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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press,
1996 .

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
Ecologically Based Pest Management
New Solutions for a New Century
Committee on Pest and Pathogen Control through Management of Biological Control Agents and Enhanced Cycles and Natural Processes
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1996

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Harold Liebowitz is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Harold Liebowitz are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
Preface
At the request of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and with support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Research Council's Board on Agriculture convened the 14-member Committee on Pest and Pathogen Control through Management of Biological Control Agents and Enhanced Natural Cycles and Processes to assess status of the knowledge in areas of pesticide application, host resistance, and biological-control practices and to chart future direction. Specifically, the committee was charged to address the following:
Why do we need new arthropod, weed, and pathogen control methods in crop and forest production systems?
What can we realistically expect from investment in new technologies?
How do we develop effective and profitable pest control systems that rely primarily on ecological processes of control?
How should we oversee and commercialize biological control organisms and products?
Given our charge and the record of history of the application of pesticides, breeding for disease resistance, and integrating biological control practices into production agriculture, my colleagues on the committee and I deliver this report with one key message: In both science and application, researchers, providers of inputs, and growers must progress from a product based approach to an ecologically based pest management system identified as EBPM. Management is the key word. In fact, the word control, as in biological control, is misleading. Pests in most cases cannot be controlled; pests must be managed with the objectives of a safe, profitable, and durable outcome.

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
With a better understanding of ecology, the inherent strengths of the managed ecosystem can be used with more modest inputs than in the past. Essentially, the change to EBPM as proposed here will require a substantial change from the primary practice of product input to the primary mind set of information and management. Ultimately, EBPM will help to address ecosystem health not by administering products alone to treat symptoms, but by integrating components that maximize use of natural processes with minimum development of resistance.
EBPM will require regulatory oversight that matches the level of risk of biological inputs added to the managed ecosystem. For example, synthetic chemicals are new to the biosphere—they have no base of performance in the environment or in relation to human health. However, biologically based organisms, products, and resistant cultivars are inherently different, for the most part, from synthetics. Biological processes, having existed in nature over time, provide a base of experience that is a major resource to evaluate the safe application and establish appropriate oversight of EBPM. Biologically based products are not inherently different from synthetics in their vulnerability to development of resistance, although history suggests that such will be less frequent. Users will need to monitor managed ecosystems for early identification of pest resistance.
In this report we place major emphasis on the research information needs and on appropriate regulatory oversight. The committee also urges an interactive, cooperative approach to development of EBPM. Given the other individuals and organizations addressing issues relating to the adoption of new pest management approaches, we have only modestly considered adoption in our report.
In this deliberative report the Executive Summary presents the findings and key recommendations. Chapter 1 describes the history of pest management and the limitations of current practices. Chapter 2 details the committee's new approach to pest management, ecologically based pest management. Chapter 3 identifies priority research areas and discusses important institutional changes to effectively carry out that research. Chapter 4 assesses regulatory oversight and aspects of risk assessment and management.
The contents of this report offer a new paradigm, the concept of EBPM. We are optimistic that the development and application of the principles of EBPM will contribute to a future with high-quality food, fiber, and forest production and sound management of our natural resources for safety, profitability, and durability.
RALPH W. F. HARDY, Chair
Committee on Pest and Pathogen Control through Management of Biological Control Agents and Enhanced Natural Cycles and Processes

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
THE COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGES with deep appreciation all those who contributed their expertise to this project. The committee is especially grateful for the contributions of Joseph Panetta of Mycogen Corporation. Mr. Panetta provided useful ideas and insights based on his experience with registration and commercialization of biological control products.

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
Contents
PREFACE
vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
Cultural and Biological Approaches to Pest Management
2
Safety, Profitability, and Durability
3
Developing a Knowledge Base
4
Understanding the Interactive Processes of Ecosystems
5
The Need for Multidisciplinary Ecosystem Research
6
New Research Methods
6
Implementation Research
7
Information Inputs
7
Public Oversight of Ecologically Based Pest Management
8
Appropriate Risks
8
Experience and Experimentation
9
The Need for Guidelines
10
A New Era
10
1
LESSONS FROM THE PAST PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE
11
A Brief History of Pest Management Using Naturally Occurring Substances
12
Early Biological Management of Arthropods
12
Early Biological Management of Weeds
13
Early Biological Management of Diseases
17
A Brief History of Cultural Practices
17
Plant Breeding
21

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Ecologically Based Pest Management: New Solutions for a New Century
Synthetic Organic Pesticides
23
Insecticides
24
Herbicides
24
Declining Use
24
Integrated Pest Management
25
Obstacles to Continued Use of Broad-Spectrum Pesticides
26
Problems and Limitations of Pesticides
26
Problems that Defy Conventional Chemical Solutions
29
Human and Environmental Health Concerns
37
Time to Reassess and Plan
41
2
DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING ECOLOGICALLY BASED PEST MANAGEMENT
42
Goals of Ecologically Based Pest Management
42
Supplements to Natural Processes
44
Biological-Control Organisms
46
Biological-Control Products
47
Synthetic Chemicals
47
Resistant Plants
47
Economic Feasibility of Ecologically Based Pest Management
49
Economic Feasibility of Pest Management
49
Economic Feasibility and Risk
54
The Role of Information in Pest Management
56
Role of Collective Action in Pest Management
63
Grower Cooperatives
63
Small-Market Support
64
Certification
64
Monitoring Pests
64
3
ACCELERATING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
69
Foundations of a Knowledge Base
70
Priority Research Areas
71
Research on the Ecology of Managed Ecosystems
72
Research on Behavioral, Physiological, and Molecular Mechanisms to Effect EBPM
76
Research to Identify and Conserve Natural Resources Needed for EBPM
82
Development of Better Research and Diagnostic Techniques
84
Development of Ecologically Based Crop Protection Strategies
86
Research on Implementation and Evaluation of EBPM
88
Research to Improve Understanding of the Socioeconomic Issues Affecting Adoption
89
Development of New Institutional Approaches to Encourage the Necessary Interdisciplinary Cooperation
91
Infrastructure for Research
94

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