R.sres final

Senior Thesis Project on using Landscape
Architecture for Disaster Reduction and Response. Analyzing the current ruling by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to remove all vegetation from levees. Created recommendations to improve the functioning and safety of the Yolo Bypass that facilitates flood waters away from the greater Sacramento area.

Transcript of "R.sres final"

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STRATEGY FOR CHANGELandscape Architecture for Disaster Reduction and Response A Senior Project Presented to the Faculty of the Landscape Architecture Program, Department of Environmental Design, University of California ,DavisIn Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelors of Science in Landscape Architecture Heath Massey Schenker, Senior Project Advisor Steven Greco, Committee Member Alison Berry, Commitee Member Elizabeth Boults, Committee Member

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Abstract The purpose of this project is to important source for this system and isdetermine the integrity and management of dependent on having stable flood control andthe Central Valley flood control strong levees. The Delta provides two thirdswaterways to assist in developing design of California with drinking water, millions ofconcepts for future planning. The California gallons of water for irrigation of agriculture, aCentral Valley is the backbone of the state’s utility corridor, home to more than half a mil-water supply and flood control system. This lion people and is habitat for countless animalirreplaceable system is outdated and and plant species (National Geographic,becoming increasingly fragile due to a 2009). In reviewing the current managementconstantly fluctuating system. The exist- standards and practices it is apparent theing flood control and levee system was built Central Valley flood control system needs tofor a different era and is no longer capable of be reimagined. The Yolo Bypass is a criticalwithstanding to the pressures of the 21st piece of this system and the implementationcentury. Climate changes have increased of a multifunction design strategy could betemperatures, altered our precipitation the right step foward. This project will focuspatterns, changed the timings of peak river on a design to expand the Yolo Bypass asflows, and have caused sea levels to rise. The an integrated system for establishing flood control, habitat stability, agriculture, andSacramento-San Joaquin Delta is an public recreation. Figure 1. - The Yolo Bypass during a flood, displaying its role Strategy for Change in managing flood waters (Source: Friedpez 2010).

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee members Alison Berry Steven Greco Elizabeth Boults and senior project advisor Health Massey Schenker for the much needed ideas, advise, and guidance to in order to complete this project. And thank you to the University of California for the opportunity to pursue my dreams. Strategy for Change ii

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Goals: Introduction - Determine the environmental and social impacts that could be created by a flood catastrophe in the Central valley. Climate changes have begun to United States has begun to review the - Determine the current management decrease snow packs in the Sierra Nevada disaster management practices currently practices used to manage flood control waterways in California. Mountains, cause more intense rainfall events in place. In 2009, the United States Army -Develop multifunctional landscape design and have increased the frequencies, Corps of Engineers issued a mandate that solutions for the proposes Yolo Bypass expansion. intensities, and durations of heat waves calls for the removal of all woody vegetation (Figure 2)(NASA, 2012). Climate change has from any levee in the state-federal flood increasingly become an evident protection system of California’s Central part of life and has serious Valley (The Department of Water Resources, implications for the California 2012). The reasoning behind this ruling is Central Valley flood control and enforced by no factual information that shows water conveyance system (Sci- vegetation occurring along levee systems encedaily, 2008). The aging contributes to levee failures. The Army infrastructure of the Central Valley Corp’s current policies have been ineffective could not withstand a severe in attempts at flood control for the Central flooding event due to poor Valley flood control system because they do construction, inadequate not take into account landscape manage- foundations, and improper ment approaches that enhance and maintain landscape maintenance and the benefits of natural riparian ecosystems. management (Department of The California Flood Control System has the Water Resources, 2007). potential for a system of integrated flood In light of Hurricane Katrina control, riparian habitat, crop-specificFigure 2. -California’s water resources.(Source: ACWA, 2011) and the tremendous agriculture, and recreational opportunities. devastation that occurred, the1 Strategy for Change

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A Changing Climate Climate change in California has Floods are complex events caused by multiple All of which are protected by an aging infra-multiple implications for the future of this human vulnerabilities, climate variability, and structure that is becoming more vulnerablestate. The state must establish and inappropriate planning and development. The every day due to climate change, rising seaunderstand how the Central Valley will be potential of a flood becoming a disastrous levels, and earthquake risk (ACWA, 2009).affected by the decreasing snow pack in the event depends upon the location of peopleSierra’s (our largest reservoir for water), (FEMA, 2012). In California we have anrecord heat waves and warmer temperatures economy and millions of people that dependallowing storms to hold more precipitation upon a fragile Delta and its tributary rivers.for longer periods of time (Figure 3)(NASA2012). In the Central Valley it should be fullyunderstood that occasional floods will occurand they will need to spread. According to the Federal EmergencyManagement Agency (FEMA) floods are oneof the most common hazards to occur in theUnites States (FEMA, 2012). The NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA)reported that in 2011 alone we spent$8,410,469,500 because of flooddamages and lost one hundred and thirteenlives (NOAA, 2012). In the past decade Figure 3. - A graph of NASA’s key indicators for climate change; atmospheric CO2we have seen floods become more frequent, levels. Rising trend is no longer normal and now exceeding levels for the past 400,000 years. (Source: NASA, 2012)unpredictable, and intensive (ALNAP, 2012). Strategy for Change 2

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Sacramento - San Joaquin Flood Control System The California Central Valley is home supply and an irreplaceable part of the Central to the largest estuary on the West Coast. Valley’s flood control system (National The Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta consist Geographic, 2012). of more than 1,000 miles of earthen levees, The backbone of this system is an numerous sunken islands, countless wetlands interconnected series of aging earthen levees and is an unequivocal treasure (Figure 4). and floodways. The levees, many built during As the confluence of the two largest rivers the 19th century, play a strategic role in in California, it plays an important role for protecting people, property, and from pre- our agriculture, urban areas, industry, the venting salt-water intrusion from environment and provides many recreational contaminating our largest source of fresh opportunities. Much of California’s water water. The Central Valley’s 1600 miles of supply has to pass through this system and meandering levees protect over $47 billion about two thirds of California’s population dollars of infrastructure alone (DWR, 2007). depends on the Delta for drinking water. The northern portion of the Delta that While millions of acres of agricultural lands, an includes the Yolo Bypass, sometimes referred integral part of our economy, depends on to as the North Delta, plays an imperative role irrigation provided by the Delta’s waters. in conveying flood waters away from Davis, The region functions as a utility corridor, an West Sacramento, Sacramento, Yuba City, important ecological resource, and supports Marysville and Woodland (Greco, 2012). a growing urban area of a half million people or Billions of gallons of water drain fromFigure 4.- Meandering Sacramento River confined by levees on more. The Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta is Northern California’s watersheds into thisboth sides (Source: explorations.ucsd.edu). the single-most important link to our water outdated and fragile system (ACWA, 2009).3 Strategy for Change

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Could these aging man-made levees Not only is the Yolo Bypass is the largestwithstand the changing climate, a large flood floodplain of the lower Sacramento River butoccurrence, or a massive earthquake? it is also a very important resource for the The Yolo Bypass is supposed to people, agriculture and habitat in the centralprotect against a 100-year flood, but valley (Final Yolo Report, 2002).engineering analysis showed it might onlywithstand an 80-year flood (Greco, 2012). Figure 6. -Aerial photograph of the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta. Figure 5. - A map of the Sacramento Flood Control System showing the areas of flood Strategy for Change 4 hazard (red) and the areas of protection (orange). (Cal Water Atlas, 2012)

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History of Flood Control The Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta the new addition of increased sedimentationflood control system was originally and rising riverbeds due to hydraulic mining.constructed in the mid to late 19th century As the interior islands were drained,to prevent the natural flood occurrences of cultivated, and tilled the peat soils becamesome of the nations most fertile farmland oxidized, thus blew away when dried out(DWR, 2012). The original levees were built by causing the land to subside. In the late 19thChinese laborers who, arriving from the Gold century the sidedraft-clamshell dredger wasRush, used hand shovels and wheelbarrows to invented to construct and reinforce existingconstruct the levees (Figure 7). At this time levees (Figure 8). In many areas of the delta Figure 7.most of the land was at sea level, so the the islands have reached well below 20’ at - Chinese laborers constructing levees with wheelbarrow and shov- els. (Department of Water Resources, 2012)workers tended to construct man-made sea level, making the risk of a levee failure alevees on natural levees that formed dirt very serious issue and potentially the loss ofbarriers routinely along the sloughs and life, infrastructure, and property (Figure 9).rivers. The floodplains were an ideal source A system of levees is only as strong as theof peat soils, excellent for agriculture but weakest link making constant monitoring andinadequate as a foundation meant to contain repair required to compensate for levee failurea constant flow of water. Despite this fact, mechanisms (Wolf, 2003).levees were constructed in this manner with Figure 8. - A sidedraft - clamshell dredger removing sediments from the river to construct a levee (Department of Water Resources 2012).5 Strategy for Change

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Levee Failures As a result of the 2005 events is important. During winter high flows, levee breech was to becatastrophe of Hurricane Katrina there has floods pose a risk of overtopping levees and created by a major flood eventbeen many concerns with the countries levee inundating our urban areas. During the or an earthquake the resultingsystems in terms of both their construction summer months a structural failure could damages could likely destroyand management (ACWA, 2009). The 20th result in salt-water infiltration and two major export pumps,century has witnessed more than 160 levee potentially result in billions of dollars in total billions of dollars, andfailures in California alone (Figure 13). Not damages (DWR, 2009). One of the most cost many lives (ACWA,only do these levee breaches threaten life and recent levee failures occurred at Jones Tract 2009). Typical mechanismsproperty but a failure large enough could allow on an ordinary day in 2004. This structural of levee failures includesaltwater intrusion and dramatically disrupt failure resulted in the flooding of 12,000 through-seepage, underthe statewide water supply and delivery acres and approximately $90 million seepage, slope instability,system. To assess the risk of these failures dollars in repairs (Figure 11). Furthermore erosion, and overtoppingan understanding of the timing of these flood this failure initiated the realization that if a (SAFCA, 2012).Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 13.- Levee Failure at Jones Tract showing property destruc- - Levee breech at Jones Tract in 2004 that occurred on a - Distribution of levee failurestion (University of California Davis, 2007) normal sunny day (DWR, 2009). in California since 1900. (Source: Department of Water7 Strategy for Change Resources, 2007)

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Management of Levees Management practices were systems in the country. These new policies was to provide guidelines so all “landscapefirst developed to maintain the original levee were put into affect regardless of the fact planting and vegetation management providesystem that was built on a foundation of that vegetation on levees did not cause any of aesthetic and environmental benefitspeat, sand, and silt. These materials proved the floodwall or levee failures that occurred without compromising the reliability of levees,inadequate as a foundation and created as a result of Hurricane Katrina. The USACE’s floodwalls, embankment dams, and adjacentproblematic issues and susceptibility to main concern is visibility in case of a flood fight structures” (USACE, 2009).breaches, seepage, and erosion. occurring and because the funding is at the In 1917, the Sacramento Flood Con- federal level California agencies must obligetrol Project was created for the purpose of to the policies set forth or risk losing federalassigning the USACE to reconstruct “project assistance (DWR, 2009).The currentlevees” designed for superior flood control management of levees in the Sacramento-Sanprotection. These levees consisted of more Joaquin Delta and Yolo Bypass, is managedthan 1,600 miles through out the Central by an effort between the Unites States ArmyValley and more than 700 miles built and Corps of Engineers, the Department of Watermanaged by land owners or reclamation Resources, the Sacramento Flood Controldistricts. Following changes fueled by Agency, and private owners (DWR, 2012).Hurricane Katrina, the USACE conducted a In a technical letter dated in Aprilreview to improve their levee standards in 2009, the USACE outlined theirorder to improve public safety. At the national “Guidelines for landscape planting andlevel a policy was created that requires the vegetation management at levees, floodwalls,removal of all woody vegetation larger than embankments, dams, and appurtenant struc- Figure 15.two inches in diameter from all levee tures.” The purpose of this Engineering letter - Sections of the USACE’s minimal distances for the vegetation free zones of the levees. (USACE, 2009)9 Strategy for Change

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They created guidelines to set standard existence of endangered species that couldminimum dimensions for a root free zone and a inhibit management practices. The main re-vegetation free zone that establishes buffer quirements being that no landscape plantingdistances between flood protection should impact flood-fighting or maintenancestructures and vegetation (Figure 15). They operations and must allow access for movingspecify the same guidelines for levees as they vehicles and emergency repairs.do with all flood control structures, Typical design standards include aexpressing they all serve one related design 15’ minimum zone or distance topurpose for preventing floods from occurring edge of normal water surface withat particular times and to contain those all trunk centerlineswaters. The USACE feels it is necessary to at the edge of the 15’ area, and anapproach all landscape plantings and 8’ height for the vegetation freevegetation management with extreme caution zone (USACE, 2009).because of their possibilities for long-term Unfortunately the Armysaturation (USACE 2009). Accordingly, Corps does not firmly support athe occurrences of “undesirable vegetation” situation that would Figure 16.might potentially inhibit the levee integrity increase stability and protection of our flood - Illustration of typical grassland landscape that isand potentially lead to a failure. The vegeta- control system. Rather they endorse the preferred by burrowing species such as the CA ground squirrel and the Botta s Pocket gopher. (Source: Rivertion management strategy mandates the removal of all woody shrubs and trees from Partners)control of vegetation to prevent root-related levees as the best management option fordamages to flood controls structures, to limit floodway and levee management. This rulinghabitat characteristics that might promote has no concrete evidence and would weakenburrowing animal species (Figure 16) and to the hundreds of miles of levees throughoutavoid any accidental growth and successive the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Strategy for Change 10

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The proposals outlined in section 3-1 of the essary and extensive environmental damageUSACE’s Engineering Technical Letter (DWR, 2012) The Army Corps is trying to1110-2-571 describes a one size fits all address multiple and complex concerns with apolicy for all flood control structures whether narrow-minded process despite that ita levee or a engineered floodwall. The Depart- may cost up to 7.5 billion dollars to removement of Water Resources found that the all vegetation from up to fifteen percentUSACE’s vegetation management policy would of California’s levees (Contra Costa Times,reduce public safety while promoting unnec- 2011). Levee management of trees and other vegetation can coexist with the standards for public safety and Figure 18. - Aerial photograph of a levee in New Orleans with flood control flood control. The new policy structure to control erosion. Erosion typically occurs along hard-soft interface. basically ignores the devastat- (Source: Berkeley Independent Investigation Team 2007) ing impact that would occur to the last remaining 5-10% of riparian habitats that predomi- nately exist within the 15 foot free zones and on top of levees. Removal of trees could actually create negative impacts to the integrity of levees and require over-excavation or installa- tion of sand filters to address Figure 17. - Riprap, a common alternative for vegetation seepage along decaying root to control erosion.(Source USACE 2009) systems. (DWR, 2012) Figure 19. -Comparison of natural stream corridor to typical Central Valley water corridors. (Source http://ucanr.org)11 Strategy for Change

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Concerns with Vegetation on Levees The main concerns with will rot and cause piping. This has been and the California ground squirrel are bothvegetation on levees are those thought determined despite any proof or photographic grassland species that prefer open space forto contribute to the mechanisms of levee evidence. Likewise a study on the Sacramento visibility. These rodents are rarely seen livingfailures. One concern is with plant materials River showed old root channels have been in woody vegetation due to predators andblocking visual inspections or obstructing found to fill with sand (River Partners, 2012). difficulties to burrow because of large roots.maintenance responsibilities. Applicable Understanding the natural senescence of a There are also concerns with trees topplingdesign solutions can be developed to tree will show that they die back slowly over over due to high winds, weak leveeincorporate vegetation and allow for visibility time, rather than all at once which would occur foundations, or prolonged saturation causedand detection of any seepage occurring on if a tree were to be cut down. The Army Corps by floods. Since groups of tree roots tend tothe landside (Figure 20). In the case of a flood is also concerned with vegetation providing create a network that hold one anotherfight event there is concerns with burrowing rodents with habitat and cover together, tree toppling tend to occur withvegetation affecting the ability of rescue (USACE, 2009). Ironically the two burrowing lone stand trees rather than within denselyefforts. Another concern is that tree roots rodents of concern, the Botta’s pocket gopher planted areas (River Partners, 2012). Figure 20. - Design strategy for a levee that allows for vegetation and visibility (Source Info: River Partners, 2012) Strategy for Change 12

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Understanding the Role of Vegetation on Levees Today’s levees are generally constructed using“ideal” textured soils as construction materials becausethey are easily compacted and result in strong, shearresistant levees. The addition of plant roots in the upperportions of these levees will help bind the soil particulatestogether and thus increase the overall shear strength ofthe levee. Tree roots perform the same function as rebarholding together concrete slabs by creating a network ofsupport (Figure 25). The presence of roots will increasethe cohesive binding properties essential to levees Figure 25.functionality and therefore require a much larger force to - Close relationship of tree roots in soil and rebar in concrete slabs (Source: River Partners 2012)break up the bond. The key point is to have a series of manyindividual trees of several plant species in order to createa levee with strong upper layer network of tree roots.The network of support will assist in reducing tree failuredue to high winds, weak levee foundations, or prolongedsaturation caused by floods. Vegetation also decreaseserosion at the toe of a levee by breaking up and dissipatingwave or tidal energy (RIver Partners 2012). Figure 26 - Tree root section showing the proximity and extent of typical tree roots15 Strategy for Change (Source: RIver Partners 2012).

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Berkeley Independent Investigation Team In 2006, the Berkeley resistant construction materials, transition considering the loss of human life or theIndependent Levee Investigation team did a zones between different flood protection economic losses to cities, counties, andstudy to investigate the New Orleans Levee components (grass - floodwall interface) and states. This study exemplifies the fact thatSystem. They found that the majority of flood lack of surface slope protection for erosion- there is a “systematic-under-valuation” ofprotection for New Orleans was dependant susceptible soil levees. A portion of the study the benefits of investing funding, efforts, andon the function and presence of the earthen levees were highly vegetated and proved to be resources to prevent disasters before theylevee systems to separate the land and water. very affective in flood control and resistant to occur. Investigations found that levees wereThe results concluded that the attributes, erosion mechanisms (Figure 27). incapable of withstanding overtopping andwhich contribute to a poor performance The current approach to resulted in catastrophic losses while thelevee, included the utilization of low erosion- establishing design standards is based on current design standards of the USACE and using a cost-benefit analysis rather than FEMA at he the time assumed that overtopping did not occur. The design guidelines were essentially based on deterministic factors of safety levels that did not account for the broad range of uncertainties or failure mechanisms to ensure an appropriate level of safety or ecological stability (Berkeley Investigation Team, 2006). Figure 27. Strategy for Change 16 - A stretch of a vegetated levee in New Orleans that was virtually unchanged by the events of Hurricane Katrina (Source: Berkeley Independent Investigation Team, 2006)

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The Effect of Riparian Tree Roots on theMass-Stability of River Banks Dr. Bruce Abernethy and Ian riverbanks is complex and requires knowledgeRutherfurd from the University of Melbourne of the underlying mechanics of bank failure andconducted an experiment to asses the effect the potential mechanical features of plants.of riparian tree roots on the mass –stability Field observations indicated thatof riverbanks. The study was looking to tension cracks typically occurred at sitesunderstand specific plant interactions with with depleted vegetation and cover. Furtherthe process of erosion on rivers through the investigations noted that rootaltercation of bank hydrology, flow hydraulics, reinforcements could stabilize banks at anyand geotechnical properties. The two tree angle up to a height of 5 meters (Figure 28).species examined, the Swamp Paperbark It is imperative to the design and safety(Melaleuca ericifolia) and the River Red concerns of riverbanks to understandGum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), had vegetation is a critical part of the riparianroots that were found to provide high levels landscapes and supports a major role inof bank protection. Trees located close to the stabilizing riverbanks and moderating erosion.potential failure zone created the greatest In comparison to the traditional methods ofbank reinforcement such as the floodplain/ hard engineering, applying natural vegetationriver bank interface or low on the bank to will most likely achieve goals of bankdissipate erosion forces, sometimes in- stability while adhering to economic andcreasing the safety factor by six times. ecological concerns (Abernethy and Ruther-Understanding the vegetative influence on furd, 1999). Figure 28. - River bank safety factors according to Tree Location. (Source Arbernethy17 Strategy for Change and Rutherfurd, 1999)

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California’s Riparian Habitats Up to ninety five percent of vegetation on levees has been found to be that is suffering from ongoing pollution. (RiparianCalifornia’s Central Valley riparian habitat has compatible with flood control and can even Handbook, 2009). Disturbed riparian areas arebeen destroyed as a result of anthropogenic improve public safety by reducing many particularly vulnerable to damages and invasivepressures. Abiding to the Army Corp’s proposed potential mechanisms of failure (Figure 28) species because of the availability of water (Hard-design standards would require the destruction (Friends of the River vs. USACE, 2010). ing, 2012). A healthy living river and riparianof most all the last remaining five percent of the Riparian zones consist of a unique habitat will provide biological processing ofriparian forest that are essential to composition of physical and ecological factors pollutants and physically filter organicendangered species, flood control, and such as flooding, rich and productive soils, materials and sediments. Likewise these areasrecreational uses. These remnant riparian areas water table accessible by plant roots, species are the foundation of California’s water and floodare crucially important as habitat areas for adapted to fluvial aspects of flooding, drought, control systems by conveying floodwaters andbirds, fish, and other species while providing sedimentation, and channel properties, and delivering more than half of our water supplyshade, aesthetics and opportunities for structural development of grasslands, meadows, across the state. (Friends of River vs. USACE,recreational activities such as fishing, hunting, shrublands, woodlands, and forest. California’s 2010).or nature observing. The removal of riparian riparian forest alone support more diversity of vegetation could affect the livelihood of wildlife than any other habitat. Theseendangered or threatened species, going directly ecosystems also support people and wildlife byagainst both the federal and state Endangered providing many benefits and ecosystem services.Species Act. These species include the Chinook Many riparian areas such as those of the Yolosalmon, Central valley steelhead, Delta smelt, Bypass and Sacramento River provide manygreen sturgeon, long-fin smelt, giant garter recreational opportunities such as wildlife view-snake, burrowing owl, riparian brush rabbit and ing, hiking, boating, hunting, and fishing. Thesethe Swainson’s hawk. Riparian vegetation has habitats act as wildlife migration corridors andalso been noticed to slow surface water are a vital part of the pacific flyway forvelocities and increase ground water migratory birds. Riparian habitats are alsoinfiltration while simultaneously filtering pollut- important for maintaining water quality,ants and reducing bank erosion. Riparian especially in the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta Strategy for Change 18

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Landscape Planning and Ecological Design Although our knowledge of the risk distribute, and locations of strengths orand nature of floods has increased greatly, we weaknesses. Typically floodplains of streamscontinue to see an increase in the loss of life and and rivers are characterized by riparianproperty damage. Much of this can be corridors. For these corridors to maintain theirattributed to our continued development along natural processes within a river, there mustrivers and in floodplains (7% of the U.S. be an upland interior on both sides to act as aboundaries lies within a 100-year floodplain). conduit for displaced species (Marsh, 2005).The typical response has been to “engineer” Important to the long term persistence ofsolutions. Since the 1920’s the U.S. Army these areas it is also best for the river habitatCorps has constructed reservoirs, levees, to maintain a ladder type pattern in order tochannels, and diversion in order to prevent promote habitat rejuvenation, provide soilfloods. The greatest concern with rivers is the organic matter, and trap sediments during athreat they pose during the largest annual flood (Dramstad, 1996).flows or peak annual flows. With anunderstanding of this aspect we are able tobetter predict the probability of reoccurrence ofa particular flow on a river. To understand floods we must also understandthe geomorphology of an area because certaincharacteristics of a river floodplain (size, shape, Figure 29: River section displaying the degradation that occursand topography) influence how due to anthropogenic pressures.floodwaters will move, where water will19 Strategy for Change

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FloodSAFE California In April of 2012 the state issued a panding the western most levees into Conawaydraft report of the Central Valley Flood Control Ranch and expanding both the Fremont andProject as a part of an on going project for a Sacramento Weir’s (see design maps) toFloodSAFE California. The report found that accommodate larger volumes of floodwateraround 300 miles of urban levees do not meet (Harris, Clark and Matheny, 2004). Test havedesign criteria. Furthermore about 60% of indicated the Yolo Bypass is only capable of1,230 nonurban levees have a great poten- withstanding an 80 year flood . There is atial for failure. Many of the levee-contained needed expansion for this system to evenchannels, about 1,016 miles, were also found withstand the occurrence of a 100 year floodto have a “potentially inadequate capacity to (Figure 31) (DWR 2012). There is a greatconvey design flows” (Harris, Clark & Matheny, potential of this project in not only improving2004). Research has resulted in plans to the flood control system and protecting nearbyexpand the Yolo Bypass. The bypass needs to cities but also many opportunities foraccommodate more waters and improve the improving fish passage, aquatic habitat, andflood control capacity and functionality of the facilitate natural flow attenuation. If the Yoloseasonally inundated floodplain. The Yolo By- bypass expansion were implemented it wouldpass is a major facility of the Sacramento Flood have the potential of reducing 67% of overallControl System for alleviating potential flood expected flood damages, 49% reduction in liferisk in the Sacramento River basin. risk, 10,000 acres of new habitat, 25,000 The expansion being proposed is meant acres of habitat compatible crops and ato increase the floodplains ability to withstand increasingly important resiliency to Figure 30: Map of thepeak flows during larger flood events (up to an adaptability to future changes (Harris, Clark, CVFCP showing areas of expansion for the Yoloadditional 40,000 cfs). The plan promotes ex- and Matheny 2004). Bypass (Source; CVFCP, 2012) Strategy for Change 20

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Conclusion I n determining the current state therefore the removal rule proposed by theof California’s Central Valley Flood Control Army Crops is illogical. Unfortunately untilsystem many questions have developed. It the Army Corps is willing to make a com-is understood that the system is in a state promise, state agencies must continue toof fragility and if a flood disaster was to abide by federal standards, regardless ofoccur today there could very well be billions the particular threats to habitats and leveeof dollars and thousands of people at risk. integrity. With proper communication andThe current management practices by the research, there can be a common goal andleading federal authorities implicates there integrative balance of flood control, riparianis a lack of knowledge and a communication habitat development, agriculture develop-gap within the current management system. ment, and opportunities for recreation. TheIt is apparent that there is an overall lack of Yolo Bypass expansion would be a criticalunderstanding of the benefits to investing piece for the entire valley’s flood controlfunding, efforts and resources to prevent system and would provide a great exampleand understand disasters before they occur for introducing an integrated design ap-(Berkeley Investigation Team, 2006). There proach . This step forward could be one ofis a common consensus between scientist many in reevaluating our system to serve aand practicing professionals that trees growing population and changing landscape.and vegetation enforce bank stability and21 Strategy for Change

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Design - Yolo Bypass Expansion The Yolo Bypass is a 59,000 acre leveed floodplain that is designed to convey floodwaters from the SacramentoRiver, Feather River and other multiple tributary streams. This bypass is the largest contiguous floodplain on the lowerSacramento River and as one of the last remnant floodplains it serves a very important role as an ecological resource. Inmany wet years is capable of creating up to 60,000 acres of critical habitat for migrating birds and native fish popula-tions. Research has also shown that when flooded, the bypass contributes to the entire food network of the San-JoaquinDelta ecosystem and increases the overall organic input into the Delta. The Yolo bypass is currently primarily used for floodconveyance, agriculture, wildlife habitat and recreational uses. Although the Yolo Bypass is currently addressing the goalsof this project, there are still many issued that exist within this system (Yolo Final Report, 2002). As noted earlierengineering analysis revealed this system could only withstand an 80- year flood at most (Greco, 2012). Many fish speciescannot travel upstream without adequate floodwaters and timings. There are also many other issues with multiple land useinterest, water availability, legislative issues, and infrastructure problems. 23 Strategy for Change

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Design Vision The vision of this design is to create an a multifunctional Yolo Bypass that properly address the balanceduses of flood control, riparian habitat, agriculture, and recreation. The Sacramento - San Joaquin Delta is a highlychanging and dynamic landscape system. Human intervention and development has always been necessary to liveand deal with the periodic flooding that occurs in the Delta region. The flood control systems have been a vital partof the success in the Central Valley and will remain so for a changing future. As a system we must properly man-age all aspects and uses in a balanced process to maintain the functionality and longevity of the region (Hermens,2010). Strategy for Change 24

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Site Analysis - Context The Yolo Bypass is located in theCentral Valley of California just outside ofSacramento. The bypass is located in the southeastern corner of Yolo County and is the meet- Woodlanding point of Sutter, Solano, Sacramento and Yolocounties. The Yolo Bypass is the final flood plainof the lower Sacramento River before reachingthe confluence of the San-Joaquin River and theDelta. The location of the bypass is important inunderstanding the extent of the watersheds Yolo Sacramento Bypassthat flow into this system and the populationsthat depend on this floodway for safety. Davis Figure 32. - A satellite of the Yolo Bypass and the nearby communities that depend on the floodway for safety during flood events (Source: Google Earth, 2012) Strategy for Change 26

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Site Analysis- Population The primary purpose of flood con- trol is to assure and establish the safety of the public. The Yolo Bypass is critical for the protection of West Sacramento, Sac- ramento, Davis, Yuba City, Woodland, and Marysville. Outside of these cities are a few private establishments but for the most part rural farmlands and occasional service businesses. Both Yolo and Sacramento counties are projected to grow by 10-19% Yo lo from 2010-2020. Furthermore many By counties have zoned future developments pa along the Sacramento River and floodplains. The bottleneck of the Yolo Bypass’ ability ss to withstand and convey waters of the next 100-year flood is critical to the safety of the populations residing in the adjacent central valley areas. Figure 33. - A Map showing the context of the Yolo Bypass to the neighboring communities (Source: William Bowen California, 1995)27 Strategy for Change

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Site Analysis - History The periodic flooding of rivers and deltas is a natural occurrence and thereasoning for such rich and productive soils. These events have been both a burdenand a gift since the earliest settlements of the Central Valley. The Great Flood of1862 flooded over an area of 300 x 20 miles of the Sacramento –San Joaquin Val-ley. Cities like Knights Landing were completely destroyed and areas of Sacramentowere flooded by up to 10 feet or more. A large flood in 1907 was estimated toinundate 300,000 acres of the valley at a flow of around 600,000 cfs. A few yearslater in 1909 another flood initiated actions that directed the USACE to constructa bypass system that closely resembled and functioned as the Sacramento Riversnatural floodplain. The 59,000-acre Yolo Bypass was constructed to safely conveyfloodwaters from the nearby communities. This flood system was eventually complet-ed in the 1930’s and included the east and west levees, Fremont weir, Sacramentoweir and bypass. This is a very unique situation as typically flood control projects Figure 34.usually result in the channelization and isolation of rivers from their natural habitats - Painting of Sacramento during the Great Inundation of 1850 (Source: University of California Berkeley, 2012)and destroy any ecological function. The Yolo Bypass is essentially a key indicator forestablishing flood control and habitat diversity (Final Yolo Report 2002). Strategy for Change 28

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Field Observations Figure 35.1 -Open space below the railroad tracks that crosses the Yolo By- pass provide oppourtunities for trails and outdoor recreation Figure 35.2 - Fine line between riparian areas and levee vegetation. Levees are completely disturbed and offten harbor invasive weed species. There is a great oppourtunity to use these disrtupted landscapes for habitat restoration29 Strategy for Change

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Figure 35.3 - Ponds, creeks, streams meander throughout the Yolo Bypassproviding habitat for fish and other animal species. These areas are greatspacesfor outdoor recreation such as bird watching and fishing.Figure 35.4 - Open space allows for wetland establishiment not only for waterfowl but as well as an ecosystem service to filter our polluted waters beforereleasing them into our waterways and Delta Strategy for Change 30

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Fremont Weir Expansion The Fremont Weir Expansion is a proposal to expand the flood capacity of the Yolo Bypass. This area is a large confined floodplain that has lost its natural connection between the river biotic activity and upper flood plain. Expanding the Yolo Bypass could free up essential space for native riparian habitat. Figure 45.51 Strategy for Change - Fremont Weir Expansion (Illustration)

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Sacramento Weir and Bypass Expansion Expanding the Sacramento Bypass and Weir is essential for the Yolo Bypass to convey more floodwaters. This weir is the last flood control mechanism before the city and is rather small and out dated. Expanding the bypass at a minimum of 100’ will allow for more floodwater conveyance and the restoration of native habitats for fish species and terrestrial species. Figure 46. - Sacramento Weir & Bypass Expansion53 Strategy for Change (Illustration)

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Tule Canal Putah Creek is a vital habitat connection to the Yolo Bypass. Many species such as otters and salmon have been seen traveling through out the extent of the Putah Creek. Many species cannot move farther north than the end of Putah Creek so the proposal of a small channel thaiweg and inundated floodplain could allow species to travel up the Yolo Bypass. Key to this strategy would be to restore the Tule Canal throughout the Yolo Bypass so specie can travel north to the Fremont Weir. Figure 47.55 Strategy for Change - Tule Canal Connection

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Habitat Islands Habitat Islands can be created from the existing levee that wold become decommissioned if Yolo Bypass expan- sion were to occur. Instead of using resources to demolish the levee entirely, earth can be moved around to create habitat islands that connect green space. These islands can be designed in a parallel fashion with flood conveyance so not to slow flood waters or impede the overall conveyance of the water. These islands are particularly impor- tant during large scale floods as refuge islands for terrestrial species that would otherwise be drowned out Figure 48.57 Strategy for Change - Habitat Islands (Illustration)

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Vegetated Levee Setback Levees can be designed for multiple functions that include flood control but also habitat function. Levees can be designed to have viewing corridors for both spotting failure mechanisms and recreational viewing. The USACE standards specify 15’ minimums from levee but their is the possibility for vegetation management strategies that use clearing techniques and low height standards to keep levee visibility high. Figure 49.59 Strategy for Change -Vegetatied Levee Strategies (Illustration)

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Agriculture The Yolo Bypass is already a major area for agriculture. The areas that are just outside of the existing bor- ders are most agriculture and would need to be re purposed for an expansion. Due to occasional flood water either crops capable of inundation such as rice or seasonal crops would have to be grown. There is also a new concept of carbon farming that focuses on soil carbon a the single most indicator of health. Benefits include healthier soils, better water usage, and high productivity. It is a suitable way to manage land for higher productivity and healthier profits while creating a buffer against unforeseen climate changes. Figure 50. -Carbon Farming (carbonfarminghandbook. com)61 Strategy for Change

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Recreation Levees are a distinctive feature of the landscape that offer many amenities for recreation that are compatible with the long term structure and integrity of levee structures. The recreational activities include hiking , bicy- cling, fishing, birth watching, horseback riding and jogging. signage, information and design would help engage the public in outdoor activities while creating awareness about the importance of our flood control system of levees, canals and floodplains. Figure 51. -Yolo Bypass at sun set Strategy for Change 62

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Conclusion In studying the site and flood control throught the California Central Valley many oppourtunities for landscape architecture exist. Due to climate changes and a deteriorating environmnet changes will be apart of the futre and it is our opputunity to design them. The Yolo Bypas should be expanded to atleast a 100 year flood level to secure the safety of the people and simultaneously the future of riparian habitat. For riparian corridors to maintain to their natural processes within a river watershed, there must be a n upland interior on both sides to act as a conduit for displaced species. Flood control is a seasoanl occurence and requires large amounts of open space great for recreational oppourtunities. Levee systems adjacent to habitat can provide recreational benefits as trail systems or green space for vegetaion and animals. Seasonal agricultre and crops capable of inundation could grow through out the floodplain of the bypass without impacting flood water conveyance. The Yolo Bypass could be the tool to secure our local communities from climate changes and floods while providing habitat, agriculture and recreational oppourtunities.63 Strategy for Change