Tamil NāduNadustate of India. It is , located in the extreme south of the subcontinent. The state has an area of 50,215 square miles (130,057 square kilometres). It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the east and south and by the states of Kerala to the west, Karnātaka Karnataka (formerly Mysore) to the northwest, and Andhra Pradesh to the north. Enclosed by Tamil Nadu along the north-central coast are the enclaves of Puducherry and Karaikal, both of which are part of Puducherry union territory. The capital is Chennai (Madras), on the coast in the northeastern portion of the state.

Tamil Nādu Nadu represents the Tamil-speaking area of what was formerly the Madras Presidency of British India. The Tamils are especially proud of their Dravidian language and culture, and they have notably resisted attempts by the union central government to make Hindi (an Indo-Aryan language) the sole national language. While it has an industrial core in MadrasChennai, the state is essentially agricultural.

Tamil Nadu is divided naturally between the flat country along the eastern coast and the hilly regions in the north and west. The broadest part of the eastern plains is the fertile Kāveri Kaveri (Cauvery) River delta; farther south are the arid plains of Rāmanāthapuram flatlands surrounding the cities of Ramanathapuram and Madurai (Madura). The high Western Ghāts range runs all peaks of the Western Ghats run along the state’s western border. The lower hills Various segments of this mountain range— including the Nilgiri, Anaimalai, and Palni hills—have peaks exceeding 8,000 feet (2,400 metres) in elevation. Anai Peak, at 8,842 feet (2,695 metres) in the Anaimalai Hills, is the highest mountain in peninsular India. The lower peaks of the Eastern Ghāts Ghats and its their outliers—locally called the JavādisJavadi, KalrāyansKalrayan, and Shevaroys—run Shevaroy hills—run through the centre of the region. The important rivers include the KāveriTamil Nadu’s major rivers—the Kaveri, the PonnaiyārPonnaiyar, the PālārPalar, the Vaigai, and the Tāmbraparni, all of which flow Tambraparni—flow eastward from the inland hills.The Kāveri and its tributaries are Tamil Nādu’s most important sources of water and power.

Apart from the rich alluvial soil of the river deltas, the predominant soils of the state are clays, loams, sands, and red laterites (soils with a high content of iron oxides and aluminum hydroxide). The black cotton-growing soil known as regur is found in parts of Salem and Coimbatore in the central, west-central, Rāmanāthapuram and Tirunelveli in the south, and Tiruchchirāppalli in the central region and southeastern regions of Tamil NāduNadu.

Climate

The climate of Tamil Nadu is essentially tropical. The temperature in summer seldom exceeds 109° F (43° C) and in winter seldom falls below 64° F (18° C). The lowest temperatures are recorded during In May and June, the hottest months, maximum daily temperatures in Chennai average about 100 °F (38 °C), while minimum temperatures average in the low 80s F (upper 20s C). In December and January, and the highest in April to Junethe coolest months, temperatures usually rise from about 70 °F (21 °C) into the mid-80s F (about 30 °C) daily. The average annual rainfallprecipitation, falling mainly between October and December, depends on the southwest and northeast monsoons and ranges between 25 and 75 inches (635 630 and 1,905 millimetres900 mm) a year. The mountainous and hilly areas, especially in the extreme western part of the state, receive the most precipitationfalls in the Nīlgiris and other hill areas, the least in the Rāmanāthapuram and Tirunelveli districts.Forests cover about , while the lower-lying southern and southeastern regions receive the least rainfall.

Plant and animal life

Forests cover roughly 15 percent of the state. At the highest altitudes of elevations in the Western Ghāts—the Nīlgiri, Anaimalai, and Palni Hills—the Ghats, the mountains support subalpine vegetation. Along the eastern side of the Western Ghāts Ghats and in the hills of the northern and central districts, the plant life is a mixture of evergreen and deciduous plantsspecies, some of which are markedly adapted to arid conditions.Timber products extracted from the forests include sandalwood, pulpwood, and bamboo. Rubber is also an important forest product. The state’s aquatic birds are represented in the bird sanctuary at Vedantāngal; other forms of wildlife may be seen in the game sanctuary at Mudumalai.

The people

The area’s population Tamil Nadu has several national parks and more than a dozen wildlife and bird sanctuaries. Among the most notable of these protected areas are the Mudlumbai Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park in the Nilgiri Hills and the large Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park at the southern tip of the Western Ghats. These sanctuaries provide a safe habitat for a broad spectrum of fauna, including elephants, gaurs (wild cattle), Nilgiri tahrs (goatlike mammals), wild boars, sloth bears, and various species of deer. Tigers, leopards, and an assortment of primates, including macaques, langurs, and lorises, also inhabit these areas. Venomous king cobras are among the many species of reptiles that make their home in Tamil Nadu. Woodpeckers and flycatchers are common woodland birds; aquatic birds find a haven at the Vedantangal sanctuary in the south-central part of the state.

People

Population composition

The area’s population evidently has changed little over the centuries, largely representing the ancient Dravidian ancestry indigenous to southern India. Most of the hill tribes exhibit affinities with certain Southeast Asian peoples. In Tamil Nādu. As speakers of a Dravidian language, the Tamils, who constitute the majority of the population, are understood to be descendants of the early inhabitants of India (the so-called Dravidians), who were driven southward between about 2000 and 1500 BCE when the Aryans (speakers of Indo-Aryan languages) descended into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the Tamils, the population includes various indigenous communities, who live primarily in the hill regions; these people also speak Dravidian languages. In Tamil Nadu, as in the rest of the country, the caste system is still strong, even though discrimination has been banned by the constitution of India. Members of Scheduled Castes (an official category embracing those groups that traditionally occupy low positions within the caste system) account for about one-fifth of the population. Scheduled Tribes (those indigenous peoples who fall outside the caste hierarchy) account for just a small fraction of Tamil Nadu’s residents.

Tamil, the official state language, is spoken by most of the people. For a considerable number of the population that have long resided in the state, Tamil has almost become a mother tongue. Telugu is spoken by almost 10 percent of the population; Kannaḍa, Urdū, and Malayālam Other Dravidian languages used within the state include Telugu, which is spoken by roughly one-tenth of the population, as well as Kannada and Malayalam, which are spoken by much smaller percentagesnumbers. In the Nīlgiri district in the west, Kannaḍa western region—near the convergence of the borders of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala—Kannada (and its dialect BaḍagaBadaga) and Malayālam Malayalam are stronger. There also is a community of Urdu (an Indo-Aryan language) speakers. English is spoken used as a subsidiary language.

The main religions in the state are Hinduism, Christianity, Islām, and Jainism. Followers of the first three religions are found in all districts, but Jainas are confined to North and South Arcot and Madras city. Hindus constitute the overwhelming majority of the population. The largest concentration of Christians is in the Tirunelveli and Kanniyākumari districts. The growth of atheism is a recent development, possibly as a protest against Brahman ritualism.Although Tamil Nādu overwhelming majority of Tamil Nadu’s residents practice Hinduism. There are, however, notable minorities of Christians and Muslims, with a large concentration of Christians in the far southern segment of the state. A small community of Jains is found in northern Tamil Nadu, in and around the cities of Arcot and Chennai.

Settlement patterns

Although Tamil Nadu is one of the most urbanized states of India, it is still a rural land. Most of the people live in more than 64,000 nucleated villages. The poorest low-caste villagers live in segregated areas called cēri. The Madras metropolitan conurbationmore than half the population in the early 21st century continued to live in rural areas. The Chennai metropolitan region, covering the industrial areas, townships, and villages surrounding Madras Chennai city, has the largest population, but there are other conurbations, of which those around Madurai, Coimbatore, and Tiruchchirāppalli are the most important.

The economyAgriculture

. Other important urban agglomerations include Coimbatore in western Tamil Nadu, Madurai in the south-central region, and Tiruchchirappalli in the central part of the state.

Economy

Agriculture, fishing, and forestry

Agriculture is the mainstay of life for about

three-quarters of the rural population. From

half the working population of Tamil Nadu. Since very early times, Tamil farmers have skillfully conserved scarce rainwater in small and large irrigation reservoirs, or “tanks.” Government canals, tube wells, and ordinary wells also form part of the irrigation system. Because several of the river valley projects depend for water on rain brought by the erratic northeast monsoon, the government

is trying to tap

also taps subsoil water sources.

Agricultural practices have

undergone

shown radical improvement since

1950. Multiple

the mid-20th century through multiple cropping, the use of

new

stronger and

better

more productive strains of

rice, cotton, sugar, and millet, and the use of chemical fertilizers have been widely adopted. By 1967 the state was

staple crops, and the application of chemical fertilizers; since the late 1960s the state has been self-sufficient in the production of food grains.

Rice,

The principal crops for domestic consumption are rice, millet, and other cereals, as well as peanuts (groundnuts) and pulses (such as chickpeas); sugarcane, cotton,

chilies, bananas, coffee, tea, rubber, and sugarcane

cashews, and chilies are important cash crops.

IndustryImproved port facilities and the effective use of electric power resources have helped industrial development. The state is one of the most industrialized of the Indian states. The important minerals

Many farmers in Tamil Nadu also raise livestock, primarily cows (especially for the dairy industry), poultry, goats, and sheep.

Tamil Nadu is one of India’s top fish producers, with most of the yield coming from marine operations, although there also are many inland fisheries. In addition, the state has an active forestry sector, with pulpwood, babul (a type of acacia that yields valuable tannin), firewood, bamboo, and teak among the primary products. Rubber, grown largely in plantations, is important as well.

Cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving continue to be the major industries, followed by the production of automobiles, motorcycles, transformers, sugar, agricultural implements, fertilizers, cement, paper, chemicals, and electric motors. The railway-coach factory at Perambur

The opencast lignite mine at Neyveli, in the north-central part of the state, is among the largest in India, and its products are used to fuel a thermal-power plant that provides much of the state’s electricity. The bulk of Tamil Nadu’s energy comes from thermal stations, but hydroelectric plants—especially along the Kaveri River and its tributaries—provide an important secondary source of energy. The state also is a leader in wind-power generation.

Manufacturing

Tamil Nadu is one of the most industrialized of the Indian states, and the manufacturing sector accounts for more than one-third of the state’s gross product. Production of heavy vehicles—such as automobiles, agricultural equipment, military vehicles, and railway cars—is among the state’s major industries; the railway-coach factory at Perambur (near Chennai) is one of the largest in Asia

; the Heavy Vehicles Factory, producing tanks, is at Āvadi, near Madras

. There is an oil refinery

at Madras and a larger thermal-power project at Neyveli; both are public-sector ventures. The state ranks second only to Kerala in the production of fish.Tamil Nādu is rich in handicrafts; notable among them are handloomed silk, metal icons, leather work,

and petrochemical plant in Chennai. Other prominent manufacturing activities include textile milling, food processing, and the production of pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and electronic parts and equipment. Tamil Nadu also is rich in handicrafts, most notably brass, bronze, and copper ware, leather work, handloomed silk, kalamkari (hand-painted fabric, using natural dyes),

brass, bronze, and copper wares, and

and articles fashioned from carved wood, palm leaf, and cane

articles.

.

Services

The services sector has grown especially rapidly since the late 20th century, and by the early 21st century it had become the largest contributor to Tamil Nadu’s economy. Expansion of the information-technology industry has been a priority of the state’s economic development policies. Tourism also has been an area of emphasis, with ongoing improvements in infrastructure, accommodations, restaurants, and cultural and recreational attractions.

Transportation

The transport system of the southern Indian states converges on

Madras. Many railways run through Tamil Nādu. The artificial harbour of Madras handles seaborne traffic. Apart from the international airport at Meenāmbakkam near Madras, there are three other airports at Tiruchchirāppalli, Madurai, and Coimbatore. There is a network of motorable roads. Passenger bus transport is being nationalized; express buses take passengers to all important towns and places of interest.Administration and social conditionsGovernment

The governor, the Legislative Assembly (Vidhān Sabhā), the Legislative Council (Vidhān Parishad), and the chief minister and his Council of Ministers together constitute the legislative and executive branches of the state government. The ministries are housed in Fort St. George in Madras, though the offices of several heads of departments are located in multistoried buildings outside the fort.

The state has 20

Chennai. A well-developed road network makes express bus service available to all major towns and places of interest. Many railways also run through the state.

Two of India’s major seaports are located in Tamil Nadu—in the north at Chennai and in the south at Tuticorin. The international airport at Meenambakkam, near Chennai, is one of the largest airports in India. Domestic flights are available from a number of other cities, including Madurai, Coimbatore, and Tuticorin; the airport at Tiruchchirappalli offers domestic and limited international service.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The structure of the government of Tamil Nadu, like that of most other states of India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, who is appointed by the president of India. The governor is aided and advised by the Council of Ministers, which is led by a chief minister and is responsible to the elected unicameral Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). Most of the ministries are housed in the 17th-century Fort St. George in Chennai. The state’s judiciary is headed by the High Court in Chennai (Madras High Court), which has original jurisdiction for the city and appellate jurisdiction for the state; the High Court also may hear original cases of an extraordinary nature from other parts of Tamil Nadu. A bench of the High Court is located in Madurai. Lower courts include district and sessions courts, magistrates’ courts, and munsifs’ (subordinate judicial officers’) courts.

The state is divided into more than two dozen administrative districts, each administered by a district collector. Lower administrative and revenue units are

divisions

called talukas, firkas, and villages.

All these units are responsible to the Revenue Department and the Board of Revenue. After independence, new units—pañcāyat

Panchayats (village councils)

—were established

are responsible for

purposes of

local self-government and rural development.

Above the pañcāyat there are pañcāyat unions and development councils.

The state’s judiciary is headed by the High Court at Madras; there are district judges and magistrates at the lower levels.

HealthCholera, malaria, and Health

The medical needs of Tamil Nadu’s population are served by a large number of public and private hospitals, dispensaries, and primary health centres. Allopathic (Western), Ayurvedic and Siddha (traditional Indian), Unanī (a Muslim system using prescribed herbs and shrubs), and homeopathic medical treatments are all recognized and supported by the government and are available throughout the state. Among Tamil Nadu’s primary health concerns are cholera, malaria, filariasis (disease caused by infestation of the blood and tissues by parasitic worms), and HIV/AIDS infection. The state has largely brought leprosy under control, although thousands of cases are

the chief endemic diseases. Urban sanitation and drainage are substandard. There are a large number of public and private hospitals, dispensaries, and primary health centres in the state.EducationIn Tamil Nādu the literacy rate is about 45 percent. There are primary and middle schools, high schools, and arts and science colleges, as well as

still treated annually.

Various government agencies sponsor programs to improve the housing, education, and economic status of the Scheduled Castes and other traditionally disadvantaged groups. The state also provides assistance to women, children, and people with disabilities. A special insurance program is available for those with autism, cerebral palsy, and other developmental disabilities.

Education

Tens of thousands of public and private primary, middle, and high schools are scattered across the state of Tamil Nadu. In addition, there are numerous arts and science colleges, medical colleges, engineering colleges, polytechnic institutes, and industrial training institutes.

There are universities located at Madras, Chidambaram, Coimbatore, and Madurai. The Dakshina Bharat Hindī Prachār Sabhā (1918) at Madras and the Gāndhīgrām Rural Institute (1956) at Gāndhīgrām

Among the most prominent of Tamil Nadu’s universities are the University of Madras (1857) and Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (1989), both in Chennai, Annamalai University (1929) in Chidambaram; Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (1971) in Coimbatore; and Madurai Kamaraj University (1966) in Madurai. The Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha (1918) in Chennai and the Gandhigram Rural University (1956) in Gandhigram, in southwest-central Tamil Nadu, are the two institutes of national importance that are engaged in popularizing the Hindi language and Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of rural higher education, respectively.

A vigorous effort has been made to make Tamil instead of English the medium of instruction at the university level.

Welfare

The lowest castes, called Harijans (Children of God), continue to be the most miserable section of the Hindu population. The Department of Harijan Welfare is in charge of programs to improve their housing, education, and economy. Government positions are reserved for them, and there are also reserved constituencies for them for elections to the state and union legislatures. The State Social Welfare Board and the Department of Women’s Welfare are concerned with the problems of the handicapped, widows, and children. The state government provides free midday meals for children at the elementary schools.

Cultural lifeThe cultural milieuDespite attempts to break the religious and political power of the priestly Brahman caste, Hinduism remains

Tamil University (1981) near Thanjavur (Tanjore), in the eastern part of the state, focuses on the study of Tamil language, literature, and culture.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

Hinduism lies at the core of the culture

. The more than 9,300 larger temples come under the administrative control of the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department. In most towns—and particularly in Chidambaram, Kānchipuram, Thanjāvūr (Tanjore), and Madurai—the

of Tamil Nadu. Among the most famous of the state’s temples, which number in the tens of thousands, are the 7th- and 8th-century structures at Mamallapura, which were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The gopurams, or gateway towers

(see photograph)

, of

the

such temples are dominant in most towns, particularly Chidambaram, Kanchipuram, Thanjavur, and Madurai. The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Administration Department is responsible for the administration of the state’s temples and sanctuaries.

The cycle of temple festivals attracts large congregations of devotees. Noteworthy also are the car festivals, during which large chariots decorated with religious icons are taken in procession around the temple.

Hindu families owe allegiance to a number of

In addition, Tamil Nadu is scattered with sectarian monastic institutions, or

maṭhs, of

mathas—of which the most important is the

Śaṅkara Maṭh at Kumbakonam

Shankara Matha at Kumbakonam—which hold various activities; Hindu families typically owe allegiance to a number of such institutions.

The artsBhārata-nāṭya

Bharata natyam, one of India’s major classical dance forms, and

Karnatic music

Carnatic music (South Indian classical music) are both widely practiced. Painting and sculpture

, however,

are less

developed

prominent, although there are schools that teach the art of sculpture in stone and bronze. Tamil literature rapidly

adapted to

adopted the Western literary forms of the novel and the short story. The poet Subrahmanya Bharati (

who died in 1922

1882–1921) was one of the first to modify traditional Tamil poetry

. Since the 1940s, the motion picture has become the most popular

by blending popular and scholastic literary styles. Motion pictures are the most prevalent form of mass entertainment. There are both touring and permanent

cinema

movie theatres

;

, and sentimental and spectacular films, often featuring

light

music and dancing, are produced by the film studios situated largely around

Madras.The press

Chennai.

Media and publishing

Hundreds of periodicals are published in Tamil, most

being

of them daily newspapers. The Dina Thanthi is the leading paper. Among English newspapers, The Hindu of

Madras maintains excellent journalistic standards

Chennai is widely read and is respected for its high standard of journalism.

History

The history of Tamil Nādu Nadu begins with the establishment of a trinity of Tamil powers in the region—namely, the CēraChera, CoḷaChola, and Pāṇḍya kingdoms. By about AD 200 the influence of northern Aryan powers had progressed, and the Aryan sage Agastya had established himself as a cultural hero. The use of Roman gold and lamps and the consumption of Italian wine testify to the extensive foreign trade of the periodPandya kingdoms—all of which are of unknown antiquity. These kingdoms enjoyed diplomatic and trade relations with distant lands. The Pandyas were mentioned in Greek literature dating to the 4th century BCE, and in the 4th century CE, the Roman emperor Julian welcomed a Pandyan embassy. Meanwhile, the Chera dynasty cultivated a flourishing trade with western Asia.

From the mid-6th century until the 9th century, the Cālukyas Chalukyas of BādāmiBadami, the Pallavas of KāñcīKanchi (now Kanchipuram), and the Pāṇḍyas Pandyas of Madurai fought a long series of wars in the region. The period, nonetheless, was marked by a revival of Hinduism and the advance of the fine arts. From about AD850, Tamil Nādu Nadu was dominated by the CoḷasCholas, of whom Rājendra Rajendrachola Deva I (reigned 1014–44) was the most distinguished ruler. In the mid-14th century, the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, which included all of Tamil NāduNadu, came into prominence. During the 300 years of Vijayanagar rule, Telugu-speaking governors and officials were introduced in the administration.

In 1640 the English East India Company of England opened a trading post at the fishing village of Madraspatnam (now MadrasChennai) with the permission of the local ruler. The history of Tamil Nādu Nadu from the mid-17th century to 1946 is the story of the British-controlled Madras Presidency in relationship to the rise and fall of British power in India. After 1946 Indian independence in 1947, the Madras Presidency was able to make steady progress, as it had a stable government. In 1953 the Telugu-speaking became Madras state. The state’s Telugu-speaking areas were separated to form part of the new state of Andhra Pradesh was formed, and in 1956 the presidency was further divided into the states of Kerala, Mysore (now Karnātaka), and Tamil Nāduin 1953. In 1956 Madras was divided further, with some areas going to the new state of Kerala and other areas becoming part of Mysore (now Karnataka). What remained of Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968.