January 19, 2014, 1:52am ET -- The 10th HHO Games - billed as the
Green Energy Expo at the suggestion of Richard Keough and Michael
D'Agostino - was a little disappointing in terms of the turnout
Friday and Sunday, and a little overwhelming on Saturday.

That's when the most important presentation in our history was
offered on behalf of Dr. Howard Phillips by Patrick Gaddy, the
Savannah architect who brought the science and hardware of Dr.
Phillips' Carbon Catalyst Hydrogen on Demand (CC-HOD) generator -
known as the Phillips Method - down to earth for all of us. His
presentation was clear, concise and illuminating, qualities much
appreciated by his sizeable audience, the largest of the weekend.

Dr. Phillips appeared via Skype, as did his associate Shields Fair
of Scottsdale, Ariz., a longtime member of the American Hydrogen
Assn., on Sunday. Both men were in Scottsdale during the Jan.
10-12 weekend.

The tricky Skype connection was masterfully guided by HHO Games
volunteer Ken Sagester of Clearwater, who with Richard May of St.
Petersburg, Fla., performed a goodly number of small miracles that
kept the Games running smoothly.

Gabet123 of HODINFO fame also participated in the presentation,
making it also the most extensive in Games history.

Using the example of a mid-sized seagoing oil tanker, Gaddy and
Phillips explained how the new generator Phillips invented could
substitute hydrogen for much of the heavy, polluting fossil fuel
it uses now. Dr. Phillips' detailed calculations yielded an
estimate of $29,000 a day in savings over the cost of using the
typical bunker oil fuel when it is laced with the hydrogen output
of the Phillips Method generator. The hydrogen generator would
also free up the vast amount of space on the tanker required to
store the bunker oil.

The former Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University
of North Carolina (Charlotte) took numerous questions from the
audience, mostly about the practical applications of the device.
Among those that he identified were automotive, rail and even
aviation uses, as well as heating and/or power generation (from
turbines) of large manufacturing, storage or assembly plants and
warehouses.

As Dr. Phillips and Patrick Gaddy pointed out, the water necessary
to fuel the generator can come from the ocean, and the carbon
catalyst is abundant and cheap. While a substantial quantity of
aluminum powder or shavings would be required to fuel it, too, the
cost would be far less than the conventional cost of fueling such
a tanker.

Dr. Phillips, responding to a question, said he thought it was
"unlikely" that his device would create a trade war beween stored
and on-demand sources of hydrogen. The plan, as outlined by Dr.
Phillips and Patrick Gaddy, calls for a manufacturer to license
the CC-HOD process and then to build a device that can serve in a
wide variety of applications on land, at sea or in the sky...

US2016068971CATALYSTS AND FUELS FOR PRODUCING HYDROGEN

Exemplary embodiments of methods and systems for hydrogen
production using an electro-activated material (catalyst) are
provided. The catalysts can be chosen from various elements that
have characteristics that fall within a particular range. In some
exemplary embodiments, a material can be electro-activated and
used as a catalyst in a chemical reaction with a fuel such as
water or another hydrogen containing molecule. Another fuel can
also be added, such as aluminum, to generate hydrogen. Controlling
the temperature of the reaction, the amount of the catalyst and/or
the amounts of aluminum can provide hydrogen on demand at a
desired rate of hydrogen generation

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0002] The present disclosure relates to exemplary embodiments of
catalysts and fuels for producing hydrogen, and more particularly,
to exemplary embodiments of methods and systems for producing
hydrogen from chemical reactions involving various catalysts and
fuels.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

[0003] Hydrogen can be considered to be a promising energy
alternative to carbon-based fuels. Various technologies have been
developed regarding the production and use of hydrogen as a fuel
or energy source. While hydrogen may be considered to be a clean
and desirable energy alternative to carbon-based fuels, various
obstacles may exist in relying on hydrogen as an energy source as
opposed to other forms of energy. Such obstacles may generally
include the ability to efficiently, safely and economically
produce, transport and store hydrogen.

[0004] One approach to producing hydrogen can include
thermochemical processes. One such process can include carrying
out chemical reactions between a sulfur-iodine compound and water
at high temperatures (e.g., above approximately 800 degrees C.).
Generally, the process can result in the splitting of the water
molecules (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The
sulfur-iodine solution can be recycled in the process and
therefore, other than hydrogen and oxygen, there may be no harmful
byproducts.

[0005] Another approach to producing hydrogen can include the
electrolysis of water. Electrolysis requires the use of
electricity, in accordance with Faraday's Law. Electrolysis can be
a relatively inefficient process for producing hydrogen without
the aid of another energy source (beyond the supply of
electricity). Indeed, the energy consumed may be more valuable
than the hydrogen produced. In order to make electrolysis an
economically viable process, another energy source can be
incorporated into the process. For example, high-temperature
electrolysis utilizes a high-temperature heat source to heat the
water and effectively reduce the amount of electrical energy
required to split the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
with higher efficiencies. Another approach can involve the
extraction of hydrogen from fossil fuels, such as natural gas or
methanol. This method can be complex and result in residues, such
as carbon dioxide. Also, there is a worldwide limit to the amount
of fossil fuel available for use in the future.

[0006] Other approaches are needed to address hydrogen production,
such that the hydrogen production may be carried out in an
effective, efficient and safe manner. A hydrogen-based economy can
be a long-term, environmentally-benign energy alternative for
sustainable growth. An increasing demand for hydrogen may arise as
the worldwide need for more electricity increases, greenhouse gas
emission controls tighten, and fossil fuel reserves wane.

SUMMARY OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0007] At least some of the above described problems can be
addressed by exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
according to the present disclosure. The present disclosure
describes exemplary embodiments of methods and systems that can
produce hydrogen on demand (HOD) using various catalysts and
fuels.

[0008] According to one exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a method of producing a catalyst for hydrogen
production is provided, comprising providing a material having an
absolute magnitude of a difference in electronegativities between
the material and hydrogen of between approximately 0.08 to
approximately 0.36, and providing electrical energy to the
material to electro-activate the material, using the
electro-activated material to produce hydrogen. The material can
be provided in a liquid composition comprising water.

[0009] The method can further comprise determining whether the
material has a catalyst hydride dissociation energy between
approximately 0 to approximately 100 kcal/mol. The method can
further comprise determining whether the material has a difference
in electronegativities between atoms in a polar oxide molecule on
a surface of the material between approximately 0.3 to
approximately 1.4. The material can be carbon or lead.

[0010] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a method of producing hydrogen is provided, comprising
determining whether a material has an absolute magnitude of a
difference in electronegativities between the material and
hydrogen of between approximately 0.08 to approximately 0.36,
electro-activating the material if the material has the absolute
magnitude of a difference in electronegativities between the
material and hydrogen of between approximately 0.08 to
approximately 0.36, combining an electro-activated material with a
hydrogen containing molecule, and generating a chemical reaction
between the combination of electro-activated material and the
hydrogen containing molecule to release a hydrogen atom from the
hydrogen containing molecule.

[0011] The method can further comprise determining whether the
material has a catalyst hydride dissociation energy between
approximately 0 to approximately 100 kcal/mol before
electro-activating the material. The method can further comprise
determining whether the material has a difference in
electronegativities between atoms in a polar oxide molecule on a
surface of the material between approximately 0.3 to approximately
1.4 before electro-activating the material. The method can further
comprise combining the electro-activated material and hydrogen
containing molecule with a fuel, and generating a chemical
reaction between the combination of the electro-activated
material, hydrogen containing molecule and fuel to produce
hydrogen. The fuel can be one of pure aluminum, aluminum powder,
aluminum granules or aluminum shavings.

[0012] The method can further comprise controlling the chemical
reaction of the combination of electro-activated material,
hydrogen containing molecule and fuel to produce hydrogen on
demand by heating the combination to increase the production of
hydrogen, and by cooling the combination to decrease the
production of hydrogen. The combination can be heated to a
temperature range between approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit to
approximately 190 degrees Fahrenheit. The hydrogen containing
molecule can comprise water, tap water, dirty water, high-calcium
water, salt water, sea water, alkaline water or acidic water. The
material can be catalyzed aluminum, carbon or lead.

[0013] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a system for producing hydrogen is provided,
comprising a vessel having a hydrogen containing molecule and an
electro-activated material known to have an absolute magnitude of
a difference in electronegativities between the material and
hydrogen of between approximately 0.08 to approximately 0.36, and
an apparatus for generating a chemical reaction between the
hydrogen containing molecule and electro-activated material to
produce hydrogen.

[0014] The system can further comprise a fuel provided in the
vessel with the hydrogen containing molecule and electro-activated
material, wherein the apparatus generates a chemical reaction
between the hydrogen containing molecule, electro-activated
material and fuel to produce hydrogen. The fuel can be one of pure
aluminum, aluminum powder, aluminum granules or aluminum shavings.

[0015] The system can further comprise one or more mechanisms to
control the chemical reaction between the hydrogen containing
molecule, electro-activated material and fuel to produce hydrogen
on demand, wherein the one or more mechanisms heat the combination
of the hydrogen containing molecule, electro-activated material
and fuel to increase the production of hydrogen, and cool the
combination of the hydrogen containing molecule, electro-activated
material and fuel to decrease the production of hydrogen.

[0016] The hydrogen containing molecule can comprise water, tap
water, dirty water, high-calcium water, salt water, sea water,
alkaline water or acidic water. The material can have a catalyst
hydride dissociation energy between approximately 0 to
approximately 100 kcal/mol. The material can have a difference in
electronegativities between atoms in a polar oxide molecule on a
surface of the material between approximately 0.3 to approximately
1.4. Electrolysis can be provided in the vessel. The material can
be catalyzed aluminum, carbon or lead.

[0017] The exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
according to the present disclosure allow for hydrogen generation
from a liquid composition such as water. Further, the by-products
can be a pollution-free source of material for recycling.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0018] The foregoing and other objects of the present disclosure
will be apparent upon consideration of the following detailed
description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings
and claims, in which like reference characters refer to like parts
throughout, and in which:

[0019] FIG. 1 illustrates an activation cell used to prepare a
catalyst that can be used to produce hydrogen according to
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;[0020] FIG. 2 illustrates a table that identifies elements
that are likely to function as catalysts according to exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure;[0021] FIGS. 3(a)-3(c) illustrate chemical reactions
according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;[0022] FIG. 3(d) illustrates a table showing a type of bond
formed based on the electronegativity difference according to
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;[0023] FIG. 4 illustrates a system for the production of
hydrogen according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure; and[0024] FIG. 5 illustrates a system for the production of
hydrogen according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure.

[0025] Throughout the figures, the same reference numerals and
characters, unless otherwise stated, are used to denote like
features, elements, components or portions of the illustrated
embodiments. Moreover, while the present disclosure will now be
described in detail with reference to the figures, it is done so
in connection with the illustrative embodiments. It is intended
that changes and modifications can be made to the described
embodiments without departing from the true scope and spirit of
the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF DISCLOSURE

[0026] Exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems according
to the present disclosure will now be described, including
reference to the figures.

Electro-Activation Process

[0027] In an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, a
method and system for preparing a hydrogen producing catalyst is
described. FIG. 1 illustrates a diagram of an activation cell 100
used to prepare a catalyst from a material, such as carbon or
lead, that can be used to produce hydrogen. The material can be
any type of material contemplated by the present disclosure and is
not limited to any particular type or form.

[0028] The activation cell 100 can have an anode 102 and a cathode
104. In an exemplary embodiment, the anode 102 can be placed
inside the activation cell 100 along a first side 100a of the
activation cell 100, and the cathode 104 can be placed inside the
activation cell 100 along a second side 100b of the activation
cell 100. The anode 102 can be a metal anode and the cathode 104
can be a metal cathode, and any type of metal can be used for the
anode 102 and cathode 104, such as stainless steel, iron,
galvanized iron, carbon and/or other metals, and the present
disclosure is not limited to any type of metal. The metal can be
electrically conductive and resistant to corrosion.

[0029] A liquid composition can be provided in the activation cell
100, such as water 108 or other liquid containing hydrogen, or
other suitable composition containing hydrogen, and is not limited
to any particular composition. The water 108 can be tap water,
filtered water, salt water, sea water and/or other types of water.
A material 106 can be provided in the water 108 in the activation
cell 100 so that it can be electro-activated and converted to a
catalyst. The activation cell 100 can be open on a top surface to
allow ventilation and the placement of the water 108 and material
106. The water 108 can be in sufficient quantity to, e.g., cover
the material being electro-activated. The activation cell 100 can
be placed in a well-ventilated area such that any gas that is
produced from the liquid during the electro-activation process can
be ventilated.

[0030] An electrolyte can be placed into the activation cell 100
with the water 108 and material 106, which can make the mixture of
the water 108 and material 106 more electrically conductive.
Examples of electrolytes that can be used include, but are not
limited to, sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride or potassium
hydroxide. The electro-activation can also be carried out with no
added electrolyte, and a higher voltage may be used as the water
can be less electrically conductive when an electrolyte is not
added to the water. Electrical energy can be passed through the
mixture of the water 108 and material 106 to electro-activate the
material 106. For example, electrical energy, such as in the form
of electrical current, can be passed through the mixture of water
108 and material 106 until a value of approximately 6 Ampere-hours
is achieved. Also, for example, a range of voltage may be used,
such as from approximately 4 volts to approximately 200 volts.
Typically, a voltage in the range of approximately 12 volts to
approximately 150 volts can be used. The exemplary embodiments of
the present disclosure are not limited to any Ampere-hours or
voltage, and adjustments may be made based on various factors,
such as but not limited to the amount of water, the amount of
material (e.g., carbon), the size of the activation cell, and/or
other factors including the current density (e.g., Amperes per
square centimeter) which can be a function of the geometry of the
cell.

[0031] The catalytic activation cell 100 can be designed to run at
a low current, e.g., less than approximately 5 amps, and can run
continuously with no overheating due to power dissipation in the
catalytic activation cell 100. This can provide for
electro-activation of the material (e.g., carbon), and thereby
convert the material into an electro-activated material. For
example, carbon can be converted into electro-activated carbon,
which can be referred to as catalytic carbon, or lead can be
converted into electro-activated lead, which can be referred to as
catalytic lead. Electro-activated and catalytic are used
interchangeably in the present disclosure to describe the
particular catalyst. Electro-activating the material at a low
current can provide an advantage that the electro-activation may
not need to be monitored to intervene in the event of, e.g.,
excessive current, excessive temperature or excessive gas emission
from the cell.

[0032] In other exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
the catalytic activation cell 100 can be designed to run at higher
energy levels, such as 6 Ampere hours, which can be achieved by,
e.g., providing electric current for 6 hours at a current of 1
Ampere, or for 3 hours at a current of 2 Amperes. In various
embodiments of the present disclosure, different times and
currents can be used to achieve 6 Ampere hours. The present
disclosure is not limited to any particular Ampere-hours, and
other Ampere-hour treatments would also produce catalytic
transformation of the material.

[0033] The catalyst (electro-activated material 106) can then be
removed from the activation cell 100, and may be dried if desired.
Once dried, the catalyst may be easier to store and/or ship. The
catalyst may be dried by, e.g., air drying, heating in air, and/or
other types of heating/drying mechanisms and/or methods. Different
drying methods/processes may be used, and temperatures from
standard room temperature to up to 200 degrees Fahrenheit can be
used, and are not limited to such.

Exemplary Catalytic Reactions

[0034] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, the
chemical reaction:

2Al+6[H2O]+C=>C+2[Al(OH)3]+3H2 Equation (1)

can be used, where Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen and
C is the catalyst (i.e., electro-activated material formed by the
process described above. In this exemplary catalytic reaction, the
aluminum and water (H2O) can be used as fuels with the catalyst,
and hydrogen (H2) can be produced where the by-product is aluminum
hydroxide (Al(OH)3). In this exemplary reaction, water and
aluminum are fuels that can be consumed, and the catalyst may not
be consumed. Other compositions having water, or having hydrogen,
can also be used.

[0035] The same reaction can be written as:

2Al+3[H2O]+C=>C+Al2O3+3H2 Equation (2)

where Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen and C is the
catalyst formed by the process described above. In this exemplary
chemical reaction, the aluminum and water (H2O) can be used as
fuels with the catalyst, and hydrogen (H2) can be produced where
the by-product is aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Aluminum hydroxide can
reduce to aluminum oxide when dried, to remove water from the
aluminum hydroxide. Because the hydrogen-producing reaction can be
carried out in water, Equation 1 showing an aluminum hydroxide
product is the reaction mostly used, while Equation 2 showing an
aluminum oxide product can also be used when describing the
chemistry. In this exemplary reaction, water and aluminum are
fuels that can be consumed, and the catalyst may not be consumed.
The catalyst can be increased if the cell operates with
electrolysis as the carbon can tend to break into smaller-size
granules, providing more surface area. The newly-exposed surface
area can then be electro-activated using the effects of
electrolysis to promote the growth of a polar oxide on the carbon
surface.

Aluminum and Other Fuels

[0036] Exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can provide
for aluminum as the fuel as each atom of aluminum can tie up three
OH groups to become aluminum hydroxide, Al[OH]3, aluminum can be
inexpensive and safe, and aluminum can have a higher chemical
binding energy than the OH groups. Aluminum can be provided to
help in this reaction as OH groups can be bound to the aluminum
(Al) so that the accumulation of free (un-bound) OH groups can be
largely prevented, such as in the liquid composition having the
catalyst and aluminum, and the recombination with hydrogen atoms
to form H2O can be prevented.

[0037] Aluminum, an element that can be used as a fuel in the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure for producing
hydrogen, can react with acids and bases. Like other active
metals, aluminum can dissolve in strong acids to evolve hydrogen
gas. The catalyst described in the present disclosure can be used
in pH-neutral liquid based on its strong catalytic efficiency
(i.e., high reaction rate). This can mean that the water can be
neither a strong acid nor a strong alkaline liquid, which can
provide a very safe and environmentally-friendly mixture.

[0038] In some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
aluminum shavings can be used in the chemical reactions described
herein instead of aluminum powder. The use of an electro-activated
material with aluminum shavings and other non-powder forms of
aluminum have been shown to successfully produce hydrogen in a
laboratory.

[0039] For a given mass of aluminum in the reaction, the hydrogen
production rate can be approximately proportional to the surface
area of the aluminum metal. The aluminum used in some of the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can be powdered
aluminum. The higher surface-to-volume ratio of powdered aluminum
can make it suitable for a higher rate of hydrogen production for
a given amount of aluminum. More coarse fuel, which can be in the
form of aluminum pellets, aluminum shavings, aluminum granules or
aluminum sheets, can also be used. Such coarse fuel can provide
for hydrogen production which can be at a lower rate (for a given
amount of aluminum) than provided by powdered aluminum in some of
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Use of pure
aluminum may not be required, which can make possible the use of
lower cost, lower purity aluminum in the hydrogen production
according to the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0040] The size of the aluminum used can be a design variable for
a particular application. For example, the particle size of the
aluminum can be chosen to achieve a desired hydrogen production
rate for a design that has a defined geometry and operating
temperature. In general, for a given amount of aluminum, as the
particle size of the aluminum decreases, the reaction rate of the
chemical reaction described in the present disclosure goes up at
any given temperature. Also, the reaction rate increases as the
temperature increases.

[0041] In some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it
was found that hydrogen is generated in the reaction described
above without the use of aluminum (i.e., just using an
electro-activated material and water), but that adding certain
fuels, such as aluminum, increased the production of hydrogen. It
was also found that other fuels besides aluminum can be used. It
was also found that during the catalytic reaction to generate
hydrogen, when aluminum powder is being used, hydrogen generation
can increase when the aluminum powder is mixed or stirred during
the reaction. A mechanical action can be provided to remove
aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide, and expose bare aluminum.
The chemical reactions described in Equations 1 and 2 produce
hydrogen at higher rates when bare aluminum is used, and produce
less hydrogen when using aluminum with an oxidized surface. In
some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, by using a
blender or other device to chop/burnish aluminum shavings and
pellets, hydrogen production rates increased by factors of
approximately two to ten, depending on the intensity of the
mechanical or electro-mechanical action (i.e., chopping,
burnishing and/or mixing of the aluminum). The factors can be
dependent on the burnishing time and the time delay between
burnishing and hydrogen production. This time delay can result in
the formation of a film when the bare aluminum surface is exposed
to air or water, particularly at temperatures above room
temperature. Burnishing of the aluminum can remove the aluminum
oxide from the surface of the aluminum, providing a fresh aluminum
surface for the hydrogen-producing chemical reactions described in
Equations 1 and 2 in the present disclosure.

[0042] Aluminum can be a more efficient fuel in the chemical
reaction with water and a catalyst when burnished (i.e., using
mechanical scrubbing to remove aluminum oxide and/or aluminum
hydroxide films covering the surface). If a mechanical action of
burnishing or stirring or any other method (e.g., electrolysis) is
used to remove the aluminum oxide and/or aluminum hydroxide on the
surface of the aluminum, then stopping that process or reducing
that process in the hydrogen cell can cause aluminum oxide to form
on the surface of the aluminum, which can reduce the hydrogen
production. Also, removing the aluminum from the hydrogen cell or
from the reaction can also stop the hydrogen production in the
hydrogen cell. These control parameters can each be used alone or
in combination with one another to slow or stop the hydrogen
production, thereby providing hydrogen on-demand.

[0043] There may be other methods/devices for removing the
oxide/hydroxide and providing a substantially bare aluminum
surface for the hydrogen-producing reactions described in the
present disclosure, and the present disclosure is not limited to
any such method/device. For example, in addition or as a
substitute to mechanical burnishing, treatments of the aluminum
surface may also be thermal, optical or chemical.

[0044] In some exemplary embodiments, aluminum shavings can be
reacted with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which
can speed the chemical reactions described in the present
disclosure reaction by a factor of 10 or more. This process can be
a straightforward chemical reaction in which the sodium hydroxide
undergoes a chemical change, i.e., the sodium hydroxide is
transformed and consumed in the process.

[0045] The combination of the aluminum and sodium hydroxide can be
combined with the catalytic reactions described in the present
disclosure, i.e., Equations (1) and (2). For example, in some
exemplary embodiments, hydrogen can be generated according to the
following chemical reaction:

2Al+2[NaOH]+6[H2O]+C=>C+2[NaAl(OH)4]+3H2 Equation
(3)

where the Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen, NaAl(OH)4 is
sodium tetrahydroxyaluminate, and C is the catalyst
(electro-activated material). In this exemplary reaction, water,
aluminum and sodium hydroxide can be fuels that can be consumed,
and C can be a catalyst.

[0046] In some of these exemplary embodiments, the reaction can
begin slowly which can be due to the layer of aluminum oxide on
the surface of the aluminum. In these exemplary embodiments, once
the layer of aluminum oxide is pierced during the reaction, the
reaction can then speed up. In some exemplary embodiments, the
reaction sped up after 1 to 3 minutes, at temperatures ranging
from standard room temperature up to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. The
speed of the reaction can depend on various factors, such as
temperature, and the amount of aluminum, water and/or sodium
tetrahydroxyaluminate. Other solutions and/or elements may be used
to speed up the catalytic reaction, such as salt (NaCl) and/or
other electrolytes.

[0047] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can
produce by-products that are fully recoverable using existing
commercial methods for producing aluminum metal. The by-products
from the hydrogen production methods and systems according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can be desirable
because they are pure, and can contain no contaminants including
bauxite, gibbsite, boehmite, goethite, hematite, kaolinite, and
TiO2. The large volume of by-products of the exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure can be Al(OH)3 and Al2O3, which can be
recycled to produce more aluminum metal. Recycling of aluminum
hydroxide and aluminum oxide makes the exemplary embodiments of
the present disclosure economically viable for large volume
hydrogen production. Al(OH)3 and Al2O3 can also be used
commercially without any recycling expense, as Al(OH)3 can been
used as pharmaceutical ingredients, and Al2O3 is a commonly used
abrasive material, as well as a commonly used ceramic material.

[0048] Aluminum refining from aluminum-bearing bauxite ore can use
the Bayer process chemistry which can form a hydrate which can be
essentially the same as the reaction product in the aluminum-water
reactions described above according to the exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure. The hydrate can be calcined to remove
the water to form alumina. The alumina can then be
electrolytically reduced into metallic aluminum at about 900
degrees Celsius using the Hall-Heroult Process, producing aluminum
metal with 99.7% purity.

[0049] In some exemplary embodiments, a catalyzed aluminum was
used which was found to generate hydrogen at rates that were 30%
higher than using regular aluminum. The catalyzed aluminum can be
a combination of aluminum and a material catalyst (e.g., carbon or
lead or other material which can be a catalyst once
electro-activated).

[0050] In some exemplary embodiments, the catalyzed aluminum can
be made of scrap materials, such as aluminum and a material such
as paper. These two materials can be oxidized at a high
temperature which can reduce the paper to carbon. In a first step,
the scrap paper and scrap aluminum can be converted into
carbonized aluminum. This can be carried out at, e.g.,
temperatures high enough to carbonize the paper but lower than the
melting temperature of aluminum. The materials often used for this
process can be integrated, much like the aluminum foil on paper
that is sometimes used for wrapping products such as chewing gum.
Because the paper and aluminum are scrap materials, this can be a
very low-cost starting material when used in high volume
manufacturing.

[0051] The aluminum-material (i.e., aluminum-carbon) mixture can
then be chemically activated to transform the material into a
catalyst, such as carbon into catalytic or electro-activated
carbon. For example, the aluminum-material mixture can be placed
into a vessel and electro-activated. The aluminum itself is not a
catalyst, but it is “catalyzed” by the presence of the catalyst,
such as the electro-activated carbon. The catalyzed aluminum can
be mostly aluminum, and can have a carbon (or other material)
content of less than 2%, and is not limited to this or any
particular range. The carbon can be in direct physical contact
with the aluminum, making the hydrogen production process very
efficient.

[0052] The catalyzed aluminum granule size can be approximately 30
microns to approximately 0.2 mm, making it safe to handle in dry
air. The aluminum granule size is not limited to any particular
size. When the catalyzed aluminum is used to split water or other
hydrogen containing material, hydrogen can be released in the form
of a gas, and the oxygen can remain in the water in the form of
aluminum hydroxide. The low cost of producing hydrogen using
catalyzed aluminum can result in the aluminum hydroxide simply
being discarded, or it can be recycled, or aluminum oxide can be
used for other industrial purposes.

[0053] There can be several advantages of using catalyzed
aluminum. The use of catalyzed aluminum can be more simple than
using aluminum and an electro-activated material (i.e., catalyst).
For example, using catalyzed aluminum can provide for just the
addition of water in order to produce hydrogen. Further, the
catalyzed aluminum granule size can be optimum for hydrogen
production. A larger granule size (i.e., lower surface-to-volume)
would result in a slower production of hydrogen per pound of fuel,
possibly requiring more fuel and a larger vessel to produce
hydrogen at a given rate. A smaller granule size (higher
surface-to-volume) can result in the fuel being consumed more
quickly to produce hydrogen at a given rate.

[0054] Further, catalyzed aluminum can be safe to handle, ship and
store based on the granule size. If aluminum powder is used to
make hydrogen, the aluminum powder may possibly become chemically
unstable, and possibly explosive, if the powder has a particle
size less than 30 microns. Catalyzed aluminum can have an average
granule size of approximately 30 microns to approximately 200
microns. The ratios of aluminum and the catalyst can be optimized
in the formulation and manufacturing of catalyzed aluminum. The
ratio of aluminum to carbon can be higher when catalyzed aluminum
is used (e.g., instead of the catalyst and aluminum). Catalyzed
aluminum can be almost all fuel, such as more than 98% aluminum
and less than 2% catalyst (e.g., carbon). Further, the mixture of
catalyzed aluminum and water is not critical. Each aluminum
granule can have a local source of catalyst integrated into the
granule.

[0055] Some chemicals may be even more helpful than aluminum such
as barium oxide (BaO), which can tie up as many as four or five OH
groups. Some experiments have shown that barium oxide can be a
very good fuel with regard to hydrogen production, although there
can be some safety issues and can generally be more expensive than
aluminum. Other elements, chemicals or fuels having the same
effect as aluminum can also be used. For example, chemicals that
tie up one OH group can be helpful, such as but not limited to Li
(can form lithium hydroxide), Na (can form sodium hydroxide), K
(can form potassium hydroxide), Rb (can form rubidium hydroxide),
Cs (can form cesium hydroxide) and Si (can form silicon
hydroxide). Other chemicals can be more helpful, which can tie up
two OH groups, such as but not limited to Ca (can form calcium
hydroxide), Sr (can form strontium hydroxide) and Ba (can form
barium hydroxide).

Additives

[0056] A chemical additive can be used with the catalysts in the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, an
electrolyte can be added for the purpose of increasing the
electrical conductivity of the liquid in a hydrogen producing
cell. This can be needed to make a cell suitable for, e.g.,
electrolysis, which requires the flow of electrical current
through the liquid in the hydrogen cell. The use of an electrolyte
additive may be needed for a cell containing water. Similarly, the
use of an electrolyte additive may be needed for a cell containing
any hydrogen-containing substance. Common additives that can be
used for this purpose include sodium chloride (salt, or NaCl),
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), and/or
potassium hydroxide (KOH). Additives can also be used for the
addition of “defoaming agents” to help suppress frothing when the
hydrogen is delivered at high rates from a hydrogen cell.

[0057] Additives can also be used for the purpose of causing a
catalytic sequence, as described in Steps 1-3 in FIGS. 3(a)-3(c).
For example, step 1 (where hydrogen is robbed from any
hydrogen-containing molecule (“H-molecule”) to create a C—H
molecule) can operate with any desired chemical additive as
follows:

(H-molecule)+catalyst+additive?catalyst+C—H+(H-molecule*)+additive*

[0058] In the above reaction, the H-molecule can be any
hydrogen-containing molecule, and the H-molecule* is what is left
of the original H-molecule after a hydrogen atom is robbed from
the original H-molecule. In the above reaction, the additive
molecule is any molecule which is added to achieve a desired
effect. The additive* molecule is what is left of the original
additive molecule after the effect of chemical reaction(s),
mixing, or electrolysis to dissociate or otherwise modify the
original additive molecule.

Catalysts

[0059] Various catalysts have been found to be able to produce
hydrogen from water once electro-activated, as will be shown
below. Certain factors may enable some elements to be better
catalysts for producing hydrogen from hydrogen containing
molecules, such as water, than other elements. Some of these
factors include an absolute magnitude of the difference in
electronegativities between a catalyst and hydrogen, a catalyst
hydride dissociation energy and/or a difference in
electronegativities between the atoms in a polar oxide molecule on
a surface of a catalyst.

[0060] Electronegativity can be a measure of the relative tendency
of an atom to attract electrons to it when chemically combined
with another atom. Electronegativity, as it is usually calculated,
may not be strictly a property of an atom, but can be a property
of an atom in a molecule. The electronegativity of an element can
vary with its chemical environment. The most commonly used range
of electronegative uses a system of numbers proposed by Linus
Pauling. This gives a dimensionless quantity, commonly referred to
as the Pauling scale, on a relative scale running from around 0.7
to 3.98 (e.g., hydrogen electronegativity is 2.20).

[0061] The reason electronegativity can be important for purposes
of the present disclosure can be that electronegativity can
influence the formation of catalyst groups (e.g., C—H groups) to
take a hydrogen atom from water. The frequent formation of C—H
groups, and the subsequent dissociation of those C—H groups are
known characteristics which can be central features of the
exemplary embodiments of the catalyst systems of the present
disclosure.

[0062] In the field of chemistry, C—H (the hyphen implies a
chemical bond between the carbon and hydrogen) is known as a
hydride. The C—H bond is a bond between carbon and hydrogen atoms,
most commonly found in organic compounds. C—H molecules seldom
exist alone, as stable molecules. For these reasons, C—H is
sometimes referred to as a molecule and sometimes referred to as a
chemical group. Molecules are usually thought of as having good
chemical stability (C—H does not), and having a relatively high
dissociation energy (C—H does not).

[0063] The reason for the importance of the C—H group is because
it is the first step in a sequence that describes the chemical
separation of hydrogen from water, as shown below:

H2O+C=>C—H+O—H Equation (4)

[0064] The reason electronegative difference can be important is
that covalent bonds are very strong, and have more strength if the
electronegativity difference is small. Using Pauling's
electronegativity scale, carbon has an electronegativity of 2.5
and hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.1, so that the
electronegativity difference between these two atoms is 0.4.
Therefore, C—H molecules should form readily and because of the
strong covalent bonds the C—H molecules should be chemically
stable, although they are not. The carbon and hydrogen atoms will
not remain together, and they cannot keep other atoms away. The
favorable and frequent formation of C—H groups, and the subsequent
dissociation of those C—H groups are characteristics which can be
important aspects of these groups for the catalysts systems
described in the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0065] In the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, the
absolute magnitude of the difference in electronegativities
between the catalyst and hydrogen can be an important feature in
determining which catalysts are likely to be good catalysts for
electro-activation and use in generating hydrogen. The absolute
magnitude accounts for both a primary range (positive) and a
mirror range (negative). In the exemplary embodiments of the
present disclosure, a preferred range on the Pauling scale can be
approximately 0.08 to 0.36. Such a range can lead to
identification of elements most likely to function as catalysts
useful in extracting hydrogen from water or other
hydrogen-containing materials.

[0066] The table shown in FIG. 2 identifies elements most likely
to function as catalysts. Having an absolute magnitude of an
electronegativity difference lower than the preferred range can
result in the formation of a strong covalent bond for the Step 1
product (as shown in FIG. 3(a)), thereby stopping the sequence
because that product would not easily dissociate. Having an
absolute magnitude of an electronegativity difference higher than
the preferred range can result in a bond that is too weak
(polar-like) and may not be strong enough for Step 1, during which
the catalytic element must steal a hydrogen atom from a water
molecule. For example, lead (Pb) and tungsten (W) may be catalysts
as the electronegativity difference is 0.13 and 0.16,
respectively, as shown in the table of FIG. 2. Lead (Pb) may be a
better catalyst than tungsten (W) because of other factors,
including the formation of a polar oxide (with the right
characteristics) on the metal surface.

[0067] Another important characteristic in determining which
element or molecule can be a catalyst useful in extracting
hydrogen from water or other hydrogen-containing materials can be
the dissociation energy. Dissociation energy, in the field of
physical chemistry, is the energy required for complete separation
of the molecule into two or more parts. Dissociation energy can be
important for complete separation of the atoms in the, e.g., C—H
group. An array of atoms held together by covalent bonds forms a
true molecule. The C—H hydride can be considered a “group” because
it is a molecule with special characteristics. The C—H group is a
hydride, there is only a small difference in electronegativity so
the two atoms share the electrons. The result is a covalent bond
(which can be depicted as C:H or C—H), and the atoms are held
together by their mutual affinity for their shared electrons.

[0068] Separation of the atoms in the C—H group can liberate the
hydrogen. Separation of the atoms in the C—H group is Step 2 in a
sequence that describes the chemical separation of hydrogen from
water, as shown in FIG. 3(a) and FIG. 3(b). FIG. 3(a) shows the
chemical separation of hydrogen from water by chemical equations
and FIG. 3(b) shows the chemical separation of hydrogen from water
in the form of a physical model. In FIG. 3(a), “CC” means
catalytic carbon or electro-activated carbon.

[0069] In FIG. 3(c), “C” means catalytic carbon or
electro-activated carbon. As shown in FIG. 3(c), C—H can have a
weak bond and can be likely to dissociate. In Step 1, because of
similar electronegativities, carbon can form a stronger bond with
hydrogen than can oxygen. Carbon competes with oxygen and steals
hydrogen from the water molecule (formation of a transient C—H
group), leaving behind a stable OH group. The formation of the C—H
group is very favorable, but the instability of the C—H group
causes it to exist as a group for only a short time. In Step 2,
the C—H group dissociates. The hydrogen atom combines with another
hydrogen atom (equal electronegativities, leading to a strong
covalent bond). The resulting hydrogen molecule (a gas) escapes
from the liquid. After C—H dissociation, the free carbon atom
repeats the cycle (Step 1). In Step 3, aluminum can be more
reactive than carbon, and an aluminum atom can acquire the O—H
group. Similarly, it can acquire two additional O—H groups to form
aluminum hydroxide.

[0070] The comparison of dissociation energies in FIG. 3(c) shows
that a good catalyst can form a hydride with a low dissociation
energy, to aid in the complete separation of the atoms in the C—H
group. A range for the catalyst hydride dissociation energy can be
from approximately zero to approximately 100 kcal/mol. A catalyst
hydride dissociation energy higher than this range may not be
suitable because the high dissociation energy of the Step 1
product may not be favorable to Step 2 in which the Step 1 product
must easily dissociate. The separation of the C—H group can
require less energy than the separation of atoms from any other
molecule in the chemical sequence described in FIGS. 3(a) and
3(b). Separation of the atoms in the C—H group liberates the
hydrogen. For example, lead can be a possible catalyst because
Pb—H has a lower dissociation energy than C—H, and Tungsten (W)
can also be a possible catalyst because W—H has a lower
dissociation energy than C—H.

[0071] Another important characteristic in determining which
element or molecule can be a catalyst useful in extracting
hydrogen from water or other hydrogen-containing materials can be
the difference in electronegativities between the atoms in a polar
oxide molecule on a surface of the catalyst. A polar oxide can be
an oxide composed of molecules that are polarized molecules. A
polar molecule can be a molecule in which the centroid of the
positive charges can be different from the centroid of the
negative charges. A polar molecule can also be referred to as a
dipole.

[0072] Electronegativity can be a measure of the tendency of an
atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. The Pauling scale is
the most commonly used measure of electronegativity. Fluorine (the
most electronegative element) is assigned a value of 4.0, and
values range down to Caesium and Francium which are the least
electronegative at 0.7 on the Pauling scale. The reason
electronegativity can be important is that only a certain range of
electronegativity values can lead to the formation of the polar
oxide desired for a good catalyst. A preferred electronegativity
range can be as shown in the table of FIG. 3(d), which can be
approximately 0.3 to approximately 1.4 (on the Pauling scale) for
the difference in electronegativities between the atoms in a polar
oxide molecule on the surface of a catalyst.

[0073] Elements that form a weakly-bonded polar surface may well
be suited for use as hydrogen-producing catalysts. Lead (Pb) forms
complex oxides, and therefore, might be likely to have one or more
surface oxides that are weakly-bonded polar surface oxides.
Tungsten (W) forms a smaller number of oxides and therefore might
not be likely to have one or more surface oxides that are weakly
bonded polar surface oxides. Therefore, although tungsten may have
a suitable absolute magnitude electronegativity difference and
dissociation energy as described above, it may not be a suitable
catalyst as lead and carbon may be.

Electro-Activation

[0074] Electro-activation aids in the chemical processes described
above. As shown in Step 1 in FIGS. 3(a)-3(c), carbon (or other
catalyst) must steal a hydrogen atom from water, which normally
holds two hydrogen atoms with oxygen-to-hydrogen bonds. Normal
carbon (or other catalyst) may do this with a low reaction rate,
but to increase this reaction rate to make carbon a more effective
catalyst, the carbon atoms can be electrically polarized on the
surface of carbon particles.

[0075] A difficulty in electrically polarizing carbon atoms on the
surface of carbon particles can be that carbon is an electrical
conductor, and a conductor will not remain polarized after the
electrical field is removed. However, it is possible to polarize
the oxide on the surface of the carbon particles. An oxide
dielectric can be polarized and will remain polarized after the
electrical field is removed. Solid carbon can be electrochemically
oxidized and the final distribution of the products can be
dominated by the equilibrium of the Boudouard reaction
(C+CO2?2CO).

[0076] Carbon forms two oxides at the surface, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide has a dipole moment, and carbon
dioxide is different. This bond is naturally polarized as
illustrated below:

***

[0077] Oxygen attracts electrons more effectively than carbon.
Therefore, the carbon-oxygen bond is polarized. A partial negative
charge is centered on each oxygen atom (because of the small
excess of electron density) and a partial positive charge is
centered on the carbon atom (because of the slight deficiency of
electron density). Because the molecule is linear and the two bond
dipoles are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed, the whole
molecule is still not polar (the whole molecule has a zero dipole
moment).

[0078] Molecules with mirror symmetry like oxygen and carbon
dioxide have no permanent dipole moments. Even if there is no
permanent dipole moment, it is possible to induce a dipole moment
by the application of an external electric field. This is called
polarization and the magnitude of the dipole moment induced is a
measure of the polarizability of the molecular species.

[0079] This kind of polarization can be induced by the application
of an electric current through the material (electro-activation).
The CO molecule has a small negative charge on carbon and a small
negative charge on oxygen.

[0080] Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10 valence
electrons. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen
atom and only two from carbon, one of the bonding orbitals is
occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or dipolar
bond. This causes a polarization. Polarity can refer to a
separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its
chemical groups having an electric dipole or a multipole moment.
Polar molecules interact through dipole-dipole intermolecular
forces and hydrogen bonds. The CO molecule has a small negative
charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen.

[0081] Normal carbon, before electro-activation, may have a native
oxide film, which may have the oxide molecules partially
non-aligned. During electro-activation, the carbon surface will be
more densely oxidized. After electro-activation, the carbon
surface will tend to have the oxide molecules aligned, leaving any
non-oxidized (bare) regions on the carbon surface with an induced
negative surface charge. Both CO and CO2 form as a gas, and some
of these molecules will escape into the water, leaving behind
microscopically-small bare (non-oxidized) regions of the carbon
surface.

[0082] The carbon surface has a negative induced charge, similar
to the mirror charge that is produced on the plate of a
parallel-plate capacitor. The other pseudo plate that mirrors the
charge is the positive oxygen ends of the CO molecules. The
electrical potential is the same on all carbon surfaces, because
carbon is a conductor.

[0083] As a portion of a water molecule, a hydrogen atom (which is
partially electron depleted, and has a positive single-proton
nucleus) will be attracted to the negative surface of the carbon.
This attraction between the hydrogen and the carbon aids in the
action of the carbon to steal a hydrogen from the water molecule,
thereby creating a C—H molecule as part of Step-1 of the catalytic
process.

[0084] Accordingly, any element or molecule that can form a polar
oxide surface layer in water can be a candidate for
electro-activation to convert it into a hydrogen-producing
catalyst in water. Accordingly, any element or molecule that can
be used in the electro-activation process to convert it into a
hydrogen-producing catalyst, the element (and/or molecule) or its
oxides can be water compatible. This can mean preferably soluble
in water, or existent in water in the form of a colloid
suspension.

[0085] Further, compound molecules (combinations of elements) may
also be good catalysts if they provide the same requirements as
described for elements in the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure.

[0086] According to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, many different forms of materials can be
electro-activated as described above to produce a catalyst. For
example, in various experiments performed according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it has been shown
that hydrogen can be produced using a catalyst material in various
forms, such as solid, liquid or other forms of the particular
element, such as carbon or lead.

[0087] Further, a fuel may not be required in order to generate
hydrogen. Experiments have shown that the catalyst alone with a
hydrogen containing composition, such as water or composition
containing water, can produce hydrogen with a catalyst C,
according to the reaction:

H2O+C=>C+H+OH Equation (5)

[0088] A fuel can, however, increase the rate of production of
hydrogen in the chemical reactions shown in Equations (1) and (2).
When hydrogen atoms are generated, they can tend to combine, as in
H+H=>H2 (a gas), which is referred to as the Toffel reaction. A
competing reaction can also occur, such as H+OH=>H2O, a
“recombination” reaction that can prevent the hydrogen from being
liberated in the form of H2 gas.

[0089] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can use
a hydrogen containing material (e.g., water) and aluminum (or
similar material) as fuel for the exemplary chemical reactions
described herein. The potential use of water from various sources
and lower cost, lower purity aluminum can provide for alternative
low-cost sources that can be used to provide fuels for the
catalytic reactions according to the exemplary embodiments of the
methods and systems of the present disclosure.

[0090] According to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, water can be used from various different sources. The
use of pure water may not be required. Therefore, it may not be
necessary to use distilled water or de-ionized water for the
production of hydrogen, which can be more expensive than, e.g.,
tap water or sea water. In exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, various water sources were used in the exemplary
chemical reactions, including tap water, dirty water, high-calcium
water, salt water, sea water, alkaline water, and acidic water. In
these experiments, it was found that all these various water
samples worked well in the chemical reactions of the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure for hydrogen production. In
some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it was found
that some forms of water, including salt water and alkaline water,
can provide a slightly higher rate of hydrogen production than
more pure forms of water, such as deionized water or distilled
water. This can be because salt water and alkaline water can have
additives that can tend to ionize the water, which can make it
more chemically active and/or more mobile in an aqueous solution.
This can be because electrostatic fields, created by the polar
oxides, form forces that move the chemicals in the liquid. An
electrolysis environment can also form forces that move the
chemicals in the liquid.

[0091] The use of water from various sources can provide, e.g.,
more design latitude and freedom to a user in selection of
construction materials for a hydrogen cell, water and water
ingredients to minimize corrosion of the materials used in the
construction of a hydrogen cell and associated parts according to
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Such use of
water from various sources can provide for significant cost
reduction by, e.g., making it possible to use a wider range of
materials.

[0092] The use of salt water and/or sea water for hydrogen
production according to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can make it suitable for marine applications, as well
as providing an energy source for coastal areas. The exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure can provide hydrogen
production in all parts of the world and near any seashore,
including remote islands. Accordingly, many island nations can use
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure to, e.g.,
decrease fuel costs and reduce or eliminate the need for
tanker-ship import of fossil fuels.

[0093] Further, the catalyst described in the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure can be used to obtain
hydrogen without requiring aluminum or water. For example, the
catalyst can be used to obtain hydrogen by splitting other
molecules. Hydrogen-robbing from any hydrogen-containing molecule
can be similar for other molecules than water, e.g, such as for
step 1 in the chemical reaction sequence as described in FIGS.
3(a)-3(c). The chemical reactions describe the same
hydrogen-robbing step, used to obtain a C—H molecule from either a
water molecule or from a hydrogen-containing molecule. For
example, when the water molecule H2O is split apart, the O—H
molecule is simply what is left of the original water molecule
after a hydrogen atom is robbed from the original water molecule.
Further, other hydrogen molecules may be used with the catalyst to
split the hydrogen molecule, such as but not limited to wood,
diesel or kerosene.

Experimental Data

[0094] Experiments were conducted to determine whether the
electro-activation of a material, e.g., carbon, can increase
hydrogen production. Electro-activated carbon, electro-activated
lead and electro-activated tungsten were used in an experiment
with water and aluminum, and heated to determine hydrogen
production, and the rates of hydrogen generation.

[0095] The tests described above have shown that the catalysts
prepared according to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can be an excellent material for use in splitting water
to produce hydrogen at high rates of production. Further, the
tests showed that after the catalyst is electro-activated
according to the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
an enhanced effect as a catalyst can be semi-permanent, lasting up
to several weeks and even months. Long long-term storage of the
catalyst in a damp or wet environment can preserve the
effectiveness of the catalytic properties of the catalyst for
months and even years.

[0096] The catalytic carbon is reusable (i.e., the catalytic
effect of the electro-activation is preserved). The catalytic
carbon can be stored and used months later, having the same effect
as a fresh catalyst (i.e., catalytic carbon) with water and
aluminum as fuels. Further, the catalytic carbon can be used
several times over with water and aluminum being the only consumed
fuels in the exemplary catalytic reactions described in the
present disclosure.

[0097] In some exemplary embodiments, it was shown that catalytic
carbon, in trace amounts, can be left behind in the
vessel/hydrogen cell even after washing/cleaning of the
vessel/hydrogen cell. Accordingly, in some experiments where
electro-activated carbon was not used, but was used previously in
the same vessel, some hydrogen production was noted when there
should have been close to none. Accordingly, using the same vessel
over and over can provide certain advantages when using catalytic
carbon to produce hydrogen.

[0098] In some exemplary embodiments, it was found that “wet”
electro-activated carbon (i.e., electro-activated carbon still wet
from the water in the electro-activation process) produced
hydrogen generation rates that were approximately 5-10% higher
than the hydrogen generation rates produced when the catalytic
carbon was dried. This can be because the wet catalytic carbon can
have less surface-modification history. Washing the catalytic
carbon can involve some minor surface changes at the surface of
the carbon. Drying the catalytic carbon can also allow for
possible surface abrasion when the carbon particles are moved,
shifted or poured. Catalytic carbon is a surface-reacting
heterogeneous catalyst. In some exemplary embodiments, it has been
shown that the carbon surface immediately following the
electro-activation process can be optimum for hydrogen generation,
and any surface treatment or damage following electro-activation
(e.g., washing or drying) can result in slightly-reduced catalytic
effectiveness when the catalytic carbon is used to split water and
produce hydrogen in accordance with the catalytic reactions
described in the present disclosure.

[0099] Carbon can exhibit good tendencies for electro-activation
and use as a catalyst in hydrogen production with water. Carbon is
an element that can have electronegativity similar to hydrogen and
can form a polar bond with hydrogen. Carbon can form a polar oxide
surface layer in water, and carbon can be pseudo-soluble in water
in the form of a colloidal suspension of carbon particles in
water.

[0100] The tests described above provide that catalytic lead
prepared according to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can be an excellent material for use in splitting water
to produce hydrogen at high rates of production. Lead powder was
electro-activated and oxidized at a current of approximately 1
ampere, for 9 ampere-hours. The electro-activated lead powder was
mixed with aluminum powder and water, and heated. At approximately
148 degrees Fahrenheit, hydrogen generation occurred at a
sufficient rate. At approximately 162 degrees Fahrenheit, the
hydrogen generation was significant at almost double the rate as
at 148 degrees Fahrenheit. This confirms that lead works, as lead
has an acceptable/desirable electronegativity difference between
the catalyst and hydrogen, a dissociation energy, and a difference
in electronegativities between the atoms in a polar oxide molecule
on the surface of the catalyst in the ranges described above.

[0101] The tests described above provide that the catalytic
tungsten prepared according to the exemplary embodiments of the
present disclosure may not be an excellent material for use in
splitting water to produce hydrogen at high rates of production.
Tungsten powder was electro-activated and mixed with aluminum
powder and water, and heated. However, there was no significant
hydrogen generation. This confirmed that although tungsten had an
electronegativity difference between the catalyst and hydrogen and
a dissociation energy in the ranges described above, the
unsuitable characteristic of the tungsten oxide (as they are not
polar oxides), makes tungsten undesirable for use as a catalyst in
the production of hydrogen as described in the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0102] FIG. 4 illustrates a system for the production of hydrogen
according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. A
hydrogen cell 200 can be provided where a heating subunit 202 can
be provided having a heating element 208 within. The heating
element 208 can be of various types, such as an electrical heater,
a glow plug, a heat-exchanger coil with hot water running through
it, or an electrolysis unit, but is not limited to such. A power
supply, such as, e.g., a wire 204, can be provided to power the
heating subunit 202 and/or heating element 208. If hot water is
used to provide heat to the heating element 208, 204 can represent
the input/output of the hot water. In other embodiments, the
heating element may run independently on a battery and/or may be
within the hydrogen cell 200. Within the hydrogen cell 200,
aluminum and water (or other hydrogen containing molecule) can be
provided as, e.g., fuels, and a catalyst, such as
electro-activated carbon or lead. The catalyst, water and aluminum
can be in contact with each other in a mixture in the hydrogen
cell 200 as needed to, e.g., heat the mixture of the catalyst,
water and aluminum.

[0103] In an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, one
part catalyst can be provided with one part aluminum, which can be
in the form of aluminum powder, flakes or granules, with
approximately three parts water, in the hydrogen cell 200. An
important requirement can be that the carbon concentration must be
high at the surface of the aluminum. This can be achieved in
practice by ensuring that “black water” is used in the cell. If
the water is black, because of a high concentration of catalytic
carbon, the concentration of catalytic carbon has been shown to be
high enough to produce hydrogen according to the processes
described herein. Various ratios of the catalyst, aluminum and
water can be used, and the present disclosure is not limited to
any particular ratio.

[0104] The mixture of the catalyst, water and aluminum can then be
heated using the heating element 208 to a temperature of
approximately 140 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190 degrees
Fahrenheit. The present disclosure is not limited to any
temperature ranges, and various temperatures may be used according
to different embodiments of the present disclosure. For example,
different catalysts may operate and peak at different
temperatures. In some exemplary embodiments, the mixture can be
heated to approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit, which can prevent
excessive loss of water due to vaporization or boiling. Water
evaporation (and heat loss, or cooling) can be controlled and
limited by operating the hydrogen cell in a temperature range of
approximately 160 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 180 degrees
Fahrenheit that is below the boiling temperature of water (i.e.,
212 degrees Fahrenheit at sea level). From the equations described
above, the reaction produces hydrogen and aluminum hydroxide, and
the hydrogen can be collected at hydrogen output 206. Hydrogen, a
light gas, collects in the upper regions of the cell 200. The
hydrogen output 206 can be connected by a tube to the higher
region of the space in the cell 200. The aluminum hydroxide can be
collected within the hydrogen cell 200 or outside of the hydrogen
cell 200, using appropriate structures and elements.

[0105] FIG. 5 illustrates a system for the production of hydrogen
according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. The
system of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 5 is similar to the
system in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 4, which can have a
hydrogen cell 300, a wire 304 providing electrical power to a
heating element 308 within a heating subunit 302, where a
catalyst, aluminum and water are provided. The heating element 308
heats the mixture of the catalyst, aluminum and water to produce
hydrogen and aluminum hydroxide, and the hydrogen can be collected
at hydrogen output 306. In addition, the exemplary embodiment of
FIG. 5 can have a cooling subunit 310. For example, the cooling
subunit can have within a cooling coil having a cold water input
312 and a water output 314. The cooling coil can be in contact
with the mixture of water, aluminum and catalyst. The cooling can
slow down the reaction process, thereby decreasing the rate and
volume of hydrogen generation. Such a system can be used to
produce hydrogen on demand, where appropriate control instruments
and tools can be used to produce the temperatures needed to
increase and slow down the rate and volume of hydrogen generation.

[0106] The exemplary system of FIG. 5 can provide hydrogen
“on-demand.” Heating the hydrogen cell 300 can increase the
temperature and increase the hydrogen production. Factors (i.e.,
control parameters) that can be considered when generating
hydrogen and increasing the hydrogen production can be the amount
of water, amount of electro-activated catalyst, amount and type of
aluminum, the manner and rate of oxide/hydroxide removal from the
aluminum surface, and the temperature. In some embodiments, the
cell can be charged with a continuing rate of aluminum granules
and water, so that the fuel elements are provided “on demand” in a
manner similar to the way that gasoline and air is provided to a
typical internal combustion engine.

[0107] Cooling the hydrogen cell (e.g., by providing cold water
into the hydrogen cell) can reduce the temperature, thereby
reducing the hydrogen production. When providing hydrogen
on-demand, various factors (i.e., control parameters) can be
considered in order to decrease the rate of hydrogen production.
For example, if the amount of water is reduced, such as by
removing the water from the hydrogen cell, this can slow or stop
the production of hydrogen. Reducing the amount of catalyst can
also reduce the amount of hydrogen production, although it can be
difficult to completely remove all the catalyst, as trace amounts
may still be in the hydrogen cell. Reducing the temperature in the
hydrogen cell can also reduce the hydrogen production. For
example, reducing the temperature of the hydrogen cell by
approximately 18 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit can reduce the hydrogen
production rate in the hydrogen cell by a factor of approximately
2. Reducing the temperature of the hydrogen cell by approximately
another 18 to approximately 20 degrees Fahrenheit can again reduce
the hydrogen production in the hydrogen cell by a factor of
approximately 2, and so on. This can be done by using a cooling
subunit 310, or other devices/methods to reduce the temperature of
the hydrogen cell 300.

[0108] The systems described in the present disclosure can be
combined with existing systems for producing hydrogen in some
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, a
hybrid system can be provided for producing hydrogen that combines
the system(s) of the present disclosure with an electrolysis
system. An electrolysis system can produce significant heat, and
that heat can be used to start or to keep up the reactions
described in the present disclosure. For example, the heat from an
electrolysis system can start or keep up the reaction of Equation
1, where water, aluminum and electro-activated carbon are heated
to produce hydrogen. The hydrogen produced from either one or both
systems can then be used for the particular purpose. This can
provide a method and system where pH-neutral chemistry can be
used, which is different from the prior art methods and systems
used for generating hydrogen using electrolysis. Electrolysis has
been shown to be effective in removing films from the fuel
material so that the hydrogen-producing reaction can be sustained
for longer periods of time as a result of having a
continuously-cleaned surface of the fuel material.

[0109] There can be several advantages for using a hybrid system.
A single chamber can provide for electro-activation of the carbon,
as well as provide for hydrogen generation. Accordingly, the
carbon can continuously be converted to electro-activated carbon
and then produce hydrogen. Another advantage can be that more
hydrogen can be produced per unit energy input than if
electrolysis alone were used, and the power input required for
electrolysis can be used to heat the catalytic reactions described
in Equations 1 and 2 to a desired operating temperature. Further,
the electrolysis chemistry can aid in oxidizing the aluminum in
the catalytic reactions described in Equations 1 and 2 to tie up
OH chemical groups when the water is split into H and OH groups.

[0110] In some exemplary embodiments, a hybrid system can use
electrolysis and catalytic carbon in combination to produce
hydrogen. Often, when using electro-activated carbon with a fuel,
such as aluminum, aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide can be
formed in the form of large solids. These solids can be large, and
can be difficult to remove during operation of the cell as well as
during maintenance of the cell. If a low current electrolysis is
used in the liquid composition containing the electro-activated
carbon and aluminum, then formation of these large solids can be
prevented, such that only very small grains of aluminum oxide and
aluminum hydroxide are formed. Another advantage of providing
electrolysis to the cell can be that the energy deposited in the
liquid can be a source of heat. Heat can be used for the catalytic
carbon reaction to produce hydrogen at a higher rate, such that
the hydrogen production rate can double with every increase in
temperature of approximately 18 to approximately 20 degrees
Fahrenheit. Various other combinations of hybrid systems are
contemplated by the present disclosure and are not limited to the
above.

[0111] Electrolysis can also be used in hydrogen producing cells
to prevent any buildup of aluminum hydroxide, both on the aluminum
surface and as solid “clumps” in the cell. Low-level electrolysis
has been found to prevent the buildup of aluminum hydroxide in
hydrogen producing cells containing a catalyst, water and
aluminum. For example, a DC current of approximately 100
milliamperes or less can be effective in preventing the aluminum
hydroxide from forming lumps or clumps in electrolysis cells that
range in construction from two plates to seven plates, and range
in size (volume) from 5 square centimeters to 1000 square
centimeters. Further, a DC current of approximately 100
milliamperes or less can be effective in preventing the aluminum
hydroxide from coating the aluminum and slowing the production of
hydrogen. This can prevent the need for mechanical burnishing to
maintain a clean aluminum surface during the hydrogen-producing
chemical reaction as described in the exemplary embodiments of the
present disclosure. Further, electrolysis can be used in hydrogen
producing cells to clean the surface of any material and prevent
buildup of any material in the cell, not just aluminum, as
electrolysis can dissociate any molecule, not just water and
aluminum hydroxide.

[0112] Further, the catalyst (such as catalytic carbon or
catalytic lead) can increase the hydrogen production performance
of a broad range of types of electrolysis cells. It was found that
adding the catalyst to electrolysis cells can increase the
hydrogen-production efficiency, per watt, of the electrolysis
cell. For example, when electro-activated carbon is added to an
electrolysis cell, two mechanisms of action are active during the
production of hydrogen from the cell. First, the electrical
production of hydrogen from electrolysis, and second, the chemical
production of hydrogen from the use of the electro-activated
carbon. The advantages of this can be that the chemical production
of hydrogen benefits from the co-existant electrical production of
hydrogen. Further, the electrical production of hydrogen benefits
from the co-existant chemical production of hydrogen.

[0113] The reasons for the increase of the hydrogen-production
efficiency of the electrolysis cell can be that the
electro-activated carbon lowers the activation energy, Ea, of the
water splitting process, thereby resulting in more hydrogen
production per watt of power applied to the electrolysis cell. The
electro-activated carbon hydrogen-producing reaction is
exothermic. The reaction provides heat which makes it easier to
compensate from heat lost due to cooling, leading to a system
designed to operate under thermal-equilibrium conditions, if
desired. If an electro-activated carbon HOD system is operated
under thermal-equilibrium conditions, no heat is needed to sustain
the production of hydrogen once the system is started and warmed
up to the desired operating temperature. Further, the chemical
production (using electro-activated carbon) of hydrogen increases
as the cell temperature increases. The chemical production
requires no “electrolysis energy.” The chemical production of
hydrogen benefits from the heat (temperature increase) resulting
from the electrolysis power dissipation.

[0114] The catalyst can further increase the performance of all
electrolysis cells. The catalyst was found to increase the
performance of DC electrolysis cells, and the performance of
self-resonant electrolysis cells, particularly when the
electrolysis cells contain aluminum (e.g., aluminum granules).
Cell design and operational parameters can determine how much
electro-activated carbon or other catalyst can increase the
hydrogen-production performance and can determine the efficiency
of electrolysis cells. The cell operation parameters which can be
important can be operating temperature and cell chemistry.
Operating temperature and cell chemistry can determine how much
electro-activated carbon or how much of a particular catalyst can
increase the hydrogen-production performance and efficiency of
electrolysis cells.

[0115] In the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
hydrogen production rates can be much higher than that of
electrolysis or thermo-reforming processes. These exemplary
embodiments can use external heat to start the chemical reaction
described above, which can generally be in the temperature range
of approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190
degrees Fahrenheit, but are not limited to this temperature range.
Generally, the reaction temperature can be as low as standard room
temperature, and even lower, although the hydrogen generation rate
can decrease by approximately 50% for every approximately 18-20
degrees Fahrenheit reduction in operating temperature. The
reaction temperature can be as high as the boiling temperature of
water, and even higher in a steam environment where higher
hydrogen output flow rates are required. The exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure are not limited to a particular
temperature range, or to a particular pressure range. Higher
temperatures can be provide for an apparatus that can accommodate
steam and pressure.

[0116] Once started, as the catalytic reactions described in the
present disclosure are fundamentally exothermic, the reactions can
provide enough heat to sustain the reactions if the hydrogen cell
thermodynamic equilibrium is designed to occur at the desired
operating temperature. Thermodynamic-equilibrium operating
conditions can be achieved when the amount of energy (heat)
leaving the system is the same as the amount of energy (heat)
entering the system (primarily because of the heat being generated
by the exothermic reaction). Under these experimental conditions,
the system temperature can remain constant, and
externally-supplied energy may not be required for heating or
cooling. Under different (non-thermal equilibrium) operating
conditions, the only external energy required may be for cooling,
if needed to limit the hydrogen production rate to, e.g., a
desired target value, and/or limit the temperature of the cell to
prevent boiling or excessive loss of water vapor.

[0117] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, several
experimental runs were carried out in which hydrogen peak
production rates were obtained. It was found that there was no
real upper limit of hydrogen generation rates, and when the
catalyst amounts, water (or other hydrogen containing material)
and fuel, such as aluminum are increased, substantially high rates
of hydrogen production are possible. Experiments conducted showed
hydrogen production rates up to 30 gallons per minute. These high
production rates of hydrogen resulted from the use of a cell
(similar to the one described in FIG. 5) having a cell volume of
approximately 5 gallons. Accordingly, higher rates can be provided
according to the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure
by, e.g., using larger cells, in which more catalyst, aluminum and
water can be provided. It was demonstrated that controlled,
sustained production of hydrogen can be achieved by providing
water, aluminum and catalyst to a hydrogen-production cell.

[0118] In some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
the use of electromagnetic separation can be provided. When water
is first split, the result is H2O+CC=>CC+H+OH. The H and the OH
molecules can recombine, returning to water, which may not be
desirable because the H molecule is then not available for
collection and use. At the moment of the water splitting event,
the H can be a positive ion and the OH can be a negative ion. It
can be desirable to separate the two ions before they recombine.
The separation can be done using electricity, such as electric
force, magnetic force, and electromagnetic force. The use of
electromagnetic force can be done by applying both an electric and
a magnetic field to the water in the region where the water
splitting event occurs. When H+ and OH- ions are created, the
electric field can cause both ions to move as a result of the
applied electric field. When the ions move through the magnetic
field, they will be deflected when a component of the velocity
vector is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
Both the electric and magnetic fields act to separate the H+ ions
from the OH- ions, thereby leading to a lower probability that the
ions will be recombine and be removed from the hydrogen harvesting
process.

[0119] The development of an electromagnetic field can be achieved
by using electrodes (anodes and cathodes) that are configured in
the form of a coil or multiple coils, thereby leading to the
development of an electromagnet in the region where water
splitting events occur. The current through the electrodes can be
direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), rectified AC
(pulsed waveform having a DC component), or any other time-varying
waveform including pulse trains at different frequency values
including frequencies that can have resonance effects in the
region where water splitting events take place.

[0120] The exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
described herein can facilitate and/or provide, e.g., fuel for
vehicles (trucks, cars, motorcycles, etc.), fuel for marine
vessels (boats, submarines, cargo ships, etc.), power for
generator-motor systems (GENSETs), power plants which can provide
electricity for buildings, cities, etc., and several other
applications where hydrogen can be used as a source of fuel/power.
For applications requiring heater water or steam, a boiler
apparatus can be possible due to the catalytic carbon reactions
described herein that can produce hydrogen under water. There are
many fields of use and embodiments contemplated by the present
disclosure in which hydrogen production, ranging from low to very
high flow rates, requiring no tank storage, can be used for
various purposes, and the present disclosure is not limited to any
particular use or purpose.

[0121] Various other considerations can also be addressed in the
exemplary applications described according to the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure. Various rates of hydrogen
generation, along with different volumes of hydrogen generation,
can be provided depending on the field of application. Different
factors such as the amount of water, amount of fuel, such as
aluminum, and amount of catalyst can be a factor. One skilled in
the art can understand that routine experimentation based on the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can provide
various rates and volumes of hydrogen generation. Controlling the
temperature during these reactions can provide hydrogen on demand,
and hydrogen cells can be constructed that can regulate the
temperature of the chamber of the hydrogen cell during the
reaction to provide hydrogen on demand to, e.g., a vehicle.

US2015344303 METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR PRODUCING HYDROGEN

Exemplary embodiments of methods and systems for hydrogen
production using an electro-activated material are provided. In
some exemplary embodiments, carbon can be electro-activated and
used in a chemical reaction with water and a fuel, such as
aluminum, to generate hydrogen. Controlling the temperature of the
reaction, and the amounts of water, aluminum and electro-activated
carbon can provide hydrogen on demand at a desired rate of
hydrogen generation

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0002] The present disclosure relates to exemplary embodiments of
methods and systems for producing hydrogen, and more particularly,
to exemplary embodiments of methods and systems for producing
hydrogen from chemical reactions.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

[0003] Hydrogen can be considered to be a promising energy
alternative to carbon-based fuels. Various technologies have been
developed regarding the production and use of hydrogen as a fuel
or energy source. While hydrogen may be considered to be a clean
and desirable energy alternative to carbon-based fuels, various
obstacles may exist in relying on hydrogen as an energy source as
opposed to other forms of energy. Such obstacles may generally
include the ability to efficiently, safely and economically
produce, transport and store hydrogen.

[0004] One approach to producing hydrogen can include
thermochemical processes. One such process can include carrying
out chemical reactions between a sulfur-iodine compound and water
at high temperatures (e.g., above approximately 800 degrees C.).
Generally, the process can result in the splitting of the water
molecules (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The
sulfur-iodine solution can be recycled in the process and
therefore, other than hydrogen and oxygen, there may be no harmful
byproducts.

[0005] Another approach to producing hydrogen can include the
electrolysis of water. Electrolysis requires the use of
electricity, in accordance with Faraday's Law. Electrolysis can be
a relatively inefficient process for producing hydrogen without
the aid of another energy source (beyond the supply of
electricity). Indeed, the energy consumed may be more valuable
than the hydrogen produced. In order to make electrolysis an
economically viable process, another energy source can be
incorporated into the process. For example, high-temperature
electrolysis utilizes a high-temperature heat source to heat the
water and effectively reduce the amount of electrical energy
required to split the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
with higher efficiencies. Another approach can involve the
extraction of hydrogen from fossil fuels, such as natural gas or
methanol. This method can be complex and result in residues, such
as carbon dioxide. Also, there is a worldwide limit to the amount
of fossil fuel available for use in the future.

[0006] Other approaches are needed to address hydrogen production,
such that the hydrogen production may be carried out in an
effective, efficient and safe manner. A hydrogen-based economy can
be a long-term, environmentally-benign energy alternative for
sustainable growth. An increasing demand for hydrogen may arise as
the worldwide need for more electricity increases, greenhouse gas
emission controls tighten, and fossil fuel reserves wane.

SUMMARY OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0007] At least some of the above described problems can be
addressed by exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
according to the present disclosure. The present disclosure
describes exemplary embodiments of methods and systems that can
produce hydrogen on demand (HOD), which can make it unnecessary to
store hydrogen in a pressurized tank.

[0008] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure
describe methods and systems that can make it possible to control
and sustain the continuous production of hydrogen. The controlled,
sustained production of hydrogen can be achieved by, e.g.,
providing a chemical reaction with water, aluminum and an
electro-activated material (e.g., electro-activated carbon). This
chemical reaction can produce hydrogen at various production
rates, and the hydrogen can be provided by, e.g., a
hydrogen-production cell. The use of electro-activated carbon can
make it feasible to provide a high production rate for hydrogen
for various uses, such as but not limited to a fuel for, e.g.,
land vehicles, marine vessels and trans-oceanic ships, and also as
a power source for commercial power plants and other plants in
remote locations.

[0009] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure further
describe methods and systems which can provide for safe, on-board
and on-demand production of hydrogen close to a user system, using
simple, safe and pollution-free metal oxidation reacting with
water and electro-activated carbon. The electro-activated carbon
in the exemplary embodiments can provide for a high-production
rate, and a large-volume production of hydrogen. It can also
provide low flow rate for applications in which smaller fuel cells
may be required, such as, e.g., cellular phones.

[0010] For example, according to one exemplary embodiment of the
present disclosure, a method of producing a catalyst for hydrogen
production can be provided, comprising placing a carbon material
in a vessel, providing water within the vessel, and providing
electrical current through the water to electro-activate the
carbon material by modifying the surface of the carbon material in
the water. The method can further comprise adding an electrolyte
in the water in the vessel. The electrical current can be provided
at less than 5 amps.

[0011] In some exemplary embodiments, the carbon material can be
one or more of pure carbon, solid carbon, crushed carbon, sintered
carbon, carbon composites, charcoal, pressed carbon, carbon
blocks, graphite, carbon granules, granulated activated carbon or
coal. In some exemplary embodiments, the method can further
comprise separating the electro-activated carbon from the water
and drying the electro-activated carbon.

[0012] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a method of producing hydrogen can be provided,
comprising combining electro-activated carbon with water and
aluminum, and providing heat to the combination of the
electro-activated carbon, aluminum and water to produce hydrogen.
The combination of the electro-activated carbon, aluminum and
water can be heated to a temperature range between approximately
150 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190 degrees Fahrenheit.

[0013] In some exemplary embodiments, the method can further
comprise controlling the hydrogen production by heating the
combination of the electro-activated carbon, aluminum and water to
increase hydrogen production, and cooling or reducing the heat
provided to the combination of the electro-activated carbon,
aluminum and water to reduce hydrogen production. The method can
further comprise controlling the hydrogen production by adding
amounts of one or more of the electro-activated carbon, aluminum
and water to increase the hydrogen production, and removing
amounts of one or more of the electro-activated carbon, aluminum
and water to decrease the hydrogen production. The water can
comprise tap water, dirty water, high-calcium water, salt water,
sea water, alkaline water or acidic water. In some exemplary
embodiments, the method can further comprise mixing, burnishing or
chopping the aluminum during hydrogen production.

[0014] According to another exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a system for producing hydrogen can be provided,
comprising a vessel having a combination of electro-activated
carbon, fuel and water, wherein the fuel is capable of tying up an
OH group in a water molecule in a chemical reaction, and an
apparatus for heating the vessel to produce a chemical reaction
between the fuel and the water causing separation of the water
molecule to produce hydrogen.

[0015] In some exemplary embodiments, the fuel can comprise
lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, calcium, strontium,
barium, barium oxide, pure aluminum, aluminum powder, aluminum
granules or aluminum shavings. The fuel can comprise aluminum. In
some exemplary embodiments, the system can further comprise one or
more mechanisms for mixing, burnishing or chopping the aluminum
during hydrogen production.

[0016] In some exemplary embodiments, the system can further
comprise one or more mechanisms to control the hydrogen production
in the vessel to produce hydrogen on demand. The one or more
mechanisms can heat the combination of the electro-activated
carbon, fuel and water to increase the hydrogen production, and
cool or reduce the heat to the combination of the
electro-activated carbon, fuel and water to decrease the hydrogen
production. The one or more mechanisms can heat the combination of
the electro-activated carbon, fuel and water to a temperature
range between approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit to
approximately 190 degrees Fahrenheit.

[0017] In some exemplary embodiments, the hydrogen production can
be controlled by adding amounts of one or more of the
electro-activated carbon, fuel and water to increase the hydrogen
production, and removing amounts of one or more of the
electro-activated carbon, fuel and water to decrease the hydrogen
production. The water can comprise tap water, dirty water,
high-calcium water, salt water, sea water, alkaline water or
acidic water.

[0018] The exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
according to the present disclosure allow for hydrogen generation
from a liquid composition such as water. Further, the by-products
can potentially be a pollution-free source of material for
recycling to produce more aluminum.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] The foregoing and other objects of the present disclosure
will be apparent upon consideration of the following detailed
description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings
and claims, in which like reference characters refer to like parts
throughout, and in which:

[0020] FIG. 1 illustrates an activation cell used to prepare a
catalyst that can be used to produce hydrogen according to
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;[0021] FIG. 2 illustrates a system for the production of
hydrogen according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure;[0022] FIG. 3 illustrates a system for the production of
hydrogen according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure;[0023] FIG. 4 illustrates a system for providing hydrogen
as a fuel for a vehicle according to exemplary embodiments of
the present disclosure;[0024] FIG. 5 illustrates a boiler system according to
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure; and[0025] FIG. 6 illustrates a graph showing hydrogen
production according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure.

[0026] Throughout the figures, the same reference numerals and
characters, unless otherwise stated, are used to denote like
features, elements, components or portions of the illustrated
embodiments. Moreover, while the present disclosure will now be
described in detail with reference to the figures, it is done so
in connection with the illustrative embodiments. It is intended
that changes and modifications can be made to the described
embodiments without departing from the true scope and spirit of
the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF DISCLOSURE

[0027] Exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems according
to the present disclosure will now be described, including
reference to the figures.

[0028] Initially, in an exemplary embodiment of the present
disclosure, a method and system for preparing a hydrogen producing
catalyst is described. FIG. 1 illustrates a diagram of an
activation cell 100 used to prepare a catalyst that can be used to
produce hydrogen. In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1, the
material can be carbon. The carbon can be any type of carbon of
various forms, and the present disclosure is not limited to any
particular form of carbon.

[0029] The activation cell 100 can have an anode 102 and a cathode
104. In an exemplary embodiment, the anode 102 can be placed
inside the activation cell 100 along a first side 100a of the
activation cell 100, and the cathode 104 can be placed inside the
activation cell 100 along a second side 100b of the activation
cell 100. The anode 102 can be a metal anode and the cathode 104
can be a metal cathode, and any type of metal can be used for the
anode 102 and cathode 104, such as stainless steel, iron,
galvanized iron, carbon and/or other metals, and the present
disclosure is not limited to any type of metal. The metal can be
electrically conductive and resistant to corrosion.

[0030] A liquid composition can be provided in the activation cell
100, such as water 108 or other liquid containing water, or other
suitable liquid composition, and is not limited to water. The
water 108 can be tap water, filtered water, salt water, sea water
and/or other types of water. A material such as carbon 106 can be
provided in the water 108 in the activation cell 100 in the form
of, e.g., charcoal or graphite, so that it can be
electro-activated. The activation cell 100 can be open on a top
surface to allow ventilation and the placement of the water 108
and carbon 106. The water 108 can be in sufficient quantity to,
e.g., cover the material being electro-activated. The activation
cell 100 can be placed in a well-ventilated area such that any gas
that is produced from the liquid during the electro-activation
process can be ventilated.

[0031] An electrolyte can be placed into the activation cell 100
with the water 108 and carbon 106, which can make the mixture of
the water 108 and carbon 106 more electrically conductive.
Examples of electrolytes that can be used include, but are not
limited to, sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride or potassium
hydroxide. The electro-activation can also be carried out with no
added electrolyte, and a higher voltage may be used as the water
can be less electrically conductive when an electrolyte is not
added to the water. Electrical energy can be passed through the
mixture of the water 108 and carbon 106 to electro-activate the
carbon 106. For example, electrical energy, such as in the form of
electrical current, can be passed through the mixture of water 108
and carbon 106 until a value of approximately 6 Ampere-hours is
achieved. Also, for example, a range of voltage may be used, such
as from approximately 4 volts to approximately 200 volts.
Typically, a voltage in the range of approximately 12 volts to
approximately 150 volts can be used. The exemplary embodiments of
the present disclosure are not limited to any Ampere-hours or
voltage, and adjustments may be made based on various factors,
such as but not limited to the amount of water, the amount of
material (e.g., carbon), the size of the activation cell, and/or
other factors including the current density (e.g., Amperes per
square centimeter) which can be a function of the geometry of the
cell.

[0032] The catalytic activation cell 100 can be designed to run at
a low current, e.g., less than approximately 5 amps, and can run
continuously with no overheating due to power dissipation in the
catalytic activation cell 100. This can provide for
electro-activation of the material (e.g., carbon), and thereby
convert the material into an electro-activated material. In the
exemplary embodiments described above, carbon can be converted
into electro-activated carbon, which can be referred to as
catalytic carbon. Electro-activated carbon and catalytic carbon
are used interchangeably in the present disclosure.
Electro-activating the carbon at a low current can provide an
advantage that the electro-activation may not need to be monitored
to intervene in the event of, e.g., excessive current, excessive
temperature or excessive gas emission from the cell.

[0033] In other exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
the catalytic activation cell 100 can be designed to run at higher
energy levels, such as 6 Ampere hours, which can be achieved by,
e.g., providing electric current for 6 hours at a current of 1
Ampere, or for 3 hours at a current of 2 Amperes. In various
embodiments of the present disclosure, different times and
currents can be used to achieve 6 Ampere hours. The present
disclosure is not limited to any particular Ampere-hours, and
other Ampere-hour treatments would also produce catalytic
transformation of the carbon.

[0034] The catalytic carbon (electro-activated carbon 106) can
then be removed from the activation cell 100, and may be dried if
desired. Once dried, the catalytic carbon may be easier to store
and/or ship. The catalytic carbon may be dried by, e.g., air
drying, heating in air, and/or other types of heating/drying
mechanisms and/or methods. Different drying methods/processes may
be used, and temperatures from standard room temperature to up to
200 degrees Fahrenheit can be used, and are not limited to such.

Exemplary Catalytic Reactions

[0035] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, the
chemical reaction:

2Al+6[H2O]+C=>C+2[Al(OH)3]+3H2 Equation (1)

can be used, where Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen and
C is the electro-activated carbon (or catalytic carbon) formed by
the process described above. In this exemplary catalytic reaction,
the aluminum and water (H2O) can be used as fuels with the
catalytic carbon, and hydrogen (H2) can be produced where the
by-product is aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3). In this exemplary
reaction, water and aluminum are fuels that can be consumed, and
the catalytic carbon C can be a catalyst. Other liquid
compositions having water, or having similar properties as water,
can also be used.

[0036] The same reaction can be written as:

2Al+3[H2O]+C=>C+Al2O3+3H2 Equation (2)

where Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen and C is the
electro-activated carbon (catalytic carbon) formed by the process
described above. In this exemplary chemical reaction, the aluminum
and water (H2O) can be used as fuels with the catalytic carbon,
and hydrogen (H2) can be produced where the by-product is aluminum
oxide (Al2O3). Aluminum hydroxide can reduce to aluminum oxide
when dried, to remove water from the aluminum hydroxide. Because
the hydrogen-producing reaction can be carried out in water,
Equation 1 showing an aluminum hydroxide product is the reaction
mostly used, while Equation 2 showing an aluminum oxide product
can also be used when describing the chemistry. In this exemplary
reaction, water and aluminum are fuels that can be consumed, and
the catalytic carbon C can be a catalyst.

[0037] According to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, many different forms of carbon can be
electro-activated as described above to produce catalytic carbon.
For example, in various experiments performed according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it has been shown
that hydrogen can be produced using carbon in many forms, which
can include but is not limited to, pure carbon, solid or crushed
carbon, sintered carbon, carbon composites, charcoal, pressed
carbon (e.g., in the form of flat plates), carbon blocks (e.g.,
electric motor brushes) that can be formed with chemical binders,
graphite (e.g., powdered carbon), carbon granules (e.g., for use
as deodorizers), granulated activated carbon (GAC) that can be
used for, e.g., water purification/filtering, and/or coal (lumped
coal or crushed/pulverized coal).

[0038] Further, a fuel may not be required in order to generate
hydrogen. Experiments have shown that catalytic carbon alone with
a liquid composition, such as water or containing water, can
produce hydrogen, according to the reaction:

H2O+CC=>CC+H+OH Equation (3)

[0039] A fuel can, however, increase the rate of production of
hydrogen in the chemical reactions shown in Equations (1) and (2).
When hydrogen atoms are generated, they can tend to combine, as in
H+H=>H2 (a gas), which is referred to as the Toffel reaction. A
competing reaction can also occur, such as H+OH=>H2O, a
“recombination” reaction that can prevent the hydrogen from being
liberated in the form of H2 gas.

[0040] A fuel, such as aluminum, can be provided to help in this
reaction as OH groups can be bound to the aluminum (Al) so that
the accumulation of free (un-bound) OH groups can be largely
prevented, such as in the liquid composition having the
electro-activated carbon and aluminum, and the recombination with
hydrogen atoms to form H2O can be prevented.

[0041] Other elements, chemicals or fuels having the same effect
as aluminum can also be used. For example, chemicals that tie up
one OH group can be helpful, such as but not limited to Li (can
form lithium hydroxide), Na (can form sodium hydroxide), K (can
form potassium hydroxide), Rb (can form rubidium hydroxide) and Cs
(can form cesium hydroxide). Other chemicals can be more helpful,
which can tie up two OH groups, such as but not limited to Ca (can
form calcium hydroxide), Sr (can form strontium hydroxide) and Ba
(can form barium hydroxide).

[0042] Exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can provide
for aluminum as the fuel as each atom of aluminum can tie up three
OH groups to become aluminum hydroxide, Al[OH]3, aluminum can be
inexpensive and safe, and aluminum can have a higher chemical
binding energy than the OH groups. Some chemicals can be even more
helpful such as barium oxide (BaO), which can tie up as many as 4
or 5 OH groups. Some experiments have shown that barium oxide can
be a very good fuel with regard to hydrogen production, although
there can be some safety issues and can generally be more
expensive than aluminum.

[0043] Experiments were conducted to determine whether the
electro-activation of a material, e.g., carbon, can increase
hydrogen production. In each experiment, a catalyst was used with
an aluminum and water mixture. In Experiment 1,
non-electro-activated carbon was used as a catalyst. In Experiment
2, unwashed electro-activated carbon was used as a catalyst. In
Experiment 3, washed electro-activated carbon was used as a
catalyst, where the electro-activated carbon was rinsed with water
after the electro-activation of the carbon.

Experiment 1

[0044] In Experiment 1, carbon (i.e., charcoal) was used as a
catalyst that was not electro-activated. The chamber was cleaned,
and approximately 3 teaspoons of aluminum powder (having a
particle diameter of approximately 30 microns) were added to the
chamber along with approximately 7 teaspoons of
non-electro-activated charcoal. The chamber was filled to
approximately 60% of the chamber with water so that the charcoal
was slightly below the water line. A heating element was used to
heat the mixture of the catalyst, aluminum powder and water. The
temperature and hydrogen generation rates are provided in the
chart below.

[0045] It was observed that non-electro-activated charcoal did not
produce significant hydrogen generation.

Experiment 2

[0046] In Experiment 2, carbon (i.e., charcoal) was used as a
catalyst that was electro-activated at 6 Ampere hours. The chamber
was cleaned, and approximately 2 teaspoons of aluminum powder
(having a particle diameter of approximately 30 microns) were
added to the chamber along with approximately 4 teaspoons of
unwashed electro-activated charcoal. The chamber was filled with
water and a heating element was used to heat the mixture of the
catalyst, aluminum powder and water. The temperature and hydrogen
generation rates are provided in the chart below.

[0047] At T=17:00, approximately 40 mL of hot water was added to
the chamber. At T=21:00, approximately 1.5 teaspoons of aluminum
powder was added to the chamber. At T=24:12, the heating element
was turned off. A hydrogen generation rate of approximately 2.5
liters per minute was observed at T=27:20 at a temperature of
approximately 154 degrees Fahrenheit. At T=28:00, the chamber was
cooled, and the hydrogen generation rate decreased as the
temperature decreased. At T=40:00, approximately 2 teaspoons of
aluminum powder and approximately 2 teaspoons of electro-activated
carbon were added to the chamber, and the heating element was
turned on. At T=50:41, the heating element was turned off, and the
temperature of the chamber started to drop.

[0048] In Experiment 2, it was observed that a hydrogen generation
rate of approximately 2.5 liters per minute can be generated at a
temperature of approximately 154 degrees Fahrenheit. It can be
expected that a hydrogen cell having a similar amount of aluminum
powder and catalyst could generate hydrogen at a rate of more than
approximately 3 liters per minute at hydrogen cell temperature
ranges of approximately 160 degrees Fahrenheit. The use of
un-washed electro-activated carbon can increase the hydrogen
production rate by approximately a factor of 10. In comparison,
Experiment 2 generated hydrogen at a rate of approximately 2.5
liters per minute, and Experiment 1 generated hydrogen at a rate
of approximately 0.22 liters per minute where a
non-electro-activated catalyst was used.

Experiment 3

[0049] In Experiment 3, carbon (i.e., charcoal) was used as a
catalyst that was electro-activated at 6 Ampere hours. After it
was electro-activated, the charcoal was washed with running water
for approximately 30 minutes. The chamber was cleaned, and
approximately 2 teaspoons of aluminum powder (having a particle
diameter of approximately 30 microns) were added to the chamber
along with approximately 2 teaspoons of washed electro-activated
charcoal. The chamber was filled with water and a heating element
was used to heat the mixture of the catalyst, aluminum powder and
water. The temperature and hydrogen generation rates are provided
in the chart below.

[0050] At T=4:00, the heating element was turned off. At T=5:00,
approximately 0.5 teaspoons of aluminum powder was added. At
T=9:08, it was observed that the chamber was running low on
aluminum fuel. At T=12:55, a cooling element was introduced to the
mixture of water, aluminum powder and catalyst, and a temperature
drop was noted from T=12:55 to T=16:00.

[0051] In Experiment 3, it was observed that hydrogen can be
generated at a rate of approximately 1 liter per minute using
washed electro-activated carbon (i.e., charcoal) for a catalyst.
By comparison, in Experiment 2, hydrogen was generated at a rate
of approximately 2.5 liters per minute using unwashed
electro-activated carbon as a catalyst.

Electro-Activation

[0052] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, carbon
(in the form of 16-mesh carbon granules) was electro-activated,
and samples were removed at different lengths of time to determine
how many Ampere hours produced a catalyst with a high rate of
hydrogen production. Carbon was placed in a chamber and
electro-activated at 2 Amperes. Sample 1 was removed after an
electro-activation time of 1 minute, Sample 2 was removed after an
electro-activation time of 45 minutes, Sample 3 was removed after
an electro-activation time of 3 hours, Sample 4 was removed after
an electro-activation time of 15 hours, and Sample 5 was removed
after an electro-activation time of 16 hours.

[0053] Approximately 1/8 of a teaspoon of each catalyst material
(i.e., Samples 1-5) was placed in individual chambers having
approximately 20 mL of water each. Water used in this experiment
was filtered tap water. Approximately 1/8 of a teaspoon of
aluminum powder was provided in each chamber. The mixture of the
aluminum, water and catalyst in each chamber was then brought to a
temperature ranging from approximately 160 degrees Fahrenheit to
approximately 200 degrees Fahrenheit. All the chambers were
approximately at the same temperature at any given time, as all
the chambers were provided on one multi-chamber container vessel
that was placed on a heating device. Hydrogen generation rates
were observed, and all five samples generated hydrogen. It was
found that Sample 3 produces hydrogen at a higher rate than the
other samples, and it was found that additional electro-activation
time to that of Sample 3 had a small effect in the hydrogen
production rate. In this exemplary embodiment, Sample 3 was
electro-activated at 6 Ampere hours (i.e., 3 hours at 2 Amperes).

[0054] The tests described above provide that the catalytic carbon
prepared according to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can be an excellent material for use in splitting water
to produce hydrogen at high rates of production. Further, the
tests showed that after carbon is electro-activated according to
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, an enhanced
effect as a catalyst can be semi-permanent, lasting up to several
weeks and even months. The catalytic carbon is reusable (i.e., the
catalytic effect of the electro-activation is preserved). The
catalytic carbon can be stored and used months later, having the
same effect as a fresh catalyst (i.e., catalytic carbon) with
water and aluminum as fuels. Further, the catalytic carbon can be
used several times over with water and aluminum being the only
consumed fuels in the exemplary catalytic reactions described in
the present disclosure.

[0055] In some exemplary embodiments, it was shown that catalytic
carbon, in trace amounts, can be left behind in the
vessel/hydrogen cell even after washing/cleaning of the
vessel/hydrogen cell. Accordingly, in some experiments where
electro-activated carbon was not used, but was used previously in
the same vessel, some hydrogen production was noted when there
should have been close to none. Accordingly, using the same vessel
over and over can provide certain advantages when using catalytic
carbon to produce hydrogen.

[0056] In some exemplary embodiments, it was found that “wet”
electro-activated carbon (i.e., electro-activated carbon still wet
from the water in the electro-activation process) produced
hydrogen generation rates that were approximately 5-10% higher
than the hydrogen generation rates produced when the catalytic
carbon was dried. This can be because the wet catalytic carbon can
have less surface-modification history. Washing the catalytic
carbon can involve some minor surface changes at the surface of
the carbon. Drying the catalytic carbon can also allow for
possible surface abrasion when the carbon particles are moved,
shifted or poured. Catalytic carbon can be a surface-reacting
heterogeneous catalyst. In some exemplary embodiments, it has been
shown that the carbon surface immediately following the
electro-activation process can be optimum for hydrogen generation,
and any surface treatment or damage following electro-activation
(e.g., washing or drying) can result in slightly-reduced catalytic
effectiveness when the catalytic carbon is used to split water and
produce hydrogen in accordance with the catalytic reactions
described in the present disclosure.

[0057] Carbon can exhibit good tendencies for electro-activation
and use as a catalyst in hydrogen production with water. Carbon is
an element that can have electronegativity similar to hydrogen and
can form a polar bond with hydrogen. Carbon can form a polar oxide
surface layer in water, and carbon can be pseudo-soluble in water
in the form of a colloidal suspension of carbon particles in
water.

[0058] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can use
water and aluminum as fuel for the exemplary chemical reactions
described herein. The potential use of water from various sources
and lower cost, lower purity aluminum can provide for alternative
low-cost sources that can be used to provide fuels for the
catalytic reactions according to the exemplary embodiments of the
methods and systems of the present disclosure.

[0059] Aluminum, an element that can be used as a fuel in the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure for producing
hydrogen, can react with acids and bases. Like other active
metals, aluminum can dissolve in strong acids to evolve hydrogen
gas. The catalytic carbon described in the present disclosure can
be used in pH-neutral liquid based on its strong catalytic
efficiency (i.e., high reaction rate). This can mean that the
water can be neither a strong acid nor a strong alkaline liquid,
which can provide a very safe and environmentally-friendly
mixture.

[0060] In some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
aluminum shavings can be used in the chemical reactions described
herein instead of aluminum powder. The use of electro-activated
carbon with aluminum shavings and other non-powder forms of
aluminum have been shown to successfully produce hydrogen in a
laboratory.

[0061] For a given mass of aluminum in the reaction, the hydrogen
production rate can be approximately proportional to the surface
area of the aluminum metal. The aluminum used in some of the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can be powdered
aluminum. The higher surface-to-volume ratio of powdered aluminum
can make it suitable for a higher rate of hydrogen production for
a given amount of aluminum. More coarse fuel, which can be in the
form of aluminum pellets, aluminum shavings, aluminum granules or
aluminum sheets, can also be used. Such coarse fuel can provide
for hydrogen production which can be at a lower rate (for a given
amount of aluminum) than provided by powdered aluminum in some of
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Use of pure
aluminum may not be required, which can make possible the use of
lower cost, lower purity aluminum in the hydrogen production
according to the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0062] The size of the aluminum used can be a design variable for
a particular application. For example, the particle size of the
aluminum can be chosen to achieve a desired hydrogen production
rate for a design that has a defined geometry and operating
temperature. In general, for a given amount of aluminum, as the
particle size of the aluminum decreases, the reaction rate of the
chemical reaction described in the present disclosure goes up at
any given temperature. Also, the reaction rate increases as the
temperature increases.

[0063] In some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it
was found that hydrogen is generated in the reaction described
above without the use of aluminum (i.e., just using
electro-activated carbon and water), but that adding certain
fuels, such as aluminum, increased the production of hydrogen. It
was also found that other fuels besides aluminum can be used. It
was also found that during the catalytic reaction to generate
hydrogen, when aluminum powder is being used, hydrogen generation
can increase when the aluminum powder is mixed or stirred during
the reaction. A mechanical action can be provided to remove
aluminum oxide and expose bare aluminum. The chemical reactions
described in Equations 1 and 2 produce hydrogen at higher rates
when bare aluminum is used, and produce less hydrogen when using
aluminum with an oxidized surface. In some exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure, by using a blender or other device to
chop/burnish aluminum shavings and pellets, hydrogen production
rates increased by factors of approximately two to ten, depending
on the intensity of the mechanical or electro-mechanical action
(i.e., chopping, burnishing and/or mixing of the aluminum). The
factors can be dependent on the burnishing time and the time delay
between burnishing and hydrogen production. This time delay can
result in the formation of a film when the bare aluminum surface
is exposed to air or water, particularly at temperatures above
room temperature. Burnishing of the aluminum can remove the
aluminum oxide from the surface of the aluminum, providing a fresh
aluminum surface for the hydrogen-producing chemical reactions
described in Equations 1 and 2 in the present disclosure.

[0064] There may be other methods/devices for removing the
oxide/hydroxide and providing a substantially bare aluminum
surface for the hydrogen-producing reactions described in the
present disclosure, and the present disclosure is not limited to
any such method/device. For example, in addition or as a
substitute to mechanical burnishing, treatments of the aluminum
surface may also be thermal, optical or chemical.

[0065] In some exemplary embodiments, aluminum shavings can be
reacted with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which
can speed the chemical reactions described in the present
disclosure reaction by a factor of 10 or more. This process can be
a straightforward chemical reaction in which the sodium hydroxide
undergoes a chemical change, i.e., the sodium hydroxide is
transformed and consumed in the process.

[0066] The combination of the aluminum and sodium hydroxide can be
combined with the catalytic reactions described in the present
disclosure, i.e., Equations (1) and (2). For example, in some
exemplary embodiments, hydrogen can be generated according to the
following chemical reaction:

2Al+2[NaOH]+6[H2O]+C=>C+2[NaAl(OH)4]+3H2 Equation (4)

where the Al is aluminum, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen, NaAl(OH)4 is
sodium tetrahydroxyaluminate, and C is electro-activated carbon
(or catalytic carbon). In this exemplary reaction, water, aluminum
and sodium hydroxide can be fuels that can be consumed, and the
catalytic carbon C can be a catalyst.

[0067] In some of these exemplary embodiments, the reaction can
begin slowly which can be due to the layer of aluminum oxide on
the surface of the aluminum. In these exemplary embodiments, once
the layer of aluminum oxide is pierced during the reaction, the
reaction can then speed up. In some exemplary embodiments, the
reaction sped up after 1 to 3 minutes, at temperatures ranging
from standard room temperature up to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. The
speed of the reaction can depend on various factors, such as
temperature, and the amount of aluminum, water and/or sodium
tetrahydroxyaluminate. Other solutions and/or elements may be used
to speed up the catalytic reaction, such as salt (NaCl) and/or
other electrolytes.

[0068] According to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, water can be used from various different sources. The
use of pure water may not be required. Therefore, it may not be
necessary to use distilled water or de-ionized water for the
production of hydrogen, which can be more expensive than, e.g.,
tap water or sea water. In exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, various water sources were used in the exemplary
chemical reactions, including tap water, dirty water, high-calcium
water, salt water, sea water, alkaline water, and acidic water. In
these experiments, it was found that all these various water
samples worked well in the chemical reactions of the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure for hydrogen production. In
some exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, it was found
that some forms of water, including salt water and alkaline water,
can provide a slightly higher rate of hydrogen production than
more pure forms of water, such as deionized water or distilled
water. This can be because salt water and alkaline water can have
additives that can tend to ionize the water, which can make it
more chemically active and/or more mobile in an aqueous solution.
This can be because electrostatic fields, created by the polar
oxides, form forces that move the chemicals in the liquid.

[0069] The use of water from various sources can provide, e.g.,
more design latitude and freedom to a user in selection of
construction materials for a hydrogen cell, water and water
ingredients to minimize corrosion of the materials used in the
construction of a hydrogen cell and associated parts according to
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Such use of
water from various sources can provide for significant cost
reduction by, e.g., making it possible to use a wider range of
materials.

[0070] The use of salt water and/or sea water for hydrogen
production according to the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can make it suitable for marine applications, as well
as providing an energy source for coastal areas. The exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure can provide hydrogen
production in all parts of the world and near any seashore,
including remote islands. Accordingly, many island nations can use
the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure to, e.g.,
decrease fuel costs and reduce or eliminate the need for
tanker-ship import of fossil fuels.

[0071] The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can
produce by-products that are fully recoverable using existing
commercial methods for producing aluminum metal. The by-products
from the hydrogen production methods and systems according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can be desirable
because they are pure, and can contain no contaminants including
bauxite, gibbsite, boehmite, goethite, hematite, kaolinite, and
TiO2. The large volume of by-products of the exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure can be Al(OH)3 and Al2O3, which can be
recycled to produce more aluminum metal. Recycling of aluminum
hydroxide and aluminum oxide makes the exemplary embodiments of
the present disclosure economically viable for large volume
hydrogen production.

[0072] Aluminum refining from aluminum-bearing bauxite ore can use
the Bayer process chemistry which can form a hydrate which can be
essentially the same as the reaction product in the aluminum-water
reactions described above according to the exemplary embodiments
of the present disclosure. The hydrate can be calcined to remove
the water to form alumina. The alumina can then be
electrolytically reduced into metallic aluminum at about 900
degrees Celsius using the Hall-Heroult Process, producing aluminum
metal with 99.7% purity.

[0073] FIG. 2 illustrates a system for the production of hydrogen
according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. A
hydrogen cell 200 can be provided where a heating subunit 202 can
be provided having a heating element 208 within. The heating
element 208 can be of various types, such as an electrical heater,
a glow plug, a heat-exchanger coil with hot water running through
it, but is not limited to such. A power supply, such as, e.g., a
wire 204, can be provided to power the heating subunit 202 and/or
heating element 208. If hot water is used to provide heat to the
heating element 208, 204 can represent the input/output of the hot
water. In other embodiments, the heating element may run
independently on a battery and/or may be within the hydrogen cell
200. Within the hydrogen cell 200, aluminum and water can be
provided as, e.g., fuels, and catalytic carbon can be provided as,
e.g., a catalyst. The catalytic carbon, water and aluminum can be
in contact with each other in a mixture in the hydrogen cell 200
as needed to, e.g., heat the mixture of the catalytic carbon,
water and aluminum.

[0074] In an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, one
part catalytic carbon can be provided with one part aluminum,
which can be in the form of aluminum powder, flakes or granules,
with approximately three parts water, in the hydrogen cell 200.
Various ratios of the catalytic carbon, aluminum and water can be
used, and the present disclosure is not limited to any particular
ratio. In some exemplary embodiments, 1-3 tablespoons of 30-micron
aluminum powder can be used as the fuel.

[0075] The mixture of the catalytic carbon, water and aluminum can
then be heated using the heating element 208 to a temperature of
approximately 140 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190 degrees
Fahrenheit. The present disclosure is not limited to any
temperature ranges, and various temperatures may be used according
to different embodiments of the present disclosure. In some
exemplary embodiments, the mixture can be heated to approximately
180 degrees Fahrenheit, which can prevent excessive loss of water
due to vaporization or boiling. Water evaporation (and heat loss,
or cooling) can be controlled and limited by operating the
hydrogen cell in a temperature range of approximately 160 degrees
Fahrenheit to approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit that is below
the boiling temperature of water (i.e., 212 degrees Fahrenheit at
sea level). From the equations described above, the reaction
produces hydrogen and aluminum hydroxide, and the hydrogen can be
collected at hydrogen output 206. The aluminum hydroxide can be
collected within the hydrogen cell 200 or outside of the hydrogen
cell 200, using appropriate structures and elements.

[0076] FIG. 3 illustrates a system for the production of hydrogen
according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. The
system of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 is similar to the
system in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 2, which can have a
hydrogen cell 300, a wire 304 providing electrical power to a
heating element 308 within a heating subunit 302, where catalytic
carbon is used as a catalyst and aluminum and water are used as
fuels. The heating element 308 heats the mixture of catalytic
carbon, aluminum and water to produce hydrogen and aluminum
hydroxide, and the hydrogen can be collected at hydrogen output
306. In addition, the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 can have a
cooling subunit 310. For example, the cooling subunit can have
within a cooling coil having a cold water input 312 and a water
output 314. The cooling coil can be in contact with the mixture of
water, aluminum and catalytic carbon. The cooling can slow down
the reaction process, thereby decreasing the rate and volume of
hydrogen generation. Such a system can be used to produce hydrogen
on demand, where appropriate instruments and tools can be used to
produce the temperatures needed to increase and slow down the rate
and volume of hydrogen generation.

[0077] In an experiment of the system of FIG. 3 according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, the hydrogen cell
300 was filled with approximately one pint of tap water, along
with approximately 4 mL of aluminum powder (having a particle size
of 3 microns) and approximately 4 mL of electro-activated carbon.
The heating subunit 302 heated the mixture of water, aluminum
powder and electro-activated carbon at approximately 2-3 degrees
Fahrenheit per minute. The hydrogen cell 300 was heated for
approximately 30 minutes, and the heating subunit was then turned
off. The temperature of the hydrogen cell 300 at this time was
approximately 190 degrees Fahrenheit. As shown in FIG. 6, the rate
R of hydrogen production at time t=20 minutes was approximately
300 mL/min, and soon after peaked at approximately 490 mL/min.

[0078] When the hydrogen producing reaction began, the exothermic
nature of the reaction kept the temperature at approximately 190
degrees Fahrenheit until the fuel (i.e., aluminum powder) was
mostly consumed at approximately t=50 minutes into the experiment.
The total volume of hydrogen produced in the experiment was
approximately 4 liters. At approximately t=25 minutes, cold water
was provided into the cooling subunit 310 (i.e., cooling coil)
through cold water input 312, and the cooling rate was measured to
be approximately 2-3 degrees Fahrenheit per minute.

[0079] In a second experiment, using the same electro-activated
carbon from the previous experiment, approximately 12 mL of
aluminum powder was provided in the hydrogen cell 300. The peak
hydrogen production rate was measured to be approximately 2.5
liters per minute at approximately t=12 minutes. After
approximately 25 minutes, the total volume of hydrogen gas
produced was approximately 20 liters. After the experiments, no
corrosion was visible on the heating subunit 302, cooling subunit
310 or hydrogen cell 300.

[0080] The exemplary system of FIG. 3 can provide hydrogen
“on-demand.” Heating up the hydrogen cell 300 can increase the
temperature and increase the hydrogen production. Factors (i.e.,
control parameters) that can be considered when generating
hydrogen and increasing the hydrogen production can be the amount
of water, amount of electro-activated carbon, amount and type of
aluminum, the manner and rate of oxide/hydroxide removal from the
aluminum surface, and the temperature.

[0081] Cooling the hydrogen cell (e.g., by providing cold water
into the hydrogen cell) can reduce the temperature, thereby
reducing the hydrogen production. When providing hydrogen
on-demand, various factors (i.e., control parameters) can be
considered in order to decrease the rate of hydrogen production.
For example, if the amount of water is reduced, such as by
removing the water from the hydrogen cell, this can stop the
production of hydrogen. Reducing the amount of electro-activated
carbon can also reduce the amount of hydrogen production, although
it can be difficult to completely remove all the electro-activated
carbon, as trace amounts may still be in the hydrogen cell.
Reducing the temperature in the hydrogen cell can also reduce the
hydrogen production. For example, reducing the temperature of the
hydrogen cell by approximately 18 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit can
reduce the hydrogen production rate in the hydrogen cell by a
factor of approximately 2. Reducing the temperature of the
hydrogen cell by approximately another 18 to approximately 20
degrees Fahrenheit can again reduce the hydrogen production in the
hydrogen cell by a factor of approximately 2, and so on. This can
be done by using a cooling subunit 310, or other devices/methods
to reduce the temperature of the hydrogen cell 300.

[0082] Aluminum can be a more efficient fuel in the chemical
reaction with water and electro-activated carbon when burnished
(i.e., using mechanical scrubbing to remove aluminum oxide and/or
aluminum hydroxide films covering the surface). If a mechanical
action of burnishing or stirring or any other method is used to
remove the aluminum oxide and/or aluminum hydroxide on the surface
of the aluminum, then stopping that process or reducing that
process in the hydrogen cell can cause aluminum oxide to form on
the surface of the aluminum, which can reduce the hydrogen
production. Also, removing the aluminum from the hydrogen cell or
from the reaction can also stop the hydrogen production in the
hydrogen cell. These control parameters can each be used alone or
in combination with one another to slow or stop the hydrogen
production, thereby providing hydrogen on-demand.

[0083] It may be possible to control the maximum hydrogen
production rate, e.g., in a vehicle, by using the vehicle's
thermostat that regulates engine/radiator water temperature
(typically about 195 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit for a car) to
achieve a regulated hydrogen cell temperature. At that
temperature, a catalyst can be blended to achieve a desired
hydrogen maximum flow rate. This can make it unnecessary to
measure and control the hydrogen cell temperature unless the
exothermic nature of the reaction makes it necessary to do so. If,
due to exothermic temperature rise, the hydrogen cell temperature
exceeds the engine/radiator water temperature in an automobile
(typically 195 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit), the water in the
vehicle's radiator system can then begin to cool the hydrogen
cell, thereby providing temperature regulation. In this exemplary
design concept, cooling from a different water (or other coolant,
including but not limited to freon, ethylene glycol and/or
propylene glycol) source can also be used to slow down the
chemical reaction when the engine is stopped. Other hydrogen
shutdown methods can be water starvation and/or aluminum
starvation.

[0084] The systems described in the present disclosure can be
combined with existing systems for producing hydrogen in some
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, a
hybrid system can be provided for producing hydrogen that combines
the system(s) of the present disclosure with an electrolysis
system. An electrolysis system can produce significant heat, and
that heat can be used to start or to keep up the reactions
described in the present disclosure. For example, the heat from an
electrolysis system can start or keep up the reaction of Equation
1, where water, aluminum and electro-activated carbon are heated
to produce hydrogen. The hydrogen produced from either one or both
systems can then be used for the particular purpose. This can
provide a method and system where pH-neutral chemistry can be
used, which is different from the prior art methods and systems
used for generating hydrogen using electrolysis.

[0085] There can be several advantages for using a hybrid system.
A single chamber can provide for electro-activation of the carbon,
as well as provide for hydrogen generation. Accordingly, the
carbon can continuously be converted to electro-activated carbon
and then produce hydrogen. Another advantage can be that more
hydrogen can be produced per unit energy input than if
electrolysis alone were used, and the power input required for
electrolysis can be used to heat the catalytic reactions described
in Equations 1 and 2 to a desired operating temperature. Further,
the electrolysis chemistry can aid in oxidizing the aluminum in
the catalytic reactions described in Equations 1 and 2 to tie up
OH chemical groups when the water is split into H and OH groups.

[0086] In some exemplary embodiments, a hybrid system can use
electrolysis and catalytic carbon in combination to produce
hydrogen. Often, when using electro-activated carbon with a fuel,
such as aluminum, aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide can be
formed in the form of large solids. These solids can be large, and
can be difficult to remove during operation of the cell as well as
during maintenance of the cell. If a low current electrolysis is
used in the liquid composition containing the electro-activated
carbon and aluminum, then formation of these large solids can be
prevented, such that only very small grains of aluminum oxide and
aluminum hydroxide are formed. Another advantage of providing
electrolysis to the cell can be that the energy deposited in the
liquid can be a source of heat. Heat can be used for the catalytic
carbon reaction to produce hydrogen at a higher rate, such that
the hydrogen production rate can double with every increase in
temperature of approximately 18 to approximately 20 degrees
Fahrenheit. Various other combinations of hybrid systems are
contemplated by the present disclosure and are not limited to the
above.

[0087] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
experiments were run to test the purity of the hydrogen produced
based on the chemical reaction of Equation 1. The
electro-activated carbon in this experiment was electro-activated
at 6 Ampere hours. Approximately 400 mL of high-purity HPLC grade
water was provided in a chamber of a hydrogen cell and heated to
approximately 170 degrees Fahrenheit. Then, approximately 12 grams
of the electro-activated carbon and approximately 18 grams of
aluminum powder were added into the chamber of the hydrogen cell.
The reaction achieved a maximum hydrogen generation rate of
approximately 200 mL/min. It was determined through measurement
instrumentation that the hydrogen produced by this reaction was
approximately 93% pure. The hydrogen production began with air in
the chamber of the hydrogen cell and in the tubes leading to the
measurement instrumentation for the testing of the hydrogen
purity. The remaining 7% can be air which can contain water vapor,
and the amount of the water vapor can depend on the temperature of
the hydrogen cell during the reaction. In this configuration,
using the reactions described in Equation 1, the hydrogen
automatically separates from the catalytic carbon, water and
aluminum, and there was no need for a phase separator in the
measurement for the hydrogen purity.

[0088] FIG. 4 illustrates a system for providing hydrogen as a
fuel to a vehicle according to exemplary embodiments of the
present disclosure. The system can comprise of two primary
vessels, a bubbler 400 and a hydrogen cell 406. The hydrogen cell
406 can be connected to the bubbler 400 by a tube 402 through
which hydrogen bubbles can rise from the hydrogen cell 406 to the
bubbler 400. The hydrogen cell 406 can be heated with a glow plug
405, or some other type of heating element/device. The glow plug
405 or other heating element can be electronically controlled to
maintain a hydrogen cell temperature, e.g., approximately 180
degrees Fahrenheit, using a thermistor temperature sensor 407 or
other similar temperature sensing and controlling device. Water,
aluminum (e.g., aluminum powder) and catalytic carbon can be
placed in the hydrogen cell 406.

[0089] A water level 401 can be maintained such that the hydrogen
cell 406 can be full of the mixture of the water, aluminum powder
and catalytic carbon, and the bubbler 400 can be partially filled
with the mixture up to the water level 401. A mechanical action
can be added into the hydrogen cell in order to burnish/stir/mix
the aluminum if desired to remove any aluminum oxide from the
aluminum surface in order to generate more hydrogen, if needed.
Once heated, hydrogen bubbles will rise to the chamber area 403 in
the bubbler 400 using gravity flow, and the hydrogen gas can be
provided to an air-intake manifold of the vehicle engine through
outlet 404.

[0090] In an experiment using the exemplary system of FIG. 4, the
hydrogen cell 406 and bubbler 400 were attached to an engine of a
test vehicle using brackets to hold the hydrogen cell 406 and
bubbler 400, and the outlet 404 was connected to an air-intake
manifold of the engine of the test vehicle. No oxygen sensor
adjustments or other engine modifications were implemented. Under
normal driving conditions (i.e., no hydrogen), the test vehicle
achieved approximately 26-28 miles per gallon during highway
driving using regular unleaded fuel.

[0091] The first (non-optimized) experimental operation of the
test vehicle showed that providing hydrogen produced a dramatic
increase in miles per gallon. At t=0 minutes, the hydrogen cell
406 was charged with approximately 2 teaspoons of aluminum powder,
approximately 2 teaspoons of catalytic carbon, and water. The
heating element (i.e., glow plug) was turned on. Initial heating
and hydrogen flow took approximately 5 minutes. Hydrogen was
formed in the chamber 403 of the bubbler 400. At t=5 minutes, the
test vehicle was started with hydrogen flowing from the outlet 404
to the vehicle engine. The electronic fuel injection (EFI)
computer automatically began operation in the open loop mode
(i.e., normal engine start-up mode, with no feedback signals from
the oxygen sensors) to closed loop (i.e., normal mode after the
engine warms up, using feedback signals from the oxygen sensors).
During this warm-up period, hydrogen was flowing from the hydrogen
system output 404 to the air-intake manifold of the engine of the
test vehicle. The test vehicle was brought to a speed of
approximately 55 miles per hour on a highway, and the hydrogen
flow rate was estimated to be approximately 0.3 liters per minute.
The vehicle was obtaining approximately 37 miles per gallon as
measured by a scan gauge adjusted to measure real-time mileage in
units of miles per gallon.

[0092] At t=10 minutes, the hydrogen flow rate was noted to be
decreasing with time. The test vehicle was getting approximately
35.7 miles per gallon. The solenoid valve (provided in the
plumbing between the outlet 404 to the engine of the vehicle) was
switched so that hydrogen was vented to the air (not piped to
engine). The miles per gallon dropped approximately 6.7%, from
approximately 35.7 miles per gallon to approximately 33.3 miles
per gallon.

[0093] The test vehicle demonstrated a 32% increase in miles per
gallon during the first non-optimized experimental run. In several
subsequent test runs with some refinements (i.e., higher hydrogen
flow rates), the vehicle demonstrated up to a 40% increase in
miles per gallon.

[0094] Conventional methods of producing hydrogen (e.g.,
electrolysis, thermo-forming, etc.) can produce hydrogen at low
rates when measured in units of volume per minute, or liters per
minute (LPM) per gram of material per joule of required energy, or
LPM/gm per joule. Using this exemplary benchmark for production
rate evaluation leads to the conclusion that electrolysis and
thermo-reforming are poor performers simply because of the high
energy (measured in joules) required to drive the processes.

[0095] In the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure,
hydrogen production rates can be much higher than that of
electrolysis or thermo-reforming processes. These exemplary
embodiments can use external heat to start the chemical reaction
described above, which can generally be in the temperature range
of approximately 150 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190
degrees Fahrenheit, but are not limited to this temperature range.
Generally, the reaction temperature can be as low as standard room
temperature, and even lower, although the hydrogen generation rate
can decrease by approximately 50% for every approximately 18-20
degrees Fahrenheit reduction in operating temperature. The
reaction temperature can be as high as the boiling temperature of
water, and even higher in a steam environment where higher flow
rates are required. The exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure are not limited to a particular temperature range.

[0096] Once started, as the catalytic reactions described in the
present disclosure are fundamentally exothermic, the reactions can
provide enough heat to sustain the reactions if the hydrogen cell
thermodynamic equilibrium is designed to occur at the desired
operating temperature. Thermodynamic-equilibrium operating
conditions can be achieved when the amount of energy (heat)
leaving the system is the same as the amount of energy (heat)
entering the system (primarily because of the heat being generated
by the exothermic reaction). Under these experimental conditions,
the system temperature can remain constant, and
externally-supplied energy may not be required for heating or
cooling. Under different (non-thermal equilibrium) operating
conditions, the only external energy required may be for cooling,
if needed to limit the hydrogen production rate to, e.g., a
desired target value, and/or limit the temperature of the cell to
prevent boiling or excessive loss of water vapor.

[0097] In exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, several
experimental runs were carried out in which hydrogen peak
production rates of approximately 400 mL/minute to approximately 4
liters/minute were obtained in a cell, where in each cell tap
water was provided with approximately 10 grams to approximately 40
grams of powdered aluminum, and approximately 2 teaspoons of
catalytic carbon that had been electro-activated for approximately
6 Ampere hours. These experimental cells had reaction-chamber
volumes ranging from approximately 100 mL to approximately 1
liter. High rates of hydrogen production were demonstrated in the
experimental runs (e.g., approximately 400 mL/minute to
approximately 4 liters/minute) at temperatures ranging from
approximately 160 degrees Fahrenheit to approximately 190 degrees
Fahrenheit. Higher rates can be provided according to the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure by, e.g., using
larger cells, in which more catalytic carbon, aluminum and water
can be provided. It was demonstrated that controlled, sustained
production of hydrogen can be achieved by providing water,
aluminum and catalytic carbon to a hydrogen-production cell.

[0098] Many other applications for hydrogen production are
contemplated by the present disclosure along with providing fuels
for land and marine vessels, as well as for power generation
(e.g., power plants). As shown in FIG. 5, a boiler system can be
provided according to exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure, to provide heat for a building structure, such as a
home or commercial building. As shown in the exemplary boiler
system of FIG. 5, a hydrogen cell 508 can be provided, in which
water, aluminum and catalytic carbon can be provided to produce
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas, though gravity/buoyancy flow, will
proceed in an upwards direction 510 to a boiler system 500 (or
alternatively, can be directed to the boiler system 500 through
appropriate tubing/piping in another exemplary design).

[0099] Hydrogen bubbles 512 will proceed in an upwards direction
to a water level 511 in the boiler system 500. A water inlet 507
(which can be room temperature or hot water) and a water outlet
509 can be provided in the boiler system 500. Air can be injected
in the water or close to the surface of the water level 511 where
the hydrogen bubbles 512 appear by, e.g., a hose, pipe, air
compressor, valve, air pressure regulator or other such type of
device. An igniter 506 can be provided to ignite the combustible
mixture of hydrogen and air, to provide a flame 502 within the
boiler system 500. The heat provided by the flame in the boiler
system 500 can be supplied to a heating element, such as fins or
other heat-radiating elements for use as a heater, or the water
can be heated without heat radiating elements because of the
direct flame-to-water contact.

[0100] In another exemplary embodiment of the system of FIG. 5, a
boiler system can be operated at a pressure higher than 1
atmosphere, and steam can be provided through outlet 504 to, e.g.,
drive turbines to make electricity or provide heat. The operation
of a pressurized steam boiler can be fitted with pressure
regulators and other equipment designed for both control and
safety of operation.

[0101] There can be many advantages to a boiler system using
hydrogen as described in FIG. 5. For example, since a burner is
not required, there is no burner corrosion or maintenance
required. The flame can be in direct contact with the water to
heat the water. There is no firebox (furnace) required, and there
are no hot gas tubes, fly-ash build up (typically a problem for
coal-burning furnace/boiler systems) and no maintenance of the
tubes is required. There is no smokestack required, and the
combustion products are merely water/steam. Further, there are no
unwanted effluents or emissions and no environmental
contamination.

[0102] Fossil fuel shortage can be a worldwide problem in the
coming years. Fuel transport and storage can also be a major
logistics support problem, such as for mobile military units. The
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can make it
possible to reduce the need for transport and storage of large
volumes of fossil fuel. The availability of fuel in the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure can be based on the
availability of water and aluminum. Dry aluminum is not explosive
under normal conditions, and it can be easy to transport and
store. It may not require special handling or special shelter
requirements because when exposed to natural weather extremes it
quickly forms a protective oxide which can prevent erosion,
corrosion or other damage to the aluminum. Water can be
transported easily in various forms. Tap water, sea water, salt
water and/or any type of water may be used as a fuel in the
exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0103] There are only a few materials that can produce abundant
hydrogen and these can include hydrocarbons and water. Of these
materials, water can be a pollution free source of hydrogen. One
of the problems that must be addressed before a new hydrogen
economy replaces the current “oil/gas/coal/nuclear” economy, can
be finding a safe, environmentally benign and cost-effective
method of generating hydrogen at a desired rate. The exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure provide safe, cost-effective
and environmentally-benign methods and systems of hydrogen
generation.

[0104] Carbon, water, aluminum, aluminum oxide and aluminum
hydroxide can be some of the safest materials known (e.g., they
are commonly used in foods, drugs, cosmetics and other safe to
use/handle products). The exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure provide these elements in methods and systems that work
using a wide range of pH, which can include neutral pH values in
the range of 6 to 8. The use of neutral pH chemistry can eliminate
the threat of acid burns or alkali burns to human skin and eyes.
Alkali-burn damage to the eyes, due to an accidental splash, can
be a safety hazard when using electrolytes with electrolysis to
produce hydrogen. Electrolysis can fundamentally require the use
of a strong electrolyte to increase the electrical conductivity of
the water, whereas the exemplary embodiments of the present
disclosure can produce hydrogen chemically, without the use of
electrolysis and without the requirement for electrolyte
additives. The exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can
be safe and manageable by simple care.

[0105] Some metals other than aluminum can spontaneously produce
hydrogen when those metals come in contact with water. For
example, metals such as potassium (K) and sodium (Na) can produce
hydrogen when they come in contact with water. However, the
residual hydroxide product (i.e., KOH in the sodium reaction) can
be corrosive, dangerous to handle and potentially polluting to the
environment. These metals can be used as water-splitting agents
through a simple reaction, which can proceed spontaneously once
the metal is dropped into water, but these reactions can be less
safe than aluminum and cannot be controlled as easily as aluminum
and the reactions described in the exemplary embodiments of the
present disclosure.

[0106] The exemplary embodiments of the methods and systems
described herein can facilitate and/or provide, e.g., fuel for
vehicles (trucks, cars, motorcycles, etc.), fuel for marine
vessels (boats, submarines, cargo ships, etc.), power for power
plants which can provide electricity for buildings, cities, etc.,
and several other applications where hydrogen can be used as a
source of fuel/power. For applications requiring heater water or
steam, a boiler apparatus can be possible due to the catalytic
carbon reactions described herein that can produce hydrogen under
water. There are many fields of use and embodiments contemplated
by the present disclosure in which hydrogen production, ranging
from low to very high flow rates, requiring no tank storage, can
be used for various purposes.

[0107] Various other considerations can also be addressed in the
exemplary applications described according to the exemplary
embodiments of the present disclosure. Various rates of hydrogen
generation, along with different volumes of hydrogen generation,
can be provided depending on the field of application. Different
factors such as the amount of water, amount of fuel, such as
aluminum, and amount of electro-activated carbon can be a factor.
One skilled in the art can understand that routine experimentation
based on the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure can
provide various rates and volumes of hydrogen generation.
Controlling the temperature during these reactions can provide
hydrogen on demand, and hydrogen cells can be constructed that can
regulate the temperature of the chamber of the hydrogen cell
during the reaction to provide hydrogen on demand to, e.g., a
vehicle.