In the previous chapter, we introduced the general idea of machines, and a specific example of one: the not gate. Recall that machines operate deterministically on their inputs to produce an output, as described by their function table.

Today we will take a look at some more complicated machines, how we can combine them to create more sophisticated machinery, and what happens if we look inside of them.

The Formidable “And” Gate

The first machine we will look at today is the and gate: a machine of two inputs and one output. It’s function table looks like this:

Input A

Input B

Output

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

Studying this table for a second should give you a hint about why it’s called the “and” gate: it is on only when input Aand input B are both on.

You might be wondering about the seemingly strange order I’ve listed my inputs in the function table above (most people would think the 1/1/1 row would be last!). We’ll dive into the details later, but for now you’ll have to trust me when I say it makes patterns come out more easily.

So what does an and gate look like? Well, it looks like this:

This shape seems somewhat arbitrary, but it’s pretty easy to remember because it sort of looks likes like the “D” in the word “AND”.

Connecting Machines

Remember when I said that wires were only good for connecting machines together? That implies that connecting machines together is important, but we haven’t done that yet! Let’s see what happens when we stick a not gate after an and gate.

We’ve drawn the big square box around our combination of gates to highlight the fact that this thing we’ve built out of machines is itself a machine. Imagine that box were solid black, and we couldn’t look at what’s inside of it. All we’d know is that it took two inputs on the left, and produced one output on the right. That’s exactly what we said a machine was!

This is indeed a remarkable fact – that we can combine any two machines together in any way we want, and no matter what, we’re guaranteed to get a new machine for our efforts. The fancy word for connecting machines like this is to compose them. Because composing any two machines itself leads to a new machine, we say that machines are closed under composition.

Takeaway: Machines are closed under composition. That means, whenever you have two machines, you can compose them together and get a new machine out of the deal.

We’ve now composed our and gate with our not gate, and because machines are closed under composition, we must have a new machine to play with. It will be informative to look at its function table.

But how do we know what its function table must be? Well, because we know what the function table for an and gate is, let’s start with that. I’ll repeat it here, if you’ve forgotten:

Input A

Input B

Output

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

But, our new machine isn’t an and gate! It’s an and gate with a not gate after it. So we need to somehow compose (combine) our function tables together, too! This turns out to be really simple.

For every output in our and gate, we use that as the input to our not gate, and look up the corresponding transformation in the function table. In this case, we already know that not simply flips a wire’s value, so all of our 1s become 0s, and vice versa.

Input A

Input B

Output

0

0

0 → 1

0

1

0 → 1

1

1

1 → 0

1

0

0 → 1

Great! So we’ve determined the function table for our new machine. What happens if we add another not gate – this time right before input A?

We must now work backwards to determine the new function table for this machine, but otherwise we apply the same method as we did before.

Input A

Input B

Output

0 → 1

0

1

0 → 1

1

1

1 → 0

1

0

1 → 0

0

1

Cool! We can compose machines to the left of others, just like we could to the right of them. But be careful when composing to the left, it’s easier to get yourself into a sticky situation. We’ll discuss this more in the future when we talk about positive and negative function positions.

But back to the task at hand. Let’s do this composition stuff one more time, this time adding a not gate before input B.

As before, we update our function table:

Input A

Input B

Output

1

0 → 1

1

1

1 → 0

1

0

1 → 0

0

0

0 → 1

1

After reshuffling back into the same order of inputs as we used for our and gate, we get this particularly interesting function table:

Input A

Input B

Output

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

Take a moment to look at the relationship between inputs and outputs for this machine. This machine produces an output of 1 when either input Aor input B is 1 (or both!).

As you might guess, this new machine of ours is the reverential or gate. It too, is so popular, that it gets a special symbol:

De Morgan’s Laws

Most books on this stuff present the or gate as being “fundamental”, in the sense that it is a necessary tool in our toolbox for constructing more heavy-duty machines. But as we have just seen, or isn’t fundamental at all! We just built it out of and and not, so clearly those must be “more fundamental”.

We’ll investigate that claim further in just a second. But first, a puzzle. What happens if we put not gates all around our or gate, like we did earlier with and? Let’s take a look at the function table for this diagram:

If we do some work to compute our new function table, we get this:

Input A

Input B

Output

1 → 0

1 → 0

1 → 0

1 → 0

0 → 1

1 → 0

0 → 1

0 → 1

0 → 1

0 → 1

1 → 0

1 → 0

… which looks oddly familiar. Hey! This is just the function for and! What gives? We just managed to build an and gate by composing some nots and an or gate – just like how we originally built the or gate.

Spooky.

This fact was originally discovered by a man named August de Morgan in the mid-1800s. In his honor, we call these negation-of-and-is-just-or and its partner De Morgan’s laws.

De Morgan’s laws state that whenever we have an and gate, we can turn it into an or gate by wrapping it up in not gates. And vice versa. Performing this transformation is sometimes described as doing it “by de Morgan”, as in “we can get this diagram out of that one by de Morgan.”

Universality

Returning to my original point about and being more “fundamental” than or, well, we know now that that is simply untrue! and and or are somehow “equally fundamental”, in the sense that we can always produce one out of the other by de Morgan. Assuming we have some not gates lying around, obviously.

So if it isn’t and that’s fundamental, maybe it’s not? A few minutes of pondering on this implies it can’t be so – because not gates only have one input and one output, the only thing we can do is chain them together, and whenever we chain two together, they cancel one another out.

It must be some combination of and and not (or, equivalently, or and not) that result in this “universality” we’re looking for. And indeed, it is. We’ve actually already looked at it in this chapter.

You’re probably not convinced that this is indeed the one, true, fundamental machine, from which all others can be built, but it really is! It’s called the nand gate, which, as Wikipedia would call it, is a portmandeau of not and and.

Of course, since this gate is extra popular, it too has a special symbol.

If you squint, it’s kind of like a combination of the and and not symbols.

But is this thing truly fundamental? It really is; I’m not pulling your leg. Here, let’s use it to construct a not gate:

“What is this sorcery?” you might be asking? Well, we’re connecting the one input wire to our machine to both inputs of the nand gate. Remember our rule about wires – they have the same value all the way across them. So we know that both inputs to our nand gate must have the same value.

Looking at the function table for our nand gate, that means we can cross off any rows in which input A and input B are not the same.

Input A

Input B

Output

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

And furthermore, since we know that A and B must be the same always, we don’t need two columns for them.

Input

Output

0

1

1

0

And voila! We’ve created a not gate out of nands. Since we know that a nand is just an and with a not after it, and that two nots in a row cancel, getting from here to an and gate isn’t actually very hard at all:

If you’re still feeling dubious, feel free to derive the function table for this diagram. But the reason (and arguably, the beauty) behind why we use diagrams is that they’re easy to visualize, and with some practice, you can begin to see how values must flow through these machines. It takes a little bit of work, but it’s going to save you a huge amount of time to not need to derive a function table for every diagram you see.

There is a question yet that remains unanswered: why is a fundamental nand gate “better” than just using ands and nots? It’s a good one, and one that we’ll explore further next chapter.

Exercises

Build an or gate entirely out of nand gates. Derive a function table for it, to really convince yourself that you you got it right.

What would a nor gate look like? Write its function table, and take a guess at what its symbol would be.

Would a nor gate also be universal? Why or why not? If so, build a nand gate out of them. If not, explain why.