Johann Albert Fabricius: But Fabricius’ masterpiece is his Bibliotheca Graeca (1705–28; revised by G.C. Harles, 1790–1812), which extends from pre-Homeric times to 1453. Individual authors receive fuller treatment than in the Latin work. There are, for example, accounts of the Homeric scholia and Homer’s ancient and Byzantine critics and imitators. Each volume contains…

Nicolás Antonio: His Bibliotheca Hispana appeared in two parts (Nova, 1672; Vetus, 1696). The first is a vast bibliography of Peninsular and Spanish colonial writers after 1500, with critical evaluations. The second, a history of Peninsular literature from the reign of Augustus to 1500, marks the emergence of…

Johann Albert Fabricius: He began by compiling a Bibliotheca Latina (1697; revised by J.A. Ernesti, 1773–74), of which the first three books discuss the principal classical authors from Plautus to Jordanes. Brief biographies are followed by notes on extant and lost works, editions, and translations. The fourth book deals with early Christian writings,…

Latin American literature: Historiographies: His incomplete Bibliotheca mexicana (1755; “Mexicana Library”) brings together the manuscripts and published works of authors there. Six decades later the counterrevolutionary Mexican Mariano Beristáin de Souza advanced the humanist’s project in his own Biblioteca hispanoamericana septentrional (1816–21; “Northern Spanish American Library”).

library: Effects of the Reformation and religious wars: The Bibliotheca Palatina at the University of Heidelberg (founded 1386), for example, was taken as the spoil of war by Maximilian I of Bavaria, who offered it to Pope Gregory XV in 1623; and Gustavus Adolphus sent whole libraries to Sweden, most of them to swell…

Conrad Gesner: Publications: In 1545 Gesner published his Bibliotheca universalis, the first bibliography of its kind, listing about 1,800 authors alphabetically with the titles of their works, annotations, evaluations, and comments on the nature and merit of each entry. This monumental reference was followed in 1548 by the encyclopaedic work Pandectarum sive Partitionum…

diplomatics: The papal chancery: …during the 9th century, the bibliothecarius, the papal librarian, became the most important chancery official; a little later, various important bishops and dignitaries seem to have acted occasionally as datarius (the official named in the datum per manus formula). During the mid-11th century, a phase of German influence led to…

Friedrich Nicolai: …cofounded, with Mendelssohn, the periodical Bibliothek der sch?nen Wissenschaften (1757–60; “Library of Fine Arts”) and, with both Lessing and Mendelssohn, Briefe, die neueste Litteratur betreffend (1761–66; “Letters on the Modern Literary Question”). He also edited the Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (1765–92), the organ of the “popular philosophers” who fought against authority…

Saint Photius: Background and early career.: …civil service, he composed his Myriobiblon or Bibliotheca (Bibliothēkē), a digest of Greek prose literature, with more than 270 articles. This work was begun on a diplomatic mission in the Muslim world and most probably completed during his temporary retirement from public life after 867.

Jean Leclerc: , 1703–13), and Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne (29 vol., 1714–30). His views on the Scriptures included the denial of Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch as well as of the divine inspiration of Ecclesiastes, Job, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon.

Jean Leclerc: , 1686–93), Bibliothèque choisie (28 vol., 1703–13), and Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne (29 vol., 1714–30). His views on the Scriptures included the denial of Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch as well as of the divine inspiration of Ecclesiastes, Job, Proverbs, and the Song of Solomon.

Bibliothèque Nationale de France: Bibliothèque du Roi (“King’s Library”), dated from the reign of Charles V (1364–80), who installed 1,200 manuscripts in the Louvre. This library was dispersed, but under Louis XI (reigned 1461–83) another was created. In 1544 Francis I moved the library to Fontainebleau, and from 1537…

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, (French: “National Library of France”), most important library in France and one of the oldest in the world, located in Paris. France’s first royal library, the Bibliothèque du Roi (“King’s Library”), dated from the reign of Charles V (1364–80), who installed 1,200

library: Other national collections: The Bibliothèque Royale Albert I in Brussels, founded in 1837 and centred on the 15th-century collection of the dukes of Burgundy, is the national library of Belgium and the centre of the country’s library network; it maintains a regular lending service with the university libraries and…

Henri Labrouste: The Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, built between 1843 and 1850, is still admired for the attractiveness and restraint of its decoration and for the sensitive use of exposed iron structural elements (columns and arches). Labrouste is also remembered for his second library project, the reading room (1860–67) of…

Jean Leclerc: …as editor of three encyclopaedias: Bibliothèque universelle et historique (26 vol., 1686–93), Bibliothèque choisie (28 vol., 1703–13), and Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne (29 vol., 1714–30). His views on the Scriptures included the denial of Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch as well as of the divine inspiration of Ecclesiastes, Job, Proverbs,…

Alfred Bertholet: …and the second volume of Biblische Theologie (1911; “Biblical Theology”), conceived as a history of Old Testament religion, broke new ground. His works on the history of religion, such as Dynamismus und Personalismus in der Seelenauffassung (1930; “Dynamism and Personalism in the Knowledge of the Soul”), G?tterspaltung und G?ttervereinigung (1933;…

Michael Glycas: Glycas’s Biblos chronike (“World Chronicle”), from the Creation to the death of Emperor Alexius I (1118), was written for his son; for popular consumption, it is very critical of Alexius I. In addition he wrote a competent and learned commentary on the problems of Holy Scripture,…

István Bibó, Hungarian political scientist, sociologist, and expert on the philosophy of law. Bibó became a role model for dissident intellectuals in the late communist era. Bibó came from a Calvinist intellectual background. His father was the director of the university library in Szeged, and he

Bibracte, ancient Gallic town (modern Mont Beuvray, in Sa?ne-et-Loire, France), capital of the Aedui in the time of Julius Caesar and the site of his defeat of the Helvetii tribe, the climax of his first campaign in Gaul (58 bc). To destroy native traditions, Augustus moved the inhabitants to his

Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, Roman politician who, as consul with Julius Caesar in 59 bc, worked with the senatorial conservatives against Caesar’s agrarian legislation. He was married to Porcia, a daughter of Cato the Younger. When Bibulus was prevented by mob violence from opposing Caesar’s

Bicameral system, a system of government in which the legislature comprises two houses. The modern bicameral system dates back to the beginnings of constitutional government in 17th-century England and to the later 18th century on the continent of Europe and in the United States. The English

Bicameral system, a system of government in which the legislature comprises two houses. The modern bicameral system dates back to the beginnings of constitutional government in 17th-century England and to the later 18th century on the continent of Europe and in the United States. The English

alkali: …of which gives the desired sodium bicarbonate as well as ammonium chloride. The sodium bicarbonate is then heated to decompose it to the desired sodium carbonate. The ammonia involved in the process is almost completely recovered by treating the ammonium chloride with lime to yield ammonia and calcium chloride. The…

renal system: Regulation of acid-base balance: …often referred to as the bicarbonate threshold. When the plasma bicarbonate rises above 27 millimoles per litre, bicarbonate appears in the urine in increasing amounts.

Bicaz, town, Neam? jude? (county), northeastern Romania. It lies at the confluence of the Bicaz and Bistri?a rivers. The town is situated at the southern end of Lake Bicaz, which is formed by a dam on the Bistri?a. The fast-flowing Bistri?a (called “the river of light”), which rises in the Rodna

Italy: Florence: …family’s fortune was laid by Giovanni di Bicci (1360–1429), who founded the Medici bank and in 1422 was appointed as banker to the papacy. His son Cosimo, who dominated the reggimento (principal patrician families) from 1434, united his vast financial resources with a keen intelligence. His natural simplicity of manner…

biceps muscle: The biceps femoris is one of the hamstring muscles at the back of the thigh. It originates in two places: the ischium (lower, rear portion of the pelvis, or hipbone) and the back of the femur (thighbone). The fibres of these two origins join and are…

Biceps muscle, any muscle with two heads, or points of origin (from Latin bis, “two,” and caput, “head”). In human beings, there are the biceps brachii and biceps femoris. The biceps brachii is a prominent muscle on the front side of the upper arm. It originates in two places: the coracoid process,

Bicester, town (parish), Cherwell district, administrative and historic county of Oxfordshire, southeastern England. It lies in farming country on the northern edge of the reclaimed marsh of Ot Moor. An Augustinian priory (1182) was dissolved there in 1538 and is now in ruins. Richard II granted

mental hygiene: Early institutions: …London in 1247) and the Bicêtre (the Paris asylum for men) were typical of 18th-century mental institutions in which the sufferers were routinely shackled. Inmates of these places often were believed to be devoid of human feeling, and their management was indifferent if not brutal; the primary consideration was to…

Marie-Fran?ois-Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist whose systematic study of human tissues helped found the science of histology. Bichat studied anatomy and surgery under Marc-Antoine Petit, chief surgeon at the H?tel Dieu in Lyon. In 1793 he became a pupil, then assistant, of

industrial glass: Flat glass: In the Bicheroux process, introduced in Germany in the 1920s, about a ton of glass was melted in a pot and carried to the table, where it was poured through a pair of rollers. Rolling the sheet reduced the amount of grinding needed for flatness.

Bichir, (genus Polypterus), any of about 10 species of air-breathing tropical fishes of the genus Polypterus native to freshwater river and lake systems in western and central Africa. Bichirs are classified in the family Polypteridae, order Polypteriformes. These fishes are elongated in form with

Bichitr, Mughal court painter active during the reigns of the emperors Jahāngīr, Shah Jahān, and (probably) Aurangzeb. It seems likely that Bichitr was reared at the court. The earliest work known to be by him dates from about 1615 and shows a fully mature style. He may still have been painting in

Bichon frise, (French: a modification of bichon à poil frisé, “curly-haired lap dog”) breed of small dog noted for its fluffy coat and cheerful disposition. For many centuries it was known as the “bichon” or “Tenerife.” Descended from the water spaniel, it is about 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30 cm) tall

Bichon frise, (French: a modification of bichon à poil frisé, “curly-haired lap dog”) breed of small dog noted for its fluffy coat and cheerful disposition. For many centuries it was known as the “bichon” or “Tenerife.” Descended from the water spaniel, it is about 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30 cm) tall

Peter Bichsel, Swiss short-story writer, journalist, and novelist known for his simple, self-conscious writing style and his emphasis on language and conjecture. From 1941 Bichsel grew up in Olten, Switzerland. He graduated in 1955 from a teachers college in Solothurn and, after briefly serving in

Conradus Celtis, German scholar known as Der Erzhumanist (“The Archhumanist”). He was also a Latin lyric poet who stimulated interest in Germany in both classical learning and German antiquities. Celtis studied at the universities of Cologne and Heidelberg and was crowned poet laureate by the Holy

Fredric March, versatile American stage and film actor, adept at both romantic leads and complex character roles. March developed his interest in acting while a student at the University of Wisconsin. After graduating in 1920, he moved to New York City to work in a bank, but he soon began to pursue

Mary Ann Bickerdyke, organizer and chief of nursing, hospital, and welfare services for the western armies under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant during the American Civil War. Mary Ann Ball grew up in the houses of various relatives. She attended Oberlin College and later studied nursing.

Jonathan Swift: Career as satirist, political journalist, and churchman: …certain impish works, including the “Bickerstaff” pamphlets of 1708–09, which put an end to the career of John Partridge, a popular astrologer, by first prophesying his death and then describing it in circumstantial detail. Like all Swift’s satirical works, these pamphlets were published anonymously and were exercises in impersonation. Their…

Sir Richard Steele, English essayist, dramatist, journalist, and politician, best known as principal author (with Joseph Addison) of the periodicals The Tatler and The Spectator. Steele’s father, an ailing and somewhat ineffectual attorney, died when the son was about five, and the boy was taken

Jonathan Swift, Anglo-Irish author, who was the foremost prose satirist in the English language. Besides the celebrated novel Gulliver’s Travels (1726), he wrote such shorter works as A Tale of a Tub (1704) and “A Modest Proposal” (1729). Swift’s father, Jonathan Swift the elder, was an Englishman

Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet and literary antiquary who maintained national poetic traditions by writing Scots poetry and by preserving the work of earlier Scottish poets at a time when most Scottish writers had been Anglicized. He was admired by Robert Burns as a pioneer in the use of Scots in

Isaac Bickerstaffe, Irish playwright whose farces and comic operas were popular in the late 18th century. There is no apparent connection between his name and the pseudonym earlier adopted by Jonathan Swift and also used by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele for The Tatler. The real Isaac

explosive: Safety fuse: …the use of explosives was William Bickford, a leather merchant who lived in the tin-mining district of Cornwall, England. Familiar with the frequency of accidents in the mines and the fact that many of them were caused by deficiencies inherent in the quill fuse, Bickford sought to devise an improvement.…

Phyllis Calvert, (Phyllis Bickle), British actress (born Feb. 18, 1915, London, Eng.—died Oct. 8, 2002, London), brought grace and elegance to British melodramas of the 1940s. Originally a stage actress, she gained renown in such popular films as The Man in Grey (1943), Fanny by Gaslight (1944), a

Knights of the Golden Circle: In 1859 George Bickley, a freebooter and adventurer, launched a fraternal order which proposed the establishment of military colonies of Americans in Mexico. The eventual goal of the plan was the annexation of all of Mexico to the United States. This would, according to Bickley, protect the…

Bicol, fifth largest cultural-linguistic group in the Philippines, numbering about 4,070,000 in the late 20th century. Their indigenous region is commonly considered to be “Bicolandia,” a region composing part of the Bicol Peninsula and neighbouring islands of southeast Luzon. The Bicol are l

Bicol Peninsula, peninsula, southeastern Luzon, Philippines. It is irregular in form, with several deep coastal bays, large subpeninsulas, and a lengthy coastline. The peninsula has an area of about 4,660 square miles (12,070 square km). It comprises the Bicol Plain, a large lowland area important

Bicol, fifth largest cultural-linguistic group in the Philippines, numbering about 4,070,000 in the late 20th century. Their indigenous region is commonly considered to be “Bicolandia,” a region composing part of the Bicol Peninsula and neighbouring islands of southeast Luzon. The Bicol are l

angiosperm: Stems: In a bicollateral bundle, the phloem is both outside and inside the xylem, as in Solanaceae (the potato family) and Cucurbitaceae (the cucumber family). In the monocots, the phloem may surround the xylem, or the xylem may surround the phloem.

man-made fibre: Crimping: …effect can be produced from bicomponent fibres. These are fibres spun from two different types of polymer, which are extruded through holes set side-by-side in such a way that the two filaments join as they coagulate. When the filament is drawn, the two polymers extend to different degrees, producing a…

Fabales: Classification of Fabaceae: …again divided into leaflets (bicompound). The flowers also vary in symmetric form, from nearly radial to bilateral to irregular (symmetric in no plane). The sepals are usually separate and imbricate (overlapping in the bud). There are generally five separate imbricate petals, the upper one inside of the lateral petals…

joint: Bicondylar joint:
The condylar joint is better called bicondylar, for in it two distinct surfaces on one bone articulate with corresponding distinct surfaces on another bone. The two male surfaces are on one and the same bone and are of the same type (ovoid or…

Homeomorphism, in mathematics, a correspondence between two figures or surfaces or other geometrical objects, defined by a one-to-one mapping that is continuous in both directions. The vertical projection shown in the figure sets up such a one-to-one correspondence between the straight segment x

mammal: The female tract: In the bicornate uterus, typical of many ungulates, the horns are distinct for less than half their length; the lower part of the uterus is a common chamber, the body. Higher primates have a simplex uterus in which there is no separation between the horns and thus…

algae: Annotated classification:
Class Bicosoecaceae
May be included in the Chrysophyceae or in the protozoan group Zoomastigophora; colourless flagellate cells in vase-shaped loricas (wall-like coverings); cell attached to lorica using flagellum as a stalk; lorica attaches to plants, algae, animals, or water surface; freshwater and marine; fewer than 50…

primate: Teeth: Both molars and premolars show this tendency. No living primate has four premolars; primitive primates, tarsiers, and New World monkeys have retained three on each side of each jaw, but in the apes and Old World monkeys, there are only two premolars. The primitive premolars are uniform in…

cardiovascular disease: Abnormalities of the valves: A bicuspid aortic valve is not necessarily life-threatening, but in some persons it becomes thickened and obstructed (stenotic). With age the valve may also become incompetent or act as a nidus (focus of infection) for bacterial endocarditis. Congenital aortic valve stenosis, if severe, results in hypertrophy…

Bicycle, two-wheeled steerable machine that is pedaled by the rider’s feet. On a standard bicycle the wheels are mounted in-line in a metal frame, with the front wheel held in a rotatable fork. The rider sits on a saddle and steers by leaning and turning handlebars that are attached to the fork.

bicycle: Basic types: BMX (bicycle motocross) bikes appeared in the early 1970s as an offshoot of motocross. They were designed for racing on dirt tracks replete with tight turns, berms, and jumps. BMX bikes are durable, with 20-inch- (51-cm-) diameter wheels mounted on a small frame. There is…

extreme sports: BMX and mountain biking. Typically, extreme sports operate outside traditional mainstream sports and are celebrated for their adrenaline-pumping thrills. Racing and acrobatic competitions for motorcycles and snowmobiles are also often classified as “extreme,” and the term can be stretched to include such daring pursuits as…

Cycling, use of a bicycle for sport, recreation, or transportation. The sport of cycling consists of professional and amateur races, which are held mostly in continental Europe, the United States, and Asia. The recreational use of the bicycle is widespread in Europe and the United States. Use of

Vittorio De Sica: …Italy; Ladri di biciclette (1948; The Bicycle Thief), an Oscar winner for best foreign film; Miracolo a Milano (1951; Miracle in Milan), a comic parable about the clash of rich and poor in Milan; and Umberto D. (1952), a tragedy about a lonely pensioner, his dog, and a young maid…

Marcel Duchamp: Farewell to art: In 1913 he produced the Bicycle Wheel, which was simply an ordinary bicycle wheel. In 1914 Pharmacy consisted of a commercial print of a winter landscape, to which he added two small figures reminiscent of pharmacists’ bottles. It was nearly 40 years before the ready-mades were seen as more than…

construction: Steel structures: Another funicular form is the bicycle-wheel roof, where two layers of radiating tension cables separated by small compression struts connect a small inner tension ring to the outer compression ring, which is in turn supported by columns.

Cycling, use of a bicycle for sport, recreation, or transportation. The sport of cycling consists of professional and amateur races, which are held mostly in continental Europe, the United States, and Asia. The recreational use of the bicycle is widespread in Europe and the United States. Use of

Bid, city, central Maharashtra state, western India, on a tributary of the Krishna River near a gap in a range of low hills. Bid was known earlier as Champavatinagar. Its other name, Bir or Bhir, probably was derived from the Persian bhir (“water”). In its early history it belonged to the Chalukya

English literature: The literature of World War I and the interwar period: …first published in 1992) and Bid Me to Live (1960)—to chart a way through the contemporary world for female characters in search of sustaining, often same-sex relationships. Following the posthumous publication of her strikingly original prose, Doolittle’s reputation was revised and enhanced.

Bid rigging, illegal practice in which businesses conspire to allow one another to secure contracts at raised prices, thereby undermining free-market competition. Bid rigging violates antitrust laws and is closely related to horizontal price-fixing, in that both offenses involve collusion between

whist: Bid whist: Bid whist is a lively partnership trick-taking game especially popular with African Americans. Four players each receive 12 cards from a 54-card pack that includes two jokers marked or otherwise differentiated as “big” and “little.” The remaining six cards go facedown as a “kitty.”

Doha: …original quarter of the city, Al-Bida?, Bida in sailor’s parlance, is at the northwest; it was probably founded by members of the Sudan tribe who emigrated from the sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi. Long a centre of pirate activity in the Persian Gulf, Doha, then a small village, was destroyed in…

Bida, town and traditional emirate, Niger state, west-central Nigeria. The town is on the Bako River, a minor tributary of the Niger, and lies at the intersection of roads from Jebba, Zungeru, and Agaie. Originally a small settlement of the Beni (Bini) people, a subgroup of the Nupe, it was

Mauritania: Ethnic groups: …the Moorish population self-identifies as Bī?ān (singular Bī?ānī, translated literally as “white”; “White Moors”), which indicates individuals of Arab and Amazigh (Berber) descent. The ?arā?īn speak the same language as the Bī?ān and, in the past, were part of the nomadic economy. They served as domestic help and labourers for…

Bidar, city, northeastern Karnataka state, south-central India. It is situated about 2,300 feet (700 metres) above sea level and 68 miles (109 km) northwest of Hyderabad in Telangana state. The city contains some of the finest examples of Muslim architecture in the Deccan region. Bidar was

Jhelum River, river of northwestern India and northern and eastern Pakistan. It constitutes the westernmost of the five rivers of the Punjab region that merge with the Indus River in eastern Pakistan. The Jhelum rises from a deep spring at Vernag, in western Jammu and Kashmir state, in the

Georges Bidault, French Resistance leader during World War II, twice prime minister, and three times minister of foreign affairs, who late in his career vigorously opposed General Charles de Gaulle’s Algerian policy and was forced into exile. Bidault attended an Italian Jesuit school, served

Georges Bidault, French Resistance leader during World War II, twice prime minister, and three times minister of foreign affairs, who late in his career vigorously opposed General Charles de Gaulle’s Algerian policy and was forced into exile. Bidault attended an Italian Jesuit school, served

Malaysia: Sarawak: Like the Iban, the Bidayuh originally came from regions that now lie in northwestern Indonesian Borneo; in Sarawak the Bidayuh homeland is in the far western portion of the state. Most rural Bidayuh practice shifting rice cultivation. Although they have for centuries lived in close proximity to the Iban,…

Doha: …original quarter of the city, Al-Bida?, Bida in sailor’s parlance, is at the northwest; it was probably founded by members of the Sudan tribe who emigrated from the sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi. Long a centre of pirate activity in the Persian Gulf, Doha, then a small village, was destroyed in…

Biddeford, city, York county, southwestern Maine, U.S., at the falls of the Saco River, opposite Saco, on the Atlantic coast 16 miles (26 km) southwest of Portland. Englishmen led by Richard Vines settled the area in 1630. Named for the settlers’ home in Bideford, Devon, England, the communities on

bridge: Bidding systems:
Bidding systems have preoccupied the student of bridge since the earliest appearance of contract bridge. The first system proposed was that of Harold S. Vanderbilt, who created the game that became successful as contract bridge. The Vanderbilt Club system provided that a player…

James Biddle, career U.S. naval officer who negotiated the first treaty between the United States and China. Biddle attended the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, before entering the navy as a midshipman in 1800. Retained despite a severe cutback in naval manpower, Biddle served in the war

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