This is a blog about my teaching, research and service with some occasional personal comments thrown in. These are my notes on a variety of topics. If you want to follow my blog posts on a specific topic, then see the Table of Contents in the right-hand column. While I try to work in the realm of facts, logic and moral absolutes, if there are any opinions expressed here, they are my own. -WilliamHartPhD

“journalists generally are not equipped to read distant contexts, and neither are their audiences."

Journalist misread for several reasons.

“First, journalists arriving in a new context are foreigners [who don’t know the history, the religions, etc.]

“Misreadings also occur because journalists carry their cultural biases with them when reporting in a foreign context.”

e.g. American values/ways of doing things being seen as normal. Seeing foreign ways as “incomprehensible” or “despicable”.

“…the journalistic practice of deploying simplistic labels.”

Taking a complex, sometimes chaotic situation/place and putting into 20 words or less and putting it in a way that U.S. audience will relate to. “ethnic cleansing” label “white supremacy” label used in coverage of S.A.

In his book, Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends, Thomas McPhail defines the CNN effect as "the process by which the coverage of a foreign event by CNN causes that event to be a primary concern for its audience, which in turn forces the federal government to act." One could add to the U.S. government, then as part of its foreign policy, may influence foreign governments/peoples through direct action (e.g., war) or through sanctions. See video clip below.

Does CNN still have this influence on foreign policy? Any other news networks, U.S. or otherwise, have this influence? Any other form of media now has this influence? Think: Arab Spring (see first 2 minutes). Think: Kony2012 (see short clip). What role does social media play in shaping foreign policy? How's that process work?

The "social media effect" is defined here as the process by which the coverage of an event on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc. causes that event to be a primary concern for its audiences around the world, which in turn forces foreign governments to act, thus further influencing the event.

Purpose of the Press: To inform (i.e., present the facts) and monitor the government

Ownership of Press: Mostly private

Notes/Examples: England

Social Responsibility

Purpose: To monitor the government. While another purpose is to inform (i.e., present the facts to) the citizens, this press system goes beyond just presenting the facts to promoting understanding and discussion/debate related to those facts.

Ownership of Press: Private

Notes/Examples: U.S., Canada

What would it be like being a journalism student or a journalist working in these different press systems?

Do you think that these four theories still adequately describe the types of press systems that operate in the countries of today? Does, for example, the introduction of social media, require modifications to the four theories?

The work of Siebert, Peterson and Schramm has received criticism and updating. If you are interested, see for example the following books.

What are the ethical concerns with the research that Milgram and Zimbardo did? Would you feel comfortable doing this research? Would such research be allowed today?

O.K., now that you have some knowledge of these past experiments do you have an answer to the questions asked earlier? Why talk about research ethics? What is the need?

What is the role of university research review boards?

Human Subjects Review Board:
“It is university policy that all projects involving risk to human subjects must be approved by the University Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects for Funded Research. Approval is based on established university, state and sponsoring agency guidelines for the protection of the rights and welfare of subjects at risk”

Thursday, March 24, 2016

The idea of presenting a development message within a fictional program is the type of development communication that is called entertainment education. The World Bank is a multinational organization that uses entertainment education in their work. See the video below for examples and background information.

Below is another example of entertainment education. Tim Reid, noted Norfolk State University alumnus and actor/director/producer, and NSU students (Maryna Kariuk and Shimira Cole) were involved in the making of "Hear My Son". How exactly is this an example of entertainment education?

Tuesday, March 22, 2016

Sampling is the process of selecting subjects for a study. Generally, the subjects are the specific people studied in an experiment or surveyed. The sample is chosen out of a larger population.

Why sample? The population you are studying is too large to study, so you have to study just a part of that population (a sample).

What could be some problems with sampling (examples of poor sampling)? Bias sample?

To reduce the problems of poor sampling, you want to use random sampling when you can. In random sampling all members of a population have an equal chance of getting into sample.

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What are internal and external validity?

With this type validity we are looking at the validity of the overall study, not just the validity of the instruments being used to measure the variables.

You are asking the question: Is it a valid study? Not: Is it a valid instrument?

Internal validity: Are the conclusions to be trusted for the particular study? Or, are the results valid for the subjects in your sample. For a visual representation just look the orange circle at the top. The black dots inside the orange circle are the subjects in the sample.

External validity: To whom do the conclusions apply? Generalizability of findings. The results, can they be generalized to the larger populations For a visual representation see the orange circle within the pinkish-purple circle. The orange circle represents the sample and pinkish-purple circle represents the larger population.

Question: Could you have very poor internal validity, but good external validity?

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If something goes wrong in a study, who can you blame it on? That is, if the study is not getting valid results, who can you blame it on? And you can't blame it on the alcohol. :)

What are some threats to a study’s internal validity? Or, put another way, where can you put the blame?

Threats due to researcher (e.g., influence results).

Threats due to how research is conducted (e.g., inaccurate, inconsistent research, poorly designed survey)

Also see comparisons at Tim Clarke's site. What is the difference between a normal photo and a HDR photo? What preferences do you have? Do you like HDR photos? Pros and cons of HDR?

Quick HDR Landscape Tutorial
Play from 0:00 to 2:15. Save the remaining for later when we discuss photo editing.

What is spot metering and what does it have to do with HDR photography?
Spot metering is a setting on a camera in which "the photographer [takes] control over exactly which portion of the frame [or image in the view finder] the meter should use to determine proper exposure."

Pro HDR App Tutorial on iPhone 4 (with Example Images!)

Pro-HDR - an app that allows you to take HDR photos.
Note: Try the free version first, if you can find it.

Another HDR app that is currently available as a free version is HDR FX Photo Editor (Free) which is available on Android.

There is also a limited HDR feature on iPhones and iPads. Check this video, if interested.

Ever taken a photo like the one to the right where the photo looks a little yellowish? This is a lighting problem. More specifically, this is a white balance problem.

Miokte defines white balance as "the camera setting used to correct any subtle color shifts in an image that sometimes occur in different kinds of light. The white balance setting can be set by either the camera or the photographer, depending on the camera model."

Whenever you take a photograph and you have your camera set on automatic, your camera looks out into the world and makes decisions about what settings to use for ISO, shutter speed and f-stop. We've discussed this previously. Along with ISO, shutter speed and f-stop, the camera also makes decisions about the white balance. And, sometimes it makes a good decision and sometimes it makes a bad decision (like in the photo to the right). When your camera can't seem to get it right, that is the time for you to step in and change the white balance yourself. But, how? Why?

Now with some basics out of the way, let's see specifically how to use white balance setting when taking a photo.

In the field of statistics, a histogram is "a graphical representation of the distribution of data." The histogram below shows the distribution of black cherry trees according to height. Note that there are many trees between 70 and 80 inches tall and a few that are 60-65 inches tall and even fewer that are 85-90 inches tall.

In the field of photography, a histogram is defined in a similar way. It is a graphical representation of data. But, what data? A histogram for a photograph is "a graphical representation of the tonal distribution in a digital image. It plots the number of pixels for each tonal value." The tones in a photograph range from shadows (the darker areas or pixels) to midtones (grey areas or pixels) to highlights (the white or bright areas of the photograph). A photograph which is underexposed, for example, would have lots of shadow.

For visuals and further discussion see the videos below.

A key question: How could you use a histogram to determine if your photos have proper exposure?

A good app for showing the histogram on both iOS and Android is called PicsPlay. Get the free version first.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INNOVATIONS
The characteristics (or attributes) of innovations, as perceived by individuals, help to explain their rate of adoption. Characteristics of innovations are one important set of variables influencing the rate of adoption.

Relative Advantage

Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes

e.g. economic profitability, decrease in discomfort, savings in time and effort, immediacy of reward

Compatibility

Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.

Example: rap music and the role of MTV in making rap accessible and acceptable for all youth (Black & White).

Complexity

Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use.

Example: DOS vs. Windows

Trialability

Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis.

Observability

Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.

Examples: solar panels & DBS, PrimeStar, DISH and the like

Given the above, how could diffusion of innovations (a communication theory) be used in development work? How could diffusion of innovations be used to fight a health issue in a community or developing nation? How could you use the characteristics of innovations to better fight a health issue in a community or developing nation?

Some of the series is available online. As you watch the clips below pay close attention to the Marshall Plan. What relationship does it have to development communication?

U.S. provided $$ and expertise in "reconstructing" Europe. U.S. foreign policy (lead by Truman) changed isolationism to “active leadership.” The U.S. offered the Marshall Plan* (more on Marshall Plan from CNN).

See the clips 0:00 to 1:50 and from about 20:30 to 28:00

Why should the U.S. help European countries after WWII?

humanitarian concerns (White Man’s Burden again?)

stop spread of communism!

Truman Doctrine: to defend freedom & democracy worldwide.

Edward T. Hall

After reconstructing Europe Truman offered the world “the benefits of our [U.S.] scientific advances and industrial progress… for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.”

This was called the Point Four Program. (Director, Edward Hall)
One of the key tasks taken on by Hall was teaching U.S. diplomats intercultural communication skills. The formal study of intercultural communication can be traced back to Hall and this program. Hall has been called the founding father of intercultural communication study.

The government lacked knowledge on how to develop nations, so they turned to academia. Development theories were developed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm offered his theory/approach to development. By the mid-70s, development programs were recognized an ineffective. Schramm, Rogers and others recognized the faults.

Everett M. Rogers

What was wrong? According to Rogers (1976)
The old way of doing development programs had the following errors:

They assume infinite economic growth, ignore problems like population growth, pollution, etc., and do not take into account the "quality of life."

They emphasize technology and capital rather than labor, thus encouraging economic dependence on advanced countries. Low priority to agriculture.

It blames the developing countries for their failings, ignoring external factors beyond their control.

It takes an ethnocentric (Western) bias by emphasizing the modernization of "traditional" individuals.

NOTE: Three of the scholars mentioned above (Mowlana, Hall and Rogers) were professors of mine. They are part of my intellectual family. And, now you are part of this intellectual family too. As for Schramm, it actually turns out that I might be biologically related to "Uncle Wilbur." Born in the same small city, graduated from same undergrad college, same family tree roots, etc.

Development communication: the use of communication technology and principles to aid in the development of a society.

Development journalism: a 'branch' of development communication in which news media are used.
Journalism: "the collection and editing of news for presentation through the media"(M-W Dictionary)

If you had lots of money (through a grant, etc.) and you wanted to do good in the world, what would you do? If you wanted to help with some health issue in another country, what would you do?
If you wanted to help and you wanted to put your media knowledge and media skills to use, what would you do?

Let's start by thinking about how to measure prejudice in people. How would you do that? A survey? What would the questions be on the survey? Your measure of prejudice needs to be valid and reliable. Are you sure they are valid and reliable? Are you accurately measure the level of prejudice in a person with your survey? Does your survey get the same results with the same person each time?

Validity: “the extent that scales or questions do measure what they are thought to measure”(Stacks & Hocking).

You can think of validity using a target metaphor. Is it on target (i.e., near the bulls eye)?
Each "shot" on the target represents a measurement.

Or think of a bathroom scale. What does it meen to say a bathroom scale is valid or not?

If you get on your bathroom scale and it says 3 pounds or 1723 pounds, then your scale is broken. It is not right. It is not valid. Not only is your scale broken, the results (3, 1723) are not valid measures of your weight.

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A related concept to validity is reliability.

Before looking at a formal definition of reliability, just think of the everyday use of that word. If you say your friend is reliable, what does that mean? It means you can count on your friend. Every time that you call on that friend they are there. Not sometimes. All the time. They are consistent. The formal definition of reliability is similar.

Can an instrument can be reliable, but not valid. That is, cluster together, but not be on target?

If you had a bathroom scale that was reliable, but not valid, what results would you get if you weighted yourself several times?

Example

Let's say we are interested in the topic of communication apprehension. More specifically, we are interested in the relationship between gender and communication apprehension. Do men or women have higher levels of communication apprehension? How would we go about answering that question?

How would we measure communication apprehension in our subjects (the people we are studying)? We could observe. What about a survey? Yeah, let's do a survey. Something like below.

As you are determining what your variables are and how you are going to measure them, it is also helpful to have clearly in mind what type of data (or level of measurement) you will be using. This is especially helpful when you are doing statistical analysis on the data later in the research process.

Recall the earlier discussion of types of variables? Nominal variable and ordered variables, right?
Now, let's expand that "ordered" type to get a total of four types of variables or levels of measurement.

The above video covers nominal, ordinal and interval. Note the addition of ratio below. What's the difference between interval and ration?

Once your variables have been identified, then they will need to be measured, but how? And, what does an operational definition have to do with it?

What is an operational definition? What does it mean to operationalize a variable?

"Operational definition" is "a statement that describes the observable characteristics of a concept being investigated…”(Frey, et. al). Or, put differently, an operational definition “specifies the procedures [or operations] the researcher uses to observe the variables” (Stacks, et.al). Notice how the second definition indicates why it is called "operational."

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