...semiconductors to occur on a large scale was in xerography (or electrostatic imaging), the process that provides the basis of plain-paper copiers. Amorphous selenium (Se) and, later, amorphous arsenic selenide (As2Se3) were used to form the thin-film, large-area photoconducting element that lies at the heart of the xerographic process. The photoconductor, which is an......

any member of a rare mineral group consisting of compounds of one or more metals with arsenic (As). The coordination of the metal is almost always octahedral or tetrahedral. In the former case, each metal ion occupies a position within an octahedron composed of six oppositely charged arsenic ions, whereas in the latter each of the metal ions is surrounded by six oppositely charged neighbours arran...

...an Austrian invasion. The Habsburg forces, unable to sustain their advance, retreated back across the Sava, leaving the native population seriously exposed to Turkish reprisals. In 1691 Archbishop Arsenije III Crnojević of Peć led a migration of 30,000–40,000 Serbs from “Old Serbia” and southern Bosnia across the Danube and Sava. There they were settled and......

...briefly starred Joan Rivers and then introduced Arsenio Hall, TV’s first African American late-night talk show host, who went on to his own successful late-night talk show, The Arsenio Hall Show, in syndication from 1989 to 1994....

...has a range of oxidation states from -3 to +5, it can form a variety of different kinds of compounds. Among the most important commercial compounds are the oxides, the principal forms of which are arsenious oxide (As4O6) and arsenic pentoxide (As2O5). Arsenious oxide, commonly known as white arsenic, is obtained as a by-product from the roasting of......

...Michael VIII as emperor. His treatment of the Lascarid heir of Nicaea, for which the patriarch Arsenius excommunicated him, appalled many of his own subjects and provoked what was known as the Arsenite schism in the Byzantine Church. Many in Anatolia, loyal to the memory of the Lascarid emperors who had enriched and protected them, condemned Michael VIII as a usurper....

patriarch of Constantinople, whose deposition caused a serious schism in the Byzantine Church. He took the name Arsenius on being appointed patriarch of Nicaea in 1255 by the Byzantine emperor Theodore II Lascaris. In 1259 he crowned John IV, Theodore’s son and legitimate heir, and Michael VIII Palaeologus as co-emperors. Arsenius retired to a monastery when M...

Roman noble, later monk of Egypt, whose asceticism among the Christian hermits in the Libyan Desert caused him to be ranked among the celebrated Desert Fathers and influenced the development of the monastic and contemplative life in Eastern and Western Christendom....

Roman noble, later monk of Egypt, whose asceticism among the Christian hermits in the Libyan Desert caused him to be ranked among the celebrated Desert Fathers and influenced the development of the monastic and contemplative life in Eastern and Western Christendom....

an iron sulfoarsenide mineral (FeAsS), the most common ore of arsenic. It is most commonly found in ore veins that were formed at high temperatures, as at Mapimí, Mex.; Butte, Mont.; and Tunaberg, Swed. Arsenopyrite forms monoclinic or triclinic crystals with an orthorhombic shape; the physical appearance of these crystals is seldom an accurate method for determining their symmetry. A series of mi...

The Ussuri is formed by the confluence of the Sungacha (Song’acha) River, the outlet of Lake Khanka (Xingkai); and the Ulakhe and Arsenyevka rivers, both of which rise on the southwestern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain complex. Its length from the source of the Ulakhe is 565 miles (909 km), and its basin is 72,200 square miles (187,000 square km) in area. The Ussuri is navigable from its......

(247 bc–ad 224), ancient Iranian dynasty that founded and ruled the Parthian empire. The progenitors of the dynasty were members of the Parni tribe living east of the Caspian Sea. They entered Parthia shortly after the death of Alexander the Great (323 bc) and gradually gained control over much of Iran and Mesopotamia...

...Munda dialect is preserved among those living in the hills, however. The Savara of the hill country are divided into subtribes mainly on the basis of occupation: the Jati Savara are cultivators; the Arsi, weavers of cloth; the Muli, workers in iron; the Kindal, basket makers; and the Kumbi, potters. The traditional social unit is the extended family, including both males and females descended.....

a major port in the Turkish Cypriot-administered portion of northern Cyprus. It lies on the island’s east coast in a bay between Capes Greco and Eloea and is about 37 miles (55 km) east of Nicosia. The port possesses the deepest harbour in Cyprus....

The region has many ancient sites, including Shedet (later Crocodilopolis), chief centre for worship of the crocodile-god Sebek, near which Al-Fayyūm town now lies. In the time of the Ptolemies, Setje was named Arsinoe after the wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Since pharaonic times Al-Fayyūm’s irrigation waters, its lifeline, have been controlled by sluices at Al-Lāhūn......

queen of ancient Egypt, daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, and first wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Although she bore Ptolemy three children, including his successor, she was unable to prevent him from repudiating her and marrying his sister, Arsinoe II....

queen (basilissa) of Thrace and Macedonia and, later, the wife of her younger brother, King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, and possibly his coruler. It has been inferred by modern historians that she wielded great power in both roles, though the extent of that power is contested. Some scholars contend th...

daughter of Queen Berenice II and Ptolemy III Euergetes of Egypt, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV Philopator. Powerless to arrest the decline of the Ptolemaic kingdom under her debauched husband’s rule, the popular queen was eventually murdered by the royal ministers....

youngest daughter of the Macedonian king Ptolemy XII Auletes of Egypt, sister of Cleopatra VII and the kings Ptolemy XIII and XIV. During the Alexandrian war, Arsinoe attempted to lead the native forces against Cleopatra, who had allied herself with Julius Caesar....

genus of extinct large, primitive, hoofed mammals that have been found as fossils in Egypt in deposits from the Eocene Epoch (56 million to 34 million years ago) and elsewhere in deposits from the Oligocene Epoch (34 million to 23 million years ago)....

in prosody, respectively, the accented and unaccented parts of a poetic foot. Arsis, a term of Greek origin meaning “the act of raising or lifting” or “raising the foot in beating time,” refers in Greek, or quantitative, verse to the lighter or shorter part of a poetic foot, and thesis to the accented part of the poetic foot. In Latin, or accen...

lake, largest body of water in Turkey and the second largest in the Middle East. The lake is located in the region of eastern Anatolia near the border of Iran. It covers an area of 1,434 square miles (3,713 square km) and is more than 74 miles (119 km) across at its widest point. Known to the ancient Greek geographers as Thospitis Lacus, or Arsissa Lacus, its modern Turkish name, Van Gölü, is deri...

...from a lower to a higher office, an officeholder would change his regnal name; thus certain names were always held by the holders of certain offices. The eastern tribal leader was always called arslan (“lion”), while the western tribal chief, the paramount leader of the Qarluq, held the title of bughra (“camel”)....

...The inherited tradition of the heroic or romantic epic and folktale was blended with novelistic techniques learned from Sir Walter Scott. Two writers in the front rank of Arab intellectuals were Amīr Shakīb Arslān (died 1946), of Druze origin, and Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī (died 1953), the founder of the Arab Academy of Damascus, each of whom, by encouraging a......

...and Azerbaijan. In 1161, shortly after he had married the widow of the Seljuq ruler Toghrïl II, Eldegüz was made atabeg (guardian) of his stepson, the infant Seljuq prince Arslan. During the next three decades the Eldegüzids, using their position as atabegs of Seljuq princes, expanded their territories in Iran as far south as Isfahan and northward in the......

ancient city near the upper Euphrates River in east-central Turkey, 4 miles (6.5 km) northeast of the town of Malatya. The site was first inhabited in the 4th millennium bc and later became an important city of the Hittites until the dissolution of their empire early in the 12th century bc. It survived as an independent city-state, sometimes linked wi...

A possible temple at Arslantepe-Malatya had a heavily built T-shaped plan and walls decorated with painted and impressed designs. Beycesultan houses had megarons—large central halls with porches at either end—arranged in pairs with circular hearths backed by twin stelae and clay horns, suggesting an affinity with Cretan cults and a possible dedication to male and female deities.......

crime commonly defined by statute as the willful or malicious damage or destruction of property by means of fire or explosion. In English common law, arson referred to the burning of another person’s dwellings under circumstances that endangered human life. Modern statutes have expanded this definition so that arson now includes the wrongful burning of any public or private prop...

The OTEC concept was first proposed in the early 1880s by the French engineer Jacques-Arsène d’Arsonval. His idea called for a closed-cycle system, a design that has been adapted for most present-day OTEC pilot plants. Such a system employs a secondary working fluid (a refrigerant) such as ammonia. Heat transferred from the warm surface ocean water causes the working fluid to vaporize......

The OTEC concept was first proposed in the early 1880s by the French engineer Jacques-Arsène d’Arsonval. His idea called for a closed-cycle system, a design that has been adapted for most present-day OTEC pilot plants. Such a system employs a secondary working fluid (a refrigerant) such as ammonia. Heat transferred from the warm surface ocean water causes the working fluid to vaporize......

The OTEC concept was first proposed in the early 1880s by the French engineer Jacques-Arsène d’Arsonval. His idea called for a closed-cycle system, a design that has been adapted for most present-day OTEC pilot plants. Such a system employs a secondary working fluid (a refrigerant) such as ammonia. Heat transferred from the warm surface ocean water causes the working fluid to vaporize......

...a selective affinity for certain chemicals. He experimented with the effects of various chemical substances on disease organisms. In 1910, with his colleague Sahachiro Hata, he conducted tests on arsphenamine, once sold under the commercial name Salvarsan. Their success inaugurated the chemotherapeutic era, which was to revolutionize the treatment and control of infectious diseases.......

...by radio direction-finding equipment. The radio technologies are able to transmit the heading and distance to an intended destination. These aircraft-mounted technologies are supplemented by air route surveillance radar, which monitors aircraft within each designated sector of the air route traffic control system. The radar-based systems form the backbone of the navigation aids for......

...important towns from the Ayyūbid princes, thus ending their rule in Syria. From 1265 to 1271, Baybars conducted almost annual raids against the crusaders. In 1265 he received the surrender of Arsūf from the Knights Hospitalers. He occupied ʿAtlit and Haifa, and in July 1266 he received the town of Safed from the Knights Templar garrison after a heavy siege. Two years later,......

town in southwestern Greenland, on the 20-mile- (32-km-) long Arsuk Fjord, southeast of Paamiut (Frederikshåb). Nearby is a large open-pit cryolite mine (deposit discovered in 1794), which used to be of major economic importance to Greenland. Although the mine was closed in 1963, the stockpiled cryolite was exported until the late 1980s. The community was founded in 1864 with the opening......

It was Art however, which premiered in 1994, that brought Reza wide notice. In the play three friends quarrel over a work of modern art—which is, in effect, a blank canvas—thereby showing just how fragile friendship can be. The play was in production on major stages worldwide virtually continuously after its opening. It won Molière Awards for best......

a visual object or experience consciously created through an expression of skill or imagination. The term art encompasses diverse media such as painting, sculpture, printmaking, drawing, decorative arts, photography, and installation....

Bell’s most important contribution to art criticism was the theory of “significant form,” as described in his books Art (1914) and Since Cézanne (1922). He asserted that purely formal qualities—i.e., the relationships and combinations of lines and colours—are the most important elements in works of art. The......

in the visual arts, institution established primarily for the instruction of artists but often endowed with other functions, most significantly that of providing a place of exhibition for students and mature artists accepted as members. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a series of short-lived “academies” that had little to do with artistic training were founded in various parts of Italy....

in the visual arts, institution established primarily for the instruction of artists but often endowed with other functions, most significantly that of providing a place of exhibition for students and mature artists accepted as members. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a series of short-lived “academies” that had little to do with artistic training were founded in various parts of Italy....

From 1958 to 1965 Rudolph was chairman of the department of architecture at Yale University. His School of Art and Architecture at Yale University (1958–63), with its complex massing of interlocking forms and its variety of surface textures, is typical of the increasing freedom, imagination, and virtuosity of his mature building approach. Considered one of the most defining designs of his......

...furthered an understanding of Shakespeare’s social, political, economic, and theatrical milieu. Shakespeare’s sources came under new and intense scrutiny. Elmer Edgar Stoll, in Art and Artifice in Shakespeare (1933), stressed the ways in which the plays could be seen as constructs intimately connected with their historical environment. Playacting depends on......

...most remarkable galleries. It is particularly notable for its collection of 19th- and 20th-century works, including many of the German Romantic school. The Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe (Museum of Art and Crafts), founded in 1877 by the jurist Justus Brinckmann, has one of the most significant collections of ancient artifacts in Germany and is also famous for its examples of Asian......

...the ideal theory represents it to be. What then is the work of art, and what is its relation to the objects in which it is embodied? These questions have been discussed by Richard Wollheim in Art and Its Objects (1968), and again by Goodman in Languages of Art (see above). Wollheim argues that works of art are “types” and their embodiments “tokens.” The......

...Arts magazine. He later wrote for Art International and Artforum. At the latter magazine he published Art and Objecthood (1967), a controversial and influential attack on minimalist sculpture that revealed him to be a powerful champion of formalist art. Fried’s objection to what he saw as the......

...now wrote a number of prose volumes on revolution, social and artistic. From 1849 to 1852 he produced his basic prose works: Die Kunst und die Revolution (Art and Revolution), Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft (The Art Work of the Future), Eine Mitteilung an meine Freunde (......

...V. Plekhanov in Russia both attempted to unite Marx’s social criticism with a conception of the nature of artistic labour. Plekhanov’s Iskusstvo i obshchestvennaya zhizn (1912; Art and Social Life) is a kind of synthesis of early Marxist thought and attempts to recast the practices of art and criticism in a revolutionary mold. The ideology of “art for art’s......

...contact with many of the more puzzling features of our experience of art. The influence of the Gestalt psychologists is also apparent in works of visual aesthetics; e.g., Rudolf Arnheim’s Art and Visual Perception (1954), which explores the significance for our understanding of pictures of such well-known Gestalt phenomena as the figure-ground relationship and the perception of......

...a work that is distinguished by its detailed attention to dress, fashion, manners, and the useful arts, and by its idea of the artist as artisan d’abord. Along with John Dewey’s Art As Experience (1934), in which aesthetic experience is presented as integral to the organic completion of human nature, these works provide the culminating expression of a now defunct view of......

(French: “raw art”), art of the French painter Jean Dubuffet, who in the 1940s promoted art that is crude, inexperienced, and even obscene. Dubuffet, the most important French artist to emerge after World War II, became interested in the art of the mentally ill in mid-career, after studying The Art of the Insane by the Swiss psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn. Dubuffet applied ...

an accumulation of works of art by a private individual or a public institution. Art collecting has a long history, and most of the world’s art museums grew out of great private collections formed by royalty, the aristocracy, or the wealthy....

an accumulation of works of art by a private individual or a public institution. Art collecting has a long history, and most of the world’s art museums grew out of great private collections formed by royalty, the aristocracy, or the wealthy....

any attempt to conserve and repair architecture, paintings, drawings, prints, sculptures, and objects of the decorative arts (furniture, glassware, metalware, textiles, ceramics, and so on) that have been adversely affected by negligence, willful damage, or, more usually, the inevitable decay caused by the effects of time and human use on the materials of which they are made....

...It is commonly held that Hausmann and Höch discovered photomontage while vacationing on the Baltic Sea in the summer of 1918. Notable photomontages by Hausmann include Art Critic (1919–20), a satirical image of a man in a suit with a German banknote behind his neck, choking him , and A Bourgeois Precision Brain Incites a World......

A prolific writer for Boston and New York City newspapers in the 1880s and ’90s, Hartmann started the Art Critic in 1893, wrote Symbolist dramas, lectured, and became a disciple of the American photographer and art entrepreneur Alfred Stieglitz. His articles appeared regularly in Camera Work, Stieglitz’s revolutionary magazine, where......

...a manifesto for Kuspit’s own approach to criticism, which seeks to analyze and differentiate the psychosocial dimensions of art. This interest led Kuspit to cofound the journal Art Criticism with his colleagues in the art department at the State University of New York at Stony Brook in 1979. The journal became a vehicle for dialectical critical writing that was at......

the analysis and evaluation of works of art. More subtly, art criticism is often tied to theory; it is interpretive, involving the effort to understand a particular work of art from a theoretical perspective and to establish its significance in the history of art....

...he preserved soups, fruits, vegetables, juices, dairy products, marmalades, jellies, and syrups. A 12,000-franc award in 1810 specified that he publish his findings, which appeared that year as L’Art de conserver, pendant plusieurs années, toutes les substances animales et végétales (The Art of Preserving All Kinds of Animal and Vegetable Substances for......

In 1964 the French social scientist Bertrand de Jouvenel published L’Art de la conjecture (The Art of Conjecture), in which he offered a systematic philosophical rationale for the field. The following year the American Academy of Arts and Sciences formed its Commission on the Year 2000 “to anticipate social patterns, to design new institutions, and to propose alternative......

...continued his chronicle (see Chastellain, Georges). His duties as chronicler took him to many lands in the course of Charles’s wars and on journeys of the court. His writings also include Art de rhétorique (1492; “Art of Rhetoric,” really concerned with the art of poetry), mysteries, religious poems, occasional verse, and parodies....

movement in the decorative arts and architecture that originated in the 1920s and developed into a major style in western Europe and the United States during the 1930s. Its name was derived from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, held in Paris in 1925, where the style was first exhibited. Art Deco design represented mode...

...by the Mémoire sur le vernis de la Chine, which the French missionary Pierre d’Incarville wrote in 1760 and which appeared as an appendix to L’Art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur of Jean-Félix Watin (1772), the most precise account of lacquerwork that appeared in the 18th century. In this book Watin examined the recipes of......

...(1907; My Double Life: Memoirs of Sarah Bernhardt, also translated as Memories of My Life). Bernhardt’s treatise on acting, L’Art du théâtre (1923; The Art of the Theatre), is revealing in its sections on voice training: the actress had always considered voice as the key to......

...of the Bauhaus from 1919 to 1928, Moholy-Nagy edited the 14 publications known as the Bauhausbook series. During his Bauhaus years Moholy-Nagy developed the theories of art education for which he is known. He created a widely accepted curriculum that focused on developing students’ natural visual gifts instead of teaching them specialized skills. His dictum was:......

...all other forms of embroidery in England and North America were superseded by a type of needlepoint known as Berlin woolwork. A later fashion, influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, was “art needlework,” embroidery done on coarse, natural-coloured linen....

American jazz group, innovators of sound, structure, and form in free jazz. They embraced a diversity of African and African American styles and sources in their creation of what they preferred to call “Great Black Music.”...

wonder tale involving marvellous elements and occurrences, though not necessarily about fairies. The term embraces such popular folktales (Märchen) as “Cinderella” and “Puss-in-Boots” and art fairy tales (Kunstmärchen) of later invention, such as The Happy Prince (1888), by the Irish writer Oscar Wilde. It is often difficult to distinguish between tales of ...

a slogan translated from the French l’art pour l’art, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. The phrase expresses the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needs no justification, that it need serve no political, didactic, or other end....

the deliberately false representation of the artist, age, origins, or ownership of a work of art in order to reap financial gain. Forgery of a famous artist’s work is the best-known kind of art fraud, but fraud may also result from the knowing misattribution of the age or origin of a work of art—if, for example, an art dealer were to falsely assert that a statue was from 5th-cen...

museum in Chicago, Illinois, U.S., featuring European, American, and Asian sculpture, paintings, prints and drawings, decorative arts, photography, textiles, and arms and armour, as well as African, pre-Columbian American, and ancient art. The museum contains more than 300,000 works of art. It is especially noted for its extensive collections of 19th-century F...

...intended to study to become a preacher, but he eventually rejected that career path to become an artist. Brown left the South for Chicago in 1962 and began studying art, taking a few classes at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC). He then studied at Chicago’s American Academy of Art to become a commercial artist, another path he ultimately rejected. In 1965 he became a full-time.....

coral island group in the French overseas country of New Caledonia, southwestern Pacific Ocean. Comprising Pott and Art islands and several islets, the group lies within the northern continuation of the barrier reef that surrounds the main island of New Caledonia. The chief settlement is Wala, on Art Island. The largest of the group, Art Island is 10 miles (16 km) long and 3 miles (5 km) wide.......

...and directions of contemporary art. Ozenfant’s definitive work on this subject, the two-volume L’Art, was published in 1928 (translated into English as The Foundations of Modern Art in 1931). From 1931 to 1938 he painted a massive figural composition in the Purist style entitled Life....

The Art Loss Register (ALR), founded in 1991, grew out of the International Foundation for Art Research (IFAR: founded 1969), a not-for-profit organization that initiated and maintained (until 1997) an international database of stolen works of art, antiques, and collectables. After 1998 ALR assumed maintenance, although IFAR retains ownership, and the two organizations work closely together....

physical or figurative venue in which art is bought and sold. At its most basic an art market requires a work of art, which might be drawn from a very wide range of collectible objects; a seller; and a buyer, who may participate directly in negotiations or be represented by agents....

Galleries countered the stagnant market by limiting expansion, closing branches, and canceling extravagant exhibitions, such as Chris Burden’s One Ton One Kilo, slated for a March debut at the Beverly Hills, Calif., branch of the Gagosian Gallery and involving 100 kg (220 lb) of gold bars valued at $3.3 million. Some clients turned to galleries for private sales, accepting lower returns......

...Ballet of Romania—have long traditions. Bucharest is also the seat of a national philharmonic orchestra. Among the many museums are the Museum of the History of the City of Bucharest and the Art Museum of Romania, the latter maintaining large collections of national, European, and East Asian art. A highly original ethnographic collection, the Village Museum (1936), is made up of peasant......

...gallery director, dealer, and critic. The couple moved to Brazil soon after, where her husband had been invited by journalist and media magnate Assis Chateaubriand to help establish and direct the Art Museum of São Paulo (Museu de Arte de São Paulo; MASP), the first museum in Brazil to collect and exhibit modern art. For the first iteration of the institution, which opened in......

...of perception, establishing a sense of repose or tonality to which the remaining six pitches relate. Major and minor scale tonality was basic to Western music until it began to disintegrate in the art music of the late 19th century. It was replaced in part by the methods of Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), which used all 12 notes as basic material. Since that revolution of the early 1920s,......

...all other forms of embroidery in England and North America were superseded by a type of needlepoint known as Berlin woolwork. A later fashion, influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, was “art needlework,” embroidery done on coarse, natural-coloured linen....

ornamental style of art that flourished between about 1890 and 1910 throughout Europe and the United States. Art Nouveau is characterized by its use of a long, sinuous, organic line and was employed most often in architecture, interior design, jewelry and glass design, posters, and illustration. It was a...

Art Objects: Essays on Ecstasy and Effrontery—which covers various topics such as Gertrude Stein, modern literature, and lesbianism—was published in 1995. Winterson also produced a collection of short stories, The World and Other Places (1998); the vivid memoir Why Be Happy When You Could Be Normal? (2011);......

the visual art and architecture of native Oceania, including media such as sculpture, pottery, rock art, basketry, masks, painting, and personal decoration. In these cultures, art and architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion....