breakdown devices

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CONTENTS
CONTENTS
+ 0 ) 2 6 - 4
Learning Objectives
➣ What are Breakdown BREAKDOWN
Devices ?
➣ Unijunction Transistor
➣ UJT Relaxation Oscillator
DEVICES
➣ Programmable UJT(PUT)
➣ Silicon Controlled Rectifier
➣ Comparison between Tran- ANODE
sistors and Thyristors
➣ Transient Effects in an SCR
➣ Phase Control
➣ Theft Alarm
➣ Emergency Lighting System
➣ Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
➣ The Shockley Diode = = =
➣ Triac GATE
➣ Diac
➣ Silicon Controlled Switch
(SCS)
CATHODE
Ç The Silicon Controlled Rectifier, usually
referred to as an SCR, is one of the family of
semiconductors that includes transistors and
diodes
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
2390 Electrical Technology
64.1. What are Breakdown Devices ?
These are solid-state devices whose working
depends on the phenomenon of avalanche
breakdown. They are sometimes referred to by
the generic name of thyristor which is a
semiconductor switch whose bistable action
depends on P-N-P-N regenerative feedback. We
will discuss the following devices :
1. Unijunction Transistor (UJT).
2. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
3. Light Activated SCR (LASCR).
4. Triac (short for ‘triode ac’).
5. Diac (short for ‘diode ac’).
Cat-Transistor
6. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS).
These devices have two or more junctions and can be switched ON or OFF at an extremely
fast rate. They are also referred to as latching devices. A latch is a kind of switch which initially
once closed, remains closed until someone opens it.
64.2. Unijunction Transistor
Basically, it is a three-terminal silicon
diode. As its name indicates, it has only
one P-N junction. It differs from an
ordinary diode in that it has three leads and
it differs from a FET in that it has no ability
to amplify. However, it has the ability to
control a large ac power with a small
signal. It also exhibits a negative resistance
characteristic which makes it useful as an
oscillator.
(a) Construction
It consists of a lightly-doped silicon
bar with a heavily-doped P-type material
alloyed to its one side (closer to B 2) for
producing single P-N junction. As shown
in Fig. 64.1 (a), there are three terminals :
one emitter, E and two bases B 2 and B 1 at
Fig. 64.1
the top and bottom of the silicon bar. The
emitter leg is drawn at an angle to the vertical and arrow points in the direction of conventional
current when UJT is in the conducting state.
(b) Interbase Resistance (RBB)
It is the resistance between B 2 and B 1 i.e. it is the
total resistance of the silicon bar from one end to the other
with emitter terminal open [Fig. 64.2 (a)].
From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 64.2 (b), it is seen
that R BB = R B2 + R B1
It should also be noted that point A is such that R B1 >
R B2. Usually, R B1 = 60% of R B1. The resistance R B1 has
been shown as a variable resistor because its value varies
inversely as IE.
Fig. 64.2
Breakdown Devices 2391
(c) Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio
As seen from Fig. 64.3 (a), when a battery of 30 V is applied across B2 B1, there is a progres-
sive fall of voltage over RBB provided E is open. It is obvious from Fig. 64.3 (b) that emitter acts as
a voltage-divider tap on fixed resistance RBB.
With emitter open, I1 = I2, the interbase current is given by Ohm’s Law.
I1= I2=VBB /RBB
Fig. 64.3
For example, if VBB = 30 V and RBB = 15 K, I1 = I2 = 2 mA.
It may be noted that part of VBB is dropped over RB2 and part on RB1. Let us call the voltage drop
across RB1 as VA. Using simple voltage divider relationship,
RB1
VA = VBB
RB1 + RB 2
The voltage division factor is given a special symbol (η) and the name of ‘intrinsic stand-
off ratio’.
RB1
η=
RB1 + RB 2 ∴ VA= ηVBB
The intrinsic stand-off ratio is the property
of the UJT and is always less than unity (0.5 to
0.85). If VBB = 30 V and η = 0.6, then potential
of point A with respect to point B1 = 0.6 × 30 =
18 V. The remaining 12 V drop across RB2.
(d) Operation
When VBB is switched on, VA is developed
and reverse-biases the junction. If VB is the bar-
rier voltage of the P-N junction, then total re-
verse bias voltage is
= VA + VB = ηVBB + VB
Value of VB for Si is 0.7 V.
It is obvious that emitter junction will not
Fig. 64.4
become forward-biased unless its applied volt-
age VE exceeds (ηVBB + VB). This value of VE is called peak-point voltage VP (Fig. 64.4). When VE
= VP, emitter (peak current), IP starts to flow through RB1 to ground (i.e. B1). The UJT is then said to
have been fired or turned ON. Due to the flow of IE (= IP) through RB1, number of charge carriers in
RB1 is increased which reduces its resistance. As η depends on RB1, its value is also decreased.
2392 Electrical Technology
Hence, we find that as V E and hence IE increases (beyond IP), R B1 decreases, η decreases and V A
decreases. This decrease in V A causes more emitter current to flow which causes a further reduction
in R B1, η and V A . Obviously, the process is regenerative. V A as well as V E quickly drop as IE increases.
Since, V E decreases when IE increases, the UJT possesses negative resistance. Beyond the valley
point, UJT is in saturation and V E increases very little with an increasing IE.
It is seen that only terminals E and B 1 are the active terminals whereas B 2 is the bias terminal
i.e. it is meant only for applying external voltage across the UJT.
Generally, UJT is triggered into conduction by applying a suitable positive pulse at its emitter.
It can be brought back to OFF state by applying a negative trigger pulse.
(e) Applications
One unique property of UJT is that it can be triggered by (or an output can be taken from) any
one of its three terminals. Once triggered, the emitter current IE of the UJT increases regeneratively
till it reaches a limiting value determined by the external power supply. Because of this particular
behaviour, UJT is used in a variety of circuit applications. Some of which are :
1. phase control 2. switching 3. pulse generation,
4. sine wave generator 5. sawtooth generator 6. timing and trigger circuits,
7. voltage or current regulated supplies.
Example 64.1. A given silicon UJT has an interbase resistance of 10 K. It has RB1 = 6 K with
IE = 0. Find
(a) UJT current if VBB = 20 V and VE is less than V P ,
(b) η and VA , (c) peak point voltage, VP .
(Applied Electronics-I, Punjab Univ. 1990)
Solution. (a) Since V E < V P, IE = 0, because P-N junction is reverse-biased.
VBB 20
∴ I1 = I2 = = =22mA
RBB 10K
RB1 6
(b) η= = = 0.6; VA = ηVBB = 0.6 × 20 = 12V
RBB 10
(c) V P= ηV B B + V B = 12 + 0.7=12.7 V
64.3. UJT Relaxation Oscillator
The relaxation oscillator shown in Fig. 64.5 consists of a UJT and a capacitor C which is
charged through R as V B B is switched on.
Fig. 64.5
When the capacitor voltage VC reaches in time ts the value of V P, the UJT fires and rapidly
discharges C via B 1 till the voltage falls below the minimum value V V . The device then cuts off and
Breakdown Devices 2393
C starts to charge again. This cycle is repeated continuously thus generating a sawtooth waveform
across C.
The inclusion of external resistances R 2 and R 1 in series with B 2 and B 1 (Fig. 64.6) provides
spike waveforms. When the UJT fires, the sudden surge of current through B 1 causes a drop across
R 1 which produces positive going spikes. Also, at the time of firing, fall of VB B1 causes I2 to increase
rapidly which generates negative going spikes across R 2 as shown in Fig. 64.6.
By switching over to different capacitors, frequency of the output waveform can be changed as
desired.
Condition for Turn-ON and Turn-OFF
For satisfactory working of the above oscillator, following two conditions for the turn-on and
turn-off of the UJT must be met. To ensure turn-on, R must not limit IE at peak point to a value less
than IP. It means that
VBB − VP
V B B – V P > IP R or R <
IP
To ensure turn-off of the UJT at valley
point, R must be large enough to permit IE (at
valley point) to decrease below the specified
value of IV. In other words, drop across R at val-
ley point must be less than IVR. Hence, condi-
tion for turn-off is
VBB − VV
V B B – V V < IV R or R >
Iv
Hence, for reliable turn-on and turn-off of
the UJT, R must be in the range
VBB − VP V −V
> R > BB V
IP IV
It should be noted that charging time con-
Fig. 64.6 stant of the capacitor for voltage V is T = CR
whereas discharging time constant is T d = CRB1.
The time required to charge upto V P (called ramp rise time) is ts = T loge (V – V V ) / (V – V P).
Similarly, time required by the capacitor to discharge from V P to V V is td ≅ T d loge V P /V V . The
frequency of oscillation is given by f = 1/(ts + td).
Example 64.2. The windshield wiper motor of an automobile is controlled by a UJT with η =
0.6. The capacitor has a value of 50 µF and the charging resistor is a series combination of 50 K
resistor and a 500 K potentiometer. Determine the minimum and maximum number of blade strokes
per minute possible with this arrangement.
Solution. The least value of time constant is = 50,000 × 50 × 10–6 = 2.5 second.
Maximum value of time constant when whole of potentiometer resistance is used is
= (50 + 500) × 103 × 50 × 10–6 = 27.5 second
Maximum blade strokes per minute= 60/2.5 = 24.
Minimum blade strokes per minute = 60/27.5 = 2.2.
Example 64.3. The oscillator circuit shown in Fig. 64.5 uses a UJT with RBB = 10 K, η = 0.6,
V B = 0.7 V, V = 50 V, R1 = 90 K, R = 100 K and C = 0.05 µF. When UJT is in conduction, RB1 = 10 Ω
and VV = VB. Find (i) ramp rise time, ts (ii) approximate discharge time, td and (iii) frequency of
oscillation.
2394 Electrical Technology
Solution. V B B= V.RB B/(R BB + R 1)=50 × 10/100 = 5 V
V P = η V BB + V B = 0.6 × 5 + 0.7 = 3.7 V
T = CR = 0.05 × 10–6 × 100 × 103 = 5 ms
(i) The capacitor charges from Vc = V B = 0.7 V to V P towards V in the time ts given by
ts = T loge (V – V V )/(V – V P) = 5 loge (50 – 0.7)/(50 – 3.7) = 0.315 ms.
(ii) The discharge time, td = CRB1 = 0.05 × 10 = 0.5 µs. The time taken by C to discharge from
V P to V V (= 0.7 V ) towards 0 volt is
T d ≅ td loge V P/V V = 0.5 loge 3.7 / 0.7 = 1.66 µs
(iii) f = 1/(ts + td) = 1/(0.315 + 0.0016) = 3.158 kHz.
64.4. Programmable UJT (PUT)
Like a SCR, it is also a four-layer or PNPN device with a gate G as shown in Fig. 64.7. How-
ever, its gate is connected to the N-region adjacent to the anode A . This P-N junction controls the
ON and OFF states of the PUT. The gate G is always biased positive with respect to cathode K.
When anode voltage exceeds gate voltage by about 0.7 V , the P-N junction J1 becomes forward-
biased and the PUT turns ON. When the anode voltage falls below this level, the PUT is turned OFF.
As shown in Fig. 64.8 (a), gate bias can be adjusted to any bias level with the help of an
external voltage divider circuit R 2 – R 3. Whenever anode voltage exceeds this programmable level,
the PUT turns ON.
Fig. 64.7 Fig. 64.8
Fig. 64.8 (b) shows the plot of anode-to- cathode volt-
age V AK versus anode current IA. It is similar to the
V/I characteristic of a UJT. Hence, PUT replaces UJT in
many applications, one such application is as relaxation os-
cillator shown in Fig. 64.9 (a).
Since, R 2 = R 3, V G = 12/2 = 6 V. When dc voltage is
applied, the PUT is off but C starts charging towards
+12 V through R 1 [Fig. 64.9 (b)]. When V C exceeds
(V G + 0.7 V), the PUT turns ON and, at the same time, C
starts discharging rapidly through the low ON-resistance of
the PUT and R 4. Consequently, a voltage spike is developed
across R 4 during the discharge. As soon as C discharges, the
PUT turns OFF and the charging cycle starts all over again
as described above. Silicon controlled rectifier and
power diode
Breakdown Devices 2395
64.5. Silicon Controlled Rectifier
It is one of the promi-
nent members of the thy-
ristor family. It is a four-
layer or PNPN device. Ba-
sically, it is a rectifier with
a control element. In fact,
it consists of three diodes
connected back-to-back
with a gate connection. It
is widely used as a switch-
ing device in power con-
trol applications. It can
control loads by switching
current OFF and ON up to
many thousand times a Fig. 64.9
second. It can switch ON for variable lengths of time, thereby delivering selected amount of power
to the load. Hence, it possesses the advantages of a rheostat and a
switch with none of their disadvantages.
(a) Construction
As shown in Fig. 64.10 (a), it is a three terminal four-layer
transistor, the layers being alternately of P-type and N-type sili-
con. The three junctions are marked J1, J2 and J3 whereas the
three terminals are : anode (A ), cathode (C) and gate (G) which is
connected to the inner P-type layer. The function of the gate is to
control the firing of SCR. The schematic symbol is shown in Fig.
64.10 (b).
Since, they conduct large currents, junction areas of SCRs
are very large. Commonly used stud-mounted units have their
Fig. 64.10 anode connected directly to the stud for good heat dissipation
whereas larger units are of ‘pillow’ type in which many units are
stacked in series and held in a pressurized clamp.
(b) Biasing
With the polarity of V as shown in
Fig. 64.11 (a), the junctions J1 and J3 be-
come forward-biased whereas J2 is re-
verse-biased. Hence, no current (except
leakage current) can flow through the
SCR.
In Fig. 64.11 (b), polarity of V has
been reversed. It is seen that, now, junc-
tions J1 and J3 become reverse-biased
and only J2 is forward-biased. Again,
there is no flow of current through the Fig. 64.11
SCR.
(c) Operation
In Fig. 64.11 (a), current flow is blocked due to reverse-biased junction J2. However, when
anode voltage is increased, a certain critical value called forward breakover voltage V BO is reached
when J2 breaks down and SCR switches suddenly to a highly conducting state. Under this condition,
2396 Electrical Technology
SCR offers very little forward resistance (0.01 Ω – 1.0 Ω) so that voltage across it drops to a low
value (about 1 V) as shown in Fig. 64.12 and current is limited only by the power supply and the
load resistance. Current keeps flowing indefinitely un-
til the circuit is opened briefly.
With supply connection as in Fig. 64.11 (b), the
current through the SCR is blocked by the two reverse-
biased junctions J1 and J3. When V is increased, a stage
comes when Zener breakdown occurs which may de-
stroy the SCR (Fig. 64.12). Hence, it is seen that SCR
is a unidirectional device unlike triac which is bi-di-
rectional.
(d) Two Transistor Analogy
The basic operation of a SCR can be described
by using two transistor analogy. For this purpose, SCR
is split into two 3-layer transistor structures as shown
in Fig. 64.13 (a). As seen, transistor Q1 is a PNP tran-
Fig. 64.12 sistor whereas Q2 is an NPN device interconnected
together. It will also be noted from Fig. 64.13 (b) that
(i) collector current of Q1 is also the base current of Q2 and
(ii) base current of Q1 is also the collector current of Q2.
Suppose that the supply voltage across terminals A and C is such that reverse-biased junction
J2 starts breaking down. Then, current through the device begins to rise. It means that IE1 begins to
increase.
Then,
1. IC1 increases (remember IC = αIE );
2. since IC1 = IB2, IB2 also increases;
3. hence, IC2 increases (remember IC = β IB);
4. now, IC2 = IB1, hence IB1 increases;
5. consequently, both IC1 and IE1 increase.
As seen, a regenerative action takes place
whereby an initial increase in current produces
further increase in the same current. Soon,
maximum current is reached limited by exter-
nal resistances. The two transistors are fully
turned ON and voltage across the two transis-
tors falls to a very low value. Typical turn-ON
times for an SCR are 0.1 to 1.0 µs.
It can be proved that if IG is the gate cur-
rent of the SCR and α1 and α2, the current gains Fig. 64.13
of the PNP and NPN transistors respectively,
then anode current is given by
α 2 IG
IA =
1− (α1 + α 2 )
(e) Firing and Triggering
Usually, SCR is operated with an anode voltage slightly less than the forward breakover volt-
age V BO and is triggered into conduction by a low-power gate pulse. Once switched ON, gate has no
further control on the device current. Gate signals can be (a) dc firing signals [Fig. 64.14 (a)] or (b)
pulse signals [Fig. 64.14 (b)].
Breakdown Devices 2397
In Fig. 64.14 (a) with S open, SCR does not conduct and the lamp is out. When S is closed
momentarily, a positive voltage is applied to the gate which forward-biases the centre P-N junction.
As a result, SCR is
pulsed into conduction
and the lamp lights up.
SCR will remain in the
conducting state until the
supply voltage is
removed or reversed.
Fig. 64.14 (b) shows trig-
gering by timed pulses
obtained from a pulse
source.
Fig. 64.14
We have discussed
above the most common method of SCR triggering i.e. gate triggering. However, other available
triggering methods are as under :
1. Thermal Triggering
In this case, the temperature of the forward-biased junction is increased till the reverse-biased
junction breaks down.
2. Radiation Triggering
Here, triggering is achieved with the help of charge carriers which are produced by the bom-
bardment of the SCR with external high-energy particles like neutrons or protons.
3. Voltage Triggering
In this case, the voltage applied across the anode and cathode of the SCR is increased which
decreases the width of the depletion layer at the reverse-biased junction leading to its collapse.
4. dv/dt Triggering
In this case, dv / dt is made more than the value of the critical rate of rise of the voltage.
(f) Turning OFF
As stated earlier, once ‘fired’, SCR remains ON even when triggering pulse is removed. This
ability of the SCR to remain ON even when gate current is removed is referred to as latching. In
fact, SCR belongs to a class of devices known as latching devices.
By now, it is clear that an SCR cannot be turned OFF by simply removing the gate pulse.
Number of techniques are employed to turn an SCR off. These are :
1. anode current interruption.
2. reversing polarity of anode-cathode voltage as is done each half-cycle by v in Fig. 64.14 (b);
3. reducing current through SCR below the holding current IH (Fig. 64.12). It is also called
low-current dropout.
(g) Applications
Main application of an SCR is as a power control device. It has been shown above that when
SCR is OFF, its current is negligible and when it is ON, its voltage is negligible. Consequently, it
never dissipates any appreciable amount of power even when controlling substantial amounts of
load power. For example, one SCR requires only 150 mA to control a load current of 2500 A. Other
common areas of its application include.
1. relay controls, 2. regulated power supplies, 3. static switches,
4. motor controls, 5. inverters, 6. battery chargers,
7. heater controls, 8. phase control.
SCRs have been designed to control powers upto 10 MW with individual ratings as high as
2000 A at 1.8 kV. Its frequency range of application has been extended to about 50 kHz.
2398 Electrical Technology
Example 64.4. The two-transistor analogy of an SCR has the following data :
gain of PNP transistor = 0.4 ; gain of NPN transistor = 0.5 ;
gate current = 50 mA.
Calculate the anode current of the device.
Solution. Here, α1 = 0.4 ; α2=0.5 and IG= 50 mA = 0.05 A
α2 I G 0.5 × 0.05
anode current, I A = = = 0.25 A = 2250mA
1 − ( α1 + α2 ) 1 – ( 0.4 + 0.5 )
64.6. Comparison Between Transistors and Thyristors
Table No. 64.1 gives the comparison between transistors and thyristors.
Table No. 64.1
Sl.No. Transistors Thyristors
1. 3-layers, 2-junction devices 4-layer, 2- or more junction devices
2. fast response very fast response
3. high efficiency very high efficiency
4. highly reliable very highly reliable
5. small voltage drop very small voltage drop
6. long life very long life
7. small to medium power ratings very small to very large power ratings
8. require a continuous flow of current to require only a small pulse for triggering and
remaIn in conducting state thereafter remaining in conducting state.
9. low power consumption very low power consumption
10. low control capability high control capability
11. small turn-ON and turn-OFF time very small turn-ON and turn-OFF time
Example 64.5. A 250 Ω resistor is connected in series with the gate of an SCR as shown in
Fig. 64.15. The gate current required for firing the SCR is 8 mA. Calculate the value of the input
voltage Vin required for causing the SCR to break down.
(Basic Electronics, Osmania Univ. 1993)
Solution.The value of V in should be such as to (i) overcome the barrier voltage of 0.7 V and
(ii) cause 8 mA current to flow through 250 Ω resistor.
V in= V GC + IG R = 0.7 + 8 × 10-3 × 250 = 2.7 V
64.7. Transient Effects in an SCR
We will consider the following two effects :
(i) di/dt Effect
This effect is produced due to a high initial rate-of-rise of the anode current when an SCR is
just switched ON and results in the formation of a local hot spot near
the gate connection as explained below :
When a trigerring pulse is applied to the gate of an SCR, the
holes are injected into the P-region where they crowd together and
form an initial conduction zone over a small part of the junction J2
before spreading the conduct throughout the whole area of junction. If
the anode current is allowed to rise very rapidly (as would be the case
for resistive or capacitive loads), this high current will be forced to
flow through this small conduction zone until the conduction has spread Fig. 64.15
through the entire junction. This may result in local hot-spots in the
junction which are likely to damage the SCR permanently.
Breakdown Devices 2399
The maximum allowable anode current di/dt can be increased (and, hence, turn-on time of an
SCR decreased) by using specially-designed gate-connection geometries which result in a more
rapid distribution of charge throughout the gate region.
(ii) dv/dt Effect
It is found that sometimes an SCR unwantedly turns ON by itself during sudden changes of the
applied anode potential at a time when there is no gate current applied and the SCR is supposed to
be blocking. This false triggering is due to the capacitance possessed by the large-area junction J2
(Fig. 64.10). When rate-of-rise of the applied anode voltage dv/dt is very high, the capacitive charg-
ing current may become high enough to initiate switch-on even in the absence of external gate
current. False triggerings due to the dv/dt are prevented by using a ‘snubber circuit’.
64.8. Phase Control
In the phase control circuit of Fig. 64.16, gate triggering current is derived from the supply
itself. The variable resistance R limits the gate current during positive half-cycles of the supply. If R
is adjusted to a low value, SCR
will trigger almost immediately
at the commencement of the
positive half-cycle of the input.
If, on the other hand, R is
set to a high resistance, SCR
may not switch ON until the
peak of the positive half-cycle.
By adjusting R between these
Fig. 64.16
two extremes, SCR can be
made to switch ON somewhere between the commencement and peak of the positive half-cycle i.e.
between 0° and 90°.
It is obvious that if IG is not enough to trigger the SCR at 90°, then the device will not trigger at
all because IG has maximum value then. This operation is sometimes referred to as half-wave vari-
able-resistance phase control. It is an effective method of controlling the load power.
The purpose of diode D is to protect the gate from negative voltage which would otherwise be
applied to it during the negative half-cycle of the input.
It is seen from Fig. 64.16 that at the instant of SCR switch-ON, gate current flows through R L ,
R and D. Hence, at that instant
V − VD − VG − I G RL
ν = IG R L + I G R + V D + V G ∴ R=
IG
Example 64.6. The circuit of Fig. 64.16 is connected to an ac supply ν = 50 sin θ and
R L = 50 Ω. Gate current is 100 µA and VG = 0.5 V. Determine the range of adjustment of R for the
SCR to be triggered between 30° and 90°. Take VD = 0.7 V.
Solution. (i) θ = 30°
Now, ν = 50 sin θ =50 sin 30° = 25 V
25 − 0.7 − 0.5 − (100 × 10 −6 × 50)
∴ R= = 238K
100 × 10−6
(ii) θ = 90°
ν = 50 sin 90°=50 V
50 − 0.7 − 0.5 − 0.005
R= = 488Κ
100 ×10−6
2400 Electrical Technology
64.9. Theft Alarm
The circuit shown in Fig. 64.17 can be used to
protect a car tape deck or a radio receiver from theft.
The switch S is located at some concealed point in
the car and is kept closed. Since gate G is grounded
through the tape deck, the SCR is OFF and the horn
is silent. If the tape deck is removed, G is no longer
grounded. Instead, it gets connected to the car bat-
tery through R. Consequently, gate current is set up
which fires the SCR. As a result, the horn starts blow-
ing and continues to do so until S is opened. Fig. 64.17
64.10. Emergency Lighting System
SCRs find application in circuits that maintain lighting by using a backup battery in case of ac
power failure. Fig. 64.18 shows a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier used for providing power to a
low-voltage lamp. So long as ac power is available, the battery is charged via diode D3 and resistor
R 1 [Fig. 64.18 (a)].
With ac power ON, the capacitor C charges to the peak value of the full-wave rectified ac
voltage i.e. to 12.4 × 1.414 = 17.5 V. Same is the voltage of the SCR cathode K.
D1 R1 D3 D3
D1 R1
220V 12.4V +12V
+ K A
A K
17.5V OV
12 .4V C G C
_ R3 R3
D2 12V D2
R2 12V
R2
(a ) (b )
Fig. 64.18
Since voltage of SCR anode A is less than that of K, the SCR does not conduct. The SCR gate
G is at a voltage determined by voltage divider R 3– R 2. Under these conditions, the lamp is run by
the ac supply and SCR is OFF.
When ac power is interrupted :
(i) the capacitor C discharges through the closed path R1, D3 and R3 shown by dotted arrows;
(ii) the cathode voltage decreases thereby making it less positive than anode;
(iii) this triggers SCR into conduction which allows the battery current to pass through the lamp
thus maintaining illumination.
When ac supply is restored, C recharges and the SCR turns OFF. The battery starts recharging
again.
64.11. Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
It is just an ordinary SCR except that it can also be light-triggered. Most LASCRs also have a
gate terminal for being triggered by an electrical pulse just as a convential SCR. Fig. 64.19 shows
the two LASCR symbols used commonly.
Breakdown Devices 2401
Fig. 64.19 Fig. 64.20
LASCRs are manufactured mostly in relatively low-current ranges and are used for triggering
larger SCRs and triacs. They are used in optical light controls, relays, motor control and a variety of
computer applications. Some LASCRs have clear windows in their cases so that light sources from
other devices can be coupled to them. Many have the light source device encapsulated in the same
package so that a relay is formed. Since the relay action does not require direct electrical connec-
tion, such relays are often used to couple signals into very high voltage equipment and other danger-
ous locations. Fig. 64.20 shows the connection of such a solid-state relay. Two LASCRs are con-
nected in reverse parallel in order to obtain conduction in both half-cycles of the applied ac voltage
V S . A single LED is used to trigger both LASCRs. Bias resistors are used to reduce the light sensi-
tivity of the gates and prevent sporadic triggering during off-periods. Usually, all the three active
devices and the two bias resistors R G are encapsulated in the same package.
64.12. The Shockley Diode*
It is a two-terminal four-layer or PNPN device
as shown in Fig. 64.21 along with its schematic sym-
bol. It is essentially a low-current SCR without a gate.
For switching the diode ON, its anode-to-cathode volt-
age (VAK) must be increased to forward switching volt-
age (V S) which is the equivalent of SCR forward
breakover voltage. Like an SCR, it also has a holding
current. The PNPN structure can be represented by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a PNP transistor and
an NPN transistor. One application of the diode is as Fvvvig. 64.21
a relaxation oscillator.
64.13. Triac
It is a 5-layer bi-directional device which can be triggered into conduction by both positive
and negative voltages at its anodes and with both positive and negative triggering pulses at its gate.
It behaves like two SCRs connected in parallel, upside down with respect to each other. That is,
the anode of one is tied to the cathode of the other and their gates are directly tied together. Hence,
anode and gate voltages applied in either direction will fire a triac because they would fire at least
one of the two SCRs which are in opposite directions.
Since a triac responds to both positive and negative voltages at the anode, the concept of
cathode used for an SCR is dropped. Instead, the two electrodes are called anodes A 1 and A 2.
* After the name of its inventor William Shockley.
2402 Electrical Technology
1. Construction
As shown in Fig. 64.22 (a), a triac has three terminals A 1, A 2 and G. As seen, gate G is closer to
anode A 1. It is clear from Fig. 64.22 (b), that a triac is nothing but two inverse parallel-connected
Fig. 64.22 Fig. 64.23
SCRs with a common gate terminal. As seen, it has six doped regions. Fig. 64.23 shows the sche-
matic symbol which consists of two inverse-connected SCR symbols.
2. Operation
(a) When A2 is Positive
When positive voltage is applied to A 2, path of current flow is P1-N 1-P2-N 2. The two junctions
P1-N 1 and P2 - N2 are forward-biased whereas N 1-P2 junction is blocked. The gate can be given either
positive or negative voltage to turn ON the triac as explained below.
(i) positive gate
A positive gate (with respect to A 1) forward-biases the P2-N 2 junction and the breakdown
occurs as in a normal SCR.
(ii) negative gate
A negative gate forward-biases the P2-N3 junction and current carriers injected into P2 turn on
the triac.
(b) When A 1 is Positive
When positive voltage is applied to anode A1, path of current flow is P2-N1-P1-N4. The two
junctions P2-N 1 and P1-N 4 are forward-biased whereas junction N 1-P1 is blocked. Conduction can be
achieved by giving either positive or negative voltage to G as explained below.
(i) positive gate IF
A positive gate (with respect to A 1 )
injects current carriers by forward-biasing
P2-N 2 junction and thus initiates conduction. On state
Off
(ii) negative gate State IH
IH
A negative gate injects current carriers VBO
VR VF
by forward-biasing P2-N 3 junction thereby VBO
triggering conduction. Off
It is seen that there are four triac-trigger- State
On
ing modes, two each for the two anodes. State
Low-current dropout is the only way to
open a triac. IR
Fig. 64.24
Breakdown Devices 2403
3. V/I Characteristics
Typical characteristics of a triac are shown in Fig. 64.24.
As seen, triac exhibits same forward blocking and forward conducting characteristics as an
SCR but for either polarity of voltage
applied to the main terminal. Obvi-
ously, a triac has latch current in either
direction.
4. Applications
One fundamental application of
triac is shown in Fig. 64.25. Here, it is
used to control ac power to a load by
switching ON and OFF during positive
and negative half-cycles of the input
ac power.
Fig. 64.25
During positive half-cycle of the
input, diode D1 is forward biased, D2 is reverse-biased and gate is positive with respect to A 1. By
adjusting R, the point at which conduction commences can be varied.
Diac-triac combination for ac load power control is shown in Fig. 64.26. Firing control of diac
is achieved by adjusting R.
Other applications of a triac
include.
1. as static switch to turn ac
power OFF and ON;
2. for minimizing radio in-
terference;
3. for light control;
4. for motor speed control
etc.
Fig. 64.26
The only disadvantage of
triac is that it takes comparatively longer time to recover to OFF state. Hence, its use is limited to ac
supply frequencies of upto 400 Hz.
64.14. Diac
To put it simply, a diac is nothing else but a triac without its gate terminal as shown in Fig.
Fig. 64.27 Fig. 64.28
2404 Electrical Technology
64.27 (a). Its equivalent circuit is a pair of inverted four layer diodes. Its schematic symbol is shown
in Fig. 64.27 (b). As seen, it can break down in either direction.
When anode A1 is positive, the current path is P2-N 2-P1-N 1. Similarly, when A 2 is positive, the
current flow path is P1-N 2-P2-N 3. Diac is designed to trigger triacs or provide protection against
over-voltages.
The operation of a diac can best be explained by imaging it as two-diodes connected in
series. Voltage applied across it in either direction turns ON one diode, reverse-biasing the other.
Hence, it can be switched from OFF to ON state for either polarity of the applied voltage.
The characteristic curve of a typical diac is shown in Fig. 64.28. It resembles the letter Z since
diac breaks down in either direction.
As stated above, diac has symmetrical bi-directional switching characteristics. Because of this
feature, diacs are frequently used as triggering devices in triac phase control circuits used for light
dimming, universal motor speed control and heat control etc.
64.15. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
It is a four-layer, four-termi-
nal PNPN device having anode A ,
cathode C, anode gate G1 and cath-
ode gate G2 as shown in Fig. 64.29.
In fact, it is a low-current SCR with
two gate terminals. The two tran-
sistor equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig. 64.30.
Switching ON and OFF
The device may be switched
ON or OFF by a suitable pulse is
applied at either gate. As seen from
Fig. 64.30, a negative pulse is re-
quired at anode gate G1 to turn the
device ON whereas positive pulse
is needed to turn it OFF as explained Fig. 64.29
below.
Similarly, at cathode gate G2, a
negative pulse is required to switch
the device OFF and a positive pulse
to turn it ON.
As seen from Fig. 64.30, when
a negative pulse is applied to G1, it
forward-biases Q1 (being PNP) which
is turned ON. The resulting heavy col-
lector current IC, being the base cur-
rent of Q2, turns it ON. Hence, SCS
is switched ON. A positive pulse at
G1 will reverse bias E/B junction of
Q1 thereby switching the SCS OFF.
V/I Characteristics
The V/I characteristics of an
SCS are essentially the same as those
Fig. 64.30
for the SCR (Fig. 64.13).
Breakdown Devices 2405
As compared to an SCR, an SCS has much reduced turn-OFF time. Moreover, it has higher
control and triggering sensitivity and a more predictable firing situation.
Applications
The more common areas of SCS applications are as under :
1. in counters, registers and timing circuits of computers,
2. pulse generators,
3. voltage sensors,
4. oscillators etc.
OBJECTIVE TESTS – 64
1. A unijunction transistor has (b) positive or negative voltage at either anode
(a) anode, cathode and a gate (c) positive or negative voltage at gate
(b) two bases and one emitter (d) both (b) and (c).
(c) two anodes and one gate 9. A diac is equivalent to a
(d) anode, cathode and two gates. (a) pair of SCRs
2. Which semiconductor device acts like a diode (b) pair of four-layer SCRs
and two resistors ? (c) diode and two resistors
(a) SCR (b) triac (d) triac with two gates.
(c) diac (d) UJT. 10. An SCS has
3. A UJT has RBB = 10 K and RB2 = 4 K. Its intrin- (a) four layers and three terminals
sic stand-off ratio is (b) three layers and four terminals
(a) 0.6 (c) two anodes and two gates
(b) 0.4 (d) one anode, one cathode and two gates.
(c) 2.5 11. An SCS may be switched ON by a
(d) 5/3. (a) positive pulse at its anode
4. An SCR conducts appreciable current when its (b) negative pulse at its cathode
....................... with respect to cathode. (c) positive pulse at its cathode gate G2
(a) anode and gate are both negative (d) positive pulse at its anode gate G1.
(b) anode and gate are both positive 12. The dv / dt effect in an SCR can result in
(c) anode is negative and gate is positive (a) high rate-of-rise of anode voltage
(d) gate is negative and anode is positive. (b) increased junction capacitance
5. After firing an SCR, the gating pulse is removed. (c) false triggering
The current in the SCR will (d) low capacitive charging current.
(a) remains the same 13. The di / dt effect in an SCR leads to the forma-
(b) immediately fall to zero tion of
(c) rise up (a) local hot spots
(d) rise a little and then fall to zero. (b) conduction zone
6. An SCR may be turned OFF by (c) charge spreading zone
(a) interrupting its anode current (d) none of the above.
(b) reversing polarity of its anode- cathode 14. SCR turns OFF from conducting state to block-
voltage ing state on
(c) low-current dropout (a) reducing gate current
(d) all of the above. (b) reversing gate voltage
7. A triac behaves like two (c) reducing anode current below holding
(a) inverse parallel-connected SCRs with current value
common gate (d) applying ac to the gate
(b) diodes in series 15. When a thyristor is negatively biased,
(c) four-layer diodes in parallel (a) all the three junctions are negatively
(d) resistors and one diode. biased
8. A triac can be triggered into conduction by (b) outer junctions are positively biased and
(a) only positive voltage at either anode the inner junction is negatively biased.
2406 Electrical Technology
(c) outer junctions are negatively biased 17. The minimum value of current required to main-
and the inner junction is positively tain conduction in an SCR is called its .................
biased current.
(d) the junction near the anode is negatively
(a) commutation
biased and the one near the cathode is posi-
tively biased. (b) holding
16. A LASCR is just like a conventional SCR ex- (c) gate trigger
cept that it (d) breakover
(a) cannot carry large current 18. Diacs are primarily used as
(b) can also be light-triggered (a) pulse generators
(c) has no gate terminal (b) triggering devices
(d) cannot be pulse-triggered. (c) surge protection devices
(d) power thyristors.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (c)
12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b)
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