Like other punctuation marks, the ones in this chapter direct the
reader's attention to meaningful groups of words. They are like the
hands of a traffic cop telling cars to stop or go, turn right or left.
They are like the hands of a waiter guiding the customer through a meal,
from pointing out the table and offering the menu to serving the dishes
and sweeping up the crumbs.

THE COMMA

The comma is one of the most misused punctuation marks; in fact, it
is often overused. There are certain occasions when commas must be used
in standard written English, and there are occasions when they must not
be used. There are also times when the comma may be used to add emphasis
or to make the meaning clearer. We're sometimes told to place a
comma wherever we pause in reading the sentence, and that works well as
we're writing a rough draft. However, once we're proofreading
the final copy, that advice may not always be useful. Rather, it makes
sense to consult a list of rules and to use commas only when these rules
apply. When in doubt, leave commas out.

1. Add a comma before the coordinating conjunction that joins two
independent clauses.

One train stopped, but the other kept going.
Joaquin grilled two steaks, and Dexter added a garnish of
mushrooms.

In these two examples, the comma is like a hand giving a short wave
to the reader as if to say, okay, here's where the next clause
begins.

2. Add a comma after an introductory subordinate clause. Remember,
a subordinate clause is a group of words that contains a subject, a
verb, and a subordinating conjunction ("coat hanger").

While one train stopped, the other kept going.
After Joaquin grilled two steaks, Dexter added a garnish of
mushrooms.

Again, the comma is like a hand drawing the reader's eye to
the subject of the main clause, Dexter.

Exercise 31.1 | Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses

Rewrite the following sentences, adding commas where necessary.

1. When Emma first meets Frank Churchill she thinks he is very
handsome and wellmannered.

2. As she gets to know him better she does not completely trust
him.

3. Frank is not perfect yet Emma would like him to marry her best
friend, Harriet.

4. While Emma is busy matchmaking she fails to notice that both
Frank and Harriet are in love with other people.

5. She doesn't realize that Frank is in love with Jane Fairfax
and she also doesn't realize that she herself is in love with Mr.
Knightley.

3. If a subordinate clause follows the main clause, add a comma if
the clause is nonrestrictive, that is, if it could be omitted without
altering the fundamental meaning of the sentence.

Nonrestrictive: The Boston fans greatly admired David Ortiz, who
had hit several home runs during the season. We came home early,
although the party was not over. I went to the new restaurant, which we
learned later had received good reviews.

The comma is omitted when the subordinate clause is restrictive,
that is, when it limits the meaning of a word in the main clause or is
otherwise essential to the meaning of the sentence. Note that a
subordinate clause that begins with the pronoun that is always
restrictive; therefore it is not preceded by a comma.

Restrictive: The crowd cheered for the player who hit the home run.
We came home early because we were tired. I went to the new restaurant
that everyone was talking about.

4. Add a comma after an introductory word or phrase. The purpose of
punctuation is to map out the meaning of the sentence so that the reader
is able to follow it clearly. Since the main clause and its subject are
especially important to the meaning of a sentence, commas are often used
after an introductory word or phrase as an indication that these are
going to be followed by this main clause.

First, the server asked for their drink orders.
After ordering their drinks, the customers opened the menus.

Many writers place a comma after four or more introductory words,
or after two or more prepositional phrases. Note that if the
introductory word or phrase is short and the meaning is clear, the comma
may be omitted.

Yesterday we went to a new restaurant downtown.
In the window there was a photograph of the award-winning chef.

5. Add commas on both ends of words, phrases, or clauses that
interrupt the sentence. Use two commas--like two hands holding a
tray--unless the phrase begins or ends the sentence.

Dr. House, however, is not always popular with his coworkers.
However, Dr. House is not always popular with his coworkers. Dr.
House is not always popular with his coworkers, however.

In the second and third examples, the capital letter and the
period, respectively, act as the other "hand" that helps the
comma hold the tray.

Appositives, which are words or phrases that sit next to a noun and
rename it, are usually separated from the rest of the sentence with
commas, unless they are very short or unless they restrict the meaning
of the noun.

The new show, a hospital drama, premiered on Tuesday night. [commas
set off a hospital drama, which renames show]
My aunt Sally loves the show. [Sally restricts the meaning; it's
not my aunt Betty. Therefore no comma is used.]

Words or phrases used in direct address are also separated from the
rest of the sentence by commas.

I am sorry, Dr. House, but your license has been suspended.

Exercise 31.2 | Using Commas with Interrupters

Rewrite the following sentences, adding commas where necessary.

1. Another popular medical series this one with a large ensemble
cast is Grey's Anatomy. 2. Meredith Grey from whom the series
derives its name is an intern at a hospital. 3. She initially shares a
house with two other interns Izzy and George. 4. The interns'
supervisor Dr. Bailey runs a tight ship. 5. In addition the show is
enlivened by the many romantic entanglements.

6. Add commas between three or more items in a series. Both MLA and
APA

style guides prefer that a comma precede and.

The apple was green, round, and juicy.

Note that if you use a conjunction between each item, you do not
need commas.

The apple was green and round and juicy.

You may choose to add commas where they are not required, however,
as in the example that follows, if each item is rather long and the
sentence would be clearer with punctuation.

The fruit salad consisted of Granny Smith apples bought from the
grocery store and used with their bright green skins intact, and
blueberries and raspberries picked that morning at a local farm,
and walnut pieces that were left over from holiday baking.

When you have a series of adjectives describing a noun, insert a
comma between those that modify the noun directly:

The cafe was painted a bright, cheerful color.

Both bright and cheerful describe color, and the sentence might
have been written as follows:

The cafe was painted a bright and cheerful color.

When adjectives modifying the same noun could be joined by and
(bright and cheerful color), they are separated by commas if and is
removed (bright, cheerful color). In the next example, however, bright
is now an adverb modifying yellow and is not separated from it by a
comma.

The cafe was painted a bright yellow color.

Items in a Series

The cafe was painted a bright, cheerful color.

The cafe was painted a bright yellow color.

Charlotte is fond of buttered, toasted English muffins.

We wouldn't write a bright and yellow color; thus, we do not
place a comma after bright. Finally, do not add a comma between an
adjective and a noun if the adjective limits or qualifies the meaning of
the noun. For example, there is no comma between toasted and English in
the following sentence because the adjective English limits the muffins
to a certain variety. They're not corn muffins, but English
muffins.

Charlotte is fond of buttered, toasted English muffins. [correct]
Charlotte is fond of buttered, toasted, English muffins.
[incorrect]

One common qualifier is the season of the year. In the following
sentence, we wouldn't speak of the mild and summer evening;
therefore, there is no comma between the two adjectives.

The children watched the fireflies throughout the mild summer
evening. [correct]
The children watched the fireflies throughout the mild, summer
evening. [incorrect]

Exercise 31.3 | Commas with Items in a Series

Rewrite the following sentences, adding commas where necessary.

1. The two business partners bought a small attractive restaurant
on a side street.

2. The newly opened cafe had fresh seasonal vegetables on the menu.

3. The customers especially enjoyed the varied tender salad greens.

4. Another popular item was the thick nutritious vegetable soup.

5. For dessert many customers ordered the very rich chocolate cake.

7. Add a comma to mark the thousandth place in numbers larger than
four digits, such as 150,000 or 23,671. The comma is optional in
four-digit numbers, but be consistent. If you're using other
numbers that must have a comma, add a comma to the four-digit numbers as
well.

Marlene made 1,129 phone calls at work last month. [correct]
Marlene made 1129 phone calls at work last month. [correct]
At that rate, she will have made 13548 calls by the end of the
year. [incorrect]
At that rate, she will have made 13,458 by the end of the year.
[correct]

Do not add commas to telephone numbers, years, or zip codes.

8. Add a comma between elements of a date,

Julia Child was born on August 15, 1912.

and add a comma after the date if the sentence continues, as in
this example:

Julia Child was born on August 15, 1912, and was an influential
figure in the American culinary world.

However, do not add commas when the date is given in inverted
order-day, month, year--as in the following example: 15 August 1912. Do
not use a comma when you write just the month and day or just the month
and year.

Julia Child was born on August 15.
Julia Child was born in August 1912.

9. Add a comma between elements of an address, except between the
state and the zip code. Use a comma after the address if the sentence
continues.

The President of the United States lives at 1600 Pennsylvania
Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20500.

10. Add a comma between a name and abbreviations such as MD or Jr.
Use a comma after the abbreviation if the sentence continues.

Sanjay Gupta, MD, wrote a book called Monday Mornings, which was
turned into a television show.

11. Add a comma after the greeting of a personal letter and after
the closing of all letters. Note that the greeting of a business letter
is followed by a colon.

Dear John,
Sincerely yours,
BUT
Dear Superintendent Yang:

Commas are often added where they don't belong. Observe the
following rules:

* Don't put a comma between the subject and the verb of a
sentence.

* Don't put a comma between a verb and its object.

* If a pair of commas is needed to separate an interrupter from the
rest of the sentence, don't skip one.

* Don't use a comma to separate two independent clauses.

* Don't use a comma unless you have a specific purpose in
mind.

Finally, let's look at the one rule most people remember: put
a comma wherever you pause in the sentence. It's true a comma will
make the reader pause briefly (though not as long as a semicolon or
period). However, if you use a comma for this reason, be sure it's
not breaking any of the rules in this section at the same time.

THE COLON

Colons are like a pair of eyes tipped over, like the emoticon :)
without the smile. They mean "look at this."

1. Use a colon to introduce a list or a quotation.

Dexter dislikes all vegetables except the following: broccoli,
carrots, and corn.
Perhaps one of the most well-known sentences in the English
language comes from Hamlet: "To be or not to be, that is the
question."

2. Colons may be used between independent clauses, if the first
clause is explained or summarized by the second. In APA format, the
first word after the colon is always capitalized. In MLA format, the
first word is capitalized only if it states a rule or principle.

Dexter applies this same selectivity to ice cream flavors: he
prefers pure chocolate or vanilla, with an occasional scoop of
cookies and cream to add texture. [MLA]
Dexter applies this same selectivity to ice cream flavors: He
prefers pure chocolate or vanilla, with an occasional scoop of
cookies and cream to add texture. [APA]

3. Use a colon in the greeting of a business letter.

Dear Sales Associate:

4. Use a colon in expressions of time.

Dinner was served at 7:00 p.m.

5. Use a colon in certain parts of bibliographic citations. (See
Chapter 19 for additional details on bibliographic citations.) Study the
following examples:

1. Each episode of Law & Order follows a specific sequence the
discovery of the body, the police investigation, and the jury trial.

2. Over the years, several different actresses have played Jack
McCoy's assistant, for example: Jill Hennessey, Carey Lowell, and
Angie Harmon.

3. Detective Briscoe's partner has also been played by
different actors, including: Benjamin Bratt and Jesse L. Martin.

4. Jennifer is a huge fan of the show she has at least ten seasons
on DVD.

5. Did you watch the episode last night at 1000 p.m.?

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is somewhere between a comma and a period. It's
as if our friend Comma Man got into a semi to increase his strength.
Like a comma, the semicolon is part of a single sentence. Like a period,
the semicolon can handle two independent clauses. While we take a pause
at a comma, we take a longer one at a semicolon, and an even longer one
at a period.

1. Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses that are very
closely related in meaning. (See also Chapter 23.)

Raw eggs may contain a dangerous bacterium called Salmonella; they
should always be stored at cool temperatures.

A conjunctive adverb, such as consequently or however, may be used
to describe the relationship between two clauses.

Raw eggs may contain a dangerous bacterium called Salmonella;
consequently, they should always be stored at cool temperatures.

Such conjunctive adverbs are typically followed by a comma,
particularly when they interrupt the sentence, as in the previous
example.

2. Use semicolons instead of commas to separate independent clauses
that are joined by a coordinating conjunction and already contain a
number of commas.

On the following day, dressed in clean chef whites, the new
students learned to prepare vegetable stock, beef stock, and
chicken stock; and their instructor, who was fair but strict, was
pleased with their progress.

3. Semicolons may be used instead of commas to separate items in a
series when these already contain a number of commas.

Mystic River is the story of three friends: Sean Devine, a quiet
child, now a state trooper and the only one of the three to go to
college; Jimmy Markham, the leader of the group, a small-time crook
who went straight after serving two years in prison; and Dave
Boyle, perhaps the central figure, the boy who was kidnapped, the
man who couldn't escape.

See Exercises 23.4 and 23.5 for practice in using semicolons.

PARENTHESES

Parentheses are used to set off words and phrases that explain or
refer to something within the main sentence. The parentheses indicate
that this information is less important and that the structure and
meaning of the sentence are not affected. Look at these examples:

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate the sale
of dietary supplements.
Parentheses may be used like commas to set off explanatory
information (see Chapter 31).

Parentheses are like "stage whispers" or
"asides" in a play. The actor turns from the other cast
members and speaks directly to the audience, often in an exaggerated
whisper. While the stage whisper is intended to be heard, and sometimes
contains such information as explanations of the actor's motives or
of elements in the story, it is not part of the regular dialogue. Think
about Romeo in the garden, listening raptly to Juliet's outpouring
of desire. In an aside to the audience he wonders, "Shall I hear
more, or shall I speak at this?"

Punctuation marks generally fall outside the parentheses, unless
they are part of the phrase inside the parentheses. Consider the
following examples:

After Barrett saw Ray (the biography of Ray Charles), he bought the
soundtrack.
After Barrett saw Ray (What a great movie!), he bought the
soundtrack. brackets

Brackets are used within quotations to set off words, phrases, or
explanations that were not in the original text.

Brackets are also used to set off explanatory words and phrases
within parentheses.

Exercise 31.5 | Parentheses and Brackets

Rewrite the following sentences, adding parentheses or brackets
where necessary.

1. The students developed a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
HACCP plan for the restaurant in their case study.

2. "My mom's the chef at Bistro Urbano a trendy downtown
restaurant," the boy bragged to his friends.

3. Commas are also important in setting off words and phrases from
the rest of the sentence see Chapter 28.

4. American Idol a reality series drew more viewers than the
Olympic Games that night.

5. The company's new CEO Chief Executive Officer made it a
policy to visit each department once a week.

HYPHENS

Hyphens are the short lines used within single words to form
compound numbers, such as thirty-three or ninety-one, and with the
prefixes all-, ex-, and self-, for example, ex-boyfriend and
self-esteem. Hyphens are also used with compound adjectives, that is,
adjectives that are modified by an adverb and directly precede a noun.

The servers appreciated the well-behaved children. [hyphen
required]

However, no hyphen is required if the adverb ends in -ly.

The servers appreciated the surprisingly polite children. [no
hyphen]

Note that in APA style, you would use an en dash, which is slightly
longer than a hyphen, to join compound adjectives of equal weight. For
example, use a hyphen for well-behaved children in the previous
sentence, but use an en dash for Atlanta-Tampa flight. See Figure 31.1.

When writing by hand, use hyphens to break words at the end of a
line in order to maintain an orderly margin. However, when using a word
processor, turn off the auto-hyphenation feature. Set the margin to
align left and press the Enter key only at the conclusion of the
paragraphs; the computer will "wrap" the text automatically at
the end of each line.

DASHES

Dashes--like commas--are used between words and phrases to set off
a thought that interrupts the rest of the sentence. Also called em
dashes, they can add a lively, conversational tone to the text but
should be used sparingly in very formal academic or business writing.

The new bakery--the one around the corner--featured an assortment
of muffins.

Dashes may also be used like a colon to introduce additional
material or to explain or rename a word or phrase in the sentence.

In a single year, Jamie Foxx was nominated for two Oscars for two
separate films--Ray and Collateral.

DIRECTIONS: Rewrite the following sentences,* adding or deleting
commas, colons, and semicolons as necessary. Assume all other
punctuation is correct. Some sentences have more than one error.

1. While some characters in Mystic River are timid and reserved
others are intense and fearless.

2. My personal favorite is, Jimmy Markham played by Sean Penn.

3. Jimmy is a loving compassionate family man but he is forced to
backpedal into a life that had been forgotten a life in organized crime.

4. Markham captained a crew that included the Savage brothers and
"Just Ray" Harris, it landed him directly in federal prison.

5. These painful years molded the character into what the film
depicts; a powerful rugged leader, who commands loyalty.

6. However with the birth of his eldest daughter the elements of
love compromise and family are created as well.

* Sentences adapted from an essay by student writer Adam McGlone.
Errors were introduced to create this quiz.

7. As the film continues to unfold Jimmy Markham rises to a
climactic implosion and his wrath is felt by all.

8. Jimmy's sight once transparent and clear is now opaque with
rage and vengeance.

9. In the end the teachings of Katie's birth are ironically in
vain Markham is forced to honor his slain daughter, by dishonorable
means and actions.

10. His past is now the present and the dragon's slumber is
permanently disturbed.

Figure 31.1 Using Hyphens and Dashes
hyphen - en dash - minus sign - em dash -
MLA to form com- N/A N/A to set off a
pound numbers or thought that
adjectives interrupts
the sentence
APA to form com- to form compo- use a hyphen to set off a
pound numbers or und adjectives if minus sign thought that
adjectives (but when words are not available interrupts
see en dash); to of equal the sentence
indicate a nega- weight
tive number
Figure 31.2 When to Use a Slash
Use of Slash Example
In URLs http://www.imdb.com
Between lines of poetry quoted "'Twas brillig, and the slithy
within a paragraph toves /Did gyre and gimble in the
wabe"
Between paired alternatives We are expecting a yes/no answer.
He/she should send a resume by
email.
In certain abbreviations HIV/AIDS
AFL/CIO
In fractions or division He ate 2/3 of the apple.
In dates written with numerals 11/7/12
only

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