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Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 17: Food Safety Satisfaction in China and Its Influencing Factors: Empirical Study with a Hierarchical Linear Modelhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/17
Food safety is one of the residents&amp;rsquo; initial demands in daily life, and the negative perception of food safety potentially leads to public panic and dissatisfaction with government performance. Existing literature only focused on certain regions in China by using different indicators, and their results varied and lacked comparability. This paper explores influencing factors of the public&amp;rsquo;s satisfaction with food safety by conducting a nationwide survey in China. Factors cover several demographic variables while considering the nature of governments to reveal the difference among provinces. The results show that demographic factors such as gender, age, type of residence, education, and census register are positively correlated with food safety satisfaction, while annual income is not significant. Evaluation of government regulation efforts has a positive correlation with food safety satisfaction. People with higher trust in the government show higher satisfaction with the food safety situation. On the province level, per capita GDP, per capita food safety fiscal expenditure, and food safety fiscal expenditure level are positively correlated with food safety satisfaction. The empirical findings are helpful for government regulations; we thereby discuss our analytical results and suggest some governmental policies.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 17: Food Safety Satisfaction in China and Its Influencing Factors: Empirical Study with a Hierarchical Linear Model

Food safety is one of the residents&amp;rsquo; initial demands in daily life, and the negative perception of food safety potentially leads to public panic and dissatisfaction with government performance. Existing literature only focused on certain regions in China by using different indicators, and their results varied and lacked comparability. This paper explores influencing factors of the public&amp;rsquo;s satisfaction with food safety by conducting a nationwide survey in China. Factors cover several demographic variables while considering the nature of governments to reveal the difference among provinces. The results show that demographic factors such as gender, age, type of residence, education, and census register are positively correlated with food safety satisfaction, while annual income is not significant. Evaluation of government regulation efforts has a positive correlation with food safety satisfaction. People with higher trust in the government show higher satisfaction with the food safety situation. On the province level, per capita GDP, per capita food safety fiscal expenditure, and food safety fiscal expenditure level are positively correlated with food safety satisfaction. The empirical findings are helpful for government regulations; we thereby discuss our analytical results and suggest some governmental policies.

]]>Food Safety Satisfaction in China and Its Influencing Factors: Empirical Study with a Hierarchical Linear ModelChunhua HeGuanghua HanYihong Liudoi: 10.3390/safety5010017Safety2019-03-21Safety2019-03-2151Article1710.3390/safety5010017http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/17Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 16: The Impact of Job, Site, and Industry Experience on Worker Health and Safetyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/16
A debate exists about the impact of mineworker experience on health and safety (H&amp;amp;S). Studies often assert that length of time on the job (tenure) is negatively associated with accidents (i.e., new employees have a higher accident rate). However, inferences are all made based on reported incidents, whereas we know that underreporting is a problem in high-risk occupations. To that end, this study sought to examine how worker experience may impact a variety of H&amp;amp;S outcomes on the job. Comprised of three separate case studies with different H&amp;amp;S outcome variables, researchers broke down the results of several data sets that were collected from 3400 miners who worked in either underground coal, surface sand, stone, and gravel, or metal/non-metal to reveal any underlying trends among differing levels of experience on a specific job, with a specific company, and in the mining industry. Each case study is described in turn, using Kruskall-Wallis tests to determine the impact miners&amp;rsquo; experience on hazard recognition accuracy (Case 1), self-escape confidence (Case 2), and safety compliance (Case 3). The results show that workers with more job experience possess higher levels of perceived health and safety skills, including the identification of hazards on the job. We discuss the impact of experience on several predictors of incidents, including perceived job knowledge and hazard identification, and perceived compliance on the job. Practitioners can expect to gain a greater understanding of their workforce, including actual differences and similarities to consider, when communicating pieces of their health and safety management system to training workers of all experience levels.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 16: The Impact of Job, Site, and Industry Experience on Worker Health and Safety

A debate exists about the impact of mineworker experience on health and safety (H&amp;amp;S). Studies often assert that length of time on the job (tenure) is negatively associated with accidents (i.e., new employees have a higher accident rate). However, inferences are all made based on reported incidents, whereas we know that underreporting is a problem in high-risk occupations. To that end, this study sought to examine how worker experience may impact a variety of H&amp;amp;S outcomes on the job. Comprised of three separate case studies with different H&amp;amp;S outcome variables, researchers broke down the results of several data sets that were collected from 3400 miners who worked in either underground coal, surface sand, stone, and gravel, or metal/non-metal to reveal any underlying trends among differing levels of experience on a specific job, with a specific company, and in the mining industry. Each case study is described in turn, using Kruskall-Wallis tests to determine the impact miners&amp;rsquo; experience on hazard recognition accuracy (Case 1), self-escape confidence (Case 2), and safety compliance (Case 3). The results show that workers with more job experience possess higher levels of perceived health and safety skills, including the identification of hazards on the job. We discuss the impact of experience on several predictors of incidents, including perceived job knowledge and hazard identification, and perceived compliance on the job. Practitioners can expect to gain a greater understanding of their workforce, including actual differences and similarities to consider, when communicating pieces of their health and safety management system to training workers of all experience levels.

]]>The Impact of Job, Site, and Industry Experience on Worker Health and Safety Haas Eiter Hoebbel Ryandoi: 10.3390/safety5010016Safety2019-03-14Safety2019-03-1451Article1610.3390/safety5010016http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/16Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 15: Effects of 7-Day Ketone Ingestion and a Physiological Workload on Postural Stability, Cognitive, and Muscular Exertion Measures in Professional Firefightershttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/15
Background: Postural stability and cognitive performance are challenged in firefighters. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the impact of 7-day ketone supplementation on postural stability, cognitive performance, and muscular activation before and after a physiological workload. Methods: Nine professional firefighters completed two experimental sessions (pre- and post-workload) in a counterbalanced, double-blind design. Participants ingested either a ketone salt (KS) or placebo (PLA) daily for seven days, and had an eighth ingestion 30 min prior to testing. Each experimental testing consisted of maximal voluntary contractions (MVIC) for four muscles (knee flexors&amp;mdash;BF, extensor&amp;mdash;VM, ankle dorsiflexors&amp;mdash;TA, and plantar flexors&amp;mdash;MG) using electromyography and postural stability testing (eyes open (EO), eyes closed (EC), and eyes open-dual-task using a FitLight&amp;trade; system (EOT)), before (pre-workload) and after (post-workload) a simulated physiological workload. The workload consisted of 35 min steady state exercise at 60% of peak oxygen consumption wearing firefighter personal protective equipment (PPE). Results: Significant differences were limited to time effects (pre-workload vs. post-workload), with no differences between groups (KS vs. PLA). Significantly lower muscle activity in VM, TA, and MG during MVIC, greater postural sway and muscle activity in BF during EC and EOT, and slower response time during EOT were evident post-workload. Conclusions: A 7-day ketone supplementation does not impact postural stability, muscle activity, and cognitive tasks, but a fatiguing workload causes significant performance reduction.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 15: Effects of 7-Day Ketone Ingestion and a Physiological Workload on Postural Stability, Cognitive, and Muscular Exertion Measures in Professional Firefighters

Background: Postural stability and cognitive performance are challenged in firefighters. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the impact of 7-day ketone supplementation on postural stability, cognitive performance, and muscular activation before and after a physiological workload. Methods: Nine professional firefighters completed two experimental sessions (pre- and post-workload) in a counterbalanced, double-blind design. Participants ingested either a ketone salt (KS) or placebo (PLA) daily for seven days, and had an eighth ingestion 30 min prior to testing. Each experimental testing consisted of maximal voluntary contractions (MVIC) for four muscles (knee flexors&amp;mdash;BF, extensor&amp;mdash;VM, ankle dorsiflexors&amp;mdash;TA, and plantar flexors&amp;mdash;MG) using electromyography and postural stability testing (eyes open (EO), eyes closed (EC), and eyes open-dual-task using a FitLight&amp;trade; system (EOT)), before (pre-workload) and after (post-workload) a simulated physiological workload. The workload consisted of 35 min steady state exercise at 60% of peak oxygen consumption wearing firefighter personal protective equipment (PPE). Results: Significant differences were limited to time effects (pre-workload vs. post-workload), with no differences between groups (KS vs. PLA). Significantly lower muscle activity in VM, TA, and MG during MVIC, greater postural sway and muscle activity in BF during EC and EOT, and slower response time during EOT were evident post-workload. Conclusions: A 7-day ketone supplementation does not impact postural stability, muscle activity, and cognitive tasks, but a fatiguing workload causes significant performance reduction.

]]>Effects of 7-Day Ketone Ingestion and a Physiological Workload on Postural Stability, Cognitive, and Muscular Exertion Measures in Professional FirefightersHarish ChanderMatthew J. McAllisterAngelia M. HollandHunter S. WaldmanBenjamin M. KringsJonathan C. SwainAlana J. TurnerSteven A. BashamJohnEric W. SmithAdam C. Knightdoi: 10.3390/safety5010015Safety2019-03-08Safety2019-03-0851Article1510.3390/safety5010015http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/15Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 14: Evaluating Safety Systems for Machine Tools with Computer Numerical Control using Analytic Hierarchy Processhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/14
Computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools are complex production systems with fully automatic machine parts. Nowadays, high feed rates and machining speeds are used during the machining process. Human operators are still needed to set-up the machine, load/unload workpieces and parts, load the machining code, and supervise the machining process. The operators work in an environment where automated high-speed motions occur, and consequently, CNC machine tools have to be equipped with safety systems. The approach presented in this paper was to evaluate the main safety systems of CNC machine tools based upon the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The analyzed systems were divided into six main categories and compared pairwise using five criteria proposed by the authors. The approach and the obtained results significantly relied upon the situation found at the industrial company used as a benchmark for the research. The analysis reveals that, among considered safety devices, manually operated controls are the most efficient ones. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to test the stability of the AHP solution.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 14: Evaluating Safety Systems for Machine Tools with Computer Numerical Control using Analytic Hierarchy Process

Computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools are complex production systems with fully automatic machine parts. Nowadays, high feed rates and machining speeds are used during the machining process. Human operators are still needed to set-up the machine, load/unload workpieces and parts, load the machining code, and supervise the machining process. The operators work in an environment where automated high-speed motions occur, and consequently, CNC machine tools have to be equipped with safety systems. The approach presented in this paper was to evaluate the main safety systems of CNC machine tools based upon the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The analyzed systems were divided into six main categories and compared pairwise using five criteria proposed by the authors. The approach and the obtained results significantly relied upon the situation found at the industrial company used as a benchmark for the research. The analysis reveals that, among considered safety devices, manually operated controls are the most efficient ones. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to test the stability of the AHP solution.

]]>Evaluating Safety Systems for Machine Tools with Computer Numerical Control using Analytic Hierarchy ProcessSever-Gabriel RaczRadu-Eugen BreazLucian-Ionel Ciocadoi: 10.3390/safety5010014Safety2019-03-07Safety2019-03-0751Article1410.3390/safety5010014http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/14Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 13: An Integrated Design Framework for Safety Interventions on Existing Urban Roads—Development and Case Study Applicationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/13
The need for improving urban road safety, livability, and sustainability is evident. Quantitative estimates and qualitative methods/strategies can be used by road safety practitioners to design safety interventions. This study proposes a flexible integrated design framework for safety interventions on existing urban road segments and intersections that integrates quantitative and qualitative methods. The proposed design framework is divided into four stages of the safety management process: End of Network Screening, Diagnosis, Selection of Countermeasures, and Economic Assessment. Pilot applications of the proposed method were performed on existing roads of the urban road network of the Municipality of Bari, Italy. Results from the application were useful to highlight some possible problems in the different stages of the design process. In particular, the discussed problems include a lack of crash and traffic data, difficulties with defining the road functional classifications, including rural-to-urban transitions, a lack of local inspection procedures, the recurrent problems from diagnosis, difficulties regarding the safety assessment of cycling infrastructures and sight distances, the criteria for grouping countermeasures into sets, and the choice of appropriate predictive methods. In response, appropriate solutions to the highlighted problems were presented. The usefulness of the proposed method for both practitioners and researchers was shown.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 13: An Integrated Design Framework for Safety Interventions on Existing Urban Roads—Development and Case Study Application

The need for improving urban road safety, livability, and sustainability is evident. Quantitative estimates and qualitative methods/strategies can be used by road safety practitioners to design safety interventions. This study proposes a flexible integrated design framework for safety interventions on existing urban road segments and intersections that integrates quantitative and qualitative methods. The proposed design framework is divided into four stages of the safety management process: End of Network Screening, Diagnosis, Selection of Countermeasures, and Economic Assessment. Pilot applications of the proposed method were performed on existing roads of the urban road network of the Municipality of Bari, Italy. Results from the application were useful to highlight some possible problems in the different stages of the design process. In particular, the discussed problems include a lack of crash and traffic data, difficulties with defining the road functional classifications, including rural-to-urban transitions, a lack of local inspection procedures, the recurrent problems from diagnosis, difficulties regarding the safety assessment of cycling infrastructures and sight distances, the criteria for grouping countermeasures into sets, and the choice of appropriate predictive methods. In response, appropriate solutions to the highlighted problems were presented. The usefulness of the proposed method for both practitioners and researchers was shown.

]]>An Integrated Design Framework for Safety Interventions on Existing Urban Roads—Development and Case Study Application Colonna Intini Berloco Fedele Masi Ranieridoi: 10.3390/safety5010013Safety2019-03-06Safety2019-03-0651Article1310.3390/safety5010013http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/13Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 12: Occupational Accidents Assessment by Field of Activity and Investigation Model for Prevention and Controlhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/12
The rate of occupational accidents is increasing, leading to a number of organizational deficiencies. For European Union (EU), the non-fatal accident number in 2017 was 3,315,101. An increase in the number of accidents is recorded in many of the member states. In addition, the increase in accidents tends to focus on certain sectors and is due more to the increase in the incidence rate than the increase in the workforce. Companies in these industry sectors have also implemented less intensive prevention practices than firms in other sectors. Performing a statistical evaluation of non-fatal and fatal accidents is an important one. This assessment helps managers understand the importance of implementing prevention and control methods across organizations. For this research, we used series of data obtained from the Romanian National Institute of Statistics (NIS), Labor Inspection in Romania, and Eurostatof the European Commission. Data series evaluations were conducted for the EU and Romania. A qualitative assessment of the industry data series had been carried out. Furthermore, T-tests and analysis of variance analysis (ANOVA) were performed to identify the relationships between the frequency index of fatal and non-fatal accidents, and the categories chosen. The values obtained for men were significantly higher than those of female workers. Based on the results of the qualitative assessment and European and national strategies, an experimental model for the prevention and control of occupational accidents is proposed. At the end of the paper, the situation of labor accidents in Romania and Bulgaria, two EU member states, is assessed in the agriculture, forestry and fishing, manufacturing, construction and transport, and storage sectors. A series of trends are presented for the period 2018&amp;ndash;2020. The results obtained from the evaluation of the data series represent an important core of the Romanian Labor Inspectorate for the development of strategic actions.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 12: Occupational Accidents Assessment by Field of Activity and Investigation Model for Prevention and Control

The rate of occupational accidents is increasing, leading to a number of organizational deficiencies. For European Union (EU), the non-fatal accident number in 2017 was 3,315,101. An increase in the number of accidents is recorded in many of the member states. In addition, the increase in accidents tends to focus on certain sectors and is due more to the increase in the incidence rate than the increase in the workforce. Companies in these industry sectors have also implemented less intensive prevention practices than firms in other sectors. Performing a statistical evaluation of non-fatal and fatal accidents is an important one. This assessment helps managers understand the importance of implementing prevention and control methods across organizations. For this research, we used series of data obtained from the Romanian National Institute of Statistics (NIS), Labor Inspection in Romania, and Eurostatof the European Commission. Data series evaluations were conducted for the EU and Romania. A qualitative assessment of the industry data series had been carried out. Furthermore, T-tests and analysis of variance analysis (ANOVA) were performed to identify the relationships between the frequency index of fatal and non-fatal accidents, and the categories chosen. The values obtained for men were significantly higher than those of female workers. Based on the results of the qualitative assessment and European and national strategies, an experimental model for the prevention and control of occupational accidents is proposed. At the end of the paper, the situation of labor accidents in Romania and Bulgaria, two EU member states, is assessed in the agriculture, forestry and fishing, manufacturing, construction and transport, and storage sectors. A series of trends are presented for the period 2018&amp;ndash;2020. The results obtained from the evaluation of the data series represent an important core of the Romanian Labor Inspectorate for the development of strategic actions.

]]>Occupational Accidents Assessment by Field of Activity and Investigation Model for Prevention and ControlLarisa IvascuLucian-Ionel Ciocadoi: 10.3390/safety5010012Safety2019-02-22Safety2019-02-2251Article1210.3390/safety5010012http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/12Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 11: Liquefied Natural Gas as a New Hazard; Learning Processes in Norwegian Fire Brigadeshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/11
The innovation and utilization of new products leads to technological changes in contemporary societies and a need for the Fire Brigades (FBs) to update their expertise regarding the challenges these new products may represent. The present study examines learning processes for nine fire brigades in Norway, selected where Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) facilities are in their jurisdiction and/or because they have handled LNG road accidents. The process of acquiring the necessary new knowledge and skills is researched inductively, and each FB is viewed as a unit in the Norwegian fire and rescue community, i.e., a multi-unit learning organization. Kolb&amp;rsquo;s learning cycle is used to discuss the findings. Large variations in learning processes were used in the different FBs, varying from short classroom courses held by external consultants to a series of learning episodes planned and directed by FB personnel. It was found that each FB focused locally and independently from other FBs when acquiring new knowledge. There was very limited knowledge transfer from FBs experienced with LNG facilities to &amp;ldquo;newcomers&amp;rdquo;. There is no established national knowledge-sharing network on LNG. There are, however, regional partner groups, mainly involving the FB and a distribution company, mentioned by all studied FBs to be the most important partner for learning. The inter-municipal committee against acute pollution (IUA) was the second most important learning cooperation partner. It was, however, discovered that LNG test releases gave rise to observations regarding the extension of the flammable cloud versus the visible cloud that was interpreted wrongly due to the lack of theoretical understanding of the influence of the air relative humidity. This was explained to one regional partner group that invited, and therefore asked, an academic about this issue during a training session. This partner group arranged demonstrations for all FBs involved along the path of LNG transport from the production site to their end-users. Surprisingly, there was very limited knowledge exchange between partner groups in different geographical regions, though one of these was certainly more knowledgeable. The present study revealed that knowledge sharing must be improved, at least when it comes to potential LNG incidents.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 11: Liquefied Natural Gas as a New Hazard; Learning Processes in Norwegian Fire Brigades

The innovation and utilization of new products leads to technological changes in contemporary societies and a need for the Fire Brigades (FBs) to update their expertise regarding the challenges these new products may represent. The present study examines learning processes for nine fire brigades in Norway, selected where Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) facilities are in their jurisdiction and/or because they have handled LNG road accidents. The process of acquiring the necessary new knowledge and skills is researched inductively, and each FB is viewed as a unit in the Norwegian fire and rescue community, i.e., a multi-unit learning organization. Kolb&amp;rsquo;s learning cycle is used to discuss the findings. Large variations in learning processes were used in the different FBs, varying from short classroom courses held by external consultants to a series of learning episodes planned and directed by FB personnel. It was found that each FB focused locally and independently from other FBs when acquiring new knowledge. There was very limited knowledge transfer from FBs experienced with LNG facilities to &amp;ldquo;newcomers&amp;rdquo;. There is no established national knowledge-sharing network on LNG. There are, however, regional partner groups, mainly involving the FB and a distribution company, mentioned by all studied FBs to be the most important partner for learning. The inter-municipal committee against acute pollution (IUA) was the second most important learning cooperation partner. It was, however, discovered that LNG test releases gave rise to observations regarding the extension of the flammable cloud versus the visible cloud that was interpreted wrongly due to the lack of theoretical understanding of the influence of the air relative humidity. This was explained to one regional partner group that invited, and therefore asked, an academic about this issue during a training session. This partner group arranged demonstrations for all FBs involved along the path of LNG transport from the production site to their end-users. Surprisingly, there was very limited knowledge exchange between partner groups in different geographical regions, though one of these was certainly more knowledgeable. The present study revealed that knowledge sharing must be improved, at least when it comes to potential LNG incidents.

]]>Liquefied Natural Gas as a New Hazard; Learning Processes in Norwegian Fire BrigadesMaria-Monika Metallinoudoi: 10.3390/safety5010011Safety2019-02-20Safety2019-02-2051Article1110.3390/safety5010011http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/11Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 10: Moral Distress and Resilience in the Occupational Therapy Workplacehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/10
Healthcare professionals are inherently vulnerable to moral distress due to their frequent work with persons who are suffering or in crisis, in combination with the strong empathic orientation that underpins the very act of care giving. When accompanied by high workloads, deficiencies in management practices such as low recognition, lack of work autonomy, and/or insufficient opportunity for growth and development, persons in caring professions are at an even higher risk of moral distress. There is evidence that professional resilience is effective in mitigating workplace stress. Successful individual-management of moral distress requires attention to the broader institutional conditions under which these difficulties arise. This paper presents findings from 79 occupational therapists in Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada, who participated in a survey of moral distress and resilience. On a standardized measure of resiliency their scores fell at the lower end of normal. On a standardized measure of moral distress, the highest levels involved issues of: time to do the job properly, deteriorated quality of care, insensitive co-workers, and unrealistic expectations from others. Nearly 50% reported that they had considered leaving a position due to moral distress. The survey was carried out with the goal of developing a teaching module that included education about moral distress and recommendations for the enhancement of both individual resilience and the construction of resiliency-promoting work environments.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 10: Moral Distress and Resilience in the Occupational Therapy Workplace

Healthcare professionals are inherently vulnerable to moral distress due to their frequent work with persons who are suffering or in crisis, in combination with the strong empathic orientation that underpins the very act of care giving. When accompanied by high workloads, deficiencies in management practices such as low recognition, lack of work autonomy, and/or insufficient opportunity for growth and development, persons in caring professions are at an even higher risk of moral distress. There is evidence that professional resilience is effective in mitigating workplace stress. Successful individual-management of moral distress requires attention to the broader institutional conditions under which these difficulties arise. This paper presents findings from 79 occupational therapists in Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada, who participated in a survey of moral distress and resilience. On a standardized measure of resiliency their scores fell at the lower end of normal. On a standardized measure of moral distress, the highest levels involved issues of: time to do the job properly, deteriorated quality of care, insensitive co-workers, and unrealistic expectations from others. Nearly 50% reported that they had considered leaving a position due to moral distress. The survey was carried out with the goal of developing a teaching module that included education about moral distress and recommendations for the enhancement of both individual resilience and the construction of resiliency-promoting work environments.

]]>Moral Distress and Resilience in the Occupational Therapy WorkplaceAnnette M. RivardCary A. Browndoi: 10.3390/safety5010010Safety2019-02-07Safety2019-02-0751Article1010.3390/safety5010010http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/10Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 9: Evaluating Food Safety Knowledge and Practices among Foodservice Staff in Al Madinah Hospitals, Saudi Arabiahttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/9
This study examines food safety knowledge and practices of food service staff in Al Madinah hospitals, Saudi Arabia. A total of 163 food service staff participated voluntarily from 10 hospitals across the city of Al Madinah. The participants completed a questionnaire composed of three parts: General characteristics, food safety knowledge, and food safety practices. Results showed that respondents generally had good food safety knowledge with the highest pass rate of 77.9% for knowledge of cross contamination followed by 52.8% for knowledge of food poisoning, and 49.7% of knowledge of food storage. Food safety practices were also strongly observed in the hospitals with a pass rate of 92.6%. Food safety knowledge among the hospital food service staff varied with the level of education, age, and having received food hygiene/safety practices, training while food safety practices had a significant association with the level of education and food hygiene/safety practices training of the staff. Spearman rho coefficient results showed that there was a significant linear relationship between food safety practice and food safety knowledge, and that food safety knowledge significantly predicts food safety practices. This research revealed the importance of education and consistent training of food service staff in improving knowledge and thereby better and safe food handling practices, which could contribute to apply food safety in the hospitals.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 9: Evaluating Food Safety Knowledge and Practices among Foodservice Staff in Al Madinah Hospitals, Saudi Arabia

This study examines food safety knowledge and practices of food service staff in Al Madinah hospitals, Saudi Arabia. A total of 163 food service staff participated voluntarily from 10 hospitals across the city of Al Madinah. The participants completed a questionnaire composed of three parts: General characteristics, food safety knowledge, and food safety practices. Results showed that respondents generally had good food safety knowledge with the highest pass rate of 77.9% for knowledge of cross contamination followed by 52.8% for knowledge of food poisoning, and 49.7% of knowledge of food storage. Food safety practices were also strongly observed in the hospitals with a pass rate of 92.6%. Food safety knowledge among the hospital food service staff varied with the level of education, age, and having received food hygiene/safety practices, training while food safety practices had a significant association with the level of education and food hygiene/safety practices training of the staff. Spearman rho coefficient results showed that there was a significant linear relationship between food safety practice and food safety knowledge, and that food safety knowledge significantly predicts food safety practices. This research revealed the importance of education and consistent training of food service staff in improving knowledge and thereby better and safe food handling practices, which could contribute to apply food safety in the hospitals.

]]>Evaluating Food Safety Knowledge and Practices among Foodservice Staff in Al Madinah Hospitals, Saudi ArabiaNada Ahmad AlqurashiAnushree PriyadarshiniAmit K. Jaiswaldoi: 10.3390/safety5010009Safety2019-02-07Safety2019-02-0751Article910.3390/safety5010009http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/9Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 8: The Influence of Alcohol and Drugs on Drowning among Victims of Senior Yearshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/8
Unintentional fatal drowning among older people is an issue as lifespans lengthen and older people embrace active retirement. While pre-existing medical conditions are a known risk factor for drowning among this age group, less is known about the role of alcohol and drugs. This 15-year (1 July 2002 to 30 June 2017) Australian study used coronial data to investigate the impact on older people (aged 65 years and older) of the obtundent effects of prescribed drugs which had been ingested by those with a positive blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Of the closed coronial cases with toxicological information (N = 471), one quarter (24.6%; N = 116) had consumed alcohol prior to drowning (one in seven BAC &amp;ge; 0.05%), of which a third also had obtundent drugs present (33.6%; N = 39). Rivers/creeks/streams and swimming pools were the locations with the highest number of drowning deaths. Bathtubs (36.8%) and rivers/creeks/streams (17.9%) recorded the highest proportion of cases with victims having a BAC &amp;ge; 0.05%. Bathtubs (13.2%), lakes (7.0%), and rivers/creeks/streams (6.8%) recorded the highest proportion of drowning cases with obtundent drug involvement. Obtundent drug involvement was significantly more likely for activities where the person who drowned was alone (i.e., unknown activity) (X2 = 6.8; p = 0.009). Common obtundent drugs included Diazepam, Tempazepam, and Codeine. Advocacy to prevent drowning in older people is a complex challenge, due to the myriad of locations where drowning occurs, the consumption of alcohol, and polypharmacy required for treating illness and maintaining good health.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 8: The Influence of Alcohol and Drugs on Drowning among Victims of Senior Years

Unintentional fatal drowning among older people is an issue as lifespans lengthen and older people embrace active retirement. While pre-existing medical conditions are a known risk factor for drowning among this age group, less is known about the role of alcohol and drugs. This 15-year (1 July 2002 to 30 June 2017) Australian study used coronial data to investigate the impact on older people (aged 65 years and older) of the obtundent effects of prescribed drugs which had been ingested by those with a positive blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Of the closed coronial cases with toxicological information (N = 471), one quarter (24.6%; N = 116) had consumed alcohol prior to drowning (one in seven BAC &amp;ge; 0.05%), of which a third also had obtundent drugs present (33.6%; N = 39). Rivers/creeks/streams and swimming pools were the locations with the highest number of drowning deaths. Bathtubs (36.8%) and rivers/creeks/streams (17.9%) recorded the highest proportion of cases with victims having a BAC &amp;ge; 0.05%. Bathtubs (13.2%), lakes (7.0%), and rivers/creeks/streams (6.8%) recorded the highest proportion of drowning cases with obtundent drug involvement. Obtundent drug involvement was significantly more likely for activities where the person who drowned was alone (i.e., unknown activity) (X2 = 6.8; p = 0.009). Common obtundent drugs included Diazepam, Tempazepam, and Codeine. Advocacy to prevent drowning in older people is a complex challenge, due to the myriad of locations where drowning occurs, the consumption of alcohol, and polypharmacy required for treating illness and maintaining good health.

]]>The Influence of Alcohol and Drugs on Drowning among Victims of Senior YearsJohn H. PearnAmy E. PedenRichard C. Franklindoi: 10.3390/safety5010008Safety2019-02-01Safety2019-02-0151Article810.3390/safety5010008http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/8Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 7: Intent to Adopt Location Sharing for Logging Safety Applicationshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/7
Logging entails work in remote areas with multiple hazards and consistently ranks among the most fatal occupations in the United States. Location-sharing (LS) devices that enable users to communicate geographic positions to others have been suggested as a technological approach to improving workplace safety on logging operations. This study investigated logger intent to adopt LS-based safety practices. Employing concepts from the Theory of Planned Behavior, including intent, attitude, norms, and perceived behavioral control, we surveyed Idaho loggers at three logger training programs. We evaluated their likelihood of using LS devices on logging operations and examined factors associated with LS adoption. The results showed that Idaho loggers are likely to use (a) automatic position updates for hand fallers, (b) LS devices on all ground workers and heavy equipment, and (c) LS technology for general situational awareness. Participants also recognized specific safety benefits to LS, particularly for emergency situations, such as communicating the need for help or expediting the discovery of injured coworkers. Our findings support further development of LS technology for logging safety, particularly devices and applications that facilitate injury response for isolated workers, such as hand fallers.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 7: Intent to Adopt Location Sharing for Logging Safety Applications

Logging entails work in remote areas with multiple hazards and consistently ranks among the most fatal occupations in the United States. Location-sharing (LS) devices that enable users to communicate geographic positions to others have been suggested as a technological approach to improving workplace safety on logging operations. This study investigated logger intent to adopt LS-based safety practices. Employing concepts from the Theory of Planned Behavior, including intent, attitude, norms, and perceived behavioral control, we surveyed Idaho loggers at three logger training programs. We evaluated their likelihood of using LS devices on logging operations and examined factors associated with LS adoption. The results showed that Idaho loggers are likely to use (a) automatic position updates for hand fallers, (b) LS devices on all ground workers and heavy equipment, and (c) LS technology for general situational awareness. Participants also recognized specific safety benefits to LS, particularly for emergency situations, such as communicating the need for help or expediting the discovery of injured coworkers. Our findings support further development of LS technology for logging safety, particularly devices and applications that facilitate injury response for isolated workers, such as hand fallers.

]]>Intent to Adopt Location Sharing for Logging Safety ApplicationsAnn M. WempeRobert F. KeefeSoren M. NewmanTravis B. Pavegliodoi: 10.3390/safety5010007Safety2019-01-24Safety2019-01-2451Article710.3390/safety5010007http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/7Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 6: Safety Problems in Urban Cycling Mobility: A Quantitative Risk Analysis at Urban Intersectionshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/6
The attention to the most vulnerable road users has grown rapidly in recent decades. The experience gained reveals an important number of cyclist fatalities due to road crashes; most of which occur at intersections. In this study, dispersion of trajectories in urban intersections has been considered to identify the whole conflict area and the largest conflict areas between cars and bicycles, and the speeds have been used to calculate exposure time of cyclists and reaction time available to drivers to avoid collision. These data allow the summary approach to the problem, while a risk probability model has been developed to adopt an elementary approach analysis. A quantitative damage model has been proposed to classify each conflict point, and a probabilistic approach has been defined to consider the traffic volume and the elementary unit of exposure. The combination of damage and probability, permitted to assess the risk of crash, at the examined intersection. Three types of urban four-arm intersection, with and without bike paths, were considered. For each scheme, the authors assessed the risk of collision between the cyclist and the vehicle. The obtained results allowed the identification of the most hazardous maneuvers and highlighted that geometry and kinematics of traffic movements cannot be overlooked, when designing an urban road intersection. The strategy proposed by the authors could have a significant impact on the risk management of urban intersections. The obtained results and the proposed hazard estimation methodology could be used to design safer intersections.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 6: Safety Problems in Urban Cycling Mobility: A Quantitative Risk Analysis at Urban Intersections

The attention to the most vulnerable road users has grown rapidly in recent decades. The experience gained reveals an important number of cyclist fatalities due to road crashes; most of which occur at intersections. In this study, dispersion of trajectories in urban intersections has been considered to identify the whole conflict area and the largest conflict areas between cars and bicycles, and the speeds have been used to calculate exposure time of cyclists and reaction time available to drivers to avoid collision. These data allow the summary approach to the problem, while a risk probability model has been developed to adopt an elementary approach analysis. A quantitative damage model has been proposed to classify each conflict point, and a probabilistic approach has been defined to consider the traffic volume and the elementary unit of exposure. The combination of damage and probability, permitted to assess the risk of crash, at the examined intersection. Three types of urban four-arm intersection, with and without bike paths, were considered. For each scheme, the authors assessed the risk of collision between the cyclist and the vehicle. The obtained results allowed the identification of the most hazardous maneuvers and highlighted that geometry and kinematics of traffic movements cannot be overlooked, when designing an urban road intersection. The strategy proposed by the authors could have a significant impact on the risk management of urban intersections. The obtained results and the proposed hazard estimation methodology could be used to design safer intersections.

]]>Safety Problems in Urban Cycling Mobility: A Quantitative Risk Analysis at Urban IntersectionsGiuseppe CantisaniLaura MorettiYessica De Andrade Barbosadoi: 10.3390/safety5010006Safety2019-01-22Safety2019-01-2251Article610.3390/safety5010006http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/6Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 5: Alcohol Drinking by Husbands/Partners Is Associated with Higher Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Angolahttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/5
Intimate partner violence (IPV), as the most prevalent form of violence against women, is a commonly encountered phenomenon across sub-Saharan African countries, including Angola. As a fast-growing economy, Angola is experiencing a booming alcohol industry and persistent IPV and women&amp;rsquo;s rights issues, along with weak prohibition and enforcement against this practice. However, so far, there is no systematic research investigating the predictors of IPV in Angola and whether spousal alcohol drinking has any relationship with women&amp;rsquo;s experience of IPV. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to assess the predictors of IPV (defined as physical, emotional, and sexual violence) among Angolan women with a special focus on their partners&amp;rsquo; alcohol drinking habit. Cross-sectional data on 7669 women aged 15&amp;ndash;49 years from the Angola Demographic and Health Survey were used for this study. Data were analyzed using descriptive and logistic regression methods. Results indicated that physical IPV (32.3%, 95% Confidence Interval = 30.3 to 34.5) was most prevalent, followed by emotional (27.3%, 95% CI = 25.3 to 29.4) and sexual IPV (7.4%, 95% CI = 6.6 to 8.4). In the multivariate analysis, higher education and household wealth status showed protective effects against certain forms of IPV. Alcohol drinking by husbands/partners was associated with significantly higher odds of experiencing physical [OR = 2.950; 95% CI = 2.632, 3.306], emotional [OR = 2.470; 95% CI = 2.187,2.789], and sexual IPV [OR = 2.729; 95% CI = 2.220, 3.354] among women. Women who reported experiencing physical IPV had increased odds of drinking alcohol [OR = 1.474; 95% CI = 1.290, 1.684] compared with those who did not. These findings reflect the widespread prevalence of IPV in sub-Saharan African countries. Special focus should be given to married men with alcohol drinking habits to reduce women&amp;rsquo;s vulnerability to IPV and dependence on alcohol use.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 5: Alcohol Drinking by Husbands/Partners Is Associated with Higher Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Angola

Intimate partner violence (IPV), as the most prevalent form of violence against women, is a commonly encountered phenomenon across sub-Saharan African countries, including Angola. As a fast-growing economy, Angola is experiencing a booming alcohol industry and persistent IPV and women&amp;rsquo;s rights issues, along with weak prohibition and enforcement against this practice. However, so far, there is no systematic research investigating the predictors of IPV in Angola and whether spousal alcohol drinking has any relationship with women&amp;rsquo;s experience of IPV. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to assess the predictors of IPV (defined as physical, emotional, and sexual violence) among Angolan women with a special focus on their partners&amp;rsquo; alcohol drinking habit. Cross-sectional data on 7669 women aged 15&amp;ndash;49 years from the Angola Demographic and Health Survey were used for this study. Data were analyzed using descriptive and logistic regression methods. Results indicated that physical IPV (32.3%, 95% Confidence Interval = 30.3 to 34.5) was most prevalent, followed by emotional (27.3%, 95% CI = 25.3 to 29.4) and sexual IPV (7.4%, 95% CI = 6.6 to 8.4). In the multivariate analysis, higher education and household wealth status showed protective effects against certain forms of IPV. Alcohol drinking by husbands/partners was associated with significantly higher odds of experiencing physical [OR = 2.950; 95% CI = 2.632, 3.306], emotional [OR = 2.470; 95% CI = 2.187,2.789], and sexual IPV [OR = 2.729; 95% CI = 2.220, 3.354] among women. Women who reported experiencing physical IPV had increased odds of drinking alcohol [OR = 1.474; 95% CI = 1.290, 1.684] compared with those who did not. These findings reflect the widespread prevalence of IPV in sub-Saharan African countries. Special focus should be given to married men with alcohol drinking habits to reduce women&amp;rsquo;s vulnerability to IPV and dependence on alcohol use.

]]>Alcohol Drinking by Husbands/Partners Is Associated with Higher Intimate Partner Violence against Women in AngolaSanni YayaBishwajit Ghosedoi: 10.3390/safety5010005Safety2019-01-22Safety2019-01-2251Article510.3390/safety5010005http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/5Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 4: Evaluation of the Speed Control Cameras in the City of Lisbonhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/4
In Portugal, urban areas still have a high number of fatalities as a result of road crashes. In 2016, 78% of road crashes with victims, 62% with serious injuries and 54% with fatalities occurred in urban areas. Knowing where crashes occur and what circumstances contributed to these occurrences is the key to finding solutions that minimize injuries and deaths. At the end of 2016, as a safety measure, speed control cameras from SINCRO (Sistema Nacional de Controlo de Velocidade, the national speed control system), began to be installed in different parts of the country. The first application was in 2006 at several spots in the urban area of Lisbon. Cameras were installed in 20 of these locations. This study, using the location of the speed control cameras (which were only effective in 19 spots) and the 2004&amp;ndash;2011 crash databases, sought to assess the effectiveness of the measure. The results showed that there was a positive effect on crash rates soon after implementation, but it was also perceived that this effect was attenuated in subsequent years. It is assumed that the reasons for this are due to the familiarization with the system, together with inefficient sanctioning of the violators, and additionally due to malfunctioning equipment not being repaired in a timely manner, which was evident to the users.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 4: Evaluation of the Speed Control Cameras in the City of Lisbon

In Portugal, urban areas still have a high number of fatalities as a result of road crashes. In 2016, 78% of road crashes with victims, 62% with serious injuries and 54% with fatalities occurred in urban areas. Knowing where crashes occur and what circumstances contributed to these occurrences is the key to finding solutions that minimize injuries and deaths. At the end of 2016, as a safety measure, speed control cameras from SINCRO (Sistema Nacional de Controlo de Velocidade, the national speed control system), began to be installed in different parts of the country. The first application was in 2006 at several spots in the urban area of Lisbon. Cameras were installed in 20 of these locations. This study, using the location of the speed control cameras (which were only effective in 19 spots) and the 2004&amp;ndash;2011 crash databases, sought to assess the effectiveness of the measure. The results showed that there was a positive effect on crash rates soon after implementation, but it was also perceived that this effect was attenuated in subsequent years. It is assumed that the reasons for this are due to the familiarization with the system, together with inefficient sanctioning of the violators, and additionally due to malfunctioning equipment not being repaired in a timely manner, which was evident to the users.

]]>Evaluation of the Speed Control Cameras in the City of LisbonJosé Nuno Dias Crespo Martins dos SantosCarmen de Jesus Geraldo CarvalheiraLuís Guilherme de Picado SantosRadmila Magušićdoi: 10.3390/safety5010004Safety2019-01-15Safety2019-01-1551Article410.3390/safety5010004http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/4Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 3: Investigating the Maturity of Incident Investigations of the Ghanaian Mining Industry and Its Effect on Safety Performancehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/3
Effective incident investigations have been recognised as a vital means of improving safety. Nevertheless, there has been little attempt to link incident investigations to actual safety performance. In this study, a framework for assessing the maturity of incident investigations and identifying areas for improvements is described. The framework was developed based on a literature review and interviews with 41 investigators across five large-scale Ghanaian gold mines. The framework consists of 20 elements across four dimensions and five maturity levels. The dimensions (investigator competencies, system of investigation, stages of investigation and post-investigation findings) consider the most relevant aspects of practical investigation and for each dimension, elements that are more specific were defined across five maturity levels. Mapping the interview data collected from five mines into a maturity framework highlighted that the mines occupied different positions on the framework. Some occupied the advanced levels consistently and others consistently occupied the lower levels. Applying the interview data to the framework also identified priority areas for improvement. Finally, the maturity scores derived from mapping interview data onto the framework were correlated with the incidence rates of the mines to determine if any relationship existed between the two variables. The low incidence rate mines had higher maturity scores and the high incidence rate mines had lower maturity scores. It was found that the method was effective in practice, giving clear indications of areas where improvements are needed.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 3: Investigating the Maturity of Incident Investigations of the Ghanaian Mining Industry and Its Effect on Safety Performance

Effective incident investigations have been recognised as a vital means of improving safety. Nevertheless, there has been little attempt to link incident investigations to actual safety performance. In this study, a framework for assessing the maturity of incident investigations and identifying areas for improvements is described. The framework was developed based on a literature review and interviews with 41 investigators across five large-scale Ghanaian gold mines. The framework consists of 20 elements across four dimensions and five maturity levels. The dimensions (investigator competencies, system of investigation, stages of investigation and post-investigation findings) consider the most relevant aspects of practical investigation and for each dimension, elements that are more specific were defined across five maturity levels. Mapping the interview data collected from five mines into a maturity framework highlighted that the mines occupied different positions on the framework. Some occupied the advanced levels consistently and others consistently occupied the lower levels. Applying the interview data to the framework also identified priority areas for improvement. Finally, the maturity scores derived from mapping interview data onto the framework were correlated with the incidence rates of the mines to determine if any relationship existed between the two variables. The low incidence rate mines had higher maturity scores and the high incidence rate mines had lower maturity scores. It was found that the method was effective in practice, giving clear indications of areas where improvements are needed.

]]>Investigating the Maturity of Incident Investigations of the Ghanaian Mining Industry and Its Effect on Safety PerformanceEric StemnCarmel BofingerDavid CliffMaureen E. Hassalldoi: 10.3390/safety5010003Safety2019-01-10Safety2019-01-1051Article310.3390/safety5010003http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/3Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 2: Testing the Utility of the Neural Network Model to Predict History of Arrest among Intimate Partner Violent Menhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/2
Risk assessments are typically based on retrospective reports of factors known to be correlated with violence recidivism in simple linear models. Generally, these linear models use only the perpetrators&amp;rsquo; reports. Using a community sample of couples recruited for recent male-to-female intimate partner violence (IPV; N = 97 couples), the current study compared non-linear neural network models to traditional linear models in predicting a history of arrest in men who perpetrate IPV. The neural network models were found to be superior to the linear models in their predictive power. Models were slightly improved by adding victims&amp;rsquo; report. These findings suggest that the prediction of violence arrest be enhanced through the use of neural network models and by including collateral reports.Safety, Vol. 5, Pages 2: Testing the Utility of the Neural Network Model to Predict History of Arrest among Intimate Partner Violent Men

Risk assessments are typically based on retrospective reports of factors known to be correlated with violence recidivism in simple linear models. Generally, these linear models use only the perpetrators&amp;rsquo; reports. Using a community sample of couples recruited for recent male-to-female intimate partner violence (IPV; N = 97 couples), the current study compared non-linear neural network models to traditional linear models in predicting a history of arrest in men who perpetrate IPV. The neural network models were found to be superior to the linear models in their predictive power. Models were slightly improved by adding victims&amp;rsquo; report. These findings suggest that the prediction of violence arrest be enhanced through the use of neural network models and by including collateral reports.

Rigorous peer-review is the corner-stone of high-quality academic publishing [...]

]]>Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Safety in 2018 Safety Editorial Officedoi: 10.3390/safety5010001Safety2019-01-09Safety2019-01-0951Editorial110.3390/safety5010001http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/5/1/1Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 60: The Impact of Firefighter Physical Fitness on Job Performance: A Review of the Factors That Influence Fire Suppression Safety and Successhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/60
Purpose: The objective of this review was to analyze the physiological impact of fire suppression on the human body. Design: The literature review included studies focused on workload requirements for common firefighting tasks, effect of health status on the firefighting profession, and attempts to establish a minimum physiological workload capacity for successful performance of firefighting. Findings: The existing literature provides evidence of the high degree of physiological stress that firefighters are under during fire suppression tasks and the great degree of maximal physical capacity that firefighting often requires. Firefighters often operate close to maximal aerobic capacity while performing tasks common to the profession. This is especially true due to the added physiological stress placed on the human body while wearing personal protective equipment during firefighting. Conclusions: Future investigations are necessary to further explore markers of physiological stress during firefighting and the impact that it may have on the ability to withstand the development of disease as well as fire suppression safety. Using completion time of fire suppression tasks as a criterion of success may be an important consideration in addition to the physiological requirements of the occupation when assessing the appropriateness of an individual to be a firefighter. An important future consideration is the effect that fire suppression activities may have on reaction time in critical situations in which life-and-death decisions must be made.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 60: The Impact of Firefighter Physical Fitness on Job Performance: A Review of the Factors That Influence Fire Suppression Safety and Success

Purpose: The objective of this review was to analyze the physiological impact of fire suppression on the human body. Design: The literature review included studies focused on workload requirements for common firefighting tasks, effect of health status on the firefighting profession, and attempts to establish a minimum physiological workload capacity for successful performance of firefighting. Findings: The existing literature provides evidence of the high degree of physiological stress that firefighters are under during fire suppression tasks and the great degree of maximal physical capacity that firefighting often requires. Firefighters often operate close to maximal aerobic capacity while performing tasks common to the profession. This is especially true due to the added physiological stress placed on the human body while wearing personal protective equipment during firefighting. Conclusions: Future investigations are necessary to further explore markers of physiological stress during firefighting and the impact that it may have on the ability to withstand the development of disease as well as fire suppression safety. Using completion time of fire suppression tasks as a criterion of success may be an important consideration in addition to the physiological requirements of the occupation when assessing the appropriateness of an individual to be a firefighter. An important future consideration is the effect that fire suppression activities may have on reaction time in critical situations in which life-and-death decisions must be made.

]]>The Impact of Firefighter Physical Fitness on Job Performance: A Review of the Factors That Influence Fire Suppression Safety and SuccessCody E. MorrisHarish Chanderdoi: 10.3390/safety4040060Safety2018-12-14Safety2018-12-1444Review6010.3390/safety4040060http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/60Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 59: Comparisons of Predictive Power for Traffic Accident Involvement; Celeration Behaviour versus Age, Sex, Ethnic Origin, and Experiencehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/59
Driver celeration behaviour theory (DCBT) assumes that risk for a driver of causing a road crash is linearly related to speed change in any given moment and that the speed change variable (celeration) captures all risk (all vehicle control movements can be measured as acceleration). When sampling driver behaviour, the celeration variable is calculated as the average of all absolute values of acceleration when the vehicle is moving. DCBT predicts that no other variable can be a stronger predictor of (the same set of) traffic accident involvements than celeration, given equal reliability of the predictors. Also, other predictors, regardless of which ones, should associate with celeration in ways that are similar to how they correlate with accidents. Predictions were tested in a sample of bus drivers, against variables with reliabilities close to 1 (age, sex, experience, ethnic origin), which are not necessarily optimal predictors for testing but were the only predictors available. The results were largely as predicted from theory. The principles for testing the kind of predictions made from celeration theory were discussed, outlining the importance of a larger number of variables, preferably with repeated measurements.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 59: Comparisons of Predictive Power for Traffic Accident Involvement; Celeration Behaviour versus Age, Sex, Ethnic Origin, and Experience

Driver celeration behaviour theory (DCBT) assumes that risk for a driver of causing a road crash is linearly related to speed change in any given moment and that the speed change variable (celeration) captures all risk (all vehicle control movements can be measured as acceleration). When sampling driver behaviour, the celeration variable is calculated as the average of all absolute values of acceleration when the vehicle is moving. DCBT predicts that no other variable can be a stronger predictor of (the same set of) traffic accident involvements than celeration, given equal reliability of the predictors. Also, other predictors, regardless of which ones, should associate with celeration in ways that are similar to how they correlate with accidents. Predictions were tested in a sample of bus drivers, against variables with reliabilities close to 1 (age, sex, experience, ethnic origin), which are not necessarily optimal predictors for testing but were the only predictors available. The results were largely as predicted from theory. The principles for testing the kind of predictions made from celeration theory were discussed, outlining the importance of a larger number of variables, preferably with repeated measurements.

]]>Comparisons of Predictive Power for Traffic Accident Involvement; Celeration Behaviour versus Age, Sex, Ethnic Origin, and ExperienceAnders Af Wåhlbergdoi: 10.3390/safety4040059Safety2018-12-12Safety2018-12-1244Article5910.3390/safety4040059http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/59Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 58: Road Safety Analysis of Urban Roads: Case Study of an Italian Municipalityhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/58
Attention to the most vulnerable road users has grown rapidly over recent decades. The experience gained reveals an important number of fatalities due to accidents in urban branch roads. In this study, an analytical methodology for the calculation of urban branch road safety is proposed. The proposal relies on data collected during road safety inspections; therefore, it can be implemented even when historical data about traffic volume or accidents are not available. It permits us to identify geometric, physical, functional, and transport-related defects, and elements which are causal factors of road accidents, in order to assess the risk of death or serious injuries for users. Traffic volume, average speed, and expected consequences on vulnerable road users in case of an accident allow us to calculate both the level of danger of each homogeneous section which composes the road, and the hazard index of the overall branch. A case study is presented to implement the proposed methodology. The strategy proposed by the authors could have a significant impact on the risk management of urban roads, and could be used in decision-making processes to design safer roads and improve the safety of existing roads.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 58: Road Safety Analysis of Urban Roads: Case Study of an Italian Municipality

Attention to the most vulnerable road users has grown rapidly over recent decades. The experience gained reveals an important number of fatalities due to accidents in urban branch roads. In this study, an analytical methodology for the calculation of urban branch road safety is proposed. The proposal relies on data collected during road safety inspections; therefore, it can be implemented even when historical data about traffic volume or accidents are not available. It permits us to identify geometric, physical, functional, and transport-related defects, and elements which are causal factors of road accidents, in order to assess the risk of death or serious injuries for users. Traffic volume, average speed, and expected consequences on vulnerable road users in case of an accident allow us to calculate both the level of danger of each homogeneous section which composes the road, and the hazard index of the overall branch. A case study is presented to implement the proposed methodology. The strategy proposed by the authors could have a significant impact on the risk management of urban roads, and could be used in decision-making processes to design safer roads and improve the safety of existing roads.

]]>Road Safety Analysis of Urban Roads: Case Study of an Italian MunicipalityFrancesca DemasiGiuseppe LoprencipeLaura Morettidoi: 10.3390/safety4040058Safety2018-12-01Safety2018-12-0144Article5810.3390/safety4040058http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/58Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 57: Analyzing Large Workers’ Compensation Claims Using Generalized Linear Models and Monte Carlo Simulationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/57
Insurance practitioners rely on statistical models to predict future claims in order to provide financial protection. Proper predictive statistical modeling is more challenging when analyzing claims with lower frequency, but high costs. The paper investigated the use of predictive generalized linear models (GLMs) to address this challenge. Workers&amp;rsquo; compensation claims with costs equal to or more than US$100,000 were analyzed in agribusiness industries in the Midwest of the USA from 2008 to 2016. Predictive GLMs were built with gamma, Weibull, and lognormal distributions using the lasso penalization method. Monte Carlo simulation models were developed to check the performance of predictive models in cost estimation. The results show that the GLM with gamma distribution has the highest predictivity power (R2 = 0.79). Injury characteristics and worker&amp;rsquo;s occupation were predictive of large claims&amp;rsquo; occurrence and costs. The conclusions of this study are useful in modifying and estimating insurance pricing within high-risk agribusiness industries. The approach of this study can be used as a framework to forecast workers&amp;rsquo; compensation claims amounts with rare, high-cost events in other industries. This work is useful for insurance practitioners concerned with statistical and predictive modeling in financial risk analysis.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 57: Analyzing Large Workers’ Compensation Claims Using Generalized Linear Models and Monte Carlo Simulation

Insurance practitioners rely on statistical models to predict future claims in order to provide financial protection. Proper predictive statistical modeling is more challenging when analyzing claims with lower frequency, but high costs. The paper investigated the use of predictive generalized linear models (GLMs) to address this challenge. Workers&amp;rsquo; compensation claims with costs equal to or more than US$100,000 were analyzed in agribusiness industries in the Midwest of the USA from 2008 to 2016. Predictive GLMs were built with gamma, Weibull, and lognormal distributions using the lasso penalization method. Monte Carlo simulation models were developed to check the performance of predictive models in cost estimation. The results show that the GLM with gamma distribution has the highest predictivity power (R2 = 0.79). Injury characteristics and worker&amp;rsquo;s occupation were predictive of large claims&amp;rsquo; occurrence and costs. The conclusions of this study are useful in modifying and estimating insurance pricing within high-risk agribusiness industries. The approach of this study can be used as a framework to forecast workers&amp;rsquo; compensation claims amounts with rare, high-cost events in other industries. This work is useful for insurance practitioners concerned with statistical and predictive modeling in financial risk analysis.

]]>Analyzing Large Workers’ Compensation Claims Using Generalized Linear Models and Monte Carlo SimulationFatemeh Davoudi KakhkiSteven A. FreemanGretchen A. Mosherdoi: 10.3390/safety4040057Safety2018-12-01Safety2018-12-0144Article5710.3390/safety4040057http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/57Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 56: Immunological Methods in Gluten Risk Analysis: A Snapshothttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/56
Gluten is among the 14 major food allergens officially recognized by Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011. The risk to coeliac patients from gluten presence in the food products they consume is likely due to the unintentional contamination of naturally gluten-free (GF) and GF-labelled products, or to hidden sources of gluten in processed GF products. The aim of this paper is to provide a snapshot of gluten risk analysis, with emphasis on immunological methods currently used in gluten detection. The study highlights that immunoassays have some advantages over other analytical methods in gluten determination and are suitable for routine tests. However, some factors (e.g., complexity of the food matrix, type of the applied antibody, gluten extraction procedures and lack of reference material) affect the reliability of obtained results. Hence, efforts are required at an analytical level to overcome the drawbacks of the immunological methods currently available. Harmonization is necessary, so as to assist both consumers in making safe food choices, and the food industry in gluten risk assessment, management and communication.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 56: Immunological Methods in Gluten Risk Analysis: A Snapshot

Gluten is among the 14 major food allergens officially recognized by Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011. The risk to coeliac patients from gluten presence in the food products they consume is likely due to the unintentional contamination of naturally gluten-free (GF) and GF-labelled products, or to hidden sources of gluten in processed GF products. The aim of this paper is to provide a snapshot of gluten risk analysis, with emphasis on immunological methods currently used in gluten detection. The study highlights that immunoassays have some advantages over other analytical methods in gluten determination and are suitable for routine tests. However, some factors (e.g., complexity of the food matrix, type of the applied antibody, gluten extraction procedures and lack of reference material) affect the reliability of obtained results. Hence, efforts are required at an analytical level to overcome the drawbacks of the immunological methods currently available. Harmonization is necessary, so as to assist both consumers in making safe food choices, and the food industry in gluten risk assessment, management and communication.

]]>Immunological Methods in Gluten Risk Analysis: A SnapshotFrancesca MeliniValentina Melinidoi: 10.3390/safety4040056Safety2018-12-01Safety2018-12-0144Review5610.3390/safety4040056http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/56Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 55: Measuring Industrial Health Using a Diminished Quality of Life Instrumenthttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/55
Historically, the focus of industrial health and safety (H&amp;amp;S) has been on safety and accident avoidance with relatively less attention to long-term occupational health other than via health monitoring and surveillance. The difficulty is the multiple overlapping health consequences that are difficult to separate, measure, and attribute to a source. Furthermore, many health problems occur later, not immediately on exposure, and may be cumulative. Consequently, it is difficult to conclusively identify the cause. Workers may lack knowledge of long-term consequences, and thus not use protective systems effectively. Compounding this is the lack of instruments and methodologies to measure exposure to harm. Historically, the existing risk methodologies for calculating safety risk are based on the construct of consequence and likelihood. However, this may not be appropriate for health, especially for the long-term harm, as both the consequence and likelihood may be indeterminate. This paper develops an instrument to measure the health component of workplace H&amp;amp;S. This is achieved by adapting the established World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS) quality of life score to workplace health. Specifically, the method is to identify the likelihood of an exposure incident arising (as estimated by engineering technologists and H&amp;amp;S officers), followed by evaluation of the biological harm consequences. Those consequences are then scored by using the WHODAS 12-item inventory. The result is an assessment of the Diminished Quality of Life (DQL) associated with a workplace hazard. This may then be used to manage the minimization of harm, exposure monitoring, and the design of safe systems of work.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 55: Measuring Industrial Health Using a Diminished Quality of Life Instrument

Historically, the focus of industrial health and safety (H&amp;amp;S) has been on safety and accident avoidance with relatively less attention to long-term occupational health other than via health monitoring and surveillance. The difficulty is the multiple overlapping health consequences that are difficult to separate, measure, and attribute to a source. Furthermore, many health problems occur later, not immediately on exposure, and may be cumulative. Consequently, it is difficult to conclusively identify the cause. Workers may lack knowledge of long-term consequences, and thus not use protective systems effectively. Compounding this is the lack of instruments and methodologies to measure exposure to harm. Historically, the existing risk methodologies for calculating safety risk are based on the construct of consequence and likelihood. However, this may not be appropriate for health, especially for the long-term harm, as both the consequence and likelihood may be indeterminate. This paper develops an instrument to measure the health component of workplace H&amp;amp;S. This is achieved by adapting the established World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS) quality of life score to workplace health. Specifically, the method is to identify the likelihood of an exposure incident arising (as estimated by engineering technologists and H&amp;amp;S officers), followed by evaluation of the biological harm consequences. Those consequences are then scored by using the WHODAS 12-item inventory. The result is an assessment of the Diminished Quality of Life (DQL) associated with a workplace hazard. This may then be used to manage the minimization of harm, exposure monitoring, and the design of safe systems of work.

]]>Measuring Industrial Health Using a Diminished Quality of Life InstrumentZuzhen JiDirk PonsJohn Pearsedoi: 10.3390/safety4040055Safety2018-11-27Safety2018-11-2744Article5510.3390/safety4040055http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/55Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 54: Perceived Safety Benefits of Aftermarket Driver Support Systems: Results from a Large Scale European Field Operational Test (FOT)http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/54
A field operational test (FOT) is a technique used within traffic safety to evaluate the overall value of in-vehicle information systems (IVISs) under normal operating conditions. In this study, a pan-European FOT was used to evaluate Navigation, Speed Information/Alert, Traffic Information, and Green Driving Support functions together with participants&amp;rsquo; perceptions of safety&amp;rsquo; before, during, and after using the functions. Through utilization and adherence to the FOT methodology, data were collected over a period ranging from 8 to 16 months in five European countries in order to assess the driver pre-conceived ideas and subsequent subjective and objective experiences with the IVIS functions. Several analyses of data were conducted, and this paper describes the results relating to the &amp;lsquo;user-experience&amp;rsquo; as evaluated through subjective responses. The study showed that before the FOTs started, overall participants expected a higher safety benefit through using Speed Alert compared to the other functions. This function was also perceived to offer the highest safety benefit after the FOT had been completed. Perceptions of safety were found to be lowest for the green-driving function. The results offer insights into public expectations of IVIS functions and how these change with experience and overall; they suggest that, in some cases, the perception to safety benefits could be somewhat misplaced.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 54: Perceived Safety Benefits of Aftermarket Driver Support Systems: Results from a Large Scale European Field Operational Test (FOT)

A field operational test (FOT) is a technique used within traffic safety to evaluate the overall value of in-vehicle information systems (IVISs) under normal operating conditions. In this study, a pan-European FOT was used to evaluate Navigation, Speed Information/Alert, Traffic Information, and Green Driving Support functions together with participants&amp;rsquo; perceptions of safety&amp;rsquo; before, during, and after using the functions. Through utilization and adherence to the FOT methodology, data were collected over a period ranging from 8 to 16 months in five European countries in order to assess the driver pre-conceived ideas and subsequent subjective and objective experiences with the IVIS functions. Several analyses of data were conducted, and this paper describes the results relating to the &amp;lsquo;user-experience&amp;rsquo; as evaluated through subjective responses. The study showed that before the FOTs started, overall participants expected a higher safety benefit through using Speed Alert compared to the other functions. This function was also perceived to offer the highest safety benefit after the FOT had been completed. Perceptions of safety were found to be lowest for the green-driving function. The results offer insights into public expectations of IVIS functions and how these change with experience and overall; they suggest that, in some cases, the perception to safety benefits could be somewhat misplaced.

]]>Perceived Safety Benefits of Aftermarket Driver Support Systems: Results from a Large Scale European Field Operational Test (FOT)Ruth WelshAndrew Morrisdoi: 10.3390/safety4040054Safety2018-11-20Safety2018-11-2044Article5410.3390/safety4040054http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/54Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 53: Consequences of Increases in Wild Boar-Vehicle Accidents 2003–2016 in Sweden on Personal Injuries and Costshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/53
This study examined whether the rising trends of wild boar (Sus scrofa)-vehicle accidents in Sweden are accompanied by a higher amount of personal injuries and costs. Temporal trends in accident frequencies and the number of persons injured in wild boar-vehicle accidents were examined for 2003&amp;ndash;2016, and the cost of wild boar-vehicle accidents was calculated. Results show increases in the number of personal injuries, and increased costs, particularly after 2010&amp;ndash;2012. The total number of wild boar accidents correlated with the number of injured persons as well as with the number of accidents with personal injuries. Approximately one person (1.13%) is injured per 100 wild boar-vehicle accidents, and approximately one accident per 200 wild boar-vehicle accidents will result in one or more persons with injuries (0.5%). However, most of the persons injured have slighter injuries. Although the number of wild boar-vehicle accidents and the number of persons injured in the accidents have increased, the frequency of accidents resulting in personal injuries is still at low levels in comparison with, for example, frequencies of personal injuries for moose accidents. The cost for wild boar-vehicle accidents has increased between 2003 to 2016 and is currently estimated to vary between approximately EUR 9.66&amp;ndash;12.31 million per year.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 53: Consequences of Increases in Wild Boar-Vehicle Accidents 2003–2016 in Sweden on Personal Injuries and Costs

This study examined whether the rising trends of wild boar (Sus scrofa)-vehicle accidents in Sweden are accompanied by a higher amount of personal injuries and costs. Temporal trends in accident frequencies and the number of persons injured in wild boar-vehicle accidents were examined for 2003&amp;ndash;2016, and the cost of wild boar-vehicle accidents was calculated. Results show increases in the number of personal injuries, and increased costs, particularly after 2010&amp;ndash;2012. The total number of wild boar accidents correlated with the number of injured persons as well as with the number of accidents with personal injuries. Approximately one person (1.13%) is injured per 100 wild boar-vehicle accidents, and approximately one accident per 200 wild boar-vehicle accidents will result in one or more persons with injuries (0.5%). However, most of the persons injured have slighter injuries. Although the number of wild boar-vehicle accidents and the number of persons injured in the accidents have increased, the frequency of accidents resulting in personal injuries is still at low levels in comparison with, for example, frequencies of personal injuries for moose accidents. The cost for wild boar-vehicle accidents has increased between 2003 to 2016 and is currently estimated to vary between approximately EUR 9.66&amp;ndash;12.31 million per year.

]]>Correction: Bishop, H. et al. Driving among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Safety 2018, 4, 40Haley BishopLogan BoeDespina StavrinosJessica Mirmandoi: 10.3390/safety4040052Safety2018-11-16Safety2018-11-1644Correction5210.3390/safety4040052http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/52Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 51: Large Occupational Accidents Data Analysis with a Coupled Unsupervised Algorithm: The S.O.M. K-Means Method. An Application to the Wood Industryhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/51
Data on occupational accidents are usually stored in large databases by worker compensation authorities, and by the safety and prevention teams of companies. An analysis of these databases can play an important role in the prevention of accidents and the reduction of risks, but it can be a complex procedure because of the dimensions and complexity of such databases. The SKM (SOM K-Means) method, a two-level clustering system, made up of SOM (Self Organizing Map) and K-Means clustering, has obtained positive results in identifying the dynamics of critical accidents by referring to a database of 1200 occupational accidents that had occurred in the wood industry. The present research has been conducted to validate the recently presented SKM methodology through the analysis of a larger data set of more than 4000 occupational accidents that occurred in Piedmont (Italy), between 2006 and 2013. This work has partitioned the accidents into groups of different accident dynamics families and has quantified the severity and frequency of occurrence of these accidents. The obtained information may be of help to Company Managers and National Authorities to better address preventive measures and policies concerning the clusters that have been identified as being the most critical within a risk-based decision-making framework.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 51: Large Occupational Accidents Data Analysis with a Coupled Unsupervised Algorithm: The S.O.M. K-Means Method. An Application to the Wood Industry

Data on occupational accidents are usually stored in large databases by worker compensation authorities, and by the safety and prevention teams of companies. An analysis of these databases can play an important role in the prevention of accidents and the reduction of risks, but it can be a complex procedure because of the dimensions and complexity of such databases. The SKM (SOM K-Means) method, a two-level clustering system, made up of SOM (Self Organizing Map) and K-Means clustering, has obtained positive results in identifying the dynamics of critical accidents by referring to a database of 1200 occupational accidents that had occurred in the wood industry. The present research has been conducted to validate the recently presented SKM methodology through the analysis of a larger data set of more than 4000 occupational accidents that occurred in Piedmont (Italy), between 2006 and 2013. This work has partitioned the accidents into groups of different accident dynamics families and has quantified the severity and frequency of occurrence of these accidents. The obtained information may be of help to Company Managers and National Authorities to better address preventive measures and policies concerning the clusters that have been identified as being the most critical within a risk-based decision-making framework.

]]>Large Occupational Accidents Data Analysis with a Coupled Unsupervised Algorithm: The S.O.M. K-Means Method. An Application to the Wood IndustryLorenzo CombertiMicaela DemichelaGabriele BaldissoneGianmario FoisRoberto Luzzidoi: 10.3390/safety4040051Safety2018-11-01Safety2018-11-0144Article5110.3390/safety4040051http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/51Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 50: Traffic Safety at Median Ditches: Steel vs. Concrete Barrier Performance Comparison Using Computer Simulationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/50
In Turkey, concrete V-shaped ditches are formed at the median section of divided highways to provide drainage. Recent accidents show that these ditches actually present safety risks to vehicles entering the medians. Vehicles either cross over the ditch, roll over, or become trapped in the ditch, depending upon the mass, size, speed, and angle of the entering vehicle. To overcome this safety risk and reduce the severity of these accidents, longitudinal barriers are installed along these ditches. Currently, in Turkey, steel barriers are extensively used to improve traffic safety at median ditches. In this paper, the crash performances of steel and concrete barriers used at medians with ditches are compared. A model of a standard steel EDSP-1.33 barrier and a model of a newly developed concrete C470 barrier were constructed, and impact simulations were performed for when they are installed at a ditch slope break point. A nonlinear finite element program, LS-DYNA, was used for the analysis. A 13,000 kg bus model was used to impact both barriers in accordance with European standard requirements for crash tests. Simulation results show that when the steel EDSP-1.33 barrier is used, the bus has the potential for excessive penetration of the ditch, with significant barrier deformation. Moreover, the barrier damage is extensive, resulting in increased maintenance costs. On the other hand, the concrete C470 barrier successfully contains and redirects the 13,000 kg bus impact, with minimal barrier deformation and safety risk. Even though the concrete barrier slides toward the inside of the ditch, the bus does not enter the ditch area and exits the barrier in a stable manner. Therefore, to increase traffic safety at ditches located at the median section of divided highways in Turkey, utilization of the newly developed concrete barrier C470 is recommended.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 50: Traffic Safety at Median Ditches: Steel vs. Concrete Barrier Performance Comparison Using Computer Simulation

In Turkey, concrete V-shaped ditches are formed at the median section of divided highways to provide drainage. Recent accidents show that these ditches actually present safety risks to vehicles entering the medians. Vehicles either cross over the ditch, roll over, or become trapped in the ditch, depending upon the mass, size, speed, and angle of the entering vehicle. To overcome this safety risk and reduce the severity of these accidents, longitudinal barriers are installed along these ditches. Currently, in Turkey, steel barriers are extensively used to improve traffic safety at median ditches. In this paper, the crash performances of steel and concrete barriers used at medians with ditches are compared. A model of a standard steel EDSP-1.33 barrier and a model of a newly developed concrete C470 barrier were constructed, and impact simulations were performed for when they are installed at a ditch slope break point. A nonlinear finite element program, LS-DYNA, was used for the analysis. A 13,000 kg bus model was used to impact both barriers in accordance with European standard requirements for crash tests. Simulation results show that when the steel EDSP-1.33 barrier is used, the bus has the potential for excessive penetration of the ditch, with significant barrier deformation. Moreover, the barrier damage is extensive, resulting in increased maintenance costs. On the other hand, the concrete C470 barrier successfully contains and redirects the 13,000 kg bus impact, with minimal barrier deformation and safety risk. Even though the concrete barrier slides toward the inside of the ditch, the bus does not enter the ditch area and exits the barrier in a stable manner. Therefore, to increase traffic safety at ditches located at the median section of divided highways in Turkey, utilization of the newly developed concrete barrier C470 is recommended.

]]>Traffic Safety at Median Ditches: Steel vs. Concrete Barrier Performance Comparison Using Computer SimulationAyhan Öner YücelAli Osman AtahanTuran ArslanUmur Korkut Sevimdoi: 10.3390/safety4040050Safety2018-11-01Safety2018-11-0144Article5010.3390/safety4040050http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/50Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 49: Assessing the Effect of ADS-B Message Drop-Out in Detect and Avoid of Unmanned Aircraft System Using Monte Carlo Simulationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/49
This work analyzes the severity and risk associated with automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) message drop-out in detect and avoid (DAA) function of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Performance assessment of the universal access transceiver (UAT) ADS-B message implies that, in some cases, ADS-B fails to update within a specified update interval, which is referred to as &amp;lsquo;drop-out&amp;rsquo; in this work. ADS-B is a fundamental surveillance sensor for both class 1 and class 2 DAA systems. Message loss or drop-out has been found as one of the common limitations of the ADS-B system. The key feature of this study is incorporating the update rate of real ADS-B data transmitted from the manned aircraft. The data were received from the Grand Forks International Airport, North Dakota. Monte Carlo method has been adopted to resolve encounter scenarios in the presence of drop-out. The change in the alert triggered by the UAS DAA in the presence of ADS-B drop-out has been investigated. Furthermore, the risk matrices are created to quantify the associated risk with drop-out affected alerts. Simulation results depict that both the duration of drop-out and DAA look-ahead time affect the alert-triggering function of UAS. With a small look-ahead window and longer duration of drop-out, the number of warning alerts increases. Also, alerts are affected more during an overtaking encounter than that of a head-to-head encounter. A system-level analysis is also carried out to recognize the potential reasons behind the ADS-B drop-out.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 49: Assessing the Effect of ADS-B Message Drop-Out in Detect and Avoid of Unmanned Aircraft System Using Monte Carlo Simulation

This work analyzes the severity and risk associated with automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) message drop-out in detect and avoid (DAA) function of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Performance assessment of the universal access transceiver (UAT) ADS-B message implies that, in some cases, ADS-B fails to update within a specified update interval, which is referred to as &amp;lsquo;drop-out&amp;rsquo; in this work. ADS-B is a fundamental surveillance sensor for both class 1 and class 2 DAA systems. Message loss or drop-out has been found as one of the common limitations of the ADS-B system. The key feature of this study is incorporating the update rate of real ADS-B data transmitted from the manned aircraft. The data were received from the Grand Forks International Airport, North Dakota. Monte Carlo method has been adopted to resolve encounter scenarios in the presence of drop-out. The change in the alert triggered by the UAS DAA in the presence of ADS-B drop-out has been investigated. Furthermore, the risk matrices are created to quantify the associated risk with drop-out affected alerts. Simulation results depict that both the duration of drop-out and DAA look-ahead time affect the alert-triggering function of UAS. With a small look-ahead window and longer duration of drop-out, the number of warning alerts increases. Also, alerts are affected more during an overtaking encounter than that of a head-to-head encounter. A system-level analysis is also carried out to recognize the potential reasons behind the ADS-B drop-out.

]]>Assessing the Effect of ADS-B Message Drop-Out in Detect and Avoid of Unmanned Aircraft System Using Monte Carlo SimulationAsma TabassumWilliam Semkedoi: 10.3390/safety4040049Safety2018-11-01Safety2018-11-0144Article4910.3390/safety4040049http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/49Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 48: Impact Performance Evaluation of a Crash Cushion Design Using Finite Element Simulation and Full-Scale Crash Testinghttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/48
Crash cushions are designed to gradually absorb the kinetic energy of an impacting vehicle and bring it to a controlled stop within an acceptable distance while maintaining a limited amount of deceleration on the occupants. These cushions are used to protect errant vehicles from hitting rigid objects, such as poles and barriers located at exit locations on roads. Impact performance evaluation of crash cushions are attained according to an EN 1317-3 standard based on various speed limits and impact angles. Crash cushions can be designed to absorb the energy of an impacting vehicle by using different material deformation mechanisms, such as metal plasticity supported by airbag folding or damping. In this study, a new crash cushion system, called the ulukur crash cushion (UCC), is developed by using linear, low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) containers supported by embedded plastic energy-absorbing tubes as dampers. Steel cables are used to provide anchorage to the design. The crashworthiness of the system was evaluated both numerically and experimentally. The finite element model of the design was developed and solved using LS-DYNA (971, LSTC, Livermore, CA, USA), in which the impact performance was evaluated considering the EN 1317 standard. Following the simulations, full-scale crash tests were performed to determine the performance of the design in containing and redirecting the impacting vehicle. Both the simulations and crash tests showed acceptable agreement. Further crash tests are planned to fully evaluate the crashworthiness of the new crash cushion system.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 48: Impact Performance Evaluation of a Crash Cushion Design Using Finite Element Simulation and Full-Scale Crash Testing

Crash cushions are designed to gradually absorb the kinetic energy of an impacting vehicle and bring it to a controlled stop within an acceptable distance while maintaining a limited amount of deceleration on the occupants. These cushions are used to protect errant vehicles from hitting rigid objects, such as poles and barriers located at exit locations on roads. Impact performance evaluation of crash cushions are attained according to an EN 1317-3 standard based on various speed limits and impact angles. Crash cushions can be designed to absorb the energy of an impacting vehicle by using different material deformation mechanisms, such as metal plasticity supported by airbag folding or damping. In this study, a new crash cushion system, called the ulukur crash cushion (UCC), is developed by using linear, low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) containers supported by embedded plastic energy-absorbing tubes as dampers. Steel cables are used to provide anchorage to the design. The crashworthiness of the system was evaluated both numerically and experimentally. The finite element model of the design was developed and solved using LS-DYNA (971, LSTC, Livermore, CA, USA), in which the impact performance was evaluated considering the EN 1317 standard. Following the simulations, full-scale crash tests were performed to determine the performance of the design in containing and redirecting the impacting vehicle. Both the simulations and crash tests showed acceptable agreement. Further crash tests are planned to fully evaluate the crashworthiness of the new crash cushion system.

]]>Impact Performance Evaluation of a Crash Cushion Design Using Finite Element Simulation and Full-Scale Crash TestingMurat BüyükAli Osman AtahanKenan Kurucuoğludoi: 10.3390/safety4040048Safety2018-11-01Safety2018-11-0144Article4810.3390/safety4040048http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/48Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 47: Application of Nanomaterials in Personal Respiratory Protection Equipment: A Literature Reviewhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/47
Exposure to air pollutants leads to a variety of health effects in humans. Inhalation is one of the most common routs of exposure to poor quality air, mostly in work environments. Respiratory masks are used to prevent breathing in hazardous gases and vapors, especially in the absence of proper controlling measures. This study aims to review the effectiveness of respiratory masks with a nanostructure. The electronic search of the genuine databases, including PubMed, Magiran, Iran Medex, Science Database (SID), Science Direct, Web of Science, and Scopus, was conducted in January and February 2017 in chronological order of publications with the keywords defined in the search strategy. Of all identified papers, nine were collected and included in the study. The results of this study indicated that the use of nanomaterials in the structure of brand new mask filters compared with conventional masks enhances the performance and efficiency of breathing air filtration, improves permeability, increases antimicrobial properties, and offers reasonable comfort to the workers.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 47: Application of Nanomaterials in Personal Respiratory Protection Equipment: A Literature Review

Exposure to air pollutants leads to a variety of health effects in humans. Inhalation is one of the most common routs of exposure to poor quality air, mostly in work environments. Respiratory masks are used to prevent breathing in hazardous gases and vapors, especially in the absence of proper controlling measures. This study aims to review the effectiveness of respiratory masks with a nanostructure. The electronic search of the genuine databases, including PubMed, Magiran, Iran Medex, Science Database (SID), Science Direct, Web of Science, and Scopus, was conducted in January and February 2017 in chronological order of publications with the keywords defined in the search strategy. Of all identified papers, nine were collected and included in the study. The results of this study indicated that the use of nanomaterials in the structure of brand new mask filters compared with conventional masks enhances the performance and efficiency of breathing air filtration, improves permeability, increases antimicrobial properties, and offers reasonable comfort to the workers.

]]>Application of Nanomaterials in Personal Respiratory Protection Equipment: A Literature ReviewMarzieh AbbasiniaSafoura KarimieMojtaba HaghighatIraj Mohammadfamdoi: 10.3390/safety4040047Safety2018-10-22Safety2018-10-2244Review4710.3390/safety4040047http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/47Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 46: Accident Report Interpretationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/46
The language and approach we use to describe the past can have a strong influence on the audience&amp;rsquo;s interpretation of our story. In our experiment, we explore, using 3 different conditions, how the framing, language and style of an accident report can affect the audience&amp;rsquo;s proposed solutions to manage the problems found. We find that the approach used to create an accident report can have a powerful influence on the audience&amp;rsquo;s decision making. Whether we are describing an accident in a linear manner, using a systems approach, or we are accepting of multiple stories which are not linear or coherent, the methods we use to capture and communicate the story have a profound impact on the actions decided upon by the reader.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 46: Accident Report Interpretation

The language and approach we use to describe the past can have a strong influence on the audience&amp;rsquo;s interpretation of our story. In our experiment, we explore, using 3 different conditions, how the framing, language and style of an accident report can affect the audience&amp;rsquo;s proposed solutions to manage the problems found. We find that the approach used to create an accident report can have a powerful influence on the audience&amp;rsquo;s decision making. Whether we are describing an accident in a linear manner, using a systems approach, or we are accepting of multiple stories which are not linear or coherent, the methods we use to capture and communicate the story have a profound impact on the actions decided upon by the reader.

]]>Accident Report InterpretationDerek HeraghtySidney DekkerAndrew Raedoi: 10.3390/safety4040046Safety2018-10-15Safety2018-10-1544Article4610.3390/safety4040046http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/46Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 45: Safety Culture Oversight: An Intangible Concept for Tangible Issues within Nuclear Installationshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/45
Traced back to the Chernobyl Accident analysis (INSAG-1), the concept of safety culture is regarded as a central phenomenon influencing behaviors and values within high-risk organisations. Many studies have already been conducted on safety culture within nuclear installations. Describing a model designed to capture and assess safety culture observations, this paper intends to highlight the role of safety culture within the overall regulatory nuclear safety oversight, and to show how intangible cultural elements can lead to the identification of tangible safety issues.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 45: Safety Culture Oversight: An Intangible Concept for Tangible Issues within Nuclear Installations

Traced back to the Chernobyl Accident analysis (INSAG-1), the concept of safety culture is regarded as a central phenomenon influencing behaviors and values within high-risk organisations. Many studies have already been conducted on safety culture within nuclear installations. Describing a model designed to capture and assess safety culture observations, this paper intends to highlight the role of safety culture within the overall regulatory nuclear safety oversight, and to show how intangible cultural elements can lead to the identification of tangible safety issues.

]]>Safety Culture Oversight: An Intangible Concept for Tangible Issues within Nuclear InstallationsBenoît Bernarddoi: 10.3390/safety4040045Safety2018-10-09Safety2018-10-0944Article4510.3390/safety4040045http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/45Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 44: A Safety Culture Maturity Matrix for Nuclear Regulatory Bodieshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/44
The concept of safety culture has attracted a great deal of attention. Since the rise of the concept, progress has been made regarding the definition of safety culture and the development of tools dedicated to safety culture oversight and self-assessment. In addition, these recent advances have been made across different high-hazard industries, and obviously in the nuclear world. Nevertheless, little attention has been paid to tailored methods allowing a regulatory body to assess its own safety culture. The aim of this paper is to present a framework adapted to nuclear regulatory bodies or TSOs (Technical Safety Organisations) in order to guide them in understanding their own safety culture through a &amp;ldquo;Safety Culture Maturity Matrix&amp;rdquo;.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 44: A Safety Culture Maturity Matrix for Nuclear Regulatory Bodies

The concept of safety culture has attracted a great deal of attention. Since the rise of the concept, progress has been made regarding the definition of safety culture and the development of tools dedicated to safety culture oversight and self-assessment. In addition, these recent advances have been made across different high-hazard industries, and obviously in the nuclear world. Nevertheless, little attention has been paid to tailored methods allowing a regulatory body to assess its own safety culture. The aim of this paper is to present a framework adapted to nuclear regulatory bodies or TSOs (Technical Safety Organisations) in order to guide them in understanding their own safety culture through a &amp;ldquo;Safety Culture Maturity Matrix&amp;rdquo;.

]]>A Safety Culture Maturity Matrix for Nuclear Regulatory BodiesBenoît Bernarddoi: 10.3390/safety4040044Safety2018-10-02Safety2018-10-0244Article4410.3390/safety4040044http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/44Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 43: Human Factors Affecting Logging Injury Incidents in Idaho and the Potential for Real-Time Location-Sharing Technology to Improve Safetyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/43
Human factors, including inadequate situational awareness, can contribute to fatal and near-fatal traumatic injuries in logging, which is among the most dangerous occupations in the United States. Real-time location-sharing technology may help improve situational awareness for loggers. We surveyed and interviewed professional logging contractors in Idaho to (1) characterize current perceptions of in-woods hazards and the human factors that lead to injuries; (2) understand their perspectives on using technology-based location-sharing solutions to improve safety in remote work environments; and (3) identify logging hazard scenarios that could be mitigated using location-sharing technology. We found production pressure, fatigue, and inexperience among the most-common factors contributing to logging injuries from the perspective of participants. Potential limitations of location-sharing technology identified included potential for distraction and cost. Contractors identified several situations where the technology may help improve safety, including (1) alerting workers of potential hand-faller injuries due to lack of movement; (2) helping rigging crews to maintain safe distances from yarded trees and logs during cable logging; and (3) providing a means for equipment operators to see approaching ground workers, especially in low-visibility situations.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 43: Human Factors Affecting Logging Injury Incidents in Idaho and the Potential for Real-Time Location-Sharing Technology to Improve Safety

Human factors, including inadequate situational awareness, can contribute to fatal and near-fatal traumatic injuries in logging, which is among the most dangerous occupations in the United States. Real-time location-sharing technology may help improve situational awareness for loggers. We surveyed and interviewed professional logging contractors in Idaho to (1) characterize current perceptions of in-woods hazards and the human factors that lead to injuries; (2) understand their perspectives on using technology-based location-sharing solutions to improve safety in remote work environments; and (3) identify logging hazard scenarios that could be mitigated using location-sharing technology. We found production pressure, fatigue, and inexperience among the most-common factors contributing to logging injuries from the perspective of participants. Potential limitations of location-sharing technology identified included potential for distraction and cost. Contractors identified several situations where the technology may help improve safety, including (1) alerting workers of potential hand-faller injuries due to lack of movement; (2) helping rigging crews to maintain safe distances from yarded trees and logs during cable logging; and (3) providing a means for equipment operators to see approaching ground workers, especially in low-visibility situations.

]]>Human Factors Affecting Logging Injury Incidents in Idaho and the Potential for Real-Time Location-Sharing Technology to Improve SafetySoren NewmanRobert KeefeRandall BrooksEmily AhonenAnn Wempedoi: 10.3390/safety4040043Safety2018-10-01Safety2018-10-0144Article4310.3390/safety4040043http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/43Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 42: A Retrospective, Cross-Sectional Cohort Study Examining the Risk of Unintentional Fatal Drowning during Public Holidays in Australiahttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/4/42
Australia&amp;rsquo;s celebration of its public holidays often involves aquatic recreation, frequently mixed with consumption of alcohol, both of which are risk factors for drowning. This study examines how the demographics and circumstances of public holiday drownings compare to the average day drownings. A total population survey (1 July 2002 to 30 June 2017) of unintentional fatal drownings in Australia were extracted from the Royal Life Saving National Fatal Drowning Database. Date of drowning and state/territory of residence were used to determine if the drowning occurred on a public holiday in the person&amp;rsquo;s place of residence. 4175 persons drowned during the study period. There was a statistically significant difference between the incidence of fatal drowning on public holidays and the other days, with fatal drowning 1.73 times more likely to occur on public holidays (CI: 1.57&amp;ndash;1.89). The increased risk of drowning on public holidays should inform the timing and the content of drowning prevention campaigns and strategies.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 42: A Retrospective, Cross-Sectional Cohort Study Examining the Risk of Unintentional Fatal Drowning during Public Holidays in Australia

Australia&amp;rsquo;s celebration of its public holidays often involves aquatic recreation, frequently mixed with consumption of alcohol, both of which are risk factors for drowning. This study examines how the demographics and circumstances of public holiday drownings compare to the average day drownings. A total population survey (1 July 2002 to 30 June 2017) of unintentional fatal drownings in Australia were extracted from the Royal Life Saving National Fatal Drowning Database. Date of drowning and state/territory of residence were used to determine if the drowning occurred on a public holiday in the person&amp;rsquo;s place of residence. 4175 persons drowned during the study period. There was a statistically significant difference between the incidence of fatal drowning on public holidays and the other days, with fatal drowning 1.73 times more likely to occur on public holidays (CI: 1.57&amp;ndash;1.89). The increased risk of drowning on public holidays should inform the timing and the content of drowning prevention campaigns and strategies.

It has recently been demonstrated that 50 mm thick industrial grade thermal insulation may serve as passive fire protection of jet fire exposed thick walled steel distillation columns. The present study investigates the performance of thermal insulation in conjunction to 3 mm, 6 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm steel walls, i.e., where the wall represents less heat sink, when exposed to 350 kW/m2 heat load. Regardless of the tested steel plate thicknesses, about 10 min passed before a nearly linear steel temperature increase versus time was observed. Thereafter, the thinnest plates systematically showed a faster temperature increase than the thickest plates confirming the wall heat sink effect. To study thermal insulation sintering, 50 mm thermal insulation cubes were heat treated (30 min holding time) at temperatures up to 1100 &amp;deg;C. No clear sign of melting was observed, but sintering resulted in 25% shrinkage at 1100 &amp;deg;C. Thermogravimetric analysis to 1300 &amp;deg;C revealed mass loss peaks due to anti-dusting material at 250 &amp;deg;C and Bakelite binder at 460 &amp;deg;C. No significant mass change occurred above 1000 &amp;deg;C. Differential scanning calorimetry to 1300 &amp;deg;C revealed endothermic processes related to the anti-dusting material and Bakelite mass losses, as well as a conspicuous endothermic peak at 1220 &amp;deg;C. This peak is most likely due to melting. The endothermic processes involved when heating the thermal insulation may to a large part explain the 10 min delay in steel plate temperature increase during fire testing. Overall, the tested thermal insulation performed surprisingly well also for protecting the thin steel plates.

]]>Study of Industrial Grade Thermal Insulation as Passive Fire Protection up to 1200 °CJoachim Søreng BjørgeAmalie GunnarshaugTorgrim LogMaria-Monika Metallinoudoi: 10.3390/safety4030041Safety2018-09-19Safety2018-09-1943Article4110.3390/safety4030041http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/41Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 40: Driving among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorderhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/40
Over the past several decades there has been a surge of research on the contextual, biological, and psychological factors associated with transportation safety in adolescence. However, we know much less about the factors contributing to transportation safety among adolescents who do not follow a typical developmental trajectory. Adolescents with developmental disabilities (DD) such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have a wide range of behavioral and psychological deficits that may make the complex task of driving even more challenging. Because these adolescents often retain characteristic symptoms of their disorder into adulthood, it may impede their ability to achieve important milestones during the developmental transition from adolescent to adult. As the motivating force behind autonomous living and employment, the capacity for independent transportation is paramount to an adolescent&amp;rsquo;s overall success. This critical review will draw from the current body of literature on adolescent drivers with developmental disabilities to determine (1) areas of impairment; (2) safety risk factors; and (3) effective interventions for improving driving safety in this vulnerable population of adolescent drivers between the ages of 15&amp;ndash;22. This review will also identify important unanswered research questions, and summarize the current state of the literature.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 40: Driving among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Over the past several decades there has been a surge of research on the contextual, biological, and psychological factors associated with transportation safety in adolescence. However, we know much less about the factors contributing to transportation safety among adolescents who do not follow a typical developmental trajectory. Adolescents with developmental disabilities (DD) such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have a wide range of behavioral and psychological deficits that may make the complex task of driving even more challenging. Because these adolescents often retain characteristic symptoms of their disorder into adulthood, it may impede their ability to achieve important milestones during the developmental transition from adolescent to adult. As the motivating force behind autonomous living and employment, the capacity for independent transportation is paramount to an adolescent&amp;rsquo;s overall success. This critical review will draw from the current body of literature on adolescent drivers with developmental disabilities to determine (1) areas of impairment; (2) safety risk factors; and (3) effective interventions for improving driving safety in this vulnerable population of adolescent drivers between the ages of 15&amp;ndash;22. This review will also identify important unanswered research questions, and summarize the current state of the literature.

]]>Driving among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderHaley BishopLogan BoeDespina StavrinosJessica Mirmandoi: 10.3390/safety4030040Safety2018-09-17Safety2018-09-1743Review4010.3390/safety4030040http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/40Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 39: On Linking of Task Analysis in the HRA Procedure: The Case of HRA in Offshore Drilling Activitieshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/39
Human reliability analysis (HRA) has become an increasingly important element in many industries for the purpose of risk management and major accident prevention; for example, recently to perform and maintain probabilistic risk assessments of offshore drilling activities, where human reliability plays a vital role. HRA experience studies, however, continue to warn about potential serious quality assurance issues associated with HRA methods, such as too much variability in comparable analysis results between analysts. A literature review highlights that this lack of HRA consistency can be traced in part to the HRA procedure and a lack of explicit application of task analysis relevant to a wide set of activity task requirements. As such, the need for early identification of and consistent focus on important human performance factors among analysts may suffer, and consequently, so does the ability to achieve continuous enhancements of the safety level related to offshore drilling activities. In this article, we propose a method that clarifies a drilling HRA procedure. More precisely, this article presents a novel method for the explicit integration of a generic task analysis framework into the probabilistic basis of a drilling HRA method. The method is developed and demonstrated under specific considerations of multidisciplinary task and well safety analysis, using well accident data, an HRA causal model, and principles of barrier management in offshore regulations to secure an acceptable risk level in the activities from its application.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 39: On Linking of Task Analysis in the HRA Procedure: The Case of HRA in Offshore Drilling Activities

Human reliability analysis (HRA) has become an increasingly important element in many industries for the purpose of risk management and major accident prevention; for example, recently to perform and maintain probabilistic risk assessments of offshore drilling activities, where human reliability plays a vital role. HRA experience studies, however, continue to warn about potential serious quality assurance issues associated with HRA methods, such as too much variability in comparable analysis results between analysts. A literature review highlights that this lack of HRA consistency can be traced in part to the HRA procedure and a lack of explicit application of task analysis relevant to a wide set of activity task requirements. As such, the need for early identification of and consistent focus on important human performance factors among analysts may suffer, and consequently, so does the ability to achieve continuous enhancements of the safety level related to offshore drilling activities. In this article, we propose a method that clarifies a drilling HRA procedure. More precisely, this article presents a novel method for the explicit integration of a generic task analysis framework into the probabilistic basis of a drilling HRA method. The method is developed and demonstrated under specific considerations of multidisciplinary task and well safety analysis, using well accident data, an HRA causal model, and principles of barrier management in offshore regulations to secure an acceptable risk level in the activities from its application.

]]>On Linking of Task Analysis in the HRA Procedure: The Case of HRA in Offshore Drilling ActivitiesGeir-Ove StrandCecilia Haskinsdoi: 10.3390/safety4030039Safety2018-09-11Safety2018-09-1143Article3910.3390/safety4030039http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/39Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 38: Injury Threshold of Oral Contact with Hot Foods and Method for Its Sensory Evaluationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/38
Epidemiological studies indicate an increased risk of esophageal cancer from the consumption of very hot foods and beverages. The contact time and the contact temperature are decisive for the risk of injury. However, measuring the contact temperature is not easy in practice. In the present study, a numerical simulation based on the solution of the heat conduction equation was initially used to investigate whether and for what period of time a constant contact temperature is to be expected under oral conditions. For small food samples (e.g., cooked potatoes) in contact with the tongue, the simulation results in constant contact temperatures of up to 10 s before cooling depending on thickness. Hot beverages, which spread as a thin film and thereby increase their surface area, can therefore be consumed at higher temperatures than solid foods. Furthermore, orientating measurements with a &amp;ldquo;measuring spoon&amp;rdquo; determined the contact temperature of 46.5 &amp;deg;C considered to be just comfortable for any period &amp;gt;10 s and about 48 &amp;deg;C for periods of less than 10 s The course of the contact temperatures determined in the experiment over time allows the corresponding threshold values of consumption temperatures for various hot foods to be calculated. In view of the fact that the contact temperature is obviously the determining factor for the risk of injury from burns in the oral cavity in addition to the contact time, it makes sense to reference threshold values to the contact temperature rather than to the surface or consumption temperature of a food product, which is current customary practice. If this contact temperature is defined as a threshold value, the surface or consumption temperature for any other food can be calculated.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 38: Injury Threshold of Oral Contact with Hot Foods and Method for Its Sensory Evaluation

Epidemiological studies indicate an increased risk of esophageal cancer from the consumption of very hot foods and beverages. The contact time and the contact temperature are decisive for the risk of injury. However, measuring the contact temperature is not easy in practice. In the present study, a numerical simulation based on the solution of the heat conduction equation was initially used to investigate whether and for what period of time a constant contact temperature is to be expected under oral conditions. For small food samples (e.g., cooked potatoes) in contact with the tongue, the simulation results in constant contact temperatures of up to 10 s before cooling depending on thickness. Hot beverages, which spread as a thin film and thereby increase their surface area, can therefore be consumed at higher temperatures than solid foods. Furthermore, orientating measurements with a &amp;ldquo;measuring spoon&amp;rdquo; determined the contact temperature of 46.5 &amp;deg;C considered to be just comfortable for any period &amp;gt;10 s and about 48 &amp;deg;C for periods of less than 10 s The course of the contact temperatures determined in the experiment over time allows the corresponding threshold values of consumption temperatures for various hot foods to be calculated. In view of the fact that the contact temperature is obviously the determining factor for the risk of injury from burns in the oral cavity in addition to the contact time, it makes sense to reference threshold values to the contact temperature rather than to the surface or consumption temperature of a food product, which is current customary practice. If this contact temperature is defined as a threshold value, the surface or consumption temperature for any other food can be calculated.

]]>Injury Threshold of Oral Contact with Hot Foods and Method for Its Sensory EvaluationDirk W. LachenmeierWalter Lachenmeierdoi: 10.3390/safety4030038Safety2018-09-06Safety2018-09-0643Article3810.3390/safety4030038http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/38Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 37: A Preliminary Analysis of Immigrant Cattle Feedyard Worker Perspectives on Job-Related Safety Traininghttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/37
Immigrants comprise a large percentage of the agricultural labor force in the United States. They are a vulnerable worker population and often have fewer occupational and social protections. Latino immigrant cattle feedyard workers (N = 68; 59 men; mean age = 38.7 years) in the central Midwest reported on their perceptions and preferences for job-related safety training and practices. Preliminary findings indicate that approximately 40% of workers reported that they had not received any health or safety training from their current employer, and only about 13% had ever participated in any Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) safety training program. In-person training, videos, or shadowing another worker were the most frequent methods of safety training reported by those who had received training. More than 90% were interested in receiving more information about health and safety related to their job. Workers preferred that safety information be provided through in-person training at the job site, videos (particularly those accessible through media sources such as YouTube), and written materials. Specific topics that workers were interested in obtaining more information about included zoonoses, low-stress cattle handling, injury prevention, hazard and injury reporting, chemical and equipment safety, and teamwork. Furthermore, a majority of participants preferred to receive information in Spanish. Results may help guide the development of future materials and training strategies to better suit the needs of the growing immigrant workforce in production agriculture.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 37: A Preliminary Analysis of Immigrant Cattle Feedyard Worker Perspectives on Job-Related Safety Training

Immigrants comprise a large percentage of the agricultural labor force in the United States. They are a vulnerable worker population and often have fewer occupational and social protections. Latino immigrant cattle feedyard workers (N = 68; 59 men; mean age = 38.7 years) in the central Midwest reported on their perceptions and preferences for job-related safety training and practices. Preliminary findings indicate that approximately 40% of workers reported that they had not received any health or safety training from their current employer, and only about 13% had ever participated in any Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) safety training program. In-person training, videos, or shadowing another worker were the most frequent methods of safety training reported by those who had received training. More than 90% were interested in receiving more information about health and safety related to their job. Workers preferred that safety information be provided through in-person training at the job site, videos (particularly those accessible through media sources such as YouTube), and written materials. Specific topics that workers were interested in obtaining more information about included zoonoses, low-stress cattle handling, injury prevention, hazard and injury reporting, chemical and equipment safety, and teamwork. Furthermore, a majority of participants preferred to receive information in Spanish. Results may help guide the development of future materials and training strategies to better suit the needs of the growing immigrant workforce in production agriculture.

]]>A Preliminary Analysis of Immigrant Cattle Feedyard Worker Perspectives on Job-Related Safety TrainingAthena K. RamosGustavo CarloKathleen M. GrantCasper BendixsenAxel FuentesRodrigo Gamboadoi: 10.3390/safety4030037Safety2018-09-02Safety2018-09-0243Article3710.3390/safety4030037http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/37Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 36: A Decision Framework for Managing the Risk of Terrorist Threats at Rail Stations Interconnected with Airportshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/36
This paper highlights a risk-based decision-making framework on a basis of probabilistic risk assessment (PRA). Its aim is to enable stakeholders of transport infrastructures to systematically and effectively allocate their limited resources and consequently improve resilience when facing the potential risk of a terrorist attack. The potential risk of a terrorist attack affects the inter-operation of transportation infrastructures including airports and rail stations, the regional economy, and imposes additional costs of security or any countermeasures. This novel framework is thus established in order to model the security system, to consider a multitude of threat scenarios, and to assess the decisions and choices taken by the aggressors during various stages of their attack. The framework has capability to identify the state of partial neutralization, which reveals the losses incurred when the terrorist could not reach the primary target. In this study, an underground railway station interconnected to an international airport has been used as a case study to demonstrate the effectiveness of this novel framework. By the rigorous assessment of potential losses during a variety of threat scenarios, four countermeasures that could minimise losses are proposed: screening of passengers by observation techniques (SPOT), a surveillance system, increase of the cargo screening rate, and blast-resistant cargo containers. The cost and efficiency assessment is employed to determine the most suitable countermeasures when the value of the security measures equal their cost. Note that ongoing research is still needed to establish better countermeasures since there is no end to the creativity of terrorists. The new technology, such as wireless sensors, will play an important role in the security system in the future. In particular, this study will help insurance and rail industries to model and manage risk profiles at critical infrastructure.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 36: A Decision Framework for Managing the Risk of Terrorist Threats at Rail Stations Interconnected with Airports

This paper highlights a risk-based decision-making framework on a basis of probabilistic risk assessment (PRA). Its aim is to enable stakeholders of transport infrastructures to systematically and effectively allocate their limited resources and consequently improve resilience when facing the potential risk of a terrorist attack. The potential risk of a terrorist attack affects the inter-operation of transportation infrastructures including airports and rail stations, the regional economy, and imposes additional costs of security or any countermeasures. This novel framework is thus established in order to model the security system, to consider a multitude of threat scenarios, and to assess the decisions and choices taken by the aggressors during various stages of their attack. The framework has capability to identify the state of partial neutralization, which reveals the losses incurred when the terrorist could not reach the primary target. In this study, an underground railway station interconnected to an international airport has been used as a case study to demonstrate the effectiveness of this novel framework. By the rigorous assessment of potential losses during a variety of threat scenarios, four countermeasures that could minimise losses are proposed: screening of passengers by observation techniques (SPOT), a surveillance system, increase of the cargo screening rate, and blast-resistant cargo containers. The cost and efficiency assessment is employed to determine the most suitable countermeasures when the value of the security measures equal their cost. Note that ongoing research is still needed to establish better countermeasures since there is no end to the creativity of terrorists. The new technology, such as wireless sensors, will play an important role in the security system in the future. In particular, this study will help insurance and rail industries to model and manage risk profiles at critical infrastructure.

]]>A Decision Framework for Managing the Risk of Terrorist Threats at Rail Stations Interconnected with AirportsSakdirat KaewunruenHamad AlawadSilviu Cotrutadoi: 10.3390/safety4030036Safety2018-09-01Safety2018-09-0143Article3610.3390/safety4030036http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/36Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 35: Using Community Detection Analysis to Elucidate Caregivers’ Mental Models of Pediatric Concussion Symptomshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/35
Due to a culture of resistance around concussion reporting, novel methods are needed to reveal implicit beliefs that could affect symptom reporting. The goal of this study was to elucidate caregivers&amp;rsquo; mental models of pediatric concussion symptoms using an exploratory community detection analysis (CDA). Caregivers (n = 76) of adolescents 10&amp;ndash;15 years old participated in a survey that assessed their intentions of seeking medical treatment for 12 injury symptoms following their child&amp;rsquo;s involvement in three hypothetical injury scenarios. We used a series of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to compare injury symptoms across these scenarios and CDA to determine if caregivers implicitly group symptoms together. We then used logistic regressions to further explore associations between the CDA-identified symptom indices and known factors of injury risk. There were no differences in the likelihood to seek treatment for symptoms across injury scenarios; however, the CDA revealed distinct symptom clusters that were characterized by the degree of risk for non-treatment and symptom type. We observed associations between injury risk factors and intentions of seeking medical treatment for the higher-risk indices. Results indicate that caregivers&amp;rsquo; mental models of concussion symptoms are nuanced, not monolithic. Therefore, it is inaccurate to measure intentions to seek treatment for concussion without taking these nuances into consideration.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 35: Using Community Detection Analysis to Elucidate Caregivers’ Mental Models of Pediatric Concussion Symptoms

Due to a culture of resistance around concussion reporting, novel methods are needed to reveal implicit beliefs that could affect symptom reporting. The goal of this study was to elucidate caregivers&amp;rsquo; mental models of pediatric concussion symptoms using an exploratory community detection analysis (CDA). Caregivers (n = 76) of adolescents 10&amp;ndash;15 years old participated in a survey that assessed their intentions of seeking medical treatment for 12 injury symptoms following their child&amp;rsquo;s involvement in three hypothetical injury scenarios. We used a series of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to compare injury symptoms across these scenarios and CDA to determine if caregivers implicitly group symptoms together. We then used logistic regressions to further explore associations between the CDA-identified symptom indices and known factors of injury risk. There were no differences in the likelihood to seek treatment for symptoms across injury scenarios; however, the CDA revealed distinct symptom clusters that were characterized by the degree of risk for non-treatment and symptom type. We observed associations between injury risk factors and intentions of seeking medical treatment for the higher-risk indices. Results indicate that caregivers&amp;rsquo; mental models of concussion symptoms are nuanced, not monolithic. Therefore, it is inaccurate to measure intentions to seek treatment for concussion without taking these nuances into consideration.

]]>Using Community Detection Analysis to Elucidate Caregivers’ Mental Models of Pediatric Concussion SymptomsEmma GoodmanLogan BoeMelissa ThyeJessica Mirmandoi: 10.3390/safety4030035Safety2018-08-21Safety2018-08-2143Article3510.3390/safety4030035http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/35Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 34: Procedure Negligence in Coastal Cargo: What Can Be Done to Reduce the Gap between Formal and Informal Aspects of Safety?http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/34
Previous studies from the coastal cargo sector report of a considerable gap between formal and informal aspects of safety. Several maritime accident investigations point to this gap as an important contributory cause, indicating that risk increases when informal practices ignore or violate formal procedures. The main aims of this paper are therefore to examine the factors influencing procedure negligence in the coastal cargo sector, and to discuss how to reduce the gap between formal and informal aspects of safety. The study is based on quantitative survey results of 180 crewmembers and qualitative research interviews with 10 leading officers on cargo vessels sailing along the coast of Norway. Survey results indicate that procedure negligence is related to work pressure and demanding working conditions. It is also related to outcome measures like personal injuries and perceptions of risk and safety. A positive organizational safety culture is experienced by respondents reporting of less procedure negligence. Interview results indicate, for example, that formal procedures are ignored or violated because of issues like efficiency demands and low-quality procedures, and that procedures more often are followed when they are perceived as useful and timely. In this article, it is thus suggested that a positive safety culture includes an alignment of formal and informal aspects of safety, which requires time to comply with practical procedures. Interviewees suggest that appropriate procedures are: (1) developed by the users, (2) continuously improved, (3) simplified, and (4) supervised by local expertise instead of general experts.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 34: Procedure Negligence in Coastal Cargo: What Can Be Done to Reduce the Gap between Formal and Informal Aspects of Safety?

Previous studies from the coastal cargo sector report of a considerable gap between formal and informal aspects of safety. Several maritime accident investigations point to this gap as an important contributory cause, indicating that risk increases when informal practices ignore or violate formal procedures. The main aims of this paper are therefore to examine the factors influencing procedure negligence in the coastal cargo sector, and to discuss how to reduce the gap between formal and informal aspects of safety. The study is based on quantitative survey results of 180 crewmembers and qualitative research interviews with 10 leading officers on cargo vessels sailing along the coast of Norway. Survey results indicate that procedure negligence is related to work pressure and demanding working conditions. It is also related to outcome measures like personal injuries and perceptions of risk and safety. A positive organizational safety culture is experienced by respondents reporting of less procedure negligence. Interview results indicate, for example, that formal procedures are ignored or violated because of issues like efficiency demands and low-quality procedures, and that procedures more often are followed when they are perceived as useful and timely. In this article, it is thus suggested that a positive safety culture includes an alignment of formal and informal aspects of safety, which requires time to comply with practical procedures. Interviewees suggest that appropriate procedures are: (1) developed by the users, (2) continuously improved, (3) simplified, and (4) supervised by local expertise instead of general experts.

]]>Procedure Negligence in Coastal Cargo: What Can Be Done to Reduce the Gap between Formal and Informal Aspects of Safety?Tor-Olav NævestadKristine Vedal StørkersenRoss O. Phillipsdoi: 10.3390/safety4030034Safety2018-08-14Safety2018-08-1443Article3410.3390/safety4030034http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/34Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 33: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters: Part 3. Potential Occupational Risk Reduction Measureshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/33
1. Background: Fishers face many occupational hazards that include a high risk of fatal and nonfatal injuries and a variety of adverse health effects. Our purpose is to provide an overview of potential countermeasures for the control of hazards that threaten the health and safety of Gulf of Mexico (GoM) fish harvesters. 2. Method: Search terms were used to identify relevant literature; two previous reviews regarding injuries and health risk factors also inform this review. 3. Results: Countermeasures against these hazards include winch guards, lifting devices, job redesign, non-slip decks and vessel stability controls as well as using personal flotation devices, wearing gloves and high-friction footwear, increasing sleep time and using vessel motion to assist lifting. Knowledge about secondary prevention (such as rescue, first aid and making mayday calls) is also important. Learning through experience is a crucial factor that incorporates other fishers&amp;rsquo; experiences with innovations. Fatigue and lack of sleep contribute to vessel disasters and injury-related errors. 4. Conclusions: The prevention of injuries and diseases among GoM fishers depends on a combination of focusing on work-processes, instilling a broader safety culture, engineering controls, identifying and sharing fisher innovations, promoting fall overboard prevention and protection and providing culture-based incentives, training and narrative outreach.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 33: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters: Part 3. Potential Occupational Risk Reduction Measures

1. Background: Fishers face many occupational hazards that include a high risk of fatal and nonfatal injuries and a variety of adverse health effects. Our purpose is to provide an overview of potential countermeasures for the control of hazards that threaten the health and safety of Gulf of Mexico (GoM) fish harvesters. 2. Method: Search terms were used to identify relevant literature; two previous reviews regarding injuries and health risk factors also inform this review. 3. Results: Countermeasures against these hazards include winch guards, lifting devices, job redesign, non-slip decks and vessel stability controls as well as using personal flotation devices, wearing gloves and high-friction footwear, increasing sleep time and using vessel motion to assist lifting. Knowledge about secondary prevention (such as rescue, first aid and making mayday calls) is also important. Learning through experience is a crucial factor that incorporates other fishers&amp;rsquo; experiences with innovations. Fatigue and lack of sleep contribute to vessel disasters and injury-related errors. 4. Conclusions: The prevention of injuries and diseases among GoM fishers depends on a combination of focusing on work-processes, instilling a broader safety culture, engineering controls, identifying and sharing fisher innovations, promoting fall overboard prevention and protection and providing culture-based incentives, training and narrative outreach.

]]>Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters: Part 3. Potential Occupational Risk Reduction MeasuresMelvin L. MyersRobert M. DurborowAndrew S. Kanedoi: 10.3390/safety4030033Safety2018-08-02Safety2018-08-0243Review3310.3390/safety4030033http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/33Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 32: A Contribution to Empirical Revitalization of the Samfunnssikkerhet Concepthttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/32
Current research of the Norwegian samfunnssikkerhet concept appears to be lacking, with few scientific publications advancing the understanding of the concept. This weakness is addressed through the paper&amp;rsquo;s empirical exploration of challenges in the work on samfunnssikkerhet (Paper aim #1), where the resulting insight informs an epistemological understanding of the concept of samfunnssikkerhet (Paper aim #2). The paper identifies four challenges in the work on samfunnssikkerhet, which suggest that samfunnssikkerhet is about mobilizing against both known and unknown threats through broad and border-crossing cooperation and about flexible methods and design approaches. It is concluded that the paper&amp;rsquo;s empirical exploration of the samfunnssikkerhet concept contributes to a clarification and overall empirical revitalization of the concept. A recommendation to safety and security researchers is to further develop the empirical understanding of the samfunnssikkerhet concept, including through validation of the challenges identified in this paper and continuous mapping of additional and future challenges. This can give the samfunnssikkerhet concept, including its relation to concepts such as resilience, risk and societal security, a clearer meaning and consequently a stronger unifying role in efforts to prevent and manage today&amp;rsquo;s dynamic threats both within and outside Norway.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 32: A Contribution to Empirical Revitalization of the Samfunnssikkerhet Concept

Current research of the Norwegian samfunnssikkerhet concept appears to be lacking, with few scientific publications advancing the understanding of the concept. This weakness is addressed through the paper&amp;rsquo;s empirical exploration of challenges in the work on samfunnssikkerhet (Paper aim #1), where the resulting insight informs an epistemological understanding of the concept of samfunnssikkerhet (Paper aim #2). The paper identifies four challenges in the work on samfunnssikkerhet, which suggest that samfunnssikkerhet is about mobilizing against both known and unknown threats through broad and border-crossing cooperation and about flexible methods and design approaches. It is concluded that the paper&amp;rsquo;s empirical exploration of the samfunnssikkerhet concept contributes to a clarification and overall empirical revitalization of the concept. A recommendation to safety and security researchers is to further develop the empirical understanding of the samfunnssikkerhet concept, including through validation of the challenges identified in this paper and continuous mapping of additional and future challenges. This can give the samfunnssikkerhet concept, including its relation to concepts such as resilience, risk and societal security, a clearer meaning and consequently a stronger unifying role in efforts to prevent and manage today&amp;rsquo;s dynamic threats both within and outside Norway.

]]>A Contribution to Empirical Revitalization of the Samfunnssikkerhet ConceptSindre Aske Høylanddoi: 10.3390/safety4030032Safety2018-08-01Safety2018-08-0143Article3210.3390/safety4030032http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/32Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 31: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters: Part 1. Occupational Injury and Fatigue Risk Factorshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/31
During 2000&amp;ndash;2009, 116 Gulf of Mexico (GoM) fishers were killed (23% of the US total) while working in the shrimp, finfish, oyster, clam, and crab fisheries. The purpose of this literature review is to identify injury-related risk factors to better assess the frequency and severity of injuries experienced by fish harvesters in the GoM. Methods: The method of this study is a comprehensive narrative literature review of findings useful for the prevention of fatal and non-fatal injuries among GoM fish harvesters published since 2005. Search engine terms were used to identify relevant literature that included fatalities, injuries, fatigue, and several other terms in combination (e.g., string search with &amp;ldquo;fishing&amp;rdquo;). Results: We reviewed 48 articles; the most common cause of fish harvester deaths in the GoM is falls overboard with scant use of personal flotation devices and vessel disasters in which flooding and collision were the most lethal. The root cause of errors resulting in many disasters may have been operator fatigue, but fatigue is also an adverse health effect resulting from working conditions. Non-fatal injuries arise from multiple sources that include working with gears, slips and trips, struck-by or against objects, machine or line entanglements, and falls. Conclusion: Principal risk factors are a lack of sleep aboard fishing vessels, vessel flooding and collisions, poor weather, slips on deck, contact with gear, not wearing personal flotation devices, poor swimming ability, and fishing alone on a vessel or the deck.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 31: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters: Part 1. Occupational Injury and Fatigue Risk Factors

During 2000&amp;ndash;2009, 116 Gulf of Mexico (GoM) fishers were killed (23% of the US total) while working in the shrimp, finfish, oyster, clam, and crab fisheries. The purpose of this literature review is to identify injury-related risk factors to better assess the frequency and severity of injuries experienced by fish harvesters in the GoM. Methods: The method of this study is a comprehensive narrative literature review of findings useful for the prevention of fatal and non-fatal injuries among GoM fish harvesters published since 2005. Search engine terms were used to identify relevant literature that included fatalities, injuries, fatigue, and several other terms in combination (e.g., string search with &amp;ldquo;fishing&amp;rdquo;). Results: We reviewed 48 articles; the most common cause of fish harvester deaths in the GoM is falls overboard with scant use of personal flotation devices and vessel disasters in which flooding and collision were the most lethal. The root cause of errors resulting in many disasters may have been operator fatigue, but fatigue is also an adverse health effect resulting from working conditions. Non-fatal injuries arise from multiple sources that include working with gears, slips and trips, struck-by or against objects, machine or line entanglements, and falls. Conclusion: Principal risk factors are a lack of sleep aboard fishing vessels, vessel flooding and collisions, poor weather, slips on deck, contact with gear, not wearing personal flotation devices, poor swimming ability, and fishing alone on a vessel or the deck.

Three methods are demonstrated for automated classification of aviation safety narratives within an existing complex taxonomy. Utilizing latent semantic analysis trained against 4497 narratives at the sentence level, primary problem and contributing factor labels were assessed. Results from a sample of 2987 narratives provided a mean unsupervised categorization precision of 0.35% and recall of 0.78% for contributing-factors within the taxonomy. Categorization of the primary problem at the sentence level resulted in a modal accuracy of 0.46%. Overall, the results suggested that the demonstrated approaches were viable in bringing additional tools and insights to safety researchers.

]]>Multi-Label Classification of Contributing Causal Factors in Self-Reported Safety NarrativesSaul D. Robinsondoi: 10.3390/safety4030030Safety2018-07-20Safety2018-07-2043Article3010.3390/safety4030030http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/30Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 29: Gendered Analysis of Fatal Crashes among Young Drivers in Alabama, USAhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/29
As part of broader research efforts to understand the factors contributing to crashes involving younger drivers, it is important to characterize the crash contributing factors of the at-fault younger drivers. This study applied latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups with statistically distinct patterns in the contributing factors of fatal crashes involving young male and female drivers in Alabama. Model estimation results reveal that crashes on rural roads are a serious issue in Alabama. It was also observed that a high proportion of the young driver fatal crashes occurred on weekends and closer to the driver&amp;rsquo;s place of residence. Interestingly, the proportion of crashes involving speeding increased with age for males and decreased with age for females. In general, younger female drivers (15&amp;ndash;18 years) were more likely to be involved in speed and aggressive driving related fatal crashes than their male counterparts. Also, fatal crashes involving driving under influence (DUI) increase with age for both male and female drivers, with a significant increase for drivers between 19 and 21 years of age. These study findings suggest that specific attention should be focused towards younger drivers in rural communities and communities with lower socioeconomic opportunities. Targeted education and outreach campaigns, combined with appropriate enforcement efforts could meaningfully change the attitudes and behaviors related to road safety.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 29: Gendered Analysis of Fatal Crashes among Young Drivers in Alabama, USA

As part of broader research efforts to understand the factors contributing to crashes involving younger drivers, it is important to characterize the crash contributing factors of the at-fault younger drivers. This study applied latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups with statistically distinct patterns in the contributing factors of fatal crashes involving young male and female drivers in Alabama. Model estimation results reveal that crashes on rural roads are a serious issue in Alabama. It was also observed that a high proportion of the young driver fatal crashes occurred on weekends and closer to the driver&amp;rsquo;s place of residence. Interestingly, the proportion of crashes involving speeding increased with age for males and decreased with age for females. In general, younger female drivers (15&amp;ndash;18 years) were more likely to be involved in speed and aggressive driving related fatal crashes than their male counterparts. Also, fatal crashes involving driving under influence (DUI) increase with age for both male and female drivers, with a significant increase for drivers between 19 and 21 years of age. These study findings suggest that specific attention should be focused towards younger drivers in rural communities and communities with lower socioeconomic opportunities. Targeted education and outreach campaigns, combined with appropriate enforcement efforts could meaningfully change the attitudes and behaviors related to road safety.

]]>Gendered Analysis of Fatal Crashes among Young Drivers in Alabama, USAEmmanuel Kofi AdanuPraveena PenmetsaSteven JonesRandy Smithdoi: 10.3390/safety4030029Safety2018-07-09Safety2018-07-0943Article2910.3390/safety4030029http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/29Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 28: Examining Ironic Processes in Tourist Drivers: Driving on the Unfamiliar Side of the Roadhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/28
Driving on the unfamiliar side of the road contributes to tourist road accidents and may deter self-driving tourists from travelling to certain countries. Experienced drivers usually drive on &amp;ldquo;autopilot&amp;rdquo; but under unfamiliar circumstances, drivers might generate instructions to avoid certain behaviour. Previous research has revealed that avoidant instructions can sometimes cause behaviour in the unintended direction (i.e., &amp;ldquo;ironic&amp;rdquo; behaviour). This study examined the effect of avoidant instructions (i.e., do not drift towards the centreline) while driving on the unfamiliar side of the road under high cognitive load. Participants (8 males, 9 females) drove on simulated roads under neutral and avoidant instructions, with or without a secondary task, in control and roadworks scenarios. Avoidant instructions did not lead to ironic behaviour (doing what one has been instructed not to do) but were associated with overcompensatory behaviour&amp;mdash;driving further from the centreline compared to neutral instructions. Overcompensatory effects were not present when driving with a secondary task or in a roadworks scenario. The findings suggest that avoidant instructions do not lead to dangerous ironic behaviours. Further work needs to be undertaken on driving instructions given to tourists in other contexts like physiological fatigue.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 28: Examining Ironic Processes in Tourist Drivers: Driving on the Unfamiliar Side of the Road

Driving on the unfamiliar side of the road contributes to tourist road accidents and may deter self-driving tourists from travelling to certain countries. Experienced drivers usually drive on &amp;ldquo;autopilot&amp;rdquo; but under unfamiliar circumstances, drivers might generate instructions to avoid certain behaviour. Previous research has revealed that avoidant instructions can sometimes cause behaviour in the unintended direction (i.e., &amp;ldquo;ironic&amp;rdquo; behaviour). This study examined the effect of avoidant instructions (i.e., do not drift towards the centreline) while driving on the unfamiliar side of the road under high cognitive load. Participants (8 males, 9 females) drove on simulated roads under neutral and avoidant instructions, with or without a secondary task, in control and roadworks scenarios. Avoidant instructions did not lead to ironic behaviour (doing what one has been instructed not to do) but were associated with overcompensatory behaviour&amp;mdash;driving further from the centreline compared to neutral instructions. Overcompensatory effects were not present when driving with a secondary task or in a roadworks scenario. The findings suggest that avoidant instructions do not lead to dangerous ironic behaviours. Further work needs to be undertaken on driving instructions given to tourists in other contexts like physiological fatigue.

]]>Examining Ironic Processes in Tourist Drivers: Driving on the Unfamiliar Side of the RoadNeha MalhotraSamuel CharltonNicola StarkeyRich Mastersdoi: 10.3390/safety4030028Safety2018-07-03Safety2018-07-0343Article2810.3390/safety4030028http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/28Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 27: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters, Part 2: Occupational Health-Related Risk Factorshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/27
The purpose of this literature review, the second in a series following one on traumatic injuries and fatigue, is to identify potential health hazards to inform a study of occupational health and safety among fish harvesters in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Fish harvesters are potentially at a high risk of occupational illnesses in GoM fisheries. GoM fishers engage in harvesting shrimp, finfish, oysters, crabs, and clams. Method: The method is a narrative literature review. Search terms that included safety, seafood, occupational, fishing, oyster, clam, shrimp, crab, and GoM were used to identify relevant literature in combination (i.e., a string search). Results: A total of 53 manuscripts were reviewed, of which only two regarded the GoM, but 19 were from the US Atlantic Coast. Musculoskeletal disorders are widespread across the fishing sector. Other hazards include bites and stings from aquatic animals (some of which may be life-threatening), vessel engine noise, dermatoses, and other skin afflictions (including possible strep infection of wounds), solar ray-induced eye diseases, and respiratory exposures (such as to protein aerosols) that can cause asthma. Diving poses multiple breathing and other hazards. Conclusion: While fish harvesters are protected from respiratory problems when working on the well-ventilated deck and dermal hazards by wearing gloves, musculoskeletal, bite and sting, ocular, engine-related hearing loss, and skin, lip, and eye cancer hazards are potentially serious risks among GoM fish harvesters.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 27: Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters, Part 2: Occupational Health-Related Risk Factors

The purpose of this literature review, the second in a series following one on traumatic injuries and fatigue, is to identify potential health hazards to inform a study of occupational health and safety among fish harvesters in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). Fish harvesters are potentially at a high risk of occupational illnesses in GoM fisheries. GoM fishers engage in harvesting shrimp, finfish, oysters, crabs, and clams. Method: The method is a narrative literature review. Search terms that included safety, seafood, occupational, fishing, oyster, clam, shrimp, crab, and GoM were used to identify relevant literature in combination (i.e., a string search). Results: A total of 53 manuscripts were reviewed, of which only two regarded the GoM, but 19 were from the US Atlantic Coast. Musculoskeletal disorders are widespread across the fishing sector. Other hazards include bites and stings from aquatic animals (some of which may be life-threatening), vessel engine noise, dermatoses, and other skin afflictions (including possible strep infection of wounds), solar ray-induced eye diseases, and respiratory exposures (such as to protein aerosols) that can cause asthma. Diving poses multiple breathing and other hazards. Conclusion: While fish harvesters are protected from respiratory problems when working on the well-ventilated deck and dermal hazards by wearing gloves, musculoskeletal, bite and sting, ocular, engine-related hearing loss, and skin, lip, and eye cancer hazards are potentially serious risks among GoM fish harvesters.

]]>Gulf of Mexico Seafood Harvesters, Part 2: Occupational Health-Related Risk FactorsMelvin L. MyersRobert M. DurborowAndrew S. Kanedoi: 10.3390/safety4030027Safety2018-06-25Safety2018-06-2543Review2710.3390/safety4030027http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/3/27Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 26: Lessons Learned from Implementing a Programme of Home Modifications to Prevent Falls amongst the General Populationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/26
Home fall injuries amongst the general population are common and costly. In the Home Injury Prevention Intervention (HIPI) trial, we showed that 26% of medically treated home fall injuries could be prevented by a package of home modifications undertaken by qualified builders. This paper describes how we addressed unexpected safety issues associated with the implementation of the programme. Following the intervention, we ensured that participants could contact the builders. We monitored any problems or issues over a two-year period. We also held public meetings to explain the results of the study and record participants&amp;rsquo; comments about the trial. Generally, people were satisfied with the modifications. However, there were clear safety issues with particular modifications and we revisited homes to address these. These findings highlight the need to allocate some resources for monitoring and remediation work to follow up interventions, and also a need for some regulation of the quality of safety products.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 26: Lessons Learned from Implementing a Programme of Home Modifications to Prevent Falls amongst the General Population

Home fall injuries amongst the general population are common and costly. In the Home Injury Prevention Intervention (HIPI) trial, we showed that 26% of medically treated home fall injuries could be prevented by a package of home modifications undertaken by qualified builders. This paper describes how we addressed unexpected safety issues associated with the implementation of the programme. Following the intervention, we ensured that participants could contact the builders. We monitored any problems or issues over a two-year period. We also held public meetings to explain the results of the study and record participants&amp;rsquo; comments about the trial. Generally, people were satisfied with the modifications. However, there were clear safety issues with particular modifications and we revisited homes to address these. These findings highlight the need to allocate some resources for monitoring and remediation work to follow up interventions, and also a need for some regulation of the quality of safety products.

]]>Lessons Learned from Implementing a Programme of Home Modifications to Prevent Falls amongst the General PopulationMichael D. KeallPhilippa Howden-ChapmanNevil PierseChris W. CunninghamMichael G. Bakerdoi: 10.3390/safety4020026Safety2018-06-20Safety2018-06-2042Article2610.3390/safety4020026http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/26Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 25: A National Pragmatic Safety Limit for Nuclear Weapon Quantitieshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/25
This study determines the nuclear pragmatic limit where the direct physical negative consequences of nuclear weapons use are counter to national interests, by assuming all unknowns are conservatively optimistic. The only effect considered is nuclear winter (&amp;ldquo;nuclear autumn&amp;rdquo; in the low weapons limits) and the resultant effects on the aggressor nation. First, the ability of low nuclear weapon limits is probed for maintaining deterrence in the worst-case scenario of attacking the most-populous nation. Second, the ability of aggressor nations to feed themselves is assessed without trade and industry resultant from a nuclear attack causing &amp;ldquo;nuclear autumn&amp;rdquo; (10% global agricultural shortfall). Third, the best-case wealthy aggressor nation with abundant arable land is analyzed for starvation and economic impacts given 7000, 1000, and 100 nuclear weapons scenarios. The results found that 100 nuclear warheads is adequate for nuclear deterrence in the worst case scenario, while using more than 100 nuclear weapons by any aggressor nation (including the best positioned strategically to handle the unintended consequences) even with optimistic assumptions (including no retaliation) would cause unacceptable damage to their own society. Thus, 100 nuclear warheads is the pragmatic limit and use of government funds to maintain more than 100 nuclear weapons does not appear to be rational.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 25: A National Pragmatic Safety Limit for Nuclear Weapon Quantities

This study determines the nuclear pragmatic limit where the direct physical negative consequences of nuclear weapons use are counter to national interests, by assuming all unknowns are conservatively optimistic. The only effect considered is nuclear winter (&amp;ldquo;nuclear autumn&amp;rdquo; in the low weapons limits) and the resultant effects on the aggressor nation. First, the ability of low nuclear weapon limits is probed for maintaining deterrence in the worst-case scenario of attacking the most-populous nation. Second, the ability of aggressor nations to feed themselves is assessed without trade and industry resultant from a nuclear attack causing &amp;ldquo;nuclear autumn&amp;rdquo; (10% global agricultural shortfall). Third, the best-case wealthy aggressor nation with abundant arable land is analyzed for starvation and economic impacts given 7000, 1000, and 100 nuclear weapons scenarios. The results found that 100 nuclear warheads is adequate for nuclear deterrence in the worst case scenario, while using more than 100 nuclear weapons by any aggressor nation (including the best positioned strategically to handle the unintended consequences) even with optimistic assumptions (including no retaliation) would cause unacceptable damage to their own society. Thus, 100 nuclear warheads is the pragmatic limit and use of government funds to maintain more than 100 nuclear weapons does not appear to be rational.

]]>A National Pragmatic Safety Limit for Nuclear Weapon QuantitiesJoshua M. PearceDavid C. Denkenbergerdoi: 10.3390/safety4020025Safety2018-06-14Safety2018-06-1442Article2510.3390/safety4020025http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/25Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 24: Why Do Workers Take Safety Risks?—A Conceptual Model for the Motivation Underpinning Perverse Agencyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/24
Exposure to chronic harm is difficult to manage and prevent in industry. There is a need to better understand the state of mind when workers disregard safety processes and expose themselves to this type of risk. This paper develops a theoretical model of the reason why workers voluntarily expose themselves to occupational health and safety (OHS) hazards. This Risk, Agency, and Safety &amp;amp; Health (RASH) model proposes that people willingly expose themselves to chronic injuries via a series of risk-taking processes. This causal chain starts with personal motivation and over-alignment with organisational purpose (including impression management). Ideally, that motivation would be moderated by an ability to predict future harm consequences from the task at hand, but that mechanism is weak because it is difficult to predict cause and effect, the consequences are too far in the future, and the opportunities for vicarious learning are few. The motivation then causes misdirected creativity, hence the development of personally novel ways of solving the problem, albeit with greater risk of harm. Perverse agency then sustains actions that exposure the person to harm. Original contributions are the provision of a detailed explanation for risk-taking, and the integration of multiple well-established psychological constructs.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 24: Why Do Workers Take Safety Risks?—A Conceptual Model for the Motivation Underpinning Perverse Agency

Exposure to chronic harm is difficult to manage and prevent in industry. There is a need to better understand the state of mind when workers disregard safety processes and expose themselves to this type of risk. This paper develops a theoretical model of the reason why workers voluntarily expose themselves to occupational health and safety (OHS) hazards. This Risk, Agency, and Safety &amp;amp; Health (RASH) model proposes that people willingly expose themselves to chronic injuries via a series of risk-taking processes. This causal chain starts with personal motivation and over-alignment with organisational purpose (including impression management). Ideally, that motivation would be moderated by an ability to predict future harm consequences from the task at hand, but that mechanism is weak because it is difficult to predict cause and effect, the consequences are too far in the future, and the opportunities for vicarious learning are few. The motivation then causes misdirected creativity, hence the development of personally novel ways of solving the problem, albeit with greater risk of harm. Perverse agency then sustains actions that exposure the person to harm. Original contributions are the provision of a detailed explanation for risk-taking, and the integration of multiple well-established psychological constructs.

]]>Why Do Workers Take Safety Risks?—A Conceptual Model for the Motivation Underpinning Perverse AgencyZuzhen JiDirk PonsJohn Pearsedoi: 10.3390/safety4020024Safety2018-06-11Safety2018-06-1142Article2410.3390/safety4020024http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/24Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 23: Ultralight Accidents in the US, UK, and Portugalhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/23
Ultralight accidents are reported to be more severe compared to those in other categories of sports aviation. In the absence of denominator data in the United States (US) but addressing a continuing concern in general aviation safety, this study gives a comparison between ultralight accidents in the US, the United Kingdom (UK) and Portugal. For the period 2000–2010, 35 accidents occurred in Portugal, 252 in the UK and 20 in the US. They were compared for their proportionate number of fatal accidents, their main causes, and the characteristics of the pilots. The UK showed a significantly smaller proportionate number of fatal accidents compared to that of the US and Portugal. The proportionate number of destroyed aircraft was significantly higher in Portugal than in the US, with the UK showing an even smaller percentage. The general profile of the pilots did not differ notably, but the types of causes were more often attributed to pilot error or piloting technique in Portugal compared to the other two countries. While the proportionate number of fatalities is a strong indicator of the differences between the three countries, the varying reporting traditions and regulations preclude a direct comparison. Nevertheless, based on these data, the concern for ultralight safety in the US has not diminished since previous studies. Although the concerns are similar to those raised for Portugal, US ultralight safety may benefit from practices in the UK.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 23: Ultralight Accidents in the US, UK, and Portugal

Ultralight accidents are reported to be more severe compared to those in other categories of sports aviation. In the absence of denominator data in the United States (US) but addressing a continuing concern in general aviation safety, this study gives a comparison between ultralight accidents in the US, the United Kingdom (UK) and Portugal. For the period 2000–2010, 35 accidents occurred in Portugal, 252 in the UK and 20 in the US. They were compared for their proportionate number of fatal accidents, their main causes, and the characteristics of the pilots. The UK showed a significantly smaller proportionate number of fatal accidents compared to that of the US and Portugal. The proportionate number of destroyed aircraft was significantly higher in Portugal than in the US, with the UK showing an even smaller percentage. The general profile of the pilots did not differ notably, but the types of causes were more often attributed to pilot error or piloting technique in Portugal compared to the other two countries. While the proportionate number of fatalities is a strong indicator of the differences between the three countries, the varying reporting traditions and regulations preclude a direct comparison. Nevertheless, based on these data, the concern for ultralight safety in the US has not diminished since previous studies. Although the concerns are similar to those raised for Portugal, US ultralight safety may benefit from practices in the UK.

]]>Ultralight Accidents in the US, UK, and PortugalAlex De VoogtFilipe ChavesErik HardenMiguel SilvestrePedro Gamboadoi: 10.3390/safety4020023Safety2018-06-03Safety2018-06-0342Article2310.3390/safety4020023http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/23Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 22: Developing a Highway Rail Grade Crossing Accident Probability Prediction Model: A North Dakota Case Studyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/22
Safety at highway rail grade crossings (HRCs) continues to be a serious concern despite improved safety practices. Accident frequencies remain high despite increasing emphasis on HRCs safety. Consequently, there is a need to re-examine both the design practices and the safety evaluation methods at HRCs. Previous studies developed accident prediction models by incorporating highway, crossing inventory, rail, and vehicle traffic characteristics, but none of these factors considered population in the vicinity of HRCs. This study developed a binary logit regression model to predict accident likelihood at HRCs by incorporating various contributory factors in addition to population (based on census blocks 2010) within five miles of crossings. Previous North Dakota accident data from 2000 to 2016 was analyzed and used in the model development. The model results show that the number of daily trains, the maximum typical train speed, the number of through railroad tracks, and the number of highway/traffic lanes all affect accident likelihood. The presence of pavement markings in the form of stop lines helps reduce accident probability, while populations within five miles of HRCs have a positive relationship with crash likelihood. This study will help transportation agencies improve HRC safety.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 22: Developing a Highway Rail Grade Crossing Accident Probability Prediction Model: A North Dakota Case Study

Safety at highway rail grade crossings (HRCs) continues to be a serious concern despite improved safety practices. Accident frequencies remain high despite increasing emphasis on HRCs safety. Consequently, there is a need to re-examine both the design practices and the safety evaluation methods at HRCs. Previous studies developed accident prediction models by incorporating highway, crossing inventory, rail, and vehicle traffic characteristics, but none of these factors considered population in the vicinity of HRCs. This study developed a binary logit regression model to predict accident likelihood at HRCs by incorporating various contributory factors in addition to population (based on census blocks 2010) within five miles of crossings. Previous North Dakota accident data from 2000 to 2016 was analyzed and used in the model development. The model results show that the number of daily trains, the maximum typical train speed, the number of through railroad tracks, and the number of highway/traffic lanes all affect accident likelihood. The presence of pavement markings in the form of stop lines helps reduce accident probability, while populations within five miles of HRCs have a positive relationship with crash likelihood. This study will help transportation agencies improve HRC safety.

]]>Developing a Highway Rail Grade Crossing Accident Probability Prediction Model: A North Dakota Case StudyIhsan Ullah KhanEunSu LeeMuhammad Asif Khandoi: 10.3390/safety4020022Safety2018-05-18Safety2018-05-1842Article2210.3390/safety4020022http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/22Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 21: Designing and Developing an Effective Safety Program for a Student Project Teamhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/21
In the workplace, safety must be the first priority of all employers and employees alike. In order to maintain the safety and well-being of their employees, employers must demonstrate due diligence and provide the appropriate safety training to familiarize employees with the hazards within the workplace. Although, a student &amp;ldquo;project team&amp;rdquo; is not a business, the work done by students for their respective teams is synonymous with the work done in a place of business and thus requires that similar safety precautions and training be administered to students by their team leads and faculty advisors. They take on the role of supervisors within the team dynamic. Student teams often utilize the guidelines and policies that their universities or colleges have developed in order to build a set of standard operating procedures and safety training modules. These guidelines aid in providing a base for training for the team, however, they are no substitute for training specific to the safety risks associated with the work the team is doing. In order to comply with these requirements, a full analysis of the workplace is required to be completed. A variety of safety analysis techniques need to be applied to define the hazards within the workplace and institute appropriate measures to mitigate them. In this work, a process is developed for establishing a safety training program for a student project team, utilizing systems safety management techniques and the aspect of gamification to produce incentives for students to continue developing their skills. Although, systems safety management is typically applied to the design of active safety components or systems, the techniques for identifying and mitigating hazards can be applied in the same fashion to the workplace. They allow one to analyze their workplace and determine the hazards their employees might encounter, assign appropriate hazard ratings and segregate each respective hazard by their risks. In so doing, safety level assignment can be completed to ensure team members are trained to be able to work on the systems associated with a given risk level.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 21: Designing and Developing an Effective Safety Program for a Student Project Team

In the workplace, safety must be the first priority of all employers and employees alike. In order to maintain the safety and well-being of their employees, employers must demonstrate due diligence and provide the appropriate safety training to familiarize employees with the hazards within the workplace. Although, a student &amp;ldquo;project team&amp;rdquo; is not a business, the work done by students for their respective teams is synonymous with the work done in a place of business and thus requires that similar safety precautions and training be administered to students by their team leads and faculty advisors. They take on the role of supervisors within the team dynamic. Student teams often utilize the guidelines and policies that their universities or colleges have developed in order to build a set of standard operating procedures and safety training modules. These guidelines aid in providing a base for training for the team, however, they are no substitute for training specific to the safety risks associated with the work the team is doing. In order to comply with these requirements, a full analysis of the workplace is required to be completed. A variety of safety analysis techniques need to be applied to define the hazards within the workplace and institute appropriate measures to mitigate them. In this work, a process is developed for establishing a safety training program for a student project team, utilizing systems safety management techniques and the aspect of gamification to produce incentives for students to continue developing their skills. Although, systems safety management is typically applied to the design of active safety components or systems, the techniques for identifying and mitigating hazards can be applied in the same fashion to the workplace. They allow one to analyze their workplace and determine the hazards their employees might encounter, assign appropriate hazard ratings and segregate each respective hazard by their risks. In so doing, safety level assignment can be completed to ensure team members are trained to be able to work on the systems associated with a given risk level.

]]>Designing and Developing an Effective Safety Program for a Student Project TeamJohn CattonRamin ShaikhiMichael FowlerRoydon Fraserdoi: 10.3390/safety4020021Safety2018-05-09Safety2018-05-0942Article2110.3390/safety4020021http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/21Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 20: Pedestrian Injury Severity Analysis in Motor Vehicle Crashes in Ohiohttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/20
According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 116 pedestrians were killed in motor vehicle crashes in Ohio in 2015. However, no study to date has analyzed crashes in Ohio in order to explore the factors contributing to the pedestrian injury severity resulting from motor vehicle crashes. This study fills this gap by investigating the crashes involving pedestrians exclusively in Ohio. This study uses the crash data from the Highway Safety Information System, from 2009 to 2013. The explanatory factors include the pedestrian, driver, vehicle, crash, and roadway characteristics. Both fixed- and random-parameters ordered probit models of injury severity (where possible outcomes are major, minor, and possible/no injury) were estimated. The model results indicate that older pedestrian (65 and over), younger driver (less than 24), driving under influence (DUI), struck by truck, dark-unlighted roadways, six-lane roadways, and speed limits of 40 mph and 50 mph were all factors associated with more severe injuries to the pedestrians. Conversely, older driver (65 and over), passenger car, crash occurring in urban locations, daytime traffic off-peak (10 a.m. to 3:59 p.m.), weekdays, and daylight condition were all factors associated with less severe injuries. This study provides specific safety recommendations so that effective countermeasures can be developed and implemented by policy makers, which in turn will improve overall highway safety.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 20: Pedestrian Injury Severity Analysis in Motor Vehicle Crashes in Ohio

According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 116 pedestrians were killed in motor vehicle crashes in Ohio in 2015. However, no study to date has analyzed crashes in Ohio in order to explore the factors contributing to the pedestrian injury severity resulting from motor vehicle crashes. This study fills this gap by investigating the crashes involving pedestrians exclusively in Ohio. This study uses the crash data from the Highway Safety Information System, from 2009 to 2013. The explanatory factors include the pedestrian, driver, vehicle, crash, and roadway characteristics. Both fixed- and random-parameters ordered probit models of injury severity (where possible outcomes are major, minor, and possible/no injury) were estimated. The model results indicate that older pedestrian (65 and over), younger driver (less than 24), driving under influence (DUI), struck by truck, dark-unlighted roadways, six-lane roadways, and speed limits of 40 mph and 50 mph were all factors associated with more severe injuries to the pedestrians. Conversely, older driver (65 and over), passenger car, crash occurring in urban locations, daytime traffic off-peak (10 a.m. to 3:59 p.m.), weekdays, and daylight condition were all factors associated with less severe injuries. This study provides specific safety recommendations so that effective countermeasures can be developed and implemented by policy makers, which in turn will improve overall highway safety.

]]>Pedestrian Injury Severity Analysis in Motor Vehicle Crashes in OhioMajbah UddinFahim Ahmeddoi: 10.3390/safety4020020Safety2018-05-07Safety2018-05-0742Article2010.3390/safety4020020http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/20Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 19: A Framework Based on a Systems Approach to Developing Safety Indicators in Fish Farminghttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/19
The fish farming industry is one of the industries in Norway with the highest occupational fatality and injury rate. Despite the serious health, safety, and environmental issues in the industry, little is done to measure changes in safety over time beyond the traditional Lost Time Injury (LTI) registrations. In this article the objective is twofold; (i) to propose a framework for developing safety indicators based on Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA), and (ii) to apply the framework to find indicators relevant for hazards in operations where subcontractors participate. STPA uses a hierarchical portrayal of the system in focus, in contrast to sequential models, and views safety as a control problem. It is believed that a systemic approach to indicator development better captures the complex safety challenges in aquaculture. Thirteen indicators are identified within areas such as maintenance, training, and planning. The indicators identified may function as a basis for decisions and actions that must be undertaken to ensure safe operations.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 19: A Framework Based on a Systems Approach to Developing Safety Indicators in Fish Farming

The fish farming industry is one of the industries in Norway with the highest occupational fatality and injury rate. Despite the serious health, safety, and environmental issues in the industry, little is done to measure changes in safety over time beyond the traditional Lost Time Injury (LTI) registrations. In this article the objective is twofold; (i) to propose a framework for developing safety indicators based on Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA), and (ii) to apply the framework to find indicators relevant for hazards in operations where subcontractors participate. STPA uses a hierarchical portrayal of the system in focus, in contrast to sequential models, and views safety as a control problem. It is believed that a systemic approach to indicator development better captures the complex safety challenges in aquaculture. Thirteen indicators are identified within areas such as maintenance, training, and planning. The indicators identified may function as a basis for decisions and actions that must be undertaken to ensure safe operations.

]]>A Framework Based on a Systems Approach to Developing Safety Indicators in Fish FarmingSiri Mariane HolenIngrid Bouwer Utnedoi: 10.3390/safety4020019Safety2018-05-02Safety2018-05-0242Article1910.3390/safety4020019http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/19Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 18: Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Gaze-Based Training Intervention on Latent Hazard Anticipation Skills for Young Drivers: A Driving Simulator Studyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/18
A PC-based training program (Road Awareness and Perception Training or RAPT; Pradhan et al., 2009), proven effective for improving young novice drivers&amp;rsquo; hazard anticipation skills, did not fully maximize the hazard anticipation performance of young drivers despite the use of similar anticipation scenarios in both, the training and the evaluation drives. The current driving simulator experiment examined the additive effects of expert eye movement videos following RAPT training on young drivers&amp;rsquo; hazard anticipation performance compared to video-only and RAPT-only conditions. The study employed a between-subject design in which 36 young participants (aged 18&amp;ndash;21) were equally and randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions, were outfitted with an eye tracker and drove four unique scenarios on a driving simulator to evaluate the effect of treatment on their anticipation skills. The results indicate that the young participants that viewed the videos of expert eye movements following the completion of RAPT showed significant improvements in their hazard anticipation ability (85%) on the subsequent experimental evaluation drives compared to those young drivers who were only exposed to either the RAPT training (61%) or the Video (43%). The results further imply that videos of expert eye movements shown immediately after RAPT training may improve the drivers&amp;rsquo; anticipation skills by helping them map and integrate the spatial and tactical knowledge gained in a training program within dynamic driving environments involving latent hazards.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 18: Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Gaze-Based Training Intervention on Latent Hazard Anticipation Skills for Young Drivers: A Driving Simulator Study

A PC-based training program (Road Awareness and Perception Training or RAPT; Pradhan et al., 2009), proven effective for improving young novice drivers&amp;rsquo; hazard anticipation skills, did not fully maximize the hazard anticipation performance of young drivers despite the use of similar anticipation scenarios in both, the training and the evaluation drives. The current driving simulator experiment examined the additive effects of expert eye movement videos following RAPT training on young drivers&amp;rsquo; hazard anticipation performance compared to video-only and RAPT-only conditions. The study employed a between-subject design in which 36 young participants (aged 18&amp;ndash;21) were equally and randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions, were outfitted with an eye tracker and drove four unique scenarios on a driving simulator to evaluate the effect of treatment on their anticipation skills. The results indicate that the young participants that viewed the videos of expert eye movements following the completion of RAPT showed significant improvements in their hazard anticipation ability (85%) on the subsequent experimental evaluation drives compared to those young drivers who were only exposed to either the RAPT training (61%) or the Video (43%). The results further imply that videos of expert eye movements shown immediately after RAPT training may improve the drivers&amp;rsquo; anticipation skills by helping them map and integrate the spatial and tactical knowledge gained in a training program within dynamic driving environments involving latent hazards.

]]>Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Gaze-Based Training Intervention on Latent Hazard Anticipation Skills for Young Drivers: A Driving Simulator StudyYusuke YamaniPınar BıçaksızDakota B. PalmerNathan HatfieldSiby Samueldoi: 10.3390/safety4020018Safety2018-04-23Safety2018-04-2342Article1810.3390/safety4020018http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/18Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 17: A Weibull Approach for Enabling Safety-Oriented Decision-Making for Electronic Railway Signaling Systemshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/17
This paper presents the advantages of using Weibull distributions, within the context of railway signaling systems, for enabling safety-oriented decision-making. Failure rates are used to statistically model the basic event of fault-tree analysis, and their value sizes the maximum allowable latency of failures to fulfill the safety target for which the system has been designed. Relying on field-return failure data, Weibull parameters have been calculated for an existing electronic signaling system and a comparison with existing predictive reliability data, based on exponential distribution, is provided. Results are discussed in order to drive considerations on the respect of quantitative targets and on the impact that a wrong hypothesis might have on the choice of a given architecture. Despite the huge amount of information gathered through the after-sales logbook used to build reliability distribution, several key elements for reliable estimation of failure rate values are still missing. This might affect the uncertainty of reliability parameters and the effort required to collect all the information. We then present how to intervene when operational failure rates present higher values compared to the theoretical approach: increasing the redundancies of the system or performing preventive maintenance tasks. Possible consequences of unjustified adoption of constant failure rate are presented. Some recommendations are also shared in order to build reliability-oriented logbooks and avoid data censoring phenomena by enhancing the functions of the electronic boards composing the system.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 17: A Weibull Approach for Enabling Safety-Oriented Decision-Making for Electronic Railway Signaling Systems

This paper presents the advantages of using Weibull distributions, within the context of railway signaling systems, for enabling safety-oriented decision-making. Failure rates are used to statistically model the basic event of fault-tree analysis, and their value sizes the maximum allowable latency of failures to fulfill the safety target for which the system has been designed. Relying on field-return failure data, Weibull parameters have been calculated for an existing electronic signaling system and a comparison with existing predictive reliability data, based on exponential distribution, is provided. Results are discussed in order to drive considerations on the respect of quantitative targets and on the impact that a wrong hypothesis might have on the choice of a given architecture. Despite the huge amount of information gathered through the after-sales logbook used to build reliability distribution, several key elements for reliable estimation of failure rate values are still missing. This might affect the uncertainty of reliability parameters and the effort required to collect all the information. We then present how to intervene when operational failure rates present higher values compared to the theoretical approach: increasing the redundancies of the system or performing preventive maintenance tasks. Possible consequences of unjustified adoption of constant failure rate are presented. Some recommendations are also shared in order to build reliability-oriented logbooks and avoid data censoring phenomena by enhancing the functions of the electronic boards composing the system.

]]>A Weibull Approach for Enabling Safety-Oriented Decision-Making for Electronic Railway Signaling SystemsEmanuele PascaleLaurent BouillautThierry FreneauxRaffaele SistaPaolo SanninoPietro Marmodoi: 10.3390/safety4020017Safety2018-04-16Safety2018-04-1642Article1710.3390/safety4020017http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/17Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 16: Preventing Tire Blowout Accidents: A Perspective on Factors Affecting Drivers’ Intention to Adopt Tire Pressure Monitoring Systemhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/16
The aim of this study is to explore whether risk perception or anticipated regret is responsible for intensifying the participants’ intention to adopt a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) to prevent a tire-related accident, and whether the optimism bias has a moderator effect between risk perception/anticipated regret and intention. With 274 valid questionnaires and PLS-SEM (partial least squares structural equation modeling) analysis, the results indicate a significant positive relationship between risk perception and intention to adopt TPMS, but not between anticipated regret and intention. The moderator effect of optimism bias on risk perception and anticipated regret is not found in the model. The findings will prove useful for public service advertising campaigns by providing a basis for an understanding of the role of cognitive and emotional factors in tire-blowout accident prevention, thereby increasing the motivation for drivers in Taiwan to take advantage of the protection afforded them by using TPMS.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 16: Preventing Tire Blowout Accidents: A Perspective on Factors Affecting Drivers’ Intention to Adopt Tire Pressure Monitoring System

The aim of this study is to explore whether risk perception or anticipated regret is responsible for intensifying the participants’ intention to adopt a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) to prevent a tire-related accident, and whether the optimism bias has a moderator effect between risk perception/anticipated regret and intention. With 274 valid questionnaires and PLS-SEM (partial least squares structural equation modeling) analysis, the results indicate a significant positive relationship between risk perception and intention to adopt TPMS, but not between anticipated regret and intention. The moderator effect of optimism bias on risk perception and anticipated regret is not found in the model. The findings will prove useful for public service advertising campaigns by providing a basis for an understanding of the role of cognitive and emotional factors in tire-blowout accident prevention, thereby increasing the motivation for drivers in Taiwan to take advantage of the protection afforded them by using TPMS.

]]>Preventing Tire Blowout Accidents: A Perspective on Factors Affecting Drivers’ Intention to Adopt Tire Pressure Monitoring SystemKai-Ying ChenChih-Feng Yehdoi: 10.3390/safety4020016Safety2018-04-09Safety2018-04-0942Article1610.3390/safety4020016http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/16Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 15: Establishing Training and Certification Criteria for Visual Observers of Unmanned Aircraft Systemshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/15
Safe integration of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) into airspace generally occupied by manned aircraft and other aviation stakeholders is a pressing global challenge. In the United States, efforts are being made to integrate small and large UAS into the National Airspace System (NAS). Whereas regulations for the civil operation of small UAS (25 kg and lighter) have already been adopted, those for larger unmanned systems are still being crafted. Thus, a two-part mixed methods study was conducted to examine three pivotal issues in the safe operation of large UAS: (1) What kind of visual observer skills are needed to execute safe UAS operations; (2) Should visual observers involved in UAS operations receive formal training; and (3) Should visual observers be required to pass a certification exam? In the first phase, subject matter experts identified various vigilance, trajectory estimation and communication skills that were vital to performing visual observer duties successfully and elaborated on their training regimens. In the second phase, survey participants were approximately evenly split on the need for formal classroom/online and hands-on visual observer training. Furthermore, participants generally favored visual observers having to pass a classroom/online certification exam, whereas they were against a practical (hands-on) exam.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 15: Establishing Training and Certification Criteria for Visual Observers of Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Safe integration of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) into airspace generally occupied by manned aircraft and other aviation stakeholders is a pressing global challenge. In the United States, efforts are being made to integrate small and large UAS into the National Airspace System (NAS). Whereas regulations for the civil operation of small UAS (25 kg and lighter) have already been adopted, those for larger unmanned systems are still being crafted. Thus, a two-part mixed methods study was conducted to examine three pivotal issues in the safe operation of large UAS: (1) What kind of visual observer skills are needed to execute safe UAS operations; (2) Should visual observers involved in UAS operations receive formal training; and (3) Should visual observers be required to pass a certification exam? In the first phase, subject matter experts identified various vigilance, trajectory estimation and communication skills that were vital to performing visual observer duties successfully and elaborated on their training regimens. In the second phase, survey participants were approximately evenly split on the need for formal classroom/online and hands-on visual observer training. Furthermore, participants generally favored visual observers having to pass a classroom/online certification exam, whereas they were against a practical (hands-on) exam.

]]>Establishing Training and Certification Criteria for Visual Observers of Unmanned Aircraft SystemsIgor Dolgovdoi: 10.3390/safety4020015Safety2018-04-06Safety2018-04-0642Article1510.3390/safety4020015http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/15Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 14: North American Engineering, Procurement, Fabrication and Construction Worker Safety Climate Perception Affected by Job Positionhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/14
Understanding and implementing the results of Safety Climate surveys can assist in decreasing occupational injuries and illnesses. The following article presents findings of a cross-sectional study that assessed the relationship between safety climate perceptions and job position among engineering, procurement, fabrication and construction (EPFC) employees using a 15-item survey. Descriptive statistics (means and frequencies) and an ANACOVA (analysis of covariance) were performed on a saturated model. The study had a 62% response rate. Results indicate a statistically significant in mean safety climate scores between job position among EPFC employees when controlling for years in industry and location type (i.e., construction versus fabrication) [F (9, 603) = 5.28, p &amp;lt; 0.0001, adjusted R-square = 0.07]. Employee perception of safety climate differed based on the employee&amp;rsquo;s job position (i.e., laborer, foreman, etc.). Project management reported the highest safety climate scores (0.91), followed by supervisors (0.86), technical support employees and foremen (0.84) and laborers (0.81).Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 14: North American Engineering, Procurement, Fabrication and Construction Worker Safety Climate Perception Affected by Job Position

Understanding and implementing the results of Safety Climate surveys can assist in decreasing occupational injuries and illnesses. The following article presents findings of a cross-sectional study that assessed the relationship between safety climate perceptions and job position among engineering, procurement, fabrication and construction (EPFC) employees using a 15-item survey. Descriptive statistics (means and frequencies) and an ANACOVA (analysis of covariance) were performed on a saturated model. The study had a 62% response rate. Results indicate a statistically significant in mean safety climate scores between job position among EPFC employees when controlling for years in industry and location type (i.e., construction versus fabrication) [F (9, 603) = 5.28, p &amp;lt; 0.0001, adjusted R-square = 0.07]. Employee perception of safety climate differed based on the employee&amp;rsquo;s job position (i.e., laborer, foreman, etc.). Project management reported the highest safety climate scores (0.91), followed by supervisors (0.86), technical support employees and foremen (0.84) and laborers (0.81).

]]>North American Engineering, Procurement, Fabrication and Construction Worker Safety Climate Perception Affected by Job PositionClint PinionJames KlyzaShelley BrewerDavid Douphratedoi: 10.3390/safety4020014Safety2018-04-04Safety2018-04-0442Article1410.3390/safety4020014http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/14Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 13: Injuries and Fatalities in Danish Commercial Fishing Fleet in 1998–2016http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/13
Background: Fishing is a risky occupation as injuries and fatalities in fishing vessels are quite common. This paper investigates the pattern of injuries aboard fishing vessels in Denmark to get a better understanding of areas where further action is needed to reduce the number of injuries and fatalities in Danish fishing vessels. Materials and methods: Data for this study, extracted from the Danish Fishermen’s Occupational Health Service’s database (in the period 1998–2012) and the Danish Maritime Authority’s accident report from 2013 to 2016, include 1840 injuries in Danish fisheries. Result: The results showed decreased injuries in the study period from 45 injuries and deaths per 1000 fishermen reported to the authorities to 12 injuries and deaths per 1000 fishermen in 2016: 2.1% (n = 39) of all reported injuries in the study period resulted in the death of a fisherman and the remaining injuries resulted in sick leave of more than one day; 52.5% (n = 600) of reported injuries involved fishermen who have less than one year’s experience of employment; 29% (n = 407) of injuries took place between 12:00 and 16:00, and the second largest number of injuries, 23.3% (n = 324), took place between 8:00 and 12:00. The incident rate of slip/fall injuries has decreased from 10.06 per 1000 fishermen in 1998 to 3.84 in 2016. The incidence rate of injuries caused by crushing also decreased, from 9.32 accidents per 1000 fishermen in 1998 to 2.56 in 2016. Most of the injuries, 74.5% (n = 1307), happened on the deck of the vessel. Sprain/strain was among the most common injuries (34.2%; n = 538) followed by fracture (24.8%; n = 391). Conclusion: This study indicated that the number of injuries had been gradually decreasing in Danish commercial fishing vessels in the period from 1998 to 2016. The rate of injuries had been declining due to several initiatives such as the establishment of The Danish Fishermen’s Occupational Health Services, training, safety campaigns, technological improvement and structural changes in fisheries management. However, there are still places for improvement.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 13: Injuries and Fatalities in Danish Commercial Fishing Fleet in 1998–2016

Background: Fishing is a risky occupation as injuries and fatalities in fishing vessels are quite common. This paper investigates the pattern of injuries aboard fishing vessels in Denmark to get a better understanding of areas where further action is needed to reduce the number of injuries and fatalities in Danish fishing vessels. Materials and methods: Data for this study, extracted from the Danish Fishermen’s Occupational Health Service’s database (in the period 1998–2012) and the Danish Maritime Authority’s accident report from 2013 to 2016, include 1840 injuries in Danish fisheries. Result: The results showed decreased injuries in the study period from 45 injuries and deaths per 1000 fishermen reported to the authorities to 12 injuries and deaths per 1000 fishermen in 2016: 2.1% (n = 39) of all reported injuries in the study period resulted in the death of a fisherman and the remaining injuries resulted in sick leave of more than one day; 52.5% (n = 600) of reported injuries involved fishermen who have less than one year’s experience of employment; 29% (n = 407) of injuries took place between 12:00 and 16:00, and the second largest number of injuries, 23.3% (n = 324), took place between 8:00 and 12:00. The incident rate of slip/fall injuries has decreased from 10.06 per 1000 fishermen in 1998 to 3.84 in 2016. The incidence rate of injuries caused by crushing also decreased, from 9.32 accidents per 1000 fishermen in 1998 to 2.56 in 2016. Most of the injuries, 74.5% (n = 1307), happened on the deck of the vessel. Sprain/strain was among the most common injuries (34.2%; n = 538) followed by fracture (24.8%; n = 391). Conclusion: This study indicated that the number of injuries had been gradually decreasing in Danish commercial fishing vessels in the period from 1998 to 2016. The rate of injuries had been declining due to several initiatives such as the establishment of The Danish Fishermen’s Occupational Health Services, training, safety campaigns, technological improvement and structural changes in fisheries management. However, there are still places for improvement.

]]>Injuries and Fatalities in Danish Commercial Fishing Fleet in 1998–2016Hanna RasmussenDewan Ahsandoi: 10.3390/safety4020013Safety2018-03-30Safety2018-03-3042Article1310.3390/safety4020013http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/13Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 12: Simulation of Tunnel Fire for Evacuation Safety Assessmenthttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/12
When a fire breaks out in a tunnel, smoke diffuses widely in the direction of the ventilation airflow. As a result, the evacuation environment may not be sufficiently safe during a fire incident. When ventilation equipment in a tunnel is changed, the safety and economic efficiency of the new ventilation equipment must be evaluated in advance. However, it is dangerous and not financially feasible to undertake the verification of new ventilation equipment by performing a demonstration experiment owing to its cost and versatility. It is therefore useful for predicting an evacuation situation in which a fire breaks out in a tunnel by performing a numerical simulation and examining the evacuation safety of the tunnel. In this study, a tunnel fire was reproduced using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) fire simulation software. Moreover, an evacuation was simulated using the real-coded cellular automaton (RCA) method and the effects of the wind velocity and the number of evacuees in the tunnel on the evacuation time were examined.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 12: Simulation of Tunnel Fire for Evacuation Safety Assessment

When a fire breaks out in a tunnel, smoke diffuses widely in the direction of the ventilation airflow. As a result, the evacuation environment may not be sufficiently safe during a fire incident. When ventilation equipment in a tunnel is changed, the safety and economic efficiency of the new ventilation equipment must be evaluated in advance. However, it is dangerous and not financially feasible to undertake the verification of new ventilation equipment by performing a demonstration experiment owing to its cost and versatility. It is therefore useful for predicting an evacuation situation in which a fire breaks out in a tunnel by performing a numerical simulation and examining the evacuation safety of the tunnel. In this study, a tunnel fire was reproduced using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) fire simulation software. Moreover, an evacuation was simulated using the real-coded cellular automaton (RCA) method and the effects of the wind velocity and the number of evacuees in the tunnel on the evacuation time were examined.

]]>Simulation of Tunnel Fire for Evacuation Safety AssessmentKazuhiro YamamotoYuusuke SawaguchiShinnosuke Nishikidoi: 10.3390/safety4020012Safety2018-03-26Safety2018-03-2642Article1210.3390/safety4020012http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/2/12Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 11: On the Adequacy of API 521 Relief-Valve Sizing Method for Gas-Filled Pressure Vessels Exposed to Firehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/11
In this paper, the adequacy of the legacy API 521 guidance on pressure relief valve (PRV) sizing for gas-filled vessels subjected to external fire is investigated. Multiple studies show that in many cases, the installation of a PRV offers little or no protection—therefore provides an unfounded sense of security. Often the vessel wall will be weakened by high temperatures, before the PRV relieving pressure is reached. In this article, a multiparameter study has been performed taking into consideration various vessel sizes, design pressures (implicitly vessel wall thickness), vessel operating pressure, fire type (pool fire or jet fire) by applying the methodology presented in the Scandpower guideline. A transient thermomechanical response analysis has been carried out to accurately determine vessel rupture times. It is demonstrated that only vessels with relatively thick walls, as a result of high design pressures, benefit from the presence of a PRV, while for most cases no appreciable increase in the vessel survival time beyond the onset of relief is observed. For most of the cases studied, vessel rupture will occur before the relieving pressure of the PRV is reached.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 11: On the Adequacy of API 521 Relief-Valve Sizing Method for Gas-Filled Pressure Vessels Exposed to Fire

In this paper, the adequacy of the legacy API 521 guidance on pressure relief valve (PRV) sizing for gas-filled vessels subjected to external fire is investigated. Multiple studies show that in many cases, the installation of a PRV offers little or no protection—therefore provides an unfounded sense of security. Often the vessel wall will be weakened by high temperatures, before the PRV relieving pressure is reached. In this article, a multiparameter study has been performed taking into consideration various vessel sizes, design pressures (implicitly vessel wall thickness), vessel operating pressure, fire type (pool fire or jet fire) by applying the methodology presented in the Scandpower guideline. A transient thermomechanical response analysis has been carried out to accurately determine vessel rupture times. It is demonstrated that only vessels with relatively thick walls, as a result of high design pressures, benefit from the presence of a PRV, while for most cases no appreciable increase in the vessel survival time beyond the onset of relief is observed. For most of the cases studied, vessel rupture will occur before the relieving pressure of the PRV is reached.

]]>On the Adequacy of API 521 Relief-Valve Sizing Method for Gas-Filled Pressure Vessels Exposed to FireAnders AndreasenFilippo BorroniMarcos Zan NietoCarsten StegelmannRudi P. Nielsendoi: 10.3390/safety4010011Safety2018-03-19Safety2018-03-1941Article1110.3390/safety4010011http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/11Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 10: Speed Responses to Speed Humps as Affected by Time of Day and Light Conditions on a Residential Road with Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Road Lightinghttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/10
The speed-reducing effect of speed humps during darkness is important to ensure a consistent speed reduction and a decreased probability of accidents during darkness. This study examined the effects of speed humps, compared with a control location, on a residential road in Sweden with light-emitting diode (LED) street lighting and a 30 km/h posted speed limit. Hypotheses tested were that: (I) vehicle speed is higher during daylight than in darkness; (II) speed at speed humps is lower than at control locations during both daylight and darkness; (III) speed at humps is higher during daylight; (IV) vehicle speed at humps is lower when luminance or visibility of the humps is greater; and, (V) the road environment of speed humps is perceived as being similar by drivers. The results showed that vehicle speed at the control location was negligibly higher (+0.3 km/h) during daylight than in darkness. Speed humps reduced driving speed by 20% when compared with the posted speed limit and the effect was not significantly different between daylight and darkness. Speed reduction for the three speed humps varied between 9% and 29% as compared with the posted speed limit. In this study, the LED road lighting that was placed directly above or in front of the hump achieved the highest luminance. This study could not reveal any significant differences in vehicle speed attributable to light conditions per se.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 10: Speed Responses to Speed Humps as Affected by Time of Day and Light Conditions on a Residential Road with Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Road Lighting

The speed-reducing effect of speed humps during darkness is important to ensure a consistent speed reduction and a decreased probability of accidents during darkness. This study examined the effects of speed humps, compared with a control location, on a residential road in Sweden with light-emitting diode (LED) street lighting and a 30 km/h posted speed limit. Hypotheses tested were that: (I) vehicle speed is higher during daylight than in darkness; (II) speed at speed humps is lower than at control locations during both daylight and darkness; (III) speed at humps is higher during daylight; (IV) vehicle speed at humps is lower when luminance or visibility of the humps is greater; and, (V) the road environment of speed humps is perceived as being similar by drivers. The results showed that vehicle speed at the control location was negligibly higher (+0.3 km/h) during daylight than in darkness. Speed humps reduced driving speed by 20% when compared with the posted speed limit and the effect was not significantly different between daylight and darkness. Speed reduction for the three speed humps varied between 9% and 29% as compared with the posted speed limit. In this study, the LED road lighting that was placed directly above or in front of the hump achieved the highest luminance. This study could not reveal any significant differences in vehicle speed attributable to light conditions per se.

]]>Speed Responses to Speed Humps as Affected by Time of Day and Light Conditions on a Residential Road with Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Road LightingAnnika JägerbrandMaria JohanssonThorbjörn Laikedoi: 10.3390/safety4010010Safety2018-03-13Safety2018-03-1341Article1010.3390/safety4010010http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/10Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 9: Do Online Bicycle Routing Portals Adequately Address Prevalent Safety Concerns?http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/9
Safety concerns are among the most prevalent deterrents for bicycling. The provision of adequate bicycling infrastructure is considered as one of the most efficient means to increase cycling safety. However, limited public funding does not always allow agencies to implement cycling infrastructure improvements at the desirable level. Thus, bicycle trip planners can at least partly alleviate the lack of adequate infrastructure by recommending optimal routes in terms of safety. The presented study provides a systematic review of 35 bicycle routing applications and analyses to which degree they promote safe bicycling. The results show that most trip planners lack corresponding routing options and therefore do not sufficiently address safety concerns of bicyclists. Based on these findings, we developed recommendations on how to better address bicycling safety in routing portals. We suggest employing current communication technology and analysis to consider safety concerns more explicitly.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 9: Do Online Bicycle Routing Portals Adequately Address Prevalent Safety Concerns?

Safety concerns are among the most prevalent deterrents for bicycling. The provision of adequate bicycling infrastructure is considered as one of the most efficient means to increase cycling safety. However, limited public funding does not always allow agencies to implement cycling infrastructure improvements at the desirable level. Thus, bicycle trip planners can at least partly alleviate the lack of adequate infrastructure by recommending optimal routes in terms of safety. The presented study provides a systematic review of 35 bicycle routing applications and analyses to which degree they promote safe bicycling. The results show that most trip planners lack corresponding routing options and therefore do not sufficiently address safety concerns of bicyclists. Based on these findings, we developed recommendations on how to better address bicycling safety in routing portals. We suggest employing current communication technology and analysis to consider safety concerns more explicitly.

]]>Do Online Bicycle Routing Portals Adequately Address Prevalent Safety Concerns?Martin LoidlHartwig Hochmairdoi: 10.3390/safety4010009Safety2018-03-06Safety2018-03-0641Article910.3390/safety4010009http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/9Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 8: The Neuroergonomics of Aircraft Cockpits: The Four Stages of Eye-Tracking Integration to Enhance Flight Safetyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/8
Commercial aviation is currently one of the safest modes of transportation; however, human error is still one major contributing cause of aeronautical accidents and incidents. One promising avenue to further enhance flight safety is Neuroergonomics, an approach at the intersection of neuroscience, cognitive engineering and human factors, which aims to create better human–system interaction. Eye-tracking technology allows users to “monitor the monitoring” by providing insights into both pilots’ attentional distribution and underlying decisional processes. In this position paper, we identify and define a framework of four stages of step-by-step integration of eye-tracking systems in modern cockpits. Stage I concerns Pilot Training and Flight Performance Analysis on-ground; stage II proposes On-board Gaze Recordings as extra data for the “black box” recorders; stage III describes Gaze-Based Flight Deck Adaptation including warning and alerting systems, and, eventually, stage IV prophesies Gaze-Based Aircraft Adaptation including authority taking by the aircraft. We illustrate the potential of these four steps with a description of incidents or accidents that we could certainly have avoided thanks to eye-tracking. Estimated milestones for the integration of each stage are also proposed together with a list of some implementation limitations. We believe that the research institutions and industrial actors of the domain will all benefit from the integration of the framework of the eye-tracking systems into cockpits.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 8: The Neuroergonomics of Aircraft Cockpits: The Four Stages of Eye-Tracking Integration to Enhance Flight Safety

Commercial aviation is currently one of the safest modes of transportation; however, human error is still one major contributing cause of aeronautical accidents and incidents. One promising avenue to further enhance flight safety is Neuroergonomics, an approach at the intersection of neuroscience, cognitive engineering and human factors, which aims to create better human–system interaction. Eye-tracking technology allows users to “monitor the monitoring” by providing insights into both pilots’ attentional distribution and underlying decisional processes. In this position paper, we identify and define a framework of four stages of step-by-step integration of eye-tracking systems in modern cockpits. Stage I concerns Pilot Training and Flight Performance Analysis on-ground; stage II proposes On-board Gaze Recordings as extra data for the “black box” recorders; stage III describes Gaze-Based Flight Deck Adaptation including warning and alerting systems, and, eventually, stage IV prophesies Gaze-Based Aircraft Adaptation including authority taking by the aircraft. We illustrate the potential of these four steps with a description of incidents or accidents that we could certainly have avoided thanks to eye-tracking. Estimated milestones for the integration of each stage are also proposed together with a list of some implementation limitations. We believe that the research institutions and industrial actors of the domain will all benefit from the integration of the framework of the eye-tracking systems into cockpits.

]]>The Neuroergonomics of Aircraft Cockpits: The Four Stages of Eye-Tracking Integration to Enhance Flight SafetyVsevolod PeysakhovichOlivier LefrançoisFrédéric DehaisMickaël Caussedoi: 10.3390/safety4010008Safety2018-02-27Safety2018-02-2741Article810.3390/safety4010008http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/8Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 7: Failure Rates for Aging Aircrafthttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/7
In any consideration of the operating condition, the age of a particular aircraft is a major factor. Much attention is focused on planes which are aged, that is, aircraft with chronological age or accumulated hours of use beyond a threshold. Being aged is a state, and should be distinguished from aging, which is a process of degradation with use. The degradation process starts at first flight and continues through time, with the rate being affected by aircraft design, patterns of use, and maintenance procedures. In this paper, the cycles, block hours and failures were recorded, and failure rates with accumulated use were calculated. A pattern of increasing failure rates with accumulated use (age) is observable, with improvement (decline in rate) at times of planned maintenance. The evidence supports the hypothesis that aging, that is increasing rates of failure, begins early in the life of an aircraft. Early evidence of degradation is also a precursor for accelerated failure rates as use accumulates along the age trajectory.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 7: Failure Rates for Aging Aircraft

In any consideration of the operating condition, the age of a particular aircraft is a major factor. Much attention is focused on planes which are aged, that is, aircraft with chronological age or accumulated hours of use beyond a threshold. Being aged is a state, and should be distinguished from aging, which is a process of degradation with use. The degradation process starts at first flight and continues through time, with the rate being affected by aircraft design, patterns of use, and maintenance procedures. In this paper, the cycles, block hours and failures were recorded, and failure rates with accumulated use were calculated. A pattern of increasing failure rates with accumulated use (age) is observable, with improvement (decline in rate) at times of planned maintenance. The evidence supports the hypothesis that aging, that is increasing rates of failure, begins early in the life of an aircraft. Early evidence of degradation is also a precursor for accelerated failure rates as use accumulates along the age trajectory.

]]>Failure Rates for Aging AircraftLeonard MacLeanAlex RichmanMark Hudakdoi: 10.3390/safety4010007Safety2018-02-22Safety2018-02-2241Article710.3390/safety4010007http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/7Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 6: A Systematic Review on High Reliability Organisational Theory as a Safety Management Strategy in Constructionhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/6
This study examines the available evidence of high reliability organisational (HRO) theory as a strategy to manage construction safety: (1) Background: High reliability organisations (HROs) have been under investigation by organisational scholars to understand how they function at an exceptionally high level with few or no accidents under challenging circumstances. The construction industry is a high risk industry and is also known for a high fatality rate around the world. This systematic review examines the available evidence of HROs as a strategy to manage construction safety; (2) Methods: A systematic review to summarise and critically appraise the literature on high reliability organisational theory, aimed at improving construction safety; (3) Results: Of 2724 articles found, fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria for qualitative synthesis and review. Six of the studies were from construction, four were from general HROs research, two were from health care, and three were from the aerospace, oil and gas, and nuclear industries; (4) Conclusion: Based on the available evidence, transferring the practices and principles of HROs to construction, the validation of proposed assessing tools and a consensus HRO definitions are the major issues identified.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 6: A Systematic Review on High Reliability Organisational Theory as a Safety Management Strategy in Construction

This study examines the available evidence of high reliability organisational (HRO) theory as a strategy to manage construction safety: (1) Background: High reliability organisations (HROs) have been under investigation by organisational scholars to understand how they function at an exceptionally high level with few or no accidents under challenging circumstances. The construction industry is a high risk industry and is also known for a high fatality rate around the world. This systematic review examines the available evidence of HROs as a strategy to manage construction safety; (2) Methods: A systematic review to summarise and critically appraise the literature on high reliability organisational theory, aimed at improving construction safety; (3) Results: Of 2724 articles found, fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria for qualitative synthesis and review. Six of the studies were from construction, four were from general HROs research, two were from health care, and three were from the aerospace, oil and gas, and nuclear industries; (4) Conclusion: Based on the available evidence, transferring the practices and principles of HROs to construction, the validation of proposed assessing tools and a consensus HRO definitions are the major issues identified.

]]>A Systematic Review on High Reliability Organisational Theory as a Safety Management Strategy in ConstructionAndrew EnyaManikam PillayShane Dempseydoi: 10.3390/safety4010006Safety2018-02-10Safety2018-02-1041Review610.3390/safety4010006http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/6Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 5: Development of a Preliminary Model for Evaluating Occupational Health and Safety Risk Management Maturity in Small and Medium-Sized Enterpriseshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/5
Management of occupational health and safety (OHS) risks is a crucial component of any business. Numerous investigations have shown that work-related injuries and deaths occur disproportionately in small-to-medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and that this is clearly due to deficient management of OHS risks. The main goal of this work is to develop a base of indicators suitable for evaluating OHS risk management maturity in industrial SMEs. A preliminary model is then proposed for this evaluation, based on a small number of relevant indicators selected from a careful bibliographic review. The work begins with a critical review of the literature and analysis of known concepts, methods, tools and models of measurement of risk analysis maturity in order to extract relevant indicators. The most suitable indicators are then grouped to form the basis of a preliminary model for evaluating OHS risk management maturity in the SME setting. Our findings will help managers of SMEs make sound decisions in their quest to improve the OHS performance of their businesses.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 5: Development of a Preliminary Model for Evaluating Occupational Health and Safety Risk Management Maturity in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises

Management of occupational health and safety (OHS) risks is a crucial component of any business. Numerous investigations have shown that work-related injuries and deaths occur disproportionately in small-to-medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and that this is clearly due to deficient management of OHS risks. The main goal of this work is to develop a base of indicators suitable for evaluating OHS risk management maturity in industrial SMEs. A preliminary model is then proposed for this evaluation, based on a small number of relevant indicators selected from a careful bibliographic review. The work begins with a critical review of the literature and analysis of known concepts, methods, tools and models of measurement of risk analysis maturity in order to extract relevant indicators. The most suitable indicators are then grouped to form the basis of a preliminary model for evaluating OHS risk management maturity in the SME setting. Our findings will help managers of SMEs make sound decisions in their quest to improve the OHS performance of their businesses.

]]>Development of a Preliminary Model for Evaluating Occupational Health and Safety Risk Management Maturity in Small and Medium-Sized EnterprisesBilal KaassisAdel Badridoi: 10.3390/safety4010005Safety2018-02-01Safety2018-02-0141Article510.3390/safety4010005http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/5Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 4: Addressing Differences in Safety Influencing Factors—A Comparison of Offshore and Onshore Helicopter Operationshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/4
The accident levels in helicopter transportation vary between geographical regions and types of operations. In this paper, we develop some hypotheses regarding the factors that may explain this variation. The aim of this paper is to improve safety in helicopter transportation through better understanding of the causes leading to fatal accidents. We provide an analysis of three segments of helicopter transportation in Norway (i.e., offshore transportation; onshore ambulance/police, and onshore transportation). This analysis refers to international research on helicopter accidents. The number of fatal accidents per million flight hours in Norwegian offshore helicopter transportation was 2.8 in 1990–1999 and zero in 2000–2015. In Norwegian onshore helicopter transportation, the fatal accident rate was 13.8 in the period 2000–2012. Twenty-three onshore helicopters crashed to the ground; seven of these crashes were fatal, killing 16 people. It is reasonable to question why there is such a significant difference in accident rates between offshore and onshore helicopter transportation. We have approached this question by comparing how the different segments of helicopter transportation are organized and managed. Our analysis shows that there are major differences both at the “sharp” end (i.e., in actual operations) and the “blunt” end (i.e., rules, regulations and organization). This includes differences in regulations, market conditions, work organization (i.e., training, employment conditions, and qualifications of the crews), operations and technology. A central argument is that differences in the market conditions and requirements stipulated by the users explain some of these differences. The same differences can be found internationally. If we use best practice and expert judgments, there is an opportunity to improve helicopter safety through improving the socio-technical system (i.e., organizational issues, improved design, improved maintenance of critical components and more focus on operational factors). A reasonable goal is that the international helicopter transportation industry could reduce the accident level to less than one fatal accident per million flight hours (Considering the oil and gas industry internationally, this would reduce the average of 24 fatalities annually to 4 per year, thus saving 20 lives each year).Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 4: Addressing Differences in Safety Influencing Factors—A Comparison of Offshore and Onshore Helicopter Operations

The accident levels in helicopter transportation vary between geographical regions and types of operations. In this paper, we develop some hypotheses regarding the factors that may explain this variation. The aim of this paper is to improve safety in helicopter transportation through better understanding of the causes leading to fatal accidents. We provide an analysis of three segments of helicopter transportation in Norway (i.e., offshore transportation; onshore ambulance/police, and onshore transportation). This analysis refers to international research on helicopter accidents. The number of fatal accidents per million flight hours in Norwegian offshore helicopter transportation was 2.8 in 1990–1999 and zero in 2000–2015. In Norwegian onshore helicopter transportation, the fatal accident rate was 13.8 in the period 2000–2012. Twenty-three onshore helicopters crashed to the ground; seven of these crashes were fatal, killing 16 people. It is reasonable to question why there is such a significant difference in accident rates between offshore and onshore helicopter transportation. We have approached this question by comparing how the different segments of helicopter transportation are organized and managed. Our analysis shows that there are major differences both at the “sharp” end (i.e., in actual operations) and the “blunt” end (i.e., rules, regulations and organization). This includes differences in regulations, market conditions, work organization (i.e., training, employment conditions, and qualifications of the crews), operations and technology. A central argument is that differences in the market conditions and requirements stipulated by the users explain some of these differences. The same differences can be found internationally. If we use best practice and expert judgments, there is an opportunity to improve helicopter safety through improving the socio-technical system (i.e., organizational issues, improved design, improved maintenance of critical components and more focus on operational factors). A reasonable goal is that the international helicopter transportation industry could reduce the accident level to less than one fatal accident per million flight hours (Considering the oil and gas industry internationally, this would reduce the average of 24 fatalities annually to 4 per year, thus saving 20 lives each year).

]]>Addressing Differences in Safety Influencing Factors—A Comparison of Offshore and Onshore Helicopter OperationsRolf ByeStig JohnsenGrethe Lillehammerdoi: 10.3390/safety4010004Safety2018-01-17Safety2018-01-1741Article410.3390/safety4010004http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/4Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 3: Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Safety in 2017http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/3
Peer review is an essential part in the publication process, ensuring that Safety maintains high quality standards for its published papers.[...]Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 3: Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Safety in 2017

Peer review is an essential part in the publication process, ensuring that Safety maintains high quality standards for its published papers.[...]

]]>Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Safety in 2017 Safety Editorial Officedoi: 10.3390/safety4010003Safety2018-01-16Safety2018-01-1641Editorial310.3390/safety4010003http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/3Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 2: The Presence of Behavioral Traps in U.S. Airline Accidents: A Qualitative Analysishttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/2
Behavioral traps are accident-inducing operational pitfalls aviators may encounter as a result of poor decision making. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) identifies the existence of twelve of these negative pilot behaviors. These are: Peer Pressure; Get-There-Itis; Loss of Situational Awareness; Descent Below the Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA); Mind Set; Duck-Under Syndrome; Getting Behind the Aircraft; Continuing Visual Flight Rules (VFR) into Instrument Conditions; Scud Running; Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves; Flying Outside the Envelope; and Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists. The purpose of this paper was to study the nature of their occurrence in the airline domain. Four Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) analyzed 34 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident reports. The SMEs were able to identify many pilot actions that were representative of the behavioral traps. Behavioral traps were found in all accidents with Loss of Situational Awareness and Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists dominant. Various themes began to emerge, which played important roles in many accidents. These themes included Crew Resource Management (CRM) issues, airline management and fatigue. The findings of this study indicated that behavioral traps were prevalent in airline accidents including habitual noncompliance by pilots. Attitude management training is recommended.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 2: The Presence of Behavioral Traps in U.S. Airline Accidents: A Qualitative Analysis

Behavioral traps are accident-inducing operational pitfalls aviators may encounter as a result of poor decision making. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) identifies the existence of twelve of these negative pilot behaviors. These are: Peer Pressure; Get-There-Itis; Loss of Situational Awareness; Descent Below the Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA); Mind Set; Duck-Under Syndrome; Getting Behind the Aircraft; Continuing Visual Flight Rules (VFR) into Instrument Conditions; Scud Running; Operating Without Adequate Fuel Reserves; Flying Outside the Envelope; and Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists. The purpose of this paper was to study the nature of their occurrence in the airline domain. Four Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) analyzed 34 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) accident reports. The SMEs were able to identify many pilot actions that were representative of the behavioral traps. Behavioral traps were found in all accidents with Loss of Situational Awareness and Neglect of Flight Planning, Preflight Inspections, and Checklists dominant. Various themes began to emerge, which played important roles in many accidents. These themes included Crew Resource Management (CRM) issues, airline management and fatigue. The findings of this study indicated that behavioral traps were prevalent in airline accidents including habitual noncompliance by pilots. Attitude management training is recommended.

]]>The Presence of Behavioral Traps in U.S. Airline Accidents: A Qualitative AnalysisJonathan Velazquezdoi: 10.3390/safety4010002Safety2018-01-11Safety2018-01-1141Article210.3390/safety4010002http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/2Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 1: Correct Use of Three-Point Seatbelt by Pregnant Occupantshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/1
The largest cause of accidental death and placental abruption in pregnancy is automobile collisions. Lives can be saved by correct use of the three-point seatbelt during pregnancy. Human interaction is essential for correct use of seatbelts. The objective of this study is to investigate pregnant women’s use of correct shoulder section together with correct lap section as advised by obstetricians and highway experts and to identify the most common seatbelt misuse during pregnancy. An international web survey was conducted in five languages for this study. 1931 pregnant women reported their use of seatbelts and how they position the shoulder and lap sections of their seatbelts. Special attention was paid to distinguish between ‘partly correct’ and ‘correct’ seatbelt positioning. The questionnaire responses are used to determine the magnitude of every combination of the correct and incorrect shoulder and lap section of the seatbelt positioning during pregnancy. Results show that seatbelt usage in pregnancy is generally high in the world. However, the correct use of the entire seatbelt is very low, at only 4.3% of all respondents. 40.8% of the respondents use the shoulder portion of the belt correctly, whilst a 13.2% use the lap section correctly. The most common misuse is ‘across abdomen’ or ‘not using the seatbelt at all’, and both pose danger to pregnant women and their fetuses. Correct use of three point seatbelts is a challenge during pregnancy. We recommend that the media, medical community, and automotive industry provide targeted information about correct seatbelt use during pregnancy and accident databases include ‘correct seatbelt use’ information in crash statistics.Safety, Vol. 4, Pages 1: Correct Use of Three-Point Seatbelt by Pregnant Occupants

The largest cause of accidental death and placental abruption in pregnancy is automobile collisions. Lives can be saved by correct use of the three-point seatbelt during pregnancy. Human interaction is essential for correct use of seatbelts. The objective of this study is to investigate pregnant women’s use of correct shoulder section together with correct lap section as advised by obstetricians and highway experts and to identify the most common seatbelt misuse during pregnancy. An international web survey was conducted in five languages for this study. 1931 pregnant women reported their use of seatbelts and how they position the shoulder and lap sections of their seatbelts. Special attention was paid to distinguish between ‘partly correct’ and ‘correct’ seatbelt positioning. The questionnaire responses are used to determine the magnitude of every combination of the correct and incorrect shoulder and lap section of the seatbelt positioning during pregnancy. Results show that seatbelt usage in pregnancy is generally high in the world. However, the correct use of the entire seatbelt is very low, at only 4.3% of all respondents. 40.8% of the respondents use the shoulder portion of the belt correctly, whilst a 13.2% use the lap section correctly. The most common misuse is ‘across abdomen’ or ‘not using the seatbelt at all’, and both pose danger to pregnant women and their fetuses. Correct use of three point seatbelts is a challenge during pregnancy. We recommend that the media, medical community, and automotive industry provide targeted information about correct seatbelt use during pregnancy and accident databases include ‘correct seatbelt use’ information in crash statistics.

]]>Correct Use of Three-Point Seatbelt by Pregnant OccupantsB. AcarAlix EdwardsMostafa Aldahdoi: 10.3390/safety4010001Safety2017-12-25Safety2017-12-2541Article110.3390/safety4010001http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/4/1/1Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 29: Teen Driving Risk and Prevention: Naturalistic Driving Research Contributions and Challengeshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/29
Naturalistic driving (ND) methods may be particularly useful for research on young driver crash risk. Novices are not safe drivers initially, but tend to improve rapidly, although the pace of learning is highly variable. However, knowledge is lacking about how best to reduce the learning curve and the variability in the development of safe driving judgment. A great deal has been learned from recent naturalistic driving (ND) studies that have included young drivers, providing objective information on the nature of crash risk and the factors that contribute to safety critical events. This research indicates that most learners obtain at least the amount of practice driving recommended and develop important driving skills. Unfortunately, most learners are not exposed during training to more complex driving situations and the instruction provided by supervising parents is mostly reactive and may not fully prepare teens for independent driving. While supervised practice driving is quite safe, crash rates are high during the first six months or so of independent driving then decline rapidly, but remain high for years relative to experienced drivers. Contributing factors to crash risk include exposure, inexperience, elevated gravitational-force event rates, greater willingness to engage in secondary tasks while driving, and social influence from peer passengers. The findings indicate the need and possible objectives for improving practice driving instruction and developing innovative prevention approaches for the first year of independent driving.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 29: Teen Driving Risk and Prevention: Naturalistic Driving Research Contributions and Challenges

Naturalistic driving (ND) methods may be particularly useful for research on young driver crash risk. Novices are not safe drivers initially, but tend to improve rapidly, although the pace of learning is highly variable. However, knowledge is lacking about how best to reduce the learning curve and the variability in the development of safe driving judgment. A great deal has been learned from recent naturalistic driving (ND) studies that have included young drivers, providing objective information on the nature of crash risk and the factors that contribute to safety critical events. This research indicates that most learners obtain at least the amount of practice driving recommended and develop important driving skills. Unfortunately, most learners are not exposed during training to more complex driving situations and the instruction provided by supervising parents is mostly reactive and may not fully prepare teens for independent driving. While supervised practice driving is quite safe, crash rates are high during the first six months or so of independent driving then decline rapidly, but remain high for years relative to experienced drivers. Contributing factors to crash risk include exposure, inexperience, elevated gravitational-force event rates, greater willingness to engage in secondary tasks while driving, and social influence from peer passengers. The findings indicate the need and possible objectives for improving practice driving instruction and developing innovative prevention approaches for the first year of independent driving.

]]>Teen Driving Risk and Prevention: Naturalistic Driving Research Contributions and ChallengesBruce Simons-MortonJohnathon EhsaniPnina GershonSheila KlauerThomas Dingusdoi: 10.3390/safety3040029Safety2017-12-18Safety2017-12-1834Article2910.3390/safety3040029http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/29Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 28: Talking on a Wireless Cellular Device While Driving: Improving the Validity of Crash Odds Ratio Estimates in the SHRP 2 Naturalistic Driving Studyhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/28
Dingus and colleagues (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2016, 113, 2636–2641) reported a crash odds ratio (OR) estimate of 2.2 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) from 1.6 to 3.1 for hand-held cell phone conversation (hereafter, “Talk”) in the SHRP 2 naturalistic driving database. This estimate is substantially higher than the effect sizes near one in prior real-world and naturalistic driving studies of conversation on wireless cellular devices (whether hand-held, hands-free portable, or hands-free integrated). Two upward biases were discovered in the Dingus study. First, it selected many Talk-exposed drivers who simultaneously performed additional secondary tasks besides Talk but selected Talk-unexposed drivers with no secondary tasks. This “selection bias” was removed by: (1) filtering out records with additional tasks from the Talk-exposed group; or (2) adding records with other tasks to the Talk-unexposed group. Second, it included records with driver behavior errors, a confounding bias that was also removed by filtering out such records. After removing both biases, the Talk OR point estimates declined to below 1, now consistent with prior studies. Pooling the adjusted SHRP 2 Talk OR estimates with prior study effect size estimates to improve precision, the population effect size for wireless cellular conversation while driving is estimated as 0.72 (CI 0.60–0.88).Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 28: Talking on a Wireless Cellular Device While Driving: Improving the Validity of Crash Odds Ratio Estimates in the SHRP 2 Naturalistic Driving Study

Dingus and colleagues (Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2016, 113, 2636–2641) reported a crash odds ratio (OR) estimate of 2.2 with a 95% confidence interval (CI) from 1.6 to 3.1 for hand-held cell phone conversation (hereafter, “Talk”) in the SHRP 2 naturalistic driving database. This estimate is substantially higher than the effect sizes near one in prior real-world and naturalistic driving studies of conversation on wireless cellular devices (whether hand-held, hands-free portable, or hands-free integrated). Two upward biases were discovered in the Dingus study. First, it selected many Talk-exposed drivers who simultaneously performed additional secondary tasks besides Talk but selected Talk-unexposed drivers with no secondary tasks. This “selection bias” was removed by: (1) filtering out records with additional tasks from the Talk-exposed group; or (2) adding records with other tasks to the Talk-unexposed group. Second, it included records with driver behavior errors, a confounding bias that was also removed by filtering out such records. After removing both biases, the Talk OR point estimates declined to below 1, now consistent with prior studies. Pooling the adjusted SHRP 2 Talk OR estimates with prior study effect size estimates to improve precision, the population effect size for wireless cellular conversation while driving is estimated as 0.72 (CI 0.60–0.88).

]]>Talking on a Wireless Cellular Device While Driving: Improving the Validity of Crash Odds Ratio Estimates in the SHRP 2 Naturalistic Driving StudyRichard A. Youngdoi: 10.3390/safety3040028Safety2017-12-11Safety2017-12-1134Article2810.3390/safety3040028http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/28Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 27: Reconstruction of a Rollover Crash for Thoracic Injury Etiology Investigationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/27
The cause of serious and fatal thoracic injuries in passenger vehicle rollover crashes is currently not well understood. Previous research on thoracic injuries resulting from rollover crashes have focused primarily on statistical analysis of crash data. This study seeks to develop a better understanding of where in the rollover sequence thoracic injuries may occur. To do this, a real-world passenger vehicle rollover crash where the driver sustained serious bilateral thoracic injuries was reconstructed. Multi-body analysis was used to determine the vehicle’s pre-trip trajectory and to obtain the vehicle’s position and kinematics at the point of trip. This information was then used to prescribe the motion of the vehicle in a finite element analysis. A finite element model of the EuroSID-2re anthropomorphic test device was placed in the driver’s seat. Four simulations, each with the anthropomorphic test device positioned in different postures, were performed. Rib deflection, spinal acceleration, and thoracic impact velocity were obtained from the anthropomorphic test device and compared to existing thoracic injury assessment reference values. From the analysis, lateral thoracic impact velocity indicates that a serious thoracic injury is likely to have occurred when the driver impacted the centre console during the vehicle’s fourth quarter-turn.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 27: Reconstruction of a Rollover Crash for Thoracic Injury Etiology Investigation

The cause of serious and fatal thoracic injuries in passenger vehicle rollover crashes is currently not well understood. Previous research on thoracic injuries resulting from rollover crashes have focused primarily on statistical analysis of crash data. This study seeks to develop a better understanding of where in the rollover sequence thoracic injuries may occur. To do this, a real-world passenger vehicle rollover crash where the driver sustained serious bilateral thoracic injuries was reconstructed. Multi-body analysis was used to determine the vehicle’s pre-trip trajectory and to obtain the vehicle’s position and kinematics at the point of trip. This information was then used to prescribe the motion of the vehicle in a finite element analysis. A finite element model of the EuroSID-2re anthropomorphic test device was placed in the driver’s seat. Four simulations, each with the anthropomorphic test device positioned in different postures, were performed. Rib deflection, spinal acceleration, and thoracic impact velocity were obtained from the anthropomorphic test device and compared to existing thoracic injury assessment reference values. From the analysis, lateral thoracic impact velocity indicates that a serious thoracic injury is likely to have occurred when the driver impacted the centre console during the vehicle’s fourth quarter-turn.

]]>Reconstruction of a Rollover Crash for Thoracic Injury Etiology InvestigationTana TanMario MongiardiniRaphael GrzebietaGarrett Mattosdoi: 10.3390/safety3040027Safety2017-11-22Safety2017-11-2234Article2710.3390/safety3040027http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/27Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 26: How Did Crew Resource Management Take-Off Outside of the Cockpit? A Systematic Review of How Crew Resource Management Training Is Conceptualised and Evaluated for Non-Pilotshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/26
Crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews is widespread and has been credited with improving aviation safety. As other industries have adopted CRM, they have interpreted CRM in different ways. We sought to understand how industries have adopted CRM, regarding its conceptualisation and evaluation. For this, we conducted a systematic review of CRM studies in the Maritime, Nuclear Power, Oil and Gas, and Air Traffic Control industries. We searched three electronic databases (Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus) and CRM reviews for papers. We analysed these papers on their goals, scope, levers of change, and evaluation. To synthesise, we compared the analysis results across industries. We found that most CRM programs have the broad goals of improving safety and efficiency. However, there are differences in the scope and levers of change between programs, both within and between industries. Most evaluative studies suffer from methodological weaknesses, and the evaluation does not align with how studies conceptualise CRM. These results challenge the assumption that there is a clear link between CRM training and enhanced safety in the analysed industries. Future CRM research needs to provide a clear conceptualisation—how CRM is expected to improve safety—and select evaluation measures consistent with this.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 26: How Did Crew Resource Management Take-Off Outside of the Cockpit? A Systematic Review of How Crew Resource Management Training Is Conceptualised and Evaluated for Non-Pilots

Crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews is widespread and has been credited with improving aviation safety. As other industries have adopted CRM, they have interpreted CRM in different ways. We sought to understand how industries have adopted CRM, regarding its conceptualisation and evaluation. For this, we conducted a systematic review of CRM studies in the Maritime, Nuclear Power, Oil and Gas, and Air Traffic Control industries. We searched three electronic databases (Web of Science, Science Direct, Scopus) and CRM reviews for papers. We analysed these papers on their goals, scope, levers of change, and evaluation. To synthesise, we compared the analysis results across industries. We found that most CRM programs have the broad goals of improving safety and efficiency. However, there are differences in the scope and levers of change between programs, both within and between industries. Most evaluative studies suffer from methodological weaknesses, and the evaluation does not align with how studies conceptualise CRM. These results challenge the assumption that there is a clear link between CRM training and enhanced safety in the analysed industries. Future CRM research needs to provide a clear conceptualisation—how CRM is expected to improve safety—and select evaluation measures consistent with this.

]]>How Did Crew Resource Management Take-Off Outside of the Cockpit? A Systematic Review of How Crew Resource Management Training Is Conceptualised and Evaluated for Non-PilotsJop HavingaRobert Jan De BoerAndrew RaeSidney Dekkerdoi: 10.3390/safety3040026Safety2017-10-31Safety2017-10-3134Review2610.3390/safety3040026http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/26Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 25: Microneedle Manufacture: Assessing Hazards and Control Measureshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/25
Transdermal microneedles have captured the attention of researchers in relation to a variety of applications, and silicone-based moulds required to produce these systems are now widely available and can be readily manufactured on the lab bench. There is however some concern over the potential for accidental needlestick injuries and, as with any sharp hazard, the potential for blood-borne pathogen transmission must be considered. This follows from recent governmental concerns over the use of microneedle systems in dermabrasion. Despite the piercing nature of the microneedle patch sharing many similarities with conventional hypodermic needles, there are notable factors that mitigate the risk of contamination. A range of microneedle systems has been prepared using micromoulding techniques, and their puncture capability assessed. A critical assessment of the potential for accidental puncture and the control measures needed to ensure safe utilisation of the patch systems is presented.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 25: Microneedle Manufacture: Assessing Hazards and Control Measures

Transdermal microneedles have captured the attention of researchers in relation to a variety of applications, and silicone-based moulds required to produce these systems are now widely available and can be readily manufactured on the lab bench. There is however some concern over the potential for accidental needlestick injuries and, as with any sharp hazard, the potential for blood-borne pathogen transmission must be considered. This follows from recent governmental concerns over the use of microneedle systems in dermabrasion. Despite the piercing nature of the microneedle patch sharing many similarities with conventional hypodermic needles, there are notable factors that mitigate the risk of contamination. A range of microneedle systems has been prepared using micromoulding techniques, and their puncture capability assessed. A critical assessment of the potential for accidental puncture and the control measures needed to ensure safe utilisation of the patch systems is presented.

]]>Microneedle Manufacture: Assessing Hazards and Control MeasuresAlexander MartinAaron McConvilleAshleigh AndersonAnna McListerJames Davisdoi: 10.3390/safety3040025Safety2017-10-30Safety2017-10-3034Article2510.3390/safety3040025http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/25Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 24: Caregivers’ Use of Child Passenger Safety Resources and Quality of Future Child Restraint System Installationshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/24
Objectives: Child Restraint System (CRS) misuse is common. We characterized caregivers’ use of child passenger safety informational and instructional resources and determined whether there were differences in the quality of CRS installations associated with prior exposure to specific resources as evaluated in a standardized CRS installation environment. Methods: Caregivers completed self-report surveys and installed a forward-facing CRS in a controlled environment. Installations were evaluated for security (tightness) and accuracy (no errors) by a child passenger safety technician (CPST). Results: CRS manuals were the most common way caregivers learned to install a CRS. Primary care providers (PCP)s were the most frequently endorsed source of CRS safety information. There was no strong pattern of associations between prior exposure to resources and installation quality (security or accuracy), although some evidence supports protective effects of learning from CPSTs; 13% (19 out of 151) installations were secure and 57% (86 out of 151) installations were accurate. Conclusions: A focus on developing effective and lasting behavioral interventions is needed.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 24: Caregivers’ Use of Child Passenger Safety Resources and Quality of Future Child Restraint System Installations

Objectives: Child Restraint System (CRS) misuse is common. We characterized caregivers’ use of child passenger safety informational and instructional resources and determined whether there were differences in the quality of CRS installations associated with prior exposure to specific resources as evaluated in a standardized CRS installation environment. Methods: Caregivers completed self-report surveys and installed a forward-facing CRS in a controlled environment. Installations were evaluated for security (tightness) and accuracy (no errors) by a child passenger safety technician (CPST). Results: CRS manuals were the most common way caregivers learned to install a CRS. Primary care providers (PCP)s were the most frequently endorsed source of CRS safety information. There was no strong pattern of associations between prior exposure to resources and installation quality (security or accuracy), although some evidence supports protective effects of learning from CPSTs; 13% (19 out of 151) installations were secure and 57% (86 out of 151) installations were accurate. Conclusions: A focus on developing effective and lasting behavioral interventions is needed.

]]>Caregivers’ Use of Child Passenger Safety Resources and Quality of Future Child Restraint System InstallationsJessica H. MirmanSara J. SeifertKristi MetzgerDennis R. DurbinKristy B. ArbogastMark R. Zonfrillodoi: 10.3390/safety3040024Safety2017-10-24Safety2017-10-2434Article2410.3390/safety3040024http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/24Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 23: A Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors for the Oil and Gas Industry (TRACEr-OGI)http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/23
Human error remains a major cause of several accidents in the oil and gas (O&amp;amp;G) industry. While human error has been analysed in several industries and has been at the centre of many debates and commentaries, a detailed, systematic and comprehensive analysis of human error in the O&amp;amp;G industry has not yet been conducted. Hence, this report aims to use the Technique for Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors (TRACEr) to analyse historical accidents in the O&amp;amp;G industry. The study has reviewed 163 major and/or fatal O&amp;amp;G industry accidents that occurred between 2000 and 2014. The results obtained have shown that the predominant context for errors was internal communication, mostly influenced by factors of perception. Major accident events were crane accidents and falling objects, relating to the most dominant accident type: ‘Struck by’. The main actors in these events were drillers and operators. Generally, TRACEr proved very useful in identifying major task errors. However, the taxonomy was less useful in identifying both equipment errors and errors due to failures in safety critical control barriers and recovery measures. Therefore, a modified version of the tool named Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors for the Oil and Gas Industry (TRACEr-OGI) was proposed and used. This modified analytical tool was consequently found to be more effective for accident analysis in the O&amp;amp;G industry.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 23: A Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors for the Oil and Gas Industry (TRACEr-OGI)

Human error remains a major cause of several accidents in the oil and gas (O&amp;amp;G) industry. While human error has been analysed in several industries and has been at the centre of many debates and commentaries, a detailed, systematic and comprehensive analysis of human error in the O&amp;amp;G industry has not yet been conducted. Hence, this report aims to use the Technique for Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors (TRACEr) to analyse historical accidents in the O&amp;amp;G industry. The study has reviewed 163 major and/or fatal O&amp;amp;G industry accidents that occurred between 2000 and 2014. The results obtained have shown that the predominant context for errors was internal communication, mostly influenced by factors of perception. Major accident events were crane accidents and falling objects, relating to the most dominant accident type: ‘Struck by’. The main actors in these events were drillers and operators. Generally, TRACEr proved very useful in identifying major task errors. However, the taxonomy was less useful in identifying both equipment errors and errors due to failures in safety critical control barriers and recovery measures. Therefore, a modified version of the tool named Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors for the Oil and Gas Industry (TRACEr-OGI) was proposed and used. This modified analytical tool was consequently found to be more effective for accident analysis in the O&amp;amp;G industry.

]]>A Technique for the Retrospective and Predictive Analysis of Cognitive Errors for the Oil and Gas Industry (TRACEr-OGI)Stephen TheophilusIkpang EkpenyongAugustine IfelebueguAndrew ArewaGeorge Agyekum-MensahTochukwu Ajaredoi: 10.3390/safety3040023Safety2017-09-25Safety2017-09-2534Article2310.3390/safety3040023http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/23Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 22: Internationalisation in Road Transport of Goods in Norway: Safety Outcomes, Risk Factors and Policy Implicationshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/22
The European Union (EU) promotes a gradual lifting of restrictions on foreign hauliers involved in domestic road transport of goods (cabotage), and liberalization of the current road cabotage rules may further increase the proportion of foreign heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) on Norwegian roads. The aims of the present study are to: (1) Examine the safety outcomes of increasing internationalisation in (Norwegian) road transport of goods; and (2) Discuss the importance of potential risk factors related to increasing proportions of foreign HGVs on Norwegian roads. We use four data sources to shed light on the aims. Results show that foreign HGVs account for 6% of the average domestic transport in Norway, and 11% of the HGVs involved in personal injury accidents. Additionally, foreign HGVs have a three times higher risk of single vehicle accidents, and twice the risk of head-on collisions. Foreign HGV drivers also seem more likely to trigger fatal accidents. We conclude that two risk factors seem to be important: (1) experience with/competence on Norwegian roads and (2) winter driving. Thus, the safety challenge is not that the drivers are foreign, but that they to some extent lack experience with, and competence on, the Norwegian road networks and the challenges that these roads may pose (e.g., narrow roads with high gradients, many curves, snow and ice). Previous research from other countries has also found that lacking experience with national road networks is an important risk factor. Given our results on risk factors, we may hypothesize that if foreign HGV drivers get more experience and education on Norwegian driving conditions, then increased internationalization could perhaps be of less concern in road safety. When discussing the higher accident risk and lower experience of foreign HGV drivers in Norway, it is important to note that the reason for foreign HGV drivers, working for foreign hauliers, to drive in Norway is that there are customers of the goods in Norway. Interviewees stressed that the foreign driver is often the last link in a long and complex chain of actors involved in the transport. Although these actors have a legal responsibility to “contribute to safety,” interviewees stated that this responsibility is vague and not clearly enforced. We therefore suggest the clarification of, and an increase in, the responsibilities of the different parties involved in goods transport, especially the transport buyers. This means to both ensure the experience and training of the drivers (e.g., preparing them properly to drive on winter roads), and to positively influence their transport safety in other ways (e.g., reducing stress and time-pressure).Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 22: Internationalisation in Road Transport of Goods in Norway: Safety Outcomes, Risk Factors and Policy Implications

The European Union (EU) promotes a gradual lifting of restrictions on foreign hauliers involved in domestic road transport of goods (cabotage), and liberalization of the current road cabotage rules may further increase the proportion of foreign heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) on Norwegian roads. The aims of the present study are to: (1) Examine the safety outcomes of increasing internationalisation in (Norwegian) road transport of goods; and (2) Discuss the importance of potential risk factors related to increasing proportions of foreign HGVs on Norwegian roads. We use four data sources to shed light on the aims. Results show that foreign HGVs account for 6% of the average domestic transport in Norway, and 11% of the HGVs involved in personal injury accidents. Additionally, foreign HGVs have a three times higher risk of single vehicle accidents, and twice the risk of head-on collisions. Foreign HGV drivers also seem more likely to trigger fatal accidents. We conclude that two risk factors seem to be important: (1) experience with/competence on Norwegian roads and (2) winter driving. Thus, the safety challenge is not that the drivers are foreign, but that they to some extent lack experience with, and competence on, the Norwegian road networks and the challenges that these roads may pose (e.g., narrow roads with high gradients, many curves, snow and ice). Previous research from other countries has also found that lacking experience with national road networks is an important risk factor. Given our results on risk factors, we may hypothesize that if foreign HGV drivers get more experience and education on Norwegian driving conditions, then increased internationalization could perhaps be of less concern in road safety. When discussing the higher accident risk and lower experience of foreign HGV drivers in Norway, it is important to note that the reason for foreign HGV drivers, working for foreign hauliers, to drive in Norway is that there are customers of the goods in Norway. Interviewees stressed that the foreign driver is often the last link in a long and complex chain of actors involved in the transport. Although these actors have a legal responsibility to “contribute to safety,” interviewees stated that this responsibility is vague and not clearly enforced. We therefore suggest the clarification of, and an increase in, the responsibilities of the different parties involved in goods transport, especially the transport buyers. This means to both ensure the experience and training of the drivers (e.g., preparing them properly to drive on winter roads), and to positively influence their transport safety in other ways (e.g., reducing stress and time-pressure).

]]>Internationalisation in Road Transport of Goods in Norway: Safety Outcomes, Risk Factors and Policy ImplicationsTor-Olav NævestadRoss PhillipsGunhild Meyer LevlinInger Hovidoi: 10.3390/safety3040022Safety2017-09-21Safety2017-09-2134Article2210.3390/safety3040022http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/4/22Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 21: Analysis of Passenger Incident Data from Five Rail Transit Systemshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/21
The study results reported here are part of a larger research project that developed a manual for practitioners to improve safety at rail transit platform/train and platform/guideway interfaces. As part of that effort, passenger injury incident data was collected from five rail transit systems, and interviews were conducted with safety officers at other rail transit systems in the US and Canada. The data collected showed that stairs and escalators and general platform tripping produced more injury incidents than the platform/train and platform/guideway interfaces. Heavy rail transit with platforms that are higher than 24 inches from top of rail had more injury incidents than light rail transit that typically operates on low level platforms. Other causes of injury incidents included intoxication, attempted suicide, and distraction.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 21: Analysis of Passenger Incident Data from Five Rail Transit Systems

The study results reported here are part of a larger research project that developed a manual for practitioners to improve safety at rail transit platform/train and platform/guideway interfaces. As part of that effort, passenger injury incident data was collected from five rail transit systems, and interviews were conducted with safety officers at other rail transit systems in the US and Canada. The data collected showed that stairs and escalators and general platform tripping produced more injury incidents than the platform/train and platform/guideway interfaces. Heavy rail transit with platforms that are higher than 24 inches from top of rail had more injury incidents than light rail transit that typically operates on low level platforms. Other causes of injury incidents included intoxication, attempted suicide, and distraction.

]]>Analysis of Passenger Incident Data from Five Rail Transit SystemsKatharine Hunter-Zaworskidoi: 10.3390/safety3030021Safety2017-09-12Safety2017-09-1233Article2110.3390/safety3030021http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/21Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 20: Models of Automation Surprise: Results of a Field Survey in Aviationhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/20
Automation surprises in aviation continue to be a significant safety concern and the community’s search for effective strategies to mitigate them are ongoing. The literature has offered two fundamentally divergent directions, based on different ideas about the nature of cognition and collaboration with automation. In this paper, we report the results of a field study that empirically compared and contrasted two models of automation surprises: a normative individual-cognition model and a sensemaking model based on distributed cognition. Our data prove a good fit for the sense-making model. This finding is relevant for aviation safety, since our understanding of the cognitive processes that govern human interaction with automation drive what we need to do to reduce the frequency of automation-induced events.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 20: Models of Automation Surprise: Results of a Field Survey in Aviation

Automation surprises in aviation continue to be a significant safety concern and the community’s search for effective strategies to mitigate them are ongoing. The literature has offered two fundamentally divergent directions, based on different ideas about the nature of cognition and collaboration with automation. In this paper, we report the results of a field study that empirically compared and contrasted two models of automation surprises: a normative individual-cognition model and a sensemaking model based on distributed cognition. Our data prove a good fit for the sense-making model. This finding is relevant for aviation safety, since our understanding of the cognitive processes that govern human interaction with automation drive what we need to do to reduce the frequency of automation-induced events.

]]>Models of Automation Surprise: Results of a Field Survey in AviationRobert De BoerSidney Dekkerdoi: 10.3390/safety3030020Safety2017-09-11Safety2017-09-1133Article2010.3390/safety3030020http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/20Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 19: Pilot Testing a Naturalistic Driving Study to Investigate Winter Maintenance Operator Fatigue during Winter Emergencieshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/19
Although numerous research studies have investigated the effects of fatigue in commercial motor vehicle drivers, research with winter maintenance (WM) drivers is sparse. This study pilot-tested the feasibility of evaluating WM operator fatigue during winter emergencies using naturalistic driving data. Four WM operators participated in the study and drove two instrumented snow plows for three consecutive winter months. The operators also wore an actigraph device used to measure sleep quantity. As this was a pilot study, the results were limited and only provided an estimation of what may be found in a large-scale naturalistic driving study with WM operators. Results showed the majority of safety-critical events (SCEs) occurred during the night, and approximately half of the SCEs occurred when participants were between 5 and 8 h into their shifts. Fatigue was identified as the critical reason in 33% of the SCEs, and drivers were found to average less sleep during winter emergencies versus winter non-emergencies. However, one participant accounted for all fatigue-related SCEs. Although data were limited to two instrumented trucks and four drivers, results support the approach of using naturalistic driving data to assess fatigue in WM operators. Future on-road research is needed to understand the relationship between fatigue and crash risk in WM operators.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 19: Pilot Testing a Naturalistic Driving Study to Investigate Winter Maintenance Operator Fatigue during Winter Emergencies

Although numerous research studies have investigated the effects of fatigue in commercial motor vehicle drivers, research with winter maintenance (WM) drivers is sparse. This study pilot-tested the feasibility of evaluating WM operator fatigue during winter emergencies using naturalistic driving data. Four WM operators participated in the study and drove two instrumented snow plows for three consecutive winter months. The operators also wore an actigraph device used to measure sleep quantity. As this was a pilot study, the results were limited and only provided an estimation of what may be found in a large-scale naturalistic driving study with WM operators. Results showed the majority of safety-critical events (SCEs) occurred during the night, and approximately half of the SCEs occurred when participants were between 5 and 8 h into their shifts. Fatigue was identified as the critical reason in 33% of the SCEs, and drivers were found to average less sleep during winter emergencies versus winter non-emergencies. However, one participant accounted for all fatigue-related SCEs. Although data were limited to two instrumented trucks and four drivers, results support the approach of using naturalistic driving data to assess fatigue in WM operators. Future on-road research is needed to understand the relationship between fatigue and crash risk in WM operators.

]]>Pilot Testing a Naturalistic Driving Study to Investigate Winter Maintenance Operator Fatigue during Winter EmergenciesMatthew CamdenJeffrey HickmanRichard Hanowskidoi: 10.3390/safety3030019Safety2017-08-14Safety2017-08-1433Article1910.3390/safety3030019http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/19Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 18: Postural Control in Workplace Safety: Role of Occupational Footwear and Workloadhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/18
Maintaining postural stability is crucial, especially in hazardous occupational environments. The purpose of the study was to assess the role of three occupational footwear (low top shoe (LT); tactical work boot (TB) and steel-toed work boot (WB)) on postural stability when exposed to an occupational workload (4-h) involving standing/walking using the sensory organization test (SOT) equilibrium (EQ) scores and comparing current results with previously published postural sway variables from the same study. Fourteen male adults were tested on three separate days wearing a randomized occupational footwear, at the beginning (pre) and every 30 min of the 4-h workload until 240th min. SOT EQ scores were analyzed using a 3 × 9 repeated measures analysis of variance at an alpha level of 0.05. Significant differences between footwear was found in eyes open (p = 0.03) and eyes closed (p = 0.001) conditions. Pairwise comparisons revealed that LT had significantly lower postural stability compared to TB and WB. No other significant differences were found between footwear and over time. Significant differences between footwear can be attributed to design characteristics of footwear. Lack of significant differences over time suggests that, even though the average EQ scores decreased during the workload implying less postural stability, SOT EQ scores alone may not be sufficient to detect postural stability changes over the 4-h workload.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 18: Postural Control in Workplace Safety: Role of Occupational Footwear and Workload

Maintaining postural stability is crucial, especially in hazardous occupational environments. The purpose of the study was to assess the role of three occupational footwear (low top shoe (LT); tactical work boot (TB) and steel-toed work boot (WB)) on postural stability when exposed to an occupational workload (4-h) involving standing/walking using the sensory organization test (SOT) equilibrium (EQ) scores and comparing current results with previously published postural sway variables from the same study. Fourteen male adults were tested on three separate days wearing a randomized occupational footwear, at the beginning (pre) and every 30 min of the 4-h workload until 240th min. SOT EQ scores were analyzed using a 3 × 9 repeated measures analysis of variance at an alpha level of 0.05. Significant differences between footwear was found in eyes open (p = 0.03) and eyes closed (p = 0.001) conditions. Pairwise comparisons revealed that LT had significantly lower postural stability compared to TB and WB. No other significant differences were found between footwear and over time. Significant differences between footwear can be attributed to design characteristics of footwear. Lack of significant differences over time suggests that, even though the average EQ scores decreased during the workload implying less postural stability, SOT EQ scores alone may not be sufficient to detect postural stability changes over the 4-h workload.

]]>Postural Control in Workplace Safety: Role of Occupational Footwear and WorkloadHarish ChanderJohn GarnerChip WadeAdam Knightdoi: 10.3390/safety3030018Safety2017-08-01Safety2017-08-0133Article1810.3390/safety3030018http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/18Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 17: Implications of Articulating Machinery on Operator Line of Sight and Efficacy of Camera Based Proximity Detection Systemshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/17
The underground mining industry, and some above ground operations, rely on the use of heavy equipment that articulates to navigate corners in the tight confines of the tunnels. Poor line of sight (LOS) has been identified as a problem for safe operation of this machinery. Proximity detection systems, such as a video system designed to provide a 360 degree view around the machine have been implemented to improve the available LOS for the operator. A four-camera system was modeled in a computer environment to assess LOS on a 3D cad model of a typical, articulated machine. When positioned without any articulation, the system is excellent at removing blind spots for a machine driving straight forward or backward in a straight tunnel. Further analysis reveals that when the machine articulates in a simulated corner section, some camera locations are no longer useful for improving LOS into the corner. In some cases, the operator has a superior view into the corner, when compared to the best available view from the camera. The work points to the need to integrate proximity detection systems at the design, build, and manufacture stage, and to consider proper policy and procedures that would address the gains and limits of the systems prior to implementation.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 17: Implications of Articulating Machinery on Operator Line of Sight and Efficacy of Camera Based Proximity Detection Systems

The underground mining industry, and some above ground operations, rely on the use of heavy equipment that articulates to navigate corners in the tight confines of the tunnels. Poor line of sight (LOS) has been identified as a problem for safe operation of this machinery. Proximity detection systems, such as a video system designed to provide a 360 degree view around the machine have been implemented to improve the available LOS for the operator. A four-camera system was modeled in a computer environment to assess LOS on a 3D cad model of a typical, articulated machine. When positioned without any articulation, the system is excellent at removing blind spots for a machine driving straight forward or backward in a straight tunnel. Further analysis reveals that when the machine articulates in a simulated corner section, some camera locations are no longer useful for improving LOS into the corner. In some cases, the operator has a superior view into the corner, when compared to the best available view from the camera. The work points to the need to integrate proximity detection systems at the design, build, and manufacture stage, and to consider proper policy and procedures that would address the gains and limits of the systems prior to implementation.

]]>Implications of Articulating Machinery on Operator Line of Sight and Efficacy of Camera Based Proximity Detection SystemsNicholas SchwabeAlison Godwindoi: 10.3390/safety3030017Safety2017-07-06Safety2017-07-0633Case Report1710.3390/safety3030017http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/3/17Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 16: Simulations of Blast Wave and Fireball Occurring Due to Rupture of High-Pressure Hydrogen Tankhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/16
In the present study, pilot simulations of the phenomena of blast wave and fireball generated by the rupture of a high-pressure (35 MPa) hydrogen tank (volume 72 L) due to fire were carried out. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model includes the realizable k-ε model for turbulence and the eddy dissipation model coupled with the one-step chemical reaction mechanism for combustion. The simulation results were compared with experimental data on a stand-alone hydrogen tank rupture in a bonfire test. The simulations provided insights into the interaction between the blast wave propagation and combustion process. The simulated blast wave decay is approximately identical to the experimental data concerning pressure at various distances. Fireball is first ignited at the ground level, which is considered to be due to stagnation flow conditions. Subsequently, the flame propagates toward the interface between hydrogen and air.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 16: Simulations of Blast Wave and Fireball Occurring Due to Rupture of High-Pressure Hydrogen Tank

In the present study, pilot simulations of the phenomena of blast wave and fireball generated by the rupture of a high-pressure (35 MPa) hydrogen tank (volume 72 L) due to fire were carried out. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model includes the realizable k-ε model for turbulence and the eddy dissipation model coupled with the one-step chemical reaction mechanism for combustion. The simulation results were compared with experimental data on a stand-alone hydrogen tank rupture in a bonfire test. The simulations provided insights into the interaction between the blast wave propagation and combustion process. The simulated blast wave decay is approximately identical to the experimental data concerning pressure at various distances. Fireball is first ignited at the ground level, which is considered to be due to stagnation flow conditions. Subsequently, the flame propagates toward the interface between hydrogen and air.

]]>Simulations of Blast Wave and Fireball Occurring Due to Rupture of High-Pressure Hydrogen TankWookyung KimVolodymyr ShentsovDmitriy MakarovVladimir Molkovdoi: 10.3390/safety3020016Safety2017-06-17Safety2017-06-1732Article1610.3390/safety3020016http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/16Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 15: Quad-Bike Operational Instabilityhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/15
The stake-holders in the quad-bike (QB) industry in Australia have failed to reach a satisfactory resolution of the present impasse that exists with respect to the causes and mitigation of the trauma suffered by riders due to QB instability. In an effort to provide purchasers with data enabling them to discriminate between safer and less safe machines, static longitudinal and lateral tests have been conducted by various interested parties; quasi-static lateral tests have also been conducted under some operational conditions. It is argued that while these static tests are valid, under many operating conditions QBs will not reach such unstable slopes due to poor traction. Further, these tests do not include the quasi-static and dynamic factors which also influence the processes associated with operational instability. For these reasons, the static tests do not provide an adequate basis for discrimination between safer and less safe machines.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 15: Quad-Bike Operational Instability

The stake-holders in the quad-bike (QB) industry in Australia have failed to reach a satisfactory resolution of the present impasse that exists with respect to the causes and mitigation of the trauma suffered by riders due to QB instability. In an effort to provide purchasers with data enabling them to discriminate between safer and less safe machines, static longitudinal and lateral tests have been conducted by various interested parties; quasi-static lateral tests have also been conducted under some operational conditions. It is argued that while these static tests are valid, under many operating conditions QBs will not reach such unstable slopes due to poor traction. Further, these tests do not include the quasi-static and dynamic factors which also influence the processes associated with operational instability. For these reasons, the static tests do not provide an adequate basis for discrimination between safer and less safe machines.

]]>Quad-Bike Operational InstabilityRoss H. Macmillandoi: 10.3390/safety3020015Safety2017-05-31Safety2017-05-3132Article1510.3390/safety3020015http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/15Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 14: Enhancing Higher-Order Skills Education and Assessment in a Graduated Motorcycle Licensing Systemhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/14
Prior to 2016, motorcycle licensing in Victoria, Australia, required off-road (range) skills testing only, focusing on vehicle-handling skills. The objective of this research was to develop an education and assessment curriculum commensurate with best practice that included on-road components and increased focus on awareness, judgment, and decision-making skills. No single best-practice curriculum was identified in the published literature. Therefore, to guide development of a new curriculum, a best-practice novice driver education framework, Goals for Driver Education, was adapted into the Goals for Rider Education framework. Applying Training Needs Analysis, the target population of learner motorcyclists was identified as largely male and aged under 30 years, with the target crash problem including a high proportion of single-vehicle loss-of-control crashes. Tailored content was developed based on exemplary Australian and international curricula, behaviour change theory, and adult learning principles; including transitioning from training to coaching and from testing to competency-based assessment. The result is Victoria’s new Motorcycle Graduated Licensing System (M-GLS) education and assessment curriculum, comprising three stages: pre-learner (Motorcycle Permit Assessment), learner (Check Ride), and pre-licence (Motorcycle Licence Assessment). Subject to potential refinements and on-going evaluation, this work lays the foundation for establishing a best-practice approach to novice motorcyclist education for licensure.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 14: Enhancing Higher-Order Skills Education and Assessment in a Graduated Motorcycle Licensing System

Prior to 2016, motorcycle licensing in Victoria, Australia, required off-road (range) skills testing only, focusing on vehicle-handling skills. The objective of this research was to develop an education and assessment curriculum commensurate with best practice that included on-road components and increased focus on awareness, judgment, and decision-making skills. No single best-practice curriculum was identified in the published literature. Therefore, to guide development of a new curriculum, a best-practice novice driver education framework, Goals for Driver Education, was adapted into the Goals for Rider Education framework. Applying Training Needs Analysis, the target population of learner motorcyclists was identified as largely male and aged under 30 years, with the target crash problem including a high proportion of single-vehicle loss-of-control crashes. Tailored content was developed based on exemplary Australian and international curricula, behaviour change theory, and adult learning principles; including transitioning from training to coaching and from testing to competency-based assessment. The result is Victoria’s new Motorcycle Graduated Licensing System (M-GLS) education and assessment curriculum, comprising three stages: pre-learner (Motorcycle Permit Assessment), learner (Check Ride), and pre-licence (Motorcycle Licence Assessment). Subject to potential refinements and on-going evaluation, this work lays the foundation for establishing a best-practice approach to novice motorcyclist education for licensure.

]]>Enhancing Higher-Order Skills Education and Assessment in a Graduated Motorcycle Licensing SystemTeresa SenserrickDuncan McRaePhil Wallace PLiz de RomePaul ReesAnn Williamsondoi: 10.3390/safety3020014Safety2017-04-13Safety2017-04-1332Article1410.3390/safety3020014http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/14Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 13: Design of a Pressurized Smokeproof Enclosure: CFD Analysis and Experimental Testshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/13
Pressure differential systems have the purpose of maintaining tenable conditions in protected spaces for different types of building safe places, like escape routes, firefighting access routes, lobbies, stairwells and refuge areas. The aim of pressure differential systems is to establish airflow paths from protected spaces at high pressure to spaces at lower or ambient pressure, preventing the spread of toxic gas released during a fire. This strategy ought to be supported by a detailed design of the necessary air supply, considering also the cycle of opening and closing doors during the egress phase. The paper deals with the design of a simple pressure differential system intended to be used in a building as a pressurized smokeproof enclosure. Specifically, experimental tests and numerical modelling are conducted with the objective of characterizing the pressure evolution in a small compartment under different conditions and through a cycle of door opening. Experimental tests are conducted in a simple 3-m side cubic enclosure with two doors and no vent openings. While a centrifugal fan blows constant airflow inside the structure, the pressure trend in time is recorded during steady state and transient conditions; additionally, the velocity of the airflow across the doors has been measured by means of an anemometer. Numerical CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulations are carried out to reproduce the same smokeproof enclosure configuration (both geometrical and boundary conditions) using the fire dynamics simulator (FDS). Furthermore, specific attention is paid to the modelling of the leakage across the doors, directly inserted in the model through a localized HVAC (heating and venting air conditioning) advanced leakage function. Comparisons between experimental tests and numerical simulations are provided. Once the model was correctly calibrated, other geometrical and mechanical configurations have been studied, looking for convenient and efficient positions of the fan in order to fulfill the requirements of the pressure differential, airflow velocity and door handle force. The paper highlights some fundamental aspects on the pressurization and depressurization during steady state and transient phases, trying to identify if there are airflow profiles typical of some geometrical configurations.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 13: Design of a Pressurized Smokeproof Enclosure: CFD Analysis and Experimental Tests

Pressure differential systems have the purpose of maintaining tenable conditions in protected spaces for different types of building safe places, like escape routes, firefighting access routes, lobbies, stairwells and refuge areas. The aim of pressure differential systems is to establish airflow paths from protected spaces at high pressure to spaces at lower or ambient pressure, preventing the spread of toxic gas released during a fire. This strategy ought to be supported by a detailed design of the necessary air supply, considering also the cycle of opening and closing doors during the egress phase. The paper deals with the design of a simple pressure differential system intended to be used in a building as a pressurized smokeproof enclosure. Specifically, experimental tests and numerical modelling are conducted with the objective of characterizing the pressure evolution in a small compartment under different conditions and through a cycle of door opening. Experimental tests are conducted in a simple 3-m side cubic enclosure with two doors and no vent openings. While a centrifugal fan blows constant airflow inside the structure, the pressure trend in time is recorded during steady state and transient conditions; additionally, the velocity of the airflow across the doors has been measured by means of an anemometer. Numerical CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulations are carried out to reproduce the same smokeproof enclosure configuration (both geometrical and boundary conditions) using the fire dynamics simulator (FDS). Furthermore, specific attention is paid to the modelling of the leakage across the doors, directly inserted in the model through a localized HVAC (heating and venting air conditioning) advanced leakage function. Comparisons between experimental tests and numerical simulations are provided. Once the model was correctly calibrated, other geometrical and mechanical configurations have been studied, looking for convenient and efficient positions of the fan in order to fulfill the requirements of the pressure differential, airflow velocity and door handle force. The paper highlights some fundamental aspects on the pressurization and depressurization during steady state and transient phases, trying to identify if there are airflow profiles typical of some geometrical configurations.

]]>Design of a Pressurized Smokeproof Enclosure: CFD Analysis and Experimental TestsGiordana GaiPiergiacomo Cancellieredoi: 10.3390/safety3020013Safety2017-03-23Safety2017-03-2332Article1310.3390/safety3020013http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/13Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 12: Seatbelt Use as a Police Avoidance Strategy: A Test Using the Legality of Medical Marijuanahttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/12
One way to avoid detection of law enforcement officials if you are engaging in illegal activities is to wear a seatbelt. Therefore, an unintended consequence of laws allowing people to possess marijuana for medical purposes is that seatbelt use may decline among groups whose possession of marijuana is now legal. We find a decrease in seatbelt use among middle-aged males, providing evidence that drivers use seatbelts as a means to avoid police interaction. We find no such reduction in seatbelt use among those less likely to possess medical marijuana cards. Our evidence supports the contention that drivers use seatbelts more if they fear interaction with law enforcement officials, which is consistent with evidence of heightened seatbelt use among drunk drivers. These findings are important in understanding how to best design traffic safety laws and enforce them.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 12: Seatbelt Use as a Police Avoidance Strategy: A Test Using the Legality of Medical Marijuana

One way to avoid detection of law enforcement officials if you are engaging in illegal activities is to wear a seatbelt. Therefore, an unintended consequence of laws allowing people to possess marijuana for medical purposes is that seatbelt use may decline among groups whose possession of marijuana is now legal. We find a decrease in seatbelt use among middle-aged males, providing evidence that drivers use seatbelts as a means to avoid police interaction. We find no such reduction in seatbelt use among those less likely to possess medical marijuana cards. Our evidence supports the contention that drivers use seatbelts more if they fear interaction with law enforcement officials, which is consistent with evidence of heightened seatbelt use among drunk drivers. These findings are important in understanding how to best design traffic safety laws and enforce them.

]]>Seatbelt Use as a Police Avoidance Strategy: A Test Using the Legality of Medical MarijuanaScott AdamsChad CottiDarin Ullmandoi: 10.3390/safety3020012Safety2017-03-23Safety2017-03-2332Article1210.3390/safety3020012http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/2/12Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 11: Determining the Pull-Forces Required to Extricate a Victim Entrapped at Various Angles in a Grain Masshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/11
Prior research on extrication of victims entrapped in stored grain has measured the vertical forces applied to a representative victim (i.e., mannequin) using an anchor point that is mounted directly overhead. However, primarily because of how most grain storage structures are designed, the forces applied would more likely be coming from an angle. This is due to the victim typically being entrapped in the center of the grain mass while the access point is at the perimeter of the roof. The objective of this study was to measure the peak forces required to pull a mannequin at an angle and compare it to vertical pull. An adult-size mannequin was pulled out of dry corn and soybean masses from various depths and at various angles. It was found that both corn and soybeans were comparable regardless of depth or angle with the exception of 15° angle. It was also found that, at pulling angles of 60° and 75°, the loads were comparable to those required at 90° or directly overhead. Only at the sharper angles of 15° and 30° did the peak forces significantly increase. The results highlight that there is some flexibility in the placement of the anchor point and that extrication forces on the body will increase at sharper pull angles.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 11: Determining the Pull-Forces Required to Extricate a Victim Entrapped at Various Angles in a Grain Mass

Prior research on extrication of victims entrapped in stored grain has measured the vertical forces applied to a representative victim (i.e., mannequin) using an anchor point that is mounted directly overhead. However, primarily because of how most grain storage structures are designed, the forces applied would more likely be coming from an angle. This is due to the victim typically being entrapped in the center of the grain mass while the access point is at the perimeter of the roof. The objective of this study was to measure the peak forces required to pull a mannequin at an angle and compare it to vertical pull. An adult-size mannequin was pulled out of dry corn and soybean masses from various depths and at various angles. It was found that both corn and soybeans were comparable regardless of depth or angle with the exception of 15° angle. It was also found that, at pulling angles of 60° and 75°, the loads were comparable to those required at 90° or directly overhead. Only at the sharper angles of 15° and 30° did the peak forces significantly increase. The results highlight that there is some flexibility in the placement of the anchor point and that extrication forces on the body will increase at sharper pull angles.

]]>Determining the Pull-Forces Required to Extricate a Victim Entrapped at Various Angles in a Grain MassSalah IssaWilliam Fielddoi: 10.3390/safety3010011Safety2017-03-11Safety2017-03-1131Article1110.3390/safety3010011http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/11Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 10: Post-Injury and Resolution Response to Repetitive Inhalation Exposure to Agricultural Organic Dust in Micehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/10
Inhalation of organic dusts in agricultural environments causes airway inflammatory diseases. Despite advances in understanding the airway response to dust-induced inflammation, less is known about the transition from lung injury to repair and recovery. The objective of this study was to define the post-inflammation homeostasis events following organic dust-induced lung injury. Using an established protocol, mice were intranasally treated with swine confinement facility organic dust extract (ODE) daily for 3 weeks (repetitive exposure) or treated daily with ODE for 3 weeks followed by no treatment for 1-4 weeks (recovery period) whereupon lavage fluid, lung tissue, and sera were processed. During recovery period, a significant decrease was observed in ODE-induced neutrophil levels after 1 week, lymphocytes at 2 weeks, and macrophages at 4 weeks in the lavage fluid. ODE-induced lung cellular aggregates and bronchiolar compartment inflammation were diminished, but persisted for 4 weeks post-injury. Alveolar inflammation resolved at 3 weeks. ODE-induced lung neutrophils were cleared by 3 weeks, B-cells by 2 weeks, and CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ T cells by 4 week recovery period. Amphiregulin levels increased post-ODE exposure to the 4 week recovery period. Ex vivo amphiregulin production was demonstrated in lung type 2 innate lymphoid cells and macrophages isolated from the 4 week recovery (post-ODE exposure) animals. Collectively, these results identify important processes during recovery period following agricultural dust-induced inflammation, and present possible strategies for improving lung repair and resolution.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 10: Post-Injury and Resolution Response to Repetitive Inhalation Exposure to Agricultural Organic Dust in Mice

Inhalation of organic dusts in agricultural environments causes airway inflammatory diseases. Despite advances in understanding the airway response to dust-induced inflammation, less is known about the transition from lung injury to repair and recovery. The objective of this study was to define the post-inflammation homeostasis events following organic dust-induced lung injury. Using an established protocol, mice were intranasally treated with swine confinement facility organic dust extract (ODE) daily for 3 weeks (repetitive exposure) or treated daily with ODE for 3 weeks followed by no treatment for 1-4 weeks (recovery period) whereupon lavage fluid, lung tissue, and sera were processed. During recovery period, a significant decrease was observed in ODE-induced neutrophil levels after 1 week, lymphocytes at 2 weeks, and macrophages at 4 weeks in the lavage fluid. ODE-induced lung cellular aggregates and bronchiolar compartment inflammation were diminished, but persisted for 4 weeks post-injury. Alveolar inflammation resolved at 3 weeks. ODE-induced lung neutrophils were cleared by 3 weeks, B-cells by 2 weeks, and CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ T cells by 4 week recovery period. Amphiregulin levels increased post-ODE exposure to the 4 week recovery period. Ex vivo amphiregulin production was demonstrated in lung type 2 innate lymphoid cells and macrophages isolated from the 4 week recovery (post-ODE exposure) animals. Collectively, these results identify important processes during recovery period following agricultural dust-induced inflammation, and present possible strategies for improving lung repair and resolution.

]]>Post-Injury and Resolution Response to Repetitive Inhalation Exposure to Agricultural Organic Dust in MiceKristi WarrenTodd WyattDebra RombergerIsaak AiltsWilliam WestAmy NelsonTara NordgrenElizabeth StaabArt HeiresJill Pooledoi: 10.3390/safety3010010Safety2017-02-21Safety2017-02-2131Article1010.3390/safety3010010http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/10Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 9: Evaluation of Beginner Driver Education in Oregonhttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/9
Although driver education (DE) is widely accepted as an effective teen driver safety measure and widely available in the United States, Canada and elsewhere, evaluations have generally failed to show that such formal programs actually produce safer drivers. To address the issue of safety effects as part of a larger investigation, two studies were conducted to examine whether the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT)-approved DE program was associated with reductions in collisions and convictions. In the first study, DE status among a relatively small sample of teens who completed an online survey was not found to have a significant effect on collisions and convictions. In the second study, of a much larger population of teen drivers, DE status was associated with a lower incidence of collisions and convictions. On balance, this suggests that the safety effects of DE are either neutral, based on the results of the first Oregon study, or cautiously optimistic based on the results of the second study. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of making improvements in DE that are evidence-based, and the need for further evaluation to establish that improved and new programs meet their safety objectives.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 9: Evaluation of Beginner Driver Education in Oregon

Although driver education (DE) is widely accepted as an effective teen driver safety measure and widely available in the United States, Canada and elsewhere, evaluations have generally failed to show that such formal programs actually produce safer drivers. To address the issue of safety effects as part of a larger investigation, two studies were conducted to examine whether the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT)-approved DE program was associated with reductions in collisions and convictions. In the first study, DE status among a relatively small sample of teens who completed an online survey was not found to have a significant effect on collisions and convictions. In the second study, of a much larger population of teen drivers, DE status was associated with a lower incidence of collisions and convictions. On balance, this suggests that the safety effects of DE are either neutral, based on the results of the first Oregon study, or cautiously optimistic based on the results of the second study. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of making improvements in DE that are evidence-based, and the need for further evaluation to establish that improved and new programs meet their safety objectives.

]]>Evaluation of Beginner Driver Education in OregonDan MayhewWard VanlaarLarry LoneroRobyn RobertsonKyla MarcouxKatherine WoodKathryn ClintonHerb Simpsondoi: 10.3390/safety3010009Safety2017-02-21Safety2017-02-2131Article910.3390/safety3010009http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/9Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 8: Injury/Fatality-Causing Incidents Involving the Rearward Movement of Agricultural Machinery: Types, Causes, and Preventive Measureshttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/8
The research reported here sought to more fully understand the types and causative factors of injury/fatality incidents resulting from the rearward-movement of tractors and other self-propelled agricultural machinery, with the view that such findings might lead to the development, improvement, and/or better utilization of safety procedures, design principles, and technologies that would prevent—or at least markedly reduce—their occurrence. Thus, the scope of this study focused only on rearward-travel (not mechanical malfunction) incidents, and principally on agricultural equipment (although cases involving similar equipment in industrial or construction settings were also drawn upon). Applying these two criteria, a search of published and online sources uncovered more than 100 documented cases, 35 of which could clearly be identified as rearward-movement incidents, of which 28 (80%) were fatal. Each of these 35 cases were then assessed, based on the type of machine, type of worksite, and type/description of incident (i.e., ‘scenario’), which fell into one of three distinct categories or classifications—(1) co-worker run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator loses visual contact with co-worker; (2) bystander run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator is unaware of bystander’s presence; and (3) operator run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator loses visual contact with, or is unaware of, a stationary object or a hazard. Then, from each scenario, a representative incident (i.e., case study) was selected for a more in-depth analysis. The collective findings, from these three case studies and all 35 machinery rearward-movement incidents, were as follows: (1) The ‘victim’ could be the machine operator as well as a co-worker or a bystander; (2) The specific site of the co-worker or bystander injury/fatality was at the base of the machine’s rear tires or tracks, at the hitching point, or behind a towed implement; (3) The specific cause was loss of visual contact between the operator and co-worker/bystander due to visual obstruction, the operator’s physical limitations, or the operator’s and/or bystander’s lack of alertness. To reduce the likelihood of future occurrences of agricultural machinery rearward travel-related incidents, preventive measures aimed at addressing the key causative factors for each scenario are offered.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 8: Injury/Fatality-Causing Incidents Involving the Rearward Movement of Agricultural Machinery: Types, Causes, and Preventive Measures

The research reported here sought to more fully understand the types and causative factors of injury/fatality incidents resulting from the rearward-movement of tractors and other self-propelled agricultural machinery, with the view that such findings might lead to the development, improvement, and/or better utilization of safety procedures, design principles, and technologies that would prevent—or at least markedly reduce—their occurrence. Thus, the scope of this study focused only on rearward-travel (not mechanical malfunction) incidents, and principally on agricultural equipment (although cases involving similar equipment in industrial or construction settings were also drawn upon). Applying these two criteria, a search of published and online sources uncovered more than 100 documented cases, 35 of which could clearly be identified as rearward-movement incidents, of which 28 (80%) were fatal. Each of these 35 cases were then assessed, based on the type of machine, type of worksite, and type/description of incident (i.e., ‘scenario’), which fell into one of three distinct categories or classifications—(1) co-worker run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator loses visual contact with co-worker; (2) bystander run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator is unaware of bystander’s presence; and (3) operator run over/crushed/otherwise injured because operator loses visual contact with, or is unaware of, a stationary object or a hazard. Then, from each scenario, a representative incident (i.e., case study) was selected for a more in-depth analysis. The collective findings, from these three case studies and all 35 machinery rearward-movement incidents, were as follows: (1) The ‘victim’ could be the machine operator as well as a co-worker or a bystander; (2) The specific site of the co-worker or bystander injury/fatality was at the base of the machine’s rear tires or tracks, at the hitching point, or behind a towed implement; (3) The specific cause was loss of visual contact between the operator and co-worker/bystander due to visual obstruction, the operator’s physical limitations, or the operator’s and/or bystander’s lack of alertness. To reduce the likelihood of future occurrences of agricultural machinery rearward travel-related incidents, preventive measures aimed at addressing the key causative factors for each scenario are offered.

]]>Injury/Fatality-Causing Incidents Involving the Rearward Movement of Agricultural Machinery: Types, Causes, and Preventive MeasuresShawn EhlersWilliam Fielddoi: 10.3390/safety3010008Safety2017-02-08Safety2017-02-0831Article810.3390/safety3010008http://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/8Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 7: Opportunities for Using Building Information Modeling to Improve Worker Safety Performancehttp://www.mdpi.com/2313-576X/3/1/7
Building information modelling (BIM) enables the creation of a digital representation of a designed facility combined with additional information about the project attributes, performance criteria, and construction process. Users of BIM tools point to the ability to visualize the final design along with the construction process as a beneficial feature of using BIM. Knowing the construction process in relationship to a facility’s design benefits both safety professionals when planning worker safety measures for a project and designers when creating a project’s design. Success in using BIM to enhance safety partly depends on the familiarity of project personnel with BIM tools and the extent to which the tools can be used to identify and eliminate safety hazards. In a separate, ongoing study, the authors investigated the connection between BIM and safety to document the opportunities, barriers, and impacts. Utilizing an on-line survey of project engineers who work for construction firms together with a comprehensive literature review, the study found those who use BIM feel that it aids in communication of project information and project delivery, both of which have been found to have positive impacts on construction site safety. Further, utilizing the survey results, the authors apply the binary logistic regression econometric framework to better understand the factors that lead to safety professionals believing that BIM increases safety in the work place. In addition, according to the survey results, a large percentage of the engineers who use BIM feel that ultimately it helps to eliminate safety hazards and improve worker safety. The study findings suggest that improvements in safety performance across the construction industry may be due in part to increased use of BIM in the construction industry.Safety, Vol. 3, Pages 7: Opportunities for Using Building Information Modeling to Improve Worker Safety Performance

Building information modelling (BIM) enables the creation of a digital representation of a designed facility combined with additional information about the project attributes, performance criteria, and construction process. Users of BIM tools point to the ability to visualize the final design along with the construction process as a beneficial feature of using BIM. Knowing the construction process in relationship to a facility’s design benefits both safety professionals when planning worker safety measures for a project and designers when creating a project’s design. Success in using BIM to enhance safety partly depends on the familiarity of project personnel with BIM tools and the extent to which the tools can be used to identify and eliminate safety hazards. In a separate, ongoing study, the authors investigated the connection between BIM and safety to document the opportunities, barriers, and impacts. Utilizing an on-line survey of project engineers who work for construction firms together with a comprehensive literature review, the study found those who use BIM feel that it aids in communication of project information and project delivery, both of which have been found to have positive impacts on construction site safety. Further, utilizing the survey results, the authors apply the binary logistic regression econometric framework to better understand the factors that lead to safety professionals believing that BIM increases safety in the work place. In addition, according to the survey results, a large percentage of the engineers who use BIM feel that ultimately it helps to eliminate safety hazards and improve worker safety. The study findings suggest that improvements in safety performance across the construction industry may be due in part to increased use of BIM in the construction industry.