The Kennedy and Johnson administrations

The New Frontier

During the campaign Kennedy had stated that America was “on the edge of a New Frontier”; in his inaugural speech he spoke of “a new generation of Americans”; and during his presidency he seemed to be taking government in a new direction, away from the easygoing Eisenhower style. His administration was headed by strong, dedicated personalities. The Kennedy staff was also predominantly young. Its energy and commitment revitalized the nation, but its competence was soon called into question.

Button from John F. Kennedy’s 1960 U.S. presidential campaign.

Americana/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

President John F. Kennedy rallying the United States to support NASA’s Apollo program to land human …

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

In April 1961 Kennedy authorized a plan that had been initiated under Eisenhower for a covert invasion of Cuba to overthrow the newly installed, Soviet-supported communist regime of Fidel Castro. The invasion was repulsed at the Bay of Pigs, embarrassing the administration and worsening relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. These deteriorated further at a private meeting between Kennedy and Khrushchev in June 1961 when the Soviet leader was perceived as attempting to bully his young American counterpart. Relations hit bottom in October 1962 when the Soviets secretly began to install long-range offensive missiles in Cuba, which threatened to tip the balance of nuclear power. Kennedy forced the removal of the missiles, gaining back the status he had lost at the Bay of Pigs and in his meeting with Khrushchev. Kennedy then began to work toward improving international relations, and in July 1963 he concluded a treaty with Britain and the Soviet Union banning atomic tests in the atmosphere and underwater. His program of aid to Latin America, the Alliance for Progress, raised inter-American relations to their highest level since the days of Franklin Roosevelt.

Kennedy’s domestic policies were designed to stimulate international trade, reduce unemployment, provide medical care for the aged, reduce federal income taxes, and protect the civil rights of blacks. The latter issue, which had aroused national concern in 1962 when federal troops were employed to assure the admission of a Negro at the University of Mississippi, caused further concern in 1963, when similar action was taken at the University of Alabama and mass demonstrations were held in support of desegregation. Although the Democrats controlled both houses of Congress, the administration’s proposals usually encountered strong opposition from a coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats. With Congress’s support, Kennedy was able to increase military spending substantially. This led to greater readiness but also to a significant rise in the number of long-range U.S. missiles, which prompted a similar Soviet response.

Jacqueline Kennedy and Lady Bird Johnson standing by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson as he takes …

Lyndon B. Johnson Library Photo

The Great Society

Johnson’s first job in office was to secure enactment of New Frontier bills that had been languishing in Congress. By far the most important of these was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which Johnson pushed through despite a filibuster by Southern senators that lasted 57 days. The act provided machinery to secure equal access to accommodations, to prevent discrimination in employment by federal contractors, and to cut off funds to segregated school districts. It also authorized the Justice Department to take a more active role in civil rights cases. Johnson went beyond the New Frontier in 1964 by declaring war on poverty. His Economic Opportunity Act provided funds for vocational training, created a Job Corps to train youths in conservation camps and urban centres, encouraged community action programs, extended loans to small businessmen and farmers, and established a domestic peace corps, the counterpart of a popular foreign program created by President Kennedy.

U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson preparing to sign the Civil Rights Act during a ceremony at the …

Johnson provided dynamic and successful leadership at a time of national trauma, and in the election of 1964 he won a landslide victory over his Republican opponent, the conservative senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. More importantly, the Democrats gained 38 seats in the House of Representatives that year, enough to override the conservative bloc and enact a body of liberal social legislation.

With this clear mandate, Johnson submitted the most sweeping legislative program to Congress since the New Deal. He outlined his plan for achieving a “Great Society” in his 1965 State of the Union address, and over the next two years he persuaded Congress to approve most of his proposals. The Appalachian Regional Development Act provided aid for that economically depressed area. The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 established a Cabinet-level department to coordinate federal housing programs. Johnson’s Medicare bill fulfilled President Truman’s dream of providing health care for the aged. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided federal funding for public and private education below the college level. The Higher Education Act of 1965 provided scholarships for more than 140,000 needy students and authorized a National Teachers Corps. The Immigration Act of 1965 abolished the discriminatory national-origins quota system. The minimum wage was raised and its coverage extended in 1966. In 1967, social security pensions were raised and coverage expanded. The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Area Redevelopment Act of 1966 provided aid to cities rebuilding blighted areas. Other measures dealt with mass transit, truth in packaging and lending, beautification, conservation, water and air quality, safety, and support for the arts.

The civil rights movement

The American civil rights movement came to a head under the Johnson administration. Many had seen the March on Washington in August 1963 as the apotheosis of the nonviolent struggle for civil rights. Some 200,000 people had come from all over the country to gather at the Lincoln Memorial, where Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech. Earlier in the decade, black and white Freedom Riders had been violently attacked when they rode through the South together on buses, hoping to provoke the federal government into enforcing its bans on segregation in interstate bus travel and in bus terminals, restrooms, and other facilities associated with interstate travel. With passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the civil rights movement saw many of its goals embodied in federal law.

Freedom Riders preparing to board a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, May 24, 1961.

Despite the Civil Rights Act, however, most African Americans in the South found it difficult to exercise their voting rights. In the summer of 1964, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which both had been instrumental in the Freedom Rides—and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), whose history reached back to W.E.B. Du Bois and the Niagara Movement—organized a massive effort to register voters in Mississippi. They also conducted “Freedom Schools” in which the philosophy of the civil rights movement, African American history, and leadership development were taught. A large number of white student activists from the North had joined this “Freedom Summer” effort, and, when one black and two white volunteers were killed, it made headlines nationally and greatly heightened awareness of the movement. These murders echoed, on a small scale, the violence visited upon countless African Americans—those who had participated in demonstrations and many who had not—during the previous decade, in forms that ranged from beatings by police to bombings of residences and black institutions. In 1965, mass demonstrations were held to protest the violence and other means used to prevent black voter registration. After a peaceful protest march was halted by police violence on the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama, Johnson responded with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which abolished literacy tests and other voter restrictions and authorized federal intervention against voter discrimination. The subsequent rise in black voter registration ultimately transformed politics in the South.

Selma March.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

These gains were considerable, but many African Americans remained dissatisfied by the slow progress. The nonviolent civil rights movement was challenged by “black power” advocates, such as Stokely Carmichael, who called for a freedom struggle that sought political, economic, and cultural objectives beyond narrowly defined civil rights reform. By the late 1960s not just King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference and the NAACP but also SNCC and CORE were challenged by militant organizations, such as the Black Panther Party, whose leaders dismissed nonviolent principles, often quoting black nationalist Malcolm X’s imperative: “by any means necessary.” Race riots broke out in most of the country’s large cities, notably in 1965 in the Watts district of Los Angeles, which left 34 dead, and two years later in Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit. Four summers of violence resulted in many deaths and property losses that left whole neighbourhoods ruined and their residents more distressed than ever. After a final round provoked by the assassination of King in April 1968, the rioting abated. Yet the activist pursuit of political and economic empowerment for African Americans continued, reflected culturally in the Black Arts movement—which pursued populist art that promoted the ideas of black separatism—and in the politicized soul music that replaced gospel and folk music as the sound track of the freedom struggle.

Stokely Carmichael, 1970.

Bettmann/Corbis

Latino and Native American activism

In September 1965 Cesar Chavez, who had founded the National Farm Workers Association (later the United Farm Workers of America) in 1962, began leading what became a five-year strike by California grape pickers and a nationwide boycott of California grapes that attracted liberal support from throughout the country. Many of those farmworkers were, like Chavez, Latino, and the 1960s—particularly during the strike and boycott—arguably marked the first time the Latino population in the United States drew sustained attention. People of Hispanic origin had lived in the United States since the country’s origin, and their presence increased after huge portions of Mexico became part of the United States in the wake of the Mexican-American War (1846–48) and following the acquisition of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War (1898). Large-scale Hispanic immigration to the United States began in the 20th century as Mexicans sought economic opportunity or to escape the Mexican Revolution (1910–20).

Cesar Chavez.

National Archives, Washington, D.C. (544069)

In 1954, in Hernandez v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the conviction of an agricultural labourer, Pete Hernandez, for murder should be overturned because Mexican Americans had been barred from participating in both the jury that indicted him and the jury that convicted him. In this landmark ruling, the court recognized that the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection under the law extended to Mexican Americans. The Chicano (Mexican American) civil rights movement of the 1960s encompassed not only the Chavez-led efforts of agricultural workers in California but also the land grant movement in New Mexico spearheaded by Reies Lopez Tijerina as well as the struggle for equal education in Los Angeles. Yet it would not be until the 1980s that Latinos—such as Henry Cisneros, who was elected mayor of San Antonio, Texas, in 1981—began to hold prominent political office in the United States. By that point Hispanic servicemen had already racked up scores of medals in World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. And by 2010 the 50 million Latinos living in all 50 states constituted 16 percent of the U.S. population.

Activism on behalf of Native Americans also grew substantially during the 1960s. In 1968 the American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded by Russell Means and others to help Native Americans in urban ghettos who had been displaced by government programs that had the effect of forcing them from their reservations. AIM’s goals eventually encompassed the entire spectrum of Indian demands—economic independence, revitalization of traditional culture, protection of legal rights, and, most especially, autonomy over tribal areas and the restoration of lands that they believed had been illegally seized. AIM was involved in many highly publicized protests. It was one of the American Indian groups involved in the occupation (1969–71) of Alcatraz Island, the march (1972) on Washington, D.C., to protest violations of treaties (in which AIM members occupied the office of the Bureau of Indian Affairs), and the takeover (1973) of a site at Wounded Knee to protest the government’s Indian policy.

Social changes

The 1960s were marked by the greatest changes in morals and manners since the 1920s. Young people, college students in particular, rebelled against what they viewed as the repressed conformist society of their parents. They advocated a sexual revolution, aided by the birth control pill and later by Roe v. Wade (1973), a Supreme Court ruling that legalized abortion. “Recreational” drugs such as marijuana and LSD were increasingly used. Opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam promoted the rise of a New Left, which was anticapitalist as well as antiwar. The political activists of the New Left drew on the theories of political philosopher Herbert Marcuse, sociologist C. Wright Mills, and psychoanalyst and social philosopher Erich Fromm, among others. A “counterculture” sprang up that legitimized radical standards of taste and behaviour in the arts as well as in life. Feminism was reborn and joined the ranks of radical causes.

Except for feminism, most organized expressions of the counterculture and the New Left, including the influential Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), did not long survive the sixties. Nevertheless, they changed American life. Recreational drug taking, previously confined largely to impoverished inner cities, became part of middle-class life. The sexual revolution reduced government censorship, changed attitudes toward traditional sexual roles, and enabled homosexuals to organize and acknowledge their identities as never before. Although there had been earlier protests by gay groups, the Stonewall riots—a series of violent confrontations between police and gay rights activists outside the Stonewall Inn, a bar in New York City, in the summer of 1969—was perhaps the first time lesbians, gays, and transvestites saw the value in uniting behind a common cause. Unrestrained individualism played havoc with family values. People began marrying later and having fewer children. The divorce rate accelerated to the point that the number of divorces per year was roughly half the number of marriages. The number of abortions rose, as did the illegitimacy rate. By the 1980s one in six families was headed by a single woman, and over half of all people living in poverty, including some 12 million children, belonged to such families. Because inflation and recession made it hard to support even intact families on a single income, a majority of mothers entered the workforce. Thus, the stable family-oriented society of the 1950s became a thing of the past.

The Stonewall Inn in New York City’s Greenwich Village days after the Stonewall riots, which began …

Larry Morris—The New York Times/Redux

The Vietnam War

U.S. involvement in Vietnam dated to the Truman administration, when economic and military aid was provided to deter a communist takeover of French Indochina. When France withdrew and Vietnam was divided in two in 1954, the United States continued to support anticommunist forces in South Vietnam. By 1964, communist insurgents were winning their struggle against the government of South Vietnam, which a decade of American aid had failed to strengthen or reform. In August, following an allegedly unprovoked attack on U.S. warships patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin, a resolution pledging complete support for American action in Vietnam was passed unanimously in the House of Representatives and with only two dissenting votes in the Senate.

U.S. paratroopers carrying a wounded soldier to an ambulance helicopter during the Vietnam War, …

AP

After the fall elections, Johnson began deploying a huge force in Vietnam (more than half a million troops in 1968, together with strong air and naval units). This power was directed not only against the Viet Cong insurgents but also against North Vietnam, which increased its efforts as American participation escalated. Despite massive U.S. bombing of North Vietnam, the communists refused to yield. On January 30, 1968, disregarding a truce called for the Tet (lunar new year) holiday, the communists launched an offensive against every major urban area in South Vietnam. Although the Tet Offensive was a military failure, it proved to be a political victory for the communists because it persuaded many Americans that the war could not be ended at a bearable price. Opposition to U.S. involvement became the major issue of the 1968 election. After Sen. Eugene McCarthy, a leading critic of the war, ran strongly against him in the New Hampshire primary, Johnson announced that he would not seek or accept renomination. He also curtailed bombing operations, opened peace talks with the North Vietnamese, and on November 1 ended the bombing of North Vietnam.

While war efforts were being reduced, violence within the United States seemed to be growing. Just two months after King’s assassination, Sen. Robert F. Kennedy, a leading contender for the Democratic presidential nomination, was assassinated. President Johnson then secured the nomination of Vice Pres. Hubert H. Humphrey at the Democratic National Convention at Chicago, where violence again erupted as antiwar demonstrators were manhandled by local police. Humphrey lost the election to the Republican nominee, former vice president Richard Nixon. The narrowness of Nixon’s margin resulted from a third-party campaign by the former governor of Alabama, George Wallace, who attracted conservative votes that would otherwise have gone to Nixon. Democrats retained large majorities in both houses of Congress.

A Chicago police officer squirting mace at demonstrators during a protest outside the Conrad Hilton …

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Established in 1776, the United States is young compared to many other countries. Yet by the 1900s the United States had grown into a world power. The capital is Washington, D.C. (For the history of the United States see the separate United States history article.)

The United States represents a series of ideals. For most of those who have come to its shores, it means the ideal of freedom-the right to worship as one chooses, to seek a job appropriate to one’s skills and interests, to be judged equally before the law. It means the ideal of progress-that personal life and political, social, and economic institutions will improve through hard work, fair play, and honest endeavor. It means the ideal of democracy-the right to be heard as an individual, the right to cast a ballot in a free election, the right to dream of a better life and to work toward one’s goals. In order to understand the United States, it is necessary to consider the role its ideals have played in its development. Area 3,677,649 square miles (9,525,067 square kilometers). Population (2016 est.) 323,349,000.

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