Chapter 7 – The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

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1 Chapter 7 – The First Two Years: Psychosocial DevelopmentThe Developing Person Through the Life Span 8e by Kathleen Stassen BergerChapter 7 – The First Two Years: Psychosocial DevelopmentPowerPoint Slides developed byMartin Wolfger and Michael JamesIvy Tech Community College-BloomingtonReviewed by Raquel HenryLone Star College, Kingwood

2 Emotional DevelopmentInfants’ EmotionsSmiling and LaughingSocial smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human facesLaughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosityAngerFirst expressions at around 6 monthsHealthy response to frustrationSadnessIndicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisolStressful experience for infants

3 Emotional DevelopmentFear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

4 Emotional DevelopmentStranger wariness:Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too closeSeparation anxiety:Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves.If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

5 Emotional DevelopmentToddlers’ EmotionsAnger and fear become less frequent and more focusedLaughing and crying become louder and more discriminatingNew emotions appear: pride, shame, embarrassment, guiltRequire an awareness of other peopleEmerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture

6 Emotional DevelopmentSelf-awarenessThe realization that one’s body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self; may see themselves as part of their mothers.5 months: Begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.

7 Emotional DevelopmentMirror RecognitionClassic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978)Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses.None of those younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them.15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

8 Social Impulses Emotional Self-regulationDirectly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrusParticular people begin to arouse specific emotionsToddlers get angry when teased by an older sibling or react with fear when entering the doctor’s office.Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.

9 StressHypothalamusRegulates various bodily functions and hormone productionMay grow more slowly if an infant is often stressedAbuse (form of chronic stress)Potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional developmentExcessive stress in infants must be prevented

10 Stress Stress can be avoided by: supporting new mothersinvolving new fathers in the care of the infantstrengthening the parents’ relationship

11 Brain Maturation and the EmotionsSynesthesiaWhen one sense triggers another in the brainCommon in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct.Cross-modal perceptionInfant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of othersBasis for early social understandingSynesthesia of emotionsInfant’s cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears.Emotions are difficult to predict because of the way infants’ brains are activated.

12 Brain Maturation and the EmotionsTemperamentInborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulationTemperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices

13 The N.Y. Longitudinal Study FindingsFound 4 categories of temperamentEasy (40%)Difficult (10%)Slow to warm up (15%)Hard to classify (35%)Additional findings:Parenting practices are crucial, temperament can change or be changed

14 Goodness of FitA similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social contextincludes family, school, and community.With a good fitparents of difficult babies build a close relationshipparents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harmparents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

15 Theories of Infant Psychosocial DevelopmentPsychoanalytic TheoryFreud: Oral and Anal StagesOral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratificationAnal stage (second year): Infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)Potential conflicts:Oral fixation: If denied the infant urge to suck, may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively)Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

16 Theories of Infant Psychosocial DevelopmentErikson: Trust and AutonomyTrust versus mistrustInfants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are metAutonomy versus shame and doubtToddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and bodiesEarly problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)

17 Theories of Infant Psychosocial DevelopmentBehaviorismParents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishmentSocial learningThe acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of othersDemonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

18 Theories of Infant Psychosocial DevelopmentCognitive TheoryWorking model: a set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiencesA person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous.The child’s interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves.New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

19 Theories of Infant Psychosocial DevelopmentEthnotheoryA theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture.Example:Culture’s ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnationChildren are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors  indulgent child-rearingPerceived as extremely lenient by Western cultures

20 Proximal and Distal ParentingProximal parentingCaregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touchingDistal parentingCaregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

22 SynchronyA coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infantSynchrony in the first few monthsBecomes more frequent and more elaborateHelps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop the skills of social interactionSynchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants

23 When Synchrony DisappearsExperiments using the still-face techniqueAn experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infantBabies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stressConclusions:A parent’s responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological developmentInfants’ brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

24 AttachmentAttachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another.Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person’s close relationships throughout lifeInfants show attachment through proximity-seeking (i.e. approaching caregiver) and contact-maintaining (i.e. touching, holding)

26 Secure and Insecure AttachmentSecure attachment: An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.Insecure-avoidant attachment: An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

27 Secure and Insecure Attachment3. Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: An infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.4. Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

29 Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Key behaviors to observe:A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.Key behaviors to observe:Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily.Reaction to the caregiver’s departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver.Reaction to the caregiver’s return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

32 Social Referencing Social referencingSeeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions.Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

33 Fathers as Social PartnersFathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parentsReasons:Fathers’ own ideas ofappropriate male behaviorMothers often limit fathers’interactions with their childrenQuality of marital relationshipis best predictorHappier husbands tend tobe more involved fathers

34 Comparing Fathers and MothersSelected research findings:Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006).Close father–infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006).Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers’ risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007).Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008).

35 Infant Day Care Family day care Center day careChild care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it.Center day careChild care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children.Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

37 The Effects of Infant Day CareThe impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors.Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother’s warmth than by the number of hours spent in nonmaternal care.Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care.