The 1926 Passaic textile strike was a work stoppage by over 15,000 woolen mill workers in and around Passaic, New Jersey, over wage issues in several factories in the vicinity. Conducted in its initial phase by a "United Front Committee" organized by the Trade Union Educational League of the Workers (Communist) Party, the strike began on January 25, 1926, and officially ended only on March 1, 1927, when the final mill being picketed signed a contract with the striking workers. It was the first Communist-led work stoppage in the United States, the event was memorialized by a seven reel silent movie intended to generate sympathy and funds for the striking workers.

From the end of the 19th Century, Passaic, New Jersey, located just south of the city of Paterson, was the heart of an industrial district which included the towns of Lodi, Wallington, Garfield, and the city of Clifton.[1] While cotton and woolen mills had been constructed in the area as early as the 1860s, it was not until 1889, when Congress increased the rate of tariffs on imported worsted wool that the textile industry expanded in any meaningful way.[1]

In the middle part of the 1920s, there were over 16,000 workers employed in the wool and silk mills located in and around Passaic, New Jersey,[2] the largest of the mills in the area, the German-owned Botany Worsted Mill, employed 6,400 workers, with three other giant mills employing thousands more.[2] The workers at these facilities were predominantly foreign-born, including among them representatives of 39 nationalities, with immigrants from Poland, Italy, Russia, Hungary in particular evidence.[2] Fully half the workforce was female.[2]

Wages of these workers were miserable. A 1926 survey indicated that male workers in the Passaic textile mills averaged wages of from $1,000 to $1,200 per year, while female workers typically earned from $800 to $1,000 per annum.[2] Female workers worked 10 hours a day to earn this sum, with the pace of work rapid and the use of the piecework system prevalent,[2] with an income of approximately $1,400 estimated to be necessary to maintain a basic "American standard of living," many New Jersey factory workers found themselves on the brink of financial disaster.[3]

This was not just a question of creature comforts for many Passaic textile workers, but a matter of life and death, the 1925 report of the New Jersey Department of Health showed a death rate for infants under 1 year of age that was 43% higher than for the rest of the state, 52% higher for children aged 1–5 and 5-9.[4] Sanitary conditions were poor and an exhaustingly long work week in poorly ventilated facilities resulted in a higher than average rate of tuberculosis[4] as well as other diseases.

A majority of the strikers were foreign-born, with the biggest percentage being Poles, followed by Italians and Hungarians,[7] despite the divergent nationalities involved, it was judged that, given the limits placed upon new immigration, these foreign-born workers had been more tightly attached to their occupations and "greatly Americanized." Communist union organizer Ben Gitlow observed that these workers "understand English and have acclimated themselves to many of the American customs," cemented together by their American-born children into "one homogeneous whole."[7]

In the fall of 1925, after first applying economic pressure to household budgets by the cutting of work hours, Passaic's largest mill, Botany, implemented a 10% wage cut,[8] this cut was matched at once by all the other mills in the area, save one.[8]

On January 21, 1926, a worker speaking out for the United Front Committee was fired from the Botany Worsted Mills for his organizing activity, sparking worker unrest.[10] A committee of 3 was elected by the members of the UFC to meet with the manager of the Botany facility to discuss the firing, this committee was told in no uncertain terms that any individuals known to be members of the UFC would be similarly terminated, a hardline position which further inflamed the situation.[10]

Another meeting of the UFC followed on January 25, at which it was decided to elect a committee of 45 to meet again with management,[10] this time not in supplication for the reinstatement of a fired colleague, but rather to present a set of concrete demands, including establishment of a 44-hour work week,[11] elimination of the 10% pay cut effected in October 1925, initiation of the payment of time-and-a-half rates for overtime work, and firm promises that there would be no retaliation by management against union members.[10] Instead of negotiating, the manager of the mill chose to fire the entire committee on the spot, the committee returned to their places at the mill, told their fellow workers what had transpired, and called for them to shut down production. Within an hour, 4,000 Botany workers had walked out and begun to picket at the factory gate, and the strike was on.[10]

On February 9, 1926, a line of strikers attempted to cross the bridge from Passaic to the neighboring Clifton in an attempt to shut down the Forstmann & Huffman mill in that city.[12] They were met at the bridge by a line of police, who wielded their clubs and turned back the strikers,[12] the effort was repeated the next day and a picket line was established and joined by many workers of the mill.[12] In the face of continued aggressive picketing, the firm was forced to shutter its operations for the duration of the strike on February 23.[12]

The authorities met this expansion of the strike with intensified force, on February 25, the Passaic City Council invoked a Riot Act which had been on the books for more than six decades against the strikers.[13] On March 2, a line of policemen blockaded a street along which a line of pickets was passing. Stopped in their tracks, the police began clubbing the massed strikers and dispersed the crowd with the use of tear gas and firehoses of icy-cold water.[13] Horses and motorcycles were ridden into the crowd,[11][14] the riotous scene was repeated the next day, this time with newspaper reporters and photographers present to chronicle the mayhem.[13] The authorities took the fight to the press, clubbing cameramen and destroying cameras.[14] Dozens were arrested, including strike leader Albert Weisbord, who was held on $50,000 bail.[11]

The strikers paused for a day before making their next effort, this time donning steel helmets and passing triumphantly through the police line as cameramen documented the scene from the safe confines of armored cars and via an airplane overhead.[13][14]

The strikers next turned their attention to the United Piece Dye Works of Lodi, located three miles from Passaic, this large factory was also shut down under the pressure of picketing workers on March 9.[12] The original strike of 4,000 Botany workers had grown to 15,000 of the estimated 17,000 textile workers in the area.[12]

Mass meetings of the strikers were held daily and picket lines continued without interruption.[15] A governing strike committee containing representatives from each striking mill, as well as delegates from participating ethnic groups, met each morning at 9 am. Key organizers were provided by the Workers (Communist) Party and included, in addition to Albert Weisbord, New York, garment worker Lena Chernenko and Jack Stachel of the Trade Union Educational League.[15]

Borrowing a page from the successful 1912 Lawrence Textile Strike by sending away children of striking workers to the homes of sympathizers in New York City,[16] this simultaneously reduced the maintenance cost of the strike and served as a vehicle to garner publicity and support for the work stoppage.

Albert Weisbord, the primary organizer of the strike, was removed in the summer of 1926. He wrote a substantial pamphlet and went on a speaking tour detailing his experiences.

In April Socialist Party leader Norman Thomas and Communist Robert W. Dunn, members of the National Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), challenged the virtual imposition of martial law by Bergen County's sheriff, by speaking to strikers there.[14] Thomas and Dunn were arrested with two others for violation of the New Jersey "Riot Act" and held under $10,000 bond, providing an opportunity for the ACLU to begin legal action and to obtain an injunction against the sheriff for his alleged violation of civil rights,[18] the courage of Thomas, Dunn, and their fellows was followed by others, including Reverend John Haynes Holmes and constitutional scholar Arthur Garfield Hays, who likewise came to Passaic in defiance of the authorities to exercise their constitutional rights.[18]

Acting in support of the strikers, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn of the so-called "Garland Fund" hired Mary Heaton Vorse to act as publicity director for the strike.[12] Vorse produced a regular Textile Strike Bulletin to keep strikers and sympathetic outsiders abreast of developments in the ongoing work stoppage,[12] this publication was instrumental in helping to raise funds on behalf of the relief effort.

The strikers were supported through the establishment of four relief stores and two soup kitchens, operated by the strikers and their sympathizers with Alfred Wagenknecht in charge of the operation.[11] Local bakers supplied bread, shoemakers repaired footwear of strikers without charge, barbers donated shaves and haircuts, and other unions, such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union contributed a wide array of foodstuffs.[11] A playground was constructed for the children of strikers, some of whom were also sent off to summer camps,[11] the strikers' General Relief Committee tried to raise funds by issuing and selling a heavily illustrated, poignant photographic survey of the strike entitled "Hell in New Jersey."

Despite the series of successful strike actions and public relations victories, the Passaic labor stoppage dragged on interminably, with no end in sight, as early as March 28, 1926, strike leader Albert Weisbord had appealed to the American Federation of Labor's Executive Council for help.[19] This appeal was rejected summarily by William Green of the AF of L, who declared that his organization would have nothing to do with any "Communist-dominated United Front Committee."[19]

Locked in a stalemate with management with no end in sight, the Communists were uncertain how to proceed, after a period of debate, the Communists and the leadership of their TUEL adjunct made the determination that "it would be incorrect to let the issue of communism stand in the way of a settlement," even though this position would mean that Weisbord and the rest of the party's leadership would as a result be removed to pave the way for an agreement.[20] On August 12, 1926, a committee elected by the strikers met with officials of the AF of L-affiliated United Textile Workers of America and reached agreement that the union should take over the strike, replacing Weisbord and the United Front Committee.[20] The Passaic strikers were accepted as Local 1603 of the UTW.[11]

After the transition from the Communist-led United Front Committee to the United Textile Workers in September, relief funds for the strikers began to dry up and morale started to drop,[21] the strike continued to wind along into the fall, however, with the UTW entering into direct negotiations with factory management.

The first break in the Passaic strike came on November 12, 1926, when the Passaic Worsted Company signed an agreement with the union,[22] on December 12, Botany Mills and its subsidiary, Garfield Worsted Mills, settled with the strikers.[11] A series of negotiated settlements followed, with the final mill settling coming on March 1, 1927.[21]

The relationship between the United Textile Workers and their Passaic local remained an uneasy one, the Communists charged that an agreement was made between the International office of the United Textile Workers of America and Botany Mills agreeing that "the active and militant workers, and all those that may look 'Red,' must not go back into the mills."[23] The situation was further muddied by an economic downturn in the textile industry which left many of the former strikers unemployed.[11] Of those rehired, it was alleged that many were promptly laid off and then rehired into another department at a lower rate of pay.[24]

The Passaic Textile Strike of 1926 is remembered as one of the seminal events in American labor history in the decade of the 1920s, the historical memory of the event has been enhanced due to its immortalization in film. Five of the seven reels of the film The Passaic Textile Strike have survived, with reels 5 and 7 missing;[25] in 2006, graduate students in New York University's Moving Image Archiving and Preservation program discovered the missing reel 5 while processing films belonging to the Communist Party USA's collection.[26] Reel 5 was subsequently meticulously reprinted and preserved by Colorlab and the Library of Congress.[27]

^ abFoner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 10, pg. 150.

^Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 10, pg. 151.

^The relationship of the film to International Workers Aid was not disguised, with the name of the organization and its logo featured prominently in the titles at the front of the film. See: The Passaic Textile Strike: Prologue. Video available from archive.org. Retrieved March 12, 2010.

^ abFoner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 10, pg. 154.

^ abFoner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 10, pg. 157.

^ abFoner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 10, pg. 158.

1.
The Passaic Textile Strike (film)
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The Passaic Textile Strike is a 1926 American silent film directed by Samuel Russak and produced by Alfred Wagenknecht. Reels 1 and 2 of the film, The Prologue, present a melodramatic depiction of the life of a fictional Polish worker, Stefan Breznac, Stefan takes a job in a woolen mill and earns a raise. He sends for his sweetheart, Kada, to come to America to share in his newfound prosperity. The big boss of the mill, a fictional German capitalist named Mr. Mulius, takes a fancy to the teenager and that afternoon the porcine bourgeois takes her home via a roundabout route through the countryside. On cue, Mr. Mulius driver pretends to run out of gas in the middle of nowhere so that his employer may have his way with the young girl. A disheveled Vera is eventually dropped off at home as her brazen employer enjoys a satisfying cigarette, two months later, Vera discovers that Mr. Mulius is married and is abruptly terminated, leaving the family again in dire financial straits. Already working 66 hours a week, Stefan Breznac takes on a 72-hour week to make ends meet and he is warned by a workmate that the increase in work might kill him, but proceeds nonetheless. The increase in work breaks his health, Stefan is forced to accept work as a lower pay-rate as a transporter instead of working as a weaver as he had previously. Stefan finally sees the light and urges his fellows to form a union, Kada takes a job working the night shift at the mill, and the prologue draws to a close. Historian Philip S. Foner recounts, The film then showed the strikers braving police clubs and shotguns, fire hoses in zero weather, the huge mass meetings, with ten thousand workers participating, were shown with the strike leaders and other speakers addressing the strikers. Relief activities were also depicted, as were the picket-line lunch counters, the Victory Playground for the children. Audiences were deeply moved by the film, especially by the showing the atrocious police brutality against the strikers, including girl pickets. The films importance is enhanced by the fact that it is one of the only early American labor films to have been preserved essentially intact. The Passaic Textile Strike premiered in Passaic, New Jersey in October 1926, the film is in the Library of Congress film collection. Only five of the seven reels were believed to have survived, more recently, however, a complete copy was donated to the Tamiment Library at New York University, and Reel 5 on YouTube was preserved by the Library of Congress. George Ashkenuzi as Himself John J. Ballam as Himself Lena Chernenko as Herself Gustav Deak as Himself Thomas DeFazio as Himself Robert W. Jefferson, NC,2000. sambrody. com Website focusing on the life and contributions of left-wing filmmaker, photographer and critic Sam Brody. The Passaic Textile Strike was his first significant experience as a cinematographer

2.
Passaic, New Jersey
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Passaic is a city in Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. Passaic is the tenth most densely populated municipality in the entire United States with 22, located north of Newark on the Passaic River, it was first settled in 1678 by Dutch traders, as Acquackanonk Township. The city and river draw their name from the Lenape word pahsayèk which has variously attributed to mean valley or place where the land splits. The city originated from a Dutch settlement on the Passaic River established in 1679 which was called Acquackanonk, industrial growth began in the 19th century, as Passaic became a textile and metalworking center. Passaic was formed within Acquackanonk Township on March 10,1869, Passaic was chartered as a city on April 2,1873. The 1926 Passaic Textile Strike led by union organizer Albert Weisbord saw 36,000 mill workers leave their jobs to oppose wage cuts demanded by the textile industry, the workers successfully fought to keep their wages unchanged but did not receive recognition of their union by the mill owners. Passaic has been called The Birthplace of Television, in 1931, experimental television station W2XCD began transmitting from DeForest Radio Corporation in Passaic. It has been called the first television station to transmit to the home, Passaic is served by two newspapers, The Record and Herald News. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 3.244 square miles. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Davis Bridge, Passaics only land border is with neighboring Clifton, which borders Passaic to the north, south, and west. The Passaic River, which flows to the east of Passaic, provides the city with four additional borders across the water in Bergen County, East Rutherford, Garfield, Rutherford and Wallington. Passaic and Wallington are connected by four bridges, while the city connects with Garfield at two bridges and Rutherford at the Union Avenue Bridge, which is located on New Jersey Route 21, Passaic is located 10 miles from New York City, and 12 miles from Newark Airport. Passaic has several business districts, Main Avenue begins in Passaic Park, broadway runs east–west through the center of the city, ending at Main Avenue in downtown. Main Street has many shops, restaurants and businesses reflecting the citys Latino, the city is home to several architecturally notable churches, including St. Johns Lutheran Church, First Presbyterian of Passaic, and St. Johns Episcopal Church. Southwest Passaic is a residential and institutional center of Orthodox Judaism, with 25-30 minyanim on Shabbos, home to numerous yeshivas, schools and other institutions, there are also many kosher food and shopping establishments. Passaic Park takes its name from Third Ward Park and this area is also noted for its large mansions and homes of various architectural styles, especially Victorian and Tudor. Several condominium and cooperative apartment complexes are located here including, Carlton Tower, Presidential Towers. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Passaic has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps

3.
Eight-hour day
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The use of child labour was common. The working day could range from 10 to 16 hours for six days a week, robert Owen had raised the demand for a ten-hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his socialist enterprise at New Lanark. By 1817 he had formulated the goal of the day and coined the slogan, Eight hours labour, Eight hours recreation. Women and children in England were granted the day in 1847. French workers won the 12-hour day after the February revolution of 1848, a shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation for Chartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions. Karl Marx saw it as of importance to the workers health, saying in Das Kapital, By extending the working day, therefore. The first international treaty to mention it was the Treaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteen part establishing the International Labour Office, now the International Labour Organization. The eight-hour day was the first topic discussed by the International Labour Organization which resulted in the Hours of Work Convention,1919 ratified by 52 countries as of 2016. The eight-hour day movement forms part of the history for the celebration of Labour Day. In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade began in earnest in Tehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliament Majles. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14-day strike and succeeded in reaching an agreement with employers to institute the eight-hours day, overtime pay. The success of the printers union encouraged other trades to organize, in 1919 the bakers and textile-shop clerks formed their own trade unions. In 1946 the council of ministers issued the first labor law for Iran, the first company to introduce an eight-hour working day in Japan was the Kawasaki Dockyards in Kobe. An eight-hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919, after the company resisted the demands, a slowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of action, company president Kōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight-hour day and wage increases on 27 September. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki, the eight-hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of the Labor Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 of the Act specifies a 40-hour week and paragraph specifies an eight-hour day, the Eight-hour day was enacted in France by Georges Clemenceau, as a way to avoid unemployment and diminish communist support. It was succeeded by a strong French support of it during the writing of the International Labour Organization Convention of 1919, at the turn of the 20th century the eight-hour day was introduced by Ernst Abbe at the Zeiss plants in Jena

4.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010

5.
Protest
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions

6.
Demonstration (protest)
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Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize

7.
Albert Weisbord
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Albert Weisbord was an American political activist and union organizer. Albert Weisbord was born December 9,1900 to a Russian-Jewish family in New York City, Weisbord attended primary, grammar, and high school in Brooklyn, New York. He worked variously as a newsboy, a clerk in a store, as a worker in a clothing factory. Weisbord entered the City College of New York in 1917, joining the Brooklyn Branch of the Socialist Party of America at that same time, Weisbord graduated with a bachelors degree from City College Phi Beta Kappa in 1921. He was then accepted into Harvard Law School, graduating with honors in 1924, after going on tour to reorganize the locals, a national convention was held to relaunch a new YPSL at Fitchburg, Massachusetts. The convention named Weisbord its National Director, a position which entitled him to a seat on the partys governing NEC, Weisbord remained as National Director of the Socialist Partys youth section until the middle of 1924. In June 1924, Weisbord was named assistant organizer of the Socialist Partys New England district and this experience was disillusioning for Weisbord, as he had wanted the Socialists to form a labor party to guide the workers toward socialist as had been done in England. Instead, he felt that the party was a petty bourgeois organization moving toward liberalism, Weisbord resigned from the SPA joined the Communist Party in November 1924. The radical Weisbord was seen as a figure by the mill owners. In December 1926, Weisbord was dispatched to Mexico City on behalf of the Red International of Labor Unions and he carried with him $1,000 in gold coin as seed money for the Mexican union movement. Weisbord was sent to Moscow in the spring of 1928 as a delegate of the Communist Partys Trade Union Educational League to the World Congress of the Profintern that opened on March 10,1928. In the fall of 1928, Weisbord was the candidate of the Workers Party for U. S. Senate from New Jersey, Weisbord also served as the secretary-treasurer of the National Textile Workers Union, the Communist Party-sponsored dual union affiliated with the Trade Union Unity League. Following the political demise of Jay Lovestone and his associates in 1929 and he left the organization and briefly joined the Trotskyist Communist League of America in 1930. On March 15,1931, Weisbord and his wife launched an independent Marxist group, the Communist League of Struggle and this was the first split in the US Trotskyist movement. When World War II broke out, Weisbord supported the U. S. entry into the war, Albert Weisbord died in April 1977. Communist League of Struggle 1926 Passaic Textile Strike Passaic, The Story of a Struggle against Starvation Wages, New York, Communist League of Struggle,1933. New York, Communist League of Struggle,1934, the Conquest of Power, Liberalism, Anarchism, Syndicalism, Socialism, Fascism, and Communism. Latin American actuality New York, Citadel Press,1964, critique of the New Draft Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

8.
Communist Party USA
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The Communist Party USA is a communist political party in the United States. Established in 1919 after a split in the Socialist Party of America, it has a long, complex history that is tied with the U. S. labor movement. For the first half of the 20th century, the Communist Party was an influential force in various struggles for democratic rights. It played a prominent role in the U. S. S, by August 1919, only months after its founding, the Communist Party claimed 50,000 to 60,000 members. Members also included anarchists and other radical leftists, at the time, the older and more moderate Socialist Party of America, suffering from criminal prosecutions for its antiwar stance during World War I, had declined to 40,000 members. But the Communist Partys early labor and organizing successes did not last, by 1957, membership had dwindled to less than 10,000, of whom some 1,500 were informants for the FBI. At the same time, the partys aging membership demographics and noticeably hollow calls for peaceful coexistence failed to speak to a new Left in the United States. In 1989, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union cut off funding to the CPUSA due to its opposition to glasnost. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the party held its convention, the majority reasserted the partys now purely Marxist outlook, prompting a minority faction which urged social democrats to exit the now reduced party. The party has since adopted Marxism-Leninism within its program, in 2014, the new draft of the party constitution declared, We apply the scientific outlook developed by Marx, Engels, Lenin and others in the context of our American history, culture, and traditions. The Communist Party USA is based in New York City, for decades, its West Coast newspaper was the Peoples World, and its East Coast newspaper was The Daily World. The two newspapers merged in 1986 into the Peoples Weekly World, the PWW has since become an online only publication, called Peoples World. The partys former theoretical journal, Political Affairs Magazine, is now published exclusively online. In June 2014, the Party held its 30th National Convention in Chicago, against homophobia and all manifestations of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people. Among the points in the partys Immediate Program are a minimum wage for all workers, national universal health care. The Communist Party USA emphasizes a vision of socialism as an extension of American democracy, millions of workers are unemployed, underemployed, or insecure in their jobs, even during economic upswings and periods of recovery from recessions. Most workers experience long years of stagnant and declining wages, while health. Many workers are forced to second and third jobs to make ends meet

9.
Silent film
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A silent film is a film with no synchronized recorded sound, especially with no spoken dialogue. The silent film era lasted from 1895 to 1936, in silent films for entertainment, the dialogue is transmitted through muted gestures, mime and title cards which contain a written indication of the plot or key dialogue. During silent films, a pianist, theatre organist, or, in large cities, pianists and organists would either play from sheet music or improvise, an orchestra would play from sheet music. The term silent film is therefore a retronym—that is, a term created to distinguish something retroactively, the early films with sound, starting with The Jazz Singer in 1927, were referred to as talkies, sound films, or talking pictures. A September 2013 report by the United States Library of Congress announced that a total of 70% of American silent feature films are believed to be completely lost, the earliest precursors of film began with image projection through the use of a device known as the magic lantern. This utilized a glass lens, a shutter and a persistent light source, such as a powerful lantern and these slides were originally hand-painted, but still photographs were used later on after the technological advent of photography in the nineteenth century. The invention of a practical photography apparatus preceded cinema by only fifty years, the next significant step towards film creation was the development of an understanding of image movement. Simulations of movement date as far back as to 1828 and only four years after Paul Roget discovered the phenomenon he called Persistence of Vision. This experience was further demonstrated through Rogets introduction of the thaumatrope, the first projected primary proto-movie was made by Eadweard Muybridge between 1877 and 1880. Muybridge set up a row of cameras along a racetrack and timed image exposures to capture the many stages of a horses gallop, the oldest surviving film was created by Louis Le Prince in 1888. It was a film of people walking in Oakwood streets garden. Edison also made a business of selling Kinetograph and Kinetoscope equipment, due to Edisons lack of securing an international patent on his film inventions, similar devices were invented around the world. The Lumière brothers, for example, created the Cinématographe in France, the Cinématographe proved to be a more portable and practical device than both of Edisons as it combined a camera, film processor and projector in one unit. In contrast to Edisons peepshow-style kinetoscope, which one person could watch through a viewer. Their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, shot in 1894, is considered the first true motion picture, the invention of celluloid film, which was strong and flexible, greatly facilitated the making of motion pictures. This film was 35 mm wide and pulled using four sprocket holes and this doomed the cinematograph, which could only use film with just one sprocket hole. From the very beginnings of film production, the art of motion pictures grew into maturity in the silent era. Silent filmmakers pioneered the art form to the extent that virtually every style, the silent era was also pioneering era from a technical point of view

10.
Paterson, New Jersey
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Paterson is the largest city in and the county seat of Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 146,199, Paterson has the second-highest density of any U. S. city with over 100,000 people, behind only New York City. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 147,754, Paterson is known as the Silk City for its dominant role in silk production during the latter half of the 19th century. The city has evolved into a major destination for Hispanic emigrants as well as for immigrants from the Arab. It has the second-largest Muslim population in the United States by percentage, the area of Paterson was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Native American Acquackanonk tribe of the Lenape, referred to as the Delaware Indians. The land was known as the Lenapehoking, the Dutch claimed the land as New Netherlands, then the British as the Province of New Jersey. Paterson, which was founded by the society, became the cradle of the revolution in America. Paterson was named for William Paterson, statesman, signer of the Constitution, architect, engineer and city planner Pierre Charles LEnfant, who had earlier developed the initial plans for Washington, D. C. was the first planner for the S. U. M. His plan proposed to harness the power of the Great Falls through a channel in the rock, eventually Colts system developed some problems and a scheme resembling LEnfants original plan was used after 1846. Paterson was originally formed as a township from portions of Acquackanonk Township on April 11,1831, Paterson became part of newly created Passaic County on February 7,1837. It was incorporated as a city on April 14,1851, the city was reincorporated on March 14,1861. In the latter half of the 19th century silk production became the dominant industry and formed the basis of Patersons most prosperous period, in 1835 Samuel Colt began producing firearms in Paterson, although within a few years he moved his business to Hartford, Connecticut. Later in the 19th century Paterson was the site of experiments with submarines by Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland. Two of Hollands early models — one found at the bottom of the Passaic River — are on display in the Paterson Museum, housed in the former Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works near the Passaic Falls. The city was a mecca for immigrant laborers who worked in its factories and it was defeated by the employers, with workers forced to return under pre-strike conditions. Factory workers labored long hours for low wages under dangerous conditions, the factories then moved to the South, where there were no labor unions, and still later moved overseas. In 1919 Paterson was one of eight locations bombed by self-identified anarchists, in 1932 Paterson opened Hinchliffe Stadium, a 10, 000-seat stadium named in honor of John V. Hinchliffe, the citys mayor at the time. Hinchliffe Stadium originally served as the site for school and professional athletic events

11.
Lodi, New Jersey
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Lodi is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. Lodi owes its name to the Italian city of Lodi, Lombardy. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 2.285 square miles. Areas of the borough are prone to flooding during heavy rain, the borough borders Garfield, Hackensack, Hasbrouck Heights, Maywood, Rochelle Park, Saddle Brook, South Hackensack, Hackensack and Wood-Ridge. As of the census of 2010, there were 24,136 people,9,471 households, the population density was 10,657.6 per square mile. There were 10,127 housing units at a density of 4,471.7 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 30. 49% of the population,30. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the family size was 3.18. In the borough, the population was out with 21. 3% under the age of 18,8. 6% from 18 to 24,30. 7% from 25 to 44,26. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37.7 years, for every 100 females there were 90.3 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 86.7 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $55,541 and the median family income was $65,494. Males had an income of $49,002 versus $37,108 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $25,910, about 10. 1% of families and 12. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20. 4% of those under age 18 and 15. 5% of those age 65 or over. Same-sex couples headed 64 households in 2010, an increase from the 44 counted a decade earlier, as of the 2000 United States Census there were 23,971 people,9,528 households, and 6,097 families residing in the borough. The population density was 10,590.6 people per square mile, there were 9,908 housing units at an average density of 4,377.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 78. 16% White,3. 55% African American,0. 17% Native American,8. 86% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,6. 25% from other races, and 2. 97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17. 98% of the population,30. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the family size was 3.16

12.
Wallington, New Jersey
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Wallington is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. Wallington was created as a borough on January 2,1895, based on a referendum held on December 31,1894, from area taken from Bergen Township, sections of Wallington were ceded to Garfield in 1898. The borough is said to have named for Walling Van Winkle. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had an area of 1.034 square miles. The borough borders Carlstadt, East Rutherford, Garfield, South Hackensack and Wood-Ridge in Bergen County, the borough is located approximately 15 miles northwest of Midtown Manhattan. As of the census of 2010, there were 11,335 people,4,637 households, the population density was 11,528.6 per square mile. There were 4,946 housing units at a density of 5,030.5 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10. 81% of the population,29. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the family size was 3.03. In the borough, the population was out with 18. 0% under the age of 18,8. 1% from 18 to 24,31. 5% from 25 to 44,28. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39.6 years, for every 100 females there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 91.6 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $58,724 and the median family income was $66,414. Males had an income of $46,632 versus $40,968 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $27,350, about 7. 0% of families and 8. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8. 8% of those under age 18 and 10. 1% of those age 65 or over. Same-sex couples headed 25 households in 2010, a decrease from the 30 counted in 2000, as of the 2000 United States Census there were 11,583 people,4,752 households, and 3,041 families residing in the borough. The population density was 11,632.5 people per square mile, there were 4,906 housing units at an average density of 4,927.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 87. 60% White,2. 67% African American,0. 09% Native American,4. 98% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,2. 32% from other races, and 2. 31% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 70% of the population,29. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older

13.
Garfield, New Jersey
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Garfield is a city in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. When the area that is now Garfield was first developed in 1873, in 1881, the communitys name was changed to Garfield in honor of President of the United States James Garfield. There are two explanations given for the circumstances behind the renaming, seven months later, President Garfield was assassinated but his name remained with the community. The second theory holds that after Garfields death in 1881, a new station was named in his honor. Garfield was originally incorporated as a borough on March 15,1898, from portions of Saddle River Township, at the time, the New Jersey Legislature set Garfields boundaries as they exist today. On April 19,1917, the became the City of Garfield. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 2.160 square miles. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Belmont, Bogart Heights, Dundee Dam, the city has land borders with adjacent Elmwood Park, Lodi, Saddle Brook and South Hackensack. The Saddle River is a border with Wallington. There are three bridges over the Passaic River crossing the municipal and county line to Passaic and Clifton in Passaic County. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has identified Garfield as the site of groundwater contaminated hexavalent chromium from a spill in 1983 at the E. C. Electroplating Corporation site. The borough is home to an architecturally prominent Russian Orthodox church. As of the census of 2010, there were 30,487 people,11,073 households, the population density was 14,524.8 per square mile. There were 11,788 housing units at a density of 5,616.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 76. 73% White,6. 50% Black or African American,0. 43% Native American,2. 22% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,10. 85% from other races, and 3. 26% from two or more races. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 32. 24% of the population,24. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the family size was 3.29. In the city, the population was out with 23. 3% under the age of 18,9. 2% from 18 to 24,30. 9% from 25 to 44,25. 4% from 45 to 64

14.
Clifton, New Jersey
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Clifton is a city in Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. Clifton was incorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 26,1917, replacing Acquackanonk Township, Clifton is listed under five different ZIP Codes. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 11.397 square miles. Clifton is located 10 miles west of New York City off both Route 3 and Route 46, the city is also served by the Garden State Parkway, Route 19 and Route 21. As of the census of 2010, there were 84,136 people,30,661 households, the population density was 7,472.0 per square mile. There were 31,946 housing units at a density of 2,837.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 69. 63% White,4. 92% Black or African American,0. 50% Native American,8. 90% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,12. 44% from other races, and 3. 59% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 31. 92% of the population,26. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the family size was 3.33. In the city, the population was out with 22. 0% under the age of 18,8. 8% from 18 to 24,28. 3% from 25 to 44,27. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38.4 years, for every 100 females there were 93.2 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 90.4 males, the Census Bureaus 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $62,271 and the median family income was $76,070. Males had an income of $49,780 versus $40,149 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,812, about 7. 2% of families and 9. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 5% of those under age 18 and 9. 3% of those age 65 or over. Same-sex couples headed 243 households in 2010, as of the 2000 United States Census there were 78,672 people,30,244 households, and 20,354 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,965.2 people per square mile, there were 31,060 housing units at an average density of 2,749.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 66. 22% White,2. 89% African American,0. 24% Native American,6. 44% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,9. 60% from other races, and 4. 57% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19. 84% of the population,27. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older

15.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

16.
Tariff
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A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods

17.
Worsted
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Worsted is a high-quality type of wool yarn, the fabric made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from Worstead, a village in the English county of Norfolk, in the same period, many weavers from Flanders moved to Norfolk. Worsted yarns/fabrics are distinct from woollens, the former is considered stronger, finer, smoother, Worsted was made from the long-staple pasture wool from sheep breeds such as Teeswaters, Old Leicester Longwool and Romney Marsh. Pasture wool was not carded, instead it was washed, gilled and combed, oiled, when woven, worsteds were scoured but not fulled. Worsted wool fabric is used in the making of tailored garments such as suits, as opposed to woollen wool. The essential feature of worsted yarn is straight, parallel fibres, originally, long, fine staple wool was spun to create worsted yarn, today, other long fibres are also used. Many spinners differentiate between worsted preparation and worsted spinning, Worsted preparation refers to the way the fibre is prepared before spinning, using ginning machines which force the fibre staples to lie parallel to each other. Once these fibres have been made into a top, they are then combed to remove the short fibres, the long fibres are combined in subsequent gilling machines to again make the fibres parallel. This produces overlapping untwisted strands called slivers, Worsted spinning refers to using a worsted technique, which produces a smooth yarn in which the fibres lie parallel. Roving and wool top are used to spin worsted yarn. Many hand spinners buy their fibre in roving or top form, top and roving are ropelike in appearance, in that they can be thick and long. While some mills put a slight twist in the rovings they make, the fibres in top and rovings all lie parallel to one another along the length, which makes top ideal for spinning worsted yarns. Worsted-spun yarns, used to create worsted fabric, are spun from fibres that have been combed, to ensure that the fibres all run the same direction, butt-end to tip, a short draw is used in spinning worsted fibres. In short draw spinning, spun from combed roving, sliver or wool top, the fibres are held fanned out in one hand while the other hand pulls a small number from the mass. The twist is kept between the hand and the wheel — there is never any twist between the two hands. Worsted cloth, archaically known as stuff, is lightweight and has a coarse texture. The weave is usually twill or plain, twilled fabrics such as whipcord, gabardine and serge are often made from worsted yarn. Worsted fabric made from wool has a recovery, meaning that it is resilient and quickly returns to its natural shape

18.
Wool
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Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur, it is crimped, Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the layer of the skin called the epidermis. Follicles can be classed as primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp, medullated fibers and true wool fibers, secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp, Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Wools scaling and crimp make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a specific heat coefficient, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation, felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers, a fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while coarser wool like karakul may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, on sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow, Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics and it is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers, Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, Wool is considered by the medical profession to be allergenic. Sheep shearing is the process by which the fleece of a sheep is cut off. After shearing, the wool is separated into four categories, fleece, broken, bellies. In Australia before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength, the sheep is given a dip in antiseptic solution after shearing, so as to cure the wounds caused during shearing

19.
Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han

20.
Botany Mills
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Botany Mills was a Passaic, New Jersey based manufacturer of textiles, which was organized in 1887. It merged with Continental Textile Co. Ltd. in January 1927, Botany Mills continued to have a controlling interest in both Botany Worsted Mills and Garfield Worsted Mills. The company was a key target of the 1926 Passaic Textile Strike, the business is significant for having survived the Great Depression while continuing to be a leader in its field in the decades afterward. Botany Mills stock listed on the New York Stock Exchange reached a low for 1929 in late September, the companys net loss of $2,768,904 for 1929, exceeded the 1928 deficit which totaled $1,461,783. In June 1932 Botany Mills formed an independent bondholders protective committee which called for immediate deposits of bonds, the firm had descended into receivership after defaulting on the payment of interest on its bonds on April 1,1932. The Empire Trust Company served as depositary for the committee, in October 1948 Botany Mills announced that it would absorb higher raw material and labor costs without raising prices on goods. They maintained prices on wool shirts and pants as well as on their trunk line. However their gabardine boxer shorts increased in price from $6.95 to $7.50 retail, in August 1954, Daroff and Sons, a Philadelphia clothing manufacturer which had produced worsteds for Botany under contract for several years, purchased a controlling interest in Botany Mills. In late 1955, Botany left the business and transferred its Passaic plant to an affiliate company. Botany transitioned into real estate, product licensing and cosmetics

21.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church

22.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

23.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians

24.
Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri

25.
Industrial Workers of the World
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The Industrial Workers of the World, members of which are commonly termed Wobblies, is an international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago, Illinois in the United States of America. The union combines general unionism with industrial unionism, as it is a union whose members are further organized within the industry of their employment. The philosophy and tactics of the IWW are described as industrial unionism. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was more than 150,000, Membership declined dramatically in the 1920s due to several factors. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after WWI. The most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence, however, was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered. The IWW promotes the concept of One Big Union, and contends that all workers should be united as a class to supplant capitalism. They are known for the Wobbly Shop model of democracy, in which workers elect their managers. IWW membership does not require that one work in a represented workplace, in 2012, the IWW moved its General Headquarters offices to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago. The origin of the nickname Wobblies is uncertain, the convention, which took place on June 24,1905, was referred to as the Industrial Congress or the Industrial Union Convention—it would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. In its time, it was considered one of the most important events in the history of industrial unionism. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the people and the few. We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the class have interests in common with their employers. Instead of the motto, A fair days wage for a fair days work, we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword. It is the mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, by organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old

26.
Workers' International Industrial Union
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The organization was formed when it broke with the main faction of the Industrial Workers of the World over the question of political action. After seven years of existence as the so-called Detroit IWW. The WIIU maintained a presence in the United States, Canada, Britain, the 4th Convention of the Industrial Workers of the World was convened in Chicago on September 21,1908, attended by 26 delegates. John and his ally, William Trautmann, in order to stifle dissent over policy. DeLeon was granted the floor at the convention to state his case and this was met with the epithet by the politically oriented SLP supporters that the St. John–Trautmann group were little more than veiled dynamiters. A 5-member General Executive Board supportive of the orientation was also installed. The dissident supporters of the SLP and political action immediately launched a new organization at a conference convened at Paterson. Some 18 delegates were in attendance at this conference, including representatives from local organizations in Philadelphia, Boston, Brooklyn. The Paterson conference took steps to reduce per capita dues levied by the office to just 5 cents per member per month, with a view to keeping more dues money for work at the local level. National Headquarters were temporarily located in New York City, long the base of operations of the SLP, chase of New York City was elected as the first General Secretary-Treasurer of the so-called Detroit IWW, and a governing 5-member Executive Board similarly chosen by the Paterson gathering. This split between the direct actionist Chicago IWW and the political actionist Detroit IWW was replicated in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the number of locals affiliated with the Detroit IWW is a matter of some dispute. These groups were clustered in the Eastern United States, according to pioneer IWW historian Paul Brissenden, other local IWW groups vanished amidst the organizational chaos, with the Chicago IWW claiming about 100 locals in 1909 and the Detroit IWW, just 23. The WIIU shared much of its membership with the SLP, while the SLPs newspaper, The People, would serve as the official organ of the so-called Detroit IWW until January 1912, when a new monthly magazine called Industrial Union News would be launched. Robert Hoxie, author of Trade Unionism in the United States, referred to the Detroit IWW as socialistic, WIIU called for a general lockout of the capitalist class. The WIIU was criticized for focusing more on propaganda than on organizing workers, the WIIU was invited to attend the first conference of the Comintern in 1919, but did not affiliate. The WIIU never did conduct a strike of any importance, in 1916, the WIIU claimed a membership of 2,500, while its rival, the Industrial Workers of the World, claimed a total membership of 70,000. By the 1920s the WIIU was practically – and kindly – overlooked, where it was noticed it was criticized sharply, the organization was finally disbanded in 1925

27.
Amalgamated Textile Workers Union
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The Amalgamated Textile Workers Union was a trade union in Great Britain. The union was founded in 1974, when the Amalgamated Weavers Association merged with the National Union of Textile, the Amalgamated Textile Warehousemens Association developed close links with the new union, and the two shared a general secretary. With widespread redundancies in the industry, the union lost two-thirds of its members before it merged into the General, Municipal, Boilermakers, based in Rochdale, the unions final general secretary was Jack Brown. 1974, Fred Hague and Joe King 1975, Fred Hague 1976, Jack Brown

28.
Phi Beta Kappa Society
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established

29.
City College of New York
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The City College of the City University of New York is a public senior college of the City University of New York in New York City. Located on a hill overlooking Harlem in Manhattan, City Colleges 35-acre Collegiate Gothic campus spans Convent Avenue from 130th to 141st Streets and it was initially designed by renowned architect George B. Post, and many of its buildings have achieved landmark status, affectionately known as the Harvard of the proletariat, the college has graduated more Nobel Prize winners than any other public university in the United States. Among these 10 alumni, the latest is a Bronx native, founded in 1847, City College was the first free public institution of higher education in the United States. It is the oldest of CUNYs 24 institutions of higher learning, the City College of New York was founded as the Free Academy of the City of New York in 1847 by wealthy businessman and president of the Board of Education Townsend Harris. A combination prep school and college, it would provide children of immigrants, in 1847, New York State Governor John Young had given permission to the Board of Education to found the Free Academy, which was ratified in a statewide referendum. Dr. Horace Webster, a West Point graduate, was the first president of the Free Academy. In 1847, a curriculum was adopted which had nine main fields, mathematics, history, language, literature, drawing, natural philosophy, experimental philosophy, law, and political economy. The Academys first graduation took place in 1853 in Niblos Garden Theatre, even in its early years, the Free Academy showed tolerance for diversity, especially in comparison to its urban neighbor, Columbia College, which was exclusive to the sons of wealthy families. The Free Academy had a framework of tolerance that extended beyond the admission of students from every social stratum, in 1854, Columbias trustees denied Oliver Wolcott Gibbs, a distinguished chemist and scientist, a faculty position because of Gibbss Unitarian religious beliefs. Gibbs was a professor and held an appointment at the Free Academy since 1848, later in the history of CCNY, in the early 1900s, President John H. Finley gave the College a more secular orientation by abolishing mandatory chapel attendance. This change occurred at a time when more Jewish students were enrolling in the College, in 1866, the Free Academy, a mens institution, was renamed the College of the City of New York. In 1929, the College of the City of New York became the City College of New York, the names City College of New York and City College, however, remain in general use. With the name change in 1866, lavender was chosen as the Colleges color, in 1867, the academic senate, the first student government in the nation, was formed. Having struggled over the issue for ten years, in 1895 the New York State legislature voted to let the College build a new campus. A four-square block site was chosen, located in Manhattanville, within the area which was enclosed by the North Campus Arches, like President Webster, the second president of City College was a West Point graduate. The second president, General Alexander S. Webb, assumed office in 1869, one of the Unions heroes at Gettysburg, General Webb was the commander of the Philadelphia Brigade. When the Union Army repulsed the Confederates at Cemetery Hill, General Webb played a role in the battle

30.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools

31.
Picketing
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Picketing is a form of protest in which people congregate outside a place of work or location where an event is taking place. Often, this is done in an attempt to dissuade others from going in, picketers normally endeavor to be non-violent. It can have a number of aims, but is generally to put pressure on the party targeted to meet particular demands and/or cease operations. Picketing is a tactic used by trade unions during strikes. Those who cross the line and work despite the strike are known pejoratively as scabs. Informational picketing is the name given to the type of picketing described above. It is a popular picketing technique for nurses to use outside of healthcare facilities, for example, on April 5,2006 nurses of the UMass Memorial Medical Center participated in two separate informational picketing events to protect the quality of their nursing program. Informational picketing was used to public support and promote further bargaining with management. A mass picket is an attempt to bring as many people as possible to a line to demonstrate support for the cause. It is primarily used only one workplace is being picketed or for a symbolically or practically important workplace. Due to the numbers involved, a mass picket may turn into a potentially unlawful blockade, secondary picketing people picketing locations that directly connected to the issue of protest. In many jurisdictions, secondary pickets do not have the civil law protection as primary pickets. However, such plans had been dropped by the time Labour returned to power under Tony Blair in 1997, another tactic is to organise highly-mobile pickets, who can turn up at any of a companys locations on short notice. The first recorded use of flying pickets was during the 1969 miners strike in Britain, Picketing is also used by pressure groups across the political spectrum. In particular, picketing has been employed by groups such as the Westboro Baptist Church that picket a variety of stores or events they consider to be sinful. For example, during the UK miners strike, strikebreakers were pelted by pickets with stones, paint and their legality has been challenged in some jurisdictions on the grounds that such tactics violate privacy rights and/or are intended to incite later reprisals against such individuals. In the US, this type of picketing, under Section 8 of the Labor Act, is illegal if representation is not relevant or is unquestionable. In the UK mass picketing was illegal under the Trade Disputes

32.
Tear gas
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Tear gas, formally known as a lachrymatory agent or lachrymator, is a chemical weapon that causes severe eye, respiratory, and skin irritation, pain, vomiting, and even blindness. In the eye, it stimulates the nerves of the gland to produce tears. Common lachrymators include pepper spray, CS gas, CR gas, CN gas, nonivamide, bromoacetone, xylyl bromide, syn-propanethial-S-oxide, lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic lachrymatory agents were used, tear gas works by irritating mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs, and causes crying, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, pain in the eyes, and temporary blindness. With CS gas, symptoms of irritation typically appear after 20–60 seconds of exposure, with pepper spray, the onset of symptoms, including loss of motor control, is almost immediate. There can be variation in tolerance and response, according to the National Research Council Committee on Toxicology. The California Poison Control System analyzed 3,671 reports of pepper spray injuries between 2002 and 2011, severe symptoms requiring medical evaluation were found in 6. 8% of people, with the most severe injuries to the eyes, respiratory system and skin. The most severe occurred in law enforcement training, intentionally incapacitating people. Lachrymators are thought to act by attacking sulfhydryl functional groups in enzymes, one of the most probable protein targets is the TRPA1 ion channel that is expressed in sensory nerves of the eyes, nose, mouth and lungs. As with all non-lethal, or less-lethal weapons, there is risk of serious permanent injury or death when tear gas is used. This includes risks from being hit by tear gas cartridges, which include severe bruising, loss of eyesight, skull fracture, skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed. Police and private use is not banned in the same manner. Armed forces can legally use tear gas for drills and for riot control, first used in 1914, xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily prepared. The US Chemical Warfare Service developed tear gas grenades for use in control in 1919. Certain lachrymatory agents are used by police to force compliance. In some countries, another common substance is mace, the self-defense weapon form of mace is based on pepper spray, and comes in small spray cans, and versions including CS are manufactured for police use

33.
Jack Stachel
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Jacob Abraham Jack Stachel was an American Communist functionary who was a top official in the Communist Party from the middle 1920s until his death in the middle 1960s. Stachel is best remembered as one of 11 Communist leaders convicted under the Smith Act in 1949, Jacob Stachel, known to all his contemporaries by his nickname Jack, was born of ethnic Jewish parents on January 18,1900 in Galicia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father emigrated to America in August 1910 and young Jacob arrived with his mother and his father was a naturalized citizen of the United States, on which basis Jack Stachel claimed American citizenship for himself. Stachel attended public school in New York City, selling newspapers and he obtained 8 years of elementary schooling and 2 years of high school before leaving. Stachel furthered his education on his own time, attending courses at the Cooper Union. Stachel also briefly made his living as a man, a seller of patent medicine to passersby through sidewalk orations. He later learned the trade of hatmaking and was an member of the Cap. Stachel left the Socialist Party of America to join the Communist Party — then known as the Workers Party of America — in the fall of 1923. During the second half of the 1920s, Stachel was a loyalist to the faction headed by C. E. Ruthenberg, in 1924, Stachel served as the District Organizer of the Young Workers League for New York. He was also elected a member of the governing National Executive Committee of the YWL by that organizations 3rd Convention, during 1926 and 1927, Stachel acted as the Organizational Secretary of the Communist Partys important New York District, working there with District Organizer William Weinstone. Factional leader Jim Cannon later lamented that after months of persistent effort Lovestone finally got Stachel back into line. But there was one period in the life of this man, which seemed to be otherwise devoted exclusively to vicious factionalism. Stachel was elected to the 37 member Central Executive Committee of the Workers Party of America in 1926 and he was made a member of the partys national Agitation and Propaganda Committee in 1927. Stachel married Bertha Zunser, the daughter of Russian Jewish immigrants, the couple had one son, who followed his parents into the Communist movement, teaching at the partys Jefferson School of Social Science from 1954 to 1956. Stachel was a top assistant to party leader Jay Lovestone in 1928, Stachel was also named the director of the partys pamphlet publishing house, Workers Library Publishers, from the time of its inception in 1928. The records stolen were then examined by Lovestone, John Pepper, Stachel was employed during 1930 as the CPUSAs District Organizer in Detroit, where he was briefly arrested along with the partys General Secretary, Earl Browder. He would return to New York City in 1931 to become the top assistant of William Z. Foster in running the trade union section. Foster found himself on the mend after a heart attack

34.
1912 Lawrence textile strike
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The Lawrence textile strike was a strike of immigrant workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1912 led by the Industrial Workers of the World. The strike united workers from more than 40 different nationalities, in late January, when a bystander was killed during a protest, IWW organizers Joseph Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti were arrested on charges of being accessories to the murder. IWW leaders Bill Haywood and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn came to Lawrence to run the strike, together they masterminded its signature move, sending hundreds of the strikers hungry children to sympathetic families in New York, New Jersey, and Vermont. The move drew widespread sympathy, especially after police stopped a further exodus, congressional hearings followed, resulting in exposure of shocking conditions in the Lawrence mills and calls for investigation of the wool trust. Mill owners soon decided to settle the strike, giving workers in Lawrence, within a year, however, the IWW had largely collapsed in Lawrence. The Lawrence strike is referred to as the Bread and Roses strike. It has also called the strike for three loaves. The phrase bread and roses actually preceded the strike, appearing in a poem by James Oppenheim published in The Atlantic Monthly in December 1911. A1916 labor anthology, The Cry for Justice, An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest by Upton Sinclair, attributed the phrase to the Lawrence strike, Bread and roses has also been attributed to socialist union organizer Rose Schneiderman. Founded in 1845, Lawrence was a flourishing but deeply troubled textile city, work in a textile mill took place at a grueling pace and the labor was repetitive and dangerous. In addition, a number of children under the age of 14 worked in the mills, half of the workers in the four Lawrence mills of the American Woolen Company, the leading employer in the industry and the town, were females between the ages of 14 and 18. By 1912, the Lawrence mills at maximum capacity employed about 32,000 men, women, conditions had grown even worse for workers in the decade before the strike. The introduction of the system in the woolen mills led to a dramatic speedup in the pace of work. The increase in production enabled the owners to lay off large numbers of workers. Those who kept their jobs earned, on average, $8.76 for 56 hours of work, the workers in Lawrence lived in crowded and dangerous apartment buildings, often with many families sharing each apartment. The mortality rate for children was 50% by age six,36 out of every 100 men and women who worked in the mill died before they reached 25, the average life expectancy was 39. Several thousand skilled workers belonged, in theory at least, to the American Federation of Labor-affiliated United Textile Workers, the Industrial Workers of the World had also been organizing for five years among workers in Lawrence, but also had only a few hundred actual members. On January 1,1912, a new law took effect in Massachusetts reducing the fifty-six-hour workweek to fifty-four hours for women and children

35.
Alfred Wagenknecht
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Alfred Wagenknecht was an American Marxist activist and political functionary. He is best remembered for having played a role in the establishment of the American Communist Party in 1919 as a leader of the Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party. Wagenknecht served as Executive Secretary of the Communist Labor Party of America, Alfred Wagenknecht, called Wag by many of his friends, was born August 15,1881 in Görlitz, Imperial Germany, the son of a shoemaker. Wagenknecht was drawn to politics at an early age, elected Organizer of the Pike Street Branch of Local Seattle. The next year saw Wagenknecht serving as the Press Agent for Local Seattle and he was an active member in the partys radical Pike Street Branch, which engaged in a long-running battle with the moderate Central Branch throughout the decade. In 1905 Wagenknecht married Hortense Allison, sister of party comrade Elmer Allison, Wagenknecht was prominent in the ongoing free speech fights which local Seattle had with city officials over the right to speak in public and hold meetings on city streets and sidewalks. Wagenknecht was elected to the State Committee of the Socialist Party of Washington in 1905 and was the paid Local Secretary-Treasurer of a newly reorganized Local Seattle in 1906. The pair argued their cases on the floor of the convention for 20 minutes each, in 1912 he was elected Assistant State Secretary of the SPW. In July 1913, Wagenknecht became Editor of the Everett, Washington Socialist weekly The Commonwealth, shortly after assuming editorship of The Commonwealth, Wagenknecht decided to move along, going to work for the National Office of the Socialist Party of America as a National Organizer. In 1914, he was elected to the governing National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party for the first time. After his stint in Chicago came to a close, Wagenknecht moved his family back to Ohio, after American entry into the war, Wagenknechts unyielding antimilitarism brought him into conflict with the law. State Secretary Wagenknecht was indicted along with Local Cuyahoga County head C. E. Ruthenberg, the trio were tried together and found guilty and sentenced to 1 year in the State Penitentiary on July 21,1917. This decision was upheld by the US Supreme Court on Jan,15,1918, and the three were not released until after completion of the sentence on Dec.8,1918. While still in jail Wagenknecht was selected by the June 14–16,1918 state convention of the Socialist Party of Ohio as the nominee for Ohio Secretary of State in the November election. Upon his release, Wag was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party and he was an early and fierce adherent of the Left Wing Manifesto authored by Louis C. Fraina and was active in the Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party and this effort was rebuffed by sitting Executive Secretary Adolph Germer and the partys Regular faction, however. Wagenknecht presided over this convention, which on August 31,1919. This convention elected Wagenknecht as National Secretary of the CLP, a role which he maintained throughout the brief history

36.
Workers International Relief
–
Not to be confused with International Red Aid, an organization established by the Comintern in 1922 to coordinate material and moral aid to so-called class war prisoners around the world. The organization, based in Berlin, later produced films and coordinated efforts on behalf of the USSR. Lenin regarded the ARA as mercenaries who were seeking to defeat Bolshevism by alleviating hunger in Soviet Russia, thus embarrassing the Bolshevist government as ineffective and incompetent. This attitude was echoed by left-leaning commentators and editors in the United States, in the view of Marxist historian E. H. WIR was formed by Willi Münzenberg, a member of the German Communist Party, Münzenberg came to Lenins attention through his activities as leader of the Young Communist International. With Soviet government funding, Münzenberg promptly set up a series of benignly-titled front organizations such as the Friends of Soviet Russia, in the FSR, socialist politician and womens rights campaigner Clara Zetkin served as president until her death in 1933. Initial funding of WIR was through secret Soviet funding in the form of ten million paper rubles issued directly from the Soviet Central Bank, Münzenberg recognized the potential for cinematic propaganda, and therefore the WIR imported Soviet films as well as producing their own films. In 1922 Münzenberg founded Aufbau Industrie und Handels AG to distribute Soviet films, hermann Basler led the office for film distribution, which in March 1923 with Polikuschka, production of Mezhrabpom-Rus for the first time brought a Soviet film into German cinemas. As Weimar Republic Germany imposed regulations against the importation of foreign films, WIR at first brought out only one film at its Austrian location however, Kurt Bernhardts directorial debut Nameless Heroes. Eventually, the Viennese center took over and produced films like Kuhle Wampe. In 1928 the WIR began to produce communist documentary films via the specialized film production company World Film, after Nazi takeover in 1933 the WIR was severely disrupted. The Secretariat of the Executive Committee of the Communist International decided to abolish WIR in October 1935, some of the organizations functions were continued by the International Red Aid. US, Friends of Soviet Russia International Red Aid Communist International Workers Film and Photo League Photo League Vance Kepley, the Workers International Relief and the Cinema of the Left 1921-1935, Cinema Journal, vol. In JSTOR Filmarchiv Austria website, Prometheus Film 1924-1932 www. kollwitz. de

37.
Communist International
–
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International, was an international communist organization that advocated world communism. The Comintern had seven World Congresses between 1919 and 1935 and it also had thirteen Enlarged Plenums of its governing Executive Committee, which had much the same function as the somewhat larger and more grandiose Congresses. The Comintern was officially dissolved by Joseph Stalin in 1943, while the differences had been evident for decades, World War I proved the issue that finally divided the revolutionary and reformist wings of the workers movement. The socialist movement had been historically antimilitarist and internationalist, and therefore opposed workers serving as fodder for the bourgeois governments at war. This especially since the Triple Alliance comprised two empires, while the Triple Entente gathered France and Britain into an alliance with Russia, karl Marxs The Communist Manifesto had stated that the working class has no country and exclaimed Proletarians of all countries, unite. Massive majorities voted in favor of resolutions for the Second International to call upon the working class to resist war if it were declared. Nevertheless, within hours of the declarations of war, almost all the socialist parties of the combatant states announced their support for the war, the only exceptions were the socialist parties of the Balkans. To Lenins surprise, even the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted in favor of war credits, Socialist parties in neutral countries mostly supported neutrality rather than total opposition to the war. The International divided into a left and a reformist right. Lenin condemned much of the center as social-pacifists for several reasons, Lenins term social-pacifist aimed in particular at Ramsay MacDonald, leader of the Independent Labour Party in Britain, who opposed the war on grounds of pacifism, but did not actively resist it. Discredited by its passivity towards world events, the Second International dissolved in the middle of the war in 1916, the victory of the Russian Communist Party in the Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917 was felt throughout the world. An alternative path to power to parliamentary politics was demonstrated, with much of Europe on the verge of economic and political collapse in the aftermath of the carnage of the Great War, revolutionary sentiments were widespread. The Bolsheviks believed that required a new international to ferment revolution in Europe. The Comintern was founded at a Congress held in Moscow March 2–6,1919, there were 52 delegates present from 34 parties. They decided to form an Executive Committee with representatives of the most important sections, the Congress decided that the Executive Committee would elect a five-member bureau to run the daily affairs of the International. However, such a bureau was not formed and Lenin, Trotsky, Zinoviev was assisted by Angelica Balabanoff, acting as the secretary of the International, Victor L. Kibaltchitch and Vladmir Ossipovich Mazin. Lenin, Trotsky and Alexandra Kollontai presented material, the main topic of discussion was the difference between bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat. The central policy of the Comintern under Lenins leadership was that Communist parties should be established across the world to aid the international proletarian revolution, in this period, the Comintern was promoted as the General Staff of the World Revolution

38.
Norman Thomas
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Norman Mattoon Thomas was an American Presbyterian minister who achieved fame as a socialist, pacifist, and six-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America. Thomas was the oldest of six children, born November 20,1884 in Marion, Ohio, to Emma Williams and Weddington Evans Thomas, a Presbyterian minister. Thomas had an uneventful Midwestern childhood and adolescence, helping to put himself through Marion High School as a carrier for Warren G. Hardings Marion Daily Star. Like other paper carriers, he reported directly to Florence Kling Harding, no pennies ever escaped her, said Thomas. The summer after he graduated high school his father accepted a pastorate at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. He left Bucknell after one year to attend Princeton University, the beneficiary of the largesse of an uncle by marriage. Thomas graduated magna cum laude from Princeton University in 1905, after some settlement house work and a trip around the world, Thomas decided to follow in his fathers footsteps and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary. He graduated from the seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911, Union Theological Seminary had been at that time a center of the Social Gospel movement and liberal politics, and as a minister, Thomas preached against American participation in the First World War. This pacifist stance led to his being shunned by many of his fellow alumni from Princeton, when church funding of the American Parishs social programs was stopped, Thomas resigned his pastorate. Despite his resignation, Thomas did not formally leave the ministry until 1931 and it was Thomas position as a conscientious objector which drew him to the Socialist Party of America, a staunchly antimilitarist organization. When SPA leader Morris Hillquit made his campaign for Mayor of New York in 1917 on an anti-war platform, to his surprise, Hillquit wrote back, encouraging the young minister to work for his campaign, which Thomas energetically did. Soon thereafter he joined the Socialist Party. Thomas was the secretary of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation even before the war, when the organization started a magazine called The World Tomorrow in January 1918, Thomas was employed as its paid editor. Together with Devere Allen, Thomas helped to make The World Tomorrow the leading voice of liberal Christian social activism of its day, in 1921, Thomas moved to secular journalism, when he was employed as associate editor of The Nation magazine. In 1922 Thomas became co-director of the League for Industrial Democracy, later, he was one of the founders of the National Civil Liberties Bureau, the precursor of the American Civil Liberties Union. Thomass political activity also included attempts at the US presidency, following Eugene Debss death in 1926, there was a leadership vacuum in the Socialist Party. Neither of the two top political leaders, Victor L. Berger and Hillquit, were eligible to run for president because of their foreign birth. The third main figure, Daniel Hoan, was occupied as mayor of Milwaukee, the 1928 campaign was the first of Thomass six consecutive campaigns as the presidential nominee of the Socialist Party

39.
Robert W. Dunn
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Robert Williams Bob Dunn was an American political activist and economic researcher. Dunn was an member of the American Civil Liberties Union from its creation, serving on that groups National Committee from 1923. Dunn was the author of a number of books and pamphlets on economic themes relating to the working class published by the Communist Party USA, Robert Williams Bob Dunn was born June 1,1895, in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, the son of a lawyer. Raised as a Quaker, Bob Dunn attended elementary and secondary school in his hometown of Huntingdon before leaving to attend Yale University, while at college, Dunns pacifist philosophical beliefs moved into the political realm. Dunn was elected the President of the Collegiate Anti-Militarism League in 1916 and he was also elected President of the Yale chapter of the Intercollegiate Socialist Society in 1917. After graduation from Yale with a Bachelors degree in 1918, Dunn went to work for A. J, muste as the secretary of Mustes Union for Democratic Control in Boston. He became the organizer for Mustes nascent Amalgamated Textile Workers Union the following year. After a raid on ATWU headquarters during the First Red Scare, shortly thereafter, Dunn became secretary for the New England Civil Liberties Bureau. Dunn also conducted research projects on behalf of the ATWU, served as a fellow for the New School for Social Research, and served as publicity director for the American Friends Service Committee. Dunn returned to the United States in May 1923, being closely questioned upon his arrival by an agent of the Justice Departments Bureau of Investigation, forerunner of the FBI. It is not certain in what year Dunn joined the Communist Party, Dunn became an associate director of the American Civil Liberties Union shortly after his return from Soviet Russia, serving as acting director from May to October 1923. He was also a contributor to the almanac published by the Rand School of Social Science. Dunn also served as the publicity director of the Russian-American Industrial Corporation, together with Grace Hutchins and Anna Rochester, Dunn formed a radical economic research institute called the Labor Research Association in 1927. He remained Executive Secretary of this body until 1975, Dunns Labor Research Association was best known for its biannual almanac, the Labor Fact Book, published by the Communist Party-affiliated International Publishers from 1933. Bob Dunn died in January 1977 at the age of 81, Dunns papers were donated to Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan in May 1964 and were opened for research the following year. The Papers of the Labor Research Association are held by the Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, pen Pictures of Russian Village Life During the Famine. Philadelphia, American Friends Service Committee,1923, huebsch and the Viking Press,1926. Labor and Textiles, A Study of Cotton and Wool Manufacturing, New York, International Pamphlets,1932 International pamphlets, #17 What War Means to the Workers, Answering the Question, Will War Bring Back Prosperity

40.
American Civil Liberties Union
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It works through litigation and lobbying. The ACLU has 1,000,000 members and a budget of over $100 million. Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in almost all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk. In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have established by its board of directors. The two organizations share office space and employees, during the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLUs cases involved the defense of Communist party members, in 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps, during the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-Communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party. By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, in the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War, in the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 election, the ACLUs current membership is more than 1.2 million, the ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2015. The president acts as chairman of the ACLUs board of directors, leads fundraising, the executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, the organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions, in 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Fords right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists, in 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Spocks anti-war activism. In 1973, there was conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon. In 2005, there was conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes. Membership dues are treated as donations, members choose the amount they pay annually, in the year ending March 31,2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs, management, and fundraising

41.
Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency

42.
Civil and political rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes

43.
John Haynes Holmes
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John Haynes Holmes was a prominent Unitarian minister, pacifist, and co-founder of the NAACP and the ACLU. He is noted for his anti-war activism and he was a cousin of President of the Massachusetts Senate Newland H. Holmes. He studied at Harvard, graduating in 1902, and Harvard Divinity School and he was then called to his first church in Dorchester, Massachusetts. He married Madeleine Baker in 1904, they had two children, Roger and Frances, in 1907 he was called to the Church of the Messiah in New York City. He served as its Senior Minister until 1918 and he wrote many books, many hymns, and a play, If This Be Treason, that had a brief run on Broadway. He was a lecturer and debater, including a debate over Prohibition with Clarence Darrow. He helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People in 1909 and he became chairman from 1940 to 1950, after the resignation of Harry F. Ward. He was succeeded as ACLU Chairman by Ernest Angell and he worked closely with Rabbi Stephen Samuel Wise of New York, the book Rabbi and Minister details this friendship and their working relationship on social, religious and political causes. He was one of the people who publicized the work of Gandhi from his pulpit in the United States, Holmes describes his meetings and he left the American Unitarian Association in 1918 due to differences over its policy towards World War I, but continued to preach at his church. His church became non-denominational, it renamed itself The Community Church of New York, members of the church, however, insisted that the church retain its AUA membership. He rejoined the AUA in 1960, just before the Unitarian and Universalist churches merged and he served as the Senior Minister of The Community Church of New York from 1918-1949. He was Minister Emeritus at the Community Church after his retirement and he was a recipient of the Gandhi Peace Award. On May 25,1919, Holmes was one of the speakers at a rally held in Madison Square Gardens, which demanded that the U. S. government stop support for the enemies of the Bolshevik regime in Russia. Following the publication of a cartoon by Theodor Geisel mocking Holmes in the New York newspaper PM on January 13,1942, Geisel responded January 21,1942, In response to the letters defending John Haynes Holmes. Sure, I believe in love, brotherhood and a white pigeon on every mans roof. I even think its nice to have pacifists and strawberry festivals. in between wars, but right now, when the Japs are planting their hatchets in our skulls, it seem like a hell of a time for us to smile and warble, Brothers. It is a rather flabby battlecry, If we want to win, weve got to kill Japs, whether it depresses John Haynes Holmes or not. We can get palsy-walsy afterward with those that are left, Holmes stand as a pacifist through two world wars was not popular nor easy

The City College of the City University of New York (more commonly referred to as the City College of New York, or …

Shepard Hall, rear entrance, looking east from Convent Avenue, City College of New York, 2010

City College of New York in 2010, North Campus, looking west. Wingate Hall on the left, Townsend Harris Hall in the background.

A view of the original entrance to Shepard Hall, the main building of the City College of New York, in the early 1900s, on its new campus in Hamilton Heights, from St. Nicholas Avenue looking up westward to St. Nicholas Terrace

Statue of General Alexander S. Webb (1835-1911), second president of CCNY (1869-1903)

The eight-hour day movement or 40-hour week movement, also known as the short-time movement, was a social movement to …

The Modern Bed of Procrustes Procrustes. "Now then, you fellows; I mean to fit you all to my little bed!" Chorus. "Oh lor-r!!" "It is impossible to establish universal uniformity of hours without inflicting very serious injury to workers." – Motion at the recent Trades' Congress. Cartoon from Punch, Vol 101, 19 September 1891