Diet in Hinduism

Diet in Hinduism varies wif its diverse traditions. The ancient and medievaw Hindu texts do not expwicitwy prohibit eating meat, but dey do strongwy recommend ahimsa—non-viowence against aww wife forms incwuding animaws.[1][2] Many Hindus prefer a vegetarian or wacto-vegetarian wifestywe, and medods of food production dat are in sync wif nature, compassionate, and respectfuw of oder wife forms as weww as nature.[1]

The diet of Hindus usuawwy does not incwude eggs, fish or meat. However, if incwuded, Hindus often favor jhatka (qwick deaf) stywe preparation of meat since Hindus bewieve dat dis medod minimizes trauma and suffering to de animaw.[3][4]

Ancient Hindu texts describe de whowe of creation as a vast food chain, and de cosmos as a giant food cycwe.[5]

Hindu mendicants (sannyasin) avoid preparing deir own food, rewying eider on begging for weftovers or harvesting seeds and fruits from forests, as dis minimizes de wikewy harm to oder wife forms and nature.[5]

The Vedic texts have confwicting verses, which schowars have interpreted to mean support or opposition to meat-based food. A group states dat some Vedic hymns mention animaw sacrifice and derefore support non-vegetarianism. According to Marvin Harris, de Vedic witerature is contradictory, wif some suggesting rituaw swaughter and meat consumption, whiwe oders suggesting a taboo on meat eating.[6] The hymn 10.87.16 of de Hindu scripture Rigveda (~1200–1500 BCE), states Nandida Krishna, condemns aww kiwwings of men, cattwe and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish dose who kiww.[7][8] According to Harris, from ancient times, vegetarianism became a weww accepted mainstream Hindu tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[6][9]

Vegetarian diet is favored in many ancient Hindu texts. A vegetarian pwate is shown above.

The Upanishads and Sutra texts of Hinduism discuss moderate diet and proper nutrition,[10] as weww as Aharatattva (dietetics).[11] The Upanishads and Sutra texts invoke de concept of virtuous sewf-restraint in matters of food, whiwe de Samhitas discuss what and when certain foods are suitabwe. A few Hindu texts such as Hadayoga Pradipika combine bof.[12]

Some of de earwiest ideas behind Mitahara trace to ancient era Taittiriya Upanishad, which in various hymns discusses de importance of food to heawdy wiving, to de cycwe of wife,[17] as weww as to its rowe in one's body and its effect on Sewf (Atman, Spirit).[18] The Upanishad, states Stiwes,[19] notes “from food wife springs forf, by food it is sustained, and in food it merges when wife departs”.

Many ancient and medievaw Hindu texts debate de rationawe for a vowuntary stop to cow swaughter and de pursuit of vegetarianism as a part of a generaw abstention from viowence against oders and aww kiwwing of animaws.[20][21] Some significant debates between pro-non-vegetarianism and pro-vegetarianism, wif mention of cattwe meat as food, is found in severaw books of de Hindu epic, de Mahabharata, particuwarwy its Book III, XII, XIII and XIV.[20] It is awso found in de Ramayana.[21] These two epics are not onwy witerary cwassics, but dey have awso been popuwar rewigious cwassics.[22]

The Bhagavad Gita incwudes verses on diet and moderation in food in Chapter 6. It states in verse 6.16 dat a Yogi must neider eat too much nor too wittwe, neider sweep too much nor too wittwe.[23] Understanding and reguwating one’s estabwished habits about eating, sweeping and recreation is suggested as essentiaw to de practice of yoga in verse 6.17.[23][24]

Anoder ancient Indian text, Tirukkuṛaḷ, originawwy written in de Souf Indian wanguage of Tamiw, states moderate diet as a virtuous wife stywe and criticizes "non-vegetarianism" in its Puwaan Marudaw (abstinence from fwesh or meat) chapter, drough verses 251 drough 260.[25] Verse 251, for instance, qwestions "how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own fwesh, eats de fwesh of oder creatures." It awso says dat "de wise, who are devoid of mentaw dewusions, do not eat de severed body of oder creatures" (verse 258), suggesting dat "fwesh is noding but de despicabwe wound of a mangwed body" (verse 257). It continues to say dat not eating meat is a practice more sacred dan de most sacred rewigious practices ever known (verse 259) and dat onwy dose who refrain from kiwwing and eating de kiww are wordy of veneration (verse 260). This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes cawwed de Tamiw Veda, discusses eating habits and its rowe in a heawdy wife (Mitahara), dedicating Chapter 95 of Book 7 to it.[26]Tirukkuṛaḷ states in verses 943 drough 945, "eat in moderation, when you feew hungry, foods dat are agreeabwe to your body, refraining from foods dat your body finds disagreeabwe". Tiruvawwuvar awso emphasizes overeating has iww effects on heawf, in verse 946, as “de pweasures of heawf abide in de man who eats moderatewy. The pains of disease dweww wif him who eats excessivewy.”[26][27]

Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita – two major ancient Hindu texts on heawf rewated subjects, incwude many chapters on de rowe of diet and personaw needs of an individuaw. In Chapter 10 of Sushruta Samhita, for exampwe, de diet and nutrition for pregnant women, nursing moders and young chiwdren are described.[30] It recommends miwk, butter, fwuid foods, fruits, vegetabwes and fibrous diets for expecting moders awong wif soups made from jangawa (wiwd) meat.[31] In most cases, vegetarian diets are preferred and recommended in de Samhitas; however, for dose recovering from injuries, growing chiwdren, dose who do high wevews of physicaw exercise, and expecting moders, Sutrasdanam's Chapter 20 and oder texts recommend carefuwwy prepared meat. Sushruta Samhita awso recommends a rotation and bawance in foods consumed, in moderation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[30] For dis purposes, it cwassifies foods by various characteristics, such as taste. In Chapter 42 of Sutrasdanam, for exampwe, it wists six tastes – madhura (sweet), amwa (acidic), wavana (sawty), katuka (pungent), tikta (bitter) and kashaya (astringent). It den wists various sources of foods dat dewiver dese tastes and recommends dat aww six tastes (fwavors) be consumed in moderation and routinewy, as a habit for good heawf.[32]

According to Kane, one who is about to eat food shouwd greet de food when it is served to him. In performing dis act, he shouwd honour it, never speak iww, and never find fauwt in it.[5][33] Everyone needs food, and everyding is food for someding or someone ewse.[5] Living beings eat and are eaten, state de ancient Hindu texts, de whowe of creation is a vast food chain, de cosmos a giant food cycwe.[5]

The Dharmasastra witerature, states Patrick Owivewwe, admonishes "peopwe not to cook for demsewves awone", offer it to de gods, to forefaders, to fewwow human beings as hospitawity and as awms to de monks and needy.[5] Aww wiving beings are interdependent in matters of food, dus food must be respected, worshipped and taken wif care.[5] Owivewwe states dat de Shastras recommend dat when a person sees food, he shouwd fowd his hands, bow to it, and say a prayer of danks.[5] This reverence for food reaches a state of extreme in de renouncer or monk traditions in Hinduism.[5] The Hindu tradition views procurement and preparation of food as necessariwy a viowent process, where oder wife forms and nature are disturbed, in part destroyed, changed and reformuwated into someding edibwe and pawatabwe. The mendicants (sannyasin, ascetics) avoid being de initiator of dis process, and derefore depend entirewy on begging for food dat is weft over of househowders.[5] In pursuit of deir spirituaw bewiefs, states Owivewwe, de "mendicants eat oder peopwe's weft overs".[5] If dey cannot find weft overs, dey seek fawwen fruit or seeds weft in fiewd after harvest.[5]

The forest hermits of Hinduism, on de oder hand, do not even beg for weft overs.[5] Their food is wiwd and uncuwtivated. Their diet wouwd consist mainwy of fruits, roots, weaves, and anyding dat grows naturawwy in de forest.[5] They avoided stepping on pwowed wand, west dey hurt a seedwing. They attempted to wive a wife dat minimizes, preferabwy ewiminates, de possibiwity of harm to any wife form.[5]

The Manusmriti discusses diet in chapter 5, where wike oder Hindu texts, it incwudes verses dat strongwy discourage meat eating, as weww as verses where meat eating is decwared appropriate in times of adversity and various circumstances, recommending dat de meat in such circumstances be produced wif minimaw harm and suffering to de animaw.[34] The verses 5.48-5.52 of Manusmriti expwain de reason for avoiding meat as fowwows (abridged),

One can never obtain meat widout causing injury to wiving beings... he shouwd derefore abstain from meat. Refwecting on how meat is obtained and on how embodied creatures are tied up and kiwwed, he shouwd qwit eating any kind of meat... The man who audorizes, de man who butchers, de man who swaughters, de man who buys or sewws, de man who cooks, de man who serves, and de man who eats – dese are aww kiwwers. There is no greater sinner dan a man who, outside of an offering to gods or ancestors, wants to make his own fwesh drive at de expense of someone ewse's.

In contrast, verse 5.33 of Manusmriti states dat a man may eat meat in a time of adversity, verse 5.27 recommends dat eating meat is okay if not eating meat may pwace a person's heawf and wife at risk, whiwe various verses such as 5.31 and 5.39 recommend dat de meat be produced as a sacrifice (Jhatka medod).[34] In verses 3.267 to 3.272, Manusmriti approves of fish and meats of deer, antewope, pouwtry, goat, sheep, boar, buffawo, rabbit and oders as part of sacrificiaw food.[35] In an exegeticaw anawysis of Manusmriti, Patrick Owivewwe states dat de document shows opposing views on eating meat was common among ancient Hindus, and dat underwying emerging doughts on appropriate diet was driven by edic of non-injury and spirituaw doughts about aww wife forms, de trend being to reduce de consumption of meat and favour a non-injurious vegetarian wifestywe.[36]

This is a typicaw vegetarian food pyramid; however, many Hindus consider eggs to be derived from de animaw wife cycwe, and derefore are non-vegetarian, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Hinduism does not expwicitwy prohibit eating meat, but it does strongwy recommend ahimsa – de concept of non-viowence against aww wife forms incwuding animaws.[1][2] As a conseqwence, many Hindus prefer a vegetarian or wacto-vegetarian wifestywe, and medods of food production dat are in harmony wif nature, compassionate, and respectfuw of oder wife forms as weww as nature.[1]

Hinduism does not reqwire a vegetarian diet,[37] but many Hindus avoid eating meat because dey bewieve dat it minimizes hurting oder wife forms.[38] Vegetarianism is considered satvic, dat is purifying de body and mind wifestywe in some Hindu texts.[39][40]

Lacto-vegetarianism is favored, which incwudes miwk-based foods and aww oder non-animaw derived foods, but it excwudes meat and eggs.[41] There are dree main reasons for dis: de principwe of nonviowence (ahimsa) appwied to animaws,[42] de intention to offer onwy vegetarian food to a deity and den to receive it back as prasad, and de conviction dat non-vegetarian food is detrimentaw for de mind and for spirituaw devewopment.[39][43] Many Hindus point to scripturaw bases, such as de Mahabharata's maxim dat "Nonviowence is de highest duty and de highest teaching",[44] as advocating a vegetarian diet.

A typicaw modern urban Hindu wacto-vegetarian meaw is based on a combination of grains such as rice and wheat, wegumes, green vegetabwes, and dairy products.[48] Depending on de geographicaw region de stapwes may incwude miwwet based fwat breads.Fat derived from swaughtered animaws is avoided.[45]

Awdough many Hindus are wacto-vegetarians,[45][49] a warge number of Hindus consume eggs and meat.[50] According to a survey, 53% of aww non-vegetarians in India are Hindus.[51] According to an estimate,Onwy about 10% of Hindus in Suriname are vegetarians and wess dan five percent of Hindus in Guyana are vegetarians.[52]

Non-vegetarian Hindus prefer pouwtry, fish, oder seafood, goat, and wamb as deir sources of meat.[53] In de Bengaw and Assam regions, fish is a stapwe of most communities incwuding brahmins.[54][55] Fish is awso de stapwe of de Saraswat brahmin community of coastaw souf-western India.[56][57]
It shouwd, however, be noted dat in oder parts of India, even meat eating Hindus have wacto-vegetarian meaws on most days.[58] Overaww,India is de country dat consumes de weast meat per capita.[59]

Hindus who do eat meat, often distinguish aww oder meat from cow meat (beef). The respect for cow is part of Hindu bewief, and most Hindus avoid meat sourced from cow[45] as cows are treated as a moderwy giving animaw[45] considered as anoder member of de famiwy.[60] Some Nepawese Hindu sects sacrificed buffawo at de Gadhimai festivaw, but consider cows different from buffawo or oder red meat sources.However, de Sacrifice of buffawo was banned by de Gadhimai Tempwe Trust in 2015.[61][62]

The preferred production medod for meat is de Jhatka medod, a qwick and painwess deaf to de animaw.[3] Many Shaivites awso eat meat, who reqwire de Jhatka processing medod. Many Vaishnava avoid meat.[65] Among de Hindus of Nepaw, annuaw festivaws mark de sacrifice of goats, pigs, buffawo, chickens and oder animaws, and rituawwy produced Jhatka meat is consumed.[66]