Slideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance, and to provide you with relevant advertising. If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our User Agreement and Privacy Policy.

Slideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance, and to provide you with relevant advertising. If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our Privacy Policy and User Agreement for details.

Easy and hassle free way to make money online! I have just registered with this site and straight away I was making money! It doesn't get any better than this. Thank you for taking out all the hassle and making money answering surveys as easy as possible even for non-techie guys like me! ♣♣♣ https://tinyurl.com/vd3y33w

Dr Dev Kambhampati | USITC- Poultry Industry & Trade Summary

2.
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION
Robert B. Koopman
Director, Office of Operations
Karen Laney
Director, Office of Industries
This report was prepared principally by:
Marin Weaver, Office of Industries
Livestock, Dairy, and Fishery Products
marin.weaver@usitc.gov
With supporting assistance from:
Phyllis Boone, Office of Industries
Peg Hausman and David Lundy,
Office of Analysis and Research Services
Carolyn Holmes and Darlene Smith,
Statistical Support Division,
Office of Investigations
Sonya Wilson,
Help Desk and Customer Service Division,
Office of the Chief Information Officer
Under the direction of:
Jonathan Coleman, Chief
Agriculture and Fisheries Division
Address all communications to
Secretary to the Commission
United States International Trade Commission
Washington, DC 20436
www.usitc.gov

3.
Preface
The United States International Trade Commission (USITC) initiated its current Industry
and Trade Summary series of reports to provide information on the rapidly evolving trade
and competitive situation of the thousands of products imported into and exported from
the United States. International supply chains have become more global, and competition
has increased.
Each Industry and Trade Summary addresses a different commodity/industry and
contains information on trends in consumption, production, and trade, as well as an
analysis of factors affecting industry trends and competitiveness in domestic and foreign
markets. This report on the poultry industry primarily covers the period 2006 through
2012.
Papers in this series reflect ongoing research by USITC international trade analysts. The work
does not represent the views of the USITC or any of its individual Commissioners. This paper
should be cited as the work of the author only, and not as an official Commission document.
Suggested reference citation:
Weaver, Marin. Poultry. Industry and Trade Summary. Publication ITS-10. Washington, DC: U.S.
International Trade Commission, January 2014.
i

8.
Key Points
The United States is the largest poultry producer in the world, accounting for
approximately one-quarter of global poultry production during 2006–12. Moreover, the
United States is considered among the most efficient poultry (chicken and turkey for the
purposes of this report) producers in the world and is considered highly competitive
globally. The highly vertically integrated structure of the U.S. broiler (chicken) and
turkey industries provides poultry processors (also called “integrators”) with a high level
of control over their product, with the resulting meat having both standardized taste and
quality. Consolidation over time has led to fewer, larger, and more efficient grow-out
farms (that raise birds to market weight) and processing facilities, which capture
economies of scale. The U.S. poultry industry seeks to increase efficiency at all stages of
the production process through extensive research and development to improve all areas
of production including disease control, breeding, feed compositions, and housing
systems at grow-out facilities.
Despite its efficiency, the U.S. poultry industry struggled with lower profitability during
most of 2006–12 due to historically high feed prices and lower domestic consumption.
Feed prices reached historic highs during crop years 2005/06–2011/12 because of several
factors that reduced global supplies (i.e., droughts and export controls) and increased
global demand (i.e., rising personal incomes, growing populations, and growing biofuel
production) for corn and soybeans—the primary components of poultry feed. Further, in
2007–09, the first-ever recorded three-years-in-a-row decline in U.S. chicken
consumption occurred, primarily because of record-high meat prices (driven in part by
high grain prices) and the 2008–09 economic recession. In response, some integrators
tried to increase efficiency by closing underperforming facilities and to lower meat
production by reducing bird placements at grow-out farms, but some companies were
forced to go out of business.
The United States is the world’s largest poultry meat consumer, accounting for about
one-fifth of world consumption during 2006–12. Over 80 percent of U.S. production was
consumed domestically. Chicken is the most commonly consumed meat in the United
States, averaging 84 pounds per capita annually during 2006–12. U.S. per capita
consumption of turkey meat averaged 17 pounds annually during this same period—less
than for beef or pork, but more than for seafood. Poultry consumption is stimulated by
being the lowest-priced meat, as well as by other factors such as increased awareness as a
healthier alternative to red meat and the convenience of reduced preparation time (e.g.,
pre-marinated items, pan-ready meals, microwavable items, and prepackaged meals).
As one of the world’s largest and most efficient poultry producers, U.S. imports are
negligible, accounting for only about 0.3 percent of domestic consumption of both live
poultry and poultry meat in 2006–12. The efficiency and scale of the U.S. poultry
industry poses difficulties for foreign countries to compete in the U.S. market solely on
the basis of price.
In 2012, U.S. exports accounted for about 34 percent of global broiler and turkey meat
exports by volume. Mexico, followed by Canada, China/Hong Kong, and Russia,
together accounted for an average of 63 percent of all U.S. exports (by value) in 2006–12.
However, the global export market has become increasingly competitive. Brazil, which
has become a highly efficient producer over the past decade, was the world’s largest
1

9.
poultry exporter for most of 2006–12. The European Union, Thailand, and China are also
among the world’s leading poultry exporters. Russia, followed by Saudi Arabia, Mexico,
and Japan are the world’s largest poultry net importers.
Exports are becoming more important for the U.S. poultry industry, increasing from
14 percent of production in 2006 to 19 percent in 2012, partly because domestic
consumption fell. The U.S. poultry industry was able to increase exports despite facing
challenges in exporting to two of its largest export markets—Russia and China. U.S.
exports to these foreign markets fell by 79 percent (by volume) from their 2008 peak to
their low in 2011 because of a number of measures imposed on U.S. poultry. Russia
banned imports of poultry treated with a chlorinated rinse to reduce pathogens,
effectively blocking U.S. poultry exports for over one-half of 2010. Additionally, Russia
lowered its tariff-rate quota between 2009 and 2010, thereby reducing the amount of
poultry that entered at the lower duty rate. For its part, in 2010, China imposed
antidumping duties rates ranging from 50.3 to 105.4 percent ad valorem and
countervailing duties rates ranging from 5.1 to 30.3 percent ad valorem on imports of
U.S. poultry meat.
2

10.
Introduction
Definition and Scope
This industry and trade summary examines the structure of the U.S. industry, trends in
U.S. production and trade, trade barriers, and conditions in key markets and producing
countries. It covers both live poultry raised for meat and poultry meat.1
The poultry meat
industry includes producers of broilers (chickens) and turkeys, as well as smaller industry
segments producing ducks, geese, guinea fowls, etc. Nevertheless, the primary focus of
this summary is on broilers and turkeys, the largest poultry industry sectors in the United
States.2
This summary presents information on the structure of the U.S. and foreign
industries, the production process and market channels, consumer preferences, trade
levels and trends, domestic and foreign tariff and nontariff measures, and the factors
affecting international competitive conditions for the U.S. poultry industry. This
summary primarily reports on developments during 2006–12. However, it also discusses
events prior to 2006 that are relevant to explaining the industry’s current structure and,
where 2012 data are not available, uses the most recent data available.
The United States is one of the largest and is considered among the most efficient poultry
producer in the world, accounting for approximately one-quarter of global poultry
production in 2006–12. U.S. exports rose almost 40 percent during 2006–12, and
accounted for about 34 percent of global broiler and turkey meat exports by volume in
2012. The U.S. industry, which is highly vertically integrated, continues to become more
efficient over time due to factors such as economies of scale and extensive research and
development. Nevertheless, the U.S. industry also faced some significant challenges.
High feed prices and lower domestic demand led to a decline in U.S. poultry industry
profitability during much of 2006–12. Further, the global export market has become
increasingly competitive, with Brazil becoming a more competitive global producer in
the last decade and the European Union, Thailand, and China also expanding exports. In
addition, the United States has faced challenges in exporting to two of its largest foreign
export markets—Russia and China. U.S. exports to these foreign markets fell by
79 percent (by volume) from their 2008 peak to their low in 2011 because of restrictions
imposed on imports of U.S. poultry meat.
Poultry production was valued at $30.2 billion in 2012.3
Chicken is the most commonly
consumed meat in the United States and is widely consumed throughout the world.
Turkey is the fourth-most commonly eaten meat in the United States, but is not widely
consumed worldwide. Poultry meat is attractive to consumers because it is competitively
priced compared with other meats, is considered healthier than red meats, and offers the
convenience of reduced cooking and preparation time. Additionally, consumption of
1
Live poultry raised for meat and poultry meat are classified for tariff purposes under heading 0105;
heading 0207; and headings 1602.20.20, 1602.31, 1602.32, and 1602.39 of the Harmonized Tariff Schedule
of the United States (HTSUS or HTS). See appendix A table A.5.
2
There are two types of chicken—broilers (birds raised for meat purposes) and layers (birds raised to
produce eggs)—and each type comes from different poultry breeds. Broilers can be either male or female.
Only hens become layers, which are then processed into meat when they have completed their egg-producing
years (that is, when they are “spent layers”).
3
USDA, NASS, Poultry Production and Value: 2012 Summary, April 2013, 7, 9. Broiler production
accounted for 82 percent of the total value of production.
3

11.
poultry meat is generally not subject to the same types of dietary rules that prohibit pork
and beef consumption by members of certain religious groups.
Broiler meat is commonly processed and sold as fresh, chilled, or frozen in a variety of
forms, including whole chickens, breast meat, chicken leg quarters, and wings. Turkey
meat is also normally processed and sold fresh, chilled, or frozen, primarily as whole
dressed birds. Poultry meat may also be further processed into a number of items,
including ready-to-cook products such as microwaveable meals, deli meats, and sausages.
Poultry meat products are widely sold through domestic retail and food service outlets.
U.S. Industry and the Global Market
The United States is considered to be among the most efficient poultry producers in the
world in large part due to its industry structure, which has been largely unchanged for the
past few decades (figure 1). Specifically, breeders provide hatching eggs to vertically
integrated poultry producers, known as “integrators.” Producers primarily contract out the
services of raising live birds to independent “grow-out” farmers. Upon reaching the
desired weight, live birds are returned to integrators, who slaughter and process them into
whole dressed birds or cuts. Poultry meat may be further processed by the integrators, or
by independent further processors who purchase uncooked meat as an input. Finished
meat products are primarily sold within the domestic market, but are also exported.
Source: Compiled by USITC staff.
U.S. Poultry Industry
Principal
inputs
• Feed
• Hatching eggs
• Live poultry
• Poultry
carcasses
Types of
producers
• Breeders
• Contract
growers
• Integrated
processors
• Further
processors
Principal
finished
products
• Live poultry
• Whole, dressed
poultry
• Poultry cuts
• Further-
processed
poultry
Principal
markets
• Further
processors
• Domestic retail
• Restaurants and
food service
• Export
FIGURE 1 The U.S. poultry industry includes multiple types of producers, principal inputs, finished products, and
markets
4

12.
During 2006–12, the United States produced an average 25.6 million metric tons (mt) of
broilers and turkey per year.4
After rising through 2008, production fell in 2009 in
response to the 2008–09 economic recession and the corresponding decline in poultry
meat demand. U.S. poultry production is highly concentrated. On average during 2006–
12, the top three U.S. broiler integrators accounted for 49 percent of the nation’s chicken
production; in the turkey industry, the top three turkey producers accounted for over
50 percent. 5
Additionally, production is geographically concentrated in a few states.
Georgia, Arkansas, Alabama, North Carolina, and Mississippi were the largest broiler-
producing states, with 59 percent of the U.S. production during 2006–12. In this same
period, Minnesota and North Carolina were the largest turkey-producing states, with
31 percent of U.S. production. Of total U.S. poultry production, about 83 percent was
consumed domestically in 2006–12.
Between 2006 and 2012, global chicken and turkey meat production increased from
70.5 million mt to 88.3 million mt, or by about 25 percent (appendix A table A.1). The
United States is the largest poultry producer in the world, accounting for almost
one-quarter of global production in 2006–12. Brazil and China each accounted for
approximately 15 percent of global production, and the European Union (EU) 6
for
13 percent. In 2006–12, Brazil recorded the highest overall period growth rate
(36 percent) among the top four producers. China also had a high growth rate (32 percent
between 2006 and 2012) attributable to continuing modernization and expansion of its
domestic production capabilities.
Over this same seven-year period, global poultry meat consumption increased from
70.3 million mt to 86.4 million mt, or by about 23 percent (appendix A table A.2). The
United States, followed by China, the EU, and Brazil are also the largest poultry
consumers, together accounting for about 60 percent of the global total on average during
2006–12.7
During that period, consumption increased more quickly on average annually,
in the developing markets of China (5 percent) and Brazil (5 percent) than in the mature
markets of the EU (2 percent)8
and the United States (zero average annual growth). A
major reason cited for increased consumption in China and Brazil is rising per capita
incomes.9
Global poultry meat exports increased by 52 percent from 7.1 million mt in 2006 to
10.8 million mt in 2012 (appendix A table A.3). Generally, the world’s largest producers
are also the major exporters. The United States has long been a major exporter of poultry
meat. Brazil became an increasingly significant poultry producer especially in the past
decade, and for most of 2006–12 was the largest exporter in the world. Brazil and the
United States together accounted for almost three-quarters of global exports annually in
2006–12. Brazilian exports increased by 38 percent and U.S. exports by 39 percent
between 2006 and 2012. Other important exporters were the EU, Thailand, and China,
4
USDA, NASS, Poultry: Production and Value, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012 summaries.
5
Based on surveyed production. See Number and Concentration of Firms.
6
The (27) EU member states covered in this report are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom. However, PSD Online data for 2006–12 include Croatia, which became an EU member
state in 2013.
7
Respectively, the United States, China, the EU, and Brazil accounted for 20 percent, 15 percent,
13 percent, and 11 percent of global consumption.
8
The EU average growth is based on 2007–12 data. See Foreign Industry Profiles, EU.
9
USDA, FAS, Brazil: Poultry Annual 2011, September 2, 2011, 1, 3; USDA, FAS, Brazil: Poultry;
Semi-annual, February 3, 2011, 2; USDA, ERS, USDA Agricultural Projections to 2020, February
2011, 13, 18; USITC, China’s Agricultural Trade, March 2011, 3-1 to 3-13.
5

13.
which together accounted for 19 percent of global poultry exports during 2006–12. In that
period, Thailand recorded the highest export growth rate (106 percent) of any of the top
five exporters, exporting mostly cooked poultry product. However, Thailand is the only
major exporter that is not among the leading global producing countries.
Global imports increased by 32 percent, from 6.8 million mt in 2006 to 9.0 million mt in
2012.10
Imports have been less highly concentrated than exports; in fact, they became less
concentrated among top importers during the period. The top five importers––the EU,
Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and Russia––accounted for 55 percent of worldwide
imports in 2006, but only 43 percent in 2012.11
This decline was largely because of fewer
imports by Russia, which reduced its imports by 55 percent between 2006 and 2012 in an
effort to become more self-sufficient in poultry meat production.
Industry Issues
The U.S. poultry industry faced several issues during 2006–12 that affected its ability to
remain competitive in the global market. Among the most prominent ones were rising
feed costs, which lowered industry profitability, and foreign trade barriers that reduced
U.S. exports, especially to Russia and China.
Feed for live birds is the costliest input into poultry meat production, accounting for 65–
75 percent of production costs.12
The two major components are corn and soybeans,
whose prices reached historically high levels during crop years (CY) 2005/06–2010/11
and continued to rise in CY 2011/12.13
Prices were impacted by several long- and short-
term factors affecting both supply and demand. Globally available supplies fell primarily
because of drought and export controls, while at the same time global demand rose in
response to growing populations, rising personal incomes, and expanding biofuel
production.14
As a result of high feed costs and reduced domestic customer demand, the
U.S. poultry industry was less profitable during much of 2006–12. In response,
integrators tried to increase efficiency by closing underperforming facilities and reducing
production to help increase prices. However, some poultry companies also went out of
business during this period.15
Although the United States remains highly competitive on global markets, U.S. poultry
meat exports to several key foreign markets were disrupted, particularly by trade
measures enacted by Russia and China––especially in 2010. China imposed antidumping
10
USDA, FAS, PSD Online (accessed August 20, 2013); (Appendix A table A.4).
11
The top five importers for most, although not all, of 2006–12 were EU, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia,
and Russia.
12
For further information, see the Factors Affecting Production section below.
13
USDA, ERS, Feed Grains Yearbook Tables, table 19 (accessed August 28, 2012); USDA, ERS, Oil
Crops Yearbook, table 3 (accessed August 28, 2012).
14
Trostle et al., Why Have Food Commodity Prices Risen Again? June 2011; USITC, Shifts in U.S.
Merchandise Trade 2008, July 2009, AG-7 and AG-13; Trostle, Global Agricultural Supply and Demand,
July 2008, 16 and 20–21; ADB, Soaring Food Prices, May 2008; USDA, ERS, Oil Crops Outlook, June 10,
2011, 1–3; Thornton, “Grain Prices and Poultry Demand,” April 2013, 16–24.
15
O’Keefe, “Coping With High Feed Prices,” June 2008, 18–20; O’Keefe, “No Growth in RTC
Production in 2008,” February 2009, 18–25; O’Keefe, “Can Cutbacks Lead to Quick Turnaround?”
February 2009, 44–46; USDA, ERS, Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, March 28, 2009, 2; USDA, ERS,
Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, December 17, 2009, 13; Thornton, “Tyson Foods Focuses on Chicken
Pricing,” August 11, 2011; Thornton, “Grain Prices and Poultry Demand,” April 2013, 16–17.
6

14.
and countervailing duties (AD/CVD or AD/CV duties) on certain U.S. poultry products
(in a manner that the World Trade Organization (WTO) determined, in August 2013,
violated numerous obligations under the WTO Antidumping Agreement and Subsidies
Agreement).16
Russia banned imports of poultry treated with chlorinated rinse, a common
pathogen reduction treatment (PRT) in the United States.17
U.S. poultry meat exports to
China and Russia fell from their peak of 1.6 million mt in 2008 to a low of 0.35 million
mt in 2011, a decline of about 79 percent. While China and Russia were the two largest
buyers of U.S. poultry meat between 2006 and 2009, on average receiving about 34
percent of exports yearly by value, only about 11 percent of U.S. poultry meat exports
went to Russia and China in 2011–12. 18
U.S. Industry
Industry Structure
Number and Concentration of Firms
A key factor that enhanced the global competitiveness of the U.S. broiler and turkey
industries is consolidation over time, leading to fewer, larger, and more efficient
production and processing facilities. Overall, the number of poultry farms that reported
sales of live birds declined slightly between 2002 and 2007 driven by fewer broiler and
turkey farms (table 1).19
The largest decline (15 percent) was in broiler and other meat-
type chicken farms.20
This reflects the long-term trend towards fewer and larger grow-out
farms, which raise increased numbers of birds to capture economies of scale. However,
farms producing chickens for egg production (“layers and pullets”) and other poultry
(ducks, geese, etc.) grew 9 percent and 11 percent, respectively.
16
China applied antidumping duties rates ranging between 50.3 to 105.4 percent ad valorem and
countervailing duties rates ranging from 5.4 and 30.3 percent ad valorem on U.S. poultry. USDA, FAS,
China: Poultry and Products; Annual, 2010, September 30, 2010, 4. USTR, “United States Wins Trade
Enforcement Case for American Farmers, Proves Export-Blocking Chinese Duties Unjustified Under WTO
Rules,” Press release Aug. 2013.
17
Johnson and Becker, U.S.-Russia Meat and Poultry Trade Issues, April 2, 2010, 9; Bottemiller,
“Russia Agrees to Lift Ban,” June 25, 2010; USDA, FAS, Russian Federation: Russia Resumes Imports,
September 21, 2010. For further information see the U.S. Exports sections on China and Russia, below.
18
USITC, DataWeb (accessed August 26, 2013).
19
Most recent data available.
20
Other meat-type chickens include spent layers––birds which are bred to produce eggs, and which
when no longer able to do so, are ready for slaughter.
TABLE 1 U.S. poultry farms: Number reporting sales of live poultry, by type, 2002 and 2007
Type 2002 2007 Percent change
Layers and pullets 26,814 29,140 9
Broiler and other meat-type chickens 32,006 27,091 (15)
Turkeys 8,436 8,284 (2)
Ducks, geese, and other poultry 19,732 21,857 11
Total 86,988 86,372 (1)
Source: USDA, 2007 Census of Agriculture, February 4, 2009, table 27.
Note: Parentheses indicate negative numbers.
7

15.
The U.S. poultry industry went through significant and rapid concentration after World
War II. However, in the past few decades, the pace of concentration has slowed
considerably, and during 2006–12, the industry actually became slightly less
concentrated. More specifically, between 2006 and 2012, the share of production of the
top three U.S. broiler companies fell 10 percent (although it hit its low in 2010), while the
share of the top 10 companies remained the same at about 77 percent (table 2). The
largest drop in industry concentration occurred between 2008 and 2009, primarily
because of a 12 percent decline in production by Pilgrim’s Pride Corp., coupled by more
modest production declines at other large firms such as Perdue Farms Inc. (2 percent) and
Tyson’s Foods Inc. (Tyson’s) (1 percent).21
The declines in production at these firms
reportedly are attributable to the 2008–09 economic recession, which weakened demand.
Nonetheless, during 2006–10, there was some consolidation in the poultry industry,
including the Pilgrim’s Pride purchase of Gold Kist Inc.; 22
Pilgrim’s Pride’s sale of its
turkey operations to other turkey producers;23
and the Simmons Food Inc. purchase of the
broiler operations of Peterson Farms Inc.24
In 2011, the concentration of the broiler
industry production among the largest firms began increasing, due in part to higher year-
on-year production for all but two of the ten-largest firms, and continued rising in 2012.25
The top three turkey integrators’ share of U.S. production fell slightly (5 percent) during
2006–12 (table 2). However, the concentration of the top ten firms rose slightly
(3 percent).
TABLE 2 Poultry: Share of U.S. production accounted for by the top 3, 5, and 10 firms, 2006–12 (percent)
Sectors 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Broilers:
a
Top 3 firms 53.1 50.9 49.3 46.5 45.7 46.6 47.6
Top 5 firms 62.6 60.9 60.5 57.5 57.0 58.7 60.7
Top 10 firms 76.6 75.8 75.7 74.8 74.5 76.7 78.8
Turkeys:
b
Top 3 firms 52.0 50.7 50.5 53.1 51.2 50.2 49.5
Top 5 firms 58.8 58.1 58.1 60.9 61.0 59.7 59.5
Top 10 firms 75.2 75.0 74.7 78.9 78.9 77.6 77.5
Source: Thornton, “Broiler Companies; Top 10 Pulls Away from Pack,” February 2007, 21; Thornton, “Cutbacks,
Expansions,” February 2008, 26; O’Keefe, “No Growth in RTC production in 2008,” February 2009, table 1;
Thornton, “Shakeup at the Top,” February 2010, 16; Thornton, “U.S. Chicken Producers,” February 2011, 12;
Thornton, “Tough Economics ” March 2012, 13; Thornton, “Mid-Size US Turkey Producers,” March 2012; Thornton,
“US Chicken Companies Enter 2013 with Production Increases?,” March 2013, 13; Thornton, “Turkey Companies
Plot Production Growth for 2013,” March 2013, 44.
a
Based on ready-to-cook weight from surveys of 35 to 42 firms, depending on the year.
b
Based on live weight pounds of processed turkeys from surveys of 23 to 26 firms, depending on the year.
Employment, Earnings, and Productivity
Even though poultry production increased in 2006–11, employment remained relatively
stable at about 239,000 workers from 2006 to 2008 (table 3). However, the number of
21
Thornton, “Shakeup at the Top,” February 2010. Pilgrim’s Pride’s sharper decline is likely due to
issues resulting from its filing for bankruptcy.
22
Thornton, “Broiler Companies Top 10 Pulls Away from Pack in 2006,” February 2007, 20; Pilgrim’s
Pride, “Pilgrim's Pride Completes Acquisition of Gold Kist,” January 9, 2007. Both companies were among
the three largest producers before the acquisition.
23
Pilgrim’s Pride kept its broiler operations.
24
O’Keefe, “Top Broiler Companies: No Growth,” February 2009, 18–25.
25
Thornton, “Tough Economics,” March 2012, 13; Thornton, “US Chicken Companies Enter 2013
with Production Increases?,” March 2013, 13.
8

16.
TABLE 3 U.S. poultry-processing industry: Employment and earnings, 2006–11
Item 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Thousand workers
Employment:
Production workers 212.7 212.5 211.4 204.8 201.5 200.5
Other workers 26.9 26.4 27.4 26.1 25.1 24.2
Total workers 239.6 238.9 238.8 230.9 226.6 224.7
Dollars per period
Average hourly earnings 10.80 10.91 11.37 11.31 11.29 11.64
Average weekly earnings 415.55 433.23 446.88 432.43 442.62 455.77
Source: AMI, Meat and Poultry Facts 2012, April 2012, 22.
employees fell to 230,900 in 2009 and 224,700 in 2011. Poultry plants generally hire two
categories of workers: (1) production-line workers, who perform relatively low-skill
tasks, such as cutting and packaging, and are paid relatively low wages, and (2) highly
skilled staff who serve in management, technical, and scientific capacities. Production-
line workers accounted for about 200,500, or 89 percent, of all poultry workers in 2011.
Most of these employees work in processing chicken. The turkey industry directly
employs between 20,000 and 25,000 workers, excluding contract growers.26
The poultry industry pays lower wages on average than other food processing or
manufacturing industries. This is largely because most poultry-processing plants are
located in more rural, less unionized parts of the country, such as the southeast.27
In 2011,
the average hourly wage for poultry processing was $11.64, compared to $14.70 for other
meat processing and $14.63 for all food processing.28
On average, the weekly earnings of
poultry-processing workers were $456 in 2011, much lower than the $629 earned by
other meat processing workers and the $785 earned by manufacturing workers.
From the mid-1940s until the early-1990s, productivity in the poultry industry grew
rapidly, as measured by factors such as efficiency of feed conversion (i.e., the number of
pounds of feed to produce a pound of meat), days of feeding to reach market weight
(market age), average market weight, and mortality rate (table 4). A number of advances
contributed to these gains, including better veterinary medicine to control and eradicate
diseases, enhanced genetics and breeding, improved feed compositions, and better
housing systems at grow-out facilities.29
Further, consolidation during the 1950s and
1960s facilitated the industry’s establishment of the current integrator system, including
the basic automated slaughtering process,30
which enabled the industry to achieve greater
economies of scale. Over the past decade, improvements in most productivity measures
slowed as technical advances yielded diminishing marginal returns. For example, the
chicken feed conversion ratio improved on average by 15 percent per decade during
1940–80, and by 2 percent per decade between 1980 and 2010.
26
National Turkey Federation, “Turkey Industry Structure,” accessed August 13, 2013.
http://www.eatturkey.com/consumer/history.
27
DOL, Union Members Summary, January 21, 2011.
28
AMI, Meat and Poultry Facts 2012, April 2012, 26.
29
See, e.g., Knoeber, “A Real Game of Chicken,” autumn 1989; Havenstein, Ferket, and Qureshi,
“Growth, Livability, and Feed Conversion,” October 1, 2003.
30
Ollinger, MacDonald, and Madison, Structural Change in U.S. Chicken and Turkey Slaughter,
September 2000, 1, 7.
9

17.
TABLE 4 Broilers: Performance indicators for the U.S. industry, 1940–2010
Indicator Unit 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Average market age (days) 85 70 63 56 53 48 47 47
Average market weight (pounds, live
weight)
2.89 3.08 3.35 3.62 3.93 4.37 5.03 5.70
Conversion rate (pounds of feed
per pound of
live weight)
4.00 3.00 2.50 2.25 2.05 2.00 1.95 1.92
Mortality rate (percent) 12 8 6 5 5 5 5 4
Source: NCC, “U.S. Broiler Performance,” February 7, 2011.
Vertical and Horizontal Integration
For the past few decades the broiler and turkey industries have been highly vertically
integrated,31
with about 90 percent of turkeys and broilers being produced in the United
States by vertically integrated companies.32
These integrators usually own hatcheries,
feed mills, and slaughter and processing plants.33
The only part of the production process
not normally handled by integrators is raising birds from chick to the chosen market
weight, a task primarily performed by farmers who have contracts with integrators.34
Vertical integration allows poultry processors to maintain a high level of control over
their product, thereby enabling them to produce meat that has a standardized taste and
quality, and to maintain a steady and controllable supply of birds for processing. Dealing
with large numbers of birds also enables the U.S. poultry industry to take advantage of
economies of scale, making it one of the most efficient in the world.
Many poultry companies concentrate on poultry products only. However, some
companies have horizontally integrated with other agricultural industries, especially meat
packing. For example, Tyson’s, Kraft Foods Inc., and Cargill Inc. all produce a variety of
agricultural products in addition to poultry. Moreover, some poultry companies are
subsidiaries of other food companies. For example, Carroll’s Turkeys LLC, a smaller
turkey company, is owned by Smithfield Foods Inc., a major pork-producing company.
Extent of Globalization of the Industry
The poultry breeder sector includes a number of major global companies. One of the
world’s major breeding companies is Aviagen Group Ltd., owned by a German company
that has a presence in several countries, including, in the United States, as Aviagen
Turkeys, Inc. (formerly Nicholas Turkey Breeding Farms) and as Aviagen Group (for
broiler chicks), which was originally established as Ross Breeders USA.35
Another major
U.S. breeding company, Cobb-Vantress Inc., has a worldwide network of distributors,
many of which are subsidiaries or joint ventures.36
Overall, the U.S. poultry industry is not highly globalized at the integrator level. Most
companies are U.S. owned and operated. However, there are some notable exceptions,
31
A company is considered “vertically integrated” when it is involved in multiple aspects of an item’s
production, including raw material, manufacture, and distribution.
32
Martinez, Vertical Coordination of Marketing Systems, May 2002, 3.
33
MacDonald, The Economic Organization of U.S. Broiler Production, June 2008, 3.
34
For further information, see the Production Process section below.
35
Aviagen Group, “en.aviagen.com/” (accessed September 3, 2013); Aviagen Turkeys,
http://www.aviagenturkeys.com/us/products/nicholas.aspx (accessed September 5, 2013)
36
Cobb-Vantress “Our History,” http://www.cobb-vantress.com/about-cobb/our-history, (accessed
September 3, 2013).
10

18.
especially among the largest U.S. broiler producers. For instance, Tyson’s, one of the
largest broiler integrators in the United States, owns companies—either directly or
through joint ventures—in many other countries, including Brazil, China, India, and
Mexico. A majority share of U.S. broiler company Pilgrim’s Pride was purchased by JBS
S.A., a Brazilian meat company, in 2009.37
Cargill VAM, a U.S. company that grows and
produces turkey, is a subsidiary of privately owned Cargill Inc., a large agricultural
company with poultry facilities in the Brazil, Canada, France, Honduras, Ireland, the
Netherlands, Nicaragua, Thailand, and the United Kingdom. 38
Some nonagricultural
businesses have also become involved in overseas poultry markets. For example,
Goldman Sachs—which is primarily a financial services firm—invested in 10 Chinese
poultry farms in 2008.39
Production Process and Market Channels
Poultry production and marketing in the United States is considered among the most
efficient in the world. Conventional U.S. poultry production occurs in six general stages
(figure 2), which are similar for both broilers and turkeys. The primary/controlling
entities in the production process are the integrators. The major difference between
broiler and turkey integrators is that very few broiler integrators own grow-out
operations, while a number of turkey integrators raise poults (young turkeys) in-house.40
Some integrators may have ownership in other related business (e.g., breeding
companies, farms, and rendering plants).
Production Process41
Primary breeding companies maintain numerous types of birds which are crossbred to
create breeder chicks. 42
These chicks are selected for such traits as efficient feed
conversion and the potential to produce large amounts of breast meat. Breeder farms raise
breeder chicks to sexual maturity. Once the breeder chicks become adults they are used to
produce fertilized eggs, which are sold primarily to integrators. At the hatcheries,
fertilized eggs are received from the breeder farm and placed in incubators.
37
Pilgrims, “The Pilgrim’s Story” (accessed June 22, 2011).
38
Cargill.com, Web site, Our Businesses, http://www.cargill.com/company/businesses/index.jsp
(accessed June 22, 2011).
39
The Poultry Site.com, “Goldman Sachs Buys Chinese Poultry Farmers,” August 22, 2008.
40
While the majority of poults were raised at independent farms, approximately two-fifths of turkey
integrators owned grow-out facilities.
41
NCC, “The Chicken Industry” (accessed February 1, 2010); NCC, “About the Industry” (accessed
February 1, 2010); Plant Tour, USITC staff, April 21, 2009; USDA, APHIS, “Poultry & Eggs” (accessed
September 15, 2009); USITC, Poultry: Industry and Trade Summary, December 1998, figure 1; National
Turkey Federation, “Raising Turkeys,” 2009.
42
In this section, the term “chicks” refers to poults (baby turkeys) as well as baby chickens.
11

19.
The incubation period is 21 days for chickens and 28 days for turkeys. The eggs are
periodically rotated, usually mechanically, during the incubation period to keep the
embryo from sticking to the shell. To hatch, the eggs are placed in special hatching trays.
At the hatcheries, the chicks are vaccinated against certain diseases; some vaccines are
administered even while the chick is still inside the shell. At the hatcheries, eggs are
sorted into batches for the grow-out barns. For broiler meat production, chicks of both
sexes are typically used. By contrast, chicks are separated by sex if they are going to be
Breeder chicks
Fertilized eggs
Chicks
Feed
Live birds
Poultry meat
Scrap
Human inedible parts
Export
Domestic
retail
ProductionProcess
Standardintegrators
(5)
Grow-out
farms
(1) Primary breeding companies
(2) Breeder farms
(3) Hatcheries
Foodservice/
government/ etc.
(6.b.) Further processing plants
(4) Feed mills
(6.a.) Processing plants
Pet food/
Rendering
Finished poultry meat products
MarketChannels
FIGURE 2 The convinetianal U.S. poultry industry has multiple stages ofproduction and marketchannels
Sources: NCC, "The Chicken Industry" (accessed February 1, 2010); NCC "About the Industry": 2002–07 (accessed
February1, 2010); USDA, APHIS, "Poultry & Eggs" (accessed September 15, 2009); USITC , Poultry: Industryand Trade
Summary, December 1998, figure 1.
FIGURE 2 The conventional U.S. poultry industry has multiple stages of production and market channels
,
12

20.
grown into specialized products such as Cornish hens (females only) or roasters (males
only).43
Feed is a very important part of poultry production process, for it influences the speed
and efficiency chicks reach market weight. Feed mills are usually owned by integrators in
order to control the feed given to their birds. Feed is developed by poultry nutritionists
and its exact composition changes at each stage of development in the grow-out period.
Poultry feed primarily consists of corn and soybean meal along with added vitamins and
minerals.44
At grow-out farms, birds are raised from chicks to the desired market weight. A grow-out
house (a type of specialized barn) is generally owned by an independent farmer who has
a contract with an integrator. About 99 percent of broilers are raised by contractors.45
A
large number of turkeys are also raised by contract farmers, although a substantial
minority is still raised in-house by the integrator. Currently, about 80 percent of turkeys
are raised under contract, a marked increase from the approximately 56 percent raised
under contract in 2002.46
Most farmers and integrators have long-term relationships,
largely because the grow-out houses are expensive to build and difficult to convert to
other uses, and many years of use are required to recoup the initial investment. Contract
farmers do not normally own the birds. Rather, birds are almost always owned by the
integrator, who pays the contractor to raise or “grow them out.” As of 2006, there were
70,000 broiler houses in the United States. Most contract farmers (70 percent) own one to
four houses. The size of these houses has increased over time, from an average of
12,750 square feet in the 1960s to an average of about 20,000 square feet in the mid-
2000s.47
While contract terms may vary, integrators normally provide veterinary services and feed
to the farmer. Farmers provide water, litter, electricity, and labor.48
Farmers are usually
paid a set amount, with bonuses for good performance (compared to other contractors).
Once the birds reach the intended market weight they are collected and transported to the
processing plant by the integrator.
At the processing plants, the birds are slaughtered and have their feathers, heads, and feet
removed—chicken feet are often cut into “paws” and frequently collected for export
sales.49
The carcasses are inspected in accordance with state or federal regulations.50
Sanitary measures, such as a chlorine rinse, are used to reduce pathogens in the raw meat.
Once they pass inspection, carcasses are selected to be sold either whole or cut into
pieces. Whole birds are sent to be packaged, while the other carcasses go through various
processing lines where they are cut up. This process may also include mechanically
deboning parts of the carcass.51
Cuts include breasts, wings, thighs, legs, and leg quarters.
43
A chick’s sex is determined by examining its wing feathers since female and male chicks have
different length wing feathers.
44
By weight, broiler feed is about 70 percent corn and 25 percent soy. Industry official, telephone
interview by USITC staff, June 27, 2011.
45
MacDonald, The Economic Organization of U.S. Broiler Production, June 2008, 7.
46
Industry official, telephone interview with USITC staff, July 5, 2011; Martinez, Vertical
Coordination of Marketing Systems, May 2002, 3.
47
MacDonald, The Economic Organization of U.S. Broiler Production, June 2008, 11.
48
At integrator-owned farms, all facilities and inputs are owned/purchased by the company.
49
Chicken feet and paws are very similar products, differing only in the amount of leg that is attached
to the foot. Chicken paws and feet are popular in China and Hong Kong.
50
For further information, see the Factors Affecting Production section below.
51
Mechanically deboned poultry meat can be used in items like sausages.
13

21.
After being cut up, the meat may be packaged for sale. Some integrators only process
birds to this stage. In the case of broilers, just over one-half of the meat is sold either
whole or cut up, with the remainder sold for further processing.52
About 25 percent of
turkeys are sold whole, while the rest is sold cut up or further processed.53
Further processing plants undertake several activities, including cooking, breading,
marinating, and preparing meat into sausages or nuggets, as well as incorporating poultry
meat into products such as microwaveable meals and pot pies. Ground turkey and cooked
turkey breast for deli meat are also very popular items with U.S. consumers.54
In some
cases, integrators own further processing facilities, either integrated with their slaughter
plants or as separate facilities. However, poultry meat (either whole or cut) is also
commonly sold to independent further processing facilities.
Market Channels
There are four primary distribution channels for poultry. Three are for finished poultry
meat products: exports; food service, government, etc.; and domestic retail. The fourth
channel—pet food/rendering55
—is for scraps and parts that are otherwise inedible by
humans. Export sales are handled either directly by an integrator or a further processor, or
indirectly through a broker, distributors, or trading company. In the United States,
domestic sales are made either directly by integrators or further processors, or indirectly
by distributors (who buy product from integrators or further processors). In 2007, the
biggest market channel was domestic retail, mainly grocery stores (figures 3 and 4).
However, the share of broiler meat exported grew from 15 percent of production in 2006
to 19 percent in 2008, when it stabilized.56
U.S. Production and Consumption Trends
Production Trends
National Production
In 2012, about 9.2 billion live broiler chicks and poults were hatched for meat production
in U.S. commercial poultry meat operations (table 5). This number represents a decline
from 2006 levels and is the lowest level of the seven-year period 2006–12. Hatched
broiler chicks and poults fell steadily from their peak numbers in 2007 reflecting lower
meat consumption in response to the economic recession starting in 2008.
52
An estimated 55 percent was sold whole or as cuts in 2010. NCC, “How Broilers Are Marketed,”
(accessed February 7, 2011).
53
National Turkey Federation, “Turkey Industry Structure” (accessed April 26, 2011).
54
Ibid.
55
Rendering is a process whereby animal by-products and dead animals are converted into ingredients
for a wide range of goods such as animal feed, pharmaceuticals, and soaps. Becker, Animal Rendering,
March 17, 2004.
56
USDA, FAS, PSD Online (accessed August 20, 2013). The share of turkey that is exported was
relatively stable at about 10 percent of production during 2006–10, then grew to about 12 percent during
2011–12.
14

23.
TABLE 5 Poultry: U.S. production of live broilers and turkeys, 2006–12 (million birds)
Items 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Chicken: broiler chicks hatched 9,414 9,590 9,468 9,147 9,276 9,055 8,931
Turkey: poults 297 308 296 274 275 285 288
Total 9,711 9,898 9,764 9,421 9,551 9,340 9,219
Source: USDA, ERS, data, August 2012; USDA, NASS, Hatchery Production: 2012 Summary, April 2013, 5-7 and
36.
During 2006–12, annual poultry meat production (from broilers and turkeys) was
relatively stable, ranging between a high of 58.4 billion pounds (in 2008) and a low of
54.9 billion pounds (in 2009) (table 6). Production in this period fluctuated from year to
year, growing by as much as 3 percent (in 2008) and contracting by as much as 6 percent
(in 2009). Chicken and turkey meat production rose between 2006 and 2008, fueled by
both growth in consumer demand for poultry meat (a long-term trend), as well as by high
poultry meat prices in 2007 and 2008. Subsequently, production fell in 2009 due to
efforts by some individual integrators to reduce supply and thus bolster falling prices in
response to the poor economic conditions during 2008–09.57
State Production
U.S. poultry meat production is largely concentrated in the southeastern and mid-Atlantic
states (table 6). The states with the highest poultry meat production tend to be those with
the highest live-bird production, as grow-out farms tend to be clustered around
integrators’ hatcheries.
The majority of U.S. broiler production is concentrated in a small number of states.58
During 2006–12, the top five states (Georgia, followed by Arkansas, Alabama, North
Carolina, and Mississippi) accounted for 59 percent, on average, of U.S. broiler meat
production.59
Overall growth rates were mixed for this period, with higher production in
Georgia (8 percent) and North Carolina (11 percent), and reduced production in Arkansas
(8 percent) and Mississippi (3 percent). Production during the period peaked in 2008 and,
as a result of the global economic recession, all of the top five producing states
experienced declines between 2008 and 2009.
Likewise, most U.S. turkey production is also concentrated in a small number of states.60
During 2006–12, the top two states (Minnesota and North Carolina) accounted for
approximately one-third of total U.S. turkey meat production, and the top five states
accounted for about 54 percent of production.61
Between 2006 and 2012, Minnesota’s
production fell by 4 percent, while North Carolina’s production rose by 5 percent.
57
See, for example, USDA, ERS, Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, issues from January 2007 to
December 2009); USDA, ERS, Meat Price Spreads, Retail Prices (accessed April 21, 2012; April 25, 2011;
June 14, 2012); USDA, NASS, Agricultural Prices, (monthly February 2006—March 2012).
58
In choosing where to establish broiler production, integrators seek areas with available labor, low
wage rates, low-cost grains, geographically concentrated grow-out farmers (to raise the birds), lower
transport costs (i.e., lower rail rates and fuel costs), and a favorable community attitude towards the industry.
Harrison and Sambidi, “A Conjoint Analysis,” December 2004; Ollinger, MacDonald, and Madison,
Structural Change in U.S. Chicken And Turkey Slaughter, September 2000; Sambidi and Harrision, “Special
Dependency,” July 24–25, 2005.
59
The top two states, Georgia and Arkansas, accounted for over one-quarter of broiler production.
60
One-seventh as much turkey meat as chicken meat was produced annually in 2006–12 (table 6).
61
The top five producers are North Carolina, Minnesota, Indiana, Arkansas, and Missouri.
16

25.
of time. A reduction in the supply of birds from their 2007 peak was a response to the
economic recession. During 2006−12, feed was the most volatile input in terms of cost,
reflecting high global prices for its constituent ingredients.
Costs
Feed, which is primarily made from corn and soybean meal, is by far the biggest expense,
accounting for about 65–75 percent of all poultry meat production costs.63
Hence, feed
costs are driven by the prices of corn and soybeans, which are affected, in turn, by factors
such as weather, fuel and energy prices, demand levels, and government policies. Corn
and soybean prices were particularly volatile during 2006–11. Between CY 2005/06 and
2007/08, corn and soybean prices soared to record highs (figure 5). After prices declined
in CY 2008/09 and 2009/10, due to higher production and the worldwide economic
recession, they rose to new record highs in CY 2011/12.64
High corn and soybean prices are attributable to long-term trends that began in 2002 and
shorter-term phenomena that caused price spikes in certain years after 2006. Factors
contributing to higher prices since 2002 included65
(1) growth in both world population
63
The Poultry Site.com, “High Feed Prices,” January 2009; The Poultry Site.com, “Formulating Feed
for Broiler Performance,” August 2005; The Poultry Site.com, “What Does 2009 Hold for Feed Prices?”
December 5, 2006.
64
Trostle et al., Why Have Food Commodity Prices Risen Again? June 2011, 9; USITC, Shifts in U.S.
Merchandise Trade 2008, July 2009 AG-13; USDA, ERS, Feed Yearbook, table 12 (accessed April 28,
2011); USDA, ERS, Oil Crops Yearbook, table 4 (accessed April 28, 2011).
65
Trostle et al., Why Have Food Commodity Prices Risen Again? June 2011; USITC, Shifts in U.S.
Merchandise Trade 2008, July 2009, AG-7, AG-13; Trostle, Global Agricultural Supply and Demand,
July 2008, 16; ADB, Soaring Food Prices, May 2008.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12
Dollarsperbushel
Corn Soybeans
FIGURE 5 Soybean and corn price rose to record highs multiple times between 2006/07 and 2011/12
Source: USDA, ERS, Feed Grains Yearbook, table 12 (accessed July 13, 2011); USDA, ERS, Oil Crops Yearbook,
table 3 (accessed July 14, 2011).
Notes: “Year” is calendar year for soybeans and crop year (September to August) for corn.
18

26.
and per capita incomes, which increased demand;66
(2) expanding biofuel production and
subsequent diversion of corn to its production, which further increased demand; 67
(3) depreciation of the U.S. dollar, which increased global demand for dollar-
denominated products, including U.S. corn and soybeans; (4) rising worldwide energy
prices, which drove up the cost of energy-intensive crop production inputs, especially
fertilizer; and (5) declining growth rates of agricultural productivity. Between 2006 and
2011, short-term factors contributing to increased prices included68
(1) adverse weather,
primarily droughts, in major grain- and oilseed-producing countries, including Australia,
Russia, Ukraine, and the United States, which reduced world supply; (2) export controls
established by some national governments to combat domestic food price inflation, which
further reduced international market supply;69
(3) purchases to replenish depleted public
stockpiles, which increased demand; and (4) government-set price controls in certain
countries, which further increased demand for artificially cheap commodities.
Largely as a result of higher feed costs and lower domestic consumption,70
poultry meat
producers faced lower profit levels in 2008–10. 71
Some integrators responded by
reducing production, closing and consolidating inefficient facilities in an effort to
improve productivity, and even going out of business. 72
According to an industry
representative, rising feed prices in 2010 and 2011 meant that some broiler integrators
were not able to sell meat at prices that covered their costs of production. In 2011, the
U.S. government responded by purchasing $40 million of chicken meat to support the
industry.73
U.S. Government Policy and Programs
Poultry meat production is governed by federal laws and regulations to ensure food
safety.74
Primary among them is the Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA), which gives
the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) Food Safety and Inspection Service
(FSIS) the authority to inspect and monitor poultry products sold between states and
abroad.75
For federally inspected plants, the PPIA (1) requires both ante- and post-
mortem inspections for most aspects of poultry processing; and (2) mandates certain
sanitary practices, labeling requirements, and container standards. The PPIA also
establishes what safety, sanitary, or other conditions constitute violations of the act and
66
In particular, there is strong Chinese demand for soybeans (especially from the United States).
67
For example, there was increased use of corn for ethanol. The share of U.S. corn used for ethanol
rose from 10 to 24 percent between crop year 2002/03 and 2007/08. USITC, Shifts in U.S. Merchandise
Trade 2008, July 2009, AG-7, AG-13; Trostle, Global Agricultural Supply and Demand, July 2008, 16.
68
Trostle, Global Agricultural Supply and Demand, July 2008, 20–21; USDA, ERS, Oil Crops
Outlook, June 10, 2011, 1–3; Trostle et al., Why Have Food Commodity Prices Risen Again? June 2011.
69
For example, Argentina raised export prices on corn and soybeans, and China imposed an export tax
on grains. Trostle, Global Agricultural Supply and Demand, July 2008, 23–24.
70
Due to higher prices and the 2008–09 economic recession. For further detail see the “Consumption”
section below.
71
Thornton and O’Keefe, “When Will Profits Return?” October 2008, 20–21; Thornton, “U.S. Chicken
Producers Increased Volume in 2010,” February 2011, 10; Kavilans, “U.S. Places $40 million Chicken
Order,” August 16, 2011.
72
O’Keefe, “Coping with High Feed Prices,” June 2008, 18–20; O’Keefe, “No Growth in RTC
Production in 2008,” February 2009, 18–25; O’Keefe, “Can Cutbacks Lead to Quick Turnaround?” February
2009, 44–46; USDA, ERS, Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, March 28, 2009, 2; USDA, ERS,
Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, December 17, 2009, 13; Thornton, “Tyson Foods Focuses on Chicken
Pricing,” August 11, 2011; Johnston, “Butterball to Close Plant Due to High Input Costs,” September 15,
2011.
73
Kavilans, “U.S. Places $40 Million Chicken Order,” August 16, 2011.
74
Some plants are inspected under state laws. Only products from federally inspected plants can be
sold across state borders or internationally.
75
USDA, FSIS, “Federal Inspection Programs” (accessed April 28, 2011).
19

27.
penalties for such violations. All federally inspected plants have USDA inspectors on-site
to ensure compliance with federal laws. In addition to the PPIA, the FSIS requires that all
processing and slaughter plants develop and follow a plan to prevent food safety
hazards—a Pathogen Reduction and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points
(HACCP) systems plan—as required by the FSIS’s HACCP Rule.76
This plan should
enable plants to (1) identify biological and physical hazards; (2) find “critical control
points” in the production process; (3) monitor the control points to ensure they are
operating within predetermined limits; (4) correct deviations from those limits; and
(5) maintain thorough records of the plan.77
No federal inspection can commence unless a
plant has an HACCP plan in place.78
Research and Development
Research and development (R&D) can be broadly classified into three groups: (1) animal
genetics, health, and nutrition; (2) production and processing technology; and (3) product
development. R&D within the U.S. poultry industry makes a critical contribution to its
global competitiveness.
Animal genetics researchers work to improve the quality of birds. Genetics are extremely
important for producing a healthy, meaty bird that grows quickly (i.e., is efficient at
converting feed into meat). Research studies have shown that genetic selection was
responsible for 85–90 percent of the improved broiler growth rate over the past half
century, with feed improvements providing the remaining 10–15 percent of the gains.79
There is ongoing research into the control and prevention of diseases, particularly those
that affect live birds, including avian influenza (AI), spinal abscesses, clostridial
dermatitis, and foot pad conditions, as well as diseases that are harmful to consumers,
such as salmonellosis (the infection caused by salmonella). There is also continuous
R&D to improve the quality and efficiency of feed. This includes research into enzymes,
formulation, particle size, and differences in grain varieties.80
For example, during 2006–
10 researchers sought ways to formulate feed to enrich poultry meat with omega-3 fatty
acids.81
Production and processing technology R&D seek to improve efficiency at all stages of
the production process. Researchers continuously explore ways to improve the conditions
and cost effectiveness of grow-out houses. Efforts include improving ventilation, heating,
and cooling systems, as well as developing ways to use solar or wind power. Ongoing
studies seek to make processing machinery more efficient and to automate parts of
processes that are still done manually. For example, the Georgia Technology Research
Institute has worked on developing an efficient automated deboning machine. 82
76
USDA, FSIS, The Final Rule on HACCP Systems, July 1996.
77
Hulebak and Scholosser, “HACCP History and Conceptual Overview” (accessed January 12, 2011).
78
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 304.3(b) and (c).
79
Havenstein, Ferket, Qureshi, “Growth, Livability, and Feed Conversion of 1957 versus 2001,” 2003.
80
See, for example, Atlantic Poultry Research Institute, “Poultry Publications of Factsheets from
Current Research”; ThePoultrySite.com, “Study Shows Effects of Feed Particle Size on Laying Hens,”
July 2008; Watt Poultry USA, issues from 2006–12.
81
Omega-3 fatty acids are considered by many consumers to have health benefits due to scientific
research and corresponding positive press. This has started a trend where some producers are enriching foods,
including eggs and pasta, with omega-3. University of Guelph, “U of G Prof Working to ‘Hatch’ Omega-3
Chicken,” June 29, 2006; The Australian, “Fish Food the Key,” January 17, 2007; The PoultrySite.com,
“Algae May Boost Omega-3 in US Chicken,” January 23, 2009; Mayo Clinic, “Omega-3 Fatty Acids,”
November 5, 2010; Harvard School of Public Health, “The Nutrition Source: Omega-3 Fatty Acids”
(accessed July 20, 2011).
82
McMurray and Britton, “Automation to the Rescue?” December 2009, 18.
20

28.
Improving the management of water (which is both an input and a waste product) and
wastes (e.g., litter and poultry excrement) is also a focus of ongoing research. For
example, researchers are testing ways to use water more efficiently in processing
facilities and improving methods of recycling wastewater, including capturing its
nutrients and energy potential.83
Poultry product development focuses mainly on health and safety issues (such as
identifying causes of spoilage and ways to prevent it), and the development of new
products for customers. R&D of new poultry products is undertaken by all large
integrators. With regard to retail customers, R&D are focused on further processed items
including ready-to-cook products, pre-flavored (e.g., marinated) products, and easier-to-
use products, such as individual packages for freezing.
Consumption
Consumption Trends
The United States is the world’s largest poultry meat consumer, accounting for about
one-fifth of world consumption during 2006–12 (appendix A table A.2). Chicken is the
most commonly consumed meat in the United States. Americans ate an average of
84 pounds per capita per year during 2006–12, and chicken accounted for about
38 percent of all U.S. meat consumption in 2012 (table 7). Per capita consumption of
turkey meat averaged 17 pounds in 2006–12—less than beef or pork, but more than
seafood.
TABLE 7 U.S. annual per capita consumption of meat and seafood, 2006–12
Meat type 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Pounds
Chicken 88 86 85 81 84 84 82
Turkey 17 18 18 17 16 16 16
Beef 66 65 63 61 60 57 57
Pork 49 51 49 50 48 46 46
Commercial fish and shellfish 17 16 16 16 16 16 16
All other 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
Total 238 238 232 227 225 220 218
Percent
Chicken 37 36 37 36 37 38 38
Turkey 7 7 8 8 7 7 7
Beef 28 27 27 27 27 26 26
Pork 21 21 21 22 21 21 21
Commercial fish and shellfish 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
All other <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: NCC, "Statistics and Research,” January 11, 2013.
Total U.S. per capita meat consumption peaked during 2004–06 during the height of the
high-protein diet trend, and declined 8 percent in 2006–12 due to record-high meat prices
and the economic recession. The first-ever recorded three-years-in-a-row U.S. decline in
chicken consumption occurred in 2007–09. Chicken consumption regained some of its
83
See, for example, O’Keefe, “2009 Clean Water Awards,” May 2009.
21

29.
losses in 2010, partly because of expanded supply resulting from increased production
and reduced exports to Russia and China due to trade restrictions. However, lower
production and higher exports lead to higher consumer prices, and as a result, chicken
consumption declined again in 2012. 84
Turkey consumption declined (11 percent)
between 2008 and 2010 and then stabilized.
U.S. consumers eat poultry in a variety of forms but generally prefer white meat, such as
breast meat or wings. However, in recent years dark meat has become more popular,
especially among growing immigrant communities.85
In the United States, an estimated
12 percent of chicken was consumed whole and 42 percent in parts (e.g., breast, leg, and
wing) in 2011.86
The remaining 46 percent was further processed into products such as
chicken nuggets and microwaveable meals. In 2009, the most popular turkey products
were whole birds (which make up approximately one-quarter of sales), ground turkey,
and deli meat.87
Ground turkey was the fastest-growing turkey product over the past
decade. Many dark-meat cuts (such as leg quarters), as well as parts not generally
consumed in the United States (such as paws), are exported.
Import Penetration Levels
Because the United States is one of the world’s largest and most efficient poultry
producers, its imports are negligible. Imports represented only about 0.3 percent of
domestic consumption of both live poultry and poultry meat in 2006–12 (appendix A
tables A.2 and A.4).
Factors Affecting Consumption
One of the most important factors impacting consumers’ meat purchasing decisions is
price. Studies show that a price increase for one type of meat causes an increase in
consumption of another as a substitute. For example, a rise in the price of chicken may
cause a shift toward increased consumption of beef.88
For lower income consumers, an
increase in poultry meat prices may cause their consumption to shift to lower-priced
protein sources, such as eggs. Nevertheless, as the lowest-priced major meat, poultry
generally has a marketing advantage with consumers (table 8). In 2012, retail consumers
paid on average almost 46 percent more per pound for pork and 62 percent more per
pound for beef than for chicken.
Several other factors also affect poultry demand, including science, consumer lifestyles,
and cultural traditions, among others. For example, increased awareness about health
issues has benefited poultry, as it is considered healthier than red meat. Additionally,
consumers are spending less time cooking and want products that reduce preparation
time. Poultry companies have developed a number of products to meet these criteria,
including pre-marinated items, pan-ready meals, microwavable items, and prepackaged
84
Growing Georgia, “Per Capita Meat, Poultry and Fish Consumption,” February 3, 2011; WattAgNet,
“US Chicken Consumption Increases,” April 5, 2011; USDA, ERS, Long-term Projections, February 2012,
2. See also the U.S. Trade and Foreign Industry Profiles below.
85
See, for example, WattAgNet.com, “Demand for Dark Poultry Meat on the Rise,” April 16, 2012.
86
NCC, “How Broilers Are Marketed,” (accessed February 7, 2011).
87
National Turkey Federation, “Turkey Industry Structure” (accessed May 2, 2011).
88
Schroeder, Marsh, and Mintert, Beef Demand Determinants, March 2000.
22

30.
TABLE 8 Average retail prices for chicken, beef, pork, and eggs, 2006–12
Product
a
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Dollars per pound (retail weight equivalent) or per dozen eggs
Chicken 1.57 1.65 1.75 1.78 1.75 1.77 1.89
Beef 3.97 4.16 4.33 4.26 4.40 4.83 5.02
Pork 2.81 2.87 2.94 2.92 3.11 3.43 3.47
Eggs (grade A, large) 1.31 1.68 1.99 1.66 1.66 1.77 1.84
Source: USDA, ERS, Meat Price Spreads: Historical Monthly (accessed February 22, 2010; April 26, 2011; September
6, 2012; September 11, 2013); U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer price Index- Average
Price Data (Eggs U.S. City Average) (accessed September 13, 2012; September 11, 2013) .
a
Chicken, beef, and pork data are based on composite.
meals. These products have helped keep poultry demand robust. Seasonal demand is an
important factor in turkey consumption peaking during the end-of-year holiday season.
U.S. Trade
Overview
Although the U.S. poultry industry continues to produce primarily for the domestic
market, the share of production sold abroad rose from 14 percent in 2006 to 19 percent in
2012 (figure 6). 89
Between 2006 and 2012 the value of poultry exports increased
114 percent ($2.9 billion) (table 9).90
Exports reached a historical peak in 2008, driven
by lower domestic consumption, depreciation of the dollar (which made U.S. poultry
comparatively cheaper than that from other countries), and rising global incomes.91
However, beginning in 2009, exports declined due to the global economic recession that
reduced demand and because U.S. poultry integrators reduce production (by raising fewer
birds) in response to declining profitability. In 2010, exports remained below their peak
largely because Russia banned imports of U.S. poultry for more than six months for the
stated reason that U.S. poultry is treated with chlorinated rinse (to reduce pathogens), and
because China imposed AD/CVD orders on imports of U.S. poultry meat. In 2012,
however, U.S. exports reached their highest level of the period due to a surge in exports
to Mexico and Canada.
As noted earlier, the United States is not a major importer of poultry, with imports only
accounting for about 0.3 percent of U.S. poultry consumption by quantity during 2006–
12.92
The efficiency and scale of the U.S. poultry industry make it difficult for foreign
89
Based on broiler and turkey meat quantity, the two largest exports. USDA, FAS, PSD Online
(accessed August 20, 2013). On average about 18 percent of poultry meat production by volume was
exported in 2006–12 (appendix A tables A.1 and A.3).
90
Based on all live poultry and poultry meat and offal exports.
91
Poultry USA, “U.S. Poultry, Egg Exports Set All-time Record in 2008,” February 18, 2009; USDA,
ERS, Livestock, Dairy, and Poultry Outlook, March 19, 2008, 6. See also country-specific write ups in the
U.S. Exports section below.
92
Based on the volume of chicken and turkey meat consumption and imports. USDA, FAS, PSD
Online (accessed August 23, 2013).
23

32.
countries to compete in the U.S. market solely on the basis of price. In addition, imports
into the United States are subject to health and sanitary requirements. Most U.S. poultry
imports were from Canada (81 percent by value on average during the period) which has
advantages over other foreign suppliers because of its geographic proximity and duty-free
access under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
The value of U.S. trade in live birds was much smaller than that of poultry meat.
Annually, U.S. live poultry exports accounted for only 4 percent of all poultry exports by
value in 2006–12.93
However, between 2006 and 2012, the value of U.S. live poultry
exports grew 64 percent because live U.S. birds were sought to expand foreign poultry
flocks, especially in China and Indonesia.94
U.S. live bird imports were about one-fifth
the level of exports (by both volume and value) on average in 2006–12.95
U.S. imports of
live birds grew 46 percent by value during 2006–12, with over 99 percent imported from
Canada.
U.S. Exports
Export Levels
The United States exported a substantial amount of poultry during 2006–12. Overall U.S.
poultry exports (live birds and meat) grew from $2.6 billion in 2006 to $5.5 billion in
2012.96
In 2012, 79 percent of U.S. poultry exports were fresh, chilled, or frozen chicken;
11 percent were fresh, chilled, or frozen turkey; 6 percent were prepared or preserved
poultry other than turkey; and 4 percent were live poultry (all types).97
During 2006–12, U.S. exports of live poultry increased by $78 million (64 percent) and
41 million birds (80 percent).98
The largest foreign markets for live U.S. poultry were
Canada, China, and Mexico, which together accounted for 46 percent of U.S. exports (by
value) in 2006–12 (figure 7). Growth in U.S. exports of live birds to China and Indonesia
was particularly high during the period (by 226 percent and 359 percent, respectively)
due to increased poultry production in these countries, which increased demand for
imported breeding stock.99
U.S. exports accounted for about 34 percent of global poultry meat exports by volume in
2012. 100
U.S. exports of poultry meat grew by $2.9 billion (116 percent) and
1.1 million mt (39 percent) during 2006–12 (table 10). These exports consisted primarily
93
USITC, DataWeb (accessed February, 20, 2013).
94
Because overall U.S. poultry exports more than doubled between 2006 and 2012, the share of live
bird exports fell from 4.7 percent to 3.6 percent over this period.
95
Imports ranged between $30 and $44 million by value during 2006–12. USITC, DataWeb (accessed
February, 20, 2013).
96
USITC, DataWeb (accessed February, 20, 2013).
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid.
100
USDA, FAS, PSD online (accessed August 30, 2013). Meat may be fresh, chilled, frozen, prepared
or preserved.
25

34.
of fresh, chilled, or frozen whole birds; cuts; or offal (organ meats). Chicken was by far
the most commonly exported type of poultry meat, followed by turkey. For most of the
period, the principal markets for U.S. poultry meat were Mexico, followed by Canada,
China/Hong Kong, and Russia, which together accounted for an average of 63 percent of
all U.S. poultry meat exports by value during 2006–09. However, during 2010–11,
exports to China and Russia fell sharply due to China’s imposition of AD/CV duties on
imports of U.S. imports of certain chicken products,101
and a temporary Russian ban on
imports of U.S. poultry. A surge in U.S. poultry meat exports to Hong Kong in 2010 and
2011 offset the sharp decline in U.S. exports to China in those two years. In 2012,
Mexico and Canada became the leading export markets for U.S. poultry, while sales to
Russia and China also increased. In addition, between 2009 and 2012, U.S. exports of
poultry meat to Angola surged 271 percent by value, making Angola the sixth-largest
U.S. export market, driven by Angola’s rising crude-petroleum export revenues and a
weak agricultural sector following three decades of civil war.102
U.S. Government Programs
The USDA’s Market Access Program (MAP) funds assistance programs for the creation,
expansion, and maintenance of foreign markets for U.S. agricultural products. 103
Implementation occurs through overseas marketing activities, which include promotions,
educational programs, trade shows, and market research. These activities are carried out
through partnerships with trade associations, agricultural cooperatives, or similar groups,
which share the cost of market promotion with the USDA. The USA Poultry and Egg
Export Council (USAPEEC) is the trade association representing industries that export
poultry and egg products. During 2009–11, USAPEEC received $5.7 million annually on
average in MAP funds which helped to fund participation in U.S. and foreign trade
shows, trade missions, and in-store promotions. To help conduct such activities, facilitate
trade, and provide technical assistance, USAPEEC maintains offices in a number of
countries, including China, Hong Kong, Mexico, Japan, Lebanon (covering the Middle
East), and Sweden (covering Europe and the Balkans).104
Principal Markets105
China/Hong Kong
U.S. poultry meat exports to China and Hong Kong totaled $767 million in 2012, more
than double their value in 2006.106
During 2006–12, exports to China and Hong Kong
accounted for an average of 18 percent of all U.S. poultry meat exports per year. The
United States was the largest supplier of poultry to China and a major supplier to Hong
Kong, with exports to these markets consisting mostly of chicken paws, frozen chicken
cuts, and offal.
101
USTR, “United States Files WTO Case Against China to Protect American Jobs,” Press release
September 2011.
102
eFeedlink.com, U.S. poultry exports to Angola on the rise, October 8, 2012,
http://www.efeedlink.com/contents/10-08-2012/3bfce207-ce4a-4758-97ee-c141c2a046c2-b621.html,
(accessed February 14, 2013).
103
USDA, FAS, “Market Access Program (MAP),” June 2011.
104
USAPEEC, International offices, http://www.usapeec.org/international'offices.cfm (accessed
February, 20, 2013).
105
Unless otherwise specified, the data in “Principal Markets” are for poultry meat.
106
USITC, DataWeb (accessed February 20, 2013).
27

35.
The pattern of U.S. poultry meat exports to China and Hong Kong has varied over time.
U.S. firms started to export poultry directly to China beginning in the 1990s.107
However,
before 2005, poultry entered China through Hong Kong because it was difficult to ship
directly to China owing to poor internal transportation and high tariffs. During 2006–09,
the United States exported substantially more poultry directly to China than via Hong
Kong. U.S. poultry exports to Hong Kong fell sharply during 2005–07 before increasing
slightly in 2008 and 2009 due to competitive U.S. prices, increased transshipments to
Macao and Taiwan through Hong Kong, and a sharp decline in imports from the EU and
Argentina, thereby raising the demand for U.S. and Brazilian product.108
In 2010, the
pattern shifted again, as the value of direct shipments to China plummeted by 75 percent
following the imposition of AD/CV duties109
on U.S. poultry, and exports to Hong Kong
rose by 269 percent.110
Between 2010 and 2011, U.S. poultry meat exports to Hong Kong
increased another 21 percent by value.111
In 2012, this pattern reversed, with a sharp
decline in U.S. poultry exports to Hong Kong, partially offset by an increase of direct
exports to China. China’s imports of U.S. poultry rose because import prices from
alternative sources (in South America) rose high enough that some Chinese importers
were willing to pay the AD/CV duties for higher quality U.S. product.112
Growth of direct and indirect U.S. poultry exports to China was spurred by increased
consumer demand resulting from rising personal incomes and cultural changes,
particularly increased dining out at fast-food restaurants, such as Kentucky Fried Chicken
(KFC) and McDonald’s.113
Additionally, from 2007 to 2009, poultry consumption rose in
response to lower production and consumption of pork following an outbreak of blue-ear
disease in Chinese swine herds.114
Mexico
U.S. poultry meat exports to Mexico increased significantly, with most of the increase
occurring since 2010. U.S. poultry meat exports to Mexico were $995 million in 2012,
132 percent higher than in 2006. 115
During 2006–12, Mexico accounted for about
15 percent by value of all U.S. poultry meat exports, purchasing mostly chicken leg
quarters, mechanically deboned chicken, and fresh or chilled turkey cuts/offal. In that
period, approximately 38 percent by value of Mexican poultry imports from the United
States was turkey, making Mexico the largest importer of U.S. turkey meat.116
Turkey
was primarily imported as an ingredient by the Mexican cold-cuts industry for products
such as turkey ham.117
107
In 2004, a quarantine law to crack down on poultry smuggling from Hong Kong made it more
difficult to transship poultry to China from Hong Kong. USDA, FAS, China: Annual Poultry Report,
September 24, 2004, 3; USDA, FAS, China: Poultry and Products, February 1, 2005, 3.
108
Industry representative, e-mail to USITC staff, November 11, 2009.
109
USTR, “United States Files WTO Case Against China to Protect American Jobs,” September 2011.
110
According to industry and government officials, when poultry products are restricted from directly
entering China, they will enter China through “grey” channels (primary through routes in Vietnam or Hong
Kong). This is true of product from all countries. USITC, China’s Agricultural Trade, March 2011.
111
USITC, DataWeb (accessed February 11, 2013). Based on data rounded to thousand dollars.
112
USDA, FAS, China: Poultry and Products Annual, September 18, 2013, 3-4.
113
USITC, China’s Agricultural Trade, March 2011.
114
USITC, China’s Agricultural Trade, March 2011, 2-7, 3-3; USDA, FAS, China: Poultry and
Product, March 1, 2008, 3; USDA, FAS, China: Poultry and Products, September 1, 2008, 5.
115
USITC, DataWeb (accessed February 11, 2013). For further details on why imports from the U.S.
increased, see Foreign Industry Profiles: Net Importers: Mexico, below.
116
One-quarter by volume. GTIS, GTA database (accessed August 29, 2013).
117
USDA, FAS, Mexico: Poultry and Products, September 2, 2008, 14. Domestic pork and imported
turkey meat are mixed to make the hams.
28