3 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 would be 100,000 to 1 (or 5 log units). Conversely each p unit below the pka of an acid results in a 10-fold increase in the ratio of non-ionized to ionized compound! Because of their acidity, carboxylic acids react with either inorganic bases (a, ac 3, etc.) or organic bases to form salts: a - a + Al() 3-3 Al +++ C C 3 odium (a) and potassium (K) salts have significantly greater 2 solubility than the parent carboxylic acids because of their ionic nature and ability to participate in energy favorable ion-dipole interactions with water. These principles are illustrated by comparison of the water solubilities of benzoic acid and its sodium salt: - a + Water olubility: 0.34 g/100 ml 55.5 g/100 ml Dissolution of sodium and potassium salts of carboxylic acids in water yields an alkaline medium (salt of a strong base and a weak acid). alts of carboxylic acids formed with heavy metal ions such as Ca +2, Mg +2, Zn +2, Al +3 tend to be relatively water insoluble. imilarly, carboxyl salts with lipophilic amines will also be relatively insoluble in 2. B. Electrophilic/ucleophilic eactions at the Acid Carboxyl Group Carboxylic acids contain electron rich oxygen atoms, but are relatively 'weak" nucleophiles since oxygen is relatively electronegative and the electron density is distributed by resonance throughout the carboxyl system as illustrated below. Thus the carboxyl group is less likely to share its BEs in a displacement reaction than amines or even alcohols: C 3 X 3

4 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 Acids: Weak nucleophiles Carboxylic acids, however, are capable of functioning as electrophiles under the appropriate conditions, due to the presence of the carbonyl moiety. Under "dehydrating conditions" nucleophiles can attack the acids carbonyl and displace the acid as water, or another good leaving group. uch is the case in esterification reactions performed under acidic conditions. In these reactions an acid is treated with an alcohol which serves as the nucleophile, and an acid which serves as a catalyst. The acid catalyzes the reaction by 1). Further polarizing the carbonyl moiety through partial protonation, and 2). Providing a proton source for a hydroxyl leaving group (which "leaves" as water). This reaction and the role of the acid and alcohol nucleophile are illustrated in the following reaction scheme and mechanism: Acid electrophile + Acid catalyst Protonation and enhanced electrophilicity of carbonyl ' Alcohol nucleophile ' ' Ester product 2 Tetrahedral intermediate While the esterification reaction above can be used effectively to prepare esters from acids, it can be a relatively inefficient reaction due to its reversibility and the sluggish nature of the dehydration step. Esterification, as well as amide formation, may be accomplished much more efficiently in the laboratory by first converting the carboxylic acid to a more reactive electrophilic species, such as an "acid chloride", and then allowing the acid chloride to react with an alcohol or amine nucleophile to form an ester or amide product. Acid chlorides can be formed readily with strong "dehydrating reagents" such as thionyl chloride. Treatment of an acid with thionyl chloride results in formation of a very reactive "mixed anhydride" intermediate as shown below. This intermediate is attacked by - generated in the reaction, eliminating 2 and yielding the acid chloride. This reaction is essentially irreversible since the carboxylic acid leaves as 2 which is a gas and is eliminated form the reaction mixture Carboxylic acid Thionyl Chloride "Mixed Anhydride" Acid Chloride 4

5 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 eplacement of the carboxylic acid with a halogen as in acid chlorides (and other acid halides) greatly enhances the electrophilicity of the carbonyl dipole. Thus it reacts more readily than a carboxylic acid carbonyl with nucleophiles such as acids and amines, yielding ester or amide products, respectively: C 3 Ester C 3 C Amide C 6 5 C. ucleophilic eactions at the Alpha-Carbon Carboxylic acids containing a "good leaving" group at the carbon atom adjacent to the carbonyl (the α-carbon) may be substrates for nucleophilic displacement reactions. The α-carbon atoms in these systems are electron deficient due to their positioning next to an electron withdrawing carbonyl moiety. Thus the α-carbon contains a leaving group, such as a halogen, it is subject to displacement. It is important to note that if the nucleophile in such a reaction is also basic, two equivalents must be added to complete the reaction since one will be consumed in an acid-base reaction with the acidic carboxyl group: Br C C D. Decarboxylation eactions Carboxylic acids and other carbonyl-containing compounds with an additional carboxyl group located on the α-carbon are subject to decarboxylation reactions. In these cases the carboxyl group is lost as carbon dioxide and this reaction can occur because the remaining carbonyl can readily accept the electron pair left in the reaction. Again, this reaction occurs because the charge formed by decarboxylation is stabilized by resonance through the carbonyl system as shown below: C 3 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 2 C 3 C 2 C 3 C 3 5

6 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 V. ulfonic Acids and ulfonamides ulfonic acids (- 3 ) are "isosteres" of carboxylic acids. As a result, they share many properties in common with carboxylic acids, as described in the preceding sections. It is important to note that sulfonic acids are more acidic than carboxylic acids and this enhanced acidity results primarily from the presence of the additional oxygen atom which provides BT a greater negative inductive effect to enhance ionization and additional resonance stabilizaition of the resultant conjugate base anion as shown below: + "Composite" resonance structure The presence of the - 3 group increases 2 solubility due to its ability to act as both a -bond donor and acceptor. In addition, these compounds easily ionize at physiological p and this greatly increases the 2 solubility of these compounds. Also, ulfonic acids undergo the same reactions as carboxylic acids. ulfonamides can be considered to be acid analogs in which the carbonyl moiety is replaced with an isosteric 2 group, and the hydroxyl replaced with a nitrogen group. Because they contain a nitrogen atom which may have three substituents, sulfonamides may be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on the degree of substitution on the sulfonamide nitrogen: Primary ulfonamide econdary ulfonamide Tertiary ulfonamide C 3 C 3 C 3 6

7 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 There are a number of drug classes containing the sulfonamide group including the sulfonamide antibacterials, some diuretics and the sulfonylurea hypoglycemics (more on these below and in the Antidiabetic Drug Tutorial). Primary sulfonamides contain two hydrogen atoms on the sulfonyl group and secondary sulfonamides contain one hydrogen atom. These hydrogens are relatively acidic, again because the charge formed in the conjugate base can be stabilized by resonance. ulfonamides are less acidic than carboxylic acids, due to the formation of a negative charge on a less electronegative nitrogen atom. owever, they display greater acidity than amides because the negative charge formed in the conjugate base can be stabilized over more electronegative atoms as shown by the following resonance structures (also see Amide Tutorial): Base Again it is important to realize that tertiary sulfonamides are T acidic because they do not contain an "ionizable" proton. Generally sulfonamides are relatively unreactive compounds. They can be hydrolyzed under relatively extreme conditions to the corresponding sulfonic acid and amine as shown below: C C 3 Also, although relatively unreactive as nucleophiles, similar to amides, primary and secondary sulfonamides can be converted to more nucleophilic anions upon treatment with strong bases, and these nucleophiles can participate in displacement reactions similar to ionized amides as shown below: C 3 trong Base C 3 C 3 I C 3 C 3 7

8 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 VI. Problems 1. Why is butyric acid more water soluble than butyrylaldehyde? C 3 C 2 C 2 C Butyric acid C 3 C 2 C 2 C Butyrylaldehyde 2. ank the following set of compounds in terms of relative acidity (1 = most, 5 = least): C 2 C A B C D E 3. You have a mixture of benzoic acid and phenol you wish to separate by extraction using benzene and water. ow would you accomplish this taking advantage of the differences in the pkas of these two compounds? Benzoic acid Phenol 4. Explain why the phenolic group of salicylic acid has such a high pka value (13.4)? C alicylic Acid 8

9 Principles of Drug Action 1, pring 2005, Carboxylic Acids Part 2 5. orazepate is a benzodiazepine tranquilizer administered as the dipotassium salt. Propose a structure for the dipotassium salt. C K 6. Carbenicillin is an acid unstable penicillin and thus cannot be administered orally. The initial acid-catalyzed decomposition reaction this compound undergoes in the stomach is decarboxylation in the 6-acylamino side chain. how the product of this reaction and explain why it occurs. Also, propose a prodrug derivative of carbenicillin to overcome (or minimize) this problem. 6 C 3 Carbenicillin C C 3 7. how the product formed from the following reactions: C 3 C 3 C 1 Equiv a C 3 1 Equiv a 9

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