philosophers and branches of philosophy

Aristotelianism

In the
philosophy of nature, Aristotelianism denotes an optimistic position concerning nature’s aims and its economy; believing in the perfection and in the eternity of the heavenly, geocentric spheres, perceiving them as driven by intelligent movers, as carrying in their circular movements the stars, the Sun, the...

...cordis (“On the Movement of the Heart”). Between 1210 and 1235 Robert Grosseteste commented on Aristotle’s
Physics and drew on various aspects of Aristotle’s natural philosophy for his own scientific and philosophical treatises, and around 1245 Roger Bacon commented on the
Physics and on part of the
Metaphysics. It would be wrong,...

Atomism

The most striking basic differences in the material world, which lead to a first classification of substances in nature, are those between solids, liquids, gases, and fire. These differences are an observed datum that must be accounted for by every scientific theory of nature. It was, therefore, only natural that one of the first attempts to explain the phenomena of nature was based upon these...

Comte

...influences of Hume and of Comte were also manifest in important developments in German positivism, just prior to World War I. The outstanding representatives of this school were Ernst Mach—a philosophical critic of the physics of Isaac Newton, an original thinker as a physicist, and a historian of mechanics, thermodynamics, and optics—and Richard Avenarius, founder of a philosophy...

Dewey

Dewey held that this
philosophy of nature was drastically impoverished. Rejecting any dualism between being and experience, he proposed that all things are subject to change and do change. There is no static being, and there is no changeless nature. Nor is experience purely subjective, because the human mind is itself part and parcel of nature. Human experiences are the outcomes of a range of...

Hegel and Hegelianism

Nature is the opposite of spirit. The categories studied in
Logic were all internally related to one another; they grew out of one another. Nature, on the other hand, is a sphere of external relations. Parts of space and moments of time exclude one another; and everything in nature is in space and time and is thus finite. But nature is created by spirit and bears the mark of its...

Helmholtz

The general theme that runs through most, if not all, of Helmholtz’s work may be traced to his rejection of Nature philosophy, and the violence of his rejection of this seductive view of the world may well indicate the early attraction it had for him. Nature philosophy derived from Kant, who in the 1780s had suggested that the concepts of time, space, and causation were not products of sense...

Neoplatonism

...the Soul in this movement is time, and on it all physical movement depends. Soul both forms and rules the material universe from above; and in its lower, immanent phase, which Plotinus often calls nature, it acts as an indwelling principle of life and growth and produces the lowest forms, those of bodies. Below these lies the darkness of matter, the final absence of being, the absolute limit...

Renaissance philosophy

Philosophy in the modern world is a self-conscious discipline. It has managed to define itself narrowly, distinguishing itself on the one hand from religion and on the other from exact science. But this narrowing of focus came about very late in its history—certainly not before the 18th century. The earliest philosophers of ancient Greece were theorists of the physical world; Pythagoras...

Schelling

...Fichte had always viewed nature only as an object in its subordination to man. Schelling, in contrast, wanted to show that nature, seen in itself, shows an active development toward the spirit. This
philosophy of nature, the first independent philosophical accomplishment of Schelling, made him known in the circles of the Romanticists.

Schopenhauer

...is condensed into a short formula in the title itself—is developed in four books composed of two comprehensive series of reflections that include successively the theory of knowledge and the
philosophy of nature, aesthetics, and ethics.

Stoicism

...element in all things is right reason, which pervades the world as divine fire. Things, such as material, or corporeal, bodies, are governed by this reason or fate, in which virtue is inherent. The world in its awesome entirety is so ruled as to exhibit a grandeur of orderly arrangement that can only serve as a standard for humankind in the regulation and ordering of life. Thus, the goal of...

Tillich

...his search for a solution Tillich found help in the writings of the German philosopher F.W.J. von Schelling (1775–1854) and the lectures of his theology teacher Martin Kähler. Schelling’s
philosophy of nature, which appealed to Tillich’s own feeling for nature, offered a conceptual framework interpreting nature as the dynamic manifestation of God’s creative spirit, the aim of which is...

religion and theology

animals and plants in myth and legend

The notion of a creator deity in animal or plant form is comparatively rare. There are stories of animals, birds, or insects creating the world and of creators with animal attributes or animal companions, but these are isolated traditions. Even in the widespread motif of the birth of the world from a cosmic egg there is rarely the notion of a bird laying or incubating the egg (the most notable...

body-soul dualism

As an alternative interpretation to this view of humanity’s fatal involvement with time, the tragedy of the human situation has also been explained in terms of the soul’s involvement with the physical universe. In some systems of thought (e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism), the two interpretations are synthesized, and in such systems it is taught that, by accepting the physical world as reality, the...

miracles

...Because that which is normal and usual is also considered as natural, miracles have occasionally been defined as supernatural events, but this definition presupposes a very specific conception of nature and natural laws and cannot, therefore, be generally applied. The significance of a miraculous event is frequently held to reside not in the event as such but in the reality to which it points...

All the more fully developed theologies have formulated a doctrine of miracles in the context of their beliefs regarding God, the world, the operations of nature, and causality. The emergence of the concept of nature as a closed system functioning in accordance with strict causal laws created problems more than once, but medieval Christian and Jewish thought had no difficulty in maintaining...

nature worship

...cultures, nature worship as a definite and complex system of belief or as a predominant form of religion has not been well documented. Among the indigenous peoples of many countries, the concept of nature as a totality is unknown; only individual natural phenomena—e.g., stars, rain, and animals—are comprehended as natural objects or forces that influence them and are thus in some...

revelation

...in that they place less emphasis on a special or exclusive revelation received by a “chosen people” and rather speak of the manifestation of the Absolute through the general order of nature. There is, however, no irreconcilable opposition between general and special revelation. Vedanta Hinduism and Buddhism, even if they do not speak of special revelation, believe that their...

role in

Islam

Mullā Ṣadrā considered his unique contribution to Islamic philosophy to be his doctrine of nature, which enabled him to assert that everything other than God and his knowledge—i.e., the entire corporeal world, including the heavenly bodies—is originated “eternally” as well as “temporally.” This doctrine of nature is an elaboration of the...

Judaism

...This being so, redemption—the reconciliation of God and man through and in history—does not ignore or exclude the natural world. Using the imagery of an extravagantly fecund world of nature, rabbinic thought expressed its view of the all-inclusive effects of the restored relationship.

Roman Catholicism

...the 17th century to designate not only revelation but other aspects of divine work in the world. The term’s inescapable ambiguity, however, has led many modern theologians to avoid it. The “natural” that the supernatural presupposes is the world of human experience; the quality of this experience is not altered by technological and social changes, as long as they are fulfillments...

symbolism

The formation of religious symbols and pictures has been stimulated by numerous other areas of human culture—such as the
philosophy of nature, the natural sciences (especially botany and zoology), alchemy, and medicine (including anatomy, physiology, pathology, and psychiatry). In the works of Jacob Böhme, alchemy (e.g., the elements, fire, salt, sulfur, mercury, tincture, gold,...

science

history

What Romantics, or nature philosophers, as they called themselves, could see that was hidden from their Newtonian colleagues was demonstrated by Hans Christian Ørsted. He found it impossible to believe that there was no connection between the forces of nature. Chemical affinity, electricity, heat, magnetism, and light must, he argued, simply be different manifestations of the basic...

Indian alchemy

From the earliest records of Indian natural philosophy, which date from the 5th–3rd centuries
bc, theories of nature were based on conceptions of material elements (fire, wind, water, earth, and space), vitalism (“animated atoms”), and dualisms of love and hate or action and reaction. The alchemist coloured metals and on occasion “made” gold, but he gave little...