We present a simple and rapid method for measuring the acoustic energy density in microchannel acoustophoresis based on light-intensity measurements of a suspension of particles. The method relies on the assumption that each particle in the suspension undergoes single-particle acoustophoresis. It is validated by the single-particle tracking method, and we show by proper re-scaling that the re-scaled light intensity plotted versus re-scaled time falls on a universal curve. The method allows for analysis of moderate-resolution images in the concentration range encountered in typical experiments, and it is an attractive alternative to particle tracking and particle image velocimetry for quantifying acoustophoretic performance in microchannels.

Polymer shelled gas microbubbles (MBs) are used to sort cells in a microfluidic chip under acoustic standing waves (SW). When particles are subjected to SW based on their acoustic contrast factor (ACF) they migrate to nodes (positive contrast factor particles; PACP) or antinodes (negative acoustic contrast particles; NACP)[1]. We have bounded functionalized MBs with cells such that, they can be selectively migrated to antinodes under SW and sorted from unbounded cell both in no flow and flow conditions. Here we demonstrate acoustic mediated microbubble tagged cell sorting with 75% efficiency.

Acoustophoresis, the ability to acoustically manipulate particles and cells inside a microfluidic channel, is a critical enabling technology for cell-sorting applications. However, one of the major impediments for routine use of acoustophoresis at clinical laboratory has been the reliance on the inherent physical properties of cells for separation. Here, we present a microfluidic-based microBubble-Activated Acoustic Cell Sorting (BAACS) method that rely on the specific binding of target cells to microbubbles conjugated with specific antibodies on their surface for continuous cell separation using ultrasonic standing wave. In acoustophoresis, cells being positive acoustic contrast particles migrate to pressure nodes. On the contrary we show that air-filled polymer-shelled microbubbles being strong negative acoustic contrast particles migrate to pressure antinodes at acoustic pressure amplitudes as low as 60 kPa. As a proof of principle, using the BAACS strategy, we demonstrate the separation of cancer cell line in a suspension with better than 75% efficiency. Moreover, 100% of the microbubble-cell conjugates migrated to the anti-node. Hence a better upstream affinity-capture has the potential to provide higher sorting efficiency. The BAACS technique may potentially provide a simplistic approach for similar sized selective isolation of cells, and is suited for applications in point of care.

5.

Faridi, Muhammad Asim

et al.

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab. mafaridi@kth.se.

Ramachandraiah, Harisha

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab.

Acoustophoresis, the ability to acoustically manipulate particles and cells inside a microfluidic channel, is a critical enabling technology for cell-sorting applications. However, one of the major impediments for routine use of acoustophoresis at clinical laboratory has been the reliance on the inherent physical properties of cells for separation. Here, we present a microfluidic-based microBubble-Activated Acoustic Cell Sorting (BAACS) method that rely on the specific binding of target cells to microbubbles conjugated with specific antibodies on their surface for continuous cell separation using ultrasonic standing wave. In acoustophoresis, cells being positive acoustic contrast particles migrate to pressure nodes. On the contrary we show that air-filled polymer-shelled microbubbles being strong negative acoustic contrast particles migrate to pressure antinodes at acoustic pressure amplitudes as low as 60 kPa. As a proof of principle, using the BAACS strategy, we demonstrate the separation of cancer cell line in a suspension with better than 75% efficiency. Moreover, 100% of the microbubble-cell conjugates migrated to the anti-node. Hence a better upstream affinity-capture has the potential to provide higher sorting efficiency. The BAACS technique may potentially provide a simplistic approach for similar sized selective isolation of cells, and is suited for applications in point of care.

Using a novel light-intensity method, we quantify for the first time the magnitude and spatial variance in acoustic energy density along a microchannel during acoustophoretic focusing of particles with frequency-modulated ultrasound. We compare the distribution in energy density between single-frequency (SF) and frequency-modulation (FM) actuation along the microchannel. In addition, we analyze the field uniformity for the two actuation approaches (SF and FM) by measuring the deviation of the final particle pattern from an ideal straight line. We conclude that the magnitude of the energy density for FM actuation is of the same order of magnitude as for SF actuation, but with much less spatial variance.

7.

Iranmanesh, Ida

et al.

KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Applied Physics.

Ohlin, Mathias

KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Applied Physics.

Ramachandraiah, Harisha

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab.

Russom, Aman

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab.

In this paper we demonstrate a multi-functional platform using ultrasound for vortexing of 20-μl volumes of different samples in polymer-based disposable chips. The method enables different vortexing functions such as mixing laminar flows, resuspension of a micro-pellet of magnetic beads as well as cell lysis for DNA extraction. The device consists of an inexpensive low-frequency, high power, horn-shaped langevin transducer which is typically used for cell disruption in larger volumes. By controlling the operating time of this device (from fractions of a second up to a minute) different functions can be achieved. In addition, to avoid the high-power-induced heating, a simple cooling system is used as a chip holder consisting of a PC fan-cooled aluminum heat sink. To demonstrate a sample preparation application, we perform on-chip cell lysis and DNA extraction.

8.

Iranmanesh, Ida

et al.

KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Applied Physics.

Ohlin, Mathias

KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Applied Physics.

Ramachandraiah, Harisha

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab.

Ye, Simon

KTH, School of Engineering Sciences (SCI), Applied Physics.

Russom, Aman

KTH, School of Biotechnology (BIO), Proteomics and Nanobiotechnology. KTH, Centres, Science for Life Laboratory, SciLifeLab.

We demonstrate an acoustic platform for microvortexing in disposable polymer microfluidic chips with small-volume (20 mu l) reaction chambers. The described method is demonstrated for a variety of standard vortexing functions, including mixing of fluids, re-suspension of a pellet of magnetic beads collected by a magnet placed on the chip, and lysis of cells for DNA extraction. The device is based on a modified Langevin-type ultrasonic transducer with an exponential horn for efficient coupling into the microfluidic chip, which is actuated by a low-cost fixed-frequency electronic driver board. The transducer is optimized by numerical modelling, and different demonstrated vortexing functions are realized by actuating the transducer for varying times; from fractions of a second for fluid mixing, to half a minute for cell lysis and DNA extraction. The platform can be operated during 1 min below physiological temperatures with the help of a PC fan, a Peltier element and an aluminum heat sink acting as the chip holder. As a proof of principle for sample preparation applications, we demonstrate on-chip cell lysis and DNA extraction within 25 s. The method is of interest for automating and chip-integrating sample preparation procedures in various biological assays.

Acoustofluidics has become a well-established technology in the lab-on-a-chip scientific community. The technology involves primarily the manipulation of fluids and/or particles in microfluidic systems. It is used today for variety of applications such as handling, sorting, washing and separation of cells or micro-particles, and for mixing and pumping of fluids. When such manipulation functions are integrated in micro-devices, the technology has been used for clinical sample preparation as well as for studying various fundamental bio-related questions.

In this doctoral thesis, we have developed different acoustic methods and micro-devices with the aim to create a multi-functional sample preparation platform. We introduced a simple method for in-situ measurements of acoustic energy densities inside a microfluidic channel, from which acoustic pressure amplitudes can be extracted. The method has been used for determining the magnitude of acoustic radiation forces acting on suspended particles and cells inside an acoustofluidic system. For optimization of acoustophoresis (i.e. manipulation of particles into the nodes of standing waves), we have investigated different designs of ultrasonic transducers based on tunable-angle wedges and backing layers attached to glass-silicon microfluidic chips. Furthermore, we have investigated the implementation of frequency-modulated actuation methodology combined with broadbanded ultrasonic transducers, and the implementation of multiple ultrasonic manipulation functions localized to spatially separated zones in a complex microchannel network. We demonstrate two different bio-applications useful for multi-step and multi-functional sample preparation. First, we demonstrate a micro-device for size-based separation, isolation and up-concentration of cells, followed by microscopy-based dynamic monitoring of individual cell properties when introducing different reagents. This holds great promise for use in cellular and molecular diagnostics. Second, we demonstrate an acoustic method for micro-vortexing in µL-volume reaction chambers in disposable polymer chips. The method is used for fast mixing of fluids, for disaggregating and re-suspending magnetically trapped and clumped micro-beads, and for cell lysis followed by DNA extraction. Finally, we demonstrate a temperature-controlled device compatible with high-acoustic-pressure (1 MPa) ultrasonic manipulation of cells, and we demonstrate that cells can be exposed to standing-wave ultrasound at 1 MPa for one hour without compromising the cell viability.

We present a tunable-angle wedge ultrasound transducer for improved control of microparticle acoustophoresis in a microfluidic chip. The transducer is investigated by analyzing the pattern of aligned particles and induced acoustic energy density while varying the transducer geometry, transducer coupling angle, and transducer actuation method (single-frequency actuation or frequency-modulation actuation). The energy-density analysis is based on measuring the transmitted light intensity through a microfluidic channel filled with a suspension of 5 mu m diameter beads and the results with the tunable-angle transducer are compared with the results from actuation by a standard planar transducer in order to decouple the influence from change in coupling angle and change in transducer geometry. We find in this work that the transducer coupling angle is the more important parameter compared to the concomitant change in geometry and that the coupling angle may be used as an additional tuning parameter for improved acoustophoretic control with single-frequency actuation. Further, we find that frequency-modulation actuation is suitable for diminishing such tuning effects and that it is a robust method to produce uniform particle patterns with average acoustic energy densities comparable to those obtained using single-frequency actuation.

We demonstrate an acoustophoresis method for size-based separation, isolation, up-concentration and trapping of cells that can be used for on-chip sample preparation combined with high resolution imaging for cell-based assays. The method combines three frequency-specific acoustophoresis functions in a sequence by actuating three separate channel zones simultaneously: zones for pre-alignment, size-based separation, and trapping. We characterize the mutual interference between the acoustic radiation forces between the different zones by measuring the spatial distribution of the acoustic energy density during different schemes of ultrasonic actuation, and use this information for optimizing the driving frequencies and voltages of the three utilized ultrasonic transducers attached to the chip, and the flow rates of the pumps. By the use of hydrodynamic defocusing of the pre-aligned cells in the separation zone, a cell population from a complex sample can be isolated and trapped with very high purity, followed by dynamic fluorescence analysis. We exemplify the method's potential by isolating A549 lung cancer cells from red blood cells with 100% purity, 92% separation efficiency, and 93% trapping efficiency resulting in a 130× up-concentration factor during 15 minutes of continuous sample processing through the chip. Furthermore, we demonstrate an on-chip fluorescence assay of the isolated cancer cells by monitoring the dynamic uptake and release of a fluorescence probe in individual trapped cells. The ability to combine isolation of individual cells from a complex sample with high-resolution image analysis holds great promise for applications in cellular and molecular diagnostics.

We study the temperature-independent impact on cell viability of relevant physical parameters during long-term, high-acoustic-pressure ultrasonic exposure in a microfluidic chip designed for ultrasonic-standing-wave trapping and aggregation of cells. We use a light-intensity method and 5 mum polymer beads for accurate acoustic pressure calibration before injecting cells into the device, and we monitor the viability of A549 lung cancer cells trapped during one hour in an ultrasonic standing wave with 1 MPa pressure amplitude. The microfluidic chip is actuated by a novel temperature-controlled ultrasonic transducer capable of keeping the temperature stable around 37 °C with an accuracy better than ±0.2 °C, independently on the ultrasonic power and heat produced by the system, thereby decoupling any temperature effect from other relevant effects on cells caused by the high-pressure acoustic field. We demonstrate that frequency-modulated ultrasonic actuation can produce acoustic pressures of equally high magnitudes as with single-frequency actuation, and we show that A549 lung cancer cells can be exposed to 1 MPa standing-wave acoustic pressure amplitudes for one hour without compromising cell viability. At this pressure level, we also measure the acoustic streaming induced around the trapped cell aggregate, and conclude that cell viability is not affected by streaming velocities of the order of 100 mum s(-1). Our results are important when implementing acoustophoresis methods in various clinical and biomedical applications.

In this paper we report on the viability of cells exposed to high acoustic pressure amplitudes (>1 MPa) and long durations (one hour) in a temperature-controlled acoustofluidic microdevice. We demonstrate that A5490 lung cancer cells are not affected by the ultrasound even at pressure levels exceeding what is normally used in acoustophoresis applications, as long as the temperature and fluid streaming around the trapped cells are carefully controlled.

We describe a novel platform for acoustic sample preparation in microchannels and microplates. The utilized method is based on generating a multitude of acoustic resonances at a set of different frequencies in microstructures, in order to accurately control the migration and positioning of particles and cells suspended in fluid channels and chambers. The actuation frequencies range from 30 kHz to 7 MHz, which are applied simultaneously and/or in sweeps. We present two devices: A closed microfluidic chip designed for pre-alignment, size-based separation, isolation, up-concentration and lysis of cells, and an open multi-well microplate designed for parallel aggregation and positioning of cells. Both devices in the platform are compatible with high-resolution live-cell microscopy, which is used for fluorescence-based optical characterization. Two bioapplications are demonstrated for each of the devices: The first device is used for size-selective cell isolation and lysis for DNA-based diagnostics, and the second device is used for quantifying the heterogeneity in cytotoxic response of natural killer cells interacting with cancer cells.

This review describes the use of ultrasound for inducing and retaining cell-cell contact in multi-well microplates combined with live-cell fluorescence microscopy. This platform has been used for studying the interaction between natural killer (NK) cells and cancer cells at the level of individual cells. The review includes basic principles of ultrasonic particle manipulation, design criteria when building a multi-well microplate device for this purpose, biocompatibility aspects, and finally, two examples of biological applications: Dynamic imaging of the inhibitory immune synapse, and studies of the heterogeneity in killing dynamics of NK cells interacting with cancer cells.