468 F.2d 1164, Lower Courts grant injunction and refuse to enjoin completion of the dam. 437 U.S. 153, TVA petitioned for Writ of Certiorari from U.S. Supreme Court which was granted in November 1977.

Holding

Supreme Court affirmed the Sixth Circuit judgement and ordered an injunction against the completion of the Tellico Dam citing the project impact would violate provisions stated in Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.

Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hiram Hill et al., or TVA v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153 (1978), was a United States Supreme Court case and the Court's first interpretation of the Endangered Species Act of 1973. After the discovery of the snail darter fish in the Little Tennessee River in August 1973, a lawsuit was filed alleging that the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)'s Tellico Dam construction was in violation of the Endangered Species Act. Plaintiffs argued dam construction would destroy critical habitat and endanger the population of snail darters, it was decided by a 6-3 vote, in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Hill, et al. and granted an injunction stating that there would be conflict between Tellico Dam operation and the explicit provisions of Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.

The majority opinion, delivered by Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, affirmed the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals decision in granting an injunction. This decision by the Supreme Court to not allow exemptions confirmed that Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act was a strong substantive provision and helped shaped federal environmental law,[1] the case is commonly cited as an example of the strict construction-plain meaning canon of construction, and the equitable principle that courts cannot balance equities to override statutory mandates unless on constitutional grounds.

Passed by Congress a large majority in 531-4 vote and signed by Present Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973[2] with the purpose of protecting and recovering "imperiled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend,"[3] the Endangered Species Act provides the strongest federal protection against species loss. The Endangered Species Act requires federal agencies to evaluate if actions taken or permitted by the federal government may harm listed species or the continued existence of listed species or their critical habitat. Once a species is listed as "endangered" or "threatened," the ESA prohibits the "taking" of listed animals and plants which makes it unlawful "to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct." Unknowingly at the time, Congress had passed a controversial statute that created a forum which brought into question the merits of government projects and presented a political question of balancing the benefits of species preservation and the economic cost of preservation.[4]

The Tennessee Valley Authority is a federally owned utility corporation created in 1933 during the Great Depression, at the time of its creation, its mission was to help strengthen economic development of the Tennessee River basin, a region hit with high unemployment where the per capita income was less than half the national average.[5] The publicly owned corporation provides flood control, navigation and land management for the Tennessee River system and assists utilities and state and local governments with economic development,[6] the Tellico Dam project would be the last of 68 dams constructed in the Tennessee River Valley. TVA argued that the project would provide recreational benefits and allow for real estate development along the reservoir.

Hiram (Hank) Hill was a second year law student at the University of Tennessee. Hiram Hill was spending time with Dr. David Etnier, a biologist and professor, who had discovered the snail darter while scuba diving in the Little Tennessee River. Hill brought the snail darter to the attention of Zygmunt J.B. Plater, a law professor, and asked if the completion of the Tellico Dam and the potential effect on the fish under the Endangered Species Act would be a suitable topic for an environmental law paper.[5] The plaintiffs in the case were Hill, Plater, and Donald Cohen.

After the discovery of the snail darter, Hiram Hill, Zygmunt Plater, and local attorney Joseph Congleton[8] submitted a petition to the Fish and Wildlife Service to list the snail darter as endangered. In the Federal Register, the FWS ruled that the species was indeed endangered and designated mile 0.5 to 17 of the Little Tennessee River as critical habitat for snail darters. TVA rejected the Fish and Wildlife Service's interpretation of ESA and continued to receive funding for the Tellico Dam.

On February 28, 1976 Hill et al., filed a citizen's suit seeking an injunction and claimed that TVA was in violation of the Endangered Species Act. Judge Taylor presided over the case and on May 25, 1976 he found that the dam would eliminate the fish and its habitat, but he refused to consider balancing the alternate development of the river, and refused to enjoin completion of the Tellico Dam.

On January 31, 1977 the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge Taylor's decision and issued an injunction forbidding the completion of the dam,[1] during this time TVA petitioned the FWS to remove the snail darter from the endangered species list and also petitioned for a writ of certiorari from the United States Supreme Court.

On April 18, 1978 TVA argued that an exception to the Endangered Species Act should be granted for balancing of equities, they argued that Congress had already spent $100 million on the project, and that it would not make economic sense to stop the project. TVA argued for an exception to be made in this case since the dam was started prior to the Endangered Species Act being passed and claimed it should be grandfathered in. Another argument made was that since the appropriations committees continued to appropriate funding for the project after knowing it would be detrimental to the snail darter's critical habitat, Congress had implicitly repealed the Endangered Species Act.

Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act offers no exceptions to the jeopardizing of the continued existence of listed endangered species or their habitat. Endangered species should be afforded the highest of priorities no matter the economic costs.

One would be hard pressed to find a statutory provision whose terms were any plainer than those in 7 of the Endangered Species Act, its very words affirmatively command all federal agencies 'to insure that actions authorized, funded, or carried out by them do not jeopardize the continued existence' of an endangered species or 'result in the destruction or modification of habitat of such species . . . .' 16 U.S.C. 1536 (1976 ed.). (Emphasis added.) This language admits of no exception.

Based on the wording of the Act, Congress viewed the value of an endangered species as incalculable, until Congress decided otherwise, the courts should enforce the law, not allowing violations to continue.

To TVA's claim that Congress had implied repeal of the Endangered Species Act Burger wrote: "When voting on appropriations measures, legislators are entitled to operate under the assumption that the funds will be devoted to purposes which are lawful and not for any purpose forbidden."

Justice William Rehnquist agreed with the District Court in their refusal to issue an injunction.

Here the District Court recognized that Congress, when it enacted the Endangered Species Act, made the preservation of the habitat of the snail darter an important public concern, but it concluded that this interest on one side of the balance was more than outweighed by other equally significant factors. These factors, further elaborated in the dissent of my brother Powell, satisfy me that the District Court's refusal to issue an injunction was not an abuse of its discretion. I therefore dissent from the Court's opinion holding otherwise.

He agreed that TVA was in violation of the Endangered Species Act, but thought there should be a balancing of equities in this case. Just because they could issue an injunction, does not mean they had an absolute duty to do so.

The committee has the authority to exempt federal agencies from provisions in Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act. An exemption could be granted if a majority of the committee members found:

(a) the federal project is of regional or national significance,

(b) there is no "reasonable and prudent alternative," and

(c) the project as proposed "clearly outweighs the alternatives."

If approved, the extinction of a species would be allowed and the agency would be required to implement a mitigation plan.

The Tellico Dam project was reviewed by the God Committee on January 23, 1979 and was unanimously denied an exemption based on economic factors.[10] Chairman Andrus stated, "I hate to see the snail darter get the credit for stopping a project that was ill-conceived and uneconomic in the first place."[8] The annual cost of the dam, $7.25 million, exceeded estimated benefits, $6.25 million, in addition to the cost of completing dam construction and also would tie up approximately $40 million in private (agricultural) land values.

Determined to have the Tellico Dam completed, Senator Baker and Representative John Duncan, Sr. rejected the economic analysis and attached a rider into the Energy and Water Development Appropriation Act in July 1979 directing TVA to complete the construction of the Tellico Dam.[1] The appropriations bill was signed by President Jimmy Carter allowing the project to be completed and a reservoir began to form later in the year, although that population of the snail darter did not survive, several small populations were later found upstream in the Tennessee River and its tributaries.[11] The snail darter is still on the Endangered Species List, though it was down-graded to "threatened" after being successfully transplanted into other river systems.[12]

The environmental organization, WTC, argued use of 54 pesticides with active ingredients may harm endangered or threatened salmon and steelhead in the waters of the Pacific Northwest. WTC filed suit against the EPA to force consulting compliance under the ESA

District court upheld an injunction banning the use of the 54 pesticides within the proscribed distance of waters supporting salmon populations in California, Oregon, and Washington.

Under the Clean Water Act facilities are regulated to use the "Best Available Technology" to reduce adverse impacts to the environment. The case determined whether agencies may use cost-benefit analysis when choosing a technology to meet performance standards.

The Court determined the EPA was allowed to use cost-benefit analysis when determining BAT standards.

Sweet Home Chapter brought suit against the Secretary of Interior and the director of the Fish and Wildlife Service challenging the interpretation of the term "take" in the Endangered Species Act. The plaintiff argued that the interpretation of "harm" under "takings" was too broad and any commercial business would indirectly impact habitat and species.

The Court ruled in favor of the Department of Interior finding "that Congress intended an expansive interpretation that encompasses habitat modification."[13]

1.
Supreme Court of the United States
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote

2.
United States Reports
–
The United States Reports are the official record of the rulings, orders, case tables, and other proceedings of the Supreme Court of the United States. Opinions of the court in each case, prepended with a prepared by the Reporter of Decisions. For lawyers, citations to United States Reports are the reference for Supreme Court decisions. Following Bluebook, a commonly accepted citation protocol, the case Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, for example, would be cited as, Brown v. Bd. of Educ. The early volumes of the United States Reports were originally published privately by the individual Supreme Court Reporters, as was the practice in England, the reports were designated by the names of the reporters who compiled them, Dallass Reports, Cranchs Reports, etc. The decisions appearing in the entire first volume and most of the volume of United States Reports are not decisions of the United States Supreme Court. Instead, they are decisions from various Pennsylvania courts, dating from the colonial period, alexander Dallas, a lawyer and journalist, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, had been in the business of reporting these cases for newspapers and periodicals. He subsequently began compiling his case reports in a bound volume and this would come to be known as the first volume of Dallas Reports. Dallas continued to collect and publish Pennsylvania decisions in a volume of his Reports. When the Supreme Court began hearing cases, he added those cases to his reports, starting towards the end of the volume,2 Dallas Reports. Dallas went on to publish a total of four volumes of decisions during his tenure as Reporter, when the Supreme Court moved to Washington, D. C. in 1800, Dallas remained in Philadelphia, and William Cranch took over as unofficial reporter of decisions. In 1817, Congress made the Reporter of Decisions an official, salaried position, in 1874, the U. S. government began to fund the reports publication, creating the United States Reports. The earlier, private reports were retroactively numbered volumes 1–90 of the United States Reports, therefore, decisions appearing in these early reports have dual citation forms, one for the volume number of the United States Reports, and one for the set of nominate reports. For example, the citation to McCulloch v. Maryland is 17 U. S.316

3.
Tellico Dam
–
Tellico Dam is a dam built by the Tennessee Valley Authority in Loudon County, Tennessee on the Little Tennessee River just above the main stem of the Tennessee River. Construction of the Tellico Dam was controversial and marks a point in American attitudes toward dam construction. Until the 1960s and 1970s, few questioned the value of building a dam, indeed, dams were considered to represent progress, during the twentieth century, the United States built thousands of dams. In the 1970s, the era of dam-building ended, the Tellico Dam case illustrates the United States changing attitudes toward dams and the environment. Construction of the dam was delayed when an endangered fish called the snail darter was discovered on the Little Tennessee River. Dam opponents brought a lawsuit under the Endangered Species Act, the case, Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill,437 U. S.153, made it to the Supreme Court of the United States. In Hill, the Supreme Court affirmed, by a 6-3 vote, in the ensuing controversy over the snail darter, the Endangered Species Committee was convened to issue a waiver for ESA protection of the snail darter. In a unanimous decision, the Committee refused an exemption of the Tellico Dam project, after a long battle, Congress finally exempted the Tellico Dam from the Endangered Species Act as an amendment in an unrelated bill. The gates were closed on the dam and Tellico Lake began to form in 1979, remnant populations of the snail darter were later located in other streams. The port of Morganton was also submerged, fort Loudoun was excavated, dirt was deposited to raise the site 17 feet, and the fort was rebuilt in its original location. Tellico Dam does not produce any electricity, Tellico Village and other lakefront residential communities have been built along the shores of Tellico Lake. Bussell Island Snail darter controversy Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill Tellico Reservoir — TVA site Tellico Reservoir — Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency

4.
Endangered Species Act of 1973
–
The U. S. Supreme Court found that the plain intent of Congress in enacting the ESA was to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost. The Act is administered by two agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Experimental, nonessential populations of endangered species are treated as threatened species on land, for consultation purposes. The near-extinction of the bison and the disappearance of the passenger pigeon helped drive the call for wildlife conservation starting in the 1900s, the public was introduced to a new concept, extinction. Market hunting for the trade and for the table was one aspect of the problem. The early naturalists also killed birds and other wildlife for study, personal curio collections, while habitat losses continued as communities and farmland grew, the widespread use of pesticides and the introduction of non-native species also affected wildlife. One species in particular received widespread attention—the whooping crane, the species historical range extended from central Canada South to Mexico, and from Utah to the Atlantic coast. It would be eight years before the first national law regulating wildlife commerce was signed. The whooping crane population by 1941 was estimated at about only 16 birds still in the wild, the Lacey Act of 1900 was the first federal law that regulated commercial animal markets. It prohibited interstate commerce of animals killed in violation of state game laws, other legislation followed, including the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, a 1937 treaty prohibiting the hunting of right and gray whales, and the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940. These later laws had a low cost to society–the species were relatively little opposition was raised. Whereas the Lacey Act dealt with game management and market commerce species. The predecessor of the ESA was the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966, passed by Congress, this act permitted the listing of native U. S. animal species as endangered and for limited protections upon those animals. It also directed federal agencies to preserve habitat on their lands. The Act also consolidated and even expanded authority for the Secretary of the Interior to manage, other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species. The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts, in March,1967 the first list of endangered species was issued under the act. It included 14 mammals,36 birds,6 reptiles and amphibians and 22 fish and it included only vertebrates because the Department of Interiors definition of fish and wildlife was limited to vertebrates. However, with time, researchers noticed that the animals on the species list still were not getting enough protection

5.
Warren E. Burger
–
Warren Earl Burger was the 15th Chief Justice of the United States from 1969 to 1986. Although Burger was a conservative, and the U. S. Warren Earl Burger was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1907 and his parents, Katharine and Charles Joseph Burger, a traveling salesman and railroad cargo inspector, were of Austrian German descent. His grandfather, Joseph Burger, had emigrated from Tyrol, Austria, Joseph Burger fought and was wounded in the Civil War, resulting in the loss of his right arm and was awarded the Medal of Honor at the age of 14. Joseph Burger by age 16 became the youngest Captain in the Union Army, Burger grew up on the family farm near the edge of Saint Paul. He attended John A. Johnson High School, where he was president of the student council and he competed in hockey, football, track, and swimming. While in high school, he wrote articles on school sports for local newspapers. That same year, Burger also worked with the building the Robert Street Bridge. Concerned about the number of deaths on the project, he asked that a net be installed to catch anyone who fell, in later years, Burger made a point of visiting the bridge whenever he came back to town. Burger attended night school at the University of Minnesota while selling insurance for Mutual Life Insurance, afterward, he enrolled at Mitchell Hamline School of Law, receiving his degree magna cum laude in 1931. He took a job at the firm of Boyensen, Otis and Faricy, now known as Moore, in 1937, Burger served as the eighth president of the Saint Paul Jaycees. He also taught for years at William Mitchell. His political career began uneventfully, but he rose to national prominence. He supported Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassens unsuccessful pursuit of the Republican nomination for President in 1948, in 1952, at the Republican convention, he played a key role in Dwight D. Eisenhowers nomination by delivering the Minnesota delegation. After he was elected, President Eisenhower appointed Burger as the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division of the Justice Department, in this role, he first argued in front of the Supreme Court. The case involved John P. Peters, a Yale University professor who worked as a consultant to the government and he had been discharged from his position on loyalty grounds. Supreme Court cases are argued by the Solicitor General, but he disagreed with the governments position. In 1956, Eisenhower appointed him to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and he remained on the Court of Appeals for thirteen years. In 1968, Chief Justice Earl Warren announced his retirement after 15 years on the Court, President Lyndon Johnson nominated sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to the position, but a Senate filibuster blocked his confirmation

6.
William J. Brennan Jr.
–
William Joseph Brennan Jr. was an American judge who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1956 to 1990. As the seventh longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history, he was known for being a leader of the Courts liberal wing and he was known for his outspoken progressive views, including opposition to the death penalty and support for abortion rights. Due to his ability to shape a variety of opinions and bargain for votes in many cases. Justice Antonin Scalia called Brennan probably the most influential Justice of the century, on November 30,1993, Justice Brennan was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton. Brennan was born in Newark, New Jersey, the second of eight children and his parents, William and Agnes Brennan, were Irish immigrants. They met in the United States, although both were originally from County Roscommon in Ireland and his father had little education, he worked as a metal polisher. However, he rose to a position of leadership, serving as the Commissioner of Public Safety for the city of Newark from 1927 to 1930, Brennan attended public schools in Newark, and graduated from Barringer High School in 1924. He then attended the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, while there, he joined Delta Tau Delta Fraternity. Brennan graduated from Harvard Law School near the top of his class in 1931, when he was 21, Brennan married Marjorie Leonard, whom he had met in high school. They eventually had three children, William, Nancy and Hugh, after graduating from Harvard Law School, Brennan entered private practice in his home state of New Jersey, where he practiced labor law at the firm of Pitney Hardin. He entered the Army as a major in March 1942, and he did legal work for the ordnance division. In 1949, Brennan was appointed to the Superior Court by Governor of New Jersey Alfred E. Driscoll, in 1951, Driscoll appointed him to the Supreme Court of New Jersey. Brennan was named to the U. S. Supreme Court through an appointment by Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956. Presidential advisers thought the appointment of a Roman Catholic Democrat from the Northeast would woo critical voters in the upcoming re-election campaign for Eisenhower, a Republican. Brennan gained the attention of Herbert Brownell, United States Attorney General and Eisenhowers chief legal affairs adviser, to Brownell, Brennans speech seemed to suggest a marked conservatism, especially on criminal matters. His nomination faced a small amount of controversy from two angles, Brennan filled the seat vacated by Justice Sherman Minton. He held the post until his retirement on July 20,1990, for health reasons, Brennan then taught at Georgetown University Law Center until 1994. With 1,360 opinions, he is only to William O. Douglas in number of opinions written while a Supreme Court justice

7.
Potter Stewart
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Potter Stewart was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. During his tenure, he made, among other areas, major contributions to criminal justice reform, civil rights, access to the courts, Stewart was born in Jackson, Michigan, while his family was on vacation. He was the son of Harriett L. and James Garfield Stewart and his father, a prominent Republican from Cincinnati, Ohio, served as mayor of Cincinnati for nine years and was later a justice on the Ohio Supreme Court. Potter Stewart attended the Hotchkiss School, graduating in 1933, then, he went on to Yale University, where he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon and Skull and Bones graduating class of 1937. He was awarded Phi Beta Kappa and served as chairman of the Yale Daily News and he graduated from Yale Law School in 1941, where he was an editor of the Yale Law Journal and a member of Phi Delta Phi. Other members of that era included Gerald R. Ford, Peter H. Dominick, Walter Lord, William Scranton, R. Sargent Shriver, Cyrus R. Vance, the last would later become his colleague on the United States Supreme Court. Stewart served in World War II as a member of the U. S. Naval Reserve aboard oil tankers, in 1943 he married Mary Ann Bertles in a ceremony at Bruton Episcopal Church in Williamsburg, Virginia. They eventually had a daughter, Harriet, and two sons, Potter, Jr. and David and he was in private practice with Dinsmore & Shohl in Cincinnati. During the early 1950s, he was elected to the Cincinnati City Council, at the age of 39, in 1954, he was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. In 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower nominated Stewart to the Supreme Court to replace Justice Harold Hitz Burton and he was a recess appointment in 1958 before being confirmed 70–17 by the United States Senate on May 5,1959. All 17 nay votes came from Southern Democrats, Stewart came to a Supreme Court controlled by two warring ideological camps and sat firmly in its center. A case early in his Supreme Court career showing his role as the vote during that time is Irvin v. Dowd. Stewart was temperamentally inclined to moderate, pragmatic positions, but was often in a dissenting posture during his time on the Warren Court. Before the appointment of Warren Burger as Chief Justice, many speculated that President Richard Nixon would elevate Stewart to the post, Stewart, though flattered by the suggestion, did not want again to appear before—and expose his family to—the Senate confirmation process. Nor did he relish the prospect of taking on the administrative responsibilities delegated to the Chief Justice, accordingly, he met privately with the president to ask that his name be removed from consideration. Stewart opposed the Vietnam War and on a number of occasions urged the Supreme Court to grant certiorari on cases challenging the constitutionality of the war, Stewart consistently voted against claims of criminal defendants in the area of federal habeas corpus and collateral review. He was concerned about broad interpretations of the due process and equal protection clauses and he was the lone dissenter in the landmark juvenile law case In re Gault. That case extended to minors the right to be informed of rights and the right to an attorney, Justice Stewart went on to defend the movie in question against further censorship

8.
Byron White
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Byron Raymond Whizzer White won fame both as an American football halfback and as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Born and raised in Colorado, White played in the National Football League for three seasons and practiced law for 15 years before his Supreme Court appointment, White was the Colorado state chair of John F. Kennedys 1960 presidential campaign. White was appointed to the Supreme Court by Kennedy in 1962 and he viewed his own court decisions as based on the facts of each case rather than as representative of a specific legal philosophy. He retired in 1993 and is the twelfth longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history and he was the first Supreme Court Justice from the state of Colorado. Born in Fort Collins, Colorado, White was the son of Maude Elizabeth and Alpha Albert White. He was raised in the town of Wellington, where he obtained his high school diploma in 1934. He joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity and served as student body president his senior year. Graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1938, he won a Rhodes Scholarship to the University of Oxford in England, after deferring it for a year to play pro football, he attended Hertford College, Oxford. During this time in England, he acquainted with Joe and John Kennedy. As a senior, White led Colorado to an undefeated 8–0 regular season in 1937 and he was the runner-up for the Heisman Trophy, behind Yale quarterback Clint Frank, and also played basketball and baseball at CU. The basketball team advanced to the finals of the inaugural National Invitation Tournament at Madison Square Garden in March 1938, White had originally planned to attend Oxford in 1938 and not play pro football. He was selected fourth overall in the 1938 NFL draft, held in December 1937, by the NFLs Pittsburgh Pirates, Oxford allowed White to delay his start to early 1939, so he accepted the Pittsburgh offer in August and played the 1938 season in the NFL. He led the league in rushing as a 21-year-old rookie and was its highest-paid player and he sailed to England in early 1939, with the intent of staying for three years. With the outbreak of World War II in late summer, White returned to the United States and he was admitted to Yale Law School in early October 1939, a week after classes began, and also played for the Detroit Lions in 1940 and 1941. In three NFL seasons, he played in 33 games and he led the league in rushing yards in 1938 and 1940, and he was one of the first big money NFL players, making US$15,000 per year. His NFL career was cut short when he entered the U. S. Navy in 1942, after the war and he was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954. During the war, White served as an officer in the U. S. Navy. He had originally wanted to join the Marines, but was out due to being colorblind

9.
Thurgood Marshall
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Thurgood Marshall was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Courts 96th justice and its first African-American justice and he served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit after being appointed by President John F. Kennedy. He was appointed as the Solicitor General by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965, President Johnson nominated him to the United States Supreme Court in 1967 and he was approved by the Senate. Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 2,1908 and his original name was Thoroughgood, but he shortened it to Thurgood in second grade because he disliked spelling it. His father, William Marshall, worked as a porter, and his mother Norma, as a teacher, they instilled in him an appreciation for the United States Constitution. Marshall attended Frederick Douglass High School in Baltimore and was placed in the class with the best students and he graduated a year early in 1925 with a B-grade average, and placed in the top third of the class. It is commonly reported that he intended to study medicine and become a dentist, but according to his application to Lincoln University, Marshall said his goal was to become a lawyer. Among his classmates were poet Langston Hughes and musician Cab Calloway, initially he did not take his studies seriously, and was suspended twice for hazing and pranks against fellow students. He was not politically active at first, becoming a star of the debating team, in his freshman year he opposed the integration of African-American professors at the university. Hughes later described Marshall as rough and ready, loud and wrong, in his second year Marshall participated in a sit-in protest against segregation at a local movie theater. In that year, he was initiated as a member of Alpha Phi Alpha, Marshall wanted to study in his hometown law school, the University of Maryland School of Law, but did not apply because of the schools segregation policy. Marshall instead attended Howard University School of Law, where he worked harder than he had at Lincoln, in 1933, he graduated first in his class at Howard. After graduating from law school, Marshall started a law practice in Baltimore. He began his 25-year affiliation with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1934 by representing the organization in the law school discrimination suit Murray v. Pearson, in 1936, Marshall became part of the national staff of the NAACP. In Murray v. Black students in Maryland wanting to study law had to attend segregated establishments, Morgan College, whatever system is adopted for legal education must furnish equality of treatment now. At the age of 32, Marshall won U. S. Supreme Court case Chambers v. Florida,309 U. S.227 and that same year, he founded and became the executive director of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. In total, Marshall won 29 out of the 32 cases he argued before the Supreme Court, during the 1950s, Thurgood Marshall developed a friendly relationship with J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 1956, for example, he privately praised Hoovers campaign to discredit T. R. M, Howard, a maverick civil rights leader from Mississippi

10.
Harry Blackmun
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Harry Andrew Blackmun was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1970 until 1994. Appointed by Republican President Richard Nixon, Blackmun ultimately became one of the most liberal justices on the Court and he is best known as the author of the Courts opinion in Roe v. Wade. Harry Blackmun was born in Nashville, Illinois, the son of Theo Huegely and he grew up in Daytons Bluff, a working-class neighborhood in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He attended the grade school as future Chief Justice Warren E. Burger. He attended Harvard College on scholarship, earning an A. B. summa cum laude in mathematics, while at Harvard, Blackmun joined Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity and sang with the Harvard Glee Club. He attended Harvard Law School, graduating in 1932 and he served in a variety of positions including private counsel, law clerk, and adjunct faculty at the University of Minnesota Law School and William Mitchell College of Law. Blackmuns practice as an attorney at the law now known as Dorsey & Whitney focused in its early years on taxation, trusts and estates. He married Dorothy Clark in 1941 and had three daughters with her, Nancy, Sally, and Susan, between 1950 and 1959, Blackmun served as resident counsel for the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. He would later describe his time at Mayo as his happiest time, in the late 1950s, Blackmuns close friend Warren E. Burger, then an appellate judge on the D. C. Circuit, repeatedly encouraged Blackmun to seek a judgeship, Sanborn, Jr. of the Eighth Circuit, whom Blackmun had clerked for after graduating from Harvard, told Blackmun of his plans to assume senior status. He said that he would suggest Blackmuns name to the Eisenhower administration if Blackmun wished to succeed him, after much urging by Sanborn and Burger, Blackmun agreed to accept the nomination, duly offered by Eisenhower and members of the Justice Department. Over the next decade, Blackmun would author 217 opinions for the Eighth Circuit, Blackmun was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Richard M. Nixon on April 14,1970, and was confirmed by the Senate on May 12,1970, by a 94–0 vote. He received his commission on May 14,1970, Blackmun was Nixons third choice to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Abe Fortas on May 14,1969. His confirmation followed contentious battles over two previous, failed nominations forwarded by Nixon in 1969–1970, those of Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, Nixons original choice, Lewis F. Powell, Jr. turned him down but later joined the Court in 1972. Blackmun, a lifelong Republican, was expected to adhere to an interpretation of the Constitution. The Courts Chief Justice at the time, Warren Burger, a friend of Blackmuns. The two were referred to as the Minnesota Twins because of their common history in Minnesota. Indeed, Blackmun voted with Burger in 87.5 percent of the divided cases during his first five terms, and with William J. Brennan

11.
Lewis F. Powell Jr.
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Lewis Franklin Powell Jr. was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Powell compiled a record on the Court and cultivated a reputation as a swing vote with a penchant for compromise. He retired from the Supreme Court after 15 years of service, Powell was born in Suffolk, Virginia, the son of Mary Lewis and Louis Franklin Powell, Sr. He attended Washington and Lee University, earning both an undergraduate and a law degree and he then received a Master of Laws degree from Harvard Law School in 1932. He was elected president of student body as an undergraduate with the help of Mosby Perrow Jr. Powell was a member of Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity and the Sigma Society. At a leadership conference, he met Edward R. Murrow, in 1936, he married Josephine Pierce Rucker with whom he had three daughters and one son. During World War II, he first tried to join the US Navy, after he was rejected because of poor eyesight, he joined the US Army Air Forces as an Intelligence officer. After receiving his commission as a First Lieutenant in 1942, he completed training at bases near Miami, Florida and Harrisburg and he was then assigned to the 319th Bombardment Group, which moved to England later that year. He served in North Africa during Operation Torch and was assigned to the Headquarters of the Northwest African Air Forces. There, Powell served in Sicily during the Allied invasion of Sicily, in August 1943, he was assigned to the Intelligence staff of the Army Air Forces in Washington, D. C. Slated for assignment as an instructor at the facility near Harrisburg and he was then assigned to the Intelligence staff of the Department of War and then the Intelligence staff of United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe. Powell was assigned to the Ultra project, as one of the designated to monitor the use of intercepted Axis communications. He advanced through the ranks to Colonel, and received the Legion of Merit, Bronze Star Medal and he was discharged in October 1945. In 1941, Powell served as Chairman of the American Bar Associations Young Lawyers Division, Powell was a partner for over a quarter of a century at Hunton, Williams, Gay, Powell and Gibson, a large Virginia law firm, with its primary office in Richmond. Powell practiced primarily in the areas of law and in railway litigation law. He had been a member of Philip Morris from 1964 until his court appointment in 1971 and had acted as a contact point for the tobacco industry with the Virginia Commonwealth University. Through his law firm, Powell represented the Tobacco Institute and various companies in numerous law cases. Powell served as Chair of the American Bar Associations Standing Committee on the Economics of Law Practice from 1961 to 1962, during his tenure as Chair of the Committee, The Lawyers Handbook was first published and distributed to all attorneys who joined the ABA that year

12.
William Rehnquist
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Considered a conservative, Rehnquist favored a conception of federalism that emphasized the Tenth Amendments reservation of powers to the states. Under this view of federalism the Court, for the first time since the 1930s, the last 11 years of Rehnquists term as chief justice marked the second-longest tenure of a single unchanging roster of the Supreme Court, exceeded only between February 1812 and September 1823. He is the justice in Supreme Court history. Rehnquist was born William Donald Rehnquist in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 1,1924 and he grew up in the suburb of Shorewood. Rehnquist changed his name to Hubbs, a family name. His paternal grandparents immigrated from Sweden, Rehnquist graduated from Shorewood High School in 1942. He attended Kenyon College, in Gambier, Ohio, for one quarter in the fall of 1942 and he served from March 1943 –1946, mostly in assignments in the United States. He was put into a program and assigned to Denison University until February 1944. He served three months at Will Rogers Field in Oklahoma City, three months in Carlsbad, New Mexico, and then went to Hondo, Texas, for a few months. He was then chosen for training program, which began at Chanute Field, Illinois. The program was designed to teach the maintenance and repair of weather instruments, in the summer of 1945, Rehnquist went overseas as a weather observer in North Africa. After the war ended, Rehnquist attended Stanford University with assistance under the provisions of the G. I, in 1948, he received both a Bachelor of Arts and a Master of Arts degree in political science. In 1950, he attended Harvard University, where he received another Master of Arts and he later returned to Stanford, and graduated from the Stanford Law School in the same class as Sandra Day OConnor, with whom he would later serve on the Supreme Court. Rehnquist graduated first in his class, Rehnquist went to Washington, D. C. to work as a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson of the United States Supreme Court during the courts 1952–1953 term. Rehnquists 1952 memo, entitled A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases, Rehnquist said, I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jacksons tentative views for his own use. Justice Jackson did not ask law clerks to express his views and he expressed his own and they expressed theirs. That is what happened in this instance, however, the papers of Justices Douglas and Frankfurter indicate that Justice Jackson voted for Brown in 1954 only after changing his mind. However, Rehnquist acknowledged defending Plessy in arguments with fellow law clerks, several commentators have concluded that the memo reflected Rehnquists own views rather than those of Justice Jackson

13.
John Paul Stevens
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John Paul Stevens is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, who served from December 19,1975, until his retirement on June 29,2010. At the time of his retirement, he was the oldest justice then serving, the second-oldest serving justice in the history of the Court, and he was nominated by President Gerald Ford to replace the Courts longest-serving justice, William O. Douglas. Stevens is widely considered to have been on the side of the Court at the time of his retirement. Stevens served with three Chief Justices, Stevens was born on April 20,1920, in Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois, to a wealthy family. His paternal grandfather had formed a company and held real estate in Chicago. His father, Ernest James Stevens, was a lawyer who became a hotelier. He lost ownership of the hotels during the Great Depression and was convicted of embezzlement and his mother, Elizabeth Maude Stevens, was a high-school English teacher. Two of his three brothers also became lawyers. As a boy, Stevens attended the 1932 World Series baseball game in Chicagos Wrigley Field in which Babe Ruth called his shot, Stevens later recalled, Ruth did point to the center-field scoreboard. And he did hit the ball out of the park after he pointed with his bat, so it really happened. He also had the opportunity to meet several people of the era, including the famed aviators Amelia Earhart and Charles Lindbergh. The family lived in Hyde Park, and John Paul Stevens attended the University of Chicago Laboratory School. He subsequently obtained a bachelor of arts in English from the University of Chicago in 1941, while in college and he began work on his masters degree in English at the university in 1941, but soon decided to join the United States Navy. He enlisted on December 6,1941, one day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Stevens was awarded a Bronze Star for his service in the codebreaking team whose work led to the downing of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamotos plane in 1943. Stevens married Elizabeth Jane Shereen in June 1942, divorcing her in 1979, he married Maryan Mulholland Simon that December. He has four children, John Joseph, Kathryn, Elizabeth, with the end of World War II, Stevens returned to Illinois, intending to return to his studies in English, but was persuaded by his brother Richard, who was a lawyer, to attend law school. Stevens enrolled in the Northwestern University School of Law in 1945 and he was a brilliant student, earning the highest GPA in the history of the law school. He received his J. D. in 1947, graduating cum laude

14.
Case citation
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Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information. A legal citation is a reference to a precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or treatise. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets to the year, the Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites and most published court decisions now appear in that way. They can be found through many national and other websites, such as WorldLII, the resulting flood of unpaginated information has led to numbering of paragraphs and the adoption of a medium-neutral citation system. The conjunction versus is abbreviated to v in Commonwealth countries and to v. in the United States, the abbreviation represents the Latin word versus, which means against. When case titles are read out loud, the v can be pronounced, depending on the context, as and, against, versus, Commonwealth countries follow British legal style, which is quite clear about the correct pronunciation, Civil cases are pronounced with and. For example, Smith v Jones would be pronounced Smith and Jones, Criminal cases are pronounced with against. For example, R v Smith would be pronounced the Crown against Smith, the Latin words Rex, Regina, and versus are all rendered into English. In the United States there is no consensus on the pronunciation of the abbreviation v. Against is a matter of personal style, burger and John Paul Stevens preferred to announce cases at the Supreme Court with against. And is used by law professors, but other law professors regard it as an affectation. The standard case citation format in Australia is, As in Canada, There exist commercial citation guides published by Butterworths and other legal publishing companies, academic citation styles and court citation styles. Each court in Australia may cite the case slightly differently. Australian courts and tribunals have now adopted a neutral citation standard for case law, the format provides a naming system that does not depend on the publication of the case in a law report. Most cases are now published on AustLII using neutral citations, the standard format looks like this, So the above-mentioned Mabo case would then be cited like this, Mabo v Queensland HCA23. There is a unique identifier code for most courts. The court and tribunal identifiers include, Australian Guide to Legal Citation There are a number of standards in Canada. Many legal publishing companies and schools have their own standard for citation, the following format reflects this standard, Hunter v Southam,2 SCR145

15.
Snail darter
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The snail darter is a species of fish that is found in East Tennessee freshwater in the United States. It is in the family of the order Perciformes. Discovered in 1973, the snail darter was listed as endangered under the U. S. Hill, the species was then transplanted into the Hiwassee River in southeastern Tennessee. The species inhabits large creeks or deeper portions of rivers and reservoirs with gravel, the snail darter spawns between February to mid-April with the female producing 600 eggs which drift downstream. Juveniles occupy slack water habitats and migrate upstream to the breeding ground, the lifespan of the snail darter ranges between 2 and 4 years. The snail darter adult length ranges between 55 and 90 mm, the species’ diet consists mostly of snails and insects. Snail darters have camouflage dorsal patterns and burrow in the substrate to conserve energy and they are largely preyed upon by banded sculpin. The word Tanasi derives from capital of the Cherokee Nation located on the Little Tennessee River where the species was discovered, the species was relisted as threatened in 1984 after being successfully transplanted into other river systems. Prior to the completion of the Tellico Dam in 1979, TVA biologists made several efforts to relocate the remaining individuals of the species into other river systems. In 1975 the species was successfully transplanted to the Hiwassee River, another transplant attempt was made to the Nolichucky River in 1975, but was later stopped by the discovery of another federally protected species, the sharphead darter. Other unsuccessful transplant locations included lower parts of the Holston River, French Broad River, with the completion of the Tellico Dam, the snail darter was extirpated from the Little Tennessee River. The snail darters are found in gravel shoals free of silt and aquatic plants, with moderate to strong currents, the substrate generally consists of dark micaceous sand, with little to no silt, and 25 to 50 percent of the area scattered with gravel. Agricultural development has also affected the clarity, and silt run-off causes problem for reproduction and migration. In 1976, the temperature ranged from 41° to 54 °F. These temperature fluctuations are due to impoundments, resulting in water when the dam is discharging and warming water when flow is diminished. Current velocities ranged from a moderate 0.25 m/s to nearly 0.7 m/s, the snail darter actively feeds in spring and winter with a diet consisting of 60% small gastropods and other prey such as caddisflies, midges, and blackflies. Snails are the food source until late spring when they outgrow the gape size of the fish. The most effective predator on adult snail darters is Cottus carolinae while Salmo trutta, Morone chrysops, Sizostedion canadense, the snail darters’ dorsal patterns and coloration allow the fish to camouflage with the substrate to avoid detection from predators

16.
Little Tennessee River
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The Little Tennessee River is a 135-mile tributary of the Tennessee River that flows through the Blue Ridge Mountains of Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. It drains portions of three national forests— Chattahoochee, Nantahala, and Cherokee— and provides the boundary of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The river flows through five major impoundments, Fontana Dam, Cheoah Dam, Calderwood Dam, Chilhowee Dam, and Tellico Dam, the Little Tennessee River rises in the Blue Ridge Mountains, in the Chattahoochee National Forest in northeast Georgias Rabun County. After flowing north through the mountains past Dillard into southwestern North Carolina, the river then turns northwest, flowing through the Nantahala National Forest along the north side of the Nantahala Mountains. It crosses into eastern Tennessee and joins the Tennessee River at Lenoir City,25 miles southwest of Knoxville and it is also impounded by Cheoah Dam in North Carolina, and by Calderwood and Chilhowee dams in Tennessee. The reservoirs provide flood control and hydroelectric power, Calderwood and Cheoah dams divert water through short tunnels slightly downstream of the dams themselves to hydroelectric generators. Chilhowee has power generators built straight into the dam itself, some water is also diverted from the nearby Santeetlah Dam on the Cheoah River to power another hydroelectric generator at the Santeetlah Powerhouse. This water is brought to the Little Tennessee River through 7 miles of tunnels through the Great Smoky Mountains, Chilhowee, Calderwood, and Cheoah Dams and the Santeetlah Powerhouse were originally built by Alcoa to power the aluminum plant at Alcoa, Tennessee. The final impoundment is Tellico Dam, which is just above its mouth into the Tennessee River at Lenoir City, the plan to build the dam was the subject of environmental controversy during the 1970s regarding the snail darter, an endangered species. It was the first major challenge to the Endangered Species Act. C. Substantial Archaic period sites along the river include the Icehouse Bottom and these sites were probably semi-permanent base camps, the inhabitants of which may have sought the chert deposits on the bluffs above the river which they used to create tools. Excavations in the 1970s uncovered large groups of Woodland-period burials on both Rose and Calloway islands, pottery fragments uncovered at Icehouse Bottom in the 1970s show evidence of interaction with the Hopewell people of what is now Ohio. Mississippian period sites in the Little Tennessee Valley include the Toqua site, Tomotley, Citico, toquas Mississippian inhabitants constructed a 25-foot platform mound overlooking a central plaza. By 1400, the village covered 4.8 acres surrounded by a clay-covered palisade, several Cherokee Middle towns, including Nikwasi, Jore, and Cowee were located along the rivers North Carolina section. The river was home to most of the major Overhill Cherokee towns, the most prominent of which included Chota, Tanasi, Toqua, Tomotley, Mialoquo, Chilhowee, Tallassee, Citico. In 1756 the English built Fort Loudoun, located at the confluence with the Tellico River. The fort has been reconstructed as an historic site, list of rivers of Tennessee Little Tennessee Watershed Association Land Trust for the Little Tennessee

17.
Tennessee Valley Authority
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The enterprise was a result of the efforts of Senator George W. Norris of Nebraska. TVA was envisioned not only as a provider, but also as an economic development agency that would use federal experts and electricity to rapidly modernize the regions economy. T. V. A. s service area covers most of Tennessee, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, and small slices of Georgia, North Carolina and it was the first large regional planning agency of the federal government and remains the largest. Under the leadership of David Lilienthal, T. V. A. became a model for Americas governmental efforts to seek in assisting the modernization of agrarian societies in the developing world, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Tennessee Valley Authority Act, creating the TVA. During the 1920s and the Great Depression years, Americans began to support the idea of ownership of utilities. The concept of government-owned generation facilities selling to publicly owned distribution utilities was controversial, many believed privately owned power companies were charging too much for power, did not employ fair operating practices, and were subject to abuse by their owners, at the expense of consumers. By forming utility holding companies, the sector controlled 94 percent of generation by 1921. Many private companies in the Tennessee Valley were bought by the federal government, others shut down, unable to compete with the T. V. A. Government regulations were passed to prevent competition with T. V. A. T. V. A. was one of the first federal hydropower agencies, other attempts to create T. V. A. -like regional agencies have failed, such as a proposed Columbia Valley Authority for the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest. Regional power consumers may benefit from lower-cost electricity supplied from T. V. A. s network of 29 power-producing hydropower facilities, supporters of TVA, though, note that the agencys management of the Tennessee River system without appropriated federal funding saves federal taxpayers millions of dollars annually. Defenders note that TVA is overwhelmingly popular in Tennessee among conservatives and liberals alike, as Barry Goldwater discovered in 1964, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled TVA to be constitutional in Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority,297 U. S.288. The Court noted that regulating commerce among the states regulation of streams. The war powers also authorized the project, the argument before the court was that electricity generation was a by-product of navigation and flood control and therefore could be considered constitutional. In the 1920s a major battle erupted over building a power system in the Tennessee Valley, based on the World War I federal dam at Muscle Shoals. It would generate electricity and produce fertilizer, Senator George Norris of Nebraska blocked a proposal from Henry Ford in 1920 to use the dam to modernize the valley. Norris deeply distrusted privately owned utility companies and he did get Congress to pass the Muscle Shoals Bill, but it was vetoed as socialistic by President Herbert Hoover in 1931. The idea behind the Muscle Shoals Bill in 1933 became a part of the New Deals TVA

18.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier

19.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930

20.
University of Tennessee
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The University of Tennessee is a public sun- and land-grant university in Knoxville, Tennessee, United States. It hosts almost 28,000 students from all 50 states, in its 2017 universities ranking, U. S. News & World Report ranked UT 103rd among all national universities and 46th among public institutions of higher learning. Seven alumni have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, James M. Buchanan,41, received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Economics. Also affiliated with the university are the Howard H. Baker, the university is a direct partner of the University of Tennessee Medical Center, which is one of two Level I trauma centers in East Tennessee. UT is one of the oldest public universities in the United States, when Samuel Carrick, its first president and only faculty member, died in 1809, the school was temporarily closed until 1820. When it reopened, it began experiencing growing pains, thomas Jefferson had previously recommended that the college leave its confining single building in the city and relocate to a place it could spread out. Ironically, in the Summer of 1826, the trustees explored Barbara Hill as a potential site, in 1840, the college was elevated to East Tennessee University. Tennessee was a member of the Confederacy in 1862 when the Morrill Act was passed, on February 28,1867, Congress passed a special Act making the State of Tennessee eligible to participate in the Morrill Act of 1862 program. In January 1869, ETU was designated as Tennessees recipient of the Land-Grant designation, in accepting the funds, the university would focus upon instructing students in military, agricultural, and mechanical subjects. ETU eventually received $396,000 as its endowment under the program, Trustees soon approved the establishment of a medical program under the auspices of the Nashville School of Medicine and added advanced degree programs. East Tennessee University was renamed the University of Tennessee in 1879 by the state legislature, during World War II, UT was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. The campus is headed by a Chancellor who functions as the executive officer of the campus, responsible for its daily administration. The chancellor reports to the president of the university system and is elected annually by the UT Board of Trustees at the recommendation of the system president, jimmy Cheek has been Chancellor of the Knoxville campus since February 1,2009. Joseph A. DiPietro has been president since January 1,2011. Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs Susan D. Martin is responsible for the administration of the Knoxville campus. On December 15,2016 the UT Board of Trustees confirmed Dr. Beverly J. Davenport as the next Chancellor of the Knoxville campus and she will begin her role on February 15,2017. Campus policing and security is provided by the University of Tennessee Police Department.4 percent from 2000 to 2009, many doctors and nurses at UTMC have integrated careers as teachers and healthcare professionals, and the center promotes itself as the areas only academic, or teaching hospital. The new UT Medical Center Heart Hospital received its first patient on April 27,2010, in Fall 2016, the university enrolled 21,863 undergraduate and 5,982 graduate and professional students, 50% of students are female, 50% are male

21.
Environmental Defense Fund
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Environmental Defense Fund or EDF is a United States–based nonprofit environmental advocacy group. It is nonpartisan, and its work often advocates market-based solutions to environmental problems, the groups headquarters are in New York City, with offices nationwide, and scientists and policy specialists working worldwide. Regional offices more focused on issues and policies include Austin, TX, Boulder, CO, San Francisco, CA, Los Angeles, CA, Sacramento, CA, Washington. Fred Krupp has served as its president since 1984, in 1991, The Economist called EDF Americas most economically literate green campaigners. Their research uncovered a link between the spraying of DDT to kill mosquitos and thinning egg shells of large birds. Their research was most likely based on the book the Silent Spring by Rachel Carson about the dangers of DDT and she is noted as the scientist who inspired the environmental movement. The founders of EDF successfully sought a ban on DDT in Suffolk County, Long Island and they then succeeded in banning DDT statewide. They then took their efforts nationally, Oceans - The organization works to protect marine ecosystems by creating sustainable fisheries, promoting the use of catch shares, and preserving fragile habitats like coral reefs. Geographical focus of Oceans programs include Belize, Cuba, the Chesapeake Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California, and the South Atlantic. Health programs focus on cutting air pollution from utilities and transportation systems, reforming U. S. toxic chemicals policy, ecosystems - EDF works to promote ecosystem-friendly policy, helping landowners benefit from healthier land, water and wildlife. Corporate partnerships - EDF has a history of partnerships with corporations, fund managers, landowners, farmers, fishermen. Environmental economics - The organization promotes the use of markets and incentives to help solve environmental problems, examples of this approach at work include catch shares the cap-and-trade plan written into the Clean Air Act. Key accomplishments of Environmental Defense Fund include,1967 - A group of scientists forms the organization,1974 - An Environmental Defense Fund study of Mississippi River water helps pass the Safe Drinking Water Act, establishing the first comprehensive health standards for water nationwide. 1985 - Helped convince federal regulators to phase out lead from gasoline,1986 - Pushed McDonalds to institute biodegradable food-packaging containers. 1990 - Designed Title IV of the Clean Air Act, which incorporates market-based methods to cut air pollution, the measures reduced sulfur dioxide pollution faster than expected, and at a fraction of the cost. The Citizens Clearinghouse on Hazardous Waste, founded by Lois Gibbs,1993 - EDF was one of seven foundation-funded environmental groups to endorse the NAFTA Treaty. 1995 - Designed the Safe Harbor plan that gives landowners new incentives to help endangered species on their property,2000 - Seven of the worlds largest corporations join Environmental Defense in a partnership to address global warming, setting firm targets to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The new vehicles cut smog-forming pollution by 65%, reduce soot by 96%,2006 - Co-authored the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 with Natural Resources Defense Council

22.
National Environmental Policy Act
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The National Environmental Policy Act is a United States environmental law that promotes the enhancement of the environment and established the Presidents Council on Environmental Quality. The law was enacted on January 1,1970, as the bill was an early step towards the development of the United States environmental policy, NEPA is referred to as the “environmental Magna Carta”. NEPAs most significant outcome was the requirement that all federal agencies prepare environmental assessments. These reports state the potential effects of proposed federal agency actions. NEPA does not apply to the President, Congress, or the federal courts, NEPA grew out of the increased appreciation and concern for the environment that resulted from the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill. During this time, environmental interest group efforts and the movement resulting from Rachel Carsons 1962 book, Silent Spring, helped to pass the Wilderness, Clean Air, and Clean Water Acts. The act also promotes the CEQ to advise the President in the preparation of a report on the progress of federal agencies in implementing NEPA. It also established the CEQ to advise the president on environmental policy, NEPA establishes this national environmental policy by requiring federal agencies to prepare an environmental impact statement to accompany reports and recommendations for Congressional funding. This impact statement is known as an EIS, NEPA is an action-forcing piece of legislation, meaning the act itself does not carry any criminal or civil sanctions, and therefore, all enforcement of NEPA must occur through the court system. In practice, a project is required to meet NEPA guidelines when a federal agency provides any portion of financing for the project. However, review of a project by an employee can be viewed as a federal action. NEPA covers a vast array of federal agency actions, but the act does not apply to state action where there is an absence of federal influence or funding. Exemptions and exclusions are also present within NEPAs guidelines, including specific federal projects detailed in legislation, exemptions also apply when compliance with other environmental laws require an impact analysis similar to that mandated by NEPA. Such laws can include but are not limited to the Clean Air Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The NEPA process is the evaluation of the relevant environmental effects of a project or action mandated by NEPA. This process begins when an agency develops a proposal addressing a need to take action, if it is determined that the proposed action is covered under NEPA, there are three levels of analysis that a federal agency must undertake to comply with the law. A Categorical Exclusion is a list of actions an agency has determined do not individually or cumulatively affect the quality of the human environment. If a proposed action is included in an agencys CatEx, the agency must make sure that no extraordinary circumstances might cause the action to affect the environment

23.
Fish and Wildlife Service
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The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is an agency of the federal government within the U. S. Department of the Interior dedicated to the management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats. The mission of the agency is working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people. The leader of the FWS is the director of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Daniel M. Ashe, of Maryland, bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory Landscape Conservation Cooperatives The vast majority of fish and wildlife habitat is on non-federal lands. The FWS employs approximately 9,000 people and is organized into an administrative office, eight regional offices. Spencer Fullerton Baird was appointed its first commissioner, in 1903, the Fish Commission was reorganized as the United States Bureau of Fisheries. In 1885–1886, the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy was established within the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1896 it became the Division of Biological Survey. Its early work focused on the effect of birds in controlling pests and mapping the geographical distribution of plants. Clinton Hart Merriam headed the Bureau for 25 years and became a figure for improving the scientific understanding of birds. Under Darlings guidance, the Bureau began a legacy of protecting vital natural habitat throughout the country. The USFWS was finally created in 1940, when the Bureaus of Fisheries, however, these exceptions often only apply to Native Americans that are registered with the federal government and are enrolled with a federally recognized tribe. Therefore, many people that wish to practice their religion continue to face persecution. This has become a source of conflict between many tribes and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the USFWS began to incorporate the research of scientists into conservation decisions. Additionally, other natural resource agencies within the United States government, such as the USDA, have taken steps to be inclusive of tribes, native people. This has marked a transition to a relationship of more cooperation rather than the tension between tribes and government agencies seen historically, today, these agencies work closely with tribal governments to ensure the best conservation decisions are made and that tribes retain their sovereignty

24.
Federal Register
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The Federal Register, abbreviated FR or sometimes Fed. Reg. is the journal of the federal government of the United States that contains government agency rules, proposed rules. It is published daily, except on federal holidays, the Federal Register is compiled by the Office of the Federal Register and is printed by the Government Publishing Office. There are no restrictions on the Federal Register, as a work of the U. S. government. In essence, the Federal Register is a way for the government to announce changes to government requirements, policies, the notice and comment process, as outlined in the Administrative Procedure Act, gives the people a chance to participate in agency rulemaking. Publication of documents in the Federal Register also constitutes constructive notice, the Federal Register is the main source for the U. S. Both proposed and final rules are published in the Federal Register, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking typically requests public comment on a proposed rule, and provides notice of any public meetings where a proposed rule will be discussed. The public comments are considered by the government agency. The United States Government Manual is published as an edition of the Federal Register. Its focus is on programs and activities, to purchase current or back print copies of the Federal Register, one may contact the U. S. Government Publishing Office. In each issue of the Federal Register, there is a subscription page, currently, a years subscription rate within the U. S. is US$929. Each individual issue may be priced from $11 to $33 depending on its pages, virtually every law library associated with an American Bar Association–accredited law school will also have a set, as will federal depository libraries. The Federal Register has been online since 1994. Federal depository libraries within the U. S. also receive copies of the text, outside the U. S. some major libraries may also carry the Federal Register. To help federal agencies manage their dockets, the Federal Docket Management System was launched in 2005 and is the side of regulations. gov. In April 2009, Citation Technologies created a free, searchable website for Federal Register articles dating from 1996 to the present. GovPulse. us, a finalist in the Sunlight Foundations Apps for America 2, provides a web 2.0 interface to the Federal Register, including sparklines of agency activity, on July 25,2010, the Federal Register 2.0 website went live. The new website is a collaboration between the developers who created GovPulse. us, the Government Publishing Office and the National Archives, on August 1,2011, the Federal Register announced a new application programming interface to facilitate programmatic access to the Federal Register content

25.
Chief Justice Burger
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Warren Earl Burger was the 15th Chief Justice of the United States from 1969 to 1986. Although Burger was a conservative, and the U. S. Warren Earl Burger was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1907 and his parents, Katharine and Charles Joseph Burger, a traveling salesman and railroad cargo inspector, were of Austrian German descent. His grandfather, Joseph Burger, had emigrated from Tyrol, Austria, Joseph Burger fought and was wounded in the Civil War, resulting in the loss of his right arm and was awarded the Medal of Honor at the age of 14. Joseph Burger by age 16 became the youngest Captain in the Union Army, Burger grew up on the family farm near the edge of Saint Paul. He attended John A. Johnson High School, where he was president of the student council and he competed in hockey, football, track, and swimming. While in high school, he wrote articles on school sports for local newspapers. That same year, Burger also worked with the building the Robert Street Bridge. Concerned about the number of deaths on the project, he asked that a net be installed to catch anyone who fell, in later years, Burger made a point of visiting the bridge whenever he came back to town. Burger attended night school at the University of Minnesota while selling insurance for Mutual Life Insurance, afterward, he enrolled at Mitchell Hamline School of Law, receiving his degree magna cum laude in 1931. He took a job at the firm of Boyensen, Otis and Faricy, now known as Moore, in 1937, Burger served as the eighth president of the Saint Paul Jaycees. He also taught for years at William Mitchell. His political career began uneventfully, but he rose to national prominence. He supported Minnesota Governor Harold E. Stassens unsuccessful pursuit of the Republican nomination for President in 1948, in 1952, at the Republican convention, he played a key role in Dwight D. Eisenhowers nomination by delivering the Minnesota delegation. After he was elected, President Eisenhower appointed Burger as the Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Civil Division of the Justice Department, in this role, he first argued in front of the Supreme Court. The case involved John P. Peters, a Yale University professor who worked as a consultant to the government and he had been discharged from his position on loyalty grounds. Supreme Court cases are argued by the Solicitor General, but he disagreed with the governments position. In 1956, Eisenhower appointed him to the U. S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit and he remained on the Court of Appeals for thirteen years. In 1968, Chief Justice Earl Warren announced his retirement after 15 years on the Court, President Lyndon Johnson nominated sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to the position, but a Senate filibuster blocked his confirmation

26.
Endangered Species Act Amendments of 1978
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The Endangered Species Act was first passed in 1973 and forms the basis of biodiversity and endangered species protection in the United States. The original purpose of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 was to prevent species endangerment, the three most powerful sections of the ESA are Sections 4,7 and 9. Section 4 allows the Secretaries of Interior and Commerce to list species as threatened or endangered based on best available data, Section 7 requires federal agencies to consult with Fish and Wildlife Service or National Marine Fisheries Service before taking any action that may threaten a listed species. Section 9 forbids the taking of an endangered species, the first amendment to the ESA was passed by the 95th United States Congress in 1978 to introduce some flexibility into the Endangered Species Act. The snail darter case was important for the ESA because it made Congress realize how powerful the ESA really was, in 1966, the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River. For years, environmentalists tried to shut down the project, but their actions were unsuccessful until the discovery of the snail darter, the snail darter was listed as an endangered species in 1975 and part of the Little Tennessee River was designated as critical habitat. The completion of the Tellico Dam threatened the survival of the snail darter, in 1976, battle in the courts between the Tennessee Valley Authority and environmentalists began over the fate of the snail darter. Over the next three years, the decision was appealed all the way to the Supreme Court, in Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of protecting the species whatever the cost. The Endangered Species Act was clear in stating that no project should be exempt from the provisions of Section 7. Starting in the spring of 1977, members of Congress made several attempts to pass legislation that weakened the ESA, many large business interest groups, including the mining and timber industries, also spoke out against the power of the ESA. Meanwhile, in Wheatland, Wyoming, a consortium of utilities were attempting to build the Grayrocks Dam on the Laramie River to supply a coal fired power plant. Upset that water diversion would threaten the endangered whooping crane, on October 2,1978. Grayrocks, however, enjoyed support in Congress, and by October 14 Teno Roncalio convinced the House to pass a bill exempting the dam from all federal regulation. Both the House of Representatives and Senate voted to amend the ESA, on December 4 Nebraska reached a settlement under which the power utilities would get to build Grayrocks dam by agreeing to purchase some habitat for the whooping crane. On February 7,1979, the God Squad met for the first time, refused to exempt the snail darter from protection, and granted Grayrocks an exemption from the whooping crane protections. The 1978 amendment to the ESA attempts to retain the integrity of the ESA. This committee has the authority to allow the extinction by exempting a federal agency from Section 7 requirements, to exempt a species, five of the seven members must vote in favor of the exemption. Also, mitigation efforts must be taken to reduce the effects on the endangered species

27.
Howard Baker
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Howard Henry Baker Jr. was an American politician and diplomat who served as a Republican U. S. Senator from Tennessee and Senate Majority Leader, Baker later served as White House Chief of Staff for President Ronald Reagan, and a United States Ambassador to Japan. He worked as a lobbyist and adviser at Baker, Donelson, Bearman, known in Washington, D. C. as the Great Conciliator, Baker was often regarded as one of the most successful senators in terms of brokering compromises, enacting legislation and maintaining civility. Baker was a conservative who was also respected enormously by most of his Democratic colleagues. Baker was born in Huntsville, Tennessee, to Dora Ann and his father served as a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1951 until 1964, representing a traditionally Republican district in East Tennessee. Baker attended The McCallie School in Chattanooga, and after graduating, during World War II, he trained at a U. S. Navy facility on the campus of the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, in the V-12 Navy College Training Program. He served in the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946, the same year, he was admitted to the Tennessee bar and began his law practice. The rotunda at the University of Tennessee College of Law is now named for Baker, while he was delivering a commencement speech during his grandsons graduation at East Tennessee State University on May 5,2007, Baker was awarded an honorary doctorate degree. Baker was an alumnus of the Alpha Sigma Chapter of the Pi Kappa Phi fraternity. Baker began his career in 1964, when he lost to the liberal Democrat Ross Bass in a U. S. Senate election to fill the unexpired term of the late Senator Estes Kefauver. Baker won the election, capitalizing on Clements failure to energize the Democratic base. He won by a somewhat larger-than-expected margin of 55.7 percent to Clements 44.2 percent, Baker thus became the first Republican senator from Tennessee since Reconstruction and the first Republican to be popularly elected to the Senate from Tennessee. Harry W. Wellford, then an attorney but later a U. S. District Court justice and then U. S. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals Justice, served as Bakers campaign chair. Baker was re-elected in 1972 and again in 1978, serving altogether from January 3,1967, to January 3,1985. In 1969, he was already a candidate for the Minority Leadership position that opened up with the death of his father-in-law, Everett Dirksen, at the beginning of the following Congress in 1971, Baker ran again, losing to Scott this time 20–24. President Richard Nixon asked Baker in 1971 to fill one of the two empty seats on the U. S. Supreme Court, when Baker took too long to decide whether he wanted the appointment, Nixon changed his mind and nominated William Rehnquist instead. In 1973-74, Baker became the ranking minority member of the Senate committee chaired by Senator Sam Ervin. Baker is famous for having asked aloud, What did the President know, the question is sometimes attributed to being given to him by his counsel and former campaign manager, future U. S

28.
John Culver
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John Chester Culver is an American politician of the Democratic Party who represented Iowa in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. Culver was born in Rochester, Minnesota, the son of Mary C. and he moved with his family to Cedar Rapids, Iowa as a child. Culver is a graduate of both Harvard University and Harvard Law School, as an undergraduate, Culver played fullback on the Harvard football team with the future Senator Edward Kennedy. He served as a captain in the United States Marine Corps from 1955 to 1958 as well, Culver was inducted into the Harvard Football Hall of Fame in 1978. Culver was the Lionel de Jersey Harvard Scholar at Emmanuel College, Cambridge University, Culver began practicing law in Cedar Rapids in 1963, but soon entered politics. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Iowa as a Democrat in 1964 and he served in the House from 1965 until 1975. In 1974, Culver was elected to the U. S. Senate, Culver served one term in the Senate, from 1975 until 1981. Culver was defeated in a bid for reelection by Republican Chuck Grassley in 1980, Culver took 45. 5% of the vote to Grassleys 53. 5%. In 2000, Culver co-authored American Dreamer, the first comprehensive biography of Henry A. Wallace, Culver recently retired from the firm of Arent Fox in Washington, D. C. where he established the government affairs practice. He lives in Bethesda, Maryland with his wife, Mary Jane Checchi and his son, until January 31,2011, Culver was the interim director of the Institute of Politics at the John F. Culvers eldest son, Chet, is a former Governor of Iowa. His term began on January 12,2007 after being elected on November 7,2006, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The John Culver Papers are housed at the University of Iowa Special Collections & University Archives

29.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched

30.
Council of Economic Advisers
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The Council of Economic Advisers in the United States is an agency within the Executive Office of the President that advises the President of the United States on economic policy. The CEA provides much of the empirical research for the White House. Currently, the position of chairman of the CEA is vacant, jason Furman, the previous Chairman, was appointed by President Obama on June 10,2013. The councils chairman is nominated by the president and approved by the United States Senate, the members are appointed by the president. The staff of the consists of a chief of staff as well as about twenty economists. Many of the staff economists are academics on leave or government economists on temporary assignment from other agencies, in 1949 a dispute broke out between Chairman Edwin Nourse and member Leon Keyserling. In 1949 Keyserling gained support from powerful Truman advisors Dean Acheson, Nourse resigned as chairman, warning about the dangers of budget deficits and increased funding of wasteful defense costs. The Eisenhower Administration supported an activist contracyclical approach that helped to establish Keynesianism as a bipartisan economic policy for the nation. Especially important in formulating the CEA response to the public works programs, easing credit. The 1978 Humphrey–Hawkins Act required each administration to move toward full employment and it has made CEAs annual economic report highly political in nature, as well as highly unreliable and inaccurate over the standard two or five year projection periods

31.
United States Secretary of Agriculture
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The United States Secretary of Agriculture is the head of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The current Acting Secretary is Mike Young, who has held the office since the inauguration of Donald Trump on January 20,2017, the position carries similar responsibilities to those of agriculture ministers in other governments. The 297,000 mi2 of national forests and grasslands are managed by the United States Forest Service, the safety of food produced that are produced in the United States and sold here is ensured by the United States Food Safety and Inspection Service. The Food Stamp Program works with the states to provide food to low-income people, advice for farmers and gardeners is provided by the United States Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service. The Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, president Obama asked him to stay and asked him to look into the problem of opioid addiction. The following is a list of Secretaries of Agriculture, since the creation of the office in 1889, parties Democratic Republican As of April 2017, there are nine living former Secretaries of Agriculture, the oldest being Robert Bergland. The most recent Secretary of Agriculture to die was Clayton Yeutter, the most recently serving Secretary to die was Edward Rell Madigan on December 7,1994. United States Department of Agriculture website

32.
United States Secretary of the Army
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The Secretary of the Army is nominated by the President and confirmed by the U. S. Senate, the Secretary of the Army is a non-Cabinet position serving under the Secretary of Defense. Robert M. Speer took office as Acting Secretary on January 20,2017 and he will perform his duties until the U. S. Senate confirms a new Army Secretary, Karl M. Schneider will perform the duties of Undersecretary of the Army. Mr. Speer was formerly Assistant Secretary of the Army, the Secretary of the Army is in effect the chief executive officer of the Department of the Army, and the Chief of Staff of the Army works directly for the Secretary of the Army. The Secretary presents and justifies Army policies, plans, programs, and budgets to the Secretary of Defense, other executive branch officials, the Secretary also communicates Army policies, plans, programs, capabilities, and accomplishments to the public. As necessary, the Secretary convenes meetings with the leadership of the Army to debate issues, provide direction. The Secretary is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, other offices may be established by law or by the Secretary of the Army. No more than 1,865 officers of the Army on the active-duty list may be assigned or detailed to permanent duty in the Office of the Secretary of the Army and on the Army Staff

33.
United States Secretary of the Interior
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The United States Secretary of the Interior is the head of the U. S. Department of the Interior. The Secretary also serves on and appoints the private citizens on the National Park Foundation board, the Secretary is a member of the Presidents Cabinet. The U. S. Department of the Interior should not be confused with the Ministries of the Interior as used in other countries. Ministries of the Interior in these other countries correspond primarily to the Department of Homeland Security in the U. S, Cabinet and secondarily to the Department of Justice. On December 13,2016, President-elect Donald Trump picked Ryan Zinke for the position of Interior Secretary, the most recent to die was William P. Clark, Jr. on August 10,2013. List of Secretaries of the Interior List of Secretaries of the Interior The Department of Everything Else, Highlights of Interior History

34.
John Duncan Sr.
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John James Duncan Sr. was an American attorney and Republican politician who represented Tennessees 2nd Congressional District in the U. S. House of Representatives from 1965 until his death in 1988 and he also served as Mayor of Knoxville, Tennessee, from 1959 to 1964, and as assistant attorney general of Knox County, from 1948 until 1956. He is the father of Congressman John Duncan Jr. who currently represents the 2nd District, Duncan was born in Huntsville, Tennessee, the sixth of ten children of Cassie and Flem Baird Duncan. After completing grade school in the Huntsville area, he won a $25 scholarship from Sears-Roebuck and he enrolled in the University of Tennessee in 1939, and graduated with a Bachelor of Science two years later. Following the outbreak of World War II he joined the United States Army, after the war, Duncan enrolled in Cumberland Universitys law school, from which he graduated in 1948. Following his graduation, Duncan returned to Knoxville, where he had accepted a position as assistant attorney general of Knox County, reacting to the resolution, UT president Cloide Brehm cancelled the event. The schools newspaper, the Orange and White, nevertheless blasted Duncans accusations as nonsense, in 1959, Duncan was elected mayor of Knoxville in an election held to replace Mayor Jack Dance, who had died while in office. One of his first initiatives was to complete the overhaul of Market Square, in spite of opposition from historical interests, who wanted to preserve the Market House, Duncan pushed forward with the transition, and by mid-1960 the Market House had been removed. Another contentious issue erupted in the Summer of 1960, when black students from Knoxville College initiated a series of sit-ins to protest segregation at downtown-area lunch counters. With the backing of the Chamber of Commerce, Duncan formed a Good Will Committee, by July 1960, most downtown businesses had done away with their policies of segregation. Duncans early intervention in the crisis is often cited as one of the reasons Knoxville avoided the widespread integration-related violence that plagued other Southern cities during this period, numerous companies expressed interest in relocating to Knoxville, but could not do so due to a lack of suitable industrial sites. In 1964, roughly 10 months into his term as mayor. The districts seven-term incumbent, Howard Baker Sr. had died that January, Duncan was heavily favored due to his popularity as mayor of Knoxville and the heavy Republican tilt of the district. He defeated Democrat Willard Yarborough by just under 10 percentage points—the closest race in the district since Bakers first run in 1950, Duncan never faced another close contest, and was reelected 11 times, including two unopposed runs in 1972 and 1982. He often won re-election by some of the largest majorities of any congressman and he was a member of the House Ways and Means Committee for much of his congressional career. A staunch conservative, he supported U. S. involvement in the Vietnam War and he was one of the first congressmen to endorse Richard Nixon for president in 1967. The dams completion had been halted over concerns for the snail darter. The dams opponents cried foul, but the bill passed the Senate and was signed into law

35.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland

36.
Tennessee River
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The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once known as the Cherokee River, among other names, as many of the Cherokee had their territory along its banks, especially in eastern Tennessee. Its current name is derived from the Cherokee village Tanasi, the Tennessee River is formed at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers on the east side of present-day Knoxville, Tennessee. From Knoxville, it flows southwest through East Tennessee toward Chattanooga before crossing into Alabama and it loops through northern Alabama and eventually forms a small part of the states border with Mississippi, before returning to Tennessee. At this point, it defines the boundary between two of Tennessees Grand Divisions, Middle and West Tennessee and this waterway reduces the navigation distance from Tennessee, north Alabama, and northern Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico by hundreds of miles. The final part of the Tennessees run is in Kentucky, where it separates the Jackson Purchase from the rest of the state and it flows into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky. The river has been dammed numerous times, primarily in the 20th century by Tennessee Valley Authority projects since the 1930s, a navigation canal located at Grand Rivers, Kentucky, links Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley. The canal allows for a trip for river traffic going from the Tennessee to most of the Ohio River. Maps from the early 18th century call it Cussate, Hogohegee, Callamaco, a 1755 British map showed the Tennessee River as the River of the Cherakees. By the late 18th century, it had come to be called Tennessee, the river was a major highway to transport goods and explorers in the years when Tennessee was not yet settled. Some major towns that still exist today, and major ports at them were established by those who rode down the river, and settled along it. The Tennessee River begins at mile post 652, where the French Broad River meets the Holston River, in the late 18th century, the mouth of the Little Tennessee River was considered to be the beginning of the Tennessee River. Through much of the 19th century, the Tennessee River was considered to start at the mouth of Clinch River, at various points since the early 19th century, Georgia has disputed its northern border with Tennessee. Georgia made several attempts to correct what Georgia felt was an erroneous survey line in the 1890s,1905,1915,1922,1941,1947 and 1971 to resolve the dispute. Crews Townsend, Joseph McCoin, Robert F. Parsley, Alison Martin and Zachary H. Greene, writing for the Tennessee Bar Journal, a publication of the Tennessee Bar Association, appearing on May 12,2008. In 2008, as a result of a drought and resulting water shortage. In a two-page resolution passed overwhelmingly by the senate, Georgia declared that it, not its neighbor to the north

37.
Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper Inc.
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Existing facilities are mandated to use the Best Technology Available to minimize the adverse environmental impact. Reversing a lower court opinion, in a 5 -1 -3 ruling the court decided to uphold EPAs decision as reasonable to allow CBA when determining BAT to maintain national environmental standards. Petitioner, Entergy Corporation is a company engaged primarily in electric power production. Entergy owns and operates both nuclear and fossil power plants generating an aggregated 30,000 megawatts of electrical capacity. Indian Point Energy Center is a subsidiary of Entergy Corporation operating a nuclear power plant in Buchanan, New York. Respondent, Riverkeeper is an environmental protection organization dedicated to defending the Hudson River and its tributaries for New York City. Over the past four decades Riverkeeper has been successful as the publics watchdog in bringing hundreds of violations to justice. Riverkeeper has an ongoing interest in replacing Indian Point nuclear power plant with renewable energy and this case is a consolidation of three cases for review by the Supreme Court Entergy Corporation v. Riverkeeper, Inc. et al. PSEG Fossil LLC, et al. v. Riverkeeper, Inc. et al, utility Water Act Group, v. Riverkeeper, Inc. et al. The remainder of the regulations rely mainly on harm-based or technology-based methodologies that clearly exclude cost–benefit analysis or at a minimum do not provide for it, the Clean Water Act statute uses technology based methods to meet its standards. Three pre-Entergy Supreme Court decisions offer historical guidance into the possible crafting of the CBA canon, each of them address the priority of environmental health and safety concerns with the appropriate level of cost-benefit analysis. The Court ruled that CBA was not authorized by the statute because feasibility analysis was authorized, in Whitman v. American Trucking Associations, Inc. Various States and environmental groups challenged the Bush Administration Environmental Protection Agencys recent interpretation of §316 of the Clean Water Act,33 U. S. C, §1326, that allowed exceptions to power plants that diverged from national standards. This new interpretation of the statute allows for cost to influence the choice of best technology available lowering the standard reduction of environmental impact. Clean Water Act 33 U. S. C.1326 section 316, facility water cooling intakes remove billions of aquatic organisms each year from United States waterways. Most impacts are in early stages of fish, crustaceans. The case preceding this Supreme Court case was decided in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals and this court heard Riverkeeper, Inc. v. EPA, in 2006 and decided the case in 2007. Then-Circuit Judge Sotomayor wrote the opinion for the court, in this decision the court stated that in order to meet the statute facilities could not use restoration enhancements to meet the National Performance Standard

38.
Clean Water Act
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The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution. It is one of the United States first and most influential environmental laws. As with many other major U. S. federal environmental statutes, it is administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C. F. R. Subchapters D, N, and O. Technically, the name of the law is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The first FWPCA was enacted in 1948, but took on its form when completely rewritten in 1972 in an act entitled the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Major changes have subsequently been introduced via amendatory legislation including the Clean Water Act of 1977, the Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination. Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, all waters with a significant nexus to navigable waters are covered under the CWA, however, the phrase significant nexus remains open to judicial interpretation and considerable controversy. The 1972 statute frequently uses the term navigable waters, but also defines the term as waters of the United States, including the territorial seas. Some regulations interpreting the 1972 law have included features such as intermittent streams, playa lakes, prairie potholes, sloughs. The 1972 act introduced the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, which is a system for regulating point sources of pollution. Municipal governments and other government facilities, and some agricultural facilities, point sources may not discharge pollutants to surface waters without a permit from the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. This system is managed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in partnership with state environmental agencies, EPA has authorized 46 states to issue permits directly to the discharging facilities. The CWA also allows tribes to issue permits, but no tribes have been authorized by EPA, in the remaining states and territories, the permits are issued by an EPA regional office. In previous legislation, Congress had authorized states to develop quality standards. However, these standards were only to be developed for interstate waters, and this system was not effective and there was no permit system in place to enforce the requirements. In the 1972 CWA Congress added the permit system and a requirement for technology-based effluent limitations, the 1972 CWA created a new requirement for technology-based standards for point source discharges. EPA develops these standards for categories of dischargers, based on the performance of pollution control technologies without regard to the conditions of a receiving water body. The intent of Congress was to create a playing field by establishing a basic national discharge standard for all facilities within a category

39.
Snail darter controversy
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The snail darter controversy involved the delay of the construction of the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River in 1973. The lawsuit stated that the Tellico Reservoir, to be created by Tellico Dam, the NEPA lawsuits slowed the construction of the Tellico Dam but did not stop it. The United States Congress had been inconsistent regarding the snail darter, appropriations committees in both the House and Senate had taken a strong position against the snail darter. The case eventually reached the U. S. Supreme Court, in Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill,437 U. S.153, Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote for the majority. It is clear from the Act’s legislative history that Congress intended to halt, Congress, moreover, foresaw that on occasion this would require agencies to alter ongoing projects in order to fulfill the Act’s goals. When voting on appropriations measures, legislators are entitled to assume that the funds will be devoted to purposes that are lawful, a contrary policy would violate the rules of both Houses of Congress, which provide that appropriations measures may not change existing substantive law. An appropriations committee’s expression does not operate to repeal or modify substantive legislation, completion of the Tellico Dam project would violate the Act, so the Court of Appeals did not err by ordering the project to be enjoined. Congress has spoken in the plainest words, making it clear that endangered species are to be accorded the highest priorities. Since that legislative power has been exercised, it is up to the branch to administer the law and for the Judiciary to enforce it when, as here. Regardless of the fact that over $100 million had been spent by 1978, and the dam was substantially finished, according to Burger, this would force the court to ignore the ordinary meaning of plain language. Duncan had been a long-time congressional supporter of the project, on the other hand, Baker was a very late comer to Tellico. As it would turn out, however, he would play a role in the future of the Little Tennessee River valley. Howard Baker was a sponsor of an amendment to the Endangered Species Act that was passed into law in November 1978. The idea was to create a mechanism whereby a specific project could be excluded from the Endangered Species Act. It came to be known as the “God Committee” because if they exercised their power to exempt a project from the act, they were in effect acting like God, the proponents of the “God Committee” amendment saw it as a way of keeping the Endangered Species Act alive. According to the Burger opinion, U. S, Endangered Species laws at that time “represented the most comprehensive legislation for the preservation of endangered species ever enacted by any nation”. Instead of granting Tellico an exemption from the Endangered Species Act, on January 23,1979, the Committee unanimously denied an exemption for Tellico specifically on economic grounds, rather than ecological grounds. “I hate to see the snail darter get the credit for stopping a project that was ill-conceived and uneconomic in the first place, the reservoir project deserved to be killed on its own merits. ”The opposition would make much of the problematic benefit-cost issue throughout the 1970s

40.
Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority
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Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority,297 U. S.288, was a United States Supreme Court case that provided the first elaboration of the doctrine of Constitutional avoidance. In Ashwander, the Supreme Court faced a challenge to the constitutionality of a program of development of the Wilson Dam. The plaintiffs, preferred stockholders of the Alabama Power Company, had protested to the corporation about its contracts with the Tennessee Valley Authority. Plaintiffs then brought suit against the corporation, the TVA, and others alleging breach of contract, in July 1935, the injunction was overturned by the 5th Federal Circuit Court in New Orleans. The plurality then considered the scope of the issue presented. The plurality found the scope limited to the validity of the contract between the parties, rather than extending to the challenge to the validity of the entire TVA program. Based on the dispute before the Court, the plurality concluded that Congress had the war. The plurality also found that the disposal of the energy generated pursuant to the provisions of the contracts at issue was lawful. Thus, the judgment in Ashwander, in which Justice Brandeis concurred, Justices Cardozo, Roberts and Stone joined the Brandeis concurrence. The concurring Justices would have affirmed the court of appeals judgment without passing on it, the court of appeals had decided, like the plurality, that Congress had the constitutional authority to construct the Wilson Dam and dispose of the surplus energy thereby produced. The concurrence, however, would have affirmed this judgment without reaching the merits because of other infirmities in plaintiffs case, Brandeis primarily objected to plaintiffs standing. His concurrence disagreed with the conclusion that the preferred stockholders could bring the action because they had already voiced their complaints to the corporation without success. The concurrence then raised an equity bar to the requested relief, the preferred stockholders could not show the irreparable injury to their property rights necessary to obtain relief in equity. Plaintiffs had only a limited interest in the corporation and the court had made no finding that the proposed transactions with the TVA endangered their property interests. Brandeis also examined other potential hurdles standing between the Court and the constitutional issues and he concluded that the power company was estopped from bringing a challenge and thus its stockholders had lost any right to bring a challenge. Brandeis urged a presumption in favor of the validity of any legislative act until its violation of the onstitution is proved beyond all reasonable doubt, the particular part of the Ashwander concurrence that has become famous is its articulation of he practice in constitutional cases. In describing that practice, Brandeis set out a broad formulation of the avoidance doctrine and this reluctance to use the power of judicial review was, according to Brandeis, predicated on the separation of powers principle that one branch must not encroach upon the domain of another. Brandeis linked a host of justiciability doctrines, including question and standing inquiries

41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker