The Smooth-Coated Otter is distributed throughout South Asia
and Southeast Asia. Its distribution is continuous from Indonesia, through
Southeast Asia, and westwards from southern China to India and Pakistan, with an
isolated population in Iraq (Pocock 1941, Medway 1969, Hussain 1993). Though its
current status in the Middle East is not known, its presence has been confirmed
from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Southwest China, Myanmar,Thailand,Vietnam, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Mason and Macdonald
1986, Corbet and Hill 1992, Wozencraft 1993).
Countries: Native:
Bangladesh; Bhutan; Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; China; India; Indonesia; Iraq;
Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan;
Thailand; Vietnam

Population:

Because of secretive and nocturnal behaviour of
smooth-coated otter, reliable estimates of its population are not available. In
Southeast Asia it is found in large groups (Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993,
Hussain, 1996) where the basic family group consisted of adult female and her
offspring, father and older siblings often join the group (Lekagul and McNeely
1988, Hussain 1995). The group size of otters varies considerably between months
and seasons, the group being large during the monsoon (Hussain 1996). Along the
Chambal river in Central India the group size ranges from 1-9 individuals
(mean=4.62). During a study conducted in the Corbett Tiger Reserve, in North
India an estimate of 41 individuals (35 adults and 6 juveniles) with a mean of
5.1±1.55 was recorded from the 85 km of river stretch within the Reserve (Nawab
and Hussain 2007).
Population Trend: Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology:

The Smooth-Coated Otter is essentially a plain's otter.
In the Indian subcontinent they are adapted to live even in the semiarid region
of North-Western India and Deccan plateau (Prater 1971). Generally, it uses
large rivers and lakes, peat swamp forests, mangroves and estuaries, and it even
uses the rice fields for foraging (Foster-Turly 1992). In South-East Asia rice
fields appear to be one of the most suitable habitats in supporting its viable
populations (Melisch et al. 1996). However, they were more abundant in the
mangroves of Kuala Gula, Malaysia as compared to the rain forest rivers (Shariff
1984). Along the large rivers in India, the
Smooth-Coated Otters prefer
rocky stretches since these stretches provide sites for den and resting. River
stretches with bank side vegetation and marshes are used in proportion to their
availability especially in summer as they provide ample cover while travelling
or foraging. Open clayey and sandy banks are largely avoided as they lack escape
covers (Hussain 1993, Hussain and Choudhury 1995, 1997). In the Tarai areas of
the upper Gangetic plains the Smooth-Coated Otters use seasonally flooded swamps
during monsoon (July-September) and in early winter (October-February). Winter
being the breeding season, the swamps are extensively used as natal den sites
and nursery. By February-March the swamps begin to dry and the fish biomass
appears to be depleted, consequently the otters move to the perennial rivers
(Hussain 1997). In west Java, the Smooth-Coated
Otters prefer mangroves and
tidal stretches of the rivers and rice fields. Freshwater swamps and coastal
stretches lacking vegetation are avoided (Melisch et al. 1996). In rice fields
and pond areas they prefer sites having moderate diversity of vegetation. Rivers
with moderate to slow or stagnant water and water bodies having a width of 10-40
m are preferred. In Huai Kha Khaeng, Thailand, the
Smooth-Coated Otters
extensively use the slowly meandering river near the dam and the dam itself
(Kruuk et al. 1994). The Smooth-Coated Otter is predominantly a fish eater, but
supplements its diet with shrimp/crayfish, crab and insects, and other
vertebrates such as frog, mudskippers, birds and rats (Prater 1971, Foster-Turly
1992, Hussain and Choudhury 1998). In general, its diet is similar to that of
Eurasian otter. The range of fish in the diet varies from 75% to 100% (Tiler et
al. 1989, Foster-Turly 1992, Hussain 1993, Melisch et al. 1996, Hussain and
Choudhury 1998). The Smooth-Coated Otters exhibit the typical opportunistic
feeding behaviour similar to the Eurasian otter. Along the major rivers in India
they eat more fish, often making up to 94% of the total diet (Hussain and
Choudhury 1998), while along the coast in mangrove habitats and in rice fields
it ranges between 75-100% (Foster-Turly 1992, Melisch et al. 1996). In West Java
otters inhabiting mangrove areas eat more of crustaceans, around 22% of the
scats contain remains of crab and shrimp where as in the paddy fields in
Malaysia, along with fish they tend to eat more rice field rats Rattus
argentiventer, represented in 23% of the sprains' (Foster-Turly 1992).
Hussain (1993) identified 12 fish species from the spraint of
Smooth-Coated
Otter from Chambal river, of which seven species were eaten throughout the year.
Rhinomugil corsula (Mugilidae) and Rita rita (Bagaridae) were the
preferred species. At least eight species of fish were identified from the
spraints from Malaysia (Foster-Turly 1992). Some of these include Gourami (Trichogater
spp.), climbing perch (Anabis testudineus), catfish (Clarius spp.),
snakehead (Channa spp.) and mudskipper (Gobioidei). Along the rice field they
ate large amount of most common fish (Trichogater and Anabis spp.). The size of
the fish consumed varied from 5-46 cm, often ranging between 15-30 cm (Wayre
1978). No significant relationship was found between the calorific values of the
fish and the quantities consumed. Thus, the prey selection by smooth otter is
mainly influenced by its availability (Hussain 1993). The Smooth-Coated Otter
attains sexual maturity at twenty-two months in captivity (Desai 1974). Yadav
(1967) observed first litter at four years of age. In captivity they mate during
August to October in water followed by prolonged playful bouts between partners
(Desai, 1974, Naidu and Malhotra 1989). Copulation takes place several times
daily. Males are polygamous mating with up to four females (Desai 1974). In the
wild in Northern India mating occurs in August-September and littering in
November-December (Hussain 1993). Desai (1974) observed litter size of 2-5 (mean
= 3.25). Similarly, Naidu and Malhotra (1989) observed litter size 1-5. The
breeding schedule of smooth otters in the wild in India corresponds with the
captive records (Hussain 1993, 1996). Evidences of littering have been recorded
in October and the cubs were seen out of the den in February. The mean litter
size along the Chambal river was three (Hussain 1996). Based on the percentage
of active telemetry recordings, Hussain (1993) observed that the overall
activity pattern of Smooth-Coated Otters along the Chambal River in India was in
the form of a bimodal curve in which two period of high activity were separated
by a period of relative inactivity. This pattern of activity varied considerably
among seasons. In summer, the relative period of inactivity was greater than in
winter or monsoons. A significant difference was also found between day and
night time activities in different seasons. Otters were more diurnal during
winter than in summer or monsoon. Hussain (1993) observed daily movements
of four radio-implanted smooth otters of different age and sex within their home
range. Two types of movements were identified; small-scale movements associated
with foraging in a restricted area close to dens, and more extensive travels
between dens and foraging sites. Most of the movement was restricted between 250
to 1500 m. A typical group of Smooth-Coated Otter consisting of male, female,
and up to four young ones require 7 to 12 km of river for their territory and an
even longer stretch of shoreline if living along the coast (Wayre 1974). During
a radio-tracking study along the Chambal River, India, the home range of all the
otters tracked overlapped intensively. Among the radio-implanted otters, the
maximum home range was observed in sub-adult male and the minimum in juvenile
female and male. Among the non-tagged otters, the home range of female with cubs
was estimated as 5.5 km. In case of the adult male it was estimated to be
approximately 17 km (Hussain 1993). Along the Chambal River, the home range
length and area of smooth-coated otter was less than that of Eurasian otter, in
Perthshire, Scotland and Northern river otter Lutra candensis in Idaho (Melquist
and Hornocker, 1983), but larger than that of Eurasian otter (Erlinge 1967) in
Sweden.
Systems: Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Major Threat(s):

Major threats to Asian otter population are loss of
wetland habitats due to construction of large-scale hydroelectric projects,
reclamation of wetlands for settlements and agriculture, reduction in prey
biomass, poaching and contamination of waterways by pesticides. In most Asian
countries increased human population during the last century, inadequate and
ineffective rural development programmes have not been able to address the
problems of poverty, forcing people to be more and more dependent on natural
resources (Badola, 1997). Consequently, most of the wetlands and waterways do
not have adequate prey base for sustaining otter populations. Wetlands and
waterways are polluted by eutrophication and accumulation of persistent
pesticides such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates through
agricultural runoffs. Increased pesticide use is not only regarded as a major
obstacle to the development of rice-fish culture, but also poses a danger to all
predators feeding on aquatic prey in the area (Melisch 1996). In the entire
South and Southeast Asia there is severe conflict between otters and humans,
because of poverty and recent increase in aquaculture activities leading to
indiscriminate killing of otters. Many important habitats of smooth otter have
been lost to development activities. In South East Asian countries, there does
not seem to be any intentional otter trapping (Melisch et al. 1996) though it is
prevalent in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.

Conservation Actions

: Since 1977, the Smooth-Coated Otter is listed on Appendix II
CITES. However, most range countries are not able to control the clandestine
trade leading to extensive poaching. Nevertheless, it is a protected species in
almost all the range countries which prohibits its killing. The Smooth-Coated
Otter, once common in the wetlands and low lying areas of South Asia, is now
restricted to a few protected areas. Creation of networks of Protected Areas,
identification of sites as wetland of national and International importance
under Ramsar Convention has to some extent halts the degradation of its habitat.