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Introduction

Vernon Sigl/Shostal Associates

To help those on ships determine location and to warn of potential hazards, lighthouses have been built for centuries in areas where naval or commercial vessels sail. The history of lighthouses is filled with tales of lighthouse keepers, the men who once lived in or near the lighthouse whose light it was their responsibility to keep burning. Most modern lighthouses, however, have automatic lights that need little tending.

Some few lighthouses have become quite famous. The one built on the island of Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, about 280 bc was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Along the Hudson River in New York City, under the George Washington Bridge, stands a small lighthouse about which a children’s book was written—The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Grey Bridge by H. H. Swift and Lynd Ward. But the best known of all is the Eddystone Lighthouse on a reef 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) off the shore of Plymouth, England. Celebrated in ballad and folklore, it has had a long and sometimes tragic history. Four successive lighthouses have stood at this location. The first, opened in 1699, was swept out to sea only four years later. Its replacement was destroyed by fire in 1755. The third was replaced by the present tower in 1882.

Locations

In the ancient world lighthouses were constructed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and other maritime powers throughout the Mediterranean region—from the Black Sea to the British Isles. For most of the Middle Ages, until about ad 1100 when commerce and trade revived, lighthouse construction halted. Italy and France took the lead in construction of new lighthouses, and by 1500 lighthouses were a standard feature of navigational charts.

Lighthouses are located along most of the commercial shipping lanes of the world. Most are on the heavily traveled parts of oceans and seas, but they are also quite frequently found on inland lakes and rivers where commercial ships are common. Many are located on the Great Lakes in the United States. The state of Maine is famous for its lighthouses—more than 60 can be found dotting its rocky shores.

Lighthouses are built on shore, on offshore reefs, or are moored in the seabed. Since the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse, masonry and brick have continued to be used, especially for shore-based structures. But steel and concrete are now the most favored building materials.

Courtesy of the U.S. Coast Guard

Lighthouses built in the open sea are moored on submerged caissons, concrete-filled cylinders, or sand-filled concrete bases. Some open-sea lighthouses are similar to offshore oil platforms. These have large upper decks that contain all necessary machinery, the light tower, and a helicopter landing pad. They are built on tubular steel piles driven about 150 feet (45 meters) into the seabed.

Illumination

The means used to illuminate lighthouses have varied considerably over the centuries. Wood and coal fires were gradually superseded by oil lamps. Vaporized kerosene came into use shortly after 1900, but the use of acetylene gas, pioneered in Sweden by Gustaf Dalén between 1900 and 1910, revolutionized lighthouse technology. Because the fuel is contained in storage cylinders, it made possible the establishment of automated lighthouses in remote locations. They needed only an annual visit to replenish the gas and to check the operation of the mechanism.

The use of arc lamps began in England in 1862, but these devices proved expensive and difficult to control. Electric-filament lamps came into general use in the 1920s and are standard today. They may be augmented by modern, more efficient arc lamps. In some lighthouses the xenon flash tube is used. It is similar to the flashing light mounted on some skyscrapers to ward off aircraft and birds.

To increase light intensity and focus it into a beam, mirrors and other reflectors came into use in the 18th century. Modern lighthouses have reflectors, as well as lenses and prisms, to carry the light farther. So that the light can be seen from all directions, the lantern rotates at a controlled speed. Depending on the candlepower of the light, a beam can be seen from as far away as 28 miles (45 kilometers), although normal range is closer to 20 miles (32 kilometers).

In bad weather, such as dense fog, even a modern light with 10 billion candlepower is barely visible from half a mile. To offset the problem of poor visibility, lighthouses also produce sound to give position and warning information. For centuries bells and explosive charges have helped guide mariners, but today the most common device is the foghorn, the sound of which is familiar to anyone who has lived near an area of water navigation. The largest of these, the diaphone, makes its sounds by a rapid release of compressed air. The noise may be heard up to a distance of eight miles (12 kilometers).

Because sound waves are subject to the vagaries of weather—humidity, wind direction and speed, and temperature—radio and radar beacons, called racons, have become a standard means of guiding ships. These are detected with special equipment.

Lightships and Buoys

Other aids to navigation, similar in function to lighthouses, are lightships and buoys. Lightships came into use in the 17th century in places where a lighthouse was impracticable. A modern lightship is a steel vessel about 120 feet (35 meters) long. Usually manned by a crew of about seven, it carries all the equipment standard to a lighthouse. Some lightships are unmanned floats with automatic acetylene lights. These are adequate for sheltered waters where high-powered illumination is not necessary.

Buoys are floating steel devices used to delineate channels in rivers, harbors, and estuaries. They also mark single, isolated dangers such as wrecks or rocks. They vary in size from five to ten feet (1.5 to three meters) in diameter and weigh from one to nine tons (910 to 8,160 kilograms). They are moored to heavy concrete or cast-iron sinkers by a length of chain. The color, shape, and markings of a buoy convey information to navigators. The standards for buoys, known as the Lateral and Cardinal systems, were drawn up by the League of Nations in 1936 and are still in use. Most buoys are in the shape of cones, spheres, or cylinders; and they are painted red or black, alternating with white or plain markings. They may also be lighted. The light may come from burning acetylene or propane, or from electricity. Large buoys that rise about 14 feet (4 meters) above water have recently come into use in treacherous open-sea conditions. They carry lights and sound devices.

Because lighthouses, lightships, and buoys are often located in remote, hard-to-reach places, the power used to operate them is usually derived from diesel generators located at the site or, in the case of buoys, from replaceable electric batteries.

Administration

In most maritime nations, lighthouses are administered by the central government. In the United States, their operation is overseen by the Coast Guard; in Germany, by the Ministry of Marine; in Sweden, by the National Administration of Shipping and Navigation; in Norway, by the Directorate of Lighthouse Services; in Japan, by the Maritime Safety Agency; and in Canada, by the Aids of Navigation Division of the Department of Transport. An exception is Great Britain: lighthouses in England and Wales are governed by the Corporation of Trinity House, a public corporation independent of the government. Trinity House is financed by dues levied on shipping, based on tonnage, at ports in the United Kingdom. Similar corporations operate the lighthouses in Scotland and Ireland. (See alsonavigation.)

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