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Tuesday, May 8, 2012

Jihad States

The term “jihad state” refers to the states of West
Africa which flourished particularly during the 19th century under
French colonial rule and were founded on the basis of the Islamic jihad. These states are an interesting phenomenon, as
they are a cultivation of multiple circumstances and the result of the extreme
instability of the regimes which they replaced.
It is difficult to piece together the exact conditions which allowed the
widespread influence of these states to develop as rapidly as they did, however
there are several factors that certainly played a large role in the creation of
these states.

In order to understand the full implications of the
existence of these jihad states, it is important to first understand the
history of the states themselves. Though
the presence of jihad states was not a specific attribute of the 19th
century, these states certainly were much more numerous and more prominent
during this century. Some were larger
and more influential than others, and though many of these states were somewhat
connected they all arose independently.

-The
Fulani

The Fulani are a group of people primarily found in West
Africa. They are scattered throughout
most of the western part of the continent, however they hold no majority in any
country (Britannica.)The
Fulani are an essential part of the history of jihad states in West
Africa. Though they are not by any
measure the only citizens who were calling for reform in the 19th century, they provide a strong Islam-oriented backbone for these movements. The Fulani becoming militarily and
politically active had a direct and decisive impact on the creation of many
jihad states, some larger and more prominent than others.

-Uthman
Dan Fodio

Uthman Dan Fodio is likely the single most important figure in the history of the West African jihad
states. He was the necessary spark that
set off the events which led to the creation of these states, as well as a
political and religious figurehead for the movements. He had the most direct impact on the creation
of the Sokoto Caliphate in present day Nigeria.
Dan Fodio’s involvement with the creation of Sokoto began with Bawa
Jangworzo. Bawa was the leader of
Gorbir, a large city-state in Hausaland. He
hired Dan Fodio as a tutor for his children, bringing him into his court and
therefore giving him prestige. Bawa
himself was not a Muslim, however he was tolerant of Dan Fodio’s preaching.
This made it possible for Dan Fodio to build a name for himself and gain
followers throughout the city of Gorbir. Dan Fodio did not often preach to leaders or
particularly powerful people for that matter.
He generally directed his preaching to theordinary people, rallying support
for change and pushing Islam as the medium for that change.

When Bawa died, so did the official approval of Dan Fodio
(Collins 166.) He began to attract continuously more
negative attention and was forced to leave the court. After Bawa’s grandson Yunfa came to power,
the situation between Dan Fodio and the ruling elite had become incredibly
tense. At one point Yunfa callsDan Fodio to his court and pulls a gun on him in what was likely a
moment of rage. The gun allegedly
backfired, burning Yunfa’s clothing but leaving Dan Fodio unharmed (Waldman 347.) Obviously, this incident only served to
increase Dan Fodio's status in the eyes of his supporters. Shortly after this incident, it became
apparent to Dan Fodio that there was no reasoning with Yunfa, and jihad seemed
imminent (Waldman 349.)

The key to Dan Fodio’s success, and indeed the reason for
the complexity of the issue, can be broadly defined by his transition from
preacher to militant reformer. Dan Fodio
was clearly among other things a very intelligent and charismatic man. His rallying was highly effective, and his
influence spread rapidly through the city-state. The jihad which he was eventually the head of
was not planned from the beginning. Dan
Fodio began as a preacher, then as an advocator of reform within the Hausa
system, transitioning into a military leader only when completely necessary (Waldman
334.) The foundation within society that
Dan Fodio had aligned for himself through his reputation and connections became
essential to his transition into leadership.
He had established a basis which he could use to his advantage. Dan Fodio never had a plan, which was the
reason he was successful.
Like many great leaders in
history, Dan Fodio simply seized and utilized opportunities he had created for
himself throughout the years. Basically,
he made decisions based off ofeducated improvising. As a result, it was possible for him to be
flexible in his tactics during an event that was nearly unpredictable. The establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate
would not have been possible without Dan Fodio.

-The
Sokoto Caliphate

The events that
occurred after the death of Bawa definitely accelerated the shift
of power from the Hausa government into the hands of the jihadis. Nafata was the next in line for leadership
after Bawa. Nafata almost immediately
began prosecuting followers of Islam, going so far as to ban everyone under his
control from converting to Islam. He
completely turned against Uthman Dan Fodio, forcing him to retreat into his
community of loyal followers (Waldman 346.)
When Nafata’s son Yunfa came to power, the government became even more
aggressive. Dan Fodio realized quickly that
Yunfa could not be reasoned with and must be replaced. Jihad was declared because Dan Fodio and his
community had to make the decision to fight or be destroyed (Waldman 349.) The movement gained momentum rapidly, with
support spanning across members from all elements of society (Waldman 350.) This aspect of the jihad complicated
things. Surprisingly, Islam was not
particularly strong within the region.
Dan Fodio’s followers, which consisted mostly of the Fulani were only a
fraction of the revolutionary population.
Religion was used by Dan Fodio to instill a sense of unity within the
group and motivate the people to fight, but once the wheels were set in motion
the rules of jihad were quickly forgotten (Waldman 351.) Nevertheless, and even after several defeats,
the jihad was successful and established control over the Hausa state (Waldman 354.) The Sokoto Caliphatewas the largest of the jihad
states, and lasted formally from around 1809 (Waldman 333) to l903 when it was
divided by colonial powers (Umar 135.)
During the colonial era, Europeans became intrigued by the state and
attracted many visitors (Umar 137.) Though
the caliphate has been dissolved for quite some time, Sokoto and its neighboring states
defined several borders which are still in place today (Cook 89.)

-Massina

The creation of the Massina Empire was led by Seku
Ahmadu, who drew his influence directly from Uthman Dan Fodio and the establishing
of the Sokoto caliphate. In fact, Dan
Fodio had made Seku a shaykh and sent him a flag prior to the revolt Seku led
against the Bambara, the previous governing enitity (Ade 239.) Though this was not the only state created in
the aftermath of Sokoto, it was the largest Fulani jihad state after
Sokoto. Massina was not as long lasting
as the Sokoto Caliphate, but was operating in full force from 1818 until 1862
when it was attacked by the Tukolors and defeated. As with Sokoto, Islam was not an overwhelmingly
strong force in the region. However,
Islam provided common ground for people to rally around, whereas the opposing
side split due to struggles between themselves (Ade 245.)

-Futa
Jallon and Futa Toro

Futa Jallon and
Futa Toro are much older than the other Fulani states. Both were slave trade states until the
abolishment of the slave trade in the late 18th century. Futa Jallon was a jihad state from the early
18th century until French occupation in 1896 (Britannica.) Futa Toro was under Muslim control by the
latter part of the same century, in a revolution connected to the rebellion in
Futa Jallon. Both of these states,
though established much earlier, were not nearly as large or powerful as the
Sokoto and Massina empires (Boubacar 95-105.)

The jihad states of West Africa were some of the largest
and most powerful entities on that side of the continent. Considering they existed during a time of
colonial interference, it is impressive that these states managed to stay
intact, at least for as long as they did.
Had colonial powers not eventually become fully involved in these empires, their fates would have been much
different. By the time the Sokoto
Caliphate was broken down and separated, it had been long established and did
not show signs of falling apart on its own accord. These states were certainly an interesting
occurrence. They were jihad states, led
by a minority, and established on the basis of Islam in a time of crisis even
though most of the population did not necessarily practice the Islamic faith. The remnants of these states still continue
to have considerable influence on the region today. Even their borders remain to an extent,
drawing not only political lines but ethnic and religious lines as well in a
world where the empires themselves no longer exist. These jihadi movements have undoubtedly had a
lasting impact on the condition of Africa throughout recent history.

Bibliography

Ajayi,
L.F. Ade. General History of Africa.
Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 1998.

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