Rwandaalso spelled Ruanda, officially Republic of Rwanda, French République Rwandaise, Rwanda Republika y’u Rwandalandlocked republic lying south of the Equator in east-central Africa. It is bounded on the west by Congo (Kinshasa) and Lake Kivu, on the north by Uganda, on the east by Tanzania, and on the south by Burundi. The capital is Kigali. Like Known for its breathtaking scenery, Rwanda is often referred to as le pays des mille collines (French; “land of a thousand hills”). The capital is Kigali, located in the centre of the country on the Ruganwa River.

Like Burundi, its neighbour to the south, Rwanda is a geographically small country

of minute dimensions, grinding poverty, and high population density

with one of the highest population densities in sub-Saharan Africa. Rwanda also shares with Burundi a long history of monarchical rule. Unlike what happened in Burundi, however, the demise of the Rwandan kingship came about through a grass-roots, grassroots Hutu-led upheaval that reached its denouement occurred before the country became independent . In Rwanda the state was forged from the ground up, in the crucible of a peasant revolution. For this reason, if Rwanda is described as an ethnocracy, the term nonetheless carries a distinctly democratic connotation inasmuch as the Hutu represent the overwhelming majority of the population.

The land

in 1962. Ethnic strife between the majority Hutu and minority Tutsi factions peaked in 1994. Civil war and genocide at that time left Rwanda’s economy and social fabric in shambles. The years that followed have been characterized by reconstruction and ethnic reconciliation.

Land

Rwanda is bounded to the north by Uganda, to the east by Tanzania, to the south by Burundi, and to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and Lake Kivu.

Relief

The landscape is reminiscent of a tropical Switzerland. Its dominant feature is a chain of mountains of rugged beauty that runs on a north-south axis and forms part of the Congo-Nile divide. From the volcanoes of the Virunga (Birunga) Mountains in the northwest—where the Karisimbi reaches 14,787 feet (4,507 metres)—the altitude elevation drops to 4,000 feet (1,220 metres) in the swampy Kagera (Akagera) River valley in the east. The interior highlands consist of rolling hills and valleys, yielding to a low-lying depression west of the Congo-Nile divide along the shores of Lake Kivu.

Drainage

Except for the Ruzizi, through which the waters of Lake Kivu empty into Lake Tanganyika, most of the country’s rivers are found on the eastern side of the Congo-Nile divide, with the Kagera, the major eastern river, forming much of the boundary between Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania.

Soils

The best soils, formed from volcanic lavas and alluvium, are found, respectively, in the northwest and along the lower portions of the larger river valleys. Elsewhere the largely metamorphic bedrock has produced soils of generally poor quality. The combination of heavy rainfall and deforestation steep slopes, abundant rainfall, deforestation, and intensive farming has set in motion a process of extreme soil erosion that requires a burdensome investment of time and energy to curtail.

Climate

Elevation accounts for Rwanda’s generally mild temperatures, which average 70° F (21° C70 °F (21 °C) year-round at Kigali, for example, in the interior highlands. There are significant variations, however, between the region of the volcanoes in the northwest, where heavy rainfalls are accompanied by lower average temperatures, and the warmer and drier interior highlands. The average annual rainfall in the latter is about 45 inches (1,140 millimetres)and, except for a short summer dry season, is evenly distributed throughout the year, which is concentrated in two rainy seasons (roughly February to May and October to December).

Plant and animal life

Only 3 percent a small percentage of the country consists of is covered in natural forest vegetation. Reforestation programs have added eucalyptus trees to previously denuded hillsides and roadsides, though not on a scale sufficient to effectively counteract erosion. A lush , Mediterranean-type vegetation covers the shores of Lake Kivu, which stands in stark contrast to the papyrus swamps of the east Rwanda’s eastern frontier and the thick dense bamboo forests of the VirungasVirunga Mountains to the north. There, among the volcanoes, lives Rwanda’s main tourist attraction, : the mountain gorilla, protected in Parc National des Volcans (also known as Parc des Birugna). For sheer diversity of animal life, however, no other region can match the resources of the Akagera National Park. Buffalo and zebras, antelope and warthogs, chimpanzees and lionsThis picturesque park contains significant populations of buffalo, zebra, impala, and other range animals, as well as many rare species—such as the giant pangolin, or anteater—are part of a fauna that also includes elephants, rhinocerosesbaboons, warthogs, lions, and hippopotamuses.

Settlement patterns

Despite a high population density, the dominant pattern is one of extreme dispersal. More than 90 percent of the population is rural and lives in nuclear family compounds scattered on hillsides. Kigali, the capital, was only a hamlet at the time of independence but has grown to become the largest city.

The people

Ethnic composition

Rare species, such as the giant pangolin (an anteater), are also part of Akagera’s diverse fauna.

People

Ethnic groups

As in Burundi, the major ethnic groups in Rwanda are Hutu and Tutsi, respectively accounting for almost 90 percent more than four-fifths and about 10 percent one-seventh of the total population. To these must be added the Twa The Twa, a hunter-gatherersgatherer group, who constitute less than 1 percent of the population. Other minorities include a small group of Europeans , (mostly missionariesand aid officials, , employees of relief and development programs, and entrepreneurs), a small number of Asian merchants, and a sprinkling of Swahili-speaking Africans from Tanzaniaand Congo (Kinshasa).Though the Tutsi are generally taller and of lighter complexion than the Hutu, the physical stereotypes attributed to each group are greatly mitigated by intermarriage. Social differences between them, however, , Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and elsewhere.

Social differences between the Hutu and Tutsi traditionally were profound, as shown by the system of patron-client ties (buhake, or “cattle contract”) through which the Tutsi, with a strong pastoralist tradition, gained social, economic, and political ascendancy over the Hutu, who were primarily agriculturalists. The formerly more distinct pastoral and agricultural systems have become well integrated, and nearly all farm households now engage simultaneously in crop and livestock production. During the Hutu revolution that began in late 1959, some 150,000 to 300,000 Tutsi were forced out of the country, which thus reducing reduced the former ruling aristocracy to an even smaller minority.

Linguistic composition

French and Rwanda Since the end of the 1994 genocide, many Tutsi have returned to Rwanda to reclaim their heritage.

Languages

The country has three official languages: Rwanda (more properly, Kinyarwanda), English, and French. Rwanda, a Bantu language belonging to the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo language family, is spoken by virtually all Rwandans. It is closely related to Rundi, are the official languages of the country, but which is spoken in the neighbouring country of Burundi. English and French have traditionally been spoken by only a small fraction of the populationspeaks French, although English was designated the language of educational instruction in 2008. Swahili is widely spoken in the towns and is still the principal means of communication with Africans from neighbouring territoriescountries.

Religion

Nowhere in Africa has Christianity had a more decisive impact than in Rwanda. The Hutu revolution derived much of its egalitarian inspiration from the teachings of the European clergy, and Catholic seminaries served as recruiting grounds for Hutu leaders. Roman Catholicism claims the allegiance of about two-thirds of the population.More than two-fifths of the country’s population is Roman Catholic; about one-fourth is Protestant; and about one-fifth belongs to a Christian schismatic religious group. Muslims account for less than one-tenth of the population.

Settlement patterns

Despite a high population density, the dominant pattern is one of extreme dispersal. More than three-fourths of the population is rural and lives in nuclear family compounds scattered on hillsides. Kigali, the capital, was only a hamlet at the time of independence but has grown to become the country’s largest city.

Demographic trends

Rwanda’s rate of population increase is one greater than that of the global average but similar to that of neighbouring countries. The birth rate, among the world’s highestin central Africa and is far above the productive capacity of the environment. Family-planning programs are virtually nonexistent. Approximately half of the population is under age 16; infant and child mortality rates are among the highest in Africa. Adding to the growing population pressure on the land, some 60,000 Hutu refugees from Burundi live in Rwanda, most of them having fled their homeland during the 1972 holocaust, when an estimated 100,000–150,000 Hutu perished in interethnic violence.

The economy

The country’s economy is overwhelmingly agricultural, with coffee exports accounting for more than 70 percent of its foreign exchange and tea for more than 10 percent. An inadequate subsistence agriculture, however, is the dominant feature of the economy, with heavy infusions of foreign aid required to meet chronic food shortages. Rwanda is the largest per capita recipient of foreign aid in Africa. Mineral resources make up from 10 to 15 percent of total exports.

Resources

Mineral resources include, in addition to tin and tungsten (wolfram), tantalite, columbite, and beryl. Methane gas from Lake Kivu is used as a nitrogen fertilizer and is also converted into compressed fuel for trucks. What little gold Rwanda produces is smuggled out of the country. The Mukungwa hydroelectric power installation, the country’s major source of electricity, meets only a portion of the country’s energy needs, and much of the remainder must be imported from Congo (Kinshasa).

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Intensive cultivation is practiced throughout the country, resulting in a large diversification of food crops. To the main indigenous crops—sorghum and eleusine—must be added , is comparable to that of other countries in the region; the death rate is well above the world average and slightly above the rates of neighbouring countries. Life expectancy, about 50 years, is below the world average but similar to the average for Africa. Rwanda’s population is young, with about two-fifths of the population under age 16 and another one-third under age 30.

Owing to regional insecurity, refugees from Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo have periodically sought refuge in Rwanda; conversely, Rwandans have fled to those two countries during times of conflict, such as the civil war that began in 1990 and the 1994 genocide. These conflicts have contributed to a new wave of demographic changes, including the exodus and repatriation of more than two million refugees, several hundred thousand orphans, and a vast number of single parent- or child-headed households.

Economy

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

The country’s economy is overwhelmingly agricultural, with the majority of the workforce engaged in agricultural pursuits. Broadly diversified cultivation is practiced throughout the country. Dry beans, sorghum, bananas, corn (maize), potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava (manioc) , dry are the primary crops grown in Rwanda. While beans, and plantains. While eleusine is harvested in May and sorghum in July, bananas and plantains can be grown throughout the year. sorghum, and corn are harvested seasonally at the onset of the two dry seasons, bananas, sweet potatoes, and cassava can be grown and harvested throughout the year. Bananas are grown principally for the production of banana wine, a highly popular local beverage consumed in all regions of the country. Some banana varieties are grown in smaller numbers for cooking or direct consumption. Not only are bananas essential as a food source in Rwanda, but, as a broad-leafed perennial crop, they play a vital role in combating soil erosion on steep slopes throughout the country. Arabica coffee (first introduced by European missionaries), tea, tobacco, and pyrethrum (a flower used to create the nonsynthetic pesticide pyrethrin) are the principal cash crops, with coffee constituting the prime export.

Farming is highly labour intensive: hoes and machetes are the main farm implements used, and animal traction is virtually nonexistent. Fertilizers and pesticides are used by a small fraction of farms. Commonly raised livestock include goats, cattle, sheep, and pigs. Livestock husbandry is integral to the farming system, but the progressive conversion of pasture into cropland caused a reduction in livestock production in the last decades of the 20th century, and a parallel decline occurred in the amount of manure available for improving soil fertility. Livestock numbers began increasing just prior to the turn of the century.

Most of what is left of the small amount of natural forest is found on the slopes of the Virunga Mountains in the northwest. Fishing is widespread in Lake Kivu as well as in the smaller lakes of the interior, most notably Lake Muhazi and Lake Mugesera.

IndustryResources and power

Rwanda’s primary mineral resources are tin (cassiterite) and tungsten (wolfram); other resources include tantalite, columbite, beryl, and gold. Methane gas from Lake Kivu is used as a nitrogen fertilizer and is also converted into compressed fuel for trucks. The Mukungwa hydroelectric power installation, the country’s major source of electricity, meets only a portion of the country’s energy needs, and much of the remainder must be imported from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Manufacturing

Aside from small-scale mining operations and limited consumer manufactures (such as textiles, cement, paint, some pharmaceuticals, soap, matches, and furniturefurniture, beverages, and food products), for the most part industrial activities involve the processing of coffee, tea, and other agricultural commodities. Most of the country’s large industries are located in Kigali. More important to the economy, however, are myriad microenterprises that have emerged in response to local demand. These include the manufacture of roof tiles, brick, and timber for building construction; the production of handheld farm implements, baskets, and clothing; and the provision of specialized services such as masonry, carpentry, and metal works.

Finance and trade

Rwanda is home to many financial institutions, including commercial and development banks. The National Bank of Rwanda is the central bank and issues the national currency, the Rwandan franc. The Rwanda Stock Exchange, located in Kigali, opened in 2008.

Rwanda’s primary exports are coffee, tea, pyrethrum extract, tin, tantalite, and gold. Imports include machinery and equipment, petroleum products, and foodstuffs. Important trading partners include Kenya, Germany, China, and Uganda. Some efforts have been made at promoting closer economic links between Rwanda and its neighbours through such organizations as the Economic Community of Great Lakes Countries, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, and the East African Community. Since the return of numerous Tutsi from Uganda and elsewhere after the 1994 genocide, regional trade with East African partners, notably Uganda and Kenya, has grown rapidly.

Fluctuations in the prices of primary commodities, especially coffee and tea, and the years of civil strife that culminated in the 1994 genocide have had a catastrophic effect on Rwanda’s balance of trade, and . Although the country has shown consistent economic progress in the years following the genocide, the country still runs large annual trade deficits. In addition, Rwanda must import large quantities of food. Investment programs are almost entirely covered by external sources of financing.Some efforts have been made at promoting closer economic links between Rwanda and its neighbours through such organizations as the Economic Community of Great Lakes Countries and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa.

TransportationServices

The government has encouraged development of the tourism sector, which is centred on the country’s attractive landscapes and wildlife diversity. National parks continue to be the primary draw, particularly Parc National des Volcans, home to the rare mountain gorilla. Akagera National Park is also a popular tourist attraction because of the diverse array of wildlife found there.

Labour and taxation

More than four-fifths of the labour force is engaged in agricultural activities. All workers, except for civil servants, have the right to form and to join unions. Less than one-third of the labour force is unionized.

Taxes in Rwanda include taxes on goods and services, an income tax, and import and export duties.

Transportation and telecommunications

Rwanda claims one of the densest road networks on the continent, though less than 10 percent one-fourth of it is paved. From Kigali to Ruhengeri and thence to Gisenyi, roads that were once impassable in the rainy season can now be used throughout the year.

Administration and social conditions

Government

Publicly supported mass transit is concentrated in Kigali, but since the 1990s there has been a large influx of privately operated networks of minibus routes that connect Kigali with towns in all directions. Domestic transportation of farm commodities and other goods occurs largely by small-scale traders with individually owned pickup trucks. Rwanda relies heavily on its road network, as it has no railway system and its waterway ports are largely limited to the minor facilities at Gisenyi, Cyangugu, and Kibuye on Lake Kivu. There are several airports located in the country, including international airports at Kigali and Kamembe.

Rwanda’s landline telephone system is insufficient, and its use is generally limited to government and businesses. Mobile phone usage is much more prevalent and expanding rapidly. Internet use is growing as well, with Internet centres opening throughout the country.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The constitution promulgated in 1978 established a presidential form of government. The president at the time, Juvénal Habyarimana, combined the roles of head of state and head of government with that of president of what was then the single ruling party, the National Revolutionary Movement for Development. He was returned to office by referenda in 1983 and 1988. A revised constitution was enacted in 1991 that allowed for multiparty participation in government. In 1994, however, after Habyarimana’s death, the country slipped into chaos before elections could be held. The legislative body under the 1978 constitution, the unicameral National Development Council, was replaced by the Transitional National Assembly in 1994, which enacted another constitution in 1995.

Education

About three-fifths of the population is literate. In the early 1990s more than two-thirds of the primary-school-age population was enrolled, but the civil strife that began in 1994 severely disrupted the school system. Even prior to 1994, few Rwandans attended secondary schools, as those had space for only 10 percent of the primary school graduates. The National University of Rwanda (1963) has campuses in Butare and RuhengeriA new constitution, promulgated in 2003, employed strong language decrying the ethnic strife of the past, listing the resolutions to “fight against the ideology of genocide and all its manifestations” and “the eradication of ethnic, regional and other divisions and the promotion of national unity” among its fundamental principles.

Under the constitution, the president, who serves as head of state, is directly elected to a seven-year term, renewable once. The president selects a prime minister, who serves as the head of government. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral parliament, which consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Deputies serve five-year terms; about two-thirds are directly elected. The rest of the deputies are indirectly elected: two are elected by the National Youth Council; one is elected by the Federation of the Association of the Disabled; and the remaining seats are allocated to female representatives elected by local government bodies. Senators serve eight-year terms. Twelve are elected by local government bodies; eight are selected by the president; and four are selected by the Forum of Political Organizations (a regulatory body).

Local government

For administrative purposes, the country is divided into four provinces (North, East, South, and West) and one city (Kigali), each headed by a governor. The country had previously been divided in 10–12 prefectures since independence, but the administrative structure was reorganized in 2006 in an effort to decentralize power and create multiethnic areas.

Justice

Rwanda’s constitution provides for an independent judiciary, which is based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law. The Supreme Court is the highest court; other courts include the High Court of the Republic, provincial courts, district courts, and municipal and town courts.

Rwanda also uses the traditional gacaca legal system. In precolonial days gacaca courts were traditionally used to resolve conflict between families. The courts were held outside, and the heads of households served as judges. In the 21st century, this system was adapted to judge those accused of committing genocide in 1994. This was done because the tremendous number of people to be tried in connection with the genocide resulted in a massive backlog of cases and an inability to proceed in a timely manner. To alleviate the problem, the government in 2001 proposed trying the majority of cases, consisting of lesser crimes, in gacaca courts; the courts were inaugurated in 2002 and began operating in phases over the next several years. Those accused of the more serious crimes of planning, instigating, and leading the genocide were to be tried through Rwanda’s court system, while the top officials involved were to be tried by the United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, held in Arusha, Tanz.

Political process

Under the constitution, all citizens at least 18 years of age are eligible to vote. Women play an active role in Rwandan politics, aided in part by the constitutional requirement that at least 30 percent of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies be reserved for women. In addition, women have successfully contested the unreserved seats as well. Rwanda has the distinction of having the world’s first female-majority legislative body; after the 2008 elections, 55 percent of the deputies were women.

Rwanda has a multiparty political system with some restrictions, including the 2003 ban on political parties based on ethnicity, religion, or sex. Major parties include the Rwandan Patriotic Front, the Social Democratic Party, and the Liberal Party.

Security

The Rwandan Defense Force consists of a large army contingent and small air force. There also is a small paramilitary unit. Military service is voluntary. Rwandan troops have participated in African Union missions and served as United Nations Peacekeeping Forces.

Health and welfare

Health conditions in Rwanda are poor. The country has one of the highest percentages of AIDS carriers in Africaa relatively high HIV/AIDS prevalence rate. Nutritional deficiencies present an even greater threat to the population, however, along with malaria and tuberculosis. Health facilities are still grossly inadequate, consisting for the most part of poorly equipped health centres and dispensaries, and there is a shortage of medical personnel. Welfare activities are primarily organized under the auspices of missionary societies.

Education

Six years of primary education is compulsory beginning at age seven; it is followed by six years of secondary education, consisting of two three-year cycles. In the early 1990s more than two-thirds of the primary-school-age population was enrolled, but the civil strife and the 1994 genocide severely disrupted the school system. Even prior to that, few Rwandans attended secondary schools, as those facilities had space for only 10 percent of the primary-school graduates. Although progress has been made with rebuilding the education system, fewer than two-fifths of primary students complete their primary education, and only about one-third enroll in secondary schools; a fraction continue with tertiary education.

There are several private and public universities and colleges in Rwanda, including the National University of Rwanda (1963) and the Kigali Institute of Science, Technology and Management (1997). Courses at the university level were previously taught in French, but English instruction was added in the mid-1990s to accommodate the postwar influx of Anglophone returnees from Uganda. Since 2008, English has been designated the language of instruction at all levels of education.

About three-fifths of the population is literate, with men enjoying a slightly higher literacy rate than women.

Cultural life

Holidays in Rwanda include those associated with the majority Christian population, such as Good Friday, Easter, and Christmas. The Feast of the Assumption is observed by the Roman Catholic community on August 15. Holidays celebrated by the Muslim community include ʿĪd al-Fiṭr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā, which marks the culmination of the hajj. Other holidays include Genocide Memorial Day, observed on April 7, and Independence Day, celebrated on July 1.

The arts

Much of Rwanda’s traditional cultural heritage revolved around dances, praise songs, and dynastic poems designed to enhance the legitimacy of the Tutsi kingship. Since independence in 1962, another set of traditions has emerged, emphasizing a different cultural stream, identified with a Hutu heritage. Regional dances, including the celebrated hoe dance of the north, are given pride of place in the country’s cultural repertoire. Traditional crafts such as basketry, ceramics, and ironworks provide another element of continuity with the past.

Cultural institutions

Rwanda’s National Ballet and the Impala Orchestra add considerable lustre to the country’s cultural life, the former through a choreography leaning heavily on traditional folk dances and the latter through a distinctly modern musical repertoire. The For many years, the Association des Écrivains du Rwanda (AER) keeps kept alive the best of Rwanda’s literary traditions, while the bimonthly review Revue Dialogue provides a forum for a vigorous intellectual exchange on a wide range of social and cultural issues.

Press and broadcasting

The absence of stringent government censorship makes for a lively press. In addition to the weekly Imvaho (published in Kinyarwanda) and the monthly La Relève (published in French), the biweekly economic paper Kinyamateka (also in French) deserves mention. Radiodiffusion de la République Rwandaise is the state-run radio broadcaster.

Sports and recreation

Traditional sport in Rwanda was a form of celebration, a friendly competition between community members during feasts and holidays or a way to honour visiting dignitaries. Friends and family, especially young men, would match skills and strength in such events as wrestling, high jumping, and archery and by hurling a lance through a moving hoop.

The modern era of sport in Rwanda emerged gradually in the middle of the 20th century with greater exposure to international sports such as football (soccer), volleyball, track and field (athletics), and, later, basketball. Football is the most popular team sport in the country. Senior and junior clubs compete in regular league play, and the Rwanda Équipe Nationale de Football features the more accomplished players.

Rwanda’s first Olympic appearance was at the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, where runner Marcianne Mukamurenzi attracted international attention for her unorthodox training regimen; while working as a mail carrier and messenger for the Rwandan Ministry of Youth, Sport, and Culture, she sped from one destination to the next, making deliveries across Kigali’s hilly terrain entirely on foot. Though the country has yet to earn a medal, several athletes, including Mathias Ntawulikura and Ildephonse Sehirwa, have had strong showings.

Media and publishing

Notable publications include Rwanda Herald and New Times (English), La Relève (French), and Umeseso and Kinyamateka (Kinyarwanda). While relatively few households outside Kigali own television sets, the Rwandan government maintains one broadcast station, which offers programming in Kinyarwanda, French, and English. Far more common in Rwandan households is the radio. The state-operated Radio Rwanda broadcasts in Kinyarwanda, Swahili, French, and English; there are also several privately owned stations as well.

can be found in Marcel D’Hertefelt and André Coupez (eds.), La Royauté sacrée de l’ancien Rwanda (1964). For a detailed analysis of the dynamics of ethnicity in prerevolutionary Rwanda, Catharine Newbury, The Cohesion of Oppression (1988), remains unsurpassed. The role of the church prior to and during the revolution is analyzed in Ian Linden and Jane Linden, Church and Revolution in Rwanda (1977). Jean-Paul Harroy, Rwanda (1984), is a general survey of the transition to independence

,

by a former high-ranking colonial civil servant. The country’s recent political history is discussed at length in René Lemarchand, Rwanda and Burundi (1970); and in Filip Reyntjens, Pouvoir et droit au Rwanda (1985). Political events leading to and following the civil war and genocide of 1994 are analyzed in Gerard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (1995). Peter Uvin, Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda (1998), draws the connection between the structural dimensions of conflict and development-assistance programs in Rwanda.