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DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESPIRATORY FAILURE

Respiratory failure is defined as inadequate gas exchange due to malfunction of one or more components of the respiratory system. There are two main types of acute respiratory failure: hypoxemic and hypercarbic. Hypoxemic respiratory failure is defined by arterial O2 saturation <90% while receiving an increased inspired O2 fraction. Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure can result from pneumonia, pulmonary edema (due to elevated pulmonary microvascular pressures in heart failure and intravascular volume overload, or with normal pulmonary microvascular pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome [ARDS]), and alveolar hemorrhage. Hypoxemia results from ventilation-perfusion mismatch and intrapulmonary shunting. Lung injury in ARDS can be worsened by mechanical ventilation, and lower tidal volumes can reduce lung injury.

Two other types of respiratory failure are commonly considered: (1) perioperative respiratory failure related to lung atelectasis, which can be treated with physiotherapy, positional changes, and/or noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation; and (2) hypoperfusion of respiratory muscles related to shock, which typically improves with intubation and mechanical ventilation.

MONITORING PTS ON MECHANICAL VENTILATION

For intubated pts receiving volume-controlled modes of mechanical ventilation, respiratory mechanics can be followed easily. The peak airway pressure is regularly measured by mechanical ventilators, and the plateau pressure can be assessed by including an end-inspiratory pause. The inspiratory airway resistance is calculated as the difference between the peak and plateau airway pressures (with adjustment for flow rate). Increased airway resistance can result from bronchospasm, respiratory secretions, or a kinked endotracheal tube. Static compliance of the respiratory system is calculated as the tidal volume divided by the gradient in airway pressure (plateau pressure minus PEEP). Reduced respiratory system compliance can result from pleural effusions, pneumothorax, pneumonia, pulmonary edema, or auto-PEEP (elevated end-expiratory pressure related to insufficient time for alveolar emptying before the next inspiration).

TREATMENT

Many pts receiving mechanical ventilation require treatment for pain (typically with opiates) and for anxiety (non-benzodiazepine sedatives are preferred since benzodiazepines are associated with worse pt outcomes). Protocol-driven approaches to sedation or daily interruption of sedative infusions can prevent excessive sedative drug accumulation. Less commonly, neuromuscular blocking agents (e.g., cisatracurium) are required to facilitate ventilation when there is extreme dyssynchrony between the pt’s respiratory efforts and the ventilator that cannot be corrected with manipulation of the ventilator settings; aggressive ...