From 1954[16] until 1990, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak People's Army (ČSLA),[17] although the ČSLA, as formed in 1945, included both Soviet- and British-equipped/trained expatriate troops, the "Western" soldiers had been purged from the ČSLA after 1948 when the communists took power. The ČSLA offered no resistance to the invasion mounted by the Soviets in 1968 in reaction to the "Prague Spring", and was extensively reorganized by the Soviets following the re-imposition of communist rule in Prague.

"Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on active duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent, served in the ground forces (commonly referred to as the army. About 100,000 of these were conscripts."[18] There were two military districts, Western and Eastern. A 1989 listing of forces shows two Czechoslovak armies in the west, the 1st at Příbram with one tank division and three motor rifle divisions, the 4th at Písek with two tank divisions and two motor rifle divisions; in the Eastern Military District, there were two tank divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country.[19]

The Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 1 January 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993, they were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999,[20] and to 35,000 in 2005. At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture; in 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Army maintains an active reserve.

The 153rd Engineer Battalion based in Olomouc was created on 15 October 2008 and is subordinated to the 15th Engineer Regiment, the unit is stationed in the outskirts of the city of Olomouc, in place of the canceled 156th Rescue Battalion.[23]

Active Reserve (in CzechAktivní záloha) is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic. This service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military.

A volunteer needs either to have completed the compulsory military service (which ended in 2004) or to attend 8 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to serve two weeks during a non-military crisis, they are not intended to serve abroad. The Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show.

1.
Czech Air Force
–
The Czech Air Force, is the air force branch of the Army of the Czech Republic. Along with the Land Forces, the Air Force is the major Czech military force, with traditions of the military aviation dating back to 1918, the Czech Air Force succeeded the Czechoslovak Air Force together with the Slovak Air Force in 1993. On 1 July 1997, the 3rd Tactical Aviation Corps and the 4th Air Defence Corps of the Czech Army were merged to form an independent Air Force Headquarters. In peacetime the Air Force is contributing to tasks originating in the Czech laws and interministerial agreements, Czech JAS-39C/D Gripen multirole fighters fulfill primarily the tasks related to the air defence of the Czech Republic and the NATO within the system of NATINADS. In the so-called national reinforcement system the subsonic L-159 ALCA jets could be deployed to fulfil this task too, the radar surveillance of the airspace of the Czech Republic is a responsibility of the 26th Air Command, Control and Surveillance Regiment at Stará Boleslav. Altogether seven radio-technical companies are spread around the country so that they can cover its whole territory. The separation saw a reduction in types, numbers and bases. In 1994, 3rd Corps of Tactical Aviation was created, the newest fighter in the Czechoslovak Air Force arsenal was the MiG-29. Therefore,10 air superiority fighters were exchanged for 11 light helicopters, the burden of readiness squadron passed to the MiG-23s. The new-era Air Force of the Czech Army was effectively formed on 1 July 1997 when the 3rd Corps of Tactical Aviation, the members of both units have taken part in Alliance actions since the Czech Republic entered NATO on 12 March 1999. The Air Force began to revise and update its doctrines and aircraft, because of the devastating floods that hit the country during 2002, the deal was deferred. A new international tender was issued for an interim solution, Gripen again won this tender among six different bidders as the Czech Republic accepted a government-to-government 10-year lease from Sweden that did not involve BAE Systems. Media allegations of BAE Systems kickbacks to decision makers during the sales effort have led nowhere in judicial inquiries. In December 2008, the Czech Air Force wanted to train pilots for desert conditions for the upcoming mission in Afghanistan. Israel was the country that was ready to help out, as it saw this as an opportunity to thank the Czech Republic for training Israeli pilots. The independence of the Czech Air Force was terminated on 1 December 2003 when the became a part of newly established Joint Forces of the Czech Army with the command post located at Olomouc. Within the new structure the Air Force Commander-in-Chief was named as a Joint Forces Chief Commander Deputy, the Air Force operated within this structure until 30 June 2013. Former Joint Forces Command and Support Forces Command HQs were disbanded by 30 June 2013, with the Gripen contract due to expire in 2015, speculation mounted about whether that leasing agreement will be renewed or another type of fighter plane chosen

2.
Czech Republic
–
The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs

3.
President of the Czech Republic
–
The President of the Czech Republic is the elected head of state of the Czech Republic and the commander-in-chief of the Military of the Czech Republic. Unlike counterparts in other Central European countries such as Austria and Hungary, who are generally considered figureheads, however, the stature of the first president, Václav Havel, was such that the office acquired greater influence than the framers intended. The President of the Czech Republic has the authority to act independently in a number of substantive areas, one of the offices strongest powers is that of veto, which returns a bill to parliament. Although the veto may be overridden by parliament, the ability to refuse to sign legislation acts as a check on the power of the legislature, the only kind of bills a president can neither veto nor approve are acts that would change the constitution. There are some reserved to the president, but can be exercised only under limited circumstances. Chief among these is the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, while the president can dissolve the Chamber on his own authority, forcing a new election of that body within 60 days, this can be done only under conditions prescribed by the constitution. Many of the powers can only be exercised with the assent of the Government. These include all matters having to do with foreign relations and the use of the military, the appointment of judges to lower courts,54 and 65 of the constitution, the president may not be held liable for any alleged criminal acts while executing the duties of office. Such prosecution may not occur either while the president is in office or at any time thereafter, furthermore, Art 65 prevents trial or detention for prosecution of a criminal offense or tort while in office. Many of the duties of the Czech president can be said to be ceremonial to one degree or another, a good example of this is the status as commander in chief of the military. No part of these duties can take place but through the assent of the Prime Minister, in matters of war, he is in every sense merely a figurehead, since the constitution gives all substantive constitutional authority over the use of the armed forces to the parliament. Many of the ceremonial duties fall under provisions of the constitution that allow the exercise of powers not explicitly defined in the constitution. In other words, parliament has the power to allow the president whatever responsibilities they deem proper, such a law was passed in 1994 with respect to the awarding of state decorations. Hence, this duty is effectively shared between the parliament and the president. The act even allows the president to choose someone to perform the presentation ceremony. Until 2012, the office of president was filled following an election by the Parliament of the Czech Republic. The term of office of the president is 5 years, a newly elected president will begin the five-year term on the day of taking the official oath. Candidates standing for office must be 40 years of age, since the only term limit is that no person can be elected more than twice consecutively, a person may theoretically achieve the presidency more than twice

President of the Czech Republic
–
Incumbent Miloš Zeman since 8 March 2013
President of the Czech Republic
–
Presidential Standard
President of the Czech Republic
–
Entrace to the residence of the President of the Czech Republic, Prague Castle.

4.
Czech koruna
–
The koruna is the currency of the Czech Republic since 1993, and in English it is sometimes referred to as Czech crown. The koruna is one of European Unions 11 currencies, and the Czech Republic is legally bound to adopt the currency in the future. The official name in Czech is koruna česká, the ISO4217 code is CZK and the local acronym is Kč, which is placed after the numeric value. One koruna equals 100 haléřů, but haléře have been withdrawn, in 1892, the Austro-Hungarian krone replaced the Gulden, at the rate 1 Gulden =2 crowns. The name Krone was invented by the emperor, Franz Joseph I of Austria, after Austria-Hungary dissolved in 1918, the only successor state that kept the name of the currency, the crown, was Czechoslovakia. In the late 1920s, the Czechoslovak crown was the hardest currency in Europe, during the Second World War, the currency on the occupied Czech territory was artificially weakened. The Czechoslovak crown was restored after the war and it underwent a highly controversial monetary reform in 1953. The Czech koruna replaced the Czechoslovak koruna when it was introduced in 1993 after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and it first consisted of overstamped 20,50,100,500, and 1000 Czechoslovak koruna banknotes, but a new series was properly introduced in 1993. In November 2013, the Czech National Bank has intervened to weaken the exchange rate of the koruna through a monetary stimulus in order to stop the currency from excessive strengthening, in late 2016, the CNB stated that the return to conventional monetary policy was planned for mid-2017. After high-than-expected inflation and other figures, the bank removed the floor on a special monetary meeting on April 6th,2017. Avoiding significant volatility, the koruna gradually strengthened 1. 55% on that day, the Czech Republic planned to adopt the euro in 2010, but its government suspended that plan indefinitely in 2005. Although the country is well positioned to adopt the euro. According to a survey conducted in April 2014, only 16% of the Czech population was in favour of replacing the koruna with euro. In 1993, coins were introduced in denominations of 10,20 and 50 haléřů,1,2,5,10,20 and 50 korun, in 2000, the 10 and 20 korun coins were minted with different obverses to commemorate the Millennium. In 1993 &1994 coins were minted in Winnipeg and Hamburg, all circulation coins were designed by Ladislav Kozak. Since 1997, sets for collectors are also issued yearly with proof quality coins, theres also a tradition of issuing commemorative coins – including silver and gold coins – for numismatic purposes. For a complete listing see, Commemorative coins of the Czech Republic, the first Czech banknotes issued on 8 February 1993 consisted of Czechoslovak notes with adhesive stamps affixed to them. Only the 100,500 and 1000 korun denominations were overstamped, each stamp bears a Roman and Arabic number identifying the denomination of the banknote to which it is affixed

Czech koruna
–
koruna banknotes as of 2014

5.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province

6.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe

Sweden
–
A Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A romantic nationalist interpretation of Valdemar IV taking control over Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century

7.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

8.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth

9.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church

10.
Warsaw Pact
–
The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too

11.
Armed forces
–
The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly

12.
Czechoslovak Army
–
Czechoslovak Army was the name of the armed forces of Czechoslovakia. It was established in 1918 following Czechoslovakias independence from Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovak Army took part in the brief Polish-Czechoslovak War in which Czechoslovakia annexed the Zaolzie region from Poland. In the interbellum the force was fairly modern by standards, with the core of the force formed by LT vz.38 and LT vz.35 tanks. Mobilised during the Munich Conference, the force did not take part in any organised defence of the country against invading Germans due to isolation of Czechoslovakia. The army was disbanded following the German takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1939, after the war Czechoslovak units fighting alongside the Allies returned to Czechoslovakia and formed the core of the new, recreated Czechoslovak Army. However, with the Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia, it was being increasingly Sovietised and in 1954 was formally renamed to Czechoslovak Peoples Army

Czechoslovak Army

13.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

14.
Czechoslovak Legion
–
The Czechoslovak Legion or Czech legion were volunteer armed forces composed predominantly of Czechs with a small number of Slovaks fighting together with the Entente powers during World War I. The name Czechoslovak originated after the war, with the help of émigré intellectuals and politicians such as Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Milan Rastislav Štefánik, they grew into a force of tens of thousands. Originally an all-volunteer force, these formations were later strengthened by Czech, the majority of the legionaries were Czechs, with Slovaks making up 7. 4% of the force in Russia, 3% in Italy and 16% in France. As World War I broke out, national societies representing ethnic Czechs, to prove their loyalty to the Entente cause, these groups advocated the establishment of a unit of Czech and Slovak volunteers to fight alongside the Russian Army. On 5 August 1914, the Russian Stavka authorized the formation of a battalion recruited from Czechs and this unit, called the Czech Companions, went to the front in October 1914, where it was attached to the Russian Third Army. From its start, Czech and Slovak political émigrés in Russia, to achieve this goal, however, they recognized that they would need to recruit from Czech and Slovak prisoners of war in Russian camps. Despite continuous efforts of leaders to persuade the Russian authorities to change their mind. Still, some Czechs and Slovaks were able to sidestep this ban by enlisting POWs through local agreements with Russian military authorities, under these conditions, the Czechoslovak unit in Russia grew very slowly from 1914–1917. In early 1916, the Družina was reorganized as the 1st Czecho-Slovak Rifle Regiment, during that year, two more infantry regiments were added, creating the Czechoslovak Rifle Brigade. This unit distinguished itself during the Kerensky Offensive in July 1917, later that summer, a fourth regiment was added to the brigade, which was renamed the First Division of the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia, also known as the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia. A second division, consisting of four regiments, was added to the Legion in October 1917, in November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power throughout Russia and soon began peace negotiations with the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk. In February 1918, Bolshevik authorities in Ukraine granted Masaryk and his troops permission to begin the 6,000 miles journey to Vladivostok. However, on 18 February, before the Czechoslovaks had left Ukraine, from 5 to 13 March, the Czechoslovak legionaries successfully fought off German attempts to prevent their evacuation in the Battle of Bakhmach. On 25 March, the two signed the Penza Agreement, in which the legionaries were to surrender most of their weapons in exchange for unmolested passage to Vladivostok. Tensions continued to mount, however, as each side distrusted the other, the Bolsheviks, despite Masaryks order for the legionaries to remain neutral in Russias affairs, suspected that the Czechoslovaks might join their counterrevolutionary enemies in the borderlands. Meanwhile, the legionaries were wary of Czechoslovak Communists who were trying to subvert the corps and they also suspected that the Bolsheviks were being pressured by the Central Powers to stall their movement towards Vladivostok. By May 1918, the Czechoslovak Legion was strung out along the Trans-Siberian Railway from Penza to Vladivostok and their evacuation was proving much slower than expected due to dilapidated railway conditions, a shortage of locomotives and the recurring need to negotiate with local soviets along the route. This incident sparked the Revolt of the Legions, fighting between the Czechoslovak Legion and the Bolsheviks erupted at several points along the Trans-Siberian Railway in the last days of May 1918

Czechoslovak Legion
–
Monument "Prague to Its Victorious Sons" to the Czechoslovak Legions at Palacký Square
Czechoslovak Legion
–
Memorial to the Czechoslovaks in the battle of Zborov at Blansko, Czech Republic.
Czechoslovak Legion
–
Memorial for the dead of the Czechoslovak Legion in the battle of Zborov (1917) at the Kalinivka cemetery, Ukraine.
Czechoslovak Legion
–
A memorial plaque to the Battle of Bakhmach

15.
German occupation of Czechoslovakia
–
German leader Adolf Hitlers pretext for this action was the alleged privations suffered by the ethnic German population living in those regions. New and extensive Czechoslovak border fortifications were located in the same area. Following the Anschluss of Austria to Nazi Germany, in March 1938, the incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany that begun on 1 October 1938 left the rest of Czechoslovakia weak, and it became powerless to resist subsequent occupation. On 15 March 1939, the German Wehrmacht moved into the remainder of Czechoslovakia and, from Prague Castle, the occupation ended with the surrender of Germany following World War II. Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein offered the Sudeten German Party as the agent for Hitlers campaign, Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, where he was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government led by president Edvard Beneš. On 24 April, the SdP issued the Karlsbader Programm, demanding autonomy for the Sudetenland, if Henleins demands were granted, the Sudetenland would then be able to align itself with Nazi Germany. I am asking neither that Germany be allowed to oppress three and a half million Frenchmen, nor am I asking that three and a half million Englishmen be placed at our mercy. Rather I am simply demanding that the oppression of three and a half million Germans in Czechoslovakia cease and that the right to self-determination take its place. As the tepid reaction to the German Anschluss with Austria had shown, the governments of France, the French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from the British government and its prime minister, Neville Chamberlain. Chamberlain contended that Sudeten German grievances were justified and believed that Hitlers intentions were limited, Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to concede to the German demands. Beneš resisted, and on 20 May 1938 a partial mobilization was under way in response to possible German invasion, ten days later, Hitler signed a secret directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October. In the meantime, the British government demanded that Beneš request a mediator, not wishing to sever his governments ties with Western Europe, Beneš reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman and instructed him to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans, on 2 September, Beneš submitted the Fourth Plan, granting nearly all the demands of the Karlsbader Programm. Intent on obstructing conciliation, however, the SdP held demonstrations that provoked police action in Ostrava on 7 September, the Sudeten Germans broke off negotiations on 13 September, after which violence and disruption ensued. As Czechoslovak troops attempted to order, Henlein flew to Germany. On the same day, Hitler met with Chamberlain and demanded the swift takeover of the Sudetenland by the Third Reich under threat of war, the Czechs, Hitler claimed, were slaughtering the Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain referred the demand to the British and French governments, both accepted, the Czechoslovak government resisted, arguing that Hitlers proposal would ruin the nations economy and lead ultimately to German control of all of Czechoslovakia. The United Kingdom and France issued an ultimatum, making a French commitment to Czechoslovakia contingent upon acceptance, the next day, however, Hitler added new demands, insisting that the claims of Poland and Hungary also be satisfied

German occupation of Czechoslovakia
–
From left to right: Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and Ciano pictured before signing the Munich Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to Germany
German occupation of Czechoslovakia
–
Edvard Beneš, the second President of Czechoslovakia and leader of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile.
German occupation of Czechoslovakia
–
Hácha, Hitler and Göring meeting in Berlin, 14/15 March 1939
German occupation of Czechoslovakia
–
First German poster in Prague, 15 March 1939. English Translation: "Notice to the Population. By order of the Fuhrer and Supreme Commander of the German Wehrmacht. I have taken over, as of today, the executive power in the Land of Bohemia. Headquarters, Prague, 15 March 1939. Commander, 3rd Army, Blaskowitz, General of Infantry." The Czech translation includes numerous grammatical errors.

16.
Nazi Germany
–
Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943

17.
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
–
Hácha was appointed president of the protectorate the same day. The Protectorate was an autonomous Nazi-administered territory which the German government considered part of the Greater German Reich, the states existence came to an end with the surrender of Germany to the Allies in 1945. To appease outraged international opinion, Hitler appointed former foreign minister Konstantin von Neurath to the post, German officials manned departments analogous to cabinet ministries, while small German control offices were established locally. The new authorities dismissed Jews from the service and placed them outside of the legal system. Political parties and trade unions were banned, and the press, many local Communist Party leaders fled to the Soviet Union. The population of the protectorate was mobilized for labor that would aid the German war effort, the Germans drafted Czechs to work in coal mines, in the iron and steel industry, and in armaments production. Consumer-goods production, much diminished, was directed toward supplying the German armed forces. The protectorates population was subjected to rationing, German rule was moderate—at least by Nazi standards—during the first months of the occupation. The Czech government and political system, reorganized by Hácha, continued in formal existence, the Gestapo directed its activities mainly against Czech politicians and the intelligentsia. Generalplan Ost assumed that around 50% of Czechs would be fit for Germanization, the Czech intellectual élites were to be removed not only from Czech territories but from Europe completely. The authors of Generalplan Ost believed it would be best if they emigrated overseas, as even in Siberia they were considered a threat to German rule, just like Jews, Poles, Serbs, and several other nations, Czechs were considered to be untermenschen by the Nazi state. The Czechs demonstrated against the occupation on 28 October 1939, the 21st anniversary of Czechoslovak independence, the death on 15 November 1939 of a medical student, Jan Opletal, who had been wounded in the October violence, precipitated widespread student demonstrations, and the Reich retaliated. Politicians were arrested en masse, as were an estimated 1,800 students, during World War II, Hitler decided that Neurath wasnt treating the Czechs harshly enough and adopted a more radical policy in the protectorate. On 29 September 1941, Hitler appointed SS hardliner Reinhard Heydrich as Deputy Reichsprotektor, at the same time Neurath was relieved of his day-to-day duties, so for all intents and purposes Heydrich replaced Neurath as Reichsprotektor. Under Heydrichs authority Prime Minister Alois Eliáš was arrested, the Czech government was reorganized, the Gestapo arrested and killed people. The deportation of Jews to concentration camps was organized, and the town of Terezín was made into a ghetto way-station for Jewish families. On 4 June 1942, Heydrich died after being wounded by an assassin in Operation Anthropoid, directives issued by Heydrichs successor, SS-Oberstgruppenführer Kurt Daluege, ordered mass arrests, executions and the obliteration of the villages of Lidice and Ležáky. In 1943 the German war-effort was accelerated, under the authority of Karl Hermann Frank, German minister of state for Bohemia and Moravia, Within the protectorate, all non-war-related industry was prohibited

Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
–
Adolf Hitler on his visit to Prague Castle after the establishment of a German protectorate.
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
–
Flag
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
–
Jaroslav Krejčí giving a speech in Tábor.
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
–
German occupation of Prague, March 15, 1939

18.
Polish Army
–
The Land Forces are a military branch of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland. They currently contain some 65,000 active personnel and form many components of European Union, Polands recorded military history stretches back for hundreds of years – since the 10th century, but Polands modern army was formed after 1918. When Poland regained independence in 1918, it recreated its military which participated in the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1921, the Polish land forces as readied for the Polish-Soviet War was made up of soldiers who had formerly served in the various partitioning empires, supported by some international volunteers. There appear to have been a total of around 30 Polish divisions involved, boris Savinkov was at the head of an army of 20,000 to 30,000 largely Russian POWs, and was accompanied by Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Zinaida Gippius. The Polish forces grew from approximately 100,000 in 1918 to over 500,000 in early 1920, in August 1920, the Polish army had reached a total strength of 737,767 people, half of that was on the frontline. Given Soviet losses, there was rough numerical parity between the two armies, and by the time of the battle of Warsaw Poles might have even had an advantage in numbers. Among the major formations involved on the Polish side were a number of Fronts, including the Lithuanian-Belarusian Front, the German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939, and the Wehrmacht seized half the country quickly despite heavy Polish resistance. Among the erroneous myths generated by this campaign were accounts of Polish cavalry charging German tanks, in the east, the Red Army took the other half of the country in accordance with the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Following the countrys fall, Polish soldiers began regrouping in what was to become the Polish Army in France. Both the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Polish Armed Forces in the East, as well as interior forces, while the forces fighting under the Allied banner were supported by the Polish air force and navy, the partisan forces were an exclusive land formation. However the army today has its roots in the surrogate force formed in support of Soviet interests during the establishment of the Peoples Republic of Poland after the Second World War. Two Polish armies, the First Army and the Second Army fought with the Red Army on the Eastern Front, the formation of a Third Army was begun but not completed. The end of the war found the Polish Army in the midst of intense organisational development, although the implementation of the Polish Front concept was abandoned, new tactical unit and troop types were created. As a result of mobilisation, troop numbers in May 1945 reached 370,000 soldiers, Military districts were organised in liberated areas. The districts exercised direct authority over the units stationed on the territory administered by them, the southern border, from Jelenia Gora to the Użok railway station was occupied by the First Army. Its headquarters staff formed the basis of the Silesian Military District, in mid-1945, after the end of World War II, the Polish Army, as part of the overall armed forces, the Peoples Army of Poland, was divided into six districts. In June 1945 the 1st, 3rd and 8th Infantry Divisions were assigned internal security duties, the rule was that military units were used primarily against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, while the Internal Security Corps was used to fight the armed underground independence. Often however army units fought the underground resistance, and vice versa, the culmination of the UPA suppression operation was the so-called Wisła Action which took place in 1947

19.
British Army
–
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany

20.
Red Army
–
The Workers and Peasants Red Army was the army and the air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and after 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The army was established immediately after the 1917 October Revolution, the Bolsheviks raised an army to oppose the military confederations of their adversaries during the Russian Civil War. The Red Army is credited as being the land force in the Allied victory in the European theatre of World War II. During operations on the Eastern Front, it fought 75%–80% of the German land forces deployed in the war, inflicting the vast majority of all German losses and ultimately capturing the German capital. In September 1917, Vladimir Lenin wrote, There is only one way to prevent the restoration of the police, at the time, the Imperial Russian Army had started to collapse. The Tsarist general Nikolay Dukhonin estimated that there had been 2 million deserters,1.8 million dead,5 million wounded and 2 million prisoners and he estimated the remaining troops as numbering 10 million. Therefore, the Council of Peoples Commissars decided to form the Red Army on 28 January 1918 and they envisioned a body formed from the class-conscious and best elements of the working classes. All citizens of the Russian republic aged 18 or older were eligible, in the event of an entire unit wanting to join the Red Army, a collective guarantee and the affirmative vote of all its members would be necessary. Because the Red Army was composed mainly of peasants, the families of those who served were guaranteed rations, some peasants who remained at home yearned to join the Army, men, along with some women, flooded the recruitment centres. If they were turned away they would collect scrap metal and prepare care-packages, in some cases the money they earned would go towards tanks for the Army. Nikolai Krylenko was the supreme commander-in-chief, with Aleksandr Myasnikyan as deputy, Nikolai Podvoisky became the commissar for war, Pavel Dybenko, commissar for the fleet. Proshyan, Samoisky, Steinberg were also specified as peoples commissars as well as Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich from the Bureau of Commissars, at a joint meeting of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, held on 22 February 1918, Krylenko remarked, We have no army. The Red Guard units are brushed aside like flies and we have no power to stay the enemy, only an immediate signing of the peace treaty will save us from destruction. This provoked the insurrection of General Alexey Maximovich Kaledins Volunteer Army in the River Don region, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk aggravated Russian internal politics. The situation encouraged direct Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, a series of engagements resulted, involving, amongst others, the Czechoslovak Legion, the Polish 5th Rifle Division, and the pro-Bolshevik Red Latvian Riflemen. The Whites defeated the Red Army on each front, Leon Trotsky reformed and counterattacked, the Red Army repelled Admiral Kolchaks army in June, and the armies of General Denikin and General Yudenich in October. By mid-November the White armies were all almost completely exhausted, in January 1920, Budennys First Cavalry Army entered Rostov-on-Don. 1919 to 1923 At the wars start, the Red Army consisted of 299 infantry regiments, Civil war intensified after Lenin dissolved the Russian Constituent Assembly and the Soviet government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, removing Russia from the Great War

21.
I Corps (Czechoslovakia)
–
The 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps was a military formation of the Czechoslovak Army in exile fighting on the Eastern Front alongside the Soviet Red Army in World War II. The corps was the largest of the Czechoslovak units that fought on the Soviet side on the Eastern Front, the First Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion, which was formed in Buzuluk in the Urals, was the first Allied unit fighting alongside the Red Army in Soviet territory. It was formed from members of the Czechoslovak Legion, Czechoslovak citizens living in the Soviet Union, Slovak prisoners-of-war and defectors. Lieutenant-colonel Ludvík Svoboda was appointed to become the commander of the unit on 15 July 1942, after sending a personal letter to Joseph Stalin, they eventually succeed and the battalion was sent into action. Notably, it took part in the battle of Sokolovo. At the time, it was one of the most well armed infantry battalions on the East Front – fully equipped with automatic guns, however, the battalion lacked heavier anti-tank weapons and artillery, which was to be provided by supporting Soviet units. Because of this, during the battle, when facing parts of the German armored division, in May 1943, the remnants of the 1st Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion and the 1st Czechoslovak Reserve Regiment were reorganized into 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade. The reinforcements were largely Rusyn and Ukrainian prisoners released from the gulags, the brigade played a key role in the 1943 battle of Kiev, and its troops were some of the first to reach the center of the Ukrainian capital city. The brigade suffered only low losses,33 dead and missing,82 wounded, at the time the brigade had a strength of 3,348 personnel. After the liberation of parts of Ukraine in 1943/44, thousands of Volhynian Czechs volunteered to enter the Czechoslovak army. At the same time, thousands of Slovak prisoners of war and this enabled to build the army corps. The corps was created on April 10,1944 at Chernivtsi, the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps consisted of three infantry brigades and of tank, artillery, engineer and other support units. Some of these units were reorganized into higher independent units, such as Tank Brigade. While most of the Czechoslovak units served as part of the Corps, some may have been detached for operations with Red Army formations and units as required. In late autumn 1944, when parts of Czechoslovakia were already liberated, a new brigade was formed. By the time that the Soviet offensive entered Czechoslovakia, it had grown to corps size. In the autumn of 1944,13,000 members of the participated in the Battle of Dukla Pass. Czechoslovakian troops were involved in the Prague Offensive, the last major World War II battle in Europe

22.
Croatian Army
–
The Croatian Army is a branch of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. The fundamental role and purpose of the Croatian Army is to protect national interests of the Republic of Croatia and defend the sovereignty. The Croatian Army was formed in the Croatian War of Independence, when, on November 3,1991 and they were created on 24 December 1991, during the war, and ceased to exist in a 2003 reorganization. The Croatian Army is a force numbering 7,514 active duty personnel and 193 civil servants. The Army can also call on 6,000 reserve personnel who serve up to 30 days every year, the Croatian Army is being reorganized to fit in the NATO doctrine of a small, highly capable force with an emphasis on mobility and versatility. Major combatant commands of the Croatian Army are one mechanized and one motorized brigade, each brigade having a specific role, in 2012, one motorized infantry company is to be detached and put under the command of the EU Battle Group led by Germany. Croatia continues to deploy 350 personnel in support of NATO International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, Croatia achieved NATO membership in April 2009. The defence reforms that Croatia initiated in 2000 have a goal of replacing and modernizing the armed forces to meet the challenges of NATO membership. The plan calls for the modernization of the Army and the introduction of training, replacing ex-Yugoslav/Soviet hardware is also one of the main priorities. Procurement of new, NATO-compatible equipment takes a significant part of the defense budget, until recently, Croatia operated just under 280 main battle tanks, but this number decreased significantly due to the withdrawal of roughly 200 obsolete T-55 tanks in 2006. Most of these units have been scrapped, but a number have been stored as operational reserve in case of need. The mainstay now is the M-84A4 Sniper main battle tank, however, modernization of the tank fleet to the M-84D standard is one of the priorities set in the new defense budget. In July 2007 Patria AMV won the contract to supply the next generation of APCs to the Croatian Army, only 84 vehicles were ordered at first, but an additional 42 were purchased in an extended contract signed in December 2008. Croatia thus has 126 units on order with the first six vehicles manufactured in Finland delivered by late 2008, all remaining vehicles will be locally produced. According to some reports, at least 50-60 additional APCs are needed, in 2010, an order was placed for an undisclosed number of Protector remote controlled weapons stations. In early 2007, Croatia bought 10 Iveco LMV light armoured vehicles at a cost of 330,000 Euros per unit, according to official documents,94 of these vehicles were needed by 2017. However, Croatia will rely on US-donated HMMWV and MRAP type vehicles, steps have been made to standardize the difficult-to-maintain vehicle inventory of the Croatian military, which is full of various models of different origin, type and age. In 2005, the Army bought 152 light trucks and vehicles,156 in 2006 with an additional 170 obtained by the end of 2007, all vehicles are from prominent European or Japanese manufacturers including Mercedes-Benz, Land Rover, Iveco, MAN, Toyota and Nissan

Croatian Army
–
Croatian Army Master Sgt.(right) discusses patrol routes with a Czech Army Sgt. (left) in Germany to prepare for Afghanistan, 2012
Croatian Army
–
Emblem of the Croatian Army
Croatian Army
–
Croatian soldier with VHS assault rifle.
Croatian Army
–
Soldiers take cover beside Patria AMV.

23.
Czech Army
–
The Army of the Czech Republic comprise the Czech Land Forces, the Czech Air Force and support units. From the late 1940s to 1989, the extensive Czechoslovak Peoples Army formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance, as defined by the Czech Law No. 219/1999 Coll. the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic are the forces of the Czech Republic. They consist of the Army of the Czech Republic, the Military Office of President of the Republic, the Czechoslovak Armed Forces were originally formed on 30 June 1918 when 6. On the other side of the conflict, a number of Czechoslovak units and formations served with the Polish Army, the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army, four Czech and Slovak-manned RAF squadrons were transferred to Czechoslovak control in late 1945. From 1954 until 1990, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak Peoples Army. Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent. About 100,000 of these were conscripts, there were two military districts, Western and Eastern. In the Eastern Military District, there were two divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country. 58 assault rifle or the Uk vz.59 machine gun were of Czechoslovak design, the Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 1 January 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993 and they were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999, and to 35,000 in 2005. At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture, in 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Army maintains an active reserve, the Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. At the 1999 Washington summit, the Czech Republic joined NATO, the unit is stationed in the outskirts of the city of Olomouc, in place of the canceled 156th Rescue Battalion. Active Reserve is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic and this service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military. A volunteer needs either to have completed the military service or to attend 8 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to two weeks during a non-military crisis. They are not intended to serve abroad, the Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show

Czech Army
–
Croatian Army Master Sgt.(right) discusses patrol routes with a Czech Army Sgt. (left) in Germany to prepare for Afghanistan, 2012
Czech Army
–
The coat of arms and roundel
Czech Army
–
Czech BVP2 firing in Afghanistan
Czech Army
–
Czech Army Soldiers to participate in exercise Combined Resolve at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany

24.
Prague Spring
–
The Prague Spring was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech, a large wave of emigration swept the nation. A spirited non-violent resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, painting over and turning street signs, defiance of various curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country the resistance held out for eight months, there were sporadic acts of violence and several suicides by self-immolation, but there was no military resistance. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček and also president, reversed almost all of Dubčeks reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature such as the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl, and Milan Kunderas novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being. The process of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia had begun under Antonín Novotný in the late 1950s and early 1960s, following the lead of Nikita Khrushchev, Novotný proclaimed the completion of socialism, and the new constitution, accordingly, adopted the name Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, the Soviet model of industrialization applied poorly to Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was already quite industrialized before World War II and the Soviet model mainly took into account less developed economies, novotnýs attempt at restructuring the economy, the 1965 New Economic Model, spurred increased demand for political reform as well. A few months later, at a party meeting, it was decided that actions against the writers who openly expressed support of reformation would be taken. Since only a part of the union held these beliefs. Dubček replaced Novotný as First Secretary on 5 January 1968, on 22 March 1968, Novotný resigned his presidency and was replaced by Ludvík Svoboda, who later gave consent to the reforms. Early signs of change were few, goldstucker tested the boundaries of Dubček’s devotion to freedom of the press when he appeared on a television interview as the new head of the union. Despite the official government statement that allowed for freedom of the press, goldstucker suffered no repercussions, and Dubček instead began to build a sense of trust among the media, the government, and the citizens. It was under Goldstücker that the name was changed to Literární listy, and on 29 February 1968. By August 1968, Literární listy had a circulation of 300,000, on the 20th anniversary of Czechoslovakia’s Victorious February, Dubček delivered a speech explaining the need for change following the triumph of socialism. Dubček declared the mission was to build an advanced socialist society on sound economic foundations

25.
Army
–
An army or ground force is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the military branch. It may also include other branches of the such as the air force via means of aviation corps. Within a national force, the word army may also mean a field army. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as war or natural disasters, in several countries, the army is officially called the Land Army to differentiate it from an air force called the Air Army, notably France. In such countries, the army on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. By convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia, regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status, versus reserve or part-time personnel, other distinctions may separate statutory forces, from de facto non-statutory forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary or fencible, india has had some of the earliest armies in the world. During the Indus Valley Civilization however, there was just a small force as they didnt fear invasion at the time. After the Aryan invasion, kingdoms and city-states started forming armies to protect their cities, one of the first known recorded battles, the Battle of the Ten Kings, happened when a Hindu king defeated an alliance of ten kings. During the Iron Age, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had large armies, in the Gupta age, large armies of longbowmen were recruited to fight off invading horse archer armies. Elephants, pikemen and cavalry were other featured troops, in Rajput times, the main piece of equipment was iron or chain-mail armour, a round shield, either a curved blade or a straight-sword, a chakra disc and a katar dagger. China has existed as a culture for thousands of years, the states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han, Wei, Chu, Yan, Zhao and Qi, until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang, sun Tzus The Art of War remains one of Chinas Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies arose to control the power of the states

Army
–
A bronze crossbow trigger mechanism and butt plate that were mass-produced in the Warring States period (475-221 BCE)
Army
–
Countries by number of active soldiers (2009)
Army
–
A 2nd-century depiction of Roman soldiers on Trajan's column
Army
–
Armies of the Middle Ages consisted of noble knights, rendering service to their suzerain, and hired footsoldiers

26.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare

27.
OT-64 SKOT
–
The OT-64 SKOT is an amphibious, armored personnel carrier, developed jointly by Poland and Czechoslovakia well into the 1960s. Until the early 1970s were produced around 4500 of OT-64 SKOT units of all variants, SKOT belonged in the 1960s and 1970s, to the best of what was in the category of wheeled armored vehicles produced. SKOT came up with the concept of wheeled transporter, which is revered by all manufacturers worldwide today. OT-64 was intended to replace the halftrack OT-810, which was identical to the German SdKfz 251 from World War II. The first prototype was built in 1959, in 1961 the first sample series were built and starting from October 1963 the vehicles were produced in Lublin, Poland by Fabryka Samochodów Ciężarowych. Czechoslovakia supplied the driveline components, i. e. the engine, transmission, the first production vehicles were delivered in 1964 to both the Polish Army and Czechoslovak Army. They were also acquired by the Hungarian army, today are gradually replaced by newer vehicles. The OT-64s engine, transmission, suspension and axles were produced in Czechoslovakia, the engine was produced by Tatra. The gearbox was manufactured by Praga Hostivař, the gear change pedal is hydraulic and on action opens an air valve which causes the selected gear to engage. The armored hull and weapons were produced in Poland, the OT-64 was the answer to the Soviet BTR-60. Contrary to this the OT-64 used a set in place of a petrol engine. That diminished the danger of fire and at the time increased the range. The main advantage in relation to the Russian counterpart was the full-armored interior, the entrance is at the rear of the vehicle via twin doors. The OT-64 had an NBC protection facility and night-vision equipment and it also has central inflation for all wheels which can be controlled by driver during a drive. The OT-64 was air-transportable and amphibious, for the transport on water used two propellers installed at the back, some OT-64 were re-equipped for air defense or built as tank hunters. The latter used the AT-3 Sagger missile as a weapon, OT-64 SKOT entered service with Polish and Czechoslovak armies in 1963. It was produced until the early 1970s and it is still in service in Poland and Slovakia, among other operated by the Slovak police. Czech units were replaced in 2006 by new armoured vehicles Pandur II CZ, during the 1990s, Slovakia purchased hundreds of these units from the Czech Republic

28.
L-29
–
The Aero L-29 Delfín is a military jet trainer aircraft that became the standard jet trainer for the air forces of Warsaw Pact nations in the 1960s. It was Czechoslovakias first locally designed and built jet aircraft, aeros response, the prototype XL-29 designed by Z. Rublič and K. Tomáš first flew on 5 April 1959, powered by a British Bristol Siddeley Viper engine. The second prototype was powered by the Czech-designed M701 engine, which was used in all subsequent aircraft, the basic design concept was to produce a straightforward, easy-to-build and operate aircraft. The sturdy L-29 was able to operate from grass, sand or unprepared fields, both student pilot and instructor had ejection seats, and were positioned in tandem, under separate canopies with a slightly raised instructor position. In 1961, the L-29 was evaluated against the PZL TS-11 Iskra and Yakovlev Yak-30, poland chose to pursue the development of the TS-11 Iskra anyway, but all other Warsaw Pact countries adopted the Delfin under the agreements of COMECON. Production began April 1963 and continued for 11 years, with 3,600 eventually built until 1974, a dedicated, single-seat, aerobatic version was developed as the L-29A Akrobat. An armed reconnaissance version with cameras mounted in the cockpit, looking downwards. The Delfin served in basic, intermediate and weapons training roles, for this latter mission, they were equipped with hardpoints to carry gunpods, bombs or rockets, and thus armed, Egyptian L-29s were sent into combat against Israeli tanks during the Yom Kippur War. The L-29 was supplanted in the inventory of many of its operators by the Aero L-39 Albatros, more than 2,000 L-29s were supplied to the Soviet Air Force, acquiring the NATO reporting name Maya. L-29s, along with the newer L-39, were used extensively in ground attack missions in the Nagorno-Karabakh War by Azeri forces, at least 14 were shot down by Armenian air-defences, out of the total inventory of 18 L-29s. The Azeri Air Force lost large amounts of its air force due to anti aircraft fire, as a trainer, the L-29 enabled air forces to adopt an all-through training on jet aircraft, replacing earlier piston-engined types. On July 16,1975, a Czechoslovak Air Force L-29 shot down a Polish civilian biplane piloted by Dionizy Bielański that was attempting to defect to the West. On October 2,2007, an unmodified L-29 was used for the world’s first jet flight powered solely by 100% biodiesel fuel, from September 10 to September 14,2008, two L-29s took first and second place at the Reno Air Races. Both L-29s consistently posted laps at or above 500 miles per hour, former Astronaut Curt Brown took first place in Viper, followed by Red Bull racer Mike Mangold in Euroburner. Russia says it destroyed two Georgian L-29s during the 2008 South Ossetia war, War in Donbass separatists claimed to have an operational L-29 on 18 January 2015. Angola National Air Force of Angola -6 L-29s were in service as of December 2016, georgia Army Air Section -4 L-29s were in service as of December 2016. Afghanistan The Afghan Air Force operated as many as 24 from 1978 to as late as 1999, armenia The Armenian Air Force Azerbaijan The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force Bulgaria Bulgarian Air Force operated 102 examples, delivered between 1963–1974, retired from service in 2002. A number were converted to Unmanned aerial vehicles in the 1990s, no longer operated Libya Libyan Arab Republic Air Force 20 L29s recorded lost in 1987 during the final stages of the Chadian–Libyan conflict Mali Air Force of Mali -6 in service as of December 2012

29.
Vz. 58
–
While externally the vz.58 resembles the Soviet AK-47, it is a different design based on a short-stroke gas piston. It shares no parts with Kalashnikov rifles, including the magazine, development of the weapon began in 1956, leading the project was chief engineer Jiří Čermák assigned to the Konstrukta Brno facility in the city of Brno. The Soviet Union had begun insisting that the Warsaw Pact forces standardize on a common ammunition, another recent contender is the ČZW-556 assault rifle and ČZW-762 light machine gun which both use lever-delayed blowback which has more reliable accuracy and performance over the gas operation. In 2011, the Czech army started replacing vz.58 with CZ-805 BREN, while vz.58 still remains the main assault rifle of the Slovak army, the Slovak army has also been eyeing CZ-805 as a possible replacement to the aging vz.58 rifles. The vz.58 does not have a gas regulator and the force of the gas pressure is exerted on the piston head. The piston is driven back only 19 mm when a shoulder on the piston rod butts against the seating, there is a light return spring held between the piston shoulder and the seating which returns the piston to its forward position. The gas cylinder is vented after the piston has traveled back 16 mm, the entire piston rod is chromium-plated to prevent fouling. The weapon is unlocked by the short stroke of the piston rod as it strikes the bolt carrier. After 22 mm of unrestricted travel, a surface on the bolt carrier moves under the breech locking piece and lifts it up. The breech locking piece swings up and this movement provides the leverage required for primary extraction, the breech block is then carried rearwards extracting the empty cartridge casing from the chamber. A fixed ejector passes through a cut in the underside of the bolt. The spring-loaded extractor and firing pin are both housed inside the lock, while the fixed ejector is located at the base of the receiver. At the open end of the striker, a plate is welded and this hammer-striker enters the hollow bolt and drives a fully floating firing pin forward with each shot. The rifle uses a mechanism with a lever-type fire mode selector. The forward setting of the selector lever disables the disconnector, the rifle also has an internal safety, which prevents the weapon from discharging when out of battery. The right striker-hammer catch disables the striker-hammer, and it can only be released by pulling the charging handle back, the weapon is fed from a detachable box magazine with a 30-round cartridge capacity and made from a lightweight alloy. When the last round from the magazine is fired, the bolt will remain locked open on the bolt catch, the magazine release tab is located at the base of the receiver on the left side, behind the magazine well. The bolt carrier has a guide rail used for reloading from 10-round stripper clips

30.
Uk vz. 59
–
The Universal Machine Gun Model 1959 is a machine gun developed in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s. It remains in use by the Czech Army and the Slovak Armed Forces, the Uk vz.59 fires 7. 62×54mmR ammunition, delivered via an ammunition belt. The weapon can serve as a light and medium machine gun, Czech Republic Mali Slovakia Media related to UK vz.59 at Wikimedia Commons Modern Firearms Univerzální kulomet vzor 59

31.
Czechoslovakia
–
From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century

32.
Enlargement of NATO
–
Enlargement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is the process of including new member states in NATO. NATO is an alliance of twenty-six European and two North American countries that constitutes a system of collective defense. The process of joining the alliance is governed by Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which allows only for the invitation of other European States, countries wishing to join have to meet certain requirements and complete a multi-step process involving political dialogue and military integration. The accession process is overseen by the North Atlantic Council, NATOs governing body, after its formation in 1949 with twelve founding members, NATO grew by including Greece and Turkey in 1952 and West Germany in 1955, and then later Spain in 1982. After the Cold War ended, and Germany reunited in 1990, in 1999, Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic joined the organization, amid much debate within the organization and Russian opposition. Another expansion came with the accession of seven Central and Eastern European countries, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and these nations were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit, and joined NATO shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit. The most recent new members, Albania and Croatia, joined on 1 April 2009, in 2011, NATO officially recognized four aspiring members, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia, and Montenegro. Macedonia has been prevented from joining the alliance by Greece, one effect of the Macedonian naming dispute, the incorporation of countries formerly in the Eastern Bloc has been a cause of increased tension between NATO countries and Russia. NATO has added new members six times since its founding in 1949 to include twenty-eight members. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The early years of the Cold War saw a stark divide between Capitalist ideologies, backed by NATO, and Communist satellite states of the Soviet Union and this divide encouraged the anti-Communist governments of Greece and Turkey to join NATO in 1952. Greece would suspend its membership in 1974, over the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the Bonn–Paris conventions ended the allies occupation of West Germany, and were ratified in part on the basis that West Germany join NATO, which it did in 1955. Though initially isolationist, Spain under Francisco Franco was heavily anti-Communist, after its transition to democracy, Spain came under pressure to normalize its European relations, including joining NATO, which it did in 1982. A referendum in 1986 confirmed popular support for this, the first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year, other authors, such as Mark Kramer, have also highlighted that in 1990 neither side imagined that countries still technically in the Warsaw Pact or the Soviet Union could one day join NATO. In subsequent years, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, including the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Hungarys interest in joining was confirmed by a November 1997 referendum that returned 85.3 percent in favor of membership, russias actions in the First Chechen War were also a motivating factor for several countries that had memories of similar Soviet offensives. Russia was particularly upset with the addition of the three Baltic states, the first countries that were part of the Soviet Union to join NATO

33.
SFOR
–
The Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Bosnian war. Although SFOR was led by NATO, several non-NATO countries contributed troops and it was replaced by EUFOR Althea in December 2004. SFOR was established in Security Council Resolution 1088 on December 12,1996 and it succeeded the much larger Implementation Force IFOR which was deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina on 20 December 1995 with a one-year mandate. During NATOs 2004 Istanbul Summit the end of the SFOR mission was announced and it was replaced by the European Unions EUFOR Althea, on 2 December 2004 at NATO HQ, Camp Butmir, Sarajevo, B-H. SFOR was divided into three zones of operation, Mostar MNB - Italian, Franco-German, Spanish Banja Luka MND - British, Canadian, the British code name for their activities in IFOR was Operation Resolute and SFOR was Operation Lodestar. Tuzla MND - American, Turkish, Polish, Russian, Norwegian, the three AOs were known collectively as Multi-National Divisions until the end of 2002 where they were reduced in scope to Multi-National Brigades. SFOR operated under peace enforcement, not peacekeeping, rules of engagement, for example, it was cleared, in 1997, to neutralize Serb radio-television facilities. During its mandate, SFOR arrested 29 individuals who were charged with war crimes and those arrested were transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Netherlands. US service members serving in SFOR were awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, SFOR operated as part of Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge. As time progressed, the numbers of troops allotted to SFOR declined, on December 2,2004, SFOR disbanded and its functions were assumed by military units from the European Union. SFOR operated under the code names Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge, NATO nations providing troops included, Non-NATO nations providing troops included, Phillips, R. Cody. Bosnia-Herzegovina, The U. S. Armys Role in Peace Enforcement Operations 1995-2004, united States Army Center of Military History. Measuring the success of the NATO operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995–2000, official website US Air Force News article on Operation Joint Forge

SFOR
–
Members of the Dutch, French and U.S. military watch as an Italian honour guard hoists the new Stabilisation Force flag during the Stabilization Force (SFOR) activation ceremony in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the 20 of December 1996.
SFOR
–
Sentry at "Mud" Govern by United States Army by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy. This painting represents typical duty for the task force.

34.
Kosovo
–
Kosovo is a disputed territory and partially recognised state in Southeastern Europe that declared independence from Serbia in February 2008 as the Republic of Kosovo. Kosovo is landlocked in the central Balkan Peninsula, with its strategic position in the Balkans, it serves as an important link in the connection between central and south Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and Black Sea. Its capital and largest city is Pristina, and other urban areas include Prizren, Pejë. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, the Republic of Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the west, while Serbia recognises administration of the territory by Kosovos elected government, it still continues to claim it as its own Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In antiquity, the Dardanian Kingdom, and later the Roman province of Dardania was located in the region, the area was inhabited by several ancient Illyrian tribes. In the Middle Ages, it was part of the Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires, Kosovo was the core of the medieval Serbian state and it has been the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church from the 14th century when its status was upgraded into a patriarchate. After being part of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, the war ended with a military intervention of NATO, which forced the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to withdraw its troops from Kosovo, which became a UN protectorate under UNSCR1244. On 17 February 2008 Kosovos Parliament declared independence and it has since gained diplomatic recognition as a sovereign state by 111 UN member states, Taiwan, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Cook Islands and Niue. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo as a state, although with the Brussels Agreement of 2013 it has accepted the legitimacy of Kosovar institutions, the entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova or Kosovë. The name of the plain was applied to the Kosovo Province created in 1864, Albanians refer to Kosovo as Dardania, the name of a Roman province located in Central Balkans that was formed in 284 AD which covered the territory of modern Kosovo. The name is derived from the Albanian word dardha/dardā which means pear, the former Kosovo President Ibrahim Rugova had been an enthusiastic backer of a Dardanian identity and the Kosovan flag and presidential seal refer to this national identity. However, the name Kosova remains more widely used among the Albanian population, the official conventional long name of the state is Republic of Kosovo, as defined by the Constitution of Kosovo, and is used to represent Kosovo internationally. This arrangement, which has dubbed the asterisk agreement, was agreed in an 11-point arrangement agreed on 24 February 2012. By the independence declaration in 2008, its long name became Republic of Kosovo. In prehistory, the succeeding Starčevo culture, Vinča culture, Bubanj-Hum culture, the area in and around Kosovo has been inhabited for nearly 10,000 years. During the Neolithic age, Kosovo lay within the area of the Vinča-Turdaş culture which is characterised by West Balkan black, bronze and Iron Age tombs have been found in Metohija. However, life during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age is not confirmed yet, therefore, until arguments of Paleolithic and Mesolithic man are confirmed, Neolithic man, respectively the Neolithic sites are considered as the chronological beginning of population in Kosovo. From this period until today Kosovo has been inhabited, and traces of activities of societies from prehistoric, ancient, whereas, in some archaeological sites, multilayer settlements clearly reflect the continuity of life through centuries

35.
Iraq
–
The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations

36.
Kosovo Force
–
The Kosovo Force is a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation-led international peacekeeping force which was responsible for establishing a secure environment in Kosovo. KFOR entered Kosovo on 12 June 1999, two days after the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1244, at the time, Kosovo was facing a grave humanitarian crisis, with military forces from the FRY and the KLA in daily engagement. According to NATO, Serb forces had committed ethnic cleansing of Kosovo Albanians, nearly one million people had fled Kosovo as refugees. KFOR has gradually transferred responsibilities to the Kosovo Police and other local authorities, as of 23 May 2016, KFOR consisted of 4,600 troops. The Contact Group countries have said publicly that KFOR will remain in Kosovo to provide the security necessary to support the provisions of a settlement of Kosovos status. KFOR contingents were originally grouped into 4 regionally based multinational brigades, the brigades were responsible for a specific area of operations, but under a single chain of command under the authority of Commander KFOR. At its height, KFOR troops numbered 50,000 and came from 39 different NATO and non-NATO nations, the official KFOR website indicated that in 2008 a total 14,000 soldiers from 34 countries were participating in KFOR. The following is a list of the number of troops which have participated in the KFOR mission. According to Amnesty International, most women trafficked into Kosovo from abroad are from Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, since the KFOR entered Kosovo in June 1999,168 NATO soldiers have been killed, mostly in accidents. On 19 October 2004, it was confirmed that 115 NATO soldiers had killed during the operation. After that 50 more NATO soldiers were confirmed to have died, eight UNMIK police officers have been killed in Kosovo since 1999, in addition to the KFOR fatalities. The fatalities by country are,3 American,1 Indian,1 Jordanian,1 Nigerian,1 Ghanaian and 1 Ukrainian police officer, in July 2011, following the Kosovo Polices attempts to seize two border outposts and consequent clashes that followed, KFOR troops intervened. In 2013, KFOR was involved in an operation of the last restaurant bears in Kosovo. The bears are now kept at the Bear Sanctuary Prishtina, KFOR Placemap KFOR official site K-For, The task ahead First deaths in K-For operation Memorial honors soldiers sacrifices June 2002,68 soldiers have died since KFOR entered Kosovo. Nato force feeds Kosovo sex trade Radio KFOR

37.
Somalia
–
Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE

38.
United Nations Disengagement Observer Force
–
The Force has since performed its functions with the full cooperation of both sides. The mandate of UNDOF has been renewed every six months since 1974, UNTSO and UNDOF are operating in the zone and continue to supervise the ceasefire. Before the Syrian Civil War, the situation in the Israel-Syria ceasefire line had remained quiet and there had been no serious incidents. According to a UN official, they were taken hostage near Observation Post 58, the UN personnel was later released with Jordanian mediation. On 6 October 1973, in a joint attack, Egypt attacked Israeli forces on the Suez Canal. The Israelis stopped the attacks and retook most of the lost ground, Israeli forces then pushed deeper into Syria and Egypt. Fighting continued until 22 October 1973, when United Nations Security Council Resolution 338 called for a ceasefire, two days later, Israel and Egypt violated the ceasefire and resumed fighting, resulting in United Nations Security Council Resolution 339, which ended the war. The conflict is now known as the Yom Kippur War, the United Nations Emergency Force II moved into place between Israeli and Egyptian armies in the Suez Canal area, stabilizing the situation. Resolution 339 primarily reaffirmed the terms outlined in Resolution 338, tension remained high on the Israel-Syria front, and during March 1974 the situation became increasingly unstable. The United States undertook an initiative, which resulted in the signing of the Agreement on Disengagement between Israeli and Syrian forces. The Agreement provided for a zone and for two equal areas of limitation of forces and armaments on both sides of the area. It also called for the establishment of a United Nations observer force to supervise its implementation, the Agreement was signed on 31 May 1974 and, on the same day, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 350 to set up the UNDOF. On 3 June 1974 General Briceno from Peru arrived, from Cairo, at the headquarters of the UNTSO ISMAC House, in Damascus, the first phase of the operation was manning the observation posts. From 6 June 1974 to 25 June 1974, the phase which included the physical disengagement of Syrian. The Austrians and Polish shared a base camp at Kanikir near the town of Sassa, the Peruvians were deployed south of Quneitra near Ziouani. The Canadian logistics company and signal element were situated in Ziouani near Quneitra, the force headquarters remained in Damascus. The buffer zone is about 80 km long, and between 0.5 and 10 km wide, forming an area of 235 km². The zone straddles the Purple Line, separating the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights and the rest of Syria, where the west line is known as Alpha, and the east line as Bravo

39.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, East Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named, and is still called, Zaire. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world, the Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Sekos 32-year reign and devastated the country. These wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congos largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRCs exports in 2012, as of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. The country was known officially as the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 27 October 1971, in 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the change was not put into practice. The countrys name was restored by former president Laurent-Désiré Kabila following the fall of longtime dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997, some historians think that Bantu peoples began settling in the extreme northwest of Central Africa at the beginning of the 5th century and then gradually started to expand southward. Their propagation was accelerated by the transition from Stone Age to Iron Age techniques, the people living in the south and southwest were mostly San Bushmen and hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture. This led to the displacement of the groups in the east and southeast. The 10th century marked the expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. Rising populations soon made intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in salt, iron. Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s and it was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip, Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and he named it the Congo Free State. Leopolds rėgime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville. Nearly all such projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold. In the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles, rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country

Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Village attacked by Arab-Swahili slavers near Nyangwe, end of 19th century
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Flag
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
View of Leopoldville Station and Port in 1884.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
–
Force Publique soldiers in the Belgian Congo in 1918. At its peak, the Force Publique had around 19,000 African soldiers, led by 420 white officers.

40.
Strakonice
–
Strakonice is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. The town is located at the confluence of the Volyňka and Otava rivers, the municipal area comprises the districts of Dražejov, Hájská, Modlešovice, Přední Ptákovice, Strakonice proper, Střela, and Virt. Close to the town is natural monument Bažantnice u Pracejovic, the settlement of this region took place in the second half of 12th century. A moated castle on the Otava River was built by the noble House of Strakonice at the beginning of the 13th century, in 1243 they donated a part of the castle to the knights hospitaller of the Order of Saint John. In 1367 Strakonice obtained city rights, from the beginning of the 15th century the Knights Hospitaller owned the whole castle as well as the surrounding manor. In 1420 the Hussite commander Jan Žižka occupied Strakonice, but failed to capture the fortress, Strakonice Castle experienced an extensive reconstruction to a representation residence of the Grand Priors of the Order in the 16th century, the later modifications were minor only. Nowadays a part of the castle serves as a museum of the region of Strakonice, since the 19th century Strakonice was a main production site for fez hats and it also became an industrial center known for its motorbikes and hand guns. Strakonice is also known for a brewery called, DUDÁK - Měšťanský pivovar Strakonice. The Strakonice Burghers’ Brewery is the last brewery in the Czech Republic to still be owned by a town, the tradition of beer brewing has been linked to the rich history of the Otava River region since 1649. Official website Region of Strakonice Map, location of Strakonice in Czech Republic and Europe Unofficial website of the city Detailed city history City history

41.
Opava
–
Opava is a city in the northern Czech Republic on the river Opava, located to the north-west of Ostrava. Opava is one of the centres of Silesia. It was a capital of Czech Silesia. Opava is now in the Moravian-Silesian Region and has a population of 57,843, Opava is located on the Opava Hilly Land on the Opava River and Moravice River. Opava was first documented in 1195, first mention of Magdeburg city rights came from 1224. It was capital of the Silesian, Bohemian and finally Austrian Duchy of Opava, in 1614 Karl I of Liechtenstein became Duke of Opava. The Congress of Troppau took place there in the period 27 October-17 December 1820, according to the Austrian census of 1910, the town had 30,762 inhabitants,29,587 of whom had permanent residence there. The census asked people for their language, which showed that 27,240 were German-speaking,2,039 were Czech-speaking and 274 were Polish-speaking. Jews were not allowed to declare Yiddish, and most of them thus declared German as their native language, the main religious group was Roman Catholics with 28,379, followed by Protestants with 1,155 and Jews with 1,112. After the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I, Troppau became part of Czechoslovakia in 1919 as Opava, from 1938–45 Opava was part of Nazi Germany according to the Munich agreement. Already a day before Germanys annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938, after the end of World War II, the entire German population of Opava was forcibly expelled in 1945–46 under terms included in the Beneš decrees, the city was resettled with Czechs. Many of the population settled in Bamberg, Germany. While the Duchy of Opava has ceased to exist, the title of Duke of Troppau lives on to present day, with Hans-Adam II, Opava is currently an important business and cultural center of Opavian Silesia. Opava is home to the public university in the country not situated in a regional capital. The city is part of an industrial area along with Ostrava. Opava also awards its own Cultural Prize, the Silesian Theatre in Opava was founded in 1805. Plays were performed in German until the end of the Second World War, the first is the white tower, known as Hláska, adorning the Neo-Renaissance Opava Town Hall on Horní náměstí square. cz Old postcards Opava International Organ Competition

42.
CZ-805 BREN
–
The CZ805 BREN is a Czech assault rifle created in 2006 to replace the Sa vz.58 in the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic. The rifle is also competing to replace the Sa vz.58 in the Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic, in November 2016, the Czech Army received its first batch of CZ BREN2 next generation assault rifles. Czechoslovakia had the distinction of being the only Warsaw Pact member whose army did not issue a rifle based on the Soviet AK-47/AKM. They developed the Sa vz.58 in the late 1950s and although it fired the same 7. 62×39mm cartridge and externally looked similar, its operating system and it was effective at the time it was introduced, but by the next decade became obsolete and hard to modify. In 1977, the Brno General Machine-Building Plants R&D Center began a program to create a new rifle under the name Lada S and they followed the variant family of AK-74 rifles and mostly took after their designs except for differences in the receiver cover, sights, and safety selector. The weapons were built by late 1985, tested starting in 1986, shortly after that time however, the Cold War was ending and Czechoslovakias communist party had stepped down following the Velvet Revolution. 300,000 Lada systems were planned, but by the time it was declared fit for production in February 1990, the country itself was splitting apart, and on 1 January 1993 it separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, ending 74 years of the country of Czechoslovakia. The Lada was not likely to be bought in large numbers by the smaller army, by then Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod, which had taken over the design, had become privatized, and the company shelved the weapon for several years. In the late 1990s, the Lada project was restarted with the prospect of the Czech Republic becoming a member of NATO. The restarted rifle program rechambered the rifle to NATO standard 5. 56×45mm ammunition, converting it to accept STANAG magazines would have required the receiver to be redesigned and to have cost too much. The Army of the Czech Republic was interested in acquiring a new rifle, the Lada was then offered for export under the name CZ2000. For the domestic Army Replacement Rifle program development, the Lada was re-designated Project 805, the Army still did not wish to buy a new rifle for the entire military, but special forces did receive Bushmaster M4A3 carbines. With the prospect that the Army would re-arm gradually rather than on a large scale, Project 805 became the CZ XX, and then the CZ S805. All had three barrel lengths to act as a rifle, close quarters carbine, and designated marksman rifle/LSW, a CZ S805 was presented to the Army chief of staff in November 2006, but still was not ordered. CZUB then presented the weapon publicly and spent three years showing it at exhibitions and it wasnt until November 2009 that the Czech Army finally released a tender for a new infantry rifle. The company reduced its modularity for the competition and submitted a 5.56 mm rifle and 5.56 mm carbine and this was eventually reduced to just the 5.56 mm system. When the tender was released,27 weapons were submitted, but were reduced to just the CZ805, the CZ805 won narrowly from emphasis on a domestic design and the result was made public on 1 February 2010. FN Herstal did not contest the decision, and the CZ805 was officially ordered on 18 March 2010,6,687 CZ 805A1 rifles,1,250 CZ 805A2 carbines, every one was equipped with Meopta ZD-Dot red dot sights and iron sights

CZ-805 BREN
–
CZ 805 BREN

43.
T-72
–
The T-72 is a Soviet second-generation main battle tank that entered production in 1971. About 20,000 T-72 tanks were built, making it one of the most widely produced post–World War II tanks, the T-72 was widely exported and saw service in 40 countries and in numerous conflicts. The development of the T-72 was a result of the introduction of the T-64 tank. The T-64 was an ambitious project to build a competitive tank with a weight of not more than 36 tons under the direction of Alexander Morozov in Kharkov. To achieve that goal, the crew was reduced to three soldiers, saving the loader by introducing an automated loading system and this and other steps allowed a reduced weight, but caused problems when looking for a reliable engine to fit in the smaller hull. The production of the T-64 with a 115-mm gun began in 1964, problems with the first batch of T-64 tanks were centred on the 5TDF700 hp engine and the auto loading mechanism. The engine was unreliable, was difficult to repair and had a life span of only a World War 2-era tank engine. A strong lobby around designer Morozov advocated for the T-64 in Moscow, preventing rival developments, the 5TDF was too complex and its production twice as costly as the V-45 engine. In 1967, the Uralvagonzavod formed Section 520, which was to prepare the serial production of the T-64 for 1970. The team soon found out that the more powerful V-45 engine put a lot of stress on the fragile T-64 hull, a more stable solution had to be found. Under influence from Kharkov, the idea had been turned down by Moscow, but this construction, with its big, rubbercoated roadwheels now formed the basis for the mobilisation model of the T-64. Additional changes were made to the loading system, which also was taken from an earlier project. Ammunition, consisting of a projectile and a propellant charge was now stored horizontally on two levels, not vertically on one level like in the T-64. It was said to be more reliable than the T-64 autoloader, in 1964, two 125-mm guns of the D-81 type had been used to test their installation in the T-62, so the Ural plant was ready to adopt the 125-mm calibre for the T-64A as well. Uralvagonzavod produced the first prototype with a 125-mm gun and V-45K engine in 1968 as Object 172, after intensive comparative testing with the T-64A, Object 172 was re-engineered in 1970 to deal with some minor problems. However, being only a model, a serial production of Object 172 was not possible in peacetime. In an unclear political process decree number 326-113 was issued, which allowed the production of Object 172 in the Soviet Union from 1, January 1972 and freed Uralvagonzavod from the T-64A production. At least some technical documentation on the T-72 is known to have passed to the CIA by the Polish Colonel Ryszard Kuklinski between 1971 and 1982

T-72
–
T-72B3
T-72
–
Object 172 at the Kubinka Tank Museum
T-72
–
T-72 on a wheeled tank transporter. The engine exhaust port is visible on the left side. This tank has additional fuel drums on rear brackets.
T-72
–
T-72 monument in its production place, Nizhny Tagil.

44.
T-72M1
–
The T-72 is a Soviet second-generation main battle tank that entered production in 1971. About 20,000 T-72 tanks were built, making it one of the most widely produced post–World War II tanks, the T-72 was widely exported and saw service in 40 countries and in numerous conflicts. The development of the T-72 was a result of the introduction of the T-64 tank. The T-64 was an ambitious project to build a competitive tank with a weight of not more than 36 tons under the direction of Alexander Morozov in Kharkov. To achieve that goal, the crew was reduced to three soldiers, saving the loader by introducing an automated loading system and this and other steps allowed a reduced weight, but caused problems when looking for a reliable engine to fit in the smaller hull. The production of the T-64 with a 115-mm gun began in 1964, problems with the first batch of T-64 tanks were centred on the 5TDF700 hp engine and the auto loading mechanism. The engine was unreliable, was difficult to repair and had a life span of only a World War 2-era tank engine. A strong lobby around designer Morozov advocated for the T-64 in Moscow, preventing rival developments, the 5TDF was too complex and its production twice as costly as the V-45 engine. In 1967, the Uralvagonzavod formed Section 520, which was to prepare the serial production of the T-64 for 1970. The team soon found out that the more powerful V-45 engine put a lot of stress on the fragile T-64 hull, a more stable solution had to be found. Under influence from Kharkov, the idea had been turned down by Moscow, but this construction, with its big, rubbercoated roadwheels now formed the basis for the mobilisation model of the T-64. Additional changes were made to the loading system, which also was taken from an earlier project. Ammunition, consisting of a projectile and a propellant charge was now stored horizontally on two levels, not vertically on one level like in the T-64. It was said to be more reliable than the T-64 autoloader, in 1964, two 125-mm guns of the D-81 type had been used to test their installation in the T-62, so the Ural plant was ready to adopt the 125-mm calibre for the T-64A as well. Uralvagonzavod produced the first prototype with a 125-mm gun and V-45K engine in 1968 as Object 172, after intensive comparative testing with the T-64A, Object 172 was re-engineered in 1970 to deal with some minor problems. However, being only a model, a serial production of Object 172 was not possible in peacetime. In an unclear political process decree number 326-113 was issued, which allowed the production of Object 172 in the Soviet Union from 1, January 1972 and freed Uralvagonzavod from the T-64A production. At least some technical documentation on the T-72 is known to have passed to the CIA by the Polish Colonel Ryszard Kuklinski between 1971 and 1982

T-72M1
–
T-72B3
T-72M1
–
Object 172 at the Kubinka Tank Museum
T-72M1
–
T-72 on a wheeled tank transporter. The engine exhaust port is visible on the left side. This tank has additional fuel drums on rear brackets.
T-72M1
–
T-72 monument in its production place, Nizhny Tagil.

45.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

46.
Infantry fighting vehicle
–
An infantry fighting vehicle, or mechanized infantry combat vehicle, is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct fire support. Infantry fighting vehicles are distinct from armoured personnel carriers, which are transport vehicles armed only for self-defense, consequently, IFVs possess heavier armament than an APC, and the attached rifle squad fights from within the vehicle more often than in an APC. IFVs also often have improved armour and some have ports which allow the infantry to fire personal weapons while on board and they are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes anti-tank guided missiles. IFVs are usually tracked, but there are some wheeled vehicles too, IFVs are much less heavily armed and protected than main battle tanks, but when equipped with larger cannon or ATGMs may pose a significant threat to all but the heaviest armoured fighting vehicles. The first mass-produced IFV was the West German Schützenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr from 1958 until the early 1980s, the SPz 12-3 mounted a 20 mm autocannon in a small turret and carried a half-squad of five armoured infantrymen. Western powers were surprised when the Soviet Union paraded the BMP-1, Soviet infantrymen could thus enter a hypothetical engagement in a vehicle that possessed formidable fighting capability in its own right. This brought combined arms integration to the lowest tactical level, in 1971, the Ratel was designed to a South African specification for a wheeled combat vehicle suited to the demands of a high-speed offensive that combined maximum mobility and firepower. The emphasis was on mobility in particular, as it had to keep pace with a rapid mechanised advance, South Africas motorised units had carried out prior deployments on unprotected Bedford MK and Unimog trucks, but these were deemed unsuitable for the harsh African terrain. They also offered few advantages in mine protection, while the Ratels blastproof hull was developed to even the most catastrophic anti-tank mine explosions. During the South African Border War, Ratels equipped with a 90 mm gun adopted from the Eland-90 were utilised as improvised tank destroyers to varying degrees of success. In most Western IFVs, the large guns on the BMP. While the former enjoyed a tank-killing capability that most autocannon lack, combat applications in close-combat environments are likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitating the same protection level required by most tanks. In times of warfare, local crises, and urban combat. The IFV offers a compromise between mobility, protection, and firepower. They can be used in high and low intensity conflicts as well as peacekeeping operations, the latest vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to be repaired in the field. Infantry fighting vehicles are typically well armoured, although usually with less protection than main battle tanks, typical armament is an autocannon and machine guns. IFVs have a door for dismounts, most IFVs are resistant against heavy machine guns, artillery fragments, and small arms. The IFVs mission does not include anti-tank duties except in support of units or in emergencies, therefore

47.
BMP-1
–
The BMP-1 is a Soviet amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle. BMP stands for Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty 1, meaning infantry fighting vehicle, the BMP-1 was the first mass-produced infantry fighting vehicle of USSR. It was called the M-1967, BMP and BMP-76PB by NATO before its designation was known. It would increase infantry squad mobility, provide support to them. The BMP-1 was first tested in combat in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, based on lessons learned from this conflict, and early experiences in the Soviet War in Afghanistan, a version with improved fighting qualities was developed, called the BMP-2. It was accepted into service in August 1980, in 1987, the BMP-3, a radically redesigned vehicle with a completely new weapon system, entered service in limited numbers with the Soviet Army. Existing APCs offered little or no protection from nuclear or chemical weapons. Furthermore, the infantry had to disembark to be able to use their weapons, the requirement for the BMP, which was first drawn up in the late 1950s, stressed speed, good armament, and the ability for all squad members to fire from within the vehicle. The armament had to direct support for dismounted infantry in the attack and defense. The vehicle needed to protect the crew from.50 cal machinegun fire and 20–23 mm caliber autocannons across the frontal arc, firepower consisted of the innovative combination of the 73 mm 2A28 Grom gun and a launcher for the 9M14 Malyutka anti-tank wire-guided missile. Requirements were issued to the design bureaus between 1959 and 1960. There was a question as to whether the BMP should be tracked or wheeled, so a number of configurations were explored. The tracked Obyekt 764 was chosen because its front-engine design provided a convenient, the original prototype was built in 1964, followed by the improved Obyekt 765 in 1965, which was accepted by the Army in 1966, under a designation BMP-1. A large number of variants of the BMP-1 were produced, with the most notable IFV variants being, BMP-2, MLI-84, the BMP went into production with the Soviet Army in 1966. The first series was produced until 1969 and it was replaced by the improved production model, the BMP-1, which was produced from 1969 until 1973. This, in turn, was replaced by the Obyekt 765 Sp3, a number of improvements were made to the reliability of the chassis, engine and transmission during mass production. The last version of the BMP-1 IFV, which was produced from 1979 to 1983, was armed with a more powerful ATGM launcher 9P135M-1 for the ATGM Konkurs/Fagot. Upgrades of the BMP-1 were performed by KMZ as well as by tank repair workshops of the Ministry of Defence during scheduled, more than 20,000 BMP-1s and vehicles based on it were built in the USSR

BMP-1
–
Ex-Iraqi BMP-1 captured by US forces in Iraq during the First Gulf War.
BMP-1
–
BMP-1 with eight passengers
BMP-1
–
Rear view of a plinthed BMP-1 in Lebyazhye, Lomonosovsky District, Leningrad Oblast
BMP-1
–
Two Bulgarian Army soldiers man the driver's and gunner's stations, while a US Army soldier occupies the commander's position of a Bulgarian BMP-1 IFV.

48.
Artillery
–
Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company

Artillery
–
French naval piece of the late 19th century
Artillery
–
French soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War 1870–71.
Artillery
–
British 64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loaded (RML) Gun on a Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, Bermuda. This is a part of a fixed battery, meant to protect against over-land attack and to serve as coastal artillery.
Artillery
–
7-person gun crew firing a US M777 Light Towed Howitzer, War in Afghanistan, 2009.

49.
Mortar (weapon)
–
A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes

Mortar (weapon)
Mortar (weapon)
–
French mortar diagram from the 18th century.
Mortar (weapon)
–
Engraving depicting the Venetian siege of the Acropolis of Athens, September 1687. The trajectory of the shell that hit the Parthenon, causing its explosion, is marked.
Mortar (weapon)
–
US Army 13-inch mortar "Dictator" was a rail-mounted gun of the American Civil War.

50.
BMP-1 variants
–
This is a complete list of variants and designations of the BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicle. It is sorted by country of origin, BMP – The original main prototype of the BMP-1 was developed by the design bureau of the Chelyabinsk Tractor Works and built in 1965. In comparison with Obyekt 765Sp1, Obyekt 764 was 4 mm higher, had a swimming speed of 10 km/h, a lower maximum range. The vehicle had a curved shock-absorber behind the first road wheel, to start production of the new vehicle, the design of the fighting and troop compartments were improved. Unlike the BMP-1, Obyekt 764 used a waterjet for swimming, Obyekt 764 also had a larger main fuel tank, while the BMP-1 had the main fuel tank reduced in size and partially placed under the troop compartment. Obyekt 765 – An improved Obyekt 764. Obyekt 765 was fitted with a location system for its eight passengers. It was developed in the mid-1960s and its turret was moved to the rear of the hull. It was also fitted with three additional 7.62 mm PKT general-purpose machine guns in ball mounts in the middle of the hull, BMP-1 – An early type with a shorter nose section and a larger angled plate at the top of the hull line. The two tool stowage boxes on the fenders were removed, the swim vanes were modified by reducing the number of vanes from seven to four and the fender profile was raised nearer to the horizontal. The fume extraction ports on the roof to the rear of the turret were moved outwards. The single torsion bar used to spring the rear roof troop hatches was replaced by a torsion bar system. The firing ports on the side were moved up into the armor plate and it was built from 1966 to 1969. It is sometimes known as the BMP-A by some Western sources. NATO gave it the designation BMP Model 1966. BMP-1 – The standard production version weighs 13 tonnes and it was built from 1969 to 1973. Vehicles produced from the mid-1970s had a hull with more space inside as well as a different shaped nose section which also made it 20 cm longer. The triangular air intake behind the turret was replaced by a circular telescopic snorkel which was raised when the vehicle was afloat. The roof hatches were also rearranged, the air intake located to the front left side of the drivers station was removed. To the left of the turret was a prominent NBC filter cover, NATO gave it the designation BMP Model 1970. BMP-1 – A slightly improved and 200 kg heavier version of Obyekt 765Sp2

BMP-1 variants
–
Bulgarian BMP-1P during the Army Day military parade, 6 May 2009.
BMP-1 variants
–
Three views of the BMP-1 (Ob'yekt 765Sp1) graphic.
BMP-1 variants
–
BMP-2 on display at the United States Army Ordnance Museum (Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD), 19 September 2007.
BMP-1 variants
–
A BMP-1K of the Finnish Army at the Parola tank museum, Finland, 1 June 2008.

51.
Military vehicle
–
A military vehicle is a type of vehicle that includes all land combat and transportation vehicles, which are designed for or are significantly used by military forces. Many military vehicles have vehicle armour plate or off-road capabilities or both, a broad definition of the term may include naval vessels such as destroyers and military aircraft such as fighter jets & medevac helicopters. Under the Geneva Conventions, all non-combatant military vehicles such as field ambulances, in theory under the conventions, such vehicles are then legally immune from deliberate attack by all combatants. A subtype that has become prominent since the late 20th Century is the improvised fighting vehicle

52.
Land Rover Defender
–
The Land Rover Defender is a British four-wheel-drive off-road utility vehicle developed from the original Land Rover Series launched in June 1948. In October 2013 Land Rover announced that production would end in December 2015 after a run of 67 years. Production finally ended on 29 January 2016 when the last Defender, H166 HUE, Jaguar Land Rover announced their intention to launch a replacement new Defender, which motoring journalists speculate will be quite different from the original version. The model was introduced in 1983 as Land Rover One Ten, the Ninety and One Ten replaced the earlier Land Rover Series, and at the time of launch, the only other Land Rover model in production was the Range Rover. In 1989, a model was brought out by Land Rover to be produced in parallel with the other two, the Land Rover Discovery. To avoid possible confusion, from 1991 the Ninety and the One Ten were renamed the Defender 90 and these carried front badges that said Defender, with a badge on the rear of the vehicle saying Defender 90 or Defender 110. The most recent model, from 2007-2016, still featured the space above the radiator for the badge but was blank, instead had Land Rover spelled across the leading edge of the bonnet in raised individual letters, in keeping with the Discovery and Freelander. At the rear was a new style of Defender badge with an underlining swoosh, on these last models there are no badges defining the wheelbase model of the vehicle. The 127-inch wheelbase Land Rover 127, available from 1985, was marketed with the name rendered numerically. Following the adoption of the Defender name, it became the Defender 130, production of the model now known as the Defender began in 1983 as the Land Rover 110, a name which reflected the 110-inch length of the wheelbase. The Land Rover 90, with 93-inch wheelbase, and Land Rover 127, with 127-inch wheelbase, outwardly, there is little to distinguish the post-1983 vehicles from the Series III Land Rover. A full-length bonnet, revised grille, plus the fitting of wheel arch extensions to cover wider-track axles are the most noticeable changes, initially the Land Rover was also available with a part-time 4WD system familiar to all derivatives produced since 1949. The part-time system failed to sell and was dropped from the options list by 1984. From 1984, wind-up windows were fitted, and a 2. 5-litre,68 horsepower diesel engine was introduced and this was based on the earlier 2. 3-litre engine, but had a more modern fuel-injection system as well as increased capacity. A low compression version of the 3. 5-litre V8 Range Rover engine transformed performance and it was initially available in the 110 with a four-speed transmission with integral transfer case, then later in conjunction with a high strength Santana five-speed transmission. This period saw Land Rover market the utility Land Rover as a recreational vehicle. While the basic pick-up, 4x4 and van versions were still working vehicles, the switch from leaf spring to coil spring suspension was a key part of the new models success. It offered improved off-road ability, load capacity, handling, from 1983, Land Rover introduced a third wheelbase to its utility line-up, a 127-inch wheelbase vehicle designed to accommodate larger, heavier loads than the 110

53.
Off-road vehicle
–
An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of vehicle which is capable of driving on and off paved or gravel surface. It is generally characterized by having large tires with deep, open treads, other vehicles that do not travel public streets or highways are generally termed off-highway vehicles, including tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers, and golf carts. Off-road vehicles have a following because of their many uses. Several types of motorsports involve racing off-road vehicles, the three largest 4-wheel vehicle off-road types of competitions are rally, desert racing, and rockcrawling. The three largest types of all-terrain vehicle / motorcycle competitions are Motocross, Enduro, and also desert racing like Dakar Rallye, the most common use of these vehicles is for sight seeing in areas distant from pavement. The use of higher clearance and higher traction vehicles enables access on trails and forest roads that have rough, the system uses an unusual caterpillar track which has a flexible belt rather than interlocking metal segments. It can be fitted to a car or truck to turn it into a half-track suitable for use over rough or soft ground. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned to his native France where the system was used on Citroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road and military vehicles, the Citroën company sponsored several overland expeditions with their vehicles crossing North Africa and Central Asia. A huge wheeled vehicle designed from 1937 to 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter called Antarctic Snow Cruiser was intended to transport in the Antarctica. While having several innovative features, it failed to operate as hoped under the difficult conditions. After World War II, a surplus of light off-road vehicles like the Jeep. The Jeeps in particular were popular with buyers who used them as utility vehicles and this was also the start of off-roading as a hobby. These were all alike, small, compact, four-wheel-drive vehicles with at most a small hardtop to protect the occupants from the elements, from the 1960s and onward, more comfortable vehicles were produced. For several years they were popular with rural buyers due to their off-road, the U. S. Later, during the 1990s, manufacturers started to add even more luxuries to bring those off-road vehicles on par with regular cars. This eventually evolved into what we call the SUV today and it also evolved into the newer crossover vehicle, where utility and off-road capability was sacrificed for better on-road handling and luxury. Wheeled vehicles accomplish this by having a balance of large or additional tires combined with tall. Tracked vehicles accomplish this by having wide tracks and a suspension on the road wheels. The choice of wheels versus tracks is one of cost and suitability, a tracked drivetrain is more expensive to produce and maintain

54.
UAZ-469
–
The UAZ-469 is an off-road military light utility vehicle manufactured by UAZ. It was used by Soviet and other Warsaw Pact armed forces, in the Soviet Union, it also saw widespread service in state organizations that needed a robust and durable off-road vehicle. Standard military versions included seating for seven personnel, developed from the GAZ-69 and UAZ-460, the UAZ-469 was introduced in 1971 to replace the GAZ-69. It was powered by the same 75 hp 2,445 cc UMZ 452MI inline-four engine as the UAZ-452 and was able to run on gasoline with a rating as low as 72. The UAZ-469 presented two great advantages, it was able to drive in any terrain and it was very easy to repair. The vehicle was not available for purchase by the public. Modifications include a basic UAZ-469B with ground clearance of 220 mm, after slight modernisation in 1985, due to new industry designation standards, they were renamed, the UAZ-469 became the UAZ-3151, while the UAZ-469B became the UAZ-31512. Manufacture of the UAZ-31512 for the Russian Army continued until 2011, however, the currently manufactured UAZ Hunter is an updated version of the old UAZ-469B. The 469 was exported to eighty countries, UAZ-469B – a civilian version of the UAZ-469. In this version, the clearance is 220mm and the drive axles use a single-stage main gear without the final drive. The 469B was available with a contact or contactless electronic ignition system and its PTO shafts are slightly longer than the shafts of the UAZ-469. The cabin is open and came with a canvas roof. The 2. 4-litre engine is paired with a four-speed transmission, a police patrol car version was available, based on the UAZ-31512-UMM with an insulated five-door metal body and optional special equipment. The UAZ-469B formed the basis of the TREKOL-39041 amphibious vehicle, willys MB, the US off-road vehicle of World War II. Other similar vehicles include the Jeep CJ and the Jeep Wrangler, UAZ company UAZ owners group Italian owners group UAZ tuning Gallery Video of Tuned UAZs in extreme off-road Video of stock UAZ from Poland UAZ469 Instruction Manual UAZ3151 Instruction Manual

55.
Tatra T 810
–
Tatra T810 is a medium truck made by Czech company Tatra. Unlike other Tatra trucks, it doesnt use the traditional Tatra conception of backbone chassis and swinging half-axles, but the customary truck architecture with conventional frame. In early 1990s the Czech Army was aiming to replace its fleet of medium trucks. The selection procedure was won the Roudnické slévárny a strojírny with its ROSS R210 project, the R210 was outsourcing many components from Renault. Since 1996 the company delivered 15 vehicles for the purposes, after which the delivery of serial vehicles was supposed to start. The company has invested a lot into the development of the truck, in 2002 the Tatra company bought the documentation and rights to the R210 truck in order to enter the market of medium trucks, as all the models the company offered were in the class of heavy trucks. It intended to modernize the original project, and it hoped that the Czech Army will finally undertake the replacement of its fleet of 4000 Praga V3s. Tatra closed alliance with other companies to work on the project together, for example the Praga was supposed to deliver gear boxes, other components were to be delivered by Renault. In 2005 the Czech government approved acquisition of the T810 trucks in August 2005, while deliveries were scheduled to start in April 2008

Tatra T 810
–
Tatra T 810

56.
Armoured fighting vehicle
–
An armoured fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle, protected by strong armour and generally armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked and it is not uncommon for AFVs to be simply referred to as armour. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their role on the battlefield. This classification is not absolute, at different times different countries will classify the vehicle in different roles. For example, armoured carriers were generally replaced by infantry fighting vehicles in a similar role. Modern armoured fighting vehicles are the realization of an ancient concept, War machines with rudimentary armour have been used in battle for millennia. These designs historically struggled between the paradox of exposed-mobility, effective-firepower and cumbersome-protection, Siege engines, such as battering rams and trebuchets, would often be armoured in order to protect the crews from the defenders. Very large movable siege towers, helepolis were developed by Polyidus of Thessaly, the idea of a vehicle with a tortoise like cover has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vincis 15th century sketch of a mobile, protected gun platform, the machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage gears. Leonardo quoted I will build armored wagons which will be safe, there will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome. Modern replicas have demonstrated that the crew would have been able to move it over only short distances. The war wagon were medieval weapon-platforms developmed during the Hussite Wars around 1420 by Hussite forces rebelling in Bohemia. These heavy wagon were given protective sides with firing slits and heavy firepower from either a cannon or a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by infantry using pikes, heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc. These carried a ball of about 3.5 ounces, the first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour. The armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle, the first of these was the Simms Motor War Car, designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a speed of around 9 miles per hour

57.
ATF Dingo
–
The ATF Dingo is a German heavily armored military infantry mobility vehicle based on a Unimog chassis with a V-hull design, produced by the company Krauss-Maffei Wegmann. It is designed to land mines, rifle fire, artillery fragments and NBC-threats. ATF stands for Allschutz-Transport-Fahrzeug, meaning all-protected transport vehicle in German and it is named after the Australian native dog, the dingo. Currently KMW is developing the Dingo 2 GFF for the German Army with increased internal volume, Textron signed an exclusive deal to produce and market KMWs Dingo in the United States. However, Textron chose its own more expensive and heavier M1117 Armored Security Vehicle for the MRAP competition, the ATF Dingo has a modular design with five elements, chassis, protection cell, storage space, engine compartment, and bottom mine blast deflector. Its design is lighter and includes an armored chassis with a blast pan instead of the more common monocoque hull found in modern blast resistant vehicles, iBDs layered MEXAS is used and the windows are angled to deflect blasts and bullets. A tarpaulin is used over the storage area instead of metal to save weight. The Dingos standard armament is a Rheinmetall MG37.62 mm machine gun in a turret on the top of the vehicle. The operator sits safely inside the cabin, sighting the weapon with periscopes, in 2008 the Bundeswehr ordered several hundred fully remote-controlled weapons stations from KMW, for its Dingos and other armored vehicles, the light FLW100, and the heavy FLW200. The weapons station is controlled by an operator viewing a monitor inside the vehicle, the ATF Dingo 2 is an advanced version of the Dingo, based on the upgraded Unimog U5000 chassis with improved protection and more payload. It is offered in two versions with 3,250 and 3,850 mm wheelbase, the Dingo 2 can seat eight personnel

ATF Dingo
–
ATF Dingo 2 with a mounted machine gun
ATF Dingo
–
Three German Army ATF Dingos in Afghanistan.
ATF Dingo
–
ATF Dingo 1 of the German Army deployed in Kosovo.
ATF Dingo
–
German Army Dingo 1's rear View.

58.
BRDM-2
–
The BRDM-2 is an amphibious armoured patrol car used by Russia and the former Soviet Union. It was also known under the designations BTR-40PB, BTR-40P-2 and GAZ 41-08 and this vehicle, like many other Soviet designs, has been exported extensively and is in use in at least 38 countries. It was intended to replace the earlier BRDM-1, compared to which it had improved amphibious capabilities, after a few years of use by the Soviet Army, the limitations and drawbacks of the BRDM-1 became obvious. The vehicle had no turret and to operate the armament the gunner had to open a hatch, the vehicle was not fitted with an NBC protection system, and had no night vision equipment by default. The vehicle also didnt have any kind of special sights, which undermined its usability as a reconnaissance vehicle and these drawbacks encouraged the design team to create a new vehicle which would suit the modern battlefield. The BRDM-2 has a crew of four, a driver, a co-driver, a commander, externally, it differs from the BRDM-1 by having a larger, box-like hull. It retains the boat-like bow of the BRDM-1, however, the crew compartment is now further forward and the new GAZ-41 gasoline V-8 engine is in the rear. Thanks to this, the engine is better protected from enemy fire. The engine compartment is separated from the crew compartment by an armoured barrier. The drivers and commanders stations are in the front of the vehicle, with the driver positioned on the left, both of them sit in front of a bulletproof windscreen, which provides them with their primary view of the battlefield. When in combat, the windscreen can be protected by twin armoured shutters. When the shutters are in their position, they protect the driver and commander from being blinded by the sunlight. The commander and driver have periscopes allowing both of them a detailed view of the surrounding terrain. The commander has six TNP-A periscopes, a TPKU-2B day sight, the driver has four TNP-A periscopes, one of which can be replaced by a TWN-2B night vision device. The gunner is in the turret during combat, but when traveling he is seated inside the hull, the crew mounts and dismounts the vehicle via two hatches over drivers and commanders stations. On either side of the adjacent to the crew position. Immediately behind the port there are three TNP-A periscopes, which protrude from the outside of the hull, giving the crew some vision to the front. The engine is larger than the BRDMs, the BRDM-2 has an IR spotlight and four IR driving lights, as well as an over pressure collective NBC filter system

BRDM-2
–
BRDM-2 on a military parade, 1 March 1983.
BRDM-2
–
Polish BRDM-2 crossing a trench with the use of its belly wheels.

59.
2K12 Kub
–
The 2K12 Kub mobile surface-to-air missile system is a Soviet low to medium-level air defence system designed to protect ground forces from air attack. 2К12 is the GRAU designation of the system, each 2K12 battery consists of a number of similar tracked vehicles, one of which carries the 1S9125 kW G/H band radar equipped with a continuous wave illuminator, in addition to an optical sight. The battery usually also includes four triple-missile transporter erector launchers, and four trucks, the TEL is based on a GM-578 chassis, while the 1S91 radar vehicle is based on a GM-568 chassis, all developed and produced by MMZ. The development of the 2K12 was started after 18 July 1958 at the request of the CPSU Central Committee.7, the systems design was the responsibility of the now Tikhomirov Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Design. Before 1963 only 11 of 83 missiles fired had the seeker head installed, Kub downed its first ever air target on February 18,1963 during the state trials at Donguz test site, Orenburg Oblast. It was an Ilyushin Il-28 bomber, the 2K12 Kub was recommended for modernisation work in 1967 with the goal of improving combat characteristics. A modernised variant underwent trial testing in 1972 eventually being adopted in 1973 as the Kub-M1, the system underwent another modernisation between 1974 and 1976, against the general combat characteristics of the system were improved with the Kub-M3 clearing testing and entering service in 1976. The final major development of the Kub missile system was achieved during the development of its successor, although the Buk is the successor to Kub it was decided that both systems could share some interoperability, the result of this decision was the Kub-M4 system. The Kub-M4 used Kub-M3 components which could receive fire control information from the 9А310 transporter erector launcher, the advantage of interoperability was an increase in the number of fire control channels and available missiles for each system as well as a faster service entry for Buk system components. The Kub-M4 was adopted into service in 1978 following completion of trials, some early development interpretations of the Buk missile system heavily utilized Kub components, including the 3M9 missile. There are several plans to integrate active radar homing missiles into Kub, for instance, Polish WZU of Grudziadz demonstrated a project of a Sparrow-armed Kub at the MSPO2008 defence exhibition in Kielce. It is reported also that Vympel initiated some work to use its RVV-AE air-to-air missile to modernise the Kvadrat SAM system, also, the Czech company RETIA presented a SURN upgrade featuring an optical channel and new multiple-function color displays as well as the radar upgrade and the IFF system. In 2011 a Kub upgraded launcher with three Aspide 2000 missiles in launch containers was presented at the International Exhibition of Defence and Security Technologies exposition in Brno, the modifications were made by Retia. The 2K12 system shares many components with the 2K11 Krug system, in many ways they are designed to complement each other, 2K11 is effective at long ranges and high altitudes, 2K12 at medium ranges and intermediate altitudes. The system is able to acquire and begin tracking targets using the 1S91 Самоходная установка разведки и наведения at 75 km and begin illumination, IFF is also performed using this radar. It can only guide one or two missiles to a target at any time. The missile is initially command guided with terminal semi-active radar homing, detonation is via either the impact or proximity fuze. The optical tracking method also allows engagements to altitudes below that where the radar is able to track targets, maximum target speed is around Mach 2 for head-on engagements and Mach 1 for tail-chase engagements

60.
Surface-to-air missile
–
A surface-to-air missile, or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. It is one type of system, in modern armed forces, missiles have replaced most other forms of dedicated antiaircraft weapons. The first serious attempts at SAM development took place during World War II, further development in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational systems being introduced by most major forces during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for work, evolved through the 1960s and 1970s. The American Nike Ajax was the first operational guided missile SAM system, widely used modern examples include the Patriot and S-300 wide-area systems, SM-6 naval missiles, and short-range man-portable systems like the Stinger and Strela-3. The first known idea for a guided missile was in 1925. A selenium cell was mounted on the tip of each of the rockets four tail fins, when one selenium cell was no longer in the light beam, it would be steered in the opposite direction back into the beam. During World War II, efforts were started to develop surface-to-air missiles as it was considered that flak was of little use against bombers of ever-increasing performance. The lethal radius of a shell is fairly small. Against the Boeing B-17, which operated just within the range of the numerous German eighty-eights flak guns, bombers flying at higher altitudes require larger guns and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and slows the rate of fire, faster aircraft fly out of range more quickly, reducing the number of rounds fired against them. Against late-war designs like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered designs like the Arado Ar 234, the first serious consideration of a SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. Von Braun became convinced a better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, the directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in manned aircraft, and the resulting disagreements between the teams delayed serious consideration of a SAM for two years. None of these saw any real development until 1943, when the first large-scale raids by the Allied air forces started. As the urgency of the problem grew, new designs were added, including Enzian and Rheintochter, in general, these designs could be split into two groups. One set of designs would be boosted to altitude in front of the bombers and these designs included the Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group were high-speed missiles, typically supersonic, that flew directly towards their targets from below, both types used radio control for guidance, either by eye, or by comparing the returns of the missile and target on a single radar screen. Development of all systems was carried out at the same time

Surface-to-air missile
–
An artist's depiction of a Soviet surface-to-air missile system engaging western combat aircraft.
Surface-to-air missile
–
A Wasserfall missile lifts off during a test flight.
Surface-to-air missile
–
Nike Ajax was the first operational SAM system.
Surface-to-air missile
–
SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles, one of the most widely deployed SAM systems in the world

61.
Attack helicopter
–
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships, weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays attack helicopter has two roles, first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops. Attack helicopters are used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, a helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed. S. Army artillery spotter units over France, these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the struts, against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U. S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s, various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, by the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting pop-up attacks, the helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission. Based on this realization, and with the involvement in Vietnam, the U. S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter. The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was Lockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne, as the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in trials conducted by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U. S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras, the Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed

Attack helicopter
–
A British Apache fires rockets at insurgents in Afghanistan in 2008.
Attack helicopter
–
Prototype of the AH-1, the first dedicated attack helicopter, and a canonical example to this day
Attack helicopter
–
Mil Mi-24P, a later production variant of the Mi-24. These helicopters were used extensively in the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
Attack helicopter
–
A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50 represented the first dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air Forces in the 1980s.

62.
Unmanned aerial vehicle
–
An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which include a UAV, a controller. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under control by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions too dull, civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015. Multiple terms are used for unmanned vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept. The term drone, more used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of navigation. The term has encountered opposition from aviation professionals and government regulators. This term emphasizes the importance of other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground stations, data links. A similar term is a vehicle system remotely piloted aerial vehicle. Many similar terms are in use, therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided. The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight, however, a radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of an autopilot artificial intelligence, and ceases to be a drone when an AI is removed. In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice, UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time, the earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Lows Aerial Target in 1916. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles in 1915. Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, the first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used both to train gunners and to fly attack missions

63.
Mil Mi-8
–
The Mil Mi-8 is a medium twin-turbine helicopter, originally designed by the Soviet Union, and now produced by Russia. In addition to its most common role as a helicopter, the Mi-8 is also used as an airborne command post, armed gunship. Along with the related, more powerful Mil Mi-17, the Mi-8 is among the worlds most-produced helicopters, as of 2015, it is the third most common operational military aircraft in the world. Due to the position of the engine, this enabled Mikhail Mil to justify redesigning the front half of the aircraft around the single engine. The prototype, which was named V-8, was designed in 1958, powered by an AI-242,010 kW Soloviev turboshaft engine, the single engined V-8 prototype had its maiden flight in June 1961 and was first shown on Soviet Aviation Day parade in July 1961. During an official visit to the United States in September 1959, on Khrushchevs return, he ordered the creation of a similar helicopter, which was to be ready for the return visit by the American president, to save face. A luxury version of the Mi-4 was quickly created and Khrushchev took an inspection flight, however, it would be necessary to have a second engine for reliability. In May 1960, the order was given for Mikhail Mil to create his twin engine helicopter, the Sergei Isotov Design Bureau accepted the task of creating the engines. The second prototype flew in September 1961, the aircraft completed its factory based testing in February 1963. The fifth and final prototype was a production prototype for the passenger market. In November 1964, all joint testing had completed and the soviet government began mass production. Production started in the Kazan Production Plant, with the first aircraft completed by the end of 1965 and it was only then that the Soviet military rushed a troop-carrying variant of the Mil Mi-8 into production. By 1967, it had introduced into the Soviet Air Force as the Mi-8. There are numerous variants, including the Mi-8T, which, in addition to carrying 24 troops, is armed with rockets, the Mil Mi-17 export version is employed by around 20 countries, its equivalent in Russian service in the Mi-8M series. The only visible difference between the Mi-8 and Mi-17 is that the rotor is on the starboard side of the Mi-8. Also Mi-17 also has some improved armour plating for its crew, the naval Mil Mi-14 version is also derived from the Mi-8. The Mi-8 is constantly improving and the newest version still remains in production in 2016, the Mi-8 family of helicopters became the main Soviet and later Russian helicopter covering a large range of roles in both peace time and war time. Large fleets of Mi-8 and its derivatives are employed by military and civil operators

64.
Mil Mi-17
–
The Mil Mi-17 is a Russian helicopter in production at two factories in Kazan and Ulan-Ude. It is known as the Mi-8M series in Russian service and it is a medium twin-turbine transport helicopter. There are also armed gunship versions, optional engines for hot and high conditions are the 1545 kW Isotov TV3-117VM. Recent exports to China and Venezuela for use in high mountains have the new Klimov VK-2500 version of the Klimov TV3-117 engine with FADEC control, the designation Mi-17 is for export, Russian armed forces call it Mi-8MT. The Mi-17 can be recognized because it has the rotor on the port side instead of the starboard side. Engine cowls are shorter than on the TV2-powered Mi-8, not extending as far over the cockpit, actual model numbers vary by builder, engine type, and other options. As an example, the sixteen new Ulan-Ude-built machines delivered to the Czech Air Force in 2005 with –VM model engines were designated as Mi-171Sh, modifications include a new large door on the right side, improved Czech-built APU, Kevlar armor plates around the cockpit area and engines. Eight have a ramp in place of the usual clamshell doors. The plant built 20 helicopters in 2008, using Russian Ulan-Ude-supplied kits, the variants to be built by Lantian will include Mi-171, Mi-17V5, and Mi-17V7. In May 1999, during Operation Safed Sagar, the Mi-17 was used in the first air phase of the Kargil War by 129HU of the Indian Air Force against Pakistani regular, one Mi-17 was downed by a shoulder-fired missile, and a fighter aircraft was lost in combat. This led the withdrawal of armed helicopters and attacks by fixed-wing aircraft began, the Mi-17 was used extensively by the Sri Lanka Air Force in the Sri Lankan Civil War. Seven of them were lost in combat and attacks on airports, the Mi-17 was used by the Colombian Army in Operation Jaque. In 2001, the Macedonian Air Force used the Mi-17 against Albanian insurgents, the Mi-17 is also used by search and rescue teams such as the Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department. Executive Outcomes used them extensively in its operations in the Angolan Civil War, the Mi-17 is used as a commercial passenger aircraft by Air Koryo, national airline of North Korea. Previous flights include those between Pyongyang and Kaesong and Pyongyang and Haeju, the Mexican Navy uses its Mi-17s for anti-narcotic operations such as locating marijuana fields and dispatching marines to eradicate the plantations. The Slovak Air Force and Croatian Air Force operate Mi-17s in Kosovo as part of KFOR, both the pro-Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war have operated Mi-17s. Mi-17s are operated by the Afghan Air Force, in July 2010 two Mi-17 were flown by a mixed crew of United States Air Force and Afghan Air Force personnel in a 13-hour mission that rescued 2,080 civilians from flood waters. This was the largest rescue by two helicopters in USAF history, USAF pilot Lt Col Gregory Roberts received the Distinguished Flying Cross for the mission

65.
CASA C-295
–
The EADS CASA C-295 is a twin-turboprop tactical military transport aircraft, and is currently manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space in Spain. The C-295 is manufactured and assembled in the Airbus Military facilities in the San Pablo Airport, in Seville and it is a development of the Spanish – Indonesian transport aircraft CASA/IPTN CN-235, but with a stretched fuselage, 50% more payload capability and new PW127G turboprop engines. The C-295 made its flight in 1998. The first order came from the Spanish Air Force, the C-295 is in service with the armed forces of 15 countries. As of 31 August 2015,136 C295s have been contracted,134 are in service, the C-295 was a major bidder for the US Army–US Air Force Joint Cargo Aircraft which was awarded to the L-3 Communications/Alenia team on June 13,2007. The C-295 was considered a risk by the Army due to its use of a new operational mode to meet altitude. The C-295 was selected in 2016 as the replacement for the Royal Canadian Air Forces DHC-5 Buffalo in the Search & Rescue role, the aircraft, along with the C-27J Spartan, is a candidate to replace the Indonesian Air Forces Fokker F27s and the Peruvian Air Forces Antonov An-32s. In November 2011, the Australian Department of Defence issued a request for information on the C-295, in July 2012 Poland ordered an additional five C-295s, this order made the Polish Air Force the second largest single operator of the C295, flying 16 aircraft. In January 2013, Airbus reported that a total of 28 C-295s had been sold during 2012 in what was described as a bumper year, on 13 May 2015, the Defence Acquisition Council approved purchase of C-295. The first 16 planes under the deal will be procured from the vendor. Capacity for 71 troops,48 paratroops,27 stretchers, five 2.24 ×2.74 m pallets or three light vehicles, Indonesian Aerospace have a licence to build the C-295 in Indonesia. Since 2011 PTDI has an Industrial Collaboration with Airbus Defence & Space for CN295 program, c-295AEW&C Prototype airborne early warning and control version with EL/W-2090360 degree radar dome. The AESA radar was developed by Israel Aerospace Industries and has an integrated IFF system, C-295 Firefighter Dedicated aerial firefighting aircraft. C-295SAR Dedicated search and rescue aircraft for the Canadian Armed Forces, C-295W Enhanced performance version with winglets and uprated engines announced in 2013. AC-295 Gunship Gunship version developed by Airbus Defence and Space, Orbital ATK, kC-295 Dedicated Aerial refueling tanker aircraft Algeria The Algerian Air Force received six C-295 for transport and maritime patrol. Bangladesh The Bangladesh Army Aviation Group ordered one C-295W, brazil The Brazilian Air Force received 11 C-295, designated C-105A Amazonas, to replace the ageing DHC-5/C-115 Buffalo transports. Canada The Royal Canadian Air Force has been authorized to purchase 16 C-295s to replace its fleet of CC-115 Buffalo and older model C-130H Hercules search. They will be operated from Greenwood, Nova Scotia, Trenton, Ontario, Winnipeg, Manitoba and Comox, the aircraft will be primarily operated at CFB Comox, where Airbus is a building an RCAF Search & Rescue Training Facility for the C295

66.
AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven
–
The RQ-11 Raven was originally introduced as the FQM-151 in 1999, but in 2002 developed into its current form, resembling an enlarged FAI class F1C free flight model aircraft in general appearance. The craft is launched by hand and powered by a pusher configuration electric motor. The plane can fly up to 6.2 miles at altitudes of appx 500 feet above ground level, the U. S. Army deploys the Raven at company-level. The Raven RQ-11B UAV system is manufactured by AeroVironment and it was the winner of the US Armys SUAV program in 2005, and went into Full-Rate Production in 2006. Shortly afterwards, it was adopted by the US Marines. It has also adopted by the military forces of many other countries. More than 19,000 Raven airframes have been delivered to customers worldwide to date, a new Digital Data Link-enabled version of Raven now in production for US Forces and allies has improved endurance, among many other improvements. The Raven can be remotely controlled from the ground station or fly completely autonomous missions using GPS waypoint navigation. The UAV can be ordered to return to its launch point simply by pressing a single command button. Standard mission payloads include CCD color video cameras and a night vision camera. The RQ-11B Raven UAV weighs about 1.9 kg, has a endurance of 60–90 minutes. The RQ-11B Raven UAV is launched by hand, thrown into the air like a flight model airplane. The Raven lands itself by auto-piloting to a landing point. The UAV can provide day or night aerial intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, acting as communications nodes for ground forces has become an important function for UAVs, but has been restricted to larger platforms like the RQ-4 Global Hawk or RQ-21 Blackjack. Being certified for Secret classification and at just 25 cubic inches and weighing 18 oz, in August 2015, selected units began receiving upgrades to their Raven sensors. The Raven Gimbal is a camera with a 360-degree gimbal. The new camera can also be switched between day and night settings without landing and swapping sensors, future improvements include improving the durability of the solar panels and reducing their weight. Integration work is also being conducted on the AeroVironment Wasp and the RQ-20 Puma, the Raven is used by the United States Army, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Special Operations Command

67.
AeroVironment Wasp III
–
The aircraft is equipped with two on-board cameras to provide real-time intelligence to its operators. It is also equipped with GPS and an Inertial Navigation System enabling it to operate autonomously from takeoff to recovery and it was designed by AeroVironment Inc. and was first added to the Air Force inventory in 2007. There are two Wasp variants, the version that lands on land and a version that lands into the sea or fresh water. The Air Force accepted the Wasp AE in late May 2012, the Wasp AE is designated as the RQ-12A. The Wasp weighs only 430 g, is 16 in long, the aircraft can fly for 45 minutes out to 5 km at an altitude of 1,000 ft with a top speed of 40–65 km/h. In May 2012, AeroVironment introduced the Wasp AE, a version of the Wasp air vehicle that can land on ground or water. Although it is heavier at 2.8 lb, it has 20 percent greater endurance, following the Air Force, the Marine Corps ordered the Wasp AE in September 2012.25 ft Wingspan,2.375 ft Height, Empty weight,0

AeroVironment Wasp III
–
Wasp III Small Unmanned Aircraft System

68.
Trainer (aircraft)
–
A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews. Civilian pilots are trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to allow for a student and instructor. The aircraft may be modified to withstand the conditions imposed by training flights. The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are, pilot and instructor side by side, or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. It is now the norm for pilots to begin their training in an aircraft with side by side seating. This, however, has not always been the case, given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to eliminate unsuitable candidates. The cost to air forces that do not follow a graduated training regimen is not just monetary. There are two areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills, in operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques. Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in an aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the United States Air Force Academy. The U. S. replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program with the Diamond DA20, at the end of this stage, pilot trainees are assessed as to where their attributes lie, as fast jet, multi-engine or rotary wing pilots. Those who are judged unsuitable for a commission, but show other attributes, may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators. Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders, after the ab-inito phase a candidate may progress to basic, or primary, trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers, like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano, prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions, examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130. Effective combat aircraft are a function now electronics as much as, if not more so than and it is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics

69.
Very important person
–
A very important person is a person who is accorded special privileges due to their status or importance. The special treatment usually involves separation from common people, and a level of comfort or service. In some cases, such as tickets, VIP may be used as a title in a similar way to premium. These VIP tickets can be purchased by anyone, but still meaning separation from other customers, the term VVIP or Very Very Important Person is also used, especially with reference to VIPs with very high spending power. VIP syndrome is when a perceived VIP uses their status to influence a given professional to make decisions under the pressure or presence of the individual. The phenomenon can occur in any profession that has relationships with wealthy, famous, one example is the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash

70.
Airbus A319
–
The Airbus A319 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A319 carries up to 160 passengers and has a range of 3,700 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany and Tianjin. The A319 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in April 1996 with Swissair. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,457 Airbus A319 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 21 airliners are on firm order. As of 28 February 2017, EasyJet was the largest operator of the Airbus A319, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly shortened fuselage A319neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A319 was developed at the request of Steven Udvar-Hazy, the former president and CEO of ILFC according to The New York Times. The A319 design is a shortened fuselage, minimum change derivative of the A320 with its origins in the 130- to 140-seat SA1, the SA1 was shelved as the consortium concentrated on its bigger siblings. After healthy sales of the A320/A321, Airbus re-focused on what was known as the A320M-7. It would provide competition for the 737–300/-700. The shrink was achieved through the removal of four frames fore. Consequently, the number of overwing exits was reduced from four to two, the bulk-cargo door was replaced by an aft container door, which can take in reduced height LD3-45 containers. Minor software changes were made to accommodate the different handling characteristics, power is provided by the CFM56-5A or V2500-A5, derated to 98 kN, with option for 105 kN thrust. With virtually the same capacity as the A320-200, and fewer passengers. The A319s wingspan is longer than the overall length

Airbus A319
–
A320 family A319/A320/A321
Airbus A319
–
Air Inter A320-100 in 1991, one of the few A320-100s
Airbus A319
–
The cockpit of the A321 is similar to that of the A318, A319 and A320. This layout would be incorporated into the A330, A340, A350 and A380. This " commonality " enables pilots to quickly transition among these aircraft.
Airbus A319
–
The horizontal stabilizer of the A320 is produced in Spain. Other A320 parts are manufactured at sites throughout Europe and the world.

71.
Pistol
–
A pistol is a type of handgun. In some usage, the term refers to a subset of handguns. In other usage, the term is interchangeable with handgun, some handgun experts and dictionaries make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns, others use the terms interchangeably. But UK/rest of Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, for example, the official designation of the Webley Mk VI revolver was Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No.1 Mk VI. The English word was introduced in ca.1570 from the Middle French pistolet, the etymology of the French word pistolet is disputed. The first suggestion derives the word from Czech píšťala, a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during the 1420s, the Czech word was adopted in German as pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants. The second suggestion is less likely, the use of the word as a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in Italy, long after it was used in French, the Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in 1420s. Other suggestions include from Middle High German pischulle or from Middle French pistole, also it is suggested that early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung from the pommel of a horses saddle. The most common types of pistol are the shot. Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era of flintlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was loaded with a ball and fired by a flint striker. However, as technology improved, so did the single shot pistol, new operating mechanisms were created, and due to this, they are still made today. It is the oldest type of pistol, and is used to hunt wild game. Multi-barreled pistols were common during the time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways to increase fire rates, multiple barrels were added to all guns including pistols, one example of a multi-barreled pistol is the Ducks foot pistol, which generally had either four or eight barrels, although some 20th century models had three barrels. Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun were produced that had a sliding magazine, the sliding magazine contained pinfire cartridges or speedloaders. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic pistols, with the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had finally achieved the goal of a practical capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun barrel in quick succession. The semi-automatic pistol was the step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers—which need to be individually reloaded—semi-automatic pistols delivered faster rates of fire, an example of a modern blow back action semi-automatic pistol is the HK VP70

72.
CZ 82
–
The Česká zbrojovka Vz.82 is a compact semi-automatic pistol made for the Czechoslovakian military. Vz is an abbreviation for vzor, which translates to model, a civilian export version is called the CZ83. Manufactured by the Czechoslovak firm Česká zbrojovka the vz.82 replaced the 7. 62×25mm Tokarev vz.52 pistol in Czechoslovak military service in 1983 and it is a compact, single/double-action, semi-automatic pistol with a conventional blowback action. This type of action allows the barrel to remain solidly fixed to the frame, the low bore axis of the vz.82 provides for less muzzle rise and quicker follow-up shots. For added convenience, both the frame-mounted thumb safety and the release are ambidextrous. The vz.82 was the first service pistol to both these features. The bore is chrome plated, which gives it three advantages, longer life, resistance to rust from the use of corrosive ammunition. Another feature of this pistol is the use of rifling in the barrel bore. This replaces the traditional lands and grooves rifling design with a rounded, smooth polygonal pattern which has a more hills, the vz.82 had museum interest as a curio and relic. The Vz.82 was made in 9×18mm only while the CZ83 is available in a variety of finishes, the standard Vz.82 magazine fits the CZ-83 in.380 ACP without alteration

73.
Sub machine gun
–
A submachine gun is a magazine-fed, automatic carbine designed to fire pistol cartridges. The term submachine gun was coined by John T. Thompson, the submachine gun was developed during World War I. At its zenith during World War II, millions of SMGs were made, after the war, new SMG designs appeared frequently. However, by the 1980s, SMG usage decreased, today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault rifles, which have a greater effective range and are capable of penetrating the helmets and body armor used by modern infantrymen. Carbine-type automatic weapons firing pistol rounds were developed during the stages of World War I by Italy, Germany. Their improved firepower and portability offered an advantage in trench warfare, in 1915, the Italians introduced the Villar-Perosa aircraft machine gun. It fired pistol-caliber 9mm Glisenti ammunition, but was not a true submachine gun and this odd design was then modified into the Beretta OVP carbine-type submachine gun, which then evolved into the Beretta Model 1918 after the end of World War I. Both the Beretta OVP and the Model 1918 had a wooden stock, a 25-round top-fed box magazine. The Germans initially used heavier versions of the P08 pistol equipped with a larger-capacity snail-drum magazine, by 1918, Bergmann Waffenfabrik had developed the MP18, the first practical submachine gun. This weapon fired the 9×19mm Parabellum round and used the same 32-round snail-drum magazine as the Luger P-08, the MP18 was used in significant numbers by German stormtroopers employing infiltration tactics, achieving some notable successes in the final year of the war. However, these were not enough to prevent Germanys collapse in November 1918, after World War I, the MP18 would evolve into the MP28/II SMG, which incorporated a simple 32-round box magazine, a semi & full auto selector, and other minor improvements. The Thompson submachine gun had been in development at approximately the time as the Bergmann. However, the war ended before prototypes could be shipped to Europe, although it had missed its chance to be the first purpose-designed submachine gun to enter service, it became the basis for later weapons and had the longest active service life of the three. However, the FBI and other U. S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use, eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted by many military organizations, especially as World War II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs. The Italians were among the first to develop submachine guns during World War I, however, they were slow to produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model 1938 was not available in numbers until 1943. The 38 was made in a series of improved and simplified models all sharing the same basic layout. The Beretta has two triggers, the front for semi-auto and rear for full-auto, most models use standard wooden stocks, although some models were fitted with an MP 40-style under-folding stock and are commonly mistaken for the German SMG

74.
Shotgun
–
Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes, ranging from 5. A shotgun is generally a smoothbore firearm, which means that the inside of the barrel is not rifled, preceding smoothbore firearms, such as the musket, were widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was used in a similar variety of roles from self-defense to riot control. It was often used by cavalry troops because of its shorter length and ease of use. In the 19th century, however, these weapons were replaced on the battlefield with breechloading rifled firearms. The military value of shotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, since then, it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications. The shot pellets from a spread upon leaving the barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets. In a hunting context, this makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds, however, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or a defensive weapon. Militants or insurgents may use shotguns in asymmetric engagements, as shotguns are commonly owned civilian weapons in many countries, shotguns are also used for target shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons, thrown in various ways, shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type of firearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a unique center around the requirements of firing shot. These features are the typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide cartridge, with straight walls. Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as shotgun shells, shotshells, the term cartridges is standard usage in the United Kingdom. The shot is fired from a smoothbore barrel, another configuration is the rifled slug barrel. The typical use of a shotgun is against small and fast moving targets, the spreading of the shot allows the user to point the shotgun close to the target, rather than having to aim precisely as in the case of a single projectile. The disadvantages of shot are limited range and limited penetration of the shot, which is why shotguns are used at short ranges, and typically against smaller targets. Larger shot sizes, up to the case of the single projectile slug load, result in increased penetration. Aside from the most common use against small, fast moving targets, First, it has enormous stopping power at short range, more than nearly all handguns and many rifles

75.
Winchester Model 1200
–
The Model 1200 and Model 1300 are two pump-action shotguns that were manufactured by the Winchester-Western Division of Olin Corporation. It was produced in 12-, 16- and 20-gauge, the military version of the 1200 has the ability to have a bayonet fixed on the end of the barrel to be used in close quarter combat. The Winchester Model 1200 was introduced in 1964 as a low-cost replacement for the venerable Model 12, a small number of these weapons were acquired by the United States Army in 1968 and 1969. The military style Model 1200 was essentially the same weapon as the version, except it had a ventilated handguard, sling swivels. The Model 1200 was succeeded by the Winchester Model 1300 in 1983 when U. S, repeating Arms Company became the manufacturer of Winchester firearms. Production of the Model 1300 ceased in 2006, when USRAC went bankrupt, the slide action, also known as a pump-action, means that the shotgun has a moving bolt system which is operated by a wooden or composite slide called the fore-end. The fore-end is located on the underside of the barrel and moves front to back, the weapon can hold a maximum of five rounds total with four in the tubular magazine and one in the chamber. It has an action which means that there is no external hammer spur. There is only a pin which strikes the primer on the shell to ignite the powder in the round. The Model 1200 was the first shotgun to utilize a bolt with four locking lugs secured within the barrel extension. The 1200 was Winchesters first shotgun to incorporate the companys patented Winchoke system, a bayonet could be attached to the front end of the barrel of the Military version of the Model 1200. The primary uses of the bayonet on the model 1200 are for close combat, guarding prisoners, the most commonly used bayonet with the Model 1200 was the M1917 bayonet. After World War I ended, there was a surplus of the M-1917 bayonets because the Army decided to keep the M1903 Springfield as the standard issued rifle. The M-1917 bayonet did not fit the Springfield rifles so instead of just getting rid of them, Model 1200 shotguns with bayonet lugs and ventilation ribs were still in U. S. Army inventories as late as the invasion of Iraq 2003. During the Iraq war the Model 1200 shotguns were phased out in favor of Mossberg 500 shotguns, Model 1200, Standard capacity model with four-shell tubular magazine Model 1200 Defender, Increased capacity model with six-shell tubular magazine. Model 1200 Police, Increased capacity variant of the Model 1200 Defender with an electrolysis nickel-plated satin barrel, Model 1200 Marine, Increased capacity variant of the Model 1200 Defender with an electrolysis nickel-plated polished barrel and magazine tube. Model 1200 Riot, Standard capacity model with 18.5 barrel, ted Williams Model 200, Standard Model 1200 marketed by Sears Model 1200 Hunting, 28-inch barrel with a built-in choke and a five-shell tubular magazine. Model 1300, Slightly updated version with five-shell tubular magazine Model 1300 Defender, Model 1300 Marine, Increased capacity variant of the Model 1300 with an electroless nickel-plated barrel and magazine tube

76.
Carbine
–
A carbine, from French carabine, is a long arm firearm but with a shorter barrel than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full-length rifles, shooting the same ammunition, while others fire lower-powered ammunition, the smaller size and lighter weight of carbines make them easier to handle. An example of this is the US Armys M4 carbine, which is standard-issue, the carbine was originally a lighter, shortened weapon developed for the cavalry. After the Napoleonic Wars, cavalry began fighting dismounted, using the only for greater mobility. By the American Civil War, dismounted cavalry were mostly the rule, the principal advantage of the carbine was that its length made it very portable. A carbine was typically no longer than a sheathed sabre, and like a sabre was carried arranged to hang clear of the riders elbows. Carbines were usually less accurate and less powerful than the muskets of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane. With the advent of fast-burning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of a shorter barrel became less of an issue, eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline. During the early 19th century, carbines were often developed separately from the rifles and, in many cases, did not even use the same ammunition. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine, one of the very first breechloading, repeating weapons. It had a spring-powered, removable tube magazine in the buttstock which held seven rounds and it was intended to give the cavalry a replacement weapon which could be fired from horseback without the need for awkward reloading after each shot. In the late 19th century, it common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines were the lever-action Winchester carbines and this made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, as well as other inhabitants of the American West, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. Other nations followed suit after World War I, when they learned that their traditional long-barreled rifles provided little benefit in the trenches, the US M1 carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a 457. A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter, or aircraft, based on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 metres, most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemys direction to keep them from moving and firing back. These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy, the lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition

Carbine
–
Carbine model 1793, used by the French Army during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Carbine
–
Various muzzle-loading arms, to scale; numbers 1, 10, and 11 are identified as carbines. (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910)
Carbine
–
Left image: Jean Lepageflintlock carbine named "du Premier Consul " in honour of Napoleon, circa 1800. Right image: Rifling of Lepage carbine.
Carbine
–
M1 Garand and M1 Carbine

77.
Bushmaster M4A3
–
The Bushmaster M4 is a semi-automatic or select-fire carbine manufactured by Bushmaster Firearms International, modeled on the AR-15. It is one of the Bushmaster XM15 line of rifles and carbines, the M4 Type Carbine is a copy of the Colt M4 carbine. The semi-automatic is marketed to the U. S. civilian market in compliance with the National Firearms Act, an assault rifle variant can be ordered by military or law enforcement organizations with three-round burst or fully automatic capability. The rifles caliber is.223 Remington/5. 56×45mm NATO, unlike the current Colt M4 Carbine which features a 4-position telescopic stock, the Bushmaster has a 6-position stock. It is compatible with most standard AR-15 parts, and has the ability to accept all AR-15/M16 type STANAG magazines. The standard M4 Type Carbine features a permanently fixed Izzy flash suppressor attached to a 14.5 in barrel which brings the barrel to a length of 16 in. Bushmaster also produces the Patrolmans Carbine variant which features the more common removable bird cage flash suppressor, both of these comply with current U. S. federal law which states a minimum 16 in barrel for a rifle. There is also a military M4 Type Carbine which comes with a 14.5 in barrel, the 6. 8mm SPC Rifle only comes with a 16 in barrel and a removable Izzy flash suppressor. An M4 Type Post-Ban Carbine was developed for the 1994 United States Federal Assault Weapons Ban requirements, since the ban expired in 2004, this rifle has essentially been replaced by the M4A2 and M4A3. Some states in the U. S. have kept these laws, a trademark dispute between Bushmaster and Colt concerned the use of the M4 name. The M4 was developed and produced for the United States government by Colt, several other manufacturers, including Bushmaster, offer M4-like firearms, nicknamed M4geries. Colt previously held a U. S. trademark on the term M4, heckler & Koch later settled out of court. On December 8,2005, a District court judge in Maine granted a judgment in favor of Bushmaster Firearms. On the latter claim, Colt could not recover monetary damages, the court also ruled that M4 was now a generic name, and that Colts trademark should be revoked. It is available as either the A2 or the A3, Bushmaster weapons are currently in service with military and police organizations in over 60 nations around the world. Czech Republic, The Bushmaster M4A3 B. M. A. S. is used by special units of the Czech Armed Forces. These rifles are seen with an M203 grenade launcher. The 601st Special Forces Group is armed with the M4A3, georgia Used by Special Forces Malaysia, Used by Royal Malaysian Customs New Zealand, New Zealand Police, replaced the Remington Model 7 as their standard issue rifle

78.
Heavy machine gun
–
The heavy machine gun or HMG is a class of machine gun implying greater characteristics than medium machine guns. There are two generally recognized classes of weapons identified as heavy machine guns, the first is weapons from World War I identified as heavy due to the weight and encumberment of the weapons themselves. The term was used to refer to the generation of machine guns which came into widespread use in World War I. However, these came at the cost of being too cumbersome to move quickly. Thus, in sense, the heavy aspect of the weapon referred to the weapons bulk and ability to sustain fire. This class of weapons was best exemplified by the Maxim gun, invented by the American inventor Hiram Maxim, the Maxim was the most ubiquitous machine gun of World War I, variants of which were fielded simultaneously by three separate warring nations. The modern definition refers to a class of machine guns. In this sense, the aspect of the weapon refers to its superior power and range over light- and medium-caliber weapons. This class of machine gun came into use during World War II. A similar HMG capacity was later fielded by the Soviets in the form of Vasily Degtyaryovs DShK in 12. 7×108mm. In the late 19th century, Gatling guns and other externally powered types such as the Nordenfelt were often made in a variety of calibers, due to their multiple barrels, overheating was not so much of an issue, but they were also quite heavy. When Maxim developed his recoil-powered machine gun using a barrel, his first main design weighed a modest 26 pounds. A famous photo of Maxim showed him picking it up by its 15-pound tripod with one arm and it was similar to present-day medium machine guns, but it could not be fired for extended periods due to overheating. As a result, Maxim created a water cooling system to enable it to fire for extended periods. However, this added significant weight, as did the change to more powerful rifle cartridges, there were thus two main types of heavy, rapid-fire weapons, the manually powered, multiple-barrel machine guns and the single-barrel Maxim guns. By the end of the 19th century, many new designs such as the M1895 Colt–Browning, also, rather than the heavy water jacket, new designs introduced other types of barrel cooling, such as barrel replacement, metal fins, heat sinks or some combination of these. Machine guns diverged into heavier and lighter designs, the later model water-cooled Maxim guns and its derivatives the MG08 and the Vickers, as well as the American M1917 Browning machine gun, were all substantial weapons. The.303 Vickers, for example, weighed 33 lb and was mounted on a tripod that brought the weight to 50 lb

79.
FN MINIMI
–
The FN Minimi is a Belgian 5. 56mm light machine gun developed by Fabrique Nationale in Herstal by Ernest Vervier. First introduced in the late 1970s, it is now in service in more than 75 countries, the weapon is currently manufactured at the FN facility in Herstal and their US subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC. The Minimi is a gun firing from an open bolt. It is a weapon, capable of fully automatic fire only. It can be fed or fired from a magazine. The Minimi uses a gas-actuated long-stroke piston system, the barrel is locked with a rotary bolt, equipped with two massive locking lugs, forced into battery by a helical camming guide in the bolt carrier. Upon firing, the piston is forced to the rear by expanding propellant gases bled through a port in the barrel near the muzzle end. The piston rod acts against the carrier, which begins its rearward motion guided on two rails welded to the receiver walls, while the bolt itself remains locked. Gas escaping the gas cylinder is directed upward, avoiding kicking up dust, the Minimi has a manually adjustable gas valve with two positions, normal and adverse. The spring extractor is located inside the bolt, while the lever ejector is contained inside the receiver housing. Spent casings are removed through a port located at the bottom of the side of the receiver. The Minimi is striker-fired and the bolt carrier functions as the striker mechanism, the Minimi has a push-button type manual safety installed in the trigger housing, above the pistol grip. In the weapon safe position, it disables the sear mechanism, pushing the button to the right side exposes a red-colored rim on the side of the firearm. The Minimi features a welded receiver made from stamped steel, both the standard and Para variants are equipped with a fixed, folding bipod mounted to the gas tube and stowed under the handguard. The bipod can be adjusted in height and each leg has three height settings, the bipod also offers a 15° range of rotation to either side. With the bipod fully extended, the axis is elevated to a height of 465 mm. The Minimi can also be fired from the Belgian FN360° tripod or the American M122 mount using an M60 pintle, the vehicle-mounted Minimi is fitted with an electrically powered trigger that enables it to be fired remotely from within an armored fighting vehicle. The standard light gun version has a 465 mm barrel

80.
Belgium
–
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie

81.
Light machine gun
–
A light machine gun is a machine gun designed to be employed by an individual soldier, with or without an assistant, as an infantry support weapon. Light machine guns are used as squad automatic weapons. Modern light machine guns often fire smaller-caliber cartridges than medium machine guns, some LMGs, such as the Russian RPK, are modifications of existing assault rifle designs and designed to share the same ammunition. Adaptations to the original rifle generally include a magazine, a heavier barrel to resist overheating, a more robust mechanism to support sustained fire. Deployed on a tripod and used for sustained-fire it is a machine gun, if deployed with a bipod with the operator in prone position. Light machine guns are designed to be fired from the hip or on the move as a form of suppressive fire intended to pin down the enemy. Marching fire is a tactic that relies on this capability. Lighter modern LMGs have enabled them to be issued down at the fireteam level, many light machine guns were magazine-fed. Others, such as the MG34, could be fed either from a belt or from a magazine, light machine guns were first introduced in World War I to boost the firepower of advancing infantry. The following were either exclusively light machine guns, had a machine gun variant or were employed in the light machine gun role with certain adaptations. 26 Medium machine gun Heavy machine gun Squad automatic weapon General-purpose machine gun Assault rifle

82.
PK machine gun
–
The PK, is a 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun designed in the Soviet Union and currently in production in Russia. The original PK machine gun was introduced in 1961 and then the improved PKM in 1969 to replace the SGM and it remains in use as a front-line infantry and vehicle-mounted weapon with Russias armed forces. The PK has been exported extensively and produced in other countries under license. The Main Artillery Directorate of the Soviet Union adopted specification requirements for a 7.62 mm general-purpose company- and battalion-level machine gun, in 1958 a machine gun prototype, developed by G. I. Nikitin and Yuri M. Sokolov, successfully passed field tests, when the Nikitin-Sokolov machine gun was almost completed, a team of Izhevsk Mechanical Plant designers, headed by M. T. Kalashnikov, and further consisting of M. T, pushchin, A. D. Kryakushin, as well as Startsev, Kamzolov, Koryakovtsev, Yuferev, joined the competition. Their machine gun prototype was based on the well-proven gas-operated rotary-bolt design of the Kalashnikov-pattern arms, the Main Missiles and Artillery Directorate and the Ministry of the Defence Industry preferred the Kalashnikov design. The Kalashnikov design was found to be reliable and cheaper to manufacture than the design of Grigory Nikitin. The PK/PKS was put into production at the Kovrov Mechanical Plant and used the tripod mount, nikitins and Sokolovs machine gun design was later used in the 12.7 mm NSV heavy machine gun that was put into production in 1971. The original PK was a development of Kalashnikovs AKM assault rifle, the PK uses the 7. 62×54mmR Eastern Bloc standard cartridge that produces significantly more bolt thrust when compared to the Eastern Bloc 7. 62×39mm and 5. 45×39mm intermediate cartridges. The bolt and carrier design are similar to the AK-47 and other modernized Kalashnikov-pattern weapons, the bolt and bolt carrier are however oriented upside down compared to the AKM, with the piston and gas system being underneath the barrel. The rimmed 7. 62×54mmR cartridges are set in an ammunition belt. The belt is mounted from the side into the feedway of the PK machine gun. The PK uses a charging handle on the right side of the receiver to charge the gun. The breech is locked by a bolt, with two locking lugs engaging locking recesses in the receiver. The gas piston is hinged lo the bolt assembly. The protruding rear part of the carrier assembly features spiral shaped cuts. The mainspring is accommodated in the carrier assembly slide channel

83.
M60 machine gun
–
The M60, officially the United States Machine Gun, Caliber 7.62 mm, M60, is a family of American general-purpose machine guns firing 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridges from a disintegrating belt of M13 links. There are several types of ammunition approved for use in the M60, including ball, tracer, introduced in 1957, it has served with every branch of the U. S. military and still serves with other armed forces. S. The M60 is a machine gun that fires the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge commonly used in larger rifles. It is generally used as a weapon and operated by a team of two or three individuals. The team consists of the gunner, the assistant gunner, the guns weight and the amount of ammunition it can consume when fired make it difficult for a single soldier to carry and operate. The gunner carries the weapon and, depending on his strength and stamina, the assistant carries a spare barrel and extra ammunition, and reloads and spots targets for the gunner. The ammunition bearer carries additional ammunition and the tripod with associated traversing and elevation mechanism, if issued, the M60 can be accurately fired at short ranges from the shoulder thanks to its design. This was a requirement for the design and a hold-over in concept from the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. It may also be fired from the bipod, M122 tripod. M60 ammunition comes in a cloth bandolier containing a box of 100 pre-linked rounds. The M60 uses the M13 ammunition link, a change from the older M1 link system with which it was not compatible, the cloth bandolier is reinforced to allow it to be hung from the current version of the feed tray. The later models changed the ammunition box attachment point and made this adaptation unnecessary, the M60 machine gun began development in the late 1940s as a program for a new, lighter 7.62 mm machine gun. It was partly derived from German guns of World War II, early prototypes, notably the T52 and T161 bore a close resemblance to both the M1941 Johnson machine gun and the FG42. The final evaluation version was designated the T161E3 and it was intended to replace the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle and M1919A6 Browning machine gun in the squad automatic weapon role, and in the medium machine gun role. One of the weapons tested against it during its procurement process was the FN MAG, the U. S. Army officially adopted the T161E3 as the M60 in 1957. The M60 later served in the Vietnam War as an automatic weapon with many U. S. units. Every soldier in the squad would carry an additional 200 linked rounds of ammunition for the M60. The up-gunned M113 armored personnel carrier ACAV added two M60 gunners beside the main.50 caliber machine gun, and the Patrol Boat, during the Vietnam War, the M60 received the nickname The Pig due to its bulky size

84.
Sniper rifle
–
A sniper rifle is a man-portable, high precision, shoulder-fired rifle, for military or law enforcement use, designed to ensure more accurate shooting at longer ranges than other small arms. A typical sniper rifle is built for high levels of accuracy, fitted with a telescopic sight, the military role of a sniper dates back to the turn of the 18th century, but the true sniper rifle is a much more recent development. Some sniper rifles are based on the designs of standard rifles, the Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world. His rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, at trials in 1857, which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworths design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. Also, the Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of 2,000 yards, during the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a distance than ever before. The telescopic sight, or scope, was fixed and could not be adjusted. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having effective ranges of up to a mile away from its target. During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazine, the British were equipped with the Lee–Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa, the marksman was a component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 that was renowned for the expert marksmanship, the men wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that men never lived. After the Boer War, the Scouts became the first official unit in the British Army. It was not until World War I that sniper rifles began to be used regularly in battle. In Germany, these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, german gunsmiths fitted the scope above the barrel for optimal accuracy. During the War, the accuracy of the rifle was greatly improved. By the end of World War II snipers were reported to provide reasonable accuracy over 600 m with anything over this range being unpredictable

85.
CheyTac Intervention
–
The CheyTac Intervention is an American bolt-action sniper rifle manufactured by CheyTac LLC. It is fed by a 7-round detachable single-stack magazine and its specifically chambered for.408 Chey Tac or.375 Chey Tac ammunition. CheyTac LLC states that the system is capable of delivering sub-MOA accuracy at ranges of up to 2,500 yards and it is based on the EDM Arms Windrunner. CheyTac specially developed the.408 CheyTac/.375 CheyTac cartridge for long-range use, the cartridge is optimized for accuracy by a balance of the rotational and linear drag, which reduces yaw and precession, and keeps the tip of the projectile pointed along the trajectory. The later.375 CheyTac round, developed from the.408 CheyTac, the McArthur PGRS-1 muzzle brake can be used to reduce recoil. It was designed by gunsmith and firearm inventor, Bruce McArthur, owner of The Flint & Frizzen Gun Shop in Clarkston, there are two different day optical sights available. The primary sight is the Nightforce NXS5. 5-22x56 variable magnification telescopic sight with a 56 mm objective, the alternate sight is the US Optics SN-9. The night vision system is the AN/PVS-14 GEN III Pinnacle monocular, an AN/PEQ-2 infrared laser provides additional lighting in low-light conditions. The device is attached to a titanium strut, the KESTREL4000 meteorological and environmental sensor package measures the wind speed, air temperature, air pressure, relative humidity, wind chill, and dew point. The KESTREL4500 NV model is compatible with night vision devices, a Vector IV mil spec laser rangefinder measures distances up to 6 km, and houses a digital compass and class 1 eye safe filters. It runs on Windows Mobile 2003 and receives input from the Kestrel handheld weather station, printed data tables are available for manual use. Without computer support the effectiveness of some long-range shooters could be severely reduced, the Intervention holds the world record for best group at a distance, landing 3 bullets within 16⅝ inches at 2,321 yards near Arco in Idaho. CheyTac states that the CheyTac LRRS is a solid anti-personnel system to 2,000 yards, the primary intent of the.408 is as an extreme range anti-personnel system. Groups of 7–9 inches at 1,000 yards,10 inches at 1500 yards and 15 inches at 2,000 yards have been consistently obtained, groups of 19 inches at 2,100 yards and 29 inches at 2,400 yards have also been obtained. All groups that are up to 3,000 yards are less than 1 minute of angle for vertical dispersion, higher muzzle velocity extends the effective range of a rifle, everything else being equal. Turkey, Used by Maroon Berets operatives, US, Used by Navy SealTemplate, Ccn Italy, Used by the Italian army. CheyTacs Website Modern Firearms Information CheyTac M-200.408 Magnum by Anthony Gimmellie

86.
Finland
–
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian

Finland
–
Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
Finland
–
Flag
Finland
–
Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
Finland
–
Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by Eero Järnefelt

87.
Grenade
–
A grenade is a small bomb typically thrown by hand. A variety of hand grenades exist, the most common being explosive grenades designed to detonate after impact or after a set amount of time, Grenadiers were originally soldiers who specialized in throwing grenades. The word grenade derives from the French word for an explosive shell. Its first use in English dates from the 1590s and it is likely derived from Old French pomegranate and influenced by Spanish granada, as the fragmenting bomb is reminiscent of the many-seeded fruit. Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Eastern Roman Empire, not long after the reign of Leo III. Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire, a Byzantine invention of the century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at the enemy. The use of Greek fire spread to Muslim armies in the Near East, in China, during the Song Dynasty, weapons known as Zhen Tian Lei were created when Chinese soldiers packed gunpowder into ceramic or metal containers. In 1044, a military book Wujing Zongyao described various gunpowder recipes in which one can find, according to Joseph Needham, the Chinese also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed-out cannonball shells with gunpowder. The mid-14th-century book Huolongjing, written by Jiao Yu, recorded an earlier Song-era cast iron cannon known as the flying-cloud thunderclap cannon, the manuscript stated that, The shells are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of divine fire and they are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor, and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the first cast iron bombshells and grenades did not appear in Europe until 1467. A hoard of several hundred ceramic greandes were discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian City of Ingolstadt. Lots of the grenades obtained their original blackpowder loads and igniters, most probably the grenades were intentially dumped the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. In 1643, it is possible that Grenados were thrown amongst the Welsh at Holt Bridge during the English Civil War and these grenades were not very effective and, as a result, saw little use. Improvised grenades were used from the mid-19th century, being especially useful in trench warfare. In the American Civil War, both sides used hand grenades equipped with a plunger that detonated the device on impact, the Union relied on experimental Ketchum Grenades, which had a tail to ensure that the nose would strike the target and start the fuse. The Confederacy used spherical hand grenades that weighed about six pounds and they also used Rains and Adams grenades, which were similar to the Ketchum in appearance and mechanism. Improvised hand grenades were used to great effect by the Russian defenders of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War

88.
RPG-7
–
The RPG-7 is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launcher. Originally the RPG-7 and its predecessor, the RPG-2, were designed by the Soviet Union, the weapon has the GRAU index 6G3. The English-language term rocket-propelled grenade, though frequently encountered and reasonably descriptive, is a backronym for RPG, RPG-7 properly refers to the launcher itself, whereas RPG refers to the ammunition. The ruggedness, simplicity, low cost, and effectiveness of the RPG-7 has made it the most widely used weapon in the world. Currently around 40 countries use the weapon, and it is manufactured in several variants by nine countries and it is popular with irregular and guerrilla forces. The RPG has been used in almost all conflicts across all continents since the mid-1960s from the Vietnam War to the early 2010s War in Afghanistan, widely produced, the most commonly seen major variations are the RPG-7D paratrooper model, and the lighter Chinese Type 69 RPG. DIO of Iran manufactures RPG-7s with olive green handguards, H&K pistol grips, the RPG-7 was first delivered to the Soviet Army in 1961 and deployed at a squad level. It replaced the RPG-2, having clearly out-performed the intermediate RPG-4 design during testing, the RPG-7D3 is the equivalent paratrooper model. Both the RPG-7V2 and RPG-7D3 were adopted by the Russian Ground Forces in 2001, the launcher is reloadable and based around a steel tube,40 millimeters in diameter,95.3 centimeters long, and weighing 7 kilograms. The middle of the tube is wood wrapped to protect the user from heat, sighting is usually optical with a back-up iron sight, and passive infra-red and night sights are also available. As with similar weapons, the grenade protrudes from the launch tubes and it is 40–105 millimeters in diameter and weighs between 2.0 and 4.5 kilograms. It is launched by a booster charge, giving it an initial speed of 115 meters per second. The rocket motor ignites after 10 meters and sustains flight out to 500 meters at a velocity of 295 meters per second. The grenade is stabilized by two sets of fins that deploy in-flight, one set on the stabilizer pipe to maintain direction. The grenade can fly up to 1,100 meters, the sets the maximum range. These must be assembled into the ready-to-use grenade, the TRADOC bulletin provides anecdotal commentary that the RPG-7 has been fired from within buildings, which agrees with the two-stage design. It is stated only a 2-meter standoff to a rear obstruction is needed for use inside rooms or fortifications. The fins not only provide drag stabilization, but are designed to impart a slow rotation to the grenade, due to the configuration of the RPG-7 sustainer/warhead section, it responds counter-intuitively to crosswinds

89.
9M113 Konkurs
–
The 9M113 Konkurs is a SACLOS wire-guided anti-tank missile of the Soviet Union. 9M113 is the GRAU designation of the missile and its NATO reporting name is AT-5 Spandrel. The 9M113 Konkurs was developed by the Tula Machinery Design Bureau, development began with the aim of producing the next generation of SACLOS anti-tank missiles, for use in both the man-portable role and the tank destroyer role. The 9M113 Konkurs was developed alongside the 9M111, the missiles use similar technology, the warhead penetration is 600 mm vs rolled homogeneous armour. The missile entered service in 1974, iran began producing a copy, the Tosan, sometime around 2000. The missile is designed to be fired from vehicles, although it can also be fired from the models of 9M111 launchers. It is an part of the BMP-2, BMD-2 and BRDM-2 vehicles. The missile is stored and carried in a fiberglass container/launch tube, the system uses a gas generator to push the missile out of the launch tube. The gas also exits from the rear of the tube in a similar manner to a recoilless rifle. The missile leaves the tube at 80 meters per second. This initial high speed reduces the missiles deadzone, since it can be launched directly at the target, in flight, the missile spins at between five and seven revolutions per second. The system has an alarm that activates when it detects jamming from a system like Shtora, the operator can then take manual control, reducing the missile to MCLOS. The SACLOS guidance system has many benefits over MCLOS, the systems accuracy is quoted in some sources as 90%, though its performance is probably comparable to the BGM-71 TOW or later SACLOS versions of the 9K11 Malyutka. 9M113 Konkurs 9M113M Konkurs-M Tandem warhead – with extended explosive probe, the warhead penetration is 750–800 mm vs RHA. Another 10,000 Konkurs-M ordered for US$250 million, iran manufactures its own version, upgraded and high explosion named Tosan. East Germany – produced in licence, passed on to Germany, czechoslovakia – produced in licence, passed on to successor states. Soviet Union – Passed on to successor states, list of Russian weaponry Hull, A. W. Soviet/Russian Armor and Artillery Design Practices 1945 to Present, ATGM launcher vehicle KONKURS – Walk around photos AT-5 SPANDREL Anti-Tank Guided Missile PTRK Konkurs

90.
FGM-148 Javelin
–
The FGM-148 Javelin is an American man-portable fire-and-forget anti-tank missile fielded to replace the M47 Dragon anti-tank missile in US service. The Javelins HEAT warhead is capable of defeating modern tanks by attacking them from above, Javelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The missile also has the ability to engage helicopters in the attack mode. It can reach an altitude of 150 m in top-attack mode and 60 m in direct-fire mode. It is equipped with an infrared seeker. The tandem warhead is fitted with two shaped charges, a warhead to detonate any explosive reactive armor and a primary warhead to penetrate base armor. The missile is ejected from the launcher so that it reaches a distance from the operator before the main rocket motors ignite. This makes it harder to identify the launcher, however, back-blast from the tube still poses a hazard to nearby personnel. The missile system is most often carried by a team consisting of a gunner. In 1983, the United States Army introduced its AAWS-M requirement and, in 1985, in late 1988, the POP phase ended and, in June 1989, the full-scale development contract was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments and Martin Marietta. The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148, in April 1991, the first test-flight of the Javelin succeeded, and in March 1993, the first test-firing from the launcher succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized, and the first Javelins were deployed with US Army units in 1996, Development test and evaluation is conducted to demonstrate that the engineering design and development process is complete. It is used to reduce risk, validate and qualify the design, the DT&E results are evaluated to ensure that design risks have been minimized and the system will meet specifications. The results are used to estimate the system’s military utility when it is introduced into service. DT&E serves a purpose in reducing the risks of development by testing selected high-risk components or subsystems. DT&E is the government developing agency tool used to confirm that the system performs as technically specified, DT&E is an iterative process of designing, building, testing, identifying deficiencies, fixing, retesting, and repeating. It is performed in the factory, laboratory, and on the ground by the contractors. Contractor and government testing is combined into one integrated test program and conducted to determine if the requirements have been met

91.
Military camouflage
–
Military camouflage is the use of camouflage by a military force to protect personnel and equipment from observation by enemy forces. The French slang word camouflage came into common English usage during World War I when the concept of visual deception developed into a part of modern military tactics. In that war, long-range artillery and observation from the air combined to expand the field of fire, as such, military camouflage is a form of military deception. Camouflage was first practiced in simple form in the mid 18th century by jäger- or rifle units and their tasks required them to be inconspicuous, and they were issued green and later other drab colour uniforms. Many modern camouflage textiles address visibility not only to light but also near infrared. Camouflage is not only visual, heat, sound, magnetism and even smell can be used to target weapons, some forms of camouflage have elements of scale invariance, designed to disrupt outlines at different distances, typically digital camouflage patterns made of pixels. Camouflage for equipment and positions was extensively developed for use by the French in 1915. In both world wars, artists were recruited as camouflage officers, ship camouflage developed via conspicuous dazzle camouflage schemes during WWI, but since the development of radar, ship camouflage has received less attention. Aircraft, especially in World War II, were painted with different schemes above and below, to camouflage them against the ground. Military camouflage patterns have been popular in fashion and art from as early as 1915, Camouflage patterns have appeared in the work of artists such as Andy Warhol and Ian Hamilton Finlay, sometimes with an anti-war message. In fashion, many designers have exploited camouflages style and symbolism. Military camouflage is part of the art of military deception, the main objective of military camouflage is to deceive the enemy as to the presence, position and intentions of military formations. Camouflage techniques include concealment, disguise, and dummies, applied to troops, vehicles, vision is the main sense of orientation in humans, and the primary function of camouflage is to deceive the human eye. Camouflage works through concealment, mimicry, or possibly by dazzle, in modern warfare, some forms of camouflage, for example face paints, also offer concealment from infrared sensors, while CADPAT textiles in addition help to provide concealment from radar. While camouflage tricks are in principle limitless, both cost and practical considerations limit the choice of methods and the time and effort devoted to camouflage, paint and uniforms must also protect vehicles and soldiers from the elements. Units need to move, fire their weapons and perform tasks to keep functional. No single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains, the effectiveness of a pattern depends on contrast as well as colour tones. Terrain-specific camouflage patterns, made to match the terrain, may be more effective in that terrain than more general patterns

Military camouflage
–
Sniper wearing a ghillie suit
Military camouflage
–
A-7D Corsairs in a disruptive pattern, countershaded with white, on a disruptively painted surface, Thailand, 1972.
Military camouflage
–
A Ferret armoured car with "Berlin camouflage" meant to hide it against that city's concrete buildings. Such terrain specific patterns are rare.
Military camouflage
–
The Canadian Forces were the first army to issue pixellated digital camouflage for all units with their disruptively patterned CADPAT.