The term Bhujinmol means "fly-headed", from the Nepal Bhasa words "bhujin", meaning "housefly", and "mol", meaning "head". The "head" is the horizontal line that is put above each letter, and Bhujimol refers to its rounded shape.[citation needed]

In 2003, a brick was discovered in Chabahil, in the course of reconstruction of the Chabahil Stupa or Dhando Chaitya, bearing inscriptions in both Brahmi and Bhujimol: The upper face is inscribed with Cha Ru Wa Ti in Brahmi, and with Cha Ru Wa Ti Dhande / He Tu Pra Bha in Bhujimol script. There are Swastika marks at the two ends of the upper face with a Chakra mark in between. The brick measures 35.5 cm x 23 cm x 7 cm and weighs 8.6 kg. The brick may date to as early as the 3rd century BC.[citation needed]

The previously earliest known inscription in the Kathmandu Valley dates from the 6th century and is installed at Changu Narayan. The inscription is interpreted to refer to Charumati, a daughter of emperor Ashoka.

1.
Devi Mahatmya
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The Devi Mahatmya or Devi Mahatmyam, or Glory of the Goddess) is a Hindu religious text describing the Goddess as the supreme power and creator of the universe. It is part of the Markandeya Purana, and estimated to have composed in Sanskrit between 400-600 CE. Devi Mahatmyam is also known as the Durgā Saptashatī or Caṇḍī Pāṭha, the text contains 700 verses arranged into 13 chapters. Along with Devi-Bhagavata Purana and Shakta Upanishads such as the Devi Upanishad, in peaceful prosperous times, states the text, the Devi manifests as Lakshmi, empowering wealth creation and happiness. The verses of this story also outline a philosophical foundation wherein the ultimate reality is female, the text is one of the earliest extant complete manuscripts from the Hindu traditions which describes reverence and worship of the feminine aspect of God. The Devi Mahatmya is often ranked in some Hindu traditions to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita, the Devi Mahatmya has been particularly popular in eastern states of India, such as West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Assam, as well as Nepal. It is recited during Navratri celebrations, the Durga Puja festival, Sanskrit māhātmya-, magnanimity, highmindedness, majesty is a neuter abstract noun of māha-ātman-, or great soul. The title devīmāhātmyam is a compound, literally translating to the magnanimity of the goddess. The text is called Saptaśati, as it contains 700 shlokas, Caṇḍī or Caṇḍīka is the name by which the Supreme Goddess is referred to in Devī Māhātmya. According to Coburn, Caṇḍīkā is the violent and impetuous one, from the adjective caṇḍa, fierce, violent, the epithet has no precedent in Vedic literature and is first found in a late insertion to the Mahabharata, where Chaṇḍa and Chaṇḍī appear as epithets. One of the earliest evidence of reverence for the aspect of God appears in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda. Hymns to goddesses are in the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata, particularly in the later added Harivamsa section of it. The archaeological and textual evidence implies, states Thomas Coburn, that the Goddess had become as much a part of the Hindu tradition, as God, Devi Mahatmya is a text extracted from Markandeya Purana, and constitutes the latters chapters 81 through 93. The Purana is dated to the ~3rd century CE, and the Devi Mahatmya was added to the Markandeya Purana either in the 5th or 6th century, the Dadhimati Mata inscription quotes a portion from the Devi Mahatmya. Thus, it can be concluded that the text was composed before the 7th century CE and it is generally dated between 400-600 CE. Wendy Doniger OFlaherty dates the Devi Mahatmya to c.550 CE, the Devi Mahatmya text is a devotional text, and its aim, states Thomas Coburn, is not to analyze divine forms or abstract ideas, but to praise. This it accomplishes with a foundation, wherein the female is the primordial creator, she is also the Tridevi as the secondary creator, the sustainer. She is presented, through a language of praise, as the one who dwells in all creatures, as the soul, as the power to know, the power to will and the power to act

2.
Bihar
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Bihar is a state in the eastern part of India. It is the 13th-largest state of India, with an area of 94,163 km2. The third-largest state of India by population, it is contiguous with Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the Bihar plain is split by the river Ganges which flows from west to east. On November 15,2000, southern Bihar was ceded to form the new state of Jharkhand, only 11. 3% of the population of Bihar lives in urban areas, which is lowest in India after Himachal Pradesh. Additionally, almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, the official languages of the state are Hindi and Urdu. Other languages commonly used within the state include Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi, Bajjika, in ancient and classical India, Bihar was considered a centre of power, learning, and culture. From Magadha arose Indias first empire, the Maurya empire, as well as one of the worlds most widely adhered-to religions, Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Another region of Bihar is Mithila which was a centre of Brahmanical learning. Since the late 1970s, Bihar has lagged far behind other Indian states in terms of social, the state government has, however, made significant strides in developing the state. The name Bihar is derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word, Vihara, the region roughly encompassing the present state was dotted with Buddhist vihara, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval periods. Medieval writer Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani records in the Tabakat-i-Nasiri that in 1198, Bakhtiyar Khalji committed a massacre in a town now known as Bihar Sharif, chirand, on the northern bank of the Ganga River, in Saran district, has an archaeological record from the Neolithic age. Regions of Bihar—such as Magadha, Mithila and Anga—are mentioned in religious texts, the power centre of ancient Bihar was in the region of modern-day southwestern Bihar called Magadha, which remained the centre of power, learning, and culture in India for 1000 years. The Haryanka dynasty, founded in 684 BC, ruled Magadha from the city of Rajgriha, the two well-known kings from this dynasty were Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned his father to ascend the throne. Ajatashatru founded the city of Pataliputra which later became the capital of Magadha and he declared war and conquered the Vajji of north Bihar, another powerful Mahajanapada north of Ganges with its capital at Vaishali. Vaishali was ruled by the Licchavi clan, who had a form of government where the king was elected from the number of rajas. The Haryanka dynasty was followed by the Shishunaga dynasty, later the Nanda Dynasty ruled a vast tract stretching from Bengal to Punjab. The Nanda dynasty was replaced by the Maurya Empire, Indias first empire, the Maurya Empire and the religion of Buddhism arose in the region that now makes up modern Bihar. The Mauryan Empire, which originated from Magadha in 325 BC, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya and it had its capital at Pataliputra

3.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022

4.
Devanagari
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Devanagari, also called Nagari, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical rounded shapes within squared outlines. The Nagari script has roots in the ancient Brāhmī script family, the Nagari script was in regular use by the 7th century CE and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium. Nagari has been the primus inter pares of the Indic scripts, the Devanagari script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts. The Devanagari script is closely related to the Nandinagari script commonly found in ancient manuscripts of South India. Devanagari script has forty-seven primary characters, of which fourteen are vowels, the ancient Nagari script for Sanskrit had two additional consonantal characters. The script has no distinction similar to the capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, generally the orthography of the script reflects the pronunciation of the language. Devanagari is part of the Brahmic family of scripts of India, Nepal, Tibet and it is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of the Nagari-related scripts, with biscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nagari scripts, the 7th-century Tibetan king Srong-tsan-gambo ordered that all foreign books be transcribed into the Tibetan language. Other closely related scripts such as Siddham Matrka was in use in Indonesia, Vietnam, Japan, Sharada remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Nāgarī is the Sanskrit feminine of Nāgara relating or belonging to a town or city and it is a phrasing with lipi as nāgarī lipi script relating to a city, or spoken in city. The use of the name devanāgarī is relatively recent, and the older term nāgarī is still common, the rapid spread of the term devanāgarī may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish Sanskrit texts in print since the 1870s. As a Brahmic abugida, the principle of Devanagari is that each letter represents a consonant. This is usually written in Latin as a, though it is represented as in the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya is derived क्नय् knay, the halant is often used for consonant clusters when typesetting conjunct ligatures is not feasible. Consonant clusters are written with ligatures, for example, the three consonants क्, न्, and य्, when written consecutively without virāma form कनय, as shown above. Alternatively, they may be joined as clusters to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya and this system was originally created for use with the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which have a very limited number of clusters. When applied to Sanskrit, however, it added a deal of complexity to the script

5.
Nepalese scripts
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The Nepalese scripts are alphabetic writing systems of Nepal. They have been used primarily to write both the national Indo-European language of Nepali plus some Tibeto-Burman languages such as Newari, the older alphabets, known as Brahmic scripts, were in widespread use from the 10th to the early 20th century A. C. E. But have since been supplanted by the modern script known as Devanagari. Of the older scripts, about 50,000 manuscripts written in Nepal Lipi have been archived, outside of Nepal, Brahmi scripts also have been used to write Sanskrit, Hindi, Maithili, Bengali and Braj Bhasha languages. They have reportedly used to inscribe mantras on funerary markers as distant as Japan as well. Nepal or Nepalese script appeared in the 10th century, the earliest instance is a manuscript entitled Lankavatara Sutra dated Nepal Era 28. Another early specimen is a manuscript of a Buddhist text the Prajnaparamita. One of the oldest manuscript of Ramayana, preserved till date, was written in Nepal Script in 1041, the script has been used on stone and copper plate inscriptions, coins, palm-leaf documents and Hindu and Buddhist manuscripts. Among the different scripts based on Nepal script, Ranjana, Bhujinmol, Ranjana is the most ornate among the scripts. It is most commonly used to write Buddhist texts and inscribe mantras on prayer wheels, the popular Buddhist mantra Om mani padme hum (meaning is often written in Ranjana. Besides the Kathmandu Valley and the Himalayan region in Nepal, the Ranjana script is used for sacred purposes in Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Bhutan, Sikkim and Ladakh. The Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Tibet is ornamented with mantras embossed in Ranjana script, in 1906, the Rana regime banned Nepal Bhasa, Nepal Era and Nepal Lipi from official use as part of its policy to subdue them, and the script fell into decline. Authors were also encouraged to switch to Devanagari to write Nepal Bhasa because of the availability of moveable type for printing, however, the script continued to be used in religious and ceremonial purposes till the 1950s. After the Rana dynasty was overthrown and democracy established in 1951, attempts were made to study and revive the old scripts, and alphabet books were published. Hemraj Shakyavamsha published a book of 15 types of Nepalese alphabets including Ranjana. In 1952, a pressman Pushpa Ratna Sagar of Kathmandu had moveable type of Nepal script made in India, the metal type was used to print the dateline and the titles of the articles in Thaunkanhe monthly. In 1989, the first book to be printed using a computer typeface of Nepal script, Prasiddha Bajracharyapinigu Sanchhipta Bibaran by Badri Ratna Bajracharya, was published. Today, Nepal Lipi has gone out of usage, but it is sometimes used in signage, invitation and greeting cards, letterheads, book and CD covers, product labels

6.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages

7.
Chabahil
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Chabahil is an ancient town at the northeastern side of the Kathmandu valley in Nepal. It is famous for its Licchavi stupa, called the Dhando Chaitya considered by historians to be the oldest Buddhist Stupa in the valley. Currently, Chabahil has become a residential and commercial area of Kathmandu. Apart from the large temples. Two of the most important temples in Kathmandu, Pashupatinath and Guhyeswari are situated close to Chabahil. These two temples, dedicated to Lord Shiva and his consort Sati are considered to be more than a years old. The stupa has attracted Buddhist monks and other pilgrims over the centuries, according to the inscriptions found within it, it was built by the Indian princess Charumati, daughter of Indian Emperor Ashoka, who was married to a Nepalese prince in Kathmandu. Near the Charumati Vihara, there is a stone statue of Buddha that is a meter high. Another landmark located in the town is the temple of Chandra Binayak Ganesh, the Hindu god with the head of an elephant, the temple, located on the main market street of Chabahil, is one of the four temples of Binayak in the Kathmandu Valley. Devotees flock to this century-old temple especially on Tuesdays

8.
Chaitya
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A chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at one end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer hall houses a stupa. Chaityas were probably constructed to hold large numbers of devotees and to shelter for them. An ancient practice, rock-cut architecture has had a tradition in Buddhism. Ancient Buddhist chaityas can be found in parts of Maharashtra. Over the course of time, the wall separating the stupa from the hall was removed to create a hall with a colonnade around the nave. The chaitya at Bhaja Caves was constructed in the first century BCE and it consisted of an apsidal hall with stupa. The columns sloped inwards in the imitation of wooden columns that would have been necessary to keep a roof up. The ceiling was vaulted with wooden ribs set into them. The walls were polished in the Mauryan style and it was faced by a substantial wooden facade. This created the appearance of an ancient Indian mansion, in Bhaja, as in other chaityas, the entrance acted as the demarcation between the sacred and the profane. The stupa inside the hall was now removed from the sight of anyone outside. In this context, in the 1st century CE, the veneration of the stupa changed to the veneration of an image of Gautama Buddha. Chaityas were commonly part of a complex, the vihara. In Nepal, chaityas are constructed and worshiped by the Sherpas, Magars, Gurungs, Tamangs and Newars, the Newars in the Kathmandu Valley, mainly after the 12th century, started adding images of four Dhyani Buddhas on the chaityas four directions. They are constructed with carved stone and mud mortar. They are said to consist of the five basic elements — earth, air, fire, water, each is constructed in memory of a dead person by his or her family. On average, each is four to eight feet in height, architecturally, chaityas show similarities to ancient Roman architectural concepts of column and arch

9.
Brahmi script
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Brahmi is the modern name given to one of the oldest writing systems used in South and Central Asia from the 1st millennium BCE. Brahmi is an abugida that thrived in the Indian subcontinent and uses a system of marks to associate vowels with consonant symbols. It evolved into a host of other scripts that continue in use, Brahmi is related to the ancient Kharosthi script, which was used in what is now eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Kharosthi died out in ancient times, the best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dating to 250–232 BCE. The script was deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, Brahmi was at one time referred to in English as the pin-man script, that is stick figure script. Thence the name was adopted in the work of Georg Bühler. The Gupta script of the 5th century is sometimes called Late Brahmi, the Brahmi script diversified into numerous local variants, classified together as the Brahmic scripts. Dozens of modern scripts used across South Asia have descended from Brahmi, one survey found 198 scripts that ultimately derive from it. The script was associated with its own Brahmi numerals, which provided the graphic forms for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system now used through most of the world. The Brahmi script is mentioned in the ancient Indian texts of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, for example, the Lipisala samdarshana parivarta lists 64 lipi, with the Brahmi script starting the list. The Lalitavistara Sūtra states that young Siddhartha, the future Buddha, mastered philology, Brahmi and other scripts from Brahmin Lipikara, a shorter list of eighteen ancient scripts is found in the texts of Jainism, such as the Pannavana Sutra and the Samavayanga Sutra. These Jaina script lists include Brahmi at number 1 and Kharoshthi at number 4 but also Javanaliya, while the contemporary Kharosthi script is widely accepted to be a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet, the genesis of the Brahmi script is less straightforward. Salomon reviewed existing theories in 1998, while Falk provided an overview in 1993, an origin in Semitic scripts has been proposed by some scholars since the publications by Albrecht Weber and Georg Bühlers On the origin of the Indian Brahma alphabet. The most disputed point about the origin of the Brahmi script has long been whether it was an indigenous development or was borrowed or derived from scripts that originated outside India. Most scholars believe that Brahmi was likely derived from or influenced by a Semitic script model, however, the issue is not settled due to the lack of direct evidence and unexplained differences between Aramaic, Kharosthi and Brahmi. Virtually all authors accept that regardless of the origins, the degree of Indian development of the Brahmi script in both the form and the structure has been extensive. It is also accepted that theories of Vedic grammar probably had a strong influence on this development. In contrast, some reject the idea of foreign influence

10.
Swastika
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The Swastika is an ancient religious symbol originating from the Indian subcontinent, that generally takes the form of an equilateral cross with four legs each bent at 90 degrees. It is considered to be a sacred and auspicious symbol in Hinduism, Buddhism, Western literatures older term for the symbol, gammadion cross, derives mainly from its appearance, which is identical to four Greek gamma letters affixed to each other. The name Swastika comes from Sanskrit, and denotes a lucky or auspicious object and it has been used as a decorative element in various cultures since at least the Neolithic Age. It is known most widely as an important symbol, long used in Indian religions, the swastika was adopted by several organizations in pre-World War I-Europe and later, and most notably, by the Nazi Party and Nazi Germany prior to World War II. In many Western countries, the swastika has been highly stigmatized because of its association with Nazism, the word swastika has been in use in English since the 1870s, replacing gammadion. Note that the represented by व in Devanagari, and v in the standard IAST transliteration of Sanskrit, is the labio-dental approximant. The sound persists in modern Hindi and other North Indian languages, an English speaker who is unable to correctly form the Sanskrit labio-dental approximant should say swastika rather than svastika. Swastika in Sanskrit means any lucky or auspicious object, and in particular a mark made on persons and things to denote auspiciousness, or any piece of luck or well-being. It is composed of su, meaning good, well and asti, the phrase swasti therefore means it/he/she is good. The two words spoken together become swasti through sandhi, a process by which sounds modify other sounds spoken close to them, the expression swasti is used as a word on its own, meaning good health or good fortune. The added suffix ka forms an abstract noun, and swastika might thus be translated literally as that which is associated with well-being, corresponding to thing that is auspicious or lucky charm, the word Is recorded first in Vedic Sanskrit. Other names for the symbol include, hooked cross, angled cross or crooked cross, Cross cramponned, cramponnée, or cramponny, in heraldry, as each arm resembles a Crampon or angle-iron. Fylfot, chiefly in heraldry and architecture, gammadion, tetragammadion, or cross gammadion, as each arm resembles the Greek letter Γ. tetraskelion, literally meaning four-legged, especially when composed of four conjoined legs. Whirling logs, can denote abundance, prosperity, healing, chirality describes an absence of reflective symmetry, with the existence of two versions that are mirror images of each other. The mirror-image forms are described as, left-facing and right-facing. The left-facing version is distinguished in some traditions and languages as a symbol from the right-facing swastika. The compact swastika can be seen as an irregular icosagon with fourfold rotational symmetry. Such a swastika proportioned on a 5 ×5 square grid, the Nazi Hakenkreuz used a 5 ×5 diagonal grid, but with the arms unshortened

11.
Chakra
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In Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, a chakra is thought to be an energy point or node in the subtle body. Chakras are believed to be part of the body, not the physical body. Nadi are believed to be channels in the body through which the life force or vital energy moves. Various scriptural texts and teachings present a different number of chakras and its believed that there are many chakras in the subtle human body, according to the tantric texts, but there are seven chakras that are considered to be the most important ones. The word Chakra derives from the Sanskrit word meaning wheel, as well as circle and cycle and its described by many as a spinning wheel of light. Of the 88,000 chakras within the body, seven are considered of PRINCIPAL importance and are referred to as the major chakras. In rituals, there are different cakrasādhanās in which adherents assemble, according to the Niruttaratantra, chakras in the sense of assemblies are of 5 types. The term chakra is used to denote yantras s, variously known as trikoṇa-cakra, aṣṭakoṇa-cakra. Different nerve plexuses within the body, in Buddhism, the Sanskrit term cakra is used in a different sense of circle, referring to the conception of rebirth consisting of six states in which beings may be reborn. Breath channels of yogic practices are mentioned in the classical Upanishads, the texts and teachings present different numbers of chakras. Also, different physical structures are considered chakras, david Gordon White thus emphasises, In fact, there is no standard system of the chakras. Every school, sometimes every teacher within each school, has had his own chakra system, the following features are common, They form part of the body, along with the breath channels, and the winds. They are located along the central channel, two side channels cross the centre channel at the location of the chakras. They possess a number of petals or spokes and they are generally associated with a mantra seed-syllable, and often with a variety of colours and deities. There are believed to be 7 major chakras, david Gordon White traces the modern popularity of the Hindu seven chakra system to Arthur Avalons The Serpent Power, which was Avalons translation of a late work, the Satcakranirupana. In actuality, there are models and systems present in Hindu tantric literature. Kundalini is a feature of Hindu chakra systems, Chakras play an important role in the main surviving branch of Indian Vajrayana, Tibetan Buddhism. The Vajrayana system states that the channel begins at the point of the third eye like of lord Shiva, curves up to the crown of the head

12.
Changu Narayan
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The ancient Hindu temple of Changu Narayan Listen is located on a high hilltop that is also known as Changu or Dolagiri. The temple was surrounded by forest with tree and a small village. The temple is located in Changunarayan VDC of Bhaktapur District, Nepal and this hill is about 7 miles or 12 km east of Kathmandu and a few miles north of Bhaktapur. The Manahara River flows beside the hill and this shrine is dedicated to Lord Visnu and held in especial reverence by the Hindu people. This temple is considered as the oldest temple in the history of Nepal and it is an interesting place to be in. In ancient times, a Gwala, or cow herder, had brought a cow from a Brahmin named Sudarshan, the cow was known for producing large quantities of milk. The Gwala used to take the cow to Changu for grazing, at that time Changu was a forest of Champak trees. While grazing, the cow went to the shade of a particular tree. In the evening, when the Gwala took the cow home and started milking her and he grew very sad, so he called on the Brahmin saying the cow was not giving enough milk. After observing this with his own eyes, Sudarshan agreed with the Gwala they should observe the cows daytime activity while she was grazing in the forest, Brahmin and Gwala both hid behind the trees and watched the cow. She went into the shade of one particular champak tree, to their surprise, a small black boy came out of the tree and started drinking the cow milk. The two men were furious because they thought the boy must be the devil and tree must be its home, so the Brahmin cut down the champak tree. When he was cutting it down, fresh human blood came out of the tree, both Brahmin and Gwala got worried, believing they had committed a great crime and began to cry. Lord Vishnu emerged from the tree and told the Brahmin and cowherd it was not their fault, Vishnu told the story of how he had committed a heinous crime by unwittingly killing Sudarshan’s father while hunting in the forest. After that, cursed for the crime, he wandered the earth on his mouth, there he lived in anonymity, surviving on milk stolen from a cow. When Brahmin cut down the tree, Vishnu was beheaded, which freed Lord Vishnu from his sins, after hearing these words from Vishnu, Brahmin and Gwala resolved to worship the place and established a small temple in the name of Lord Vishnu. Ever since, the site has been sacred, even today, we find Sudarshans descendant as priest of the temple and the Gwalas descendants as ghutiyars. About 400 years ago, a mighty warrior named pranjal lived and he was the strongest in the entire country

13.
Ashoka
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Ashoka was an ancient Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. One of Indias greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to the state of Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, the empires capital was Pataliputra, with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga. He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done and he embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia, Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity. Ashoka is now remembered as a philanthropic administrator, in the Kalinga edicts, he addresses his people as his children, and mentions that as a father he desires their good. Ashokas name Aśoka means painless, without sorrow in Sanskrit, in his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya, and Priyadarśin. His fondness for his names connection to the Saraca asoca tree, along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana, and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa. The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife, Subhadrangī. Ashoka became a great emperor despite having an appearance that was unfavorable to his father. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryan dynasty, since, according to Roman historian Appian, Ashokas grandfather Chandragupta had made a marital alliance with Seleucus, there is a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī, according to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor, this eventually ended and it is from her exclamation I am now without sorrow, that Ashoka got his name. The Divyāvadāna tells a story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī. Ashoka had several siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of Bindusara. His fighting qualities were apparent from an age and he was given royal military training

14.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

15.
Newar people
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The Newar or Newah are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal, and the creators of its historic heritage and civilization. Newars form a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language, Newars have developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. Newars have continued their traditions and practices, and pride themselves as the true custodians of the religion, culture. The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala, Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local population by adopting their language and customs. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768, Newars are known for their contributions to culture, art and literature, trade, agriculture and cuisine. Today, Newars consistently rank as the most economically, politically and socially advanced community of Nepal, nepals 2011 census ranks Newars as the nations sixth-largest ethnicity/community, with 1,321,933 Newars throughout the country. The terms Nepāl, Newār, Newāl and Nepār are phonetically different forms of the same word, Nepal is the learned form and Newar is the colloquial form. The term Newar referring to inhabitant of Nepal appeared for the first time in an inscription dated 1654 in Kathmandu, italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri who traveled to Nepal in 1721 has written that the natives of Nepal are called Newars. It has been suggested that Nepal may be a sanskritization of Newar, according to another explanation, the words Newar and Newari are vulgarisms arising from the mutation of P to V, and L to R. As a result of the process of dropping the last consonant and lengthening the vowel, Newā for Newār or Newāl. For about a thousand years, the Newar civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic, snellgrove and Richardson speak of the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India. The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments, the common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, so, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal. The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles, one such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills. This apocryphal legend is supported by evidence of an ancient lakebed. According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan, now called Manjipā, a shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era, a genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali

16.
Newa music
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Newa Music, also spelled Newar Music, is traditional music developed in Nepal by the Newars. The music has its roots in classic Hindu and Buddhist music and it grew with incorporation of folk music of Kathmandu valley and its peripheries. The musical instruments mainly consist of percussion and wind instruments, traditional music refers to the music from the 16th century during the rule of King Mahendra Malla to the first decade of the 20th century. Traditional songs consist of hymns that describe various deities, songs about love and marriage, ballads, rice transplantation songs, the traditional musicians worship the Newar god of music and dance Nasah Dyah. Traditional Newar music has been arranged into a particular schedule, one of the dominant forms of traditional Newar music is Dapha music. Dapha music is classical Newar music that originated during late Lichhavi period. Basically, the songs of Dapha music are devotional songs based on classical ragas, Dapha music is played by bands known as Dapha Khalah that may be associated with traditional groups called Guthi. According to the ragas, certain songs are played at certain seasons or times of the day, the songs generally narrate or depict the mood of the particular season. Besides the seasonal and scheduled ragas, various ragas are played during specific events, a very popular and famous Newa love song is Rajamati. Maestro Seturam Shrestha made the first recording of the song on disc in Kolkata in 1908. At the end of 2005 The Lakhey Recorded their First Newari Metal Dhampa tacha, in contemporary culture, there are numerous pop musicians, lyricists and singers, including Prem Dhoj Pradhan, Madan Krishna Shrestha, and Durga Lal Shrestha. Music videos are another popular genre, according to mythology, Manjushree taught music to his disciples Shantikaracharya and Gunakaracharya. Shantikaracharya taught it to Vandhudatta Vajracharya and Shree Gunadattacharya, who wrote down the teachings to form the basis of music of Newars. Also, according to stories, the instrument Paschima was handed down by Lord Krishna. These stories infer that Newa music is derived from the classic Hindu. Music accompanied most of the epics and plays written in Sanskrit. This music is based on raga and taal system, the earliest discovered treatise on Newa music is a manuscript called Sangit Chandra Grantha. It was written by King Jagatjyoti Malla of Bhaktapur and his minister Vanshamani Ojha, the manuscript primarily deals with dance, drama and stageplay

17.
Gunla Bajan
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Gunlā Bājan is devotional music played by the Newars of Nepal. Gunla is the name of the month in the Nepal Sambat calendar, which corresponds to August. Gunla is a month for Newar Buddhists when they recite the scriptures. The practice of observing the sacred month is descended from the rains retreat dating from the Buddhas time when monks stayed in one place, societies based on locality or caste, in which membership is hereditary, organize Gunla Bajan performances. These groups follow an annual calendar of public performances and they also conduct music lessons and hold religious festivals, hymn singing sessions and feasts. The most important activity of the year is making daily pilgrimages during Gunla to Swayambhu, Gunla musical bands also lead processions during New Years Day of Nepal Sambat. A performance of Gunla music starts with Dyah Lhayegu, a short salutation to the deities, separate pieces of music are played when marching in procession, going around a shrine and crossing a bridge. These are known as Lawantah, Chwoh, Graha, Astar, Palimaa, during processions, musicians usually play the tunes of seasonal songs or other traditional songs backed by drums and cymbals. Tunes of modern hits are also played, Gwara is a long piece of music which is played in temple squares and sacred courtyards with the musicians standing in a circle. It is 15 to 20 minutes long, the popular ones are Annapurna Gwara, Swetkali Gwara and Sangin Gwara. The double-sided drum known as dhaa, which is the instrument in Gunla music, is believed to have been played in the Kathmandu Valley for 2,000 years. It is struck on the side with a short stick. Trumpets and clarinets are used to play the tune, originally, local wind instruments known as mwahali and basuri provided the tune. The other instruments used are taa and bhusya, small and large cymbals respectively, the naykhin small drum and chhusya cymbals form a separate set of instruments. The payentah is a long trumpet

18.
Dhimay
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Dhimay, Dhimaya or Dhime is a drum, and according to the Sachs-Hornbostel classification belongs to the category of double-headed cylindrical membranophone. The drum is rather big compared to other drums played by the Newar, the size of this instrument varies from diameter of 40 inches to 51 inches and length of 17 inches to 21 inches. The shell of the drum is made of wood or metal, sometimes wooden drums are partly covered with metal foil. The shape of old Dhimay drums is mostly irregular, formed by the shape of the piece of wood being used to make the drum body. Modern drums are either cylindrical or slightly barrel-shaped, both heads are made of goat skin. On the inside of the membrane, called Mankhah a red tuning paste is applicated. There are two kinds of dhimay, the right membrane, called Nasah, is played with a thin stick, made of cane, which is normally curved at one end. In addition to three basic strokes a fourth type of stroke is played, combining the low resonating sound of the left hand i. e. on upper part. According to local legends, the instrument is believed to be invented by Mahadev, the drum has been played since the Kirat era. The drum is played mostly by Jyapu community, however, Shresthas, Ranjitkars and other castes also play it. In traditional context Dhimay is played together with other instruments, mostly idiophones of different types, in Dhimay-ensembles, called Dhimaybaja, the drum is accompanied by cymbals like Bhushyah, Chushyah, and sometimes by Tai-nai, a gong-like instrument. At special occasions even the shawm musicians of the Kapali or Jugi, the Dhimay is also played in the Buddhist Navabaja -Ensembles. Recently, with musicians looking for new ways to develop popular music with its roots in traditional music, the Dhimay is played as a sort of bass drum, accompanying western instruments like guitar

19.
Newa cuisine
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Newa cuisine is a subset of Nepalese cuisine that has developed over centuries among the Newars of Kathmandu, Nepal. Newa cuisine is the most celebrated food variety in the country consists of over 200 dishes. Food is the part of Newar culture. Different kind of foods are prepared for different occasions, considering the climate, Newars are renowned for their sumptuous feasting. Dishes served during feasts and festivals have symbolic significance, food is eaten with bare hands. It is customary to wash hands before and after a meal

20.
Momo (food)
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Momo is a type of South Asian dumpling, native to Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. It is similar to Chinese baozi and jiaozi, Mongolian buuz, Japanese gyoza, the dish is of Tibetan origin and since then has spread to other neighboring countries with the influx of Tibetan diaspora. They modified the seasonings of the dish with available ingredients, such as water buffalo, Momo is a type of steamed bun with some form of filling. Momo has become a traditional delicacy in Nepal, Tibet and among Nepalese/Tibetan communities in Bhutan, as well as Sikkim state and it is one of the most popular fast foods in Nepal. Momos have also spread to countries like United States, UK. A simple white-flour-and-water dough is generally preferred to make the outer momo covering, sometimes, a little yeast or baking soda is added to give a more doughy texture to the finished product. Monosodium glutamate is used sometimes to enhance the taste of momo. Traditionally, momo is prepared with ground/minced meat filling, but over the past several years, this has changed and these days, momo is prepared with virtually any combination of ground meat, vegetables, tofu, paneer cheese, soft chhurpi and vegetable and meat combinations. Meat, Different types of fillings are popular in different regions. In Nepal, Tibet, Darjeeling district, Assam, Sikkim and Bhutan, pork, chicken, goat meat, in the Himalayan region of Nepal and Ladakh, India, lamb and yak meat are more common. Minced meat is combined with any or all of the following, onions/shallots, garlic, some people also add finely puréed tomatoes and soy sauce. Vegetables, Finely chopped cabbage, potato or chayote are used as fillings in India, Paneer, Paneer is another recent and popular filling in India. Cheese, Usually fresh cheese or the soft chhurpi is used. This variety is common in India and Eastern Nepal, khoa, Momo filled with milk solids mixed with sugar are popular as dessert in the Kathmandu valley. Mashed potato, Mashed potato is another popular filling in the Kathmandu valley, the dough is rolled into small circular flat pieces. The filling is then enclosed in the circular dough cover either in a pocket or in a half-moon or crescent shape. People prefer meat that has a lot of fat because it produces intensively flavored juicy momos, a little oil is sometimes added to the lean ground/minced meat to keep the filling moist and juicy. The dumplings are cooked by steaming over a soup in a momo-making utensil called mucktoo

21.
Baji (food)
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Baji is a type of beaten rice eaten in Nepal. The most common word for it, and the one visitors to Nepal will generally encounter, is chiura, baji is the term used by the Newar culture in the Kathmandu Valley. Rice, of course, is a staple in Nepal, as well as the rest of South Asia, the grain is incorporated into everyday life, festivals, and rituals. Chiura is a common snack among farmers and workers in rural Nepal, the snack is made by pounding rice. The dish can be served with yogurt, curry, and or meat, often chiura is paired with tea as a mid-morning snack in the fields. Chiura holds an important place in the traditional Nepali wedding ceremony, chiura is usually included in the brideprice, any valuables or wealth given to the bride’s family by the groom. After the initial wedding ceremony, the families escort the bride back to the groom’s house, during this procession, the pounded rice ceremony occurs. The bride and groom are seated next to one another, the groom then formally asks the bride to give him the chiura. He will ask this two more times, each using a form of “you” that indicates a lowering of her social status. This ceremony reiterates the fact that the social ranking has dropped far below its original status. Red, These kinds are prepared by traditional hearthing technology, instead of processing everything in the mill, the initial phases of milling is done traditionally and then paddy is taken to the mill for further processing. The result is a reddish beaten rice that is crispier than the white one, white Samaybaji It is usually consumed during the daytime with lentil or other vegetables with soup. It is the food served in Newari feasts. The red type is considered better type, Samaybaji is specially consumed in Newari Festivals. Liquified baji is also used in Chinese folk medicine as an aphrodisiac

22.
Yomari
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Yomari, also called Yamari, is a delicacy of the Newar community in Nepal. It is a steamed dumpling that consists of a covering of rice flour. The delicacy plays an important role in Newaa society, and is a key part of the festival of Yomari punhi. According to some, the shape of the yamari is a symbolical representation of one half of the shadkona. The name Yamari comes from two Nepal Bhasa words, ya, meaning to like and mari meaning delicacy, so, literally, it is a delicacy which is very popular. The Yomari punhi festival is said to have started from panchal nagar, myth has it that Suchandra and Krita, a married couple, first experimented with fresh yield of rice from their field. And what took shape came to be known as Yamari, the new delicacy was eventually distributed among the villagers. As the food was liked by all, the bread was named Yamari, the myth further states that on the same day the couple offered the god of wealth, Kubera, who was passing by in a disguise, the new delicacy. Following this, Kubera disclosed his identity and blessed the couple with wealth. He also declared that whoever will prepare Yamari in the form of gods and goddesses on the moon of December and observe four days of devotion to god. The festival of Yomari punhi is celebrated on the day of the full moon when prayers are offered during which the Yomaris are stored. On the fourth and the day the people belonging to the Newaa community consume the sweet bread as a gift from gods. List of Nepalese dishes How to make Yomari

23.
Gunla
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Gunlā is the tenth month in the Nepal Sambat lunar calendar, the national lunar calendar of Nepal. It corresponds to August of the Gregorian Calendar, Gunla is a holy month for Newar Buddhists when they recite the scriptures, observe fasts and visit places of worship playing devotional music. It is one of the most important events in Newar Buddhism, the practice of observing the sacred month is descended from the rains retreat dating from the Buddhas time when monks stayed in one place and taught the Dharma. Devotees mark the holy month by making early morning pilgrimages to Swayambhu in Kathmandu. The musical bands represent various localities of the city, the devout recite the scriptures at home and sacred courtyards. Another devotional activity during Gunla is Dyah Thāyegu when devotees make little stupas out of clay using a mold. Panjaran is the alms giving festival, males of the Bajracharya and Shakya castes make an alms round of the city and devotees give them rice and money. Shrines are set up with Buddha statues and paubha scroll paintings at private homes, courtyards, the event is held on different dates in Kathmandu valley and Lalitpur. On the first day of the fortnight of Gunla, large images of the Dipankara Buddha and paubha paintings are put on display in sacred courtyards. The ceremony is known as Bahidyah Bwayegu, on this day in a festival known as Bahidyah Swahwanegu, the musical bands followed by residents of the locality visit the sacred courtyards in a procession to view the exhibits. The festival occurs on the day after the moon and coincides with the Gai Jatra festival. Another major day for Gunla Bajan societies is the ceremony of Nisala Chhawanegu, when they make offerings to Swayambhu, matayā is one of the most important religious celebrations in Lalitpur. The festival celebrates the event when the Buddha overcame Mara, or temptation, devotees visit Buddhist shrines and sacred courtyards in the city in a winding file and offer worship to the images. The participants also consists of bands and actors dressed in colorful costumes. The circuitous festival route takes the day to complete. The 5th day of the bright fortnight is Nag Panchami, a day dedicated to serpents, the 1st day of the dark fortnight is Sāpāru or Gai Jātrā when processions are held in memory of family members deceased in the past year. The participants wear cow costumes and make a tour of the city, the 8th day of the dark fortnight is the festival of Krishna Janmashtami which celebrates the birth of the Hindu deity Krishna. Gokarna Aunsi falls on the 15th day of the fortnight or Āmāi

24.
Yenya
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Indra Jātrā as it is most commonly known or Yenyā is the biggest religious street festival in Kathmandu, Nepal. Yenya means Kathmandu festival in Nepal Bhasa, the celebrations consist of two events. Indra Jātrā is marked by masked dances of deities and demons, displays of sacred images and tableaus in honor of the deity Indra, the other event is Kumāri Jātrā, the chariot procession of the living goddess Kumari. Family members deceased in the past year are also remembered during the festival, the main venue of the festivities is Kathmandu Durbar Square. The celebrations last for eight days from the 12th day of the bright fortnight to the 4th day of the fortnight of Yanlā. Indra Jatra was started by King Gunakamadeva to commemorate the founding of the city of Kathmandu in the 10th century, Kumari Jatra began in the mid-18th century. The celebrations are held according to the calendar, so the dates are changeable. The 2016 date is September 27, the festival starts with Yosin Thanegu, the erection of Yosin or Linga, a pole from which the banner of Indra is unfurled, at Kathmandu Durbar Square. The pole, a tree shorn of its branches and stripped of its bark, is obtained from a forest near Nālā and it is dragged in stages to Durbar Square by men pulling on ropes. Another event on the first day is Upāku Wanegu when participants visit shrines holding lighted incense to honor deceased family members and they also place small butter lamps on the way. Some sing hymns as they make the tour, the circuitous route winds along the periphery of the historic part of the city. The procession starts at around 5 pm, Kumari Jatra, which means the chariot festival of Kumari, coincides with Indra Jatra. It was started in 1756 AD during the reign of Jaya Prakash Malla, the procession starts at around 3 pm. On the first day of Kumari Jatra known as Kwaneyā, the chariots are pulled through the part of town. The second day is the full moon day known as Yenya Punhi, during the procession known as Thaneyā, the chariots are drawn through the northern part till Asan. And on the third day Nānichāyā, the passes through the central section at Kilāgal. Since 2012, the chariot of Kumari has been pulled by a team on the third day of the chariot festival. Route on first day of festival, Kwaneyā, Basantapur, Maru, Chikanmugal, Jaisidewal, Lagan, Hyumata, Bhimsensthan, Maru

25.
Mohani
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Mohani is one of the most important festivals among the Newars which involves a packed itinerary of religious services, pilgrimages, family gatherings and outdoor celebrations lasting several days. Special dinners known as Nakhtya, to all the relatives are invited. Mohani is the equivalent of Nepals biggest festival Dasain, and there are similarities and differences between the two, Mohani is celebrated according to the lunar calendar, so the dates are changeable. The main celebrations last for four days from the 8th to the 11th days of the half of Kaulā. Mohani starts with Nalāswane, the planting of seeds, on the first day of the fortnight. The seeds are planted in sand in earthen basins and small bowls and this is done in the shrine room at ones home and at the Agam Chhen the house where the familys tutelary deity is installed. A week later, a family feast known as Kuchhi Bhoy is held on the day of Ashtami, family members sit in a row for the feast with the eldest taking the place of honor at the top and the youngest at the bottom. The next day, known as Syākwa Tyākwa, is Navami, sacred rituals are performed at the shrine room of the tutelary deity. People also make sacred offerings to their tools of the trade, weighing scales, looms, machinery, the day ends with another grand family feast. The next day is Chālan, which occurs on Dashami, the day of the fortnight. Family members go to the room of their tutelary deity for a service. They receive bunches of barley shoots planted on the first day as sacred gifts, dabs of red paste are put on their foreheads as a blessing. Other ceremonies consist of chopping up an ash gourd painted with the face of the devil at the house of the tutelary deity. In some localities, participants parade through the streets holding ceremonial swords aloft prior to the event, the procession is known as Pāyā. The festivities end with another family feast in the evening, the Pachali Bhairav Jātrā is a procession held in Kathmandu to honor the deity Pachali Bhairav whose shrine is located at the southern part of the historic section of the city. The parade takes place on the day of the fortnight. The Sikāli Jātrā is a masked dance festival which is held as part of the celebrations of Mohani. It takes place in Khokana, a village to the south of Kathmandu, the festival consists of dance performances and religious rituals, and continues for five days

26.
Swanti (festival)
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Swanti is a five-day festival of Nepal which is one of the years greatest celebrations for the Newar people. It is the Newar version of Tihar or Diwali, during the festival, windows and doorways are decorated with flower garlands and lamps. Deities, animals and people are honored as part of the celebrations, the festival is marked by both Hindus and Buddhists. It is held according to the calendar so the dates are changeable. In 2016, the festival is 27–31 October, the first two days are Kwah Pujā and Khichā Pujā, dedicated respectively to crows and dogs, both known as messengers of death. Goodies are left on the roof for the crows to feast upon, people honour dogs by putting a flower garland around their neck and offering them delicacies. The third day is Sā Pujā, the day dedicated to cows and they are believed to lead the spirits of the deceased to the land of the dead. Also on the day, householders observe Lakshmi Puja by worshipping Lakshmi. They paste a new painting of the Goddess at the shrine installed in an inner room, all the members of the family then offer coins and venerate her. The next day on Mha Puja, a feast known as Thāybhu, the painting of Goddess Lakshmi in Newar tradition is distinguished by her accessories and attendants. She is shown holding a Jwālā Nhāykan in her right hand and these two ritual objects stand for prosperity and good fortune, and are necessary for many ceremonies in Newar society. The figure of a man holding a sack of money is said to be the lord of wealth Kubera or a rich trader, the hairy creatures known as Khyāh are believed to live in the high Himalaya. In antiquity, merchants travelling to Tibet are said to have encountered them on the snowy passes, the next day is Mha Puja which means worship of the self. The ceremony is believed to purify and empower the soul, Mha Puja signifies an auspicious beginning of the New Year of Nepal Sambat, and invokes prosperity and longevity for the participant. The ceremony consists of worshipping ones mandala and presentation of the Sagan, the fifth day of Swanti is known as Kija Puja and is dedicated to brothers. Sisters honor their younger brothers with a ceremony where a similar to the one used for Mha Puja is worshipped. They present them long burning wicks which are placed next to the mandala, and also sacred threads, the sisters then offer Sagan to their brothers which consists of auspicious food items. The five items wine, meat, fish, lentil cake and egg symbolize the five Tantric concepts of light, earth, water, air, the brothers give gifts of cash and clothes in return

27.
Pahan Charhe
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Pāhān Charhe also known as Pāsā Charhe is one of the greatest religious festivals of the year in Nepal Mandala. Pahan means guest and pasa mean friend in Nepal Bhasa, Charhe means fourteenth day of the lunar fortnight when the festival commences. It starts on the 14th day of the fortnight of Chillā. Inviting friends and relatives to ones home and honoring them with a feast is one of the highlights of the festival, Pahan Charhe is held according to the lunar calendar, so the dates are changeable. In 2015, the festival will be marked from 19-21 March, the celebrations start with the worship of the deity Luku Mahadyah in the evening. He is one of the forms of the Hindu god Shiva, Luku Mahadyah means sunken Mahadyah, and his image is enshrined in a hole in the ground, often in a rubbish corner. Householders perform their devotions to the deity by making offerings of a feast including meat, rape blooms and radish blooms are special offerings of the festival, and are considered to symbolize gold and silver respectively. At Nyata in Kathmandu, sacred masked dances are shown on the platform at the street corner. It is known as Nyatamaru Ajimā Pyākhan or Swetkali Dance, the dance drama is performed by actors wearing masks representing various deities. The dance starts in the evening and lasts throughout the night, the historic neighborhood of Nyata is also known as Naradevi. Ghode Jatra consists of races and other activities organized by the Nepal Army at Tundikhel. At Bal Kumari in the city of Lalitpur, a one horse race is held. Late at night, they are carried on the shoulders of their attendants, after all the palanquins arrive, the Dyah Lwākegu ceremony is held when the entourages accompanying them exchange flaming torches symbolizing the meeting of the goddesses. The palanquin procession of the Ajimā goddesses was started by King Amar Malla in Nepal Sambat 580, the concluding event is the gathering of the palanquins of three Ajimā mother goddesses Lumadhi Ajimā, Kanga Ajimā and Tebāhā Ajimā at the market square of Asan for another Dyah Lwākegu ceremony. Prior to the event, the shrines are paraded through the streets of Kathmandu escorted by musical bands. The palanquin bearers, musicians and followers wear red, blue, the processions stop frequently to allow devotees to make offerings to them. When the palanquins reach Asan through various routes, the Dyah Lwākegu ceremony is held, during the Dyah Lwākegu ceremony, participants accompanying the shrines exchange flaming torches as crowds of onlookers fill the market square. Rice flat breads known as chatānmari are scattered on the palanquins from the rooftops of houses around the square, the festival re-enacts the meeting of the three Ajimā mother goddesses who are sisters

28.
Bhairab Naach
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Bhairab Naach is an ancient masked dance performed by Newar community in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal as part of the Indra Jatra festival and named after Bhairab. It was originated in Bhaktapur and brought to Kathmandu while migrating, although it was performed every 12 years in Bhaktapur, it is performed every years in Kathmandu valley to better fulfill its cultural role. It was brought more than 236 years ago by Jitaram from Bhaktapur according to the guru Late Mr. Sarbagyaman Pradhananga, the rag sung in this dance indicates that it was started at the time of last Malla King of Bhaktapur, Ranajit Malla. There are 12 deities in this dance, namely Dagini, Kwancha, Bhuccha, Bhairab, Kali Bhairab, Indrayani, Barah, Kumari, Bishnuvi, Bramhayani, Maheswori, Bhairab leads and conducts the dance. Before the dance all performers bathe and wear clothes and mask. After wearing the mask no performer can speak until it is taken out, the dance is started at the Bhairab Temple in the evening and after a couple of rounds and puja it is taken to the hosting place where it is performed for around six hours including puja. At first all 12 gods dance, after the puja is complete then individual dance starts. First is Bhairab with Kwancha and Bhuccha which is like a child and it is called a Jyoti Naach. After that Bhairab, Kali, Indrayani and Barah come and it lasts almost one hour and called a Char Bhairab. It is a dance and most people love to watch this part of the dance. Then come Kumari, Bishnuvi, Bramhayani and Ganga, then come Kwancha and Bhuchha, again with their like childlike playing. In the closing act all 12 Bhairabs participate, then the ending puja is performed and they return to the Bhairab Temple. Comparable dances include the Mahakali Naach of Bhaktapur, the Devi Naach of Kilaghal Tole, the Lakhe Naach of Majipat Tole, Bhairab Naach Videos in Youtube Shaphalya Amatya, Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, UNESCO, p.13 Pokhareli Festival Bhairab Naach

29.
Samyak
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Samyak is an almsgiving Buddhist festival celebrated in the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. Samyak is the most spectacular Newar Buddhist celebration and it is observed at different intervals in the three cities of the valley -- every 12 years in Kathmandu, every five years in Lalitpur and annually in Bhaktapur. The first documented Samyak festival in Kathmandu took place in 1015 AD, the festival brings together a wide cross-section of Newar society, including priests, artisans, traders, musicians and farmers. Each group has a role designed to highlight social harmony. The ceremony celebrates the practice of giving to the Buddhas and monks in the Newar Buddhist tradition, the Samyak festival in Kathmandu is held at Kathmandu Durbar Square and the field of Bhuikhel at the foot of Swayambhu hill. On the first day, large images of Dipankar Buddha are brought out of sacred courtyards and private homes, on the second day, the statues are carried in procession to Bhuikhel and assembled on the field. Priests receive alms consisting of different kinds of sacred foods in a ceremony held in the presence of the king, the offerings are made by members of the Uray caste group. Each subgroup performs a task that has been assigned by tradition, the image of Goddess Ajimā Dyah is brought down from her shrine at Swayambhu for the ceremony. The regular Samyak ceremony is held at intervals of 12 years, however, a special one can be called between the scheduled occurrences by a sponsor. The most recent one took place in 2005, in Lalitpur, the Samyak festival is held at Nagbahal. The latest one occurred in 2012, in Bhaktapur, Samyak is celebrated annually on the feast day of Ghyah Chāku Sanlhu which usually falls on January 15

30.
Jana Baha Dyah Jatra
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Jana Bāhā Dyah Jātrā is the chariot procession of Jana Baha Dyah, the Bodhisattva of compassion, which is held annually in Kathmandu. It begins on the 8th day and ends on the 10th day of the fortnight of Chaulā. The Buddhist deity is known in Sanskrit as Aryavalokitesvara, and also White Machhendranath or White Karunamaya and it is believed that the annual procession was begun to provide the townspeople who were unable to visit his temple a sight of the image. During the festival, the image of Jana Bāhā Dyah is removed from his temple at Jana Baha, there it is installed in the car built in the shape of a tower on wheels. The chariot is 35 ft high, when the image is placed on the chariot, a group of musicians from the Kansakar caste play a short fanfare on their long trumpets to announce the installation. At the same time, the Guruju Paltan, a guard of honor consisting of soldiers dressed in ancient uniforms, performs a feu de joie with their muskets. Crowds then pull the chariot through central Kathmandu accompanied by musical bands, the journey is performed in three stages to permit devotees to make oblations. Worshippers bring trays of offerings and light rows of lamps to honor the deity wherever the chariot stops. Sweet marjoram flowers are special offerings on the occasion, on the first day, the chariot is pulled from Jamal, Durbar Marg through Bhotahiti to Asan where it makes an overnight halt. The next day, the chariot is pulled through Indra Chok to Kathmandu Durbar Square where it makes its second stop, on the third day, the chariot is pulled through Maru and Chikan Mugal to Lagan at the southern end of the historic section of Kathmandu. There the procession ends after the chariot makes three rounds of the housing the mother of Janabaha Dyo. The idol is carried back to the temple at Jana Baha, and the chariot is disassembled. The three-day parade is one of the two great festivals in Kathmandu, the other being Kumari Jatra during Yenya. The date of the procession of Jana Baha Dyah is changeable as it is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. Similar chariot processions known as Bunga Dyah Jatra are celebrated in Lalitpur, there is a tradition that the image of Jana Baha Dyah housed in the temple at Jana Baha, Kel Tol was retrieved from Jamal, hence the chariot procession starts from here. No one knows how far back the origin of the festival goes, chronicles show that it was already well established in the 17th century

31.
Bunga Dyah Jatra
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Buṅga Dyaḥ Jātrā is a chariot procession honoring the Buddhist deity of compassion Avalokiteśvara held in Lalitpur, Nepal. It is one of the greatest religious events in the city, buṅga Dyaḥ is also known as Raktalokitesvara Karunamaya and Rāto Machhindranāth and is revered as the giver of rain. The name Rato Machhendranath means Red Machhendranath in a reference to the color of the deitys image, the chariot festival is held according to the lunar calendar, so the date is changeable. It begins on the 4th day of the fortnight of Bachhalā. The chariot procession was instituted to celebrate the arrival of Bunga Dyah in Nepal and it was started when Narendra Deva was the king. Preparations for the festival begin with the construction of a 60-foot tall chariot at Pulchok at the end of Lalitpur. When the chariot is complete, the image of Bunga Dyah from his temple is installed in it, revellers then drag the chariot through the streets of Lalitpur on a tour that lasts a month. The chariot of Bunga Dyah is accompanied on the journey by a similar, the deity is another Bodhisattva and is also known as Minnāth. The route of the procession starts at Pulchok and passes through Gabahal, Hakha, Sundhara, Lagankhel. As per time-honored tradition, the chariot is pulled exclusively by women on the stretch between the localities of Iti and Thati and this part of the chariot procession is known as Yākah Misāyā Bhujyā. The parade finishes at the ground of Jawalakhel which is situated at the western side of Lalitpur. There, the festivities conclude with the ceremony of Bhoto Jatra, the display of the bhoto, Bhoto Jatra, which literally means vest festival, is the climax of the chariot procession of Bunga Dyah Jatra. After the two arrive in Jawalakhel, astrologers choose an auspicious date to hold the Bhoto Jatra festival. The display is a re-enactment of an event that happened eons ago, according to legend, a Jyapu lost the vest which he had received as a gift from the serpent god Karkotaka Naga for doing him a favour. One day, the farmer had come to Jawalakhel to watch the chariot pulling festival where he saw someone wearing his missing garment, since then, the vest has been shown to the public annually as a call to potential claimants to step forward. The living goddess Kumari of Patan also arrives in Jawalakhel to observe Bhoto Jatra and she watches the ceremony from a special rest house. The auspicious day when the Bhoto Jatra is held is determined by astrologers, in 2014, the vest showing will be held on 22 June. After the festival, the chariot is dismantled and the parts are stored until it is time for the procession the next year, Rato Machhendranath is taken to a temple in the nearby village of Bungamati, also known as the second home of the rain god

32.
Ihi
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It is believed that if the girls husband dies later in her life, she is not considered a widow because she is married to Vishnu, and so already has a husband that is believed to be still alive. This ritual has been in practice since hundreds of years and it is very sacred ritual and a real kanyaadaan as a virgin girl is handed over to the God. Actually, in Ihee girl is married to a statue of lord Vishnu known as Suvarna Kumar. As bel fruit has a quality of not getting rotten and remaining fresh forever. This ceremony lasts for two days, all the rituals of a Hindu marriage are performed in this ceremony. So, these rituals need not be performed again while getting married with a man, thats why in Newars it is not necessary for a Groom to go in wedding procession. The family members and friends bring the bride to grooms house where few rituals are performed, but nowadays newar grooms take part in their wedding procession hence the wedding in this community has become a bit lengthy as compared before. A second marriage, known as the Bahra ceremony or Sun marriage, occurs before a girls first menstruation, kanyadan Iihipaa Marriage in Hinduism Gutschow, Niels, Michaels, Axel & Bau, Christian. The Girls Hindu Marriage to the Bel Fruit, Ihi and The Girls Buddhist Marriage to the Bel Fruit, growing Up—Hindu and Buddhist Initiation Ritual among Newar Children in Bhaktapur, Nepal

33.
Sagan (ceremony)
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Sagun is a Nepalese ceremony which involves ritualized presentation of auspicious food to a person to invoke good fortune and show respect. It is a highly revered ceremony in Newar society of the Kathmandu Valley, the food items served are boiled egg, smoked fish, meat, lentil cake and rice wine which represent Tantric concepts. The Sagan is presented during life-cycle events like birthdays, weddings and it is also presented at the Mha Puja ceremony on New Years Day of Nepal Era. Travellers are given the Sagan before departing on a long journey, people who have achieved a special feat or survived a life-threatening accident receive it. The ceremony is held to honor somebody. The Sagan ritual is performed by both Hindu and Buddhist Newars, as per the general practice, the person receiving the Sagan sits cross-legged on the floor, and a Sukunda oil lamp is placed on a large leaf in front and to the right. The eldest woman in the house brings a tray containing flowers, rice and red paste and worships Lord Ganesh and she then puts a dab of red paste on the forehead of the honoree and others in the room. The participants also take a dab of yogurt from a bowl, the main ritual is performed next. The lady of the house presents a boiled egg and smoked fish which the participants accept with both hands, a woman helper follows pouring rice wine from a jar into little bowls. After everyone has been served, she walks down the line again pouring wine three times into each bowl and she serves wine a third time after which the participants can set down the bowls. The procedure and materials may vary as per tradition and geography. Laddu or Lāgwah may be presented in place of boiled eggs, seating may be arranged on the floor or on chairs. The Sagan ceremony and the materials used are based on Tantric tradition, the five food items presented as Sagan represent the five Tantric concepts – light, earth, water, air and sky. Beings are warm which is provided by light, and when a being dies, similarly, the body contains water, breath and empty space which are the sea, air and sky

34.
Mha Puja
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Mha Pujā is an annual ritual performed by the Newar people of Nepal to purify and empower the soul as part of New Year celebrations. It is performed on New Years Day of Nepal Sambat, the lunar calendar of Nepal. Mha Puja means worship of the self, and it celebrates the spirit within oneself, the ceremony signifies an auspicious beginning of the New Year, and invokes prosperity and longevity for the participant. Mha Puja and Nepal Sambat are also celebrated abroad where Nepalese have settled, a row of mandalas are drawn on the floor for each member of the family. Extra mandalas are drawn at the end of the row for the two messengers of death, mandalas are also drawn for essential household items like water pitcher, winnowing tray and broom. The mandala is worshipped by making offerings of food, sacred thread, colored paste, incense, lighted wicks. Family members then sit cross-legged in front of ones mandala, and she then presents each member an extra long burning wick which is placed next to the mandala. She also gives them sacred threads and a basket of fruits including citron symbolizing long life, the next part of the ceremony is Sagan Biyegu. One of the women walks down the line holding a pot containing Dhau from which everybody takes a dab. The participants are presented a set of auspicious ritual food consisting of boiled egg, smoked fish. The rice wine is poured in a bowl and refilled three times, until when the bowl must be held in the hand and not set down. The worship of the mandala is the ritual during Mha Puja. The mandala represents the universe, and the wick and incense stick which are lighted during the ceremony means that the participant should spread brightness, Mha Puja is a revered custom among Newars, and is observed outside Nepal too. The mandala is a made with powdered limestone. The Mha Puja mandala is drawn in the shape of an eight-petalled lotus inside a circle marked with water and it can be drawn freehand or by using a stencil or mould. At the center of the mandala, a circle is drawn with mustard oil. This is surrounded by concentric rings marked with red rice, black lentil, black soybean, unhusked rice, the items used to adorn the mandala symbolize good fortune, long life and freedom from perils. The mandala has been interpreted as a microcosmic and macrocosmic representation of the self, the ingredients used to construct the Mha Puja mandala may differ as per caste group and family tradition, but the philosophy behind the ceremony is the same

35.
Newar language
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Although Nepal Bhasa literally means Nepalese language, the language is not the same as Nepali, the countrys current official language. The two languages belong to different language families, but centuries of contact have resulted in a significant body of shared vocabulary, Newar was Nepals administrative language from the 14th to the late 18th centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Newar has suffered from official suppression, from 1952 to 1991, the percentage of the population in the Kathmandu Valley speaking Newar dropped from 75% to 44%, and Newar culture and language are under threat. The language has been listed as being endangered by UNESCO. The earliest occurrences of the name Nepālabhāṣā can be found in the manuscripts of a commentary to the Nāradasaṃhitā, dated 1380 AD, since then, the name has been used widely on inscriptions, manuscripts, documents and books. Conversely, the term Gorkhali in the national anthem entitled Shreeman Gambhir was changed to Nepali in 1951. On 8 September 1995, following years of lobbying to use the old name, however, the decision was not implemented, and on 13 November 1998, the Minister of Information and Communication issued another directive to use the name Nepal Bhasa instead of Newari. However, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so, Newar is spoken by over a million people in Nepal according to the 2001 census. In Nepal, Kathmandu Valley, Dolakha District, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Bandipur, Bhimphedi, Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Chitlang, Narayangarh, Chitwan. West Bengal In Tibet, Khasa With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Newar-speaking people have emerged in such as the US. The exact placement of Newar within the Tibeto-Burman language family has been a source of controversies, the linguist Warren W. Glover classified Newar as a part of Bodic subdivision using Shafers terminology. Professor Van Driem classified Newar within Mahakiranti grouping but he retracted his hypothesis in 2003. Moreover, he proposed a new grouping called Maha-Newari which possibly includes Baram–Thangmi, T. R. Kansakar attributes the difficulty about the placement of Newar is due inability of scholars to connect it with the migration patterns of the Tibeto-Burman speakers. Since Newar separated from rest of the very early in history. He underscored the point that the language evolved from mixed racial/linguistic influences that do not lend easily to a neat classification. The date indicates a time when the language diverged. ɞ Van Driem labelled this branch as Parakiranti. However, he would drop this hypothesis. ʌ All languages within this branch have extensive Indo-Aryan vocabulary. It is hypothesized that either ancient IndoAryan admixture happened before Newar-Thangmi-Baram split or that Thangmi-Baram borrowed through Newari, according to the linguist Glover, Newari and the Chepang language must have diverged around 2200 BC

36.
Newari literature
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Nepal Bhasa literature refers to literature in the Newar language. The language has the fourth oldest literature among the Sino-Tibetan languages, the earliest known document in Newar is called The Palmleaf from Uku Bahal which dates from 1114 during the Thakuri period. The earliest dated inscription in Newari is dated Nepal Sambat 293. From the 14th century onwards, a number of stone inscriptions in the Kathmandu Valley. The first books appeared in the 14th century, Nepal Bhasa literature can be broadly divided into four periods. The literary genres prevalent during this era consist of chronicles, epics, stories, scientific manuals mainly dealing with astrology and medicine, didactic poems, the kings and queens of the Malla dynasty were keen lyricists and playwrights. Dance dramas written at the time continue to be performed during annual festivals, king Mahindra Malla is regarded as the first Newari poet. Other notable poets among the Malla kings include Siddhi Narsingh Malla, Pratap Malla, Ranjit Malla, Siddhi Narsingh Malla was the first Newari playwright. He wrote a play entitled Ekadashibrata in 1633 based on a Hindu story. His most famous work is Katti Pyakhan which is shown annually at Patan Durbar Square, the queens Riddhi Laxmi, considered to be Nepals first woman poet, Jaya Laxmi and Bhuvan Laxmi were also prominent songwriters. Among the public, Jagat Keshari of Banepa in the east of the Kathmandu Valley is celebrated for a dedicated to Goddess Chandeswari. In the later part of the Classical Period, Rajendra Bikram among the Shah kings is famed for writing Mahasatwa Pakhyan, pundit Sundarananda is known for his epics while Amritananda, besides composing poetry, wrote a grammar of Newari. After the Gorkha conquest of Nepal in 1768 and the advent of the Shah dynasty, overt suppression was started by the Rana dynasty. In 1906, official documents written in Newari were declared illegal, the use of the language for business and literary purposes was forbidden. Books were confiscated and writers were jailed, as a result, not only literary creations but also writing for general purposes almost ceased, and the distance between the spoken and the written language began to widen. A small number of hymns and religious stories were produced during this period, notable writers of the era were Swami Abhayananda, Hari Bhakta Mathema, Man Bahadur Joshi and Bir Bahadur Malla. During this period, a new generation of writers emerged who asserted themselves by producing literary works defying government restrictions, the renaissance aimed to restore the Newar languagess lost glory and stimulate creative literature. The activities of this period laid the foundation for the course of the language

9th–10th century granite Chola statue of Matrika Maheshvari, seen with a trident in a hand, adorned by serpent ornaments and her vahana (mount), the bull Nandi is seen on her seat — Musée Guimet, Paris.

A Hoysala sculpture of Chamunda, Halebidu. Surrounded by skeletons, the goddess has large nails and protruding teeth and wears a garland of skulls.