Transcription

2 The Greater Awyu language family of West Papua i Lourens de Vries, Ruth Wester and Wilco van den Heuvel VU University, Amsterdam ABSTRACT Healey (1970) and Voorhoeve (2001) established the Awyu-Dumut family of Papuan languages in the Digul Basin of West Papua and presented a proto Awyu-Dumut phonology. This paper presents an outline of a proto Awyu- Dumut morphology and discusses the linguistic position of Korowai and Kombai in relation to the Awyu-Dumut family. It is argued that Korowai is not a member of the Awyu-Dumut family but a member of a sister branch of Awyu-Dumut within a larger genetic group that we call Greater Awyu. Kombai is a member of the Awyu-Dumut family but is not a member of one of the two subgroups, Awyu and Dumut, proposed by Healey (1970). Rather, Kombai is a member of a third subgroup that we call the Ndeiram subgroup of the Awyu-Dumut family. KEYWORDS proto morphology, historical linguistics, Greater Awyu, Awyu-Dumut 1. INTRODUCTION Drabbe (1947, 1950, 1957, 1959) studied six Papuan speech varieties of what he called the Awyu language (Shiagha, Yenimu, Pisa, Aghu, Mandobo (=Kaeti) and Yonggom Wambon), spoken in the Digul Basin, south of the central mountain ranges of New Guinea, in what is now Indonesian West Papua (see Map I in Appendix A). Healey (1970) divided the six speech varieties on the basis of proto phonology in two subgroups, Awyu (Shiagha, Yenimu, Pisa, Aghu) and Dumut (Mandobo and Yonggom Wambon), and called the group as a whole the Awyu-Dumut family. He took the name Dumut from the Dumut (or Mandobo) River where he assumed Proto Dumut had been spoken (Healey 1970: 997). He proposed phonologies of Proto Awyu, Proto Dumut and Proto Awyu-Dumut and reconstructed 337 proto forms for these three groupings, 96 of which he reconstructed in all three proto languages. Using Awyu-Dumut language descriptions and sketches that became available after 1970 (e.g. Digul Wambon (de Vries & Wiersma 1992), Kombai (de Vries 1993)), Voorhoeve (2001) 269

3 confirmed Healey s initial hypothesis and proposed a number of modifications to Healey s Proto Awyu-Dumut phonology. Voorhoeve (2001) also found systematic consonant correspondences between Kombai and Proto Awyu-Dumut and concludes that Kombai is a member of the Awyu- Dumut family. Voorhoeve (2005: 149) reiterates that position and adds that Kombai is a language that seems to stand by itself. Voorhoeve (1971: 88-92) presents some data on Sawuy, spoken by around 2,000 persons living on the Ajip, Pujit and Kronkel rivers and concludes that Sawuy as well can be classified as an Awyu-Dumut language based on preliminary cognate counts, personal pronouns and a number of shared patterns and matter in bound verb morphology. Korowai (Van Enk & de Vries 1997) is also mentioned by Voorhoeve (2005: 149) as a possible Awyu-Dumut language, but, in the absence of comparative work on Korowai, he left its classification to future research. The purpose of this article is to present an outline of Proto Awyu-Dumut morphology on the basis of a bottom-up reconstruction of Proto Awyu and Proto Dumut (Section 3). This reconstruction also enables us to discuss the linguistic position of Kombai (Section 3) and Korowai (Section 4). Before we discuss Awyu-Dumut proto morphology and the linguistic position of Kombai and Korowai, we briefly consider the issue of language names, language locations and language groupings in the Awyu-Dumut area (Section 2). 2. AWYU-DUMUT LANGUAGE NAMES, LOCATIONS AND GROUPINGS Awyu-Dumut languages and language names come and go over the decades, and this makes the life of those engaged in comparative work or in linguistic surveys of this area not always easy. To bring some order in this chaos of names and locations, we will distinguish four groupings of languages and discuss the issue of language names and locations for each grouping. The four groups are the Awyu languages, the Dumut languages, the Ndeiram languages and the Becking-Dawi languages (see Map I, Appendix A). It is important to note right from the start that the first two groupings have a different status from the last two groupings. The Awyu and Dumut groups are established as subgroups of the Awyu-Dumut language family on the basis of reconstructive work that encompasses both proto phonology (Healey 1970, Voorhoeve 2001, 2005) and proto morphology (this article). For the Ndeiram group (Tayan, Kombai, Wanggom) and the Becking-Dawi group (Korowai, North Korowai, Tsaukambo, Komyandaret) there is not 270

4 enough data for reconstruction work but there is initial evidence that Kombai and Korowai are not isolated languages but are part of two groups of closely related speech varieties, probably at least partly connected by dialect chaining. The Awyu group (Pisa, Shiagha, Yenimu, Aghu) has recently been surveyed by Kriens and Lebold (2010). They note the problem of dialect chaining (Kriens and Lebold 2010: 5): The Awyu people [ ] speak a number of closely related languages. In addition, there is a great deal of language chaining from one village to the next, which makes it difficult to define the boundaries between these languages. They also observe that language names of earlier surveys and decades appear to have vanished. We use Drabbe (1950) as our source for Pisa, Shiagha and Yenimu, Drabbe (1957) for Aghu and Voorhoeve (1971) for Sawuy. The points on the Awyu chain where Drabbe and Voorhoeve took their data from are noted on Map I (Appendix A). The Dumut group has recently been surveyed by Jang (2003). Basing himself on lexical similarity counts, Jang (2003) distinguishes two major Dumut groupings, Mandobo and Wambon, each with minor groupings, viz. Ketum Wambon, Upper Wambon and Lower Wambon for Wambon and for Mandobo, Kokenop Mandobo, Upper Mandobo, Central Mandobo and Mariam Mandobo. Again, dialect chaining plays a role within Mandobo and Wambon but it is not yet clear whether the Mandobo and Wambon speech varieties form a single unbroken Dumut chain. For reconstructive work we use the Mandobo and Yonggom Wambon descriptions by Drabbe (1959) and the Digul Wambon descriptions by de Vries & Wiersma (1992) and Jang (2008). The points on the Wambon and Mandobo dialect chains where the data were taken are noted on Map I (Appendix A). The Ndeiram group probably consists of Tayan, Kombai and Wanggom. According to de Vries (1993:1), Central Kombai, Tayan and Wanggom are dialects of one language. This was based on statements by speakers of Central Kombai that they could understand both Tayan and Wanggom speakers, although they spoke differently from them. These dialects probably form a dialect chain that extends from the border with Asmat to the Upper Digul River where it meets languages of the Dumut subgroup (see Map I, Appendix A). Intelligibility judgments of informants quoted in a survey by Hughes (2009:9) also indicate that Wanggom speakers and speakers of Central Kombai understand each other. Versteeg (1983: 22) gave a lexical similarity percentage of 61% for Wanggom and Kombai. We have no data whatsoever on Tayan. 271

5 We have very little information on Wanggom morphology but the little evidence there is confirms a close relation between Kombai and Wanggom. Baas (1981) inserted a few remarks on Wanggom verb endings in his unpublished Tsaukambo notebook. He gives endings for what he calls past/present forms, presented in Table 1. The endings of this Wanggom paradigm, labeled past/present in the notes of Baas, correspond in pattern and matter to the Kombai realis paradigm. Since realis forms are used throughout Awyu-Dumut languages in present and past contexts, Baas label present/past would be consistent with a realis reading of those forms. Wanggom Past/Present Kombai Realis 1SG -ndi -nde NON1SG -xi -ge/ø 1PL -ndiwo -ndefo NON1PL -xino -geno Table 1: Wanggom past/present endings and Kombai realis endings Baas also gives a set of future endings for Wanggom, presented in Table 2. Again the match with Kombai future endings is striking. The future marker is i in both languages and is preceded by the same person and number suffixes in both languages. Wanggom Future Kombai Future 1SG -w-i -f-i NON1SG -n-i -n-i 1PL -win-i/-won-i -fon-i NON1PL -non-i -non-i Table 2: Wanggom and Kombai future forms The personal pronouns of Wanggom (Hughes 2009: 33) and Kombai (de Vries 1993: 35) also correspond, but not in the third person forms. Kombai has a rule that deletes word final consonants. Underlying final consonants surface whenever a word is suffixed (de Vries 1993: 10); for the 1SG and 2SG Kombai pronouns there is evidence of an underlying final /f/. The Wanggom wordlist of Hughes (2009) is in IPA. It is striking that all Wanggom words end either in a vowel or a vowel followed by a glottal stop. 272

6 1SG 2SG 3SG 1PL 2PL 3PL Kombai nu(f) ŋ ɡu(f) xe na ŋ ɡu na ŋ ɡe ya Wanggom nuʔ ŋ ɡuʔ ŋ ɡuːmɑˈnɔ nɑ ŋ ɡu nɑ ŋ ɡiʔ nɑ ŋ ɡiː Table 3: Kombai and Wanggom personal pronouns In the absence of further descriptions of Tayan and Wanggom it is impossible to reconstruct Proto Ndeiram and establish Ndeiram as a subgroup of the Awyu-Dumut group. But there is enough initial evidence from intelligibility judgments, lexical similarity counts and correspondences in pronouns and bound verb morphology to conclude that Kombai is not an isolated language but part of a larger group of closely related speech varieties in the Ndeiram river area. The Becking-Dawi group (see Map I, Appendix A) probably consists of Korowai (Van Enk and de Vries 1997), North Korowai (spoken along upper stretches of Becking river, for example in Abiowage, Hughes 2009), Tsaukambo (Baas 1981) and Komyandaret (see de Vries, this volume). Korowai is the only language in this group for which there is a grammar (Van Enk & de Vries 1997). Komyandaret is a dialect of Tsaukambo according to Baas (1981), who noted the mutual intelligibility of the two varieties. The close relation is supported by the 60% lexical similarity between Tsaukambo (as spoken in Waliburu village) and Komyandaret (as spoken in Danikit) noted by Hughes (2009: 7). The close relation between Korowai and Tsaukambo is strongly suggested by the systematic correspondences in (bound) morphology noted by de Vries (this volume). 3. AWYU-DUMUT PROTO MORPHOLOGY This section presents an outline of the proto morphology of Proto Awyu (PA), Proto Dumut (PD) and Proto Awyu-Dumut (PAD). A bottom-up approach is taken, where PA and PD are reconstructed on the basis of Awyu and Dumut languages before PAD morphology is reconstructed using PA, PD and Kombai data. Following Voorhoeve (2000, 2005), Kombai is viewed as a third branch of the Awyu-Dumut language family. We will reconsider the subgrouping of Awyu-Dumut into three branches once the proto morphology is reconstructed and shared innovations can be traced. It would be impossible to produce Awyu-Dumut proto morphology without Awyu-Dumut proto phonology. Healey (1970) and Voorhoeve (2000) have each written a phonology of PA, PD and 273

8 Shiagha and Mandobo, for which it is known that PA *u changes to /o/ (Shiagha) and PD *u changes to /ö/ iii (Mandobo). The Proto Awyu-Dumut, Proto Dumut and Kombai iv 2SG form is * ŋ ɡup, while in Proto Awyu the 2SG pronoun is *gu. In Shiagha and Mandobo, we find the same vowel change as in the 1SG pronouns, namely PA/PD *u to Shiagha /o/ and Mandobo /ö/ respectively. The PAD, PD and Kombai 2SG forms have an initial prenasalized stop / ŋ ɡ/ while PA has /g/, due to PA dropping prenasalization before stops. The 3SG pronoun is reconstructed as *eke in Proto Awyu, while Proto Dumut and Proto Awyu- Dumut had two competing forms, *eke and *yup. The 3SG form *eke reconstructed for all three proto languages is derived from a demonstrative element e or ep that. The /k/ found in *eke is derived from the topic marker ke which often combines with Awyu-Dumut pronouns. This /k/ changes to /x/ in Digul Wambon and Kombai, and to /g/ in Mandobo v. Yonggom Wambon is the only Awyu-Dumut language which retained the original 3SG pronoun yup; the yup form is also found in Korowai and can be related to Trans New Guinea 3SG pronoun *[y]a/*ua reconstructed by Ross (2005). PAD and PD *yup were replaced by *eke, but not entirely. The first person plural pronoun is reconstructed as *nüku in Proto Awyu and *nakup in Proto Dumut and Proto Awyu-Dumut. The underlying middle consonant is a /k/: for Dumut languages regular sound changes are established which state that PD medial *k turns into /x/ in Digul Wambon and into / ŋ ɡ/ in Mandobo and Yonggom Wambon. For Awyu languages, no such regular sound change can be established but it is not uncommon for a voiceless /k/ to become a voiced /g/ intervocalically. In the case of Shiagha, which has goxo as 2PL form, PA *k has become /x/ before an /o/. The first vowel of the Dumut 1PL pronoun is /a/, while in PA it is /ü/ vi. In PD /a/ is reconstructed because PD *a changes to /o/ in Mandobo before /ü/, and often also changes to /o/ in Digul Wambon. Yonggom Wambon retains the original PD sound. In PA, the first vowel is /ü/ because /u/ in Pisa, Shiaxa and Yenimu is always a reflex of PA /ü/; Aghu retains PA /ü/. In Kombai, the vowel is /a/ and as PD also has /a/, the PAD 1PL pronoun is reconstructed as having an /a/. The second vowel in the 1PL pronoun is /u/ in all three proto languages. The Proto Awyu 2PL pronoun is *güku, while for both Proto Dumut and Proto Awyu-Dumut two forms are reconstructed, namely *nakep and * ŋ ɡakup. The form with initial /n/, *nakep, is 275

9 reconstructed to account for the 2PL pronouns found in Kombai and Mandobo, which both start with /n/. The two vowels in this form are /a/ and /e/ because PD *a changes to Mandobo /e/ before /i/ or /e/, and PD *e changes to Mandobo /i/. The initial /n/ is seen as a shared retention, rather than as a shared innovation, between Mandobo and Kombai. At the same time, * ŋ ɡakup is reconstructed in PD to account for the Digul Wambon and Yonggom Wambon 2PL pronouns. A ŋ ɡ-initial proto-form is also reconstructed for PAD because /g/ is found in both PA *güku and PD * ŋ ɡakup. The third person plural pronoun is *yoxo in Proto Awyu and *yakup in Proto Dumut and Proto Awyu-Dumut. These two reconstructed forms are related through regular sound changes, as PAD *a often changes to PA *o, and PAD *k to PA *x before a low vowel /a/ or /o/. Note that although the Kombai 3PL pronoun consists of a single syllable ya, the PAD form is reconstructed as *yakup; Kombai is thought to have dropped the second syllable, which is found in all other Awyu-Dumut languages. The proto pronouns reconstructed above are based on data from Awyu languages, Dumut languages and Kombai. Voorhoeve (1971) also classified Sawuy as an Awyu-Dumut language. This classification is verified by a comparison of Sawuy personal pronouns with PA, PD and PAD pronouns: 1SG 2SG 3SG 1PL 2PL 3PL Sawuy nogo, nogop go, gop e, ep nigi, nigip gi - PD *nup * ŋ gup *eke/*yup *nakup * ŋ gakup/*nakip *yakup PA *nu *gu *eke n u u *yoxo PAD *nup * ŋ gup *eke/*yup *nakup * ŋ gakup/*nakip *yakup Table 5: Sawuy and PAD, PA and PD pronouns 3.2. AWYU-DUMUT VERB STRUCTURE Before any other proto morphology is reconstructed, we need to explain briefly how Awyu- Dumut verbs are structured. There are three types of verbs in Awyu-Dumut languages: nonfinite, semi-finite and finite verbs: 276

10 mood person-number tense non-finite semi-finite Finite Table 6: Awyu-Dumut verb types Non-finite verb forms consist of a bare verb stem, or a verb stem with a suffix that expresses same subject (SS) and/or temporality (sequence or simultaneity). These verb forms do not express mood, person-number or tense. The semi-finite verbs express mood (realis vs. irrealis) and subject person-number. The fully finite forms express tense in addition to mood and personnumber. In Dumut languages, the verb structure is verb stem-mood-person number-tense, whereas in Awyu languages, the verb structure is verb stem-mood-tense-person number. Semifinite forms are by far the most frequent in Dumut and Awyu languages; tense is only expressed sporadically, at the end of a clause chain or sometimes even only once at the end of a narrative. Awyu-Dumut non-finite verbs are only used in clause chaining constructions as SS verbs. The grammatical place assigned to semi-finite and finite verbs varies in significant and interesting ways from one language to another. For example semi-finite realis t forms in Yonggom Wambon are independent verb forms used in clause conjoining, whereas the same realis t forms in Digul Wambon have been medialized into dependent different subject switch reference forms that can only be used in clause chaining constructions (de Vries 2010). We will now look at Awyu-Dumut mood before reconstructing Awyu-Dumut person-number markers and tense morphology AWYU-DUMUT MOOD The opposition between realis and irrealis mood is at the heart of the Awyu-Dumut verb system. Tense is a secondary distinction, dependent on the realis/irrealis opposition. Mood is marked by a separate mood marker which comes directly after the verb stem. Awyu languages and Kombai in addition make a distinction between realis and irrealis stems; irrealis stems are derived from realis stems and are glossed with II, while realis stems are glossed with I. Table 7 illustrates three ways in which Awyu irrealis stems are derived from Awyu realis stems, (1) by prefixing a-, (2) by suffixing me (3) by suffixing fv to the realis verb stem. 277

12 ado-n-ewan hear.ii [IRR ]- tr.nasal -1PL we will/we want to /let us hear ado-n-enan hear.ii[irr]- tr.nasal -NON1PL they will/they want to /let them hear tami-wan build.canoe[irr]-1pl we will/we want to/let us build a canoe tami-n-an build.canoe[irr]-tr.nasal-non1pl they will/they want to/let them build a canoe The semi-finite irrealis forms have either an intentional, optative or adhortative meaning, depending on the context in which they are used. We can reconstruct *(irrealis) verb stem + person-number as the PA, PD and PAD irrealis construction, where PA and PAD had specific irrealis stems. Awyu-Dumut semi-finite realis forms are much less straightforward to analyze and reconstruct than Awyu-Dumut irrealis forms. In all four Awyu languages, the realis forms consist of a realis verb stem, followed by a realis marker and a person-number marker. Realis is marked by d in first person forms and by k (allomorph x) in non-first person forms, as illustrated by the two following paradigms of the verb da to come : Aghu realis paradigm da-d-e come.i- REAL.1-SG I am coming/just came da-k-e come.i - REAL.NON1-SG you/he/she/it is/are coming/just came da-d-owã come.i - REAL.1-1PL we are coming/just came Pisa realis paradigm de-d-i come.i - REAL.1-SG I am coming/just came de-x-i come.i - REAL.NON1-SG you/he/she/it is/are coming/just came de-d-a come.i - REAL.1-1PL we are coming/just came 279

13 da-k-enã come.i - REAL.NON1-NON1PL they are coming/just came de-x-enã come.i - REAL.NON1-NON1PL they are coming/just came In Pisa, /k/ is realized as /x/ intervocalically. The realis form of Proto Awyu can be reconstructed as realis stem+realis marker *-d(1st person)/*-k (non1 person) + person-number. Kombai, like Awyu languages, has realis markers which vary according to which subject personnumber is expressed by the verb. Kombai has a realis marker -d in first person forms and either zero marking or g in non-first person forms. The g only occurs in verbs with stem-final nasals, as in this example paradigm of the realis of the verb ũ- to kill : Kombai realis paradigm ũ-d-e(f) ũ-g-e ũ-d-efo ũ-g-eno kill.i-real.1-1sg kill.i-real.non1-non1sg kill.i-real.1-1pl kill.i-real.non1-non1pl I ill(ed) you/he/she/it ill(ed) we illed they illed Unlike Awyu languages and Kombai, Dumut languages do not use separate realis markers for first person and non-first person verb forms. Rather, in all Dumut languages we find two different realis verb paradigms, one formed with the realis marker t and one formed with the realis marker ken vii. Consider the following examples of -t and ken paradigms from Yonggom Wambon, where /t/ changes to /r/ intervocalically in morpheme sequencing: Yonggom Wambon realis ken paradigm kim-gen-ep rub- REAL-1SG I rub(bed) Yonggom Wambon realis t paradigm kagaende-r-ep search-real-1sg I search(ed) 280

14 kim-gen rub- REAL[NON1SG] you/he/she/it rub(s)/ rubbed kim-gen-ewan rub- REAL-1PL we rub/rubbed kim-gin-in rub- REAL-NON1PL they rub/rubbed kagaende-t search- REAL[NON1SG] you/he/she/it search(es)/searched kagaende -r-ewan search-real-1pl we search(ed) kagaende -r-in search-real-non1pl they search(ed) These two different realis forms compete with one another and in each Dumut language we see they clearly fulfill different functions. In Digul Wambon, the ken forms are always conjoined unless they occur clause-finally, while the t forms specialized into medial verbs that express realis switch reference (de Vries 2010). In Yonggom Wambon, -t forms are by far more frequent than ken forms: of all realis forms, 92% are t forms. In Mandobo, -ken forms are medial different subject forms while t forms were marginalized and only occur in thematic clauses (de Vries 2010). If we compare Mandobo, Yonggom Wambon and Digul Wambon realis markers, we can reconstruct proto Dumut *-t and proto Dumut *-ken as competing realis formations in proto Dumut, with different outcomes of the competition in the three Dumut languages. What was the realis situation in PAD? In PA there are two realis markers: *-d for first person forms and *-k for non-first person forms. The same two mood markers in found in Kombai, although there the non-first person mood marker g (an allomorph of Awyu k) only occurs with verbs whose stem ends in a nasal vowel. In PD, there are two realis markers as well: *-t and *-ken, each appearing throughout a whole paradigm. If we compare the Kombai and PA realis markers *-d with the PD realis marker *-t, we may reconstruct a PAD realis marker *-t that has a reflex *-d in Proto Awyu (where it always occur intervocalically and is accordingly voiced) and a reflex *-t in Proto Dumut. Similarly, the Kombai and PA realis marker * k and the PD realis marker * ken could also be seen as reflexes of a proto Awyu-Dumut form *-ken that was a realis marker with non-first persons but spread to all members of the paradigm in Dumut languages, 281

16 forms *-n can be reconstructed, while for PA *-e is reconstructed, taking into account that PA *e always changes into /i/ in Pisa. The underlying /n/ found in Kombai realis NON1SG forms, as well as en in Shiagha irrealis forms, allows us to reconstruct *-en as the NON1SG person number marker in PAD; Proto Awyu deleted the final /n/ while in Proto Dumut and Kombai irrealis forms the initial /e/ is no longer realized after vowel-final verb stems. The PAD 1PL subject marker is reconstructed with a final /n/, which is still present in PD and underlying in Kombai. We also see traces of this /n/ in Awyu languages, in which several person-number markers end in nasal vowels; the nasal vowels are a residue of a final /n/ that has been dropped due to Awyu s tendency to delete final consonants. The PAD NON1PL form is reconstructed as *-enan; PD NON1PL *-in is thought to be an innovation, while in PD and Kombai irrealis forms again the initial /e/ is elided. For a detailed discussion of Awyu-Dumut person number proto morphology, see Wester (forthcoming) AWYU-DUMUT TENSE Awyu and Dumut languages have past tense(s) and future tense; there is no present tense viii. Kombai only has a future tense. In some Awyu languages, there are up to four past tenses, while any Awyu-Dumut language has at most one future tense. Tensed forms are not frequent; rather, semi-finite forms which only distinguish mood are far more frequent. The two Awyu languages with four past tenses are Shiagha and Yenimu; they distinguish between today s past, yesterday s past, distant past and historical past. The other two Awyu languages, Aghu and Pisa, each have three past tenses. Pisa distinguishes between today s past, yesterday s past and distant past, while Aghu has forms for yesterday s past, distant past and historical past. As can be seen in Table 7 below, there are four distinct past tense markers that occur throughout the Awyu paradigms: -ø (zero marked), -k, -ra and -ma. The suffix -k is a today s past marker in Yenimu, yesterday s past marker in Shiagha and distant past marker in Aghu and Pisa. The suffix -ra is yesterday s past marker in Pisa, but the historical past tense marker in Shiagha and Yenimu. The suffix -ma is only found as a distant past marker in Shiagha and Yenimu. The distribution of the past markers across the languages is represented schematically in Table

Short Summary of What We ve Learned About Kikuyu In these notes, I summarize some of the main features of the Kikuyu language that we ve learned about thus far in class. Along the way I note some questions

Points of Interference in Learning English as a Second Language Tone Spanish: In both English and Spanish there are four tone levels, but Spanish speaker use only the three lower pitch tones, except when

Non-finite forms of the verb Lecture 13 The verb is a grammatical class of words It denotes situations and establishes the relation between the situation reported and the extralinguistic reality. Therefore

[ Glossary a abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortened form of phrase or word. apostrophe An apostrophe has two uses: to show that two words have been shortened to make one (called a contraction ) and

Lecture 4 Deep Structure and Transformations Thus far, we got the impression that the base component (phrase structure rules and lexicon) of the Standard Theory of syntax generates sentences and assigns

Morphemes, roots and affixes 28 October 2011 Previously said We think of words as being the most basic, the most fundamental, units through which meaning is represented in language. Words are the smallest

Grammar Year 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Term digraph grapheme phoneme Year 1 Guidance A type of grapheme where two letters represent one phoneme. Sometimes, these two letters are not next to one another; this

Year 1: Detail of content to be introduced (statutory requirement) Regular plural noun suffixes s or es [for example, dog, dogs; wish, wishes], including the effects of these suffixes on the meaning of

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At the completion of this study there are many people that I need to thank. Foremost of these are John McCarthy. He has been a wonderful mentor and advisor. I also owe much to the other

Reception In Reception, children use their phonic knowledge to write words in ways which match their spoken sounds. They also write some irregular common words. They write simple sentences which can be

One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them One Ring to bring them all, and in the darkness bind them In the Land of Mordor where shadows lie OR, THE RING POEM IN OLD CHURCH SLAVIC by Jussi Halla-aho

English Appendix 2: Vocabulary, grammar and punctuation The grammar of our first language is learnt naturally and implicitly through interactions with other speakers and from reading. Explicit knowledge

2 What is a sentence? Morphology & Syntax Sentences Sentence as a informational-discursive unit A complete thought, generally including a topic and a comment about the topic Boys are naughtier. Boys will

EXTRACT 1 Basic concepts It has become a tradition to begin monographs and textbooks on morphology with a tribute to the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who invented the term Morphologie in 1790

GUSTAV LEUNBACH MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AS A STEP IN AUTOMATED SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A TEXT Introduction. The general purpose of this study is to investigate the possibility of an almost completely automated

Verbs and verb phrases Lecture 10 The verb is a grammatical class of words. It denotes actions, processes, states or events and is the central feature of the English clause. Therefore the verb is central

ESOL 94S- Ford Section 3.1 & 3.2: Input Analysis 3.1: Variation in Language The English language, a phrase heard very frequently, gives the impression that English is one uniform system of communication

Historical Linguistics Diachronic Analysis What is Historical Linguistics? Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time and of their relationships with other languages. All languages

Inflection 4 November 2011 Word formation processes By word-formation processes we mean the different devices which are used in English to build new words from existing ones. Each word-formation process

University Press Scholarship Online You are looking at 1-9 of 9 items for: keywords : degrammaticalization The Rise of the To-Infinitive Bettelou Los Published in print: 2005 Published Online: September

EGPS (ENGLISH, GRAMMAR, PUNCTUATION AND SPELLING) Town Farm Primary School AIMS OF THE SESSION To talk about the new EGPS curriculum and expectations and provide information on the topic. To look at the

Strand: Reading Literature Key Ideas and Craft and Structure Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity RL.1.1. Ask and answer questions about key details in a text.

Turkish Category Comments: How differs and/or Phonology (the sounds that exist in the language) The phonological differences tend to only affect the way the Turkish student speaks. The phonology does not

Syntax: Phrases Sentences can be divided into phrases. A phrase is a group of words forming a unit and united around a head, the most important part of the phrase. The head can be a noun NP, a verb VP,

Advanced CB 21 A One level Assess descriptions and narrations of factual and technical materials. Discriminate for accurate information while taking notes of a complex discourse. Assess the essential message

FUNCTIONAL SKILLS ENGLISH - WRITING LEVEL 2 MARK SCHEME Instructions to marker There are 30 marks available for each of the three tasks, which should be marked separately, resulting in a total of 90 marks.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR UNCLOAKED 1.Why do we add an s or es to some verbs but not others? English Grammar Uncloaked Three Concepts Paramount to Understanding Grammar 1) elision; 2) underlying form; & 3) surface

Categories Categories According to the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, in the Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge, animals are divided into 1 2 Categories those that belong to the Emperor embalmed

Contemporary Linguistics An Introduction Editedby WILLIAM O'GRADY MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY FRANCIS KATAMBA LONGMAN London and New York Table of contents Dedication Epigraph Series list Acknowledgements Preface

Morphology Morphology is the study of word formation, of the structure of words. Some observations about words and their structure: 1. some words can be divided into parts which still have meaning 2. many

Phillip Backley 1 Introduction To become competent users of a second language, learners must focus on various different aspects of the language they are attempting to learn. At high school, second language

CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1. Sentence Language is a group of sentences and a sentence consists of words. Swan (1995:396) states, Sentence is a group of words that expresses a statement, command,

Writing Common Core KEY WORDS An educator's guide to words frequently used in the Common Core State Standards, organized by grade level in order to show the progression of writing Common Core vocabulary

Glossary of literacy terms These terms are used in literacy. You can use them as part of your preparation for the literacy professional skills test. You will not be assessed on definitions of terms during

The McRuffy Kindergarten Reading/Phonics year- long program is divided into 4 units and 180 pages of reading/phonics instruction. Pages and learning goals covered are noted below: SEPTEMBER Unit 1 1 Short

REFERENCE GUIDE # 1 (MAKE A COPY OF THIS TO KEEP IN YOUR ENGLISH 101 FOLDER) BASIC GENERAL INFORMATION FOR REFERENCE IN MRS. WHITE S ENGLISH GRAMMAR 101 CLASS (3 PAGES) Laying the Foundation: Important

Glossary of Literacy words. Below is a useful list of words to try to gain an appreciation of the Literacy Test. PLEASE NOTE, YOU ARE NOT TESTED ON THE DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS. The glossary is taken directly

Grammar in the new Curriculum At the end of Year 2 and year 6, children will take SATs in: Reading English grammar, punctuation and spelling Maths This is not the only reason to focus on grammar! Intended

1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE - SCHEMES OF WORK For Children Aged 8 to 12 English Language Lessons Structure Time Approx. 90 minutes 1. Remind class of last topic area explored and relate to current topic. 2. Discuss

English Grammar A Short Guide Graham Tulloch This book was prepared in the English Discipline of the Flinders University of South Australia and printed by Flinders Press. 1990 Graham Tulloch FURTHER READING

Three Models of English Morphology Barli Bram Sanata Dharma University barli@usd.ac.id Abstract This paper explores models of English morphology, namely Item and Arrangement (IA), Item and Process (IP),

Applied Phonetics and Phonology Weekday section Mid-Term Exam Study Guide Thomas E. Payne, Hanyang Oregon 2007 The following are questions that may appear on the mid-term exam for Linguistics 511G. Approximately

BURSTED WOOD PRIMARY SCHOOL Year 6 English Medium Term Plans Reading Word Objectives apply their growing knowledge of root words prefixes and suffixes (morphology and etymology), as listed under the spelling

In: Studia Anglica Posnaniensia (15), 1983, 47-53. Remarks on pronominal usage in Hiberno-English Raymond Hickey University of Bonn The following is a brief attempt at describing the systems of pronominals

Using Language Stage Research** and CCEE ELA Language Domain, Standard, to Develop Conventions of Standard English Language Stage CCSS* Supporting Speaking and Writing for Students with Complex Communication

SPAG Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar Glossary for Parents Exclamation mark: an exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence to indicate strong emotion, e.g. Get out! Finite verb: the finite verb

Spring 2012, April 5 Missing morphology Variability in acquisition Morphology and functional structure Morphosyntax in acquisition In L1A, we observe that kids don t always provide all the morphology that

NEW NATIONAL CURRICULUM SUBJECT AREA: Writing End of year expectations: Year 1 Write sentences by: saying out loud what they are going to write about composing a sentence orally before writing it sequencing

The Prosodic Structure in French: Properties and Constraints. In this lesson we will attempt to formalize the properties of the prosodic structure and define its relationship with the syntactic structure

Year 1 and Grammar Expectations I can make a noun plural by adding a suffix e.g. dog dogs, wish wishes. I can add a suffix to a verb where I don t need to change the root word e.g. helping, helped, helper.

English for academic year Class 1 Years R and 1 Reading Word Reading Reception Children (Foundation Stage) read and understand simple sentences use phonic knowledge to decode regular words and read them

The mission of the IELP is to offer innovative programs to international students. These programs are designed to increase English proficiency, to assist with acculturation of life in the United States,

Embedded clauses 1. Classifying embedded clauses We can distinguish embedded clauses on the basis of several criteria: a) their function as arguments (obligatorily required by the verb) or not: embedded

Language and Literacy In the sections below is a summary of the alignment of the preschool learning foundations with (a) the infant/toddler learning and development foundations, (b) the common core state

Guidelines for Preparing an Undergraduate Thesis Proposal Department of Agricultural Education and Communication University of Florida What is a thesis? In our applied discipline of agricultural education

Linguistics 051 Proto-Indo-European Language and Society Introduction to Morphology Introduction to Morphology Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words and the rules for forming words

Quick Introduction to APA Style For Use in Speech-Language Pathology NOTE: All text is taken from: American Psychological Association (1997). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.