Life of the Prophet (s.a.w)

The Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w) Mosque (Masjid al-Nabawi) in the City of Madinah is frequently visited by Muslims who generally stop there during the annual Hajj Pilgrimage, or upon the smaller Pilgrimage known as "Umrah."

Since the origin of man, it has been the way of God to continually send His signs and laws to mankind via mediums in the form of revelations. These revelations were bestowed upon individuals known as Prophets and Messengers.

God sent his Final Messenger, the Holy Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), to Arabia at a time when people were in dire need of guidance and direction.

The Final Messenger of Allah lived for a period of sixty-two years (570-632 C.E).

Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) engaged in a lifelong struggle to break the shackles of ignorance that consumed the people of his time. He was officially called to Prophethood at the age of 40, and lived his life as the recipient of the Holy Qur’an (The Revelation of God).

The life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) can best be divided into four distinct parts:

1. Prior to the Bi’tha (Announcement of Prophethood)

2. After Prophethood (pre-Madinah)

3. Muhammad (s.a.w) as a Statesman (in Madinah)

4. The completion of faith (post-Conquest of Makkah)

Each of these periods deals with a unique area of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), allowing people to better understand the circumstances in which the Messenger found himself, as well as his moral conduct.

The green dome of the Prophet’s Mosque surrounded by the smaller minarets and lamp-posts which give the pilgrims light during the whole day. Whilst minarets were not originally part of the Mosque in the time of the Prophet, they were introduced in the architecture of mosques in order to allow the call to prayer to be heard from afar.

Early Life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

The life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) began when this Final Messenger of Allah to mankind was born in the year 570 C.E, in Arabia. His name was Muhammad b. ‘Abdullah (s.a.w) and he was born into a society that was completely devoid of any concept of revelation and Divine guidance.

He was orphaned very early in his life. His father passed away prior to his birth and his mother passed away when he was no older than six years of age. Following the death of both parents his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, initially took care of him, and after that he was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib.

Prophet Muhammad's (s.a.w) uncle Abu Talib was a wealthy and powerful merchant and often Muhammad (s.a.w) would accompany him on his trade journeys to countries such as Syria. On one such journey the caravan encountered a monk named Bahira, who identified the signs of Prophethood in the young man.

As a young man, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) soon became known among his fellow countrymen as “al-Sadiq” and “al-Amin”, meaning “the honest” and “the trustworthy.” He was well known for his honesty and reliability among all his contemporaries.

Due to these noble traits, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was employed by a wealthy female merchant by the name of Khadijah b. Khuwaylid.

Khadijah recognised Prophet Muhammad's (s.a.w) character as being reliable and trustworthy and was impressed by his conduct. Not long after he had started trading on her behalf, she proposed marriage to him. The marriage took place when Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was twenty-five.

The Mosque of the Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w) green dome seen up close. The dome has become highly symbolic in recollection of the Prophet’s memory and is often selected as an image to be used in remembering the Prophet due to sensitivities surrounding any physical depictions of religious figures.

Middle Life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was never an idol-worshipper, despite this being the prevalent religion at the time. He would often retire to a small cave called Hira in the mountain known as al-Nur and meditate for several days. During one such occasion at the age of forty, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) received his first revelation from God during which the Angel Gabriel approached him and started relaying the Qur’an to him.

Soon after, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) declared himself publically to be a Messenger of God and openly started calling his peers to Tawhid (the Unity of God) and to accept Islam. Initially only a small group of individuals - primarily his wife, his cousin ‘Ali and his close friends - followed him, but the numbers grew steadily. However, it wasn’t long until the Muslims began to face heavy persecution at the hands of the Pagan Quraysh.

In order to escape persecution Muslims were forced to migrate. First small pockets of believers migrated to Abyssinia, then the city of Yathrib, which pledged to accept Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) as leader of their community and embraced Islam at large, allowing Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) and Muslims to migrate and establish a new city-state called Madinah.

In Makkah, Muslims could not afford to defend themselves, so they had remained passive. In their new community in Madinah, they were facing opposition from the state of Makkah and were forced to defend themselves.

After several battles and skirmishes against the Pagan Quraysh and their allies, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) eventually succeeded in returning to Makkah peacefully and cleansing the Ka’aba of the idols. He then managed to spread Islam to most of Arabia before his death.

The End of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Bibliography and Further Reading on the Life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.aw)

Sobhani, J. The Message, Ansariyan, 2002, Qom, Iran.

Al-Tabrisi, Beacons of Light, WOFIS, Qom, Iran.

A Detailed Account of the Life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Birth and Ancestral Heritage of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

The Holy Prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah (s.a.w) was born, according to the most recognised opinion, on the Friday prior to Sunrise, during the month of al-Rabi’ al-Awwal, in the year that became well known amongst the Arabs as “The Year of the Elephant” (570/571 C.E)[1].

The Prophet was born to a family in one of the most aristocratic ruling tribes in Arabia, known as the Quraysh. The name of his clan was the “Bani Hashim” (named after one of the ancestors of the Holy Prophet). It is clear that the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was born to a genealogy of pure and upright Monotheists. This is noted in numerous authentic traditions and books of theology, and is alluded to in the Qur’an.

However it seems that God had destined the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to face difficult trials and tribulations from an extremely young age. The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) found himself orphaned when he was very young, with most biographical accounts suggesting that Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib died prior to the Prophet’s birth, and most sources stating that the Prophet’s mother, Amina, passed away when he was only six years old.

As a result, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)found himself in the care of two patriarchs of his family. The first was his paternal grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, who looked after the Prophet until he passed away. The second was the Prophet’s uncle, Abu Talib, the father of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was the first of the of 12 Imams.

Early Signs of Prophethood in the Life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

It was not actually until the age of 40 that the Prophet would receive the first revelation in the cave located in Mount Hira. As a result, many often confuse facts about the Prophet’s life and are sometimes forced by their confusion into assuming that the Prophet received Prophethood and announced it at a very young age.

The actual fact is that the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) did not receive the literal revelation of the Qur’an until a much later period in his life. However, that it is not to be confused with him not knowing that he was a Prophet, nor him not being a Prophet until later.

Theologians and historians are quite emphatic to the contrary that both the awareness and the signs of his being a Prophet existed prior to any declaration or revelation. So much so that those close to the Holy Prophet since his childhood would not have been in any doubt with regards to his Prophethood.

There are many signs from the childhood of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) which alluded to his Prophethood, particularly some of the cosmic signs which are recorded to have occurred after his blessed mother Amina bint Wahb gave birth to him. However, perhaps the most important report of the signs of advent is the famous story of the young Muhammad’s (s.a.w) encounter with the Monk known as “al-Bahira” (Generic word for Monk) who recognized in the Holy Prophet the signs of a foretold Prophet.

This report is transmitted in Ibn Hisham’s abridgement of Sirah Ibn Ishaq. It states that during the Prophet’s childhood, when he was being cared for his noble uncle by Abu Talib, he asked a poignant question of his uncle before he was about to embark on a trade journey to Syria:

“Oh Uncle, in whose care would you leave me, since I have no father and no mother!!”

After hearing such heart-rending words, Abu Talib determined never to part from the Prophet and took him on the trade caravan to Syria. It was in Syria that the two encountered the Monk “al-Bahira.”

It is narrated that Bahira was the most learned Christian monk in the vicinity of Busra in Syria. He had seen the caravan pass by him on previous occasions, but had never approached it.

On this occasion, Bahira noticed a white aura surrounding it, and came out to greet the caravan and offer food and gifts, before enquiring about the aura. After observing all the signs on the body of the young Muhammad (s.a.w), Bahira invoked the Goddesses of ‘Al-Lat’ and ‘al-Uzza’ and requested that Muhammad (s.a.w) inform him of himself, however, Muhammad (s.a.w) responded that Bahira should not invoke the idols and should rather invoke God, stating:

“Do not invoke these two idols for I despise them more than I despise anything.”

After enquiring several details from the Prophet, Bahira informed Abu Talib that this young boy Muhammad (s.a.w) was the awaited messenger whom the People of the Book had been awaiting. He advised Abu Talib to return the young Muhammad (s.a.w) back to his home safely, stating that if the clerical classes of the People of the Book would notice him, they would seek to harm him.

Abu Talib would go on to record this miraculous event in Poetry:

dal ('d'): -

Surely the Prophet Muhammad, son of Aminah, Is for me like my own child.

When he held on to the halter of my camel, I felt compassion for him,

Even as the white camels were being loaded,

Copious tears flowed from my eyes -

Tears like scattered pearls.

I treated him kindly as befits a close relative,

And guarded well the trust of his forefathers concerning him.

I ordered him to ride among paternal uncles,

With white faces, brave swordsmen.

They travelled to the furthest known station -

Far indeed was the station where their camels lay down!

When at last the people of Busra saw him,

They met a learned monk who was keeping close watch.

He related to them a true account concerning him,

And thus turned back the people of envy.

A group of Jews also saw what he saw:

The shade of a white cloud and the glory of a close relative (Muhammad).

They went seeking to kill Muhammad, and he restrained them,

And thus engaged in the best of struggle.

Young Adult Lifeof the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

The society in which the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was initially raised was one of barbarity which lacked morality to the extent that if an individual was not affiliated with one of the powerful tribes, he would not expect to be receive justice. After several incidents, including civil wars and the violation of the rights of the weak including immigrants, a pact was established by the name of ‘The Alliance of the Virtuous.’ It is stated that the values involved in this pact, which were indeed revolutionary at that time and particularly for the place, were as follows:

Respect the principles of justice, and

Collectively intervene in conflicts to establish justice

After the pact was sanctified it was placed within the Holy Ka’aba, where it was believed the pact would be protected by God.

Amongst the signatories for the Pact were the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) and it is stated that even after revelation came to the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) and Islam superseded all that came before it, this Pact was still recognized and valued as being commensurate with Islam.

It is for this reason amongst others that by a very young age, Muhammad (s.a.w) became known as “The Truthful” (al-Sadiq) and “The Trustworthy” (al-Amin) by his community, even prior to openly announcing his Prophethood.

First Marriageof the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Since Muhammad (s.a.w) had remained involved in trading since his youth, initially working with his uncle, and had an immaculate and renowned reputation for being the most honest and trustworthy, it was no coincidence that Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy businesswomen, would seek the services of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) as a merchant in her prosperous business. After conducting an extremely successful trip, Khadijah herself asked for Muhammad’s (s.a.w) hand in marriage. There are several opinions as to the age difference between the two, however, it is certain that Muhammad (s.a.w) was 25 years of age and Khadijah may have been as young as 28, or as old as 40 years of age.

Their first mutual gesture emanating from the wedding was to immediately free two slaves, with Muhammad (s.a.w) freeing a slave girl and Khadijah bequeathing her slave boy Zayd ibn Harith to Muhammad (s.a.w), whom he immediately freed.

From this marriage it is recorded in several sources that a total of 3 children were born, two sons: Al-Qasim and Abdullah and one daughter: Fatima al-Zahra (a.s). However the life of al-Qasim was cut short at just two years of age and Abdullah died in childbirth. Although Muhammad’s (s.a.w) own sons died, he took in Ali ibn Abi Talib and raised him as if he were his own son.

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) a Reconciler and Just Individual Prior to Revelation

Due to a series of flash floods, which had been afflicting the sacred city of Makkah during Muhammad’s young adulthood, major reconstruction of the Ka’aba took place. In the tradition of tribal rivalry, dispute ensued as to which person and tribe should have the honour of replacing the black stone into the Ka’aba. After a heated dispute, it was finally decided that the first to enter the sacred vicinity would select and arbitrate as to whom would have the honour.

The first to arrive was Muhammad (s.a.w) which pleased all parties as they considered him to be the most fair and were prepared to accept his judgement, he called for a cloth or a cloak to be brought and for each tribe to hold a corner, with the black stone on it, so that collectively they could share the honour of taking the sacred stone back to its place.

Religious Practice and Piety of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Despite some claims that Monotheism was so rare in pre-Islamic Arabia, to the extent that even Muhammad’s own family and clan were all polytheists, it is clear from historical accounts that this is far from the case. According to historical accounts within the Qur’an itself and the holy traditions of the Imams, every Prophet’s parents were upright Monotheists. However confusion has arisen from the Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w) ancestor ‘Abd al-Manaf,’ whose name is very similar to the Idol, ‘al-Manat.’ While the final letter of the name was the source of much conjecture, history would suggest that ‘al-Manaf’ was a pious man, rather than an idol.

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) after the First Revelation

The Circumstances of the First Revelation

The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), prior to the first revelation, was known for occasionally venturing out into the tranquil and distant cave Hira in Mount Nur, a cave which until this day remains a very difficult place to reach due to the terrain. In this cave Muhammad (s.a.w) would go into isolation, pray and meditate. It was in the year 610, that Muhammad (s.a.w) experienced his first ever encounter with revelation.

It is clear is that the first revelation proved to be an extremely powerful experience and that the Prophet was blessed with the revelation through the Angel Gabriel (The Angel designated for revelation):

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

Proclaim (or read)! In the Name of your Lord and Cherisher Who created (everything). (He) created man of a (mere) clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is the Most Bountiful Who taught (the use of) the pen, Who taught man that which he knew not…

(Qur'an, 96:1-5)

The first two believers to embrace the Prophethood of Muhammad (s.a.w) were his cousin Imam ‘Ali (a.s) and his wife Khadijah. For three years the Prophet propagated Islam in a concealed manner and had only gained a following of around thirty individuals.

It was after three years that the Prophetic Message was to be announced more openly, as God commanded his Holy Prophet to address his family and call them all to Islam.

“And warn thy near relations” (Qur'an, 26:214)

Several books of theology and history have recorded on the authority of Imam Ali (a.s) that this was revealed in light of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) mission from God to call his family to Islam as it is narrated:

“When the verse Wa anthir `ashiratakal-aqrabin was revealed, the noble Messenger called me and ordered me, `O Ali! The Creator of the world has commanded me to warn my people about their doom, but in view of the condition of the people and knowing that when I give them the words of Allah, they will misbehave, I felt depressed and weakened and, therefore, I kept quiet until Gabriel came again and informed me that there should be no more delay. Therefore, O Ali, take a measure of food grain, a leg of a goat and a big bowl of milk and arrange for a feast, then call the sons of `Abdul-Muttalib unto me, so that I may deliver to them the words of Allah.' I did what the Prophet had told me and the sons of `Abdul-Muttalib, who numbered about forty, assembled together. Among them were the uncles of the Prophet: Abu Talib, Hamzah, `Abbas and Abu Lahab. When the food was brought, the Prophet lifted a piece of meat and tore it into small pieces which he scattered on the tray and said, `Start eating in the Name of Allah.' All people present there had the food to their fill although the milk and the food were just sufficient for one man. Then he intended to speak to them, but Abu Lahab interferred and said, “Verily, your comrade has bewitched you!'” Having heard this, all of them dispersed and the Messenger did not get a chance to speak to them.

“On the next day, the Messenger of the Lord again said to me: `O Ali! Make arrangements again for a feast as you had done yesterday, and invite the sons of `Abdul-Muttalib.' I arranged for the feast and gathered the guests as I was asked to do by the Prophet. Once they had finished eating, the Messenger addressed them thus: `O sons of `Abdul- Muttalib, I have brought you the best blessings of this world and of the next, and I am appointed by the Lord to call you unto Him. Therefore, who amongst you will help me in this cause so that he may be my brother, vizier, and successor?' Nobody responded. But I, although the youngest of the congregation, said, `O Messenger of Allah, I am here to be your helper in this task.' The Prophet then patted my neck very kindly and said, `O my people! This Ali is my brother, my vizier and my successor amongst you. Listen to him and obey him.' Having heard it from the Prophet, they all burst laughing and said to Abu Talib, `Hearken! You are ordered to obey and follow your own son!'”

This event is considered by the Shia to be the first of many Prophetic proclamations highlighting the wilayah of Imam ‘Ali (a.s). They contend that Ali (a.s) was as part and parcel of the revelation and message of the Holy Prophet (s.a.w). On numerous occasions since the very inception of his public declaration of Prophethood, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) would single out the merits of Imam ‘Ali (a.s) as an individual who was distinguished above all others.

The Open Call to the Message of Islam

Whilst it is difficult to pinpoint with precision a point in history during which the call was to be made openly and not merely restricted to the Prophet’s close inner-circle of friends and family. After a period of approximately three years the method of propagating Islam to the a select inner-circle expanded to inviting others from Makkan society, as can be observed by a clear progression in the Qur’anic commandments to the Prophet :

Disclose what has been ordained to thee.

(Qur'an, 15:94)

Call to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and goodly exhortation, and dispute with them in the best way.

(Qur'an, 16:125)

The Holy Prophet (s.a.w) bravely came out and announced to the people at large his message, the open proclamation took place by the Ka’aba which at the time housed the idols of the Arabs it therefore served as a centre of worship for the polytheists but also the monotheists who still recognised it as being the House of God.

He announced in a respectful manner, exactly who he was and what he was calling to. Also, it cannot be overlooked that he did so in the very centre of the idol-worshipper’s religious rituals. As is only natural, the reaction of the Quraysh was hardly a calm and peaceful one, rather it is recorded that an attempt to kill the Prophet ensued and several others mocked the Prophet's (s.a.w) declaration.

Since the first public proclamation it is clear that neither Muhammad (s.a.w), nor any of the faithful gatherings of new believers, were able to openly worship or indeed carry out their daily affairs in peace, for they were met with harassment at every turn and were physically and verbally abused. The earliest Muslims were marginalised and persecuted.

Many more examples of the persecution of early believers could be given and if one wishes to understand just how violent the early period of persecution had been, the examples of ‘Bilal ibn Rabah’ as well as ‘Yassir’ and his wife ‘Sumayyah’ are particularly insightful of how brutal the circumstances that this new religious movement found themselves in.

<H2>Migration to Abyssinia</H2>

Since persecution had taken a massive turn for the worst and believers had been violently tortured and even killed, the Holy Prophet (s.a.w) instructed some of the faithful to make a migration for their religious freedom so that they could live their lives in peace. Therefore, in the year 615 C.E, the first of two migrations to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) occurred, during which 11 men and four women left the city of Makkah and sought refuge in the Christian State of Abyssinia.

And those who become fugitives for Allah's sake being oppressed, verily We shall give them good abode in the world and surely the reward of the Hereafter is greater, if they only knew.

(Qur'an, 16:41)

After the second migration, during which it is said as many as 116 migrants had reached Ethiopia, the peace that was found in Ethiopia began to be threatened. The leaders of Qurayshi were unwilling to allow the Muslims to seek refuge elsewhere. ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas was delegated to make travel to see the Christian ruler “The Negus” and convince him of the necessity from extraditing the “rebels” back to Makkah.

This led to a form of a trial during which the Muslim immigrants were asked to present their case to the ruler. Ja’far, the Son of Abu Talib, represented the case of the immigrants who appealed to the religious beliefs of the king, through direct quotation of the Holy Qur’an, particularly the verses referring to the Muslim belief in Jesus. The Muslims were able to persuade the great Negus that their beliefs were not in any way cult-like, nor a threat to Abyssinian society.

The reverence that Muslims hold for the Prophet Jesus convinced the Negus. Despite the fact that the fact that Arabs knew little about of the Monotheistic traditions of Judeo-Christianity, these relatively new Muslims were able to present a rather convincing account on the birth of Prophet Jesus (a.s).

“And make mention of Mary in the Book, when she withdrew from her people unto a place towards the east, and secluded herself from them; and We sent unto her Our Spirit, and it appeared unto her in the likeness of a perfect man. She said: I take refuge from thee in the Infinitely Good, if any piety thou hast. He said: I am none other than a messenger from thy Lord that I may bestow on thee a son most pure. She said: How can there be for me a son, when no man hath touched me, nor am I unchaste? He said: Even so shall it be; thy Lord saith: It is easy for Me. That We may make him a sign for mankind and a mercy from Us; and it is a thing ordained.”

(Qur'an 19:16-21)

[1] Clearly in relation to the events mentioned in the Qur’an in Surah al-Fil.

Mecca’s Opposition

Approximately 3 years after Muhammad (s.a.w) had publicly announced his Prophethood, the persecution intensified. The level of punitive measures imposed by the Meccan polytheists was largely determined by the status of the one converting. Actual physical harm inflicted on Muslims was only on those who did not have the backing of a sizable clan. Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) had the protection of his Qurayshi clan, Bani Háshim headed by his uncle Abu Talib.

They attempted to soil the previously untarnished character of the Holy Prophet by claiming that he was mad or possessed by jinn; a soothsayer; or a sorcerer.

A Muslim presence in Makkah was in fact disadvantageous to the Quraysh because on the one hand Mecca’s role of catering for the thousands of pilgrims and their gods was now being criticised; while on the other, traders and pilgrims residing in the desert or other settlements around Arabia and beyond were not constrained by the same community pressures and were spreading Islam in their homelands. A traveller’s encounter with the Prophet could result in new Muslims residing outside Mecca, and if they did not convert, at least they would be able to dispel the fabrications prevalent regarding the new religion.

Abu Jahl was the head of the Quraysh but was unable to get Abu Talib to relinquish his protection of Muhammad (s.a.w). Another uncle of the Prophet, Abu Lahab was the antithesis of his elder brother Abu Talib, he aligned himself with his in-laws in preference to his own clan. He married into the influential clan of Umayya, in fact his wife was the sister of Abu Sufyan who was soon to become the leader of Quraysh.

Hitherto, the Quraysh had used a number of tactics to try to undermine Islam such as inducements, persuasion, verbal and physical abuse. A new approach was needed to halt the advance of Islam. Rather than attacking the weak Muslims at the bottom of the food chain, Quraysh decided to turn their attention towards the root of the problem by marginalising Abu Talib, and the clan of Hashim . These measures would cause a wide schism in Mecca, whereby everyone would have to choose sides. The Meccans hedged their bets and chose to join the Quraysh leaving Bani Hashim on their own.

Economic and Social Blockade

In 617 the leaders of Banu Abd-Shams and Makhzum along with the other pagan tribes, agreed to a document developed by the grand council of the Quraysh which stated that it was forbidden for any Meccan to engage in any financial dealings, enter into marriage with, to visit or even talk to any members of Bani Hashim and Bani Al-Muttalib. It was hung up in the Ka'bah and they took an oath that this agreement would be maintained till their death.

Abu Talib, decided that it would be better for the two families to quit Mecca altogether and move to a place called (Shi‘b of Abi Talib) the 'valley of Abu Talib‘, where make-shift homes were erected, defences and watch towers were also constructed in order to protect them.

It was not long before virtually all food supplies were cut off from the inhabitants of the valley. Food was now almost non-existent with the exception of small food parcels that were smuggled in by Meccan Muslims and non-Muslims who repeatedly endangered their own lives in order to bring food and water to the valley of Abu Talib at their own expense.

Some of the inhabitants such as Ali (as) (now around 16) would take the risk of venturing out of the confines of the valley in order to find food. At times when no food could be obtained, leaves were boiled in water and were given to the children as a substitute.

Lifting of the Siege

The siege lasted for a period of 3 years until 619 A.D. when a group of Makkans confronted the upholders of the blockade expressing their unwillingness to continue to support it any longer, Abu Jahl had to concede defeat when Mut’im entered the Holy Ka’bah in order to retrieve and tear up the document, which had been eaten by worms, and all that remained were the words “In The Name Of God”, Banu Hashim and al-Mutallib were able to return to their homes.

Year of Sorrow

Just after the lifting of the embargo, Muhammad’s (s.a.w) position deteriorated with the initial loss of his enthusiastic and devoted wife and then within a month his supportive and influential uncle Abu Talib also passed away. By the end of the boycott Lady Khadija had become penniless to the point that there was not even the money to purchase a death shroud for her burial. In fact the Prophet had to use one of his cloaks.

Abu Talib’s death heralded the rise of Abu Lahab as the new leader of Bani Hashim and he refused to give Muhammad (s.a.w) the protection that had been afforded to him by his deceased brother. It is posited by other schools in Islam that Abu Talib died a non-believer, yet he and Fatima bint Asad (his wife), loved Muhammad (s.a.w) more than their own children. Fatima bint Asad, the foster-mother of Muhammad, was also the second woman to accept Islam, after Khadija, her piety was renowned, yet at no point did the Prophet divorce her from his uncle as he had done in other cases.

The Prophet Muhammad's (s.a.w) Visit to Tá'if

These deaths made the prospect of the Muslims staying in Mecca even less appealing. In addition the level of conversions amongst the inhabitants of Mecca was limited to fewer than 200 converts in approximately 10 years. Therefore the next stage in Islam’s development arguably needed to take place elsewhere. Despite his best efforts the flourishing of Islam was never going to take place within Mecca at this stage, but elsewhere.

Accompanied by Zaid b. Hárithah, Muhammad (s.a.w) arrived and called on the nobles of al-Tá’if, to abandon idolatry, and to acknowledge the Oneness of The Almighty. They responded by hurling abuse at him and setting the towns mob on him who threw stones. Once outside the city, he nearly collapsed if not for the help of someone who took him into his shelter, attended to his injuries and allowed him to spend time to recover before his return to Mecca. On his return to Mecca he sensed the situation was so severe that he chose not to enter the city but set up camp on the outskirts.

There he was able to negotiate the protection of al-Mu’tim b ‘Adí, the pagan chief of Banu Nawfal. Under the protection of this man and his sons, nephews and other members of his clan, Muhammad (s.a.w) was able to enter his native city.

The Heavenly Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

It was during this most trying period in the life of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) that the incident of the heavenly ascension took place. The Isra’ is the nocturnal journey from Masjid al-Haram ‘the Sacred Mosque’ to Masjid al-Aqsa ‘the Distant Mosque’ and Me’raj is the celestial ascension to Heaven.

Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, of which We have blessed the precincts, so that We may show to him some of Our signs; surely He is the Hearing, the Seeing.

Al-Isra’ 17:1

The archangel Gabriel came to Muhammad, inviting him on behalf of the Lord of the worlds on a journey to the highest levels of heaven. Gabriel initially took him to the Ka’bah (the Masjid al Haram) then onto Masjid al-Aqsá, in Jerusalem.

The Pledges of ‘Aqaba

The first recorded conversions of Yathribites took place around 620 A.D. when 6 men met Muhammad (s.a.w) by chance while on pilgrimage in Makkah. They promised to return the following year. The following year (c. 621 A.D.) five of them returned as promised accompanied by an additional seven, making twelve. They met the Apostle of God at ‘Aqaba. He informed them about the fundamentals of Islamic Faith, and they all accepted Islam and gave a pledge of loyalty, this is referred to as the First Pledge of ‘Aqaba.

The new Muslims solemnly swore to the Prophet that:

They would never associate anything with God;

They would not worship anyone except Him;

They would never raid or steal;

They would never kill their female children;

They would never slander others;

They would never denigrate their women;

They would obey Allah and His Messenger;

And they would be faithful to him under all conditions.

Muhammad (s.a.w) sent Mas'ab ibn Umayr, the cousin of his father, with them in order to act as their spiritual teacher in Yathrib and to propagate Islam. Mas'ab's mission was a success, and many more Yathribites accepted Islam.

In 622 A.D. the contingent from Yathrib had swelled to 75, two were women, and they met Allah’s Apostle at the same place ‘Aqaba, where they all accepted Islam.

Migration (Hijra)

Before returning to continue spreading Islam, the new Yathribite Muslims made it clear that the Muslims of Mecca were welcome to come to Yathrib. Due to the successful growth of Islam there Muhammad (s.a.w) advised his followers to migrate there. They left in small groups so as not to alert the Meccans.

Once the pagans realised the relocation plans of the Muslims their concerns became heightened. When Muhammad (s.a.w) was in Mecca his progress was hindered, if he was to migrate to Yathrib and establish a firm base for Islam there, it would potentially pose a threat to their commercial interests with Syria.

A meeting that was held at Dár al-Nadwa (which acted as the town hall), where the Meccan elite decided on what action was to be taken.

They came to the conclusion that murdering Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was the best option. It was suggested by Abu Jahl that the best way to ensure that there were no repercussions would be if all the clans put forward an assailant each who will all attack Muhammad (s.a.w) with their swords simultaneously. The shedding of his blood would therefore be divided among all the clans; as a consequence, the Muslims would not have the strength to attack all the Meccans.

And when those who disbelieved devised plans against you that they might confine you or slay you or drive you away; and they devised plans and Allah too had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners.

Al-Anfál 8:30

According to al-Tabari's account the Prophet was already on his way out of Medina when Abu Bakr had turned up at his house. It was Ali (a.s.) who had informed Abu Bakr of the prophet's whereabouts, and he was able to catch up with him, thus accompanying him to the cave. They spent three days in the cave. As hope of capturing the Prophet before his reaching Yathrib diminished, they left the cave to embark on the journey. Two camels were delivered as a means of transport, Abu Bakr offered one of the camels to the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), but he refused to accept it unless he paid its price before riding it, it was named Qaswa and it would be at the Prophet’s service throughout his life. They then mounted the camels, and bypassed Mecca to the north and east and rode towards Yathrib in the north.

When the Meccans pursued, the Prophet (s.a.w) took refuge in cave Thaur in South Mecca, according to tradition, by the time Qurasysh reached there, the mouth of the cave was covered by a spider’s web and a bird’s nest was also in front of the entrance, which prompted the assailants to conclude the that it was impossible for anyone to have entered the cave recently. After three days they left the cave and rode towards Yathrib.

Ali's (a.s) role in this episode was critical, displaying a willingness to sacrifice himself by sleeping in Muhammad's (s.a.w) bed. The Prophet covered Ali with his green cloak. Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) left the house under the very noses of attackers.

There is a verse praising Ali (a.s) for his sleeping in the place of Muhammad (s.a.w), according to renowned Sunni scholars like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d 606/1209) in his Tafsir Kabir, Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tha'labi (d 427/1035) and al-Ghazaali (d 504/1111)

"And among men is he who sells himself to seek the pleasure of Allah; and Allah is Affectionate to the servants." (Q. 2:207)

The Prophet entrusted the belongings of others in his possesion to Ali (a.s), so that Ali (a.s) could return them to their owners before leaving Mecca. Muhammad (s.a.w) did not enter Yathrib proper, staying at the southernmost point of the oasis on the outskirts of Yathrib at a place named Quba, he arrived there on Monday 8 Rabi' I AH 1 (20 September 622), there he waited for three days until Ali (a.s) had arrived safely from Mecca, despite the fact that the inhabitants of Yathrib were anxiously awaiting his arrival.

‘The Prophet was greeted with celebrations of joy and greetings as the Yathribites lined the streets. He dismounted his camel and declared that he would stay where it stopped which was outside the house of Abu Ayyub, a prominent figure in Yathrib from Banu Najjar. A clan that his mother and grand-father had ties to. He also performed Jum’a prayers with to up to 100 Muslims.

The Construction of the Mosque in Medina al-Nabi

One of the first things Muhammad (s.a.w) did was to build a mosque on a vacant plot of land purchased from two orphans. Medina possessed a wider variety of cultures, faiths and societies.

Jews had been in Medina from the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. after the defeat at the hands of the Romans after the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70 by the Roman emperor. Culturally they were not much different to the Arabs of Medina.

The Jews were experts in agriculture, Banu Qurayza and Nadhir owned most of the most fertile elevated lands situated to the South of Medina. However, Banu Qaynuqá did not seem to be farmers, but were tradesmen and specialising in the craft of goldsmith. They Jews lived in fortresses; hence they had no central political or administrative system.

The two dominant Arab tribes were the Aws and Khazraj who were originally from Yemen, they settled in the area of Yathrib during the 6th century A.D. as part of the Exodus of Yemen due to the destruction of the Great Ma’rib Dam (Mentioned in the Qur’an Sab’a 34:15-16).

The Constitution of Medina

With the arrival of Muhammad (s.a.w) in Medina all the inhabitants came to be united, accepting him as their ruler. However, it was a complex heterogeneous environment extending across a vast area. The Prophet’s foresight identified that this newly founded city needed to have its relationship and responsibilities made official. The ‘Constitution of Medina’ was drawn up.

It begins by saying…

‘In the name of Allah the merciful, the compassionate’

This concerns the Believers fled from Mecca and those of Medina, as well as those who follow them; join with them, and fight with them, for they are a community excluding all other men. ‘The Emigrants from Mecca shall pay blood-ransom among themselves and redeem their prisoners with the righteousness and justice suitable among Believers. The Helper tribes of Medina shall do the same. Believers shall not abandon him who is destitute among them, but shall aid him with gifts, drawn either from the ransom of prisoners or the blood-ransom paid for persons slain.

It has 47 clauses.

Most prominent points are that,

Jews would enjoy similar rights to Muslims, as long as they do not support the enemies of Islam.

Freedom for all to practice their preferred religion

It is incumbent on both Muslims and Jews to protect Medina in the event of an external, attack.

Jews who ally themselves with the Muslims form part of the Ummah/Community.

Any disputes in Medina would need to be arbitrated by Muhammad (s.a.w).

It is forbidden for a Muslim to shed the blood of another Muslim, due to the instigation of a non-Muslim.

Muhammad (s.a.w) no longer addressed his companions according to their clan groupings; rather they were either simply Muhajirun or Ansar. In fact furthermore a word that would prove to be more all-encompassing would be employed and that was the “Umma”. All tribes were now one community, in this inclusive group kinship became redundant and all members were united by their adherence to one religion.

Soon after the arrival in Medina, the apostle of Allah established 'brotherhood in Allah' between his companions of the Emigrants and the Helpers in order to strengthen their relationship, saying, 'Become brothers in Allah! Two by two!’

Muhajir Brother of Ansari

Ammar ibn Yasir--Hudhayfa al-Yamani

Abu Bakr Siddique--Kharja bin Zayd

‘Umar bin al-Khattab--Utban bin Malik

Uthman bin Affan--Aus bin Thabit

Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari--Al-Mundhir b. Amr

Mas'ab ibn Umayr--Abu Ayyub

Zubayr ibn al-Awwam--Salama bin Waqsh

Abdur Rahman bin Auf--Saad ibn Rabi

Talha bin ‘Ubaidullah--Ka'ab ibn Malik

“Then he himself took the hand of Ali and said 'This is my brother!' Thus the apostle of Allah - prince of apostles, leader of the pious, ambassador of the Lord of both worlds, he who has no peer in dignity, nor any equal among the servants of Allah - became the brother of Ali.”

Reasons for the confrontation between Madina and Makkah

The Quraysh feared that if Islam and Muslims prospered, their economic and political standing would end. In addition, Muhammad’s (saw) control of Medina to their north posed a potential threat to their trade with Syria.

The impression one gets from western writers of Islam is that Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was an aggressive warlord that ensured the dominance of Islam by defeating his enemy by the sword. They consider him to be the antithesis of Jesus (a.s) who surrendered his soul to his enemies in order to indicate that spirituality is only to be gained through suffering and oppression. This image of a warring Prophet is at odds with the suffering he endured in his 13 years in Mecca. In addition it can be seen that all the battles that were undertaken by the Muslims after relocating to Madinah were defensive in nature.

Events leading up to the Battle of Badr

Reports reached Medina that a Qurayshi trade caravan was on its way back to Mecca after prosperous business in Syria the profits which amounted to 50,000 Dinars (gold coins) would be used to fund a campaign against the Muslims of Medina. The caravan was led by Abu Sufyan, the Prophet decided to intercept this caravan, so he along with 313 (80 Muhajir and 233 Ansar) followers, he left Madina. They headed towards a place called Badr, a village south-west of Madina. The Meccans became aware of the Movement of the Muslims using reconnaissance.

Abu Sufyan then decided to get off the normal caravan route and went westward towards the Red sea, he then embarked on another lesser used route to Mecca.

He also sent a message to Mecca for reinforcements. Once Abu Jahl heard this, he immediately assembled 1000 fighters, 100 of whom were cavalry. It took some 700 camels to carry all the provisions needed by this fighting force.

Ali (a.s) surveyed the Badr area, he was able to capture some water carriers at the wells of Badr and was able to ascertain that they were providing water for the Meccan army assembled nearby.

The battle of Badr occurred on the second year of Hijra, on the 17th of Ramadan, (March 15, 624). The Meccan army advanced early in the morning. The traditional single combat took place initially. After which, the two armies would fight each other, in hand-to-hand combat. From the Mecca, three warriors, Utbah the son of Rabia; Shaiba, his brother; and Walid, his son; came forward and challenged the Muslims, Hamza, Ubaida ibn al-Harith, (a cousin of Muhammad) and Ali; and Ali ibn Abi Talib. Walid bin Utbah was one of the renowned warriors of Mecca fought Ali. They were the youngest and the first to fight, Walid was killed, Hamza killed Utbah. But Ubaida was mortally wounded by Shaiba. Ali attacked Shaiba, and killed him.

Abu Jahl ordered his troops to attack. The Meccans could not break their formations. Many of the Meccan commanders died, including Abu Jahl. After his death, they began to retreat. Islam was triumphant in its first and most important battle. Muslims lost 14 men while the Quraysh lost in the region of 50 to 70.

Prisoners of war captured by the Muslims totalled fifty; the Prophet had the prisoners divided amongst the Muslim families. The prisoners were treated as guests. The wealthier prisoners were free for a ransom. Those prisoners, who could not afford to pay a ransom but could read and write, were offered the opportunity to teach Muslim children, as their ransom. Those prisoners who were poor and illiterate were released unconditionally. This is one of a number of acts of clemency during the life of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) which epitomised the true teachings of Islam and consequently, his moral conduct.

The Aftermath of the Battle of Badr

After the death of Abu Jahl and Abu Lahab in Mecca, Abu Sufyan gained the chieftaincy over the Quraysh. The hatred that Banu Umayya felt towards the Banu Háshim and their Muslims allies increased. Abu Sufyan vowed to avenge Badr, he swore not to touch his wives until he had done so. He assembled an army to confront the Muslims a second time, the tribes of Thaqíf from Al-Tá’if, Abd Manát and Ahábísh were all enlisted to fight.

The Battle of Uhud

In March 625 A.D./Ramadhan 3 A.H. Abu Sufyan set out with an army of 3000 well-equipped men, 700 with coats of mail (armour). They also took 200 horses along. In addition he took women (including his wife Hind (mother of Muáwiya), the wife of Amr ibn Ás and the sister of Khálid b. Walíd). Hubal; the supreme god of Banu Umayya, was transported by a camel, they set up camp on the outskirts of Medina near the mountain (hill) of Uhud.

This time the Muslims were not victorious due the greed of some and the cowardice of others, their conduct resulted in the prophet getting injured. His uncle Hamzah was killed at the hands of Wahshi employed by Hind. She even had his body dissected in order to extract his liver which she chewed on.

According to ibn Ishaq, while some prominent companions ran away from the battlefield, Ali (a.s.) was still fighting when Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) was struck by stones losing some front teeth, after becoming aware it was Ali who came and took him by the hand, and accompanied him with the help of mostly Ansar, notably Abu Dujana, out of danger.

Although the Muslims lost more lives, the battle of Uhud was indecisive and the Prophet had re-established his hold over Medina. The Makkans felt that there was unfinished business; Muhammad (s.a.w) had to be killed!

In the March 627/Dhu'l-Qa'dah of 5 A.H., two years after the Battle of Uhud, Abu

Sufyan assembled an unprecedented force of ten thousand with the intention of advancing and overrunning Madinah in order to decimate it.

Once Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) became aware of their plans, steps were taken to defend the city. Salman the Persian (al-Muhammadi) advised a ditch (trench) to be dug around the city. The trench completed in 6 days impeding the speedy approach of the Meccan, the Meccans therefore decided to besiege Madinah instead.

The most celebrated pagan warrior of his time, Amr ibn Abd Wudd and others discovered a rocky part where the trench was not narrow. They were able to cross the trench on horseback. He challenged the Muslims on three separate occasions; none would step forward, the Muslims were well aware of Amr ibn Abd Wudd’s reputation so his appearing on the Medina side of the trench filled the hearts of some of the Muslims with fear except Ali (a.s) who answered all three challenges.

When they came at you from above you and from below you, and when eyes rolled and hearts leapt to the throats, and you were entertained misgivings about Allah… 33:10

Amr hit Imam Ali (a.s) first, Ali (a.s) struck back and killed his opponent, the other warriors decided to retreat. Eventually the resolve of the clans amassed by Abu Sufyan began to become demoralised resulting in the numbers waning, Abu Sufyan had no alternative but to abandon hi mission.

This is the juncture at which the supremacy in Arabia began to transfer to the Muslims.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyya

Pilgrimage was the right of all so in Dhu al-Qi'dah 6 A.H./ February 628 A.D. 1400 unarmed Muslims accompanied prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), carrying only the sheathed sword of a traveller and livestock for slaughtering at Umrah, wearing their pilgrim attire the ‘ihram’. Once the Quraysh became aware of the Muslims advance, Khalid b. Walid sent with cavalry to intercept them.

The Muslims took a detour to Hudaybiyya in the northern outskirts of Mecca. Members of Banu Khaza’a friends of the Muslims from Mecca approached the Prophet, they inquired as to his intentions, to which he confirmed was peaceful. Unfortunately Quraysh remained suspicious and refused the Muslims entry. In response Muhammad (s.a.w) sent one of his companions, he expressed his concerns fearing for his life and declined to go, he recommended Uthmán because he was from the more powerful Banu Umayya.

The Quraysh treated Uthmán hospitably, allowing him to perform Umra if he chose. His lengthy stay in Madinah instigated the circulation of rumours stating that Uthmán had either been arrested or even killed.

Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) decided that in the event they would be compelled to fight, he would take the opportunity to renew the ‘Pledge of Pleasure’ in which the Muslims vowed to fight to the death. These 1400 passed under a tree pledging allegiance hence the title ‘The Companions of the Tree.’ Once the Quraysh heard, fearing the worst they informed the Muslims that Uthmán had not been killed.

Quraysh nominated Suhayl b. Amr, a cunning and articulate politician to be responsible for negotiating with Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). On Suhayl’s arrival at Hudaybiyya negotiations commenced, it proved to be prolonged and arduous process.

Ali was selected as the secretary and wrote the document.The Prophet instructed Ali to:

"Write, In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful."

Suhayl said,

“I do not recognise this instead, write, ‘In Your name O Allah.'"

He agreed, and then the Prophet asked Ali to write:

"This is a treaty between Muhammad, the Messenger of God and Suhayl b. ‘Amr.”

Suhayl objected and said:

"If I had acknowledged you as the messenger of God, I would not be fighting against you, write Allah's Apostle asked Ali (who had this time already written down the Prophet’s dictation) to rub it out, but Ali said, "I will not be the person to rub it out." Allah's Apostle rubbed it out.”

This act of Imam Ali (a.s) was because he could not bring himself to remove that which every sinew of his being knew to be true! The two copies of the document were written and signed with both copies keeping one. Its main points were that

There would be no fighting for ten years.

If anyone from Mecca goes to Muhammad without permission from his father or guardian, he must be returned to his father or guardian. But if anyone (who was previously with Muhammad) goes to the Quraish, he will not be returned to the Muslims.

Anyone wishing to enter into an agreement with Muhammad is free to do so.

Anyone wishing to to enter into any agreement with Quraysh is free to do so. (at this point Banu Khuzá’a lept up and said, ‘We are in a bond agreement with Muhammad,’ and B. Bakr leapt up and said the same with regard to Quraysh-Ibn Isháq p 504)

An attack on an ally of either party, will be construed as an attack on the party itself.

This year Muhammad must return, without entering Mecca. But next year he and Muhammad and his followers can enter Mecca, spend no more than three days, to perform the pilgrimage rites while the Quraish will vacate the city.

When Muhammad and his followers must return unarmed except for the customary sheathed swords.

Some of the companions expressed dismay with some of the clauses in the treaty. After the treaty was concluded the Makkan emissaries returned he ordered his followers to shave their heads according to the custom of pilgrimage, their disappointment was apparent due to the fact that many of the companions did not act according to the instructions given.

“The Moslems were sulkily silent when told by him (the Prophet) to shave their heads and offer their sacrifices. At last…he performed the operations himself, and his followers did the same.”

They subsequently returned to Medina, on route the following revelation descended.

Surely We have given to you a clear victory. Al-Fath 48:1

The description of a ‘Clear Victory’ was unique to this incident; previous battles where the Muslims had been unanimously victorious were not referred to in such glowing terms, despite arguably ensuring the survival of Islam. This indicates that Islam was not a blood-thirsty religion, nor was it the prophetic behaviour to embark on military expeditions as the first cause of action, peace was paramount for the prophet as taught by Islam, even when a basic right like performing pilgrimage had been denied them, evidently some of his companions were unable to comprehend such subtleties.

While Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) had apparently conceded a lot of ground in the treaty, it implicitly strengthened the standing of the prophet and Islam. The entering into an agreement with him was acknowledgement that Muhammad (s.a.w) was now an equal to Quraysh in relation to his influence in the region. Muslims could now proclaim their faith without persecution, even if they resided in Makkah.

In an environment where peace now prevailed, facilitating the peaceful expansion project. The Prophet even looked beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula. He sent messengers to Heraclius in Byzantium, Khosroes, in Persia, the Coptic Archbishop of Alexandria, the Negus of Abyssinia and many others.

The Conquest of Khyber

Khyber is an oasis settlement 95 miles north of Medina which consisted of springs; irrigation systems which aided the growing of dates and grain, this fortress had stock piles of armoury. The failure of the Muslims to enter Makkah reverberated around Arabia, many assumed that it indicated a weakening of Muslim power and the Jews of Khyber some of whom had been exiled from Madinah due to their Misdemeanours began to adopt a more aggressive approach to Madinah. They incited the Arab tribes such as their ally Arabs the Ghatafaan between Khyber and Medina into attacking the Muslims.

In response, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) ordered 1600 Muslims to head to Khyber. Khyber was made up of 8 separate fortresses, the main fortresses (Na’ím) had repelled the attacks of the first two commanders sent was successfully repelled, on the third, Ali was sent to conquer. During the attack, he lost his own armour and shielded himself with the large gateway he had uprooted, he then used the gate as a bridge, allowing his troops access into the fort, as has been documented by Ibn Ishaq...

The Apostle said, ‘Tomorrow I will give the flag to a man who loves Allah and His Apostle. Allah will conquer it by his means. He is no runaway.’ So he called Ali who was suffering from ophthalmia at that time and spat in his eye, saying, ‘Take this flag and go with it until God gives a victory through you.’ So Ali went off with it, gasping as he hurried… he did not return until God had conquered by his hands.”

Imam Ali’s victory coincided with the return of his cousin and brother of Imam Ali (a.s), Ja’far b. Abi Talib from Abyssinia, the Prophet’s response was to say, "I do not know what makes me happier; the conquest of Khyber or the return of Ja’far."

Other forts fell, the Jews lost hope and duly surrendered and another piece of land not far from Khyber named Fadak was given to Muhammad (s.a.w) without any bloodshed and was therefore not booty. He decided to confer it to his daughter Fatima (a.s) as a tribute to the sacrifices her mother made in serving Islam.

One year after the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), travelled Mecca to perform the lesser pilgrimage with 2000 Muslims. The Quraysh left Mecca as agreed. They assembled around the Ka’ba and Bilal recited the adhan. The whole ‘Umra ritual was performed while the Makkans witnessed the spectacle from the hills around Mecca.

The Battle of Mu’tah

The battle of Mu’tah in August 629 AD/ Jamadi-ul-Awwal 8AH took place after one of the Ghasanid governors had cold-bloodedly murdered one of Muslim envoys on route to deliver a letter to the Byzantium Emperor. The Prophet sent 3000 soldiers who were defeated by an army more skilled in warfare in addition to having a numerical superiority. In this expedition Ja’far b. Abi Talib, Zayd bin Haritha, Abdullah b. Rawáha were all killed.

The Breaking of the Treaty

The defeat at Mu’tah resulted in Quraysh becoming emboldened, who assumed that the Muslims had become weak and were therefore vulnerable. 18 months into the treaty, Banu Bakr attacked Banu Khuza’a at their homes in a place called Al- Wateer outside Mecca; some were even attacked around the Ka’ba and died as a result. Quraysh were either aware of the incident, if they did not encourage it. Tabari goes further by stating that three prominent Qurayshi personalities, Ikrima b. Abu Jahl, Safwan b. Umayya and Suhayl b. Amr, covertly fought alongside Bani Bakr.

The Prophet was obliged to defend his allies. The Quraysh were demanded to either ensure that Banu Bakr paid the ‘blood-money’ to Banu Khaza’a; if not, then they should relinquish their protection to Banu Bakr; and failing that they should announce the annulment of the treaty, the Quraysh’s reply was contemptible. This attitude soon changed, Abu Sufyan travelled to Medina in order to appease the Prophet, this was not successful and he returned empty-handed.

The Conquest of Makkah

A Muslim army was assembled in Medina and marched towards Makkah on February 1, 630 A.D/ 10 Ramadan 8 A.H. The inhabitants of Mecca soon became aware of the advancing army from the North. The army reached the northern outskirts of Mecca at a place called Merr ad-Dharan on the 19th of Ramadhan; they stopped and set up camp where they spent the night.

Abu Sufyan and Hakim b. Hizam inspected Muslims army; they saw numerous small fires aflame in the valley. Abbas b. Abdul Muttalib saw Abu Sufyan and Hakim bin Hizam. He advised the two that a defence of the city was futile. Abbas advised take him to the Prophet, while Hakim bin Hizam returned to Mecca to inform them of the situation. Abbas carried Abu Sufyan on the Prophet’s white mule which enabled them not to be challenged by too many.

Once he finally got an audience with the Prophet, Abu Sufyan reluctantly accepted Islam after being counselled by Abbas, and realising that defeat was now inevitable. Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) informed him that all those who sought refuge in the house of Abu Sufyan, the precincts of the Ka’ba, or stayed in their own houses would be safe.

The Muslims entered from different directions, Ali was responsible for carrying the banner of Islam, leading the cavalry. The Prophet entered reciting the 48th chapter of the Qur’an, lowering his head sharing his mount with Usama b. Zayd b. Haritha. He gave exacting and explicit instructions to his army not to kill any person unless in self-defence. This resulted in the ‘Conquest of Makkah’ being almost entirely peaceful.

The Prophet declared a universal official pardon for the pagans of Mecca. He disallowed his army to loot and pillage or to confiscate the belongings of the Quraysh.

"I speak to you in the same words as Joseph spoke to his brothers. This day there is no reproof against you; Go your way, for you are free."

The Battle of Hunayn630 A.D. / 8 A.H.

Islam’s growing influence dismayed many Arab non-Muslims, most notably tribes such as the Hawazin and Thaqíf, accompanied by Banu Sa'ad and Banu Jashm, all of whom were renowned for their military prowess, ferociousness and bravery. They considered Mecca’s surrender without a fight cowardly, they considered the new muslims as Makkah to be apostates and felt it necessary to stop the expansion of Islam any further by attacking the Muslims in Mecca. The chief commander Malik ibn Awf al-Nasri ordered that the women and children along with the belongings of these brave warriors were brought along and were stationed at the rear of the attacking army in order to enable the fighters to remain resolute in battle, as retreating would not be an option.

Once he had received intelligence that the idolaters were approaching from the east on their way Mecca. The Prophet decided that it was better for the Muslims to vacate Mecca. He commanded a force of 12,000 soldiers, 2000 which were from the new Muslims of Mecca. This force was the largest force ever assembled to date in Arabia, and the first major battle that the Muslims would fight when they were not at a disadvantage.

This caused the Muslims to become overconfident, assuming that victory was imminent.

Certainly Allah helped you in many battlefields and on the day of Hunain, when your great numbers made you vain, but they availed you nothing and the earth became strait to you notwithstanding its spaciousness, then you turned back retreating. Al-Tawba 9:25

The Prophet was conscious of the vigour and the tenacity of the opponents. He therefore requested that Safwan b. Umayyah lend him one hundred coats of mail guaranteeing its return. The valley of Hunayn was narrow, and the road bumpy, the Muslims advanced, oblivious to the enemy lying in wait. Just before dawn, the pagans attacked the Muslims.

By the time the pagan tribes began their attack a significant part of the Muslim army was still attempting to cross the pass. The tirade of arrows and the noise of the attacking enemy caused mayhem and terror in the Muslim ranks. Muslims soldiers beagn to flee from the advancing army, after which the newly-converted pagans of Mecca followed, in addition to these two groups the citizens of Medina also escaped. Numerous Muslims died or were injured in the stampede.

As the Muslims began to flee from the battlefield, the Prophet shouted out “O supporters of Allah and His Prophet! I am the servant of Allah and His Prophet“ none of the escapers responded, Muhammad (s.a.w) therefore directed himself towards the enemy who had gained the upper hand against the Muslims at the front of the army. According to Ibn Isháq, Muhammad (s.a.w) was left advancing towards the enemy with 10 companions

The tribe of Hawázin was led by a man carrying a black banner, riding a red camel, advanced towards the Muslims. Ali (a.s) allowed him to pass him and then attacked him from behind.

Abbas, the prophet’s uncle, called out to the Muslims with his loud voice,

"O Ansar, who helped the Prophet! O you who took the oath of allegiance to the Prophet under the tree of Paradise! Where are you going? The Prophet is here!"

Many of the Muslims responded, enabling them to conduct an all-out attack which in no time at all constrained the enemy, they were either killed or retreated, leaving their women, children and belongings behind, the Muslims got hold of a large quantity of bootie including 6,000 prisoners, 24,000 camels, 40,000 sheep and a large amount of silver.

Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) allocated the war booty; the new Muslims of Makkah received a disproportionately large share. This was to everyone’s surprise, Abu Sufyan’s hurried to the Messenger and said, "You are generous in war no less than you are generous in peace."

The Ansar Disaffected

Some Ansar were unhappy at what they regarded as unfair treatment. A few among them muttered this disapproval of the Prophet’s favoured treatment to the Quraysh. Once these complaints reached the Prophet he instructed that the Ansar should assemble in a tent. He addressed them,

“Is it not true that you worshipped idols and God gave you guidance through me? Is it not true that you were driven by civil discord and God united you through me? Is it not true that you were poor and God made you rich through me...He went onto say, “You Helpers, do you feel anxious for the things of this world, wherewith I have sought to incline these people unto the Faith in which you are already established? Are you not satisfied, O group of Helpers that the people go with ewes and camels while you go along with the Messenger of Allâh to your dwellings.”

The Expedition of Tabuk

The battle of Mutah which was widely considered to be a defeat for the Muslims in 629 and gave the impression that the Islamic state was on the decline. By the summer of the following year 630, news was coming to Medina that Roman troops which were gathering at the Syrian frontier with the intention of invading the Peninsula. Muhammad(s), decided to take pre-emptive steps in order to defend Medina, hence he commanded the Muslims to organize themselves for a extensive operation in the north. The weather in Arabia was exceedingly hot that year. In addition, a prolonged drought threatened the region.

The reaction of the Muslims, to enlisting was unenthusiastic. Many did not wish to depart from their homes at such a time. They wanted to be able to harvest their fruit; furthermore, many of the Muslims were concerned about the Byzantium’s military prowess.

All men able to fight were leaving for the campaign, Medina was left without any soldiers, if it were attacked the Prophet’s viceroy would need to have the skills and bravery to deal with the state of affairs. The Prophet selected Ali b. Abi Talib (a.s.) as his representative in Medina during his absence. For the hypocrites there was nothing that they hated more than to see Ali’s (a.s.) authority over them. Once the army left Medina, they began to spread rumours that the Messenger had left Ali (a.s.) behind because he wanted to get rid of him. Ali immediately perused the army and overtook it at al-Jurf. The Apostle was amazed to see Ali (a.s.), who explained what was being said.

Muhammad(s.a.w) replied,

“I left you behind because of what I left behind, so go back and represent me...Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no Prophet after me?”

For the Ja’fari school of thought, such a proclamation alongside many others, most notably at Ghadir Khum is sufficient evidence of not only the status of Ali (a.s) over and above all the companions, but also points to his intended successor after the Prophet.

After an arduous journey ended with the army reaching the Syrian border they stopped at a settlement called Tabuk but there was no sign of the Byzantium army there. The rumours back in Medina must have been false. After some days at Tabuk, Muhammad (s.a.w) called a war council, after which he decided that the Muslims should return.

The Declaration of Surah Al-Tawbah

By the time the pilgrimage of 9 A.H. arrived, Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) decided that it was not the right time for him to go so he sent Abu Bakr at the front of 300 Muslims. After they had departed he received revelation of the 9th chapter of the Immunity or Repentance, which represented an important milestone in the rules that govern the relationship the Muslims had with the polytheists. It was so monumental that he was instructed by God to either convey its contents personally or a family member worthy of its grandeur and no one else.

Ali ibn Abi Talib was assigned this task of announcing it to the assembly of the pilgrims – Muslim and pagan and was given prophet’s own swift slit-eared camel.

“When the discharge (Al-Tawbah) came down to the apostle after he had sent Abu Bakr to superintend the Hajj, someone expressed the wish that he would send it to Abu Bakr. He said, “None shall transmit it from me but a man of my own house." Then he summoned Ali and said: "Take this section from the beginning of “The Discharge” and proclaim it to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assemble at Mina. “

Once Ali (a.s) caught up to Abu Bakr, he informed him of his mission and duly fulfilled his obligation, of the many points that were to be relayed were that…

“No more pilgrimage for polytheists, naked would be allowed after that year.

There would be four months respite for the polytheists to either return home, after which there would no longer be any treaty except those who Muhammad (s.a.w) had an agreement with.

Muhammad(s.a.w) had not performed Hajj, but had observed two Umras, since relocating to Madinah, in 630 A.D. / 8 A.H. Attab, governor of Mecca, Performed Hajj with pagans present carrying out their rituals. Then in 631A.D. / 9 A.H. he sent Abu Bakr and then Ali, in the following year in 632 A.D. / 10 A.H., Muhammad (s.a.w) announced that he was now to perform Hajj, the news spread and approximately 100,00 came to Medina. On the 9th of Dhil-Hajj of 10 A.H. he gave a speech at Arafat, where he informed the Muslims that this may be his last Hajj, and gave a summary of the ideology of the religion of Islam. Most notably it was here as well as at other according to the Shia that famous Hadith al-Thaqalayn was pronounced in which he informed that the two weighty things he was leaving behind were the Book of Allah and his Ahlulbayt.

Even Sunnis accept this hadith, it can be found in Sahih Muslim, whereas the incorrect version presented where he was alleged to have said the book of Allah and his Sunnah are the two weighty things he was leaving behind, is categorically rejected by the Shia, moreover this version is not found in any of the six hadith books regarded as authentic by Sunnis.

After the pilgrimage had been completed the Prophet and the huge multitude of his followers, now departed for home. A short distance to the north of Mecca is a place called Khumm, an intersection of many roads there is a pool or well water (Ghadeer). When the Prophet arrived there, he received new revelation

“O Messenger! Deliver what has been revealed to you from your Lord; and if you do it not, then you have not delivered His message, and Allah will protect you from the people; surely Allah will not guide the unbelieving people.” (5:67)

A makeshift pulpit of camel saddles prepared in order that he could be seen by all (estimated to have been between 90,000 and 150,000 people), he had Ali stay by his side. After starting his speech, he went on to say,

"Do I have or I do not have a greater right on your souls than you yourselves have on them?"

All who were present confirmed his lofty divinely-appointed position over them, in accordance with the teachings of the Holy Qur’an…

The Prophet has a greater authority over the faithful than they have over their own selves (33:6)

He went on to say that “All men and women who recognize me as their Mawlá, I want them to acknowledge (at this point he held Ali's hand and lifted it high over his head) Ali also as their Mawlá."

Usama’s Expedition

Zayd b. Haritha was the freed slave and companion of Muhammad (s.a.w) who was killed at the battle of Mu’tah in 629 A.D. he was the leader of the Muslim expedition in opposition to the Byzantiums. The Muslims had suffered defeat in that battle, resulting in them withdrawing back to Arabia. When the opportunity arose he assembled an army that was to embark on another expedition to the Syrian border. The Prophet appointed Usama b. Zayd b. Hárithah as the commander of this expedition who would therefore be by default be the leader of prayers, He was 18 years old at the time. On the 18th of Safar of 11 A.H., Muhammad (s.a.w) gave the standard of Islam to Usama, and gave him his orders. He instructed all his companions, (with the exemption of Ali (a.s) and other members of Banu Hashim who were to stay in Madinah,) to obey Usama as their commander.

This dictate coincided with the illness of the Holy Prophet that would prove to be fatal. Usama inquired from the Prophet if he should postpone the military campaign until after his recovery from his fever, due to the reluctance of many of the companions to join him. The Prophet’s reply was categorical: "No. I want you to leave immediately." Usama went to the camp at Jorf outside Medina, but was not able to depart because many of those commanded to follow him did not arrive. They were reluctant to leave, Usama’s appointment proved to be controversial, for he was not only young but the son of a freed man.

The Prophet’s response to the criticism of the companions was to say that…

"If you are criticizing Usama's leadership, you used to criticize his father's leadership before. By Allah! He was worthy of leadership and was one of the dearest persons to me, and (now) this (i.e. Usama) is one of the dearest to me after him (i.e. Zaid). “

The Prophet completed his sermon at that point and descended from the pulpit and was bedridden with a high temperature. It is also reported that one night the Prophet went to Al-Baqi, accompanied by a servant and asked forgiveness for the dead.

Arguably one of the reasons for the appointment of someone so young was to illustrate that age was no barrier if one was capable, as argued by Ja’far Subhani…

The Prophet...”wanted to make it clear that public offices and situations demand nothing except ability and skill and have nothing to do with age, so that capable young men might prepare themselves for important public responsibilities and should know that in Islam status and office have a direct link with ability and skill and not with years and age.”

The Pen and the Last Will of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w)

Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:

When the time of the death of the Prophet approached while there were some men in the house…the Prophet said, "Come near let me write for you a writing after which you will never go astray."

One of the companions said "The Prophet is seriously ill, and you have the Quran, so Allah's Book is sufficient for us." The people in the house differed and disputed. Some of them said, "Come near so that Allah's Apostle may write for you a writing after which you will not go astray," while others disagreed. As the noise increased due to the dispute, the Prophet, he said to them, "Go away and leave me." Ibn 'Abbas used to say, "It was a great disaster that their difference and noise prevented Allah's Apostle from writing that writing for them.

During his last hours, it is reported narrated from Ayesha that

"As the day crept up toward noon, Fatima Zahra, the daughter of the Messenger of God, came to see him. He welcomed her and asked her to sit beside him. Then he said something to her which I could not hear but she began to weep. Noticing the tears of his daughter, he said something else to her which again I could not hear but she began to smile. She was so much like her father in temperament, character and appearance."

Sometime after the death of the Apostle, Ayesha asked Fatima what was it that her father said to her which first made her weep and then made her smile. Fatima said: "First my father told me that he was going to die. When I heard this, I began to cry. Then he informed me that I would be the very first to meet him in heaven, and that too, very soon. When I heard this, I was very happy, and I smiled.

As the day progressed the Prophet’s condition deteriorated until he passed away, the wives present began to weep and cry. His blessed life of 63 years had sadly come to an end.

There is some difference as to the exact date of his passing; Sunni historians believe that the Prophet died, on the 12th of Rabi al-Awwal 11 A.H. Shia historians state that the 28th of Safar 11 A.H. was the date of his death.

The Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w) Burial

When it became apparent that Muhammad (s.a.w) had died, Bani Hashim occupied itself with the burial rituals. The Prophet’s body was ritually bathed on the Tuesday. Only a few companions were present at his funeral service. They were: Ali b. Abi Talib, Abbas b. Abdul Muttalib, Fadhl b. Abbas, Qutham b. Abbas, Usama b. Zayd b. Haritha, Shuqrán (freed slave of Muhammad) and Aus bin Khuli Ansari. Ali washed and clothed the body in the burial shroud and buried him.

Other prominent companions were absent and did not pay their last respects for two days; they were concerned with electing a successor to Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). This was carried out at a place called Saqifa, the decisions made there would prove to have repercussions until today.

Achievements in the Life of the Prophet Muhammad

He virtually obliterated paganism and polytheism in Arabia;

He declared and established the Supreme Unity of the Almighty;

He instituted a complete system of Way of life (religion) and law;

Through Islam he was able to purify the souls of mankind;

He eliminated (temporarily) inequality, and injustice;

He delivered mankind from moral chaos, economic destitution and ignorance;

He ensured peace ensued in a part of the world that had only known war;

He established a Political State that was the vehicle to ensure that all the preceding objectives were fulfilled and preserved.

Divine Designation or Election

General consensus is that; Muhammad, the Apostle of Allah, did not provide any directives to the Muslims, concerning the Islamic political system post-Muhammad (s.a.w). That is that he neglected to appoint a leader, leaving open for the Muslims to decide their direction.

It was the responsibility of the Muslim Umma to determine the new commander-in chief, without the aid of any assistance or example, leaving them no option but to rely on pre-Islamic traditions that resulted in an election.

If this is correct then;

Is one selected through such a system the representative of God or the companions?

If Prophet Muhammad’s (s.a.w) successors were able to put in place instructions for their successors, does this mean that Muhammad (s.a.w) had an inferior foresight?

As stated by J. Eposito the system of the election immediately after the death of the Prophet resembled that of the days of jahiliyya…“A grouping of several related families comprised a clan. A cluster of several clans constituted a tribe. Tribes were led by a chief (shaykh) who was selected by a consensus of his peers – that is, the heads of leading clans or families."

Was this a defect in an otherwise perfect religion that was meticulously implemented by Muhammad (s.a.w), so that immediately after his death, his followers were obliged to revert to customs practiced in the days of jahiliyya. If so does this not entitle one to question his political astuteness?

The idea of an election by consensus is questionable, as only a few of the companions were involved in the event of Saqifa.

As one of the early caliphs himself declared…“He who accepts a man as a ruler without consulting the Muslims, such acceptability has no validity for either of them: they are in danger of being killed”

The criteria presented at Saqifa to determine the most suitable to lead the Muslims was the nobility of one’s tribal heritage…“the Arabs will recognize authority only in this clan of Quraysh, they being the best of the Arabs in blood and country”…contradicts the Qur’anic ideal that the best of men were those of virtuous character.

Surely the most honourable of you with Allah is the one among you most pious. Al-Hujurát 49:13

If the criteria above was valid then there were others such as Ali (a.s) who were better qualified as they fulfilled the same qualities in addition to being even closer “in blood” to the prophet due to their relation.

Reader's who read this article also read:

The practice of temporary marriage is one of the major differences between Sunni and Shi’a traditions.
According to Shi’a customs, temporary marriage entails that a Muslim man may marry a Muslim woman or non-Muslim woman (from amongst the people of the book) for a pre-determined period of time.