THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

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1 THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION TITLE Galvanising the Single Market? Economic and Strategic Impacts of EMU for the Irish Dairy Industry Submitted By: Stephen Gill Academic Advisor: Dr. Frank Roche Submitted To: Department of Business Administration Graduate School of Business University College Dublin Date: 7 th September, 1998

2 Abstract This thesis will explore the economic and strategic implications of EMU for the Irish Dairy Industry, however much of the framework developed can be readily adapted to other industries. It will provide support for the statement by the Chairman of Unilever that EMU will galvanise the Single European Market It has been carried out using secondary research and a number of interviews with both people inside the dairy industry and those providing support to it. Ireland will be a founding member of EMU and represents around 0.9 per cent of Euro-11 GDP. The Irish dairy industry is a major part of the Irish economy; it provides significant income and employment and EMU comes at a time of strategic complexity for the industry. EMU represents a fundamental change in the European economic environment and will influence the behaviour of firms through four main channels of influence; exchange rates, interest rates, transaction and hedging costs and overall business confidence. This thesis finds that there are a number of potential strategic impacts of EMU that should be fed into the strategic planning process at a company level. Issues such as the competitive environment, price transparency, pricing strategy, business structure, supply chain and product rationalisation are issues that require careful consideration. (i)

3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Wendy, my wife for her support during the past year, I couldn t have done it without her and to my son, Conor for keeping me going. I have numerous people to thank for their time during the preparation of this thesis. However, I am extremely grateful to the following people: Eugene Norton, Financial Controller (Ingredients) and Group EMU Co-ordinator, Avonmore Waterford Group; Dr Frank W Roche, University College Dublin; Michael Barry, Manager, Food and Agribusiness, AIB Mr Joe Durkan, Department of Economics, University College Dublin Dedication I wish to dedicate this thesis to my father, who taught me more than I ever realised, and who helped me with the research from Australia. Thanks Dad and Mum. (ii)

8 Introduction EMU is the biggest economic change within Europe this century. The implications of EMU are expected to be significant. In economic terms it represents a regime change, it also poses a number of questions in terms of business strategy and has numerous operational implications for the individual firm. This thesis will set out the economic implications for Ireland of EMU and strategic issues posed by EMU in the context of the Irish Dairy industry. I have chosen the topic because I am interested in EMU and the European Union. I have also had previous experience with EMU and it provides me with the opportunity to utilise the knowledge gained on the MBA in a practical way and builds upon my economics degree. The thesis will assess the potential impacts of EMU on the Irish Dairy industry using a combination of secondary research and interviews with Dairy and service providers to the Dairy industry. The thesis will be structured in the following way: Introduction to EMU Implications for Ireland of EMU Overview of the Irish Dairy industry Economic implications for Ireland of EMU Strategic implications Overview of Operational implications Findings Conclusion. 2

9 Chapter 2 Research Methodology 3

10 Research Methodology The general research question that I am posing is will EMU will have a significant economic and strategic impact on companies in the Irish Dairy industry. The thesis will add to the statement by Niall Fitzgerald, Chairman of Unilever that EMU will galvanise the Single European Market. The thesis has been compiled using a secondary research approach. The secondary research was conducted using a variety of sources. The principal sources of information were publications of dairy companies, industry associations, EMU consultants and the Internet. However as I conducted a number of interviews, I hope to have added the many insights of industry insiders to whom I have spoken to the thesis to add to the secondary research approach. The data collection process has involved a number of face-to-face and telephone interviews with industry sources and a detailed search and review of available literature. 4

11 Chapter 3 Background to EMU 5

12 Background to EMU 3.1 Introduction This Chapter will outline the background to EMU and how EMU fits into the wider integration process within Europe. The 3 stages of EMU are discussed, as are details of the operation of the European Central Bank, the composition of the Euro-11, determination of lock-in rates and the Stability Pact. 3.2 Background EMU is part of the wider integration of Europe which began over 40 years ago with the Treaty of Rome. There have been many plans over the years to introduce monetary union within Europe, the first dating back to a 1962 initiative of the then Commission of European communities. At that time a 9 year deadline was set, however as of today, EMU will be a reality from 1 January Ireland has previous experience of a monetary union, with the UK, which lasted until Developments in exchange rate policy within Ireland this century are reproduced below: Early 1900s gold standard : currencies of major world economies could be exchanged for gold at a fixed rate : Irish and UK currency floated : gold standard re-adopted end WWII : Irish and UK pounds floated End WWII : Bretton Woods system introduced which involved fixed rates periodically realigned, US dollar was the anchor Irish and UK pounds floated against other currencies (including a period in the EEC s snake managed exchange rate system) 6

13 1979 Ireland withdrew from monetary union with the UK and joined the EMS (European Monetary System). From 1993 a 15% fluctuation band was introduced in the EMS. Source : IBEC. 3.3 EMU as part of the Single European Market EMU can be seen as part of the wider integration of Europe. The Single European Market, established in 1992 has the following objectives: welding together the 12 individual markets of the Member States into one single market of 320 million people ensuring that this single market is also an expanding market ensuring that the market is flexible so that resources, both of people and materials, and of capital investment, flow into areas of greatest economic advantage. Around 300 measures have been specified as necessary to complete the single market. They can be summarised into three broad areas: the removal of physical barriers to trade and competition, including the removal of border posts; the removal of technical barriers to trade and competition - the most obvious of these barriers being different national standards adopted for health and safety reasons or for environmental or consumer protection; the removal of fiscal barriers to trade and competition - in particular the harmonisation of indirect taxes across the EC. At the time of writing, certain barriers remain and are being addressed by an EU wide committee with links to national bodies responsible for highlighting such barriers. EMU is likely to coincide with the further removal of such barriers. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) argue that prior to 2002, economic liberalisation is likely to be well underway in areas such as: Telecommunications free trade The end of protected status for utility companies Full openness in public procurement Conformity of most standards, patent and transit rules 7

14 Distance selling of financial services Coherent application of VAT Reduction of tax distortions between EU countries Harmonisation of regulations governing the sale of consumer goods and guarantees European company statutes Harmonisation of cross-border merger regulations. 3.4 Stages of EMU EMU is part of a wider process of European integration and a necessary complement to the Single European Act in To put EMU in context, it is necessary to understand how EMU fits into European integration. There are two strands to the EMU concept that emerged from the 1991 Maastricht summit these being Economic and Monetary Union. Economic Union involves: free movement of persons, goods, services and capital (the internal market) competition policy to ensure free markets a common policy for structural and regional development macro policy co-ordination including binding rules of budgetary policies. Monetary Union involves the constitution of a currency area in which policies will be managed jointly with a view to attaining macro-economic objectives with the following four necessary conditions: the assurance of total and irreversible convertibility of currencies the complete liberalisation of capital transactions the irrevocable locking of exchange rate parities, leading eventually to a single currency 8

15 all in the exchange rate mechanism of the European Monetary System. Economic and Monetary Union is a three stage process: Stage 1 : July December monetary and fiscal cooperation. Focus on economic integration, completion of the single market and reform of Structural funds. Also involved the removal of capital controls, reduction of interest and inflation rate differentials and increasing stability of intra-european exchange rates. Also, the independence of national central banks was to be strengthened, along with conformance of domestic laws with the Treaty. Stage 2 : January December advancing budgeting and economic fronts The European Monetary Institute was established to co-ordinate monetary policies in the lead up to Stage 3, monetary union with a focus on convergence criteria. European Central Bank established in 1998 and Stage 3 participants selected. Stage 3 : Monetary Union - 1 January 1999 onwards. EU wide monetary and exchange rates policies and obligations to avoid excessive deficits to be introduced. Changeover to the single currency and irrevocable fixing of exchange rates of Stage three participants. Introduction and phasing out of national notes and coins. This thesis will be dealing with Stage 3 of Economic and Monetary Union. Any reference to EMU therefore should be read as referring to Stage 3. 9

16 3.5 Timetable for Stage 3 of EMU The timetable for EMU has been set as follows: Dual currency Last date for old notes and coins July Transition period Participating countries chosen Source : C&L Euro becomes currency Exhibit I: Timetable for EMU Last date for new notes and coins 1999 Exchange rates will be irrevocably fixed with the creation of the Euro on 1 January 1999 European Central Bank to operate single monetary policy from 1 January 1999 Euro can be used from 1999 but no-one can be forced to use it until 2002 (not tender) Euro will become the official unit of account for EMU central banks Government bonds issued after 1999 will be in Euros German banks aim to operate all payments systems in DM and Euros 2002 Introduction of Euro notes and coins in January National notes and coins still legal tender until July 2002, but they may be withdrawn earlier Second wave of countries may be preparing to join by now (no definite timetable) 10

17 3.6 European Central Bank At the heart of EMU is the establishment of a European Central Bank (ECB) whose role will be to formulate and execute the single monetary policy. All national central banks will cede responsibility for monetary policy to the ECB. The forerunner to the ECB was the European Monetary Institute (EMI). The ECB comprises of a President, and up to four members of the Executive Board appointed by the Euro-11 members. The ECB will be directed by a Governing Council which will comprise of the Executive Board and the governors of the participating countries national central banks. The ECB will also have a General Council at which non-participating member states will be represented - it is anticipated that the General Council will only have an advisory role. The main objective of the ECB is to maintain price stability within the Euro-11 zone. At the time of writing a definition of price stability has not been given, however many analysts expect an inflation rate target of between 0-2%. At a more detailed level, the ECB will also be responsible for: continuing the work of the EMI and providing a framework and systems to allow for monetary policy to be conducted from 1 January 1999 deciding when notes and coins are to be introduced (1 January 2002 at the latest) consulting with the Euro-11 Finance Ministers regarding the lock-in rates for Euro-11 countries. A key function of the European Central Bank is to quickly establish credibility in the financial markets. 3.7 Determination of Lock-in Rates Prior to 1 January 1999, the ECB in conjunction with Euro-11 Finance 11

18 Ministers will determine the lock in-rates for each Euro-11 state against the Euro. The following approaches are theoretically possible: 1. adopting whatever rates of exchange, for national currencies and for the ECU, are thrown up by markets on 31 December moving from market rates on 31 December 1998 to the official central rates of the ERM parity grid at that time 3. moving from market rates to a set of rates different from ERM central rates, either to adjust for past changes in competitiveness or to produce more rounded and consumer-friendly conversion rates 4. announcing some time in advance the rates which will be adopted in order to allow markets, firms and individuals to prepare themselves and to induce market exchange rates to converge towards the selected conversion rates 5. announce with the same intention, a formula according to which the conversion rates adopted on 1 January 1999 would be determined by some average of the market rates over the preceding months. Source : Hundred Group Whilst these alternatives are possible, there are two constraints that would make it difficult if not impossible to not adopt the closing market rates on 31 December 1998: the value of the ECU must not be modified according to the Maastricht criteria 1:1 parity between the Euro and the ECU should exist. 12

19 3.8 The Euro-11 In May 1998, the Council of Economic and Finance Ministers (ECOFIN) made recommendations to the Council regarding which countries will participate in the first wave and which countries will be granted a derogation. On 2 May 1998 the following countries were announced as participating in the first wave of EMU: Euro-11 or Insiders : Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain. The relative size of the Euro-11 can be seen in the following table: Germany 29.2 Ireland 0.9 France 22.3 Luxembourg 0.2 Italy 20.9 Netherlands 5.3 Spain 10.6 Austria 2.9 Portugal 2.2 Finland 1.7 Belgium 3.7 Source: AIB Table I % Share of Euro 11 GDP Britain, Denmark, Greece, Sweden will not be participating in the first wave of EMU. Britain having exercised its opt-out clause. 13

20 The criteria for participation in Stage 3 of EMU was as follows: Monetary Variable Exchange rates Inflation rates Interest rates Government deficits Total government debt Table II Criteria Two years remaining within the normal fluctuations of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism No more that 1 ½% greater than the average of the three best performing states No more than 2% greater than the average of the three best performing states No more than 3% of GDP No more than 60% of GDP Stage 3 Participation Criteria Although the criteria above cover nominal convergence and key monetary variables, there was no formal assessment criteria for the cyclical or structural convergence of European economies. Cyclical convergence refers to the degree with which the cyclical positions are convergent at the time of entry into EMU, and whether historically country business cycles have been in phase with each other. Structural convergence refers to a broad range of indicators that measure the structural similarity of economies - according to Coopers & Lybrand (C&L) this will determine how they are subject to asymmetric shocks. Although Ireland has fulfilled the nominal convergence criteria, the importance of cyclical and structural convergence for the Irish economy cannot be ignored and introduce risks of potential asymmetric shocks and instability. 3.9 Stability Pact All Euro-11 countries will transfer responsibility for monetary policy to the European Central Bank, effective from 1 January As a result, national governments will lose all recourse to monetary policy as an economic tool to 14

21 deal with asymmetric shocks (shocks that are particular to a country or region). With the loss of monetary policy as an economic tool, national government s main economic tool is fiscal policy. Fiscal policy under EMU needs to be considered in the context of the Excessive Deficit Procedure of the Treaty and the Stability Pact that was agreed at the Dublin summit in December 1996 and which restricts the operation of fiscal policy and automatic stabilisers. The Stability Pact and Excessive Deficit Procedures require: Convergence criteria : government deficits no more than 3% of GDP; and government debt no more than 60% of GDP. Fines : of up to 0.5% of GDP where a country s deficit exceeds 3% of GDP and government debt exceeds 60% of GDP. Exemptions will only be made where GDP declines by 2 per cent or more over four quarters. Eichengreen argues that this has only occurred a few times in European history. Countries with GDP falling between ¾ to 2 percent could be exempted via a vote of the Council of Ministers. Fines will be repaid where deficits are brought back in line within one year, otherwise the money is forfeited. No Bail-out Clause : preventing the European Central Bank from bailing out bankrupt national governments has been made Summary Ireland is a member of the first wave of EMU - the Euro-11 - and represents 0.9% of Euro 11 GDP. Responsibility for monetary policy under EMU is vested in the European Central Bank, with fiscal policy remaining the responsibility of each national government which is in turn constrained by the requirements of the Stability Pact. 15

22 Chapter 4 Dairy Industry Overview 16

23 Dairy Industry Overview 4.1 Introduction This Chapter will provide an overview of the Irish Dairy Industry and will identify the major issues facing the industry. 4.2 Significance to the Irish Economy The dairy industry is a major part of the Irish economy. It represents a significant portion of GDP, with a gross output level of around 2.3b in It accounts for one third of Agricultural output and in volume terms represents around 1.1 billion gallons of milk per year. Ireland is a net export of dairy products as can be seen in the following diagram: Dairy Imports and Exports m Imports Exports Source : Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry, 1998 Exhibit II Dairy Imports and Exports A further detailed breakdown of the sector which helps to highlight the importance of the Dairy industry is outlined below: 17

24 Value % of total food sector Number of Local units Gross Output Industrial Inputs Net output Wages and salaries Persons engaged Number of Enterprises Turnover Gross Value Added Labour Costs Persons Engaged Source : Census of Industrial Production, 1996, CSO Table III Breakdown of Dairy Industry 4.3 Main players in the Irish Industry The Irish Dairy industry comprises around 10 significant indigenous dairy plc.s or co-operatives, four of which control over 70% of the Irish milk pool. These include Avonmore Waterford Group plc, Golden Vale plc, Kerry Group plc and Dairy Gold Co-op. 4.4 Issues Facing the Irish Dairy Industry The major issues facing the Irish dairy industry are outlined below: Increasing retailer concentration within Europe : the concentration of retailers is growing in Europe. In most European markets, the top five food retailers account for 75 per cent of volume sales Globalisation of the food industry : e.g. Kerry group are expanding in line with the Pan-European expansion of one of their major customers, Frito-Lay Increased regulation from Europe in relation to food hygiene, traceability, etc. 18

25 Introduction of a minimum wage : providing a floor on wage costs and making alternative employment more comparable and attractive for manufacturing staff Year 2000 computer date problem : which involves significant risk and resourcing Asian and Russian economic crises : placing pressure on exports and the global economic environment CAP reform : providing pressure on margins and supplier income WTO / GATT liberalisation : providing pressure on European prices to move towards world prices Partnership 2000 pressures : pressure from the recent Garda pay dispute Agenda 2000 : which involves the potential enlargement of the European Union to Central European countries such as Poland, increasing the single market and providing pressure for CAP reform. 4.5 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats Below is a high level analysis of the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats in relation to the Irish dairy industry. Strengths Low cost production base Strong cash flows and access to institutional funds Market presence Growing diversification into other non-dairy sectors of the Food industry, e.g. meat Capability and professionalism of management within the sector A strong desire to grow and compete within the EU and internationally Strong market recognition / branding of the Irishness of products Surplus of domestic demand over milk supply quotas facilitates international expansion 19

26 Weaknesses The production of milk is highly seasonal, resulting in a focus more on storable products. The CAP encouraged seasonality by developing a guaranteed market at all times for production Restrictions on milk supply via milk quotas The island of Ireland is peripheral to the continent A commodity orientation exists within dairy processors resulting in many of the value adding activities occurring outside Ireland. Some authors argue that this is due to Ireland having a comparative advantage in commodity production Limited access to GATT licenses to access Third Country markets Opportunities Potential diversification of companies into broadly based food groups Rationalisation within the Irish industry Acquisition of overseas dairy companies to complement existing objectives Focusing on growth segments within the dairy industry Changing consumer trends provide opportunities for product innovation, e.g. children s snack foods and other convenience foods; Focus on value added products Threats CAP reform lowering EU prices closer to world prices GATT issues EU enlargement Global economic crisis placing pressure on exports and trade 20

27 4.6 Porters Five Forces of Competition Below is an analysis of the 5 forces of competition as developed by Porter: Power of buyers Ireland s retail sector is one of the most consolidated sectors in Europe. Considerable power rests with the retailers due to the increasing volume requirements as they consolidate. Most have created large distribution centres, which in some cases result in Irish produce being shipped to the UK and redistributed to Ireland for retail sale. The relatively fragmented nature of Irish dairy processors and producers and their dependence on multiples for volume would indicate that significant power rests with buyers. Power of suppliers At times of shortage, considerable power can rest with the milk producers who are likely to offer their milk to the highest bidder, this occurred in the so called milk wars of the 1980s. The plc arrangements and farmer ownership introduce a conflict between maximising the value of their investment in the plc and obtaining the highest possible milk price. The NESC report suggests that the preferences of milk producers leans more towards obtaining a higher milk price. This report also notes the significant effect lobbying by the industry has had on the treatment afforded to Ireland as part of CAP reform. Rivalry amongst existing competitors To date, competition in the Irish Dairy industry has been more focused on raw material sourcing than on competition in the marketplace. In the domestic market, competition is limited to liquid milk and some consumer products. 21

28 Threat of substitutes Consumers are moving away from high fat products such as full fat cheese towards dietary / low fat products such as cottage cheese. Vegetarian cheese is an example of an emerging substitute product. Also, as consumers become more health conscious, a growing preference exists for fruit juice as a drink rather than milk. In the food industry there is a growing demand for products that have been organically produced, and it is likely that similar demands will be made of the dairy industry. A recent survey indicated that the European Consumers tastes are moving towards greener products. A major substitute is the introduction of non-dairy spreads such as margarine. Threat of new entrants The threat of new entrants is limited due to the milk quota system in operation. Total supply cannot be exceeded without incurring a superlevy fine. The domestic market is relatively small in European terms. 4.7 Common Agricultural Policy The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a major driving force within the Agri-food industries. The CAP was introduced in 1957 as part of the Treaty of Rome which established the then European Economic Community. CAP was formally launched on 1 January 1968 and seeks to regulate agricultural production, marketing and trade. CAP has three main objectives: unity of the market - removal of obstacles to trade and establishment of a common set of prices across the EU union preference - preference is given to EU producers before imports are allowed - i.e. imports are only allowed where internal EU production is insufficient for demand financial solidarity - the costs of running the CAP are charged to the EU budget as a whole and not directly to any individual member state. 22

29 CAP has two main areas of focus: Price and markets policy - maintaining the level and stability of agricultural prices Structures policy - to encourage the modernisation of farming and the food processing sector and also agri-environment and rural development measures. CAP payments can take the form of market price support, direct payments to producers, grants and other developmental and structural assistance CAP payments are regulated by the Agri-monetary system. This system pegs a green exchange rate to payments. One of the effects of CAP has been the growing dependence of Irish Dairy companies on CAP support. CAP related payments now represents a significant percentage of agricultural incomes within Ireland and is recognised as contributing to the commodity culture that exists within the Irish Dairy sector. 4.8 Summary The Irish dairy industry is a significant part of the Irish economy in terms of income and employment. There are a number of complex issues already facing the industry as Stage 3 of EMU is set to commence. The Common Agricultural policy represents a distortion to the operation of the dairy produce market, which is not evident in other non-agricultural industries. 23

30 Chapter 5 Economic Implications of EMU for Ireland 24

31 Economic Implications of EMU for Ireland 5.1 Introduction EMU will lead to a significant change in the European economic environment. This chapter will outline the potential impacts of EMU on the economic environment, thereby setting the scene for the likely economic variables that must be taken into account when setting business strategy, which is explored in the following Chapter. 5.2 Broad Impacts of EMU The One Market, One Money report of the European Union summarised the impact of EMU on the three major objectives of economic policy: Microeconomic efficiency sure advantages, as a single currency and economic union complement the single market and add to its impact. One market needs one money. Economic analysis supports the perceptions of industrialists that the benefits could substantially reinforce the gains from the Single Market. Macroeconomic stability Equity sure advantages as regards better overall price stability (i.e. both very low inflation on average, with low variability) assuming that the issues of Central Bank design are handled well, and probably some gain also in terms of the real economy (lesser fluctuations in output and employment). as between countries and regions. Opportunities and risks for all regions, and no a priori balance of relative advantage for the original or newer Member States The least-favoured regions have a real opportunity for rapid catch-up. EMU, like 1992 (Single European Market), is a positive sum game. 25

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WELCOME TO THE WEBINAR WEBINAR LINK: HTTP://FRBATL.ADOBECONNECT.COM/ECONOMY/ DIAL-IN NUMBER (MUST USE FOR AUDIO): 855-377-2663 ACCESS CODE: 71032685 Euro Zone s Economic Outlook and What it Means for the