Sample records for geopressured geothermal fluids

This thesaurus of terminology associated with the geopressuredgeothermal energy field has been developed as a part of the GeopressuredGeothermal Information System data base. A thesaurus is a compilation of terms displaying synonymous, hierarchical, and other relationships between terms. These terms, which are called descriptors, constitute the special language of the information retrieval system, the system vocabulary. The Thesaurus' role in the GeopressuredGeothermal Information System is to provide a controlled vocabulary of sufficient specificity for subject indexing and retrieval of documents in the geopressuredgeothermal energy field. The thesauri most closely related to the Geopressure Thesaurus in coverage are the DOE Energy Information Data Base Subject Thesaurus and the Geothermal Thesaurus being developed at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL). The Geopressure Thesaurus differs from these thesauri in two respects: (1) specificity of the vocabulary or subject scope and (2) display format.

This thesaurus of terminology associated with the geopressuredgeothermal energy field has been developed as a part of the GeopressuredGeothermal Information System data base. A thesaurus is a compilation of terms displaying synonymous, hierarchical, and other relationships between terms. These terms, which are called descriptors, constitute the special language of the information retrieval system, the system vocabulary. The Thesaurus' role in the GeopressuredGeothermal Information System is to provide a controlled vocabulary of sufficient specificity for subject indexing and retrieval of documents in the geopressuredgeothermal energy field. The thesauri most closely related to the Geopressure Thesaurus in coverage are the DOE Energy Information Data Base Subject Thesaurus and the Geothermal Thesaurus being developed at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL). The Geopressure Thesaurus differs from these thesauri in two respects: (1) specificity of the vocabulary or subject scope and (2) display format.

This paper proposes the development of an engineered interface between a geopressured-geothermal resource and a supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) process which destroys hazardous organic wastes. The objectives of this study are to show economic advantages in linking the geopressured-geothermal resource with an SCWO process: to destroy hazardous organic waste; to produce power with the combined energy content of the geopressured-geothermal resource and the SCWO process; to use the available energy of the combined system to operate other synergistic processes. The interface will produce a standardized working medium from the hot geopressured-geothermal brine exiting a well, providing hydraulic and thermal energy for operation of the SCWO process. The Department of Energy (DOE) Geopressured-Geothermal Program has been researching the technical and production characteristics of the geopressured-geothermal resource. Three DOE well operations are presently a part of this program. The focus of this study is the development of concepts using a SCWO process to detoxify pollutants at a DOE geopressured-geothermal well site. The existence of large geopressured-geothermal regions throughout the world extends the applicability of the proposed system to many other potential locations in the US and foreign countries. 13 refs., 5 figs.

The proposed action will consist of drilling one geopressured-geothermal resource fluid well for intermittent production testing over the first year of the test. During the next two years, long-term testing of 40,000 BPD will be flowed. A number of scenarios may be implemented, but it is felt that the total fluid production will approximate 50 million barrels. The test well will be drilled with a 22 cm (8.75 in.) borehole to a total depth of approximately 5185 m (17,000 ft). Up to four disposal wells will provide disposal of the fluid from the designated 40,000 BPD test rate. The following are included in this assessment: the existing environment; probable environmental impacts-direct and indirect; probable cumulative and long-term environmental impacts; accidents; coordination with federal, state, regional, and local agencies; and alternative actions. (MHR)

The feasibility, economics and environmental concerns of producing more domestic oil using thermal enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) are reviewed and the unique nature of geopressured-geothermal (GPGT) fluids for thermal recovery are outlined. Current methods of TEOR are briefly discussed and it is noted that these methods are presently under scrutiny by both federal and state air quality agencies; and moreover, they often involve costly operational and mechanical problems associated with heating water on the surface for injection into the target reservoir. The characteristics of the GPGT resources as seen through previous Department of Energy (DOE) studies from sites in Louisiana and Texas are discussed. These studies indicate sufficient quantities of GPGT fluids can be produced to sustain a TEOR project. The Alworth Field in the south Texas Mirando Trend is proposed as a TEOR pilot site. The target reservoirs for injection of the GPGT fluids are the Jackson and Yegua sandstones of the upper Eocene Epoch. The reservoirs contain an estimated 4 MMbbls of heavy oil in place (OIP) (18.6{degree}API) of which it is estimated that at least 1 MMbbls could be recovered by TEOR. The problems associated with using the GPGT fluids for TEOR include those normally associated with hot water flooding but in addition the reaction of the brine from the geopressured-geothermal reservoir with the target reservoir is uncertain. Under the elevated temperatures associated with GPGT TEOR, actual increased porosity and permeability are possible. 120 refs., 40 figs., 13 tabs.

The following are covered: oil well completions, water well completions, sand control techniques, geopressured oil and gas wells, and geopressured water well completion. The conclusions for a geothermal-geopressured water well completion and needed research are included. (MHR)

Discussion of the industrial utilization of geopressuredgeothermal energy is currently limited by the limited knowledge of the resource's distribution. However, the resource assessment activity in the Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, has identified a number of fairway or potential resource zones. These zones are located in Kenedy County; in and about Corpus Christi and Nueces Bays in Nueces, San Patricio, and Aransas Counties; in the coastal zones of Matagorda County; and in a crescent-shaped zone parallel to the coastline in Brazoria and Galveston Counties. The Kenedy and Matagorda County zones are situated in rural areas with little or no industrial activity. The Corpus Christi and Brazoria-Galveston zones are in and adjacent to highly industrialized and urbanized districts. The rural zones will require the establishment of new industries for geothermalfluid utilization while the industrial-urban zones will require either new industry, expansion to existing industry, or modification to existing plant and process. Proposed industries for geothermalfluid utilization can be considered with respect to fitting the industry to the available fluids; this has been the usual approach. An alternate approach is to fit the abailable fluids to the proposed industry. In order to follow the alternate approach requires consideration of ways to upgrade the quality of existing geothermalfluids or geothermal-derived or -energized fluids.

This thesaurus of terminology associated with the geopressuredgeothermal energy field has been developed as a part of the GeopressuredGeothermal Information System data base. It is a compilation of terms displaying synomymous, hierarchical, and other relationships between terms. These terms, which are called descriptors, constitute the special language of the information retrieval system - the system vocabulary. The function of this thesaurus is to provide a standardized vocabulary for the information storage and retrieval system to facilitate both the indexing and subject-searching processes. In indexing, a thesaurus is used to translate the natural language of the document to be indexed into the standardized system vocabulary and to place the document at the appropriate level of generality or specificity in relation to the other documents in the data base. In subject retrieval, the thesaurus is used to match the natural language used in search requests with the system vocabulary and to find the most appropriate term to represent a concept.

This bibliography was compiled by the Center for Energy Studies at The University of Texas at Austin to serve as a tool for researchers in the field of geopressuredgeothermal energy resources. The bibliography represents citations of papers on geopressuredgeothermal energy resources over the past eighteen years. Topics covered in the bibliography range from the technical aspects of geopressuredgeothermal reservoirs to social, environmental, and legal aspects of tapping those reservoirs for their energy resources. The bibliography currently contains more than 750 entries. For quick reference to a given topic, the citations are indexed into five divisions: author, category, conference title, descriptor, and sponsor. These indexes are arranged alphabetically and cross-referenced by page number.

The surface facilities for testing geothermal-geopressured wells are identical to those for testing a commercial hydrocarbon well with minor modifications. These modifications are necessary to accommodate a high-temperature liquid that tends to be corrosive and to deposit scale when pressure is reduced. Using these modifications, Pleasant Bayou No. 2 was tested with a minimum of trouble.

The US Department of Energy established a geopressured-geothermal energy program in the mid 1970`s as one response to America`s need to develop alternate energy resources in view of the increasing dependence on imported fossil fuel energy. This program continued for 17 years and approximately two hundred million dollars were expended for various types of research and well testing to thoroughly investigate this alternative energy source. This volume describes the following studies: Geopressured-geothermal hybrid cycle power plant: design, testing, and operation summary; Feasibility of hydraulic energy recovery from geopressured-geothermal resources: economic analysis of the Pelton turbine; Brine production as an exploration tool for water drive gas reservoirs; Study of supercritical Rankine cycles; Application of the geopressured-geothermal resource to pyrolytic conversion or decomposition/detoxification processes; Conclusions on wet air oxidation, pyrolytic conversion, decomposition/detoxification process; Co-location of medium to heavy oil reservoirs with geopressured-geothermal resources and the feasibility of oil recovery using geopressured-geothermalfluids; Economic analysis; Application of geopressured-geothermal resources to direct uses; Industrial consortium for the utilization of the geopressured-geothermal resource; Power generation; Industrial desalination, gas use and sales, pollutant removal, thermal EOR, sulfur frasching, oil and natural gas pipelining, coal desulfurization and preparation, lumber and concrete products kilning; Agriculture and aquaculture applications; Paper and cane sugar industries; Chemical processing; Environmental considerations for geopressured-geothermal development. 27 figs., 25 tabs.

The following subjects are included: a geothermal resource overview, the evolution of the current Texas geopressured-geothermal institutional structure, project evaluation with uncertainty and the structure of incentives, the natural gas industry, the electric utility industry, potential governmental participants in resource development, industrial users of thermal energy, current government incentives bearing on geopressured-geothermal development, six profiles for utilization of the geopressured-geothermal resources in the mid-term, and probable impacts of new government incentives on mid-term resource utilization profiles. (MHR)

Geopressuredgeothermal reservoirs are characterized by high temperatures and high pressures with correspondingly large quantities of dissolved methane. Due to these characteristics, the reservoirs provide two sources of energy: chemical energy from the recovered methane, and thermal energy from the recovered fluid at temperatures high enough to operate a binary power plant for electricity production. Formations with the greatest potential for recoverable energy are located in the gulf coastal region of Texas and Louisiana where significantly overpressured and hot formations are abundant. This study estimates the total recoverable onshore geopressuredgeothermal resource for identified sites in Texas and Louisiana. In this study a geopressuredgeothermal resource is defined as a brine reservoir with fluid temperature greater than 212 degrees F and a pressure gradient greater than 0.7 psi/ft.

The mechanical and transport properties and characteristics of rock samples obtained from DOW-DOE L.R. SWEEZY NO. 1 TEST WELL at the Parcperdue Geopressure/Geothermal Site have been investigated in the laboratory. Elastic moduli, compressibility, uniaxial compaction coefficient, strength, creep parameters, permeability, acoustic velocities (all at reservoir conditions) and changes in these quantities induced by simulated reservoir production have been obtained from tests on several sandstone and shale samples from different depths. Most important results are that the compaction coefficients are approximately an order of magnitude lower than those generally accepted for the reservoir sand in the Gulf Coast area and that the creep behavior is significant. Geologic characterization includes lithological description, SEM micrographs and mercury intrusion tests to obtain pore distributions. Petrographic analysis shows that approximately half of the total sand interval has excellent reservoir potential and that most of the effective porosity in the Cib Jeff Sand is formed by secondary porosity development.

This technical report from Argonne National Laboratory presents an assessment of fresh water demand for future growth in utility-scale geothermal power generation and an analysis of fresh water use in low-temperature geopressuredgeothermal power generation systems.

The intrinsic properties of the genetic sandstone units that typify many geopressuredgeothermal aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Gulf Coast region were systematically investigated classified, and differentiated. The following topics are coverd: structural and stratigraphic limits of sandstone reservoirs, characteristics and dimensions of Gulf Coast sandstones; fault-compartment areas; comparison of production and geologic estimates of aquifer fluid volume; geologic setting and reservoir characteristics, Wells of Opportunity; internal properties of sandstones; and implications for geopressuredfluid production. (MHR)

The activities involved in geopressured-geothermal resource production are identified and their ecological impacts are discussed. The analysis separates those activites that are unique to geopressured-geothermal development from those that also occur in oil and gas and other resource developments. Of the unique activities, those with the greatest potential for serious ecological effect are: (1) accidental brine discharge as a result of a blowout during well drilling; (2) subsidence; (3) fault activation and enhanced seismicity; and (4) subsurface contamination of water, hydrocarbon, and mineral reservoirs. Available methods to predict and control these effects are discussed.

This annoted bibliography contains 1131 citations. It represents reports, papers, and articles appearing over the past eighteen years covering topics from the scientific and technical aspects of geopressuredgeothermal reservoirs to the social, environmental, and legal considerations of exploiting those reservoirs for their energy resources. Six indexes include: author, conference title, descriptor, journal title, report number, and sponsor. (MHR)

This study was accomplished for the purpose of gathering information pertaining to land and lease ownership, surface features and use and relevant environmental factors in the Lake Theriot (West and East), Kaplan, Bayou Hebert and Freshwater Bayou geopressuredgeothermal prospects in Louisiana, and the Blessing geopressuredgeothermal prospect in Texas. This information and recommendations predicated upon it will then be used to augment engineering and geological data utilized to select geopressuredgeothermal test well sites within the prospects. The five geopressuredgeothermal prospects are briefly described and recommendations given.

Geological studies have established that geothermal-geopressured formations can be found at depths of 10,000 to 18,000 feet in the Gulf Coast area of Texas and Louisiana. Bottom hole pressures are in the range of 9,000 to 15,000 psig and temperatures 250-350 F. Test wells to tap these reservoirs can be drilled routinely, utilizing available equipment and methods. Electric logs, surveys, cores and production tests can be used to assess these resources and to evaluate their economic viability as primary sources of energy. But it will be necessary to complete the wells in such fashion that production of the high-pressured fluid can be obtained to deliver heat, mechanical energy and methane gas in economic quantities. This will require carefully considered completion techniques, involving pipe sizes and accessory equipment suitable for high volumes of fluid. Completion operations may include formation stimulation treatments and/or sand control measures to obtain optimum rates of flow with minimum sand influx. It appears that gravel-packed completions will be more feasible at this time than chemical consolidation treatments to control sand production because of high temperatures, thick producing intervals, and high-velocity flow rates. Flow rates up to 100 barrels per day per foot of perforations should be possible from consolidated formations without sand control treatments.

Geopressures play a dominant role in the oil and gas industry. These pore-fluid pressures have been the source of such well problems as blowouts, stuck pipe, no drilling progress, lost circulation, saltwater flows, etc. At one time, offshore drilling did not appear profitable because of high drilling costs. Deep target objectives were rarely attained. The concept of impenetrable rocks was accepted as fact in the Gulf Coast.

Geopressured-geotheermal resources of the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana are currently being evaluated as thermal-hydraulic energy sources to drive turbines to generate electrical power. Gulf Coast geothermalfluids are brines with salinities generally in excess of 40,000 ppM and tempertures up to 283/sup 0/C (520/sup 0/F). The proportions of dissolved ions in geothermalfluids is markedly different than that of sea water, and the fluids are expected to be saturated with methane. As much as 54,000 m/sup 3/ (310,000 bbls) of fluids per day at a temperature of 049/sup 0/C (300/sup 0/F) will be required to feed one 25 megawatt power plant. The energy resource, the ecological resources of the Gulf Coast, and the potential effects of the development of geothermal energy on ecological resources are described.

The development of a flowthrough sampler capable of obtaining fluid samples from geopressured wells at temperatures up to 400/sup 0/F and pressures up to 20,000 psi is described. The sampler has been designed, fabricated from MP35N alloy, laboratory tested, and used to obtain fluid samples from a geothermal well at The Geysers, California. However, it has not yet been used in a geopressured well. The design features, test results, and operation of this device are described. Alternative sampler designs are also discussed. Another activity was to review the chemistry and geochemistry of geopressured brines and reservoirs, and to evaluate the utility of available computer codes for modeling the chemistry of geopressured brines. The thermodynamic data bases for such codes are usually the limiting factor in their application to geopressured systems, but it was concluded that existing codes can be updated with reasonable effort and can usefully explain and predict the chemical characteristics of geopressured systems, given suitable input data.

Preliminary environmental data, including current land use, substrate lithology, soils, natural hazards, water resources, biological assemblages, meteorological data, and regulatory considerations have been collected and analyzed for approximately 150 km/sup 2/ of land: (1) near Chocolate Bayou, Brazoria County, Texas, where a geopressured-geothermal test well was drilled in 1978, and (2) near the rural community of Armstrong, Kenedy County, Texas, where future geopressured-geothermal test well development may occur. The study was designed to establish an environmental data base and to determine, within spatial constraints set by subsurface reservoir conditions, environmentally suitable sites for geopressured-geothermal wells.

This Environmental Assessment (EA) has been prepared to provide the environmental input into the Division of Geothermal Energy's decisions to expand the geothermal well testing activities to include sites in the Frio Formation of Texas and Louisiana. It is proposed that drilling rigs be leased before they are removed from sites in the formation where drilling for gas or oil exploration has been unsuccessful and that the rigs be used to complete the drilling into the geopressured zone for resource exploration. This EA addresses, on a regional basis, the expected activities, affected environment, and the possible impacts in a broad sense as they apply to the Gulf Coast well testing activity of the Geothermal Energy Geopressure Subprogram of the Department of Energy. Along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast (Plate 1 and Overlay, Atlas) water at high temperatures and high pressures is trapped within Gulf basin sediments. The water is confined within or below essentially impermeable shale sequences and carries most or all of the overburden pressure. Such zones are referred to as geopressured strata. These fluids and sediments are heated to abnormally high temperatures (up to 260 C) and may provide potential reservoirs for economical production of geothermal energy. The obvious need in resource development is to assess the resource. Ongoing studies to define large-sand-volume reservoirs will ultimately define optimum sites for drilling special large diameter wells to perform large volume flow production tests. in the interim, existing well tests need to be made to help define and assess the resource.

This white paper presents a unique plan for an Oil Industry-DOE cost sharing research project for Thermal Enhanced Oil Recovery (TEOR) of medium and heavy oil using geopressured-geothermal brine. This technology would provide an environmentally clean method of recovery as opposed to the burning of crude oil or natural gas used widely by the industry, but presently under scrutiny by federal and state air quality agencies, as well as provide an alternative to the very expensive operational and mechanical problems associated with heating water on the surface for injection. An example test reservoir is a shallow, small structural reservoir about 1-l/2 miles long by 1/2 mile wide. It is presently producing heavy oil (18.6 API gravity) from 5 wells, and is marginally economic. One of three nearby geopressured-geothermal wells could be re-entered and recompleted to supply about 400 F brine from 13-16,000 feet. This brine can be used to heat and drive the heavy oil. It is anticipated that about one million barrels of oil may be recovered by this project. Over 3 million barrels are estimated to be in place; only 2.7% of the oil in place has been produced. The suggested teaming arrangement includes: (1) EG&G Idaho, Inc., which presently provides technical and management support to DOE in the Gulf EG&G would supply coordination, management and Coast Geopressured-Geothermal Program. technical support to DOE for the Thermal Enhanced Oil Recovery Project. (2) A small business which would supply the field, geologic and well data, production wells, and production operation. They would cost-share the project and provide revenue from increased production (5% of increased production) to help offset DOE costs. Though DOE would cost-share brine supply and injection system, they would not assume well ownership. The small business would supply engineering and operations for brine supply, injection system, and collection of field producing and injection data. Phase 1--Geologic, reservoir

Transient pressure analysis techniques were used to evaluate the performance of the Gladys McCall geopressured-geothermal reservoir which has been monitored and tested under U.S. Department of Energy geopressured -geothermal research program. Analysis of transient pressure data furnished a reservoir description such as the formation parameters, pore volume and shape of the reservoir, and average reservoir pressure. Results of pressure tests suggest that the Gladys McCall reservoir probably has a long narrow shape with the well located off-center. During both production and shut-in periods, pressure buildup tests indicated some degree of external pressure support. Aquifer recharging was believed to be the main source. An aquifer influx model was derived from a conceptual model of water leakage through a partially sealing fault into the reservoir under steady-state conditions. Moreover, a match of the pressure history required that the conductivity of the fault be a function of the pressure difference between the supporting aquifer and the reservoir. Results of analyses provided a quantitative evaluation of the reservoir and a better understanding of the reservoir energy drive mechanism. (author). 14 refs., 1 tab., 4 figs.

This bibliography contains US Department of Energy sponsored Geopressured-Geothermal reports published after 1984. Reports published prior to 1984 are documented in the GeopressuredGeothermal bibliography Volumes 1, 2, and 3 that the Center for Energy Studies at the University of Texas at Austin compiled in May 1985. It represents reports, papers and articles covering topics from the scientific and technical aspects of geopressuredgeothermal reservoirs to the social, environmental, and legal considerations of exploiting those reservoirs for their energy resources.

This prospective well of opportunity was originally drilled and completed as a gas producer by Wrightsman Investment Company in early 1973. The original and present producing interval was from 15,216 to 15,238 feet. IMC Exploration Company, Inc. acquired the property from Wrightsman and is the present owner operator. The well is presently shut in s a non-economic producer and IMC proposed to perform plug and abandonment operations in April, 1980. This well has a good geopressured-geothermal water sand behind the 5-1/2 inch casing that has 94 feet of net sand thickness. Pursuant to DOE/NVO authorization of March 11,1980, Eaton negotiated an option agreement with IMC whereby IMC would delay their abandonment operations for a period of 90 days to permit DOE to evaluate the well for geopressure-geothermal testing. The IMC-Eaton option agreements provide that IMG will delay plugging the well until June 15, 1980. If Eaton exercises its option to acquire the well, IMC will sell the well bore, and an adjacent salt water disposal well, to Eaton for the sole consideration of Eaton assuming the obligation to plug and abandon the wells in accordance with lease and regulatory requirements. If Eaton does not exercise its option, then Eaton will pay IMC $95,000 cash and IMC will proceed with plugging and abandonment at the termination of the option period.

Phase II-B production testing of the Pleasant Bayou No. 2 well began September 22, 1982. The test plan was designed to evaluate the capabilities of the geopressured-geothermal reservoir during an extended flow period. Tests were conducted to determine reservoir areal extent; aquifer fluid properties; fluid property change with production; information on reservoir production drive mechanism; long-term scale and corrosion control methods; and disposal well operations. Operatinal aspects of geopressured-geothermal production were also evaluated. The test was discontinued prematurely in May 1983 because of a production tubing failure. Most of the production tubing was recovered from the well and cause of the failure was determined. Plans for recompletion of the well were prepared. However, the well was not recompleted because of funding constraints and/or program rescheduling. In March 1984, the Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office (DOE/NV) directed that the site be placed in a standby-secured condition. In August 1984, the site was secured. Routine site maintenance and security was provided during the secured period.

Many sedimentary basins throughout the world contain sealed fault blocks in which the pore fluids are at higher pressures and temperatures than normal as a consequence of their depositional environment. The U.S. Department of Energy has drilled, completed, and tested four deep research wells in selected geopressuredgeothermal prospects in the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast region to evaluate the recoverability of the thermal, hydraulic, and chemical (methane) energy in this potential energy resource. The wells are expensive and the specific energy of the fluids is relatively small, but the total recoverable energy from a single well can be extremely large. Long-term testing of the Gladys McCall No. 1 research well, located in Cameron Parish, Louisiana, U.S.A., has defined an impressively large geopressuredgeothermal reservoir. In this paper an integrated analysis of the test data is presented, and a numerical model is constructed that matches the available data for the 6.5-year test history of the well.

Identifying attractive candidate reservoirs for producing geothermal energy requires predictive models. In this work, inspectional analysis and statistical modeling are used to create simple predictive models for a line drive design. Inspectional analysis on the partial differential equations governing this design yields a minimum number of fifteen dimensionless groups required to describe the physics of the system. These dimensionless groups are explained and confirmed using models with similar dimensionless groups but different dimensional parameters. This study models dimensionless production temperature and thermal recovery factor as the responses of a numerical model. These responses are obtained by a Box-Behnken experimental design. An uncertainty plot is used to segment the dimensionless time and develop a model for each segment. The important dimensionless numbers for each segment of the dimensionless time are identified using the Boosting method. These selected numbers are used in the regression models. The developed models are reduced to have a minimum number of predictors and interactions. The reduced final models are then presented and assessed using testing runs. Finally, applications of these models are offered. The presented workflow is generic and can be used to translate the output of a numerical simulator into simple predictive models in other research areas involving numerical simulation.

The study's findings and recommendations are based upon analysis of the following: financial and economic feasibility of geopressured-geothermal resource development; possible ecological, social, and economic impacts of resource development on PFSL; and legal issues associated with resource development. The results of the analysis are summarized and are discussed in detail in a series of four technical papers which accompany this volume. Existing rules of the General Land Office (GLO), the School Land Board (SLB), and the Railroad Commission of Texas (RRC) were reviewed in light of the above analysis and were discussed with the agencies. The study's recommendations resulted from this analytical and review process; they are discussed. The preliminary draft rules and regulations to govern resource development on PFSL are presented in Appendix A; the accompanying forms and model lease are found in Appendix B.

A comparison of background and potential geopressuredgeothermal development-related subsidence rates is given. Estimated potential geopressured-related rates at six prospects are presented. The effect of subsidence on the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast is examined including the various associated ground movements and the possible effects of these ground movements on surficial processes. The relationships between ecosystems and subsidence, including the capability of geologic and biologic systems to adapt to subsidence, are analyzed. The actual potential for environmental impact caused by potential geopressured-related subsidence at each of four prospects is addressed. (MHR)

The deformational behavior and fluid flow characteristics of rock samples obtained from DOW/DOE L.R. Sweezy No. 1 Test Well at the Parcperdue Geopressured/Geothermal Site have been investigated in the laboratory. Elastic moduli, compressibility, uniaxial compaction coefficient, strength, creep parameters, permeability, acoustic velocites (all at reservoir conditions) and changes in these quantities induced by simulated reservoir production have been obtained from tests on several sandstone and shale samples from different depths. Tests consisting of several hydrostatic and triaxial loading phases and pore pressure reduction were designed to provide measurements to be used for calculating several of the above mentioned parameters in a single test. Pore volume changes were measured during some phases of the tests.

The environmental and socio-economic settings of four environmentally representative Gulf Coast geopressuredgeothermal fairways were inventoried. Subsidence predictions were prepared using feasible development scenarios for the four representative subsidence sites. Based on the results of the subsidence estimates, an assessment of the associated potential environmental and socioeconomic impacts was prepared. An inventory of mitigation measures was also compiled. Results of the subsidence estimates and impact assessments are presented, as well as conclusions as to what are the major uncertainties, problems, and issues concerning the future study of geopressuredgeothermal subsidence.

Two aspects of the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast geopressuredgeothermal resource: (1) the technological requirements for well drilling, completion, and energy conversion, and, (2) the environmental impacts of resource exploitation are examined. The information comes from the literature on geopressuredgeothermal research and from interviews and discussions with experts. The technology characterization section emphasizes those areas in which uncertainty exists and in which further research and development is needed. The environmental assessment section discusses all anticipated environmental impacts and focuses on the two largest potential problems: (a) subsidence and (b) brine disposal.

This report describes environmental monitoring of microseismic activity, land-surface subsidence, and surface and ground-water quality at three designed geopressured-geothermal test well sites in Louisiana. Separate abstracts have been prepared for individual sections. (ACR)

This annual report describes environmental monitoring of microseismic activity, land-surface elevations, and surface and ground-water quality at three designed geopressured-geothermal test well sites in Louisiana.

Geothermal and geopressure as well as geologic and geophysical data were studied to evaluate the potential for future development of geothermal resources underlying the Alabama Coastal Plain. Wire-line log data compiled and interpreted from more than 1300 oil and gas test wells included maximum recorded temperatures, mud weights, rock resistivities as related to geopressure, formation tops, fault locations, and depths to basement rock. The Alabama Coastal Plain area is underlain by a conduction dominated, deep sedimentary basin where geothermal gradients are low to moderate (1.0 to 1.8/sup 0/F/100 feet). In some areas of southwest Alabama, abnormally high temperatures are found in association with geopressured zones within the Haynesville Formation of Jurassic age; however, rocks of poor reservoir quality dominate this formation, with the exception of a 200-square-mile area centered in southernmost Clarke County where a porous and permeable sand unit is encased within massive salt deposits of the lower Haynesville. The results of a petrograhic study of the Smackover Formation, which underlies the Haynesville, indicate that this carbonate rock unit has sufficient porosity in some areas to be considered a potential geothermal reservoir. Future development of geothermal resources in south Alabama will be restricted to low or moderate temperature, non-electric applications, which constitute a significant potential energy source for applications in space heating and cooling and certain agricultural and industrial processes.

Geothermal and geopressure as well as geologic and geophysical data were studied to evaluate the potential for future development of geothermal resources underlying the Alabama Coastal Plain. Wire-line log data compiled and interpreted from more than 1300 oil and gas test wells included maximum recorded temperatures, mud weights, rock resistivities as related to geopressure, formation tops, fault locations, and depths to basement rock. The Alabama Coastal Plain area is underlain by a conduction dominated, deep sedimentary basin where geothermal gradients are low to moderate (1.0 to 1.8/sup 0/F/100 feet). In some areas of southwest Alabama, abnormally high temperatures are found in association with geopressured zones within the Haynesville Formation of Jurassic age; however, rocks of poor reservoir quality dominate this formation, with the exception of a 200-square-mile area centered in southernmost Clarke County where a porous and permeable sand unit is encased within massive salt deposits of the lower Haynesville. The results of a petrograhic study of the Smackover Formation, which underlies the Haynesville, indicate that this carbonate rock unit has sufficient porosity in some areas to be considered a potential geothermal reservoir. Future development of geothermal resources in south Alabama will be restricted to low or moderate temperature, non-electric applications, which constitute a significant potential energy source for applications in space heating and cooling and certain agricultural and industrial processes.

A geopressured-geothermal test of Martin Exploration Company's Crown Zellerbach Well No. 2 will be conducted in the Tuscaloosa Trend. The Crown Zellerbach Well No. 1 will be converted to a saltwater disposal well for disposal of produced brine. The well is located in the Satsuma Area, Livingston parish, Louisiana. Eaton proposes to test the Tuscaloosa by perforating the 7 inch casing from 16,718 feet to 16,754 feet. The reservoir pressure at an intermediate formation depth of 16,736 feet is anticipated to be 12,010 psi and the temperature is anticipated to be 297 F. Calculated water salinity is 16,000 ppm. The well is expected to produce a maximum of 16,000 barrels of water a day with a gas content of 51 SCF/bbl. Eaton will re-enter the test well, clean out to 17,000 feet, run production casing and complete the well. The disposal well will be re-entered and completed in the 9-5/8 inch casing for disposal of produced brine. Testing will be conducted similar to previous Eaton annular flow WOO tests. An optional test from 16,462 feet to 16,490 feet may be performed after the original test and will require a workover with a rig on location to perform the plugback. The surface production equipment utilized on previous tests will be utilized on this test. The equipment has worked satisfactorily and all parties involved in the testing are familiar with its operation. Weatherly Engineering will operate the test equipment. The Institute of Gas Technology (IGT) and Mr. Don Clark will handle sampling, testing and reservoir engineering evaluation, respectively. wireline work required will be awarded on basis of bid evaluation. At the conclusion of the test period, the D.O.E. owned test equipment will be removed from the test site, the test and disposal wells plugged and abandoned and the sites restored to the satisfaction of all parties.

In the summary of the recommended environmental program are: site specific studies, general studies, cost estimates for the program, socioeconomic and demographic research, potential environmental concerns, environmental research, effects of geopressure exploitation, and research plans. The socioeconomic and cultural considerations are impacts on communities. Waste disposal, geologic framework, ground subsidence, and monitoring techniques are discussed. (MHR)

This study concludes that direct use technologies, especially desalinated water production, can contribute significantly to the value added process and the overall economic viability in developing a geopressured resource. Although agriculture and aquaculture applications are marginal projects when they are the only use of a geopressured well, the small margin of profitability can contribute to improving the overall economics of the direct use development. The added complexity from a technical and management aspect may add to the overall risk and unpredictability of the project. Six combination of direct uses received economic evaluation that resulted in 15% discounted payback periods ranging from 4 to over 10 years. Many other combinations are possible depending on the resource and market variables. Selection of appropriate technologies and sizes of applications will be established by the developer that engages in geopressured resource utilization. Currently, many areas of the country where geopressured resources are located also have surplus electrical capacity and generation, thus power utilities have been selling power for less than 2 cents per kWH, well below a reasonable breakeven value for geopressured produced electricity. However, when the energy demand of the integrated geopressured facility is large enough to install power generation equipment, operating expenses can be reduced by not paying the 10 to 12 cents per kWH utility rate. The study includes an analysis of a geothermal turbine unit installed with a desalination and an agriculture/aquaculture facility, taking advantage of the cascading energy values. Results suggest that this scenario becomes profitable only where the market price for electricity exceeds five cents per kWH.

Three separate abstracts were prepared for Volume V of the Proceedings of the Conference. Sections are entitled: Legal Issues in the Development of Geopressured--Geothermal Resources of Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast; The Development of Geothermal Energy in the Gulf Coast; Socio-economic, Demographic, and Political Considerations; and Geothermal Resources of the Texas Gulf Coast--Environmental Concerns arising from the Production and Disposal of Geothermal waters. (MCW)

The Geopressured-Geothermal Program, now in its fifteenth year, is entering the transition period to commercial use. The industry cost-shared proposals to the consortium, represented in the presentations included in these proceedings, attest to the interest developing in the industrial community in utilizing the geopressured-geothermal resource. Sixty-five participants attended these sessions, two-thirds of whom represented industry. The areas represented by cost-shared proposals include (1) thermal enhanced oil recovery, (2) direct process use of thermal energy, e.g., aquaculture and agriculture, (3) conversion of thermal energy to electricity, (4) environment related technologies, e.g., use of supercritical processes, and (5) operational proposals, e.g., a field manual for scale inhibitors. It is hoped that from this array of potential use projects, some will persist and be successful in proving the viability of using the geopressured-geothermal resource. Such industrial use of an alternative and relatively clean energy resource will benefit our nation and its people.

The Geopressured-Geothermal Program, now in its fifteenth year, is entering the transition period to commercial use. The industry cost-shared proposals to the consortium, represented in the presentations included in these proceedings, attest to the interest developing in the industrial community in utilizing the geopressured-geothermal resource. Sixty-five participants attended these sessions, two-thirds of whom represented industry. The areas represented by cost-shared proposals include (1) thermal enhanced oil recovery, (2) direct process use of thermal energy, e.g., aquaculture and agriculture, (3) conversion of thermal energy to electricity, (4) environment related technologies, e.g., use of supercritical processes, and (5) operational proposals, e.g., a field manual for scale inhibitors. It is hoped that from this array of potential use projects, some will persist and be successful in proving the viability of using the geopressured-geothermal resource. Such industrial use of an alternative and relatively clean energy resource will benefit our nation and its people.

Regional studies of the lower Eocene Wilcox Group in Texas were conducted to assess the potential for producing heat energy and solution methane from geopressuredfluids in the deep-subsurface growth-faulted zone. However, in addition to assembling the necessary data for the geopressuredgeothermal project, this study has provided regional information of significance to exploration for other resources such as lignite, uranium, oil, and gas. Because the focus of this study was on the geopressured section, emphasis was placed on correlating and mapping those sandstones and shales occurring deeper than about 10,000 ft. The Wilcox and Midway Groups comprise the oldest thick sandstone/shale sequence of the Tertiary of the Gulf Coast. The Wilcox crops out in a band 10 to 20 mi wide located 100 to 200 mi inland from the present-day coastline. The Wilcox sandstones and shales in the outcrop and updip shallow subsurface were deposited primarily in fluvial environments; downdip in the deep subsurface, on the other hand, the Wilcox sediments were deposited in large deltaic systems, some of which were reworked into barrier-bar and strandplain systems. Growth faults developed within the deltaic systems, where they prograded basinward beyond the older, stable Lower Cretaceous shelf margin onto the less stable basinal muds. Continued displacement along these faults during burial resulted in: (1) entrapment of pore fluids within isolated sandstone and shale sequences, and (2) buildup of pore pressure greater than hydrostatic pressure and development of geopressure.

This well of opportunity (WOO) geopressured-geothermal prospect has been drilled to 15,265 feet by Southport Exploration, Inc. (Southport) as the Beulah Simon No. 2 Well. The well is located in Section 26, T11S, R2E, Vermilion Parish, Louisiana, approximately four miles northeast of the town of Kaplan. The wellsite is shown on the enclosed section of USGS topographic sheet, ''Lafayette, La.'', and is accessible by State Highway 13 from Interstate Highway 10. The well was drilled approximately one mile east of the Southport et al. Beulah Simon No. 1 Well in the Cossinade Field. The Beulah Simon No. 1 Well is producing natural gas from a zone which is separate and distinct from the target reservoir in the No. 2 Well.

The Brazoria seismic network, instrumentation, design, and specifications are described. The data analysis procedures are presented. Seismicity is described in relation to the Pleasant Bayou production history. Seismicity originating near the chemical plant east of the geopressured/geothermal well is discussed.

The Brazoria seismic network, instrumentation, design, and specifications are described. The data analysis procedures are presented. Seismicity is described in relation to the Pleasant Bayou production history. Seismicity originating near the chemical plant east of the geopressured/geothermal well is discussed. (MHR)

The Department of Energy (DOE) has initiated a program to evaluate the feasibility of developing the geothermal-geopressured energy resources of the Louisiana-Texas Gulf Coast. As part of this effort, DOE is contracting for the drilling of design wells to define the nature and extent of the geopressure resource. At each of several sites, one deep well (4000-6400 m) will be drilled and flow tested. One or more shallow wells will also be drilled to dispose of geopressured brines. Each site will require about 2 ha (5 acres) of land. Construction and initial flow testing will take approximately one year. If initial flow testing is successful, a continuous one-year duration flow test will take place at a rate of up to 6400 m{sup 3} (40,000 bbl) per day. Extensive tests will be conducted on the physical and chemical composition of the fluids, on their temperature and flow rate, on fluid disposal techniques, and on the reliability and performance of equipment. Each project will require a maximum of three years to complete drilling, testing, and site restoration.

Continuous microseismic monitoring networks have been established around three US Department of Energy geopressured-geothermal design wells in southwestern Louisiana since summer 1980 to assess the effects well development may have on subsidence and growth fault activation. The results obtained from this monitoring have shown several unusual characteristics associated with Gulf Coast seismic activity. The observed activity is classified into two dominant types, one with identifiable body phases and the other with only surface wave signatures. The latter type comprises over 99% of the reported 1000+ microseismic event locations. The problem with the slow-moving surface-wave signature events is that rainfall and weather-associated frontal passages seem closely related to these periods of seismic activity at all three wells. After relatively short periods and low levels of flow testing at the Parcperdue and Sweet Lake prospects, seismic monitoring has shown little credible correlation to inferred growth fault locations during periods of flow testing. Longer periods and higher volumes of flow testing at the Rockefeller Refuge prospect should provide a truer indication of induced seismicity attributable to geopressured-geothermal development. 4 refs., 5 figs.

This Environmental Assessment (EA) has been prepared to assess the environmental implications of the Department of Energy's proposal to drill, complete, and test one geopressure well located in Brazoria County on a 2 hectares (five acre) test site 64 km (40 mi) south of Houston, Abstract 107, Perry and Austin Survey, Brazoria County, TX. The test well is herein referred to as GCO-DOE Pleasant Bayou No. 1. A maximum of four disposal wells will be located within .8 km (1/2 mi) of the proposed well. The DOE and the University of Texas Center for Energy Studies propose to operate the test facility for three years to evaluate the geopressure potential of the subsurface. Tests to be conducted include flow rates, fluid composition, temperature, gas content, geologic characteristics, and the land subsidence potential for subsequent production.

The report consists of four sections dealing with progress in evaluating geologic, geochemical, and geophysical aspects of geopressured-geothermal energy resources in Louisiana. Separate abstracts have been prepared for the individual sections. (ACR)

This study presents a preliminary evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of selected conceptual processes for pyrolytic conversion of organic feedstocks or the decomposition/detoxification of hazardous wastes by coupling the process to the geopressured-geothermal resource. The report presents a detailed discussion of the resource and of each process selected for evaluation including the technical evaluation of each. A separate section presents the economic methodology used and the evaluation of the technically viable process. A final section presents conclusions and recommendations. Three separate processes were selected for evaluation. These are pyrolytic conversion of biomass to petroleum like fluids, wet air oxidation (WAO) at subcritical conditions for destruction of hazardous waste, and supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) also for the destruction of hazardous waste. The scientific feasibility of all three processes has been previously established by various bench-scale and pilot-scale studies. For a variety of reasons detailed in the report the SCWO process is the only one deemed to be technically feasible, although the effects of the high solids content of the geothermal brine need further study. This technology shows tremendous promise for contributing to solving the nation's energy and hazardous waste problems. However, the current economic analysis suggests that it is uneconomical at this time. 50 refs., 5 figs., 7 tabs.

This environmental impact assessment (EIA) addresses the expected programmatic activities of the Geopressure Subprogram of the Division of Geothermal Energy. The goal of the Geopressure Subprogram is to stimulate development of geopressured resources as an economic, reliable, operationally safe, and environmentally acceptable energy source. The subprogram includes activities in the areas of engineering research and development; resource exploration, assessment, and development; resource utilization including pilot and demonstration facilities; and environmental research and control technology development. It should be recognized that most of the subprogram activities extend over several years and are in their early stages of implementation at this time. The zones of potential geopressure development are in the region located along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coasts extending up to 200 miles (300 km) inland. Geopressured zones are sedimentary basins where water is trapped at high pressures within or below thick, nearly impermeable shale sequences. The confined water supports most or all of the weight of the overburden. This inhibits sediment compaction and causes formation pore pressure to exceed hydrostatic pressure. in sedimentary basins that are underlain by thin oceanic crust, upward thermal conduction from the mantle heats geopressuredfluids and sediments to abnormally high temperatures, often in excess of 260 C (500 F).

Preliminary environmental data, including current land use, substrate lithology, soils, natural hazards, water resources, biological assemblages, meteorological data, and regulatory considerations have been collected and analyzed for approximately 150 km/sup 2/ of land near Chocolate Bayou, Brazoria County, Texas, in which a geopressured-geothermal test well is to be drilled in the fall of 1977. The study was designed to establish an environmental data base and to determine, within spatial constraints set by subsurface reservoir conditions, environmentally suitable sites for the proposed well. Preliminary analyses of data revealed the eed for focusing on the following areas: potential for subsidence and fault activation, susceptibility of test well and support facilities to fresh- and salt-water flooding, possible effects of produced saline waters on biological assemblages and groundwaer resources, distribution of expansive soils, and effect of drilling and associated support activities on known archeological-cultural resources.

Variable intensity of diagenesis is the factor primarily responsible for contrasting regional reservoir quality of Tertiary sandstones from the upper and lower Texas coast. Detailed comparison of Frio sandstone from the Chocolate Bayou/Danbury Dome area, Brazoria County, and Vicksburg sandstones from the McAllen Ranch Field area, Hidalgo County, reveals that extent of diagenetic modification is most strongly influenced by (1) detrital mineralogy and (2) regional geothermal gradients. The regional reservoir quality of Frio sandstones from Brazoria County is far better than that characterizing Vicksburg sandstones from Hidalgo County, especially at depths suitable for geopressuredgeothermal energy production. However, in predicting reservoir quality on a site-specific basis, locally variable factors such as relative proportions for porosity types, pore geometry as related to permeability, and local depositional environment must also be considered. Even in an area of regionally favorable reservoir quality, such local factors can significantly affect reservoir quality and, hence, the geothermal production potential of a specific sandstone unit.

The data analysis is based on the Brazoria Texas well and the balance of the modeling work is theoretical. Progress in the regional assessment of the geopressured-geothermal resource in Louisiana is reported. Environmental monitoring effort established monitoring systems and baseline environmental measurements. Efforts to improve the technoeconomic model, improve the estimates of methane in solution, and to evaluate newly identified sites are described. (MHR)

Gladys McCall site activities are covered through the completion of the test well and salt water disposal well. The test well was drilled to a total depth of 16,510 feet, then plugged back to 15,831 feet. Three 4'' diameter diamond cores were taken for analysis. An existing well on site, the Getty-Butts Gladys McCall No. 1, was reentered and completed to a depth of 3514 feet as a salt water disposal well. The geologic interpretation of the Gladys McCall site indicated target sands for testing at 15,080 feet through 15, 831 feet. Reservoir fluid temperature at this depth is estimated to be approximately 313/sup 0/F and pressure is estimated to be +-12,800 psi. The preliminary reservoir volume estimate is 3.6 billion barrels of brine. The design wells program includes environmental monitoring of the Gladys McCall site by Louisiana State University. Field stations are set up to monitor surface and ground water quality, subsidence, land loss and shoreline erosion, and seismicity. As of December 31, 1981 the study shows no significant impact on the environment by site operations.

Detailed structural mapping at several horizons in selected study areas within the Frio growth-fault trend demonstrates a pronounced variability in structural style. At Sarita in South Texas, shale mobilization produced one or more shale ridges, one of which localized a low-angle growth fault trapping a wedge of deltaic sediments. At Corpus Christi, shale mobilization produced a series of large growth faults, shale-cored domed anticlines, and shale-withdrawal basins, which become progressively younger basinward. At Blessing, major growth faults trapped sands of the Greta/Carancahua barrier system with little progradation. At Pleasant Bayou, a major early growth-fault pattern was overprinted by later salt tectonics - the intrusion of Danbury Dome and the development of a salt-withdrawal basin. At Port Arthur, low-displacement, long-lived faults formed on a sand-poor shelf margin contemporaneously with broad salt uplifts and basins. Variability in styles is related to the nature and extent of Frio sedimentation and shelf-margin progradation and to the presence or absence of salt. Structural styles that are conducive to the development of large geothermal reservoirs include blocks between widely spaced growth faults having dip reversal, salt-withdrawal basins, and shale-withdrawal basins. These styles are widespread on the Texas Gulf Coast. However, actually finding a large reservoir depends on demonstrating the existence of sufficient sandstone with adequate quality to support geopressuredgeothermal energy production.

This paper presents the initial results of a survey of the occurrence and characteristics of geopressuredfluid resources in California using the publicly- available database involving more than 150,000 oil and gas wells drilled in the State. Of the 975 documented on-shore oil and gas pools studied, about 42% were identified as potentially geopressured. Geothermal gradients in California oil and gas fields lie within the normal range of 1 F to 2 F per 100 feet. Except for the Los Angeles Basin, there was no evidence of higher temperatures or temperature gradients in geopressured pools.

Information collected and analyzed for a preliminary environmental analysis of geopressuredgeothermal prospect areas in Colorado and DeWitt Counties, Texas is presented. Specific environmental concerns for each geopressuredgeothermal prospect area are identified and discussed. Approximately 218 km/sup 2/(85 mi/sup 2/) were studied in the vicinity of each prospect area to: (1) conduct an environmental analysis to identify more and less suited areas for geopressured test wells; and (2) provide an environmental data base for future development of geopressuredgeothermal energy resources. A series of maps and tables are included to illustrate environmental characteristics including: geology, water resources, soils, current land use, vegetation, wildlife, and meteorological characteristics, and additional relevant information on cultural resources, power- and pipelines, and regulatory agencies. A series of transparent overlays at the scale of the original mapping has also been produced for the purposes of identifying and ranking areas of potential conflict between geopressuredgeothermal development and environmental characteristics. The methodology for ranking suitability of areas within the two prospect areas is discussed in the appendix. (MHR)

This is the final report on research conducted to improve the technical and scientific understanding of geopressured and geothermal resources. The effort utilized a computer to interpret the results of well tests and compile data on gas solubility in brine and the viscosity of brine. A detailed computer reservoir study of a geopressured test well that had been abandoned as a dry hole but became a commercial producer of hydrocarbons is presented. A number of special topical reports pertaining to test activities performed on Department of Energy test wells (MG-T/DOE Amoco Fee No. 1 Well, Leroy Sweezy No. 1 Well, and Pleasant Bayou No. 2 Well) are appended to the report. A referenced article written under this study that appeared in the Journal of Petroleum Technology is also reproduced.

Present methods are described for the collection, preservation, and chemical analysis of waters produced from geopressuredgeothermal and petroleum wells. Detailed procedures for collection include precautions and equipment necessary to ensure that the sample is representative of the water produced. Procedures for sample preservation include filtration, acidification, dilution for silica, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) extraction of aluminum, addition of potassium permanganate to preserve mercury, and precipitation of carbonate species as strontium carbonate for stable carbon isotopes and total dissolved carbonate analysis. Characteristics determined at the well site are sulfide, pH, ammonia, and conductivity. Laboratory procedures are given for the analysis of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, iron, manganese, zinc, lead, aluminum, .and mercury by atomic absorption and flame emission spectroscopy. Chloride is determined by silver nitrate titration and fluoride by ion-specific electrode. Bromide and iodide concentrations are determined by the hypochlorite oxidation method. Sulfate is analyzed by titration using barium chloride with thorin indicator after pretreatment with alumina. Boron and silica are determined colorimetrically by the carmine and molybdate-blue methods, respectively. Aliphatic acid anions (C2 through C5) are determined by gas chromatography after separation and concentration in a chloroform-butanol mixture.

A time-dependent model of the combined physicochemical processes which are expected to be important to the successful reinjection of waste geopressuredfluids into a saline aquifer is described. Models are developed for a number of chemical processes (i.e., 1. brine-mineral reactions including solution and precipitation of minerals, 2. brine-clay interactions such as selective absorption of ion species) which may occur when a spent geopressured brine is reinjected into an aquifer containing a fluid of different chemical composition. The chemical models have been incorporated into a one-dimensional thermohydraulic simulator. The combined physicochemical transport model (i.e., simulator) is applied to investigate the reinjection characteristics of a typical Gulf Coast reinjection aquifer system.

Work for the period, December 1, 1978 through October 31, 1980, is documented. The following activities are covered: project technical coordination assistance and liaison; technical assistance for review and evaluation of proposals and contract results; technical assistance for geopressured-geothermal test wells; technical assistance, coordination, and planning of surface utilization program; legal research; and special projects. (MHR)

An inventory is provided of geopressuredgeothermal resources in Louisiana. The Louisiana industries; classified as Food and Kindred Products were cataloged and inventoried to determine potential and specific uses of the known energy resources. The possibility of relocating industries to the available resources is explored. Individual case studies are presented for near term industrial conversion for resource application. (MHR)

A series of DOE/Industry forums were carried out to keep industry advised of the DOE program to develop the geopressuredgeothermal resources of the Gulf Coast. A total of eighteen meetings were held with registered attendance of 621 representing a good cross section of industry, state, and federal agencies. An Overview Group and four working subgroups - site selection, drilling and testing, environmental/laboratory research, and legal institutional were established to subdivide the DOE programs into areas of interest and expertise. During the contract period three overview, four site selection, three drilling and testing, five environmental/laboratory research and three legal/institutional meetings have been conducted. Interest in and attendance at the meetings continue to grow reflecting increased industry contact with the DOE GeopressuredGeothermal Resource Development Program. Two other studies were carried out for DOE under this contract; a Salt Water Disposal Study and an Industry Survey to evaluate the DOE Resource Development Program. The Salt Water Disposal Study reviewed subsurface salt water disposal experience on the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast. This preliminary study concluded that subsurface brine disposal should be possible in the areas of interest with adequate evaluation of the geology of each area and a well designed and constructed surface and subsurface facility. The industry survey indicated general satisfaction with the technical design of the resource evaluation program but felt the program should be moving faster.

The geopressured-geothermal candidates for the Wells of Opportunity program were located by the screening of published information on oil industry activity and through direct contact with the oil and gas operators. This process resulted in the recommendation to the DOE of 33 candidate wells for the program. Seven of the 33 recommended wells were accepted for testing. Of these seven wells, six were actually tested. The first well, the No. 1 Kennedy, was acquired but not tested. The seventh well, the No. 1 Godchaux, was abandoned due to mechanical problems during re-entry. The well search activities, which culminated in the acceptance by the DOE of 7 recommended wells, were substantial. A total of 90,270 well reports were reviewed, leading to 1990 wells selected for thorough geological analysis. All of the reservoirs tested in this program have been restricted by one or more faults or permeability barriers. A comprehensive discussion of test results is presented.

The development activities for a plan for Louisiana's participation in a Gulf Coast regional research and systems analysis activity. In developing preliminary planning scenarios heavy emphasis was placed on data describing the resource base. The scenarios are produced using a computer-oriented planning program that is code-named GEODEV. Examples of development scenarios for four fairways in Louisiana are included in an appendix. Progress in identification of decision makers, a state-wide advisory group, coordination of activities with Texas, and regional operations research activity. Also included in appendices are: communications to identify Decision Makers, Report to Governor and Legislature on Status of GP/GT Energy in Louisiana, and a paper presented jointly by Louisiana and Texas Project Team at Third GeopressuredGeothermal Energy Conference, University of Southwestern Louisiana, Lafayette, Louisiana. (MHR)

The primary purpose was to provide a projection of the probable future contribution of the geopressured-geothermal energy resource in Louisiana to the overall energy requirements of the nation. A number of associated objectives were emphasized: namely, development of the tools and methodology for performing economic analyses, application of these tools to specific prospects about which adequate resource assessments have been made, identification of the impediments to resource development, and socio-economic analysis of the impact of development of the resource on these specific prospects. An overview of the geopressured-geothermal resource activities in Louisiana is provided first, followed by a detailed discussion and review of the achievements of this project. Finally the major conclusions and findings of this project with respect to commercial viability, impediments, and social and economic impact are presented, and recommendations are made for future systems analysis work.

Analysis of reservoir quality of lower Tertiary sandstones along the Texas Gulf Coast delineates areas most favorable for geopressuredgeothermal exploration. Reservoir quality is determined by whole core, acoustic log, and petrographic analyses. The Wilcox Group has good reservoir potential for geopressuredgeothermal energy in the Middle Texas Gulf Coast and possibly in adjacent areas, but other Wilcox areas are marginal. The Vicksburg Formation in the Lower Texas Gulf Coast is not prospective. Reservoir quality in the Frio Formation increases from very poor in lowermost Texas, to marginal into the Middle Texas Gulf Coast and to good through the Upper Texas Gulf Coast. The Frio Formation in the Upper Texas Gulf Coast has the best deep-reservoir quality of any unit along the Texas Gulf Coast. (MHR)

Acid fluids in geothermal reservoirs are rare. Their occurrence in geothermal systems associated with recent volcanism (Tatun, Sumikawa, Miravalles) probably indicates that the geothermal reservoir fluid was derived from volcanic fluid incompletely neutralized by reaction with feldspars and micas. Superheated steam containing HCl (Larderello, The Geysers) forms acid where it condenses or mixes with liquid at moderate temperatures (325??C). Cryptoacidity occurs at Los Humeros where HCl acidity is formed and neutralized without reaching the surface.

A literature review of the geopressured-geothermal habitat is summarized. Findings are presented and discussed with respect to the principal topics: Casual agents are both geological and geochemical; they include disequilibrium compaction of sediments, clay diagenesis, aquathermal pressuring, hydrocarbon generation, and lateral tectonic compression. The overall physical and chemical characteristics of the habitats are dictated by varying combinations of sedimentation rates, alteration mineralogy, permeability, porosity and pressure, temperature, fluid content and chemistry, and hydrodynamic flow. Habitat pressure seals are considered in terms of their formation processes, geologic characteristics, and physical behavior, including pressure release and reservoir pressure recharge on a geologic time scale. World-wide occurrence of geopressured-geothermal habitats is noted. The main thrust of this topic concerns the U.S.A. and Canada; in addition, reference is made to occurrences in China and indications from deep-sea vents, as well as the contribution of paleo-overpressure to habitat initiation and maintenance. Identification and assessment of the habitat is addressed in relation to use of hydrogeologic, geophysical, geochemical, and geothermic techniques, as well as well-logging and drill-stem-test data. Conclusions concerning the adequacy of the current state of knowledge and its applicability to resource exploration and development are set forth, together with recommendations for the thrust of future work.

Three areas in the Texas Gulf Coast region with different depositional settings, structural styles, and sandstone distribution were studied with well log and seismic data to evaluate some of the controls on subsurface conditions in geopressured aquifers. Structural and stratigraphic interpretations were made primarily on the basis of well log correlations. Seismic data confirm the log interpretations but also are useful in structure mapping at depths below well control.

The legal framework within which the geopressured resource will have to be developed in Louisiana is discussed generally. Those problems which may be created by its development within that framework are identified. Where possible, solutions are offered to those problems or at least techniques or devices are indicated which might be considered in their resolution. Finally, a compendium is assembled of those statutory or regulatory provisions which may regulate or affect the resource to the end that it might serve as a handbook for the evaluation of the legal and institutional problems which will face a prospective developer, when and if the resource development is undertaken in Louisiana. (MHR)

Energy is extracted from geothermal brines by direct contact with a working fluid such as isobutane which is immiscible with the brine in a geothermal boiler. The geothermal boiler provides a distributor arrangement which efficiently contacts geothermal brine with the isobutane in order to prevent the entrainment of geothermal brine in the isobutane vapor which is directed to a turbine. Accordingly the problem of brine carry-over through the turbine causes corrosion and scaling thereof is eliminated. Additionally the heat exchanger includes straightening vanes for preventing startup and other temporary fluctuations in the transitional zone of the boiler from causing brine carryover into the turbine. Also a screen is provided in the heat exchanger to coalesce the working fluid and to assist in defining the location of the transitional zone where the geothermal brine and the isobutane are initially mixed.

Nine DOE/Industry Forum meetings where the progress of DOE's resource development program was outlined and discussed were planned, organized, conducted, and reported. These nine forum meetings included three meetings of the Drilling and Testing group, two Site Selection meetings, one meeting each of the Legal and Environmental groups and two Overview meetings where the entire DOE program was discussed. Summaries of each of these meetings are included and the progress of DOE's geopressuredgeothermal resource evaluation program from its early beginnings to demonstration of the tremendous size and widespread availability of this supplementary energy resource are shown. Attendees at the meetings represented a broad cross section of state and federal agencies and potential users and developers of this large energy source. Attendance at meetings averages 50 to 80 with the most interest shown at meetings where reservoir testing results were discussed. In addition to the forums 16 newsletters were prepared and distributed to all participants. These were instituted to keep industry apprised of the latest developments in this DOE resource evaluation program. Three additional studies were carried out for DOE under this contract: a reservoir continuity study, a survey of gas stripping operations, and the development of a lease agreement for design well prospects.

The presence of large volumes of hot water (250-425 F) containing dissolved natural gas in the Gulf of Mexico coastal areas at depths of 5,000 to 25,000 feet (the geopressured zone) has been known for several years. Because natural gas and oil from conventional production methods were relatively inexpensive prior to 1973, and because foreign oil was readily available, no economic incentive existed for developing this resource. With the oil embargo and the resulting rapid escalation in prices of oil and gas since 1973, a new urgency exists for examining the economic potential of the geopressured-geothermal resource. The main objective of the research reported here was to determine the volume of gas dissolved in the geopressured water, as well as the qualitative and quantitative composition of the water and the dissolved gas. A further objective was to use an existing shut-in gas well so that drilling time and the attendant costs could be avoided.

The Fairfax Foster Sutter No. 2 well, located in the East Franklin area of St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, is the first successful test of a geopressured-geothermal aquifer under the Well-of-Opportunity program. The section tested was the MA-6 sand of lower Miocene age which has produced large quantities of gas from the adjacent but structurally separated Garden City field. In the subject well the observed temperature was 270{sup 0}F (132{sup 0}C) and the measured gradient was 0.77 psi/ft. The gross sand thickness was 270 feet, the net sand thickness 190 feet, and the tested interval 58 net feet. The temperatures and pressures encountered approached the limits of the surface-recording bottomhole pressure gauge and particularly the single-conductor cables on which the gauges were run. The objectives of the tests were all accomplished, and data were obtained which will contribute to the overall assessment of the geopressured-geothermal resource of the Upper Gulf of Mexico basin. In general, the gas solubility (22.8 scf/bbl) was as expected for the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the brine. The produced water was more saline than expected (160,000 mg/l). The high concentrations of dissolved solids, coupled with the evolution of CO{sub 2} from these waters during production, created a scaling problem in the tubular goods and surface equipment that will have to be addressed in future tests.

The US Department of Energy established a geopressured-geothermal energy program in the mid 1970`s as one response to America`s need to develop alternate energy resources in view of the increasing dependence on imported fossil fuel energy. This program continued for 17 years and approximately two hundred million dollars were expended for various types of research and well testing to thoroughly investigate this alternative energy source. This volume describes the following studies: Design well program; LaFourche Crossing; MG-T/DOE Amoco Fee No. 1 (Sweet Lake); Environmental monitoring at Sweet Lake; Air quality; Water quality; Microseismic monitoring; Subsidence; Dow/DOE L.R. Sweezy No. 1 well; Reservoir testing; Environmental monitoring at Parcperdue; Air monitoring; Water runoff; Groundwater; Microseismic events; Subsidence; Environmental consideration at site; Gladys McCall No. 1 well; Test results of Gladys McCall; Hydrocarbons in production gas and brine; Environmental monitoring at the Gladys McCall site; Pleasant Bayou No. 2 well; Pleasant Bayou hybrid power system; Environmental monitoring at Pleasant Bayou; and Plug abandonment and well site restoration of three geopressured-geothermal test sites. 197 figs., 64 tabs.

Obtaining test data from geopressured aquifers along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast by arranging to assume operation of wells already drilled and found nonproductive of conventional oil or gas accumulations before such wells were abandoned by the operators is described. The geopressured aquifers were tested after performing whatever additional operations were required. The monitoring and screening of all wells which might qualify is described. The major activities and important milestones are summarized. (MHR)

The legal issues are discussed in two areas: legal scholarship and legal support. Scholorship is distinguished from support by concentration on abstract analyses of issue that include resource definition, ownership, taxation, and multistate reservoirs. Support is based entirely on those legal tasks called up by the technical work schedule in the areas of Resource Assessment, Advanced Research and Technology, Institutional and Environmental, and Resonance Utilization. The legal section will, in the future, make recommendations and implement procedures designed to assist in the rapid and orderly development of the resource. The PERT (Program Evaluation Review Techniques) chart for sequencing of legal scholarship and support tasks is included. An oral presentation on geothermal resources in Texas, a resource model for the resource utilization section, and some excerpts from legislation pertaining to geothermal energy are provided in an Appendix. (MCW)

An in-depth study of the state of the art in Geothermal Well Log Interpretation has been made encompassing case histories, technical papers, computerized literature searches, and actual processing of geothermal wells from New Mexico, Idaho, and California. A classification scheme of geothermal reservoir types was defined which distinguishes fluid phase and temperature, lithology, geologic province, pore geometry, salinity, and fluid chemistry. Major deficiencies of Geothermal Well Log Interpretation are defined and discussed with recommendations of possible solutions or research for solutions. The Geothermal Well Log Interpretation study and report has concentrated primarily on Western US reservoirs. Geopressuredgeothermal reservoirs are not considered.

The behavior of geopressured reservoirs was investigated by drilling and producing a well in small, well defined, geopressured reservoir; and performing detailed pressure transient analysis together with geological, geophysical, chemical, and physical studies. The Dow-DOE L. R. Sweezy No. 1 well was drilled to a depth of 13,600 feet in Parcperdue field, just south of Lafayette, Louisiana, and began production in April, 1982. The production zone was a poorly consolidated sandstone which constantly produced sand into the well stream, causing damage to equipment and causing other problems. The amount of sand production was kept manageable by limiting the flow rate to below 10,000 barrels per day. Reservoir properties of size, thickness, depth, temperature, pressure, salinity, porosity, and permeability were close to predicted values. The reservoir brine was undersaturated with respect to gas, containing approximately 20 standard cubic feet of gas per barrel of brine. Shale dewatering either did not occur or was insignificant as a drive mechanism. Production terminated when the gravel-pack completion failed and the production well totally sanded in, February, 1983. Total production up to the sanding incident was 1.94 million barrels brine and 31.5 million standard cubic feet gas.

The Saldana Well No. 2, approximately 35 miles Southeast of the city of Laredo, Texas, was the sixth successful test of a geopressured-geothermal aquifer under the DOE Wells of Opportunity Program. The well was tested through the annulus between 7-inch casing and 2-3/8 inch tubing. The interval tested was from 9745 to 9820 feet. The geological section was the 1st Hinnant Sand, an upper member of the Wilcox Group. Produced water was injected into the Saldana Well No. 1, which was also acquired from Riddle Oil Company and converted to a disposal well. A Miocene salt water sand was perforated from 3005 to 3100 feet for disposal. One pressure drawdown flow test and one pressure buildup test were conducted during a 10-day period. A total of 9328 barrels of water was produced. The highest sustained flow rate was 1950 BWPD.

The results of a preliminary environmental assessment of the following geopressured-geothermal prospect areas in the Louisiana Gulf coast region are presented: South Johnson's Bayou, Sweet Lake, Rockefeller Refuge, Southeast Pecan Island, Atchafalaya Bay, and Lafourche Crossing. These prospect areas have been compared to determine their relative environmental acceptability for the test program. Trade-offs among the prospects in terms of potential impacts are highlighted. This assessment was made on the basis of the nature and extent of the proposed testing activities in view of the environmental characteristics of each prospect area: land use, geology and geohydrology, air quality, water resources and quality, ecological systems, and natural hazards. The comparison of prospect areas includes consideration of worst case situations. However, we believe that the test program activities, because they are so small in scale, will not result in major adverse impacts.

To investigate the seismic risks associated with geopressuredfluid production from the Pleasant Bayou No. 2 design well a seismic monitoring program was conducted in the vicinity of the Brazoria County design wells since 1979. The monitoring program was designed first to establish the nature of the local ambient seismicity prior to production, and second to provide continued surveillance of the area during the well tests to determine if production altered ambient seismic conditions significantly. The operation, data analyses, results and conclusions of the Brazoria seismic network during the operational period from 1 January through 31 December 1982 are described.

Differing extents of diagenetic modification is the factor primarily responsible for contrasting regional reservoir quality of Tertiary sandstones from the Upper and Lower Texas Gulf Coast. Detailed comparison of Frio sandstones from the Chocolate Bayou/Danbury Dome area, Brazoria County, and Vicksburg sandstones from the McAllen Ranch Field area, Hidalgo County, reveals that extent of diagenetic modification is most strongly influenced by (1) detrital mineralogy and (2) regional geothermal gradients. Vicksburg sandstones from the McAllen Ranch Field area are less stable, chemically and mechanically, than Frio sandstones from the Chocolate Bayou/Danbury dome area. Vicksburg sandstones are mineralogically immature and contain greater proportions of feldspars and rock fragments than do Frio sandstones. Thr reactive detrital assemblage of Vicksubrg sandstones is highly susceptible to diagenetic modification. Susceptibility is enhanced by higher than normal geothermal gradients in the McAllen Ranch Field area. Thus, consolidation of Vicksburg sandstones began at shallower depth of burial and precipitation of authigenic phases (especially calcite) was more pervasive than in Frio sandstones. Moreover, the late-stage episode of ferroan calcite precipitation that occluded most secondary porosity in Vicksburg sandstones did not occur significantly in Frio sandstones. Therefore, regional reservoir quality of Frio sandstones from Brazoria County is far better than that characterizing Vicksburg sandstones from Hidalgo County, especially at depths suitable for geopressuredgeothermal energy production.

Hydropressured, saline-water sands are being considered as possible sites for the disposal of geopressured-geothermal waste waters in South Louisiana. Probable injection horizons would most likely contain native brines of 120 to 140 g/l TDS. These brines show wide ranges in concentration of dissolved Ca, Sr, Ba, Fe, SO/sub 4/, and HCO/sub 3/, even within a restricted range of salinities. The probability is high that mineral precipitation will occur if untreated geopressured wastes are mixed with these waters. Clay migration and additional plugging of the injection well is possible if the injected wastes are significantly less saline than the native fluids. Costs of site-specific geochemical evaluation and chemical pre-treatment are thus factors which must be considered in the economic evaluation of deep well disposal of geopressured wastes in South Louisiana.

The structure investigated is a basin roughly bounded by the Abbeville Dome on the west, the Erath Dome on the southeast and the Grosse Isle Dome on the northeast and whose center is located at approximately Section 31 T14S R4E. The geopressured sands investigated are below approximately 12,800 feet (3901 M) in the center of the basin and consist of two groups of rather thin, discontinuous, marly sands. These two groups, rather arbitrarily defined, are termed the upper and lower geopressured sands and the following map types and analyses have been derived from subsurface data of each: structure, temperature, pressure, salinity and net sand maps; and porosity, permeability and methane content analyses.

The reinjection of produced fluids is crucial to the effective management of geothermal reservoirs, since it provides a mechanism for maintaining reservoir pressures while allowing for the disposal of a toxic byproduct. Tracers are essential to the proper location of injection wells since they are the only known tool for reliably characterizing the flow patterns of recirculated fluids. If injection wells are placed too close to production wells, then reinjected fluids do not have sufficient residence time to extract heat from the reservoir and premature thermal breakthrough results. If injection wells are placed too far away, then the reservoir risks unacceptable pressure loss. Several thermally stable compounds from a family of very detectable fluorescent organic compounds (the naphthalene sulfonates) were characterized and found to be effective for use as geothermal tracers. Through batch-autoclave reactions, their Arrhenius pseudo-first-order decay-rate constants were determined. An analytical method was developed that allows for the laboratory determination of concentrations in the low parts-per-trillion range. Field experiments in numerous geothermal reservoirs throughout the world have confirmed the laboratory findings. Whereas conservative tracers such as the naphthalene sulfonates are effective tools for indicating interwell flow patterns and for measuring reservoir pore volumes, 'reactive' tracers can be used to constrain fracture surface area, which is the effective area for heat extraction. This is especially important for engineered geothermal system (EGS) wells, since reactive tracers can be used to measure fracture surface area immediately after drilling and while the well stimulation equipment is still on site. The reactive properties of these tracers that can be exploited to constrain fracture surface area are reversible sorption, contrasting diffusivity, and thermal decay. Laboratory batch- and flow-reactor experiments in combination with numerical

Geothermal power plants use geothermalfluids as a resource and create waste residuals as part of the power generation process. Both the geofluid resource and the waste stream are considered produced fluids. The chemical and physical nature of produced fluids can have a major impact on the geothermal power industry and can influence the feasibility of geothermal power development, exploration approaches, power plant design, operating practices, and the reuse or disposal of residuals. In general, produced fluids include anything that comes out of a geothermal field and that subsequently must be managed on the surface. These fluids vary greatly depending on the geothermal reservoir being harnessed, power plant design, and the life cycle stage in which the fluid exists, but generally include water and fluids used to drill geothermal wells, fluids used to stimulate wells in enhanced geothermal systems, and makeup and/or cooling water used during operation of a geothermal power plant. Additional geothermal-related produced fluids include many substances that are similar to waste streams from the oil and gas industry, such as scale, flash tank solids, precipitated solids from brine treatment, hydrogen sulfide, and cooling-tower-related waste. This review paper aims to provide baseline knowledge on specific technologies and technology areas associated with geothermal power production. Specifically, this research focused on the management techniques related to fluids produced and used during the operational stage of a geothermal power plant; the vast majority of which are employed in the generation of electricity. The general characteristics of produced fluids are discussed. Constituents of interest that tend to drive the selection of treatment technologies are described, including total dissolved solids, noncondensable gases, scale and corrosion, silicon dioxide, metal sulfides, calcium carbonate, corrosion, metals, and naturally occurring radioactive material. Management

Single-phase and two-phase geothermal reservoirs are currently being exploited for power production in Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, the United States, and elsewhere. Vertical ground displacements of up to 4.5 m and horizontal ground displacements of up to 0.5 m have been observed at Wairakei, New Zealand, that are clearly attributable to the resource exploitation. Similarly, vertical displacements of about 0.13 m have been recorded at The Geysers, California. No significant ground displacements that are attributable to large-scale fluid production have been observed at Larderello, Italy, and Cerro Prieto, Mexico. In this paper, observations show that subsidence due to geothermalfluid production is characterized by such features as an offset of the subsidence bowl from the main area of production, time-lag between production and subsidence, and nonlinear stress-strain relationships. Several plausible conceptual models, of varying degrees of sophistication, have been proposed to explain the observed features. At present, relatively more is known about the physical mechanisms that govern subsidence than the relevant thermal mechanisms. Finally, although attempts have been made to simulate observed geothermal subsidence, the modeling efforts have been seriously limited by a lack of relevant field data needed to sufficiently characterize the complex field system.

Single-phase and two-phase geothermal reservoirs are currently being exploited for power production in Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, the U.S. and elsewhere. Vertical ground displacements of upto 4.5 m and horizontal ground displacements of up t o 0.5 m have been observed at Wairakei, New Zealand that are clearly attributable to the resource exploitation. Similarly, vertical displacements of about 0.13 m have been recorded at The Geysers, California. No significant ground displacements that are attributable to large-scale fluid production have been observed at Larderello, Italy and Cerro Prieto, Mexico. Observations show that subsidence due to geothermalfluid production is characterized by such features as an offset of the subsidence bowl from the main area of production, time-lag between production and subsidence and nonlinear stress-strain relationships. Several plausible conceptual models, of varying degrees of sophistication, have been proposed to explain the observed features. At present, relatively more is known about the physical mechanisms that govern subsidence than the relevant therma mechanisms. Although attempts have been made to simulate observed geothermal subsidence, the modeling efforts have been seriously limited by a lack of relevant field data needed to sufficiently characterize the complex field system.

The proposed action will consist of drilling one geothermalfluid well for intermittent production testing of 284 days over a three year period. Two disposal wells will initially be drilled to provide disposal of lower volume fluids produced during initial testing. Two additional disposal wells will be drilled, logged, completed, tested, and operated prior to commencement of high volume fluid production. Construction of the proposed action will change the land-use of 2 ha (5 ac) for the test well and each of the injection wells from agriculture or wetlands to resource exploration. Lands will be cleared and erosion and runoff will result. During operation of the well test, the only expected impacts are from venting of gases or flaring of gases and noise. After the tests are completed, the area will be restored as much as possible to its natural condition by revegetation programs using nature species. All sources of pollutants will be collected and disposed in environmentally acceptable ways. Accidents may result from this proposed action.

Geothermal energy is derived from the internal heat of the earth. Much of it is recoverable with current or near current technology. Geothermal energy can be used for electric power production, residential and commercial space heating and cooling, industrial process heat, and agricultural applications. Three principal types of geothermal resources are exploitable through the year 2000. In order of technology readiness, these resources are: hydrothermal; geopressured (including dissolved natural gas); and hot dry rock. In hydrothermal systems, natural water circulation moves heat from deep internal sources toward the earth's surface. Geothermalfluids (water and steam) tapped by drilling can be used to generate electricity or provide direct heat. Geopressured resources, located primarily in sedimentary basins along the Gulf Coast of Texas and of Louisiana, consist of water and dissolved methane at high pressure and at moderately high temperature. In addition to recoverable methane, geopressured resources provide thermal energy and mechanical energy derived from high fluid pressures, although methane offers the greatest immediate value. Commercial development of geopressured energy may begin in the mid-1980s. Economic feasibility depends on the amount of methane that a given well can produce, a highly uncertain factor at present.

The P.R. Girouard No. 1 Well, located approximately 10 miles southeast of Lafayette, Louisiana, was the fourth successful test of a geopressured-geothermal aquifer under the Wells of Opportunity program. The well was tested through 3-1/2 inch tubing set on a packer at 14,570 feet without major problems. The geological section tested was the Oligocene Marginulina Texana No. 1 sand of upper Frio age. The interval tested was from 14,744 to 14,819 feet. Produced water was piped down a disposal well perforated from 2870 to 3000 feet in a Miocene saltwater sand. Four flow tests were conducted for sustained production rates of approximately 4000 BWPD to approximately 15,000 BWPD. The highest achieved, during a fifth short test, was 18,460 BWPD. The test equipment was capable of handling higher rates. The gas-to-water ratio was relatively uniform at approximately 40 SCF/bbl. The heating value of the gas is 970 Btu/SCF. The reservoir tests show that is is doubtful that this well would sustain production rates over 10,000 BWPD for any lengthy period from the sand zone in which it was completed. This limited flow capacity is due to the well's poor location in the reservoir and is not a result of any production deficiencies of the Marginulina Texana sand.

The mission of the Geothermal Energy Program is to develop the science and technology necessary for tapping our nation's tremendous heat energy sources contained within the Earth. Geothermal energy is a domestic energy source that can produce clean, reliable, cost-effective heat and electricity for our nation's energy needs. Geothermal energy - the heat of the Earth - is one of our nation's most abundant energy resources. In fact, geothermal energy represents nearly 40 percent of the total U.S. energy resource base and already provides an important contribution to our nation's energy needs. Geothermal energy systems can provide clean, reliable, cost-effective energy for our nation's industries, businesses, and homes in the form of heat and electricity. The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Geothermal Energy Program sponsors research aimed at developing the science and technology necessary for utilizing this resource more fully. Geothermal energy originates from the Earth's interior. The hottest fluids and rocks at accessible depths are associated with recent volcanic activity in the western states. In some places, heat comes to the surface as natural hot water or steam, which have been used since prehistoric times for cooking and bathing. Today, wells convey the heat from deep in the Earth to electric generators, factories, farms, and homes. The competitiveness of power generation with lower quality hydrothermal fluids, geopressured brines, hot dry rock, and magma (the four types of geothermal energy), still depends on the technical advancements sought by DOE's Geothermal Energy Program.

To increase our knowledge of gaseous species in geothermal systems by fluid inclusion analysis in order to facilitate the use of gas analysis in geothermal exploration. The knowledge of gained by this program can be applied to geothermal exploration, which may expand geothermal production. Knowledge of the gas contents in reservoir fluids can be applied to fluid inclusion gas analysis of drill chip cuttings in a similar fashion as used in the petroleum industry. Thus the results of this project may lower exploration costs both in the initial phase and lower drill hole completion costs. Commercial costs for fluid inclusion analysis done on at 20 feet intervals on chip samples for 10,000 ft oil wells is about $6,000, and the turn around time is a few weeks.

Early theories concerning geothermal recharge in the Great Basin implied recharge was by recent precipitation. Physical, chemical, and isotopic differences between thermal and non-thermal fluids and global paleoclimatic indicators suggest that recharge occurred during the late Pleistocene. Polar region isotopic studies demonstrate that a depletion in stable light-isotopes of precipitation existed during the late Pleistocene due to the colder, wetter climate. Isotopic analysis of calcite veins and packrat midden megafossils confirm the depletion event occurred in the Great Basin. Isotopic analysis of non-thermal springs is utilized as a proxy for local recent precipitation. Contoured plots of deuterium concentrations from non-thermal and thermal water show a regional, systematic variation. Subtracting contoured plots of non-thermal water from plots of thermal water reveals that thermal waters on a regional scale are generally isotopically more depleted. Isolated areas where thermal water is more enriched than non-thermal water correspond to locations of pluvial Lakes Lahontan and Bonneville, suggesting isotopically enriched lake water contributed to fluid recharge. These anomalous waters also contain high concentrations of sodium chloride, boron, and other dissolved species suggestive of evaporative enrichment. Carbon-age date and isotopic data from Great Basin thermal waters correlate with the polar paleoclimate studies. Recharge occurred along range bounding faults. 151 refs., 62 figs., 15 tabs.

A review of geothermal drilling in the United States has revealed that serious problems are being encountered with corrosion and degradation of drilling fluids in high temperature wells. The best high temperature drilling fluids that could be formulated from commercially available materials were obtained from the five largest mud companies. These included samples of 9 and 18 lb/gal water muds and 18 lb/gal oil muds. Over 4,000 tests were conducted on these muds to evaluate their performance at high temperature. This included testing at temperatures to 550/sup 0/F and pressures to 15,000 psi. These tests revealed that most of the water muds had high viscosity, high filtration rates and poor corrosivity characteristics at temperatures above 350/sup 0/F. Although the oil muds performed better than water muds at high temperatures, some problems were encountered with viscosity at temperatures above 450/sup 0/F and with filtration at temperatures above 500/sup 0/F. Generally the corrosivity characteristics of the oil muds were much better than those of the water muds. Overall, oil muds have better temperature stability than water muds but their use is often limited because of problems with surface pollution, contamination of water zones and reservoir damage. Biodegradable oil mud systems would overcome some of these limitations.

Analytical data, obtained on brine from three geopressured wells in Louisiana and one in Texas are presented. The chloride ion concentration of each brine is plotted against the total dissolved solids. Sulfate and bicarbonate ion concentrations are plotted against total dissolved solids. Experience with geothermal power plants, alternatives for corrosion prevention, and monitoring and test techniques are discussed. (MHR)

The Dow/D.O.E. L. R. Sweezy No. 1 geopressuredgeothermal production well was completed in August of 1981. The well was perforated and gravel packed in approximately 50 feet of sand from 13,344 feet to 13,395 feet. Permeabilities of 6 to 914 millidarcies were measured with porosity of 25 to 36%. Static surface pressure after well clean-up was 5000 psi. At 1000 B/D flow rate the drawdown was 50 psi. The water produced in clean-up contained 100,000 ppm TDS. This report details the plan for testing this well with the goal of obtaining sufficient data to define the total production curve of the small, 939 acre, reservoir. A production time of six to nine months is anticipated. The salt water disposal well is expected to be completed and surface equipment installed such that production testing will begin by April 1, 1982. The program should be finished and reports written by February 28, 1983. The brine will be produced from the No.1 well, passed through a separator where the gas is removed, then reinjected into the No.2 (SWD) well under separator pressure. Flow rates of up to 25,000 B/D are expected. The tests are divided into a two-week short-term test and six to nine-month long-term tests with periodic downhole measurement of drawdown and buildup rates. Data obtained in the testing will be relayed by phoneline computer hookup to Otis Engineering in Dallas, Texas, where the reservoir calculations and modeling will be done. At the point where sufficient data has been obtained to reach the objectives of the program, production will be ended, the wells plugged and abandoned, and a final report will be issued.

The T-F and S/DOE Gladys McCall No. 1 well was the fourth in a series of wells in the DOE Design Wells Program that were drilled into deep, large geopressured-geothermal brine aquifers in order to provide basic data with which to determine the technological and economic viability of producing energy from these unconventional resources. This brine production well was spudded on May 27, 1981 and drilling operations were completed on November 2, 1981 after using 160 days of rig time. The well was drilled to a total depth of 16,510 feet. The target sands lie at a depth of 14,412 to 15,860 feet in the Fleming Formation of the lower Miocene. This report covers well production testing operations and necessary well workover operations during the February 1982 to October 1985 period. The primary goals of the well testing program were: (1) to determine reservoir size, shape, volume, drive mechanisms, and other reservoir parameters, (2) to determine and demonstrate the technological and economic viability of producing energy from a geopressured-geothermal brine aquifer through long-term production testing, and (3) to determine problem areas associated with such long-term production, and to develop solutions therefor.

Near- and long-term prospects that geopressured/geothermal energy sources could become a viable alternative fuel for electric power generation were investigated. Technical questions of producibility and power generation were included, as well as economic and environmental considerations. The investigators relied heavily on the existing body of information, particularly in geotechnical areas. Statistical methods were used where possible to establish probable production values. Potentially productive geopressured sediments have been identified in twenty specific on-shore fairways in Louisiana and Texas. A total of 232 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of dissolved methane and 367 x 10/sup 15/ Btu (367 quads) of thermal energy may be contained in the water within the sandstone in these formations. Reasonable predictions of the significant reservoir parameters indicate that a maximum of 7.6 TCF methane and 12.6 quads of thermal energy may be producible from these potential reservoirs.

This report is an environmental assessment of the proposed testing of two geopressured, geothermal aquifers in central coastal Louisiana. On the basis of an analysis of the environmental setting, subsurface characteristics, and the proposed action, potential environmental impacts are determined and evaluated together with potential conflicts with federal, state, and local programs. Oil and gas wells in coastal Louisiana have penetrated a potentially productive geothermal zone of abnormally high-pressured aquifers that also yield large volumes of natural gas. To evaluate the extent to which the geothermal-geopressured water can be used as an alternative energy source and to what extent withdrawal of geopressured water can enhance gas production, it is necessary that flow rates, composition and temperature of fluids and gases, recharge characteristics, pressures, compressibilities, and other hydrodynamic and boundary conditions of the reservoir be determined by means of production tests. Tests are further necessary to evaluate and seek solutions to technological problems.

The success of a exploratory prospect is closely related to geological risk estimation. 3 D seismic and structural modeling improve reservoir risk and trap geometry estimation; and geothermal models, the evaluation risk of hydrocarbon generation. The objective of this paper is to present geo pressure modeling as a powerful tool for estimating migration and hydrocarbon retention. The method is based on the integration of seismic velocities, sonic logs, pressure data and geomechanical relations in order to build a geo pressure model. After applying this method we were able to predict geo static, fracture, pore pressure and effective stress, which integrated with seismic interpretation consolidate a predictive model of geo pressure potential in the studied area. We show the efficiency of geo pressure modeling in brazilian passive margins, using data from shallow to deep waters in San tos and Sprague/Ageless. From a exploratory point of view, these studies shown the importance of the interface between hydrostatic and geopressured regimes for evaluating migration and retention of fluids in a petroleum system. It was also possible to establish a relation between overburden and rheological properties. (author)

A series of experiments was performed to investigate methods of controlling silica in waste geothermal brines produced at the HGP-A Generator Facility. Laboratory testing has shown that the rate of polymerization of silica in the geothermalfluids is highly pH dependent. At brine pH values in excess of 8.5 the suspension of silica polymers flocculated and rapidly precipitated a gelatinous silica mass. Optimum flocculation and precipitation rates were achieved at pH values in the range of 10.5 to 11.5. The addition of transition metal salts to the geothermalfluids similarly increased the rate of polymerization as well as the degree of precipitation of the silica polymer from suspension. A series of experiments performed on the recovered silica solids demonstrated that methanol extraction of the water in the gels followed by critical point drying yielded surface areas in excess of 300 M{sup 2}/g and that treatment of the dried solids with 2 N HCl removed most of the adsorbed impurities in the recovered product. A series of experiments tested the response of the waste brines to mixing with steam condensate and non-condensable gases.The results demonstrated that the addition of condensate and NCG greatly increased the stability of the silica in the geothermal brines. They also indicated that the process could reduce the potential for plugging of reinjection wells receiving waste geothermalfluids from commercial geothermal facilities in Hawaii. Conceptual designs were proposed to apply the gas re-combination approach to the disposal of geothermal waste fluids having a range of chemical compositions. Finally, these designs were applied to the geothermalfluid compositions found at Cerro Prieto, Ahuachapan, and Salton Sea.

A series of experiments was performed to investigate methods of controlling silica in waste geothermal brines produced at the HGP-A Generator Facility. Laboratory testing has shown that the rate of polymerization of silica in the geothermalfluids is highly pH dependent. At brine pH values in excess of 8.5 the suspension of silica polymers flocculated and rapidly precipitated a gelatinous silica mass. Optimum flocculation and precipitation rates were achieved at pH values in the range of 10.5 to 11.5. The addition of transition metal salts to the geothermalfluids similarly increased the rate of polymerization as well as the degree of precipitation of the silica polymer from suspension. A series of experiments performed on the recovered silica solids demonstrated that methanol extraction of the water in the gels followed by critical point drying yielded surface areas in excess of 300 M{sup 2}/g and that treatment of the dried solids with 2 N HCl removed most of the adsorbed impurities in the recovered product. A series of experiments tested the response of the waste brines to mixing with steam condensate and non-condensable gases.The results demonstrated that the addition of condensate and NCG greatly increased the stability of the silica in the geothermal brines. They also indicated that the process could reduce the potential for plugging of reinjection wells receiving waste geothermalfluids from commercial geothermal facilities in Hawaii. Conceptual designs were proposed to apply the gas re-combination approach to the disposal of geothermal waste fluids having a range of chemical compositions. Finally, these designs were applied to the geothermalfluid compositions found at Cerro Prieto, Ahuachapan, and Salton Sea.

A method for extracting geothermal energy from a geothermal reservoir formation. A production well is used to extract brine from the reservoir formation. At least one of nitrogen (N.sub.2) and carbon dioxide (CO.sub.2) may be used to form a supplemental working fluid which may be injected into a supplemental working fluid injection well. The supplemental working fluid may be used to augment a pressure of the reservoir formation, to thus drive a flow of the brine out from the reservoir formation.

The results of a mail survey used to tap the opinions of the public at large in the study area are described. Attention in that section is focused on awareness of the resource, favorability toward the impending development, concerns about the development, attitudes regarding how the development should take place, levels of community satisfaction, and perceived future problems due to community growth. An analysis is given of the 33 interviews conducted with local representatives of the financial and commercial sectors, government, industry, agriculture, and environmental groups. The main foci here are perceived problems and benefits associated with geothermal development and the local capacity for coping with strains on community services resulting from any population growth which may be generated by resource development. A comparison and synthesis of the results from the general survey and the sector interviews is included. In conclusion, policy recommendations are made for means through which to consolidate goals and to achieve resource development objectives with minimal antagonism of and problems for local citizens and community sectors.

The results of a mail survey used to tap the opinions of the public at large in the study area are described. Attention in that section is focused on awareness of the resource, favorability toward the impending development, concerns about the development, attitudes regarding how the development should take place, levels of community satisfaction, and perceived future problems due to community growth. An analysis is given of the 33 interviews conducted with local representatives of the financial and commercial sectors, government, industry, agriculture, and environmental groups. The main foci here are perceived problems and benefits associated with geothermal development and the local capacity for coping with strains on community services resulting from any population growth which may be generated by resource development. A comparison and synthesis of the results from the general survey and the sector interviews is included. In conclusion, policy recommendations are made for means through which to consolidate goals and to achieve resource development objectives with minimal antagonism of and problems for local citizens and community sectors.

Enhanced geothermal systems seek to expand the potential for geothermal energy by engineering heat exchange systems within the earth. A neutron radiography imaging method has been developed for the study of fluid flow through rock under environmental conditions found in enhanced geothermal energy systems. For this method, a pressure vessel suitable for neutron radiography was designed and fabricated, modifications to imaging instrument setups were tested, multiple contrast agents were tested, and algorithms developed for tracking of flow. The method has shown success for tracking of single phase flow through a manufactured crack in a 3.81 cm (1.5 inch) diameter core within a pressure vessel capable of confinement up to 69 MPa (10,000 psi) using a particle tracking approach with bubbles of fluorocarbon-based fluid as the “particles” and imaging with 10 ms exposures.

United Technologies Research Center (UTRC), in collaboration with the Georgia Institute of Technology and the National Institute of Standards and Technology will evaluate and develop fundamental and component level models, conduct experiments and generate data to support the use of mixed or enhanced working fluids for geothermal power generation applications.

A family of fluorescent compounds, the polycyclic aromatic sulfonates, were evaluated for application in intermediate- and high-temperature geothermal reservoirs. Whereas the naphthalene sulfonates were found to be very thermally stable and reasonably detectable, the amino-substituted naphthalene sulfonates were found to be somewhat less thermally stable, but much more detectable. A tracer test was conducted at the Dixie Valley, Nevada, geothermal reservoir using one of the substituted naphthalene sulfonates, amino G, and fluorescein. Four of 9 production wells showed tracer breakthrough during the first 200 days of the test. Reconstructed tracer return curves are presented that correct for the thermal decay of tracer assuming an average reservoir temperature of 227{degrees}C. In order to examine the feasibility of using numerical simulation to model tracer flow, we developed simple, two-dimensional models of the geothermal reservoir using the numerical simulation programs TETRAD and TOUGH2. By fitting model outputs to measured return curves, we show that numerical reservoir simulations can be calibrated with the tracer data. Both models predict the same order of elution, approximate tracer concentrations, and return curve shapes. Using these results, we propose a method for using numerical models to design a tracer test.

Published geothermal gradient maps for the northern Gulf of Mexico basin indicate little or no potential for the development of geothermal resources. Results of deep drilling, from 4000 to 7000 meters or more, during the past decade however, define very sharp increases in geothermal gradient which are associated with the occurrence of abnormally high interstitial fluid pressure (geopressure). Bounded by regional growth faults along the landward margin of the Gulf Basin, the geopressured zone extends some 1300 km from the Rio Grande (at the boundary between the United States and Mexico) to the mouth of the Mississippi river. Gulfward, it extends to an unknown distance across the Continental Shelf. Within geopressured deposits, geothermal gradients range upwards to 100 ??C/km, being greatest within and immediately below the depth interval in which the maximum pressure gradient change occurs. The 120 ??C isogeotherm ranges from about 2500 to 5000 m below sea level, and conforms in a general way with depth of occurrence of the top of the geopressured zone. Measured geostatic ratios range upward to 0.97; the maximum observed temperature is 273 ??C, at a depth of 5859 m. Dehydration of montmorillonite, which comprises 60 to 80 percent of clay deposited in the northern Gulf Basin during the Neogene, occurs at depths where temperature exceeds about 80 ??C, and is generally complete at depths where temperature exceeds 120 ??C. This process converts intracrystalline and bound water to free pore water, the volume produced being roughly equivalent to half the volume of montmorillonite so altered. Produced water is fresh, and has low viscosity and density. Sand-bed aquifers of deltaic, longshore, or marine origin form excellent avenues for drainage of geopressured deposits by wells, each of which may yield 10,000 m3 or more of superheated water per day from reservoirs having pressures up to 1000 bars at depths greater than 5000 m. ?? 1971.

The structure investigated is a basin roughly bounded by the Abbeville Dome on the West, the Erath Dome on the Southeast and the Grosse Isle Dome on the Northeast and whose center is located at approximately Section 31 T14S R4E. The geopressured sands investigated are below approximately 12,800 feet (3901 M) in the center of the basin and consist of two groups of rather thin, discontinuous, marly sands. These two groups, rather arbitrarily defined, are termed the upper and lower geopressured sands and the following map types and analyses have been derived from subsurface data of each: structure, temperature, pressure, salinity and net sand maps; and porosity, permeability and methane content analyses. The Reservoir analysis was accomplished by the use of wire line surveys (electric logs) and computer analyses based on standard relationships found in Schlumberger manuals. Seismic analysis proved to be an invaluable tool in establishing the structure of the area.

Numerous volcanoes, hot springs, fumaroles, and geothermal wells occur in the Pacific region of Latin America. These systems are characterized by high As concentrations and other typical geothermal elements such as Li and B. This paper presents a review of the available data on As concentrations in geothermal systems and their surficial discharges and As data on volcanic gases of Latin America. Data for geothermal systems in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile are presented. Two sources of As can be recognized in the investigated sites: Arsenic partitioned into volcanic gases and emitted in plumes and fumaroles, and arsenic in rocks of volcanic edifices that are leached by groundwaters enriched in volcanic gases. Water containing the most elevated concentrations of As are mature Na-Cl fluids with relatively low sulfate content and As concentrations reaching up to 73.6 mg L⁻¹ (Los Humeros geothermal field in Mexico), but more commonly ranging from a few mg L⁻¹ to tens of mg L⁻¹. Fluids derived from Na-Cl enriched waters formed through evaporation and condensation at shallower depths have As levels of only a few μg L⁻¹. Mixing of Na-Cl waters with shallower meteoric waters results in low to intermediate As concentrations (up to a few mg L⁻¹). After the waters are discharged at the ground surface, As(III) oxidizes to As(V) and attenuation of As concentration can occur due to sorption and co-precipitation processes with iron minerals and organic matter present in sediments. Understanding the mechanisms of As enrichment in geothermal waters and their fate upon mixing with shallower groundwater and surface waters is important for the protection of water resources in Latin America.

Geothermal systems represents a large resource that can provide, with a reasonable investment, a very high and cost-competitive power generating capacity. Considering also the very low environmental impact, their development represents, in the next decades, an enormous perspective. Despite this unquestionable potential, geothermal exploitation has always been perceived as limited, mainly because of the dependance of a site usefulness on several pre-existing conditions, mainly correlated to the reservoir rock's permeability and porosity, the amount of fluid saturation and, first of all, a convenient temperature-depth relationship. However, this major barrier it is not insurmountable and a notable progress in recent tests is achieved with the Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), where massive fluid injection and withdrawal were performed to enlarge the natural fracture system of the basement rock. The permeability of the surrounding rocks results highly increased by pressurized fluids circulation and geothermal resources, in such way, become accessible in areas where deep reservoir exploitation, otherwise, could be not advantageous or even possible. Still problematic remains, however, most of the key technical requirements as, firstly, deep fluid injection, that represents a necessary field practice in EGS development. This kind of procedure have often strong and uncontrolled physical effects on the neighboring environment, involving possibly even large areas and, in particular, they represent one of the most important sources of seismicity induced by human activities. In some cases, seismicity reaches level that can not be sustained, as in the paradigmatic case of the 2006 M=3.4 earthquake induced in the Basel city (Swiss), with the consequent EGS project early termination. We test a numerical procedure that models deep fluid injection and withdrawal, during well stimulation, and its effects on induced seismicity. We propose such a procedure as a way to estimate how

Some of the more interesting articles in this GPM are: DOE supporting research on problems at The Geysers; Long-term flow test of Hot Dry Rock system (at Fenton Hill, NM) to begin in Fiscal Year 1992; Significant milestones reached in prediction of behavior of injected fluids; Geopressured power generation experiment yields good results. A number of industry-oriented events and successes are reported, and in that regard it is noteworthy that this report comes near the end of the most active decade of geothermal power development in the U.S. There is a table of all operating U.S. geothermal power projects. The bibliography of research reports at the end of this GPM is useful. (DJE 2005)

Commercially available heat transfer fluids used in borehole heat exchangers were investigated for their composition, their biodegradability as well as their ecotoxicity. The main components of the fluids are organic compounds (often glycols) for freezing protection. Biodegradation of the fluids in laboratory studies caused high oxygen depletion as well as nitrate/iron(III) reduction under anaerobic conditions. Additives such as benzotriazoles for corrosion protection were persistent. Ecotoxicity data show that the commercially available fluids caused much higher ecotoxicity than their main organic constituents. Consequently, with regard to groundwater protection pure water as heat transfer medium is recommended. The second best choice is the usage of glycols without any additives. Effects on groundwater quality should be considered during ecological-economical cost-benefit-analyses of further geothermal energy strategies. The protection of groundwater as the most important drinking water resource must take priority over the energy gain from aquifers.

Mineralogical alteration of reservoir rocks, driven by fluid circulation in natural or enhanced geothermal systems, is likely to influence the long-term performance of geothermal power generation. A key factor is the change of porosity due to dissolution of primary minerals and precipitation of secondary phases. Porosity changes will affect fluid circulation and solute transport, which, in turn, influence mineralogical alteration. This study is part of the Sinergia COTHERM project (COmbined hydrological, geochemical and geophysical modeling of geotTHERMal systems) that is an integrative research project aimed at improving our understanding of the sub-surface processes in magmatically-driven natural geothermal systems. We model the mineralogical and porosity evolution of Icelandic geothermal systems with 1D and 2D reactive transport models. These geothermal systems are typically high enthalphy systems where a magmatic pluton is located at a few kilometers depth. The shallow plutons increase the geothermal gradient and trigger the circulation of hydrothermal waters with a steam cap forming at shallow depth. We investigate two contrasting geothermal systems: Krafla, for which the water recharge consists of meteoritic water; and Reykjanes, for which the water recharge mainly consists of seawater. The initial rock composition is a fresh basalt. We use the GEM-Selektor geochemical modeling package [1] for calculation of kinetically controlled mineral equilibria between the rock and the ingression water. We consider basalt minerals dissolution kinetics according to Palandri & Kharaka [2]. Reactive surface areas are assumed to be geometric surface areas, and are corrected using a spherical-particle surface/mass relationship. For secondary minerals, we consider the partial equilibrium assuming that the primary mineral dissolution is slow, and the secondary mineral precipitation is fast. Comparison of our modeling results with the mineralogical assemblages observed in the

Rare earth metals are critical materials in a wide variety of applications in generating and storing renewable energy and in designing more energy efficient devices. Extracting rare earth metals from geothermal brines is a very challenging problem due to the low concentrations of these elements and engineering challenges with traditional chemical separations methods involving packed sorbent beds or membranes that would impede large volumetric flow rates of geothermalfluids transitioning through the plant. We are demonstrating a simple and highly cost-effective nanofluid-based method for extracting rare earth metals from geothermal brines. Core-shell composite nanoparticles are produced that contain a magnetic iron oxide core surrounded by a shell made of silica or metal-organic framework (MOF) sorbent functionalized with chelating ligands selective for the rare earth elements. By introducing the nanoparticles at low concentration (≈0.05 wt%) into the geothermal brine after it passes through the plant heat exchanger, the brine is exposed to a very high concentration of chelating sites on the nanoparticles without need to pass through a large and costly traditional packed bed or membrane system where pressure drop and parasitic pumping power losses are significant issues. Instead, after a short residence time flowing with the brine, the particles are effectively separated out with an electromagnet and standard extraction methods are then applied to strip the rare earth metals from the nanoparticles, which are then recycled back to the geothermal plant. Recovery efficiency for the rare earths at ppm level has now been measured for both silica and MOF sorbents functionalized with a variety of chelating ligands. A detailed preliminary techno-economic performance analysis of extraction systems using both sorbents showed potential to generate a promising internal rate of return (IRR) up to 20%.

By systematically illustrating the recharge source, direction and period of geopressuredgeothermal waters in Xianyang by studying environmental isotope, the result shows that the main recharge source originates from mospheric water pre-Holocene Epoch, which is from the west and northwest of study area. Its updating ablility is poor except partial deep fault slightly recharge from modern mospheric water.%通过对咸阳地压地热流体的环境同位素研究，系统论证了咸阳地压地热流体的补给来源、补给方向及补给年代。研究表明：咸阳地压地热流体的补给来源主要为全新世前古大气降水，其补给方向主要来自研究区西部及西北部，除局部深大断裂附近有少量现代降水补给外，其可更新能力较差。

The status for related beneficial uses including agriculture, greenhousing, and geothermal wetlands is presented. Data published for the geothermalfluids found in areas of China have been examined and compared with the geothermalfluids used in the agriculture evaluations in the United States. This comparison indicates that the geothermalfluids found in parts of China are similar to those used in the US agriculture experiments. Greenhousing is addressed largely from the standpoint of hardware systems and technology being employed or being proposed in the United States.

Full Text Available The paper deals with a heat exchanger with coaxial flow. Two coaxial pipes of the secondary part were placed directly into a geothermal boring in such a way that geothermal water flows around the outer pipe. Starting from the energy balance of the exchanger formed in this way and the assumption of a study-state operating regime, a mathematical model was formulated. On the basis of the model, the secondary circle output temperature was determined as a function of the exchanger geometry, the coefficient of heat passing through the heat exchange areas, the average mass isobaric specific heats of fluid and mass flows. The input temperature of the exchanger secondary circle and the temperature of the geothermal water at the exit of the boring were taken as known values. Also, an analysis of changes in certain factors influencing the secondary water temperature was carried out. The parameters (flow temperature of the deep boring B-4 in Sijarinska Spa, Serbia were used. The theoretical results obtained indicate the great potential of this boring and the possible application of such an exchanger.

To investigate normal ambient seismicity as well as potentially enhanced seismic activity induced by brine production, a seismic monitoring program has been conducted in the vicinity of the Chocolate Bayou geopressured test well (the Pleasant Bayou No. 2) since September 1978. The Pleasant Bayou No. 2 well has been completed and perforated at depths of 14,467-14,707 feet (4464.4-4482.7m). The brines produced from the Pleasant Bayou No. 2 well are reinjected at a depth of 6226-6538 feet (1897.7-1992.8m) in the Pleasant Bayou No. 1 well. The seismic monitoring network and results obtained from January through November 1981 are described.

Continuous microseismic monitoring of the regions around the Pleasant Bayou No. 2 well in Brazoria County, Texas and the Dow L.R. Sweezy No. 1 well (Bayour Parcperdue) in Vermilion Parish, Louisiana has been conducted by Teledyne Geotech since September, 1978 and August, 1980 at the two sites respectively. The two principal objectives of these research programs are (1) to assess normal ambient regional seismicity characteristics prior to high-volume brine production, and (2) to evaluate the seismological impact of high-volume brine production and disposal from these geopressured wells. Because neither of these wells has undergone sustained major brine production, the principal results of the microseismic monitoring relate to the first objective.

Sandia National Laboratories is investigating advanced Brayton cycles using supercritical working fluids for application to a variety of heat sources, including geothermal, solar, fossil, and nuclear power. This work is centered on the supercritical CO{sub 2} (S-CO{sub 2}) power conversion cycle, which has the potential for high efficiency in the temperature range of interest for these heat sources and is very compact-a feature likely to reduce capital costs. One promising approach is the use of CO{sub 2}-based supercritical fluid mixtures. The introduction of additives to CO{sub 2} alters the equation of state and the critical point of the resultant mixture. A series of tests was carried out using Sandia's supercritical fluid compression loop that confirmed the ability of different additives to increase or lower the critical point of CO{sub 2}. Testing also demonstrated that, above the modified critical point, these mixtures can be compressed in a turbocompressor as a single-phase homogenous mixture. Comparisons of experimental data to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties (REFPROP) Standard Reference Database predictions varied depending on the fluid. Although the pressure, density, and temperature (p, {rho}, T) data for all tested fluids matched fairly well to REFPROP in most regions, the critical temperature was often inaccurate. In these cases, outside literature was found to provide further insight and to qualitatively confirm the validity of experimental findings for the present investigation.

Interaction of drilling fluids with a geothermal reservoir formation can result in significant permeability impairment and therefore reduced well productivity. This interaction is studied under simulated in situ geothermal conditions of overburden stress, pore fluid pressure, temperature, and pore fluid chemistry. Permeability impairment of an East Mesa KGRA reservoir material is evaluated as a function of stagnation time, drilling fluid, and temperature. Results indicate that all of these parameters contribute significantly to the magnitude and the reversibility of the impairment.

This report describes work done to characterize by chemical methods the temperature/ time degradation behavior of polymer based fluids that may be used in stimulating geothermal wells by fracturing. The polymers tested were hydroxypropulguar (HP guar), hydroxethylcellulose (HEC), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and XC Polymer. Also two commercially available cross-linked HP guar systems were tested. The report covers the development of analytical techniques for characterizing the polymers and the results of static and dynamic high temperature aging of the polymers in various salt water environments. The fluids were tested at 150, 200, and 250{degree}C. The report covers the implications of these results based on the time/ temperature degradation of the polymers and the relative ease of removing the degraded polymer from a sandpack. [DJE-2005

The purpose of this research is to determine the concentration of the cryocondensates in fluids of the various USDOE Geopressured wells as a function of production volume. The wells are visited each month that they are operating and samples are to be taken cryogenically during each visit. A gas scrubbing system will continuously samples the gas streams of the wells in the intervals between visit. Collectors, exchanged daily by site personnel, are retrieved on each visit.

Aqueous foam is a promising drilling fluid for geothermal wells because it will minimize damage to the producing formation and would eliminate the erosion problems of air drilling. Successful use of aqueous foam will require a high foaming surfactant which will: (1) be chemically stable in the harsh thermal and chemical environment, and (2) form stable foams at high temperatures and pressures. The procedures developed to generate and test aqueous foams and the effects of a 260/sup 0/C temperature cycle on aqueous surfactant solutions are presented. More than fifty selected surfactants were evaluated with representatives from the amphoteric, anionic, cationic, and nonionic classes included. Most surfactants were severely degraded by this temperature cycle; however, some showed excellent retention of their properties. The most promising surfactant types were the alkyl and alkyl aryl sulfonates and the ethoxylated nonionics.

In a carbon dioxide plume geothermal (CPG) system, carbon dioxide (CO2) is pumped into existing high-permeability geologic formations that are overlain by a low-permeability caprock. The resulting CO2 plume largely displaces native formation fluid and is heated by the natural in-situ heat and background geothermal heat flux. A portion of the heated CO2 is piped to the surface to produce power and/or to provide heat for direct use before being returned to the geologic reservoir. Non-recoverable CO2 in the subsurface is geologically sequestered, serving as a CO2 sink. As such, this approach results in a geothermal power plant with a negative carbon footprint. We present results of calculations concerning geothermal power plant efficiencies and energy production rates in both traditional reservoir-based systems and engineered geothermal systems (EGS) when CO2, rather than water, is used as the subsurface working fluid. While our previous studies have examined geologic systems with established CO2 plumes, we focus here on multicomponent (CO2 + brine) systems. Numerical simulations (e.g., Randolph and Saar, Geophysical Research Letters, 2011) indicate that CPG systems provide several times the heat energy recovery of similar water-based systems. Furthermore, the CPG method results in higher geothermal heat extraction efficiencies than both water- and CO2-based EGS. Therefore, CPG should further extend the applicability of geothermal energy utilization to regions with subsurface temperatures and heat flow rates that are even lower than those that may be added due to switching from water- to CO2-based EGS. Finally, simulations at present suggest that multicomponent effects - e.g., buoyant flow as CO2 rises over denser brine - may enhance heat extraction in CPG systems compared to traditional water-based geothermal approaches.

Geothermal heat flow in the Gulf basin is primarily a function of its hydrology. Water expelled from sediments with deepening burial and increasing overburden load escapes upward and toward the basin margin. Where it moves freely in the hydropressure zone, the basin is relatively cool; but where rapid sedimentation and contemporaneous faulting have retarded water loss from compacting sediments, the interstitial fluid pressure reflects a part of the overburden load, and the formation waters are superheated and geopressured. The geopressured zone is common below depths of about 3 km (9,600 ft) in the basin, beneath an area of 375,000 km{sup 2} (150,000 mi{sup 2}), and extends downward perhaps 15 km (50,000 ft) to the base of Cenozoic deposits. The upper boundary of the geopressured zone is the most important physical interface in the basin. Across it the head of formation water increases downward from a few hundred to several thousand feet above sea level; the geothermal gradient increases downward from 20° to 40° C/km to 100°C/km or more; the salinity of formation water decreases downward, commonly by 50,000 mg/l or more; and the porosity of shale and sand increases downward by 10 to 25 percent. Petroleum matures in geopressured clay at 140° to 220°F. Montmorillonite is dehydrated at 180° to 250°F; fresh water released may equal half the volume of the mineral altered. Molecular solubility in fresh water of the hydrocarbons in Gulf basin crude, under geopressured zone conditions, could account for petroleum resources of the basin. Exsolution of petroleum hydrocarbons near the geopressured zone boundary could account for observed occurrences. This geopressured zone is a natural pressure vessel from which superheated water of moderate salinity could be produced through wells, each yielding millions of gallons a day at pressures of several thousand pounds per square inch, and temperatures above 300°F. with considerable amounts of methane gas in solution. (63

Geothermal heat flow in the Gulf basin is primarily a function of its hydrology. Water expelled from sediments with deepening burial and increasing overburden load escapes upward and toward the basin margin. Where it moves freely in the hydropressure zone, the basin is relatively cool; but where rapid sedimentation and contemporaneous faulting have retarded water loss from compacting sediments, the interstitial fluid pressure reflects a part of the overburden load, and the formation waters are superheated and geopressured. The geopressured zone is common below depths of about 3 km (9,600 ft) in the basin, beneath an area of 375,000 km{sup 2} (150,000 mi{sup 2}), and extends downward perhaps 15 km (50,000 ft) to the base of Cenozoic deposits. The upper boundary of the geopressured zone is the most important physical interface in the basin. Across it the head of formation water increases downward from a few hundred to several thousand feet above sea level; the geothermal gradient increases downward from 20° to 40° C/km to 100°C/km or more; the salinity of formation water decreases downward, commonly by 50,000 mg/l or more; and the porosity of shale and sand increases downward by 10 to 25 percent. Petroleum matures in geopressured clay at 140° to 220°F. Montmorillonite is dehydrated at 180° to 250°F; fresh water released may equal half the volume of the mineral altered. Molecular solubility in fresh water of the hydrocarbons in Gulf basin crude, under geopressured zone conditions, could account for petroleum resources of the basin. Exsolution of petroleum hydrocarbons near the geopressured zone boundary could account for observed occurrences. This geopressured zone is a natural pressure vessel from which superheated water of moderate salinity could be produced through wells, each yielding millions of gallons a day at pressures of several thousand pounds per square inch, and temperatures above 300°F. with considerable amounts of methane gas in solution. (63

Geothermal water of Xi'an and Xianyang in the central Guanzhong basin is typically geopressured thermal water in China. δ18O and δD data of geopressured thermal water in Xi'an and Xianyang, combined with data from the perimeter of the basin, are analyzed to study features of hydrogen and oxygen shifts. The results show that 18O exchange of geothermal water at the pc-rimeter of the basin and in the non-geopressured thermal water in the center of the basin is not evident, while in most of the geo-pressured thermal water in the central basin, in cities such as Xi'an and Xianyang, significant oxygen exchange had taken place as well as hydrogen exchange, suggesting that isotope exchanges would slowly move the geothermal water system towards equilib-rium. Thermal water reservoirs in the central basin have passed through significant water-rock reactions. Moreover, the geothermal reservoir of Xianyang city is relatively much more enclosed than that of Xi'an city. It has been observed that the more enclosed the geological environment of geothermal water is, the more obvious the oxygen shifts are. With the increasing of the depth, residence time, total amounts of thssolute solids and temperatures of geothermal waters, the oxygen exchange accelerates.

Indonesia with its large, but partially unexplored geothermal potential is one of the most interesting and suitable places in the world to conduct geothermal exploration research. This study focuses on geothermal exploration based on fluid-rock geochemistry/geomechanics and aims to compile an overview on geochemical data-rock properties from important geothermal fields in Indonesia. The research carried out in the field and in the laboratory is performed in the framework of the GEOCAP cooperation (Geothermal Capacity Building program Indonesia- the Netherlands). The application of petrology and geochemistry accounts to a better understanding of areas where operating power plants exist but also helps in the initial exploration stage of green areas. Because of their relevance and geological setting geothermal fields in Java, Sulawesi and the sedimentary basin of central Sumatra have been chosen as focus areas of this study. Operators, universities and governmental agencies will benefit from this approach as it will be applied also to new green-field terrains. By comparing the characteristic of the fluids, the alteration petrology and the rock geochemistry we also aim to contribute to compile an overview of the geochemistry of the important geothermal fields in Indonesia. At the same time the rock petrology and fluid geochemistry will be used as input data to model the reservoir fluid composition along with T-P parameters with the geochemical workbench PHREEQC. The field and laboratory data are mandatory for both the implementation and validation of the model results.

A representative cross section of the literature on the disposal of geothermal brine was perused and some of the general information and concepts is summarized. The following sections are included: disposal statistics--Texas Railroad Commission; disposal statistics--Louisiana Office of Conservation; policies for administering salt water disposal operations; salt water disposal experience of Gulf Coast operators; and Federal Strategic Petroleum Reserve Program's brine disposal operations. The literature cited is listed in the appended list of references. Additional literature is listed in the bibliography. (MHR)

Pressure-volume-temperature relations for water at the depth of the magma chamber at 21 degrees N on the East Pacific Rise suggest that the maximum subsurface temperature of the geothermalfluid is about 420 degrees C. Both the chemistry of the discharging fluid and thermal balance considerations indicate that the effective water/rock ratios in the geothermal system are between 7 and 16. Such low ratios preclude effective metal transport at temperatures below 350 degrees C, but metal solubilization at 400 degrees C and above is effective even at such low ratios. It is proposed that the 420 degrees C fluid ascends essentially adiabatically and in the process expands, cools, and precipitates metal sulfides within the upper few hundred meters of the sea floor and on the sea floor itself.

Geothermal energy is a here-and-now technology for use with dry steam resources and high-quality hydrothermal liquids. These resources are supplying about 6 percent of all electricity used in California. However, the competitiveness of power generation using lower quality hydrothermal fluids, geopressured brines, hot dry rock, and magma still depends on the technology improvements sought by the DOE Geothermal Energy R and D Program. The successful outcome of the R and D initiatives will serve to benefit the U.S. public in a number of ways. First, if a substantial portion of our geothermal resources can be used economically, they will add a very large source of secure, indigenous energy to the nation's energy supply. In addition, geothermal plants can be brought on line quickly in case of a national energy emergency. Geothermal energy is also a highly reliable resource, with very high plant availability. For example, new dry steam plants at The Geysers are operable over 99 percent of the time, and the small flash plant in Hawaii, only the second in the United States, has an availability factor of 98 percent. Geothermal plants also offer a viable baseload alternative to fossil and nuclear plants -- they are on line 24 hours a day, unaffected by diurnal or seasonal variations. The hydrothermal power plants with modern emission control technology have proved to have minimal environmental impact. The results to date with geopressured and hot dry rock resources suggest that they, too, can be operated so as to reduce environmental effects to well within the limits of acceptability. Preliminary studies on magma are also encouraging. In summary, the character and potential of geothermal energy, together with the accomplishments of DOE's Geothermal R and D Program, ensure that this huge energy resource will play a major role in future U.S. energy markets.

Geothermal energy will likely constitute an increasing percentage of our nation's future energy ''mix,'' both for electrical and nonelectrical uses. Associated with the exploitation of geothermal resources is the handling and disposal of fluids which contain a wide variety of potentially toxic trace elements. We present analyses of 14 trace elements found in hydrothermal fluids from various geothermal reservoirs in the western United States. The concentrations of these elements vary over orders of magnitude between reservoirs. Potential impacts are conservatively assessed on the basis of (1) toxicity to freshwater biota, and (2) bioaccumulation in food fish to the point where consumption might be hazardous to human health. Trace element concentrations generally range from benign levels to levels which might prove toxic to freshwater biota and contaminate food fisheries. We stress the need for site-specific analyses and careful handling of geothermalfluids in order to minimize potential impacts.

Results of research to develop a plan for the long-term environmental assessment of geopressured/geothermal resource development in the Louisiana Gulf Coast region are reported. An overall view of the environmental issues facing decision-makers in the area of geopressured resource development is presented, along with a plan for monitoring potential environmental impacts. Separate assessments and plans are presented for geological effects, air and water quality, ecosystem quality, and socioeconomic and cultural considerations. (JGB)

This paper presents the results from a some analysis and major impact of geothermalfluid composition on the equipment in use in geothermal power plant. The structural analysis of material deposition improve the direct influenced of chemical composition of stem and waters included CaO, MgO, Al2O3 and SiO2 incorporated in the molten phase and the deposits in the scales formed due to equipment. The steam turbine corrosion damage, particularly of blades, discs and pomps, has long been recognized as a leading causes of reduced availability in the geothermal power plant. The corrosion process depends on temperature, pressure, chemisty and vaporous carryover by diversity of impurity. The experimental analysis procedure involves characterization of the fluidgeothermal composition. Detailed information about surfaces morphological modification of the power plant components are obtained by electron microprobe analysis EDX and SEM investigation. References selection are obtaining by X-ray diffractometer patterns of the specimen.

General balance laws and constitutive relations are developed for convective hydrothermal geothermal reservoirs. A fully interacting rock-fluid system is considered; typical rock-fluid interactions involve momentum and energy transfer and the dependence of rock porosity and permeability upon the fluid and rock stresses. The mathematical model also includes multiphase (water/steam) effects. A simple analytical model is employed to study heat transfer into/or from a fluid moving in a porous medium. Numerical results show that for fluid velocities typical of geothermal systems (Reynolds number much less than 10), the fluid and the solid may be assumed to be in local thermal equilibrium. Mathematical formalism of Anderson and Jackson is utilized to derive a continuum species transport equation for flow in porous media; this method allows one to delineate, in a rigorous manner, the convective and diffusive mechanisms in the continuum representation of species transport. An existing computer program (QUAGMR) is applied to study upwelling of hot water from depth along a fault; the numerical results can be used to explain local temperature inversions occasionally observed in bore hole measurements.

The subsurface geology of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field was analyzed using geophysical and lithologic logs. The distribution of permeable and relatively impermeable units and the location of faults are shown in a geologic model of the system. By incorporating well completion data and downhole temperature profiles into the geologic model, it was possible to determine the direction of geothermalfluid flow and the role of subsurface geologic features that control this movement.

Many active volcanic systems are associated with high-enthalpy geothermal systems. For systems characterized by shallow magmatic intrusions, liquid water often predominates at depth with two-phase fluids, vapor and liquid water, occurring at shallower depth due to depressurization boiling. Close to the intrusion, superheated or supercritical vapor may also occur. The Krafla high-enthalpy geothermal system provides an ideal opportunity to study such volcanic geothermal systems. Over forty wells have been drilled into the system with fluid discharge temperatures of 3200 kJ/kg. In this study, geochemical modelling of multicomponent fluid phases associated with shallow magmatic intrusions were conducted across variable temperature, pressure and enthalpy conditions and the results compared with the fluid geochemistry of the Krafla system. Within the reservoir at geothermal temperatures (250-300°C) liquid water predominates. Under these conditions, the concentrations of most major elements are controlled by equilibrium with secondary minerals. Geochemical modelling and observations at Krafla support these findings. Around the magma intrusions believed to be at shallow depth at Krafla, superheated vapor is formed. Such fluid was discharged by the IDDP-1 well at 450°C and 140 bar. According to the geochemical modelling, superheated vapor is produced upon heat addition by the intrusion to the surrounding geothermal water resulting in boiling to dryness, precipitation of non-volatiles (Si, Fe, Mg, Al, SO4, Na, K, Ca) whereas volatiles (CO2, H2S, Cl, F, B) are unaffected. By mass, quartz is the predominant secondary mineral around the intrusions. The chemical composition of the modelled and observed superheated vapor compared well. Upon ascent and depressurization of the liquid geothermal water and the superheated vapor various processes may occur, including superheated vapor condensation, mixing and depressurization boiling. This leads to formation of two-phase liquid and

Full Text Available The recovery of lithium from geothermalfluid at Lumpur Sidoarjo, Indonesia was investigated employing an adsorption method with polymer membrane as container. The lithium concentration in geothermalfluid from Lumpur Sidoarjo used in the present study was about 5 mg/l. Lithium manganese oxide (LMO was selected as a promising adsorbent material due to its non-toxic, topotactical behavior and low cost. In this study, LMO with single Li/Mn mole ratio was prepared, i.e. Li1.6Mn1.6O4. The adsorbent was synthesized by solid state reaction at 500 °C for 5 hrs. A lithium uptake yield from the geothermalfluid of around 6.6 mg/g was obtained.

Efforts to determine the concentration of the cryocondensates in fluids of the various USDOE Geopressured wells a function of production volume. The wells are visited monthly as they are operating and samples are reported taken cryogenically during each visit. A gas scrubbing system continuously sample the gas streams of the wells in the intergas scrubbing system continuously sample the gas streams of the wells in the intervals between visit. Results obtained are to correlated the production of the collected compounds with reservoir and well production characteristics.

The research area is located in East Manggarai and its surrounding area, Flores. In the study area there are two geothermal systems, i.e. Mapos geothermal system which is associated with Anak Ranakah volcano and Rana Masak geothermal systems which is associated with Watuweri volcano. The difference within these systems is shown by the relative content of conservative elements of Cl, Li and B. Geothermal surface manifestations in Mapos include 4 hot springs having temperatures of 34,3-51,4°C and bicarbonate and sulphate-bicarbonate waters; the discharge area in Rana Masak consist of 3 hot springs with temperatures of 38-46,6°C and chloride and chloride-bicarbonate water. Stable isotopes δ18O and δD analyses showed that the geothermalfluid derived from meteoric water. The Mapos geothermal system is a high temperature system having reservoir temperature of 250-270°C with natural heat loss of 230 kW. The Rana Masak geothermal system is a low temperature system having reservoir temperature of 120-140°C with natural heat loss of 120 kW.

The treatment of geothermal steam by electron beam irradiation is a potential alternative method of H/sub 2/S removal which can be applied upstream or downstream and has no chemical requirements. The experimental work reported here examines the effectiveness of electron beam treatment of geothermalfluids. These fluids are produced by combining the constituents in a heated cell, which contains an electron beam transparent window. Irradiation of the contents and subsequent chemical analysis allows an evaluation of effectiveness. These results are used for a commercial feasibility assessment.

Two types of fluids are encountered in the Onikobe geothermal reservoir, one is neutral and the other is acidic (pH=3). It is hypothesized that acidic fluid might be upwelling along a fault zone and that an impermeable barrier might be present between the acidic and neutral fluid zones. We carried out reactive geothermal transport simulations using TOUGHREACT (Xu and Pruess, 1998 and 2001) to test such a conceptual model. One-dimensional models were used to study the geochemical behavior due to mixing of the two fluids. Mn-rich smectite precipitated near the mixing front and is likely to form an impermeable barrier between regions with acidic and neutral fluids.

In accordance with the requirements of 10 CFR Part 711, environmental assessments are being prepared for significant activities and individual projects of the Division of Geothermal Energy (DGE) of the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). This environmental assessment of geopressure well testing addresses, on a regional basis, the expected activities, affected environments, and possible impacts in a broad sense. The specific part of the program addressed by this environmental assessment is geothermal well testing by the take-over of one or more unsuccessful oil wells before the drilling rig is removed and completion of drilling into the geopressured zone. Along the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast (Plate 1 and Overlay) water at high temperatures and high pressures is trapped within Gulf basin sediments. The water is confined within or below essentially impermeable shale sequences and carries most or all of the overburden pressure. Such zones are referred to as geopressured strata. These fluids and sediments are heated to abnormally high temperatures (up to 260 C) and may provide potential reservoirs for economical production of geothermal energy. The obvious need in resource development is to assess the resource. Ongoing studies to define large-sand-volume reservoirs will ultimately define optimum sites for drilling special large diameter wells to perform large volume flow production tests. In the interim, existing well tests need to be made to help define and assess the resource. The project addressed by this environmental assessment is the performance of a geothermal well test in high potential geothermal areas. Well tests involve four major actions each of which may or may not be required for each of the well tests. The four major actions are: site preparation, drilling a salt-water disposal well, actual flow testing, and abandonment of the well.

Fluid geochemistry has played a major role in the authors present understanding of the Cerro Prieto geothermal system. Fluid chemical and isotopic compositions have been used to indicate the origin of water, salts, and gases, original subsurface temperature and fluid flow, fluid-production mechanims, and production-induced aquifer boiling and cold-water entry. The extensive geochemical data and interpretation for Cerro Prieto published from 1964 to 1981 are reviewed and discussed. Fluid geochemistry must continue to play an important role in the further development of the Cerro Prieto field.

Fluid geochemistry has played a major role in our present understanding of the Cerro Prieto geothermal system. Fluid chemical and isotopic compositions have been used to indicate the origin of water, salts and gases, original subsurface temperature and fluid flow, fluid-production mechanisms, and production-induced aquifer boiling and cold-water entry. The extensive geochemical data and interpretations for Cerro Prieto published from 1964 to 1981 are reviewed and discussed. Fluid geochemistry must continue to play an important role in the further development of the Cerro Prieto field. ?? 1984.

The chlorine isotope composition of thermal fluids from Iceland were measured in order to evaluate the source of chlorine and possible chlorine isotope fractionation in geothermal systems at divergent plate boundaries. The geothermal systems studied have a wide range of reservoir temperatures from 40 to 437 °C and in-situ pH of 6.15 to 7.15. Chlorine concentrations range from 5.2 to 171 ppm and δ37 Cl values are -0.3 to + 2.1 ‰ (n = 38). The δ37 Cl values of the thermal fluids are interpreted to reflect the source of the chlorine in the fluids. Geothermal processes such as secondary mineral formation, aqueous and vapor speciation and boiling were found to have minimal effects on the δ37 Cl values. However, further work is needed on incorporation of Cl into secondary minerals and its effect on Cl isotope fractionation. Results of isotope geochemical modeling demonstrate that the range of δ37 Cl values documented in the natural thermal fluids can be explained by leaching of the basaltic rocks by meteoric source water under geothermal conditions. Magmatic gas partitioning may also contribute to the source of Cl in some cases. The range of δ37 Cl values of the fluids result mainly from the large range of δ37 Cl values observed for Icelandic basalts, which range from -0.6 to + 1.2 ‰.

Reservoir behavior due to injection and circulation of cold fluid is studied with a shear displacement model based on the distributed dislocation technique, in a poro-thermoelastic environment. The approach is applied to a selected volume of Soultz geothermal reservoir at a depth range of 3600 to 3700 m. Permeability enhancement and geothermal potential of Soultz geothermal reservoir are assessed over a stimulation period of 3 months and a fluid circulation period of 14 years. This study-by shedding light onto another source of uncertainty-points toward a special role for the fracture surface asperities in predicting the shear dilation of fractures. It was also observed that thermal stress has a significant impact on changing the reservoir stress field. The effect of thermal stresses on reservoir behavior is more evident over longer circulation term as the rock matrix temperature is significantly lowered. Change in the fracture permeability due to the thermal stresses can also lead to the short circuiting between the injection and production wells which in turn decreases the produced fluid temperature significantly. The effect of thermal stress persists during the whole circulation period as it has significant impact on the continuous increase in the flow rate due to improved permeability over the circulation period. In the current study, taking into account the thermal stress resulted in a decrease of about 7 °C in predicted produced fluid temperature after 14 years of cold fluid circulation; a difference which notably influences the potential prediction of an enhanced geothermal system.

The Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Comision Federal de Electricidad of Mexico are conducting a joint investigation of the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Field, located approximately 35 km south of Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico, in the Sea of Cortez-Salton Trough. Recent analyses of various geophysical/electrical logs, temperature logs, production and geochemical data and the subsequently developed preliminary model of the structure of the geothermal system and the distribution of geothermalfluids are presented. Techniques routinely applied to petroleum exploration were successfully used in the development of a preliminary model of this water-dominated system. The study indicates the upwelling of geothermalfluids along an east bounding fault from a deep, as yet unexplored source. The fluids dissipate into various sand horizons at various depths. The resulting stratigraphic and fluid flow model is of importance in planning additional developments of the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Field.

Super-hot geothermal systems in magmatic areas are a possible target for the future geothermal exploration either for the direct exploitation of fluids or as a potential reservoirs of Enhanced Geothermal Systems. Reservoir temperature measurements are crucial for the assessment of the geothermal resources, however temperature determination in the high-temperature (>380°C) zone of super-hot geothermal systems is difficult or impossible by using either mechanical temperature and pressure gauges (Kuster device) and electronic devices. In the framework of Integrated Methods for Advanced Geothermal Exploration (IMAGE) project, we developed a method to measure high reservoir temperature by the production of synthetic fluid inclusions within an apparatus that will be placed in the high-temperature zone of geothermal wells. First experiments were carried out by placing a gold capsule containing pre-fractured quartz and an aqueous solution (10 wt.% NaCl + 0.4 wt.% NaOH) in an externally heated pressure vessel. Experimental pressure-temperature conditions (i.e. 80-300 bars and 280-400°C) were set close to the liquid/vapour curve of pure H2O or along the H2O critical isochore. The experiments showed that synthetic fluid inclusions form within a relatively short time (even in 48 hours) and that temperatures calculated from homogenization temperatures and isochores of newly formed inclusions are close to experimental temperatures. A second set of laboratory experiments were carried out by using a stainless steel micro-rector in which a gold capsule (containing the pre-fractured quartz and the aqueous solution) was inserted together with an amount of distilled water corresponding to the critical density of water. These experiments were conducted by leaving the new micro-reactor within a furnace at 400°C and were aimed to reproduce the temperature existing in super-hot geothermal wells. Synthetic fluid inclusions formed during the experiments had trapping temperature

Demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of small scale power generation from low temperature co-produced fluids. Phase I is to Develop, Design and Test an economically feasible low temperature ORC solution to generate power from lower temperature co-produced geothermalfluids. Phase II &III are to fabricate, test and site a fully operational demonstrator unit on a gold mine working site and operate, remotely monitor and collect data per the DOE recommended data package for one year.

Realizing the potential of geothermal energy as a cheap, green, sustainable resource to provide for the planet's future energy demands that a key geophysical problem be solved first: how to develop and maintain a network of multiple fluid flow pathways for the time required to deplete the heat within a given region. We present the key components for micro-scale particle-based numerical modeling of hydraulic fracture, and fluid and heat flow in geothermal reservoirs. They are based on the latest developments of ESyS-Particle - the coupling of the Lattice Solid Model (LSM) to simulate the nonlinear dynamics of complex solids with the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) applied to the nonlinear dynamics of coupled fluid and heat flow in the complex solid-fluid system. The coupled LSM/LBM can be used to simulate development of fracture systems in discontinuous media, elastic stress release, fluid injection and the consequent slip at joint surfaces, and hydraulic fracturing; heat exchange between hot rocks and water within flow pathways created through hydraulic fracturing; and fluid flow through complex, narrow, compact and gouge-or powder-filled fracture and joint systems. We demonstrate the coupled LSM/LBM to simulate the fundamental processes listed above, which are all components for the generation and sustainability of the hot-fractured rock geothermal energy fracture systems required to exploit this new green-energy resource.

Preliminary isotopic studies of Cerro Prieto geothermalfluids and earlier studies of Mexicali Valley ground waters suggest local recharge of the geothermal system from the area immediately to the west. Oxygen isotope exchange of water with reservoir rock minerals at temperatures increasing with depth has produced fluids with oxygen-18 contents increasing with depth, and pressure drawdown in the southeastern part of the field has allowed lower oxygen-18 fluids to invade the production aquifer from above. The contents of tritium and carbon-14 in the fluid suggest only that the age of the fluid is between 50 and 10,000 years. The isotopic compositions of carbon and sulfur are consistent with a magmatic origin of these elements but a mixed sedimentary-organic origin appears more likely for carbon and is also possible for sulfur. Investigations of the isotopic compositions of geothermal and cold ground waters continue and are being expanded as fluids become available and as separation and analysis methods are improved. ?? 1979.

Systematic investigation, classification, and differentiation of the intrinsic properties of genetic sandstone units that typify many geopressuredgeothermal aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs of the Gulf Coast region are provided. The following are included: structural and stratigraphic limits of sandstone reservoirs; characteristics and dimensions of Gulf Coast Sandstones; fault compartment areas; comparison of production and geologic estimates of aquifer volume; geologic setting and reservoir characteristics, wells of opportunity; internal properties of sandstones and implications for geopressured energy development. (MHR)

The lack of chemical similarity between thermal fluids in geothermal and petroleum reservoirs in Mexico indicates a distinct origin for arsenic in both types of reservoirs. Deep fluids from geothermal reservoirs along the Transmexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) are characterized by elevated arsenic concentrations, within a range between 1 and 100 mg L(-1) at a depth from 600 to 3000 m b.s.l. Based on hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), arsenic is linked to typical geothermal species like lithium, silica, and boron. The lack of correlation between arsenic and salinity reflects the importance of secondary water-rock interaction processes. The predominance of arsenic compared to Fe- and Cu-concentrations, and the occurrence of secondary minerals (sulfides and clay minerals) in temperature-dependent hydrothermal zones, supports this hypothesis. Neither magmatic fluids input, nor As mineralization is a prerequisite for As enrichment in Mexican geothermalfluids. In contrast, petroleum reservoir waters from sedimentary basins in SE-Mexico show maximum As concentrations of 2 mg L(-1), at depths from 2900 to 6100 m b.s.l. The linear chloride-arsenic correlation indicates that evaporated seawater represents the major source for aqueous arsenic in oil reservoirs, and only minor arsenic proportions are derived from interaction with carbonate host rock. Speciation modeling suggests the lack of arsenic solubility control in both geothermal and petroleum reservoirs, but precipitation/co-precipitation of As with secondary sulfides could occur in petroleum reservoirs with high iron concentrations. Geothermalfluids from magmatic-type reservoirs (Los Azufres and Los Humeros at the TMVB and Las Tres Vírgenes with a granodioritic basement) show relative constant arsenic concentrations through varying temperature conditions, which indicates that temperatures above 230-250 °C provide optimal and stable conditions for arsenic mobility. In contrast, temperature conditions for sedimentary

Executive Summary Simbol Materials studied various methods of extracting valuable minerals from geothermal brines in the Imperial Valley of California, focusing on the extraction of lithium, manganese, zinc and potassium. New methods were explored for managing the potential impact of silica fouling on mineral extraction equipment, and for converting silica management by-products into commercial products.` Studies at the laboratory and bench scale focused on manganese, zinc and potassium extraction and the conversion of silica management by-products into valuable commercial products. The processes for extracting lithium and producing lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide products were developed at the laboratory scale and scaled up to pilot-scale. Several sorbents designed to extract lithium as lithium chloride from geothermal brine were developed at the laboratory scale and subsequently scaled-up for testing in the lithium extraction pilot plant. Lithium The results of the lithium studies generated the confidence for Simbol to scale its process to commercial operation. The key steps of the process were demonstrated during its development at pilot scale: 1. Silica management. 2. Lithium extraction. 3. Purification. 4. Concentration. 5. Conversion into lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate products. Results show that greater than 95% of the lithium can be extracted from geothermal brine as lithium chloride, and that the chemical yield in converting lithium chloride to lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate products is greater than 90%. The product purity produced from the process is consistent with battery grade lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide. Manganese and zinc Processes for the extraction of zinc and manganese from geothermal brine were developed. It was shown that they could be converted into zinc metal and electrolytic manganese dioxide after purification. These processes were evaluated for their economic potential, and at the present time Simbol

The report summarizes the results of experiments dealing with the problem of removal of waste-silica from spent fluids at the experimental power generating facility in the Puna District of the island of Hawaii. Geothermal discharges from HGP-A represent a mixture of meteoric and seawaters which has reacted at depth with basalts from the Kilauea East Rift Zone under high pressure and temperature. After separation of the steam phase of the geothermalfluid from the liquid phase and a final flashing stage to 100 degrees Celsius and atmospheric pressure, the concentration of the silica increases to approximately 1100 mg/L. This concentration represents five to six times the solubility of amorphous silica in this temperature range. We have evaluated and successfully developed bench scale techniques utilizing adsorptive bubble flotation for the removal of colloidal silica from the spent brine discharge in the temperature range of 60 to 90 degrees C. The methods employed resulted in recovery of up to 90% of the silica present above its amorphous solubility in the experimental temperature range studied.

Understanding geochemical processes is an important part of geothermal exploration to get information about the source and evolution of geothermalfluids. However, in most cases knowledge of fluid properties is based on few parameters determined in samples from the shallow subsurface. This study presents a new approach that allows to conclude from the combination of a variety of these data on processes occurring at depth in a geothermal reservoir. The neural network clustering technique called ;self-organizing maps; (SOMs) successfully distinguished two different geothermal settings based on a hydrochemical database and disclosed the source, evolution and flow pathways of geothermalfluids. Scatter plots, as shown in this study, are appropriate presentations of element concentrations and the chemical interaction of water and rock at depth. One geological setting presented here is marked by fault dominated fluid pathways and minor influence of volcanic affected fluids with high concentrations of HCO3, Ca and Sr. The second is a magmatically dominated setting showing strong alteration features in volcanic rocks and accommodates acidic fluids with high SO4 and Si concentrations. Former studies, i.e., Giggenbach (1988), suggested Cl, HCO3 and SO4 to be generally the most important elements for understanding hydrochemical processes in geothermal reservoirs. Their relation has been widely used to classify different water types in geothermal fields. However, this study showed that non-standard elements are at least of same importance to reveal different fluid types in geothermal systems. Therefore, this study is an extended water classification approach using SOM for element correlations. SOM have been proven to be a successful method for analyzing even relatively small hydrochemical datasets in geothermal applications.

At the Baca geothermal field in the Valles caldera, New Mexico, 19 deep wells were drilled in an attempt to develop a 50-MW (megawatts electric) power plant. The chemical and isotopic compositions of steam and water samples have been used to indicate uniquely the origin of reservoir fluids and natural reservoir processes. Two distinct reservoir fluids exist at Baca. These fluids originate from the same deep, high-temperature (335oC), saline (2500 mg/kg Cl) parent water but have had different histories during upflow which are described.-after Authors

The geothermal field at Bushdi to the south of Sabalan volcano encompasses both cold and hot springs along with surficial steam vents. This geothermal field is situated in a volcanic terrain which includes basaltic and trachy-andesitic lavas and pyroclastics which have undergone considerable faulting during Quaternary times. Regardless of conventional uses, no industrial utilization has been reported from this field yet. In the geothermalfluids Na is the most abundant cation following the trend Na+ >> Ca2+ > K+ > Mg2+. Cl- is the most abundant anion following two trends (1) Cl- >> HCO3- > SO42- and (2) HCO3- > Cl- > SO42-. From a hydrogeochemical point of view the geothermalfluids in the study area can be divided into two categories: (1) Na-Cl and (2) Na-Ca-HCO3. The conic and lenticular shaped travertine deposits around hot springs possessing a Ca2+-Na+-HCO3- composition are the most conspicuous features in this area. According to oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopes (δD and δ18O) data, a large proportion of the fluids in this geothermal system are of meteoric origin. Downward percolation along the brecciated rocks in the fault zones between the mount Sabalan and the Bushdi area can be regarded as the main fluid source for the geothermal system. The geothermalfluids have 3H above 1 TU and hence can be considered as young (modern to sub-modern) waters, with a residence time of less than 63 years.

A selected group of reported tests of chemical additives in actual geothermalfluids are reviewed and evaluated to summarize the status of chemical scale-control testing and identify information and testing needs. The task distinguishes between scale control in the cooling system of a flash plant and elsewhere in the utilization system due to the essentially different operating environments involved. Additives for non-cooling geothermalfluids are discussed by scale type: silica, carbonate, and sulfide.

A comparative study of the reservoir fluid characteristics calculation of ten production wells of Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Cerro Prieto geothermal fields using two computer codes GeoChem (GeoSys.Chem) and WATCH is presented. GeoSys.Chem estimates the reservoir temperature and vapor fraction through quartz geothermometry and assuming enthalpy conservation, while the average temperature of quartz and Na/K geothermometers is employed in WATCH and vapor fraction is also calculated through ent...

Cost-effective creation of high-permeability reservoirs inside deep crystalline bedrock is the primary challenge for the feasibility of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Current reservoir stimulation entails adverse environmental impacts and substantial economic costs due to the utilization of large volumes of water “doped” with chemicals including rheology modifiers, scale and corrosion inhibitors, biocides, friction reducers among others where, typically, little or no information of composition and toxicity is disclosed. An environmentally benign, CO2-activated, rheoreversible fracturing fluid has recently been developed that significantly enhances rock permeability at effective stress significantly lower than current technology. We evaluate the potential of this novel fracturing fluid for application on geothermal sites under different chemical and geomechanical conditions, by performing laboratory-scale fracturing experiments with different rock sources under different confining pressures, temperatures, and pH environments. The results demonstrate that CO2-reactive aqueous solutions of environmentally amenable Polyallylamine (PAA) represent a highly versatile fracturing fluid technology. This fracturing fluid creates/propagates fracture networks through highly impermeable crystalline rock at significantly lower effective stress as compared to control experiments where no PAA was present, and permeability enhancement was significantly increased for PAA compared to conventional hydraulic fracturing controls. This was evident in all experiments, including variable rock source/type, operation pressure and temperature (over the entire range for EGS applications), as well as over a wide range of formation-water pH values. This versatile novel fracturing fluid technology represents a great alternative to industrially available fracturing fluids for cost-effective and competitive geothermal energy production.

An assessment of possible environmental effects of the use of geopressured water of the Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast has been made. The uses considered include generation of electric power, production of low pressure steam for process heat and the direct use of the hot water for space heating. Based upon the projected uses, the direct and indirect emissions are estimated and the impact of these emissions upon the environment are discussed. The possible impacts of the production of large volumes of geopressuredfluids are also considered in terms of possibility of subsidence and earthquakes. A summary of available analyses of Gulf Coast deep waters is listed as a guide for estimating expected emissions. Primary environmental problems are identified as waste brine disposal, accidental releases of brines, and subsidence. Minor problems such as cooling tower blowdown streams, noncondensable gas emissions, wind drift from exhaust plumes, noise levels, and construction activities are considered.

We developed an inversion method to estimate the evolution of pore fluid pressure fields from earthquake focal mechanism solutions based on the Bayesian statistical inference and Akaike's Bayesian information criterion (ABIC). This method's application to induced seismicity in the Basel enhanced geothermal system in Switzerland shows the evolution of pore fluid pressures in response to fluid injection experiments. For a few days following the initiation of the fluid injection, overpressurized fluids are concentrated around the borehole and then anisotropically propagate within the reservoir until the bleed-off time. Then, the pore fluid pressure in the vicinity of the borehole drastically decreases, and overpressurized fluids become isolated in a few major fluid pockets. The pore fluid pressure in these pockets gradually decreases with time. The pore fluid pressure in the reservoir is less than the minimum principal stress at each depth, indicating that the hydraulic fracturing did not occur during stimulation. This suggests that seismic events may play an important role to promote the development of permeable channels, particularly southeast of the borehole where the largest seismic event (ML 3.4) occurred. This is not directly related to a drastic decrease in fault strength at the hypocenter, but rather the positive feedback between permeability enhancement and poro-elastic and stress transfer loading from slipping interfaces. These processes likely contribute to this event's nucleation.

Fluid withdrawal and injection into the crust produces changes in the local stress field and pore pressure, involving different rock volumes depending on the injection flow rate and duration as well as on the medium permeability. This process is in different cases correlated to induced seismicity. In the case of geothermal power plants (e.g. fluids withdrawal and in several case withdrawal/reinjection) this correlation is vague and sometimes not well constrained by experimental data. We report here a set of simulations of withdrawal, injection and withdrawal-reinjection-cycles from/in the same geothermal reservoirs, by using the numerical code TOUGH2®. The simulations are applied to conceptual models of different geothermal reservoirs already published in previous works, whose main difference is in the permeability features and the depth of wells (Soultz, France; Campi Flegrei caldera and Ischia island, Italy). The numerical simulations are aimed to compare the time growth of perturbed volumes obtained with withdrawal reinjection cycle to those obtained during simple withdrawal or injection, using the same flow rates. Our results clearly point out that reinjection is much less critical than simple injection or withdrawal, because the perturbed volumes are remarkably small and, moreover, remain constant over the simulated time, of whatever duration. This fact reduces significantly the potential of the seismicity induced by pressure variation into the reservoirs.

Geothermal energy production relies on maintaining open fractures within the rock through which fluids can flow, but precipitation of minerals in fractures can modify and reduce fluid flow. Most geothermalfluids are rich in dissolved material, and readily precipitate minerals such as calcite within fracture systems. Such mineral deposition can be a key limiting factor in viable geothermal energy production. We need to better understand the relationship between fluid temperatures, mineral precipitation, and fracture filling in such systems. Clumped isotopes offer a new way of characterising the temperature and fluid source of fracture-filling calcite. This technique is based on the thermodynamic relationship between carbonate mineral growth temperature and the abundance of chemical bonding ("clumping") between 13C and 18O isotopes (expressed as Δ47) within single carbonate ions (e.g. Eiler, 2007). In the gas phase, isotopic exchange between CO2 molecules and water is continuous and so CO2 gas will record the ambient fluid temperature. When the CO2 is trapped in a solid mineral phase, the isotope ratio is fixed. As a result, clumped isotopes will record the temperature of crystallisation, enabling the application of clumped isotope palaeothermometry to a range of geological problems. Samples from active geothermal fields (the Kawerau geothermal field, New Zealand (McNamara et al., 2017)) and analogues to basaltic geothermal systems in Western Scotland have been analysed with clumped isotopes. We present petrography, δ13C and δ18O, and clumped isotope data from these samples to show how clumped isotopes can fingerprint the temperature and fluid source of fracture-filling calcite in geothermal systems. Having this understanding of fracture filling conditions can lead to focused development of remediation measures. References Eiler, J. M., 2007. EPSL 262(3-4), 309-327. McNamara, D. D., Lister, A., Prior, D. J., 2016. JVGR 323, 38-52.

Geothermal technologies use renewable energy resources to generate electricity and direct use of heat while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions. Geothermal energy is stored in rocks and in fluids circulating in the underground. Electricity generation usually requires geothermal resources temperatures of over 100°C. For heating, geothermal resources spanning a wider range of temperatures can be used in applications such as space and district heating (and cooling, with p...

Numerical simulation is used to evaluate mass flow and heatextraction rates from enhanced geothermal injection-production systemsthat are operated using either CO2 or water as heat transmission fluid.For a model system patterned after the European hot dry rock experimentat Soultz, we find significantly greater heat extraction rates for CO2 ascompared to water. The strong dependence of CO2 mobility (=density/viscosity) upon temperature and pressure may lead to unusualproduction behavior, where heat extraction rates can actually increasefor a time, even as the reservoir is subject to thermaldepletion.

Among the technical problems faced by the burgeoning geothermal industry is the disposal of spent fluids from power plants. Except in unusual circumstances the normal practice, especially in the USA, is to pump these spent fluids into injection wells to prevent contamination of surface waters, and possibly in some cases, to reduce pressure drawdown in the producing aquifers. This report is a survey of experience in geothermal injection, emphasizing geochemical problems, and a discussion of approaches to their possible mitigation. The extraction of enthalpy from geothermalfluid in power plants may cause solutions to be strongly supersaturated in various dissolved components such as silica, carbonates, sulfates, and sulfides. Injection of such supersaturated solutions into disposal wells has the potential to cause scaling in the well bores and plugging of the aquifers, leading to loss of injectivity. Various aspects of the geochemistry of geothermal brines and their potential for mineral formation are discussed, drawing upon a literature survey. Experience of brine treatment and handling, and the economics of mineral extraction are also addressed in this report. Finally suggestions are made on future needs for possible experimental, field and theoretical studies to avoid or control mineral scaling.

In recent five years, geothermal energy became one of the most prosperous renewable energy in the world, but produces only 0.5% of the global electricity. Why this great potential of green energy cannot replace the fuel and nuclear energy? The necessity of complicated exploration procedures and precious experts in geothermal field is similar to that of the oil and gas industry. The Yilan Plain (NE Taiwan) is one of the hot area for geothermal development and research in the second phase of National Energy Program (NEP-II). The geological and geophysical studies of the area indicate that the Yilan Plain is an extension of the Okinawa Trough back arc rifting which provide the geothermal resource. Based on the new constrains from properties of supercritical fluids and dissipative structure theory, the geophysical evidence give confident clues on how the geothermal system evolved at depth. The geothermal conceptual model in NEP-II indicates that the volcanic intrusion under the complicate fault system is possibly beneath the Yilan Plain. However, the bottom temperature of first deep drilling and geochemical evidence in NEP-II imply no volcanic intrusion. In contrast, our results show that seismic activities in geothermal field observed self-organization, and are consistent with the brittle-ductile / brittle-plastic transition, which indicates that supercritical fluids triggered earthquake swarms. The geothermal gradient and geochemical anomalies in Yilan Plain indicate an open system far from equilibrium. Mantle and crust exchange energy and materials through supercritical fluids to generate a dissipative structure in geothermal fields and promote water-rock interactions and fractures. Our initial studies have suggested a dissipative structure of geothermal system that could be identified by geochemical and geophysical data. The key factor is the tectonic setting that triggered supercritical fluids upwelling from deep (possibly from the mantle or the upper crust). Our

We have used an environmentally friendly and recyclable hydraulic fracturing fluid - diluted aqueous solutions of polyallylamine or PAA – for reservoir stimulation in Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS). This fluid undergoes a controlled and large volume expansion with a simultaneous increase in viscosity triggered by CO2 at EGS temperatures. We are presenting here the results of laboratory-scale hydraulic fracturing experiment using the fluid on small cylindrical rock cores (1.59 cm in diameter and 5.08 cm in length) from the Coso geothermal field in California. Rock samples consisted of Mesozoic diorite metamorphosed to greenschist facies. The experiments were conducted on 5 samples for realistic ranges of pressures (up to 275 bar) and temperatures (up to 210 °C) for both the rock samples and the injected fluid. After fracturing, cores were subjected to a CO2 leakage test, injection of KI solution, and X-ray microtomography (XMT) scanning to examine the formation and distribution of fractures. The design and conduct of these experiments will be presented and discussed in details. Based on the obtained XMT images, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were then performed to visualize hydraulic fractures and compute the bulk permeability. OpenFOAM (OpenCFD Ltd., Reading, UK), was used to solve the steady state simulation. The flow predictions, based upon the laminar, 3-D, incompressible Navier-Stokes equations for fluid mass and momentum, show the remarkable stimulation of the permeability in the core samples and demonstrate the efficiency of such a CO2 triggered fluid in EGS.

Oxygen isotopic compositions have been measured in drill cuttings and core samples from more than 40 wells ranging in depth to more than 3.5 km in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field. Profiles of isotopic ratios versus sampling depths provide information on the three-dimensional distribution of temperature and fluid flow. These parameters also indicate variations in the history of hydrothermal processes in different areas of the geothermal field.

and account for related surface hydrothermal activity. This interpretation is also consistent with local GPS- and InSAR-based surface displacement vectors which indicate subsidence above the Main Field and East Flank. At reservoir depth, preliminary results from borehole image, temperature, and mud log analyses indicate that fluid flow in the geothermal field is concentrated in the densely fractured damage zones of large faults that are well oriented for slip. In contrast, the cores of these faults appear to function as hydrologic barriers and separate regions of distinct fluid inclusion chemistry and temperature gradient. In addition, significant horizontal principal stress rotations are recorded by drilling-induced structures in borehole image logs. These variations in the azimuth of induced structures indicate local stress heterogeneity induced by active fault slip and are consistent with the high rates of seismicity observed in the geothermal field which might impact damage zone behavior. In the regions between large faults, distributed fracture networks appear to play only a minor role in transferring fluids despite relatively high fracture density that include some fractures well-oriented for slip. This geomechanical model provides a first step in studying the mechanical interactions and permeability of fault zones, their natural evolution, and their response to engineered stimulation. In addition, this model is a critical element of the stimulation strategy that will be applied to Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) well 46A-19RD in the southwest portion of the geothermal field.

Full Text Available In this paper, the thermodynamic investigation on the use of geothermal water (130 °C as maximum for power generation through a basic Rankine has been presented together with obtained main results. Six typical organic working fluids (i.e., R245fa, R141b, R290, R600, R152a, and 134a were studied with modifying the input pressure and temperature to the turbine. The results show that there are no significant changes taking place in the efficiency for these working fluids with overheating the inlet fluid to the turbine, i.e., efficiency is a weak function of temperature. However, with the increasing of pressure ratio in the turbine, the efficiency rises more sharply. The technical viability is shown of implementing this type of process for recovering low temperature heat resource.

Successful exploitation of the vast amount of heat stored beneath the earth’s surface in hydrothermal and fluid-limited, low permeability geothermal resources would greatly expand the Nation’s domestic energy inventory and thereby promote a more secure energy supply, a stronger economy and a cleaner environment. However, a major factor limiting the expanded development of current hydrothermal resources as well as the production of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) is insufficient knowledge about the chemical processes controlling subsurface fluid flow. With funding from past grants from the DOE geothermal program and other agencies, we successfully developed advanced equation of state (EOS) and simulation technologies that accurately describe the chemistry of geothermal reservoirs and energy production processes via their free energies for wide XTP ranges. Using the specific interaction equations of Pitzer, we showed that our TEQUIL chemical models can correctly simulate behavior (e.g., mineral scaling and saturation ratios, gas break out, brine mixing effects, down hole temperatures and fluid chemical composition, spent brine incompatibilities) within the compositional range (Na-K-Ca-Cl-SO4-CO3-H2O-SiO2-CO2(g)) and temperature range (T < 350°C) associated with many current geothermal energy production sites that produce brines with temperatures below the critical point of water. The goal of research carried out under DOE grant DE-FG36-04GO14300 (10/1/2004-12/31/2007) was to expand the compositional range of our Pitzer-based TEQUIL fluid/rock interaction models to include the important aluminum and silica interactions (T < 350°C). Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust; and, as a constituent of aluminosilicate minerals, it is found in two thirds of the minerals in the earth’s crust. The ability to accurately characterize effects of temperature, fluid mixing and interactions between major rock-forming minerals and hydrothermal and

The scarcity of fossil energy accelerates the development of geothermal power plant in Indonesia. The main issue is how to minimize the energy loss from the geothermal working fluid so that the power generated can be increased. In some of geothermal power plant, the hot water which is resulted from flashing is flown to injection well, and steam out from turbine is condensed in condenser, while the temperature and pressure of the working fluid is still high. The aim of this research is how the waste energy can be re-used as energy source to generate electric power. The step of the research is started by studying the characteristics of geothermalfluid out from the well head. The temperature of fluid varies from 140°C - 250°C, the pressure is more than 7 bar and the fluid phase are liquid, gas, or mixing phase. Dry steam power plant is selected for vapor dominated source, single or multiple flash power plant is used for dominated water with temperature > 225°C, while the binary power plant is used for low temperature of fluid power plant can be described by thermodynamic cycle. Utilizing the heat loss of the brine and by considering the broad range of working fluid temperature, the integrated geothermal power plant has been developed. Started with two ordinary single flash power plants named unit 1 and unit 2, with the temperature 250°C resulting power is W1'+W2'. The power is enhanced by utilizing the steam that is out from first stage of the turbine by inputting the steam to the third stage, the power of the plant increase with W1''+W2" or 10% from the original power. By using flasher, the water from unit 1 and 2 is re-flashed at 200°C, and the steam is used to drive the turbine in unit 3, while the water is re-flashed at the temperature170°C and the steam is flown to the same turbine (unit 3) resulting the power of W3+W4. Using the fluid enthalpy, the calculated power of these double and triple flash power plant are 50% of W1+W2. At the last step, the steam

The research discussed in this report was performed at the University of Oklahoma during the period January 1, 1978 through December 31, 1978. Efforts were directed to the following tasks: (1) documentation of the GEO4 cycle simulator, (2) modification of GEO4 for fixed heat transfer area, (3) initial comparisons of mixture and pure fluid cascade cycles, (4) development of guidelines for working fluid selection for single boiler cycles, (5) continued evaluation of mixtures as working fluids, (6) specification of commercial isobutane composition requirements for isobutane cycles, (7) identification of working fluid thermophysical property data needs, (8) working fluid thermophysical property correlation and presentation of properties information, (9) effects of using different isobutane thermodynamic correlation parameters in single boiler cycle calculations. Some of the conclusions from this research are: (1) mixture dual boiler cascade cycles can be designed to yield approximately as much work per unit mass of brine as pure fluid triple boiler cascade cycles, indicating mixture cascade cycles are attractive when high brine utilization of low temperature georesources is desired, (2) the specifications by suppliers of a number of presently available commercial isobutanes will perform to yield net plant power for 300 F georesource cycles within one percent of the design value based on pure isobutane as the working fluid, (3) in binary cycles, mixtures have advantages over pure fluids which can be exploited through the use of available heat exchanger types in which essentially countercurrent flow can be maintained, (4) although thermodynamic property data recently obtained by the National Bureau of Standards has lessened data needs for isobutane, the use of other fluids (e.g., isopentane and mixtures) in major geothermal projects will create needs for new experimental work to remove data deficiencies for these fluids, (5) the levels of accuracy of presently available

Coexistence of thermal springs, travertine deposits and tectonic activity is a recurring feature for most geothermal areas. Although such a certainty, their relationships are debated mainly addressing on the role of the tectonic activity in triggering and controlling fluids flow and travertine deposition. In this paper, we present the results of an integrated study carried out in a geothermal area located in western Anatolia (Turkey), nearby the well-known Pamukkale area (Denizli Basin). Our study focused on the relationships among hydrothermal fluids circulation, travertine deposition and tectonic activity, with particular emphasis on the role of faults in controlling fluids upwelling, thermal springs location and deposition of travertine masses. New field mapping and structural/kinematics analyses allowed us to recognize two main faults systems (NW- and NE-trending), framed in the Neogene-Quaternary extensional tectonic evolution of western Anatolia. A geo-radar (GPR) prospection was also provided in a key-area, permitting us to reconstruct a buried fault zone and its relationships with the development of a fissure-ridge travertine deposit (Kamara fissure-ridge). The integration among structural and geophysical studies, fluids inclusion, geochemical, isotopic data and 230 Th/238 U radiometric age determination on travertine deposits, depict the characteristics of the geothermalfluids and their pathway, up to the surface. Hydrological and seismological data have been also taken in account to investigate the relation between local seismicity and fluid upwelling. As a main conclusion we found strict relationships among tectonic activity, earthquakes occurrence, and variation of the physical/chemical features of the hydrothermal fluids, presently exploited at depth, or flowing out in thermal springs. In the same way, we underline the tectonic role in controlling the travertine deposition, making travertine (mainly banded travertine) a useful proxy to reconstruct the

Work done to characterize by chemical methods the temperature/time degradation behavior of polymer based fluids that may be used in stimulating geothermal wells by fracturing is described. The polymers tested were hydroxypropylguar (HP guar), hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and XC Polymer. Also, two commercially available cross-linked HP guar systems were tested. The development of analytical techniques for characterizing the polymers and the results of static and dynamic high temperature aging of the polymers in various salt water environments are covered. The fluids were tested at 150, 200 and 250/sup 0/C. The implications of these results based on the time/temperature degradation of the polymers and the relative ease of removing the degraded polymer from a sandpack are covered.

A novel combined power and heat generation system was investigated in this study. This system consists of a low-temperature geothermally-powered organic Rankine cycle (ORC) subsystem, an intermediate heat exchanger and a commercial R134a-based heat pump subsystem. The advantages of the novel combined power and heat generation system are free of using additional cooling water circling system for the power generation subsystem as well as maximizing the use of thermal energy in the low-temperature geothermal source. The main purpose is to identify suitable working fluids (wet, isentropic and dry flu-ids) which may yield high PPR (the ratio of power produced by the power generation subsystem to power consumed by the heat pump subsystem) value and QQR (the ratio of heat supplied to the user to heat produced by the geothermal source) value. Parameters under investigation were evaporating temperature, PPR value and QQR value. Results indicate that there exits an optimum evaporating temperature to maximize the PPR value and minimize the QQR value at the same time for individual fluid. And dry fluids show higher PPR values but lower QQR values. NH3 and R152a outstand among wet fluids. R134a out-stands among isentropic fluids. R236ea, R245ca, R245fa, R600 and R600a outstand among dry fluids. R236ea shows the highest PPR value among the recommended fluids.

A thermo-economic model has been built and validated for prediction of project economics of Enhanced Geothermal Projects. The thermo-economic model calculates and iteratively optimizes the LCOE (levelized cost of electricity) for a prospective EGS (Enhanced Geothermal) site. It takes into account the local subsurface temperature gradient, the cost of drilling and reservoir creation, stimulation and power plant configuration. It calculates and optimizes the power plant configuration vs. well depth. Thus outputs from the model include optimal well depth and power plant configuration for the lowest LCOE. The main focus of this final report was to experimentally validate the thermodynamic properties that formed the basis of the thermo-economic model built in Phase 2, and thus build confidence that the predictions of the model could be used reliably for process downselection and preliminary design at a given set of geothermal (and/or waste heat) boundary conditions. The fluid and cycle downselected was based on a new proprietary fluid from a vendor in a supercritical ORC cycle at a resource condition of 200°C inlet temperature. The team devised and executed a series of experiments to prove the suitability of the new fluid in realistic ORC cycle conditions. Furthermore, the team performed a preliminary design study for a MW-scale turbo expander that would be used for a supercritical ORC cycle with this new fluid. The following summarizes the main findings in the investigative campaign that was undertaken: 1. Chemical compatibility of the new fluid with common seal/gasket/Oring materials was found to be problematic. Neoprene, Viton, and silicone materials were found to be incompatible, suffering chemical decomposition, swelling and/or compression set issues. Of the materials tested, only TEFLON was found to be compatible under actual ORC temperature and pressure conditions. 2. Thermal stability of the new fluid at 200°C and 40 bar was found to be acceptable after 399

A thermo-economic model has been built and validated for prediction of project economics of Enhanced Geothermal Projects. The thermo-economic model calculates and iteratively optimizes the LCOE (levelized cost of electricity) for a prospective EGS (Enhanced Geothermal) site. It takes into account the local subsurface temperature gradient, the cost of drilling and reservoir creation, stimulation and power plant configuration. It calculates and optimizes the power plant configuration vs. well depth. Thus outputs from the model include optimal well depth and power plant configuration for the lowest LCOE. The main focus of this final report was to experimentally validate the thermodynamic properties that formed the basis of the thermo-economic model built in Phase 2, and thus build confidence that the predictions of the model could be used reliably for process downselection and preliminary design at a given set of geothermal (and/or waste heat) boundary conditions. The fluid and cycle downselected was based on a new proprietary fluid from a vendor in a supercritical ORC cycle at a resource condition of 200°C inlet temperature. The team devised and executed a series of experiments to prove the suitability of the new fluid in realistic ORC cycle conditions. Furthermore, the team performed a preliminary design study for a MW-scale turbo expander that would be used for a supercritical ORC cycle with this new fluid. The following summarizes the main findings in the investigative campaign that was undertaken: 1. Chemical compatibility of the new fluid with common seal/gasket/Oring materials was found to be problematic. Neoprene, Viton, and silicone materials were found to be incompatible, suffering chemical decomposition, swelling and/or compression set issues. Of the materials tested, only TEFLON was found to be compatible under actual ORC temperature and pressure conditions. 2. Thermal stability of the new fluid at 200°C and 40 bar was found to be acceptable after 399

Successful management of geothermal resources requires hydrologic models that define and predict fluid flow in fracture-dominated systems. Such models are necessary to assess the resource potential, the impact of fluid production on the reservoir and the impact that new wells will have on existing production. We present new data on variations in O, D, and Sr isotopes in thermal waters of the Long Valley (California, USA) geothermal system and use them to assess fluid flow and water-rock interaction in the system. Geothermal well water samples collected June 2005 to June 2007 have temperatures of 41-190°C, δ18O from -16.5 to -13.5‰, and δD from -123 to -111‰. The low values suggest recharge from the west and north rims of the caldera, consistent with a general west-to-east decrease in temperature. Both δ18O and δD are displaced from the local meteoric water line and are positively correlated with Cl- concentrations for all thermal water samples hotter than 50°C. The Sr isotope ratios in the currently producing part of the field are clustered near 0.708, with a small west-to-east gradient of decreasing values from 0.7080 to 0.7078 over a distance of a few kilometers. These values are higher than those of the primary reservoir rocks (0.7060-0.7065), so the Sr isotopic ratio of the hot fluids must be set in another rock type. Granites from the northern and western rims of the caldera have 87Sr/86Sr = 0.7078-0.7100 and are possible sources of hot (200°C+) water entering the Long Valley geothermal system. The O isotope values of the fluids are also far out of isotopic equilibrium with host rocks. The small gradient in Sr isotope ratios, associated with minimal shift in O isotopes in this part of the system, probably reflects water-rock reaction, and indicates that flowing waters are contained in widely spaced (10m or more) fractures. Observed variations in O and D isotopes outside of the producing part of the field are inconsistent with a water rock reaction

Los Humeros Geothermal Field (LHGF) is one of four geothermal fields currently operating in Mexico, in exploitation since 1990. Located in a caldera complex filled with very low-permeability rhyolitic ignimbrites that are the reservoir cap-rock, recharge of the geothermal field is both limited and localized. Because of this, planning of any future geothermal exploitation must be based on a clear understanding of the fluid circulation. To this end, a first noble gas survey was carried out in which twenty-two production wells were sampled for He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe isotope analysis. Air-corrected 3He/4He ratios (Rc) measured in the fluid, normalized to the helium atmospheric ratio (Ra; 1.384 × 10- 6), are consistently high across the field, with an average value of 7.03 ± 0.40 Ra. This value is close to that of the sub-continental upper mantle, indicating that LHGF mines heat from an active magmatic system. Freshwater recharge does not significantly affect He isotopic ratios, contributing 1-10% of the total fluid amount. The presence of radiogenic 40Ar* in the fluid suggests a fossil fluid component that might have circulated within the metacarbonate basement with radiogenic argon produced from detrital dispersed illite. Solubility-driven elemental fractionation of Ne/Ar, Kr/Ar, and Xe/Ar confirm extreme boiling in the reservoir. However, a combined analysis of these ratios with 40Ar/36Ar reveals mixing with an air component, possibly introduced by re-injected geothermalfluids.

The Nankai Trough subduction margin is capable of generating tsunamigenic earthquakes with M>8. The physical properties of materials involved in faulting and the magnitude of fluid overpressures exert important controls on the nature of seismicity. We present data from diagenetic carbonates constraining the temperature and chemistry of fluids passing through the accretionary system during deformation. Reference drill sites C0011 and C0012 sampled the sedimentary section and part of basaltic crust. Both sites comprise hemipelagic mud, silty and sandy turbidites with significant ash and volcaniclastic sediment. Carbonates are dominantly calcite or ankerite with varying substitutions of primarily Mn and Fe for Ca. The minimum δ18O values of carbonate samples show a steady trend of decreasing values with depth, and although multiple factors contribute to isotope signatures, at a first order the isotopes are consistent with recent carbonate formation at temperatures following along a geotherm. Temperatures of carbonate formation determined from carbon clumped geothermometry at both sites confirm formation in equilibrium with the modern geothermal gradients, although showing some scatter, consistent with recent and active cementation. Cuttings and cores from Site C0002 in the Kumano Basin, from depths up to ~3 km, suggest increased faulting and carbonate formation with depth. Sample below 2100 mbsf include numerous carbonate slickenfibers. Carbonates are dominantly calcite or low-Mn calcite, with minor Fe substitution. Veined samples show a steady of trend of decreasing δ18O values with depth that could be attributed to vein formation at increasing burial temperatures. No temperature measurements are available from this interval and temperatures have to be estimated by extrapolation of measurements from the shallow Kumano Basin, and using thermal conductivity measurements of well cuttings. The preliminary clumped isotope temperature estimates, mainly from a cored fault

Demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of small scale power generation from low temperature co-produced fluids. Phase I is to Develop, Design and Test an economically feasible low temperature ORC solution to generate power from lower temperature co-produced geothermalfluids. Phase II &III are to fabricate, test and site a fully operational demonstrator unit on a gold mine working site and operate, remotely monitor and collect data per the DOE recommended data package for one year.

Phase change of pore fluid (boiling/condensing) in rock cores under conditions representative of geothermal reservoirs results in alterations of the electrical resistivity of the samples. In fractured samples, phase change can result in resistivity changes that are more than an order of magnitude greater than those measured in intact samples. These results suggest that electrical resistivity monitoring may provide a useful tool for monitoring the movement of water and steam within fractured geothermal reservoirs. We measured the electrical resistivity of cores of welded tuff containing fractures of various geometries to investigate the resistivity contrast caused by active boiling and to determine the effects of variable fracture dimensions and surface area on water extraction. We then used the Nonisothermal Unsaturated Flow and Transport model (NUFT) (Nitao, 1998) to simulate the propagation of boiling fronts through the samples. The simulated saturation profiles combined with previously reported measurements of resistivity-saturation curves allow us to estimate the evolution of the sample resistivity as the boiling front propagates into the rock matrix. These simulations provide qualitative agreement with experimental measurements suggesting that our modeling approach may be used to estimate resistivity changes induced by boiling in more complex systems.

SUMMARY:Realizing the potential of geothermal energy as a cheap, green, sustainable resource to provide for the planet’s future energy demands that a key geophysical problem be solved first:how to develop and maintain a network of multiple fluid flow pathways for the time required to deplete the heat within a given region. We present the key components for micro-scale particle-based nu-merical modeling of hydraulic fracture, and fluid and heat flow in geothermal reservoirs. They are based on the latest developments of ESyS-Particle—the coupling of the lattice solid model (LSM) to simulate the nonlinear dynamics of complex solids with the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) ap-plied to the nonlinear dynamics of coupled fluid and heat flow in the complex solid-fluid system. The coupled LSM/LBM can be used to simulate development of fracture systems in discontinuous media, elastic stress release, fluid injection and the consequent slip at joint surfaces, and hydraulic fractur-ing; heat exchange between hot rocks and water within flow pathways created through hydraulic fracturing;and fluid flow through complex, narrow, compact and gouge-or powder-filled fracture and joint systems. We demonstrate the coupled LSM/LBM to simulate the fundamental processes listed above, which are all components for the generation and sustainability of the hot-fractured rock geothermal energy fracture systems required to exploit this new green-energy resource.

A computer code GeoSys.Chem for the calculation of deep geothermal reservoir fluid characteristics from the measured physical-chemical parameters of separated water and condensed vapor samples obtained from drilled wells is presented. It was written as a dynamic link library (DLL) in Visual Basic in Visual Studio 2010 (VB.NET). Using this library a demonstration program GeoChem was developed in VB.NET, which accepts the input data file in the XML format. A stepwise calculation of deep reservoir fluid characteristics of 11 production wells of Los Azufres geothermal system is performed. The calculated concentration of CO2 (e.g.=1270 mmole/kg in the well AZ-09) in the vapor, discharged into the atmosphere at the weir box, from the water sample indicates some problem in the analysis of carbonic species concentrations. In the absence of good quality analysis of carbonic species it is suggested to consider the CO2 in the vapor sample at the separator and the total dissolved carbonic species concentration in the water sample (i.e., without considering the liberation of CO2 in the atmospheric vapor at the weir box) for the geothermal reservoir fluid composition calculations. Similarly, it presents various diagrams developed in Excel for the thermodynamic evolution of Los Azufres geothermal reservoir.

Full Text Available Measurement of vapor flow in geothermal pipe faces great challenges due to fast fluids flow in high-temperature and high-pressure environment. In present study the flow rate measurement has been performed to characterization the geothermal vapor flow in a pipe. The experiment was carried out in a pipe which is connected to a geothermal production well, KMJ-14. The pipe has a 10” outside diameter and contains dry vapor at a pressure of 8 kg/cm2 and a temperature of 170 oC. Krypton-85 gas isotope (85Kr has been injected into the pipe. Three collimated radiation detectors positioned respectively at 127, 177 and 227m from injection point were used to obtain experimental data which represent radiotracer residence time distribution (RTD in the pipe. The last detector at the position of 227 m did not respond, which might be due to problems in cable connections. Flow properties calculated using mean residence time (MRT shows that the flow rate of the vapor in pipe is 10.98 m/s, much faster than fluid flow commonly found in various industrial process plants. Best fitting evaluated using dedicated software developed by IAEA expert obtained the Péclet number Pe as 223. This means that the flow of vapor of geothermalfluids in pipe is plug flow in character. The molecular diffusion coefficient is 0.45 m2/s, calculated from the axial dispersion model.

Over the past few decades several studies have reported that pyrite hosts appreciable amounts of trace elements which commonly occur forming complex zoning patterns within a single mineral grain. These chemical zonations in pyrite have been recognized in a variety of hydrothermal ore deposit types (e.g., porphyry Cu-Mo-Au, epithermal Au deposits, iron oxide-copper-gold, Carlin-type and Archean lode Au deposits, among others), showing, in some cases, marked oscillatory alternation of metals and metalloids in pyrite growth zones (e.g., of Cu-rich, As-(Au, Ag)-depleted zones and As-(Au, Ag)-rich, Cu-depleted zones). This decoupled geochemical behavior of Cu and As has been interpreted as a result of chemical changes in ore-forming fluids, although direct evidence connecting fluctuations in hydrothermal fluid composition with metal partitioning into pyrite growth zones is still lacking. In this study, we report a comprehensive trace element database of pyrite from the Tolhuaca Geothermal System (TGS) in southern Chile, a young and active hydrothermal system where fewer pyrite growth rims and mineralization events are present and the reservoir fluid (i.e. ore-forming fluid) is accessible. We combined the high-spatial resolution and X-ray mapping capabilities of electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) with low detection limits and depth-profiling capacity of secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) in a suite of pyrite samples retrieved from a ∼1 km drill hole that crosses the argillic (20-450 m) and propylitic (650-1000 m) alteration zones of the geothermal system. We show that the concentrations of precious metals (e.g., Au, Ag), metalloids (e.g., As, Sb, Se, Te), and base and heavy metals (e.g., Cu, Co, Ni, Pb) in pyrite at the TGS are significant. Among the elements analyzed, As and Cu are the most abundant with concentrations that vary from sub-ppm levels to a few wt.% (i.e., up to ∼5 wt.% As, ∼1.5 wt.% Cu). Detailed wavelength-dispersive spectrometry (WDS) X

Enhanced (or Engineered) Geothermal Systems (EGS) have evolved from the Hot Dry Rock (HDR) concept, implemented for the first time at Fenton Hill in 1977, and subsequently through the Stimulated Geothermal System, the Deep Heat Mining and finally the Deep Earth Geothermal. All of these systems usually imply petro-thermal processes. The term EGS has evolved to include conduction dominated, low permeability resources in sedimentary and basement formations, as well as geopressured, magma, and low-grade, unproductive hydrothermal resources. Co-produced hot water from hydrocarbon wells has also been included by some in the definition of EGS, which constitutes a considerable divergence from the original concept. Four decades on from the first EGS implementation, this paper highlights the lessons learned from 'conventional' systems and contrasts the 'unconventional' solutions that have been proposed. Examples of unconventional EGS include single-well solutions, downhole heat exchangers, engineered well profiles and using circulation fluids other than water. Perhaps some of the ideas proposed in the past, which would be considered unconventional, have remained dormant or never made it to a commercial stage for field implementation, but they may yet open doors to the future generations of EGS. (orig.)

Enhanced (or Engineered) Geothermal Systems (EGS) have evolved from the Hot Dry Rock (HDR) concept, implemented for the first time at Fenton Hill in 1977, and subsequently through the Stimulated Geothermal System, the Deep Heat Mining and finally the Deep Earth Geothermal. All of these systems usually imply petro-thermal processes. The term EGS has evolved to include conduction dominated, low permeability resources in sedimentary and basement formations, as well as geopressured, magma, and low-grade, unproductive hydrothermal resources. Co-produced hot water from hydrocarbon wells has also been included by some in the definition of EGS, which constitutes a considerable divergence from the original concept. Four decades on from the first EGS implementation, this paper highlights the lessons learned from 'conventional' systems and contrasts the 'unconventional' solutions that have been proposed. Examples of unconventional EGS include single-well solutions, downhole heat exchangers, engineered well profiles and using circulation fluids other than water. Perhaps some of the ideas proposed in the past, which would be considered unconventional, have remained dormant or never made it to a commercial stage for field implementation, but they may yet open doors to the future generations of EGS. (orig.)

Magnetotelluric (MT) is a passive electromagnetic technique classically used in geophysical exploration for imaging electrical conductivity structures; it is recently being developed as a monitoring technique on active volcanoes and geothermal systems. We consider the case of fluid injections and/or stimulation experiments of Enhanced Geothermal Systems where MT is used in addition to microseismic observations as a tool to provide critical information to geothermalfluid flows because the electrical conductivity is related with temperature, porosity, water content and minerals of rocks. Some experiments have shown that such MT signals might be difficult to observe, especially when they occur within the so-called MT dead-band at periods of 1-10 s. We consider the sensitivity of MT monitoring by forward modeling using ModEM open source code: it is used to build a 3-dimensional model with topography and sedimentary layers and simulate different conductivity changes that could be caused by brine and/or acid injection within fractures at depth. From these models, it seems that MT monitoring in a sedimentary environment at 20 W.m could be sensitive to an increase of conductivity in a fault area at geothermal depths of 2-3 km if the size of the disturbed domain reaches about 10x0.3x2 km3.

Studying potential spatial and temporal variations of the crustal stress field caused by massive fluid injection during reservoir stimulation is important towards an improved understanding of induced seismicity in different types of reservoirs. However, an accurate and reliable determination of such stress changes is difficult and requires dense local seismic networks with good azimuthal coverage and low magnitude-detection threshold. The Geysers geothermal field is located close to the San Andreas Fault in California, USA. There, induced seismicity associated with the exploitation of the reservoir has been extensively monitored for more than 30 years. While it is evident that seismicity at The Geyser is related to injection and production operations it is difficult to relate the production parameters from individual wells to the spatial and temporal patterns of the crustal stress field and associated seismicity. Earlier attempts to determine the local stress field in the area (Oppenheimer, 1986, J. G. R., 91) estimated the stress orientation by inverting 210 fault plane solutions. He obtained a result that was very consistent with the regional stress field, which might indicate that the regional tectonic stress field dominates over the stresses induced locally by reservoir treatment. In this study we aim at determining potential spatial and temporal variations of the local stress field orientation at The Geysers geothermal site using first motion polarity data provided by a permanent array of 34 stations from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) installed in 2007. The network is composed of 3-component short period sensors located at the surface throughout the geothermal field with a sampling frequency of 500 Hz. To determine the stress field orientation we apply different stress inversion methods including non-linear stress inversion algorithms (Abers and Gephart, 2001, J. G. R., 106) with Bayesian uncertainty assessment and a linear approach (Hardebeck

A mathematical model has been derived to study the superficial thermal anomalies to be found in Lanzarote (605 C at 13 m depth) in association with the convection of geothermalfluids. The model is valid for a wide range of conditions, in particular for those found beneath the Timanfaya volcano (active between 1730 and 1736). Geological and geophysical data suggest that the heat source is related to a cylindrical magma body with a radius of 200 +/- 100 m and a top temperature of 850 +/- 100 C at a depth of 4 +/- 1 km. Energy is transported through fractures by magmatic volatiles and/or by water vapor coming from a deeply located water table: in such a convection system, a fluid flow of 10 1/m/sup 2/ day, which corresponds to a thermal flux of 130 W/m/sup 2/, is sufficient to explain the temperature anomalies observed at the surface. The relationships between gas flow and the surface temperatures, as well as the thermal gradients in the conducting fracture are also discussed. 27 references.

The minerals that comprise fault rock, their grain shapes, and packing geometry are important controls on fault zone properties such as permeability, frictional strength, and slip behavior. In this study we examine the role of mineralogy and deformation microstructures on fluid flow in a fault-hosted, fracture-dominated geothermal system contained in granitic rocks in the Coso Geothermal Field, CA. Initial examination of the mineralogy and microstructure of fault rock obtained from core and surface outcrops reveals three fault rock types. (1) Fault rock consisting of kaolinite and amorphous silica that contains large connected pores, dilatant brittle fractures, and dissolution textures. (2) Fault rock consisting of foliated layers of chlorite and illite-smectite separated by slip surfaces. (3) Fault rock consisting of poorly sorted angular grains, characterized by large variations in grain packing (pore size), and crack-seal textures. These different fault rocks are respectively associated with a high permeability upper boiling zone for the geothermal system, a conductively heated "caprock" at moderate to shallow depth associated with low permeability, and a deeper convectively heated region associated with enhanced permeability. Outcrop and hand-sample scale mapping, XRD analysis, and SEM secondary electron images of fault gouge and slip surfaces at different stages of development (estimated shear strain) are used to investigate the processes responsible for the development and physical properties of these distinct fault rocks. In each type of fault rock, mineral dissolution and re-precipitation in conjunction with the amount and geometry of porosity changes induced by dilation or compaction are the key controls on fault rock development. In addition, at the contacts between slip surfaces, abrasion and resulting comminution appear to influence grain size, sorting, and packing. Macroscopically, we expect the frictional strength of these characteristic fault rocks

The recommended EPRI Geothermal Research and Development 5-Year Program Plan has been defined to complement and provide focus for federally sponsored geothermal energy R and D efforts. The scope of the program includes: verification of hydrothermal reservoir capability and low salinity brine heat transfer characteristics at a potential demonstration site followed by design, development and construction of a low salinity hydrothermal demonstration plant in conjunction with an electric utility or utility consortium. Development of a comprehensive set of Guidelines Manuals for use by utility management and engineers spanning the full range of geothermal resource utilization from exploration through plant startup, including not only technical, but environmental, institutional and regulatory factors. A subprogram to define the potential and requirements for Geothermal Systems. A supporting research and technology subprogram oriented toward minimizing the risk associated with utilization of low and high salinity hydrothermal sources. An Advanced Research and Technology subprogram to assess the potential of geopressure resources in conjunction with the Federal government and limited R and D on advanced concepts for utilization of hydrothermal fluids. (MHR)

The drilling of wells makes up a large fraction of the costs of geothermal energy-extraction plants, and billions of dollars for wells will be needed before geothermal energy is nationally significant. Technical and economic systems studies are summarized regarding the application of the Subterrene concept, i.e., excavating and penetrating rocks or soils by melting, to the production of deep wells such as may be used for dry hot rock or geopressurizedgeothermal energy-extraction systems. Technically, it was found that Subterrene features are compatible with those of current rotary drilling practices. In fact, some special features could lead to improved well production techniques. These include the buildup of a glass lining along the borehole wall which provides structural resistance to collapse; close control of hole geometry; the existence of a barrier between the drilling fluids and the formations being penetrated; nonrotation; potentially better bit life; and faster rates of penetration in deep, hard rock. A typical optimum-cost well would be rotary-drilled in the upper regions and then rock-melted to total depth. Indicated cost savings are significant: a 30 percent or 3.9 million dollar (1975 $) reduction from rotary-drilled well costs are estimated for a 10-km depth well with a bottom hole temperature of 673 K. Even for relatively cool normal geothermal gradient conditions, the savings for the 1..pi..-km well are estimated as 23 percent of 2.1 million dollars.

Numerical simulation is used to evaluate mass flow and heatextraction rates from enhanced geothermal injection-production systemsthat are operated using either CO2 or water as heat transmission fluid.For a model system patterned after the European hot dry rock experimentat Soultz, we find significantly greater heat extraction rates for CO2 ascompared to water. The strong dependence of CO2 mobility (=density/viscosity) upon temperature and pressure may lead to unusualproduction behavior, where heat extraction rates can actually increasefor a time, even as the reservoir is subject to thermal depletion. Wepresent the first-ever three-dimensional simulations of CO2injection-production systems. These show strong effects of gravity onmass flow and heat extraction, due to the large contrast of CO2 densitybetween cold injection and hot production conditions. The tendency forpreferential flow of cold, dense CO2 along the reservoir bottom can leadto premature thermal breakthrough. The problem can be avoided byproducing from only a limited depth interval at the top of thereservoir.

The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory is pursuing laboratory and field experiments in the development of the Hot Dry Rock concept of geothermal energy. The field program consists of experiments in a hydraulically fractured region of low permeability in which hot rock is intercepted by two wellbores. These experiments are designed to test reservoir engineering parameters such as: heat extraction rates, water loss rates, flow characteristics including impedance and buoyancy, seismic activity and fluid chemistry. Laboratory experiments have been designed to provide information on the mineral reactivity which may be encountered in the field program. Two experimental circulation systems have been built to study the rates of dissolution and alteration in dynamic flow. Solubility studies have been done in agitated systems. To date, pure minerals, samples of the granodiorite from the actual reservoir and Tijeras Canyon granite have been reacted with distilled water and various solutions of NaCl, NaOH, and Na/sub 2/CO/sub 3/. The results of these experimental systems are compared to observations made in field experiments done in a hot dry rock reservoir at a depth of approximately 3 km with initial rock temperatures of 150 to 200/sup 0/C.

The Los Humeros geothermal field, located in Puebla State, Mexico, occurs in a caldera; drillholes to 3000 m depth encountered a sequence of Quaternary lavas and pyroclastic rocks that range in composition from rhyolite to basalt but are dominantly andesitic. These rest upon the local basement comprising limestone and siltstone of Cretaceous age, which was encountered below 2500 m in the northern part of the field and 1000 m in its southern part. Examination of 29 cores, mostly from below 900 m depth, from 14 wells show that the hydrothermal minerals that occur in the volcanic host rocks include quarts, calcite, epidote, amphibole, sericite, smectite, illite, chlorite, biotite, pyrite and hematite. Their distribution mainly reflects the prevailing hydrological and thermal regime where temperatures locally exceed 300{degrees} C. A preliminary model for the hydrology of the field based upon the hydrothermal alteration mineralogy and fluid inclusion data suggests that dilute hot water ascends via faults in the Central Caldera collapse area of the field and moves laterally outward to elsewhere within the caldera.

We present tables of thermodynamic properties, and dew and bubble properties, of a mixture of 90 mol % isobutane and 10 mol % isopentane, a working fluid in a binary geothermal power cycle. The tables are generated by a formulation of the Helmholtz free energy, in which the mixture properties are mapped onto the known properties of pure isobutane by means of the principle of generalized corresponding states. The data base for the Helmholtz free energy formulation is new. We report data obtained in three different apparatus: critical-line and isopentane vapor pressure data obtained in a visual cell; vapor-liquid equilibria data obtained in a mercury-operated variable-volume cell; and pressure-volume-temperature data for the 90 mol %-10 mol % mixture obtained in a semi-automated Burnett-isochoric apparatus. The principles of the methods, and estimates of the reliability, are discussed and all experimental data are compared with the surface. The results are tables of specific volume, enthalpy, entropy, specific heat and density and temperature derivatives of the pressure at 10 K temperature increments from 240 to 600 K along isobars from 0.01 to 20 MPa. Separate tables are prepared from the dew and bubble properties of the 90-10 mixture. Estimates of the effects of isomeric impurity of isobutane are given in graphical form.

In a five-county area of South Texas, geopressured-geothermal reservoirs in the Paleocene-Eocene Wilcox Group lie below medium- to heavy-oil reservoirs in the Eocene Jackson Group. This fortuitous association suggests the use of geothermalfluids for thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR). Geothermal fairways are formed where thick deltaic sandstones are compartmentalized by growth faults. Wilcox geothermal reservoirs in South Texas are present at depths of 11,000 to 15,000 ft (3,350 to 4,570 m) in laterally continuous sandstones 100 to 200 ft (30 to 60 m) thick. Permeability is generally low (typically 1 md), porosity ranges from 12 to 24 percent, and temperature exceeds 250{degrees}F (121{degrees}C). Reservoirs containing medium (20{degrees} to 25{degrees} API gravity) to heavy (10{degrees} to 20{degrees} API gravity) oil are concentrated along the Texas Coastal Plain in the Jackson-Yegua Barrier/Strandplain (Mirando Trend), Cap Rock, and Piercement Salt Dome plays and in the East Texas Basin in Woodbine Fluvial/Deltaic Strandplain and Paluxy Fault Line plays. Injection of hot, moderately fresh to saline brines will improve oil recovery by lowering viscosity and decreasing residual oil saturation. Smectite clay matrix could swell and clog pore throats if injected waters have low salinity. The high temperature of injected fluids will collapse some of the interlayer clays, thus increasing porosity and permeability. Reservoir heterogeneity resulting from facies variation and diagenesis must be considered when siting production and injection wells within the heavy-oil reservoir. The ability of abandoned gas wells to produce sufficient volumes of hot water over the long term will also affect the economics of TEOR.

The rupture process of fluid-induced microseismic events is still poorly understood, mainly due to usually small magnitudes and sparse monitoring geometries. The high-quality recordings of the earthquake sequence 2006-2007 at the enhanced geothermal system at Basel, Switzerland, constitute a rare exception, allowing a systematic directivity study of 195 events using the empirical Green's function method. We observe clear directivity signatures for about half the events which demonstrates that rupture directivity persists down to small magnitudes (ML˜1). The predominant rupture behavior is unilateral. We further find evidence that directivity is magnitude dependent and varies systematically with distance from the injection source. Whereas pore pressure seems to play the dominant role close to the injection source and no preferred rupture direction is observable, directivity aligns parallel to the event distribution with increasing distance (≳100 m) and is preferably oriented away from the injection point. The largest analyzed events (ML˜2) show a distinct behavior: They rupture toward the injection source, suggesting that they nucleate in the vicinity of the pressure front and propagate backward into the perturbed volume. This finding is of particular relevance for seismic hazard assessment of georeservoirs, since it implies that maximum event size is related to dimension of the fluid-perturbed volume. Our study also resolves rupture complexities for a small group of events. This shows that small fault heterogeneities exist down to a scale of a few tens of meters. The observation of directivity and complexity in induced microseismic events suggest that future source studies account for these phenomena.

This study focused on the geochemical and isotopic features of thermal fluids discharged from five zones located in the high altitude Puna plateau (Jujuy Province between S 22°20‧-23°20‧ and W 66°-67°), i.e. Granada, Vilama, Pairique, Coranzulí and Olaroz. Partially mature waters with a Na+-Cl- composition were recognized in all the investigated zones, suggesting that a deep hydrothermal reservoir hosted within the Paleozoic crystalline basement represents the main hydrothermal fluid source. The hydrothermal reservoirs are mainly recharged by meteoric water, although based on the δ18O-H2O and δD-H2O values, some contribution of andesitic water cannot be completely ruled out. Regional S-oriented faulting systems, which generated a horst and graben tectonics, and NE-, NW- and WE-oriented transverse structures, likely act as preferentially uprising pathways for the deep-originated fluids, as also supported by the Rc/Ra values (up to 1.39) indicating the occurrence of significant amounts of mantle He (up to 16%). Carbon dioxide, the most abundant compound in the gas phase associated with the thermal waters, mostly originated from a crustal source, although the occurrence of CO2 from a mantle source, contaminated by organic-rich material due to the subduction process, is also possible. Relatively small and cold Na+-HCO3--type aquifers were produced by the interaction between meteoric water and Cretaceous, Palaeogene to Miocene sediments. Dissolution of evaporitic surficial deposits strongly affected the chemistry of the thermal springs in the peripheral zones of the study area. Geothermometry in the Na-K-Ca-Mg system suggested equilibrium temperatures up to 200 °C for the deep aquifer, whereas lower temperatures (from 105 to 155 °C) were inferred by applying the H2 geothermometer, likely due to re-equilibrium processes during the thermal fluid uprising within relatively shallow Na-HCO3 aquifers. The great depth of the geothermal resource (possibly > 5000 m

The primary objective of this project was to improve our ability to predict performance of an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) reservoir over time by relating, in a quantitative manner, microseismic imaging with fluid and temperature changes within the reservoir. Historically, microseismic data have been used qualitatively to place bounds on the growth of EGS reservoirs created by large hydraulic fracturing experiments. Previous investigators used an experimentally based fracture opening relationship (fracture aperture as a function of pressure), the spatial extent of microseismic events, and some assumptions about fracture frequency to determine the size of an EGS reservoir created during large pumping tests. We addressed a number of issues (1) locating microearthquakes that occur during hydraulic fracturing, (2) obtaining more information about a reservoir than the microearthquake locations from the microearthquake data, for example, information about the seismic velocity structure of the reservoir or the scattering of seismic waves within the reservoir, (3) developing an improved methodology for estimating properties of fractures that intersect wellbores in a reservoir, and (4) developing a conceptual model for explaining the downward growth of observed seismicity that accompanies some hydraulic injections into geothermal reservoirs. We used two primary microseismic datasets for our work. The work was motivated by a dataset from the Salak Geothermal Field in Indonesia where seismicity accompanying a hydraulic injection was observed to migrate downward. We also used data from the Soultz EGS site in France. We also used Vertical Seismic Profiling data from a well in the United States. The work conducted is of benefit for characterizing reservoirs that are created by hydraulic fracturing for both EGS and for petroleum recovery.

The Ribeira Grande geothermal field is a water-dominated geothermal system, located within Água de Pau/Fogo Volcano in the central part of the São Miguel Island. This geothermal system is exploited for energy production by wells sustaining two power plants. The wells produce from a formation of pillow lavas divided into different aquifers, with a fairly isothermal zone from 800 to 1300 m in depth, where reservoir temperature reaches 230 to 245 °C. Below the depth of 1300 m there is a slight temperature reversal. The fluid produced has excess enthalpy and, separated at atmospheric pressure, is characterized by mineralization of sodium-chloride type up to 6-7 g/l, the concentration of dissolved silica varies between 450 and 650 mg/l and the pH ranges between 8 and 8.6. The gas phase is dominantly CO 2, at a concentration of 98% of NCG. The composition of the deep geothermalfluid was obtained by computer simulation, using the WATCH program, and was compared with the composition of the bottom-hole samples. The approximations, in this simulation, were considered the single- and multi-step steam separation. The reference temperatures were based on: (i) the measured temperature in wells; (ii) the Na/K geothermometric temperature and (iii) the enthalpy-saturation temperature. According to both the measured and geothermometric temperatures, the deep fluid of the wells has two phases with a steam fraction up to 0.34, at higher well discharges. The measured enthalpy is always greater than the calculated enthalpy. The calcite equilibrium indicates scaling, since the fluid is flashing, around 2.28 mg/l CaCO 3 at the maximum discharge. The geothermal wells exploit three different aquifers, the lower of which is liquid and slightly colder than the upper ones. The intermediate is a two-phase aquifer with a steam fraction up to 0.081. The upper aquifer is probably of steam phase. The main differences between the aquifers are the temperature and boiling; both enthalpy and

Responding to the need to reduce atmospheric emissions of carbon dioxide, Donald Brown (2000) proposed a novel enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) concept that would use CO{sub 2} instead of water as heat transmission fluid, and would achieve geologic sequestration of CO{sub 2} as an ancillary benefit. Following up on his suggestion, we have evaluated thermophysical properties and performed numerical simulations to explore the fluid dynamics and heat transfer issues in an engineered geothermal reservoir that would be operated with CO{sub 2}. We find that CO{sub 2} is superior to water in its ability to mine heat from hot fractured rock. CO{sub 2} also has certain advantages with respect to wellbore hydraulics, where larger compressibility and expansivity as compared to water would increase buoyancy forces and would reduce the parasitic power consumption of the fluid circulation system. While the thermal and hydraulic aspects of a CO{sub 2}-EGS system look promising, major uncertainties remain with regard to chemical interactions between fluids and rocks. An EGS system running on CO{sub 2} has sufficiently attractive features to warrant further investigation.

Abstract We present an approach to use CO2 to (1) generate dispatchable renewable power that can quickly respond to grid fluctuations and be cost-competitive with natural gas, (2) stabilize the grid by efficiently storing large quantities of energy, (3) enable seasonal storage of solar thermal energy for grid integration, (4) produce brine for power-plant cooling, all which (5) increase CO2 value, rendering CO2 capture to be commerically viable, while (6) sequestering huge quantities of CO2. These attributes reduce carbon intensity of electric power, and enable cost-competitive, dispatchable power from major sources of renewable energy: wind, solar, and geothermal. Conventional geothermal power systems circulate brine as the working fluid to extract heat, but the parasitic power load for this circulation can consume a large portion of gross power output. Recently, CO2 has been considered as a working fluid because its advantageous properties reduce this parasitic loss. We expand on this idea by using multiple working fluids: brine, CO2, and N2. N2 can be separated from air at lower cost than captured CO2, it is not corrosive, and it will not react with the formation. N2 also can improve the economics of energy production and enable energy storage, while reducing operational risk. Extracting heat from geothermal reservoirs often requires submersible pumps to lift brine, but these pumps consume much of the generated electricity. In contrast, our approach drives fluid circulation by injecting supplemental, compressible fluids (CO2, and N2) with high coefficients of thermal expansion. These fluids augment reservoir pressure, produce artesian flow at the producers, and reduce the parasitic load. Pressure augmentation is improved by the thermosiphon effect that results from injecting cold/dense CO2 and N2. These fluids are heated to reservoir temperature, greatly expand, and increase the artesian flow of brine and supplemental fluid at the producers. Rather than using

Cost-effective yet safe creation of high-permeability reservoirs within deep bedrock is the primary challenge for the viability of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and unconventional oil/gas recovery. Although fracturing fluids are commonly used for oil/gas, standard fracturing methods are not developed or proven for EGS temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, the environmental impacts of currently used fracturing methods are only recently being determined. Widespread concerns about the environmental contamination have resulted in a number of regulations for fracturing fluids advocating for greener fracturing processes. To enable EGS feasibility and lessen environmental impact of reservoir stimulation, an environmentally benign, CO2-activated, rheoreversible fracturing fluid that enhances permeability through fracturing (at significantly lower effective stress than standard fracturing fluids) due to in situ volume expansion and gel formation is investigated herein. The chemical mechanism, stability, phase-change behavior, and rheology for a novel polyallylamine (PAA)-CO2 fracturing fluid was characterized at EGS temperatures and pressures. Hydrogel is formed upon reaction with CO2 and this process is reversible (via CO2 depressurization or solubilizing with a mild acid) allowing removal from the formation and recycling, decreasing environmental impact. Rock obtained from the Coso geothermal field was fractured in laboratory experiments under various EGS temperatures and pressures with comparison to standard fracturing fluids, and the fractures were characterized with imaging, permeability measurement, and flow modeling. This novel fracturing fluid and process may vastly reduce water usage and the environmental impact of fracturing practices and effectively make EGS production and unconventional oil/gas exploitation cost-effective and cleaner.

The carbon isotope compositions of CO/sub 2/ in steam from Cerro Prieto production well have been measured for 1977, 1979, and 1982. Variations in the delta/sup 13/C values are caused by production-related changes in the chemical and physical parameters of the geothermal system. In 1977, most CO/sub 2/ in the reservoir was isotopically light (delta/sup 13/C = -6.4 +/- 0.4). Heavier CO/sub 2/ was produced from wells in the center of the field (M5,M26,M27) due to deposition of isotopically light calcite caused by near-well boiling. In 1979 nearly all well showed relatively heavy CO/sub 2/, probably due to expansion of aquifer boiling and calcite precipitation. In 1982, many wells in the central part of the field were shut in. The amount of drawndown decreased and as temperatures and pressures near the wells increased, the boiling zones collapsed. The CO/sub 2/ in the fluid then exchanged with the precipitated calcite and became isotopically lighter. The sensitivity of carbon isotopes to calcite precipitations caused by aquifer boiling and to reequilibration with this deposited calcite upon decrease of boiling suggests use as an indicator of these aquifer processes. Surficial CO/sub 2/ of thermal origin was collected in 1981. Generally, the carbon-13 contents were close to CO/sub 2/ from production wells except for high-temperature mud pots and fumaroles containing isotopically light CO/sub 2/ derived from near surface alteration of organic matter.

A hydrogeologic model of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field has been developed based on geophysical and lithologic well logs, downhole temperature, and well completion data from about 90 deep wells. The hot brines seem to originate in the eastern part of the field, flowing in a westward direction and rising through gaps in the shaly layers which otherwise act as partial caprocks to the geothermal resource.

In this study, we examine the fracture network of the Tolhuaca geothermal system located in the Southern Andean volcanic zone that may have acted as a pathway for migration and ascent of deep-seated fluids under the far/local stress field conditions of the area. We collected the orientation, slip-data and mineralogical content of faults and veins recovered on a ca. 1000 m deep borehole (Tol-1) located in the NW-flank of the Tolhuaca volcano. Tol-1 is a non-oriented, vertical borehole that recovered relatively young (examined and measured the inclination, geometry, texture, mineralogy, and relative sense of displacement of veins and faults. To determine the actual azimuthal orientation of fault and veins we reoriented 66 segments (89 standard mini-cores) of Tol-1 using stable Characteristic remanent magnetization component (ChRM) obtained by thermal demagnetization methodology. Paleo-declination of ChRM vectors was used to re-orient the borehole pieces, as well as fault and veins, to a common anchor orientation value consistent with the Geocentric Axial Dipole approximation (GAD). Inversion of RM-corrected fault-slip data reveals a local tensional stress field with a vertically oriented σ1 axis (083/74) and a subhorizontal, NS-trending σ3 axis (184/03). Within the topmost 400 m of the borehole, faults and veins are randomly oriented, whereas below 400 m depth, faults and veins show preferential NE-to EW-strikes and steep (>50°) dips. The EW-striking veins are compatible with the calculated local stress field whereas NE-striking veins are compatible with the regional stress field, the morphological elongation of volcanic centers, alignments of flank vents and dikes orientation. Our results demonstrate that the paleomagnetic methodology proved to be reliable and it is useful to re-orient vertical boreholes such as Tol-1. Furthermore, our data show that the bulk transpressional regional stress field has local variations to a tensional stress field within the NE

The 2004 Department of Energy (DOE) Strategic Plan for geothermal energy calls for expanding the geothermal resource base of the United States to 40,000 MW of electric power generating potential. This will require advances in technologies for exploiting unconventional geothermal resources, including Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) and geopressuredgeothermal. An investigation of thermal conditions in California sedimentary basins through new temperature and heat flow measurements reveals significant geothermal potential in some areas. In many of the basins, the combined cooling effects of recent tectonic and sedimentary processes result in relatively low (geothermal gradients. For example, temperatures in the upper 3 km of San Joaquin, Sacramento and Ventura basins are typically less than 125??C and do not reach 200??c by 5 km. By contrast, in the Cuyama, Santa Maria and western Los Angeles basins, heat flow exceeds 80 mW/m2 and temperatures near or above 200??C occur at 4 to 5 km depth, which represents thermal conditions equivalent to or hotter than those encountered at the Soultz EGS geothermal site in Europe. Although the extractable geothermal energy contained in these basins is not large relative to the major California producing geothermal fields at The Geysers or Salton Sea, the collocation in the Los Angeles basin of a substantial petroleum extraction infrastructure and a major metropolitan area may make it attractive for eventual geothermal development as EGS technology matures.

Oil reservoirs beneath the coast of the Gulf of Mexico contain geothermal brine at 150 degrees Celsius and produce a mixture of hot brine and oil. Water from an aquifer 6000 m deep flows vertically through conductive faults. These nonisothermal conditions affect the effective saturations and the relative permeability of the immiscible phases. Dynamic viscosities of oil and water diminish, affecting the displacement of both fluids. Studied wells produce from the oil-saturated zone above the aquifer, yet the total volume of produced water can equal or exceed the volume of oil. The presence of water is a severe problem. We produced an original numerical model able to predict the critical production when the wells start to be invaded by geothermal brine. The model has a single equation in partial derivatives, of a parabolic and nonlineal type, which is a function of water saturation, three-dimension space and time. A gas phase can be included in the model. This equation is a generalization of the classic isothermal result of Buckley-Leverett, in a single dimension. The model is solved numerically by using the Finite Element method on a nonstructured network. The historic effect of water invasion observed in some critical cases is reproduced. After production with both phases stable, a sudden brine invasion can occur with a sharp reduction of the oil volume produced. The immediate objective is to optimize the production so the well will be able to produce a stable water-oil mix where oil always prevails. [Spanish] Se reportan reservorios de aceite situados en la costa del Golfo de Mexico que son invadidos por salmuera geotermica con una temperatura de 150 grados centigrados, produciendo una mezcla variable de agua caliente y aceite. El agua de un acuifero, a 6000 metros de profundidad, fluye verticalmente por fallas conductivas. Estas condiciones no isotermicas afectan las saturaciones efectivas y las permeabilidades relativas de las fases inmiscibles. Las viscosidades

Full Text Available Geothermal technologies use renewable energy resources to generate electricity and direct use of heat while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas (GHG emissions. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in the underground, including any contained fluid, which is available for extraction and conversion into energy products. Electricity generation, which nowadays produces 73.7 TWh (12.7 GW of capacity worldwide, usually requires geothermal resources temperatures of over 100 °C. For heating, geothermal resources spanning a wider range of temperatures can be used in applications such as space and district heating (and cooling, with proper technology, spa and swimming pool heating, greenhouse and soil heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial process heating and snow melting. Produced geothermal heat in the world accounts to 164.6 TWh, with a capacity of 70.9 GW. Geothermal technology, which has focused for decades on extracting naturally heated steam or hot water from natural hydrothermal reservoirs, is developing to more advanced techniques to exploit the heat also where underground fluids are scarce and to use the Earth as a potential energy battery, by storing heat. The success of the research will enable energy recovery and utilization from a much larger fraction of the accessible thermal energy in the Earth’s crust.

Geothermal technologies use renewable energy resources to generate electricity and direct use of heat while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in the underground, including any contained fluid, which is available for extraction and conversion into energy products. Electricity generation, which nowadays produces 73.7 TWh (12.7 GW of capacity) worldwide, usually requires geothermal resources temperatures of over 100 °C. For heating, geothermal resources spanning a wider range of temperatures can be used in applications such as space and district heating (and cooling, with proper technology), spa and swimming pool heating, greenhouse and soil heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial process heating and snow melting. Produced geothermal heat in the world accounts to 164.6 TWh, with a capacity of 70.9 GW. Geothermal technology, which has focused for decades on extracting naturally heated steam or hot water from natural hydrothermal reservoirs, is developing to more advanced techniques to exploit the heat also where underground fluids are scarce and to use the Earth as a potential energy battery, by storing heat. The success of the research will enable energy recovery and utilization from a much larger fraction of the accessible thermal energy in the Earth's crust.

For a variety of reasons, thousands of oil and gas wells have been abandoned in the Gulf Coast Region of the United States. Many of these wells penetrated geopressured zones whose resource potential for power generation was undervalued or ignored. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Geopressured-Geothermal Research Program was chartered to improve geothermal technology to the point where electricity could be commercially produced from a substantial number of geopressured resource sites. This research program focused on relatively narrow technical issues that are unique to geopressured resources such as the ability to predict reservoir production capacity based on preliminary flow tests. Three well sites were selected for the research program. These are the Willis Hulin and Gladys McCall sites in Louisiana, and the Pleasant Bayou site in Texas. The final phase of this research project consists of plug and abandonment (P&A) of the wells and site restoration.

This report provides a baseline description of the transmission issues affecting geothermal technologies. The report begins with a comprehensive overview of the grid, how it is planned, how it is used, and how it is paid for. The report then overlays onto this 'big picture' three types of geothermal technologies: conventional hydrothermal systems; emerging technologies such as enhanced engineered geothermal systems (EGS) and geopressuredgeothermal; and geothermal co-production with existing oil and gas wells. Each category of geothermal technology has its own set of interconnection issues, and these are examined separately for each. The report draws conclusions about each technology's market affinities as defined by factors related to transmission and distribution infrastructure. It finishes with an assessment of selected markets with known geothermal potential, identifying those that offer the best prospects for near-term commercial development and for demonstration projects.

Full Text Available The indication of an active geothermal system is shown by the presence of surface manifestations such as the hot spring in Kedungoleng, Paguyangan, Brebes, Central Java. The temperature of the largest hot spring reaches 74o C and there is an assumption that this is an outflow of Mount Slamet geothermal system. DC-resistivity, Spontaneous Potential (SP and Shallow Surface Temperature surveys were conducted to determine the subsurface structure as well as its correlation with the distribution of thermal fluid flow and shallow surface temperature. The subsurface resistivity has been investigated using 5 points of the Schlumberger configuration with 400 m separation for each point. For the fluid and temperature pattern, a measurement using 15 m interval in 3 lines of conducting fixed electrode configuration has been carried out, along with a 75 cm of depth of temperature measurement around the manifestation area. The thermal fluid is assumed by the low resistivity of 0.756 to 6.91Ωm and this indicates sandstone that has permeable characteristic. The fluid flows in two layers of Sandstone at more than 10 meter from surface of the first layer. Accordingly, the SP values have a range between -11- 11 mV and a depth interval of 13.42- 28.75 m and the distribution of temperature is between 24o-70oC at a tilting range of 46.06o-12.60o. Hence it can be inferred that the thermal fluid moves in the Northwest direction and is controlled by a fault structure stretching from Northwest to Southeast. Article History: Received Feb 3, 2016; Received in revised form July 11, 2016; Accepted August 13, 2016; Available online How to Cite This Article: Setyawan, A., Triahadini, A., Yuliananto, Y., Aribowo, Y., and Widiarso, D.A. (2016 Subsurface Structure and Fluid Flow Analyses Using Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Manifestation Area of Paguyangan, Brebes, Central Java. Int. Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 5(3, 171-177. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/ijred.5.3.171-177

Regional sand distribution of the Frio Formation is determined; depositional environments are identified; and the geopressured zone and its relationship to sand/shale distribution, growth faults, and fluid temperatures in the Middle Texas Gulf Coast are delineated. (MHR)

The results of the calculations of heat-flow heats and power stations were introduced in the work geothermic with one circulation, with two circulations and with three circulations. They are reinforced network water heated up in the geothermic heat exchanger to temperatures 100 C and stream. In this solution the temperature of water force to the geothermic hest exchanger changes and amount out suitably 39,35 C (one circulation), 49,83 C (two circulations), 58,91 C (three circulations). He results that the solution of heat and power station is the most profitable variant with three circulations from the analysis of the received results of calculations. He keeps the highest power of the circulation C.R. from three considered variants. (orig.)

Hydrothermal alteration at Los Azufres geothermal held is mostly propylitic showing progressive dehydration with depth, and temperature increase. The evolution of this system is inferred to be related to deep liquid water, boiling when ascending through fractures connected to the surface.

The main geothermal reservoir of Acqui Terme-Visone hosts Na-Cl waters, which are in chemical equilibrium at 120-130{sup o}C with typical hydrothermal minerals including quartz, albite, K-feldspar, illite. chlorite (or smectite), anhydrite, calcite and an unspecified Ca-Al-silicate. In the Acqui Terme-Visone area, these geothermal waters ascend along zones of high vertical permeability and discharge at the surface almost undiluted or mixed with cold, shallow waters. To the SW of Acqui Terme, other ascending geothermal waters, either undiluted or mixed with low-salinity waters, enter relatively shallow secondary reservoirs, where they reequilibrate at 65-70{sup o}C. Both chemical and isotopic data indicate that bacterial SO{sub 4} reduction affects all these waters, especially those discharged by the secondary reservoirs. Therefore, geothermal waters must get in contact with oil, acquiring the relatively oxidized organic substances needed by SO{sub 4} -reducing bacteria. This oil-water interaction process deserves further investigations, for potential economic implications. (Author)

The Platanares geothermal area in western Honduras consists of more than 100 hot springs that issue from numerous hot-spring groups along the banks or within the streambed of the Quebrada de Agua Caliente (brook of hot water). Evaluation of this geothermal area included drilling a 650-m deep PLTG-1 drill hole which penetrated a surface mantling of stream terrace deposits, about 550 m of Tertiary andesitic lava flows, and Cretaceous to lower Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the lower 90 m of the drill core. Fractures and cavities in the drill core are partly to completely filled by hydrothermal minerals that include quartz, kaolinite, mixed-layer illite-smectite, barite, fluorite, chlorite, calcite, laumontite, biotite, hematite, marcasite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, stibnite, and sphalerite; the most common open-space fillings are calcite and quartz. Biotite from 138.9-m depth, dated at 37.41 Ma by replicate 40Ar/39 Ar analyses using a continuous laser system, is the earliest hydrothermal mineral deposited in the PLTG-1 drill core. This mid-Tertiary age indicates that at least some of the hydrothermal alteration encountered in the PLTG-1 drill core occured in the distant past and is unrelated to the present geothermal system. Furthermore, homogenization temperatures (Th) and melting-point temperatures (Tm) for fluid inclusions in two of the later-formed hydrothermal minerals, calcite and barite, suggest that the temperatures and concentration of dissolved solids of the fluids present at the time these fluid inclusions formed were very different from the present temperatures and fluid chemistry measured in the drill hole. Liquid-rich secondary fluid inclusions in barite and caicite from drill hole PLTG-1 have Th values that range from about 20??C less than the present measured temperature curve at 590.1-m depth to as much as 90??C higher than the temperature curve at 46.75-m depth. Many of the barite Th measurements (ranging between 114?? and 265??C) plot above the

In many geothermal reservoirs to low natural permeabilities have to be enhanced by opening or shearing the existing fractures or by generating artificial hydraulic fractures (reservoir stimulation). Such hydraulic fractures can also occur naturally and will remain in paleo geothermal reservoirs. Using the example of calcite passages in a Jurassic limestone-marl alternations in southwest England the author of the contribution under consideration shows that the fault zones (mainly normal faults) were used as fluid transport pathways for calcium carbonate containing water which was injected as hydraulic fractures in the host rock. Overall, in consensus with isotopic studies it was shown that geothermal waters with relatively local origin were within the sedimentary basin and did not come from great depths. The pore fluid pressure within the limestone beds is not sufficient as a reason for the formation of calcite passages.

kaolinization . Deposition of silica can easily be observed in the Geysers field, where fractures of one-inch width, completely filled and sealed...by silica and calcite, are common features. Kaolinization , associated with other more complicated hydrothermal rock alteration, is also...techniques. Surface corrosion may be extremely severe in geothermalfluids containing free hydrochloric, sulphuric or hydrofluoric acid

Nineteen papers are included covering: opening addresses, geological studies, and engineering studies. One paper had been abstracted previously and separate abstracts were prepared for eighteen papers. (MHR)

This report is the minutes of the DOE/GRI/Industry meeting. They include a transcript of the questions and answers following each presentation and copies of slides and/or summaries prepared by each of the speakers.

This contract called for the acquisition and testing of Wells of Opportunity. Wells of Opportunity are located by screening published information on oil industry activity and through personal contacts with oil operators. This process resulted in recommendation of 21 candidate wells to the DOE for the WOO program. Of the 21 wells recommended, 7 were accepted. Six of these 7 were acquired for testing. Three wells have been tested, and the fourth and fifth will be tested early in 1981. Preliminary test results are briefly described and are shown in a table. The actual testing schedule and the originally proposed schedule matched very closely. Cumulative costs through November 1980 were approximately $6.5 million and compare to an estimate of $8.5 million for the same period. A graphical comparison of actual versus estimated costs is given.

Twelve flow tests were made on the L. R. Sweezy No. 1 well. Short-term tests, Flow Test No.1 through Flow Test No.4 were designed to estimate formation properties and were conducted for drawdown periods measured in hours. Intermediate-term tests, Flow Test No.5 through Flow Test No.8, were for a few days and were designed to test for reservoir boundaries. Long-term tests, Flow Test No.9 through Flow Test No.12, were designed for drawdown periods of about 60 days in order to examine the depletion behavior of the reservoir.

Several hydrothermal mineralization and thermal fluid discharges are distributed in the high altitude Puna plateau at the eastern border of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes in the Jujuy Province, a region where volcanic explosive activity developed from Oligocene-Miocene to Neogene produced giant calderas and huge ignimbrite deposits. This study presents the geochemical and isotopic composition of thermal fluids discharged from Granada, Vilama, Pairique, Coranzulì and Olaroz zones, which are located between S 22°20'- 23°20' and W 66°- 67°. This aim is to provide insights into the physicochemical features of the deep fluid circulating system in order to have a preliminary indication about the geothermal potential in this area. The occurrence of partially mature Na+-Cl- waters suggests that a deep (>5,000 m b.g.l.) hydrothermal reservoir, hosted within the Paleozoic crystalline basement, represents the main fluid source. Regional tectonics, dominated by S-oriented faulting systems that produced a horst and graben tectonics, as well as NE-, NW- and WE-oriented transverse structures, favour the uprising of the deep-originated fluids, including a significant amount (up to 16%) of mantle He. The dry gas phase mainly consists of CO2 mostly produced from subducted C-bearing organic-rich material. The interaction between meteoric water and Cretaceous, Palaeogene to Miocene sediments at shallow depth gives rise to relatively cold Na+-HCO3-type aquifers. Dissolution of evaporitic surficial deposits (salares), produced by the arid climate of the region, strongly affects the chemistry of the thermal springs in the peripheral zones of the study area. Geothermometry in the Na-K-Ca-Mg system suggests equilibrium temperatures up to 200 °C for the deep aquifer, whereas the H2 geothermometer equilibrates at lower temperatures (from 105 to 155 °C), likely corresponding to those of the shallower aquifer. Although the great depth of the main fluid reservoir represents a

The δ 34S isotopic composition of sulfur was determined in more than 105 pyrite samples found in volcanic formations as well as in the sulfates and sulfides dissolved in the present-day geothermalfluids in the Los Humeros system, Mexico. Analysis of the isotopic values demonstrated that the sulfur compounds of the geothermal system were derived from a magmatic source (δ 34S ΣS — 1%.). The calculation of the different pH-FO 2-(FS 2) diagrams showed that the sulfates and sulfides dissolved in the present-day fluids from well H1 do not show chemical equilibrium conditions as was indicated previuosly by Arnold and Gonzalez-P. (1987). The reason for this is that the physicochemical characteristics of the system have been evolving almost continuously as a result of the exploration and exploitation of the thermal fluids from the system. The residence time of the fluids in the geothermal reservoir is now reduced and the chemical and isotopic reactions that occur between fluids and minerals are not carried out completely. Due to the thermodynamic evolution of the fluids, equilibrium among the sulfur phases dissolved in the fluids could not be demonstrated. The δ 34S values of pyrite sampled at different depths in the geothermal system display evidence for different isotopic fractionation produced by boiling, fluid mixing, and vapor condensation in meteoric waters. The δ 34S values of sulfates in the present-day fluids suggest that these were derived from the oxidation of H 2S at relatively shallow depths (< 600 m). In fact, the isotopic compositions of these sulfates trend towards δ 34S values of sulfides found in the steam phase.

Full Text Available Geothermal technologies use renewable energy resources to generate electricity and direct use of heat while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas (GHG emissions. Geothermal energy is stored in rocks and in fluids circulating in the underground. Electricity generation usually requires geothermal resources temperatures of over 100°C. For heating, geothermal resources spanning a wider range of temperatures can be used in applications such as space and district heating (and cooling, with proper technology, spa and swimming pool heating, greenhouse and soil heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial process heating and snow melting. Geothermal technology, which has focused so far on extracting naturally heated steam or hot water from natural hydrothermal reservoirs, is developing to more advanced techniques to exploit the heat also where underground fluids are scarce and to use the Earth as a potential energy battery, by storing heat. The success of the research will enable energy recovery and utilization from a much larger fraction of the accessible thermal energy in the Earth’s crust.

Geothermal technologies use renewable energy resources to generate electricity and direct use of heat while producing very low levels of greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions. Geothermal energy is stored in rocks and in fluids circulating in the underground. Electricity generation usually requires geothermal resources temperatures of over 100°C. For heating, geothermal resources spanning a wider range of temperatures can be used in applications such as space and district heating (and cooling, with proper technology), spa and swimming pool heating, greenhouse and soil heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial process heating and snow melting. Geothermal technology, which has focused so far on extracting naturally heated steam or hot water from natural hydrothermal reservoirs, is developing to more advanced techniques to exploit the heat also where underground fluids are scarce and to use the Earth as a potential energy battery, by storing heat. The success of the research will enable energy recovery and utilization from a much larger fraction of the accessible thermal energy in the Earth's crust.

The Li abundances and isotopic systematics of Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) geothermalfluids preserves a record of processes occurring within shallow portions of geothermal reservoirs as well as deeper portions of the arc crust. Understanding Li cycling and isotopic fractionation in TVZ geothermal systems contributes to a more refined understanding of physicochemical processes affecting New Zealand's geothermal resources. A comprehensive dataset of 73 samples was compiled, with samples collected from geothermal surface features (springs, spouters, geysers, etc.) and electric-power industry production wells, collectively representing18 geothermal fields across the breadth and width the TVZ. No comparable dataset of fluid analyses exists. Ion chromatography, AAS, and quadrupole ICP-MS analyses were done for Li, Cl-, SiO2, SO42- K, Na, Ca, Mg, B, Sr and Pb concentrations. Lithium abundance in geothermalfluids from the TVZ have a dataset-wide average of 5.9 mg/L and range 4 μg/L to 29 mg/L. The Li abundance and Li/Cl ratios for geothermal water and steam condensates vary systematically as a result of boiling, mixing, and water/rock reaction. Lithium abundance and Li/Cl ratios are, therefore, indicators of shallow (above 2.5 km) and locally variable reservoir processes. δ7Li analysis of 63 samples was performed at the University of Maryland, College Park. Data quality was controlled by measurement of L-SVEC as a calibration standard and by multiple analysis of selected samples. The average δ7Li value for TVZ geothermalfluids is -0.8%. Most δ7Li values for geothermal water fall within a small range of about -3% to+2% indicating similar processes are causing similar isotopic fractionation throughout the region. Considered together, Li aundances and δ7Li values, in combination with numerical models, indicate possible evolution pathways and water/rock reactions in TVZ geothermal systems. Models based on rocks and surface water analysis indicate that Li cycles and

The objectives of this program are to develop probes that can determine the water chemistry of high temperature geothermalfluids. The entire probe system includes a high temperature reference electrode, oxidation potention (redox potential) , conductivity probe, pH, corrosivity, and specific ion probe (sulfide). The objective of this study for FY 1977 was to develop a reference electrode and conductivity probe that would operate in the geothermal environment and provide data. This work also involved a study of sealing materials. A high temperature-pressure, thermodynamic reference electrode was developed which was demonstrated to be operative in a simulated geothermal environment up to 250°C containing the contaminants that would affect its operation. An electrodeless conductivity probe was developed for use in the geothermal environment. This design is particularly resistant to the effects of scale deposition. A large number o f sealing materials were investigated for use in the 250°C geothermal environment. From this study, PNL has developed a spring-loaded seal that may have other applications in the geothermal industry.

A method of producing silica from geothermalfluid containing low concentration of the silica of less than 275 ppm includes the steps of treating the geothermalfluid containing the silica by reverse osmosis treatment thereby producing a concentrated fluid containing the silica, seasoning the concentrated fluid thereby producing a slurry having precipitated colloids containing the silica, and separating the silica from the slurry.

The geothermal resource assessment presented is a refinement and updating of USGS Circular 726. Nonproprietary information available in June 1978 is used to assess geothermal energy in the ground and, when possible, to evaluate the fraction that might be recovered at the surface. Five categories of geothermal energy are discussed: conduction-dominated regimes, igneous-related geothermal systems, high-temperature (> 150/sup 0/C) and intermediate-temperature (90 to 150/sup 0/C) hydrothermal convection systems, low-temperature (< 90/sup 0/C) geothermal waters, and geopressured-geothermal energy (both thermal energy and energy from dissolved methane). Assessment data are presented on three colored maps prepared in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Separate abstracts were prepared for papers on these five categories.

An environmental assessment is made of the proposed testing of two geopressured, geothermal aquifers in central coastal Louisiana. On the basis of an analysis of the environmental setting, subsurface characteristics, and the proposed action, potential environmental impacts are determined and evaluated together with potential conflicts with federal, state, and local programs. (LBS )

Helium and carbon isotopes are important indicators for identifying the origin of volatiles dissolved in groundwater. Four thermal springs and another twelve normal springs are hosted by local deep faults in south China, which are considered to have significant connection to deep geothermal activity. Between 4% and 6% mantle He in thermal springs reveals that significant mantle He migration in deep faults can bring a certain amount of energy, along with thermal volatiles, and contribute to thermal spring formation according to {sup 3}He/{sup 4}He. While δ{sup 13}C reveals that dissolved inorganic carbon in thermal springs is from rock metamorphism that occurred in certain deep crust as geothermal activity, which is potentially the main energy source of the thermal springs. (authors)

This book is a detailed prognosis covering the acquisition, completion, drilling, testing and abandonment of the Frank A. Godchaux, III, Well No. 1 under the Wells of Opportunity Program. The well is located approximately 12 miles southeast of the city of Abbeville, Louisiana. Eaton Operating Company proposes to test a section of the Planulina sand at a depth ranging from 15,584 to 15,692 feet. The reservoir pressure is estimated to be 14,480 psi and the temperature of the formation water is expected to be 298 F. The water salinity is calculated to be 75,000 ppm. The well is expected to produce 20,000 barrels of water per day with a gas content of 44 standard cubic feet pre barrel. The well was acquired from C and K Petroleu, Inc. on March 20, 1981. C and K abandoned the well at a total depth of 16,000 feet. The well has a 7-5/8 inches liner set at 13,387 feet. Eaton proposes to set 5-1/2 inch casing at 16,000 feet and produce the well through the casing using a 2-3/8 inch tubing string for wireline protection and for pressure control. A 4,600 foot saltwater disposal well will be drilled on the site and testing will be conducted similar to previous Eaton tests. The total estimated cost to perform the work is $2,959,000. An optional test from 14,905 to 15,006 feet may be performed after the original test and will require a workover with a rig on location to perform the plugback. The surface production equipment utilized on previous Eaton WOO tests will be utilized on this test. This equipment has worked satisfactorily and all parties involved in the testing are familiar with its operation. The Institute of Gas Technology and Mr. Don Clark will handle the sampling and testing and reservoir evaluation, respectively, as on the previous Eaton tests.

In Ecuador, magmatism results from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the North Western part of South America (Pennington, 1981; Kellogg and Vega, 1995; Witt et al., 2006). North of 2.5°S, the Ecuadorian Quaternary volcanic arc is characterized by about 60 volcanoes distributed in three different parallel chains. Many of these volcanoes are potentially active or currently in activity and display associated geothermal fields. South of this latitude, no active arc is present in Ecuador. ...

The database BDFGeotherm compiled in 2007 on ACCESS code was modified to improve its availability and attractivity by using Google Earth free software and the CREGE web site. This database allows gathering existing geothermal data, generally widely dispersed and often difficult to reach, towards a user's friendly tool. Downloading the file 'BDFGeotherm.kmz' from the CREGE web site makes possible to visualize a total of 84 geothermal sites from Switzerland and neighbouring areas. Each one is represented with a pinpoint of different colour, for different temperature ranges. A large majority of sites is located in the northern part of the Jura Mountain and in the upper Rhone Valley. General information about water use, geology, flow rate, temperature and mineralization are given in a small window by clicking on the desired pinpoint. Moreover, two links to an Internet address are available for each site in each window, allowing returning to the CREGE web site and providing more details on each sampling point such as: geographical description, reservoir geology, hydraulics, hydrochemistry, isotopes and geothermal parameters. For a limited number of sites, photos and a geological log can be viewed and exported. (author)

Abstract The primary challenge for the feasibility of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) is to cost-effectively create high-permeability reservoirs inside deep crystalline bedrock. Although fracturing fluids are commonly used for oil/gas, standard fracturing methods are not developed or proven for EGS temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, the environmental impacts of currently used fracturing methods are only recently being determined. These authors recently reported an environmentally benign, CO2-activated, rheoreversible fracturing fluid that enhances permeability through fracturing due to in situ volume expansion and gel formation. The potential of this novel fracturing fluid is evaluated in this work towards its application at geothermal sites under different pH conditions. Laboratory-scale fracturing experiments using Coso Geothermal rock cores under different pH environments were performed followed by X-ray microtomography characterization. The results demonstrate that CO2-reactive aqueous solutions of environmentally amenable polyallylamine (PAA) consistently and reproducibly creates/propagates fracture networks through highly impermeable crystalline rock from Coso EGS sites at considerably lower effective stress as compared to conventional fracturing fluids. In addition, permeability was significantly enhanced in a wide range of formation-water pH values. This effective, and environmentally-friendly fracturing fluid technology represents a potential alternative to conventional fracturing fluids.

The purpose of this research is to determine the concentration of the cryocondensates in fluids of the various USDOE Geopressured wells as a function of production volume. The wells are visited each month that they are operating and samples are to be taken cryogenically during each visit. A gas scrubbing system will continuously samples the gas streams of the wells in the intervals between visit. Collectors, exchanged daily by site personnel, are retrieved on each visit.

Substantial unexploited opportunity exists for the US, and the world, in Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS). As a result of US DOE investment, new drilling technology, new power generation equipment and cycles enable meaningful power production, in a compact and modular fashion; at lower and lower top side EGS working fluid temperatures and in a broader range of geologies and geographies. This cost analysis effort supports the expansion of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), furthering DOE strategic themes of energy security and sub goal of energy diversity; reducing the Nation's dependence on foreign oil while improving the environment.

The skid-mounted pilot unit is a smaller version of the main surface equipment used at geothermalgeopressured well sites. It will be used to monitor the effectiveness of scale and corrosion inhibitors for the preventing of scaling and corrosion in the main surface equipment. The pilot unit will model the main surface equipment with respect to pressure, flow velocities, and scale inhibitor injection. The pilot unit will also operate under other conditions for optimization determination. Scaling tendencies will be monitored by specially shaped mild steel coupons placed at critical locations throughout the pilot unit. The coupons will be checked at regular intervals, and analysis will include visual, weight and EDAX-SEM analysis. Various scale inhibitors will be tested over a large range of dosage levels in order to screen inhibitors and their effectiveness for water with particular quality parameters.

Each year the Geothermal Division of the US Department of Energy conducts an in-depth review of its entire geothermal R D program. The conference serves several purposes: a status report on current R D activities, an assessment of progress and problems, a review of management issues, and a technology transfer opportunity between DOE and the US geothermal industry. Topics in this year's conference included Hydrothermal Energy Conversion Technology, Hydrothermal Reservoir Technology, Hydrothermal Hard Rock Penetration Technology, Hot Dry Rock Technology, Geopressured-Geothermal Technology and Magma Energy Technology. Each individual paper has been cataloged separately.

This report describes work toward a supercritical CO2-based EGS system at the St. Johns Dome in Eastern Arizona, including a comprehensive literature search on CO2-based geothermal technologies, background seismic study, geological information, and a study of the possible use of metal oxide heat carriers to enhance the heat capacity of sCO2. It also includes cost estimates for the project, and the reasons why the project would probably not be cost effective at the proposed location.

It is widely accepted, that geothermal activity in the conductive heat flow processes, such as volcanism and hydrothermal activity, is manifestation of the thermal mass transfer process in the Earth's crust, where geothermal and geochemical processes are closely connected. Therefore, geochemistry and isotope compositions of thermal mineral waters within and on periphery of volcanic clusters may represent key indicators for better understanding of geothermal activity in geodynamically active zones. Geochemical features of heat and mass transport in hydrothermal systems related to active volcanic and fault systems in continental collision related orogenic elevated plateaus such as Anatolian-Armenian-Iranian highlands are still poorly understood. In this contribution we attempt to fill these gaps in our knowledge of relations of geochemical and geothermal processes in collision zones. We present new data on chemical compositions, trace element geochemistry of thermal waters of Lesser Caucasus, (Armenia) as well as isotope analysis of free gases such as {}3He/{}4He, {}40Ar/{}36Ar, δ{}13?(CO{}2), nitrogen δ{}15N(N{}2) and oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in water phases (δD, δ{}18O). To reveal some specific features of formation of fluid systems related to thermal activity in the areas of collision related active volcanism and active geodynamics a complex geochemical (SiO{}2, K-Na, Na-Li, Li-Mg) and isotope geothermometers (δ{}18O(CaCO{}3) - δ{}18O(H{}2O)) were applied. The distribution of δ{}13?(??{}2) values in free gases of mineral waters of Armenia demonstrates that gases related to Quaternary volcanic fields are characterized by relatively light δ{}13?(CO{}2) values close to mantle derived gases, while on periphery of volcanic systems relatively heavy values of δ{}13?(CO{}2) indicate strong influence of metamorphic and sedimentary derived carbon dioxide. Distribution of nitrogen isotopes δ{}15N(N{}2) demonstrate an inverse correlation with δ{}13?(CO{}2

In this study, the occurrence, chemical composition, origin and geothermal significance of thermal springs and fumaroles naturally discharging in the area located north of the Lake Abaya (western margin of the Main Ethiopian Rift, East Africa) are reviewed in relation with recent tectonics. All thermal springs showed a dominantly Na-HCO3 composition, consistent with observations dating from at least 1972, and most of them displayed a narrow range of δD and δ18O isotopic compositions for water similar to regional meteoric origins. These observations suggest that water-rock interaction processes occur in all aquifers and dominate the contributions of water that actively circulate within thermal fluids, and also suggest a similar elevation of groundwater recharge throughout the study area. Most of the thermal springs are dominated by a CO2-rich gas phase and discharge along the active faults bordering the western edge of the Main Ethiopian Rift valley. The δ13C values of CO2 and the 3He/4He isotopic ratios are consistent with the presence of mantle-derived fluids similar to what is observed in many other areas along the kinematically active African Rift, especially within Ethiopia. The application of geothermometric techniques in the liquid and the gas phases suggests the presence of a deep reservoir in which the fluids equilibrated at a maximum temperature of approximately 180 °C. Additionally, the presence of fumaroles at boiling temperatures and water/mud boiling pools in several places suggests that the geothermal reservoir is positioned at a relatively shallow depth and likely located in the western side of the study area. The analysis of data collected throughout time reveals that the waters of Lake Abaya have experienced an increase in salinity of 20% paralleled contemporaneously with a decrease in pH and δ18O and δD of water in the last 40 years; these changes do not appear to be related to climate change-induced increases in temperature or evaporation

Hydrothermal experiments were performed using basalt, diabase, and two synthetic plagioclase bearing assemblages and Na-Ca-K-Cl fluids of seawater chlorinity at conditions from 350 to 425/sup 0/C and 250 to 400 bars. Dissolved Ca, Na, SiO/sub 2/, and pH appear to be controlled by equilibrium with plagioclase and epidote. Fluids reacting with diabase at low fluid/rock ratios (0.5-1) remain undersaturated with respect to quartz due to formation of olivine hydration products, whereas fluids reacting with basalt become supersaturated with respect to quartz due to breakdown of fractionated glass and formation of amphibole. High SiO/sub 2/ activities during basalt alteration, leads to high Ca and base metal concentrations and low pH compared to diabase alteration at the same conditions. Dissolved Li, K, Rb, and Ba concentrations reach higher levels during basalt alteration than during diabase alteration. Since these elements avoid incorporation into crystalline phases during solidification of magmas they are concentrated in the glass which is easily altered by fluids and explains their increased mobility during basalt alteration. Na-Ca-pH-SiO/sub 2/ relationships in vent fluids can be used to constrain reaction zone conditions assuming the fluids are equilibrated with plagioclase and epidote. The temperatures predicted by such models are higher than measured vent fluid temperatures. Dissolved Sr/Ca ratios for ridge crest fluids are similar to those produced during diabase alteration and higher than those produced during basalt alteration. This observation supports deep-seated reaction of the hydrothermal fluids with diabase dikes and/or gabbro for vent fluid origin. Only 4% of the Sr initially present in basalt is mobilized during hydrothermal alteration even after 800 hours of reaction.

The occurrence of the acidity in fluids from Los Humeros geothermal reservoir has been noticeable due to the accelerated corrosion of pipes lines of wells located mainly in the area known as Collapse Central and wells along the East direction of the field. On the base of the evaluation of all available chemical and mineralogical information for Los Humeros geothermal field the main objective of this work was to recognize evidences on the origin of geothermalfluids acidity. Considering the occurrence of HCl in other geothermal systems, no relation to the available information from Los Humeros was found. It is possible that the geothermalfluids acidity would be recent. It could be generated when the deep reservoir was reached by drilling wells. However, the occurrence of H{sub 2}SO{sub 4} is evident due to the advance argillic alteration of surface rocks in some areas of the field. It is probable that the model proposed by D' Amore, may be valid for the geothermal field of Los Humeros. Considering that the origin of the vapor phase from the deep reservoir would be a fluid (of very high salinity) that favored the formation of the HCl gas; which moved to the vapor zone when exploitation began being transported in the vapor phase toward the upper reservoir forming aqueous HCl. [Spanish] La presencia de acidez en los fluidos producidos por el yacimiento geotermico de Los Humeros se ha evidenciado por la acelerada corrosion de las tuberias de algunos pozos localizados principalmente en la zona conocida como Colapso central y en direccion Este del campo. Con el objeto de identificar evidencias que permitan establecer el origen de la acidez en los fluidos geotermicos, se llevo a cabo la evaluacion de la informacion quimica y mineralogica existente para el campo geotermico de Los Humeros. Empleando los criterios conocidos sobre la presencia de HCl en otros sistemas geotermicos no se encontro relacion con la informacion evaluada. Por lo que se sugiere que la acidez en

The Geothermal Power Organization is an industry-led advisory group organized to advance the state-of-the-art in geothermal energy conversion technologies. Its goal is to generate electricity from geothermalfluids in the most cost-effective, safe, and environmentally benign manner possible. The group achieves this goal by determining the Member`s interest in potential solutions to technological problems, advising the research and development community of the needs of the geothermal energy conversion industry, and communicating research and development results among its Members. With the creation and adoption of a new charter, the Geothermal Power Organization will now assist the industry in pursuing cost-shared research and development projects with the DOE`s Office of Geothermal Technologies.

The Xikuangshan Antimony Deposit located in the Mid-Hunan Basin, China, is the largest antimony deposit in the world. Based on the hydrogeological and geochemical data collected from four sections, Xikuangshan-Dajienao (AO), Xikuangshan-Dashengshan (BO), Xikuangshan-Longshan (CO) and Dafengshan (DO) in the Basin, an advanced metallogenic model related to deep-cyclic meteoric water of Xikuangshan Antimony Deposit is put forward in this paper using a model of heat-gravity-driving fluid flow transportation. The simulation results show that the ore-forming fluid of the deposit mainly comes from the Dashengshan and Longshan areas where BO and CO sections are located if the overall basin keeps a constant atmospheric precipitation and infiltration rate during mineralization, and that the average transportation speed of the ore-forming fluids is about 0.2-0.4 m/a.

Standard energy analysis was applied to 4 types of geothermal-electric technologies: liquid dominated, hot dry rock, geopressure, and vapor dominated. It was found that all are net energy producers. Expected uncertainties are not large enough to threaten this conclusion. Vapor dominated, the only technology in current commercial use to produce electricity in the US, has the highest energy ratio (13 +- 4). These results for energy ratio are equal to or less than some from other workers. In the case of liquid dominated, environmental control technology has a considerable energy requirement.

We have developed an algorithm for the inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data to a 3D earth resistivity model based upon the finite element method. Hexahedral edge finite elements are implemented to accommodate discontinuities in the electric field across resistivity boundaries, and to accurately simulate topographic variations. All matrices are reduced and solved using direct solution modules which avoids ill-conditioning endemic to iterative solvers such as conjugate gradients, principally PARDISO for the finite element system and PLASMA for the parameter step estimate. Large model parameterizations can be handled by transforming the Gauss-Newton estimator to data-space form. Accuracy of the forward problem and jacobians has been checked by comparison to integral equations results and by limiting asymptotes. Inverse accuracy and performance has been verified against the public Dublin Secret Test Model 2 and the well-known Mount St Helens 3D MT data set. This algorithm we believe is the most capable yet for forming 3D images of earth resistivity structure and their implications for geothermalfluids and pathways.

The Spurr Volcanic Complex (SVC) is a calcalkaline, medium-K, sequence of andesites erupted over the last quarter of a million years by the easternmost currently active volcanic center in the Aleutian Arc. The ancestral Mt. Spurr was built mostly of andesites of uniform composition (58 to 60% SiO/sub 2/), although andesite production was episodically interrupted by the introduction of new batches of more mafic magma. Near the end of the Pleistocene the ancestral Mt. Spurr underwent Bezyianny-type avalanche caldera formation, resulting in the production of a volcanic debris avalanche with overlying ashflows. Immediately afterward, a large dome (the present Mt. Spurr) was emplaced in the caldera. Both the ashflows and dome are made of acid andesite more silicic than any analyzed lavas from the ancestral Mt. Spurr (60 to 63% SiO/sub 2/), yet contain olivine and amphibole xenocrysts derived from more mafic magma. The mafic magma (53 to 57% SiO/sub 2/) erupted during and after dome emplacement, forming proto-Crater Peak and Crater Peak. Hybrid pyroclastic flows and lavas were also produced. Proto-Crater Peak underwent glacial dissection prior to the formation of Crater Peak in approximately the same location. Appendices II through VIII contain a summary of mineral compositions; Appendix I contains geochemical data. Appendix IX by R.J. Motyka and C.J. Nye describes the chemistry of geothermalfluids. 78 refs., 16 figs., 3 tabs.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) could potentially use technological advancements in coupled implementation of horizontal drilling and multistage hydraulic fracturing techniques in tight oil and shale gas reservoirs along with improvements in reservoir simulation techniques to design and create EGS reservoirs. In this study, a commercial hydraulic fracture simulation package, Mangrove by Schlumberger, was used in an EGS model with largely distributed pre-existing natural fractures to model fracture propagation during the creation of a complex fracture network. The main goal of this study is to investigate optimum treatment parameters in creating multiple large, planar fractures to hydraulically connect a horizontal injection well and a horizontal production well that are 10,000 ft. deep and spaced 500 ft. apart from each other. A matrix of simulations for this study was carried out to determine the influence of reservoir and treatment parameters on preventing (or aiding) the creation of large planar fractures. The reservoir parameters investigated during the matrix simulations include the in-situ stress state and properties of the natural fracture set such as the primary and secondary fracture orientation, average fracture length, and average fracture spacing. The treatment parameters investigated during the simulations were fluid viscosity, proppant concentration, pump rate, and pump volume. A final simulation with optimized design parameters was performed. The optimized design simulation indicated that high fluid viscosity, high proppant concentration, large pump volume and pump rate tend to minimize the complexity of the created fracture network. Additionally, a reservoir with 'friendly' formation characteristics such as large stress anisotropy, natural fractures set parallel to the maximum horizontal principal stress (SHmax), and large natural fracture spacing also promote the creation of large planar fractures while minimizing fracture complexity.

For the past three years, scientists at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory have been conducting studies aimed at determining the presence and influence of bacteria found in geothermal plant cooling water systems. In particular, the efforts have been directed at understanding the conditions that lead to the growth and accumulation of biomass within these systems, reducing the operational and thermal efficiency. Initially, the methods selected were based upon the current practices used by the industry and included the collection of water quality parameters, the measurement of soluble carbon, and the use of selective medial for the determination of the number density of various types of organisms. This data has been collected on a seasonal basis at six different facilities located at the Geysers’ in Northern California. While this data is valuable in establishing biological growth trends in the facilities and providing an initial determination of upset or off-normal conditions, more detailed information about the biological activity is needed to determine what is triggering or sustaining the growth in these facilities in order to develop improved monitoring and treatment techniques. In recent years, new biochemical approaches, based upon the analyses of phospholipid fatty acids and DNA recovered from environmental samples, have been developed and commercialized. These techniques, in addition to allowing the determination of the quantity of biomass, also provide information on the community composition and the nutritional status of the organisms. During the past year, samples collected from the condenser effluents of four of the plants from The Geysers’ were analyzed using these methods and compared with the results obtained from selective culturing techniques. The purpose of this effort was to evaluate the cost-benefit of implementing these techniques for tracking microbial activity in the plant study, in place of the selective culturing

The Salton Sea Geothermal System (California) is an easily accessible setting for investigating the interactions of biotic and abiogenic geochemical processes in sediment-hosted hydrothermal systems. We present new temperature data and the molecular and isotopic composition of fluids seeping at the Davis-Schrimpf seep field during 2003-2008. Additionally, we show the first flux data for CO 2 and CH 4 released throughout the field from focused vents and diffuse soil degassing. The emitted gases are dominated by CO 2 (~ 98%) and CH 4 (~ 1.5%). By combining δ 13C CO2 (as low as - 5.4‰) and δ 13C CH4 (- 32‰ to - 17.6‰) with 3He/ 4He (R/Ra > 6) and δD CH4 values (- 216‰ to - 150‰), we suggest, in contrast to previous studies, that CO 2 may have a significant Sub-Continental Mantle source, with minimal crustal contamination, and CH 4 seems to be a mixture of high temperature pyrolitic (thermogenic) and abiogenic gas. Water seeps show that δD and δ 18O increase proportionally with salinity (Total Dissolved Solids in g/L) ranging from 1-3 g/L (gryphons) to 145 g/L (hypersaline pools). In agreement with elemental analyses, the isotopic composition of the waters indicate a meteoric origin, modified by surface evaporation, with little or no evidence of deep fossil or magmatic components. Very high Cl/Br (> 3,000) measured at many seeping waters suggests that increased salinities result from dissolution of halite crusts near the seep sites. Gas flux measurements from 91 vents (pools and gryphons) give a conservative estimate of ~ 2,100 kg of CO 2 and 11.5 kg of CH 4 emitted per day. In addition soil degassing measured at 81 stations (20x20 m grid over 51,000 m 2) revealed that 7,310 kg/d CO 2 and 33 kg/d CH 4 are pervasively released to the atmosphere. These results emphasise that diffuse gas emission from soil can be dominant (~ 75%) even in hydrothermal systems with large and vigorous gas venting. Sediment-hosted hydrothermal systems may represent an

The Differential Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (DInSAR) is widely used for surface deformation detection and monitoring.In this paper, ERS-1/2, ENVISAT and RADARSAT-2 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images acquired between 1993 and 2014 were processed to investigate the evolution of surface deformation at the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Baja California, Mexico. The conventional DInSAR together with the interferogram stacking method was applied. Average LOS (line of sight) displacement velocity maps were generated for different periods: 1993 - 1997, 1998 - 2000, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009, and 2012 - 2014, revealing that the area corresponding to Cerro Prieto basin presented the important surface deformation (mainly subsidence) during the entire time of investigation. The changes in the surface deformation pattern and rate were identified. These changes have a good correlation in time with the changes of production in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field.

Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) surveys are generally used for modelling converted phases of the seismic body waves propagating in the medium allowing the detection of waves interpreted as reflections on steeply dipping reflecting structures such as faults, abrupt lateral changes of lithology, and fractures. At the Enhanced Geothermal System geothermal field of Soultz-sous-Forêts the analysis of data recorded during a VSP experiment allowed describing the presence of at least two structures near the wells. Here we show how seismic tomography method can be applied to the VSP data to reconstruct the 3-D shape of structures in the volume surrounding the geothermal wells. The three-dimensional P wave velocity model obtained shows positive velocity anomalies associated with the main faults observed by the VSP analysis and negative anomalies in the regions affected by massive hydraulic stimulations performed in the past. This pattern can be explained as a different response of the rock volume to the fluid injections where regions marked by relative pre-existing high permeability were less affected by the hydraulic stimulations. This difference in permeability produced regions that could work as barriers for fluid diffusion through the reservoir. Comparisons of our high resolved model with the location of the induced seismicity and with another model obtained using seismic noise correlation give evidence of the presence of these structures and may explain the poor connection between the wells GPK4 and GPK2-GPK3 system.

The first part of the review presents information on the scale and specific features of geothermal energy development in various countries. The classification of geothermal power plant (GeoPP) process flow diagrams by a phase state of the primary heat source (a geothermalfluid), thermodynamic cycle, and applicable turbines is proposed. Features of geothermal plants using methods of flashing and steam separation in the process loop and a flowsheet and thermodynamic process of a geothermalfluid heat-to-power conversion in a GeoPP of the most widespread type using a double-flash separation are considered. It is shown that, for combined cycle power units, the specific power-to-consumption geothermalfluid ratio is 20-25% higher than that for traditional single-loop GeoPP. Information about basic chemical components and their concentration range for geothermalfluids of various formations around the world is presented. Three historic stages of improving geothermal energy technologies are determined, such as development of high-temperature geothermal resources (dry, superheated steam) and application of a two-phase wet-steam geothermalfluid in GeoPP power units with one or two expansion pressures and development of binary cycle GeoPPs. A current trend of more active use of binary power plants in GeoPP technological processes is noted. Design features of GeoPP's steam turbines and steam separating devices, determined by the use of low-potential geothermal saturated steam as a working medium, which is characterized by corrosion aggressiveness and a tendency to form deposits, are considered. Most promising Russian geothermal energy projects are determined. A list of today's most advanced geothermal turbine performance technologies is presented. By an example of a 25 MW steam turbine design, made by JSC Kaluga Turbine Works, advantages of the internal moisture separation with a special turbine-separator stage are shown.

Elevated concentrations (20-1133 nmol/kg) of rare earth elements (REE) are present in acid-sulphate and acid-sulphate-chloride hydrothermal waters of the Yellowstone National Park (YNP). We used recently estimated thermodynamic data ( Haas et al 1995) to speciate seventeen YNP hydrothermal fluids with the EQ3NR code. The fluids show a range in pH (2.0-4.0) and temperature (70°-93°C) and are of varied chemistry, with TDS = 155-2,075 ppm, sulphate = 100-10,325 μmol/kg, chloride = 190-24,580 μmol/kg, fluoride = 26-1,790 μmol/kg, and SO 4/F = 0.8-323. Field temperature and pH measurements were used in the modelling and saturation with kaolinite and quartz was assumed, although quartz was actually supersaturated. Where possible, oxygen fugacity was calculated from the analytical sulphate/sulphide ratios, otherwise it was set above the hematite-magnetite buffer and pyrite saturation (although speciation calculations show that this is not critical). Carbonate and phosphate levels were set at the analytical detection limit, with the exception of 4 waters for which analytical data for phosphate existed. The waters show little fractionation of REE relative to their host rhyolitic volcanics; it appears that the REE abundances of hydrothermal fluids resulting from alteration of YNP rhyolites are unaffected by the presence of potential complexing species, i.e., that acid-alteration completely strips REE from the portion of the rocks that it affects without any fractionation across the REE series. The main control over REE speciation is the relative abundances of potential complexing agents; however, pH and absolute abundances are also important. In the most acidic waters (pH ˜ 2.0) the free ion is the major species when salinity and SO 4/Cl are low (60-80% of each REE), and REE complexes with chloride can be significant (up to 5%). For higher SO 4/Cl values, sulphate complexes dominate (80-90%). For less acid waters (pH 2.8-4.0) fluoride is the main complexing agent in

This paper summarizes our research to date into operatingEGS with CO2. Our modeling studies indicate that CO2 would achieve morefavorable heat extraction than aqueous fluids. The peculiarthermophysicalproperties of CO2 give rise to unusual features in the dependence ofenergy recovery on thermodynamic conditions and time. Preliminarygeochemical studies suggest that CO2 may avoid unfavorable rock-fluidinteractions that have been encountered in water-basedsystems. To morefully evaluate the potential of EGS with CO2 will require an integratedresearch programme of model development, and laboratory and fieldstudies.

The nature of the interplay between active tectonics and fluid flow is a key feature to better understand the chemical evolution of fluids in geothermal and hydrothermal systems. The prominent hydrothermal, tectonic and volcanic activity of the Southern Andes volcanic zone (SVZ) makes it one of the best natural laboratories to address this issue. In the northern termination of the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault System (LOFS), tectonic and volcanic processes interact to define the geothermal field of Tolhuaca. The objective of our current research is to assess the nature of the interplay between brittle deformation and chemical evolution of fluids and mineral paragenesis. Tol-1 is a vertical 1.080 m deep borehole which could yield relevant information regarding the evolution of the Tolhuaca geothermal system. The methodology to achieve our objective includes the structural and geochemical analysis of oriented faults, fault-veins and veins -former pathways- in the core. Structural mapping at the regional scale will help to identify the main structural system, which accommodates the regional stresses, and promotes fluid migration, accumulation and arrest. Fluid inclusions analysis by microthermometry, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy will allow a better understanding of the feedback between the fluid flow episodes and the mineralization. More than 120 structural measurements of faults, veins and fault-veins were performed (strike, dip, rake -when available-). Forty seven samples were taken for thin & fluid inclusions sections. Detailed mapping of structures including dip and kinematic indicators from mineral sealing was synthesized in a structural log of Tol-1 core. Our preliminary results show that there is a strong correlation between abundance of structures and rock type. Lava intervals exhibit more intense fracturing and veining than tuff and volcaniclastic intervals. In the upper 300 m of the core, structures are primarily steeply dipping with a dominant normal sense of

Approximately 50% of the cost of a new geothermal power plant is in the wells that must be drilled. Compared to the majority of oil and gas wells, geothermal wells are more difficult and costly to drill for several reasons. First, most U.S. geothermal resources consist of hot, hard crystalline rock formations which drill much slower than the relatively soft sedimentary formations associated with most oil and gas production. Second, high downhole temperatures can greatly shorten equipment life or preclude the use of some technologies altogether. Third, producing viable levels of electricity from geothermal fields requires the use of large diameter bores and a high degree of fluid communication, both of which increase drilling and completion costs. Optimizing fluid communication often requires creation of a directional well to intersect the best and largest number of fracture capable of producing hot geothermalfluids. Moineau motor stators made with elastomers cannot operate at geothermal temperatures, so they are limited to the upper portion of the hole. To overcome these limitations, Maurer Engineering Inc. (MEI) has developed a turbodrill that does not use elastomers and therefore can operate at geothermal temperatures. This new turbodrill uses a special gear assembly to reduce the output speed, thus allowing a larger range of bit types, especially tri-cone roller bits, which are the bits of choice for drilling hard crystalline formations. The Advanced Geothermal Turbodrill (AGT) represents a significant improvement for drilling geothermal wells and has the potential to significantly reduce drilling costs while increasing production, thereby making geothermal energy less expensive and better able to compete with fossil fuels. The final field test of the AGT will prepare the tool for successful commercialization.

Approximately 50% of the cost of a new geothermal power plant is in the wells that must be drilled. Compared to the majority of oil and gas wells, geothermal wells are more difficult and costly to drill for several reasons. First, most U.S. geothermal resources consist of hot, hard crystalline rock formations which drill much slower than the relatively soft sedimentary formations associated with most oil and gas production. Second, high downhole temperatures can greatly shorten equipment life or preclude the use of some technologies altogether. Third, producing viable levels of electricity from geothermal fields requires the use of large diameter bores and a high degree of fluid communication, both of which increase drilling and completion costs. Optimizing fluid communication often requires creation of a directional well to intersect the best and largest number of fracture capable of producing hot geothermalfluids. Moineau motor stators made with elastomers cannot operate at geothermal temperatures, so they are limited to the upper portion of the hole. To overcome these limitations, Maurer Engineering Inc. (MEI) has developed a turbodrill that does not use elastomers and therefore can operate at geothermal temperatures. This new turbodrill uses a special gear assembly to reduce the output speed, thus allowing a larger range of bit types, especially tri-cone roller bits, which are the bits of choice for drilling hard crystalline formations. The Advanced Geothermal Turbodrill (AGT) represents a significant improvement for drilling geothermal wells and has the potential to significantly reduce drilling costs while increasing production, thereby making geothermal energy less expensive and better able to compete with fossil fuels. The final field test of the AGT will prepare the tool for successful commercialization.

It has been suggested that enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) may be operated with supercritical CO{sub 2} instead of water as heat transmission fluid (D.W. Brown, 2000). Such a scheme could combine recovery of geothermal energy with simultaneous geologic storage of CO{sub 2}, a greenhouse gas. At geothermal temperature and pressure conditions of interest, the flow and heat transfer behavior of CO{sub 2} would be considerably different from water, and chemical interactions between CO{sub 2} and reservoir rocks would also be quite different from aqueous fluids. This paper summarizes our research to date into fluid flow and heat transfer aspects of operating EGS with CO{sub 2}. (Chemical aspects of EGS with CO{sub 2} are discussed in a companion paper; Xu and Pruess, 2010.) Our modeling studies indicate that CO{sub 2} would achieve heat extraction at larger rates than aqueous fluids. The development of an EGS-CO{sub 2} reservoir would require replacement of the pore water by CO{sub 2} through persistent injection. We find that in a fractured reservoir, CO{sub 2} breakthrough at production wells would occur rapidly, within a few weeks of starting CO{sub 2} injection. Subsequently a two-phase water-CO{sub 2} mixture would be produced for a few years,followed by production of a single phase of supercritical CO{sub 2}. Even after single-phase production conditions are reached,significant dissolved water concentrations will persist in the CO{sub 2} stream for many years. The presence of dissolved water in the production stream has negligible impact on mass flow and heat transfer rates.

Paleotemperatures different from the present thermal regime were studied by examining coexisting mineral systems which exchanged their oxygen with the geothermal brines at different rates. Oxygen isotopic compositions were measured in drill cuttings and core and core samples from more than 40 wells. Oxygen isotopic profiles of pore filling calcites in sandstones are a measure of the recent equilibrium temperature distribution. A three dimensional map was developed, showing the equilibrium temperatures in the geothermal field. A mass balance calculation was performed using measured 18O enrichment of the geothermal brine. This calculation implies an overall water; rock volume ratio of approximately 3:1 during the history of the Cerro Prieto system.

In order to satisfy the objective of outlining the preliminary plan and schedules as well as obtaining representative costs for drilling a geopressuredgeothermal well the guidelines have been applied to one of the possible test sites identified by the Resource Assessment Phase I of the project. The specific site is the Armstrong lease in the Candelaria Field in Kenedy County, Texas. Offset well information including bit records, drilling fluid programs, formation pressure encountered and casing programs for the Armstrong No. 20 and No. 22 wells are presented. Based on this information a preliminary drilling program has been prepared. Well completion and production considerations were taken into account in the preparation of the drilling program. A brief description of drilling operations is also included to clarify the terminology used.

This report provides a baseline description of the transmission issues affecting geothermal technologies. It is intended for geothermal experts in either the private or public sector who are less familiar with how the electricity system operates beyond the geothermal plant. The report begins with a comprehensive overview of the grid, how it is planned, how it is used, and how it is paid for. The report then overlays onto this "big picture" three types of geothermal technologies: conventional hydrothermal systems; emerging technologies such as enhanced engineered geothermal systems (EGS) and geopressuredgeothermal; and geothermal co-production with existing oil and gas wells. Each category of geothermal technology has its own set of interconnection issues, and these are examined separately for each. The report draws conclusions about each technology’s market affinities as defined by factors related to transmission and distribution infrastructure. It finishes with an assessment of selected markets with known geothermal potential, identifying those that offer the best prospects for near-term commercial development and for demonstration projects.

A continuous monitoring of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field was carried out from August 1994 to December 1995 to investigate the seismicity of tectonic origin and the seismicity triggered by exploitation activities. Hypocenters for 148 events were located mainly around the northern end of the Cerro Prieto fault and within the geothermal zone. The estimated focal depths range mostly from 1 to 6 km, for earthquakes with magnitudes from 0.5 to 4.6. It was difficult to distinguish between natural and triggered seismicity. We observed a single case of an earthquake for which a correlation in time and space seems plausible with a sharp increase of fluid injection in a well located at less than 1 km from the epicenter. Fault plane solutions of 26 events with magnitudes between 2.8 and 4.6 indicate right-lateral strike-slip motion for earthquakes that occur near the Cerro Prieto and Imperial faults. Inside the geothermal zone, events with normal components of motion were recorded, as expected from the extensional stress regime of the pull-apart basin laying between both faults.

This final report describes the results of a research program we carried out over a five-year (3/1999-9/2004) period with funding from a Department of Energy geothermal FDP grant (DE-FG07-99ID13745) and from other agencies. The goal of research projects in this program were to develop modeling technologies that can increase the understanding of geothermal reservoir chemistry and chemistry-related energy production processes. The ability of computer models to handle many chemical variables and complex interactions makes them an essential tool for building a fundamental understanding of a wide variety of complex geothermal resource and production chemistry. With careful choice of methodology and parameterization, research objectives were to show that chemical models can correctly simulate behavior for the ranges of fluid compositions, formation minerals, temperature and pressure associated with present and near future geothermal systems as well as for the very high PT chemistry of deep resources that is intractable with traditional experimental methods. Our research results successfully met these objectives. We demonstrated that advances in physical chemistry theory can be used to accurately describe the thermodynamics of solid-liquid-gas systems via their free energies for wide ranges of composition (X), temperature and pressure. Eight articles on this work were published in peer-reviewed journals and in conference proceedings. Four are in preparation. Our work has been presented at many workshops and conferences. We also considerably improved our interactive web site (geotherm.ucsd.edu), which was in preliminary form prior to the grant. This site, which includes several model codes treating different XPT conditions, is an effective means to transfer our technologies and is used by the geothermal community and other researchers worldwide. Our models have wide application to many energy related and other important problems (e.g., scaling prediction in petroleum

Efforts to determine the concentration of the cryocondensates in fluids of the various USDOE Geopressured wells a function of production volume. The wells are visited monthly as they are operating and samples are reported taken cryogenically during each visit. A gas scrubbing system continuously sample the gas streams of the wells in the intergas scrubbing system continuously sample the gas streams of the wells in the intervals between visit. Results obtained are to correlated the production of the collected compounds with reservoir and well production characteristics.

The Cleary University Geothermal Energy Retrofit project involved: 1. A thermal conductivity test; 2. Assessment of alternative horizontal and vertical ground heat exchanger options; 3. System design; 4. Asphalt was stripped from adjacent parking areas and a vertical geothermal ground heat exchanger system installed; 5. the ground heat exchanger was connected to building; 6. a system including 18 heat pumps, control systems, a manifold and pumps, piping for fluid transfer and ductwork for conditioned air were installed throughout the building.

Each year the Geothermal Technology Division of the US Department of Energy conducts an indepth review of its entire geothermal R and D program. The 2--3 day conference serves several purposes: a status report on current R and D activities, an assessment of progress and problems, a review of management issues, and a technology transfer opportunity between DOE and the US geothermal industry. This year's conference, Program Review 7, was held in San Francisco on March 21--23, 1989. As indicated by its title, ''DOE Research and Development for the Geothermal Marketplace'', Program Review 7 emphasized developing technologies, concepts, and innovations having potential for commercial application in the foreseeable future. Program Review 7 was comprised of eight sessions including an opening session and a special presentation on the ''Role of Geothermal Energy in Minimizing Global Environmental Problems.'' The five technical sessions covered GTD-sponsored R and D in the areas of hydrothermal (two sessions), hot dry rock, geopressured, and magma. Presentations were made by the relevant field researchers, and sessions were chaired by the appropriate DOE Operations Office Geothermal Program Manager. The technical papers and commentary of invited speakers contained in these Proceedings have been compiled in the order in which they were presented at Program Review 7.

The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift and ideal to investigate the processes of rift initiation and the breaking apart of continental lithosphere. Mantle and crust-derived fluids may play a pivotal role in both magmatism and faulting in the EAR. For instance, large quantities of mantle-derived volatiles are emitted at Oldoinyo Lengai volcano [1, 2]. Throughout the EAR, CO2-dominated volatile fluxes are prevalent [3, 4] and often associated with faults (i.e. Rungwe area, Tanzania, [5, 6]). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between volcanism, faulting and the volatile compositions, focusing on the central and southern Kenyan and northern Tanzanian section of the EAR. We report our analysis results for samples obtained during a 2013 field season in Kenya. Gases were sampled at fumaroles and geothermal plants in caldera volcanoes (T=83.1-120.2°C) and springs (T=40-79.6°C and pH 8.5-10) located near volcanoes, intra-rift faults, and a transverse fault (the Kordjya fault, a key fluid source in the Magadi rift) by 4N-NaOH solution-filled and empty Giggenbach bottles. Headspace gases were analyzed by a Gas Chromatograph and a Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer at the University of New Mexico. Both N2/Ar and N2/He ratios of all gases (35.38-205.31 and 142.92-564,272, respectively) range between air saturated water (ASW, 40 and ≥150,000) and MORB (100-200 and 40-50). In addition, an N2-Ar-He ternary diagram supports that the gases are produced by two component (mantle and air) mixing. Gases in the empty bottles from volcanoes and springs have N2 (90.88-895.99 mmom/mol), CO2 (2.47-681.21 mmom/mol), CH4 (0-214.78 mmom/mol), O2 (4.47-131.12 mmom/mol), H2 (0-35.78 mmom/mol), Ar (0.15-10.65 mmom/mol), He (0-2.21 mmom/mol), and CO (0-0.08 mmom/mol). Although some of the samples show an atmospheric component, CO2 is a major component in most samples, indicating both volcanoes and springs are emitting CO2. Gases from volcanoes are enriched in

We describe the lithology and present spatially resolved geochemical analyses of samples from the hydrothermally altered Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP) drill core RN-17B. The 9.3 m long RN-17B core was collected from the seawater-dominated Reykjanes geothermal system, located on the Reykjanes Peninsula, Iceland. The nature of fluids and the location of the Reykjanes geothermal system make it a useful analog for seafloor hydrothermal processes, although there are important differences. The recovery of drill core from the Reykjanes geothermal system, as opposed to drill cuttings, has provided the opportunity to investigate evolving geothermal conditions by utilizing in-situ geochemical techniques in the context of observed paragenetic and spatial relationships of alteration minerals. The RN-17B core was returned from a vertical depth of ~ 2560 m and an in-situ temperature of ~ 345 °C. The primary lithologies are basaltic in composition and include hyaloclastite breccia, fine-grained volcanic sandstone, lithic breccia, and crystalline basalt. Primary igneous phases have been entirely pseudomorphed by calcic plagioclase + magnesium hornblende + chlorite + titanite + albitized plagioclase + vein epidote and sulfides. Despite the extensive hydrothermal metasomatism, original textures including hyaloclastite glass shards, lithic clasts, chilled margins, and shell-fragment molds are superbly preserved. Multi-collector LA-ICP-MS strontium isotope ratio (87Sr/86Sr) measurements of vein epidote from the core are consistent with seawater as the dominant recharge fluid. Epidote-hosted fluid inclusion homogenization temperature and freezing point depression measurements suggest that the RN-17B core records cooling through the two-phase boundary for seawater over time to current in-situ measured temperatures. Electron microprobe analyses of hydrothermal hornblende and hydrothermal plagioclase confirm that while alteration is of amphibolite-grade, it is in disequilibrium

The presence of geothermal aquifers can be detected while drilling in geothermal formations by maintaining a chemical log of the ratio of the concentrations of calcium to carbonate and bicarbonate ions in the return drilling fluid. A continuous increase in the ratio of the concentrations of calcium to carbonate and bicarbonate ions is indicative of the existence of a warm or hot geothermal aquifer at some increased depth.

By taking field investigation, analyzing hydrogeological data and geological characteristics of geothermal field in Yongkou, Yizhang County, the paper makes a research on characteristics and formation of geothermalfluids in this region. The re-sult indicates that geothermal fields are banded and mainly distribute along fault zone. Geothermal water in this region are abundant, in good quality and low temperature.%在综合勘查及水文测试资料的基础上，根据用口地热田的地热地质特征，分析地热田地热流体的特征和成因。结果表明用口地热田属低温地热资源，资源丰富，水质良好，是受断裂控制的带状热储型地热田。

Geothermal exploitation of deep and hot rocks at industrial scale requires an accurate assessment of the available resource. In particular, temperature, porosity, connected porosity, fluids path, permeability, rock volume attainable by drainage, have to be constrained to forecast the potential of an area, and to further manage the heat resource during exploitation. We will present our work devoted to structural controls on fluid circulations in deep granitic basements. The first example is the current Soultz-sous-Forêts EGS being developed for over 20 years in the hot granite of the Upper Rhine Graben. Depth levels of naturally flowing deformation zones are known at well positions, but the fluid flow paths between the boreholes are still poorly understood. Our new developments of Vertical Seismic Profiling methods provide mapping of these permeable structures between the boreholes in 3D, below the sedimentary filling of the graben in the 1500-3500 depth range. As typical hercynian strike directions are identified, this study demonstrates the major role of inherited structures in the control of fluid flow paths. 3D representation with gOcad allows to build a reservoir model from various data. Such 3D approach is of major importance to identify the structural relations between the faults populations, especially their intersections and connectivity. The second example is also located within the European Cenozoic Rift System. Outcropping granites of the Catalan Coastal Ranges allow to access their structures in 3D with a comprehensive set of methods. Multi-scalar fractures have been identified from Digital Elevation Model to field analysis. Carbonate fillings are observed in fractures of specific orientations. They illustrate old fluid flow paths occurring in natural conditions. Conditions of their emplacement are provided by geochemical signatures. The geometry of the veins (orientations and connections) and their distribution illustrate how a rock mass volume can be

All phases of current geothermal development in Imperial County are discussed and future plans for development are reviewed. Topics covered include: Heber status update, Heber binary project, direct geothermal use for high-fructose corn sweetener production, update on county planning activities, Brawley and Salton Sea facility status, status of Imperial County projects, status of South Brawley Prospect 1983, Niland geothermal energy program, recent and pending changes in federal procedures/organizations, plant indicators of geothermalfluid on East Mesa, state lands activities in Imperial County, environmental interests in Imperial County, offshore exploration, strategic metals in geothermalfluids rebuilding of East Mesa Power Plant, direct use geothermal potential for Calipatria industrial Park, the Audubon Society case, status report of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, East Brawley Prospect, and precision gravity survey at Heber and Cerro Prieto geothermal fields. (MHR)

This book explains the engineering required to bring geothermal resources into use. The book covers specifically engineering aspects that are unique to geothermal engineering, such as measurements in wells and their interpretation, transport of near-boiling water through long pipelines, turbines driven by fluids other than steam, and project economics. The explanations are reinforced by drawing comparisons with other energy industries.

The technology of geothermal resource development includes the technologies associated with finding the resource, defining it well enough to invest in its development, plumbing it to move the heat from the earth to where it will be used, using it, and finally disposing of it. The base of earth sciences experience needed to adequately project limited data so as to discover and define a geothermal resource is growing rapidly as new resources are developed and elucidated. Technologies for moving the fluid are improving as new challenges are faced, e.g., the development of downhole pumps in order to increase flow rates from costly wells. Although a wide variety of applications of geothermal resources exist, still to be evaluated commercially are the use of binary cycles in electric power production and the possibility of using geothermal energy in the production of heavy water and in sugar milling and refining. Disposal of spent geothermalfluid underground (in contrast to surface disposal) is receiving increasing favor, both because of its greater acceptability from an environmental point of view and because of its beneficial effects on minimizing subsidence and recovering additional heat stored in rock framework of a geothermal reservoir.

The Waiotapu geothermal system is hosted by silicic rocks of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Exploration drilling in the late 1950s down to 1100 m provided physical information on the system. Measured temperatures show a boiling profile to 295 °C, with shallow inversions, particularly in the north. Total discharge fluid samples were collected; the geothermometry and measured temperatures show that fluids derive mainly from a shallow (~400 m deep) reservoir at about 225°C. Petrologic study of drillcore samples recovered from seven wells reveals an alteration assemblage of quartz and albite + adularia, with a variable distribution of chlorite, pyrite, calcite, zeolites, epidote, pyrrhotite, sphene, leucoxene, apatite and minor base metal sulfides; white mica is a late overprint, particularly well developed at shallow depths. Surficial alteration of kaolin, cristobalite, alunite and smectite clays reflect alteration by acid sulfate, steam-heated waters. The activities of components in minerals (determined from microprobe analyses and composition-activity relations) and fluids (speciated to reservoir conditions) indicate equilibrium now exists between the fluids and white mica; the Na/K ratio of the fluid is being controlled by dissolution of albite and adularia, while its H 2/H 2S ratio is buffered by pyrite replacing pyrrhotite. The fluids are now slightly undersaturated with respect to calcite. The present deep fluids boil adiabatically from at least 300°C to 230°C; at depths of ≤500 m, this ascending chloride fluid is variably diluted by a steam-heated water (of zero chloride) that lies over, and occurs on the margin of, the system like a discontinuous umbrella; the steam-heated water is relatively CO 2-rich (≤0.1 m). The cooling at shallow levels by this mixing has shifted the alteration from albite-adularia stability to white mica stability; this shift is enhanced by the CO 2-rich nature of the diluent. Dilution of ascending chloride fluids by

20091762 Guo Wancheng(Xining Jiulong Engineering Investigation Ltd.,Xining 810700,China);Shi Xingmei Development and Utilization of Guide Basin’s Geothermal Resources of Qinghai Province(Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology,ISSN1000-3665,CN11-2202/P,35(3),2008,p.79-80,92,2 illus.,2 tables,2 refs.)Key words:geothermal resources,QinghaiThis paper introduced the background of geothermal conditions and the many years of geothermal exploration data in Guide Basin.Then,the authors discussed the geothermal resources feature of Guide basin and raised some opinions on the reasonable development and utilization of geothermal resources.

Many numerical models have been developed in deep geothermal reservoir engineering to interpret field measurements of the natural hydro-thermal circulations or to predict exploitation scenarios. They typically aim at analyzing the Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical and Chemical (THMC) coupling including complex rheologies of the rock matrix like thermo-poro-elasticity. Few approaches address in details the role of the fluid rheology and more specifically the non-linear sensitivity of the brine rheology with temperature and pressure. Here we use the finite element Code_Aster to solve the balance equations of a 2D THM model of the Soultz-sous-Forêts reservoir. The brine properties are assumed to depend on the fluid pressure and the temperature as in Magnenet et al. (2014). A sensitive parameter is the thermal dilatation of the brine that is assumed to depend quadratically with temperature as proposed by the experimental measurements of Rowe and Chou (1970). The rock matrix is homogenized at the scale of the equation resolution assuming to have a representative elementary volume of the fractured medium smaller than the mesh size. We still chose four main geological units to adjust the rock physic parameters at large scale: thermal conductivity, permeability, radioactive source production rate, elastic and Biot parameters. We obtain a three layer solution with a large hydro-thermal convection below the cover-basement transition. Interestingly, the geothermal gradient in the sedimentary layer is controlled by the radioactive production rate in the upper altered granite. The second part of the study deals with an inversion approach of the homogenized solid and fluid parameters at large scale using our direct THM model. The goal is to compare the large scale inverted estimates of the rock and brine properties with direct laboratory measurements on cores and discuss their upscaling in the context of a fractured network hydraulically active. Magnenet V., Fond C., Genter A. and

The purpose of this report is to lay the groundwork for an emerging process to assess U.S. geothermal resources that might be suitable for development as Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS). Interviews of leading geothermists indicate that doing that will be intertwined with updating assessments of U.S. higher-quality hydrothermal resources and reviewing methods for discovering ''hidden'' hydrothermal and EGS resources. The report reviews the history and status of assessment of high-temperature geothermal resources in the United States. Hydrothermal, Enhanced, and Hot Dry Rock resources are addressed. Geopressuredgeothermal resources are not. There are three main uses of geothermal resource assessments: (1) They inform industry and other interest parties of reasonable estimates of the amounts and likely locations of known and prospective geothermal resources. This provides a basis for private-sector decisions whether or not to enter the geothermal energy business at all, and for where to look for useful resources. (2) They inform government agencies (Federal, State, local) of the same kinds of information. This can inform strategic decisions, such as whether to continue to invest in creating and stimulating a geothermal industry--e.g., through research or financial incentives. And it informs certain agencies, e.g., Department of Interior, about what kinds of tactical operations might be required to support such activities as exploration and leasing. (3) They help the experts who are performing the assessment(s) to clarify their procedures and data, and in turn, provide the other two kinds of users with a more accurate interpretation of what the resulting estimates mean. The process of conducting this assessment brings a spotlight to bear on what has been accomplished in the domain of detecting and understanding reservoirs, in the period since the last major assessment was conducted.

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of geothermal resource utilization at the Puna Sugar Company cane sugar processing plant, located in Keaau, Hawaii. A proposed well site area was selected based on data from surface exploratory surveys. The liquid dominated well flow enters a binary thermal arrangement, which results in an acceptable quality steam for process use. Hydrogen sulfide in the well gases is incinerated, leaving sulfur dioxide in the waste gases. The sulfur dioxide in turn is recovered and used in the cane juice processing at the sugar factory. The clean geothermal steam from the binary system can be used directly for process requirements. It replaces steam generated by the firing of the waste fibrous product from cane sugar processing. The waste product, called bagasse, has a number of alternative uses, but an evaluation clearly indicated it should continue to be employed for steam generation. This steam, no longer required for process demands, can be directed to increased electric power generation. Revenues gained by the sale of this power to the utility, in addition to other savings developed through the utilization of geothermal energy, can offset the costs associated with hydrothermal utilization.

A comprehensive review covers the recognition of natural hot fluids in ancient times and their use for therapeutic baths; the first production of electricity from geothermal steam at Larderello, Italy, in 1904; the widespread geographical occurrence of geothermalfluids; exploration techniques; the extraction of geothermalfluids and their uses in spas, agriculture, aquaculture, domestic heating, and industrial applications; geothermal greenhouse heating world-wide; geothermal heating of animal and poultry houses, in culture of alligators and crocodiles (in Atagawa, Japan), and in fish culture; piping arrangements for district heating, and a tabulation of district heating installations world-wide; downhole exchanger systems used in Klamath Falls, Oregon, for domestic heating; industrial heating applications; and methods of disposal of geothermalfluids. Maps, diagrams, graphs, photographs, tables, and 48 references are included.

The Acoculco caldera has been recognized by the Mexican Federal Electricity Company (CFE) as a Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System (HDR) and could be a potential candidate for developing an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS). Apart from hydrothermally altered rocks, geothermal manifestations within the Acoculco caldera are scarce. Close to ambient temperature bubbling springs and soil degassing are reported inside the caldera while a few springs discharge warm water on the periphery of the caldera. In this study, we infer the origin of fluids and we characterize for the first time the soil degassing dynamic. Chemical and isotopic (δ18O-δD) analyses of spring waters indicate a meteoric origin and the dissolution of CO2 and H2S gases, while gas chemical and isotopic compositions (N2/He, 3He/4He, 13C, 15N) reveal a magmatic contribution with both MORB- and arc-type signatures which could be explained by an extension regime created by local and regional fault systems. Gas geothermometry results are in agreement with temperature measured during well drilling (260 °C-300 °C). Absence of well-developed water reservoir at depth impedes re-equilibration of gases upon surface. A multi-gas flux survey including CO2, CH4 and H2S measurements was performed within the caldera. Using the graphical statistical analysis (GSA) approach, CO2 flux measurements were classified in two populations. Population A, representing 95% of measured fluxes is characterized by low values (mean: 18 g m- 2 day- 1) while the remaining 5% fluxes belonging to Population B are much higher (mean: 5543 g m- 2 day- 1). This low degassing rate probably reflects the low permeability of the system, a consequence of the intense hydrothermal alteration observed in the upper 800 m of volcanic rocks. An attempt to interpret the origin and transport mechanism of these fluxes is proposed by means of flux ratios as well as by numerical modeling. Measurements with CO2/CH4 and CO2/H2S flux ratios similar to mass ratios

Each year the Geothermal Division of the US Department of Energy conducts an in-depth review of its entire geothermal R&D program. The conference serves several purposes: a status report on current R&D activities, an assessment of progress and problems, a review of management issues, and a technology transfer opportunity between DOE and the US geothermal city. This year`s conference, Program Review X, was held in San Francisco on March 24--26, 1992. The theme of the review, ``Geothermal Energy and the Utility Market -- The Opportunities and Challenges for Expanding Geothermal Energy in a Competitive Supply Market,`` focused on the needs of the electric utility sector. Geothermal energy, with its power capacity potential of 10 GWe by the year 2010, can provide reliable, enviromentally clean electricity which can help offset the projected increase in demand. Program Review X consisted of seven sessions including an opening session with presentations by Mr. Vikram Budhraja, Vice President of System Planning and Operations, Southern California Edison Company, and Mr. Richard Jaros, President and Chief Operating Officer, California Energy Company. The six technical sessions included presentations by the relevant field researchers covering DOE-sponsored R&D in hydrothermal, hot dry rock, and geopressured energy. Individual projects are processed separately for the data bases.

Geothermal Energy Technology (GET) announces on a bimonthly basis the current worldwide information available on the technologies required for economic recovery of geothermal energy and its use as direct heat or for electric power production.

Reliable reservoir performance predictions of enhanced geothermal reservoir systems require accurate and robust modeling for the coupled thermal-hydrological-mechanical processes. Conventionally, in order to reduce computational cost, these types of problems are solved using operator splitting method, usually by sequentially coupling a subsurface flow and heat transport simulator with a solid mechanics simulator via input files. However, such operator splitting approaches are applicable only to loosely coupled problems and usually converge slowly. As in most enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), fluid flow, heat transport, and rock deformation are typically strongly nonlinearly coupled, an alternative is to solve the system of nonlinear partial differential equations that govern the system simultaneously using a fully coupled solution procedure for fluid flow, heat transport, and solid mechanics. This procedure solves for all solution variables (fluid pressure, temperature and rock displacement fields) simultaneously, which leads to one large nonlinear algebraic system that needs to be solved by a strongly convergent nonlinear solver. Development over the past 10 years in the area of physics-based conditioning, strongly convergent nonlinear solvers (such as Jacobian Free Newton methods) and efficient linear solvers (such as GMRES, AMG), makes such an approach competitive. In this presentation, we will introduce a continuum-scaled parallel physics-based, fully coupled, modeling tool for predicting the dynamics of fracture initiation and propagation, fluid flow, rock deformation, and heat transport in a single integrated code named FALCON (Fracturing And Liquid-steam CONvection). FALCON is built upon a parallel computing framework developed at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) for solving coupled systems of nonlinear equations with finite element method with unstructured and adaptively refined/coarsened grids. Currently, FALCON contains poro- and thermal- elastic models

Major activities, programs, and conferences in geothermal energy during 1982 are highlighted. These include first comprehensive national assessment of U.S. low-temperature geothermal resources (conducted by U.S. Geological Survey and Department of Energy), map production by U.S. Geological Survey, geothermal plant production, and others. (JN)

These proceedings describe the workshop of the Topical Meeting on Small Scale Geothermal Power Plants and Geothermal Power Plant Projects. The projects covered include binary power plants, rotary separator, screw expander power plants, modular wellhead power plants, inflow turbines, and the EPRI hybrid power system. Active projects versus geothermal power projects were described. In addition, a simple approach to estimating effects of fluid deliverability on geothermal power cost is described starting on page 119. (DJE-2005)

The results of a geochemical survey on thermal waters and, for the first time for this site, gas discharges in five geothermal sites (Azacualpa "La Cueva", Río Ulua, Río Gualcarque, El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente) in NW Honduras are here presented and discussed. El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente, in the southern part of the Sula graben are very close to a Quaternary basaltic field, whereas Azacualpa "La Cueva", Río Ulua and Río Gualcarque, located to the southwest of the Yojoa Lake, direcly emerge from the Cretaceous limestone deposits. The measured temperatures range between 37.5 and 104.8 °C. "Mature", alkaline, Na-SO4 thermal waters discharge from Azacualpa "La Cueva", while those from El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente are "immature" and show a Na-HCO3 composition. Chemical equilibria of waters and gases from the Azacualpa "La Cueva" thermal springs indicate temperatures ranging from 150 to 200 °C. Conversely, gas discharges from El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente have attained a partial chemical equilibrium in the liquid phase at slightly higher temperatures (200-250 °C), although gas-gas faster reactions involving CO seem to be adjusted in an isothermally separated vapor phase. Unlike Azacualpa, SiO2 geothermometer at El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente indicates equilibrium temperatures for the liquid phase much lower than those calculated for the gas phase (≤ 120 °C). We conclude that thermal waters from the Azacualpa area likely represent the direct emergence of a water dominated reservoir having temperatures ≤ 150-200 °C. By contrast, at El Olivar and Laguna de Agua Caliente hot springs are supplied by a boiling shallow aquifer fed by a vapor phase rising from a steam-dominated zone. The above geochemical model is consistent with a geothermal reservoir hosted within the Cretaceous carbonate sequences of the Yojoa Group in the whole investigated sites. The reservoir extensively crops out in the Azacualpa area whereas the

This manual includes geothermalfluid chemistry, corrosion test data, and materials operating experience. Systems using geothermal energy in El Salvador, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, and the United States are described. The manual provides materials selection guidelines for surface equipment of future geothermal energy systems. The key chemical species that are significant in determining corrosiveness of geothermalfluids are identified. The utilization modes of geothermal energy are defined as well as the various physical fluid parameters that affect corrosiveness. Both detailed and summarized results of materials performance tests and applicable operating experiences from forty sites throughout the world are presented. The application of various non-metal materials in geothermal environments are discussed. Included in appendices are: corrosion behavior of specific alloy classes in geothermalfluids, corrosion in seawater desalination plants, worldwide geothermal power production, DOE-sponsored utilization projects, plant availability, relative costs of alloys, and composition of alloys. (MHR)

In low permeability shale reservoirs, multi-stage hydraulic fracturing is largely used to increase the productivity by enlarging the stimulated rock volume. Hydraulic fracture created alters the stress field around it, and affects the subsequent fractures by the change of the stress field, in particular, mostly increased minimum principal stress at the area of subsequent fracturing. This is called stress shadow which accumulates as the fracturing stages advance from toe to heel. Hydraulic fractures generated in such altered stress field are shorter and compact with orientation deviating significantly from the far-field maximum horizontal stress orientation. This paper presents 2D discrete element-based numerical modeling of multi-stage hydraulic fracturing in a naturally fractured reservoir and investigates stress shadowing. The stress shadowing is tested with two different injection scenarios: constant and cyclic rate injections. The results show that cyclic injection tends to lower the effect of stress shadow as well as mitigates the magnitude of the induced seismicity. Another modeling case is presented to show how the stress shadow can be utilized to optimize a hydraulic fracture network in application to Groß Schönebeck geothermal reservoir, rather than being mitigated. The modeling demonstrated that the stress shadow is successfully utilized for optimizing the geothermal heat exchanger by altering the initial in situ stress field from highly anisotropic to less or even to isotropic.

Each year the Geothermal Division of the US Department of Energy conducts an in-depth review of its entire geothermal R D program. The conference serves several purposes: a status report on current R D activities, an assessment of progress and problems, a review of management issues, and a technology transfer opportunity between DOE and the US geothermal city. This year's conference, Program Review X, was held in San Francisco on March 24--26, 1992. The theme of the review, Geothermal Energy and the Utility Market -- The Opportunities and Challenges for Expanding Geothermal Energy in a Competitive Supply Market,'' focused on the needs of the electric utility sector. Geothermal energy, with its power capacity potential of 10 GWe by the year 2010, can provide reliable, enviromentally clean electricity which can help offset the projected increase in demand. Program Review X consisted of seven sessions including an opening session with presentations by Mr. Vikram Budhraja, Vice President of System Planning and Operations, Southern California Edison Company, and Mr. Richard Jaros, President and Chief Operating Officer, California Energy Company. The six technical sessions included presentations by the relevant field researchers covering DOE-sponsored R D in hydrothermal, hot dry rock, and geopressured energy. Individual projects are processed separately for the data bases.

Natural geothermal systems are limited areas characterized by anomalously high heat flow caused by recent tectonic or magmatic activity. The heat source at depth is the result of the emplacement of magma bodies, controlled by the regional volcano-tectonic setting. In contrast, at a local scale a well-developed fault-fracture network favors the development of hydrothermal cells, and promotes the vertical advection of fluids and heat. The Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), straddling Chile and Argentina, has an important, yet unexplored and undeveloped geothermal potential. Studies on the lithological and tectonic controls of the hydrothermal circulation are therefore important for a correct assessment of the geothermal potential of the region. Here, new and dense self-potential (SP), soil CO2 and temperature (T) measurements, and helium isotope data measured in fumaroles and thermal springs from the geothermal area located in the north-eastern flank of the Copahue volcanic edifice, within the Caviahue Caldera (the Caviahue-Copahue Volcanic Complex - CCVC) are presented. Our results allowed to the constraint of the structural origin of the active thermal areas and the understanding of the evolution of the geothermal system. NE-striking faults in the area, characterized by a combination of SP, CO2, and T maxima and high 3He/4He ratios (up to 8.16 ± 0.21Ra, whereas atmospheric Ra is 1.382 × 10- 6), promote the formation of vertical permeability preferential pathways for fluid circulation. WNW-striking faults represent low-permeability pathways for hydrothermal fluid ascent, but promote infiltration of meteoric water at shallow depths, which dilute the hydrothermal input. The region is scattered with SP, CO2, and T minima, representing self-sealed zones characterized by impermeable altered rocks at depth, which create local barriers for fluid ascent. The NE-striking faults seem to be associated with the upflowing zones of the geothermal system, where the boiling process

numerical simulations using the Finite Element Method to model the poroelastic response of the crust to the fluid extraction and re-injection at the power plants, based on Biot's equations. The equations are solved implicitly using the code Defmod. We include the real extraction and injection rates, obtained from the power plant operator. These rates induce pressure change in the system and consequently drive the flow of pore fluids and the deformation. Preliminary results show that the observed surface deformation can in parts be explained by this effect. We use an iterative scheme to reduce residuals by parameter variation to gain a better understanding of the geometry and hydraulic parameters of the geothermal reservoir as well as the properties of the local crust.

We measured noble gas and stable isotopes of the geothermal and hydrothermal fluids of the Caviahue-Copahue Volcanic Complex (CCVC), one of the most important geothermal systems in Argentina/Chile, in order to provide new insights into fluid circulation and origin. With the exception of Anfiteatro and Chancho-co geothermal systems, mantle-derived helium dominates in the CCVC fluids, with measured 3He/4He ratios up to 7.86Ra in 2015. Their positive δ15N is an evidence for subducted sediment-derived nitrogen, which is commonly observed in subduction settings. Both He-N2-Ar composition and positive correlation between δD-H2O and δ18O-H2O suggest that the fluids from Anfiteatro and Chancho-co (and partly from Pucon-Mahuida as well, on the southern flank of Copahue volcano) represent a meteoric water composition with a minor magmatic contribution. The Ne, Kr and Xe isotopic compositions are entirely of atmospheric origin, but processes of boiling and steam separation have led to fractionation of their elemental abundances. We modeled the CCVC fluid evolution using Rayleigh distillation curves, considering an initial air saturated geothermal water (ASGW) end-member at 250 and 300 °C, followed by boiling and steam separation at lower temperatures (from 200 °C to 150 °C). Between 2014 and 2015, the CCVC hydrogen and oxygen isotopes shifted from local meteoric water-dominated to andesitic water-dominated signature. This shift is associated with an increase of δ13C values and Stotal, HCl and He contents. These characteristics are consistent with a change in the gas ascent pathway between 2014 and 2015, which in turn induced higher magmatic-hydrothermal contribution in the fluid signature. The composition of the magmatic source of the CCVC fluids is: 3He/4He = 7.7Ra, δ15N = + 6‰, and δ13C = - 6.5‰. Mixing models between air-corrected He and N suggest the involvement of 0.5% to 5% of subducted sediments in the magmatic source. The magmatic sulfur isotopic

in the vicinity of major fault systems. We presume that the likely mechanism for the increase in GTG is fluid advection from a deeper part of the basin. A detailed thermal modeling involving the effect of surface topography, high sedimentation rates, fluid...

The Town of Lakeview is proposing to construct and operate a geothermal direct use district heating system in Lakeview, Oregon. The proposed project would be in Lake County, Oregon, within the Lakeview Known Geothermal Resources Area (KGRA). The proposed project includes the following elements: Drilling, testing, and completion of a new production well and geothermal water injection well; construction and operation of a geothermal production fluid pipeline from the well pad to various Town buildings (i.e., local schools, hospital, and Lake County Industrial Park) and back to a geothermal water injection well. This EA describes the proposed project, the alternatives considered, and presents the environmental analysis pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act. The project would not result in adverse effects to the environment with the implementation of environmental protection measures.

The Stanford University research program on the study of stimulation and reservoir engineering of geothermal resources commenced as an interdisciplinary program in September, 1972. The broad objectives of this program have been: (1) the development of experimental and computational data to evaluate the optimum performance of fracture-stimulated geothermal reservoirs; (2) the development of a geothermal reservoir model to evaluate important thermophysical, hydrodynamic, and chemical parameters based on fluid-energy-volume balances as part of standard reservoir engineering practice; and (3) the construction of a laboratory model of an explosion-produced chimney to obtain experimental data on the processes of in-place boiling, moving flash fronts, and two-phase flow in porous and fractured hydrothermal reservoirs.

This is the first of two significant assessments of the geological energy potential of the U.S. The second one is U.S.G.S. Circular 790. Systems analyzed include: Hydrothermal convection systems (with estimates of potential for many specific sites in the West), Igneous related systems (related to current or recent volcanism), Estimates of the conductive transport of heat in most areas of CONUS, Recovery of heat from molten igneous systems (magma), and Geopressuredgeothermal energy in the Gulf Coast area. The significance of this report is that it began to give policy makers a first handle on the quantities and qualities of geothermal energy in the ground in much of the U.S. Economics (costs and revenues) are not considered. (DJE - 2005)

Pakistan, despite the enormous potential of its energy resources, remains energy deficient and has to rely heavily on imports of hydrocarbon products to satisfy hardly its needs. Moreover, a very large part of the rural areas does not have the electrification facilities because they are either too remote and/or too expensive to connect to the national grid. Pakistan has wide spectrum of high potential renewable energy sources, conventional and as well non-conventional. Many of them have not been adequately explored, exploited and developed. Geothermal energy is one of them. Pakistan can be benefited by harnessing the geothermal option of energy generation as substitute energy in areas where sources exist. Most of the high enthalpy geothermal resources of the world are within the seismic belts associated with zones of crustal weakness like the seismo-tectonic belt that passes through Pakistan having inherited a long geological history of geotectonic events. The present study of the geotectonic framework suggests that Pakistan should not be lacking in commercially exploitable sources of geothermal energy. This view is further strengthened by (a) the fairly extensive development of alteration zones and fumeroles in many regions of Pakistan, (b) the presence of a fairly large number of hot springs in different parts of the country, and (c) the indications of Quaternary volcanism associated with the Chagai arc extending into Iran and Afghanistan border areas. These manifestations of geothermal energy are found within three geotectonic or geothermal environments, i.e., (1) geo-pressurized systems related to basin subsidence, (2) seismo-tectonic or suture-related systems, and (3) systems related to Neogene-Quaternary volcanism. A few localities, scattered sporadically all over the country, have been studied to evaluate only some of the basic characteristic parameters of the geothermal prospects. The present review study the geothermal activities of varying intensity and

This handbook is intended to assist the physicist, chemist, engineer, and geologist engaged in discovering and developing geothermal energy resources. This first section contains a glossary of the approximately 500 most frequently occurring geological, physical, and engineering terms, chosen from the geothermal literature. Sections 2 through 8 are fact sheets that discuss such subjects as geothermal gradients, rock classification, and geological time scales. Section 9 contains conversion tables for the physical quantities of interest for energy research in general and for geothermal research in particular.

With increased emphasis on geothermal development new exploration methods are needed in order to improve general understanding of geothermal reservoirs, characterize their extent and assess the potential for sustainable power production. Monitoring of acoustic emissions within geothermal areas may provide a new tool to evaluate the spatial extent of geothermal fields and model rock-fluid interactions. Three-dimensional seismic data have been used to assess the spatial and temporal distribution of noise within several high-temperature geothermal fields in Iceland. Seismic noise in the 4-6 Hz range within the Svartsengi field can be attributed to steam hydraulics and pressure oscillations within the geothermal reservoirs. Seismic noise surveys compliment electrical resistivity soundings and TEM-surveys by providing information pertinent to the current geothermal activity and extent of steam fields within the uppermost crust of the geothermal reservoir. Information related to acoustic emissions can thus help define targets for future wells.

With the termination of favorable electricity generation pricing policies, the geothermal industry is exploring ways to improve the efficiency of existing plants and make them more cost-competitive with natural gas. The Geothermal Energy Conversion Facility (GECF) at NREL will allow researchers to study various means for increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of binary cycle geothermal plants. This work has received considerable support from the US geothermal industry and will be done in collaboration with industry members and utilities. The GECF is being constructed on NREL property at the top of South Table Mountain in Golden, Colorado. As shown in Figure 1, it consists of an electrically heated hot water loop that provides heating to a heater/vaporizer in which the working fluid vaporizes at supercritical or subcritical pressures as high as 700 psia. Both an air-cooled and water-cooled condenser will be available for condensing the working fluid. In order to minimize construction costs, available equipment from the similar INEL Heat Cycle Research Facility is being utilized.

Uncontrolled heat transfer from production/injection tubing during thermal oil recovery via steam injection can be detrimental to the integrity of the casing and to the quality of the steam that is injected into the reservoir. An aqueous-based insulating packer fluid (IPF) was introduced to improve the steam injection process by controlling the total heat loss from the produced fluids to the surrounding wellbore, internal annuli and formation. The IPF was developed for elevated temperature environments through extensive investigation across multidisciplinary technology. The innovative system delivers performance beyond conventional systems of comparable thermal conductivity. Its density range and conductivity measurements were presented in this paper. High-temperature static aging tests showed superior gel integrity without any phase separation after exposure to temperatures higher than 260 degrees C. The new fluids are hydrate inhibitive, non-corrosive and pass oil and grease testing. They are considered to be environmentally sound by Gulf of Mexico standards. It was concluded that the new ultra high-performance insulating packer fluid (HTIPF) reduced the heat loss significantly by both conduction and convection. Heat transfer within the aqueous-based HTIPF was 97 per cent less than that of pure water. It was concluded that the HTIPF can be substituted for conventional packer fluids without compromising any well control issues. 21 refs., 1 tab., 4 figs.

Geothermal Energy (GET) announces on a bimonthly basis the current worldwide information available on the technologies required for economic recovery of geothermal energy and its use as direct heat or for electric power production. This publication contains the abstracts of DOE reports, journal articles, conference papers, patents, theses, and monographs added to the Energy Science and Technology Database during the past two months.

Development of geothermal energy and basin-scale simulations of fluid and heat flow both suffer from uncertain physical rock properties at depth. Therefore, building better prognostic models are required. We analysed hydraulic and thermal properties of the major rock types in the Molasse Basin in Southern Germany. On about 400 samples thermal conductivity, density, porosity, and sonic velocity were measured. Here, we propose a three-step procedure with increasing complexity for analysis of the data set: First, univariate descriptive statistics provides a general understanding of the data structure, possibly still with large uncertainty. Examples show that the remaining uncertainty can be as high as 0.8 W/(m K) or as low as 0.1 W/(m K). This depends on the possibility to subdivide the geologic units into data sets that are also petrophysically similar. Then, based on all measurements, cross-plot and quick-look methods are used to gain more insight into petrophysical relationships and to refine the analysis. Be...

Lumpur Sidoarjo is one of geothermalfluid types which has a great potential as source of lithium. Adsorption method with Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) as an adsorbent has been chosen for lithium recovery process due to low production cost and environmental friendly. LiMn2O4 was synthesized by hydrothermal method at 200 °C for 24 hrs, 48 hrs, and 72 hrs. As prepared LiMn2O4 powder is treated by acid treatment with 0.5 M HCl solution for 24 hrs. XRD test result reveals that all of as-prepared samples are indexed as spinel structure of LiMn2O4 (JCPDS card no 35-0782) with no impurity peaks detected. SEM images show that LiMn2O4 has nanoparticles morphology with particle size around 25 nm. The highest adsorption efficiency of adsorbent is obtained by sample hydrothermal for 72 hrs with 42.76%.

We model condensation processes in geothermal systems to understand how this process changes fluid chemistry. We assume two processes operate in geothermal systems: 1) condensation of a vapor phase derived by boiling an aqueous geothermalfluid into a cool near surface water and 2) condensation of a magmatic vapor by a deep circulating meteoric thermal fluid. It is assumed that the condensation process has two stages. Initially the condensing fluid is under saturated in gaseous species. Condensation of the vapor phase continues until the pressure on the fluid equals the sum of the partial pressures of water and the dissolved gaseous species. At that time bubbles flux through the condensing fluid. In time the fluid and fluxing gas phase come to equilibrium. Calculation shows that during the second stage of the condensation process the liquid phase becomes enriched in more soluble gaseous species like CO2 and H2S, and depleted in less soluble species like CH4 and N2. Stage 2 condensation processes can therefore be monitored by ratios of more and less condensable species like CO2/N2. Condensation of vapor released by boiling geothermalfluids results in liquids with high concentrations of H2S and CO2 like is seen in geothermal system steam-heated waters. Condensation of a magmatic vapor into circulating meteoric water has been proposed, but not well demonstrated. We compare to our models the Cerro Prieto, Mexico gas analysis data set collected over twelve years time by USGS personnel. It was assumed for modeling that the Cerro Prieto geothermalfluids are circulating meteoritic fluids with N2/Ar ratios about 40 to which is added a magmatic vapor with N2/Ar ratio = 400. The Cerro Prieto analyses show a strong correlation between N2/Ar and CO2/N2 as predicted by calculation. Two dimensional image plots of well N2/Ar + CO2/N2 show a bull's-eye pattern on the geothermal field. Image plots of analyses collected over a year or less time show N2/Ar and CO2/N2 hot spots

In the second part of the review of modern geothermal power plant technologies and equipment, a role, a usage scale, and features of application of binary cycle plants in the geothermal economy are considered. Data on the use of low-boiling fluids, their impact on thermal parameters and performance of geothermal binary power units are presented. A retrospective of the use of various low-boiling fluids in industrial binary power units in the world since 1965 is shown. It is noted that the current generating capacity of binary power units running on hydrocarbons is equal to approximately 82.7% of the total installed capacity of all the binary power units in the world. At the same time over the past 5 years, the total installed capacity of geothermal binary power units in 25 countries increased by more than 50%, reaching nearly 1800 MW (hereinafter electric power is indicated), by 2015. A vast majority of the existing binary power plants recovers heat of geothermalfluid in the range of 100-200°C. Binary cycle power plants have an average unit capacity of 6.3 MW, 30.4 MW at single-flash power plants, 37.4 MW at double-flash plants, and 45.4 MW at power plants working on superheated steam. The largest binary cycle geothermal power plants (GeoPP) with an installed capacity of over 60 MW are in operation in the United States and the Philippines. In most cases, binary plants are involved in the production process together with a steam cycle. Requirements to the fluid ensuring safety, reliability, and efficiency of binary power plants using heat of geothermalfluid are determined, and differences and features of their technological processes are shown. Application of binary cycle plants in the technological process of combined GeoPPs makes it possible to recover geothermalfluid more efficiently. Features and advantages of binary cycle plants using multiple fluids, including a Kalina Cycle, are analyzed. Technical characteristics of binary cycle plants produced by various

This report assesses the feasibility of injection as an alternative for geothermal wastewater disposal and analyzes hydrologic controls governing the upward migration of injected fluids. Injection experiences at several geothermal developments are presented including the following: Raft River Valley, Salton Sea, East Mesa, Otake, Hatchobaru, and Ahuachapan geothermal fields.

The stimulation of geothermal wells presents some new and challenging problems. Formation temperatures in the 300-600 F range can be expected. The behavior of stimulation fluids, frac proppants, and equipment at these temperatures in a hostile brine environment must be carefully evaluated before performance expectations can be determined. In order to avoid possible damage to the producing horizon of the formation, high temperature chemical compatibility between the in situ materials and the stimulation materials must be verified. Perhaps most significant of all, in geothermal wells the required techniques must be capable of bringing about the production of very large amounts of fluid. This necessity for high flow rates represents a significant departure from conventional petroleum well stimulation and demands the creation of very high near-wellbore permeability and/or fractures with very high flow conductivity.

The history of geothermal exploration in Hawaii is reviewed briefly. The nature and occurrences of geothermal resources are presented island by island. An overview of geothermal markets is presented. Other topies covered are: potential markets of the identified geothermal areas, well drilling technology, hydrothermal fluid transport, overland and submarine electrical transmission, community aspects of geothermal development, legal and policy issues associated with mineral and land ownership, logistics and infrastructure, legislation and permitting, land use controls, Regulation 8, Public Utilities Commission, political climate and environment, state plans, county plans, geothermal development risks, and business planning guidelines.

Our studies have had an important impact on societal issues. Experimental and field observations show that CO2 degassing, such as might occur from stored CO2 reservoir gas, can result in significant stable isotopic disequilibrium. In the offshore South Ellwood field of the Santa Barbara channel, we show how oil production has reduced natural seep rates in the area, thereby reducing greenhouse gases. Permeability is calculated to be ~20-30 millidarcys for km-scale fault-focused fluid flow, using changes in natural gas seepage rates from well production, and poroelastic changes in formation pore-water pressure. In the Los Angeles (LA) basin, our characterization of formation water chemistry, including stable isotopic studies, allows the distinction between deep and shallow formations waters. Our multiphase computational-based modeling of petroleum migration demonstrates the important role of major faults on geological-scale fluid migration in the LA basin, and show how petroleum was dammed up against the Newport-Inglewood fault zone in a “geologically fast” interval of time (less than 0.5 million years). Furthermore, these fluid studies also will allow evaluation of potential cross-formational mixing of formation fluids. Lastly, our new study of helium isotopes in the LA basin shows a significant leakage of mantle helium along the Newport Inglewood fault zone (NIFZ), at flow rates up to 2 cm/yr. Crustal-scale fault permeability (~60 microdarcys) and advective versus conductive heat transport rates have been estimated using the observed helium isotopic data. The NIFZ is an important deep-seated fault that may crosscut a proposed basin decollement fault in this heavily populated area, and appears to allow seepage of helium from the mantle sources about 30 km beneath Los Angeles. The helium study has been widely cited in recent weeks by the news media, both in radio and on numerous web sites.

There is a large geothermal field in Bozhou City , this paper appraised the geothermalfluids quality conditions and environmental impact in accordance with the relevant national standards. Bozhou City geothermalfluid have 41 ~ 52.℃.of.water temperature , with a value of human health, physical therapy of hot mineral water, is suitable as bathing and heating and other health development and utilization, not for directly as drinking water, water for irrigation and fisheries.%亳州城区蕴藏有一处大型地热田，本文依据国家相关标准分别对其地热流体进行质量和环境影响评价。亳州城区地热水温41～52℃，具有人体保健理疗价值，适宜作为理疗热矿水保健洗浴和供暖等开发利用；一般不适宜直接作为饮用水、灌溉用水和渔业用水。

Isotopics data (oxygen-18 and deuterium) from production and reinjection well fluids from the Los Azufres geothermal field were interpreted in order to define the reservoir evolution and the occurrence of physical processes as a consequence of exploitation. The study included data for 25 wells for 1994-1996. Chemical and production data were also studied in order to explain the isotopic characteristics of the fluids. General results indicated that different phenomena seem to occur for both field zones. In the southern zone (Tejamaniles), a mixture of fluids was evidenced by the deuterium vs oxygen-18 tendency which provides a positive slope. The isotopically enriched fluid is constituted by the reinjection fluid. In the northern zone, (Maritaro) there was no evidence that the reinjection fluid is appearing in well discharges. For this zone the dominant process seems to be the reservoir vapour separation at a temperature above 220 degrees Celsius. This was suggested by the deuterium vs oxygen-18 tendency for which a negative slope was found. This trend is characteristics of a vapour separation process since for temperatures above 220 degrees Celsius deuterium behaves as a volatile component. The study of the reservoir temperatures estimated by different approaches for particular wells through time and the results obtained with a heat and fluid flow well simulator, suggest that reservoir boiling occurs in localized areas for both zones of the field. This process is probably due to exploitation. [Espanol] En este trabajo se presenta una interpretacion de datos de composicion isotopica (oxigeno-18 y deuterio) de fluidos de pozos productores y de reinyeccion del campo geotermico de Los Azufres. Estos datos se obtuvieron entre 1994 y 1996 con el proposito de definir la evolucion del yacimiento e identificar los procesos dominantes surgidos como consecuencia de la explotacion del campo. El estudio comprendio un numero de 25 pozos productores y de reinyeccion. La

Each year the Geothermal Division of the US Department of Energy conducts an in-depth review of its entire geothermal R D program. The conference serves several purposes: a status report on current R D activities, an assessment of progress and problems, a review of management issues, and a technology transfer opportunity between DOE and the US geothermal community. This year's conference, Program Review IX, was held in San Francisco on March 19--21, 1991. The theme of this review was The Geothermal Partnership -- Industry, Utilities, and Government Meeting the Challenges of the 90's.'' The importance of this partnership has increased markedly as demands for improved technology must be balanced with available research resources. By working cooperatively, the geothermal community, including industry, utilities, DOE, and other state and federal agencies, can more effectively address common research needs. The challenge currently facing the geothermal partnership is to strengthen the bonds that ultimately will enhance opportunities for future development of geothermal resources. Program Review IX consisted of eight sessions including an opening session. The seven technical sessions included presentations by the relevant field researchers covering DOE-sponsored R D in hydrothermal, hot dry rock, and geopressured energy and the progress associated with the Long Valley Exploratory Well. Individual papers have been cataloged separately.

This document presents site-specific data and sample development schedules for the first plant on line at 30 hydrothermal and 7 geopressured prospective sites (prospects) that are believed to be suited for supporting the geothermal generation of electricity. This report includes many prospects from an earlier METREK report on geothermal development scenarios. The list has been augmented with other sites chosen as development prospects by the division of Geothermal Energy (DGE) of the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). The DGE additions include a general area called ''Cascade Range''. METREK has chosen the following specific Cascade Range Sites in place of that general area: Baker Hot Springs, Mount Hood, Lassen and Glass Mountain/ Diablo. All the prospects have been selected on the basis of current knowledge of hydrothermal and geopressured resources. The selection is intended for program planning purposes. Neither METREK nor the Federal government warrants that any of these sites will necessarily be developed, nor does their selection necessarily imply any commitment on the part of the Federal government to their development. [DJE-2005

The Internet has become such an important part of our every day life. It can be used to correspond with people across the world, a lot faster than to send a letter in the mail. The Internet has a wealth of information that is available to anybody just by searching for it. Sometimes you get more information than you ever wanted to know and sometimes you can’t find any information. This paper will only cover a small portion of the websites and their links that have geothermal information concerning reservoir engineering, enhanced geothermal systems, hot dry rock and other aspects of geothermal. Some of the websites below are located in the US others international, such as, geothermal associations, and websites where you can access publications. Most of the websites listed below also have links to other websites for even more information.

Geothermal resources have been classified into low, intermediate and high enthalpy resources by their reservoir temperatures. The temperature ranges used are arbitrary and there is not a general agreement. Geothermal resources should be classified by two independent thermodynamic properties of their fluids at the wellhead. They should reflect the fluids availability to do work. By setting the triple point of water as the sink condition, and normalising the fluids specific exergies by the maximum specific exergy of dry saturated steam, geothermal resources can be classified into high, medium, and low category resources by their specific exergy indices (SEI) of greater than 0.5, between 0.05 and 0.5, and less than 0.05. These correspond to geothermalfluids having exergies greater than that of dry saturated steam at 1 bar absolute, between saturated water and dry saturated steam at 1 bar absolute, and less than saturated water at 1 bar absolute respectively.

This report reviews enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) research outside the United States. The term ''enhanced geothermal systems'' refers to the use of advanced technology to extract heat energy from underground in areas with higher than average heat flow but where the natural permeability or fluid content is limited. EGS covers the spectrum of geothermal resources from low permeability hydrothermal to hot dry rock.

Geothermal energy is produced when water coming down from the surface of the earth and met with magma or hot rocks, which the heat comes from the very high levels of magma rises from the earth. This process produced a heated fluid supplied to a power generator system to finally use as energy. Geothermal field usually associated with volcanic area with a component from igneous rocks and a complex geological structures. The fracture and fault structure are important geological structures associated with geothermal. Furthermore, their geothermal manifestations also need to be evaluated associated their geological structures. The appearance of a geothermal surface manifestation is close to the structure of the fracture and the caldera volcanic areas. The relationship between the fault and geothermal manifestations can be seen in the form of a pattern of alignment between the manifestations of geothermal locations with other locations on the fault system. The use of remote sensing using electromagnetic radiation sensors to record images of the Earth's environment that can be interpreted to be a useful information. In this study, remote sensing was applied to determine the geological structure and mapping of the distribution of rocks and alteration rocks. It was found that remote sensing obtained a better localize areas of geothermal prospects, which in turn could cut the chain of geothermal exploration to reduce a cost of geothermal exploration.

This study was made as a specific contribution to an overall report by the United States in the area of industrial utilization of geothermal resources. This is part of an overall study in non-electrical uses of geothermal resources for a sub-committee of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This study was restricted to the geopressured zone along the Northern Gulf of Mexico Coast. Also, it was limited to utilizing the thermal energy of this ''geoenergy'' resource for process use in the Pulp and Paper Industry and Cane Sugar Industry. For the selected industries and resource area, this report sets forth energy requirements; identifies specific plant and sites; includes diagrams of main processes used; describes process and equipment modifications required; describes energy recovery systems; sets forth waste disposal schemes and problems; and establishes the economics involved. The scope of work included considerable data collection, analysis and documentation. Detailed technical work was done concerning existing processes and modifications to effectively utilize geothermal energy. A brief survey was made of other industries to determine which of these has a high potential for utilizing geothermal energy.

A detailed analysis was conducted to determine the adequacy of the total research efforts regarding the potential environmental impacts related to the exploration, drilling, production, and transmission stages of vapor-dominated, liquid-dominated, geopressured, and hot-dry-rock geothermal resources. The following environmental considerations were selected and analyzed in detail: air emissions (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, mercury, boron, radon, etc.); liquid emissions (brine, and toxic chemicals); land subsidence; seismic activity; and noise. Following the definition of the problem and the assessment of the past and ongoing research efforts, environmental research needs were then recommended based on: (1) the severity of the environmental problems as perceived by literature and contacts with the research community; (2) probability of occurrence; (3) and the research dependency for a solution to that particular problem. The recommended research needs consisted of: (1) an evaluation of the past and ongoing research efforts to ascertain gaps in knowledge for a particular pollutant, process, or control technology; (2) baseline studies of air, soil, water, and ecology around the existing geothermal facilities and in the locations scheduled for future geothermal development; (3) need for the development of appropriate models for predicting concentration and dispersion of pollutants; (4) development of predictive models for potential health and environmental effects associated with geothermal operations; and (5) development of appropriate control technology to destroy, remove or reduce harmful emissions in order to prevent the occurrence of environmental and health hazards and to comply with existing standards and criteria.

Geothermal reinjection involves injecting energy-depleted fluid back into geothermal systems, providing an effective mode of waste-water disposal as well as supplementary fluid recharge. Cooling of production boreholes is one of the main disadvantages associated with reinjection, however. Tracer testing is an important tool for reinjection studies because tracer tests actually have a predictive power since tracer transport is orders of magnitude faster than cold-front advancement around reinj...

Brines of geothermal facilities may contain radionuclides of the natural decay series as well as the potassium isotope {sup 40}K. Origin and disposal of these radionuclides was investigated for the geothermal facility in Neustadt-Glewe, Germany. A selective accumulation of radium isotopes and {sup 210}Pb at the inner surface of the facility was proved by a nuclide balance.

A program was developed to explore the strength of the geothermal and hot dry rock (HDR) resource at the Montezuma Hot Springs at the United World College (UWC). The purpose of the UWC {number_sign}1 well is to obtain hydrologic, geologic, and temperature information for ongoing geothermal evaluation of the Montezuma Hot Springs area. If sufficient fluids are encountered, the hole will be cased with a 4 1/2 inch production casing and re-permitted as a geothermal low-temperature well. If no fluid is encountered, the well will be abandoned per Oil Conservation Division regulation. The objectives of the exploration are to evaluate the resource potential to provide space heating for the entire campus of the United World College, determine the effect of a well on the Hot Springs outflow, accurately measure the UWC heating loads versus time, evaluate the potential to support local thermal industry development, assess the feasibility of HDR development, and create an educational program from the collection of data derived from the research effort.

Geothermal systems extract heat energy from the interior of the earth using a working fluid, typically water. Three components are required for a commercially viable geothermal system: heat, fluid, and permeability. Current commercial electricity production using geothermal energy occurs where the three main components exist naturally. These are called hydrothermal systems. In the US, there is an estimated 30 GW of base load electrical power potential for hydrothermal sites. Next generation geothermal systems, named Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), have an estimated potential of 4500 GW. EGSs lack in-situ fluid, permeability or both. As such, the heat exchange system must be developed or "engineered" within the rock. The envisioned method for producing permeability in the EGS reservoir is hydraulic fracturing, which is rarely practiced in the geothermal industry, and not well understood for the rocks typically present in geothermal reservoirs. High costs associated with trial and error learning in the field have led to an effort to characterize fluid flow and fracturing mechanisms in the laboratory to better understand how to design and manage EGS reservoirs. Neutron radiography has been investigated for potential use in this characterization. An environmental chamber has been developed that is suitable for reproduction of EGS pressures and temperatures and has been tested for both flow and precipitations studies with success for air/liquid interface imaging and 3D reconstruction of precipitation within the core.

Isotopes of noble gases, CO2, H2O and Sr were measured in 10 geothermal wells and 8 hot springs, fumaroles and mud volcanoes at Los Azufres, the second most important geothermal field in Mexico. The aim of this study is to provide additional information on fluid circulation in the field and surrounding areas (Araró hot springs), as well as on physical processes such as boiling, steam separation and invasion of re-injected brines following over 25 years of geothermalfluid exploitation. Mantle helium dominates in fluids from the northern production zone of Marítaro, with measured 3He/4He ratios up to 7 Ra (where Ra is the atmospheric ratio of 1.386 × 10- 6). 3He/4He ratios are positively correlated with 87Sr/86Sr ratios and with δD and δ18O. These relationships suggest that Los Azufres fluids represent a mixing between primary magmatic 3He-rich fluids and groundwater currently discharging at Araró hot springs and enriched in radiogenic 4He acquired from Miocene andesites. Unusually high He ratios together with radiogenic Sr isotopic ratios suggest that thermal waters acquired mantle He from deep-seated parent magmas and radiogenic Sr possibly during their uprising through the metamorphic basement. 40Ar/36Ar ratios of 366 to 429 measured in two wells indicate either mantle-derived argon or a radiogenic 40Ar in situ component, suggesting the local presence of an older crustal fluid component in the northern part of the field. Ne, Kr and Xe are entirely of atmospheric origin, but processes of boiling, steam separation and re-injection of used brines have led to fractionation of their elemental abundances. Comparison with previous studies suggests that the boiling zone in the northern production zone is currently extending further north (Marítaro hot springs). In the southwestern productive zone, re-injected brines might account for more than 90% of the exploited fluids.

Recent studies suggest that mineral dissolution/precipitation and clay swelling effects could have a major impact on the performance of hot dry rock (HDR) and hot fractured rock (HFR) reservoirs. A major concern is achieving and maintaining adequate injectivity, while avoiding the development of preferential short-circuiting flow paths. A Pitzer ionic interaction model has been introduced into the publicly available TOUGHREACT code for solving non-isothermal multi-phase reactive geochemical transport problems under conditions of high ionic strength, expected in typical HDR and HFR systems. To explore chemically-induced effects of fluid circulation in these systems, we examine ways in which the chemical composition of reinjected waters can be modified to improve reservoir performance. We performed a number of coupled thermo-hydrologic-chemical simulations in which the fractured medium was represented by a one-dimensional MINC model (multiple interacting continua). Results obtained with the Pitzer activity coefficient model were compared with those using an extended Debye-Hueckel equation. Our simulations show that non-ideal activity effects can be significant even at modest ionic strength, and can have major impacts on permeability evolution in injection-production systems. Alteration of injection water chemistry, for example by dilution with fresh water, can greatly alter precipitation and dissolution effects, and can offer a powerful tool for operating hot dry rock and hot fractured rock reservoirs in a sustainable manner.

The Bureau of Land Management offered over 400,000 hectares (one million acres) for geothermal exploration and development in 1975, and figure is expected to double this year. The Energy Research and Development Administration hopes for 10-15,000 megawatts of geothermal energy by 1985, which would require, leasing over 16.3 million hectares (37 million acres) of land, at least half of which is federal land. Since there is an 8 to 8-1/2 year time laf between initial exploration and full field development, there would have to be a ten-fold increase in the amount of federal land leased within the next three years. Seventy percent of geothermal potential, 22.3 million hectares (55 million acres), is on federal lands in the west. The implication for the Service are enormous and the problems immediate. Geothermal resource are so widespread they are found to some extent in most biomes and ecosystems in the western United States. In most cases exploitation and production of geothermal resources can be made compatible with fish and wildlife management without damage, if probable impacts are clearly understood and provided for before damage has unwittingly been allowed to occur. Planning for site suitability and concern with specific operating techniques are crucial factors. There will be opportunities for enhancement: during exploration and testing many shallow groundwater bodies may be penetrated which might be developed for wildlife use. Construction equipment and materials needed for enhancement projects will be available in areas heretofore considered remote projects will be available in areas heretofore considered remote by land managers. A comprehensive knowledge of geothermal development is necessary to avoid dangers and seize opportunities. This handbook is intended to serve as a working tool in the field. It anticipated where geothermal resource development will occur in the western United States in the near future. A set of environmental assessment procedures are

A set of preliminary planning scenarios are presented, issues involved in refining and integrating these scenarios are illustrated and the need for a systems approach in resource evaluation and planning is emphasized. (MHR)

The following are described: the proposed action; existing environment; probable impacts, direct and indirect; probable cumulative and long-term environmental impacts; accidents; coordination with federal, state, and local agencies; and alternatives. (MHR)

This is an appendix to Volume 1 of the report by the same name. Items included are: process flow diagram; piping and instrumentation diagram; new equipment specifications; main single line diagram; shutdown start-up procedures; data sheets for tests; plant outages; detailed process equations; computer program and sample output; chemical analysis and scanning electron microscopy results; and management report data sheets January 5, 1990 -- May 29, 1990.

20111059 Gao Jinghong(Engineering Group Co.Ltd.of the Second Institute of China Railway,Chengdu 610031,China);Tong Tiegang A Magnetotelluric Study of Geothermal Resources in Kaifeng Depression,Henan Province(Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration,ISSN1000-8918,CN11-1906/P,34(4),2010,p.440-443,6 illus.,12 refs.)Key words:geothermal resources,telluric electromagnetic sounding,Henan Province Kaifeng Depression,located in the southeast corner of the Jiyuan-Kaifeng Depression,is enriched with deep-seated groundwater sources.The rich geothermal water rock(thermal reservoir)commonly has lower resistivity than the in-situ rock,and the reduction degree of its resistivity is related to the extent of water content,water temperature and mineralization.Based on geo-electrical anomaly,the authors inferred the distribution of the thermal reservoirs.A study of the magnetotelluric sounding method(MT)shows that the resistivity values of the basement are lowest in most surveying points north of F1 fault,implying the existence of the relationship with the geothermal water in the strata.According to the distribution of geo-electrical anomalies in the survey area,the authors locate the relatively enriched area of geothermal water in the basement of this area,thus providing an important basis

All chemical data for geothermalfluids in Idaho available as of December 1981 is maintained on GEOTHERM, computerized information system. This report presents summaries and sources of records for Idaho. 7 refs. (ACR)

All chemical data for geothermalfluids in Nevada available as of December 1981 are maintained on GEOTHERM, a computerized information system. This report presents summaries and sources of records for Nevada. 7 refs. (ACR)

20140332 Jiang Lin(School of Earth and Space Sciences,Peking University,Beijing100871,China);Ji Jianqing Geologic Analysis on the Prospects of the Enhanced Geothermal System(EGS)in the Bohaiwan Basin(Geology and Prospecting,ISSN0495-5331,CN11-2043/P,49(1),2013,p.167-178,5illus.,4tables,41refs.)Key words:geothermal systems,Bohaiwan Basin Great amounts of thermal energy is stored ubiquitously in rocks with high tempera-

INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTH GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING WORKSHOP, STANFORD GEOTHERMAL PROGRAM Henry J. Ramey, Jr., and Paul Kruger Co-Principal Investigators Ian G. Donaldson Program Manager Stanford Geothermal Program The Sixth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering convened at Stanford University on December 16, 1980. As with previous Workshops the attendance was around 100 with a significant participation from countries other than the United States (18 attendees from 6 countries). In addition, there were a number of papers from foreign contributors not able to attend. Because of the success of all the earlier workshops there was only one format change, a new scheduling of Tuesday to Thursday rather than the earlier Wednesday through Friday. This change was in general considered for the better and will be retained for the Seventh Workshop. Papers were presented on two and a half of the three days, the panel session, this year on the numerical modeling intercomparison study sponsored by the Department of Energy, being held on the second afternoon. This panel discussion is described in a separate Stanford Geothermal Program Report (SGP-TR42). This year there was a shift in subject of the papers. There was a reduction in the number of papers offered on pressure transients and well testing and an introduction of several new subjects. After overviews by Bob Gray of the Department of Energy and Jack Howard of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, we had papers on field development, geopressured systems, production engineering, well testing, modeling, reservoir physics, reservoir chemistry, and risk analysis. A total of 51 papers were contributed and are printed in these Proceedings. It was, however, necessary to restrict the presentations and not all papers printed were presented. Although the content of the Workshop has changed over the years, the format to date has proved to be satisfactory. The objectives of the Workshop, the bringing together of

The U.S. Geological Survey created a comprehensive geopressure-gradient model of the regional pressure system spanning the onshore and offshore Gulf of Mexico basin, USA. This model was used to generate ten maps that included (1) five contour maps characterizing the depth to the surface defined by the first occurrence of isopressure gradients ranging from 0.60 psi/ft to 1.00 psi/ft, in 0.10-psi/ft increments; and (2) five supporting maps illustrating the spatial density of the data used to construct the contour maps. These contour maps of isopressure-gradients at various increments enable the identification and quantification of the occurrence, magnitude, location, and depth of the subsurface pressure system, which allows for the broad characterization of regions exhibiting overpressured, underpressured, and normally pressured strata. Identification of overpressured regions is critical for exploration and evaluation of potential undiscovered hydrocarbon accumulations based on petroleum-generation pressure signatures and pressure-retention properties of reservoir seals. Characterization of normally pressured regions is essential for field development decisions such as determining the dominant production drive mechanisms, evaluating well placement and drainage patterns, and deciding on well stimulation methods such as hydraulic fracturing. Identification of underpressured regions is essential for evaluating the feasibility of geological sequestration and long-term containment of fluids such as supercritical carbon dioxide for alternative disposal methods of greenhouse gases. This study is the first, quantitative investigation of the regional pressure systems of one of the most important petroleum provinces in the United States. Although this methodology was developed for pressure studies in the Gulf of Mexico basin, it is applicable to any basin worldwide.

华苑产业园区的热储层主要为新近系明化镇组、馆陶组和奥陶系，通过地球化学分析，推断其地热流体均属于大气降水成因，化学组分均表现出自东向西或自北东向南西、由山前到盆地中心的水平分带特征。本区各热储层地热流体及浅层第四系地下水在垂向上有较大变化，经分析，明化镇组有接受上覆第四系地下水的越流补给可能，而馆陶组热流体则在凸起区接受了下伏基岩热流体的顶托补给。经推断，地热流体补给源位于华苑产业园东侧或东北侧，补给缓慢。本区地热流体具有轻微-强腐蚀性，有硫酸钙结垢趋势，不宜直接作为饮用水源和渔业用水，也不适宜农业灌溉用水；但明化镇组适合大多数工业用水。可喜的是，各层热流体中偏硅酸和氟的含量都较高，经过一定的处理，可具医疗价值，如在此开发温泉旅游，将带来良好的经济效益。%The reservoirs in the Huayuan Economical Area are mainly in the Minghuazhen, Guantao and Or-dovician Formations. Based on the geochemical analysis, we deduced the geothermalfluids here is original from precipitation. All the chemical compositions obey the horizontal strip characteristics from east to west, north-east to south-west and mountain front to basin center. The geothermalfluids of each reservoirs and groundwater of Quaternary System all change a lot in vertical. By analysis, it is possible for the Minghua-zhen reservoir to accept the leakage recharge from Quaternary groundwater. And the geothermalfluids in the Guantao reservoir may accept the top alimentation from bed-rock in hump area. In deduction, the recharge area is location in the east or north-east of the Huayuan Economical Area and the speed of recharge is very slow. In addition, the geothermalfluids here have light-strong corrosivity and scaling tendency of calcium sulfate, it is not suitable for drinking water and fish

Los Azufres is a 98 MW producing geothermal energy field situated in the Mexican volcanic belt at the west part of the country. Recently, hydrothermal activity and geochemical analysis of geothermalfluids from the north part of the geothermal field gave indications of a possible geothermal-production area, similar to the already producing field. In order to investigate the activity of geological structures, which are considered the means of geothermalfluids transporters, radon mapping was carried out using sets of 240 LR-115 detectors in the area of interest. Radon values higher than 10 kBq m sup - sup 3 were considered anomalous and indicative of geothermal anomalies.

Publish new thermal and drill data from the Dizie Valley Geothermal Field that affect evaluation of Basin and Range Geothermal Resources in a very major and positive way. Completed new geophysical surveys of Dizie Valley including gravity and aeromagnetics and integrated the geophysical, seismic, geological and drilling data at Dizie Valley into local and regional geologic models. Developed natural state mass and energy transport fluid flow models of generic Basin and Range systems based on Dizie Valley data that help to understand the nature of large scale constraints on the location and characteristics of the geothermal systems. Documented a relation between natural heat loss for geothermal and electrical power production potential and determined heat flow for 27 different geothermal systems. Prepared data set for generation of a new geothermal map of North American including industry data totaling over 25,000 points in the US alone.

In order to appropriately produce geothermalfluid, evaluation method was developed of reservoir, at each of the survey, development and production stages, as a serial part of Sunshine Project by the NEDO. For the production of thermal water and steam from the reservoir, evaluation must be appropriately and flexibly made of, among others, geothermalfluid supply capacity from the surroundings, interval between wells, against-time ratio of lowering in production well capacity, number of production wells, influence of reduced thermal water, and location and ratio of reduction. At the survey stage, it is good to generally analyze information, as also not voluminous, by a lumped parameter model. At the development stage from drilling as far as the production of thermal water, it is good to use a grid model, able to take the fracture, as well as the two-dimensional and three-dimensional distributions, into a particular consideration. Regarding how to make the grid division, the model comprises the wellfield model, to express one drilled well as one grid in locative region, of which the surroundings are to be divided by blocks, and well-by-well method, to locate one drilled well at one grid. At the production stage, data on well-by-well basis are important and the well-by-well method is accordingly the most important. 3 refs., 6 figs., 3 tabs.

20140958 Mei Huicheng(No.915GeologicalBrigade,Jiangxi Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources,Nanchang 330002,China);Li Zhongshe Geological Features and Causes of the Huihuang Geotherm in Xiushui,Jiangxi Province(Journal of Geological Hazards and

The Geothermal Pilot Study under the auspices of the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) was established in 1973 to apply an action-oriented approach to international geothermal research and development, taking advantage of the established channels of governmental communication provided by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Pilot Study was composed of five substudies. They included: computer-based information systems; direct application of geothermal energy; reservoir assessment; small geothermal power plants; and hot dry rock concepts. The most significant overall result of the CCMS Geothermal Pilot Study, which is now complete, is the establishment of an identifiable community of geothermal experts in a dozen or more countries active in development programs. Specific accomplishments include the creation of an international computer file of technical information on geothermal wells and fields, the development of studies and reports on direct applications, geothermalfluid injection and small power plants, and the operation of the visiting scientist program. In the United States, the computer file has aready proven useful in the development of reservoir models and of chemical geothermometers. The state-of-the-art report on direct uses of geothermal energy is proving to be a valuable resource document for laypersons and experts in an area of increasing interest to many countries. Geothermalfluid injection studies in El Salvador, New Zealand, and the United States have been assisted by the Reservoir Assessment Substudy and have led to long-range reservoir engineering studies in Mexico. At least seven small geothermal power plants are in use or have been planned for construction around the world since the Small Power Plant Substudy was instituted--at least partial credit for this increased application can be assigned to the CCMS Geothermal Pilot Study. (JGB)

TOUGH2-EGS is a numerical simulation program coupling geomechanics and chemical reactions for fluid and heat flows in porous media and fractured reservoirs of enhanced geothermal systems. The simulator includes the fully-coupled geomechanical (THM) module, the fully-coupled geochemical (THC) module, and the sequentially coupled reactive geochemistry (THMC) module. The fully-coupled flow-geomechanics model is developed from the linear elastic theory for the thermo-poro-elastic system and is formulated with the mean normal stress as well as pore pressure and temperature. The chemical reaction is sequentially coupled after solution of flow equations, which provides the flow velocity and phase saturation for the solute transport calculation at each time step. In addition, reservoir rock properties, such as porosity and permeability, are subjected to change due to rock deformation and chemical reactions. The relationships between rock properties and geomechanical and chemical effects from poro-elasticity theories and empirical correlations are incorporated into the simulator. This report provides the user with detailed information on both mathematical models and instructions for using TOUGH2-EGS for THM, THC or THMC simulations. The mathematical models include the fluid and heat flow equations, geomechanical equation, reactive geochemistry equations, and discretization methods. Although TOUGH2-EGS has the capability for simulating fluid and heat flows coupled with both geomechanical and chemical effects, it is up to the users to select the specific coupling process, such as THM, THC, or THMC in a simulation. There are several example problems illustrating the applications of this program. These example problems are described in details and their input data are presented. The results demonstrate that this program can be used for field-scale geothermal reservoir simulation with fluid and heat flow, geomechanical effect, and chemical reaction in porous and fractured media.

TOUGH2-EGS-MP is a parallel numerical simulation program coupling geomechanics with fluid and heat flow in fractured and porous media, and is applicable for simulation of enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). TOUGH2-EGS-MP is based on the TOUGH2-MP code, the massively parallel version of TOUGH2. In TOUGH2-EGS-MP, the fully-coupled flow-geomechanics model is developed from linear elastic theory for thermo-poro-elastic systems and is formulated in terms of mean normal stress as well as pore pressure and temperature. Reservoir rock properties such as porosity and permeability depend on rock deformation, and the relationships between these two, obtained from poro-elasticity theories and empirical correlations, are incorporated into the simulation. This report provides the user with detailed information on the TOUGH2-EGS-MP mathematical model and instructions for using it for Thermal-Hydrological-Mechanical (THM) simulations. The mathematical model includes the fluid and heat flow equations, geomechanical equation, and discretization of those equations. In addition, the parallel aspects of the code, such as domain partitioning and communication between processors, are also included. Although TOUGH2-EGS-MP has the capability for simulating fluid and heat flows coupled with geomechanical effects, it is up to the user to select the specific coupling process, such as THM or only TH, in a simulation. There are several example problems illustrating applications of this program. These example problems are described in detail and their input data are presented. Their results demonstrate that this program can be used for field-scale geothermal reservoir simulation in porous and fractured media with fluid and heat flow coupled with geomechanical effects.

Methods of using geothermal energy to treat subsurface formations are described herein. Methods for using geothermal energy to treat a subsurface treatment area containing or proximate to hydrocarbons may include producing geothermally heated fluid from at least one subsurface region. Heat from at least a portion of the geothermally heated fluid may be transferred to the subsurface treatment area to heat the subsurface treatment area. At least some hydrocarbon fluids may be produced from the formation.

Contributors from the Geothermal Technologies Program and the geothermal community highlight the current status and activities of the Program and the development of the global resource of geothermal energy.

This report discusses the topic geothermal resource assessment and its importance to laymen and investors for finding geothermal resources for direct-use applications. These are applications where the heat from lower-temperature geothermalfluids, 120 to 200/sup 0/F, are used directly rather than for generating electricity. The temperatures required for various applications are listed and the various types of geothermal resources are described. Sources of existing resource data are indicated, and the types and suitability of tests to develop more data are described. Potential development problems are indicated and guidance is given on how to decrease technical and financial risk and how to use technical consultants effectively. The objectives of this report are to provide: (1) an introduction low-temperature geothermal resource assessment; (2) experience from a series of recent direct-use projects; and (3) references to additional information.

The significant geothermal resource in Texas consists of enormous reservoirs of hot, geopressed water, which formed along the Gulf Coast when water-laden sediments were deposited between surrounding impermeable features, so that the water which would otherwise have been forced out of the sediments was unable to escape. These deposits exist under tremendous pressure created by the weight of the overburden. A geopressure source absorbs heat indirectly, because the geopressured deposits create an insulating barrier that traps and absorbs the thermal energy of the underlying magma. The water from a geopressure source will not be as hot as water from a dry steam or wet steam source, but the quantity available is enormous, and the water pressure itself would be an additional energy source along with the thermal energy. The water may be fresh, or nearly so, and it will contain significant amounts of recoverable methane gas in solution. It may be possible to utilize the water pressure, thermal energy, and the methane gas to generate electricity in small power plants at the recovery site, and the water that has been passed through the turbines and heat exchangers may be a valuable by-product in itself, depending on its quality and regional demands for agriculture and industry. One of the impediments to the development of this resource, given the very sizable commitments of capital entailed, is the uncertain legal status of geothermal resources. This report attempts to locate geothermal resources within the general framework of Texas property law and to determine whether these resources can be developed under the law as it now exists. (MCW)

Silica scaling is widely encountered in geothermal wells in which produce two-phase geothermalfluid. Silica scaling could be formed due to chemical reacting by mixing a geothermalfluid with other geothermalfluid in different compositions, or also can be caused by changes in fluid properties due to changes pressure and temperature. One of method to overcome silica scaling which is occurred around geothermal well is by workover operation. Modelling of silica deposition in porous medium has been modeled in previously. However, the growth of silica scaling deposition in geothermal wells has never been modeled. Modelling of silica deposition through geothermal is important aspects to determine depth of silica scaling growth and best placing for workover device to clean silica scaling. This study is attempted to develop mathematical models for predicting silica scaling through geothermal wells. The mathematical model is developed by integrating the solubility-temperature correlation and two-phase pressure drop coupled wellbore fluid temperature correlation in a production well. The coupled model of two-phase pressure drop and wellbore fluid temperature correlation which is used in this paper is Hasan-Kabir correlation. This modelling is divided into two categories: single and two phase fluid model. Modelling of silica deposition is constrained in temperature distribution effect through geothermal wells by solubility correlation for silica. The results of this study are visualizing the growth of silica scaling thickness through geothermal wells in each segment of depth. Sensitivity analysis is applied in several parameters, such as: bottom-hole pressure, temperature, and silica concentrations. Temperature is most impact factor for silica scaling through geothermal wellbore and depth of flash point. In flash point, silica scaling thickness has reached maximum because reducing of mole in liquid portion.

A tool is presented to quantify the risks of geothermal projects, the Geothermal Probabilistic Cost Model (GPCM). The GPCM model is used to evaluate a geothermal reservoir for a binary-cycle electric plant at Heber, California. Three institutional aspects of the geothermal risk which can shift the risk among different agents are analyzed. The leasing of geothermal land, contracting between the producer and the user of the geothermal heat, and insurance against faulty performance are examined. (MHR)

Program Review VI was comprised of six sessions, including an opening session, four technical sessions that addressed each of the major DOE research areas, and a session on special issues. The technical sessions were on Hydrothermal, Hot Dry Rock, Geopressured and Magma resources. Presenters in the technical sessions discussed their R and D activities within the context of specific GTD Programmatic Objectives for that technology, their progress toward achieving those objectives, and the value of those achievements to industry. The ''Special Issues'' presentations addressed several topics such as the interactions between government and industry on geothermal energy R and D; the origin and basis for the programmatic objectives analytical computer model; and international marketing opportunities for US geothermal equipment and services. The unique aspect of Program Review VI was that it was held in conjunction with the National Geothermal Association's Industry Round Table on Federal R and D. The Round Table provided a forum for open and lively discussions between industry and government researchers and gave industry an opportunity to convey their needs and perspectives on DOE's research programs. These discussions also provided valuable information to DOE regarding industry's priorities and directions.

occurrences took place between the first workshop in December 1975 and this present workshop in December 1976. For one thing, the newly formed Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) has assumed the lead role in geothermal reservoir engineering research. The second workshop under the Stanford Geothermal Program was supported by a grant from ERDA. In addition, two significant meetings on geothermal energy were held in Rotarua, New Zealand and Taupo, New Zealand. These meetings concerned geothermal reservoir engineering, and the reinjection of cooled geothermalfluids back into a geothermal system. It was clear to attendees of both the New Zealand and the December workshop meetings that a great deal of new information had been developed between August and December 1976. Another exciting report made at the meeting was a successful completion of a new geothermal well on the big island of Hawaii which produces a geothermalfluid that is mainly steam at a temperature in excess of 600 degrees F. Although the total developed electrical power generating capacity due to all geothermal field developments in 1976 is on the order of 1200 megawatts, it was reported that rapid development in geothermal field expansion is taking place in many parts of the world. Approximately 400 megawatts of geothermal power were being developed in the Philippine Islands, and planning for expansion in production in Cerro Prieto, Mexico was also announced. The Geysers in the United States continued the planned expansion toward the level of more than 1000 megawatts. The Second Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering convened at Stanford December 1976 with 93 attendees from 4 nations, and resulted in the presentation of 44 technical papers, summaries of which are included in these Proceedings. The major areas included in the program consisted of reservoir physics, well testing, field development, well stimulation, and mathematical modeling of geothermal reservoirs. The planning forth is year

Accomplishments are summarized on the following tasks: distribution coefficients and solubilities, DOE design well sampling, analysis of well samples, review of theoretical models of geopressured reservoir hydrocarbons, monitor for aliphatic hydrocarbons, development of a ph meter probe, DOE design well scrubber analysis, removal and disposition of gas scrubber equipment at Pleasant Bayou Well, and disposition of archived brines.

Accomplishments are summarized on the following tasks: distribution coefficients and solubilities, DOE design well sampling, analysis of well samples, review of theoretical models of geopressured reservoir hydrocarbons, monitor for aliphatic hydrocarbons, development of a ph meter probe, DOE design well scrubber analysis, removal and disposition of gas scrubber equipment at Pleasant Bayou Well, and disposition of archived brines.

A database subset on the gaseous emissions from the Wairakei geothermal field is presented. Properties and states of the reservoir fluid such as flow rates, wellhead pressure, and enthalpy are included in the file along with the well name and constituent measurement. This subset is the result of an initial screening of the data covering 1965 to 1971, and new additions will be appended periodically to the file. The data is accessed by a database management system as are all other subsets in the file. Thereby, one may search the database for specific data requirements and print selective output. For example, one may wish to locate reservoir conditions for cases only when the level of the constituent exceeded a designated value. Data output is available in the form of numerical compilations such as the attached, or graphical displays disposed to paper, film or magnetic tape.

The commercial utilization of geothermal energy forms the basis of the largest renewable energy industry in the world. More than 5000 Mw of electrical power are currently in production from approximately 210 plants and 10 000 Mw thermal are used in direct use processes. The majority of these systems are located in the well defined geothermal generally associated with crustal plate boundaries or hot spots. The essential requirements of high subsurface temperature with huge volumes of exploitable fluids, coupled to environmental and market factors, limit the choice of suitable sites significantly. The Hot Dry Rock (HDR) concept at any depth originally offered a dream of unlimited expansion for the geothermal industry by relaxing the location constraints by drilling deep enough to reach adequate temperatures. Now, after 20 years intensive work by international teams and expenditures of more than $250 million, it is vital to review the position of HDR in relation to the established geothermal industry. The HDR resource is merely a body of rock at elevated temperatures with insufficient fluids in place to enable the heat to be extracted without the need for injection wells. All of the major field experiments in HDR have shown that the natural fracture systems form the heat transfer surfaces and that it is these fractures that must be for geothermal systems producing from naturally fractured formations provide a basis for directing the forthcoming but, equally, they require accepting significant location constraints on HDR for the time being. This paper presents a model HDR system designed for commercial operations in the UK and uses production data from hydrothermal systems in Japan and the USA to demonstrate the reservoir performance requirements for viable operations. It is shown that these characteristics are not likely to be achieved in host rocks without stimulation processes. However, the long term goal of artificial geothermal systems developed by systematic

The Russian geothermal power systems developed in the last few decades outperform their counterparts around the world in many respects. However, all Russian geothermal power stations employ steam as the geothermalfluid and discard the accompanying geothermal brine. In reality, the power of the existing Russian geothermal power stations may be increased without drilling more wells, if the waste brine is employed in combined cycle systems with steam and binary turbine units. For the example of the 50 MW Mutnovsk geothermal power plant, the optimal combined cycle power unit based on the waste geothermal brine is considered. It is of great interest to determine how the thermodynamic parameters of the secondary steam in the expansion unit and the pressure in the condenser affect the performance of the equipment in the combined cycle power unit at Mutnovsk geothermal power plant. For the utilization of the waste geothermal brine at Mutnovsk geothermal power plant, the optimal air temperature in the condensers of the combined cycle power unit is +5°C. The use of secondary steam obtained by flashing of the geothermal brine at Mutnovsk geothermal power plant 1 at a pressure of 0.2 MPa permits the generation of up to 8 MW of electric power in steam turbines and additional power of 5 MW in the turbines of the binary cycle.

20110367 Cheng Jian(College of Energy Resources,Chengdu University of Technology,Chengdu 610059,China);Wang Duoyi Research on the Wenchuan Earthquake "Endpoint Effect":On the Geothermal Anomaly in Longquanyi,Chengdu,Sichuan Province,China(Journal of Chengdu University of Technology,ISSN1671-9727,CN51-1634/N,37(2),2010,p.155-159,4 illus.,15 refs.)Key words:seismic effects,thermal

The optimal management of a hot water geothermal reservoir was considered. The physical system investigated includes a three-dimensional aquifer from which hot water is pumped and circulated through a heat exchanger. Heat removed from the geothermalfluid is transferred to a building complex or other facility for space heating. After passing through the heat exchanger, the (now cooled) geothermalfluid is reinjected into the aquifer. This cools the reservoir at a rate predicted by an expression relating pumping rate, time, and production hole temperature. The economic model proposed in the study maximizes discounted value of energy transferred across the heat exchanger minus the discounted cost of wells, equipment, and pumping energy. The real value of energy is assumed to increase at r percent per year. A major decision variable is the production or pumping rate (which is constant over the project life). Other decision variables in this optimization are production timing, reinjection temperature, and the economic life of the reservoir at the selected pumping rate. Results show that waiting time to production and production life increases as r increases and decreases as the discount rate increases. Production rate decreases as r increases and increases as the discount rate increases. The optimal injection temperature is very close to the temperature of the steam produced on the other side of the heat exchanger, and is virtually independent of r and the discount rate. Sensitivity of the decision variables to geohydrological parameters was also investigated. Initial aquifer temperature and permeability have a major influence on these variables, although aquifer porosity is of less importance. A penalty was considered for production delay after the lease is granted.

For the purpose of reducing the risk of deep geothermal resource development, the paper investigated three factors for the formation of geothermal resource in the deep underground, that is, heat supply from heat source, supply of geothermalfluids, and the developmental status of fracture systems forming reservoir structures. The survey further clarified the status of existence of deep geothermal resource and the whole image of the geothermal system including shallow geothermal energy in order to research/study usability of deep geothermal resource. In the deep geothermal resource survey, drilling/examination were made of a deep geothermal exploration well (`WD-1,` target depth: approximately 3,000-4,000m) in the already developed area, with the aim of making rationalized promotion of the geothermal development. And the status of existence of deep geothermal resource and the whole image of the geothermal system were clarified to investigate/study usability of the geothermal system. In fiscal 1995, `WD-1` in the Kakkonda area reached a depth of 3,729m. By this, surveys were made to grasp the whole image of the shallow-deep geothermal system and to obtain basic data for researching usability of deep geothermal resource. 22 refs., 531 figs., 136 tabs.

Full Text Available Geothermal energy is abundant everywhere in the world. It certainly would be a great benefit for human being once it is produced by a sophisticated technology. Consequently, it would be the biggest console for earth considering environmental sustainability. Unfortunately, the current status of commercial production of geothermal energy primarily from hydrothermal, geopressured, hot dry rock, and magma are limited to a few countries due to technological difficulties and production cost. This paper describes a simple technology where an in situ geothermal plant assisted by a heat pump would act as a high-temperature production (>150°C to provide excellent capacity of energy generation. The issue related to costs is interestingly cheaper on production, comparing to other technologies, such as solar, hydro, wind, and traditional geothermal technology as described in this article. Therefore, it is suggested that heat pump assisted in situ geothermal energy sources has a great potentiality to be a prime energy source in near future. Since the technology has a number of positive characteristics (simple, safe, and provides continuous baseload, load following, or peaking capacity and benign environmental attributes (zero emissions of CO2, SOx, and NOx, it certainly would be an interesting technology in both developed, and developing countries as an attractive option to produce clean energy to confirm a better environment.

An advanced geothermal well hydraulics model (GEODRIL) is being developed to accurately calculate bottom-hole conditions in these hot wells. In Phase 1, real-time monitoring and other improvements were added to GEODRIL. In Phase 2, GEODRIL will be integrated into Marconi's Intelligent Drilling Monitor (IDM) that will use artificial intelligence to detect lost circulation, fluid influxes and other circulation problems in geothermal wells. This software platform has potential for significantly reducing geothermal drilling costs.

An area between the base of Socorro Peak and the New Mexico Tech Campus (located in central New Mexico) has been proposed as a site for geothermal exploratory drilling. The existing site environment is summarized, a program for site monitoring is proposed, impacts of geothermal production and reinjection are listed, and problems associated with geothermal development are examined. The most critical environmental impact is the increased seismic activity that may be associated with geothermalfluid migration resulting from geothermal production and reinjection.

The Alaska geothermal bibliography lists all publications, through 1986, that discuss any facet of geothermal energy in Alaska. In addition, selected publications about geology, geophysics, hydrology, volcanology, etc., which discuss areas where geothermal resources are located are included, though the geothermal resource itself may not be mentioned. The bibliography contains 748 entries.

Full Text Available The Chingshui geothermal field is the largest known productive geothermal area in Taiwan. The purpose of this paper is to delineate this geothermal structure by integrating geophysical data and borehole information. The existence of a magma chamber in the shallow crust and shallow intrusive igneous rock results in a high heat flow and geothermal gradient; furthermore, the NE deep fault system within the meta-sandstones provides meteoric recharge from a higher elevation to artesianally drive the geothermal system. There is evidence that geothermalfluid deeply circulated within the fracture zone and was heated by a deeply located body of hot rock. The geothermal reservoir of the Chingshui geothermal field might be related to the fracture zone of the Chingshuihsi fault. It is bounded by the C-fault in the north and Xiaonanao fault in the south. Based on information obtained from geophysical interpretations and well logs, a 3-D geothermal conceptual model is constructed in this study. Further, the geothermal reservoir is confined to an area that is 260 m in width, N21°W, 1.5 km in length, and has an 80° dip toward the NE. Ahigh-temperature zone is found in the SE region of the reservoir, which is about 500 m in length; this zone is located near the intersection of the Chingshuihsi and Xiaonanao faults. An area on the NE side of the high-temperature zone has been recommended for the drilling of production wells for future geothermal development.

Geothermal power plants are currently producing reliable and low-cost, base load electricity. Three basic types of geothermal power plants are currently in operation: single-flashing, dual-flashing, and binary power plants. Typically, the single-flashing and dual-flashing geothermal power plants utilize geothermal water (brine) at temperatures in the range of 550-430 K. Binary units utilize geothermal resources at lower temperatures, typically 450-380 K. The entropy production in the various components of the three types of geothermal power plants determines the efficiency of the plants. It is axiomatic that a lower entropy production would improve significantly the energy utilization factor of the corresponding power plant. For this reason, the entropy production in the major components of the three types of geothermal power plants has been calculated. It was observed that binary power plants generate the lowest amount of entropy and, thus, convert the highest rate of geothermal energy into mechanical energy. The single-flashing units generate the highest amount of entropy, primarily because they re-inject fluid at relatively high temperature. The calculations for entropy production provide information on the equipment where the highest irreversibilities occur, and may be used to optimize the design of geothermal processes in future geothermal power plants and thermal cycles used for the harnessing of geothermal energy.

Man-made geothermal systems are discussed which make it possible to extract heat from hot rocks in areas where natural fluids are insufficient for the development of hydrothermal energy. The location and magnitude of high- and low-temperature geothermal resources in the USA for such hot dry rock (HDR) systems are examined. An HDR concept is described in which water is injected into one of two nearly parallel wells connected at depth by man-made fractures; the injected water circulates through the fracture system, where it is heated by conduction from the hot rock, and hot fluid, which can be used for heating or for electric power generation, rises through the second well. Some heat-extraction experiments using the described concept are reviewed which are being conducted in a complex volcanic field in New Mexico. The economics of HDR energy is evaluated.

Many significant expenses encountered by the geothermal energy industry are related to chemical effects. When the composition, temperature of pressure of the fluids in the geological formation are changed, during reservoir evolution, well production, energy extraction or injection processes, the fluids that were originally at equilibrium with the formation minerals come to a new equilibrium composition, temperature and pressure. As a result, solid material can be precipitated, dissolved gases released and/or heat lost. Most geothermal energy operations experience these phenomena. For some resources, they create only minor problems. For others, they can have serious results, such as major scaling or corrosion of wells and plant equipment, reservoir permeability losses and toxic gas emission, that can significantly increase the costs of energy production and sometimes lead to site abandonment. In future operations that exploit deep heat sources and low permeability reservoirs, new chemical problems involving very high T, P rock/water interactions and unknown injection effects will arise.

Yangbajain contains the largest geothermal energy power station in China. Geothermal explorations in Yangbajain first started in 1976, and two plants were subsequently built in 1981 and 1986. A large amount of geothermalfluids have been extracted since then, leading to considerable surface subsidence around the geothermal fields. In this paper, InSAR time series analysis is applied to map the subsidence of the Yangbajain geothermal fields during the period from December 2011 to November 2012 using 16 senses of TerraSAR-X stripmap SAR images. Due to its high resolution and short repeat cycle, TerraSAR-X provides detailed surface deformation information at the Yangbajain geothermal fields.

Nine potential power cycles are defined and diagrammed for the generation of electricity from geothermalfluids. General fluid properties that influence the applicability of power cycles to a particular geothermal resource are discussed. The corrosivity of individual process streams in power cycles is described based on variations in chemical composition and temperature. Results of materials performance tests are analyzed based on the chemical composition of the corrosive medium and physical factors such as temperature, duration of exposure, and fluid velocity. The key chemical components in geothermalfluids that are significant in determining corrosivity are identified. Both summarized and detailed results of materials performance tests in U.S. liquid-dominated resources are given. Seven U.S. liquid-dominated KGRA's are classified according to relative corrosiveness and their key chemical components are defined. The various forms and mechanisms of corrosive attack that can occur in geothermal process streams are described. The application of nonmetallic materials in geothermal environments is discussed. The appendices contain information on (1) operating experience at geothermal power plants, (2) corrosion in desalination facilities, (3) reliability of geothermal plants, (4) elastomeric materials, (5) comparative alloy costs, and (6) geothermal equipment manufacturers. (MHR)

This report consists of a summary of the experiments performed to date at the Puna Geothermal Research Facility on silica in the geothermalfluid from the HGP-A well. Also presented are some results of investigations in commercial applications of the precipitated silica. (ACR)

Full Text Available Estimates for the total gas resource in place in geopressured Tertiary sandstone reservoirs along the United States Gulf Coast range from 3,000 to 100,000 tcf 185 to 2,832 trillion cu m. This wide range in estimates was the incentive for initiative research effort in Texas and Louisiane to obtain more reliable data on all aspects of developing the available heat and hydraulic energy present in these aquifers in addition to the methane. All resource calculations are based on interpretations of total sandstone thickness, lateral extent of reservoirs, porosity and permeability, reservoir drive, salinity, temperature, pressure, and methane solubility. Diverse estimates arise from inadequate knowledge concerning these critical parameters. Regional and detailed local geologic studies have been conducted ta delineate prospective areas for testing the geopressured resource. A prospective area should have reservoir volume of 3 Cu mi (12 cu km, minimum permeability of 20 mD, and fluid temperatures of 300°F (150°C. A geothermal designed test well has been drilled in Brazoria County, Texas, in order to test the potential of producing up to 40,000 barrels of water per day from a geopressured reservoir. The reservoir consists of 250 to 300 ft (75 to 90 m of sandstone with core permeabilities between 40 and 60 mD and fluid temperatures from 300 to 350°F (159 to 177°C. The test period will continue for a 2-year period and, with other designed tests in Texas and Louisiana will provide invaluable data concerning high-volume production over long periods of time. Les estimations pour les ressources totales de gaz dans les réservoirs sableux tertiaires à pressions géostatiques le long de la Gulf Coast des Etats-Unis sont corises entre 3000 et 100 000 tcf, soit 85 à 2832. 10. 12 m3. Cette large incertitude a incité la mise en oeuvre d'un effort extensif de recherche au Texas et en Louisiane en vue d'obtenir des données plus sûres sur tous les aspects du d

Neutralizing an acidic fluid consists of adding a sodium hydroxide solution to neutralize the H group of acids, therefore increasing the pH. The injection of sodium hydroxide has to be continuous and at a proper depth inside the well to protect against the corrosion of casing and surface equipment. Neutralization is a common practice used in geothermal fields, such as at The Geysers in the US and Miravalles in Costa Rica-places where aggressive fluids cause problems for extracting and using geothermalfluids commercially. A zone surrounding wells H-4, H-16 and H-29 in the northern section of the Los Humeros, Pue., geothermal field, known as the Colapso Central, has shown evidence of aggressively acidic fluids. Several wells drilled in the area had to be repaired, thus plugging and isolating the deepest production zones. Well H-43 was drilled two years ago in the northern zone of the field, and even though it is not located in the aggressive-fluid zone, the well presents mineralogical features possibly indicating the presence of acidic fluids. Therefore, before producing this well it has been proposed we install a neutralization system with general characteristics presented in this paper. The system will prevent corrosion that up to now has prevented exploitation of the deep portion of Colapso Central, helping to develop the field in a more profitable way. [Spanish] Neutralizar un fluido acido consiste en agregarle una solucion de hidroxido de sodio. Esto neutraliza el grupo de acidos H y en consecuencia aumenta el pH. La inyeccion de hidroxido de sodio se realiza de manera continua y a una profundidad adecuada dentro del pozo para proteger a la tuberia y a todo el equipo superficial contra la corrosion. La neutralizacion es una practica comun que se viene realizando en campos como Los Geysers en Estados Unidos y en Miravalles, Costa Rica, donde la presencia de fluidos agresivos causa problemas en la extraccion y aprovechamiento del fluido geotermico con fines

Klamath Falls, Oregon, is located in a Known Geothermal Resource Area which has been used by residents, principally to obtain geothermalfluids for space heating, at least since the turn of the century. Over 500 shallow-depth wells ranging from 90 to 2,000 ft (27 to 610 m) in depth are used to heat (35 MWt) over 600 structures. This utilization includes the heating of homes, apartments, schools, commercial buildings, hospital, county jail, YMCA, and swimming pools by individual wells and three district heating systems. Geothermal well temperatures range from 100 to 230{degree}F (38 to 110{degree}C) and the most common practice is to use downhole heat exchangers with city water as the circulating fluid. Larger facilities and district heating systems use lineshaft vertical turbine pumps and plate heat exchangers. Well water chemistry indicates approximately 800 ppM dissolved solids, with sodium sulfate having the highest concentration. Some scaling and corrosion does occur on the downhole heat exchangers (black iron pipe) and on heating systems where the geo-fluid is used directly. 73 refs., 49 figs., 6 tabs.

... of the geothermal resource. That amount of thermal energy (in Btu) displaced by the geothermal... accumulating the amount of thermal energy displaced will be determined and approved by BLM under 43 CFR 3275.13... geothermal production in pounds or gallons of geothermalfluid to input into the fee schedule (see 43...

With an installed geothermal electric capacity of 853 MW{sub e}, Mexico is currently the third largest producer of geothermal power worldwide, after the USA and the Philippines. There are four geothermal fields now under exploitation: Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Las Tres Virgenes. Cerro Prieto is the second largest field in the world, with 720 MW{sub e} and 138 production wells in operation; sedimentary (sandstone) rocks host its geothermalfluids. Los Azufres (88 MW{sub e}), Los Humeros (35 MW{sub e}) and Las Tres Virgenes (10 MW{sub e}) are volcanic fields, with fluids hosted by volcanic (andesites) and intrusive (granodiorite) rocks. Four additional units, 25 MW{sub e} each, are under construction in Los Azufres and due to go into operation in April 2003. One small (300 kW) binary-cycle unit is operating in Maguarichi, a small village in an isolated area with no link to the national grid. The geothermal power installed in Mexico represents 2% of the total installed electric capacity, but the electricity generated from geothermal accounts for almost 3% of the national total. (author)

Full Text Available Geothermal reinjection involves injecting energy-depleted fluid back into geothermal systems, providing an effective mode of waste-water disposal as well as supplementary fluid recharge. Cooling of production boreholes is one of the main disadvantages associated with reinjection, however. Tracer testing is an important tool for reinjection studies because tracer tests actually have a predictive power since tracer transport is orders of magnitude faster than cold-front advancement around reinjection boreholes. A simple and efficient method of tracer test interpretation, assuming specific flow channels connecting reinjection and production boreholes, is available. It simulates tracer return profiles and estimates properties of the flow channels, which are consequently used for predicting the production borehole cooling. Numerous examples are available worldwide on the successful application of tracer tests in geothermal management, many involving the application of this interpretation technique. Tracer tests are also used for general subsurface hydrological studies in geothermal systems and for flow rate measurements in two-phase geothermal pipelines. The tracers most commonly used in geothermal applications are fluorescent dyes, chemical substances and radioactive isotopes. New temperature-resistant tracers have also been introduced and high-tech tracers are being considered.

The reconstruction of the stratigraphical-structural framework and the hydrogeology of geothermal areas is fundamental for understanding the relationships between cap rocks, reservoir and circulation of geothermalfluids and for planning the exploitation of the field. The Tocomar geothermal volcanic area (Puna plateau, Central Andes, NW Argentina) has a high geothermal potential. It is crossed by the active NW-SE trans-Andean tectonic lineament known as the Calama-Olacapato-Toro (COT) fault system, which favours a high secondary permeability testified by the presence of numerous thermal springs. This study presents new stratigraphic, structural, volcanological, geochemical and hydrogeological data on the geothermal field. Our data suggest that the main geothermal reservoir is located within or below the Pre-Palaeozoic-Ordovician basement units, characterised by unevenly distributed secondary permeability. The reservoir is recharged by infiltration in the ridges above 4500 m a.s.l., where basement rocks are in outcrop. Below 4500 m a.s.l., the reservoir is covered by the low permeable Miocene-Quaternary units that allow a poor circulation of shallow groundwater. Geothermalfluids upwell in areas with more intense fracturing, especially where main regional structures, particularly NW-SE COT-parallel lineaments, intersect with secondary structures, such as at the Tocomar field.

The Geothermal Direct Use Engineering and Design Guidebook is designed to be a comprehensive, thoroughly practical reference guide for engineers and designers of direct heat projects. These projects could include the conversion of geothermal energy into space heating and cooling of buildings, district heating, greenhouse heating, aquaculture and industrial processing. The Guidebook is directed at understanding the nature of geothermal resources and the exploration of the resources, fluid sampling techniques, drilling, and completion of geothermal wells through well testing, and reservoir evaluation. It presents information useful to engineers on the specification of equipment including well pumps, piping, heat exchangers, space heating equipment, heat pumps and absorption refrigeration. A compilation of current information about greenhouse aquaculture and industrial applications is included together with a discussion of engineering cost analysis, regulation requirements, and environmental consideration. The purpose of the Guidebook is to provide an integrated view for the development of direct use projects for which there is a very large potential in the United States.

The Geothermal Direct Use Engineering and Design Guidebook is designed to be a comprehensive, thoroughly practical reference guide for engineers and designers of direct heat projects. These projects could include the conversion of geothermal energy into space heating cooling of buildings, district heating, greenhouse heating, aquaculture and industrial processing. The Guidebook is directed at understanding the nature of geothermal resources and the exploration of these resources, fluid sampling techniques, drilling, and completion of geothermal wells through well testing, and reservoir evaluation. It presents information useful to engineers on the specification of equipment including well pumps, piping, heat exchangers, space heating equipment, heat pumps and absorption refrigeration. A compilation of current information about greenhouse, aquaculture and industrial applications is included together with a discussion of engineering cost analysis, regulation requirements, and environmental considerations. The purpose of the Guidebook is to provide an integrated view for the development of direct use projects for which there is a very potential in the United States.

Full Text Available It is possible to generate electricity by utilizing medium-temperature geothermal sources in various closed cycles. These geothermal power plants are very important and valuable as they utilize the sources which have low exergy. In recent years, medium-temperature sources that are around 150°C are used widely for electricity generation. In this study, performance of a supercritical binary power plant, that uses such a geothermal source, is analyzed to find the optimum turbine inlet pressure that maximizes power generation. In this power plant different working fluids are analyzed to find the appropriate fluid that maximizes power generation and efficiency. The observed working fluids are R134a, isobutane, R404a, n-Butane, and R152a. The performance of the plant is calculated with these fluids separately and it is found that the best fluid for performance is R152a for pure fluid and R404a for mixture fluid.

This guidebook is intended to facilitate further investment in conventional geothermal projects in the United States. It includes a brief primer on geothermal technology and the most relevant policies related to geothermal project development. The trends in geothermal project finance are the focus of this tool, relying heavily on interviews with leaders in the field of geothermal project finance. Using the information provided, developers and investors may innovate in new ways, developing partnerships that match investors' risk tolerance with the capital requirements of geothermal projects in this dynamic and evolving marketplace.

建立有机朗肯循环热力学模型和蒸发器传热模型；基于工质的实验经验状态方程，利用REFPROP 8.0软件获得非共沸工质物性；以获得最佳的凝汽器温度匹配为原则选择工质。采用种温度的地热能，在给定的蒸发器和凝汽器夹点温差下，分析了采用组分比例为0.64：0.36的R600a/R601非共沸工质的有机朗肯循环发电系统的特性，并与R601纯工质发电循环进行了比较。结果表明：以对外输出功为目标函数的利用地热的中低温有机朗肯循环发电系统中不宜加入回热器；对于蒸发器热源进出口温差较小的工况，如热源来自水蒸气凝结放热，采用混合工质的循环的性能不如纯工质的；有机朗肯循环采用混合工质时其最大对外输出功要高于纯工质的，且热源温度越低时，这种优势越明显。%Thermodynamic model of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and heat transfer model for evaporator were developed, and thermal properties for mixture working fluid were obtained by REFPROP 8.0 on the basis of the empirical equations of state. The selection principle for working fluids was based on the matching between working fluid and cooling water in the condenser. Geothermal energy in three heat source temperatures was simulated, and a zeotropic mixture, R600a/R601 with mole fraction 0.64/0.36, was used as the working fluid of ORC for power generation with the given pinch temperature for the evaporator and condenser. Its performance was analyzed and compared with that of pure working fluid, R601. The analytical results show that it is not suitable to introduce the internal heat exchanger (IHX) to the ORC system using medium or low temperature geothermal energy as heat source with work output as objective function. ORC system with pure working fluid has a better performance than that with mixture under the condition that temperature difference between inlet and outlet of heat source is small (i

Characterizing productive geothermal systems is challenging yet critical to identify and develop an estimated 30 gigawatts electric (GWe) of undiscovered hydrothermal resources in the western U.S. This paper, undertaken by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO), summarizes needs and technical pathways that target the key geothermal signatures of temperature, permeability, and fluid content, and develops the time evolution of these pathways, tying in past and current GTO exploration Research and Development (R&D) projects. Beginning on a five-year timescale and projecting out to 2030, the paper assesses technologies that could accelerate the confirmation of 30 GWe. The resulting structure forms the basis for a Geothermal Exploration Technologies Roadmap, a strategic development plan to help guide GTO R&D investments that will lower the risk and cost of geothermal prospect identification. This roadmap is currently open for public comment. Send your comments to geothermal@ee.doe.gov.

Ten miles south of Reno, on U.S. 395 near the junction of the road to historic Virginia City, is Steamboat Hot Springs, a popular stop for travelers since the mid-1800s. Legend has it that Mark Twain named the geothermal area because it looked and sounded like a chugging Mississippi River paddle-wheeler. It is said when he first saw the steam rising from the ground he exclaimed, {open_quotes}Behold! A Steamboat in the desert.{close_quotes} Over the years, the area has been used for its relaxing and curative qualities by Indians, settlers, and geothermal experts. Since the mid-1980s five geothermal power plants have been built at Steamboat Springs and in December 1996 it was announced that the proposed largest geothermal district heating system in the U.S. would supply an industrial park in the area. The active geothermal area is located within the north-south trending graben like trough between the Carson and Virginia Ranges at the southern end of Truckee Meadows. Hot springs and other geothermal features occur over an area of about one square mile. The mid-basin location is controlled by faulting more or less parallel to the major mountain-front faults. It is believed that the heat source for the system is a cooling magmatic body at depth. The Steamboat geothermal area consists of a deep, high-temperature (215{degrees}C to 240{degrees} C) geothermal system, a shallower, moderate-temperature (160{degrees}C to 18{degrees} C) system, and a number of shallow low-temperature (30{degrees}C to 80{degrees}C) subsystems. The higher temperature systems are used for electric-power generation. It is proposed that the exit fluids from the electric power plants be used for the geothermal district heating system.

There is a growing scientific interest in the exploitation of supercritical geothermal reservoirs to increase the efficiency of geothermal power plants. The utilisation of geothermal energy requires in any case the detailed knowledge of the reservoir. In reservoir engineering, the characterisation of the geothermal system by electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a common geophysical exploration and monitoring strategy. For a realistic interpretation of the field measurements it is necessary to know both, the physical properties of the rock and those of the interacting fluid at defined temperature and pressure conditions. While there have been made great effort in determine the physical and chemical properties of water above its critical point (Tcritical = 374.21° C and pcritical = 221.2 bar), the influence of fluid-rock interactions on petrophysical properties in supercritical aqueous systems is nearly unknown. At supercritical conditions the viscosity of the fluid is low, which enhances the mass transfer and diffusion-controlled chemical reactions. This may have considerable effects on the porosity and hydraulic properties of a rock. To investigate high-enthalpy fluid-rock systems, in the framework of the EU-funded project IMAGE we have built a new percolation set-up, which allows for the measurement of electrical resistivity and permeability of rock samples at controlled supercritical conditions of aqueous fluids (pore pressure = 400 bar and a temperature = 400° C). First results will be presented.

WELCST, a FORTRAN code for estimating the effects of R and D project results upon the future cost of geothermal wells is described. The code simulates the drilling and completion of a well at 27 specific US geothermal prospects, given assumptions about well design and casing plan, formation drillability, and selected engineering and cost characteristics of today's drilling technology. The user may change many of the assumptions about engineering and cost characteristics to allow WELCST to simulate impacts of specific R and D projects on the estimated cost of wells at the prospects. An important capability of WELCST is that it simulates rates and costs of major drilling mishaps, based on drilling incident data from the Imperial Valley and Geysers geothermal fields. WELCST is capable of estimating geothermal well costs at liquid-dominated (hydrothermal) sites, vapor-dominated sites, geopressured sites, and Hot Dry Rock sites. The model can contribute to many system-optimization studies, and could be easily adapted to estimate well costs outside of the United States.

A brief review of the direct utilization of geothermal energy in three regions of the Peoples' Republic of China is presented, stressing a development outline for the next five to ten years. The geothermal resource of the Tianjin-Beijing area is mainly to be developed for space heating, whereas along the coastal area of Fujian and Guangdong, it will be developed for agriculture, and industrial and residential use. Electric power generation will be the main concern in the southwest at Tengchong. Most theoretical research will be done on geologic structure interpretation, corrosion of pump shafts and buried pipelines, and heat flow, with some interest in the study of geopressure and hot dry rock systems. Specific examples from the Tianjin area include a wool factory; a wool rug weaving shop; heating of a hotel; public bathing; and well drilling for apartment heating, fish breeding, and greenhouses. Direct use of geothermal energy in the Beijing area includes cotton dyeing, humidifying, medical purposes, and animal husbandry. Experimental geothermal electric power plants are summarized in table form.

The objective of this program is to provide, through isotopic analyses of fluids, fluid inclusions, and rocks and minerals coupled with improved methods for geochemical data analysis, needed information regarding sources of geothermal heat and fluids, the spatial distribution of fluid types, subsurface flow, water-rock reaction paths and rates, and the temporal evolution of geothermal systems. Isotopic studies of geothermalfluids have previously been limited to the light stable isotopes of H, C, and O. However, other isotopic systems such as the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe) and reactive elements (e.g. B, N, S, Sr and Pb) are complementary and may even be more important in some geothermal systems. The chemistry and isotopic composition of a fluid moving through the crust will change in space and time in response to varying chemical and physical parameters or by mixing with additional fluids. The chemically inert noble gases often see through these variations, making them excellent tracers for heat and fluid sources. Whereas, the isotopic compositions of reactive elements are useful tools in characterizing water-rock interaction and modeling the movement of fluids through a geothermal reservoir.

Full Text Available The heat flow observed on the earth's surface (on averageof 59 mW/m2 mainly derives from the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements (U238, U235, Th232, K40 in the crust. The distribution of heat flow values is closely tied to the phenomena described in theplate tectonicstheory: most of the surface geothermal anomalies and, consequently, the industrially exploitable geothermal areas, are located in correspondence to spreading ridges (geothermal fields of lceland, Kenya, Ethiopia, etc. and subduction zones (Indonesia Japon, Indian and Chinese Himalayas, Chile, etc. . However, geothermal fields can also be found in intraplate zones in areas with a normal heat flow value (e. g. , Paris basin or slightly higher (e. g. Hungarian basin. Generally these fields produce a low-enthalpy fluid that can be used for non-electric exploitation. The best-known geothermal systems, and the only ones exploited so far, belong to the 'hydrothermal convective' type. These occur wherever a fluid circulation, mainly of meteoric origin, is able to develop in sufficiently permeable rocks near a heat source (such as a magmatic intrusion or at depths at which it can be heated by the normal geothermal gradian. This type of system is usually divided intowater-dominatedsystems, where the continuous fluid phase in the reservoir is liquid andvapour dominatedsystems where steam is the continuous phase. Other geothermal systems have still to be utilized and probably will be exploited as progress is made in technology. These are: a geopressured systems, found in some subsident sedimentary basins containing high-temperature connate waters of near lithostatic pressure; b the so-called 'hot dry rocks', which can be used ta create artificial systems by artificial fracturing of the high-temperature rocks and induced circulation of closed-circuit fluids. Geothermal energy is exploited: a To generate electricity. The total installed geothermoelectric capacity throughout the

汤市地热资源丰富，具有流量大、温度高、无色的特点，3个自溢泉是当地居民主要的生活用水来源，也是当地主要的旅游开发资源。在分析 ZK01，ZK02，QK02，QK03和 QK04的基础上对汤市地热流体化学成因和循环条件进行研究分析，确定地热成因、热储条件等主要是由于断层 F 和 F1的相互作用形成，水化学主要是纳、钙、重碳酸根离子为主，偏弱酸性的低矿化度水。%Tangshi area has enriched geothermal resources,characterized by large quantity of flow,high temperature,and colorless.There have three fountains,which are a major source of domestic water as well as tourism development.Based on the analysis of borehole ZK01,ZK02,QK02,QK03,and QK04,this paper analyzes the chemical causes and the circulation conditions.It shows that the cause of geothermal and the thermal storage conditions are mainly affected by the mutual interaction between fault F and F1. The hydrochemistry is mainly Na,Ca,and bicarbonate ions,so the water is week -acid and low -salinity.

In the scope of the research projects “AquiScreen” and “MiProTherm” we investigated geothermally used groundwater systems under microbial, geochemical, mineralogical and petrological aspects. On one side an enhanced process understanding of engineered geothermal systems is mandatory to optimize plant reliability and economy, on the other side this study provides insights into the microbiology of terrestrial thermal systems. Geothermal systems located in the North German Basin and the Molasse Basin were analyzed by sampling of fluids and solid phases. The investigated sites were characterized by different temperatures, salinities and potential microbial substrates. The microbial population was monitored by the use of genetic fingerprinting techniques and PCR-cloning based on PCR-amplified 16S rRNA and dissimilatory sulfite reductase (DSR) genes. DNA-sequences of fingerprints and cloned PCR-products were compared to public databases and correlated with metabolic classes to provide information about the biogeochemical processes. In all investigated geothermal plants, covering a temperature range from 5° to 120°C, microorganisms were found. Phylogenetic gene analyses indicate a broad diversity of microorganisms adapted to the specific conditions in the engineered system. Beside characterized bacteria like Thermus scotoductus, Siderooxidans lithoautotrophicus and the archaeon Methanothermobacter thermoautotrophicus a high number of so far uncultivated microorganisms was detected. As it is known that - in addition to abiotic factors - microbes like sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are involved in the processes of corrosion and scaling in plant components, we identified SRB by specific analyses of DSR genes. The SRB detected are closely related to thermotolerant and thermophilic species of Desulfotomaculum, Thermodesulfovibrio, Desulfohalobium and Thermodesulfobacterium, respectively. Overall, the detection of microbes known to be involved in biocorrosion and the

The nature of goethermal resources in Nevada and resource applications are discussed. The social and economic advantages of utilizing geothermal energy are outlined. Federal and State programs established to foster the development of geothermal energy are discussed. The names, addresses, and phone numbers of various organizations actively involved in research, regulation, and the development of geothermal energy are included. (MHR)

The impacts of lithologic structure and geothermal gradient on subseafloor microbial communities were investigated at a marginal site of the Iheya North hydrothermal field in the Mid-Okinawa Trough. Subsurface marine sediments composed of hemipelagic muds and volcaniclastic deposits were recovered through a depth of 151 m below the seafloor at site C0017 during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 331. Microbial communities inferred from 16S rRNA gene clone sequencing in low-temperature hemipelagic sediments were mainly composed of members of the Chloroflexi and deep-sea archaeal group. In contrast, 16S rRNA gene sequences of marine group I Thaumarchaeota dominated the microbial phylotype communities in the coarse-grained pumiceous gravels interbedded between the hemipelagic sediments. Based on the physical properties of sediments such as temperature and permeability, the porewater chemistry, and the microbial phylotype compositions, the shift in the physical properties of the sediments is suggested to induce a potential subseafloor recharging flow of oxygenated seawater in the permeable zone, leading to the generation of variable chemical environments and microbial communities in the subseafloor habitats. In addition, the deepest section of sediments under high-temperature conditions (∼90°C) harbored the sequences of an uncultivated archaeal lineage of hot water crenarchaeotic group IV that may be associated with the high-temperature hydrothermal fluid flow. These results indicate that the subseafloor microbial community compositions and functions at the marginal site of the hydrothermal field are highly affected by the complex fluid flow structure, such as recharging seawater and underlying hydrothermal fluids, coupled with the lithologic transition of sediments.

This paper summarizes the proceedings presented at the 'Geothermal energy in Asia '98' held on October 22, 1998 in the Philippines. The Philippines, Japan, Indonesia, China, Malaysia, and Vietnam presented proceedings on the current status and the future of developing geothermal energy in each country. Technical theses presented relate to the following matters: a geothermal development model in the Khoy geothermal area in Iran, the result of surveys on promotion of geothermal development in Japan, the thermal fluid sources in the geothermalfluid systems in the Hachijo volcanic island in Japan, strategies for heat reservoir management by using numerical simulation in the Hacchobari geothermal area in Japan, a geological model for the north Negros geothermal area in the center of the Philippines, application of the NEDO rock core analyzing method in the Wasabizawa geothermal development area in Japan, measurements of geomagnetism, geocurrent, and gravity in the north Negros in the center of the Philippines, geophysical studies in geothermal exploration in the Mataloko area in the Nustenggara island in the eastern Indonesia, and the background of magma/crust structure in the geothermal systems. (NEDO)

DOE is particularly concerned with reducing the costs of geothermal power generation, especially with the abundant moderate to low-temperature resources in the US. This concern is reflected in DOE`s support of a number of energy conversion projects. Projects which focus on the costs and performance of binary cycle technology include a commercial demonstration of supersaturated turbine expansions, which earlier studies have indicated could increase the power produced per pound of fluid. Other binary cycle projects include evaluations of the performance of various working fluid mixtures and the development and testing of advanced heat rejection systems which are desperately needed in water-short geothermal areas. DOE is also investigating the applicability of flash steam technology to low-temperature resources, as an economic alternative to binary cycle systems. A low-cost, low-pressure steam turbine, selected for a grant, will be constructed to utilize fluid discharged from a flash steam plant in Nevada. Another project addresses the efficiency of high-temperature flash plants with a demonstration of the performance of the Biphase turbine which may increase the power output of such installations with no increase in fluid flow. Perhaps the most noteworthy feature of this issue of the GPM, the 17th since its inception in 1980, is the high degree of industry participation in federally-sponsored geothermal research and development. This report describes geothermal development activities.

Plans are presented for conducting a field test of drill pipe corrosion, comparing air and nitrogen as drilling fluids. This test will provide data for evaluating the potential of reducing geothermal well drilling costs by extending drill pipe life and reducing corrosion control costs. The 10-day test will take place during fall 1980 at the Baca Location in Sandoval County, New Mexico.

This document represents the final report from the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of The Johns Hopkins University on its efforts on behalf of the Division of Geothermal Energy (DGE) of the Department of Energy (DOE). For the past four years, the Laboratory has been fostering development of geothermal energy in the Eastern United States. While the definition of ''Eastern'' has changed somewhat from time to time, basically it means the area of the continental United States east of the Rocky Mountains, plus Puerto Rico but excluding the geopressured regions of Texas and Louisiana. During these years, the Laboratory developed a background in geology, hydrology, and reservoir analysis to aid it in establishing the marketability of geothermal energy in the east. Contrary to the situation in the western states, the geothermal resource in the east was clearly understood to be inferior in accessible temperature. On the other hand, there were known to be copious quantities of water in various aquifers to carry the heat energy to the surface. More important still, the east possesses a relatively dense population and numerous commercial and industrial enterprises, so that thermal energy, almost wherever found, would have a market. Thus, very early on it was clear that the primary use for geothermal energy in the east would be for process heat and space conditioning--heating and cool electrical production was out of the question. The task then shifted to finding users colocated with resources. This task met with modest success on the Atlantic Coastal Plain. A great deal of economic and demographic analysis pinpointed the prospective beneficiaries, and an intensive ''outreach'' campaign was mounted to persuade the potential users to invest in geothermal energy. The major handicaps were: (1) The lack of demonstrated hydrothermal resources with known temperatures and expected longevity; and (2) The lack of a &apos

Hawaii's Geothermal Project is investigating the occurrence of geothermal resources in the archipelago, initially on the Island of Hawaii. The state's interest in geothermal development is keen, since it is almost totally dependent on imported oil for energy. Geothermal development in Hawaii may require greater participation by the public sector than has been true in California. The initial exploration has been financed by the national, state, and county governments. Maximization of net benefits may call for multiple use of geothermal resources; the extraction of by-products and the application of treated effluents to agricultural and aquacultural uses.

The permanent 16-station network of three-component digital seismometers at the Coso geothermal area, California, supplemented by 14 temporary instruments deployed in connection with the DOE Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) Project, provides high-quality microearthquake (MEQ) recordings that are well suited to monitoring a producing geothermal area. We are currently using these data to investigate structure and active processes within the geothermal reservoir by applying three advanced methods: a) high-precision MEQ hypocenter location; b) time-dependent tomography; c) complete (moment tensor) MEQ source mechanism determination. Preliminary results to date resolve seismogenic structures in the producing field more clearly than is possible with conventional earthquake-location techniques. A shallow part of the producing field shows clear changes in the ratio of the seismic wave speeds, Vp/V s, between 1996 and 2002, which are probably related to physical changes in the reservoir caused by fluid extraction.

The recent development of binary geothermal technology is analyzed. General trends in the introduction of low-temperature geothermal sources are summarized. The use of single-phase low-temperature geothermalfluids in binary power plants proves possible and expedient. The benefits of power plants with a binary cycle in comparison with traditional systems are shown. The selection of the working fluid is considered, and the influence of the fluid's physicochemical properties on the design of the binary power plant is discussed. The design of binary power plants is based on the chemical composition and energy potential of the geothermalfluids and on the landscape and climatic conditions at the intended location. Experience in developing a prototype 2.5 MW Russian binary power unit at Pauzhetka geothermal power plant (Kamchatka) is outlined. Most binary systems are designed individually for a specific location. Means of improving the technology and equipment at binary geothermal power plants are identified. One option is the development of modular systems based on several binary systems that employ the heat from the working fluid at different temperatures.

Because fractures and faults are commonly the primary pathway for deeply circulating hydrothermal fluids, structural studies are critical to assessing geothermal systems and selecting drilling targets for geothermal wells. Important tools for structural analysis include detailed geologic mapping, kinematic analysis of faults, and estimations of stress orientations. Structural assessments are especially useful for evaluating geothermal fields in the Great Basin of the western USA, where regional extension and transtension combine with high heat flow to generate abundant geothermal activity in regions having little recent volcanic activity. The northwestern Great Basin is one of the most geothermally active areas in the USA. The prolific geothermal activity is probably due to enhanced dilation on N- to NNE-striking normal faults induced by a transfer of NW-directed dextral shear from the Walker Lane to NW-directed extension. Analysis of several geothermal fields suggests that most systems occupy discrete steps in normal fault zones or lie in belts of intersecting, overlapping, and/or terminating faults. Most fields are associated with steeply dipping faults and, in many cases, with Quaternary faults. The structural settings favoring geothermal activity are characterized by subvertical conduits of highly fractured rock along fault zones oriented approximately perpendicular to the WNW-trending least principal stress. Features indicative of these settings that may be helpful in guiding exploration for geothermal resources include major steps in normal faults, interbasinal highs, groups of relatively low discontinuous ridges, and lateral jogs or terminations of mountain ranges.

The use of geothermal energy is an emerging area for improving the nation’s energy resiliency. Conventionally, geothermal energy applications have focused on power generation using high temperature hydrothermal resources or enhanced geothermal systems. However, many low temperature (below 150°C/300°F) geothermal resources are also available but have not been fully utilized. For example, it is estimated that 25 billion barrels of geothermalfluid (mostly water and some dissolved solids) at 176°F to 302°F (80°C to 150°C) is coproduced annually at oil and gas wells in the United States (DOE 2015). The heat contained in coproduced geothermalfluid (also referred as “coproduced water”) is typically wasted because the fluid is reinjected back into the ground without extracting the heat.

The Hawaiian Community Geothermal Technology Program is unique. Under its auspices, heat and other by-products of Hawaii's high-temperature HGP-A geothermal well and power plant are not wasted. Instead, they form the backbone of a direct-heat grant program that reaches into the local community and encourages community members to develop creative uses for geothermal energy. A by-product of this approach is a broadened local base of support for geothermal energy development. With the experimental and precommercial work completed, most of the original grantees are looking for ways to continue their projects on a commercial scale by studying the economics of using geothermal heat in a full-scale business and researching potential markets. A geothermal mini-park may be built near the research center. In 1988, a second round of projects was funded under the program. The five new projects are: Geothermal Aquaculture Project - an experiment with low-cost propagation of catfish species in geothermally heated tanks with a biofilter; Media Steam Sterilization and Drying - an application of raw geothermal steam to shredded, locally-available materials such as coconut husks, which would be used as certified nursery growing media; Bottom-Heating System Using Geothermal Power for Propagation - a continuation of Leilani Foliage's project from the first round of grants, focusing on new species of ornamental palms; Silica Bronze - the use of geothermal silica as a refractory material in casting bronze artwork; and Electro-deposition of Minerals in Geothermal Brine - the nature and possible utility of minerals deposited from the hot fluid.

In general the wells in Los Humeros geothermal fields produce sodium bicarbonate water with a low salinity because the fluids are produced from the shallow part of the reservoir. The fluids in wells H-33 and H-6 are sodium chloride: the first influenced by fluids from deep levels in the reservoir and the second by fluids coming only from the deeps part of the reservoir. Fluid mixture for other wells depends on operating conditions. To date, it has been difficult with the geothermetric temperatures to establish the underground flow directions and whether or not an infiltration of shallow low-temperature fluids occurs. Well H-16 has the lowest-temperature fluid in the liquid phase, which suggests infiltration of shallow local fluids-a result corroborated by an isotopic study. Using the methodology of Giggenbach and Goguel, we found that the gases are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at temperatures between 275 and 325 Celsius degrees. The maximum temperature is measured in wells H-12 and H-9, where good agreement exists between this temperature and those calculated with a geothermometer of CO{sub 2}/H{sub 2} . Isotopic results show, in general, that the wells with the highest levels of oxygen-18 are those with the highest geothermetric temperatures (CO{sub 2}/H{sub 2})- both in the north (H-35 and H-9) and in the south (H-6 and H-12)-results that agree with the temperatures measured in the field. The initial thermodynamic conditions of the wells show that they produce fluids from the liquid region. This fact, together with the low salinity, permit the application of the D' Amore methodology, with which the estimations of vapor fractions in the reservoir are relatively low. [Spanish] En general, los pozos del campo geotermico de Los Humeros producen agua del tipo bicarbonato sodico con baja salinidad. Esto se debe a que extraen fluidos de la parte somera del yacimiento. Los pozos H-33 y H-6 son clorurados sodicos; el primero por cierta influencia de la zona

The reconstruction of the stratigraphical-structural framework and the hydrogeology of geothermal areas is fundamental for understanding the relationships between cap rocks, reservoir and circulation of geothermalfluids and for planning the exploitation of the field. The Cerro Tuzgle-Tocomar geothermal volcanic area (Puna plateau, Central Andes, NW Argentina) has a high geothermal potential. It is crossed by the active NW-SE trans-Andean tectonic lineament known as the Calama-Olacapato-Toro (COT) fault system, which favours a high secondary permeability testified by the presence of numerous springs. This study presents new stratigraphic and hydrogeological data on the geothermal field, together with the analysis from remote sensed image analysis of morphostructural evidences associated with the structural framework and active tectonics. Our data suggest that the main geothermal reservoir is located within or below the Pre-Palaeozoic-Ordovician basement units, characterised by unevenly distributed secondary permeability. The reservoir is recharged by infiltration in the ridges above 4500 m a.s.l., where basement rocks are in outcrop. Below 4500 m a.s.l., the reservoir is covered by the low permeable Miocene-Quaternary units that allow a poor circulation of shallow groundwater. Geothermalfluids upwell in areas with more intense fracturing, especially where main regional structures, particularly NW-SE COT-parallel lineaments, intersect with secondary structures, such as at the Tocomar field. Away from the main tectonic features, such as at the Cerro Tuzgle field, the less developed network of faults and fractures allows only a moderate upwelling of geothermalfluids and a mixing between hot and shallow cold waters. The integration of field-based and remote-sensing analyses at the Cerro Tuzgle-Tocomar area proved to be effective in approaching the prospection of remote geothermal fields, and in defining the conceptual model for geothermal circulation.

"Any time that man has activity, there will be an impact on the environment. We can talk about minimizing the effects of this activity, but the real answer to working out environmental problems is environmental management. Nevertheless, the cookbook-type regulations severely restrict development of environmental-management options. A better solution would be to have a number of ways to predict as accurately as possible the environmental or ecosystem response to man's activities, so that rational judgments can be made by society as to the best operational criteria.… Certainly if geopressuredgeothermal-resource development becomes a reality, the options chosen for environmental management may not be pleasing to everyone, but, hopefully, decisions will be made to benefit the most people, not only for a short time but for the generations to follow."

The use of foam drilling fluids in geothermal applications is addressed. A description of foams - what they are, how they are used, their properties, equipment required to use them, the advantages and disadvantages of foams, etc. - is presented. Geothermal applications are discussed. Results of industry interviews presented indicate significant potential for foams, but also indicate significant technical problems to be solved to achieve this potential. Testing procedures and results of tests on representative foams provide a basis for work to develop high-temperature foams.

There are plenty of geothermal resources in oil & gas sedimentary basins. In the context of short energy supply and vigorous development of new energy, development of geothermal resources in oil&gas ifelds is being paid more and more attention. Based on the analysis of geothermal resources in oil&gas ifelds, the possible mode of co-production of oil/gas and geothermal resources was discussed in this paper. Considering the existing low-and medium-temperature power generation technology, the feasibility of using low-and medium-temperature geothermal resources in oil&gas ifelds to power was analyzed. With the characteristics of geopressuredgeothermal resources, the potential of using geopressuredgeothermal water lfooding in heavy oil reservoir to enhance oil recovery was also investigated. It was concluded that sustainable development of oil&gas ifelds and efifcient utilization of new energy could be realized through the“win-win”cooperation between oil/gas production and geothermal exploitation based on existing infrastructure, technology, geothermal experience and reservoir information in oil&gas ifelds.%油气沉积盆地拥有丰富的地热资源，在能源供需紧张、大力发展新能源的背景下，油田地热资源开发日益受到重视。在对油田地热资源分析的基础上，讨论了油气与地热联产的几种可能模式；结合现有的中低温发电技术，分析了利用油田中低温地热资源发电的可行性；最后，针对地压型地热资源的特点，对地压型地热水驱提高稠油油藏采收率进行了探讨。研究认为，利用油气田现有的基础设施、生产技术、开发经验和储层数据，通过油气生产与地热开采的“双赢”合作，可实现油气田的可持续发展和新能源的高效利用。

Titanium resists seawater and brine at temperatures as high as 260{sup o}C, and is also resistant to corrosion by sulphur dioxide; hydrogen sulphide; and aqueous solutions of those gases. Titanium is fully resistant to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in the standard NACE test solution containing 3000 ppm dissolved H{sub 2}S, 5% NACl, and 0.5% acetic acid (pH 3.5). To avoid pitting at temperatures above 80{sup o}C, titanium alloys containing nickel, molybdenum, palladium or ruthenium are used. Examples of equipment fabricated in titanium in order to withstand the corrosive fluids present in some geothermal installations are plate heat exchangers and well casing. By careful selection of the grade of titanium, material thickness (with no corrosion allowance) and fabrication method, an economic fabrication with low maintenance costs and high availability can be achieved. A prime example of the application of titanium in the geothermal industry is the use of Grade 29 well casing in the Salton Sea, USA, which enables the exploitation of a geothermal resource containing highly corrosive brine. Advances in production technology are being applied to reduce the cost of the casing pipe. This technology may enable the use of sea water injection to augment weak or depleted aquifers, or to generate steam from Hot Dry Rocks. (author)

Granoblastic hornfels identified in cuttings from the Reykjanes seawater-dominated hydrothermal system contains secondary pyroxene, anorthite, and hornblendic amphibole in locally equilibrated assemblages. Granoblastic assemblages containing secondary orthopyroxene, olivine, and, locally, cordierite and spinel occur within groups of cuttings that show dominantly greenschist facies hydrothermal alteration. Granoblastic plagioclase ranges continuously in composition from An54 to An96, in contrast with relict igneous plagioclase that ranges from An42 to An80. Typical hydrothermal clinopyroxene compositions range from Wo49En3Fs48 to Wo53En30Fo17; clinopyroxene from the granoblastic grains is less calcic with an average composition of Wo48En27Fs25. The hornfels is interpreted to form during contact metamorphism in response to dike emplacement, resulting in local recrystallization of previously hydrothermally altered basalts. Temperatures of granoblastic recrystallization estimated from the 2-pyroxene geothermometer range from 927°C to 967°C. Redox estimates based on the 2-oxide oxybarometer range from log fO2 of -13.4 to -15.9. Granoblastic hornfels comprised of clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and calcic plagioclase have been described in a number of ancient hydrothermal systems from the conductive boundary layer between the hydrothermal system and the underlying magma source, most notably in Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Hole 1256D, Ocean Drilling Program Hole 504B, and in the Troodos and Oman ophiolites. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence of high-grade contact metamorphism from an active geothermal system and the first description of equilibrated amphibole-absent pyroxene hornfels facies contact metamorphism in any mid-ocean ridge (MOR) hydrothermal system. This contribution describes how these assemblages develop through metamorphic reactions and allows us to predict that higher-temperature assemblages may also be present in MOR systems.

Isotopic data ({delta} 18 O, {delta} D) from fluids from production wells at the Los Humeros, Pue., geothermal field were analyzed to investigate the possible origin of these fluids and the dominant processes of the reservoir at its initial state. According to pre-exploitation data, it is suggested the Los Humeros reservoir fluids are made of a mixture of meteoric water of very light isotopic composition (paleo-fluids) and andesitic water. The relationship {delta} D vs {delta} 18 O from pre-exploitation data indicates the produced fluids are composed of a mixture of (at least) two fluids with distinct isotopic compositions. At the more enriched end of the mixing relationship are the isotopic compositions of the wells H-23 and H-18 (located in the southern area of the field), while the lighter fluids were found in well H-16 (originally) and then in well H-16 (repaired). It was found that the liquid phases of deep wells are more enriched in {delta} 18 O while the shallow wells present lower values, suggesting a convection process at the initial state. Based on this isotopic profile, it is considered that even the production depths of the wells H-1, H-12 and H-16 (repaired) are just about the same, but their respective isotopic compositions are quite different. The {delta} 18 O value for well H-16 (repaired) seems to be that of condensate steam, while the corresponding values for wells H-1 and H-12 fall within the value interval of the deep wells (H-23). This suggests wells H-1 and H-12 are collecting very deep fluids enriched in {delta} 18 O. These results could be useful in creating a conceptual model of the reservoir. [Spanish] Se analizaron datos isotopicos ({delta}18 O, {delta}D) de los fluidos de pozos productores del campo geotermico de Los Humeros, Pue., para investigar el posible origen de los fluidos asi como los procesos dominantes del yacimiento en su estado inicial. De acuerdo con datos previos a la explotacion, se plantea que los fluidos del yacimiento

The ?Geothermal Outreach and Project Financing? project substantially added to the understanding of geothermal resources, technology, and small business development by both the general public as well as those in the geothermal community.

INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTH GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING WORKSHOP, STANFORD GEOTHERMAL PROGRAM Henry J. Ramey, Jr., and Paul Kruger Co-Principal Investigators Ian G. Donaldson Program Manager Stanford Geothermal Program The Sixth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering convened at Stanford University on December 16, 1980. As with previous Workshops the attendance was around 100 with a significant participation from countries other than the United States (18 attendees from 6 countries). In addition, there were a number of papers from foreign contributors not able to attend. Because of the success of all the earlier workshops there was only one format change, a new scheduling of Tuesday to Thursday rather than the earlier Wednesday through Friday. This change was in general considered for the better and will be retained for the Seventh Workshop. Papers were presented on two and a half of the three days, the panel session, this year on the numerical modeling intercomparison study sponsored by the Department of Energy, being held on the second afternoon. This panel discussion is described in a separate Stanford Geothermal Program Report (SGP-TR42). This year there was a shift in subject of the papers. There was a reduction in the number of papers offered on pressure transients and well testing and an introduction of several new subjects. After overviews by Bob Gray of the Department of Energy and Jack Howard of Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, we had papers on field development, geopressured systems, production engineering, well testing, modeling, reservoir physics, reservoir chemistry, and risk analysis. A total of 51 papers were contributed and are printed in these Proceedings. It was, however, necessary to restrict the presentations and not all papers printed were presented. Although the content of the Workshop has changed over the years, the format to date has proved to be satisfactory. The objectives of the Workshop, the bringing together of

The theoretical basis of geothermal reservoir engineering owes much of its origins to the oil and gas industries, but important differences in resource character and geological setting have resulted in substantial divergences from reservoir simulation as practiced in the petroleum industry. Geothermal reservoirs are hotter, contain different fluids, and are usually found within fractured volcanic formations with little or no intergranular permeability. Fluid flow takes place through an intricate fracture network which penetrates the otherwise impermeable rock. By their very nature, oil and gas fields prior to production are usually static (little or no natural fluid circulation) whereas, by contrast, the presence of a dynamic active natural convective circulation system is an essential prerequisite to the formation of a geo-thermal reservoir-otherwise, the earth's heat cannot penetrate upward to drillable depths. Geothermal reservoirs usually lack the regular sub-horizontal stratification pattern typical of oilfields. The resource sought (heat) is mainly contained within the mass of the rock, so that the geothermal brines serve as working fluids to redistribute this heat within the reservoir and carry it upward. During exploitation, flow rates are necessarily high (the economic value per unit mass of hot brine is vastly less than that of oil), and the objective is to create an artificial circulation system using production and injection wells to mine energy from the reservoir by cooling the rock. These phenomenological differences have resulted in development of new techniques of reservoir modeling and simulation for geothermal applications.

The theoretical basis of geothermal reservoir engineering owes much of its origins to the oil and gas industries, but important differences in resource character and geological setting have resulted in substantial divergences from reservoir simulation as practiced in the petroleum industry. Geothermal reservoirs are hotter, contain different fluids, and are usually found within fractured volcanic formations with little or no intergranular permeability. Fluid flow takes place through an intricate fracture network which penetrates the otherwise impermeable rock. By their very nature, oil and gas fields prior to production are usually static (little or no natural fluid circulation) whereas, by contrast, the presence of a dynamic active natural convective circulation system is an essential prerequisite to the formation of a geo-thermal reservoir-otherwise, the earth`s heat cannot penetrate upward to drillable depths. Geothermal reservoirs usually lack the regular sub-horizontal stratification pattern typical of oilfields. The resource sought (heat) is mainly contained within the mass of the rock, so that the geothermal brines serve as working fluids to redistribute this heat within the reservoir and carry it upward. During exploitation, flow rates are necessarily high (the economic value per unit mass of hot brine is vastly less than that of oil), and the objective is to create an artificial circulation system using production and injection wells to mine energy from the reservoir by cooling the rock. These phenomenological differences have resulted in development of new techniques of reservoir modeling and simulation for geothermal applications.

Siler, Drew L [Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno; Faulds, James E [Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada, Reno

2013-09-29

Elevated permeability along fault systems provides pathways for circulation of geothermalfluids. Accurate location of such fluid flow pathways in the subsurface is crucial to future geothermal development in order to both accurately assess resource potential and mitigate drilling costs by increasing drilling success rates. Employing a variety of surface and subsurface data sets, we present detailed 3D geologic analyses of two Great Basin geothermal systems, the actively producing Brady’s geothermal system and a ‘greenfield’ geothermal prospect at Astor Pass, Nevada. 3D modeling provides the framework for quantitative structural analyses. We combine 3D slip and dilation tendency analysis along fault zones and calculations of fault intersection density in the two geothermal systems with the locations of lithologies capable of supporting dense, interconnected fracture networks. The collocation of these permeability promoting characteristics with elevated heat represent geothermal ‘fairways’, areas with ideal conditions for geothermalfluid flow. Location of geothermal fairways at high resolution in 3D space can help to mitigate the costs of geothermal exploration by providing discrete drilling targets and data-based evaluations of reservoir potential.

Geothermal energy is currently being used for a number of industrial processes in countries throughout the world. Its application in the United States is mainly limited to space heating even though the temperature of the geothermalfluid is sufficient for process uses, and could be sold at attractive prices while maintaining a high return on investment. The temperature span for industrial use ranges from 40 to 275/sup 0/C, thus encompassing both the abundant low temperature and the less available high temperature resources. Hydrothermal fluids can be used either directly or indirectly dependent upon fluid quality and process needs. The barriers facing hydrothermal industrial process development are (a) the development infrastructure does not exist, (b) energy users are not aware of hydrothermal energy and its advantages, (c) federal incentives are limited, (d) resources are not fully defined.

Our studies have had an important impact on societal issues. Experimental and field observations show that CO2 degassing, such as might occur from stored CO2 reservoir gas, can result in significant stable isotopic disequilibrium. In the offshore South Ellwood field of the Santa Barbara channel, we show how oil production has reduced natural seep rates in the area, thereby reducing greenhouse gases. Permeability is calculated to be ~20-30 millidarcys for km-scale fault-focused fluid flow, using changes in natural gas seepage rates from well production, and poroelastic changes in formation pore-water pressure. In the Los Angeles (LA) basin, our characterization of formation water chemistry, including stable isotopic studies, allows the distinction between deep and shallow formations waters. Our multiphase computational-based modeling of petroleum migration demonstrates the important role of major faults on geological-scale fluid migration in the LA basin, and show how petroleum was dammed up against the Newport-Inglewood fault zone in a “geologically fast” interval of time (less than 0.5 million years). Furthermore, these fluid studies also will allow evaluation of potential cross-formational mixing of formation fluids. Lastly, our new study of helium isotopes in the LA basin shows a significant leakage of mantle helium along the Newport Inglewood fault zone (NIFZ), at flow rates up to 2 cm/yr. Crustal-scale fault permeability (~60 microdarcys) and advective versus conductive heat transport rates have been estimated using the observed helium isotopic data. The NIFZ is an important deep-seated fault that may crosscut a proposed basin decollement fault in this heavily populated area, and appears to allow seepage of helium from the mantle sources about 30 km beneath Los Angeles. The helium study has been widely cited in recent weeks by the news media, both in radio and on numerous web sites.

Full Text Available Use of renewable energy resources should be brought forward to reduce heating costs of greenhouses and to minimize the use of ever-depleting fossil fuels. Geothermal energy not only provides the heat required throughout plant growth, but also allow a year-long production. Geothermal resources with several other benefits therefore play significant role in agricultural activities. With regard to geothermal potential and implementation, Turkey has the 7th place in the world and the 1st place in Europe. Majority of country geothermal resources is used in greenhouse heating. The size of geothermal greenhouses increased 5 folds during the last decade and reached to 2500 decare. In this study, current status of geothermal greenhousing of Turkey was presented; problems and possible solutions were discussed.

Research at the Geothermal Loop Experimental Facility was successfully concluded in September 1979. In 13,000 hours of operation over a three and one half year period, the nominal 10 megawatt electrical equivalent GLEF provided the opportunity to identify problems in working with highly saline geothermalfluids and to develop solutions that could be applied to a commercial geothermal power plant producing electricity. A seven and one half year period beginning in April 1972, with early well flow testing and ending in September 1979, with the completion of extensive facility and reservoir operations is covered. During this period, the facility was designed, constructed and operated in several configurations. A comprehensive reference document, addressing or referencing documentation of all the key areas investigated is presented.

occurrences took place between the first workshop in December 1975 and this present workshop in December 1976. For one thing, the newly formed Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) has assumed the lead role in geothermal reservoir engineering research. The second workshop under the Stanford Geothermal Program was supported by a grant from ERDA. In addition, two significant meetings on geothermal energy were held in Rotarua, New Zealand and Taupo, New Zealand. These meetings concerned geothermal reservoir engineering, and the reinjection of cooled geothermalfluids back into a geothermal system. It was clear to attendees of both the New Zealand and the December workshop meetings that a great deal of new information had been developed between August and December 1976. Another exciting report made at the meeting was a successful completion of a new geothermal well on the big island of Hawaii which produces a geothermalfluid that is mainly steam at a temperature in excess of 600 degrees F. Although the total developed electrical power generating capacity due to all geothermal field developments in 1976 is on the order of 1200 megawatts, it was reported that rapid development in geothermal field expansion is taking place in many parts of the world. Approximately 400 megawatts of geothermal power were being developed in the Philippine Islands, and planning for expansion in production in Cerro Prieto, Mexico was also announced. The Geysers in the United States continued the planned expansion toward the level of more than 1000 megawatts. The Second Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering convened at Stanford December 1976 with 93 attendees from 4 nations, and resulted in the presentation of 44 technical papers, summaries of which are included in these Proceedings. The major areas included in the program consisted of reservoir physics, well testing, field development, well stimulation, and mathematical modeling of geothermal reservoirs. The planning forth is year

U.S. Department of Energy 1999 Geothermal Energy Program Highlights The Hot Facts Getting into Hot Water Turning Waste water into Clean Energy Producing Even Cleaner Power Drilling Faster and Cheaper Program in Review 1999: The Year in Review JanuaryCal Energy announced sale of Coso geothermal power plants at China Lake, California, to Caithness Energy, for $277 million. U.S. Export-Import Bank completed a $50 million refinancing of the Leyte Geothermal Optimization Project in the Philippines. F

U.S. Department of Energy Geothermal Energy Program Highlights Partnering with Industry A New Power Source for Nevada Drilling Research Finding Geothermal Resources Small-Scale Geothermal Power Plants The Heat Beneath Your Feet R&D 100 Award Program in Review Milestones January 2000 The U.S. Department of Energy GeoPowering the West initiative was launched. February 2000 Grants totaling $4.8 million were awarded in six western states, primarily for development of reservoir exploration, character

As nations alike struggle to diversify and secure their power portfolios, geothermal energy, the essentially limitless heat emanating from the earth itself, is being harnessed at an unprecedented rate. For the last 25 years, engineers around the world tasked with taming this raw power have used Geothermal Reservoir Engineering as both a training manual and a professional reference. This long-awaited second edition of Geothermal Reservoir Engineering is a practical guide to the issues and tasks geothermal engineers encounter in the course of their daily jobs. The bo

Problems related to geopressures are well known in the oil industry. They range from minor well instability problems to major blowouts that result in the drilling unit total loss. Such events led many operators to invest large amounts of money to develop methods capable of improving geopressure estimates. The objective of this study is to describe the efforts endeavored by PETROBRAS in order to enhance such estimates. This paper has been subdivided into basic concepts and historical cases. Basic concepts have as a goal to provide the reader with a knowledge on geopressure theory and historical cases present some relevant examples that include: zones with high pressures and high temperatures; geopressure prediction and real time monitoring work; regions under the influence of more than one mechanism that creates abnormal pressures; problems related to the collapse gradient in directional wells drilled in great water depths; area where high overpressure are found in the Gulf of Mexico. (author)

Since 1976, the Department of Energy (DOE) has supported a variety of programs and projects dealing with the exploration, development, and utilization of geothermal energy. This report presents an overview of the environmental impacts associated with these efforts. Impacts that were predicted in the environmental analyses prepared for the programs and projects are reviewed and summarized, along with measures that were recommended to mitigate these impacts. Also, for those projects that have gone forward, actual impacts and implemented mitigation measures are reported, based on telephone interviews with DOE and project personnel. An accident involving spills of geothermalfluids was the major environmental concern associated with geothermal development. Other important considerations included noise from drilling and production, emissions of H/sub 2/S and cooling tower drift, disposal of solid waste (e.g., from H/sub 2/S control), and the cumulative effects of geothermal development on land use and ecosystems. Mitigation measures were frequently recommended and implemented in conjunction with noise reduction; drift elimination; reduction of fugitive dust, erosion, and sedimentation; blowout prevention; and retention of wastes and spills. Monitoring to resolve uncertainties was often implemented to detect induced seismicity and subsidence, noise, drift deposition, concentrations of air and water pollutants, and effects on groundwater. The document contains an appendix, based on these findings, which outlines major environmental concerns, mitigation measures, and monitoring requirements associated with geothermal energy. Sources of information on various potential impacts are also listed.

There is a societal request to find renewable CO2-free energy resources. One of the biggest such resources is provided by geothermal energy. In addition to shallow ground heat already extensively used in Finland, deep geothermal energy provides an alternative so far not exploited. Temperatures are high at depth, but the challenge is, how to mine the heat? In this presentation, the geological and geophysical conditions for deep geothermal energy production in Finland are discussed as well as challenges for drilling and conditions at depth for geothermal energy production. Finland is located on ancient bedrock with much lower temperatures than geologically younger volcanically and tectonically active areas. In order to reach sufficiently high temperatures drilling to depths of several kilometres are needed. Further, mining of the heat with, e.g., the principle of Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) requires high hydraulic conductivity for efficient circulation of fluid in natural or artificial fractures of the rock. There are many issues that must be solved and/or improved: Drilling technology, the EGS concept, rock stress and hydraulic fracturing, scale formation, induced seismicity and ground movements, possible microbial activity, etc. An industry-funded pilot project currently in progress in southern Finland is shortly introduced.

The near-term challenges of the US geothermal industry and its long-range potential are dominant themes in this issue of the US Department of Energy (DOE) Geothermal Progress Monitor which summarizes calendar-year 1996 events in geothermal development. Competition is seen as an antidote to current problems and a cornerstone of the future. Thus, industry's cost-cutting strategies needed to increase the competitiveness of geothermal energy in world markets are examined. For example, a major challenge facing the US industry today is that the sales contracts of independent producers have reached, or soon will, the critical stage when the prices utilities must pay them drop precipitously, aptly called the cliff. However, Thomas R. Mason, President and CEO of CalEnergy told the DOE 1996 Geothermal Program Review XIV audience that while some of his company's plants have ''gone over the cliff, the world is not coming to an end.'' With the imposition of severe cost-cutting strategies, he said, ''these plants remain profitable... although they have to be run with fewer people and less availability.'' The Technology Development section of the newsletter discusses enhancements to TOUGH2, the general purpose fluid and heat flow simulator and the analysis of drill cores from The Geysers, but the emphasis is on advanced drilling technologies.

Full Text Available Geothermal energy is accumulated heat in the fluid and rock masses in the Earth 's crust. The natural decay of radioactive elements (uranium, thorium and potassium in rocks produces heat energy. The simplest use of geothermal energy for heating is by heat pump. Geothermal energy can be used for production of electricity. It uses hot water and steam from the earth to run the generator. Serbia has significant potential for geothermal energy. The total amount of accumulated heat in geothermal resources in a depth of 3 km is two times higher than the equivalent thermal energy that could be obtained by burning all types of coal from all their sites in Serbia! The total abundance of geothermal resources in Serbia is 4000 l/s. Abundance of wells in Vojvodina is 10-20 l/s, and the temperature is from 40 to 60°C. Exploitation of thermal waters in Mačva could cause heating of following cities: Bogatić, Šabac, Sremska Mitrovica and Loznica, with a total population of 150.000 people. The richest hydrogeothermal resources are in Mačva, Vranje and Jošanička Banja. Using heat pumps, geothermal water can be exploited on the entire territory of Serbia! Although large producer, Serbia is importing food, ie., fruits and vegetables. With the construction of greenhouses, which will be heated with geothermal energy, Serbia can become an exporting country.

Electricity from geothermal resources has the potential to supply a significant portion of US baseload electricity. We estimate the water requirements of geothermal electricity and the impact of potential scaling up of such electricity on water demand in various western states with rich geothermal resources but stressed water resources. Freshwater, degraded water, and geothermalfluid requirements are estimated explicitly. In general, geothermal electricity has higher water intensity (l kWh - 1) than thermoelectric or solar thermal electricity. Water intensity decreases with increase in resource enthalpy, and freshwater gets substituted by degraded water at higher resource temperatures. Electricity from enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) could displace 8-100% of thermoelectricity generated in most western states. Such displacement would increase stress on water resources if re-circulating evaporative cooling, the dominant cooling system in the thermoelectric sector, is adopted. Adoption of dry cooling, which accounts for 78% of geothermal capacity today, will limit changes in state-wide freshwater abstraction, but increase degraded water requirements. We suggest a research and development focus to develop advanced energy conversion and cooling technologies that reduce water use without imposing energy and consequent financial penalties. Policies should incentivize the development of higher enthalpy resources, and support identification of non-traditional degraded water sources and optimized siting of geothermal plants.

Geothermal energy is used for electric power generation and direct utilization in the United States. The present installed capacity for electric power generation is 3,064 MWe with only 2,212 MWe in operation due to reduction at The Geysers geothermal field in California; producing approximately16,000 GWh per year. Geothermal electric power plants are located in California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii. The two largest concentrations of plants are at The Geysers in northern California and the Imperial Valley in southern California. The direct utilization of geothermal energy includes the heating of pools and spas, greenhouses and aquaculture facilities, space heating and district heating, snow melting, agricultural drying, industrial applications and ground-source heat pumps. The installed capacity is 4,000 MWt and the annual energy use is 20,600 billion Btu (21,700 TJ - 6040 GWh). The largest applications is groundsource (geothermal) heat pumps (59% of the energy use), and the largest direct-use is in aquaculture. Direct utilization is increasing at about six percent per year; whereas, electric power plant development is almost static. Geothermal energy is a relatively benign energy source, displaying fossil fuels and thus, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A recent initiative by the U.S. Department of Energy, “Geo-Powering the West,” should stimulate future geothermal development. The proposal is especially oriented to small-scale power plants with cascaded uses of the geothermalfluid for direct applications.

Geothermal energy is used for electric power generation and direct utilization in the United States. The present installed capacity for electric power generation is 3,064 MWe with only 2,212 MWe in operation due to reduction at The Geysers geothermal field in California; producing approximately16,000 GWh per year. Geothermal electric power plants are located in California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii. The two largest concentrations of plants are at The Geysers in northern California and the Imperial Valley in southern California. The direct utilization of geothermal energy includes the heating of pools and spas, greenhouses and aquaculture facilities, space heating and district heating, snow melting, agricultural drying, industrial applications and ground-source heat pumps. The installed capacity is 4,000 MWt and the annual energy use is 20,600 billion Btu (21,700 TJ - 6040 GWh). The largest applications is groundsource (geothermal) heat pumps (59% of the energy use), and the largest direct-use is in aquaculture. Direct utilization is increasing at about six percent per year; whereas, electric power plant development is almost static. Geothermal energy is a relatively benign energy source, displaying fossil fuels and thus, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. A recent initiative by the U.S. Department of Energy, “Geo-Powering the West,” should stimulate future geothermal development. The proposal is especially oriented to small-scale power plants with cascaded uses of the geothermalfluid for direct applications.

Measurements of the physical properties of R-114 in the compressed liquid and dense gas regions are reported. Included are: experimental studies of the thermodynamic properties of R-114, enthalpy measurement by throttling experiment, engineering model of the thermodynamic properties of R-114, feasibility study to dissociate R-114 with a four-cycle gasoline engine, transport properties of R-114, analytical procedure to determine impurities in R-114, toxicological information on Freons, and a literature search of published properties of R-114, other refrigerants, and other potential working fluids. (LEW)

The goal of this project is to develop concepts for the next generation geothermal power plant(s) (NGGPP). This plant, compared to existing plants, will generate power for a lower levelized cost and will be more competitive with fossil fuel fired power plants. The NGGPP will utilize geothermal resources efficiently and will be equipped with contingencies to mitigate the risk of reservoir performance. The NGGPP design will attempt to minimize emission of pollutants and consumption of surface water and/or geothermalfluids for cooling service.

The equations describing fluid flow and energy transport in a porous medium can be used to formulate a mathematical model capable of simulating the transient response of a hot-water geothermal reservoir. The resulting equations can be solved accurately and efficiently using a numerical scheme which combines the finite element approach with the Galerkin method of approximation. Application of this numerical model to the Wairakei geothermal field demonstrates that hot-water geothermal fields can be simulated using numerical techniques currently available and under development. ?? 1973.

Fluid (water and steam) chemical changes over time were studied in 20 wells in the Los Humeros, Mexico, geothermal field for the purpose of correlating such changes with physical processes occurring in the reservoir due to exploitation. Most wells (except well H-1) produce high-enthalpy fluids with almost no liquid, making gas geochemistry important in this field. Liquid-phase studies include fluid classification, determination of water-rock equilibrium state, and reservoir-temperature estimates. Changes in gas composition through time were studied using the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction and the combined balance pyrite-hematite-magnetite (HSH2) as the buffer controlling H{sub 2}S fluid concentration. Data for most wells from 1987-1995 and 2000-2005 indicate the presence of deeper-fluid recharge, with maximum temperatures occurring in 1994-95 and 2005. The estimated temperature in well H-1 in 1994 was 305 degrees Celsius and the estimated temperature in well H-7 was 338 degrees Celsius in 1995. Temperature estimations from 2005 data were 222 degrees Celsius in well H-1D and 350 degrees Celsius in well H-7. These results are considered caused by the entrance of deeper fluids due to the increase of secondary permeability, which in turn is related to the seismicity increase in the zone. At the same time, re-injection returns in the steam phase were identified in well discharges during 1995-2000 by means of the FT-HSH2 diagram. [Spanish] Se realizo un estudio de los cambios quimicos ocurridos en fluidos (liquido y vapor) de veinte pozos del campo geotermico de Los Humeros, Pue., Mexico, con objeto de investigar la ocurrencia de procesos del yacimiento relacionados con la explotacion. La mayoria de los pozos (excepto el pozo H-1) se caracterizan por producir descargas de alta entalpia con escasa produccion de liquido, por lo que en este campo la geoquimica de gases juega un papel importante. El estudio de la fase liquida incluyo la clasificacion de los fluidos, la

EGS has been highlightened as a most promising method of geothermal development recently because of applicability to sites which have been considered to be unsuitable for geothermal development. Meanwhile, some critical problems have been experimentally identified, such as low recovery of injected water, difficulties to establish universal design/development methodology, and occurrence of large induced seismicity. Future geothermal target is supercritical and superheated geothermalfluids in and around ductile rock bodies under high temperatures. Ductile regime which is estimated beyond brittle zone is target region for future geothermal development due to high enthalpy fluids and relatively weak water-rock interaction. It is very difficult to determine exact depth of Brittle-Ductile boundary due to strong dependence of temperature (geotherm) and strain rate, however, ductile zone is considered to be developed above 400C and below 3 km in geothermal fields in Tohoku District. Hydrothermal experiments associated with additional advanced technology will be conducting to understand ';Beyond brittle World' and to develop deeper and hotter geothermal reservoir. We propose a new concept of the engineered geothermal development where reservoirs are created in ductile basement, expecting the following advantages: (a)simpler design and control the reservoir, (b)nearly full recovery of injected water, (c)sustainable production, (d)cost reduction by development of relatively shallower ductile zone in compression tectonic zones, (e)large quantity of energy extraction from widely distributed ductile zones, (f)establishment of universal and conceptual design/development methodology, and (g) suppression of felt earthquakes from/around the reservoirs. In ductile regime, Mesh-like fracture cloud has great potential for heat extraction between injection and production wells in spite of single and simple mega-fracture. Based on field observation and high performance hydrothermal

Typically, low- to moderate-temperature geothermal resources are more effectively used for direct heat energy applications. However, due to high thermal losses during transport, direct use requires that the heat resource is located near the user. Alternatively, we show here that if such a low-temperature geothermal resource is combined with an additional or secondary energy resource, the power production is increased compared to the sum from two separate (geothermal and secondary fuel) power plants (DiPippo et al. 1978) and the thermal losses are minimized because the thermal energy is utilized where it is produced. Since