Contents

The 100 Year Starship effort was announced by NASA Ames Research Center director Pete Worden in a talk at San Francisco's Long Conversation conference in October 2010.[4] In a DARPA press release officially announcing the effort,[5] program manager Paul Eremenko, who served as the study coordinator, explained that the endeavor was meant to excite several generations to commit to the research and development of breakthrough technologies to advance the eventual goal of interstellar space travel.[6]

The 100 Year Starship study is the name of a one-year project to assess the attributes of and lay the groundwork for an organization that can carry forward the 100 Year Starship vision.[7][8] American physician and former NASA astronaut Mae Jemison made the winning bid as leader[9] of her own foundation, the Dorothy Jemison Foundation for Excellence, partnering with Icarus Interstellar and the Foundation for Enterprise Development.[10][11] The consortium was awarded a $500,000 grant for further work. The new organization maintained the organizational name 100 Year Starship. Neither Icarus Interstellar nor the Foundation for Enterprise Development are any longer involved in 100 Year Starship although initial grant negotiations took place.[12]

Before the solicitation for the foundation, the 100 Year Starship project was preceded by a conference held in Orlando, Florida, from September 30 to October 2, 2011, co-sponsored by DARPA and NASA, organized by DARPA’s Tactical Technology Office director, David Neyland.[2][3] The conference included presentations on the technology, biology, physics, philosophy, sociology, and economics of interstellar flight.[7] Selected papers from the conference were published in the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society.

After the Jemison Foundation was named as winner of the solicitation, a second symposium was held in 2012 in Houston. Papers on a number of subjects related to interstellar flight and organization of the foundation were presented.[7] 2013 and 2014 Symposia were held in Houston, and a fifth on September 2015.[13]

The 100 Year Starship was named by U.S. Senator Tom Coburn as one of the 100 most wasteful government spending projects. Coburn specifically cited a 100 Year Starship workshop that included one session, entitled “Did Jesus die for Klingons too?” that debated the implications for Christian philosophy should life be found on other planets.[16][17] The original meetings were hard science not so for the ones that followed under Jemison's leadership.

1.
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, with the aim to reach beyond immediate military requirements. DARPA was created in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the name of the organization changed several times from its founding name ARPA, DARPA, ARPA, and DARPA. DARPA is independent from other research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has about 240 employees, of whom 13 are in management, dARPA-funded projects have provided significant technologies that influenced many non-military fields, such as computer networking and graphical user interfaces in information technology. S. The mission statement has evolved over time, today, DARPAs mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the U. S. but also to create technological surprise for U. S. enemies. The creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency was authorized by President Dwight D.15 and its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U. S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $520 million, ARPAs first director, Roy Johnson, left a $160,000 management job at General Electric for an $18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant, Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPAs funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do high-risk, high-gain, far out basic research, ARPAs second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961. He was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963, Ruina, the first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $250 million. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPAs emphasis centered on major issues, including space, ballistic missile defense. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender, Project Vela, and Project AGILE Programs, and to work on computer processing, behavioral sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar, infrared sensing, ARPA at this point played an early role in Transit a predecessor to the Global Positioning System. Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune the early explorers’ discoveries, TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Dr. Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system. The agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing

2.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems

3.
Interstellar travel
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Interstellar travel is the term used for hypothetical piloted or unpiloted travel between stars or planetary systems. The speeds required for travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of spacecraft propulsion can provide. Even with a perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy corresponding to those speeds is enormous by todays standards of energy production. Moreover, collisions by the spacecraft with cosmic dust and gas can produce very dangerous effects both to passengers and the spacecraft itself. A number of strategies have been proposed to deal with problems, ranging from giant arks that would carry entire societies and ecosystems. For both piloted and unpiloted interstellar travel, considerable technological and economic challenges need to be met, even the most optimistic views about interstellar travel see it as only being feasible decades from now—the more common view is that it is a century or more away. However, in spite of the challenges, if interstellar travel should ever be realized, such a system could grow organically if space-based solar power became a significant component of Earths energy mix. Consumer demand for a system would automatically create the necessary multi-million metric ton/year logistical system. Distances between the planets in the Solar System are often measured in units, defined as the average distance between the Sun and Earth, some 1. 5×108 kilometers. Venus, the closest other planet to Earth is 0.28 AU away, Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.8 AU away. As of December 2016 Voyager 1, the farthest man-made object from Earth, is 137 AU away, the closest known star Proxima Centauri, however, is some 268,332 AU away, or over 9000 times farther away than Neptune. Because of this, distances between stars are expressed in light-years, defined as the distance that a ray of light travels in a year. Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometers per second, Proxima Centauri is 4.243 light-years away. On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 271 kilometers, the fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600th of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18, 000th the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years, a significant factor contributing to the difficulty is the energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the energy is the kinetic energy K = 1⁄2 mv2 where m is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any other than the engines of the ship. The velocity for a round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several thousand times greater than those of present space vehicles

4.
Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration on October 1,1958. NASA Ames is named in honor of Joseph Sweetman Ames, a physicist, at last estimate NASA Ames has over US$3.0 billion in capital equipment,2,300 research personnel and a US$860 million annual budget. Ames was founded to conduct research on the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, however, its role has expanded to encompass spaceflight. Ames plays a role in many NASA missions, Ames also develops tools for a safer, more efficient national airspace. The centers current director is Eugene Tu, the site is mission center for several key current missions and a major contributor to the new exploration focus as a participant in the Orion crew exploration vehicle. Although Ames is a NASA Research Center, and not a center, it has nevertheless been closely involved in a number of astronomy. The Pioneer programs eight successful missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and those two missions were trail blazers for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program brought about a return to the solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe. Lunar Prospector was the mission selected by NASA for full development. Based on Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer data, mission scientists have determined that there is indeed water ice in the craters of the Moon. The 11-pound GeneSat-1, carrying bacteria inside a laboratory, was launched on December 16,2006. The very small NASA satellite has proven that scientists can quickly design, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission to look for water on the moon was a secondary payload spacecraft. LCROSS began its trip to the moon on the rocket as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It launched in April 2009 on an Atlas V rocket from Kennedy Space Center, the Kepler mission is NASAs first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The Kepler mission will monitor the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets orbits, during such passes or transits, the planets will slightly decrease the stars brightness. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a joint venture of the U. S, the aircraft is supplied by the U. S. and the infrared telescope by Germany

5.
Pete Worden
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Simon Peter Pete Worden, was Director of NASAs Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, until his retirement on March 31,2015. Prior to joining NASA, he held positions in the United States Air Force and was research professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona. He is an expert on space issues – both civil and military. Worden has authored or co-authored more than 150 scientific papers in astrophysics, space sciences and he served as a scientific co-investigator for two NASA space science missions, and received the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal for the 1994 Clementine mission. He was named the 2009 Federal Laboratory Consortium Laboratory Director of the Year, Worden announced his planned resignation from NASA in February 2015, indicating he would be pursuing some long-held dreams in the private sector. On July 20,2015 at the Royal Society in London, Yuri Milner, at the press conference Pete Worden was introduced as the Chairman for the Breakthrough Prize Foundation. In this new role, Worden is tasked to run the Breakthrough Initiatives, additionally he worked on topics related to space exploration and solar-type activity in nearby stars. In addition to his position with the University of Arizona, Worden served as a consultant to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency on space-related issues. During the 2004 Congressional Session he worked as a Congressional Fellow with the Office of Senator Sam Brownback, Worden retired from the United States Air Force in 2004 after 29 years of active service. His final position there was Director of Development and Transformation, Space and Missile Systems Center, Air Force Space Command, Los Angeles Air Force Base, Worden was commissioned in 1971 after receiving a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Michigan. He entered the Air Force in 1975 after graduating from the University of Arizona with a doctorate in astronomy, throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Worden served in every phase of development, international negotiations and implementation of the Strategic Defense Initiative. He twice served in the Executive Office of the President, as the staff officer for initiatives in the George Bush administrations National Space Council, Worden spearheaded efforts to revitalize U. S. civil space exploration and earth monitoring programs. Worden commanded the 50th Space Wing that is responsible for more than 60 Department of Defense satellites, Worden was a key early innovator and proponent in the area of small satellites. While at BMDO and its predecessor SDIO he played roles in development of the DC-X. Clementine was a small, low-cost, and rapidly developed satellite ostensibly developed to test sensor. Clementine mapped the Moon and travelled on towards the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos, more recently, since becoming NASA Ames Research Center director, he has actively developed Ames capability for rapid prototyping of small spacecraft. He has also engineered innovative agreements between NASA Ames and a variety of private sector and public sector partners, recognizing the critical importance of revitalizing NASA, he has consistently and actively recruited and empowered younger workers, as well as workers from other agencies and other countries. Worden is actively involved in the International Space University, where he is a welcome guest teacher at the ISU Space Studies Program and his continued support led to the selection of NASA Ames as the host for the 2009 ISU SSP program in the months July and August 2009

6.
Paul Eremenko
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Paul Eremenko is an American Innovator and Technology executive. He is currently CTO of Airbus Group SE and former CEO of Airbus Group Silicon Valley innovation center and he is a former Google executive and head of Google’s Project Ara, an effort to create an open, modular smartphone platform. Eremenko was named one of the Top-10 Tech Leaders of 2015 in FORTUNE Magazine, Eremenko has also come out as a strong proponent of artificial intelligence and autonomy research, brushing away the growing chorus of concerns by many prominent technology and business leaders. Eremenko has cited his desire to build a starship as the motivation underpinning his career, Eremenko earned a bachelors degree in Aeronautics and Astronautics from MIT, a Master’s in Aeronautics from Caltech, and a law degree from Georgetown University. He trained as a pilot at Aretz Airport near Purdue University, on May 29,2015, Eremenko was named the founding CEO of Airbus Group Silicon Valley technology and business innovation center. In this capacity, he was responsible for establishing Airbuss Silicon Valley presence, on June 7,2016, Eremenko was promoted to CTO of Airbus Group SE. At Google, Eremenko created and headed Project Ara, which seeks to democratize the mobile phone hardware ecosystem, the project is also developing a production 3D printer to enable aesthetic customization of the modules that form the device. The ATAP division at Google aims to replicate the model of the DARPA in the private sector. Eremenko served as the Deputy Director and Acting Director of the Tactical Technology Office at DARPA, the responsible for the agency’s drones, robotics, X-planes. Eremenko was also responsible for a military vehicle effort called XC2V which was said to revolutionize auto manufacturing. Whether the Rise of the Machines-type scenario is a real concern and my response would be, We should be so lucky. In fact, if we could get little slivers of that kind of adaptive and cognitive capability into systems, the 100 Year Starship, which Eremenko headed at DARPA, was named by U. S. Senator Tom Coburn as one of the 100 most wasteful government spending projects, Coburn specifically cited a 100 Year Starship workshop that included one session, entitled “Did Jesus die for Klingons too. ”That debated the implications for Christian philosophy should life be found on other planets. Eremenko was one of the creators and early proponents of a systems engineering strategy for creating more flexible and adaptable products known as value-driven design, Eremenko is the son of the Ukrainian-American mathematician Alexandre Eremenko. Eremenko is one of the most senior aerospace industry executives who is openly gay

7.
Mae Jemison
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Mae Carol Jemison is an American engineer, physician and NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel in space when she went into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour on September 12,1992. After medical school and a general practice, Jemison served in the Peace Corps from 1985 until 1987. She resigned from NASA in 1993 to found a company researching the application of technology to daily life and she has appeared on television several times, including as an actress in an episode of Star Trek, The Next Generation. She is a dancer and holds nine honorary doctorates in science, engineering, letters, and she is the current principal of the 100 Year Starship organization. Mae Carol Jemison was born in Decatur, Alabama, on October 17,1956 and her father was a maintenance supervisor for a charity organization, and her mother worked most of her career as an elementary school teacher of English and math at the Beethoven School in Chicago. The family moved to Chicago, Illinois, when Jemison was three years old, to advantage of the better educational and employment opportunities there. Jemison says that as a girl growing up in Chicago she always assumed she would get into space. I thought, by now, wed be going into space like you were going to work and she said it was easier to apply to be a shuttle astronaut, rather than waiting around in a cornfield, waiting for ET to pick me up or something. In her childhood, Jemison learned to make connections to science by studying nature, once when a splinter infected her thumb as a little girl, Jemisons mother turned it into a learning experience. She ended up doing a project about pus. Jemisons parents were supportive of her interest in science, while her teachers were not. In kindergarten, my teacher asked me what I wanted to be when I grew up and she said, Dont you mean a nurse. Now, theres nothing wrong with being a nurse, but thats not what I wanted to be, in an interview with Makers, she further explains how her sheer interest in science was not accepted. Growing up. I was just like every other kid, I loved space, stars and dinosaurs. I always knew I wanted to explore, at the time of the Apollo airing, everybody was thrilled about space, but I remember being irritated that there were no women astronauts. People tried to explain that to me, and I did not buy it, Jemison says she was inspired by Martin Luther King Jr. to her Kings dream was not an elusive fantasy but a call to action. Too often people paint him like Santa -- smiley and inoffensive, but when I think of Martin Luther King, I think of attitude, audacity, and bravery

8.
Orlando, Florida
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Orlando is a city in the U. S. state of Florida and the county seat of Orange County. Located in Central Florida, it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area, which had a population of 4,000,002, according to U. S. As of 2015, Orlando had an estimated population of 270,934, making it the 73rd-largest city in the United States, the fourth-largest city in Florida. The City of Orlando is nicknamed The City Beautiful, and its symbol is the fountain at Lake Eola, Orlando is also known as The Theme Park Capital of the World and in 2014 its tourist attractions and events drew more than 62 million visitors. The Orlando International Airport is the thirteenth-busiest airport in the United States, with the exception of Walt Disney World, most major attractions are located along International Drive. The city is one of the busiest American cities for conferences and conventions. Orlando is home to the University of Central Florida, which is the largest university campus in the United States in terms of enrollment as of 2015, in 2010, Orlando was listed as a Gamma− level of world-city in the World Cities Study Groups inventory. Orlando ranks as the fourth-most popular American city based on where people want to live according to a 2009 Pew Research Center study. Fort Gatlin, as the Orlando area was known, was established at what is now just south of the city limits by the 4th U. S. Artillery under the command of Ltc, alexander C. W. Fanning on November 9,1838 during the construction of a series of fortified encampments across Florida during the Second Seminole War. The fort and surrounding area were named for Dr. John S. Gatlin, king Phillip and Coacoochee frequented this area and the tree was alleged to be the place where the previous 1835 ambush that had killed over 100 soldiers had been planned. When the U. S. military abandoned the fort in 1839 the surrounding community was built up by settlers, prior to being known by its current name, Orlando was once known as Jernigan. Aarron Jernigan became Orange Countys first State Representative in 1845 but his pleas for military protection went unanswered. Fort Gatlin was briefly reoccupied by the military for a few weeks during October and November 1849, a historical marker indicates that by 1850 the Jernigan homestead served as the nucleus of a village named Jernigan. One of the countys first records, a grand jurys report, mentions a stockade where it states homesteaders were driven from their homes, Aaron Jernigan led a local volunteer militia during 1852. Jernigan appears on an 1855 map of Florida and by 1856 the area had become the county seat of Orange County and it is known for certain that the area was renamed Orlando in 1857. The move is believed to be sparked, in part, by Aaron Jernigans fall from grace after he was relieved of his command by military officials in 1856. His behavior was so notorious that Secretary of War Jefferson Davis wrote, in 1859, Jernigan and his sons were accused of committing a murder at the towns post office

9.
Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
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The Journal of the British Interplanetary Society is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1934. It is published monthly by the British Interplanetary Society, the journal was established in 1934 when the British Interplanetary Society was founded. The inaugural editorial stated, The ultimate aim of the society, the first issue was only a six-page pamphlet, but has the distinction of being the worlds oldest surviving astronautical publication. Notable papers published in the include, The B. I. S Space-Ship, H. E. Ross, JBIS,5, pp. 4–9,1939 The Challenge of the Spaceship. Clarke, JBIS,6, pp. 66–78,1946 Atomic rocket papers by Les Shepherd, Val Cleaver and others, 1948-1949. Special Supplement JBIS, pp. S1-192,1978 Some of the people that have been editor-in-chief of the journal are, groves Anthony R. Martin Mark Hempsell Chris Toomer Kelvin Long Spaceflight Official website British Interplanetary Society

10.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas

11.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

12.
Asimov's Science Fiction
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Asimovs Science Fiction is an American science fiction magazine which publishes science fiction and fantasy and perpetuates the name of author and biochemist Isaac Asimov. It is currently published by Penny Publications, from January 2017, the publication frequency is bimonthly. Circulation in 2012 was 22,593, as reported in the annual Locus magazine survey, Asimovs Science Fiction began life as the digest-sized Isaac Asimovs Science Fiction Magazine in 1977. Joel Davis of Davis Publications approached Asimov to lend his name to a new science fiction magazine, Asimov refused to act as editor, but served instead as editorial director, writing editorials and replying to reader mail until his death in 1992. Initially a quarterly, its first issue was dated December 1976 and it changed to a bimonthly in 1978 and began publishing monthly in 1979. In the mid-1980s it was published every four weeks, with an extra mid-December issue. Double issues were added in the early 1990s before the schedule was scaled back to 10 issues per year, from January 2017, the schedule was changed to six double-sized issues per year. The magazine was sold to Bantam Doubleday Dell in January 1992, a few months before Asimovs death, in 1998, the magazines size changed, it is now taller and slightly wider than the standard digest format. Asimovs Science Fiction celebrated its anniversary in 2007, with an anthology edited by the magazines current editor. Drawing on stories published from 1977 to the present day, it was published by Tachyon Publications, martin Gardner wrote a regular column of puzzle tales for the magazine from 1977 to 1986. He produced 111 columns in all, many published in book form. George H. McCarthy held the position for three years, winning one Hugo award, Gardner Dozois edited the magazine from 1985 to 2004, winning 15 Hugo awards, before stepping down and becoming its contributing editor. Sheila Williams is the current editor and won the Hugo Awards for Best Short Form Editor in 2011

13.
Louis Friedman
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Louis Dill Friedman is an American astronautics engineer and space spokesperson. He was born in New York and raised in the Bronx, dr. Friedman was a co-founder of The Planetary Society with Carl Sagan and Bruce C. In 1961, he earned his Bachelor of Science in applied mathematics and engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin, in 1963, he graduated at Cornell University with a Masters of Science in engineering mechanics. He worked for AVCO Space Systems Division from 1963 to 1968, from 1970 through 1980, he was with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory leading the Advanced Planetary Studies and the post-Viking Mars Program. Other projects at the JPL include Mariner-Venus-Mercury, Planetary Grand Tour, Venus Orbital Imaging Radar, Halleys Comet Rendezvous-Solar Sail, human spaceflight, from Mars to the stars. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson 2015, ISBN 978-0-8165-3146-2, star Sailing, Solar Sails and Interstellar Flight, Louis Friedman, John Wiley & Sons Inc

14.
Effect of spaceflight on the human body
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Humans venturing into the environment of space can have negative effects on the body. Significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, other significant effects include a slowing of cardiovascular system functions, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, eyesight disorders and a weakening of the immune system. Additional symptoms include fluid redistribution, loss of mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance. The engineering problems associated with leaving Earth and developing space propulsion systems have been examined for over a century, in recent years there has been an increase in research on the issue of how humans can survive and work in space for extended and possibly indefinite periods of time. This question requires input from the physical and biological sciences and has now become the greatest challenge facing human space exploration, a fundamental step in overcoming this challenge is trying to understand the effects and impact of long-term space travel on the human body. In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards related to space exploration. The immediate needs for air and drinkable water are addressed by a life support system. The life support system supplies air, water and food and it must also maintain temperature and pressure within acceptable limits and deal with the bodys waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites is also necessary, of course, it is not possible to remove all hazards, the most important factor affecting human physical well-being in space is weightlessness, more accurately defined as Micro-g environment. Living in this type of environment impacts the body in three important ways, loss of proprioception, changes in distribution, and deterioration of the musculoskeletal system. Space medicine is a medical practice that studies the health of astronauts living in outer space. Space medicine also seeks to develop preventative and palliative measures to ease the suffering caused by living in an environment to which humans are not well adapted. Human physiology is adapted to living within the atmosphere of Earth, the minimum concentration, or partial pressure, of oxygen that can be tolerated is 16 kPa. Below this, the astronaut is at risk of becoming unconscious, in the vacuum of space, gas exchange in the lungs continues as normal but results in the removal of all gases, including oxygen, from the bloodstream. After 9 to 12 seconds, the blood reaches the brain. Death would gradually follow after two minutes of exposure—though the absolute limits are uncertain, humans and other animals exposed to vacuum lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids do boil when their pressure drops below 6.3 kPa, the steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid

15.
Health threat from cosmic rays
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Galactic cosmic rays consist of high energy protons, helium and other high energy nuclei. Solar energetic particles consist primarily of protons accelerated by the Sun to high energies via proximity to solar flares and they are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. Heavy ions and low energy protons and helium particles are highly ionizing forms of radiation, in October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars. But of course the radiation belts are in low Earth orbit and do not occur in deep space, the solar cycle is an approximately 11-year period of varying solar activity including solar maximum where the solar wind is strongest and solar minimum where the solar wind is weakest. Galactic cosmic rays create a continuous radiation dose throughout the Solar System that increases during solar minimum, the inner and outer radiation belts are two regions of trapped particles from the solar wind that are later accelerated by dynamic interaction with the Earths magnetic field. While always high, the dose in these belts can increase dramatically during geomagnetic storms and substorms. Solar proton events are bursts of energetic protons accelerated by the Sun and they occur relatively rarely and can produce extremely high radiation levels. Without thick shielding, SPEs are sufficiently strong to cause radiation poisoning. The secondary radiation is attenuated by absorption in the atmosphere, as well as by radioactive decay in flight of some particles. Particles entering from a close to the horizon are especially attenuated. The worlds population receives an average of 0.4 millisieverts of cosmic radiation annually due to atmospheric shielding, except for the very highest energy galactic cosmic rays, the radius of gyration in the Earths magnetic field is small enough to ensure that they are deflected away from Earth. Missions beyond low Earth orbit leave the protection of the geomagnetic field, thus they may need to be shielded against exposure to cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation, or solar flares. The region between two and four Earth radii lies between the two belts and is sometimes referred to as the safe zone. See the implications of the Van Allen belts for space travel for more information, the interplanetary magnetic field, embedded in the solar wind, also deflects cosmic rays. As a result, cosmic ray fluxes within the heliopause are inversely correlated with the solar cycle, as a result, the energy input of GCRs to the atmosphere is negligible – about 10−9 of solar radiation – roughly the same as starlight. Of the above factors, all but the first one apply to low Earth orbit craft, such as the Space Shuttle, exposures on the ISS average 150 mSv per year, although frequent crew rotations minimize individual risk. Astronauts on Apollo and Skylab missions received on average 1.2 mSv/day and 1.4 mSv/day respectively, acute effects result from high radiation doses, and these are most likely to occur after solar particle events. Likely chronic effects of radiation exposure include both stochastic events such as radiation carcinogenesis and deterministic degenerative tissue effects

16.
Human spaceflight
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Human spaceflight is space travel with a crew or passengers aboard the spacecraft. The first human spaceflight was launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961 as a part of the Vostok program, humans have been continuously present in space for 16 years and 156 days on the International Space Station. All early human spaceflight was crewed, where at least some of the passengers acted to carry out tasks of piloting or operating the spacecraft, after 2015, several human-capable spacecraft are being explicitly designed with the ability to operate autonomously. Since the retirement of the US Space Shuttle in 2011, only Russia and China have maintained human spaceflight capability with the Soyuz program, currently, all expeditions to the International Space Station use Soyuz vehicles, which remain attached to the station to allow quick return if needed. The United States is developing commercial crew transportation to facilitate access to ISS and low Earth orbit. While spaceflight has typically been an activity, commercial spaceflight has gradually been taking on a greater role. NASA has also played a role to stimulate private spaceflight through programs such as Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, the vehicles used for these services could then serve both NASA and potential commercial customers. Commercial resupply of ISS began two years after the retirement of the Shuttle, and commercial crew launches could begin by 2017 and these rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. The USSR launched the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin into an orbit in Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket. The US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard on a flight aboard Freedom 7 on a Mercury-Redstone rocket. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecrafts attitude, and landed inside it, the first American in orbit was John Glenn aboard Friendship 7, launched 20 February 1962 on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, the US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four in orbit through 1963. US President John F. Kennedy raised the stakes of the Space Race by setting the goal of landing a man on the Moon, Geminis objective was to support Apollo by developing American orbital spaceflight experience and techniques to be used in the Moon mission. They were able to launch two orbital flights in 1964 and 1965 and achieved the first spacewalk, made by Alexei Leonov on Voskhod 2 on 8 March 1965, but Voskhod did not have Geminis capability to maneuver in orbit, and the program was terminated. In July 1969, Apollo 11 accomplished Kennedys goal by landing Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon 21 July, a total of six Apollo missions landed 12 men to walk on the Moon through 1972, half of which drove electric powered vehicles on the surface. The crew of Apollo 13, Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise, survived a catastrophic in-flight spacecraft failure, meanwhile, the USSR secretly pursued human lunar orbiting and landing programs. On losing the Moon race, they concentrated on the development of stations, using the Soyuz as a ferry to take cosmonauts to. They started with a series of Salyut sortie stations from 1971 to 1986, after the Apollo program, the US launched the Skylab sortie space station in 1973, manning it for 171 days with three crews aboard Apollo spacecraft

17.
Interstellar probe
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An interstellar probe is a space probe that has left—or is expected to leave—the Solar System and enter interstellar space, which is typically defined as the region beyond the heliopause. It also refers to probes capable of reaching other star systems, there are five interstellar probes, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons. As of 2015, Voyager 1 is the probe to have actually reached interstellar space. The other four are on interstellar trajectories, the termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows down to subsonic speed. This point is close to the nearest known system, Alpha Centauri. Although the probes will be under the influence of the Sun for a time, their velocities far exceed Suns escape velocity. The probe entered interstellar space in 2013, Interstellar Probe is also the name of a proposed NASA space probe intended to travel out 200 AU in 15 years, studied in 1999. On that timescale the stars move notably, as an example, in 40,000 years Ross 248 will be closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri. One technology that has been proposed to achieve higher speeds is an E-sail, by harnessing solar wind, it might be possible achieve 20-30 AU per year without even using propellant. Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5,1977, at a distance of about 134.57 AU as of 22 March 2017, it is the farthest manmade object from Earth. It was later estimated that Voyager 1 crossed the shock on December 15,2004 at a distance of 94 AU from the Sun. Energetic particles originating in the Solar System declined by nearly half, the inner edge of the stagnation region is located approximately 113 astronomical units from the Sun. As of 2013, the probe was moving with a velocity to the Sun of about 17.03 km/s. If it does not hit anything, Voyager 1 could reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years Voyager 2 passed the termination shock into the heliosheath on October 30,2007, as of 22 March 2017 Voyager 2 is at a distance of 110.73 AU from Earth. The probe was moving at a velocity of 3.25 AU/year relative to the Sun on its way to space in 2013. Its moving at a velocity of 15.4 km/s relative to the Sun as of December 2014 and is traveling through the heliosheath, upon reaching interstellar space, Voyager 2 is expected to provide the first direct measurements of the density and temperature of the interstellar plasma. New Horizons was launched directly into an escape trajectory, getting a gravitational assist from Jupiter en route. By March 7,2008, New Horizons was 9.37 AU from the Sun and traveling outward at 3.9 AU per year

18.
Nuclear propulsion
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Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that fulfill the promise of the Atomic Age by using some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, in 1903 it was hypothesised that radioactive material, radium, might be a suitable fuel for engines to propel cars, boats, and planes. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work The World Set Free, nuclear-powered vessels are mainly military submarines, and aircraft carriers. Russia is the country that currently has nuclear-powered civilian surface ships, most are icebreakers. They use nuclear reactors as their power plants, the torpedo was stated as having a range of up to 10,000 km, a cruising speed of 100 knots, and operational depth of up to 1000 metres below the surface. The torpedo carried a 100-megaton nuclear warhead, neither country created any operational nuclear aircraft. One design problem, never solved, was the need for heavy shielding to protect the crew from radiation sickness. Since the advent of ICBMs in the 1960s the tactical advantage of such aircraft was greatly diminished, because the technology was inherently dangerous it was not considered in non-military contexts. Nuclear-powered missiles were also researched and discounted during the same period, convair X-6 Myasishchev M-50 Project Pluto - which developed an unmanned cruise missile that used a nuclear-powered air ramjet for propulsion. Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion - General Electrics project to build a nuclear-powered bomber, tupolev Tu-95LAL Many types of nuclear propulsion have been proposed, and some of them tested for spacecraft applications. Bimodal Nuclear Thermal Rockets conduct nuclear fission reactions similar to those employed at nuclear power plants including submarines. The energy is used to heat the liquid hydrogen propellant, advocates of nuclear-powered spacecraft point out that at the time of launch, there is almost no radiation released from the nuclear reactors. The nuclear-powered rockets are not used to lift off the Earth, Nuclear thermal rockets can provide great performance advantages compared to chemical propulsion systems. Nuclear power sources could also be used to provide the spacecraft with power for operations. NERVA - NASAs Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications, a US nuclear thermal rocket program Project Rover - an American project to develop a thermal rocket. The program ran at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory from 1955 through 1972, Project Timberwind 1987-1991 Bussard ramjet, a conceptual interstellar fusion ramjet named after Robert W. Bussard. Preliminary design was done by 2013, and 9 more years are planned for development, the price is set at 17 billion rubles. The nuclear propulsion would have mega-watt class, provided necessary funding and this system would consist of a space nuclear power and the matrix of ion engines. Hot inert gas temperature of 1500 °C from the reactor turns turbines

19.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

20.
Popular Mechanics
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Popular Mechanics is a classic magazine of popular science and technology. First published by Henry Haven Windsor, January 11,1902, there are nine international editions, including a now-defunct Latin American version that had been published for decades, and a newer South African edition. The Russian edition of Popular Mechanics has been issued since 2002, in 2013, the US edition changed from twelve to ten issues per year. Popular Mechanics features regular sections on automotive, home, outdoors, science, a recurring column is Jay Lenos Garage featuring observations by the famed late-night talk show host and vehicle enthusiast. Popular Mechanics was established in 1902, the first issue appeared on January 11,1902. The magazine was originally self-published by the Popular Mechanics Company but in 1958 became a subsidiary of the Hearst Corporation, a nearly complete archive of Popular Mechanics issues from 1905 through 2005 is available through Google Books. Popular Mechanics Show is the weekly podcast of Popular Mechanics magazine. Enthusiasts and Innovators, Possible Dreams and the Innovation Station at the Henry Ford Museum, society for the History of Technology. Possible Dreams, Enthusiasm for Technology in America, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village

21.
FoxNews.com
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Fox News, officially known as the Fox News Channel, is an American basic cable and satellite news television channel that is owned by the Fox Entertainment Group subsidiary of 21st Century Fox. As of February 2015, approximately 94,700,000 American households receive the Fox News Channel, the channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York City, New York. The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch, who hired former Republican Party media consultant and it launched on October 7,1996, to 17 million cable subscribers. It grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become a dominant cable news network in the United States, Rupert Murdoch is the current chairman and acting CEO of Fox News. Fox News Channel has been accused of biased reporting and promoting the Republican Party, critics have cited the channel as detrimental to the integrity of news overall. Fox News Channel employees have responded that news reporting operates independently of its opinion and commentary programming, in July 1985, 20th Century Fox announced that Murdoch had completed his purchase of 50 percent of Fox Filmed Entertainment, the parent company of 20th Century Fox Film Corporation. A year later, 20th Century Fox earned $5.6 million in its third period ended May 31,1986. Prior to founding FNC, Murdoch had gained experience in the 24-hour news business when News Corporations BSkyB subsidiary began Europes first 24-hour news channel in the United Kingdom in 1989, in February 1996, after former U. S. Republican Party political strategist and NBC executive Roger Ailes left cable television channel Americas Talking, Ailes demanded five months of 14-hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before its launch on October 7,1996. At its debut 17 million households were able to watch FNC, however, it was absent from the markets of New York City. Rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20-minute single-topic shows such as Fox on Crime or Fox on Politics, interviews featured facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest. The flagship newscast at the time was The Schneider Report, with Mike Schneiders fast-paced delivery of the news, during the evening, Fox featured opinion shows, The OReilly Report, The Crier Report and Hannity & Colmes. From the beginning, FNC has placed emphasis on visual presentation. Graphics were designed to be colorful and attention-getting, this helped the viewer to grasp the main points of what was being said, Fox News also created the Fox News Alert, which interrupted its regular programming when a breaking news story occurred. To accelerate its adoption by cable providers, Fox News paid systems up to $11 per subscriber to distribute the channel and this contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators paid stations carriage fees for programming. Time Warner selected MSNBC as the news channel, not Fox News. Fox News claimed that this violated an agreement, citing its agreement to keep its U. S. City officials threatened to take action affecting Time Warners cable franchises in the city, during the September 11,2001 attacks, Fox News was the first news organization to run a news ticker on the bottom of the screen to keep up with the flow of information that day

22.
The Register
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The Register is a British technology news and opinion website co-founded in 1994 by Mike Magee, John Lettice and Ross Alderson. Situation Publishing Ltd is listed as the sites publisher, drew Culllen is an owner, Linus Birtles the managing director and Andrew Orlowski is the Executive Editor. The Register was founded in London as a newsletter called Chip Connection. In 1998 The Register became an online news source. Magee left in 2001 to start competing publications The Inquirer, and later the IT Examiner, in 2002, The Register expanded to have a presence in London and San Francisco, creating The Register USA at theregus. com through a joint venture with Toms Hardware. In 2003, that moved to theregister. com. That content was later merged onto theregister. co. uk, the Register carries syndicated content including Simon Travaglias BOFH stories. In 2010 The Register supported the launch of the Paper Aircraft Released Into Space. Editorial staffers include Andrew Orlowski, Paul Kunert, Gavin Clarke, Joe Fay, Chris Williams, jude Karabus is head of production. In 2011 it was daily by over 350,000 users according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations. Rising to 468,000 daily and nearly 9.5 million monthly in 2013, in November 2011 the UK and US each accounted for approximately 42% and 34% of page impressions respectively, with Canada being the next most significant origin of page hits at 3%. In 2012 the UK and US accounted for approximately 41% and 28% of page impressions respectively, in October 2013, Alexa reported that the site ranked #3,140 in the world for its web traffic, up approximately 1,516 slots over the previous 3 months. It was #2,343 in the USA, in April 2015, following a redesign of the website, Alexa reported that the site ranking dropped to #3,430 in the world, and traffic had dropped by over 6%. As of 11 April 2016, Alexa gives a global ranking for the site of #4,750, channel Register covers computer business and trade news, which includes business press releases. News and articles for computer hardware and consumer electronics is covered by Reg Hardware, Reg Research is an in-depth resource on technologies and how they relate to business. On October 7,2010, The Register published a story misrepresenting the work of Professor Joanna Haigh from Imperial College London

23.
Daily Mail
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The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016. Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month, the Daily Mail has been accused of racism, and printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research. The Mail was originally a broadsheet but switched to a format on 3 May 1971. On this date it absorbed the Daily Sketch, which had been published as a tabloid by the same company. The publisher of the Mail, the Daily Mail and General Trust, is currently a FTSE250 company, the paper has a circulation of around two million, which is the fourth largest circulation of any English-language daily newspaper in the world. Circulation figures according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations in March 2014 show gross daily sales of 1,708,006 for the Daily Mail. According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of Daily Mail readers voted for the Conservative Party, compared to 21% for Labour, the main concern of Viscount Rothermere, the current chairman and main shareholder, is that the circulation be maintained. The Mail has been edited by Paul Dacre since 1992, the Daily Mail, devised by Alfred Harmsworth and his brother Harold, was first published on 4 May 1896. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. The planned issue was 100,000 copies but the print run on the first day was 397,215, Lord Salisbury, 19th-century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, dismissed the Daily Mail as a newspaper produced by office boys for office boys. By 1902, at the end of the Boer Wars, the circulation was over a million, from the beginning, the Mail also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions. In 1900 the Daily Mail began printing simultaneously in both Manchester and London, the first national newspaper to do so, the same production method was adopted in 1909 by the Daily Sketch, in 1927 by the Daily Express and eventually by virtually all the other national newspapers. Printing of the Scottish Daily Mail was switched from Edinburgh to the Deansgate plant in Manchester in 1968 and, for a while, in 1987, printing at Deansgate ended and the northern editions were thereafter printed at other Associated Newspapers plants. In 1906 the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the English Channel, punch magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to Mars, but by 1910 both the Mails prizes had been won. Before the outbreak of World War I, the paper was accused of warmongering when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the British Empire

24.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole

25.
The Atlantic
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The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and poets. It has published leading writers commentary on abolition, education, the periodical has won more National Magazine Awards than any other monthly magazine. The first issue of the magazine was published on November 1,1857, the magazines initiator and founder was Francis H. Underwood, an assistant to the publisher, who received less recognition than his partners because he was neither a humbug nor a Harvard man. After experiencing financial hardship and a series of changes, the magazine was reformatted as a general editorial magazine. Focusing on foreign affairs, politics, and the cultural trends, it is now primarily aimed at a target audience of serious national readers. In 2010, The Atlantic posted its first profit in a decade, in profiling the publication at the time, The New York Times noted the accomplishment was the result of a cultural transfusion, a dose of counterintuition and a lot of digital advertising revenue. The magazine, subscribed to by over 425,000 readers, the Atlantic features articles in the fields of the arts, the economy, foreign affairs, political science, and technology. The Atlantics president is Bob Cohn, in April 2005, The Atlantics editors decided to cease publishing fiction in regular issues in favor of a newsstand-only annual fiction issue edited by longtime staffer C. Michael Curtis. They have since re-instituted the practice, on January 22,2008, TheAtlantic. com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. TheAtlantic. com covers politics, business, entertainment, technology, health, international affairs, and more. In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic. com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as related to the mind, body, sex, family. TheAtlantic. com has expanded to visual storytelling with the addition of the In Focus photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor. A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published significant works. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, for example, Emily Dickinson, after reading an article in The Atlantic by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, asked him to become her mentor. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction, the magazine also published many of the works of Mark Twain, including one that was lost until 2001. Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements, for example, the magazine has also published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the U. S. Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. DARPA was created in February 1958 as the Advanced Research Projects Agency by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and its purpose was to formulate and execute research and develo

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Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

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DARPA's former headquarters in the Virginia Square neighborhood of Arlington. This agency recently moved to 675 North Randolph Street, near the Ballston Common Mall.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration effor

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1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb in background. They are discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented.

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Seal of NASA

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At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center.

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Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962

Interstellar travel
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Interstellar travel is the term used for hypothetical piloted or unpiloted travel between stars or planetary systems. The speeds required for travel in a human lifetime far exceed what current methods of spacecraft propulsion can provide. Even with a perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy corresponding to those speeds is enormous

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A Bussard ramjet, one of many possible methods that could serve as propulsion for a starship.

Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Admin

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Aerial view of Moffett Field and Ames Research Center

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Hangar One, originally a US Navy airship hangar, in Mountain View, California

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IBM 7090 mainframe computer at Ames in 1961. Smith DeFrance, Ames' founding director, is second from the left.

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One of the air intakes of the 80 by 120 foot wind tunnel (world's largest), located at NASA Ames Research Center.

Pete Worden
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Simon Peter Pete Worden, was Director of NASAs Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, until his retirement on March 31,2015. Prior to joining NASA, he held positions in the United States Air Force and was research professor of astronomy at the University of Arizona. He is an expert on space issues – both civil and military. Worden has a

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Pete Worden was sighted herding goats near the airfield at NASA Ames around the time of Yuri's Night 2007

Paul Eremenko
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Paul Eremenko is an American Innovator and Technology executive. He is currently CTO of Airbus Group SE and former CEO of Airbus Group Silicon Valley innovation center and he is a former Google executive and head of Google’s Project Ara, an effort to create an open, modular smartphone platform. Eremenko was named one of the Top-10 Tech Leaders of 2

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Paul Eremenko

Mae Jemison
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Mae Carol Jemison is an American engineer, physician and NASA astronaut. She became the first African-American woman to travel in space when she went into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour on September 12,1992. After medical school and a general practice, Jemison served in the Peace Corps from 1985 until 1987. She resigned from NASA in 1993

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Jemison in July 2015

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STS-47 Mission Specialist Mae Jemison appears to be clicking her heels in zero gravity in the center aisle of the Spacelab Japan (SLJ) science module aboard the Earth-orbiting Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105. Making her only flight in space, Jemison was joined by five other NASA astronauts and a Japanese payload specialist for eight days of research in support of the SLJ mission, a joint effort between Japan and United States.

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Jemison at the Kennedy Space Center in January 1992.

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External video

Orlando, Florida
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Orlando is a city in the U. S. state of Florida and the county seat of Orange County. Located in Central Florida, it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area, which had a population of 4,000,002, according to U. S. As of 2015, Orlando had an estimated population of 270,934, making it the 73rd-largest city in the United States, the fourth-larg

Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
–
The Journal of the British Interplanetary Society is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1934. It is published monthly by the British Interplanetary Society, the journal was established in 1934 when the British Interplanetary Society was founded. The inaugural editorial stated, The ultimate aim of the society, the fir

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Journal of the British Interplanetary Society

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BIS Logo

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Project Daedalus special issue

Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it i

International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Asimov's Science Fiction
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Asimovs Science Fiction is an American science fiction magazine which publishes science fiction and fantasy and perpetuates the name of author and biochemist Isaac Asimov. It is currently published by Penny Publications, from January 2017, the publication frequency is bimonthly. Circulation in 2012 was 22,593, as reported in the annual Locus magazi

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Cover for an issue of Asimov's Science Fiction

Louis Friedman
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Louis Dill Friedman is an American astronautics engineer and space spokesperson. He was born in New York and raised in the Bronx, dr. Friedman was a co-founder of The Planetary Society with Carl Sagan and Bruce C. In 1961, he earned his Bachelor of Science in applied mathematics and engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin, in 1963, he gr

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Planetary Society founders: Louis Friedman standing left

Effect of spaceflight on the human body
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Humans venturing into the environment of space can have negative effects on the body. Significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, other significant effects include a slowing of cardiovascular system functions, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, eyesight d

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This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump depicts an experiment performed by Robert Boyle in 1660 to test the effect of a vacuum on a living system.

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Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.

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Aboard the International Space Station, astronaut Frank De Winne is attached to the T2 treadmill with bungee cords

Health threat from cosmic rays
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Galactic cosmic rays consist of high energy protons, helium and other high energy nuclei. Solar energetic particles consist primarily of protons accelerated by the Sun to high energies via proximity to solar flares and they are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. Heavy ions

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Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space.

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Standard spacecraft shielding, integrated into hull design, is strong protection from most solar radiation, but defeats this purpose with high-energy cosmic rays, as it simply splits this into showers of secondary particles [NASA]. This shower of secondary and fragmented particles may be reduced by the use of hydrogen or light elements for shielding.

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General

Human spaceflight
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Human spaceflight is space travel with a crew or passengers aboard the spacecraft. The first human spaceflight was launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961 as a part of the Vostok program, humans have been continuously present in space for 16 years and 156 days on the International Space Station. All early human spaceflight was crewed, where a

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Yuri Gagarin, the first person in space, and the first person to orbit the Earth, 1961

Interstellar probe
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An interstellar probe is a space probe that has left—or is expected to leave—the Solar System and enter interstellar space, which is typically defined as the region beyond the heliopause. It also refers to probes capable of reaching other star systems, there are five interstellar probes, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons

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Spacecraft that have left or are about to leave the Solar System (not including New Horizons)

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Artists view of a Voyager spacecraft in outer space.

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Sedna art, more distant than Pluto and coming in for its perihelion

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NASA's Vision Mission; an early concept for the Innovative Interstellar Explorer

Nuclear propulsion
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Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that fulfill the promise of the Atomic Age by using some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, in 1903 it was hypothesised that radioactive material, radium, might be a

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Nuclear-powered submarine.

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A picture of an Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion system, known as HTRE-3(Heat Transfer Reactor Experiment no. 3). The central EBR-1 based reactor, took the place of chemical fuel combustion to heat the air. The reactor rapidly raised the temperature via an air heat exchanger and powered the dual J47 engines in a number of ground tests.

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Bimodal Nuclear Thermal Rockets - conduct nuclear fission reactions similar to those employed at nuclear power plants including submarines. The energy is used to heat the liquid hydrogen propellant. The vehicle depicted is the "Copernicus" an upper stage assembly being designed for the Space Launch System (2010).

The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the lar

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Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on Operation Pillar of Defense.

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First published issue of New-York Daily Times, on September 18, 1851.

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The Times Square Building, The New York Times ‍ '​ publishing headquarters, 1913–2007

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The New York Times newsroom, 1942

Popular Mechanics
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Popular Mechanics is a classic magazine of popular science and technology. First published by Henry Haven Windsor, January 11,1902, there are nine international editions, including a now-defunct Latin American version that had been published for decades, and a newer South African edition. The Russian edition of Popular Mechanics has been issued sin

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Popular Mechanics first cover (January 11, 1902)

FoxNews.com
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Fox News, officially known as the Fox News Channel, is an American basic cable and satellite news television channel that is owned by the Fox Entertainment Group subsidiary of 21st Century Fox. As of February 2015, approximately 94,700,000 American households receive the Fox News Channel, the channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue

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Saint Anselm College Quad with the "Fox-Box", from which the network reported live during the 2004 and 2008 New Hampshire primaries

The Register
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The Register is a British technology news and opinion website co-founded in 1994 by Mike Magee, John Lettice and Ross Alderson. Situation Publishing Ltd is listed as the sites publisher, drew Culllen is an owner, Linus Birtles the managing director and Andrew Orlowski is the Executive Editor. The Register was founded in London as a newsletter calle

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A screenshot from 2 August 2012

Daily Mail
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The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily

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Daily Mail front page in August 2010.

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Advertisement by the Daily Mail for insurance against Zeppelin attacks during the First World War

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A page from the Daily Mail Silver Jubilee Issue, 1935

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The "Hurrah for the Blackshirts" article by Lord Rothermere

BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with mo

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Television News moved to BBC Television Centre in September 1969

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BBC News

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Angela Rippon, pictured in 1983, became the first female news presenter in 1975

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The combined newsroom for domestic television and radio was opened at Television Centre in West London in 1998.

The Atlantic
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The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and