Excerpted from the book, Buddha's Brain; The practical neuroscience of happiness, love and wisdom

by Rick Hanson and Richard Mendius

Published by New Harbinger

chapter 3

The First and

Second Dart

Ultimately, happiness comes down to choosing between the discomfort of becoming aware of your mental afflictionsand the discomfort of being ruled by them.--Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche

Some physical discomfort is unavoidable; it's a crucial signal to take action to protect life and limb, like the pain that makesyou pull your hand back from a hot stove. Some mental discomfortis inevitable, too. For example, as we evolved, growing emotionalinvestments in children and other members of the band motivatedour ancestors to keep those carriers of their genes alive; understandably,then, we feel distress when dear ones are threatened andsorrow when they are harmed. We also evolved to care greatly aboutour place in the band and in the hearts of others, so it's normal tofeel hurt if you're rejected or scorned.

To borrow an expression from the Buddha, inescapable physicalor mental discomfort is the "first dart" of existence. As long as youlive and love, some of those darts will come your way.

The Darts We Throw Ourselves

First darts are unpleasant to be sure. But then we add our reactionsto them. These reactions are "second darts"--the ones we throwourselves. Most of our suffering comes from second darts.

Suppose you're walking through a dark room at night and stubyour toe on a chair; right after the first dart of pain comes a seconddart of anger: "Who moved that darn chair?!" Or maybe a loved oneis cold to you when you're hoping for some caring; in addition tothe natural drop in the pit of your stomach (first dart), you mightfeel unwanted (second dart) as a result of having been ignored as achild.

Second darts often trigger more second darts through associativeneural networks: you might feel guilt about your anger thatsomeone moved the chair, or sadness that you feel hurt yet againby someone you love. In relationships, second darts create viciouscycles: your second-dart reactions trigger reactions from the otherperson, which set off more second darts from you, and so on.

Remarkably, most of our second-dart reactions occur whenthere is in fact no first dart anywhere to be found--when there'sno pain inherent in the conditions we're reacting to. We add sufferingto them. For example, sometimes I'll come home from workand the house will be a mess, with the kids' stuff all over. That's thecondition. Is there a first dart in the coats and shoes on the sofa orthe clutter covering the counter? No, there isn't; no one dropped abrick on me or hurt my children.

Do I have to get upset? Not really.

I could ignore the stuff, pick it up calmly, or talk with them aboutit. Sometimes I manage to handle it that way. But if I don't, then thesecond darts start landing, tipped with the Three Poisons: greedmakes me rigid about how I want things to be, hatred gets me allbothered and angry, and delusion tricks me into taking the situationpersonally.

Saddest of all, some second-dart reactions are to conditionsthat are actually positive. If someone pays you a compliment, that'sa positive situation. But then you might start thinking, with somenervousness and even a little shame: Oh, I'm not really that gooda person. Maybe they'll find out I'm a fraud. Right there, needlesssecond-dart suffering begins.

Heating Up

Suffering is not abstract or conceptual. It's embodied: you feelit in your body, and it proceeds through bodily mechanisms.Understanding the physical machinery of suffering will help you seeit increasingly as an impersonal condition--unpleasant to be sure,but not worth getting upset about, which would just bring moresecond darts.

Suffering cascades through your body via the sympatheticnervous system (SNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis(HPAA) of the endocrine (hormonal) system. Let's unscramble thisalphabet soup to see how it all works. While the SNS and HPAAare anatomically distinct, they are so intertwined that they're bestdescribed together, as an integrated system. And we'll focus onreactions dominated by an aversion to sticks (e.g., fear, anger) ratherthan a grasping for carrots, since aversive reactions usually have abigger impact due to the negativity bias of the brain.

Alarms Go Off

Something happens. It might be a car suddenly cutting you off,a put-down from a coworker, or even just a worrisome thought.Social and emotional conditions can pack a wallop like physicalones since psychological pain draws on many of the same neuralnetworks as physical pain (Eisenberger and Lieberman 2004); thisis why getting rejected can feel as bad as a root canal. Even justanticipating a challenging event--such as giving a talk next week--can have as much impact as living through it for real. Whateverthe source of the threat, the amygdala sounds the alarm, setting offseveral reactions:

The thalamus--the relay station in the middle of yourhead--sends a "Wake up!" signal to your brain stem,which in turn releases stimulating norepinephrinethroughout your brain.

The SNS sends signals to the major organs and musclegroups in your body, readying them for fighting orfleeing.

The hypothalamus--the brain's primary regulator of theendocrine system--prompts the pituitary gland to signalthe adrenal glands to release the "stress hormones"

Ready for Action

Within a second or two of the initial alarm, your brain is on redalert, your SNS is lit up like a Christmas tree, and stress hormonesare washing through your blood. In other words, you're at least alittle upset. What's going on in your body?

Meanwhile,the bronchioles of your lungs dilate for increased gas exchange--enabling you to hit harder or run faster.

Cortisol suppresses the immune system to reduce inflammationfrom wounds. It also revs up stress reactions in two circularways: First, it causes the brain stem to stimulate the amygdale further, which increases amygdala activation of the SNS/HPAA system--which produces more cortisol. Second, cortisol suppresseshippocampal activity (which normally inhibits the amygdala); thistakes the brakes off the amygdala, leading to yet more cortisol.

Reproduction is sidelined--no time for sex when you're runningfor cover. The same for digestion: salivation decreases and peristalsisslows down, so your mouth feels dry and you become constipated.

Your emotions intensify, organizing and mobilizing the wholebrain for action. SNS/HPAA arousal stimulates the amygdala, whichis hardwired to focus on negative information and react intensely toit. Consequently, feeling stressed sets you up for fear and anger.

As limbic and endocrine activation increases, the relativestrength of executive control from the PFC declines. It's like beingin a car with a runaway accelerator: the driver has less control overher vehicle. Further, the PFC is also affected by SNS/HPAA arousal,which pushes appraisals, attributions of others' intentions, and prioritiesin a negative direction: now the driver of the careening carthinks everybody else is an idiot. For example, consider the differencebetween your take on a situation when you're upset and yourthoughts about it later when you're calmer.

In the harsh physical and social environments in which weevolved, this activation of multiple bodily systems helped our ancestorssurvive. But what's the cost of this today, with the chronic lowgradestresses of modern life?

Key Parts of Your Brain

Each of these parts of your brain does many things; the functionslisted here are those relevant to this book.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)--sets goals, makes plans, directsaction; shapes emotions, in part by guiding and sometimesinhibiting the limbic system

Insula--senses the internal state of your body, including gutfeelings; helps you be empathic; located on the inside of thetemporal lobes on each side of your head (temporal lobes andinsula not shown in figure 6)

Thalamus--the major relay station for sensory information

Brain stem--sends neuromodulators such as serotonin anddopamine to the rest of the brain

Corpus callosum--passes information between the two hemispheresof the brain

Cerebellum--regulates movement

Limbic system--central to emotion and motivation; includesthe basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, andpituitary gland; sometimes also considered to include partsof the cortex (e.g., cingulate, insula), but for simplicity we will define it anatomically in terms of subcortical structures; many parts of the brain besides the limbic system are involved withemotion

Getting fired up for good reason--such as becoming passionateand enthusiastic, handling emergencies, or being forceful for agood cause--definitely has its place in life. But second darts are abad reason to light up the SNS/HPAA system, and if they becomeroutine, they can push the needle on your personal stress meter intothe red zone. Further, apart from your individual situation, we livein a pedal-to-the-metal society that relies on nonstop SNS/HPAAactivation; unfortunately, this is completely unnatural in terms ofour evolutionary template.

For all of these reasons, most of us experience ongoing SNS/HPAA arousal. Even if your pot isn't boiling over, just simmeringalong with second-dart activation is quite unhealthy. It continuallyshunts resources away from long-term projects--such as buildinga strong immune system or preserving a good mood--in favor ofshort-term crises. And this has lasting consequences.

Physical Consequences

In our evolutionary past, when most people died by forty orso, the short-term benefits of SNS/HPAA activation outweighed itslong-term costs. But for people today who are interested in livingwell during their forties and beyond, the accumulating damageof an overheated life is a real concern. For example, chronic SNS/HPAA stimulation disturbs these systems and increases risks forthe health problems listed (Licinio, Gold, and Wong 1995; Sapolsky1998; Wolf 1995):

For all their effects on the body, second darts usually have theirgreatest impact on psychological well-being. Let's see how they workin your brain to raise anxiety and lower mood.

ANXIETY

Repeated SNS/HPAA activity makes the amygdala more reactiveto apparent threats, which in turn increases SNS/HPAA activation,which sensitizes the amygdala further. The mental correlate ofthis physical process is an increasingly rapid arousal of state anxiety(anxiety based on specific situations).

Additionally, the amygdala helps form implicit memories (traces of past experiences that existbeneath conscious awareness); as it becomes more sensitized, itincreasingly shades those residues with fear, thus intensifying traitanxiety (ongoing anxiety regardless of the situation).

Meanwhile, frequent SNS/HPAA activation wears down thehippocampus, which is vital for forming explicit memories--clearrecords of what actually happened.

Cortisol and related glucocorticoidhormones both weaken existing synaptic connections in thehippocampus and inhibit the formation of new ones.

Further, thehippocampus is one of the few regions in the human brain that canactually grow new neurons--yet glucocorticoids prevent the birth ofneurons in the hippocampus, impairing its ability to produce newmemories.

It's a bad combination for the amygdala to be oversensitizedwhile the hippocampus is compromised: painful experiences canthen be recorded in implicit memory--with all the distortions andturbo-charging of an amygdala on overdrive--without an accurateexplicit memory of them. This might feel like: Something happened,I'm not sure what, but I'm really upset. This may help explain whyvictims of trauma can feel dissociated from the awful things theyexperienced, yet be very reactive to any trigger that reminds themunconsciously of what once occurred. In less extreme situations, theone-two punch of a revved-up amygdala and a weakened hippocampuscan lead to feeling a little upset a lot of the time without exactlyknowing why.

DEPRESSED MOOD

Routine SNS/HPAA activation undermines the biochemicalbasis of an even-keeled--let alone cheerful--disposition in a numberof ways:

Reducednorepinephrine may cause you to feel flat--even apathetic--with poor concentration; these are classic symptomsof depression.

Over time, glucocorticoids lower the production ofdopamine. This leads to a loss of enjoyment of activitiesonce found pleasurable: another classic criterion fordepression.

Stress reduces serotonin, probably the most important neurotransmitter for maintaining a good mood. Whenserotonin drops, so does norepinephrine, which hasalready been diminished by glucocorticoids. In short,less serotonin means more vulnerability to a blue moodand less alert interest in the world.

An Intimate Process

Of course, our experience of these physiological processes isvery intimate. When I'm upset, I sure don't think about all of thesebiochemical details. But having a general idea of them in the backof my mind helps me appreciate the sheer physicality of a seconddart cascade, its impersonal nature and dependence on precedingcauses, and its impermanence.

This understanding is hopeful and motivating. Suffering hasclear causes in your brain and body, so if you change its causes,you'll suffer a lot less. And you can change those causes. From thispoint on, we're going to focus on how to do just that.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

So far, we've examined how reactions powered by greed and hatred--especially the latter--ripple through your brain and body, shapedby the sympathetic nervous system. But the SNS is just one of thethree wings of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which operatesmostly below the level of consciousness to regulate many bodilysystems and their responses to changing conditions. The other twowings of the ANS are the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)and the enteric nervous system (which regulates your gastrointestinalsystem). Let's focus on the PNS and SNS as they play crucialroles in your suffering--and its end.

The PNS conserves energy in your body and is responsible forongoing, steady-state activity. It produces a feeling of relaxation,often with a sense of contentment--this is why it's sometimes calledthe "rest-and-digest" system, in contrast to the "fight-or-flight" SNS.These two wings of the ANS are connected like a seesaw: when onegoes up, the other one goes down.

Parasympathetic activation is the normal resting state of yourbody, brain, and mind. If your SNS were surgically disconnected,you'd stay alive (though you wouldn't be very useful in an emergency).If your PNS were disconnected, however, you'd stop breathingand soon die. Sympathetic activation is a change to the baselineof PNS equilibrium in order to respond to a threat or an opportunity.The cooling, steadying influence of the PNS helps you thinkclearly and avoid hot-headed actions that would harm you or others.The PNS also quiets the mind and fosters tranquility, which supportscontemplative insight.

The Big Picture

The PNS and SNS evolved hand in hand in order to keep animals--including humans--alive in potentially lethal environments. Weneed both of them.

For example, take five breaths, inhaling and exhaling a littlemore fully than usual. This is both energizing and relaxing, activatingfirst the sympathetic system and then the parasympathetic one,back and forth, in a gentle rhythm.

Notice how you feel when you'redone.

That combination of aliveness and centeredness is the essenceof the peak performance zone recognized by athletes, businesspeople,artists, lovers, and meditators. It's the result of the SNS andPNS, the gas pedal and the brakes, working in harmony together.

Happiness, love, and wisdom aren't furthered by shutting downthe SNS, but rather by keeping the autonomic nervous system as awhole in an optimal state of balance:

Mainly parasympathetic arousal for a baseline of easeand peacefulness

Mild SNS activation for enthusiasm, vitality, and wholesomepassions

Occasional SNS spikes to deal with demanding situations,from a great opportunity at work to a late-nightcall from a teenager who needs a ride home from a partygone bad

This is your best-odds prescription for a long, productive, happylife. Of course, it takes practice.

A Path of Practice

As the saying goes, pain is inevitable but suffering is optional. Ifyou can simply stay present with whatever is arising in awareness--whether it's a first dart or a second one--without reacting further,then you will break the chain of suffering right there. Over time,through training and shaping your mind and brain, you can evenchange what arises, increasing what's positive and decreasing what'snegative. In the meantime, you can rest in and be nourished by agrowing sense of the peace and clarity in your true nature.

These three processes--being with whatever arises, working withthe tendencies of mind to transform them, and taking refuge in theground of being--are the essential practices of the path of awakening.In many ways they correspond, respectively, to mindfulness,virtue, and wisdom--and to the three fundamental neural functionsof learning, regulating, and selecting.

As you deal with different issues on your path of awakening,you'll repeatedly encounter these stages of growth:

Stage one--you're caught in a second-dart reaction anddon't even realize it: your partner forgets to bring milkhome and you complain angrily without seeing thatyour reaction is over the top.

Stage two--you realize you've been hijacked by greed orhatred (in the broadest sense), but cannot help yourself:internally you're squirming, but you can't stop grumblingbitterly about the milk.

Stage three--some aspect of the reaction arises, but youdon't act it out: you feel irritated but remind yourselfthat your partner does a lot for you already and gettingcranky will just make things worse.

Stage four--the reaction doesn't even come up, andsometimes you forget you ever had the issue: you understandthat there's no milk, and you calmly figure outwhat to do now with your partner.

In education, these are known succinctly as unconscious incompetence,conscious incompetence, conscious competence, andunconscious competence. They're useful labels for knowing whereyou are with a given issue. The second stage is the hardest one, andoften where we want to quit. So it's important to keep aiming forthe third and fourth stages--just keep at it and you'll definitely getthere!

It takes effort and time to clear old structures and build newones. I call this the law of little things: although little moments ofgreed, hatred, and delusion have left residues of suffering in yourmind and brain, lots of little moments of practice will replace these

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