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2 Each World Resources Institute report represents a timely and scholarly treatment of a subject of public concern. WRI takes responsibility for choosing the study topics and guaranteeing its authors and researchers freedom of inquiry. It also solicits and responds to the guidance of advisory panels and expert reviewers. Unless otherwise stated, however, all the interpretations and findings set forth in WRI publications are those of the authors. ISBN: Copyright 2010 World Resources Institute

4 ABOUT THE PROJECT This report would not have been possible without the financial support of the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and grant funding from the Government of Japan. The research project s objective is to guide investors and analysts through assessing the financial impacts of select environmental trends on listed companies in India, Indonesia*, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. Other research reports produced within this series are listed below. More information on the project and copies of the reports are available for download at Emerging Risk: Impacts of Key Environmental Trends in Emerging Asia. Undisclosed Risk: Corporate Environmental and Social Reporting in Emerging Asia. Weeding Risk: The Financial Impacts of Climate Change and Water Scarcity Trends on Asia's Food and Beverage Sector. Surveying Risk, Building Opportunity: The Financial Impacts of Energy Insecurity, Water Scarcity and Climate Change on Asia s Commercial Real Estate Sector. Weeding Risk, Over Heating and Surveying Risk include contributions from HSBC s Climate Change Centre of Excellence and HSBC s India Equity Research Division. *Note: Indonesia is not included in this report because it has no publicly listed power generation companies. It is included in the other reports. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS COVER PHOTO CREDIT The authors wish to give special thanks to our World Resources Institute colleagues, Janet Ranganathan, Eliot Metzger, Jeff Rodgers, and Evan Branosky, who generously reviewed drafts of this report. We are also grateful for the thoughtful contributions by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development s working group on power and water, Claudia Kruse from APG Investments, Anthony D Agostino from the National University of Singapore s Institute of Water Policy, and Daniel Beneat. Special thanks are owed to Euan Marshall and Berit Lindholdt Lauridsen of the IFC for providing ongoing guidance on the scope and direction of this research. We are deeply grateful to HSBC for their valuable contributions, especially from Roshan Padamadan, Sumeet Agrawal, Charanjit Singh, and Pankaj Jain. Also thank you to Jennie Hommel for managing the review process, Allison Sobel for copyediting, and Maggie Powell for providing layout services. Amanda Sauer is a Senior Associate in the Envest project at WRI. Piet Klop is a Senior Fellow in the Envest project at WRI. IStockPhoto.com April 2010

5 I. KEY FINDINGS FOR INVESTORS AND ANALYSTS I. Key Findings for Investors and Analysts Water-related risks are receiving more attention than in the past, yet the connection to power sector development is not well understood by investors, governments, and companies in South and Southeast Asia. This report presents a framework for investors and analysts to assess the risk of impacts from water-related issues, including growing water scarcity and declining water quality, on thermal and hydroelectric power generation plants. While this analysis focuses on publicly listed power generation companies in India, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam, the risks outlined may apply to listed power generation companies operating in other water scarce regions. CONTEXT Emerging Asia is projected to have the fastest growth rate of power consumption in the world. The drivers behind this power appetite economic and population growth are also increasing demands on limited freshwater resources. The power sector requires a steady supply of water for cooling and generation to maintain loads and avoid disruptions. The availability and quality of freshwater is rapidly declining in many parts of South and Southeast Asia due to demographic pressures and climate change. India in particular faces critical water shortages in the next decade. Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam are expected to face localized water pollution and shortages, with climatic patterns shifting towards longer dry seasons with more concentrated rainfall periods. Investors are taking on more water risk. The power sector is being liberalized in many countries in the region to attract the investment necessary to meet economic goals, with higher risk-reward propositions for investors. Deregulated power markets may offer little or no protection to shareholders in the event of an outage or load loss resulting in lost revenues or increased costs (if stipulated by operating license). New thermal and hydro power development places long-term bets on water availability yet future water supplies are often uncertain and potentially oversubscribed in the most electric power hungry and water scarce regions. Technology will play a key role in mitigating water risk yet at a price and efficiency tradeoff. Advanced cooling systems for thermal power such as dry cooling can reduce or eliminate freshwater dependency yet increase carbon emissions per unit power output through efficiency losses. Likewise there are water penalties for carbon dioxide emission reducing technologies such as carbon capture and storage. World Resources Institute 3

6 OVER HEATING These competing priorities make it difficult for investors and companies to anticipate the impact of future climate change and water policies on investments. Water risk has been obscured to date by regulatory protections. Examples of water-related load losses or outages have occurred throughout South and Southeast Asia yet the financial impact has been limited due in part to heavy governmental support that minimizes shareholder risks. Shareholder protections will become more costly to sustain and may drive regulatory change as freshwater scarcity increases over the longer term. KEY FINDINGS 74 GW over half of existing and planned capacity for major power companies is located in areas that are considered to be water scarce or stressed. WRI mapped water scarcity data with plant locations for the largest publicly listed power generation companies in the region, as shown in Figure 1. See Appendix A for more information on this analysis. FIGURE 1. Thermal Power and Hydropower Plant Locations and Water Stress Level Note: Water stress indicators (WSIs) represent the ratio of total withdrawals to utilizable water. These indicators do not reflect anticipated demographic or climate changes (such as the timing/quantity of precipitation) and therefore do not represent all facets of water-related risk. See Appendix A for information. Source: WRI. Data for power plants are from carma.org and 2008 company reports. The water stress indicators are from CGIAR/WRI/University of Kassel World Resources Institute

7 I. KEY FINDINGS FOR INVESTORS AND ANALYSTS FIGURE 2. Location of Power Capacity* by Water Stress Level in India Planned (60 GW s) Existing (33 GW s) Total (93 GW s) Water scarce Water stressed Moderate water availability Water abundant 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Percentage of Total Capacity * Includes thermal and hydro plants owned by NTPC, Tata Power, and Reliance Infrastructure (including Reliance Power). Note: Planned capacity includes all stages of project development reported in corporate financial disclosures but not yet operational in Source: WRI. See Appendix A for more information. In India, 79% of new capacity will be built in areas that are already water scarce or stressed. NTPC, Tata Power, and Reliance Infrastructure's (including Reliance Power s) new capacity is increasingly located in water scarce or stressed areas, as shown in Figure 2. Water scarcity is expected to intensify in the future as the impacts of climate change and demographic pressures decrease renewable water supplies. Water risk is determined by a plant s business model, dependency on water, and security of water supplies. Table 1 presents a framework that investors and analysts can use to assess exposure to water risks. TABLE 1. Water Risk Framework for the Power Generation Sector Risk Level High Medium Low Source: WRI. Business Model Water Dependency Water Security Are shareholder returns protected from falling output? Merchant Hybrid (Regulated/ Merchant) Regulated (high utilization rate required) Regulated (no risk from falling output) Captive Competitive tariff How much water is required to maintain loads? Open-loop thermal Run-of-the-river hydro Closed-loop thermal Reservoir hydro Supercritical coal Combined cycle gas Renewables (excluding biomass and concentrated solar thermal) Seawater cooling Wastewater cooling Air cooling Is the plant in a water scarce region? How are the plant s water supplies secured? Water scarce or stressed area History of water-related events High rate of urbanization/industrialization in watershed Reservoir with irrigation commitments Dependence on seasonal precipitation Water abundant area Long-term water contract World Resources Institute 5

8 OVER HEATING Potential financial impacts of water-related issues for the power generation sector include: Lost revenues and increased costs of goods sold (COGS). Water-related disruptions such as prolonged droughts and heat waves can lead to low reservoir levels and insufficient cooling water, resulting in load losses or outages that often coincide with periods of heavy demand, thereby forfeiting revenues. Water shortages can necessitate temporary water and power supply measures that increase production costs and therefore COGS. Water shortages are episodic in nature and can occur in any timeframe, although their frequency and severity are projected to increase over time. Impacts on shareholder value will vary by business model and power purchase contracts. Higher capital expenditures (CAPEX). As water availability and quality declines, companies may need to invest in water infrastructure projects to secure supplies (such as pipelines, dams/reservoirs, and desalinization facilities), water treatment systems (for plant influents or/and effluents), and/or more advanced cooling systems (such as air, seawater, wastewater reuse, or condensed water cooling). The need for such investments will increase in the future, with the impact on the industry determined by regulations and financing terms. Project execution delays and constraints on growth. As water shortages become more acute, policymakers are likely to respond by requiring more stringent water efficiency and usage requirements. This could increase permitting and development periods for new plant projects. As a result, financing may become more difficult and expensive. New plants may be restricted in water scarce regions by government decree or by lack of financing if water supply cannot be secured at an attractive rate. These risks are currently present in some Indian states where signed MOU s for new power capacity are believed to exceed available water resources. Over time these risks will increase in severity and geographic scope. An HSBC analysis suggests that delays in project execution and loss of output due to water scarcity could be material. Analysts found that a delay of three months in project execution due to water permitting issues will result in the internal rate of return (IRR) dropping by a mere 25 basis points (bps), but as the delay period extends, the drop in IRR becomes more serious. A 12-month delay in commercial operation results in the IRR dropping by nearly 150 bps. If water shortages reduce power output, each 5% drop in the plant load factor will result in nearly a 75 bp drop in the project IRR. 6 World Resources Institute

9 I. KEY FINDINGS FOR INVESTORS AND ANALYSTS NEXT STEPS FOR INVESTORS AND ANALYSTS Investors and analysts should integrate current and future water risks into their evaluation of power generation companies. This report takes the first steps in this direction by: Providing the groundwork for navigating the complex issues of water availability and quality. Identifying the potential financial impacts arising from water risks. Presenting a framework to understand a plant s exposure to water constraints. Providing indicators and questions to inform engagement with companies on these risks. Additional information/data needed to assess water risk at the company level include: Financial information, including IRR models at the plant level Plant data, including exposure and vulnerability to water risks (i.e. location, water source, water usage, and cooling technology) Water availability data at smallest scale possible Rules governing water contracts Terms of PPA s regarding disruptions Investors and analysts may need to engage companies to acquire this information/data. Important questions for investors and analysts to ask power companies include (as summarized from section IV of this report): Is the plant located in a water scarce region? What factors threaten the plant s water supply? Are these threats growing in significance? Has the risk of climate change been taken into account? What is the plant s water usage? What water reducing technologies are in place? Can load losses and power outages from water shortages have a financial impact? For example, will such events violate the terms of power purchasing contracts? How is the plant s water supply secured? What degree of volatility exists under this arrangement? Which water users are given priority in scarcity situations? With this information, examples of approaches that can be taken to integrate water risks into the analysis of power companies include: Sensitivity analysis: For plants dependent on freshwater resources, conduct a plant level sensitivity analysis of IRR impacts of outages and load losses. This will reveal which companies have the highest financial risk tied to disruptions. Scenario analysis: Develop scenarios around water availability at the river basin level for each plant based on future projections (if available) or key risk factors present at the local level. When combined with the sensitivity analysis above, this provides insight into which plants are most at risk from water constraints and the potential magnitude of financial impact. Management quality analysis: Assess and rank companies based on the ability of corporate initiatives, including comprehensive water management strategies, and advanced World Resources Institute 7

10 OVER HEATING technologies, such as air cooling, to mitigate water risk. Use this information to appropriately adjust conclusions from the sensitivity and scenarios analyses. How, or if, the results from these approaches can be integrated into financial models will depend on factors including the analyst s view on the probability of impact and the reliability of the underlying data. However, even if they cannot be integrated into financial models they can be used to inform the general view on management quality. This subjective viewpoint on a company, combined with investor data on companies, can inform the following investment decisions: buy/sell decisions, engagement of various intensities and stock/sector weightings in portfolios. 8 World Resources Institute

11 II. SECTOR OVERVIEW II. Sector Overview KEY POINT FIGURE 3. Electricity Consumption and GDP Growth Rate Projections to 2030 The rapid growth of thermal and hydroelectric power plants increases the risk of waterrelated issues for power generation companies in the region. The power sector in South and Southeast Asia is expected to experience significant growth over the medium to long-term. Emerging Asia has the fastest projected growth in electric power generation in the world. 1 Despite the recent global economic downturn, longer-term projections point to sustained growth in electricity demand and higher than average GDP growth rates (Figure 3). 2 Conventional wisdom indicates that in a developing economy the rate of growth of demand for power is about 50% more than the rate of economic growth. 3 Vietnam has exceeded this with the electricity industry growing at 15% versus 7% GDP growth between Electricity Consumption TWh India Non-OECD Asia (excl. China & India) GDP Growth Rate 9% 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% India OECD Non-OCED Asia World 1% % Source: IEA WEO India is by far the largest power consumer and producer in the region, with expected demand in 2013 more than double that of the rest of the countries combined (Figure 4). To meet this demand, power capacity is expected to grow by over 50% in India to 217 GWs (Figure 5). 5 The Indian government has determined that generating capacity needs to grow from the 2006 level of 144 to 778GW by ,7 In the nearer-term, the Central Electricity Authority of World Resources Institute 9

12 OVER HEATING FIGURE 4. Power Demand 2008 and Projected New Power Demand 2013 (Billion KWh) FIGURE 5. Power Capacity 2008 and Projected New Power Capacity 2013 (GW) 225 Power Demand in Billion KWh s Projected Growth Power Capacity in GW Projected Growth India Malaysia Philippines Thailand Vietnam 0 India Malaysia Philippines Thailand Vietnam Source: JPMorgan 2009, Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) Source: JPMorgan 2009, Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) the Indian government has instated a goal to reach power for all by 2012, requiring an additional 56 GW from 2008 to Even if this rapid capacity addition is achieved, supply would still not be able to meet demand, with a demand-supply mismatch projected to continue until at least Heavy regulation of the sector will continue with governments planning to meet energy goals primarily with thermal and hydroelectric power. The sector is far from liberalized, with state ownership characterizing the majority of power production in the region. In India, states own 52% of power production, the central government owns 34%, and the private sector owns 14%. 10 The private sector share is expected to rise in the future, with one source estimating 27% of installed capacity will be privately owned by The Indian government plays a large role in project development, with 90% of new power projects publicly funded. 12 In Vietnam, only 24% of installed capacity in 2006 was private, although this share is expected to increase as it depends more heavily on IPPs (independent power producers) and SPPs (small power producers) to meet energy goals. 13 The majority of private sector power projects are regulated, with companies entering into long-term power purchase agreements (PPAs) with state entities that encourage investment by reducing risks for shareholders through guaranteed rates of return, cost pass-through mechanisms, and/or tariffs/subsidies. In South and Southeast Asia, such agreements are often paired with a single-buyer model that is, when the state entity is the sole purchaser of wholesale power. Each country has undergone some degree of power sector reforms in recent years with more planned in the future. To date, electricity spot markets exist only in India and the Philippines. See Table 2 for a comparison of key power sector characteristics. 10 World Resources Institute

14 OVER HEATING The dependency of thermal and hydroelectric power plants on water for cooling and generation creates water-related risks for the sector. Hydroelectric plants are dependent on water for generation as maintenance of water reservoir or river levels is necessary for full capacity generation. Thermoelectric plants, including coal, natural gas, biomass, and nuclear, require varying amounts of water for steam, cooling, and other process uses. Fuel type, cooling system technology, and capacity are the greatest determinants of water use. Wind and solar photovoltaic power require very little water. See p 25 for more information on factors affecting a power plant s water requirements. Water quality can affect the availability of water supplies for both thermal and hydroelectric plants. For example in the case of hydro, high turbidity (often linked to a flood event) can affect plant performance or cause plant shutdowns. The same consequences can happen to thermal plants when a heat wave increases the temperatures of intake cooling water supplies above an acceptable threshold. In addition to physical constraints, water quality regulations requiring temperature and/or pollution standards may force load losses or outages when these regulations cannot be met (such as a heat wave that increases effluent water temperatures above regulatory thresholds). Water-related risks are emerging in South and Southeast Asian power markets. Water scarcity and quality trends are decreasing the availability of suitable water supplies in key parts of India and metro areas in Southeast Asia, which will be discussed in Section III. The nature of water supply risk is similar to fuel supply risk given that lack of cooling water, poor water quality, and reduced reservoir levels can lead to reduced output or in the most extreme cases, power outages. This is true even in regions that are water abundant on average but where changes to the timing of water flows can create temporary water shortages. Figure 7 maps recent examples of water constraints to power generation in South and Southeast Asia. 12 World Resources Institute

15 II. SECTOR OVERVIEW FIGURE 7. Examples of Water Constraints to Power Generation in India, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam HIMACHAI PRADESH, 2004: Floods shutdown a 1,500 MW hydro plant for seven days due to high silt levels. 4 MADHYA PRADESH, 2006 Power cuts made to alleviate the water shortage in the region. 3 KERALA, 2008 Power cuts ordered when monsoon rainfall was 65% less than normal. 1 INDIA, Rainfall 19% below normal reduced hydropower by 12.9%. 5 MAHARASHTRA, 2007 Heat waves led to power shortages of 20% in the state and 9% across India. 2 HANOI, 2008 Water shortages led to the release of 2.2 billion m 3 of water (equivalent to 430 million kwh of electricity) from three major hydropower plants to supply agriculture users. EVN lost VND6.1 trillion (US$380 million) from buying billion kwh's from other power sources. 11 THAILAND, 2004 Lack of rain reduced power generation in all major hydroelectric dams. 10 RAYONG, 2005 EGCO's Rayong plant nearly ran out of cooling water in the dry season of 2005 when cooling water reservoirs fell to only 9% of capacity. 9 NORTH VIETNAM, 2006 Water shortages at key hydro plants led to power cuts of 200 million kwh's of electricity. 12 HO CHI MINH, 2000 Late rainfalls led to power cuts. 14 MANILA, 2002 The Angat Dam faced critically low reservoir levels due to an unusually long dry spell during an El Niño year. 7 MANILA, Prolonged drought led to severe water shortages at the Angat dam. 8 LUMBAN, 2007 The Caliraya hydropower plant was shut down when a prolonged dry spell hit during the rainy season. 6 VIETNAM, 2005 Three months of drought and severe weather reduced power production at eleven hydroelectric plants comprising 40% of total generation capacity. Water was diverted for agriculture, leading to a power shortfall of 854 million kwh's. 13 Source: WRI. Notes: The Australian, India in Crisis as Heat Leads to Power Shortages April 19, Hindustan Times, "Power Cuts to Take Care of Water Scarcity" April 23, China Daily, Indian Power Plant Shuts Down August 16, Financial Express (India)-Hydro Logical 29 June Associated Press Power cuts, water shortage hit Philippines as dry spell persists July 27, Manila Standard, Power Outages Feared: Time to Tap IPPS May 18, Gemma G. Naling, Dry Spell Makati Business Club, No. 7, December Marc Levinson, Watching Water, JPMorgan Global Equity Research April Thai Press Reports Power Shortage Looms April 1, Saigon Times Weekly -Power Cut To Last Until June- 19 April Dow Jones & Company, Inc.- Vietnam Forecasts Electricity Shortage This Yr Official- 10 February Financial Times Information Industry: Vietnam Faces Power Shortage Following Drought April 28, Industry Electricity Shortage Haunting Vietnam 16 May World Resources Institute 13

16 OVER HEATING III. Water Scarcity Analysis and Trends KEY POINTS A significant proportion of power generation is located in areas at high risk of experiencing water-related issues. Higher temperatures, greater variability in precipitation, and increasing competition for water will increase the frequency and severity of water shortages in the region in the future. India is most at risk, although all countries are expected to experience longer dry seasons and more intense wet seasons. The majority of existing and new power generating capacity for publicly listed companies in South and Southeast Asia are located in areas classified as water scarce and stressed. Figure 8 provides a preliminary picture of water scarcity in areas of power generation. WRI mapped over 150 existing and planned thermal and hydro power plants from the largest publicly listed power generation companies in the region by using data from corporate financial reports and carma.org. Planned capacity includes all stages of project development reported in corporate financial disclosures but not yet operational in Water scarcity data is from the International Water Management Institute, WRI, and the University of Kassel. These indicators do not include important elements of water risk, including future climatic changes and demographic trends. For example, plants located in regions classified as water abundant may face risks due to changes in the timing of precipitation patterns (as shown by examples in Figure 7). See Appendix A for more information. The analysis found that new capacity will be increasingly located in areas already considered to be water stressed or scarce, as shown in Figure 9. India is the country of most concern for water constraints, as shown in Figure 10, with 73% of capacity (62% of existing and 79% of new capacity) of the three largest power generation companies NTPC, Tata Power, and Reliance Infrastructure (including Reliance Power) located in water scarce or stressed areas. While the water stress index data used in this analysis is too coarse to provide insights at the plant level, it does highlight the areas considered to be of highest risk of water scarcity. However it does not provide information about changes in the timing and reliability of water flows, the most important factor when considering impacts to the power generation sector. As a result, it may understate water risks related to the timing of water flows in water abundant areas in Southeast Asia. 14 World Resources Institute

17 III. WATER SCARCITY ANALYSIS AND TRENDS FIGURE 8. Existing and Planned Thermal Power and Hydropower Plants by Capacity and Water Stress Level EXISTING PLANT CAPACITY (MW) PLANNED PLANT CAPACITY (MW) Source: WRI. Data for power plants are from carma.org and company reports and the water stress indicators are from CGIAR/WRI/University of Kassel Note: Water stress indicators (WSIs) represent the ratio of total withdrawals to utilizable water. Water stress indicators (WSIs) represent the ratio of total withdrawals to utilizable water. These indicators do not reflect anticipated demographic or climate changes (such as the timing/quantity of precipitation) and therefore do not represent all facets of water-related risk. See Appendix A for information. World Resources Institute 15

18 OVER HEATING FIGURE 9. Existing and Planned Power Generation Capacity by Water Availability Existing Planned Capacity in GW Water Scarce Water Stressed Moderate Water Availability Water Abundant Source: WRI. See Appendix A for more information. FIGURE 10. Percent of Power Capacity by Water Availability for India, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam India Malaysia Philippines Water scarce Water stressed Moderate water availability Water abundant Thailand Vietnam 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Percentage of Existing and Planned Capacity Source: WRI. See Appendix A for information. Climate change and increasing competition will exacerbate water constraints in the future. Water scarcity is a growing concern for many parts of the world. In India in particular, and in parts of the other four countries, high demand for water, coupled with water pollution, means that available water supplies are declining. This trend will accelerate in the future as population and economic growth leads to higher per capita water consumption in the region. 16 World Resources Institute

19 III. WATER SCARCITY ANALYSIS AND TRENDS India is by far the most water scarce country included in the analysis. In India, over 70% of water resources are inaccessible, not renewable, unreliable, or restricted due to environmental regulations. 14 Furthermore, water demand is expected to outgrow supply in India by 50% by 2030 and the World Bank estimates that India will exhaust all available water supplies by The other focus countries are in Southeast Asia, one of the water-rich regions in the world. With abundant rainfall, the volume of water available per person is higher than most other regions in the Asia-Pacific. However, much of the region s precipitation is seasonal and is expected to be impacted by climate change. For example, Thailand has abundant water resources but the problem is the timing and accessibility of water. Experts believe that in the northeast, where a third of the population lives, water will need to be transported from abundant to scarce areas, greatly increasing costs. 16 The two primary drivers of increasing water scarcity and declining water quality, climate change and increased demand, are discussed in more detail in the following sections. A. CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change will continue to affect the quantity and quality of fresh water renewals in the region, with impacts increasing over time. The primary impact of the heat-trapping gasses that contribute to global climate change is to increase the mean average temperature over time, as shown in Table 3 for countries included in this report. Higher temperatures can affect water availability in the following ways: Higher rates of evaporation Increased melting of snowpack and glaciers that feed river systems Changes to precipitation patterns Salt intrusion in coastal freshwater resources TABLE 3. Projected Temperature Increases in Select Asian Countries Range of Projected Temperature Increases Observed Temperature Increases ( C) (mean surface temperature)* ( C) Country ( ) India 0.68 per century Indonesia per century Malaysia Data not available Philippines 1.4 per century Thailand per century Vietnam 1.0 per century * Range based on low and high emissions scenarios. Temperature increases for India are from data for South Asia averaged over 4 seasons. Baseline period is Asian Development Bank. April The Economics of Climate Change in Southeast Asia: A Regional Review. Page Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007, Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, p World Resources Institute 17

20 OVER HEATING Increased evaporation rates can directly affect the availability of water supplies. In Vietnam, increased evaporation due to higher temperatures has reduced the availability of water for agricultural and industrial purposes. 17 The melting of mountain glaciers due to higher global temperature is expected to bring about major shifts in river flows. 18 This effect is predicted to reduce water supplies for more than one-sixth of the world s population that lives in glacier or snowmelt-fed river basins. 19 Asia will be dramatically impacted by changing hydrological patterns, particularly river runoff. The siting process for new power plants should consider these long-term changes, especially in the case of hydroelectric power. India is one of the regions most at risk from this effect as climate change leads to the recession of the Himalayan glaciers. About 67% of Himalayan glaciers are reported to be receding. As the ice diminishes glacial flows will at first increase and then decrease over the long-term as the glaciers retreat. Nearly 70% of the water in the Ganges River system comes from these glaciers. 20 Higher temperatures will impact precipitation patterns. From , Southeast Asia experienced a decrease in rainfall and a decreased number of rainy days. This trend is expected to continue with future projections, shown in Table 4. In the next 50 years, under a high greenhouse gas emissions (base case) scenario, precipitation in Southeast Asia is projected to decrease, but then to increase by the end of the century, with strong variation expected between March and May. In broad terms, the wet season will become wetter and the dry season drier. Southeast Asia has also experienced an increase in extreme events, including prolonged droughts. These events are predicted to occur with even greater frequency. In India, precipitation is expected to increase more than in Southeast Asia. As with Southeast Asia, there will be increased seasonal variation. In northern India, precipitation is expected to decrease by mm per month most of the year except with an upsurge dur- TABLE 4. Projected Precipitation in Select Asian Countries Country Observed Changes in Precipitation * Projected mean Change in Precipitation (%) ** India *** Increase in extreme rains in North-West during summer monsoon in recent decades; lower number 2.5 to to to 6.75 of rainy days along East coast. Malaysia Number of rainy days has declined throughout Southeast Asia. Philippines Increase in annual rainfall and in the number of rainy days to to to 8.00 Thailand Decreasing annual rainfall for the last five decades. Vietnam Decrease in monthly rainfall in July-August and increase in September to November. * Studies conducted over varying time periods. ** Range based on low and high emissions scenarios. Baseline period is *** Precipitation changes for India are from data for South Asia averaged over 4 seasons. 1. Asian Development Bank. April The Economics of Climate Change in Southeast Asia: A Regional Review. Page Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007, Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, p World Resources Institute

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