sleep,giant pandaKeren Su—The Image Bank/Getty Imagesa normal, reversible, recurrent state of reduced responsiveness to external stimulation that is accompanied by complex and predictable changes in physiology. These changes include coordinated, spontaneous, and internally generated brain activity, as well as fluctuations in hormone levels and relaxation of musculature. A succinctly defined, specific purpose of sleep remains unclear, but this is partly due to the fact that sleep is a dynamic state that influences all physiology, rather than an individual organ or other isolated physical system. The sleep state contrasts with that of wakefulness, in which there is an enhanced potential for sensitivity and an efficient responsiveness to external stimuli. The sleep-wakefulness alternation is the most striking manifestation in higher vertebrates of the more general phenomenon of periodicity in the activity or responsivity of living tissue.

There is no single, perfectly reliable criterion for defining sleep. It is typically described by the convergence of observations satisfying several different behavioral, motor, sensory, and physiological criteria. Occasionally, one or more of these criteria may be absent during sleep (e.g., in sleepwalking) or present during wakefulness (e.g., when sitting calmly), but even in such cases there usually is little difficulty in achieving agreement among observers in the discrimination between the two behavioral states.

The nature of sleep

Sleep usually requires the presence of relaxed skeletal muscles and the absence of the overt goal-directed behaviour of which the waking organism is capable. The characteristic posture associated with sleep in humans and in many but not all other animals is that of horizontal repose. The relaxation of the skeletal muscles in this posture and its implication of a more passive role toward the environment are symptomatic of sleep. Instances of activities such as sleepwalking raise interesting questions about whether the brain is capable of simultaneously being partly asleep and partly awake. In an extreme form of this principle, marine mammals appear to sleep with half the brain remaining responsive, possibly to maintain activities that allow them to surface for air.

Indicative of the decreased sensitivity of the human sleeper to his external environment are the typical closed eyelids (or the functional blindness associated with sleep while the eyes are open) and the presleep activities that include seeking surroundings characterized by reduced or monotonous levels of sensory stimulation. Three additional criteria—reversibility, recurrence, and spontaneity—distinguish sleep from that of other states. For example, compared with that of hibernation or coma, sleep is more easily reversible. Although the occurrence of sleep is not perfectly regular under all conditions, it is at least partially predictable from a knowledge of the duration of prior sleep periods and of the intervals between periods of sleep, and, although the onset of sleep may be facilitated by a variety of environmental or chemical means, sleep states are not thought of as being absolutely dependent upon such manipulations.

In experimental studies, sleep has also been defined in terms of physiological variables generally associated with recurring periods of inactivity identified behaviorally as sleep. For example, the typical presence of certain electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns (brain patterns of electrical activity) with behavioral sleep has led to the designation of such patterns as “signs” of sleep. Conversely, in the absence of such signs (as, for example, in a hypnotic trance), it is felt that true sleep is absent. Such signs as are now employed, however, are not invariably discriminating of the behavioral states of sleep and wakefulness. Advances in the technology of animal experimentation have made it possible to extend the physiological approach from externally measurable manifestations of sleep such as the EEG to the underlying neural (nerve) mechanisms presumably responsible for such manifestations. In addition, computational modeling of EEG signals may be used to obtain information about the brain activities that generate the signals. Such advances may eventually enable scientists to identify the specific structures that mediate sleep and to determine their functional roles in the sleep process.

In addition to the behavioral and physiological criteria already mentioned, subjective experience (in the case of the self) and verbal reports of such experience (in the case of others) are used at the human level to define sleep. Upon being alerted, one may feel or say, “I was asleep just then,” and such judgments ordinarily are accepted as evidence for identifying a prearousal state as sleep. Such subjective evidence, however, can be at variance with both behavioral classifications and sleep electrophysiology, raising interesting questions about how to define the true measure of sleep. Is sleep determined by objective or subjective evidence alone, or is it determined by some combination of the two? And what is the best way to measure such evidence?

More generally, problems in defining sleep arise when evidence for one or more of the several criteria of sleep is lacking or when the evidence generated by available criteria is inconsistent. Do all animals sleep? Other mammalian species whose EEG and other physiological correlates are akin to those observed in human sleep demonstrate recurring, spontaneous, and reversible periods of inactivity and decreased critical reactivity. Among all mammals and many birds, there is general acceptance of the designation of such states as sleep. For lizards, snakes, and closely related reptiles, as well as for fish and insects, however, such criteria are less successfully satisfied, and so the unequivocal identification of sleep becomes more difficult. Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), for example, seem not to fulfill sensory threshold criteria of sleep during resting states. Tree frogs (genus Hyla), on the other hand, show diminished sensitivity as they move from a state of behavioral activity to one of rest. Yet the EEGs of the alert rest of the bullfrog and the sleeplike rest of the tree frog are the same.

Problems in defining sleep may arise from the effects of artificial manipulation. For example, some of the EEG patterns commonly used as signs of sleep can be induced in an otherwise waking organism by the administration of certain drugs.

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