5 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The literature review outlines the current and historical research on the topic of family engagement definitions, context, and academic models used. The review also extended to models of family engagement that are being used in practice today. Below are the four main findings from the review: 1. Child s Education is a Shared Responsibility between Families, Schools and Communities Family engagement is shared responsibility for the education of a child, between families, schools, and communities, and is rooted in an asset-based understanding of the strengths of each part of the partnership. This partnership is critical so that a child learns both the formal and informal knowledge that results in a healthy trajectory for the child s life. 2. Subtle Forms of Family Engagement Show Strongest Impact Based upon historical research, family engagement in a child s education leads to improved academic achievement. It is the subtle forms of parent and family engagement that have the strongest impact, such as parental expectations, parental style, and reading and vocabulary use at home. Schools do not easily influence these more subtle aspects of family engagement. Beyond checking homework, which has a negative correlation, all measures of parent involvement have a positive correlation with student achievement. 3. Schools Need to Assess and Provide Context Driven Solutions School culture is an important piece of the equation, especially combating the historical deficit approach to at-risk children and their families. Schools should conduct an assessment of their staff and their families to understand their current contextual situation, with the understanding that family engagement is complex, and there will not be one program or answer to address the work. Rather, a differentiated approach will be needed to engage all families. Contextually driven decision making at the school/ district level will provide the best results for varying sub-sets of parents. 4. Partnership Models Recognize Shared Power & Expertise Between Home & School Though there are six categories of models used by schools to engage with families according to Hornby, our research focuses on partnership models. Partnership models highlight professionals as experts on education and parents as experts on their children. The relationship between professionals and parents can be seen as a

6 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 6 partnership that involves the sharing of expertise and control at home and at school, both contributing strengths to provide the optimal education for children. In conclusion, the literature review findings provide Generation Next with a foundational understanding of the field of family engagement. The models can then be used to help conceptualize how GN can establish a culture of strong family- school- community partnerships in the Minneapolis & Saint Paul region. I. REASON FOR STUDYING FAMILY ENGAGEMENT Twenty years of research concludes that parent involvement in their child s education leads to improved academic achievement 1. The most prominent piece of research to draw this conclusion is the 2005 meta-analysis of 41 research studies by parent involvement researcher William Jeynes 2. Jeynes then conducted another meta-analysis in 2007 that focused exclusively on urban minority secondary students, which had the same basic conclusions 3 : that parent involvement has a positive impact not only on students, but on urban students specifically. Jeynes consolidated various measures of parental involvement overall, and by specific component, to determine the effect it had on student achievement, aggregating performance on standardized tests, GPA, grades, and homework performance as available. Almost every major measurement of parent involvement had a statistically significant impact on academic achievement: parental expectations, parental reading, parental style, programs of parent involvement, communication between parent & child, parental participation or attendance (listed in descending order of impact). This held true across socioeconomic status, minority group, and gender group. The only measure that had a negative impact was parents checking homework. (See Appendix 1- Exhibit 1). Jeynes concludes, though, that parent involvement that is initiated by parents has the strongest effect, compared to parents participating in programs created by the school or another entity. Specifically, the actions that have the greatest effect are the more subtle ones that parents take. For example, more so than attending school functions, it is important to establish an atmosphere of high achievement at home. 1 Constantino, S. (2008). 101 ways to create real family engagement. Galax, VA: ENGAGE!.Also: Whitaker, M. (2011). School Influences on Parents Role 2 Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A Meta-Analysis Of The Relation Of Parental Involvement To Urban Elementary School Student Academic Achievement. Urban Education, Jeynes second meta-analysis (2007) included 52 studies focusing exclusively on urban secondary students, concluding that parental involvement does have a significant influence on student achievement for secondary school children. He found that parental involvement affects all the academic variables under study by about.5 to.55 of a standard deviation, holding for both white and minority children. Jeynes, W. H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban Education, 42(1),

7 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 7 II. METHODOLOGY In order to understand the family engagement landscape and identify models of practice, we conducted a literature review of both scholarly and practitioner literature on family engagement. Our goal was to identify general models and specific organizations that do family engagement work both locally and nationally as a preliminary stage in our larger research project, Parent Engagement for Educational Achievement Acceleration, the end goals of which are to summarize models of family engagement, describe what effective collaboration with parents and Generation Next looks like, and create a model to demonstrate effective family engagement. This review was conducted in six weeks, so it is not exhaustive of all possible sources. Priority was given to foundational authors in the field and research published since 2010, as well as to studies that focused on diverse, urban student bodies. The research questions for the literature review were: 1. How is parent engagement defined in existing literature? By what other name is it called? 2. What are general models that organizations use to engage parents within a school context? 3. What organizations, both locally and nationally, are leaders in engaging parents within a school context? 4. What are the areas of disagreement? 5. What are the areas of consensus? The summary below acts as a foundation, or common understanding, from which our group launched phase two of the project: data analysis. It also serves as a foundation for Generation Next as it considers its role in family engagement. III. DEFINITIONS INTRODUCTION TO DEFINITIONS Parent, or more broadly, Family engagement is a complex concept, with multi-faceted dimensions working together toward the goal of improved student achievement. Because there is no single definition, there is no common understanding of or agreement on what needs to be done to improve family engagement, and no single instrument has been agreed upon to measure family engagement. Many academic and practitioner-based models are employed to encourage, incent, and/or measure family engagement, and effectiveness is evaluated at an individual program level using various instruments.

8 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 8 Parent engagement and parent involvement are generally used interchangeably in the academic literature, however a distinction is starting to be made 4. From 1990 to 2010, parent involvement research was primarily focused on the relationships between schools and parents. Also, the need for increased parent involvement was often framed either as 1) teachers and administrators needing to do a better job at engaging parents or 2) minority families and disadvantaged families having deficiencies in parent involvement 5. However, there has been a shift in the past ten years acknowledging the role of an expanded set of factors on parent involvement, and the corollary role/need for an expanded set of players, including the parents as the primary teachers of their child and their need for a more primary role in their child s academic achievement. This leads to a focus more on parent engagement, as compared to parent involvement. This has also led to a rise in wrap-around organizations that help families with other basic needs so they can support their child, and an understanding of the shared responsibility between school, family, and community in supporting strong academic outcomes. DEFINITIONS HISTORICAL ( ) Parent involvement is primarily defined in one of four ways 6 : Parent-child relationship helping with homework, encouraging attendance, reading to the child 7 Parent-school relationship parents volunteerism at school, support for school, trust in school Parent-policy relationship degree to which parents can shape policy at the school Parent-role relationship perception of parents role at school, compared to that of teachers The pioneer parent involvement researcher was Joyce Epstein, whose Theoretical Framework for parent involvement has six components 8, listed below. These six components are still used today as the foundation of many studies and surveys. See Appendix 1- Exhibit 2 for sample survey questions grouped by component. They are also used today in the Johns Hopkins National Network of Partnership Schools program, rebranded as keys to successful partnerships for parent involvement: 1. Parenting: Helping all families establish supportive home environments for children 2. Communicating: Establishing two-way exchanges about school programs and children s progress 4 Montgomery, C. and Goodall, J. (2013). Parental involvement to parental engagement: a continuum. Educational Review, Dauber, S. L. (1991). School Programs And Teacher Practices Of Parent Involvement In Inner-City Elementary And Middle Schools. The Elementary School Journal, Ringenberg, M., Funk, V., Mullen, K., Wilford, A., & Dramer, J. (2005). Test-Retest Reliability of the Parent and School Survey (PASS). School Community Journal, Jeynes, W. H. (2003). A Meta-Analysis: The Effects of Parental Involvement on Minority Children s Academic Achievement. Education and Urban Society, Epstein, J. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. C. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research (6th ed., pp ). New York: Macmillan.

9 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 9 3. Volunteering: Recruiting and organizing parent help at school, home, or other locations 4. Learning at home: Providing information and ideas to families about how to help students with homework and other curriculum-related materials 5. Decision-making: Having parents from all backgrounds serve as representatives and leaders in school committees 6. Collaborating with the community: Identifying and integrating resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs The key finding of Epstein s research is that parent engagement is multi-faceted. It is not passively following the directive of a school administrator or teacher (Ringenberg, et al 2005). Rather, it is meaningful dialogue between parents and professional educators that has the potential to alter both 9. More specifically, examples of behavior associated with these components include explaining difficult concepts to your child when they don t understand, knowing generally how your child is doing in school academically and behaviorally, displaying a child s schoolwork in your home, and make suggestions to the teacher about ways to help your child learn. 10 MODIFIED DEFINITION- CURRENT (2010 TO PRESENT) Parent engagement has shifted to be called family engagement in many circles, and the definition has evolved, too. Family engagement is shared responsibility for the education of a child, between parents, schools, and communities, and is rooted in an asset-based understanding of the strengths of each part of the partnership. FAMILY ENGAGEMENT We have found the literature to still generally support Epstein s Theoretical Framework. However, Ms. Epstein now feels that the term parental involvement should be replaced with school, family, and community partnership 11, as this emphasizes the shared responsibility for children s learning. Others agree, at minimum, that the switch should be from parent involvement to parent engagement, because they are not the same thing 12. Further, many organizations and leaders are now using family instead of parent, because simply using the word parent potentially alienates up to 50% of adults who take charge of children s lives, including foster parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, neighbors, and group homes Fine, M. (1993). (Ap)parent involvement: Reflections on parents, power and urban public schools. Teachers College Record, 94(4), Ringenberg, M., Funk, V., Mullen, K., Wilford, A., & Dramer, J. (2005). Test-Retest Reliability of the Parent and School Survey (PASS). School Community Journal, Epstein, J., & Sheldon, S. (2006). Moving Forward: Ideas for Research on School, Family, and Community Partnerships. SAGE Handbook for research in education: Engaging ideas and enriching inquiry, Kim, Y. (2009). Minority Parental Involvement and School Barriers: Moving the Focus away from Deficiencies of Parents. Educational Research Review 4 (2): Constantino, S. M. (2008). 101 ways to create real family engagement. Galax, VA: ENGAGE! Press.

10 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 10 Further still, simply using the term engagement might be construed as the system (schools, education providers) needing to use their power to engage families who are disengaged, which comes close to a deficit approach. Conceptually, we agree with Epstein that the goal is not just engagement, but rather, a partnership between School-Family-Community. Partnership is preferred because it implies even distribution of power, but it is broader than family engagement, so they can co-exist together. So for the purposes of this project, we use family engagement often, and partnership occasionally. See Appendix 1- Exhibit 4. SHARED RESPONSIBILITY Many organizations are starting to recognize the shared responsibility, or partnership, between schools, families, and communities in achieving healthy outcomes for children both academically and socially. Further, there is largely consensus in the literature that traditional forms of family engagement, such as attendance at parent-teacher conferences, volunteering at school, and helping with homework, have not been shown to have as large an impact on student outcomes as more subtle measures 14, such as parenting style and an attitude of expectations that foster learning. Literature went on to report that these more subtle forms of parental involvement are not easily influenced by schools. Certainly, these more basic measures of family involvement (attendance at events, volunteer rate) are still evaluated by schools and contribute to a supportive community environment. They are not to be disregarded they are just not to be seen as the backbone of engaged families. ASSET BASED APPROACH Additionally, it is important that families and school staff having a mutually supportive, nonjudgmental relationship so that schools and teachers can motivate families and support family decisions at home. Historically, this has relationship has been driven by the traditional ways families have engaged with schools volunteering and attending events. However, socio-economic status and culture are two major factors influencing how families get involved in these traditional ways in their child s school. There are many barriers for low-income families to becoming involved in traditional ways, 15 because of the lack of material resources (e.g., childcare, transportation), lack of unstructured time in their day-to-day lives, and lack of confidence and preparation in approaching teachers and administrators. Although low-income parents may experience barriers to participation, they also have strengths and resources that may be left untapped, perhaps due to the unwitting and unintended adoption of a deficit approach by school and other professionals toward lower-income parents (Lawson, 2003; 14 Jeynes, W. H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban Education, 42(1), Carreon, G. P., Drake, C., & Barton, A. C. (2005). The importance of presence: Immigrant parents' school engagement experiences. American Educational Research Journal, 42(3),

11 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 11 Lightfoot, 2004). Recognizing the strengths and resources that diverse families have is the root of an asset-based approach. Families in low-income and ethnically diverse urban neighborhoods report having a communityfocused perception of parent engagement, in which there was a desire for schools to act as serviceproviders to help the community. On the contrary, teachers in similar neighborhoods saw their job as more traditional, focused on educating within the classroom environment. 16 But there is a transition occurring right now in schools. Teachers and families are beginning to understand their roles differently families are taking more ownership and teachers are seen as partners in the student s learning. It is a slow moving culture shift, as evidenced by research from Aaron Schultz at UW Milwaukee (2005) citing statistics such as: seventy percent of teachers hold negative beliefs about students and their families. Sixty-four percent of teachers in an underperforming urban high school believed that parents or guardians are largely to blame for students low achievement. Research has shown, however, that low-income and minority families generally have reverence for education and high hopes for their children s success, even though they may not interact with schools in the same manner as middle-class, white parents. Deficit perspectives are accompanied by negative views of the ethnic/minority culture of some students. Further, some argue that poor people of color generally achieve empowerment not as individuals, but as a collective, and therefore conclude that the focus on incremental academic achievement gains for individual, poor students is not necessarily going to change the outlook for the group as a whole. 17 This calls for an assessment of where the school or the district is in regard to its assumptions & beliefs, where the school/district wants to go, and what model(s) it can use to get there. IV. ASSESSING A SCHOOL SYSTEM Epstein recommends five steps to maximize success as a school system begins to assess its approach to family engagement 18. Note that this follows the workflow typically recommended for a strategic planning process. It is also very similar to what is emerging as the steps that wraparound school support organizations use to engage families in their child s academic success. 1. Assess present strengths and weaknesses of the relationship between families, schools, and communities 16 Reece, Cornelia, Staudt, Marlys, Ogle, Ashley. (2013). Lessons Learned From a Neighborhood-Based Collaboration to Increase Parent Engagement. School Community Journal. 23(2), Schutz, A. (2006). Home is a prison in the global city: The tragic failure of school-based community engagement strategies. Review of Educational Research, 76(4), Epstein, J., & Dauber, S. (1991). School programs and teacher practices of the parent involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 91,

12 Literature Review: Definitions and Models Identify hopes, dreams, and goals how would the school like families to be involved in 3-5 years 3. Identify who will have the responsibilities for reaching the goals 4. Evaluate implementation and results 5. Continue to support program development activities DIFFERENTIATED PATHS TO ENGAGEMENT FOR FAMILIES Schools also need to take into account different types of families, as well as the differences among these family lifestyles and cultures in terms of their ability to get involved in schools. For instance, a 2013 study done in Kansas City grouped parents into three major categories: Help seekers, School helpers, and Potential transformers. 19 See Appendix 1- Exhibit 3 for more detail. One of the models we found 20 groups parents based on a school s needs, i.e., everyone needs to read newsletters, most need to interact with staff and attend a few meetings, many need to attend parent education workshop or be a classroom resource, and a few are needed to share in leadership through PTA membership, governance council membership, etc. See Differentiated Engagement model for more detail. Understanding a family s psychological beliefs, including role construction and self-efficacy, are important in assessing differentiated approaches to family engagement. Role construction is the degree to which the family believes that primary responsibility for the child s educational outcomes belongs to the family. Self-efficacy is a family s assessment of their own capacity to be involved in their child s education, and the likely effectiveness of this involvement. Contextually driven decision making at the school/ district level will provide the best results for different sub-sets of families. V. MODELS USED BY SCHOOLS TO ENGAGE FAMILIES Garry Hornby summarizes current family engagement models into six categories, described below 21. The Protective Model is said to be the most common model in use today, however at the other end of the spectrum, the Partnership Model is most consistent with current research on effective family-teacher relationships and student outcomes. 19 Sparks, Sarah (2013). Parents need differentiated school engagement. Education Week. 20 Hornby, G. (2011). Parental involvement in childhood education building effective school-family partnerships. New York: Springer. 21 Hornby, G. (2011). Parental involvement in childhood education building effective school-family partnerships. New York: Springer.

13 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 13 Six Main Categories of Models Overview of Model Challenges With the Model 1. Protective Model Most common model. Teacher s role is to educate children at school, whereas the parent s role is to make sure children get to school on time with the correct equipment. Parents are pushed away. 2. Expert Model Professionals maintain control over educational decisions, while the parent s role is to receive information and instructions about their children. Parents encouraged to be submissive and dependent on professionals. 3. Transmission Model Professionals remains in control and decide on the interventions to be used, but they do accept that parents can play an important part in facilitating their children s progress, so they enlist parents help to support the goals of the school. Assumes all parents have time and talent to act as resources; risks over-burdening parents of special education students in particular. 4. Curriculum Enrichment Model Extend the school curriculum by incorporating parents contributions, based on the assumption that parents have important expertise to contribute and that the interaction between parents and teachers around the implementation of the curriculum material will enhance the educational objectives of the school. Limits parent involvement to curriculum. Teachers may feel threatened/limited by what parents bring. 5. Consumer Model Professional acts as a consultant, while the parent decides what action is to be taken. The parent has control over the decisionmaking process, while the professional s Parents are placed in the role of experts, which is just as inappropriate as

14 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 14 role is to provide them with relevant information and a range of options from which to choose. professionals regarding themselves as experts on all aspects of the child. 6. Partnership Model Professionals are viewed as experts on education and parents are viewed as experts on their children. The relationship between professionals and parents can then be a partnership that involves the sharing of expertise and control to provide the optimum education for children. Parents and professionals can contribute different strengths to their relationship, thereby increasing the potency of the partnership. There are seven principles of effective partnerships: Trust, Respect, Competence, Communication, Commitment, Equality, and Advocacy. Challenging and more time consuming to implement Most of the models listed above undermine the development of an equal relationship of power between family and school, relegating the family to the role of visitor while trying to create varying degrees of interaction. Yet the leading experts (Epstein, Jeynes) agree that the modern definition of family engagement is shared responsibility between parents, schools, and communities, with an asset-based approach to collaborating. This requires families to feel like more than visitors at the school, while acknowledging that they have limited time, different styles and talents, and different cultural understandings of engaging with schools. Further complicating family engagement plan-development is that there is still debate on whether or not family engagement programs result in increased student achievement. Some researchers contend that many of the programs geared toward increasing family-school-community partnerships as a way to bolster student achievement are based on weak evidence. 22 They cite design flaws in the research pointing to student outcomes. 23 Jeynes and others respond with claims that these researchers focus only on family engagement programs (excluding more subtle 22 Kayzar, B., Prislin, R., McKenzie, T., Rodriguez, J., & Kayzar, B. (2002). Evaluating Evaluations: The Case Of Parent Involvement Programs. Review of Educational Research, Gordon, Molly. (2010). Bringing parent and community engagement back into the education reform spotlight: a comparative case study. University of Minnesota Dissertation.

15 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 15 forms of family engagement) and include many unpublished studies while excluding prominent studies from their research. 24 Most recently, The Atlantic published a book review in April 2014 on The Broken Compass: Parental Involvement With Children s Education by Professors Keith Robinson and Angel L. Harris. The book, and the review, concluded that Most measurable forms of parental involvement seem to yield few academic dividends for kids, or even to backfire regardless of a parent s race, class, or level of education. 25 However, consistent with Jeynes critiques of other criticism, the article is primarily focused on the effect of measurable parent engagement on standardized test score results. Its conclusion centers on middle school students, i.e., parents helping with homework in the middle school years and higher is not helpful in changing standardized test scores. More subtle forms of family engagement like those that Jeynes advocates, such as the culture of expectations at home, are found by the Broken Compass authors to be helpful as well, along with reading to your child, teaching your child to ask critical questions and advocate for themselves, requesting placement with the best teachers; talking to teenagers about college plans, and surrounding students with successful role models. In conclusion, if the primary way that family engagement influences academic outcomes is through parenting style and expectations in the home, then it is in the best interest of those interested in education reform to support families as more than visitors dropping off children at a school. Reformers should also support families in their homes, and in their communities, and work with families to identify differentiated ways that families can engage with school success, both in and out of the school building. This is complex, delicate work that is not easily done through a program. Many models have been created and applied to help organize the work, yet most of the model categories fall short in delivering on the need for shared responsibility. Specifically, the Protective, Expert, Transmission, or Consumer models of family engagement will not reinvent the way low income families approach education and/or educational systems. This work must be done in partnership with the schools and the community. For this reason, we are focusing our model summary on partnership models (number 6 in the categories of models, above). VI. EXAMPLES OF PARTNERSHIP MODELS Though there are six categories of models used by schools to engage with families, our research focuses on the various partnership models. Partnership models highlight professionals as experts 24 Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A Meta-Analysis Of The Relation Of Parental Involvement To Urban Elementary School Student Academic Achievement. Urban Education, Goldstein, D. (2014, April). Don't help your kids with their homework. Atlantic.

16 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 16 on education and families as experts on their children. The relationship between professionals and families can be seen as a partnership that involves the sharing of expertise and control both at home and at school, both contributing strengths to provide the optimal education for children. We have categorized the partnership models in two ways: academic models and practitioner models.. The academic models are those written in the abstract; that is, they do not apply to a particular program, non-profit, or school using them in practice. The practitioner models are those describing a specific program, non-profit, or school using them in practice. PARTNERSHIP MODELS OF FAMILY ENGAGEMENT: ACADEMIC EXAMPLES DIFFERENTIATED ENGAGEMENT MODEL (2011) 26 Parents have varying levels of interest in being involved in school programs and activities. Similarly, schools have varying levels of capacity for families to be involved. This model lays out family engagement based on a combination of a school s needs and families needs. Its unique findings show that there will be varying degrees of parent contributions and parent needs based on what is happening in the relationships. On the parental contribution side, all will need to share information on their children, while only some will need to utilize policy formation. In terms of parental needs, all will need channels of communication but only some will need parent support. These unique findings show how not all parents will need or contribute all things to their child s education. 26 Hornby, G. (2011). Parental involvement in childhood education building effective school-family partnerships. New York: Springer.

17 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 17 ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF INFLUENCE MODEL: THE MEDIATING ROLE OF FAMILY INVOLVEMENT 27 (2012) Davis-Kean (2005) and Galindo and Sheldon (2012) highlight the importance of home and school in learning and development. The ecological model calls attention to factors outside of school that may affect the extent to which families and students can engage in a child s educational development. These factors may lead to instability in the home, which can create difficulties for both parent and child. Parent education level was found to be a significant to take into consideration when looking at school-age children. It is also important to consider any external factors that may decrease the likelihood of engagement when planning outreach strategies. 27 Davis-Kean, Pamela E. (2005). The influence of family education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology.19(2), Galindo, C., & Sheldon, S. B. (2012). School and home connections and children's kindergarten achievement gains: The mediating role of family involvement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(1),

18 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 18 FAMILY AT THE CENTER OF A CONTINUUM OF 3CS PREK MODEL (2011) 28 Malsch, Green and Kothari see kindergarten as a major milestone for both children and parents. Their conceptual model places family at the center of a continuum of collaboration, community and continuity from preschool to elementary school. Links to information, emotional support and empowerment are all necessary parts transition supports that influence the course of a child s educational development. 28 Malsch, A. M., Green, B. L., & Kothari, B. H. (2011). Understanding Parents' Perspectives on the Transition to Kindergarten: What Early Childhood Settings and Schools Can Do for At-Risk Families. Best Practices in Mental Health, 7(1). Pianta, R. C., & Kraft-Sayre, M. (2003). Successful kindergarten transition: Your guide to connecting children, families, & schools. PH Brookes.

19 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 19 INTERMEDIARY ORGANIZATIONS AS CAPACITY BUILDERS MODEL // TRUSTED ADVOCATE MODEL (2005) 29 Intermediary organizations or individuals act on behalf of parents and families as trusted advocates. They can serve as the bridge between parents and schools, helping parents become more engaged, and navigate the school system. They help schools understand parent talents, concerns, and cultures to increase partnership with schools on student achievement. Trusted advocates work to promote relational capacity between schools, families, and communities. Trusted advocates also work to promote organizational capacity by managing communication flows within and across sites so as to facilitate learning for improved practice by schools. Sample Trusted Advocate Model from Metro Transit 29 Lopez, M. W., Kreider, H., & Coffman, J. (2005). Intermediary organizations as capacity builders in family educational involvement. Urban Education, 40(1),

20 Literature Review: Definitions and Models 20 INVOLVEMENT TO ENGAGEMENT CONTINUUM MODEL (2013) 30 Goodall and Montgomery assert that parent involvement and parent engagement are not the same thing, but that they are a part of the same continuum. Through a variety of factors, parents can move across the continuum from parent involvement to parent engagement. Both school and parent agency play a role. Needs of children change over time. This requires adaptability on the parts of schools and families. Families and schools will work in different parts of the continuum at different times depending on their contributions and needs. 30 Goodall, J. (2012). Parental engagement to support children s learning: A six point model. School Leadership & Management

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