close of the first observing season of DES in March 2014, we will report on the current status of the DES supernova survey, presenting first year supernovae data, preliminary results, survey strategy, discovery pipeline, spectroscopic target selection and data quality. This talk will give the first glimpse of the DES SN first year data and initial results as we begin our five year survey in search of dark energy. On behalf of the Dark Energy Survey collaboration.

This paper presents spectroscopy of supernovae discovered in the first season of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-IISupernova Survey. This program searches for and measures multi-band light curves of supernovae in the redshift range z = 0.05-0.4, complementing existing surveys at lower and higher redshifts. Our goal is to better characterize the supernova population, with a particular focus on SNe Ia, improving their utility as cosmological distance indicators and as probes of dark energy. Our supernova spectroscopy program features rapid-response observations using telescopes of a range of apertures, and provides confirmation of the supernova and host-galaxy types as well as precise redshifts. We describe here the target identification and prioritization, data reduction, redshift measurement, and classification of 129 SNe Ia, 16 spectroscopically probable SNe Ia, 7 SNe Ib/c, and 11 SNe II from the first season. We also describe our efforts to measure and remove the substantial host galaxy contamination existing in the majority of our SN spectra.

The PTF (ATEL #1964; http://www.astro.caltech.edu/ptf/) reports the discovery of a new supernova, PTF10jkx. The supernova was discovered by Oarical, an autonomous software framework of the PTF collaboration, on June 10 UT at RA(J2000) = 13:32:57.11 and DEC(J2000) = +48:18:54.5 at a magnitude of 19.8 in R-band (calibrated with respect to the USNO catalog) in the galaxy SDSS J133257.67+481855.7 (z=0.028).

In the past few years, gamma-ray astronomy has entered a golden age thanks to two major breakthroughs: Cherenkov telescopes on the ground and the Large Area Telescope (LAT) onboard the Fermi satellite. The sample of supernova remnants (SNRs) detected at gamma-ray energies is now much larger: it goes from evolved supernova remnants interacting with molecular clouds up to young shell-type supernova remnants and historical supernova remnants. Studies of SNRs are of great interest, as these analyses are directly linked to the long standing issue of the origin of the Galactic cosmic rays. In this context, pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe) need also to be considered since they evolve in conjunction with SNRs. As a result, they frequently complicate interpretation of the gamma-ray emission seen from SNRs and they could also contribute directly to the local cosmic ray spectrum, particularly the leptonic component. This paper reviews the current results and thinking on SNRs and PWNe and their connection to cosmic ray production. xml:lang="fr"

We report the discovery of a presolar SiC grain (KJB2-11-17-1) with unusual Si-isotopic composition. The grain has 29Si/28Si = 1.63 × solar, 30Si/28Si = 0.82 × solar, 12C/13C = 265 (= 3 × solar), and evidence for the presence of radiogenic 44Ca from the decay of 44Ti. A comparison of these isotopic signatures with stellar models suggests an origin in a 15 M sun Type IIsupernova. It is possible to achieve a very good match between the 30Si/28Si, 12C/13C, and inferred 44Ti/48Ti ratios in KJB2-11-17-1 and the model predictions if matter from different supernova zones is mixed in appropriate proportions. The 29Si/28Si ratio, however, cannot be reproduced and is clearly higher than predicted. It was suggested previously by Travaglio et al. that supernova models underestimate the 29Si yield in the C- and Ne-burning regions by about a factor of 2. Because of its very high 29Si/30Si of two times the solar ratio, grain KJB2-11-17-1 provides the opportunity to make a stringent test of this hypothesis. With a twofold enhanced 29Si yield in the C- and Ne-burning zones, we find a perfect match for 29Si/28Si between the model predictions and the grain. Nuclear network calculations show that a twofold increase in the 29Si yield in the C- and Ne-burning regions requires roughly a threefold higher 26Mg(α, n)29Si reaction rate, the most important reaction for the production of 29Si, in the temperature range 1-3 × 109 K than currently used in supernova models. This increase is qualitatively within current uncertainties of this reaction rate.

In a previous work [Amendola et al., Phys. Rev. D 86, 063515 (2012)], principal component analysis based methods to constrain the dark energy equation of state using type Ia supernovae and other low redshift probes were extended to spectroscopic tests of the stability fundamental couplings, which can probe higher redshifts. Here we use them to quantify the gains in sensitivity obtained by combining spectroscopic measurements expected from ESPRESSO at the Very Large Telescope and the high-resolution ultrastable spectrograph for the E-ELT (European Extremely Large Telescope; known as ELT-HIRES) with future supernova surveys. In addition to simulated low and intermediate redshift supernova surveys, we assess the dark energy impact of high-redshift supernovae detected by the James Webb Space Telescope and characterized by the E-ELT or the Thirty Meter Telescope. Our results show that a detailed characterization of the dark energy properties beyond the acceleration phase (i.e., deep in the matter era) is viable and may reach as deep as redshift 4.

We explore when supernovae can (and cannot) regulate the star formation and bulge growth in galaxies based on a sample of 18 simulated galaxies. The simulations are the first to model feedback superbubbles including evaporation and conduction. These processes determine the mass loadings and wind speeds of galactic outflows. We show that for galaxies with virial masses >1012 M⊙, supernovae alone cannot prevent excessive star formation. This occurs due to a shutdown of galactic winds, with wind mass loadings falling from η ˜ 10 to η < 1. In more massive systems, the ejection of baryons to the circumgalactic medium falters earlier on and the galaxies diverge significantly from observed galaxy scaling relations and morphologies. The decreasing efficiency is due to a deepening potential well preventing gas escape, and is unavoidable if mass-loaded outlflows regulate star formation on galactic scales. This implies that non-supernova feedback mechanisms must become dominant for galaxies with stellar masses greater than ˜4 × 1010 M⊙. The runaway growth of the central stellar bulge, strongly linked to black hole growth, suggests that feedback from active galactic nuclei is the likely mechanism. Below this mass, supernovae alone are able to produce a realistic stellar mass fraction, star formation history and disc morphology.

The type II-plateau (II-P) class of supernova is the most commonly observed type of core-collapse event, and yet the basic characteristics of this class are still being defined (e.g. Pejcha & Prieto 2015). Here we add to the growing sample of type II-P events with well-sampled data from observations of SN 2014cx. SN 2014cx was independently discovered on September 2, 2014 UT by Nakano et al. (2014; CBET 3963) and Holoien et al. (2014; ATEL 6436) in the nearby (d ~ 20.7 Mpc, Tully 1988) SBd galaxy NGC 337. It was classified as a young Type IIsupernova through spectra taken within a day of discovery at both optical (Nakano et al. 2014) and near-infrared (Morrell et al. 2014; ATEL 6442) wavelengths. Later (Andrews et al. 2015; ATEL 7084), it was photometrically determined to be specifically a type II-P supernova, indicating the core-collapse event of a progenitor that had a large hydrogen envelope (Pejcha & Prieto 2015). We initiated a photometric and spectropolarimetric campaign to follow SN 2014cx; over a five month period following the supernova's discovery, we obtained optical images using the 1-meter telescope at Mount Laguna Observatory as part of the MOunt LAguna SUpernova Survey (MOLASUS), and spectra as part of the SuperNova SpectroPOLarimetry project (SNSPOL). Here we present the initial analysis of the photometry and spectroscopy obtained as part of this campaign. We acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1009571 and AST-1210311, under which part of this research was carried out.

The type II-plateau (II-P) class of supernova is the most commonly observed type of core-collapse event, and yet the basic characteristics of this class are still being defined (e.g. Pejcha & Prieto 2015). Here we add to the growing sample of type II-P events with well-sampled data from observations of SN 2014cx. SN 2014cx was independently discovered on September 2, 2014 UT by Nakano et al. (2014; CBET 3963) and Holoien et al. (2014; ATEL 6436) in the nearby (d ~ 20.7 Mpc, Tully 1988) SBd galaxy NGC 337. It was classified as a young Type IIsupernova through spectra taken within a day of discovery at both optical (Nakano et al. 2014) and near-infrared (Morrell et al. 2014; ATEL 6442) wavelengths. Later (Andrews et al. 2015; ATEL 7084), it was photometrically determined to be specifically a type II-P supernova, indicating the core-collapse event of a progenitor that had a large hydrogen envelope (Pejcha & Prieto 2015). We initiated a photometric and spectropolarimetric campaign to follow SN 2014cx; over a five month period following the supernova's discovery, we obtained optical images using the 1-meter telescope at Mount Laguna Observatory as part of the MOunt LAguna SUpernova Survey (MOLASUS), and spectra as part of the SuperNova SpectroPOLarimetry project (SNSPOL). Here we present the analysis of the photometry and spectroscopy obtained as part of this campaign. We acknowledge support from NSF grants AST-1009571 and AST-1210311, under which part of this research was carried out.

We present a new self-consistent and versatile method that derives photospheric radius and temperature variations of Type II-Plateau supernovae based on their expansion velocities and photometric measurements. We apply the method to a sample of 26 well-observed, nearby supernovae with published light curves and velocities. We simultaneously fit ~230 velocity and ~6800 mag measurements distributed over 21 photometric passbands spanning wavelengths from 0.19 to 2.2 μm. The light-curve differences among the Type II-Plateau supernovae are well modeled by assuming different rates of photospheric radius expansion, which we explain as different density profiles of the ejecta, and we argue that steeper density profiles result in flatter plateaus, if everything else remains unchanged. The steep luminosity decline of Type II-Linear supernovae is due to fast evolution of the photospheric temperature, which we verify with a successful fit of SN 1980K. Eliminating the need for theoretical supernova atmosphere models, we obtain self-consistent relative distances, reddenings, and nickel masses fully accounting for all internal model uncertainties and covariances. We use our global fit to estimate the time evolution of any missing band tailored specifically for each supernova, and we construct spectral energy distributions and bolometric light curves. We produce bolometric corrections for all filter combinations in our sample. We compare our model to the theoretical dilution factors and find good agreement for the B and V filters. Our results differ from the theory when the I, J, H, or K bands are included. We investigate the reddening law toward our supernovae and find reasonable agreement with standard \\mathscr{R}_V˜ 3.1 reddening law in UBVRI bands. Results for other bands are inconclusive. We make our fitting code publicly available.

We present a new self-consistent and versatile method that derives photospheric radius and temperature variations of Type II-Plateau supernovae based on their expansion velocities and photometric measurements. We apply the method to a sample of 26 well-observed, nearby supernovae with published light curves and velocities. We simultaneously fit ∼230 velocity and ∼6800 mag measurements distributed over 21 photometric passbands spanning wavelengths from 0.19 to 2.2 μm. The light-curve differences among the Type II-Plateau supernovae are well modeled by assuming different rates of photospheric radius expansion, which we explain as different density profiles of the ejecta, and we argue that steeper density profiles result in flatter plateaus, if everything else remains unchanged. The steep luminosity decline of Type II-Linear supernovae is due to fast evolution of the photospheric temperature, which we verify with a successful fit of SN 1980K. Eliminating the need for theoretical supernova atmosphere models, we obtain self-consistent relative distances, reddenings, and nickel masses fully accounting for all internal model uncertainties and covariances. We use our global fit to estimate the time evolution of any missing band tailored specifically for each supernova, and we construct spectral energy distributions and bolometric light curves. We produce bolometric corrections for all filter combinations in our sample. We compare our model to the theoretical dilution factors and find good agreement for the B and V filters. Our results differ from the theory when the I, J, H, or K bands are included. We investigate the reddening law toward our supernovae and find reasonable agreement with standard R{sub V}∼3.1 reddening law in UBVRI bands. Results for other bands are inconclusive. We make our fitting code publicly available.

Thirteen explosion sites of Type II-P and II-L supernovae (SNe) in nearby galaxies have been observed using integral field spectroscopy, enabling both spatial and spectral study of the explosion sites. We used the properties of the parent stellar population of the coeval SN progenitor star to derive its metallicity and initial mass. The spectrum of the parent stellar population yields estimates of metallicity via the strong-line method and age via a comparison with simple stellar population models. These metallicity and age parameters are adopted for the progenitor star. Age, or lifetime of the star, was used to derive the initial (zero-age main sequence) mass of the star using comparisons with stellar evolution models. With this technique, we were able to determine the metallicities and initial masses of the SN progenitors in our sample. Our results indicate that some Type II SN progenitors may have been stars with masses comparable to those of SN Ib/c progenitors.

Luminous blue variables (LBVs) have been suggested to be the direct progenitors of supernova Types IIb and IIn, with enhanced mass loss prior to explosion. However, the mechanism of this mass loss is not yet known. Here, we investigate the qualitative behaviour of theoretical stellar wind mass loss as a function of Teff across two bi-stability jumps in blue supergiant regime and also in proximity to the Eddington limit, relevant for LBVs. To investigate the physical ingredients that play a role in the radiative acceleration we calculate blue supergiant wind models with the CMFGEN non-local thermodynamic equilibrium model atmosphere code over an effective temperature range between 30 000 and 8800 K. Although our aim is not to provide new mass-loss rates for BA supergiants, we study and confirm the existence of two bi-stability jumps in mass-loss rates predicted by Vink et al. However, they are found to occur at somewhat lower Teff (20 000 and 9000 K, respectively) than found previously, which would imply that stars may evolve towards lower Teff before strong mass loss is induced by the bi-stability jumps. When the combined effects of the second bi-stability jump and the proximity to Eddington limit are accounted for, we find a dramatic increase in the mass-loss rate by up to a factor of 30. Further investigation of both bi-stability jumps is expected to lead to a better understanding of discrepancies between empirical modelling and theoretical mass-loss rates reported in the literature, and to provide key inputs for the evolution of both normal AB supergiants and LBVs, as well as their subsequent supernova Type II explosions.

Recent one-dimensional (1D) hydrodynamical simulations of core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) with a sophisticated treatment of neutrino transport indicate the neutrino-driven winds being proton-rich all the way until the end of their activity. This seems to exclude all possibilities of neutron-capture nucleosynthesis, but provide ideal conditions for the νp-process, in neutrino winds. New 2D explosion simulations of electron-capture supernovae (ECSNe; a subset of CCSNe) exhibit, however, convective neutron-rich lumps, which are absent in the 1D case. Our nucleosynthesis calculations indicate that these neutron-rich lumps allow for interesting production of elements between iron group and N = 50 nuclei (Zn, Ge, As, Se, Br, Kr, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, with little Ga). Our models do not confirm ECSNe as sources of the strong r-process (but possibly of a weak r-process up to Pd, Ag, and Cd in the neutron-rich lumps) nor of the νp-process in the subsequent proton-rich outflows. We further study the νp-process with semi-analytic models of neutrino winds assuming the physical conditions for CCSNe. We also explore the sensitivities of some key nuclear reaction rates to the nucleosynthetic abundances. Our result indicates that the ν/p-process in CCSNe (other than ECSNe) can be the origin of p-nuclei up to A = 108, and even up to A = 152 in limiting conditions.

Long-lived radioactive nuclei play an important role as nucleo-cosmochronometers and as cosmic tracers of nucleosynthetic source activity. In particular, nuclei in the actinide region like thorium, uranium, and plutonium can testify to the enrichment of an environment by the still enigmatic astrophysical sources that are responsible for the production of neutron-rich nuclei by the rapid neutron-capture process (r-process). Supernovae and merging neutron-star (NS) or NS-black hole binaries are considered as most likely sources of the r-nuclei. But arguments in favour of one or the other or both are indirect and make use of assumptions; they are based on theoretical models with remaining simplifications and shortcomings. An unambiguous observational determination of a production event is still missing. In order to facilitate searches in this direction, e.g. by looking for radioactive tracers in stellar envelopes, the interstellar medium or terrestrial reservoirs, we provide improved theoretical estimates and corresponding uncertainty ranges for the actinide production (232Th, 235, 236, 238U, 237Np, 244Pu, and 247Cm) in neutrino-driven winds of core-collapse supernovae. Since state-of-the-art supernova models do not yield r-process viable conditions - but still lack, for example, the effects of strong magnetic fields - we base our investigation on a simple analytical, Newtonian, adiabatic and steady-state wind model and consider the superposition of a large number of contributing components, whose nucleosynthesis-relevant parameters (mass weight, entropy, expansion time-scale, and neutron excess) are constrained by the assumption that the integrated wind nucleosynthesis closely reproduces the Solar system distribution of r-process elements. We also test the influence of uncertain nuclear physics.

Long-lived radioactive nuclei play an important role as nucleo-cosmochronometers and as cosmic tracers of nucleosynthetic source activity. In particular nuclei in the actinide region like thorium, uranium, and plutonium can testify to the enrichment of an environment by the still enigmatic astrophysical sources that are responsible for the production of neutron-rich nuclei by the rapid neutron-capture process (r-process). Supernovae and merging neutron-star (NS) or NS-black hole binaries are considered as most likely sources of the r-nuclei. But arguments in favour of one or the other or both are indirect and make use of assumptions; they are based on theoretical models with remaining simplifications and shortcomings. An unambiguous observational determination of a production event is still missing. In order to facilitate searches in this direction, e.g. by looking for radioactive tracers in stellar envelopes, the interstellar medium or terrestrial reservoirs, we provide improved theoretical estimates and corresponding uncertainty ranges for the actinide production (232Th, 235, 236, 238U, 237Np, 244Pu, and 247Cm) in neutrino-driven winds of core-collapse supernovae. Since state-of-the-art supernova models do not yield r-process viable conditions -but still lack, for example, the effects of strong magnetic fields- we base our investigation on a simple analytical, Newtonian, adiabatic and steady-state wind model and consider the superposition of a large number of contributing components, whose nucleosynthesis-relevant parameters (mass weight, entropy, expansion time scale, and neutron excess) are constrained by the assumption that the integrated wind nucleosynthesis closely reproduces the solar system distribution of r-process elements. We also test the influence of uncertain nuclear physics.

We analyze the rise and fall times of Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) light curves discovered by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II (SDSS-II) Supernova Survey. From a set of 391 light curves k-corrected to the rest-frame B and V bands, we find a smaller dispersion in the rising portion of the light curve compared to the decline. This is in qualitative agreement with computer models which predict that variations in radioactive nickel yield have less impact on the rise than on the spread of the decline rates. The differences we find in the rise and fall properties suggest that a single 'stretch' correction to the light curve phase does not properly model the range of SN Ia light curve shapes. We select a subset of 105 light curves well observed in both rise and fall portions of the light curves and develop a '2-stretch' fit algorithm which estimates the rise and fall times independently. We find the average time from explosion to B-band peak brightness is 17.38 {+-} 0.17 days, but with a spread of rise times which range from 13 days to 23 days. Our average rise time is shorter than the 19.5 days found in previous studies; this reflects both the different light curve template used and the application of the 2-stretch algorithm. The SDSS-IIsupernova set and the local SNe Ia with well-observed early light curves show no significant differences in their average rise-time properties. We find that slow-declining events tend to have fast rise times, but that the distribution of rise minus fall time is broad and single peaked. This distribution is in contrast to the bimodality in this parameter that was first suggested by Strovink (2007) from an analysis of a small set of local SNe Ia. We divide the SDSS-II sample in half based on the rise minus fall value, t{sub r} - t{sub f} {approx}< 2 days and t{sub r} - t{sub f} > 2 days, to search for differences in their host galaxy properties and Hubble residuals; we find no difference in host galaxy properties or Hubble residuals in our

Nucleosynthesis is one of the keys in studying the mechanism of core-collapse supernovae, which is an interesting challenge for modern science. The νp-process, which is similar to an explosive hydrogen burning process, has been proposed as the most probable process in the very early epoch of type IIsupernovae. Here, we discuss our experimental efforts for the νp-process, the first extensive direct measurements of the (α,p) reactions on bottle-neck proto-rich nuclei in light mass regions. Other challenges for the νp-process study are also discussed.

We present the results of modelling the distribution of gas properties in the galaxy groups HCG 51, HCG 62 and NGC 5044, and in the poor cluster AWM 7, using both ASCA SIS and ROSAT data. The spectral quality of the ASCA data allows the radial distribution in the abundances of several elements to be resolved. In all systems apart from HCG 51, we see both central cooling flows and a general decline in metal abundances with radius. The ratio of iron to alpha-element abundances varies significantly, and, in comparison with theoretical supernova yields, indicates a significant contribution to the metal abundance of the intergalactic medium from Type Ia supernovae. This is seen both within the groups and throughout much of the cluster AWM 7. The total energy input into the IGM from supernovae can be calculated from our results, and is typically 20-40 per cent of the thermal energy of the gas, mostly from Type IIsupernovae. Our results support the idea that the SN II ejecta have been more widely distributed in the IGM, probably owing to the action of galaxy winds, and the lower iron mass-to-light ratio in groups suggests that some of this enriched gas has been lost altogether from the shallower potential wells of the smaller systems.

Calculations of the time-dependent flux in the 847-keV gamma-ray line from the decay of Co-56 that might be expected from the type IIsupernova 1987 A in the LMC are presented. It is found that, for a wide range of assumed Co-56 and supernova ejecta masses, this line should be detectable by planned gamma-ray observations with flux sensitivities of about 0.0001 photons/sq cm sec. If this line is detected, the measurement of its time-dependent flux together with its width will make it possible to determine not only the mass of Co-56 produced by explosive nucleosynthesis, but also the total mass and energy of the ejecta, and hence the mass of the supernova's progenitor.

Type II SNe, also called Core-collapse SuperNovae have a neutrino (v) emission, as confirmed by SN 1987A, and are also potential sources of gravitational waves. Neutrinos and gravitational waves from these sources reach Earth almost contemporaneously and without relevant interaction with stellar matter and interstellar medium. The upcoming advanced gravitational interferometers would be sensitive enough to detect gravitational waves signals from close galactic Core-collapse SuperNovae events. Nevertheless, significant uncertainties on theoretical models of emission remain. A joint search of coincident low energy neutrinos and gravitational waves events from these sources would bring valuable information from the inner core of the collapsing star and would enhance the detection of the so-called Silent SuperNovae. Recently a project for a joint search involving gravitational wave interferometers and neutrino detectors has started. We discuss the benefits of a joint search and the status of the search project.

We present an analysis of the diversity of V-band light-curves of hydrogen-rich type IIsupernovae. Analyzing a sample of 116 supernovae, several magnitude measurements are defined, together with decline rates at different epochs, and time durations of different phases. It is found that magnitudes measured at maximum light correlate more strongly with decline rates than those measured at other epochs: brighter supernovae at maximum generally have faster declining light-curves at all epochs. We find a relation between the decline rate during the "plateau" phase and peak magnitudes, which has a dispersion of 0.56 mag, offering the prospect of using type IIsupernovae as purely photometric distance indicators. Our analysis suggests that the type II population spans a continuum from low-luminosity events which have flat light-curves during the "plateau" stage, through to the brightest events which decline much faster. A large range in optically thick phase durations is observed, implying a range in progenitor envelope masses at the epoch of explosion. During the radioactive tails, we find many supernovae with faster declining light-curves than expected from full trapping of radioactive emission, implying low mass ejecta. It is suggested that the main driver of light-curve diversity is the extent of hydrogen envelopes retained before explosion. Finally, a new classification scheme is introduced where hydrogen-rich events are typed as simply "SN II" with an "s 2" value giving the decline rate during the "plateau" phase, indicating its morphological type. Based on observations obtained with the du-Pont and Swope telescopes at LCO, and the Steward Observatory's CTIO60, SO90 and CTIO36 telescopes.

We present an analysis of the diversity of V-band light-curves of hydrogen-rich type IIsupernovae. Analyzing a sample of 116 supernovae, several magnitude measurements are defined, together with decline rates at different epochs, and time durations of different phases. It is found that magnitudes measured at maximum light correlate more strongly with decline rates than those measured at other epochs: brighter supernovae at maximum generally have faster declining light-curves at all epochs. We find a relation between the decline rate during the 'plateau' phase and peak magnitudes, which has a dispersion of 0.56 mag, offering the prospect of using type IIsupernovae as purely photometric distance indicators. Our analysis suggests that the type II population spans a continuum from low-luminosity events which have flat light-curves during the 'plateau' stage, through to the brightest events which decline much faster. A large range in optically thick phase durations is observed, implying a range in progenitor envelope masses at the epoch of explosion. During the radioactive tails, we find many supernovae with faster declining light-curves than expected from full trapping of radioactive emission, implying low mass ejecta. It is suggested that the main driver of light-curve diversity is the extent of hydrogen envelopes retained before explosion. Finally, a new classification scheme is introduced where hydrogen-rich events are typed as simply 'SN II' with an 's {sub 2}' value giving the decline rate during the 'plateau' phase, indicating its morphological type.

We analyse a time series of optical spectra of SN 2014J from almost two weeks prior to maximum to nearly four months after maximum. We perform our analysis using the SYNOW code, which is well suited to track the distribution of the ions with velocity in the ejecta. We show that almost all of the spectral features during the entire epoch can be identified with permitted transitions of the common ions found in normal supernovae (SNe) Ia in agreement with previous studies. We show that 2014J is a relatively normal SN Ia. At early times the spectral features are dominated by Si II, S II, Mg II, and Ca II. These ions persist to maximum light with the appearance of Na I and Mg I. At later times iron-group elements also appear, as expected in the stratified abundance model of the formation of normal Type Ia SNe. We do not find significant spectroscopic evidence for oxygen, until 100 d after maximum light. The +100 d identification of oxygen is tentative, and would imply significant mixing of unburned or only slight processed elements down to a velocity of 6000 kms-1. Our results are in relatively good agreement with other analyses in the infrared. We briefly compare SN 2011fe to SN 2014J and conclude that the differences could be due to different central densities at ignition or differences in the C/O ratio of the progenitors.

We present new data for five underluminous Type II-plateau supernovae (SNe IIP), namely SN 1999gn, SN 2002gd, SN 2003Z, SN 2004eg and SN 2006ov. This new sample of low-luminosity SNe IIP (LL SNe IIP) is analysed together with similar objects studied in the past. All of them show a flat light-curve plateau lasting about 100 d, an underluminous late-time exponential tail, intrinsic colours that are unusually red, and spectra showing prominent and narrow P Cygni lines. A velocity of the ejected material below 103 km s-1 is inferred from measurements at the end of the plateau. The 56Ni masses ejected in the explosion are very small (≤10-2 M⊙). We investigate the correlations among 56Ni mass, expansion velocity of the ejecta and absolute magnitude in the middle of the plateau, confirming the main findings of Hamuy, according to which events showing brighter plateau and larger expansion velocities are expected to produce more 56Ni. We propose that these faint objects represent the LL tail of a continuous distribution in parameters space of SNe IIP. The physical properties of the progenitors at the explosion are estimated through the hydrodynamical modelling of the observables for two representative events of this class, namely SN 2005cs and SN 2008in. We find that the majority of LL SNe IIP, and quite possibly all, originate in the core collapse of intermediate-mass stars, in the mass range 10-15 M⊙.

We present an analysis of the relative frequencies of different supernova (SN) types in spirals with various morphologies and in barred or unbarred galaxies. We use a well-defined and homogeneous sample of spiral host galaxies of 692 SNe from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey in different stages of galaxy-galaxy interaction and activity classes of nucleus. We propose that the underlying mechanisms shaping the number ratios of SNe types can be interpreted within the framework of interaction-induced star formation, in addition to the known relations between morphologies and stellar populations. We find a strong trend in behaviour of the NIa/NCC ratio depending on host morphology, such that early spirals include more Type Ia SNe. The NIbc/NII ratio is higher in a broad bin of early-type hosts. The NIa/NCC ratio is nearly constant when changing from normal, perturbed to interacting galaxies, then declines in merging galaxies, whereas it jumps to the highest value in post-merging/remnant galaxies. In contrast, the NIbc/NII ratio jumps to the highest value in merging galaxies and slightly declines in post-merging/remnant subsample. The interpretation is that the star formation rates and morphologies of galaxies, which are strongly affected in the final stages of interaction, have an impact on the number ratios of SNe types. The NIa/NCC (NIbc/NII) ratio increases (decreases) from star-forming to active galactic nuclei (AGN) classes of galaxies. These variations are consistent with the scenario of an interaction-triggered starburst evolving into AGN during the later stages of interaction, accompanied with the change of star formation and transformation of the galaxy morphology into an earlier type.

Aims: We study the production of dust in Type II-P supernova ejecta by coupling the gas-phase chemistry to the dust nucleation and condensation phases. We consider two supernova progenitor masses with homogeneous and clumpy ejecta to assess the chemical type and quantity of dust that forms. Grain size distributions are derived for all dust components as a function of post-explosion time. Methods: The chemistry of the gas phase and the simultaneous formation of dust clusters are described by a chemical network that includes all possible processes that are efficient at high gas temperatures and densities. The formation of key bimolecular species (e.g., CO, SiO) and dust clusters of silicates, alumina, silica, metal carbides, metal sulphides, pure metals, and amorphous carbon is considered. A set of stiff, coupled, ordinary, differential equations is solved for the gas conditions pertaining to supernova explosions. These master equations are coupled to a dust condensation formalism based on Brownian coagulation. Results: We find that Type II-P supernovae produce dust grains of various chemical compositions and size distributions as a function of post-explosion time. The grain size distributions gain in complexity with time, are slewed towards large grains, and differ from the usual Mathis, Rumpl, & Nordsieck power-law distribution characterising interstellar dust. Gas density enhancements in the form of ejecta clumps strongly affect the chemical composition of dust and the grain size distributions. Some dust type, such as forsterite and pure metallic grains, are highly dependent on clumpiness. Specifically, a clumpy ejecta produces large grains over 0.1 μm, and the final dust mass for the 19 M⊙ progenitor reaches 0.14 M⊙. Clumps also favour the formation of specific molecules, such as CO2, in the oxygen-rich zones. Conversely, the carbon and alumina dust masses are primarily controlled by the mass yields of alumina and carbon in the ejecta zones where the dust is

The cosmic-ray spectrum has an intensity enhancement in the energy range 10 to the 14th to 10 to the 16th eV per nucleus. Recent observations of heavy cosmic rays in this energy range indicate that the Ca/Fe ratio may be as large as 10 times the solar value. It is suggested that pulsars in type-IIsupernova remnants are the origin of this component of the cosmic-ray spectrum.

Hydrodynamic calculations of stellar collapse in Type IISupernova are described using a variable stiffness and compressibility for the nuclear equation of state at high density. Initial models employing a relatively small mass core with low central entropy are necessary to achieve viable shocks; near success the models are sensitive to both neutrino emission and the high density equation of state. The treatment of neutrino production and transport is sketched and recent results reported.

We triggered our Swift program ("Unveiling New Classes of Transients with the Palomar Transient Factory; PI Kulkarni) to obtain target of opportunity observations of the type IIsupernova PTF10gva (ATEL #2603). Observations were obtained with the on-board Ultra-Violet Optical Telescope in the V, B, U, UW1, UM2, and UW2 filters beginning at May 7.19 2010 UT. PTF10gva is clearly detected in all filters.

We report an optical spectrum (range 340-900 nm) of SN 2016aqw that was obtained on UT Mar.03.86 2016 with the 2.4-m telescope (+YFOSC) at LiJiang Gaomeigu Station of Yunnan Astronomical Observatories (YNAO). The spectrum is characterized by the Ha peak that is superimposed on a very blue continuum, consistent with that of a young type IIsupernova.

The compressibility of molecular cloud (MC) turbulence plays a crucial role in star formation models, because it controls the amplitude and distribution of density fluctuations. The relation between the compressive ratio (the ratio of powers in compressive and solenoidal motions) and the statistics of turbulence has been previously studied systematically only in idealized simulations with random external forces. In this work, we analyze a simulation of large-scale turbulence (250 pc) driven by supernova (SN) explosions that has been shown to yield realistic MC properties. We demonstrate that SN driving results in MC turbulence with a broad lognormal distribution of the compressive ratio, with a mean value ≈0.3, lower than the equilibrium value of ≈0.5 found in the inertial range of isothermal simulations with random solenoidal driving. We also find that the compressibility of the turbulence is not noticeably affected by gravity, nor are the mean cloud radial (expansion or contraction) and solid-body rotation velocities. Furthermore, the clouds follow a general relation between the rms density and the rms Mach number similar to that of supersonic isothermal turbulence, though with a large scatter, and their average gas density probability density function is described well by a lognormal distribution, with the addition of a high-density power-law tail when self-gravity is included.

Context. Composite supernova remnants consist of a pulsar wind nebula located inside a shell-type remnant. The presence of a shell has implications on the evolution of the nebula, although the converse is generally not true. Aims: The purpose of this paper is two-fold. The first aim is to determine the effect of the pulsar's initial luminosity and spin-down rate, the supernova ejecta mass, and density of the interstellar medium on the evolution of a spherically-symmetric, composite supernova remnant expanding into a homogeneous medium. The second aim is to investigate the evolution of the magnetic field in the pulsar wind nebula when the the composite remnant expands into a non-uniform interstellar medium. Methods: The Euler conservation equations for inviscid flow, together with the magnetohydrodynamic induction law in the kinematic limit, are solved numerically for a number of scenarios where the ratio of magnetic to particle energy is σ < 0.01. The simulations in the first part of the paper is solved in a one-dimensional configuration. In the second part of the paper, the effect of an inhomogeneous medium on the evolution is studied using a two-dimensional, axisymmetric configuration. Results: It is found that the initial spin-down luminosity and density of the interstellar medium has the largest influence on the evolution of the pulsar wind nebula. The spin-down time-scale of the pulsar only becomes important when this value is smaller than the time needed for the reverse shock of the shell remnant to reach the outer boundary of the nebula. For a remnant evolving in a non-uniform medium, the magnetic field along the boundary of the nebula will evolve to a value that is larger than the magnetic field in the interior. If the inhomogeneity of the interstellar medium is enhanced, while the spin-down luminosity is decreased, it is further found that a magnetic "cloud" is formed in a region that is spatially separated from the position of the pulsar.

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II (SDSS-II) has embarked on a multi-year project to identify and measure light curves for intermediate-redshift (0.05 < z < 0.35) Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) using repeated five-band (ugriz) imaging over an area of 300 sq. deg. The survey region is a stripe 2.5 degrees wide centered on the celestial equator in the Southern Galactic Cap that has been imaged numerous times in earlier years, enabling construction of a deep reference image for discovery of new objects. Supernova imaging observations are being acquired between 1 September and 30 November of 2005-7. During the first two seasons, each region was imaged on average every five nights. Spectroscopic follow-up observations to determine supernova type and redshift are carried out on a large number of telescopes. In its first two three-month seasons, the survey has discovered and measured light curves for 327 spectroscopically confirmed SNe Ia, 30 probable SNe Ia, 14 confirmed SNe Ib/c, 32 confirmed SNe II, plus a large number of photometrically identified SNe Ia, 94 of which have host-galaxy spectra taken so far. This paper provides an overview of the project and briefly describes the observations completed during the first two seasons of operation.

We present early-time photometric and spectroscopic observations of supernova (SN) 2009kr in NGC 1832. We find that its properties to date support its classification as Type II-linear (SN II-L), a relatively rare subclass of core-collapse supernovae (SNe). We have also identified a candidate for the SN progenitor star through comparison of pre-explosion, archival images taken with WFPC2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope with SN images obtained using adaptive optics plus NIRC2 on the 10 m Keck-II telescope. Although the host galaxy's substantial distance ({approx}26 Mpc) results in large uncertainties in the relative astrometry, we find that if this candidate is indeed the progenitor, it is a highly luminous (M {sup 0} {sub V} = -7.8 mag) yellow supergiant with initial mass {approx}18-24 M {sub sun}. This would be the first time that an SN II-L progenitor has been directly identified. Its mass may be a bridge between the upper initial mass limit for the more common Type II-plateau SNe and the inferred initial mass estimate for one Type II-narrow SN.

In the single-degenerate scenario for the progenitors of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), a white dwarf rapidly accretes hydrogen- or helium-rich material from its companion star and appears as a supersoft X-ray source. This picture has been challenged by the properties of the supersoft X-ray sources with very low mass companions and the observations of several nearby SNe Ia. It has been pointed out that the X-ray radiation or the wind from the accreting white dwarf can excite winds or strip mass from the companion star, thus significantly influencing the mass transfer processes. In this paper, we perform detailed calculations of the wind-driven evolution of white dwarf binaries. We present the parameter space for the possible SN Ia progenitors and for the surviving companions after the SNe. The results show that the ex-companion stars of SNe Ia have characteristics more compatible with the observations, compared with those in the traditional single-degenerate scenario.

We use local Cartesian simulations with a vertical gravitational potential to study how supernova (SN) feedback in stratified galactic discs drives turbulence and launches galactic winds. Our analysis includes three disc models with gas surface densities ranging from Milky Way-like galaxies to gas-rich ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs), and two different SN driving schemes (random and correlated with local gas density). In order to isolate the physics of SN feedback, we do not include additional feedback processes. We find that, in these local box calculations, SN feedback excites relatively low mass-weighted gas turbulent velocity dispersions ≈3-7 km s-1 and low wind mass loading factors η ≲ 1 in all the cases we study. The low turbulent velocities and wind mass loading factors predicted by our local box calculations are significantly below those suggested by observations of gas-rich and rapidly star-forming galaxies; they are also in tension with global simulations of disc galaxies regulated by stellar feedback. Using a combination of numerical tests and analytic arguments, we argue that local Cartesian boxes cannot predict the properties of galactic winds because they do not capture the correct global geometry and gravitational potential of galaxies. The wind mass loading factors are in fact not well defined in local simulations because they decline significantly with increasing box height. More physically realistic calculations (e.g. including a global galactic potential and disc rotation) will likely be needed to fully understand disc turbulence and galactic outflows, even for the idealized case of feedback by SNe alone.

In the symbiotic (or WD+RG) channel of the single-degenerate scenario for type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), the explosions occur a relatively long time after star formation. The birthrate from this channel would be too low to account for all observed SNe Ia were it not for some mechanism to enhance the rate of accretion on to the white dwarf. A tidally enhanced stellar wind, of the type which has been postulated to explain many phenomena related to giant star evolution in binary systems, can do this. Compared to mass stripping, this model extends the space of SNe Ia progenitors to longer orbital periods and hence increases the birthrate to about 0.0069 yr{sup -1} for the symbiotic channel. Two symbiotic stars, T CrB and RS Oph, considered to be the most likely progenitors of SNe Ia through the symbiotic channel, are well inside the period-companion mass space predicted by our models.

Ground- and space-based gamma ray observatories of the past decade have given us a new understanding of particle accelerators in our galaxy. The improved spatial resolution and sensitivity of recent gamma-ray surveys of the Galactic plane have resolved confusion of sources identified numerous sources to study the physics of particle acceleration and the diffusion of energetic particles into the galaxy. Here I highlight some recent studies of Galactic accelerators from GeV to TeV energies, that allow us to disentangle hadronic from leptonic emission, constrain cosmic ray diffusion, and measure the conditions of particle acceleration. Supernova remnants and pulsar wind nebulae are found to be the two most common Galactic sources identified in very high energy gamma rays, and the future capabilities of CTA promise a dramatic increase in our knowledge of these classes which are currently limited to only a few of the most well-studied cases.

Using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Supernova Survey-II (SDSS-II SN Survey), we measure the rate of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) as a function of galaxy properties at intermediate redshift. A sample of 342 SNe Ia with 0.05 < z < 0.25 is constructed. Using broadband photometry and redshifts, we use the PEGASE.2 spectral energy distributions to estimate host galaxy stellar masses and recent star formation rates (SFRs). We find that the rate of SNe Ia per unit stellar mass is significantly higher (by a factor of {approx}30) in highly star-forming galaxies compared to passive galaxies. When parameterizing the SN Ia rate (SNR{sub Ia}) based on host galaxy properties, we find that the rate of SNe Ia in passive galaxies is not linearly proportional to the stellar mass; instead an SNR{sub Ia}{proportional_to}M{sup 0.68} is favored. However, such a parameterization does not describe the observed SNR{sub Ia} in star-forming galaxies. The SNR{sub Ia} in star-forming galaxies is well fitted by SNR{sub Ia} = (0.41 {+-} 0.15) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -10} M{sup 0.72{+-}0.15} + (0.65 {+-} 0.25) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -3}SFR{sup 1.01{+-}0.22} (statistical errors only), where M is the host galaxy stellar mass (in M{sub Sun }) and SFR is the SFR (in M{sub Sun} yr{sup -1}). We show that our results, for SNe Ia in passive galaxies, are consistent with those at higher redshifts (favoring SNR{sub Ia}{proportional_to}M) when accounting for the difference in the ages of our galaxies. This suggests that the rate of SNe Ia is correlated with the age of the stellar population. The MLCS extinction parameter, A{sub V} , is similar in passive and moderately star-forming galaxies, but we find indications that it is smaller, on average, in highly star-forming galaxies. This result appears to be driven by a deficit of the reddest (A{sub V} > 0.15) SNe Ia in highly star-forming galaxies. We consider that the high levels of dust in these systems may be obscuring the reddest and faintest SNe

We present optical spectra of the bright, peculiar Type IIsupernova 1993J in M81 spanning the first 14 months of its existence, revealing its transition to the nebular phase. Unlike the case in normal Type IIsupernovae, during the first 2-10 months the H-alpha emission line gradually becomes less prominent relative to other features such as (O I) lambda lambda 6300, 6364 and (Ca II) lambda lambda 7291, 7324, as we had predicted based on early-time (tau less than or approximately equal to 2 months) spectra. The nebular spectrum resembles those of the Type Ib/Ic supernovae 1985F and 1987M, although weak H-alpha emission is easily visible even at late times in SN 1993J. At tau = 8 months a close similarity is found with the spectrum of SN 1987K, the only other Type IIsupernova known to have undergone such a metamorphosis. The emission lines are considerably broader than those of normal Type IIsupernovae at comparable phases, consistent with the progenitor having lost a majority of its hydrogen envelope prior to exploding. Consequently, there is now little doubt that Type Ib, and probably Type Ic, supernovae result from core collapse in stripped, massive stars; models of the chemical evolution of galaxies in which these subtypes are ascribed to exploding white dwarfs must be appropriately modified. Although all of the emission lines in spectra of SN 1993J fade roughly exponentially for a considerable time, the fading of H-alpha begins to slow down at tau approximately = 8 months, and in the interval tau = 10-14 months its flux is constant, or even slightly rising in the wings of the line. This behavior, together with the box-like shape and great breadth (full width at half maximum (FWHM) approximately = 17 000 km/s) of the line profile, suggests that the H-alpha emission is being produced by the high-velocity outer layer of hydrogen ejecta interacting with circumstellar gas released by the progenitor prior to its explosion. A similar phenomenon has previously been

In the study of nucleosynthesis in type II SN, shock waves are initiated artificially, since collapse calculations do not, as yet, give self-consistent shock waves strong enough to produce the SN explosion. The two initiation methods currently used by light-curve modelers are studied, with a focus on the peak temperatures and the nucleosynthetic yields in each method. The various parameters involved in artificially initiating a shock wave and the effects of varying these parameters are discussed.

Despite recent rapid progress, the field of supernova {SN} progenitor identification remains in its infancy, with only five supernovae having had unambiguous detection and characterization of their progenitor stars made. The existence of deep pre-SN WFPC2 images of the site of the nearby core-collapse {Type II-Plateau} SN 2006ov has enabled two independent searches for its progenitor star to be carried out. While both studies agree that an object is located at the location of SN 2006ov in the pre-SN images, they disagree on whether the light from this source {or, part of it} is, in fact, coming from the actual progenitor star. The time is ripe to settle the issue: A single-orbit reobservation of the SN site with HST/ACS will permit the definitive determination of whether this object is indeed associated with SN 2006ov. If it is, and its flux is found to have diminished {it was an extended source} or vanished {it was an isolated star}, then this will enable the third conclusive characterization of a Type II-Plateau supernova's progenitor star's properties to be made. If it is not, then a firm upper mass limit on the progenitor star will be confidently declared the final word on the topic.

Neutrinos play an important role in the type-IIsupernova scenario. Numerous approaches have been made in order to treat the generation and transport of neutrinos and the interactions between neutrinos and matter during stellar collapse and the shock propagation phase. However, all computationally fast methods have in common the fact that they cannot avoid simplifications in describing the interactions and, furthermore, have to use parameterizations in handling the Boltzmann transport equation. In order to provide an instrument for calibrating these treatments and for calculating neutrino spectra emitted from given stellar configurations, a Monte Carlo transport code was designed. Special attention was paid to an accurate computation of scattering kernels and source functions. Neutrino spectra for a hydrostatic stage of a 20 solar mass supernova simulation were generated and conclusions drawn concerning a late time revival of the stalled shock by neutrino heating.

The circumstellar silicon carbide (SiC) grain X57 from the Murchison meteorite contains large amounts of radiogenic calcium-44 (20 times its solar system abundance) and has an anomalous silicon isotopic composition, different from other circumstellar SiC grains. Its inferred initial 44Ti/Si and 44Ti/48Ti ratios are 1.6 x 10(-4) and 0.37. In addition, it contains radiogenic magnesium-26; the inferred initial 26Al/27Al ratio is 0.11. The isotopic and elemental data of X57 can be explained by selective mixing of matter from different zones of a typical type IIsupernova of 25 solar masses during its explosion. The high 44Ti/Si ratio requires contributions from the innermost nickel zone of the supernova to the SiC condensation site, as similarly suggested by astronomical observations. PMID:8662461

The accretion of hydrogen-rich material on to carbon-oxygen white dwarfs (CO WDs) is crucial for understanding Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) from the single-degenerate model, but this process has not been well understood due to the numerical difficulties in treating H and He flashes during the accretion. For CO WD masses from 0.5 to 1.378 M {sub ☉} and accretion rates in the range from 10{sup –8} to 10{sup –5} M {sub ☉} yr{sup –1}, we simulated the accretion of solar-composition material on to CO WDs using the state-of-the-art stellar evolution code of MESA. For comparison with steady-state models, we first ignored the contribution from nuclear burning to the luminosity when determining the Eddington accretion rate, and found that the properties of H burning in our accreting CO WD models are similar to those from the steady-state models, except that the critical accretion rates at which the WDs turn into red giants or H-shell flashes occur on their surfaces are slightly higher than those from the steady-state models. However, the super-Eddington wind is triggered at much lower accretion rates than previously thought, when the contribution of nuclear burning to the total luminosity is included. This super-Eddington wind naturally prevents the CO WDs with high accretion rates from becoming red giants, thus presenting an alternative to the optically thick wind proposed by Hachisu et al. Furthermore, the super-Eddington wind works in low-metallicity environments, which may explain SNe Ia observed at high redshifts.

One prediction of particle acceleration in the supernova (SN) remnants in the magnetic wind of exploding Wolf-Rayet and red supergiant stars is that the final spectrum is a composition of a spectrum E {sup -7/3} and a polar cap component of E {sup -2} at the source. This polar cap component contributes to the total energy content with only a few percent, but dominates the spectrum at higher energy. The sum of both components gives spectra which curve upward. The upturn was predicted to occur always at the same rigidity. An additional component of cosmic rays from acceleration by SNe exploding into the interstellar medium adds another component for hydrogen and for helium. After transport, the predicted spectra J(E) for the wind-SN cosmic rays are E {sup -8/3} and E {sup -7/3}; the sum leads to an upturn from the steeper spectrum. An upturn has now been seen by the CREAM mission. Here, we test the observations against the predictions and show that the observed properties are consistent with the predictions. Hydrogen can be shown to also have a noticeable wind-SN component. The observation of the upturn in the heavy element spectra being compatible with the same rigidity for all heavy elements supports the magneto-rotational mechanism for these SNe. This interpretation predicts the observed upturn to continue to curve upward and approach the E {sup -7/3} spectrum. If confirmed, this would strengthen the case that SNe of very massive stars with magnetic winds are important sources of Galactic cosmic rays.

We studied the properties of the intracluster medium (ICM) in two clusters of galaxies (AWM 7 and Abell 1060) and two groups (HCG 62 and NGC 507) with the X-ray observatory Suzaku. Based on spatially resolved energy spectra, we measured for the first time precise cumulative ICM metal masses within 0.1 and ~0.3r180. Comparing our results with supernova nucleosynthesis models, the number ratio of Type II (SNe II) to Type Ia (SNe Ia) is estimated to be ~3.5, assuming the metal mass in the ICM is represented by the sum of products synthesized in SNe Ia and SNe II. Normalized by the K-band luminosities of present galaxies, and including the metals in stars, the integrated number of past SN II explosions is estimated to be close to or somewhat higher than the star formation rate determined from Hubble Deep Field observations.

Magnetic spin-down of a rapidly rotating (millisecond) neutron star has been proposed as the power source of hydrogen-poor `superluminous' supernovae (SLSNe-I). However, producing an unambiguous test that can distinguish this model from alternatives, such as circumstellar interaction, has proven challenging. After the supernova explosion, the pulsar wind inflates a hot cavity behind the expanding stellar ejecta: the nascent millisecond pulsar wind nebula. Electron/positron pairs injected by the wind cool through inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron emission, producing a pair cascade and hard X-ray spectrum inside the nebula. These X-rays ionize the inner exposed side of the ejecta, driving an ionization front that propagates outwards with time. Under some conditions this front can breach the ejecta surface within months after the optical supernova peak, allowing ˜0.1-1 keV photons to escape the nebula unattenuated with a characteristic luminosity LX ˜ 1043-1045 erg s-1. This `ionization break-out' may explain the luminous X-ray emission observed from the transient SCP 06F, providing direct evidence that this SLSN was indeed engine powered. Luminous break-out requires a low ejecta mass and that the spin-down time of the pulsar be comparable to the photon diffusion time-scale at optical maximum, the latter condition being similar to that required for a supernova with a high optical fluence. These relatively special requirements may explain why most SLSNe-I are not accompanied by detectable X-ray emission. Global asymmetry of the supernova ejecta increases the likelihood of an early break-out along the direction of lowest density. Atomic states with lower threshold energies are more readily ionized at earlier times near optical maximum, allowing `UV break-out' across a wider range of pulsar and ejecta properties than X-ray break-out, possibly contributing to the blue/UV colours of SLSNe-I.

Supernova (SN) blast waves inject energy and momentum into the interstellar medium (ISM), control its turbulent multiphase structure and the launching of galactic outflows. Accurate modelling of the blast wave evolution is therefore essential for ISM and galaxy formation simulations. We present an efficient method to compute the input of momentum, thermal energy, and the velocity distribution of the shock-accelerated gas for ambient media (densities of 0.1 ≥ n0 [cm-3 ≥ 100) with uniform (and with stellar wind blown bubbles), power-law, and turbulent (Mach numbers M from 1 - 100) density distributions. Assuming solar metallicity cooling, the blast wave evolution is followed to the beginning of the momentum conserving snowplough phase. The model recovers previous results for uniform ambient media. The momentum injection in wind-blown bubbles depend on the swept-up mass and the efficiency of cooling, when the blast wave hits the wind shell. For power-law density distributions with n(r) ˜ r-2 (for n(r) > nfloor) the amount of momentum injection is solely regulated by the background density nfloor and compares to nuni = nfloor. However, in turbulent ambient media with log-normal density distributions the momentum input can increase by a factor of 2 (compared to the homogeneous case) for high Mach numbers. The average momentum boost can be approximated as p_{_turb}/p_{0} =23.07 (n_{_{0,turb}}/1 cm^{-3})^{-0.12} + 0.82 (ln (1+b2M2))^{1.49}(n_{_{0,turb}}/1 cm^{-3})^{-1.6}. The velocity distributions are broad as gas can be accelerated to high velocities in low-density channels. The model values agree with results from recent, computationally expensive, three-dimensional simulations of SN explosions in turbulent media.

Supernova (SN) blast waves inject energy and momentum into the interstellar medium (ISM), control its turbulent multiphase structure and the launching of galactic outflows. Accurate modelling of the blast wave evolution is therefore essential for ISM and galaxy formation simulations. We present an efficient method to compute the input of momentum, thermal energy, and the velocity distribution of the shock-accelerated gas for ambient media (densities of 0.1 ≥ n0 [cm- 3] ≥ 100) with uniform (and with stellar wind blown bubbles), power-law, and turbulent (Mach numbers M from 1to100) density distributions. Assuming solar metallicity cooling, the blast wave evolution is followed to the beginning of the momentum conserving snowplough phase. The model recovers previous results for uniform ambient media. The momentum injection in wind-blown bubbles depend on the swept-up mass and the efficiency of cooling, when the blast wave hits the wind shell. For power-law density distributions with n(r) ˜ r-2 (for n(r) > nfloor) the amount of momentum injection is solely regulated by the background density nfloor and compares to nuni = nfloor. However, in turbulent ambient media with lognormal density distributions the momentum input can increase by a factor of 2 (compared to the homogeneous case) for high Mach numbers. The average momentum boost can be approximated as p_{turb}/{p_{{0}}} =23.07 (n_{{0,turb}}/1 cm^{-3})^{-0.12} + 0.82 (ln (1+b2{M}2))^{1.49}(n_{{0,turb}}/1 cm^{-3})^{-1.6}. The velocity distributions are broad as gas can be accelerated to high velocities in low-density channels. The model values agree with results from recent, computationally expensive, three-dimensional simulations of SN explosions in turbulent media.

Supernova (SN) blast waves inject energy and momentum into the interstellar medium (ISM), control its turbulent multiphase structure and the launching of galactic outflows. Accurate modelling of the blast wave evolution is therefore essential for ISM and galaxy formation simulations. We present an efficient method to compute the input of momentum, thermal energy, and the velocity distribution of the shock-accelerated gas for ambient media with uniform (and with stellar wind blown bubbles), power-law, and turbulent density distributions. Assuming solar metallicity cooling, the blast wave evolution is followed to the beginning of the momentum conserving snowplough phase. The model recovers previous results for uniform ambient media. The momentum injection in wind-blown bubbles depend on the swept-up mass and the efficiency of cooling, when the blast wave hits the wind shell. For power-law density distributions with $n(r) \\sim$ $r^{-2}$ (for $n(r) > n_{_{\\rm floor}}$) the amount of momentum injection is solely regulated by the background density $n_{_{\\rm floor}}$ and compares to $n_{_{\\rm uni}}$ = $n_{_{\\rm floor}}$. However, in turbulent ambient media with log-normal density distributions the momentum input can increase by a factor of 2 (compared to the homogeneous case) for high Mach numbers. The average momentum boost can be approximated as $p_{_{\\rm turb}}/\\mathrm{p_{_{0}}}\\ =23.07\\, \\left(\\frac{n_{_{0,\\rm turb}}}{1\\,{\\rm cm}^{-3}}\\right)^{-0.12} + 0.82 (\\ln(1+b^{2}\\mathcal{M}^{2}))^{1.49}\\left(\\frac{n_{_{0,\\rm turb}}}{1\\,{\\rm cm}^{-3}}\\right)^{-1.6}$. The velocity distributions are broad as gas can be accelerated to high velocities in low-density channels. The model values agree with results from recent, computationally expensive, three-dimensional simulations of SN explosions in turbulent media.

Massive young star clusters contain dozens or hundreds of massive stars that inject mechanical energy in the form of winds and supernova explosions, producing an outflow which expands into their surrounding medium, shocking it and forming structures called superbubbles. The regions of shocked material can have temperatures in excess of 106 K, and emit mainly in thermal X-rays (soft and hard). This X-ray emission is strongly affected by the action of thermal conduction, as well as by the metallicity of the material injected by the massive stars. We present three-dimensional numerical simulations exploring these two effects, metallicity of the stellar winds and supernova explosions, as well as thermal conduction.

Low-dispersion spectra (range 350-880 nm), obtained on March 10.9 UT with the 10-m SALT telescope (+ RSS), show PSN J08070669-2803101 to be a young type-IIsupernova not long after outburst. Fitting with the SYN++ software (Thomas et al. 2011, PASP, 123, 237) suggests that the broad P-Cyg features seen on a fairly blue continuum are associated with H_alpha, Na I, Ca II, and He I. Using a redshift of z = 0.0037 measured from narrow emission lines associated with a coincident H II region in the host galaxy ESO 430-020, we estimate the velocity of the H_alpha absorption feature to be approximately -18500 km/s.

We study a sample of 11 Type IIsupernovae (SNe) discovered by the OGLE-IV survey. All objects have well-sampled I-band light curves, and at least one spectrum. We find that two or three of the 11 SNe have a declining light curve, and spectra consistent with other SNe II-L, while the rest have plateaus that can be as short as 70 d, unlike the 100 d typically found in nearby galaxies. The OGLE SNe are also brighter, and show that magnitude-limited surveys find SNe that are different than usually found in nearby galaxies. We discuss this sample in the context of understanding Type II SNe as a class and their suggested use as standard candles.

We report the spectroscopic classification of LSQ13dpa using a near-infrared spectrum (range 800-2500 nm) obtained on Dec 20.29 UT with the FoldedPort Infrared Echellette (FIRE) spectrograph on the 6.5-m Magellan Baade Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory. The near-infrared spectrum shows a blue continuum with weak P-Cyg lines of hydrogen Paschen series, typical of a young type IIsupernova. We also obtained BVri images with the Swope 1-m on Dec 19.29 and Dec 20.30 UT.

We present measurements of the Type Ia supernova (SN) rate in galaxy clusters based on data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II (SDSS-II) Supernova Survey. The cluster SN Ia rate is determined from 9 SN events in a set of 71 C4 clusters at z {le} 0.17 and 27 SN events in 492 maxBCG clusters at 0.1 {le} z {le} 0.3. We find values for the cluster SN Ia rate of (0.37{sub -0.12-0.01}{sup +0.17+0.01}) SNur h{sup 2} and (0.55{sub -0.11-0.01}{sup +0.13+0.02}) SNur h{sup 2} (SNux = 10{sup -12}L{sub x{circle_dot}}{sup -1} yr{sup -1}) in C4 and maxBCG clusters, respectively, where the quoted errors are statistical and systematic, respectively. The SN rate for early-type galaxies is found to be (0.31{sub -0.12-0.01}{sup +0.18+0.01}) SNur h{sup 2} and (0.49{sub -0.11-0.01}{sup +0.15+0.02}) SNur h{sup 2} in C4 and maxBCG clusters, respectively. The SN rate for the brightest cluster galaxies (BCG) is found to be (2.04{sub -1.11-0.04}{sup +1.99+0.07}) SNur h{sup 2} and (0.36{sub -0.30-0.01}{sup +0.84+0.01}) SNur h{sup 2} in C4 and maxBCG clusters, respectively. The ratio of the SN Ia rate in cluster early-type galaxies to that of the SN Ia rate in field early-type galaxies is 1.94{sub -0.91-0.015}{sup +1.31+0.043} and 3.02{sub -1.03-0.048}{sup +1.31+0.062}, for C4 and maxBCG clusters, respectively. The SN rate in galaxy clusters as a function of redshift, which probes the late time SN Ia delay distribution, shows only weak dependence on redshift. Combining our current measurements with previous measurements, we fit the cluster SN Ia rate data to a linear function of redshift, and find r{sub L} = [(0.49{sub -0.14}{sup +0.15}) + (0.91{sub -0.81}{sup +0.85}) x z] SNuB h{sup 2}. A comparison of the radial distribution of SNe in cluster to field early-type galaxies shows possible evidence for an enhancement of the SN rate in the cores of cluster early-type galaxies. With an observation of at most 3 hostless, intra-cluster SNe Ia, we estimate the fraction of cluster SNe that are

We review VLBI observations of supernovae over the last quarter century and discuss the prospect of imaging future supernovae with space VLBI in the context of VSOP-2. From thousands of discovered supernovae, most of them at cosmological distances, ˜50 have been detected at radio wavelengths, most of them in relatively nearby galaxies. All of the radio supernovae are Type II or Ib/c, which originate from the explosion of massive progenitor stars. Of these, 12 were observed with VLBI and four of them, SN 1979C, SN 1986J, SN 1993J, and SN 1987A, could be imaged in detail, the former three with VLBI. In addition, supernovae or young supernova remnants were discovered at radio wavelengths in highly dust-obscured galaxies, such as M82, Arp 299, and Arp 220, and some of them could also be imaged in detail. Four of the supernovae so far observed were sufficiently bright to be detectable with VSOP-2. With VSOP-2 the expansion of supernovae can be monitored and investigated with unsurpassed angular resolution, starting as early as the time of the supernova's transition from its opaque to transparent stage. Such studies can reveal, in a movie, the aftermath of a supernova explosion shortly after shock break out.

We report on our findings based on the analysis of observations of the Type II-L supernova LSQ13cuw within the framework of currently accepted physical predictions of core-collapse supernova explosions. LSQ13cuw was discovered within a day of explosion, hitherto unprecedented for Type II-L supernovae. This motivated a comparative study of Type II-P and II-L supernovae with relatively well-constrained explosion epochs and rise times to maximum (optical) light. From our sample of twenty such events, we find evidence of a positive correlation between the duration of the rise and the peak brightness. On average, SNe II-L tend to have brighter peak magnitudes and longer rise times than SNe II-P. However, this difference is clearest only at the extreme ends of the rise time versus peak brightness relation. Using two different analytical models, we performed a parameter study to investigate the physical parameters that control the rise time behaviour. In general, the models qualitatively reproduce aspects of the observed trends. We find that the brightness of the optical peak increases for larger progenitor radii and explosion energies, and decreases for larger masses. The dependence of the rise time on mass and explosion energy is smaller than the dependence on the progenitor radius. We find no evidence that the progenitors of SNe II-L have significantly smaller radii than those of SNe II-P. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org

Primitive meteorites contain presolar grains that originated in stellar outflows and supernova ejecta. Low-density graphite grains from the Murchison carbonaceous meteorite were analyzed for the isotopic compositions of C, N, O, Mg, Si, K, Ca, and Ti by ion microprobe mass spectrometry. The grains are characterized by a large range of 12C/13C ratios (from 3.6 to 7200 compared to the solar ratio of 89), excesses in 15N (15N/14N up to 10 times solar) and 18O (18O/16O up to 185 times solar), large inferred 26Al/27Al ratios (from 26Mg excesses) ranging up to 0.15, a large range in Si isotopic ratios (from 50% deficits in 29Si and 30Si relative to 28Si up to more than 120% excesses), large excesses in 41K and 44Ca from the prior presence of now-extinct 41Ca (T1/2=105 yr) and 44Ti (T1/2=59 yr), respectively, and excesses in 42Ca, 43Ca relative to 40Ca, and 49Ti, and 50Ti relative to 48Ti. Several of these isotopic signatures indicate a supernova origin. In particular, the initial presence of 44Ti and excesses of 28Si as well as the size of the inferred 41Ca/40Ca ratios are proof that the carrier grains formed in supernova ejecta. We explored the possibility that the low-density graphite grains originated from C-rich ejecta of Type IIsupernovae. In such stars 44Ti and 28Si are produced in the inner layers and the presence of these two isotopes in carbonaceous grains is evidence for extensive mixing of different supernova layers in the explosion. We performed mixing calculations of different layers of the SN models by Woosley & Weaver under the imposed boundary condition that C>=O and compare the resulting isotopic ratios with the isotopic ratios measured in the meteoritic grains. The mixing model can explain the observed 12C/13C, 16O/18O, 30Si/28Si, and 44Ti and 41Ca fairly well as long as jets of material from the Si-rich zone, carrying 44Ti and pure 28Si, are assumed to penetrate the O-rich zone and are ejected into and mixed with the C-rich layers, where carbonaceous

Despite recent rapid progress, the field of supernova {SN} progenitor identification remains in its infancy, with only four supernovae having had unambiguous detection and characterization of their progenitor stars made. The existence of pre-SN WFPC2 images of the site of the nearby core-collapse {Type II-Plateau} SN 2006my has enabled three independent searches for its progenitor star to be carried out. In the first, Li et. al. {2007} find spatial coincidence between the SN and a possibly extended source with properties deemed consistent with those of a red supergiant. Subsequent analyses by Leonard et al. {2008} and Crockett et al. {2010} refute the Li et al. detection claim, but recognize that existing data do not permit a definitive resolution of the issue since even the revised SN localizations place SN 2006my on part of the putative progenitor's point-spread-function in the pre-SN frames {although no longer at its center}. The time is ripe to settle the issue: A single-orbit reobservation of the SN site with HST/ACS will permit the definitive determination of whether this object is indeed associated with SN 2006my. If it is, and its flux is found to have diminished {it was an extended source} or vanished {it was an isolated star}, then this will enable the second conclusive characterization of a Type II-Plateau supernova's progenitor star's properties to be made. If it is not, then upper mass limits on the progenitor star will be confidently declared the final word on the topic.

M82 is considered the archetypal starburst galaxy and at a distance of ~3.6 Mpc is one of the closest examples of its kind. It therefore provides a unique opportunity to study a star-forming environment in detail and particularly the discrete products of star-formation such as supernova remnants (SNR) and HII regions. Supernovae and supernova remnants play an important role in the feedback of energy and material into the surrounding interstellar medium as evidenced in M82 by the galactic superwind driven by the numerous supernovae, SNR and massive stellar winds.Radio observations can be used to see into the core of the star-forming region in the centre of M82 as they are unaffected by the gas and dust associated with such an intense starburst environment. Since their discovery in the 1970s, radio observations have been used to study and monitor the evolution of the ~100 supernova remnants at the heart of this galaxy.We present multi-epoch millarcsecond resolution images of the most compact supernova remnants in M82, spanning 25 years of evolution. In particular, we will discuss one of the quintessential SNR 43.31+59.2 as well as the unusual object 41.95+57.5 and its potential as a GRB afterglow.

WX Cen is one of a few compact binary supersoft X-ray sources (CBSS) in the Galaxy that is a possible Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) progenitor. The supersoft X-ray radiation is explained as hydrostatic nuclear burning on the surface of the white dwarf component that is accreting hydrogen from a stellar companion at a high rate. If the mass donor in this system has a low mass, as has been suggested in the literature, one would expect a high wind-driven mass transfer rate. In that case, the orbital period of the system should increase. To test this theoretical prediction, we have monitored the system photometrically since 2010. By using four newly determined eclipse timings together with those collected from the literature, we discovered that the orbital period is decreasing at a rate of dP/dt = -5.15 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -7} days yr{sup -1}. The long-term decrease in the orbital period is contrary to the prediction that the system is powered by wind-driven accretion. It therefore seems plausible that the mass donor could be more massive than the white dwarf, and that the mass transfer is driven by the thermal instability of the donor star. This finding suggests that WX Cen is a key object to check the physical mechanisms of mass accretion in CBSS. The corresponding timescale of the period change is about P/P-dot {approx} 0.81 x 10{sup 6} yr, indicating that WX Cen may evolve into an SNe Ia within one million years in the Galaxy.

We present a 100 ks observation of the Galactic supernova remnant 3C396 (G39.2-0.3) with the Chandra X-Ray Observatory that we compare to a 20cm map of the remnant from the Very Large Array. In the Chandra images, a nonthermal nebula containing an embedded pointlike source is apparent near the center of the remnant which we interpret as a synchrotron pulsar wind nebula surrounding a yet undetected pulsar. From the 2-10 keV spectrum for the nebula (N(sub H) = 5.3 plus or minus 0.9 x 10(exp 22) per square centimeter, GAMMA =1.5 plus or minus 0.3) we derive an unabsorbed x-ray flux of S(sub z)=1.62 x 10(exp -12) erg per square centimeter per second, and from this we estimate the spin-down power of the neutron star to be E(sup dot) = 7.2 x 10(exp 36) ergs per second. The central nebula is morphologically complex, showing bent, extended structure. The radio and X-ray shells of the remnant correlate poorly on large scales, particularly on the eastern half of the remnant, which appears very faint in X-ray images. At both radio and X-ray wavelengths the western half of the remnant is substantially brighter than the east.

The observation of very-high-energy (VHE, E > 100 GeV) gamma rays is an excellent tool to study the most energetic and violent environments in the Galaxy. This energy range is only accessible with ground-based instruments such as Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs) that reconstruct the energy and direction of the primary gamma ray by observing the Cherenkov light from the induced extended air showers in Earths atmosphere. The main goals of Galactic VHE gamma-ray science are the identification of individual sources of cosmic rays (CRs), such as supernova remnants (SNRs), and the study of other extreme astrophysical objects at the highest energies, such as gamma-ray binaries and pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe). One of the main challenges is the discrimination between leptonic and hadronic gamma-ray production channels. To that end, the gamma-ray signal from each individual source needs to be brought into context with the multi-wavelength environment of the astrophysical object in question, particularly with observations tracing the density of the surrounding interstellar medium, or synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons. In this review presented at the European Cosmic Ray Symposium 2014 (ECRS2014), the most recent developments in the field of Galactic VHE gamma-ray science are highlighted, with particular emphasis on SNRs and PWNe.

The vp-process is a new nucleosynthetic scenario, proposed 2006, which supposed to take place at the very early epoch of type IIsupernova, involving nuclear reactions of proton-rich nuclei not only with protons and alphas, but also with neutrons due to the neutrino processes. The vp-process is one of the key processes for investigating the mechanism of type IIsupernovae, and the process could be possibly responsible for the anomalously abundant p-nuclei around mass 90-100. Specifically, the nuclear physics problems in the vp-process were discussed in this talk including our recent experimental results with low-energy RI beams and a simulation study. Alpha cluster resonances have been identified experimentally which play a crucial role for the stellar (α,p) and (α,γ) reactions just above the alpha threshold. Neutron induced reactions in the proton-rich nuclear regions in the vp-process are also suggested to play an important role, which will discard the waiting points, and accelerate the flow to heavier nuclei. This process involves nuclear structures of very high level density at high excitation energies in neutron deficient nuclei, and both of the projectile and the target are unstable, which is a quite difficult experimental challenge in nuclear astrophysics in the coming years. Some experimental challenges are discussed.

High-quality collections of Type IIsupernova (SN) light curves are scarce because they evolve for hundreds of days, making follow-up observations time consuming and often extending over multiple observing seasons. In light of these difficulties, the diversity of SNe II is not fully understood. Here we present ultraviolet and optical photometry of 12 SNe II monitored by the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network during 2013 to 2014, and compare them with previously studied SNe having well-sampled light curves. We explore SN II diversity by searching for correlations between the slope of the linear light-curve decay after maximum light (historically used to divide SNe II into IIL and IIP) and other measured physical properties. While SNe IIL are found to be on average more luminous than SNe IIP, SNe IIL do not appear to synthesize more 56Ni than SNe IIP. Finally, optical nebular spectra obtained for several SNe in our sample are found to be consistent with models of red supergiant progenitors in the 12-16 M⊙ range. Consequently, SNe IIL appear not to account for the deficit of massive red supergiants as SN II progenitors.

We present a measurement of the volumetric Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) rate based on data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey II (SDSS-II) Supernova Survey. The adopted sample of supernovae (SNe) includes 516 SNe Ia at redshift z {approx}< 0.3, of which 270 (52%) are spectroscopically identified as SNe Ia. The remaining 246 SNe Ia were identified through their light curves; 113 of these objects have spectroscopic redshifts from spectra of their host galaxy, and 133 have photometric redshifts estimated from the SN light curves. Based on consideration of 87 spectroscopically confirmed non-Ia SNe discovered by the SDSS-II SN Survey, we estimate that 2.04{sub -0.95}{sup +1.61}% of the photometric SNe Ia may be misidentified. The sample of SNe Ia used in this measurement represents an order of magnitude increase in the statistics for SN Ia rate measurements in the redshift range covered by the SDSS-IISupernova Survey. If we assume a SN Ia rate that is constant at low redshift (z < 0.15), then the SN observations can be used to infer a value of the SN rate of r{sub V} = (2.69{sub -0.30-0.01}{sup +0.34+0.21}) x 10{sup -5} SNe yr{sup -1} Mpc{sup -3} (H{sub 0}/(70 km s{sup -1} Mpc{sup -1})){sup 3} at a mean redshift of {approx} 0.12, based on 79 SNe Ia of which 72 are spectroscopically confirmed. However, the large sample of SNe Ia included in this study allows us to place constraints on the redshift dependence of the SN Ia rate based on the SDSS-IISupernova Survey data alone. Fitting a power-law model of the SN rate evolution, r{sub V} (z) = A{sub p} x ((1+z)/(1+z{sub 0})){sup {nu}}, over the redshift range 0.0 < z < 0.3 with z{sub 0} = 0.21, results in A{sub p} = (3.43{sub -0.15}{sup +0.15}) x 10{sup -5} SNe yr{sup -1} Mpc{sup -3} (H{sub 0}/(70 km s{sup -1} Mpc{sup -1})){sup 3} and {nu} = 2.04{sub -0.89}{sup +0.90}.

Recent progress in understanding the observed properties of Type I supernovae as a consequence of the thermonuclear detonation of white dwarf stars and the ensuing decay of the /sup 56/Ni produced therein is reviewed. Within the context of this model for Type I explosions and the 1978 model for Type II explosions, the expected nucleosynthesis and gamma-line spectra from both kinds of supernovae are presented. Finally, a qualitatively new approach to the problem of massive star death and Type IIsupernovae based upon a combination of rotation and thermonuclear burning is discussed.

We compare the host galaxies of 902 supernovae (SNe), including SNe Ia, SNe II, and SNe Ibc, which are selected by cross-matching the Asiago Supernova Catalog with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Data Release 7. We selected an additional 213 galaxies by requiring the light fraction of spectral observations to be >15%, which could represent well the global properties of the galaxies. Among these 213 galaxies, 135 appear on the Baldwin-Phillips-Terlevich diagram, which allows us to compare the hosts in terms of whether they are star-forming (SF) galaxies, active galactic nuclei (AGNs; including composites, LINERs, and Seyfert 2s) or absorption-line galaxies (Absorps; i.e., their related emission lines are weak or non-existent). The diagrams related to the parameters D n (4000), Hδ A , stellar masses, star formation rates (SFRs), and specific SFRs for the SNe hosts show that almost all SNe II and most of the SNe Ibc occur in SF galaxies, which have a wide range of stellar masses and low D n (4000). The SNe Ia hosts as SF galaxies following similar trends. A significant fraction of SNe Ia occurs in AGNs and absorption-line galaxies, which are massive and have high D n (4000). The stellar population analysis from spectral synthesis fitting shows that the hosts of SNe II have a younger stellar population than hosts of SNe Ia. These results are compared with those of the 689 comparison galaxies where the SDSS fiber captures less than 15% of the total light. These comparison galaxies appear biased toward higher 12+log(O/H) (~0.1 dex) at a given stellar mass. Therefore, we believe the aperture effect should be kept in mind when the properties of the hosts for different types of SNe are discussed.

We compare the host galaxies of 902 supernovae (SNe), including SNe Ia, SNe II, and SNe Ibc, which are selected by cross-matching the Asiago Supernova Catalog with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Data Release 7. We selected an additional 213 galaxies by requiring the light fraction of spectral observations to be >15%, which could represent well the global properties of the galaxies. Among these 213 galaxies, 135 appear on the Baldwin-Phillips-Terlevich diagram, which allows us to compare the hosts in terms of whether they are star-forming (SF) galaxies, active galactic nuclei (AGNs; including composites, LINERs, and Seyfert 2s) or absorption-line galaxies (Absorps; i.e., their related emission lines are weak or non-existent). The diagrams related to the parameters D{sub n}(4000), Hδ{sub A}, stellar masses, star formation rates (SFRs), and specific SFRs for the SNe hosts show that almost all SNe II and most of the SNe Ibc occur in SF galaxies, which have a wide range of stellar masses and low D{sub n}(4000). The SNe Ia hosts as SF galaxies following similar trends. A significant fraction of SNe Ia occurs in AGNs and absorption-line galaxies, which are massive and have high D{sub n}(4000). The stellar population analysis from spectral synthesis fitting shows that the hosts of SNe II have a younger stellar population than hosts of SNe Ia. These results are compared with those of the 689 comparison galaxies where the SDSS fiber captures less than 15% of the total light. These comparison galaxies appear biased toward higher 12+log(O/H) (∼0.1 dex) at a given stellar mass. Therefore, we believe the aperture effect should be kept in mind when the properties of the hosts for different types of SNe are discussed.

We present early-time photometric and spectroscopic observations of supernova (SN) 2009kr in NGC 1832. We find that its properties to date support its classification as Type II-linear (SN II-L), a relatively rare subclass of core-collapse supernovae (SNe). We have also identified a candidate for the SN progenitor star through comparison of pre-explosion, archival images taken with WFPC2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope with SN images obtained using adaptive optics plus NIRC2 on the 10 m Keck-II telescope. Although the host galaxy's substantial distance (~26 Mpc) results in large uncertainties in the relative astrometry, we find that if this candidate is indeed the progenitor, it is a highly luminous (M 0 V = -7.8 mag) yellow supergiant with initial mass ~18-24 M sun. This would be the first time that an SN II-L progenitor has been directly identified. Its mass may be a bridge between the upper initial mass limit for the more common Type II-plateau SNe and the inferred initial mass estimate for one Type II-narrow SN. Based in part on observations made with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (HST), obtained from the Data Archive at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., under NASA contract NAS 05-26555; the 6.5 m Magellan Clay Telescope located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile; various telescopes at Lick Observatory; the 1.3 m PAIRITEL on Mt. Hopkins; the SMARTS Consortium 1.3 m telescope located at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO), Chile; the 3.6 m Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), which is operated by the National Research Council of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawaii; and the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California, and NASA, with

Context. Supernova (SN) 1987A was a peculiar hydrogen-rich event with a long-rising (~84 d) light curve, stemming from the explosion of a compact blue supergiant star. Only a few similar events have been presented in the literature in recent decades. Aims: We present new data for a sample of six long-rising Type II SNe (SNe II), three of which were discovered and observed by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) and three observed by the Caltech Core-Collapse Project (CCCP). Our aim is to enlarge this small family of long-rising SNe II, characterizing their differences in terms of progenitor and explosion parameters. We also study the metallicity of their environments. Methods: Optical light curves, spectra, and host-galaxy properties of these SNe are presented and analyzed. Detailed comparisons with known SN 1987A-like events in the literature are shown, with particular emphasis on the absolute magnitudes, colors, expansion velocities, and host-galaxy metallicities. Bolometric properties are derived from the multiband light curves. By modeling the early-time emission with scaling relations derived from the SuperNova Explosion Code (SNEC) models of MESA progenitor stars, we estimate the progenitor radii of these transients. The modeling of the bolometric light curves also allows us to estimate other progenitor and explosion parameters, such as the ejected 56Ni mass, the explosion energy, and the ejecta mass. Results: We present PTF12kso, a long-rising SN II that is estimated to have the largest amount of ejected 56Ni mass measured for this class. PTF09gpn and PTF12kso are found at the lowest host metallicities observed for this SN group. The variety of early light-curve luminosities depends on the wide range of progenitor radii of these SNe, from a few tens of R⊙ (SN 2005ci) up to thousands (SN 2004ek) with some intermediate cases between 100 R⊙ (PTF09gpn) and 300 R⊙ (SN 2004em). Conclusions: We confirm that long-rising SNe II with light-curve shapes closely

Context. Type Ib/c supernovae (SNe Ib/c) have been investigated in several single-object studies; however, there is still a paucity of works concerning larger, homogeneous samples of these hydrogen-poor transients, in particular regarding the premaximum phase of their light curves. Aims: In this paper we present and analyze the early-time optical light curves (LCs, ugriz) of 20 SNe Ib/c from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) SN survey II, aiming to study their observational and physical properties, as well as to derive their progenitor parameters. Methods: High-cadence, multiband LCs are fitted with a functional model and the best-fit parameters are compared among the SN types. Bolometric LCs (BLCs) are constructed for the entire sample. We also computed the black-body (BB) temperature (TBB) and photospheric radius (Rph) evolution for each SN via BB fits on the spectral energy distributions. In addition, the bolometric properties are compared to both hydrodynamical and analytical model expectations. Results: Complementing our sample with literature data, we find that SNe Ic and Ic-BL (broad-line) have shorter rise times than those of SNe Ib and IIb. The decline rate parameter, Δm15, is similar among the different subtypes. SNe Ic appear brighter and bluer than SNe Ib, but this difference vanishes if we consider host galaxy extinction corrections based on colors. Templates for SN Ib/c LCs are presented. Our SNe have typical TBB of ~10 000 K at the peak and Rph of ~1015 cm. Analysis of the BLCs of SNe Ib and Ic gives typical ejecta masses Mej≈ 3.6-5.7 M⊙, energies EK≈ 1.5-1.7×1051 erg, and M(56Ni) ≈ 0.3 M⊙. Higher values for EK and M(56Ni) are estimated for SNe Ic-BL (Mej≈ 5.4 M⊙, EK≈ 10.7×1051 erg, M(56Ni) ≈ 1.1 M⊙). For the majority of SNe Ic and Ic-BL, we can put strong limits (<2-4 days) on the duration of the expected early-time plateau. Less stringent limits can be placed on the duration of the plateau for the sample of SNe Ib. In the

Using the largest single-survey sample of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) to date, we study the relationship between properties of SNe Ia and those of their host galaxies, focusing primarily on correlations with Hubble residuals (HRs). Our sample consists of 345 photometrically classified or spectroscopically confirmed SNe Ia discovered as part of the SDSS-IISupernova Survey (SDSS-SNS). This analysis utilizes host-galaxy spectroscopy obtained during the SDSS-I/II spectroscopic survey and from an ancillary program on the SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey that obtained spectra for nearly all host galaxies of SDSS-II SN candidates. In addition, we use photometric host-galaxy properties from the SDSS-SNS data release such as host stellar mass and star formation rate. We confirm the well-known relation between HR and host-galaxy mass and find a 3.6σ significance of a nonzero linear slope. We also recover correlations between HR and host-galaxy gas-phase metallicity and specific star formation rate as they are reported in the literature. With our large data set, we examine correlations between HR and multiple host-galaxy properties simultaneously and find no evidence of a significant correlation. We also independently analyze our spectroscopically confirmed and photometrically classified SNe Ia and comment on the significance of similar combined data sets for future surveys.

We use simulated type Ia supernova (SN Ia) samples, including both photometry and spectra, to perform the first direct validation of cosmology analysis using the SALT-II light curve model. This validation includes residuals from the light curve training process, systematic biases in SN Ia distance measurements, and a bias on the dark energy equation of state parameter w. Using the SN-analysis package SNANA, we simulate and analyze realistic samples corresponding to the data samples used in the SNLS3 analysis: ~120 low-redshift (z < 0.1) SNe Ia, ~255 Sloan Digital Sky Survey SNe Ia (z < 0.4), and ~290 SNLS SNe Ia (z ≤ 1). To probe systematic uncertainties in detail, we vary the input spectral model, the model of intrinsic scatter, and the smoothing (i.e., regularization) parameters used during the SALT-II model training. Using realistic intrinsic scatter models results in a slight bias in the ultraviolet portion of the trained SALT-II model, and w biases (w (input) – w (recovered)) ranging from –0.005 ± 0.012 to –0.024 ± 0.010. These biases are indistinguishable from each other within the uncertainty, the average bias on w is –0.014 ± 0.007.

We use simulated type Ia supernova (SN Ia) samples, including both photometry and spectra, to perform the first direct validation of cosmology analysis using the SALT-II light curve model. This validation includes residuals from the light curve training process, systematic biases in SN Ia distance measurements, and a bias on the dark energy equation of state parameter w. Using the SN-analysis package SNANA, we simulate and analyze realistic samples corresponding to the data samples used in the SNLS3 analysis: ∼120 low-redshift (z < 0.1) SNe Ia, ∼255 Sloan Digital Sky Survey SNe Ia (z < 0.4), and ∼290 SNLS SNe Ia (z ≤ 1). To probe systematic uncertainties in detail, we vary the input spectral model, the model of intrinsic scatter, and the smoothing (i.e., regularization) parameters used during the SALT-II model training. Using realistic intrinsic scatter models results in a slight bias in the ultraviolet portion of the trained SALT-II model, and w biases (w {sub input} – w {sub recovered}) ranging from –0.005 ± 0.012 to –0.024 ± 0.010. These biases are indistinguishable from each other within the uncertainty; the average bias on w is –0.014 ± 0.007.

We present ugriz light curves for 146 spectroscopically confirmed or spectroscopically probable Type Ia supernovae from the 2005 season of the SDSS-IISupernova survey. The light curves have been constructed using a photometric technique that we call scene modeling, which is described in detail here; the major feature is that supernova brightnesses are extracted from a stack of images without spatial resampling or convolution of the image data. This procedure produces accurate photometry along with accurate estimates of the statistical uncertainty, and can be used to derive photometry taken with multiple telescopes. We discuss various tests of this technique that demonstrate its capabilities. We also describe the methodology used for the calibration of the photometry, and present calibrated magnitudes and fluxes for all of the spectroscopic SNe Ia from the 2005 season.

We show that black holes supplied with mass at hyper-Eddington rates drive outflows with mildly sub-relativistic velocities. These are ˜0.1-0.2c for Eddington accretion factors {dot{m}_acc}˜ 10-100, and ˜1500 km s-1 for {dot{m}_acc}˜ 10^4. Winds like this are seen in the X-ray spectra of ultraluminous sources (ULXs), strongly supporting the view that ULXs are stellar-mass compact binaries in hyper-Eddington accretion states. SS433 appears to be an extreme ULX system ({dot{m}_acc}˜ 10^4) viewed from outside the main X-ray emission cone. For less-extreme Eddington factors {dot{m}_acc}˜ 10-100 the photospheric temperatures of the winds are ˜100 eV, consistent with the picture that the ultraluminous supersoft sources (ULSs) are ULXs seen outside the medium-energy X-ray beam, unifying the ULX/ULS populations and SS433 (actually a ULS but with photospheric emission too soft to detect). For supermassive black holes (SMBHs), feedback from hyper-Eddington accretion is significantly more powerful than the usual near-Eddington (`UFO') case, and if realized in nature would imply M - σ masses noticeably smaller than observed. We suggest that the likely warping of the accretion disc in such cases may lead to much of the disc mass being expelled, severely reducing the incidence of such strong feedback. We show that hyper-Eddington feedback from bright ULXs can have major effects on their host galaxies. This is likely to have important consequences for the formation and survival of small galaxies.

We present a Hubble diagram of SNe II using corrected magnitudes derived only from photometry, with no input of spectral information. We use a data set from the Carnegie Supernovae Project I for which optical and near-infrared light curves were obtained. The apparent magnitude is corrected by two observables, one corresponding to the slope of the plateau in the V band and the second a color term. We obtain a dispersion of 0.44 mag using a combination of the (V - i) color and the r band and we are able to reduce the dispersion to 0.39 mag using our golden sample. A comparison of our photometric color method (PCM) with the standardized candle method (SCM) is also performed. The dispersion obtained for the SCM (which uses both photometric and spectroscopic information) is 0.29 mag, which compares with 0.43 mag from the PCM for the same SN sample. The construction of a photometric Hubble diagram is of high importance in the coming era of large photometric wide-field surveys, which will increase the detection rate of supernovae by orders of magnitude. Such numbers will prohibit spectroscopic follow up in the vast majority of cases, and hence methods must be deployed which can proceed using solely photometric data. This paper includes data gathered with the 6.5 m Magellan Telescopes, with the du Pont and Swope telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile, and the Gemini Observatory, Cerro Pachon, Chile (Gemini Program GS-2008B-Q-56). Based on observations collected at the European Organization for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, Chile (ESO Programmes 076.A-0156,078.D-0048, 080.A-0516, and 082.A-0526).

In this second paper in a series, we present measurements of spectral features of 432 low-redshift (z < 0.1) optical spectra of 261 Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) within 20 d of maximum brightness. The data were obtained from 1989 to the end of 2008 as part of the Berkeley Supernova Ia Program (BSNIP) and are presented in BSNIP I by Silverman et al. We describe in detail our method of automated, robust spectral feature definition and measurement which expands upon similar previous studies. Using this procedure, we attempt to measure expansion velocities, pseudo-equivalent widths (pEWs), spectral feature depths and fluxes at the centre and endpoints of each of nine major spectral feature complexes. We investigate how velocity and pEW evolve with time and how they correlate with each other. Various spectral classification schemes are employed and quantitative spectral differences among the subclasses are investigated. Several ratios of pEW values are calculated and studied. The so-called Si II ratio, often used as a luminosity indicator, is found to be well correlated with the so-called SiFe ratio and anticorrelated with the analogous 'SSi ratio', confirming the results of previous studies. Furthermore, SNe Ia that show strong evidence for interaction with circumstellar material or an aspherical explosion are found to have the largest near-maximum expansion velocities and pEWs, possibly linking extreme values of spectral observables with specific progenitor or explosion scenarios. We find that purely spectroscopic classification schemes are useful in identifying the most peculiar SNe Ia. However, in almost all spectral parameters investigated, the full sample of objects spans a nearly continuous range of values. Comparisons to previously published theoretical models of SNe Ia are made and we conclude with a brief discussion of how the measurements performed herein and the possible correlations presented will be important for future SN surveys.

We study the dust evolution in the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. We follow the processing of dust grains that formed in the Type II-b supernova ejecta by modelling the sputtering of grains. The dust is located in dense ejecta clumps that are crossed by the reverse shock. We also investigate further sputtering in the inter-clump medium gas once the clumps have been disrupted by the reverse shock. The dust evolution in the dense ejecta clumps of Type II-P supernovae and their remnants is also explored. We study oxygen-rich clumps that describe the oxygen core of the ejecta, and carbon-rich clumps that correspond to the outermost carbon-rich ejecta zone. We consider the various dust components that form in the supernova, several reverse shock velocities and inter-clump gas temperatures, and derive grain-size distributions and masses for the dust as a function of time. Both non-thermal sputtering within clumps and thermal sputtering in the inter-clump medium gas are studied. We find that non-thermal sputtering in the clumps is important for all supernova types and accounts for reducing the grain population by ~ 40% to 80% in mass, depending on the clump gas over-density, the grain type and size, and the shock velocity in the clump. A Type II-b SN forms small grains that are sputtered within the clumps and in the inter-clump medium. For Cas A, silicate grains do not survive thermal sputtering in the inter-clump medium, while alumina, silicon carbide, and carbon dust may survive in the remnant. Our derived masses of currently processed silicate, alumina and carbon grains agree well with the values derived from the observations of warm dust, and seem to indicate that the dust is currently being processed within clumps by non-thermal sputtering. Out of the ~ 0.03M⊙ of dust formed in the ejecta, between 30% and 60% of this mass is present today in Cas A, and only 6% to 11% of the initial mass will survive the remnant phase. Grains formed in Type II-P supernovae are

We study the dust evolution in the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. We follow the processing of dust grains that formed in the Type II-b supernova ejecta by modelling the sputtering of grains. The dust is located in dense ejecta clumps that are crossed by the reverse shock. We also investigate further sputtering in the inter-clump medium gas once the clumps have been disrupted by the reverse shock. The dust evolution in the dense ejecta clumps of Type II-P supernovae and their remnants is also explored. We study oxygen-rich clumps that describe the oxygen core of the ejecta, and carbon-rich clumps that correspond to the outermost carbon-rich ejecta zone. We consider the various dust components that form in the supernova, several reverse shock velocities and inter-clump gas temperatures, and derive grain-size distributions and masses for the dust as a function of time. Both non-thermal sputtering within clumps and thermal sputtering in the inter-clump medium gas are studied. We find that non-thermal sputtering in the clumps is important for all supernova types and accounts for reducing the grain population by ~ 40% to 80% in mass, depending on the clump gas over-density, the grain type and size, and the shock velocity in the clump. A Type II-b SN forms small grains that are sputtered within the clumps and in the inter-clump medium. For Cas A, silicate grains do not survive thermal sputtering in the inter-clump medium, while alumina, silicon carbide, and carbon dust may survive in the remnant. Our derived masses of currently processed silicate, alumina and carbon grains agree well with the values derived from the observations of warm dust, and seem to indicate that the dust is currently being processed within clumps by non-thermal sputtering. Out of the ~ 0.03M⊙ of dust formed in the ejecta, between 30% and 60% of this mass is present today in Cas A, and only 6% to 11% of the initial mass will survive the remnant phase. Grains formed in Type II-P supernovae are

We present early- and late-time photometric and spectroscopic observations of supernova (SN) 2009hd in the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 3627 (M66). This SN is one of the closest to us in recent years and provides an uncommon opportunity to observe and study the nature of SNe. However, the object was heavily obscured by dust, rendering it unusually faint in the optical given its proximity. We find that the observed properties of SN 2009hd support its classification as a possible Type II-Linear SN (SN II-L), a relatively rare subclass of core-collapse SNe. High-precision relative astrometry has been employed to attempt to identify an SN progenitor candidate, based on a pixel-by-pixel comparison between Hubble Space Telescope (HST) F555W and F814W images of the SN site prior to explosion and at late times. A progenitor candidate is identified in the F814W images only; this object is undetected in F555W. Significant uncertainty exists in the astrometry, such that we cannot definitively identify this object as the SN progenitor. Via insertion of artificial stars into the pre-SN HST images, we are able to constrain the progenitor's properties to those of a possible supergiant, with intrinsic absolute magnitude M {sup 0}{sub F555W} {approx}> -7.6 mag and intrinsic color (V - I){sup 0} {approx}> 0.99 mag. The magnitude and color limits are consistent with a luminous red supergiant (RSG); however, they also allow for the possibility that the star could have been more yellow than red. From a comparison with theoretical massive-star evolutionary tracks which include rotation and pulsationally enhanced mass loss, we can place a conservative upper limit on the initial mass for the progenitor of M{sub ini} {approx}< 20 M{sub Sun }. If the actual mass of the progenitor is near the upper range allowed by our derived mass limit, then it would be consistent with that for the identified progenitors of the SN II-L 2009kr and the high-luminosity SN II-Plateau (II-P) 2008cn. The progenitors

Determining supernova distances with high precision and small systematic error is essential to modern constraints on the cosmic expansion history and the properties of dark energy. An interesting correlation between the expansion velocity of the SN Ia explosion and its intrinsic color has been suggested by earlier work. Since this effect is not incorporated into current schemes for SN Ia light curve analysis, there is potential for improving inferences of host galaxy dust, and thus, distance estimates. We investigate the correlations between the intrinsic colors of SN Ia and the expansion velocities measured from spectral lines. We build a hierarchical Bayesian regression model to estimate the dependence of the intrinsic colors of a SN Ia on its measured Si II line velocity. We model the deviations of apparent colors from a mean intrinsic colors-velocity relation as a combination of random intrinsic scatter, measurement error, and reddening by dust. This statistical model allows for non-Gaussian distributions of the intrinsic colors and velocities. We construct a new, fast Gibbs sampler to compute the posterior inferences of the model using observed data. The method is applied to the apparent color data from BVRI light curves and Si II velocity data for nearby SN Ia. For intrinsic B-V colors, we find a significant slope of 0.021 ± 0.008 mag / (1000 km/s) under a linear model, and a mean color difference of 0.06 ± 0.02 mag between high velocity and normal velocity groups under a step function model. The impact of accounting for the peak intrinsic color-velocity correlation can result in extinction corrections as large as -0.10 mag for high velocity SN Ia and +0.05 mag for normal velocity events. We compute the deviance information criterion (DIC) to gauge whether the more complex hypotheses are justified by their improved representation of the data. The DIC favors the simple linear and step functions of intrinsic color versus velocity over no trend, while higher

During the first few days after explosion, Type IIsupernovae (SNe) are dominated by relatively simple physics. Theoretical predictions regarding early-time SN light curves in the ultraviolet (UV) and optical bands are thus quite robust. We present, for the first time, a sample of 57 R-band SN II light curves that are well-monitored during their rise, with \\gt 5 detections during the first 10 days after discovery, and a well-constrained time of explosion to within 1-3 days. We show that the energy per unit mass (E/M) can be deduced to roughly a factor of five by comparing early-time optical data to the 2011 model of Rabinak & Waxman, while the progenitor radius cannot be determined based on R-band data alone. We find that SN II explosion energies span a range of E/M = (0.2-20) × 1051 erg/(10 {M}⊙ ), and have a mean energy per unit mass of < E/M> =0.85× {10}51 erg/(10 {M}⊙ ), corrected for Malmquist bias. Assuming a small spread in progenitor masses, this indicates a large intrinsic diversity in explosion energy. Moreover, E/M is positively correlated with the amount of 56Ni produced in the explosion, as predicted by some recent models of core-collapse SNe. We further present several empirical correlations. The peak magnitude is correlated with the decline rate ({{Δ }}{m}15), the decline rate is weakly correlated with the rise time, and the rise time is not significantly correlated with the peak magnitude. Faster declining SNe are more luminous and have longer rise times. This limits the possible power sources for such events.

The progenitors of many Type II core-collapse supernovae (SNe) have now been identified directly on pre-discovery imaging. Here, we present an extensive search for the progenitors of Type Ibc SNe in all available pre-discovery imaging since 1998. There are 12 Type Ibc SNe with no detections of progenitors in either deep ground-based or Hubble Space Telescope archival imaging. The deepest absolute BVR magnitude limits are between -4 and - 5 mag. We compare these limits with the observed Wolf-Rayet population in the Large Magellanic Cloud and estimate a 16 per cent probability that we have failed to detect such a progenitor by chance. Alternatively, the progenitors evolve significantly before core-collapse or we have underestimated the extinction towards the progenitors. Reviewing the relative rates and ejecta mass estimates from light-curve modelling of Ibc SNe, we find both incompatible with Wolf-Rayet stars with initial masses >25 M⊙ being the only progenitors. We present binary evolution models that fit these observational constraints. Stars in binaries with initial masses ≲ 20 M⊙ lose their hydrogen envelopes in binary interactions to become low-mass helium stars. They retain a low-mass hydrogen envelope until ≈104 yr before core-collapse; hence, it is not surprising that Galactic analogues have been difficult to identify.

We present optical and near-infrared photometry and spectroscopy of SN 2009ib, a Type II-P supernova in NGC 1559. This object has moderate brightness, similar to those of the intermediate-luminosity SNe 2008in and 2009N. Its plateau phase is unusually long, lasting for about 130 d after explosion. The spectra are similar to those of the subluminous SN 2002gd, with moderate expansion velocities. We estimate the 56Ni mass produced as 0.046 ± 0.015 M⊙. We determine the distance to SN 2009ib using both the expanding photosphere method (EPM) and the standard candle method. We also apply EPM to SN 1986L, a Type II-P SN that exploded in the same galaxy. Combining the results of different methods, we conclude the distance to NGC 1559 as D = 19.8 ± 3.0 Mpc. We examine archival, pre-explosion images of the field taken with the Hubble Space Telescope, and find a faint source at the position of the SN, which has a yellow colour [(V - I)0 = 0.85 mag]. Assuming it is a single star, we estimate its initial mass as MZAMS = 20 M⊙. We also examine the possibility, that instead of the yellow source the progenitor of SN 2009ib is a red supergiant star too faint to be detected. In this case, we estimate the upper limit for the initial zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) mass of the progenitor to be ˜14-17 M⊙. In addition, we infer the physical properties of the progenitor at the explosion via hydrodynamical modelling of the observables, and estimate the total energy as ˜0.55 × 1051 erg, the pre-explosion radius as ˜400 R⊙, and the ejected envelope mass as ˜15 M⊙, which implies that the mass of the progenitor before explosion was ˜16.5-17 M⊙.

The authors revisited the stellar and nebular content in the direction of MSH 15-52. This search was initiated by the discovery of a new Hα thermal region H II G 320.5-1.4 with velocity VLSR = -43 km s-1, extending over an area similar to MSH 15-52, and clearly distinct from the foreground H II region BBW 28802. From a rediscussion of the reddening and distances of hot stars with available spectra in the direction l = 320°, it is found that they constitute a single stellar association (Cir OB1) at a distance about 4 kpc, probably not much more extended than 80×80 pc. This association contains the cluster Pis 20, four WR stars and a number of stars with ages in the range 4 - 10×106yr. It is the excitation source of H II G 320.5-1.4. In such an association, bubbles may have formed previously to the explosion of supernovae; also, several supernovae may have exploded recently. Thus it is not unlikely that MSH 15-52 originated from the same SN explosion as PSR 1509-58 and expanded freely into a bubble; on the other hand, it would not be surprising that two different supernovae exploded close in time and space.

Molecular cloud structure is regulated by stellar feedback in various forms. Two of the most important feedback processes are UV photoionisation and supernovae from massive stars. However, the precise response of the cloud to these processes, and the interaction between them, remains an open question. In particular, we wish to know under which conditions the cloud can be dispersed by feedback, which in turn can give us hints as to how feedback regulates the star formation inside the cloud. We perform a suite of radiative magnetohydrodynamic simulations of a 105 solar mass cloud with embedded sources of ionising radiation and supernovae, including multiple supernovae and a hypernova model. A UV source corresponding to 10% of the mass of the cloud is required to disperse the cloud, suggesting that the star formation efficiency should be on the order of 10%. A single supernova is unable to significantly affect the evolution of the cloud. However, energetic hypernovae and multiple supernovae are able to add significant quantities of momentum to the cloud, approximately 1043 g cm/s of momentum per 1051 ergs of supernova energy. We argue that supernovae alone are unable to regulate star formation in molecular clouds. We stress the importance of ram pressure from turbulence in regulating feedback in molecular clouds.

The PTF (ATEL #1964; http://www.astro.caltech.edu/ptf/) reports the discovery of a new supernova, PTF10abyy. The supernova was discovered by Oarical, an autonomous software framework of the PTF collaboration, on December 8 UT at RA(J2000) = 05:16:40.52 and DEC(J2000) = +06:47:53.8 at a magnitude of 18.7 in R-band (calibrated with respect to the USNOB1 catalog). The supernova was not detected down to mag 21 in previous PTF images taken during Dec.

Supernovae (SNe) powered by interaction with circumstellar material provide evidence for intense stellar mass loss during the final years before core collapse. We have argued that during and after core neon burning, internal gravity waves excited by core convection can tap into the core fusion power and transport a super-Eddington energy flux out to the stellar envelope, potentially unbinding ∼1 solar mass of material. In this work, we explore the internal conditions of SN progenitors using the MESA one-dimensional stellar evolution code in search of those most susceptible to wave-driven mass loss. We focus on simple, order of magnitude considerations applicable to a wide range of progenitors. Wave-driven mass loss during core neon and oxygen fusion happens preferentially in either lower mass (∼20 solar mass zero-age main sequence) stars or massive, sub-solar metallicity stars. Roughly 20% of the SN progenitors we survey can excite 10{sup 46-48} erg of energy in waves that can potentially drive mass loss within a few months to a decade of core collapse. This energy can generate circumstellar environments with 10{sup –3}-1 solar masses reaching 100 AU before explosion. We predict a correlation between the energy associated with pre-SN mass ejection and the time to core collapse, with the most intense mass loss preferentially occurring closer to core collapse. During silicon burning, wave energy may inflate 10{sup –3}-1 solar masses of the envelope to 10-100 s of solar radii. This suggests that some nominally compact SN progenitors (Type Ibc progenitors) will have a significantly different SN shock breakout signature than traditionally assumed.

Supernovae (SNe) powered by interaction with circumstellar material provide evidence for intense stellar mass loss during the final years before core collapse. We have argued that during and after core neon burning, internal gravity waves excited by core convection can tap into the core fusion power and transport a super-Eddington energy flux out to the stellar envelope, potentially unbinding ~1 solar mass of material. In this work, we explore the internal conditions of SN progenitors using the MESA one-dimensional stellar evolution code in search of those most susceptible to wave-driven mass loss. We focus on simple, order of magnitude considerations applicable to a wide range of progenitors. Wave-driven mass loss during core neon and oxygen fusion happens preferentially in either lower mass (~20 solar mass zero-age main sequence) stars or massive, sub-solar metallicity stars. Roughly 20% of the SN progenitors we survey can excite 1046-48 erg of energy in waves that can potentially drive mass loss within a few months to a decade of core collapse. This energy can generate circumstellar environments with 10-3-1 solar masses reaching 100 AU before explosion. We predict a correlation between the energy associated with pre-SN mass ejection and the time to core collapse, with the most intense mass loss preferentially occurring closer to core collapse. During silicon burning, wave energy may inflate 10-3-1 solar masses of the envelope to 10-100 s of solar radii. This suggests that some nominally compact SN progenitors (Type Ibc progenitors) will have a significantly different SN shock breakout signature than traditionally assumed.

We analyze a time series of optical spectra of SN 2014J from almost two weeks prior to maximum to nearly four months after maximum. We perform our analysis using the SYNOW code, which is well suited to track the distribution of the ions with velocity in the ejecta. We show that almost all of the spectral features during the entire epoch can be identified with permitted transitions of the common ions found in normal SNe Ia in agreement with previous studies. We show that 2014J is a relatively normal SN Ia. At early times the spectral features are dominated by Si II, S II, Mg II, and Ca II. These ions persist to maximum light with the appearance of Na I and Mg I. At later times iron-group elements also appear, as expected in the stratified abundance model of the formation of normal type Ia SNe. We do not find significant spectroscopic evidence for oxygen, until 100 days after maximum light. The +100 day identification of oxygen is tentative, and would imply significant mixing of unburned or only slight processed elements down to a velocity of 6,000 km~s-1. Our results are in relatively good agreement with other analyses in the IR. We briefly compare SN 2011fe to SN 2014J and conclude that the differences could be due to different central densities at ignition or differences in the C/O ratio of the progenitors.

Due to their high intrinsic brightness, caused by the disruption of the progenitor envelope by the shock-wave initiated at the bounce of the collapsing core, hydrogen-rich (type II) supernovae (SN) can be used as lighthouses to constrain distances in the Universe using variants of the Baade-Wesselink method. Based on a large set of CMFGEN models (Hillier & Miller 1998) covering the photospheric phase of type II SN, we study the various concepts entering one such technique, the Expanding Photosphere Method (EPM). We compute correction factors ξ needed to approximate the synthetic Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) with that of a blackbody at temperature T. Our ξ, although similar, are systematically greater, by ~0.1, than the values obtained by Eastman et al. (1996) and translate into a systematic enhancement of 10-20% in EPM-distances. We find that line emission and absorption, not directly linked to color temperature variations, can considerably alter the synthetic magnitude: in particular, line-blanketing attributable to Fe ii and Ti ii is the principal cause for above-unity correction factors in the B and V bands in hydrogen-recombining models. Following the dominance of electron-scattering opacity in type II SN outflows, the blackbody SED arising at the thermalization depth is diluted, by a factor of approximately 0.2 to 0.4 for fully- or partially-ionized models, but rising to unity as hydrogen recombines for effective temperatures below 9000 K. For a given effective temperature, models with a larger spatial scale, or lower density exponent, have a larger electron-scattering optical depth at the photosphere and consequently suffer enhanced dilution. We also find that when lines are present in the emergent spectrum, the photospheric radius in the corresponding wavelength range can be enhanced by a factor of 2-3 compared to the case when only continuum opacity is considered. Lines can thus nullify the uniqueness of the photosphere radius and invalidate the

We study the formation of molecules and dust clusters in the ejecta of solar metallicity, Type II-P supernovae (SNe) using a chemical kinetic approach. We follow the evolution of molecules and small dust cluster masses from day 100 to day 1500 after explosion. We consider stellar progenitors with initial masses of 12, 15, 19, and 25 M{sub ☉} that explode as SNe with stratified ejecta. The molecular precursors to dust grains comprise molecular chains, rings and small clusters of silica, silicates, metal oxides, sulfides and carbides, pure metals, and carbon, where the nucleation of silicate clusters is described by a two-step process of metal and oxygen addition. We study the impact of the {sup 56}Ni mass on the type and amount of synthesized dust. We predict that large masses of molecules including CO, SiO, SiS, O{sub 2}, and SO form in the ejecta. We show that the discrepancy between the small dust masses detected at infrared wavelengths some 500 days post-explosion and the larger amounts of dust recently detected with Herschel in SN remnants can be explained by the non-equilibrium chemistry linked to the formation of molecules and dust clusters in the ejected material. Dust gradually builds up from small (∼10{sup –5} M{sub ☉}) to large masses (∼5 × 10{sup –2} M{sub ☉}) over a 5 yr period after explosion. Subsequent dust formation and/or growth is hampered by the shortage of chemical agents participating in the dust nucleation and the long timescale for accretion. The results highlight the dependence of the dust chemical composition and mass on the amount of {sup 56}Ni synthesized during the explosion. This dependence may partly explain the diversity of epochs at which dust forms in SNe. More generally, our results indicate that Type II-P SNe are efficient but moderate dust producers with an upper limit on the mass of synthesized dust ranging from ∼0.03 to 0.09 M{sub ☉}. Other dust sources must then operate at high redshift to explain the large

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-IISupernova Survey has identified a large number of new transient sources in a 300 deg2 region along the celestial equator during its first two seasons of a three-season campaign. Multi-band (ugriz) light curves were measured for most of the sources, which include solar system objects, Galactic variable stars, active galactic nuclei, supernovae (SNe), and other astronomical transients. The imaging survey is augmented by an extensive spectroscopic follow-up program to identify SNe, measure their redshifts, and study the physical conditions of the explosions and their environment through spectroscopic diagnostics. During the survey, light curves are rapidly evaluated to provide an initial photometric type of the SNe, and a selected sample of sources are targeted for spectroscopic observations. In the first two seasons, 476 sources were selected for spectroscopic observations, of which 403 were identified as SNe. For the Type Ia SNe, the main driver for the Survey, our photometric typing and targeting efficiency is 90%. Only 6% of the photometric SN Ia candidates were spectroscopically classified as non-SN Ia instead, and the remaining 4% resulted in low signal-to-noise, unclassified spectra. This paper describes the search algorithm and the software, and the real-time processing of the SDSS imaging data. We also present the details of the supernova candidate selection procedures and strategies for follow-up spectroscopic and imaging observations of the discovered sources.

Shock models indicate and observations show that in the infrared (IR), supernova remnants (SNRs) emit strongly in [Fe II] at 1.64 μm. Here, we report the results of a search for SNRs in NGC 6946 relying on [Fe II] 1.64 μm line emission, where we employed an adjacent [Fe II]{sub Off} filter to accurately assess the local continuum levels. For this study, we used the WIYN High Resolution Infrared Camera on the WIYN 3.5 m telescope to image NGC 6946 in broadbands J and H and narrowbands [Fe II], [Fe II]{sub Off}, Paβ, and Paβ{sub Off}. From our search, we have identified 48 SNR candidates (SNRcs), 6 of which are coincident with sources found in prior radio, optical, and/or X-ray studies. The measured [Fe II] fluxes of our SNRcs range from 1.5 × 10{sup –16} to 4.2 × 10{sup –15} erg s{sup –1} cm{sup –2} and are among the highest of previously published extragalactic SNR [Fe II] fluxes. All of the candidates now need to be confirmed spectroscopically. However, the fact that we detect as many objects as we did suggests that [Fe II] can be used as an effective search tool to find extragalactic SNRs.

Context. Supernovae of type Ia (SNe Ia) are believed to be thermonuclear explosions of carbon-oxygen white dwarfs (CO WDs). However, the mass accretion process onto CO WDs is still not completely understood. Aims: In this paper, we study the accretion of He-rich matter onto CO WDs and explore a scenario in which a strong wind forms on the surface of the WD if the total luminosity exceeds the Eddington limit. Methods: Using a stellar evolution code called modules for experiments in stellar astrophysics (MESA), we simulated the He accretion process onto CO WDs for WDs with masses of 0.6-1.35 M⊙ and various accretion rates of 10-8-10-5 M⊙ yr-1. Results: If the contribution of the total luminosity is included when determining the Eddington accretion rate, then a super-Eddington wind could be triggered at relatively lower accretion rates than those of previous studies based on steady-state models. The super-Eddington wind can prevent the WDs with high accretion rates from evolving into red-giant-like He stars. We found that the contributions from thermal energy of the WD are non-negligible, judging by our simulations, even though the nuclear burning energy is the dominating source of luminosity. We also provide the limits of the steady He-burning regime in which the WDs do not lose any accreted matter and increase their mass steadily, and calculated the mass retention efficiency during He layer flashes for various WD masses and accretion rates. These obtained results can be used in future binary population synthesis computations.

Neutrino oscillations, especially to light sterile states, can affect nucleosynthesis yields because of their possible feedback effect on the electron fraction (Ye). For the first time, we perform nucleosynthesis calculations for neutrino-driven wind trajectories from the neutrino-cooling phase of an 8.8 {M}⊙ electron-capture supernova (SN), whose hydrodynamic evolution was computed in spherical symmetry with sophisticated neutrino transport and whose Ye evolution was post-processed by including neutrino oscillations between both active and active-sterile flavors. We also take into account the α-effect as well as weak magnetism and recoil corrections in the neutrino absorption and emission processes. We observe effects on the Ye evolution that depend in a subtle way on the relative radial positions of the sterile Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein resonances, on collective flavor transformations, and on the formation of α particles. For the adopted SN progenitor, we find that neutrino oscillations, also to a sterile state with eV mass, do not significantly affect the element formation and in particular cannot make the post-explosion wind outflow neutron-rich enough to activate a strong r-process. Our conclusions become even more robust when, in order to mimic equation-of-state-dependent corrections due to nucleon potential effects in the dense-medium neutrino opacities, six cases with reduced Ye in the wind are considered. In these cases, despite the conversion of active neutrinos to sterile neutrinos, Ye increases or is not significantly lowered compared to the values obtained without oscillations and active flavor transformations. This is a consequence of a complicated interplay between sterile-neutrino production, neutrino-neutrino interactions, and α-effect.

Here we revisit line identifications of type I supernovae (SNe I) and highlight trace amounts of unburned hydrogen as an important free parameter for the composition of the progenitor. Most one-dimensional stripped-envelope models of supernovae indicate that observed features near 6000-6400 Å in type I spectra are due to more than Si ii λ6355. However, while an interpretation of conspicuous Si ii λ6355 can approximate 6150 Å absorption features for all SNe Ia during the first month of free expansion, similar identifications applied to 6250 Å features of SNe Ib and Ic have not been as successful. When the corresponding synthetic spectra are compared with high-quality timeseries observations, the computed spectra are frequently too blue in wavelength. Some improvement can be achieved with Fe ii lines that contribute redward of 6150 Å however, the computed spectra either remain too blue or the spectrum only reaches a fair agreement when the rise-time to peak brightness of the model conflicts with observations by a factor of two. This degree of disagreement brings into question the proposed explosion scenario. Similarly, a detection of strong Si ii λ6355 in the spectra of broadlined Ic and super-luminous events of type I/R is less convincing despite numerous model spectra used to show otherwise. Alternatively, we suggest 6000-6400 Å features are possibly influenced by either trace amounts of hydrogen or blueshifted absorption and emission in Hα, the latter being an effect which is frequently observed in the spectra of hydrogen-rich, SNe II.

Type-IIn supernovae (SNe IIn), which are characterized by strong interaction of their ejecta with the surrounding circumstellar matter (CSM), provide a unique opportunity to study the mass-loss history of massive stars shortly before their explosive death. We present the discovery and follow-up observations of an SN IIn, PTF 09uj, detected by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF). Serendipitous observations by Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths detected the rise of the SN light curve prior to the PTF discovery. The UV light curve of the SN rose fast, with a timescale of a few days, to a UV absolute AB magnitude of about -19.5. Modeling our observations, we suggest that the fast rise of the UV light curve is due to the breakout of the SN shock through the dense CSM (n {approx} 10{sup 10} cm{sup -3}). Furthermore, we find that prior to the explosion the progenitor went through a phase of high mass-loss rate ({approx}0.1 M{sub sun} yr{sup -1}) that lasted for a few years. The decay rate of this SN was fast relative to that of other SNe IIn.

In this second paper in a series, we present measurements of spectral features of 432 low-redshift (z<0.1) optical spectra of 261 Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) within 20d of maximum brightness. The data were obtained from 1989 to the end of 2008 as part of the Berkeley Supernova Ia Program (BSNIP) and are presented in BSNIP I by Silverman et al. (J/MNRAS/425/1789). We describe in detail our method of automated, robust spectral feature definition and measurement which expands upon similar previous studies. Using this procedure, we attempt to measure expansion velocities, pseudo-equivalent widths (pEWs), spectral feature depths and fluxes at the centre and endpoints of each of nine major spectral feature complexes. (10 data files).

G11.2-0.3 is a young supernova remnant (SNR) that has been suggested to be associated with a historical supernova of 386 AD. In addition to a bright radio and X-ray shell, it contains a pulsar wind nebula (PWN) and a 65 ms pulsar. We present first results from new deep (about 400 ks in duration) Chandra observations from 2013 May and September. Ahead of the main shell, there are a number of outlying X-ray protrusions surrounded by bow shocks, presumably produced by dense ejecta knots. Pronounced spectral variations are seen in thermal X-ray spectra of the main shell, indicating the presence of shocks with a wide range in shock speeds and large spatial variations in intervening absorption. A band of soft X-ray emission is clearly seen at the remnant's center. We interpret this band as a result of the interaction of supernova ejecta with the strongly asymmetric wind produced by a red supergiant SN progenitor shortly before its explosion. We study interstellar absorption in the central region of the remnant, finding high absorption everywhere. This rules out the association of G11.2-0.3 with SN 386. The PWN is dominated by a bright "jet" whose spatial morphology is markedly different between our May and September observations.

The relevance of relativistic gravitation and of the properties of nuclear matter at high density to supernova explosions is examined in detail. The existing empirical knowledge on the nuclear equation of state at densities greater than saturation, extracted from analysis of heavy ion collisions and from the breathing mode in heavy nuclei, is also considered. Particulars of the prompt explosions recently obtained theoretically by Baron, Cooperstein, and Kahana are presented. 40 refs., 9 figs., 3 tabs.

The Smart Aircraft and Marine System Projects Demonstration (SAMPSON) program was a DARPA funded effort conducted by the Boeing Company, General Dynamics - Electric Boat Division, and the Pennsylvania State University. NASA Langley Research Center (NASA LaRC) was technical monitor for the aircraft demonstration, while the Navy's Office of Naval Research (ONR) was technical monitor for the marine demonstration. Dr. Ephrahim Garcia, DARPA/DSO, acted as the DARPA program manager for SAMPSON. The SAMPSON program objectives were to demonstrate smart structures based systems on large/full scale structures in realistic environments. The SAMPSON aircraft demonstration was the wind tunnel testing of a full scale F-15 aircraft inlet that was capable of in-flight structural variations accomplished using smart materials, called the 'SAMPSON Smart Inlet'. The SAMPSON Smart Inlet was removed from an F-15E airframe and structurally modified to interface with the NASA LaRC 16-Foot Transonic Tunnel model support system. This is Part II of two works documenting the SAMPSON Smart Inlet design and testing. A discussion of the two wind tunnel tests will be presented here in Part II. The design of the shape changing components of the Smart Inlet is presented in a separate work, Part I.

In the process of supernova explosion the leakage of neutrinos is very important. Adopting an one-dimensional spherically symmetrical model, and under the different neutrino leakage modes, the explosion processes of type IIsupernovae with masses of 12 M⊙, 14 M⊙, and 15 M⊙ are simulated numerically. The results indicate that all these different neutrino leakage modes have influences on the supernova collapse, shock propagation, and supernova explosion. The best values of the related parameters which are propitious for the type IIsupernova explosion are given. In addition, the impacts of the equation of state and the compression modulus on the simulated results are discussed.

It is generally believed that the r-process occurs under explosive conditions at high neutron density, high temperature, and high entropy. It has been discussed, for sometime, that core-collapse supernovae could provide the most likely environment for such r-process nucleosynthesis. So far, the models of neutrino-driven winds from very massive (M≥ 1.7M⊙) and compact neutron star have proved to get successful r-process abundance pattern. A short expansion time is required to obtain a high neutron-to-seed ratio at moderate entropy. This expansion time is obtained by adopting a high neutron star gravitational mass, M~ 2M⊙, and a neutron star radius of R~ 10 km. However, such a large mass is sometimes criticized from observational viewpoints although several established EOSs for neutron star matter are known to stabilize massive core as far as M≤ 2.2M⊙. Nucleosynthesis in the r-process is strongly dependent on the gravitational mass of the proto-neutron star, and for this reason it is taken to be an adjustable parameter to give good r-process yields. In this paper, we study the effects of the outer boundary conditions of neutrino-driven winds on the r-process nucleosynthesis. We can get a reasonable agreement with the solar system r-process abundance pattern even by adopting the 'standard' 1.4M⊙ mass model for the proto-neutron star.

Following our previous work, we investigate through hydrodynamic simulations the destruction of newly formed dust grains by sputtering in the reverse shocks of supernova remnants. Using an idealized setup of a planar shock impacting a dense, spherical clump, we implant a population of Lagrangian particles into the clump to represent a distribution of dust grains in size and composition. We vary the relative velocity between the reverse shock and ejecta clump to explore the effects of shock heating and cloud compression. Because supernova ejecta will be metal-enriched, we consider gas metallicities from Z/Z{sub Sun} = 1 to 100 and their influence on the cooling properties of the cloud and the thermal sputtering rates of embedded dust grains. We post-process the simulation output to calculate grain sputtering for a variety of species and size distributions. In the metallicity regime considered in this paper, the balance between increased radiative cooling and increased grain erosion depends on the impact velocity of the reverse shock. For slow shocks (v{sub shock} {<=} 3000 km s{sup -1}), the amount of dust destruction is comparable across metallicities or in some cases is decreased with increased metallicity. For higher shock velocities (v{sub shock} {>=} 5000 km s{sup -1}), an increase in metallicity from Z/Z{sub Sun} = 10 to 100 can lead to an additional 24% destruction of the initial dust mass. While the total dust destruction varies widely across grain species and simulation parameters, our most extreme cases result in complete destruction for some grain species and only 44% dust mass survival for the most robust species. These survival rates are important in understanding how early supernovae contribute to the observed dust masses in high-redshift galaxies.

Shock breakout is the brightest radiative phenomenon in a Type IIsupernova (SN). Although it was predicted to be bright, direct observation is difficult due to the short duration and X-ray/ultraviolet-peaked spectra. First entire observations of the shock breakouts of Type II Plateau SNe (SNe IIP) were reported in 2008 by ultraviolet and optical observations by the Galaxy Evolution Explorer satellite and supernova legacy survey (SNLS), named SNLS-04D2dc and SNLS-06D1jd. We present multicolor light curves of an SN IIP, including the shock breakout and plateau, calculated with a multigroup radiation hydrodynamical code STELLA and an evolutionary progenitor model. The synthetic multicolor light curves reproduce well the observations of SNLS-04D2dc. This is the first study to reproduce the ultraviolet light curve of the shock breakout and the optical light curve of the plateau consistently. We conclude that SNLS-04D2dc is the explosion with a canonical explosion energy 1.2 x 10{sup 51} erg and that its progenitor is a star with a zero-age main-sequence mass 20 M{sub sun} and a presupernova radius 800 R{sub sun}. The model demonstrates that the peak apparent B-band magnitude of the shock breakout would be m {sub B} approx 26.4 mag if an SN identical to SNLS-04D2dc occurs at a redshift z = 1, which can be reached by 8m-class telescopes. The result evidences that the shock breakout has a great potential to detect SNe IIP at z approx> 1.

Shklovsky and others have suggested that some of the major extinctions in the geological record might have been triggered by explosions of nearby supernovae. The frequency of such extinction events will depend on the galactic supernova frequency and on the distance up to which a supernova explosion will produce lethal effects upon terrestrial life. In the present note it will be assumed that a killer supernova has to occur so close to Earth that it will be embedded in a young, active, supernova remnant. Such young remnants typically have radii approximately less than 3 pc (1 x 10(exp 19) cm). Larger (more pessimistic?) killer radii have been adopted by Ruderman, Romig, and by Ellis and Schramm. From observations of historical supernovae, van den Bergh finds that core-collapse (types Ib and II) supernovae occur within 4 kpc of the Sun at a rate of 0.2 plus or minus 0.1 per century. Adopting a layer thickness of 0.3 kpc for the galacitc disk, this corresponds to a rate of approximately 1.3 x 10(exp -4) supernovae pc(exp -3) g.y.(exp -1). Including supernovae of type Ia will increase the total supernovae rate to approximately 1.5 x 10(exp -4) supernovae pc(exp -3) g.y.(exp -1). For a lethal radius of R pc the rate of killer events will therefore be 1.7 (R/3)(exp 3) x 10(exp -2) supernovae per g.y. However, a frequency of a few extinctions per g.y. is required to account for the extinctions observed during the phanerozoic. With R (extinction) approximately 3 pc, the galactic supernova frequency is therefore too low by 2 orders of magnitude to account for the major extinctions in the geological record.

Mass loss from massive stars (>~8 Msolar) can result in the formation of circumstellar wind-blown cavities surrounding the star, bordered by a thin, dense, cold shell. When the star explodes as a core-collapse supernova (SN), the resulting shock wave will interact with this modified medium around the star, rather than the interstellar medium. In this work we first explore the nature of the circumstellar medium around massive stars in various evolutionary stages. This is followed by a study of the evolution of SNe within these wind-blown bubbles. The evolution depends primarily on a single parameter Λ, the ratio of the mass of the dense shell to that of the ejected material. We investigate the evolution for different values of this parameter. We also plot approximate X-ray surface brightness plots from the simulations. For very small values Λ<<1 the effect of the shell is negligible, as one would expect. Values of Λ>1, then a substantial amount of energy may be expended in the shell. In the extreme case the SN may go directly from the free expansion to the adiabatic stage, bypassing the Sedov stage. Our results show that in many cases the SNR spends a significant amount of time

We calculate the spallative production of light elements associated with the explosion of an isolated supernova in the interstellar medium, using a time-dependent model taking into account the dilution of the ejected enriched material and the adiabatic energy losses. We first derive the injection function of energetic particles (EPs) accelerated at both the forward and the reverse shock, as a function of time. Then we calculate the Be yields obtained in both cases and compare them to the value implied by the observational data for metal-poor stars in the halo of our Galaxy, using both O and Fe data. We find that none of the processes investigated here can account for the amount of Be found in these stars, which confirms the analytical results of Parizot & Drury (1999). We finally analyze the consequences of these results for Galactic chemical evolution, and suggest that a model involving superbubbles might alleviate the energetics problem in a quite natural way.

The convective period leading up to a Type Ia supernova (SNIa) explosion is characterized by very low Mach number flows, requiringhydrodynamical methods well-suited to long-time integration. We continuethe development of the low Mach number equation set for stellar scaleflows by incorporating the effects of heat release due to externalsources. Low Mach number hydrodynamics equations with a time-dependentbackground state are derived, and a numerical method based on theapproximate projection formalism is presented. We demonstrate throughvalidation with a fully compressible hydrodynamics code that this lowMach number model accurately captures the expansion of the stellaratmosphere as well as the local dynamics due to external heat sources.This algorithm provides the basis for an efficient simulation tool forstudying the ignition of SNe Ia.

This paper reports on results of a Suzaku observation of the supernova remnant (SNR) Kes 79 (G33.6+0.1). The X-ray spectrum is best fitted by a two-temperature model: a non-equilibrium ionization (NEI) plasma and a collisional ionization equilibrium (CIE) plasma. The NEI plasma is spatially confined within the inner radio shell with kT ˜ 0.8 keV, while the CIE plasma is found in more spatially extended regions associated with the outer radio shell with kT ˜0.2 keV and solar abundance. Therefore, the NEI plasma is attributable to the SN ejecta, and the CIE plasma is the forward shocked interstellar medium. In the NEI plasma, we discovered K-shell lines of Al, Ar, and Ca for the first time. The abundance pattern and estimated mass of the ejecta are consistent with a core-collapse supernova explosion of a ˜30-40M⊙ progenitor star. An Fe line with a center energy of ˜6.4 keV is also found in the southeast (SE) portion of the SNR, a close peripheral region around dense molecular clouds. One possibility is that the line is associated with the ejecta. However, the centroid energy of ˜6.4 keV and the spatial distribution of enhancement near the SE peripheral do not favor this scenario. Since the ˜6.4 keV emitting region coincides with the molecular clouds, we propose another possibility, that the Fe line is due to K-shell ionization of neutral Fe by the interaction of locally accelerated protons (LECRp) with the surrounding molecular cloud. Both of these possibilities, heated ejecta or LECRp origin, are discussed based on the observational facts.

The periodic spectroscopic events in Eta Carinae are now well established and occur near the periastron passage of two massive stars in a very eccentric orbit. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the variations of different spectral features, such as an eclipse by the wind-wind collision boundary, a shell ejection from the primary star or accretion of its wind onto the secondary. All of them have problems explaining all the observed phenomena. To better understand the nature of the cyclic events we performed a dense monitoring of Eta Carinae with 5 Southern telescopes during the 2009 low excitation event, resulting in a set of data of unprecedented quality and sampling. The intrinsic luminosity of the He II lambda-4686 emission line (L approx 310 solar L) just before periastron reveals the presence of a very luminous transient source of extreme UV radiation emitted in the wind-wind collision (WWC) region. Clumps in the primary's wind probably explain the flare-like behavior of both the X-ray and He II lambda-4686 light-curves. After a short-lived minimum, He II lambda-4686 emission rises again to a new maximum, when X-rays are still absent or very weak. We interpret this as a collapse of the WWC onto the "surface" of the secondary star, switching off the hard X-ray source and diminishing the WWC shock cone. The recovery from this state is controlled by the momentum balance between the secondary's wind and the clumps in the primary's wind.

Supernovae (SNe) embedded in dense circumstellar material (CSM) may show prominent emission lines in their early-time spectra (≤10 days after the explosion), owing to recombination of the CSM ionized by the shock-breakout flash. From such spectra (“flash spectroscopy”), we can measure various physical properties of the CSM, as well as the mass-loss rate of the progenitor during the year prior to its explosion. Searching through the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF and iPTF) SN spectroscopy databases from 2009 through 2014, we found 12 SNe II showing flash-ionized (FI) signatures in their first spectra. All are younger than 10 days. These events constitute 14% of all 84 SNe in our sample having a spectrum within 10 days from explosion, and 18% of SNe II observed at ages <5 days, thereby setting lower limits on the fraction of FI events. We classified as “blue/featureless” (BF) those events having a first spectrum that is similar to that of a blackbody, without any emission or absorption signatures. It is possible that some BF events had FI signatures at an earlier phase than observed, or that they lack dense CSM around the progenitor. Within 2 days after explosion, 8 out of 11 SNe in our sample are either BF events or show FI signatures. Interestingly, we found that 19 out of 21 SNe brighter than an absolute magnitude MR = -18.2 belong to the FI or BF groups, and that all FI events peaked above MR = -17.6 mag, significantly brighter than average SNe II.

We present a grid of nonequilibrium ionization models for the X-ray spectra from supernova remnants undergoing efficient diffusive shock acceleration. The calculation follows the hydrodynamics of the blast wave as well as the time-dependent ionization of the plasma behind the shock. The ionization state is passed to a plasma emissivity code to compute the thermal X-ray emission, which is combined with the emission from nonthermal synchrotron emission to produce a self-consistent model for the thermal and nonthermal emission from cosmic-ray dominated shocks. We show how plasma diagnostics such as the G'-ratio of He-like ions, defined as the ratio of the sum of the intercombination, forbidden, and satellite lines to the resonance line, can vary with acceleration efficiency, and discuss how the thermal X-ray emission, when the time-dependent ionization is not calculated self-consistently with the hydrodynamics, can differ from the thermal X-ray emission from models which do account for the hydrodynamics. Finally, we compare the thermal X-ray emission from models which show moderate acceleration ({approx}35%) to the thermal X-ray emission from test-particle models.

Merging carbon-oxygen (CO) white dwarfs are a promising progenitor system for Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), but the underlying physics and timing of the detonation are still debated. If an explosion occurs after the secondary star is fully disrupted, the exploding primary will expand into a dense CO medium that may still have a disk-like structure. This interaction will decelerate and distort the ejecta. Here we carry out multidimensional simulations of 'tamped' SN Ia models, using both particle and grid-based codes to study the merger and explosion dynamics and a radiative transfer code to calculate synthetic spectra and light curves. We find that post-merger explosions exhibit an hourglass-shaped asymmetry, leading to strong variations in the light curves with viewing angle. The two most important factors affecting the outcome are the scale height of the disk, which depends sensitively on the binary mass ratio, and the total {sup 56}Ni yield, which is governed by the central density of the remnant core. The synthetic broadband light curves rise and decline very slowly, and the spectra generally look peculiar, with weak features from intermediate mass elements but relatively strong carbon absorption. We also consider the effects of the viscous evolution of the remnant and show that a longer time delay between merger and explosion probably leads to larger {sup 56}Ni yields and more symmetrical remnants. We discuss the relevance of this class of aspherical 'tamped' SN Ia for explaining the class of 'super-Chandrasekhar' SN Ia.

A Type Ia supernova explosion likely begins as a nuclear runaway near the center of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The outward propagating flame is unstable to the Landau-Darrieus, Rayleigh-Taylor, and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities, which serve to accelerate it to a large fraction of the speed of sound. We investigate the Rayleigh-Taylor unstable flame at the transition from the flamelet regime to the distributed-burning regime, around densities of 10e7 gm/cc, through detailed, fully resolved simulations. A low Mach number, adaptive mesh hydrodynamics code is used to achieve the necessary resolution and long time scales. As the density is varied, we see a fundamental change in the character of the burning--at the low end of the density range the Rayleigh-Taylor instability dominates the burning, whereas at the high end the burning suppresses the instability. In all cases, significant acceleration of the flame is observed, limited only by the size of the domain we are able to study. We discuss the implications of these results on the potential for a deflagration to detonation transition.

Recent studies have used high spatial resolution HST observations of supernova {SN} sites to directly identify the progenitors of core-collapse SNe on pre-explosion images. These studies have set constraints about the nature of massive stars and their evolution just prior to their explosion as SNe. Now, at late-times when the SNe have faded sufficiently, it is possible to return to the sites of these core-collapse SNe to search for clues about the nature of their progenitors.We request time to conduct deep, late-time, high-resolution imaging with WFC3/UVIS+IR and ACS/WFC of the sites of three core-collapse SNe 2008ax, 2008bk and 2008cn. We aim to: 1} Confirm our original identifications, made in pre-explosion images, by confirming that the progenitors are now missing; 2} Apply image subtraction techniques for this late-time imaging with our pre-explosion images to determine accurate photometry of the progenitors to constrain their temperatures and luminosities; and 3} study the stellar populations in the immediate vicinities of these SNe, previously obscured by the progenitor and the SN, to provide a measure of the progenitor's age, as well. For SN 2008ax we aim to determine the possible presence of a binary companion, as a persistent source at the SN location once the SN has faded and the progenitor has disappeared. HST provides the unique combination of high-resolution optical/IR imaging at very faint magnitudes that will facilitate this study.

In order for a white dwarf (WD) to achieve the Chandrasekhar mass, M{sub C} , and explode as a Type Ia supernova (SNIa), it must interact with another star, either accreting matter from or merging with it. The failure to identify the class or classes of binaries which produce SNeIa is the long-standing 'progenitor problem'. Its solution is required if we are to utilize the full potential of SNeIa to elucidate basic cosmological and physical principles. In single-degenerate models, a WD accretes and burns matter at high rates. Nuclear-burning white dwarfs (NBWDs) with mass close to M{sub C} are hot and luminous, potentially detectable as supersoft X-ray sources (SSSs). In previous work, we showed that >90%-99% of the required number of progenitors do not appear as SSSs during most of the crucial phase of mass increase. The obvious implication might be that double-degenerate binaries form the main class of progenitors. We show in this paper, however, that many binaries that later become double degenerates must pass through a long-lived NBWD phase during which they are potentially detectable as SSSs. The paucity of SSSs is therefore not a strong argument in favor of double-degenerate models. Those NBWDs that are the progenitors of double-degenerate binaries are likely to appear as symbiotic binaries for intervals >10{sup 6} years. In fact, symbiotic pre-double-degenerates should be common, whether or not the WDs eventually produce SNeIa. The key to solving the Type Ia progenitor problem lies in understanding the appearance of NBWDs. Most of them do not appear as SSSs most of the time. We therefore consider the evolution of NBWDs to address the question of what their appearance may be and how we can hope to detect them.

The Kotzebue Wind Power Project is a joint undertaking of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE); Kotzebue Electric Association (KEA); and the Alaska Energy Authority (AEA). The goal of the project is to develop, construct, and operate a wind power plant interconnected to a small isolated utility grid in an arctic climate in Northwest Alaska. The primary objective of KEA’s wind energy program is to bring more affordable electricity and jobs to remote Alaskan communities. DOE funding has allowed KEA to develop a multi-faceted approach to meet these objectives that includes wind project planning and development, technology transfer, and community outreach. The first wind turbines were installed in the summer of 1997 and the newest turbines were installed in the spring of 2007. The total installed capacity of the KEA wind power project is 1.16 MW with a total of 17 turbines rated between 65 kW and 100 kW. The operation of the wind power plant has resulted in a wind penetration on the utility system in excess of 35% during periods of low loads. This document and referenced attachments are presented as the final technical report for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) grant agreement DE-FG36-97GO10199. Interim deliverables previously submitted are also referenced within this document and where reasonable to do so, specific sections are incorporated in the report or attached as appendices.

We present R-band light curves of Type IIsupernovae (SNe) from the Caltech Core-Collapse Project (CCCP). With the exception of interacting (Type IIn) SNe and rare events with long rise times, we find that most light curve shapes belong to one of three apparently distinct classes: plateau, slowly declining, and rapidly declining events. The last class is composed solely of Type IIb SNe which present similar light curve shapes to those of SNe Ib, suggesting, perhaps, similar progenitor channels. We do not find any intermediate light curves, implying that these subclasses are unlikely to reflect variance of continuous parameters, but rather might result from physically distinct progenitor systems, strengthening the suggestion of a binary origin for at least some stripped SNe. We find a large plateau luminosity range for SNe IIP, while the plateau lengths seem rather uniform at approximately 100 days. As analysis of additional CCCP data goes on and larger samples are collected, demographic studies of core-collapse SNe will likely continue to provide new constraints on progenitor scenarios.

Presupernova models of massive stars are presented and their explosion by ''delayed neutrino transport'' examined. A new form of long duration Type IIsupernova model is also explored based upon repeated encounter with the electron-positron pair instability in stars heavier than about 60 Msub solar. Carbon deflagration in white dwarfs is discussed as the probable explanation of Type I supernovae and special attention is paid to the physical processes whereby a nuclear flame propagates through degenerate carbon. 89 refs., 12 figs.

What intrinsic properties shape the light curves of SNe II? To address this question we derive observational measures that are robust (i.e., insensitive to detailed radiative transfer) and constrain the contribution from 56Ni as well as a combination of the envelope mass, progenitor radius, and explosion energy. By applying our methods to a sample of SNe II from the literature, we find that a 56Ni contribution is often significant. In our sample, its contribution to the time-weighted integrated luminosity during the photospheric phase ranges between 8% and 72% with a typical value of 30%. We find that the 56Ni relative contribution is anti-correlated with the luminosity decline rate. When added to other clues, this in turn suggests that the flat plateaus often observed in SNe II are not a generic feature of the cooling envelope emission, and that without 56Ni many of the SNe that are classified as II-P would have shown a decline rate that is steeper by up to 1 mag/100 days. Nevertheless, we find that the cooling envelope emission, and not 56Ni contribution, is the main driver behind the observed range of decline rates. Furthermore, contrary to previous suggestions, our findings indicate that fast decline rates are not driven by lower envelope masses. We therefore suggest that the difference in observed decline rates is mainly a result of different density profiles of the progenitors.

Optical and ultraviolet observations for the nearby type II plateau supernova (SN IIP) 2013am in the nearby spiral galaxy M65 are presented in this paper. The early spectra are characterized by relatively narrow P-Cygni features, with ejecta velocities much lower than observed in normal SNe IIP (i.e., ~2000 km s-1 versus ~5000 km -1 in the middle of the plateau phase). Moreover, prominent Ca II absorptions are also detected in SN 2013am at relatively early phases. These spectral features are reminiscent of those seen in the low-velocity and low-luminosity SN IIP 2005cs. However, SN 2013am exhibits different photometric properties, having shorter plateau phases and brighter light curve tails if compared to SN 2005cs. Adopting RV = 3.1 and a mean value of total reddening derived from the photometric and spectroscopic methods (i.e., E(B - V) = 0.55 ± 0.19 mag), we find that SN 2013am may have reached an absolute V-band peak magnitude of -15.83 ± 0.71 mag and produced an 56Ni mass of 0.016+0.010-0.006 M ⊙ in the explosion. These parameters are close to those derived for SN 2008in and SN 2009N, which have been regarded as "gap-filler" objects linking the faint SNe IIP to the normal ones. This indicates that some low-velocity SNe IIP may not necessarily result from the low-energetic explosions. The low expansion velocities could be due to a lower metallicity of the progenitor stars, a larger envelope mass ejected in the explosion, or the effect of viewing angle where these SNe were observed at an angle away from the polar direction.

Optical and ultraviolet observations for the nearby type II plateau supernova (SN IIP) 2013am in the nearby spiral galaxy M65 are presented in this paper. The early spectra are characterized by relatively narrow P-Cygni features, with ejecta velocities much lower than observed in normal SNe IIP (i.e., ∼2000 km s{sup –1} versus ∼5000 km {sup –1} in the middle of the plateau phase). Moreover, prominent Ca II absorptions are also detected in SN 2013am at relatively early phases. These spectral features are reminiscent of those seen in the low-velocity and low-luminosity SN IIP 2005cs. However, SN 2013am exhibits different photometric properties, having shorter plateau phases and brighter light curve tails if compared to SN 2005cs. Adopting R{sub V} = 3.1 and a mean value of total reddening derived from the photometric and spectroscopic methods (i.e., E(B – V) = 0.55 ± 0.19 mag), we find that SN 2013am may have reached an absolute V-band peak magnitude of –15.83 ± 0.71 mag and produced an {sup 56}Ni mass of 0.016{sub −0.006}{sup +0.010} M {sub ☉} in the explosion. These parameters are close to those derived for SN 2008in and SN 2009N, which have been regarded as 'gap-filler' objects linking the faint SNe IIP to the normal ones. This indicates that some low-velocity SNe IIP may not necessarily result from the low-energetic explosions. The low expansion velocities could be due to a lower metallicity of the progenitor stars, a larger envelope mass ejected in the explosion, or the effect of viewing angle where these SNe were observed at an angle away from the polar direction.

X-shooter and WHT-ISIS spectra of the star-forming galaxy PHL 293B also known as A2228-00 and SDSS J223036.79-000636.9 are presented in this paper. We find broad (FWHM = 1000 km s-1) and very broad (FWZI = 4000 km s-1) components in the Balmer lines, narrow absorption components in the Balmer series blueshifted by 800 km s-1, previously undetected Fe II multiplet (42) absorptions also blueshifted by 800 km s-1, IR Ca II triplet stellar absorptions consistent with [Fe/H] < -2.0 and no broad components or blueshifted absorptions in the He I lines. Based on historical records, we found no optical variability at the 5σ level of 0.02 mag between 2005 and 2013 and no optical variability at the level of 0.1 mag for the past 24 yr. The lack of variability rules out transient phenomena like luminous blue variables or Type IIn supernovae as the origin of the blueshifted absorptions of H I and Fe II. The evidence points to either a young and dense expanding supershell or a stationary cooling wind, in both cases driven by the young cluster wind.

The periodic spectroscopic events in {eta} Carinae are now well established and occur near the periastron passage of two massive stars in a very eccentric orbit. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the variations of different spectral features, such as an eclipse by the wind-wind collision (WWC) boundary, a shell ejection from the primary star or accretion of its wind onto the secondary. All of them have problems explaining all the observed phenomena. To better understand the nature of the cyclic events, we performed a dense monitoring of {eta} Carinae with five Southern telescopes during the 2009 low-excitation event, resulting in a set of data of unprecedented quality and sampling. The intrinsic luminosity of the He II {lambda}4686 emission line (L {approx} 310 L{sub Sun }) just before periastron reveals the presence of a very luminous transient source of extreme UV radiation emitted in the WWC region. Clumps in the primary's wind probably explain the flare-like behavior of both the X-ray and He II {lambda}4686 light curves. After a short-lived minimum, He II {lambda}4686 emission rises again to a new maximum, when X-rays are still absent or very weak. We interpret this as a collapse of the WWC onto the 'surface' of the secondary star, switching off the hard X-ray source and diminishing the WWC shock cone. The recovery from this state is controlled by the momentum balance between the secondary's wind and the clumps in the primary's wind.

The available historical records of supernovae occurring in our own Galaxy over the past two thousand years are reviewed. These accounts include the well-recorded supernovae of AD1604 (Kepler's SN), AD1572 (Tycho's SN), AD1181 AD1054 (which produced the Crab Nebula) and AD1006, together with less certain events dating back to AD185. In the case of the supernovae of AD1604 and AD1572 it is European records that provide the most accurate information available, whereas for earlier supernovae records are principally from East Asian sources. Also discussed briefly are several spurious supernova candidates, and the future prospects for studies of historical supernovae.

We present optical imaging and spectroscopy of supernova (SN) LSQ13fn, a type IIsupernova with several hitherto-unseen properties. Although it initially showed strong symmetric spectral emission features attributable to He ii, N iii, and C iii, reminiscent of some interacting SNe, it transitioned into an object that would fall more naturally under a type II-Plateau (IIP) classification. However, its spectral evolution revealed several unusual properties: metal lines appeared later than expected, were weak, and some species were conspicuous by their absence. Furthermore, the line velocities were found to be lower than expected given the plateau brightness, breaking the SN IIP standardised candle method for distance estimates. We found that, in combination with a short phase of early-time ejecta-circumstellar material interaction, metal-poor ejecta, and a large progenitor radius could reasonably account for the observed behaviour. Comparisons with synthetic model spectra of SNe IIP of a given progenitor mass would imply a progenitor star metallicity as low as 0.1 Z⊙. LSQ13fn highlights the diversity of SNe II and the many competing physical effects that come into play towards the final stages of massive star evolution immediately preceding core-collapse. The reduced spectra are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (ftp://130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/588/A1

Simulation experiments, computations, and analysis of glassy agglutinates show that a directly condensed lunar wind vapor phase is strongly depleted in carbon and sulfur compounds and may recrystallize rapidly in the lunar thermal cycle and separate from host crystals. Factors preventing identification of low-energy species implanted from the lunar atmosphere are discussed. Computational results indicate that the implanted lunar winds carbon originates both from the vapor phases injected into the lunar atmosphere during thermal metamorphism of mature lunar soil grains and from direct volatization of impacting micrometeorites. It is suggested that microglass splashes and tiny crystalline grains possibly attached to the surface of coarser grains do not affect the characteristics of solar wind carbon chemistry in the lunar soil.

A group of 35 wind turbines on the Castello Ranch in Altamont Pass, California, was investigated to quantify array wake effects (losses in energy production due to operation of upwind turbines) and the factors influencing them. Approximately 65 hours of field measurements were made in summer 1986, with turbine energy production and wind velocity data recorded for various scenarios of array operation. Customized software and hardware were developed and installed by Fayette to facilitate these measurements. The existence of wake effects was fairly well established. Relative energy-production losses averaged 6% at the second row, when the first row was operating, and 7 to 8% at the third row, when the first two were operating. Apparently, then, the impact of the first row on the third (at a 21-rotor-diameter distance) was minimal. Ambient wind speed did not appear to affect the relative wind speed pattern within the array due to wakes, but because of the shape of the performance curve, it did affect relative energy production losses (particularly for the low-RPM mode of machine operation). The influences of ambient atmospheric conditions, such as stability, turbulence, and shear on the array wakes, were also investigated by testing over a range of the conditions available during a typical 24-hour day at the test site. None of these variables showed any significant effect on the degree of wake-induced energy losses. While the results of this study apply only to this specific array and type of wind turbine, the methodology could be applied to study wake effects at other wind farms. 6 refs., 7 figs., 20 tabs.

In a previous work, we have shown that the formation of Fermi bubbles can be due to the interaction between winds launched from the hot accretion flow in Sgr A* and the interstellar medium (ISM). In that work, we focus only on the morphology. In this paper we continue our study by calculating the gamma-ray radiation. Some cosmic-ray protons (CRp) and electrons (CRe) must be contained in the winds, which are likely formed by physical processes such as magnetic reconnection. We have performed MHD simulations to study the spatial distribution of CRp, considering the advection and diffusion of CRp in the presence of magnetic field. We find that a permeated zone is formed just outside of the contact discontinuity between winds and the ISM, where the collisions between CRp and thermal nuclei mainly occur. The decay of neutral pions generated in the collisions, combined with the inverse Compton scattering of background soft photons by the secondary leptons generated in the collisions and primary CRe, can well explain the observed gamma-ray spectral energy distribution. Other features such as the uniform surface brightness along the latitude and the boundary width of the bubbles are also explained. The advantage of this “accretion wind” model is that the adopted wind properties come from the detailed small-scale MHD numerical simulation of accretion flows and the value of mass accretion rate has independent observational evidences. The success of the model suggests that we may seriously consider the possibility that cavities and bubbles observed in other contexts such as galaxy clusters may be formed by winds rather than jets.

Type Ia supernovae (SNeIa) have been used as standard candles to measure cosmological distances. The initial discovery of the accelerated expansion of the universe was performed using ~50 SNe Ia. Large SNe surveys have increased the number of spectroscopically-confirmed SNe Ia to over a thousand with redshift coverage beyond z = 1. We are now in the age of abundant photometry without the ability for full follow-up spectroscopy of all SN candidates. SN cosmology using these large samples will increasingly rely on robust photometric classification of SN candidates. Photometric classification will increase the sample by including faint SNe as these are preferentially not observed with follow-up spectroscopy. The primary concern with using photometrically classified SNe Ia in cosmology is when a core-collapse SNe is incorrectly classified as an SN Ia. This can be mitigated by obtaining the host galaxy redshift of each SN candidate and using this information as a prior in the photometric classification, removing one degree of freedom. To test the impact of redshift on photometric classification, I have performed an assessment on photometric classification of candidates from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II (SDSS-II) SN Survey. I have tested the classification with and without redshift priors by looking at the change of photometric classification, the effect of data quality on photometric classification, and the effect of SN light curve properties on photometric classification. Following our suggested classification scheme, there are a total of 1038 photometrically classified SNe Ia when using a flat redshift prior and 1002 SNe~Ia with the spectroscopic redshift. For 912 (91.0%) candidates classified as likely SNe Ia without redshift information, the classification is unchanged when adding the host galaxy redshift. Finally, I investigate the differences in the interpretation of the light curve properties with and without knowledge of the redshift. When using the SALT2

Mid-infrared arcs of dust emission are often seen near ionizing stars within H ii regions. A possible explanations for these arcs is that they could show the outer edges of asymmetric stellar wind bubbles. We use two-dimensional, radiation-hydrodynamics simulations of wind bubbles within H ii regions around individual stars to predict the infrared emission properties of the dust within the H ii region. We assume that dust and gas are dynamically well-coupled and that dust properties (composition, size distribution) are the same in the H ii region as outside it, and that the wind bubble contains no dust. We post-process the simulations to make synthetic intensity maps at infrared wavebands using the torus code. We find that the outer edge of a wind bubble emits brightly at 24 μm through starlight absorbed by dust grains and re-radiated thermally in the infrared. This produces a bright arc of emission for slowly moving stars that have asymmetric wind bubbles, even for cases where there is no bow shock or any corresponding feature in tracers of gas emission. The 24 μm intensity decreases exponentially from the arc with increasing distance from the star because the dust temperature decreases with distance. The size distribution and composition of the dust grains has quantitative but not qualitative effects on our results. Despite the simplifications of our model, we find good qualitative agreement with observations of the H ii region RCW 120, and can provide physical explanations for any quantitative differences. Our model produces an infrared arc with the same shape and size as the arc around CD -38°11636 in RCW 120, and with comparable brightness. This suggests that infrared arcs around O stars in H ii regions may be revealing the extent of stellar wind bubbles, although we have not excluded other explanations.

Based on optical imaging and spectroscopy of the Type II-Plateau SN 2013eq, we present a comparative study of commonly used distance determination methods based on Type IIsupernovae. The occurrence of SN 2013eq in the Hubble flow (z = 0.041 ± 0.001) prompted us to investigate the implications of the difference between "angular" and "luminosity" distances within the framework of the expanding photosphere method (EPM) that relies upon a relation between flux and angular size to yield a distance. Following a re-derivation of the basic equations of the EPM for SNe at non-negligible redshifts, we conclude that the EPM results in an angular distance. The observed flux should be converted into the SN rest frame and the angular size, θ, has to be corrected by a factor of (1 + z)2. Alternatively, the EPM angular distance can be converted to a luminosity distance by implementing a modification of the angular size. For SN 2013eq, we find EPM luminosity distances of DL = 151 ± 18 Mpc and DL = 164 ± 20 Mpc by making use of different sets of dilution factors taken from the literature. Application of the standardized candle method for Type II-P SNe results in an independent luminosity distance estimate (DL = 168 ± 16 Mpc) that is consistent with the EPM estimate. Spectra of SN 2013eq are available in the Weizmann Interactive Supernova data REPository (WISeREP): http://wiserep.weizmann.ac.il

We find a linear relationship between the size of a massive star's main-sequence bubble in a molecular environment and the star's initial mass: R{sub b} Almost-Equal-To 1.22 M/M{sub Sun} - 9.16 pc, assuming a constant interclump pressure. Since stars in the mass range of 8 to 25-30 M{sub Sun} will end their evolution in the red supergiant phase without launching a Wolf-Rayet wind, the main-sequence wind-blown bubbles are mainly responsible for the extent of molecular gas cavities, while the effect of the photoionization is comparatively small. This linear relation can thus be used to infer the masses of the massive star progenitors of supernova remnants (SNRs) that are discovered to evolve in molecular cavities, while few other means are available for inferring the properties of SNR progenitors. We have used this method to estimate the initial masses of the progenitors of eight SNRs: Kes 69, Kes 75, Kes 78, 3C 396, 3C 397, HC 40, Vela, and RX J1713-3946.

We present seven spectroscopically confirmed Type II cluster supernovae (SNe II) discovered in the Multi-Epoch Nearby Cluster Survey, a supernova survey targeting 57 low-redshift 0.05 < z < 0.15 galaxy clusters with the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. We find the rate of Type IIsupernovae within R{sub 200} of z {approx} 0.1 galaxy clusters to be 0.026{sup +0.085}{sub -0.018}(stat){sup +0.003}{sub -0.001}(sys) SNuM. Surprisingly, one SN II is in a red-sequence host galaxy that shows no clear evidence of recent star formation (SF). This is unambiguous evidence in support of ongoing, low-level SF in at least some cluster elliptical galaxies, and illustrates that galaxies that appear to be quiescent cannot be assumed to host only Type Ia SNe. Based on this single SN II we make the first measurement of the SN II rate in red-sequence galaxies, and find it to be 0.007{sup +0.014}{sub -0.007}(stat){sup +0.009}{sub -0.001}(sys) SNuM. We also make the first derivation of cluster specific star formation rates (sSFR) from cluster SN II rates. We find that for all galaxy types the sSFR is 5.1{sup +15.8}{sub -3.1}(stat) {+-} 0.9(sys) M{sub Sun} yr{sup -1} (10{sup 12} M{sub Sun }){sup -1}, and for red-sequence galaxies only it is 2.0{sup +4.2}{sub -0.9}(stat) {+-} 0.4(sys) M{sub Sun} yr{sup -1} (10{sup 12} M{sub Sun }){sup -1}. These values agree with SFRs measured from infrared and ultraviolet photometry, and H{alpha} emission from optical spectroscopy. Additionally, we use the SFR derived from our SNII rate to show that although a small fraction of cluster Type Ia SNe may originate in the young stellar population and experience a short delay time, these results do not preclude the use of cluster SN Ia rates to derive the late-time delay time distribution for SNe Ia.

Context. The wind mass transfer from a giant to its white dwarf companion in symbiotic binaries is not well understood. For example, the efficiency of wind mass transfer of the canonical Bondi-Hoyle accretion mechanism is too low to power the typical luminosities of the accretors. However, recent observations and modelling indicate a considerably more efficient mass transfer in symbiotic binaries. Aims: We determine the velocity profile of the wind from the giant at the near-orbital-plane region of eclipsing S-type symbiotic binaries EG And and SY Mus, and derive the corresponding spherical equivalent of the mass-loss rate. With this approach, we indicate the high mass transfer ratio. Methods: We achieved this aim by modelling the observed column densities taking into account ionization of the wind of the giant, whose velocity profile is derived using the inversion of Abel's integral operator for the hydrogen column density function. Results: Our analysis revealed the spherical equivalent of the mass-loss rate from the giant to be a few times 10-6 M⊙ yr-1, which is a factor of ≳10 higher than rates determined by methods that do not depend on the line of sight. This discrepancy rules out the usual assumption that the wind is spherically symmetric. As our values were derived from near-orbital-plane column densities, these values can be a result of focusing the wind from the giant towards the orbital plane. Conclusions: Our findings suggests that the wind from giants in S-type symbiotic stars is not spherically symmetric, since it is enhanced at the orbital plane and, thus, is accreted more effectively onto the hot component.

For decades a wide variety of observations spanning the radio through optical and on to the X-ray have attempted to uncover signs of type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) interacting with a circumstellar medium (CSM). The goal of these studies is to constrain the nature of the hypothesized SN Ia mass-donor companion. A continuous CSM is typically assumed when interpreting observations of interaction. However, while such models have been successfully applied to core-collapse SNe, the assumption of continuity may not be accurate for SNe Ia, because shells of CSM could be formed by pre-supernova eruptions (novae). In this work, we model the interaction of SNe with a spherical, low-density, finite-extent CSM and create a suite of synthetic radio synchrotron light curves. We find that CSM shells produce sharply peaked light curves. We also identify a fiducial set of models that obey a common evolution and can be used to generate radio light curves for an interaction with an arbitrary shell. The relations obeyed by the fiducial models can be used to deduce CSM properties from radio observations; we demonstrate this by applying them to the nondetections of SN 2011fe and SN 2014J. Finally, we explore a multiple shell CSM configuration and describe its more complicated dynamics and the resultant radio light curves.

We present the first quantitative spectroscopic modeling of an early-time supernova (SN) that interacts with its progenitor wind. Using the radiative transfer code CMFGEN, we investigate the recently reported 15.5 h post-explosion spectrum of the type IIb SN 2013cu. We are able to directly measure the chemical abundances of a SN progenitor and find a relatively H-rich wind, with H and He abundances (by mass) of X = 0.46 ± 0.2 and Y = 0.52 ± 0.2, respectively. The wind is enhanced in N and depleted in C relative to solar values (mass fractions of 8.2 × 10-3 and 1.0 × 10-5, respectively). We obtain that a slow, dense wind or circumstellar medium surrounds the precursor at the pre-SN stage, with a wind terminal velocity vwind ≲ 100 km s-1 and mass-loss rate of Ṁ ≃ 3 × 10-3 (vwind/ 100 km s-1) M⊙ yr-1. These values are lower than previous analytical estimates, although Ṁ/υ∞ is consistent with previous work. We also compute a CMFGEN model to constrain the progenitor spectral type; the high Ṁ and low vwind imply that the star had an effective temperature of ≃ 8000 K immediately before the SN explosion. Our models suggest that the progenitor was either an unstable luminous blue variable or a yellow hypergiant undergoing an eruptive phase, and rule out a Wolf-Rayet star. We classify the post-explosion spectra at 15.5 h as XWN5(h) and advocate for the use of the prefix "X" (eXplosion) to avoid confusion between post-explosion, non-stellar spectra, and those of massive stars. We show that the XWN spectrum results from the ionization of the progenitor wind after the SN, and that the progenitor spectral type is significantly different from the early post-explosion spectral type owing to the huge differences in the ionization structure before and after the SN event. We find the following temporal evolution: LBV/YHG → XWN5(h) → SN IIb. Future early-time spectroscopy in the UV will further constrain the properties of SN precursors, such as their

This thesis is a theoretical study of the progenitors, event rates, and observational properties of unusually luminous supernova (SN), and aims to identify promising directions for future observations. In Chapter 2, we present model light curves and spectra of pair-instability supernovae (PISNe) over a range of progenitor masses and envelope structures for Pop III stars. We calculate the rates and detectability of PISNe, core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe), and Type Ia SNe at the Epoch of Reionization with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which can be used to determine the contribution of Pop III versus Pop II stars toward ionizing the universe. Although CCSNe are the least intrinsically luminous supernovae, Chapter 5 shows that a JWST survey targeting known galaxy clusters with Einstein radii > 35" should discover gravitationally lensed CCSNe at redshifts exceeding z = 7--8. In Chapter 3, we explain the Pop II/I progenitors of observed PISNe in the local universe can be created via mergers in runaway collisions in young, dense star clusters, despite copious mass loss via line-driven winds. The PISN rate from this mechanism is consistent with the observed volumetric rate, and the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope could discover ~102 such PISNe per year. In Chapter 4, we identify 10 star clusters which may host PISN progenitors with masses up to 600 solar masses formed via runaway collisions. We estimate the probabilities of these very massive stars being in eclipsing binaries to be ≳ 30%, and find that their transits can be detected even under the contamination of the background cluster light, due to mean transit depths of ~10 6 solar luminosities. In Chapter 6, we show that there could be X-ray analogues of optically super-luminous SNe that are powered by the conversion of the kinetic energy of SN ejecta into radiation upon its collision with a dense but optically-thin circumstellar shell. We find shell configurations that can convert a large fraction of the SN

In an effort to better understand the evolution of composite supernova remnants (SNRs) and the eventual fate of relativistic particles injected by their pulsars, we present a multifaceted investigation of the interaction between a pulsar wind nebula (PWN) and its host SNR G327.1-1.1. Our 350 ks Chandra X-ray observations of SNR G327.1-1.1 reveal a highly complex morphology; a cometary structure resembling a bow shock, prong-like features extending into large arcs in the SNR interior, and thermal emission from the SNR shell. Spectral analysis of the non-thermal emission offers clues about the origin of the PWN structures, while enhanced abundances in the PWN region provide evidence for mixing of supernova ejecta with PWN material. The overall morphology and spectral properties of the SNR suggest that the PWN has undergone an asymmetric interaction with the SNR reverse shock(RS) that can occur as a result of a density gradient in the ambient medium and or a moving pulsar that displaces the PWN from the center of the remnant. We present hydrodynamical simulations of G327.1-1.1 that show that its morphology and evolution can be described by a approx. 17,000 yr old composite SNR that expanded into a density gradient with an orientation perpendicular to the pulsar's motion. We also show that the RSPWN interaction scenario can reproduce the broadband spectrum of the PWN from radio to gamma-ray wavelengths. The analysis and modeling presented in this work have important implications for our general understanding of the structure and evolution of composite SNRs.

We present the first two-dimensional general relativistic (GR) simulations of stellar core collapse and explosion with the COCONUT hydrodynamics code in combination with the VERTEX solver for energy-dependent, three-flavor neutrino transport, using the extended conformal flatness condition for approximating the space-time metric and a ray-by-ray-plus ansatz to tackle the multi-dimensionality of the transport. For both of the investigated 11.2 and 15 M ⊙ progenitors we obtain successful, though seemingly marginal, neutrino-driven supernova explosions. This outcome and the time evolution of the models basically agree with results previously obtained with the PROMETHEUS hydro solver including an approximative treatment of relativistic effects by a modified Newtonian potential. However, GR models exhibit subtle differences in the neutrinospheric conditions compared with Newtonian and pseudo-Newtonian simulations. These differences lead to significantly higher luminosities and mean energies of the radiated electron neutrinos and antineutrinos and therefore to larger energy-deposition rates and heating efficiencies in the gain layer with favorable consequences for strong nonradial mass motions and ultimately for an explosion. Moreover, energy transfer to the stellar medium around the neutrinospheres through nucleon recoil in scattering reactions of heavy-lepton neutrinos also enhances the mentioned effects. Together with previous pseudo-Newtonian models, the presented relativistic calculations suggest that the treatment of gravity and energy-exchanging neutrino interactions can make differences of even 50%-100% in some quantities and is likely to contribute to a finally successful explosion mechanism on no minor level than hydrodynamical differences between different dimensions.

We present the first two-dimensional general relativistic (GR) simulations of stellar core collapse and explosion with the COCONUT hydrodynamics code in combination with the VERTEX solver for energy-dependent, three-flavor neutrino transport, using the extended conformal flatness condition for approximating the space-time metric and a ray-by-ray-plus ansatz to tackle the multi-dimensionality of the transport. For both of the investigated 11.2 and 15 M{sub Sun} progenitors we obtain successful, though seemingly marginal, neutrino-driven supernova explosions. This outcome and the time evolution of the models basically agree with results previously obtained with the PROMETHEUS hydro solver including an approximative treatment of relativistic effects by a modified Newtonian potential. However, GR models exhibit subtle differences in the neutrinospheric conditions compared with Newtonian and pseudo-Newtonian simulations. These differences lead to significantly higher luminosities and mean energies of the radiated electron neutrinos and antineutrinos and therefore to larger energy-deposition rates and heating efficiencies in the gain layer with favorable consequences for strong nonradial mass motions and ultimately for an explosion. Moreover, energy transfer to the stellar medium around the neutrinospheres through nucleon recoil in scattering reactions of heavy-lepton neutrinos also enhances the mentioned effects. Together with previous pseudo-Newtonian models, the presented relativistic calculations suggest that the treatment of gravity and energy-exchanging neutrino interactions can make differences of even 50%-100% in some quantities and is likely to contribute to a finally successful explosion mechanism on no minor level than hydrodynamical differences between different dimensions.

A program is underway to design, fabricate and test a horizontal axis Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) capable of producing 40 kW electrical output power in a 20 mph wind. Results are presented of the program effort covering fabrication and testing of the Wing Turbine Generator designed earlier. A minimum of difficulties were experienced during fabrication and, after successful completion of Contractor tests through 20 mph winds, the WTG was shipped to Rocky Flats, assembled and operated there. The 40 kW WTG is presently undergoing extended tests at Rockwell's Rocky Flats test facility.

Type IIsupernovae (SNe) can be used as a star formation tracer to probe the metallicity distribution of global low-redshift star formation. We present oxygen and iron abundance distributions of Type II SN progenitor regions that avoid many previous sources of bias. Because iron abundance, rather than oxygen abundance, is of key importance for the late stage evolution of the massive stars that are the progenitors of core-collapse supernovae, and because iron enrichment lags oxygen enrichment, we find a general conversion from oxygen abundance to iron abundance. The distributions we present here are the best yet observational standard of comparison for evaluating how different classes of supernovae depend on progenitor metallicity. We spectroscopically measure the gas-phase oxygen abundance near a representative subsample of the hosts of Type II SNe from the first-year Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) SN search, using a combination of Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) spectra near the SN location (9 hosts) and new longslit spectroscopy (25 hosts). The median metallicity of these 34 hosts at or near the SN location is 12+log(O/H) = 8.65, with a median error of 0.09. The median host galaxy stellar mass from fits to SDSS photometry is 10{sup 9.9} M{sub Sun }. They do not show a systematic offset in metallicity or mass from a redshift-matched sample of the MPA/JHU value-added catalog. In contrast to previous SN host metallicity studies, this sample is drawn from a single survey. It is also drawn from an areal rather than a targeted survey, so SNe in the lowest-mass galaxies are not systematically excluded. Indeed, the PTF SN search has a slight bias toward following up transients in low mass galaxies. The progenitor region metallicity distribution we find is statistically indistinguishable from the metallicity distribution of Type II SN hosts found by targeted surveys and by samples from multiple surveys with different selection functions. Using the relationship between

Although we know that many supernovae are aspherical, the exact nature of their geometry is undetermined. Because all the supernovae we observe are too distant to be resolved, the ejecta structure can't be directly imaged, and asymmetry must be inferred from signatures in the spectral features and polarization of the supernova light. The empirical interpretation of this data, however, is rather limited--to learn more about the detailed supernova geometry, theoretical modeling must been undertaken. One expects the geometry to be closely tied to the explosion mechanism and the progenitor star system, both of which are still under debate. Studying the 3-dimensional structure of supernovae should therefore provide new break throughs in our understanding. The goal of this thesis is to advance new techniques for calculating radiative transfer in 3-dimensional expanding atmospheres, and use them to study the flux and polarization signatures of aspherical supernovae. We develop a 3-D Monte Carlo transfer code and use it to directly fit recent spectropolarimetric observations, as well as calculate the observable properties of detailed multi-dimensional hydrodynamical explosion simulations. While previous theoretical efforts have been restricted to ellipsoidal models, we study several more complicated configurations that are tied to specific physical scenarios. We explore clumpy and toroidal geometries in fitting the spectropolarimetry of the Type Ia supernova SN 2001el. We then calculate the observable consequences of a supernova that has been rendered asymmetric by crashing into a nearby companion star. Finally, we fit the spectrum of a peculiar and extraordinarily luminous Type Ic supernova. The results are brought to bear on three broader astrophysical questions: (1) What are the progenitors and the explosion processes of Type Ia supernovae? (2) What effect does asymmetry have on the observational diversity of Type Ia supernovae, and hence their use in cosmology? (3) And

Although we know that many supernovae are aspherical, the exact nature of their geometry is undetermined. Because all the supernovae we observe are too distant to be resolved, the ejecta structure can't be directly imaged, and asymmetry must be inferred from signatures in the spectral features and polarization of the supernova light. The empirical interpretation of this data, however, is rather limited--to learn more about the detailed supernova geometry, theoretical modeling must be undertaken. One expects the geometry to be closely tied to the explosion mechanism and the progenitor star system, both of which are still under debate. Studying the 3-dimensional structure of supernovae should therefore provide new breakthroughs in our understanding. The goal of this thesis is to advance new techniques for calculating radiative transfer in 3-dimensional expanding atmospheres, and use them to study the flux and polarization signatures of aspherical supernovae. We develop a 3-D Monte Carlo transfer code and use it to directly fit recent spectropolarimetric observations, as well as calculate the observable properties of detailed multi- dimensional hydrodynamical explosion simulations. While previous theoretical efforts have been restricted to ellipsoidal models, we study several more complicated configurations that are tied to specific physical scenarios. We explore clumpy and toroidal geometries in fitting the spectropolarimetry of the Type Ia supernova SN 2001el. We then calculate the observable consequences of a supernova that has been rendered asymmetric by crashing into a nearby companion star. Finally we fit the spectrum of a peculiar and extraordinarily luminous Type Ic supernova. The results are brought to bear on three broader astrophysical questions: (1) What are the progenitors and the explosion processes of Type Ia supernovae? (2) What effect does asymmetry have on the observational diversity of Type Ia supernovae, and hence their use in cosmology? (3) And

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will enable near- and mid-infrared studies of supernovae (SN) and supernova remnants (SNR) in the Milky Way and galaxies throughout the local universe and to high redshift. JWST's instrumentation provides imaging, coronography, and spectroscopy (R<3000) over the wavelength range 1-29 microns. The unprecedented sensitivity and angular resolution will enable spectroscopic study of new and recent supernovae, including molecule and dust formation, in galaxies at least out to 30 Mpc, and imaging to much greater distances. The Target of Opportunity response time can be as short as 48 hours, enabling quick follow-up observations of important SN events. JWST will be ideal for the study of Galactic and Magellanic Clouds supernova remnants, particularly young remnants with hot dust. Its high angular resolution (0.07" at 2 microns, 0.7" at 20 microns) will allow direct comparison between the IR, optical, and X-ray morphologies, identifying sites of dust emission in both the ejecta and the shocked ISM unresolved by previous IR telescopes. There is a rich spectrum of atomic lines (H, He I, [Si I], [Fe II], [Ni I-III], [Co II-III], [S III-IV], [Ar II-III], [Ne II, III, V], [O IV]) and molecules (CO, SiO, H2) of importance for SN and SNR studies. JWST is a large aperture (6.5m), cryogenic, infrared-optimized space observatory under construction by NASA, ESA, and CSA for launch in 2018. The JWST observatory will be placed in an Earth-Sun L2 orbit by an Ariane 5 launch vehicle provided by ESA. The observatory is designed for a 5-year prime science mission, with consumables for 10 years of science operations. The first call for proposals for JWST observations will be released in 2017.

We obtained a spectrum of ASASSN-15oz (ATel #7989) on 2015 September 4.5 UT with the robotic FLOYDS instrument mounted on the Faulkes Telescope South. Using SNID (Blondin & Tonry 2007, ApJ, 666, 1024), we find a good fit to the Type II SN 1999gi one week after explosion at the redshift of the proposed host galaxy (z=0.007; Meyer et al.

The role of neutrinos in Type IIsupernovae is discussed. An overall view of the neutrino luminosity as expected theoretically is presented. The different weak interactions involved are assessed from the standpoint of how they exchange energy, momentum, and lepton number. Particular attention is paid to entropy generation and the path to thermal and chemical equilibration, and to the phenomenon of trapping. Various methods used to calculate the neutrino flows are considered. These include trapping and leakage schemes, distribution-averaged transfer, and multi-energy group methods. The information obtained from the neutrinos caught from Supernova 1987a is briefly evaluated. 55 refs., 7 figs.

The Cassiopeia A supernova's first flash of radiation makes six clumps of dust (circled in annotated version) unusually hot. The supernova remnant is the large white ball in the center. This infrared picture was taken by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope.

Tenuous wind bubbles, which are formed by the spin-down activity of central compact remnants, are relevant in some models of fast radio bursts (FRBs) and superluminous supernovae (SNe). We study their high-energy signatures, focusing on the role of pair-enriched bubbles produced by young magnetars, rapidly rotating neutron stars, and magnetized white dwarfs. (i) First, we study the nebular properties and the conditions allowing for escape of high-energy gamma-rays and radio waves, showing that their escape is possible for nebulae with ages of ≳10-100 yr. In the rapidly rotating neutron star scenario, we find that radio emission from the quasi-steady nebula itself may be bright enough to be detected especially at sub-mm frequencies, which is relevant as a possible counterpart of pulsar-driven SNe and FRBs. (ii) Secondly, we consider the fate of bursting emission in the nebulae. We suggest that an impulsive burst may lead to a highly relativistic flow, which would interact with the nebula. If the shocked nebula is still relativistic, pre-existing non-thermal particles in the nebula can be significantly boosted by the forward shock, leading to short-duration (maybe millisecond or longer) high-energy gamma-ray flashes. Possible dissipation at the reverse shock may also lead to gamma-ray emission. (iii) After such flares, interactions with the baryonic ejecta may lead to afterglow emission with a duration of days to weeks. In the magnetar scenario, this burst-in-bubble model leads to the expectation that nearby (≲10-100 Mpc) high-energy gamma-ray flashes may be detected by the High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Observatory and the Cherenkov Telescope Array, and the subsequent afterglow emission may be seen by radio telescopes such as the Very Large Array. (iv) Finally, we discuss several implications specific to FRBs, including constraints on the emission regions and limits on soft gamma-ray counterparts.

We present the results of research into the Expanding Photosphere Method (EPM) and its use in determining the distance to a supernova and the epoch in which the explosion occurred. This research was part of a six-week summer program pairing faculty with undergraduate students, computationally determining the distance and explosion epoch through the EPM's assumption of blackbody luminosity with empirically-derived correction factors. This method was applied to a sampling of supernovae with data sets covering different post-explosion time periods. We compare our distance and explosion epoch calculations to those determined by other means, demonstrate which types of data sets can be more reliably applied to the EPM, and describe the uncertainties involved. Although it is inconclusive for now as to how effective the EPM is as an indicator of the explosion epoch, this research provides further evidence of its effectiveness as an indicator of distance, provided the data set is large enough and covers earlier post-explosion phases of the supernova.

Pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe) studies with the Chandra X-Ray Observatory have opened a new window to address the physics of pulsar winds, zoom on their interaction with their hosting supernova remnant (SNR) and interstellar medium, and identify their powering engines. We here present a new 70 ks, plus an archived 18 ks, Chandra ACIS observation of the SNR CTB 87 (G74.9+1.2), classified as a PWN with unusual radio properties and poorly studied in X-rays. We find that the peak of the X-ray emission is clearly offset from the peak of the radio emission by {approx}100'' and located at the southeastern edge of the radio nebula. We detect a point source-the putative pulsar-at the peak of the X-ray emission and study its spectrum separately from the PWN. This new point source, CXOU J201609.2+371110, is surrounded by a compact nebula displaying a torus-like structure and possibly a jet. A more extended diffuse nebula is offset from the radio nebula, extending from the point source to the northwest for {approx}250''. The spectra of the point source, compact nebula, and extended diffuse nebula are all well described by a power-law model with a photon index of 1.1 (0.7-1.6), 1.2 (0.9-1.4), and 1.7 (1.5-1.8), respectively, for a column density N{sub H} = 1.38 (1.21-1.57) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 22} cm{sup -2} (90% confidence). The total X-ray luminosity of the source is {approx}1.6 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 34} erg s{sup -1} at an assumed distance of 6.1 kpc, with {approx}2% and 6% contribution from the point source and compact nebula, respectively. The observed properties suggest that CTB 87 is an evolved ({approx}5-28 kyr) PWN, with the extended radio emission likely a ''relic'' PWN, as in Vela-X and G327.1-1.1. To date, however, there is no evidence for thermal X-ray emission from this SNR, and the SNR shell is still missing, suggesting expansion into a low-density medium (n{sub 0} < 0.2 D{sup -1/2}{sub 6.1} cm{sup -3}), likely caused by a stellar wind bubble blown by the

Since the heroic era of Baade and Zwicky, our understanding of supernovae has advanced in hops and skips rather than steadily. The most recent jump has been into fairly general agreement that observations of Type I's can be interpreted as the manifestation of the decay of about 1Msolar of Ni56 and observations of Type II's as the manifestation of >~1051 ergs deposited at the bottom of a supergiant envelope by core bounce as a central neutron star forms. This paper explores the history of these and other ideas of what is going on in supernovae, the presupernova evolution of the parent stars and binary systems, observed properties of the events, and models for them. A later paper (Part II: the aftermath) will address the results of supernovae-their remnants, production of cosmic rays and gamma rays, nucleosynthesis, and galactic evolution-and the future of supernova research.

Offshore wind turbines are designed and analyzed using comprehensive simulation tools that account for the coupled dynamics of the wind inflow, aerodynamics, elasticity, and controls of the turbine, along with the incident waves, sea current, hydrodynamics, and foundation dynamics of the support structure. The Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration (OC3), which operated under the International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Task 23, was established to verify the accuracy of these simulation tools [1]. This work was then extended under the Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration, Continuation (OC4) project under IEA Wind Task 30 [2]. Both of these projects sought to verify the accuracy of offshore wind turbine dynamics simulation tools (or codes) through code-to-code comparison of simulated responses of various offshore structures. This paper describes the latest findings from Phase II of the OC4 project, which involved the analysis of a 5-MW turbine supported by a floating semisubmersible. Twenty-two different organizations from 11 different countries submitted results using 24 different simulation tools. The variety of organizations contributing to the project brought together expertise from both the offshore structure and wind energy communities. Twenty-one different load cases were examined, encompassing varying levels of model complexity and a variety of metocean conditions. Differences in the results demonstrate the importance and accuracy of the various modeling approaches used. Significant findings include the importance of mooring dynamics to the mooring loads, the role nonlinear hydrodynamic terms play in calculating drift forces for the platform motions, and the difference between global (at the platform level) and local (at the member level) modeling of viscous drag. The results from this project will help guide development and improvement efforts for these tools to ensure that they are providing the accurate information needed to support the design and

We modelled the HeII λ4686 line profiles observed in the η Carinae binary system close to the 2003.5 spectroscopic event, assuming that they were formed in the shocked gas that flows at both sides of the contact surface formed by wind-wind collision. We used a constant flow velocity and added turbulence in the form of a Gaussian velocity distribution. We allowed emission from both the primary and secondary shocks but introduced infinite opacity at the contact surface, implying that only the side of the contact cone visible to the observer contributed to the line profile. Using the orbital parameters of the binary system derived from the 7-mm light curve during the last spectroscopic event (Paper II) we were able to reproduce the line profiles obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope at different epochs, as well as the line mean velocities obtained with ground-based telescopes. A very important feature of our model is that the line profile depends on the inclination of the orbital plane; we found that to explain the latitude-dependent mean velocity of the line, scattered into the line of sight by the Homunculus, the orbit cannot lie in the Homunculus equatorial plane, as usually assumed. This result, together with the relative position of the stars during the spectroscopic events, allowed us to explain most of the observational features, like the variation of the `Purple Haze' with the orbital phase, and to conciliate the X-ray absorption with the postulated shell effect used to explain the optical and ultraviolet light curves.

We present the local H ii region metallicity near the site of the recently discovered multiply lensed supernova (SN; “SN Refsdal”) at redshift 1.49. “SN Refsdal” is located at the outer spiral arm (˜7 kpc) of the lensed host galaxy, which we previously reported to exhibit a steep negative galactocentric metallicity gradient. Based on our updated near-infrared integral field spectroscopic data, the gas-phase metallicity averaged in an intrinsic radius of ˜550 pc surrounding an H ii region ˜200 pc away from the SN site is 12 + log(O/H)PP04N2≤slant 8.67. The metallicity averaged over nine H ii regions at similar galactocentric distances (˜5-7 kpc) as “SN Refsdal” is constrained to be 12 + log(O/H)PP04N2≤slant 8.11. Given the fortuitous discovery of “SN Refsdal” in an advantageously lensed face-on spiral, this is the first observational constraint on the local metallicity environment of an SN site at redshift z\\gt 1.

It has been suggested that some classes of luminous supernovae (SNe) and gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are driven by newborn magnetars. Fast-rotating proto-neutron stars have also been of interest as potential sources of gravitational waves (GWs). We show that for a range of rotation periods and magnetic fields, hard X-rays and GeV gamma rays provide us with a promising probe of pulsar-aided SNe. It is observationally known that young pulsar wind nebulae (PWNe) in the Milky Way are very efficient lepton accelerators. We argue that, if embryonic PWNe satisfy similar conditions at early stages of SNe (in ˜1-10 months after the explosion), external inverse-Compton emission via upscatterings of SN photons is naturally expected in the GeV range as well as broadband synchrotron emission. To fully take into account the Klein-Nishina effect and two-photon annihilation process that are important at early times, we perform detailed calculations including electromagnetic cascades. Our results suggest that hard X-ray telescopes such as NuSTAR can observe such early PWN emission by follow-up observations in months to years. GeV gamma-rays may also be detected by Fermi for nearby SNe, which serve as counterparts of these GW sources. Detecting the signals will give us an interesting probe of particle acceleration at early times of PWNe, as well as clues to driving mechanisms of luminous SNe and GRBs. Since the Bethe-Heitler cross section is lower than the Thomson cross section, gamma rays would allow us to study subphotospheric dissipation. We encourage searches for high-energy emission from nearby SNe, especially SNe Ibc including super-luminous objects.

Observations of Kepler's SNR have revealed a strong interaction with the ambient medium, far in excess of that expected at a distance of about 600 pc away from the Galactic plane where Kepler's SNR is located. This has been interpreted as a result of the interaction of supernova ejecta with the dense circumstellar medium (CSM). Based on the bow-shock model of Bandiera (1985), we study the dynamics of this interaction. The CSM distribution consists of an undisturbed stellar wind of a moving supernova progenitor and a dense shell formed in its interaction with a tenuous interstellar medium. Supernova ejecta drive a blast wave through the stellar wind which splits into the transmitted and reflected shocks upon hitting this bow-shock shell. We identify the transmitted shock with the nonradiative, Balmer-dominated shocks found recently in Kepler's SNR. The transmitted shock most probably penetrated the shell in the vicinity of the stagnation point.

The gravitational collapse mechanism for Type IIsupernovae is considered, concentrating on the direct implosion - core bounce - hydrodynamic explosion picture. We examine the influence of the stiffness of the dense matter equation of state and discuss how the shock wave is formed. Its chances of success are determined by the equation of state, general relativistic effects, neutrino transport, and the size of presupernova iron core. 12 refs., 1 tab.

Study of radio supernovae over the past 30 years includes more than three dozen detected objects and more than 150 upper limits. From this work it is possible to identify classes of radio properties, demonstrate conformance to and deviations from existing models, estimate the density and structure of the circumstellar material and, by inference, the evolution of the presupernova stellar wind, and reveal the last stages of stellar evolution before explosion. Along with reviewing these general properties of the radio emission from supernovae, we present our extensive observations of the radio emission from supernova (SN) 1993J in M 81 (NGC 3031) made with the Very Large Array and other radio telescopes. The SN 1993J radio emission evolves regularly in both time and frequency, and the usual interpretation in terms of shock interaction with a circumstellar medium (CSM) formed by a pre-supernova stellar wind describes the observations rather well considering the complexity of the phenomenon. However: 1) The highest frequency measurements at 85 - 110 GHz at early times (<40 days) are not well fitted by the parameterization which describes the cm wavelength measurements. 2) At a time ˜3100 days after shock breakout, the decline rate of the radio emission steepens from (t+beta ) beta ˜ -0.7 to beta ˜ -2.7 without change in the spectral index (nu +alpha ; alpha ˜ -0.81). This decline is best described not as a power-law, but as an exponential decay with an e-folding time of ˜ 1100 days. 3) The best overall fit to all of the data is a model including both non-thermal synchrotron self-absorption (SSA) and a thermal free-free absorbing (FFA) components at early times, evolving to a constant spectral index, optically thin decline rate, until a break in that decline rate at day ˜3100, as mentioned above.

We use Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) discovered by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey-II SN Survey to search for dependencies between SN Ia properties and the projected distance to the host-galaxy center, using the distance as a proxy for local galaxy properties (local star formation rate, local metallicity, etc.). The sample consists of almost 200 spectroscopically or photometrically confirmed SNe Ia at redshifts below 0.25. The sample is split into two groups depending on the morphology of the host galaxy. We fit light curves using both MLCS2K2 and SALT2, and determine color (A{sub V} , c) and light-curve shape ({Delta}, x{sub 1}) parameters for each SN Ia, as well as its residual in the Hubble diagram. We then correlate these parameters with both the physical and the normalized distances to the center of the host galaxy and look for trends in the mean values and scatters of these parameters with increasing distance. The most significant (at the 4{sigma} level) finding is that the average fitted A{sub V} from MLCS2K2 and c from SALT2 decrease with the projected distance for SNe Ia in spiral galaxies. We also find indications that supernovae (SNe) in elliptical galaxies tend to have narrower light curves if they explode at larger distances, although this may be due to selection effects in our sample. We do not find strong correlations between the residuals of the distance moduli with respect to the Hubble flow and the galactocentric distances, which indicates a limited correlation between SN magnitudes after standardization and local host metallicity.

This is a preliminary report on photometric supernova classification. We first explore the properties of supernova light curves, and attempt to restructure the unevenly sampled and sparse data from assorted datasets to allow for processing and classification. The data was primarily drawn from the Dark Energy Survey (DES) simulated data, created for the Supernova Photometric Classification Challenge. This poster shows a method for producing a non-parametric representation of the light curve data, and applying a Random Forest classifier algorithm to distinguish between supernovae types. We examine the impact of Principal Component Analysis to reduce the dimensionality of the dataset, for future classification work. The classification code will be used in a stage of the ANTARES pipeline, created for use on the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope alert data and other wide-field surveys. The final figure-of-merit for the DES data in the r band was 60% for binary classification (Type I vs II).Zaidi was supported by the NOAO/KPNO Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) Program which is funded by the National Science Foundation Research Experiences for Undergraduates Program (AST-1262829).

An interplanetary dust particle contains a submicrometer crystalline silicate aggregate of probable supernova origin. The grain has a pronounced enrichment in 18O/16O (13 times the solar value) and depletions in 17O/16O (one-third solar) and 29Si/28Si (<0.8 times solar), indicative of formation from a type IIsupernova. The aggregate contains olivine (forsterite 83) grains <100 nanometers in size, with microstructures that are consistent with minimal thermal alteration. This unusually iron-rich olivine grain could have formed by equilibrium condensation from cooling supernova ejecta if several different nucleosynthetic zones mixed in the proper proportions. The supernova grain is also partially encased in nitrogen-15-rich organic matter that likely formed in a presolar cold molecular cloud.

Gamma-ray spectroscopy holds great promise for probing nucleosynthesis in individual supernova explosions via short-lived radioactivity, and for measuring current global Galactic supernova nucleosynthesis with longer-lived radioactivity. It was somewhat surprising that the former case was realized first for a Type IIsupernova, when both Co-56 and Co-57 were detected in SN 1987A. These provide unprecedented constraints on models of Type II explosions and nucleosynthesis. Live Al-26 in the Galaxy might come from Type IIsupernovae, and if it is eventually shown to be so, can constrain massive star evolution, supernova nucleosynthesis, and the Galactic Type IIsupernova rate. Type Ia supernovae, thought to be thermonuclear explosions, have not yet been detected in gamma-rays. This is somewhat surprising given current models and recent Co-56 detection attempts. Ultimately, gamma-ray measurements can confirm their thermonuclear nature, probe the nuclear burning conditions, and help evaluate their contributions to Galactic nucleosynthesis. Type Ib/c supernovae are poorly understood. Whether they are core collapse or thermonuclear events might be ultimately settled by gamma-ray observations. Depending on details of the nuclear processing, any of these supernova types might contribute to a detectable diffuse glow of Fe-60 gamma-ray lines. Previous attempts at detection have come very close to expected emission levels. Remnants of any type of age less that a few centuries might be detectable as individual spots of Ti-44 gamma-ray line emission. It is in fact quite surprising that previous surveys have not discovered such spots, and the constraints on the combination of nucleosynthesis yields and supernova rates are very interesting. All of these interesting limits and possibilities mean that the next mission, International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), if it has sufficient sensitivity, is very likely to lead to the realization of much of the great potential

A solar radio type II/type IV event with exceptionally low frequency flare continuum radiation was observed on May 2, 1998 with the Wind spacecraft. This flare continuum, associated with the type II burst (FCII), descended to 7.5 MHz (2.5-3 solar radii), the lowest frequency ever observed for this type of emission. It lasted for >2 hours at 13.8 MHz. Simultaneous observations were made with ground-based radiospectrographs, and with the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) and Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) telescopes. The radio event consists of a group of intense type III bursts observed from 1000 MHz down to 0.03 MHz, the plasma frequency at 1 AU. The type II burst was recorded from 45 MHz down to 0.4 MHz, and an interplanetary shock was observed at 1 AU on May 4 at 0500 UT. The type II shock commenced within a few minutes of the flash phase of the flare and of the liftoff time of a coronal mass ejection (CME) observed by EIT and LASCO. The derived speeds of the type II shock, the CME in the plane of the sky, and the shock from the Sun to 1 AU are all ~1000 km s-1. After estimating the liftoff time and radial speed of the CME front, we find that the type II shock and flare continuum were in the wake of the CME. This event shows evidence of acceleration of electrons in the corona out to 3RS for >~2 hours. Theoretical implications on the generation of the flare continuum radiation and its relation to the observed brightness temperature are considered. The source model of type II-flare continuum of Robinson [1985], in which electrons are accelerated by the shock wave traversing CME expanding loops, is discussed in view of these observations.

Supernova remnants result from the explosion of a star and keep trace, in their young ejecta-dominated phase, both of the explosion mechanism and to a lesser extent of the nature of the progenitor. They inject a large amount of energy into their surroundings, which impacts significantly the interstellar medium and to a larger extent the working of the galaxy by distributing heavy elements, heating to tens of million degrees large fractions of gas, accelerating high-energy particles, generating turbulence and amplification of the magnetic field. I will review the observational results on supernova remnants and their related scientific issues before suggesting directions for future ambitious XMM-Newton observations.

Context. The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is rich in supernova remnants (SNRs), which can be investigated in detail with radio, optical, and X-ray observations. SNR J0453-6829 is an X-ray and radio-bright remnant in the LMC, within which previous studies revealed the presence of a pulsar wind nebula (PWN), making it one of the most interesting SNRs in the Local Group of galaxies. Aims: We study the emission of SNR J0453-6829 to improve our understanding of its morphology, spectrum, and thus the emission mechanisms in the shell and the PWN of the remnant. Methods: We obtained new radio data with the Australia Telescope Compact Array and analysed archival XMM-Newton observations of SNR J0453-6829. We studied the morphology of SNR J0453-6829 from radio, optical, and X-ray images and investigated the energy spectra in the different parts of the remnant. Results: Our radio results confirm that this LMC SNR hosts a typical PWN. The prominent central core of the PWN exhibits a radio spectral index αCore of -0.04 ± 0.04, while in the rest of the SNR shell the spectral slope is somewhat steeper with αShell = -0.43 ± 0.01. We detect regions with a mean polarisation of P ≅ (12 ± 4)% at 6 cm and (9 ± 2)% at 3 cm. The full remnant is of roughly circular shape with dimensions of (31 ± 1) pc × (29 ± 1) pc. The spectral analysis of the XMM-Newton EPIC and RGS spectra allowed us to derive physical parameters for the SNR. Somewhat depending on the spectral model, we obtain for the remnant a shock temperature of around 0.2 keV and estimate the dynamical age to 12 000-15 000 years. Using a Sedov model we further derive an electron density in the X-ray emitting material of 1.56 cm-3, typical for LMC remnants, a large swept-up mass of 830 M⊙, and an explosion energy of 7.6 × 1050 erg. These parameters indicate a well evolved SNR with an X-ray spectrum dominated by emission from the swept-up material.

Amplification statistics of gravitationally lensed supernovae can provide a valuable probe of the lensing matter in the universe. A general probability distribution for amplification by compact objects is derived which allows calculation of the lensed fraction of supernovae at or greater than an amplification A and at or less than an apparent magnitude. Comparison of the computed fractions with future results from ongoing supernova searches can lead to determination of the mass density of compact dark matter components with masses greater than about 0.001 solar mass, while the time-dependent amplification (and polarization) of the expanding supernovae constrain the individual masses. Type IIsupernovae are found to give the largest fraction for deep surveys, and the optimum flux-limited search is found to be at approximately 23d magnitude, if evolution of the supernova rate is neglected.

Study of radio supernovae over the past 27 years includes more than three dozen detected objects and more than 150 upper limits. From this work it is possible to identify classes of radio properties, demonstrate conformance to and deviations from existing models, estimate the density and structure of the circumstellar material and, by inference, the evolution of the presupernova stellar wind, and reveal the last stages of stellar evolution before explosion. It is also possible to detect ionized hydrogen along the line of sight, to demonstrate binary properties of the presupernova stellar system, and to detect dumpiness of the circumstellar material.

The understanding of the abundance evolution in the interstellar medium, and especially the enrichment of heavy elements, as a function of space and time reflects the history of star formation and the lifetimes of the diverse contributing stellar objects. Therefore, the understanding of the endpoints of stellar evolution is essential. These are mainly planetary nebulae and type II/Ib/Ic supernovae as evolutionary endpoints of single stars, but also events in binary systems can contribute, like e.g. supernovae of type Ia, novae and possibly X-ray bursts and neutron star or neutron star - black hole mergers. Despite many efforts, a full and self-consistent understanding of supernovae (the main contributors to nucleosynthesis in galaxies) is not existing, yet. However, observed spectra, light curves, radioactivities/decay gamma-rays and galactic evolution witness the composition of their ejecta and constrain model uncertainties. We focus on (i) neutrino-induced explosions for type IIsupernovae and the innermost ejected layers, (ii) electron captures in type Ia supernovae and neutron-rich Fe-group nuclei and finally (iii) galactic chemical evolution and possible r-process sites.

Tenuous wind bubbles, which are formed by the spin-down activity of central compact remnants, are relevant in some models of fast radio bursts (FRBs) and super-luminous supernovae. We study their high-energy signatures, focusing on the role of pair-enriched bubbles produced by young magnetars, rapidly-rotating neutron stars, and magnetized white dwarfs. (i) First, we study the nebular properties and the conditions allowing for escape of high-energy gamma-rays and radio waves, showing that their escape is possible for nebulae with ages of ≳ 10 - 100 yr. In the rapidly-rotating neutron star scenario, we find that radio emission from the quasi-steady nebula itself may be bright enough to be detected especially at sub-mm frequencies, which is relevant as a possible counterpart of pulsar-driven SNe and FRBs. (ii) Second, we consider the fate of bursting emission in the nebulae. We suggest that an impulsive burst may lead to a highly relativistic flow, which would interact with the nebula. If the shocked nebula is still relativistic, pre-existing non-thermal particles in the nebula can be significantly boosted by the forward shock, leading to short-duration (maybe millisecond or longer) high-energy gamma-ray flashes. Possible dissipation at the reverse shock may also lead to gamma-ray emission. (iii) After such flares, interactions with the baryonic ejecta may lead to afterglow emission with a duration of days to weeks. In the magnetar scenario, this burst-in-bubble model leads to the expectation that nearby (˜10 - 100 Mpc) high-energy gamma-ray flashes may be detected by the High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Observatory and the Cherenkov Telescope Array, and the subsequent afterglow emission may be seen by radio telescopes such as the Very Large Array. (iv) Finally, we discuss several implications specific to FRBs, including constraints on the emission regions and limits on soft gamma-ray counterparts.

Non-spherical explosions develop non-radial flows as the pattern of shock emergence progresses across the stellar surface. In supernovae, these flows can limit ejecta speeds, stifle shock breakout emission, and cause collisions outside the star. Similar phenomena occur in stellar and planetary collisions, tidal disruption events, accretion-induced collapses, and propagating detonations. We present two-dimensional, nested-grid Athena simulations of non-radial shock emergence in a frame comoving with the breakout pattern, focusing on the adiabatic, non-relativistic limit in a plane stratified envelope. We set boundary conditions using a known self-similar solution and explore the role of box size and resolution on the result. The shock front curves toward the stellar surface, and exhibits a kink from which weak discontinuities originate. Flow around the point of shock emergence is neither perfectly steady nor self-similar. Waves and vortices, which are not predominantly due to grid effects, emanate from this region. The post-shock flow is deflected along the stellar surface and its pressure disturbs the stellar atmosphere upstream of the emerging shock. We use the numerical results and their analytical limits to predict the effects of radiation transfer and gravity, which are not included in our simulations.

Non-spherical explosions develop non-radial flows as the pattern of shock emergence progresses across the stellar surface. In supernovae, these flows can limit ejecta speeds, stifle shock breakout emission, and cause collisions outside the star. Similar phenomena occur in stellar and planetary collisions, tidal disruption events, accretion-induced collapses, and propagating detonations. We present two-dimensional, nested-grid Athena simulations of non-radial shock emergence in a frame comoving with the breakout pattern, focusing on the adiabatic, non-relativistic limit in a plane stratified envelope. We set boundary conditions using a known self-similar solution and explore the role of box size and resolution on the result. The shock front curves toward the stellar surface, and exhibits a kink from which weak discontinuities originate. Flow around the point of shock emergence is neither perfectly steady nor self-similar. Waves and vortices, which are not predominantly due to grid effects, emanate from this region. The post-shock flow is deflected along the stellar surface and its pressure disturbs the stellar atmosphere upstream of the emerging shock. We use the numerical results and their analytical limits to predict the effects of radiation transfer and gravity, which are not included in our simulations.

It is shown that the Ni-56-Fe-56 observed in SN 1987A argues that core collapse supernovae may be responsible for more that 50 percent of the iron in the galaxy. Furthermore it is argued that the time averaged rate of thermonuclear driven Type I supernovae may be at least an order of magnitude lower than the average rate of core collapse supernovae. The present low rate of Type IIsupernovae (below their time averaged rate of approx. 1/10 yr) is either because the past rate was much higher because many core collapse supernovae are dim like SN 1987A. However, even in this latter case they are only an order of magnitude dimmer that normal Type II's due to the contribution of Ni-56 decay to the light curve.

It is shown that the Ni-56-Fe-56 observed in SN 1987A argues that core collapse supernovae may be responsible for more than 50 percent of the iron in the galaxy. Furthermore it is argued that the time averaged rate of thermonuclear driven Type I supernovae may be at least an order of magnitude lower than the average rate of core collapse supernovae. The present low rate of Type IIsupernovae (below their time averaged rate of approx. 1/10 yr) is either because the past rate was much higher because many core collapse supernovae are dim like SN 1987A. However, even in this latter case they are only an order of magnitude dimmer that normal Type II's due to the contribution of Ni-56 decay to the light curve.

Chemical abundance data from extragalactic supernovae and from supernova remnants (SNR) less than 1000 yrs old are employed to show that nuclear burning beyond helium synthesis actually occurs. Supernova (SN) are classified into types I or II, having no hydrogen lines or featuring hydrogen lines, respectively. The SN I's have been observed as having a preponderance of Fe lines, and emitting from a source at around 12,000 K with a center continuum of approximately 10 AU. Decay chains which could account for detected luminosities and spectra are presented, noting a good fit of Fe II spectrum with observed SN spectra. SNR pass through younger and older stages, going from the outpouring of material to diffusion in the interstellar medium. Expanding flocculi from young SNR show oxygen abundances as well as lines from sulfur, calcium, and argon, with a corresponding necessity of an explosive source of 15 solar masses.

Contains a partially annotated, nontechnical bibliography of recent materials about supernovae, including some about the discovery of a supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Includes citations of general books and articles about supernovae, articles about Supernova 1987A, and a few science fiction stories using supernovae. (TW)

We present new Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) images of supernova (SN) 1986J, taken at 5, 8.4, and 22 GHz between t = 22 and 25 yr after the explosion. The shell expands {proportional_to}{proportional_to}t {sup 0.69+}-{sup 0.03}. We estimate the progenitor's mass-loss rate at (4-10) x 10{sup -5} M{sub sun} yr{sup -1} (for v{sub w} = 10 km s{sup -1}). Two bright spots are seen in the images. The first, in the northeast, is now fading. The second, very near the center of the projected shell and unique to SN 1986J, is still brightening relative to the shell, and now dominates the VLBI images. It is marginally resolved at 22 GHz (diameter {approx}0.3 mas; {approx}5 x 10{sup 16} cm at 10 Mpc). The integrated VLA spectrum of SN 1986J shows an inversion point and a high-frequency turnover, both progressing downward in frequency and due to the central bright spot. The optically thin spectral index of the central bright spot is indistinguishable from that of the shell. The small proper motion of 1500 +- 1500 km s{sup -1} of the central bright spot is consistent with our previous interpretation of it as being associated with the expected black-hole or neutron-star remnant. Now, an alternate scenario seems also plausible, where the central bright spot, like the northeast one, results when the shock front impacts on a condensation within the circumstellar medium (CSM). The condensation would have to be so dense as to be opaque at cm wavelengths ({approx}10{sup 3}x denser than the average corresponding CSM) and fortuitously close to the center of the projected shell. We include a movie of the evolution of SN 1986J at 5 GHz from t = 0 to 25 yr.

Two possible planetary nebulae (PN G035.5–00.4 and IRAS 18551+0159), one newly re-identified supernova remnant (SNR G35.6–0.4), and one H II region (G35.6–0.5) form a line-of-sight-overlapping complex known as G35.6–0.5. We analyze 21 cm H I absorption spectra toward the complex to constrain the kinematic distances of these objects. PN G035.5–00.4 has a distance from 3.8 ± 0.4 kpc to 5.4 ± 0.7 kpc. IRAS 18551+0159 is at 4.3 ± 0.5 kpc. We discuss the distance for SNR 35.6–0.4, for which the previous estimate was 10.5 kpc, and find a plausible distance of 3.6 ± 0.4 kpc. The new distance of SNR G35.6–0.4 and the derived mass for the ∼55 km s{sup –1} CO molecular cloud can accommodate an association with HESS J1858+020. We also conclude that SNR G35.6–0.4 is unlikely to be associated with PSR J1857+0210 or PSR J1857+0212, which are projected onto the SNR area.

The Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) is an optical wide-field variability survey carried out using a camera with a 7.8 deg{sup 2} field of view mounted on the 48 inch Oschin Schmidt telescope at Palomar Observatory. One of the key goals of this survey is to conduct high-cadence monitoring of the sky in order to detect optical transient sources shortly after they occur. Here, we describe the real-time capabilities of the PTF and our related rapid multiwavelength follow-up programs, extending from the radio to the {gamma}-ray bands. We present as a case study observations of the optical transient PTF10vdl (SN 2010id), revealed to be a very young core-collapse (Type II-P) supernova having a remarkably low luminosity. Our results demonstrate that the PTF now provides for optical transients the real-time discovery and rapid-response follow-up capabilities previously reserved only for high-energy transients like gamma-ray bursts.

For decades, the study of stellar explosions -- supernovae -- have focused almost exclusively on the strong optical emission that dominates the bolometric luminosity in the days following the ultimate demise of the star. Yet many of the leading breakthroughs in our understanding of stellar death have been enabled by obtaining data at other wavelengths. For example, I have shown that 1% of all supernovae give rise to powerful relativistic jets, representing the biggest bangs in the Universe since the Big Bang. My recent serendipitous X-ray discovery of a supernova in the act of exploding (“in flagrante delicto”) revealed a novel technique to discover new events and provide clues on the shock physics at the heart of the explosion. With the advent of sensitive new radio telescopes, my research group combines clues from across the electromagnetic spectrum (radio to gamma-ray), leading us to a holistic study of stellar death, the physics of the explosions, and their role in fertilizing the Universe with new elements, by providing the community with cosmic autopsy reports.

This report describes the results from Phase II of the AMU's Short-Range Statistical Forecasting task for peak winds at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF). The peak wind speeds are an important forecast element for the Space Shuttle and Expendable Launch Vehicle programs. The 45th Weather Squadron and the Spaceflight Meteorology Group indicate that peak winds are challenging to forecast. The Applied Meteorology Unit was tasked to develop tools that aid in short-range forecasts of peak winds at tower sites of operational interest. A seven year record of wind tower data was used in the analysis. Hourly and directional climatologies by tower and month were developed to determine the seasonal behavior of the average and peak winds. Probability density functions (PDF) of peak wind speed were calculated to determine the distribution of peak speed with average speed. These provide forecasters with a means of determining the probability of meeting or exceeding a certain peak wind given an observed or forecast average speed. A PC-based Graphical User Interface (GUI) tool was created to display the data quickly.

Study of radio supernovae over the past 27 years includes more than three dozen detected objects and more than 150 upper limits. From this work it is possible to identify classes of radio properties, demonstrate conformance to and deviations from existing models, estimate the density and structure of the circumstellar material and, by inference, the evolution of the presupernova stellar wind, and reveal the last stages of stellar evolution before explosion. It is also possible to detect ionized hydrogen along the line of sight, to demonstrate binary properties of the presupernova stellar system, and to detect clumpiness of the circumstellar material. Along with reviewing these general properties of the radio emission from supernovae, we present our extensive observations of the radio emission from supernova (SN) 1993J in M 81 (NGC 3031) made with the Very Large Array and other radio telescopes. The SN 1993J radio emission evolves regularly in both time and frequency, and the usual interpretation in terms of shock interaction with a circumstellar medium (CSM) formed by a pre-supernova stellar wind describes the observations rather well considering the complexity of the phenomenon. However: 1) The highest frequency measurements at 85-110 GHz at early times (<40 days) are not well fitted by the parameterization which describes the cm wavelength measurements rather well. 2) At mid-cm wavelengths there is often deviation from the fitted radio light curves, particularly near the peak flux density, and considerable shorter term deviations in the declining portion when the emission has become optically thin. 3) At a time ~3100 days after shock breakout, the decline rate of the radio emission steepens from (t+β)β~-0.7 to β~-2.7 without change in the spectral index (ν+αα~-0.81). However, this decline is best described not as a power-law, but as an exponential decay starting at day ~3100 with an e-folding time of ~1100 days. 4) The best overall fit to all of the data is

Context. A new class of super-luminous transients has recently been identified. These objects reach absolute luminosities of Mu < -21, lack hydrogen in their spectra, and are exclusively discovered by non-targeted surveys because they are associated with very faint galaxies. Aims: We aim to contribute to a better understanding of these objects by studying SN 2006oz, a newly-recognized member of this class. Methods: We present multi-color light curves of SN 2006oz from the SDSS-II SN Survey that cover its rise time, as well as an optical spectrum that shows that the explosion occurred at z ~ 0.376. We fitted black-body functions to estimate the temperature and radius evolution of the photosphere and used the parametrized code SYNOW to model the spectrum. We constructed a bolometric light curve and compared it with explosion models. In addition, we conducted a deep search for the host galaxy with the 10 m GTC telescope. Results: The very early light curves show a dip in the g- and r-bands and a possible initial cooling phase in the u-band before rising to maximum light. The bolometric light curve shows a precursor plateau with a duration of 6-10 days in the rest-frame. A lower limit of Mu < - 21.5 can be placed on the absolute peak luminosity of the SN, while the rise time is constrained to be at least 29 days. During our observations, the emitting sphere doubled its radius to ~2 × 1015 cm, while the temperature remained hot at ~15 000 K. As for other similar SNe, the spectrum is best modeled with elements including O ii and Mg ii, while we tentatively suggest that Fe iii might be present. The host galaxy is detected in gri with 25.74 ± 0.19, 24.43 ± 0.06, and 24.14 ± 0.12, respectively. It is a faint dwarf galaxy with Mg = -16.9. Conclusions: We suggest that the precursor plateau might be related to a recombination wave in a circumstellar medium (CSM) and discuss whether this is a common property of all similar explosions. The subsequent rise can be equally well

Comet-shaped H II regions, like G34.3 + 0.2, are easily explained as bow shocks created by wind-blowing massive stars moving supersonically through molecular clouds. The required velocities of the stars through dense clumps are less than about 10 km/s, comparable to the velocity dispersion of stars in OB associations. An analytic model of bow shocks matches the gross characteristics seen in the radio continuum and the velocity structure inferred from hydrogen recombination and molecular line observations. The champagne flow model cannot account for these structures. VLBI observations of masers associated with the shells of cometary compact H II regions should reveal tailward proper motions predominantly parallel to the shell, rather than perpendicular. It is predicted that over a decade baseline, high signal-to-noise VLA observations of this class of objects will show headward pattern motion in the direction of the symmetry axis, but not expansion. Finally, shock-generated and coronal infrared lines are also predicted.

We use type-Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) discovered by the SDSS-II SN Survey to search for dependencies between SN Ia properties and the projected distance to the host galaxy center, using the distance as a proxy for local galaxy properties (local star-formation rate, local metallicity, etc.). The sample consists of almost 200 spectroscopically or photometrically confirmed SNe Ia at redshifts below 0.25. The sample is split into two groups depending on the morphology of the host galaxy. We fit light-curves using both MLCS2k2 and SALT2, and determine color (AV, c) and light-curve shape (delta, x1) parameters for each SN Ia, as well as its residual in the Hubble diagram. We then correlate these parameters with both the physical and the normalized distances to the center of the host galaxy and look for trends in the mean values and scatters of these parameters with increasing distance. The most significant (at the 4-sigma level) finding is that the average fitted AV from MLCS2k2 and c from SALT2 decrease with the projected distance for SNe Ia in spiral galaxies. We also find indications that SNe in elliptical galaxies tend to have narrower light-curves if they explode at larger distances, although this may be due to selection effects in our sample. We do not find strong correlations between the residuals of the distance moduli with respect to the Hubble flow and the galactocentric distances, which indicates a limited correlation between SN magnitudes after standardization and local host metallicity.

We present IFS observations of luminous (log(L[O III]/L⊙) > 8.7) local (z < 0.11) type II AGN, and demonstrate that winds are ubiquitous within this sample and have a direct influence on the ISM of the host galaxies. We use both non-parametric (e.g. line width and asymmetry) and multi-Gaussian fitting to decompose the complex emission profiles close to the AGN. We find line widths containing 80% flux in the range 400 - 1600 km/s with a mean of 790 ± 90 km/s, such high velocities are strongly suggestive that these AGN are driving ionized outflows. Additionally, multi-Gaussian fitting reveals that 14/17 of our targets require 3 separate kinematic components in the ionized gas in their central regions. The broadest components of these fits have FWHM = 530 - 2520 km/s, with a mean value of 920 ± 50 km/s. By simultaneously fitting both the Hβ/[O III] and Hα/[N II] complexes we construct ionization diagnostic diagrams for each component. 13/17 of our galaxies show a significant (> 95 %) correlation between the [N II]/Hα ratio and the velocity dispersion of the gas. Such a correlation is the natural consequence of a contribution to the ionization from shock excitation and we argue that this demonstrates that the outflows from these AGN are directly impacting the surrounding ISM within the galaxies. In addition, we use stellar absorption features to measure kinematics for these AGN host galaxies and those of a control sample selected from the SAMI Galaxy Survey to search for evidence of these luminous AGN being preferentially hosted by disturbed or merging systems.

Offshore wind turbines are designed and analyzed using comprehensive simulation tools (or codes) that account for the coupled dynamics of the wind inflow, aerodynamics, elasticity, and controls of the turbine, along with the incident waves, sea current, hydrodynamics, and foundation dynamics of the support structure. This paper describes the latest findings of the code-to-code verification activities of the Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration, Continuation (OC4) project, which operates under the International Energy Agency (IEA) Wind Task 30. In the latest phase of the project, participants used an assortment of simulation codes to model the coupled dynamic response of a 5-MW wind turbine installed on a floating semisubmersible in 200 m of water. Code predictions were compared from load-case simulations selected to test different model features. The comparisons have resulted in a greater understanding of offshore floating wind turbine dynamics and modeling techniques, and better knowledge of the validity of various approximations. The lessons learned from this exercise have improved the participants? codes, thus improving the standard of offshore wind turbine modeling.

In this doctoral thesis supernovae in dense and dusty environments are studied, with an emphasis on core-collapse supernovae. The articles included in the thesis aim to increase our understanding of supernovae interacting with the circumstellar material and their place in stellar evolution. The results obtained have also importance in deriving core-collapse supernova rates with reliable extinction corrections, which are directly related to star formation rates and galaxy evolution. In other words, supernovae are used as a tool in the research of both stellar and galaxy evolution, both of which can be considered as fundamental basics for our understanding of the whole Universe. A detailed follow-up study of the narrow-line supernova 2009kn is presented in paper I, and its similarity to another controversial transient, supernova 1994W, is shown. These objects are clearly strongly interacting with relatively dense circumstellar matter, however their physical origin is quite uncertain. In paper I different explosion models are discussed. Discoveries from a search programme for highly obscured supernovae in dusty luminous infrared galaxies are presented in papers II and III. The search was carried out using laser guide star adaptive optics monitoring at near-infrared wavelengths. By comparing multi-band photometric follow-up observations to template light curves, the likely types and the host galaxy extinctions for the four supernovae discovered were derived. The optical depth of normal spiral galaxy disks were studied statistically and reported in paper IV. This is complementary work to studies such as the one presented in paper V, where the missing fractions of core-collapse supernovae were derived for both normal spiral galaxies and luminous infrared galaxies, to be used for correcting supernova rates both locally and as a function of redshift.

Traditionally, supernova surveys have drawn their samples by monitoring pre-selected lists of host galaxies. More recently, some surveys have made efforts to ignore host properties when selecting candidates, but because of limited resources they must usually add additional selection criteria, such as the color or light curve shape of the transient, in order to select the best targets for a specific study. Since 2004, we have conducted a search for supernovae that is designed to select targets irrespective of their host environment, and we have spectroscopic classifications for all of the new transients detected. Here we report on the host galaxies of first 72 supernovae detected by ROTSE-IIIb as part of the Texas Supernova Search and the ROTSE Supernova Verification Project. The supernova sample includes everything from perfectly normal Type Ia and Type II, to spectroscopically peculiar events, to several of the most luminous supernovae ever found. We compare multi-band photometry and spectroscopy of the host galaxy sample to the larger galaxy population. We cannot securely identify host galaxies brighter than -10 mag absolute for four of our discoveries, which suggests that these may be hostless, "tramp supernovae."

We investigate the influence of close neighbor galaxies on the properties of supernovae (SNe) and their host galaxies using 56 SNe located in pairs of galaxies with different levels of star formation (SF) and nuclear activity. The mean distance of type II SNe from nuclei of hosts is greater by about a factor of 2 than that of type Ibc SNe. The distributions and mean distances of SNe are consistent with previous results compiled with the larger sample. For the first time it is shown that SNe Ibc are located in pairs with significantly smaller difference of radial velocities between components than pairs containing SNe Ia and II. We consider this as a result of higher star formation rate (SFR) of these closer systems of galaxies.

Quite likely, all supernovae are core-collapse supernovae. When the progenitor star's burnt-out core contracts under its own gravity - on the time scale of seconds - angular-momentum conservation raises its spin energy as 1/r 2, towards some 1052.5erg, whilst neutron-degeneracy pressure halts the collapse at a neutron star's radius, some 106cm. Magnetic-flux winding will then tap the core's large spin energy - on the time scale of ≲ 30s - bringing the spin period P into the range of neutron-star birth periods - ms < P < 10 s - and transferring the excess angular momentum to the overlying mantle. Subsequent reconnection of the huge toroidal magnetic fields creates a magnetized relativistic cavity, both leptons and hadrons, with particle energies up to 1020eV, ready to launch the envelope (via adiabatic expansion, through some 107 in radius). Magnetic Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities tear and squeeze the ejected shell into a large number (> 104) of filamentary fragments, like a splinter bomb.

AG Pegasi has been observed at high angular resolution and sensitivity at the Very Large Array (VLA) at 5 GHz in four epochs between 1984 and 1991. Analysis of the radio visibilities indicate that a mass of 4.0+/-0.5×10-5 Msolar is concentrated in the inner nebula and is moving outward at a velocity of 53+/-4 km s-1 (D=600 pc assumed). In order to explain the observed morphology of the inner nebula, a new colliding winds model is derived, which includes the effects of orbital motion (CWo model). Orbital effects cannot be ignored in AG Pegasi since the orbital timescale (2.25 yr; Meinunger 1981) is short compared to the likely timescale of wind collision (symbiotic nova eruption beginning ~1850 Merrill 1959). When these effects are considered, the interaction front between binary stellar winds is wrapped into spiral walls whose density decreases outward with 1/r2. Distinctive geometries are found to arise depending on which wind dominates the interaction, the late-type wind from the symbiotic ``cool component,'' or the high-velocity wind from the ``hot component.'' Application of the CWo model to AG Peg suggests that the observed transient lobe enhancements of the inner nebula arise due to changes in the mass-loss rate from the hot component. Hot component mass-loss rates ranging between 2.1 and 6.0×10-8 Msolar yr-1 are derived. The model is also successful in reproducing the radio spectrum of the central unresolved object of the system. A position angle of -15deg+/-10deg is inferred for the orbital pole as projected on the plane of the sky.

Observational evidence suggests that some very massive stars in the local Universe may die as pair-instability supernovae. We present 2D simulations of the pair-instability supernova of a non-zero metallicity star. We find that very little mixing occurs in this explosion because metals in the stellar envelope drive strong winds that strip the hydrogen envelope from the star prior to death. Consequently, a reverse shock cannot form and trigger fluid instabilities during the supernova. Only weak mixing driven by nuclear burning occurs in the earliest stages of the supernova, and it is too weak to affect the observational signatures of the explosion.

Accurate, reliable and robust numerical predictions of wind turbine rotor power remain a challenge to the wind energy industry. The literature reports various methods that compare predictions to experiments. The methods vary from Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEM), Vortex Lattice (VL), to variants of Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RaNS). The BEM and VL methods consistently show discrepancies in predicting rotor power at higher wind speeds mainly due to inadequacies with inboard stall and stall delay models. The RaNS methodologies show promise in predicting blade stall. However, inaccurate rotor vortex wake convection, boundary layer turbulence modeling and grid resolution has limited their accuracy. In addition, the inherently unsteady stalled flow conditions become computationally expensive for even the best endowed research labs. Although numerical power predictions have been compared to experiment. The availability of good wind turbine data sufficient for code validation experimental data that has been extracted from the IEA Annex XIV download site for the NREL Combined Experiment phase II and phase IV rotor. In addition, the comparisons will show data that has been further reduced into steady wind and zero yaw conditions suitable for comparisons to "steady wind" rotor power predictions. In summary, the paper will present and discuss the capabilities and limitations of the three numerical methods and make available a database of experimental data suitable to help other numerical methods practitioners validate their own work.

A high-reliability wind machine rated for 2 kW in a 9 m/s wind has been developed. Activities are summarized that are centered on the fabrication and testing of prototypes of the wind machine. The test results verified that the wind machine met the power output specification and that the variable-pitch rotor effectively controlled the rotor speed for wind speeds up to 50 mph. Three prototypes of the wind machine were shipped to the Rocky Flats test center in September through November of 1979. Work was also performed to reduce the start-up wind speed. The start-up wind speed to the Enertech facility has been reduced to 4.5 m/s.

Techniques for the determination of near-surface mesoscale ocean wind fields on the basis of satellite scatterometer data are developed and demonstrated. The derivation of normal-boundary and parameterized-boundary-condition (PBC) wind-field models is outlined, and results from a simulation performed to estimate the model errors are presented in tables. It is shown that the PBC model provides accurate results while minimizing the number of unknowns. After a review of the principles of scatterometry and an analysis of scatterometer measurement noise, an objective function for the measurement parameters is developed and optimized on the basis of gradient search with initial values computed from pointwise wind estimates. The model is then applied to data from a simulation of the NASA Scatterometer (Li et al., 1984), and the results are presented in extensive graphs. The feasibility of model-based wind-field estimation and the appropriateness of the PBC model are demonstrated.

We present observations of four rapidly rising (trise ≈ 10 days) transients with peak luminosities between those of supernovae (SNe) and superluminous SNe (Mpeak ≈ -20)—one discovered and followed by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) and three by the Supernova Legacy Survey. The light curves resemble those of SN 2011kl, recently shown to be associated with an ultra-long-duration gamma-ray burst (GRB), though no GRB was seen to accompany our SNe. The rapid rise to a luminous peak places these events in a unique part of SN phase space, challenging standard SN emission mechanisms. Spectra of the PTF event formally classify it as an SN II due to broad Hα emission, but an unusual absorption feature, which can be interpreted as either high velocity Hα (though deeper than in previously known cases) or Si ii (as seen in SNe Ia), is also observed. We find that existing models of white dwarf detonations, CSM interaction, shock breakout in a wind (or steeper CSM), and magnetar spin down cannot readily explain the observations. We consider the possibility that a “Type 1.5 SN” scenario could be the origin of our events. More detailed models for these kinds of transients and more constraining observations of future such events should help to better determine their nature.

Injection of short-lived radionuclides from a nearby core-collapse Type IIsupernova into the already-formed solar protoplanetary disk was proposed to account for the former presence of {sup 26}Al, {sup 41}Ca, and {sup 60}Fe in the early solar system inferred from isotopic analysis of meteoritic samples. One potential corollary of this ''late-injection'' scenario is that the disk's initial (pre-injection) oxygen isotopic composition could be significantly altered, as supernova material that carried the short-lived radionuclides would also deliver oxygen components synthesized in that given star. Therefore, the change in the oxygen isotopic composition of the disk caused by injection could in principle be used to constrain the supernova injection models. Previous studies showed that although supernova oxygen could result in a wide range of shifts in {sup 17}O/{sup 16}O and {sup 18}O/{sup 16}O of the disk, a couple of cases existed where the calculated oxygen changes in the disk would be compatible with the meteoritic and solar wind data. Recently, the initial abundances of {sup 41}Ca and {sup 60}Fe in the solar system were revised to lower values, and the feasibility of supernova injection as a source for the three radionuclides was called into question. In this study, supernova parameters needed for matching {sup 26}Al, {sup 41}Ca, and {sup 60}Fe to their early solar system abundances were reinvestigated and then were used to infer the pre-injection O-isotope composition of the disk. The result suggested that a supernova undergoing mixing fallback might be a viable source for the three radionuclides.

The SEI method (Lamers et al., 1987) is used to obtain P Cygni profiles of the UV resonance lines of C IV, N V, and S IV and of the subordinate UV lines of N IV and C III observed in the spectra of 27 O-type stars. Theoretical profiles which include the turbulence effects agree well with the observations, and they can account for the deep absorption troughs, the shape of the violet absorption wings, and the wavelength of the emission peak. The resulting terminal velocities of the stellar winds are found to be systematically lower by about 400 km/s than previous estimates obtained using the Sobolev approximation (Castor and Lamers, 1979), suggesting that the narrow absorption components, observed in the UV resonance lines of O and B stars, reach the terminal velocity of the winds.

The ionization parameter {\\cal U} is potentially useful as a tool to measure radiation pressure feedback from massive star clusters, as it directly reflects the ratio of radiation to gas pressure and is readily derived from mid-infrared line ratios. We consider a number of physical effects which combine to determine the apparent value of {\\cal U} in observations encompassing one or many H II regions. An upper limit is set by the compression of gas by radiation pressure, when this is important. The pressure of shocked stellar winds and the presence of neutral clumps both tend to reduce {\\cal U} for a given intensity of irradiation. The most intensely irradiated regions are selectively dimmed by internal dust absorption of ionizing photons, leading to a bias for observations on galactic scales. We explore these effects in analytical and numerical models for dusty H II regions and use them to interpret previous observational results. We find that radiation pressure confinement sets the upper limit log _{10} {\\cal U}\\simeq -1 seen in individual regions. Unresolved starbursts are known to display a maximum value of ~= - 2.3. While lower, this is also consistent with a large portion of their H II regions being radiation pressure dominated, given the different technique used to interpret unresolved regions, and given the bias caused by dust absorption. We infer that many individual, strongly illuminated regions cannot be significantly overpressured by stellar winds, and that even when averaged on galactic scales, the shocked wind pressure cannot be large compared to radiation pressure. Therefore, most H II regions cannot be adiabatic wind bubbles. Our models imply a metallicity dependence in the physical structure and dust attenuation of radiation-dominated regions, both of which should vary strongly across a critical metallicity of about one-twentieth solar.

The ionization parameter U is potentially useful as a tool to measure radiation pressure feedback from massive star clusters, as it directly reflects the ratio of radiation to gas pressure and is readily derived from mid-infrared line ratios. We consider a number of physical effects which combine to determine the apparent value of U in observations encompassing one or many H II regions. An upper limit is set by the compression of gas by radiation pressure, when this is important. The pressure of shocked stellar winds and the presence of neutral clumps both tend to reduce U for a given intensity of irradiation. The most intensely irradiated regions are selectively dimmed by internal dust absorption of ionizing photons, leading to a bias for observations on galactic scales. We explore these effects in analytical and numerical models for dusty H II regions and use them to interpret previous observational results. We find that radiation pressure confinement sets the upper limit log{sub 10}U{approx_equal}-1 seen in individual regions. Unresolved starbursts are known to display a maximum value of {approx_equal} - 2.3. While lower, this is also consistent with a large portion of their H II regions being radiation pressure dominated, given the different technique used to interpret unresolved regions, and given the bias caused by dust absorption. We infer that many individual, strongly illuminated regions cannot be significantly overpressured by stellar winds, and that even when averaged on galactic scales, the shocked wind pressure cannot be large compared to radiation pressure. Therefore, most H II regions cannot be adiabatic wind bubbles. Our models imply a metallicity dependence in the physical structure and dust attenuation of radiation-dominated regions, both of which should vary strongly across a critical metallicity of about one-twentieth solar.

In order to establish a suitable manner for finding presolar grains of supernova origin, we simulated the explosive nucleosynthesis of light elements, i.e., CNO-elements and X-elements (Li, Be, and B), in the He-layer and the H-rich envelope of a 16.2 M⊙ supernova and calculated their final abundances and abundance ratios using the nuclear reaction network. We also investigated the response of the synthesized abundances of light elements to the change of strength and duration of the neutrino emission, about which we have not a precise knowledge. The obtained results are as follows. The amounts of 6Li and 9Be produced during the supernova explosion are quite small. The ratios of 6Li/7Li and 9Be/7Li are less than 2 × 10-4, which are much smaller than the corresponding solar-system values. The other X-elements and CNO-elements (except 12C and 16O) are synthesized, more or less, and their abundances depend strongly on the internal mass coordinate as well as the adopted neutrino emission model. However, 11B/7Li ratio and isotopic ratios of CNO-elements are confined within one order of magnitude or so. On the basis of the above results, we finally proposed useful diagrams between two isotopic (elemental) ratios, which would help us to find presolar grains of supernova origin.

The models of exploding stars-supernovae-do not explode. This dissertation investigates the transfer of energy from the interior to the outer layers in such stars to try to understand what is missing in these models that would solve the supernova problem. Hydrodynamic instabilities and aspects in the microphysics of the neutrino transport in postcollapsed stellar matter are considered. In Chapter II we derive criteria for the presence of doubly diffusive instabilities believed to be essential for producing a supernova explosion. Contrary to the widely accepted view, we find that the core, if unstable, is unstable to semiconvection, rather than to neutron fingers. A critical value for the lepton fraction, Yl, is found for a given density and entropy, below which the stellar core is completely stable to instabilities. A considerable fraction of the stellar core is found to lie below the critical Yl. As the core evolves this fraction quickly encompasses the entire core. Thus doubly diffusive instabilities of any kind are unlikely to play a role in the supernova explosion mechanism. A strong magnetic field may modify the neutrino-nucleon absorption rates which are critical for shock reheating. In Chapter III we derive the cross section of neutrino absorption on neutrons in the presence of a strong magnetic field. We calculate values for the neutrino inverse mean free path and numerically compare them to the values in the non magnetic case. We find that they exhibit an oscillatory behavior, with huge peaks present due to discontinuities in the density of state. We conclude that the presence of a strong magnetic field does not yield a dramatic reduction in the inverse mean free paths which would be necessary to substantially increase the neutrino luminosity and revive the shock. Neutrino-neutrino scattering in the vicinity of the neutrino sphere may modify the neutrino luminosities and therefore affect shock reheating. In the last Chapter we calculate the neutrino

In this presentation I summarize the main detection channels for neutrinos from core-collapse supernovae, and describe current status of and future prospects for supernova-neutrino-sensitive detectors worldwide.

We investigate the diversity in the wind density, supernova ejecta energy, and ejecta mass in Type IIn supernovae based on their rise times and peak luminosities. We show that the wind density and supernova ejecta properties can be estimated independently if both the rise time and peak luminosity are observed. The peak luminosity is mostly determined by the supernova properties and the rise time can be used to estimate the wind density. We find that the ejecta energies of Type IIn supernovae need to vary by factors of 0.2-5 from the average if their ejecta masses are similar. The diversity in the observed rise times indicates that their wind densities vary by factors of 0.2-2 from the average. We show that Type IIn superluminous supernovae should have not only large wind density but also large ejecta energy and/or small ejecta mass to explain their large luminosities and the rise times at the same time. We also note that shock breakout does not necessarily occur in the wind even if it is optically thick, except for the case of superluminous supernovae, and we analyze the observational data both with and without assuming that the shock breakout occurs in the dense wind of Type IIn supernovae.

The Carnegie Supernova Project (CSP) has performed, during the period 2004-2009, the optical and NIR follow up of 253 supernovae (SNe) of all types. Among those, 124 were core collapse events, comprising 93 SNe of type II and 31 of types Ib/Ic/IIb. Our follow up consisted of photometric observations suitable to build detailed light curves and a considerable amount of optical spectroscopy. The bulk of our observations is carried out at Las Campanas Observatory, while access to other facilities is also provided thanks to our strong collaboration with the Millennium Center for Supernova Studies (MCSS). Our spectroscopic observations were primarily aimed at typing possible new SNe, and follow-up the evolution of CSP targets. One of the goals of the follow-up of type II SNe is the application of independent distance indicators such as the Standard Candle (SCM) and the Expanding Photosphere (EPM) methods. Moreover, through the study of the spectroscopic evolution of these objects, from as early as possible after explosion to the nebular phases, we hope to contribute to their further understanding. Specific analysis of particular objects is underway by members of the CSP and an extended collaboration.

We report on XMM-Newton and Chandra observations of the Galactic supernova remnant candidate G38.7-1.4, together with complementary radio, infrared, and γ-ray data. An approximately elliptical X-ray structure is found to be well correlated with a radio shell as seen by the Very Large Array. The X-ray spectrum of G38.7-1.4 can be well described by an absorbed collisional ionization equilibrium plasma model, which suggests the plasma is shock heated. Based on the morphology and the spectral behavior, we suggest that G38.7-1.4 is indeed a supernova remnant belonging to a mix-morphology category.

Studies of young remnants offer an opportunity to test theoretical models of stellar evolution, explosion models and nucleosynthesis, as well as our understanding of the compact objects in the centre of the exploded stars. The first part of the thesis involves observations of the Crab nebula. We have used photometric and spectroscopic observations to search for a faint halo around the visible nebula, that could carry the missing mass and kinetic energy of the nebula. No halo was found. In the photometric data due to psf contamination, and in the spectroscopic no fast velocity components were present. We have also used optical and IR photometry to check for variation in the emissivity and dynamic structure of the Crab pulsar wind nebula (PWN), to try to understand the nature of plerionic PWNe. There, we measured flux variations up to 20% in the IR and also shifting of the wisps with velocities up to 0.2c. We also showed that the nearby red knot moves in tandem with the Crab pulsar. The second part of the thesis, deals with photometric & spectroscopic observations of SN 1987A in the LMC. The aim of the project was to monitor the evolution of the outer rings (ORs) of SN 1987A. The fading of the ORs is consistent with recombination and cooling after the initial flash ionization by the supernova. From the spectroscopic data we measured the density and temperature in the ORs where we found temperatures of ~ 12,000 K for the [N II] gas, and ~ 25,000 K for the [O III]. Finally, from the [O II], and [S II] ratios we estimated electron densities of ~ 1,000 cm-3 and ~ 2,500 cm-3, respectively. From the evolution of Hα, we argue that the highest density in the ORs could be 5,000 cm-3.

Supernovae play a key role in the dynamics, structure, and chemical evolution of galaxies. The massive stars that end their lives as supernovae live for short times. Many are still associated with dusty star formation regions when they explode, making them difficult to observe at visible wavelengths. In active star forming regions (galactic nuclei and starburst regions), dust extintion is especially severe. Thus, determining the supernova rate in the active star forming regions of galaxies, where the supernova rate can be one or two orders of magnitude higher than the average, has proven to be difficult. From observations of SN1987A, we know that the [NiII] 6.63 micron emission line was the strongest line in the infrared spectrum for a period of a year and a half after the explosion. Since dust extintion is much less at 6.63 pm than at visible wavelengths (A(sub 6.63)/A(sub V) = 0.025), the NiII line can be used as a sensitive probe for the detection of recent supernovae. We have observed a sample of starburst galaxies at 6.63 micron using ISOCAM to search for the NiII emission line characteristic of recent supernovae. We did not detect any NiII line emission brighter than a 5sigma limit of 5 mJy. We can set upper limits to the supernova rate in our sample, scaled to the rate in M82, of less than 0.3 per year at the 90% confidence level using Bayesian methods. Assuming that a supernova would have a NiII with the same luminosity as observed in SN1987A, we find less than 0.09 and 0.15 per year at the 50% and 67% confidence levels. These rates are somewhat less if a more normal type IIsupernovae has a NiII line luminosity greater than the line in SN1987A.

We examine the efficiency with which supernova-enriched gas may be ejected from dwarf disk galaxies, using a methodology previously employed to study the self-enrichment efficiency of dwarf spheroidal systems. Unlike previous studies that focused on highly concentrated starbursts, in the current work we consider discrete supernova events spread throughout various fractions of the disk. We model disk systems having gas masses of 108 and 109 Msolar with supernova rates of 30, 300, and 3000 Myr-1. The supernova events are confined to the midplane of the disk but distributed over radii of 0%, 30%, and 80% of the disk radius, consistent with expectations for Type IIsupernovae. In agreement with earlier studies, we find that the enriched material from supernovae is largely lost when the supernovae are concentrated near the nucleus, as expected for a starburst event. In contrast, however, we find the loss of enriched material to be much less efficient when the supernovae occur over even a relatively small fraction of the disk. The difference is due to the ability of the system to relax following supernova events that occur over more extended regions. Larger physical separations also reduce the likelihood of supernovae going off within low-density ``chimneys'' swept out by previous supernovae. We also find that for the most distributed systems, significant metal loss is more likely to be accompanied by significant mass loss. A comparison with theoretical predictions indicates that when undergoing self-regulated star formation, galaxies in the mass range considered will efficiently retain the products of Type IIsupernovae.

Infrared dust emission echos from Type IIsupernovae are a natural consequence of the heating of circumstellar dust by the supernova light. Red supergiants, the likely progenitors of most Type IIsupernovae, are known in some cases to have asymmetric circumstellar envelopes. It is noted that an asymmetric dust distribution can have a substantial effect on the evolution of an infrared echo and results are presented for an ellipsoidal dust distribution. The angle between the symmetry axis and the line of sight is unknown in any particular case so that detailed observations of a number of supernovae will be necessary to test for asymmetries. Asymmetries may also be observable in the radio structure of supernovae and in a possible scattered-light echo.

Specialized Vertum Partners software tools were prototyped, tested and commercialized to allow wind energy stakeholders to assess the uncertainties of climate change on wind power production and distribution. This project resulted in three commercially proven products and a marketing tool. The first was a Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF) based resource evaluation system. The second was a web-based service providing global 10m wind data from multiple sources to wind industry subscription customers. The third product addressed the needs of our utility clients looking at climate change effects on electricity distribution. For this we collaborated on the Santa Ana Wildfire Threat Index (SAWTi), which was released publicly last quarter. Finally to promote these products and educate potential users we released “Gust or Bust”, a graphic-novel styled marketing publication.

This paper presents an overview and describes the latest findings of the code-to-code verification activities of the Offshore Code Comparison Collaboration, which operates under Subtask 2 of the International Energy Agency Wind Annex XXIII.

This is the first release of optical spectroscopic data of low-redshift Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) by the Carnegie Supernova Project including 604 previously unpublished spectra of 93 SNe Ia. The observations cover a range of phases from 12 days before to over 150 days after the time of B-band maximum light. With the addition of 228 near-maximum spectra from the literature, we study the diversity among SNe Ia in a quantitative manner. For that purpose, spectroscopic parameters are employed such as expansion velocities from spectral line blueshifts and pseudo-equivalent widths (pW). The values of those parameters at maximum light are obtained for 78 objects, thus providing a characterization of SNe Ia that may help to improve our understanding of the properties of the exploding systems and the thermonuclear flame propagation. Two objects, namely, SNe 2005M and 2006is, stand out from the sample by showing peculiar Si II and S II velocities but otherwise standard velocities for the rest of the ions. We further study the correlations between spectroscopic and photometric parameters such as light-curve decline rate and color. In agreement with previous studies, we find that the pW of Si II absorption features are very good indicators of light-curve decline rate. Furthermore, we demonstrate that parameters such as pW2 (Si II 4130) and pW6 (Si II 5972) provide precise calibrations of the peak B-band luminosity with dispersions of Almost-Equal-To 0.15 mag. In the search for a secondary parameter in the calibration of peak luminosity for SNe Ia, we find a Almost-Equal-To 2{sigma}-3{sigma} correlation between B-band Hubble residuals and the velocity at maximum light of S II and Si II lines.

Context. The origin of protostellar jets as well as their impact on the regulation of angular momentum and the inner disk physics are still crucial open questions in star formation. Aims: We aim to test the different proposed ejection processes in T Tauri stars through high-angular resolution observations of forbidden-line emission from the inner DG Tauri microjet. Methods: We present spectro-imaging observations of the DG Tauri jet obtained with SINFONI/VLT in the lines of [Fe ii]λ1.64 μm, 1.53 μm with 0.15 arcsec angular resolution and R = 3000 spectral resolution. We analyze the morphology and kinematics, derive electronic densities and mass-flux rates and discuss the implications for proposed jet launching models. Results: (1) We observe an onion-like velocity structure in [Fe ii] in the blueshifted jet, similar to that observed in optical lines. High-velocity (HV) gas at ≃ -200 km s-1 is collimated inside a half-opening angle of 4° and medium-velocity (MV) gas at ≃ -100 km s-1 in a cone with an half-opening angle 14° (2) Two new axial jet knots are detected in the blue jet, as well as a more distant bubble with corresponding counter-bubble. The periodic knot ejection timescale is revised downward to 2.5 yrs. (3) The redshifted jet is detected only beyond 0.7 arcsec from the star, yielding revised constraints on the disk surface density. (4) From comparison to [O i] data we infer iron depletion of a factor 3 at high velocities and a factor 10 at speeds below -100 km s-1. (5) The mass-fluxes in each of the medium and high-velocity components of the blueshifted lobe are ≃1.6 ± 0.8 × 10-8 M⊙ yr-1, representing 0.02 - 0.2 of the disk accretion rate. Conclusions: The medium-velocity conical [Fe ii] flow in the DG Tau jet is too fast and too narrow to trace photo-evaporated matter from the disk atmosphere. Both its kinematics and collimation cannot be reproduced by the X-wind, nor can the "conical magnetospheric wind". The level of Fe gas phase

The effects of radiation on the evaporation of spherical clouds in a hot medium are considered. The critical cloud radius at which radiative losses balance conductive heating is determined as a function of the external temperature and density. Smaller clouds evaporate, and larger clouds condense. The conditions under which the surfaces of the clouds may be detected are discussed. Net radiative losses for evaporating clouds are calculated, and an effective cooling function for a cloudy medium is obtained. The results may be applied to clouds in supernova remnants, in the interstellar medium, and in clusters of galaxies.

The nature of the supernova leading to the Crab Nebula has long been controversial because of the low energy that is present in the observed nebula. One possibility is that there is significant energy in extended fast material around the Crab but searches for such material have not led to detections. An electron capture supernova model can plausibly account for the low energy and the observed abundances in the Crab. Here, we examine the evolution of the Crab pulsar wind nebula inside a freely expanding supernova and find that the observed properties are most consistent with a low energy event. Both the velocity and radius of the shell material, and the amount of gas swept up by the pulsar wind point to a low explosion energy (∼1050 erg). We do not favor a model in which circumstellar interaction powers the supernova luminosity near maximum light because the required mass would limit the freely expanding ejecta.

An experimental investigation was undertaken to further evaluate and enhance the performance of an aerodynamic device for wind turbine overspeed protection and power modulation applications. The trailing-edge device, known as the Spoiler-Flap, was examined in detail during wind tunnel tests. The impact of hp length, vent angle, pivot point and chord variations on aerodynamic and hinge moment characteristics were evaluated and a best overall configuration was identified. Based on this effort, a 40% chord device with a 1% hp length and 40 degree vent angle offers improved performance potential for wind turbine applications. This specific configuration appears to offer good suction coefficient performance for both turbine power modulation and overspeed (i.e., aerodynamic braking) applications. Device hinge moment loads improved (compared to other devices investigated) in magnitude and the impact of surface roughness was found to be minimal.

We propose six observations of one high inclination black hole low mass X-ray binary (LMXB) at different stages of its outburst. We will investigate the presence of X-ray narrow absorption/emission features in the XMM spectra, which are a signature of a disc wind, and their relation to the accreting regime. Such features, identified with ions like FeXXV and FeXXVI, have been observed in a number of LMXBs and give us information about the mass outflow rate and the launching mechanism of the wind. With simultaneous radio observations we will probe the jet power as a function of the wind properties and how the radio flux density correlates with the X-ray flux at different accretion regimes. We will also investigate the broadening mechanism of the FeK emission line detected up to now in several LMXBs.

Non-ideal magnetohydrodynamical effects play a crucial role in determining the mechanism and efficiency of angular momentum transport as well as the level of turbulence in protoplanetary disks (PPDs), which are the key to understanding PPD evolution and planet formation. It was shown in our previous work that at 1 AU, the magnetorotational instability (MRI) is completely suppressed when both ohmic resistivity and ambipolar diffusion (AD) are taken into account, resulting in a laminar flow with accretion driven by magnetocentrifugal wind. In this work, we study the radial dependence of the laminar wind solution using local shearing-box simulations. The scaling relation on the angular momentum transport for the laminar wind is obtained, and we find that the wind-driven accretion rate can be approximated as M-dot approx. 0.91 x 10{sup -8}R{sub AU}{sup 1.21}(B{sub p}/10 mG){sup 0.93} M{sub Sun} yr{sup -1}, where B{sub p} is the strength of the large-scale poloidal magnetic field threading the disk. The result is independent of disk surface density. Four criteria are outlined for the existence of the laminar wind solution: (1) ohmic resistivity dominated the midplane region, (2) the AD-dominated disk upper layer, (3) the presence of a (not too weak) net vertical magnetic flux, and (4) sufficiently well-ionized gas beyond the disk surface. All these criteria are likely to be met in the inner region of the disk from {approx}0.3 AU to about 5-10 AU for typical PPD accretion rates. Beyond this radius, the angular momentum transport is likely to proceed due to a combination of the MRI and disk wind, and eventually completely dominated by the MRI (in the presence of strong AD) in the outer disk. Our simulation results provide key ingredients for a new paradigm on the accretion processes in PPDs.

Atomic and molecular physics of supernovae is discussed with an emphasis on the importance of detailed treatments of the critical atomic and molecular processes with the best available atomic and molecular data. The observations of molecules in SN 1987A are interpreted through a combination of spectral and chemical modelings, leading to strong constraints on the mixing and nucleosynthesis of the supernova. The non-equilibrium chemistry is used to argue that carbon dust can form in the oxygen-rich clumps where the efficient molecular cooling makes the nucleation of dust grains possible. For Type Ia supernovae, the analyses of their nebular spectra lead to strong constraints on the supernova explosion models.

Atomic and molecular physics of supernovae is discussed with an emphasis on the importance of detailed treatments of the critical atomic and molecular processes with the best available atomic and molecular data. The observations of molecules in SN 1987A are interpreted through a combination of spectral and chemical modelings, leading to strong constraints on the mixing and nucleosynthesis of the supernova. The non-equilibrium chemistry is used to argue that carbon dust can form in the oxygen-rich clumps where the efficient molecular cooling makes the nucleation of dust grains possible. For Type Ia supernovae, the analyses of their nebular spectra lead to strong constraints on the supernova explosion models.

The near-maximum spectra of most superluminous supernovae (SLSNe) that are not dominated by interaction with a H-rich circum-stellar medium (SLSN-I) are characterized by a blue spectral peak and a series of absorption lines which have been identified as O II. SN 2011kl, associated with the ultra-long gamma-ray burst GRB111209A, also had a blue peak but a featureless optical/ultraviolet (UV) spectrum. Radiation transport methods are used to show that the spectra (not including SN 2007bi, which has a redder spectrum at peak, like ordinary SNe Ic) can be explained by a rather steep density distribution of the ejecta, whose composition appears to be typical of carbon-oxygen cores of massive stars which can have low metal content. If the photospheric velocity is ˜10 000-15 000 km s-1, several lines form in the UV. O II lines, however, arise from very highly excited lower levels, which require significant departures from local thermodynamic equilibrium to be populated. These SLSNe are not thought to be powered primarily by 56Ni decay. An appealing scenario is that they are energized by X-rays from the shock driven by a magnetar wind into the SN ejecta. The apparent lack of evolution of line velocity with time that characterizes SLSNe up to about maximum is another argument in favour of the magnetar scenario. The smooth UV continuum of SN 2011kl requires higher ejecta velocities (˜20 000 km s-1): line blanketing leads to an almost featureless spectrum. Helium is observed in some SLSNe after maximum. The high-ionization near-maximum implies that both He and H may be present but not observed at early times. The spectroscopic classification of SLSNe should probably reflect that of SNe Ib/c. Extensive time coverage is required for an accurate classification.

Results are presented here from several two dimensional numerical calculations of events in Type IIsupernovae. A new 2-D hydrodynamics and neutrino transport code has been used to compute the effect on the supernova explosion mechanism of convection between the neutrinosphere and the shock. This convection is referred to as exterior convection to distinguish it from convection beneath the neutrinosphere. The model equations and initial and boundary conditions are presented along with the simulation results. The 2-D code was used to compute an exterior convective velocity to compare with the convective model of the Mayle and Wilson 1-D code. Results are presented from several runs with varying sizes of initial perturbation, as well as a case with no initial perturbation but including the effects of rotation. The M&W code does not produce an explosion using the 2-D convective velocity. Exterior convection enhances the outward propagation of the shock, but not enough to ensure a successful explosion. Analytic estimates of the growth rate of the neutron finger instability axe presented. It is shown that this instability can occur beneath the neutrinosphere of the proto-neutron star in a supernova explosion with a growth time of {approximately} 3 microseconds. The behavior of the high entropy bubble that forms between the shock and the neutrinosphere in one dimensional calculations of supernova is investigated. It has been speculated that this bubble is a site for {gamma}-process generation of heavy elements. Two dimensional calculations are presented of the time evolution of the hot bubble and the surrounding stellar material. Unlike one dimensional calculations, the 2D code fails to achieve high entropies in the bubble. When run in a spherically symmetric mode the 2-D code reaches entropies of {approximately} 200. When convection is allowed, the bubble reaches {approximately} 60 then the bubble begins to move upward into the cooler, denser material above it.

We report the spectroscopic confirmation of three supernovae with observations obtained with the 1.82-m Copernico Telescope in Asiago (+ AFOSC; range 340-820 nm, resolution 1.3 nm): The spectrogram of PSN J01463827+0413244 obtained on Dec. 6.84 UT shows that the object is a very young type IIsupernova. Broad and shallow P-Cyg H-alpha, H-beta and He I 587.6-nm lines are clearly detected. Adopting for the host galaxy PGG 1265294 a redshift z = 0.017742 (Ann at al.

Energy injection by supernovae is believed to be one of the primary sources which powers the expansion of supershells. There is a qualitative difference between isolated supernovae (SNe) and overlapping SNe. For typical interstellar medium (ISM) conditions an isolated supernova loses most of the injected mechanical energy by 1 Myr. In contrast, for SNe going off in bubbles the radiative losses are much smaller. While the outer shock going off in the dense ISM (~1 cm-3) becomes radiative well before 1 Myr, there is a strong non-radiative termination shock that keeps the bubble over-pressured till the lifetime of the OB association (10s of Myr; Sharma et al. 2014). This has relevance for supernova feedback in galaxy formation simulations. In our previous 1-D treatment all the SNe were assumed to occur at the same location in space. It was found that a steady wind inside the bubble (Chevalier & Clegg 1985) can occur only if the number of SNe is large (>~104) and a supernova going off inside the bubble can thermalize within the termination shock. In the present work we study the effect of SNe separated in both space and time using 3-D hydrodynamic simulations with radiative cooling. If the separation between SNe is larger than the remnant’s radius at the time it becomes radiative, SNe are in the isolated regime. The explosion energy is deposited as thermal energy in a uniform, static interstellar medium (ISM) with temperature 104 K, corresponding to the warm neutral medium. The key parameters of our idealized setup are the ISM density (ngas), the number of SNe (N★) and the spatial separation between SNe (Rcl). The shock radius when it becomes radiative depends on the ISM density and number of SNe. We obtain the critical values of the key parameters (ngas, N★, Rcl) which lead to the formation of a superbubble. e.g., at least 103 SNe are required to maintain an over-pressured bubble at 20 Myr in an ISM with 1 cm-3 similarly 102 SNe going off within a region of 100

This is an image of a small portion of the Cygnus Loop supernova remnant, which marks the edge of a bubble-like, expanding blast wave from a colossal stellar explosion, occurring about 15,000 years ago. The HST image shows the structure behind the shock waves, allowing astronomers for the first time to directly compare the actual structure of the shock with theoretical model calculations. Besides supernova remnants, these shock models are important in understanding a wide range of astrophysical phenomena, from winds in newly-formed stars to cataclysmic stellar outbursts. The supernova blast is slamming into tenuous clouds of insterstellar gas. This collision heats and compresses the gas, causing it to glow. The shock thus acts as a searchlight revealing the structure of the interstellar medium. The detailed HST image shows the blast wave overrunning dense clumps of gas, which despite HST's high resolution, cannot be resolved. This means that the clumps of gas must be small enough to fit inside our solar system, making them relatively small structures by interstellar standards. A bluish ribbon of light stretching left to right across the picture might be a knot of gas ejected by the supernova; this interstellar 'bullet' traveling over three million miles per hour (5 million kilometres) is just catching up with the shock front, which has slowed down by ploughing into interstellar material. The Cygnus Loop appears as a faint ring of glowing gases about three degrees across (six times the diameter of the full Moon), located in the northern constellation, Cygnus the Swan. The supernova remnant is within the plane of our Milky Way galaxy and is 2,600 light-years away. The photo is a combination of separate images taken in three colors, oxygen atoms (blue) emit light at temperatures of 30,000 to 60,000 degrees Celsius (50,000 to 100,000 degrees Farenheit). Hydrogen atoms (green) arise throughout the region of shocked gas. Sulfur atoms (red) form when the gas cools to

A major puzzle in the studies of supernovae is the pseudo-supernova, or the near-supernovae state. It has been found to precede, in timespans ranging from months to years, a number of recently-detected distant supernovae. One explanation of these systems is that a member of a massive binary underwent a near-supernova event shortly before the actual supernova phenomenon. Luckily, we have a nearby massive binary, Eta Carinae, that provides an astrophysical laboratory of a near-analog. The massive, highly-eccentric, colliding-wind binary star system survived a non-terminal stellar explosion in the 1800's, leaving behind the incredible bipolar, 10"x20" Homunculus nebula. Today, the interaction of the binary stellar winds 1") is resolvable by the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Using HST/STIS, several three-dimensional (3D) data cubes (2D spatial, 1D velocity) have been obtained at selected phases during Eta Carinae's 5.54-year orbital cycle. The data cubes were collected by mapping the central 1-2" at 0.05" intervals with a 52"x0.1" aperture. Selected forbidden lines, that form in the colliding wind regions, provide information on electron density of the shocked regions, the ionization by the hot secondary companion of the primary wind and how these regions change with orbital phase. By applying various analysis techniques to these data cubes, we can compare and measure temporal changes due to the interactions between the two massive winds. The observations, when compared to current 3D hydrodynamic models, provide insight on Eta Carinae's recent mass-loss history, important for determining the current and future states of this likely nearby supernova progenitor.

that of moderate clumping factors. Moderate clumping factors leave the UV spectra mostly unaffected, indicating that the influence on the ionization balance, and thus on the radiative acceleration, is small. Instead of the erratic behavior of the clumping factors claimed from the optical analyses, our analysis based on the velocity field computed from radiative driving yields similar clumping factors for all CSPNs, with a typical value of fcl = 4. With and without clumping, wind strengths and terminal velocities consistent with the stellar parameters from the optical analysis give spectra incompatible with both optical and UV observations, whereas a model that consistently implements the physics of radiation-driven winds achieves a good fit to both the optical and UV observations with a proper choice of stellar parameters. The shock temperatures and the ratios of X-ray to bolometric luminosity required to reproduce the highly ionized O vi line in the FUSE spectral range agree with those known from massive O stars (LX/Lbol ~ 10-7...10-6), again confirming the similarity of O-type CSPN and massive O star atmospheres and further strengthening the claim that both have identical wind driving mechanisms. Conclusions: The similarity of the winds of O-type CSPNs and those of massive O stars justifies using the same methods based on the dynamics of radiation-driven winds in their analysis, thus supporting the earlier result that several of the CSPNs in the sample have near-Chandrasekhar-limit masses and may thus be possible single-star progenitors of type Ia supernovae.

and wind sources provides an ideal environment for broad line emission, and explains the large observed broad/narrow-line flux ratios. We have examined in more detail the discrete outflow channel identified within the inner wind in Paper I. The channel appears as a coherent, expanding cylindrical structure of length >120 pc and width 35-50 pc. The walls maintain an approximately constant (but subsonic) expansion velocity of approx60 km s{sup -1}, and are defined by peaks and troughs in the densities of the different line components. We hypothesize that as the hot wind fluid flows down the channel cavity, it interacts with the cooler, denser walls of the channel and with entrained material within the flow to produce broad-line emission, while the walls themselves emit primarily the narrow lines. We use the channel to examine further the relationship between the narrow and broad component emitting gas within the inner wind. Within the starburst energy injection zone, we find that turbulent motions (as traced by the broad component) appear to play an increasing role with height. Finally, we have argued that a point-like knot identified in GMOS position 4, exhibiting blueshifted (by approx140 km s{sup -1}), broad (approx<350 km s{sup -1}) Halpha emission and enhanced [S II]/Halpha and [N II]/Halpha ratios, is most likely an ejected luminous blue variable-type object.

The delayed detonation model describes the observational properties of the majority of Type Ia supernovae very well. Using numerical data from a three-dimensional deflagration model for Type Ia supernovae, the intermittency of the turbulent velocity field and its implications on the probability of a deflagration-to-detonation (DDT) transition are investigated. From structure functions of the turbulent velocity fluctuations, we determine intermittency parameters based on the log-normal and the log-Poisson models. The bulk of turbulence in the ash regions appears to be less intermittent than predicted by the standard log-normal model and the She-Leveque model. On the other hand, the analysis of the turbulent velocity fluctuations in the vicinity of the flame front by Roepke suggests a much higher probability of large velocity fluctuations on the grid scale in comparison to the log-normal intermittency model. Following Pan et al., we computed probability density functions for a DDT for the different distributions. The determination of the total number of regions at the flame surface, in which DDTs can be triggered, enables us to estimate the total number of events. Assuming that a DDT can occur in the stirred flame regime, as proposed by Woosley et al., the log-normal model would imply a delayed detonation between 0.7 and 0.8 s after the beginning of the deflagration phase for the multi-spot ignition scenario used in the simulation. However, the probability drops to virtually zero if a DDT is further constrained by the requirement that the turbulent velocity fluctuations reach about 500 km s{sup -1}. Under this condition, delayed detonations are only possible if the distribution of the velocity fluctuations is not log-normal. From our calculations follows that the distribution obtained by Roepke allow for multiple DDTs around 0.8 s after ignition at a transition density close to 1 x 10{sup 7} g cm{sup -3}.

We have studied detailed nucleosynthesis in the shocked surface layers of an oxygen-neon-magnesium core collapse supernova with an eye to determining whether the conditions are suitable for r-process nucleosynthesis. We find no such conditions in an unmodified model, but do find overproduction of N=50 nuclei (previously seen in early neutron-rich neutrino winds) in amounts that, if ejected, would pose serious problems for Galactic chemical evolution.

We present a model for the rotational evolution of a young, solar-mass star interacting magnetically with an accretion disk. As in a previous paper (Paper I), the model includes changes in the star's mass and radius as it descends the Hayashi track, a decreasing accretion rate, and a prescription for the angular momentum transfer between the star and disk. Paper I concluded that, for the relatively strong magnetic coupling expected in real systems, additional processes are necessary to explain the existence of slowly rotating pre-main-sequence stars. In the present paper, we extend the stellar spin model to include the effect of a spin-down torque that arises from an accretion-powered stellar wind (APSW). For a range of magnetic field strengths, accretion rates, initial spin rates, and mass outflow rates, the modeled stars exhibit rotation periods within the range of 1-10 days in the age range of 1-3 Myr. This range coincides with the bulk of the observed rotation periods, with the slow rotators corresponding to stars with the lowest accretion rates, strongest magnetic fields, and/or highest stellar wind mass outflow rates. We also make a direct, quantitative comparison between the APSW scenario and the two types of disk-locking models (namely, the X-wind and Ghosh and Lamb type models) and identify some remaining theoretical issues for understanding young star spins.

Superluminous Supernovae (SLSNe) are a part of an emerging class of exceptionally bright supernovae with peak luminosities 10 times brighter than typical Type Ia supernovae. Similar to supernovae, SLSNe are divided into two subclasses: hydrogen poor SLSN-I and hydrogen rich SLSN-II. However, the luminosity of these events is far too high to be explained by the models for normal supernovae. New models developed to explain SLSNe predict high luminosity X-ray emission at late times. A consistent analysis of incoming SLSNe is essential in order to place constraints on the mechanisms behind these events. Here we present the results of X-ray analysis on SLSNe using a Bayesian method of statistical inference for low count rate events.

The number of supernovae discovered annually has exploded and this has led to a growing diversity in observed supernova luminosities and properties. Stripped core-collapse supernovae show a range of expansion velocities with the broad-line events associated to gamma-ray bursts. Several types of extremely luminous supernovae have been identified in the past five years. Some may result from a pair-production instability in very massive stars while others appear to come from less massive progenitors and have an uncertain power source. Thermonuclear (type Ia) events are often thought of as uniform in their properties and that is what makes them good distance indicators. But type Ia supernovae are diverse in subtle and not so subtle ways that may reveal the nature of their explosion mechanism and progenitors. Wider, deeper time-domain sky surveys such as DES and LSST are likely to find even more variety in stellar explosions.

We present convincing evidence of unburned carbon at photospheric velocities in new observations of five Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) obtained by the Nearby Supernova Factory. These SNe are identified by examining 346 spectra from 124 SNe obtained before +2.5 days relative to maximum. Detections are based on the presence of relatively strong C II {lambda}6580 absorption 'notches' in multiple spectra of each SN, aided by automated fitting with the SYNAPPS code. Four of the five SNe in question are otherwise spectroscopically unremarkable, with ions and ejection velocities typical of SNe Ia, but spectra of the fifth exhibit high-velocity (v > 20, 000 km s{sup -1}) Si II and Ca II features. On the other hand, the light curve properties are preferentially grouped, strongly suggesting a connection between carbon-positivity and broadband light curve/color behavior: three of the five have relatively narrow light curves but also blue colors and a fourth may be a dust-reddened member of this family. Accounting for signal to noise and phase, we estimate that 22{sup +10}{sub -6%} of SNe Ia exhibit spectroscopic C II signatures as late as -5 days with respect to maximum. We place these new objects in the context of previously recognized carbon-positive SNe Ia and consider reasonable scenarios seeking to explain a physical connection between light curve properties and the presence of photospheric carbon. We also examine the detailed evolution of the detected carbon signatures and the surrounding wavelength regions to shed light on the distribution of carbon in the ejecta. Our ability to reconstruct the C II {lambda}6580 feature in detail under the assumption of purely spherical symmetry casts doubt on a 'carbon blobs' hypothesis, but does not rule out all asymmetric models. A low volume filling factor for carbon, combined with line-of-sight effects, seems unlikely to explain the scarcity of detected carbon in SNe Ia by itself.

Using an automated telescope we have detected 20 supernovae in carefully documented observations of nearby galaxies. The supernova rates for late spiral (Sbc, Sc, Scd, and Sd) galaxies, normalized to a blue luminosity of 10{sup 10} L{sub Bsun}, are 0.4 h{sup 2}, 1.6 h{sup 2}, and 1.1 h{sup 2} per 100 years for SNe type la, Ic, and II. The rate for type Ic supernovae is significantly higher than found in previous surveys. The rates are not corrected for detection inefficiencies, and do not take into account the indications that the Ic supernovae are fainter on the average than the previous estimates; therefore the true rates are probably higher. The rates are not strongly dependent on the galaxy inclination, in contradiction to previous compilations. If the Milky Way is a late spiral, then the rate of Galactic supernovae is greater than 1 per 30 {+-} 7 years, assuming h = 0.75. This high rate has encouraging consequences for future neutrino and gravitational wave observatories.

An ultra-high pressure device provides a high enthalpy (> 2500 kJ/kg), low entropy (< 5 kJ/kg-K) air source for the RDHWT/MARIAH II Program Medium Scale Hypersonic Wind Tunnel. The design uses stagnation conditions of 2300 MPa (330,000 Psi) and 750 K (900 F) in a radial configuration of intensifiers around an axial manifold to deliver pure air at 100 kg/s mass flow rates for run times suitable for aerodynamic, combustion, and test and evaluation applications. Helium injection upstream of the nozzle throat reduces the throat wall recovery temperature to about 1200 K and reduces the oxygen concentration at the nozzle wall.

These Hubble Space Telescope images pinpoint three distant supernovae, which exploded and died billions of years ago. Scientists are using these faraway light sources to estimate if the universe was expanding at a faster rate long ago and is now slowing down. Images of SN 1997cj are in the left hand column; SN 1997ce, in the middle; and SN 1997ck, on the right. All images were taken by the Hubble telescope's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2. The top row of images are wider views of the supernovae. The supernovae were discovered in April 1997 in a ground-based survey at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Once the supernovae were discovered, the Hubble telescope was used to distinguish the supernovae from the light of their host galaxies. A series of Hubble telescope images were taken in May and June 1997 as the supernovae faded. Six Hubble telescope observations spanning five weeks were taken for each supernova. This time series enabled scientists to measure the brightness and create a light curve. Scientists then used the light curve to make an accurate estimate of the distances to the supernovae. Scientists combined the estimated distance with the measured velocity of the supernova's host galaxy to determine the expansion rate of the universe in the past (5 to 7 billion years ago) and compare it with the current rate. These supernovae belong to a class called Type Ia, which are considered reliable distance indicators. Looking at great distances also means looking back in time because of the finite velocity of light. SN 1997ck exploded when the universe was half its present age. It is the most distant supernova ever discovered (at a redshift of 0.97), erupting 7.7 billion years ago. The two other supernovae exploded about 5 billion years ago. SN 1997ce has a redshift of 0.44; SN 1997cj, 0.50. SN 1997ck is in the constellation Hercules, SN 1997ce is in Lynx, just north of Gemini; and SN 1997cj is in Ursa Major, near the Hubble Deep Field

This document represents work conducted as part of the Wind River Watershed Restoration Project during its second year of funding through the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). The project is a comprehensive effort involving public and private entities seeking to restore water quality and fishery resources in the basin through cooperative actions. Project elements include coordination, watershed assessment, restoration, monitoring, and education. Entities involved with implementing project components are the Underwood Conservation District (UCD), USDA Forest Service (USFS), U.S. Geological Survey - Columbia River Research Lab (USGS-CRRL), and WA Department of Fish & Wildlife (WDFW).

The earth's bow shock has been investigated as a magnetohydrodynamic discontinuity using the plasma and magnetic data supplied by the European satellite Heos 1. The jumps of the fluid parameters through the shock have been studied as a function of the Mach number and of the geometry of the shock surface. The solar wind specific heat ratio has been found to be equal to 1.75 or 2.25, depending on the presence or absence of upstream waves. Computations of the shock velocity performed for 23 crossings gave an average speed of about 85 km/sec.

Context. The evolution of low- and intermediate-mass stars on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) is mainly controlled by the rate at which these stars lose mass in a stellar wind. Understanding the driving mechanism and strength of the stellar winds of AGB stars and the processes enriching their surfaces with products of nucleosynthesis are paramount to constraining AGB evolution and predicting the chemical evolution of galaxies. Aims: In a previous paper we have constrained the structure of the outflowing envelope of W Hya using spectral lines of the 12CO molecule. Here we broaden this study by including an extensive set of H2O and 28SiO lines. It is the first time such a comprehensive study is performed for this source. The oxygen isotopic ratios and the 28SiO abundance profile can be connected to the initial stellar mass and to crucial aspects of dust formation at the base of the stellar wind, respectively. Methods: We model the molecular emission observed by the three instruments on board Herschel Space Observatory using a state-of-the-art molecular excitation and radiative transfer code. We also account for the dust radiation field in our calculations. Results: We find an H2O ortho-to-para ratio of 2.5 +2.5-1.0, consistent with what is expected for an AGB wind. The O16/O17 ratio indicates that W Hya has an initial mass of about 1.5 M⊙. Although the ortho- and para-H2O lines observed by HIFI appear to trace gas of slightly different physical properties, we find that a turbulence velocity of 0.7 ± 0.1 km s-1 fits the HIFI lines of both spin isomers and those of 28SiO well. Conclusions: The modelling of H2O and 28SiO confirms the properties of the envelope model of W Hya, as derived from 12CO lines, and allows us to constrain the turbulence velocity. The ortho- and para-H216O and 28SiO abundances relative to H2 are (6+ 3-2)×10-4, (3+ 2-1)×10-4, and (3.3 ± 0.8) × 10-5, respectively, in agreement with expectations for oxygen-rich AGB outflows. Assuming a

Attention is given to the effect of changes in the dynamic pressure of the solar wind on the structure of a centrifugally driven planetary wind from Jupiter. It is suggested that dynamic pressure variations can induce a transition between a super-Alfvenic wind and a sub-Alfvenic wind breeze on Jupiter's dayside. This could possibly account for the observed large-scale changes in the structure of Jupiter's outer magnetosphere. An attempt is then made to conceptually merge planetary wind models of Jupiter's outer magnetosphere with reconnection models of Jupiter's outer magnetosphere.

Observations of metal-poor stars indicate that at least two different nucleosynthesis sites contribute to the production of r-process elements. One site is responsible for the production of light r-process elements Z ≲ 50, while the other produces the heavy r-process elements. We have analyzed recent observations of metal-poor stars selecting only stars that are enriched in light r-process elements and poor in heavy r-process elements. We find a strong correlation between the observed abundances of the N = 50 elements (Sr, Y and Zr) and Fe. It suggest that neutrino-driven winds from core-collapse supernova are the main site for the production of these elements. We explore this possibility by performing nucleosynthesis calculations based on long-term Boltzmann neutrino transport simulations. We use an equation of state that reproduces recent constrains on the nuclear symmetry energy. We predict that the early ejecta is neutron rich with Ye ˜ 0.48, it becomes proton rich around 4 s and reaches Ye = 0.586 at 9 s when our simulation stops. The nucleosynthesis in this model produces elements between Zn and Mo, including 92Mo. The elemental abundances are consistent with the observations of the metal-poor star HD 12263. For the elements between Ge and Mo, we produce mainly the neutron-deficient isotopes. This prediction can be confirmed by observations of isotopic abundances in metal-poor stars. No elements heavier than Mo (Z = 42) and no heavy r-process elements are produced in our calculations.

As part of a spectroscopic survey of supernova remnant candidates in M83 using the Gemini-South telescope and GMOS, we have discovered one object whose spectrum shows very broad lines at Halpha, [O I] 6300, and [O III] 5007, similar to those from other objects classified as `late time supernovae.' Although six historical supernovae have been observed in M83 since 1923, none were seen at the location of this object. Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Camera 3 images show a nearly unresolved emission source, while Chandra and ATCA data reveal a bright X-ray source and nonthermal radio source at the position. Objects in other galaxies showing similar spectra are only decades post-supernova, which raises the possibility that the supernova that created this object occurred during the last century but was not observed. Using photometry of nearby stars from the HST data, we suggest the precursor was at least 17 M(sun), and the presence of broad Halpha in the spectrum makes a type IIsupernova likely. The supernova must predate the 1983 VLA radio detection of the object. We suggest examination of archival images of M83 to search for evidence of the supernova event that gave rise to this object, and thus provide a precise time since the explosion.We acknowledge STScI grants under the umbrella program ID GO-12513 to Johns Hopkins University, STScI, and Middlebury College. PFW acknowledges additional support from the National Science Foundation through grant AST-0908566.

The expanding remnant from SN 1987A is an excellent laboratory for investigating the physics of supernovae explosions. There is still a large number of outstanding questions, such as the reason for the asymmetric radio morphology, the structure of the pre-supernova environment, and the efficiency of particle acceleration at the supernova shock. We explore these questions using three-dimensional simulations of the expanding remnant between days 820 and 10,000 after the supernova. We combine a hydrodynamical simulation with semi-analytic treatments of diffusive shock acceleration and magnetic field amplification to derive radio emission as part of an inverse problem. Simulations show that an asymmetric explosion, combined with magnetic field amplification at the expanding shock, is able to replicate the persistent one-sided radio morphology of the remnant. We use an asymmetric Truelove and McKee progenitor with an envelope mass of 10 M {sub ☉} and an energy of 1.5 × 10{sup 44} J. A termination shock in the progenitor's stellar wind at a distance of 0.''43-0.''51 provides a good fit to the turn on of radio emission around day 1200. For the H II region, a minimum distance of 0.''63 ± 0.''01 and maximum particle number density of (7.11 ± 1.78) × 10{sup 7} m{sup –3} produces a good fit to the evolving average radius and velocity of the expanding shocks from day 2000 to day 7000 after explosion. The model predicts a noticeable reduction, and possibly a temporary reversal, in the asymmetric radio morphology of the remnant after day 7000, when the forward shock left the eastern lobe of the equatorial ring.

The expanding remnant from SN 1987A is an excellent laboratory for investigating the physics of supernovae explosions. There is still a large number of outstanding questions, such as the reason for the asymmetric radio morphology, the structure of the pre-supernova environment, and the efficiency of particle acceleration at the supernova shock. We explore these questions using three-dimensional simulations of the expanding remnant between days 820 and 10,000 after the supernova. We combine a hydrodynamical simulation with semi-analytic treatments of diffusive shock acceleration and magnetic field amplification to derive radio emission as part of an inverse problem. Simulations show that an asymmetric explosion, combined with magnetic field amplification at the expanding shock, is able to replicate the persistent one-sided radio morphology of the remnant. We use an asymmetric Truelove & McKee progenitor with an envelope mass of 10 M ⊙ and an energy of 1.5 × 1044 J. A termination shock in the progenitor's stellar wind at a distance of 0.''43-0.''51 provides a good fit to the turn on of radio emission around day 1200. For the H II region, a minimum distance of 0.''63 ± 0.''01 and maximum particle number density of (7.11 ± 1.78) × 107 m-3 produces a good fit to the evolving average radius and velocity of the expanding shocks from day 2000 to day 7000 after explosion. The model predicts a noticeable reduction, and possibly a temporary reversal, in the asymmetric radio morphology of the remnant after day 7000, when the forward shock left the eastern lobe of the equatorial ring.

We investigate the influence of close neighbor galaxies on the properties of supernovae (SNe) and their host galaxies using 56 SNe located in pairs of galaxies with different levels of star formation (SF) and nuclear activity. The mean distance of type II SNe from nuclei of hosts is greater by about a factor of 2 than that of type Ibc SNe. For the first time it is shown that SNe Ibc are located in pairs with significantly smaller difference of radial velocities between components than pairs containing SNe Ia and II. We consider this as a result of higher star formation rate (SFR) of these closer systems of galaxies. SN types are not correlated with the luminosity ratio of host and neighbor galaxies in pairs. The orientation of SNe with respect to the preferred direction toward neighbor galaxy is found to be isotropic and independent of kinematical properties of the galaxy pair.

The timescape cosmology has been proposed as a viable alternative to homogeneous cosmologies with dark energy. It realizes cosmic acceleration as an apparent effect that arises in calibrating average cosmological parameters in the presence of spatial curvature and gravitational energy gradients that grow large with the growth of inhomogeneities at late epochs. Recently Kwan, Francis and Lewis have claimed that the timescape model provides a relatively poor fit to the Union and Constitution supernovae compilations, as compared to the standard Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) model. We show this conclusion is a result of systematic issues in supernova light-curve fitting, and of failing to exclude data below the scale of statistical homogeneity, z≲ 0.033. Using all currently available supernova data sets (Gold07, Union, Constitution, MLCS17, MLCS31, SDSS-II, CSP, Union2), and making cuts at the statistical homogeneity scale, we show that data reduced by the SALT/SALT-II (Spectral Adaptive Light curve Template) fitters provide Bayesian evidence that favours the spatially flat ΛCDM model over the timescape model, whereas data reduced with MLCS2k2 fitters give Bayesian evidence which favours the timescape model over the ΛCDM model. We discuss the questions of extinction and reddening by dust, and of intrinsic colour variations in supernovae which do not correlate with the decay time, and the likely impact these systematics would have in a scenario consistent with the timescape model.

Observations in the infrared and submm indicate the presence of molecules and dust in the ejecta of type II-P supernovae. The mass of dust formed in the ejecta of supernovae is still uncertain and highly debated: Infrared observations indicate smaller dust masses (10-5 to 10-3 M ) before 500 days post-explosion, compared to submm observations with Herschel revealing supernova remnants as large reservoirs of cool dust (10-2 to 0.7 M ). We study the ejecta of a typical type II-P supernova with a chemical kinetic approach considering a 15 M progenitor as a benchmark. The synthesis of molecules (e.g., CO, SiO, O2, AlO, SiS, FeS, SiC, SO) and small clusters (e.g., silicates, carbon, metal oxides, metallic clusters etc.) in the gas phase is considered. The clusters form gradually over time in different ejecta zones, small dust masses form in the first 600 days (˜ 10-4 M ), that gradually increase up to ˜ 0.1 M at 1500 days post-explosion. The small clusters condense to form dust grains in the gas phase. The size distributions of different dust components are derived from the study.

The detection of neutrinos is studied. The use of the Kamiokande II detector, which is a cylindrical tank holding about 3000 tons of highly purified water, for neutrino detection is examined. The operation and capabilities of the Kamiokande II detector are described. The Kamiokande II and Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven detector observed the neutrinos from SN 1987A. The relation between the supernova and the neutrinos is analyzed. Particular consideration is given to the shock wave and the energies of the neutrinos. Additional data provided by the neutrino observations are discussed.

The detailed structure of the interaction of a strong stellar wind with the interstellar medium is presented. First, an adiabatic similarity solution is given which is applicable at early times. Second, a similarity solution is derived which includes the effects of thermal conduction between the hot (about 1 million K) interior and the cold shell of swept-up interstellar matter. This solution is then modified to include the effects of radiative energy losses. The evolution of an interstellar bubble is calculated, including the radiative losses. The quantitative results for the outer-shell radius and velocity and the column density of highly ionized species such as O VI are within a factor 2 of the approximate results of Castor, McCray, and Weaver (1975). The effect of stellar motion on the structure of a bubble, the hydrodynamic stability of the outer shell, and the observable properties of the hot region and the outer shell are discussed.

This paper presents the initial analysis results of several structural health monitoring (SHM) methods applied to two 9- meter CX-100 wind turbine blades subjected to fatigue loading at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL) National Wind Technology Center (NWTC). The first blade was a pristine blade, manufactured to standard CX-100 design specifications. The second blade was manufactured for the University of Massachusetts, Lowell (UMass), with intentional simulated defects within the fabric layup. Each blade was instrumented with a variety of sensors on its surface. The blades were subject to harmonic excitation at their first natural frequency with steadily increasing loading until ultimately reaching failure. Data from the sensors were collected between and during fatigue loading sessions. The data were measured at multi-scale frequency ranges using a variety of data acquisition equipment, including off-the-shelf systems and prototype data acquisition hardware. The data were analyzed to identify fatigue damage initiation and to assess damage progression. Modal response, diffuse wave-field transfer functions in time and frequency domains, and wave propagation methods were applied to assess the condition of the turbine blade. The analysis methods implemented were evaluated in conjunction with hardware-specific performance for their efficacy in enabling the assessment of damage progression in the blade. The results of this assessment will inform the selection of specific data to be collected and analysis methods to be implemented for a CX-100 flight test to be conducted in collaboration with Sandia National Laboratory at the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Conservation and Production Research Laboratory (CPRL) in Bushland, Texas.

We present near- and mid-infrared observations on the shock-cloud interaction region in the southern part of the supernova remnant HB 21, performed with the InfraRed Camera (IRC) aboard AKARI satellite and the Wide InfraRed Camera (WIRC) at the Palomar 5 m telescope. The IRC 4 μm (N4), 7 μm (S7), and 11 μm (S11) band images and the WIRC Hυ=1→0S(1) 2.12 μm image show similar diffuse features, around a shocked CO cloud. We analyzed the emission through comparison with the H2 line emission of several shock models. The IRC colors are well explained by the thermal admixture model of H2 gas - whose infinitesimal H2 column density has a power-law relation with the temperature T, dN˜T-dT - with n(H)˜3.9×104cm-3,b˜4.2, and N(H;T>100K)˜2.8×1021cm-2. We interpreted these parameters with several different pictures of the shock-cloud interactions - multiple planar C-shocks, bow shocks, and shocked clumps - and discussed their weaknesses and strengths. The observed Hυ=1→0S(1) intensity is four times greater than the prediction from the power-law admixture model, the same tendency as found in the northern part of HB 21 (Paper I). We also explored the limitation of the thermal admixture model with respect to the derived model parameters.

A survey was made of pretelescopic astronomical records from Europe, China, Korea, Japan, Babylon, and the Arab countries to search for historical evidence of supernovae. A Roman, Claudian, reported a new star in 393 AD, the same year that Chinese astronomers noted a new star, together with its location and duration. Most European records were made in monasteries after 1000 AD, and one supernova was sighted in 1006 AD. A similar sighting was made in the Arab world at the same time. A total of twenty candidate events were found in the nearly 2000 yr of Chinese records. An analysis of the recorded events characteristics indicates that in 185, 393, 1006, 1054, 1181, 1572, and 1604 AD supernovae were seen. The 1054 AD explosion was corroborated by Arab records, while all others (except for the 393 AD and 1006 AD supernovae) were confined to Oriental observations.

The Berkeley automated supernova search employs a computer controlled 36-inch telescope and charge coupled device (CCD) detector to image 2500 galaxies per night. A dedicated minicomputer compares each galaxy image with stored reference data to identify supernovae in real time. The threshold for detection is m/sub v/ = 18.8. We plan to monitor roughly 500 galaxies in Virgo and closer every night, and an additional 6000 galaxies out to 70 Mpc on a three night cycle. This should yield very early detection of several supernovae per year for detailed study, and reliable premaximum detection of roughly 100 supernovae per year for statistical studies. The search should be operational in mid-1982.

Photometric Data were secured for the supernovae 2010hh, 2011dh, 2011fe and 2012aw before the dates which each individual maxima occur. The data for all supernovae were secured using the 0.9-meter telescope at the BYU West Mountain Observatory in Utah. 2010hh data were secured during the summer 2010 over the months of August to October. 2011dh and 2011fe data were secured during the summer of 2011. 2012aw data were secured during the summer of 2012. The data exposures from 2010 were secured using standard B,V and R filters. The frames for 2011 were secured using B,V, R and I filters. The 2012 supernova frames were secured in B,V and R filters. Using the data I will compare and contrast these four different supernovae and discuss their possible uses for distance determinations for the host galaxies.

We review our understanding of the nucleosynthesis that occurs in thermonuclear supernovae and their contribution to Galactic Chemical evolution. We discuss the prospects to improve the modeling of the nucleosynthesis within simulations of these events.

This thesis describes the design, development, and testing of a search system for supernovae, based on the use of current computer and detector technology. This search uses a computer-controlled telescope and charge coupled device (CCD) detector to collect images of hundreds of galaxies per night of observation, and a dedicated minicomputer to process these images in real time. The system is now collecting test images of up to several hundred fields per night, with a sensitivity corresponding to a limiting magnitude (visual) of 17. At full speed and sensitivity, the search will examine some 6000 galaxies every three nights, with a limiting magnitude of 18 or fainter, yielding roughly two supernovae per week (assuming one supernova per galaxy per 50 years) at 5 to 50 percent of maximum light. An additional 500 nearby galaxies will be searched every night, to locate about 10 supernovae per year at one or two percent of maximum light, within hours of the initial explosion.

We present observations of 17 luminous (log (L_{{[O III]}}/L_{⊙})>8.7) local (z < 0.11) type II AGN. Our aim is to investigate the prevalence and nature of AGN-driven outflows in these galaxies by combining kinematic and ionization diagnostic information. We use non-parametric methods (e.g. W80, the width containing 80 per cent of the line flux) to assess the line widths in the central regions of our targets. The maximum values of W80 in each galaxy are in the range 400-1600 km s-1, with a mean of 790 ± 90 km s-1. Such high velocities are strongly suggestive that these AGN are driving ionized outflows. Multi-Gaussian fitting is used to decompose the velocity structure in our galaxies. 14/17 of our targets require three separate kinematic components in the ionized gas in their central regions. The broadest components of these fits have FWHM = 530-2520 km s-1, with a mean value of 920 ± 50 km s-1. By simultaneously fitting both the Hβ/[O III] and Hα/[N II] complexes, we construct ionization diagnostic diagrams for each component. 13/17 of our galaxies show a significant (>95 per cent) correlation between the [N II]/Hα ratio and the velocity dispersion of the gas. Such a correlation is the natural consequence of a contribution to the ionization from shock excitation and we argue that this demonstrates that the outflows from these AGN are directly impacting the surrounding ISM within the galaxies.

Since the discovery of pulsars in 1967, few celestial phenomena have fascinated amateur and professional astronomers, and the public, more than supernovae - dying stars that explode spectacularly and, in so doing, may outshine a whole galaxy. Thousands of research papers, reviews, monographs and books have been published on this subject. These publications are often written either for a highly specific level of expertise or education, or with respect to a particular aspect of supernovae research. However, the study of supernovae is a very broad topic involving many integral yet connected aspects, including physics, mathematics, computation, history, theoretical studies and observation. More specifically, areas of study include historical supernovae, the different types and light curves, nucleosynthesis, explosion mechanisms, formation of black holes, neutron stars, cosmic rays, neutrinos and gravitational waves. Related questions include how supernovae remnants interact with interstellar matter nearby and how do these events affect the formation of new stars or planetary systems? Could they affect existing planetary systems? Closer to home, did any supernovae affect life on earth in the past or could they do so in the future? And on the larger scale, how did supernovae observations help measure the size and expansion of the universe? All these topics, and more, are to be covered in a new reference work, consisting of more than 100 articles and more than 1700 pages. It is intended to cover all the main facets of current supernovae research. It will be pitched at or above the level of a new postgraduate student, who will have successfully studied physics (or a similar scientific subject) to Bachelor degree level. It will be available in both print and electronic (updatable) formats, with the exception of the first section, which will consist of a review of all the topics of the handbook at a level that allows anyone with basic scientific knowledge to grasp the

Positrons are produced in the ejecta of supernovae by the decay of nucleosynthetic Co-56, Ti-44, and Al-26. We calculate the probability that these positrons can survive without annihilating in the supernova ejecta, and we show that enough of these positrons should escape into the interstellar medium to account for the observed diffuse Galactic annihilation radiation. The surviving positrons are carried by the expanding ejecta into the interstellar medium where their annihilation lifetime of 10 exp 5 - 10 exp 6 yr is much longer than the average supernovae occurrence time of about 100 yr. Thus, annihilating positrons from thousands of supernovae throughout the Galaxy produce a steady diffuse flux of annihilation radiation. We further show that combining the calculated positron survival fractions and nucleosynthetic yields for current supernova models with the estimated supernova rates and the observed flux of diffuse Galactic annihilation radiation suggests that the present Galactic rate of Fe-56 nucleosynthesis is about 0.8 +/- 0.6 solar mass per 100 yr.

A nonlinear kinetic theory, combining cosmic-ray (CR) acceleration in supernova remnants (SNRs) with their gas dynamics, is used to re-examine the nonthermal properties of the remnant of SN 1987A for an extended evolutionary period of 5-50 year. This spherically symmetric model is approximately applied to the different features of the SNR, consisting of (i) a blue supergiant wind and bubble, and (ii) of the swept-up red supergiant (RSG) wind structures in the form of an H ii region, an equatorial ring (ER), and an hourglass region. The RSG wind involves a mass loss rate that decreases significantly with elevation above and below the equatorial plane. The model adapts recent three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations by Potter et al. in 2014 that use a significantlysmaller ionized mass of the ER than assumed in the earlier studies by the present authors. The SNR shock recently swept up the ER, which is the densest region in the immediate circumstellar environment. Therefore, the expected gamma-ray energy flux density at TeV energies in the current epoch has already reached its maximal value of ˜10-13 erg cm-2 s-1. This flux should decrease by a factor of about two over the next 10 years.

The authors report here their on-ground restoration actions. Part 1 describes work conducted by the Underwood Conservation District (UCD) on private lands. This work involves the Stabler Cut-Bank project. Part 2 describes work conducted by the U.S. Forest Service. The Stabler Cut-Bank Project is a cooperative stream restoration effort between Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), the UCD, private landowners, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The Stabler site was identified by UCD during stream surveys conducted in 1996 as part of a USFWS funded project aimed at initiating water quality and habitat restoration efforts on private lands in the basin. In 1997 the Wind River Watershed Council selected the project as a top priority demonstration project. The landowners were approached by the UCD and a partnership developed. Due to their expertise in channel rehabilitation, the Forest Service was consulted for the design and assisted with the implementation of the project. A portion of the initial phase of the project was funded by USFWS. However, the majority of funding (approximately 80%) has been provided by BPA and it is anticipated that additional work that is planned for the site will be conducted with BPA funds.

The potential impacts of a number of alternative scenarios for the development of standards for small wind energy conversion systems (SWECS) were analyzed. Because of the embryonic state of the SWECS industry, standards can play a particularly important role in affecting the course of SWECS commercialization. Past experience indicates that in order to be effective, such standards should be developed as the result of a consensus process, assimilating input from all concerned parties. The current status of efforts to develop voluntary consensus standards for SWECS is examined and the opinions of various affected groups and individuals with regard to SWECS standards are assessed. A methodology is presented for determining the impacts of six different types of SWECS standards written by four separate groups, or actors. As the result of this impact assessment, and the assigning of weights to the impacts of each standard, an optimum scenario is presented. The optimum scenario represents an effort to maximize the contribution of each actor in order to produce broad-based consensus standards. Finally, an implementation plan is suggested for the optimum scenario.

Zank et al. 2012 developed a low-frequency turbulence transport model for any magnetized inhomogeneous flow. The model describes the energy corresponding to forward and backward propagating modes, the residual energy, and the correlation lengths corresponding to forward and backward propagating modes and the residual energy. We apply the Zank et al. model to the super-Alfvénic solar wind, considering i) the heliosphere from 0.29 to 5 AU with and without the Alfvén velocity, and ii) the entire heliosphere from 0.29 to 100 AU in the absence of the Alfvén velocity. The model shows that (1) shear driving is responsible for the in situ generation of backward propagating modes, (2) the inclusion of the background magnetic field modifies the transport of turbulence in the inner heliosphere, (3) the correlation lengths of forward and backward propagating modes are almost equal beyond ˜30 AU, and (4) the fluctuating magnetic and kinetic energies in MHD turbulence are in approximate equipartition beyond ˜30 AU. Model results for each case are compared to observations, using Helios 2 and Ulysses observations for the first case, and Voyager 2 data for the second case. For the Voyager 2 observations, we calculate the turbulent quantities corresponding to a positive and negative sign of B_r and B_t, and the azimuthal angle φ=tan-1(B_t /B_r ). The model reproduces the observations quite well from 0.29 to 5 AU. The outer heliosphere (>1 AU) observations are well described by the model. The temporal and latitudinal dependence of the observations makes a detailed comparison difficult but the overall trends are well captured by the models. We conclude that the results reasonably validate the Zank et al. model for the super-Alfvénic solar wind.

Some fraction of the material ejected in a core collapse supernova explosion may remain bound to the compact remnant, and eventually turn around and fall back. We show that the late time (gsimdays) power potentially associated with the accretion of this "fallback" material could significantly affect the optical light curve, in some cases producing super-luminous or otherwise peculiar supernovae. We use spherically symmetric hydrodynamical models to estimate the accretion rate at late times for a range of progenitor masses and radii and explosion energies. The accretion rate onto the proto-neutron star or black hole decreases as \\dot{M} \\propto t^{-5/3} at late times, but its normalization can be significantly enhanced at low explosion energies, in very massive stars, or if a strong reverse shock wave forms at the helium/hydrogen interface in the progenitor. If the resulting super-Eddington accretion drives an outflow which thermalizes in the outgoing ejecta, the supernova debris will be re-energized at a time when photons can diffuse out efficiently. The resulting light curves are different and more diverse than previous fallback supernova models which ignored the input of accretion power and produced short-lived, dim transients. The possible outcomes when fallback accretion power is significant include super-luminous (gsim 1044 erg s-1) Type II events of both short and long durations, as well as luminous Type I events from compact stars that may have experienced significant mass loss. Accretion power may unbind the remaining infalling material, causing a sudden decrease in the brightness of some long duration Type II events. This scenario may be relevant for explaining some of the recently discovered classes of peculiar and rare supernovae.

Some fraction of the material ejected in a core collapse supernova explosion may remain bound to the compact remnant, and eventually turn around and fall back. We show that the late time ({approx}>days) power potentially associated with the accretion of this 'fallback' material could significantly affect the optical light curve, in some cases producing super-luminous or otherwise peculiar supernovae. We use spherically symmetric hydrodynamical models to estimate the accretion rate at late times for a range of progenitor masses and radii and explosion energies. The accretion rate onto the proto-neutron star or black hole decreases as M-dot {proportional_to}t{sup -5/3} at late times, but its normalization can be significantly enhanced at low explosion energies, in very massive stars, or if a strong reverse shock wave forms at the helium/hydrogen interface in the progenitor. If the resulting super-Eddington accretion drives an outflow which thermalizes in the outgoing ejecta, the supernova debris will be re-energized at a time when photons can diffuse out efficiently. The resulting light curves are different and more diverse than previous fallback supernova models which ignored the input of accretion power and produced short-lived, dim transients. The possible outcomes when fallback accretion power is significant include super-luminous ({approx}> 10{sup 44} erg s{sup -1}) Type II events of both short and long durations, as well as luminous Type I events from compact stars that may have experienced significant mass loss. Accretion power may unbind the remaining infalling material, causing a sudden decrease in the brightness of some long duration Type II events. This scenario may be relevant for explaining some of the recently discovered classes of peculiar and rare supernovae.

The SILCC project (SImulating the Life-Cycle of molecular Clouds) aims at a more self-consistent understanding of the interstellar medium (ISM) on small scales and its link to galaxy evolution. We present three-dimensional (magneto)hydrodynamic simulations of the ISM in a vertically stratified box including self-gravity, an external potential due to the stellar component of the galactic disc, and stellar feedback in the form of an interstellar radiation field and supernovae (SNe). The cooling of the gas is based on a chemical network that follows the abundances of H+, H, H2, C+, and CO and takes shielding into account consistently. We vary the SN feedback by comparing different SN rates, clustering and different positioning, in particular SNe in density peaks and at random positions, which has a major impact on the dynamics. Only for random SN positions the energy is injected in sufficiently low-density environments to reduce energy losses and enhance the effective kinetic coupling of the SNe with the gas. This leads to more realistic velocity dispersions (σ _H I≈ 0.8σ _{300{-}8000 K}˜ 10-20 km s^{-1}, σ _H α ≈ 0.6σ _{8000-3× 10^5 K}˜ 20-30 km s^{-1}), and strong outflows with mass loading factors (ratio of outflow to star formation rate) of up to 10 even for solar neighbourhood conditions. Clustered SNe abet the onset of outflows compared to individual SNe but do not influence the net outflow rate. The outflows do not contain any molecular gas and are mainly composed of atomic hydrogen. The bulk of the outflowing mass is dense (ρ ˜ 10-25-10-24 g cm-3) and slow (v ˜ 20-40 km s-1) but there is a high-velocity tail of up to v ˜ 500 km s-1 with ρ ˜ 10-28-10-27 g cm-3.

X-ray and radio emission from a class of supernovae that forms almost half of all core collapse supernovae, type II Plateau SNe (SNIIP) probe the interaction of the SN shock with the medium the parent star exploded in. We have carried out observations of a number of SN IIP with Chandra, EVLA and GMRT telescopes. Our Chandra observations of SN 2013ej and SN 2004dj measured the separate contributions of thermal emission from the SN shocks and the power-law nonthermal part arising out of accelerated particles undergoing inverse Compton scattering on low energy photons from the SN photosphere. The combination of radio and X-ray properties indicate the (lack of) equipartition between magnetic fields amplified by the shock and the relativistic particles accelerated by it. Since the SN shock travels through the circumstellar wind at a speed much higher than that of the wind set up by the progenitor, the X-ray observations track the long history of mass loss from the progenitor star. An interesting case is that of SN 2011ja, which suggests that a fraction of type IIP supernovae may interact with circumstellar medium set up by episodic or non-steady ejections from the progenitor.

Usual supernova remnants have either ionizing plasma or plasma in collisional ionization equilibrium, i.e., the ionization temperature is lower than or equal to the electron temperature. However, the existence of recombining supernova remnants, i.e., supernova remnants with ionization temperature higher than the electron temperature, has been recently confirmed. One suggested way to have recombining plasma in a supernova remnant is to have a dense circumstellar medium at the time of the supernova explosion. If the circumstellar medium is dense enough, collisional ionization equilibrium can be established in the early stage of the evolution of the supernova remnant and subsequent adiabatic cooling, which occurs after the shock wave gets out of the dense circumstellar medium, makes the electron temperature lower than the ionization temperature. We study the circumstellar medium around several supernova progenitors and show which supernova progenitors can have a circumstellar medium dense enough to establish collisional ionization equilibrium soon after the explosion. We find that the circumstellar medium around red supergiants (especially massive ones) and the circumstellar medium dense enough to make Type IIn supernovae can establish collisional ionization equilibrium soon after the explosion and can evolve to become recombining supernova remnants. Wolf-Rayet stars and white dwarfs have the possibility to be recombining supernova remnants but the fraction is expected to be very small. As the occurrence rate of the explosions of red supergiants is much higher than that of Type IIn supernovae, the major progenitors of recombining supernova remnants are likely to be red supergiants.

The La Silla/QUEST Variability Survey (LSQ) and the Carnegie Supernova Project (CSP II) are collaborating to discover and obtain photometric light curves for a large sample of low-redshift (z < 0.1) Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia). The supernovae are discovered in the LSQ survey using the 1 m ESO Schmidt telescope at the La Silla Observatory with the 10 square degree QUEST camera. The follow-up photometric observations are carried out using the 1 m Swope telescope and the 2.5 m du Pont telescopes at the Las Campanas Observatory. This paper describes the survey, discusses the methods of analyzing the data, and presents the light curves for the first 31 SNe Ia obtained in the survey. The SALT 2.4 supernova light-curve fitter was used to analyze the photometric data, and the Hubble diagram for this first sample is presented. The measurement errors for these supernovae averaged 4%, and their intrinsic spread was 14%.

The purpose of this work is the computation of the cosmic Type Ia supernova rates, namely the frequency of Type Ia supernovae per unit time in a unitary volume of the Universe. Our main goal in this work is to predict the Type Ia supernova rates at very high redshifts and to check whether it is possible to select the best delay time distribution model, on the basis of the available observations of Type Ia supernovae. We compute the cosmic Type Ia supernova rates in different scenarios for galaxy formation and predict the expected number of explosions at high redshift ( z⩾2). Moreover, we adopt various progenitor models in order to compute the Type Ia supernova rate in typical elliptical galaxies of initial luminous masses of 1010M⊙,1011M⊙ and 1012M⊙, and compute the total amount of iron produced by Type Ia supernovae in each case. In this analysis we assume that Type Ia supernovae are caused by thermonuclear explosions of C-O white dwarfs in binary systems and we consider the most popular frameworks: the single degenerate and the double degenerate scenarios. The two competing schemes for the galaxy formation, namely the monolithic collapse and the hierarchical clustering, are also taken into account, by considering the histories of star formation increasing and decreasing with redshift, respectively. We calculate the Type Ia supernova rates through an analytical formulation which rests upon the definition of the SN Ia rate following an instantaneous burst of star formation as a function of the time elapsed from the birth of the progenitor system to its explosion as a Type Ia supernova (i.e. the delay time). What emerges from this work is that: (i) we confirm the result of previous papers that it is not easy to select the best delay time distribution scenario from the observational data and this is because the cosmic star formation rate dominates over the distribution function of the delay times; (ii) the monolithic collapse scenario for galaxy formation

It is now well established that Kepler's supernova remnant (SNR) is the result of a Type Ia explosion. With an age of 407 yr and an angular diameter of ~4', Kepler is estimated to be between 3.0 and 7.0 kpc distant. Unlike other Galactic Type Ia SNRs such as Tycho and SN 1006, and SNR 0509-67.5 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, Kepler shows evidence for a strong circumstellar interaction. A bowshock structure in the north is thought to originate from the motion of a mass-losing system through the interstellar medium prior to the supernova. We present results of hydrodynamical and spectral modeling aimed at constraining the circumstellar environment of the system and the amount of 56Ni produced in the explosion. Using models that contain either 0.3 M ⊙ (subenergetic) or 1.0 M ⊙ (energetic) of 56Ni, we simulate the interaction between supernova Ia ejecta and various circumstellar density models. Based on dynamical considerations alone, we find that the subenergetic models favor a distance to the SNR of <6.4 kpc, while the model that produces 1 M ⊙ of 56Ni requires a distance to the SNR of >7 kpc. The X-ray spectrum is consistent with an explosion that produced ~1 M ⊙ of 56Ni, ruling out the subenergetic models, and suggesting that Kepler's SNR was an SN 1991T-like event. Additionally, the X-ray spectrum rules out a pure r -2 wind profile expected from isotropic mass loss up to the time of the supernova. Introducing a small cavity around the progenitor system results in modeled X-ray spectra that are consistent with the observed spectrum. If a wind-shaped circumstellar environment is necessary to explain the dynamics and X-ray emission from the shocked ejecta in Kepler's SNR, then we require that the distance to the remnant be greater than 7 kpc.

As is usual in dwarf spheroidal galaxies, today the Local Group galaxy Ursa Minor is depleted of its gas content. How this galaxy lost its gas is still a matter of debate. To study the history of gas loss in Ursa Minor, we conducted the first three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations of this object, assuming that the gas loss was driven by galactic winds powered only by type IIsupernovae (SNe II). The initial gas setup and supernova (SN) rates used in our simulations are mainly constrained by the inferred star formation history and the observed velocity dispersion of Ursa Minor. After 3 Gyr of evolution, we found that the gas removal efficiency is higher when the SN rate is increased, and also when the initial mean gas density is lowered. The derived mass-loss rates are systematically higher in the central regions (\\lt 300 pc), even though such a relationship has not been strictly linear in time and in terms of the galactic radius. The filamentary structures induced by Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and the concentric shells related to the acoustic waves driven by SNe can account for the inferred mass losses from the simulations. Our results suggest that SNe II are able to transfer most of the gas from the central region outward to the galactic halo. However, other physical mechanisms must be considered in order to completely remove the gas at larger radii.

A "stellar wind" is the continuous, supersonic outflow of matter from the surface layers of a star. Our sun has a solar wind, driven by the gas-pressure expansion of the hot (T > 106 K) solar corona. It can be studied through direct in situ measurement by interplanetary spacecraft; but analogous coronal winds in more distant solar-type stars are so tenuous and transparent that that they are difficult to detect directly. Many more luminous stars have winds that are dense enough to be opaque at certain wavelengths of the star's radiation, making it possible to study their wind outflows remotely through careful interpretation of the observed stellar spectra. Red giant stars show slow, dense winds that may be driven by the pressure from magnetohydrodyanmic waves. As stars with initial mass up to 8 M ⊙ evolve toward the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB), a combination of stellar pulsations and radiative scattering off dust can culminate in "superwinds" that strip away the entire stellar envelope, leaving behind a hot white dwarf stellar core with less than the Chandrasekhar mass of ˜ ​​ 1. 4M ⊙. The winds of hot, luminous, massive stars are driven by line-scattering of stellar radiation, but such massive stars can also exhibit superwind episodes, either as Red Supergiants or Luminous Blue Variable stars. The combined wind and superwind mass loss can strip the star's hydrogen envelope, leaving behind a Wolf-Rayet star composed of the products of earlier nuclear burning via the CNO cycle. In addition to such direct effects on a star's own evolution, stellar winds can be a substantial source of mass, momentum, and energy to the interstellar medium, blowing open large cavities or "bubbles" in this ISM, seeding it with nuclear processed material, and even helping trigger the formation of new stars, and influencing their eventual fate as white dwarves or core-collapse supernovae. This chapter reviews the properties of such stellar winds, with an emphasis on the various

Recent observations have revealed a stunning diversity of extremely luminous supernovae, seemingly increasing in radiant energy without bound. We consider simple approximate limits for what existing models can provide for the peak luminosity and total radiated energy for non-relativistic, isotropic stellar explosions. The brightest possible supernova is a Type I explosion powered by a sub-millisecond magnetar with field strength B ∼ few × {10}13 G. In extreme cases, such models might reach a peak luminosity of 2× {10}46 {erg} {{{s}}}-1 and radiate a total energy of up to 4× {10}52 {erg}. Other less luminous models are also explored, including prompt hyper-energetic explosions in red supergiants, pulsational-pair instability supernovae, pair-instability supernovae, and colliding shells. Approximate analytic expressions and limits are given for each case. Excluding magnetars, the peak luminosity is near 3× {10}44 {erg} {{{s}}}-1 for the brightest models and the corresponding limit on total radiated energy is 3× {10}51 {erg}. Barring new physics, supernovae with a light output over 3× {10}51 erg must be rotationally powered, either during the explosion itself or after, the most obvious candidate being a rapidly rotating magnetar. A magnetar-based model for the recent transient event, ASASSN-15lh is presented that strains, but does not exceed the limits of what the model can provide.

The discovery of 150-300 M {sub ☉} stars in the Local Group and pair-instability supernova candidates at low redshifts has excited interest in this exotic explosion mechanism. Realistic light curves for pair-instability supernovae at near-solar metallicities are key to identifying and properly interpreting these events as more are found. We have modeled pair-instability supernovae of 150-500 M {sub ☉} Z ∼ 0.1-0.4 Z {sub ☉} stars. These stars lose up to 80% of their mass to strong line-driven winds and explode as bare He cores. We find that their light curves and spectra are quite different from those of Population III pair-instability explosions, which therefore cannot be used as templates for low-redshift events. Although non-zero metallicity pair-instability supernovae are generally dimmer than their Population III counterparts, in some cases they will be bright enough to be detected at the earliest epochs at which they can occur, the formation of the first galaxies at z ∼ 10-15. Others can masquerade as dim, short duration supernovae that are only visible in the local universe and that under the right conditions could be hidden in a wide variety of supernova classes. We also report for the first time that some pair-instability explosions can create black holes with masses of ∼100 M {sub ☉}.

A theory called Adaptive Disturbance Tracking Control (ADTC) is introduced and used to track the Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) of 5 MW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). Since ADTC theory requires wind speed information, a wind disturbance generator model is combined with lower order plant model to estimate the wind speed as well as partial states of the wind turbine. In this paper, we present a proof of stability and convergence of ADTC theory with lower order estimator and show that the state feedback can be adaptive.

A general overview of supernova astronomy is presented, followed by a discussion of the relationship between SN and galactic cosmic rays. Pre-supernova evolution is traced to core collapse, explosion, and mass ejection. The two types of SN light curves are discussed in terms of their causes, and the different nucleosynthetic processes inside SNs are reviewed. Physical events in SN remnants are discussed. The three main connections between cosmic rays and SNs, the energy requirement, the acceleration mechanism, and the detailed composition of CR, are detailed.

Evidence has mounted that Type Ia and core-collapse (CC) supernovae (SNe) can have substantial deviations from spherical symmetry; one such piece of evidence is the complex morphologies of supernova remnants (SNRs). However, the relative role of the explosion geometry and the environment in shaping SNRs remains an outstanding question. Recently, we have developed techniques to quantify the morphologies of SNRs, and we have applied these methods to the extensive X-ray and infrared archival images available of Milky Way and Magellanic Cloud SNRs. In this proceeding, we highlight some results from these studies, with particular emphasis on SNR asymmetries and whether they arise from ``nature'' or ``nurture''.

Supernova 1987A (February 23, 1987) in the Large Magellanic Cloud is the brightest supernova to be observed since SN 1604 AD (Kepler). Detection of a burst of neutrinos indicates that a neutron star was formed. Radioactive decay of about 0.07 solar mass of Co-56 is responsible for the observed optical light as well as hard X-rays and gamma-ray lines. Ultraviolet, optical, and infrared 'light echoes' and soft X-rays provide information on the distribution of circumstellar matter and the evolution of the progenitor star.

Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network (LCOGT.net) is a collection of nine robotic one meter telescopes with imagers spaced around the world in longitude, operated as a single network. There are also two robotic FLOYDS spectrographs on the two meter Faulkes telescopes in Siding Spring, Australia, and Haleakala, Hawaii. Here we describe recent supernova lightcurves and spectra with taken with LCOGT after being triggered from Pan-STARRS1, the La Silla-QUEST survey, the intermediate Palomar Transient Factory, and the IAU circulars. Since at least one telescope is always in the dark, and the facilities are robotic, LCOGT is uniquely suited to early-time supernova science.

The explosion of massive stars as core-collapse supernovae is an inherently three dimensional phenomenon. Observations of the young, ejecta dominated remnants of those explosions unambiguously demonstrate that asymmetry on large and small scales is the rule, rather than the exception. Numerical models of supernova remnants connect the observed remnants to models of the exploding stellar system and thus facilitate both improved interpretations of the observations as well as improve our understanding of the explosion mechanism. We present first 3D simulations of core- collapse supernovae evolving into supernova remnants calculated with SNSPH. The calculations were started from 1D collapsed models of 2 progenitor stars of different types, and follow the explosion from revival of the shock wave to shock break out in 3D. Two different interstellar media, a cold neutral medium and a dense molecular cloud, as well as a red supergiant stellar wind profile, were added to the explosion calculations shortly before shock breakout, so that the blast wave stays in the simulation. With this setup we can follow the dispersal of the nucleosynthesis products from the explosion into the Sedov stage of the supernova remnant evolution starting from realistic initial conditions for the supernova ejecta. We will present a first investigation in the mixing between stellar and interstellar matter as the supernova evolves into the young supernova remnant phase, and contrasts differences that are observed between the scenarios that are investigated. One of the goals is to distinguish between features that arose in instabilities during the explosion from those that were created in the interaction with the surrounding medium.

Aims: The extensive observations of the supernova SN 1993J at radio wavelengths make this object a unique target for the study of particle acceleration in a supernova shock. Methods: To describe the radio synchrotron emission we use a model that couples a semianalytic description of nonlinear diffusive shock acceleration with self-similar solutions for the hydrodynamics of the supernova expansion. The synchrotron emission, which is assumed to be produced by relativistic electrons propagating in the postshock plasma, is worked out from radiative transfer calculations that include the process of synchrotron self-absorption. The model is applied to explain the morphology of the radio emission deduced from high-resolution VLBI imaging observations and the measured time evolution of the total flux density at six frequencies. Results: Both the light curves and the morphology of the radio emission indicate that the magnetic field was strongly amplified in the blast wave region shortly after the explosion, possibly via the nonresonant regime of the cosmic-ray streaming instability operating in the shock precursor. The amplified magnetic field immediately upstream from the subshock is determined to be Bu ≈ 50 (t/1 { day})-1 G. The turbulent magnetic field was not damped behind the shock but carried along by the plasma flow in the downstream region. Cosmic-ray protons were efficiently produced by diffusive shock acceleration at the blast wave. We find that during the first 8.5 years after the explosion, about 19% of the total energy processed by the forward shock was converted to cosmic-ray energy. However, the shock remained weakly modified by the cosmic-ray pressure. The high magnetic field amplification implies that protons were rapidly accelerated to energies well above 1015 eV. The results obtained for this supernova support the scenario that massive stars exploding into their former stellar wind are a major source of Galactic cosmic-rays of energies above 1015 eV. We

We report the discovery of X-ray emission from SN 1970G in M101, 35 yr after its outburst, using deep X-ray imaging with the Chundra X-Ray Observatory. The Chandra ACIS spectrum shows that the emission is soft (52 keV) and characteristic of the reverse-shock region. The X-ray luminosity, Lo,,, = (1.1 3 0.2) x lo3# ergs s-1, is likely caused by the interaction of the supernova shock with dense circumstellar matter. If the material was deposited by the stellar wind from the progenitor, a mass-loss rate of M = (2.6 ? 0.4) x M, yr-I (v,/lO km s-I) is inferred. Utilizing the high-resolution Chandra ACIS data of SN 1970G and its environment, we reconstruct the X-ray lightcurve from previous ROSAT HRI, PSPC, and XMM-Newton EPIC observations, and find a best-fit linear rate of decline of L cc t-# with index s = 2.7 t 0.9 over a period of -20-35 yr after the outburst. As the oldest supernova detected in X-rays, SN 1970G allows, for the first time, direct observation of the transition from a supenova to its supernova remnant phase.

In the present work, we calculate the evolution of the charge state distribution within the fast solar wind. We use the temperature, density, and velocity profiles predicted by Cranmer et al. to calculate the ionization history of the most important heavy elements in the solar corona and solar wind: C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, and Fe. The evolution of each charge state is calculated from the source region in the lower chromosphere to the final freeze-in point. We show that the solar wind velocity causes the plasma to experience significant departures from equilibrium at very low heights, well inside the field of view (within 0.6 R{sub sun} from the solar limb) of nearly all the available remote-sensing instrumentation, significantly affecting observed spectral line intensities. We also study the evolution of charge state ratios with distance from the source region, and the temperature they indicate if ionization equilibrium is assumed. We find that virtually every charge state from every element freezes in at a different height, so that the definition of freeze-in height is ambiguous. We also find that calculated freeze-in temperatures indicated by charge state ratios from in situ measurements have little relation to the local coronal temperature of the wind source region, and stop evolving much earlier than their correspondent charge state ratio. We discuss the implication of our results on plasma diagnostics of coronal holes from spectroscopic measurements as well as on theoretical solar wind models relying on coronal temperatures.

We are developing experiments using the Nova laser to investigate two areas of physics relevant to core-collapse supernovae (SN): (1) compressible nonlinear hydrodynamic mixing and (2) radiative shock hydrodynamics. In the former, we are examining the differences between the 2D and 3D evolution of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, an issue critical to the observables emerging from SN in the first year after exploding. In the latter, we are investigating the evolution of a colliding plasma system relevant to the ejecta-stellar wind interactions of the early stages of SN remnant formation. The experiments and astrophysical implications are discussed.

Every year, at the end of the summer, the Section of Physics and Technique of the "Institut Menorquí d'Estudis" and the "Societat Catalana de Física" organize the "Trobades Científiques de la Mediterrània" with the support of several academic institutions. The 2007 edition has been devoted to stellar explosions, the true evolutionary engines of galaxies. Whenever a star explodes, it injects into the interstellar medium a kinetic energy of 1051 erg and between one and several solar masses of newly synthesized elements as a result of the thermonuclear reactions that have taken place within the stellar interior. Two mechanisms are able to provide these enormous amounts of energy: one of them thermonuclear and the other, gravitational. Thermonuclear supernovae are the result of the incineration of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf that is the compact star of a binary stellar system. If the two stars are sufficiently close to each other, the white dwarf accretes matter from its companion, approaches the mass of Chandrasekhar, and ends up exploding. The processes previous to the explosion, the explosion itself, as well as the exact nature of the double stellar system that explodes, are still a matter of discussion. This point is particularly important because these explosions, known as Type Ia Supernovae, are very homogenous and can be used to measure cosmological distances. The most spectacular result obtained, is the discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe, but it still feels uncomfortable that such a fundamental result is based on a "measuring system" whose origin and behaviour in time is unknown. At the end of their lives, massive stars generate an iron nucleus that gets unstable when approaching the Chandrasekhar mass. Its collapse gives rise to the formation of a neutron star or a black hole, and the external manifestation of the energy that is released, about a 1053 erg, consists of a Type II or Ib/c supernova, of a Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) or even of

Betelgeuse is a proving ground for theories of mass loss from cool massive stars: it has little circumstellar dust and low molecular abundances, but it is still able to drive a massive outflow just like its dusty cousins of later spectral-types. To constrain the physical processes causing mass loss we need to examine the conditions in the wind acceleration zone where most of the required energy is deposited. To study the dynamics and thermodynamics in this zone requires spectrally-resolved line profiles from diagnostics with different excitation energies.Forbidden mid-IR Fe II transitions from within the first three terms, with Texc=540 K, 3,400 K, and 11,700 K, provide just such diagnostics. NASA-DLR SOFIA with the Echelon-Cross-Echelle Spectrograph (EXES) provide the required low water vapor (42,000~ft) and spectral resolution (R=50,000) for two of the transitions, while the 17.94 μm line can be observed with TEXES on NASA's IRTF.We present key spectra from our Cycle 2 SOFIA program, which also enabled us to explore the mid-IR signature of the two cm-radio hot-spots that had recently been reported from eMERLIN interferometry. Our high S/N spectra place tight constraints on the amount of warm chromospheric plasma, and we have resolved the 25.99 μm ground-state line for the first time, showing blue-shifted emission from the outflow. Please note that the nature of the puzzling radio-hot spots are now understood.

The well-established Type Ia remnant of Tycho's supernova (SN 1572) reveals discrepant ambient medium-density estimates based on either the measured dynamics or the X-ray emission properties. This discrepancy can potentially be solved by assuming that the supernova remnant (SNR) shock initially moved through a stellar wind bubble, but is currently evolving in the uniform interstellar medium with a relatively low density. We investigate this scenario by combining hydrodynamical simulations of the wind-loss phase and the SNR evolution with a coupled X-ray emission model, which includes non-equilibrium ionization. For the explosion models we use the well-known W7 deflagration model and the delayed detonation model that was previously shown to provide good fits to the X-ray emission of Tycho's SNR. Our simulations confirm that a uniform ambient density cannot simultaneously reproduce the dynamical and X-ray emission properties of Tycho. In contrast, models that considered that the remnant was evolving in a dense, but small, wind bubble reproduce reasonably well both the measured X-ray emission spectrum and the expansion parameter of Tycho's SNR. Finally, we discuss possible mass-loss scenarios in the context of single- and double-degenerate models which possibly could form such a small dense wind bubble.

We present near-by Type IIn supernovae observed with Swift's Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope (UVOT). Based on the diversity of optical light curve properties, this Type II subclass is commonly referred to as heterogeneous. At the time of discovery, our IIn sample is ~ 2 magnitudes brighter at ultraviolet wavelengths than at optical wavelengths, and ultraviolet brightness decays faster than the optical brightness. We use a semi-analytical supernova (SN) model to better understand our IIn observations, and focus on matching specific observed light curves features, i.e peak luminosity and decay rate. The SN models are used to study the effects of initial SN conditions on early light curves, and to show the extent of the "uniqueness" problem in SN light curves. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions from members of the Swift UVOT team, the NASA astrophysics archival data analysis program, and the NASA Swift guest investigator program.

SNEWS is a cooperative effort between the world's neutrino detection experiments to spread the news that a star in our galaxy has just experienced a core-collapse event and is about to become a Type-IISupernova. This project exploits the ˜hours time difference between neutrinos promptly escaping the nascent supernova and photons which originate when the shock wave breaks through the stellar photosphere, to give the world a chance to get ready to observe such an exciting event at the earliest possible time. A coincidence trigger between experiments is used to eliminate potential local false alarms, allowing a rapid, automated alert. SNEWS is currently operational and ready, and this poster presents the procedures in use. SNEWS work is supported by NSF collaborative grant #0302166.

Quantitative analysis of 24 high-z (zmed = 0.81) Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) spectra observed at the Gemini Telescopes for the Supernova Legacy Survey (SNLS) is presented. This analysis includes equivalent width measurements of SNe Ia-specific absorption features with methods tailored to the reduced signal-to-noise and host galaxy contamination present in these distant spectra. The results from this analysis are compared to corresponding measurements of a large set of low-z SNe Ia from the literature. This comparison showed no significant difference (less than 2σ) between the spectroscopic features of the distant and nearby SNe; a result that supports the assumption that SNe Ia are not evolving with redshift. Additionally, a new correlation between SiII absorption (observed near peak luminosity) and SNe Ia peak magnitudes is presented.

The mass loss rate in low-metallicity stars is discussed, and the consequences of that rate for the fate of such stars are considered. It is shown that, if radiation pressure on dust is important in driving the mass loss from red giants, and if these stars do not dredge up large amounts of processed material during their evolution, then the total amount of mass lost by Population II stars with low metallicity is small. Consequently, the rate of supernovae in populations of low metallicity is much higher than in populations of solar abundances. This conclusion leads to the prediction that the supernova rate should be high in galaxies that have some intermediate mass stars and have metallicity less than about 0.1 of the solar value.

Marking the inevitable death of a massive star, and the birth of a neutron star or black hole, core-collapse supernovae bring together physics at a wide range in spatial scales, from kilometer-sized hydrodynamic motions (growing to gigameter scale) down to femtometer scale nuclear reactions. Carrying 10$^{51}$ ergs of kinetic energy and a rich-mix of newly synthesized atomic nuclei, core-collapse supernovae are the preeminent foundries of the nuclear species which make up ourselves and our solar system. We will discuss our emerging understanding of the convectively unstable, neutrino-driven explosion mechanism, based on increasingly realistic neutrino-radiation hydrodynamic simulations that include progressively better nuclear and particle physics. Recent multi-dimensional models with spectral neutrino transport from several research groups, which slowly develop successful explosions for a range of progenitors, have motivated changes in our understanding of the neutrino reheating mechanism. In a similar fashion, improvements in nuclear physics, most notably explorations of weak interactions on nuclei and the nuclear equation of state, continue to refine our understanding of how supernovae explode. Recent progress on both the macroscopic and microscopic effects that affect core-collapse supernovae are discussed.

We show that with the muon neutrino mass which is necessary for explaining the solar neutrino problem through MSW mechanism, mν μ ˜ 2× 10-3\\ eV and mν τ ˜ (mt/m_c)2 mν μ , we expect different spectra for νe and /line{ν e} coming from supernovae.

Chromium has four isotopes, with atomic weights of 50, 52, 53, and 54. In terrestrial rocks the isotopes behave in predictable ways, with their variations in relative abundance governed by geochemical processes. In contrast, some meteorites have deviant abundances of the heaviest (hence the one with the most neutrons) Cr isotope, chromium-54. These anomalies in isotopic composition are almost certainly caused by nuclear reactions in stars that existed before our Sun was formed. However, the mineralogical carrier of the special chromium-54 was not known until Nicolas Dauphas (University of Chicago) and eight colleagues there and at the California Institute of Technology, the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the Universite de Lille (France) made detailed analyses of chemical and physical separates from the Orgueil and Murchison carbonaceous chondrites. They found that the carrier of the isotopically-anomalous Cr is spinel, Cr-bearing oxide grains generally smaller than 100 nanometers. Only supernovae can produce the chromium-54 anomalies, although which specific type of supernova is not clear. An intriguing possibility is that the chromium-54-rich nano-oxide particles were produced in the same supernova that made two other short-lived isotopes, iron-60 and aluminum-26, which also existed in the Solar System when it formed. This suggests that formation of the Solar System was triggered by a supernova explosion.

Optical long-slit spectroscopy at the Gemini-North telescope using the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (GMOS) was used to classify targets from the Supernova Legacy Survey (SNLS) from 2005 July and 2006 May-2008 May. During this time, 95 objects were observed. Where possible, the objects' redshifts (z) were measured from narrow emission or absorption features in the host galaxy spectrum, otherwise they were measured from the broader supernova features. We present spectra of 68 confirmed or probable SNe Ia from SNLS with redshifts in the range 0.17 ≤z≤ 1.02. In combination with earlier SNLS Gemini and VLT spectra, we used these new observations to measure pseudo-equivalent widths (EWs) of three spectral features - Ca II H&K, Si II and Mg II- in 144 objects and compared them to the EWs of low-redshift SNe Ia from a sample drawn from the literature. No signs of changes with z are seen for the Ca II H&K and Mg II features. Systematically lower EW Si II is seen at high redshift, but this can be explained by a change in demographics of the SNe Ia population within a two-component model combined with an observed correlation between EW Si II and photometric light-curve stretch.

We report our results from HST/STIS observations of the 2014.6 spectroscopic event. In contrast with ground-based observations the HST/STIS resolves the star from the nearby bright inner ejecta. We find significant changes relative to past spectroscopic events specifically the increased strength of the He II 4687 Å emission. He I emission has gradually increased through the last three spectroscopic events. At the same time, Fe II shows a significant decrease in emission and N II shows dramatic shift from absorption to emission. Together these imply a decrease in density and increase in UV flux in wind as part of the ongoing evolution of the primary star.

The explosion of a supernova forms because of the collapse to a neutron star. In addition an explosion requires that a region of relatively high entropy be in contact with the neutron star and persisting for a relatively protracted period of time. The high entropy region ensures that the maximum temperature in contact with the neutron star and in hydrostatic equilibrium is less than some maximum. This temperature must be low enough such that neutrino emission cooling is small, otherwise the equilibrium atmosphere will collapse adding a large accretion mass to the neutron star. A so-called normal explosion shock that must reverse the accretion flow corresponding to a typical stellar collapse must have sufficient strength or pressure to reverse this flow and eject the matter with 10{sup 51} ergs for a typical type IIsupernova. Surprisingly the matter behind such a shock wave has a relatively low entropy low enough such that neutrino cooling would be orders of magnitude faster than the expansion rate. The resulting accretion low would be inside the Bondi radius and result in free-fall accretion inside the expanding rarefaction wave. The accreted mass or reimplosion mass unless stopped by a high entropy bubble could than exceed that of bound neutron star models. In addition the explosion shock would be overtaken by the rarefaction wave and either disappear or at least weaken. Hence, a hot, high entropy bubble is required to support an equilibrium atmosphere in contact with a relatively cold neutron star. Subsequently during the expansion of the high entropy bubble that drives or pushes on the shocked matter, mixing of the matter of the high entropy bubble and lower entropy shock-ejected matter is ensured. The mixing is driven by the negative entropy gradient between the high entropy bubble accelerating the shocked matter and the lower entropy of the matter behind the shock.

We compare aspects of supernova explosions produced in the current epoch against those produced in the first round of star formation. Although the total final mass of stars can change dramatically between these two epochs due to different mass-loss rates from winds, their cores remam very similar. The core structure is more sensitive to the stellar evolution code than it is to the amount of metals. As such, current stellar models produce supernovae from first stars that look very similar to that of stars produced in the current epoch. The neutrino signal, a powerful probe of the inner core, is identical to the few percent level for both star formation epochs. A change in the neutrino signal in the supernova population between these two star formation epochs will only arise if the initial mass function is altered.

As part of a spectroscopic survey of supernova remnant candidates in M83 using the Gemini-South telescope and Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph, we have discovered one object whose spectrum shows very broad lines at Hα, [O I] λλ6300, 6363, and [O III] λλ4959, 5007, similar to those from other objects classified as "late time supernovae". Although six historical supernovae have been observed in M83 since 1923, none were seen at the location of this object. Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Wide Field Camera 3 images show a nearly unresolved emission source, while Chandra and ATCA data reveal a bright X-ray source and nonthermal radio source at the position. Objects in other galaxies showing similar spectra are only decades post-supernova, which raises the possibility that the supernova that created this object occurred during the last century but was missed. Using photometry of nearby stars from the HST data, we suggest the precursor was at least 17 M ⊙, and the presence of broad Hα in the spectrum makes a type IIsupernova likely. The supernova must predate the 1983 Very Large Array radio detection of the object. We suggest examination of archival images of M83 to search for evidence of the supernova event that gave rise to this object, and thus provide a precise age. Based on observations made with NASA's Chandra X-Ray Observatory, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory under contract # NAS83060, with data obtained through program GO1-12115.

Part II of this two-part series study was focused on examining the effects of wind and body movement on local clothing thermal insulation. Seventeen clothing ensembles with different layers (i.e., 1, 2, or 3 layers) were selected for this study. Local thermal insulation with different air velocities (0.15, 1.55, and 4.0 m/s) and walking speeds (0, 0.75, and 1.17 m/s) were investigated on a thermal manikin. Empirical equations for estimating local resultant clothing insulation as a function of local insulation, air velocity, and walking speed were developed. The results showed that the effects of wind and body movement on local resultant thermal resistance are complex and differ distinctively among different body parts. In general, the reductions of local insulation with wind at the chest, abdomen, and pelvis were greater than those at the lower leg and back, and the changes at the body extremity such as the forearm, thigh, and lower leg were higher than such immobile body parts as the chest and back. In addition, the wind effect interacted with the walking effect. This study may have important applications in human local thermal comfort modeling and functional clothing design. PMID:25605409

Part II of this two-part series study was focused on examining the effects of wind and body movement on local clothing thermal insulation. Seventeen clothing ensembles with different layers (i.e., 1, 2, or 3 layers) were selected for this study. Local thermal insulation with different air velocities (0.15, 1.55, and 4.0 m/s) and walking speeds (0, 0.75, and 1.17 m/s) were investigated on a thermal manikin. Empirical equations for estimating local resultant clothing insulation as a function of local insulation, air velocity, and walking speed were developed. The results showed that the effects of wind and body movement on local resultant thermal resistance are complex and differ distinctively among different body parts. In general, the reductions of local insulation with wind at the chest, abdomen, and pelvis were greater than those at the lower leg and back, and the changes at the body extremity such as the forearm, thigh, and lower leg were higher than such immobile body parts as the chest and back. In addition, the wind effect interacted with the walking effect. This study may have important applications in human local thermal comfort modeling and functional clothing design.

After the death of a runaway massive star, its supernova shock wave interacts with the bow shocks produced by its defunct progenitor, and may lose energy, momentum and its spherical symmetry before expanding into the local interstellar medium (ISM). We investigate whether the initial mass and space velocity of these progenitors can be associated with asymmetric supernova remnants. We run hydrodynamical models of supernovae exploding in the pre-shaped medium of moving Galactic core-collapse progenitors. We find that bow shocks that accumulate more than about 1.5 M⊙ generate asymmetric remnants. The shock wave first collides with these bow shocks 160-750 yr after the supernova, and the collision lasts until 830-4900 yr. The shock wave is then located 1.35-5 pc from the centre of the explosion, and it expands freely into the ISM, whereas in the opposite direction it is channelled into the region of undisturbed wind material. This applies to an initially 20 M⊙ progenitor moving with velocity 20 km s-1 and to our initially 40 M⊙ progenitor. These remnants generate mixing of ISM gas, stellar wind and supernova ejecta that is particularly important upstream from the centre of the explosion. Their light curves are dominated by emission from optically thin cooling and by X-ray emission of the shocked ISM gas. We find that these remnants are likely to be observed in the [O III] λ 5007 spectral line emission or in the soft energy-band of X-rays. Finally, we discuss our results in the context of observed Galactic supernova remnants such as 3C 391 and the Cygnus Loop.

Using a sample of 608 Type Ia supernovae from the SDSS-II and BOSS surveys, combined with a sample of foreground galaxies from SDSS-II, we estimate the weak lensing convergence for each supernova line of sight. We find that the correlation between this measurement and the Hubble residuals is consistent with the prediction from lensing (at a significance of 1.7σ). Strong correlations are also found between the residuals and supernova nuisance parameters after a linear correction is applied. When these other correlations are taken into account, the lensing signal is detected at 1.4σ. We show, for the first time, that distance estimates from supernovae can be improved when lensing is incorporated, by including a new parameter in the SALT2 methodology for determining distance moduli. The recovered value of the new parameter is consistent with the lensing prediction. Using cosmic microwave background data from WMAP7, H {sub 0} data from Hubble Space Telescope and Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Baryon acoustic oscillations measurements, we find the best-fit value of the new lensing parameter and show that the central values and uncertainties on Ω {sub m} and w are unaffected. The lensing of supernovae, while only seen at marginal significance in this low-redshift sample, will be of vital importance for the next generation of surveys, such as DES and LSST, which will be systematics-dominated.

We present a semi-supervised method for photometric supernova typing. Our approach is to first use the non-linear dimension reduction technique diffusion map to detect structure in a data base of supernova light curves and subsequently employ random forest classification on a spectroscopically confirmed training set to learn a model that can predict the type of each newly observed supernova. We demonstrate that this is an effective method for supernova typing. As supernova numbers increase, our semi-supervised method efficiently utilizes this information to improve classification, a property not enjoyed by template-based methods. Applied to supernova data simulated by Kessler et al. to mimic those of the Dark Energy Survey, our methods achieve (cross-validated) 95 per cent Type Ia purity and 87 per cent Type Ia efficiency on the spectroscopic sample, but only 50 per cent Type Ia purity and 50 per cent efficiency on the photometric sample due to their spectroscopic follow-up strategy. To improve the performance on the photometric sample, we search for better spectroscopic follow-up procedures by studying the sensitivity of our machine-learned supernova classification on the specific strategy used to obtain training sets. With a fixed amount of spectroscopic follow-up time, we find that, despite collecting data on a smaller number of supernovae, deeper magnitude-limited spectroscopic surveys are better for producing training sets. For supernova Ia (II-P) typing, we obtain a 44 per cent (1 per cent) increase in purity to 72 per cent (87 per cent) and 30 per cent (162 per cent) increase in efficiency to 65 per cent (84 per cent) of the sample using a 25th (24.5th) magnitude-limited survey instead of the shallower spectroscopic sample used in the original simulations. When redshift information is available, we incorporate it into our analysis using a novel method of altering the diffusion map representation of the supernovae. Incorporating host redshifts leads to a 5

A brief review of the threat posed to Earth's biosphere via near-by supernova detonations is presented. The expected radiation dosage, cosmic ray flux and expanding blast wave collision effects are considered, and it is argued that a typical supernova must be closer than ˜10-pc before any appreciable and potentially harmful atmosphere/biosphere effects are likely to occur. In contrast, the critical distance for Gamma-ray bursts is of order 1-kpc. In spite of the high energy effects potentially involved, the geological record provides no clear-cut evidence for any historic supernova induced mass extinctions and/or strong climate change episodes. This, however, is mostly a reflection of their being numerous possible (terrestrial and astronomical) forcing mechanisms acting upon the biosphere and the difficulty of distinguishing between competing scenarios. Key to resolving this situation, it is suggested, is the development of supernova specific extinction and climate change linked ecological models. Moving to the future, we estimate that over the remaining lifetime of the biosphere (˜2 Gyr) the Earth might experience 1 GRB and 20 supernova detonations within their respective harmful threat ranges. There are currently at least 12 potential pre-supernova systems within 1-kpc of the Sun. Of these systems IK Pegasi is the closest Type Ia pre-supernova candidate and Betelgeuse is the closest potential Type IIsupernova candidate. We review in some detail the past, present and future behavior of these two systems. Developing a detailed evolutionary model we find that IK Pegasi will likely not detonate until some 1.9 billion years hence, and that it affords absolutely no threat to Earth's biosphere. Betelgeuse is the closest, reasonably well understood, pre-supernova candidate to the Sun at the present epoch, and may undergo detonation any time within the next several million years. The stand-off distance of Betelgeuse at the time of its detonation is estimated to fall

The Supernova Science Center (SNSC) was founded in 2001 to carry out theoretical and computational research leading to a better understanding of supernovae and related transients. The SNSC, a four-institutional collaboration, included scientists from LANL, LLNL, the University of Arizona (UA), and the University of California at Santa Cruz (UCSC). Intitially, the SNSC was funded for three years of operation, but in 2004 an opportunity was provided to submit a renewal proposal for two years. That proposal was funded and subsequently, at UCSC, a one year no-cost extension was granted. The total operational time of the SNSC was thus July 15, 2001 - July 15, 2007. This document summarizes the research and findings of the SNSC and provides a cummulative publication list.

Scientists using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory have witnessed a cosmic rite of passage, the transition from a supernova to a supernova remnant, a process that has never been seen in much detail until now, leaving it poorly defined. A supernova is a massive star explosion; the remnant is the beautiful glowing shell that evolves afterwards. When does a supernova become supernova remnant? When does the shell appear and what powers its radiant glow? A science team led by Dr. Stefan Immler of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., has taken a fresh look at a supernova that exploded in 1970, called SN 1970G, just off the handle of the Big Dipper. This is the oldest supernova ever seen by X-ray telescopes. Chandra X-ray Image of SN 1970G Chandra X-ray Image of SN 1970G "Some astronomers have thought there's a moment when the supernova remnant magically turns on years after the supernova itself has faded away, when the shock wave of the explosion finally hits and lights up the interstellar medium," said Immler. "By contrast, our results show that a new supernova quickly and seamlessly evolves into a supernova remnant. The star's own debris, and not the interstellar medium gas, fuels the remnant." These results appear in The Astrophysical Journal, co-authored by Dr. Kip Kuntz, also of Goddard. They support previous Chandra observations of SN 1987A by Dr. Sangwook Park of Penn State. Using new data from Chandra and archived data from the European-led ROSAT and XMM-Newton observatories, Immler and Kuntz pieced together how SN 1970G evolved over the years. They found telltale signs of a supernova remnant - bright X-ray light - yet no evidence of interstellar gas, even across a distance around the site of the explosion 35 times larger than our solar system. Instead, the material that is heated by the supernova shock to glow in X-ray light, what we call the remnant, is from the stellar wind of the star itself and not distant gas in the interstellar medium. This

Ames Research Center and UCSC have been working on the development of a Mid IR Camera for the KAO in order to search for extra galactic supernovae. The development of the camera and its associated data reduction software have been successfully completed. Spectral Imaging of the Orion Bar at 6.2 and 7.8 microns demonstrates the derotation and data reduction software which was developed.

The neutrinos from a type IIsupernova provide perhaps our best opportunity to probe cosmologically interesting muon and/or tauon neutrino masses. This is because matter enhanced neutrino oscillations can lead to an anomalously hot νe spectrum, and thus to enhanced charged current cross sections in terrestrial detectors. Two recently proposed supernova neutrino observatories, OMNIS and LAND, will detect neutrons spalled from target nuclei by neutral and charged current neutrino interactions. As this signal is not flavor specific, it is not immediately clear whether a convincing neutrino oscillation signal can be extracted from such experiments. To address this issue we examine the responses of a series of possible light and heavy mass targets, 9Be,23Na,35Cl, and 208Pb. We find that strategies for detecting oscillations which use only neutron count rates are problematic at best, even if cross sections are determined by ancillary experiments. Plausible uncertainties in supernova neutrino spectra tend to obscure rate enhancements due to oscillations. However, in the case of 208Pb, a signal emerges that is largely flavor specific and extraordinarily sensitive to the νe temperature, the emission of two neutrons. This signal and its flavor specificity are associated with the strength and location of the first-forbidden responses for neutral and charge current reactions, aspects of the 208Pb neutrino cross section that have not been discussed previously. Hadronic spin transfer experiments might be helpful in confirming some of the nuclear structure physics underlying our conclusions.

Supernovae are the brightest explosions in the universe. Supernovae in our Galaxy, rare and happening only every few centuries, have probably been observed since the beginnings of mankind. At first they were interpreted as religious omens but in the last half millennium they have increasingly been used to study the cosmos and our place in it. Tycho Brahe deduced from his observations of the famous supernova in 1572, that the stars, in contrast to the widely believe Aristotelian doctrine, were not immutable. More than 400 years after Tycho made his paradigm changing discovery using SN 1572, and some 60 years after supernovae had been identified as distant dying stars, two teams changed the view of the world again using supernovae. The found that the Universe was accelerating in its expansion, a conclusion that could most easily be explained if more than 70% of the Universe was some previously un-identified form of matter now often referred to as `Dark Energy'. Beyond their prominent role as tools to gauge our place in the Universe, supernovae themselves have been studied well over the past 75 years. We now know that there are two main physical causes of these cataclysmic events. One of these channels is the collapse of the core of a massive star. The observationally motivated classes Type II, Type Ib and Type Ic have been attributed to these events. This thesis, however is dedicated to the second group of supernovae, the thermonuclear explosions of degenerate carbon and oxygen rich material and lacking hydrogen - called Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia). White dwarf stars are formed at the end of a typical star's life when nuclear burning ceases in the core, the outer envelope is ejected, with the degenerate core typically cooling for eternity. Theory predicts that such stars will self ignite when close to 1.38 Msun (called the Chandrasekhar Mass). Most stars however leave white dwarfs with 0.6 Msun, and no star leaves a remnant as heavy as 1.38 M! sun, which suggests

A long-standing problem in supernova physics is how to measure the total energy and temperature of {nu}{sub {mu}}, {nu}{sub {tau}}, {bar {nu}}{sub {mu}}, and {bar {nu}}{sub {tau}}. While of the highest importance, this is very difficult because these flavors only have neutral-current detector interactions. We propose that neutrino-proton elastic scattering, {nu} + p {yields} {nu} + p, can be used for the detection of supernova neutrinos in scintillator detectors. It should be emphasized immediately that the dominant signal is on free protons. Though the proton recoil kinetic energy spectrum is soft, with T{sub p} {approx_equal} 2E{sub {nu}}{sup 2}/M{sub p}, and the scintillation light output from slow, heavily ionizing protons is quenched, the yield above a realistic threshold is nearly as large as that from {bar {nu}}{sub e} + p {yields} e{sup +} + n. In addition, the measured proton spectrum is related to the incident neutrino spectrum. The ability to detect this signal would give detectors like KamLAND and Borexino a crucial and unique role in the quest to detect supernova neutrinos.

Spectral calculations show that a model based on the thermonuclear explosion of a degenerate carbon/oxygen white dwarf provides excellent agreement with observations of Type Ia supernovae. Identification of suitable evolutionary progenitors remains a severe problem. General problems with estimation of supernova rates are outlined and the origin of Type Ia supernovae from double degenerate systems are discussed in the context of new rates of explosion per H band luminosity, the lack of observed candidates, and the likely presence of H in the vicinity of some SN Ia events. Re-examination of the problems of triggering Type Ia by accretion of hydrogen from a companion shows that there may be an avenue involving cataclysmic variables, especially if extreme hibernation occurs. Novae may channel accreting white dwarfs to a unique locus in accretion rate/mass space. Systems that undergo secular evolution to higher mass transfer rates could lead to just the conditions necessary for a Type Ia explosion. Tests involving fluorescence or absorption in a surrounding circumstellar medium and the detection of hydrogen stripped from a companion, which should appear at low velocity inside the white dwarf ejecta, are suggested. Possible observational confirmation of the former is described.

High surface density, rapidly star-forming galaxies are observed to have ≈50-100 km s-1 line of sight velocity dispersions, which are much higher than expected from supernova driving alone, but may arise from large-scale gravitational instabilities. Using three-dimensional simulations of local regions of the interstellar medium, we explore the impact of high velocity dispersions that arise from these disk instabilities. Parametrizing disks by their surface densities and epicyclic frequencies, we conduct a series of simulations that probe a broad range of conditions. Turbulence is driven purely horizontally and on large scales, neglecting any energy input from supernovae. We find that such motions lead to strong global outflows in the highly compact disks that were common at high redshifts, but weak or negligible mass loss in the more diffuse disks that are prevalent today. Substantial outflows are generated if the one-dimensional horizontal velocity dispersion exceeds ≈35 km s-1, as occurs in the dense disks that have star-formation rate (SFR) densities above ≈0.1 M⊙ yr-1 kpc-2. These outflows are triggered by a thermal runaway, arising from the inefficient cooling of hot material coupled with successive heating from turbulent driving. Thus, even in the absence of stellar feedback, a critical value of the SFR density for outflow generation can arise due to a turbulent heating instability. This suggests that in strongly self-gravitating disks, outflows may be enhanced by, but need not caused by, energy input from supernovae.

Spectral observations of the massive colliding wind binary Eta Carinae show phase-dependent variations, in intensity and velocity, of numerous helium emission and absorption lines throughout the entire 5.54-yr orbit. Approaching periastron, the 3D structure of the wind-wind interaction region (WWIR) gets highly distorted due to the eccentric (e ˜ 0.9) binary orbit. The secondary star (ηB) at these phases is located deep within the primary's dense wind photosphere. The combination of these effects is thought to be the cause of the particularly interesting features observed in the helium lines at periastron. We perform 3D radiative transfer simulations of η Car's interacting winds at periastron. Using the SIMPLEX radiative transfer algorithm, we post-process output from 3D smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulations of the inner 150 au of the η Car system for two different primary star mass-loss rates (dot{M}_{η A}). Using previous results from simulations at apastron as a guide for the initial conditions, we compute 3D helium ionization maps. We find that, for higher dot{M}_{η A}, ηB He0+-ionizing photons are not able to penetrate into the pre-shock primary wind. He+ due to ηB is only present in a thin layer along the leading arm of the WWIR and in a small region close to the stars. Lowering dot{M}_{η A} allows ηB's ionizing photons to reach the expanding unshocked secondary wind on the apastron side of the system, and create a low fraction of He+ in the pre-shock primary wind. With apastron on our side of the system, our results are qualitatively consistent with the observed variations in strength and radial velocity of η Car's helium emission and absorption lines, which helps better constrain the regions where these lines arise.

We present the discovery and follow-up observations of SN 2008jb, a core-collapse supernova in the southern dwarf irregular galaxy ESO 302-14 (M{sub B} = -15.3 mag) at 9.6 Mpc. This nearby transient was missed by galaxy-targeted surveys and was only found in archival optical images obtained by the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey and the All-Sky Automated Survey. The well-sampled archival photometry shows that SN 2008jb was detected shortly after explosion and reached a bright optical maximum, V{sub max} {approx_equal} 13.6 mag (M{sub V,max} {approx_equal} -16.5). The shape of the light curve shows a plateau of {approx}100 days, followed by a drop of {approx}1.4 mag in the V band to a slow decline with an approximate {sup 56}Co decay slope. The late-time light curve is consistent with 0.04 {+-} 0.01 M{sub Sun} of {sup 56}Ni synthesized in the explosion. A spectrum of the supernova obtained two years after explosion shows a broad, boxy H{alpha} emission line, which is unusual for normal Type II-Plateau supernovae at late times. We detect the supernova in archival Spitzer and WISE images obtained 8-14 months after explosion, which show clear signs of warm (600-700 K) dust emission. The dwarf irregular host galaxy, ESO 302-14, has a low gas-phase oxygen abundance, 12 + log(O/H) = 8.2 ({approx}1/5 Z{sub Sun }), similar to those of the Small Magellanic Cloud and the hosts of long gamma-ray bursts and luminous core-collapse supernovae. This metallicity is one of the lowest among local ({approx}< 10 Mpc) supernova hosts. We study the host environment using GALEX far-UV, R-band, and H{alpha} images and find that the supernova occurred in a large star formation complex. The morphology of the H{alpha} emission appears as a large shell (R {approx_equal} 350 pc) surrounding the FUV and optical emission. Using the H{alpha}-to-FUV ratio and FUV and R-band luminosities, we estimate an age of {approx}9 Myr and a total mass of {approx}2 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 5} M{sub Sun

Violent eruptions, and consequently major mass loss, are a common feature of the so–called Luminous Blue Variable (LBV) stars. During major eruptive episodes LBVs mimic the behavior of real type IIn supernovae (SNe), showing comparable radiated energy and similar spectroscopic properties. For this reason these events are frequently labelled as SN impostors. Type IIn SN spectra are characterized by the presence of prominent narrow Balmer lines in emission. In most cases, SNe IIn arise from massive stars (M>8{sub ⊙}) exploding in a dense H–rich circumstellar medium (CSM), produced by progenitor’s mass loss prior to the SN explosion. Although the mechanisms triggering these eruptions are still unknown, recently we had direct proofs of the connection between very massive stars, their eruptions and ejecta-CSM interacting SNe. SNe 2006jc, 2010mc, 2011ht and the controversial SN 2009ip are famous cases in which we observed the explosion of the star months to years after major outbursts. In this context, the case of a recent transient event, LSQ13zm, is extremely interesting since we observed an outburst just ∼3 weeks before the terminal SN explosion. All of this may suggest that SN impostors occasionally herald true SN explosions. Nonetheless, there are several cases where major eruptions are followed by a quiescent phase in the LBV life. The impostor SN 2007sv is one of these cases, since it showed a single outburst event. Its photometric (a relatively faint absolute magnitude at the maximum) and spectroscopic properties (low velocity and temperature of the ejecta, and the absence of the typical elements produced in the explosive nucleosynthesis) strongly suggest that SN 2007sv was the giant eruption of an LBV, which has then returned in a quiescent stage.

Violent eruptions, and consequently major mass loss, are a common feature of the so-called Luminous Blue Variable (LBV) stars. During major eruptive episodes LBVs mimic the behavior of real type IIn supernovae (SNe), showing comparable radiated energy and similar spectroscopic properties. For this reason these events are frequently labelled as SN impostors. Type IIn SN spectra are characterized by the presence of prominent narrow Balmer lines in emission. In most cases, SNe IIn arise from massive stars (M>8⊙) exploding in a dense H-rich circumstellar medium (CSM), produced by progenitor's mass loss prior to the SN explosion. Although the mechanisms triggering these eruptions are still unknown, recently we had direct proofs of the connection between very massive stars, their eruptions and ejecta-CSM interacting SNe. SNe 2006jc, 2010mc, 2011ht and the controversial SN 2009ip are famous cases in which we observed the explosion of the star months to years after major outbursts. In this context, the case of a recent transient event, LSQ13zm, is extremely interesting since we observed an outburst just ˜3 weeks before the terminal SN explosion. All of this may suggest that SN impostors occasionally herald true SN explosions. Nonetheless, there are several cases where major eruptions are followed by a quiescent phase in the LBV life. The impostor SN 2007sv is one of these cases, since it showed a single outburst event. Its photometric (a relatively faint absolute magnitude at the maximum) and spectroscopic properties (low velocity and temperature of the ejecta, and the absence of the typical elements produced in the explosive nucleosynthesis) strongly suggest that SN 2007sv was the giant eruption of an LBV, which has then returned in a quiescent stage.

The development and application of the cryogenic wind tunnel concept at the Langley Research Center are described. Particular attention is given to the low-speed cryogenic tunnel and the pilot transonic cryogenic tunnel. The major conclusions with respect to the operation and performance of the pilot transonic cryogenic tunnel after almost 4000 h of operation at cryogenic temperatures are that: (1) purging, cooldown, and warm-up times are acceptable and can be predicted with good accuracy, and that (2) the quantity of liquid nitrogen required for cooldown and running can be predicted with good accuracy. The U.S. National Transonic Facility is described in detail.

The neutrino burst from supernova 1987A detected by Mont Blanc, Kamiokande II, IMB, and Baksan have been studied by Jurkevich's mathematical technique of search for periodicities. It is found that all the data exhibit 11 +/- 0.2 ms period. There are also other periods, but they are almost exact multiples of 11 ms. It is suggested that the 11 ms period is the pulsation period of the neutron core of the supernova remnant. From the observed period of neutrino data it is also possible to predict the masses of the neutrinos.

The Nearby Supernova Factory is an experiment designed to collect data on more Type Ia supernovae than have ever been studied in a single project before, and in so doing, to answer some fundamental questions about the nature of the universe. Type Ia supernovae are extraordinarily bright, remarkably uniform objects which make excellent "standard candles" for measuring the expansion rate of the universe. However, such stellar explosions are very rare, occurring only a couple of times per millenium in a typical galaxy, and remaining bright enough to detect only for a few weeks. Previous studies of Type Ia supernovae led to the discovery of the mysterious "dark energy" that is causing the universe to expand at an accelerating rate. To reduce the statistical uncertainties in previous experimental data, extensive spectral and photometric monitoring of more Type Ia supernovae is required. The SNfactory collaboration has built an automated system consisting of specialized software and custom-built hardware that systematically searches the sky for new supernovae, screens potential candidates, then performs multiple spectral and photometric observations on each supernova. These observations are stored in a database to be made available to supernova researchers world-wide for further study and analysis [copied from http://snfactory.lbl.gov/snf/snf-about.html]. Users must register and agree to the open access honor system. Finding charts are in FITS format and may not be accessible through normal browser settings.

We present new 3D numerical simulations for Kepler's supernova remnant. In this work we revisit the possibility that the asymmetric shape of the remnant in X-rays is the product of a Type Ia supernova explosion which occurs inside the wind bubble previously created by an AGB companion star. Due to the large peculiar velocity of the system, the interaction of the strong AGB wind with the interstellar medium results in a bow shock structure. In this new model we propose that the AGB wind is anisotropic, with properties such as mass-loss rate and density having a latitude dependence, and that the orientation of the polar axis of the AGB star is not aligned with the direction of motion. The ejecta from the Type Ia supernova explosion is modelled using a power-law density profile, and we let the remnant evolve for 400 yr. We computed synthetic X-ray maps from the numerical results. We find that the estimated size and peculiar X-ray morphology of Kepler's supernova remnant are well reproduced by considering an AGB mass-loss rate of 10-5 M⊙ yr-1, a wind terminal velocity of 10 km s-1, an ambient medium density of 10-3 cm-3 and an explosion energy of 7 × 1050 erg. The obtained total X-ray luminosity of the remnant in this model reaches 6 × 1050 erg, which is within a factor of 2 of the observed value, and the time evolution of the luminosity shows a rate of decrease in recent decades of ˜2.4 per cent yr-1 that is consistent with the observations.

A possible explanation of the time correlations between the data from underground detectors (Baksan telescope, LSD, IMB, Kamiokande II) and from the Rome and Maryland gravitational-wave antennas obtained during the Supernova 1987A explosion is proposed. It is shown that the synchronization of the events recorded by various underground facilities could be produced by gravitational radiation from the Supernova.

Feedback from massive stars is believed to play a critical role in driving galactic super-winds that enrich the intergalactic medium and shape the galaxy mass function, mass-metallicity relation and other global galaxy properties. In previous papers, we have introduced new numerical methods for implementing stellar feedback on sub-giant molecular cloud (sub-GMC) through galactic scales in numerical simulations of galaxies; the key physical processes include radiation pressure in the ultraviolet through infrared, supernovae (Type I and Type II), stellar winds ('fast' O star through 'slow' asymptotic giant branch winds), and H II photoionization. Here, we show that these feedback mechanisms drive galactic winds with outflow rates as high as ˜10-20 times the galaxy star formation rate. The mass-loading efficiency (wind mass-loss rate divided by the star formation rate) scales roughly as ? (where Vc is the galaxy circular velocity), consistent with simple momentum-conservation expectations. We use our suite of simulations to study the relative contribution of each feedback mechanism to the generation of galactic winds in a range of galaxy models, from Small Magellanic Cloud like dwarfs and Milky Way (MW) analogues to z˜ 2 clumpy discs. In massive, gas-rich systems (local starbursts and high-z galaxies), radiation pressure dominates the wind generation. By contrast, for MW-like spirals and dwarf galaxies the gas densities are much lower and sources of shock-heated gas such as supernovae and stellar winds dominate the production of large-scale outflows. In all of our models, however, the winds have a complex multiphase structure that depends on the interaction between multiple feedback mechanisms operating on different spatial scales and time-scales: any single feedback mechanism fails to reproduce the winds observed. We use our simulations to provide fitting functions to the wind mass loading and velocities as a function of galaxy properties, for use in cosmological

Examination of the interaction between supernova (SN) ejecta and the various environments in which the explosive event might occur shows that only a small fraction of the many SNs produce observable supernova remnants (SNRs). This fraction, which is found to depend weakly upon the lower mass limit of the SN progenitors, and more strongly on the specfic characteristics of the associated interstellar medium, decreases from approximately 15 percent near the galctic center to 10 percent at Rgal approximately 10 kpc and drops nearly to zero for Rgal 15 kpc. Generally, whether a SNR is detectable is determined by the density of the ambient interstellar medium in which it is embeeede. The presence of large, low density cavities arpund stellar associations due to the combined effects of stellar winds and supernova shells strongly suggests that a large portion of the detectable SNRs have runway stars as their progenitors. These results explain the differences between the substantially larger SN rates in the galaxy derived both from pulsar statistics and from observations of SN events in external galaxies, when compared to the substantially smaller SN rates derived form galactic SNR statistics.

The black hole at the center of the galaxy is a powerful lens for supernova neutrinos. In the very special circumstance of a supernova near the extended line of sight from Earth to the galactic center, lensing could dramatically enhance the neutrino flux at Earth and stretch the neutrino pulse.

In a dense neutrino medium neutrinos can experience collective flavor transformation through the neutrino-neutrino forward scattering. In this talk we present some basic features of collective neutrino flavor transformation in the context in core-collapse supernovae. We also give some qualitative arguments for why and when this interesting phenomenon may occur and how it may affect supernova nucleosynthesis.

We develop a method to measure the strength of the absorption features in type Ia supernova (SN Ia) spectra and use it to make a quantitative comparisons between the spectra of type Ia supernovae at low and high redshifts. In this case study, we apply the method to 12 high-redshift (0.212 ≤ z ≤ 0.912) SNe Ia observed by the Supernova Cosmology Project. Through measurements of the strengths of these features and of the blueshift of the absorption minimum in Ca ii H&K, we show that the spectra of the high-redshift SNe Ia are quantitatively similar to spectra of nearby SNe Ia (z < 0.15). One supernova in our high redshift sample, SN 2002fd at z = 0.279, is found to have spectral characteristics that are associated with peculiar SN 1991T/SN 1999aa-like supernovae.

We develop a method to measure the strength of the absorption features in type Ia supernova (SN Ia) spectra and use it to make a quantitative comparisons between the spectra of type Ia supernovae at low and high redshifts. In this case study, we apply the method to 12 high-redshift (0.212 = z = 0.912) SNe Ia observed by the Supernova Cosmology Project. Through measurements of the strengths of these features and of the blueshift of theabsorption minimum in Ca ii H&K, we show that the spectra of the high-redshift SNe Ia are quantitatively similar to spectra of nearby SNe Ia (z< 0.15). One supernova in our high redshift sample, SN 2002fd at z = 0.279, is found to have spectral characteristics that are associated with peculiar SN 1991T/SN 1999aa-like supernovae.

Observations of Eta Carina have been combined with three-dimensional smoothed-particle hydrodynamic (3DSPH) simulations providing considerable insight on this >100 Mo binary that may become near-term supernovae, a GRB, or a staid WR binary. Understanding how this system loses 1e-3 Mo/yr, 500 km/s will provide new understanding of massive stellar evolution, including the first progenitors of GRBs, supernovae and pseudo-supernovae. The 3DSPH models extend to 100 semi-major axes ( 2000 AU, <2” at 2300 pc). At these scales, HST/STIS resolves [Fe III] and [Fe II] spatial-velocity structures that change with orbital phase and position angle. Radiative transfer models combining temperature and density with EtaCar B's FUV lead to synthetic spectroimages of extended wind-wind interfaces. Model X-ray light curves provide orbital inclination and location of periastron but cannot determine sky PA. Synthetic spectro-images generated for a range of possible binary orientations lead to best-fit when the orbital axis is closely aligned with the Homunculus axis of symmetry, and periastron with EtaCar B on the far side of EtaCar A. VLTI/AMBER measures of the continuum, extended hydrogen and helium structures of EtaCar A demonstrate that, across periastron, EtaCar B penetrates the primary extended atmosphere. Spectroimagery observations of He 10830 by VLT/CRIRES show blue-shifted emission extending to -1500 km/s, consistent with wind-wind structures driven by the companion's fast wind. The 2009.0 RXTE X-ray recovery and return of the spectroscopic high state was much sooner than the 1998.0 and 2003.5 recoveries. What has changed? Suggestions range from a drop in the primary wind, changes in the secondary wind or line-of-sight shifting of the wind-wind boundary. We will discuss potential observational tests based upon predictions by 3DSPH models.

We present late-time optical and mid-infrared observations of the Type IIsupernova 2003gd in the galaxy NGC 628. Mid-infrared excesses consistent with cooling dust in the ejecta are observed 499 to 678 days after outburst and are accompanied by increasing optical extinction and growing asymmetries in the emission-line profiles. Radiative-transfer models show that up to 0.02 solar masses of dust has formed within the ejecta, beginning as early as 250 days after outburst. These observations show that dust formation in supernova ejecta can be efficient and that massive-star supernovae could have been major dust producers throughout the history of the universe. PMID:16763110

We report Swift/Burst Alert Telescope survey observations of the Tycho's supernova remnant, performed over a period of 104 months since the mission's launch. The remnant is detected with high significance (>10σ) below 50 keV. We detect significant hard X-ray emission in the 60-85 keV band, above the continuum level predicted by a simple synchrotron model. The location of the observed excess is consistent with line emission from radioactive titanium-44, so far reported only for Type IIsupernova explosions. We discuss the implications of these results in the context of the galactic supernova rate, and nucleosynthesis in Type Ia supernova.

Context. The origin of molecular protostellar jets and their role in extracting angular momentum from the accreting system are important open questions in star formation research. In the first paper of this series we showed that a dusty magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) disk wind appeared promising to explain the pattern of H2 temperature and collimation in the youngest jets. Aims: We wish to see whether the high-quality H2O emission profiles of low-mass protostars, observed for the first time by the HIFI spectrograph on board the Herschel satellite, remain consistent with the MHD disk wind hypothesis, and which constraints they would set on the underlying disk properties. Methods: We present synthetic H2O line profiles predictions for a typical MHD disk wind solution with various values of disk accretion rate, stellar mass, extension of the launching area, and view angle. We compare them in terms of line shapes and intensities with the HIFI profiles observed by the WISH key program towards a sample of 29 low-mass Class 0 and Class 1 protostars. Results: A dusty MHD disk wind launched from 0.2-0.6 AU AU to 3-25 AU can reproduce to a remarkable degree the observed shapes and intensities of the broad H2O component observed in low-mass protostars, both in the fundamental 557 GHz line and in more excited lines. Such a model also readily reproduces the observed correlation of 557 GHz line luminosity with envelope density, if the infall rate at 1000 AU is 1-3 times the disk accretion rate in the wind ejection region. It is also compatible with the typical disk size and bolometric luminosity in the observed targets. However, the narrower line profiles in Class 1 sources suggest that MHD disk winds in these sources, if present, would have to be slower and/or less water rich than in Class 0 sources. Conclusions: MHD disk winds appear as a valid (though not unique) option to consider for the origin of the broad H2O component in low-mass protostars. ALMA appears ideally suited to

The Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) and the cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies are the pillars of modern cosmology. It has recently been suggested that axion which is a dark matter candidate in the framework of the standard model could condensate in the early universe and induce photon cooling before the epoch of the photon last scattering. Although this may render a solution to the overproduction problem of primordial 7Li abundance, there arises another serious difficulty of overproducing D abundance. We propose a hybrid dark matter model with both axions and relic supersymmetric (SUSY) particles to solve both overproduction problems of the primordial D and 7Li abundances simultaneously. The BBN also serves to constrain the nature of neutrinos. Considering non-thermal photons produced in the decay of the heavy sterile neutrinos due to the magnetic moment, we explore the cosmological constraint on the strength of neutrino magnetic moment consistent with the observed light element abundances. Core-collapse supernovae eject huge flux of energetic neutrinos which affect explosive nucleosynthesis of rare isotopes like 7Li, 11B, 92Nb, 138La and 180Ta and r-process elements. Several isotopes depend strongly on the neutrino flavor oscillation due to the Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein (MSW) effect. Combining the recent experimental constraints on θ13 with predicted and observed supernova-produced abundance ratio 11B/7Li encapsulated in the presolar grains from the Murchison meteorite, we show a marginal preference for an inverted neutrino mass hierarchy. We also discuss supernova relic neutrinos (SRN) that may indicate the softness of the equation of state (EoS) of nuclear matter and adiabatic conditions of the neutrino oscillation.

In this paper, I'll give a general introduction to Supernova Theory, beginning with the presupernova evolution and ending with the later stages of the explosion. This will be distilled from a colloquium type of talk. It is necessary to have the whole supernova picture in one's mind's eye when diving into some of its nooks and crannies, as it is quite a mess of contradictory ingredients. We will have some discussion of supernova 1987a, but will keep our discussion more general. Second, we'll look at the infall and bounce of the star, seeing why it goes unstable, what dynamics it follows as it collapses, and how and why it bounces back. From there, we will go on to look at the equation of state (EOS) in more detail. We'll consider the cases T = 0 and T > 0. We'll focus on /rho/ < /rho//sub 0/, and then /rho/ > /rho//sub 0/ and the EOS of neutron stars, and whether or not they contain cores of strange matter. There are many things we could discuss here and not enough time. If I had more lectures, the remaining time would focus on two more questions of special interest to nuclear physicists: the electron capture reactions and neutrino transport. If time permitted, we'd have some discussion of the nucleosynthetic reactions in the explosion's debris as well. However, we cannot cover such material adequately, and I have chosen these topics because they are analytically tractable, pedagogically useful, and rather important. 23 refs., 14 figs., 3 tabs.

We predict cosmological constraints for forthcoming surveys using superluminous supernovae (SLSNe) as standardizable candles. Due to their high peak luminosity, these events can be observed to high redshift (z ˜ 3), opening up new possibilities to probe the Universe in the deceleration epoch. We describe our methodology for creating mock Hubble diagrams for the Dark Energy Survey (DES), the `Search Using DECam for Superluminous Supernovae' (SUDSS) and a sample of SLSNe possible from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), exploring a range of standardization values for SLSNe. We include uncertainties due to gravitational lensing and marginalize over possible uncertainties in the magnitude scale of the observations (e.g. uncertain absolute peak magnitude, calibration errors). We find that the addition of only ≃100 SLSNe from SUDSS to 3800 Type Ia Supernovae (SNe Ia) from DES can improve the constraints on w and Ωm by at least 20 per cent (assuming a flat wCDM universe). Moreover, the combination of DES SNe Ia and 10 000 LSST-like SLSNe can measure Ωm and w to 2 and 4 per cent, respectively. The real power of SLSNe becomes evident when we consider possible temporal variations in w(a), giving possible uncertainties of only 2, 5 and 14 per cent on Ωm, w0 and wa, respectively, from the combination of DES SNe Ia, LSST-like SLSNe and Planck. These errors are competitive with predicted Euclid constraints, indicating a future role for SLSNe for probing the high-redshift Universe.

The Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) and the cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies are the pillars of modern cosmology. It has recently been suggested that axion which is a dark matter candidate in the framework of the standard model could condensate in the early universe and induce photon cooling before the epoch of the photon last scattering. Although this may render a solution to the overproduction problem of primordial {sup 7}Li abundance, there arises another serious difficulty of overproducing D abundance. We propose a hybrid dark matter model with both axions and relic supersymmetric (SUSY) particles to solve both overproduction problems of the primordial D and {sup 7}Li abundances simultaneously. The BBN also serves to constrain the nature of neutrinos. Considering non-thermal photons produced in the decay of the heavy sterile neutrinos due to the magnetic moment, we explore the cosmological constraint on the strength of neutrino magnetic moment consistent with the observed light element abundances. Core-collapse supernovae eject huge flux of energetic neutrinos which affect explosive nucleosynthesis of rare isotopes like {sup 7}Li, {sup 11}B, {sup 92}Nb, {sup 138}La and {sup 180}Ta and r-process elements. Several isotopes depend strongly on the neutrino flavor oscillation due to the Mikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein (MSW) effect. Combining the recent experimental constraints on θ{sub 13} with predicted and observed supernova-produced abundance ratio {sup 11}B/{sup 7}Li encapsulated in the presolar grains from the Murchison meteorite, we show a marginal preference for an inverted neutrino mass hierarchy. We also discuss supernova relic neutrinos (SRN) that may indicate the softness of the equation of state (EoS) of nuclear matter and adiabatic conditions of the neutrino oscillation.

We report the discovery of two supernova silica (SiO{sub 2}) grains in the primitive carbonaceous chondrites LaPaZ 031117 and Grove Mountains 021710. Only five presolar silica grains have been previously reported from laboratory measurements but they all exhibit enrichments in {sup 17}O relative to solar, indicating origins in the envelopes of asymptotic giant branch stars. The two SiO{sub 2} grains identified in this study are characterized by moderate enrichments in {sup 18}O relative to solar, indicating that they originated in Type IIsupernova ejecta. If compared to theoretical models, the oxygen isotopic compositions of these grains can be reproduced by mixing of different supernova zones. While both theoretical models of grain condensation and recent NASA Spitzer Space Telescope observations have suggested the presence of silica in supernova ejecta, no such grains had been identified, until now, in meteorites. The discovery of these two silica grains provides definitive evidence of the condensation of silica dust in supernova ejecta.

shortly after the explosion. X-rayChandra X-ray Image SN 1996cr was not detected by other major X-ray observatories in orbit - ROSAT and ASCA - around the time of explosion. Rather, it wasn't until several years later that it was detected as an X-ray source by Chandra (launched in 1999), and has become steadily brighter ever since. Previously, SN 1987A had been the only known supernova with an X-ray output observed to increase over time. "Supernovas that are close enough to be studied in detail like this are quite rare and may only appear once a decade, so we don't want to miss such an important opportunity for discovery," said Bauer. "It's a bit of a coup to find SN 1996cr like we did, and we could never have nailed it without the serendipitous data taken by all of these telescopes. We've truly entered a new era of `Internet astronomy'." People Who Read This Also Read... Chandra Data Reveal Rapidly Whirling Black Holes Dark Energy Found Stifling Growth in Universe Ghostly Glow Reveals a Hidden Class of Long-Wavelength Radio Emitters Jet Power and Black Hole Assortment Revealed in New Chandra Image The data, combined with theoretical work, has led the team to the following model. Before it exploded, the parent star cleared out a large cavity around it, either via a fast wind or an outburst from the star late in its life. Then, the blast wave from the explosion expanded relatively unimpeded into this cavity. Once the blast wave hit the dense material surrounding SN1996cr, the impact caused the system to glow brightly in X-ray and radio emission. The X-ray and radio emission from SN 1987A is fainter because the surrounding material is probably less compact. Astronomers think that both SN 1987A and SN 1996cr show evidence for these pre-explosion clear-outs by the star doomed to explode. Having two nearby examples suggests that this type of activity could be relatively common during the death of massive stars. "Not only does our work suggest that SN 1987A isn't as unusual as

We study the physics of core-collapse supernovae and the neutron stars they create. We study the microphysics of neutrino interactions and demonstrate the importance of two processes previously ignored in full supernova simulations: inelastic neutrino-nucleon scattering and nucleon-nucleon bremsstrahlung. We show that these processes dominate neutrino-electron scattering and electron-positron annihilation as thermalization and production mechanisms, respectively, for mu- and tau- neutrinos in regimes vital to emergent spectrum formation. In addition, we solve the general-relativistic steady- state eigenvalue problem of neutrino-driven protoneutron star winds, which immediately follow core-collapse supernova explosions. We provide velocity, density, temperature, and composition profiles and explore the systematics and structures generic to such a wind for a variety of protoneutron star characteristics. Furthermore, we derive the entropy, dynamical timescale, and compositions essential in assessing this site as a candidate for r-process nucleosynthesis. Finally, we construct dynamical models of core-collapse supernovae. We employ a full solution to the transport equation for each neutrino species, a realistic high- density nuclear equation of state, and explicit hydrodynamics. We present results from a set of different supernova progenitors. We vary the microphysics and nuclear equation of state and compare our results to those of other groups. We examine the electron-neutrino breakout phenomenon and address the importance of nucleon-nucleon bremsstrahlung and inelastic neutrino- electron scattering in μ and τ neutrino spectrum formation. We convolve the emergent spectra obtained in these models with terrestrial neutrino detectors and find that the electron-neutrino breakout burst can likely be observed and identified uniquely.

While undertaking a survey of velocity-resolved diffuse optical emission from the [S II] 6716 A line with the Wisconsin H-alpha Mapper, we have rediscovered the Antlia Supernova remnant, a 26 degree diameter remmant near the Gum Nebula that was originally detected in SHASSA (Southern H-alpha Sky Survey Atlas) by P. McCullough in 2002. The original discovery showed this remnant was associated with ¼ keV X-ray emission in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey, and argued that Antlia was potentially the closest remnant to the Sun. We will present an analysis of the H-alpha and [S II] lines in this direction: the ratio of these lines indicate the shell is consistent with being a supernova remnant and the velocities allow us to constrain its age. We discuss this remnant in the context of the evolution of the entire Gum Nebula region, noting that its proximity and age make it possible to search for geochemical evidence of this remnant on Earth. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation's REU program through NSF Award AST-1004881.

Following the observational and theoretical evidence that points at core-collapse supernovae (SNe) as major producers of dust, here we calculate the hydrodynamics of the matter reinserted within young and massive super stellar clusters under the assumption of gas and dust radiative cooling. The large SN rate expected in massive clusters allows for a continuous replenishment of dust immersed in the high temperature thermalized reinserted matter and warrants a stationary presence of dust within the cluster volume during the type II SN era. We first show that such a balance determines the range of the dust-to-gas-mass ratio, and thus the dust cooling law. We then search for the critical line that separates stationary cluster winds from the bimodal cases in the cluster mechanical luminosity (or cluster mass) versus cluster size parameter space. In the latter, strong radiative cooling reduces considerably the cluster wind mechanical energy output and affects particularly the cluster central regions, leading to frequent thermal instabilities that diminish the pressure and inhibit the exit of the reinserted matter. Instead, matter accumulates there and is expected to eventually lead to gravitational instabilities and to further stellar formation with the matter reinserted by former massive stars. The main outcome of the calculations is that the critical line is almost two orders of magnitude or more, depending on the assumed value of V {sub A∞}, lower than when only gas radiative cooling is applied. And thus, many massive clusters are predicted to enter the bimodal regime.

Following the observational and theoretical evidence that points at core-collapse supernovae (SNe) as major producers of dust, here we calculate the hydrodynamics of the matter reinserted within young and massive super stellar clusters under the assumption of gas and dust radiative cooling. The large SN rate expected in massive clusters allows for a continuous replenishment of dust immersed in the high temperature thermalized reinserted matter and warrants a stationary presence of dust within the cluster volume during the type II SN era. We first show that such a balance determines the range of the dust-to-gas-mass ratio, and thus the dust cooling law. We then search for the critical line that separates stationary cluster winds from the bimodal cases in the cluster mechanical luminosity (or cluster mass) versus cluster size parameter space. In the latter, strong radiative cooling reduces considerably the cluster wind mechanical energy output and affects particularly the cluster central regions, leading to frequent thermal instabilities that diminish the pressure and inhibit the exit of the reinserted matter. Instead, matter accumulates there and is expected to eventually lead to gravitational instabilities and to further stellar formation with the matter reinserted by former massive stars. The main outcome of the calculations is that the critical line is almost two orders of magnitude or more, depending on the assumed value of V A∞, lower than when only gas radiative cooling is applied. And thus, many massive clusters are predicted to enter the bimodal regime.

The Supernova Acceleration Probe (SNAP) will use Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) as distance indicators to measure the effect of dark energy on the expansion history of the Universe. (SNAP's weak-lensing program is described in a separate White Paper.) The experiment exploits supernova distance measurements up to their fundamental systematic limit; strict requirements on the monitoring of each supernova's properties leads to the need for a space-based mission. Results from pre-SNAP experiments, which characterize fundamental SN Ia properties, will be used to optimize the SNAP observing strategy to yield data, which minimize both systematic and statistical uncertainties. With early R&D funding, we have achieved technological readiness and the collaboration is poised to begin construction. Pre-JDEM AO R&D support will further reduce technical and cost risk. Specific details on the SNAP mission can be found in Aldering et al. (2004, 2005). The primary goal of the SNAP supernova program is to provide a dataset which gives tight constraints on parameters which characterize the dark-energy, e.g. w{sub 0} and w{sub a} where w(a) = w{sub 0} + w{sub a}(1-a). SNAP data can also be used to directly test and discriminate among specific dark energy models. We will do so by building the Hubble diagram of high-redshift supernovae, the same methodology used in the original discovery of the acceleration of the expansion of the Universe that established the existence of dark energy (Perlmutter et al. 1998; Garnavich et al. 1998; Riess et al. 1998; Perlmutter et al. 1999). The SNAP SN Ia program focuses on minimizing the systematic floor of the supernova method through the use of characterized supernovae that can be sorted into subsets based on subtle signatures of heterogeneity. Subsets may be defined based on host-galaxy morphology, spectral-feature strength and velocity, early-time behavior, inter alia. Independent cosmological analysis of each subset of ''like'' supernovae can be

Supernovae are thought to arise from two different physical processes. The cores of massive, short-lived stars undergo gravitational core collapse and typically eject a few solar masses during their explosion. These are thought to appear as type Ib/c and type IIsupernovae, and are associated with young stellar populations. In contrast, the thermonuclear detonation of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf, whose mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, is thought to produce type Ia supernovae. Such supernovae are observed in both young and old stellar environments. Here we report a faint type Ib supernova, SN 2005E, in the halo of the nearby isolated galaxy, NGC 1032. The 'old' environment near the supernova location, and the very low derived ejected mass ( approximately 0.3 solar masses), argue strongly against a core-collapse origin. Spectroscopic observations and analysis reveal high ejecta velocities, dominated by helium-burning products, probably excluding this as a subluminous or a regular type Ia supernova. We conclude that it arises from a low-mass, old progenitor, likely to have been a helium-accreting white dwarf in a binary. The ejecta contain more calcium than observed in other types of supernovae and probably large amounts of radioactive (44)Ti. PMID:20485429

Supernovae are thought to arise from two different physical processes. The cores of massive, short-lived stars undergo gravitational core collapse and typically eject a few solar masses during their explosion. These are thought to appear as type Ib/c and type IIsupernovae, and are associated with young stellar populations. In contrast, the thermonuclear detonation of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf, whose mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, is thought to produce type Ia supernovae. Such supernovae are observed in both young and old stellar environments. Here we report a faint type Ib supernova, SN 2005E, in the halo of the nearby isolated galaxy, NGC 1032. The `old' environment near the supernova location, and the very low derived ejected mass (~0.3 solar masses), argue strongly against a core-collapse origin. Spectroscopic observations and analysis reveal high ejecta velocities, dominated by helium-burning products, probably excluding this as a subluminous or a regular type Ia supernova. We conclude that it arises from a low-mass, old progenitor, likely to have been a helium-accreting white dwarf in a binary. The ejecta contain more calcium than observed in other types of supernovae and probably large amounts of radioactive 44Ti.

(Abstract only) We are developing a system of robotic telescopes for automatic recognition of Supernovas as well as other transient events in collaboration with the Puckett Supernova Search Team. At the SAS2014 meeting, the discovery program, SNARE, was first described. Since then, it has been continuously improved to handle searches under a wide variety of atmospheric conditions. Currently, two telescopes are used to build a reference library while searching for PSN with a partial library. Since data is taken every night without clouds, we must deal with varying atmospheric and high background illumination from the moon. Software is configured to identify a PSN, reshoot for verification with options to change the run plan to acquire photometric or spectrographic data. The telescopes are 24-inch CDK24, with Alta U230 cameras, one in CA and one in NM. Images and run plans are sent between sites so the CA telescope can search while photometry is done in NM. Our goal is to find bright PSNs with magnitude 17.5 or less which is the limit of our planned spectroscopy. We present results from our first automated PSN discoveries and plans for PSN data acquisition.

The Nearby Supernova Factory (SNfactory) is an ambitious project to find and study in detail approximately 300 nearby Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) at redshifts 0.03 < z < 0.08. This program will provide an exceptional data set of well-studied SNe in the nearby smooth Hubble flow that can be used as calibration for the current and future programs designed to use SNe to measure the cosmological parameters. The first key ingredient for this program is a reliable supply of Hubble-flow SNe systematically discovered in unprecedented numbers using the same techniques as those used in distant SNe searches. In 2002, 35 SNe were found using our test-bed pipeline for automated SN search and discovery. The pipeline uses images from the asteroid search conducted by the Near Earth Asteroid Tracking group at JPL. Improvements in our subtraction techniques and analysis have allowed us to increase our effective SN discovery rate to {approx}12 SNe/month in 2003.

We report results from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Cluster Supernova Survey with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) (PI: Perlmutter; see Dawson et al. AJ, 2009). We have introduced a novel approach to discover and follow Type Ia supernovae (SNeIa). With HST, we monitored 25 massive clusters (0.9 < z < 1.4) found by the RCS, XMM, IRAC, and RDCS surveys and conducted spectroscopic observations with the Keck, Subaru, and VLT telescopes. Sixteen SNe were discovered at 0.95 < z < 1.41, nine of which were in galaxy clusters (for a discussion of the rates, see K. Barbary, oral presentation at this meeting). The SNe in galaxy clusters are found primarily in early type galaxies in the cluster red-sequence that have been shown to be nearly dust-free and uniform populations (see poster presentation by Meyers et al.). The reduction and control of systematic error is an urgent task for the study of dark energy today (see Rubin et al. poster presentation), and we discuss how this unique SNe Ia data set reduces both statistical and more importantly systematic uncertainty at the highest redshifts. This work has been supported by the Office of Science, U.S. Department of Energy, through contract DE-AC02-05CH11231 and in part by NASA through grants associated with HST-GO-10496.

We report optical spectroscopy (range 370-910 nm) of six supernovae from the Backyard Observatory Supernova Search (BOSS) and the All-Sky Automated Survey for Supernovae (ASAS-SN) using the du Pont 2.5-m telescope (+ WFCCD) at Las Campanas Observatory on June 17 2016 UT. We performed a cross-correlation with a library of supernova spectra using the "Supernova Identification" code (SNID; Blondin and Tonry 2007, Ap.J.

We present analytical solutions for winds from galaxies with a Navarro-Frank-White (NFW) dark matter halo. We consider winds driven by energy and mass injection from multiple supernovae (SNe), as well as momentum injection due to radiation from a central black hole. We find that the wind dynamics depends on three velocity scales: (1) v_\\star ˜ (\\dot{E} / 2 \\dot{M})^{1/2} describes the effect of starburst activity, with \\dot{E} and \\dot{M} as energy and mass injection rate in a central region of radius R; (2) v • ~ (GM •/2R)1/2 for the effect of a central black hole of mass M • on gas at distance R; and (3) v_{s} =(GM_h / 2 {C}r_s)^{1/2}, which is closely related to the circular speed (vc ) for an NFW halo, where rs is the halo scale radius and {C} is a function of the halo concentration parameter. Our generalized formalism, in which we treat both energy and momentum injection from starbursts and radiation from the central active galactic nucleus (AGN), allows us to estimate the wind terminal speed to be (4v 2 sstarf + 6(Γ - 1)v • 2 - 4v 2 s )1/2, where Γ is the ratio of force due to radiation pressure to gravity of the central black hole. Our dynamical model also predicts the following: (1) winds from quiescent star-forming galaxies cannot escape from 1011.5 M ⊙ <= Mh <= 1012.5 M ⊙ galaxies; (2) circumgalactic gas at large distances from galaxies should be present for galaxies in this mass range; (3) for an escaping wind, the wind speed in low- to intermediate-mass galaxies is ~400-1000 km s-1, consistent with observed X-ray temperatures; and (4) winds from massive galaxies with AGNs at Eddington limit have speeds >~ 1000 km s-1. We also find that the ratio [2v 2 sstarf - (1 - Γ)v • 2]/v 2 c dictates the amount of gas lost through winds. Used in conjunction with an appropriate relation between M • and Mh and an appropriate opacity of dust grains in infrared (K band), this ratio has the attractive property of being minimum at a certain halo

I present first results from the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network (LCOGT) Supernova Key Project. LCOGT is a network of 11 robotic one and two meter telescopes spaced around the globe with imaging and spectroscopic capabilities. The supernova key project is a 3 year program to obtain lightcurves and spectra of at least 450 supernovae. About half are expected to be core-collapse supernovae, and half thermonuclear. We will start light curves and spectroscopy within hours of discovery, and focus on those SNe caught soon after explosion. The goals are fivefold: (1) observe supernovae soon after explosion to search for signs of their progenitors, (2) obtain a large homogeneous sample of supernovae for next generation cosmological studies, (3) obtain a large sample of supernovae for statistical studies comparing groups that are split into different populations, (4) obtain some of the first large samples of the recently discovered classes of rare and exotic explosions, (5) obtain the optical light curves and spectroscopy in support of studies at other wavelengths and using other facilities including UV observations, IR imaging and spectroscopy, host galaxy studies, high resolution spectroscopy, and late-time spectroscopy with large telescopes.

Nearby galaxy NGC 1569 hi-res Size hi-res: 1349 kb Credits: ESA, NASA and Peter Anders (Göttingen University Galaxy Evolution Group, Germany) Nearby galaxy NGC 1569 is a 'hotbed' of star birth activity The nearby dwarf galaxy NGC 1569 is a 'hotbed' of vigorous star birth activity which blows huge bubbles and super-bubbles that riddle the main body of the galaxy. The galaxy’s vigorous ‘star factories’ are also manufacturing brilliant blue star clusters. This galaxy had a sudden and relatively recent onset of star birth 25 million years ago, which subsided about the time the very earliest human ancestors appeared on Earth. In this new image, taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, the bubble structure is sculpted by the galactic super-winds and outflows caused by a colossal input of energy from collective supernova explosions that are linked with a massive episode of star birth. The bubble-like structures seen in this image are made of hydrogen gas that glows when hit by the fierce winds and radiation from hot young stars and is racked by supernovae shocks. The first supernovae blew up when the most massive stars reached the end of their lifetimes roughly 20-25 million years ago. The environment in NGC 1569 is still turbulent and the supernovae may not only deliver the gaseous raw material needed for the formation of further stars and star clusters, but also actually trigger their birth in the tortured swirls of gas. In this new image, taken with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, The bubble structure is sculpted by the galactic super-winds and outflows caused by a colossal input of energy from collective supernova explosions that are linked with a massive episode of star birth. Many open questions remain in astronomy as to how and when galaxies formed and how they evolved. Most of today's galaxies seem to have been already fully formed very early on in the history of the Universe (now corresponding to a large distance away from us), their formation

The Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS) is a cooperative effort between the world's neutrino detection experiments to spread the news that a star in our galaxy has just experienced a core-collapse event and is about to become a Type IISupernova. This project exploits the ~hours time difference between neutrinos promptly escaping the nascent supernova and photons which originate when the shock wave breaks through the stellar photosphere, to give the world a chance to get ready to observe such an exciting event at the earliest possible time. A coincidence trigger between experiments is used to eliminate potential local false alarms, allowing a rapid, automated alert.

Distant Type Ia and IIsupernovae (SNe) can serve as valuable probes of the history of the cosmic expansion and star formation, and provide important information on their progenitor models. At present, however, there are few observational constraints on the abundance of SNe at high redshifts. A major science driver for the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) is the study of very distant supernovae. In this paper we discuss strategies for finding and counting distant SNe by using repeat imaging of super-critical intermediate redshift clusters whose mass distributions are well-constrained via modelling of strongly-lensed features. For a variety of different models for the star formation history and supernova progenitors, we estimate the likelihood of detecting lensed SNe as a function of their redshift. In the case of a survey conducted by HST, we find a high probability of seeing a supernova in a single return visit with either WFPC-2 or ACS, and a much higher probability of detecting examples with z &62; 1 in the lensed case. Most events would represent magnified SNe II at z{approximately}1, and a fraction will be more distant examples. We discuss various ways to classify such events using ground-based infrared photometry. We demonstrate an application of the method using the HST archival data and discuss the case of a possible event found in the rich cluster AC 114 (z=0.31).

The gamma-ray line emission from individual type I and type IIsupernovae are studied using numerical simulations and photon propagation codes to predict the flux levels and line shapes. For both types, the gamma ray lines with the highest flux from an individual event are the 0.847 and 1.238 MeV lines from the Ni-56 to Co-56 to Fe-56 decay chain. For type I supernovae, the 0.847 MeV line peaks at about 70 days after event onset. The historical record indicates an approximate discovery rate of once in 10 years for balloon-borne instruments, once in two to three years for the Gamma-Ray Observatory, and once in one to two years for a proposed space mission. The 0.847 MeV line flux from type IIsupernovae peaks at about 600 days after event onset at a low level which restricts observations to the events in the Galaxy and its nearest neighbors. The expected line shape is narrower than for type I supernovae.

The use of airborne laser radar (lidar) to measure wind velocities and to detect turbulence in front of an aircraft in real time can significantly increase fuel efficiency, flight safety, and terminal area capacity. We describe the flight-test results for two coherent lidar airborne shear sensor (CLASS) systems and discuss their agreement with our theoretical simulations. The 10.6-μm CO(2) system (CLASS-10) is a flying brassboard; the 2.02-μm Tm:YAG solid-state system (CLASS-2) is configured in a rugged, light-weight, high-performance package. Both lidars have shown a wind measurement accuracy of better than 1 m/s. PMID:21151317

shortly after the explosion. X-rayChandra X-ray Image SN 1996cr was not detected by other major X-ray observatories in orbit - ROSAT and ASCA - around the time of explosion. Rather, it wasn't until several years later that it was detected as an X-ray source by Chandra (launched in 1999), and has become steadily brighter ever since. Previously, SN 1987A had been the only known supernova with an X-ray output observed to increase over time. "Supernovas that are close enough to be studied in detail like this are quite rare and may only appear once a decade, so we don't want to miss such an important opportunity for discovery," said Bauer. "It's a bit of a coup to find SN 1996cr like we did, and we could never have nailed it without the serendipitous data taken by all of these telescopes. We've truly entered a new era of `Internet astronomy'." People Who Read This Also Read... Chandra Data Reveal Rapidly Whirling Black Holes Dark Energy Found Stifling Growth in Universe Ghostly Glow Reveals a Hidden Class of Long-Wavelength Radio Emitters Jet Power and Black Hole Assortment Revealed in New Chandra Image The data, combined with theoretical work, has led the team to the following model. Before it exploded, the parent star cleared out a large cavity around it, either via a fast wind or an outburst from the star late in its life. Then, the blast wave from the explosion expanded relatively unimpeded into this cavity. Once the blast wave hit the dense material surrounding SN1996cr, the impact caused the system to glow brightly in X-ray and radio emission. The X-ray and radio emission from SN 1987A is fainter because the surrounding material is probably less compact. Astronomers think that both SN 1987A and SN 1996cr show evidence for these pre-explosion clear-outs by the star doomed to explode. Having two nearby examples suggests that this type of activity could be relatively common during the death of massive stars. "Not only does our work suggest that SN 1987A isn't as unusual as

We present near-infrared narrowband images of the supernova remnant W49 B, taken with the WIRC instrument on the Hale 200 inch (5 m) telescope on Mount Palomar. The 1.64 μm [Fe II] image reveals a barrel-shaped structure with coaxial rings, which is suggestive of bipolar wind structures surrounding massive stars. The 2.12 μm shocked molecular hydrogen image extends 1.9 pc outside of the [Fe II] emission to the southeast. We also present archival Chandra data, which show an X-ray jetlike structure along the axis of the [Fe II] barrel, flaring at each end. Fitting single-temperature X-ray emission models reveals an enhancement of heavy elements, with particularly high abundances of hot Fe and Ni, and relatively metal-rich core and jet regions. We interpret these findings as evidence that W49 B originated inside a wind-blown bubble (R~5 pc) inside a dense molecular cloud. This suggests that W49 B's progenitor was a supermassive star that could significantly shape its surrounding environment. We also suggest two interpretations for the jet morphology, abundance variations, and molecular hydrogen emission: (1) the explosion may have been jet driven, interacting with the molecular cavity (i.e., a gamma-ray burst); or (2) the explosion could have been a traditional supernova, with the jet structure being the result of interactions between the shock and an enriched interstellar cloud.

The final fate of massive stars depends on many factors. Theory suggests that some with initial masses greater than 25 to 30 solar masses end up as Wolf-Rayet stars, which are deficient in hydrogen in their outer layers because of mass loss through strong stellar winds. The most massive of these stars have cores which may form a black hole and theory predicts that the resulting explosion of some of them produces ejecta of low kinetic energy, a faint optical luminosity and a small mass fraction of radioactive nickel. An alternative origin for low-energy supernovae is the collapse of the oxygen-neon core of a star of 7-9 solar masses. No weak, hydrogen-deficient, core-collapse supernovae have hitherto been seen. Here we report that SN 2008ha is a faint hydrogen-poor supernova. We propose that other similar events have been observed but have been misclassified as peculiar thermonuclear supernovae (sometimes labelled SN 2002cx-like events). This discovery could link these faint supernovae to some long-duration gamma-ray bursts, because extremely faint, hydrogen-stripped core-collapse supernovae have been proposed to produce such long gamma-ray bursts, the afterglows of which do not show evidence of associated supernovae. PMID:19494909

Infrared observations obtained in 1999-2000 with the Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS/BEAR) instrument at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) are used to infer the jovian wind velocity in the north pole auroral region. The measured Doppler shifts of the H 2 and H3+ lines near 2.1 μm are used to derive the ion and neutral wind velocities in Jupiter's high latitude thermosphere. We find that the H3+ "hot spot" region reported by Raynaud et al. (Raynaud, E., Lellouch, E., Maillard, J.-P., Gladstone, G.R., Waite Jr., J.H., Bezard, B., Drossart, P., Fouchet, T. [2004]. Icarus 171, 133-152) is characterized by a H3+ flow with a velocity reaching 3.1 ± 0.4 km/s, while only an upper limit for the average H 2 wind velocity of 1.0 km/s is derived. The uncertainties derived for the absolute velocities are primarily due to instrumental effects and don't affect the relative velocity between H3+ and H 2, for which a lower limit is found to be 1.7 km/s. The lower velocity inferred from the H 2 emission in regards to H3+ emission may result from differences in altitudes sounded by these lines.

Several lines of evidence, from isotopic analyses of meteorites to studies of the Sun's elemental and isotopic composition, indicate that the solar system was contaminated early in its evolution by ejecta from a nearby supernova. Previous models have invoked supernova material being injected into an extant protoplanetary disk, or isotropically expanding ejecta sweeping over a distant (>10 pc) cloud core, simultaneously enriching it and triggering its collapse. Here, we consider a new astrophysical setting: the injection of clumpy supernova ejecta, as observed in the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant, into the molecular gas at the periphery of an H II region created by the supernova's progenitor star. To track these interactions, we have conducted a suite of high-resolution (1500{sup 3} effective) three-dimensional numerical hydrodynamic simulations that follow the evolution of individual clumps as they move into molecular gas. Even at these high resolutions, our simulations do not quite achieve numerical convergence, due to the challenge of properly resolving the small-scale mixing of ejecta and molecular gas, although they do allow some robust conclusions to be drawn. Isotropically exploding ejecta do not penetrate into the molecular cloud or mix with it, but, if cooling is properly accounted for, clumpy ejecta penetrate to distances {approx}10{sup 18} cm and mix effectively with large regions of star-forming molecular gas. In fact, the {approx}2 M{sub Sun} of high-metallicity ejecta from a single core-collapse supernova is likely to mix with {approx}2 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 4} M{sub Sun} of molecular gas material as it is collapsing. Thus, all stars forming late ( Almost-Equal-To 5 Myr) in the evolution of an H II region may be contaminated by supernova ejecta at the level {approx}10{sup -4}. This level of contamination is consistent with the abundances of short-lived radionuclides and possibly some stable isotopic shifts in the early solar system and is

We endeavor to resolve two conflicting constraints on the duration of the formation of the Galactic stellar halo - 2-3 Gyr age differences in halo stars, and the time scale inferred from the observed constant values of chemical element abundance ratios characteristic of enrichment by Type IIsupernovae - by investigating the time scale for the onset of Type Ia supernovae (SNIa) in the currently favored progenitor model - mergers of carbon and oxygen white dwarfs (CO WDs).

We present the radio observations and modeling of an optically bright Type II-P supernova (SN), SN 2012aw which exploded in the nearby galaxy Messier 95 (M95) at a distance of 10 Mpc. The spectral index values calculated using C, X, and K bands are smaller than the expected values for the optically thin regime. During this time, the optical bolometric light curve stays in the plateau phase. We interpret the low spectral-index values to be a result of electron cooling. On the basis of comparison between the Compton cooling timescale and the synchrotron cooling timescale, we find that the inverse Compton cooling process dominates over the synchrotron cooling process. We therefore model the radio emission as synchrotron emission from a relativistic electron population with a high energy cutoff. The cutoff is determined by comparing the electron cooling timescale, t cool, and the acceleration timescale, \\tilde{t}_{acc}. We constrain the mass-loss rate in the wind (\\dot{M}\\sim 1.9\\times 10^{-6}\\ M_{\\odot }\\,yr^{-1}) and the equipartition factor between relativistic electrons and the magnetic field (\\tilde{\\alpha }=\\epsilon _e/\\epsilon _B\\sim 1.12\\times 10^2) through our modeling of radio emission. Although the time of explosion is fairly well constrained by optical observations within about two days, we explore the effect of varying the time of explosion to best fit the radio light curves. The best fit is obtained for the explosion date as 2012 March 15.3 UT.

We investigate the enrichment of the pre-solar cloud core with short-lived radionuclides, especially {sup 26}Al. The homogeneity and the surprisingly small spread in the ratio {sup 26}Al/{sup 27}Al observed in the overwhelming majority of calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions in a vast variety of primitive chondritic meteorites places strong constraints on the formation of the solar system. Freshly synthesized radioactive {sup 26}Al has to be included and well mixed within 20 kyr. After discussing various scenarios including X-winds, asymptotic giant branch stars, and Wolf-Rayet stars, we come to the conclusion that triggering the collapse of a cold cloud core by a nearby supernova (SN) is the most promising scenario. We then narrow down the vast parameter space by considering the pre-explosion survivability of such a clump as well as the cross-section necessary for sufficient enrichment. We employ numerical simulations to address the mixing of the radioactively enriched SN gas with the pre-existing gas and the forced collapse within 20 kyr. We show that a cold clump of 10 M{sub Sun} at a distance of 5 pc can be sufficiently enriched in {sup 26}Al and triggered into collapse fast enough-within 18 kyr after encountering the SN shock-for a range of different metallicities and progenitor masses, even if the enriched material is assumed to be distributed homogeneously in the entire SN bubble. In summary, we envision an environment for the birthplace of the solar system 4.567 Gyr ago similar to the situation of the pillars in M16 nowadays, where molecular cloud cores adjacent to an H II region will be hit by an SN explosion in the future. We show that the triggered collapse and formation of the solar system as well as the required enrichment with radioactive {sup 26}Al are possible in this scenario.

We present the radio observations and modeling of an optically bright Type II-P supernova (SN), SN 2012aw which exploded in the nearby galaxy Messier 95 (M95) at a distance of 10 Mpc. The spectral index values calculated using C, X, and K bands are smaller than the expected values for the optically thin regime. During this time, the optical bolometric light curve stays in the plateau phase. We interpret the low spectral-index values to be a result of electron cooling. On the basis of comparison between the Compton cooling timescale and the synchrotron cooling timescale, we find that the inverse Compton cooling process dominates over the synchrotron cooling process. We therefore model the radio emission as synchrotron emission from a relativistic electron population with a high energy cutoff. The cutoff is determined by comparing the electron cooling timescale, t {sub cool}, and the acceleration timescale, t-tilde {sub acc}. We constrain the mass-loss rate in the wind ( M-dot ∼1.9×10{sup −6} M{sub ⊙} yr{sup −1}) and the equipartition factor between relativistic electrons and the magnetic field ( α-tilde =ϵ{sub e}/ϵ{sub B}∼1.12×10{sup 2}) through our modeling of radio emission. Although the time of explosion is fairly well constrained by optical observations within about two days, we explore the effect of varying the time of explosion to best fit the radio light curves. The best fit is obtained for the explosion date as 2012 March 15.3 UT.

Transients showing circumstellar interactions, low luminosities and low expansion velocities are generally considered to be non-terminal outbursts. Two main classes of such transients are 'supernova impostors', whose progenitors are massive stars (>20 solar masses) and may be extra-galactic analogs of Eta Car's eruptions, and SN 2008S-like transients, which have lower-mass (~10 solar masses), dust-obscured progenitors. We present late-time Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescope observations of the archetypal 'supernova impostor', SN 1997bs, as well as the prototypes of the SN 2008S class of transients, SN 2008S and NGC 300 2008-OT1. All of these objects have faded below their progenitor luminosities in all bands for which comparisons are possible. We show that it is difficult to reconcile the late-time observations with models where surviving stars are obscured by either ejected shells or thick, dusty winds. Although some supernova impostors, such as SN 1954J, are clearly non-fatal, our results suggest that many of these weak stellar transients with circumstellar interactions may actually be low energy supernovae.

Aims: We present and study the spectroscopic and photometric evolution of the type Ia supernova (SN Ia) 2010ev. Methods: We obtain and analyze multiband optical light curves and optical/near-infrared spectroscopy at low and medium resolution spanning -7 days to +300 days from the B-band maximum. Results: A photometric analysis shows that SN 2010ev is a SN Ia of normal brightness with a light-curve shape of Δm15(B) = 1.12 ± 0.02 and a stretch s = 0.94 ± 0.01 suffering significant reddening. From photometric and spectroscopic analysis, we deduce a color excess of E(B - V) = 0.25 ± 0.05 and a reddening law of Rv = 1.54 ± 0.65. Spectroscopically, SN 2010ev belongs to the broad-line SN Ia group, showing stronger than average Si iiλ6355 absorption features. We also find that SN 2010ev is a high velocity gradient SN with v˙Si = 164 ± 7 km s-1 d-1. The photometric and spectral comparison with other supernovae shows that SN 2010ev has similar colors and velocities to SN 2002bo and SN 2002dj. The analysis of the nebular spectra indicates that the [Fe ii]λ7155 and [Ni ii]λ7378 lines are redshifted, as expected for a high velocity gradient supernova. All these common intrinsic and extrinsic properties of the high velocity gradient (HVG) group are different from the low velocity gradient (LVG) normal SN Ia population and suggest significant variety in SN Ia explosions. This paper includes data gathered with the Du Pont Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile; and the Gemini Observatory, Cerro Pachon, Chile (Gemini Program GS-2010A-Q-14). Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, Chile (ESO Programme 085.D-0577).

Aims: We present and study the spectroscopic and photometric evolution of the type Ia supernova (SN Ia) 2010ev. Methods: We obtain and analyze multiband optical light curves and optical/near-infrared spectroscopy at low and medium resolution spanning -7 days to +300 days from the B-band maximum. Results: A photometric analysis shows that SN 2010ev is a SN Ia of normal brightness with a light-curve shape of Δm15(B) = 1.12 ± 0.02 and a stretch s = 0.94 ± 0.01 suffering significant reddening. From photometric and spectroscopic analysis, we deduce a color excess of E(B - V) = 0.25 ± 0.05 and a reddening law of Rv = 1.54 ± 0.65. Spectroscopically, SN 2010ev belongs to the broad-line SN Ia group, showing stronger than average Si iiλ6355 absorption features. We also find that SN 2010ev is a high velocity gradient SN with v˙Si = 164 ± 7 km s-1 d-1. The photometric and spectral comparison with other supernovae shows that SN 2010ev has similar colors and velocities to SN 2002bo and SN 2002dj. The analysis of the nebular spectra indicates that the [Fe ii]λ7155 and [Ni ii]λ7378 lines are redshifted, as expected for a high velocity gradient supernova. All these common intrinsic and extrinsic properties of the high velocity gradient (HVG) group are different from the low velocity gradient (LVG) normal SN Ia population and suggest significant variety in SN Ia explosions. This paper includes data gathered with the Du Pont Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile; and the Gemini Observatory, Cerro Pachon, Chile (Gemini Program GS-2010A-Q-14). Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, Chile (ESO Programme 085.D-0577).

An investigation was conducted in the NACA Cleveland altitude wind tunnel to evaluate the performance characteristics of the X24C-4B turbojet engine over a range of simulated altitudes from 5000 to 45,000 feet,simulated flight Mach numbers from 0 to 1.08, and engine speeds from 4000 to 12,500 rpm. Performance data are presented to show graphically the effects of altitude at a flight Mach number of 0.25 and of flight Mach number at an altitude of 25,000 feet. The performance data are generalized to show the applicability of methods used to determine performance at any altitude from data obtained at a given altitude. A complete tabulation of performance data, as well as lubrication- and fuel- system data, is presented.

During the second Atmospheric Variability Experiment (AVE II), atmospheric temperature profiles were computed from Nimbus 5 data, which comprised ITPR, NEMS, and SCR measurements. Rawinsonde data were obtained from NWS stations in the AVE II network and processed for each pressure contact; the soundings closest in space and time were interpolated to the Nimbus 5 sounding points for comparison purposes. Cross sections of thermal and geostrophic winds were computed from satellite-derived cross sections of temperature along the Nimbus orbital track.

An electron-capture supernova (ECSN) is a core-collapse supernova explosion of a super-asymptotic giant branch (SAGB) star with a main-sequence mass M{sub Ms} ∼ 7 - 9.5M{sub ⊙}. The explosion takes place in accordance with core bounce and subsequent neutrino heating and is a unique example successfully produced by first-principle simulations. This allows us to derive a first self-consistent multicolor light curves of a core-collapse supernova. Adopting the explosion properties derived by the first-principle simulation, i.e., the low explosion energy of 1.5 × 10{sup 50} erg and the small {sup 56}Ni mass of 2.5 × 10{sup −3} M{sub ⊙}, we perform a multigroup radiation hydrodynamics calculation of ECSNe and present multicolor light curves of ECSNe of SAGB stars with various envelope mass and hydrogen abundance. We demonstrate that a shock breakout has peak luminosity of L ∼ 2 × 10{sup 44} erg s{sup −1} and can evaporate circumstellar dust up to R ∼ 10{sup 17} cm for a case of carbon dust, that plateau luminosity and plateau duration of ECSNe are L ∼ 10{sup 42} erg s{sup −1} and {sup t} ∼ 60 - 100 days, respectively, and that a plateau is followed by a tail with a luminosity drop by ∼ 4 mag. The ECSN shows a bright and short plateau that is as bright as typical Type II plateau supernovae, and a faint tail that might be influenced by spin-down luminosity of a newborn pulsar. Furthermore, the theoretical models are compared with ECSN candidates: SN 1054 and SN 2008S. We find that SN 1054 shares the characteristics of the ECSNe. For SN 2008S, we find that its faint plateau requires a ECSN model with a significantly low explosion energy of E ∼ 10{sup 48} erg.

An electron-capture supernova (ECSN) is a core-collapse supernova explosion of a super-asymptotic giant branch (SAGB) star with a main-sequence mass MMs ˜ 7 - 9.5M⊙. The explosion takes place in accordance with core bounce and subsequent neutrino heating and is a unique example successfully produced by first-principle simulations. This allows us to derive a first self-consistent multicolor light curves of a core-collapse supernova. Adopting the explosion properties derived by the first-principle simulation, i.e., the low explosion energy of 1.5 × 1050 erg and the small 56Ni mass of 2.5 × 10-3 M⊙, we perform a multigroup radiation hydrodynamics calculation of ECSNe and present multicolor light curves of ECSNe of SAGB stars with various envelope mass and hydrogen abundance. We demonstrate that a shock breakout has peak luminosity of L ˜ 2 × 1044 erg s-1 and can evaporate circumstellar dust up to R ˜ 1017 cm for a case of carbon dust, that plateau luminosity and plateau duration of ECSNe are L ˜ 1042 erg s-1 and t ˜ 60 - 100 days, respectively, and that a plateau is followed by a tail with a luminosity drop by ˜ 4 mag. The ECSN shows a bright and short plateau that is as bright as typical Type II plateau supernovae, and a faint tail that might be influenced by spin-down luminosity of a newborn pulsar. Furthermore, the theoretical models are compared with ECSN candidates: SN 1054 and SN 2008S. We find that SN 1054 shares the characteristics of the ECSNe. For SN 2008S, we find that its faint plateau requires a ECSN model with a significantly low explosion energy of E ˜ 1048 erg.

We report the spectroscopic classification of four supernovae at the 2.5m Isaac Newton Telescope on La Palma, using the Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph and the R300V grating (3500-8000 Ang; ~6 Ang resolution).

The Swiss physicist Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974) dabbled in a plethora of disciplines, including astronomy and astrophysics. His dabblings were with vested interest and he has left quite an impact. His first great success was his nova research. In the early 1930s, while supermarkets and Superman were flying, he labelled the distinctly brighter nova Supernova. It had been believed that novae were the collision of two stars, but Zwicky came to recognize supernovae as a phenomenon quite distinct from novae. He and Walter Baade explained supernova by melding astronomy and physics and in this aim they created neutron stars, explained the origin of cosmic rays, initiated the first sky survey, and confirmed that a number of historical novae were indeed supernovae. This was truly an important work in the history of astrophysics.

First results of three-dimensional simulations of a thermonuclear flame in Type Ia supernovae are obtained using a new flame-capturing algorithm, and a PPM hydrodynamical code. In the absence of gravity, the flame is stabilized with respect to the Landau (1944) instability due to the difference in the behaviour of convex and concave portions of the perturbed flame front. The transition to turbulence in supernovae occurs on scales =~ 0.1 - 10 km in agreement with the non-linear estimate lambda =~ 2pi D(2_l/geff) based on the Zeldovich (1966) model for a perturbed flame when the gravity acceleration increases; D_l is the normal speed of the laminar flame, and geff is the effective acceleration. The turbulent flame is mainly spread by large scale motions driven by the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Small scale turbulence facilitates rapid incineration of the fuel left behind the front. The turbulent flame speed D_t approaches D_t =~ U', where U' is the root mean square velocity of turbulent motions, when the turbulent flame forgets initial conditions and reaches a steady state. The results indicate that in a steady state the turbulent flame speed should be independent of the normal laminar flame speed D_l. The three-dimensional results are in sharp contrast with the results of previous two-dimensional simulations which underestimate flame speed due to the lack of turbulent cascade directed in three dimensions from big to small spatial scales. The work was supported by the NSF grants AST 92-18035 and AST 93-005P.

V1016 Cyg is a symbiotic binary comprising a Mira-type evolved cool giant and a white dwarf (WD). The WD ionizes a part of the surrounding environment consisting mainly of the giant*s wind. We investigated a weak emission feature at 6545 Å - a result of Raman scattering of the HeII 1025 line photons, emitted in the ionized region around the WD, on the neutral hydrogen (H0) atoms located around the giant. Using the scattering efficiency, η, and a simplified ionization model of symbiotic stars (SySs), we determined the mass-loss rate, FX1, from the cool giant in V1016 Cyg to 2 - 3 × 10-6 M⊙ yr-1.

At least 25 per cent of massive stars are ejected from their parent cluster, becoming runaways or exiles, travelling with often-supersonic space velocities through the interstellar medium (ISM). Their overpressurized H II regions impart kinetic energy and momentum to the ISM, compress and/or evaporate dense clouds, and can constrain properties of both the star and the ISM. Here, we present one-, two- and (the first) three-dimensional simulations of the H II region around a massive star moving supersonically through a uniform, magnetized ISM, with properties appropriate for the nearby O star ζ Oph. The H II region leaves an expanding overdense shell behind the star and, inside this, an underdense wake that should be filled with hot gas from the shocked stellar wind. The gas column density in the shell is strongly influenced by the ISM magnetic field strength and orientation. Hα emission maps show that H II region remains roughly circular, although the star is displaced somewhat from the centre of emission. For our model parameters, the kinetic energy feedback from the H II region is comparable to the mechanical luminosity of the stellar wind, and the momentum feedback rate is >100 times larger than that from the wind and ≈10 times larger than the total momentum input rate available from radiation pressure. Compared to the star's eventual supernova explosion, the kinetic energy feedback from the H II region over the star's main-sequence lifetime is >100 times less, but the momentum feedback is up to 4 times larger. H II region dynamics are found to have only a small effect on the ISM conditions that a bow shock close to the star would encounter.

If very massive stars (M ≳ 100 M⊙) can form and avoid too strong mass-loss during their evolution, they are predicted to explode as pair-instability supernovae (PISNe). One critical test for candidate events is whether their nucleosynthesis yields and internal ejecta structure, being revealed through nebular-phase spectra at t ≳ 1 yr, match those of model predictions. Here, we compute theoretical spectra based on model PISN ejecta at 1-3 yr post-explosion to allow quantitative comparison with observations. The high column densities of PISNe lead to complete gamma-ray trapping for t ≳ 2 yr which, combined with fulfilled conditions of steady state, leads to bolometric supernova luminosities matching the 56Co decay. Most of the gamma-rays are absorbed by the deep-lying iron and silicon/sulphur layers. The ionization balance shows a predominantly neutral gas state, which leads to emission lines of Fe I, Si I, and S I. For low-mass PISNe, the metal core expands slowly enough to produce a forest of distinct lines, whereas high-mass PISNe expand faster and produce more featureless spectra. Line blocking is complete below ˜5000 Å for several years, and the model spectra are red. The strongest line is typically [Ca II] λλ7291, 7323, one of few lines from ionized species. We compare our models with proposed PISN candidates SN 2007bi and PTF12dam, finding discrepancies for several key observables and thus no support for a PISN interpretation. We discuss distinct spectral features predicted by the models, and the possibility of detecting pair-instability explosions among non-superluminous supernovae.

This paper contains a comprehensive investigation of the sunset-sunrise difference (SSD; i.e., the sunset-minus-sunrise value) of the ozone mixing ratio in the latitude range of 10° S-10° N. SSD values were determined from solar occultation measurements based on data obtained from the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) II, the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE), and the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS). The SSD was negative at altitudes of 20-30 km (-0.1 ppmv at 25 km) and positive at 30-50 km (+0.2 ppmv at 40-45 km) for HALOE and ACE-FTS data. SAGE II data also showed a qualitatively similar result, although the SSD in the upper stratosphere was two times larger than those derived from the other datasets. On the basis of an analysis of data from the Superconducting Submillimeter Limb Emission Sounder (SMILES), and a nudged chemical-transport model (the Specified Dynamics version of the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model: SD-WACCM), we conclude that the SSD can be explained by diurnal variations in the ozone concentration, particularly those caused by vertical transport by the atmospheric tidal winds. All datasets showed significant seasonal variations in the SSD; the SSD in the upper stratosphere is greatest from December through February, while that in the lower stratosphere reaches a maximum twice: during the periods March-April and September-October. Based on an analysis of SD-WACCM results, we found that these seasonal variations follow those associated with the tidal vertical winds.

This paper contains a comprehensive investigation of the sunset-sunrise difference (SSD, i.e., the sunset-minus-sunrise value) of the ozone mixing ratio in the latitude range of 10° S-10° N. SSD values were determined from solar occultation measurements based on data obtained from the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) II, the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE), and the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment-Fourier transform spectrometer (ACE-FTS). The SSD was negative at altitudes of 20-30 km (-0.1 ppmv at 25 km) and positive at 30-50 km (+0.2 ppmv at 40-45 km) for HALOE and ACE-FTS data. SAGE II data also showed a qualitatively similar result, although the SSD in the upper stratosphere was 2 times larger than those derived from the other data sets. On the basis of an analysis of data from the Superconducting Submillimeter-Wave Limb-Emission Sounder (SMILES) and a nudged chemical transport model (the specified dynamics version of the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model: SD-WACCM), we conclude that the SSD can be explained by diurnal variations in the ozone concentration, particularly those caused by vertical transport by the atmospheric tidal winds. All data sets showed significant seasonal variations in the SSD; the SSD in the upper stratosphere is greatest from December through February, while that in the lower stratosphere reaches a maximum twice: during the periods March-April and September-October. Based on an analysis of SD-WACCM results, we found that these seasonal variations follow those associated with the tidal vertical winds.

Long before he ``discovered" the two stellar populations, Walter Baade was a pioneer in research on supernovae and their remnants. In 1927, while still in Germany, Baade emphasized what he called ``Hauptnovae" (chief novae) as highly luminous, potential distance indicators. He joined the Mount Wilson staff in 1931, bringing the ``secret" of the Schmidt camera with him, and encouraged Fritz Zwicky to carry out a supernova search with one at Palomar. Baade and Zwicky used the term ``supernova" in their 1933 joint paper. Zwicky began a systematic search in 1936, and Baade followed up with the 100-in reflector to derive light curves. He confirmed that Tycho's ``nova" of 1572 and the Crab nebula had been supernovae in our Galaxy. Baade advised N. U. Mayall, at Lick, on his spectroscopic study of the Crab nebula. In 1933, after Hitler came to power, Rudolph Minkowski had to leave Germany. Baade managed to get him a Mount Wilson staff position. Minkowski then did the spectroscopic observations of supernovae, beginning in 1937. Within a few years he and Baade were able to distinguish type I and IIsupernovae. Baade's further work on supernovae included historical research in Latin, Italian, and German, as well as filter photography. He searched hard for a remnant of SN 1885 in M 31, but never succeeded in finding it. After World War II the Crab nebula was found to be a strong radio source, and Baade and Minkowski used the 200-in to identify other supernova remnants, beginning with Cas A. Baade collaborated closely with Jan Oort and his student, Lo Woltjer, in their studies of the Crab nebula. After Baade retired in 1958, Minkowski continued supernova research for more than a decade; one of his favorite objects was the expanding Cygnus Loop.

The approved design is a 15-ft vertical-axis turbine with three straight 8-ft blades controlled by a tilt-cam mechanism. The tilt-cam mechanism controls blade cyclic pitch amplitudes in a manner similar to a helicopter swash plate. The turbine rotor has a calculated power coefficient of 0.4 at an optimum tip speed ratio of approx. 3.0 which results in a rotational speed of 112 RPM in a 9 m/sec wind. The electrical system provides 1-kW of 24 V DC power in a 9 m/sec wind by means of a flux-switching alternator. The electronic circuitry, designed with high-reliability components, consists of a voltage regulator and a power rectifier. A dumpload circuit is provided as an option. Two transient protection networks are included, one on the tower for the alternator and the other to protect circuitry in the control building. Three prototypes were fabricated and extensive testing was conducted on the first unit. Prototype tests showed that the SWECS operated as designed although output at 20 MPH was slightly lower than 1-kW. A system power coefficient of 0.25 was obtained in initial tests. Design changes were made as a result of tests, the most noticeable change being the replacement of the approved vertical tail vane and horizontal wing with a V-vane configuration. Poor wind conditions precluded completion of acceptance testing. As a result, Rockwell performed controlled velocity tests (CVT) of the first prototype prior to field tests. Additional effort included instrumentation for the first prototype; design, fabrication and testing of equipment for manual installation; and preparation of an assembly, operation and maintenance manual.

Recent hydrodynamic simulations of core-collapse supernovae with accurate neutrino transport suggest that the bulk of the neutrino-heated ejecta is proton rich, in which the production of some interesting proton-rich nuclei is expected. However, there are a number of waiting point nuclei with the {beta}+-lives of a few minutes, which prevent the production of heavy proton-rich nuclei beyond iron in explosive events such as core-collapse supernovae. In this study, it is shown that the rapid proton-capture (rp) process takes place by bypassing these waiting points via neutron-capture reactions even in the proton-rich environment, if there is an intense neutrino flux as expected during the early phase of the neutrino-driven winds of core-collapse supernovae. The nucleosynthesis calculations imply that the neutrino-driven winds can be potentially the origin of light p-nuclei including 92,94Mo and 96,98Ru, which cannot be explained by other astrophysical sites.

Many core-collapse supernova progenitors are presumed to be in binary systems. If a star explodes in a binary system, the early supernova light curve can be brightened by the collision of the supernova ejecta with the companion star. The early brightening can be observed when the observer is in the direction of the hole created by the collision. Based on a population synthesis model, we estimate the fractions of core-collapse supernovae in which the light-curve brightening by the collision can be observed. We find that 0.19 per cent of core-collapse supernova light curves can be observed with the collisional brightening. Type Ibc supernova light curves are more likely to be brightened by the collision (0.53 per cent) because of the high fraction of the progenitors being in binary systems and their proximity to the companion stars. Type II and IIb supernova light curves are less affected (˜10-3 and ˜10-2 per cent, respectively). Although the early, slow light-curve declines of some Type IIb and Ibc supernovae are argued to be caused by the collision with the companion star (e.g. SN 2008D), the small expected fraction, as well as the unrealistically small separation required, disfavour the argument. The future transient survey by the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope is expected to detect ˜10 Type Ibc supernovae with the early collisional brightening per year, and they will be able to provide information on supernova progenitors in binary systems.

Estimates made in the 1970's indicated that a supernova occurring within tens of parsecs of Earth could have significant effects on the ozone layer. Since that time improved tools for detailed modeling of atmospheric chemistry have been developed to calculate ozone depletion, and advances have been made also in theoretical modeling of supernovae and of the resultant gamma ray spectra. In addition, one now has better knowledge of the occurrence rate of supernovae in the galaxy, and of the spatial distribution of progenitors to core-collapse supernovae. We report here the results of two-dimensional atmospheric model calculations that take as input the spectral energy distribution of a supernova, adopting various distances from Earth and various latitude impact angles. In separate simulations we calculate the ozone depletion due to both gamma rays and cosmic rays. We find that for the combined ozone depletion from these effects roughly to double the 'biologically active' UV flux received at the surface of the Earth, the supernova must occur at approximately or less than 8 parsecs.

The neutral hydrogen emission at 21 cm has been investigated with the RATAN-600 radio telescope in the vicinity of the supernova remnant HB9. A clumpyHI shell with radial motions surrounding the remnant has been detected. Its measured parameters contradict the connection with a shock wave from a supernova explosion. The shell formation under the action of a wind from a star that exploded as a supernova at the end of its evolution seems more realistic. The characteristics of the star obtained from the observed shell parameters are the following: a wind power of 0.5 × 1038 erg s-1, a mass-loss rate of 3.7 × 10-5 M ⊙ yr-1, and an age of 3 × 106 yr. Given the measurement errors, the mass of the star is estimated to be >8 M ⊙.

The means by which a pulsar might be detected in the remnant of supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic Cloud is examined. One possibility is that the slower-than-radioactive decay typically seen in the type II light curves is itself the sign of powering by the underlying pulsar, with the decline representing not the spinning down of the pulsar but rather the declining nebular opacity that would allow increasing amounts of the energy to escape as gamma rays. The test of this hypothesis (if the supernova conforms to type II expectations) would be to look for the 'missing' energy in the form of those gamma rays that escape from the remnant instead of powering it.

To understand how best to use observations of Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) to obtain precise and accurate distances, we investigate the relations between spectra of SNe Ia and their intrinsic colors. Using a sample of 1630 optical spectra of 255 SNe, based primarily on data from the CfA Supernova Program, we examine how the velocity evolution and line strengths of Si II {lambda}6355 and Ca II H and K are related to the B - V color at peak brightness. We find that the maximum-light velocity of Si II {lambda}6355 and Ca II H and K and the maximum-light pseudo-equivalent width of Si II {lambda}6355 are correlated with intrinsic color, with intrinsic color having a linear relation with the Si II {lambda}6355 measurements. Ca II H and K does not have a linear relation with intrinsic color, but lower-velocity SNe tend to be intrinsically bluer. Com