Ages was too notable and impressive in the sixteenth century, when the distinctively modern epoch of history began. At the same time, the world had changed, and
the Middle

be

forgotten

the feeling that the
for

subject

long unaccompanied

was a great one was by insight into where its
three centuries
it

greatness lay.

Hence
and
its

for

rather

tantalised than satisfied the

demands of

the poetic
is

imagination
efforts

;

history during that period

very largely the record of tentative and irresolute
to enter into its spirit once more. It has found really sympathetic treatment only within the
last

sixty or sixty-five years, and, in

its

collective

aspect, only at the

hands of Tennyson.
its

These

later fortunes of the legend are, of course,

much
the

less

important than

development during

Dark and the Middle Ages, but they are interesting and instructive in their own way. At any rate, it seemed worth while to give a more

VI 11

PREFACE

account of them than, to my knowledge, My difficulty in the has hitherto been attempted. historical portion of my book (Chapters I. to V.) has been that, working to a great extent without
detailed

predecessors,

I

gather
reading.

my
In

data

have had for from chance

the

hints
I

the circumstances,

most part to and general cannot hope to

have avoided grave omissions with respect both to minor writers at home and abroad, and to the I minor works of important continental writers. shall be grateful for criticisms and suggestions.

With the chapters on Tennyson (VI. to IX.) the Here there is certainly no is very different. reason to complain of any lack of material, and
case

the danger
criticism

is

rather of saying over again

been said already.
to
I

My
my

apology
that

for

what has adding another
is

the

many

already exist,
is

that,

so

far

as

know,

interpretation

somewhat

different

from those that have hitherto been offered. cannot but think that much of the disparaging comment on the Idylls of the King which we

And

1

have lately heard,
allegoric allegoric

is

due
to

to

the neglect

of their
false

character,
clue.

or

the adoption
of

of a

Rightly
the

understood, they seem

to

me

to

solve

problem

modern
climax

Arthurian
least

poetry,

and

to

represent

the

of at

the later development.

To
of the

the essay which forms the

proper substance

book I have prefixed an introduction on Of course, the the earlier growth of the legend. more one makes oneself acquainted with Arthurian literature, whether it be the romances themselves or the dissertations of scholars, the more disinclined

PREFACE
one must
the matter.
in

ix

feel

to express a decided

opinion

about
is

Clear knowledge of the subject

still

the making.
often

The
serve

experts are by no means

in

agreement
researches

with each other,

and

chiefly

most luminous to show how much
their

remains dark.
Mr.
the
Nutt's

Moreover, since the publication of Studies on the Holy Grail, in 1888,

problem has shifted to the region of Celtic philology, and my knowledge of Celtic literature, even in translated form, is not wide enough to
entitle

me

to share in that part of the

discussion.

Two
sketch.

reasons, however, have decided me, with

much

reluctance and diffidence, to insert

the preliminary
right to state

In the

first

place,

it

seemed

the presuppositions on which
later

my

treatment of the
In the
to
refer

development
I

to a great extent rests.

second place,
readers

did not

know where

else

who
idea

are

not

general
therefore

of

Arthurian students for some elder Arthurian story. I have

so far as possible, to keep on which the chief authorities are agreed or at least in regard to which their views are not irreconcilable, and clearly to mark as conjectural what is not yet passed as proven. My most important assumption is that there was a Brythonic nucleus of largely mythic material for the amplifications of romance. This theory, so far as the Grail is concerned, has in later years been revived and brought into prominence by Mr. Nutt in his laborious and brilliant essay and after a careful study of what a somewhat boisterous criticism has urged on the other side, it seems to me that, though some details ma)' need to be revised, and

endeavoured,

to points

;

x
though
existed
tention

PREFACE
a
very

complex
the
Celts,

legend

may
similar

not

have

among
still

Mr.

Nutt's

main con-

view for with maintained a larger range of stories has been
holds
the
field.

A

immense knowledge and fertility of suggestion by Whatever the ultimate decision Professor Rhys. difficult to see how some of the may be, it is
cases of filiation

and they would
connection.

suffice to

he adduces can be controverted prove some sort of Celtic
;

For the rest, I do not think I have said anything that cannot easily be reconciled with the hypotheses of a British or of a Breton origin, of the existence or the non-existence of an Anglo-

Norman
verse,
or,

literature,
in

of the

relative

priority of the

a

more primitive form, of the prose
especially
in

romances.
In
I

the

Introduction,

Section

IV.,

have made use with many modifications of an essay on The Three Cycles of Medieval Romance,

me in 1883. My book as a outcome of many years' occupation with the subject, and more immediately of a course of lectures delivered by me in the University of
published
is

by

whole

the

Sydney in 890-91. The pleasant duty remains of acknowledging
1

the

have received from many friends. My colleague, Professor J. T. Wilson of Sydney Professor University, E. Caird, now Master of Balliol, Professor John Nichol, formerly of Glasgow University, Professor Henry Jones of St. Andrews University, Professor W. Paton Ker of University College, London, have read the manuscript or
assistance which
I

/

PREFACE
proofs,

xi

altogether

or

in

part,

and

I

owe

them
I

many

valuable suggestions.

To

the two last

am

especially

indebted for criticism, both general and
has
to

been of the greatest service. I thank Professor Ker for procuring me information which at the time was inaccessible to me, and for putting me on the track of things Other friends, too which I should have missed. numerous to mention, have laid me under deep
minute, that
also

have

obligations

by help of various

kinds.

M. W.
2nd January,
1894.

MACCALLUM.

CONTENTS
Introduction
I.

—

Page

Plan of the Essay

II.

Arthur among the Celts

....
.

i

3

III.

The Romantic Historians
Chivalry and
its

.

.

.

21

IV.

Requirements

.

.

38
58

y

V.
VI.

The Verse and the Prose Romances
Ballads

.

/

Malory's Compilation and the English
85

CHAPTER

I

From the Reformation to the Puritan Revolution

109

CHAPTER

II

From the Restoration to the French Revolution

146

CHAPTER
The Romantic
Revivai

III

179

xiv

CONTENTS
Page

CHAPTER

IV
.

Tennyson's Contemporaries on the Continent

214

CHAPTER V
Tennyson's Contemporaries at Home
.

.

.

248

CHAPTER
v'

VI
289

Tennyson as Arthurian Poet

CHAPTER
<

VII
.

y General

Meaning of the Idylls

.

.

.

321

CHAPTER

VIII
355

J The
The

Idylls as a Series

CHAPTER

IX
.
.

Idylls as a Series (Continued)

.382

Appendix—
I.

Blackmore's Epics on Arthur

.

.

.

4'4

II.

Sebastian Evans' Arthurian Poems

.

.

419
423

III.

The Time Occupied by the

Idylls

.

.

Index

429

TENNYSON'S IDYLLS OF THE KING

AND ARTHURIAN STORY FROM THE XVIth CENTURY

INTRODUCTION

PLAN OF THE ESSAY

TN

modern
pies

literature

the

story

of Arthur occu-

a
it

somewhat
is

peculiar

position.

On

the
cher-

one hand,

among
not

the themes, consecrated by
the world
die.

a popularity long and wide, that

Having its ishes first source in remote Celtic tradition, it worked a channel to medieval France, where, fed by tributary streams, it rose and swelled till it spread into Britain and the Empire, and even more disand
will

they deliver the classic version of that story as a in the highest perfection of it It may be maintained that which it is capable.
whole, and present
peculiar
its

merits

and

defects

correspond

so

PLAN OF THE ESS A Y
closely

3

with

the

inherent

limitations

lences of Tennyson's genius, that in
its

and excelhim it found

unique
point

predestined

this

of
it it

written,

and
its

interpreter. It is from view that the present essay is aims at tracing the history of the

legend after
discussing

had

crystallised into

its

typical form,

characteristic

peculiarities,

noting the
its

more

significant

instances

of

its

acceptance,

and its neglect, and showing how these in a manner lead up to a truer comprehension of its spirit, till in the fulness of days Tennyson comes to make the heritage his own.
modification

II

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS

SHORTLY
lotte

after

the

publication
of

of

Lady Chartales,

Guest's

collection

she entitled

the

Mabinogion

made

it

the chief basis for

which 837-1 849), Renan a very interesting and
(i

Welsh

sympathetic article on the Poetry of the Celtic Races. Recognising the comparative lateness of
the
stories
in

their existing

form,

Renan was yet
character

more impressed with

the
"

primitive

of

much
pears
"

that
;

they narrate.

Christianity hardly ap-

ally

he writes, " not that one is not occasionaware of its vicinity, but it in no wise alters the purely naturalistic medium in which everything occurs." Further on he explains what he " Among means by the term naturalistic the Cymry, the idea of the marvellous lies in nature
:

herself, in

her secret processes, in her inexhaustible

4
productivity.
It

INTRODUCTION
is

a

mysterious
apparition

swan,
of a

a

pro-

phetic

bird,

the

sudden

hand,

a

a black tyrant, a magic mist, a cry heard and makes men die for frieht, an object with extraordinary attributes. There is nothing of the monotheistic conception, according to which the marvellous is only a miracle, a derogation from established laws. Here, there is the
giant,
is

that

perfect naturalism,
sible,

the undefined faith in the pos-

the

belief in

the

existence
1

of independent
the
principle

beings
their
later,

that

bear

in

themselves
power."

of
the

own
effect

mysterious
in

A

dozen

years

Matthew Arnold

expressed

himself to

on The Study of Celtic Literature? After enumerating some of the strange " These agents in the Mabinogion, he exclaims are no medieval personages they belong to an
his lectures
:

same

;

world. The first thing reading the Mabinogion is how evidently the medieval story-teller is pillaging an antiquity of which he does not fully possess the
older, pagan,

mythological

that strikes one in

secret

the

but

he
ing

but

hut on he builds, what he builds is full of materials of which knows not the history, or knows by glimmertradition merely stones not of this building,' of an older architecture, greater, cunninger,
:

he

is

like

a peasant building

his

site

of Halicarnassus or Ephesus

;

'

:

more majestical." Such were the impressions which the Welsh stories left on the minds of two men of genius, both of them scholars, and both with a singularly
1

Revue des Deux Mondes,
Published
in 1867.

1854.

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS

5

wide range of literary knowledge and culture. Their testimony shows that the world of ancient belief submerged in the medieval narrative is not perceptible to the philological specialist alone, but present for such as have eyes to see. is visibly

The

tenacious

character of the
its

race

that

owned
slightly

the legends, and disguised

seclusion from the outer world,
its

have preserved much of
but perfectly
recent form.

ancient

lore,

recognisable under a

more

Meanwhile, the specialist, too, had already been busy with these and other data, and in subsequent years has exploited them on more scientific principles, to reconstruct, if it be possible, the edifice of Welsh and of Celtic heathendom. Nor for this is there any lack of material, though it can be utilised only by those who are thoroughly equipped in Celtic scholarship, and by them only with extreme caution and after laborious research. Thus there are the statements of Latin and Greek observers, and the votive inscriptions on temples and altars but both are rendered dubious by the tendency which then prevailed to seek everywhere for barbarous counterparts of the classic pantheon, and to romanise the national gods. Then there are the
;

possibly primitive elements,
ture of

embedded
which

in the litera-

Wales and

Ireland,

to writing during the earlier

was committed or later Middle Ages,
histories
like

and also perhaps in medieval of Nennius and Geoffrey, and rous romances that profess to But in all these of Britain. and sometimes impossible, to

those

even
cases

in

the chival-

deal with the matter
it

is

difficult,

say whether a thing

6

INTRODUCTION
stock,

belongs to the original
later addition
;

or

whether
is,

it

is

a of

and the
recourse
is

difficulty

of course, inutterances

creased

when

had

to the

innumerable possibilities of further contamination. Last and chief is the evidence of scientific philology, which presides over the whole inquiry, and, by the analysis of Celtic names
folklore, with its

modern

and words, makes large contributions of its own but though many of its results are established, many, too, are still conjectural. The materials are thus ample enough, but the task of examining them is beset with doubts and dangers, and those whose knowledge is most are least dogmatic in their as;

sertions.

Some
the story
fessor

points in these investigations that bear on

be illustrated from ProCeltic Heathendom, and Studies in the Arthurian Legend ; but it should be premised that the illustrations lose a great deal of their cogency when the arguments are curtailed and deprived of the cumulative support supplied by the whole body of his researches. One of the most interesting inscriptions which he cites, mentions a Mercurius Artaius} in which, according to a usual practice, the proper noun gives the god under his Roman name, and the adjective
Rhys's Lectures
on
preserves one of his Celtic designations.
epithet

of Arthur

may

Now

the

admits of being derived from the Aryan root, which, indeed, exists in the word Aryan, meaning to plough, so that Mercurius Artaius would be equivalent to the pure Latin, Mercurius Cultor,
Artaius
as he
1

is

termed

in

another inscription.
6.

Can any
40.

Celtic

Heathendom, page

Arthurian Legend, page

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
personage be found
in Celtic

(^

7)

legend with a similar
Irish

name

or function

?

In

old

story

a

certain

Airem occurs whose name has the same etymology
and who learned from watching the fairies how to In the very yoke oxen at the neck and shoulders. primitive Welsh story of Kulhwch and Olwen Arthur, whose name is possibly equivalent to the Latin arator (or artor, if there were a strong verb
y

arere),

is

associated

with
hill,

the

clearing,

trenching,

ploughing of a vast
identification

agriculture generally.

and with the processes of So this would suggest his
Gallic

with the mysterious

Mercury,

who

presided over culture.
as

Airem mentioned above Be Find, the white woman, and Arthur's wife as Gwenhwyvar, the white shadow or phantom. Each lady is carried away from her
Further, the wife of the

was known

husband
fairies,

:

the

Irish

one

by

Mider, king

of

the

who were

considered the denizens of Hades;

the British one

by Medrawd, the Welsh form of from the same root as Mider and in both cases the husband makes war against the ravisher. This was not the only abduction of which Guinevere was the victim. In the Life of Gi/das, she is carried away by Mel was, the Meleaguanz or Mellyagraunce of later romance,

Modred and
;

a derivative

country

where the place of her captivity is said to be the " whence no stranger ever returns," a transparent description of the world of the shades. 1 She would thus seem to be one of the numerous goddesses of the dusk or the dawn, who, like Helen of Greece, were considered now on the
1

Arthurian Legend, pages

51-52.

8

INTRODUCTION
the deities

side of

of light,
;

now on
war
is

the

side

of

the

deities

of darkness

and

waged

on

her account between the rival powers.

reminiscence of this hostility survives elsewhere. Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his account of Arthur,

A

makes him not only rescue Britain from the Saxons, but lead victorious expeditions into Scandinavia and other foreign realms and this has often been considered one of the historian's most shameless
;

inventions.

that such conquests originally

But there seems good reason to suppose had a mythic sense,

and

referred to the invasion

by the

culture-hero of

This was often associated by the Celts with a tract of waters, and was sometimes placed beyond the sea. Thus the well-known story of Procopius tells how Brittia was regarded by the Gauls as the abode of the dead, and how the souls of the departed were ferried across in a phantom boat to its misty cliffs and there is
the world of the shades.
;

were all in various ways identified with the home of Hades. In earlier times, however, this fabulous country seems to have been placed not beyond but beneath the waters. The memory of it survives in the famous sunken land of Lyonesse, which would mean the
Isles,

ground Western

for

believing

that

Ireland,

Spain,

the

the far side of

some

river,

land of Llion, or, as she is called in Irish, Liban, I noted personage, who was afterwards to become the Lady of the Lake, and was probably at first a goddess of the Nether World. It survives, too, in of submerged cities and villages so modern Wales and a hostile mythic race of early Ireland, with whom the Aryan colonists had
the
stories
in

common

;

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
to

9

contend, are called the Fomori, the Submarine

Ones.
Irish
is

Now, the name
Llychlyn and
it

for

Norway

in

Welsh and
;

Lochlann respectively
the

but

" before
it

came
flood

to

mean

home
thus

of the

Norsemen

denoted a mysterious country

in the

lochs or the

on the conquest by Arthur, not only of Scandinavia, but of Ireland and Scotland, which seem to have a similar Thus he makes Arawn king of the latter, meaning. and Arawn is known in Welsh story only as the
sea." 1

A

of

light

is

thrown

Head of Hades. The under world was conceived
ologies as a

in

many myth-

realm of wealth and knowledge, and the object of the culture-hero, in invading it, was to And there procure some of its blessings for men. are traces of this conception in the tales of Arthur for in one story he is represented as bringing back
;

a cauldron of

money from

Ireland,

and

in the

book

of

he succeeds in carrying away the cauldron of Hades. This cauldron, which will not cook for a coward, and from which mysterious utterances issue, is one of a numerous class in Celtic legend that are highly prized and are endowed with wonderful properties. Thus the Irish tales have a cauldron from which no company, however large, went away unsatisfied and there are many allusions
Taliessin
;

in

Gaelic folklore to basins with
Professor

strange

nutritive

and healing powers.
as a reference " to

Rhys

interprets this

some
;

primitive drink brewed
vessel,

by

the early

Aryan

"

and the sacred

supposed,
as

like other boons, to be derived

from the other world
the
it.

by the medicine man, would be regarded
1

Celtic

Heathendom, page

355.

See, too,

Arthurian Legend,

IO

INTRODUCTION

source of ecstasy, of poetry, of renewed vigour and
life. And there is a kindred story, into connection with which the stories of the cauldrons have been brought, the very early Mabinogi of Branwen. A

Bran the Blessed, wades across to Ireland, his followers accompanying him in ships, and afterwards makes his body a bridge over a river, on which they pass to the other side. Eventually he is wounded with a poisoned
British saint of gigantic size, called

dart in a contest that
slain

is

very unequal

;

for

all

his

foes are every night restored to

life

by being

thrown into a wondrous cauldron. Feeling his death approach, he bids his followers cut off his head and bear it with them to Britain they will want for nothing while it is in their company. And the promise comes true. For seven years they sit
;

feasting

at

Harlech,
the
is

for

eighty

years

in

Gwales,
enter-

oblivious of all else

amid the good cheer and
presence of the
these
fancies

tainment
provides.

that
It

friendly

head

in

that

have the origin of the Holy Grail. Hades, like the Sacred Cup, is associated with Carbonek, and its peculiarity that it would not cook for a coward may be considered a rough draught of the conception that the Grail is only to be attained by the pure in heart. Further, Bran, who, from his association with Ireland, may be taken as one of the dark divinities (for he is like no other saint in the Calendar, and his epithet of Blessed possibly refers less to spiritual beatitude than to the plenty of the under world), seems identical with the Bron, 1 who, in
1

we probably The cauldron of

This, of course,

is

only one explanation

among

several

;

for

in

no portion of

this subject is there

complete agreement

among

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
some
the
dish
later

II

stones,

is

one of the early guardians of
also

Grail,

and

who

expedition across the sea.
in

No

conducts a miraculous mention is made of a
of Bran
;

connection

with

the head

but

Professor
carried

Rhys remarks that it must have been about in some vessel, and suggests that

Bran's head on a dish and the poisoned spear with

which he was wounded formed the originals of the Bleeding Lance and the head in the dish which And the strange appear in the Grail Legends. virtue which Bran's head possessed of feeding those
around with the choicest delicacies, just as the Irish cauldron sent none away unsatisfied, remained a characteristic of the Grail down to the time of
Malory.
"

Thenne

ther entred

into

the

halle

the
ther

Holy

Graile, couerd

with whyte samyte, but
hit

was none myghte see

nor

who

bare

hit.

And

good odoures, and every knyght had suche metes and drynkes as he best loued in this world and whan the Holy Grayle had be borne through the hall, thenne the
there was al the halle fulfylled with
;

holy vessel departed sodenly that they wyste not where hit becam."
1

But the culture-hero, besides his own exploits for the benefit of men, is generally associated with a younger sun-god who is his protege and dependent, and very often his son. Is there any such person in
Arthurian story
scholars.
?

Malory's compilation, late as

it is,

But the theory of the Celtic origin of the

Grail, so

ingeniously maintained by Mr. Nutt, and afterwards, on rather
different lines,

by Professor Rhys, seems
xiii. 7.

to the present writer

very hard to refute.
1

Morte Darthur,

12

INTRODUCTION

answers the question, in the account it gives of the fight between Sir Marhaus and Sir Gawain, the latter one of Arthur's nephews and principal knights.
"

And therwith Syr Marhaus sette his spere ageyne a tree and alyghte, and tayed his hors to a tree, and
and eyther cam unto other egerly, and smote togyders with her swerdes that her sheldes flewe in cantels, and they brysed their helmes and hauberkes and wounded eyther other. But Syre Gawayne, fro it passed ix of the clok, waxed euer stronger and stronger, for thenne hit cam to the houre of noone, and thryes his myghte was encreaced. Alle this uspyed Syr Marhaus and had grete wonder how his myghte encreaced, and so
dressid his shelde,

they wounded

other passynge sore. And thenne was past noone, and whan it drewe toward even-songe, Syre Gawayn's strengthe febled and waxt passynge faynte, that unnethes he myghte dure ony lenger, and Syr Marhaus was thenne bigger and

whan

it

bigger." 1

which reaches
;

Gawain's relation with the sun meridian at noon is here unmistakable and the name of Marhaus, who gets bigger and bigger with the evening as the gloom prevails against the light, is from the same root as
its

Now

King Mark of Cornwall, who had horse's and of Margg, the leader of the Irish Fomori or submarine shades a root that means horse, with
that

of

ears,

;

reference to

the

half-equine, centaur-like shapes of

the powers

of darkness.

There are other grounds
first

too for asserting that Gawain was at

a sun-hero,
lasted so

but the odd thing

is

that the primitive trait of his

waxing and waning strength should have
1

Morte Darthur,

iv.

18.

3

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
long, quite
in

1

isolation

as

it

is,

and even
;

in

con-

tradiction of

many

of his adventures

for as Arthur's

Knight he had victorious contests
day.

at all times of the

But

in

some kindred mythologies

there

is,

besides

the various later impersonations of the solar hero, an older god associated with light and the sun, the

Father Sky of the classical races. And of him, too, in an undifferentiated form, there Proare traces to be discovered among the Celts. fessor Rhys identifies him with the enchanter Merlin or Myrddin, whose name he would explain as Moridunjos, him of the sea-fort, with reference to his Further, sinking from sight in the western waters. some Welsh stories of his disappearance represent him as going to sea in a glass-house, which connects him with Aengus, a mythic character in Irish story, also explained as the god of light, who went about The stories of with a portable crystal bower.
Zeus, Jupiter,
Merlin's

betrayal

receive their explanation,

by the Lady of the Lake thus and in some of the versions
It is

his prison strikingly resembles the inaccessible trans-

parency of Aengus' abode.
nother of Iren, ne
stiell,

"A

tour withouten

walles or with-oute eny closure

....

a clos

....

ne tymbir, ne of ston, but .... of the aire withoute eny other thinge be enchauntment so stronge, that it may never be No wonder vn-don while the worlde endureth." that Professor Rhys, after quoting this passage, proceeds " These pictures vie with one another in
:

transparent

truthfulness

to

the

original

scene

in

nature, with the sun as the centre of a vast expanse

of light, which moves with him as he hastens to the

14
west.

INTRODUCTION

Even when at length one saw in Merlin but a magician, and in his pellucid prison but a work of magic, the answer to the question what had become of him and it, continued to be one which the storehouse of nature-myths had supplied. Where could Merlin have gone but whither the sun goes to rest at night, into the dark sea, into an isle surrounded by the waves of the west, or into the dusk of an impenetrable forest? So it came about that legend sends Merlin to sea in his house of glass, never more to be heard of, or dimly moors him in the haze of Bardsey, or else leaves him bound in the spells of
his

own magic

in a lonely spot in the

sombre

forest

of Brecilien, where Breton story gives him a material
prison in a tomb, at the end of the Val des Fees, hard by the babbling fountain of Baranton, so be-

loved of the

muse of romance "
the

1

Nor
Zeus.

is

this

Inscriptions

only appearance of the Celtic mention a Nodens, identified

by Professor Rhys with an Irish Nuada who lost arm in fight with a malign race, and had to retire from the sovereignty till a silver hand was constructed for him. This recalls the Tyr of the
his

Eddas,
his

who

in

Tiu, corresponds

name, as we see from the English exactly with Zeus, and who had

by Fenri the Wolf a reference And light and darkness. Nuada is the same with a Welsh mythic king called Lludd of the silver Hand, whose name is

arm

bitten off

—

to

the

conflict

between

traced back to Lodens, a modification for phonetic

reasons of Nodens, which would have yielded Nudd.

Now

this

Lludd
1

is

the

Lud

of Ludgate Hill, and
158.

Celtic

Heathendom,

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
in-law of Arthur.
1

i5

the Lot or Lothus of romance, the famous brother-

But just as the Northern races deposed their old supreme divinity to make room for Woden, so some of the Celts deposed their counterpart of Zeus to make room for the culture-hero. " They worship Mercury," says Caesar, " above all others." 2 And Mercury (of whom Professor Rhys finds many reminiscences in the Welsh Gwydion, a name that he would connect with Woden), may be supposed, as has been shown, to be the original of Arthur. But the culture-hero, in displacing the elder skygod, inherited some of his characteristics and functions. Thus the classical Zeus was fabled to have married his sister, and the same story was probably told of his Celtic congener, and transferred to the culture-hero, who succeeded him. Such a
marriage
but there
that
father's

/

became
is

impossible
is
it

as

civilisation
in

ad;

vanced, and,

therefore,

effaced
in

later

times

a trace of
united
the

the medieval

tales

Arthur was
daughter,
these

in

unholy love with his
of

wife

King

Lot.

The
place
In

horror of the idea, however modified
ated
in

and extenuout

adaptations,

seems

of

among
has
its

the

fanciful
in

conceptions

of romance, and
a

origin

a remote and alien world.

similar

way Arthur became

the protagonist in the

recurring warfare of Zeus with the powers of darkness, from which, as the winter approached, he withdrew wounded and faint, to return strong and glorious in the spring and an

perpetually

;

1

2

Celtic Heathendom, 125 and following page. Bellum Gallicum, vi. 17.

6

1

INTRODUCTION
of this

echo

has

survived

in

the

British

King's

departure from the battle

in the

West

to be healed

of his hurts in the Isle of Avalon.

These examples, which might be multiplied
definitely,
will

in-

show that much in later Arthurian fiction had its germ in the myths of the Celts, and, more particularly, of the Brythonic
serve
to
Celts. It is not, however, to be supposed that they were developed in a consistent or continuous

history.

It

is

inevitable

that
into
in

the
the

modern
of fact

mind
of

should read
early
possessed.

more system
belief than

conceptions

religious

point

they

A

floating tradition of detached stories,

bringing into relief this or
of the various
objects of

the other characteristic
their worship,

k

and harmonised rather in general feeling than in definite thought, was the most that the primitive races were likely to attain. And thus the vague and shifting figures were apt to pass into each other's places, to be multiplied, to divide, and to coalesce. Mercury assumes the rank of Zeus, and absorbs his attributes and there must have been tales of many impersonations of the sun-hero. But if there were tendencies to confusion before, the advent of Christianity was bound to increase the entanglement, and altogether blur the significance of the myths. It dislocated the whole system and deprived it of such order and cohesion as it may The teaching of the new faith was have had. that the deities were not divine. At one stroke they were degraded to a lower level, where, though they were far from appearing as ordinary men, and much they had ceased to be the great gods
;
;

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
that

IJ

formerly

had

its

importance,

became

mere

Perhaps the story of Kulhwch and Olwen, though it belongs to a later date, may illustrate the sort of change that was produced. After a description of Kulhwch's birth and breeding, it tells how he sets out for Arthur's court to get the king to cut his hair, that he may demand the royal help in gaining Olwen as his wife. The household of Arthur is largely composed of persons whose meaning has been lost, and even those who are otherwise known to us, are presented in an unfamiliar and much more
unintelligible

lumber.

\

primitive
as

aspect.
tree,

Kai

is

a mighty warrior, as
his

tall

a

forest

who can keep

breath under

and nights, and has such inward heat that he can dry everything a handbreadth above and below his hand. He performs prodigious feats, and the final ruin of Arthur seems attributed to the want of his help. For enraged at a sarcasm of the king's, he withdraws, and " thenceforth neither in Arthur's troubles nor for the slaying of his men, would Kai come forward to his aid for ever after." Among the remaining courtiers are many with very queer characteristics. There is one on whose knife no haft would remain, so that he dies of vexation. There is one who owned a short broad dagger, which, when laid on the water, became a bridge for armies. Of one it is said " When he carries a burden, whether it be large or small, no one will be able to see it before him or at his back " of another " On the day when he was sad, he would let one of his lips drop down below his waist, while he
the water for nine days
: ;

B

8

1

1

INTROD UCTION
up the other
like

turned

cap on his head " of a third, " When he came to a town, though there were three hundred houses in it, if he wanted anything, he would not let sleep come to the eyes of any one whilst he remained there." This quality was doubtless invaluable to its owner if not to his
a
;

|

neighbours, and the peculiarities

of his fellows are
j

of one,

extremely interesting; but what Professor Rhys says may be applied to most of them, that they are " hardly calculated to grace a court," and they are very different from the British and Armoric knights with whom the king is ordinarily begirt. With some of these companions Kulhwch sets out on his search for Olwen, and eventually gains access to her giant father, Yspyddaden Pencawr, 1 the Epinogras of romance, who, having his eyelids raised that he may see his future son-in-law, assails his visitors with a dart, which, on three occasions, is caught up and thrown back, woundIn truth, he is in no hurry to have ing himself. his daughter wedded, for he knows that that will In the end, however, he mean his own death. agrees to the suit on condition that his head should first be shaved. But the procuring of the necessary implements prescribes as long a series of Bagarag apparently impossible tasks as Shibli had to achieve before he could operate on ShagThe adventures involved, which occupy the pat. bulk of the story and lead up to the hunt of the wondrous boar called the Twrch Trwydd as their
chief,

\

j

are

exclusively of a
is

supernatural kind.

In
off.

the end, the giant
1

shaved and his head cut
3.

Arthurion Legend, page

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS

19

Here it is interesting to observe the confused conglomeration of myths, to which the key has in most cases been lost, and the mythical character of the exploits, untouched by a trace of history, to the prowess of King that attributed are Arthur. In contrast, too, with the continental romances, he is an active personality and one of the chief performers, not a mere roi faineant, under whose auspices his more heroic knights do all the on the work. 1 These are probably early traits
;

other hand, the massing of so
cation that
paratively
in its
late.
if

many

figures
is

adventures round him as their centre
present

and an indiis

form the story

com-

Meanwhile,

there was not
if

much system about

conversion of the them, another element of confusion had probably been added from a purely historic source. In the struggles of the Cymry against the Teutons, the exploits of their
the
Britons further disorganised

the original myths, and

famous leaders were sure to become the theme of and to lose nothing in the celebrations of their grateful countrymen. There is ground for believing that one of these leaders may, in fact, have borne the name of Arthur, or one of similar sound, and ingenious attempts have been made to discover some incidents of his life. Sometimes he has been localised in a particular part of the island, and the preference is now for the region formerly known as Cumbria. Thus Mr. Skene has endeavoured to find in the north the scenes
story,
1

Prof.

Zimmer's criticism of Mr. Nutt's Holy Grail.

Got-

tingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1890.

20

INTRODUCTION
by Nennius
selection
his royal
for
;

of his battles, as enumerated
Professor
tinental

while
con-

Zimmer

explains

the

in

romance of Carduel
considered
to

seat as

a

reminiscence of the actual Carlisle.
is

Sometimes

\

have had a wider range of activity, and Professor Rhys would make him, if historical at all, a Comes Britanniae " with a roving commission to defend the province wherever his presence might be called for." x This, as the Count of Britain was the chief officer in the land, would explain why Arthur is always called Emperor in Welsh, and would tally with the account of Nennius, which represents him as the war-leader
of the various
the
British
kings.

he

Even

his death,

at

hands of his nephew, may have a basis in fact, if he is to be identified with the uncle of Maelgwyn, whom Gildas accuses the latter of
murdering.
knights

And not only he, but some of his may have been champions of the Romanised

Britons in their patriotic war, not necessarily the contemporaries of Arthur at the outset, but afterwards attached to his group. Thus, Professor Zimmer would derive Geraint from an historical Gerontius, and Owen from an historical Eugenius.

But the enormous fame of the later Arthur, as conmeagre records of his actual career, It must cannot be explained from history alone. corroborated by be supposed, and this theory is cited, innumerable instances of the kind already that in the gradual growth of national tradition,
trasted with the

a
1

person

not

originally
;

of

first-rate

importance
6.

Arthurian Legend, page 17

see also Celtic Britain, chap.

Zimmer would make him Dux Brittamiiarum (Nennius
cates, \%).

Vindi-

ARTHUR AMONG THE CELTS
And
it

21

entered into the position of an earlier divine hero.
is

easy

to

see how,

if

the historic leader

had a name like Arthur, much in the later story becomes clear. His identification with the god would secure his own pre-eminence and immortality; for his exploits against the Saxon invaders would be combined with the exploits of the Celtic Zeus, and of the culture-hero who took his place, in their perpetual warfare against the powers of darkness and the foes of man. On the other
hand,
the
identification

of

the

elder

deity

with

an actual personage called by a name like Arthur, would explain why he should survive to fame under this rather than any other of his appellations.

Ill

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS

The

first

mention of Arthur's name outside
in the

the

History of the Britons attributed to Nennius, which according to the learned and ingenious argument of Professor Zimmer 1 be-

Welsh sources occurs

form to the last years of the few borrowed splendours eke out the glory of the historic hero, if such there were, who led the islanders against the Teutons; and these are mostly of an ecclesiastical kind. He is described as fighting along with the kings of the Britons against the invaders, but he himself was their
longs in
its

original

eighth century.

In

it

war-leader
successful

(sed ipse
battles.

dux
In

erat bellorum) in twelve

one of these, at Castle Gurnion, he bore the image of the Holy Virgin on
1

Nennius Vindicatus.

i8q^.

22
his shoulders,

INTRODUCTION
and the pagans were routed and put to by the virtue of our Lord Jesus Christ

great slaughter

and St. Mary his mother. At Mount Badon nine hundred and sixty men perished through Arthur's onset, and he alone overthrew them without any aid. In all his wars he emerged triumphant. This is the statement of the most summary manuscript. In some versions there are other details on similar lines. Thus he is described as the "magnanimous Arthur," and it is said of him that, though many were more noble than he, he was twelve times chosen leader and was as often victorious. In an interval of quiet he has time for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem there he has a cross made of the size of the Saviour's, and after three days' fast before the
;

true cross, has this counterfeit consecrated that

"

the

Lord, by this sign, should give him victory over the

heathens

"

;

fragments
bore,
"

of the image of St.
still

Mary,
great

which

he
"

are

preserved

with

veneration

prowess at Mount Badon is ascribed to a higher power, nine hundred and forty fall by his hand alone, " none but the Lord assist;

his

ing him."

"

In

all

these engagements the Britons

were victorious,
all

for

no strength can
This

avail
is

against

the strength of the Almighty."

practically

that Nennius records in the fullest paragraph There is indeed the devoted to Arthur's career. 1 prophecy of Merlin Ambrosius but it refers rather to the future expulsion of the Saxon white dragon than to the actual achievements of the red dragon Yet an isolated of Britain in the days of Arthur. passage in another connection shows that the blend;

1

Nennius,

§ 56.

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
ing

23

of

history

and
is

myth

when the
Arthur's

earliest version of

had already begun Nennius was composed. 1
with

name
"

associated
;

some of

"

the

wonders
his son

of Britain
lies

with a sepulchral

mound where
even

Amir

buried,

and especially with a cairn
vestigio cams, which,

of stones, the topmost
if

cum
its

displaced, returns to

position

on the morrow.

It was the hound Cabal which made this impression on the stone when Arthur was chasing the boar I Troynt." 2 Thus, already in the days of Nennius, the individual whom he celebrates as an actual warrior, was connected with the mythic hunt of the

Twrch Trwydd,
Olwen.

commemorated
imagination

in

Kulhwch and

had thus begun to amplify the career of the hero, and stray notices prove that the process continued as the years went by. In the Annates Cambriae, which may belong to
Popular
the second half of the tenth century, the entry for

537 records the battle of Camlan, "in which battle Arthur and Medrawt perished," and thus presents the mythic foe in an altogether historic aspect. We have no further definite information till the appearance of Geoffrey but about 1 1 2 5 William of Malmesbury, after mentioning the prowess of Arthur, proceeds " This is the Arthur, of whom nowadays
;
:

'

—

the

frivolous

tales

of

the

Britons

babble,

(de

quo

Britonum nugae hodieque

delirant),

but

who

evidently deserved celebration not in the dreams of
fallacious fable but in the declarations of authentic
history."

This shows that when William wrote much improbable legend had gathered round the
1

3

Zimmers Nennius
3

Vindicatus,

8.
i.

2

Nennius,

§ 73.

Gesta

Regum

Angliae,

8.

24

INTRODUCTION

British king, though the historian does not condescend to mention .what precisely it was. In another respect, too, his statement is vaguer than might be desired. Who were the Britons whose babble excites his scorn ? Professor Zimmer brings arguments to show that they were the Celts not of Wales but of Brittany. It may well be that the latter, being more remote from the scene of the actual struggles, began earlier and proceeded further in the confusion of historic and mythical tradition than their kinsfolk on the island. And there is some indication of this in the great and epochmaking version of Arthur's story, to which we nowpass, the account of him in Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain completed about the year 1 1 3 5. According to Geoffrey's own statement he used for his compilation " a certain most ancient book in the British tongue," 1 which Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had procured. Now the form of some of the names that he mentions, above all that of Gawain, is rather Breton than Welsh, though the native variants were long familiar to his countrymen. So it seems likely that a portion at least of his material was actually derived from an Armorican
,

source.

from Brittany to Britain, in the work of combining the Arthur of myth and the Arthur of fact. Geoffrey's narrative may be abridged as follows: To Uther Pendragon, the King of Britain, Merlin
stimulus

And it is quite possible may have been transmitted

that

a

new

prophesies

the greatness

of his house, and, since
Gorloi's,

Uther loves Igerne, the wife of
1

the wizard,
i.

Quendam Britannici Sermonis

vettistissimiun librum,

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
to
fulfil

25

him the semblance of and he becomes the father of Arthur. Afterwards, on the death of her first husband, Uther takes Igerne as his queen, and thus Arthur, despite
the prophecy, lends her
lord,

his doubtful birth, succeeds to the throne as rightful

he crowned when he is called to he repeatedly engages, and, with the aid of Hoel of Brittany, smites from shore Encouraged by his victories, he extends to shore. his operations, and in a series of campaigns subdues Ireland, the Orkneys, and the Continent from Norway to Aquitaine. Gaul is the spoil of his own hand, for he wins it in single combat on an island of the Seine, while the hostile armies look on from opposite banks. His success in war is only equalled by his magnificence in peace, and Geoffrey lays stress on his liberality in distributing the conquered lands, the state he keeps with his queen Guanhumara at Caerleon-upon-Usk, the grand assemblage of kings and knights by whom he is surrounded, the gallantry of the court, where the ladies give their love only to such as have approved themselves in three combats. In the midst of all this pomp and circumstance envoys arrive with a demand for tribute from Lucius Tiberius of Rome. In full assembly it is
heir.

Hardly

is

face the Saxons,

whom

refused;

and Arthur, leaving his nephew Modred in and kingdom, sets out with his knights and vassal kings to enforce his countercharge
claim.

of queen

On

the
is

way he

is

visited with a

premonitory

dream which

satisfactorily fulfilled in

Normandy,

where, in single fight, he slays a lustful giant

who

has carried off Helena, the niece of Hoel. Looking at the carcase, he exclaims, " I have found none of

26
so

INTRODUCTION
great strength since that Retho
to fight

who

challenged

me

on Mount Aravius," a giant who had the

making himself fur with the beards of the Resuming his march, Arthur leads his hosts against the Romans. He carries all before him, for the Grecian and Eastern allies of Lucius avail little when confronted with the chivalry of the West. In its ranks Gawain takes the first place, and for some time he is almost the chief
foible of

kings he vanquished.

person of the story, his prowess obscuring that of Arthur himself. Nothing seems able to prevent the
Britons from capturing Rome, when they are suddenly checked in mid career. News arrives that Modred has seized the kingdom, married Guanhumara, and strengthened himself with heathen auxiliaries. Arthur must leave his conquest incomplete, and return to take vengeance on the traitor. A great battle is fought, in which Gawain is slain, but the rebels are put to flight. Guanhumara, losing heart, flees to the cloister, and becomes a nun of the order of Julius the Martyr but Modred rallies in the West, whither Arthur In another battle follows him in grief and wrath. the multitudes on both sides perish, Modred is " even the renowned King defeated and slain Arthur himself was mortally wounded, and, being carried to the isle of Avallon to be cured of his wounds, he gave up the crown of Britain to his
;

;

kinsman Constantine." 1 Such is the career of Arthur according to Geoffrey,, and under the elaborate superstructure the possible Some of his. basis in fact is almost lost from view.
1

Bk.

viii.

15 to Bk.

xi.

chap.

2.

!

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
additions

2*J

do

not seem
literature,

to

be

of specially Celtic

origin, but either

invented by himself or borrowed
like

from current

the stories of Charleis

magne and Alexander.
of popular

But there

also a large

Arthur, no longer a myth. accretion his wife Gwenhwyvar has for mere leader, but a king,

Guanhumara, who deserts him for his enemy Modred of the Shades Gawain, the sun-hero, and and others of the same type, appear in his train or Llychlyn has the mythical conquest of Hades become the conquest of the Scandinavian countries. Sometimes circumstances of more recent history
or
; ;

.-

may have
items.

determined
in the

the

selection

of particular
in the alliance

Thus

war with Ireland,

of Hoel of Brittany, in Arthur's distribution of his
conquests,

Professor

Zimmer
troubles

detects

respectively

Dublin Breton auxiliaries who helped the Normans against the hated Saxon, and of William the Conqueror's gifts of land to his favourite
reminiscences
of
the

with

the

vikings, of the

followers.

1

It

is

probably, too, the historical

exi-

gencies and the tradition of what happened to the
actual leader that
as fatally

make

Geoffrey represent Arthur

wounded

in the final battle,

even while

in

the

same sentence he sends him

to

Avalon

to

be

healed.

The death of the mortal man disturbs the myth which told of the return of the sky-god to
;

triumph over the powers of darkness yet a reserved and partial acceptance of the elder story betrays
Geoffrey into a certain inconsistency of statement.

On
1

the continent, however, the historical
Gaston
Paris,

factor

Article on

Gottingische gelehrte Anseigen.

i8qo.

—
28

—
INTRODUCTION

was of less account and the original conception would be apt to prevail more easily and soon. A canon of Laon, named Hermann, who visited Cornwall in 1 1 13, mentions a scene that was caused by a Breton insisting that Arthur still lived. 1 Henry of Huntingdon, writing in 1139, represents Arthur as slaying Modred in the last fight, and himself succumbing to the wounds he received but he adds that the Bretons deny that he died and " solemnly expect " his return. This belief lingered on for centuries, if we may judge from a
;

ballad

cited
it

by Villemarque, but

in

the lapse of

underwent a change, and Arthur, with his phantom hosts, was conceived as leading the men of Brittany to the fight. This seems the meaning of the stirring war song translated by Mr. Tom Taylor
years
:

The chieftain's son his sire addrest As morn awoke the world from rest Lo warriors on yon mountain crest
!

:

Lo

!

warriors armed, their course that hold

On

grey war-horses riding bold,
nostrils snorting

With

wide for cold
I

!

Rank
Six

closing up on rank
six,

see,

and three by three, Spear-points by thousands glinting

by

free.

1

"Ein

Laoner

Zeugniss," etc.

Zimmer,
xiii.

Zeitschrift fiir

franzos. Sprache

mid

Literatur, bd.

—
THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
Now rank on rank, twos front they go, Behind a flag which to and fro Sways as the winds of death do blow
!

'

2Q

Nine
I

sling casts' length from
'tis

van to rear—
;
!

know

Arthur's hosts appear
strides

There Arthur
'

— that
!

foremost peer
!

If

it

be Arthur
spear
!

— Ho,

what, ho

Up

out arrow

Bend

the
!

bow
x

!

Forth, after Arthur, on the foe

'"

were current Breton descent, it was natural that Geoffrey's history, on passing to the continent, should absorb new elements of tradition into itself. And this it has
such
stones

among

Meanwhile, when the Bretons

and persons

of

done,

at

least

in

the

version

of

Wace

(1155),

most influential and significant. The name by which this work is generally known, Li Romans de Brut, if not minutely accurate, at any rate brings into relief one of its most essenwhich

was

the

1

tial

characteristics,

for

it

is

romantic
the
it

in

metre
side

'

and
of

language, and
Geoffrey's

emphasises

romantic
is^true,

narrative.

Wace,
authority.

does

not
lies

add much

to

his

His

iniportance

rather in the fact, that writing in a vernacular,

able

and that the leading vernacular of Europe, he was by his fluent verse and vivifying touches to
the
at

commend
would
tail.

story

to

a

larger

audience
Latin.

than

variations

far

His most part are matters of deYet, to some extent, he employs, and to a larger extent he knows, the assumptions of
feel

home

with

Geoffrey's

for

the

1

Ballads and Songs of Brittany.

30
popular
fancy.
:

INTRODUCTION
Thus,
"Arthur,
in in
if

reference

to
lies

Arthur's
not,

end, he writes

the story
;

was

he had himself taken to Avalon to heal his wounds. Still is he there the Bretons expect him, as they say and believe thence will he come, yet may he live. Master Wace, who made this book, will not say more of his end than said the prophet Merlin. Merlin said of Arthur, and he was right, that his The prophet spoke end would be doubtful. sooth ever since, men have doubted concerning and, believe me, they always it, will doubt He had himself whether he be dead or quick.
fatally

wounded
;

the

body

;

;

conveyed
years

to

Avalon
the
returned."

six
1

hundred
In
this

and

forty-two
since

after

incarnation
anticipated

.... but never
by
others.
is

has Arthur
original
tion

matter, however,

Wace had been
of the

His most
the menit

contribution to Arthur's story

Round

Table, which, in so far as

was a

fellowship,

may have been

suggested by the

peerage of Charlemagne, but, in so far as it was a table, had probably a more primitive and mythic
in this case, too, Wace is more inwhat he does not tell us than for what he says. For the barons, each of whom thought himself the best, "Arthur made the Table Round, of which Bretons tell many a fable"; 2 and there is a similar reference to the marvels and adventures recounted of Arthur, which are not
origin.

And
for

teresting

wholly

lies

or

truth, fable

or fact
in
all

;

such has been

the activity of the story-tellers
narratives, that they
1

embellishing their

have made

seem fabulous.
2

13683.

9999-

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
Wace, amplified from Geoffrey, became
the
basis
for
in

3

1

turn of

further

amplification.

The son
in

Leovenath, our
close

own Layamon,
century,

writing about the
tells

of the

twelfth

his

simple

way how he journeyed wide over land to get the how he laid them down and turned the books " he beheld them lovingly may the Lord leaves pen he took with fingers and be merciful to him The book skin that he wrote wrote a book skin."
;
: :

:

was
the

the Brut, and of the books that he loved, most important was Wace but he enriches the story with additions from various quarters. Probably an Englishman by descent, and, at all
;

events,

writing,

in

the

English

language

in

a

modification of the old English measure, a chronicle

which he partly drew from foreign sources, he canbe considered to have obtained all his loans from uncontaminated Celtic tradition. In point of fact, some of them have an unmistakably Teutonic ring, and others seem of a generally romantic character. Still, in the western shires where he lived and wrote, there is a large Cymric admixture in the population, and it is reasonable to suppose that he levied some contributions on the legends that were current among them. As a rule he follows in the track of Wace, but he lingers over the journey and plucks the wild flowers by the way. Thus, as soon as Arthur is born, he is entrusted to the elves, who bring him up and bestow on him various graces and gifts. His wars are described in greater detail than with Wace, and more stress is laid on his personal prowess. Great attention is paid to his equipment
not
:

;

32

INTRODUCTION

Rone, his spear, was made by Griffith of Caermarthen on Pridvven, his shield, was engraved in gold tracing a precious image of God's Mother " he put on his burney, broidered with skill, which made an elfish smith he was called Wygar, the witty wight Calibeorn, his sword, he hung by his 1 side it was wrought in Avalon with magic craft."
;

—

;

;

much fuller account is given of the origin of the Round Table. A quarrel for precedence has arisen, when a strange smith comes to the king " I with the offer will make thee a board exceeding fair that thereat may sit sixteen hundred
:

A

and more,
and,

all by when thou

turn,

so
ride,

that

wilt

thou

none be left out; mayst carry it

with thee and set where thou wilt after thy pleasure, When it is and never fear to the world's end." 2 ready and the trial is made, the equality is indeed high and low perfect " One measure was for all none might boast other kind of had the same
:

;

;

drink than his comrades."
it

3

In the advice to carry

had other strange qualities than those mentioned) it must have been rather an unwieldy piece of furniture, and in the abundance and equality of the diet for so large a company, may there not be an echo from folklore of some
about, though (unless
it

myth, such as those already described, of magical apparatus for the feeding of multitudes ? Layamon's comment, enlarged from that of Wace, implies his

knowledge of many fabulous
the table itself and the
x

tales,

not necessarily

about the knights of the Round

Table, but
it.

King who owned
edition, line 21 130.
3

about "This

Sir F.

Madden's

2

Line 22910.

Line 22946.

/

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS

33

was that same table of which the Britons boast, and say many leasings of Arthur the King so If he is dear doth every man that loves another. to him, he will lie and say worship of him more than he is worth: The Britons loved him of him, and said many greatly, and often lied things of Arthur the King that never happened
:
.

.

.

kingdom of this world." 1 Most of these popular stories, Layamon, perhaps out of respect
in

the

for

his

written

authorities,

refrained
for

from

setting

down, but we must be grateful
given.
in

He

inserts

what he has a picturesque dream, somewhat

the tone of the prophetic literature of the day,

which comes to Arthur just before the news of Modred's and Guinevere's treason. He sits astride on the roof of his hall, viewing his realm, and

Gawain Modred
that

sits

before

him bearing

his

sword.
folk

Then
with

comes

with

numberless

and

Guinevere, dearest of women, and

bear the

hall.

The
right

fall

hews the posts breaks both arms
;

of

Gawain

seizes his

and sword

the

arm of the king

he

in his left

hand, strikes off Modred's

wounds the Queen, 2 and puts her in a pit. But all his people are dispersed, and he knows not under Christ what has become of them. He himself wanders alone on a moor among griffins and grisly fowls, till a golden lion, made by the Lord, catches his middle and bears him off to the sea. But the driving floods tear them apart, and a fish carries him wet and weary to the land, when he wakes and begins to shiver and to burn as with fire. 3 But probably the most interhead, cruelly

dark

1

22987.

2

Tosnadde, cut in pieces.

3

28017.

c

:

34
esting
to
in

INTRODUCTION
passages
in

Layamon

are

those that
it

Arthur's
the
"

return.

He

mentions

twice

—once
his

refer

detail

body of the story, 1 and again with when he describes the end of the last
Britons

fuller

battle.

Slain were Arthur's warriors, high and low, and

all

the

of Arthur's

board,

and

all

fosterlings

of

many

a kindred.

And Arthur was
;

forwounded with a broad spear of slaughter fifteen wounds had he, in the least one might thrust two gloves. Then in the fight there were left no more of twenty thousand men, that there lay mangled, but only Arthur the King and two of his knights and Arthur was wondrously sore forwounded. Then came to him a child that was of his kin he was son of Cador, Earl of Cornwall the boy was called Constantine he was dear to the King. Arthur, as he lay on the earth, looked on him and said these words, with sorrowful heart " Constantine, thou art welcome thou wast Cador's son, and here I betake thee the kingdom. Watch thou my Britons well to thy life's end, and keep them the laws that have stood in my days, and all the good law that stood in Uther's days. And I
cruel
;

;

;

;

—

;

will fare to

Avallon, to the fairest of

all

maidens, to

Argante the Queen, a right fair elf. She will make my wounds all sound again, all whole will make me with healing draughts and then will I come to my Kingdom and dwell with my Britons in mickle joy." Even with the words came wending from the sea what was a little boat, driven by the waves, with two women therein wondrously clad and they took
; ;

Arthur, they took him quickly, laid him
1

down

softly,

23052.

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
and departed away.
at

35

Then was

fulfilled

what Merlin

said of yore, that there should be measureless sorrow

the passing of Arthur.

Still

the Britons ween

that he
fairest

yet lives and dwells
all

in

Avallon with the

and still the Britons ever look Never was man born of any fair lap!y who can say more of the truth about Arthur: but once was a prophet, erewhile was Merlin he said with words and his sayings are sooth that Arthur should yet come to succour his
of
elves
;

for Arthur's

coming.

—

;

—

Britons."

Layamon's
forcible

narrative,

besides

being
passages

vivid

and
high

throughout,

contains

of

poetical beauty. His version, too, is important, as showing how the story of Arthur became more and more legendary as the years went by. Moreover the Brut has for us the grand interest that it is the first

celebration

of

the

British

King
it it

in

the

English

tongue.
notice.
in

For

all

these reasons

claims a detailed

Yet, in a certain sense,

was a mere eddy

the stream of literature, out of the current and

leading to nothing.

At any

rate

it

was by no means

so influential as the chronicles of Geoffrey or even

of Wace.
It is difficult to

misconceive,
In

the

a

certain

exaggerate, though it is easy to importance of Geoffrey's book. sense its appearance is the literary
twelfth
into

incident

of

the
it

century.

The

repeated
wel-

translations of

French

attest the eager

come

it

received from imaginative writers and from
Its lasting

the general public.

popularity

is

proved

by the denunciations which were launched against it, even at the close of the century, by exact historians

3^

INTRODUCTION
historians

and by
experts

who were

not exact
the

William of
of
in

Newbury
:

—

thus
"

gives
certain

voice to

indignation

A

writer has

come up

our

times to wipe out the blots on the Britons, weaving
together ridiculous figments about them, and raising
the

them with impudent vanity high above the virtue of Macedonians and the Romans. This man is named Geoffrey, and has the by-name of Arthur,
because, laying on the colour of Latin speech, he

name of history the fables about Arthur, taken from the old tales of the Britons with increase of his own." 1 Even Gerald de Barri, Geoffrey's own countryman and himself a lover of
disguised with the honest

the adventurous,

unclean
too

spirits

:

—

tells
" If

of a

the evil

Welshman possessed by demons oppressed him
was
laid

much
;

the Gospel of St. John
like birds

on his

bosom, when

away

they immediately vanished but when that book was removed, and the

history of the Britons

by Geoffrey-Arthur,
its

for the

sake of experiment, substituted in
settled in far greater

stead, they

numbers and for a much longer time than usual, not only upon his entire body but upon the book that was placed on it." 2 These ebullitions of wrath are very intelligible,
for

no doubt Geoffrey by

his credulity

and inventive-

ness had troubled the waters of history for

many

a

century to come.
his

But there
not
yet

is

as

book

is

the

well-head of a

doubt that living stream of
little

poetry

that

has

ceased

to

flow.

The
their

Elizabethan

dramatists,

with Shakespeare at

head, Spenser and
1

Milton,

Wordsworth and Swin:

His toria Rerum Anglicarum
Itinerarium Cambriae,
i.

procemium.

2

5.

THE ROMANTIC HISTORIANS
burne, to mention
alike

37

only a few of the

chief,

have

drawn inspiration from his story. And more particularly he is the pioneer and

if not the father, of Arthurian romance. His narrative, either directly or through the medium of Wace and Wace's adapters, is the archetype of the romantic histories of Arthur. In them the British worthy, represented as an actual King of Britain, is the flos regum, the Christian warrior, the

sponsor,

incarnation

of

knightly

valour,

female honour,

who

attains a

renown
the
sea.

;

the tragedy of his

betrayal of his religion, his
invasions of the
This,

the champion of European empire and career comes from the love, and his vows, and

Christless

heathen from over

with omissions of one or another par-

ticular,
is

and with additions from legend and romance,

the conception of chronicles like those of Robert

Gloucester, of Peter Langtoft, of Robert of Brunne, of the alliterative Morte Arthure, of the fifteenth century rhymed Arthur, and in the main of Boccaccio in his collection De casibus Virorum

of

Illustrium, of

Lydgate

Nichols in the

in his Falls of Princes, and of Winter Wight's Vision, the supple-

ment

to the

Mirror for Magistrates,
it

In our

own day

as late as 1610. has been revived with a difference

by Lord Tennyson. And, though the Arthurian Romances, strictly so called, are for the most part to be traced to
other
sources,

the

appearance

of so authoritative

and popular a book was nothing less than momentous for their development. The historical mould in which it is cast, and which we are never suffered to forget, engaged attention for its narratives,

3»

INTRODUCTION

and ensured their being taken more or less seriously. But within this setting Geoffrey had found room for so much fiction from various sources, which he ac-

commodated
that

so admirably to the taste of the time,

the whole had the

work
in

composed

on

the

charm of an imaginative lines of contemporary

As it became known in the original or Norman-French adaptations, the result was inevitably to give prominence and vogue to the store of Celtic tales, some of which doubtless had already
tendency.
a wide circulation.
It

supplied the lofty figure of

Arthur as
to

centre,

round

which

cluding some that originally

many stories, inmay have had nothing
;

do with him, could be grouped and it gave as background for the several incidents the splendour of his reign and court.

IV
CHIVALRY AND
ITS

REQUIREMENTS
in

One

of the

strangest
is

phenomena

the

history

of literature

the

outburst of Arthurian romance

half of the twelfth century. A in the second few years suffice to lift the hero of obscure and half-subjugated tribes into unrivalled popularity and fame, and the exploits of his followers, a little while before unknown to the world at large, become all at once the engrossing topic for the Whatever circumstances imagination of Europe. may have contributed to this sudden success, it cannot be fully explained save by supposing that the new matter was exceptionally suitable to the

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
spirit

39

of the time.

It

must have met a deep-felt
capable
of
receiving

want,

and shown

itself

the

stamp of the medieval spirit and expressing the medieval modes of life and thought more perAnd in the than any previous theme. fectly, history of the typical and international' fiction of the Middle Ages there are indications that this was the case. The imaginative activity of these centuries seems to attempt the satisfaction of cerdemands, but till the Arthurian tain spiritual stories become available, the attempt has only
partial

success.

approach to a typical and interto be found in the literature of France. Not that in its remoter origins it always belongs to that country. The raw materials are contributed by German and by Celtic tribes, by the new and by the ancient world, but the)' obtain completion and currency only when transmuted Their recogin the crucible of Romance thought. nition is quite local till they receive the seal of the French spirit thereafter, they pass at once
nearest
national
fiction
is
;

The

European circulation. Something of the same kind has happened more than once since then. France has often been the instructor and law-giver of Europe but not last century, when its "illumininto
;

ated"

led

the

fashions

in
its

philosophy, not a

hun-

dramas invaded every stage, had its literature so universal a sway as at the zenith of the For then it Middle Ages. penetrated into every neighbouring land and was adopted by every neighbouring people and though modified by the genius and language of each in;

dred years earlier when

40

INTRODUCTION
its

dividual nation, retained

birth-marks to the end
as

and could always be described

Romance.

important for another reason. It is not unparalleled to have an international scientific literature, and, in so far as this genus existed at all in the Middle Ages, it belonged to all Western Europe. But the strange thing is that these times also possessed a common stock of imaginative work, of poetry and fiction, which, in its 7 great narrative type always elaborated on the lines laid down France, appropriately received the in
this

And

term

is

,

\

was generally called the Romance. This, of course, was possible only when the literary classes of Europe were impelled
above designation,

and

by a common spirit to a common ideal, when this ideal was more clearly realised in France than elsewhere, and when certain stories were found to
express
it

in special perfection.

swayed the higher classes summed up in what is It would be wrong to call all styled Chivalry. the romances chivalrous, for only one group of them fully answers this description but, at least, they are all of chivalrous tendency and aim at And these concepembodying its conceptions. It has once and tions were essentially ideals. again been shown that there never was an actual age of chivalry, and that when in later times
the ideals that
in

Now

those days were almost

;

tried, as they thought, to restore it, they were attempting to import into practical life what Nevertheless, was in truth a minstrel's dream.

people

as

it

many

was a dream that flitted before the eyes of generations, it was in its way a very sub-

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
stantial
reality.

41

the

feudal

knights

There never was a time when were exactly knights errant,

but there was a time when the best of them might that they be such, wished eagerly any hazardous enterattaching themselves to prise that had been set on foot for more politic practically objects and that time was over when the semblances and outward trappings of knighthood were most in vogue for spectacle and
;

pageantry.

The

real

m eaning
the

arisen as a kind of

theology
sanctified

of
life

of

jected
as

as

wholly

the projected

of chivalry lay deeper. It had compromise between the ascetic medieval church and the unthe world which that church rebad. It is sometimes described shadow of feudalism, and so it is,

but only because in the upper feudal ranks there

was most need felt of a modus vivendi between The masses of the people are practice and belief. never much swayed by theoretical doctrine. The exigencies of their position keep them near a course
of
life

that

may

be rude, but

is

not unnatural.

In

the present case, with a certain varnish of Christian
theology, and the
Christian
traditions

some
faith,

real education
in

the the

by the spirit of main they acted on
of the race stubborn placidity

of

conduct,

heritage
this

from heathen times.

But

was not within the reach of the upper classes. They had the same heritage, but could not have the same rest in it. They were taught to consider the religious life as the highest, but what could be more opposed to their ancestral habits and lawless passions than the three monastic vows of poverty,

42
chastity,

INTRODUCTION
and obedience
they
freely
their
?

They gained wealth by
gratified
fierce

plundering,

their

desires,

it

was hard

to limit

self-assertion,

as the

remains of old English, old German, and especially
of Icelandic literature abundantly prove.

No

doubt

this society,

even

in its wildest phase,

germs of a higher life. Classical observers remarked among the northern barbarians profound respect for the sanctities of wedded and / family life, and unshrinking loyalty among the nor was the pledged companions of a prince acquisitive impulse sanctioned at the expense of
contained
the
;

feelings

like

these.

And when

the

popular mind

was enlightened and elevated, however gradually, by the new faith, its nobler principles received new stimulus, and shone forth in stories that grew up scarce brushed by a dogma of the schools, but not,
therefore,

quite

destitute

of

Christian

sentiment.

/Faithful service, unselfish
in Jove,

virtue,

chaste

constancy

are

celebrated

in

several

popular poems

England and Germany, which are all more modern, though more rude in feeling, than But for that very the international romances.
especially of

reason

they

are

less

representatively

medieval.

They
but
our
lay

attained only a local, or at most a national,

never

an

international

success

;

and not

till

own day have they begun to enjoy a European The comparatively healthy ethics of reputation.
life

basis in

which they expressed, lacked, in truth, all and all reference to the received theological

standards.
religion

They could
if

obtain

the

sanction
into
it

of

only

they

were baptised
its

and
Since

were modified

in

the direction of

code.

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
they lack
spirit

43

that

sanction,
:

they

fail

to

exhibit the

had they obtained it, they would have ceased to be what they are, and would have lost a portion of their native vigour. But the adaptation of lay ethics to clerical ethics was the problem of the higher classes, and its solution was
of their age

found

in chivalry.

The

transition from the primitive to the medieval

state of things

that the hero

is marked by the picturesque trait r becomes a knight. This short statement implies a very important change, which is

symbolised
investiture,

in the

complicated ceremonies of knightly very different from the few simple rites

that used to accompany the Teutonic youth's assumption of arms. The young candidate spends the time with priests and receives the sacrament he is led to the bath and endued with a white robe to his sword is blessed and signify his change of life Thus the knight, if belonging his vows are taken.
;
;

to lay

life,

partakes in the character of a monk, as
writers

clearly saw and frequently exHis admission to the order is a religious service, and brings with it duties which, though of course different from those inculcated by the three monastic vows, have some analogy with them. Thus r if he is not pledged to poverty and retains his share of the world's possessions, it is on the understanding that he may be called at any moment to relinquish them. He is required to swear that he will always be ready to fight for the Church against the infidel ; at mass, when the Gospel is read, he must point his sword to the book to show that he is its sworn soldier and especially he must give up all for the

medieval
plained.

;

44

INTRODUCTION

Lands and must be forsaken when the Church has a crusade on foot, all material interests sacrificed for a visionary religious quest. Again, it would have
lordships

defence and recovery of the Holy City. 1

been impossible to exact complete obedience from men of such aggressive personality as the feudal knights but neither are they left to their isolated and uncontrolled self-will. The principle of honour is introduced, which appeals to the individual's desire for pre-eminence and mastery, but which gratifies it only if he submit to a certain code of conditions. His valour must be carried to an extravagant pitch he must seek out adventures, and face the greatest odds he must refuse advantages and show mercy to the suppliant and courtesy to all his quarrel must be just, and he must succour the poor and the distressed. Far removed is the knight from the old heathen who fought and fled, waylaid and slew,
;
;

;

;

precisely as

it

pleased himself.

And

in

the third

some of the knightly orders were pledged to celibacy, they were all bound to uphold the honour of women and gradually, without oath,
place, while only
;

they submitted themselves to that strange kind of gallantry known as the Service of Love, which at this distance of time strikes one almost as the most obvious feature of the chivalrous character. This
fantastic fashion, in which the relation par amour usurped the place of marriage, at once gave scope for the devotion of the knight, and suited a society in which the highest minds regarded marriage as at best but a necessary evil. If the attempts to harmonise the demands of lay
1

See Hallam's Middle Ages, chap, he,

pt. 2.

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
Teutonic
life

45

and Latin

ecclesiastical theory originated

why they were specially developed in a nation to which Teuton and Latinised races have given its mingled blood. Nowhere else was there such a fusion of the Germanic conquerors and the conquered provincials as in Gaul. It is just a sign of this that it puts off its old name, and, taking the new name of Fran ken from the invaders, modifies it to suit the pronunciation of the elder population, as France. There was nothing like this in the German fatherland where the connection with Rome was confined to politics and religion, without ever becoming a matter of daily social life. There was nothing like it in England, where, though to some extent they may have intermarried with the
these ideas,
it is

easy to see

provincials, the

new
in

settlers practically

cleared the

Things and Lombard succumbed to the traditions of Rome, and were lost among the original inhabitants and in Spain, where the Visigoths long maintained themselves as a supreme alien caste, separated by a deep gulf from the natives. In these latter countries the difference of race was accentuated by the difference of religion. The Teutons were Arian heretics, the provincials were orthodox Catholics it was impossible to mediate between them quarter was given to the antagonist only on condition that he should give up all that was characteristic. But the Gauls, like the Franks, were of the Catholic Church they could meet on a middle ground, to barter and compromise their peculiarities. It is just this compromise between Teutonism and Latinism, this duality of
were
as
different
Italy,

ground, and began again at the beginning.

where

Ostrogoth

;

;

;

;

46
principles, that
is

INTRODUCTION
the note of the Middle Ages.

And

therefore,

it is

just as

we should

expect, that in France

we

find the prerogative phases

of medievalism, the
others, the chi-

feudal,

the scholastic, and,
;

among
made

valrous

and there the

earliest,

the most persevering,
to express the

the most effective efforts were
last

Three such French in fabrication, but European in circulation and development, are progressive attempts to exhibit the life of chivalry the Charlemagne romances, the Classical romances, and the Arthurian romances. If chivalry sprung from the union of medieval religion and secular morality, the relation of these cycles to each other may be formulated as follows The Ecclesiastical predominates in the lays of Charlemagne, the Secular in the lays of Greek and Roman content only in the stories of Arthur do both sides, as it were, come to their
in

successive cycles of

Romance.

groups,

:

:

;

rights.

earliest group give monastic side. From the first, Charlemagne is emphatically the hero of He and his house and his race owed the Church.
earliest

The

poems of the
on
its

the

knightly

ideal

a great part of their success to their championship of the Catholic faith against Arian heretics on the
the

one hand, against heathens and Mohammedans on In the old poems he is a notably other.
religious

personage,
in

a

soldier

of
the

the

Cross,

a

crusader
a-days,

the
are

best

sense

of the word.

Now-

we

apt to

look for

Charlemagne
Bordeaux.

of poetry in such romances as

Huon of

But these are of a later growth. In them he when introduced at is no longer the chief person
;

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
all

47

Such tales arose was finding other channels of expression they employed the great emperor's name, he but he himself no longer suited their wants was thrown into the background and criticised. But in the early stories he is the proper hero, and, whenever hero at all, he is an ecclesiastical one. To see him at his most characteristic and his best, we must go to the Chanson de Roland, which an actual occurrence, the destruction is based on of his rear-guard by Gascon robbers in the passage
he figures as a wilful tyrant.
chivalry
;

when

;

the Pyrenees. In the legend, however, the enemies are transformed into Saracens, that the emperor may be shown at war with the infidel, and his slaughtered soldiers exhibited as martyrs of the faith. This change gives the clue to the whole poem. The peers are hardly knights, but Both Charlemagne and his mere fighting monks.

of

nephew Roland
of angels.
well's

are the

favourites

of heaven,

who

receive miraculous gifts

and enjoy the intercourse The French champions are like Crom-

Ironsides.

When

not in

the fight they are

on
are
to

their knees, and, conscious of their divine mission,

exhortation and have a tendency Strong and fearless, they slay their thousands but they do not joust for the pleasure do not crave adventures for the honour of it they to be gained they want the splendid courtesy of the chevalier, and, above all, have no sense for the service' of women. Roland does not spare his lady a thought. At his death he thinks of God and fatherland, of the emperor and his former conquests, and the men of his line he bids his
instant
in

preach.

;

;

;

;

48

INTRODUCTION
;

sword a tender farewell but he is undisturbed by any grief for the woman who holds him dear. Neither he nor his fellows know the meaning of earthly love. Only at a later day does Roland, the soldier of the Church, become Orlando Innamorato under the hands of an Italian, who no longer
believes in the story but

mocks

at

it.

French engaged in a religious war of their own, and took part in the great crusading movement of the Middle Ages, one result was to widen their acquaintance with the world, and bring
the
before
their

When

notice

many

realms
far,

of

feeling,

of

imagination, and

of knowledge that

been
in

hid

from

them.
fail

In so

had hitherto the campaigns
of devotion. of curiosity?

the East, which beg an
to
culture,
is

but could not

n a foster a
i

spirit spirit

and
This
of
the
in

had rather
in

a

secularising
literature,

tendency.

reflected

a freer sweep in
treatment.
"

which takes choice of subjects and liberality
their
"

Forster,

introduced
of

story

The Crusades," says Professor much new material, including Alexander, who is now celebrated
Chansons de'&este, so that he

the style of the

appears as a French conqueror surrounded by the paraphernalia of oriental magic." A legendary

biography of the Hellenic hero, compiled in Byzantium from many sources and the contributions of many races, had been made accessible in Latin to the nations of the West. From this are ultimately derived the numerous vernacular versions
of the story. In
several

respects

Alexander was
him.

more
the

suitable to the requirements of chivalry than

clerical

warriors

who preceded

He

has

:

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
a store of adventures in love and war
for his
;

49

his respect

colour
lands,

;

female captives has something of a knightly his triumphant marches, enlarged by eastern

imagination into miraculous expeditions into fabulous

have

points

of contact

with

the

fantastic

quests
is

of errantry.

Nevertheless,

and the remark

true of

other heroes of classical antiquity

who

were afterwards medievalised in similar fashion, he could never be thoroughly accommodated to the changed civilisation into which he was imported. On the one hand, he was too ji ealthv and humane on the other, he had not religion enough for a knight of the Middle Ages. The grand figures of Hellenic heathenism might be approximated to the chivalrous ideal on its mundane side, but they could never embody it altogether. Chivalry, therefore, whether seeking its expression
in

German

or in antique story, had failed to achieve In each case the hero, whether

a complete success. the great statesman

West

or the

populations
obstinately

and warrior of the Catholic champion of Greek ideas amid the of the East, had a character too representative of another age and
submit to a
a chivalrous

code of life, thoroughly to change that would make him merely knight, neither more nor less. It juncture that Arthur became known, immediately felt that the problem

another

was and was
the

at
it

this

was

solved.

The
faith

British

leader

who fought

for

Christian

against

the invading pagans, was well suited

to

fulfil
:

the ecclesiastical
to
reflect

ideal

the culture-hero of the
fit

no

less

demands of the chivalrous heathen myths was its secular aspect and his
;

D

50

INTRODUCTION

story had been recast in accordance with the spirit

of the day.

Physiology teaches that the human embryo passes through a series of phases like this or that order of the lower animal kingdom before it assumes its I ultimate shape. Something similar may be observed * in the previous development of, the Arthurian legend. At first this hero of the Bretons and the Welsh is vague and formless as the mists on their own hills, but additions are made to his story in such an order and in such a way that he suggests now Charlemagne and now Alexander, before he
1

appears as the Arthur of romance. In Nennius there is little to distinguish
the /great

him from
are
quite
fatherland,

Frankish
fighting

emperor.
for
faith

ecclesiastical,

Both and

bearing sacred armour in a sacred cause, performing

through miraculous aid. to have sprung from I Both represent races ancient Troy. Indeed, it is possible that the one set of legends may have directly borrowed from the other, for the journey to Jerusalem is common
prodigies

of valour

fabled

to

both.

In

the

versions
traits

of Geoffrey and
first

Wace

some of the new
wages
not

help In the

place to

increase Arthur's resemblance to Charlemagne.

He

only

a
is

defensive,

but

religious war.

He

not alone, but

is

an surrounded

offensive

by worthies soon to be as famous as the paladins he describes the themselves, and Wace, when institution of the table, may have had in his mind The exploits of the Briton the peerage of France.
extend from the island to the mainland he breaks the power of Rome and grasps at the crown of the
;

;

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
world.
is

5*

Yet, on the whole, this set of additions more suggestive of Alexander than of Charlemagne. The mighty continental kingdom is com-

L

mon to both, but Nennius' hint of Arthur's disadvantage of birth, Geoffrey explains away with a tale of magic exactly like that which made With the Nectanabus the father of Alexander. help of Merlin's prophecies the greatness of Arthur
is

not less clearly prefigured before his birth than
for tribute

of Alexander. a# insulting demand
that
in single fight.

Like Alexander, he avenges and wins kingdoms

the

But the new episodes contain much, also, that has genuine stamp of chivalry. The single-handed
with giants, the suppression of
of female
all

strife

evil

customs,

the vindication
character, in

honour, the

acquisition

of love by prowess, were
so far as

typical of the knightly

All that was they went. needed was a further elaboration on the same lines. And this was not difficult. Arthur's story, congenial
in ^all' essential respects

to the spirit of the

day but without the rigidity of a fixed historical tradition, was still plastic in the hands of the medieval poets and lent itself to all their desires. His exploits and feats could be made to reflect
the

adventurousness,
in love

the

sense

of

honour,

the

courtoisie

which were the dream of knighthood in the twelfth century. There were only two limitations to the perfect adequacy of the material. In the first place no single person could
completely

exhaust the

possibilities

of

chivalry

the biography of Arthur was insufficient to portray
its

whole fulness and wealth, and though

it

might

52

INTRODUCTION

fulfil the requirements in little, it could not bring out the various developments of the one scheme. Arthur's career invited supplements from the careers

of his followers, and even in the Romantic historians,
as

we have

front during the
place,

Gawain comes prominently to the war with Rome. But in the second these personages were in some ways even
seen,
for

\

more
chief.

suitable

chivalrous

treatment

than their

For they were knights while he was king. His exploits were necessarily on the large public scale, while they had leisure for the private ad-

ventures of errantry.
the illumination
individual,

They

offered

themselves for
the

of the

knightly

character in

which was the more important side, in all its various aspects. It was natural, therefore, that medieval poetry should occupy itself with/a
for

them rather than with the king. To make room them he is thrust aside, as Charlemagne had been by the peers, and his historical significance
altogether forgotten.

is

tated this process.

There were circumstances that considerably faciliSome, if not most, of these tales

were derived from Brittany rather than from Wales, and in Brittany the tradition of the national struggle with the Saxons was probably never of capital importance. Prominence would be given to the mythic at the expense of the historic element from the first, and many of the persons would originally have no connection with Arthur. In some cases
there are even indications that circumstances, not of
British but of Breton history,
later

have

left their

trace in

romances.

Thus Professor Zimmer

derives the

name

of Erec of Destregales from a Gothic Eoricus

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
of Dextra Gallia, and the
or both of two Lantberts,
part in the ninth century.

53

name of Lancelot from one who played a conspicuous
1

If this be so, though it would explain the origin of the names rather than

of the adventures

;

or even

if

the stories are purely
it is

mythic, without a trace of history,
ality of Arthur,
strife

not surprising

that they should not be subordinated to the person-

and that in them all reference to the Saxons should be wanting. The notoriety procured for his royal hero by Geoffrey would emphasise the tendency to group other traditions round his court but if these were very different in origin or development they would retain a great measure of relative independence. Such narratives, in the versions of conteurs, early ^enjoyed a wide popularity possibly in England and
with
the
;

certainly in France.
attraction.

It is
first

easy to understand their

In the

place they would have the

inalienable

charm of

style
It

which seems the heritage

of Celtic literature.

fascinates us

now

;

it

could

not

fail

to fascinate people so quick-witted as the

Normans

and

the

French

of the

Middle Ages.

Contrast the monotonous tirades of the Chanson de
delicate variety of a primitive Arthurian story like Kulhwch and Ohuen. Here is the well-known description of the heroine " The
:

Roland with the

—

maiden was clothed in a robe of flame-coloured silk, and about her neck was a collar of ruddy gold, on which were precious emeralds and rubies. More yellow was her head than the flower of the broom, and her skin was whiter than the foam of the wave,
1

" Beitrage

zur

Namenforschung,"
Lit.

etc.

Zeitschrift fiir

franzos. Sprache

und

1891.

54

INTRODUCTION

and

fairer were her hands and her fingers than the blossoms of the wood anemone amidst the spray of the meadow fountain. The eye of the trained hawk, the glance of the mewed falcon was not brighter than hers. Her bosom was more snowy than the breast of the white swan, her cheek was redder than the reddest roses. Who so beheld her was filled with her love. Four white trefoils sprung up wherever she trod, and therefore was she called Olwen."

Scarcely

Kulhwch

:

—

less
"

beautiful

is

the

description

of

And

the youth pricked forth upon a

steed with head dappled gray, of four winters old,
firm of limb, with shell-formed hoof, having a bridle

of linked gold on his head, and upon

of costly gold.
steel,

And

in the youth's

spears of silver, sharp, well

him a saddle hand were two tempered, headed with

three ells in length, of an edge to wound the wind and cause the blood to flow, and swifter than the fall of the dewdrop from the blade of reedgrass to the earth when the dew of June is at the heaviest. A gold-hilted sword was upon his thigh, the blade of which was of gold, bearing a cross of inlaid gold of the hue of the lightning of heaven his war horn was of ivory. Before him were two
;

brindled,

white-breasted greyhounds, having strong
ear.

collars of rubies

shoulder to the
left

about their necks, reaching from the And the one that was on the
to the right side,
left,

side

bounded across
the
right

one on

to

the

and

like

and the two sea-

swallows sported round him. And his courser cast up four sods with his four hoofs like four swallows in
the
air

about his

head,

now

above,

now

below.

About him was a four-cornered

cloth of purple,

and

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS

55

an apple of gold was at each corner, and every one of the apples was of the value of an hundred kine. And there was precious gold of the value of three hundred kine upon his shoes and upon his stirrups, from the knee to the tip of his toe." ' It is not wonderful that the imagination of the Middle Ages turned from the rude celebrations of Frankish
warriors
or

the

distorted

reproductions

of classic

antiquity to stories that

came from the same pure

fountain of literature as
Celtic
tales a
it

this.

And

not only had the
is

universal witchery that

as potent

now
is

as

could be then.
air,"

They had

other qualities

that especially appealed to medieval feeling.

There
as
it

Matthew Arnold, extravagances of chivalry." 2 At any
"

a Celtic

says

"

about the
an
actual

rate,

expressed

rather

an

aspiration

than

condition of things, and was a

dream that contrasted

with the rude realities of
1

life, it

may be

described as

It

may be

said that these passages are of later origin, but

this is unlikely.

At any

rate the

same

virtuosity in style

found

in the earliest Irish remains.

is to be For example, the Voyage

of Brian MacFebail, which belongs to the seventh century, thus describes the abode of the departed " Fair is that land to all The gleaming walls eternity beneath its snowfall of blossoms. are bright with many colours, the plains are vocal with joyous
:

—

cries.

clouded one.

Mirth and song are at home on the plain, the silverNo wailing there for judgment, nought but sweet song to be heard. No pain, no grief, no death, no discord. Such is the land." Or, again, this is a picture of the same country from the Wooing of Etain : " A magic land and

—

full

of song

:

primrose

is

the hue of the hair, snow-white the fair

body, joy
cheek."

in

every eye, the colour of the fox-glove in every
in

Both passages quoted by Mr. Nutt

Waifs and

Strays of Celtic Tradition.
2

Celtic Lite7'ature.

56
a
"

INTRODUCTION
reaction against the despotism of fact,"

and such
Martin,

reaction,

Arnold,

quoting

from

Henri

considers peculiarly characteristic of Celtic races and

Renan, too, finds a subtle affinity between the conceptions of chivalry and the stories of Wales, because the latter possess " L'element
of Celtic poetry.

mysis be formulated best seen in half-lights, attracts the Celt, and enabled by his sensibility to anticipate and
breton apres Finconnu."

1

What

and undefined, what refuses

to

divine

it.

The same

sensibility reveals to

him the

and makes him delight in portraying the ways, the beauty, the power of women. And how this would influence a society that was in the state of youthful exaltation implied
distinctive notes of female character,
in

the Service of Love,

when men were occupied

with the same questions, and were awaking to the

same experiences Not that the importance of these
!

stories

is

to

be exaggerated, at least to the disparagement of what was contributed by the French poets who " Sensibility gives afterwards made use of them. genius its materials," says Arnold in another connection, when talking of the Celtic temperament and its deficiency in patience and the capacity for Probably the native soil produced architectonic. only series of short stories (such as have been
versified
in

and

little

together

some of the lays of Mary of France), attempt had been made to work them " Only the first into an artistic whole.
1

La

Podsie des Races Celtiques.

CHIVALRY AND ITS REQUIREMENTS
steps
tion," says Professor

57

had been taken towards a unifying concep-

Zimmer

of the early Arthurian

saga
parts

:

"It

was rather the hero of the narrative

the connecting element of the several hence the addition and insertion of new It episodes under the hands of each narrator." 1 was the French trouveres who appropriated the uncemented cairns and used the stones for their own elaborate edifices. Professor Forster insists that only the machinery of the verse romances is Celtic,
;

who was

"

while

the

content, the
;

soul,

the

treatment,

are

French " show the French
purely
the classical

and
spirit

elsewhere
in foreign

says

that

they

costume

just like

tragedy of the Perhaps an exacter illustration of his view might be found in the fashion in which antique themes are treated in romances like Clelie or the Grand Cyrus. The gist of the whole matter is summecT up in the words " The knights of Arthur appear above all as genuine figures of romance that were produced by the activity of the poetic fancy. They
:

seventeenth century. 2

do not vanish in the mists of Celtic philology." 3 Which, of course, does not mean that a great many mythical traits have not survived in their adventures.
1

" Gottingische gelehrte Grail.
1890.

Anzeigen."

Article on Mr. Nutt's

Holy
2

See the introductions to his edition of Chrestien.
Golther, Zeitschrift

3

fur franzos. Sfirache una

1

Lz't.,

1891.

58

INTRODUCTION

V
THE VERSE AND THE PROSE ROMANCES
of Arthur as nucleus, appearance of Geoffrey's history, many others were gathered, which became the property of Europe through the medium of Bretons, and possibly of Welshmen, who were bilingual or had altogether laid aside their mothertongue. Such was the prestige of Arthur's Court that almost everything belonging to Brythonic tradition, and a good deal that was not Celtic at all, mingled and discharged in the Arthurian miscellany. The historical conditions may have aided the process. " The spread of a national heroic," says Mr. Nutt, " is mainly determined by political considerations. Thus the spread of Arthurian romances throughout Europe coincides with the establishment of an Angevin empire, of which the centre of gravity was in England." l Such influences, however, must
the
story
especially
after

THUS

round

the

have been very indirect, for it was chiefly the Even French who seized upon the new material. the theory of Gaston Paris, that lost Anglo-Norman poems dealing with the matter of Britain delivered their material to the French trouveres, Probably, has recently been called in question. indeed, it will survive the assaults made on it, for the form of some of the romantic names seems to be derived not only from Welsh, but from Welsh
1

" Development of the Ossianic or Fenian Saga."
Celtic Tradition,
ii.

Waifs

and Strays of

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
as
it
;

59

was written, not as it was spoken * and it more natural to suppose that the manuscripts thus postulated were Anglo-Norman than But even granting the that they were Welsh. existence of Anglo-Norman'* romances, to all intents and purposes they have disappeared, and therefore would seem to have had less permanent merit than the French versions that superseded
seems
them.
it

If

we take

the literature just as
:--—

we

find

it,

falls

into

the following groups

First,

the

Metrical

Romances, which describe

the biographies of the Knights of the
or
isolated

Round
In

Table,

episodes

in

their

careers.

them

Arthur himself achieves little, the wars with the Saxons disappear, and the final catastrophe is unknown. The great representative of this class is Chrestien de Troyes, whose literary career begins not earlier than shortly before 1150 and con2 cludes not later than 1 1 90. It was he who gave the grand impulse to the whole movement, "which, however, both in form and content, after culminating in Chrestien himself, soon grows vapid." 3 His best successors are to be found not among his own countrymen, but in the minnesingers of Germany. Further, the three Welsh Arthurian of stories Geraint, Owen, and Peredur, stand in some sort
1 See the article of M. Loth summarised by Mr. Nutt in

in the

Revue

Celtique, Oct., 1892,

his Celtic

Myth and Saga, FolkForster.

lore, Sept., 1893.

These are the limits suggested by him begin later and stop earlier.
3

2

Paris

makes

Forster.

60

INTRODUCTION
Percivale.

of relation, cognate or derivative, with Chrestien's

poems on Erec, Yvain, and

Second, the Prose Romances, most of which have undergone a constant process of editing, combina-

and enlargement, so that their order, pedigree, and mutual relations, are among the most complition,

problems of literature. 1 In their present form they must be later than the metrical stories, which have influenced their conceptions but they are not renderings from the verse, and frequently take a different view of things. Moreover, like the romantic histories, they celebrate the deeds of Arthur, his victorious combats with enemies and monsters, and his fatal strife with Modred. But there is also much in them that the romantic historians do not mention, for example, the criminal relation of Arthur with his sister. Professor Forcated
;

ster,

therefore,

thinks

that

some of them

contain,

though with many interpolations and much elaboration, a deposit from the original Armorican
stories.
2

If the metrical

Germany,
fluence
in

these,

narratives had most influence in on the other hand, had most in"

the

South.

Generally

speaking, the
ver-

Romance

nations hardly

knew

the poetic forms, and

only translated the prose." 3
1

But the foreign

chapter
2
3

For a sketch of their conjectural development, see the on British Romance in G. Paris' Littdrature Francaise au Moyen Age. 2nd edition.
Edition of Chrestien.
G. Paris, Hist. Lit. de France, vol. xxx.

He

is,

of course,
to the

referring to the Italians, Spaniards,

and Portuguese, not

Provencals.

:

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
sions are not so interesting
case,
in this as in

6l

the other
is

being

much
cycle.

less

independent.

There

not in

Italy a

new development

of the Arthurian as of the
it

Carolingian
portance,

Indirectly

was of great im-

for it inspired Boiardo with the idea of adding the ingredient of love to the stories of Charlemagne, and transforming them by means of
1

it.

Directly,

it

furnished Italian literature not with

poems, but only with episodes and subordinate passages, like the incidental celebration of Tristram and the intervention of Merlin and of Morgan (the latter very much disguised) in the Orlando Innamorato and the Orlando Furioso. Thirdly, the huge accumulation of diverse adventures that were constantly overlapping, and yet had no consistent connection, seemed to demand reduction to some kind of system. The initial attempts in this direction were made in the prose " It was a pronounced tendency stones themselves. of the Romance-writers of the later thirteenth century to unite the three principal branches of Arthurian Romance the Merlin/ Tristan,' and 'Lancelot' to the 'Quest del Saint Graal.'" 2 There was work for the summarist and the compiler, and the task was undertaken in French by the Italian,
entire
.

towards the close of the fifteenth century, and in English by Sir Thomas Malory about the same
time.
is a bulky Arthurian literature English derived from all these sources, from the romantic historians, from the romances in verse and in prose, from Malory's compilation and part of it

Fourthly, there

in

;

perhaps of independent origin. In its present form most of this is comparatively recent, and little can be attributed to the twelfth or even to the thirteenth
century.

As late as 1338, when Robert of Brunne's Chronicle appeared, he could say
:

" In allelandes wrot

men of Arthur Hys noble dedes of honur In Ffrance men wrot and yit men wryte But herd haue we of hym but lyte, Therefore of hym more men fynde
;

French, the English versions are popular in treatment, and to lose a be more apt to chivalrous medieval colour. of the Interesting little questions of origin scholar for the they involve, to the critic for beauties of their to the own, their and specific contribution to the story of Arthur is a certain national robustness of treatment. Characteristically they issue in a long series of ballads, and in the ballads are to be found not the most excellent, but the most distinctive specimens of English Arthurian romance out of Malory. In the verse romances, the heroes are represented as knights of the Round Table, and the story tells either of some particular quest they
undertake,
the
of their career as a whole. In romances, Gawain commonly is the chief person. He is represented as the mirror of knighthood and courtesy the false report of
or
episodic
;

his

death

fills

the wicked with insolence and the
ladies
fall

good with
hearsay
;

him on and it is honour enough for the other knights not to be overcome by him 1 he undertakes the quest in which others fail, and brings it to a triumphant
grief;
is

in

love with

he

practically

invincible,

;

conclusion.

In the typical biographical romances, an

unknown

an apparently impossible task solicits his prowess he accomplishes it and many others, and wins the hand of a lady, who is somehow involved in them, and who brings him a lordship or kingdom for dowry. 2
at

youth arrives

court

;

;

1

G. Paris, Hist. Lit. de France, vol. xxx.
2

See also Romania,

vol. x.

G. Paris, as above.

—
64

INTRODUCTION
And
if

there

is

a general

sameness

in the plots,

there

is

also

a general sameness in

the machinery,

which is perfectly accommodated to the fanciful Descriptions of and unreal taste of the time. ceremonies and combats, of palaces and decorations, magical fountains and nameless cities, revolving or
vanishing castles, swords that cannot be unsheathed
or ungirt

save

by

the

predestined

knight,

ships

bearing dead men, whose murderers can only be slain with the truncheon of the lance which dealt these and the like form the romancer's the blow Gaston Paris quotes Jodel's stock-in-trade. ordinary
;

line
" Li conte de Bretaigne sont
si

vain et plaisant,"
it.

and
this

proceeds

to

comment on

"

This vanity,

complete absence of seriousness and consequence, this confused succession of unmotived adventures, of which the extravagance sometimes goes the length of utter absurdity, was what gave pleasure It is what wearies us now in the in those days. Their factitious world, desperusal of these poems.
titute alike of probability and of variety (for all the adventures have a mutual resemblance, and are often copied from each other), soon affects us with weariness, and, at the same time, with the desire to refresh

ourselves with

some

living reality."
all
its

l

From

this vast,

charm, most monotonous literature, it will be enough to select one or two of the more famous specimens, and briefly indicate
complicated, and, with

a few of their salient features. Leaving aside Gawain, who already in the roman1

Hist. Lit. de France, vol. xxx.

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
tic

65

historians
in

has a prominence that prefigures his
the
later

popularity

verse

romances,

the

first

knight of the British cycle
tion of poets

who engaged

the atten-

was Sir Tristram. 1 That may be one reason why his story was, and always remained, but loosely connected with the main series, which was composed when the centripetal attraction of Arthur's court was fully felt. On the other hand, in its relative isolation, it had perhaps more in1

Everything connected with the origin and development of

his story is very obscure.

On

the one hand, Professor

Zimmer
Pictish,

("Beitrage zur Namenforschung, etc."

Zeitschrift fiir franzbs.
his

Sprache unci

Lit.,

1890)

thinks

that

name

is

traces the saga to

an

historical origin,

and would

localise its

birthplace in Scotland at the time
the vikings of Ireland.

when there were dealings with

This would explain the Irish tribute, several of the names, notably that of Isolt, which is said to be
non-Celtic,
to

and the absence of the legend in Welsh literature. > Professor Zimmer, it became known to Breton auxiliaries, who went north with the Normans in 1072, and they changed the localities and setting to suit themselves. On the other hand, Mark is undoubtedly mythical, being one of the centaur-like powers of darkness, and a Welsh triad describes Tristram as watching his swine, while Arthur tries to get some of them (Rhys, Arthurian Leg-end, page 13, 378). Professor Rhys pertinently asks those who absolutely sever him from Arthur to say what they make of this. In its further development, the story was eked out with many non-Celtic additions (Golther, Sage von Tristan una Isolde, 1887), and these were so loosely appended that the order of them greatly differs in the various versions that we know, and one or other often drops out. This of itself shows that the story, as a whole, is not to be traced The to an ancient Celtic saga with an organic unity of its own. existing forms show many variations, too, in other respects, and their mutual relations cannot as yet be regarded as entirely
According
1

explained.

66

INTRODUCTION
life
:

dependent
but

it

was not a flower
itself.

in the
it

nosegay,

won the prize for best known and most
;

Probably
all

was the

cherished of

the romantic

subjects

certainly

it

had an

earlier

and a longer
In the Middle

popularity than any of the others.

Ages, the knowledge of it penetrated to the Slavs and the Greeks; in our own day it has renewed its fascination for poets of every kind and degree of
genius.
It

following

traits, in

has survived in many versions, but the some order or other, are, for. the
to the best.
its
is

most

part,

common

votary he is left an orphan of both his parents, and is bred by His his foster father in ignorance of his descent. beauty makes him the prey of pirates, but they fear their own crime, and leave him free but an outcast on the Cornish shore. His skill in hunting and minstrelsy commends him to his Uncle Mark, and when his birth is declared he becomes the
the child of love as well as

Tristram
its

and

victim.

Born on the

battlefield,

acknowledged heir of Cornwall.
in single fight

Then

follows his

rejection of the Irish claim for tribute, his slaughter

of the Irish champion

the surrender of a

who demanded number of Cornish youths and

maidens, and his voyage to Ireland disguised as a minstrel to be healed of the wound he has received.

He

returns

full

of the

praises
his

of

Isolt,

the

fair

princess

who has wrought
on
his

cure,

undertakes to procure her as wife to

and readily King Mark.

He

sets out

second voyage, gains his point

by the slaughter of a dragon, is recognised and all but murdered by Isolt as the slayer of her kinsman. Nevertheless, he fulfils his task, and bears her

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
back to Cornwall.
with
the
philtre.

67

Now
It
is

comes the
intended

fatal

for

Isolt

mishap and

'Mark, but accidentally drunk by Isolt and Tristram,

and henceforth the fate is laid upon them of a mutual and undying passion. For this they surrender all else, name, happiness, and virtue, and become the medieval types of what true love should
be.

And

if

dangers
are

faced,

hardships
for

endured,

sacrifices joyfully

made by each
entitled
to

the other are

enough,
of love,

they
their

deception of King

Mark

is

all praise. Their only the inventiveness

defiance

of

all

obligations
its

only

its

daring, their flight to the forest only

enterprise,

which

is

also

its

exceeding great reward.
another
lady,
Isolt

Tristram's

marriage

with

of the

White

Hands, is palliated by her suggestion of her absent namesake, and is visited with a bitter expiation. In passionate revulsion to his true feeling, which in his heart he has never forsaken, he sends for his early mistress to heal another wound he has
received
;

but told that the

sails
is

of the returning

ship are black, he thinks he

unforgiven,

and

his

heart breaks for grief before she arrives to die
his side.

by

We must be careful not to read into the medieval poem the misgivings of modern thought. To our way of looking at things there is a discrepancy between the premises and the conclusion.
Is slavery to

a headlong passion, however long con?

tinued, a

subject of praise

If the

lovers are to
stress
philtre.

be

admired rather than condemned, be laid on the fatal agency of the
other hand,
if

must

On

the

the philtre

is

emphasised, they

68

INTRODUCTION
for

can claim no credit

their

faithfulness

in

love.

These are questions which the poets of the nine-* teenth century cannot ignore, and which they seek in various ways to answer but for a poet of the twelfth century they never arose, and we must forget them for the time, would we see his
:

story eye to eye.

For

his

particular kind

own age Tristram was of chivalry. Even
is

the ideal
in

of a

his

outward
tall,

appearance he
strong,

the very image of a knight,
In
to
all

and
from
in

beautiful.

courtly

accomplishexcels

ments,
experts
other
his

hunting
craft.

harping,
gives

he

the
as

the

He
is

away lands
above
all,

men

give alms, he
is

tender to his friends,

bravery
his

without a flaw.

And

he

sacrifices

powers, his prospects, his virtues to

the service of love, to the lady of his heart.

No

wonder that his was the favourite story of chivalry, and that he was the darling of romance. To compare a man to Tristram was the highest honour that could be paid him, and grave seniors recommended Tristram as model to the youth
of the day.
to
It

has

been

said

that

his

relation

Mark

is

a coarse doublet of Modred's relation

The coarseness is a matter of opinion, but if it be a doublet, it is one in which our sympathies are inverted. It takes the side not of the uncle but of the nephew, not of the
to Arthur.

husband but
the

of

the

lover,

and

thus

represents

view most natural to a society that exalted such gallantry at the expense of marriage. If Tristram commits a fault, it is not another man's wife, but by obeying in by loving
point

of

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
a

6g

moment
for

of weakness a criminal impulse to
This,

wed

one
lapse,

himself.

however,

is

a

temporary

and, despite

the

brief eclipse

of his virtue,

he remains the great type of love. The subject of Tristram was treated about i 1 50 by Beroul in a poem, part of which survives. This poem already connects him, though loosely, with the story of Arthur. In a certain way he was well fitted to supplement the chivalrous conception embodied in the British king of romantic history. In the Arthur of Geoffrey, though one of his exploits is for the vindication of female honour, and though love plays a part in his career and in his court, stress is laid on the knightly pursuit of honour. In Tristram, though he is mighty in single combats and has his fight with the dragon, stress is laid on the knightly surrender to love. But both were parts of the chivalrous character, and might claim to be portrayed together in one person. Even then, however, it

was
in

possible
collision.
1

to

represent

them

in

harmony

or

after Beroul,

who soon composed a poem on
Chrestien,
lost,

has unfortunately been

soon Tristram, which proceeded to treat the
before or

subjects of EreCy of Lancelot\

and of Yvain,

all

of

viewed as dealing with this question. 2 their relation may be put thus In Lancelot, Erec, love is in excess of honour in they are exactly balanced in Yvain, honour is in
be
:

which

may And

;

;

1

The former
1

theory

is

that of G. Paris

:

the latter has been

suggested by Forster.
2

have

left

aside Cliges, which seems to contain almost no

Celtic material.

70
excess
neither
other.

INTRODUCTION
of
love.

And

the

moral,

in

so

far

as

Chrestien

can be said to have a moral, is that can be neglected without danger to the
of Erec, Tennyson

adapts from the which the hero is called Geraint, for his famous Idyll. In the romance, much as in the modern poem, the hero rides unarmed from the hunt to avenge the insolence of the strange knight and his dwarf; chances on Enid when seeking for arms and a lady overcomes his antagonist in the tournament brings his bride in mean attire to the court where she is royally arrayed by the Queen herself. Afterwards at her side he forgets his prowess and yields himself to a life of uxorious fondness till it becomes the general talk and Enid herself is bitterly ashamed. Overhearing her regretful words he is roused to energy and wrath, and bids her make ready to ride with him on the quest of strange adventures. On the way, though enjoined to silence, she warns him of attack and ambuscade and bears every hardship without complaint, though she cannot suppress the sense that it is she who has urged him to these dangerous tasks. At length he is wounded and they are borne to a castle, where he awakes from his swoon at the right moment to save Enid from the solicitations of her pertinacious host In the sequel Erec acknowledges her constancy and love, and after other adventures from which he emerges victorious, returns to be applauded by the court whence by and by he withdraws in honour
story
version, in
; ;
; ;

The Welsh

to his

own land, his As we are apt to

faithful wife at his
fill

side.

in this sketch

from Tenny-

*

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
son's

7

I

poem,
the

it

may

he worth while
is

to

point out

that

modern

idyll

a good deal subtler and

more
ings

pathetic

than
faded

the

medieval
of their
first

romance.
interview.

Chrestien does not clothe Enid during her wander-

with the

silks

Erec merely surrenders himself to a life of luxurious ease, he does not quit the court in suspicion he takes the road of an atmosphere grown foul in resentment of adverse criticism rather than in and with less motive mistrust of his wife's faith for estrangement than Geraint, he has also fewer movements of remorse. But the main idea of the poem is clearly and delicately brought out the knight leaves the world of adventure for his lady's
; ; ;

love,

and then drags her

forth to face

its

cruellest

probations.

on

In Lancelot or The Knight of the Cart, Chrestien the one hand completes the theory of the
courtois,
is

amour
which

"

the

ennobling

virtue

of

a

love

considered incompatible with marriage."

On
they

the other

hand he shows that
the external

its

dictates

and

the dictates of true honour are the same, however

may

violate

decorum of knight-

hood.
is

The Queen, accompanied by Sir Kay alone, surprised by Meleaguant, who has long been
to

waiting

gain

possession of her.
fear

He
but

has been

restrained

by
is

of
"

Lancelot,

now

that

Lancelot
the

not on

the spot, he carries her off to

whence no stranger ever reon the scene Arrived soon after the capture, and gives chase. at the castle of Meleaguant (originally Melwas,
land
of Goire,
turns."

Lancelot,

however, comes

A 1

G. Paris, Litterature Francaise au

Moyen Age.

72

INTRODUCTION

King of the dead), he finds there are only two modes of access, the water-bridge and the swordbridge.

Gawain, who also takes part
former.
loss

in the pursuit,

unsuccessfully attempts the
infinite

Lancelot, with

pains

and much
blade

of blood, works his

way
the

across

the

of the sword.

He

rescues

Queen and other captives, and finally in single combat cleaves the skull of Meleaguant, who has aspersed her reputation. Thus love and honour But in co-operate in him to the knightly ideal. Having lost his one episode he is hard pressed.
horse he
is

appears

with
in

A dwarf compelled to persist on foot. a cart and proposes to carry him.
it

Technically

is

a

suggestion

to

his

dishonour.

from his But he accepts the disgrace in order that he may carry his point and deliver the Queen, and she is angry with him because he 1 hesitated for a moment as to what he should do. Arthur and his knights, however, hail his action as the triumph of inward over outward honour, and celebrate it by having themselves carried in carts through the city, much as in Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight they all wear the scarf which was to have been the badge of Sir Gawain's
ride

To

a

cart

was

a

derogation

knightly dignity.

shame.
In
see

Yvain or the Knight

oj

the Lion, again,

we

how

honour, followed at the expense of love,

interferes with knightly perfection,

and

is

itself sure

1 For suggestions as to the survival and alteration of traits from an original mythic story in Christien's narrative, see Rhys, Arthurian Legend, chap, vi.; and for a discussion of the legend, Gaston Paris in Romania, x.

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
to suffer from
this

73

Yvain, whose story in probably of mythic origin, and resembles one told of the Irish hero Diarmait, 1 undertakes the adventure of the enchanted fountain of Baranton. He splashes water about it till, as he was told would be the case, a storm bursts on him and a warrior spurs against him. This champion he slays, and eventually succeeds in winning the hand But his love of the lady who is thus left a widow. cannot keep him from his career of errantry, and he resumes his adventurous life with the promise to
the divorce.

portion

is

return

to

her

side

within

the year.

But

in

the

excitement of action the time slips by unnoticed, he passes his day, and his lady denounces him as a traitor. His misery and contrition are now more On his than he can bear, and he loses his senses. recovery, he goes about in company with a lion that he has saved, redressing wrongs and slaying monsters, till his broken faith is expiated, and it is given him
to regain his lady's favour.

Here, after the equipoise of Lancelot, there
that which

is

a

disturbance of the balance similar, but opposite to
is

presented in Erec.
his

Yvain, by zeal for

honour,
affronts offence,

soils
it.

honour, as Erec in following love
realises

Erec, however, jauntily overlooks his
the sacred
duties of a
grief at violating

but Yvain

knight,

and the

them

drives

him

nor is he absolved without long penance. There is here a far more serious view of the situation than in the earlier poem. And this seriousness is deepened in Chrestien's last surviving work, the unfinished story of the Grail, which represents the very
;

mad

1

Rhys, Celtic Heathendom,

187.

74

INTRODUCTION

opposite pole of romance from the lost Tristram with

which he commenced. Chivalry, as we have seen, was a compound of the code of the Church and the code of the world but this did not entirely settle the question. It was still
;

possible to
spiritual

fulfil

its

obligations in a secular or in a

way, to a profane or a religious end. There was room within it, it has been said, for knights of
the

Holy Ghost and

for knights of a lady's

garter.

This divergence could not be better expressed than by the romance of Tristram and Isolt on the one hand, and by the romance of the Holy Grail on the
other.

Though

the Grail was, in

all

probability,

the magic vessels of heathen

tradition,

one of and was in

some way connected with the fabulous world of the dead, like other portions of Celtic myths it was baptised and transfigured when pressed into the service of Christian chivalry. With Chrestien's
1

successors

ecclesiastical

through the influence of cup from which Christ partook of the Last Supper and it symbolises the sacrament of the Eucharist, or, more generally, the It is, however, imunion of man with the Divine. possible to say how far this was the conception of From artistic motives, he reChrestien himself. served his explanation for the climax of his narrative, meanwhile describing the Grail only in such indefinite terms as should increase its mystery;
it

becomes,

legend, the

;

For an admirable statement of the various theories as to the up to the date of publication, and summary of the different stories about it, see Mr. Nutt's Legend of the Holy Grail, Folklore Society, 1888.
1

origin of the Grail

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES

7$

as his

but he did not live to get to the denoiunent. Further, French continuators were of much less genius
it is

than he,
to the
It
is

advisable to go for the completed story
version of

German

Wolfram von Eschenbach.

indeed doubtful whether Wolfram did or did

not use Chrestien's fragment for his basis, and it is certain that in many respects his conception seems
original

to

himself.

Nevertheless,
Chrestien's

if

he does not

precisely

show what

poem would have

been, his Parzival at least represents the highest and deepest development of which the Grail legend Something of in that particular phase was capable. definiteness it doubtless seems to lose in crossing the

Rhine.
"

Wolfram

is

not very sure about the precise
call "

nature of what he likes to

the wondrous thing."

He
its

never speaks of the form of the Grail, but only
material
;

of

it

is

a stone of noblest properties,
all

a stone that supplies

that

is

asked of

it,

that

imparts the
as well."
1

enjoyment of life and immortality But, though he knows its virtues, he does
full
it

not know, perhaps because Chrestien's fragment did
not
tell

him, exactly what
as the

is

;

and
It

his ignorance
is

seems to increase
find that, just

his reverent awe.

strange to

German mystics

arose in re-

action from the dogmatic systems of the Church, so

the great mystical poet of chivalry does not recognise

the doctrinal bearing of his theme.
Grail
is

With him
;

the

Divine Presence, but not in any technical ecclesiastical sense and while this circumstance gives rather a new direction to the story, it does not make it the less fit to illustrate the religious side of knighthood.
like the

something

"

76

INTRODUCTION
The
Grail
is

tended on the Savage Mountain

knights who are vowed monastic life. Only their king is allowed to w ed, and even he must give love the lower

by an
to
r

order of spiritual

the

place
**

in
"

his
in

heart.
battle,

The
and

last

of

them

cried

Amour
year,

for

this

well
to

nigh

to

death.

He

lingers

was wounded on from year

kept in life by the sight of the Grail, and often wishing he were dead. But when a wandering knight comes to the castle and asks the meaning of w hat he sees, Anfortas shall be healed and the stranger made king in his stead.
T

It is

Percivale
his

who

is

predestined to this quest.
there
for
is

In
his

boyish

years

little

promise of

future

achievement,

his

mother,

of her lord, has fled to

a lonely

widowed wood and there

brings up her son in solitude, determined that he at least shall be kept from the perils of knighthood. He knows nothing of arms and war he can only make rough weapons for kill:

ing the birds, and

their

woodland melody makes

him leave even
their

this.

song
the

is

the gift
"

His mother tells him that " What is God ? of God.
"
;

asks
tell

child.
true.

Son
is

she

replies,

" I

will

you

He
;

brighter

than
:

the

day,

son, pray shape of man still the succour His truth is to Him at Lord of And one is called the of the world. from guile him black and full of Hell, who is turn thy thoughts, and from the fickleness of In later years, in the time of trial, doubt."

who took on Him
need

the

:

Percivale
is

forgets

this

counsel

;

but

full

of the

brightness

of God.

now his heart One day he

/

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
sees

77
ride

a

party
the
beings,

of knights
forest

in
:

shining
his

armour

through
divine

glades
falls

and

he on

thinks

they are knees before

them.
fired

he learns the truth his fancy is with the thought of arms and chivalry and
at Arthur's court.

When

the

life

He
last

runs to his mother
first

and demands leave to go. distracted denial, and at to send him forth in the
ing that
ridicule
will

Her
livery

answer
fool,

is

a

she

only

consents
think-

of a

send him back to her side. She understands his sensitive pride, but she has not taken the measure of his unflinching resolve. His fool's dress sorts well with his awkwardness and inexperience, and he makes many blunders but he does not rest rich in comedy and pathos until he has the outward polish as well as the inward worth of chivalry, and sets himself to learn from an ancient knight all courtly usages and noble manners. Such gains often imply a corresponding loss, and Percivale, in acquiring the accomplishments of the world, forfeits something of his open sense for all that is great and Among other things he is told that wonderful. a knight should he asks too many questions be able to see strange sights without always an instruction of fatal about them inquiring Meanwhile, he goes out on adventures, result rescues and weds the Queen Condwiramur, but immediately passes on to new enterprises. He
;

;

;

comes
mystic
lance,

to

the

Savage Mountain
the

and sees
the

all

the

pageant,
the Grail
:

wounded

king,

bleeding

itself

of maidens

but

borne behind a procession mindful of his lesson goes to

INTRO D UCTION
rest

with

without question asked. dreams, and he wakes
:

His sleep
to
find
lets

is

vexed
castle

the

empty
curses
civale,
lost

only one serving-man

him by

for

his

him out, who clownish silence. Thus Perin

his

schooling

the great world, has

and wonder, his power to feel the grand mysteries of life. At first no ill overtakes him for his neglect of the grace that was offered him, and he returns in safety and honour to Arthurs Court. But there he is appealed of treason by an ill-favoured damsel, who says he has played the churl on the Savage
his

triumphant

innocence

Mountain.
charge,

Gawain,
the
till

too,

is

attainted

on

another
the
is
is

and
and
:

fellowship
careless
just,

two knights must their fame be cleared.
;

avoid

Gawain
cause

confident
his

he

knows
the
!

his

and
"

bids

friend

cheerful
"

farewell

greeting
is

God

give
"

thee luck
!

But Percivale

in
?

despair.

God
this

Were He
but
I

Alas " he returns, " What is of power, would He have suffered
I

reproach to us twain.

gladly followed His
I

service,

now such
will

service
it."

renounce.

If

He

bears hate,

endure
is,

Gawain

is

now

the chief person for a large portion
in

of the story. but
it

He

elder romances depict him.
is

most respects, such as the His prowess is stainless,
;

the prowess of the world
it is

his religion

is

sincere, but

the religion of the practical knight.

no eclipse, and honours fall thick But through his bright career of gallant adventure we have glimpses of Percivale, gloomy and reckless, forgetting God or defying Him. At length, after five years, during which he has never
His
faith

suffers

upon him.

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
man and
rebuked
his family in the

79

crossed the door of a religious house, he meets an
old
is

by them

for

bearing
is

garb of penitents, and arms on Good
softened,

Friday.

Percivale's

heart

and

turns

" If this indeed be the day of His back to God. grace," he thinks, " let Him help me and guide me He suffers his horse to go on the right way." where it will, and it brings him to a lonely herHere the worldly lessons of his former mitage.

instructor are corrected

by the

religious lore of the

Percivale is reproved for his errors, aged anchorite. and sent back into the world with his sins forgiven. Restored to simplicity and meekness, he is also Once more he is restored to all that he has lost.

welcomed to his seat more he comes to the

at the

Round

Table.

Once

and this time he puts the question, heals Anfortas, and is made Once more he is united with his king in his room. long-lost wife Condwiramur, whom he has never
Grail Mountain,

ceased to love.

Wolfram's poem, though
tuates the spiritual side.
insensible to
bliss
is
is

it

does not transgress

the limits of the chivalrous compromise, yet accenPercivale

human

affection

is by no means and the summit- of his

reunion with his wife, yet the drift of his
to holiness
is

career

Grail knights

and religion. He alone of the allowed to wed, but precisely this
chief,

exception on behalf of their
saintliest

who should be

the

of

all,

is

unintelligible.

Surely in those

days, if the highest life were the goal, the monastic vows must be observed by the Grail King, instead of If the Quest of which he has a special exemption.

the Grail, the search for absolute union with

God

8o

INTRODUCTION
in real earnest,

were described
hero one
chivalry,
rest in

who did not who knew no
thus in

would have for its compromise of earthly love, and would not
it

yield to the

the half-hearted compliances of the

Round

Table.

And

later

romance Galahad sup-

plants Percivale in the achievement of the Grail.
Similarly, Tristram, the earliest type of chivalrous
love,
is

the pattern of other virtues as well.
is

But
at

here, too, there
first

some

inconsistency.

Though

seems the flower of medieval knighthood, he does, no doubt, show faithlessness to the most sacred ties and prostration before a criminal
sight he
passion.
If

such

unconditional

surrender to
it

love

were pictured
as

in its native truth,

would be shown
all

over-riding,

but

not

with

impunity,
religion,

other

knightly duties of
to the

honour and
the

and leading

dismemberment of
of

chivalry,

the

destruction

Round
In

Table,
this

and therefore to in which
respect
for

chivalry

was

symbolised.

the

Lancelot of the prose romances, who,
of his queen, betrays his king, of the Grail for which he yearns,

the sake

who

is not worthy and who ruins the

he adorns, is the characteristic The search for creation of later Arthurian story. the Grail leaves Arthur's fellowship a wreck in the war between Arthur and Lancelot the remnant is divided against itself, so that it can stand no longer. And meanwhile Arthur, who at first had gathered up in little all that was good and great in chivalry, In the old myths, as was changed and desecrated. we have seen, he was probably identified with the Celtic Zeus, who, like the Hellenic, was husband of This primitive trait was now resumed his sister.
knighthood
that
;

1

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
out

8

from popular tradition, except that marriage being of the question between such kinsfolk in Christian lands, the relation was conceived as one The horror of the story, only less of unlawful love. than that of Oedipus or Gregory, is somewhat
mitigated
unconscious,

Orkney

as

by making the chief part of their sin and by representing the Queen of Enough only half-sister to King Arthur.

remains to change the bright adventurous tale, with its mingled light and shade, into a tragedy of guilt and doom. Arthur becomes the author of his own
ruin, the father

of that
left

of the few knights

nephew who draws off a half by the Quest of the Grail

and by Lancelot's
himself of

secession,

who

seeks to possess

Queen and kingdom, and in the end Thus Arthur, accomplishes the fall of the K^ing. who begins in the romantic histories as champion of
the faith, ends
the
in

the prose

romances under the
In
is

imputation of unhallowed passion.
fellowship of the Table, there

him, as in
that strange

proximity of natural impulse and exalted devotion which is characteristic of chivalry the two elements could not blend, and their disruption meant the overthrow of the old ideal.
;

These

are

the

last

significant

accretions

to

Arthurian romance in the Middle Ages, and considered roughly and in the mass they show in several respects the increased importance of the
ecclesiastical element.

The

story of the Grail almost entirely loses
traits,
is

its

and apocryphal gospel and
old mythic a trace

elaborated on hints from
till

saintly legend

scarcely

of

its

original

character
F

is

left.

Compara-

;

82

INTRODUCTION
had become the symbol of the was represented as the cup of the
it

tively early the Grail

Eucharist, and

Last Supper.
in the

Then
sense.

received further expansions

same

that
clear
1

flowed

it was treasured the blood from the wounds of the Crucified, a

In

reference

to

the doctrine of Transubstantia-

tion.

After

a

long

previous history that traces

back the origins of the Grail to the times of Solomon, and even of the Creation, we are told how Joseph of Arimathea was imprisoned by the Jews on account of his adherence to Jesus how he was
;

miraculously
captivity,

fed

by

the

sacred

vessel

in

his

which lasted till the fall of Jerusalem how it worked wonders among the early Christians, and was seen by the pure in heart, guarded by angels and illumined with the visible presence of how it was brought with them by the Christ
;

apostles of the

new
till

faith.

It is

West who converted handed down from

Britain to the
father to son

the land becomes too corrupt for

its

abode

:

then
it

it

disappears, but in Arthur's time the quest for

may

not be impossible.
this

Now,

identification

of the

Grail

with

the

deepest mysteries of medieval religion involved the

and unworldliness In the first on the part of him who achieved it. place, therefore, the love adventures disappear from
qualifications of absolute chastity
1

The German
fell

poem on

the

contest

in

the

Wartburg
it

(belonging to the end of the thirteenth century) describes
stone which

as a

from the crown of Lucifer, when Michael struck it from his head. This carries the same idea further. By the Sacrament man was fitted to obtain the heavenly throne which the fallen angel had forfeited.

\

"

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
the story of Percivale, and the change
plete
is

83

in

the prose Percivale
love-

emphasised by contrasting his comwhile,

success with the partial success of the

stained

Lancelot,
is

to

show

how

worldly

prowess

mundane

no claim at all to spiritual fruition, the Gawain, who, in one German poem,
is

achieves the quest,

introduced as entirely

failing.

But Percivale, even when his earthly love had been effaced, was not quite ethereal enough for the new conception many of his feats which could not be excluded from the story savoured of ordinary knighthood, so he is finally ousted by the saintly and stainless Galahad. But Percivale was so closely connected with the legend that he could not be summarily dismissed he was, therefore, retained to occupy the second place, while Lancelot fell back a step, and Gawain was reserved for " the role of
;
;

Mr. Nutt, grown, and the mention of these knights called up the names of others with whom they were invariably connected by the romance writers. Well-nigh every hero of importance was thus drawn into the magic circle, and the mystic quest assumed almost inevitably a new shape. 1 At first it had been an individual adventure, now it is shared in by the whole Round Table. In some ways the conception of Percivale's solitary and personal enterprise is not so grand as that of all " Arthur's court, laying aside ordinary cares and joys, given wholly up to one overmastering spiritual aim." 2 It recalls the wave of
dreadful example."
"

By

this time," says
fully

"

the

Arthurian legend was

1

Nutt, Legend of the
Ibid. 244.

Holy

Grail, page 245.

2

84
religious

INTRODUCTION
enthusiasm
into

that

carried

the

nations

of

But meanwhile, when it was generally undertaken, the Quest of the Grail acquired its new and tragic significance. It became the test whether a man's heart were right to God. Galahad and Percivale, Lancelot and Bors, could achieve it more or less completely according to the measure of their spiritual aspiration and attainment but to most it was fraught with disaster, and they perished in the search. As the religious view becomes dominant, there is a tendency to turn round and criticise the earlier heroes of the Table. Percivale is thrown into the shade by Galahad, the knight by the saint. Arthur, instead of being the blameless king, is branded with a sin that excites the horror naturalis of all. But perhaps Sir Gawain has most right to complain. What a contrast between the pictures of him in the verse and in the prose romances, especially the prose romances that deal with Sir Tristram In the poem of the Green Knight, for example, which follows
the
early
crusades.
: !

Europe

the earlier conception, he

is of all but flawless valour ;* he has the true nobility that can confess and expiate His a fault; and he is genuinely religious as well. trust is in the Virgin, who is limned on his shield, his pentacle has reference to the Five Wounds, the Five Joys, and the like his great grief in his toilsome wanderings is that he cannot be present at Mass on Christmas. How different from the perfidious, cruel, envious knight he becomes in later story, where he appears as a voluptuary and assassin, saved from utter worthlessness only by some physical daring and some surface courtesy This would seem
;
!

VERSE AND PROSE ROMANCES
to

85

mean

that to the earnest authors of these prose

romances the conceptions of chivalry, when weighed in the balance, were found wanting. They had no new form in which to express their new ideas they kept the old framework of chivalrous romance, only with the characteristic change that from poetry it has become prose, and has lost the splendour and inspiration of verse but in the old framework they insert new thoughts, and are antagonistic to those of the personages who most fully embodied the chiv;
;

alrous ideal.

VI
MALORY'S COMPILATION AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS

Thus

there is a discrepancy between the earlier and the later Arthurian romances of the Middle Ages, and since besides they had grown up in very different ways, taking their first suggestions from different Celtic legends, their increments from different stories that were in the air, their form from different minds, and their tone from different times and from different impulses of doctrinal Christianity, they present a very tangled and complicated appearance.
to
direct

Their differences amount often their mutual independence goes the length of incompatibility. Yet through it all there is a certain unity of theme, and the persons are, to a great extent, the same. Could not the loose threads be gathered together, and each of the adventures be assigned its proper place in one grand scheme? That was a task that might engross the best powers of the loftiest genius. But there was
contradiction,

;

86

INTRODUCTION
in

no genius

the Middle
it

inclined to take

up.

Ages who was fitted or Dante indeed always shows

profound appreciation of the Arthurian story. In the Inferno, among the shades "whom love had separated from our life," he gives Tristram a sove-

by the side of Paris. He describes him in whom were broken breast and at one and the same blow by Arthur's hand," and the phrase shows how minutely he was impressed. The shadow as well as the breast is broken, for the romance tells how, after the King's final stroke, " by the opening of the lance, through the midst of the wound, there passed a sunbeam so manifestly that Griflet saw it." 1 Above all, the story of Lancelot and his first kiss of Guinevere has, besides a reference in the Paradiso? inspired some of the most exquisite lines in one of the most
reign

place

Modred shadow

as "

exquisite passages of the Inferno, the description of

Francesca
the poet's
**

di

Rimini and Paolo Malatesta who were
Francesca, telling their story at

slain for their love.

" affectionate appeal,"

concludes

:

One day we twain were reading for delight Of Lancelot, how love did him enthral Alone we were, and void of any fear.
Full oft that reading

To

other,

drew the eyes of each and drove the colour from our cheeks,
point that vanquished us.

But 'twas one only

We
1

read

how

those glad lips for which he longed
:

Were
"

kissed at last by such a noble lover

Et

dit l'histoire

que apres louerture de
soleil
si

la lance

passa parmy
veit."

la plaie

vng ray de

cuidamment que

girflet le

— Prose Lancelot.
2

xvi. 13-15.

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
who ne'er shall be from on the tremulous mouth Procurer both the book and he who wrote That day no further did we read therein."
Then
this

87

man

here

me
;

Divided, kissed

me

!

'

1

But
with

Dante,

the Arthurian

them

despite his deep sympathy with romances, could not occupy himself chiefly or wholly. They represented

section or aspect of medieval life, and he was summoned by his genius, his circumstances, and his time to be the supreme exponent of the Middle Ages in their widest range, summing up

only one

their politics,
art,

their

philosophy, their science, their

and

their religion.

later than Dante lived Chaucer, next to Dante the chief literary genius of the Middle Ages. And it might have been expected that the adapter of knightly stories like

Fifty

years

perhaps

Palamon and Arcite or
above
all

Troilus

and

Cressida would

be attracted to the prerogative romances of chivalry. Nor, certainly, would the poet of the Canterbury Tales have wanted the required capacity for compilation, combination, and arrangement. But England was never the chosen home of chivalry, and always showed a certain callousness
to

*

many
;

of

the

ruling

principles

of

the

Ages and Chaucer, the first great poet of the England that we know, was a humorist,
Middle
a

man

of

affairs,

a citizen of the world, a foe of

falsetto

extravagance.
apt
his

Nor was
to

his

time, a

time

of parliaments and Lollardry and of the Renaissance

dawn, specially medievalism of
1

stimulate
or

the

stagnant

countrymen

himself.

The

Longfellow's translation, with

some

alterations.

88

INTRODUCTION
are, characteristically,

two romances that he did write
classical
in

subject-matter,
tales

being

adapted

from

versions

of the

of Troy

and Thebes, and

are directly derived from the arch-heathen Boccaccio.

His nearest approach to an Arthurian story is in Wife of Bath's Tale, which handles the same theme as the ballad of Sir Gawain's marriage, but beyond putting it in King Arthur's days Chaucer does not connect it with the Matiere de Bretagne, and suitably to the narrator's character he gives it a somewhat cynical setting. For the chivalrous romance proper he has nothing but ridicule, cleverly parodying its style in his burlesque fragment of Sir Thopas. To Arthurian fiction he is particularly supercilious, though he can borrow a comparison from Sir " Gawayn with his olde curteisye." 1 But while Dante is full of admiration for the story of Guinevere and her lover, Chaucer speaks contemptuously of
the
"

The book

of Launcelot de
ful greet

Lake
reverence,"
2

That

wommen

holde in

implying that men like himself have done with it. In this, however, as in much else, Chaucer was much more fastidious than his contemporaries. Not to speak of Gower's occasional draughts from British romance, which are not exhilarating, in Chaucer's there are' lifetime and in the succeeding years several English versions of Arthurian stories, of which probably one of the best as well as one of
the earliest is the charming alliterative and rhymed romance of Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight.
1

Squires Tale.

2

Nonne

Prestes Tale.

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
velopment.
respects

89

Moreover, Chaucer's time was premature in its deIn the fifteenth century there was a reversion to the Middle Ages in several important
;

the Lollard heresy was repressed, the real

authority of Parliament declined, the

Wars

of the

In that Roses restored the anarchy of feudalism. atmosphere the interest in Arthurian stories ran high, and at last the task of compilation was seriously set about in the reign of Edward IV., that king who rose to power with the help, and recovered power by the fall, of the " Last of the Barons," and under whom the new principles of society began obviously to declare themselves. It is characteristic that just at the final gasp of the Middle Ages, the work of welding the mass of Arthurian story was undertaken. And the Morte Darthur shows traces of this in the circumstances of its authorship and its literary position. The concluding words of the book are framed on the " I praye you well-known medieval formula all, Ientyl men and Ientyl wymmen, that redeth this book of Arthur and his knyghtes from the begynnyng to the endyng, praye for me whyle I am on lyue that God sende me good delyueraunce, and whan I am deed, I praye you all praye for my soule for this book was ended the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the Fourth by Syr Thomas Maleore, knyght, as Jhesu helpe hym for his grete myght, as he is the seruaunt of Jhesu bothe day and nyght." There is a medieval accent in these devout words of the knightly author. On the other hand, it is no less typical that his book proceeded from Caxton's press at Westmin; ;

90
ster,

INTRODUCTION

and was among the first fruits of that art of done so much to make the new times what they are. And Malory in style and
printing that has
dictation is very near ourselves, in some aspects having a good claim to be considered the father of modern English prose. 1 Earlier prosaists like Trevisa wrote in another dialect than the now dominant East Midland or like Wiclifs, their books were under the ban as heretical and ceased to affect the literary classes or at least, like Mandeville's, they were intended to serve some other extrinsic purpose, and hardly belong to " belles lettres " pure
;
;

and
dent

simple,

or

aim
is

at
in

beauties

of

expression.

Malory's

language

prose the direct descen;

of Chaucer's in verse his book was still popular and influential in the latter half of the sixteenth century and even now with all its ap;

parent artlessness and want of
a quaint

rule,

his

style has

charm that school boy and critic can feel and respect. Indeed, Malory has a claim to be called a genius, though a minor one, in
and
stately

virtue of his

graphic narratives, especially of tour;

naments and fights his swift descriptions, as of the coming of the Grail his appeals to the feelings, as in his famous encomium on Sir Lancelot. The
;

following passage

is

of a kind less frequent in his

his court at Carlisle,

Arthur is holding brought to him Sir Urre, with seven great wounds, three on his head, and four on his body and upon his left hand, and these will never be whole till they have
less characteristic.

book but not

when

there

is

1

In his book of specimens Mr. Saintsbury very
first

fitly

assigns

him the

place.

1

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
been
are

9

searched
present

by the
all

best

knight in

the

world.

The King and
[

the fellows

of the Table

who

;

attempt in succession to heal the wounded man, but without success. At this juncLancelot, who has been away, comes ture, Sir riding towards them. The sick man at once " feels My hert yeueth vnto hym more than to haue serched me.' Thenne al these that Ye muste sayd Arthur vnto Syr Launcelot, and told Syr Launcelot doo as we haue done
: '

'

'

;

i

hadde done, and shewed hym them alle that had serched hym. Jhesu defende Launcelot, whan soo many me,' sayd Syr kynges and knyghtes haue assayed and fayled, that I shold presume vpon me to encheue that alle ye, my lordes, myghte not encheue.' Ye shalle not chese,' sayd kyng Arthur, for I will commaunde yow for to doo as we alle haue done.' My most renoumed lord,' said Syr Launcelot, ye knowe wel I dar not nor may not disobeye your commaundement, but and I myghte or durste, wete yow wel, I wold not take upon me to touche that wounded knyghte, in that
what
they
'
' ' '

'

'

entente

that

I

shold

passe alle

other knyghtes
'

;

Ye take Jhesu defende me from that shame.' it wrong,' sayd kyng Arthur, ye shal not do it for no presumcyon, but for to bere us fellaushyp, in soo moche ye be a fellawe of the table Round and wete yow wel,' sayd kyng Arthur, and ye preuayle not and hele hym, I dare say there is no
' ;
'

worthynes to doo so hyghe a thynge.' Thenne Sire Launcelot kneled doune by the wounded I knyghte, sayenge, My lord Arthur, I must doo your commaundement, the whiche is sore ageynst my herte.' And thenne he helde up his handes and loked in to the eest, sayenge secretely unto hym self Thow blessid Fader, Sone, and Holy Ghoost, I byseche the of thy mercy, that my symple worshyp and honeste be saued, and thou, blessed Trynite, thow mayst yeue power to hele this seke knyght, by thy grete vertu and grace of the, but, good Lord, neuer of my self.' And thenne Sir Launcelot prayd Sir Urre to lete hym see hys hede, and thenne, devoutely knelyng, he ransaked the thre woundes, that they bled a lytyl, and forth with alle the woundes fair heled, and And semed as they had been hole a seuen yere. in lykewyse he serched his body of other thre And thenne woundes, and they heled in lykewyse. the last of all he serched, the which was in his Then kyng hand, and, anone, it heled fayre. Arthur and alle the kynges and knyghtes kneled doune and gaf thankynges and lovynges unto God and to His blessid Moder, and euer Syr
'

{

:

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
Launcelot
ben beten? the

93

wepte
1

as he
in

had
his

ben a child that
his

had

Even

subject

matter, Malory,
is

however closely he follows
to

sources,
it

entitled

might be said, of originality for a compiler must select and connect in selecting he must use his judgment, and in connecting he must appeal to his own Moreover, the mere conimaginative presentiment.
credit

of independence, and,
;

;

,

ception
Besides,

of
in

a

unity

in

the

straggling
kind, the

wilderness

of Arthurian romance was genial and large-hearted.

'

judgment on the results. Malory's predecessor, Rusticien of Pisa, and his later contemporary, Ulrich Fiirterer, have apparently, to all intents and purposes, been without influence on literature, 2 but the Morte Darthur is both a landmark and a fountain-head of literature. Of course Malory's work is by no means beyond criticism. He is capricious 3 in his insertions and
a

matter of this
extent,

must,

to

a

great

depend

we well could spare the story Anglides to find room for Erec. He often leaves a history half told, notably in the case of Sir Tristram, where besides he follows His dexterity in a poor version of the legend. mosaic is so small that he frequently contradicts himself in detail, and his arrangement is very confused. But he "means right," and he has succeeded
in

his

omissions;

of Alisander and

1

Book

xviii.

12.

is made at second hand, for neither seems .to be accessible in a modern edition, which is not without its
2

This statement

significance.
3 Capricious, however, rather in view of the whole field to choose from, than of the authorities that he actually follows.

94
in

INTRODUCTION
the grand lines of the history.

He

has told the

none of the pathos and terror is lost. The son of the devout Uther and the chaste Igraine, he is yet the fruit of a lawless amour. Though chosen and hallowed by heaven, in his youthful passion he violates the common instincts of mankind, and, ruthlessly but vainly, by an attempted massacre of children, seeks to escape
tale of

Arthur, so

that

the

long
the

consequences of his guilt. all seems to go well with
fair

Nevertheless

for

him.

He weds

Guinevere,

who

brings

him Uther's Rounds

Table as her dowry. He fills its seats with knights of unmatched prowess, some of whom even excel himself; and he and they do their part manfully to purge the world from ill. Yet, amid all his pomp and magnificence, his weird is slowly fulfilling
itself.
is

Lancelot,

his
foe.

best

knight,

his

best

friend,

but his dearest

As

Arthur's truant

passion has its fruit in Modred born to be the scourge of the order by his villainy, so Lancelot, in his involuntary breach of faith to the Queen,

becomes the father

of

Galahad,

born

to

be

its

scourge by his holiness.

For

this holiness attracts

once more the Holy Grail to the haunts of men; and the fellowship wrecks itself on the quest that is only for the virgin knight. Soon the discovery
of
sea,

Lancelot's

guilt

ensues
is

to

divide

it

against

itself.

While Arthur
seizes the

warring

with

him over

Modred
his

ing

origin

with
to

equal

kingdom and Queen, avengwrong. And, though
vengeance on
this

Arthur
ruinous

returns

take

baser
In the

treason, vengeance does not
battle

mean
plaice

redress.

that

takes

through

a

mere

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
accident and blunder, the great king and his

95

nephew

son

fall

at the

hands of each

other.

Thus the Arthurian stories, after expressing the beauty and fulness of chivalry, ended by expressing
its

dissolution,
its

and the

tragic

catastrophe

is

what gives
tkur, the
fifteenth

name and

unity to the Morte Dar-

work composed at the end of the That this ultimate phase was necessary both in the ideal and in its literary reflection we may see, if we recall what chivalry was and how it found utterance in song. It sought to establish a compromise or equipoise
cyclic

century.

between the opposing forces of religious monastic
theory and irreligious lay
the
clerical
life.

The

scales dip to

song of Roland, and to the mundane in the lay of Alexander. Only in the career of Arthur, supplemented in the adventures of his knights, do we find anything like an exact balance. But since in chivalry there was mere adjustment and no real fusion of the opposing elements, it was at best in unstable equilibrium, difficult to attain and liable at any moment to be destroyed. It begins in the Romance of Tristram with an over-accentuation of the secular, it proceeds in the Romance of Percivale to an overside
in

the

accentuation
tion

of the spiritual.

In

the

reconstrucin his

of the story, which

makes Arthur

own

^

person represent the conflicting forces, and Lancelot

and Galahad follow them out to the uttermost,

the whole contrivance breaks up.

And this was the fate of chivalry, because, as a guiding principle, it was unequal to the problem
which
it

undertook,

and men

soon

saw that

it

96

INTRODUCTION

merely professed to give the answer. Yet, like great attempt to reconcile the two sides of man's nature, it retains a perennial interest for mankind and the fictions which were fostered under its shadow possess a certain capability of meaning that not only makes them immortal, but endows them with a living inspiration and challenges the world to treat them anew. And Malory's compilation, which supplies as it were the last word and classic form to the medieval conception, has justly enjoyed most popularity and exercised most influence in after times. Later writers may draw here on a Welsh story and there on a separate romance but generally and essentially it is to Malory, with or without supplementary hints from Geoffrey, that the greatest English poets have recourse. And this is specially true of Tennyson, chief of the subsequent singers of Arthur, and the only one on whom falls
every
; ;

Malory's

mantle,
so

in

so
is

far

as

the

encyclopaedic

character of the work

concerned.

Tennyson
material

obviously
quarry,

hews
that

most

of

his

from

this

comparisons
the Idylls

be-

tween the Morte Darthur and

King

of the Tennyson's indebtedness is at first sight very great, such comparisons have often led to his being described as a copyist, and even a bad copyist, under whose hands the grand features of the story are weakened The examination of Tennyson's or obliterated.
are
inevitable.

Further,

as

work belongs
it

may

views.

to a later portion of this essay, but be well to protest in advance against such Tennyson has often followed Malory very

——
MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
closely in
plot, in

97

even in expression, but in the same way as he has followed Raleigh for his Many of his excellences are annexed, Revenge. but they gain new lustre from their new position, they are heightened and strengthened under his and the most and the finest are his own touch white the method of treatment is entirely original. A most instructive comparison may be made between the fifth chapter of Malory's twenty -first The general book and the Passing of Arthur.
idea,
; ;

course of the story

is

the same in both, and

the

minute details. Malory's " But yf thou do now Arthur says to Bedivere as I byd the, yf euer I may see the, I shal slee where but if means the with myn owne handes " Tennyson keeps the expression, though it unless. has now a different force and he must give a new
similarity extends even to
:

;

turn

to the
" But,
I

sentence to
if

make

it

relevant

:

thou spare to

fling Excalibur,

will arise

and slay thee with

my

hands."

It

is

not

often,

however, that
Generally
the
" I

Tennyson's

loans

are merely verbal.
as

we

are struck quite
" Syr,"

much by

the difference as

by the resemblance
says

between

them

and

original.

sawe no thynge but the which in waters wappe and the wawes wanne " the poem becomes the famous couplet
Bedivere in the prose,
; :

"

I

And

heard the water lapping on the crag, the long ripple washing in the reeds."
is

When
says:

the king

"And

there receyued

put on board the barge, Malory hym thre quenes wyth G

——
9$
grete

INTRODUCTION
mornyng
is

"

;

which

is
:

to

Tennyson's

lines as

a diagram

to a picture

"And from them

rose

A
Of

cry that shiver'd to the tingling stars,
it

And, as

were one voice, an agony

lamentation, like a wind that shrills
since the

All night in a waste land, where no one comes,

Or hath come,

making of the world."

of the place, the broken chancel " the broken cross " upon strait of barren land " between the two expanses of water, and of Sir Bedivere striding over the ice-bound cliffs, is all Tennyson's own, with hardly a hint from Malory. It is the same if we consider the psychological motives. The adapter leaves his authority far behind. In Malory, Sir Bedivere on his first errand " behelde that noble swerde that the pomel and the hafte was al of precyous stones, and thenne sayd to hym self; Yf I throwe this ryche swerde in the water, therof shall neuer
description

The

with

a

"

'

come good, but harme and
idea
is

losse.' "

And

the

repeated on his second expedition.
:

same Tenny-

son does not neglect this hint
"

There drew he forth the brand Excalibur, And o'er him, drawing it, the winter moon,
Brightening the skirts of a long cloud, ran forth

And

sparkled keen with frost against the hilt For all the haft twinkled with diamond sparks, Myriads of topaz-lights, and jacinth-work
:

Of subtlest jewellery."

But

this

is

preliminary.

On

the second occasion

—
MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
it is

99

care
fail

for

the

king's

own honour

that

makes

him

:—

"

record, or what relic of my lord Should be to aftertime, but empty breath And rumours of a doubt ? But were this kept, Stored in some treasure-house of mighty kings, Some one might show it at a joust of arms, Saying, King Arthur's sword, Excalibur, Wrought by the lonely maiden of the Lake. Nine years she wrought it, sitting in the deeps Upon the hidden bases of the hills.' So might some old man speak in the aftertime To all the people, winning reverence. But now much honour and much fame were lost."

What

'

Or,
the

again,
king's
it

for
last

profundity of conception, compare

words in the two versions. In " Comfort thyself and doo as wel as thou mayst, for in me is no truste to For I wyl in to the vale of Awylyon truste in. And yf thou to hele me of my grevous wounde. more of me, praye for my soule." neuer here

Malory

runs

:

Contrast with this the farewell greeting in Tennyson:
"

The old order changeth, yielding place And God fulfils himself in many ways,

to

new,

Lest one good custom should corrupt the world."

Surely

there

is

a

depth
lines

of
for

and

the

following
in

meaning in these which we should
prose.

vainly

look

Malory's

ringing

And

combined with workmanship cannot In fail to bring with them artistic arrangement. this respect, Malory, as we have seen, hardly succeeds in carrying out what was in his mind.
significance

IOO

INTRODUCTION

A

cut

glance at Tennyson's Idylls shows that he has and carved and reconstructed the order of Malory's stories. Malory tells of the birth of Arthur, of Balin and Balan, of the king's marriage

and acquisition of the Round Table, of Merlin's fate, of Pelleas and Ettard, of Arthur's expedition against Rome, of Gareth, of Tristram, of Lancelot and Elaine, of the Sangrail, of the Maid of Astolat, of the discovery of Guinevere's infidelity, and of the death of Arthur. \Tennyson, on the other hand, begins with the coming of Arthur, his wars with the Saxons and the rebels, his founding of the Table, his marriage and his contest with Rome, in the introductory poem. Then he proceeds to Gareth and Lynette, to the companion poems which he interpolates from the Mabinogion on Geraint and Enid, to Merlin and Vivien, to Lancelot and Elaine, and thus reaches the Holy Grail then come in order Pelleas and Ettarre, the Last Tournament with Tristram for centre, Guinevere, and the Passing of Arthur. Even before the exact meaning of this arrangement
:

has
is

disclosed

itself,

it

is

obvious that the order
is

adopted intentionally And from Malory's. further, it is evident that here there is a gradual transition from light to dark as the guilt of Lancelot and Guinevere deepens and works out its bitter fruits. There is no hint of such an artistic sequence in Malory's fortuitous jumble and this, as we shall find, is only one indication of Tennyson's reorganisation of the story according to the requirements of contemporary thought.

no haphazard one, but
a

on

plan

that

is

distinct

;

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
It

IOI

was to wait four centuries, however, ere it was by means of a deeper interpretation. Meanwhile, before leaving the Middle Ages, we must note that just as the romances received a partial unification at the hands of Malory, so there were tendencies in the English Arthurian literature, most fully expressed in the ballad poetry, in accordance with which the romances undergo a partial disintegration. This literature is well worth a special and detailed study, whether in connection with the British cycle as a whole, or separately for its independent merits. The variations from the current conto be thus united
tinental
stories,
difficult

I

J

notably

in

the

case of Percivale,

open up
its

and

interesting

questions

as

to

origins.

Its freshness

of presentment, especially

the poems which, with a totally different metre from the short couplets of romance necessarily adopt a very different treatment, gives it a charm of its own. At the same time it does not materially alter the fund of ideas on which elder Arthurian fiction drew at most it makes them
in
:
|

more
Take,

national,
for

more human, and

more

popular.

1

I

\

1

example, the delightful story of Sir Gawayne and the Grene Knight, one of the earliest and best in the series. Whether it be a fabrication on hints from Chrestien's Lancelot, or the adaptation of a lost French romance, the peculiar structure of its verse, an alliterative stanza with an appendage in rhyme, implies that the author treated his sources with great freedom and independence. But even in it, it is not the plot or the chivalrous setting that takes hold of the memory and gives

—
102
its

'

INTRODUCTION

character to the poem, but the description of the three days' hunting, or of the grim landscapes

through
valley

which
with
the

Gawain wanders, or of the
Green
Chapel

wild
devil

where

the

might say his matins. In the alliterative Morte Arthure, again, which in the main continues the current of romantic history, though a certain backwater from genuine
the grand

romance is to be perceived, passages are those that deal with war

and scenery, or, above all, that affect the heart by their purely human pathos. 1 Thus, it is a fine touch to put the eulogy of Gawain in the mouth of Modred, and to represent the author of all the
ruin

Of all.
Most courteous in hall. Renowned. In the county where he
Alls tite

»

6
8

9
12

dwelt.

10
13

— immediately.

Enough, many. u More over. Death. Turns away quickly.

—
MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
Went wepand
1
:

10

a-waye, and weries 2 the stowndys 3
to

That euer his werdes 4 were wroghte sich wandrethe 5 wyrke Whene he thoghte on this thynge, it thirllede his herte Ffor sake of his sybb blod 6 sygheande he rydys When that renayede renk 7 remembirde hym seluene Of reuerence and ryotes 8 of the Round Table He remyd and repent9 hyme of alle his rewthe 10 werkes."*
;

;

So

too,

Le Morte Arthur\

in

rhymed

stanzas,

which recounts the story of the maid of " Ascolot," of Lancelot's duel with Mador on behalf of the Queen, and of the final catastrophe, is generally inferior to the prose version and to Malory, but often it is brought near to us by a chance touch of simple tenderness. Thus, Gawain and the King
enter the boat that bears the
"

body of the maiden

Whan

they were

in,

wyth-outen lese n
it

Fulle Richely

aRayed they

founde,

And in

the myddis a feyre bed was

For Any kynge of Cristene londe. Than as swithe, 12 or they wold sese, 13 The koverlet lyfte they up wyth hande, A dede woman they sighe u ther was,

Hye the faste, for crosse on Rode, And telle me what thou hast ther sene.' The knyght was bothe hende and free To save that swerd he was mile glad, And thought, whethyr I 5 better bee Yif neuyr man it After had And 6 I it caste in to the see, Off mold 7 was neuyr man so mad.' The swerd he hyd undyr A tree, And sayd, Syr, I ded as ye me bad.' What saw thou there ? than sayd the Kynge,
;
:

And keste the scauberke 3 in the flode Yif Any Aventurs shalle betyde,

;

'

There-by shalle I se tokenys goode." In-to the see hee lette the scauberke glyde A whyle on the land hee there stode Than to the Kynge he wente that tyde And sayd, Syr, it is done by the Rode.' Saw thow Any wondres more ?
;

;

'

'

1

Sertys

sir, I

'

A

!

false

saw nought.' traytor/ he sayd

thore, 4
;

1

Twyse thou haste me
That
shalle

treson wroght
sely 5 sore

thow rew
it

And be

thou bold 6

shalbe bought."
'

7

The knyght than

And
Sir

to the

cryed, Lord, thyn ore swerde sone he sought.

!

8

bedwere saw that bote 9 was beste And to the good swerde he wente In-to the see he hyt keste Than myght he see what that it mente There cam An hand, wyth-outen Reste, 10 Oute of the water, and feyre it hente, 11 And brandysshyd As it shuld braste, 12
; ; ;

And

sythe, 13 as gleme, 14

Away

it

glente."

15

*

As
:>ut

a whole, this
the
Report.

is not equal to Malory's account, throwing away of the scabbard is good.
3
6

1

2 5 8

By-bring or bring hither.
Strangely, very.

Scabbard.
Sure.

4
7

There.
Expiated.
delay.

Mercy.
Like a gleam.

9

Amends, obedience,
12
15

w Without
13

n Caught.
14

Break.
Flashed.

Then.

* Line 3446 and following.

—
106

INTRODUCTION

It doubtless springs from the same desire to avoid a naked repetition which in a more artistic way

makes Tennyson vary

the

motive

of

Bedivere's

^

disobedience.

But such merits as have been signalised are not of romance they are the common property of popular poetry. Indeed the style and metre of the Morte Arthur comes very near the ballad type, and its chief defect is that they get to be monotonous in so long a poem. This bears out
distinctive
;

the statement that the ballads

may

be considered the

by no means the most valuable, contribution that England has made to Arthurian romance. There are some nine or ten of them, and their sources are as various as their
distinctive,

most

though

subjects.

The marriage

of Sir Gawain, the prowess

of Sir Lancelot, the magic properties of the mantle
that only the chaste can wear, are

among

the more

prominent themes. They are also of very different dates, some belonging to the fifteenth century, and some as recent as the end of the sixteenth. But, however late they may be, they in no essential respect pass beyond the circle of medieval ideas. They are for the most part mere fragments of romance, that in them has lost its shapeliness and polish. Few belong to the best ballad type in most of them chivalrous fiction seems dispersed as
;

in

petty rivulets before

it

loses

itself in

the sand.

What
of
the

a difference, for example, between the account
I

King Arthur's end in Malory's prose, or even in rhymed Morte Arthur, and in the ballad on the same subject
:

MALORY AND THE ENGLISH BALLADS
u

10T

Then bespake him noble king

Arthur,

These were the words sayd hee, Sayes, 'Take my sword Escalberd From my side fayre and free, And throw itt into this riuer heere, For all the use of weapons lie deliuer uppe Heere underneath this tree.'
"

The duke

to the riuer side

he went,

And his sword in threw hee, And then he kept Escalberd,
I tell

you

certainlye.
;

"

And
'

then he came to tell the king The King said, Lukin, what did thou see Noe thing, my leege,' then sayd the duke,
' I

?*

I tell

you

certainlye.'

"

'

O

goe againe,' said the king, For loue and charitye, And throw my sword into that riuer, That neuer I itt see.'
c

"

The Duke to the riuer side he went, And the king's scabberd in threw

hee,

And
"

still

he kept Escalberd
faire
tell
'

For vertue sake

and

free.

He came
'

again to

the king,
r

The king sayd, Lukin, what did thou see Noe thing, my leege,' then said the Duke,
'

?

1 tell

you

certainlye.'

"

'

O

goe againe, Lukin,' said the king, Or the one of us shall dye.' Then the duke to the riuer-sid went, And the king's sword then threw hee.
1

"

A

hande and an arrae did meete that sword,

And nourished three times certainlye. He came again to tell the king,
But the king was gone from under the
tree.

108
" But to

INTRODUCTION
what place he cold not tell, For neuer after he did him see, But he see a barge from the land goe, And heard ladyes houle and crye certainlye."

x

Doubtless this version is very corrupt, but, making every allowance, there is a great descent from Malory's lofty prose to such uncouth and helpless
verse.

interest

This ballad, however, illustrates a kind of that the flattest English versions often

possess.

Where

did

the

writer get

the

idea

of
it

Arthur vanishing from under the tree ? from romance, or from popular lore, or from
invention
?

Was
his

own

Some

of

the

variations,

like

Lukin's

throwing away his own sword before he throws away the scabbard of Excalibur, have the air of being original to the ballad. This is not exactly an improvement, but at least it introduces more life

and movement into the narrative and, by showing the same action thrice with a variation of details, gives a complete series of parallels and contrasts
;

such as ballad poetry loves. Even in this rude ditty, then, the popular imagination has been at work, and not wholly in vain. It shows at any rate how the people tried to make the stories of Arthur their own. And precisely this is
the significance of the
ballads. They did for the lower orders what Malory did for the aristocratic and

Geoffrey for the learned classes.

In

all

these

ways

the Arthurian legend, Celtic in origin and French in

development, if it did not pass into the life blood of the English nation, became at least a part of its imaginative inheritance.
1

Percy Folio,

i.

497.

CHAPTER
REVOLUTION

I

FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PURITAN

ATTENTION
the

has
in

often

been

drawn

-to

a

certain flatness

the vernacular literature of
causes, the absorption

West
this

in the

beginning of the sixteenth century.

Of
the

there were

many

of

more gifted in classical study, the preoccupation of the more earnest with religious controversy, the temporary vulgarisation of letters that came with
the invention of printing.
these tendencies

In
play,

Germany

especially

and the most characteristic poetry that it then produced arose from the ranks of artizans and tradesmen in the asso-

had

full

ciations
far

of the master-singers.
"

Among

these,
is

the most attractive and notable figure

by Hans
lived
his

Sachs, the

cobbler-bard
to

"

of Niirnberg,

who

from
long
art."

1494
life

1576, and spent the

most of

in

sedulous cultivation of " the benignant

Of course, from such a man in such surroundings at such a time we must not look for any supreme masterpiece of beauty. In flights of fancy he as a worthy citizen could not indulge
;

at excess of passion

he looked askance

;

of grace

HO

ARTHURIAN STORY

of form he has but a dim and distorted presentiment. He is at his best when he is recounting

some homely story that can be treated with quiet humour or pathos, and that can be made to serve for profit and edification. At the same time the
life

of

the

city

was

alert
its

and
sweep,

multiple,

many
satisfy

interests

these

came within Hans Sachs had
;

and

to

recourse to

some

subjects
perfect

that he
tact

contemporary Italian novels, stories from classical antiquity, and stray fragments from the medieval store. There were two
reasons
in

was hardly or sympathy

qualified

to treat with

why

the last-named
In
the
revolutions
;

should
first

bulk

largely

his

repertory.

place,

thorough-going
the

remain
the

most dependent on
the
before
prohibitive

what they displace

it

takes

generations

new

principle,
in

despite

most

protection
industries

matters
all
its

spiritual,

can develop
till

home
it

for

needs
after

;

which
with

time

must consent

to

some

reciprocity

the

alien.

And

accordingly, even

Europe had

broken

with the Middle Ages, a good

many
the

of the prose
worse,

romances,
printed

generally
in

altered
in

for

were
:

and reprinted

France

and

Germany

such universal circulation that they And, besides, as the could not escape attention. art of the bourgeois master-singers was descended from that of the knightly minnesingers, and inherited

they

were

the

traditions

of their

lyric

poetry, there

was an actual bond between the two that might easily be extended to narrative as well. But the mention of the lyric suggests the treatment the romance was likely to receive at the hands of its

"

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
new
was
practitioners.
at

III

The form of the master-song once laboured and rude the measures of court-poets were attempted, but their the old melody was lost their silken net-work of sound
; ;

became a tangled yarn, and
chivalrous love

their

celebration

of

'

gave place to theological disquisition. It was not very different with medieval romance, when Hans Sachs recast the story of Tristram and Isolt in the form of one of his humble little dramas. He had so much gentleness

I

of

feeling,

so
treat

true
his

a

poet's

heart,

that

he

could
,

not

but

subject

with

a

certain

homely sympathy, which gives it a quaint and pathetic attraction. But the evangelic and municipal creed frowned on such perilous stuff, and the shoemaker who celebrated the " Nightingale
of Wittenberg,"
as
he- called

the

great

reformer,

was too good a Lutheran and too good a citizen to be carried away by the inmost spirit of his theme. The Tristram of the worthy masterapt to leave the same sort of impression mind as that other love drama of the " hempen homespuns " of Athens in the Midsummer Nights Dream. The romantic fable seems strangely out of place in the plain-spoken and
singer
is

on

the

formless
its

little

play,

with

its

abrupt
its

transitions,

seven
to
his

unconnected
of

acts,

matter-of-fact
"

simplicity

language.
for

Isolt

and
lies

come
after

look

Tristram,

who
in

Brangel exhausted
unwitthat
is

struggle
his
*

with

the

dragon.
a
"

He
way
I

tingly

reveals
effective
"

whereabouts
the

more

than poetical.

Your

Grace,"

says

Brangel,

there

among

brushwood

hear a

112

ARTHURIAN STORY
snoring
in

man
covers

his

sleep."

x

When
really
is,

Isolt

dis-

who
his

the

dragon-slayer
is

and

depeti-

mands
prevails

death, she

assailed

with

many

mercy, but it is Brangel's argument that Yea, it is just that you forgive him, for His Royal Majesty has issued a decree 'Who
tions for
:

"

:

so

king In a This must be obeyed." 2 moment her mistress is appeased. These, however, are incongruities of detail. The grand incongruity of the play is that Hans hardly knows whether he should admire or condemn the chief persons. In one aspect he regards Tristram as the benefi" Perhaps cent hero of Kurneval's anticipation you are chosen to contest with people and poisonous dragons, to fight and struggle with them, and
takes the

knew him in the pains of death, to heal When, alas she finds him dead, she may live no more without him, and has given up the ghost." 1 But when the play is over, the herald makes his appearance to warn the audience
wounds.
!

<

against this

"

irregulous love," (unordliche Lieb), a
"

which hazards soul, body, honand henceforth regards neither morals nor virtue," " from which follows poverty, sickness, shame and hurt to body and soul, and the displeasure of God." 2 The moral is to keep 3 one's love for marriage, which is under the divine
pernicious thing,
our,

Such was the treatment which was dealt out Bretagne " by the adherents of the Reformation. The persons seem to have reached the Hell in which Rabelais (1495-1553) a few years earlier had found them. In his burlesque extravagance he pictures Gawain as a swineherd, and Lancelot as a flayer of horses in
the world
to

below.

"And

all

the

knights

of

the

Round Table were poor

day-labourers

employed

row over the rivers of Cocytus, Phlegeton, Styx, Acheron, and Lethe, when my lords the devils had a mind to recreate themselves upon the water, as in the like occasion are hired the boatmen at Lyons, the gondoliers of Venice (and oars at London). But with this difference, that these poor knights have only for their fare a bob or flirt on the nose, and in the evening a morsel of coarse, mouldy bread." 2
This
1

ready to bestow on it a fillip on the nose. Thus Ascham (15 15-1568), in his Scholemaster, has

I

a well-known passage in which his objections against medieval fiction are mingled with those against

,

medieval religion.
Papistrie,

"

In our forefathers' tyme,

whan

as a standyng poole, couered

and ouer-

all England, fewe bookes were read in our sauyng certaine bookes of cheualrie, as they said, for pastime and pleasure which, as some say, were made in Monastries by idle monkes or wanton chanons. As one, for example, Morte Arthur, the whole pleasure of which booke standeth in two speciall poyntes, in open mans slaughter and bold bawdrye. In which booke those be counted the noblest Knightes, that do kill most men without any quarrell, and commit foulest aduoulteries by subtlest

flowed

tong,

;

shiftes."

x

Ascham, however,
held
in the

in

this

passage bears witness
literature

to the continued favour in

which such

was

high society of the day. It is clear, indeed, that the tales of chivalry could hardly fail to suit an audience that took pleasure in passages of arms and the pageantry of medieval knighthood
;

and most European monarchs of the sixteenth century rejoiced in such gallant spectacles to the height.

of the Middle though that has thrown a richer afterglow on a few like Bayard without fear and without reproach, than its gay and gorgeous
It

was, however,
that

less

the chivalry

Ages

was

in request,

1

Arber's Reprint, page 80.

6

1 1

ARTHURIA N STOR Y
Its

accompaniments, the
externals.

men,

whom
in all

pomp and circumstance of its splendour and colour were dear to the revival of antiquity had rilled with
life,

the joy

and the pride of
that

drank

the world

and whose senses had to offer. Such

tendencies were concentrated in the court of Francis
the First of France, the hero of errant campaigning, the patron of classical culture.
therefore,
It is

not wonderful,
servant
to the

that

under his auspices Arthurian story
in

should
spirit

appear
of the
refugee,

a

new

guise

as

He commissioned the Alamanni, to render his favourite romance of Giron le Courtois into "Tuscan rhymes " and the result was Gyrone il Cortese, completed in 1548, when, as Francis was now dead,
Renaissance.
Italian

Luigi

;

it to Henry the Second. Alamanni (1495- 1556) had won reputation by his version of Antigone, and still more by his didactic poem La Coltivazione, " the work of a ripe scholar and melodious versifier." In it he " resolved to combine the precepts of Hesiod, Virgil, and

the author dedicated

Varro, together with the pastoral passages of Lucretius, in

one whole, adapting them to modern usage, and producing a comprehensive treatise on farming." 1 A man like this was hardly able to enter into the

secrets of a romantic theme.

He

keeps anxiously

close

to his authority,
to

and confines himself almost

pruning the luxuriance of the episodes, watch over his easy verse. But more is required for an original reproduction, and all that Alamanni achieved was a slavish copy, more fluent indeed and less disconnected than the original, but
entirely

and

to keeping

1

J.

A. Symonds' Italian Literature, vol.

ii.,

page 237.

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
for these

117

very reasons a great deal more monotonous. He had, however, been shown the way to Arthurian romance; and he returns to it in a much

more confident and heroic mood,

for his little

known

but very curious epic LAvarchide, which appeared This is as characteristic of only after his death. the Renaissance as Hans Sachs's drama is of the Reformation, and is an even more extraordinary
travesty of
all

the true feeling of the story.

It is

the Iliad disguised in the nomenclature of

Romance,

Siege of Troy presented in terms of medieval Clodasso, in whom we recognise King chivalry. Ban's enemy Claudas, is besieged like Priam in the
the

town
against

of Avaricum
the

or

Bourges,
the

which

he

holds

knights

of

most

conspicuous
of

persons

Lancelot, and Galahaut of the parts
respectively,

The Round Table. are King Arthur, Sir the Far Isles, who play

Agamemnon, Achilles, and Patroclus and that with such exactitude that Lancelot, offended by Arthur, withdraws a while from the war. In the same way, Vivien (Niniana)
stands
for

Thetis,

" but,"

says Gaspary,

"

there

is

no Helen." One cannot help wondering that Alamanni, if he were going to attempt such a performance, should not rather have Homerised the story of Guinevere captive in the hands of Meleaguant for that would have brought the poem
;

nearer his model, while leaving
But, in truth,
his

it nearer the tradition. very project shows that he was far from feeling the real beauty of the Greek, and he was too much of a classicist to have a genuine interest in romance. The whole strange experiment

is

merely the formal

exercise of a pedantry,

that

Il8

ARTHURIAN STORY

reproduces some speeches and situations from the
old heroic, regardless of the circumstance that they are quite

unmeaning
is

the frame
at
all.

in their new frame, and that hacked into disfigurement to hold them

So much

He

for Arthur as hero of a classical epos. next appears as hero of a classical tragedy, but

were much more favourThere was a good deal of correspondence between the subject and the form and the adapter, an Englishman of the Elizabethan period, was disposed to deal tenderly with what he regarded as in some sort a national legend. The ballads had kept King Arthur's figure familiar to the Malory's Morte people,
in this case the conditions

able for a satisfactory result.

;

had made him a favourite at the Court, mendacious record, even if called in question, had given a certain air of circumstantial
Geoffrey's

UArthur
history

to the

outlines of

his

career.

Moreover,

there was a tendency to forget the relations of the

English and the Welsh, and to regard the British
stories

as stories of Britain, the

common

fatherland

For these reasons the Celtic legends, a blend of invention, history, and myth, were known almost as widely and in as many versions, and excited almost as much interest in Elizabethan society in the days of the Armada, as the Greek legends, also a blend of invention, history and myth, the stories of Tantalus, and Oedipus, and Ilium, in the society of Athens, in the days after Salamis. Among the Greek legends, the Athenian dramatists found the subjects for their
of the existing races.
mightiest works,

story of Ferrex and Porrex something very analogous to the classical story of the mutual hatred

of the

Theban

brothers.

And
in

the greatest of those
vain

who

followed

Sackville

the
in

attempt

to

England found an even grander theme in the story of Arthur. Nothing in the tale of Thebes, not even the woes of Oedipus
naturalise

the ancient

drama

nothing fabled of Pelops'
of Clytemnestra
;

line,

not even the treason

nothing

in

the story of Troy, not

even the destruction of the sacred city, could be more full of tragic terror than the history of Arthur's sin and its punishment, of Guinevere's infidelity, of
the ruin that ensued
to the reputed scions

of old

Troy in Britain. The Misfortunes of Arthur, written by Thomas Hughes in 1587,1s the single masterpiece

Senecan tragic style in Elizabethan sums up in itself all the appeals to pity and terror of which the Senecan tragedy was capable. Nor can we put it aside as an anachronism or dismiss it as an aberration of genius from the true path of the English drama, as we do some of the later classical plays, like those of Daniel and
of the
literature,

and

it

1

20

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
The
It

Lord Brooke.
plea for
it.

date of

its

composition

is

the

was not a mistake for Hughes to adopt the Senecan model as it was for his successors to do so, for when he wrote Shakespeare had done nothing, and Marlowe hardly anything so that the capabilities of the new drama were still unrevealed, and it was possible even for a man of genius to doubt if the new drama had capabilities at all. On the other hand Gorboduc was at least a dignified tragedy, and it was only natural that Hughes should take Gorboduc as his model. He has done this without reserve, and, following close on Sackville's heels, has in the end outstripped his master. Like Gorboduc, the Misfortunes of Arthur was presented by the members of Gray's Inn, for the entertainment
;

of the Queen. us have an

Like Gorboduc,
"

it

is

supplied with
the
fact

a plentiful apparatus of
extrinsic

dumb shows"
from

interest

Francis Bacon had a share in their invention

—which —and
however,

for

that

with a chorus that provides the necessary comments

and explanations.
does not take
its

Unlike
well.

Gorboduc,

it

plot from Geoffrey unchanged, but

draws on probably

later

story as

From
it

the romances,

in the version

of Malory,
is

has borrowed

the idea that

Modred

not only the nephew but

the son of Arthur, and that the final ruin of the king
is

the punishment of his sin
Geoffrey's

;

and

this

is

the central
it

conception of the play.
follows

But

in all the rest

closely

account, without a
Lancelot.

trace of ro-

mantic

episode

or colour, and

omitting
It
is

even the
the bare

character and

amour of
spring
;

story of the chronicle propelled

passion as

its

and

in

by Arthur's forbidden this way the tragic awe

—
REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
is

121

increased

and an

ethical

explanation supplied.

The play opens with

the appearance of the ghost of

who rises from the Infernal Regions to curse the royal house of Britain as Tantalus in the Thyestes rises to curse the house of Argos but not with the reluctance of Tantalus, for Gorlois has a wrong to avenge against Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon, who robbed him of wife and life, and ruined his happiness and honour.
Gorlois, Earl of Cornwall,
;

Arthur, himself the fruit of lawless love, has, while he hurries from conquest to conquest in the Empire, left his queen and his kingdom in the charge of Modred, the offspring of a more unlawful passion and Modred, true to his origin, has won the heart
;

of Guinevere, his
confusion.
tions of a

father's

wife.

The sudden and
in

unexpected return of the king

now throws them

Guinevere, passing with the quick transi-

Senecan heroine, from hope to despair, from wrath to terror, ends by abandoning her guilty life and retiring to a convent. This only inflames the ambition of Modred, for, since his love is lost, he thinks but of dominion. In vain the aged Arthur offers him favour and forgiveness he allies himself with the heathen and the Irish to wage war against the king's invincible arms. Arthur seeks first to avoid and then to stay the contest, for he is still
:

passionately attached to the rebellious ingrate.

"O
fond

Modred, blessed son
apostrophe
;

!

"

he addresses him
civil

in

and, besides, his fiery patriotism
war.

makes
bursts

him
out
:

recoil

from the thought of

He

"

Thou soil which earst Diana did ordain The certain seat and bovver of wandering

Brutus,

—
122

—

—

;

ARTHURIAN STORY
Thou realm which aye I reverence as my saint, Thou stately Britain, th' ancient type of Troy,
Bear with my forced wrongs I am not he That willing would impeach thy peace with wars."
;

But when the herald surprises him in his tears, weeping amidst his veteran knights, with Modred's

summons
restores

to the decisive fight, his
to himself:

offended pride

him

" Display

my

standard forth

;

let

trump and drum
;

Call soldiers near to hear their sovereign's hest"

and he rushes with
" Nearer than
all

his troops against his son,
(woe's

me

!),

too near,

my

foe."

We

learn from the nuntius
in

how

the very elements

take part

the portentous battle, tempest, hail and
;

fight drags

thunder affrighting the combatants alike how the along in weird confusion how the father and son at last meet face to face
;
:

"

Anon
With

they, fierce encountering, both concurr'd
grisly looks

and faces like their fates, But dispar minds and inward moods unlike
with mind to safeguard both or one,
to spoil the

The sire The son

one or hazard both."

Modred, hungry as a
repeatedly
reckless

wolf for

his

father's

life,

beaten

off

by

Arthur's
skill,

more

heroic

strength and more knightly
:

at

length grows

" Forth he flings,

And

desperate runs on point of Arthur's sword

.

.

I

Whereon engored, he glides, till near approached With dying hand he hews his father's head."

The King

is

victorious,

but

he

has

received

his

—
REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
death-wound.
123

He
now
in

enters, leaning

on the shoulder

of his follower Cador, and utters his last farewell.
" This only
I

crave (O Fortune
:

!

erst

My faithful
Nor long
Yet
let

friend)

be soon forgot, mind nor mouth, where Arthur
let it
I

fell

;

Yea, though

conqueror die and

full

of fame,

my
I

death and parture rest obscure.

No
But

grave

Nor

stately hearse, nor
let

need (O Fates!) nor burial rites, tomb with haughty top,
;

my

carcase lurk

yea, let

my

death

Be aye unknowen,
I still

so that in every coast
for every hour."

be feared and looked
to
his

So he passes out

end, and the triumphant
:

spectre reappears to exclaim
"

Ye

furies black

.

.

.

Thou Orcus

dark,

and deep Avernus nook,

Receive your ghostly charge, Duke Gorlois' ghost.

Make room
It
is

:

I

gladly, thus revenged, return."

a terrible and tragic theme, and
it

Hughes has
is

treated

with

a sombre emphasis that

often
fails

grandiloquent and overwrought, but that seldom
to

be impressive.
as

The
;

characters
are
"

of Arthur and

Modred,

Collier

remarks,
the

distinctness

and vigour

fiery

drawn with and reckless

ambition of the son is excellently contrasted with the determination and natural affection of the
father."

Faults
the

there

are

of plot and
final

execution,

notably

of Guinevere in the first act, and the inexplicable absence of remorse on the part of Arthur for the sin which is the head and fount of all his woes. But, on the whole, this is certainly the best of the

sudden

and

disappearance

—
1

:

24

AR THURIAN STOR Y
in the sixteenth
It
is

English plays produced
the pattern of Seneca.

century on
first

less

celebrated than

Gorboduc, only because

Gorboduc was the

of

them,

while

the

Misfortunes

of Arthur had pre-

decessors

by whose example it profited. But though the story of Arthur has thus furnished material for a remarkable drama in the Elizabethan
been quite
unaffected

period, the Elizabethan

drama properly so-called has by it. The Misfortunes of
it

Arthur
only

is

the best of the academic plays, but

is

Arthur remained a stranger, or all but a stranger, to the popular stage. The most important theatrical piece that has any
connection with his career
tion
is

an

academic play,

and

the miserable fabrica-

The Birth of Merlin, though it might quite as well be called by several other names, and
called

included

among

Shakespeare's
it

doubtful
is

plays,

though the attribution of

to Shakespeare

about

as wise as the attribution of Shakespeare to Bacon.

In so far as it deals with Merlin it degrades the weird story of his origin to an indecent burlesque,

and the connection with Arthur
confined
to
:

is

very

slight,

being
his

prophecies,

like

the

following, of

future glory
"

He

to the

world shall add another worthy,
for his prowess,

And, as a load-stone

draw

A
But,

train of martial lovers to his court."

with

the great gods of

the

English

drama,

the story
ceptance.

does not find even this measure of acShakespeare, if the passage really is

Shakespeare's,

makes the Fool

in

dozen

lines

of oracular

gibberish

Lear and

utter

some

conclude

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
"

125
live

This

prophecy
1

shall

Merlin

make

;

for

I

before his time."
to

Nor

are Shakespeare's references
serious.

Arthur himself much more
in

Most of
Falstaff,

them occur
which
staff
first

connection
a
hint

with Sir John
their

gives

of
"

character.

Fal-

comes
line
2

into

the
ballad

Boar's
:

Head

singing
first

the
in

of the

When

Arthur

court";
i

with him, Justice Shallow was then I recalls, "When I lay at Clement's Inn 3 and at the close, Sir Dagonet in Arthur's show";
in conversation

—

the
in

quondam Quickly Arthur's bosom if
4

is

sure that her patron "

is

ever

man went

to

Arthur's

bosom."
general

All these references bear witness to the
this

widespread knowledge of doubly remarkable it that neither Shakespeare nor any of Shakespeare's great dramatic contemporaries should have felt the In Swinburne's pretty and pathetic attraction.
popularity and
the subject, and

makes

rhymed tragedy of Locrine
also

(the subject

of which,

taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth, after inadequate treatment by an Elizabethan playright, furnished Milton's Comus with the episode of Sabrina), the Dedication has a notice of those British
traditions

which partly explains
blossoms

their

neglect

by

the great Elizabethan dramatists.
like fragile

—

Such

stories are

"

with faint strange lines their
"

leaves are freaked

and scored

—

that can scarcely

bear transference to another
"

soil

than their own.

The

fable-flowering land wherein they
for stars

Hath dreams

grew and gray romance for dew

:

Perchance no flower thence plucked
1

may

flower anew.
ii.
ii.

King Lear,
Henry

iii.

2.

95.
iii.

2

Henry

IV., Bk. II.
4

4. 36.

3

IV., Bk. II.

2.

299.

Henry

V.,

3. 10.

1

26
"

ARTHURIAN STORY
No
part have these

wan legends

in the

sun

and gleams on Rome. Their elders live but these, their day is done ; Their records written of the winds, in foam Fly down the wind, and darkness takes them home. What Homer saw, what Virgil dreamed, was truth
glory lightens Greece
;

Whose

—

And
"

died not, being divine

;

but whence, in sooth,

Might shades

that never lived win deathless youth f

The

fields of fable, by the feet of faith Untrodden, bloom not where such deep mist drives.

Dead fancy's Is now the

ghost, not living fancy's wraith,
storied sorrow that survives

Faith in the record of these lifeless lives. Yet Milton's sacred feet have lingered there, His lips have made august the fabulous air, His hands have touched and left the wild weeds

fair."

This view, reduced to an argument in prose, would These British stones are merely the seem to run phantoms of Geoffrey's brain they are his shadowy creations, which have never had the reality of popular belief, and never been nourished by the im: :

agination of a
the
life

whole nation

;

so they are without
legends, and
for

and body of the

classic

that reason have failed to attract the highest genius,

except to linger with them for a passing moment. But, as we have seen, there is good ground for
believing that they, like their elders, contain a large

element of myth and something of history
of Geoffrey.

;

they

are no mere marionettes invented by the ingenuity

and had the power of attracting the mightiest genius, and under the breath of inspiration some of them have received into their nostrils the intensest dramatic life. For
they are
less plastic

And though

vivid than their Hellenic kindred, they have

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION

\2J

not only Milton, but a greater than Milton, felt their charm, and not only lingered but dwelt among them. From Geoffrey come the stories of Lear and Cytnbeline, which have furnished Shakespeare with the plot for one of his most terrible tragedies, and with
hints for one of his sweetest romances.

We

return

most and most magnificent and most tragic story of the group left untouched by Shakespeare and his fellows? Swinburne's answer is correct in the substance, and a very slight change makes it correct to the letter. The defect of the Arthurian stories was the defect of truth and reality, but this was due to the circumstances of their development rather than
then to the question
:

why was

precisely the

elaborate

to the circumstances
set

of their origin.

At

the out-

a blend of

myth and

history, they

had

been
of

worked and kneaded not by the
native
spirit

realistic

spirit

popular

imagination,

but

by the

fantastic

of foreign chivalrous romance. They had been appropriated to express the unreal and untenable ideal of an alien class the class was gone, the ideal was superseded, but they were steeped in the artificial tints, were attenuated into sympathy with the airy views, and were unfit for common human actuality and fact. The strange geography of Arthurian story, the unbritish Britain, the unbreton Broceliande, the waste lands and savage mountains, the incredible bridges over impossible
:

rivers

;

its
;

strange

inhabitants,

giants,

fays,
it,

en-

chanters

the strange

creatures

that

infest

the

questing beast, the hart with golden horns,
serpents that bring lions

young

by the neck

;

the strange

128

ARTHURIAN STORY
of
its

customs
ness of

persons,
lord,

unlike

those

of

ancient

Briton or feudal
its

are

typical

of the remotethe realistic art

spirit

from the world of living men.
unfit
it

Such

characteristics

for
is

of the dramatist, but realism

only one direction

of poetry, and a deficiency in this respect did not

mean
poets.

that

it

was unworthy of the treatment of

On
"

the contrary,
mightiest chiefs of British song
1

The

Scorn'd not such legends to prolong."

And
the

first in

the trio that Scott proceeds to mention

is

Spenser (15 5 2-1 599). These themes were bound to have a special attraction for his mind, in so far as it faced toward the splendour of the Renaissance, just as they had an attraction
of
for

name

Edmund

Francis

the

First.

And
to

in

like

manner

as

Francis passed them on

a classicising poet of Italy, so Spenser mingled with them such classical
arid

mythology

Italian

ornament

.as

patible with their fantastic framework.

were comBut Spenser
as a

was a man of the Reformation as well
of the Renaissance, and,
or
discipline,
if

not a Puritan in
earnestness

man dogma
the
as

had

the

moral
led
in

of

Puritans and their preoccupation with the unseen.

His

conscience, therefore,

him

to

reject

transitory illusions the

shows

imagination took such
sings

delight.

which his eye and In his youth he

how
"All that
in this

world

is

great or gaie

Doth as a vapour
1

vanish,
i.

and

decaie."
2

2

Marmion,

Intro, to

Canto

Ruines of Time.

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
At the very close of his days he speech of Mutabilitie
tells

1

29

us

how

the

" Makes me loath this state of life so tickle, And love of things so vaine to cast away Whose flowring pride, so fading and so fickle, Short Time shall soon cut down with his consuming
:

sickle."

l

x/
contempt
them,

1

The
in

solution of this contradiction between his joy

appearances
far

and
his

his

for

he

found, so

as

principles were concerned, in
;

he viewed the vanishing an idealistic symbolism of the eternal beauty senses as garb of the beauty of the spirit, " for of the soul the bodie forme doth take." 2 So far as his art was concerned, he he made his solution in allegory found the
;

The pageant the veil for ethical truth. brought which this treatment of Arthurian story with it, was the very opposite of that which had commended itself to the Senecan dramatist. Hughes has kept true to the incidents of the pseudo-history, but recast them by borrowing from
romantic

romance

the

idea

of

Arthur's

incestuous

guilt.

Spenser, on the other hand, retains the machinery
of romance, but
princes.

transforms
to

it

by borrowing from
portion
that has

the chronicles the idea of Arthur as the flower of

In

the preface

the

come down

to us, of which the first three books were published in 1590 and the remaining three in 1596, he says, " I labour to pourtraict in Arthure before he was king, the image of a brave knight,
1

Faerie Queene,

vii. 8. 1.

2

An Hymne

in

Honour
I

of

Beau tie.

130

ARTHURIAN STORY
"
;

perfected in the twelve private morall vertues
again,
"

and
sette

In

the person

of

Prince Arthure
;

I

which vertue, for and the rest) it is the perfection of all the rest, and conteineth in it them all, therefore in the whole course I mention the deedes of Arthure applyable to that vertue, which I write of in that book." Thus Arthur rescues the Red-cross knight and Sir Guyon, and vanquishes vices that are peculiarly opposed to their nature, like Orgoglio and Maleger. Thus in his likeness to Britomart, he slays the lustful Corflambo in his
forth magnificence in

particular

that (according to Aristotle

;

likeness
;

to

Artegall,

he

maintains

the

cause

of

Beige in his likeness to Calidore, he fights the base Turpin and overcomes Disdain. But a conception of this kind involved a wide departure from the medieval legends. As Scott says, " They gleam through Spenser's elfin dream," but it is not much more than an occasional glimmer. Florimell's girdle is perhaps a reminiscence of the romantic test of chastity. 1 The mantle of Ryence, trimmed with beards of kings, is exaggerated in that of Crudor, " with beards of knights and locks The blatant beast is equated of ladies lynd." 2 with the questing beast, and we are told (though the knights mentioned are contemporaries of Arthur in the romances), that
"

Long time
Sir

after Calidore

The good

Sir Pelleas

And
1

after

him

him tooke in hand, Lamoracke of yore." 3
2

Faerie Queene,

iv. 5.
3

15-20.

Faerie Queene,
12. 39.

vi.

1.

15.

Faerie Queene,

vi.

—

—
I

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
Tristram's courtesy
is

3

I

sented
in

suggested when he is repreCalidore, nor is his skill venery forgotten at his first appearance
as

following

Sir

;

" All in a

woodmans

jacket he

was clad
"
l
:

Of Lincolne

greene, belayd with silver lace

and he thus describes
"

his

former pursuits

;

My

most delight hath alwaies been

To hunt

the salvage chace, amongst

my

peres,

Of all that raungeth in the forrest greene, Of which none is to me unknowne that ev'rwas

seene."

2

legends,

Nor was Spenser as we
British history

insensible to the

charms of Geoffrey's
poetic

see

from

the

summary of

from the days of the giants to the reign of Uther, which Prince Arthur reads in the
the passing references to keeping for instance, the explanation of the noises about the cave " emongst
Castle

of Alma. 3
are

And

Merlin

quite

in

:

the

woody
"

hilles

of

Dynevowre "
say, is this
:

;

The

cause,

some

A

litle

whyle

Before that Merlin dyde, he did intend

A brasen

wall in compas to compyle About Cairmardin, and did it commend Unto these Sprights to bring to perfect end During which worke the Lady of the Lake, Whom long he lov'd, for him in hast did send
:

:

Who, thereby forst his workmen Them bownd till his retourne their
" In the

to foresake

labour not to slake.

meane time through

that false Ladies traine

He was surprisd, and buried under beare, Ne ever to his worke returnd againe
:

Nath'lesse those fiends
1

may

not their work forbeare,
2

Faerie Queene,

vi. 2. 5.
3

Faerie Queene,
ii.

vi. 2. 31.

Faerie Queene,

11.

132

ARTHURIAN STORY
So greatly his commandement they feare, But there doe toyle and traveile day and night, Untill that brasen wall they up doe reare For Merlin had in Magick more insight Than ever him before, or after, living wight^' l
:

But these are mere
Spenser's
tradition.

details
little

:

in

plan and substance

poem has
If

connection with romantic
of virtue personified in

the
to

totality

Arthur

was
the

be

broken
knights,

up
the

and

distributed

among

various

fellows

of

the

Table with their medieval habits and aptitudes were no longer suitable. They were summarily and necessarily dismissed because they were none of them fit to stand for a particular virtue and not one of them save Tristram for whom there no Isolt is introduced even as a subordinate is

—

—

;

character.

Further,

if

the

allegory sets

forth

the

war of good and evil and the inevitable triumph of the good, Arthur had to be represented The superhuman ideal as practically invincible. of excellence, his arms are superhuman as well. His sword Morddure is a much more wonderful weapon than Excalibur, for it will not wound its master 2 and even his sword is a mere child's toy in comparison with his shield, which is like the Orlando Ftirioso. one shield of Atlas in It is diamond, and he always bears it closely covered, keeping it in reserve as his chief weapon of
universal
;

offence.
"

The same

to wight he never wont disclose, But whenas monsters huge he would dismay,
2

1

Faerie Queene,

iii.

3. 10.

Faerie Q?ieene,

ii.

8. 21.

;

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
Or daunt unequall armies of his foes, Or when the flying heavens he would
affray
:

133

For so exceeding shone his glistring ray, That Phoebus golden face it did attaint, As when a cloud his beames doth over-lay

:

Cynthia wexed pale and faynt, As when her face is staynd with magicke arts constraint.
silver

And

"

No magicke
But
all

arts hereof

had any might,
:

Nor bloody wordes
that

of bold Enchaunters call

was not such as seemd in sight Before that shield did fade, and suddeine fall And when him list the raskall routes apall,

;

Men into stones therewith he could transmew, And stones to dust, and dust to nought at all And when him list the prouder lookes subdew,

He

would them gazing blind, or turne

to other hew."

1

In the same

way

in this

marvellous land of Faerie,

where nothing of him fades, but all is allegorically his altered " into something rich and strange," love is given not to the faithless Guinevere but to for the narGloriana, the type of heavenly glory
:

rative

is

to

conclude,

not

with

the

disastrous

West, but with his marriage and the consummation of his bliss. Arthur, says Spenser in the prefatory letter, " I conceive after his long education by Timon, to whom he was by Merlin delivered to be brought up, so soone as he was borne of the Lady Igrayne, to have seene in a dream or vision the Faery Queen, with whose excellent beauty ravished, he awaking resolved to seeke her and so being by Merlin armed, and by out Timon throughly instructed, he went to seeke her
battle of the
;

1

Faerie Queene^

i.

7. 34.

—
134
forth in

—

ARTHURIAN STORY
Faerye land."
is

of Spenser's allegory
pattern,
left,

Thus though the furniture mostly after the romantic

of the

save the story of his origin

Arthur of romance there is little and bringing up,
i!

and a distorted reminiscence of his dealings with the elves, and perhaps with the Lady of the
Lake.
Spenser's choice of theme
dictated
sort to

I

may have
;

been partly
in

I

by regard
to

for

one who

was held
as

some

I

be the national hero
reference
theory.

just as his allegory

has a
ethical

national

politics

well as to

This

patriotic

note

predominates

t

in Michael Drayton (i 563-1631), as we should expect of a poet, whose interest in his country urged him to write so largely on its annals and its localities. It is in connection with the latter that he finds an opportunity for touching on the story of Arthur. His Polyolbion (first edition, 161 3, second edition, 1623) is a poetised description of

j

Wales and when he comes to a river or town associated with Arthur's name, he seizes the opportunity to celebrate his renown or to retell some local legend. Thus the winding course of the Camel suggests to him that she neglects her proper bed
the counties of England and
;

"As frantic ever since her British Arthur's blood By Mordred's murtherous hand was mingled with

her flood."

And
"

he remembers how the

"

conqueror

"

was born

as well as slain in her immediate neighbourhood

As though no other place on

Britain's spacious earth

Were worthy

of his end, but where he
1

had

his birth. "

1

Book

I.

—

:

—
135

:

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
like

Similarly in connection with Carmarthen, he recalls,

Spenser,

the

fable
it,

of

Merlin
into

and

his

elfin

paramour, giving
"

however, a

pleasanter close

She captive him convey'd
With Arthur they

Fairy land."

*
;

Or

again he describes the songs of the Britons
I

begin, their most

renowned knight

The richness of the arms their well-made worthy wore, The temper of his sword (the try'd Excalibur), The bigness and the length of Rone, his noble spear, With Pridwin his great shield and what 2 the proof could bear, His baudrick how adorn'd with stones of wondrous price, The sacred Virgin's shape, he bore for his device."

Next they celebrate his prowess in war, in general agreement with Geoffrey's account, but altering the
order
"
;

Then sing they how he first ordain'd the circled board, The knights whose martial deeds far fam'd that table round, Which truest in their love, which most in arms renown'd The laws which long upheld that order they report, The Pentecosts prepared at Carleon in his court,
:

That

table's ancient seat

;

her temples and her groves,
:

Her palaces and walls, baths, theatres, and stoves Her academy then, as likewise, they prefer Of Camelot they sing, and then of Winchester, The feast that underground the faery did him make, And there how he enjoy'd the Lady of the Lake." 3
:

In his attitude to the legend Drayton
fanatic

is

neither a

nor an

infidel

as

regards either history or

romance.

One

of Selden's notes, indeed, comes very

near the theory of modern mythologists, in com-

menting on the

magic

wile

came the
1

father
IV.

of Arthur.
' i.e.

by which Uther be" Here have you a
3

Book

which.

Book

IV.

—
136
Jupiter,

ARTHURIAN STORY

an Alcmena, an Amphytrio, a Sosias, and a Mercury nor wants their scarce anything but that the truth-passing of poetical bards have made the birth an Hercules." 1 Generally, however, Drayton, making use of local folklore which he jumbles
;

together with
raised
"

more

dignified

material,

is

disposed

to regard the story as a genuine national tradition,

on a basis of
I

historic fact.

He

breaks out

Against those fools that

cannot choose, but bitterly exclaim all antiquity defame,
out,

Because they have found

Slight fictions with the truth, whilst truth

some credulous ages lay'd on rumour stay'd

;

And

that one forward time (perceiving the neglect

A

former of her 2 had), to purchase her respect,
toys then trim'd her

With

up the drowsy world
:

to allure,

And lent her what it thought might appetite procure To men, whose mind doth still variety pursue
And,
therefore, to those things,

whose grounds were very

true

Though naked yet and bare (nor having to content The wayward curious ear) gave Active ornament."
Tradition thus blended fiction with
able to give
" Sure colour to fact,

and so was
:

them both

From which

as from a root this wonder'd error grow'th
critics gird,

At which our

whose judgments are so

strict,
3

And he

the bravest

man who most can

contradict."

To Drayton

himself the celebrity of Arthur

is

a

subject for national gratulation, and redounds to the

national honour.
"

As some

soft-sliding

rill,

(Yet, in his going forth,

which from a lesser head by many a fountain fed),
2
i.e.

Annotation

to

Book I. 3 Book VI.

of antiquity.

"

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOIUTION
Extends itself at length into a goodly stream So almost through the world his fame blew from
:

137

this realm." 1

The
been

poet's

only grief

is

that

the matter has

not

and he, in his love for Britain, is indignant that no native Homer has grasped the
utilised,

occasion to extol the British
" For

name

;

some abundant brain, oh, there had been a story, Beyond the blind man's might to have enhanced our glory

!

2

A

few years later

it

seemed as though the cause

of these regrets were to be removed.

The

subject

which the patriotic Drayton commended with such
hearty good-will was sure to appeal to the more fervid patriotism of a grander poet than Drayton.

John Milton (1608- 1674), when
resolved that a great

still

a youth, had

poem

should be his life-work,

for which he would equip himself by noble action and earnest study and lofty thought and by his thirty-first year he had taken Arthur for his hero. " May I find a friend like thee," he writes to Manso in January, 1638-39, "when, if ever, I shall recall to song our native kings, and Arthur devising war even below the earth, or shall sing the great-hearted heroes of the unvanquished Table in their bond of fellowship, and when (if only inspiration give me aid) I shall break the Saxon bands beneath the
;

" I myself he announces a definite plan. shall sing the Trojan craft traversing the narrow seas, and the ancient realm of Imogen, daughter of Pandras, and Brennus and Arviragus, the leaders, and old Belinus, and then the Armorican settlers beneath the dominion of the Britons then Ierne pregnant of Arthur by fatal fraud, and the deceptive features and assumed arms of Gorlois 't was a wile
; ;

of Merlin." 1
It
is

natural to ask, and the question
;

is

neither

on what lines would Milton have treated the Arthur story? On the basis of medieval history or of medieval romance ? Probably it was romance that first attracted him. For this speaks the circumstance
that

idly curious nor wholly unanswerable

the

stately

illustrations,

supplied

legends
the

which, in

the

phrase

of Scott,

"

by the mix in

heavenly theme" of both the Paradises, are from chivalrous fiction. Thus, in his description of the splendid hosts of hell his thought recurs to " What resounds
evidently drawn
In fable or romance of Uther's son,
Begirt with British and Armoric knights." 2
1

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
And in the picture of the banquet memories roused by the attendant sively classical and romantic.
Under the
trees

1

39

in the desert
spirits are

the

exclu-

" Distant more,

now

tripped,

now solemn

stood,

and Naiades With fruits and flowers from Amalthea's horn, And ladies of the Hesperides, that seemed
of Diana's train,

Nymphs

Fairer than feigned of old, or fabled since

Of faery damsels met

in forest

wide

By

knights of Logres, or of Lyones,

Lancelot, or Pelleas, or Pellenore." 1

In the vindication of his character in the Apology for Smectymnuus, he expressly avows his youthful prefer" Hear me out now, ence for this kind of literature. readers, that I may tell ye whither my younger feet wandered I betook me among those lofty fables and romances, which recount in solemn cantos the deeds of knighthood founded by our victorious kings, and from thence had in renown over all Christendom." Moreover, in a biographical passage in the Paradise Lost, which will presently be quoted, he contrasts the epic which he is ultimately composing with chivalrous romance, and here he seems to return to his former dream and compare it with
;

his

present

achievement.

And

considering
"

abundant proof of his early reverence for the and serious Spenser," 2 showed now in direct
ment,

the sage

state-

now

in the

more convincing way of
aspirations
pattern,
2

imitation,

we may suppose that his first to a poem on the Spenserian
1

would be an allegoric

Paradise Regained,

II. 354.

Areopagitica.

140

ARTHURIAN STORY
like

romance of the kind he himself has described,
those that great bards

"In sage and solemn tunes have sung, Of turneys, and of trophies hung, Of forests and enchantments drear, Where more is meant than meets the

ear."

This might please him at the stage when he was writing // Penseroso^ and when he was soon to write the Covins. But in Milton's time, a time of political and religious controversy, and also in Milton's mind, which was so open to influences of that description,
there
is a curious insistence on fact, a disposition to take things literally and to look at their positive

aspects.

Besides, he

the theory of allegory, however that

Spenser,

who

was too great a poet to might sometimes uses the poetry
All

rest in

satisfy

as

a

stalking-horse for the doctrine.

Milton's, later

works
real

occurrences;

concern themselves with what to him are and though they bear a moral,

and though perhaps they may have attracted him by their ethical or religious content, yet his immediate interest
is

Now,
tradition

of

course,
still

not the didactic one. the aggregate of

Arthurian

was the utmost

regarded

among

the uncritical with
for

seriousness.

Heywood,

example,

considered the prophecies of Merlin, at which the good sense of Shakespeare had laughed, not only as

genuine but as accurate, and
entire history of

in

164 1 treated the
book with the surnamed
inter-

England
:

as the fulfilment of the

wizard's

vaticinations, in a strange
title

explanatory

—

"

The

Life of Merlin,

Ambrosius

:

His prophecies and predictions

1

REFORMA TION TO P URITA N RE VOL UTION
preted,

1

4

and their truth made good by our English Being a chronographical history of the kings and main passages of this kingdom from
Annals
;

Brute to the reign
:

of our Royall Sovereign
doubtless
the
craze

King
of

;

|

an and Heywood, we may hope, was read only by such people as would nowadays believe in
Charles."

This

was

eccentric,

the Great Cryptogram, or the Israelitish origin of the
English.

But an
in

instance, of the

tendency to take

by a man of Vray Theatre d'Honneur et de Chevalerie, by the Sieur de la Colombiere, which in 1648 was dedicated to Mazarin for the behoof of the youthful Louis XIV.
Arthurian
fiction literally is furnished

authority

a

notable

book,

the

It is
!

partly a collection of heroic examples, partly a

treatise

I

j

!

on Heraldry. In the portions on Arthurian adventure the romances are certainly called fabulous, but nevertheless^their authenticity is taken for granted; and, as has happened in more important
departments,
inferences

1

are

j

though they were
a
list

historical.

drawn from them as It is amusing to find
all

I

the author giving, with every appearance of credence,

of the armorial devices of
Table.
this

the knights of

the

Round
for

But quence
trative

was a kind of puzzle-headed inconsewhich Milton's mind was far too pene-

and logical. He could not but see that later Arthurian tradition was absolutely fictitious, and he thirsted for truth of fact. At this stage we may imagine him turning from the unsubstantial romance
to the supposed chronicle, from
at least, in

Malory to Geoffrey; most of his data, save the references to the magnanimous heroes of
his Latin utterances,

142
I

ARTHURIAN STORY

the unconquered table and to Arthur moving wars beneath the earth, are taken rather from the History

of the Kings of Britain than from the Morte Darthur. The romances may have charmed his fancy, young and may have left on his mind the deepest impression, as would seem likely from their
recrudescence in the similes and
veteran works
;

references of

his

but

it

is

the

pseudo-history that
definite project.

supplies the gist of his actual and

Even with
to linger.

Geoffrey, however, Milton was not long

In 1639 he seems either to have begun

his Arthurian

poem, or at least to have made up it; by 1642 he is at work on his tragedy of the Fall ; in 1641 he jotted down a list of possible subjects for his muse, and of these
his

mind about

sixty-one

or British, but

early English Arthur is not included. What is the meaning of this change? First and chiefly, it may have been that in busying himself with the material, he did not find it sufficiently authentihis appetite for fact made him both keen cated to see the hints of fabrication, and disinclined for the fare when it was proved to be fictitious. He was soon to denounce Sydney's Arcadia as "a vain amatorious poem " how then was he to occupy himself with matter of the same description ? It is certain, at least, that in his later years he was with

are

scriptural, thirty-eight

;

;

the sceptics as to Arthur.

In his History of Britain

(1670), he writes: "Who Arthur was and whether any such reigned in Britain hath bin doubted heretofore,

and may again with good reason. But he who can accept of legends for good story, may quickly fill a volume with trash and had need
;

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION

143

be furnished with only two necessaries, leisure and 1 belief, whether it be the writer or he that reads." Besides, as Milton with his growing Puritanism
" where more is and with austerer veracity demanded the truth and nothing but the as with maturing genius, he discarded alle^ truth gory, which is usually the hybrid birth of poetry so the circumstances of the community and prose and of himself turned his eyes on what he considered

looked

meant
;

than

askance even at meets the

fictions,

ear,"

;

This the well-vouched narrative of man's religion. was a subject that came home to the heart of
the nation as nothing in the authentic or inThe scripvented history of the realm could do. tural record was felt by almost all his countrymen
all

to

and And, not in parable but in fact, it had the most momentous spiritual significance that the devoutest poet could require. Beyond In certainty it he need not and would not go. and dignity it was far ahead of any other imaginabe the surest
of truths, divinely inspired
divinely preserved.
tive subject.
ful

And
and

in this spirit

he reviews his youthhis
is
;

fancies

finds

them immeasurably below
story of the Fall

present enterprise.

The

not less

but more heroic than any of ancient song
" If answerable style
I

can obtain
,

Of my celestial Patroness who deigns Her nightly visitation unimplored,

And
Easy

dictates to

me

slumbering, or inspires

my

unpremeditated verse,
subject of heroic song
late,

Since

first this

Pleased me, long choosing and beginning
x

History of Britain, Bk.

III.

Y

1

44

ARTHURIAN STOR
Not sedulous by nature
to indite

Wars, hitherto the only argument Heroic deemed, chief mastery to dissect With long and tedious havoc fabled knights
In battle feigned (the better fortitude

back wistfully on the lower and exclaims " What we have lost in his abandoning the theme can only be estimated by the enthusiastic tone into which he always swells, when he touches on the Shores of old Romance.' The sublime glow of his imagination which delighted in painting what was beyond
Scott
looks
that

was

rejected,

:

'

the reach of

human

experience

;

the dignity of his

formed to express the sentiments of heroes and immortals his powers of describing alike the beautiful and terrible above all, the justice with which he conceived and assigned to each
language,
;

;

supernatural agent a character as decidedly peculiar
lesser poets have given to their human actors, would have sent him forth to encounter such a

as

subject with gigantic might.

undeterred

by

their
1

Whoever has ventured, magnitude, upon the old ro20.

Paradise Lost, IX.

REFORMATION TO PURITAN REVOLUTION
others,

145

'

I

|

i

|

|

;

mances of Sir Lancelot du Lac, Sir Ti'istrem, and founded on the achievements of the knights of the Round Table, cannot but remember a thousand striking Gothic incidents worthy of the pen of What would he not have made of the Milton. adventure of the Ruinous Chapel, the Perilous Manor, the Forbidden Seat, the Dolorous Wound, and many other susceptible of being described in the most 1 All this is very true, and Scott sublime poetry ? " has sympathetically enumerated the points in which Arthurian fiction and Milton's genius would have had But it is only in isolated affinities with each other.
points that they coincide
different;
stinct
;

J

>

in essence

they are widely
in-

and Milton doubtless obeyed a true
aside

from figurative romance or fabulous heroic to pursue his " heavenly Tn the religious narrative he felt that he theme."
I

when he swerved

could give direct expression to the deepest interests
of himself and
his
fellows,

!

and

do

this

with the

most rigorous observance of

truth.

Scott's Dryden, Introduction to King Arthur.

CHAPTER

II

FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
>1V/T

ILTON
the

story of Arthur,
suited
positive

had sought for truth of fact and had not found
spirit

in
it

the
It

of the next
basis

generation,

>also, to

require

an

historical

for

an

epic

poem

;

but the demands for verity were
a poet

less

highly
the

pitched in

of the Restoration than in

poet of the Puritan Revolution.
could go a long way.
prise us to find
first

A

little

authority
sur-

It

need not, therefore,

Dryden thinking of what might

at

seem the uncongenial story of Arthur

as the

subject

The composition of of a national heroic. an epic, he says, " I had intended chiefly for the honour of my native country, to which a poet is Of two subjects both relatparticularly obliged. ing to it, I was doubtful whether I should choose that of King Arthur conquering the Saxons, which
being
further

distant

in

time

gives

the

greater

scope to
lawful

my
1

invention, or that of

Edward

the Black

Prince in subduing Spain
prince,

the Cruel."
1

and restoring it to the though a great tyrant, Don Pedro It is evident from this equation of
Dryden,
vol. xiii.
,

Essay on "

Satire," Scott's

page

32.

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION

147

Arthur with the Black Prince that Dryden, had he carried out his purpose, would have leaned rather on Geoffrey than on Malory, rather on pseudo-history than on genuine romance, and

would have aimed
national prowess.

chiefly

at

the glorification
is

of

Noticeable too

the selection, the

not of Prince Edward's achievements in France, but
;

of his
prince
"

Spanish

campaign,

which resulted
"

in

restoration

an escape of Restoration legitimacy which seems to show that Dryden would have laid less stress on the wider ideal significance of his subject than on the temporary political reference 1 but so treated, Arthurian legend would have been apt to
;
I

—

of " a great tyrant," though

the lawful

lose

all
is

its

typical

characteristics.

And
"

of this

there

further

evidence.

The
free

alternative

of

Arthur he seems to prefer as giving
i

greater scope

to

his

invention."

Such

additions

of the

!

imagination
story,

or

may harmonise with they may not. In the
have

the

traditional

case of

Dryden
age

they hardly would
I

done

so.

In that

was imperatively demanded for an epic, but exception was taken against mythology and superstitions discarded by the Christian world, and therefore beyond the pale of ordinary belief. Dryden proposed to get out of the difficulty by
machinery
"

introducing

"

the

guardian

angels

of

kingdoms,"
the
ill

mentioned
does
1

in

the book
his

of Daniel, and

idea

credit

to

ingenuity.

But how

could

In the

same way, though he dwells on "the magnanimity

of the English hero, opposed to the ingratitude of the person he restored," he talks of " the greatness of the action and its

answerable event?

i.e.

a legitimist restoration.

Y

1

48

ARTHURIAN STOR
for

we have spared
fays
like

such

extraneous

powers the

and enchanters indigenous to the romance, Merlin and the Lady of the Lake Circum!

were against the production even of such an epic as Dryden would have written. Scott in the well-known lines l tells how
stances, however,
"

Dryden

in

immortal strain
again,

Had

raised the Table

Round

But that a ribald King and Court Bade him toil on to make them sport

;

Demanded

for their

niggard pay,

Fit for their souls, a looser lay,

Licentious satire, song, and play

;

The world defrauded
lofty line."

of the high design,

Profaned the God-given strength and marr'd the

Dryden with

all his

superb genius, and even superb
child of the times, as
is

poetical genius,

was yet a

shown by his submitting to their influence, and the end of the seventeenth century was not a favourable period for the highest imaginative work. Despite the regrets of Scott, epic poetry has
lost
little,

probably
all

and the Arthurian epos not

at

by

Dryden's desertion to the satiric muse. The subject was not, however, dismissed to abA worse fate was in store for it. solute neglect. Richard Blackmore, physician and knight, " the everlasting Blackmore," as Pope calls him with reference to his fluency, not to his fame, rushed when Dryden had turned away, and seized in the suggestion which its author shrank from following.

The worthy
1

doctor,

like

some members of
i.

Marmioii) Intro, to Canto

—
RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
his
1

49
of

profession before

and
his

since,

had the

foible
"

omniscience.
learned

He had
eminent

degree from

Padua,

a

and

university,"

explains

Sir

Walter Scott, " which, like some in my own country, is supposed not to be over-scrupulous in conHe made parade ferring honours of this nature." of his scholarship, which, Dr Johnson thinks, must have been small he knew all about philosophy, he was a great and was " fallen out " with it politician, and boasted that he had a larger share in the Revolution than was generally known. Evidently he was the sort of man who would then be an oracle among the Whigs, and would now be mighty on boards and in congresses. He set up for a wit, as he might now set up, say, for an and being unequipped by nature or educationist training for literature, much less for poetry, and least of all for romantic poetry, he easily persuaded himself and his party that he was called to sing the exploits of Uther's son. He began his in career of "interloping" 1695 with Prince Arthur, which was followed two years later by
;
;

;

its

sequel,

King Arthur.
tells
"

In

his

preface to
that
it

the

latter

he

us

of

its

predecessor,
starts,

was
such

composed

by such catches and
hours as

and

in

occasional uncertain

the

business

of

my

profession would afford

|

j

and therefore for the greater part that poem was written in coffeehouses and in passing up and down the streets, because I had little leisure elsewhere to apply to This is the authority for Dryden's famous it."
;

me

.

sneer,

too

well justified

by the movement of the

verse

1

50
"

ARTHURIAN STORY
At leisure hours in Epic song he deals, Writes to the rumbling of his coach's wheels.'
x

Such methods facilitate the labour of authorship, and Blackmore was able to endite two more epics, as well as a lengthy poem on the Creation which
has once or
twice

been

praised,

and,

among

his

productions, has had the unique honour of passing

through later reprints. Dryden, who besides belonged to the opposite political camp, and had figured in Prince Arthur as
Laurus,

"An

old, revolted, unbelieving bard,"

did not like Blackmore's presumption in taking up

a subject that he had once looked upon. He avenges himself in a short criticism on " the city bard or knight physician," which he interrupts with a Parthian shot " But I will deal the more civilly with his two poems, because nothing ill is to be spoken of the dead and therefore peace be to the Manes of his Arthurs." 2 Elsewhere he says, in the
:

]

;

same

sense,
" All the former fustian stuff he wrote

Was

dead-born doggrel or

is

quite forgot."

3

Nowadays, we are apt to take Dryden's sneers too and to regard Blackmore's epics as dead poetical mammoths that never were alive. But this ^>is only half true, and the real facts of the case are At so late a date a good deal more instructive. -as 17 1 2, and by so great an authority as Addison,
literally,
1

Prologue to the Pilgrim.
Preface to the Fables, Scott's Dryden^ vol.
xi.

2

3

Prologue to the Pilgrim.

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION

I5

1

Dr. Johnson says he was praised in the Spectator. x " Of his four epic poems, in his life of Blackmore the first had such reputation and popularity as enraged the critics the second was, at least, known enough to be ridiculed the two last found neither This testimony to the success friends nor enemies."
: ;

;

of Prince

Arthur

is

not at

all

exaggerated.
it

On

the contrary, even critics admitted that

had merits. Thus Dennis, who devotes a good-sized volume to " I examining it, expressly states believe Prince Arthur to be neither admirable nor contemptible for if I had either the one or the other opinion, I
: ;

,

should certainly never have written against him." As a matter of fact, both the Arthurs possessed
qualities

perhaps,

There is gentlemen (the
Prince

bound to commend them, and, them to some temporary favour. point in the author's own remark " These
that were
entitle
:

critics)

pretend to be displeased with

Arthur,
faults in
it,

because

they
is

have

discovered

so

many

but there

good reason
if

to believe

they would have been more displeased
discovered fewer." 2

Professional wits were
certain
is

they had vexed be-

cause Blackmore had succeeded in hitting the taste

of the hour

among

classes,
all

whose approval,

according to our ideas,

to be despised. he had done this in quite a legitimate way, by appealing to predilections that were eminently characteristic of the time. No doubt his poetical claims are very slender, despite the occurrence of some tol-, erable passages in the ten books of the first epic and the twelve books of the second but these are short and far between. It must be admitted that

not at

And

;

1

No. 339.

2

Preface to

King Arthur.

1

52

ARTHURIAN STORY
thought
it

^7his

is

generally obvious and
if for

his

diction
trite-

conventional, and

^ness,

is

too often

moment he by drawing muddy
a
brew. 1

escapes

conceits from

the lees of the metaphysical

audience of
or startled,

Whig

citizens, unwilling to

Possibly an be perplexed

and not quite abreast of literary fashion, thought none the worse of him for either And if Blackmore had not much poetry demerit. It to give, neither was very much poetry desired. was on other grounds that he won his succes d'estime. He had a decent constituency that above all demanded moral pabulum, and this Blackmore could His aim is give them to their heart's content. he is convinced that " the business of ^didactic poetry is to instruct," and he wishes his fellow citizens to have "a useful, at least a harmless enterHe is justly indignant with » the " ill tainment." " of the time poets

may have

;

;

" Against their country they their wit engage,

Refine our language but corrupt our age."
" I

2

was willing," he writes in his preface, " to make an effort towards rescuing the muses out of the hands of these ravishers, to restore them to their sweet and chaste mansions, and to engage them in But in an employment suitable to their dignity." carrying out this programme he shows himself, " interloper " though he is, in essential agreement
>with the
literary tendencies of the period.

However

great the difference
1

may

be between the splendid
Appendix
I.

For

fuller illustration of these statements, see
I.

-

King Arthur, Book

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION

153

eloquence of Dryden and the insipid fluency ofe' Blackmore, it is interesting to note that their presuppositions are the same, and that they found on

Hence Blackmore's poem on the same principles. Arthur may be regarded as giving a blurred and distorted suggestion of what Dryden's might have been. There is, of course, an impassable gulf between the work of a bungler and the work of an artist. Still, in the present instance, the two men look at the subject from almost the same point of view, it appears to them in a similar light and
;

Blackmore's fundamental
In the

epics
traits

will

at

least

illustrate

certain

in

the conception

of Arthurian U

story that then prevailed.
first
is

place

it is

as an historical person that L

the hero

regarded.

The

preface to
:

contains the following passage

—

"

King Arthur That there was

about the end of the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century a King of Britain named Arthur, a prince of extraordinary qualities and famous for his martial achievements, who succeeded his father, Uter Pendragon, all our historians agree, and the eminently learned Bishop of Worcester, in his And Origines Britannicae, does acknowledge it. though Geoffrey of Monmouth is indeed
. . .

a

fabulous

author,

yet

his

authority,

especially

considering that there was such a war-like prince as

Arthur,

is

a sufficient foundation for an epic poem."

But

most

of

Geoffrey's

statements,
it is

if

taken

as

history,

make demands

that

difficult for

a sober

age to meet. In point of fact Blackmore borrows from him a few names which he misapplies that of Modred, for instance, who is represented as a
;

;

154

ARTHURIAN STORY

King of the Picts overcome by the youthful Arthur and (a worse perversion !) that of
"

The Pagan
For

Briton Merlin, that of late

his dire art, driven

from the British
safely dwell,

State,

Did with the Pagan Saxons

And

kept his correspondence up with

hell." 1

But otherwise Blackmore does not care to make use
of Geoffrey's authority, except for the circumstances
that at the outset Arthur

had to wage war against

Saxons, which forms the subject of the first poem, and that afterwards he led an expedition into Gaul, which forms the subject of the second. Such a residuum of the Historia Britonum could scarcely offend common sense at the same time it was Blackmore has "> scanty matter for two stout epics. need as well as " scope, for his invention." But the inventions, too, must have an air of matter-of-fact reality about them, and must lean on historic truth. Blackmore, therefore, has recourse to political allegory. Just as Dryden's epic on the Black Prince would have celebrated the triumph of Blackmore's Arthurs celebrate legitimacy, the > triumph of the Revolution and the achievements of
the
;

the

at home and abroad. Arthur, of William himself, who fights against Octa the Saxon (James II.) and Clotar the Frank (Louis XIV.), and marries the Saxon princess

new King
is

course,

Ethelina.

The

Christians represent the Protestants

and the

the Catholics. Almost all the personages of the time are introduced, and are described as they mirrored themselves in

Pagans

important

1

Prince Arthur, Book VII.

—

—
155
is

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
the

mind of an undoubting Whig.
Malgo,

Marlborough

easily recognisable in
"

Whose

courteous manners and deportment

won
1

No
It

less applauses than his

sword had done."

might be more

difficult to

read the interpretation

of Caledon
"

The

finest clay

and pure ethereal

fire

Dispensed with double bounty did conspire To make a man that should the world surprise, A genius near the kindred of the skies " 2
;

but a

long sermon that he delivers, which would

needed more than one turn of the unmistakably reveals Bishop Burnet. 3 It cannot be said that Blackmore often leaves us in doubt of his meaning, such as it is. He hangs out the flag of his allegory whenever occasion offers, as when he announces the purpose of his second
certainly have

He was often interrupted by the deep hum of and when, after preaching out the hour-glass, which in those days was part of the furniture of the pulpit, he held it up in his hand, the congregation clamorously encouraged him to go on till the sand had run off once more." Macaulay's History of England, Chap. vii.
pathetic action.
his audience;

—

—
1

56

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
This great deliverer shall Europa save,

Which haughty monarchs labour to enslave Then shall Religion rear her starry head,

;

And

light divine

through

all

the nations spread."

1

With

these materials Blackmore concocts his
to

poems
has

'y according

the
to

recipes

then in vogue.

He

a touching faith in rules and models, and he holds
especially fast

the

construction

of the Aeneid. of the wanevents,

The

storm, the
the

hospitable

reception

derers,

narrative

of

preceding

the

prophecies, battles, descriptions of armour, are pale

reproductions of the Virgilian pattern.
the supernatural

Of

course

machinery could not be omitted, and here Blackmore found himself in the same quandary as Dryden, and hit on a similar ex" The guardian angels of kingdoms " he pedient.
did

not

indeed

employ

;

they,

as

Dryden

says,

"

\

were machines too ponderous for him to manage." 2 But he misapplied a hint from Milton and introduced the Deity and the angels as the patrons of Arthur, and Lucifer with his hosts as the allies of the heathen. All these personages are very active and eloquent, and their interposition gives the story Hoel of Brita theological or quasi-religious cast.
tany, hastening against Arthur,
is

struck

down by
on
the

a

tempest,

and,

like

St.

Paul, converted

way.
"

A

voice

tells

him

Go meet my servant Arthur, he shall show At large, what thou hast to believe, what do."
1

3

King Arthur, Book

I.

2

Preface to the Fables, Scott's Dryden, vol.

xi.

3

Prince Arthur, Book

I.

—
RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
The
oracle
is
1

57

punctually

fulfilled.

In

the

two

following books Arthur runs through the history of the world, from the creation
till

the last judgment.

In

the

beginning

of the
tells

fifth,

Hoel
"

still

lingers
"

near, in

order as he

his

friend, to
;

be

with

your pious conversation blessed
offer'd
I'll

and the good" all

natured monarch has already promised,
improve."

seasons

mons
like

sumOcta to curse the Christian armies, but Balaam, he is overmastered by a higher power,
Merlin
at

comes

the

of

and altogether blesses them
11

How beautiful the Briton's tents appear, How goodly heads his tabernacles rear."

1

Arthur the champion and favourite of heaven, exas well as the advantages of such a distinction. On one occasion Lucifer visits his former seats, and the Eternal asks him,
periences the perils
" In
all

thy tedious journeys far and wide

Hast thou observed
"

my

servant, Arthur's
for

ways ?"
2

Does the pious monarch serve
;

nought ?"

is

the

reply
" his

and Arthur,
to

like

Job or
a

Faust,

is

handed over
bation,

the

fiend

for
"

fortnight's

pro-

sacred

person

only
is

being

secured.

But

his

consequent

tribulation

not so great as

we

are led to expect.

Lucifer uses the concession

exposes his to temptations of fear and pleasure, and even so, he is An angel not allowed a perfectly free hand.
with
great
to

moderation.

He

only

charge

the

danger

of a

storm, and

1

Prince Arthur, Book VII.

2

King Arthur, Book

VI.

158

ARTHURIAN STORY
interfering, in

keeps

open

violation

of the

bond,
ex-

and him

lays the tempest, warns Arthur,
at

and admonishes
is

the
in

critical

moment.
of
trial,

If this his

his

perience

the

hour

career,

when

things go well with him, can >He has no serious obstacles
all

easily be conjectured.

to surmount, for they

melt from his path.

and in the and as a matter of course. The record of his miraculous successes and illusory dangers can no longer quicken the pulse of any mortal
throne,

In the one epic he wins his other he captures Lutetia,

inevitably

^>

reader

;

it

is

as dull a fabrication as literature has
in the epics of take his career as sober
it,

to show.

Such are the adventures of Arthur
Blackmore.
\ history,

The

effort to

and then
first

to poetise

in

them

defeats

itself.

In the

place the two campaigns are chosen which
for

\importance

which also are of least romance, and contain little material These have been supplemented with for the poet. \the furniture of contemporary politics and misapplied But the result is ephemeral fiction that is religion. none the less fictitious for its formal and pompous Translate such a conception from the dignity gait.
least affront probability, but

of an epic into the liveliness of a stage spectacle,
divest
it

of

its

pretensions to solemnity, and

it

will

show
this

itself in its true

colours as a casual "invention,"

not as an elaboration of traditional matter.

And

Dryden, on surrendering his hopes as an epic poet, had worked up the subject for the play-house in his King Arthur\ which, first conceived in the reign of Charles, and intended, like its unlucky prelude, Albion and Albanius, to glorify

had already occurred.

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
that
in
1

1

59

69 1.

monarch, was only acted in a modified form It would be manifestly unfair to draw

analogies as to the character of the projected epic

from

this play,

which

is

really a kind of opera,

and

owed some of its attractions to the music composed by Purcell and the ballet-dances devised by Priest. The supernatural agents, instead of being angels of
the
spirits

book of Daniel, are akin to the Rosicrucian of earth and air, and probably this merely
a

illustrates

shrinkage
Still

in

the heroic

character of

the whole idea.
trifle

the fact that
"

Dryden could

with a theme of which he
its

not without
says Scott,
the

significance.

"

to avail

felt the grandeur is There is no attempt," himself of any fragments of

Arthur's romantic renown.

He
of

is

not in this drama

formidable

possessor
fiend-born

Excalibur,

and

the

superior of the chivalry of the
is

Round

Table.

Nor

Merlin

the

necromancer, of

whom

antiquity

related

They are the
fairy-tale,

and believed so many wonders. Prince and Magician of a beautiful

the story of which, abstracted from the might have been written by Madame D'Aulnoy." The King overcomes the Saxons, but
poetry,

the
to

names of

their leaders are
is

unknown

to history or

romance.

His love
sight.

given

not to Guinevere, but

Emmelina, the blind princess who miraculously
Sprites

obtains her

with

their

wild-fires,

borrowed from the Tempest and the Midsummer Night's Dream, seek to lead him astray. Bathing sirens and woodland nymphs tempt his virtue as they tempt Sir Guyon's in the Faerie Queene. In the enchanted wood that grows from seedlings brought from the Italian epics of the Renaissance,

a

160

ARTHURIAN STORY
tree,

he strikes a
likeness

of his lady emerges.
artificial

and from the bleeding trunk the In short, we have
farrago,

only

an

taken

from

almost

all

sources except the Arthurian legend

itself,

and un-

The blended by the might of any pervading idea. only special meaning that Dryden's play ever possessed was the political reference to Charles II. and when sufficient profanation of the Flos Regum that was obliterated there remained only, as Scott

—

—

says,

a fairy

tale.

How much

Arthur's dignity

is

degraded may be illustrated from the stage direction which refers to his single combat with the Saxon " They fight with sponges in their hands, leader. dipped in blood after some equal passes and closing, they appear both wounded Arthur stumbles among the trees, Oswald falls over him they both rise Arthur wounds him again, then Oswald retreats." Nothing is more meretricious in the whole course of Arthurian story than these two bloody sponges. Here there is a touch of involuntary and unconscious burlesque, and in the next generation the scanty loans from British legend are almost always made with a farcical intention. It was an age of prose, which exalted common sense as the idol of culture, and paid no great heed to the spiritual or
;
:

;

;

the picturesque.

Hence everything with
its

the cachet

of the Middle Ages was remote from

sympathies.
of

Their
glare

dim
of

religious

half-lights

were yielding to a
description

Illumination.

Gothic, the

their noble architecture,

had the secondary meaning of barbarous, and romantic was used as a term of The best imaginative work of the period reproach. is to be found in the novel, and the best eighteenth

"

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
century
novels
limit

l6l

themselves

to

the truths

of

pity and terror of even Hughes with awe in presence of the shadowy wraiths, would have been as uncongenial in the saeculum rationalisticum as the apparition of Earl Gorloi's' ghost in a company of

common human nature, and to The situdes of human career.
Arthur's story, which
filled

the ordinary vicis-

bewigged and bepowdered beaux.
of imaginative fiction
is

not

Tom
two

Jones.
stories

And
treat

contrast

The typical hero now King Arthur, but the way in which the

theme of passion within the Malory is terribly in earnest about it with him it is the fountain and justification Fielding introduces it as an of the whole tragedy. episode, but presently dispels the horror, and explains It seems natural that to that it was all a mistake. such a time, on account of its strength no less than
the

forbidden
;

degrees.

of

its

weakness, the personages of Arthurian tradiif

tion,

they were recalled

at

all,

should

present

Already Pope and Swift had made fun of Merlin and his prophecies, but it was Fielding who, in 1730, gave the typical example of the tendency in his Tragedy of Tragedies, In or the Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great. this play, which amusingly travesties the high drathemselves in a ludicrous
light.

matic

style

then

prevalent,

Tom Thumb

is

re-

by Merlin's art to be the glory of Arthur's court and the defender of the
presented
as

begotten

realm.
"

When Goody Thumb first
The Genius
Then, then,
of our

brought this Thomas Land triumphant reigned
;
!

forth,

O

Arthur, did thy genius reign

Tom

has been absent on a campaign against the
L

—
162
giants,

—
ARTHURIAN STORY
at the

and

opening of the play he returns

in

triumph, to the unmeasured delight of the king—
" Let nothing but the face of joy appear
!

The man that frowns this day shall That he may have no face to frown

lose his head,
withal."

Tom

asks for the hand of the king's daughter as

reward, and Arthur consents in consideration of the
heroic soul in his tiny frame, which

makes one of

the characters exclaim
"

:

So does

As a mountain once brought forth a mouse, this mouse contain a mighty mountain."
Dollalolla,

But things go badly.

who

takes the place

of Guinevere, has fixed her affections not on Lancelot

but on Tom. One is glad that this burlesque passion does not profane the great legendary queen, but is
attached to an absurd
absurdity.
"

name

that

is

treated as an

Come,

Dollalolla," cries

Arthur

in

one

passage
"

Come,
It is

Dollalolla
it

!

Curse that odious name,
it.

so long,
!

asks an hour to speak

By heavens

I'll

change

it

into Doll or Loll,

Or any other That will not

civil
tire

monosyllable
tongue."

my

Meanwhile she is determined to prevent the match, and instigates Tom's rival in love and war to rouse The ghost of Tom's the people and head a revolt. father announces to Arthur that his subjects are up in arms
"

So So So So

have have have have

I
I

seen the bees in clusters swarm, seen the stars in frosty nights, seen the sand on windy days,
seen the ghosts on Pluto's shore,

I
I

—
RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
So So So So
I
1

63

have have have have

I

seen the flowers in Spring arise,

I
I
I

seen the leaves in
seen the
fruits in

Autumn fall, Summer smile,
King, not

seen the snow in Winter frown."

D—n

all

thou'st

seen,"

interrupts the

unreasonably,
"

Dost thou beneath the shape

Of Gaffer Thumb come hither to abuse me, With similes to keep me on the rack ?
Hence, or by
I'll

all

the torments of thy hell,

run thee thro' the body, tho' thou'st none.
;

Ghost. Arthur, beware I must this moment hence, Not frightened by your voice but by the cocks.

Arthur, beware, beware, beware, beware
Strive to avert thy yet

!

impending

fate,

For,

if

thou'rt killed to-day,
all

To-morrow
Arthur.

thy care will
!

come

too

late.

{Disappears.
;

Oh

stay

and leave me not uncertain thus
fate,

And

whilst thou tellest

Oh, teach me how I Curst be the man who first a simile made, Curst every bard who writes The Devil is happy, that the whole creation Can furnish out no simile to his fortune."

me what's like my may avert it too.

....

For a while, however, it seems as though events would give the lie to the prophetic ghost. Thumb marches against the rebels, slays their leader, and disperses their hosts. But Merlin had met him on the way, and foretold that he would be devoured by the " expanded jaws of a red-cow," and now amidst the joy of the court Noodle rushes in
" Oh, monstrous
!

dreadful
!

!

terrible

!

Oh

!

Oh
!

!

Deaf be

my ears for Dumb be my tongue

ever blind,

my
!

eyes

!

Feet lame

all

senses lost
all

!

Howl

wolves, grunt bears, hiss snakes, shriek

ye ghosts

!

—
64
Arthur.
Noodle.

—
mean
I

— —

1

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
What
does the blockhead
?

mean,

my

liege,

Only

to

grace
is

my

tale

with

decetit horror."

And

his tale

the destruction of

Tom Thumb.

Arthur, at the news of victory, had proclaimed
"

Open

the prisons, set the wretched free,

And bid our treasurers To pay their debts."
But now he countermands
" Shut

disburse six pounds

his orders

up again the prisons, bid
farthings out

my

treasurer
all

Not give three

— hang

the culprits,

Guilty or not, no matter

Go

bid the schoolmasters whip

all their

boys,

Let lawyers, parsons, and physicians loose To rob, impose on, and to kill the world."

On

this the

end soon
persons

follows, a burlesque of tragic
is

terror as the play throughout
diction.

a travesty of tragic

The

dispose

of

themselves

in

and unmotived, and lie scattered like the kings and queens and knaves of cards, Arthur exclaiming as he succumbs
mutual
slaughter,

wholesale

" All our

pack upon the
is,

floor is cast,

And

all I

boast

that

I fall

the last."

Fielding thus, in his mock-heroic tragedy, makes
use
story

of Arthur
of
If

in

connection

with

the children's
is

Tom Thumb.
at
this
in

The
the

association

sig-

nificant.
still

time
the

name

of

Arthur

held

a

place
to

national

consciousness

and
a
it is

remained

become
the

name

when

something more than fitting day should dawn,
nursery that

chiefly the literature of the

we

——

—
165

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
have
to

thank

for

it.

Already

Chaucer

had

laughingly asserted
" In tholde dayes of the

Kyng

Arthour,

Of which
All

that Britons speken greet honour,

was

this

land

fulfilled of fairye

:

The Elf queene with her joly compaignye Daunced ful ofte in many a grene mede."

And

this

humorous
adventures
story
is

theory
is

as

to

the

date
left

of

fairy-tale

the

residuum

when
France
Contes Merlin,

Arthurian

at

its

lowest ebb.

In

Anthony Hamilton had introduced into his a magician who at least has the name of
though
he
characteristics
;

shows few of Merlin's traditional and the eighteenth century chapbooks (assigned conjecturally to 1750), which deal with the exploits of Tom Thumb, Jack the Giantkiller, and the like, choose by preference the age Thus of Arthur as the period of their narratives. one begins
"

When

good King Arthur he did reign
knights about him, he then did entertain, could not be without him."
all his

With

Tom Thumb
He

And

in

another

the

reminiscences

are

more

explicit

"In

Arthur's court

Tom Thumb

did

live,

A man
Who
And
Thus he

of mickle might,

was the best of the Table Round
eke a worthy knight. at tilts and tournaments
. .

.

Was

entertained so

That all the rest of Arthur's knights Did him much pleasure show,

Y

1

66

ARTHURIAN STOR
And good
Sir Lancelot Sir
to

du Lake,

and Yet none compared
Sir Tristram

Guy

;

brave

Tom Thumb
introduction to the

In acts of cavalry."

Probably for
in

many

of us, the
as

first

was contained it might be maintained that there was no other kind of compathetic figure of the legendary king

some such

lines

these.

And

position

in the first

half of the eighteenth century

so

fit

to

embalm

his

memory.

It

was the opinion
critic

of the soundest and most discriminating
that

of

one of the greatest in the whole history of English letters, that Arthurian romance was produced in the childhood of the people, and was fit only for the entertainment of " Nations like individuals," says Dr. Johnchildren. son in his introduction to Shakespeare (1764), " have their infancy " Whatand he proceeds " ever is remote from common appearances is always welcome to vulgar, as to childish credulity and of a country unenlightened by learning, the whole
;
:

generation and

;

people

is

vulgar.

The study

of those

who

then

aspired to

plebeian learning was laid out upon ad-

and enchantments. The Death of Arthur was the favourite volume." It was thus the deliberate verdict of the most competent authority that such themes were unworthy of the
ventures, giants, dragons,

attention of educated adults.

to the purveyors for juvenile

haps they were better off handled by the professional poets of the day. Bouterwek, speaking of the Frenchwomen who adopted the fashion of writing fairy tales, remarks,

They were dismissed amusement. But perthan if they had been

—
RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
"

167
true

Those

ladies

had
the

at

least

the

feeling

for

poetry, while

men who

expressed sensible but

prosaic thoughts and ideas in well-turned verses, had but a feeble conception of the essential charac1 teristics of poetic invention." It would be obviously incorrect to apply these words without

modification to

the

condition

of things in Britain.

one hand, our fairy-tale writers were not nearly so good, and, on the other, our poets by vocation were considerably better. Still there is point in the view that finds as much charm in these unpretending favourites of the nursery as in the more ambitious efforts of a poetry that might
the

On

be witty, correct, sententious, with
mirable qualities besides, but that
in

many

other ad-

somehow, save

one or two of its less typical representatives, had missed the one thing needful and failed to be

poetical.

Thus King Arthur was
Avilion
till

laid

up

in

the

humble

of juvenile fiction, the best he could find, of the

he should be healed
the

grievous

wound

that

rationalism of the period

had

dealt him,

and return once more
Britons.

to gladden the hearts of his

the

Time, however, wore on, and as the fashions of eighteenth century began to wane, it became possible to find an audience for less doubtful remini^'Jene Damen trugen wenigstens die Anlage zur wahren
Poesie in sich, wahrend die Manner, die verniinftige aber pro-

Macpherson (i 760-1 763) and of Chatterton (17641770), and the attention they excited, showed at least that the taste was reviving for the spontaneous,
the medieval, the Celtic, in the national storehouse of song and Percy's Reliques of English Poetry
;

(1765) secured a dole of interest for the stories of King Arthur. Of course, it was only in the ballads, not in the prose of Malory or the verse of earlier romance, that he was thus introduced into the circles of elegant readers. But there was as great a difference between the ballad of a contemporary chap-book and the ballad exhumed from the strata of the past, as there is between some existing forms of life and the mighty remains of their fossil congeners. It was not, however, the unsophisticated ballad that Bishop Percy offered to his public. That would in many cases have been too much for the taste of the day. Just as Macpherson's rhetoric affected a society that would have found small
pleasure in the unvarnished Irish tales, just as Chatterton's

forgeries

excited

a

sensation

when

the

genuine Chaucer was taken with the utmost coolness, so Percy had to exercise some " economy of truth " in seasoning the old materials to the liking
of his
tide

company and himself. But at any rate the had turned, and a few years more would see

it in full flow. In 1764, Evans' Specimens of the Ancient Welsh Bards also appeared and won the attention of Thomas Gray, whose poem of The Bard was already composed and who was always interested in literary origins. This collection of Evans introduced the series of translations from Welsh

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
and Breton
antiquities

169

to be through the various versions of Villemarque, and even more through the Mabinogion of Lady Charlotte Guest, has left an ineffaceable mark on European poetry. Meanwhile, though the formal Illumination was now, perhaps, at its height in France, the reaction was already setting in with much more violence than in England. The three chief works of Rous-

that

was afterwards
especially

of such importance,

and

that,

seau
Social,

(La nouvelle Heloise, 1760; Emile, 1764) belong 1762
;

the
to to

Contrat
a
close.
in-

the same

lustre

that

Percy's

Reliques
nature,

brings

Rousseau's protest was doubtless lodged in the
terest of a
is

return
direct

to

and Paul
in
fiction

et

Virginie

its

most

expression
to

other than
fantastic

his

own.

But return
fancy,

nature involved a rehabili-

tation of the

and therefore of the
it

compositions of the Middle Ages.
in this

The tendency
very long
to

direction

did not,

is

true, last

or reach

very

far.

The impulse

the

medieval

was stunted by the impulse to the primitive, and the Revolution intervened to choke it altogether. Only long afterwards did the Romantic movement proper begin in France, on suggestions that were derived from Teutonic and English rather than from the native literature. At the same time, from the beginning of the seventh decade of the
years
for some ten or twelve towards the fictions of chivalry, and this to some extent precedes and affects the corresponding fashion among the Germans and

eighteenth century there a
distinct

is

leaning

ourselves.

Towards the end of this period comes Le Grand d'Aussy, whose verse selections had consider-

I/O

ARTHURIAN STORY

England, and were translated under the auspices of the " amiable and elegant " George Ellis, who did something similar for the earlier literature of his own country. But the movement was initiated by a more important and more interesting figure, Count Louis-Elisabeth de la Vergne de Tressan. 1 Born in 1705, and bred under the Regency, he escaped the baser influences of the time and learned from it only its gaiety and grace. He treated orthodox literary fashions with light, respectful indifference, and was willing to Cinna and Polyeucte wonderful call creations, if he were not obliged to read them. On the other hand, old romance was a delight to him in early manhood, and during a visit to Italy in 1732 he escaped from dissipations which he disliked, to spend his days among the Knights of the Round Table. In his own nature there was something of kindred chivalry, which he displayed conspicuously on the field of Fontenoy as well as in private life. But with it all, he was a child of

able vogue even in

by

Way

the time, the friend of Voltaire, a scientific amateur,
a

follower of the

Encyclopaedists.
old

Such was the

age began a series of adaptations from medieval romance, which enjoyed the greatest popularity, and had very important In certain results. The time was well chosen. circles there was a revulsion from previous license, and the tales of Crebillon were losing their charm
in

man

who

his

:

the opportunity was
1

come
in

for

a

renovation of old
is

The substance

of the next few sentences

derived chiefly

from the chapter on Tressan du Maine, vol. 4.

Haureau's Histoire UtUrairt

—
RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
romance.
17

1

Not

that

what Tressan purveyed was

of a very genuine character.

He

neither used nor

knew

the

more ancient
"

texts,

and confined himself

to the prose versions of a later day.

Why
to

should

he not
the the

?

He

did not aim at reproducing literary
at

monuments, but
time
the
well

accommodating
legends

the taste of

chivalrous

of the

Middle
of
;

Ages."

This, the peculiar mixture in the nature of

man

enabled him to do.

As

soldier

Fontenoy he
as

felt

the inspiration of knightly honour

academician and friend of Voltaire he could Sometimes not but write with elegance and ease.
his

simplicity

is

a

little

falsetto

"
;

Tressan's style

was naif as the garb and bearing of a shepherdess in the opera." But this tinge of mannered artlessness in the diction just
recast selves
suits

with the sentimental

of the
are

whose
is

the romances themsweetened to the palates of a public ancestors used to find pleasure in Clelie.

romances, and

Perhaps the saccharine decoction of Tristram's story the one that shows Tressan's mode of work most Tristram and Isolt journey to Joyous amusingly. Guard through a veritable " Pays de Tendre," and the mighty harper shows himself an adept in verses
of gallantry
"

was transmitted period was And naturally it was Christoph whose mind it found the best
stimulus
the great
poetical

Among

the

many

peculiarities
ix.,

Bibliotheque universelle des dames, Romans, vols,

x

,

xi.

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
of his strange and multiple nature, none
strongly

173

is more marked than his hankering at once for enlightenment and romance, for a by-gone setting and these versions of to contemporary doctrine Arthurian story were bound to have for him a Twice he was drawn to make use double charm. of them himself, first in 1 77 1 for his Summers Tale, The Mule without the Bridle, and again in 1778 for his Giron the Noble / both of which in
;

the

annals

of

minor poetry occupy
Arthurian
story

a
is

tolerably

always a little unsubstantial, and is apt to withdraw itself alike from humorous and emotional treatment. But Wieland manages to vivify the first of his poems with more polite persiflage than his French authorities, and the second with at least as strong a dash of sentiment and in both he tells his tale with dexterity and grace, keeping the reader's attention fixed from start to finish. The Mule without the Bridle begins by describing the very idyllic mood of Arthur and his household on a fair summer morning.
distinguished
place.
;

"

They stood with open
Inhaling
free,

breast

But

lightly dressed,

The air, perfumed Of morning calm

with balm,

;

And
It

found

sweet to see
twig and twig were lying

Around

How
1

Sommermarchen, des Maulthiers

Zaum

and

Gei'on

der

Adelige.

:

—

174

ARTHURIAN STORY
Bent down with flowers, these went flying With every breath in showers Those were good times when people at the court, Dear reader, found in such like things their sport."

And

:

l

The appearance

of a maiden riding an unbridled

mule, her request that the bridle should be recovered
for her, the failure of the seneschal

and success of which involves the encounter of many oppositions of magic and the suppression of many natural desires and fears, are described very pleasantly and especially the portion that treats of Sir Gawain's experiences in the enchanted castle is enlivened with a good deal of gay worldly wif, In the second, Giron the Courteous is rightly rechristened Giron the Noble,
Sir

Gawain

in

the

task,

;

for the episode of his passion for his

friend's

wife,

his
for

noble self-restraint, and equally noble remorse
a

momentary
its

freed from
1

slip that has no bad result, is cumbrous trappings and is recounted

" Sie

standen da und sogen Mit offner Brust,
frischen Balsamduft

Halb angezogen,

Den

Der Morgenluft,

Und
So

fahn

ihre Lust

Daran,

Wie Zweig und Zweig gebogen,
Voll Bliithen hing,

Und
So

wie

sie flogen

oft ein Liiftchen

ging

Da war noch gute Da man bei Hofe

Zeit, ihr liebe Leute,

sich

an so was

freute."

RESTORATION TO FRENCH REVOLUTION
in

1

75

peculiar

unrhymed
is

verse

that
its

is

sometimes a
charm.

little

heavy, but

not without
finds

Even

here,

however,

Wieland

an

opportunity for

his satiric vein. Giron's story is placed in the time not of Arthur but of Uther, and is narrated

Arthur's court, with some shrewd girds at the change of view as regards a friend's w ife, by aged Branor, who was once Giron's companion in
at
T

arms.

Neither of these poems

is

very long, and neither,

despite the interest they both possess, can be classed

among Wieland's most

individual productions.

His
with

nature was romantic but hardly chivalrous, and the

Arthurian adventures are too

much permeated

the spirit of chivalry to lend themselves to a treat-

ment
like

like his.

He

is

at his best in

Oberon, where,

Boiardo or Ariosto, he takes a theme from the more accommodating cycle of Charlemagne, and
it

steeps

in his irony, his susceptibility, his love of
till

the wonderful,
it

the dust of ages

is

washed

off,

and

is

redolent of his

own time and mind.

Mean-

while

it is noteworthy to find him making use of Arthurian subjects at all, for in those days so little

was known
de
la

in

Germany

of the

Round Table

that he

refers his readers for further information to the Sieur

Colombiere's

Chevalerie, in which, be
find very

Vray Theatre d'Honneur et de it remarked, they would not had been working in the and ampler materials were
In

much.
however,
field,

Scholars,

rediscovered

becoming

available.

our
the

own

country

Dr.

Thomas Warton
of Arthurian

in especial in

had discussed the
dissertation

origin

romance

prefixed

;

—
1774), as
dis-

176

ARTHURIAN STORY
Poetry
(vol.
i.,

to his History of English

well as

some separate romances

in

the

body of the
the

work.
tinction

The
of

disposition

between

the

was to insist on the Arthur of history and

And, indeed, this inspired Warton with a poem on the Grave of King Arthur
Arthur
l

legend.

(

is

777)i which, despite its conventional ornaments, one of the best that he ever wrote. He tells how

tained at

King Henry II., on his way to Ireland, was enterPembroke with the effusions of the bards. The battle of Camlan is the subject of their lays, and one, after singing of Arthur's fall, proceeds
;

" Yet in vain a

Paynim foe Arm'd with fate the mighty blow For when he fell, an elfin queen, All in secret and unseen,
O'er the fainting hero threw

But when he fell, with winged speed His champions, on a milk-white steed,

From

the battle's hurricane
to Joseph's tower'd fane

Bore him

In the fair Vale of Avalon.

There, with chanted orison

And
The

the long blaze of tapers clear,
stoled fathers

met the bier. Through the dim aisles, in order dread Of martial woe, the chief they led And deep entombed in holy ground
Before the
altar's

solemn bound."
;

There the king may still find the body which Henry, losing all thought of Ireland, in reverent homage to the past, at once resolves to do. Here the difference of the bards merely repeats the distinction between history and romance common among the Elizabethans, and adopted by Selden in
his notes to Drayton's Polyolbion.

Indeed,

Warton
cites

may have

got his suggestion from a passage in that
in

poem, and the accompanying note which

evidence the Chronicle of Glastonbury. But while in the seventeenth century, as we have seen, romance

was postponed
rhetorical poet,

to

history,

it

is

now

the turn of

history to be postponed

to
still

romance.
fact,

Warton, as

may seem
air

to give the preference

to

what has the
critic

of positive

literary

was more

in

another note a note which tune with the romantic movement that
strikes

—

but Warton as

M

178

ARTHURIAN STORY
presently to begin.

was

In

talking of

La Mort

Arthure, he complains 1 that "English literature and

English poetry suffer when so many pieces of this kind remain concealed and forgotten in our manuscript libraries"; and, after indicating their importance, he censures former times for preferring to

and overlooking or remains which they deWhen Arthurian spised as false and frivolous." story is recognised to be fiction, and yet has its dignity and worth acknowledged, a new period in its development is come.
uninteresting
these
"

them

"

history,"

rejecting

valuable

1

History of English Poetry,

vol.

i.,

section

5.

CHAPTER

III

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL

T^HE

whirligig

of time had thus brought in his

revenges, and

stated in a position of interest
as the leaven of things
literary revival of the

Arthurian romances were and honour.

rein-

And

new and old worked in the day, it came more and more

to be seen

not only that they claimed a scholarly

veneration in their bygone forms, but that they were
rich in suggestions for the imagination of the present.

of his Scenes of Infancy, published in 1803, are mere poetical splinters of his many-sided activity, that

perhaps might never have been gathered from his workshop but for the pressure of pecuniary need. But how bold and lofty a tone the memories of Arthur and his fate breathe into these celebrations of the scenery and folklore of Leyden's native border-land l
!

1

Poetical

Works of John Leyden,

1875.

;

;

1

80

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
When
from his dreams the mountain sprites withdrew While trembling to the wires that warbled still, His apple-blossoms waved along the hill. Hark, how the mountain echoes still retain The memory of the prophet's boding strain Once more begirt with many a martial peer
!

The spirit's stride that treads the northern storm. Where fate invites them to the dread repast, Dark Cheviot's eagles swarm on every blast On Camlan bursts the sword's impatient roar, The war-horse wades with champing hoof in gore, The scythed car on grating axle rings
;

Broad

o'er the field the

ravens join their wings,

Above the champions

in the fateful

hour

Floats the black standard of the evil power."

But Leyden, with
the self-control,
for sustained

all

his

poetical
;

verve,

was

still

more a scholar and a

he wanted the repose, the sense of form that are necessary
linguist
;

creation

and, with a

recognition of

his limitations, not too frequent in such dual natures,

he

an enterprise he foreshadowed to a mightier inspiration than his own.
left

" Say,

summons strong and high, charmed sleep of ages fly Roll the long sound through Eildon's caverns vast, While each dark warrior rouses 2 at the blast

who

is

he, with

Shall bid the

;

The

horn, the falchion grasp with mighty hand,

And

peal proud Arthur's
1

march from Fairyland ?

2

Some Some

editions read " aged." editions read " kindles."

—
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
Where
every coal-black courser paws the green,
:

l8l

His printed step shall ever more be seen The silver shields in moony splendour shine. Beware, fond youth a mightier hand than thine. With deathless lustre in romantic lay
!

Shall many a tale of elder time recall, The deeds of knights, the loves of dames

And

give forgotten bards their former fame

This appeal

to

Sir

placed and was not unheeded.

Walter Scott was not misScott's medievalism

was a master passion
rejoice

in his nature, that

made him

once in its broadest dramatic effects and The labours of its minutest antiquarian details. scholars for three generations have doubtless made correct and supplement his reconit possible to struction of the past even as a picturesque prebut sentment of the times with which he dealt precisely this is the condemnation of critics who talk disparagingly of his attainments in this domain. For he more than any other single man created the interest that has led to further researches, and even as researcher he achieved proportionally more than most of those who lift up the heel against him. He not only had a large vision of the field of inquiry that has since been parcelled out to a crowd of day labourers, but with relatively scanty materials and defective apparatus he obtained reIt was sults on which later specialists have built.
at
;

182
inevitable that

ARTHURIAN STORY
such a
spirit

man

should

feel

the power

of the Arthurian romances in which
the

so

much

of

had found its peculiar shrine. It was inevitable that he should do something to enlighten Europe as to their salient characteristics, and treat them not from a modern point of view or in vague generality, but with keen appreciation of their specific colour. We have seen how his allusion in amnion to the later literary history of the stories just hits the mark and that passage is only one among many of sympathetic recognition that are scattered up and down his writings. Nor does he confine himself to references. In 1805 he edited the old metrical romance of Sir Tristrem, and, since the manuscript was defective, he supplied
medieval

M

;

the final episode himself with
springs from love.

the delicate tact that

nowadays there is more known about historical accidence and metric than was within the reach of Scott but despite some slips, his stanzas have not the air of being
course,
;

But thare con sche dye For woe. Swich lovers als thei Never schal be moe."
It

was much
more.

to edit

and complete an old fragment
in

so interesting and typical as Sir Tristrem, but Scott

did

He

sought

Arthurian

story

for

and once the grand old legend passes into the framework of one of his rhymed romances. In 1 8 1 3 he published anonymously his Bridal of Triermain or The Vale of St. fohn, which tells how the young baron, daring the dangers and resisting the enticements of the elder magic,
original inspiration,

wins for his bride Gyneth, the daughter of King Arthur and the fay Guendolen, who for ages has been awaiting her deliverer in the fairy castle. And the tale of the aged Lyulph, which tells of the birth of Gyneth, and first explains to Triermain
the nature of his task, occupies a large portion of

the feats

poem and introduces us once more to and persons of the Round Table. On leaving the enchantress Guendolen, Arthur has sworn on behalf of their child
the whole
;

when Gyneth appears to claim from him the performance of his vow. Fired by her beauty and by her dowry, the knights of the Round Table forget the ladies of their love and prepare to do battle for her hand,
glory to the brave,
"

The champions, arm'd in martial Have throng'd into the list,

sort,

And

but three knights of Arthur's court

Are from the tourney miss'd. And still these lovers' fame survives For faith so constant shown, There were two who loved their neighbours' wives,

And one who loved his own. The first was Lancelot de Lac, The second Tristrem bold, The third was valiant Carodac, Who won the cup of gold, What time, of all King Arthur's crew (Thereof came jeer and laugh),
He, as the mate of lady true, Alone the cup could quaff. 1

Soon the knights warm
seeks
the
in

to

vain

to

dissuade

the work, and Arthur Gyneth from claiming
cruel
earnest,

the literal fulfilment of his pledge, as they change

mimic contest to one of
each other dead.
"

and

strike

Seem'd

in this dismal hour, that

Fate

Would Camlan's ruin antedate, And spare dark Mordred's crime
Already gasping on the ground Lie twenty of the Table Round,

Of chivalry the prime.
1

Bridal of Triermain, Canto

II.

xviii.

1

86

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
Arthur, in anguish, tore

away

From head and beard his tresses gray, And she, proud Gyneth, felt dismay,

And quaked
But
still

with ruth and fear

;

she deem'd her Mother's shade

Hung o'er the tumult, and forbade The sign that had the slaughter staid, And chid the rising tear. Then Brunor, Taulas, Mador fell,
Helias the white, and Lionel,

And many a champion more Rochemont and Dinadam are down, And Ferrand of the Forest Brown
;

Lies gasping in his gore.

l

At last, Vanoc, a youth of Merlin's race, is slain and the wizard, rising from the ground in whirlwind and earthquake, stops the carnage and pronounces sentence of doom on her who has caused it she shall sleep a magic sleep in the Valley of St. John till she be awakened by a knight as famous as any of the Table Round. This knight is Triermain, the hero of the larger poem. But even in view of this production, the wonder is that Scott should have done, not so much but so
;
:

with the Arthurian stories. The Bridal of Triermain was published anonymously, and Scott contrived to suggest that his friend Erskine was the author, nor has popular opinion ever equalled it with the best of his acknowledged efforts in verse. Moreover, the Bridal is not so much an Arthurian poem as a poem that contains an Arthurian episode. And even that episode is less an elaboration of the traditional material than a
little,

^Bridal of Triermain, Canto

II.

xxv.

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
loose appendage.

1

87

Though many of

the old

names

and much of the old mechanism are retained, the story of Gyneth is a free invention, of which there
is

she represents the

not a hint in old romance, except in so far as Unknown Lady, who appears in
loveliest
tales.

some of the
There
should
not

was,

executed
observed

no reason why there be a " restoration " of Arthurian story on the same lines that Scott had
however,
his
in

in

addition,
this

and,

in

point

of

fact,

two
his

attempts
friend
in

direction

and follower 1783) was already as a boy drawn Spenser's to tales of knighthood and errantry. Faerie Queene was his favourite reading at school, and he held the attention of his companions fixed when he " narrated some chivalrous history or re(born

were made by Heber Reginald Heber.

peated

some ancient

ballad," or told

some

similar

from memory and half from imagination. Such themes were congenial to his nature. An incident of his school days, which his biographer notes as characteristic, was a fight, in which, though worsted, he fought manfully, for the purpose, as he said, of showing his opponent " that tyranny should not be
tale half

practised

sity his poetical abilities
tion,

upon him with impunity." At the univerwon him academic distinc-

and his piety the esteem of his intimates. After the then considerable adventure of a journey in Russia, he married and settled down in a quiet
But he was not allowed
in a spirit

parish to pastoral work, theological study, and poetical

composition.
seclusion.

to

remain

in

Summoned

to the bishopric of Calcutta,

he obeyed the mandate

of chivalrous

self-

—
I

Y

o*

ARTHURIA N STOR
and devoted himself
his

consecration,

to

the apostolic
his

discharge

of

new

duties

till

death

in

1826.

1

As poet, Heber was possessed of a true but not very keen and not very copious inspiration. The well-known story tells how Scott, to whom he read his prize-poem on Palestine, observed that in
his verses on Solomon's temple, " one striking circumstance had escaped him, namely, that no tools were used in its erection," and how Heber, after

a

brief

consideration, returned with the

best lines

in the piece
"

No hammer
Like some

fell,

no ponderous axes rung

;

tall

palm the mystic

fabric sprung."

2

The anecdote, if it shows Heber's swiftness in responding to a hint, shows also his need of receiving a hint for one of the most characteristic traits All his religious and missionary in his subject. enthusiasm was required to quicken his cultured imagination into efficacy, and probably a few hymns like " From Greenland's Icy Mountains " will do most to keep his memory fresh in the history of letters. Such an inspiration was not given to him They were undertaken, ere for his romantic poems. he found his true sphere, only for pastime and relaxation, and at least one of them as a relief "The from the burden of theological controversy. streams of divinity," he writes in 18 12, "are nothing and less {i.e. anything rather) than Hippocrene
;

1

Life of R. Heber, by his wife (1830);
litte'raire, par.

biooraphique et
2

L.

also Heber, Notice Audiat (1859).
iii.

Lockhart's Life of Scott, chapter

THE ROMANTIC RE VIVA L
till
I

1

89

I

have

rinced

my mouth

with Morte Arthur,

hardly look to be my own man again." The fragment to which he refers bears witness

to the

and

circumstances of its origin. The grander profounder possibilities of Arthurian story Heber was drawn to it, as are left unimproved. Triermain, for its romantic Scott had been in colouring not, so far as can be judged from the three cantos that he completed, for its tragic and
;

still

less

for

its

mystical
full

We

are treated to a

diet of

and symbolic qualities. enchantments and

quests, of

magic rings and enchanted swords, which, though assuredly they are justified by the authority of the elder versions, Heber seems to retain rather
because
of
their

natural

fitness

for

a

"

roman

d'aventures."

As might be expected

of one

who

had loved the Faerie Queene from
which
leaves
is

his early years,

there are traces of Spenserian influence in his work,

written in the Spenserian stanza.

Heber
closer to

the

allegory alone

and keeps

far

medieval framework than Spenser, but, like he was attracted by the marvels and errantry of Arthurian story, not by the quintessence of its spirit. In accordance with those easier tendencies, perhaps also with the clerical leanings of the author, the darker and more criminal aspects of the tradition are omitted or toned down.
the

Spenser,

of the persons, but though cruel he is no treacherous dastard but a bold and ambitious warrior and he has to avenge on Arthur the death of his father and his own disappointment at losing Guinevere. For the story of his origin and the story of Guinevere's guilt are
is

Modred

one

and

vindictive,

;

"

190

ARTHURIAN STORY

completely altered. Arthur, the great stern king, is freed from the imputation of unlawful passion Modred is the son of Morgan the Fay and one of Arthur's early enemies who has been slain for his u unpermitted love." Lancelot's connection with Guinevere (or Ganora as she is called in agree:

ment with one of the traditional forms of her name) was probably to be retained, but an excuse is found for both. She was not known as a great king's daughter, but as a. country maid, when
Lancelot disguised as a forester obtained her love. caprice of fate kept them apart, till she feared that her lover " despised the village flower," and when Arthur stoops to " cull that flower " she

Only the

becomes
learns

his

queen

in

injured

pride.

When
at

she
to

the truth

she
;

does

not

yield

once

any guilty longing " holier thoughts possess her and she " clings to the cross with Magdalen embrace."

We
"

are to understand that

it

is

the wiles

once Albion's princess, now an elfin gray," that produce all the entanglement and woe. On the death of her lover Morgan threw herself from a cliff, but the winds bore her up and she heard a chorus of spirit voices proclaim, " With fays, thyself a fay, come wander evermore " and henceforth she devotes her new powers and changed existence to the ruin of Arthur and the advancement of her son. Such is Heber's Morte Arthur, in which Malory's Morte Darthur seems to undergo a transformation like that which overtakes Morgan, and becomes little more than an elfin tale of glamour and enchantment. As a poem it never perhaps rises very high, but as a romantic fairy fantasia
of Morgan,
!

;

—
191

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
out

on well-known names and themes, it is not withits merits, and we may regret that it was not

completed.
describe the

Here

for instance

are the stanzas that
at

advent

of

Morgan
She
bower,"
is

Ganora's wed-

ding-feast in the guise of a hunted hind that claims

the

Queen's
of

protection.

pursued

by her
of
the

" rival

the

watery

the

Lady

Lake, who, with Merlin, would fain guard Arthur from harm and, but for Ganora's pity in saving
;

the enchantress, none of the predicted evils would
ensue.
" (Then) in that sober light and sadness
still

Arose a maddening hubbub hoarse and rude, Like hunters on the brow of dewy hill And panting deer by nearer hounds pursued And a cold shudder thrilled the multitude,
As, at the breath of that mysterious horn,

:

Each with

inquiring gaze his neighbour viewed,

For never peal on woodland echoes borne So ghastly and so shrill, awoke the spangled morn.
"

And through the portal arch that opened wide (How came she or from whence no thought could
The wedding-guests with

tell),

A

hind of loveliest
dyed, alas
!

wonder eyed mould, whose snowy fell
fearful

Was

with dolorous vermeill

For down her

ruffled flank the current red

From many a wound issued in fatal well, As staggering faint, with feeble haste she sped,

And on

Ganora's lap reclined her piteous head.

" With claws of molten brass and eyes of flame, A grisly troop of hell-hounds thronging near, And, on her foaming steed, a damsel came,

A damsel fair to
But
ill

see, whose maiden cheer beseemed the ruthless hunting spear,

—
I9 2

ARTHURIAN STORY
Whose golden locks in silken net were twined And pure as heaving snow her bosom dear
Yet ceased she not her dreadful horn
to wind,
x

;

And

strained a quivering dart for fatal use designed."

Along with the unfinished Morte Arthur, Heber left a piece, entitled the Masque of Guendolen, a Frag7nent, though it is not strictly a masque but a drama, and seems fairly complete as it stands. Here he has combined the ballad of Sir Gawain's marriage with the history of Merlin, and worked up the materials into a picturesque and agreeable play.
has
It

opens

with

the spirits of the elements offering

their nuptial gifts to

whom Merlin has and whom he now
knowing her love, and
she,
fatal

Guendolen, a mortal maid, to taught a portion of his wisdom,
requires to be

He

his bride. But most unholy," refuses him in despair bids him rather " scathe this " form that has won her his unwelcome favour. takes her at her word and dooms her to a his art " for

degrading disfigurement that shall last till she be wedded by " a youth of royal race." Smitten with leprosy, she sees the wild beasts of the wood flee from her in fright, and when she would drown her sorrows in the flood, she recoils from the horror of her reflected image only the fairies go about to Soon, however, we learn from comfort her distress. them that her persecutor is no more
:
:

"

She of the

lake, his elfin

paramour,

Jealous of his late wanderings, in a

tomb

Enclosed the struggling wizard. Nine long nights Within the rock the fairies heard him moan ;

The

tenth
1

was

silence."

Heber3 s Poetical Works,

1841.

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
It is

193

now
;

for her to use the

wisdom she has learned

Arthur in his wrath has condemned Llewellin, a Prince of Wales, to death for contumacy, unless Gawain discover what is " that women mostly crave " it he repents his hasty sentence, but he cannot escape from his word. Guendolen, however, taught in Merlin's lore, though one would think there needed no revelation from below to tell her the secret, teaches Gawain that women like best to have their will, and receives his promise of marriage in return. The reluctant but honourable fulfilment of his pledge, till at last he bestows the transfiguring kiss, brings the bright
her opportunity has come.
:

of him

little

drama
is

to a close.

less pretentious and probably the more successful of Heber's two fragments. For the Morte Arthur, he is entitled to the credit, and it is

This

the

great, of

having been the
treated

first in

these latter days

who
death

seriously

the

Round Table and
for

the

an heroic poem. But though with happy inspiration he seized on the prerogative portion of the story, he hardly rose to the height of his own great argument. He does not see the text for the flourishes and marginal illuminations he is more taken up with the furniture and haberdashery of Arthurian romance than with its deeper significance. In the Masque of Guendolen this does not greatly matter, for the story of the Loathly Lady exists in independent form, and is possibly enough neither an integral part nor an
of Arthur as
subject
;

early acquisition of the legend
is

of Arthur.

But

it

otherwise

when the grand catastrophe of
Doubtless this might

the table
fiction

is

the theme.

be a

194
void

ARTHURIAN STORY
of historic
its

truth,

which had to stand or
;

fall

according to
not

imaginative worth

but that

did

modern adapter had an unlimited so long as he preserved in some measure the romantic mise en scene. Even as fiction, it had received a certain typical bent that could not
that a
right to recast
it,

mean

indwelling

be thwarted or even ignored without violence to the spirit. To the lover of the elder romances there is something impertinent about Heber's whole

procedure, however natural

and necessary it may have been to a romantic poet of that day. It rouses the same kind of recalcitrance that is felt when well-known historic characters are distorted in novel or drama. The truth seems to be, that with all the medievalism and romanticism of Scott and his school, there was more interest in the facts and the externals Thackeray talks than in the ideal and the spirit. of the " good-humoured pageant" which Scott's tales of chivalry present and pageantry seems the right
;

description of
life

them

in contrast

with the deep, true

But this preference opposed to the inner meaning of the Middle Ages, explains both the comparative neglect and the autocratic treatment of the ArthurThey embodied the aspiration, but ian Romances. hardly the actualities, of feudal life, and chose the scenes and persons for their poetic fabrications from the tradition of a remoter past but that tradition was otherwise completely transformed, and the manners of Arthur and his knights were represented not as primitive and British, but as chivalrous and Thus, in a certain sense, this whole literaartificial.
of his
Scottish
sketches.
for the outer facts as
;

THE 'ROMANTIC REVIVAL
ture

1

95

was not medieval and was not antique and was not of any date at all in its seclusion from the methods of the annalist and the gazetteer, it could be regarded as offering so much raw material for a romancer like Heber, but as useless for the
;

It could not help to reconstruct a plausible picture of positive things and real doings either in the twelfth

purposes of the historical novelist or poet.

century or in the sixth
struction

and such a plausible reconwas always the object of Scott when he treated of by-gone times. Taken, however, merely as a romance, Arthurian story received a cordial, if not a very sym;

almost contemporaneously in Baron Auguste Creuze de Lesser (17711837), who by birth belonged to the old nobility, had so far accepted the Napoleonic regime as to take the first steps to a diplomatic career but he
pathetic,

treatment

France.

;

offended

the

Emperor

with

the

free

comments

which

Journey in Italy contained, and withdrew life. After the restoration he held influential posts under the Government, in some of which his behaviour was a little arbitrary, but he could not be persuaded to retain or accept office under the " citizen king." Thus, De Lesser appears as an aristocrat and legitimist with all the courage of his opinions, and it was natural that his mind should recur to the feudal ages and the fictions they had produced. He composed three bulky volumes of romance dealing respectively with the stories of Amadis, of Arthur, and of Charlemagne which he afterwards collected under the common title of La Chevalerie. In his Arthurian compilahis

into private

196
tion

ARTHURIAN STORY
he shows a respectable acquaintance not
with
the
verse

only
at

with the prose, but
least with

romances,

the

knowledge as
well
qualified

poems of Chrestien, and thus by his well as by his prejudices would seem to do justice to his task. On the

other hand, like so

many

of the French nobility of

that day, his equipment of ideas

from
tunity

the
for

arsenal

of Voltaire.
it

tracted to his subject because

was obtained chiefly He was partly atafforded him oppor-

sometimes witty, but almost always frivolous cynicism and of its poetic beauty, quite apart from its spiritual depth, he had not the fainta
;

Sometimes, however, De Lesser condescends to altogether unworthy jests, for instance, on the unfamiliar names of the knights. Dinadan, unhorsed by Sagramor or Sacremor, recognises his antagonist, and indignantly exclaims, " Sacremor Sacremor "
!

But naturally the story of the Holy Grail is most to the nature of such a man, and it has suffered the most impudent disfigurement at his hand, disfigurement that one resents the more as this is certainly the most amusing part of the book, and it is hard to restrain the smile that surprises
righteous
to
its

Percivale indeed prays that it may for ever be his, but when he finds that by his prayers, and still more by those of his squire, the possession is irrevocably assured to him, and becomes aware of all that it involves, he is far from satisfied
:

Les Chevaliers de la Table Ronde,

vii.

2

Ibid. xiv.

3

Ibid. xvii.

198
"

ARTHURIAN STORY
Ce Le
chevalier regarde avec fureur,
St.

Gre*al, tresor qui le

mine." 1

There

is

not

much

to

be said for a writer, however

entertaining and clever he

may

otherwise be,

who

substitutes for the spiritual rapture of attainment a

wrathful longing for the worldly

life

that this attain-

ment

forbids.

De

Lesser professes to imitate the

treatment which Ariosto employed in the romances of Charlemagne, but that is presumptuous as regards himself and unfair as regards his exemplar. In the
first

place,

the Carolingian

stories

lend themselves

much more
is

naturally to ironical development than
;

the stories of Arthur

the dominant,

it

is

and, secondly, though irony by no means the exclusive

note struck by the great Italian.
the highest
poetical qualities as

He
well,

has

many of which show

themselves in the creation of noble characters like that of the maiden warrior, Bradamante, in stirring
narrative

and

luxuriant

description,

in

individual

turns

of forcible phrase.

Lesser possessed nothing. Ronde^ though it is described as an epic in twenty books, are so exclusively due to a malicious but

But unfrocked of its historic claims, regarded merely as a romance among romances, and not yet accepted for its deeper import, Arthurian story was still entitled to more respectful treatment than this. And it might seem to have another chance of revival with Robert Southey, poet and man of letters. His interest in such literature was as indubitable as his knowledge of it was extensive, and to him, moreover, the compilation of Malory was endeared by early " When I was a school-boy," he writes, associations. " I possessed a wretchedly imperfect copy, but there was no book except the Fairy Queen which I perused so often or with such deep contentment." 1 But Southey, as he grew up, became more, or shall we say, less critical- His opinions, moral and aesthetic, were too decorous and orderly to admit of his seeing the rather irregulous matiere de Bretagne with the inward glance of love. Romance he liked, and romance he would have, but romance in which the narrative was unperplexed and the proprieties were observed. In both respects the stories of the Round Table leave much to be desired. Of their structure he remarks that nothing could be " more " Adventure produces unartificial," and proceeds adventure in infinite series, not like a tree whose boughs and branches, bearing a necessary relation and due proportion to each other, combine into one beautiful form, but resembling such plants as the prickly pear, where one joint grows upon another, all equal in size and alike in shape, and the whole making a formless and misshapen mass." 2 And
:

1

Introduction to Malory's

Morte

cT Arthur.

2

Introduction to Malory's Morte d' Arthur.

200

A R THURIA N S TOR Y

elsewhere he talks with disgust of stories in which

we

find

"

one romance growing out of another as
its

clumsily as a young oyster upon the back of
parent."
stories

But shocked

1

if

the construction of the Arthurian

his well-regulated

mind, he was

still

more
tion

offended
censures
of

with

their

morality.

He

(quite

Addison for his idealised descripand only admits that it was perhaps the best these benighted ages had to show. His own attitude he makes sufficiently clear when he stigrightly)
it,

matises as
"

" vile" in

the tale of Tristram the thought
2

of producing by a philtre that love upon which the
turns."

whole history
in the

From

these

atrocities

he

escapes to the fictions that took their typical form

Spanish Peninsula, and eulogises them to his " Amadis," he says (of which he content. remarks elsewhere that it is " not the oldest of its kind, but the best" 3 ), " was the first romance in which the female character was made respectable." 4
heart's

And
his

contrasting his favourite with the offenders of
:

the British cycle, he sums up
(Lobeira's)
fable
is

"

The

skill
is

with which

constructed

not less ad-

mirable than the beauty of the incidents and the
distinctness with which the characters are conceived

and delineated. Amadis infinitely surpasses every earlier romance in all these points." There is enough truth in this statement to make it intelligible, not enough to make it acceptable, after the lapse of three quarters of a century. But Southey
1

Introduction to
Introduction to

Amadis of Gaul.

2

Introduction to Malory's Morte

d

y

Arthur.

3
4

Introduction to

Amadis of Gaul. Malory's Morte d 'Arthur.

—

—
201

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL

had the courage of his opinions, and while he executed an excellent translation and abridgment of Amadis, he sanctioned without revision a very
unsatisfactory edition of Malory}

But Arthur had
Southey,

still

another opportunity
for

with
in

in so far as the
;

hero was remembered

the traditions of Wales

and

lively concern in mythology, folklore, was looking about for materials for his Madoc (published in 1805), he was very "warm," to use the phrase of the children's game. But, probably, Celtic story also was too chaotic and too crude

Southey took a real whatever was connected with and legend. And when he

for

him.
in

He
its

could

neither

find

a

satisfactory

moral
its

daring escapades nor bring into focus

attracted

and nebulous masses. He was more by the fables of a Welsh discovery of America and the fiction of a conversion of Mexico by the Cambrian Pilgrim Fathers than by the
shifting

grand
appears

features

of

Arthurian

story.

The

latter

only incidentally in his ponderous bi-une epic, the most noticeable passage occurring as episode in the lay of a bard
;

" In his crystal ark

Whither sailed Merlin with his band of bards Old Merlin, master of the mystic lore ?
Belike his crystal ark, instinct with
life,

?

1 Criticisms, like curses and chickens, come home to roost. Southey, in his version of Palmerin of England, says of his predecessor Munday that he " sold his name to the booksellers."

It

is

curious to

find his

successor,
that

Dr.

Sommer, saying
to

of

he "gave his name bookseller's speculation."— Sommer's Malory, vol. ii.
Southey's edition
of

There with the chiefs of other days, feel they The mingled joy pervade them ? Or beneath

The mid-sea waters

did that crystal ark

Down

to the secret

depths of ocean plunge

Its fated

crew

?

Dwell they

With mermaid

loves, teaching their

The songs

that stir the sea,

bowers paramours or make the winds
in coral

Hush, and the waves be still ? In fields of joy Have they their home, where central fires maintain Perpetual summer, where one emerald light Through the green element for ever flows ? n 1

Those Welsh stories, however, which Southey employs only for scanty allusions, might well be more thoroughly exploited by a bolder and less
conventional mind.
Indeed, in a certain sense, they
in

were

better fitted than the romances to please the

instincts of that

day,

so
local

far

at

least

as

they

seemed
ing.

to possess
certain

more

and

historical

colour-

A

inclination

to retain
for

or

invent a
that

geographical position in Britain
narrate

the tales they
writers

may

be observed in

all

the

have
the

been
castle

discussed.

Leyden thinks of Arthur's

resting-place as a

of Gyneth
solitudes,"

cavern of Eildon, Scott situates in the Vale of St. John,

Heber

makes

mountain

Ganora grow up in " Derwent's Southey recalls the withdrawal
1

Modoc, Part

I.

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
of Merlin to the
to
find a local

203
All
like

Island

of the

Bards.

habitation

for their

persons, which
;

modern topographers would recognise
respect
less

and

in this

the versions

of French

manufacture were

Welsh tradition and the was supposed to have given rise. And just in the same way this British repertory might be imagined to contain reminiscences,, wanting in the other, of the actual condition of things that prevailed at the time to which Arthur, if historical at all, would have to be assigned. Altogether, then, these sources promised more than the romances for such a reconstruction of the past as the age preferred. No doubt the promise was
satisfactory

than
it

Chronicles to which

very far from

fulfilling itself.

A

slight

examination
ore

of the material was bound to show that the

was refractory

to

such

methods, and would yield

only a small residuum of plausible history. The effort might afford plenty of scope to scholarship
peculiar

and invention, and result in descriptions with some and characteristic, though not exactly local,
colour
;

but instead of furnishing an actual picture

of bygone times,

it could, even if a labour of love, be only an exercise of consciously satiric wit. And this being so, there was no reason why Welsh an-

tiquities

should
or

not

be

supplemented
history

by Welsh
of doubtful

fantasies,

why

conjectural

not be amplified with acknowledged had the grand credential of unfailing charm. It was in this spirit that Thomas Love Peacock (178 5- 1866) undertook the task, and presented the Arthur story to the public in a guise it Peacock, a scholar has never worn before or since.
value should
fable

that

"

204

ARTHURIAN STORY

of the old school, was in some ways a heretic in regard to the age in which he lived, and treated it, its theories, its great men, with polite ridicule in a series of brilliant and ironical tales, beginning with Headlong Hall, that have their nearest analogues in some of the witty French Contes of the eighteenth
century.

He generally chose as his setting the higher society of contemporary England, but this did not give full opportunity for a vein of delicate
imagination that was as characteristic of the

\

man

as his satire
to the

;

and

in

his

Maid Marian
forfeits

he escapes
Forest,

more

poetic atmosphere of

Sherwood
a
little

where perhaps his pungency. But in
vehicle for
all

genius

of

its

his

one of his stories he finds a powers of sarcasm and all his

grace of fancy, with a good deal of his scholarship
this is his Misfortunes of Elphin, which was published in 1829. Peacock, who had married <#. a Welsh lady and had a great love for the Principality, saw some of the beauties of Welsh literature at a time when these were not so generally acknowledged as they are at present and one object of his little book, as we are told by his grand-daughter, was to " introduce translations of Welsh poems and triads l of ancient days. The plot he combines chiefly from the story of Taliessin, the probably mythic bard of Wales, and the abduction of Guinevere by Melvas as told in the Life and he ingeniously works into this of St. Gildas framework his very considerable, if not very critical, knowledge of British antiquities derived from

as well

:

;

;

1

Biographical notice by Edith Nichols

;

prefixed to his works,

3

vols. (1875).

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
both Welsh and classical sources.
scriptions

205

There is an undeniable flavour of antiquarian research in his deof the
in

weirs

of Elphin,
contrast

of

Caer
that

Lleon, the
is

general

the splendour arrangements of so-

ciety,

piquant
legend

with

his

free

use

of popular

and bantering tone makes no attempt to produce an
imagination
:

and with the incredulous of the comment. For he
illusion

of the

on

the

contrary,

the

skill

with

which

he has dovetailed into their places the minutiae of his Cymric lore is a little obscured by his gracefully fantastic ornamentation and his running fire of flouts at the shibboleths of modern philosophy and politics. Thus Melvas maintains the ethics of might as right in a burlesque of self-destructive

sophistry that

is

all

the

we remember
sociably

the

primitive

more amusing when and indeed mythical
the argument, urged
that
his

character of the speaker.

To
will

over

the

wine-cup,

wrongful

detention
of the

of Gwenyvar

lead

to

the triumph

Saxons, he

answers with reference to his
:

and these spoilers " They have a right to do fill they do and to have all they have. If we can drive them out, they will then have no right here. Have not you and I a right to this good wine, which seems to trip very merrily over I got it by seizing a good your ghostly palate ? ship, and throwing the crew overboard, just to remove them out of the way, because they were
case

own

troublesome.

They
I

disputed

my

right,

but

I

taught

taught them a great moral lesson, though they had not much time to profit by it. If they had had the might to throw me overboard,

them

better.

206
I

A R THURIAN STOR Y

any more, or

should not have troubled myself about their right, at any rate, any longer, than they did about mine." 1 So, too, Seithenyn ap Seithyn

Saidi, the third of " the three immortal drunkards of the island of Britain," who has charge of the

dyke that keeps out the sea from Gwaelod, and
lets
""

the wall

fall

wine from the gold,"

political gird.

busy with shrewd Prince Elphin and a subordinate on
into decay while he
is

is

made

to deliver a

a

tour of inspection are the
"
2

with
two." one."

salutation,
"

"

You

Elphin

answered,

We

by the reveller welcome all four." thank you we are but
received
are
;

Elphin represents that the dyke is in a state of dangerous decay, the answer is a parody on a famous speech of Canning's against reform.
"
c

Two or And when

four,"

said

Seithenyn,

" all

is

Decay,'

said

Seithenyn,
is

'

is

another.

Everything that
is

old must decay.
:

one thing, and danger is That the emthat
it

bankment
worse
:

old,
I

I

am

free to confess

is
it

rotten in parts,
for that,

will

not altogether deny; that

is

somewhat any the

well

I do most sturdily gainsay. It does its business works well it keeps out the water from the land, and it lets in the wine upon the High Commission of Embankment. Cupbearer, fill. Our ancestors were wiser than we they built it in their wisdom and, if we should be so rash as to try to

it

:

:

;

mend
"
'

it, we should only mar it.' The stonework,' said Teithrin,

'

is

sapped and mined
:

:

the

piles are rotten,

broken, and dislocated

the floodgates and

sluices are leaky

and

creaky.'
it,'

" "

'

That

is

the beauty of

said Seithenyn,
it

'

some

parts of

it

are rotten, and some parts of
'

are sound.'

It is well,'

said Elphin,

'

that

some

parts are sound

:

it

were

better that all were so.'
1

Misfortunes of Elphin, Chapter

xiv.

2

Ibid.

Chapter

ii.

"

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
"
\
'

207
Seithenyn
;

So

I

have heard some people say

before,' said
:

perverse people, blind to venerable antiquity

that very un-

amiable sort of people, who are in the habit of indulging their reason. But I say, the parts that are rotten give elasticity to those that are sound they give them elasticity, elasticity, elas:

were all sound, it would break by its own obstinate stiffness the soundness is checked by the rottenness, and the stiffness is balanced by the elasticity. There is nothing so dangerous as innovation. See the waves in the equinoctial storms, dashing and clashing, roaring and pouring, spattering and battering, rattling and battling against it. I would not be so presumptuous as to say, I could build anything that would stand against them half an hour and here this immortal old work, which God forbid the finger of modern mason should bring into jeopardy, this immortal work has stood for centuries, and will stand for centuries more, if we let it alone. It is well it works well let well alone. Cupbearer, fill. It was halfrotten when I was born, and that is a conclusive reason why it
ticity.

If
:

it

;

:

:

should be three parts rotten when

I

die.'

Of

course

the

Misfortunes

of

Elphin

is

very

slenderly Arthurian— one the real hero is Seithenyn.

feels inclined to

say that

Of

course also Peacock

had abandoned the more richly cultivated soil when he turned from romance to the antiquities and legends But at least he had done one thing of Wales. which might be an example to graver continuators He had shown that it was of Arthurian story. possible to treat the tradition in a modern spirit, and yet retain for it the ancient stage. And he did His irony this with admirable delicacy and tact. never becomes burlesque, and he is too much in love with his sources to think of handling them Later writers, as we shall see, sometimes rudely. try to give the old stories a jocular treatment, and cutting capers on the grave of the past, only make

—
208

ARTHURIAN STORY

themselves and their subjects ridiculous. Peacock, with his satire and grace, really succeeds in raising a composite fabric of infinite charm, half modern,
half primitive, in

Doubtless, as his method was comparatively simple, for a complete fusion of the new and the old was neither necessary nor desirable in such a work
style.

was

ironical, his task

:

incongruities were
it

down

in the bill.

Doubtless too
the
in

was

easier to

awaken

interest

in

Cambrian
familiar

setting than to freshen

up

interest

the

what he had done half in jest for Celtic tradition, might be done in imaginative earnest for the romances of chivalry; they might be impregnated with new meaning for a new day, and utilised piously but freely for new requirements. This was the spirit in which Tennyson composed the Idylls but twelve years before the appearance of the Morte d' Arthur, and three years
contrivances of medieval
fiction.
Still,
;

before the appearance of the Lady of Shalott Wordsworth already held the clue. Only one entire poem, which is not among his most characteristic, and was composed when he was sixty years old, has Wordsworth dedicated to an ArthurThe wonder is that he should have felt ian theme. His heart was with the infinities its power at all. that lurk in common life, and mirror themselves in From the very the sights and sounds of nature.
outset he

y

disclaims

for

himself
In

all

share
to

in

the
pro-

marvels
Bell,

of romance.
in

the

prologue

Peter

written
;

1798, he draws up his

own

gramme

"

Long have I loved what I behold, The night that calms, the day that

cheers

;

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
The common growth
Suffices

20g

of mother-earth

me — her

tears, her mirth,
tears.

Her humblest mirth and
"

The
I

dragon's wing, the magic ring,

shall not covet for
I

my

dower,

If

along that lowly way
heart

With sympathetic

may

stray,

And

with a soul of power.
I

" These given, what more need

desire

To stir, to soothe, to elevate ? What nobler marvels than the mind

May May

in lief s daily prospect find,

find or there create?"

Yet he could at least use for illustration the machinery that he disowned, even in his early days of extremer naturalism, just as Milton used it for illustration in his later days of extremer puritanism. Since the famous similitude in the Paradise Regained for the attendant spirits at the banquet in the desert, there is nothing in literature that shows so intimate
a feeling for the essence of romantic poetry as a

famous similitude of Wordsworth's, which resembles
the other also in
fourth of the
its

classical

alternative.

In

the

Poems on
tells

the

ten in
sister,

1

800) he

how

of Places (writhe, with Coleridge and his
" Paused, one now,

Naming

And now the other, to To pluck, some flower

point out, perchance
or water-weed, too fair

Either to be divided from the place

On which it grew, or to be To its own beauty. Many
So
stately, of the

left

alone
are,
tall fern,
;

such there

Fair ferns and flowers, and chiefly that

Plant lovelier, in

queen Osmunda named its own retired abode O

210

ARTHURIAN STORY
On
Grasmere's beach, than Naiad by the side
brook, or

Of Grecian
Indeed,

Lady of the Mere
surface

Sole-sitting by the shores of old romance."

naturalism, which

Wordsworth's magic charm, there lurked a strange wistfulness for romanAlready at Cambridge it made him tic themes. hail as " brother" the poet of the Faerie Queene
beneath
the

of

it

often penetrates with a

j

—

" Sweet Spenser,

With
In

the moon's beauty

moving through his clouded heaven, and the moon's soft pace." 1

the Prelude (begun in
it

1799 and completed

in

1805)

betrays him into honest enthusiasm for the

adventurous,
"

which contrasts oddly with the
give us once again the wishing-cap

dis-

claimer of Peter Bell.

Oh

!

Of Fortunatus, and the invisible coat Of Jack the Giant-killer, Robin Hood,

And Sabra in

the forest with St. George

"
!

2

Such impulses were
in the earlier
;

carefully

restrained, especially

poems, so that they seldom find direct expression and in this Wordsworth shows himself His wise in the knowledge of his true strength. sympathies with romance winged him for his own career they were hardly strong or steady enough to make him a great romantic poet. But they were not to be controlled without a struggle. At intervals they rose to claim the chief place, and lead him within their circle from his determined path.
;

"

Sometimes the ambitious Power of choice, mistaking

Proud

spring-tide swellings for a regular sea, Will settle on some British theme, some old

Romantic

tale

by Milton

left

unsung;
*

Prelude,

BookV.

—
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
More
often turning to

211

some

gentle place

Within the groves of Chivalry, I pipe To shepherd swains, or, seated harp in hand, Amid reposing knights by a river side

Or fountain, listen to the grave reports Of dire enchantments faced and overcome By the strong mind, and tales of warlike feats, Where spear encountered spear, and sword with sword
Fought, as
if

conscious of the blazonry
;

That the shield bore, so glorious was the strife Whence inspiration for a song that winds Through ever-changing scenes of votive quest, Wrongs to redress, harmonious tribute paid To patient courage and unblemished truth,

Wordsworth never forsook the true sun of any lesser light, but as the years advanced he suffered himself more and more to pause
his inspiration for

among

the pale splendours of ancient fable.

In
his

I

8

I

5

he turned in "affectionate respect for the of Milton," to Geoffrey of Monmouth, and
" British record (long concealed

memory

In old Armorica, whose secret springs

No

Gothic conqueror ever drank)."

The
"

" particular

flower "

he transplants
is

from
its

this

ample

field

of old tradition"

the story of Artegal
in

and Elidure ;
famous stores
" There, too,

but

he

passes

review

more

we read

of Spenser's fairy themes,
;

And

those that Milton loved in youthful years
;

The sage enchanter Merlin's subtle schemes The feats of Arthur and his knightly peers
;
:

Prelude,

Book

I.

212

ARTHURIAN STORY
Of Arthur, who, to upper light restored, With that terrific sword Which yet he brandishes for future war,
Shall
lift

—

his country's

fame above the polar
still

star.''

And

with him when, in the Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1821), he recounts "the struggle of the Britons against the Barbarians."
these
"

memories are

Amazement runs before the towering casque Of Arthur, bearing through the stormy field The Virgin sculptured on his Christian shield."

In passages like these Wordsworth draws rather from the history than from the romance, but it is from history on its romantic side. To his independent poem of the Egyptian Maid he gives the alternative title, The Romance of the Water Lily

and in this instance it is a romance pure and simple on which he leans. Of the romantic spirit he has a glimpse true and clear, but his notice of such themes is due not to their antiquarian picturesqueness,

Thus
his

but to their ethical his Egyptian Maid
as

connection
is,

or

content.
place,

in the

first

an

allegory of the power of purity and an invention of

own

;

he says, the names and persons are
" but for the rest the In the second place, how-

derived from Arthurian story,

author
ever,

is

answerable."

there breathes

stanzas

through some of the strange more of the old romantic feeling than can
in

be

traced

many

professed

imitations.
tells

This

is

especially true of

the passage that

how

the

knights approach in turn to waken the maiden from

her sleep.
" Abashed, Sir Dinas turned

Even

for Sir Percival

away was no disclosure
;

:

THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL
Though
he, devoutest of all

213

Champions, ere

He

reached that ebon car, the bier
diffused like snow the Damsel lay, had crossed himself in meek composure."

Whereon
Full thrice

Gawain in his encumbered of
" tired

slave
till

high expectancy," Tristram " disharp," Lancelot, craving a sign, of vain contrition," touch the corpse
his

"

in

vain,
"

at last

Galahad draws

near.

Now, while

And

stood, far-kenned

As o'er The enrapt,

he bowed, by mantle furred with ermine, the insensate Body hung
his bright-haired front

the beautiful, the young,

crowd That he the solemn issue would determine.
Belief sank deep into the

Nor deem it strange the youth had worn That very mantle on a day of glory, The day when he achieved that matchless feat, The marvel of the Perilous Seat, Which whosoe'r approached of strength was shorn, Though King or Knight the most renowned in story."
;

"

This poem, written in 1830, was published in Two years earlier The Lady of Shalott had 1835. appeared. The connection between the two is

more than
feeling
for
;

chronological.

old

Both have the same romance while freely varying its
;

material
that
in

both breathe into it a deeper significance new time both are half lyric their treatment, and tell their mystic tale in
belongs to the
of strange
said to begin

verse

may be
off,

and subtle structure. Tennyson where Wordsworth leaves

be

but before proceeding to his achievement it will well to notice the work of some of his con-

temporaries at

home and

abroad.

CHAPTER

IV

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ON THE

CONTINENT
of the medieval cycle were more daring and enigmatic than the story of Merlin. The almost blasphemous fiction of his origin, that he was conceived by the power of the Evil One and born of a maiden, to undo as Antichrist the work of Christ on earth the reversal of the diabolic counsels and
the
ingredients

A

MONG

of Arthur few

;

his

election

to prepare the
;

way

for

the return of
nevertheless

the

Sangreal

the

ambiguity

that

clings to his

work and

character, so that the order

he has founded is broken on the quest he has ordained, while he himself after many dubious feats, all lies bespelled in the toils of his own magic these form a complex, that exacts yet defeats an imaginative solution. Merlin is literally a Diogenes Teufelsdrockh, his double nature seems an epitome like Faust, he might exclaim, of all humanity "Two souls, alas! inhabit in my breast," 1 and his story like Faust's affects the heart with the power of a religious myth.
;
;

x

"Zwei Seelen wohnen, ach

!

in

meiner Brust."

— Scene,

Vor

dem Thor.

5

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD

21

It is therefore only natural that at the date we have reached, when Goethe had completed, or all but completed, his great nineteenth century mystery, and when his influence was practically unchallenged on the minds of men, a mythic material of this kind should be rescued from oblivion and new-

modelled, like
the

the story-book

of Dr.

Faustus,

as
in-

mutations

of time
original

required.

There was,
a

deed, a difference between the two cases.

Goethe's

was the grand

deed, and

work under-

taken in imitation or rivalry, just because so undertaken, would lack the epoch-making importance of
the great example
it would be the work of those and do not set the fashions. And, again, Goethe was supported by a genuine national tradition, for the puppet-plays of Dr. Faust had kept the legend in living growth while, though
;

who

follow

;

the

name

of Merlin as arch-enchanter survived, the

continuity of his story had suffered

many

a breach.

Thus those who took him
both
less
less

would have spontaneous inspiration of their own and
as their hero

of the inspiration of popular imagination.

subject

would

be

.apt

to

lay hold

of

The men who

with
for

culture,

aspirations had a certain amount of and who were consciously on the look-out a theme which might serve by its strangeness

great

and unfamiliarity
to
their work.

to

give

an
of

impressive vastitude
its

sense of a meaning that

greatness, a dim must possess, would lure them to the task. It would seem fit^to gratify their yearning to say deep things and give them a role the chance of posing as thinkers and poets that was made popular by the treatment of art in
feeling
it

A

—

2l6

ARTHURIAN STORY
the example of Goethe the
his principal

German philosophy and by
in

work.

To

man
as

with a share

of genius

who would

fain write

though he had

more, the story of Merlin was a godsend. And such men, when put on their mettle, as happens when the theme is a noble one, often produce work that is of high historical and even literary interest.

The present is a case in The subject of Merlin
taneously
to

point.

occurred

almost simul-

two distinguished writers, to Edgar Quinet (1803-1875) in France, and to Karl Leberecht Immermann (1796- 1 840) in Germany, and their works were and are among the most notable that British legend has evoked in modern
times.
for

They may be
that

assigned to the year

1830,

by

date

Quinet,

according

to

his

own

statement,
his
till

had already worked out the plan of Merlin VEnchanteur, though it was not finished i860; and Immermann's Merlin, Eine My the,
in

appeared
"

1832.
says Quinet,
" is

the

the legend of death and beyond." Merlin sprung from Satan and Seraphina, the rebel is and the saint, the principles of alienation from and of community with the Deity. He begins life with aspirations after the divine that give " my runes," him his magical powers he says, " are written in my heart " he is able to see
subject,"

My

human

soul

till

;

:

and Viviane, the ideal of life, is revealed to him in the beauty of the earth. In his first enthusiasm he founds Paris to be the seat of civilisation and culture, and he sets over
the
invisible,
it

Arthur,

the

King of the

Just.

Seized

with

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
the
in
thirst

2\J

of knowledge he
creations

visiting the

starts on his travels, abode of eternal ideas where he revels

the

future

of

art,

venturing

down

and presenting himself to his father in Hell. He makes friends with Jacques Bonhomme, the type of the French
into the realm of negations

populace

;

falls

foul

of the
his

mercantile
race.
It

spirit

in

England
the

;

and beats with
of
the

own weapons
is

Faust,

genius

Teutonic

given

him

to found the

Round

Table, at which kings and
experiences,
forfeited
sets

peoples

may

feast,

and the Holy Grail appears.
these

Meanwhile, amidst parted from Viviane
seeing
his
lost

he
gift

has
of

and

the
to

the

invisible.

He

out

rediscover

love,

and, after
culture

many
in

misfortunes,
;

to

the

Emperor Lucius
become
;

Rome
are

passes

the

outworn

of Greece,

where

comes on to the gods
to

have
fairies

dwarfs

and

transformed

and thence to the community of Prester John, where all religions are recognised and where Merlin worships the unknown God. Returning to France he enters on a time of disillusion, when he loses his powers of enchantment,
hitherto
fears

retained
his
all

in

his
for

and

that

passion

worst distresses, Viviane has been
collapse.

a dream.

And

around him are signs of

The
like

nations are disenchanted, and Arthur, slowly
invisible

dying of an
sleep.

wound, sinks into a death-

Merlin, rejected and depressed, unable

any longer to prophesy, withdraws from men and becomes a comrade of the wolves fit Silvester homo.
;

In his desolation,

when he seeks

solace in the Bible,

he finds that everywhere the name of God has

218

ARTHURIAN STORY
erased
;

been

he
in

tries

to

restore

it,

but he has
childishness
"

forgotten

the word, and writes Nature instead of

Jehovah.
there
long,"
is

Yet
told

his
for

oblivion
" as

and

comfort,

now Viviane
thou

returns.

So

knowest things which I do not know, I shall feel myself divided from thee by worlds of magic." But now the time of separation is past, and feeling that they are toshe

him,

gether, untroubled

by

all

the world, the wizard

falls

" When she had made sure on her lap. that he was dreaming of love, she rose gently, took her long veil and covered with it the branch under which the enchanter lay. Nine times she stepped round the circle she had traced nine times she repeated the magic words which he had taught

asleep

;

her

;

then she returned within the

circuit, sat

down

again upon the flowers, and replaced the head of

her beloved on her throbbing breast."
she encloses

l

him in his tomb but as he Thus had lost wisdom and knowledge of things in his ideal, so, in the fellowship and guidance of the
;

the
in
is

ideal

world

of the

grave, he

sees all

things

their place,

and more than the old
is

harmony
is

restored.
is

He
the

blessed in his union with Vivi-

ane— that

first

and best

—and

it

the be-

ginning and centre of

much

other joy.

His tomb

earth, extends invisibly into all of men. to comfort the and his voice goes out Nay, the realm of evil falls into nothingness Hell is destroyed, and his father Satan is seen as part of the divinely ordered scheme. This fantasia may be described as a kind of
:

kingdoms of the

1

Merlin V Enchanteur,

xxi. 2.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD 219
was probably composed in Quinet asks, with a touch of jealousy, why the French should be considered no longer capable of the larger inventions they produced in the times gone by. 1 His task is the development of what he considers a native legend, " qui plonge dans nos premieres origines " and he has a patriotic satisfaction in
Gallic

Faust,
less

and

it

more or

conscious emulation of Goethe.

;

the magician of the Celts with the magician of the Teutons, to the disadvantage of the latter. But rivalry is a kind of discipleship, and many of Quinet's changes and additions are suggested by the example of Goethe. Thus he sends his hero on his travels, much as Faust in the second part is transported to Hellas; and the change of denotement, of which perhaps he found a hint in Villemarque's Contes Populaires, so that Merlin gains his crowning bliss in the confinement of his tomb, is parallel with the ultimate salvation of Faust. Above all, the treatment of the principle of evil is very Mephistopheles is similar in the two stories.

confronting

" Part of that power,

That always

wills the

ill

and does the good."

2

The
to

self-contradictory spirit of denial, he helps Faust
his

win

own wager
is

;

and
the

in the

second part, as
of negation,
as attaining

cheat

turned dupe,

the butt of general ridicule.
is

The Satan
but
is
1 2

of Quinet
in

same

spirit

conceived

the

ideal

world

Merlin PEnchanteur, Introduction.
" Ein Theil von jener Kraft

Die

stets

das Bose

will,

und

stets

1st of the

das Gute schafft." Scenes Im Studirzimmer.
;

—
220

ARTHURIAN STORY

knowledge of his own function and transcending his dream of independence, in other words, as being at last reclaimed. Thus he can be regarded without hatred and almost without awe at a very early stage he becomes a humorous figure, and the comedy of which he is hero is perhaps the most original and
;

on Goethe, misses his severe self-restraint, The same thing appears in and blurs the picture. his whole treatment of the legend, to which he was far less faithful than was Goethe to the traditional Faust. In one passage he says of Merlin, " II
creusait trop ce qu'il faut effleurer."

We may
it

say

of him,
to
it.

" II effleurait

trop ce qu'il faut creuser."
is

He

so alters

and enlarges the story that be recognised, and he hardly gets
This
is

no longer

to the idea of

not his

own

opinion.

He

notes occa-

sional coincidences

between his independent inventions and elder romance, of which he was unaware when he wrote and this unintentional parallelism proves to him that he writes " dans l'esprit intime de la legende." 3 It also proves that he had gone
;

1

Merlin V Enchanteur,

xxiii. 4.

2

Ibid, xxiii. 2.

3

Ibid.

Note

1.

222

ARTHURIAN STORY

about his composition somewhat at a venture and with a rather vague knowledge of the authorities.

He could not indeed avail himself of the labours of Paulin Paris, who began only in 1868 to publish his Romans de la Table Ronde, but he seems
have drawn but scantily on the resources at his He keeps the traditional story of Merlin's birth, and probably takes several important hints from Villemarque's genial interpretations of Breton song but more than this he does not seem to have done. This would be a small matter, except
to

disposal.

;

to the historians of the legend,

if

Quinet's

own

idea

were adequate to the creation of a new myth.
this is

But

not the case.

It is neither

very consistently

nor very economically developed. And though Quinet flattered himself that he was working " dans l'esprit intime de la legende," it really seems smothered under incongruous accretions, and these accretions themselves are too often piled up without unity and without cohesion. He had made these additions, indeed, in conscious accordance with a far-reaching aim. "Corralier toutes les legendes en les ramenant a une seule, trouver dans le coeur humain le lien intime de toutes les traditions populates et nationales, les enchainer en une meme
action sereine, relier entre eux les
la ce

mondes

discord-

ants que l'imagination des peuples a enchantes, c'est
It was a grandiose be doubted if the story of Merlin is the fit receptacle for matter so vast and various, and it cannot be doubted that Quinet's genius was unequal to the task of blending it to a harmonious

que

j'ai

ose entreprendre."

scheme, but

it

may

whole.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
Immermann
work, which
is

223

also

makes Merlin the centre of a not exactly encyclopaedic, but in
utilised

which various other stories are cursorily in the development of the main theme.
ceeds,

He

pro-

however, with more deference to tradition and is less ambitious in his aims. On the whole he respects the limits of the medieval cycle of Arthur, only passing beyond, on the suggestion of the Grail, to the allied legend of Lohengrin. And he is far from undertaking so large an enterprise
as the story of the soul
till

and

after death.

Hegel

died

831, Goethe in 1832, and Immermann's Merlin appeared at the latter date. It belongs to
in
1

a time
ing
;

when

the demigods had passed, or were pass-

Immermann was to write his Die Epigonen, and he himself is, in some sort, a citizen of the epigonous world he describes. The calm and security that characterise both the great thinker and the great poet were lost, a breath of dejection seems to pass over Germany, a sense of failure and the sentimental pang of Weltschmerz. A few years before this time Goethe had said to Eckermann of the Romantic school, " The poets all write as though they were sick, and the world were in hospital true poetry should equip man to endure the battle of life." x It was among the writers whom Goethe criticised that Immermann made his preliminary studies and though he was of too sound and earnest a nature to remain a permanent member of their ranks, he worked his
three years later
satiric novel,
: ;

1

"

Die Poeten schreiben
:

alle, als

waren

sie

im Lazareth

die echte Poesie soil den

krank, und die Welt Menschen ausriisten

den Kampf des Lebens zu bestehen."

224

ARTHURIAN STORY
degrees, and chiefly by the help of a freer and healthier point of view. His

way only by
satire, to

Mystery of Merlin is one of his transition pieces. It is the tragedy of high aims and aspiring intellect breaking themselves on the inscrutable purpose of the divine but though it speaks the language of despair, it ends with a sigh of faith. The key to this strange poetic parable is more easily found in the character of Satan than in the character of Merlin. The evil power is no more absolute with Immermann than with Goethe or
;

Quinet, but

Satan
of the

is

conceived in a very different way. emphatically the Time-spirit, the principle
is

phenomenal
in

universe.

He

is

therefore

re-

presented,

accordance
is

with

some Alexandrian

theories, as the

the world and
is

mighty demiurge who has created its immediate prince. But this translated into the conceptions of contemporary

thought.

He
art

is

not only
life,

patron

of

the

fulness

and type of the glories he stands, in opposition and riches of the earth to the liberty of the spirit and the free workings
of heathen
;

and

of

grace,

as

representative

of the
:

iron

causation

he names himself Fate, the Lord of the Must. But since this necessity is viewed as the necessity of law, he is further conceived as the intelligible element in things and with him is contrasted the spontaneous
that obtains in the physical world
;

power of the
ing

divine,

secret

and

undiscoverable,

surpassing the possibilities of knowledge and mockthe petty measurements

of reason.

It is

the

unfathomable power among men as the Christ, and the resignation and asceticism
revelation of this

—
TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
of the

:

225

which threaten the glories of and drive him to beget Merlin as Antichrist, to make good for him his claims But his hopes are deceived. As the to the earth. letter of a book receives its meaning from the reader, so the seed of Satan wins his soul from and Merlin is his father's his mother's grace child in knowledge but his mother's in meekand prayer. He refuses to obey the ness for in virtue of his vision, Satanic mandate demonic yet devout, he perceives the dependent place that the world-spirit holds. No doubt the demiurge has his dominion, but it is not uncontrolled and when most he thinks himself creative and supreme, he is but repeating separately in time and " doling from needy hand" the things And the that exist together and eternally in God. coming of Christ is not the destruction of the world in time, but its consummation as a world in spirit.
faith,

new

Satan's universe,

;

;

;

" If it is

the annihilation of thy world thou dreadest,"
"

says Merlin to his father,

because when thou hadst

done with it, He took it gently in his arms, and breathed on the lips of the glorious bride the kiss called Christ, know, almighty yet mistaken spirit, It that now first does it live and will never fade." 1
1

harmony of all that is, that Merlin views his own work. He deems himself elected to draw down the most sacred mysteries within the range of all mankind,
its

and to

transfer the keeping of the Grail from

Arthur and his knights. He and promises to bring them to their goal. But he reckons without his host. He has meted out the Eternal by the Phenomenal, and has thought that the principles which prevail in his father's kingdom of nature, apply also in the divine kingdom of grace. But they differ as an intelligible system from an inscrutable mystery.
recluse guardians to
incites

them

to their task,

Lohengrin, the aimless vagrant,

is

welcomed

to the

Temple of the
the words
"

Grail,

above the doors of which are

My

law

is

what

is

righteous in

my

sight,

Ye seek me all for nought The wanderer who finds my

shrine aright,

Him

have

I

sought."

1

And
flees

scarcely has Lohengrin arrived, than the Grail
afar
is

from the threat of Merlin's enterprise, branded as the sacrilege of Antichrist. It is doomed by the Highest. Arthur and his knights, who have set out on the quest, die in the desert of hunger and weariness and thirst, their eyes ungladdened by any vision of the holy thing. And

Merlin cannot help them, for in him there is no Not in weakness, nor in wantonness, but in help. love, he has told his secret to Niniana, and now lies by the white-thorn in passionate despair, thinking
himself prisoned by strong walls and chains, and
is powerYears have gone by, when Satan again stands before him and frees him from the spell, and, showing him what he has done, again demands his His sin has been in seeking to comprehend service. divine or, have he and Arthur otherwise transthe " No," answers Merlin, " my soul was a gressed ? single breath of longing that rolled straight up to Him like the smoke of a pure sacrifice." 1 And he apostrophises his perished friends, " I brought you of rich-hued flowers and fruits to like a vase be laid on the altar in glad oblation. Why,

hearing the agonised cries of the friends he

less to aid.

;

my

Beloved,

didst

Thou

despise

them
"

? "

" It

seems then, by His acts," returns Satan, that He ties Himself to no laws, and moves exalted, dark, and solitary, above all human hope and feeling so let Him be worshipped in dread and silence,
but with me there can be more human intercourse. have this advantage over Him that you can I understand me. Be mine, deny Him and believe in me." But Merlin answers, " No," and to

I whimper, bleeding and flayed but cannot give Him up." And his dying whisper is, " Hallowed be Thy name." This profoundly sad and very powerful poem would almost seem to have been written in reaction from an over-confident idealism that made sure it could spiritualise the universe, and " justify the ways of God to men." It has great and, perhaps, permanent worth as a poetical protest against the disposition to take the mysteries of existence too easily. But it is rather a protest than a harmonious work of art with a solution of its own. It has been called the " tragedy of contradiction," and so it is, I

hounds where

but the contradiction is in the mind of the author. This will be seen by contrasting it with the medieval story which it attempts to supplement and complete. Immermann may have received the suggestion of his subject from a striking passage in the French Prophecies of Merlin : " Know that if luxury had not overtaken him, neither Peter, nor Paul, nor James, nor any other of the Apostles would have done so much good as he would have done in the
world.

Nevertheless, so
is
1

much he

did, that
is

I

know

of a certainty he

not damned, but

out of the

power of
1

Lucifer."
si

Here

his lifework, transcending
si

Et saichez que
il

sa luxure ne l'eust

surpris,

ne

pierre,

Ne

pol ne iacque ne nuls autres des apostres ne firent tant de bien

que

auait fait au siecle, et nompourtant en

fist il

tant que ie
hc-rs

scay certainem^wt q«71 n'est pas dawpne ains est

du

—

—
229

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
the apostolic,
is

wrecked

for the definite cause of his

it is wrecked by its His offence is that he presumes to know, and make others know, the arcana of the divine. This at first seems, and in a certain sense is, a profounder conception, but in the last resort it

luxury

;

but with

Immermann

own

nature.

is

unintelligible.
final

And

it is

made more
faith.

unintelligible

by Merlin's

and ineradicable

The whole

course of the

poem presupposes

the Deity as the un-

knowable source of being, who, transcending reason and exempt from law, resents the infringement of
His jealous seclusion
;

but Merlin's conviction that
to be shaken,
lips.

He

is

akin to his
dies with "

and he

own spirit is not Our Father " on his

This conclusion in favour of instinctive feeling at the expense of definite thought, sounds the knell and of Immermann's efforts as speculative poet when at the close of his life he once more took a subject from British story, it was to treat it in a far slighter and less searching way. In his Merlin he had introduced more or less explicitly the greater number of the Arthurian characters and legends, but he had left on one side the story of Tristram, which has never been very
;

intimately joined to the

rest.

It

was to
;

this

that

he

now

turned, and, in

a

way, no
feelings

subject
for,

could
as the

better

suit

the

state

of his

dedication avows, he was inspired
to
tell

by

his

own

love

once more the old love-tale:
"

Dead was my
Your gentle
Merlin

heart and lay within the grave,
spells re- wake
it

tenderly
iii.

;

pouoir

lucifer.

(Paris, 1528), torn.

Lcs Prophecies

230
It

ARTHURIAN STORY
beats anew,

and

feels the life
is

you gave—
1

'Tristram and Isolt!'

its

earliest cry."

But, again, the story was not so suitable, for he no

longer found an attraction in the intellectual proolem
it

presents.
relation
all

The meaning
with
the

of the love-draught and
that

its

lovers, so

while in one
these are

sense

their sorrows are deserved, in another they
;

are innocent in the midst of their guilt
essential

points

which,
the

nevertheless,

he
is

does

not the

touch.

So, in this instance also, he
in

left

with a

contradiction
outset, the

heart

of his

poem.
is

At

passion of the fated pair

represented

evil art,

no concoction of noon-day magic ( Mittagszauber), won from the earthly paradise on the free hill-top beneath the summer sun and the
as natural
fit
;

and

the philtre

is

but the masterpiece of

"

;

poem

glorifies the first ecstasy

of the lovers as
redlich

"

a
y

harmless

honest

thing

"

(schuldlos

Ding)

moved by God.

Presently,

however,

Immermann

accentuates the sacrifice of Brangwaine, curtails the hours of joy, and to judge from the memoranda of the cantos that remained unwritten, makes the en-

suing penitence swift, long, and
is

bitter. But there no transition from the one view to the other, It is thereand their connection is not explained.

and with a profusion of vivid colour. It is one way of making the story live before the eyes of modern readers, but not the most excellent it portrays its body and neglects its soul. And sometimes this
;

effort

after realistic details

results
is is

only in the

in-

congruous and offensive, that
for
its

ironical

intention.

It

none the less so extremely hard to

forgive

Immermann when he
King Mark
is

describes the sea-sick-

ness of the Cornish ambassadors, or the consternation

of

at finding himself a

wooer

;

but

forgiveness

impossible

a comrade called

when he assigns to Morolt O'Connor, or names Isolt's waitingand
Miss
Kitty.

women Miss
his

Betty

Sometimes

pleasant adaptation of the old story becomes as

grotesquely out of keeping as De Bracy's version in Ivanhoe of the exploits of the men of Benjamin. Immermann, however, has the credit of drawing the attention of contemporaries to the Tristram legend and both the beauties and the defects of his fragment, as well as its unfinished condition, incited others to take it in hand. Two minor poets saw its dramatic possibilities and developed it in one or other of the directions indicated in
;

Immermann's work.
Isolde

F.

Roeber

in

his

Tristan

und

(1856)

tries

to vivify the

details

of the old

material.
tries to

L. Schneegans in modernise its tone and

his

Tristan

(1865)

setting.

close,
is

Roeber in most of his incidents keeps pretty It sometimes too close, to his authority. by suffusing the whole in fantastic glamour and

232
lyric

ARTHURIAN STORY
feeling,

and flashing
its

it

before

the

eye

in

a kaleidoscopic series of brightly contrasted views,
that he seeks to renew

power.

This
his

is

hardly

the

method of the
is

dramatist,

and

Tristan

und

Isolde

rather

a

poem

in

scenes

and dialogue

than an acting play. He is best in the erotic passages, when the fond or passionate outbursts of the
lovers- possess the

music and sometimes employ the
is

metres of song.
of the philtre.
in

The finest The poet
the

naturally the episode

gives

himself free rein
of the
flagon,

describing
its

strange

carving
rising

with
its

crowned serpents
of the

from the abyss,

gracious figures hovering aloft; the overmasterthe whispers,

ing fragrance

and keen
"

;

Dryik," that seem sudden revelation it brings, so that the hearts of
;

draught at once stupefying " Drink not/' and again, the to rise from its foam

the drinkers ring
love.

out like nightingales singing of

Sometimes, however, his lyricism carries him too far, as when he makes the Moon a speaker at which recalls the one of the secret interviews tragical mirth of the most lamentable comedy of Pyramus and Thisby. But when he is not lyrical, One peculiar device he is disjointed and flat. shows both his imaginative sensibility and his draAt the beginning of each act, he matic weakness. has a prelude, in which the portions of the story that cannot be introduced on the stage, are recounted to Isolt of Brittany and commented on This contrivance, which emphasises her by her. jealous affection from the beginning and through;

out,

and
is

gives

the

other

aspect
:

of a

the

lovers'

history,

poetically

effective

but

drama has

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
not been
narrative

233

thoroughly digested
is

in

which so much

required.

Far
but
it

more
is

equal
is

in

workmanship,
Tristan
written

and
a

much
;

better thought out,

the

of Schneegans

too

obviously
in

with

purpose,

and

is

so

modern

tone and aim that
author's
It

the old romantic witchery has to go.
rightly

much of The philtre,

enough from the

plays no part in
the

the drama.

point of view, only survives as

is sung behind and heroine shrive their hearts to each other, and the old-world story of fated passion breaks and blends in their voluntary avowal of love. The legend becomes one of the protests, so frequent nowadays and the surest

the subject of a folk-song, which

scene

as

the

hero

—

justice

cannot give

relish

to frequent fare
Isolt,

—

against
author,

the credit of loveless marriages.

turning on

King Mark, becomes the mouthpiece of the
and
states with sufficient precision, his
"

story.

followed

the

That I have loved him, prompting of my heart,
it

view of the that I have
is

not

my

crime
follow
folly

:

but
the

is

this,

that

I

did

not

always

prompting of my heart, that in my opposed the behest of God, and joined myself to thee, whom I loved not. Such an union, shameless, monstrous, cannot last, for it wants the soul. Whoso weds thus, vows herself to adultery." 1
I

This hardly puts it quite fairly. Neither her unsanctioned love of Tristram, nor even her loveless marriage with Mark constituted her chief transgression, but that she

married the King when his

love. However, we perhaps ought not to raise objections when the chief party concerned makes none Mark is convinced
:

nephew already had her

by her words, and owns and he is in the wrong.
to

that

she

is

in

the right

What we have
up
of
the

a right
fine

resent

is

the

ploughing
is

old
to

story for the
ally

operations of the doctrinaire, especi-

when
and

his

crop

by no means

difficult

grow,

been gathered in much clamorous jubilation from a thousand
has
already
Isolt

with
fields.

and love has many faults, but at least she is not this emancipated heroine who repeats at second hand the lessons of George Sand. Already, however, when Schneegans trans-shaped the story to serve his tendency-moral, it had been appropriated by a mightier genius for a treatment alike more catholic in its aim and more suitable In 1859 appeared Richard Wagner's to the theme.

The

whom we know

Tristan
great

und

Isolde.

It is difficult in literary

sketches

to avoid saying either too

much

or too

little

of the

music dramas. It is almost as unfair to take the words by themselves as it would be to substitute a dry analysis for the poetic fulness of a Shakespearian play, and so taken, they may deserve the hard things that some of the
composer's
Ein solches Bundniss, schamlos, ungeheur,

Kann

nicht besteh'n, weil

ihm

die Seele fehlt

Dem

Ehbruch weiht

sich,

wer sich so vermahlt."

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
author's

235
a

countrymen have said about them.
this,

On

matter like
speak.

a foreigner

is

scarcely entitled to

On the other hand, it is by the text that dramatic power and the scope of the meaning must be judged, a judgment permissible to all
the
;

and these are no
of the whole.
In

slight elements in the excellence

both

respects

Wagner's opera
re-

must be placed very high.
quired, all of the^ story that
is

With one sweep, he
subordinate or beside

brushes away, as indeed the nature of his task
the
point.

most elemental It is, reduced to its and no frippery of ornament is suffered to distract the eye from the bare and solemn lines
form,

of the central tragedy.
the shifts

The

fight with the dragon,

of the culprits, their threatened punish-

ment, their woodland joys, even the intervention of The story is the Breton Isolt, are all obliterated.

compressed into three pregnant scenes the galley, when Isolt in her indignant wrath thinks to reach Tristram the draught of death, and drinks with him the draught of love the garden, when the lovers
: ;

^

are

surprised
;

in

the

intoxication
castle,

of their

stolen
sick

delight

Tristram's ancestral
is

when

his

waiting

crowned with a

last

greeting and the

death of both. Thus the attention is riveted on the spectacle of a love strong as death and mysterious as the sea. It came unbidden and it heeds no curbs. It regards " glory and honour, might and
gain, as idle

motes of the sunbeam." 1

Even

faith

and friendship are a dream to him " who has gazed into the night of love, and to whom she has con1

"Ruhm und Ehr Macht und Gewinn
1

,

.

.

.

Wie

eitler

Staub der Sonnen."

—Act

ii.

236
fided

ARTHURIAN STORY
her deep mystery." 1

The play

portrays the

victims and hierophants of a headlong passion that

mocks the restrictions and belies the freedom of men, and the overture resounds with the voices of that ocean on which we are carried away like the
floating

wreck of the sea. But in all this it. is not to be supposed that we merely hear the ingenuous doxology of sexual
desire,

hymned
in

forth to the throbbing of the blood.
it

At

the core of

there

is

thought, and

which

the form that Schopenhauer gave

thought it, has

greatly influenced

our times.

Beneath

the

shows

of the phenomenal world, the necessary illusions of conscious life, there works, not a spiritual somewhat
that

we can

or

cannot

know, but an
is

inevitable,

unconscious, irrational will which

the sole reality

and
in

principle of things.

It

reveals itself

above

all

the love of

man and woman,

.which

is

thus no

caprice of the individual but a draught of the universal

magic, an effluence of the one omnipresent force,
dark,
resistless,

impersonal.
that

And

lurking

behind

the vanities
festation
in

and fever of existence,
all

this world-will,

the essence of

love,

may

is, together with its manibe opposed to day and life,

compared

with night, and identified with death. Tristram and Isolt are lulled by the darkness, and know not whether it is union or annihilation they

most
their

desire.

The
like

loss

of their separate being in

theirs

which shall be they merge in the All of things. Tristram, begotten of a dying father and born of a
love
is

the self-oblivion

when
Der

1

"

in der

Liebe Nacht geschaut,

Dem

sie ihr tief

Geheimniss vertraut."

— Act

ii.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD

237

dying mother, bids Isolt follow him to the land of death and peace and love " It is the dark land of night, whence my mother erewhile sent me forth, when in death she brought to light him whom 1 in death she had conceived." Isolt, swooning to
:

death, finds

it

"

highest rapture

"

to

sink into the

unconscious
It

drift
all

which does not
life.

live,

but

is

the

well-spring of

is

may be questioned whether such a conception proof against certain ethical objections, but at least with its help the drama is wound up to a close that leaves the mind content that it should be so and there can be no question that it harmoni ses well with the tone of the old story. Wagner
;

r

the present day, but

home to the temper of he does no violence to its spirit. On the contrary, he divines its idea, as the sculptor divines the statue in the block. He seems to read between the lines its deepest secret, and
certainly brings his subject

bring

it

to

completion, while

penetrating

it

with

contemporary thought. This, one feels, is the way to revive, or rather awaken, old stories, not merely for scholars and coteries, but for the general world of living men. It was in a similar spirit that, in 1877, he comThis story, like Tristram's, had posed his Parsifal. Immermann, already found adapters in Germany. as we have seen, makes use of the Grail as an emblem of the mystery of supernatural grace but
;

1

"

Es

ist

das dunkel nachtge Land

Daraus die Mutter einst mich sandt', Als, den im Tode sie empfangen,

Im Tod'

sie liess

zum

Licht gelangen."

— Act

ii.

;

238
it

ARTHURIAN STORY
treated only as an episode of the

is

main theme,
purposes and

the history of the wizard's blighted

hopes. Percivale again appears in Halm's drama of Griseldis (1837), but without a trace of his connection with the Grail, and with hardly any of his legendary characteristics; he is somewhat unjustifiably

made

the tyrannic lord of the patient heroine,
his

and retains only the truculence and rudeness of
forest breeding as these are displayed

at the outset

of the old romance.

The

Grail itself plays a part in the title of Joseph

Pape's Schneewittchen

vom Gral (1856),

a narrative

poem composed
and
fairy
in

in the stanza of the

Niebelungenlied
Here, too,
of
historic

imitation of the medieval style.

however, the
tales

mixture of incongruous elements, of
the

like

Sleeping Beauty,

persons like Albertus Magnus, of political allegory,

which many,

the awakening maiden with Gerand the wicked stepmother with France, keeps it from having any real connection with the
identifies

Grail legend. 1
really sympathetic treatment of this as of the Tristram story was reserved for the great musician

A

and, as in the one^under the symbol of the philtre,

he presents the fatalism of the modern theory, which has somewhat hastily been branded as pessimistic, in the other he sets forth its austere altruism in connection with the symbol of the
in
1

Holy Cup^ While

Tristram, however, his modifications were chiefly

The above statements

are based partly on extracts from
I

Schneewittchen, partly on critical notices.
able to see the entire poem, which
is

have been un-

not even in the British

Museum.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
in the

239

way

of omission, in Parsifal they are even
;

and his version more in the way of addition shows a wider external divergence from his authority The Temple of the Grail is contrasted with the V Grotto of the magician Klingsor, and to its hallowed
wonders are opposed his infernal spells. Klingsor had once aspired to it himself, and enraged at his rejection, now wars against the knights and by exciting the carnal desire of its guardian Amfortas has been able to wrest from him the sacred spear and deal him a wound that no natural means can Amfortas is still steward and minister of staunch. the Grail, though the sight of it now fills him with nor can he be healed till the pangs as of death weapon that wounded him is recovered and applied Heaven has announced its emissary for to his hurt. the task, " The chaste fool, enlightened by sympathy, 1 Parsifal is the wait for him whom I have chosen." He is introduced as a rude and predestined one.
;
;

awkward boy, who beholds
cated

" in

stupid surprise

"

the

mysteries of longing and remorse.
assails

But he

is

edu-

Klingsor through temptation and trial. him with the delights of sense, and above all with the solicitations of Kundry, the same She is enslaved to who caused Amfortas to fall. the bidding of the wizard, but it is against her will. Left to herself, she wanders wild and unlovely about the sacred mount, where she was discovered at the founding of the Temple, and yearns to serve those whom she has betrayed.

But when the
1

spell

is

at

work she

is

clothed in

"

Durch Mitleid wissend, Der reine Thor Harre sein Den ich erkor."

240
beauty,

ARTHURIAN STOR V
and compulsion
;

is

on her to tempt and

seduce

yet could she find one to resist her allure-

would gain
at
last

ments, she would be freed from her servitude and release. Plying Parsifal with her arts,
eager at once to vanquish and
imprints
a
kiss

be vanquished, she on his lips. Immediately he is " made wise by sympathy." He feels the wound of Amfortas the secrets of sin and sorrow, of desire and regret are on the sudden disclosed to him. He seizes the spear which the advancing Klingsor casts against him, and departs for the deliverance of Kundry, the recovery of Amfortas, the achievement of the Grail. At the close of this miracle play, there is, and not without warrant, a hinted comparison of Parsifal with Christ. For it is the redeeming power of love that is described, that true love which must be so selfless as to exclude all personal reference and every sensual craving, but feels the pangs of others as its own, their sinful yearnings and agonised remorse. And in Kundry, " the rose 1 who was once Herodias, appears the of Hell," lower love that flowers from unregenerate life that, partly of spirit and partly of sense, is in
;
;

contradiction with

itself,

thrilling

now
at

for

service

and now
sor
is is

for gratification,
it

mocking

the sacrifice

of the cross yet feeling of

as the highest.

Kling-

her master, because on him alone her might

no

avail

2
;

for

he

is

unperplexed

by her

double nature, his is the selfishness that cannot Amfortas, guardian of the love but only feel desire.
1

2

"Weil

Hollen Rose.— Act ii. einzig an mir deine Macht nichts vermag."

—Act

ii.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
aspiration that unites

241

with

the

divine,

is
;

wounded
but his
It

when he
is

stains
is

it

with sensuous

passion

very sorrow

a

means
:

to spiritual perfection.

needed to leaven the innocence of Parsifal with " Blessed be thy suffering insight and compassion that gave the timid fool the highest force of sympathy and the might of purest knowledge." 1 In thus deepening the significance of the old stories, it was possible that their plastic life, their flesh and blood, might be etherealised away but
;

/JS,

another direction

of literary

activity

in

Germany

provided for the
directer forms.

continuance of their simpler and number of men, like San Marte, Simrock, Kurz, admirably equipped as a rule both

A

learning and feeling, laboured to reproduce the medieval poems in modern German, and thus render
in

them
as

accessible to a wider circle of readers.

This,

a literature of translations,

briefly,

but one writer,

who

be passed 'over on the whole belongs

may

to
is

the group, must be noticed

more

in detail.

It

the poet and scholar, Wilhelm Hertz (born 1835). In i860 appeared his Lanzelot und Genevra, a poem

in

which

downfall

of the Table the

he selects from the old account of the traits that were most

congenial to his

own mode

of feeling, and recounts
letter,

them, freely as regards the regards the spirit, in the
occasionally of
three
feet

but faithfully as
of
four

couplets
that

and
im-

were

the

typical

measure

for
1

chivalrous

romance.

The only

" Gesegnet sei dein Leiden,

Das

Mitleids hochste Kraft
reinstes

Und

Dem

zagen Thoren gab."

Wissens Macht Act

—

iii.

—
242
portant
the

*

ARTHURIAN STORY
character

change of conception that he makes is in of Modred, who, a comrade of the sea-rovers and worshipper of force, despises the dalliance of love till himself inflamed by the beauty of Guinevere. For the rest it is the fine old story that will never be out of date, of guilty but rapturous passion, of the discovery and flight of Lancelot,
of Guinevere's sentence to the stake, of her rescue

by her lover and the slaughter of Gawain's brothers, of the war with Lancelot, of Modred's revolt, of the
few new episodes are introduced, luxuriant development of the old suggestions that Hertz relies. His vivid pictures are not to be forgotten, of the tender tryst that precedes the discovery of Modred's pangs of awakening love of Guinevere on her trial, when she refuses to defend herself before " the guild of men " by profaning
final

battle.
is

A

but

it

rather on the

;

;

"To
Her
heart's

her disgrace
;

most consecrated place "

of the wounded Arthur and swooning
united at last
I

Guinevere,
Arthur,

"on

sorrow's burning marriage-bed." 2
tells

may

quote the passage which

how

after

laying

Gawain
in

in

his

grave, chances

on the

vanished

Merlin

the

wood

of Broceliand, and

hears tidings of the end
" Mid stretches of narcissus flower He saw a blossom-shadowed bower,

Whose airy The leafage
lu

arches overhead
of a white-thorn spread
;

Dass ich zu meiner ewgen Schmach Das Heiligthum des Herzens brach."

— Canto

iv.

2

"Im

heissen Hochzeitbett der Schmerzen."

— Canto

v.

'

;

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
On the soft moss a man at rest Lay on a lissome lady's breast,
Whose dainty limbs a drape of green, Hung from her girdle, served to screen.
Mid
tears

243

and laughter did she sing
;

A

song of wondrous love-longing The wood-birds on the branches round Sat hearkening to her voice's sound

The bower seemed all To the sweet measure

to

swing and sway
;

of her lay

And round

her

elfin face

was shed

A

glowing light of rosy red.
quiet

The

man whose

rest she lull'd
;

Was

and huge of mould Of dusky gold his beard and hair His face august and wondrous fair;
youthful strong,
;

Within

his eyes' black depths there lay
;

The

brightness of no earthly day
the lines his

And from

brow

that seamed,

Weird spiritual potence gleamed. Wan was his visage as the snow, Whereon there lay a hopeless woe,
Despair of
all

Hertz has contributed most to the revival of British story. In comparing it with other modernisations of medieval poetry, one is inclined to say, " So such things should be." " My first concern," he writes, " was to afford the educated man of to-day as fresh and pure an impression of the poem as was possible and a free
1877, that
;

programme he has shown the tact of a poet and a scholar, cutting down the inessential, condensing the
individuality
failing

superfluous,

but

never

distorting
all,

the

of the original,
it

and, above
is

never

to

reproduce
for us.

in

a form that

beautiful

now and

Here we may throw a backward glance on the ground we have traversed, and review the main characteristics of the contemporary literature in Germany that is occupied with subjects from the Arthurian cycle. There is on the one hand a tendency to modernise the stories, and bring them into relation with the life of to-day. There is also, at the opposite pole from this, a tendency to retain and revive as much as possible of the antique flavour. And, as it were between the two, there is the effort, to discover in them a central meaning which may be developed with reference to the
needs of our own intellectual life. This last trait is shared with the French parable of Merlin, but in another respect there is a great difference between the procedure of Quinet and the procedure of the Germans. Ouinet's work is encyclopaedic, and endeavours to include a multitude of
extraneous
legends
within
the
single

frame.

In

Germany, on the other hand, with the partial, or rather apparent, exception of Immermann's Merlin} the various branches of the one cycle are treated
pietatvolle Bearbeitung eher zu erreichen als eine philologisch

treue Uebersetzung

vom

ersten bis

zum

letzten

Wort.

— Preface

to Tristan unci Isolde.
1

I

say apparent, for already in the prose romance he found

the story of Merlin connected with the story of the Grail.

246

ARTHURIAN STORY
of Percivale and
Tris-

separately, and, in the case

Arthur is practically surrendered. The Frenchman began with only a general and vague knowledge of the tradition, and perhaps for that reason hardly felt with sufficient clearness what was distinctive in the legend, and where its limits lay. The Germans approached the subject with a thorough knowledge of the best medieval authorities, which they studied either at first hand or in competent adaptations. It is not, however, the best but the latest romances that lay stress on the connection of the various adventures, and accordingly this connection was not forced on
the

tram,

connection

with

their notice.

In the English literary movement, which we have next to consider, we shall see some writers, as in Germany, attempting to modernise the antiquated
material,

some

to catch the secret of the old aroma,

some
tales,

to find

an eternal message
all

in

the venerable

and

Tennyson uniting

these

tendencies

Like Quinet he is enof the King. cyclopaedic, for he gives in compendium the whole story of the Table, and recounts the adventures of its most typical members. But he avoids Quinet's incongruities by confining himself to the Arthurian circle, and so resembles the Germans in the surein

his Idylls

Thus in a manner he both the tendencies and the materials that elsewhere we see in isolation. And perhaps he was helped to this by the circumstance that he almost alone among his contemporaries based 1 on the compilation of Malory. He need not be
ness of his traditional tact.

combines

1

I

am

aware that

this

is

not the general opinion.

It

has

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES ABROAD
a
scholar
for
this
;

247
all,

Malory
in

is

intelligible
;

to

schoolroom yet he has, of course, more of the medieval note than the best translation or keenest study of elder romance can secure. And his labyrinth of tales, in which he himself sometimes forgets his purpose and loses his way, would appeal to the youthful
a favourite even
the

and

poet to seek the authentic clue.
example, that Malory "inspired Swinburne Tristram of Lyonesse, and Matthew Arnold to compose his poem Tristra.771 and IseidtP It is perhaps impossible to say whence their inspiration came, but their material at least they got for the most part from other

been

said,

for

to write his

versions than Malory's.

CHAPTER V
TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME

A LTHOUGH
discussion

it

is

convenient to postpone the

Idylls till the works of Tennyson's English contemporaries have been considered, in a certain sense this violates the chronological order and obscures the facts of the case. Of the writers we shall review he was the first to

of

the

enter

as

well

as

the

last

to

leave

the

field

of

Arthurian poetry, and all such poetry that can claim even secondary importance lies framed between the publication of The Lady of Shalott in 1833 and the publication of Merlin and The Gleam in 1889. Moreover, his influence was as powerful as it was early and continuous. He
furnished the precedent which others might repeat,
resist, but which they could not with impunity neglect. It should, therefore, be remembered that his work forms the background of the various poems that have now to be noticed, and that his example dominates the movement. This statement would at first sight seem to be refuted, but in reality is confirmed by the romance which opens the series, Lytton's King Arthur, which

or refract, or

„

—

"

"

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
appeared
relation

249

in 1848. No doubt it stands out of all with Tennyson's method, but then it also
all

stands out of
time.
It

relation with the tendencies of the

is, and will be a performance of no account, that had neither acceptance nor result. Yet it is by no means destitute of merit. Some

was, and

passages

are,
it

if

not exactly

poetical,

at

least

as

was granted the author to be. Thus his discontent with the hard commonplace of the present is expressed in a stanza that owes something
poetical as
to

reminiscences

of previous laments, but
its

is

not

without a sweet cadence of
" Oh, the old time's divine

own

:

and

fresh

romance

!

When

o'er the lone yet ever

haunted ways

Went frank- eyed knighthood with the lifted lance, And life with wonder charmed adventurous days, When light more rich, through prisms that dimmed
it,

shone,
large through the

And Nature loomed more
There
of the
is

unknown.

North, with the
its

even a touch of sublimity in his invocation myriad organisms in the
frozen |teas
!

silence of

:

—

" Magnificent Horror

How like royal death Broods thy great hush above the seeds of
bird nor beast lessens with visible

life.

.

.

"

Nor

Life the large

awe

of space without the sun
life

;

Though

And

unseen doth dwell glad with gladness God, the Living One
in

each atom

;

He He

—but breathless speaks — but noiseless
breathes
is

hang the

airs that freeze
!

!

list

the silences

Sometimes there
reflections,

a fanciful

ingenuity about his

as in the following

— — —
2$0

—
little

ARTHURIAN STORY
how
needs the soul
Light from the sense or being from the breath?

" Prove not our dreams,

Let but the world an instant fade from view,

And

of itself the soul creates a new."
is

Or
"

here

a simile for the visitation of good in the

guise of grief:

Even thus some infant, Under the pale buds

in the early spring,

of the

almond

tree,

Shrinks from the wind, that with an icy wing
Shakes, showering down, white flakes that seem to be

wan sleet till the quick sunbeam shows That those were blossoms which he took for snows."
Winter's

—

Occasionally his sayings have an aphoristic ring, for
instance
"After the martyr the deliverer comes."

Generally, however, his epigrams betray a straining
after points, as

when he
power

describes

the career of a

demagogue
"

in

The promised freedom vanished

in a tax

And

bays, turned briars, scourged bewildered backs."

But sometimes his smartness is not without its humour. It is very unfair to the language which he assumes to be the mother-tongue of Arthur, when he makes the Etruscan augur address him
"
for,

Oh

guttural-grumbling and disvowelled
if

man "

:

as Shakespeare knew, Welsh,

rightly spoken,

is

"As sweet as ditties highly penned Sung by a fair queen in a summer's bower With ravishing division, to her lute." 1
1

Henry

IV.,

I. iii.

i.

209.

:

—

TENNYSON S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME

25

I

But the augur's calumny would express the sentiments of Hotspur, if not of Mortimer. And there is real drollery, though of a somewhat flippant type, in the description which Freya's priest gives of their method of sacrifice to the voracious idol.
"That furnace heated by mechanic laws, Which gods to priests for godlike ends permit, We lay the victim bound across the jaws And let him slowly turn upon the spit The jaws (when done to what we think their liking)
Close
;

—

—

all is

over

:

— the

effect is striking.

1 '

There is no doubt that King Arthur contains a modicum of fancy, a good deal of wit, a fair amount of sententiousness and far inferior pro;

ductions have often attained a measure of success.

There

is

no

reason

why

it

should have been so

it was born out of due time, and that the author adopted an attitude to Arthurian romance that was antiquated and untenable. Though not published till more than twenty years later, it was conceived, as he tells us, when he was at college; that is, between 1822 and 1825. It thus really belongs to an earlier period, of which Heber's Morte Arthur is a typical specimen, although it had the misfortune to appear fifteen years after Tennyson's Lady of Shalott and " From the charsix after his Morte d' A rthur.

absolute a failure, except that

acters

in

the
his
.

legends

of the
x

Round
have

Table,"

says

Lytton in the names.
entirely

borrowed Preferring to invent for myself an original story, I have taken from Sir
preface,

" I

but

.

.

*To

the edition of 1878, from which the above quotations

are taken.

—
252

ARTHURIAN STORY
Malory's compilation
little

Thomas

more than the

general adoption of chivalrous usages and manners,

and those agencies for the marvellous which the chivalrous romance naturally affords, the fairy genius and the enchanter." In sound this is not unlike the prefatory note to Wordsworth's Egyptian Maid, Wordsworth but it is very different in meaning. employs the Arthurian machinery, that the chords of kindred memories may vibrate in advance and attune us for his own romantic parable. But Lytton uses Arthur's great name merely as a signboard to win custom for a fantastic tale of adventure that contradicts the matter and feeling of the legend, and has no particular meaning of
own. He ingeniously explains away the scandal about Guinevere by assuming that there were two ladies, beloved by Arthur and Lancelot respectively, who were called Genevieve and Genevra " One name in truth, though with a varying sound."
its

But this unwonted condescension to the tradition which he discards is quite superfluous, when he has no scruple in sending Arthur to discuss religion with the heathen Etruscans and to hunt walruses His jumble of errantry and at the North Pole. travel, of burlesque and magic, rightly seemed out of date to a generation that had received the first instalment of Tennyson's " Epic." The problem of Arthurian poetry, as we have romantic seen, was to unite sympathy for the colour with the sense of present needs, and to do It this by fixing on the meaning of the story. may be said of the three chief poets who took such subjects in hand before the Idylls assumed their

—

"

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME

253

connected and coherent form, that they accent one'' or other of these tendencies at the expense of the Matthew Arnold's Tristram and Iseult, in rest.
aspects

1852, lays almost exclusive stress on the modern William Morris's Defence of of the tale
;

as distinctively medieval

pieces, in 1858, are Robert Stephen Hawker's Quest of the Sangraal, in 1863, is filled with the mystic significance of his theme, but his conception is not that of the Middle Ages, and does not lie particularly close to the life of our own day. Arnold (1822-1888) seems to have composed his poem in a mood which is not infrequent in his earlier verse, of discontent alike with tumult Now he contemns the and with rest.
its
;

Gue?ievere

and

companion

" Tedious vain expense

Of passions

that for ever

ebb and flow

;

1

now

his spirit
" Hears a voice within
it

tell

:

Calm's not

life's

crown, though calm

is well.

'Tis all perhaps

But

'tis

which man acquires, not what our youth desires." 2
his

He sums up
history,

impressions
in

of

the

old-world
of

which he narrates, melancholy reflection
"

a

parenthesis

And

yet,

I

swear,

it

angers

me

to see
;

How
How

this fool passion gulls

men

potently

Being, in truth, but a diseased unrest,

And an

unnatural overheat at best.

full of languor and distress Not having it which when they do possess, They straightway are burnt up with fume and

they are

;

care."

3

1

Youth's Agitations.
3 1 1. 1

*

Youth and Calm.

Iseult of Brittany.

!

a\A^254 m^234

ARTHURIAN STORY

This text is illustrated in the three parts of the poem, which have respectively as their central figures Tristram and the two Iseults. Tristram, subdued by a "tyrannous single thought," 1 sees on his deathbed all that he "did before, shadow and dream." 2 In his delirium he lives through his former life once more at fever speed, calling up scene after scene, the draining of the cup, the last sad meeting, the war with Rome, the return to the Breton forests and he wakens to recognition of Iseult not the Iseult he desires who has been watching, perhaps overhearing, his unconscious
;

—

—

shrift.

"

My
To

princess, art thou there

?

Sweet, do not wait
is

bed, and sleep

!

my

fever

To-night

my

page

shall

keep
?

me

gone by company.
;

Where do

the children sleep

kiss

them
;

for

me

!

Poor child, thou art almost as pale as I This comes of nursing long and watching

late." 3

Then Iseult of Ireland arrives, unhindered by magnanimous rival, to exchange with Tristram
bitter-sweet

her
the

and vain regret. She presented as a great lady, worn with passion is and weary of life, like any of the present day. She has been in the
of guilty
love
" Gradual furnace of the world,

In whose hot air our spirits are upcurl'd
Until they crumble, or else

grow

like steel." 4

This

is

the

burden of her answer to

his

implied

reproach.
l 3

IIL
1.

Iseult of Brittany.

2

Ibid.
III.

Tristram.

*

Iseult of Brittany.

— ? —

—

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
" Alter'd, Tristram
?

2$$

Not
is

in courts, believe
;

me,

Love
Courtly

like

mine

alter'd in the breast

life is light
it

Ah
"

!

lives,

and cannot reach it because so deep-suppress'd

!

What, thou think'st men speak in courtly chambers Words by which the wretched are consoled ? Wr hat, thou think'st this aching brow was cooler, Circled, Tristram, by a band of gold?

" Royal state with Marc,

my

deep-wrong'd husband
flee
!

That was

bliss to

make my sorrows make me
lots

Silken courtiers whispering honied nothings

Those were
"

friends to

false to thee

!

Ah, on which, if both our

were balanced,

Was

indeed the heaviest burden thrown
upo7i

—

Thee, a pining exile in thy forest,

Me, a smiling queen

my

throne

nx

She escapes from the feasts and laughter of Tyntagel, where she was " clogg'd by fear and fought by shame," to the quiet of death, the one balm
alike
tion.
"

for

Tristram's brooding and

for her distrac-

Her
But

life

was

turning, turning,

In mazes of heat and sound.
for

And now

peace her soul was yearning, peace laps her round." 2

And
their

in

the third part,
grave,

Cornish

when the lovers are laid in we find Iseult of Brittanylife

trying to solace her broken

as

it

fades away,

with the care and training of her children, watching them at their play, walking with them on the heath,

and
1

telling
II.

them the

tales

they

love.

But, "

is

she

Iseult of Ireland.

2

Arnold's Requiescat, composed about the same date.

256

ARTHURIAN STORY
?

happy

"

asks the poet.
"

Her eyes

are sunk,

and

even her voice
" Yes,
it

comes languidly."

is

lonely for her in her hall.

The children, and the grey-hair'd seneschal, Her women, and Sir Tristram's aged hound,
Are But She She
Is

there the sole companions to be found.

these she loves

;

and

noisier

life

than

this

would find

ill

to bear,

has her children, too,
;

weak as she is. and night and day

and the wide heaths where they play, and the cliff, and the sea-shore, sand, the sea-birds, and the distant sails, These are to her dear as to them the tales With which this day the children she beguiled She gleaned from Breton grandames, when a child,

with them
hollies,

The The

;

In every hut along this sea-coast wild.

She herself loves them

still,

and,

when they
1

are told,

Can

forget all to hear them, as of old."

was of Merlin left dead-alive, a prisoner till the judgment day, on " a little plot of magic ground." Perhaps it was something similar in her own fate that made her
close.
It

What was the story she meaning question at the

told the children

?

is

the

choose the narrative of his. Arnold has written a poem
pathos, but
its

full

of beauty and

connections with the elder versions

Its medievalism is confined to a are very slight. few superficial touches, as when he talks of the " blown rushes on the floor," 2 or of the rich furs,

"Which Venice
or

ships

do from swart Egypt bring": 3
"

of

Alexander invading the
of Brittany.
3

To
1

Iseult the betrayal of Merlin
III. Iseult
II.

is

Soudan's realm." a fragment of

Iseult of Ireland.

III. Iseult

of Brittany.

—
TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
2$

J

Breton folklore, the talk of the peasantry, as it might be now but in the romantic chronology it took place only a few years before, when Lancelot was a child. The pictures of the children asleep,
;

or

at

play,

or

listening

to

their

mother's stories,
in

as hatted

and cloaked they walk up and down
life

the shelter of the hollies, are the tender family
in

more suggestive of
of anything
brief

of to-day than

of the 1 death of Tristram," says Mr. Andrew Lang, " the passage which haunts us is all his own, owes nothing 2 to Malory, or the French books, the beautiful

romance.

"

In

M. Arnold's

poem

passage on the children of Iseult
"

But they sleep

in sheltered rest

Like helpless birds in the

warm

nest

On

the castle's southern side."

But the mere presence of the
disconcerting
classic

children,

is

rather

to

those
of the

versions

who remember the more The picture ancient tale.
hand that
"

of the Breton Iseult as a loving wife and mother,

who even unloved
her,

cherishes the
is

slights

whose harshest look

like

a sad embrace,"

and who seeks
has
1
2

for consolation

in the nursery,

has
so
3

a disturbing effect

on one's associations.
picture

And
iii.

the

companion

of

the

Irish

Iseult,

Introductory Essay in Sommer's Malory, vol.

To judge from

the note, Arnold got his

material

from

Dunlop's History of Fiction. any of it from Malory.

At any

rate he

did

not get

3 Why do our modern poets as a rule make this lady dark? Arnold talks of her "raven hair," and Tennyson, more emDo they forget the phatically, of her "black-blue Irish hair." Or have they swallow with the golden thread in its beak?

R

258

,

ARTHURIAN STORY

which portrays her " with bloom less rare," after she has " left her youth afar," for the true Isolt, like Guinevere and Helen of Troy, never grows old. In short, Tristram and Iseult is a very fine poem, but there seems no particular reason why it should have its name. The main points of contact with
the old legend are that the hero's wife loves him,

and that he
carry us very

prefers another man's.
far,

These do not
is

and

in

the detail there

much

more of contrast than of parallel. It was inevitable, however, that such legends, in their mere sentiment, their form and colour, should
have a potent fascination for those to life of the present appeared chiefly on

whom
its

the

sordid

and seamy

side.

The mood

that bids us

" Forget six counties overhung with smoke,

Forget the snorting steam and piston stroke,

Forget the spreading of the hideous town,"

*

might well esteem

it

a precious boon to yield to

the glamour of old romance, to enter

its haunted world and walk on ways where the dust of reality had never blown. To repeat the poetic fancies of the Middle Ages in a day-dream of the nineteenth century was a congenial task for the school of poetry and painting which has been called the

Pre-raphaelite,

and of which Dante Gabriel
Rossetti,

Rossetti,

and, in his earlier phase, William Morris, are

among
of

the

chief

representatives.

the author

a theory that passionate beauty should be dark? in much else Swinburne is truer to the original golden sunrise was her hair."
1

:

In this as " a more

Earthly Paradise^ prologue.

—
TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
the Blessed Damozel, the artist
to render

;

2$g

has been said an illuminated missal or a stained-glass window, might have been expected to seize on such a prize as Arthurian romance. And so he did, but it was for the employment of his pencil, not of his pen. Morris, however, (born 1834) who wrote at first greatly under the influence of Rossetti, gave several short half-lyric versions of Arthurian episodes. In his Defence of Guenevere and Other Poems he to some extent follows the manner of Tennyson's Lady of Shalott, but accentuates the medievalism in the

who
of

on canvas the

effects

fashion of the Pre-raphaelite school.

Not that he adheres very closely to the facts of his authorities, which, indeed, he often contradicts.

Guenevere,

in

her self-vindication, exclaims,

as

though she were answering her chief accuser
" Nevertheless you,
Sir

Gawaine,

lie,

Whatever may have happened all these years God knows I speak truth, saying that you lie."

But
it

in

nothing

Malory Gawain is her friend, and will have to do with the proceedings against her
after

he turns on Sir Lancelot, but his Morris not extend to the Queen. makes the last interview of Lancelot and Guenevere take place at Arthur's Tomb

is only Gareth that enmity does

the

accidental

slaughter

of

Sir

—

" So Guenevere rose

and went

to

He did not hear her coming, as On Arthur's head, till some of her
Brush'd on the new-cut stone
" ' For Arthur,

meet him he lay

there,

— 'Well
!

long hair

done

!

to pray

my

dear lord, the greatest king
'

That ever

lived.'

Guenevere

Guenevere

!

"

!

260

ARTHURIAN STOR V
Do
Your arms and
you not know me, are you gone mad? fling hair about me, lest I fear

"
'

You
1

are not Guenevere, but some other thing.' Pray you forgive me, fair Lord Lancelot

I

am

not mad, but

I

am

sick
I

;

they cling,

God's curses, into such as
"
'

am

;

not
lips.'

Ever again

shall

we twine arms and
is

In Malory the scene

at

her burial

is

the

Queen

carried

Almesbury, and not till to Glastonbury to

\/

lie

by her

lord.

In Sir Galahad, the virgin knight
saints

receives
forest

his

arms from

and angels

at

the

shrine, not in

the series

of adventures that

the old

variations

But in none of these romance recounts. is there any violence done to the feeling

of the story.

They

are the sort of variations that

might occur if a man repeated from memory something that had profoundly impressed him, and And further, into the life of which he had lived.
the imagination

thus steeped
rest

in

the spirit of the

legend

would not

satisfied

within

the limits
it

of the actual record.

Dreaming and brooding,

would inevitably pass out beyond, and delight in expanding the hints and filling in the gaps. Thus Malory says nothing of Guenevere's trial, and the How would she comquestions crowd on Morris port herself before her judges, and what plea would she urge in her defence? what associations would be stirred in her breast, when thus for a second And time she was placed in danger of the stake? what would be Lancelot's feelings and memories, what would be hers, as he rode to the Queen after Arthur's death, hoping to bear her away to his
;

1

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
castle
his

26

beyond the sea? Or again, was Galahad on maiden quest never stung with thoughts of happy or of hopeless love, and how did he receive the revelation of the Most High?

—

"In

this

way

I

"With

sleeply face bent to the chapel floor,

Kept musing half asleep, till suddenly A sharp bell rang from close behind the door, And I leapt up when something passed me by,
"Shrill ringing going with
I

it

;

still

half blind

stagger'd after, a great sense of

awe

At every step kept gathering on my mind, Thereat I have no marvel, for I saw

"One sitting on the altar as a throne, Whose face no man could say he did hot know, And though the bell still rang, he sat alone,
With raiment
"Right so
I

half blood-red, half white as snow.

fell

upon the

floor

Not
But

as one kneels in church

and knelt, when mass
I

is

said,

in a heap, quite nerveless, for
first

felt

The

time what a thing was perfect dread.

"But mightily the gentle voice came down: Rise up, and look and listen, Galahad, Good knight of God, for you will see no frown Upon my face I come to make you glad.'" 1
'

;

Thus Morris
till
it

lets

a situation
live soil

sink

into

his

heart

and yields increase of bud and leaf. Sometimes a mere name is enough. Sir Ozanna le cure hardy is an indefinite and unimportant personage who is mentioned in Malory without much circumstance, generally as one of a
quickens in the
1

Sir Galahad.

—
262

ARTHURIAN STORY
;

group

but

his

"

name-letters

the soul of Morris, and

" grow luminous to Ozana of the hardy heart

becomes the centre of the dream-like little mystery of The Chapel in Lyoness. The poet's passion has the power to evoke a phantom flowerage of romance in these latter days. Perhaps it is not quite the same

dox

It may be said without parayearning after the old sentiment is too strong to let him reproduce it with absolute truth. He crushes it to get the perfume, and distils from it an essence that is not the same as its fainter wafts of fragrance. It has " an intensity that is alien to the leisurely romance. Like Lancelot

as the real growth.

that

his

.

.

.

"

We

gaze upon the arras dizzily
the wind sets the silken kings asway."
1

Where

his

he exaggerates the defective composition of The medieval tales are often badly constructed, but as Swinburne says of King Arthur's the Tomb, " it has not been constructed at all parts hardly hold together, it has need of joists and screws, props and rafters." 2 But the characteristics of these lyrics, if they differ from the poetry of the Middle Ages in degree, are very similar in
sources.
;

And

kind.

In
1

a sense the medievalism of

Hawker (1804-

vol. Hi.),
2

Mr. Andrew Lang's Introductory Essay (Sommer's Malory, where by a slip he puts Guinevere for Lancelot.

testimony to the passion and beauty of the

where he bears eloquent poem he discusses. Of the Queen and Lancelot, he writes, "Their repentance is as real as their desire their shame lies as deep as their love."
113,
;

Essays and Studies, page

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
1875) was even

263

m ore

thorough and complete than
Morris
so
;

that of the youthful

for with

him

it

was

not attained by a conscious effort of the imagination,

but

it

formed, in
in

far

as

the
daily

thing was
life.

possible,

a matter of his habitual
his

Mr
the

Baring-Gould
was,

charming

biography

of
:

Vicar of Morwenstow} defines his position "He it must be borne in mind, an anachronism.

did not belong to this century or to this country. His mind and character pertained to the Middle This resulted from the Ages and to the East." circumstances of his life as well as from his original Presented, when still a young man, temperament. to the living of Morwenstow, he spent his days in remote villages of Cornwall, where there were many influences to strengthen and few to check his bias His pastoral work towards medieval mysticism.

He

among
"

a wild people in a wild land, the pervasive
ecclesiastical

atmosphere of
in

legend,"

the

strange

superstitions

which

many

of

his

parishioners

had

implicit

faith,

concurred to naturalise him "in
spirits,"

a visionary dream-world of

which to him
fact.

became
in

as

real as the

world of sense and
of the
crassest

He

believed in witchcraft, in the power of the evil eye,
special

providences

description.

symbolism run When his biographer exclaimed at the beauty mad. " Zig-zag, of the zig-zag moulding in his church " do you zig-zag " echoed the vicar scornfully not see that it is near the font that this moulding occurs? It is the ripple of the Lake of Gennesaret, the Spirit breathing upon the waters of
of his
utterances

Many

betray

a

:

!

;

1

London,

1876.

—
264
Baptism."
thing

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
He was
firmly convinced that " no good

comes from the West. In the primitive church they turned to the West to renounce the Devil." To him the Southern Cross was in the
most sober and Bethlehem
:

literal

sense

the

actual

Star

of

"That pentacle of Stars, the very cross That led the wise men towards the Awful Then came and stood to rule the Peaceful

Child,

Sea."

few hours before his death he was received into Roman Catholic Church. Yet, in other respects, he was very far from fulfilling the ideal of a medieval saint. He was no ascetic in his life, and was almost too liberal in catering for the meat, and for the drink, of his
the

A

poorer neighbours.
is

A
satiric

certain

secular
first
e.g.,

perceptible in the story of his

shrewdness marriage and
"

in

many

of his

sayings,

Conceit

is

the compensation afforded by benignant nature for

His robust jocularity, in its mental deficiency." proximity to other very different qualities, rather as when he runs away takes one's breath away from school singing his grandfather's favourite hymn, Lord, Dismiss us with Thy Blessing ; or, for a practical joke, lets loose a whole tribe of pigs or
;
;

plays the

merman

in

the sea to the consternation
sacred.

of the
times
as

rustics.

This love of comedy intrudes even

on the domain that he held most
it

Some-

assumes the form of playful mystification, when he went to ecclesiastical antiquities for
explanation
it

an

of

his

eccentric

dress.

Somewould
be

times

comes

perilously

near

what

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES A T HOME
irreverence in another man, as
cats

265

when he takes his church and excommunicates one of them for eating a mouse on Sunday. Such was the man who, six years before Tennyson, undertook to sing the Quest of the Sangj'aal. Cherishing the Cornish traditions, and among them the tradition of Arthur, living in an atmosphere of medieval belief, he could not avoid being attracted
to

by the theme

;

and

in

many

respects

it

seems

made for him. Its mystic symbolism appealed to him as perhaps it could appeal to no other poet
of the

nineteenth
in

century

;

the

man who found

meaning
this.

a zig-zag ornament could not but feel

was a depth of unexplored meaning in as to what the meaning is, he is not very explicit. Of course, this is partly due to the
that there

But

abrupt termination of his
not without
its

poem
for

;

but even that

is

significance,

hindered by death, leaves his

when a man, unwork a fragment, it

shows that
spirit

at the

of

it.

And

time he was not entirely in the indeed there were reasons why
it

Hawker should
of witchcraft

find

difficult to

proceed.

It

was

hardly given to a
to

man who
translate
it

believed in the fables
into

the quest

modern

thought, or to bring

home

as a thing that con-

cerns ourselves. Nor was it easy for the eccentric, whose incurable humour would crop up in the most
unlikely places, perfectly to mirror the ascetic medieval

conception. Yet what masculine force and what mystical fervour breathe in the fragment as
it

stands
"
{

!

Ho

for the Sangraal,

vanished vase of Heaven,

That held

like Christ's

own

heart an hin of blood

:

— ——— —
266

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
Ho
for the Sangraal
! '

How

the merry shout

Of reckless riders on the rushing steed Smote the loose echo from the drowsy rock Of grim Dundagel, throned along the sea."

Then Arthur,
to the
"

the son of Uter and the Night, turns mighty-moulded fellows of the Table
for the Sangraal, vanished vase of

Ho

God
Jew

!

Ye know
Pilate the

that in old days, that yellow
;

Accursed Herod

Or else Bound Jesu-master
Slowly to
die.

and the earth-wide judge, doomster for all lands— the judgment had not been for all

Roman

;

to the world's tall tree
sirs,

— Ha,
cleft

had we been there
to the chine
!

They

durst not have assayed their felon deed,

Excalibur had

them

Slowly he died, a world in every pang, Until the hard centurion's cruel spear

Smote his high heart and from that severed side Rushed the red stream that quenched the wrath of
:

heaven.

Then came

Sir Joseph, hight of Arimathie,
!

Bearing that awful vase the Sangraal

The vessel of the Pasch, Shere Thursday night, The self-same cup wherein the faithful wine Heard God, and was obedient unto blood
;

Therewith he knelt, and gathered blessed drops From his dear Master's side that sadly fell, The ruddy dews from the great tree of life What treasures like the priceless gems Sweet Lord Hid in the tawny casket of a king A ransom for an army one by one That wealth he cherished long his very soul
:
! !

;

!

:

Around

his ark

:

bent as before a shrine.

He
The

dwelt in Orient Syria, God's
ladder-foot of

own land
down
!

:

Heaven

— where

shadowy shapes

In white apparel glided up and

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
His home was
like a garner, full of corn
oil
:

26j

And wine and

a granary of God.
out

Young men, that no one knew, went in and With a far look in their eternal eyes.
All things were strange

and

rare

;

the Sangraal

As though it clung to some Brought down high Heaven

ethereal chain
to earth at Arimathie."

Arthur goes on to tell how it came to Britain and passed thence when the land was tainted with the "garbage of sin"; but it is to be achieved once more, and who will attempt it ? Lots are drawn Sir Lancelot must go north Sir Percivale, south and Sir Galahad, Sir Tristram, west
; ; ; ;

east.
"

Now

feast

and

festival in Arthur's hall

:

Hark, stern Dundagel softens into song They meet for solemn severance, Knight and King, Where gate and bulwark darken o'er the sea. Strong men for meat and warriors at the wine, They wreak the wrath of hunger on the beeves, They rend rich morsels from the savoury deer,
!

And quench
Hear
!

the flagon like Brunguillie dew.
the minstrels prophesy in sound,

how

Shout the King's waeshael, and drinkhael the Queen."

This splendid fragment is in the end so hastilyhuddled to a conclusion, that it is rash to conjecture what it might have been. But one cannot help feeling that the vase is taken too dogmatically and without sufficient breadth of view that when only four knights go out for it, a good deal of the deeper significance is lost for ourselves while the elder significance, whether of the Percivale or the Galahad version, is not retained and that,
;

;

;

—
;

268

ARTHURIAN STORY

with the defect of meaning for our own day, the mystical and the heroic are not very well har-

These burly knights that " wreak their hunger on the beeves," are they the fellowship which sends out questers for the vanished vase of God, amidst its heavenly guardians " with
monised.

wrath

of

the

far

look

in

their

eternal
it

eyes

" ?

Hawker
Tennyson

himself

recognised

that

was

rather

to give the Arthurian form and genuine immortality. Already in 1859 he presaged the event in a poem to Tennyson on the earlier Idylls

than he

who was

elected

stories their ultimate

"

told me in their shadowy phrase Caught from a tale gone by, That Arthur king of Cornish praise Died not and would not die

They

!

"

Dreams had

they, that in fairy
lies
;

bowers

Their living warrior

Or wears a garland
That grow
"
I

of the flowers
!

in Paradise

read the

And

thus the

Rune with deeper ken myth I trace
:

A
"

bard should

rise,

midst future

men

The
!

mightiest of his race.

He — would great Arthur's name rehearse On gray Dundagel's shore And so the king in laurelled verse
;
!

Shall live,

and die no more." 1 of King Arthur number of poems on kindred

One
was
to

effect
call

of this resurrection
forth

a

subjects

by minor
J

writers,

most of which are dead

R. S. Hawker's Poetical Works, 1879.

;

—
269

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
that would have entitled

and forgotten, though a few of them had merits them to live, but for the achievements of Tennyson and his principal conSometimes they took for their theme temporaries. matter which the laureate had not yet treated, and which it did not appear from the early Idylls that A favourable specimen of he intended to treat. this class is Arthurs Knights, published anonymously in 1859, which deals with the quest of the Grail and the ruin of the order and the land, brought The tone of the about by the sin of the questers. poem, which is written in various measures, may be illustrated by the passage describing the home
of Lancelot's childhood.
"

Deep in the Bretagne forest lands The enchanted lake doth lie,

And there the fairy palace stands Where all my youth went by.
Beneath the towers, all the day We heard the water swell Sometimes from very far away Sounds of the real world fell, The trumpet proud or the bugle gay Or the sound of a chapel bell."

Occasionally
the

these

poets

elaborate

suggestions
in

that Tennyson's Idylls

had supplied.

Thus Gordon,
his

poet

of

the

Australian

race-course,

Rhyme of Joyous Garde
of Lancelot, a

(1868), depicts the remorse motif that lay very near his own
its

noble nature in

moments of insurgent
slept with the slain

regret.

"Would God
Or

I

had

men

long

ever the heart conceiv'd a wrong

That the innermost soul abhorred

— —
270

—

AR THURIAN STOR Y
Or ever these
lying lips were strained

To her lids pearl-tinted and purple-vein'd, Or ever those traitorous kisses stained The snows of her spotless forehead."
" If ever
If
I

I

smote as a

man

should smite,

struck one stroke that seem'd good in
loving mercy prevailing,

Thy

sight,

By Thy
Lord
!

let

her stand in the light of

Thy

face,

Cloth'd with

Thy

love

and crown'd with Thy grace,
1

When
That

I

gnash
is
fill'd

my

teeth in the terrible place

with weeping and wailing."

Sometimes those

who have caught
style,

a

breath

of

Tennyson's manner and

anticipate his

treat-

ment of a subject that belongs to the series of the Idylls. Thus the Tristram and Iseult of F. Millard
(1870) has occasional lines with something of the Tennysonian ring, as when he accounts for Tristram's marriage

"His
Dwelt
in the dreary

old love

chambers of his brain And made the seeming faithful inly false"

or when he

tells

how

Iseult of Ireland fled

through

the corridors and vast chambers,
" Until she

Crouch'd

like

saw her other baser self a hound before a little door."

And
"

there are

many

descriptions of the

same

type,

as the following
Twice twenty days they wandered on the last Footsore and fainting, o'er a withered heath Which seemed the world-end, they beheld the sun
:

1

A. L. Gordon's Poems.

1887.

:

:

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
Wrapped
in

271

a ghastly veil of thin-drawn mist,
;

Slope slowly westward

as his last

damp

rays,

That gleamed like embers in a dying fire, Sank in the vapour, suddenly a vale Dark, deep and woody, yawned before their feet the chill night Into the which they stumbled
:

Struck like a palsy through their sluggish veins."

1

most remarkable of such minor conis the Farewell of Ganore byMr. G. A. Simcox, published in 1 869.2 It begins by describing the final leave-taking between Lancelot and the Queen, and in this respect, as well as in its peculiar colouring, suggests the poem on King Arthurs Tomb by William Morris. Lancelot has pronounced the words that put them asunder
far the

By

tributions,

however,

" Trembling he spoke

and looking up at her But she stood upright, looking far away With a hot glory on her golden head Her scarcely sunken cheek was flushed full fair Not at his words, but at the fierce sun ray."
;

But the respective
the
lovers

roles
in

which
this

Morris

assigns
it

are

reversed

poem,

for

is

whose remorse demands their and Ganore interprets his penitence as his professed devotion. She has always after utter unquestioning love, and has
Lancelot
tained
it

severance,

a flaw in

hungered
never ob-

either from the king or the knight.

The

characters of both of these are
gestions

conceived on sugIdylls.
" I

with

the

from Tennyson's early unquenchable impulse,
3

Lancelot needs must

Tristram and

fseult, F.

Millard.

1870.

2

Poems and Romances.

;

272

ARTHURIAN STORY

break these bonds that so defame me," 1 and the aspirations that will not let him rest till he die "a holy man"; Arthur embodying a "passionless
perfection,"
u

Rapt

in this

fancy of his Table Round,
impossible,
:

And swearing men to vows To make them like himself
neither

"

2

of them

could
for

understand
infinite

or

satisfy

her her

imperious
life
is

need

an

affection,

and

unfulfilled.
I

"

asked of Arthur what he could not give, gave what Lancelot could not repay My God, what shall I say? And Arthur asked of me To live in dreams, hoping what shall not be, And Arthur asked in vain.
I
;

Because we asked, how many have been Wilt Thou require their blood of me?

slain

!

And

Lancelot
I

is

parted

now

in pain

Because

am
I

less sorrowful

than he
. .

And

still

could have been happy out of Thee.

.

How

shall

complain

That Arthur loved too little, I too much, That Lancelot's hot love shrivelled at the touch

Of Thy

disdain
I

?

Doubtless

might have striven against the stream,

He
But

Labouring to live in Arthur's knightly dream might have folded me in arms of love More closely though his eyes were set above."

these

are

vain

regrets,

and now

it

is

less

sorrow for the woes that she has caused, than the feeling of her great solitariness that stupifies her heart
1

Lancelot

and

Elaine, 1409.

2

I&id. 129.

;

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
"

273

'

find no passionate true word to say But only this unmeaning cuckoo cry, Alone until I die "
I
!

'

She gets leave of the
out by herself on
till

religious

sisterhood

to

set

a

pilgrimage,
hillside,

she reaches a steep

and wanders on which she climbs

almosMat unawares.
" The dreamy queen went fingering At reddening berries and at fading flowers, Kissing them often as she wandered on In happy memory of those early hours, Unclouded by the grim dreams of the king, When she and Lancelot had often gone Together in glad lowland woods in May."

length

she gains the

height

from

which

she

"A
Then
at her left

great lake glow,
.

In azure set between two golden hills

.

.

Ganore espied a crone Branded as bondmaid of the Holy Grail, Who wore her white hair woven for a veil, Crowned with gold rays, for she too was a queen, And sat upon the black coils of a snake, And her blue feet hung down in the blue lake Nailed to an iron cross, but did not bleed And backwards she was spelling out a creed. But higher up she saw a white flock feed, And upon each there were three locks of red,

And

in the figure of a cross they fed Their shepherd was a boy in gay attire
:

Of many

colours, with a crook of gold

;

He

lay as haply fifteen

summers

old

;

But where

his face should be, there

was a

fire,

Whence came

a carolling
s

how

the stars should pale

Before the radiance of the Holy Grail,"

—
274

"

'

ARTHURIAN STORY
old
"

The

queen points to Ganore, and
lad,

calls to

the

shepherd
'

Wilt thou not take her captive to the Grail But from the fire there came a sighing wail 'How can I, for her love is crucified?'"

?

:

up the hill in despair, but one Its and seeks her side. wool becomes red and her hand becomes red when
this
flees

At

Ganore

sheep

leaves

the

flock

she touches

it.

It

is

her guide

through desolate
side,

and toilsome

tracts

up the mountain
till

over a

moor

beset
:

with treacherous pools,

she comes

to the sea
"

And on

the sands a

little

shalop lay,
oar,

Ready to float upon the ebb to sea, Wherein was neither anchor, helm, or
But one
fair sail of

purple wrought with gold,
little

And
'

in the sheets

a

Wherein a

scroll in silver

crimson fold words to say:

For the espousals of the Queen Ganore.'

"

She ventures on board, and sits down with the patient firstling of the magic flock" on her knee, sweetly resting as the night comes down. Thus the Farewell of Ganore, though it starts with suggestions from Tennyson, proceeds in a style But it is not that belongs to the author alone. the only poem that he has written on an Arthurian His Gawain and the Lady of Avalon is subject. a finer piece, and in it he works in complete independence of Tennyson on a subject which Tennyson
never touched.

The

ballad on the marriage of Sir

Gawain

supplies the ground-work on which are

woven

the stories of the beauty transformed into a monster,

of the fairy lady

who

grants her love for a time

;

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
to

275

earth-born men, and of the immortal stranger whose name must not be asked. Arthur's kingdom is harassed with drought and the depredations of a dragon, when a wandering damsel comes to his court, and claims the fulfilment of an old pledge that he shall wed her to one of his knights.
"

The dew was on her raven

hair

And

her blue glistering eye
the land was dry

No
And

dust on foot or ankle bare,
all
:

Though

every knight was ready there
with her or die."
in

To wed

But when they hear that she dwells

the wilder-

ness in the den of the dragon their faces

and

their

ardour cools.

She
let it

puts
remain.

grow pale her hand in

Gawain's,

who
To
She

chooses to
them
'

" (He) bade

call the

holy priest

knit the twain in one.
I

said,

keep

my

marriage-feast
as she ceased
. .

Not

here, at Avalon.'
all

None knew why
Trembled
"
'

men

in Caerleon.

.

The dragon's
Will light

scales of

woven

glass
;

my

banquet well
bell,

Iscariot will sing the mass,

And Pilate toll the And all my marriage
Over the mouth of
"

guests will pass
Hell.'

....
;

She kissed

Sir

Gawain on the mouth,
to the South,

He

kissed her on the hand

Then she departed

Between the sea and sand,
Leaving behind a bitter drouth On all King Arthur's land."

276

ARTHURIAN STORY
of

in due time sets out, and reaches the Grammarie, where, by a leaden sea, a tower of granite rises on a meadow blood-red with

Gawain

land

wild wind-flowers.
"

Thereon went many quick and dead And some who do not die Each wore a garland on the head,
;

Each laughed within

the eye

;

No flower was bent beneath their No dewy leaf brushed dry."

tread,

Then comes
the marriage

the weird horror of the marriage and
feast.

the guests are there, but the bride

be seen,

Suddenly only the knight and is nowhere to and, amid the revelry and song, Gawain
by

" Felt the dragon sliding

And

heard the lady's voice."

Another moment, and all else has vanished except Fairy Queen, and Gawain, laying his hand on her knee, looks in her face and wonders that it is not the dragon that he sees. But his
the lovely
delight
is

not for long

:

"

The moon above

the misty sea
fire,

Hung

like

a globe of

Whereby Gawain a hag might
In ghastly gay attire,

see

Whose
With

wrinkled face flushed horribly
jubilant desire.

"He knew her, He gave to

for she held the hand one more fair; He knew her by the magic band His lady used to wear, With jewels from an unknown hand

Bound

in her raven hair."

'

—
277

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME

But Gawain remembers his plighted word, and the morning sees her restored to more than her old
beauty.
"

and hideous for him. He fears a snare in the dilemma, and, refusing to choose, bids her, " Use your own gentle will." She praises him, and promises him that all will be as he desires when he adds the fatal words, that he knows not yet his " lady's lovesome name."
;

"

The

colours of the dragon's mail
:

Flashed in the dewy grass

The
4

lady's face flushed red
I

and pale

;

And

had hoped,

alas

!

That thou should'st rend the brazen And loose the bonds of glass.
"
'

vail

Ah, woe

is

And

I

me, it may not be, have loved thee so
!

But henceforth thou shalt never see My footprints when I go To wake the flowers upon the lea

Below thy courtly breath, About the bonny bride ye won For whom Hell hungereth But come no more to Avalon, For that will be thy death.'
;

"

Low fell the veil of woven brass On heavy eyelids bound On folded hands the bonds of glass
:

Clanked
•

softly without

sound

:

And

Gawain beheld her pass Over the dewy ground."
so

Meanwhile, after 1870, the number of Arthurian falls off. By that year Tennyson had given his Idylls their connected form, and by

poems decidedly

He had 1872 the series was practically complete. taken the whole cycle for his province, arid, as in such cases might is right, his achievement tended
.

to
his

warn
own.

off intruders

from the domain he had made

Nevertheless, in one respect his procedure

invited

supplements.

He

had

not

been

able

to

read unity into the ill-compacted mass of Malory's

compilation without incurring a
the inestimable gain.
It

little loss

as price for

was necessary for him to

trim and dock the luxuriance of adventure, in
chaplet
;

many an
its

illustrious
in

order

to

fit

it

for

place

his

so that

some of the

elder branches of the

in so far as they were independent stories, to receive hard treatment at his hands. There was, therefore, an opportunity

romance were neglected, or seemed,

for

other poets to take

them

as separate subjects.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
complete
in

279

own
to

merits.

this
it

handle them on their Mr. Simcox represents the transition phase of Arthurian poetry, which arises,
themselves, and

His Farewell were, in reaction from the Idylls. of Gcmore begins by elaborating hints that he found in Elaine and Guifievere ; his story of the Lady
as

of Avalon is based on a ballad that Tennyson But the reaction was soon to be left unused.
exemplified by a more famous poet in his treatment
of a

of Arthurian

more famous theme. In the case of no branch romance has Tennyson's unavoidable pruning been more cruel than in the story of Tristram, in which, besides following Malory instead of .the finer versions, he leaves out a number even It was worth while to treat of Malory's beauties. the legend for its own sake, and to rescue it from
the necessary defacement
a
larger
it underwent as portion of and perhaps it was in part a of the injustice it had sustained feeling that 1882 to compose the stimulated Swinburne in gorgeous poetry of Tristram of Lyonesse which

whole

;

—
a

is

in

all

respects

at

the opposite pole the
old

from the

corresponding idyll of The Last -Tournament.
It

was

impossible
or
fitted

for

love-romance

to

find

among

English-speaking
unprejudiced

men

more

sympathetic

interpreter.

None

was better
passion,
in
" literature,"
1

to do justice to its pathos and abandonment to the charms of the and undeterred by scruples about the

dogma."

Wisely he has kept close to the better
type,

medieval

only

curtailing

the

more

tedious

and

irrelevant

passages,

and

fixing

on the

scenes as the texts for his lyrical disquisition.

main For

—
280
he neither
of

ARTHURIAN STORY
tells,

nor
tale.

aims at

telling,

a swift and

straightforward

He

takes the chief

moments

the

history,

variety

of

and plays on them with endless melody and movement. Those who
will

look for an epic narrative will be disappointed, but
there
is amends if they symphony in verse.

listen

to an emotional

Swinburne has so keen a

feeling for the

changing

moods of the romance, and enters into each of them with such thorough abandon, that its various
aspects
are

emphasised
chief

in

turn
to

as

though they
considered.

were

the

or

the

sole

be
is

Sometimes a
out of place

little

more
is

reticence

would

not

be

when sensuous

passion

the theme,

and the imagination
descriptions of

apt to

become cloyed with
"

how
Her mouth
l

Was
^

as a rose athirst that pants for drouth,
it

Even while

laughs for pleasure of desire."

But these passages are perhaps poetically justified as furnishing the contrast between the short violence of the delight, and the weary time of regret and " Ye light washing weeds," says Tristram, desolation.
" Blind waifs of the dull sea,

ye so thirst, and hunger, and aspire, Are ye so moved, and with such strong desire In the ebb and flow of your sad life, and strive
Still

Do

toward some end ye shall not see alive
at high

But

noon ye know
till

it

by

light

and heat
beat

Some

half-hour,

ye

feel the fresh tide

Up
1

round you, and at night's most bitter noon The ripples leave you naked to the moon?" 2
Tristram of Lyoncsse,
II.

-Ibid. III.

1

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
It is

28

a forlorn view of

life,

which takes as

its

motto
height-

" brief joy,

long sorrow," and fhe tragedy

is

The death of the lovers ened by the irony of it. is brought about by that Iseult whom they thought they could afford to neglect, and on whom they
never spent a thought.
" Nought,
is
it

nought,

O

husband,

O my

knight,

O

strong man, and indomitable in fight,

That one more weak than foam-bells on the sea Should have in heart such thoughts as I of thee? Thou art bound about with stately strengths for bands What strength shall keep thee from my strengthless hands?" 1
;

Yet in another sense their lot is less tragic than happy they pass away before their love has lost the bloom, when it is still all in all to them, and leaves no room for fear or doubt.
;

*'

Death

shall not take

them drained

of true dear
strife,

life

Already, sick or stagnant from the

Quenched

:

not with dry-drawn veins and lingering breath

Shall these through crumbling hours crouch
Swift, with

down

to death.

one strong clean

leap, ere life's pulse tire,

Most

like the leap of lions or of fire
:

Sheer death shall bound upon them one pang past Their first keen sense of him shall be their last, Their last shall be no sense of any fear." 2

conclusion is such consolation, as can be drawn from a naturalistic Pantheism. They sink into the rest of the universal life and become " a portion of the loveliness, which once they made more lovely." The close of the poem leaves them, their dust, their
1

The

Tristram of Lyonesse, VII.

"Ibid. VI.

—
282

ARTHURIAN STORY
land
of
their

tomb, the
tossed-^

sojourning,

engulfed
sported

in

the waves on which

they had

once

and

" Peace they have that none

may

gain

who
shall

live,

And And
The
It is

rest

about them that no love can give,
life

over them while death and
light

be
sea."
1

and sound and darkness of the

the return to the unvexed, harmonious process

of Nature, which Tristram elsewhere describes more
fully
"

The
"

and more mystically as the " great good wizard

fate

of Merlin.

Takes

his strange rest at heart of slumberland,

More deep asleep in green Broceliande Than shipwrecked sleepers in the soft green
;

sea

Beneath the weight of wandering waves but he Hath for those roofing waters overhead Above him always all the summer spread

Or

all

the winter wailing

:

or the sweet
feet,

Late leaves marked red with autumn's burning Or withered with his weeping, round the seer
•

Rain, and he sees not, nor

may heed

or hear

The

witness of the winter

:

but in spring

He hears above him all the winds on wing Through the blue dawn between the brightening boughs, And on shut eyes and slumber-smitten brows Feels ambient change in the air and strengthening sun, And knows the soul that was his soul at one With the ardent world's, and in the spirit of earth
His
spirit of life

reborn to mightier birth
life

And mixed
With

with things of elder

than ours

;

and kindling lamps of flowers, And sweep and song of winds, and fruitful light Of sunbeams, and the far faint breath of night,
cries of birds,
1

Tristram of Lyon esse, IX.

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
And waves and woods
Soft as at

283

and in all, at morning noon the slow sea's rise and fall, He hears in spirit a song that none but he Hears from the mystic mouth of Nimue Shed like a consecration and his heart Hearing is made for love's sake as a part Of that far singing, and the life thereof
;

;

Part of that

life

that feeds the world with love."

l

This view colours the whole story, and gives the
passion

of

the
so

lovers

a

background
It
is

of

physical

though not unkindly
difference,
far

fate.

constitutes the great

as

the conception

concerned,

between Swinburne and his medieval predecessors. Where they laid stress merely on Tristram's surrender
feeling

to

the
it

obligation

of love, without

clearly

needed an excuse, with Swinburne the episode of the philtre becomes the beginning and end of the plot, nor are we ever suffered to forget it. The blame is thus, as with Wagner, shifted from the guiltless delinquents and whatever may be said of the ethical or even the artistic justification of such a contrivance, its immediate effect is to leave our sympathy and respect for the
that
:

helpless victims of love undisturbed.
cally,

Characteristi-

one of the

finest

passages in the

poem

is

that

which deals with the drinking of the love-draught. Nowhere does Swinburne show more mastery than in his contrast between the sane, innocent strength and loyalty of the pair, the bright girlishness of Iseult, the simple heroism of Tristram before the draught, their delight in danger and effort and storm and their delirious joy when they
;

1

Tristram of Lyonesse, VI.

284

ARTHURIAN STORY

have drunk from " the sinless source of all their 1 sin " and its fire is coursing through their veins. Thus the old romance, as a separate piece, has received from Swinburne the most sympathetic and genial interpretation. But that interpretation would be impossible to reconcile with the idea of the Arthurian stone? as a whole, in the only form in which the idea is true for this age and Tennyson had to sacrifice a beauty of detail, a beauty moreover which is somewhat out of his line, for a larger beauty congenial to his whole nature. And this was not an isolated case. In at least one other instance the general scope of the Idylls foreclosed for the poet a very promising path. The view according to which there was a Merlin, an historical personage, a partisan of the Druid cult, who, on the overthrow of his party, retired in
;

despair to the

wood

of Caledon,

is

obviously

full

of poetical
by.

matter.

And
of

it

has not been passed
in the

Professor John
antiquities

Veitch, whose interest

traditional
itself in

the

Border
has
also

has

shown

history and criticism,
original
verse.

celebrated

His lines on the Cymric and true are his sympathies with the ancient race, and how he is penetrated with the memories of their haunts, where now the more stubborn, but not more gifted, Saxon
in

them

Town show how

fine

dwells.

The passage is too long to quote, and must not be membered in extracts. See Book I., from the line,
1

dis-

"And
to the end.

while they sat at speech as at a feast,"

;

;

TENNYSON'S CONTEMPORARIES AT HOME
"

285

Tis the place of the Cymric town On the high and airy hill The green o'er its ruined mounds,
Its

once living voices

still.

" Shapeless the

homes where they

lived,

Shapeless the cairns of their dead

Sun God
But ye

!

thrill

ye gleam as of yore, not the mouldering head

!

"The

bees

hum

low

in the heather,
;

The

old tune the waters keep

But nerveless the eager ear, Nought breaks on the dreamless

sleep.

"

Sweet music flows in each name They gave to the wavy hill, The haugh and the gleaming stream, And the rushing mountain rill.

" Garlet, Garlavan, Caerdon,

Ye speak of their ancient time Penvenna, Trahenna, Traquair, Ye
fall

;

with a mystic chime.

" Theirs Talla,

Manor, and Fruid, Drummelzier foaming in speed And streams to be famous in story, Yarrow, Teviot, and Tweed.
;

"

The height and the might of the The depth of the misty glen, The roaring wind and the flood Were dear to the Cymric men.
one great power was
in
all,

hill,

"And

The spirit of shade and gleam, That made his peace with the eve And woke in the morning beam.

—
286
"

;

"

ARTHURIAN STOR V
By
the caer are the ancient graves,
airy height
;

On this high and No lowlier tomb for
Than This

the Cymri
!

the eagle sweeps in his flight

x

idea of the Briton's pantheistic brotherhood with nature he incarnates in the woodland Merlin,

he associates with the scenes that he and to whom he recurs again and again, and in all his volumes of verse. Now he questions the Grey Stone on Dollar Law
describes,

whom

—
?

"

Dost thou mark the sacred
fell,

spot,

Where Merlin
As on

the poet seer,

the mountain solitudes
flitted past,

He
"Ah!

a form of fear

well he lov'd the Powsail Burn, Ah, well he lov'd the Powsail Glen
his fountain clear,
2

And there beside He sooth'd the

frenzy of his brain."

he pictures the sage in his mantle, marked Druidic signs, and rent and torn like his heart, brooding apart on " the dark unspoken secret of the world "
with
blood-red

Now

"By fountain, stream, And tree, he dwells, as nature-forms of God, And on the gray stone circle of the hill He sits and eyes the burning sun complete
His daily round
;

Ghosts of the mountain mutter in mine ear Sea-birds, sky-borne aye clang it on my brain The bard dishonoured, worthless priest extolled, The kingless Cymri trampled on the plain, Blood-spilling from the sea to shoreless land, Their caers all desolate on the windy hills, Haunted by wailing spirits of the dead This powerless I behold in my despair." 1
:

With
is

this

poem we

return

to

Tennyson

;

for

it

interesting to note,

and

is

interest

of the

subject, that

an indication of the in the same year in

which it appeared, the author of the Idylls, turning from the versions he had hitherto employed,
resorted
to
this

variant
British
1

for

his

final

poem
little

in

connection

with

legend,
etc., 1889.

the

lyric

Merlin,

288

ARTHURIAN STORY
and The Gleam.
production.

piece of Merlin

aftermath of his
ation

But this His genuine
tradition

is

the

inspir-

was derived Romance. 1
1

not

from

but

from

When

a procession has gone past, the street boys
turning summersaults

may be
in

seen leaping the barriers and
rear,

the

Behind the procession of Arthurian literature come the Yankee at the Court of King Arthur, and The New King Arthur. In the opinion of the present writer they are unworthy alike of their subjects and their authors, and being without even the humble merits of good parody or burlesque, are not to be described The mention of them in a foot-note as literature at all. seems sufficient.
but this does not form part of the function.

CHAPTER

VI

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET

HPWENTY
new
great

years

ago,

when

the

Idylls

gloss

of a

connected

whole,

they

wore the were

sometimes described and admired as forming a " Epic of Arthur." 1 But epical they obviously are not, and it is now the fashion in somequarters to compare them unfavourably in this
respect
in

with

Malory's
its

story,

which,
2

we

are
is

told,

them

" loses

epic

grandeur, and
seeing
in

broken
school
" little

up
of

into a series of petty miniatures."
criticism

One
them
a

goes
3

further,

beyond
epical

dexterity,

a

rare

eloquence,

laborious

patience of hand,"
merit,

but
is

and would deny them not only any transcendent merit at all.

Such, however,

hardly the general view.
Malory's

Among

ordinary readers Tennyson's Idylls are a great deal

more
epical

read

or not, they contain
I

them, as
1

romance, and whether something that makes believe, the most widely beloved of all
than
article in the

This is the title and the attitude of an burgh Review, April, 1870.
2 3

Edin-

E. Rhys, Introduction to

King Arthur.
T

Camelot
\

Series.

]

Swinburne, Essays and Studies, page 115.

290
the
at

ARTHURIAN STORY
poet's
least

longer works.

The popular
Tennyson
in

verdict

is

worth
poet
for

considering.

was
of
its

the
pre-

favourite
qualities

of

his

time

virtue

certain

of his genius, and the public in
the
Idylls

ference

has probably fixed on the

work in which these qualities have fullest play This would not necessarily and freest expression.

mean
poetry

that
;

they

are

the

best

it

would

mean

that

specimens of his they are the most

characteristic.

In estimating the achievement of a writer, it is sometimes useful to determine the period to which that achievement peculiarly belongs. In Tennyson's case it may be roughly described as extending from the appearance of the volume of 1842 to the appearance of Gareth and Lynette in 1872. Before the former year, despite the excellence of many previous pieces, he was still winning his way to note. After the latter year, though several of his finest poems were yet to be composed, he was chiefly occupied with new, and not wholly successful, experiments in dramatic writing. But for the thirty years within these dates he was practically the supreme English poet, without rival
in national

recognition.

Now
period
chiefly

these

years

correspond
tranquil

generally

with
in

a

of

secure

and

movement

the

history of the country.

The calm was

interrupted

by a few

distant wars, of which those in the

Crimea and in suppression of the Indian Mutiny were the chief, a few commercial crises that did not affect the general course of prosperity, a few social outbreaks of which none was really dangerous.

TENNYSON AS AR THURIAN FOE T
But
it

2g I

calm of stagnation. New were being developed: the general temper of thought was becoming more genial and tolerant a gentle course of reform, which perhaps left the hardest problems untouched, was pursued by constitutional means without violence or hurry, but also without pause. The close

was

not

the

aptitudes

for

refinement

;

of the period brings us to another state of things.

The Franco-German war
England
as

affected

the position

of

Bolder specuEuropean power. lations, philosophic and social, both of Englishmen and foreigners, began to tell on the public mind.
a

of the Irish Church, measures that have been before the country may be described both by their friends and foes as more drastic in character than those that preceded them. In short, more troublous and vehement years have come.

Since

the

disestablishment

the

political

It

is

the brighter aspects of the previous period

that have passed into Tennyson's verse.

Whatever

they possessed of ordered calm, of tempered hope, of reconciling culture, was congenial to the nature
of the
refined

man.
in

All
life

that

is

seemly,

gracious,

and

the

of the English gentry and the

English Church was gathered up in the stock from which he sprung, and enfolded the home of his early years. The same influences were round him at the university, where he lived in an atmosphere of noble memories and liberal thought, amid a group
In the after of kindred spirits with kindred tastes. years he held aloof from the town with its clamour of jostling
lack
life

and jarring views, but
with
the

of sympathy

higher

this from no mind of the

—
292
nation.
to

ARTHURIAN STORY
And
the nation in
all
its

ranks delighted

do him honour. His poems became household words, and pension, laureateship, and peerage were the well-merited rewards bestowed on him by the Queen and her statesmen. But all this did not tempt him from his refined retreat, where, amid J the cherished sanctities of friendship and home, he I unfolded " the white flower of a blameless life." His lines on Hallam are applicable to himself
"

High nature amorous

of the good,
;

But touch'd with no ascetic gloom And passion pure in snowy bloom
Thro'
"
all

the years of April blood
felt,

;

A

love of freedom rarely

Of freedom in her regal seat Of England not the schoolboy The blind hysterics of the Celt." l
;

heat,

It

was natural that
first

this

pure,

tranquil

culture

should

domain of style. It was the point in which Tennyson could show his originality as compared with his predecessors. It was his sense of technic that was the distinctive " Just as Pope gave the note of his early verse. finishing artistic touch to the poetry of wit and rhetoric which came in with the Restoration, so Tennyson gave the finishing artistic touch to the romantic poetry that came in with the French Revolution." 2 Few English poets have had so keen
reveal itself in the
1

In Memoriam,

cix.

The

quotations from Tennyson are

taken from the single volume edition of his collected works,

Macmillan
2 I

&

Co., 1893.
is

think this

a remark of Mr. E. C. Stedman's.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET

293

Few have had a higher a feeling for their art. standard of workmanship or been more rigorous in Few have been so lynx-eyed their self-criticism. for the smallest suggestions of phrase, or more unwearied and ubiquitous in the pursuit of them. It
.is

the search for this exquisite catholicity of style

that appears already in the annotations to the

by two Brothers in
it

that characterises

Poems 1827; it is the attainment of the volume of 1830, in which

perhaps there is not much else that is characteristic. It may have been the attention to expression as
expression,
at the time.
little interest,

when the content was occasionally of that excited so much adverse criticism
to

*

But Tennyson was soon more than a virtuoso in
thorough an
lay
in
artist

diction.

show himself much He was too

to suppose that the soul of art

by itself, any more than in the subject by itself, and not in the relation of the matter to the form. In the volumes of 1833 and and 1842 he again gives proof of his eclectic range, but now by his wide choice of subjects, each of them presented with the beauty appropriate to itself. The Lady of Shalott, The LotosEaters, The May Queen, Sir Galahad, Ulysses, Locksley Hall, are only a few among the crowd of master-pieces. Whether he deals with the modern or the medieval or the antique, he invariably clothes worthy thoughts in noble words.
the form

In

truth
heir of

his
all

culture,

which

in

one sense made

him

him a large stock of ideas and feelings to arrange and order in his artistic presentment. He knew and loved the
the ages, gave

—
2y4
classics,

ARTHURIAN STORY

he knew and loved the Middle Ages, nor away from present problems of thought and society and morals. His manifold material and his composite manner, the discrepancy of his elements and his skill in assorting them, are well illustrated in The Princess, A Medley, published in where he "moves as in a strange 1847, diagonal," not only between the Serious and the Burlesque. This poem gathers up the scattered
did he turn
traits

of his previous miscellanies.

In theme

it

is

academies and polities,, and half medieval, dealing with knighthood and chivalry in feeling it is wholly modern, and is occupied with the new questions of female emancihalf antique,

dealing with

;

pation and the relations
u

of

man and woman
ladies' rights,

A

Gothic ruin and a Grecian house,
talk of college

A A

and of

feudal knight in silken masquerade,
'

And, yonder, shrieks and strange experiments."

Perhaps there is no such delightful farrago, of and wisdom in the English language, unless It has it be the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia. charm, the incoherent coherence of all the magic And then, in its final form, the a sweet dream. fantastic story is broken and interrupted, saucily, inappropriately, and beautifully by sparkling little jets of melody that have nothing to do with the
jest

subject.

But
effort

in

this

first

attempt at a lengthy work,
that
in

it

cannot but
to

be

noticed
his
1

Tennyson makes no
the crucible of fer-

fuse

material

The

Princess, Prologue.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
vid passion or

295

consuming thought.

The

parts are

an elaborate mosaic, not amalgamated in a single molten stream. Of course they are not intended to be, and those must be ill to please who cannot enjoy what the poet gave, on the ground that it is not something else. At the same time there is a loftier level of different composition, where the materials are exhibited not as isolated strata but organically And Tennyson's related as parts of a whole. inferiority in this kind would appear if he endeavoured to compose a poem in the higher style. His In Memoriam, published in 1850, was undoubtedly the most serious work he had as yet conceived, the one in which he had generalised his deepest experiences and enshrined his' loftiest thought. It contains a wealth of those wise words
pieced together in
that
are
"

as

nails
It often

fastened

by the

masters

of

assemblies."

unites, in

a wonderful degree,

the perfect simplicity of art with the far ken of the
soul.

We

are sometimes apt in the perfect clearness
its

of the utterance to mistake
expression.
fears,

real depth, sornetimes

in the subtlety of the idea to
Its

overlook the luminous

poetical

rumination of hopes and
sorrows,
that bereavement spoken home to countless

of
in

doubts
us
all,

and
has

awakes
hearts,
Still,

and
it

will

has

do so again to countless more. gone to the root of the problems it-^>
fairly

stirs ?

Does Tennyson
that
his

face
raise
?

the

sceptical

issues

own
all

questions

Surely the

answer must be No.

He was
that
r

by respect

for

too much dominated w as honest and of good

report to pass through the deepest waters of mental

—
296
trial.

Y

:

——
'

ARTHURIAN STOR
His culture shows him that
it

difficulties

lurk

here and threaten there, but
all

preserves

him from

one-sided extremes.
is

With

his fine eclectic tact

he takes whatever
tradition,
in
if

most attractive in science and criticism and assent, without deeply
the

inquiring
rather

elements they
of

can

be

reconciled,

or

satisfied

that

already in the
feeling,

medium

somehow are reconciled his own pure and liberal
ethical
instinct.

his

religious

and

"When

Tennyson, disgusted with the conclusions to which materialistic science seems to be driving him, cuts the knot by declaring that
Then, like a man in wrath, the heart Stood up and answered, " I have felt,"
1

he

is

speaking the language of subjective

religion,

and claiming that an inward conviction should out1 The heart does not vote all outward experience." " like a man in wrath " even utter itself
" No, like a child in doubt

and fear But that blind clamour made me wise Then was I as a child that cries,
:

;

But, crying,

knows

his father near."
"

2

Everywhere he
to

prefers

the
"
;

lame hands of

faith

"

the

of thought she is the second, not he says of the latter, and he has a solemn warning against the other view

the

grip

first,"

"

Hold thou the good define it well For fear divine Philosophy Should push beyond her mark, and be
:

Procuress to the Lords of Hell."
1

3

Professor E. Caird's Evolution of Religion, vol.

i.,

page 329.

2

In Memoriam. cxxiv.

3

In Memoriam.

liii.

—
TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
297

Doubtless many readers have felt that thought has no fixed fence beyond which it must not push, and also that the defining of the good, which is to give Philosophy her bounds, can only be the work of Philosophy herself. This is an instance of a tendency in In Memoriam to establish a compromise where no compromise can be, instead of answering doubt by deeper doubt, and digging till the firm rock is reached. There is an effort, which
is

doomed
reason,

to failure, to delimit the spheres of faith

and
the
in

and

fly

to

arms
it

if

the latter crosses

border.
principle

And meanwhile
brings
It
is

this

with

a

want of unity want of unity in
disconnected,
for

execution.

not merely that in structure the
straggling and
its

poem
that
is

is

a

little

But it is difficult to see that its varying thoughts and moods are in any real sense harmonised. It is, though infinitely finer, the same sort of tesselated work as The Princess. Tennyson's thought was neither fearless nor searching enough to find the principle for a more thorough combination. In his next longer work, Maud, which was produced in 1854, he tried a new species of composition, which he described as a monodrama. The hero,
implied
in

plan.

speaking always in the
of various measures,
love.

first

person in isolated lyrics
life
is

tells

the story of his

and
to

The
"

centre and nucleus of the whole

be found

in the exquisite

monody

O

that 'twere possible

After long grief and pain

To find the arms of my Round me once again"
1

true love

1

Maud, Part

2,

IV.

i.

298

ARTHURIAN STORY
described

which has been
"

by Mr. Swinburne

as

the

poem

of the deepest charm, the fullest delight,

melody, ever written, even by Mr. Tennyson." All the rest forms the setting of this one jewel, and as the setting it is admirably managed, besides being full of beauties of its own. The poem is a drama where " successive phases of passion in one person take the place of successive persons," * and the various lyrics are thus connected in the life-history of the individual. The general conception, also, which portrays the ^transition from morbid discontent, through love and despair, to the patriotic act, even as the nation passes from the stagnation of peace to the energy of war, is undoubtedly dramatic. Nor is there any more reason why there should not be a crowning lyric in the monodrama, than why there should not be a crowning scene in a regular drama. ^_ Yet many critics complain of a want of unity in the design, and of inequality in the execution. One describes it as " a greater medley than The Princess" because it shifts through so many themes, though clearly these are prescribed in the shifting
v

of pathos and

Another dismisses the rethe lover. mainder of the poem as " a glorified apparatus of foot-notes " to the one supreme achievement, though there are, unfortunately, few foot-notes like " Go or " O, art thou sighing for not, happy day " Lebanon." If, nevertheless, there is a certain un!

moods of

evenness in the whole, it is rather that the passages of love and regret stand off by their absolute and
1

Remarks

of Tennyson, as quoted by Mr.
II.

Knowles

in

"Aspects

of Tennyson,"

Ni?ietecnth Ce?itiiry^ Jan., 1893.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET

299

universal truth from the passages in which a rather contemptible hypochondriac displays his woes, and the passages in which the regeneration of the

somewhat irrational parts seem heterogeneous because they have not all the same high note of inevitable passion and reality. Tennyson's monodrama, however, must always be regarded as one of his loveliest and most genial productions. The same can hardly be said of his
country
is

expected

from

a

explosion of war feeling.

The

dramas, the first of which belongs 1875, when he had almost reached the age of sixty-six. Thus they are a kind of composition that he had never attempted in the prime of manhood, as he surely would have done
series of regular

to

the

year

had

he possessed in any high degree the true dramatic bent. But the realism of the dramatist was alien from his nature he never sank himself
;

in

the

life

of

others

;

there

was

an
his

aristocratic

solitude
his

and exclusiveness

about

genius

;

in

he cultivated the fellowship of the few, and shunned the collisions and contradictions of the workaday world. Doubtless in this he was right, he knew what suited his peculiar gifts but such is not the training that gives a knowledge of men, or of that interplay of character which is allessential in a drama. The extraordinary thing is that Tennyson, with so little apparent equipment, should have attained the measure of success that must be conceded to his plays, for there is none of them, from Queen Mary to The Foresters, that is without many high and admirable qualities. But they do not show him at his best, it is not to
career
;

300

ARTHURIAN STORY
that
his

them

admirers turn.
the

Yet

if

written

great dramas,

attempt

to

he has not do so has

and character more The Revenge and Rizpah have clearly benefited by his dramatic studies. They have a gathered strength, a power of characterisation, a mastery of individual traits, that are hardly to be found in his earlier pieces. In them he seems to pass beyond himself but just because in a sense they transcend his own manner, they
his insight into situation

made

true and keen.

Poems

like

;

are less typical than

many

others of the distinctive

Tennysonian style. $Ve have left the Idylls to the last, owing to Whe difficulty of assigning them a determinate date. They do not belong to a particular year, but almost to half a century, if we reckon from 1842, when they may be said to have begun in the Morte d Arthur, to 1886, when they received their final supplement in Balin and Balan. And this
}

of

itself

contains

a

hint

as

to

their

importance.

Extending through the greater part of Tennyson's literary life, they have a right to be regarded in

some
cyclic

sort as his life work.

And
1842

the interval from

they took their shape in 1869, is not only the period of Tennyson's mature vigour, but the period of which, as we saw, he was best fitted to be spokesman. The atmosphere of the day was his proper element, and he was in touch with the best feeling of the country. It is an indication of this that he took the time-honoured name of Arthur as the centre of his most extensive work, and that he chose the version of the story that was widest spread and
the earliest instalment in
till

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
best
art
is

301

beloved

among
;

his

fellow-countrymen.
a

His

thus fortified and
interest

enlarged by something of
is

a national

there
sails

breath of popular
his

sympathy
freer

to

fill

his

and give

genius

a

sweep.
his
it

Thus
certainly

subject was congenial to his audience

;

was not

less

congenial to himself.

The

Arthurian stories have often been blamed for their want of reality, but realism is not the note of fHe had never pierced to the ^ Tennyson's poetry.
heart of humanity with
evil,

mysteries of good and commonplace mystery of their inextricable entanglement. But the knights and ladies of the Round Table had never really
its

and

its

crowning

belonged to the world of living men. It has been said of Tennyson, that " his scene is neither in earth or heaven, seeing that we cannot get from the one to the other except by a sword-bridge over the abyss of the other place " what country fitter for him, then, than the unhistoric Britain of King Arthur expanded and glorified through the mists of romance? Mrs Browning speaks of "enchanted reverie " as his grand characteristic, and there can be no better description of the dream;

like

falls

in which the glamour of the old legends on his heart. Already in 1 8 3 3 he was under the spell. Portrayed on the arras in The Palace of Art\ he sees how
"

mood

Mythic Uther's deeply-wounded son
fair

In

some

space of sloping greens

Lay, dozing in the vale of Avalon,
,

—

And

watch'd by weeping queens."

Nor did he merely use the

material for the embellish-

——
302

:

ARTHURIAN STORY
;

ment of other poems
of one

independent

piece,

Perhaps nowhere else

it the theme The Lady of Shalott. does he so catch the magic

he had made

of old romance as in the picture of the spell-bound maiden at her loom, singing and weaving, and seeing nought of the world but the reflected images

on her

glass.

"There she weaves by night and day
magic web with colours gay. She has heard a whisper say, A curse is on her if she stay

A

To

look

down

to Camelot.

She knows not what the curse may And so she weaveth steadily,

be,

And

little

other care hath she,

The Lady

of Shalott."

But the shadow of Sir Lancelot makes her dare
her
fate.
"

She left the web, she left the loom, She made three paces thro' the room, She saw the water-lily bloom, She saw the helmet and the plume, She look'd down to Camelot. Out flew the web and floated wide
;

'

The mirror crack'd from side to side The curse is come upon me,' cried The Lady of Shalott."
for
her,

;

Then only death remains
" Lying, robed in

and she lays
the stream.

herself in the shallop to float

down

snowy white That loosely flew to left and right The leaves upon her falling light
Thro' the noises of the night

She

floated

down

to

Camelot

—
TENNYSON AS AR THURIAN POET
And
as the boat-head wound along The willowy hills and fields among, They heard her singing her last song, The Lady of Shalott."
all

303

When

she reaches the city

come out
here

to

gaze

and question
"

Who
And

is

this

?

and what

is

?

in the lighted palace

near
;

Died the sound of royal cheer

And

they cross'd themselves for

fear,
:

All the knights at Camelot

But Lancelot mused a little space; He said, She has a lovely face God in his mercy lend her grace,
'
;

The Lady
It is like
its

of Shalott.'"

the end of the dream-life of childhood, with

and music and hour of passion has come.
visions

mimic-work, when the

It is interesting to notice that, like Wordsworth's Egyptian Maid, between which and Morris's Preraphaelite lyrics it occupies a middle place both in chronology and in character, this piece, with all its medieval colour, is a free fantasia, with a subtle psychological suggestion of a modern kind, on the given romantic theme, by no means a reproduction of it. Afterwards Tennyson was to be more faithful, for this may be regarded as an early draught of the idyll of Elaine, which adheres more closely to the Shalott, derived from Escalot, is merely original. a variant of Astolat, whose " lily maid " met with a similar fate, and whose dead body made a similar voyage, through vain love for Lancelot. In like manner, in the succeeding volume of 1842,

304

ARTHURIAN STORY
and Queen

occurs the fragment entitled Sir Lanncelot
idyll of Guinevere.
"

Guinevere, which bears an analogous relation to the

Then,

in the

Sir Launcelot

boyhood of the year, and Queen Guinevere

Rode thro' the coverts of the deer, With blissful treble ringing clear. She seem'd a part of joyous Spring A gown of grass-green silk she wore,

:

A

Buckled with golden clasps before light-green tuft of plumes she bore Closed in a golden ring."
;

But there are some points of contrast between poem and its predecessor. The metre is almost the same, but not quite and it differs in being simpler, for the rhymes of the fifth and ninth lines are freely varied, and are not preserved the same in
this
;

the stanzas. This may indicate a transition from Tennyson's highly lyric manner and the tone of the fragment, as compared with that of The Lady of
all
;

Shalott,

is

more
in

that of a straightforward narrative.

Altogether,

its

general effect,

it

shows a closer
material

correspondence both with

the

traditional

though it is not exactly reproduced from the one and is not exactly repeated in the other. And why was it left unfinished ? We may fancy, on analogy, that the story of the lovers was to have been given in three or four parts like The Lady of Shalott ; but Tennyson, getting beyond this metre and this treatment, abruptly breaks off. Meanwhile to the same date belongs Sir Galahad, which may be regarded as the first sketch of the
later
idyll,

and with the

Holy

Grail.

In

its

pervasive

medieval

charm,

it

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
resembles the two others
in
;

305

but the metre has become comparison much less elaborate, and is practically And, though the conthat of the simple ballad. ception of the old romance differs widely from that of the modern idyll, there is nothing in this poem that is incompatible with the first, and nothing, save one particular, which will hereafter be noticed, that is incompatible with the second. It represents, as it were, the centre of indifference between them.
"

When

on

my

goodly charger borne
I

Thro' dreaming towns

go,

The cock crows ere the Christmas morn, The streets are dumb with snow. The tempest crackles on the leads,
And, ringing, springs from brand and mail But o'er the dark a glory spreads,
;

Pure spaces clothed in living beams, Pure lilies of eternal peace, Whose odours haunt my dreams And, stricken by an angel's hand, This mortal armour that I wear, This weight and size, this heart and eyes, Are touch'd, are turn'd to finest air."
;

Meanwhile

Tennyson, leaving the

continuation

"

—

306

ARTHURIAN STOR Y

of the Pre-raphaelite medieval style to other hands,

had already, in this volume of 1842, passed beyond it with his Morte cT Arthur. Not that he ever forgot what his early reveries had showed him, but he mingles it with other elements, and accents the modern interest. This poem is framed in the conversation of some friends over the log on Christmas Eve. Frank Hall had written an epic on King A rthur, " some twelve books," and destroyed it because they were " faint Homeric echoes," and,
"

He

thought that nothing new was said, or else Something so said 'twas nothing that a truth Looks freshest in the fashion of the day

—

:

.

.

'

Why

take the style of those heroic times
those times.'
1

?

For nature brings not back the Mastodon,

Nor we

the Morte

However, the eleventh book has been preserved, dA rthur ; and it, when read, holds the
"

listeners rapt.

Perhaps some modern touches here and there Redeem'd it from the charge of nothingness." 2
rate
it

At any
narrator

seizes

continues

with

them
"

dream that
"

them and haunts them, and in their sleep, making the Arthur is come again "
a modern gentleman
3

King Arthur,

like

Of

stateliest port."

Now here there are one or two hints that Tennyson gives us about his poem. He talks of the " Homeric echoes," and it is undeniable that
1

The Epic.

2

Morte

<P Arthur.

3

Ibid.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
in diction

307

of the

Greeks.
to

and tone he has passed through the school But their severe, restrained, and
the
hectic
brilliance

healthy beauty presents, in some respects, the very
of medieval Arthurian legends to this influence, even had it only affected the form, was to wash them free from their fantastic and
antithesis

romance.

To

subject

the

formless accidents
well,
it

;

when

it

affected

their spirit as
7

must rid them of what was only temporary in the Middle Ages. But Tennyson did not conceive it as his task merely to blend one form of bygone
life

with

another,

as

a virtuoso
spirit

relics

of the past.

The

of the

manipulating the new time aims
its

at

combining the
thus

classical

with the medieval, accorda

ing to a principle and

requirement of

own.

when Tennyson exchanged the " peal of rhymes " which chimes in The Lady of Shalott and which would have been a wonder in the days of the Joyous Science, for the stately unrhymed iambics of Morte a" Arthur ; and when he turned from the
magic glamour of fairyland to the objective pathos
of Arthur's end, he was really bringing his subject nearer to the feeling of the day.
touches," the suggestion

And

The
"

"

of Arthur

as

a

modern modern

gentleman," are
Idylls

among

the chief reasons that the

have charmed our time. Even now, however, Tennyson was not clear as to the kind of composition to which his poem
cT Arthur is enclosed The Epic, and an epical character seems thus to be claimed for it. There is possibly a touch of Wahrheit und Dichtung in the remark about the twelve books all destroyed but the

should

belong.

The Morte

in the piece called

308
eleventh
;

ARTHURIAN STORY
for

we know that he already " meant 1 whole long poem" on the subject, and even if the other books were not actually written, he may have sketched and destroyed the plan. But if this be so, the plan was afterwards recast, for now The Passing of Arthur is no longer the second last but the last of the series. More important however than any change in arrangement is the change in method. It is unlikely that Tennyson could ever have produced a great epic, especially out of such episodic material as Arthurian romance. His longer works are apt to be deficient in unity, in breadth of portraiture and in narrative force, all of them qualities indispensable to an epic poem. It was a happy thought when, in 1857, he chose the idyllic form for the companion pictures of Enid and Nimue, the True and the False ; and though these were at the time suppressed, it was only to be reissued in 1858 as Enid and Vivien, to which were now added Elaine and Guinevere. The great advance that these indicate is in Tennyson's knowledge of the form most suitable to his genius. The idyllic style of poetry seems precisely the kind to which his powers are predestined. An idyll is properly a little picture, and denotes a short poem, half narrative, half descriptive partly
to write a
;

epic

in

character, but
in

without those high requireto
in

ments that
to put
it

modern times are so hard
it is

briefly,

an epic
all

miniature.

meet But in
all

:

such miniature epics Tennyson had scope for
»

his exquisite art
1

and

his varied gifts,
II.

and there

Mr. Knowles' "Aspects of Tennyson,"

Nineteenth Cen-

tury, January, 1893.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
was no demand
passion
idyll
is

3°9

for inexorable

thought or
his

resistless

or
so

consummate knowledge of men.
manifestly akin
its

The

to

genius,

and he

has so often reproduced
of his
;

characteristics, that

many

under this head and, besides the Arthurian series, he contemplated another group of domestic idylls such as Enoch Arden, published in 1864. Rightly, however, he kept the first place in his heart and the bulk of his time for the legendary theme, which was more sympathetic to his nature than any topic from every-day life. And the form of his choice matched well with the subject of his choice, for Arthurian story is largely made up of separate adventures, and would cease to be like itself if these were deprived of their individual character. The comparative independence of the component parts was perhaps brought home to Tennyson in connection with the composition of Enid. For he took his material not from Malory, where it is wanting, nor from any of the continental forms of the story, but from the Welsh version, as he found it in Lady Charlotte Guest's Mabinogion (1837This is probably altogether, or in part, 1849). based on a French original, but the tone is
loosely
classed
to
It

poems may be

*

some extent
is

altered in the Celtic reproduction.
to

interesting

note

how Tennyson,
the
in

after

he

has
in

so

greatly

modified
d' Arthur,

romantic
the

conception

the

Morte

poem which he composed,
chivalrous

turns

next Arthurian from the purely

treatment of Malory to the somewhat more naif Welsh adaptation and the fact that it was not quite of a piece with the rest must
;

"

3

1

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
as a separate picture.

have impressed on him the advisability of presenting
it

But with these advantages of the idyll there was also one serious drawback. It provided for the
excellence of the separate adventures
;

it

did

not

provide

for

the

continuity

of

the

general

story.

probably it was long before this difficulty found a solution in Tennyson's mind. Indeed, the whole progress of his work is at first very slow, as though he were only gradually feeling his way. Nine years elapsed between his first lyric treatment of an Arthurian subject and the appearance of the epical- fragment sixteen years between the
;

And

epic

and the authoritative publication of the Idylls eleven more pass away before he seems to be sure
of the connecting clue.

;

Now, with the
is

Idylls as units of the scheme,

it

evident that the closest kind of nexus was out

of the question. 1
tive

They necessarily have more relaindependence than the cantos of an epic or the acts of a drama, for they are " little pictures complete in themselves. The highest attainable unity would be that of a pageant, of a series of the tableaux connected by a common meaning solution seemed to be found in making the treatment symbolical. This idea, by Tennyson's state" By King ment, was with him from the outset 2 And no doubt Arthur I always meant the soul."
;
:

1

" Essentially fragments, they have in their vague connec-

tion neither the unity nor the grasp
epic."

which

is

necessary to an

This

is

the remark of Professor Nichol in an admirable

article entitled

Review), 1859.

"Tennyson's Idylls of the King" [Westminster 2 Mr. Knowles, as above.

—

—
3
tells
1

1

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
he strikes the fundamental chord when he
ing of the

of

the surrender of the brand Excalibur, of the pass-

wounded king; and gathers up the
it

sig-

nificance of
"

all

in

the lines

The

old order changeth, yielding place to new,
fulfils

And God
But
out

himself in

many

ways,

Lest one good custom should corrupt the world."
it

is

one thing to have

a

thought
it

presentiment and another to have
;

clearly

dim worked
in

and a few indications of his uncertainty remain in the poem even when it was new-modelled as The Passing of Arthur. One change essential to his purpose he indeed made in the earliest draught.

Though
had
the

generally following close in the steps of Malory, he gets rid of the incestuous shadow that

lain upon his hero, and makes him once more Arthur of the romantic historians and of the romances, the Flos Regum, distinctively English the blameless king. But he has not yet clearly realised the character of the king, and has a passage so beautiful that it has been allowed to stand
in

the latest recast, though, strictly speaking,
refer to the lines
" So like a shatter'd column lay the King
;

it

is

hardly apposite in view of subsequent statements.
I

Arthur who, with lance in rest, From spur to plume a star of tournament, Shot thro' the lists of Camelot, and charged
like that

Not

Before the eyes of ladies and of kings."

1

Here Arthur

in

his

with Arthur in his hour of glory
1

hour of darkness is contrasted and his prowess
;

Passing of Arthur, 389.

—
312
in

—
But

ARTHURIAN STORY
the
lists
is

taken as typical of the

latter.

when Tennyson wrote Elaine, he put the following words into the mouth of Lancelot, and
already
the description
is

often

repeated afterwards

;

"The

King,

However mild he seems at home, nor cares For triumph in our mimic wars, the jousts For if his own knight cast him down, he laughs
Saying Yet in
Fills

his knights are better
this
:

him

men than he heathen war, the fire of God I never saw his like there lives
:

No
It is

greater leader."
tilter

\

not as a

but as a champion that Arthur
fully

should be pictured in his greatness.

And if Tennyson had not yet and elaborated the function of his
age,
it

realised

central person-

is

not

wonderful
into

that

when
form,

the

material
allegoric

was
great

first

thrown
should
lost

idyllic

the

in the separate idylls be to a from view. Carlyle was to be excused if he saw no meaning at all in the early group, and judging them with reference to realism of life and portraiture, uttered himself in contemptuous disparagement " We read them with profound recognition of the finely elaborated execution, and and, to also of the inward perfection of vacancy say truth, with a considerable impatience at being treated so very like infants, though the lollipops Yet it is easy to see, in were so superlative." 2 view of later developments, that the inner meaning and the allegory, though attenuis not forgotten

decade of the century, brought it to prominence and completion. Events were in the air, and theories were beingf broached that might well alarm his piety to highl tradition, and shake his hopes for the gradual] development of man. He wasJjie_sj3 okesman and lover of ordered h'fp of constitutional rule, of "ourl crowned republic," of temperate culture, of a com-) promise between thought and faith. He was full) of_reverence for the past, which had taught himl its wisdom, and which he knew on its worthiest side. Not as though he regarded it as fixed and final. To say that he knew it on its best side is to say that he saw its capacity for change, as
at the close of the seventh
l
J

it

bears in

its

bosom the seeds of

the future.

He

doubts not

that,

" Thro' the ages

And

the thoughts of
of the suns."
1

one increasing purpose runs, men are widen'd with the process

The expression

is

Mr George

Meredith's.

——
3

H
in

ARTHURIAN STORY
Locksley Hall he

But even
slowness

—

of the process

—"a
'

is

impressed by the
in Sixty

process of the suns"
;

as

much

After he
" Let us

as by its reality was to exclaim

and

Years

hush

this cry of

Forward

'

till

ten thousand

years have gone."

Meanwhile he
the so-called

is

filled

with

horror

for

many of

seem to advance but to retrograde. He does not admit that the new generation will be " the roof and crown of things." Rather there is a pressing danger that they will fall away from " the true old times " and abandon an ideal that has slowly come to power through ages of struggle. This is the secret of his unsympathetic attitude to France, which has broken from her traditions and become the centre of revolutionism and " strange experiments." For the same reason he is harsh to much of the intellectual, social, and political effort, mistaken, it may be, but estimable for its sincerity, that characterises the present age. Often he is inclined to look back rather than to look forward. Now, in Maud, he cries out
that

movements of advance,

him not

really to

"Ah

God, for a man with heart, head, hand, Like some of the simple great ones gone

For ever and ever

by."

1

Now,
in

in

the

Envoy

to the

Idylls,

which was added

1872, he seems to hope against hope that the fears for our time and fatherland
"Are morning shadows huger than
1

the shapes

That cast them, not those gloomier which forego
I.

x. 5.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
The darkness of that battle Where all of high and holy
in the

3

1

5

West,
*

dies away."

But in his dominant.

later

utterances

the

note

of

fear

is

_
the
"

And
present
it

driven by the discords and troubles of the
to

eternal

was

natural

that

landscape of the past," 2 he should take with him the

and uncertainties that beset his heart, and seek to deliver his soul in verse. The story of the coming and reign and passing of Arthur might serve for his poetical shrift. The tale could be re-told as a parable of the present. Men's minds might again be filled with the Morte
anxieties
cT Arthur, for
it

could be

made

the vehicle of the
that

poet's

doubts
It

loved.

and hopes for the ideal would meet the needs of this

he

transition

time,

when the old order changes, giving place to new, when men's souls are shaken and their lives
are
I

vexed by the waning of the high and holy, by the corruption of a good custom that has ruled them long. And this was not an alien thought, that had to be driven by force into the stories of Arthur. It was akin to their inmost nature or rather, it was
;

their

inmost nature.
all

kernel in
pilation

such idea forms their the elder versions. In Malory's com-

Some

and

in later

medieval romance, as

we have
of the

seen,

the fate
in

of Arthur

means the
the

fate

were romantic historians the fate of Arthur is the fate of the Christian Britons in conflict with heathenism from without
chivalrous ideal,
irreconcilable elements

whose
him.

incorporated

In

1

To

the Queen, 62.

2

In Memoriam,

xlvi.

6

3

1

ARTHURIAN STORY
within.
trust

and treason from
his
fate,
if

Even

in

the old myths,

we may

Professor

Rhys,

is

the

combined with Father Sky in conflict with the powers of Darkness and the Nether-world. It was by a true inspiration that Tennyson was drawn to the old legends, and reading into them his secret, found it to be their own.
fate of the culture-hero

decessors kept

Accordingly, this identity of feeling with his preTennyson on the track of the story.

He
x/

alters

it,

but chiefly in the

way

of freeing
;

it

from what is temporary and accidental as, for example, when he throws aside its magical trappings save such as may be used in an allegoric sense. He universalises and renews its meaning so that it will apply to the decay of our own order or of any order. But his alterations are not distortions they never strike one as impertinent they are in the right line of development. No spurious ornaments, no arabesques of fancy, intrude themselves on the old sad tragedy of doom. The chief lines of the story are sacred to him, and he follows them to its completion. Thus the Idylls are both truer to the authorities and nearer our own feelings than any other of the adaptations of Arthurian story. Though the adventures are now regarded from a modern point of view, this point of view is in the same spiritual watch-tower from which the framers but it is the platform at of the legend looked the top, not a loop-hole on the winding stair. The first poem in which the allegory is explicit and pronounced is The Holy Grail^ which, with Pelleas and Ettarre, was published in 1869. By this time Tennyson was sure of his course and
; ;
:

— —
TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
could

"

317

hasten

ahead.

Before

many months had
series,

passed, the

Idylls

appeared as a connected

introduced
cluding

by

with

The The

Coming of Arthur and conPassing
of
Arthur,
greatly

enlarged from the Morte.

In 1871 The Last Tour-

nament was added, and Gareth and Lynette in 1872; when the collective poem, just ten years rounded off with the after its Dedication, was But even then, Tennyson Envoy To the Queen. Year by year it was was not done with it. subjected to the most incessant and minute revision. Sometimes the aim was merely to perfect the
expression.
instance, that
It
is

a

decided

improvement,

for

when Vivien

hears that

the knights

babble of her, her exclamation should be
"

What

dare the

full-fed liars

say of

me

?

"

instead of crying, as
"

Nimue
;

does,

The

filthy

swine

what do they say of
triple

me ?
to

Generally, however, the

object

is

remove

discrepancies in detail, to
tion

draw

closer the connec-

between the separate pictures, and to bring prominence the symbolic meaning. Thus in Nimue and the earlier versions of Vivien, the temptress approaches the King when " troubled in his heart about the Queen." But it does not suit the purpose of the completed scheme that Arthur's suspicions should be excited and the passage becomes so early
into
;

"Vext at a rumour issued from herself Of some corruption crept among his knights."
1

-

Merlin and Vivien, 690.

-Ibid. 151.

8

Y

—

3

1

ARTHURIAN STOR
In the Dolorous Stroke, the prose sketch of Balin

and Balan,
"

the damsel who defames the Queen was journeying to King Mark of Cornwall." 1 But in the poem, the damsel is Vivien "from out the 2 hall of Mark," and the connection is thus in-

dicated

with

the

her departure from
In
Elaine,

next idyll, when we learn of Cornwall to Camelot and the

purport of her journey.
stolen

Lancelot was at first said to be from his mother's arms by the Lady of the Lake, but meanwhile that personage was endued with deep spiritual significance and the term was no longer in keeping. In the revised version the necessary change is made
" Lancelot,

whom

the

Lady

of the

Caught from

his mother's

arms

— the

Lake wondrous one
3

Who

passes thro' the vision of the night."

Many
the

too,

and

with

the

same

object,

are

the
in

passages, often
Idylls

of considerable

length,

inserted

Thus in The from time to time. Coming of Arthur, the whole account of the first battle, and in Merlin and Vivien the whole story of her expedition from Cornwall, are additions of One advantage of Tennyson's plan, a later date. indeed, was that it could be expanded at pleasure and though the appearance of Balin and Balan in 1886 was probably a surprise to most readers, there was no reason why the thing should not occur again and the cycle be enriched with other
;

1

Knowles' "Aspects of Tennyson,"

II.

Ni?ieteenth Ce?itury

January, 1893.
2

Balin and Balan, 431.

3

Lancelot

and

Elaine, 1393.

TENNYSON AS ARTHURIAN POET
pieces,

319

interesting

in

themselves and conducive to
For, though
Idylls,
all
is

the idea of the whole.

orderly

and coherent

in

the

the

unity

that

the

Arthurian story was capable of receiving and that Tennyson's genius was capable of supplying, was
not
in

the

highest
into

sense

organic.

It

unity of a chain

which link

after link

was the might

be introduced.

At the same time, with Balin and Balan, Tennyson had made his last contribution to his life-work. And probably it was not his death that stayed At least, in 1889 he him from further additions. did what he had not done since 1842, he treated an Arthurian subject without reference to the Idylls and even in contradiction to their conception. His Merlin and The Gleam bears the same sort of relation to the cycle when completed, that The Lady of Shalott bears to the cycle not yet conceived.
not

Here however the text for his invention is derived from visionary romance but from legendary history it is not the Maiden of Astolat but Merlin
;

of the

Woods whom he

sings.

And

there

is

a cor-

responding difference between the lavish rhymes of his youthful fancy and the unadorned rhythms of
his veteran experience.

But the poem, though some
gone, has in compensation a

of the early charm

is

deeper personal interest. If, as he tells us, there is much about himself in Ulysses who voyages on to the vanishing goal, where
"

Gleams that untravell'd world, whose margin fades For ever and for ever when I move,"
is

there

also

much about

himself in the story of

!

320

ARTHURIAN STORY
The Gleam.
"
It

Merlin following
hill

guides him over

and

level,

till

On

the forehead

Of Arthur the blameless Rested The Gleam."

Arthur vanishes, clouds and The Gleam, waned a wintry glimmer, leads him forth anew. to But it broadens as it moves, till, old and weary, at the land's last limit, he " can no longer,"

But not

for

long.

confusion close on Camelot, and

"

And

all

but in

Heaven

Hovers The Gleam."

Despite the passing of Arthur, the
of encouragement.

last

The
"
;

Idylls too

word is one had closed with
rose,

a hint of renovation a

the

new sun

bringing

But with more emphasis this last stray snatch of Arthurian melody dwells on the undying light that shall lead the new generations. The aged wizard bequeaths his quest of The Gleam to his younger fellows
year."
;

new

"

Not of the sunlight, Not of the moonlight, Not of the starlight O young Mariner,

Down

to the haven,

Call your companions,

Launch your

vessel,

And crowd

your canvas,

And, ere it vanishes Over the margin,
After
it,

follow

it,
1

Follow The Gleam."
1

Demeter, Merlin and The Gleam,

ix.

CHAPTER

VII

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS

\\

T~E

have seen that Tennyson found

the

con-

necting principle for his Idylls in a conception

which
if

may

we remember

be called symbolic, and even allegorical, that with him the meaning and the

image have as a rule the simultaneous unity of art, and are not related by external afterthought as We ready-made doctrine plus illustration annexed. have seen too that the poet did not immediately attain clear and complete consciousness of his own in the Morte d' Arthur it lay involved, principle in the four next Idylls it is still but undeveloped more in the background only in The Holy Grail and the subsequent pieces does it sway supreme, moulding and informing even the smallest details. Thus, for two reasons, there is considerable objec; ;

;

tion to an allegorical explanation of the Idylls

;

first,

the separation of the meaning from the form

makes

a divorce where no divorce ought to be, and seems

opposed to the very nature of poetry and, in the second place, even apart from this, a large portion of the present poem was admittedly composed without conscious reference to any " dark conceit." x
;

322
It

ARTHURIAN STORY
is perhaps neither possible nor desirable fully answer the first of these criticisms. It applies

to
in

a

way

to

all

analysis of
is

any work of
a bad
;

art.

But,
in,

although such analysis
it is

thing to rest
it

often a useful thing

by the way
sharpen
the

is

a means, of

not
of
its

an
it.

end
This
is

;

it

may

perception

beauty, and thus bring a
is

its

more intimate enjoyment work and if this be effected,
;

work

done.

We

turn from
it

its

divisions back

to the rich unity of art, but

be questioned whether an artistic masterpiece can in its entirety be appreciated without a preliminary analytic
examination.

may

The second argument
valid.
It

is

also, to

a large extent,

would

clearly be straining the poe.m,

and

the explanation as well, to hunt for allegories where

no allegories are. Tennyson is comparatively simple and straightforward in the elder Idylls, and into their details it would hardly do to read subtle hidden meanings. At the same time the later Idylls are
not

an independent growth, but only an after development of the same stock and an explanation which is true of them, will also apply, though less evidently and circumstantially, to their predeTheir author at least considered the whole cessors. series sufficiently alike to fit into one frame without any violation of poetical harmony. This implies that there is no difference of principle between the various parts, but at most a difference in the extent to which the principle is carried through. In the
;

last

Idylls

the the

allegory

is

present

everywhere,
consciously

colouring

smallest

minutiae
the earlier

and
it

working

itself

out

:

in

is

more

fitful

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
;

3^3

and less pervasive it is rather a vague presentiment than an articulate thought, but it is there, and is
not a mere cobweb woven by criticism.

We

have

the warrant of the poet for using the allegoric clue,

and using
he says,

it

for the

us to the task in his

poem as a whole. He invites Envoy To the Queen} " Accept,"

" This old imperfect tale,

New-old, and shadowing Sense

-at

war with Soul

Rather than that gray king, whose name, a ghost, Streams like a cloud, man-shaped, from mountain peak, And cleaves to cairn and cromlech still or him
;

Of Geoffrey's book, or him Touched by the adulterous

of Malleolus, one
finger of a time

That hover'd between war and wantonness, And crownings and dethronements."

This statement

is

authoritative

and

unmistakable.
tell

And Tennyson
his

here does more than

us

that

he gives us a hint as to His Arthur is not the what the allegory is. Arthur of Celtic legend, or of romantic history, or even of chivalrous romance, but he shadows and embodies the spiritual principle in conflict with the oppositions of sense. I say spiritual principle, for the word soul is a little ambiguous. It is not to be supposed that Tennyson aims at giving another Pilgrim's Progress, an idealised religious biography. In that case the tragic catastrophe would not be typically true, and the story as a whole would The soul or spiritual principle not be intelligible. of which he sings is little else than the ideal
is

poem

allegorical,

1

To

the Queen, 36.

—
324

ARTHURIAN STORY

which governs the lives of men, the eternal pattern which they seek in time to realise. On the one hand it is infinite and divine, but on the other, since its realisation is in time, it must take shape
according to the conditions of time.
manifestations there
is

In

its

various

and
order

incomplete.

always something temporary Hence it discloses itself as an
;

that rises, flourishes, and passes away it seems as though at its dissolution there were the wreck of all that is highest, but it is merely its transitory form that is broken it incarnates itself anew in fuller and more adequate shape.
;

"

The

old order changeth, yielding place to new,
fulfils

And God

himself in

many

ways,
1

Lest one good custom should corrupt the world."

These are Arthur's words
departure
;

at

the

moment

of his

they apply to and they himself, apply to himself just because he is the ideal in its vesture of time. Hence on the one hand his immortality, and on the other his withdrawal from the earth. Merlin can swear
"

Tho'

men may wound
to

him, that he will not
2
;

die,

But pass, again
"

come "

He He

passes to the Isle Avilion,
passes and
is

heal'd

and cannot

die."

3

So,

too,

we

learn
"

of his sword

that

it

bears

1

one side, tongue of all this world Take me,' but turn the blade and ye shall see,

On

Graven

in the oldest

1

Passing of Arthur, 408. 3 Gareth and

2

Coming of Arthur,

420.

Ly?iette, 492.

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
And
1

32 5

written in the speech ye speak yourself,

Cast

me away

!

'

"

x

It

is

taken up at

command
it

of the oldest tongue

of

all

the world, for

represents the yearning to

give effect to
since

the ideal which

men have
again

felt

ever

they were

men
all

;

it

will

be
in

rejected

when the present time
sense the ideal has

requires.

But

a certain
reality,

along the only true

and though it may seem to be neglected for the moment, it is really directing the crass facts of life, which will soon show themselves illusory in the light of its permanent truth. Leodogran dreams of haze and anarchy in the world, and over it a phantom king " now looming and now lost " who at times sends out a voice that few regard. But the dream changes
;

" The haze Descended, and the solid earth became

-^
any of
its

As

nothing, but the King stood out in heaven,
a

Crown'd."

Nay
it

more, the

ideal

is

greater

than

achievements, the noblest constructions amidst which
dwells. These seem to be typified in Arthur's chosen abode, the mystical City of Camelot the
;

home that in successive generations the mind of man has reared for its expanding needs. And as the home always accords with the requirements, so
"The
To music, therefore And therefore built
1

city is built
all,

never built at
for ever."
3

Coming of Arthur,
3

300.

2

Coming of Arthur,

440.

Garcth and Lynette, 272.

326

ARTHURIAN STORY
edifices

of every type and age, the storied former kings, what are these but the slow " O acquisitions of the unresting spirit of man ?
piles of

The

Brother,"

cries

Percivale,

"Had you known our Camelot, by old kings, age after age, so old The King himself had fears that it would fall, So strange, and rich, and dim." 1
Built

And

there are

many

descriptions of

" Camelot, a city of

And

stately, rich in

shadowy palaces emblem and the work
their days in stone"
2
;

Of ancient kings who did
" tipt

with

lessening
turrets
" totter'd

peak

and

pinnacle,"

3

its
4

spires
its
5

and
that
its

pricking

" thro'

the

mist,"

roofs

sky,"
its

galleries

carvings
"
;

toward each other in the 6 weighing the " necks of dragons," " of wyvern, lion, dragon, griffin,

swan
"

7

by roof, beyond spire, By grove, and garden-lawn, and rushing brook, Climbs to the mighty hall that Merlin built," 8
all

And

the

dim

rich city, roof

Tower

after tower, spire

where, surmounting

all,

stands the statue of Arthur

u with a crown,

And

peak'd wings pointed to the Northern Star."

9

On
1

the return of the

city partly ruined.

Grail-questers they find the Their horses tread over heaps
Gareth and Lynettc, 296.
4

Holy Holy

Grail, 339. Grail, 343.
6
9

3

Ibid. 301.

Ibid.

191.
7

6 8

Ibid. 346.

Ibid. 350.

Ibid. 228.

Ibid. 239.

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
of fragments,
"

327

hornless unicorns, cracked

basilisks,

splintered cockatrices,"
"

and Arthur

tells

them

So

fierce a gale

made havoc

here of late
;

Among

the strange devices of our kings

Yea, shook this newer, stronger hall of ours,

And from

the statue Merlin moulded for us
1

Half-wrench'd a golden wing."

In all this the symbolism is very transparent. Camelot represents the gradual accretion of human belief and culture and institutions, the structure that

the spirit of

man

has built for

itself in its
it

progress

from the brute.
of generations of

But

just because

is

the

work

effort,

much
;

has become unsound

and may be overthrown just because it is human even the newest may be wrenched and endangered. And meanwhile the fabrics that have been reared are less important than the aspiration, the ideal, that
is

raising them.

The

sage

tells

Gareth

;

" There is nothing in it as it seems Saving the King tho' some there be that hold The King a shadow, and the city real." 2
;

Despite

the

indwelling

and

inalienable
it

reality
is

of the ideal, however, in another aspect

mere
fact,

dream and shadow unless
Till

it

affects the

actual world.

a

principle be
it

united with the sensuous
it

penetrating
it

and exalting

to

a

higher

level,

verily " nothing in the mighty world." Now, need of the ideal to fulfil itself in sense seems to be typified in the account which Tennyson gives
is

this

in

The Coming of Arthur of the King's love
1

for

Holy

Grail, 725.

2

Gareth and Lynette, 260.

—
328

ARTHURIAN STORY

Guinevere, " fairest of all flesh on earth," as she is emphatically described in the opening lines of the

poem.

Arthur

feels
life "

" travail,

and

throes

and

agonies of the

at the
"

thought of her
father said

Her

That there between the man and beast they die. Shall I not lift her from this land of beasts Up to my throne, and side by side with me?

What
Vext

happiness to reign a lonely king,

—O

ye stars that shudder over me,
?

earth that soundest hollow under me,

Vext with waste dreams

For saving

I

be join'd

To
1

her that

is

the fairest under heaven,
in the
will,

seem as nothing
cannot will

mighty world,
nor work
in
I

And

my

Wholly, nor

make myself

my work mine own realm
join'd with her,

Victor and lord.

But were

Then might we

live together as

one

life,

And

reigning with one will in everything
this this

Have power on

And power on
It
is

dark land dead world

to lighten
to

it,

make

it

live."

1

a strange kind
in

of love-longing of the

that

breaks

te
is

There no lack of passion in them, but it is a passion which is neither fanned by sensual desire nor winged by devout adoration. Arthur in his youthutterance
these words

King.

ful

love

is

never

less

noble

than

himself,

but

neither does he elevate Guinevere to

of fancied superiority.

He

is

any pinnacle moved partly by a
that

great pity for her goodliness, so
lift

he longs to
;

her from the land of beasts up to his throne

partly

by the absorbing
1

interest

in

his

mission,

by

Coming of Arthur, jy

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
the feeling that without her he cannot
or win his kingdom.
particularly
significant.

329

do
to

his

work
are

These
It

latter expressions
is

hard

see

why

Arthur without Guinevere should fail to make him" victor and lord " in his own realm, unless his love be understood, not as the desire of earthly!
self

man
It

for

mortal maid, but mystically, as the im-j
just the

pulse of the ideal towards sense.
is

ticular

point

modern

tragedy of the ideal from a parview a point of view which pessimism has made its own that the
of

—

—

union of sense and
stincts tells us
it

spirit,

must
later,

be,

though our deepest inyet never can be perfect
rift is

and without
which,

reserve.

All the while the
will

there,

widen to the breach. And then, perplexed between the severance that we see and the unity in which we believe, we are apt to find refuge in the postponement of our hopes to some other when and where, cherishing the thought of a " far-off divine event " in which will be reconciled. all And this is the story of Arthur's relation with Guinevere, worked out more
sooner
or
clearly in
idylls,

the

later,

more obscurely
with

in

the earlier
discord

but

reverberating

growing

through them all. At the founding of the Round Table the old bard sings the mysteries and triumphs of the king, and how, if he finds the
fitting bride,
"

The twain
But even

together well might change the world.
in the

middle of his song
fall'n,

He falter'd, and his hand fell from the harp, And pale he turn'd, and reel'd, and would have
But that they stay'd him up
;

nor would he

tell

"

330
His vision
This
evil
;

ARTHURIAN STORY
but what doubt that he foresaw work of Lancelot and the Queen ?
x

perhaps unfortunate that the idyll chiefly devoted to him is one of the earliest and least allegoric and we have to get most of our hints rather from
stray
references

;

that

occur

elsewhere.

The most
into

noticeable

and
is

recurrent
:

of

these

fall

the

following groups
(i)

He
to

Arthur's

chief warrior,

only

the

King.

In

the

first

battle

and second he is the

grand auxiliary, his arm working well for his lord, 1 each warding the other in the fight, the King 2 twice saving his life and he once saving the King's. And in the stress of conflict he sees and recognises beyond the shadow of a doubt the divine right
of Arthur's kingship
"
'

Sir and my liege,' he cried, Descends upon thee in the I know thee for my King
!

'

the

fire

of
:

God

battle-field
" 3

'

never

is never quenched and this memory Years later, when he has wronged his lord so cruelly, he yet tells Lavaine

This conviction
falters.

Fills

"In this heathen war the fire of God him I never saw his like there lives
: :

No
(2)

greater leader." 4

Warrior though he is, he is even more peculknight. His courtesies, his gentleness, his graciousness, are dwelt upon almost as often as his name is mentioned " a man made to be loved," is Arthur's affectionate description of him. 5 And even
iarly

a

;

1

Coming of Arthur,

125

and

130.
3

2 4

Gareth a?td Lynette, 483. Lancelot and Elaine, 314.

Coming of Arthur,
Ibid.

127.

5

1352.

— —
33 2
his

ARTHURIAN STORY
unmatched and unmatchable prowess is most when it is exercised half in sport.
is

conspicuous

Arthur says of himself that he
Than famous
jousts."
1

" Rather proven in his

Paynim wars

And
"

Lancelot says of him that he does not care
For triumph in our mimic wars, the jousts For if his own knight cast him down, he laughs
Saying, his knights are better

men

than he." 2

But

it

is

just the reverse with his friend

was the first in Tournament, But Arthur mightiest on the battle-field." 3
It
is

" Lancelot

in

tilts

and the adventures of knight errantry
is

that Lancelot
(3)

without
perfect

rival.

is chosen as the messenger to bring Guinevere to the King among the flowers in May. There is perhaps no his story to which Tennyson single episode in It took his fancy returns so often as to this. before he thought of the Idylls at all, when" in his unfinished lyric he sang how " in the boyhood of the year " Guinevere, clad in green, with Launcelot at her side, " fled thro' sun and shade," and " seem'd a part of joyous Spring." 4 He recurs to it in Balin and Balan, the last idyll he ever wrote, when Lancelot broods over the lilies in the presence of the Queen.

Came to that point where Ride toward her from the
Her journey done, glanced
'Not
like

first

she saw the King

city, sigh'd to find

at him, thought him cold, High, self-contain'd, and passionless, not like him,

my

Lancelot.'" 3

Thus Lancelot is represented as one of the earliest and most ardent to champion the King and confess but he is less excellent on the battlehis royalty the earnest game and mimic warfare in than field and, as " best knight and goodliest lists of the ambassador to lead Guinevere to chosen man," is which sows the seed of their mission a her lord, must be repeated that it will not It guilty love. allegorical interpretation in far the too do to urge personage whose character was elaborthe case of a became allegory the ruling thought ated before the
; ;

of the

poem
if it

;

yet

the

position of

Lancelot

is

so
left

important
unaltered
1

that his figure

would not have been
2

could not be pressed into the service
Ibid. 381.
3

Guinevere, 405.

Ibid. 400.

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
of the
whole.
I

335

would

suggest,

without

unduly

u
/

forcing the analogy, that the place of Lancelot

may

be compared with that of the imagination, or, if it be preferred, of men of imaginative temperament, in the life of the world. The first glimpse of the ideal is ever granted to the poets they are always at the
;

Nevertheless, they are more dawn of a new time. at home in the serene sport of art than in the
tion
lastly, the imaginaalways the intermediary is everywhere and between spirit and sense, though it too often forgets its function, and serves only to glorify the latter. But however it be with Lancelot's place in the

practical conflicts of

life.

And,

poem, there
set

is

no

doubt

as

to

the

significance

of the other great servant of Arthur at the outof his
career.

The sage and wizard Merlin
past,

has learned his magic by poring over the ancient

book of nature and the
"

Writ in a language that has long gone by, So long, that mountains have arisen since With cities on their flanks And none can read the text, not even I And none can read the comment but myself." 1

....
;

watches over Arthur's early years, and 2 It his craft" procures that he is crowned.
" Whose vast wit

He

" thro'
is

he

And hundred
Of
It
is

winters are but as the hands
3

loyal vassals toiling for their liege."

he
"

Who knew
3

the range of

all their arts,

1

Merlin and Vivien^ 672.

2 Coming of Arthur^ Coming of Arthur^ 279.

233.

—
336

ARTHURIAN STORY
Had Was
built the

also Bard,

King his havens, ships, and halls, and knew the starry heavens." x

he who moulds the great statue of Arthur, Arthur's ordinance completes the palaces of ancient kings with peak and pinnacle making
It
is

and

at

them
this

" spire

to

heaven."

2

The meaning

of

all

His service of Arthur typifies the assistance which every new principle must receive from the " natural magic " of the intellect, that pays homage to the ideal and labours on behalf of the highest. But the young king finds little acceptance and
lies

on

the surface.

aid

in

some
first

quarters.

When
a

a

new

aspect

of the
hostility

truth, or

new truth, or new incarnation
it

a

of

the truth
picion and

appears
;

among men,
it

excites susits

has to
as

prove

right to
in
is

obedience.

So

too

here,

we
its

learn

The

Coming of Arthur.
usurped
;

To some
it

power

merely

in their eyes

is

the offspring of rebellion

or insignificance, at best of illegitimate descent
"

No
Or Or

king of ours

!

a son of GorloYs he,

else the child of Anton, else baseborn."
3

and no

king,

*
And
those

who

accept

it,

envisage

it

in

different

ways and adhere to it for different reasons. To Ulfius and Brastias, Uther's knights, and to Sir
Bedivere it is simply a continuation of the old Arthur is the lawful son of Uther and system Ygerne. To others it arises in their consciousness,
;

amid the prose of life they have lost touchVof the ideal, they look back wistfully to their early hope
in it

Queen

Bellicent says of Arthur, her reputed
is

brother,
"

who
He
Beaten

yet so different from herself

found
I

me

first

when

yet a

little

maid
I

:

had been Whereof I was not

for a little fault

guilty

;

and out

ran

And And And

flung myself

down on a bank
world and
I

of heath,

hated this

fair

all therein,
;

were dead and he I know not whether of himself he came, Or brought by Merlin, who, they say, can walk

wept, and wish'd that

Unseen

at pleasure

— he

was

at

my

side,

And spake sweet words, and comforted my heart, And dried my tears, being a child with me. And many a time he came, and evermore
As I grew greater grew with me; and sad At times he seem'd, and sad with him was I, Stern too at times, and then I loved him not, But sweet again, and then I loved him well. And now of late I see him less and less,
But those first days had golden hours for me, For then I surely thought he would be king." *

And
seeks

even
to
" that

in

later

years of separation,

when she

dissuade her son
is

one
this

from following not proven king," she cannot repress
Gareth

testimony of her young heart or her conviction that, with all his kingliness, he is yet, according to the spirit if not to the flesh, of nearest kindred with
herself.

When

"In mine own heart I knew him King, I was frequent with him in my youth,
1

Coming of

Artkttr, 339.

33^

ARTHURIAN STORY
And heard him Kingly speak, and doubted him No more than he, himself; but felt him mine,
Of
closest kin to me."
x

such a principle seems of superand Queen Bellicent quotes the story of Bleys about the dragon ship with its shining crew, the flaming waves and flaming skies, when Arthur, a naked babe, borne of fire and water, was laid at Merlin's feet. 2 In Bleys, who taught Merlin magic
others again
;

To

natural origin

but

afterwards

cast

it

aside
see

to

chronicle
reference

Merlin's
to

doings,

we may perhaps
wonder
is

a

that

which philosophy begins and which ought to greet the achievements of the human
reverential
in

that the wonderful in his be congenial to the poet and the people, the people preferring to trace the origin of their king to heaven, the poet to the mysterious sea. Gareth, in the kitchen, is glad when he hears some
reason.
It

natural

narrative should

thrall narrate,
"

How once the wandering forester at dawn, Far over the blue tarns and hazy seas, On Caer-Eryri's highest found the King." 3
of the

At the founding how
All

Round

Table, the bard sings

" After tempest, when the long wave broke down the thundering shores of Bude and Bos, There came a day as still as heaven, and then They found a naked child upon the sands Of dark Tintagil by the Cornish sea
;

And

that

was Arthur." 4
at Arthur's origin

All those
1

ways of looking
121.
2
4

have
et seq.

Gareth and Lynette,

Coming of Arthur, 369
Guinevere, 288.

3

Gareth and Lynette, 488.

;

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
their truth
;

339
the

it is

the truth

when passed through

broken Youth and age will and coloured in the rain-drop. refract it differently, the one may be too positive and
varieties of
feeling, as the sunlight is
vthe

human

other too credulous

;

but after

all

it

is

the

same

whether with a background of earth or heaven, and whether clothed in symbol or seen direct. The differences are of small importance; indeed their cause is also cause of the rich beauty of life, just as sun and rain that make the rainbow, call forth the manifold flowers of the earth. This seems to be the sense of the " riddling triplets of old time " with which Merlin answers Bellicent's questions as to
light,
i

the truth of Bleys's
" Rain, rain,

tale.

A

and sun a rainbow in the sky young man will be wiser by and by An old man's wit may wander ere he die.
!

!

;

" Rain, rain, and sun, a rainbow on the lea

!

And And

truth

is

this to

me, and that to thee

truth or clothed or

naked

let it be.

" Rain, sun,

and

rain
!

!

Sun, rain, and sun

and the free blossom blows and where is he who knows ?
:

From
"

the great deep to the great deep he goes."'

1

From

the

great
is

deep
last

to

the

great

deep

he\
I

goes."

This

the

word

about

the

origin

and passing of every phase of the ideal. It comes back to the Queen when for the last time she sees her lord ride forth from Camelot. 2 To Sir Bedivere, too, it comes back when he sees the wounded King
sailing away.
1

3

Coming of

Arthitr, 402.
3

-Last Tournament,

133.

Passing of Arthur, 445.

340

AR THURIAN STOR Y

But the powers of the deep and of the heavens with him from the first. At his coronation the three Christian graces of love, hope, and faith, three rays of flame-colour, vert and azure falling from the Crucifixion window, one on each, stand by his throne as three fair queens
are

"with bright
Sweet
faces,

who
the

will

help

him

at his need."

1

There, too,

is

mysterious

Lady
mist

of the

Lake,

who knows

a subtler magic even than Merlin's.

"A
Of incense
curl'd

about her, and her face
;

Wellnigh was hidden in the minster gloom But there was heard among the holy hymns

A

voice as of the waters, for she dwells

Down in a May shake
Hath power

deep
to

;

calm, whatsoever storms

the world, and

when

the surface

rolls,
2

walk the waters

like our Lord."

These

mystic

guardians

of Arthur are portrayed

over the gate of Camelot, and strike awe into^the heart of Gareth and his companions.
" Barefoot on the keystone,

which was lined

And rippled like an ever- fleeting wave, The Lady of the Lake stood all her dress Wept from her sides as water flowing away
:

;

But

like the cross
all

her great and goodly arms
the cornice and upheld
;
:

Stretch'd under

And drops of water fell from either hand And down from one a sword was hung, from one

A

censer, either
o'er

worn with wind and storm
;

;

And And
1

her breast floated the sacred fish

in the

space to

left

of her,

and
2

right,
Ibid. 286.

•

Coming of Arthur,

277.

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
Were
Arthur's wars in weird devices done,
things and old co-twisted, as
if Time Were nothing, so inveterately, that men Were giddy gazing there and over all
;

341

New

High on the top were those three Queens, the friends Of Arthur, who should help him at his need." 1

J
J

JM/|1
•//•'

As
in

the

Lady

of the
for

Lake has nothing
is

to

do

with the action of the story, but
the

only introduced
effect,
is

background
of her
task.

symbolic

the inter-

pretation
fiable

various

attributes

no

unjusti-

principle

She seems to represent the spiritual which lies at the heart of all that is.
she stands

j

On

the

gate
the

on the keystone of the
above and
below.

arch and
taining

supports the cornice overhead, thus suswhole,

both

She

dwells calmly in the unvexed deep, compared with

which
best
side.

all

manifestations of the finite seem but the

forms of waves, or drops
her

from her fingers, or at garment that flows like water from her But the calm that is her home is not the

impassive rest of the Nirvana.
the
the
sacred,
fish,
t

The

references

to

he
in

cross-like

posture

type of Chris t,*»and to her bearing her burden, suggest

element of sacrificial love in the spiritual life. In troublous times it is hers to walk the rolling surface, like our Lord to terrify and uphold and, therefore, on the gate she is portrayed barefooted on the waves. The warfare of the ideal is depicted on each side of her, as though waged under her
;

tutelage
aspect,

;

but in weird

devices

and

in

its

eternal

sub specie eternitatis, as though time
it

were
\

nothing, and not as
1

appears to the eyes of sense.

Gareth and Lynette, 210.

34 2

A R THURIA N S TOR Y
statue bears

Her

a censer, and her present face
incense, for
to

is

veiled

by a mist of

her

arise

the

Her statue, too, bears devout aspirations of men. a sword, typical of her might to destroy and save, but it is wanting in the description of her at the coronation. It would seem that this is the brand Excalibur, wrought by her in the deep as she sat "upon the hidden bases of the hills," 1 the "huge 2 which she gave the King that cross-hilted sword" She lent it, and he might drive the heathen out.
she will receive
it

again.

As

she

is

present at the

crowning of Arthur u clothed in white samite, mystic, 3 wonderful," so an arm, " clothed in white samite, 4 wonderful," rises from the lake to catch it mystic, is come. the time when Meanwhile her emissary Arthur goes forth to It is one of those times of anarchy his work.

and confusion, when the old order

is

passing,

when
to

the old principles have lost their victorious power,

and when no new order or principle has arisen meet the wants of the age
;

"

The Roman
its
fill'd

left us,

Relax'd

hold upon

us,

and their law and the ways

Were

with rapine."

5

spiritual

of the whole social and everywhere rivalry and conflict, and no coherence under one strong law

There

is

disorganisation

life,

;

"

Many

a petty king ere Arthur came

Ruled

in this isle,

and ever waging war
wasted
8

Each upon
1

other,

all

the land."

6

;{

Passing of Arthur, 274. Coming of Arthur, 284.
Guinevere, 453.

Coming of Arthur,

285.

4

5

6

Passing of Arthur, 312. Coming of Arthur, 5.

GENERAL MEANING OE THE IDYLLS
And
these
relics

343
left

of the
;

older culture are not

to internal dissolution

and brutal impulses complete the work and invade the poor dominions that remain
lawless
;

"

Still

from time to time the heathen host

Swarm'd overseas, and harried what was left. And so there grew great tracts of wilderness, Wherein the beast was ever more and more, But man was less and less, till Arthur came."

1

What wonder
right

that the people clamour for a King,

2

or that even those

like Leodogran, who doubt his and would rather see the Romans back, send

to Arthur, saying,
''Arise, and help us thou! For here between the man and beast we

die." 3

Not

as

though

in

the

most chaotic of

transition

ages there were no impulse towards goodness, no

no effort to find something which might restore the unity to life. But impulse is a very fallible guide, and may lead as easily to evil Gareth's antagonists are described as as to good
battle for right,
;

knights

errant

of the old

style

who

ride

abroad,

not redressing
will,

human wrong,

but doing what they

" Courteous or bestial from the

moment."

4

And
when

even
it

struggling
is

for

right

is

of

little

avail

only

at

the

private
is

behest
the

of

the

individual
1

conscience,
8.

and
2

not

result
3

of a

Coming of Arthur,
4

Ibid. 234.

Ibid. 44.

Gareth and Lynctte, 616.

;

;

344

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
which addresses and moves whole

spiritual principle

masses of men.
"

At most,
redress'd a

says Arthur,

Here and there a deed

Of prowess done

random wrong."

l

And in times of disruption and of opposition between partial truths and one-sided opinions there must be much preliminary struggle and failure before the new principle is revealed, and the neworder arises, which will include all the warring elements and subdue them to itself
" First Aurelius lived

and fought and

died,

And

him King Uther fought and But either fail'd to make the kingdom
after

died,

one."

2

At length, however, the hour of The passage proceeds;
"

fulfilment

comes.

And after these King Arthur for a space, And thro' the puissance of his Table Round, Drew all their petty princedoms under him, Their king and head, and made a realm, and

reign'd."

3

Arthur's
"

own account

is

similar,

but more explicit

;

The kings we found, ye know we stay'd their hands From war among themselves, but left them kings Of whom were any bounteous, merciful, Truth-speaking, brave, good livers, them we enroll'd

Among

us,

and they

sit

within our hall/ 4

And

again

;

I was first of all the kings who drew The knighthood-errant of this realm and all The realms together under me, their Head,

"

1

Guinevere 455.
',

2 Coming of Arthur, 13. *Gareth and Lynette, 413.

3

Ibid.

16.

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
my Table Round, company, the flower of men, To serve as model for the mighty world, And be the fair beginning of a time." l
In that fair Order of
glorious

345

A

Gathering strength
controversy, blow,"
2

in

battle as truth

"

mightier
little

he has

malcontents

who

will

proved in every trouble in vanquishing the not acknowledge him, and
is

of

his

hands

with

on the
a

battlefield

he

is

hailed

as
it

king.
has, as

And
it

as

new

ideal wins its

way because

were,

clear

insight into the lie of things, because it is based on knowledge of the position and circumstances of the time, so in Arthur's first battle with the rebels, " The world

Was
The

all

so clear about him, that he saw
hill,
3

smallest rock far on the faintest

And

even in high day the morning
last

star."

Contrast this with the weird
order
in

battle,

when
is

the

perplexity and

bewilderment

passing

away.
"

A

deathwhite mist slept over sand and sea

:

and ev'n on Arthur fell Confusion, since he saw not whom he fought. For friend and foe were shadows in the mist, And friend slew friend not knowing whom he

slew."
is

4

At

Arthur's accession, however, the confusion

on
in

the side of the adversary, and the forces of nature
declare
their

themselves

for

the

King, as
to

the stars
fight
for

courses
;

seem

sometimes
2

the

truth
1

Guinevere, 457.

3

Coming of Arthur,

96.

4

Coming of Arthur, 109. Passing of Arthur, 95, 98.

34-6

ARTHURIAN STORY
" The Powers who walk the world Made lightnings and great thunders over And dazed all eyes."
*

him,

The enemies
believe
in

are

weak
;

because

they
a

cease

to

themselves

they have

boding con-

sciousness that their quarrel ,wants the triple

armour

of right, and that they are found out.
" Before a voice

As dreadful To one who

as the shout of one
sins,

who

sees

And

all

and deems himself alone the world asleep, they swerved and brake."

2

But when he has beaten down his rebels, Arthur's work is only just beginning. He must vindicate his right against the Roman and the heathen, both against the old order and against the foes of all
order.

The King,
Rome,

refusing

tribute

to

the

great

lords of

uses the very words that afterwards

rise to his lips

when

his

own time

is

come

;

"

The

old order changeth, yielding place to new."

3

Then he and his knights, working with one overcome the Saxons, and in
"

will,,

Twelve great

battles splash'd

and dyed
blood."
4

The
This
is

strong White Horse in his

own heathen

Arthur's

supreme

justification

of himself

Can men gather grapes of thorns The new principle is known or figs of thistles ? When Bellicent seeks to above all by its fruits.
and
his claims.

keep Gareth from the court with the argument,
1

3

Coming of Arthur, Coming of Arthur,

106.

2 4

Ibid. 115.

508.

Holy

Grail, 311.

—
GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
" There be

347

Or
his
"

will not
is

many who deem him deem him, wholly proven
quick
;

not,

King,"

1

answer

Not proven, who swept the dust of

ruin'd

Rome

From off the threshold of the realm, and crush'd The Idolaters, and made the people free? Who should be King save him who makes us free?" 2

Makes
sion,
in

us

free,

however, not merely

in

the sense of

freeing us from external

power or external oppres-

but in the sense that the highest freedom lies obedience to the law of spiritual development, as symbolically graven on the friezes of Arthur's

own

palace

:

" Four great zones of sculpture, set betwixt With many a mystic symbol, gird the hall
i

And in the lowest beasts are slaying men, And in the second men are slaying beasts, And on the third are warriors, perfect men, And on the fourth are men with growing wings, And over all one statue in the mould
Of
Arthur,

made by

Merlin, with a crown,
5

And

peak'd wings pointed to the Northern Star."'

Arthur, alone
is

represented

with wings

full

grown,

and his wings point to the steadfast pole star, as though he were a denizen of the regions of eternity beyond the reach of change, newly alighted on a mission
the

climax of the

spiritual

evolution,

to

the
fresh

struggling

children
ideal,
all

of earth.

And

indeed

type of the of men, comes with
a
1

dawning on the minds
authority of a divine
2

the

Gareth and Lynettc, 119.
;!

Ibid. 133.

Ho/y

Grail, 232.

—
34-8

!

ARTHURIAN STORY
In his

message.

wedding procession the

fellows of

the Table sing before the King
" Strike for the

King and live his knights have heard That God hath told the King a secret word. Fall battleaxe, and flash brand Let the King reign.
! !

"

Blow trumpet Blow trumpet

!

he

will

lift

us from the dust.

live the strength and die the lust Clang battleaxe, and clash brand Let the King
!

!

reign.

"

The King
In

will follow Christ,

and we the King
!

whom

high

God hath
and
flash

breathed a secret thing.

Fall battleaxe,

brand

Let the King reign."

1

It is part

of the divine secret that belongs to
it

the

ideal, that

can speak
conflicts

in

the
life.

categorical impera"

tive

amid the

of

Ah

great

and

gentle lord," cries Guinevere,
"

Who

wast, as

is

the conscience of a saint
2

Among

his warring senses, to thy knights."

And
"

to acknowledge this

sway
;

is

prime

article

in

the vows of the
I made them To reverence

Round Table
lay their

hands
if

in

mine and swear

the King, as

he were

Their conscience, and their conscience as their King, To break the heathen and uphold the Christ, To ride abroad redressing human wrongs,

To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it, To honour his own word as if his God's, To lead sweet lives in purest chastity, To love one maiden only, cleave to her, And worship her by years of noble deeds, Until they won her." 3
1

Coming of Arthur,

487.

2

Guinevere, 633.

3

Ibid. 464.

—

—
349

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS

This famous enumeration of the vows, which, it should be remembered, occurs in Guinevere, one of| the first four Idylls, perhaps hardly answers the re-

Something more awful quirements of the case. and mysterious might possibly have been expected.

The

capital point

is

the obedience the

King

requires

to himself,

and this is the only one mentioned in the later more impressive account of the founding of the Order
;

"Then

the King in low deep tones,

And

simple words of great authority,

Bound them by so strait vows to his own self, That when they rose, knighted from kneeling, some

Were Some

pale as at the passing of a ghost,
flush'd,

and others dazed, as one who wakes
1

Half-blinded at the coming of a light."

Here the grand obligation is to make themselves one with the ideal, an obligation which, of course, no single life can ever fulfil, but which of necessity lies on men just because they are men. This is the point of the old sage's words to Gareth
;

"The King
Will bind thee by such vows, as
is

a shame

A man

should not be bound by, yet the which
;

No man

can keep but, so thou dread to swear, Pass not beneath this gateway, but abide

Without,

among

the cattle of the field."

2

The attainment
possible

of the

goal, if possible

at

all,

is

only

in

those

rare

intervals
.

of spiritual

exaltation,
rise
1

when men, perhaps once in a life-time, above themselves to a higher level of feeling
259.
2

Coming of Arthur,

Gareth cuid Lynette, 270.

*

350

ARTHURIAN STORY

or conduct. So when his knights first took their vows, the king spake and cheered them with " large,
divine,

and comfortable words," and, says
"
I

Bellicent,

beheld

From eye

to eye thro' all their

Order

flash

A

momentary

likeness of the King."

But in a lower sense none can escape the influence of the ruling ideal of an age, and the monk Ambrosius can say to Percivale of his brother
knights,
"

Good ye
true,

are

and bad, and

like to coins,

Some

some

light,

but every one of you
2

Stamp'd with the image of the King."

the

Moreover, so long as fervency of first
it

an
its

ideal

is

embraced with
all

love,

despite

defect

of

attainment,

gives
its

enthusiasm on

behalf,

champions an apostolic and has a resistless course
agaze.

that sets later and
unfaithful Tristram

cooler generations

The

owns

;

" Every knight

/Believed
And
Till he,

himself a greater than himself,

every follower eyed him as a

God

;

up beyond himself, Did mightier deeds than elsewise he had done, And so the realm was made." 3
being
lifted

In this sense every success of its adherents is a testimony to the truth and efficacy of a principle. It shows that it is based on the needs of human nature, and can inspire men to fight and conquer
1

Coming of Arthur,
3

268.

a

Holy

Grail, 25.

Last Tournament, 671.

:

GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
on
its

35

I

behalf.

"

Ye know

right

well,"

says

Guinevere of the King,
"

No He

keener hunter
loves
it

after glory breathes.

in his knights
to

more than himself

They prove

him

his

work" x
Table, a fellowship
or

Such, then,
order in

is

the

Round

which the spirit of the King is to be worked out and realised, and the ideal to be stamped on the lives of men. It has therefore two aspects, each of them essential and true, but very different from, and even opposed to, each other and this has given rise to a seeming contradiction, or what in philosophical language would be called an antinomy, in the two famous descriptions of it. Arthur, bent on his work of
;

practical

regeneration,
ideal

thinks
as

of

this

effort

at

embodying the

a picture of what ought

to be, as a pattern for mankind.

He

has founded
2

it,

"To

serve as model for the mighty world."

But Bedivere, who worships his master as " King 3 everywhere," and is ready in death to worship him, For the ideal, in so has another point of view. far as it is the true ideal, is one with the inmost
nature of things
;

in

the deepest sense
partial

it

is

real,

and is indeed the only Thus to Sir Bedivere,
the fellowship
is

eternal, all-inclusive
its

reality.

embodiment
at

in

less

a pattern of what ought to
is
;

be than a mirror of what
1

and
2

the

close,

Lancelot

and
3

Elaine, 155.

Guinevere, 462.

Passing of Arthur,

148.

352

ARTHURIAN STORY
distress, that the "

he cries out in his Table is dissolved,"
"

whole Round
1

Which was an image of

the mighty world."

At the first founding of the Table and the fair beginning of a time, the consciousness of this is a source of boundless confidence and hope. If God has told his secret to Arthur and the Order
reflects
is

the

soul

of

all

that

is,

then nature herself

on their side. She is no dead thing, but is animated by what animates them, and is partaker
in their joy.
"

Blow trumpet, for the world is white with May ; Blow trumpet, the long night hath roll'd away Let the King reign.' Blow thro' the living world

—

!

'

"

*,

And
fairies.

here
In

Tennyson
association

makes
the

skilful

use

of

the

traditional

of Arthur's
novice
full

reign
tells

with the
at his

Guinevere,
all

how

coming when
father
call

"

the land was

of signs," her

heard the mermaids and things of the sea
the
elves

to

of chasm
air

and

cleft

;

and saw

dashing on the wayside flower and circling round the light, and even " merry " so glad bloated things " at work in the cellar 3 The elemental powers were spirits and men." are felt to be sympathetic in those early days of
the spirits of
:

wood and

hope and faith. But amid the depression that close in around the end, the doubt and and earth becomes a " sterile withdrawn, is glamour promontory " from which the life has gone away. The outcast Guinevere
infinite
1

Passing of Arthur, 403.
3

2

Corning of Arthitr, 481.

Guinevere, 235-268.

—
GENERAL MEANING OF THE IDYLLS
"

353

Heard the

Spirits of the

waste and weald

Moan

as she fled, or thought she heard

them moan."

1

Arthur, the night before the last
cries

fight, dreams of amidst the haze, as when at the sack of some

lonely city wife and child pass to

new

lords,

and

waking, he asks
"

;

Doth all that haunts the waste and wild Mourn, knowing it will go along with me ? " 2
In the times of discouragement that ensue,

men

will

have
will
in

lost faith in

the friendly kinship of nature, and

look for solace not to its indwelling sympathy, which they have ceased to believe, but to the memories that the vanished Arthur has bequeathed
the
world.

to

And

here
of
his

Tennyson presses
Arthur's

into
lo-

service
calities

the association

name with

and

constellations,
in

which he explains

for

his

own purpose
Was

own way.

"When

our

King," says Tristram,
"

victor wellnigh

day by day, the knights,
glory, set his

Glorying in each

new
and

name
3

High on

all hills,

in the signs of heaven."

And
"

Sir

Bedivere

answers

the

dejection

of

his

master

O

me,

my

King,

let

pass whatever

will,
;

Elves, and the harmless glamour of the field

But

in their stead thy
all

name and

glory cling

To

high places like a golden cloud

For ever." 4

Thus the poet reads

his

new meaning

into the fading

hieroglyphics of Celtic legend, and. transmutes the

memories of the old King,
1

Guinevere, 128.

2
4

3

Last Tournament, 335.

Passing of Arthur, 48. Passing of Arthur, 51.

354

ARTHURIAN STORY
"

Whose name,

a ghost,
1

Streams

like

a cloud, man-shaped, from mountain peak,

And

cleaves to cairn
:

and cromlech
is

still."

To sum up
it

Arthur

the ideal revealed as alone

can be revealed to us, namely, under the limitations of time. And while these limitations preclude finality in any of its manifestations, and while its forms must pass away, the Ideal itself is eternal, and has a reality beyond all phenomenal show and
Yet, by a seeming contradiconly in so far as it allies itself with fulfils itself in sense but this 4l:s opposite, and union can never be perfected in fact, the millennial
all

particular beliefs.
it

tion,

is

real

;

faith and hope. Meanwhile, each single phase of the Ideal which, in their development, has swayed the hearts of men, has been helped to power by the poet and the thinker and however its claims may be questioned or explained, makes its way, because it is no casual intrusion, but has its divinely appointed mission to the world, because in its influence it suits the wants of the time and furthers the spiritual liberation of men. And to those who feel this, it brings a code of sacred duties, which, if they cannot fulfil, they cannot escape. They in their common efforts form a kind of ecclesia which both anticipates and repeats the true life of the world, and in which they feel at one with the inmost nature of things. And even if at the inevitable break up all this may seem to be " The past is not lost, yet something remains. utterly past." Its inspiring power has left traces like a golden cloud on the high places of life.
;

consummation remains a matter of

1

To

the Queen, 38.

CHAPTER

VIII

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES

A RTHUR,
is

then, the ^chamrjjoji of
;

Jhejnew.

ideal,

crowned and throned

with the help of his

down opposition from without and within he is wedded to the bride of his heart's desire and now he dwells in his own new hall amid
knights he has beat
;

;

the storied fabrics of the traditional city, whence his
will passes

out through

all

the land, whither

all

types
his
in

of

men

hasten to do him

homage and

receive

commands.

The

Idylls, in their succession,

and

the careers of the several leaders of the Arthurian

Order itself, its triumphant sway till it loses power over the hearts of men, and must give place before the might of time and change. At first it draws to itself the aspirations of those to whom it is given to aspire. Noble hearts like
Order, recount to us the story of that

from the early days of

those of
11

young Gareth,

that long to fly

To

Sun of Glory, and thence swoop Down upon all things base, and dash them dead," 1
the great

know

their

King
1

yearn to serve

him " who makes them free " and him. Not the most sacred of natural
in

Gareth cuid Lynette,

22.

//
356
ties,

ARTHURIAN STORY
though such men
is

will

always honour these to
their exist-

the height, can keep
I

them from devoting

ence to the ideal that
'j,the

really governing the life of'

world. Such natures need less to be urged than rto be guided. The impulse is there, the recognition and love of the highest, only at first it will not be quite clear or unmixed. The search for the good
is

contained in their search for the glorious, but at
is

the outset the true substance of glory

not dis-

inguished from

its

form.

So

it

is

with Gareth, and

the story of his adventures

is but the story of his from instinct to duty, from feeling to principle, from half sight to full vision of his aim.

education
It
|

begins in his consenting to disguise his nobler

nature

and

higher

aims,

and

betake

himself

to

menial work, seemingly for the sake of the loaves and the fishes, for a hire of meat and drink. This
behest his mother lays upon him in her love, and he obeys it as the only way to reconcile his love for so he deals lightly her with his love for the King with the intellectual scruple that with his " one white " Let love be blamed lie " he is mocking the King. for it " ' he knows that the meaning of his conduct is no mockery but heart-felt reverence, and he thus learns a lesson in discriminating between the kernel His servitude in the kitchen is an and the husk. indignity which only touches him from without, and he submits to it without any great reluctance, per: :

—

forming
" All kind of service with a noble ease

That graced the

lowliest act in doing

it."

2

But even when thus cheerily accepting,
1

" for glory,"
2

Gareth and Lynette, 291-293.

Ibid. 479.

>

—
357

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
"

The

sooty yoke of kitchen-vassalage/'

are not unmingled. On the one hand he bows to the grossest tasks in utter obedience to the King but on the other he is buoyed up with expectation of the end, and even brings himself to
his motives
;

rejoice in the slough that conceals his nobility, as a
foil

to the splendour of his sunrise

;

much

as Prince

Hal
that
"

finds consolation for his wildness in the thought

when he does appear in his true colours he will more be wondered at." It is perception of this latent feeling that makes the King admonish him:
" But wherefore

would ye men should wonder at you me, their King, And the deed's sake my knighthood do the deed, Than to be noised of." 2
Nay, rather
for the sake of

?

That is the next lesson he has to learn, to dismiss from his heart all demand for the acknowledgment of men, and rest content with the approval of his conscience and the quality of the act. Now he endures the taunts and misconstructions of Lynette, he hears all his achievements attributed to accident or foul play, he cannot be sure that she will ever do him right, for he is on a dangerous mission that may be his death. But he perseveres, now truly for the deed's sake and his oath's sake, without murmur as without fear. By this time he is so schooled and disciplined that he can offer victorious
battle
to
;

N.

the various

natural

impulses that

beset
;

our

manhood, and age or rather, that are sometimes good, sometimes evil
life

that vary with youth,

;

that

are
1

all

evil

in

so

far

as

they
2

are

merely

Gareth and Lynette, 469.

Ibid. 557.

"

"

35^
natural,

ARTHURIAN STORY
principle.

and

and have not put on the restraint of duty The champions against whom his quest sends him forth are described as of
"

The

fashion of that old knight-errantry
ride abroad,

Who

and do but what they
king."
1

will

;

Courteous or bestial from the moment, such

As have nor law nor

The
Star,

three

brethren

call

themselves
the

the

Noon-Sun, and

the Morningand Evening-Star
;

the fourth
" Names himself the Night and oftener Death, And wears a helmet mounted with a skull, And bears a skeleton figured on his arms, To show that who may slay or scape the three,

Slain

by

himself, shall enter endless night."

2

They have taken Time
five

their allegory

carvings on the rocks
against
the
soul

that

set

from the anchorite's forth " the war of
3

of

man
as

in

the figure of

armed men, inscribed Hesperus, Nox and Mors,

Phosphorus, Meridies,

" Running down the Soul, a Shape With broken wings, torn raiment and

that fled

loose hair,
4

For help and
It is difficult at

shelter to the hermit's cave."

once to see
the

the

brethren

of

Day

as

why Lynette talks of " fools," who have

sucked " but the form " of their " fool's parable 5 for the significance in both from this imagery cases is much the same. The most obvious external difference between the two allegories is that
;

1

3

Gareth and Lynette, 614. Gareth and Lynette, 1 179.

2 4

Ibid. 638.
Ibid.
1

177.

6

Gareth and Lynette, 979, 1169, and passim.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
there
are
five

359

figures but only four having distinguished between Nox and Mors, while with the brethren they are combined. At first the latter arrangement seems If the Morning-Star, the the more appropriate. Noon-Sun, and the Evening-Star respectively represent Youth, Manhood, and Age, with the various impulses characteristic of each, on the same analogy Night should stand for Death with its terrors and does so even with pains. I would suggest that it the hermit, but that he means by it the death of the body and adds as the last enemy of the soul the spiritual death which he emphatically describes as Mors. From his point of view all these are dangers menacing the soul, which flies for refuge

sculptured

knights,

the

hermit

;

to the " fugitive

and cloistered virtues " of the herBut to the Brethren man is merely a product of Nature, and the successive natural impulses which they represent are his supreme and therefore, they can see no difference only lords between the death of the spirit, and that bodily
mitage.
;

death which, in their eyes, leads to " endless night." And theirs is a fool's parable just because they It is neglect any but the physical aspect of life. not true that the planets which rule man's little
" O day are merely the passions of the hour. morning star not that tall felon there," " O Sun

—not

—

this

strong

fool,"

cries

Lynette
at
all

in

her
of
his

snatches
his

of happy

song. 1

Man
and
higher

stages

growth

has

better

suns

stars

than

natural

desires.

And

this

light

and lead-

ing Gareth follows.
1

He

accepts

neither the alle-

Gareth and Lynette, 971, 1032.

360

ARTHURIAN STORY

gory of the hermit nor the fool's parable of the Brotherhood he neither flies nor obeys his implanted instincts, but meets them to subdue them. Where a bridge of single arc takes the full narrow <j stream at a leap, the Morning-Star stands glorying 1 in his youthful pride, but after a struggle, short and sharp, he falls before Gareth and forfeits to him his shield. The Sun, with his " red and cipher 2 foolishness," who typifies the v/ face of rounded blank fatuity of ponderous worldly gratification, keeps ward beside a raging shallow over a ford in the stream of life but he slips by his own awkwardness, and falls before Gareth almost of himself. There is greater danger at the third passage, where a bridge of treble bow spans a broad, deep current. 3 There the old and sordid EveningStar bars the way, clad in rusty armour, and, more impenetrably beneath, " in hardened skins that fit him like his own," as our habits become a second \ nature and incase us with the years. Gareth, in
; ;

this battle,
" Panted hard, and his great heart, Foredooming all his trouble was in vain, Labour'd within him, for he seem'd as one That all in later, sadder age begins To war against ill uses of a life, But these from all his life arise, and cry, Thou hast made us lords, and canst not put us down

'

!'" 4

The

victory

is

Gareth's at
his

last

and
this

it

brings

him

to the

end of

dangers, but

he does not

know.
1

Two more

probations are in store for him.
2

Gareth a?id Lytic tie, 913.
4

Ibid.

1012.

3

Jdid. 1060.

Ibid. 1098.

*

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
"

361
Lynette's

Now, methinks," he
words,

cries, in

his joy at

fair

"There rides no knight, not Lancelot, Hath force to quell me."

his great self,

But the
be
is

illusion

of

invincible

prowess

shall

not

his.

The words

are hardly spoken

when Lan-

is upon him, and he, unconquered till now, overthrown at last. But he takes his mishap with a laugh, and when the recognition comes, can rejoice that it was he and not his unmatched " An some chance," he exclaims, friend that fell.

celot

"

Had

sent thee
I

down
been."

before a lesser spear,
2

Shamed had

There speaks the spirit of true glory, that would feel triumph at the expense of a greater as shame! Gareth!s last trial remains, when he rides forth to cope with darkness and the horror of death,
to be the easiest adventure helmet of his foe reveals " the bright face of a blooming boy " 3 it was only his

but
of

this

turns

out

all.

The

split

;

brethren
;

him out in his ghastly emblems for it is only when human life is counted nothing more than a natural process that its end is an object of hopeless fear. For those who,
tricked
service

who

mastering the natural man, set their glory in the of the Ideal and the spiritual character of the deed, death has lost its worst terrors, though
still
it

may make
The

their blood tingle
is

creep.

true glory

and their and remains theirs
weight
Ibid.
J

flesh

;

and
be

the
1

exceeding

and
1

eternal
153.
2

of
z

it

can

Gareth and Lynctte,

2 13.

Ibid. 1373.

362
impaired
overthrow.

ARTHURIAN STORY
no

more

by death
"

than

by

scorn
"

or

Instead of the
threatened,
"

endless night

which
1

7

the

brethren

for

Gareth at the close

there springs a

happier day from underground."

Geraint
illustrates

is

another type of character,

who

also

the might of the

New

Order over the

of men, but with him the homage is less and spontaneous. He is a " tributary prince 2 "; of Devon he has had to submit to the King, he does not burn to serve him as did the youthful Gareth, and therefore his service is at first of a
hearts
free

rather external kind.
course,

He
is

is

brave, as a matter of

and

his

name
3

"

far-sounded

among men

His " exceeding manfulness and pure nobility of temperament " 4 hold his hand from the dwarf who strikes him, and he is wroth with his own momentary wrath at such a worm. When Enid is sent to tend his horse, he, " reverencing the custom of the house," which endured not that a " guest should serve himself," " from utter courtesy" forbears to follow her. 5 But the flaws in his nature are not a few. Some stress is laid on his massive build, his brawny arms, his " huge limbs " 6 and there is a touch of grossness about him that fits well with the " large composition of the man."
for noble deeds."
;

He

is

quick
castle

to

feel

the

claims

of appetite

;

at

he eats " with all the passion of a twelve hours' fast," 7 and even in his jealous agony he consumes all the food destined for all the reapers. 8
Yniol's
1

Gareth and Lynette, 1386.

2

Marriage of Geraint,
Ibid. 211.
Ibid. 306.
6

2.

3
6

Marriage of Geraint, Marriage of Geraint,
8

427.
1

4
7

Ibid. 379-381.

24.

Geraint and Enid, 215.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
Nor
is

363

free from a sluggish and indolent opening of the story he has lain too long to join the hunt, just as at a later day he abandons all activity for a life of slothful ease with Enid. There is something ostentatious about his lavish hospitality with Enid mournful in the corner, he feasts Limours " sumptuously according 1 to his fashion," and bids the host keep open house

he quite
at

strain

;

the

;

as well. as

He makes

too

much

of external splendour,,

when he

varies his wife's beauty
in purples

day by day,
in

"In crimsons and

and

gems,"

2

and thinks thus
holiday

to

keep her

true.

And
attire
;

this

love

of splendour appears also in his

own

with his

silks, his purple scarf, his golden pendants, he comes flashing through the ford, and " glancing 3 like a dragon-fly." If there is a hint of vanity in this, it appears more noticeably in the specious colour he gives to his departure from court that he will defend his marches against the bandits of the wild land. It appears too in his self-confidence and his reliance on his rough and ready judgments. After his very elementary test with the dress he
;

cries,

Now,

therefore,

I

do

rest,

A

prophet certain of

my

prophecy,

That never shadow of mistrust can cross Between us " 4
;

a

" false

doom," which afterwards he
all,

recalls

with a

sigh.

But, above

this

trust

to
to

and judgment
think evil

by appearances make him prone
1

and
10.

Geraint and Enid, 284.

2

Marriage of Gerai7tt,
Ibid. 813.

3

Marriage of Geraint, 169
5

etc.

4

Geraint and Enid, 247.

364
to suspect.
his

ARTHURIAN STORY

This is seen not only in the story of estrangement from Enid there is earlier evidence of it in his readiness to believe the worst of the Queen, " tho' yet there lived no proof." ' There is earlier evidence of it still in his cruel experiment with Enid, when, no reason given, she
;

must discard her royal apparel for her faded Then, indeed, after looking at her as keenly
"

silks.

As

careful robins eye the delver's toil,"

2

he

rests satisfied with the expression he reads but once again the same odd comparison is made
is

;

when Geraint looks and
the simile
is

not

3

satisfied.
;

And

repeated with a purpose

none could

better bring out the sharp, eager, but not penetrating glance of Geraint in his would-be clairvoyance.

When he relies on such an investigation we can understand how, though he chances to be right on the first occasion, he goes wrong on the second.
Meanwhile
that
that,
is
it

is

the want of ideality and faith

at the root of his
will

weakness

;

once give him

and he

have a

fire

within to burn out the

flesh. When he lays on himpenance not to ask Enid the meaning of her self-accusing words, and when he can tell her,

imperfections of the

self the

"

I

And
then he
his

do believe yourself against yourself, will henceforward rather die than doubt," 4
is

ready to love and reverence the King

aright, receive his lessons of repentance,

and dedicate
has learned

whole

life

to his service.

If a

man

the secret of one noble soul, so that he can say in
1

Marriage of Geraint,
Geraint and Enid, 431.

26.

2
4

Ibid. 774. Ibid. 743.

3

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
face of
in

365

what seems the
is

clearest evidence, " Baseness

such an one

a sheer impossibility," he has

made

a great stride towards
ideal.

He
lips

is

comprehension of the now worthy to hear from Arthur's
the

own

the

nature

of his

twofold task, the re-

generation of the individual, and the regeneration

of society.
victor

The

reformation of the wildling
is

whom

Geraint overcame

an instance of the one, and the

must now try to follow the example of the

reclaimed. The suppression of lawlessness waste land is a portion of the other, and in work like this Geraint can bear a part. Arthur says to him,
in the
" Full seldom doth a

man he

man

repent, or use

Both grace and will to pick the vicious quitch Of blood and custom wholly out of him, And make all clean, and plant himself afresh. Edyrn has done it, weeding all his heart

As

I

will

weed

this

land before

I

go."

x

Geraint feels that his

adventurous daring

in

the

land of robbers

is

neither great nor wonderful, nor

even of the nature of true service. Without call or sanction, and at the bidding of his jealous rage, he, the King's subject with his allotted work, merely risked his life when the main thing was to change But now he understands more clearly what is it. required of him. Master once and for ever of his petty doubts, he returns to live a true vicegerent of the King, and die in the King's battle against the heathen hordes. In the stories both of Gareth and of Geraint, but already in the conclusion is a happy one
.

;

1

Geraint and Enid, 901.

$66
the
latter

ARTHURIAN STORY
the
first

note

is

struck

of the

tragic

between Lancelot and Guinevere which soon will overpower all the brightness of the melody. -The Queen's dreams of love, mentioned in The Marriage of Geraint, become fact in Balin and Balan, and the doubtful rumours of her. guilt..-, have swelled to the open talk of mutinous vassal I
passion
courts. Accordingly, while in the earlier Idylls the influence of Arthur and his Table is in the end supreme, and subdues both the loftier and the lower

nature
check.

to

itself,

it

now meets

with

its

first

decisive
its

So long

as the

ideal of the

Order has
of sense,
so

due place

in the rich

and beautiful

life
;

in

the cultured grace of the imagination

long as

the manifold chords of

human

nature vibrate har-

moniously to its touch, its reign will be secure. But Guinevere and Lancelot are faithless to the King. It is the sort of treason that takes place in
the history of some social phase,

when
art,

art

becomes
spirit.

sensuous and sense
being
ness
all

is

gilded

by

instead of both

and

at

all

points informed

by the

It is at this

stage that the very ministers of sweet-

and light may do the work and earn the wages of sin and the visible beauty, which should be a symbol of the Unseen and raise man almost at unawares by the path of his senses to the Supersensible, is emptied of its meaning and becomes a mockery and a snare. Such is the experience of Balin the Savage, the type of headlong passion, sudden and strong for good and ill, when readmitted For three kingless to the fellowship of Arthur. years, which were " worm-wood bitter " to him, he has suffered the doom of exile for violence done to
;

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
a
thrall,

367

and now he returns to court eager to tame
life,

prone as from his course by baffling gusts of rage. Such an one is apt to look with special wonder and delight on
his

nature, longing for a gentler

but

ever to kindle at

fancied slights, and

driven

the serenity, the
Balin
is

beauty, the graces of

life

;

and

drawn, not to the King, but to Lancelot and Guinevere, whom he takes as the models on which to form himself. He craves and wins permission to bear the Queen's crown-royal on his shield and hears, without heeding, Arthur's
irresistibly
;

words

;

'

'

The crown

is

but the shadow of the King

And
I *

this a

shadow's shadow.'
'

....
O my O my
Queen,
King,
1

No shadow

said Sir Balin
!

'

But light to me no shadow, But golden earnest of a gentler

life I'"

It might be so indeed, were its royalty unsullied. But Balin, following the Queen rather than the King, and fixing all his hopes on a dim hint of the ideal at two removes, has abandoned the only safe footing, and lays up for himself an agony of disillusion. If he suspects the worthiness of that which he adores, if he is persuaded that the sweet graciousness which he has worshipped is adulterate and false, will not his passion recoil on him with tenfold might ? And the sight of the first guilty meeting of Lancelot and the Queen fills him with angry doubt, which he

hates his

own

heart for conceiving.

He

refuses to

believe his eyes and turns his rage against himself.

Cursing himself for an unknightly churl, he rushes from the court that he seems to blot, neglecting even
1

Balin a?id Balan,

1

99.

3^8

A R THURIA N STOR Y

to ask permission of the King,

and dashes aimlessly through the forest till chance gives a momentary purpose to his flight. For these " skyless woods " are infested with mysterious crime. Corpses are found stabbed foully in the back, and rumour reports "Of some demon
in the

woods,

Was

once a man, who driven by
his fellows, lived alone,

evil

tongues

From all To learn

and came

black magic, and to hate his kind

With such a hate, that when he died, his soul Became a Fiend, which, as the man in life Was wounded by blind tongues he saw not whence,
Strikes from behind."
1

There

is

here a transparent reference to slander
its

;

and

to the simple rustics

villainy
it

seems so

great, that at

they can only account for supernatural malice and
this

as the

work

once of

human
;

revenge.

To hunt

demon

is

the
it

allotted quest of Balin's brother

Balan.
trust

And

his

ought to be
is

for
it

represents

the force of passion,

is

though he too on the side of
believe

and reverence, and he
Balin
appropriates

as quick to

the best as his brother to believe the worst.

But
to

now

the inappropriate task
that
devil

himself, crying, "

To

lay

would lay the
ill.

Devil in

me ";

2

for

he thinks that the overthrow of

slander would abate his

own

credulity of

Of

course the process should be precisely' the reverse,

and Balan has already warned him in regard to his moods, " Hold them outer fiends, who leap at thee 3 If he begins at the wrong end, the to tear thee." might of slander with its allies in his own heart will
be sure to get the better of him.
1

And

this actually
3

Balin and Balan,

121.

2

Ibid. 296.

Ibid. 138.

"

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
occurs.

369

He

is

driven by the scoffs of Garlon, the of the
forest

son

of Pellam, the real perpetrator
forget his knightly vows.
lies

devilry, to

He

is

driven

by the
dallies

of Vivien, the minion of

with

Garlon

in

the

King Mark, who Mouth of Hell, to
;

These two are the abandon his lingering faith. male and female of each other both the types of cynical vileness both eager to befoul what is above them, Garlon rather by traducing it, and Vivien rather by seducing and both are the fit outcome of their race and breeding, however different in all externals the court of King Mark and the court of King Pellam may be. Pellam was one of the kings who banded against Arthur
;

;

"In

that

first

war, and

had
'

his realm restored

But render'd

tributary."

Formerly a " Christless foe 2 of the new order, he now has taken to religion " in rival heat," and looks down on his victor from a fancied vantage ground of higher holiness. The knights sing of Arthur, the stranger from the great deep
;

"The King

will follow Christ,

and we the King."

But Pellam, who finds himself descended from Joseph of Arimathea, is not content with so simple a code, and has amassed a store of wonders, u thorns of the crown and shivers of the cross," 3 the spear that pierced the side of our Lord, in a shrine where one " scarce could spy the Christ for 4 Saints." The hall of Arthur, who loves the light,
3

Balin and Balan, Balm and Balan,

2.

2

Ibid. 94.
Ibid. 403.

108.

4

2

A

370

ARTHURIAN STORY

and everywhere fells the forest " to let in the sun," is set on an hill, and has its row of glowing windows and its two great entries, one looking to the sunrise away over plain and wood, one through which the tallest knight can ride. But Pellam's " ruinous donjon " is so bushed about that messengers can scarcely find it amidst its moss and ivy and in the low dark hall
;

" Leaves Laid their green faces flat against the panes, Sprays grated, and the canker'd boughs without

Whined

in the

wood

;

for all

was hush'd

within."

1

We
and

often hear of the great banquets
at the founding of the
"

at Camelot, Table every knight

Had

whatsoever meat he long'd for served
unseen."
2

By hands

But Pellam " eats scarce enow to keep his pulse 3 abeat." Arthur feels that he cannot be victor or lord in his own realm till he has wedded Guinevere, and vows his knights to faithfulness in love. But Pellam
"

Hath push'd aside his faithful wife, nor Or dame or damsel enter at his gates
Lest he should be polluted."
4

lets

Arthur's desire

is
it

to

world

to

make
all

live."

the due tribute to his

" power on this dead But Pellam, neglecting overlord, says, " I have quite

have

foregone
contrast

matters
all

of
the

this
rest.

world."
It
is

5

This
for

last

sums up
free

the contrast

between the
1

ideal

that enjoins
2
4

hope
5

the

3

Balin and Baian, 338. Balin and Baian, 102.

Guinevere, 263.
Ibid. 103. Ibid. 113.

1

THE ID YLLS AS A SERIES
world, and even
in

37

eating and drinking, or whatasceticism,

soever
the

we

do, discerns a possible spiritual end, and

superstitious,

supersensual
worldliness
• .

that

in

world as irreclaimably bad. A nd it is difficult to say whether Pellam in his Christless days, or Pellam amidst his self-mortifications, is more opposed to the purpose of the King. Meanwhile, Garlon is his true-begotten son and natural counterpart. He differs from his father in so far as he embraces, instead of renouncing, the world and the flesh but he looks at them from the same point of view, and hatred of the Order nerves his calumnious strokes from behind. By a sort of Satanic intuition he disbelieves in the possibility of such spiritualising of sense as is typified in Arthur's marriage with Guinevere. Without any proof he knows that she must be false, and mocks as babes those who hold her true. And this is his point of contact with Vivien, his fellow in wantonness and slander, who completes on Balin the work which Garlon has begun. She has been bred in a different atmosphere from the demure sanctities of Pellam's court. For patron and paramour she has had King Mark of Cornwall, to whom she thus recounts her own antecedents

a reaction

from

rejects

the

;

;

"

mother on his corpse in open field She bore me there, for born from death was I Among the dead and sown upon the wind And then on thee and shown the truth betimes, That old true filth, and bottom of the well, Where Truth is hidden. Gracious lessons thine
;

My My

father died in battle against the King,

—

!

And maxims
1

of the

mud

"
!

1

Merlin and Vivien,

42.

37 2

ARTHURIAN STORY
practice

The theory and

of

this

grizzled

lecher,

dastard and assassin, proceed on a total disbelief in
purity and honour.
for a place in

He

first

appears in

the story

trying to bribe Arthur himself with cloth of gold the Order, and he last appears when Mark's way " he smites Tristram in the dark. 1 Reference to the purity of Arthur's knights makes him long to strike the speaker, and he despatches his leman Vivien to defile it, if she can. It is a task to her mind, for, just as Arthur loves glory in his knights, that they may " prove to him his work," so the harlot nature of Vivien is confirmed in its faith when the greatest fall. As Merlin says of her and her like, when they find a " stain or blemish in a name of note," they

—

"

—

" Inflate themselves with

some insane
their eyes,

delight,

And
Her

judge

all

nature from her feet of clay,
lift

Without the

will to

and see
fire,

god-like head crown'd with spiritual

And
It is

touching other worlds."

2

in

this spirit

that she

afterwards betrays the

magician, and meanwhile she goes forth hopefully on

She will bring back the hearts of the knighthood in her sleeve, perhaps a " curl of Arthur's golden beard," 3 for she is utterly unable to comprehend what is above her. So, too, when she sees
her mission.
the agony of Balin,
the sorest
is

nature can
at

feel, for it

agony that human combined of the two experius,

ences that can most torment

the grief of remorse
at

misconduct and

the

grief
it

the

crash

of a
;

cherished ideal, she explains
1

in her

own way

Gareth and Lynette, 386, and Last Tournament, 748.

2

Merlin and Vivien, 832.

z

Ibid. 58.

*

;

—
373
:

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES

" This fellow hath wrought some foulness with his Queen Else never had he borne her crown, nor raved

And

thus foam'd over at a rival name."

The only
appetite,

thing she can truly understand
lust

is

animal
passion.

unglorified

by any halo of

When she sees Lancelot take horse with the Queen, she mutters, " Ride, and dream The mortal dream that never yet was mine " 2
;

even when stained with guilt, is beyond her She is dull to all save the brutish stings of sense, and these become for her far worse than brutal, for she makes of them, as the brutes do not, This residuum of her conscious principle and rule. lasciviousness is no loathsome thing in her eyes. It is her religion to deny that its flames are set on fire of hell, and to exalt and magnify it as chief
for love,

The fire of Heaven is on the dusty ways. The wayside blossoms open to the blaze. The whole wood-world is one full peal of praise. The fire of Heaven is not the flame of Hell." 3
to
4

She turns

her squire

her song that really

when her song is ended, dumbed " the wholesome music
it

of the wood,"
1

and comments on
2
4

herself
114.

3

Balin and Baton, 556. Balin and Baton, 438.

Merlin and Vivien,
Ibid. 430.

374

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
" This fire of Heaven, This old sun-worship, boy, will rise again, And beat the cross to earth, and break the King

And

all his

Table."

1

The

old

sun-worship,

the

creed

that

recognises

nothing but material force, and hails animal instinct as the divine fire from heaven, glorify ing_sense as sense, or rather shamelessly asserting that sense should give the law to life, it is this in which
alone
she
believes.

And
insight.

her

creed

endows her
sallies

with
in

strength

and

As
it

she

forth

on the apostolic mission of spreading and proving*
it

partibus

infidelium,

in

requital
for

inspires

her
the

with
soul

a of

kind
evil

of
in

second
things
false

sight

discerning
story

good.
in

Her

of

Guinevere's guilt

may be

scene and date,

And but there is truth at the heart of her lie. the convincing power that only utter conit has It is a wonderfully subtle and viction can bestow. powerful touch, a master-stroke of sad and truthful irony, that Balin, who has rejected the testimony of
his

own

ears

slanders,

and eyes, should be haunted by Garlon's and should succumb, without a moment's

throws underThis Balan beholds who has been seeking foot. everywhere in vain for the devil of the woods. Now They clash together he thinks he has found him. and wound each other to the death. But Balan can say some words of comfort ere the close. Just
resistance, to the falsehoods of Vivien.

He

down

the Queen's cognisance and tramples

it

as

Balin represents natural passion in
1

its

capacity

Balin and Balan,

450.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
for

375

he represents its capacity devoted loyalty, and that is why he has never <-been able to find the wood-devil of slander. And now, with faith unbroken, he dying can assure his dying brother, " Pure as our own true Mother is our Queen." 1 Then, ere they fall asleep in one another's
indignant wrath, so
for

arms,

come
"

his last

words

;

We two were born together, and we die Together by one doom." 2

Diderot has said that nothing great can be done without passion. So soon as the time comes in the history of an order, when passion in its truculence
sion

no longer controlled by the ideal, and when pasin its enthusiasm no longer lives for it, the best days of that order are past. And presently Arthur meets with another loss. This time the
is

victim

is

Merlin.

have seen how he, whom the people called wizard, may be taken to signify the intellect, working
in

We

service

of

the

new

ideal

to

procure

it

But what if the principle from which so much was hoped should seem to fail of its end ? Then must follow the bitter throes of agnostic disillusion and despair,
acceptance, authority, and power.
unless
itself

the

understanding
to
its

in

a

manner transcend
against
its

and hold

own

postulates

own proper

evidence.

For the preconception on

which the reason works, is that reason guides the ways of the world but when it seeks to reckon out the course of things, it is always confronted
;

1

Balin and Balan, 606.

2

Ibid. 617.

376
with
a
in

ARTHURIAN STOR V
surd,
irrational,

unrighteous,

inexplicable,

which
surd

can only be removed by positing another
its

room. Unless the reason loses itself, that is to say, admits that its attempts at explanation can never be complete, it will not find itself
that
is

to say, perceive that
is

the rationality of the

and a process, not an ascertainable fact. Though none the less real on this account, it must be left for each generation to verify in its own way. But the antinomy between indispensable principle and inevitable result is in some form or other the grand probation of life. If precisely formulated, it is a pit which the intellect digs for its own destruction, and only by " believing itself against itself," " by losing itself to save
world
a

presupposition

itself,"

can
to

it

find

a possible
Grail.

passage across.
Perilous,

It

seems

be

typified

by the Siege

de-

scribed in

The Holy

"In our

great hall there stood a vacant chair,

Fashion'd by Merlin ere he past away,

And

carven with strange figures

;

and

in

and out

The figures, like a serpent, ran a scroll Of letters in a tongue no man could read. And Merlin call'd it 'The Siege perilous,
Perilous for
'

good and
sit

ill

;

'

for there,'

he

said,
:

No man

could

but he should lose himself
sat

And once by misadvertence Merlin In his own chair, and so was lost

;

but he,

Galahad, when he heard of Merlin's doom, Cried, 'If I lose myself, I save myself.'" 1

a Galahad, with into vision, can

his faith
sit
1

in

the unseen that ripens

in the fatal chair

with impunity.

Holy

Grail, 167.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
It
is

377

otherwise with
;

Merlin.

There

falls

on him

a great melancholy
"

He

walk'd with dreams and darkness, and he found
that ever poised itself to
fall,

A doom
An

ever-moaning battle in the mist, World-war of dying flesh against the

life,

Death in all life and lying in all love, The meanest having power upon the highest, And the high purpose broken by the worm." 1
It is

the

same

sort of trouble that

comes

to Arthur
It
is

himself ere

the

hour of
I

his

Passing.

the

same

sort of trouble that oppressed the soul of the

Ecclesiast, "

When

applied mine heart

to

know

wisdom, and see the business that is done upon the then I beheld all the work of God, that earth a man cannot find out the work that is done under because though a man labour to seek the sun it it yea farther out, yet he shall not find though a wise man think to know it, yet shall he not be able to find it." 2 The only gain of
: .
.

.

:

;

:

thinking
creaseth

is

insight
is

into

the

vanity of
:

it

all:

"In
in-

much wisdom

much

grief

and

he
3

that

knowledge
of

increaseth

sorrow."

A

new
;

ideal deceives like
for

a quack with a new nostrum betterment there is none, and all " The thing that hath been, progress is a dream. which shall and that which is done it is that be

hope

:

and there is no which shall be done 4 There is no escape new thing under the sun." ineffaceable incurable, evil in from recognising the " cannot be made That which is crooked things.
is

that

:

^Merlin and Vivien,
3

*

188.

2

Ecclesiastes,
Ibid.
i.

viii.

16.

Ecclesiastes,

i.

18.

4

9.

"

37$
straight
:

ARTHURIAN STORY

and that which is wanting cannot be numbered." x The moral of the whole matter seems summed up in this conclusion "Then I commended mirth, because a man hath no better thing under the sun, than to eat, and to drink, and to be merry." 2
:

Something like this is the doom of Merlin, when emerging from his great melancholy, and letting "his wisdom go for ease of heart," 3 he is enslaved, as though by the spells of a nautch-girl, to the charm
"

Of woven paces and

of waving hands."

4

He who
how
means
both:

placed use before fame, and

knew
"

so well

to estimate

fame

at its true
5

worth as

ampler

to

serve

mankind,"

is

now deprived of
G

" Lost to

life

and use and name and fame."

Reason is captive in the toils of sensuality and can no longer help the King. And meanwhile the lawless passion of the great knight, which is cause of all the disasters, brings
himself small

happiness

or

comfort.
"

He
it.

cannot

leave his love, but he has lost his joy in

He

is
7

none the sleeker
Vivien notes Tristram has

for sinning
is

how he
seen
if

on such heights." "goodly" but "gaunt."

8

him

"

wan enow

9

to

make

the worlding doubt

Guinevere have ever yielded

him her
1
:{

grace.
i.

Ecclesiastes,

15.

-Ibid.
4

viii.

15.

8

Merlin and Vivien, 890. Merlin and Vivien, 487.
Lancelot

Ibid. 966,

and passim.
101.

c 8

Ibid. 968.

1

and

Elaine, 247.

Merlin and Vivien, 9 Last Tournament, 560.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
"

379

The
Iri

great

and

guilty love

battle with the love

Had

marr'd his face,

he bare the Queen, he bare his lord, and mark'd it ere his time."

1

Like the poet in Nathaniel Hawthorne's allegory of Great Stone Face, his lineaments give no perfect rendering of the highest. His peace is
the

gone.

"His mood was often like a fiend, and rose And drove him into wastes and solitudes For agony, who was yet a living soul." 2

He

is

like the

demoniac,

"

driven of the devil into
at the tournament, his

the wilderness," and just as

party are
" Knights of utmost North and West, Lords of waste marches, kings of desolate
isles," 3

so

in

his

life

he

leaves

the bounteous order of

the Table for the dismal fellowship of the desert.

And
her
their

faithless to the

lover
?

be

secure

King, even

how can Guinevere and
of their faith to each
recrimination

other

Suspicion,

jealousy,

throw
tourna-

shadows between them.
is

The

great

ment-prize of Arthur's reign
as she drops into the waves
that

lost to

the Queen,

the glorious diamonds

might

have

great

life-prize

that

been her second crown. The might have been Lancelot's

diamond crown, the love of the lily maid of Astolat, he, too, as it were, drops it in the is lost to him stream and only feels its worth when it is gone. And the pity of it is, that in a manner she was destined to be his mate. Arthur tells him that this maiden was " shaped, it seems, by God for
; 1

Lancelot

and

Elaine, 244.

2

Ibid. 250.

3

Ibid. 524.

38o
thee alone."
think of the
as her
*

ARTHURIAN STORY
And
lily in

there

is

another subtle sugges-

tion of her fitness for his deepest needs.

When we
maid, either

the hand of the

lily

body comes
is

image
the

last

sailing in the barge or as her graven on her tomb, we cannot but recall wavering struggle in Lancelot's mind

between

the

richer

bloom of Guinevere's

beauty

and the

stainless white of virgin holiness.

"Last night methought I saw That maiden Saint who stands with lily
In yonder shrine.

in

hand

All round her prest the dark,
2

And

all

the light upon her silver face
lily

Flow'd from the spiritual

that she held."

The maid

of Astolat seems created to
rise in

fulfil

these

dreams to the Madonna. But the choice is already made and the guilt already incurred. Yet it must be remembered that that guilt itself has its source in something the reverse of vulgar and coarse. It originates in the innocent worship of the Queen, conceived as an end in itself and without ulterior aim, in which Lancelot was followed by some few young knights. And this love of Guinevere the wife of Arthur, " beyond
higher longings that
all

hopes of gaining,"

3

is

like

the disinterested love

of beauty, of sense idealised, which is the soul of think we may understand the story of Art. I Lancelot, if we remember the complaint of Burns that it was the light from heaven that led him astray. This is the danger of the poet, of the imaginative man, who reaches at spirit through the
1

Lancelot

and

Elaine, 1355.
3

2

Balm and
23.

Balan, 255.

Merlin and Vivien,

—

—
THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
381

veil,

and
:

is

Sense he the former
the highest
"

will

middle term between Soul and always run the risk of sacrificing to the latter, and then he will miss
the
love as well.

human
vice,"
1

But when
is

The

passionate heart of the poet

whirl'd into folly

and
or
it

when Art
is

forgets

its

function

in
it

its
is

material,

grand Arthur himself, is a nursling of the great deep, and has been claimed by its powers. His childhood, if not his birth, has the halo of the superhuman, and she who keeps watch over the King has taken Lancelot too for her own. Him,
tragically
just

sad

because

the

apostasy.

Lancelot,

like

t

" the

Lady of the Lake
arms

Caught from

his mother's

— the

wondrous one

Who

passes thro' the vision of the night

She chanted snatches of mysterious hymns Heard on the winding waters, eve and morn She kiss'd me saying, 'Thou art fair, my child, As a king's son,' and often in her arms She bare me, pacing on the dusky mere." 2

Hence
his

his

style,

Lancelot of the Lake, and hence

moan
"Mine own name shames me, seeming
a reproach."
3

But he cannot
false

belie

his

breeding, and

even when
for
it

to

the

ideal,

he

passionately

yearns

in

his

heart,

and

will

not

rest

from

straining

at

his chains.
1

Maud, Part

I.

IV.

vii.
3

2

Lancelot

and

Elaine, 1393.

Ibid.

1392.

CHAPTER

IX
(CONTINUED)

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES

have thus got to a stage when the first enthusiasm for the Order is dead, when the promise it held out of reconciling all parts of man's life has been falsified, when reason no longer works on its behalf, and treasons of imagination and sense
are

Y^^E

committed against

its

majesty.

And
the

just at this

point the

Holy

Grail appears in the haunts of
is

men

and the fellowship

broken

in

mystic quest.

What
in

is

the precise meaning of the sacred vessel

Tennyson's poem? In the first place, it is no longer to be interpreted in any narrower, doctrinal sense, such as it may at one time have possessed. It is separated from its medieval paraphernalia, and is placed in a different category, for example, from the bleeding spear that smote the side of Christ. The latter is left associated with King Pellam and his superstitions, and is somewhat contemptuously
described as a lance
Grail
is

And

in

point-painted red," * but the only mentioned with reverence and awe. the same spirit the legend of it is reduced
i

"

Balin and Ba/att, 406.

—
THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
to
its

—
3^3
"

simplest terms.

There
its

is

no

fantastic

pre-

vious history," no hint of

having received the
of the
ecclesiastical

blood of Christ, no mention

wonders it works It is merely
"

for

Joseph

and

his

successors.

The cup, Drank at
its

the cup

itself,

from which our Lord
1

the last sad supper with his own,"

and

miraculous
;

properties
" If a

are

summed up

in

the lines

man
at once,

Could touch or see

it,

he was heal'd
2

By
Again,

faith, of all his ills."

cannot any longer be taken to represent life. For how, then, would Arthur fail to see it ? how would he refuse to share in the search? how would he blame and discourage the knights who have sworn to find it ? how could it The significant passage in this destroy the Order? connection occurs in the final speech of the King
it

the highest

:

"

And some among you held, that if the King Had seen the sight he would have sworn the vow:
Not easily, seeing that the King must guard That which he rules, and is but as the hind

To whom Who may

a space of land

is

given to plow:
field

not wander from the allotted
;

Before his work be done

but, being done,

Let visions of the night or of the day

Come, as they

will

;

and many a time they come,
is
is

Until this earth he walks on seems not earth,

This light that strikes his eyeball This air that smites his forehead

not light,

not air
foot
54.

But vision
1

— yea,

his very

hand and
2

Holy

Grail, 46.

Ibid.

384
In

ARTHURIAN STORY
moments when he
the high
feels

he cannot

die,

And knows
Nor

himself no vision to himself,

God a
*

vision,

nor that One

Who

rose again."

\

This surely means that to him, loyal to his pracduty, comes a foretaste of the complete union with the Divine consciousness of the reality of
tical
:

the soul
ness
in

and of God
the
task

is

the reward of his faithfulthe
world.

of bettering

And

observe, in this presentiment of the eternal verities,

he has,
that

in a

higher potency, the sort of experiences

Tennyson long before had attributed not to King Arthur but to Sir Galahad
;

" Stricken by an angel's hand, This mortal armour that I wear, This weight and size, this heart and eyes,

Are

touch'd, are turn'd to finest air."

2

These
trance
bright

raptures,

formerly
better

given
things

to

the

maiden
and he sees

knight, are

now

reserved for the great King, whose

shows
spaces,

him

than

lilies

or even

the holy cup,
Grail

for

the Deity face to face.

Thus the meaning of the
1

is

to be found

Holy

Grail, 898.
is

"
"

My

greatest wish
I

to

have a clearer vision of God."
alone in this great room
I

Sometimes as

sit

here

get

away out of sense and body and rapt into mere existence, till the accidental touch or movement of one of my own fingers is like a great shock and blow and brings the body back with a terrible start." Remarks of Tennyson quoted by Mr. Knowles in "Aspects of Tennyson," II. Ninecarried
teenth Century, January, 1893.
2

Sir Galahad.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
neither in church
life.

385

dogma nor
to the

in the highest spiritual
is

But a clue
is

interpretation

obtained,

if

we remember how, when any
in its decline,

principle that rules
its
is

the world
^to

and when

incapacity
disclosed,

correct the perverse bias of things

I

yearning for religious certitude seizes on the At such times, in disappointment hearts of men. at the false promises of life, devout and tender and there, like Percisouls fly to their sanctuary vale's sister, detached from the existing system,
a
;

1

they see
diviner

its

defects
fast

and have
anchoring

ecstatic visions

of a

secret,

their

the same feeling, new forms in the many minds that In some it flowers into immediate init affects. In some it supplies the aim tuition of the unseen. In some it is an for conscious intellectual effort.
the
veil.

And

hopes within spreading in wider

circles,

takes

adjunct to the natural pieties of
In

human

affection.

some
it

it

is

a tormenting desire for a revelation
life.

of spiritual truth as the means to a better

In

mere inquisitiveness roused by the vague sense of a mystery in which they only for the moment believe. But one common trait per-

some

is

a

all such periods. [Men are not satisfied with what has hitherto passed as certain they are perplexed with gleams of a something beyond, a higher and more irrefragable verity, an experience which will show them, as it were, the vessel of their faith, and in which they may find healing and peace. Thus a time of spiritual discontent began as the life of ancient Greece decayed thus no longer it was transferred to Rome, when men

vades

;

;

believed in the old religion of the State
2

;

thus

it

B

3^6
has

ARTHURIAN STORY
come among
ourselves,

who

are

importuned

with obstinate questionings of unseen things, and how few seem even to themselves to have found

an answer from one

!

All such aspiration and effort spring

the noblest characteristics in the nature of man, his need of union with the Divine, which takes the form of a demand for_religious
;

of

but it is easy to see how they are fraught with danger to the individual and to society. To the individual, for without special equipment and
truth

moral education, the chances are that he wandering fires and be lost in the quag1 mire. To society, for the criticism which they cannot fail to bring with it will tend to enfeeble the force of existing bands they will discover weak
will follow
;

without

points, real or imaginary,

in the present order

and

prepare

the

way

for its downfall.

And meanwhile

such pursuit of spiritual conviction will foster a tendency to " leave human wrongs to right them-

7

selves," to

abandon the life of action and the work of practically improving mankind and rest satis;

fied

high,

which, though not the highest. Such is the story of the Grail, and such are the results of the quest by the Order of the Round Table.
in

enthusiastic

contemplation,

is

Complete

fruition

is

reserved

for

Galahad, the
Grail

same who brings about the apparition of the

among

the knights.

Before he attains the vision

he has the feeling of it, and with the instinctive trust of a pure and selfless nature in the final outcome, faces the cruellest contradictions and the deepest gloom. Crying, " If I lose myself, I save
1

Holy Grail,

320.

"

— —
387
the

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
myself,"
Perilous,
1

he

dares

the

adventure

of

Siege

"Then on a summer

night

it

came

to pass,

While the great banquet lay along the hall, That Galahad would sit down in Merlin's chair."

Go forth, for thou shalt see what I have seen, And break thro' all, till one will crown thee king
Far
in the spiritual city."
5

Already her words begin to have their fulfilment. Already Galahad has in a manner loosed himself from the Order of the Table, and addresses its head merely as " Sir Arthur," no longer his lord, but his fellow. And now he goes forth to " break thro' all," for with him the knowledge of the truth is a source of power and efficiency not an excuse for recondite musing, but an incentive to the deed. In the tourney-field he works wonders, for a strength 6 is in him " from the vision and in the same strength, he afterwards tells Sir Percivale,
;
;

1

4

Holy Holy

Grail, 178.

2 5

Ibid. 179. Ibid. 160.

3

Ibid. 189.

Grail, 290.

°

Ibid. 334.

—
3§8

ARTHURIAN STORY
"
I

rode,

Shattering

all evil

customs everywhere,

And past thro' Pagan realms, and made them mine, And clash'd with Pagan hordes, and bore them down, And broke thro' all, and in the strength of this Come victor." 1
His whole
sence
life
is

hallowed and

fortified

by the

pre-

of this

secret

verity that

accompanies him

everywhere and always.
elevation
that are
it it

brings

In moments of religious him foretokenings of the Divine

denied to other men, but at no time does

leave him.

"Never yet Hath what thy sister taught me first to see, This Holy Thing, fail'd from my side, nor come Cover'd, but moving with me night and day, Fainter by day, but always in the night Blood-red, and sliding down the blacken'd marsh Blood-red, and on the naked mountain top Blood-red, and in the sleeping mere below
Blood-red."
2

Nor does

it

quit

him when he
is

crosses

swamp and

sea to the sheen that

"The spiritual city and all her spires And gateways in a glory like one pearl No larger, tho' the goal of all the saints." 3

Yet

emotional intuition which Galahad reprethan Arthur's laborious effort to realise the good, step by step, in a crass and stubborn world. It accomplishes duties only at the
this
is

sents

less excellent

first
is

rush. It cannot stay among men. wonderful and glorious, but it is short.

Its career

The experience
1

of

Sir
2

Percivale,
3

the

knight

Holy

Grail, 475.

Ibid. 467.

Ibid. 525.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES

389

ranged close after Sir Galahad, is not nearly so With him the search is less untroubled, happy. the attainment less permanent and complete, and
the results are less beneficent.
the

He
story

is

the

first

of

Round Table
his

to hear the
sister's

of the Grail.

Transforming
definite
its

immediate feeling into a
like the rest

aim, he consciously sets himself to secure
;

appearance
first "

and though

he sees

it

at
is

over covered with a luminous cloud," that

quest.
it

only a reason the more for going forth on its He is the first to swear that he will seek

for a
it

twelvemonth and a day, and
gives

at the tourna-

him a strength like Galahad's to smite down his antagonists. But though he has ment
the force to overthrow, he has not yet the virtue
to
attain,

and

for

long he follows a wandering
rises

fire

before the true light
like his,

on

his path.

The

sug-

gestions of a crude materialism

but he

In the pride

—

is

lie far from a nature exposed to others no less perilous.

not of

intellect,

be too much of that, but himself the measure of
every fact of
dust.
life

—

for there

can never

of

his-^intellect,

he makes
shut

all

things,

and

up
into J

within himself, lapses into a scepticism before which

seems phantasmal, and

falls

The mighty motives of men,

pleasure,

home,

wealth, power, in turn confess their vanity at his disillusioning touch.

he

finds a

When his thirst would slay him, and brook running through orchard lawns,
while
I

" Even The goodly

drank the brook, and ate
I

apples, all these things at once

Fell into dust,

and

was

left

alone,
1

And

thirsting, in
1

a land of sand and thorns."

Holy Grail,

387.

390

ARTHURIAN STORY
he sees the woman, with kind and innocent
door,

When
bids

eyes, spinning

by the cottage him stay and rest,
Fell into dust

and her gesture
" She, too,

and nothing, and the house
;

Became no

better than a broken shed,

And

in

it

a dead babe

and
left

also this

Fell into dust,

and

I

was

alone."

1

in gold and jewels, who seemed to be Lord of all the world, before whom the meanest bow, and who is huge enough to crush Percivale himself but opens his arms to embrace, falls likewise into dust. A populous city on a hill shouts him its welcome, but when he climbs, he rides mid ruins, and one old man can only gasp, " Whence and what

The knight

thou ? " ere he too falls into dust. Left alone once more, Percivale cries out in the bitterness of
art

his grief;
" Lo,
if I

find the
it,

Holy Grail
will

itself

And

touch

it

crumble into dust." 2

On
'

Jean Paul himself has written no more vivid story of what happens when the individual in his egoism seeks from his subjective experience an explanation of the mystery of things. The hermit to whom Percivale tells his phantoms admonishes him that he has not true humility, he is too much taken up about himself, he thinks too much alike of his prowess and of his sins, and has not lost himself to save himself like Galahad. 3 But ere he receives this reproof, he can find rest only at the price of quitting his vow. If he would acquiesce in the given, he
1

Holy

Grail, 396.

2

Ibid. 438.

3

Ibid. 455.

:

—
39

1

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
might be as Arthur
escence
is

in his

own

land,

1

but acqui-

in

the long run impossible.

Yet even

when he attains, the attainment is only partial and momentary he transcends the limits of his nature only for the instant. Not for him is the constant presence of the cup, uncovered and blood-red. The rose-like sparkle of an instant remains with him as a memory, to cherish which he escapes into the
:

silent life of a

meditation that has no result for the His only further intervention in the story is to show how far things have gone wrong by revealing to Pelleas the infidelity of the Queen. Sir Bors, square-set and honest, the man of common sense and practical aims, has an opposite experience. He lights upon a tribe that was left
world.
"

paynim amid

their circles,"

2

whose wise men are
trace

strong

"In that old magic which can The wandering of the stars." 3

He

is

assailed
in

by the doctrines of the primeval
which
Vivien
hoped.

sun-worship

The

priest

of the elder ritual scoffed at the
" High Quest as at a simple thing Told him he folio w'd almost Arthur's words A mocking fire What other fire than he, Whereby the blood beats, and the blossom blows, And the sea rolls, and all the world is warm'd'?"

—

:

'

4

It

is

physical force that, according to them,
:

is

the
is

and spring of all and by them Sir Bors bound and prisoned. But there is a something
root
1

in

Holy

Grail, 604.
4

2

Ibid. 660.

'

3

Ibid. 662.

Ibid. 664.

39 2

ARTHURIAN STORY
fail

him that cannot
truth.

to bring

him a boding of the

He

bears on his casque a pelican, the bird

that
its

was thought to wound its own breast to feed young. And it is typical of the man. He had pray'd or ask'd
Not
to
it

"

scarce

for " himself,

1

and

" Well had been content have seen, so Lancelot might have seen,

The Holy Cup

of healing."
is

2

So

to
:

him something
in

given

because

he loves
is

much
dition
filled.

this

utter self-surrender at least one con-

for

attaining

a vision of the Divine
rose,

ful-

The

illumination
or

comes not with the redbut

ness

of blood

of the

only with the

faintest flush of delicate sea-shells,

"In

colour like the fingers of a
3

hand

Before a burning taper."
It
is
it

only for a moment.
is

A

sharp thunder peals,

and

gone.

Lancelot goes forth equipped with the intuitions of a poet, sharpened by a burning personal need but that very need makes full success impossible,
:

for

the

consciousness
fills
it

of his

sin

rushes

over

his

soul

and
the

with

turbidity

and

doubt.

He

takes

vow only in the hope that the vision Holy Thing may pluck asunder the base and the noble in his nature, but he is told by a
of the

"

most holy saint " that unless they are plucked The purificaasunder the vision is not for him. 4 tion of heart which he desires as result is rather condition of the revelation he seeks, or, strictly,
i

Holy

Grail, 687.
4

2

Ibid. 649.

3

Ibid. 689.

Ibid. 775.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
joined.

393

they are mutually dependent and not to be disMeanwhile, in the division of his nature, the higher at war with the lower in himself, he
loses his characteristic strength.
" There

V

was

I

beaten

down by

little

men,

Mean knights, to whom the moving of my sword And shadow of my spear had been enow To scare them from me once." *

The madness of despair lays hold of him, and, amid the fury of the storm, he leaps into a boat,
exclaiming,
"
I

will

embark and

I

will lose myself,

And

in the great sea

wash away

my

sin." 2

He
self,

does not think of losing himself to save himbut merely of drowning his guilt and sorrow
is

V

in

the deep.

there

Yet in the heart of a glimmer of consolation.
upon a
rock."
3

his hopelessness

He comes

to

the enchanted towers of Carbonek,

"A
gripped

castle like a rock

Here no natural powers avail. His shoulders are by the two great beasts, his sword is dashed from his hand as in a dream he passes through the lonely castle, and toils up the endless
;

scorched

Then, the music in the eastern tower. and dazzled in the blaze and the blast, he thinks he sees amidst its awful guardians the
stairs

to

Holy
"

Vessel, "all

pall'd

in

crimson samite,"

4

ere

he swoons away.

And And

but for

all

my madness and my
Ibid. 801.
4

sin,
I

then

my

swooning, I had sworn

saw
3

1

Holy

Grail, 785.

Ibid. 810.

Ibid. 843.

394
That which
I

ARTHURIAN STORY
saw
1
;

but what

I

saw was

veil'd

And

cover'd."

Yet the shrouds

veil
it

is

not
itself

the
as

"

luminous
;

cloud "

that

from the knights
it

it

is

of deeper hue

than the Grail of Percivale or

\

/

appeared to the eyes Bors. In the agonised glimpse, of which he cannot be sure, Lancelot comes next Galahad not in clearness but intensity of vision though in his remorse he is not aware of his success, and Concludes sorrowfully, " This Quest was not for me." 2 Thus, even for those who achieve it, the highest truth is modified by their character and feelings. Arthur says that, if indeed the Grail be a sign from heaven,
;

" Blessed are Bors, Lancelot

and Percivale, For these have seen according to their sight. For every fiery prophet in old times, And all the sacred madness of the bard, When God made music thro' them, could but speak His music by the framework and the chord." 3
that being so, there are

And

many

to

whom

the

mere effort must be disastrous. Arthur may well doubt if it is a sign from heaven, and not, as it strikes him at the outset, " a sign to maim this Order " which he made. 4 Most of the fellowship
are utterly unfit for the search.
"

They

are

men
power

With strength and

will to right the wrong'd, of
flat." 5

To
1

lay the sudden heads of violence

Holy

Grail, 845.
4

Ibid. 848.
5

3

Ibid. 869.

Ibid. 297.

Ibid. 309.

"

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
They can
the
act bravely

395
but in such
Arthur's

and deal
will

justly,

a quest they will merely follow marsh lights into
pool, and few prophecy proves true.
return.

And

The storm

that wrecks the

ancient fabrics of the mystical city, and even does

scathe to the statue of the King,

is

but symbolic

of the havoc wrought on

cherished beliefs and the

ethos of the Order by the blast of inquiry with Only a tithe of the which the quest concludes. the rest are knights come back, wasted and worn Perhaps those of the crowd are lost and gone. wisest who, like Gawain, abandon the task in disbelief of its value, though at the cost of breaking their vows and yielding themselves to trivial But what a price is that for the sworn pastime. And what is in followers of the Ideal to pay
; !

store

for

the

King when these remain, while the

Galahads and Percivales withdraw to the spiritual For Gawain, though or the silent life ? described as a good knight, courteous, fair, and strong, the doughtiest of the Table after Lancelot, 1 Tristram, Geraint, and Gareth, is a mere medley of shallow and contending moods that have never been harmonised and controlled in the depths of As a boy he character or even of passion.
city

"Ran

like a colt,
is

and leapt

at all

he saw."

2

As

a

man he

capable,

doubtless,
;

of chivalrous

" the fire of and righteous indignation 3 sometimes flashes honour and all noble deeds at the sight of villainy he through his heart

feeling

;

1

Lancelot

and

2 Coming of Arthur, 321. Elaine, 553. 3 Pelleas and Etlarre, 270. 1

396
trembles
at vermin.

ARTHURIAN STORY
1

and quivers But there

the man.

He

is

"
3

loyal to his word."

a dog ere he springs no depth or stability about light-of-loveT^ and " not often Even in his sworn friendship
like
is

he

is

false,

even
4

his

courtesy

has

a

"

touch

of

traitor

in

it,"

as

we should expect from

" Sir

Modred's brother, and the child of Lot." 5 If he returns from the quest unscathed save for a blast and a wetting, it is because all along he has been quite indifferent to its object. A " reckless and 6 " irreverent knight," he is too blind to have desire

And with this spiritual callousness, how can his continued service of Arthur fail to result in the worst disservice ?
to see."
7

But now the search for the Grail has left the Order crippled and reduced. And the fact that
it

has

truth

is

come, that it has gone, that the highest no longer associated with Arthur and
court
still

Arthur's

further

weakens the power of

the Table.

The new knights are inexperienced youths like Pelleas, who do not distinguish between the kernel and the husk, who are ready with an equal

tribute of enthusiasm for the substance and the shadow, and whose spirits are broken when the fair seeming deceives their hopes. Born in the north, and bred far off from all the graces of life, Pelleas brings a wholesome, eager nature to the great palaces and rich pageantry of the court. On entering the hall,

1

Pelleas

and Ettarre, and

277.

2 4
7

Ibid. 353.

3

Lancelot

Elaine, 557.

Ibid. 635. Ibid. 867.

5

Ibid. 353.

6

Holy

Grail, 852.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
"The
Past,

397

sweet smell of the

fields
x

and the sunshine came along with him."

And
youth

he has the instinctive reverence of unspoiled for the grandeur of the King,
"

Whose
all

lightest whisper

moved him more
2

Than

the ranged reasons of the world."

Unfortunately, in the wonder and delight of opening

manhood, he pays as loyal worship to what is only good in semblance, lending it all the loftiness of his own heart. As he gazes on Ettarre,
"

The beauty of her flesh abash'd the boy, As tho' it were the beauty of her soul." 3

When
is

he sees her
" Strange as to

for the first time, the revelation

some

old prophet might have seem'd
fire." 4

A

vision hovering

on a sea of

And when she has promised him her round to wonder at him,
Shone
like the

love,

men

turn

" Because his face countenance of a priest of old Against the flame about a sacrifice Kindled by fire from heaven." 5
It is

his

words and dreams that
;

easy to forgive a touch of over-confidence in fits in with his other
for
it

youthful illusions

is

would soon be pruned away.

a virtue in excess, and It is still excusable

that in his adoration of Ettarre he should forget his own self-respect, and submit to the indignities that

she showers upon him.
1

But
2 5

it

is

more

serious that
*

Pe//eas

4

Pelleas

and Ettarre, 5. and Ettarre, 49.

Ibid. 148.
Ibid. 136.

Ibid. 74.

39^
his

ARTHURIAN STORY
love should
it

survive her mockery of the King, shows that his passion has prevailed against his aspirations, and presages the collapse of his nature if that passion be betrayed. And betrayed
for
it is,

with every circumstance to aggravate the shock
x

His lady is false, and " false with Gawain," who, swearing by the Round Table, had offered him his friendly help. This thought throws an ugly light on all that has gone before, so that he profanes the nobility of his own heart, and
of his awakening.
questions the authority of the

King

:

"I never loved
"

her,

I

but lusted for her"; 2
:

We

be

all alike

only the King
liars."
3

Hath made us

fools

and

And

then he must learn the guilt of Guinevere and Lancelot and of all the knights. In measureless

dismay, he knows not how far the corruption may " Is the King true ? " 4 he asks. have reached. But the assurance of Percivale brings him no help. Henceforth Camelot is to him a " black nest of

and he is but a scourge " to lash the treasons of the Table Round." 6 Ecraser Vinfame, is his thought, as he spurs his horse in mad career. But he is too weak or too noble for the work of
rats,"
5

vengeance.

He

has refrained from slaying Ettarre
;

and Gawain, and left his sword between them so that he has no weapon but his tongue with which to fight out his fight with Lancelot. And, though that is a blade " between his lips and sharp," 7 in
1

Pelleas Pelleas

4

and and

Ettarre, 535. Ettarre, 525.
7

2

Ibid. 475.
Ibid.

3 6

Ibid. 469. Ibid.

5

544.

554.

Pelleas

and

Ettarre, 565.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
the

399

same way he refrains from using it for the punishment of the Queen and her lover, when his chance comes. Hissing, " I have no sword," 1 he springs out and disappears in the dark. At an earlier day, such an one might have outworn his errors, and grown up to noble manhood now the utmost in his reach is to be a weakling without a
;

sword.

Yet
is

at the very time

when

the Arthurian ideal

failing

day by day from
is

within,

when

intensively

its

force

all

but

exhausted, extensively, as

we

often see in the history of civilisation
it

and

culture,

reaches

its

greatest authority.

Its

renegades and
"

adversaries,
last

founding head like Satan
forth
their

a

rival

table,

make

their

in the

hurl

threats,

North": 2 thence they which others had done none as yet

before them,

and
do.

their

revilings of Arthur's court

as a hot-bed of hypocritical vice, which

This Satanic counterpart of the is indeed easily overthrown, but the victory is worse than a defeat. The King must see his knights massacre the defenceless, trample on the fallen, and fight in all unknightly ways and though now the land is all his own, pain is lord in his heart. And while he is away on this sorry errand, something similar is happening at home in Camelot. It is the day of the " Tournament of the Dead Innocence " for the prize of rubies, the greatest of all the jousts since those in which Lancelot won The lost the great diamonds for the Queen. diamonds had been taken from the crown of the
;

had dared to Round Table

1

Pelleas

and Ettarre,

590.

2

Last Tournament,

98.

;

400
forgotten
brother.

ARTHURIAN STORY
king

who

slew,

and

was

slain

by, his

The

rubies were the necklace of the

babe

rescued from the eagle's nest, and Guinevere hopes
that
" Rosier luck will go

With these rich jewels, seeing that they came Not from the skeleton of a brother-slayer, But the sweet body of a maiden babe." *
Nevertheless it seems as though Arthur's desires both of turning to good the evil of the past, and of
raising to
in

honour purity

in the

present, are equally

vain.

ness

of

Lancelot notes the cowardice and rudethe knights, the boldness and freedom
is

of the ladies, and at the after revels, the mirth

so loud and gracebss that the Queen, half in amaze,

the rubies

And who is it that gains breaks up the sports. Guinevere had said to the King ?
" Perchance

—who

knows ?

— the

purest of thY knights

May

win them

for the purest of

my

maids." 2

goes uncontested to Tristram of of the woods and hunter of the beasts, with something of his quarries' ways in his bodily nimbleness and beauty, his healthiness, his It is noticeable that disregard of spiritual claims. in Tennyson's account of him, all mention of the for in the Idylls he is the love philtre is omitted

But the prize
Lyonesse,

woodman

;

no longer of overmastering passion but of Though a knight of the free and careless desire. Round Table, who once in momentary enthusiasm 3 honoured Arthur " ev'n to the height," the vows In the twelve have never taken real hold of him.
type
1

Last Tournament,

45.

2

Ibid. 49.

3

Ibid. 657.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
fierce battles

401

he might have fought well and struck

hard, but, like Sir Balin, he
u

came

late

;

The

life

The heathen wars were o'er, had flown, we sware but by the
2

shell."

1

The
"

oaths served their turn, they were

symptom

of

the wholesome madness of an hour,"

which gave

the Order an irresistible strength.

But they should

be regarded
useful to

from a
in

political

point of view, as a

means

times gone by, and not admitted

have value now, or as an end in themselves. Guinevere in a spasm of self-justification had scorned the king for " swearing men to vows impossible "
3
;

and Pelleas

in

a spasm of despair had
us fools and
liars."
4

groaned,

"

The King hath made

Tristram repeats the condemnation, more weightily,
since with deliberate

acknowledgment of the King's

impressive

kingliness.

He

looks

on

his

pledges

merely as
"inviolable vows,

Which
In

flesh

and blood perforce would

violate."

5

is quite right. There is only a between his account of them and the previous one given by Merlin to Gareth, that they are such

a

sense

he

slight difference

"as

is

a shame

A man

should not be bound by, yet the which

No man

can keep."

6

And

the

inference

is

in

both
that
2 4 6

cases

the

same.
not

Merlin
1

goes

on

to
269.

say

those

who do

Last Tournament,
Lancelot

Ibid. 670.

3 5

and

Elaine, 130.
2

Pelleas

and

Ettarre, 469.

Last Tournament, 683.
C

Gareth and Lynette, 266.

—
402
swear
cattle
.

—

—

:

:

ARTHURIAN STORY
of the

must abide without the city " among the field," and to him it seems an impossible alternative but it is just what Tristram does, leaving Camelot to harry his wild beasts, throwing his vows to the winds, and, on principle, refusing to submit to any obligation. His light song is meant in thorough earnest
;

" Free love

free field we love but while we may The woods are hush'd, their music is no more The leaf is dead, the yearning past away New leaf, new life the days of frost are o'er New life, new love, to suit the newer day
: :

—

—

—

:

New
Truly
nature
in

loves are sweet as those that went before

:

Free love
this
is

— free

field

—we
of

love but while

we may." *
return
to

rejection

restraint,

this

often the best

and most
is

attractive thing
falling

a period
It

when the

old order

into dis-

solution.

seems graceful and sane, even if it be lawless and un-ideal. But it cannot last long. Sooner or later such free, blithe desire, that throws off all obligation and control, will yield to sensualism, brutality, and all cynical vileness even as happens to Tristram at the hands of his Uncle Mark. While he bows to kiss the jewelled throat of the Irish Isolt, to whom his chance impulse
;

bids

him
'

return

" Behind

him rose a shadow and a shriek Mark's way,' said Mark, and clove him thro' the
brain."
2

Tristram's
their

creed

and

conduct

differ

only
those

by
of

greater
1

frankness

and grace from
2

Last Tournamenty 275.

Ibid. 747.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
the remaining
knights
to

403

of the
vice

Table.

pay small heed
gall

the vows that have

them.

The
has

splendid

of

They, too begun to Lancelot and

precedent meanwhile, partly in the mere sophistry of the decadence, partly with the purpose of self-excuse, they set themselves to question the authority that imposed the vows. There is babble about the King, whether he be king by courtesy or king by right, all as a display of wit. 1 The very mystery of his origin is turned against him. Whence, they ask,
illustrious

the
for

Queen

given

them

their

disloyalty.

And

»"

Arthur right to bind them to himself? Dropt down from heaven ? wash'd up from out the deep ? They fail'd to trace him thro' the flesh and blood

Had

Of our

old kings."

2

The only one who
of the

retains inviolate the due worship King, the " sole follower of the vows," 3 is Dagonet, the half-witted jester and mock-knight of the Table. Tristram twits him with his swinish
life

before Arthur

made him

his fool,

and

tells

him

him and less than fool, " a naked aught." 4 But it is sometimes the poor creatures of the world, the penitent and simple, who keep longest to the true
that his regeneration has left
less

than swine

Perhaps elsewhere we may see an expiring system show most of its old power under the motley of the fool reclaimed from vice. Dagonet, at least, sees Arthur's star in open day, and hears the noiseless
traditions

of a declining

faith.

than

in

our poetry

1

3

Last To?irjia?ne?tt, 340. Last Tournament, 303.

2
4

Ibid. 679. Ibid. 309.

404

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
*

him reverend testiand is bowed down by his woe. The night that Arthur returns from his baleful victory in the North, he is greeted by the sobbing outcry of this one faithful heart—
music of Arthur's harp,
bears

mony

in the face of scorn,

"

I

am

thy

fool,

And

I

shall never

make

thee smile again."

2

For the great Queen's bower is dark, and the discovery that preludes the end has been made. There has been a gradual preparation for the*
|

inevitable

issue

in in

the preceding story.

After her^s

jubilant

welcome

The Coming of Arthur\ Guin-

evere significantly drops out of sight for a time, and^ and^

her name is never mentioned in Gareth and Lynt :ams" Then, in the Idylls of Enid and Geraint her dream* of Lancelot have their counterpart in the whispered
suspicions

of the

court.

In Balin
fact,

and Balan, her

and the enemy talk openly of it in advance, but they still meet with contradiction and disbelief. At the next stage, however, when the charge is repeated by Vivien's spite, Merlin, to his sorrow, must admit its truth. Another step, and it is the common talk, no longer of the frivolous and ill-conditioned alone, but of loyal and righteous men like the Lord of Astolat, and only the innocence of the lily maid refuses it " Guinevere even reads a " vague suspicion credit. in Arthur's eyes, though he is too noble to give it
guilt passes

from fancy to

room then or indeed
Lancelot

in

the next Idyll,

when both
an
the knights

and

she

are

driven

by

their grief to

ambiguous but public confession.
1

When
2

Last Toicrnament) 348.

Ibid. 755.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
set

405

out on the holy
for

wailing and shrieking,
us

our

sins,"

1

she rides by her lover, This madness has come on and on their return he dwells
quest
"

emphatically
forth
it

is

on the transgression that sent him and caused his failure. 2 In Pelleas and Ettarre no breath of malicious scandal, but the pure

lips

of Sir Percivale that dispel the young knight's

dream, and his revolted innocence is hardly restrained from publishing the shame. And, as in that Idyll the wanton Ettarre dares touch on it to the Queen 3 herself, so in the next Tristram refers to it bluntly 4 in Lancelot's very face. Then comes the actual discovery, which Modred, according to his long-laid 5 '.^plans, at length with Vivien's help effects. Of this immediate agent in the overthrow of the Round Table not much is said in the Idylls of the King, and this has sometimes been made a matter of blame. We ought, however, in the first place to examine what impression such notices of

him
to

as there are

seem calculated

to convey.
is

And,

begin with,

we should observe what

not said

about him. He is no longer, as in the romances, the son of Arthur, and therefore has no wrong to requite he is no longer smitten with Guinevere's charms, and therefore has no desire to gratify. Neither love nor revenge enters largely into his motives G indeed, none of the references suggests
;
;

1

Holy

Grail, 357.

«

Ibid. 768.

3

Pelleas

and Ettarre;

175.

4

Last Tournament, 204.

5

Guinevere, 97.
It

absent.

would be incorrect to say that vengeance is entirely The "dusty fall" [Guinevere, 54] received from
But,
first,

Lancelot rankles in his heart.

this is a

secondary

406

ARTHURIAN STOR Y
his nature,

any hint of passion in form when it merges
is

even

in its basest

into

lust.

And

therefore he

only once hear of him in tourney, and that is when the laces of his helmet crack. 1 In the row of escutcheons that are carven for one noble deed and blazoned
incapable of great achievement.
for twain, his is "

We

blank as death."

2

He

is

as slow

admit desert in others as to evince it in himself. When " for want of worthier " he is umpire of Gareth's tilt with Gawain, Gawain owns his brother's prowess but Modred " biting his thin lips was mute, for he is alway sullen." 3 He neither acknowledges goodness himself nor is easy when it is acknowledged by others thus he chills
to
;

"

The popular

praises of the

King
4

With

silent smiles of slow disparagement."

On
ever

the other hand he
is

is
ill

eager to ferret out whatreport.

ugly and of
wall.
5

Hoping

some
his

secret scandal," he watches " all ear

" to spy " and eye

upon the
wait.

purpose.

beast,"

methods are as mean as to lurk and pry and More than once he is compared to a " subtle c and we hear of his

For

his

It

is

his

way

motive
his

;

his
"

other aims are " sharpertd by strong hate for

and he was already engaged at work of espionage when Lancelot cast him down. And second, there is some difference, to our feelings if not in reality, between such petty spite and the grander passion of
Lancelot
\Guinevere, 20]

vengeance.
1 Last Tournament, 164. rf z Gareth and Lynette, 31.

4

Gareth and Lynette, 409.
Guinevere^
Cf.
13.

8

Guinevere, 24.

°

Guinevere, 10 and 58.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
"

407

Narrow foxy

face,
1

Heart-hiding smile, and gray persistent eye."

To
is

Lancelot that narrow face in

like a

vermin
fixed

in its hole.

2

its helmet appears His underhand knavery

a

trait

from

boyhood
it

on.

At

his

first

introduction,

when dismissed from
is

the conference

of Leodogran and Bellicent,
"

said of him, that

Modred

laid his ear beside the doors,
;

And
But

there half-heard

the

same

that afterward

Struck for the throne, and striking found his doom." 3

which thus at the outset calls meanness, does so as pointedly to his arrogant ambition. The one is no less ingrained than the other. Elsewhere he is
the

passage
to
his

attention

stealthy

described as a subtle beast, that
"

Lay couchant, with his eyes upon the Ready to spring, waiting a chance." 4

throne,

Malignity, stealth, and ambition are, as
three

it

were, the
is

strands of his

character.

In

a word, he

the
in

embodiment of inquisitive and malevolent negation, that would usurp for itself the sovereign place
life.

It

is

in

this design

that he tampers with

the heathen, and seeks to splinter the
into feuds
all

Round Table
But
in

that

serve his

traitorous
is

ends.

his machinations there

nothing really great or

His small and shallow heart finds its forces of in the grand destructive nature, the torrent, or the sea, but in a " little bitter He is not in himpool on the bare coast." 5 self a dangerous enemy, and his chance of power,
effectual.

analogue

not

.

.

1

Guinevere, 62.

2
x

Last Tournament,
Guinevere,
II.

165.
6

3

Coming of Arthur, 322.

Ibid. 51.

—
408

ARTHURIAN STORY
Negation
is
is not to never installed as
;

save in a brief lieutenancy under Arthur,

be taken seriously.

man indeed it holds very existence, from the ideal which it denies but which it cannot outlive. Arthur, in all his confusion and distress, when doubtful
supreme
in the

eager heart of
its

its

authority,

and

about himself and everything else, never doubts that he will strike this rebel dead. 1 And though Modred
has his joy in the destruction of the Order,
after
far
all,
it
is,

work only to a slight extent. In so as he helps, it is by disclosing the corruption
his

that already exists.

In truth he

is

an insignificant
given
agent,

person,

to

whom
been

circumstances, but for which he
powerless, have

would
direct

have

an

adhis

ventitious importance.

In other words, though the

agent, he
is

is

not the
this,

grand

and

action

not the cause but the occasion of the end.

Arthur himself sees
Sir

and expresses
"

it.

When
of thine

Bedivere

calls

Modred

the

traitor

house," the
"

King

replies

house {not Modred) hath been my doom. not thou this traitor of my house Who hath but dwelt beneath one roof with me. My house are rather they who sware my vows, Yea, even while they brake them, own'd me King."

My

But

call

*

Modred

is

rightly, in
in

view of his pettiness,
:

left

an

outlined figure

the background

room must be

kept for the typical members of that house of Arthur that causes his doom, the real criminals, Lancelot and the Queen. But with the Idyll of Guinevere, their story too
1

Guinevere, $72.

2

Passing of Arthur,

1

54.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
is

409

is sinned and their purgaAlready they are taking their final farewell when they are surprised by Modred and his crew, and the discovery but widens the gulf between them and embitters their remorse for a vaster ruin than they had conceived. Lancelot is dismissed in silence to the expiation he must undergo ere he shall " die, a holy man." l Full portraiture is re-

at

an end.

Their sin

tion has begun.

served

for

the

crisis

in

Guinevere's soul, as
in feeling,

she

passes from dread to penitence, from the breach with

her sin in fact to the breach with
to love of her injured lord.
late,

it

and
too

At

last,

when

it is

she perceives his greatness.

Forgiven by his
spiritual principle,

large pity, recognising in
as
it

him the

were the

"

conscience of a saint," she sees that

her

due to him alone. But meanwhile his purpose, and rent their lives apart, making wreck of both only at the renewal of all things may the predestined union of spirit and
is

homage

she has defeated

;

sense be

fulfilled.

And Arthur
to " find or

goes out into
a

the

mist and gloom
the
blind

feel

way" 2 through
3

mist
"

which, after he sees her in the dust, folds in
passes of the world."
till

the

Long ago he had
all

felt

that,

he wedded her,

things would

be

to
lost

him
her,

spectral

and

illusory.

Now
may

that he has

this feeling of unreality returns.

He

is "

vext with

waste dreams
the
wind.
5

" 4

as of Gawain's ghost shrilling

down

The
6

earth

well

sound

"

hollow

under him,"
1

as he

moves
1418.

to Lyonesse,

Lancelot

and Elaine,

:!

fi

Passing of Arthur, Passing of A rthur,

78.
31.

Passing of Arthur, Coming of Arthur, c Coming of A rthnr,
4

75.

84.
83.

;

4IO
"

ARTHURIAN STORY
A
By
land of old upheaven from the abyss
fire,

to sink into the abyss again."

He,
cries

indeed,
2

seems

as

"

nothing

in

the

mighty

world,"

far less " lord

in his

own

realm,"

when he

out

"On my
Confusion,
till

heart hath
I

fall'n

I

know

not what

Nor whence

I

am, nor whether
are

I

am, be King." 3

sharpened by a keener come, not because he has found it by his musing or sought it of himself, but because hard experience has forced it home to his soul, a melancholy like Merlin's after he sat on the fatal chair. It is the grief at the seeming futility of all effort, the hopelessness of all change, a crushing sense of the blind force that sways the life of manhis

But now

throes

agony.

To him

has

kind.
"

found Him in the shining of the stars, mark'd Him in the flowering of His fields, But in His ways with men I find Him not. I, being simple, thought to work His will, And have but stricken with the sword in vain. All my realm Reels back into the beast, and is no more." 4
I

I

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

It

is

an experience that combines the adoration of
in

the angels and the cynicism of Mephistopheles
the

Prologue to Faust, and that is what makes it so cruel. It is as though a heavenly intelligence were forced to accept the doctrines of the Adversary. It is only by hoping against hope, that Arthur
i

3

Passing of Arthur, Passing of Arthur,

82.

2 4

Coming of Arthur,
Ibid. 9.

86.

143.

'

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
clings to the old prophecy,
in his

41

or rather to the voice
so
different

own
all

heart

:

"

I

pass but shall not die." 1
his
last
fight,

So he marches
from
that

to

have gone before, when the New order was vanquishing the Old, or subduing the
rebels, or expelling the forces of anarchy.
" Far other
is

this battle in the

west

Whereto we move, than when we strove in youth, And brake the petty kings, and fought with Rome,

Or

thrust the heathen from the
thro' the north."

Roman
2

wall,

And shook him

Arthurs faithful few and Modred's host of renegades and Pagans meet on the " shifting sands " closed in by " the phantom circle of a moaning sea," with the sun burning at his lowest, and the death-white mist drawn round. 3 There are the uncertainty and fear, the clamour and mistake, the dreams of other times and the vacuity of despair that accompany
the collapse of a civilisation
" Friend
:

and

foe were

shadows

in the mist,

And friend slew friend not knowing whom he And some had visions out of golden youth, And some beheld the faces of old ghosts
Look
in

slew

;

upon the

battle."

4

Then

the cold wind rises and the mist clears, and

come tumbling about the " brands that once had fought with Rome " and are shivered, now
the waves
that the Order, like

Rome, has passed
all

its

time.

Is

not the moral of

it

that systems arise but to

bloom

and

wither

in

turn
28,
3

?

"

The

thing
911.
Ibid.

that

-

1 Passing of Arthur, Passing of Arthur, 66.

and Holy Grail,
Ibid. 85 etc.
4

100.

2

"

"

4

1

ARTHURIAN STOR V
it

hath been,
that

is

that which shall be."

The waves

sway the dead who vanquished Rome seem to speak with " the voice of days of old and days to be," * and is not this the meaning of their words ? To the King, it confirms his doubt and
wretchedness.

Confessing

his

"

confusion

"

to

Sir

Bedivere, he cries,
" Hearest thou this great voice* that shakes the world,

And

wastes the narrow realm whereon

we move

?

2

Not

his

own

small kingdom alone sinks back from
;

glory to

desolation

the

same

vicissitude

of weal

and woe seems the lot of all the world, and he himself merely the monarch of a by-gone mode, " a King among the dead." 3 But presently there comes a reaction. No doubt the ages " swing their cycles as they must." No doubt they bring round the periods of growth and decay by an inevitable mechanism,
"

Whose

course will on

The way Of more
Appear

it

takes, cracking ten thousand curbs

strong link asunder than can ever

in

our impediment. 4

above this and beyond. must always live and reign, even Arthur acif in its various forms it passes away. cepts Sir Bedivere's salutation of " King every5 where and, in renewed feeling of his royalty, rouses himself for a " last act of kinghood " 6 ere he He smites Modred dead, and is smitten by pass.

But

the

spirit

remains

The

ideal

itself

!

1

Passing of Arthur,
Coriolanus,
i.

135.

2
'*

Ibid. 139.

3

Ibid.

146.

4

1.

Passing of Arthur, 71. G Passing of Arthur, 163.

148, 158.

THE IDYLLS AS A SERIES
him
in in

413
the

turn.

His

final

feat

is

to

destroy

negation
his

of himself, and, in

so

doing, to
that

receive

mortal

nature

the
is

wound

cannot

be
has

healed on earth.
sovereignty
struck
its
is

He
over.

victorious, but his temporal

The brand
:

Excalibur

latest

stroke

the

fated hour has

come

when, as it seems to Sir Bedivere, it must be cast away, but when more truly it must be restored to the Lady of the Lake. And Arthur himself returns to his guardian Queens and to the great deep whence he came, still uncertain of what will befall, but now untroubled about the overthrow of
the Table, and accepting
"
it

as the best.

The

old order changeth, yielding place to new,
fulfils

And God

himself in

many

ways,

Lest one good custom should corrupt the world."

To

his

follower

is

left

the aspiration and longing
:

immortal part as he welcome, of shouts
after

his

but

for

him there
;

are

is

received with a triumph

beyond

Sir Galahad's,

into his eternal

Sir Bedivere, ere he turns to the

home and new sun and the

new

years, hears
" Like the last echo born of a great cry,

Sounds, as if some fair city were one voice Around a king returning from his wars." 2
1

Passing of Arthur, 408.

2

Ibid. 459.

—

—

APPENDIX
ON BLACKMORE'S
EPICS

I

ON ARTHUR

to illustrate

As Blackmore is some

so

little

read,

it

of the statements I have

may be worth while made at greater

length than was suitable in the text.

The
little.

merit of his best passages

is

of course very modest,

but when

read good-naturedly they seem to possess a

force.

Sometimes he writes with a certain amount of moral For instance, in the description of the Last JudgResurrection

ment and

a

passage

occurs

that

is

not

unimpressive

" That hideous thing, which for a covert seeks With hollow eyes, fall'ii jaws and ghastly cheeks, That monstrous thing was once when kept with care
vSet off

Proud of its beauty, and look'd wondrous with all the ornaments that please

fair,

The eye and pampered with

luxurious ease."

\Prince Arthur, Bk. Ill

So

to Uter's explanation of Arthur's vision of his offspring

" The Kings that in the foremost rank appear, That frowning and unpleasant aspects wear, Whose waning crowns with faded lustre shine, Shall after you succeed, first Constantine, Conanus, and the rest of British line.

"

5

BLA CKMORE'S EPICS ON ARTHUR
These look not with their native lustre bright, But dimly shine with delegated light
:

4

1

Heroick deeds by great forefathers done
Cast
all their

glory on them, not their own."

Prince Arthur, Bk. V.

Similarly,

when

inspired

by

his

genuine patriotism

or

religious feeling

he can write with some swing or dignity. Of the navies of England he says,
" Her bellowing oaks with louder thunder roar Than what annoyed them on their hills before,
Shaking the Gallic and the Belgian shore "
:

conclude with one of his least incongruous 's
the foot of Heaven's steep precipice,
to sink into the

Now to
Ready

deep abyss,

The

red-faced sun had roll'd the sinking day.

;

APPENDIX

II

SEBASTIAN EVANS' ARTHURIAN POEMS

Among
tive

the poets who, after the Idylls appeared in collecintentionally adopted a variant of the stories

form,
I

treated,

should have mentioned Sebastian Evans, the

author of Brother Facialis Manuscript,

who

in

1875 took
for his

from elder romance

the

subject

of two

pieces

volume, In the Studio.
plot,

"NeitheT shows

much attempt

at

tions

for the author is a good deal of ; a " tapestry poet," to misapplyaterm familiar to students

and both rely and suggestions

for the

most part on

their descrip-

jjmur's Knighting tells how armed by Gifievra at the wedding-feast held by King Leodogan at Carmelide. We hear how she
of

Northern Literature.
is

Arthur

" With firm hand did don Over the Knight's steel cap the princely helm, Windowed and pranked with gold, and thereupon A chaplet wrought with leaf of lily and vine Beaten in gold a Jew's work pentagon Under each foil, inwrought with subtle twine

—

Of stones of empire in the sheeny rim. Then Merlin came, saying: 'The last is mine,' And set above the helm a crest to dim All gold and gem work, flash they as they might The Dragon royal, through whose every limb

:

—

;

;

420
The
Yet
It
It

APPENDIX
life-blood beat in pulses of quick light
it

stirred

not, save that its snaky tail

curled in glancing folds, and fiery bright

breathed a flame, red mirrored in the mail."
lies

Yet a shadow

across the scene which seems to blight

the promise of honour and of love.

" Then Arthur turned as one but half awake, Drunken with that deep draught of loveliness, Dazed with his dreams of conquest for her sake

And
But
at the

bliss to

be."

eye,"

moment, "he felt the glittering blue of Merlin's and flushed in conscious guilt beneath it

" For well

that bridegroom knew that Merlin knew His lawless other love and its wild sin Sin unto death, even though all else be true."

The second poem, The Eve of Morte Arthur, which
describes the
sets
in,
is

twilight

of the Order before

the darkness

a

much more

notable

piece.

The opening

lines strike the key-note

"Beside the dripping copses fleeting low, The homeless cuckoo jeereth all the day,

Even as he jeered a thousand years ago. May-morn itself is weary of the May. In wonted wise the cheerless nightingale
Carpeth her carol on the hawthorn spray.

The

daffodil

and primrose are as

pale,

Dog-violet scentless, as in days of yore,

And

all

the woodland telleth

its

old tale."

The

departure of Galahad,

the

death
;

of Tristram,

the

beguiling of Merlin, are described

and the poet dwells

on the

glories of the

kingdom before the decadence began,
he arrived

when

the adventurous knight could penetrate through every
till

danger and horror

;

—— —
:

:

SEBASTIAN EVANS' ARTHURIAN POEMS
"

421

Where o'er against the birthstead of the sun The bulwarks glow of Paradise terrene The walls of jasper, sardonyx, and pearl With golden mortar molten in between The crystal carven canopies a-curl
:

With emerald

sprays of passion-flower and vine

And

garnet grapes and topaz tendril-whorl

The doors of starry diamond, with a twine Of sapphire hinges cusped with chrysophrase

And ruby studs and knops of almondine And all opaque against the liquid blaze
Central, with sword and balance,

:

helm and greave,
rays

The Archangel-champion, crowned with awful

And

ever about the Eternal Doors, like doves,

Or poised or fluttered a celestial flight Of Angels chanting in the trellised groves Of crest and corbel, cope and capital Flashing sweet sheen among the fretted caves

The nightingale remembers May-morn itself is weary
The homeless cuckoo

the old springs.
of the

May,
the day."

Yet, careless of the wreck of realms and kings,
jeereth
all

[Information about these pieces, for which I
to Professor Ker,

am
at

indebted

came

to

me

too late to be utilised in

the text.

They should have been noticed
January 2nd, 1894.]

page 279.

— Naples,

APPENDIX

III

TIME OCCUPIED IN THE IDYLLS OF THE KING In a poem
like

j

Tennyson's

it

is

not very important to
it may The two

determine the time occupied by the action, but

be worth while to note what data there
capital passages occur in Lancelot
is
;

are.

stated that the heathen

and Elaine. There it had sacked Astolat ten years

before, 1 the old lord adding,

" Dull days were those, till our good Arthur broke The Pagan yet once more on Badon hill." 2

Again, eight of the nine yearly tournaments for the diamond
prize are already past at the beginning of this Idyll,

and
not

the ninth

is

about to take place, which

will

complete the
It is

nine years' proof contemplated by the King.

expressly stated that those nine years begin shortly after

the

commencement

of his reign

j

we

are only told that he

found the diamond crown before he was king, and that
afterwards

"when king" he devoted
Ten

the jewels to

this

purpose; 3 but taking the two passages in conjunction this

seems the natural inference.
hosts were
still

years before, the heathen

engaged

in their ravages, nine years before

the

King could announce the
and Elaine,

institution of the yearly jousts.

It is
1

not very rash to put his enthronement and his wars
Lancelot
278.
2

Ibid. 285.

s

Ibid. 56.

424
with

APPENDIX
Rome and
the Heathen, referred to in The

Coming

of

Arthur, some ten years previous to the events of this
the date of the introductory

Idyll.

Gareth and Lynette must not be considered to follow

poem
that

too closely.
it

doubtless several indications
the mythic reign.

falls

fairly

There are soon in

wars as in the immediate past,

Such are Gareth's references to Arthur's the whole tone of the

—

passage points to the occurrences as recent, 1
that prevails quite near the King's

— the violence
above
all

own

seat,

the

bright hopefulness of the story.

On

the other

hand there

make the earliness of the date only relative. Thus Tristram is mentioned as a knight of the Round Table, 2 and we learn from The Last Tournament that he came late, and " sware but by the shell." 3 Thus Gawain who, in The Coming of Arthur, is a wild lad who flies at
are hints that
all

he

sees, 4

is

now

a

"a proven
story
is

knight/' 5

;

his junior

Modred, described in the is also a knight, and the
than
the
either.

Coining as

"young Modred,"
some years
since

of a younger brother

All this implies a lapse of

coronation.

The

Idyll

itself

occupies more than a

month.

The continued
more

violence in the land (though

now

it

is

distant from the court)

and the happy

close,

suggest
in the

also a comparatively early date for the next
series,

poems

The Marriage of Geraint and Geraint and Enid. Otherwise they contain little that may place them. Each
Idyll occupies only a few days, but there
interval
is

about a year's

between

self-accusing

Enid uttering her words on a "summer morn," and their martheir

main

incidents,

riage having taken place " last Whitsuntide." 7

In Balin and Balan we are suddenly
1

made aware

of a

Gareth

and Lynette,

135.
6

2

Ibid. 386.

3

Last Tournament, 270.
Gareth and Lynette, 27.

4

Coming of Arthur,

321.
7

Marriage of Geraint,

69.

Ibid. 840.

.:

TIME OCCUPIED IN THE IDYLLS
considerable advance of time
;

425

not necessarily since the
It

preceding
is

idylls,

but since the opening of the reign.
" One

said of Arthur, that
fair

dawn,
youth return'd,"
,

The

light- wing'd spirit of his

as though his younger days were past.
like

Moreover
:

Balin,

Tristram, was a late
I

comer, for he moans
those fierce wars," 2

" Well

had
from

foughten
the

— well —

in

etc.,

and

when he was first knighted till the opening of the poem three years and three months have " three brief moons " 3 elapsed the of his stay at court, and the "three kingless years" 4 of exile. The
time

—

end, and the bewrayal of their love by Lancelot and the Queen, should also be noted. Still this Idyll
tragic

should not be separated too far from the previous ones,
for in a certain sense
it is

of the

the group.

In

its

sequel, Merlin

same type and completes and Vivien, we are told

that Vivien arrived at court at a time of ease,
" While
all

the heathen lay at Arthur's feet
all

And no

quest came, but

was joust and play." 5
in the stories of Gareih,

of

There are these Geraint, and
subsequent
to

common
of

traits

Balin

and Balan,
wars

that

all

are

and that some quest or other is an integral part of each. There is another reason, however, for placing Balin and Balan pretty
the

heathen

late.

It

stands in close connection with the next Idyll,
it

of which
in the
first,

was originally described as the induction
is

Vivien

introduced journeying from Cornwall,

and in the second we hear of the motive of her journey and her arrival in Arthur's court. But Merlin and Vivien must be placed decidedly late see Merlin's speech,
;

1

Balin and Balan,

1

8.
5

2

Ibid. 172.

3

Ibid. 151.

4

Ibid. 6 1

Merlin and Vivien, 142.

426

APPENDIX
" Far other was the song that once I heard, It was the time when first the question rose About the founding of a Table Round." 1
. .

.

The whole tone
past,

of the reference

is

to

an event long

Tennyson's system the Table was founded by Arthur when he became King.
in

and

We now
wounded.

return to Lancelot
at least "

and

Elaine, the action of

which requires

many

weeks,"

when Lancelot

lies

At the close Percivale and Galahad are introduced as
lily maid. This brings it into immediate connection with the subsequent Idyll of The Holy

bearing the shroud of the

Grail.

For

in the latter

Galahad

is

still

a "boy-knight"
belief,

2

when

Percivale's sister breathes into

him her

and

the apparition

of the

Grail immediately

follows.

The

quest lasts for a twelvemonth and a day.
Pelleas

and Ettarre must be dated soon
for

after the return

of the

questers,

Pelleas

learns

the
in

scandal

of

the

Table from Percivale, now a monk, and
it

The Holy Grail

is

stated that he died not long after taking the cowl. 3
story of this Idyll lasts over a few weeks.
after a very brief interval,

The

The Last Tourna?nent follows
for in the

concluding lines of Pelleas and Ettarre, Modred

sees that

"the time

is

hard at hand," 4 and by the close

of the three days, that the story proper of The Last Tour-

nament occupies, the discovery

is made. In Guinevere the Queen has been in hiding for "

many

a week," while Arthur wars with Lancelot over sea.

so

is
1

The Passing of Arthur succeeds immediately with only much delay as is required for the march and the battle. Thus, if we consider that the end of Lancelot and Elaine to be dated about ten years after the commencement
Merlin and Vivien, 403.
4
-

Holy

Grail,

1

56.

3

Ibid. 7.

Pelleas

and

Ettarre, 597.

TIME OCCUPIED IN THE IDYLLS
of the reign,

4.27

and add the year of The Holy Grail, the few weeks soon following of Pelleas' career, the few days

immediately thereafter devoted to the events centering in

The Last Tournament, the many weeks that elapse before visits Almesbury, and the interval required for the last march, we bring up the time to about twelve years.
Arthur
It

seems

to

me

very likely that Tennyson with his love of

neat numbers had this period in his

mind

for the

total

duration of the reign.
Further,
if

the suggested placing of the Idylls

is

correct,

the sin of Lancelot and Guinevere comes
at first sight

much

later

than

we

are apt to suppose

;

this

removes some
too to observe
if

repulsiveness from their guilt

and

averts from Arthur the

charge of obtuse credulity.
the dramatic hurry

It is interesting

and crowding

as the series advances,

the proposed arrangement

is justified,

so that at

first

there

are four years to one Idyll, while in the end there are four
Idylls to

one

year.

The

results are

shown below

in tabular

form.

TIME OCCUPIED BY THE IDYLLS
Reign of Arthur,
12

Years
Idylls.

Important Events.
Period of War.
1ST Year.

Coronation of Arthur
Rebellion crushed.

:

of Table.

Founding Wedding.
-

Wars with Rome and Heathen begun.

Coming of Arthur.

2ND Year.
3rd Year.

Diamond Tournaments

instituted.

4TH Year.

428

APPENDIX
Important Events.
Period of Quests.

Idylls.

5TH Year. 6th Year. 7TH Year.
8th Year.

Tristram and Balin knighted
?

ventures of Gareth

....
?

AdGareth

and Lynette

?

Geraint overthrows
?

weds Enid

......
Edyrn
in the

and
Marriage of Geraint
Geraint
?

Geraint

waste land

?

-

-

and Enid ?

Love of Lancelot
;

and

Queen

becomes guilty Vivien leaves court of King Mark ; Balin and Balan slay each
other
?

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days prior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

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Documents Similar To Tennyson's Idylls of the King and Arthurian Story From the XVIth Century (1894) MacCullum