Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one o

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The citadel of Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru

Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechu

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Quechua

Acari
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Acari are a taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. The diversity of the Acari is extraordinary and its history goes back to at least the early Devonian period. As a result, acarologists have proposed a set of taxonomic ranks to classify mites. The monophyly of the Acari is open to debate, and the relationships of the acarines to other ar

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A soft-bodied tick of the family Argasidae, beside eggs it has just laid

Susupillo
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Susupillu, Hispanicized spellings Sussupillo, Susupillo) is a mountain with an archaeological site of the same name in the Andes of Peru, about 4,400 metres high. It is situated in the Huánuco Region, Huamalíes Province, Tantamayo District, the archaeological site of Susupillu lies on the northern slope of the mountain at about 9°23′32. 4″S 76°41′3

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Susupillu

Phiruru
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Piruro or Phiruru is an archaeological site in Peru. It is situated in the Huánuco Region, Huamalíes Province, Tantamayo District, the site was declared a National Cultural Heritage by Resolución Directoral No. The complex consists of two parts named Piruro I and Piruro II, the latter is situated a bit higher at 9°22′43. 98″S 76°42′16. 44″W. This a

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Phiruru II

Archaeological sites in Peru
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Archaeological sites in Peru are numerous and diverse, representing different aspects including temples and fortresses of the various cultures of ancient Peru, such as the Moche and Nazca. The sites vary in importance from small local sites to UNESCO World Heritage sites of global importance and their nature and complexity of the sites vary from sm

Acaray
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Radio carbon dating has established it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. Surrounding the hilltop fortress are lower-lying areas of occupation and extensive cemeteries, attention was called to the site early on by the German archaeologist Hans Horkheimer, who wrote about Acaray in 1962 in the Peruvian magazine, Caretas, published

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Fortified hilltop at Acaray

Asana, Peru
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Asana is an archaeological site by the Asana River, a tributary of the Osmore River, in the south-central Andes of southern Peru. The site is situated at an elevation of 3,430 metres, with land use documented from 3, 000–4,800 metres. Asana was occupied over the course of 8,000 years, though the inhabitants were initially mobile foragers, Asana is

Cahuachi
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Cahuachi, in Peru, was a major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, based from 1 AD to about 500 AD in the coastal area of the Central Andes. It overlooked some of the Nazca lines, the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici has been excavating at the site for the past few decades. The site contains over 40 mounds topped with adobe structures, th

Caral
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This article is about the archaeological site. Caral is the most ancient city of the Americas and a site of the Norte Chico civilization. Caral was inhabited roughly between the 26th and 20th centuries BCE, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. Caral was described by its excavators as the oldest urban center in the Americas, accommodating mor

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Remains of Caral

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The Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 km from the Pacific coast.

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Caral

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One of the pyramids of Caral

Chan Chan
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Chan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 kilometres west of Trujillo, Peru. Chan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which estab

Chanquillo
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Chankillo is an ancient monumental complex in the Peruvian coastal desert, found in the Casma-Sechin basin in the Ancash Department of Peru. The ruins include the hilltop Chankillo fort, the nearby Thirteen Towers solar observatory, the Thirteen Towers have been interpreted as an astronomical observatory built in the 4th century BC. The culture tha

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Thirteen Towers of Chankillo, viewed from the fortress

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Shown within Peru

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Panorama of Chanquillo

Chauchilla Cemetery
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Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located 30 kilometres south of the city of Nazca in Peru. The cemetery was discovered in the 1920s, but had not been used since the 9th century AD, the cemetery includes many important burials over a period of 600 to 700 years. The start

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Mummy in the Cemetery of Chauchilla

Choquequirao
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Choquequirao, Chuqi Kiraw or Chuqikiraw is an Incan site in south Peru, similar in structure and architecture to Machu Picchu. The ruins are buildings and terraces at levels above and below Sunchu Pata, the hilltop was anciently leveled and ringed with stones to create a 30 by 50 m platform. Choquequirao at an elevation of 3,050 metres ) is in the

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Truncated hill top at Choquequirao

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Terraces at Choquequirao

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Main structures of Choquequirao

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White stone woman in the terraces of Choquequirao

Colcampata

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Wall at Qullqanpata

Coricancha
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Coricancha, Korikancha, Qurikancha, or Quri Kancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. Originally named Inti Kancha or Inti Wasi, it was dedicated to Inti, mostly destroyed after the 16th century war with the Spanish conquistadors much of its stonework forms the foundation of the Santo Domingo church and convent. Pachacuti Inca Yupanq

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Qurikancha with Convent of Santo Domingo above

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Qurikancha, Convent of Santo Domingo, and courtyard (Intipampa)

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Qurikancha: a digital reconstruction of its aspect during the Incaic Period

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Qurikancha, paintings in Cusco style

Cumbe Mayo
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Cumbe Mayo is at an average altitude of 3,500 meters above sea level and 20 kilometers southwest from Cajamarca. Built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 B. C. E, the Cumbe Mayo and it lies in the Archaeological Complex of Cumbemayo, a place where the highest hydraulic technology of ancient Peruvian communities and the impact of time upon

El Brujo
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The El Brujo Archaeological Complex, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru, is an ancient archaeological site that was occupied from preceramic times. Huaca Prieta is the earliest part of the complex, later, the site was part of the Cupisnique culture and the Salinar culture. But the biggest constructions on the site belong to the Moch

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Bas-relief patterns at Huaca El Brujo

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INC (National Institute of Culture) sign at the El Brujo complex

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Naked prisoners being led by warrior at El Brujo in El Brujo complex

Guitarrero Cave
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Guitarrero Cave is located in the Callejón de Huaylas valley in Yungay Province, in the Ancash region of Peru. The cave stands 50 m above Rio Santa and 2,580 m meters above sea level, Guitarrero Cave has evidence of human use around 8,000 BCE and possibly as early as 10,560 BCE. A humans mandible and teeth found in the cave have been dated to 10,61

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Guitarrero Cave

Huaca de la Luna
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Huaca de la Luna is a large adobe brick structure built mainly by the Moche people of northern Peru. Along with the Huaca del Sol, the Huaca de la Luna is part of Huacas de Moche, the Huacas de Moche site is located 4 km outside the modern city of Trujillo, near the mouth of the Moche River valley. The Huaca de la Luna, though it is the smaller of

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The moche god Ai apaec (decapitador) on a wall inside the temple or Huaca of the Moon

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Museum Huacas of Moche

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A view of the Huaca de la Luna, with Cerro Blanco in the background.

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The main mural of the Huaca de la Luna

Huaca del Sol
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The Huaca del Sol is an adobe brick temple built by the Moche civilization on the northern coast of what is now Peru. The temple is one of several ruins found near the peak of Cerro Blanco. The other major ruin at the site is the nearby Huaca de la Luna, by 450 CE, eight different stages of construction had been completed on the Huaca del Sol. The

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Panoramic view of temple or Huaca of the Sun

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Museum Huacas of Moche

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Huaca del Sol as seen from the southeast, with the Moche River delta beyond and city ruins in the foreground.

Huaca Huallamarca

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Wak'a Wallamarka

Huaca Prieta
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Huaca Prieta is the site of a prehistoric settlement beside the Pacific Ocean in the Chicama Valley, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru. It is a part of the El Brujo Archaeological Complex, which also includes Moche sites, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, before the ceramics were introduced. It consisted of a mound of

Huari, Peru
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Huari is a small town in the Ancash Region in central Peru. It is the seat of the Huari Province and it lies on the eastern slope of the Andean mountain range known as the Cordillera Blanca. Many residential households also raise a few animals, including goats, sheep, pigs, occasionally cattle, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens, much of the trade in t

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Huari

Huayna Picchu
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Huayna Picchu, Wayna Picchu or Wayna Pikchu is a mountain in Peru around which the Urubamba River bends. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District and it rises over Machu Picchu, the so-called lost city of the Incas, and divides it into sections. The Incas built a trail up the side of the Huayna Picchu, the peak of

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Panoramic view of Machu Picchu, with Huayna Picchu at the background

Inka Uyu
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Inka Uyu, is a site of cut-stone structures found at the site of Chucuito in Peru. Inca Uyu is a part of one of the two plazas that make up the site of Chucuito, Inca Uyu is one of the most interesting structures in the Titicaca Basin as it is an arrangement of carved stones protruding from the earth within a walled rectangular ruin. The site is a

Inka Wasi, Huancavelica
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Inka Wasi is an archaeological site in the Huancavelica Region in Peru. The Inca palace is considered one of the most important monuments of the Huancavelica Region, inka Wasi is located in the Huaytará Province, Huaytará District, about 25 km from Huaytará. It is situated at a height of 3,804 m. www. panoramio. com Complejo arqueologico Incawasi,

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Inka Wasi

Inti Punku
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Inti Punku or Intipunku is an archaeological site in the Cusco Region of Peru that was once a fortress of the sacred city, Machu Picchu. It is also the name of an Incan Trail connected to Machu Picchu and it was believed that the steps were a control gate for those who enter and exited the Sanctuary. It is one of the most important archeological co

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People waiting for the sunrise at Inti Punku

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Sign at check-point near Willkaraqay showing the location of Inti Punku

Inti Watana, Ayacucho
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Inti Watana, Intiwatana or Pumaqucha is an archaeological site in Peru. It is located in the Ayacucho Region, Vilcas Huamán Province, Vischongo District, the site was declared a National Cultural Heritage of Peru by Resolución Directoral No. Nº 751/INC on July 27,2001

Inti Watana, Urubamba
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Inti Watana or Intiwatana at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu is a notable ritual stone associated with the astronomic clock or calendar of the Inca in South America. Machu Picchu was built c.1450 by the Sapa Inca Pachacuti as a country estate, in the late 16th century, the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and the clergy destroyed those inti wata

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Inti Watana

Intikancha (Puno)

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Intikancha

Petroglyphs of Jinkiori
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The petroglyphs of Jinkiori are petroglyphs that are engraved in a big rock called the “Monolith of Jinkiori. The rock is located near Quero River two hours walking from the town of Pilcopata, the petroglyphs that were engraved directly on the monolith have an Amazonian origin. There is also a strange engraving that resembles a key and these petrog

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Details of Petroglyphs of Jinkiori

Kotosh
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Kotosh is an archaeological site near Huánuco containing a series of buildings with six periods of continuous occupation, dating from the Late Archaic to the Early Intermediate Period. The site gave name to the Kotosh Religious Tradition, which existed in Peru in 2300—1200 BCE, Kotosh people cultivated crops, used marine resources, built permanent

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Contents

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Terracota "Crossed arms" from Kotosh, 1800 BC

Kuelap
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The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap, is a walled city associated with the Chachapoyas culture built in 6th century AD. It consists of more than four hundred buildings surrounded by exterior stone walls. The complex is situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru and it could have been built to defend against the Huari or other

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View along fortress wall at Kuelap

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The massive walls which protected the fortress.

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Remains of ancient buildings in Kuelap.

Kuntur Wasi
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Kuntur Wasi is the name given to the ruins of a religious center with complex architecture and stone sculptures, located in the Andean highlands of Peru. It is believed the inhabitants had a link with the Chavín culture, Kuntur Wasi is located in the Northern Mountain Range of Peru, specifically at the headwaters of the Jequetepeque River, in the r

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View of the main platform of the archaeological site of Kuntur Wasi

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Shown within Peru

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'The crown of the fourteen faces' of one of the excavated tombs of Kuntur Wasi. It was part of the funerary equipment of the ruling elite

Kusichaka River
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Kusichaka River or Kusichaka River, is a river in Peru located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, on the border of the districts Machupicchu and Ollantaytambo. Its waters flow to the Willkanuta River, Kusichaka River originates in the Willkapampa mountain range east of the mountain Salkantay, south of the Pallqay and southwest of the Wayanay.

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Kusichaka River as it flows along Patallaqta just before its confluence with the Willkanuta River (background)

Llamuqa

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Llamuqa

Llaqtapata
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Llaqtapata llaqta place, pata elevated place / above, at the top / edge, bank, shore, pronounced yakta-pahta, hispanicized Llactapata) is an archaeological site about 5 km west of Machu Picchu. The complex is located in the Cusco Region, La Convención Province, Santa Teresa District and it appears to be the site originally reported by Hiram Bingham

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View of Machu Pichu from Llaqtapata

Machu Picchu
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Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres above sea level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru, above the Sacred Valley, most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Often mistakenly referred to as the L

3.
View of the city of Machu Picchu in 1912 showing the original ruins after major clearing and before modern reconstruction work began.

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The dawn mist lifts above the terraced structures

Maray Qalla

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Maray Qalla

Marcahuamachuco
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Marcahuamachuco is an archeological site of Pre-Incan ruins in the La Libertad Region of Peru. Although less well-known than other sites, it is considered significant and has referred to by archaeologists as Machu Picchu of the North. Construction of Marcahuamachuco began around AD400, during the Andean Middle Horizon period and this was well befor

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The archaeological site of Millka lies on top of the mountain northeast of Sarhua (on the left)

LIST OF IMAGES

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Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco

Peru
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Sculpted Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru

2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

3.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua

Quechua language
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Quechua

4.
Acari
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Acari are a taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks. The diversity of the Acari is extraordinary and its history goes back to at least the early Devonian period. As a result, acarologists have proposed a set of taxonomic ranks to classify mites. The monophyly of the Acari is open to debate, and the relationships of the acarines to other arachnids is not at all clear. In older treatments, the subgroups of the Acarina were placed at order rank, most acarines are minute to small, but the largest Acari may reach lengths of 10–20 millimetres. Over 50,000 species have been described and it is estimated that a million or more species may exist, the study of mites and ticks is called acarology, and the leading scientific journals for acarology include Acarologia, Experimental and Applied Acarology and the International Journal of Acarology. Mites are arachnids and, as such, evolved from a body with the segments organised into two tagmata, a prosoma and an opisthosoma. This anterior body region is called the capitulum or gnathosoma and, the remainder of the body is called the idiosoma and is unique to mites. Most adult mites have four pairs of legs, like other arachnids, for example, gall mites like Phyllocoptes variabilis have a worm-like body with only two pairs of legs, some parasitic mites have only one or three pairs of legs in the adult stage. Larval and prelarval stages have a maximum of three pairs of legs, adult mites with only three pairs of legs may be called larviform, also members of the Nematalycidae within Endeostigmata, who lives between sand grains, have often wormlike and elongated bodies with reduced legs. The mouth parts of mites may be adapted for biting, stinging, sawing or sucking and they breathe through tracheae, stigmata, intestines and the skin itself. Species hunting for other mites have very acute senses, but many mites are eyeless, the central eyes of arachnids are always missing, or they are fused into a single eye. Thus, any eye number from none to five may occur, acarine ontogeny typically consists of an egg, a prelarval stage, a larval stage, and a series of nymphal stages. Any or all of these stages except the adult may be suppressed or occur only within the body of a previous stage, larvae have a maximum of three pairs of legs, legs IV are added at the first nymphal stage. Usually, a maximum of three stages are present and they are referred to in sequence as the protonymph, deutonymph. The females of some Tarsonemidae bear sexually mature young, if one or more nymphal stages are absent, then authors may disagree on which stages are present. Only the Oribatida pass through all developmental stages and they live in practically every habitat, and include aquatic and terrestrial species. They outnumber other arthropods in the organic matter and detritus

5.
Susupillo
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Susupillu, Hispanicized spellings Sussupillo, Susupillo) is a mountain with an archaeological site of the same name in the Andes of Peru, about 4,400 metres high. It is situated in the Huánuco Region, Huamalíes Province, Tantamayo District, the archaeological site of Susupillu lies on the northern slope of the mountain at about 9°23′32. 4″S 76°41′33. 5″W, at a height of more than 3,800 metres. It was declared a National Cultural Heritage of Peru by Resolución Directoral No

Susupillo
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Susupillu

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Phiruru
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Piruro or Phiruru is an archaeological site in Peru. It is situated in the Huánuco Region, Huamalíes Province, Tantamayo District, the site was declared a National Cultural Heritage by Resolución Directoral No. The complex consists of two parts named Piruro I and Piruro II, the latter is situated a bit higher at 9°22′43. 98″S 76°42′16. 44″W. This archaeological zone has had an occupation, its first vestiges date from 3000 to 2500 years B. C. The Fortress of Piruro II can be found in the side of the river Tantamayo over 3. C. Meaning this fortress was built in the period, Girault found architectonic remnants of hewn stones that seem similar to those found in Kotosh. The fortress is composed of walls build with stones hewn in squared shape, the building is composed of 5 floors, where the front of it has rectangular doors and windows. In the front of the building there is a large-scale clearance that shapes a park because in the center of it there are remnants of a stone, anku Isuq Susupillu Wanqaran Andean preceramic Kotosh Religious Tradition

Phiruru
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Phiruru II

7.
Archaeological sites in Peru
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Archaeological sites in Peru are numerous and diverse, representing different aspects including temples and fortresses of the various cultures of ancient Peru, such as the Moche and Nazca. The sites vary in importance from small local sites to UNESCO World Heritage sites of global importance and their nature and complexity of the sites vary from small single-featured sites such as pyramids to entire cities, such as Chan Chan and Machu Picchu. Preservation and investigation of sites are controlled mainly by the National Institute for Culture. The lack of funding to protect sites and enforce existing laws, results in large scale looting, the following is an alphabetical list of archaeological sites in Peru, it lists the main archaeological sites of touristic importance as published by the Ministry of Foreign Commerce and Tourism. Cultural periods of Peru List of pre-Columbian cultures National Institute for Culture Archaeological sites in Peru Peruvian Archaeology News

8.
Acaray
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Radio carbon dating has established it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. Surrounding the hilltop fortress are lower-lying areas of occupation and extensive cemeteries, attention was called to the site early on by the German archaeologist Hans Horkheimer, who wrote about Acaray in 1962 in the Peruvian magazine, Caretas, published in Lima. Horkheimer noted the abundance of rolled river cobbles on the surface of the site, during the 1970s interest in Acaray increased, and the first work by archaeologists was initiated at the fortress. She led a team that surveyed the Huaura Valley and excavated at several sites and she estimated that it was built about 900-200BC and abandoned 1000–1470AD. According to Brown Vega, Acaray early megalithic wall constructions may be similar to those of Chankillo from the same period, war and social life in prehispanic Perú, ritual, defense, and communities at the Fortress of Acaray, Huaura Valley. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, conﬂict in the early horizon and late intermediate period, new dates from the fortress of Acaray, Huaura valley, Perú. 30, 38B Ruiz Estrada, Arturo, Torero, M. Domingo, Acaray, huacho, Perú, Comite de Educacion de la Cooperative de Ahorro y Credito San Bartolome

Acaray
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Fortified hilltop at Acaray

9.
Asana, Peru
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Asana is an archaeological site by the Asana River, a tributary of the Osmore River, in the south-central Andes of southern Peru. The site is situated at an elevation of 3,430 metres, with land use documented from 3, 000–4,800 metres. Asana was occupied over the course of 8,000 years, though the inhabitants were initially mobile foragers, Asana is located on the north bank of the Asana River in the flat fertile valley along 11,270 feet of the river. The geological and geomorphological features are factors for its unique setting. An archaeological study of the Asana river valley was conducted 1986–89, the area studied was along a river length of about 20 kilometres, between Tumilaca Molina and Cueva Quellaveco and from the origin of the minor tributary of the river Charoque to Tala village. The valley floors and hill slopes, covering an area of 4.8 square kilometres, led to the discovery of the Asana site and also six rock shelters. One of the shelters, Qusquri, was discovered on the left bank of the river valley at an elevation of 3,000 metres, in a series of river terraces at an elevation range of 3. Human habitation has been traced to 10,500 BP at Asana, excavations have revealed six stratigraphic zones from 10,500 BP to 3500 BP, before the site became abandoned in 3500 BP. During the settlement period, guanaco and taruka were the local wild herbivores, over the centuries, the guanaco were domesticated. The Asana at the elevation had formed the base camp of the earliest settlers who were hunter gatherers, hunting guanaco. Up to 5000 BP, settlement became more permanent, the gradual change from forager over to the pastoral society was recorded between 4800 and 4400 BP. By Middle Halocene age, guanacos had been domesticated, if these limits increased then they would establish new camps. Human settlement abruptly ended at Asana, lithic material found at the site attests to the shifting of camps and supports links existing between the settlements of the lower and upper elevations. Both residential and non-residential structures were found and indicated a type of growth. Structure were dated between 5500–3600 BP, a ceremonial structure was found in an open air pre-ceramic site during excavations conducted from 1989–90. It is inferred that activities occurred at the site during a 250–500-year period. A feature identified as a ground, dated to 4800 BP, was thought to be used for feasts. Aldenderfer, Mark S. Montane Foragers, Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic, Iowa City, University of Iowa Press

10.
Cahuachi
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Cahuachi, in Peru, was a major ceremonial center of the Nazca culture, based from 1 AD to about 500 AD in the coastal area of the Central Andes. It overlooked some of the Nazca lines, the Italian archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici has been excavating at the site for the past few decades. The site contains over 40 mounds topped with adobe structures, the past several years long time researcher Omar Faizi has conducted in depth study of the Nazca lines with startling conclusions to his study. Scholars once thought the site was the capital of the Nazca state but have determined that the permanent population was quite small and they believe that it was a pilgrimage center, whose population increased greatly in relation to major ceremonial events. New research has suggested that 40 of the mounds were natural hills modified to appear as artificial constructions, looting is the greatest problem facing the site today. Most of the burial sites surrounding Cahuachi were not known until recently and are tempting targets for looters, the Cahuachi site is located near the south coast of Peru, and found in the Nazca Valley. Within the Nazca Valley is the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system and is where the Nasca culture developed, the area is ecologically classified as “pre-mountain desert formation. Yunga refers to the Quechua Yungas meaning warm valley, the site itself can be found on the southern side of the Nazca River, one of ten major tributaries that form the Río Grande de Nazca drainage system. The Nazca Valley Grande drainage area is dry in the summer. Precipitation varies between none and 125 mm, the Río Grande regions soils are available for irrigation agriculture with limitations. Cahuachi is located off of the bottom of the treeless hills and terraces beneath Pampa de Atarco. It is on these hills that formed the core majority of artificial constructions at Cahuachi. Dr. Frabee was the first to acknowledge and excavate the site of Cahuachi in the Nazca region in 1922. The following researchers have studied and interpreted the site, Kroeber, Tello, Doering, Strong. Among the most extensive research done at Cahuachi was the conducted by William Strong. Strong was one of the archaeologists who took a broad approach to the site, contextualizing it within Nasca society. He set out to find evidence that would resolve the gap between Paracas and Nasca styles in the region. He also did settlement pattern studies in order to out the kinds of activities that went on at Cahuachi

Cahuachi
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Adobe pyramids at Cahuachi

11.
Caral
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This article is about the archaeological site. Caral is the most ancient city of the Americas and a site of the Norte Chico civilization. Caral was inhabited roughly between the 26th and 20th centuries BCE, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. Caral was described by its excavators as the oldest urban center in the Americas, accommodating more than 3000 inhabitants, it is the best studied and one of the largest Norte Chico sites known. Ruth Shady further explored the 4, 000- to 4, 600-year-old city of temples in the Peruvian desert, with its complex of temples. The urban complex is spread out over 150 acres and contains plazas, Caral was a thriving metropolis at roughly the same time that Egypts great pyramids were being built. It is believed that Caral may answer questions about the origins of the Andean civilizations, among the artefacts found at Caral are a knotted textile piece that the excavators have labeled a quipu. Evidence has emerged that the quipu may also have recorded logographic information in the way writing does. Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a system which could record phonological or logographic data. The main temple complex is 150 meters long,110 meters wide and 28 meters high, the date of its construction is unknown. No trace of warfare has been found at Caral, no battlements, no weapons, ruth Shadys findings suggest it was a gentle society, built on commerce and pleasure. In one of the temples, they uncovered 32 flutes made of condor and pelican bones and 37 cornetts of deer, one find revealed the remains of a baby, wrapped and buried with a necklace made of stone beads. Caral spawns 19 other temple complexes scattered across the 35 square miles area of the Supe Valley, the find of the quipu indicates that the later Inca Empire preserved some cultural continuity from the Caral civilization. The date of 2627 BCE is based on carbon dating reed and these bags were used to carry the stones that were used for the construction of the temples. The material is an excellent candidate for dating, thus allowing for a high precision, the site may date even earlier as samples from the oldest parts of the excavation have yet to be dated. The town had a population of approximately 3000 people, however, there are 19 other sites in the area, allowing for a possible total population of 20,000 people for the Supe Valley. All of these sites in the Supe valley share similarities with Caral and they had small platforms or stone circles. In 2000, Marco Machacuay and his colleague, Rocío Aramburú and this image, known as a geoglyph, is located on the desert floor just west of the main site at Caral

Caral
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Remains of Caral
Caral
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The Caral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 km from the Pacific coast.
Caral
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Caral
Caral
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One of the pyramids of Caral

12.
Chan Chan
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Chan Chan, the largest city of the pre-Columbian era in South America, is now an archaeological site in La Libertad Region 5 kilometres west of Trujillo, Peru. Chan Chan is located in the mouth of the Moche Valley and was the capital of the empire of the Chimor from 900 to 1470. Chimor, a conquest state, developed from the Chimú culture which established itself along the Peruvian coast around 1400 AD, in the Chimú tongue, Quingnam, Chan Chan means Sun Sun, it was named for its sunny climate which is cooled year round by a southerly breeze. Chan Chan is in a particularly arid section of the desert of northern Peru. Due to the lack of rain in this area, the source of water for Chan Chan is in the form of rivers carrying surface runoff from the Andes. This runoff allows for control of land and water through irrigation systems, the city of Chan Chan spanned 20 km² and had a dense urban center of 6 km² which contained extravagant ciudadelas. Ciudadelas were large architectural masterpieces which housed plazas, storerooms, the splendor of these ciudadelas suggests their association with the royal class. Housing for the classes of Chan Chans hierarchical society are known as small. Because the lower classes were often artisans whose role in the empire was to produce crafts, many of these SIARs were used as workshops. In this figure, it can be seen that Verlarde, Laberinto, and Bandelier form the border of Chan Chan while Uhle, Chaiguac, Tschudi. The location chosen for the coordinates is in the center of these cities, the name is probabilly derived from the Quingnam Jiang or Chang which means Sun, from which Chan-Chan would be literally, Sun-Sun. It is hypothesized that its meaning would be, Great sun, resplendent Sun. Another theory says that the name would derive from the term, the Shi voice translates as Moon and An as house, meaning House of the Moon, making known that the Moon was the main deity. Chan Chan is believed to have been constructed around 850 AD by the Chimú and it was the Chimor empire capital city with an estimated population of 40, 000-60,000 people. After the Inca conquered the Chimú around 1470 AD, Chan Chan fell into decline, in 1535 AD, Francisco Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Trujillo which pushed Chan Chan further into the shadows. While no longer a capital city, Chan Chan was still well known for its great riches and was consequently looted by the Spaniards. An indication of the great Chimú wealth is seen in a sixteenth century list of items looted from a tomb in Chan Chan. In 1969, Michael Moseley and Carol J. Mackey began excavations of Chan Chan, the plan was approved by the Peruvian Government

Chan Chan
Chan Chan
Chan Chan

13.
Chanquillo
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Chankillo is an ancient monumental complex in the Peruvian coastal desert, found in the Casma-Sechin basin in the Ancash Department of Peru. The ruins include the hilltop Chankillo fort, the nearby Thirteen Towers solar observatory, the Thirteen Towers have been interpreted as an astronomical observatory built in the 4th century BC. The culture that produced Chankillo is called the Casma/Sechin culture or the Sechin Complex, the site covers about four square kilometres and has been interpreted as a fortified temple. The regularly-spaced thirteen towers of Chankillo were constructed atop the ridge of a low hill running near north to south and are, to the east and west investigators designated two possible observation points. From these vantages, the 300m long spread of the towers along the horizon corresponds very closely to the rising and setting positions of the Sun over the year, the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo could be the earliest known observatory in the Americas. Inhabitants of Chankillo would have been able to determine an accurate date, acaray List of archaeoastronomical sites by country 3D reconstruction of the site Chankillo, Peru, Ancient Solar Observatory

14.
Chauchilla Cemetery
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Chauchilla Cemetery is a cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located 30 kilometres south of the city of Nazca in Peru. The cemetery was discovered in the 1920s, but had not been used since the 9th century AD, the cemetery includes many important burials over a period of 600 to 700 years. The start of the interments was in about 200 AD and it is important as a source of archaeology to Nazca culture. The cemetery has been plundered by huaqueros who have left human bones. Similar local cemeteries have been damaged to a greater extent, the site has been protected by Peruvian law since 1997 and tourists pay around seven U. S. dollars to take the two-hour tour of this ancient necropolis. The site is by the Poroma riverbed and can be accessed via a road from the Panamerican Highway. In 1997, the majority of the bones and plundered pottery were restored to the tombs. The bodies are so remarkably preserved due mainly to the dry climate in the Peruvian Desert, the bodies were clothed in embroidered cotton and then painted with a resin and kept in purpose-built tombs made from mud bricks. The resin is thought to have kept out insects and slowed bacteria trying to feed on the bodies, the nearby site of Estaquería may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process and this may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin. Chauchilla Cemetery is a prominent setting in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, though not called by name in the film, the cemetery is explicitly identified in the screenplay, promotional materials, and merchandise. This fictionalized version of the features a number of embellishments, including mask-wearing Nazcan guards. The cemetery is depicted as being built on a promontory overlooking the Nazca Valley, offering the characters a view of the famous Nazca Lines

Chauchilla Cemetery
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Mummy in the Cemetery of Chauchilla

15.
Choquequirao
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Choquequirao, Chuqi Kiraw or Chuqikiraw is an Incan site in south Peru, similar in structure and architecture to Machu Picchu. The ruins are buildings and terraces at levels above and below Sunchu Pata, the hilltop was anciently leveled and ringed with stones to create a 30 by 50 m platform. Choquequirao at an elevation of 3,050 metres ) is in the spurs of the Vilcabamba mountain range in the Santa Teresa district, the complex is 1,800 hectares, of which 30–40% is excavated. The site overlooks the Apurimac River canyon which has an elevation of 1,450 metres, the site is reached by a two-day hike from outside Cusco. Choquequirao has topped in the prestigious Lonely Planets Best in Travel 2017 Top Regions list, Choquequirao is a 15th and 16th century settlement associated with the Incan Empire, or more correctly Tahuantinsuyo. The site had two major growth stages and this could be explained if Pachacuti founded Choquequirao and his son, Tupac Inca Yupanqui, remodeled and extended it after becoming the Sapa Inca. Choquequirao is located in the considered to be Pachacuti’s estate. Other sites in this area are Sayhuite, Machu Picchu, Chachabamba, Choquesuysuy and Guamanmarca, the architectural style of several important features appears to be of Chachapoya design, suggesting that Chachapoya workers were probably involved in the construction. This suggests that Tupaq Inka probably ordered the construction, colonial documents also suggest that Tupac Inca ruled Choquequirao since his great grandson, Tupa Sayri, claimed ownership of the site and neighboring lands during Spanish colonization. It was one of the last bastions of resistance and refuge of the Son of the Sun, Manco Inca Yupanqui, spreading over 700 meters, the ceremonial area drops as much as 65 meters from the elevated areas to the main square. The city also played an important role as a link between the Amazon Jungle and the city of Cusco, Choquequirao is situated at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level on a southwest-facing spur of a glaciated peak above the Apurimac River. The region is characterized by mountain topography and covered with Amazonian flora and it is 98 km west of Cusco, in the Vilcabamba range. Architecturally it is similar to Machu Picchu, also there is a conglomeration of common buildings clustered away from the plaza. Excavations and surface items suggest they were used for workshops. Most buildings are well-preserved and well-restored, restoration continues, the terrain around the site was greatly modified. The central area of the site was leveled artificially and the hillsides were terraced to allow cultivation. The typical Inca terraces form the largest constructions on site, many of the ceremonial structures are associated with water. There are two unusual temple waka sites that lie several hundred meters lower than the two plazas and these are carefully crafted step terraces down a steep slope are designed around water

16.
Coricancha
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Coricancha, Korikancha, Qurikancha, or Quri Kancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. Originally named Inti Kancha or Inti Wasi, it was dedicated to Inti, mostly destroyed after the 16th century war with the Spanish conquistadors much of its stonework forms the foundation of the Santo Domingo church and convent. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui rebuilt Cusco and the House of the Sun, enriching it with more oracles and edifices and he provided vases of gold and silver for the Mama-cunas, nuns, to use in the veneration services. Finally, he took the bodies of the seven deceased Incas, the walls were once covered in sheets of solid gold, and its adjacent courtyard was filled with golden statues. Spanish reports tell of its opulence that was fabulous beyond belief, when the Spanish required the Inca to raise a ransom in gold for the life of the leader Atahualpa, most of the gold was collected from Coricancha. The Spanish colonists built the Church of Santo Domingo on the site, demolishing the temple, construction took most of a century. This is one of sites where the Spanish incorporated Inca stonework into the structure of a colonial building. Major earthquakes severely damaged the church, but the Inca stone walls, built out of huge, tightly-interlocking blocks of stone, nearby is an underground archaeological museum, which contains numerous interesting pieces, including mummies, textiles, and sacred idols from the site. The site now includes the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo. Iperu, tourist information and assistance Tourism in Peru Media related to Qurikancha at Wikimedia Commons

17.
Cumbe Mayo
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Cumbe Mayo is at an average altitude of 3,500 meters above sea level and 20 kilometers southwest from Cajamarca. Built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 B. C. E, the Cumbe Mayo and it lies in the Archaeological Complex of Cumbemayo, a place where the highest hydraulic technology of ancient Peruvian communities and the impact of time upon nature are wonderfully combined. The canals at Cumbe Mayo are thought to be at least 3,000 years old, archeologists aren’t exactly sure why they were built, but it’s thought that the canals were meant to slow down and regulate the movement of water. They were likely constructed using obsidian hammers, one of the main attractions of Cumbemayo, or Narrow River in Cajamarca Quechua, is the aqueduct. Heading towards the one can observe some stairways sculpted in stone. Also prominent is the Sanctuary a huge cliff resembling a head, whose mouth would be a grotto. The caves and shelters of the area evidence other stone engravings, the aqueduct winds down the hills toward the city of Cajamarca, stretching out over about five miles in length. The canals brought water from the grounds to the valleys below. A number of petroglyphs are also scattered around the aqueduct and in surrounding caves and these symbols provide additional insight into the people who constructed the canals. Built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 B. C. E, the Cumbe Mayo and it carefully follows the grade of the land, draining water from the hills’ melting snow, to the arid cities in the valleys below. As water was a scarcity, it was worshipped by the Cajamarca people thousands of years ago, towering above the Cumbe Mayo, are Los Frailones, the Stone Monks. Los Frailones are massive volcanic pillars, some stretching as high as 60 feet, the stone forests suddenly appear from the landscape, starkly contrasting the flat, grass-covered plains around Cajamarca. The erosive forces of wind and rain likely carved out the pillars, many of the pillars, carved by wind and rain have taken on new shapes, resembling hands and even animals, and allowing the mind to wander in the pristine Peruvian setting. Their impressive and rare geological formations, where some will identify the shapes of monks forming part of procession, for this reason, this stone forest located in Cumbemayo is known as Los Frailones

18.
El Brujo
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The El Brujo Archaeological Complex, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru, is an ancient archaeological site that was occupied from preceramic times. Huaca Prieta is the earliest part of the complex, later, the site was part of the Cupisnique culture and the Salinar culture. But the biggest constructions on the site belong to the Moche culture, in this area, there are also the remains of the later Lambayeque and Chimú. Huaca El Brujo and Huaca Cao Viejo were built by the Moche sometime between AD1 and 600, Huaca Cao Viejo is famous for its polychrome reliefs and mural paintings, and the discovery of the Señora de Cao, the first known governess in Peru. Both appeared in National Geographic magazine in July 2004 and June 2006, the site officially opened to the public in May 2006, and a museum exhibition was proposed for 2007. Archaeologists believe that the language was influenced by Quechua, an ancient tongue still spoken by millions of people across the Andes

19.
Guitarrero Cave
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Guitarrero Cave is located in the Callejón de Huaylas valley in Yungay Province, in the Ancash region of Peru. The cave stands 50 m above Rio Santa and 2,580 m meters above sea level, Guitarrero Cave has evidence of human use around 8,000 BCE and possibly as early as 10,560 BCE. A humans mandible and teeth found in the cave have been dated to 10,610 BCE. Above all that, there were a series of Archaic period campfires, wood, bone, antler and fiber cordage were among the artifacts that were recovered from the level, as well as willow leaf, tanged, lanceolate, and concave base Ichuna/Arcata projectile points. A single grinding slab and a bone flesher were also recovered from this part of the area, levels were included in the Early and Middle Horizon occupations, cist tombs, and wall paintings between about the 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. In the 1960s, archeologists discovered artifacts in a state of preservation at the site. Remarkably, textiles, wood and leather tools, and basketry have been preserved intact, some of the evidence of early domesticated beans Phaseolus, chili, corn and other cultivars have been argued for Guitarrero. Fiberwork found in the dates back over ten-thousand years – the earliest found in South America. The cave held utilitarian containers made by twisting, looping, the people of Guitarrero Cave are possible ancestors of the Chavín culture. Some of the earliest cultivated plants in South America have been found in the cave, zapallo, first appears 7,000 BCE Maize or corn, possibly first traces but not conclusively identified from 6,200 BCE. Maize has been identified in the Ayacucho Region of south central Peru as early as 4,400 and 3,100 BCE, art of the Andes, from Chavín to Inca

Guitarrero Cave
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Guitarrero Cave

20.
Huaca de la Luna
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Huaca de la Luna is a large adobe brick structure built mainly by the Moche people of northern Peru. Along with the Huaca del Sol, the Huaca de la Luna is part of Huacas de Moche, the Huacas de Moche site is located 4 km outside the modern city of Trujillo, near the mouth of the Moche River valley. The Huaca de la Luna, though it is the smaller of the two huacas at the site, has yielded the most archaeological information. The Huaca del Sol was partially destroyed and looted by Spanish conquistadors in the 17th century, archeologists believe that the Huaca del Sol may have served for administrative, military, and residential functions, as well as a burial mound for the Moche elite. The Huaca de la Luna served primarily a ceremonial and religious function, today the Huaca de la Luna is colored the soft brown of its adobe brickwork. At the time of construction, it was decorated in registers of murals which were painted in black, bright red, sky blue, white, the sun and weather has since utterly faded these murals away. Inside the Huaca are other murals created in earlier phases of construction, many of these depict a deity now known as Ayapec. Ayapec is a pre-Quechua word translating as all knowing, wrinkle-Face is the name given to another deity by the later Inca because of the deitys appearance. Many of the bricks used in the structure bear one of over 100 different markings. Each team was assigned a mark to put on their bricks. The Huaca de la Luna is a complex of three main platforms, each one serving a different function. The northernmost platform, at one time decorated with a variety of murals. The surviving central and southern platforms have been the focus of most excavations, the central platform has yielded multiple high-status burials interred with a variety of fine ceramics, suggesting that it was used as a burial ground for the Moche religious elite. The grave goods found at the Huaca del Sol suggest it may have used for the interment of political rulers. The eastern platform, black rock and adjacent patios were the sites of human sacrifice rituals and these are depicted in a variety of Moche visual arts, most notably painted ceramics. After the sacrifice, bodies of victims would be hurled over the side of the Huaca and left exposed in the patios. Researchers have discovered multiple skeletons of adult males at the foot of the rock, all of whom show signs of trauma, usually a severe blow to the head, the World Monuments Fund has been working at Huaca de la Luna to support needed conservation work. This includes ongoing assessments, documentation, stabilization, and consolidation of excavated architectural, el Brujo Moche culture Huanchaco Trujillo, Peru Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca

Huaca de la Luna
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The moche god Ai apaec (decapitador) on a wall inside the temple or Huaca of the Moon
Huaca de la Luna
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Museum Huacas of Moche
Huaca de la Luna
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A view of the Huaca de la Luna, with Cerro Blanco in the background.
Huaca de la Luna
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The main mural of the Huaca de la Luna

21.
Huaca del Sol
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The Huaca del Sol is an adobe brick temple built by the Moche civilization on the northern coast of what is now Peru. The temple is one of several ruins found near the peak of Cerro Blanco. The other major ruin at the site is the nearby Huaca de la Luna, by 450 CE, eight different stages of construction had been completed on the Huaca del Sol. The technique was additive, new layers of brick were laid directly on top of the old, archeologists have estimated that the Huaca del Sol was composed of over 130 million adobe bricks and was the largest pre-Columbian adobe structure built in the Americas. The number of different makers marks on the bricks suggests that over a hundred different communities contributed bricks to the construction of the Huacas, the Huaca del Sol was composed of four main levels. The structure was expanded and rebuilt by different rulers over the course of time and it is believed to have originally been about 50 meters in height and 340m. by 160 m. at the base. Located at the center of the Moche capital city, the temple appears to have used for ritual, ceremonial activities and as a royal residence. Archaeological evidence attests to these functions, the operation of the hydraulic mine greatly damaged the Huaca del Sol. In total, approximately two-thirds of the structure has been lost to erosion, the remaining structure stands at a height of 41 meters. Looting and erosion due to El Niño continue to be major concerns to this day. Huaca de la Luna History of Peru Pre-Inca cultures www. huacas. com Sun and Moon Temples, Official website Huaca del Sol placemarks Google Earth. kmz Art of the Andes, rebecca Stone-Miller, Thames and Hudson,1995. The Incas and Their Ancestors, the archaeology of Peru, michael E. Moseley, Thames and Hudson,1992

Huaca del Sol
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Panoramic view of temple or Huaca of the Sun
Huaca del Sol
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Museum Huacas of Moche
Huaca del Sol
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Huaca del Sol as seen from the southeast, with the Moche River delta beyond and city ruins in the foreground.

22.
Huaca Prieta
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Huaca Prieta is the site of a prehistoric settlement beside the Pacific Ocean in the Chicama Valley, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru. It is a part of the El Brujo Archaeological Complex, which also includes Moche sites, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, before the ceramics were introduced. It consisted of a mound of ash, stones, textiles, plants and shells, with some burials. It was first excavated by Junius B, Bird in 1946–1947 who excavated three large test pits in or beside it. The many stone artifacts were not fancy—fish net weights, flakes and simple pebble tools, in the upper part of the mound there were many underground structures of unknown function, some with burials. They were made of cobblestones cemented with an ash-water mixture, the inhabitants fished, gathered shellfish, and grew fruit, gourds, squash, peppers, beans, tubers and, importantly, cotton. There is a low mound 70–170 m to the north where Bird excavated three test pits and he found many ruins and much refuse, including ceramics of the Guañape, Early Cupisnique and Cupisnique cultures. The last is linked to the highland Chavín culture, a large tsunami damaged both mounds leaving a thick layer of cobblestones just north of the preceramic mound, at about 850 BCE, between the two Cupisnique phases. Until recently, it was beilieved that maize was introduced to the rather late. In 2012, it was reported that corncobs found at two ancient sites in Peru may date from as early as 4700 B. C and this suggests that people living along the coast of northern Peru were already eating corn by that time. These results were reported by Dolores Piperno, and other scientists from Washingtons National Museum of Natural History This is the earliest maize discovered so far in South America, in 2016, 6000-year-old dyed cotton fabric was discovered at the Preceramic site of Huaca Prieta. Analysis of the pigment identified it as indigotin, an indigoid dye and this marks the earliest recorded use of indigo dye to date, predating the use of indigo in Egypts Fifth Dynasty by about 1,500 years. Andean preceramic Norte Chico civilization Cupisnique culture Huaca Ventarron K. Kris Hirst, Huaca Prieta, Formative Mound Construction in Peru archaeology. about. com

23.
Huari, Peru
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Huari is a small town in the Ancash Region in central Peru. It is the seat of the Huari Province and it lies on the eastern slope of the Andean mountain range known as the Cordillera Blanca. Many residential households also raise a few animals, including goats, sheep, pigs, occasionally cattle, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens, much of the trade in this rural area is barter. Huari is connected to the grid, and in 2005 some of the surrounding villages were just beginning to be connected to the grid. Huari in the year 1965 In the mid-1960s electricity was generated by a small hydroelectric plant. The plant supplied AC power from dusk to dawn, at dawn the natural-stream water was diverted back into the pipes that supplied potable water until dusk. Several streets—mostly no wider than four meters—were cobbled and maintained for vehicular traffic, there were no concrete or asphalted streets, although many streets had raised cobbled sidewalks. Crossing the Cordillera Blanca was facilitated by a tunnel about 800 meters length. This tunnel was a 5-meter cylindrical tube that had been blasted, the ceiling and walls were unfinished, and year-round the water seeps at numerous places kept the rough but generally level one-lane roadway constantly muddy and covered with puddles. From Huari the city of Huaraz was a trip of about four hours

Huari, Peru
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Huari

24.
Huayna Picchu
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Huayna Picchu, Wayna Picchu or Wayna Pikchu is a mountain in Peru around which the Urubamba River bends. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District and it rises over Machu Picchu, the so-called lost city of the Incas, and divides it into sections. The Incas built a trail up the side of the Huayna Picchu, the peak of Huayna Picchu is 2,693 metres above sea level, or about 260 metres higher than Machu Picchu. According to local guides, the top of the mountain was the residence for the high priest, every morning before sunrise, the high priest with a small group would walk to Machu Picchu to signal the coming of the new day. The Temple of the Moon, one of the three temples in the Machu Picchu area, is nestled on the side of the mountain and is situated at an elevation lower than Machu Picchu. Adjacent to the Temple of the Moon is the Great Cavern, the other major local temples in Machu Picchu are the Temple of the Condor, Temple of Three Windows, Principal Temple, Unfinished Temple, and the Temple of the Sun, also called the Torreon. Huayna Picchu may be visited throughout the year, but the number of visitors allowed on Huayna Picchu is restricted to 400. A steep and, at times, exposed pathway leads to the summit, some portions are slippery and steel cables provide some support during the one-hour climb. The ascent is more challenging between November and April because the path up the mountain becomes slippery in the rainy season, better conditions for climbing can be expected during the dry season, which runs from May to September. From the summit, a trail leads down to the Gran Caverna. These natural caves, on the face of the mountain, are lower than the starting point of the trail. The return path from the caves completes a loop around the mountain where it rejoins the main trail, phutuq Kusi Aguirre, the Wrath of God, a 1972 film filmed partly on the stone stairway of Huayna Picchu. Machu Picchu travel guide from Wikivoyage

25.
Inka Uyu
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Inka Uyu, is a site of cut-stone structures found at the site of Chucuito in Peru. Inca Uyu is a part of one of the two plazas that make up the site of Chucuito, Inca Uyu is one of the most interesting structures in the Titicaca Basin as it is an arrangement of carved stones protruding from the earth within a walled rectangular ruin. The site is a walled enclosure next to a Santo Domingo church, the 86 carved stones are five-foot high mushroom-shaped stones. After archaeological study, it was determined that the stones were ancient, there is some disputation that the stones have been moved, as the original excavation did not describe them being arranged upright into rows, as they are found today. The structures was first excavated by Harry and Marion Tschopik, archaeologists who specialized in Peru, in 1950 and it was then further excavated by Orompelio Vidal in the 1960s. He worked on clearing the surrounding structures. He found and replaced the upper row of stones at the site, the purpose of the site is still unknown, although some say it was an ancient fertility temple where fertility rites took place. This is due to the shape that people attribute to penises. This is also said because in Aymara, Inca Uyo means virile member of the Inca and it was said to cure many women of their infertility. Inka Uyu was declared a National Heritage of the Nation by the National Institute of Culture, inka Uyu is located in the Puno Region, Puno Province, Chucuito District

Inka Uyu
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Inka Uyu

26.
Inka Wasi, Huancavelica
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Inka Wasi is an archaeological site in the Huancavelica Region in Peru. The Inca palace is considered one of the most important monuments of the Huancavelica Region, inka Wasi is located in the Huaytará Province, Huaytará District, about 25 km from Huaytará. It is situated at a height of 3,804 m. www. panoramio. com Complejo arqueologico Incawasi, Huaytará - Huancavelica

Inka Wasi, Huancavelica
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Inka Wasi

27.
Inti Punku
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Inti Punku or Intipunku is an archaeological site in the Cusco Region of Peru that was once a fortress of the sacred city, Machu Picchu. It is also the name of an Incan Trail connected to Machu Picchu and it was believed that the steps were a control gate for those who enter and exited the Sanctuary. It is one of the most important archeological constructions, Inti Punku was once the main entrance to Machu Picchu. This site was the entry point from the South into Cusco. Inti Punku is dedicated to the cult of the Inti, the Sun god, the sun would come out from this site. It is located 2745 meters above the sea level, the altitude of the climb to Into Punku from Machu Picchu is 290 metres. It is a archaeological site with windows and gates that are held up by terraces. This is the first place that tourists can see the whole sanctuary, tourists are able to see the sun rise over the whole mountains by Machu Picchu. The location of the gate was given to watch the people passing and this hike has been recommended by many tour guides as giving a great view of the city of Machu Picchu. In order to get to Inti Punku, the Inca Trail must be trekked, there are visible signs throughout the Inca Trail indicating directions of the Sun Gate. Due to the unpredictable weather, tourists are advised to be prepared with rain gear

Inti Punku
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People waiting for the sunrise at Inti Punku
Inti Punku
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Sign at check-point near Willkaraqay showing the location of Inti Punku

28.
Inti Watana, Ayacucho
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Inti Watana, Intiwatana or Pumaqucha is an archaeological site in Peru. It is located in the Ayacucho Region, Vilcas Huamán Province, Vischongo District, the site was declared a National Cultural Heritage of Peru by Resolución Directoral No. Nº 751/INC on July 27,2001

Inti Watana, Ayacucho
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The archaeological site Inti Watana at the lake Pumaqucha

29.
Inti Watana, Urubamba
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Inti Watana or Intiwatana at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu is a notable ritual stone associated with the astronomic clock or calendar of the Inca in South America. Machu Picchu was built c.1450 by the Sapa Inca Pachacuti as a country estate, in the late 16th century, the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo and the clergy destroyed those inti watana which they could find. They did so as they believed that the Incas religion was a blasphemy, the inti watana of Machu Picchu was found intact by Bingham in 1911, indicating that the Spanish conquerors had not found it. The inti watana of Machu Picchu was carved at the top of a natural pyramids summit and it is characterized by odd shapes which defy interpretation, and incomplete descriptions of its purpose in Inca chronicles. Featuring a slightly inclined plane at its top, a stone column tilts 13 degrees northward. Other features include a granite block resembling a carved shelf, bench, or altar, possibly used as a sundial, it was aligned with the suns position during the winter solstice. The Inca believed the stone held the sun in its place along its path in the sky. At midday on November 11 and January 30 the sun stands almost above the pillar, on June 21, the stone is casting the longest shadow on its southern side and on December 21, a much shorter one on its northern side. The base is said to be in the shape of a map of the Inca Empire but most archaeologists disagree, observing that the base is squat and stubby whereas the Tawantinsuyu is long and thin. Pedro Sueldo Nava describes the landmark as one of the most beautiful. Inti, the ancient Incan sun god Kusichaka River Machu Qinti Pakaymayu Phutuq Kusi Wayna Pikchu Wayna Qinti Sallqantay

Inti Watana, Urubamba
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Inti Watana

30.
Petroglyphs of Jinkiori
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The petroglyphs of Jinkiori are petroglyphs that are engraved in a big rock called the “Monolith of Jinkiori. The rock is located near Quero River two hours walking from the town of Pilcopata, the petroglyphs that were engraved directly on the monolith have an Amazonian origin. There is also a strange engraving that resembles a key and these petroglyphs can be abstract representations of mythological or cosmological beliefs, made by people that have assumed ayahuasca. It is possible that the engravers were ancestors of Huachipaeri, an group that live until now in the Kosnipata valley. An interesting characteristic of the Monolith is a little basin possibly of artificial origin, there is the possibility that the basin was used as recipient where the corn was stuffed in order to transform it into a typical Amazonian drink called chicha. Another theory is that the basin could have been used to purify a baby

Petroglyphs of Jinkiori
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Details of Petroglyphs of Jinkiori

31.
Kotosh
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Kotosh is an archaeological site near Huánuco containing a series of buildings with six periods of continuous occupation, dating from the Late Archaic to the Early Intermediate Period. The site gave name to the Kotosh Religious Tradition, which existed in Peru in 2300—1200 BCE, Kotosh people cultivated crops, used marine resources, built permanent settlements and multistoreyed ceremonial buildings. Kotosh also contains artifacts of later origin, mostly belonging to Chavín culture, three cultural phases which preceded the Chavin culture were identified at Kotosh, Kotosh Wairajirca Mito The Kotosh Period culture stratum was situated directly beneath the Chavin culture stratum. At this stage, maize cultivation has appeared, some Kotosh elements show links with the Chavin culture. For example, stirrup spouts, plain rocker stampings, and curvilinear ceramic designs, there are also similarities in black paint on red ceramics. Kotosh Black Polished Incised pottery is similar to Classical Chavin pottery and this is when the first pottery appeared. Wayrajirca pottery was found at its type site Wayrajirca. It is characterized by the brown and black styles decorated with incisions. The designs are simple and geometric, anthropomorphic figures be added at later periods, the Kotosh Period strongly maintained the traditions of the preceding Wairajirca Period, including the ceramic tradition. This was the earliest identified cultural period, which was preceramic, during this period, The Temple of the Crossed Hands was first built. The image of crossed arms is characteristic for the Kotosh temple iconography, some Lauricocha culture stone tools were found in this period. Andean preceramic Kotosh Religious Tradition Piruru Del Busto Duthurburu, José Antonio, Perú preincaico, colección de obras escogidas de José Antonio del Busto. Lima, Empresa Editora El Comercio S. A.2011, ISBN 978-612-306-033-6 Kauffmann Doig, Federico, Historia y arte del Perú antiguo. ISBN 9972-40-213-4 Kaulicke, Peter, El Perú Antiguo I, los períodos arcaico y formativo, pp.38. Colección Historia del Perú, editada por la Empresa Editora El Comercio S. A. Lima,2010, ISBN 978-612-4069-86-4 Introduction to Kotosh site

32.
Kuelap
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The fortress of Kuelap or Cuélap, is a walled city associated with the Chachapoyas culture built in 6th century AD. It consists of more than four hundred buildings surrounded by exterior stone walls. The complex is situated on a ridge overlooking the Utcubamba Valley in northern Peru and it could have been built to defend against the Huari or others, but evidence of hostile groups at the site is minimal. The monumental ruins of Kuelap are situated at 3000 metres above sea level, the ruins of Kuelap are located at the summit of a hill that rises on the left bank of the Utcubamba, at coordinates 6°25′07″ S 77°55′24″ W, according to the engineer Hernán Corbera. Access to Kuelap is gained via El Tingo, a town at approximately 1800m above sea level, a horse trail also winds along the left bank of Tingo river and leads eventually up to Marcapampa, a small level upland near the site. Radiocarbon dating samples show that construction of the started in the 6th century AD. Through the pre-Columbian, conquest and colonial periods, there are only four brief written references to Kuelap, subsequently, Kuelap gained the attention of explorers, historians and archaeologists. The first exploratory expedition mounted by archaeologists was directed by Federico Kauffmann Doig between May and June 1997. Five mausoleums, protected by a filled with rock paintings, were found to be replete with funeral bundles, objects of ceramics, quipus. In July 2010, remains of 79 human bodies dating back to the seventh century AD were found inside a stone believed to have been a secondary grave site. The remains had been removed from their resting places, a widespread custom in pre-Columbian Peru. Most of the bones found to date are adult. Judging from its size, Kuelaps construction required considerable effort. The structure is almost 600 metres in length and its walls rise up to 19 metres in height, there are multiple levels or platforms within the complex. Because of its extension, these flat elevations support about 400 constructions, in some cases, there are decorated walls with friezes of symbolic content that, in general, seem to evoke eyes and birds that take the form of a letter V in a chain. La Atalaya, a structure located at the northern end of Kuelap. El Castillo, a located in the most conspicuous sector of Kuelap on the top anden. The first level is accessed by three portals, two located on the east or principal frontage, the placed on the western wall

33.
Kuntur Wasi
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Kuntur Wasi is the name given to the ruins of a religious center with complex architecture and stone sculptures, located in the Andean highlands of Peru. It is believed the inhabitants had a link with the Chavín culture, Kuntur Wasi is located in the Northern Mountain Range of Peru, specifically at the headwaters of the Jequetepeque River, in the region of the city of Cajamarca near the small town of San Pablo. The Jequetepeque valley provided a corridor between the coastal region and the highlands. Kuntur Wasi was a center where people congregated and it is thought to have been constructed around 1000-700 BCE, during the Initial Period. The architecture consists of a temple, quadrangular platforms, a sunken courtyard. In the floor of one there is an anthropomorphic figure made of clay. It is painted with red, malachite green, and black, yellow. Its face has big eyes and a wide mouth with prominent canine teeth. There are also stepped platforms and funeral structures, lithosculptures have been found, similar to the Chavín style. Kuntur Wasi was occupied between the years 1200-50 BC and it was first discovered in 1945 by Julio C. In 1989, scientists from the University of Tokyo excavated four tombs at Kuntur Wasi, valuable items, such as pectoral necklaces, gold crowns, ornamental stone beads, earrings, sets of dishes and iconographies of people were discovered in the burial area. Since the beginning of the University of Tokyos archaeological mission, eight tombs have found in the area. The Kuntur Wasi Museum, managed by citizens, opened in 1994. Cultural periods of Peru Cupisnique Kotosh Corantijn Basin, Suriname

Kuntur Wasi
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View of the main platform of the archaeological site of Kuntur Wasi
Kuntur Wasi
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Shown within Peru
Kuntur Wasi
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'The crown of the fourteen faces' of one of the excavated tombs of Kuntur Wasi. It was part of the funerary equipment of the ruling elite
Kuntur Wasi
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Chavinoid relief of Kuntur Wasi, note the tusks and face tabby typical of Chavín art

34.
Kusichaka River
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Kusichaka River or Kusichaka River, is a river in Peru located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, on the border of the districts Machupicchu and Ollantaytambo. Its waters flow to the Willkanuta River, Kusichaka River originates in the Willkapampa mountain range east of the mountain Salkantay, south of the Pallqay and southwest of the Wayanay. Its direction is mainly to the northeast along the villages Pampaqawana, Churu, Pawqarkancha, Ranrapata, some of its little affluents are Llullucha River from the left and Churumayu and Kiskamayu from the right. Shortly before the Kusichaka River meets the Willkanuta River it flows along the archaeological site Patallaqta, the confluence of the rivers is between the villages Quriwayrachina and Pincha Unuyuq. The Kusichaka valley is an important region in Peru, significant for the evidence that it has provided of Inca civilization. It was an important part of the Inca empire. The valley has been the subject of archaeological study over many years under the direction of Dr. Ann Kendall O. B. E. of the Cusichaca Trust

Kusichaka River
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Kusichaka River as it flows along Patallaqta just before its confluence with the Willkanuta River (background)

35.
Llaqtapata
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Llaqtapata llaqta place, pata elevated place / above, at the top / edge, bank, shore, pronounced yakta-pahta, hispanicized Llactapata) is an archaeological site about 5 km west of Machu Picchu. The complex is located in the Cusco Region, La Convención Province, Santa Teresa District and it appears to be the site originally reported by Hiram Bingham as having this name. Although the site was explored by Bingham, it was more extensively explored and mapped by the Thomson. Bingham first discovered Llaqtapata in 1912 and we found evidence that some Inca chieftain had built his home here and had included in the plan ten or a dozen buildings. Bingham locates the site on top of a ridge between the valleys of the Aobamba and the Salcantay, about 5,000 feet above the estate of Huaquina, here we discovered a number of ruins and two or three modern huts. The Indians said that the place was called Llacta Pata, Bingham did not investigate the ruins thoroughly, however, and they were not studied again for another 70 years. Llaqtapata may have been a member of the network of interrelated administrative and it probably played an important astronomical function during the solstices and equinoxes

Llaqtapata
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View of Machu Pichu from Llaqtapata

36.
Machu Picchu
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Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres above sea level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru, above the Sacred Valley, most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Often mistakenly referred to as the Lost City of the Incas, the Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls and its three primary structures are the Inti Watana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored, Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll. In the Quechua language, machu means old or old person, while picchu means peak, mountain or prominence with a base that ends in sharp peaks. Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca and its construction appears to date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui and Túpac Inca Yupanqui. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572 and it is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area. Although it was located only about 80 kilometers from the Inca capital in Cusco, the conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. The types of sacred rocks defaced by the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu Picchu, over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman. Some evidence indicates that German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874. In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was shown to Machu Picchu by a local farmer, Bingham brought Machu Picchu to international attention and organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation. He returned in 1914 and 1915 to continue with excavation, in 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometres surrounding Machu Picchu a Historical Sanctuary. In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas. In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as a masterpiece of architecture

Machu Picchu
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Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu
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Hiram Bingham III at his tent door near Machu Picchu in 1912
Machu Picchu
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View of the city of Machu Picchu in 1912 showing the original ruins after major clearing and before modern reconstruction work began.
Machu Picchu
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The dawn mist lifts above the terraced structures

37.
Marcahuamachuco
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Marcahuamachuco is an archeological site of Pre-Incan ruins in the La Libertad Region of Peru. Although less well-known than other sites, it is considered significant and has referred to by archaeologists as Machu Picchu of the North. Construction of Marcahuamachuco began around AD400, during the Andean Middle Horizon period and this was well before the Huari and the later imperial expansion of the Incas. Before being conquered by the Incas in the 14th century, Marcahuamachuco was known as northern Perus most important political, economic, researchers believed that the site as an oracle center, and for religious and political ceremonies. In the later stages of the culture, it was used as a site for the elite. Its influence extended through much of northern Peru and contemporary southern Ecuador, built defensively on top of an isolated highland mesa that is 5 kilometers long and 500 meters wide, with a vast view of the surroundings, Marcahuamachuco contains several major compounds. These were surrounded by curved stone walls as high as 12 meters, the remains of inner galleries, rooms and plazas suggest administrative and ceremonial functions. During the later Middle Period followed into the Intermediate Late Horizon and these contributed to the ceremonial functions of the site. Marcahuamachuco probably had oracles, who attracted people from the northern Andes, the cult was probably related to deities, an old cult to Ataujo, and a more recent cult to Catequil. Marcahuamachuco became a prominent center at the time that the Wari in southern Peru culture flourished. The site was abandoned in the 15th century. The latest investigations of the site by researchers John and Theresa Lange Topic suggested that occupation may have been seasonal and their estimate is based upon the quantity of arable land and water availability. One of the earliest sketch maps on Marcahuamachuco comes from the 18th-century document prepared by Bishop Baltazar Jaime Martinez Compañón, early descriptions and drawings from the late 19th century were done by European travelers, as the field of archeology was developing professionally. Charles Wiener in 1880 published the first topographical description of Marcahuamachuco, ernst Middendorf visited Marcahuamachuco in 1887, describing its principal compounds and comparing the site to Kuelap. The first formal archaeological research in Marcahuamachuco was conducted in during three months in 1900 by Max Uhle and Julio C, tello under the auspice of the University of California, Berkeley. Uhle photographed the site and corrected the previous maps prepared by Wiener and his research was followed in 1941-42 by Theodore McCown of UC. In addition to reviewing Uhle´s writings and collected specimens stored at the University´s Museum of Anthropology, in 1944 archaeologist Hans Horkheimer published photographs from Marcahuamachuco, which showed stone heads similar to those of Chavin. John Thatcher, a student of McCown, continued research in the site during 1968-69