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included from the print version.Cyprus: Historical and Descriptive. From
the Earliest Times to the Present Day.Franz von Löher

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Library of Congress Subject Headings2006EnglishGreekCyprus -- Description and travel. Cyprus -- History. February 2006LMSed.Spellchecked, corrected tagging errors, verified and enhanced
metadata. Added line breaks to first 100 pp. to make the text consistent.October 2006LMSed.Automatically added place name markup.

CYPRUS, HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.

CYPRUS,
HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.

ISLAND OF CYPRUS.

Illustration of title-pageCYPRUS: Historical
and Descriptive.FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT
DAY.ADAPTED FROM THE GERMAN OFFRANZ VON LÖHER WITH MUCH ADDITIONAL MATTER BYMRS. A. BATSON JOYNER.WITH TWO MAPS AND SEVENTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS.NEW YORK:R. WORTHINGTON, 750 BROADWAY.1878.

The sudden interest created by recent
political events in everything relating to Cyprus, an island which,
from its geographical position, seems destined to play no
unimportant part in modern history, has rendered the
appearance of Herr von Löher's narrative of his recent
journeyings through the length and breadth of that country
extremely welcome. It is therefore with much pleasure we have
received permission from the Author to lay before the
British public an adaptation of his book (only
published during the last few days) which seems well
suited to supply information, such as is at present
much needed in England.

The island of Cyprus, from the
first dawn of civilization, has been classic ground, extremely
interesting to antiquaries, and its history throughout
the Middle Ages is largely blended with tales of
chivalry and romantic incidents, such as in these
matter-of-fact times are scarcely cared for by
speculators, whose object is to obtain reliable
information on subjects of more practical importance, such as
the resources of the
country, the character of its soil, the capabilities of its
surface, and the industry of its inhabitants. Lessons upon
these points are only to be learned from a careful survey,
such as that accomplished by our author, who, uninfluenced by
prejudice, describes in simple narrative the actual
condition of the island, the scenery of the interior,
and the every-day employments and pursuits of the
people, thus removing many erroneous impressions as to the condition of the Cypriotes, and leaving the reader to form his own opinion as to the status and prospects of our new acquisition. All information connected with these points we have carefully rendered, only omitting such matter as appeared irrelevant, and calculated unnecessarily to increase the size of the book. Additional information gleaned from
various sources, relative to the general history and
statistics of the island, is to be found in the Appendix.

That the climate of Cyprus is
delightful, the soil prolific, and the landscape in some parts
of the country of surpassing beauty, we have abundant
testimony in the writings of classic authors, and there
is no reason to suppose that in these respects its
attractions have deteriorated. A late writer, J.
Jasinides, who died at a good old age at Koutzovendi, in
Cyprus, in 1871, at
the conclusion of his work “Les Iles Mediterranée,” thus
expresses himself: “For forty years I have been wandering from
isle to isle, ascertaining
their political, commercial, and social aspect, and this
island (Cyprus) notwithstanding the barbarism of its present rulers, through which it is cut off from the rest of the world, is my favorite. … It is a little world in itself; here do I wish to die. My limited means will keep me in comparative luxury. Although old, I am strong and feel
young, no wild beasts or reptiles disturb my solitude, the
water is sweet and cool, the wine is nectar, and the food
plain but good; above all I know that my grave will be
respected, and that kind hands will close my eyes.”

London, 1878.

M. A. J.

CONTENTS.

[Image of page ix]

CHAPTER I.LARNAKA.PAGEFirst View of Larnaka—Arrival—The Haven—The
Town—Catholic Church—Fine Carving—Kissing Relics—Marble
Sarcophagi—Tombs—Derivation of Name of Larnaka—Phœnicians—Kiti—Language—Shallow Harbor—An Ancient
Graveyard—Relics—Nursing Bottles—Schools—Church of St. Lazarus—A
Compromise in Ecclesiastic Architecture—St. Lazarus's Morning
Walk—Ride out to Curious Building—Strange Doors—Phaneromene Panagia—Female
Superstitions—Salt
Lake—Marshes Source of Ill-health1CHAPTER II.ATHIENU.Streets of Larnaka—Game Birds—Mountain of
Olympus—Negro
Slaves—Natives of Athienu—Attack on Famagusta—Repulse of the Turks—Six Months'
Siege—Honorable Terms—Meeting of Rival Generals—Treachery of
Mustapha—Butchery of the Garrison—Bragadino Flayed Alive—Triumphant
Return of Mustapha—Dinner with an Athenitan—Dali—Two Largest Rivers—Neglected
Land—Character of a Cypriote—Silkworms—Planting of Mulberry
Trees—Silk Factories—Forests—Carob-tree—Cyprus a Miniature
India—Fruits—Sugar—Cotton—The Garden of the World—A Guard of
Honor—First View of the Capital—Lepers—Visit to the Governor9CHAPTER III.NIKOSIA.Morning
Impressions—Easter Eve—Gardens of Fruit Trees—Society—Costume of the
Ladies—Beauties of Cyprus—Adoption of Turkish

[Image of page x]

Customs—Language—Cathedral of St. Sophia—Church of St.
Nicholas—Archbishop's Chapel—Visit to the Lord Archbishop—A Rising
Man—Greek Priests—Church of St. Katherine—Memorials of the Dead—St.
Paul in Cyprus—Elymas, the
Sorcerer—Prisons—Courts of Justice—Wanton Destruction—Wealthy
Nobles—Enormous Establishments—Great Riches of Merchants22CHAPTER IV.CYPRUS IN THE MIDDLE AGES.German
Kingdom—Richard Cœur de Lion—Cyprus Sold to Lusignan—Knights Templars—Amalrick—Becomes a
Vassal to Henry the Sixth, of Germany—From A. D. 1285 to A. D.
1373—Conquest of Smyrna and Alexandria—Commerce—Wealth and
Luxury—Death of James the Second—Origin of Italian Title of Kings of
Cyprus and
Jerusalem—Turks—Erection of Fortifications—Selim the Second—Attack
on Limasol—Arsenal at Venice
Burnt—Nikosia Besieged—Heroic Defense—Spoil and Captives—Result of
Intemperance35CHAPTER V.DRAWING UP OF THE
STATUTES.Social Positions of
the Various Classes—Vassalage—Form of Government—Marriage of Lady
Vassals—Law Courts—Assizes of Jerusalem—Custody of the Book of the
Law—John d'Ibelin—Knightly Law-makers—Philip of Navarre—Grand
Statute Book of Cyprus.44CHAPTER VI.SAN
CHRISOSTOMO.Cyprus, European or Asian?—Buffavento—Excursion to Inspect
Buffavento—Carrying
Fire-arms Prohibited—A Quiet Morning Ride—An old Turk and his
Wives—The Northern Range of
Mountains—St. Chrisostomo—Monastic Economy—Maria of
Molino—Precautions against Fever—Easter Decorations—A Remedy for
Leprosy—Fortresses Erected to Command Passes and Roads—Spirit
Haunted—Unger and Kotschy49

[Image of page xi]CHAPTER VII.BUFFAVENTO.Bee-hives—The Queen's
Castle—Paradise—Take a Guide—Gradual Ruin—En Avant—The Guides
suspect Treasure Hunting—The Fortress—Zaptiehs and their
Masters—Plucky Guide—The Highest Tower—View from the Summit—A German
Female Recluse—Peculiar People in Carpasia—The Descent—Fortresses
destroyed by Venetians—Sale of Crown Lands—Decline of Old
Nobility....56CHAPTER VIII.TURKISH
GOVERNORS.Visit from the
Pacha—One Hundred Years Ago—How Governors feathered their
Nests—Poll-tax—Expostulation—Report to the Sultan—Arrival of the
Imperial Envoy—Public Reading of the Sultan's Commands—Fall of the
Floor of the State Chamber—Explanation of the Trap—The Governor will
not be Governed—Attacked by the Populace—Death of the Governor—A New
Governor—Intrigues and another Poll-tax—Popular Refusal—Preparations
for Rebellion—The Water cut off—The Edict withdrawn—Again a
Poll-tax—The Nobles head the Insurrection—Blockade of Nikosia—Again
the Tax withdrawn—Arrival of a New Governor—Disappointed
Hopes—Proposals—Order again restored—The Poll-tax again
demanded—General Revolt—Attack on Famagusta—Siege of Nikosia—Eastern Wiles Mediation by
English Consul—Fighting continued—Arrival of Corsairs—A Strong
Argument—Arrival of Special Envoy to Compel Order—Deserters from the
Rebel Camp—Rebels retire to Keryneia—The Castle Besieged—An Open-hearted Turkish
Sailor!—Betrayal of Halil Aga—Capitulation—Smiles—Treacherous
Execution—Two Hundred Salted Heads—Order restored65CHAPTER IX.THE PLAINS OF CYPRUS.Expedition to ascend
Olympus—No Information to
be Obtained—Neglected Districts—Game—Prompt Action of my
Zaptieh—Faithful Obedience of Mussulman
Servants—Akazi—Easter—Fasting Extraordinary—Abstinence of the
Greeks—Heat80

[Image of page xii]CHAPTER X.EVRYCHU.Cool
Waters—Evryechu—In Church—Healthy Population—Graceful and
Interesting Customs—Greek Houses—Our Host and his Family—An Easter
Dinner—Classic Christian Names—Absence of Large Trees—Cypriote
Clergy86CHAPTER XI.MOUNT OLYMPUS.A Mountain Pass—Lost
our Way—Heroism of the Dragoman!—Sight of a Glacier—Absence of Large
Timber at Base of Mountain—Dragoman again! who Fairly Bolts—Horses
and Zaptieh left Behind—Heavy Work in the Snow—Scene from the
Summit—Alone!—No Trace of Ruins93CHAPTER XII.CYPRUS IN ANCIENT TIMES.Descent of Olympus—A Retrospect—The Busy
Phœnicians—Shipbuilders for the Euphrates—The Goddess Astarte—The
New Religion—Trojan War, the first Struggle between East and
West—Grecian Warrior Colonists—Evidence of Ancient Inscriptions—The
Nine Kingdoms of Cyprus—Attacks by Continental Nations—Cyprus appealed to for Assistance—The
Cyprian Navy—Philip of Macedon—Alexander the Great—Cyprian
Shipwrights on the Indus—Artisans of Cyprus—Ptolemies—An Egyptian Ruler—Cyprus a Roman Province—Under Roman
Dominion—Aphroditissa—The Idol Stone—Little Images of the
Madonna—Revolution of the Jews—Great Slaughter—A Land of Saints100CHAPTER XIII.TROADITISSA.Dangerous
Ground—Disappointment—Easter-Eve Festivities—An Official Menace—Hear
of a Gentleman—Demons and Kobolds—Fini—Arrival—Stable Accommodation—The Dragoman
again—Hunger—Cloister Rations—Wine makes the Heart Glad—A Village
Congregation—After Mass—Hospitality of the Church—Beautiful
Girls—Doctors Required—Fasting—Precious Relic—Russian Gift—The
Picture endowed with Healing Powers—Gratitude—Mountains and
Trees—Heat—Shepherds116

[Image of page xvi]CHAPTER
XXVIII.KARUBIEH AND MAZOTOS.Cape
Karubieh—Deserted Village—Fruit Ships—Fruit
Ships—Fruit—Carob-trees—A Cyprian Farm-house—Our Worthy
Hostess—Light Soil—Farm Laborer—Cost of
Living—Priests—Hospitality—Kiti—Mount of the Holy Cross—St. Helena—Sacred
Relic—Game—Wine228CHAPTER XXIX.LAST DAYS IN LARNAKA.Dancing
Girl—Aphrodite—St. George the Martyr—Patron Saint of England—Legend
of St. George—Tenets of the Greek
Church—Clergy—Churches—Servia—Panagia—Sunday Trading—Handsome Girls—Cypriote
Husbands—Turkish Houses—Departure from the Island235CHAPTER XXX.EFFORTS OF THE
GERMANS TO OBTAIN CYPRUS.Frederick the
Second—An imperial Marriage—Cyprian
Opinions—Barons—Knights—Importance of Cyprus as a Military
Position—Regency—Quarrels—Promises of Amendment—Form of
Government—Departure of the Emperor—The Emperor
Denounced—Sedition—Terms of Peace—The Emperor is Crowned—State of
Cyprus—Civil
Wars—Rebellion—The Verse-maker—Success of Ibelin244CHAPTER XXXI.MARSHAL
FELINGHER.Cyprus Lost—A Fleet Sent—Ibelin at
Beyrut—Internal Disaffection—Defeat of Ibelin—Strenuous Efforts to
raise Money—Bank Notes—The Genoese Rise—Defeat of the
Imperialists—Death of Queen Alice—Peaceful Proposals—Renewed
Hostilities—Papal Interference—The Last of the German Influence267CHAPTER XXXII.CYPRUS AND THE EUPHRATES VALLEY
RAILWAY.The Projected
Railway—Cyprus a Terminal
Station—Sir F. Goldsmid—Position of Cyprus—Ports—Commerce—Harbors—Different Routes for
Line—Mr. W. P. Andrew—Political Importance of Line—Fertility of
Adjacent Country—Re-opening a Neglected Country—India nearer Home280APPENDIX295

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

[Image of page il]

1.MAP OF CYPRUSFacing Title-page2.MAP SHOWING RELATION
OF CYPRUS TO THE ADJACENT
COASTS,ix3.LARNAKA24.COURT-YARD OF BRITISH
CONSULATE AT LARNAKA65.LARNAKA86.FAMAGUSTA87.MOSQUE OF ST. SOPHIA
AT NIKOSIA268.NIKOSIA309.ST. HILARION5410.CAPE GRECO5411.NORTH COAST VIEW FROM
ST. HILARION OF THE MOUNTAIN CHAIN OF KERYNEIA5612.RUINS OF THE
GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT FAMAGUSTA6813.THE CHAIN OF MOUNT OLYMPUS8014.MOUNT OLYMPUS9415.A SARCOPHAGUS11416.THE MOSQUE OF
MAHOMET'S NURSE11417.VIEW BETWEEN LEOKOSIA
AND CERINA14218.KERYNEIA25819.CAPE KORMACITE29620.THE CATHEDRAL AT
FAMAGUSTA302

CYPRUS, HISTORICAL AND
DESCRIPTIVE.
CHAPTER I.
LARNAKA.

[Image of page 1]

THE first approach to Larnaka,
the chief sea-port of Cyprus, is well calculated to impress the traveler. The boundless expanse of blue sky and sea, the bold outline
of the hills and mountains, brought out as they are into sharp relief by the
clearness and brilliancy of the atmosphere, seem to throw the
works of man far into the background and boldly assert the simple grandeur of nature.

Such were my involuntary reflections as we dropped anchor in the roads of Larnaka on April
21st, 1877. This entrance to the island displays an expansive
bay, the yellow sands of which are bordered by an extensive plain, broken by bare and rocky hills, and in the blue distance backed by a chain of mountains.A landscape was before me, in which the
towns, gardens, and buildings constituted only minor[Image of page 2] accessories. Larnaka appeared
as a mere speck on the bosom of the open country. The haven
contains about fifty houses, built in the centre of the curve of the bay, and above them wave the variegated flags of the different consulates, surmounted by pointed minarets and a new belfry. The town of Larnaka itself lies far behind, and is
separated by wide fields from the haven. Thanks to the
kindness of the German consul, a friendly welcome awaited me at the landing-place, where I found a dragoman ready to conduct me to my destination. Before leaving the haven, however, I inspected its streets, which presented an animated appearance. Artisans plied their trades in all directions, and dirt reigned supreme. The rows of houses, interspersed with stately mansions, churches, and gardens filled with waving palms, constitute its principal attractions; all else is strictly Oriental, namely, its filth, rags, and miserable huts of wood and clay.

In the Catholic church we found a solitary monk,
who showed us some fine carvings. The pictures upon the
partition which separates the altar from the rest of the
church are diligently kissed by the worshippers. I could not
but approve this custom, if only from the fact that a law of
the church required that no one should salute the sacred
pictures without previously washing his face. This
ceremony takes place once a week, so that, happily, the
gold and silver covered panels are not distinguished by

LARNAKA.

[Image of page 3] a black circle in the spots where they are kissed.
With the exception of an occasional block of marble built into
the walls of a house, or a sarcophagus, utilized as a
receptacle for water, I saw nothing to recall the ancient
power of the busy crowds that once animated this spot. Their
tombs, excavated in the stratum of chalk, which lies below the
surface, were once filled with marble sarcophagi, which century by century have been dragged out and employed for building purposes. Hence the revolting
name given to this town, for Larnaka,
literally interpreted, means simply a coffin. Others,
however, assert that the name is derived from the fact
that the houses were built upon the site of an ancient graveyard.

The Phœnicians are believed to have first founded a
town here and called it Kiti; by the
Greeks it was known as Kition, and from this source was derived the Asiatic
designation of Kitier, for the inhabitants of Cyprus. At a later date Grecian settlers took possession of it; artists, weavers, and artisans in large numbers poured in, and dwelt side by side
with the Syrians, but occupied their own part of the town,
gradually introducing their own language to common use as in
Antioch and Alexandria, and giving a Grecian tone to the
education of the higher classes. The Latin tongue, on the
contrary, seems never to have gained a footing in the East. Cyprus, however,
formed an exception to[Image of page 4] this rule, and during the four centuries that the
island was subject to the sway of the Lusignan dynasty and
Venetian rule, Latin was in general use. Not a trace of it,
however, now remains. Modern Greek is spoken, even in most of
the Turkish houses, and is understood in every part of the
country. The consulate body in Larnaka has representatives from every state in
Europe. Its haven is the best in the island, although on
account of the shallowness of the water, vessels are compelled
to steer clear of the sand and ride at some distance from the
town.

The whole of this interesting island may be regarded as one huge graveyard, the treasures of which are disclosed
at every turn of the spade. InIdalion, the Greeks, it appears, had
formerly made their graves three feet below the surface, and,
probably unknown to themselves, only some three or four feet above those occupied by the Phœnician colonists. In these graves, now filled up by the drifting earth of successive centuries, are found embedded small earthen articles, trinkets, coins, and a great variety of interesting trifles. Amongst other articles shown me, were elegant little figures, sucking bottles for children, and every variety of vases and cups in clay and glass.∗ What struck me most, however, were some delicate gold chains and ear-rings, and some yellowish-blue vases of Phœnician glass. ∗ General Cesnola gives a most interesting
description of Cyprian antiquities in a work published in 1877.

[Image of page 5]

Toward evening I visited the chief part of the
town, which is about a quarter of an hour's walk from the
haven, and called upon the bishop. Here I learnt many
interesting facts concerning the recent improvements made in
means of popular education. Until thirty years ago, schools
were strictly prohibited, whereas now, every town has its
training school; whilst in three of the chief towns, Larnaka, Nikosia, and
Limasol, these are of three grades, and in them are taught, history, geography, and Grecian literature, even to the reading of Homer and Xenophon. The prices for these classes are from 100 to 300 marks. Anything over and above this charge is covered by the bishop and a toll upon the exports and imports of the town.

I then visited the church of St. Lazarus, which is
surrounded by fine rows of pillars, with pointed arches, which
give an impressive and sacred aspect to the building. The main
part of the church is built in the form of a cross, with a
dome in the centre, and is evidently of great antiquity.
The building comprises three long large vaults,
surmounted by three small cupolas. It seems that the Pacha Kudschuk Mehemed commanded the demolition of these domes, on the ground that only a
mosque should be so adorned, but after long and earnest
entreaties, at last yielded so far as to consent to their
being only half torn down, and the openings filled up with
planks. They were afterwards[Image of page 6] restored, and fifteen years ago a handsome clock
tower was erected, surmounted by the Russian double eagle.

When I issued from the church, evening had closed
in, and the priests, robed in black, with lights in their
hands, lent an air of solemn mystery to this fine building.
St. Lazarus is supposed to have died in Cyprus, and his marble coffin, adorned with one rose, stands in a narrow recess. The tomb is empty; the bones, in all probability, having been taken possession of by the Venetians as sacred relics. Next
morning I wandered out to explore the environs of the town.
The air was spring-like and balmy, flowers, amongst which I
observed tulips and hyacinths, enlivened the ground, and the
blue waves danced in the light of the sun. Waving palms and
high hedges of Indian cactus hid the haven from my sight,
and lent an air of solitude and repose to the whole
scene, whilst as far as the eye could reach, the fields
were filled with fruit trees, and the landscape
enlivened by flocks of goats and sheep. The whole scene formed an Oriental picture of great beauty, and I could not help exclaiming to myself, “If this is the worst part of the country what a paradise the interior must be!”

In the evening, having obtained the loan of a fine
Arab horse, I rode off to investigate a curious building, at
no great distance from the town. This remarkable structure,
which is half embedded in the

COURTYARD OF THE BRITISH CONSULATE AT LARNAKA.

[Image of page 7] earth and rock, resembles a baker's oven, and is high enough to permit a man to stand upright within it. The
sides are formed of large blocks of stone, and the roof
covered by one huge slab. This erection is divided into three
parts. A small chamber is hewn in the bare rock, which forms a
natural wall at the back of the structure. Formerly a similar
chamber opened upon the front of the large centre portion, but this is now destroyed. These apartments seem to have been closed by slabs, let down from above into grooves, which are still visible. This ruin was probably first used by the Phœnicians as a burial-place, and at a later date consecrated to the virgin mother Phaneromene Panagia. This spot has a great attraction for the
peasant women of the surrounding country, who believe that its
sacred walls possess a peculiar virtue for those suffering
from grievous sickness or for childless women. These latter
often make pilgrimages hither, carrying a lamp
concealed under their garments. At the entrance the lamp
is kindled, and the suppliant steps barefooted into the third chamber, where she offers her prayers toPanagia, and leaves her lamp as a votive
offering. Turkish women, I am informed, also practice
this ceremony.

At a very short distance from this interesting
relic, and almost close to the sea, lies the celebrated lake
from which the Phœnicians extracted the salt they so largely
exported. Its value has in this respect[Image of page 8] by no means deteriorated. During the winter rains it
becomes filled with brackish water, which evaporates as in a
vast eauldron, under the burning sun of July and August, and
deposits a thick coat of fine salt at its bottom. Night soon
closes in in these latitudes, and as I left the spot, the sun
suddenly lit up sea, sky, and earth in one blaze of glowing color, and then rapidly sank to rest. Darkness at once set in, and I rode home through a silence as complete, and a solitude as profound, as if I were traversing the open desert.

The cause of unhealthiness in most towns in Cyprus is quite local and easily
removed. Thus, round Larnaka and Famagusta are marshes
which infect the air, and are apt to induce fever and
ague in summer.

LARNAKA.

FAMAGUSTA.—See Page
11.

CHAPTER II.
ATHIENU.

[Image of page 9]

AT seven o'clock the following morning I startedfor
Athienu, and as I passed through the streets of Larnaka, the town was still quiet, and
almost empty.

The better class of houses stand within a courtyard
and garden, and are furnished with large verandas, supported
by light pillars. Women and girls of the lowest class were to
be seen lounging about the narrow, crooked streets. As I
quitted the town, the day became all that a traveler
could desire. The air was bright and pure, and a balmy breeze swept over the green plains. The swallows were skimming through the air, and countless larks were trilling their sweetest notes.

Cyprus, I must here observe,
is very bountifully supplied with birds. I was told that many
thousand larks were offered in the market-place of Larnaka. The eggs of the
partridge are still more esteemed, and I have often heard the
call of these birds in the grass toward evening.

As I pursued my journey, I soon found myself
between ranges of chalk hills, and then passed for[Image of page 10] miles over bleached and barren highlands. These form
part of a chain of hills connected toward the south with the
western range of mountains, and extending in a long line to
the sea. Very rarely we passed a little hut, standing in a
blooming garden, and forming a veritable oasis in this
miniature desert. As I reached the last height, I obtained
a peep of the sea near Larnaka, whilst before me, toward the northern
portion of the island, towered a superb range of mountains,
bristling with innumerable peaks, and tinted with various
shades of brown. This chain extends north of the western mountains to the coast, where, passing onwards into the sea, it forms the groundwork of the Carpasian peninsula. To my left were also broad, dark, stupendous mountains, running through the whole
western portion of the island. One peak, the “Troados,”
formerly the Cyprian “Olympus,” reared a snow-covered crown. At my feet lay the extensive plains of Messaria, watered by mountain
streamlets, and forming one huge cornfield. A group of
thirteen camels, tended by two negroes, stood in a
pasture-ground beneath me, and imparted a still more Eastern
character to the scene. These negroes were probably paid
servants, but formerly black slaves were commonly employed in
this island. The Government has forbidden this traffic in
human flesh; but as a negro will do a better day's work than five Cypriotes, their introduction is winked at,[Image of page 11] and many are landed in the northern havens, and are
taken by night to the neighboring mountains.

About noon I reached the town of Athienu, the
inhabitants of which are considerably above the average
Cypriote in manliness and intelligence. I learnt that they
trace their descent from the famous defenders of the powerful
fortress, Famagusta,
which, in the Middle Ages, stood upon the western part of the
island. Famagusta is encumbered withdebris, and the covered pits from which the
Turks assaulted the walls in the sixteenth century are
now stagnant marshes. After the fall of Nikosia, this fortress had resisted the Turkish arms for more than a year, under the command of the brave Venetian captain, Bragadino. In vain the Turkish General Seraskier Mustapha stormed the place. Six times his men rushed on, their swords between their teeth, fascines and ladders in their hands, and six times
they were driven back with great slaughter. Mustapha was
furious, his best troops were gone, and he well knew his head
must pay the penalty at Constantinople should he return
unsuccessful. The town was invested, and six months later,
when every scrap of food and ammunition was exhausted, the starving people forced their captain to surrender. Mustapha at once proposed the most honorable terms. The garrison were to retain their arms and baggage,
and be sent in Turkish ships to Crete. Whoever desired to go
to another part of the island[Image of page 12] might do so with all his possessions, whilst those
who preferred to remain, were to be perfectly unmolested, both
as regarded their religion and property.

On the 5th August, 1571, the fortress was taken
possession of by the Turkish fleet, and Bragadino at once rode
down to the shore, accompanied by three generals, to deliver
up the keys to his captors. Over his head was a red silk
umbrella, and on his shoulders a purple mantle that swept the
ground, in token of his distinguished rank. Mustapha
received him, at first, with all honor; but in the course
of conversation, became so insolent that Bragadino
replied to him in angry terms. The four generals were at once attacked, Bragadino's nose and ears cut off, and his companions hewn to pieces. Three hundred men of his garrison were mercilessly butchered, and a scene of carnage and pillage ensued
which lasted three days. Only a small remnant of the higher
classes were allowed to escape, on condition that they should
separate and settle in the principal towns.

Bragadino was fastened to a rope and dropped into
the sea, from which he was again fished out, laded with two baskets of earth and sent to the new
Turkish entrenchments. On his arrival he was seized, thrown down, and slowly
tortured to death, amidst the gibes and brutal laughter of
Mustapha and his followers. He died as he had lived, like
a[Image of page 13] hero, but this did not protect his body from insult.
His skin was stuffed with hay, placed on a cow, and led
throughout the camp and town, and was finally attached to the
mast of Mustapha's ship, and taken to Constantinople, where
the pitiless conqueror was received with open arms.

I dined at the table of an Athenitan, and have
seldom been better entertained; the room was small but clean,
and my hostess young and charming. Our fare, which was
admirably cooked, consisted of fried eggs, roast fowl and
pillau. For dessert, oranges, artichokes, and some excellent
dark wine, were set before me. After dinner I enjoyed a
refreshing sleep, and then bidding adieu to my good hosts,
pro-ceeded on my way.

Dali, the ancient Idalion, was my next resting place; here was formerly the Temple of Venus, now a mere heap of ruins, but I saw little worthy of note. These plains of Cyprus are watered by two streams, one of which flows
east, and the other west. Both are named after the towns
toward which they flow, the larger being called the Dali and the lesser the
Morfu. In ancient times these rivers were known as the Pedias
and Satrachos, and both much resemble the Nile in appearance.
During the rainy season these streams run rapidly, spreading
their yellow waters over the surrounding country, and when they retire, leave a thick deposit of slime or mud. I am told that the Pedias was formerly called[Image of page 14] the Cyprian Nile. The table-like rocks of the plain
of Messaria, through which I now journeyed, form a very
peculiar and interesting feature of its scenery. These rocks,
called , from their table-like
appearance, are considered by the Cypriotes to be useless for
agricultural purposes; I rode over several of them to test the
truth of this assertion, and found the chalk only visible in
certain parts, the rest of the surface being well fitted for
the growth of vines and other plants. But of what avail is it,
that a few hills might be cultivated, in a country whose plains for generations have not been touched by a plow or hoe? Not a sheep or goat was to be
seen in the plains, once called by the ancients, or the blessed. Now that Cyprus again enjoys the comforts of a
judicious government, she will speedily bring forth all the
fruits of the earth with profusion. This, however, will not be
done without difficulty and patient perseverance.

A Cyprian ox! () was the ancient nickname conferred upon the Cypriotes in derision of their stolid obtuseness. Dirty, but contented, they lounge through life without making the slight-est effort to improve their condition, All emulation or pride in their professions seems to have died out under the weight of a tyrannical and unsympathetic government.

The following short sketch of the cultivation ofCyprus, under the various dynasties, will
show its[Image of page 15] extraordinary natural resources, and the field for
enterprise that will be opened out under British sway:

During the long centuries of Byzantine rule, many
circumstances conduced to the animation of trade and proper
cultivation of the fertile soil.Cyprus was long regarded as a veritable
harbor of refuge, not only by those inhabiting the
neighbor-ing Asiatic continent, but by the persecuted
victims of various religious denominations, many of
whom being quiet, industrious men, settled down at once in the country of their adoption as skillful tillers of the soil; whilst the Armenian and Syrian refugees taught and improved the arts of trade and com-merce.

The introduction of the silkworm into Cyprus must, however, be regarded as a main cause
of its long prosperity. Until that time the wearing of silk was confined entirely to the highest classes, and it could only be procured, at enormous cost, of merchants traveling from India and China. In the year 557 two monks brought a quantity of silk-worms' eggs from India to offer them to the Em-peror Justinian, who, appreciating their commercial value, caused them to be distributed over different provinces. In no place did their culture succeed as in Cyprus; the warm,
soft air, rarely agitated by wind and storm, exactly suited
their requirements, and in a very short space of time the
southern[Image of page 16] coasts, and other parts, were covered with mulberry
trees for their sustenance, and the celebrated silk factories
established and in full work. The rule of the Arab in Cyprus brought on the contrary deca-dence and misfortune in its train. These sons of the desert destroyed all before them, churches and tem-ples were laid in ruins, and books committed to the flames. Once, however, settled in the conquered dominion, they gave themselves up to the enjoy-ment of their new possessions. Jews and Christians were employed in building new palaces, and in trans-lating into Arabic the poetry of Persia and works of Eastern lore. For their own share of improve-ment the Arabs devoted themselves to the cultiva-tion of plants, and arranged splendid and well-irri-gated gardens, which they filled with trees and shrubs brought from Egypt, Syria, and Arabia.

We learn that, as far as the island has been yet
explored, it contains no less than one thousand dif-ferent
sorts of plants. The forest growth is more especially
luxuriant. According to Herr Unger, the “Pinus maritima,” in
Cyprus, covers the hills and mountain regions to the height of 4,000 feet, and one of the commonest trees, the “Pinus laricio,” which covers all the heights to 4,000 feet above the sea, is met with on the western mountains of the island to 6,000 feet, and gives them a dark appear-ance from the coast. The wild cypress, “Cupressus
horizontalis,” is the third tree which grows com-[Image of page 17] monly in the eastern part of the island, and in some
places forms, by itself, whole woods. On the en-tire northern
chain of mountains this wild cypress often grows at the height
of 2,000 feet to 3,000 feet above the sea. Great forests of
wild cypresses must have covered the whole of the south of
the island, interspersed with a shrub, the “Juniperus Phœnicea.” In the north several varieties of oak are found, and throughout the island the arbutus abounds. The carob-tree, “Ceratonia siliqua,” and olive flourish on the banks of all the rivers, and up to an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea. The succulent pods of the carob-tree are exported to Egypt and Syria, while the pulp, which is called St. John's bread, from its resemblance to manna, is used as an article of food. Orange and lemon trees, and date-palms, are also met with in great pro-fusion.

The cultivation of Cyprus
during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was carried to
great per-fection, and was still flourishing in the two
succeed-ing centuries. During the chivalrous dominion
of the Lusignans, inconceivable wealth and almost un-precedented luxury overspread the whole island, and in all the neighboring countries of the Mediter-ranean, Cyprus was
spoken of as a miniature India, overflowing with treasure.
Knights, philosophers, and adventurers streamed into the
island. The prosperity of Cyprus must not, however, be attrib-[Image of page 18] uted to these new and able immigrants, but to the
fact that its revenues were no longer drained by its tributes
to foreign potentates, and that its princes ruled with
prudence and justice. These new-com-ers to the island at once
commenced cultivating the fruit-trees of their native lands.
Apple, pear, plum, and medlar trees, however, did not thrive,
but cher-ries, peaches, bananas, and apricots came to great perfection, and Cyprus
is still noted for its walnuts. An attempt was next made to
introduce the sugar-cane, with much success, and Cyprian sugar
was soon in great request. The art of refining had, however, not been introduced, and the sugar only took the form of small blackish grains.

The cultivation of the grape, which had dated from
most ancient times, acquired new vigor under these influences,
and was speedily recognized as the choicest vintage in the
world. In no less esteem were held the silks and velvets woven
in Cyprus, and the
extended cultivation of the mulberry and the perfection of the
art of weaving went hand in hand.∗
Syrian industry was united with European talent, and
operatives from Persia, who came to give their services,
brought with them seeds of the cotton-plant. So marvelously
did this new venture prosper, that cotton was commonly known
as the gold-plant, on account of its great commercial suc-cess. ∗ The white mulberry-tree does not
thrive in Cyprus.[Image of page 19] In Nikosia, the capital of Cyprus, large weav-ing establishments were at once
formed for the pro-duction of the fine calico, for which Cyprus was soon noted.
During the whole of the Middle Ages,Cyprus must be regarded as the garden in
which tropical plants of all kinds were carefully
acclima-tized, and from thence introduced and
distributed over Greece, Italy, S. France, Spain, the
Canary Islands, and America.

A short distance from Nikosia, I observed a party
of soldiers standing in a court-yard on the roadside. As I
approached they quietly sprang into their sad-dles, and rode
toward me with their sabres in their hands. On reaching me
they saluted, and one of the party advancing, informed me,
with a graceful wave of his hand, that he had been sent by
the Pacha of Cyprus
to meet and conduct me to the lodging he had found for me. My
new companion, who was a Catholic Armenian, speaking both French and Italian, chatted gayly to me as we rode on side by side. Our path lay through a valley be-tween the hills which still hid the city from our eyes. As soon as we reached the rising ground, hundreds of waving palm-trees were before us, in-terspersed with slender minarets, whilst here and there a fine dome, towering high, announced to me that the capital of Cyprus lay before us. A verita-ble gem of Eastern
beauty it looked in the bright sunlight, its white walls and
painted minarets stand-[Image of page 20] ing gayly out from the green, well waterd plain and
graceful palms, whilst fine belfries and Gothic churches gave
an air of grandeur to the view. As we approached the sun went
rapidly down, gold and purple clouds rolled over our heads,
and the air was filled with a soft and delicious breeze.

At the gates of the town we were met by a party of
lepers begging for alms; the revolting sight seemed to throw a
feeling of horror over the whole scene. Happily the
unfortunates are not permitted to enter the city. We were now
requested to form ourselves into a file in order to make our
entrance in a becoming manner. Two soldiers went first with naked sabres in their hands, then followed the captain, then myself, and in my rear, our servants and baggage. In this wise we galloped along as rapidly as our mules would carry us, and as
we passed the bazars and streets the people gathered about us
and offered a respectful welcome. A nar-row dirty street
brought us to the door of my lodg-ing, where I was received by
the host and his ser-vants with many impressive genuflections.

Here I parted with my friendly conductors, after
offering them a return, in solid cash, which they evidently
expected, for their civilities. The captain of the party
shortly after returned to invite me to visit the governor, who
belonged to a noble Bosnian family, at his residence. This
gentleman had trav-eled much, and had visited both Paris and
Vienna.[Image of page 21] He received me with all the grace of a European, and
gave me much valuable information respecting this interesting
town. What delighted me most, however, was the gift of an
excellent map of the country, a treasure I had vainly
attempted to obtain ever since my arrival, and which proved
invaluable to me in all my journeyings.

As I returned home the city lay in perfect rest,
not a creature was to be seen, and the streets were only
enlivened by the gambols of a few wretched, homeless dogs.

CHAPTER III.
NIKOSIA.

[Image of page 22]

THIS city, called by the Greeks Levkosia, and by
the Turks Lefkoscha, impressed me more than any other Oriental
town I have visited. An indescriba-ble blending of Eastern and
Western characteristics meets the eye at every turn, and
imparts a familiar appearance to the strange and interesting
scene.

How shall I give an idea of the uproar that roused
me from my slumbers early next morning? Trumpets were
sounding, muezzins were chanting in drawling tones from the
tops of all the minarets, countless crows and ravens combined
with cocks and hens to outvie in their performance the
braying of asses and groaning of camels. Whilst over
all clanged the bells from every belfry in the city. The following day being Easter-eve, this music com-menced at midnight, and continued without inter-ruption till morning, varied, however, by the firing of every old gun that could be mustered for the occasion.

In passing through the streets of the town, I ob-served through the gates of the high-walled gardens many
varieties of fruit trees, apples, pears, and figs;[Image of page 23] orange, lemon, mulberry, and pomegranate trees also
lent their blossoms to give the finishing touches to the
scene. The garden walls are high, but not so lofty as to
exclude from view the slender white minarets, dark cypresses,
and waving palms that they inclose. Half Nikosia is made up of
these lovely gardens. Everywhere water-pipes are gently pouring forth their offerings to the thirsty ground, and the whole town is redolent of perfume. The Cyprian sky resembles that of the Nile Valley in its cloudless, deep blue, and is equally beautiful in its clear expanse; while as for the climate, a very few days in its soft, delicious, balmy air makes one un-derstand why, of all the Grecian islands, Cyprus should have been allotted the
privilege of being re-garded as the favorite residence of the
Goddess of Love. At first I felt inclined to linger in this
lovely spot and make myself acquainted with its
literature; but a nearer view showed me my time would not
be profitably spent. Society there was none, the few Europeans the city contained being entirely engaged in striving to make a little money.

Domestic life in Cyprus is
generally confined within the precincts of its beautiful
gardens, and in most of its relations is strictly Turkish.
Women of the higher classes in Nikosia wear a delicate
white veil and silken garments, instead of the bright
blue, yellow, and red veil usually seen in the other
towns.

[Image of page 24]

Dr. Clark, in his “Travels,” says:—“The inter-esting costume presented in the dress of the Cyprian ladies
ought not to pass unnoticed. Their head apparel was precisely
modelled after the kind of calathus represented upon the
Phœnician idols of the country and Egyptian statues. This was
worn by women of all ranks, from the wives of the con-suls to their slaves. Their hair, dyed of a fine brown color by means of a plant called 'henna,' hung behind in numerous long straight braids; and, in some ringlets disposed near the face, were fast-ened blossoms of the jessamine, strung together up-on strips of leaves of the palm-tree in a very curious and pleasing manner. Next to the Calmuk women, the Grecians are, of all others, best versed in cos-metic arts. They possess the valuable secret of giving a brown color to the whitest locks, and also tinge the eyebrows the same hue, an art that would be highly prized in London and Paris. The most splendid colors are displayed in their habits, and these are very becoming to the girls of the island. The upper robe is always of scarlet, crimson, or green silk, embroidered with gold. Like other Greek women, they wear long scarlet pantaloons, fastened
round the ankle, and yellow boots, with slippers of the same
color. Around the neck and from the head are suspended a
profusion of gold coins, chains, and other trinkets. About
their waists they have a large belt, or zone, fastened
in[Image of page 25] front by two large and heavily-polished brass plates. They endeavor to make the waist as long as possi-ble, and
their legs consequently short. Naturally corpulent, they take
no pains to diminish the size of their bodies by lacing, but
seem rather vain of their bulk, exposing their bosoms at the
same time in a manner highly unbecoming. Notwithstanding
the extraordinary pains they use to disfigure their
natural beauty by all manner of ill-selected ornaments, the
women of Cyprus are handsomer than those
of any other Grecian island. They have a taller and more stately figure, and the features, particularly of the women of Nikosia, are regular and dignified, exhibiting that elevated cast of countenance so uni-versally admired in the works of Greek artists. At present this kind of beauty seems peculiar to the women of
Cyprus.”

The women of Nikosia walk lightly and gracefully,
instead of presenting the appearance, as do many of their
country-women, of stuffed sacks rolling along, and unlike most
Turkish ladies, can often boast neat and slender figures. In
my own opinion the town does not contain more than 12,000
inhabitants, many, however, estimate their number as 18,000.

In former times Nikosia was some miles in circum-ference and was three times as large as it is now. Ruins of
churches and cloisters are to be seen in all directions
outside the present town. Of late years the Greek and Turkish
inhabitants associate much[Image of page 26] more freely than formerly. Turkish servants are
often met with in Greek houses, and intermarriages are by no
means uncommon. The dress of the peas-antry is almost Turkish,
and pillau, essentially a Turkish dish, is commonly seen on
every table in the island. Many of the professed Mussulmans
are actually Christians, and have their children bap-tized in secret. Their forefathers were followers of the Prophet through fear and compulsion, and it would expose any one to much persecution and ob-loquy, who openly declared that he no longer be-longed to that faith.

During the days of Venetian rule, many Italian
words became grafted into the language, whilst French, on the
contrary, is entirely forgotten inCyprus. In Nikosia, the Turkish
inhabitants pride themselves on the purity with which they
speak their own language; indeed, I am informed that nowhere, except in Constantinople, can this be heard in greater perfection. The Grecian population speak Greek. This desire on the part of the Turks to keep their language pure and undefiled, must be re-garded as a lingering attempt to preserve the ancient renown and dignity of Nikosia in a time when its homes were places, and their inhabitants wealthy and esteemed. Of their ancient mansions but little is now left beyond a few stately ruins. Many of the fine old walls have been broken down within some feet of the ground, and upon them wretched[Image of page 27] little huts of wood and clay erected to serve as a
hasty refuge for some indigent family. If asked why they do
not bestow more care upon their houses, the indolent workmen
will inform you, that, “it is not worth while to build better
on account of the frequent earthquakes.” On these occasions I
have often felt tempted to inquire if earthquakes were only known to the modern Cypriotes? The ancient buildings of the island are readily recognized by the large blocks of brown freestone of which the walls are built.

The Cathedral of St. Sophia forms the centre of
attraction in Nikosia. This fine edifice is built in the
Gothic style, and richly decorated; of this or-namentation,
only the carved stone-work remains. The pillared interior of
the church is approached from the portico by three arched
portals. The walls of this noble building are decorated by
whitewash, and, to please the Turkish taste, pillars and
capitals are streaked and daubed with red, green and
yel-low. Happily the beautiful arched windows are still framed in rich carving. The base of the bell tower is adorned with two unusally high minarets. Close to the Cathedral is the Church of St. Nicho-las, with its three noble entrance gates; here all the niches are charmingly decorated with a living tracery in the shape of a great variety of stonecrop. The fine interior of this church is now used as a gran-ary. The Archbishop's chapel is another interesting

MOSQUE OF ST. SOPHIA AT NICOSIA. —See Page 27.

[Image of page 28] building, of which the walls are covered with an-cient pictures. The archiepiscopal throne with its gilding
and the handsome altar-screen, are but dimly seen in the
mellow half-light.

As I left the Archiepiscopal chapel, I was met by a
young priest, who brought me a friendly invita-tion to take a
cup of coffee with the Lord Arch-bishop. I had so much still
to see that I felt com-pelled to decline this courtesy. The
young priest modestly urged that it was the custom for all
stran-gers to pay their respects to his Grace, and that
I should not willingly be the first to decline. My time only permitted me to make a hurried call, which fact I, however, since much regretted, as I afterwards found that the head of the Cyprian Church is a worthy and distinguished man, who well deserves
his title of .

A dignitary of the Greek Church may certainly be
considered as much more fortunately situated than any other
official in Europe. During his en-tire life he can mount a
perfect Jacob's ladder of preferments and emoluments, and may
don every shade of color, in robes of black, green, yellow,
and red to rich purple; he can also exhibit a variey of crosiers and mitres. The Archbishop of Cyprus, who has now obtained the
highest rank, signs his name with red ink, seals with the
imperial double-headed eagle, carries a shepherd's crook,
surmounted by a golden orb, and bears a title enumerating
his[Image of page 29] saintly and lordly attributes. The income of this
dignitary is derived from two sources—voluntary offerings and
tithes, and sums paid for dispensa-tions, marriages, and
masses. The archbishop has many claims upon this revenue, and
has annually to send money to Constantinople, the Archbishop
ofCyprus being a vassal of the Sultan's.
The four bishops of Cyprus, thought chosen from its capital, are also
compelled to obtain the consent of this potentate to their
election. The Greek priests are said to average two per cent
of the whole popula-tion; it may therefore be supposed that
their posi-tion is a degraded one, and their incomes very small. Many of those in Nikosia can scarcely do more than read the services and perform the vari-ous ceremonies with proper intelligence and deco-rum, whilst those in the village cures are so re-duced that they must often resort to the mending of shoes, and tending of sheep and cattle, to earn a bare livelihood.

The church of St. Katherine, now turned into a
mosque, has a fine entrance, adorned with three arches and
pillars, with Corinthian capitals. Two stately marble columns
lie in the court-yard; these, with their fine carved
escutcheons, have been torn down by the Turks and employed as
seats. The graves of the brave defenders of the city are
still held in honor, and small cupolas are erected to
mark their resting-places. The spot where the first
Turk[Image of page 30] mounted and fell when the city was stormed, is also
distinguished by a small dome. The gravestone is marble, and
the coffin of wood, overshadowed by the green flag of the
Prophet. Nikosia can boast a very unusual number of churches
and mosques, and we are told that, when the city was at the
height of its glory, there were no less than two
hundred and fifty chapels and churches. Cyprus is also especially remarkable
for the number of graves of its saints.

In all ages the island was regarded as a harbor of
refuge from persecution or tyranny, and its close proximity to
Syria and Palestine attracted many suffering Christians to its
shores. In the thirteenth century Cyprus possessed no less than fourteen
bishoprics, each of which were founded on some memorable or
sacred spot. Paul and Barnabas, we know, preached the Gospel
in Cyprus, and we learn that many were
turned from the error of their ways to commence a new life. Accompanied by
John, the Apostles landed at Salamis, and traveled over the whole
island, preaching especially in the synagogues of the Greek
Jews, who were then very numerous. In Paphos they encountered the Roman
consul Sergius Paulus, who speedily became a convert, and here
Elymas, the sorcerer, was struck by them with temporary
blindness, as a chastisement for his endeavors to turn away
their converts from the true faith. The Apostle Saul here
adopted the

NICOSIA.—See Page
31.

[Image of page 31] Roman fashion and changed his name to Paulus. St.
Barnabas afterward suffered martyrdom in Salamis, where he was burned to death. During
the reign of Justinian, his grave was opened and a copy of the Gospel of St. Matthew found lying on his breast. Salamis was
also the birthplace of the celebrated St. Katherine.

The royal palace of Nikosia was built in the Norman
Gothic style and must have been a noble edifice. With the
exception of an arched doorway, however, but little now
remains beyond the outer walls, with gaps where the windows
once were, and balconies with wooden latticework and wooden
roofs. This palace was formerly the residence of the pacha. During my visit to the city the jails were full of prisoners; the majority of these, I was told, were sent over from Syrian prisons to work out their terms of imprisonment. The Cypriotes themselves bore the character of being peaceable in their habits, and not easily roused to acts of violence and crime.

In the court of the palace stands a high pillar,
which tradition says criminals used to be compelled to mount
before receiving their sentences. I could fancy this ancient
pillar, ornamented with winged lions, must resemble that in
the market-place in Venice. I observed also the shattered
remains of another Venetian lion, which, a few years ago,
was wantonly destroyed by one of the pachas. Near the pillar above alluded to are reared three gravestones,[Image of page 32] decorated with knightly escutcheons and Latin inscriptions.

In the evening I dined with the pacha, a gentleman
of great intelligence, who has had a most thorough European
education. Our converstion happened to turn upon those
interesting relics of past ages. My host spoke with much
regret of the damage constantly and wantonly done to them by
Turkish soldiers, and bitterly deplored his own
inability to check their destructive propensities, which
are all the more difficult of restraint, as they
proceed from religious enthusiasm; followers of
Mahommed being strictly prohibited, by the Koran, to make
any image; this prohibition being not only confided to works of wood and stone, but including the precious works of the sculptor and the painter. Before quitting this interesting city, I cannot refrain from adding the testimony of a writer of the fourteenth century to the salubrity of the climate around this city. “Nikosia,”
he tells us, “lies beneath the shelter of surrounding hills,
and is noted for the healthiness of its air and the purity of
its balmy breezes. For this reason it was selected as the
residence of the court, nobility, bishops, and in fact all
such as were free to choose where they might settle.
Tournaments and hunting formed their chief amusements; leopards and a species of mountain goat being the favorite objects of chase.” The same authority states
that the nobility of Cyprus were at
that[Image of page 33] period the richest in the world, an income of 3,000
gulden being regarded with no more respect than a few
shillings would be in other places. All these fine fortunes
seem to have suffered severely from the heavy expenses
attendant on their favorite pastimes. We are told of a count
of Jaffia, that he kept five hundred hounds and a servant for
every two dogs. Many of these nobles did not have less than two hundred men as falconers and huntsmen. During their hunting excursions it was no uncommon thing for them to camp out in the woods and
mountains for a month at a time, sleeping in their tents, and
taking camels and mules with them, overladen with all the
necessaries of life. These nobles we are told, were men of
education and experience, speaking many languages, and hearing
all the news of the world from the intercourse they had with
the constant stream of travelers who visited this
richly-endowed and famous land from all parts. The same writer tells us that the city of Famagusta was still more noted than
Nikosia for its riches, and enumerates the following instances
of reckless expenditure and rich possessions.

“The daughter of a citizen in this city, is stated
at the time of her betrothal to have been endowed with jewels
that exceeded in value those in the crown of the King of
France. One of the merchants of Famagusta, we are told, sold to the Sultan, for the sum of 60,000 gulden, an imperial ball of[Image of page 34] gold set with four fine stones, an emerald, a carbuncle, a pearl, and a sapphire; some years after, desiring to repossess it, he offered the monarch 100,000 gulden, if he would return it, but was refused. Of the profusion of gold cloth, rich stuffs, and jewels of all kinds, he tells us he feels sure his statements would be regarded as incredible. The wood of the aloe alone, which is elsewhere regarded as very valuable, is so common here as to be held in no esteem.”

CHAPTER IV.
CYPRUS IN THE
MIDDLE AGES.

[Image of page 35]

WHEN standing amidst the grand relics of a past age
which meet the eye at every turn in the capital of this
beautiful island, or when wandering about its dirty narrow
streets, I could not but reflect on the manifold changes this
fine city has undergone, and picture the days when she stood
in the zenith of her fame and beauty.

The career of Cyprus is
without a parallel in the history of the world. Here we find
established in the very heart of the East, on Phœnician
Grecian foundations, a mighty kingdom distinguished by
its high display of all that adorned the finest age of chivalry, and in spite of all the agitations which beset the outer world, retaining these traditions till the close of the sixteenth century, when the Turks swept down upon her, carrying ruin and destruction in their train.

It will be worth one's while to linger for a few
minutes whilst we note the history of Cyprus during these four centuries. “This sweet
island,” as the poets of the country are fond of calling her,
was for nine hundred years under the
dominion of the[Image of page 36] Byzantine kings, until in 1191 it was seized upon in
a burst of anger by our own impetuous and rash Cœur de Lion,
whose indignation had been excited by a refusal to allow his
queen, Berengaria, to land. He at once forced a landing at
Limasol, stormed the city, overthrew the prince's army, and overspread the whole
island, compelling the people to submit to him.

A prince of the house of Commena was at this time
on the throne. Richard, for the first time aware of the value
of his new possession as a gathering point and resting-place
in any further attempts upon the Turks, and yet unable to take
the government upon his own shoulders, resolved to make money
of his lucky acquisitions, and offered the crown to Wido (Guido) Lusignan, ex-king of Jerusalem, for the sum of 100,000 ducats. During the time of Richard's possession he conducted himself with much
severity to the inhabitants. Half the land was at once
appropriated to the use of himself and his followers, a
certain portion was set aside for his personal expenses and
the endowment of churches and monasteries, and the rest
divided and allotted as feudal tenures to his followers.

Such an El Dorado was not to be regarded with
indifference by the adventurous knights of Christendom, and
numbers followed in the wake of Richard to receive their share
of the titles and baronial fiefs that were being lavished
around.

[Image of page 37]

As years went on, and one place after another was
wrested from Christendom, monks and priests, to find a
comfortable resting-place, turned their steps to Cyprus.

Wido de Lusignan had brought no less than three
hundred knights and two hundred squires in his train. These
Knight Templars at once erected a lodge to their order in
Limasol, and twenty years afterward their numbers had greatly increased; some were English and German, but the majority Italians and Frenchmen. A reign of chivalry now arose which drew the eyes of Europe to this small and famed island. Wido, the first king of the Lusignan dynasty, only reigned three years, but his
reign was marked by strenuous efforts to complete the
subjection of the Cypriotes by the building of strong castles
and fortresses. Order and justice distinguished his sway.

Amalrick, his brother and successor, was no sooner
installed than he summoned his followers and announced his
intention of at once offering his crown as a fief to some
monarch powerful enough to protect him from all enemies. An
embassy was sent to offer allegiance to the Emperor Henry the
Sixth, of Germany, who recognized the importance of the
step, and consented to uphold Amalrick as his vassal. The Archbishop of Trami and Brindisi was dispatched to bear a sceptre to the royal vassal, and
desire that the coronation might take place in the[Image of page 38] emperor's presence when he visited the Holy Land.
Amalrick, however, was averse to this delay, and his royal
master therefore consented that the ceremony should be
performed before a deputy.

In September, 1197, Bishop Hildesheim, the Imperial
Chancellor, arrived, and received the oaths of the new king.
The coronation was then celebrated before him in the principal
church in Nikosia. Now commenced a long career of knightly
deeds and chivalrous enterprises, led under the banner of
the King of Cyprus,
and many notable feats were performed by sea and land.

From 1285 to 1373 must be regarded as the most
glorious period of this career of enterprise, the reigns of
Henry the Second, Hugo the Fourth, and Peter the First being
particularly distinguished in the annals of the times; Smyrna
and Alexandria were conquered, and the emirs upon the coast
compelled to pay tribute.

At this epoch, Cyprus was the
centre of Eastern commerce, and merchandise was brought
thither from Asia and Europe, either for exchange, or to
be forwarded to other hands. The towns of Limasol,Paphos, and Keryneia, were crowded with merchandise from Constantinople, Beyrout, Damaseus, and Alexandria, from Venice, Pisa,
Genoa, Barcelona, and Marseilles. Famagusta was regarded as the principal mart of the Mediterranean, and a constant stream of
pilgrims enlivened all the havens of Cyprus.

[Image of page 39]

With the improved cultivation of the land and such
developed commerce large sums of money were made, and in
proportion as the wealth of the island increased an equal
change in its inhabitants arose, and self-indulgence and gross
extravagance began to sap the strength of the upper classes.
The highest prosperity of Cyprus may be said to have continued for two
hundred years. In 1337 its misfortunes recommenced. The
Genoese fell upon the island and met with little or no
resistance from the inhabitants, who were quite unprepared for
the attack.Famagusta became the head-quarters of
these merciless oppressors, who at once stretched forth
an iron hand upon the trade of the country. Cyprus never rallied from
this blow. A feeble attempt was made to drive out the
invaders, but the Genoese called in the assistance of the
Egyptian Mamelukes, who compelled the Cypriotes to pay them tribute.

Now arose a scene of anarchy and rapid decline;
every man's hand was against every man, and private revenge
took the place of law and order. The interposition of the
Venetian rule at this time must be regarded as a decided
improvement on such a state of things. Katherine, the daughter
of a lofty Venetian patrician, was given in marriage to
James, the now insignificant prince of the unfortunate island, and jointly shared his throne. The marriage was celebrated in 1421, and the Venetian Senate[Image of page 40] adopted the queen as a daughter of St. Mark. In 1473
James died, and the Venetian Government at once assumed charge
of his son. This child, however, dying, Katherine was
persuaded by the Senate to abdicate in their favor. Meanwhile
Charlotte Lusignan, only daughter of John the Third,
who had married her cousin Louis, son of the Duke of Savoy and Anna of Cyprus, went to reside in Rome, where she died in
1487, bequeathing her claims to charles, Duke of Savoy, in
consequence of which the sovereigns of that dynasty assumed
the titles of kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem. (This interesting fact will
explain the feeling with which our interference with the
island has been regarded in Italy.) The Venetian rulers at
once attempted to restore order and foster expiring commerce,
but without much success.

In 1571 the last traces of Cyprian glory disappeared under the blighting shadow of the Turkish banner. The
people did not surrender without a struggle, but they were
much enfeebled, and their Venetian rulers had already more
possessions than they could maintain by force of arms. All
Europe trembled before the successful troops of Suliman the Third. In 1566 the Cypriotes were commanded to fortify their capital, the city was to be reduced to a third of its then size, and surrounded by walls, moats, and eleven bastions, all buildings beyond these limits to be destroyed. The nobility and[Image of page 41] people willingly obeyed, and consented not only to
execute the order, but bear all attendant expenses. Mansions
and villas were torn down to make way for the fortresses. Even
the Dominican cloister, which contained the graves of their
kings, was sacrificed, and of the eleven gates that then
surrounded Nikosia only three were allowed to remain
standing.

Selim the Second, Suliman's successor, had a strong
taste for Cyprian wine, the companion in his carousals being a
Portuguese Jew called Miguez Nassy. This man had once
professed Christianity, but had found it convenient to
renounce his faith. He is said to have incited Selim to put
his son on the throne of Cyprus. In order to accomplish this end Selim
appeared before Limasol in 1570, with the Turkish fleet. The arsenal in Venice was set in flames at this time; this act is supposed to have been committed by incendiaries sent thither to Nassy for that purpose. The Venetians in Cyprus had no force to withstand the
Turkish troops, and the Cypriotes were too spirit-broken to
fight for the laud that was only cultivated to enrich their
merciless taskmasters.

The Proveditore, Nicolaus Dandolo, decided to
surrender the whole of the island, with the exception of Famagusta and Nikosia. The Turks landed without any further hindrance and marched at once to the capital with 100,000 men, whilst their fleet[Image of page 42] kept guard, lest assistance might be sent from
Europe. For seven weeks the city sustained the siege, and the
nobility, ably supported by the lower orders, bore themselves
like brave and desperate men. Twice the Turks led an assault,
and twice were gloriously repulsed, until they were obliged
to send for a reinforcement of 10,000 men, including many sailors, to aid them in the desperate struggle. The bold defenders of the capital were at no time more than 100,000 strong.

In the night on the 9th of September began the
third general storming of the doomed city. The whole army
threw itself as one man against the walls, and before sunrise
three bastions were in the enemy's hands; 20,000 men fell at
the first shock, but their places were soon filled by those
who pressed behind. The unfortunate women, as soon as they saw that all was lost, flung themselves in numbers from the roofs of the houses, and many danghters, we are told, met their death at the hand of their father or mother to save them from a worse fate. The carnage and work of destruction lasted for eight days, and when it ceased, what had once been a fair city was a mere open space, covered with blackened ruins, with only its still towering cathedral dome looking down upon the scene. Two thousand Turks remained to keep possession, whilst the rest of the army marched on to Famagusta.

Nikosia was in the hands of the Mussulmans, and[Image of page 43] the last Christian city in the East entirely destroyed. Enormous booty, comprising an immense amount of jewels, gold cloth, and fine works of art, and nearly a thousand of the fairest and noblest maidens, were put on board three ships to be sent to Constantinople as tribute from Cyprus
to the Sultan. A Greek lady on board, preferring death to the
fate that awaited her, found her way to the powder magazine, which she ignited. The ship at once exploded, setting fire to its companion vessels, which were also totally destroyed; only a few sailors saved
themselves by swimming. Four years later, Sultan Selim, having
enjoyed the choicest Cyprian wine to his heart's content,
happened one day to take a fuller cup than usual before
entering his bath, his foot slipped and his skull was
fractured on its marble floor. He only survived this
accident eleven days.

CHAPTER V.
DRAWING UP OF THE STATUTES.

[Image of page 44]

WE will now give our readers a brief sketch of the
position held by the various classes during these three
centuries. The knights and citizens, the former principally
French and Italian by birth, and the latter Greeks, Romans,
Syrians, and Jews, were free. The patrician families in the
towns took rank with the knights, and the household slaves were under the protection of the Government. The peasantry, on the contrary, were all held in bondage, and may be divided into three classes. The
first class gave their lord two days' service in the week,
paid a poll-tax, and a third of all profits. The second class
only paid the poll-tax, but were compelled to remain upon the
land, whilst the third class were
free to change their master, but were compelled to pay the
half of their earnings of the lord under whose protection they
preferred to live.

The king held his crown in the character of vassal
to the German Emperor, and the heir-apparent was called Prince
of Antioch. The chief officials of the crown were the
Seneschal, Marshal, Chamberlain,[Image of page 45] and Constable; after them came the baronial vassals
(les hommes du royaume), and next in
order their dependants (les
hommes liges). The barons were privileged to carry a
square banner, with the motto “Cour, coin, justice,” to
indicate that they enjoyed the homage and tribute of their
serfs, and had power to chastise the latter by right of
law. The eldest son inherited the fief, and in default
of male issue, the eldest daughter. Homage had to be rendered for feudal tenure, and was performed in this wise: The vassal, male and female, knelt before the king, who took their hands in his own, whilst they declared themselves his true vassals, “ready to protect and revenge him to their last breath.” To which the king replied: “In God's name and my own I receive your homage.”

If the vassal was a lady above twelve years old,
her feudal lord was obliged to give her the choice of three
knights, one of whom she must marry within a given time;
should she refuse, her fief was forfeited for a year and a
day, and she was called upon every year to yield until she was
sixty years of age. Should the feudal chief on the contrary
neglect this part of his duty, the lady was privileged to
demand a choice of three knights, and bestow her hand
on the one she preferred. All the barons appeared in stated times at the high court, accompanied by their vassals. In these assemblies all kind of weighty business was discussed in presence of the king, disputes[Image of page 46] arranged, and sentences of death passed for heavy
crimes. There was also a lower court for the decision of legal
suits. One of the decrees is worthy of note: “Whoever shall
appear in this court and bear false witness, be he the noblest
in the land, he shall lose his head.” The court was composed
of the king's vicomte or deputy, and twelve sworn justices chosen from the free citizens. All questions of the privileges of the citizens and commerical rights, as well as of theft and falsehood, were brought before this court. The laws and statutes in force were contained in a volume called “The Assizes of
Jerusalem,” the “Liveres des Assises et Bons Coutumes,” a
splendid memorial of painstaking wisdom and anxious thought.

It has been stated that this fine collection of
statutes was compiled by Godfrey de Bouillon, with the
assistance of the wisest and noblest of his followers, after the conquest of
Jerusalem. This was most probably a mere fable. Certain,
however, it is that a double volume of laws, one for the
upper, and the other for the lower court, was compiled in Jerusalem, inscribed in large letters, and sealed by the king, patriarch, and vicomte. This work was inclosed in a chest and deposited in the church of the Holy Sepulchre. It was decreed that the volume should not betaken from the chest except in the presence of those who had signed it, two priests belonging to the church, and four magistrates.

[Image of page 47]

This collection of statutes was also known as the
“Lettres du Sépulcre.” After the loss of Jerusalem this volume
disappeared, but the same statutes were enforced in the high
court at Akkon or Ptolomais, and were adopted in Cyprus. From thence they
were taken to Constantinople in 1204, and to the Morea in
1210.

In the schools of jurisprudence in Nikosia the statutes contained in the “Assizes of Jerusalem,”
were brought to great perfection with the aid of many able and
leading men in the island; of these latter a long list of
names has been preserved. The founder of this famous school of
law, John d'Ibelin, Baron of Beyrout, was called John the Old,
to distinguish him from his nephew, who bore the same name.

This noble, and Philip of Navarre, who boasted of
having been present at every siege and attack of any
importance in his time, were the most celebrated of this
noteworthy group of public benefactors. Amongst other names,
were those of Ralph of Tiberias, Godfrey le Tort, Gerard of
Montreal, and John of Ibelin, Count of Jaffa and
Askalon, and nephew of John the Old. The elder Ibelin and Philip of Navarre had been leaders in the long and bloody strife in which French chivalry in the East had frustrated the plans of the Emperor Frederick the Second,∗ who was anxious to
combine the ∗ Emperor of Germany.[Image of page 48] political and military strength of Cyprus under his own imperial rule.

All the other knightly law-makers above enumerated
took part in this war. This emperor, who had already overcome
the unruly nobility of his Italian dominions, had attained so
high a reputation for wisdom and justice during his sojourn in
the East, that many of the highest in rank and intellect
supported his claims either openly or secretly. Philip of Navarre, who had diligently searched through many collections of laws, set himself to obtain all possible assistance from the law courts of Nikosia, Akkon, and Beyrout, and completed his arduous labors by arranging his materials into one grand statute
book. This valuable work was afterward considerably improved
and enlarged by John of Ibelin. Like the “Lettres du
Sépulcre,” this work was sealed up and placed in the cathedral
in Nikosia, and might only be opened in the presence of the king and four barons. In this volume we find the entire code of the Middle Ages, and might take to heart many a lesson from the careful wisdom and far-seeing acuteness with which its laws were compiled.

CHAPTER VI.
SAN CHRISOSTOMO.

[Image of page 49]

CYPRUS, the most eastern
island of the Mediterranean, must be regarded as belonging to
Western Europe, if we are to class it by its architecture, its Gothic cathedrals, lordly castles, and
ruined abbeys; yet its mountain ranges would seem to connect
it with Syria and its open plains with Egypt. Of all the ruins of the age of chivalry, that of the castle ofBuffavento, “the defier of storms,” is
certainly the noblest and most interesting. Never, even in
Spain or Italy, have I seen a finer combination of
rugged grandeur and romantic charm than is to be found
in this extensive ruin. Most ancient castles stand on an eminence of some few hundred feet, but the crest of Buffavento is
reared as high as the Lion Mountain, a dark rocky pyramid
3,000 feet above the level of the sea. Early on the morning of
the 24th of April I rode forth followed by my dragoman,
zaptieh, and other servants, to visit this interesting ruin, the foot of the mountain on which it stands being about four leagues from Nikosia. My dragoman and I carried our guns with us, and as we left the town were at once stopped by some soldiers[Image of page 50] who wished to take them from us, it not being legal,
they told us, for foreigners to carry arms inCyprus.

After a lengthened parley, and many assurances from
my men that I was under the protection, and a personal friend,
of the pacha's, were allowed to proceed, and went on our way
rejoicing. Our road now lay through the broad and fruitful
plain of Messaria: golden corn was waving in the breeze, and not a living creature was visible on the vast expanse; only the song of the lark was to be heard as it rose and fell in the blue sky above us.

It was still early morning, and the Cypriotes have
an opinion that it is not safe to visit their fields and
pastures till later in the day. The silence was so intense as
to be almost painful, and the lovely landscape did not seem to
coincide with the death-like quiet that reigned around.

We passed two small villages, which appeared
deserted, but for the crowing of a cock which was perched on a
mud wall. When we reached Manilia, we had to ride through the
bed of the ancient river Pedias, the water of which, it being
the end of April, was low enough to admit of our crossing in
safety. As we landed on the other side, we saw, for the first time that day, some laborers in the fields. These were the four wives of an amply-bearded old Turk, who calmly smoked his pipe, keeping his eye on
his family meanwhile, to see they did not shirk[Image of page 51] their work, which consisted of lopping off the ears
of corn with a small sickle—mere child's play. As we
approached, the old man shouted out something to his better
halves, and one of them, a negress, immediately threw part of
her garment over her face, and turned away. With the other
three, however, curiosity overcame their bashfulness, and
their veils were only slowly drawn down after we had
enjoyed a good look at their very ordinary faces. As we continued our way, the line of mountains that bordered the coast lay before us in an uninterrupted
line, thirty leagues in length, forming a natural bulwark
along the northern portion of the island, and terminating in
the Carpasian peninsula. This range reminded me of the Vosges
mountains, but is much more varied in form, and is far richer
in its productions.

The highest peak of this range is only from 2,000
to 3,000 feet high, but passing as it does through an
extensive open plain, the effect of its height is very
deceptive, the mountains appearing very much higher than they
actually are. The crests of this range display every form of
rocky beauty, and its peaks, chasms, precipices, and bold
bluffs are covered in some parts with tints of reddish brown,
and in others with a purplish blue mist that gives them an indescribable charm which I have never seen elsewhere. As we approached these mountains, the
ground rose gradually, and we perceived the rocks[Image of page 52] were quite bare, every variety of tint being produced by the play of the sunbeams on the rugged stones.

We now drew nigh the monastery of St. Chrisostomo,
and very refreshing was the sight of its walls standing
embowered in green trees at the base of bare and rugged
mountains. Olive-trees were planted in some of its
declivities, and oleanders, which had finished flowering,
bordering a small rivulet. Everything around seemed to woo us
to repose; the air was fresh and balmy, and from the mountain height we heard from time to time the tinkle of the bells of the sheep and goats browsing down below. Two old monks stood at the door to bid us welcome, and insist upon our dismounting and accepting their hospitality. These appeared to be the only inhabitants of the half-ruined pile . I have since learned that the number of monks is steadily decreasing in all the monasteries of Cyprus. In the cloister
garden were three lofty cypresses, and a fine palm-tree.
Masses of ivy were clinging about the branches of the old
apple and orange-trees. This garden is at the height of 1,300
feet above the sea, backed by a wall of rock fully
2,000 feet high. The eye turned with relief from this vast, lofty, and rugged expanse, and the dry parched plain beyond, to the soft green of the shady garden, and its rippling water.

The two old men appeared delighted to meet[Image of page 53] with an inhabitant of the outer world, and earnestly
pressed me to remain for some days. My time was too valuable
even for lingering in this delightful retreat. Our fare
consisted only of vegetables. Cyprian monks would appear to be
always fasting—one day they eat turnips and onions, and on
the next pumpkins and beans. This fashion is none of the pleasantest in a country where the monasteries are the only houses of entertainment that are always open. As soon as my hosts learnt I was a Bavarian, they informed me that the celebrated Maria of Molino was the foundress of their monastery, and a
Bavarian by birth. I think the simple-hearted creatures had a
sort of vague idea that she must have been an ancestress of my
own. Dinner over, I seated myself in a cool corner, but was at
once entreated, with outstretched hands, to take another place, as I was still warm after my journey. This is always the way in the East. If you are tired and heated, you must not drink, you must not sleep, and above all, in Heaven's name! never sit in a draught, without you want to have fever. The only thing you are permitted to do is to throw a covering over you and wait till you are cool.

These constant precautions are no doubt necessary
in these climates, still they produce an impression that
danger is always at hand. This monastery of St. Chrisostomo,
which was, probably, founded at a very early date, contains an
ancient picture of[Image of page 54]Panagia. Great additions have been made
to the original edifice, including a fine entrance and
portal. The church is formed by two chapels with
cupolas. At the time of my visit the floors of the
chapels were thickly strewn with branches of myrtle in
celebration of the feast of Easter. It is probable that Mary of Molino only beautified this edifice and increased its revenues. Tradition says that the unfortunate saint being a leper, was advised by St. Chrisostomo to bathe in the rivulet in the monastery
garden. She did so, and was healed; her gratitude being shown
by munificent gifts to the brotherhood. Certain it is that two
hundred years ago crowds of lepers visited this spot, in order
to wash in the monastery stream to be cured of their fearful
disease. This pilgrimage is now never undertaken, either because the water is not as abundant as in days gone by, or because, happily, this hideous malady is comparatively rare. During my stay inCyprus I did not see one leper except
outside Nikosia. This same Mary of Molino, whose bones lie
in these mountains, according to another tradition, built the castle of Buffavento, choosing this elevated situation, we
may suppose, to remove herself entirely from the haunts of
men. If she executed such an undertaking, she must have
enjoyed the revenues of a princess. Looking up at this
grand old pile one is struck by its strength and size, and
when, on closer survey, one finds that two similar[Image of page 55] fortresses are situated on the same chain of mountains, at about four leagues right and left of Buffavento, called respectively Kantara and St. Hilarion,
that these castles command the mountain passes and the roads
to the city of Keryneia, and that this town had the best haven on the north side of the island, one is naturally led to conclude that these fortresses were in fact erected by some enterprising conqueror, in order to hold the whole island under his control. Buffavento, perched high upon the Lion Mountain, looks
down upon its companion fortresses with the air of a defiant
spirit gazing down upon the country that it formerly kept in
check. On my inquiring of my hosts if any one ever climbed to the castle, they assured me the ascent was some thousand feet high, and that they had no guide to assist me. Their awe-struck manner whilst speaking of such an attempt led me to suppose that they fancied the ruins were infested by evil spirits. They, however, informed me that ten years
ago two Germans attempted the ascent, and that the younger of the two reached
the top. This was no doubt the traveler Kotschy, an account of
whose ascent is given by his companion Unger,∗ Encouraged by this report, I determined to make
the attempt myself. ∗ Unger and Kotschy. “Die Inseln
Cypern.” Wien, 1865.

CHAPTER VII.
BUFFAVENTO.∗

[Image of page 56]

OUR road (with my servants we were a party of four)
lay now for half a league along the declivity, our path
appearing and disappearing at frequent intervals. As we passed
along I observed many beehives. These were formed by earthen
pots placed one upon another, with a small hole at the
side. Close against a rocky flight of steps we found a small building in ruins. Here, I am told, there was formerly a garden, so lovely that it was known as “Paradise.” Buffavento
was previously called “the Queen's Castle,” Castello de
Regina, from its having been a favorite resort of the island
queens during the hot season. We can well imagine that
whilst they held court above, their knights and squires
had jovial times in the neighboring monastery of San Chrisostomo. When we reached the house called “Paradise,” I dismounted and looked around. Certainly the
spot was one on which the eye loved to linger. Formerly the mountain was covered
with ∗ The defier of storms.

NORTH COAST VIEW, FROM ST. HILARION, OF THE MOUNTAIN CHAIN OF
KERYNIA.

[Image of page 57] trees, which have now disappeared. Below lay rippling waters and fertile pastures, and in the background the
beautiful capital of the island. As I looked I saw in the
distance a shepherd boy, who, it occurred to me, might be
willing to act as guide in our adventurous undertaking. My
zaptieh galloped after him and brought him to me. The young
peasant seemed to regard the matter as an excellent
joke, and willingly agreed to conduct us, honestly
assuring us, however, that he had never yet reached the summit himself. Our guide at once commenced
mounting with the agility of a young goat, and I followed in
his wake, whilst behind came my dragoman and zaptieh, groaning
and panting, with drops of anguish upon their brows. My heart
beat with delight when, after half an hour's climbing, we reached the mountain's ridge, and looked down from a precipice several thousand feet high, broken in all directions by enormous clefts and gullies, whilst beyond lay a broad expanse of blue sea. The coast
from here is about a league from the foot of the mountain, and
every inch of the ground is valuable. Gardens, orchards, and
meadows extended formerly in all directions. Along the coast
are small villages, lying, as is very unusual in Cyprus, so near, that I
could see from the one to the other. In this narrow strip of
country are still to be found some traces of the ancient
beauty and fertility of this neglected island. This is
certainly rightly regarded as the[Image of page 58] richest district in Cyprus,
whilst its fine sea-breezes and numerous mountain-streams
render it one of the healthiest. My gaze lingered long on
Keryneia, whose
elevated fortress formed a most striking object on the line.
Directly beneath us, so close that I could have dropped a
stone upon it, lay Bellapais, imbedded in olive-trees, the finest monastic ruin. I am told, in Cyprus.
Cloisters, refectory, and the knight-chamber are still
recognizable. The abbot was entitled to carry the spurs and
dagger of a knight, and his monastery was a favorite resort
of crusaders and pilgrims. As I turned toward the interior of the island, I beheld a broad expanse glowing in the sunlight. This, the extensive plain of Messaria, occupies nearly half of the island, and two centuries ago was one huge highly-cultivated field, filled with corn, vines, fruit, and vegetables. Numerous cotton and silk-weaving establishments also formerly flourished here. Every year this once fruitful plain becomes more unfit for cultivation, and stones and marshes usurp what was once
a scene of the highest cultivation. Nothing fills the mind of
the traveler in Cyprus with sadder reflections than the sight of this general ruin and rapid decay.

I now commenced climbing the precipitous mountain
before me, which towered aloft in rugged majesty, stretching
its peaks and precipices to the right hand and the left. My
dragoman endeavored to follow[Image of page 59] me, but sank down in dismay at the task before him.
Indistinct murmurings reached my ear, and I have no doubt that
if I could have heard his words, they were not prayers for my
success, but maledictions on my adventurous head. I believe he
and my zaptieh were fully convinced that my ascent was made in the hope of finding concealed treasure: for when at last they reached the ruin, my slightest movement was jealously watched, and my every act evidently regarded with suspicion. We entered the ancient fortress by an arched doorway, which is still in good preservation, and mounted slowly from one ruin to another; many of the chambers in these being mere excavations in the solid rock, and resembling baker's ovens
in appearance.

In such places as the nature of the rocks would
permit, hollow basins were formed and channels cut to receive
the springs that then flowed in all directions on the
mountain. We came upon several of these receptacles, and saw
traces of what had evidently been much more important
water-tanks. In the fortress itself, comparatively slight
walls were interspersed with rude masses of masonry, and both
were cemented to their foundations by mortar, literally as hard as stone. The ruin appeared to consist of six divisions rising one above the other, and all connected by the ramparts. Such a fortress could never have been reduced as long as its defenders had bread
and wine enough to support life. Perhaps[Image of page 60] there are few stranger things than that of a ruin
situated thus in mid-air. Danger in climbing there was none,
beyond the risk of slipping as we seized at a piece of old
msonry in mounting from rock to rock and tower to tower.

One of the principal towers is still in tolerable
preservation, and to this I at once ascended, and was more
than rewarded for the attempt. Before me lay on the one side
an awful precipice, at the foot of which stretched green
plains and a broad expanse of sea, and on the other side a
sunny plain extending to the lofty mountains of the western part of the island with Mount Troados showing its snow-capped head. On one side a wall of rock rose towering toward the sky and hid a portion of the coast from my view. Observing the summit of this rock attentively, I felt convinced that I could discern a building on its peak. My servants were
tired and refused to assist me in any further explorations.
Formerly, no doubt, this eminence had been reached by means of
wooden bridges, but no trace of them was left, and a sheer and
rugged wall towered above us and presented the appearance
of being perfectly inaccessible. In vain I sought for anything like a foothold. At last a bright idea flashed upon me; I seized our guide by his shoulders and pointing out the building at the summit of the rock, put my arms about a block of stone, mounted
upon it by this means, and then again[Image of page 61] pointed to the summit. The boy laughed and nodded,
and, without a moment's hesitation, commenced scrambling up
the face of the rock, pausing as he every now and then reached
a safe footing, to look down upon us, after the manner of the
mountain goat, whose agility he emulated. My zaptieh
gazed upon me with a countenance highly expressive of the conviction that all chance of his sharing any hidden treasure I might find was now over; but I have no doubt comforted himself with the hope of getting from the boy a full account of all that was done above. I now commenced following my nimble guide, and, thanks to a steady head, found the attempt by no means as dangerous as it had appeared from below; reaching the summit considerably sooner than we anticipated. Here I found a tower and the
remains of a wall with apertures where windows had once been,
and chambers excavated in the rock. The view from this point
amply repaid me for all my exertions. A long
greenish-yellow line of coast lay between the sea and
the mountain, whilst the towering rocks of Asia Minor were visible on the horizon. At first they appeared like clouds, but gradually I distinctly recognized the Caramanian rauge and the Cilician Mount Taurus, and could distinguish their various outlines and fields of snow.

The most remarkable feature in this scene, however, was the range of
mountains on which I stood,[Image of page 62] and of which the peak of Buffavento, rising some 3,000 feet above the sea,
appeared the highest point. Seen from this view the ranges
resembled enormous furrows, extending along the coast and
stretching far into the sea. The narrow neek of land,
the tongue of the island, as the Greeks call it which extends toward the opposite continent, forms the Carpasian peninsula. The inhabitants of this part of the island are of fairer complexion, and are stronger and of more lively disposition than the rest of their countrymen; they have also, we are told, many customs peculiar to themselves. It is supposed this peninsula was formerly colonized by a band of German crusaders. In St. Andronika a fête is annually held in honor of a German lady, who came over from Syria and settled in this spot, where she lived as a recluse, and died in the odor of sanctity. Other authorities tell us that many traces of ancient Greek are to be met with in the dialects spoken by the inhabitants, which are quite unknown to the languages spoken in other parts ofCyprus. A gentleman who visited this
peninsula informed me that the people are very
inhospitable, dirty, and shy of strangers. Their food
consists principally of barley bread; their clothes are
made of sackcloth, and their dwellings formed in caves,
in the rocks and other equally wretched
situations, and are without either tables or beds. The north-western declivities are covered with fig-trees. Altogether,[Image of page 63] the description did not tempt me to make my own
observations in this but rarely-explored spot. As I descended
from my lofty perch I noticed that the walls and towers had
been blown up with gunpowder. This was done by the Venetians,
shortly after they took possession of the island. In
1489 they proceeded to destroy all the noble castles
and fortresses of the interior, in the fear that they
might be used as strongholds in case of rebellion
against their rule. These fortresses were, therefore,
thrown down as dangerous, and useless to the Venetians themselves, whose fine fleet enabled them to land men at any part of the island. Some few fortresses, however, on the coast, such as Famagusta, were kept in tolerable
repair. The crown lands were put up to the highest bidder, and
were, in many instances, bought by the lower class of nobles,
who in this manner became a power in the land, opposed to
the barons of long descent, who had been the pride ofCyprus under the dynasty of Lusignan.
These latter felt themselves highly injured, but what
could they do? The Venetian Senate gave them the title of allies, and made no attempt to interfere with the book of statutes, but left the barons no occupation beyond that of hunting and feasting. They, therefore, retired to their castles or abbeys, and commenced leaving the country. The Venetians had
rendered Cyprus defenseless and taxed her
so heavily that a strong desire arose among the inhabitants[Image of page 64] for a change of government. Such were the destroyers
of Buffavento; as to who actually built
the noble fortress in such a commanding situation
opinions greatly differ.

CHAPTER VIII.
TURKISH GOVERNORS.

[Image of page 65]

I HAD scarcely reached my lodging in Nikosia when
the pacha came to return my visit, accompanied by his dragoman
and first secretary. He inquired with great interest what I
had been doing since we met, and seemed much surprised on
hearing that I had reached the summit of Buffavento, he having
always been given to understand that it was quite
inaccessible. In the evening I called upon him, and we talked
far into the night on the history of the past.

My kind friend had traveled far and read deeply,
and in all points of political history showed himself an
excellent authority. As we sat chatting I could not help
contrasting this highly educated gentleman with the pachas who
formerly inhabited his palaces. Only 101 years ago a most
curious scene was enacted under this very roof.

In July, 1764, there came to Cyprus as governor, a necessitous and avaricious man,
named Izil Osman Aga. The first decree he issued was to the
effect that every Christian should pay him 44½ piastres
(10 francs); and every Mussulman 22 piastres (about 5[Image of page 66] francs). This impost was exactly double the usual
poll-tax required from the subjects by their governors. The
begs, agas, and bishops assembled shook their heads and
declared the charge to be beyond the capacity of the people.
Izil Osman Aga replied that the money must be forthcoming, and
sent out officials in all directions to make fresh
extortions. All remonstrances were met by the remark, that
if the people considered he was acting illegally they were at liberty to report him at Constantinople. Deputies were, therefore, sent at once to the Bosphorus. Week after week passed but nothing was
heard of these emissaries. The bishops, after some
consideration, decided to follow the delegates, but were
seized and prevented by the governor from executing their
plan. In the meantime the unfortunate citizens secretly found
a powerful advocate at Constantinople, and on October 31st an
emissary from the Grand Vizier landed in Cyprus, cited the
governor to appear before him in his palace, at Nikosia, to
receive the commands of his prince. These commands were
threefold: he was to return half the poll-tax, his other
extortions were to be inquired into, and his advisers
punished. Izil Osman Aga affected to apologize, and suggested
that it would be more worthy the dignitary who had to
reprimand him if he were to read his decrees publicly
in the state-chamber of his residence, before the
assembled body of his accusers. On this suggestion the[Image of page 67] Tschokodar∗ invited begs, agas, bishops, and
noble Greeks to attend. On the 5th of November these assembled, followed by a dense crowd, who filled the grand hall, and crowded the courts and staircases. At least theree hundred people were in the
chamber, and on every countenance commendation of the Sultan's
justice was to be read. The Tschokodar seated himself beside
the governor, on the divan, which was placed at the upper end
of the hall, drank his coffee, and after handing his cup to an attendant, began his announcement. The first sentence was read, and the people nodded their approval, when suddenly the entire floor gave way
directly in front of the divan, and the whole crowd fell
pell-mell into the space below. Cries and shrieks filled the
air. Shaken and bruised the frightened crowd scrambled to
their feet, for the fall had not been great, and a few broken
legs was all the damage done. When the three hundred
victims of this strange occurrence had recovered
themselves, they proceeded to investigate the cause of the
accident; a very simple explanation was at once discovered—all beams and supports below the floor of the state-chamber had been sawn away, and were ready to fall the moment a cord was pulled. Cries of rage and vengeance resounded through the streets, and all agreed that the governor had contemplated ∗ Envoy.[Image of page 68] nothing less than the destruction of the whole assembly; the Tschokodar also felt uneasy, for certain sharp pains felt after drinking his coffee led him to
suppose that it had been poisoned. Under these circumstances a
protocol was drawn up by the Tschokodar, mollahs,∗ kadis, and other citizens of rank, containing a
statement concerning the accident in the state-chamber,
requiring the governor to answer for it to them. Their
messenger was received with mockery and insult; a second and a
third delegate were sent, but with the same result. The
mollahs pronounced the governor an offender against the
law and the Sultan. ∗ Mussulman priests.

Scarcely was this sentence declared than the
populace rushed to the palace. The governor, however, had
foreseen this. All the entrances were closed and soliders with
guns in their hands placed at the open windows, who shot down
any men who ventured to approach as coolly as if they had
been cocks and hens. Enraged beyond endurance the people now rushed on, and a fight ensued which raged for two hours. At last, bundles of straw and brushwood were placed against the grand entrance and ignited. In a very short time the door gave way and the people crowded in, killing all they found, amongst them the governor himself. Nineteen of his attendants fell on this occasion and the

RUINS OF THE GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT FAMAGUSTA.

[Image of page 69] rest found safety in flight; the treasury was rifled
and everything of value secured. This done the crowd quietly
returned home. In three hours' time the town looked just as
usual, and the Grecian feast of St. Demetrius was carried on
next day as if nothing had occurred. Five days later the
Tschokodar returned to Constantinople, leaving perfect order and discipline behind him.

So matters stood till the following year, when a
new governor, Hafiz Mahommed Effendi, landed; a shrewd and
prudent man, who speedily won the confidence of his people.
Shortly after his arrival some of those around him, wishing to
curry favor, laid before him a list of all those who had
attacked the palace, and tried to convince him that
these should not go unpunished, if only for the sake of
his own position and dignity. After long consideration the governor at last decided to issue an edict, announcing that he had been sent to Cyprus for the preservation of order, and that any
attempt to disturb the same would be punished by the loss of
the offenders' heads, and that in consideration of past events he must demand a poll-tax of fourteen piastres from all Turks and Greeks, old men, women,
and children being excepted. After payment of this fine all
was to be forgotten and forgiven.

The Greeks were delighted to be let off so easily,
but the Turks laid their heads together and asked each other
by what right the new governor interfered[Image of page 70] with what had occurred before his time. Izil Osman
Aga had been declared an offender against the law and the
Sultan, and in executing him they had only acted as protectors
of law and justice. They therefore replied to the demand that
they had only acted as faithful servants of the Sultan in
revenging themseleves upon his enemies, whilst the governor on his side responded that his dignity would not permit of his withdrawing the edict.

On this some hundreds of the malcontents assembled
in the village of Kytherea and took possession of the mill at
which corn was ground daily for all the inhabitants of
Nikosia. They also cut off the water supply to the city. The
greatest consternation prevailed, and the prudent governor
thought it best to send a deputy to Kytherea to offer to
withdraw the fine. This wise act was fully appreciated by the people, and order and peace were once more restored. The governor, however, felt deeply the contempt shown for his authority, and at once set himself seriously to bring some of the higher officials to his way of thinking. He laid in a good store of weapons and powder, and then considering himself strong enough to maintain his authority, again issued the edict.

The men of the city were less inclined than before
to submit. On this occasion they chose as their rallying point
the famous fortress on the coast, called Keryneia, five leagues north of Nikosia.[Image of page 71] This castle was inhabited by a rich and respected
noble named Halil Aga, who was as ambitious as he was
resolute. His castle was soon bristling with arms, and
occupied by 2,000 men, who at once announced to the governor
that they proposed to do battle with him, to decide the
question of the fourteen piastres. Some day later they again
cut off the mill at Kytherea from the use of the city, and appeared before the walls of the capital. Hafiz Mahommed Effendi thought it best to strike a decisive blow without further delay. He therefore
fell upon the attacking party, but met with a severe and
bloody repulse. The rebels followed him up and endeavored to
storm the town. The walls and defences, however, proved too
strong for them, and Halil Aga therefore decided to blockade
the city and summon the whole island to his assistance. People flocked to him from all parts, and such as refused to join him were treated as enemies of their country, and their houses burnt about their ears. Whole villages were set in flames. The unfortunate governor of Nikosia was at his wit's end, for the citizens were suffering severely from famine. For the second time he was compelled to announce that he would withdraw his claim. The desired effect was at once obtained, and the besiegers
laid down their arms, but not before the ringleaders had bound
themselves by an oath to stand by each other in case of future necessity.

[Image of page 72]

Whilst these events were taking place in Cyprus, the three archbishops of
Nikosia, Baffo, and Keryneia, had privately sailed for Constantinople, laid their complaint before the Porte, and had so far succeeded
in their mission that a new governor was to be sent out;
Soliman Effendi, a very worthy old man, was appointed for this
purpose, and he, they hoped, would prove a mere puppet in
their hands. Acting under these advisers the new governor landed at Keryneia,
and sent Halil Aga some magnificent presents, highly
complimenting him on his zeal for the public good. On this,
Halil Aga allowed Soliman Effendi to land and proceed at once, without any opposition, to the capital. A serious complication now arose with the old and new governors of Cyprus, and the former declared he would not resign
until he had quelled the insurrection. The weak but
good-natured Soliman at once agreed to this view of the case,
and put himself completely under the advice and influence
of the man he ought to have supplanted. He sent messenger after messenger to Hail Aga with the most dazzling proposals, and assured him that if he would come to Nikosia he should be put in command of the cavalry. Halil Aga was, however, too
wise to put his neck in such a noose. Further steps were taken
on either side; the insurgents gradually returned to their
homes, and order was again restored. This happy state of
things continued until[Image of page 73] early in the following year, when the two governors,
who could not let the question of the fourteen piastres rest
in peace, again issued an edict commanding the immediate
payment of the sum in question. Hafiz Mahommed had now a
strong party, and many in the city would willingly have paid
the fine for the murdered governor's death sooner than aid and abet in fresh disturbances. The mass of the inhabitants, on the contrary, declared that the carrying out of the edict must be prevented, even at the risk of fresh bloodshed, and made the matter a question of their civil and religious liberty. The governor had his proper sources of revenue, and the Sultan his import duties and tithes, but such a thing as a fine for the death of a murdered person, could be claimed only by the relatives of the victim, and the demand, they maintained, was in direct opposition to the Koran. In these terms the mollahs had condemned the action of the governors,
and the janissaries, as the ancient defenders of freedom and
religion, had confirmed their judgment. An open revolt at once
took place, the citizens flew to arms and hurried to Keryneia, and in a very short space of time Halil Aga had 5,000 men mustered under his banner. In order to obtain possession of two out of the principal fortresses, Halil Aga suddenly appeared before Famagusta, the famous stronghold on the opposite
side of the island, but was speedily repulsed. He now encamped
before[Image of page 74] Nikosia, and put the capital in a state of siege,
announcing that he demanded, himself, to be appointed governor
of the island. Neither Mahommed med nor Soliman would agree to
the proposition, and Halil Aga then informed them that he had
private commands from the Sultan, and requested they would visit him in his camp and hear them read. This wily message met with no response beyond such as came from the months of the defenders' guns.
Meanwhile disturbances arose all over the island. After many
attempts to storm the capital, and many sallies on the
besieging army from within her fortifications, Halil Aga also
obtained some cannon, and at once commenced a merciless
attempt to force a passage through the walls. Distress
and alarm filled the unfortunate town. At the earnest petition of such of the inhabitants as desired peace the English consul came over from Larnaka and endeavored to mediate
between the opposing parties. Halil Aga demanded on his part
that a sealed deed should be given him, offering free pardon
to all who had fought under his banner, and that all the janissaries and officials who had joined his flag should be reinstated in all their former posts. Secondly, that the people of Nikosia should accept
him as their governor if he could obtain the approval of the
Sultan. The besieged governors would only give way as to the
free pardon, so the fighting continued as before. Meanwhile
news of what was[Image of page 75] going on in the island had reached the adjacent
lands and seas, and foreign powers, who had sufficient troops
to carry out the undertaking, began to speculate as to the
advisability of taking advantage of such a tempting
opportunity to appropriate the island. The Porte could be
readily appeased, it was supposed, by offers of gold, and
plentiful doses of flattery, and would not refuse to confirm
any new government in its acts. Ibrahim Bey was the first who arrived in Cyprus,
having crossed over with his men in two small galliots, but
finding his forces too weak to attempt anything, he at once
retired. Directly after this, another corsair, Dschassar
Bey, appeared upon the scene with a frigate and three small munition vessels. Having speedily landed his men, he took possession of the castle, near the salt works of Larnaka.
Halil Aga having heard of this new arrival marched to
remonstrate with him, and his overpowering force proved such
an excellent argument that this invader also hurried from the field. The third adventurer was Giergil Oghlu, the governor of Karamania, situated on the opposite coast to Cyprus. On
the 27th of June he appeared before Famagusta with a few hundred men, who
overran the adjacent country, plundering and destroying with
the utmost brutality. Before the very gates of the fortress,
they are said to have speared seven Greeks and beheaded two
Turks. Happily on this same day Kyor Mahommed Pacha,[Image of page 76] of two tails, landed at Larnaka
with 2,000 foot soldiers and 500 cavalry, bearing orders from
the Sultan to restore peace. He requested the consuls of the
various European Powers to meet him, and seems to have much astonished them all by permitting them to sit in his presence during the discussion that ensued. Having heard a full account of the state of
things, his first step was to command Giergil Oghlu to place
himself and his troops under his standard. He then requested
the English consul to write a letter to the camp around
Nikosia, stating that the pacha commanded all to retire
quietly to their homes, promising to show justice to all, and
announcing that his commission was only intended to
restore peace. On the 1st of July, shortly after the
dispatch of this letter, the pacha marched toward Nikosia with all his men, and accompanied by the Karamanian troops.

Terror and consternation went before him, for
report had much exaggerated the number of his followers.
Deserters streamed out of Halil Aga's camp until only about
two hundred faithful followers were left; with these he
retired to his fortress ofKeryneia. This castle, which is situated
on the coast, is backed by steep rocks, with the sea in front,
whilst the country round is so plentifully supplied
with flowers and fruit as to form a veritable paradise.

Ample means of entertainment for the garrison were
provided, and they thought themselves prepared[Image of page 77] to make an obstinate resistance. Should the worst
come to the worst they trusted to save themselves readily by
sea, as the fortress had an entrance which opened directly on
the shore, and some small ships were anchored in the haven.
Message after message was sent from the pacha, commanding Halil Aga to surrender in the name of the Sultan, to which he repiled that he was defending the castle for that potentate. On the 28th of July, Kyor Mahommed encamped about Keryneia, and
at once encamped filling up the moats and making breaches in the walls for the purpose of mounting the latter with their scaling ladders. The besieged knew how to use their guns, and behaved with so much spirit, that every attack was repulsed.

The troop ships of the pacha now arrived and opened
fire on the fine old fortress, trying it most severely. Behind
them were seen Dschassar Bey, with his frigate and two other
ships; and last, though not least, Ibrahim Bey and his three
little galliots. These new arrivals completely closed Keryneia on the sea side,
and rendered escape that way utterly hopeless. The efforts of
the besieged were now prompted by despair. The pacha was
becoming uneasy at the loner delay, fearing daily that
there would be a general rising against him in the
island, and had recourse to base cunning to overcome
his brave antagonist.

The captain of the line ships, Meleky Bey, was[Image of page 78] desired to demand a secret interview with Halil Aga.
This meeting took place on the night of the 14th of August, on
which occasion Meleky forcibly urged that it would be
advisable for Halil Aga to come on board the ships of the
line, and trust to his friendly intervention for favorable
terms. There could be no question of safety, for was it not
well known that Turkish sailors would be hewn in pieces before they would betray a man who had trusted to their honor? Meleky spoke with so much apparent frankness that Halil Aga fell into the trap, and before night he had taken shelter on one of the ships. Next day he was hunded over to the pacha, who, however, received him kindly, and
offered him a tent for his own use.

As soon as this reception was known in the castle,
the garrison surrendered at discretion. The position was at
once changed. All the women were allowed to retire with bag
and baggage, but the men were declared prisoners. Halil Aga's
officers were thrown into chains, and he himself closely
watched.

On the 19th instant, the unfortunate captive was
brought before the pacha, who received him kindly, and
requested to hear from his own lips who had been implicated in
the rising. This done, the pacha changed his tone, and angrily
demanded whether Halil Aga supposed that the Sultan intended
that his fortresses should be used for seditious
purposes? As he spoke, some of his minions entered, and
the[Image of page 79] unhappy victim of his treachery was strangled on the
spot.

On the 21st of August, Giergil Oghlu and his wild
crew were desired to set sail, without having been allowed to
land. The pacha retired with his prisoners, and his myrmidons
at once spread over the island. All those who had been
implicated in the revolts, and were still free, quitted Cyprus. Many, however,
were captured before they reached the coast. Investigations
into the recent events were set on foot in Nikosia, and at its
conclusion two hundred of the accused were decapitated.
Their heads, with that of Halil Aga, were salted down, and sent to Constantinople, with a full account of what had occurred in this island.

Kayor Mahommed was made a pacha of three tails and
governor of the pachalik of Koniah. Hafiz Mahommed had been
previously desired to leaveCyprus, and Soliman Effendi reigned in
his stead. So ended a sad page in the history of this
unlucky island, which during these three years of
insurrection, had lost the flower of her Turkish
population, and seen her castles and buildings destroyed.

These ruins were never rebuilt; successive misfortunes and the insecurity of the future prospects of the island seem to have quenched all spirit of emulation
and progress in the much-tried population, and Cyprus appeared to have finally lost her
proud place in the world's history.

CHAPTER IX.
THE PLAINS OF CYPRUS.

[Image of page 80]

EARLY on the morning of the 25th of April, I bade
adieu to Nikosia, the capital of Cyprus—a fair city even in these days of her ruin
and decay. As I look back at her, as she appeared to me, I always find myself comparing the image with that of a stately and beautiful dame over whose faded charms, faint and occasional flashes of former loveliness are now and then visible. The day was glorious as I left the dark city gates and stepped forth upon the bright and boundless plains; corn-fields extended to the feet of the long chain of mountains, which glowed with deepest purple in the foreground, and towered black and shadowy in the far distance; whilst straight before me, from behind the dark, cloud-like masses, peeped the snowy head of MountOlympus. This name “Olymp,” which is
conferred in almost every Grecian island upon the
noblest snow-capped mountains, has the same
signification as our word “Alp.”

I had determined to ascend the Cyprian Olympus, and to this end had made many
inquiries concerning it. Had I desired information about some
unknown

THE CHAIN OF MOUNT
OLYMPUS.—See Page 80.

[Image of page 81] and unexplored region, the few particulars I gained
could not have been more vague and trifling. I could meet with
no one who had ever made the ascent of Troados, as the
mountain is now called, or even learn whether the monastery of
Troaditissa was situated on its summit or lay below in one
of the neighboring valleys. The Cypriotes love their ease too well to undertake these kind of excursions, and only ridicule what they consider such unnecessary exertion on the part of the traveler. Our
party had not ridden more than a mile and a half before
cultivation ceased, and on all sides nothing was visible but a
dry and barren waste. One this occasion I traveled over about
fifteen leagues of country, and did not see more than two or
three small villages in the whole distance. One of these
was built upon a stream which certainly must contain water enough to irrigate the neighboring fields and gardens during the winter and spring, yet all the dwellings were in ruins, and no plow had turned the pastures for certainly ten or twenty years.

With his usual kindness, my good friend the pacha
had sent a zaptieh who was to accompany me throughout the
island and give an account to his master on his return. This was a great
convenience to me, as it is usual to exchange the zaptieh
at every successive district. The country was very
plentifully stocked with game; quails, partiridges, and larks rose in large quantities into the air, disturbed[Image of page 82] by our approach. In the presence of this, my body
guard, the pacha had explicitly stated that I was at liberty
to shoot where and as I pleased, so my dragoman, who had some
experience of sport in his leisure hours, and I, were able to
obtain some good shooting on our journey. Zaptieh Hussein, my
man, was a fine fellow in his way, prompt and quick at expedient. Like most other Turkish soldiers, his mind was rude and shallow, but his frame strong, muscular, and enduring. Those who understand the management of these men will find them faithful and
contented servants. In either mounting or dismounting, when
going after these birds, I had managed to lose my tobacco
pouch; this pouch and contents were a little memento of my visit to Cavalla, on the Roumelian coast, where the finest Turkish tobacco grows. In the East, where the slave
smokes equally with the noble, from morning till night, to
lose one's tobacco may be regarded as a read misfortune. My
dragoman pulled a long face when he heard what had happened,
and my horseboy informed me that he had only a little very
bad tobacco to offer me. Hussein did not say a word, but put spurs to his horse and was out of sight in a moment.

We rode on slowly for an hour before my zaptieh
overtook us, and when he reached me, he drew my pouch from his
breast pocket. When a pacha or a kaimakan has half a dozen
such men on his staff he[Image of page 83] will not fail to be obeyed in his district. A zaptieh will ride ten leagues to secure an offender, seize him in
the midst of his own friends, fasten his prisoner to his
saddle girths, and bring him, dead or alive, to his master.
These are the men whose obstinate and manly spirit has so
prolonged the agonies of their country in its struggles with
its enemies. Call it fanaticism if you will, but one can but
admire the courage and devotion that will sacrifice life
and property, if their rulers or religion are in
danger. On such emergencies the scanty earnings of a
life are drawn from the chest, where they have been hoarded for years, to assist in procuring what is
necessary for the strife. Sabres and guns are girded
on, and for weeks these devoted servants of the Prophet will fight without pay and deprived of every comfort, under the very guns of the enemy's batteries.

We now rode directly for the foot of the mountain
over ground covered with short grass, stunted shrub, and dwarf
palms. Now and again we passed spots covered with a variety of
red, yellow, and blue flowers, beside many tulips and bulbous
plants. It was a glorious ride and the air delightful, so
clear that the eye was never weary of endeavoring to penetrate farther and farther into the horizon.

About 11 o'clock, having never passed an inhabited
dwelling, we reached a village that lies about five miles from
Nikosia, called Akazi. I can only give its Grecian name, as,
though I found the place[Image of page 84] on the map the pacha had given me, none of our party
could read its Turkish designation. We breakfasted in this
village, and after a two hours' rest proceeded on our way.

It being Easter every one was taking advantage of
the fête to lounge or lie about in the open air, while some
stood in groups round the church where the village priest was
celebrating mass. This fête lasts four days, but the people
generally manage to make a whole week's holiday of it, and
give up themselves to hearing masses and perfect idleness. The population of this village looked strong and healthy, which is the more surprising when one considers the amount of fasting imposed upon them.
Not only are there two fast days in every ordinary week, but
on all sorts of extraordinary occasious. I am told that the
number of these fast days amounts to no less than a hundred
and fifty in the course of the year! I must here remark that
this is no child's playing at abstinence—only bread and green
stuff are permitted, not even milk or oil may be
partaken of. Wonderful indeed is it to our minds to
observe on how few meals a Greek family can subsist.
Even in the houses of tolerably well-to-do people they
never cook more than twice or three times in the week, and
fish or flesh are rare delicacies. This fact will partly
explain the slight degree in which the island is now
cultivated. Fruits in great variety and vegetables of many
kinds grow wild and form[Image of page 85] staple articles of food. It is no uncommon thing to
see the Cypriotes gathering their repast as they go along and
eating it without further ceremony.

When we once more started on our way, the sun's
rays beat down upon us with terrible power, and as I panted
beneath it, I could not but compare it with that monster of
the African desert, the yellow lion, prowling about with
ravening jaws “seeking whom it may devour.”

I had heard much of the unbearable heat of the
island during the summer season, when the air is heavy and damp, when foliage and grass are withered up, a drop of water scarcely to be obtained, and man and beast panting for a breath of fresh air. We
felt the sun oppressive, but seeing the country as we did in
its pride of verdure and covered with flowers, one could
scarcely picture the spot under so different an aspect.

CHAPTER X.
EVRYCHU.

[Image of page 86]

TOWARD evening we came in sight of MountOlympus. Water, as clear as crystal, was
trickling down the lower rocks in all directions, and a
delicious breeze blowing from Olympus cooled our weary frames and
raised our drooping spirits as we lay, surveying the scene
around us, upon the banks of a rivulet, completely surrounded
by oleander bushes. Thus refreshed, we continued our way along the course of the stream under the shade of numerous trees which became more luxuriant and various as we advanced.

This delightfully wooded valley contrasted well
with the bare naked rocks above. All day I had seen the snowy
crest of Mount Olympus towering above its dark companions, and had imagined that it could only boast a snowy cap. Now, as it rose before us, clearly distinguishable from the rocks around, I found that the snowy vail extended far down its sides and slopes. All true Alpine features are entirely wanting, and to me there seemed something harsh and unattractive in the bare and unbroken character of its naked rock.

[Image of page 87]

Whilst it was still light we reached Evrychu. This,
the prettiest and most populous village inCyprus, is situated in a lovely valley
surrounded by fruitful and luxuriant pastures, whilst above
it tower majestic groups of picturesque mountains. Evrychu lies 1,700 feet above the level of the sea, and contains seven hundred inhabitants; amongst these, however, not more than a hundred families pay taxes. This luxuriant valley might readily produce enough to support ten times the number of
people now dwelling there. When we arrived, evening service
was being performed in the church, and it is no exaggeration
to say that the whole of the inhabitants were around its
walls, from the youngest child to the most infirm of its old
men and women. This open-air gathering had a fine and solemn effect. The people themselves appeared to me to differ in many respects from the short, stout inhabitants of the coast and plains, who look as thought heat and perspiration had baked the dust and dirt into their skins. The people of Evrychu, on the contrary, are well grown and finely made, and their complexions fresh and blooming. Amongst the women and girls I noticed a great number of pretty faces. There can be no doubt as to the fact that these people are descended from the old Greek settlers, whilst those in the open country and on the sea coast are descended from a mixed race of Italians, Syrians, and Negroes. In the more frequented[Image of page 88] parts of the island, traces of successive races were
rapidly swept away, whilst here in the mountain valley the
people have for generations lived comparatively unchanged and
undisturbed. My opinions concerning the descent of the people
were strengthened by further observations, and all along
the mountain range I noticed a strong likeness to the Greeks of several islands in the Archipelago; the type, however, not being quite so pure (no doubt owing to intermarriage), nor faces and figures quite so beautiful and slender. As for manners, well would it be if our awkward English race could imitate the grace with which these villagers performed the most ordinary act. When we arrived amongst them the appearance of such an unexpected party might have been supposed to have created quite a sensation. Nothing of the kind occurred; the men and women were grouped about, and evidently eyed us with much curiosity, but no movement betrayed their feelings or ruffled their respectful politeness. The girls stood at some distance and observed us as closely, but with graceful dignity. Such natural propriety of behavior is very striking in this population, and seems to leave the impression on the
mind of their having, as we say, “seen better days.” Their
peculiar customs are numerous and interesting; no sooner is a
guest lodged than a woman or girl appears and offers him an
apple, with the most winning grace; this is intended as a
hospitable welcome.[Image of page 89] If you are given any kind of solid food a napkin is
placed over your knees. A glass of water is presented to you
on the open palm of the hand, and is always accompanied by a
good wish, the giver remaining standing until the glass is
returned, when another wish is expressed that the water may
do you good. When you are about to leave, women and girls appear and throw the leaves of the olive and other fragrant plants into the fire. The parting guest is expected to go through the form of smelling these leaves, in token of his bearing away in his mind a sweet impression of the kindness he has received.

Who could compare our parting act of raising the
hat with the picturesque obeisance of these villagers, as they
laid their hands upon their hearts and gracefully inclined
their bodies toward us as they wished us farewell?

Whilst I reposed, my indefatigable zaptieh had been
exploring the village and inquiring for its principal
inhabitant, for the purpose of securing lodgings for me at his
house. This man, who proved to be a well-to-do peasant, soon
appeared, accompanied by his sons-in-law, and offered to
escort me to his home. The domicile consisted of three
small, one-storied buildings lying close together and
standing in a small court surrounded by stabling and sheds. The principal attractions of this dwelling were its strong walls water-tight roof, recommendations[Image of page 90] possessed by very few other houses in the village,
these latter being generally mere flat-roofed huts, with walls
formed of clay and interlaced branches. The accommodation for
the cattle is, of course, equally rude and simple; everything
about these dwellings is poor except in one respect,
namely, their house linen. The excellent order in which this is always kept, speaks highly for the industry, housewifery, and skill of the women.

The landlord's four daughters offered me a hearty
reception, and made it evident by their sparkling eyes and
their delightful manner, that they felt all the pleasure and
dignity of hospitality. Everything the place could offer was
at our disposal, and they seemed as if they could not do
enough to make us comfortable. Various members of the family
appeared in turn, in order to be introduced to me, and all, even the children, conducted themselves with the most unembarrassed courtesy. The sons-in-law of my host and a young relative, who was the village schoolmaster, sat down to table with the head of the family and myself, whilst the daughters waited upon
us. Luckily for me I had chanced upon them just at
Easter-time, so we were allowed to partake of meat. The table
was ornamented with a great variety of colored Easter eggs,
and after dinner the “egg-touching” ceremony began, each person offering the small end of an egg to his neighbor, saying as he did so, “Christ is risen.”[Image of page 91] This appeared to be a favorite amusement with the
children, and many eggs were broken by their little hands. I
was delighted with the charming manner in which the youngsters
grouped together, and, after the repast was over, sang us an
Easter hymn.

I cannot refrain from giving my readers the very
Grecian names of my kind entertainers. My host was called
Gavril, one of the sons-in-law was Kleobulas Christophagu
Gavrilidis, and the other Socrates. The schoolmaster was
Michel Ivanidas, and the four daughters respectively Minerva,
Terpsichore, Penelope, and Zoisa; another maiden
present was called Evanthia. How can we account for
such classic names, if I am not correct in asserting
that these people are the direct descendants of the
early Greeks?

Next morning I was astir at about four o'clock, and
walked out into the fresh and balmy air. A gentle wind was
wandering about the mountains, stirring the waving foliage of
the trees, and rippling the bright water of the streams as it
passed. Thrushes and nightingales poured forth their sweetest
melody on all sides, and a delicious perfume was wafted around from innumerable flowers, and the hedges of myrtle by which the fields are surrounded. Only one thing was wanting to the scene—where was the rustling sound of trees on the declivities of the
mountains? As I looked up, the first glance told me the soil
was in the highest degree fitted for their[Image of page 92] culture, and yet the eye could only discover a variety of shrubs and mountain plants interspersed with a few
blackened stumps.

When I returned to the village I found the whole
population again at their devotions. In the Eastern Church the
worshippers do not attend to hear sermons and pour out their
own prayers and thanksgivings; it would appear as though even
the most earnest worshippers considered that their mere
presence and genuflections during the masses said and sung by their priest was all that could be required of them. For more than a thousand years no
change whatever has taken place in the creed and liturgy of
the Christian Church in the East, and it may, therefore, be
regarded as more closely allied to the Primitive Church than
is the Catholic Church of Rome. With the exception of its
bishops, Cyprus has no
active and learned priesthood, and nothing can be simpler than
the life and theology of its country cures. Books they have
none, and for their livelihood have to depend upon the bounty
of their flocks. Under British rule new life will be given
to the Christian Church in Cyprus, and to the education and training of her
people.

When we left Evrychu, our host and his sons-in-law,
as is the custom here, accompanied us to the extremity of the
village, when they took their leave.

CHAPTER XI.
MOUNT
OLYMPUS.

[Image of page 93]

WE now pursued our way toward Olympus. At every stage fresh beauties met our view,
and every object was smiling with the first fresh loveliness
of spring. Oaks, plantains, olives, vines, myrtles, and laurels grew in rich profusion on the banks of the stream along which the road lay; whilst here and there we caught glimpses of sloping banks entirely
covered with white lilies. Before us towered steeps and broken
rocks, upon which a few scattered pines were to be seen.

Gradually we began to ascend a mountain pass, which
was too rough and dangerous to admit of our riding. My
dragoman therefore took the three horses, and, fastening them
together, led them along. We had not gone far before we lost
our way. My zaptieh at once began to reconnoitre, whilst
the dragoman gave us a good specimen of his Italian origin and French manners by uttering cries of grief and distress, coupled with prayers for his wife and family, and fervent maledictions on his own folly in accompanying me; his misery was so intense that I could scarcely refrain from laughing in his face.[Image of page 94] Had we not been obliged to help our horses along, we
should not have had any serious difficulty, as our way, though
rugged and steep, was not more so than on many other mountain
passes I had successfully climbed. A few strenous efforts and
a little cautious steering at last brought us to a safe
footing, and we could look aloft at the fine scene that
towered above us.

An hour's riding brought us within view of a broad
extent of glacier, whilst on one side the brown and purple
mountain extended to the sea, beyond which again the Cilician
range of Taurus was distinctly visible, looking like
snow-covered bastions extending along the opposite shore. The
whole scene was one never to be forgotten, and this
ascent of Mount
Olympus will ever be regarded by me as one of the most
richly-rewarded experiences of my travels.

I had been led to imagine that this famous mountain
was still thickly wooded, but such is not the case; only here
and there we came upon a group of trees standing far apart.
The sides and peaks of the mountain exhibited a considerable
growth of stunted shrubs, with an occasional fir-tree or
broken stump. Flowers there were in abundance, and whole tracts were covered with hyacinths and narcissus. Not a man or a beast was to be seen either
on the mountain or in the valleys beneath; it would have been
easy to believe that some destroying

MOUNT OLYMPUS.—See
Page 81.

[Image of page 95] army had devastated the mountain, and then passed on
its victorious path, leaving the spot to barrenness and
desolation.

As we approached the summit of this famous
mountain, I observed that the trees became more numerous. On
our right the path led directly to the cloister of
Troaditissa, and on our left lay a valley extending to the
foot of Olympus. Hussein informed me that the cloister was about two leagues
distant, whilst, if I were desirous of reaching the crest, we
might do it in about three hours' time. My dragoman no sooner
heard this latter suggestion, than he poured forth a volley of
assurances as to the folly of the attempt, and drew a vivid
picture of the various dangers that would beset our path,
winding up by informing me that many travelers had already lost their lives in attempting this ascent. Night would be coming on, and then what would our position be? Why not go direct to the cloister where we
could refresh ourselves, and after a good night's rest make
the attempt in the morning?

I informed my here that it was now only two o'clock
in the afternoon, and that I had neither the wish nor the time
to retrace my steps next day; to this I added a strong appeal
to his vanity, urging upon him the honor it would be to him
and his house forever, if by his skillful guidance I was
enabled to reach the top. He wavered for a moment, but fear got the better of him, and whilst I was sending[Image of page 96] on the servant and horses to Troaditissa, he started
off upon the road, shouting back to me that “there was nothing
in his agreement about ascending such a mountain as that.”

I was not sorry to get rid of the cowardly rascal,
and contented myself with desiring him to wait for me at the
cloister. Hussein and I at once started to make the final
ascent, and succeeded in riding safely over the rocks and
stones until we began to reach the snow. At this point my
horse refused to stir, apparently terrified by the blinding
glare of the snow. Blows and persuasion alike failing to move him, I was compelled to leave Hussein behaind in charge of him, and continue my way alone. It is probably many years since any one, except myself, has made the attempt. If Mount Olympus were on the European continent,
hundreds would climb to its summit in the course of the year;
but the Cypriotes are indolent, and all strangers visiting
the island feel the influence of its climate, and
become disinelined for active exertion before the end of
six months.

The snow, which, unluckily for me, was thawing,
formed frequent streams of water, which rendered my footing so
insecure that I sank many times up to my knees. The higher
portion of the ascent was worst of all; again and again, after
hard climbing, I found myself slipping back, some twenty paces
at a time. The rocks became steeper, and the snow[Image of page 97] being lightly frozen over, and very slippery, my
only chance was by patiently persevering and slowly mounting
step by step, digging my stick deep, and planting my feet
firmly, as I passed from one spot to another, all the time
following a zigzag direction, and experiencing all those
various sensations of hope and despair, inseparable from this
kind of exertion. Alpine travelers alone can appreciate the enthusiasm that filled my heart, as I inhaled deep draughts of ozone and gazed upon the scene beneath me. The landscape was one of the grandest upon earth, and quite peculiar in its characteristics.

Cyprus, the third largest
island in the Mediterranean, looked from this point of view
like a green and lovely gem, washed by the blue waves of
the surrounding sea, which met the horizon on every side. Toward the north-east the dazzling range of Taurus is distinctly visible, extending along the Cilician coast toward Kurdistan, and opposite on the south-east the dark purple heights of Lebanon. Upon the summit of Olympus one stands high above every other object in
the island, and looks down upon miles of varied and enchanting
country.

The peculiarity of this landscape is the strong
contrast offered by its principal features: the blue sea, the
snowy mountains, and the island itself; whilst the latter
again presents three distinct features, the dark mountains
covering the western half of the country, the long chain of
hills traversing the[Image of page 98] Carpasian peninsula, and between these the brown and
golden-tinted plains. Only once in my life could I hope to
gaze upon a scene of such magnificent beauty. The highest
point of the mountain, which was entirely free from snow, is
divided into three peaks closely resembling each other in
appearance. The centre one of these, according to my
own measurement, was 6,160 feet (instead of 7,000 feet) above the level of the sea. Unger makes this peak only 5,897 feet high, according to the map contained in his work on Cyprus.
It is true I had only my little aneroid to go by, but it has
never, to my knowledge, failed me yet.

In vain I searched in all directions for any trace
of ancient ruins; I found nothing save unheaped stones, and
rubbish. I do not hesitate to assure my readers that as I
stood at that immense height above the surrounding scenery,
entirely cut off as it seemed from every living creature, an
indescribable dread, that was almost fear, crept over me.
Not even a bird disturbed the air; and beneath me, as far as the eye could reach, not a sign of animation was to be seen. On some of the neighboring hills I could fancy I saw small villages; but what appeared to be houses were probably only rocks. The
sun began to set, and a chilly breeze warned me that I had
better descend. I had not gone far before I saw Hussein
waiting below with the horses. I waved my hat to attract his
attention, as I observed[Image of page 99] him looking upward, but strong as were his eyes, he
could not distinguish me at such an elevation even in that
clear atmosphere. Our way to Troaditissa proved much farther
than we expected, and night had long closed in before we
reached our destination.

CHAPTER XII.
CYPRUS IN
ANCIENT TIMES.

As we journeyed, in twilight and
solitude, around the mountain, and darkness approached, I
could not forget that, even to the highest peak of this very Olympus, at least
6,000 feet above the level of the sea, festive bands of
worshippers had in bygone times ascended, when visiting this
sacred ground. Nothing, however, either of temple or worship remained. The very remembrance of them was blotted out, and even the name of the mountain is almost unknown to the present population. The changing fortunes of the country next presented
themselves to my imagination. Already ten dynasties have ruled
in Cyprus—first the Phoenicians, then the Greeks, to these succeeded the Persian, the Egyptian, the Roman and the Byzantine
ages, next came the Arabian, the Frankish, and the Venetian
rulers, and lastly, for nearly three hundred years, the whole
country has been subject to the rule of the Turk; the worst
period of its history. The earliest condition of Cyprus is involved in
misty obscurity. On blowing away these clouds a little, we see
a large well-wooded country, altogether covered with waving
trees. A large town next becomes apparent, situated upon the
southern coast, and out of its haven, numerous small
longprowed ships are putting to sea, manned by a bold crew, who with oars and snowy sails are gradually making their way across the distant sea. The sailors are Phoenicians, the large town is called Kiti, and we descry, moreover, the
abodes of numerous settlers upon the island's southern shore.
Kiti, according to
the Bible, was founded by a grandson of Japhet—such is the
venerable antiquity which surrounded the first history of the
country.

The inhabitants of Syria next appeared upon the
scene, coming over from the opposite mainland, to cultivate
these delightful plains, to cut down their luxuriant woods,
wherewith to build ships, and to obtain from the earth the
metallic treasures there hidden. The mines were worked by the
Korybantes and the Daktyles, between whom, apparently, a
trade partnership or family connection existed.

The industry of the inhabitants of Cyprus, even at that early period, attained such
celebrity, that Semiramis obtained shipbuilders from Kiti to be employed on
the banks of the Euphrates. With the Phoenicians, the worship
of the Syrian goddess, Astarte, was introduced into Cyprus, to whom altars
were erected at Paphos, Amathus, and Idalion. How beautiful must then have
been the forests reflected in the waters, the verdure of the
plains, the rich color of the blossoms,
soon however to be invaded by the scorching heat of summer,
whereby the last leaf, the last blade of grass would be dried
up, not inaptly symbolizing the new divinity, the teeming but merciless goddess Astarte. Cyprus became her most celebrated
sanctuary, and the worship of Astarte, which was imported from
the banks of the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile, into
Phoenicia and Cyprus, there took root, and put forth new branches,
making its way toward the northwest, and at last reached the
Greeks, a lively, imaginative, and energetic people, who
readily embraced the new religion. After this came the Trojan
war, the history of which never will be obliterated
from the memory of mankind. All the noble warriors and chiefs who took part in the strife with their ancestry, descendants, and personal prowess, are freshly remembered even in the traditions of the present day, but the chief thing to be recollected is, that this memorable strife was the commencement of the struggle between the East and the
West.

At length the princely city of Troy was overpowered. A long and bloody strife was fought out before her walls,
and upon her whitened plains are still assembled the shades of
her heroes, while their fame is emblazoned in the most
beautiful of heroic poems. Soon after the Trojan War, the
Greeks took possession of Cyprus under the leadership of Teucer, Akamas, Demophon, Agapenor and Kephas. Praxander, and numerous other petty chieftains seized upon the quiet bays, wherever the scenery of the coast had a tempting appearance, and speedily brought their armed ships to land. They then plunged into the dense forests, hewed down the trees, and
building intrenchments, awaited armed with shield and spear,
to see whether the islanders who were assembled in the
distance, dared to attack them. All round the coast similar
inroads were continually repeated, until at length, they
ventured up the rivers and there established their domiciles; the nucleus of a petty state. The Greeks occupied Cyprus for a
considerable period, and mixed with the Syrians of Phoenician
or of Jewish extraction, until at length becoming
assimilated both in speech and manners, they formed but
one people. Certain inscriptions found in the country were at first quite impossible to decipher, inasmuch that they were thought to belong to some very ancient people older even than the Phoenicians; these have however been proved quite recently to be of
Graeco-Cyprian origin.

Under the magic touch of Grecian refinement, the
goddess of luxury and wantonness, Astarte, became the most
beautiful of ideal creations, the mother of the Graces, the
charming Aphrodite. In the imagination of the times, Cyprus appeared rising
above the blue waves, and tinted with roseate hues.

There dwelt the glorious goddess in the midst of
blooming gardens, and shaded by the green foliage of the
woods, under the shadows of which her worshippers were
supposed to dwell in happiness, ennobled by religious fervor.

This enervating period past, we find Cyprus divided into nine petty kingdoms, whose
capitals were the cities Kition, Salamis, Amathunt,
Kurion, New Paphos, Kerynia, Lapithos, Soli, and Chytros.
Numerous rivers and brooks, streaming down from the
wood-crowned hills, and enlarging as they descended,
everywhere distributed life and fertility. At the mouth of
each river or stream was a town or cultivated district;
industry seemed to have reached its highest point, and out of
thirty havens, ships went forth to earn a reputation, which,
made the island dreaded throughout the Eastern seas.
Meanwhile in those continents, between which Cyprus is situated, great
empires had been established. The Assyrian, Egyptian, and
Persian, each cast covetous eyes upon the Cyprian shores, and
obstinate battles were fought for their possession in the
sixth century, B.C. Partly owing to the persistent attacks from without, partly from internal dissensions, the inhabitants succumbed and submitted voluntarily to the rule of the Egyptians.

When, however, in the course of years, the Egyptian
yoke became too oppressive, and the name of Cyrus outshone all
others, the Cyprians appealed to him for assistance.
No fewer than a hundred and fifty large Cyprian galleys
assisted Xerxes in his passage over the Hellespont Not long
afterwardCyprus took part in the great national
war against Persia. The Greeks spared no money to defend the island on account of its mineral wealth, and the rich supply of wood which it afforded wherewith to build their ships; and also for its rich
harvests of fruit and its manufactured wares, but principally
on account of its excellent position, in case of war with the
nations inhabiting the Asiatic shores.

Great battles were fought in Cyprian waters, by
fleets under the command of Kimon and Enagoras, the latter of
whom had expelled the Persians from all the cities of the
coast, and assisted Cyprus in a ten years' war against the whole strength of Persia; a glorious example, which did not fail to make a deep impression, throughout the whole of Greece. At length, however, the Persians once more got the upper hand, and a courtesan in Persepolis was enabled to squander in a single night the entire revenue derived from the tribute of nine Cyprian kings.

Next the great Macedonian conqueror appeared upon
the world's stage. Had it not been for his powerful and crafty
father, Philip, the union of the Greeks would never have been
accomplished; they had negotiated and fought, and fought and
negotiated, but were never ready to act in concert, but now the strength of
Macedon had united their forces under the conduct of Philip's
heroic son, and set out upon their great campaign in Asia.

When Alexander laid siege to Tyre, the Cyprian
kings, of their own accord, sent to him their powerful fleets
and warlike engines, and strove, amongst themselves, who
should most richly contribute to the festive games with which
they celebrated the news of his victories. Some accompanied
him even as far as the Indus, where the Cyprian shipwrights had built the fleet, in which he intended to ascend the mighty river. The great conqueror himself was presented with a dagger; made by the artisans of Kiti, that was regarded with admiration on
account of its keen edge and masterly workmanship. When the chief officers of Alexander's army, from being generals were exalted into kings, bloody battles were again fought for the possession of Cyprus. Whoever possessed this island,
could command the shores of Asia! Whoever possessed the shores
of Asia; but not the island, was always open to attack! Ultimately, however, it became the property of the Ptolemies, and remained for two hundred years under the dominion of Egypt. Heavily was the hand of Egypt
laid upon poor Cyprus; the taxes imposed upon its cities and villages were grievous to be borne; its nine king's dwindled into mere shadows, an Egyptian governor resided at Salamis, and lorded it over the land
like an independent monarch. But now the
Western continent for the third time prepared a great
expedition against the East.

Already in Italy the heavy tread of Roman cohorts
resounded, and wherever they were heard the wreaths that
ornamented Greek or Asiatic places trembled, or fell withered
to the ground. Not a word was heard of right, or wrong, either
toward the prince, or people; Egypt was taken
possession of, and Cyprus became the province of a Roman proconsul, who
established his residence in Paphos. The Roman system of government in a subdued
territory differed but little from that of the Turks. Unlike
the Turks, however, the Romans recompensed their subjects with
higher political culture, with substantial rights as citizens,
with domestic peace, with excellent roads and harbors, with
free trade throughout all their vast empire, and—with what the Turks do not vouchsafe, and, in spite of all their promises and experimental trials, only in a very limited degree can offer to their subjects—every inhabitant of Cyprus
under the dominion of Rome, gifted with industry and genius,
had the opportunity of raising himself, even to the highest
offices in the state. Throughout all the earlier periods
of its history, this island was the place where
important business, both in connection with its mines
and agricultural produce, was carried on. It was the abode of luxury and voluptuous enjoyment, and deeply as the Romans
helped themselves from the pockets of the Cyprians, there was
always much remaining.

At the end of the Roman epoch a remarkable change
took place. It has long been a recognized fact, though dismal
enough, that the instincts of sensuality, cruelty, and
mystical superstition, are entwined together as if they grew
from the same root. In Cyprus this law of nature seems to have asserted
itself throughout the land. In presence of the mysteries of
Astarte, in which abominable lust, bloodshed, and depravity
reigned triumphant, we gladly shut our eyes. But, behold, at
the magic touch of Grecian art, the gloomy Astarte becomes transformed into the fair goddess, that, rising from the sea-foam, assumes the beauteous shape of Venus. The lovely Aphrodite, whose worship, however, still retained enough and more than enough of the ancient
rites. And now she undergoes a third transformation. How at
the present day do the Cyprians name the Mother of God, simply
“Aphroditissa.” She is often represented in the oldest pictures, with her dark features veiled and glittering with gold and silver; exactly as in ancient time, the great black meteoric stone—the idol of Venus— Astarte, was solemnly veiled by her priestesses.

From the very ground, upon which formerly stood the
temple of the Cyprian Venus, little images of the Madonna are
frequently dug up, as, for example, the five goddesses,
sitting upon throne-like seats, each with a child upon its
bosom, obtained from the excavations at Idalion, and now preserved in the
Ambrose collection at Vienna. Here, indeed, the figures are
altogether of an antique character, nevertheless every one of
the five has so completely the characters of a Christian
Madonna, that the observer involuntarily thinks them
counterfeits. The conversion of the Aphrodite into the “Aphroditissa” occurred during the earliest days of Christianity, when the sensual culture of Venus gave place to the pure worship of the Virgin Mother. The Jews, meanwhile, long groaning under the weight of Roman taxation in Cyprus, as
in Palestine, and overwhelmed with rage and despair,
conspired together, and collecting into a formidable army
slew, as it is stated, 250,000 men, a number which
indicates how densely populated the island must have been. Since this fearful slaughter no Jew has ventured to reside in Cyprus.
Christianity now made such rapid progress, that the country
was divided into no less than thirty bishoprics. The island
became a land of saints; Barrabas, Lazarus, Heraclides,
Hilarion, Spiridion, Epiphanes, Johannes, Lampadista, Johannes the Almoner, Catherine, Acona, Maura, and a long list of holy persons stand in the calendar as belonging to Cyprus.

After the Roman epoch ensued the long and tedious
uniformity of Byzantine rule. The management of the island of Cyprus was for the most part intrusted to the care of military and civil governors, although, sometimes, both these functions were united in the hands of a satrap, who bore the title of duke or kaimacan (one set above all). The supreme governor next endeavored to make the succession
hereditary in his own family, and for a time succeeded—a
result which soon tempted him to aim at complete independence;
for, relying on his position, and the extent of his internal
resources, he deemed the island strong enough to defend
itself. His independence, however, only lasted until
the imperial forces could be got together.

A fleet from Constantinople soon arrived, which,
putting on shore a sufficient number of troops, overthrew all
his schemes and punished his temerity. In the fourth century,
during which Cyprus was sinking slowly, but surely, into political and domestic ruin, great misfortunes fell upon her. Earthquakes destroyed her towns, and repeated droughts almost completed her destruction; it is said that no rain fell during thirty years, when, as the few surviving inhabitants were endeavoring to escape from the death-stricken country, there appeared among them the holy St. Helena, who carried with her, wherever she went, refreshing showers; after which the towns and cloisters were once more filled by the returning inhabitants.

From the middle of the seventh to the middle of the tenth century, the
hand of man caused fearful devastation. Hordes of pirates
appeared upon the coast, who, landing at every available
place, set fire to the towns and villages, and when the
inhabitants fled to save themselves, laid hands on
everything within their reach. Money and fruit, men and cattle, all were hurried on board their ships. Swiftly as they had come they departed; in vain the fleet sent out by Government endeavored to follow them.

Among the islands and havens of the Grecian
Archipelago concealment and shelter were easily obtained; the
only resource was to place watchmen upon commanding points of
the coast, from whence they could see to a distance; and to
build towers and beacons, whence signals could be made by
means of fires and smoke, so soon as any suspicious
craft made its appearance. On seeing this signal, all
the inhabitants of the coast fled into the interior,
taking their children and cattle and their money and
valuables with them; and there they remained concealed until another signal from the watchman told
them that the coast was clear. Next came robbers of a still
worse description; the former only sought for what could be
readily carried off in their ships: these others were land
robbers. The pirates only struck down or burned whatever
hindered them in their proceedings; the others destroyed for
destruction's sake, and collecting men like sheep, drove
them into slavery. These
were Arabs; from their sandy and rocky deserts they brought
with them a savage hatred against all religious edifices,
which they leveled with the ground. It was now that the
ancient buildings of Cyprus suffered: the old temples were reduced to
ruins, the towns were destroyed, and everything Greek or Roman
perished. The Arabs wished to establish their new government
in the island, and for this purpose they only required bare ground.

In Constantinople every endeavor was made once more
to seize upon and maintain possession of the rich island. In
despair a command was issued by the Sultan that all these
fierce intruders should leave Cyprus. The howl of the Arab was no longer heard
in the country, and the population began again to gather
itself together, first in the plains and towns upon the coast,
and afterward, little by little, the hills became once more
peopled. To this Arab period succeeded a respite, during which
the island was enabled in some degree to recover itself.

The rule of the Byzantine continued, however, for
two hundred years. Frequently did the Cyprians endeavor to
free themselves from bonds which pinioned the arms of
industry, but all in vain; the island seemed to have settled
down in that slow decay, which was the fate of all the
Byzantine provinces. When we reflect what a system of
robbery was practiced throughout the western Roman
empire, and the absolute
poverty of the eastern states, and consider that the Grecian
people for thirteen centuries had to submit to such rulers;
that in that time so many insurrections broke out among the German, Slav, Arabian, and Turanian nations; we must perforce recognize the excellent material of which they are composed. It is a wonder that after so many centuries of oppression, spoliation, and misery, so many of them survive.

We have now arrived at the end of the twelfth
century, and for the fourth time the Western Continent is
assembled to do battle against the East. France and Germany
take the lead in the crusade, Italy and England assist. For
nearly a century the coast of Asia opposite to Cyprus, from Cilicia to
Egypt, had again become Christian. The centre of the group was
the kingdom of Jerusalem. Its supporters were the
principalities of Tripoli, Edissa, and Antioch, the dominions
of Caesarea, Beyrut, Sidon, and Tyre. Only Cyprus remained under the Byzantine
yoke. Then came Richard Coeur de Lion, and in one wild attack
he subdued the island and departed. Cyprus once more had her own king, and
by a single stroke order and peace was restored to the island.
Baronial castles, abbeys with stately halls, and beautiful
Gothic cathedrals, sprang up in all directions. The slopes of
the hills were covered with vineyards and orchards, and the
fields were sown with corn and profitable vegetables. Rich
works, and a trade that
extended all over the Mediterranean, gave life to the whole
country. Famagusta and
Limasol at once took their places as
large seaports.

After having been for fifteen hundred years a mere
dependency on either Memphis, Persepolis, Alexandria, Rome, or
Constantinople, Cyprus now for three hundred years enjoyed the blessings of self-government, and was prosperous and in high repute. She built a new capital city, and, when the Holy Land was abandoned, became the rendezvous of the knights, who brought with them their laws.

As in the days of Cymon and Enagoras, Cyprus became the arsenal where the fleets and
armies of Greece armed themselves to invade Persia. She now shone across the blue waters of the Mediterranean as the centre of knighthood and chivalry, from whence the unbelievers were incessantly attacked, and for a long time victoriously fought against whenever they ventured to establish themselves upon the coast from Symrna to Alexandria.

This glorious change in the condition of Cyprus was effected, not by the
inhabitants of the island, but by the knights, monks, and
citizens who came to her from foreign countries, bringing with
them knowledge, activity, and industry.

When the Venetians took possession of the country,
it once more sank into its former insignificance, it became
merely the treasure chest and the granary
A SARCOPHAGUS.—See Page 303.
THE MOSQUE OF MAHOMET'S NURSE.—See Page 303.
of a foreign nation.
The entire population soon lost its chivalrous character, and
gradually sank into a sloth and stupidity from which it again
never recovered; and, to add to the general misery, a
fearful scourge now visited the unhappy land. In the places left desert by diminished cultivation, locusts multiplied to such an extent that vegetation disappeared from the face of the ground. A still greater
misfortune was the incessant destruction of the trees and
woods; the very mountains were left bare, and, as a natural
consequence, the rivers and brooks were dried up, so that the
parched land was no longer capable of cultivation. This state
of things has now existed for nearly three hundred years. Each successive season appears worse than that which preceded it, the rulers more rapacious, and the climate more unhealthy. In our day, the inhabitants seem to be slightly roused from their apathetic slumber, which is principally owing to foreign interference. This amelioration exists
particularly in the vicinity of the sea coast, once so
rich and beautiful, now so wretched and unfortunate.

CHAPTER XIII.
TROADITISSA.

The stumbling of my horse roused me from
the foregoing reflections on the history of the famous mountain beneath the shadow of which we now
rode. Our path lay over steep and rugged rocks, and after a
long course of scrambling, my horse at last refused to stir
from the spot on which he stood. We dismounted in hopes of
discovering his cause of alarm, and found ourselves on the
very brink of a yawning precipice. By a vigorous effort we
again found our path, and after some hard climbing,
descended into a valley through which ran a small stream.

In the distance I observed lights, and felt convinced they must proceed from the monastery we were in search of.
As we approached they turned out to be bonfires, lit to
celebrate the Easter fête, and that the supposed cloister was
only a small village. We plunged our horses into the midst
of the rushing stream in order to gain the opposite bank, but found it far too high. We now rode up and down the bed of the stream shouting for assistance till we were hoarse, but all was useless. Almost in hopeless despair,
Hussein made one more vigorous effort to rouse the indolent
inhabitants, and shouted at the top of his voice for some
one to come with torches and show us our way.

No one answered, and we sought in vain for some
means of reaching the bank. At last, as a final effort,
Hussein gathered himself together and once more exerted his
powerful voice. This time the shout was a menace. In the name
of the pacha, he commanded the villagers to appear and conduct
a noble stranger to the cloister of Troaditissa, under the penalty of having their houses pulled about their ears should they refuse to comply. This had the desired effect; two men immediately appeared bearing torches and led us on our way. From them we learnt that a foreign gentleman, who spoke good Greek, had called at the village about two hours previously with his servant, and had requested to have a guide to the cloister; this could have been no other than my courageous dragoman, and I pictured to myself his anguish when he found himself
lost and belated.

When our guides heard I had ascended to the summit
of Olympus they assured me I might
consider myself lucky to have escaped any attack from the demons and kobolds who haunted the spot. Had I not heard, they inquired, that the temple of
Aphroditissa had been removed lower down because of the
machinations of these evil ones?

The village of Fini, which we
now left, lay about 1,000 feet below the monastery, and was
separated therefrom by a steep and rocky road. My whole frame was exhausted, and had I had any idea of the distance we must still traverse before reaching our destination, I should certainly have insisted on remaining for the night in any one of the village huts, however squalid it might be. As it was, I was in the hands of my energetic zaptieh, who hurried on our guides with all possible speed. For myself I was quite past everything, except clinging on to my horse, to keep myself from falling, letting him stumble on by himself, guided only by his instinct through the pitchy darkness of the night. I
thanked Heaven loudly when about eleven o'clock we reached the
gate of the cloister. An Easter bonfire was also burning here,
formed of two huge trees, which, as they slowly burnt, were
pushed further into the flames in order that the fire might
not die out before sunrise.

I was at once conducted to my apartments, which,
though the best in the house, bore a most disgusting
resemblance to a stable; and had scarcely set my foot upon the
floor, when my dragoman's head appeared out of his bedclothes,
and he commenced a woeful tale of sufferings and alarms. He
was starving with hunger, and the monks had only given him a piece of wretched bread that he could scarcely put his teeth into! For my supper, the worthy brethren brought me an earthen
pot of the dirtiest, containing some cold turnips and a small
piece of salt beef. Hungry as I was I could not have touched
them. Luckily for us the superior of the cloisters
appeared and ordered some wine and eggs to be brought. The wine, which was excellent, revived us, and loosened the tongues of the two monks who bore us company, and we chatted gayly far into the night. This capital wine (Mavro) is of a very deep red color, and is made in the
neighboring village of Fini. Its effect upon my exhausted frame was marvellous. I have often found during my journey in Cyprus that a glass of Commanderia was
the finest remedy for over-fatigue, and I quite understood the
popular idea of its being by far the best medicine in
many cases of illness.

Early next morning I was roused by the bells, which
were hung almost directly over my head. Mass was being
celebrated in the little church; this was far too small for
its village congregation, and the men were standing outside
with lights in their hands, whilst the women kept farther in
the background. When the celebration was over, the women and girls seated themselves upon the trunks of some trees, and began eating the food they had brought with them, whilst the men mounted to a rough balcony in front of the cloister, and sat down upon
some benches. The two monks now appeared with baskets and
earthen vessels, and after the men had kissed their hands,
presented each with a linen cloth to spread over his knees,
and then gave a plentiful supply of bread, cheese, and wine.
This repast was followed by a cup of coffee.

Amongst the women I noticed many with truly classic
features, but in most cases they had heavy figures. Two girls,
however, were perfect types of statuesque beauty, and would
have made a sculptor's heart leap with joy.

Whilst I was enjoying this scene, a third old monk
appeared who was suffering terribly from a wound in his leg,
which had not been properly attended. I showed the poor old
soul how to make some lint, and lay it on the sore, thickly
overspread with tallow from the fat of a goat. This act
of charity performed, I followed the good brothers into the chapel. Like most cloister churches in Cyprus, it appeared to date from very
ancient times, and was probably built when Christianity first
reached the island. Near this little edifice stood two
rough buildings, containing a few rude chambers which, with the chapel, formed the whole monastery. Should any one wish to pass a week in this spot he must
accustom himself to the pangs of hunger, as the worthy monks
practice the abstinence on fast days, which they require of
their flock.

This cloister can boast one most curious and valuable relic, namely, a picture of the Madonna worked in silver
and gold, with the heads of mother and child painted on
ivory. This curiosity is five and a half feet long, by three
and a half feet wide. When I raised the veil that (as is usual
in the island) hung over the face of the Mother of God, I
observed two large silver plates, bearing the device of
the Russian double eagle, and the date 1799, from which it would appear that this fine work had been the gift of imperial piety. This was no doubt an act of wisdom, as the whole surrounding country still seems pervaded by a host of superstitions dating from heathen times. This monastery is the constant resort of pilgrims on account of the healing powers with which this picture is supposed to be endowed, and the poor brotherhood are often hard pressed to find food for themselves and their numerous visitors.

When we were leaving, the old monk again appeared;
his leg was much better, and he fell upon my neck and embraced
and thanked me with much gratitude. Our road lay through the
scene of our last night's troubles, and I trembled as I saw
the pitfalls we had passed in the pitchy darkness, and yet escaped with our lives.

I was now desirous of riding through the country to
the monastery of Chrysorogiatissa, which I understood to be
about seven or eight leagues distant; we found, however, that
it took us an entire day to reach the spot.

Shortly after leaving the village of Fini we entered a magnificent
valley, inclosed by reddish-brown mountains, with trees
scattered here and there upon the declivities. These reminded
me of the trees upon the open prairies of America, which are only met with at about every 200 or 300 feet. On the prairies, however, the trees when they do appear, form pleasing objects in the landscape, whilst the stunted growth upon the Cyprian mountains only gives an impression of barrenness and
decay. We saw a few firs at an elevation of 4,000 feet, and in
some of the upper peaks a few pines are still to be met with.
A very different scene presented itself in the valley beneath
us. From every stone and rock hung long grass and clumps of
flowers, and in some places these were entirely covered with brilliant mosses and a variety of creeping plants. Bushes of sage, marjoram, cistus, arbutus, laurel, and myrtle covered the ground, whilst oaks, juniper, and mastic trees spread their roots in all directions near the rippling waters of the stream that irrigated this beautiful valley. The soft foliage of the tamarisk contrasted finely with the dark branches of the pines and the silver-gray of the wild olive.

On the trees and bushes were perched a host of
feathered songsters, and every cleft and fissure in the
low-lying rocks streamed and rippled with sparkling water.
Every here and there we came upon a spot where the moist
swampy earth was covered with peonies, tulips, and a
variety of bulbous plants, whilst every decaying tree stump
showed a luxuriant crop of orchids and rare creepers. The
whole air was so charged with heavy perfume from these multitudinous flowers, that I breathed more freely when we reached a slight eminence and were met by a refreshing breeze, which bore with it the delicious odor of some neighboring fig-trees.

In passing through one of these valleys we found
the sun intolerable. It actually seemed as if the heat were
rising from the ground and would scorch our legs. I have,
however, never felt in Cyprus, except on this occasion, that over-powering sultriness which is so often experienced in Sicily; still, it of course must be thoroughly understood that I traveled through the island in the freshness of early spring.

Let no one imagine that our path through these
picturesque valleys was without its difficulties and
annoyances. Over and over again we lost our way, and at last
we were compelled to plunge into the bed of the stream and let
our horses swim and struggle as best they could over the loose
stones that beset them at every step. When we again landed, our way lay along the edge of a steep declivity and over walls of rock, without a trace of roadway or anything to indicate the course we ought to take. A tedious ride at length usually brought us to a deep gully, beyond which lay another luxuriant and laughing valley. In
this manner we journeyed all day, following the course of the
stream and the goat paths, whenever it was possible, and
stumbling on as best we might when these were not available.

At noon we stopped to rest upon a hill above the
murmuring waters of the mountain stream, and for the first
time that day heard the distant sound of sheep-bells.
Gradually the tinkling became more distinct, and in a short
time two shepherds with guns on their shoulders appeared upon
the scene. They were fine fellows, and gave me many
interesting particulars of their life on the mountains,
whilst gratefully sharing the meal we were enjoying.
They belonged to a nomad race, wandering during the greatest part of the year about these mountains with their flocks, and sleeping in little huts roughly made of branches for the occasion. On my asking if many shepherds lived this life, they laughed, and assured me that not only men and boys, but women and girls passed whole months in this manner among the mountains, the women carrying a light spindle
about with them, and plying their wool-spinning, a work they
much prefer to laboring with the hoe and sickle in the fields.
Exactly such a life as this I have often witnessed in the
Greek islands of Samothrace and Thasos, and exactly such
features, build, and dress as these men exhibited. Like their Grecian brothers our Cyprian friends imitated the shriek of the vultures and the calls of a great many birds, in the
most perfect manner. I inquired of these shepherds, if they
could give me any particulars concerning the mufflons, a
species of wild goat, but could only learn that it was but
very rarely met with. From what I could gather, I
imagine that it is nearly extinct.

CHAPTER XIV.
CYPRIAN WOODS AND FORESTS.

Cyprus, of late years, has been gradually sinking to decay
through the supine indolence and indifference of her degraded
population. In no particular does the whole surface of the
country suffer so severely as in the utter devastation of her
mountain forests. All the former rulers of this
beautiful island, Greeks, Persians, Egyptians, Romans,
Arabs, and Byzantines gave particular attention to the
cultivation of the fine trees that contributed so
largely to her prosperity. Oaks, firs, fig-trees, and
nut-trees covered the entire island, even to the
sea-shore. During the two first centuries of the Lusignan
dynasty the first formidable attack was made upon the luxuriance of Cyprian forests, and timber was employed in enormous quantities for the building of
merchant vessels, and the construction of the fine fleets that
Cyprus sent forth to the coasts of
Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt.

Then came the Venetians, equally bent on ship-building, but their prudent foresight forbade them to
hew down without planting again, and under their rule the
forests flourished almost as luxuriantly as ever. A very
different state of things arose under the improvidence and
carelessness of Turkish rule. If a hundred trunks were wanted,
a thousand were hewn down, it being easier to select the
finest trees as they lay upon the ground than when
towering among their companions. The best were taken and the rest left to rot where they had fallen. Every maritime disaster entailed fresh destruction to the Cyprian forests. Pachas, kaimakans, and agas year by year increased their revenues by cutting down the trees, and leaving what they could
not sell to be appropriated by whoever chose to take them. The
fine forests were under no protection from Government, and the
poorer classes drew a considerable part of their livelihood
from the sale of the trees they cut down. Mehemet Ali, the
first Viceroy of Egypt, gave the finishing stroke to
this work of folly by permitting or rather encouraging, any one who chose, to fell the trees and send them to Egypt to assist in the construction of ships,
water-wheels, and canals.

All over the island this wanton destruction of
their trees by the Cypriotes is observable. Every village
occupied spot is remarkable for the spoliation of its
surrounding timber; small trees are cut down at the roots,
whilst the giants of the forest, whose huge trunks could only
be overthrown by patience and exertion, have had all their
branches and bark lopped off and hacked away.

Another powerful cause of destruction is to be
traced to the constant occurrence of fires in the woods and
forests. These arise principally from the carelessness of the
wandering shepherds and their families, who kindle a blaze
without the slightest attempt to avoid the destruction that so
frequently ensues. During the course of our ride I have
often passed several of these charred and blackened
districts, where it was quite evident the progress of the fire had only been arrested by there being no more trees or shrubs to devour. When the value of this rich source of wealth to the island is again
appreciated a very short space of time will be required before the forests are again flourishing in all their former beauty. The fertility of Cyprus is truly marvellous, and should
a tract of country be left unravaged for three years, trees of
every variety will again rear their heads. Even on the most
arid part of the mountains, I frequently observed a
fine growth of young firs and pines; these, however, would not be allowed to reach maturity, for what the hand of man does not sweep away is destroyed by the sheep and goats as they wander unrestrained about the hills.

Forests of dark pines were once numerous upon the
higher ranges of mountains, but these have also fallen victims
to the recklessness of the islanders. Resin and pitch are
marketable articles, and to obtain these the trees have been
mercilessly destroyed.

Operations are commenced by stripping off the bark
on one side, the finest trees being always selected, as high
as the man can reach, and the resin taken. Fire is then
applied to the base of the trunk, and a few hours suffice to
lay it low. The branches are then lopped off, and, with
portions of the trunk, are heaped into a roughly constructed
oven formed of quarried stone. Fire is then applied to the
wood and the resin pours forth into a little channel cut
to receive it. The first-fruits of this process is
called kolophonium, and the second resin, whilst the
last result forms a kind of tar. Half the resin is, of course, wasted in this rough process, and when the devastators have taken of the best the hill-side affords, they climb down to another green and luxuriant spot, there to recommence their work of destruction. A sort of mania for this wanton mischief
seems actually to possess the Cypriotes. Quarrels are of
constant occurrence between the inhabitants of different
villages and communities, and no better way to avenge
themselves occurs to the contending parties than to burn down
and hack each other's trees under the concealment of night. To
burn down a fine tree, merely for the pleasure of
seeing and hearing it crackle and blaze, is an
amusement constantly practiced by the ignorant and
unreflecting shepherds as they lounge away their days
upon the mountain side. I made many attempts to open the eyes of the people to the utter folly of such a course of action, and
was generally met with the answer that it was done by the wish
of the Turkish Government. The Cypriotes have become so
accustomed to attribute every evil of their lives to
this source, that they actually appear to consider
their late rulers responsible for their own reckless
indolence.

In order to restore the forests of Cyprus to their pristine luxuriance only one
course can be adopted: All woods and forests must be put under
the immediate protection of Government, and every act of wanton destruction made punishable. The present trade in resin must be entirely put down, or only permitted under heavy restrictions. Should this course be pursued under British rule many districts will rapidly prove its wisdom. Whole tracts of country, I fear, must be entirely replanted. The land around the villages should be allotted to the inhabitants, and boundary lines permanently fixed. A little encouragement from their priests and
schoolmasters would induce the vain and envious
Cypriotes to vie with each other in the cultivation of
their new possessions. I had a long and interesting
conversation on this subject with the late governor ofCyprus, a most enlightened and
high-minded gentleman. His opinions on this point were not
less decided than my own as to the imperative necessity of replanting and cultivating the Cyprian woods and forests if the island is ever again to rise from her present degraded
condition. If this is not done, rivers and streamlets will
year by year dwindle away, and waste ground entirely take the
place of what were once well-watered plains. The pacha strongly urged the desirability of introducing the eucalyptus upon all the plains and the table rocks before alluded to. I inquired if this was likely to be done, but my only answer was a deep sigh.

CHAPTER XV.
PLAGUES OF LOCUSTS.

Happily for this unfortunate island, the
plagues of locusts which formerly were very common, are now unknown. An old chronicle informs us that from the year 1411 to 1413 every tree in the country was
perfectly leafless. During the last century, this terrible
scourge—which came with the north wind from the Caramanian
mountains—appeared every few years, and was principally
attributable to the fact that in the neglected state of the
country, these pests of the farmers were perfectly
unmolested, and having once taken possession of the eastern table lands, laid their eggs there from season to season.

When locusts are first hatched, at the end of
March, they are no larger than spring-tails, and congregate in
innumerable myriads upon every bush and plant. A fortnight
later, when they have twice changed their skins, they are
fully half a finger long, and have already commenced their
hopping and creeping westward, destroying every leaf as they pass. In the next fortnight they again cast their skins twice, and have their wings fully developed. Now commences their
triumphant progress, and the air is filled with the rushing
sound of their destructive presence. Their rapacity is
simply marvelous; fields of corn are devoured to the very roots, and within a few minutes after their
appearance, fruitful gardens are entirely laid waste. Every edible thing is destroyed, and it is not at all uncommon for these hideous swarms to enter the houses and devour everything that they obtain access to. The work of devastation ended, they fall dead in thousands of thousands on the sea-shore and open
country, filling the air with their pestiferous breath.

In the present day, Cyprus is
mercifully entirely free from this overwhelming plague. This
happy state of things was brought about, partly, by the energy of the then ruling Turkish pacha, who commanded that a certain measure of locusts should be
collected by every one for the Government and then buried. The
whole population were at once awakened to the urgency of the
case. Trees and shrubs were set on fire whilst their devouring
host passed over, and soldiers, horses, and oxen were called
into requisition to stamp out the enemy. The districts where the eggs lay were plowed, and no stone left unturned to render the general purification as
complete as possible. Only money and people were wanting, to
make the attempt sufficiently general.

At this crisis, a large landowner, M. Mattei, residing at Larnaka, hit upon a
simple plan of ridding the country of this annual pestilence.
It had been observed that a locust could not ascend a smooth
surface. The walls of Nikosia to a certain height were therefore made smooth and whitewashed. Mattei had also calculated that, even when fully winged, the
creatures were compelled to seek the earth at short intervals,
and continue their way by creeping and hopping. He caused
ditches to be dug and behind these, strips of linen and
oil-cloth were stretched in such a manner as to form low
walls; or slight partitions of planks or other smooth
materials were erected. Behind these, other ditches and
similar walls were made at given distances. The locusts came, and finding it impossible to scale these artificial walls, fell in masses into the ditches dug for their reception, where they were either covered with earth, and at once destroyed, or were shoveled out, thrown into sacks, and buried in other spots. Such as managed to rise above the first wall, rarely got over the second, and in no instance reached the third intrenchment. This simple method of freeing the country of these terrible pests, which was described to me by M. Mattei himself, was at first
only tried about Larnaka and Nikosia, but
so extraordinary was the success of this ingenious
experiment that the example was shortly followed all
over the island, with the most satisfactory results.

CHAPTER XVI.
CHRYSOROGIATISSA.

As we gradually emerged into the open
country, I recognized our geographical position, and
experienced fresh astonishment at the number of fine streams, by which, if proper justice were done to them, the island would be once more readily fertilized. From this place we observed numerous tributaries of the ancient Lycopotamos (River Kurio),
which flows into the sea at Episkopi
(Curium), and of
the Keysoypotamos (River Diorizos), which discharges its
waters near Kuklia (PaleaPaphos), and a little
farther on passed the principal branch of the latter river.
Every mountain gully and valley seemed filled with the sound
of rippling water, and I could not but compare the whole range
of hills, to one huge rocky spring or reservoir.

At this season, the country was saturated with the
late snows and winter rains, but in summer, doubtless, these
numerous sources rapidly dry up under the burning sun, and the
earth again becomes scorched and arid. From the eminence upon
which I stood, I could see innumerable streamlets
coursing down the sides of the mountains, which
extended their undulating
brown-tinted declivities as far as the eye could reach. In the
distance, on our right hand, we saw the monastery of Kikku
(the richest and most extensive cloister in the island, and
the very stronghold of Cyprian brotherhoods), towering like a pyramid into the air. This monastery is four or five leagues from Troaditissa, and is perched so high on the upper ridge of the mountains as to be very difficult of access. This does not prevent numerous pilgrims visiting her shrine, which possesses a very valuable and ancient picture of the Madonna.

Toward evening we reached the village of Panagia, and again found all the
inhabitants assembled around their church; on this occasion,
however, old and young were enjoying a little social
intercourse. The men and women chatting and laughing,
whilst the youngsters sported around under the shadow
of the trees, and lent an animated charm to the scene. Again I could not fail to remark that almost every kind of fruit tree flourishes, and bears good fruit in a wild state. Mulberries, apricots, almonds, and cherries were here in great profusion.

Our arrival at the monastery of Chrysorogiatissa,
which was delayed until after dark, did not appear to please
the worthy brothers. Monks and servants were all in bed; but
after much knocking and delay, a monk and negro appeared, who
admitted us and brought out some bread and bony goats'
flesh for our delectation.
Next morning, when I left my hard and comfortless bed, I found
that both cloister and mountain were enveloped in a thick
white mist. This monastery, which for size ranks next
to Kikku, contains fifteen monks, and employs fifteen servants, who cultivate part of the land belonging to the monastery, the rest is let out on lease. All the Cyprian cloisters are richly endowed, and are required to pay but few taxes to Government; but in
spite of this wealth, these religious houses can bear no
comparison with the abbeys of England. The church, which
reminded me of the archiepiscopal chapel at Nikosia, has a
fine figure of the Saviour, with nimbus, and right arm and
hand of silver (the latter is raised as though in the act of
blessing). Among the representations in wood carving, I
noticed Eve holding the apple, and Adam with a fine moustache.

As the mist disappeared I was able to observe the
scene that lay beneath me. The cloister stands back toward the
south upon the highest range, and commands a magnificent view.
This monastery was formerly called Rogio.

At breakfast, which was a much more appetizing
repast than our supper could have led us to expect, we were
honored by the presence of the Father-Abbot, who came
accompanied by the negro and another servant. From him I
learnt that this place had formerly been the seat of the
bishopric, until about thirty years
ago, when the bishop preferred removing his residence to the
more busy town of Baffo. This worthy priest also gave me some
valuable information concerning the present deserted state of the surrounding districts. For seven leagues, north, south, and west, the country, he informed me, was almost uninhabited.

Whilst I was chatting with the friendly abbot, my
dragoman appeared with consternation written on every feature.
The whole mountains he assured me, were infested by robber
hordes; Michaili, my horse boy, substantiated the statement,
and both refused to leave the monastery. On inquiry I found that three men had been making requisitions on the cloister at Troaditissa, and after other acts of violence had been lodged in the jail at Nikosia. This prison, which is situated beneath the late governor's
palace, often contains as many as a thousand convicts, guarded
by a strong force of police. In the centre of this square is a
forlorn-looking tree, from the branches of which many wretches
have been hanged by order of the Governor-General of Cyprus. At the present
day the governor cannot put a man to death without special
orders from Constantinople; when this order arrives a
policeman is summoned, whose duty it is to pass a rope round
the victim's neck, and, without more ado, to drag him to the fatal tree, where he is left hanging for several hours after life is extinct.

Whilst upon the subject of Cyprian prisoners, we
must not fail to lay before our readers the great severity of
punishment now being undergone by an unfortunate now in the
fortress of Famagusta. To Mrs. Cesnola, the amiable wife of the well-known author
from whom we quote, the unhappy man was indebted for obtaining
some mitigation of his sufferings.

It is scarcely too much to hope that under British
rule these terrible dungeons may be investigated, and the
hands of mercy in many instances extended to their suffering
occupants.

“On one occasion,” writes the general, “when
visiting the armory of the prison, the attention of the ladies
of my party was attracted to some trailing crimson flowers
which overhung a parapet. To their astonishment a short,
broad-shouldered man who had remained near them, and who had
attracted the attention of all, by his commanding figure
and fine, manly face, sprang to the parapet with the agility of a cat, broke off some of the flowers, and returning, presented a spray to each of the ladies with the utmost grace. As he did so, they observed to their horror that he was shackled with
heavy iron chains from the wrist to the ankle.”

His large, sad blue eyes, and hair prematurely
streaked with gray, seemed to plead in his favor, and on
inquiring his crime the general learned that he was no less a
personage than the celebrated Kattirdje Janni, the
Robin Hood of the Levant. This robber chief, it is stated,
never committed a murder, or permitted one to be perpetrated
by his band. It appears, that whilst in the service of a gentleman in Smyrna he fell in love with his master's daughter, with whom he planned an elopement, but having been betrayed, he was overtaken and thrown into
prison. From thence he escaped into the mountains, near the
ruins of Ephesus, and entered upon the wild career which
finally brought him to Famagusta. He and his band were in the habit of
lying in wait for the parties who they knew were traveling
with large sums of money, and kindly relieving them of their
charge. They also frequently captured persons of wealth and
detained them until a ransom had been paid. Kattirdje Janni would often give this money in alms to the poor, and we are told he presented about one thousand young Greek girls with marriage portions.
No one ever dreamed of informing against him, owing to a
superstitious belief amongst the peasants that evil would
befall the man who did so, and all attempts of the government
to take any of the band were long futile.

“At the time of the Crimean war, whilst the English
army was at Smyrna, five hundred soldiers went out, assisted
by the Turks, in order to secure him, but were entirely
unsuccessful. The following authentic incident will testify to
the boldness of this robber chief, and
the terror in which he was held. One evening, when a family
near Smyrna were sitting at supper, they were amazed at
beholding twelve men armed to the teeth enter the
apartment, headed by the bold outlaw. These uninvited guests quietly seated themselves, remarking that they would wait until the family had finished eating, and then they would have some supper. When
Kattirdje Janni had finished his repast, he told his trembling
host that he and his family were henceforth free to hunt and
travel where they liked, as he, Kattirdje Janni, never forgot
a kindness.

“Tiring of this wild life, he gave himself up to
the Turkish authorities, on the understanding that he was to
be exiled to Cyprus, and not otherwise punished. The Turks would probably have been merciful to him, but, unfortunately, a young Frenchman,
connected with the consulate of Smyrna, had been very badly
used by his band. On this account the French ambassador
insisted, that Kattirdje Janni should be imprisoned and
treated in the most rigorous manner. He was immured in a
dungeon, and for seven years chained like a wild beast to
the walls of his cell. He was afterward removed to the fortress of Famagusta, where he is still confined.”

The two superiors of the monastery accompanied me
to the gates, where I found eight stalwart graybearded
brothers waiting to bid me farewell. I could not refrain from
commenting on their fine figures, when they laughingly assured
me there were many more of their stamp to be found in these mountains. Their faces were sunburnt and ruddy, and contrasted strangely with the white robes of their order. I may here mention that these mountaineers love their native hills with an ordor not
to be surpassed by any people in the world. As we descended
the steep face of the mountain the whole scene was still
enveloped in a thick mist. At the bottom we saw two Turkish
women tending their cows, and looking in their white veils
like a couple of substantial ghosts. About a league and a half farther on, we passed a deserted church, which was perched upon a rock, and completely in ruins. We also observed some sheep, with broad flat tails, grazing on the mountain side. During the whole of this journey to the coast I could readily have imagined I was traveling over one of the rocky parts of Northern Germany, whilst the scenery to the
north-east, with its craggy peaks, strongly recalled to my
remembrance some parts of the Vosges mountains. I must,
however, admit that the Cyprian scenery is decidedly finer
than that of Upper Alsace. Such human habitations as we passed were miserable in the extreme; mere mudroofed huts with a small aperture to admit of ingress and egress. These structures closely resemble. those I have seen in the north parts of Samothrace,
VIEW BETWEEN LEVKOSIA AND CERINIA.
but the latter are
somewhat larger and certainly cleaner.

After four hours' hard riding we at length descended into a narrow valley which opened upon the plains beyond,
and afforded us a good view of the sea, with its
yellowish-green coast. Our journey through the mountains was
almost over, and on the whole, I must confess to a feeling of
disappointment, as I looked back over all I had seen.
During the last four days the neglected state of the
country and the wretched condition of its people seemed
to have thrown a veil of depression and melancholy over every spot I visited, whilst even the grand and imposing mountain ranges I had traversed, would not bear comparison with those of Crete or the Canary Islands.

As we now approached the coast I saw before me the
portion of country formerly dedicated to the Goddess of
Beauty. This tract, which is about one and a half leagues
broad, extends for three or four leagues along the shore, and
slopes gently to the sea. Directly before me lay the small
town ofKtima, whilst somewhat lower down,
nestled a small fort. On this spot formerly stood the city of
NewPaphos, and on the left, about two
leagues distant, the village of Kuklia, which stands upon the
site of Old Paphos. The
scenery at this spot possesses much quiet beauty. In the rear
tower the dark hills, looking down upon an extensive open
tract of fields, whilst in
front spreads the sea, the waters of which encroach upon the
land in a picturesque variety of curves and tiny bays. At this
spot, the ocean-born goddess was supposed to have been borne upon the waves to shore, and here, upon a slight eminence, the most famous and ancient of her numerous temples was erected. Crowds of pilgrims and eager worshippers hurried to the spot and joined in the excited processions that passed backward and forward between Old and New Paphos.

CHAPTER XVII.
THE TEMPLE OF VENUS.

My journey terminated for the present at
the house of the Bishop of Baffo, who resides in Ktima. The bishop, who is
a young and stately man, received me with the greatest
kindness and affability. He at once conducted me to a
luxurious apartment, where we seated ourselves upon soft
cushions placed on a costly Turkey carpet, and my host
resumed the ten feet long chibouk, filled with choice
tobacco, he had been smoking when I was announced, and courteously offered another to me. It was quite evident the worthy bishop was a man of substance, and thoroughly enjoyed the good things of this life. From the roof of the house I obtained a magnificent view of the sea and neighboring coast.

The Temple of Venus, formerly a great object of
interest on this coast, was situated on a small hill at a
distance of about twenty minutes' walk from the sea. Some
parts of its colossal walls are still standing, defying time
and the stone-cutter, although badly chipped by the latter.
The stones, of which these walls are built, are most gigantic,
one of them being fifteen feet ten inches in length, by seven
feet eleven inches in
width, and two feet five inches in thickness. Strange to say,
the stone was not quarried in Cyprus, but is a kind of blue granite which must
have been imported from either Cilicia, or Egypt. This temple,
as rebuilt by Vespasian, seems to have occupied the same area
as the former one, and was surrounded by a peribolos, or outer
wall. Of this wall, a few huge blocks are now only
extant. On the west of this outer wall there was a
gateway, still plainly visible; its width was seventeen
feet nine inches: the two sockets for the pivots on
which the doors swung are of the following dimensions— length six inches, width four and a half inches, depth three and a half inches. The south-east wall was excavated, and its whole length ascertained to be 690 feet. The length of the west side was only traced as far as 2.72 feet, as the modern houses of Kuklia were erected above it; the length of the other two sides were also for the same reason not ascertained. The walls of the temple itself, which are constructed of the same kind of blue granite, but not in such large blocks, were only traced with much difficulty, and although very little is to be seen above the surface, yet strange to say, the four corner-stones are still standing. The north-east corner-stone forms part of the wall of a house in Kuklia, while the north-west corner-stone stands in a cross street of the village by itself; the south-east corner-stone stands also by itself in the open field, where the
Christian population of Kuklia burn lamps and little wax
candles, but in honor of whom, or for what purpose, is
uncertain. The south-west corner-stone, likewise, forms part
of a modern dwelling-house.

The temple was oblong, and of the following dimensions: the eastern and western walls measured 221
feet, and the two other sides 167 feet.

The north-west corner-stone has a hole in it thirteen inches in diameter, and a similar hole also exists in the
south-west corner of the outer wall. As this temple possessed
an oracle, it is more than probable that the use of these
strange holes was connected with it. If a person stand upon
one of these huge perforated stones, he can produce a clear
and fine echo of a sentence of three or four words, if
pronounced in a distinct but moderate tone of voice.

Abundant indications of mosaic pavement, both in
the area of the temple and in the court-yard, exist, where can
be found many prettily-designed pieces of various
colors—yellow, white, red, rose-color, and brown. About three
feet beneath these mosaics were also found several large
pedestals of colossal statues, bearing Greek inscriptions, and
many other pedestals were lying about, possibly having been left by former excavators; most of those, which Cesnola discovered under the mosaics, were of the same kind of stone as that of which the walls of the temple were built, but of a finer grain. The
inscriptions were of the Ptolemaic
period, from which is probable that Vespasian only repaired
the Temple of Paphos,
or if he rebuilt it entirely, it was with the former stones.
The foundations are only six and a half feet deep, but upon
having other borings made another foundation was discovered
beneath, but evidently of an earlier period and very
massive. Singular to say, in boring no sculptured
remains were found, and but few fragments of pottery.** We are indebted to General
Cesnola's valuable work on the antiquities of Cyprus for a principal part of the
above facts respecting the ruins of the Temple of Venus.
Reference to his high authority was indispensable, and we
have thought it best to give in a great measure his own
words, instead of laying his account before the public in a garbled form.—M. A. J.

Tacitus gives us the following representation of
the sacrificial rites employed in this temple.

“The victims to be sacrificed must be carefully
selected, males only being chosen. The safest auguries are
obtained from the entrails of goats. It is forbidden to
sprinkle blood upon the floor of the temple, and the altar
must be purified with prayer and fire. The image of the
goddess is not in human shape, but is a rounded stone tapering
upward like a cone. Why such a shape should be adopted is not clearly explained.” At that time, therefore, the worship of this goddess was shrouded in mysterious secresy. The people only knew that it had been handed down to them from very ancient times. The only answer they
received to their inquiries why it was so, being “It is a
mystery.”

We learn from other sources that this coneshaped
stone, erected in the innermost sanctuary of the temple, was
black. Upon the festivals of the great goddess the stone was
carefully washed by the priestesses, and wiped dry with clean
towels: possibly its ugliness was set off by golden
ornaments and jewels. In the darkness surrounding the Cyprian deity other mysteries were concealed, admission to which was doubtless only obtainable at a
high price. Three ruined walls and a few fragments of an
ancient building, scattered here and there over great heaps of
rubbish, are all that remain of what once was Paphos. The stones of
which it was built have disappeared long ages ago, used,
probably, as materials wherewith to build the lordly castles
of the Middle Ages, or broken in pieces for the construction
of humbler edifices.

During the period that the island was occupied by
the Franks, a new city sprang up on the site of ancient Paphos, which has also disappeared; but of this a ruined church, now used as a cattle-shed, is all that remains. Still, melancholy as is the present condition of the spot, so suggestive are the general features of the locality, that it is not difficult to reconstruct the beautiful landscape it once presented. The temple was situated upon a broad eminence which sloped gently toward the sea, which formed, as it
were, a border to the picture. The slope was all covered with
luxuriant vegetation.

Toward the interior of the country are a few
outlying hills, backed by picturesque mountain scenery of a
much grander character than at Baffo. As I looked upon them
the sky became overcast, and the sea overspread by long masses
of rain clouds, through which at intervals streamed the rays of the western sun, which falling on the water, covered its surface with gleams of dazzling brightness. Some portions of the lovely scene seemed
bathed in gold, only made more conspicuous by the darker tints
of deepest blue and purple. The play of light and shade was
continually changing, forming altogether a scene of tranquil
loveliness not easily to be forgotten. I should not like,
however, to live here alone. Every place to which the
reputation of antiquity attaches itself, has its guide
and dealer in curiosities, although he knows no more about them than the crows know about Sunday. The man who accompanied me in my explorations came, as he
said, from Mitylene, and was educated enough to be able to
quote the poems and rhapsodies of Sappho. The owner of a
neighboring farm here made his appearance, a stately Turk,
in frock-coat and boots, with a head of hair like that of a plow-boy. We went together, about a quarter of an hour's walk, to see the “Queen's Cave” (σπήλαιον τῂς ρή λίνας), which was
upon his estate. This gentleman informed me that until about
ten years previously it had been almost entirely filled up, but that when the French came to explore, he had had it opened. Nothing, however, was found in it except a great stone slab, about five feet square, which was leaning against one of the walls, and was covered with inscriptions on both sides. The Frenchman, after a great deal of trouble, succeeded in getting it out. It was, however, so heavy that they broke it to pieces, before taking it with them in
their boat. Cesnola tells us that on descending into the cave
he found that it consisted of four chambers or tombs excavated
one behind the other in the solid rock. Each of the two first
contained four graves; the third had fewer, and in the last and smallest there were none. “We found,” he continues, “several other tombs upon the side of the hill, some of them open and some of them filled up. My guide told me that before his time they had been thoroughly ransacked, and their contents, which consisted of several gold chains and sundry earthenware vessels, were taken away. There were also remains of buildings upon the highest point of the hill, around the foundations of which considerable excavations had been made, revealing, that the edifice had been a square tower, one side of which had been cleared of rubbish, but the hoped-for treasures, which had been the incentive to all this labor, had not been
forthcoming. The tower seems to have nothing in common with
the other building, and appears to have been simply a
watch-tower used in former times to give warning of the
approach of pirates.”

With still increasing pleasure, I continued to gaze
upon the vernal landscape in which all the great historical
features of the place were distinctly traceable, and I would
willngly have lingered longer upon this enchanting spot, had I
not been recalled to more practical matters by my landlord, who summoned me to table, where I was soon enjoying a meal consisting of excellent soup, fresh
eggs, maccaroni, and bean salad, together with some
exceedingly good wine.

After dinner the landlord took a seat beside us
upon the terraced roof of the house, and we enjoyed a most
delightful evening. Close to us, in a neighboring court-yard,
sat a Turkish family, who laughed and joked, apparently in
high spirits. Our hostess was still quite a young girl, and
very pretty, her large flashing eyes, white glistening teeth,
and delicately-shaped limbs, formed quite a picture. At first, when spoken to, she seemed embarrassed and bashful, and only giggled, but as conversation went on she became more companionable, seated herself upon the doorstep, and chatted away merrily. It is a pity that in these Eastern climes female beauty is so evanescent; even before girlhood is passed their charms have
disappeared, leaving nothing behind but a tawny skeleton.

The night was delightful, the air balmy and soft,
and each breath of wind seemed to bring with it the perfume of
a thousand flowers. The silver stars so sparkled and flashed
in the clearness of the atmosphere that they seemed to have
descended toward the earth.

Owing to the warmth of the night the door of my
apartment was open, and as I lay in bed contemplating the dark
blue sky, I could fancy that my vision penetrated beyond the
stars into the depths of the firmament. My mind was so filled
with reflections on the worship of the Cyprian goddess that I could not sleep. Scenes that I, not long before, had witnessed in Egypt, during the feast of Machmal, presented themselves vividly to my mind. According to ancient custom the ruler of Cairo sends
every year a valuable piece of cloth, in which to wrap the
holy stone, the Caaba. The setting-out of the great caravan
which bears this cloth to its destination is celebrated by a
general festival, during the continuance of which the
fanaticism of the Mohammedans fully displays itself. It was
impossible to think of the great black meteoric stone,
and the ceremonies connected with it, without being forcibly reminded of the cone-shaped stone worshipped with similar rites by the Paphian priesthood. The Caaba stands surrounded by a wall, exactly as did the
Cyprian idol: even the doves of Venus are not wanting in the
temple court of the Caaba, where they are regarded as sacred
birds. In the sanctuary of Jupiter Ammon, in the Lybian Desert, the idol was a stone of a conical shape, ornamented with emeralds and other jewels. In the temple at Delphos a similar stone was worshipped, was
daily anointed with oil, and on high festivals was wrapped in
white wool. In the same manner we find that in ancient
temples, more especially in Syria and Asia Minor, Bethylia
were worshipped; sacred stones, whose name, derived from
Bethel (the place of God), indicates their Semitic
origin; these stones were all meteoric, and it is
natural enough that when such masses have fallen amid thunder and lightning, they should be believed to be of heavenly origin, and to possess extraordinary attributes.

CHAPTER XVIII.
SUMMER RESIDENCE IN CYPRUS.

In an account given by General Cesnola of
a similar journey to mine, across a portion of the island, he states that travelers in Cyprus will find it much more convenient to
purchase than to hire animals, and speaks in high terms of the
well-broken mules and donkeys he found. These donkeys, of a
breed peculiar to Cyprus, are glossy and sleek, with large eyes; they
are very intelligent and can travel as fast as a mule.

The same authority tells us the muleteers are as a
class excellent and trustworthy, even under the temptation of
conveying large sums of money from one town to the other. When
a native is about to proceed on a journey he goes to the khan,
a kind of inn, and there selects a mule to his liking, and
bargains with the owner of it for a lump sum for the entire trip, or at a rate of so much a day. The latter mode is preferable, for should the mule prove unsuitable, the traveler would be at liberty to change
it on the road if he found a better. The former method,
however, is generally adopted by the natives for the sake of
economy. He appoints the hour at which he
desires to start, and the muleteer as a rule arrives at the
house an hour or two later. A kind of native saddle is placed
on the back of the mule, called “stratouri,” across which are
hung, in such a manner as not to incommode the traveler, two large canvas bags, which contain his private effects, and provisions for the first day's journey. Several colored blankets or quilts, according to the season, are then piled on the stratouri to be used as a bed at night.

The muleteer, who acts also as guide, is mounted
upon a small but strong donkey in the same fashion as the
traveler, and carries the extra baggage of the latter, besides
food for himself, provender for both animals, and often
several parcels intrusted for delivery to his care. At first
it seemed to me cruel to see such little animals so
overloaded, but I soon became convinced that the Cyprian
donkey is stronger, and resists the fatigue of a long journey
better than a mule.

When everything is in readiness for departure, the
traveler is helped to ascend to the top of his quilts, and two
rusty stirrups attached to the extremities of a rope are
handed him, into which he introduces his feet. By sitting upon
the rope, he is enabled to keep his equilibrium; once safely
perched he opens a yellow cotton umbrella, lights his
cigarette, receives the blessings of his household, and starts upon his journey.

The Cypriotes are in general a frugal people, and
when traveling, can accommodate themselves to almost every
exigency. More than once during my excursions in the island I
have found, on entering a small village, some wealthy merchant
of my acquaintance, seated cross-legged on the threshold of
a hut, with a straw tray, resembling the lid of a basket, placed before him, on which were a few black olives, a hard piece of brown bread, and some sour milk, apparently enjoying his repast. It is no uncommon thing to find the muleteer seated opposite the merchant, eating from the same dish, and drinking from the same jug, a glass being, in the interior of the island, considered a useless luxury.

Whilst giving our readers the benefit of the above
interesting particulars we cannot refrain from quoting General
Cesnola's own account of his summer residence in the interior
of the island. The question of the possibility of enjoying
life in our new possession is now so much discussed, that the
testimony of a gentleman, who has recently resided in
the island for ten years, must carry much weight.

“On the occasion of a visit to Nikosia, the capital
of the island, I had passed a night in the village ofDali, which is about half-way between
Nikosia andLarnaka, and had remarked on its
outskirts a grove of lemon and orange trees, amidst which
nestled a small white cottage, connected with several
outbuildings. This, I decided, might be converted into a pleasant retreat,
and soon induced the proprietor to cede it to us for small
remuneration during the hot season. This he did the more
readily, as the peasants live almost entirely out of doors
from June to September, it rarely ever happening that a
drop of dew, and almost never a drop of rain, falls
during these months. The Cypriotes place their beds under the trees, making the branches of the latter do duty as clothes-press and-larder. They will frequently throw a handkerchief on the ground and lay
their infants to sleep upon it, satisfied that neither
moisture nor creeping thing will harm the child, forDali is wonderfully free from noxious
reptiles.

“This simple abode became our summer resort for
several years. It was surrounded by about six acres of ground,
laid out in alleys of lemon and orange trees, and the favorite
caishà,** A delicious species of
nectarine. from the blossoms of which exhaled a
delightful perfume. Two noble walnut-trees overshadowed the
traditional alakah,†† The Oriental or common
well. and extended their shade to our out-of-door
saloon, where we sat the day long, reading, writing, and
chatting, with the grateful breeze at all hours coming through
the long verdant alleys, hung with luscious fruit. A small
rivulet of the purest water found its way from cold sources to
the feet of these walnut-trees, the broad leafy branches of
which formed the ceiling of our drawing-room, and being blocked by a pile of
rough stones, tumbled, cascade fashion, into a basin, scooped
out to receive it, which served as our wine cooler and
refrigerator. We soon adopted the housekeeping system of
the peasants, and hung our plate-baskets and
table-linen among the trees; and spreading out the thick
mats of the country with a wooden settle, dining-table, and some rough chairs, we soon arranged a dininghall, where our Turkish attendants served us with
as much attention as if at a state dinner, though not with
quite the same ceremony. A little farther on a few Turkish
rugs and divans formed the reception room of state for the
notables of Dali, consisting of an old cadi, an illiterate Greek priest, and three wealthy Turks of Potamia, who inhabited what was once a royal palace,
and the summer residence of the Lusignan queens.”

We cannot refrain from quoting a still stronger
testimony borne by this gentleman to the charms of this
beautiful island as a summer residence:

“Having obtained a six months' leave of absence, we
took our last walk in the environs of Larnaka, where the Marina** That portion of Larnaka which lies along the sea-shore
is called the “Marina,” while Larnaka proper is about three-quarters
of a mile inland. appears to its best advantage.
Passing the Salines, and the ruins of
Phaneromene on our right, we were soon in the fields,
which were yet in all their vernal glory. Pink and white
anemones, dark blue irises,
intensely scarlet poppies, golden Marguerites, and a thousand
lovely blossoms, of which I do not even know the names,
embroidered the plains with the most brilliant colors
imaginable. We crushed the wild thyme and mignonette beneath our feet at every step, yet they seemed to offer us their incense at parting. A torrid sun would soon leave all this a dreary waste. Mount Santa Croce seemed to follow us throughout our walk, ever changing in aspect, now cool and brown as clouds floated over it, now glowing with crimson in the setting sun. The lighted minarets of Larnaka, and the Marina, shone in the distance, and, as
we neared the latter, we heard the voice of the muezzin calling the faithful to prayer. As we entered our own spacious garden, which had been reclaimed from the
sea-shore, with its lovely roses—such as bloom only in Cyprus—and its vine-colored walls, a slight shade of regret passed over us as we thought how soon neglect might turn the spot, then the admiration of visitors, once more into an unsightly
waste. An extensive terrace overlooked the garden, and as we
walked on it in the moonlight, a magical charm seemed to have
been thrown on the scene, and on the rippling gleaming waves
of the Mediterranean, so that while gazing we almost forgot
the dark side of life in Cyprus, and a sense of tenderness stole into our
hearts for the land we were leaving on the morrow.”

CHAPTER XIX.
CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE.

InCyprus we encounter a population which
essentially resembles the modern, rather than the
ancient Greek in character.

One of the most pleasing features of the island is
the every-day domestic life of its inhabitants. The members of
every family cling inseparably together, and share among
themselves whatever good or evil fortune awaits them. To pay
for the education of a son or brother parents and children
will suffer both want and hunger. Brothers will not marry
until their sisters are provided for, and it is often
truly touching to see how the gray-headed fathers and mothers, who seem here to be particularly numerous, are honored and cared for by their children.

Among the ancient Greeks the men allowed themselves
much freedom in love affairs and worshipped at the shrine of
beauty. The women, on the contrary, were chaste and modest,
and lived retired, industriously employed in their household
duties. Such are the Cyprian women at the present day. The influence of the female part of the community has, moreover, of late remarkably advanced. Perhaps among no other people
do women hold a more influential position. The mother is the
mistress of the household, and it is principally by her that
the family is held together. It is a common saying, that men make laws, but women regulate the manners of a people. The laws, however, are dependent upon the manners, and the more strictly these latter are
watched over, so much the better for the wellbeing of the
state. The modern Greeks make the best sailors, and the most
discreet and prudent men of business in the world; they are
good hands at fine work, are fond of horticulture, and are
skilled manufacturers and money-dealers. Although fond of the warm slopes and sunny climate of their native land, they are ever ready to quit it at a moment's notice to seek their fortune elsewhere. They are remarkable among all the dwellers in the East for their
activity and the elasticity of their spirits, which nothing
seems to subdue, and which, when repressed, is continually
breaking out more cheerfully and brightly than before, like
their own sunny sky after the storm has passed away. They
are fond of literature, and are delighted with a
graceful expression, or a witty saying. They take an
interest in everything and delight in talking and
telling tales. Their understanding and imagination, in short, are extraordinarily powerful and active.

And now, having said so much on the bright side of
their character, we must turn to their vices and faults. Their
laughable conceit, which displays itself in a thousand
unexpected forms, might be passed over, as also the grasping
avarice which is conspicuous in most of their dealings, for
vanity may rise into ambition, and niggardliness be refined
into praiseworthy economy, were their other vices not
so numerous and so grave. In social life we may place falsehood and faithlessness, knavery and lying, at the head of the catalogue. Of insatiable covetousness, heartless robbery and implacable revenge, examples are numberless. Justice is so totally set
aside that, if a man be placed upon a jury, he is compelled to
acquit the offender, because he thinks in his heart that he
himself may shortly be placed in the same unfortunate
predicament.

If we are asked what is the political condition ofCyprus, we can only say that it is busied
with small matters—in important affairs it is all baseness
and subserviency. No one can deny to the modern Greeks the possession of political cunning. Nevertheless, in the great and necessary virtue of obedience, they are altogether wanting, and officers and soldiers will discuss and quarrel over political questions,
forgetting that it is the duty of the one to command and of
the other to obey. No sooner is an important proclamation
issued, than it becomes the subject of criticism and mockery,
but no one thinks of obeying it.

The modern Greek is one of the slyest, most active, and most persevering
of rascals, but his efforts are all for the purpose of
over-reaching his antagonist, and cheating the state. In like
manner, barefaced simony is practiced throughout the
Eastern churches. The whole country is full of
combinations and parties, not employed in establishing
principles, but merely in endeavoring to obtain power in
order to reward their partisans with places and
emoluments.

These evils cast so deep a shadow over the modern
Greek that the few bright points remaining— hospitality,
public spirit, courage, and patriotism— almost disappear in
the general gloom.

In ancient times the effeminacy and luxury of the
Cypriotes had passed into a proverb. The worship of Venus
assumed the character of unbridled sensuality, and the young
of both sexes, brought up in the midst of these luxurious
festivals, soon learnt to look upon pleasure as the end and
aim of their existence.

Clearcus de Soli gives the
following account of the effeminate manners of the Cyprian
kings: He says, “There were women attached to the household of the ladies of the royal family who were called ‘Flatterers;’ at a later date their name was changed to ‘Clemacides,’ because they were in the habit of curving their backs into a sort of step for the use of the ladies as they got into, and came down from their litters.” Clearcus speaks angrily of this abject and despicable practice, which tended to increase the indolence and
luxuriousness of the princesses who kept these women. “But,”
he adds, “these ‘Clemacides,’ after having spent the early
part of their lives in the midst of luxury and refinement, are left to an old age of misery. Decency will not allow me to relate to what degree of libertinism these women brought the princesses and ladies of the court. I will only add that practicing upon themselves and upon others all sorts of abominable witchcraft, they offered by their shameful conduct a spectacle of the most repulsive vice.”

Clearcus, too, has given us the following description of a young Paphian king: “This young man carried the
refinement of luxury to the extent of lying on a bed, or sofa
with silver feet, overspread with a splendid carpet or rug;
under his head were three pillows covered with very fine linen
of a rich color, and handsomely trimmed. His feet rested upon two purple cushions, and he was dressed in a white robe. At some distance from the bed stood slaves and near the young king were his flatterers, men of good position.” Clearcus adds: “Each of these devoted himself in some way to add to the indolence of the prince. One seated at the foot of the bed had the young man's feet resting upon his knees; another seated near the bed, bent over the hand which the king allowed him to caress, and gently stretched out one finger after another; the third, who was highest in rank, stood at the head leaning over the
cushions and passing his left hand through the young prince's
hair, whilst with the right he gently waved a fan.”

To such a height of notorious extravagance had the
princes of Cyprus attained, that
Antiphanes, a comic poet of Rhodes, wrote a most amusing
comedy, in which he caricatured the folly of the
Cypriotes.** In this play the King of Cyprus is described as reclining on a
couch with doves flying over his head, and fanning him
with their wings. Attendants were represented as standing
around in order to keep the birds at a respectful distance
from the prince. We mention this fact, as we have seen it
recently stated that what was simply intended as a caricature was an actual custom in Cyprus. Manners such as we have described had their
origin in the luxurious example of neighboring Persian satraps, and were brought to the utmost refinement of self-indulgence by the subtle mind of the Greek.

CHAPTER XX.
CLIMATE AND TEMPERATURE.

The climate of Cyprus is just now the subject of so
much discussion in England, that we cannot do better than lay
the following facts before our readers, only premising that we
have left our readers to decide between many slight
discrepancies in the various statements. In most respects the
temperature and climate of Cyprus are similar to that of the neighboring
countries. The great heat of Syria is felt here, as also the
violent winds and extreme dryness of Cilicia; but to
compensate for this, there are most refreshing sea breezes and
night dews. During the summer, as in India, those who can afford it, seek the cool air of the mountains, returning to their homes in the plains and on the coast for the winter months, the cold at this season being far more severe than (judging from the situation of Cyprus) one would
imagine. In the northern parts of the island, the icy winds
from Taurus are keenly felt, and the summits of the Olympian
range are entirely snow-capped. Old writers have said that
the climate is unhealthy; in proof of this assertion,
they mention the epidemic which attacked the army of St. Louis, in this
island, in 1259, but many who have lived there are not of this
opinion.

Abbot Mariti, in his work “Travels in Cyprus,” says, “I must own that quartan fever is
very prevalent in this island, as in most parts of the
Levant; but this is not altogether caused by the
climate. While in Cyprus,” he continues, “I suffered ten whole months
from an attack of this kind of fever, and I have since learnt,
my own indiscretion was the cause of the long continuance of
my ague.” The great heat of the climate occasions a continual
perspiration, and if, while this lasts, one subjects
oneself to the least chill the result is infallibly an
attack of fever. Another cause is the immoderate use of strong liquors, and the eating of certain fruits,
particularly cucumbers and melons. Natives of this country rarely escape this epidemic, more especially in summer, but they cure themselves without any other remedy than a little bleeding, thus allowing nature to act. I grant this method would not succeed in the case of Europeans, for to them the
malady has its dangers, and needs rather careful treatment,
but it can be cured by a rigid system of diet. The Greeks and
Turks ward off an attack by continued horse exercise, and the
latter adopt the not unpleasant remedy of a large glass of
good Cyprian wine.”

In Cyprus, as in almost all
countries of the Levant, rain is periodical. It commences
falling toward the middle of October, and
continues until the end of January. February is a less rainy
month, and the sky is sometimes cloudless. The author
before quoted remarks that “toward the middle of March the rains commence heavily, and last till the end of April. May is a delightful month, the refreshing dews aid vegetation and temper the heat of June. After this season, the sun has quite a scorching power upon the ground, which is moistened by neither rain nor dew.”

This state of things would be unbearable, were it
not for the refreshing sea-breeze, which is felt on all shores
of the Mediterranean. About the middle of September this wind
ceases, and for six weeks the heat is excessive, until, toward
the end of October, the sky becomes covered with rain clouds.
Thus we see in the summer, the south wind is
refreshing, because it is from the sea, and on the
contrary, the north wind from Asia Minor brings all kinds of
unhealthy vapors. True it is, that the northern parts of the island suffer less, because the wind has been partly cleared by its passage over the sea; but it is simply unendurable to the people of the southern districts, to whom it brings the parching heat of the hot dry countries, which it has scoured in crossing the Olympian chain. Should this wind rage for seven or eight days continuously, all vegetation is
injured, every fruit-tree and plant withered, and the
looked-for harvest wholly at an end. For this reason, scarcity is so
often felt in Cyprus, notwithstanding its fertility and good soil. These burning
winds, and scorching heat, are the scourges of the country.

The lower classes of Cypriotes wear large fig or
cabbage-leaves upon their heads to protect them from the rays
of the sun. Strict attention to cleanliness and careful
avoidance of excess in stimulants are necessary in this island
as elsewhere.

It would seem that in the climate of Cyprus there must be something entirely different
from that of all the three countries between which it lies.
The climate is, however, subject to great changes;
during one-third of the year, rain falls abundantly,
and during a second third, it is as delightfully cool,
and lovely, as on the coasts of Italy, whilst the rest
of the year is as hot as in the desert of Sahara.

During the winter season it rains incessantly;
about the middle of October, the rain clouds begin to obscure
the sky, and from that time until February the water falls
down in abundance. To this succeeds an exquisite spring,
bringing with it the perfumes of a thousand flowers, and a
fresh and delightful atmosphere.

About the middle of March rain again begins to fall
in passing showers, which, although less violent than those of
winter, continue with more or less intermission until the
middle of May, when they are replaced by the heavy dew which
falls during the night. During this
season, which lasts for about a quarter of a year, the country
is a paradise, until at length comes summer with its burning
heat. In June, all moisture seems to have departed from the atmosphere, and toward the end of the month, the heat is fearful, and the sky becomes a changeless expanse of glorious deep blue. Only from time to time, a fresh sea breeze finds its way to the land, to indulge the inhabitants with a fresh breath of air. The worst, however, has yet to come, for toward the end of September, even these light breezes die away. The air becomes thick and obscure, and the whole atmosphere damp and sultry. The grass and vegetation generally are dried up even to the roots, and the leaves fall from the trees, which now stretch out their naked arms like ghostly forms, scarcely visible through the surrounding fog. Not a drop of water remains in the brooks and river sources, and traveling is only possible during the night. Business is at a standstill, and the people do nothing but inquire how long it will be before the rain will come again.

It is thought by many that the summer is hotter in
Nikosia than it is in Cairo, notwithstanding that the sea and
the snow-clad hills of Asia Minor are at so short a distance.
I can only account for this circumstance by the fact that in
the valley of the Nile, when the water of the river is rising,
there is always a gentle breeze perceptible, and moreover, from the broad expanse
of water which covers the country, much more moisture is given
off than in the drier atmosphere of Cyprus.

Mariti tells us, that the intensity of the summer
heat is often modified by a cooling wind called imbat.** This wind has been erroneously
called “limbat” from, we presume, a confusion of a French
article with its noun, “l'imbat.” This wind, which generally commences blowing at two o'clock in the morning on the first day, increases
till noon, then gradually falls, and toward three o'clock in
the afternoon ceases entirely. The imbat, which begins early
in summer, and continues until September, appears to last
about an hour longer each succeeding day, for five days, when
it recommences the five days' course. If the horizon should be clear the wind will be weak, but if dark, heavy weather may be expected; occasionally a dangerous north wind succeeds the imbat, which commences at
seven o'clock in the morning, increases steadily till noon,
and continues blowing till evening. Should this wind last for
any length of time the crops suffer severely.

The same authority mentions, that the cold is never
so great as to necessitate fires in the houses, these being
only kindled to obviate the effects of the excessive moisture.
From this description he, however, excepts the country
immediately aroundOlympus, where the snow often lies to
midsummer.

CHAPTER XXI.
BAFFO AND KUKLIA.

Early next morning, on leaving my
sleeping apartment, I found my dragoman, in company
with a young dealer in Paphian curiosities, hanging
about the door, and evidently on the watch to fasten
their company on me, should I attempt to visit any of the surrounding ruins. Not being desirous of their interference, or assistance, I evaded them, and quietly strolled down to the sea-shore. As I looked
around, I observed, against the horizon, the small houses and
slender minarets of Ktima, a little
town standing upon raised stone dikes. Somewhat lower down, a huge mass of sandstone extended for some little distance along the shore, the appearance of which at first puzzled me exceedingly. On the side facing the sea large and small chambers were hollowed out, and every here and there, roughly hewn
steps led to the top of the rock. Cesnola has made some of his
interesting excavations on this spot, and I will therefore
explain these workings in the solid sandstone in his own
words:

“A little to the north-east, and half-way between
these ruins and Ktima, there is a rocky
eminence sloping toward the
sea, and called Palaeo Castro, the surface of which is
perforated with thousands of ancient tombs, some cut
vertically, and others horizontally, in the calcareous rock.
Some are made to contain only one body, while others are
large enough for a score or more. These graves are all evidently pre-Roman. I had the rubbish removed from one of the largest, and found it to be an oblong building, with an atrium supported by three
monolithic columns, roughly hewn out of the limestone, and
with a court-yard in front. The tomb is divided into three
chambers, which communicate, inside, with each other, but have
separate entrances. They have a large number of niches, seven
feet by two, each to contain one body. Near the wall facing the doorway of each chamber, there is a low
platform hewn in the rock, on which apparently stood a
sarcophagus, but nothing of it now remains. The court-yard
contains also several single graves, but all have been opened
long ago. This must have been the family sepulchre of a great
personage, and possibly that of one of the kings of Paphos.”

The same authority gives the following particulars
concerning the contents of some similar tombs he examined at
Amathus, and other excavations made by him at Paphos,
with, however, but little result.

“The quantity of objects in copper and bronze
discovered in these tombs, though mostly destroyed by oxidization, is
much greater than that found in the extensive necropolis of
Idalium. I observed
that in the localities where copper mines are known to have
existed, as at Amathus and Curium, more ancient
utensils and figures in that metal are found. The fact that
these bronze objects are roughly made, is sufficient proof
that they have not been imported, but are of native
manufacture. Many curious little rings in bronze and in silver
were met with in these tombs, the use of which is not easy to
determine. Some cylinders of soft glazed clay, probably
of Babylonian or Egyptian manufacture, also came to light, together with several rings of solid gold of very rough workmanship, and entirely without artistic merit; broken earthenware jars, bronze bowls,
copper hatchets, and a few iron arrow-heads were found, but
all oxidized, so as to fall into powder, and entirely without
inscriptions. West of these tombs, facing the sea, are to be
found nine oven-shaped caverns, which contain a great
quantity of human bones, besides those of oxen, camels, and sheep. These nine caverns are far too small to have contained the amount of bodies indicated by the skeletons (I counted no less than sixty-four human heads), but were more probably simply ossuaries for bones removed from rock-cut tombs, so
soon as the tomb was required for another occupant, and its
tenant dried up and forgotten. The fact that no sepulchral
vases or any other such relics are to be found,
sufficiently bears out such a supposition In the tombs on the
sea-shore, only the bones of pigeons and egg-shells in clay
dishes were to be found with the human remains, these being
evidently the relics of the funeral feast.”

During the week Cesnola remained at Ktima, he made many excavations; one of these was
upon the site of a temple of which three large granite
columns were still standing; he also discovered the bases of nine other columns, only a few inches below the surface, and still occupying their original position, whilst all around were strewn architectural fragments which had belonged to that structure. On the other spot he investigated is a broken column, to which it is asserted St. Paul was tied and
scourged when he came to preach the Gospel in this city; but
the tradition is said to be only current amongst the Greeks of
Ktima. In this locality there were also shafts of columns, some blocks of triglyphs and volutes lying on the ground, probably also the remains of a temple. A silver coin of Vespasian, with the Temple of Paphos upon it, and a few Roman lamps, were all
the relics that were found after a week's exploration.

Before quitting the neighborhood of Paphos, the same authority visited the village of
Koloni, which is
situated upon a plain, stretching down to the sea,
overshadowed by hills covered with juniper-trees. In these
rocks are situated the “asbestos” quarries, of which we have
already spoken, and the much lauded “Paphian diamond,” which,
however, is only a superior quality of rock crystal. These
hills, we are told yield fossil shells in large quantities;
and earths in different colors, green, carmine, and
yellow, are occasionally met with in the surrounding district.

Ten minutes' ride from Koloni,
in a north-west direction, is Ieroskipo, now a mere group of
houses. This name is evidently derived from the ancient Hieroskepi, “Sacred Garden,” the well-known garden of Venus, who was regarded by her worshippers as the goddess of gardens and flowers. Cupid was supposed
to have lived with her in Cyprus.

“There is,” says Cesnola, “a large cave which seems
to have been artificially scooped out of the rock through
which a spring makes its way, and after filling the basin,
overflows and forms a rivulet sufficient to water the
neighboring fields; this is known as the ‘Bath of Aphrodite.’
I must say, he would be obdurate indeed who would not be
captivated by the great beauty of the spot. The ground generally slopes gently toward the sea, but here it seems to have been cut into large plateaux or terraces, which are surrounded by a thick grove of
olive-trees many centuries old. Among the olives is a
sprinkling of carob-trees, which, with their dark green and
lustrous foliage, form a striking contrast to the pale hue of
the olive leaf. In closer proximity to
Ieroskipo, are a number of rock-cut tombs, but no vestiges of
buildings are visible.”

After wandering some distance farther along the
sand, I reached Kapatah, a fortress built upon the shore by
the Genoese, and here came upon more tombs cut in the rock,
and entered by means of roughly-hewn steps. Over the largest
of these chambers, I observed an inscription in ancient
Cyprian characters, and in the grotto itself, which is
divided into two apartments, the hindermost of which has a small cupola at its top, I also noticed half effaced characters upon the walls. Near this spot was the ancient harbor, the dams of which were formed of blocks of stone; a stream now discharges itself here. I was told that the harbor had formerly extended much further inland, and had gradually fallen into ruin, and been filled up with sand. The sea was splashing against the stones in the foreground, the flowering shrubs of all kinds filled the air with fragrant perfumes, and in the distance towered the dark and lofty mountains.

Proceeding onward, after leaving this fort, I came
upon a village embowered in trees and inhabited by Greeks and
Turks. The walls, as is commonly seen in the district,
appeared to be constructed principally of stones taken from
the surrounding ruins, and I noticed many a piece of broken column peeping out from its hiding-place, among waving palms and flowering shrubs. Near a little church I observed some
small pillars, two of white marble, and two of beautifully
polished granite. Of another church only a square tower and
the portion of an arch remain. In the midst of the village is
a roomy basin formed of large blocks of stone, which was, no doubt, the bath of the fair Cyprians of ancient times; now it is merely a receptacle for refuse. As I proceeded farther into the village I found huge blocks of marble and granite lying in all directions. The French, we are told, in the course of their
explorations here, ten years ago, brought to light many valuable relics, and carried off the best of all they found. Knowing this, I was perfectly astonished at the rich treasures of antiquity that met my eye at every step, and I could only suppose the place to be the site of a former city, over the buried temples and palaces of which trees and shrubs had sprung up, and a few small houses for the present poor
inhabitants had been hastily erected. The people still draw their water from the ancient limpid springs. Even the higher class of Turkish houses, which were comparatively modern, showed here and there traces of walls and gateways of an early date. During the time of the Emperor Augustus a violent earthquake destroyed New Paphos, and in obedience to imperial commands the
city that rose upon its ruins was named after his wife,
Augusta. At a later period, a second earthquake destroyed the
unfortunate town; but we have no clue as to the date of this second
calamity. I could not but groan in spirit as I walked and
thought of all the treasures that probably lay buried beneath
my feet.

That evening I dined at the table of my worthy
friend the bishop, whose liberal hospitality had made me
acquainted with a great variety of strange dishes. On this
occasion the repast seemed very homelike to me, for it
consisted of an excellent roast leg of mutton served with some
fine juicy lettuces, a dish of onions stuffed with rice, and a
great variety of sweet dishes, all excellent in their
way, and principally samples of Turkish cookery. This was followed by toasted bread covered with layers of rich cheese, after which came coffee, and our ten feet long chibouks.

During the evening many priests of various ranks
dropped in, said a few words, and again departed. It seemed to
me they had very much their own way with their good-hearted
bishop. These visitors were followed by the kaimakan, or
governor, who appeared followed by half a dozen attendants.
This gentleman chatted with us for an hour, and then left, begging me to allow him to send an escort with me on my journey of the following day.

Early next morning I proceeded on my way, and as we
approached Hierokipu, I saw many grottos hewn in the rock, and
noticed again and again that the ground over which we passed
sounded hollow as it was struck by our horses' hoofs. I was
informed by a gentleman we met,
who owned property in the neighborhood, that two years ago he
had found a place in which were five chambers hollowed in the rock, with a kind of entrance hall in front neatly constructed of square blocks of stone; within this stood a round pillar which had no doubt served as an altar. Many of the odd little flasks and vessels were found here which have been supposed (in my opinion most absurdly) to have been receptacles for
tears. These contained resin and ointment, the perfume of
which filled the whole chamber. When we were only some few
hours' distance from OldPaphos or Kuklia, I rode down to the
shore and took a survey of the surrounding view. The
mountain gullies were now dry, but at other seasons, it was evident that the whole coast would be flooded by the streams that flowed through them during the wet season. I now ascended a slight eminence on which once was the site of a temple built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and dedicated to his beautiful spouse Arsinoe, who was there worshipped under the name of
Venus Zephyritis. Dinochaus, the architect who completed the
temple of Diana Ephesus, we are told, contemplated making the
temple of Arsinoe of loadstones, with a statue of the queen suspended in the air by the power of magnetism, but he died before the strange idea could be carried out. The daughter of this queen was the fair Berenice, whose beautiful locks have been so celebrated. This lady dedicated
her luxuriant tresses to the goddess should her husband,
Ptolemy Evergetes, whom she tenderly loved, return uninjured
from the war he was then engaged on. After three years he did return, ladened with spoil. All the south part of Asia Minor had submitted to him, and he erected two temples in commemoration of his victories there, calling them Arsinoe and Berenika. On this successful issue of her petition the fair wife of the
conqueror at once cut off her magnificent tresses, and had
them suspended in the temple of her mother, the so-called
Venus Zephyritis, Cyprus in those days being united with Egypt under the Ptolemies.

What became of this wonderful hair is unknown, but
Konou of Samos, the astronomer, announced, by way of
flattering the lovely queen, that “Jove himself had stolen the
tresses and placed them in the sky as a constellation.”

The “Sacred Road,” which took its name from the
number of worshippers carrying their offerings, who formerly
passed backward and forward between Old and New Paphos, gradually rose slightly above the shore, and as I looked around I could not avoid noticing the great beauty of the sea foam as it rose in snowy wreaths from the stones on which it beat. At some seasons, when a south-west wind is blowing, this foam rises as high as the feet of the trees and shrubs, and presents the appearance of small tracks of snow.
The shore at this point, I am told, would afford a rich field
for the naturalist; I myself saw millions of crustaceans and
microscopical creatures lying upon the stones. Gazing upon
the scenes I could readily suppose how the vivid
imagination of the Grecian temperament should have led them to describe the Goddess of Love as having first reached the shores of Cyprus mounted on the foamy crest of a wave.

Cesnola tells us that the two Christian churches,
now both in ruins, one of which was built within the area of
the temple, and the other within the boundary wall, the palace
of the Lusignans, and the entire village of Kuklia, have been
constructed with the stone from the ruins of the ancient
city. Attached to each house is a penfold, built
without mortar, of loose stones. The church that stands within the temple limits has several fine marbles imbedded in its walls, bearing inscriptions, which had obviously belonged to some more ancient edifice before they were placed in their present positions.

An old ruined castle, and a few miserable dwelling-houses, are all that now remain of what was once
Old Paphos, now known as Kuklia. We
rested for a time in a wretched coffee-house, which was full
of zaptiehs, who were quartered here, whilst they
collected over-due taxes. Groups of people stood
around, some looking pitiable objects with their wan,
anxious countenances, whilst
others, again, were perfect embodiments of cunning and
stupidity. The chief officer of the soldiers, when I arrived,
was addressing this crowd with polite dignity and a great
variety of expressive gestures. It was whispered in my ear, by one of the party, that rage and threaten as their rulers might, no more money could be wrung from this wretched population. In respect to their extreme poverty these miserable beings appeared to me to be no worse off than the inhabitants of Ktima and other places we
passed through. A few stalwart men were amongst the crowd, but
for the most part the people appeared weakly, and to blend the Grecian, Syrian, and Italian types of countenance. After vainly endeavoring to persuade some
Turkish family to give us lodging, we were glad at last to
take refuge in a very high shed, the mud walls of which
contained but one room. In this I camped with all my three
servants. A carpet and coverings were procured, and with these
we made ourselves as comfortable as circumstances would permit. After a short rest, I issued forth to examine this wretched place, and standing upon the flat roof of a hut that stood below ours, I obtained a clear view of my surroundings. The whole place appeared to be a mere heap of ruins, the pillars and foundations of ancient palaces. The heights around exhibited a few yellow flowering shrubs, interspersed with green palms and other trees, whilst around and about this scene of
desolation stood the dwellings of the poverty-stricken
inhabitants. Below me was the court-yard of a Turkish house,
in which I could see the women at their work. They wore veils,
and I could not help noticing how much they seemed to inconvenience them, as they threw them first on one side and then to the other, to be out of their way.

I now descended and proceeded to explore the
Aditum, the only ancient sacred edifice in Cyprus, which, thanks to the pictures of it found
on gems and coins, we can reproduce before our eyes. It had, apparently, been a square building with a fine entrance, and a low wing at either end. On each side of the portal were two obelisks. This temple was surrounded by a barrier, in the centre of which stood the principal altar. In the innermost recesses of this edifice once stood the mysterious veiled stones of Astarte Aphrodite.

CHAPTER XXII.
EPISKOPI.

Next morning I could not resist taking
another look at Old Paphos, and accordingly made my way to the heights
behind the village, in order to impress the charming landscape
as deeply as possible upon my memory. The morning air was
delightfully fresh, the far-reaching coast was fringed
with narrow lines of foam left by the rippling water,
but the sea itself lay heavy and motionless as a sheet
of metal. The mountains were partially concealed by a misty veil, only the village being clearly seen surrounded by its verdant fields.

On returning I entered the little coffee-house,
which on the preceding day had afforded me by no means bad
accommodation. The master sat before the door smoking his
chibouk. He immediately respectfully made room for me, and I
sat a short time conversing with him by signs. On
recommencing our journey, we walked for about a mile along the sea-shore, after which we turned more inland and entered a myrtle copse. The farther we
advanced the more luxurious the country became. The
undergrowth of bushes was interspersed with wild roses, orchids,
and many luxuriant flowers, the varied colors of which
enlivened the green grass over which our course lay. Here we
encountered some women engaged in cutting off the heads
of thistles. Hussein begged a handful of these in order to let me taste the seeds, which he shelled out from the husks. I found them rather dry but not bad to eat; in fact, almost all the vegetables in the island afford something edible. A gray-headed old woman sold us some wild artichokes, and told us to eat them raw, but they were too coarse to be palatable.** The cauliflower was introduced to
Europe from Cyprus. The old
dame was dressed after the Turkish fashion, and kept her face
closely veiled.

Our path now lay through a deep dell, and was
covered with brushwood, while around us were cypresses,
olives, and various fruit-trees, but all utterly neglected. A
hundred thousand people might find ample sites here for most
delightful residences. As I was walking along, I trod upon
a snake. It was of a gray color marked with black rings, about a foot and a half long, and as thick as my arm. A powerful scent of melons was perceptible here and there, and on seeking for the cause, I found it came from some yellow berries, which grew upon
a, to me, strange plant. The underwood was full of game, and
many birds, whose names were unknown to me, were flying about.
One, I especially noticed, which closely
resembled a jay, but was more brilliantly marked with blue and
red.

According to my map we ought to have passed through
three villages. Hussein either knew a shorter way or
participated in my love for solitude. Not a single village did
we see; but we got a glimpse of Adimu at a great distance.
Hussein, instead of taking me right over the heights of
OldKurion, brought me again into the plain,
assuring me most confidently that there was nothing to
be seen there but a couple of large stones. Ross
informs us that twenty years ago he saw there the remains of an ancient race-course, and the foundations, and some fragments of pillars, belonging to
the Temple of Apollo Hylades. Except
these, my guide declared there is no longer the slightest
trace of these structures left visible. I will believe
it, for during the last few years all seem to have been bent upon removing the last remnants of antiquity left in Cyprus, as
though anxious to make the work of destruction complete.
Whenever a building is to be erected in Syria or Egypt, it is
toCyprus they come for stone, taken from
her old walls and bridges.

Right under the rock of Kurion, and not far fromEpiskopi, we came again to the sea,
which, during the day, had so often delighted us. As we
wound round the rocks, it sometimes seemed as though its laughing blue waters, inclosed between the far extending capes, were
contained in an enormous bowl.

Cesnola tells us that, along the southern coast of
the island are several guard-houses, built near the shore, on
elevated ground, some of which, now dismantled and roofless,
are of Turkish construction, and two or three hundred years
old. Most of them appear to have been erected for the
protection of the neighboring villages against Algerine
pirates, who, not more than sixty years ago, were
daring enough to land and carry off wealthy
inhabitants, and to detain them until the required ransom
was paid.

From the heights above Episkopi one could see the long chain of mountains,
looking as if they had been carefully folded one behind the
other. The whole peninsula had the appearance of a great plank, both ends of which sloped off into the sea. In ancient times it was named Kurias, and belonged to a town of the same name, built upon the neighboring sandstone rock.

The hills are situated at the beginning of the
peninsula, just where the stream Lycos discharges itself into
the sea, amid thickets of orange and other fruit trees, above
which the slender stems of lofty palm-trees rear themselves
gracefully into the air. Everywhere among the houses and
gardens little brooks make their way through the fruitful
plain. I could almost suppose the ancient Kurion must have been situated
here, and that the rock above us was merely its acropolis.

Hussein left us in this beautiful spot whilst he
went into the town to seek a lodging; the inhabitants were of
much higher grade than at Paphos. The Turks find everything here that their hearts desire—quiet, green trees, and murmuring streams. Several little groups of veiled women passed us with dark brown eyes gleaming above the covering of their faces. I was informed that the Turks, who principally inhabited this beautiful place, finding a scarcity of women, had imported all these darkfaced beauties from Egypt.

After we had wasted some time, Hussein came back
with the news that the Greek population ofEpiskopi were so poor that we could
procure neither beds, food, nor wine. The Turkish
houses were all full; nobody appeared willing to
receive us, and to quarter ourselves upon them
uninvited was out of the question. Notwithstanding the episcopal name of the town, so far from there being any bishop there, the Turks had driven all the Greek priests out of it, leaving only a few poor huts at the disposal of the Christian population, and even the occupants of these could not receive a stranger without permission of their Turkish neighbors.

CHAPTER XXIII.
KOLOSSIN.

On our approach to this village, I sent
forward my dragoman to secure us lodgings for the
night. As we followed him at the distance of about a mile we saw a huge square tower standing on a farmstead, and on advancing found that it was a building
belonging to mediaeval times, but whether it had been part of
a castle or a fortress I was unable to determine. The owner
received us at the entrance of the court-yard in the kindest
manner. He was a man of substance and good deportment, holding a position similar to that of the
owner of a vineyard on the Rhine, and his house very, much
resembled that of a small farmer in the South of France. The
lower part of the house was occupied by his numerous family.
He himself lived in the upper part, to which we ascended by
a wooden staircase leading from a kind of entrance hall. The furniture in these comfortable apartments had something of a European aspect; in the
room were some fine greyhounds of a light yellow color. Our
host informed us that there were fifteen yoke of oxen upon the
farm, but there was land enough to give
employment to ten times the number.

After a short rest, we went to inspect the tower,
under the guidance of the owner, who had ordered the servants
to light it up from top to bottom with torches. It is a
massive square building, with walls so thick that benches were
placed in the recesses of the windows. A very simple
coat-of-arms, carved in stone upon the exterior, shows that it
was erected in the thirteenth century. The whole is a fine
specimen of the very few baronial castles that remain. This structure is in excellent preservation, and furnishes a good example of Anglo-Norman architecture. I do not think that in all Europe there is any building of
the sort in such good condition, except, perhaps, the
well-known castle at Hedingham.

There are two lofty stories above the ground, and a
deep cellar-like excavation beneath the level of the soil. The
latter is divided into three compartments, and each of the
former into two roomy chambers. Over the fireplaces are carved
lilies, without any ornamentation, exactly resembling those represented in the coat-of-arms upon the outer wall. The portal is narrow, and a flight of small stone steps leads from one story to another; at the top is a broad platform surrounded by battlements. In the cellar there is a deep cistern or well partially filled up. The owner talked of having it cleared out, and I wished that he might have the luck to find some treasure at
the bottom, to repay him for the bad harvests of the last two
years, which, owing to want of rain, had been very scanty.

Manifestly, the whole building had been constructed, not so much for a residence, as for defensive purposes. It
is situated near the middle of the peninsula, just where, on
the one hand, the ground slopes toward the sea, and on the
other spreads a wide amphitheatre of hills; it thus at once
commands the sea, the coast, and the surrounding
mountain region. This colossal structure must evidently have been unassailable by fire, by ladders, or by breaching the walls, while its defenders, if hard pressed, could retreat from one story to another. Under the battlements were numerous loop-holes, through which arrows might be shot with deadly precision against an advancing enemy.

The prospect from the lofty platform was extensive
and beautiful. Sunset was rapidly approaching, and the clouds,
illuminated by the departing rays of the glorious orb, were
arranged in blood-red masses and streaks, whilst beneath, the
deep blue tranquil sea was here and there lighted up by broad patches of golden splendor. The mountains however, were shrouded in a veil of gray mist. Low beneath us was the old church, whose architecture seemed a mixture of the ancient Roman with
the earliest Gothic.

I learned that these old castles were crown property and belonged to the
Sultan. During the course of our conversation the origin and
intention of the building became manifest to me. I
found that I was in the very centre of the
world-renowned Commanderia. The Knights of St. John, after
they were obliged to quit the Holy Land, established
the headquarters of their order at Cyprus, just as at a later period they
did in Rhodes and Malta. FromCyprus they issued forth under the
protection and leadership of its knightly king, to fight
gloriously against the Crescent, and very frequently the
victory was due to the courage and prowess of these
soldiers of the Church. The Bishop of Akkon, Jacques de Vitrey, in his account of the Holy Land gives us the following sketch of the Knights Templars:

“Covered with their white mantles, which were
embroidered with a red cross, with their black and white
banner ‘Beauseant,’ they rush forward to battle in silence.
They have no war-cry. As soon as the general's trumpet sounds,
they lay their lances at rest, and repeating from one of the
Psalms of David ‘Lord, give us the victory, not for us but
for thy holy name,’ they throw themselves upon the strongest part of the enemies' forces. They never give way! they must break through or die! Does one of the brotherhood lose heart, he is deprived of his mantle and all his knightly honors for a year, and must eat his meals from the ground, without a tablecloth, disturbed by the dogs that he is forbidden to drive away.” The
order already possessed a “commande” (as the possessions of
the knights were called) in Cyprus, and important privileges were conferred
upon them by King Hugo I. in the year 1210. They were allowed
to acquire territory wherever they wished, to import or export
all sorts of produce, and to grind their corn without
charge in the king's mills, which were situated on the stream Kythrea, near
Buffavento. They had residences and gardens in Nikosia and Limasol, where the headquarters of the order were
established, and in addition to this occupied Platanistia and
Finika, in the district of Paphos, and Mamgrallu and Kolossin in the district
of Limasol.

In Kolossin, a French proprietor had possession of
considerable domains, all of which were bought by the king and
presented to the knights. And now Kolossin became the
headquarters; here dwelt the general of the order, and here
was built, during the first part of the thirteenth century,
the strong castle, which during war was their fortress, and
in peaceful times the place where the festivals and
assemblies of the order were held. Toward the close of the Middle Ages, not fewer than forty-one districts belonged to them in Cyprus. Their knowledge of husbandry and business-like
habits enabled the Knights of St. John to bring their estates
into a very thriving condition. The cultivation of corn, oil, vines, sugar-cane, and cotton increased in a
wonderful manner, and because
wine was produced only in the one district, or because the
wine of that district surpassed the rest in quality, it was
called Commanderia wine and Kolossin was regarded as
the centre of the wine-growing region.

We thankfully remembered the brave knights as we
sat at table and tasted the excellent wine still produced on
these hills. From them, likewise, the islanders learned how to
preserve the little birds called beccaficos, by simply
plucking them, and packing them in jars filled with wine. The
wine soaks thoroughly into the flesh, which becomes slightly hardened, and of most delicious flavor. Great numbers of these delicate little birds are killed in Cyprus.

The export of wine might easily be made a source of
great wealth to the inhabitants; as matters at present stand,
the wine imported has to pay a duty of one-sixteenth of its
value, but fifty times more than is now grown might be
produced from the rich lands, which at present lie waste and
useless.

It is a wonder how, seeing the rude manner in which
the wine is made, that it is so good as it is. Very little
trouble is taken with it. Goats and young donkeys wander at
their own wicked will through the vineyards during the early
part of the year, and feed upon the young grapes. The
clusters are gathered without the slightest selection,
and thrown upon the ground, where probably they may remain until soaked
with rain. After lying for a week to rot, they are pressed in
the roughest way; the must is poured into large earthen
vessels, which are frequently put into a room where rancid
oil, grain, dried leaves, fruit, and all sorts of bad
smelling things are standing and hanging around. In
this polluted atmosphere the must has to undergo two fermentations. Over the earthen pot that contains the wine a flat slate is laid, or a cover with a little hole in it, through which at intervals a straw is
introduced and a mouthful sucked out, partly as a drink, but perhaps more properly to ascertain how the wine is getting on; it may have grown sour or it may not. Should the fermentation have proved successful, the merchants come, ready to bargain about the price. This wine is kept in casks, through which the air is allowed to pass, and after a year is considered to be in good condition. As in many neighboring countries, it is the custom in Cyprus to buy wine when a child is
born and keep it to be drunk at its marriage feast.

Commanderia is first the color of a topaz, and then
becomes deep red, finally attaining the hue of good curaçoa.
Muscadine, the second quality of Cyprian wine, is very sweet
and has a slight violet tinge when new, after some years it
attains the thickness of syrup. Mavro, a dark red wine, is also much
drunk in Cyprus; it is very dry and
resembles Chateau Margaux.

CHAPTER XXIV.
SOIL AND MINERAL PRODUCTS.

A Glance at the map shows us that the
island ofCyprus is naturally divisible into three
regions, all widely differing from each other. Along the
entire length of its northern division there runs a
long range of low hills, close to the sea, varying in
height from two to three thousand feet, composed of
Jura limestone, flanked on either side by Vienna
sandstone.

The western and southern portions, constituting at
least half of the island, are covered with mountains from two
thousand to six thousand feet high. These lofty ridges and
projecting peaks, as well as the whole northern half of the
district, consist of greenstone, while toward the south they
are principally composed of marl and tertiary limestone.

Between these two ranges of mountains there is an
extensive plain covered with rich alluvial soil, which in many
places is from ten to fifteen, or even twenty feet deep,
through which run streams, converging into two rivers, one of
which takes its course to the eastern, the other to the
western, side of the island. Both of these streams during
the rainy season overflow
their banks, inundating the country far and wide, so that a
man unprovided with a boat may be detained for weeks
together, unable to pass from one place to another.
When the water evaporates, or is drained off, it leaves
a slimy deposit which, in its properties and chemical composition, resembles in a remarkable manner the sediment deposited from the inundations of the Nile.

All round the island extends a narrow level beach,
flanked by gently rising hills, consisting of post tertiary
strata mixed with gypsum, lime, and marl. Here we find a most
productive soil, watered by innumerable streams and brooks,
which pour down from the hills; moreover, between the hills
are many fruitful valleys and stretches of fertile
land, which would richly repay proper cultivation.

On account of its many capes the map of old Cyprus somewhat resembles a horned
head, and the very peculiar narrow peninsula, along which
the northern chain of mountains is continued, may be compared to the tongue, with which it seems to be licking the corner, between Syria and Asia Minor.

The extensive plains have been celebrated from the
remotest antiquity for their gardens and cornfields. On the
slopes, around the coast, and in the deep valleys among the
hills, may be found all the plants and trees that are met with
in Europe, Western Asia and Egypt; these thrive prodigiously
indeed.

In former years, the island was celebrated for its
Valuable copper mines, hence is supposed to be derived its
ancient name ξνπρος, from which
we getCyprus. The most important copper mines
were formerly at Tamassus, in the centre of the island; at Soli, on the north
coast; and Amathus and Cyricum on the south coast. Gold and silver were occasionally found. Salt is still made in large quantities, and coal is found occasionally. Volcanic
eruptions, which were formerly not infrequent, have not
occurred for many years; the island is, however, subject to
earthquakes. Precious stones in great variety, including the
diamond, emerald, jasper, opal, and agate, were formerly found
in this island. Yellow ochre and amber are also amongst the
mineral productions. Baffo produces a, very superior kind of asbestos, which is known as “stone-cotton” in Cyprus. It is quite
white and as flexible as silk. The ancients made it into
cloth, which was incombustible. This manufacture is still
carried on in some parts of the island, where the cloth is
employed to make the sacramental robes of the priests.

CHAPTER XXV.
NATURAL PRODUCTS

We will now give our readers a general sketch of
the rise and decline of Cyprian agriculture under different
rulers.

For nearly three hundred years the dynasty of
Lusignan ruled over a flourishing and important country.
Monks, knights, merchants, and priests thronged to its
hospitable shores, on their way to and from adjoining
countries, and many fair dames were conducted so far, and
found pleasant refuge inCyprus, whilst their chivalrous husbands
journeyed farther east, to assist in the vain attempt to
obtain possession of the tomb of Christ, and earn either
an early grave, or return covered with wounds and glory. Towns sprang up in all directions. Wine, oil, silk, cotton, the carob-tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and the various plants used for the famous Cyprian dyes, were again largely cultivated, and in the
over-flowing markets of the towns upon the coast, ships in adjacent seas found the readiest means of victualing for distant voyages. Mining operations were
recommenced with ardor, and Cyprian merchants again sent forth
the rich products of the island into all parts.

We have still to notice what was the fate of the
island under Venetian and Turkish domination. The Venetians,
anxious to derive every possible emolument from their
possessions, urged the population to the most strenuous
efforts in the culture of the land, and when the weary
laborers sank under the burden and heat of the day, used every
incentive, and even punished them, in order to increase
their exertions in bringing their fields and gardens to
the required perfection. There is still a tradition in
the island that the Venetians paid a zechin for every olive-tree that was planted. Generation after generation, however, the population degenerated, and
became weaker and more idle.

The Venetians would appear to have considered the
island in the light of a great and valuable farm, which they
endeavored to make as productive as possible. They appointed
three governors, two treasurers, a superintendent with two
thousand men under him, placed a captain and a company of
soldiers in each of the twelve districts into which the
land was divided, who kept everything in order, and
took care that the fields and gardens were well
cultivated, and the taxes regularly paid. After deducting
all expenses,Cyprus yielded to Venice a clear yearly
profit of two millions of ducats (golden dollars). The Italian revenue officers seem not to have been much trusted in their dealings with the Cypriotes, and were changed every two years.

When the Sultan of Egypt subsequently tookCyprus, the yearly tribute exacted
amounted to eight hundred thousand ducats (golden dollars);
it now produces only seven millions of marks, a very small sum, in comparison with what it produced to its Venetian masters.

During the fifteenth century, the blighting influence of successive wars was keenly felt, and the best energies
of the Lusignans were devoted to warding off the repeated
attacks of the Mussulmans. Since the New World had arisen in
the West, strong and vigorous immigrants no longer lent their
aid to prop a declining state. The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks cost
the island the last remnant of its industrious, enterprising,
and independent inhabitants, and the blood-stained and
desolate country was no longer cultivated. The Turks, always
passionate admirers of flowers, introduced a few tulips and hyacinths, and planted date-palms in the spots they occupied; but the soil was not congenial to them, and in Cyprus
the date-palm rarely produced its sweet and highly-prized
fruit.

The tobacco plant was also introduced at this
period, but its cultivation was never carried on to any great
extent, owing to the necessity of planting it in gardens
surrounded by high walls, in order to protect the plant from
the depredations of the locust. No attempt was made on the
part of the Turkish Government to rouse the dying energies of
the people; slowly, but surely,
every art and industry declined, and the locust swarmed over
the barren and neglected country.

Thus, in ancient times, we see that the island ofCyprus was celebrated for its varied
vegetation, but of the plants that once grew there, many are
totally lost, others are now cultivated with difficulty,
and very few new ones are added to the list. The
vegetation of Cyprus, like its history, seems to have undergone many
changes, and from the nature of the soil, is very diversified
in different parts of the island. At the present day, corn is
still extensively cultivated; wheat, barley, oats, and beans
flourish well. Upon the mountains grow fir and pine-trees, and
in the valleys we find fine oaks, ashes, orange, fig,
citron, date, walnut, and a great variety of other
trees. Overhanging shrubs crowd the deep dells and
precipitous cliffs, and amongst them grow the oleander, myrtle, arbutus, juniper, and mastic. Not less striking is the lovely carpet of flowers, which clothes the face of the country with ever-varying beauties. Roses and jasmine, tulips, hyacinths, narcissus, and anemones, are but a few of those that I might enumerate.

In Cyprus the use of manure is
unknown, but nevertheless there is but little change in the
luxuriant fertility of the soil, and wherever the earth is sufficiently supplied with moisture, a thousand plants spring up in rich profusion. One of the principal difficulties in the
field is to keep the corn from being smothered by weeds. This
task of weeding falls entirely to the lot of the women.

Olive-trees were formerly very numerous, as is
proved by the large reservoirs for oil to be seen near Larnaka. The trade was at one time very
extensive, but the island now consumes all that it
produces. This decline would appear to date from the era of Venetian rule, when the trade in oil was almost ruined, and the cultivation of the olive abandoned for that of cotton. Saffron, rhubarb, and many other natural and valuable productions are also neglected.

Cyprus had once a lucrative
trade with Syria in the oil extracted from the seed of the
jujube tree. Oil of glasswort was also formerly extracted.
Cucumis colocynth, from the pulp of which colocynth is made, is also largely cultivated: this plant grows like the water-melon, and belongs to the same family. The cotton plant, which was formerly so important a production, is now comparatively but little cultivated. The seeds of the cotton-plant are sown early in April, three or four being planted together, at equal
distances. When the shoots appear above the ground, the
strongest plant alone is allowed to remain, the rest being
weeded out. The plants are hoed in June or July, and the
cotton collected in October and November. The cottons of Cyprus, which are four
qualities, are much esteemed on account of their
whiteness and thickness of their texture; a fifth quality,
called scovazze, is entirely consumed on the island. The total
export of cotton in 1871 was 770,850 lbs.

During the time when the silk trade flourished,
mulberry trees were objects of most careful attention, and
still abound upon the island. The finest and whitest silk is
now obtained from the neighborhood of Famagusta, and Karpasso; the lemon, or
sulphur-colored, comes from Citereau, and most of the northern
villages, whilst that made about Baffo is of a golden color.

The Greek females of some of the towns and villages
work exquisite embroidery, and make a kind of silk net, which
will bear comparison with the finest European lace. On the
west side of the island the peasants distill rose, orange, and
lavender water, and myrtle and ladanum oil.

Amongst the birds, snipe, pheasants, partridges,
quails, and thrushes are very abundant, as are also most of
the birds of passage that make Africa their home during the
winter.

Until the commencement of the seventeenth century
150,000 kilderkins of wine were annually produced; whilst at
the beginning of the present century, only a sixth part of
that quantity was made. The manufacture of wine has
considerably increased in the last few years, but principally
for foreign consumption. The lower order of Cypriotes find the wine too strong
for their heads, and too dear for their pockets, and drink
little or none. The taxes upon wine are at present very heavy.

The utilization of the fruit of the island as a
means of profit is now never thought of; even the celebrated
vegetables of Cyprus are now almost
unknown, and the inhabitants content themselves with gathering wild cresses, artichokes, purslane, and
asparagus. The olive-tree, however, as we have said, is still lagely grown—cultivated we cannot call it, as not only the planting, but gathering the fruit, and expressing the oil, are carried on in the most careless manner. Without the olive, however, sorry indeed would be the fare of the Cypriotes.

Potatoes flourish in the mountainous districts and
kolokasia in low-lying regions. Melons, pumpkins, and gherkins
are also found in great profusion. During the last forty
years, Greek and French enterprise has made various efforts to
bring about a better state of things. What may not now be hoped for when this luxuriant island is again under a paternal dominion and the safety of individual rights secured?

At all times, snakes, which, however, are not dangerous, tarantulas, and venomous spiders abound in
the island, and Dr. Clarke gives a forcible description of its
insect pests. Speaking of the tarantula, he describes one
species of about an inch long, as having “a body of bright
yellow, and beset with long and prickly
hairs. It runs with prodigious swiftness, and thus more easily
escapes its destruction, in which mankind are interested; its
bite being very dangerous, and its venom very subtle. The parts which are attacked by it swell in an instant, and occasion excessive pain, followed by death if certain remedies be not speedily applied.”

The cultivation of the sugar-cane is now quite
unknown in Cyprus, and the cotton-plant
is only grown in a few districts.

It has been erroneously stated that the natives
will not touch the flesh of the ox, from the idea that it
would be cruel to eat the companion of their labors. Numerous
small, but fat cattle are fed on the plains, and their beef
enjoyed as much by the Cypriote as by an Englishman. Great
numbers of sheep and goats are also reared. The mutton is juicy and tender.

CHAPTER XXVI.
ST. NICHOLAS AND LIMASOL.

Whilst I was in Kolossin I learnt that
some fine marble pillars, which lay outside in the
court-yard, had been brought from the Abbey of St.
Nicholas, which was only some few leagues off, upon the neighboring peninsula. Everything I heard of this interesting ruin made me more desirous of inspecting it. Visions of European abbeys floated before my eyes, and I determined to start at once to view this
Cyprian reality.

Next morning I sent on my dragoman and horseboy to
Limasol, with orders to try and get
lodgings for me in the Franciscan cloisters, and then
rode forward with Hussein on the way to St. Nicholas. After about an hour and a half's hard riding, we reached the south portion of the peninsula. The spot was a bare, open plain, and the water by which it was surrounded full of reeds. We had scarcely reached our destination than torrents of rain began to fall, and we were forced to take shelter under a ruined wall, standing our horses in fornt of us, to prevent our being literally washed away. Happily the storm was only of short duration, and the ground was soon dry again, and we could continue our investigations.
The little church of St. Nicholas, which was evidently built
in the fifteenth century, is in good condition, and stands in
the midst of the ruined abbey, the rectangular walls of
which surround it. On closely examining the church it was easy to trace the solid foundations of the ancient temple, on the site of which it had been built. Rows of broken pillars, some extending along the hinder walls, indicated what had once been a covered walk for the monks. Over the doorway was a
huge marble tablet, on which five coats-of-arms were chiseled.
The ancient temple which preceded the abbey had evidently been
very extensive, and I could trace its foundations for some
feet beyond the cloister walls. In one corner stood what had
been an alter, and near it a very deep cistern. The old walls here, which are as hard as iron, had been taken in large masses to form, evidently, the abbey walls. Marble pillars lay in all directions, but I saw none as fine as the two that had attracted my attention in the inn yard at Kolossin. No trace of the abbey garden was left, beyond some olive-trees, the roots of which were buried quite impartially under the ancient and mediaeval walls. A few goats were wandering about, and gave a touch of animation
to the melancholy and deserted scene. The water about this
peninsula is as rich in salt as is that near Larnaka.

I mounted a neighboring eminence, but could see no trace of life. Not
a ship or boat appeared upon the bosom of the sea beyond, and
I could not help asking myself, as I descended, if this whole
country was destined to remain desolate forever, or if
we could hope that, under a new government, it might attain fresh vitality, and again take its place as one of the animated spots of the earth.

The road from the ruins of the temple and monastery
upon the southern peninsula, a distance of about three and a
half hours' ride, winds around the salt marsh, and then turns
toward the sea. Limasol
is more European in its appearance than any other town in
Cyprus. Houses built of clay and stone predominate here, more especially in the part inhabited by the Turks.

Clay and wood seem, at the present day, to be the
favorite building materials of these people, and it is the
same wherever they settle. Even a small party of Turkish women
that we encountered were making a house exactly as in Smyrna
or Constantinople. When these women see a stranger
approaching at a short distance, they cover themselves
up, but as he draws nearer, the pretty ones always draw their veils a little aside, so that he may have a peep at their fresh, smiling faces. This use of the veil appears general throughout Turkey, and was practiced even during the time of the Crusaders.

We rode through a long street, and as we approached
a stately-looking house, Hussein called my attention to a flag
emblazoned with the German eagle, which floated over the roof;
with delight I recognized it, and read the familiar
inscription. I then rode on to the Franciscan convent, where
the little monk, who stood before the door, came
froward to receive me with every demonstration of joy and fatherly welcome. Hardly had I refreshed myself with a cup of excellent coffee, than he arose and insisted upon my following him to my chamber and resting myself after my fatiguing journey. He afterward came to fetch me, in order that he might show me over the convent. From the terrace we had a noble prospect, looking toward the mountains which,
although bare, rose grandly above the surface of the plain.
Behind the garden, we found a little sequestered churchyard.
The small number of graves indicated that during a long period
only two or three of the brotherhood had here found their resting-place. It would seem that these monks had been placed here, more to watch over the place, than for any pastoral service. For the purposes of worship a new and very beautiful church was in course of erection; the money to build this had come from Rome,
where gold is always forthcoming to build churches with in any
part of the world where Roman Catholics are to be found.

After we had returned to the dining-hall, there
entered a very smart merchant from Tyre, who, like myself, was
a guest in the convent. This man offered me a gem that he said
he had just found, for which he asked an enormous price. He
was not at all abashed when I told him that the value of
the article might possibly be a couple of piastres. The manufacture of these pretended antiquities is carried on in Smyrna, Beyrut, and Jerusalem on an extensive scale, and appears to be very profitable.

And now the German consular agent appeared with his
canvass, dragoman, and staff of officers, to greet me on my
arrival, and when they departed, Hussein marched after them,
and thus they paraded about the town, and through the bazaar.
People are very fond of show and parade of this
description, a passion doubtless derived from the
customs of the Romans and Byzantines. The German
resident in Limasol
seemed somewhat disappointed because we had passed his house
without calling, and urgently insisted on my accompanying him
home, where, he said, everything had been prepared for my reception. The little priest, however, had laid an embargo on my person, and declared that such an affront should not be offered to his convent. The Italian consul also paid me a visit, and also the master of the Greek school, and I was highly amused, knowing, as I did, that all these pressing invitations were
given with the full knowledge that the next steamer for
Constantinople left Larnaka in three days, and that there was no chance of my waiting a whole week for the next. I then, in company with the Greek
schoolmaster, took a walk through the town, and inspected the
bazaar, the schools, and the church. In the higher school
there were about twenty scholars, in the lower upward of a
hundred; their number increases rapidly from one half
year to another. Behind the school I noticed a column, the capital of which was very handsome, and which I was told had been brought from the monastery of St. Nicholas. The interior of the town has a very European appearance; it is, indeed, principally modern, and has been built—a good augury for Cyprus —in consequence of the
increased export of wines grown in the country.

Limasol at the present day
contains about six thousand inhabitants, of whom one-third,
and these the poorest, are Turks. Among the Greek
population there are already several well-to-do
merchants who trade in flax and wool.

In the evening, a visit to our consular agent enabled me to observe the domestic economy of the Cyprians, in a
Greek house of some pretensions. The agent himself is a young
man of polished address and very engaging manners, the
mistress of the house charmingly beautiful. There was also
a lady whose bright and sparkling eyes gleamed with intelligence and persevering energy. Her family belonged to the oldest nobility of the island, and yet had not been resident there for more than a century and a half. Under Turkish rule families do not easily attain
to nobility or distinction. It may also be remarked that, of
late years, the higher Turkish officials who came from
Constantinople, were seldom people of such refined manners
as their predecessors. How can it be otherwise, seeing that money is now the only key whereby admission to office can be obtained? Even the multitude of green-turbaned descendants of the Prophet are quickly
disappearing. In China they manage better. After the imperial
family, ranks that of Kung-fu-tso (Confucius), and there are
about ten thousand living descendants of the sage—but it is
only the real lineal head of the family, the Prince
Kung, who is benefited by the renown of his ancestry.
In Turkey, on the contrary, the canker-worm has been long devouring the whole ancestral tree, root and branch. The curse of the country is, that dignity and work are thought to be incompatible with each other, and the descendants of the Prophet consider themselves too illustrious to do anything.

About ten o'clock we sat down to table, and our
first glass was dedicated to our country's noble flage, which
waved above the roof of the house. At this time, however,
there were few Germans in Limasol, and during the whole year but two or three German vessels had cast anchor in the roadstead.

I am, however, pretty well convinced that a good
trade might be established here, even if the cargoes consisted
entirely of wine. The conversation turned principally on the
population and revenue, and I succeeded in making a few
additions to my knowledge concerning the statistics of the
country. As regards the population of Cyprus, I was told that the Turks
numbered about 200,000, and Greeks 100,000. A European
observer, who was long a resident here, reckoned 100,000
Greeks, 40,000 Turks, and 1,000 Maronites and Roman
Catholics; most probably, however, if we estimate the
total at 150,000, of whom about a third are Turks, we should not be far from the truth.

Equally at variance with each other were the accounts that I received concerning the revenue, although my
questions were only put to persons who,ex officio, were able at least to give
approximate information. The revenue derived from the
customs and taxes, was estimated by one at thirty-five
millions of piastres, by another at thirty millions,
and by a third at twenty-four millions; the figures set down in the following table are, however, probably nearer the mark:

Piastres.Tithes upon all
income7,000,000Tithes upon all land400,000Land tax (tolls upon
product)5,000,000Military taxes upon
Christians550,000Head money upon sheep700,000Weighing taxes upon
sales300,000Customs upon salt1,500,000Customs upon wines1,000,000Customs upon exported
silk200,000Customs upon exported
fish20,000Total16,670,000

Truly, for a country
so large, so luxurious, and so rich (when we consider the
small value of the piastre), this is but a sorry income. From
this, moreover, must be deducted the cost of the
mosques, Mohammedan schools, and other similar
institutions, which even in Cyprus are distributed over a considerable portion of the island. These are placed
under the superintendence of the Mohammedan priesthood, and
there is a proverb which says, “Sooner will the eyes of the
dead shed tears, than priests give up money.” In Cyprus it is well understood that, of all these texes, not above two or
three millions of piastres find their way to Constantinople;
nay, that the inhabitants have, in addition to these imposts,
to pay considerable sums to the Turkish officials to keep them
in a good humor. Moreover, the Turks are constantly obliged
to bribe one another, in order to keep themselves in office, and to maintain the dignity of their position. The sums expended upon roads, bridges, and public buildings, are of very trifling amount. Even the cost of the military establishment is exceedingly small. The population is too weak and too lazy to require much of a garrison, and the Turks come willingly from other places, to fulfill the military duties in so quiet a spot.

CHAPTER XXVII.
AMATHUS.

Next morning we journeyed onward
towardAmathus. The day was lovely, one of the
most exquisite I have ever experienced in any climate, and as we galloped along, my veins seemed to dance with every breath I drew. At such moments one readily
comprehends why the inhabitants of Cyprus have never taken any high place in the fields of literature and art, and why its seductive and enervating air has always proved attractive to the Turks, as it did formerly to the ancient Romans. Our road lay through waving corn-fields,
the rich golden hues of which were finely contrasted with the
deep blue waters of the sea, which in many places reached the
very borders of the fields. Suddenly a change arose, the sun
mounted high into the heavens, and beat down upon us with such
fiery force and fury, as caused me fully to appreciate
the appropriateness of the symbol stamped upon the ancient coins of Cyprus, namely, a devouring lion, backed, in some
instances, by an image of the sun's rays. Terrible, indeed, is
the destruction worked by the ravening jaws of Phoebus Apollo upon the fruitful gardens and
flowery plains of this fertile island. At these seasons, only
such fields as lie close to the sea can resist the parching
blight; in these tracts on the shore, plants of all kinds
flourish luxuriantly, drawing the moisture which
supports them from the refreshing dews borne to them from the neighboring waves. In such of these cultivated portions of the coast as also enjoy the moisture brought by the smaller streams, as they discharge themselves into the sea, the harvests and
crops are still more luxuriant. Not only the country near to
Limasol, over which I was now
riding, but the coast about Episkopi, Kition,
Larnaka, Famagusta, beside the north coast near
Morphu and Lagathos, and other places, possess many of these
most valuable agricultural districts. Much land has
already been reclaimed for the purposes of cultivation, and there is no reason why so successful an
experiment should not be attempted upon many other parts of
the coast.

After about two hours' riding, we reached what
appeared to me to be the ruins of a church, standing close to
the shore, and beside these a heap of ancient hewn stones,
lying ready to be shipped for Port Saïd, where they were to be employed in the construction of a new harbor. On our left rose a mountain, with fields of corn extending to a considerable distance up its slopes. My dragoman was
most desirous to ride on, without my lingering to investigate the spot,
and when I assured him that this mount was certainly the site
of the ancientAmathus, positively asserted that not a
trace of anything was to be seen. I believe the rascal was afraid he should again get more climbing than suited his indolence, for he declared in piteous accents that it would take us fully an hour to reach the summit. By this time, however, I knew the gentleman I had to deal with, and persisted in my determination to make the attempt. Our road was certainly
of the steepest, but the way was short, and in about fifteen
minutes we were at the top. Much did I rejoice that I had
persevered in my own course, for before me lay the spot that I
had sought. The mount was indeed a natural fortress of the
first order, and must have afforded most secure refuge during the disturbed periods of the island's history. On the side facing the sea, by which we had
ascended, I could trace the foundations of an ancient rampart.
On the other three sides, such protection had been quite
unnecessary, as the rock rose sheer, and almost
perpendicularly from the fruitful valley at its base. Here had
once stood a large city, founded by the Phoenicians, which is
still called in Hebrew, Hamath, or the fortified city. The
building appears to have covered the eminence, and from thence extended to the shores of the sea. Tacitus, and other ancient writers, speak of Amathus as the oldest city in Cyprus; at the present day, it may be described as the
one of which the traces have been most ruthlessly destroyed.
With the exception of the shattered pieces of a gigantic vase,
of which I shall speak presently, and the ruined church
upon the coast, no trace is left of its former
greatness. From the top of the mount to the very shores
of the sea, every sign has been removed, beyond that afforded by heaps of broken stones and potsherds.

Twelve years ago, the last valuable was removed by
French antiquarians. This relic was one of two gigantic vases,
finely shaped in solid stone, with sides almost a foot in
thickness, and ornamented with four gracefully arched handles,
decorated with palm branches, and adorned upon its sides by
the images of four bulls. The interior of this
delicately chiseled but gigantic vase was about ten feet
in diameter, and so deep that an ordinary man, standing within, could just have looked over its edges. At the time this spot was visited by the French travelers we speak of, one of these two precious relics stood above ground, and was quite perfect, whilst the other was partially buried in the earth. Disgraceful as it may appear, the fact is certain, that
when the French officers, who were overlooking the removal of
the perfect vase, found that its companion, imbedded in the
earth, was somewhat in their way, they at once ordered the
sailors who were with them to smash it to pieces. This fact
was related to me by a gentleman of high postion in Limasol, who was an eye-witness
of this act of wanton destruction. My zaptieh, Hussein, it
afterward appeared, had been present with his master, my
friendly pacha, whilst this monster vase was being pulled down
the mountain, and spoke with enthusiasm of its enormous size and beauty. He also informed me that the French frigate, “La Perdrix,” commanded by Comte de Vögue,
had a small steamship to assist in conveying the valuable
relic. I found pieces of a handle of the broken vase lying
strewn about the mountain.

For a thousand years these giant mementos of a
former age had stood upon these mountains, to record the
grandeur of past ages, and would have remained untouched by
the wear and tear of centuries to come, had it not been for
the barbarous vandalism of a handful of French officers. What
may have been the use of these magnificent vessels is quite uncertain; the oxen sculptured upon them would appear to give them a religious significance, and we know that similar vases stood without the Temple at Jerusalem. It is most probable they were in some manner connected with the numerous sacrifices
that formed so large a part of the religious ceremonies to
Venus.

On these heights, the feasts in honor of Adonis
were held. This beautiful youth, the beloved of Venus, is said
to have met his death in the Idalion
forest between Larnaka and Famagusta, where,
according to heathen mythology, he was killed by a wild
boar he had wounded.
Anemones are said to have sprung up from the ground that was
moistened by his blood. These feasts to Adonis, which were
first celebrated at Byblos, in Phoenicia, were
afterward introduced to Greece and Cyprus. In the latter country they
lasted eight days, of which the first four were spent in
howling and lamenting, and the four last in joyful clamors, as
if Adonis had returned to life. The orgies, in connection
whith these feasts, were immoral in the extreme, and we are told that Pygmalion, the celebrated statuary of Cyprus, was so disgusted
by the profligacy of the women of Amathus, that he resolved never to marry. The affection he had denied to the other sex, he, therefore, liberally poured forth upon the creation of his own hands. He became enamored of a
beautiful marble statue he had made, and at his earnest
request and prayers, the Goddess of Love changed the favorite
statue into a woman, whom the artist married, and by whom he
had a son namedPaphos, who founded the city of that name
in Cyprus.

The ascent of Amathus would
well repay any one who would attempt it, if only for the
magnificent view presented from its summit. On one side
lies a broad expanse of blue sea, and on the other a
semicircle of dark heights and peaks, whilst between
the two extends the gay and luxuriant valley,
stretching its fruitful fields and gardens to the shore.

“Under the Ptolemies,” says Cesnola, “and in the
later history of Cyprus, Amathus appears to have
lost the ancient importance which it enjoyed, when ruled by
its own kings, and when its natural allies, the Persians, were
all-powerful.”

“On the hill on which it stood nothing is now
visible but a vast amount of stones, plaster, and broken
pottery. Even the hill itself is fast losing its form, while
the rock of which it is composed is being cut away, to be
shipped at Port Saïd, bringing to the merchants of Limasol a profitable return. From the great amount of
débris which covers the surrounding fields, for the most part untilled, Amathus, it would seem, though small
in area, must have been a thickly-populated city. Originally
the upper part of the hill had been encircled by a wall,
remains of which are now scarcely perceptible;
portions, however, of another wall of a later period may especially be observed on the southern side looking toward the sea, and following the sinuous windings of the hill. I found imbedded in this wall pieces of terra-cotta jars and fragments of granite columns, which had been used as building materials. On the southern side, portions of it ran as far as the shore. It is probable that the square-built ruin at the southern end of the hill formed a gateway, since, between the city and the sea-shore, there was, and still is, the high road to Paphos. On the crest of this hill I dug at several
places, until I came to the solid rock, but failed
to discover any sculptured remains of importance. I found,
however, sufficient evidence to convince me that most of the
building materials of what I call the Phoenician city,
had been used for the construction of the later Greek buildings.”

“Amathus, when subsequently
inhabited by a Greek population, spread itself in a more
southeasterly direction, and nearer to the sea-shore,
protected by the second wall, which I spoke of, and though at the time of its destruction by King Richard of England it was still the seat of the last Duke of Cyprus, Isaac
Comnenas, it had alread lost most of its splendor and
importance.”

“It was on the top of this hill, that M. de Vögue
discovered the large stone vase which is now deposited in the
museum of the Louvre. Near the same spot, there are fragments
of what seems to have been a similar vase. In the immediate
vicinity of the site where these vases were found, I dug up,
on a former excursion, three large shafts of columns, of a
hard bluish stone, resembling granite. I left them
halfburied in the soil, with the intention of examining them on a future occasion; but when I returned, the columns has disppeared, having been broken up for building purposes. There are thousands of stones on the top and sides of this hill, which would equally well suit the purposes of these workmen, but it seems that they are possessed by some infatuation or evil mania for
destroying whatever bears the traces of man's handicraft. It
is the more to be regretted, since among the ruins very few
architectural or sculptured remains are now found.”

Far away in the distance is the town of Limasol, washed by the waters of its
beautiful and rounded bay, behind this, again, a long line of
coast, and then the eye just discerns the promotory of
Curias, stretching its length far into the sea, where it
terminates in Capo delle Gatte. Cesnola gives an
amusing account of the origin of this name, which is
too interesting to be omitted. “On one occasion,” he says, “my mule was terrified by a sudden leap from a bush, of what appeared to me to be a cat; my guide assured me that both at this cape, and near to Acrotiri, there are wild cats, which hunt and destroy
the asps abounding there. I at once recollected having read
that the ‘Caloyers’ of the convent of Acrotiri raised and
trained a superior breed of cats, which they imported from
Constantinople, to kill the asps in their neighborhood. That
at the toolling of a particular bell in the convent, these
cats would come in to be fed twice a day, and then
return to their work of destruction. I suppose that it is called Capo delle Gatte in reference to these cats.”

When we had descended the mountain, and were once
more on the shore, I observed a number of black and half-black
Egyptian sailors, all in rags, who were busily
employed in carrying stones to their ships which were anchored
in the roads. Their captain looked on, smoking his pipe, and
shaded from the sun by a small tent. Stones from the
oldest city in Cyprus, going over to Port Saïd,
to help in the construction of the newest town on the
opposite continent, near which a harbor is in course of construction destined to receive the ships coming from every quarter of the globe; whilst here at my feet lay the ancient harbor of Amathus, of which nothing remains but
its natural basin, formed by rocks which extend some distance
into the sea.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
KARUBIEH AND MAZOTOS.

When we left Amathus, our road lay over a barren
mountainous tract, entirely destitute of every charm, but as
we reached Cape Karubieh, a scene of great beauty opened up
from the left to our view. Before us lay a little town,
looking as fresh and bright as if but quite recently built,
with houses that appeared much more stately and substantial than any I had yet seen in Cyprus. To our surprise these attractive-looking
residences were closed and untenanted, and not a human
creature was to be seen, except a solitary negro at a small
inn where we got a cup of coffee. I afterward learned that the inhabitants of Karubieh, which number about one thousand, only return to their homes in August. At this season many ships anchor here to take in large cargoes of fruit for Trieste, Marseilles, Smyrna, Odessa, and St. Petersburg. The fields, from which all this superabundant harvest is produced, cover all the declivities of the sea-shore from Limasol toMazotos. The once-despised carob-tree
(Ceratonia siliqua) is now much esteemed, and the fruit,
which was formerly only used either as food for cattle,
or occasionally eaten
during seasons of fasting, has become of great value. Of late
years it has been discovered that the fruit is highly valuable
for the making of excellent brandy, and the tree is
therefore cultivated throughout this district with the
utmost assiduity. About April the branches are lopped off, numerous shoots from fruitful trees are grafted on the trunks, and in a very short space of time the tree is covered with succulent pods. I mention this interesting fact, to prove of what this once fertile island is capable, when its products receive the necessary attention. In this instance, as in many others, gold is literally lying on the ground in Cyprus, ready to be picked up by those
who have enterprise and energy.

Our road from Cape Karubieh presented nothing of
interest. The mountains gradually receded inland, and the eye
found nothing to relieve the monotony of the bare expanse of
coast, until at length our further progress in a direct line
was stopped by a rocky promontory, which projected far into
the sea. We were now obliged to turn inland, and soon reached higher ground, from whence we once more obtained a good view of the purple and deep blue mountains, and could see their tints gradually deepen under the shadow of approaching night. It was late before we reached Mazotos, and I at once endeavored to obtain a
lodging, in the house of some well-to-do farmer, from whom I
might hope to learn many interesting
particulars concerning the manners and customs of the people.
As we entered the town, I observed a court-yard leading from
a stable to a small house within. At the left-hand side was a flight of stone steps, conducting to an upper chamber, which, it being harvest time, was now filled with corn.

Opposite this was the large roomy apartment, that
served for living and sleeping room to the whole family. The
floor was covered with tiles, and the room divided in the
centre by an arch. A stone ledge of imposing appearance
projected from one of the walls, and was well garnished with
household utensils, whilst upon the whitewashed walls
hung the clothes, nets, hammocks, and long baskets
belonging to the family. Large pitchers of red clay, and numerous calabashes, stood about, filled with bread, eggs, fruit, maize, and vegetables. The kitchen was outside in the yard, and I could not avoid noticing the cheerful alacrity and skill displayed by our worthy hostess, whilst she prepared our evening meal. Servants she had none, everything in the interior of the house being done by the members of
the family, whilst out of doors they were assisted about the
farm and garden by day laborers. InCyprus, the soil is so light that a
farmer will readily plow over thirty acres of ground with one
yoke of oxen, and see his land reward his labors by
bringing forth its fruits thirtyfold. The processes of sowing and reaping are
equally carelessly performed, and when this is over, but few
farmers touch the fields again. For this reason, without a
farmer has really extensive property, he does not incur the
expense of board and wages to regular men. During the harvest-time a day laborer receives three shillings a day and three meals. Should a farmer not
be inclined to comply with their demands, he will stand, as
with us, a very good chance of having his corn spoilt, before
he can get it into his barns. At other seasons the men cannot
obtain more than from elevenpence to one shilling and
threepence, and the women from about fivepence to eightpence
per day. Small as is the sum, it amply suffices to provide
all that the lower class of Cypriotes require, sleeping
as they do for nine months of the year in the open air. Food, such as they principally consume, is extremely cheap, and we have it upon the authority of a gentleman who knows the island well, Consul Lang,
that a family of six persons can be maintained in perfect
health and activity on an allowance of forty pounds of flour
and three pounds of olives per week. In ordinary seasons the
cost of this quantity of provisions would not exceed three
shillings and sixpence. Cesnola mentions that he has
frequently seen Greek priests in Cyprus working in the fields like
common peasants.

Contrary to all my experience in Cyprus, when we quitted the farmer's house, the
worthy host at once complied with my
request, that he would make some charge for our accommodation.
This I accounted for by the fact, that the house standing on the highway between Limasol and Larnaka, would probably attract the attention of more strangers than could be comfortably entertained without proper remuneration. A present to the poor, if your
resting-place has been a convent, or a little remembrance to
the children of a family, is the most that is expected
throughout all those parts of the East through which I have
traveled, whilst should your entertainer be a man of position
and means, you cannot, without giving offense, do more than offer a “pour boire” to the four or five men-servants who will appear at the door to see you start.

Our last day's journey, which was short but delightful, lay over a wide tract of cornfields, in traversing which we passed the village of Kiti, with its little church,
embowered in fruit trees, and not far from it another church
standing on a piece of barren ground, without a shrub or tree
near it. On our left towered a magnificent mountain, which
rises abruptly to a height of two thousand feet, and
bears upon its summit the once celebrated monastery of the Holy Cross, or Hagios Stavros. This building, which is rarely or never
obscured by clouds or fog, can be seen from a considerable
distance at sea, and has long been known to sailors as a
landmark. St. Helena is supposed to have presented this
cloister with a valuable relic,
which brought many pilgrims and gifts to the brotherhood. This
was a piece of wood, about as long as a finger, fashioned like
a cross, mounted in silver, and had the reputation of being a veritable portion of the Saviour's cross.

Whilst it was still light, we came in sight of
Larnakai; the cornfields were crowded with laborers gathering
in the harvest, and these, being principally Greeks, and
therefore very conversational, we could hear a lively hum of
many voices long before we reached the spot. We dined under
the shadow of a large fig-tree, which grew upon the brink of
a rippling stream. Numerous cranes, and whole hosts of beccaficos, came within such tempting reach of our guns, that, as soon as our repast was over, we started after them, over fields where horses and camels were grazing, and over marshy ground, until we reached the rolling, glittering sea. Our sport was
excellent, for my dragoman knew every call and wile by which
the birds could be allured, and it required some
determination, when it was time to return, to quit our
delighful but peculiar shooting-ground.

On my return to Larnaka I had
the luck to chance upon some dear friends, with whom I supped.
Our host produced the best his cellar contained, in
various sorts of wine, winding up with a bottle fifty years old, most delicious, but so strong that discretion only permitted us to taste it in thimblefuls.

Next day I paid many visits in the town, and was
amused to find with what astonishment the history of my little
journey across the island was received. I really believe that
at that time there was not a single person in the island who
had seen as much ofCyprus as myself.

CHAPTER XXIX.
LAST DAYS IN LARNAKA.

In my eagerness to obtain all possible
information concerning the manners and customs of the people, I had often to encounter much disappointment. Imagine my disgust upon one occasion, when,
having heard that a very rare and charming performance was
about to take place, and having hurried to the spot indicated,
a little coffee-house, I found the anticipated treat was
nothing more nor less than the clumsy antics of a half-naked
negress, probably a new arrival from Egypt, who was performing
one of the hideous dances of which I had already seen too much. A few Turks sat around, watching her contortions and tremblings with unruffled dignity, and amongst the spectators I noticed some really
respectable-looking Greeks. I speedily left the
assembly, and reflected as I retired, as to whether
this species of dance, might not have been the very
kind performed, but in more graceful fashion, by the worshippers of Aphrodite, in the sacred groves that surrounded her temples. The next day was the feast of St. George the Martyr, which is regarded as a
political as well as a religious celebration by the numerous
Grecians in the island. This day is chosen as being the
fête of King George of Greece, who they still regard as their
lawful head.

It cannot but be regarded as a most strange coincidence, that the tutelar saint of England and her
new possession, should be one and the same. St. George was
regarded by several Eastern nations as their patron, and
ancient Byzantine historians relate accounts of many battles
gained, and miracles wrought, by his intercession. Among other
churches, five or six were dedicated to him at
Constantinople. He was also celebrated in France in the
sixth century, and is said to have been chosen as the
patron saint of England under her Norman kings. St. George of Cappadocia, “Martyr and Victor,” as he is sometimes styled, one of the seven champions of Christendom, was, no doubt, brought into connection with Cyprus, under the
influence of Richard and his knights.

The legend of the saint is as follows: St. George,
who was born in Cappadocia, went with his mother to Palestine,
of which country she was a native, and where she had
considerable estates. These fell to her son, who was a
soldier, and became a tribune, and was further promoted by the
Emperor Dioclesian, to whom, however, he resigned his
commission when that emperor made war against the
Christian religion. He was thrown into prison for
remonstrating against bloody edicts, and was afterward beheaded at Nicomedia. St. George became the patron of the soldiers
who fought for the faith, and his apparition is said to have
encouraged the Christian army in the Holy War, before the
battle of Antioch, which proved fortunate under Godfrey of Bouillon, and he is also said to have appeared and inspirited Richard Coeur de Lion, in his expedition against the Saracens. St. George is usually represented in pictures as on horseback, slaying a dragon; but this is no more than an emblematical figure, purporting that by his faith and Christian fortitude, he had overcome the devil.

The great majority of the population of Larnaka, as of the rest of the island,
are members of the Greek Church.

The chief points of difference between the Greek
Church and that of Rome, are the following:

The Greek Church does not admit: First. The
supremacy of Rome.

Secondly. The Filioque clause in the creed.

Thirdly. The enforced celibacy of the parochial
clergy (the reason of this being that although the monastic
system had begun before the schism, the celibacy of the
regular clergy had not been enforced till a later period, and
this was adopted by the Greek Church).

Fourthly. The doctrine of transubstantiation, in
the Papal sense of that term, is not held by the Greek Church;
(Rome itself did not adopt this strange tenet till the Council
of Lateran in 1215).

Fifthly. The dogmas of purgatory and penance, as
taught by Rome, are not held by the Greek Church, yet some of
their views bear a close resemblance to the papal theories on
these points.

Sixthly. The Greek Church disagrees with that of
Rome about the use of leaven in the Eucharist. In almost all
other respects there is little difference between the
churches. The Greek Church is thoroughly hierarchal, holds the
monastic system, worships pictures (although it rejects the
worship of images), and gives to the Virgin Mary as high a
degree of worship as even Rome can do; its theory of thePanagia being scarcely distinguishable
from that of the Immaculate Conception.

The officiating clergy of the Greek Church are the
patriarch, archbishops, and bishops; subordinate to these are
the papades or parish priests. All the dignitaries are taken
from among the caloyers or monastic orders, and are not
allowed to marry, but the papades may be married, with these
special limitations: That they are married previous to their consecration, and may not marry a second time, should they become widowers. Hence they are commonly married before taking orders, and invariably
select young and healthy women for their wives. The revenues
of the dignitaries are raised by a tax imposed on each family,
while the parish priests are supported chiefly by means of
what they can obtain from the superstitions of the
people, and perquisites of
office, such as money paid for absolutions, benedictions,
exorcism, ceremonial sanctifying of water, sprinklings of
streets and tombs, granting divorces, and innumerable
ritualistic observances. They are almost universally a base
and degraded class, themselves extremely ignorant, and they keep the people in equal degradation and ignorance, partly because such is their own state, and
partly that they may secure their own influence. Their places
of worship are built generally in form of a cross. The choir
is always placed toward the east, and the people turn their
faces in that direction when they pray. Their public religious
service is liturgical, and exceedingly protracted. They have four liturgies, and the service consists chiefly of prayers, hymns, recitations, chants, and frequent crossings, with such numerous repetitions that it often occupies five or six hours, without any sermon.

During this long service, the people stand, leaning
on the supports of the few seats in the church, or on a kind
of crutches, provided for the purpose. No images are allowed
within their churches, but they are plentifully decorated with
rough and glaring paintings; the more rough and glaring
these are, the higher they stand in the estimation of
the worshippers. Their music is without any aid from instruments, and is chiefly a kind of chanting, but it is said to be often beautiful and touchingly plaintive, although monotonous. The vestments of the clergy are very varied
in form, often of fine texture, gorgeous in color, and
ornamented with jewelry of great value. Each of these
vestments has its mystic meaning and virtue, to which great
importance is attaced. The worship of saints, angels, and
the Virgin Mary, is carried to as great an excess as it can be at Rome, and it is long since the Greek Church held, that “the Mother of God” as they term her, “was without original.” It may be said, indeed,
that the Panagia, or Holy Virgin, is the peculiar
deity of the Greeks, as much as ever Pallas Athene was of the
ancient Athenians. Everywhere, in church, palace, or cottage,
a little coarse picture intended to represent the Holy Virgin,
may be seen, often wth a lamp burning before it, as the object of special adoration.

Being desirous of seeing something of te festivities of the Cypriotes on their fête day, I walked out to a
church about half a league from the “Marina,” and in spite of the scenery arond me,
could have fancied I was again witnessing one of the annual markets I had seen as a boy in my native land. Around and about the church, booths were ranged, and peasants were wandering around, chatting and eagerly driving bargains, under an impresion very prevalent amongst them, that there will not be the usual deceit and rogery so near a house of God. Bells were pealing, and horses and asses neighing and whinnying, as their owners, dressed in their Sunday best, galloped about
in all directions. All those of the better class who appeared
on the occasion, were also mounted, the elders looking on
in stately dignity, whilst the youngsters galloped hither and thither like the wind.

In such a gathering as this in Central Europe, one
would, no doubt, see many more powerful men, and more blooming
girls, than are to be met with under similar circumstances in
Cyprus. And as I
gazed at the crowds before me, I could not help again noticing
the strange blending of Syrian and Grecian types in the faces
and figures, whilst the dress of most was a curious mixture of
European, Grecian, and Turkish fashions. Many of the
girls were remarkably beautiful, with magnificent large flashing eyes; in most cases their eyebrows were blackened, and their hair, mixed with false, was piled high on the head. Not a few, as it appeared to me, had dipped pretty deeply into pots of cosmetics, for the use and compounding of which the fair Cypriotes have long been noted. One fashion pleased me
much—namely, the common use of natural flowers for decorating
the head. The very poorest in the crowd wore some kind of
metal ornaments, whilst the wealthier class of women
displayed ear-rings, chains, and medallions of heavy
gold. The Cypriote husband takes great pride in seeing his wife thus decked, not perhaps so much from sentimental reasons, as because the extent of the show demonstrates what
is the depth of his cashbox, and the chances of his family in
the matter of dowries. For a Cypriote to invest his earnings
in land would, under the late Government, have been an act involving the utmost risk of capital.

As I returned home on this my last day in Cyprus, I could not but feel a shade
of melancholy stealing over me. The evening was lovely, the
air pure and clear, and the sun as it went down, tipped the purple mountains with gold, and gave a tinge of bronze to the palms and cypress trees of Larnaka, as they stood clearly defined
against the evening sky.

When I reached the town, old and young were sitting
before the doors of the Grecian houses, or chatting and
laughing with each other in lively groups about the streets.
In the Turkish quarters, on the contrary, not a living
creature was visible, and every house had the appearance of
being a dungeon. Yet, as I have before said, could I have looked within the high walls, I should probably have seen the entire family enjoying the fragrant coolness of their gardens.

Next day, I bade farewell to this lovely island,
which still lay bound hand and foot, in the power of her
negligent and cruel masters, and entirely unconscious of the
great and impotant change that would shortly burst her bonds.

May we not trust that under British rule her barren wastes and
plains may once more speedily become fruitful fields, and her
people again reap the blessings and benefits of a pure
Christian Church and a paternal Government?

CHAPTER XXX.
EFFORTS OF THE GERMANS TO OBTAIN CYPRUS.

So much attention has lately been called to the
concluding chapters of Herr von Löher's most interesting work,
that we feel compelled to present them, in an English form,
even at the risk of incurring blame in some quarters, for
unnecessary repetition. Throughout the whole of his travels in
the island, our author, shocked at the scenes of
neglect and mismanagement presented to his eyes, was
constantly indulging in reflections on what a different fate might await its inhabitants could they be annexed to the mighty empire of his fatherland. Indulging in this strain of thought, he presents us
with a lengthy account of what was done there by his
countrymen in former days.

In a short and rapid sketch of these pages, we will
endeavor to give only such details as may be new and
interesting to our readers, and suppressing as far as possible
all such matter as has already appeared in the body of the
work. Long after the Crusaders had been expelled from the Holy
Land, says Löher, they still retained the fortresses of
Jaffa, Akkon, Tyre, Sidon, Beyrut, Caesarea, Antioch, Tripoli, and other
strongholds, the governors of which ruled over, and gave
commands to, a multitude of knights and people there resident.
The Christian forces, then dispersed over all Syria, should have united under the imperial leadership, and opposed their serried ranks to the forces of the Crescent. This was manifestly the plan of the second Frederick, Emperor of Germany, whose idea
was, to put the Christian forces under the command of Hermann
von Salza, the renowned Preceptor of the German order. This
was he, who, in a conference at Ferentino, at which the Pope,
the Emperor, and King John of Jerusalem were present,
proposed that Frederick should marry Isabella, the
daughter of the last-mentioned sovereign, and thus ally
her inheritance, the kingdom of Jerusalem, with his
possessions, whilst her father should merely have the honor of being nominally a king. The proposal was received joyfully by all parties. The imperial marriage
took place in the year 1225, at Brindisi, where the bride's
father surrendered the sceptre of Jerusalem into the hands of
his new son-in-law—not, however, without compulsion. Frederick
forthwith received the homage of all present, and sent
a herald with three hundred knights to the Holy Land, to ratify and complete the homage paid to the emperor—who, if he intended to bring the crusade to a successful end, must necessarily be the legitimate lord of the soil.

The Cyprians, however, thought that Frederick,
after a time, would be in a position to assume the feudal
sovereignty of their island, for the kingdom had in former
times been an appanage of the Emperor Heinrich the Sixth, his
grandfather. The late King Hugo the First had been for ten
years engaged in the crusade, and when he died, his only
son, the heir to the throne, was but nine months old.

The Emperor Frederick the Second at length
discovered how powerless he was to remodel the affairs of the
East. The knights and merchants had ordered matters according
to their own pleasure. The barons with their feudal retainers
occupied their castles in perfect independence; the
king was only their leader, and the feudal parliament
the court in which they decided everything according to their pleasure. With these uncontrolled nobles we must rank three orders of knights, forming as many well-established and wealthy brotherhoods, in which the military and monkish characteristics were united. These ecclesiastica] warriors were armed in complete steel, and claimed princely
prerogatives. In the towns were guilds and
corporations, combinations of merchants and men of
business, who watched over their own interest, and
resisted the innovations of the arrogant nobility. Among all these petty powers, who were incessantly quarreling among themselves, Frederick
found it a difficult task to introduce harmony, and harder still to bring
them to acquiesce in his authority.

Frederick had already proclaimed in Ferentino, that
the conquest of the Holy Land should no longer be carried on
in the name of the knights, but of the king only, thus
intimating that the whole of it should belong to himself. In
Cyprus, matters were arranged upon a very different basis; here the supreme
authority was shared among the barons, and the power of the
king jealously circumscribed.

So long as the authority of the emperor was maintained in Cyprus, he held the
key of all the opposite coasts of Syria, Asia Minor, and
Egypt, and consequently, to possess the sovereign power in
this island, was from first to last the great object of
Oriental policy. In 1218 the last King of Cyprus died, having on
his death-bed appointed his wife, Alice, regent. The knights,
unwilling to submit to the authority of a woman, compelled her
to share her rule in the island with Philip of Ibelin as
co-regent. Meanwhile feuds sprang up on all sides, and
every occurrence seemed to increase the discord. The Franks in the East had been vitiated by Byzantine manners, and fought each other with the bitterest hatred, quite unmindful of their original mission, which was to deliver the Holy Land from the heathen. Quarrels soon arose between the Latin and
Greek Churches, and Cyprus became the
arena where bloody combats took place.

Frederick now entered the capital of Cyprus, and there all the princes and barons
interceded for Ibelin, who declared that he and all his
followers were ready to submit to the emperor, and atone for
their delinquencies. The emperor did not seek revenge, but simple justice; and was extremely desirous of securing the support of Cyprus, and the wealth obtainable from that
source, and thus the affair was soon arranged; the barons,
under the emperor's command, acquiesced, and a general amnesty
was proclaimed upon the following terms:

The emperor was to be the sole guardian of the
young king until he completed his twenty-fifth year. The
government of Cyprus and its revenues
should be placed in the hands of the emperor, and all
the fortified places in the kingdom delivered up to
him. All the Cyprian knights who had not sworn fealty to the emperor should immediately take the oath of allegiance. Ibelin, in behalf of the ruler of Beyrut, recognized the emperor as King of Jerusalem, and did homage to him under that title, and agreed that all claims relative to the castle of Beyrut should be settled by the court of Jerusalem, and an account of all revenues due, since the death of King Hugo, should be laid before the court of Cyprus. The hostages demanded by the emperor were
set at liberty. Ibelin and all the Cyprian barons, with
their followers, were to accompany Frederick to the
Holy Land, and serve him there till the end of the
crusade.

All these conditions were punctually carried out,
the oath of allegiance administered, and the castles as well
as the revenue, given up. The emperor had achieved a complete
victory. Cyprus remained for several years under his command, and its king was formally declared a prince of the German empire. The emperor next appointed revenue officers and treasurers in all the castles and bailiwicks of the island, and made arrangements that the money thus raised should be sent after him into Syria. To these offices, as well as in garrisoning the castle, the emperor appointed his own knights by preference, and these gladly accepted such desirable appointements.

After all these things were arranged, the emperor
came to Famagusta, and the next day, the
2d of September, seven weeks after his landing in Cyprus, embarked, taking
the young king with him, and accompanied by all the chivalry
of the island. Their landing was effected at Beyrut, Sidon,
Sarepta, and Tyre, as Frederick was desirous of becoming
more intimately acquainted with the coast of Syria; he probably likewise intended that the armies of the Crusaders, employed upon the fortifications of Sidon and of Caesarea, should enter Akkon while he remained upon the coast. In the last-mentioned city,
the most populous and most important in the Holy Land, the
emperor was received with great ceremony. The Crusaders, more
especially those from Germany, were jubilant; the clergy sang
hymns of praise; the Templars
and the Knights of St. John did homage to their sovereign by
kneeling before him and kissing his knees, according to the
custom of the times. Nevertheless Frederick was well aware that, to use the words of an old writer, he was in a land where neither God nor man had ever yet found truth or loyalty.

The truth of this he soon found out. The Cyprians
formed by far the greater part of the host of Eastern
warriors, led by the High-Marshal Felingher, but the number of
these was not more than two thousand. Rome had already taken
her precautions. A Papal bull was issued denouncing Frederick, and he was placed under an interdict. Messages both from the Pope and the Patriarch warned the knights not to obey the emperor's commands, and
it was promulgated amongst the soldiery, that Frederick was
under the curse of God, and of the Church, and that all his
acts were of no effect. Multitudes of the Crusaders,
despairing of the success of their undertaking, deserted.
The Knights of the Temple and of St. John fell away from the emperor's standard, and the rest of the warriors of the Cross refused to be led to battle. The Cyprian barons began to discuss the question whether the oath they had taken to Frederick, was not overridden by the feudal allegiance they owed to their king.

The Germans who had come over with the emperor under the command of
their leader, Hermann von Salza, kept their plighted faith,
and were the only supporters of the imperial authority;
these, however, taking them all together, knights and squires, soldiers from Germany, Sicily, and Lombardy, hardly amounted to twelve thousand men.
With so feeble an army—with the Eastern knights partly at open
enmity, partly vacillating, with the clergy altogether
inimical—it was quite impossible for Frederick to think of
giving battle to the un believers. He established himself in a
camp near Akkon, and while he strengthened the defenses of Joppa, gave all his attention to the establishment of a secret understanding with the Sultan. Overtures to this effect had in truth been already made by him from Italy, and during his stay in Cyprus had been still further advanced.

Immediately on his arrival in the Holy Land, it
became clear what were the necessities of his position, and
what there might be a possibility of his obtaining. The
possession of the holy places; a free pass for pilgrims in
Syria and Palestine, who must necessarily be under Christian
jurisdiction; peace secured by the strength of the fortress
and the solemn oath of the Mussulmans; all these were
secured. Jerusalem, which for nearly half a century had been in their hands, was, with the surrounding country, again placed in the power of the Christians, who held, moreover, Bethlehem and the intervening land. Joppa and a
strip of country between that town and Jerusalem; Nazareth and
the road from thence to Akkon; the fertile plain of Sidon; and in its neighborhood the castle Turon, commanding the entire coast; all these castles and towns were permitted to be again fortified, and on the other side
the Sultan promised that he would raise no new fortifications.
All Christian prisoners, some of whom had been a long while in
the hands of the Mussulmans, were to be set free. This peace
was to last during ten years. All these arrangements were to be confirmed by the solemn oaths of both the contracting parties.

When the terms of this peace became known in Joppa,
great joy was manifested by the Christians who accompanied the
emperor to Jerusalem, where, on the day of his arrival (March
18, 1229), he offered up thanks in the church of the Holy
Sepulchre. After this, approaching the high altar, he placed the crown of Jerusalem upon his head, and then returned to his place. No priest was allowed to take part in the rejoicings, which included festivities of every description. Their general, Hermann von Salza, read before all the soldiers and common people a
manifesto by the emperor, explaining why he had not been able
to come before, and telling them that the Pope had been
compelled to publish his ban by pressure of circumstances, and
that everything should now be arranged to secure peace among the heads of
Christendom. Next day the Patriarch of Jerusalem assailed him
with the Papal interdict. Frederick, in order to give no
pretense for suppressing public worship, returned to
Joppa, and from thence to Akkon.

Here the emperor remained for about five weeks,
doing everything which his position allowed to make peace with
the adherents of the Pope, at the head of whom stood the
Patriarch of Jerusalem. The patriarch, however, found him, to
use his own expression, “unhealthy from the crown of his head
to the sole of his foot,” and seemed rather exasperated than otherwise at all the good that Frederick had achieved in so short a time. The proud Templars and Knights of St. John were furious because the chief control lay no longer with them, but with the Germans. Even the ecclesiastics were princpally from France, very few of them from Italy. Probably at no period of the world's history has a body of men existed so steeped in pride, so full of
haughtiness, luxury, and immorality, as the Templars. Well might they think that in his heart the emperor had the intention of expelling them from the Holy Land. The governors of the towns had instructions to
watch them strictly, and from his first arrival in Syria, the
emperor had endeavored to give the ascendancy to his German
followers, while he scarcely concealed his design of making
the huge possessions of the Templars and Knights of
Jerusalem subservient to the
worship of Christ, instead of ministering to their insatiable
debaucheries.

No wonder, therefore, that the burning hatred of
the Templars was aroused. Were it now possible to trace out
all their conspiracies against the life of Frederick, we
should indeed have to deal with a tangled web, while the
enmity of the Pope still further increased the dangers that
surrounded him. The whole land was filled with the Papal
troops, whose business was to plunder and to destroy,
so that all the energies of the emperor were put in
requisition to govern and defend the unhappy country. Balian of Sidon, a man universally respected, a nephew of Ibelin, and Walter d'Allemand, who deeply
reverenced the Church, were appointed chief governors, and all
fortified places received efficient garrisons and abundant
supplies of provisions.

Above everthing else, Frederick had in his mind the
kingdom of Cyprus. That rich island must
now furnish him with money to pay his officials in the Holy Land, and to supply his army with provisions and warlike stores. The kingdom of Jerusalem was no longer in a condition to pay the heavy costs; it now
indeed consisted only of a few straggling towns, and a narrow
strip of the sea-coast of Syria. Cyprus had already been made to pay considerable sums, which had been forwarded to the
emperor, and in addition to these, the Archbishop of Nikosia
found himself compelled to contribute largely; and now,
before taking their departure for Akkon, came Amalrich von
Balas, Hugo von Giblet, Gavain von Chenichy, and Wilhelm von
Rivet, all belonging to the highest nobility in Cyprus, who had all of
them conspired against Ibelin, and so represented him to the
emperor, that he was deprived of his lordship. Undoubtedly
they had all been sent for by the emperor himself, who thought
that the best way to insure the safety of the island,
was to put it into the hands of his most trusty
friends, under the auspices of the young king. These
five noblemen were instructed to form a regency, which should continue for three years, during which time they were to protect and govern the country, and to send over year by year ten thousand marks to be paid directly into the hands of Balian and Werner in Syria.

And now, after these arrangements, the emperor
thought himself secure, and hoped that at least for a few
years he should be able, not only to holdCyprus, but also to defend his little
kingdom of Jerusalem. At the end of that time he trusted
that the people would have become accustomed to his government, or that at least he should be able to return with a greater force and more freedom of action.

That Frederick did accomplish a great and good work
in the Holy Land there can be no doubt. It is impossible to
read the letters or records handed down from those times,
without remarking that amidst the whirl of events, where
ambition, hatred, avarice, and national jealousy reigned on
all sides, obscuring and crippling all efforts to do good,
the honest endeavors of Frederick to ameliorate the condition of the country, were not altogether unsuccessful.

On the 1st of May, after a stay of not more than
eight months in the Holy Land, the emperor took ship at Akkon,
accompanied by the young King ofCyprus and the Marquis of Montserrat. As
the boat which put him on board left the land, Ibelin shouted after him a parting adieu, on which the emperor called out to the assembled multitude, that his mind was quite at ease, inasmuch as he knew that he left them in good hands.

The imperial fleet crossed over to Limasol, and here Frederick celebrated the
marriage of his ward, the young king, with Alice, daughter of
the Marquis of Montserrat. He then put in order the affairs
of the island, arranging that the regency should
regularly transmit to the governors of Jerusalem or
Akkon money wherewith to supply the garrisons and officials in the Holy Land.

The emperor attached great importance to the
possession of the Cyprian castles and fortresses. Already in
the preceding year he had made every preparation for their
defense, by putting each of them under the command of some
distinguished officer, and had brought with
him from Akkon whatever could be spared in the way of
munitions of war, for their safe keeping. As he was about
to leave the island for the second time, he stipulated that the regents should have no power over the castles until the transmission of the money to the Holy Land had been regularly completed.

The seaboard of Cyprus at that
time had no fortresses, with the exception of the capital city
Nikosia; even on the south-western coast, where a
mountainous district occupies nearly one-half of the
island, there was no castle of importance; the hills
moreover must at that time have been covered with
wildgrowing forests. The life and wealth of the island consisted in the rich maritime slopes and fertile plains, which extended along the shore from Famagusta and Laranaka,
as far as the mountainous tract which extends all along the
northern side of the island.

Behind the chain of mountains are narrow slips of
fertile soil, producing abundance of excellent fruit, in the
midst of which is the principal haven,Keryneia. From this town deep dells and
rocky gorges run up into the mountains, leading to the fortresses St. Hilarion, Buffavento, and Kantara. These three castles are built upon the smaller chain of mountains, which, rugged and steep, rear themselves in innumerable peaks and crags to a considerable altitude.

Before the time of Frederick the Second, Buffavento is scarcely mentioned, but
it then became one of the principal defenses of the island;
indeed it seems to have been quite impregnable, so long as food and water could be procured on the summit of the moutain upon which it stood. Victuals were, however, much more easily obtainable on the heights of St. Hilarion, a much larger place, situated a little farther westward. Even Kantara, lying to the north-east, could boast of
more than one wall.

The town of Keryneia, however,
where the haven was situated, was most strongly fortified,
inasmuch as it was well adapted to the reception of food
and military stores arriving from the coasts of Syria, Asia Minor, or even Italy, which could be immediately forwarded to the fortresses above mentioned.

Had the eagle eye of Frederick at once seen howCyprus could best be defended by a
limited body of troops, he could not have been better
prerpared for the events which subsequently happened. A war soon broke out, which, during several years, continued to rage throughout the island, the history of which gives a most variegated picture of the doings of the
knights beyond the sea, chevalerie d'outre-mer, as they were called by the Eastern warriors.

Homeric combats upon a fair field, trials by battle, the beleaguering and defense of castles, codes laying down
the nicest points of honor or of right, biting satires and new
war songs, followed eachKERYNIA.
other as incessantly
as did the victories or the defeats of the combatants. That
all the knights displayed wonderful bravery is undeniable. As
the head of the imperial forces, we may mention the knightly Marshal Felingher, Balas, called by Navarra in his history, “the Fox,” and Hugo de Giblet, who, on account of his grimaces, was nicknamed “the Ape.” Ibelin seems to have made himself more conspicuous than the rest. His brave sons and their friend,
the merry poet, Philip of Navarre, as also the wild “fighting
cock” Anselm de Brie, afforded materials for innumerable
anecdotes.

All this time Cyprus suffered
severely, owing to the discord which existed between two
parties of nobles, whose enmity at length involved Syria
and Palestine, where the Templars and Knights of St. John, together with what was left of the priesthood, raged with unmeasured hatred against the emperor, whose witty jests, aimed at the silly practices of the monks, had given great offense, more especially when, after the example of the Templars, they displayed their insatiable avarice. The dissensions among the Cyprian nobles were, indeed, the cause why all the arrangements made by the wisdom and care of
Frederick, in treating with the Mussulmans, fell to the
ground.

Still, for a time, the treaty which had cost so
much trouble continued in force, notwithstanding that one of
the two governors in the Holy Land, in whom the Emperor had
reposed so much trust, Walter d'Allemand, joined the party of
his mortal enemies, and himself became a Templar.
Frederick, meanwhile, had scarcely set foot in Italy, than
he fell like a thunderstorm upon the Papal soldiers, and fairly swept them from his territories. He then began to diminish somewhat the possessions of the Templars, who had multiplied in Italy with a rapidity almost incredible. In truth, wherever a chapter of the order was established, the country
around was immediately put under contribution, and so many
farms, mills, castles, and woods were taken possession of,
either by way of purchase or exchange, or seized upon as
donations, that their power increased wonderfully. From the
Templars, more especially, a cry soon rose that Frederick
intended to make the kingdoms of Jerusalem andCyprus portions of his empire, so that
they would both belong exclusively to the Germans, a cry
which was incessantly repeated by the Jerusalem
patriarch. It is also said that, seeing that the kingdom
of Jerusalem would be inherited by Frederick's little son, Conrad, his proper guardian would be the nearest relative of the last wearer of that crown, they,
therefore, wished to put him under the care of the
Queen Alice, and in this way prolong the duration of
the regency.

It now became evident that the rule of the emperor
in the Holy Land would not be of long duration, and his enemies next
resolved to endeavor to wrest from him the kingdom of Cyprus. Still, the
regency of five retained supreme command in that island, and
acted altogether in accordance with the emperor's
instructions. The young king wrote to his imperial guardian to
say how delighted he was at the advantages obtained over his
enemies, but that he was grieved to find that the emperor
did not write to him more frequently concerning his views and projects, and still more so, that he could not explain matters to him in
propriâ personâ.

The Ibelins, in the meanwhile, were in want of some
pretext for raising an insurrection in Cyprus. About the spring of 1230, there was a call
for an extraordinary tax of about three thousand marks, which the emperor had directed to be sent to the Holy Land. The knights who were of Ibelin's party declared against this, assigning as a reason that, not having been assented to by the feudal court, the imposition of a new tax was unlawful. As their stewards refused payment, their goods were seized, and the amount taken from them in corn and cattle.

And now Philip of Navarre appeared upon the island,
and secretly endeavored to raise adherents. At first his
answers to the inquiries of the authorities seemed
satisfactory, but as they became more and more evasive, the
regency thought fit to compel him to show his true colors. All
the barons were invited to attend the feudal court, and there,
in the presence of the young
king, were asked whether they were friends to the emperor, the
king, and the regents, or whether they were to be regarded as
enemies.

A New Testament was brought, and Philip of Navarre
was invited to swear true allegiance upon the holy book. He
wished to speak privately to each of his questioners, but this
was refused. He then declared that his fealty was due to the
queen-mother, and to the lord Ibelin. At this Hugo von
Giblet exclaimed in a rage, “If I had my way, you
should be hanged, or I would have your tongue torn
out,” and immediately ordered the arrest of the
offender. On this Philip hastened to where the king was
sitting, and, bending the knee, said that his safety
had been guaranteed by the regents, as he would prove with his sword, and immediately taking off his glove cast it on the ground.

Several knights endeavored to pick up the glove;
but Philip cried out that he would only measure swords with
the regents, as they only were his equals in rank; fetters
were, however, soon brought into the hall, where the
contumacious noble was imprisoned until the approach of
darkness. The rest all took the required oath, and it was
understood that all who refused to do so would forfeit their
rich domains.

In the night, while Philip's conduct was the theme
of every one's conversation, he made his escape from the
court-house, and presented himself in the cloisters of the
Knights of St. John, who immediately afforded him shelter
and protection. Here he assembled around his person about a
hundred and fifty men, collected provisions and warlike
stores, which were stored up in the strong tower of the castle, and resolved to defend himself against his pursuers. Meanwhile he sent a private message to Ibelin, informing him of all his proceedings, which he described in verse.

The regents dared not to attack the monastery of
St. John, which enjoyed all the privileges of a religious
house, while Ibelin at once landed with a strong force in
Gatria, and marched in all haste to Nikosia. The few troops
which were hurriedly sent to oppose him were easily dispersed,
and in a very short time he presented himself before the capital. For the sake of saving his honor, he had written a letter to the young king, saying how it pained both him and his followers to have left their allegiance in the Holy Land, but that they were unable to do otherwise, in order to defend their own possessions; should he blame them for their conduct, they relied upon their rights as established by feudal law. The regents were utterly surprised; they at once collected such forces as they could muster, and marched out through the city gates. In vain did they seek for priestly interference for the purpose of establishing peace between the conflicting parties. On the 23d of June, a furious
battle took place. The regents wore golden tiaras on their helmets. One
of them, Gavain von Chenichy, slew Ibelin's father-in-law, the
old constable; Walter von Caesarea, Gerhardt von Montagu,
and other friends of Ibelin, likewise lost their lives.
The regents, however, were particularly anxious to get hold of Ibelin himself, and fifteen knights galloped forward in search of him. This, it would appear, caused considerable disorder amongst the imperial troops; and when Philip of Navarre, with a strong body of men, made his appearance upon the battlefield just at this critical moment, the troops of the regents were completely defeated. Ibelin, in the meanwhile, had sought refuge in a farm-house, where he was powerless to defend himself, but from which, after the battle, he was set at liberty by his son Balian and Anselm de Brie.

And now appeared the foresight of the emperor in
fortifying the castles upon the mountains, in which the
vanquished troops found a safe asylum. On the very evening of
the battle, Balas, Bethsan, and Giblet, bringing with them the
young king and their best troops, repaired to St. Hilarion.
Rivet, with his followers, sought protection in Buffavento, and Chenichy,
by dint of spurring, succeeded in reaching the still more
distant castle of Kantara. From these three castles it was easy to reach the sea-coast at Keryneia.
Ibelin, however, hastened to prevent their escape. While he
himself surroundedKeryneia, Balian took a position before
St. Hilarion, Philip of
Navarre before Buffavento, and Anselm de Brie before Kantara.

Anselm had devised a new kind of battering ram,
with which he broke down the outer wall, and as he personally
hated Chenichy, laid in ambush watching for him day and night,
until at length, taking an opportunity when the regent was
seen on the battlements, took deadly aim at him and shot him with an arrow. Rivet, who knew Buffavento to be impregnable, came
there from Kantara, and
when he saw the fortalice was in good condition and well
manned, went over into Asia Minor to bring over more troops,
and was there killed.

The three other regents occupied the extensive and
strong fastnesses of St. Hilarion; here they not only repelled
every attack, but every now and then made sallies, broke
through the palisades of the besiegers, and obtained fresh
supplies.

Upon one occasion Philip of Navarre was struck
down, and fell as though dead. On seeing this a man upon the
wall exclaimed, “The verse-maker is dead; now we shall have no
more of his bad songs.” Philip, however, recovered during the
night, and the next day, taking up a tolerably safe position,
he favored the garrison with a new ballad.

The defenders of Keryneia
became at length tired out; for a length of time they had
received no pay, and had suffered much from want of
provisions. A day was fixed, and if by that time no help
appeared, they agreed to
surrender, more especially as they saw that the castles were
closely invested, and their occupants had no chance of escape.

Ibelin was now enabled to bring up more troops to
the siege of St. Hilarion. That fortress, however, was now no
longer in a condition to brave him as it had done before; the
place was closely invested on all sides, and the garrison in
dire want of provisions, for by this time the insurgents had
taken possession of the whole island; even the young king
Heinrich suffered severely; he frequently made his
appearance upon the battlements and shouted to the
besiegers who had brought him to such straits.

Ibelin next resolved to send Philip of Navarre, who
had shown great ability in conducting negotiations, into
Italy, hoping to obtain help, either from the Pope or from the
King of France.

At this juncture Ibelin proposed to Balian and his
associates to surrender the young king and the fortress into
his power, promising that if they did so, they should be well
treated, and should retain in all honor whatever property they
possessed. The garrison, which had long suffered the greatest
privations, and saw nothing before them but a lingering death from famine, at last consented, and Ibelin attained his object. Balas, Bethsan, and Giblet made
over to him the youthful Heinrich, and took a solemn oath that
they would not again bear arms against the insurgents.

CHAPTER XXXI.
MARSHAL FELINGHER.

The emperor could no longer hide from
himself that Cyprus
was lost, and his affairs in the Holy Land wore a very gloomy
aspect. By his command, the governor of Cyprus issued a proclamation depriving
the Ibelins of all their feudal tenures, and a fleet was
assembled consisting of eighteen galleys and fifteen
transports, in the last of which were embarked three hundred
horsemen and two thousand foot soldiers. These were all placed
under the command of Marshal Felingher by a manifesto, to
which was appended a golden ball, appointing him
Governor, Lord Chief Justice, and Generalissimo of the East, and at the same time affording him every facility for getting his troops tog ther. Ibelin had
taken the precaution to send spies into Italy, from whom he
received secret information concerning everything that
occurred there, and before the imperial fleet had left
Brindisi, a swift sailing vessel was despatched, by which the
spies returned speedily to the east, and soon reaching Akkon,
where Ibelin was at that time encamped, made him acquainted with all the Proceedings of the emperor.

Without loss of time, Ibelin assembled as many men
as he and his friends could get together, and marched upon
Beyrut, the defenses of which he strengthened, and then
crossed over to Cyprus,
where it was necessary to take care that on seeing the
emperor's fleet the Cyprians should not rouse their forces,
and get the young king into their power. He therefore
collected all his adherents in Cyprus, knights and squires, and a considerable number of combatants, placing part of them at Limasol, under the command of his
eldest son Balian, and retaining the other part under his own
control at Larnaka,
thus getting possession of the only two places where a landing
could be effected. He likewise took the precaution of bringing
with him the young king, upon whose movements he kept a close
watch.

When, therefore, the soldiers of the emperor were
about to land at Limasol, they found the
shore lined with troops forming an army much larger
than their own, who forbade their approach. Their
ships, therefore, moved on a little farther, and cast
anchor in the vicinity of Gavata. Soon afterward, the Bishop of Amalfi, accompanied by two German
knights, made their appearance in Limasol, and represented themselves as ambassadors
from the emperor charged with a message to the young king. They were told that the king resided at Larnaka, and whilst they were
conducted back again to their ship, Ibelin in great haste
called together the feudal court, in which
naturally his own friends and partisans were in a considerable
majority.

Before this assembly, the ambassadors from the
emperor delivered their message, which was to the following
effect: The emperor demanded from the king, as his feudal
vassal, that he should immediately banish from the country
Johann von Ibelin and his whole family, and no longer afford
them shelter or protection, seeing that they had broken their allegiance. To this mandate the following reply was given by Wilhelm Visconta, in the name of the infant king: “My lords, I am commanded and commissioned by the king to say to you, that it appears
to him very strange that the emperor should send such an order
to me. The governor of Beyrut is a relative of Ibelin, and I
neither can nor will do what the emperor requires.”

After waiting many days, it became evident that it
would be impossible to effect a landing, and the authority of
the emperor Frederick over the island was henceforth set at
defiance.

When Ibelin had marched within four leagues of
Akkon, he learned that the Patriarch of Antioch was sent as
Pope's legate to that city, and had demanded his immediate
presence.

Notwithstanding the suspicions Ibelin entertained,
that the legate was about to denounce him as a rebel, he felt
bound, as a good servant of the Church, to obey the summons.
He therefore caused his troops to encamp near Casal
Imbert, and placed his trustworthy follower, Anselm von Brie,
in command, while he proceeded to Akkon, and endeavored by every means in his power to undermine his enemies and strengthen his own cause.

Meanwhile Marshal Felingher decided on making one
decisive blow for his master's interests. Toward dusk on the
evening of May 2d, he left Tyre with his best troops, and
marched toward the coast, where he was followed by twenty-two
ships, bearing the rest of his army. Toward morning they
approached the unfortunate camp, and before the slightest alarm could be raised, had fallen upon it and butchered the soldiers whilst still asleep. Here and there a slight attempt was made at resistance, and Ibelin's three sons made a gallant but desperate effort to drive off the enemy. The attack, however, had been too sudden to allow the soldiers to recover from the shock, and all such as did not perish found safety in precipitate flight. The king narrowly escaped with his life, he having been hurried out of the camp at the first alarm of danger.

The imperial victory was complete, Ibelin's troops
were entirely scattered or destroyed, and all the valuables of
the camp were taken possession of by the enemy. As soon as it
was known that Marshal Felingher had left Tyre, Ibelin and his
knights at once mounted their horses and rode as rapidly as possible toward the camp, but before they arrived, friends and enemies
had alike quitted the ground, and nothing remained except a
handful of men who had taken refuge in a small and neighboring
tower.

Had Felingher at once fallen upon Akkon, he would
probably have obtained possession of the city; but he was well
aware that his troops were safer in Cyprus than on the opposite continent, and therefore immediately despatched them to that island. Famagusta, Nikosia, and Keryneia were seized, and
all Ibelin's troops dispersed in a series of victorious
onslaughts. The young queen, Alice, occupied Nikosia, whilst
her two sisters-in-law took refuge in the convent of St.
Hilarion. Frau von Ibelin escaped to Buffavento in the disguise of a monk,
and by her courage and energy roused the drooping spirit of
the old commandant of the fortress, who was preparing to
surrender to the emperor at discretion.

The followers of Ibelin were now in the depths of
distress and anxiety, their troops were annihilated, their
money gone, and worst of all, many noble knights belonging to
the conquered party began to lay all the blame of their
unfortunate position upon their leader's head. Some
endeavored to persuade the king, who was nearly of age,
that he might be the means of restoring peace and
order, while others endeavored to commence an alliance with Marshal Felingher.

At this crisis, John Ibelin showed all the resources of which he was
capable. He tried to sting the Syrian knights by hinting, that
if Cyprus were allowed
to remain under imperial rule, they would be neither more nor
less than slaves to Germany, and endeavored by bribes and
every form of persuasion to induce adherents to flock to his
standard. Ibelin's sons and relations sold all their
possessions in order to obtain horses and arms, and many
devices were resorted to as a means of obtaining money.

Small scraps of parchment were issued, bearing the
king's seal, and setting forth that the sum named thereon must
be paid to whoever presented it, and promising that the giver
should be refunded as soon as the prince was firmly
established in his rights.

The most important step by far taken by the astute
knight, at this crisis, was that of persuading the Genoese in
the island to rise en masse and join his cause, under the solemn promise of the king that they and their sons should enjoy extraordinary social immunities and privileges. Having fully achieved this plan, Ibelin at once made ready to sail for Cyprus at the
shortest notice, backed by a numerous and well-manned fleet.
No sooner did the Marshal hear of the unexpected rising of
the Genoese, than he at once returned to the island with a powerful army, and was soon again master of the whole country, with the exception of the fortresses of St. Hilarion and Buffavento. A portion of the imperial
fleet was anchored in the harbor outside the ancient city of
Paphos.

On Whitsunday, May the 30th, Ibelin set sail with
his forces from Akkon, accompanied by the Genoese consul, with
whom the approaching struggle now had the aspect of a
political victory. Pedalion Acra, a promontory between Larnaka and Famagusta, had been pointed out as the most
suitable spot for landing the soldiers, and thither all
the troop ships went. No sooner had the fleet reached the spot indicated, than intelligence was received that the Marshal had made Famagusta his headquarters. The ships at once
proceeded in the direction of that fortress, where, owing to
the knowledge of the shore displayed by their commanders, they were enabled, after a slight skirmish with the imperial troops, to take possession of a small island in close vicinity to the town. Felingher was prepared to make a brave and powerful defense, but
unluckily for him his soldiers had treated the surrounding
inhabitants with so much roughness and cruelty, that treachery
was rife in all quarters. In the stillness of the night a few
boats left the fleet, and landed their men close to the
fortress; these at once rushed upon the town with such noise
and force that the defenders were struck with sudden panic. The Marshal, believing that the whole force of the enemy was on the spot, and that the citizens were in revolt, at once set fire to his ships, and withdrew with all his men to Nikosia.

Ibelin remained a week in Famagusta; this time he spent in fortifying the
citadel more securely, and in drawing up the deed of
privileges to the Genoese, the promise of which had procured
him so great an accession of friends.

The Marshal now retired to the mountains behind
Nikosia, and Queen Alice and her ladies sought refuge in Keryneia, the imperial troops being so stationed as to command that fortress.

Felingher now rapidly pressed on the siege of St.
Hilarion, and was in daily hopes that hunger must compel her
defenders to surrender; all cornfields, mills, and every
available means of sustenance having been destroyed throughout
the surrounding plains by the Marshal's orders.

Ibelin's army, which was now slowly marching onward
toward Nikosia, received fresh reinforcements at every stage,
not only from the outraged Cypriotes, who were anxious to
avenge their wrongs, but from large numbers of the higher
classes, who had taken refuge in the huts. Nearly all these soldiers were on foot, whilst the imperial army, we are told, had fully two thousand horse. On his arrival near Nikosia, Ibelin at once encamped about half a league from the city, and early next morning, June 15th, 1232, advanced rapidly with all his troops to encounter the imperial forces, some of which were gathered around the fortress they were investing, whilst some were stationed upon the high and almost
inaccessible rocks that commanded the road to Keryneia.

The Marshal, who appears to have been paralyzed by
the rapid movements of the enemy, at once sent a party of
cavalry to meet the men he saw were preparing to mount the
rocky steps that led to the fortress.

Count Walter von Manebel charged down upon the
enemy, but with such fury and indiscretion that the ascending
soldiers, being on foot, readily eluded the pursuit of their
mounted adversaries, who had no alternative but to seek refuge
in the plains below, and there await further orders.
Meanwhile Ibelin's troops continued to mount, and a
severe struggle ensued, in which the Marshal's troops
became perfectly unmanageable, and had to be withdrawn to Keryneia. Numbers
sought safety in flight, or refuge in the neighboring churches
and monasteries. Keryneia now alone remained in the hands of the
imperial troops, and the Marshal at once proceeded to
strengthen it at all points, stored up ample provisions in
case of siege, and having given the command of such troops as
could not be accommodated in the fortress to Walter von
Aquaviva, he himself retired to Cilicia with a large
body of men.

Ibelin no sooner heard that the Marshal had
withdrawn the greater part of his army from Keryneia, than he proceeded to invest that
fortress. A long and bloody battle
at once ensued outside its walls, and every means were tried,
but in vain, to storm the citadel. At this crisis a short
truce was concluded, in consequence of the death of the
young Queen Alice. Her corpse was decked in royal robes, and a messenger was despatched to her consort requesting that she might be interred as became her rank. This truce was strictly kept on
both sides, until the royal coffin had been conveyed to
Nikosia, where it was placed in the cathedral with much pomp
and reverence.

Marshal Felingher had meanwhile been well received
in Cilicia, and at once proceeded to make preparations for a
fresh campaign. Great sickness, however, now appeared in his
army, and numbers died from various causes, or were so
invalided as to be unfit for further service. Felingher at
once ordered his army to Tyre, whilst he himself went to Italy to have an interview with the emperor. This latter was now inclined to try what could be done by persuasion, instead of again having recourse to arms. Marshal Felingher, who had made himself much disliked, was superseded, and the Bishop of Sidon dispatched, with full powers to bring matters to a peaceable conclusion by well-timed arguments and persuasions, amongst which was the promise that all past outbreaks should be forgotten on the part of the emperor if the Cypriotes would return to their allegiance. The bishop had so much skill and diplomacy, that in
an assembly of knights called by his order to assemble in the
cathedral at Akkon, all present willingly consented to
renew their oaths on the spot, and recognize the
emperor as the guardian of his son Conrad. At this
juncture the proceedings of the assembly were
interrupted by the sudden appearance of the young knight, John of Caesarea, nephew of Ibelin, who with much excitement implored the assembly to consider well what they were about to do, and not to
sacrifice their country to imperial ambition.

A scene of great violence ensued, in the midst of
which the bell from the citadel was rung, and at the
preconcerted signal, crowds of Ibelin's adherents in the city
flocked into and around the church, uttering loud cries for
vengeance on the heads of the recreant knights. The latter
were now compelled to seek safety in flight, and it required
all the eloquence and authority of young John of
Caesarea to restrain the violence of the crowd, and allow the bishop and his party to escape with their lives. The emperor now appealed to Ibelin's own sense of right and honor, and assured him that if he would obey the imperial summons and appear in Tyre to renew his fealty, everything should be arranged
according to his wishes. Ibelin, however, distrusted the
friendly overtures of the emperor, and not only refused to
comply, but at once proceeded to levy fresh forces, and
prepare for an obstinate resistance. This done,
his first step was to reduce the fortress of Keryneia, which, however, he found so impregnable that, after some terrible fighting about its walls, he was compelled to sit down before it, and endeavor to reduce its garrison by
starvation. Month after month passed, and yet the brave band
held out; until after two years of great hardship and
suffering, they were at last compelled to submit, but only on
the most honorable conditions. Frederick still refused to
relinquish all hope, and now had recourse to imploring
assistance from the Pope, to aid in bringing his refractory
vassals again to their allegiance. In the same year as
witnessed the fall of Keryneia, a legate from the Papal Court arrived at
Akkon, bearing a decree from both emperor and Pope, commanding
all knights and citizens to join the imperial cause, and
submit to the authority of Marshal Felinger. Every
indulgence was promised to all such as should submit.

Ibelin was now hard pressed, but he utterly refused
again to acknowledge his faults to the emperor, and at once
set about preparing for an attack on Tyre. The Pope sent
Ibelin one more written warning, and the archbishop put Akkon
under an interdict. Two envoys were now sent from the knights to Italy, in order to endeavor to make terms of peace. These conditions were hard upon the Cypriotes, and when the envoys returned to Akkon, and
showed the parchment containing the required submissions, the whole
city was in an uproar. The ambassadors were thrown into
prison, and very narrowly escaped with their lives. Almost
Ibelin's last act was to summon all to uphold the rights
of their king; very shortly after this he fell from his horse, and was so seriously injured that he did not long survive. During these occurrences in the East, great changes were also taking place in the friendly relations between Pope and emperor, and the latter soon found himself overwhelmed with troubles and anxieties, both in Italy and Germany, which required his immediate and entire attention. Meanwhile Ibelin's son and various members of his family had sent
letters, accompanied by rich gifts, to the Pope and cardinals.
This embassy proved entirely successful, and the envoy,
Godfrey le Tort, returned triumphantly to Akkon, bearing a
Papal letter commanding all to unite with the Genoese in
submission to the wishes and propositions of the party
led by the Ibelins. This direct decree from the Pope proved final, and Frederick was now powerless to send an army to assert his claims.

Some years later, one more endeavor was made by
Marshal Felingher, and a small party in Akkon, to induce the
inhabitants of the island to acknowledge their allegiance to
the emperor; but in vain. Thus ended all attempts to make
Cyprus an appanage
of Germany, which if carried out might probably have saved
that beautiful country and her population from centuries of
neglect and tyranny.

CHAPTER XXXII.
CYPRUS AND
THE EUPHRATES VALLEY RAILWAY.

Again must Cyprus bear a prominent position in
the eyes of the world. For many years eminent statesmen,
soldiers, and engineers have been proclaiming the advisability
of making Cyprus the
point through which that grand scheme, the Euphrates Valley
Railway, soon we hope to be a reality, would receive its
principal sources of traffic, and forming it into the terminal
station of a line of railway and steamers destined to chain us
more firmly to our Indian possessions, and to open again
the long-deserted or neglected land that lies between
it and the Persian Gulf.

Major-General Sir F. Goldsmid, C.B., K.C.S.I., who
has devoted a considerable portion of his time to this scheme,
has thrown such valuable light upon the subject that we should
be wanting in our duty to our readers if we did not give some
brief idea of the information his valuable paper affords us.

The geographical position of Cyprus, now under British rule, makes the island a
fitting guardian of Upper Syria, Coelo Syria, and almost of
Palestine, and in the hands of Great Britain is an
invaluable acquisition, and worth
any amount of land which might be purchased on the neighboring
Asiatic coast.

The distance to the several ports on the mainland
is not great; indeed, the island is said to be visible on a
clear day from Seleucia. A railway terminus for the Persian
Gulf line might be reached in a very few hours, and fair
weather boats, calculated to carry over a thousand passengers,
troops or civilians, might be used at certain times at
incosiderable cost.

Of Larnaka, as a port, very
little information can be obtained; but fifteen years ago it
received 324 vessels of 54,340 tons, and sent out 321 vessels
of 53,458 tons. In 1876 there were entered 457, and cleared 483 vessels of 92,926 and 91,690 tons respectively.

At Limasol, in 1863, 493
vessels were entered of 32,980 tons. The present harbor of
Famagusta has a
superficial extent of nearly eighty acres, to which a depth of
five and a half fathoms might be readily given; but there is
only a space of about five acres which can be relied upon for
the actual reception of ships.

M. Collas, a French writer, experienced in Turkey
and the Turks, thinks that with ordinary engineering skill, a
harbor might be formed here of more than 148 acres in extent.
The opening of this harbor would also give, in the opinion of
M. Collas, an immense impetus to the export of cotton,
which might be grown up to
the amount not far short of 30,000 tons—a high figure of
productiveness.

Having thus shown how Cyprus
is capable, so far as harbors are concerned, of fulfilling her
position as the terminus of the Euphrates Valley
Railway, let us look to some of the various routes
suggested for this line. Five different schemes were
selected as the most important by the Committee which
sat in 1872.

1st. A line starting from Alexandretta or Suedia,
near the mouth of the Orontes, passing through Aleppo to the
Euphrates, at or near Jabah Castle, and thence carried down
the right bank of the river to Kuwait, on the western side of
the Persian Gulf.

2d. A line starting from one of the same points,
crossing the Euphrates at Belio, passing down the left bank of
the river, or the right bank of the Tigris, to a point nearly
opposite Baghdad, recrossing the Euphrates, and proceeding to
Kuwait.

3d. A line starting as before, crossing the Euphrates at Bir, thence going round to Orfah and Diarbekir, and
following the right bank of the Tigris as the last.

4th. A similar line, only following the left bank
of the Tigris.

5th. A line starting from Tripoli, and proceeding
across the desert by way of Damascus and Palmyra to the
Euphrates, whence it might follow one of the preceding routes.

Which of these routes will eventually be adopted is
still the subject of much discussion.

Mr. W. P. Andrew, F.R.G.S., who for thirty years
has devoted much time and attention to endeavoring to carry
out this design, has furnished us with an admirable report on
this project. We will give a short sketch in his own words:

“In the proposal to restore this ancient route—once
the highway of the world's commerce and the track of the
heroes of early history—by the construction of a railway to
connect the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf, we have at
hand an invaluable and perfectly efficient means at once of
thwarting the designs of Russia, if they should assume
a hostile character, of marching hand in hand with her if her mission be to carry civilization to distant lands, and of competing with her in the peaceful rivalry of commerce.”

“On every ground, therefore, the proposed Euphrates
Valley Railway is an undertaking eminently deserving our
attention, and the support and encouragement of our
Government.”

“The countries which our future highway to India
will traverse have been, from remote antiquity, the most
interesting in the world. On the once fertile plains watered
by the Euphrates and Tigris, the greatest and most glorious
nations of antiquity arose, flourished, and were overthrown.”

“Twice in the world's history mankind commenced the race of
civilization on the Mesopotamian rivers. Twice the human
family diverged from their banks to the east, the west, and
the north. Arts and sciences made the first feeble steps of
their infancy upon the shores of these rivers.”

“Very early in history, we know that Babylon was a
great manufacturing city, famed for the costly fabrics of its
looms. At a more recent date, the Chaldean kings made it a
gorgeous metropolis—the fairest and the richest then on earth.
Alexander of Macedon made it the port of the Indian
Ocean and the Persian Gulf; and he proposed to render
it the central metropolis of his empire.”

“The countries through which the Euphrates flows
were formerly the most productive in the world. Throughout
these regions the fruits of temperate and tropical climes grew
in bygone days in luxurious profusion; luxury and abundance
were universally diffused. The soil everywhere teemed with vegetation; much of this has since passed away. Ages of despotism and misrule have rendered. unavailing the bounty of nature; but the land is full of hidden riches. The natural elements of its
ancient grandeur still exist in the inexhaustible fertility of
the country, and in the chivalrous character and bearing of
many of the tribes; and the day cannot be far distant when it
is destined to resume its place amongst the fairest and most
prosperous regions of the globe.”

“The wondrous fertility of Mesopotamia was, in
early times, carried to its utmost limit by means of
irrigation canals, with which the country was everywhere
intersected, and some of the largest of which were navigable.
These excited the wonder and interest of Alexander the Great,
who, after his return from the conquest of India, examined
them personally, steering the boat with his own hand. He employed a great number of men to repair and cleanse these canals.”

“Herodotus, speaking of Babylonia, says: ‘Of all
the countries I know, it is without question the best, and
most fertile. It produces neither figs, nor vines, nor olives;
but in recompense the earth is suitable for all sorts of
grain, of which it yields always two hundred per cent., and in
years of extraordinary fertility as much as three hundred per
cent.’”

“These regions need only again to be irrigated by
the life-giving waters pouring down ever cool and plentiful
from Ararat—that great landmark of primeval history, now the
vast natural boundarystone of the Russian, Turkish, and
Persian empires —to yield once more in abundance almost
everything that is necessary or agreeable to man. Many acres now wasted, save when in early spring they are wildernesses of flowers, may be covered with cotton, tending to the employment of the million
spindles of our land.”

“It is not too much to say that no existing or projected railroad can
compare in point of interest and importance with that of the
Euphrates Valley. It will bring two quarters of the globe into
juxtaposition, and three continents, Europe, Asia, and Australia, into closer relation. It will bind the vast population of Hindustan by an iron link with the people of Europe. It will inevitably entail the colonization and civilization of the great valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris, the resuscitation in a modern shape of Babylon and Nineveh, and the re-awakening of Ctesiphon and Bagdad of old.”

“Where is there in the world any similar undertaking which can achieve results of such magnitude, fraught with
so many interests to various nations? And who can foresee what
ultimate effects may be produced by improved means of
communication in the condition of Hindoos, Chinese, and other
remote peoples?”

“Although various routes have been suggested with a
view of bringing Great Britain, by means of railway
communication, into closer connection with India and her other
dependencies in the East, and of securing at the same time the
immense political and strategic desideratum of an alternative
highway to our Eastern possessions, there is none which
combines in itself so many advantages as the ancient route of the Euphrates; the route of the emperors Trajan and Julian, in whose steps, in more recent times, the great Napoleon intended to follow, when the Russian campaign
turned his energies in another direction. The special
advantages which render this route superior to all others are
briefly these:”

“It is the direct route to India. It is the shortest and the cheapest both for constructing and working a
railway; so free from engineering difficulties, that it almost
appears as though designed by the hand of nature to be the
highway of nations between the East and the West; the most
surely defensible by England—both of its termini being on the
open seas; and the most likely to prove remunerative.”

“Both in an engineering and a political point of
view, the Euphrates route undoubtedly possesses great
advantages over any of the others which have been proposed.”

“All the routes which have been suggested from
places on the Black Sea are open to the fatal objection that,
while they would be of the greatest service to Russia, they
would be altogether beyond the control of Great Britain, while
the engineering difficulties with which they are surrounded
are of themselves sufficient to exclude them from practical consideration.”

“This has been fully established by the evidence of
the witnesses examined by the Select Committee of the House of
Commons, which lately investigated the merits of the various
proposals for connecting the Mediterranean and the Black Seas
with the Persian Gulf.”

“In the course of the investigation by the Committee, it was demonstrated that the proposed Euphrates Valley
Railway is an eminently feasible undertaking in an engineering
sense; that the route of the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is
decidedly preferable, in respect of climate, to that by
Egypt and the Red Sea; that as regards the safety and
facility of the navigation, the Persian Gulf also has by
far the advantage; that the proposed undertaking would be of great commercial moment, and if not immediately profitable, at all events that it would be so at a date not far distant; and, finally, that it would be of the highest political and strategic importance to this country.”

“A railway through Mesopotamia, as a route to
India, would not at first be productive of much income to a
company from traffic, but in a few years —certainly before the
railway could be finished— the cultivation of grain would
increase a hundredfold, and would go on increasing a
thousandfold, and would attain to a magnitude and
extension quite impossible to calculate, because bad
harvests are almost unknown in these parts, for there is
always plenty of rain and a hot sun to ripen the corn. Populous villages would spring up all along the line, as there is abundance of sweet water everywhere. Cereals can be grown there so cheaply, that
no country the same distance from England—say, for instance,
Russia—could compete with it at all. And if Great Britain
finds it necessary to rely more on the importation of foreign
corn, where could a better field be found than the fertile
plains of Mesopotamia, which has all the advantages of
climate, soil, and sun in its favor?”

“The establishment of steam communication by the
Messageries Maritimes on the route of the Red Sea to Calcutta
and other Eastern ports, shows the importance attached by the
French to the extension of their commercial relations with the
East. A Russian line of steamers, also, has lately been
established, to run between Odessa and Bombay by the Suez
Canal route. Even those who see no danger in the policy of annexation pursued by Russia, will admit that the Russian roads and railways now being pushed toward Persia and Afghanistan, if designed with pacific
intentions, prove, at all events, the anxiety of the
Russian Government to compete with us for the trade of Central Asia, the Punjaub, and Northern India.”

“The substitution of Kurrachee for Bombay as the
European port of India would, even by the Red Sea route, give
us an advantage of some five hundred miles; but if the
Euphrates route were once established, the adoption of
Kurrachee as the European port of India would necessarily
follow, and India would thus be brought upwards of a
thousand miles nearer to us than at present; while during
the monsoon months, the gain would be still greater, as the route between the Persian Gulf and Kurrachee is not exposed to the
severity of the monsoon, which, it is well known, renders a
divergence of some five hundred miles necessary during a
portion of the year on the voyage from Bombay to Aden.”

“When the railway system of the Indus is completed,
Kurrachee will be in continuous railway communication with
Calcutta and with the gates of Central Asia at the Kyber and
Bolan Passes, and it will thus become the natural basis of
operations in the event either of any internal commotion in
India, or of aggression on our north-western frontier.”

“The grand object desired is to connect England
with the north-west frontier of India by steam transit through
the Euphrates and Indus valleys. The latter will render
movable to either the Kyber or the Bolan—the two gates of
India—the flower of the British army cantoned in the Punjaub;
and the Euphrates and Indus lines being connected by means of steamers, we shall be enabled to threaten the flank and rear of any force advancing through Persia toward India. So that, by this great
scheme, the invasion of India would be placed beyond even
speculation, and it is evident that the great army of India of
three hundred thousand men being thus united to the army of
England, the mutual support they would render each other
would quadruple the power and ascendency of this
country, and promote powerfully the progress, the
freedom, and the peace of the world.”

“The Euphrates and Indus lines together would,
moreover, secure for us almost a monopoly of the trade with
Central Asia, enabling us to meet Russia, our great competitor
in these distant fields of commercial enterprise, on more than
equal terms.”

“But it is not on commercial considerations that I
would urge the claims of the Euphrates Valley Railway. It is
on imperial grounds that the scheme commends itself to our
support.”

“I believe that the establishment of the Euphrates
route would add incalculably to our prestige throughout Europe
and the East, and would do more to strengthen our hold on
India than any other means that could be devised.”

“The Euphrates Valley Railway, as proposed from the
Gulf of Scanderoon to the Persian Gulf, has been specially
designed with a view to its ultimately forming a part of a
through line from Constantinople to the head of the Persian
Gulf; while it is capable also of being in due time
extended eastward to Kurrachee, the port of India nearest
to Europe.”

“The line from the Mediterranean to the Persian
Gulf has been demonstrated to be eminently practicable and
easy, while the other portions of the route between
Constantinople and India are not. While capable of forming
part of a through line, it would at the same time be complete
in itself, and independent of any disturbances in Europe—the
only portion, in fact, of a through
line of railway which would be always, and under all
circumstances, at the absolute control of this country.”

“It would always be to this country the most important portion of any through line; and, indeed, I
believe a through line could not be constructed, except at
overwhelming cost, without the assistance of a port in
Northern Syria. It would, moreover, provide us with a complete
alternative route to India, and would thus at once secure to
this country advantages admitted to be of the highest national
moment.”

“It is for these reasons that during the long period in which I have devoted myself to the advocacy of the
Euphrates route to India, I have thought it expedient to urge
upon our own Government and that of Turkey, the special claims
of that section only which would connect the Mediterranean
with the Persian Gulf.”

“The objection that, although the Euphrates Valley
Railway would afford us the undoubted advantage of an
alternative, a shorter, and a more rapid means of
communication with India, it would still leave a considerable
portion of the journey to be accomplished by sea, and that
consequently it would accelerate our communications with the
East in a minor degree only, is sufficiently disposed of by
the circumstance already pointed out: that a railway from a point on the Mediterranean, at or near Scanderoon, to the head of the Persian Gulf, would naturally form part of
a through line of railway from Constantinople to India, if at
a future time it should be considered necessary or desirable
to construct the remaining sections.”

APPENDIX.

Extent and Boundaries.

Cyprus (χυπρος), called by
the Turks Kibris, is a large island in the Mediterranean,
lying near the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor. It is
supposed to have an area of about 4,500 square miles, but
all the different measurements given vary
considerably. Its length is about 145 miles, from the
extreme north-east point, Cape St. Andreas, to Cape Arnauti, on the west coast. Its greatest breadth is about fifty miles from north to south; but it narrows toward the east, where in some parts it is not more than five miles wide, and, at the most extreme east point, Cape
Andreas, it is only about sixty-five miles distant
from Latakia, the nearest point of the Syrian coast. The
nearest land on the coast of Karamania, or Cicilia, Cape
Zephyrium, is about forty-two miles north by west of the
point of land in Cyprus, which is near the ancient Carpasia.

Surface.

There are two ranges of mountains in Cyprus, one extending along the
northern coast, and the other stretching
across the southern part of the island. The highest summit
is the “Troados,” or “Olympus,” which Löher measured, and found to be 6,160 feet above the sea level. The other principal
peaks of this range are Mount Stavrovuni, or Sante Croce,
Mount Makkaeras, and Mount Adelphi ;
the heights of these are uncertain. Equally
uncetain are the elevations of the peaks of the
northern range, the chief of which is Mount
Pentedaktylo, between Kerinia and Makaria.

The most extensive plain is on the eastern part
of the island, and is watered by the river Pedias. In
1330, this river was so swollen by heavy rain that it
inundated Nikosia, to the great destruction of life and
property. The other plains of any size are those of Lefkosia in the centre, and Kerinia,
to the west of the island.

Rivers.

The Pedias, or Pedaeus, the principal river, rises on the range of Olympus, and waters the plains ofLefkosia and Messaria, and empties
itself into the sea, on the east coast, at the ancient
port of SalamisConstantia. The Morpha has its source
among the same mountains as the Pedias, waters the plain
of Kerinia, and falls into the sea on the
north-west coast, about the centre of the Gulf of
Morpha. There are no other rivers of much importance;
the principal are, the Ezusa, or ancient Borgarus, the
CAPE KORMACITI.—See Page 297.
Diorizos, and the
Khapotini, all of wich take their source in the
neighborhood of Mount Olympus, and fall into the sea on the south-west coast; the Kurios, which empties itself into the Gulf of Piskopi, on the south coast; the Garilis, rising in the
Makkaeras mountains and falling into the sea at Limasol, also on the
south coast; while the Pentaskhino, a small stream, enters
the sea near Dolas point, on the south-east coast.

Capes.

Cape Kormaciti, the ancient Crommyon, at the
extreme north-west; Cape Andreas, the
ancient Dinaretum, at the extreme north-east point of
the island; Cape
Arnauti, or St. Epiphanio, the ancientAkamas, at the most western point;
Cape Gatto, and Cape
Zevgari, the ancient Kurios, are the furthest
points on the south coast; Cape
Greco, the ancient Pedalion, lies at the
south-eastern extremity. On the north coast are Cape Plakoti; on the west, Capes Drepani, Kokino, Limmity, Baffo (Papho); on the east coast, Cape Elaea, and on the south, Capes Pyla, the ancient Throni, Biance, and Citi.

Gulfs and Bays.

Famagusta Bay, or Bay of
Salamis, at the east; Gulf of Morpha, or Pendagia, at the north-west; Gulf of Chrysochou, at
the west; and at the south, the Gulf of Piskopi, and bays
of Larnaka and Akroteri.

Harbors and Roadsteads.

Larnaka and Limasol possess good roadsteads.

The ancient harbors are destroyed and filled with sand.

Towns and Important Places.

The following were the towns of Cyprus (A.D.125): On the north coast of Cape
Acamas, were Arsinoe, and Sali, with a harbor founded by
Phalerus and Acamas of Athens; then east of Caée
Crommyon, Lapethus, built by the Lacedemonias; next
Agidus, Aphrodisium, and Carpasia; east of the last,
was a mountain and a cape called Olympus, with a temple to Venus
upon it, which women were forbidden to enter. Facing the
cape are two small islands, called Keides, or “the keys of
Cyprus.” Turning thence toward the south, was Salamis, at the mouth of the Pedaeus, one of
the principal, cities of the island, said to have been
built by Teucer, an emigrant from the island of Salamis.

Proceeding south was another Arsinoe, with a
port; next came Leucolia, near Cape Pedalium, a lofty table-land, called the table of
Venus; west ofPedalium was Citium (the ancient Chittim), with a harbor that could be closed.
Citium was a large town, and the birthplace of Zeno the Stoic (301 B.C.) From Citium to
Bertytus (Bairout) in Syria, the distance was about 130
miles. West of Citium wasAmathus, and inland was Paloea
Limisso. Sailing round by Cape
Curias to the west, was the town ofCurium, with a port built by the
Argivi. Here the coast turns to the north-west, looking
toward Rhodes, and on it were the towns of Ireta,
Boosura, and
Old Paphos; then Cape Zephrium; and
next to it another Arsinoe, with a port and temple,
sacred grove, and New Paphos, built by Agapenor, five miles by land
from Old Paphos.

Most of the above towns, and others which Strabo has omitted, have long since disappeared.

The present capital is Nikosia, the residence of the late Turkish governor. It lies near the centre of
the island, close to the site of the ancient Letra, or
Leucotra, on a plain surrounded with mountains. The
streets are narrow and dirty, and many of the grand old
mansions falling into decay. It is a truly Oriental city,
and is very prettily situated; the air is balmy, dry, and
redolent of the odor of laurel and myrtle. Every
court-yard has its apple and peartree, and in between
these masses of rosemary, peeping from beneath the
flourishing fig. Its population does not exceed 16,000.

Lafkosia was the residence of the king of the Lusignan dynasty, and was then much larger than it is at present, the Venetians having destroyed part of it in order to strengthen the remainder.

The church of St. Sophia, a fine Gothic building is converted into a mosque; the monuments it contains
of the Lusignans are sadly mutilated. There is also a fine
bazar, a khan, or inclosed court, surrounded by apartments
for travelers, and the palace of the governor, on the
portal of which is still seen the Venétian lion in stone;
there are also several other churches and mosques. The
bastioned walls, erected by the Venetians, are still
standing.

The Greek Archbishop of Nikosia is metropolitan
of the whole island. Cesnola informs us that, after
sundown, no person is allwed to leave or enter the town
without special permission from the governor-general. When
such a case occurs, the soldiers are put under arms, and
the drawbridge is lowered with as much ceremony as if we
were still in mediaeval times. The seraglio, where the
late Turkish governor resided, is described by the same
authority, as a large quadrangular building, two
stories high, and in sad want of repair; it has a large
court-yard, inclosed by walls twenty-five feet high.

The principal manufactures of the town are carpets, cotton prints, and morocco leather. The workmen of Nikosia prints, that they have a particular manner of dressing the leather, which they keep a profound secret; anyhow, the leather is said to be better dressed, more brilliant in color, and more durable than that which is made in Turkey. There is also a little trade in raw cotton and wine.

Larnaka, or Larnika, on
the site of old Citium, near the south coast, is the most thriving, bustling place in the island, being the residence of the
European consuls and
factors, and the chief seat of trade. The port of Larnaka is at Salines, about a mile and a half
distant; a Greek bishop resides there, and there are also
some Latin churches in the town. The houses are chiefly
built of clay, and only one story high, on account of the
earthquakes, to which the island is subject. The interiors
of the houses are comfortable; the apartments are paved
with white marble, and almost every house has a
garden.

This is the chief sea-port in the island, and has a fair anchorage for vessels in the roadstead. NearLarnaka is the well-known inland lake
whence, in ancient days, the Phoenicians obtained the best
salt. During the rainy season this is swollen with
water; in May and June it gradually evaporates, and
under the fiery sun and burning heat of July and
August, the water almost boils off, and leaves behind
a thick cake of nearly pure salt. This once yielded a
yearly income of three hundred thousand ducats.
This town is connected by telegraph with Latakia, on
the Syrian coast, the wires passing through Nikosia.

Famagusta, on the
south-east coast, a few miles south of old Salamis, and not far from the
ancient Tamassus, occupies the site of Ammochostos, one of
the ten royal cities which paid tribute to Esarhaddon, and
possesses the only harbor between Salamis and Leuculla, and was probably the
city called Arsinoe under the Ptolemies.

“The city of Famagusta,”
says Cesnola, “built by the Christians
eight hundred years ago, from the ruins of Salamis, and destroyed by the Turks
in 1571, after the terrible siege in which the
Venetian soldiers so heroically defended their
position, once counted its beautiful churches by hundreds
and its palatial residences by thousands. Once it
had been one of the principal commercial cities of
the Levant, with a harbor in which rode large
fleets, but which now, through neglect, has become
filled with sand, and is able only to float ships of
light draught. It was just outside the mouth of
this closed harbor, that the vessels containing the
Venetian families and their most precious personal and household effects were sunk by the faithless Mustapha Pacha, after he had killed the Venetian generals.”

“As you approach the massive walls of the city,
which are nearly seventeen feet thick, and of solid stone,
all taken from the ruins of Salamis,
you see how impossible it was to take such a city
except by famine or treachery. The walls stand now
as impregnable and intact as when raised by the Lusignans.”

“The old bronze guns of the Republic of Venice
are still on the bastions, in their original places, looking formidably toward the sea and the plain ofSalamis, but spiked and out of
service since 1571. There are a half dozen rusty iron guns
of Turkish manufacture, pretty much in the same
condition.”

THE CATHEDRAL AT FAMAGUSTA.—See Page 308.

“The ruins of Famagusta
are not grand and imposing, yet they are most beautiful
and touching. It is impossible to see the still existing
walls of many of its fine mediaeval churches, with
frescoes plainly visible in the interiors—here a
rectory, there evidences of elegant homes—without a
feeling of intense sadness. Only two out of the three
hundred churches, which are said to have existed in
Famagusta, were
left standing. The principal one, formerly the cathedral
and now used as a mosque, is paved with mortuary marble
slabs engraved with the names and arms of Italian
noblemen, once buried beneath them, whose bones were
exhumed and thrown into the sea by order of the fanatical
and ferocious Mustapha Pacha, the day after he
captured the city. The other church, used as a granary
and a stable by the Turks, contains also a few
tombstones, now all worn out by the horses' hoofs. There I discovered an inscription recording the day on which, by the addication of Katharine Cornaro, the Venetians became the rulers of Cyprus.”

“Within the city walls resides the caimakan** Governor. of the province of Carpass, with the Cadi of Famagusta, and the
usual mejilis. There is also a military governor of the
fortress, and a company of artillery. This governor
resides with his troops in a small fort overlooking the
sea, and flanked by a large round tower
called by the natives ‘Torre del Moro’ (Tower of the
Moor). Tradition asserts that in this tower were the
headquarters of the Venetian Lord Lieutenant of Cyprus, Cristoforo Moro, during the years 1506 to 1508. In the latter year, on the 22d of October, Cristoforo Moro was recalled from Cyprus, and returned
to Venice; and from documents which I have been allowed to
peruse, it would appear that this man was married four
times, and that his private life was not very exemplary.
This Cristoforo Moro was the ‘Othello’ of Shakespeare.”

“The fortress of Famagusta
contained some one the worst criminals of the Turkish
Empire. Many of them are condemned for life, others are
sentenced to from fifteen to twenty-five years'
imprisonment, and all are heavily shackled.”

The harbor of Famagusta
would be excellent, if it were cleared of the filth with
which it is blocked up; but at present it can only
accommodate a few small vessels.

Limasol, on the south
coast, is the most European town in the island, and has a
good harbor; but the old parts of the town are a heap of
ruins. It is still of considerable importance, and is the
chief place of export for the wines of the country, which
are much in demand in the Levant. The surrounding
country is rich in fruit trees, of which the
carob-tree is the most conspicuous.

Near the town formerly stood the Commandery of the Knights
Templars (Commandery of Kolossi), extending from Mount
Olympus to Baffo and Limasol.

Baffo, or New Paphos, was
under the Romans the principal town in the western part of
the island, and is famous in ancient poetry as the
favorite residence of Aphrodite or Venus, and here was
her most celebrated temple.

During the reign of the Emperor Augustus, this
town was destroyed by an earthquake, and was afterwards
rebuilt.

Here St. Paul converted Sergius Paulas, the
Roman deputy-governor, beside many others, preaching in
the Jewish synagogues, of which there were several.

Here Elymas, the sorcerer, was struck blind for
endeavoring to frustrate St. Paul's attempts to
Christianize the people.

The Church of St. Paul is the only Venetian
building now standing. Baffo has a small but unsafe port,
and is the See of a Greek bishop. Kerinia, Cerini, or
Ghirneh, on the north coast, has a harbor, from which a
limited trade is carried on with the opposite coast of
Karamania. Its ruins would seem to indicate that it was
formerly a fine town. It is fortified, and the second
stronghold of the island, and like Lapethus (the original
capital of the district of Kerinia), is traced to the
Dorian colonists, under Praxander and Cepheus. This formed one of the
royal cities of the island. “I passed near the town,” says
Cesnola, “several times during my northern excursions, but
never had the curiosity to enter it. The village itself,
with the exception of the citadel, is a small dirty place,
almost exclusively inhabited by Mussulmans, who, with the garrison, enjoy a very bad reputation— second only to that of their co-religionists at NewPaphos. The ancient site of Kerinia
is a little to the west of the present town, and more
inland. For a considerable distance along the western
shore, there are to be seen here and there caverns
excavated in the rock; some, though not all, seem
to have been tombs. South-east of the town, about an hour's ride from it, and midway up the mountains, stands an imposing mediaeval ruin called ‘Lapais.’ It was an abbey, built by King Hugo the
Third, and belonged to the Latin Church, but was destroyed
by the Turks when they captured the fortress of Kerinia.
It is a fact worth noticing, that all the churches
belonging to the Latins were destroyed by the Turks when
they took possession of the island. In this I have no
doubt they were gladly assisted, or at least encouraged,
by the Greeks, who detested the Franks even more than the
Turks. This abbey occupied one of the most
picturesque and lovely spots of the whole island; a
large hall is still standing, one hundred feet long,
thirty-two feet wide, and about forty feet high, which
was probably the
refectory of the French abbots; beneath it is another
apartment of like dimensions, divided into two chambers,
the vault of which is supported by massive columns.”

“In the court-yard, piled the one upon the other, are two large marble sarcophagi of late Roman work, one
of which has garlands of flowers, nude figures, and large
bulls' heads in bold relief. Both bear evidence of having
been used for a long time as troughs. Upon the lintel,
over the door of the great hall, are engraved three
shields; one represents the Jerusalem cross, another the
royal arms of the Lusignans, and the third a lion rampant.
The Gothic chapel of the abbey has been partly
repaired with sun-dried bricks and plaster, and is now
used by the Greeks, living in the neighborhood, as
their place of worship; portions of the court-yard
serve as their cemetery. On two high peaks in this
range of mountains stood two feudal or royal castles,
one called St. Hilarion, and the other Buffavento, which
served as state prisons and places of refuge to some of
the Latin kings of Cyprus. They
were both dismantled by order of the Venetian
Admiral Prioli.”

Climate.

The climate is generally healthy, excepting on
some parts of the coast, but this is entirely due to the
neglected state of the country; if the much needed drainage
was properly carried out, the most satisfactory result
would ensue. As in most Eastern countries, the rain falls
at stated periods, commencing about the middle of October
and continuing until the end of April. After June slight
showers fall from time to time, but have little power
to modify the heat, which is, however, tempered
occasionally by a cool wind. In September the great heat sets in, but does not continue for any length of time. At Larnaka, the mean temperature in February is about
52 deg., and in August 81 deg. The winters are milder, and
the summer cooler than on the coast of Syria opposite.

The average rainfall is about fourteen inches in the year. Of late years, droughts have been of frequent
occurrence, owing, no doubt, to the destructio of the
woods and forests.

The south coast is liable to hot winds from the
north-east, from the desert of Arabia in the south-east,
and in the South and south-west from Egypt and Lybia.

Speaking of one of these winds, Dr. Clarke says, “We found it so scorching that the skin instantly
peeled from our lips; a tendency to sneeze was excited,
accompanied by great pains in the eyes, and chapping of
the hands and face. The mercury, exposed to its full
current, rose 6 deg. Fahrenheit in two minutes—from 80
deg. to 86 deg.”

Dr. Unger says, that it is so hot in summer as to make occupation
irksome, and so cold in winter that the absence of spring
and autumn makes the transition, from one extreme to the
other, very sudden. The climate is, of course, cooler in
the more mountainous portion of the west, than in the flat
eastern side, where the temperature in the height of
summer amounts to 90 deg. in the shade; during the
winter, in the lower parts of the land, it seldom
falls to freezing point. During October, November, and December the rain falls, and entirely ceases during the summer, when there is generally a blue sky over the island. The drier the summer, the damper the winter; and sometimes it then rains for forty days together. At such periods the thirsty land recovers itself. On the other hand, there are winters when no rain falls, and drought is severely felt during the summer. In the time of Constantine, we are told that no rain fell on the island for thirty-six years.

By the middle of May the harvest is over, and
wherever the eye rests the grass is withered and parched.
The temperature has now reached 80 deg. in the shade, and
sometimes in the middle of the day is even higher; the
atmosphere grows thick, and a veil seems to fall over all
surrounding objects; all rivers are dry; the dew ceases in
June or July, and the hot winds make the air more
oppressive; finally come hosts of annoying insects, from
which one may seek in vain to escape. At this season, all
work is done in the evening and at night.

Population.

The number of inhabitants is very uncertain. It
is variously estimated between 100,000 and 250,000 souls,
of whom 40,000 to 60,000 are Mohammedans, including the
Linopambagi, or “men of linen and cotton,” as they are
called in derision, who outwardly conforming to the tenets
of Mohammed, are in reality Christians. The majority of
the people belong to the Greek Church, and the
remainder are either Armenians or Maronites, whose peculiar religion we will endeavor to describe. These number about 2,800.

The Maronites are a tribe of people inhabiting
the western declivity of Mount Lebanon, and figure in
history as a sect of Christians. By adopting the
Monothelitic doctrine soon after it had been condemned, in
A. D. 680, by the Council of Constantinople, they came to
be distinguished as a distinct religious party, and having
as their first bishop a certain monk, John Maro, they were
called Maronites. Maro assumed the title of “Patriarch
of Antioch,” and asserted the ecclesiastical
independence of the tribe.

This sect defended their freedom first against the Greeks, and afterwards against the Saracens. At length, in 1182, they renounced the opinions of the Monothelites, and were re-admitted within the pale of the Romish Church; the terms of reconciliation being that the
religious tenets, moral precepts, and ancient rites of the
country should remain unaltered. The Maronites adopted no
Popish opinion, except the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff.
By this slight tie they still continue united to the
Church of Rome. In return for their imperfect
allegiance, the Pope is obliged to defray the expenses
of their public worship, and to maintain a college at
Rome for the education of their priests. He has the
power of sanctioning the appointment of their
patriarch, after he has been selected by their
bishops. This dignitary has his headquarters in the
monastery of Lebanon, and holds the title of Patriarch of
Antioch, and by adopting the name of Peter, claims
to be the successor of that apostle. Like the
bishops who compose his synod, he is bound to remain
in perpetual celibacy, a law, however, which the
rest of the clergy do not observe. The Maronite
monks are of the order of St. Anthony, and live in
monasteries scattered among the mountain solitudes.

Slavery exists, but owing to the increasing poverty of the Turks, the number of slaves is very much diminished.

Character of the Inhabitants.

Herr von Löher describes the bulk of the population as devoid of all energy, of sluggish temperament, and obstinately addicted to ancient customs. They are powerful,
hospitable, and exceedingly amiable in their domestic
relations. The women are very good housewives and very
active. The girls are full of life, especially on festive
occasions, are fond of gaudy colors, and dress very
fantastically.

Elementary schools are established in all the
larger villages, and others of superior class in the three
principal towns of the island. The Greek bishops and many
of the popes have been educated in these latter, or at
Athens, and are generally men of culture; but most of the
village priests and monks are as ignorant as the peasants
amongst whom their lives are passed.

Greek is the language used throughout Cyprus, and has even found its way
into many of the Turkish houses.

Agriculture.

The cultivation of the country appears to be in
a very primitive condition, and owing to the lightness and
fertility of the soil but slight labor is required in
producing the necessary crops. The cultivable surface of
the island is estimated at 2,500,000 acres, of which not
more than 130,000 acres are under tillage. The annual
average yield of corn is said not to exceed 120,000
quarters, and we are told that the disposal of the whole
has been a monopoly between the Turkish mulasallin and the
Greek archbishop, who either export
or retail it at an arbitrary price. The vegetation
resembles that of the other islands of the Mediterranean.
There is no meadow land, but a great deal of waste, which
is either quite bare, or only covered with heather and
aromatic plants.

One of the most important plants of the island is the Ferula Graeca, of the stalks of which the Cypriotes
form a great part of their household furniture, and the
pith is used instead of tinder for conveying fire from one
place to another.

Manufactures.

Wines of three kinds are made, namely, Commanderia, Muscadine, and Mavro. Cotton, silk, and woolen goods of various
qualities are manufactured on a small scale. Olive oil,
pitch, resin, cheese, raisins, and pottery (for home
consumption) are also made. Nikosia is noted for its
morocco leather. The peasantry distill rose, orange, and
lavender waters, myrtle and ladanum oil.

Minerals and Precious Stones.

Cyprus is rich in metals
and minerals, including copper, silver, malachite, lead,
and quicksilver. There are also quarries of asbestos,
talc, sulphur, red jasper, agate, rock crystal, and
marble. Soda is also found. The sald works, near Larnaka, produce a
revenue of 20,000l. per annum. Gold
is occasionally met with in the streams. Diamonds, emeralds, opals, amethysts, and other precious stones are sometimes found.

Natural History.

The principal animals in the island are oxen, sheep, and goats, which thrive well and are abundant. The most common of the wild animals are the fox, hare, and wild-cat. The hare feeds on fragrant herbs, which impart a most agreeable flavor to its flesh. All the birds that winter in Africa are to be found in Cyprus. Beccaficos and ortolans are
very common and remarkably plump. Water-fowl are very numerous; game, such as partridges, quails, woodcock, and snipe, very plentiful.

Serpents of various species are commonly met
with; these are stated to be, we believe erroneously,
poisonous.

Dr. Clarke states that tarantulas, having black
bodies covered with hair, and bright yellow eyes, are not
uncommon. A large venomous spider is sometimes seen,
called by Sonnini, the Galcode of the Levant; its body,
which is about an inch long, is a bright yellow, and
covered with long hairs; this creature runs with
extraordinary swiftness; its bite rarely produces death,
but causes acute pain. The extent to which Cyprus was formerly devastated by locusts has been spoken of in another chapter. Bees are kept in great numbers in many parts of the island. Of these Dr. Clarke gives the following
interesting account:

Speaking of the village of Attién, he says: “In
these little cottages we found very large establishments
for bees, but all the honey thus made is demanded by the
governor; so that an apiary is only considered as the
cause of an additional tax. The manner, however, in which
the honey is collected is curious, and worthy of
imitation, and it merits a particular descrition: the
contrivance is simple, and was doubtless suggested by the
more ancient custom still existing in
the Crimea, of harboring bees in cylindrical hives made
from the bark of trees. They build up a wall formed
entirely of earthen cylinders, each about three feet in
length, placed one above the other horizontally, and
closed at their extremities with mortar. This wall is then
covered with a shed, and upwards of one hundred hives
may thus be maintained within a very small
compass.”

Revenue.

Herr Löher found it difficult to obtain trustworthy information respecting the revenue of the island. The best estimate obtainable calculated it at
about sixteen and a half millions of piastres. Half a
million of this, being derived from a consideration paid
by Christians for exemption from military service, would
have to be immediately surrendered by a Christian
Government. Three, at least, of the remaining imposts,
yielding an estimated return of two millions of piastres,
are so execrable in principle that they ought to be
abandoned with the least possible delay. These are
the capitation tax on sheep, and the export duties
on wine and silk. It is satisfactory to learn, on
the other hand, that the annual cost of administration
is not supposed to exceed at present from two to
three millions of piastres, the balance of the revenue
being confiscated by certain high functionaries now discharged; and
that the apparent receipts do not represent the amount
actually collected from the population, seeing that they
have to pay half as much again in bribes. These abuses
will henceforth cease; the customs revenue will be largely
augmented by importations on account of the
occupying force, and from the stimulus given to
commerce in general; and it may even be possible, by
prudent diplomacy, to make the vacouf, or Mohammedan
ecclesiastical property, contribute its fair share toward
the expenses of the State.

Sketch of General History.

According to Josephus, Cyprus was first colonized by Cittim, a grandson
of Japhet, who settled in the island, and founded Chittim, in emulation of his brother Tarshish, who had built the town of Tarsus, on the opposite coast of Cilicia. The
Phoenicians, it is supposed, invaded Cyprus at a very
early date, and retained possession of the whole, or a
portion of the island, until the reign of Solomon. Greek
colonists also settled on the coast. Herodotus states that
Amasis, King of Egypt, invaded Cyprus, and took Citium (Herod., ii, 162). The
island then submitted to the Persians, and afterward
surrendered to Alexander the Great, on whose death it
fell, with Egypt, to the share of Ptolemy Soter, “the son
of Lagus.” Having overcome Cyrene, which had
revolted, Ptolemy (B.C. 313) crossed over to Cyprus to punish the kings of the various little states upon that island for having joined Antigonus, one of Alexander's generals. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, conquered the fleet of Ptolemy near the island of Cyprus, took 1,600 men prisoners,
and sunk 200 ships.

Now that the fate of empires was to be settled
by naval battles, the friendship of Cyprus became very important to the neighboring
states. The large and safe harbors gave to this island a
great value in the naval warfare between Phoenicia
and Asia Minor. Alexander had given it as his
opinion that the command of the Mediterranean went
with the island of Cyprus, and called it the key to Egypt. Under
the Ptolemies, Cyprus continued
sometimes united to Egypt, and sometimes governed by a
separate prince of that dynasty. The last of these princes, brother to Ptolemy Auletes, King of Egypt, incurred the enmity of P. Clodius Pulcher, a Roman of illustrious family, who being taken prisoner by Cilician pirates, sent to the King of Cyprus for money to pay his
ransom; the king sent an insufficient sum, and Clodius
having recovered his liberty obtained a decree, as soon as
he became tribune, for making Cyprus a Roman province. Marcus
Cato, against whom he had a bitter enmity, was sent to
take possession of the new territory, and achieved this
difficult undertaking with unexpected success. The king,
in despair at the attempt upon his kingdom, committed
suicide. Cato at once seized upon the treasury, and sent a
large booty home. Cyprus thus became a Roman province, and on the
division of that empire was allotted to the Byzantines,
and long formed one of the brightest jewels of the
imperial crown. At length, after many successive changes,
it again became a separate principality, under a branch of
the house of Comnena, from which it was finally wrested by
the adventurous hand of Richard Coeur de Lion, who sold it to the Knights Templars. The new government proved so oppressive that the people were driven to open revolt, and Richard, having resumed the
sovereignty, placed the crown, in 1192, upon the head of
Guy de Lusignan, ex-king of Jerusalem.

John the Third, of Lusignan, died in 1458, leaving the kingdom to Charlotte, his only legitimate child, who married her cousin Louis, Count of Geneva, second son of the Duke of Savoy and of Anna of Cyprus. She was
solemnly crowned at Nikosia in 1460, but was soon
afterward expelled by her natural brother James, assisted
by the Mamelukes of Egypt. James married Katharine
Carnaro, the daughter of a Venetian merchant, who brought
him a dowry of 100,000 golden ducats. On this
occasion the Venetian Senate adopted Katharine
Carnaro as daughter of St. Mark, and the marriage
was celebrated in
1471. In 1473 James died, and his wife, soon after, was
delivered of a son, of whom the Republic of Venice assumed
the guardianship, and the Venetian troops were sent to
garrison the towns of the island. The child dying whilst
an infant, the Senate persuaded Katharine, in 1489, to abdicate the sovereignty in favor of the Republic, and to retire to Asolo, near Treviso, where she passed the rest of her days in a princely style on a liberal pension. Meantime, Charlotte Lusignan had retired to Rome, where she died in 1486, bequeathing her claims to Charles, Duke of Savoy, in consequence of which the sovereigns of that dynasty assume to this day the title of “Kings of Jerusalem and Cyprus.”

The Venetians kept possession of Cyprus till 1470, when Selim the Second sent a
powerful force to invade the island. The Turks took
Nikosia by storm, and massacred about 20,000 people.
From that time until now the Turks have remained in possession of Cyprus.