Friday, August 30, 2013

A Sample Quantitative Research Proposal Written in the APA 5th Style

Self-Directed
Learning Readiness and Life Satisfaction Among Older Adults

A Sample
Quantitative Research Proposal Written in the APA 5th Style

[Note:
This sample proposal is based on a composite of past proposals, simulated
information and references, and material I’ve included for illustration
purposes – it is based roughly on a fairly standard research proposal; I say
roughly because there is no one set way of creating a quantitative research
proposal. Much of its design is based on the nature of the research, your
preferences, and your decisions regarding how to describe or portray what it is
you plan to accomplish. The material in this document was adopted from a
dissertation proposal created by Dr. Ralph Brockett. A biography is not
included in this sample proposal. To examine ways of creating references in the
APA format and other suggestions for using the APA stylistic guide, see http://www-distance.syr.edu/apa5th.html
or http://www-distance.syr.edu/apa5th.pdf
. Roger Hiemstra]

Introduction

An
important area of emphasis in gerontological
research over the past several decades has been the issue of life satisfaction.
Questions about the physical, psychological, social, and economic status of
older adults have served, either directly or indirectly, as the predominant
focus of the aging research (e. g., Maddox and Wiley, 1976). It is these kinds of questions that have
increased understanding of the processes and problems of aging and have led to
the development of strategies designed to maximize the potential of the later
years.

At
the same time, self-directed learning has generated considerable interest in
the adult education literature. This has been fueled by the development of the
SDLRS (Guglielmino, 1977), a scale designed to measure a person’s readiness for
self-directed learning. Unfortunately, very few have looked at self-directed
learning and older adults. Hiemstra (1975) studied older adult’s learning
projects and found a strong relationship between a preference for assuming
personal control over learning and age. This was supported by Hassan (1981) and
McCoy (1982). Hassan also looked at the self-directed learning readiness scores
of older adults and found a corresponding positive relationship between age and
scores on the SDLRS. However, apparently no published reports of subsequent
research with the older adult exist.

In
addition, no one has published accounts of any comparisons between SDLRS and
Life Satisfaction among older adults. If life satisfaction can be improved by
learning efforts as shown by Dowden (1998), it is important to determine if a
propensity and readiness for self-directed learning among older adults has a relationship
to measures of life satisfaction. Therefore, the intent of this proposed
research will be to examine such relationships.

Problem Statement

Based
on the above discussion, it is possible to identify a two-fold problem that
will serve as a point of departure for the present investigation. As has been
noted above and is clarified in the later review of literature section, one
problem area is the fact that many older adults face various hurdles that can
impact their overall state of well-being. Some adults are able to cross these
hurdles through self-learning efforts, while others find themselves less well
equipped to cope with such concerns. The second problem area involves better
understanding why some people turn to learning for meeting personal needs,
while others do not.

In
essence, life satisfaction varies considerable among older adults, as does
personal propensity to undertake learning efforts. It is these variances that
lie at the heart of the problem areas proposed for this study. If a link can be
established between life satisfaction and an attitude conducive to
self-directedness in learning, then it might be possible to look toward
self-directed learning as a strategy for promoting a higher quality of life
among persons in their later years.

Purpose

The
purpose of this study, then, is to explore ways in which older adults’
perceptions as self-directed learners compare with the degree of satisfaction
that they ascribe to their lives. Specifically, the study will focus on two
primary objectives:

1.
To determine the relationship between life satisfaction and personal readiness
for self-directed learning.

2.
To determine the extent to which components of life satisfaction combine with
selected demographic variables to predict a person’s level of self-directed
readiness.

In
addition, because so little is known about self-directed learning among older
adults, a third objective will complete the research effort:

3.
To examine various methodological and substantive considerations in studying self-directed
learning.

Hypotheses

Based
on a review of literature as noted later in this proposal, two major hypothesis
areas will guide the analysis of data. First, it is hypothesized that
perceptions of life satisfaction will be related to perceptions of
self-directed learning readiness among a sample of older adults. Those persons
who report a high degree of life satisfaction will tend to have perceptions of
higher self-directed readiness while low satisfaction will be related to low
self-directed readiness. In essence, this means that it will be possible to
predict an individual’s level of self-directed readiness by knowing their score
on overall life satisfaction plus some of the factors sometimes identified as
barriers to participation in adult education among older adults, such as age
and gender. Finally, it is hypothesized that subjects from a community sample
will tend to demonstrate higher self-directed readiness and life satisfaction
than those residing in an institutionalized setting.

Definition of Key Terms

Life
Satisfaction – a self reported assessment of one’s overall psychosocial
well-being. It is a combination of (a) personality factors such as mood and
self-concept, (b) more socially-related factors such as the nature of one’s
social interactions, (c) perceived health, and (d) financial security.

Older
Adult – for the proposed study, older adult is defined as any person who is
at least 65 years of age.

Self-Directed
Learning – a
process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of
others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals,
identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and
implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.

Self-Directed
Learning Readiness
– the degree to which one perceives oneself to possess the attitudes and skills
needed to be an effective self-directed learner. It is measured in the proposed
study through the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), developed by
Guglielmino (1977).

Review of
Literature

Before
considering this body of literature, it is important to point out that research
on qualify of life has not fallen within the exclusive domain of
gerontologists. Quality of life is an issue that is relevant to persons of all
ages and has been widely studied as such. Cantrill (1965), for instance,
studied quality of life among persons in
more than a dozen nations at different stages of development. In the
U.S., researchers affiliated with the Institute for Social Research at the
University of Michigan have undertaken extensive efforts in studying quality of
life (e.g., Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers,
1976; Campbell, 1981, Davis, 1991, Thomkins, 1996). The reader is alerted to
the existence of broader studies such as these. The present discussion,
however, will concentrate primarily on findings and issues associated with
persons in their later years.

Defining Life Satisfaction and
Related Concepts

To
fully understand the meaning of life satisfaction as it is used in the proposed
study, it is necessary to be familiar with a number of related concepts. The
term that probably serves as the umbrella under which other terms are covered
is quality of life. In general, quality of life is a nebulous term that evades
precise definition (Campbell,
1981). Andrews and Withey (1996) have stated the following about quality of
life:

. . . sometimes refers to an 'outsider's' judgments of
quality covered in such
measures as crowding, decibels of noise pollution, reported crimes, income
levels, etc., but it may also refer to the privately known and privately
evaluated aspects of life (p. 4).

Another
broad term, one that is specifically
associated with the gerontological literature, is successful aging. Kalish
(1985) discusses the following four related though distinct definitions of
successful aging:

A
way of life that is socially desirable for this age group

Maintenance of middle-age
activities

A feeling of satisfaction
with one's present status and activities

A feeling of happiness and
satisfaction with one's life (p. 60).

Clearly,
successful aging bears some relationship to life satisfaction, especially as
considered in the third and
fourth definitions presented above. Leonard (1981-82) has addressed the
relationship between life satisfaction and successful aging by viewing the
former as "a major component" of the latter (p. 223).

Another
term frequently associated with life satisfaction is well-being. This is
sometimes referred to more specifically as "subjective well-being"
(Larson, 1978) or "social-psychological well-being" (George, 1999).
According to Larson, well-being is an assessment of "the general affective
experience of older persons in terms
of a positive­ negative continuum" (1978, p. 109). Essentially, then, life
satisfaction can be viewed as an "assessment of one's overall psychosocial
well-being." Throughout the present discussion, well-being will be used
more or less interchangeably with life satisfaction.

So,
then, just what is life satisfaction? As has been pointed out, life
satisfaction is an integral component of successful aging. George has described
life satisfaction as "essentially a cognitive assessment of one's progress
toward desired goals" (1979, p. 210). Lemon, Bengston, and Peterson (1992)
define the concept as "the degree to which one is presently content or
pleased with his general life situation" (p. 513). An important
consideration that needs to be taken into account when conceptualizing life
satisfaction is the point of reference from which the concept is measured.
Neugarten, Havighurst, and Tobin (1961), among others, have discussed two
approaches to measuring well-being. The first of these is an examination of the
person's external conditions. Here, well-being is determined on the basis of
factors such as income, participation in social activities, employment and
marital status, and health as assessed through a physical examination. This
approach has been criticized by various authors. For example, Neugarten, et al.
(1961) have noted that this approach is subject to the biases of those who
define the parameters of what constitutes high and low life satisfaction. Campbell (1981) has
stressed that it is not possible to "understand the psychological quality
of a person's life simply from a knowledge of the circumstances in which that
person lives." Therefore, by attempting to "explain the population's
sense of well-being on the basis of objective circumstances, we will leave
unaccounted for most of what we are trying to explain" (pp. 1-2).

Measuring Life Satisfaction:
Different Approaches

Since
1949, a variety of measures have been developed to assess life satisfaction and
related constructs among older people. Four such scales are discussed in the
present section. The earliest of these efforts to measure the well-being of
older adults was reported by Cavan, Burgess, Havighurst, and Goldhammer (1949).
The focus of this study was on "personal adjustment," which was
measured through an instrument referred to as Your Activities and Attitudes. This is a rather extensive survey of
the kinds of activities and concerns individuals devote their energies and
attitudes toward health, family and friends, happiness, and related issues.

Another
early measure of well-being was the Kutner
Morale Scale (Kutner, Fanshel, Togo, and Langner, 1956). This is a
seven-item Guttman scale that was administered to 500 persons at least 60 years
of age. Here, morale was defined as "a continuum of responses to life and
living problems that reflect the presence or absence of satisfaction, optimism,
and expanding life perspectives" (p. 48). In this scale, subjects were
asked to give their responses to each of seven morale-related questions, with
points scored for appropriate responses. A criticism that has been leveled
against this measure is that it views well-being as a unidimensional concept
rather than a combination of interacting factors (Neugarten, et al., 1961).

By
far, the measure that has been predominant in life satisfaction research is the
Life Satisfaction Index A (LSIA),
which was developed by Neugarten, et al. (1961). This is a 20-item scale where
subjects are asked to respond either "agree," "disagree,"
or "?" to each statement. The LSIA grew out of a larger study where
life satisfaction ratings were assigned to individuals based on a series of
interviews. Through these interviews, the authors recognized five factors that
comprised the variable life satisfaction. These factors include:

zest vs. apathy

resolution and fortitude

congruence between desired
and achieved goals

self-concept

mood tone

The
LSIA is regarded as a major contribution because it defined life satisfaction
as a multidimensional construct and specified the various factors comprising
the construct. As Salamon and Conte (1981) note, however, reliability figures
for the Indexes were at best low to moderate, with a range of r = -.07 to r =
.59. This would indicate an important limitation to the use of the LSIA.

In
response to the limitations of unidimensional life satisfaction scales and the
relatively low reliability scores of the LSIA, Salamon and Conte (1981)
developed a new life satisfaction measure. The Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale (SCLSES) is a 40-item Likert scale that asks
subjects to respond to statements designed to produce an understanding of their
"feelings about life in general."
The SCLSES contains eight subscales, five of which are closely related to those
identified by Neugarten, et al. (l961). These are "taking pleasure in daily activities,"
"regarding life as meaningful," "goodness of fit between desired
and achieved goals," "positive mood tone," and "positive
self-concept" (pp. 5-6). In addition, Salamon and Conte included subscales
for three additional factors that have been found to be closely related to life
satisfaction. These are "perceived health," "financial
security," and "social contacts" (p. 6). This instrument was
selected for use in the present investigation for two reasons. First, the
reliability coefficient of .93 reported by the SCLSES developers is
considerably higher than reliability figures for other life satisfaction
measures. Second, several of the factors in the scale can be linked, directly
or indirectly, to adult education participation and/or perceptions of
self-directedness. The SCLSES, proposed for use in this study, is discussed in
greater detail in a later section.

Self-Directed Learning [note: this section has been
shorted for purposes of illustration in this sample proposal – in reality, it would
most likely be 1-3 pages longer to make the case for its use in the proposed
research]

Self-directed learning is by no
means a new concept to adult education; yet it only began to emerge as a major
research focus in the field since the early 1970's. The foundation upon which
self-directed learning has been supported is generally associated with the
principles of humanistic philosophy and psychology. A variety of approaches
have been used to study the self-directed learning phenomenon. These studies can
be categorized as either learning projects (Tough, 1971), qualitative
(Passmore, 1986), or self-directed readiness (1977). Findings indicate that
self-directed learning is far more widespread than had been imagined prior to
Tough's initial learning projects study. In addition, there is growing evidence
of a broad range of psychosocial factors that correlate with self-direction. As
these studies are reported, it becomes increasingly possible to define the
parameters of self­ directed learning.

Residence [note: this section has been
shorted for purposes of illustration in this sample – in reality, it would most
likely be 1-3 pages longer to make the case for its use in the proposed
research]

Especially relevant to the
present investigation is a consideration of the relationship between
residential setting and life satisfaction. Wolk and Telleen (1999) studied life
satisfaction differences between samples from long-term care and retirement
community settings. Life satisfaction was found to be higher among the
community sample, where subjects were in a lower constraint environment.
Further, they noted different emphases in life satisfaction correlates between
the two groups, suggesting that the strength of the correlation between life
satisfaction and related factors may differ on the basis of the setting in
which an individual resides.

Summary

Life satisfaction has been an
important area of study for psychologists and sociologists in recent decades.
Because of its link with quality of life, gerontologists have found it
especially fruitful to explore life satisfaction among older adults. Like
self-directed learning, life satisfaction is hard to define and this has
contributed to certain difficulties in studying the concept. Research has
examined life satisfaction variously as a unidimensional and a multi­
dimensional phenomenon, an objective and subjective measure, an indicator of
present and lifetime well-being, and a social and psychosocial phenomenon.
Learning efforts have been shown to be have a relationship to life
satisfaction, but the exact association is not clear. This proposed research
will add to the literature base by building a rationale for recognizing the
importance of both self-directed learning and life satisfaction in research and
theory building in gerontology and adult education.

Methodology

In
the previous section, an introduction to the proposed area of research was
presented. This included a description of the study’s research problem, several
research purposes, three hypotheses that will serve to direct the data
analysis, and an identification of several terms key to the study. In addition,
a review of relevant literature related to the two major study variables –
adult self-directed learning readiness and life satisfaction during the aging
process – established a background of support for the study. Both of these
variables have been studied extensively, but not together and with older
adults. The proposed research is an effort to examine the relationship between
these variables in a manner that has not been done to date.

The
intent of this section is to describe the methodology that is proposed for such
a research effort. Included in the section will be a description of the study
setting, proposed research design, study sample, and proposed data collection
methods, procedures, and analysis efforts.

Study Setting

In
its broadest conceptualization, this study is intended to address the
population of older adults in the United States. However, the vast
diversity of this population in terms of socioeconomic status and other related
variables would make for a monumental undertaking. Therefore, it is necessary
to delimit the setting from which a sample for the study will be drawn.

The
setting for the proposed study, thus, consists of all individuals residing
within two settings. One setting will be an adult residential home in Syracuse, New
York. The adult home is a long-term care facility for
persons who need minimal support. The other setting is a senior citizen’s
housing project located adjacent to downtown Syracuse. Residents living in this facility
are all retired, living on their own, and do not need outside support. Choosing
these two settings will provide for a sample of older adults within a confined
geographic area thereby facilitating the collection of data, while at the same
time meeting the requirements of grouping differences as noted in the
literature review.

Research Design

The
proposed study employs an ex post facto research design as described by
Kerlinger (1973):

Ex
post facto research is systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does
not have direct control of variables. Inferences about relationships among
variables are made from any determined variations between the studied
variables. (p. 344)

Therefore,
the study plan will involve the gathering of information about life
satisfaction and self-directed learning readiness among older adults living in
two different residential settings. No manipulation of the variables by the
researcher will be possible; instead any determined differences will be ex post
facto in nature in that they will stem from differences in results in the
measurement efforts according to age, gender, residential setting, life
satisfaction scores, and self-directed learning readiness scores.

Population and Sampling Plan

The
adult home is not a health care facility, but rather a residential setting for
independent older adults who require only minimal services, such as assistance
with house keeping, one or two daily meals, and transportation to meet medical,
grocery shopping, and other needs. It has been determined that 271 people, 65
years of age or older, live in this setting. In addition, 346 people live in
the 220 apartments contained within the senior citizen complex. Some tenants may
receive special services based on income and all are eligible for various
social and community activities, but all are independent in terms of
transportation, meeting medical needs, and involvement with others throughout
the community.

A
random sample will be drawn from the list of residents obtained for both
settings. Using a table of random numbers, the names of individuals will be
selected from each setting until a minimum of 110 people in each setting is
obtained. It is anticipated that if fewer than 95 people per setting initially
respond to the instruments described below, names will continue to be drawn
from the remaining individuals until at least 95 people from each setting have
completed the two forms. It is hoped that at least 100 people from each site
will complete the forms.

It
is expected that obtaining a minimum of 190 people as described in the previous
paragraph will result in a good cross section of subjects in terms of gender,
age, and residential setting. In addition, the normal variations in life
satisfaction SDLRS scores among at least 190 people will enable statistical
comparisons for the study’s hypotheses that provide new information about older
adults.

Data Collection Procedures

In
the proposed study, two instruments will be employed to measure one independent
variable, one dependent variable, and three moderator (demographic) variables.
These are outlined below.

Independent
Variable – Life satisfaction, the independent variable in this study, will
be measured by the Salamon-Conte Life Satisfaction in the Elderly Scale
(SCLSES). Developed by Salamon and Conte (1981), the SCLSES is a self-report
inventory that focuses on three aspects of daily living. These include (a)
taking pleasure in daily activities, (b) regarding life as meaningful, and (c)
self-concept. It is a 44-item instrument; 40 of the items comprise a Likert
scale measure of life satisfaction, while the other items are measures of
possible moderating variables. The authors report a reliability coefficient of
.93 for the entire scale. They did not talk about the instrument’s validity.
Even given this latter limitation, the SCLSES, it would appear, offers much
potential as an approach to measuring the variable of life satisfaction.

Dependent
Variable – The dependent variable in this study is self-directed readiness.
It is measured through the use of the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale
(SDLRS). This is a 58-item Likert scale, developed by Guglielmino (1977) to
determine the extent to which subjects perceive themselves to possess the
skills frequently associated with self-directed learning. Guglielmino reported
a reliability coefficient of .87 for the scale. In addition, both internal and
predictive validity of the instrument have been demonstrated to be high. Hassan
(1981) used the SDLRS with a sample of 102 individuals that included 39 people
at least 60 years of age. She did not find a significant relationship between
age and self-directed learning readiness. Thus, it would appear the SDLRS is
appropriate for use with older adults as a means of identifying variance across
the population.

Moderator
Variables – In addition to the above independent and dependent variables,
three secondary independent or moderator variables will be considered.
According to Tuckman (1978), a moderator variable is as follows:

. . . that factor which is measured, manipulated, or
selected by the researcher to discover whether it modifies the relationship of
the independent variable to an observed phenomenon (p. 63).

Thus,
the moderator variables can determine the extent to which the relationship
between the two major variables is influenced by secondary factors. In this
study the moderator variables of age, gender, and residential status will be
included.

Data
Gathering Plans
– The two instruments and a simple instruction sheet that also asks subjects
their age and gender, will be delivered to an administrator in each setting who
has agreed to distribute and collect the completed instruments. Prior to their
distribution an introductory letter from both the researcher and the respective
administrators will be placed in each selected subject’s mailbox or mail slot
asking for their cooperation. The letters will describe the research and its
importance and the support of the administrator. They also will note that a $5
coupon toward any groceries at the local Wegman’s Grocery (donated by the
store’s public relations office) will be available to each person completing
the two instruments and signing a letter of informed consent related to the research.
Finally, they will provide a telephone number for anyone with questions or who
may need assistance in completing the instruments. This procedure will be
pilot-tested with at least 10 volunteers from the Fayetteville Senior center to
refine the data gathering plans.

Once
the pilot-testing procedures have been completed, any required changes in the
administration plans will be carried out. Then the administrators will be
authorized to distribute the forms. Any person who has phoned needing clarification
will be provided further explanation. Anyone who phones in a need for
assistance in completing the forms will receive support in the form of one the
location’s administrative assistants reading the forms and recording the
answers. Each assistant so involved will be provided training by the researcher
on how to read and record the answers in an unbiased manner.

One
week after this initial delivery, a follow-up phone call will be made to either
thank those who completed the forms or to remind those who have not yet
completed their forms. The grocery coupons will be mailed to all who have
completed the forms with a letter of thanks. If fewer than 95 people from each
of the two settings complete the forms, then the random sampling and
distribution will continue until at least that number of completed forms from
each setting has been received. It is anticipated that all data collection
efforts will be completed within one month.

Data Analysis

Four types of analysis are
proposed for this study. First, in order to provide a description of the sample
from which data will be collected, descriptive information on age, gender, and
residential setting will be described, as well as the means, modes, range, and
standard deviations for the SDLRS and SCLSES scores. Second, to determine the
relationship between SDLRS and SCLSES, Pearson product moment correlation
coefficients will be determined. Third, to determine any differences in SDLRS
and SCLSES scores according to the moderating effects of age, gender, and residential
setting, chi-square, t-tests, and analysis of variance will be used to examine
for any significant differences among the scores and moderator variables.

The specific hypotheses to be
tested are shown below in null form:

1. There is no significant
relationship between life satisfaction and self-directed learning readiness.
This will be tested with the Pearson correlation coefficient.

2. There is no significant
difference in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness between
adult home and residential setting subjects. Each will be tested by chi-square.

3. There is no significant
difference in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness
according to gender. Each will be tested by chi-square.

4. There is no significant difference
in life satisfaction and in self-directed learning readiness according to age.
Each will be tested by t-test and, collectively, by analysis of variance.

All hypotheses will be
tested at a minimum of the .05 level of significance.

Concluding Remarks

Significance

It is expected that the
study will make at least three contributions to the areas of adult education
and gerontology. First, the study will contribute to the expanding knowledge
base of self-directed learning. As more is known about the relationship of
self-directed learning to such areas as a person’s satisfaction regarding life,
it will be possible to more clearly understand the meaning of self-directed
learning. The proposed research study is viewed as a piece of this puzzle.

Second, this study is the
first attempt to utilize the SDLRS with a sample of older persons residing in
institutional and residential housing settings. So often, these segments of the
aging population are overlooked as potential learners. The study should
contribute toward a better understanding of this group.

Finally, the ultimate
issue underlying the study is quality of life. It is anticipated that the study
may identify ways through which education can contribute to the meaning of life
for many persons in their later years. While this is an enormous undertaking,
the study could prove to be a small step in this direction.

Limitations

There are three
limitations to the study. First, the study will be limited in terms of its
generalizability to the total older adult population. Like any other age group,
older adults are a very heterogeneous population. While the proposed study
sample should be quite diverse, the fact remains that certain segments of the
older population will not be included.

A second potential limitation
of the study is that the independent and dependent variables are measured as
subjects’ perceptions, not actual behaviors. In essence, the study does not
address actual participation in self-directed learning activities nor does it
address actual aspects that make up a person’s life satisfaction, rather it
describes the values that subjects ascribe to these areas.

Finally, anytime you use
an instrument the results are subject to the known reliability and validity of
that instrument. Although some information about the instruments in regard to
reliability and validity (in the case of the SDLRS) is known, the instruments
may have limitations in measuring what they purport to measure. Only subsequent
research with other audiences and with other instruments will help further our
understanding of the concepts being measured in the study.

Supplemental Materials

Although they are not included
in this sample proposal, this section would include such areas as a
bibliography of cited references in the APA 5th style, any necessary
appendix material, and a copy of any instruments if appropriate.