Proceedings
28th World Conference of the
International Society for Music Education
20-25 July, 2008
Bologna, Italy
All presentations given at the 28th International Society for Music Education World Conference were
selected via a full peer review process, by a committee of international experts and authorities in music
education. Additionally, all papers included in these Proceedings were fully refereed by members of this
distinguished panel, and thus this is a highly selective group of papers, chosen to represent the very best of
the full papers submitted for consideration. The names and professional affiliations of the distinguished
members of the Editorial Committee are provided, below.
EDITOR
Wendy L. Sims

University of Western Sydney, Australia
University of Florida, USA
University of South Florida, USA
Independent Scholar, Minnesota, USA
Universidade Federal do Paraná, Brazil
University of Kansas, USA
University of Michigan, USA
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
University of South Florida, USA
University of Western Ontario, Canada
University of London, UK

University of Bologna, Italy
University of the Basque Country, Spain
University of Vienna, Austria
University of Bologna, Italy
University of Barcelona, Spain
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
University of Padua, Italy
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
Conservatoire of Florence, Italy

Jerusalem Academuy of Music and Dance, Israel
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
Groupe de Recherche Musicale, Paris, France
University of the Basque Country, Spain
Conservatoire of Udine, Italy
Conservatoire of Frosinone, Italy
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
University of Lund, Sweden
University of Valladolid, Spain
Unversity of Paris 10, France
Collegium Musicum de Buenos Aires, Argentina
University of Music Freiburg, Germany
University of Roehampton, UK
University of the Basque Country, Spain
University of Paris 10, France
University of Pamplona, Spain
The Hong Kong Institute of Education, China
Conservatoire of Como, Italy
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
University of Roehampton, UK
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
NFER at Queen's Center for Educational Research, UK
Universidade Federal da Bahia, Brazil
University of Gothenburgh, Sweden
North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
University of London, UK
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
University of Western Sydney, Australia
School of Research in Music Education, Accademia
Filarmonica, Bologna, Italy
Conservatoire of Trento, Italy
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
University of Exeter, UK
China Conservatory of Music, China

Singer’s Strategies for Performing and
Learning 20th Century Australian Art
Song: “I’m Nobody” from Frogs by
Nigel Butterley
Cathy Aggett
University of Western Sydney
Sydney, NSW, Australia
c.aggett@uws.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Professional singers and studio vocal teachers
can be assisted to perform and learn modern art
by applying performance strategies to help
resolve challenges encountered in the learning
process. In this paper, these strategies will be
described using the Australian art song, “I’m
Nobody” from Nigel Butterley’s cycle, “Frogs.”
The paper aims to give professional singers and
studio vocal teachers assistance in learning and
performing the work through a performance
analysis, a recent approach to writing about vocal
performance. The performance analysis draws on
some of the strategies submitted from professional
singers in a larger study and uses a theoretical
framework based on John Rink’s (2002)
principles of performance analysis and Sharon
Mabry’s (2002) ideas for developing confidence
in securing pitch in twentieth century music to
discuss my preparation of the song. The main
performance
challenges
encountered
in
Butterley’s song were, for me as a singer, singing
the correct pitches, being accurate with the
rhythm and giving a convincing performance of
the text. “The music” was explored by reviewing
recordings of rehearsals and keeping a practice
diary, allowing me to pinpoint what I needed to
work on next. Shaping the music involved working
on textual strategies including reading the text
slowly as a poem, going over unfamiliar words,
and saying the text in musical rhythm, which was
also done with the pianist to help familiarise both
performers with a variety of performative and
musical aspects of the song. Performative
strategies employed to work with temporal issues
included patsching the beat, conducting while
singing and placing marks above the score. The
atonality in “I’m Nobody” meant a discovery
process between singer and accompanist occurred
while learning the song where the score is not
“the music” and “the music” was not confined to
the score. By not systematically prioritising
analytically
determined
decisions,
the
accompanist and I were able to try several
ISBN 9780980456028

strategies, some suggested by Mabry, including
enhancing a vocal kinesthetic feeling for pitch by
learning exact pitches and singing the vocal line
slowly while playing all chords with the pedal
down. Finally, from many years of experience,
informed intuition guides both singer and
accompanist; but when new strategies were
trialled and evaluated during the learning of the
song, the depth of one’s intuition was further
developed. The singer, with and without the
accompanist, can enter into a performance
analysis of the work that will shape it so that
audiences listening will ultimately benefit from the
strategies and thinking behind the preparation.

INTRODUCTION
Australian art song is often ignored when
considering possible repertoire for a professional
recital or teaching program. This paper offers a
performance analysis of one Australian art song,
“I’m Nobody” from Frogs by Nigel Butterley, a
song in which the elements of pitch and rhythm
and their relevance to text are of greatest concern
to the professional singer and studio vocal teacher
approaching its learning. In doing so, the paper
aims to give professional singers and studio vocal
teachers assistance in learning and performing the
work through strategies and suggestions.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

be able to develop a more accurate, authentic,
convincing, and musical performance of a song.
Practice strategies are “thoughts and behaviors
that musicians engage in during practice that are
intended to influence their motivational or
affective state, or the way in which they select,
organize, integrate, and rehearse new knowledge
skills” (Jorgenson, (2004), p. 85 adapted from
Weinstein and Mayer, 1986). All of these
suggestions fit with an analysis such as that of
“I’m Nobody” as presented in this paper.
John Rink’s (2002) writing about performance
analysis introduces performers to ways of thinking
about preparing for performance and performing
itself. He proposes five principles of performance
analysis (p. 39) based on temporality; musical
shape rather than structure; the notion that the
score is not “the music,” and “the music” not
confined to the score; analytically determined
decisions such as style, genre and performance
tradition should not be systematically prioritised;
and that “informed intuition” guides the process of
“performance analysis.” Rink believes that
performance analysis primarily takes place while
one is practising rather than when one is
performing. While Rink’s focus is on instrumental
performance, often piano, his principles have
relevance for vocal performance.
Vocalist Sharon Mabry (2002) offers six ideas as
a means of developing confidence in securing
pitch in twentieth century music: to analyse the
notation and its structure; mark tape cues if
working with electric tapes; develop a kinesthetic
response; pay attention to voice placement; learn
exact pitches; and make exercises out of difficultto-hear passages in the music (pp. 34-5). She
discusses the fact that pitch in 20th century music
can often contain “complicated harmonies and
[an] absence of a harmonic underpinning for the
voice…The term melody does not necessarily
signify linear movement, a recognizable tune, or
symmetrical phrasing….[and]… pitch references
may be difficult to find” (p. 33). Pitch, melody
and harmony in “I’m Nobody” could all be
described in these terms.

METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL
FRAME
The results from a larger study by professional
singers into the ways in which they perform
20th/21st century solo art music resulted in
information about their practice and learning
strategies for the preparation and performance of
song for a recent concert. That information was
included with strategies drawn from the literature
review, and my own experience and has been
coded and sorted as being musical, performative

and contextual. These findings are being drawn
upon in this paper to broaden to undertake a
performance analysis of the Butterley song, using
the principles and ideas of Rink (2002) and Mabry
(2002) to form a relevant frame for the following
discussion.

“I’M NOBODY” FROM FROGS BY
NIGEL BUTTERLEY
“I’m Nobody” is atonal in style and rhythmically
fragmented. Therefore, the main performance
challenges performing Butterley’s song were, for
me as a singer, singing the correct pitches, being
accurate with the rhythm and giving a convincing
performance of the text. These challenges began
with “the score”, but as Rink (2002) puts it, the
score itself doesn’t necessarily constitute “the
music.” Lester (1995) comments that “musical
scores are not so much the piece itself as a map of
the piece or a recipe for producing it” (p. 199).
One strategy for exploring the music involved
recording of rehearsal sessions, including daily
and weekly sessions where I got together with my
accompanist, and then reflected on those
recordings, listening for where I was straying
from “the map” or needed to go back to “the
recipe.” The recordings revealed what rhythms
needed review and when they were improving.
Having successive recordings that revealed
improvements in pitch over the weeks and by
listening to them with the score – “the recipe” – it
was possible to pinpoint where I needed to work
next.
I kept a practice diary where I recorded my
learning approaches and comments made by
anyone involved in the performance process; what
things were working and why; and if they were
not, trying to work out what I needed to do next to
remedy
those
problems.
McPherson
&
Zimmerman (2002) describe this idea of feedback as being “self-regulation [and] cyclical
because
feedback
obtained
from
prior
performance helps a learner to adjust their
performance and future efforts” (p. 327). The
practice diary highlighted early work on rhythm,
moving on to a focus on pitch strategies and a
final realization that rhythm determines pitch,
such as can be seen in the text of “like a frog” (bb.
12-13).
Shaping the music involved several aspects. The
fragmented nature of the setting of the text
requires singer and pianist to work together to
ensure its delivery is not interrupted. Note the
changes in metre and frequent rests in both parts
in Figure 1. Miller, Dixon, & Foulsham (2007)
comment that “the piano part is inextricably
entwined with the flow of the words and the vocal

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

line. Neither part can exist on its own – a perfect
partnership between singer and pianist” (p. 49)
Strategies to work with the text included reading
the text slowly as a poem, going over unfamiliar
words, and then saying the text in musical rhythm.
This was also done with the pianist in a similar
fashion and helped familiarise both performers
with a variety of performative and musical aspects
of the song. After employing these strategies, we
began to perform the song with much more of a
flow. Singer and pianist have to get used to
performing with each other with this song. My
accompanist commented on the cyclic, organic
nature of coming together to shape the music,
which provided an opportunity for both
performers
to
deepen
their
performing
relationship.
For Rink, (1990, 1995, 2002) “informed intuition”
guides the process of performance analysis by
“accru[ing] with a broad range of experience and

3

…[that which] may exploit theoretical and
analytical knowledge at the ‘submerged level of
consciousness’”(1990, p. 324). In the preparation
of “I’m Nobody,” “informed intuition” was
accessed by both performers through the
preparation of the score, both individually and
when the performers came together to rehearse, in
(a) the way in which both performers would
instinctively articulate a note (in comparison to
phrase it in the case of this piece, given its
fragmented structure – see Figure 1) and (b) an
analytical sense where the process of “analysis” is
a practical one that encompasses the many years
of musical experience and knowledge that each
performer brings to the performance act, where
their training takes over, technique is instinctive,
and after all the discussion about a song such as
this quietens, the musical nuances needed to
“shape” the music occur when they need to – in
performance.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

In relation to learning pitches, dealing with the
difficultly of learning the song’s melody forced
me to look at several approaches to shaping the
melody. Melody, in the traditional sense, is
viewed in a different way in this song. At first
playing, there appears to be little direction to the
pitch, but my “feeling” for the melody, where I
used informed intuition, grew the more I sang it. It
was this “feeling” that also prompted my interest

in graphing the melody with reference to the
overall vocal range of the song, the shape also
representing the length of rhythms within cells
approximating the fluctuating time signatures. I
drew on Rink’s (2002) graphic analyses of tempo
fluctuations (p. 49) and registral contour (p. 50) of
Chopin’s Nocturne in C#min, Op. 27 No. 1 as a
conceptual
basis
for
Figure
2.

Figure 2. Depicting the melodic shape of “I’m Nobody” from Frogs by Nigel Butterley (L to R)
across time (in bars indicated by time signatures) and the vocal range of the song represented by
height
The shape of the melody does show a gradual
security of the first dotted minim is, perhaps, the
tendency to get higher towards the end of the
only security the singer has. The sharp, pointillist
song, as evident from the graph, before being
chords in the accompaniment create a
dropped in the “bog” on the last note. While the
conversation between singer and piano with the
graph did nothing to change “the music,” it did
acciaccatura on the second beat perhaps depicting
inform me about the overall shape of the melody
the frog (see Fig 1, bar 1). The “qr e” rhythm of
that helped me view it with a sense of time in
“Nobody” is a feature throughout the song that
relation to the range of the melody, represented in
becomes the rhythmic language shared by both
the graph by height. I had been using pitch
singer and pianist. As a contextualizing strategy,
memory, in particular, of F4, the note the song
Mabry’s suggestion to analyze the notation and its
begins on and returns to many times, as a “homing
structure is important in a song such as this so that
device” to help sing the first six bars. Beginning at
you can understand where your line fits with the
b7, D5 became my next “homing” note until the
accompaniment or, more accurately in this
end of the song. Singing exact pitches and
instance, becomes a unit. Performative strategies
pitching pure intervals – something you do in any
used to work with temporal issues included
song – was another aim. I also used the strategy of
patsching2 the quaver beat while singing; placing
marks above the score (see Figure 1, bb. 2-3); and
singing the notes in-between pitches to get to
conducting while singing. An effective learning
know and feel their position – to help learn the
strategy was breaking the song down into the most
intervals in the song. Sometimes the notes of the
relevant musical concepts affecting the performers
melody can be found within the accompaniment,
and then analyzing them. Patsching the beat was
but the piece is in no way tonal. In fact, the
the most helpful strategy to keep the various
composer himself, Nigel Butterley, commented
changes in metre and rhythms in time and linking
that he believes the tonal language of the song to
the rhythms to text in the song.
be intuitive and that he was purposely being
astringent in his approach to tonality.1 Singing the
The analytical decisions you make as a performer
notes in-between pitches proved to be somewhat
are continually being guided by the artistic
of a revelation to me. It allows you to get a sense
considerations the work being studied demands.
of the distance between notes, rather than just
Aspects such as vocal coloration, style, resonance
drilling intervals. While I usually have no trouble
balance and learning pitch are all encompassed in
with pitch, fragmented melodies such as this with
these decisions. Analyzing the pitch and rhythm
atonal accompaniments are a challenge!
of the song was not an isolating activity. Rather, it
Temporality can be described as movement in
was both a conscious and unconscious ongoing
music through time. Time in this song moves very
activity. Mabry (2002) suggests that when “a
quickly; and because of that, rhythm proved to be
singer does not have perfect pitch, a good relative
the greatest challenge for both performers. The
pitch sense combined with a vocal kinesthetic
1

Phone conversation 24.10.07

2

‘Patching’ is the German term for patting the thighs.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

feeling for pitch is key to quickly finding and
retaining abstract tones.”(p. 35) The “vocal
kinesthetic feeling” for the pitch was enhanced by
singing the vocal line slowly while playing all
chords with the pedal down so you could hear the
tones more clearly. As the notes for the vocal line
are often “nested” in the chords, becoming aurally
aware where your note sits in the chords helped
establish a “feel” for the note within the voice.
Learning the exact pitches was also necessary to
confirm what was instinctive.

OUTCOMES
In relation to Rink’s (1990, 1995, 2002) principle
of performance analysis based on temporality,
strategies involved patsching the beat or
conducting while singing and placing marks
above the score. The musical shape of the work,
rather than its structure, was achieved by working
on textual strategies including reading the text
slowly as a poem, going over unfamiliar words,
and then saying the text in musical rhythm. This
was also done with the pianist in a similar fashion
and helped familiarise both performers with a
variety of performative and musical aspects of the
song. The tonality or, more accurately, the
atonality in a song such as “I’m Nobody,” where
each note is scored for its own sound, meant a
discovery
process
between
singer
and
accompanist occurred while learning the song
where the score is not “the music” and “the
music” was not confined to the score. By not
systematically prioritising analytically determined
decisions, the accompanist and I were able to try
several strategies, some suggested by Mabry,
including enhancing a vocal kinesthetic feeling for
pitch by learning exact pitches and singing the
vocal line slowly while playing all chords with the
pedal down. Finally, from many years of
experience, informed intuition guides both singer
and accompanist; but when new strategies were
trialled and evaluated during the learning of the
song, the depth of one’s intuition was further
developed.

5

Approaching the preparation and performance of
any music requires individual and collaborative
thinking. The singer, with and without the
accompanist, can enter into a performance
analysis of the work that will shape it so that
audiences listening will ultimately benefit from
the strategies and thinking behind the preparation.
“Projecting ‘the music’ is what matters most, and
all the rest is but a means to that end” (Rink, 2002.
p. 56)

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Building Confidence in Teaching
Primary Music
Myung-sook Auh
School of Education, Faculty of the Professions, University of New England
Armidale, NSW, Australia
mauh@une.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Theoretical Background.
Lack of confidence in teaching music of primary
student teachers is an age-old problem. For the
last two decades, music educators tried to solve
the problem, but it still persists. Quality teachers
are a key to quality school music education. In
order to provide quality primary music teaching,
we need quality teachers who can teach primary
music effectively.

Purpose.
The purpose of this study was to investigate
primary student teachers’ reasons for being notconfident and confident in teaching primary
music, and to examine whether a primary music
pedagogy course designed to strengthen their
weak teaching skills areas can make a difference
in their confidence in teaching music.

Methods.
Participants were 87 primary student teachers at
a university in New South Wales, Australia. The
Primary Music Teaching Questionnaire (PMTQ)
was used to measure confidence levels in teaching
music; it has 20 questions, and uses 10-point
rating scales and open-ended questions. The
Primary Music Pedagogy course had strong
emphasis on teaching singing and teaching
composing, which were previously found as weak
teaching skills areas. To strengthen the weak
teaching areas, the following were included in the
course: 1) singing performance, 2) composing
music using graphic notations, and 3) individual
teaching presentations of ‘Teach a song’. PMTQ
was administered as the pretest and posttst in the
study, and the pedagogy course was taught by the
investigator for 6 weeks.

Results.
First, the most frequently mentioned reason for
being not-confident in teaching singing was
Cannot sing/Not a good singer”. This indicates
the student teachers’ beliefs i the need of ‘inborn’
singing ability to teach singing well. Second, the
main reasons for being not confident in teaching
composing were “no previous experience” and
“no knowledge, no skills” (59 responses out of
ISBN 9780980456028

61). This result is positive because the reasons
can be resolved by studying in the pedagogy
course. Third, many students (56 students out of
87) were confident in teaching listening prior to
taking the pedagogy course, and their primary
reasons were “Everyone can do it/Easy to teach,”
“Enjoy listening to music.” Fourth, the main
reason for being confident in teaching music IT
was “I like computers/IT.” The reason “Don’t
like computers” was one of the main reasons
(ranked third) for being not-confident. Thus,
liking listening to music and computers appear to
provide basic levels of confidence in teaching
listening and music IT. The response, “I will give
it a go” shows their willingness to try new things,
which is an ideal attitude in learning to teach
music.
The primary music pedagogy course showed
significant differences in confidence levels for
teaching singing, teaching playing instruments,
teaching composing, and in an overall confidence
level. Especially confidence levels in teaching
singing and teaching composing drastically
improved, which means the course was effective in
its design. Student teachers’ reflections show their
thinking about their learning to teach music.
education, reflection

Discussion.
Music teacher educators should emphasize that
making your best effort is the most important trait
in a primary music pedagogy course.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Education (Australian Government DEST, 2005),
which confirmed the situation that music
educators in Australia have known all along for
many years. That is, school music education in
Australia is at a critical stage due to poor primary
music teaching by generalist classroom teachers,
requiring prompt action (Australian Government
DEST, 2005, p. v).
Findings of educational research suggested
possible solutions to improve the current situation
relating to primary music teaching. Rowe (2003)
found that teacher quality is a key determinant of
students’ experiences and outcomes of schooling.
His results showed what matters most for school
education is “quality teachers and teaching”
(Rowe, 2003, p. 1). This suggests that quality
teacher education programs that develop confident
and competent teachers in teaching music can
contribute to improving primary music education.
While science, mathematics, and ICT are the main
concern in school education, the recent UK’s
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)
research findings remind us all of the importance
of the arts for children. The QCA (2003) reported
the findings of a 3-year research project titled
“Why invest in the arts?” The QCA’s key
messages are: “Investing in the arts can transform
schools. The arts can raise standards across the
curriculum, change attitudes, improve behaviour,
and increase the quality of teaching and learning;
and also improve links with the community and
contribute to the economy”. These research
findings suggest that music learning in schools
can contribute to students’ school life in general
and quality of life as well as cultural and
economic sustainability.
Therefore, music is important for children. To
provide quality music education in schools,
quality teacher education programs are essential.
To provide quality teacher education for primary
music, primary music pedagogy courses should be
constantly examined and refined to find effective
pedagogical approaches to build primary student
teachers’ confidence in teaching music. This is
what this study attempted.
There have been a lot of studies in this area of
primary music teaching in many countries,
including the USA (e.g., Bresler, 1993), UK (e.g.,
Mills, 1989), Canada (e.g., Brown, 1993), and
Australia (Auh, 2003, 2004a, 2004b; Jeanneret,
1997; Russell-Bowie, 1993). The previous studies
with primary student teachers found that
developing music skills is essential to build their
confidence (Jeanneret, 1997); individual teaching
presentations are effective in building their
confidence in teaching music (Auh, 2003);
teaching singing and teaching composition were

their weak teaching skills areas (Auh, 2003); and a
primary music pedagogy course can make a
difference in their confidence in teaching music
(2004a, 2004b).
However, no studies asked primary student
teachers why they are not confident or confident
before their study in a primary music pedagogy
course. Few studies investigated changes of
confidence in teaching music through a primary
music pedagogy course designed to strengthen
their weak teaching skills areas. This study
attempted to investigate these, that is, the reasons
and the effects of a specially designed music
pedagogy course while building on the findings of
the above previous studies.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to investigate
primary student teachers’ reasons for not-being
confident in teaching music prior to their study in
a primary music pedagogy course, and to examine
whether a primary music pedagogy course
designed to strengthen their weak teaching skills
areas can make a difference in their confidence in
teaching music.
The following research questions were raised in
this study:
• What are primary student teachers’ reasons
for being confident or not-confident in
teaching music before their study in a primary
music pedagogy course?
• Is there a significant difference in primary
student teachers’ confidence in teaching
music comparing before and after their
primary music pedagogy course?
• What do primary student teachers’ reflections
show regarding their learning to teach music?

METHOD
Participants
Participants were 87 primary student teachers (16
males, 67 females) enrolled in a primary music
pedagogy course at a regional university in New
South Wales of Australia. They were recruited
from the course comprising 127 students in total
and taught by the investigator.

Instrument
A Primary Music Teaching Questionnaire
(PMTQ) was developed by the investigator based
on previous relevant studies (Auh, 2003, 2004a,
2004b) to measure confidence levels in teaching
music. The PMTQ consisted of 20 questions. It
employed 10 point rating scales ranging from 1
(not at all) to 10 (very much so) and open-ended
questions for reasons for being confident and less
confident in teaching music.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Students’ reflections on learning to teach music
were collected through their Music Teaching
Resource Folder, in which students were asked to
write their reflections.

Primary Music Pedagogy Course
Primary Music Pedagogy was taught as part of the
core Creative Arts Pedagogy course, which
consisted of music, visual arts, and drama, and
which was mandatory for all B.Ed. in Primary
Education students. The Primary Music Pedagogy
was the only music course where primary student
teachers learned how to teach music throughout
their 4-year teacher education program, and thus it
is crucial.
Primary Music Pedagogy course lasted for only 6
weeks, and consisted of 6 music workshops and 4
lectures. In the Primary Music Pedagogy course,
students learned curriculum requirements for
primary music and developed their musical and
pedagogical
skills
for
singing,
playing
instruments, composing music, listening, and
music IT.
The course in this study was designed to improve
student teachers’ confidence in teaching music by
applying findings of previous relevant studies
(Auh, 2003, 2004a, 2004b), that identified
teaching singing and teaching composing as
weakest teaching areas for primary student
teachers. Therefore, three pedagogical approaches
were emphasized in the course: a) singing
performance in a concert, b) composing music
using graphic notations, and c) individual teaching
presentation of “Teach a Song.” In addition,
students were asked to develop a Music Teaching
Resource Folder by collecting teaching resources.
In designing the course, the greatest constraint
was the 6-week time frame. Thus, instead of
emphasizing all the musical and pedagogical skills
areas, this course emphasized the three weakest
teaching areas.

Procedure
When the course started, PMTQ was administered
as the pretest. For the next 6 weeks, the student
teachers learned how to teach music in the course.
At the end of the course, PMTQ was administered
as the posttest. As part of their assessment, student
teachers were asked to reflect on the process of
learning to teach music, which provided reflection
data for this study.

Analysis of Data
Quantitative data from the PMTQ were analyzed
using descriptive statistics and t-tests. The
qualitative data from student teachers’ reflections
were analyzed using coding methods (Miles and
Huberman, 1994).

9

RESULTS
Research Question 1: What are primary
student teachers’ reasons for being
confident or not-confident in teaching
music before their study in a primary
music pedagogy course?
Results showed the following: a) The most
frequently mentioned reason for being notconfident in teaching singing was “Cannot
sing/Not a good singer,” b) the main reasons for
being not confident in teaching composing were
“no previous experience” and “no knowledge, no
skills” (59 responses out of 61), c) many students
(56 students out of 87) were confident in teaching
listening, and their primary reasons were
“Everyone can do it/Easy to teach,” “Enjoy
listening to music,” and d) the main reason for
being confident in teaching music IT was “I like
computers/IT.”. The reason “Don’t like
computers” was one of the main reasons (ranked
third) for being not-confident.
The reason “Cannot sing/Not a good singer”
indicates that student teachers believe they should
have inborn singing ability to teach singing well,
and this was mentioned 36 times out of 83 (4
students did not mention their reasons). This is a
serious problem in primary teacher education for
music, which is discussed later. The reasons “no
previous experiences” and “no knowledge, no
skills,” mentioned for teaching instruments,
teaching composing, and teaching music IT are
positive responses because they can be resolved
through their study in a primary music pedagogy.
Students’ liking of listening to music and music
IT was linked with their confidence in teaching
listening and music IT. The response, “I will give
it a go” shows their willingness to try new things,
which is an ideal attitude in learning to teach
music. Their commonly occurring reason, “no
musical bone in my body,” implies that they think
one needs inherent musical ability to do well in
music.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Table 1. Reasons for being not-confident and confident in teaching music by primary student
teachers before their study in the primary music pedagogy course
Reasons for Not-confident

Rank

Freq.

Teaching Singing:
Cannot sing/ Not a good singer
No previous experience
No knowledge, no skills
No musical bone in my body
Shy in singing in public
Total:

1
2
3
3
5

36
8
6
6
2
58

I will give it a go
I am a singer
Experience in singing
Experience in teaching singing

Teaching Playing Instruments:
Not good in playing instruments
No previous experience
No knowledge, no skills
Have not played for a long time
No musical bone in my body
Total:

1
2
3
4
5

10
10
8
5
3
36

Experience in playing instruments
Have basic musical knowledge
Enjoy playing instruments
I will give it a go

32
27
2

Experience in composing music
Enjoy composing music
Have basic musical knowledge
I will give it a go

1
2
3
3

7
5
4
4
20

Everyone can do/ Easy to teach
Enjoy listening to music
Have basic musical knowledge
Experience in teaching listening
I will give it a go

1
1
3
4
5

22
22
8
2
2
56

I love computers/IT
Have basic knowledge of IT
I will give it a go
Experience in teaching Music IT

1
2
2
4

22
7
7
1
37

Teaching Composing music:
No previous experience
No knowledge, no skills
No musical bone in my body

1
2
3

Total:
Teaching Listening:
No knowledge, no skills
No previous experience
No musical bone in my body

Total:
Note: Freq. = Frequency

Rank

1
2
3
4

1
2
3

10
8
1

1
2
3
4

17
13
13
43

10
8
5
2

20
10
9
4
43

19

1
2
2

Freq.

25

61

Total:
Teaching Music IT:
No knowledge, no skills
No previous experience
Do not like computers

Reasons for being confident

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Research Question 2: Is there a significant
difference in primary student teachers’
confidence in teaching music between
before and after their primary music
pedagogy course?
The results showed that there was significant
improvement in student teachers’ confidence in
teaching music at the end of their primary music
pedagogy course. Significant differences between
pretest and posttest of the PMTQ were found in
their confidence for teaching singing (pretest M =
5.29, posttest M = 7.13, t-value = -7.65, p <
.0001), teaching playing instruments (pretest M =
6.49, posttest M = 7.18, t-value = -3.02, p < .01),
and teaching composing music (pretest M = 4.80,
posttest M = 6.64, t-value = -6.73, p < .0001), and
10

Figure 1. Differences in student teachers’ confidence in teaching music between Pretest and Posttest
of the PMTQ.

Research Question 3
What do primary student teachers’ reflections
show regarding their learning to teach music? The
student teachers’ reflections show that singing
performance, composing music using graphic
notations, and individual teaching presentations
helped to build their confidence in teaching music
and provided a range of teaching ideas. They also
said they learned not only by actually doing things
but also by observing how others do, especially in
individual teaching presentations.

Singing performances
A: This is a great activity that can be implemented
in any school or even a classroom. The

experience of learning a song and actions to go
with the song, and then performing the song to
an audience is one that all students should have.
After going through this experience and
watching how the Lecturer approached this task
gives me confidence that I could do this when I
am out teaching. It was reasonably simple and
extremely fun for all involved.
B: My class group sang “The Lonely Goatherd
from (The) Sound of Music. I found it was
worthwhile to perform in front of the other
classes as I felt a sense of accomplishment. I
think that children will also feel the same thing
when they have the chance to perform.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Composing music using graphic notations
Graphic notation can be done using any image or
drawing you like. We created our own graphic
notation patterns and then used xylophones and
percussion instruments to play our pieces. I found
this to be a very interesting lesson as I had never
seen music written in this form. I think this would
be a valuable tool to use in the classroom. Using
notes to represent music often daunts children but
this is a fun way to do it that allows them to use
their imaginations when composing.

Individual teaching presentations
A: I enjoyed these teaching presentations because
it allowed me to see a range of different
teaching ideas for music that I probably never
would have thought of. It was also a good
experience for me to get up in front of the class
and teach a song to students, because it gave
me some idea of what it will be like when I
teach it in a primary classroom. Overall I
enjoyed these teaching presentations and can’t
wait to teach music to primary school children,
because I think that it will be exciting and
rewarding to see children enjoying music.
B: In the teaching presentations, it was good to
look at others’ teaching presentations in
relation to mine scheduled next week. I was
able to see what went well and what did not. It
was also good to see that we could teach music
after only having five weeks of it.
C: I found it good to see a variety of lessons for
singing and playing instruments. I can see how
this course has given each student the
confidence to be able to teach music in the
future.

DISCUSSION
Perceptions about singing.
The primary student teachers’ reasons for being
confident and not-confident provide enlightening
information about their thinking regarding
primary music teaching, which, unless asked
about specifically, would be likely unknown to
music teacher educators. Thirty six responses out
of 83 said they cannot sing or are not good
singers. Even in the first week class of the
pedagogy course, many students said they are tone
deaf. Thus, I had to explain that there are two
kinds of tone deafness; one is that you are born
with, and the other that you have not been
exposed to good singing but you have the
potential to sing well. It makes me wonder where
their such negative perceptions about their singing
ability are coming from? It is likely to be their
previous music learning experiences in primary
classrooms. Richardson (1992) pointed out there
are three sources of their pre-conceived
perceptions about education: specific subject
learning, schooling, and life experiences. The

significant improvement in their confidence in
teaching singing is a positive sign, especially so,
because their cited reason “Cannot sing/not a good
singer” is difficult to change.
Individual teaching presentation of “Teach a
Song” was intended to develop the student
teachers’ teaching skills for singing, because
singing and teaching singing require two different
sets of skills, and the former does not guarantee
the latter.

Teaching composing.
Teaching composition showed the lowest
confidence levels in the pretest of PMTQ, and the
59 student teachers’ responses saying “no
previous experience” and “no knowledge, no
skills” indicate that they do not have faintest idea
of what is involved in teaching composition.
However, when they learned basic teaching skills
for composition in the pedagogy course, their
confidence levels drastically improved.

Teaching listening.
The student teachers showed high levels of
confidence in teaching listening even before
studying in the pedagogy course, and their reasons
show why, that is, because they think “Everyone
can do/Easy to teach.” However, their reflections
after the pedagogy course showed that they never
thought that listening can be taught using a variety
of approaches and strategies; for example, using
program music, such as Peter and Wolf and the
Nutcracker Suite, on DVDs; asking questions
orally and using listening questionnaires; asking
students to hum theme tunes and drawing the
melodic contours using hand motions. Probably
due to their over-confidence in teaching listening
prior to the pedagogy course, no change was
observed after the course.

Teaching music IT.
Twenty-two students out of 37 said they are
confident in teaching music IT because they love
computers/IT. This shows that their confidence in
computers and IT provides basic confidence levels
for teaching music IT. They seem to think that
they can teach music IT well when learning basic
teaching skills for music IT.

“No musical bone in my body”
The reason “no musical bone in my body” was
mentioned in all the music skills areas, except
teaching music IT. The reason indicates their
perceptions about music, that is, music requires
musical talent, and this implies that because they
do not have it, they cannot be good in teaching
music. This attitude is not desirable for student
teachers, and their attitude should be modified
into ‘I will give it a go’. How can we do that?

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

1. Making your best effort is the most important in
the course. It is not sufficient that someone just
has musical talent but is too lazy to study.
2. If they think they cannot do well in teaching
music because of their lack of musical talent,
they are wrong. They are expected to take the
attitude of “I will give it a go” in the course.

Implication for research.
The following research questions are raised for
future studies: a) How do primary student
teachers’ attitudes affect the way that they learn to
teach primary music, and b) can primary student
teachers’ attitudes towards primary music
teaching change at the end of a primary music
pedagogy course?

REFERENCES
Albion, P. (1999). Self-efficacy beliefs as an indicator
of teachers’ preparedness for teaching with technology.
Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education. Retrieved 29 October 2005 from:
http://www.usq.edu.au/users/albion/papers/site99/1345.
html
Auh, M. (2003). Pre-service students’ self-perceptions
of confidence in teaching music and their relations to
liking music and musical experiences. Proceedings of
the Fourteenth Australian Society for Music Education
National conference, July 4 – 8, 2003, Darwin,
Australia.
Auh, M. (2004a). Changes in perceptions of confidence
in teaching music by pre-service students. Bulletin of
the Council for Research in Music Education, 161/162,
11-18.
Auh, M. (2004b). Changes in perceptions of confidence
in teaching music by pre-service students. Proceedings

13

of the 2004 International Research Seminar of the
International Society for Music Education (ISME), July
4 – 10, 2004, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
Australian Government, Department of Education,
Science and Training (DEST). (2005). National Review
of School Music Education. Canberra: Author.
www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/publication
s_resources/profiles/documents/review_of_music_pdf.
htm
Barnes, G. (2000). Self-efficacy and teaching
effectiveness. Journal of String Research, 1.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of
control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Bresler, L. (1993). Music in a double-bind: Instruction
by non-specialists in elementary schools. Bulletin of the
Council for Research in Music Education, 115, 1-13.
Brown, E. A. (1993). Elementary music education
curricula in the public schools of Canada. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 54/05, 1716A.
Jeanneret, N. (1997). A model for developing
preservice primary teachers’ confidence to teach music.
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 133, 37-44.
Mills, J. (1989). The generalist primary teacher of
music: A problem of confidence. British Journal of
Music Education, 6(2), 125-138.
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), UK.
(2003). Why invest in the arts? Retrieved on 2/2/06
from
http://www.qca.org.uk/artsalive/why_invest/index. htm
Rowe, K. J. (2003). The importance of teacher quality
as a key determinant of students’ experiences and
outcomes of schooling. Canberra: the Australian
Council for Educational Research. Retrieved on 29 Oct
2005 from:
www.acer.edu.au/research/programs/documents/Rowe_
ACER_Research_Conf_2003_Paper.pdf
Russell-Bowie, D. (1993). Where is music education in
our primary schools? Research Studies in Music
Education, 1, 52-58.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the notion of aesthetic
experience from the perspective of the performer.
While it briefly visits the notion of aesthetic
experience through Dewey, Beardsley and
Greene, the main thrust of the paper falls on a
discussion of Thea Musgrave’s Narcissus for flute
and digital delay. The aim of this study is to shift
the emphasis of aesthetic experience from that of
the audience to that of the performer. There are
two reasons for this: (a) to focus on the
interpretation of music as a form of aesthetic
experience; and (b) to suggest that this experience
is also pedagogical – where the performer
“learns” not only the techniques involved but also
understands profoundly the intentionality that
makes music a work of art. The paper is broadly
divided in three sections. The first section looks at
the relationship between composer, performer and
audience. This is couched in a discussion of how
the notions of subject and object keep shifting
between these three. Section II is an analysis of
the work, while the third and concluding section
looks at how the aesthetic experience of the
performer articulates itself from within the
relationship between the work, the composer and
the performer who ultimately appropriates the
work. The discussion and analysis of the work
itself (in Section II) provides the main
methodological approach to the subject matter.
Here the author analyses the various aspects of
the piece in terms of its diverse musical
components, its thematic development and some of
the technical implications involved in performing
the piece. The discussion then addresses the
means by which the composer makes textual
suggestions about the narrative and the emotions
involved, and more importantly, how the music
suggests various approaches from the part of the
performer. While the implications for music
education are implicit in how the performer learns
and experiences the work, further pedagogical
implications have to do with how the
interpretation of music forms an essential part of
music learning. In fact this work forms part of the
author’s larger research on the pedagogy of
ISBN 9780980456028

music interpretation, and it is intended to evolve
various points of discussion.

KEYWORDS
interpretation, aesthetics, aesthetic experience,
performer, flute repertoire, Thea Musgrave,
Narcissus, contemporary repertoire, pedagogy of
interpretation.
We often talk about Aesthetics in Education or,
indeed, the arts as forms of aesthetic experiences.
But what do we actually mean by “aesthetics,”
and why do we choose to use such phrases,
phrases that might in themselves be rhetorical?
John Dewey gives context to the meaning of
aesthetics by referring to “experience as
appreciative, perceiving, and enjoying”. He
further adds that “it denotes the consumer’s rather
than the producer’s standpoint” (Dewey, 1934 as
cited in Feagin & Maynard, 1997, p. 53).
It would be futile, if not presumptuous, to retrace
the lineage of aesthetic experience in a short
paper. So here I want to use aesthetics as a
working notion of an ever-changing chain of
reactions that start from (or by) perception, which
by the power of the imagination, transforms what
we perceive into something that bears a subjective
meaning to one’s self. In the process of this
transformation, we experience different emotions
by engaging with an objective world, which we
soon appropriate subjectively and therefore make
it ours aesthetically.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

However these relationships are not fixed. One
could also argue that the audience is the object of
the musician’s subjective act. The music is an
object but could be a subject as it signifies the
composer’s subjective expression in the form of a
work of art.
The attribution of subject and object is not very
clear, and it could be argued that the distinction
remains very liquid (as we say in music when we
allude to “liquid [i.e. imaginary-and-fluent] barlines”). The degree to which this interaction
happens is also very much contextualized by other
factors — such as musical traditions, performative
decisions (interpretation), audiences (and their
plural backgrounds), etc.
If one takes the role of a musician in a Western
Classical setting, he or she follows a particular
tradition of interpretation (for example, in his
playing of Bach or a Mozart). This interpretation
is expected to be rather “standard” by a learned
audience that is more or less familiar with the
work. The audience is also expected to behave and
respond by following certain conventions. On the
other hand if one looks at scenarios for Eastern
music, the audience is more engaged in the
performance of the work. Here the performer
alternates roles between that of interpreter and that
of a composer (creator). Both roles are acts of
performing, but the audience is not simply passive
but expects elements of surprise and twists and
turns in the work’s improvisation.
The case of a participative audience is well
described by the Turkish ethnomusicologist Munir
Nurettin Beken who, in his article “Aesthetics and
Artistic Criticism at the Turkish Gazino,”
characterizes audience participation in Turkish
music as an interaction that takes “the form of a
gesture with a smile or sometimes also a verbal
comment, as well as kissing, hand shaking, etc”
(Beken, 2003, p. 5).
However this “freer” relationship between
performer and audience is not limited to nonWestern Music. In Western contemporary music,
we very often find a similar open relationship.
Umberto Eco (1989) argues that the works of
Stockhausen and Berio, are “‘open’ in a far more
tangible sense” (p. 4). As he put it, “in primitive
terms we can say that they [their works] are quite
literally ‘unfinished’: the author seems to hand
them on to the performer more or less like the
components of a construction kit” (p. 4).
In these situations one could see that the aesthetic
experience of the performer depends on various
factors bearing a direct relationship on the
possible quality and extent of his engagement with
the music. For a performer reading a music

composition for the first time, one of the
challenges that she has to deal with is to look into
the work “from within” in order to interpret as
accurately as possible what the composer had in
mind. This process is dual in that it involves a
“reception” stage and later a “re-creation” stage.
The reception stage is the first stage by which a
performer gets familiarized with the piece. The
second stage, that of “re-creation,” is where the
performer takes a degree of ownership of the
piece. This is the performer’s way of perceiving
the musical “text.” It is also a way by which the
performer assimilates the composer’s intention
and translates it as her own image of what was
intended.
A major distinction between the aesthetic
experience of the performer and that of the
audience consists of the fact that, whereas with the
audience the experience is temporal, in the case of
the performer, the space and time over which the
experience happens is quite lengthy, spanning
over weeks and sometimes months. This makes
the two aesthetic experiences very different.
However, this is not to say that the performer, in
her act of performing the work, does not
experience another, quite different, temporal
aesthetic experience. In fact, as Elliot (2005)
argues,
during
a
concert
performance,
“performing music…[becomes] an act of giving
form, in the moment, to a temporally fleeting
phenomenon that exists nowhere outside that
moment.” (pp.146-147)
This type of experience is in itself affected by the
factors that make the performance a public that
happens in a specific space, a particular time, for a
unique audience (because not any one audience is
the same).

II
Let’s give context to this argument by examining
this exchange of roles and positions through the
aesthetic experience that occurs in performing a
piece of music. In this paper I would like to revisit
Thea Musgrave’s Narcissus (for flute solo and
digital delay).
Musgrave’s, Narcissus scored for flute and digital
delay (“echo” system), was written in 1987.
Musgrave tells the story of Narcissus and his love
for his own reflection. She uses the dramatic
effects of digital delay — allowing the soloist to
mimic reflection — the same reflection that gave
Narcissus his own hazy image in the pond that
ultimately lured him to his own death. The flute
becomes Narcissus, embodying his thoughts,
movements and emotions. As the composer
explains:

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Narcissus wanders through the forest, sees the
pool, then sees his reflection. The reflection is
shimmering in the sunlight, so appears at first to be
dancing independently of the gestures that
Narcissus makes; then, as this wonderful creature
is imitating him very exactly, it seems as if he’s
mocking. Narcissus then gets angry, rushes into
the pool to grasp it, and drowns. (Musgrave, 1988)

Identifying the symbolic meaning of the
mythological events outside the music (although
they inform it laterally) is a very important feature
of learning this piece. The performer, who is in
the first stage of familiarizing herself with this
work, would attempt to find analogous meanings
between the musical composition and the events
that form Narcissus’s story. At this stage the
performer would be looking at the music “from
outside” as Bowman (as cited in Elliott, 2005)
puts it.
The performer needs to start from a point by
which she needs to understand the underlying
subjective nature of the work. She needs to adopt
the point of view of the creator (the composer)
prior to appropriating it (as a performer) and then
“invest” her own subjective interpretation into the
work. The latter depends on the performer’s own
aesthetic experience while engaging with the
work. This experience would allow the performer
to “color” the piece with her own interpretation.
In the score of Narcissus, the composer gives the
performer clues in text form. This describes
exactly what the music is meant to depict—the
“artist’s intention” (cf. Beardsley, 1997). Here the
performer’s imagination is informed by the
composer’s suggestions. For example, the work
starts by a musical depiction of “Narcissus
wander(ing) through the forest, observing,
enjoying (…) unselfconscious but self-absorbed”
(Musgrave, 1988, p. 1). After two short sections,
an Andante espressivo and a Sensuale, the music
recapitulates the original thematic material an
octave lower, and then the score informs the
performer that Narcissus “sees the pool of water.”
Texts in the score like “Narcissus notices his
reflection in the water,” “Narcissus seems to see a
glorious and attractive being moving in the
rippling water,” and “Narcissus then responds
playfully, happily” are coupled with musical
aspects like simpler and more symmetrical
rhythmic motives, lighter tempos and ascending
melodic lines. When Narcissus seems confused,
like when “Narcissus thinks Is IT still there?” or
when “Narcissus anxiously questions the lack of
any independent response” and “is intrigued,” the
character of the music changes to a disjointed
motif, jumping from one theme to another and
back.

17

When Narcissus is angry or frightened, the
character of the music changes, with the composer
choosing carefully her musical palette of rhythmic
motives, pitches, intervals and dynamic levels.
The composer uses the tonal qualities of the music
to elicit various sensations and emotions. A
general sense of mystery, one of the most salient
underlying factors of the whole piece, provides
the piece with a sense of cohesiveness and
continuity. The interval of the minor third, as well
as minor second, seem to impart this particular
character to the work. Chromatic runs are used to
elicit the feeling of panic as well as to depict
agitated movement (Narcissus rushing headlong
into the pool). If we look into what Cooke (1959)
(as cited in Landry, 2003) said, [that] “the
intervals of the diatonic scale represent different
emotional qualities…assert[ing] that, due to the
tonal relations that exist between pitches, certain
motives lend themselves more readily to
conveying particular emotions,” we realize and
understand the how and why of the composer’s
work further. The digital delay enhances the effect
of the reflection characterized by the music;
having an aural effect—an echo—it emulates the
effect as well as helps in illustrating the water
rippling.
Although this is a contemporary composition, one
realizes that the way the performer tackles it is
very similar to the way one would approach works
of music from the 17th and 18th century. In the
latter case, one would analyze the work and locate
points of dissonance and use them as points of
emotional stress. With Musgrave’s (1988) work,
the performer uses the cues supplied by the text
and locates musical points that accentuate the
action and emotion implied by the text. These are
used as processes intended to “impart” musical
innuendos (such as stress, intensity, quality of
tone, dynamic, rubato, etc) to better illustrate the
implied action, thought and emotion.

III
One could infer that, in this case, the definition of
an aesthetic experience is implicit to the way the
music is crafted by the performer in response to
the composer’s original intentions. This is also a
case where aesthetic experience accrues value as
the music develops. This development is
interestingly varied. It is musical, aesthetical and
above all it relates to a plane of imagination over
which different participants (performer, composer
and audience) assume different roles in
“constructing” together a musical event. Broadly
speaking this “construction” follows the
“ordering” by which Maxine Greene (1978)
describes the perception of the work of art, where
a wider aesthetic experience grows. This opens up

18

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

the way for a possible “transaction” between the
work of art and the object (performer, audience,
viewer), making it possible for the performance to
supersede the mere “translative activity in which
[the] performer functions as a kind of conduit for
the composer or the work….mechanically
retrieving a given ‘work’…[and] giving shape to
‘the music’” (Bowman, as cited in Elliott, 2005, p.
147), and move into another realm.
The latter context is where the performer looks for
other meanings and personal connections. Here
we are no longer interested in the tonal qualities or
structure of music. We are “disinterested,” and we
distance ourselves from emotions expressed as the
composer’s while becoming interested in how this
translates to something “familiar” to us. The
music becomes our own expression, producing
vivid experiences from our life. Maxine Greene’s
(1978) words greatly illustrate this phase as
“being in touch with our inner time, which is time
inwardly lived as compared with time measured
by the clock.”.
If indeed Narcissism derives from the notion of a
numbness (narké) that got Narcissus to love his
image and kill himself by drowning in the illusive
pond; Thea Musgrave’s work ironically asserts an
opposite position. One could argue that we could
have multiple forms of aesthetic experience.
Narcissus was overawed by his image; the
performer needs to let the music take over once
she has mastered the musical technique that is
required. The audience, not knowing exactly what
is happening (especially if not familiar with digital
delay), finds itself wondering where the
imagination is let loose. In this piece Musgrave
uses the case of Narcissus to alert us to the
delights and dangers of these powers. Surely, like
Narcissus, we are always in danger of falling fowl

of the sweet wander by which music takes us
further into unknown horizons.

Music Education Projects and Social
Emancipation in Salvador, Brazil
Joel Luis Barbosa
School of Music of UFBA.
Salvador, BA, Brazil
jlsbarbosa@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper aims to discuss the social capital of
three music education projects of the Salvador
city, in Bahia, Brazil. It describes what kind of
social capital these projects develop and how they
build it. It uses the socialeconomist Milani´s
(2003) ideas on social capital. It makes also a
parallel with Paulo Freire’s (1987) emancipatory
education and pedagogy of the oppressed. Its
conclusion points out the importance of music
education projects, especially those that work with
social aims in areas of very low income, to
consider the total social fact theory of the
sociologist Marcel Mauss.

INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses the social capital of three
music education projects of the Salvador city, in
Bahia, Brazil. Salvador has approximately 3
million inhabitants. It describes the social capital
of these projects and the way they build it. It
examines the data using the socialeconomist
Milani´s (2003) ideas on social capital. It makes
also a parallel with Paulo Freire’s (1987)
emancipatory education.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
For his article on social capital and local
development, Milani (2003) uses a preliminary
definition of social capital that has to do with the
findings of the present study. It may be so due to
some historical, social and political similarities
among the communities of the two studies, both
conducted in Bahia. He says:
In our preliminary definition, we conceptualize
social capital as the sum of resources included in
the forms of political and cultural organization of a
population’s social life. Social capital is a
collective good that guarantees respect for mutual
trust norms and civic commitment. It depends
directly on horizontal associations between people
(ie. associative networks, social networks), on
vertical
networks
between
people
and
organizations (ie. networks among people who do
not belong to the same social classes, religion or
ethnic group), on the social and political
ISBN 9780980456028

environment of a given social structure (ie. an
environment rooted in the respect for civil and
political freedom, the rule of the law, public
commitment, appropriate recognition of the role
and position of others in deliberations and
negotiations, permission that people give
themselves to have the right or duty to participate
in collective processes, as well as norms of
commitments assumed between the private and the
public) and, finally, on the construction process
and legitimacy of social knowledge (ie. the way
how atomized ... information or practices referring
to only some groups are transformed into socially
shared and accepted knowledge). (p. 28)

THE METHOD
The research method followed the procedures of
participative observation, interviews, document
analyses, and crossing data. The author has
worked in the three music education projects.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

the Subúrbio Ferroviário district. They learn how
to play and some of them how to teach. Its
teachers are musicians from the school of music
of UFBA, such as professors, graduates and
university students. The project works as a lab to
the university students to practice how to teach
instruments and music theory, how to direct
bands, how to conduct research, and how to work
in this social environment.
The NGO is coordinated only by people of the
community. One of the coordinators, who helped
to create the entity during the 1970s and has a
master degree in education, Vera Lazzarotto, is
not from the community, but she lived there for
about 20 years. She plays a very significant role in
the
pedagogical,
social,
and
political
conceptualization of the NGO and in the lives of
its participants. She and the entity have received
national and international prizes. The NGO
maintains several other educational and social
projects in which some the band students
participate. The relationship network of the
Filarmônica Ufberê includes the people from the
university, the people of the NGO´s coordination,
and the students.
The OSJS is six years old. Its students are from
four districts of the Subúrbio Ferroviário area. The
orchestra belongs to the municipal government.
The municipal secretary of culture, who is a
composer and a PHD professor of the UFBA, is
its main coordinator, directing the elaborating
process of its pedagogical, artistic, and social
approaches. He and the SEDES secretary have
some direct contact with the OSJS students,
dialoguing about the project, music and life. The
project’s teachers and conductors are professors
from the UFBA, graduated students, and
musicians of the state symphony orchestra. The
secretary of the project works with the students
every day and she is from the community.
The two groups, the Ufberê and OSJS, play in
very important conferences of the university, and
of the municipal and state governments. In these
events, there are authorities such as the governor,
the mayor, public secretaries, deputies, and
famous writers and thinkers. These events
occurred in prestigious concert rooms, conference
halls, and hotels.
The third project is the School of Music Maestro
Wanderley, which was created in 2004. It is
financed by the Casa das Filarmônicas, an NGO
that gives pedagogical and financial support to the
wind bands of the Bahia state. Its aims are musical
and social. (Casa das Filarmônicas, n.d.) The
students are from popular social classes and come
mainly from the area around the school. In the
school, the students learn how to play wind and

percussion instruments. The teachers are
professors and graduates from the university, and
advanced students from the Filarmônica Ufberê.
The group, a wind band, has performed in
important events of the city with the presence of
the authorities such as the governor, the mayor,
and state and municipal secretaries.
Many students from the three projects are
obtaining money working with music. Some are
playing in groups for dancing shows,
anniversaries, and weddings. Others are teaching
privately, in the projects they belong to or in other
social projects. Several are playing and having
lessons at the state youth orchestra and see the
opportunity of becoming a musician of the
professional state orchestra, for the former
ensemble is coordinated by the latter. Some get
paid to play in this youth orchestra. The wind
instrumentalists are able to get paid for
performing with much less time of studying than
the stringed instrument students. There are also
much more opportunities to work with wind
instrument in Salvador than with stringed
instruments.
The students want to work with professional
symphony orchestras and military bands and as
teachers. One way to achieve this goal is to attend
the music courses of the university. Many of them
want to do so, but only three of them were able to
get it. The public universities are free of charges;
but to be accepted to its courses, the candidate has
to pass an entrance examination. The projects´
students have many difficulties to be approved in
the non-music subjects of the test, such as
language and mathematics. The schools they
attend in their communities have a very low
quality of education if compared to the private
schools. In the entrance examination, they have to
compete for vacancies with students from the
private schools. However, this situation is
changing because of a new law that guarantees a
small percentage of vacancies to African
descendants and some minorities who come from
public school. The first challenge is to pass the
examination, and the second is to attend it with no
financial aid. The percentage of students of
popular social classes who drop out of the
university because they have to work is very high.
The three projects have one fact in common.
When their students achieve 17 years of age, they
tend to leave the project and quit music instruction
if they do not get any job with music. According
to Cilene Vital (personal conversation, April 11,
2007), the secretary of the OSJS, the majority of
students from the orchestra and the Filarmônica
Ufberê who drop out and are 17 or older wants to
stay in the project. However, they do so because

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

of financial difficulties in the family or because
they become parents, and the financial aid of the
project is not enough. Arnaldo Almeida (personal
conversation, May 29, 2007), coordinator of the
School of Music Maestro Wanderley, says that
most of the students who are 17 or older drop out
because of financial necessities - they have to help
their family or become parents. The small
financial aid that the project OSJS provides to the
students plays a very significant role in their
family’s income. However, to many of them who
turn 17, this aid is not enough to help their family
and for his personal necessities. Also, some of
them become parents very young, such as 15 years
old.

DISCUSSION
The social capital of the three projects is based
upon horizontal and vertical associations. The
horizontal association is among the students
themselves and between the university and the
NGO. The vertical network includes bilateral
relations among the music teachers and the
community students, the NGO’s coordination and
the students, the municipal secretaries and the
students, and the municipal secretaries and the
teachers.
The main contribution of the social capital of
these projects is the process of emancipation of
the social oppressiveness or the descolonization
process that the students begin there. According to
Baron (2004) descolonization is “the process to
understand the psychsocial and psychoemotional
effects from the intellectual project of the
colonialism and how they manifest in our social
relationships and organizations to convert them in
a praxis of intercultural respect and multicultural
equality” (p. 420).
Through the direct contact with the university
professors and students and public authorities, in
addition to the participation in important events
and places, the community student understands
the world deeper, beyond his community. He goes
into prestigious places where his parents never
had the chance to enter. He gets to know people
who ascended socially and financially and the way
they did it. He sees the possibility of ascending as
well, or he sees himself already ascending through
the participation in the music group by using and
improving his talents. His vision of community
and society and his perspectives and paradigms of
living expand. He comprehends that he, with and
within the music ensemble, has cultural and
artistic values that may serve as capital to
negotiate with the richer communities from which
he used to feel excluded. Now he knows that he
can be an important part of the society, playing a

21

worthy role in it. When he understands this, he
also sees the necessity of making his capital to be
worthier, looking for ways to improve his musical
abilities (going to the university, for instance).
The fruit of the colonization is very present in the
life of these students even though they are not
aware of it. The majority of them is African
descendant (90%) and live under social and
emotional oppression. The colonial political
project treated the slaves as inferiors. After the
slavery abolition, they did not have financial
support and opportunities to get enough education
and good jobs. They got together to live in slums.
Today, when the community student look at their
family and social heritage, he sees parents,
grandparents and relatives who are analphabetic,
who did not finish school, and who did not have
profitable jobs, living under very poor conditions.
The same happens when he looks at his
community. Many media programs have affirmed
the African descendant as inferior and with no
chance to ascend in the society. The school
education does not provide efficient pedagogies to
free the students from this situation. The situation
seems to say, erroneously, that since he was born
African descendant, he is inferior and will live
poor for the rest of his life as it has ever been for
there is no way out of this cycle.
In order to better understand this picture, it is
important to know the social and political
situation of the city where these music education
projects take place. After 30 years of military
dictatorship
(1964–1984)
controlling
and
damaging the education, public education lost its
quality. The next 20 years of neoliberal policies
opened up to the private education, which became
better than the public one. These losses and gains
of qualities are very strong, especially, in the first
and second levels of education and less
accentuated at the university level. The
community students of the projects cannot afford
to pay for good education so it is very difficult to
them to pass the public university entrance
examination. However, in the last five years, with
the election of a president who came from the
popular class, the country has experimented
governmental programs and laws that are starting
to change this picture somewhat.
The emancipator process of these students takes
place in their minds. It occurs because the
individuals are together, constituting a music
group. It would be impossible to be built by the
student alone, without the social relationships and
activities of the project is part of. This reflects
what Freire (1987) says: “nobody emancipates
anybody, nobody emancipates himself or herself
alone:
Men
emancipate
themselves
in

22

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

communion” (p. 52.) He adds that “Only when the
oppressed people find out, clearly, the oppressor
and engage in an organized fight for their
emancipation, they start to believe in themselves
so that they overcome their relation with the
oppressive regime.” (ibdem)
Perhaps the social emancipator process of the participants
of these three projects may be more extensive and
efficient if the projects conceptualizations consider the
total social fact theory of Marcel Mauss (2003). He
defines “the social as real” and adds that it “is not real if
not integrated in system” (p. 23). He explains that to
interpret a social fact as a total it is necessary “to observe
the behavior of the people as a whole, and not divided
into faculties,” connecting “the physical, physiological,
psychic and social aspects” of the individual (ibdem). It
may mean that the students might have a more complete
social emancipation if the projects offered an appropriate
financial support to them when they achieve 17, for
instance.

CONCLUSION
Music education projects with social aims have to

consider the fact that students from social classes
of very low income need a financial support to
stay in the project in order to continue their social
emancipation when they achieve the age of 17.
This is something relevant to verify if we consider
that “50 million of people live under the line of
indigence in Brazil (29% of the population)”
(Jornal do Brasil, 2001) and that the U.N. (ONU,
2006) estimates that this number will be 55
million in 2020.

Who Learned From Whom?
Reflections From a Music Learning
Community
Gail V. Barnes
School of Music, University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC, USA
gbarnes@mozart.sc.edu

ABSTRACT
In recent years, over thirty universities have
instituted String Project learning communities for
undergraduate teachers to gain teaching
experience and also serve young string players in
the communities surrounding their campuses.
Because one aspect of the String Project
experience is the interaction between a mentor
teacher and the preservice teacher, for this study,
I focused on two undergraduate string-class
teachers and myself, the project director (also
serving as the mentor-teacher).
While the two preservice teachers became
student-focused very quickly, it was apparent
through our interaction that they still required
affirmation and specific feedback. The close
interaction proved to be beneficial not only for the
professional development of the two young
teachers but also for the mentor-teacher.

KEYWORDS
teacher
education,
reflection

learning

communities,

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, over thirty universities have
instituted String Project learning communities for
preservice teachers to gain teaching experience
and also serve young string players in the
communities surrounding their campuses. In
addition, these sites have been the center of
research that focuses on the qualitative experience
(Ferguson, 2003), the pedagogical experience
(Schmidt, 2005), and quantitative data from
program evaluation (Byo, 2005).
The importance of early field experience for
preservice teachers is established in the teacher
education literature. Conkling (2007) speaks of
providing the opportunities to observe effective
teaching and teachers, to practice teaching skills,
and to reflect. Conkling also speaks of the need
for preservice teachers to begin with nominal
responsibility and gradually become more
invested, both through a greater instructional role
and their own sense of “belonging in the
community” (p. 48).
ISBN 9780980456028

Conklin-Smith and Lytle (1999) explored the
relationship between knowledge and practice in
learning communities. They cite traditional
models of teacher education as focused on
knowledge for practice (theory), knowledge in
practice (traditional field experience), and
knowledge of practice. The latter is a combination
of the first two but occurs when teachers treat
their classrooms as “sites for intentional
investigation” (p. 250). Teachers integrate their
theoretical and practical knowledge with reflective
thinking and by making connections to larger
issues.
Preservice teachers are frequently encouraged to
keep journals as they progress through their
methods courses and field experiences (Cole,
Raffier, Rogan, & Schleicher 1998). Maintaining
a journal allows a preservice or novice teacher to
process both new information and apply previous
experiences to a new setting (Cole et al, 1998;
Conkling, 2003; Conway, 2002; Zeichner &
Liston, 1987).
Both Ferguson (2003) and Schmidt (2005) have
given the preservice teachers in the String Projects
a voice rather than only focusing on the viewpoint
of the teacher educator. Schmidt (2005) focused
on the transfer of instruction from a methods class
to the String Project classroom. Ferguson (2003)
found that preservice teachers valued feedback.
but their remarks remained rooted in their specific
perceptions. Because one aspect of the String
Project experience is the interaction between a
mentor teacher and the preservice teacher, for this
study, I focused on two preservice string-class
teachers and the mentor-teacher.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

String Project classes are recruited by
undergraduate music education majors from local
schools. Instruction for the children occurs over
two twelve-week semesters. In the first semester, I
taught the first class while the two preservice
teachers observed. In turn, in the following hour, I
observed the preservice teachers and provided
feedback.

METHOD
I asked the preservice teachers, Tracy and
Addison, to send me a weekly summary of their
experiences via journal in the form an e-mail
attachment. Borrowing guidelines from another
teacher educator at the same institution, I gave
both young women these loose parameters for
their journals:
• Explain how you felt while observing.
• Explain how you felt while teaching.
• Describe what you noticed about the children
during this activity or these activities?
• Describe what you noticed about your
development?
• Describe what you noticed about the
children's development?
• Offer other comments about or suggestions
for yourself.
A graduate student also videotaped Tracy and
Addison while teaching. At the conclusion of the
first semester, I interviewed each of them while
we watched their tape. By scheduling the
interview after a semester of experience, we were
able to capture retrospective reflection. I recorded
these interviews onto an iPod voice recorder and
imported to the computer via a WAV file. I then
transcribed this file with the aid of
HyperTranscribe and analyzed the resulting text,
text from the electronic journals, and text from my
weekly e-mails to the preservice teachers by using
Hyper Research. At the conclusion of this stage, I
asked Tracy and Addison to analyze a selected
portion of text from their journals using the 31
codes I devised in the first round of analysis. The
greatest agreement was in coding text that fell into
the two major categories of Evaluation and
Reflection. The greatest frequency of comments
was in Evaluation-Children.

RESULTS
In the first week, both Tracy and Addison focused
on self, their emotions at beginning this
experience, and their assessment of their
performance as teachers.
Tracy: Before Tuesday, I was a little apprehensive
at the prospect of teaching beginning students.
Once everyone was seated and organized, I
took a final breath and said to myself, "This is
it, I am actually doing this." After that final

thought, I abandoned my feelings and kicked
into what I like to call teacher-mode. From
then on, words just seemed to leave my mind
and lips faster than I even thought they would
come.
Addison: Today I had mixed emotions about
starting my beginning class. I was excited
because I starting something that I'm going to
be doing for the rest of my life, which is
teaching children music. I was also nervous
because I felt like I wasn't really ready to be
teaching beginners.

In my role as mentor-teacher, I believed it was
important to give both of them reinforcement for a
very strong beginning performance:
GB: Tracy and Addison-you did a great job today-you will get to the point, once the basic skills
are established, that you don't need to refer to
notes, but don't worry about that now. I love
the way you took the basic structure you
observed in my class and added your own
creativity.

I also wanted to share my reflection on this newold experience:
GB: I forgot how much I LOVE introducing young
children to the instrument. I feel like I can
really analyze and have a conscious design for
how I introduce the kids to the instruments. I
also love that I get to mentor you at the same
time--that's a very large feeling of
responsibility, but one that I relish.

In the second week:
GB: I have had several moments of uncertainty
about exactly when to introduce something,
but I don't intend to mask that. I think it's good
for you to see that experienced teachers still
question how they deliver instruction and that
leads to improved learning for children.

As early as weeks two and three, Tracy and
Addison were focusing much more on the
children.
Addison (week 2): I found my students to be very
successful in Tuesday's class. The objective of
this class was to build a strong shoulder
position foundation. I found our 3 R's
(repetition, repetition, repetition) to be most
useful with this. I used a very concrete system
of steps to teach the students (statue of liberty,
finger on the button, button towards the
ceiling, come in for a landing) and went
through the process several times.
Tracy (week 3): I have been very impressed by
EVERY student in my class throughout the
process of building left hand position.
Specifically, T-- has picked up quickly on
beautiful position and left hand. I am never
surprised to hear him say he has already
practiced ahead (despite my instructions not
to...) and would like to play a solo. When I
approached him Tuesday, he had the tensest

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

left hand in the class. By simply giving him
one method to cure the problem (tapping his
thumb periodically), he was able to improve
tremendously by Friday.

I found the text from my feedback e-mails upbeat;
but after the first month, they became increasingly
brief, using shorthand and focusing mostly on the
future.
GB: For Friday, I plan to do a re-cap of everything
from Tuesday, perhaps taking as long as 10-15
minutes after tuning. I had three kids absent so
there will be fair amount of review necessary.
I plan to drill the “tunes” on lesson 2, taking
care that the students are saying note names,
not finger numbers. I hope to actually get to
Lesson 3, but will probably need to vary with
some other activity, maybe even music
listening.

I am still uncertain whether the quick learning
curve of the beginning class teachers led to
increasingly brief communication.
GB: On Tuesday, I plan to incorporate (CD) tracks
(#10, 11, #14 and #19) with Lesson 2. I may
skip Pierrot's Door and go to Lesson 3---that
will be a pretty good day’s work!

During the interviews while watching the
videotape, I found both Addison and Tracy less
certain and needed more affirming feedback.

Addison
A: I hate the sound of my voice when I hear it.
GB: Everybody does.
A: (on tape, ‘Do you understand?’)
A: Oh, that's on Jingle Bells.
A: Do I talk too much?
GB: No.
A: OK (laughs a bit).
GB: For example there, you realized you didn't
have their attention-you focused their
attention. But what you just did was
good…you read your class.

Tracy
GB: You just actually used two teaching
techniques, whether you realized it or not.
What was the first thing you were having
them do?
T: Well I'm not sure what techniques you're talking
about.
GB: Were you modeling?
T: I thought the pacing was good-I try to keep it to
four beats and to give feedback if we need to
do it again-I thought that was good.
GB: And then you just stopped and you were
doing something--you asked them something?
What kind of technique was that?
T: (Hesitates)
GB: Utilizing critical thinking skills?

25

T: Yes! (with relief) I need to learn the official
jargon.

In general, young teachers progress from a focus
on self to a focus on the children. With these two
young women, this progress happened very
rapidly because of their prior experiences within
the String Project. Given their confident handling
of their classes by the third week, it was mildly
surprising to find them hesitant while they
watched their video and I interviewed them. My
hypothesis was that they functioned as a teacher
while in front of their String Project classes but
assumed the role of a student when I asked them
questions in my office. I had other insights
through the course of the actual experience and
through the data analysis. One is captured in this
segment from Tracy’s e-journal at the beginning
of the semester:
What I really wanted was concrete advice on how
to survive the first week!...I comforted myself by
saying, "If Dr. Barnes isn't worrying us with
details, then she must have full confidence in our
abilities."

Even though I did have ‘full confidence’ in their
abilities, they still needed detailed information
about what to expect in this new teaching
experience. In using the String Project beginning
classes as sites for “intentional investigation”
(Conklin-Smith & Lytle, 1999, p. 250), not only
did the two undergraduate teachers integrate their
“coursework and practical knowledge through
reflection,” I learned more about being an
effective
teacher
educator.
Though
the
undergraduate teachers assume the role of a
teacher in the assigned setting, they are still in the
early stages of their careers and may require more
feedback and affirmation then they indicate.
During the current year, I am still requiring ejournals because of the value to the preservice
teacher to process both new information and apply
previous experiences to a new setting (Cole et al,
1998; Conkling, 2003; Conway, 2002; Zeichner &
Liston, 1987). In perusing these, I already realize
that these are very different individuals, and I will
always need to tailor my feedback to account for
individual differences. As with teaching children,
that is what allows for the infinite variety in our
profession.
I am making plans for a longitudinal case study of
one or two teachers. This will begin with a
freshman teacher in the String Project, following
him or her through the progression of
responsibilities as an assistant, private teacher,
small group teacher, and then large group teacher.
That will provide even further insights to the
challenges and benefits to teacher education
within a music learning community.

26

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

REFERENCES
Byo, J. L., & Cassidy, J.W. (2005). The role of the
string project in teaching training and community
music education. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 53(4), 332-347.
Cole, R., Raffier, L. M., Rogan, P. and Schleicher, L
(1998). Interactive Group Journals: Learning as a
dialogue among learners. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3),
556-568.
Conkling, S. W. (2007). The possibilities of situated
learning for teacher preparation: The professional
development partnership. Music Educators Journal,
93(3), 44-48.
Conkling, S.W. (2003). Uncovering preservice music
teachers' reflective thinking: Making sense of learning
to teach. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, (155) 11-23.

University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand
tim.bell@canterbury.ac.nz

ABSTRACT
This paper considers the rare one-in-ten-thousand
musically gifted child who demonstrates abilities
that other competent music students would
struggle to achieve even with many years of
training. Such children are qualitatively different
from their peers. We consider how such students
can be identified, and look at creative ways to
engage and stretch them during their primary
school years when traditional formal music
teaching approaches would not normally provide
the diversity of musical ideas that they are able
absorb. During these years, they are less likely to
have peers who match their passion and ability,
and their teachers may well have to find ways to
extend them within the context of regular
programmes. We present ways to achieve this,
while at the same time benefiting their peers
through their contributions. This will give them a
stronger sense of achievement, and prepare them
better for their future development as a musician.

KEYWORDS
gifted children, student directed learning, peer
learning

INTRODUCTION
Children who are gifted in a particular area are
often frustrated with the lack of opportunities,
training, and resources available to them when
they are young, and this is particularly so for
musically gifted children. Here we are focusing on
the one-in-ten-thousand child who may have a
natural aptitude for music, a keen ear, a
remarkable memory for music, a passion for
learning about every aspect and style of music,
and the ability to produce musically creative and
pleasing original work. Such children will often
demonstrate abilities years ahead of the norm for
even music specialist students, such as
recognising themes in an orchestral piece at the
age of 3, or composing well-structured orchestral
works at the age of 10.
In a high-school environment, such children will
generally have good opportunities because there
will be groups such as bands and orchestra that
ISBN 9780980456028

can accommodate a young, capable individual,
and they may also be able to participate in
programs in a local university or conservatory.
However, during their early years, from preschool to about age 12, they are more likely to be
part of a group in which they are significantly
beyond their peers. This paper provides some
tested ideas for engaging such students at the
grade school level, not only for there own benefit,
but also in a way that is worthwhile for their
same-age friends.
First, we will review what is meant by musical
giftedness, and then present strategies for primary
school students.

MUSICAL GIFTEDNESS
Joseph S. Renzulli’s (1978) “three-ring” model of
gifted students identified three aspects that sets
them apart from others:
• above average general ability,
• high level of task commitment, and
• high level of creativity.
Musically gifted children are not just
quantitatively different from their peers, they are
qualitatively different (Winner, 2000). It is not
just that they are ahead of their classmates; they
have capabilities that other children will not
achieve even if they had many more years of
training. Winner and Martino (2000) and Porter
(2005) point out the following characteristics of
musically gifted child:
• Environmental and musical sounds “enthral”
them.
• Their appreciation and understanding of
music is profound, even when they are very
young.
• They are sensitive to the structures of music,
such as tonality, harmony and rhythm.
• They have an excellent memory for music, so
they can recall it accurately, and play or sing
it back accurately some time later.
• They appreciate the expressive properties of
music, and reproduce these when they recall
music.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

It is important to observe that a musically gifted
child can become demotivated if the opportunities
they are given are not at a level at which they can
exercise their gifting well. We argue that in such a
situation the gifted child can, for example, be
given a creative role that also benefits their peers.
We also need to be aware that “perfectionism,
sensitivity and intensity are three personality traits
associated with giftedness” (Silverman, 2002).
Gifted children will need emotional support as
well as musical support.
Because musically gifted children are so
exceptional, a group music teacher might see just
one or two each year, if that many. This means
that, if they are to do group work (such as a school
orchestra), the teacher needs to cater for the gifted
child in the group. Once they reach their teenage
years, they will be in a position to join a more
elite group such as state or national youth
orchestra; but for their formative years, many will
be part of a group of less gifted children.
Gifted students need to be kept enthused, and
there are as many ways to do this as there are
gifted students because they all have different
passions and rates of learning in various areas, and
will be following different paths. Such students
need to be listened to as well as directed. Of
course, given that, by definition, gifted students
will have a high level of task commitment, we can
expect that they are likely to make progress even
without formal help, but they will develop
significantly faster if they can get input from a
teacher whom they respect, can help them grow as
a musician, and understands how they think about
music.

GIFTED CHILDREN IN PRIMARY
SCHOOL
The ideas in this paper have been developed from
the first author’s experience for 9 years running a
music programme in an “Intermediate” school that
caters for children from about 11 to 13 years old,
as well as assisting schools with younger children.
The goal of the music programme is to provide the
opportunities for all interested students to grow
and thrive musically in these very important years
when they not only have the capacity and time to
learn quickly, but their minds are open to new
musical ideas and their bodies have grown enough
to handle new instruments. For those with a love
and flair for music, they should be able to fly in an
environment where they and their gift is valued
and nurtured. It should also be an environment
where students can meet kindred spirits, and to
have experiences and achievements that the
students can be proud of and which help make
those years ones which are happy memories in the

future. At this period of fast growth for them, it
can be a lonely time, especially for the gifted
child, but having music and comradery with other
passionate musicians can make a significant
difference to their happiness during these years.
It is important to identify the gifted musician:
• Do they gravitate to the music teacher and
music classes?
• Do they find general classroom music
tedious?
• Do they ask to be extended, and contribute
ideas for what should be happening musically
at the school?
• Do their instrumental teachers recognise them
as exceptional?
• Do they understand each new musical concept
immediately, almost as if they already knew?
• Do they score well in musicianship tests?
Some of these children may be definite about
learning and practising just one instrument, while
others may want to dabble in many aspects of
music.
The goal is for the gifted students to be proud of
what they are doing both individually and in their
performance group. They should have ownership
and enthusiasm, and they should be stretched. If
this is achieved for just one or two gifted students,
the bar will be raised for all students, and their
expectation, achievement and enjoyment will be
higher also. For example, having a gifted jazz
improviser gave other students confidence to solo,
ideas about how it should sound, and pride in the
whole jazz band.
Thus it is motivating for everyone to be able to
keep gifted students in groups (such as orchestras
and bands) rather than lose them through
boredom. If they leave middle school still
motivated they are more likely to be contributing
and positive members at high school.
To avoid frustration with particularly weak
players, it is good to have special programmes for
the less able, such as a new-comer’s orchestra,
extra instrument lessons, easier music, and other
music opportunities that suit individual skills,
such as using computers to record or write music.
For the gifted students, some ideas for extending
them are:
• Orchestrate music with hard and easy parts –
off the shelf music can be too easy for gifted
students and too hard for beginners. For
example, Figure 1 shows a recorder concerto
where the recorder part is for a gifted student
but the lower parts are for other
instrumentalists with varying levels of ability.
The first flute part is slightly more advanced
than the second flute. Figure 2 shows a piece

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

where the violin part has a top C and
semiquaver movement against slower
accompanying parts, including a lower
clarinet part with many minims (half notes)
and mainly lower register. Parts like the
tubular bells also give opportunities to add
colour and involve students for whom the
instrument is appropriate. This approach can

29

make the orchestra or group sound good even
if it is basically one or two obbligato or high
quality parts with a simple backing. You
should take care of those who are off time or
off pitch as gifted students can be
disheartened by this â&#x20AC;&#x201C; train all the children to
use a tuner.

Figure 1. Excerpt from a recorder piece arranged for a gifted recorder player, with

simpler parts for other instruments.

Figure 2. Excerpt from a piece arranged for a gifted violinist, with other parts ranging from

intermediate to simple.

30

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Let the children choose the repertoire for the
groups they are in. This can be done by
developing a rough list based on everyone’s
suggestions and then a vote. The process
should be moderated by the teacher to rule out
music that is impractical (although be careful
not to jump to that conclusion too quickly);
but in particular, the teacher should pay
special attention to choice of the gifted
children because they like to be heard, even if
you just discuss it with them and do not play
it.
Develop a variety of groups, such as a jazz
group (the jazz genre has a more complex
musical theory than classical music, and can
be just the kind of extension a gifted student
might enjoy), chamber group (select a few
especially competent students to work
together), and even a rock group.
Form new groups around the strengths and
interests of the talented students who happen
to be available. For example, one year we had
a student who was an exceptional recorder
player and we formed a special chamber
group. We arranged a recorder concerto for
both the regular orchestra and the chamber
group.
Find a mentor for the student in their area of
interest. This could be a faculty member at a
local university who teaches their instrument,
a composer who appreciates their style of
music, or a musicologist who is interested in
their favourite type of music and can discuss it
in depth with them. These faculty members
will often be interested because they recognise
that these students may be their star students
in the future.
Run a “theory club” which meets weekly to
work on music theory exercises. This can be a
lot of fun in a group situation, and the students
can form teams (e.g. girls vs. boys) that
compete in game-show style mini-competition
that is designed to stretch the members of
each particular team. Students can be studying
theory at their own level even though they are
in a group – the teacher just needs to provide
the appropriate level of material for each
student.
Look for initiatives to promote the arts in your
community. For example, bring in sponsored
speakers or groups from orchestra outreach
programs, or local college and universities
that want to increase their profile in schools.
Organise outings to concerts and events that
expose the students to many styles of music.
This can also include rehearsals, which will
give them quite a different view of the music
to simply hearing the final product. For

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•

performances often discounted student tickets
are available, and getting hold of these can
encourage attendance. If cost is an issue, it
may be possible to get free entry to a concert
for students in exchange for helping with
selling programmes, ushering, or turning
pages. This also means that the student is
more involved in the concert!
Organise for the student to play along with
great musicians. For example, see if they can
play as part of a professional orchestra for a
rehearsal or even a special item in a concert,
or when acclaimed musicians visit the school
ask if they can play in the group, or see if a
gifted child can get to jam with a professional
jazz group.
Give the gifted student access to music
technology to allow them to make recordings.
Most school computer systems now come
with multitrack recording systems, or they can
be installed at no cost (e.g. Garageband on
Macs, Audacity on MS Windows machines).
A multitrack system allows the student to
layer many complex parts that they couldn't
do on their own, and that their peers might not
be able to play in a group. They might use
their recordings as backing tracks for their
own performances.
If possible, give them access to systems for
composing and arranging, such as Sibelius for
Finale (they may become frustrated with some
of the cheaper or free systems that will impose
limitations on what kinds of notations and
sounds with which they can experiment).
Help the student to enter competitions, which
might range from classical to battle-of-theband style events. The value of these is not
just the opportunity to work towards a goal.
Often at such events, they will meet other
kindred spirits; and as long as there is a
positive atmosphere at the competition, they
may well develop musical connections that
become valuable in the future.
Have the more competent students give
performances to junior groups, and get them
to explain their music (make sure they
prepare!) Teaching is an excellent way to
learn, and this will force the students to try to
articulate their thoughts about their music.
Look for as many performance opportunities
as possible, as experience performing
develops professional maturity. Even the
seemingly trivial aspects of a performance –
such as deciding what to wear, making sure
that all the equipment is there, and taking a
bow – will be valuable in the future as the
student becomes comfortable with the many
details associated with giving a performance.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

•

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•

Finding opportunities should not be hard:
consider offering lunchtime concerts in the
school, performances to retirement homes,
and volunteer to provide entertainment at
community events. Small soirées, touring and
large events combined with other schools also
provide opportunities.
Get gifted students to some responsibility in
an area they are passionate about, such as
music monitor or orchestra leader. Do not
give them too much responsibility as this can
give them frustration with less able peers;
they still absolutely need an adult around
whose musicality they respect.
Give the students opportunities to conduct,
arrange and compose for the school groups.
This will be valuable learning experience for
them, although it may require considerable
guidance at first to make sure they learn the
basics of these tasks.
Encourage classroom teachers to allow the
student to use their music intelligence
(Gardner, 2000) when thinking about other
curriculum areas; for example, when studying
the rainforest, allow them to compose music
about the each of the animals they are
studying. This still requires them to do the
research on the topic, but they will be more
motivated to do it.

CONCLUSION
Nurturing gifted students requires creativity and
effort, but generally they will give back a lot in
return. If this is achieved, the bar will be raised for
all students, and it will have a positive effect on
their
expectation,
achievement,
pride,

31

commitment and enthusiasm. The gifted student
will have had a happy, meaningful and productive
pre-adolescent experience to give them the best
preparation technically and emotionally for a
future in music.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to David Sell for providing
valuable comments on this paper, and to Richard
Paton (principal of Chisnallwood Intermediate
School) for his unrelenting support for the
programme described in this paper.

Group Instrumental Performance in
Middle Primary Education: Adjusting to
the Particular Needs of the Students
Michael Raúl Berg
Jacinto Benavente School
Galapagar, Madrid, Spain
michelrbf@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This research took place during the years 20062007 in my classroom. The groups of students are
very large, music is undertaken in reduced spaces
with only one session per week and the different
musical experiences of the students are
accentuated. All of this causes the development of
their instrumental practice to be very complicated.
In search of solutions to this problem, I undertook
research, framed within the interpretative
paradigm, to try to describe and understand a
specific and dynamic reality. The methodology is
action-research, and questions raised go towards
the beginning of new organisational and
pedagogical strategies that are trying to harness
the instrumental training in an effective and
integral way. The analysis of the data has been
made from five different aspects: preparation of
specific scores, particular attention to the pupils,
organisational strategies, process of the
instrumental learning, and attainment of goals. I
conclude that when groups are reduced in size,
they favor the customized attention given, in
particular the sense of order and respect.
Development of cooperative strategies is also
effective as they allow all students to progress in
relation to their potential.

KEYWORDS
instrumental music, performance, student needs.

INTRODUCTION
The educative reality in the music classroom is
often far from perfect. Beyond the objectives,
curricular content or adaptations that are outlined
and planned, the reality of the classroom context
comprises many groups of students of mixed
abilities. Because of this, a coherent practical
program is unable to take place. Thus,
instrumental performance has to be supervised in
a once per week session, with groups of around 25
students and in spaces that, in most cases, are not
large enough for such activities. There are also the
mixed abilities of the students, reflecting faithfully
a more pluralistic and integrated society, which
present an almost unrealisable educational musicmaking dream. In my music classroom, and
ISBN 9780980456028

through the development of the classes over
several years, these difficulties for instrumental
practice have been observed, with the mixed
musical levels and backgrounds of students taken
care of in a generic way without being customised
to student needs. Without wishing to enter the
debate of a practical versus a theoretical approach,
the objective of this research is to develop
educational guidelines and strategies for
instrumental training customised to student levels
and needs and examine the treatment of the
scores. Music in Primary Education in Spain is
governed by the R. D. 1344/1991, of 6 of
September (B.O.E. 13-9-1991), a programme
which is the legal frame on which our educative
practice is based. The fact that mixed musical
levels occur within the group is not simply a
reality in the classroom, but a responsibility that
we, as teachers, must assume. On a principle
established by UNESCO, Diaz (2001, p. 78) says
that “all the pupils must have the opportunity to
develop their musical abilities to the maximum
throughout the educational system, which is
responsible for their individual needs.”
In my research, the reality of the classroom
requires knowledge of age development, ideas
which are in agreement with those of Oriol and
Parra (1979), in order to find answers:
• The age of seven sees the appearance of a
receptive attitude and relaxation before
introducing situations or stimuli designed to
please the student. This circumstance is
necessary in order to take optimum advantage
of each student beginning musical hearing and
rhythmic training.
• The age of eight is characterized by student
interest that is awakened by performing on
percussion instruments in groups, not as an
individual.
• The age of nine is characterized by an holistic
attitude, which affects motor development
through a great variety of physical exercises
(including those for the hands), and which can
be gradually adapted to teach more complex

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

instruments and technical training plus greater
rythmic difficulties.
Karoly (1981) affirms that to beat or shake diverse
sonorous materials to create any type of
rhythmical sound is probably the oldest and most
spontaneous way to make instrumental music. For
this reason, instrumental training feels, to us, to be
necessary from both cultural and educative
viewpoints. In Middle Primary Education,
students between the ages of eight and ten years
strengthen their instrumental skills and begin to
learn new techniques. Cooperative work is begun
and assumes a greater independence with respect
to help from the teacher. The qualitative paradigm
questions the fact that the behavior of subjects is
governed by general laws and is characterized by
underlying regularities. Qualitative researchers are
focused on description and understanding the role
of the individual within the larger whole. They try
to:
â&#x20AC;˘ Develop ideographic knowledge;
â&#x20AC;˘ Observe the reality as specific and dynamic.
The existence of an external and valuable reality
must be analyzed. The methodology I have used is
action-research. Latorre (2003, pp. 9-10)
comments that:
From this new image education is conceived as a
researching activity and the research as a selfreflective activity made by the teaching staff with
the purpose of improving its practiceâ&#x20AC;Ś.The
educative practice becomes difficult to understand
without making reference to the implicit theories,
the intentions of the teaching staff and the
perception of the students.

Kemmis (1988) defines action research as a form
of self-reflective research by those who participate
(teaching staff, students, or direction for example)
in social situations (including the educative ones)
to improve the understanding of them.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Context of the Research
The research was undertaken in a State School of
Pre-school and Primary Education in the west of
the Community of Madrid. Music is developed in
a music classroom, specifically dedicated to music
teaching. The school is located next to a highway
of local and regional importance, near to an urban
center and local sport facilities. Its proximity to a
Theater allows use of this venue for some
Christmas events, and encourages development of
artistic activities. The natural surroundings are of
exceptional beauty. The economic level of the
families of the students is average with 70-80% of
students able to attend complementary activities
like concerts or exhibitions. Many parents of the
students work in the services sector, Madrid being

the place to which many are transferred. It is
important to highlight that it is a town where
many professional musicians live. Thus, in the
school, there are parents who are composers,
pianists, singers of opera, etc., a factor that
influences the musical interests of some students.

The research questions
This research poses questions about the reality of
teaching instrumental music in the classroom:
Is it a good strategy to include the instruments
played by students with musical knowledge
into the classroom?
Can this benefit the education learning
process of these students?
Can this benefit the learning process of
the other students?
Is it better to adapt the score to the students,
or the students to the score?
What tools and resources can the teacher use
to work different modalities?
In what way are relations between
students and between student and teacher
more personal when music-making occurs
in groups?
What degree of influence can these
performances have on:
the interest of all students;
classroom strategies;
student learning in the classroom.

Didactic Strategy
The strategy requires an understand of how the
process of the education and learning activities
outlined in the proposed objectives will allow the
development of the research, which in turn, will
shape the development of these activities.
Activities include consideration of time taken to
do the work, the adjustment of the scores to
suitable levels, organization
of groups,
distribution of functions and the coordination of
group members, development of tests and the
beginning of phases that mark the introduction of
different didactic strategies. One strategy is to talk
about the progressive or increasing learning,
whereby a student leaves individual work to
participate in group work. Another is cooperative
learning. The collection of data has been made
using diverse techniques: participant observation,
interviews with all students, audio-visual
recording of classes, registering of anecdotes and
comments, which offer validity to the project
through triangulation. Ethical questions, the right
of confidentiality and anonymity, asking for
appropriate permission to make recordings have
all been addressed. All of these steps have been
considered and discussed, ensuring the right of

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

each participant to leave the research project any
time he or she wishes to do so.

ANALYSIS OF DATA
Score Selection
I have selected eight songs (see Table 1), with
durations of around a minute and a half,
considering the instruments available within the
classroom, balanced with the instruments played
by students with previous musical knowledge.
Table 1. The selected pieces.
Title

Composer

Period

C.

Group

Barcarola

Offenbach

Romanticism

6/8

1

Symphony

Mahler

Nacionalism

4/4

2

Variations

Mozart

Classic Period

4/4

3

Symphony

Beethoven

Romanticism

4/4

4

The clock

Haydn

Classic Period

3/4

5

Persia Mk.

Ketelbey

Romanticism

4/4

6

Peer Gynt

Grieg

Nationalism

3/4

7

Turtles

Saint-Säens

Romanticism

4/4

8

When selecting instruments, their unique timbral
and idiomatic qualities need to be kept in mind.
This is justified by the fact that one melody can be
performed by different instruments and, therefore,
can transmit or evoke different ideas or sensations
in the listener. Once the pieces to be performed
have been selected, students had to consider
guidelines concerning suitable harmonization and
instrumentation, always keeping in mind that any
rhythmical or melodic aspect is able to be
harmonized. Sanuy and Gonzalez (1968) indicate
that it is from this first development of rhythm in
children that one also sees, in the simpler musical
figures, through use of repetition, the instrumental
grouping work even with the youngest students.

The Work Process: Individual, Small
Group and Whole Group Performance
Music reading was not a high-priority objective,
but a useful side issue to the study while
development of the main issues proceded.
Therefore, although many students had difficulties
with music reading, this was partly resolved by
the motivation that occurred and increased when
instrumental performance began. It has been
possible to notice an improvement in certain skill
areas including:
• Better knowledge of the songs;
• Improvement in the reading of notes in the G
clef;
• Better understanding and reading of the
rhythmic figures;

34

•

A greater respect for one’s own silence – that
is, not always playing - for listening and
taking care of other instrumental voices.
In relation to the development of instrumental
technique, we have to be conscious that technique
is a tool, a means to a musical end, not an aim in
itself. Several challenges were noted: the physical
adaptation of the students to the instruments;
difficulties with alternation of hands in the keyed
percussion instruments; eye-hand coordination (in
most of the students); and refinements made by
instrumentalists to their own instrument. The
development of work in small and large groups
posed the greatest challenges to students: attention
to entrances and end of phrases; maintaining the
regular pulse of the work. Rhythmic
discrimination of the different parts, without
altering the playing of others in the group,
required new learning and teaching strategies.

Adjustment to the Emerging Student
Needs: Educational Strategies
Students with previous musical experience asked
for attention and tasks adapted to their level of
knowledge within the classroom, so they could
avoid repetition of prior knowledge and continue
to develop their musical learning. Before the
project, all of these students showed great interest
and effort. For these musically experienced
students, several considerations occurred:
• The level of musical language of each student
increased, for example, playing the main
melody or musically supporting others;
• They were shown the most suitable posture to
avoid bad habits (all students are susceptible
to postural vices) and possible injuries. This
advice was given by specialist teachers of
each instrument who came from the music
centers from which the students were drawn;
The mixed ability groups included some students
who were disruptive and problematic in the
classroom. They are not students necessarily
diagnosed as hyperactive, but their family
situation and their degree of integration into the
classroom, can be factors that make them revert to
these behaviours and constantly look for the
attention of their peers and the teacher. Other
issues such as absence from school, language
problems, or physical disability required several
different educational strategies that could be
adapted to any situation or student profile. These
strategies were always adopted with the intention
to understand, include and help the student as an
individual but within the integrating frame of
group music-making.

35

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Class Conduct
The cooperative work through use of instruments
by students outside classroom hours has been
effective and a strong motivating factor for the
students. A final concert and a CD recording have
been mid-term goals which were welcomed by the
students, acting as a guide over the school terms,
and offering a high degree of satisfaction to all
involved.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Several conclusions were drawn from the project:
• Work in small groups favours the
development of an educative frame which is
tailored to the specific needs of the students,
with solutions to the problems and difficulties
of instrumental learning encountered by each
student being attainable;
• Attention to the particular needs of the
students makes them perceive our interest in
them, which, in turn, motivates them to give
more of themselves. This feeds back to the
teacher’s educational conduct forming a cycle
of continuous development and progression
and increasing interest in our own classroom
practice;
• The students, treated as individuals, progress
in the attainment of their own skill and
personal
achievements
but
without
encountering learning and knowledge
problems which may be part of their other
classroom experience;
• The study of the musical language, grounded
in score reading, is more effective because of
its immediate applicability to instrumental
practice;
• The sense of order, silence and respect for the
work of the others increases remarkably
because of the conscious effort required in the
learning of instrumental music-making;
• Cooperative learning has turned out to be, in
this research, a useful strategy for
instrumental practice, making the study of the
instruments relevant and interesting beyond
music in school-time;
• Issues such as disruptive conduct or
absenteeism of some students is mitigated,
although not disappearing completely,
because of interest in participating in the
musical activity;
• The attention of a teacher to the performance
of an individual student requires alternative
activities for, and responsible behaviour by,
the other students;
• Assigning students tasks within the musical
score which suit the level and profile of the
group and the individual within the group

•

allows each to adapt their instrumental level
to the musical needs of the other students;
The process of assembling instruments and
players moves students gradually from being
individual performers to being group
performers who listen and respond to others.

Implications
Implications for my educational practice are that:
1) The process of research within a subject area of
interest has had positive connotations because the
new challenges motivate me and other staff to
seek positive solutions and strategies; 2) I have
been encouraged to modify my teaching
strategies, trying to develop new ideas and
materials to reflect the needs of each group; 3)
through the increase in the students’ deep
knowledge there has been a consequent
improvement in their learning and social
processes, including self-evaluation; and 4) the
self-critical and self-reflective development of my
own practice has made me doubt and question my
established teaching ideas and strategies.

Research in the classroom
The ways of working developed in this study have
been enriching for the students, despite the fact
that their personal musical tastes were not taken
into consideration, whether popular or other
modern music. For that reason, this study could be
made with a selection of works or pieces similar
to the mentioned repertoire. Wuytack (1992)
already makes reference to this saying that to
make students interested in a variety of musics jazz, rock, pop, serial structures, and electronic
creations, ostinato, ritual canon – we need to
create new models. This is something that has
already been tried but not directed towards
handling the challenges and diversity that occurs
in the classroom.
Further study could take a similar shape but also
focus on the strategy of rotating instruments. That
the students have knowledge of different
instruments is a fact that generates a wider
knowledge and interest - a kind of musical
democracy: no one instrument is superior to
another, and the skill to play and appreciate all
instruments must come from a broad musical
understanding and knowledge. Thus, Gonzalez
Mediel (2006, p. 77), of the University of
Barcelona, affirms the benefits of allowing
students to touch and try many instruments:
The best way for all pupils to experience most of
the instruments is that they are choosing, in each
new trial, a possible instrument that has never been
touched by them before, as they move away from
the previous one.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

36

This is the approach that I want to adopt in the
near future, looking for improvement of my own
practice as a teacher.

I wish to thank the teaching staff of the Jacinto
Benavente School for their collaboration and
interest in this research. Similarly, it would be
unjust to avoid the enthusiasm of the participant
students, who with their effort and work, make
being a teacher a privilege. I thank D. Ph. Diana
Blom who gave advice on editing the paper.
Finally, thanks to the Department of Musical
Expression of the Complutense University of
Madrid for its support of this initiative, and a very
special thanks to D. Ph. Ignacio Sustaeta, tutor of
this research. Thank you to all involved.

ABSTRACT
This work presents latest improvements of the
method that has been developed since the 1970s
by Paola Buan (cellist and painter) and Boris
Porena
(music
composer),
founders
of
Metacultural Research and Testing Center.
The Center has been involved for 30 years in
testing pedagogy and childhood thinking
development with basic practice in different fields,
among which music.
During these years, Porena, Buan and the other
researchers of the Center, have worked out and
are still refining a methodology according to
which children practise music from the very
beginning through improvisation and composition
(informal and codified), and continuously carry
out analysis on what they are doing.
Thus, not only do they learn the theoretical
contents, but also the analytical and compositive
process of every new approach.
The adjective “Metacultural” in this case means
“something thinking over its proper cultural
factors.” Each analysis and each composition are
relative to the culture that generated them even if
they are closed and defined in that very culture,
they admit the existence of different analyses
belonging to other cultural fields. This is the
trademark of Porena’s treatment of the
Metacultural Hypothesis, the theoretical basis of
every research carried on in our Center.
Pivotal base of “cultural basic practice” is
creating a “Self-generating Circuit,” a special
group setting in which each partaker is essential
during the development of the path.
The “cultural basic practice” is, from the
Center’s point of view, essential to children’s and
adults’ education. For this reason, it ought to be
one of the teaching methods used in school: to
gain self-consciousness and awareness of one’s
own context; to replace competition and wish for
power with dialogue and confrontation; and
finally, to learn how to manage conflicts.
The main target of the method is not the
acquisition of the contents of every specific
application but the practice of explorative,
analytic and compositive processes that we can
ISBN 9780980456028

meet in every activity. The closing aim is
developing single and collective thinking.
In this work, we will speak first about the
presupposition that Porena developed and on
which he based the method; and later, we will
present the practical application that comes from
it, showing some recent experience in some Pre
and Elementary school.
In particular, as concerns music education, it is
important
the development
of
informal
composition. In fact, this practice gives us the
occasion to actively reflect upon the idea of code.
School, as general rule, conveys cultural codes as
society created them during the years; practising
informal composition, instead, gives people the
opportunity to set up, by themselves, the codes
necessary to communicate.

INTRODUCTION
Several years have passed form the creation of
Metacultural Research and Testing Center.
However, we believe that the methodology
developed is still one of the most original and
progressive in the field.
Porena and his co-workers’ goal is to understand
whether analysis and composition practice could
help develop children’s thinking (Porena, 1981).
We will start from the epistemological premise
created by Porena to ground basic cultural
practice, later we will speak about the leadership
approach used by the Centre and at last we will
mention some practical experiences as example
(Porena 1974, Porena & Pezza 1997).

EPISTEMOLOGICAL PREMISE: THE
METACULTURAL HYPOTHESIS (IMC)
The Metacultural Hypothesis (afterwards called
IMC), was created to give theoretical structure to
Cultural Basic Practice.It is about a system that
relativizes each action to that very culture that
produced it.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

For Hypothesis, we mean something momentarily
true, which remains so until we discover
something else that gains more reliability.
For Metacultural, we do not mean something
“over-cultural,” but something able to reflect upon
its culturality.
IMC assumes in itself the existence of a
Metacultural Universe (UMC), a place that is
momentarily suspended the principle of noncontradiction. In this place both A and the
contrary of A () exist at the very same moment
(see Figure 1).
Both of them (A and ), therefore, are contained
in the respective Local Cultural Universe (UCL)
where the two of them are legitimated by the
respective cultural rules (see Figure 2).

Figure 1. In UMC both A and are true.

Figure 2. A and are legitimated by the
respective culture.
It is important to underline the difference between
IMC and Relativism. Relativism, from the point of
view of IMC, is just one of the possible ways of
thinking, but we cannot beforehand rule out the
possibility that it can be substituted by some form
of certainty. The statement “All is relative,” in
point of fact, is a conclusive sentence that
contradicts itself.

UMC is that place in which everything is true and
false at the same time and so is the selfparadoxical universe. (Porena 1975, 1981, 1999,
2006)

THE SELF-GENERATING CIRCUIT
Self-generating Circuit is a way of inquiry about
any matter, acted upon by a restricted number of
people.
It is a condition that can lead up to acquisition of
knowledge about the matter explored, which is not
just learned from someone who knows but
outcropped during experimentation and analysis.
The leader creating a Self-Generating Circuit, tries
to make the group free from his presence by
modifying his formal guidance into an informal
guidance, staying as much as possible on the same
level as the others and no longer in a “up-down”
relationship.
Self-Generating Circuit is created each time a
group of people think it necessary, on whatever
matter. Requirement for its creation are:
• The gradual reset of competence; or better, the
momentary de-escalation to a common
average of the proficiency of each partaker
(included the leader): Analysis and
experimentation carried out in the Circuit
would be as much as possible a “first contact
analysis” and not one mediated by any preknowledge;
• The lack of overall power: the conductor may
offer an informal guidance to the group,
losing part of the overall power intrinsic in his
role He therefore has to be able to moderate
the discussion and prevent someone on the
group from monopolizing it. He finally ought
to aim at involving each partaker in the
process;
• The willingness to listen: each partaker
(included
the
leader)
must
assume
momentarily, as a hypothesis, each statement
from the Circuit; get momentarily into other’s
thoughts; try to understand his motivation;
and attempt to modulate the other’s thought
with his;
• The presence of different points of view: if the
partaker of a Circuit has all the same points of
view on a matter, the Circuit will not be of
much interest. In that case, it would be
necessary to create artificially other
hypotheses, for instance, imagining the
existence of a situation opposite to the one
embraced by the group and of all the other
situations between the opposite ones.
Energy involved during a Self-Generating Circuit
comes from all the group partaker and is focused
on the discovery process.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Self-Generating Circuit can be used to lead a
discussion, or part of it, among adults as well as
among children, starting from the last Pre-school
years (4-5 years old children).
The condition created in a class during a Circuit is
very different from the one created during a
“frontal” lesson; and often, it is time-consuming.
However, if in the event of a frontal lesson
children learn contents, in the event of a lesson
with Self-Generating Circuit, it is the mental
process to be acted, process that can be shifted to
any acknowledgement. Children learn how to
discover, how to research, how to think, how to
choose: all abilities with which they can obtain,
develop and think each kind of knowledge and
skill.
Let us take by way of example, a school class in
normal condition during any lesson.
In case of a frontal lesson, the attention of
children is focused on the day topic, but often
only partially and passively. They are supposed to
listen to the teacher, maybe write down in their
notebook notions that he or she are speaking
about, and then, at home by themselves,
memorize, learn and repeat what they have learnt.
They do not need to assess this information with
their personal experience, but they are supposed to
learn them as the teacher has said them without
asking themselves if things are this way. There is
just a partial involvement of the children energies,
part of which will struggle or will not just be used.
Instead, by creating a Self-Generating Circuit,
children are made the principal actors of their
education both at school and in their life. It means
focusing the energies of the group on a goal for
which everybody is totally necessary because each
hypothesis
can
enrich
the
following
experimentation. It means giving the children the
opportunity to do and not only to repeat (Porena
1981, 1999).

39

Each comment during the analysis can be used to
build up a new project, which will be followed by
the relative fulfilment and analysis.
Doing so creates, out and out, a project chain:
each experience must consider the previous ones,
both the planning ones and the analyses. Inside
that process, UCL is created, a micro-culture in
which a nomenclature strictly relative to
experimentation carried out grows up, a jargon
utilized by the group to define its discovery and
effectively communicate inside the group.
This jargon could match the one universally
adopted for the reference language, or it can be
hugely local so that, if someone from the outside
the group participated only once during the path,
he might not understand what the other partakers
belonging to the group were speaking about
(Porena 1981, 1988, 1999).

BASIC METACULTURAL PRACTICE
During the years, in addition to the musical field,
the Centre has been interested in different
application areas among which visual and verbal
composition, all called “Basic Metacultural
Practice.”
Even though on this occasion we will only speak
about musical application, it would be interesting
to follow more parallel paths. It would allow the
partakers to explore different knowledge areas and
it would give them a further opportunity to
practice analytical and compositive processes.
We will speak about a batch of projects tested
again and again in Elementary schools; they are
very incisive to better comprehend the devices set
forward in principle up to now.
We have to remember that every project chain is
set up in different ways according to the group. It
would be better for to conductor to stay each time
open to all the possibilities the group has in the
specific process. (Porena 1981)

PROJECT AND PROJECT CHAIN

BASIC MUSICAL PRACTICE

Each hypothesis coming from inside the Circuit is
considered as momentarily true and then verified
with a practical experience, which is projected by
the group.
The project is expressed in a written or orally
declared sentence and represents a virtual image
of the producing act. Later, a short discussion
takes place about how to achieve the project that
can partially modify, if necessary, the project
statements. Then, the fulfillment of the project
occurs, which is followed by an analysis strictly
connected to it. First, there is a check whether the
fulfilments refer to the project or not, and only the
concerning ones are analyzed.

Basic musical practice is branched into “informal”
and “codified.”
In the informal practice ,the code is built up by the
group, so it is helpful and understandable only
inside the UCL that has created it. In the codified,
the code dovetails the one used in the present
musical culture (Porena 1974, 1981, 1983, 1985,
1988, 1997).

The Informal
Project 1: make a sound all together.
Suddenly some questions come to mind:
• Which sound are we supposed to make?

40

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

•

How shall we produce it? (With an
instrument, with our voice, with our body,
with some object….)
• Shall we have to make the same sound, or can
everybody choose their favourite one?
• What does it mean make it “all together”?
The answers to those questions are used to clear
the project.
• Let us guess the group decides that each
partaker will produce the same sound, the
vowel sound “A”, and that “making the sound
all together” means “starting and finishing at
the same moment”.
The project in this case, will be modified in:

Project 1.1: make a sound (“A”) all together,
starting and Finishing at the same moment
Maybe it happens that, in trying to realize the
project, nobody still knows how to start and finish
all together. Maybe somebody else will nominate
a “conductor” who directs the beginning and the
ending of the sound. In that case, there will be a
discussion about the signal the conductor will use
to start and stop the experience. (Is the signal
clear? If not, why?)
Maintaining the same project therefore,
fulfilments can be more than one: from time to
time analysis will be useful to better carry out the
task; each time the role of conductor can be
assigned to the same person, or better, can shift
among all the partakers.
It is best not to forget that each discussion, in this
setting, is not for its own sake but aims to make
the partaker try at once the self-generating circuit.
Once we have put across the project, we can go on
analysing the sounding features of the various
fulfilments.
Let us suppose a dialogue between the leader (L)
and the children (C):
L: Which features does this “A” have?
C: It is very short!
L: What does “very short” mean?
C: It means that it is not very long.
L: Good! Can you conduct a very long “A”?
(Short/long)

In this second example, we get a glimpse of a new
way. If with the simple gesture for “start” and
“stop,” we could differentiate only the duration,
we would need to include a new code element to
let the conductor and the other partakers
effectively communicate on intensity variation.
From the management of a sound, discovered in
all its parametric features, inch by inch we will
begin dealing with the sound-silence system and;
afterwards, we will cope with the management of
two or more simultaneous sounds.
The more complicated the projects become the
more writing we need: (a) gestures will have to be
codified again in signs and symbols and(b) be
well organized on the sheet in order to give a clear
trail of the composition.
In Figure 3, we quote an informal writing example
produced by a fourth elementary class after three
years’ work.

Figure 3. Informal writing example.

The codified
Let us draw on the blackboard a straight
horizontal line and a cue-ball.
Let us ask the partaker to try to find what and how
many ways the cue-ball can relate in space to the
line.
After testing, we probably will agree, saying that
the only unambiguous possible positions are three:
below the line, across the line, and on the line (see
Figure 4).

Or:
L: Which features does this “A” have?
C: It has broken my eardrums!
L: Poor guy! How can we sing “A” not breaking
your eardrum?
C: We can do it in a whisper!
L: Ok! Conduct your classmate in order to product
a very soft “A,” so your eardrums are happy!!!
(Forte/piano)

Figure 4. The cue-balls’ three positions.
Let us formally call the cue-ball below the line
RE, the one across the line MI, and the one on the
line FA.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Let us try to sing them, helped by a recorder or a
glockenspiel; to better coordinate the choir, we
can use three different gestures (similar to
Kodaly’s), tied to the three notes.

Project 1: Fill a line with these three cueballs as you like.
Once everybody has completed the composition,
we will begin performing and analysing.
However, what do we mean for “analysis”?
A possible definition: in an object, distinguish
some part and correlate them. In this case, the
“object” is a sequence of notes. The segmentation
depends on the criterions adopted by each
“analyst.” These very criterions remain on tap for
following compositions. Doing so, the partaker
will develop faculties in thinking and composing
sounds.
From only three cue-balls disposed around a line,
we will pass to two lines and five sounds, later to
three lines and seven sounds and so on. The
sounds organise in fields (Porena, 1974) that
match modal scales. The first field explored is a
Re Dorian (called by Porena “first mode in field
n°0”), followed by a Mi Phrygian (“Second mode
in field n°0”) and so on up to “Seventh mode in
field n°0,” the so called Do Major.
Not always will the compositions be musicallyformally “correct”, and not necessarily will they
match our musical culture. Anyway if we should
need to narrow our reach to any particular style,
we just need to create an ad hoc project, inputting
the apposite bonds.

ABSTRACT
The intention of this work is to show a continuous
formation experience with public school teachers
from a southeastern Brazilian city, where musical
experiences with teachers aim at assuring
citizens’ access to Art as an expressive language
and, also as a means of knowledge, offering
conditions of understanding of what happens in
the expression and significance realms, allowing
social insertion in a broader way through
interactions with all artistic languages, in the case
of this project, music. The project involves
musical education for 160 teachers, divided in
four groups, with playful activities for the
development and improvement of aspects such as:
hearing
perception,
imagination,
motor
coordination,
memorization,
socialization,
expressiveness and space perception, among
others. The playfulness works as a motivational
and stimulant element for the development of
musical expression in which imitation, perception
and creation are the main elements of the process.
Therefore, children and adolescents that
approach this knowledge, through their teachers,
will be able to distinguish sound waves easily, not
only the ones originated from instruments, but
also the ones originated from objects.
The weekly encounters with the teachers last three
hours, with two hours for group activities and one
hour for choral singing activity. The teachers'
choir constitutes of a privileged space of group
musical practice, of musicality development and
also of the exercise of individual and collective
performances in search of aesthetics, of personal
valorization and of the possibility of self-esteem
and quality of the teacher's life improvement. At
the moment of the choral rehearsals, the
specialists in musical education act as
instrumentalist musicians forming a small
orchestra that accompanies the choir and aids it
in the tuning of the group and enlargement of all
the participants' musical experience.
Although the project is still being established, we
already have observed concrete and significant
results regarding the presence of music in the
school. The teachers' portfolios describe the
ISBN 9780980456028

musical activities with children and adolescents
that multiply daily, indicating a huge number of
song applications, adaptations and creations,
dances, musical games and small instrumental
groups. Those results already show the project
efficiency.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

much as societies struggle against other types of
illiteracy. They should need to know music of
different cultural groups, as well as music from
different historical periods from their own culture
and also from other countries.
Why are all those considerations important? Why
do people believe in the need of musical education
for all children? Koellreutter (1997), states that
most people want peace, but do not know how to
fulfill that desire, and ignore that it is, above all,
an educational subject, conditioned by the fact
that the human being is destined to live in an open
world.
According to Koellreutter (1997), the culture is an
indispensable and inseparable part of social life.
As culture, he affirms, it is understood as the
totality of men's efforts and pledges, their life
objectives to be accomplished in a certain natural
and social atmosphere. Men set those objectives to
improve their situation or their vital
circumstances, and that improvement can apply to
the area of the ethics, aesthetics, material and
social. In that open world, Koellreutter (1997)
says that the education system should not just
diffuse culture, but create culture. The school
should be an institution in which friendship and
understanding appear as consequence of cultural
cooperation, as consequence of common
accomplishment.
It is not possible, however, to diffuse culture and
teach music to children without a teacher's help.
And how does one create opportunities for music
teachers' formation, in an area where that culture
is still not recognized as preponderant factor in the
individual's development? How windows one
overcome the inherent difficulties of an
environment so lacking of teachers that, if even
the schools that wanted to introduce music in their
grid they would not find available professionals
in the market?
Hentschke (1995) questions the role of musical
education at school when she asks if anybody has
ever spread the idea that musical education at
schools would aim at graduating professional
musicians? Why do these questions like these
arise regarding music, but not regarding
disciplines like Science and History, for instance?
She enumerates, then, some important reasons to
justify the insertion of musical education in the
school grid. Among them there are: development
of children's aesthetic and artistic sensibility, of
imagination and of creative potential, historical
sense of our cultural heritage and means of
transcending the musical universe imposed by
their social and cultural environment, cognitive,
affectionate and psychomotor development, and
non-verbal communication development.

The Music, among other arts, has been recognized
as a fundamental part of the civilization history
and an excellent tool for the development of
countless human capacities, among them selfknowledgement and self-expression. Parallel, for
some time, the school has become children's main
upbringing agent and it has become more and
more responsible for taking care of that child,
which used to be the family’s role, and later, in on
a smaller scale, the school’s and community’s
role.
From this point of view, the school starts being a
fundamental agent in the individual's cultural
formation, facing the constant challenge of
recognizing, welcoming and working with the
cultural plurality in the pedagogic process. In that
sense, the dialogue among different cultures starts
being fundamental so that there are experience
changes and consequent enlargement of the
students' cultural universe. Is it possible to do that
through music?
For musical educator Carlos Kater (2002), music
is one of the magic tools to promote internal
development and human qualification, maybe
even the most abstract and of larger collective
sense. Knowing different lands, sounds and
cultures can be the road to favor oneself’s
relational knowledge and it can constitute a poetic
experience of respect construction, acceptance of
differences, critical sense, sense of belonging and
knowledge of the elements that built our history
and culture, as well as the history and culture of
other people. The author even says that the
perverse unbalance of distribution in our country
is not just related to income, earth and other
issues, but directly associated to how fragile the
access to cultural patrimony is, almost only
favored in an ephemeral way.
Kater (2002) says that integrating cultural
representations through music is the same as
accomplishing an important role in the diffusion
and socialization and information. It’s possible to
develop sensibility and human conscience through
sounds, he also says. That strategy is able to favor
the desired balance in chances of individual and
interactive knowledge enlargement. To bind
music and formation in particular and well dosed
proportions is the same as rescuing integration of
knowledge with pleasure and flavor.
It is important that music and the other arts are
included in the basic education grid, not only for
its intrinsic value, but especially because they are
fundamental elements of a sensitive individual's
formation. It is important also that the function of
music in school stops not be restricted to small
celebrations, to the artistic and skillful clichés of
the already so popular celebrations, such as the

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Indians’ day, the tree day, homeland day, the
mother’s, the father’s, and the teachers’ days, etc.
That type of vision of music in schools should be
substituted by expressive musical manifestations,
culturally conceived and contextualized, not just
frozen in the tiny time-space of small
commemorations, but enlarged in a greater sense
of formation of each child’s cultural identity.
The necessity of qualified teachers to develop in
the students those musical aptitudes and, above
all, to create conditions so that their students can
fully grow as citizens trough using music as an
expression form, seems to be a form of necessary
in order to improve both children and youngsters'
social atmosphere.

PURPOSE
Considering the context described above and
thinking about the possibility of offering a musical
education program that benefits all children from
public schools in São Carlos1, a project is being
developed in the Federal University of São Carlos
in partnership with the Municipal Education
Office. The project was built in the perspective of
bringing music to public school teachers, so that
they become agents for multiplication of music at
school.
This Musical Education project, titled "Music in
Movement", is inserted in the Art-education
Program of the Municipal Culture and Education
Office, which seeks to guarantee citizens’ access
to opportunities to Art as a language and, also, as
knowledge form, offering an understanding of
conditions about what happens in the field of
expression and of meaning, allowing social
insertion in a wider way through the interaction
with all artistic languages, in the case of this
project, the music.
Musical Education, starting from its insertion in
the public schools grid, begins to have another
relationship with the school as a whole, because
the units will look for multidisciplinary solutions.
At the moment it is imperative to diversify
contents and musical activities, approaching them
as needs and making them available through
creation, execution and appreciation activities.
Concerning the educators, the inclusion of
Musical Education in the grid provides the chance
of knowing the students' reality deeply, because
music transcends the classroom and the school
environment space, penetrating the community
where the school is inserted located.

1

São Carlos is a city in the countryside of the state of São Paulo, in
the southeast of Brazil, with estimated population of 200.000
inhabitants.

45

For the school, to bring music is to provide
individuals with basic tools for the understanding
and the use of the musical language. In what
concerns the music bringing process, there is a
construction of musical knowledge that aims at
waking and developing the taste for music, and
stimulating and contributing with human beings'
global formation.
The project has as general objective: to educate
children from São Carlos’s public schools through
musical language. And as specific objectives:
• to
develop
artistic
and
expressive
manifestation in the children and adolescents,
qualifying them to express their feelings about
beauty and to capture other feelings, inherent
to all artistic creation;
• to develop aesthetics and ethics sense, and
rescue the sense of beautifulness and of fair in
relation to the things that surround us and also
to our attitudes, in other words, the power of
choice intermediates the search for aesthetics
and this utterance is the base of ethics;
• to develop social and collective conscience,
stimulating group practice, giving the
opportunity
to
communication
and
coexistence
with
socialization
rules,
respecting the time and will of the other,
criticizing in a constructive way, having
discipline, hearing and interacting with the
group;
• to develop inventive and creative aptitude,
providing the discovery of the sensitive
languages and of the own creative potential,
becoming capable to create, to invent and to
reinvent the world that surrounds us;
• to look for the emotional balance, establishing
their own limits of time and space, creating
order and balancing rhythm with harmony;
• to recognize affectionate values, developing
self-esteem and identifying motivations.

THE METHOD AND THE CONTENT
SYNTHESIS
The project presupposes musical education for
160 teachers, divided in four groups, with playful
activities for the development and improvement of
aspects such as: hearing perception, imagination,
motor coordination, memorization, socialization,
expressiveness, space perception, among others.
The playfulness works as a motivational and
stimulant element for the development of musical
expression in which imitation, perception and
creation are the main elements of the process.
Therefore, children and adolescents that approach
this knowledge, through their teachers, will be
able to distinguish sound waves easily, not only

46

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

the ones originated from instruments, but also the
ones originated from objects.
The weekly encounters with the teachers last three
hours, being two hours for group activities and
one hour for choral singing activity. The teachers'
choir constitutes of a privileged space of group
musical practice, of musicality development and
also of the exercise of individual and collective
performances in search of aesthetics, of personal
valorization and of the possibility of self-esteem
and improvement of life quality of that teacher. At
the moment of the choral rehearsals, the
specialists in musical education act as
instrumentalist musicians forming a small
orchestra that accompanies the choir and aids it in
the tuning of the group and enlargement of all the
participants' musical experience.
Didactic material is being developed and will be
distributed in all the units for the formation course
participant teachers, with suggestions of activities,
images of the project course, activities
registration, CD recordings, etc.
The Technical Body is composed by eight musical
specialist educators, three pedagogic coordinators,
a conductor for the choir, arrangers, an
audiovisual producer and university graduation
students as voluntary trainees.

CONCLUSIONS
Although the project is still being established, we
already observe concrete and significant results
regarding the presence of music in the school. The
teachers' portfolios describe the musical activities
with children and adolescents that multiply daily,
indicating a huge number of song applications,
adaptations and creations, dances, musical games
and small instrumental groups. Those results
already show the project efficiency.
Considering that in fact musical experience will
make the formation of a differentiated type of

mental representation possible, that it is not
processed in the same way as the verbal
propositions, we could state that the insertion of
music into schools already provides opportunities
for the construction of mental images exclusive to
musical speech. The enlargement of the students'
resonant universe has contributed to making them
critical as they evaluate their own work, as well as
the results obtained from outside of musical
environment. Music has been providing to these
students another world perspective, in which
understanding the sounds that surround them is
also looking for the other and for themselves
under new focus, bringing such benefits as
improvements in concentration, learning and
knowledge construction in group, changes of
behavior, among others.
Therefore, the public schools of the city of São
Carlos view music and its educational process as
being as important as the other subjects and their
teaching and learning processes. Music is only
taught with music and it results in a considerable
resonant mass.

A Personal Case Study of Music and
Grief: Reflections and Insights Shared
Jenny Boyack
School of Arts, Development & Health Education, Massey University,
Palmerston North, New Zealand
j.e.boyack@massey.ac.nz

ABSTRACT
Musicians of all ages are frequently called on to
participate in the funerals of family members and
friends. Although there is a tacit expectation that
adult musicians have both the emotional maturity
and the musical experience to meet the demands
associated with performance at a funeral, there
has been little investigation of the needs of
younger musicians as they fulfil such a role.
Children from school and community music
groups are frequently invited to contribute
musically at funerals, often in situations where the
deceased is known or connected to them in some
way. This makes additional demands on them and
on their leaders as they balance the need to mourn
with the need to perform.
For children raised in cultural groups with
inclusive funeral rites and rituals, musical
participation is natural and normal, and it is quite
usual for children to be included musically from a
young age. Within a safe and nurturing cultural
context, these children hear and observe family
and community members contributing in a range
of ways.
Children who come from cultural groups where
funerals involve smaller social networks, or from
families and communities which protect children
from the realities of death, are more likely to have
limited knowledge and experience of death and
funerals. If these children are young musicians,
the experience of participating in funerals may be
quite
out-of-the-ordinary
and
potentially
disturbing or confusing. At the same time, the
provision of adequate support for such young
musicians can help them recognise this aspect of
their musicmaking as healing, therapeutic and
community building. It also contributes to their
overall cultural understanding of death.
What can we as music educators learn from each
other’s experiences and cultural understandings
so that we can teach our child musicians about the
place of music in times of grief and sadness, and
equip them for their musical role? Where can we
go for guidance in order to build music education
practices that have both musical and human
integrity?
ISBN 9780980456028

Drawing on my own experiences as director of a
children’s choir which sang at the funeral of one
of our choristers, I interweave personal
reflections and insights with music education and
grief literature. I identify a process and a set of
leadership roles that choir leaders can follow as
they work with young musicians who are also
experiencing personal grief.
The goal is that with adequate preparation and
with the support of caring and familiar adults,
children should be able to grow into the role of
“funeral musician”; to embrace it as a privilege
and a gift; to be strengthened to share this gift
when they are also mourners; and to exercise this
role throughout their lives.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

In contrast, for many of the children in my choir,
this was a time of firsts: the first death of someone
close to them; the first realisation of their own
mortality; the first funeral; the first time to see a
casket; the first time to sing publicly in a difficult
context. Yet what we experienced on that day is
neither new nor particularly unusual. Leaders and
children in choirs and music groups around the
globe are frequently called on to participate in
funeral rites and rituals.
My reflections led me to wonder about the choir
of Westminster Abbey at the time of the Princess
of Wales’ funeral. There were a number of young
choristers singing on that day, and they were
superbly trained in terms of their musicianship
and their understanding of appropriate demeanour
and protocol. What we could not know, looking in
from the outside, is what emotional support
systems were in place to strengthen them in their
role and to help them deal with any sadness of
their own.
When children have a dual role as mourners and
musicians, they need to grieve for and honour the
life of their friend or loved one. However at a
particular point, their function is to lead and
provide a focus for the expression of grief. What
can we as music educators learn from each other’s
experiences that will enable us to teach our child
musicians about the place of music in times of
grief and sadness, and help us to equip them for
their musical role? Where can we go for guidance
in order to build music education practices that
have both musical and human integrity?

THE LITERATURE
Music education literature abounds with claims
about the power of music and the significant part
it plays in celebrating and marking a wide range
of human events and experiences (Gregory, 1997;
Heunis, 1997; Hoffer, 1992; Pascale, 1999; Small,
1987). In many societies and cultural groups,
children are privileged to learn about death and
funeral rites from their infancy. For example,
children who are tangata whenua (people of the
land) in Aotearoa, New Zealand are very likely to
have attended tangihanga (extended funerals) at
which the deceased is addressed in speech, story
and song.
Children who come from cultural groups where
funerals involve smaller social networks, or from
families and communities which protect children
from the realities of death, are more likely to have
limited knowledge and experience of death and
funerals. If these children are young musicians,
the experience of participating in funerals may be
potentially disturbing or confusing. At the same
time, the provision of adequate support for such

young musicians can help them recognise this
aspect of their musicmaking as healing,
therapeutic and community building. It also
contributes to their overall cultural understanding
of death.
Writing about children’s experiences of grief,
Kubler-Ross (cited in Fitzgerald, 1992), suggests
that the death of someone close has the impact of
“shattering [children’s] seemingly secure world”
(p. 23). Wolfelt (1991) stresses the significance of
empathy in a helping/healing relationship and
reminds adults to separate their own needs from
those of the children they wish to support.
Children who experience the death of a friend
have an overwhelming need for comfort and
reassurance from parents and close family
(Silverman, 2000).
Fitzgerald (1992) distinguishes between grief and
mourning and highlights how attendance at the
funeral gives young children a significant
opportunity to mourn. Providing information
about what will happen at the funeral frees
children to benefit from the experience (Worden,
1996). Alongside many practical suggestions for
supporting children as they grieve, it is also
important to balance notions of vulnerability with
what Stanley and Williams (2000) describe as “a
resilience perspective” (p. 23). Fitzgerald (1992)
and Webb (1993) suggest that allowing children to
help with planning, and to make decisions about
or participate in the funeral is one way to bring
about a heightened sense of control.

LESSONS FROM LIFE
In this section, I describe aspects of the process
that we followed in preparing for our part in the
funeral. These are in the nature of guiding
principles rather than a prescriptive set of
procedures. Choir directors need to apply these
suggestions in the light of their own knowledge
and understanding and in ways that recognise the
complexities of personality and circumstances that
characterise their own unique context. So what
were the principles that underpinned the process
as it unfolded for our choir?
Firstly, elements of choice were built into the
process. When we were asked to sing at the
funeral, the decision to participate was for each
family to make. Worden (1996) identifies three
important needs that can be addressed to some
extent by attendance at a funeral – acknowledging
the reality of the death, honouring and celebrating
the deceased’s life, and building a sense of
community among the mourners. Damage is done
when children are either forced to attend a funeral
against their will, or are prevented from attending.
Providing choice and then respecting that choice

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

gives a critical message in relation to children’s
competence to grow and be strengthened through
a grief experience (Fitzgerald, 1992). As it turned
out, all children who were able to participate did.
One family adjusted their Christmas travel plans
so that their daughter could attend the rehearsal
time.
Rather than wear our usual choir t-shirts, the
children were able to choose what they wanted to
wear. K’s mother had requested that the girls dress
in “something pretty for K” and judging by the
beautiful feminine touches this was something
they took very seriously.
K’s family suggested an appropriate song, and the
children and I were able to discuss the choice and
agree that it was perfect. However the children did
come up with some poignant alternatives
including “Bright Eyes,” leading to a discussion
that provided a special window into the children’s
thinking and understanding of the situation.
The second principle is to arrange time to be
together and to address the enormity of what has
occurred. We gathered prior to the funeral in our
usual rehearsal venue and spent time talking about
K and about the privilege of being able to share
our music. I emphasised that our song was a gift
we could bring to K’s family and a way of
honouring and showing our love for her.
Saying goodbye in a tangible form can be
satisfying for children and can provide an outlet
for emotions that may be difficult to express in
other ways (Fitzgerald, 1992). The children were
given an opportunity to share their thoughts,
memories, stories, and feelings, on a large sheet of
coloured cardboard. Initially the empty page was
daunting; but once the first marks were made, the
ideas flowed freely. The children talked quietly as
they worked: some of them worked together on
drawings; some read what others had written and
that seemed to give them confidence to put down
their own thoughts. Parents assisted and also
contributed their own thoughts and memories.
Earlier that morning, I had been contacted by a
national television station asking if they could
attend our rehearsal. I refused and, in spite of
some pressure from the reporter, I stood firm.
Watching the children and the parents working
comfortably together in our familiar environment
confirmed for me that I had done the right thing.
This third principle relates to the security of
familiar things. When we are confronted by the
unpredictability and uncertainties of life, familiar
faces, places, and routines provide a stable point
in an otherwise spinning world. This is not a time
to introduce new repertoire so singing a favourite
and well-rehearsed song helped. In their usual

49

singing context, the children were relaxed and
open to hearing how it would be to sing in a
different place in front of hundreds of people. One
child fainted towards the end of our rehearsal; and
although this was frightening for his mother and
the other children, it provided an opportunity to
reassure the children that they were safe, that it
was alright to be upset and that caring for them
was our priority. In the final part of our gathering
,we talked and remembered over drinks and
biscuits, another everyday activity in a far from
normal day.
A final principle is to anticipate the different
levels of support that might be required along the
way. From the outset, the involvement of parents
was paramount for the children and for me. What
I had not expected was the level of caring they
would show towards each other and each others’
children. On this occasion, they were parents of
and to the full choir. My husband was also on
hand to provide emotional support for me and to
ease my load by assisting with practical tasks.
Unless you work with a professional or top class
children’s choir. it is quite likely that the level of
performance at a funeral may not reach what is
expected from your choir. Consider how
important this is to you, to the children and their
parents, and to the bereaved family. What might
you say to the children afterwards if they have not
“performed” as well as usual? For me, allowing
the children to grieve and their actual participation
took precedence over their singing quality.
Most experienced music leaders are likely to work
confidently in terms of the musical aspects of the
task in hand. There are however some additional
roles that will be required on the day. Choir
directors should consider who could step in to
carry out any role that is inappropriate for them or
that they feel ill-equipped to fulfill.
It is appropriate for a choir director to assume the
role of comforter to the children and to be seen to
receive comfort from others. Providing an
opportunity for the children to express their
sorrow requires an answering of that sorrow
through appropriate words and gestures of
comfort.
Young children may not have the words to
express all that they are feeling. In assuming the
role of articulator, the choir director can help
find expression for the shared loss and grief. This
does not imply that adults can presume to know
what children are thinking and feeling. Rather, it
is the acknowledgement that this is a difficult,
confusing and unsettling time for all.
Children will be comfortable with the choir
director’s familiar role as coach. In a situation that

50

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

is fraught with uncertainty, the everyday nature of
coaching can provide a point of security. As well
as the time spent rehearsing the funeral music, it is
particularly important that the children are talked
through the expected process, and are as prepared
as possible for the task ahead. Give them plenty of
opportunity to ask questions and be prepared for
questions that may seem to “come from left field”
in terms of our adult knowledge and
understanding.
You may need to assume the role of protector for
the children. This includes taking care of some of
the practical concerns such as ensuring that
sufficient seating is reserved for choir and parents,
locating bathroom facilities, clarifying meeting
arrangements at the church. Where there is media
interest, you may need to advocate for the
children’s right to fulfill their role without
distraction or intrusion in the face of media
pressure to present an “appealing story.”
Being a permission giver doesn’t mean removing
the usual ground rules by which the choir
operates, but it does suggest the need to make
certain things explicit. Tell children that it is
alright to feel upset, alright to need and to ask for
help. Let parents and children know that if they
require time out during the service it is fine to take
it. Affirm that parents and children are likely to
know what is best for them and assert their right
to act on this knowledge.
As choir director, there will be additional strain on
you to be the overall supporter for the children so
that they can do what is required of them. A
closely allied role is that of encourager, the one
who draws out the children’s competence to meet
the challenge of the day. One way of
distinguishing between these roles is to think of
the supporter as one who brings the group
together and the encourager as one who sends
them out in the confident expectation that they
will do what is required of them.

CONCLUSIONS
Children’s choir leaders draw on rich stores of
music education literature to inform and
strengthen their everyday practice. Adults who
support children in loss and grief situations are
also able to access a wide range of literature to
guide their actions and decisions. When grief and
music come together in children’s lives, we need
to draw from both fields and from our shared
experience in order to assist our young musicians
to grow in compassion, generosity and
confidence, To sing in a grief setting is therapeutic
both for the singers themselves and for those to
whom they sing:

Where music is concerned it is easy to drift along
doing the same things and not really taking
account of what’s important and why. Sometimes
we treat music too lightly. I have learned afresh
about the bonds that develop when we share music
with others, about the power of singing to go
where spoken words would be clumsy and
laboured. Teachers lay deep foundations in
children's lives when they sing and make music
with them. When we gift music to children, we
need to help them learn that not only is this a gift
for their own delight and pleasure but also one to
be shared with open hands and hearts (Boyack,
2007, p. 219).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my husband, John Hornblow, and
the Skylight National Resource Centre,
Wellington, New Zealand, for their assistance in
the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES
Bailey, S. S. (1999). Music - a companion for the
journey from mourning to morning. In S. L. Bertman
(Ed.), Grief and the healing arts: Creativity as therapy.
Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company.
Boyack, J. E. (2007). The choir as a caring community.
Sound Arts, 3(1), 19.
Fitzgerald, H. (1992). The grieving child: A parent's
guide. New York: Fireside.
Gregory, A. H. (1997). The roles of music in society:
The ethnomusicological perspective. In D. J.
Hargreaves & A. C. North (Eds.), The social
psychology of music (pp. 123-140). Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Heunis, D. (1997). The vocal traditions of two
indigenous cultures of South Africa. Paper presented at
Sharing the voices: the phenomenon of singing, St
John's, Newfoundland.
Hoffer, C. (1992). Sociology and music education. In
R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music
teaching and learning (pp. 713-723). New York:
Schirmer Books.
Pascale, L. M. (1999). The power of simply singing
together in the classroom. Paper presented at the
Sharing the voices: the phenomenon of singing 2, St
John's, Newfoundland.
Silverman, P. R. (2000). Never too young to know:
Death in children's lives. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Small, C. (1987). Music of the common tongue:
Survival and celebration in African American music.
Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press.
Stanley, P., & Williams, S. (2000). After disaster:
Responding to the psychological consequences of
disasters for children and young people. Wellington,
NZ: New Zealand Council for Educational Research.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT
This paper offers a description and demonstration
of the colored representation of the relative music
scale as well as computer program for equal 29temperament.
The author of this treatise proposes the model of
the musical scale, expressing the reciprocal
relationship of attraction and repulsion between
the degrees of elevation on the musical scale.
The model comprises 5, 7 and 12 different notes
for every key, identical to the European and a
number of Non-European musical systems of
pitches; 17 different notes for every key, identical
to the Arab-Iranian system; and 22 different
notes, identical to the Indian system “sruti.”
This model, elaborated in all the keys, would give
rise to a system of notes that is inordinately
complicated. A necessary and sufficient condition
for the problem would be a 29-tone temperament.
A suitable keyboard is suggested.
The nearby sounds are located at intervals of a
fifth, a fact that corresponds to the greater
proximity of fifth-interval sounds (the slightest
interference of sound waves arises in
contemporary resonance). As colours near to one
another, we mean those that are next to each
other in the spectrum. The author represents a
spectrum of 12 colours, which should correspond
to the chain of 12 fifths. This coloured chain is
condensed into chromatic scale.
After several years in which children have contact
with coloured representations of a musical system
(and a special notation board as well), they begin
to have relative associations as regards the
“coloured” pitch (short video).

a graphic representation. Common models of the
musical scale often look like a staircase. An
example of this is the Bulgarian model (Peev &
Krisčeva, 1967). Another category of pictorial
models includes the image of the piano keyboard,
antique “tablatures,” and also the graphic
representation of guitar chords designed for
amateurs. All these models have the same flaw,
that is, they do not express the reciprocal
relationship of attraction and repulsion between
the degrees of the musical scale. The author of
this treatise intends to propose the following
model, easily used with all tonal scales, but for the
sake of clarity represented here in C major (C
minor) (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
G

F sharp

F
E
E flat

D
D flat

C
B
B flat

A flat

KEYWORDS
ear
training,
multiculturalism,
Training

synesthesia
(synaesthesia),
early childhood, teacher

1.
Using graphics is nothing new for music
educators. Traditional music notation is, in itself,
ISBN 9780980456028

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Figure 3

training through singing, and repertoire to be used
for sol-fa is arranged such that the tonic assumes a
central position in the melody. This model serves
as the base reference for all the natural authentic
modes (Ionian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian,
Phrygian, and Dorian) and also for the scales that
contain altered degrees. In everyday practice, the
author uses the model for major mode and natural
minor mode (see Figure 2).
Figure 2
Major

Minor

G

G

F

F

E
E flat

D

D

C

C

B
B flat

A flat

G

G

Figure 2.
In lessons with children, we name these models
“major house” and “minor house”. The first year
program for children aged 4 to 7 years includes
only a “major house.” The model takes its
inspiration from an apartment house. The coloured
sections are the “apartments” while the white
sections are the “elevators.” When we take the
elevator, we can only go to the next floor up or
down. Hence, from the “D floor” to the “C floor,”
the “elevator” can move only downwards, which
in the diagram is expressed by the tip of the
corresponding triangle pointed downward (I use
the relative names for the degrees on the scale; but
in this case, this is not important).
These models get more complicated, become
chromatic, and are no longer used as sol-fa
diagrams, but as pictorial representation of a tonal
system. The introduction of chromatic sounds is
explained using the following picture (see Figure
3)

Figure 3.
In order to go in the opposite direction from C to
D (upwards), you must take the proper elevator,
designated as C sharp. Notice that in the diagram
C sharp is higher that D flat (the top of the triangle
symbolizes the chromatic degree, the centre of the
triangle or the rectangle, the diatonic degree). The
entire major model, and the minor one as well,
comprises seventeen different notes for every key
In the diagram, you can see the reciprocal
symmetry of major and minor and the weight
differences of each note. For example, E in C
major is a diatonic degree; and therefore. its
graphic position is in the centre of the triangle.
The same E on the other hand in C minor is a
chromatic degree, and hence is placed graphically
at the top of the same triangle. These same 17
individual degrees will be found in the complete
Lydian, Phrygian, etc. models.

2.
You can observe the same phenomenon in the
Arab-Iranian musical system, in which these 17
notes are used without any uniform (equal)
temperament. If we wish to work out similar
graphic models for all six natural authentic scales
(excluding the Hypophrygian, which is plagal),
and we represent all of them at once on the same
diagram, we will obtain (without considering the
repeated degrees) a system composed of 22
different notes, identical to the Indian system. The
tonic C influences the following series (see Figure
4):
C-Db-C#-Ebb-D-Eb-D#-Fb-E-F-E#-Db-F#-G-AbG#-Hbb-A-Bb-A#-Cb-B

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Figure 4.
It is clear that this model, elaborated in all the
scales, would give a system of notes that is
inordinately complicated and confusing. However,
temperament simplifies the situation, as we all
know. What then should a temperament be like if
it is to make possible the use of all the 22 different
notes of every scale? A necessary and sufficient
condition for the problem would be a 29-tone
equal temperament. Alexey Ogolevets (1941)
suggested a similar idea. How would the piano
keyboard appear with 29 notes? (See Figure 5).

Figure 5

Figure 5.
We have posed the problem of creating a musical
system that is not strictly European but universal,
which logically encompass all the systems that are
actually manifest in diverse musical cultures. The
29-tone equal temperament encompasses the
pentatonic, the heptatonic, the European

55

chromatic, the Arab-Iranian system, and the
Indian system “sruti.” Also, a keyboard
instrument having a 29-tone temperament could
be an excellent support for teaching, both in
harmonic-tonal ear training as well as for
microchromatic ear training. The microchromatic
systems, which exist in the composition practice,
are built from structural amorphous, artificial
material, from evenly subdivided halftones (e.g.
Alois Haba). A system, which consists of equal
connections of his elements, is grammatically
amorphous. The 12-tone equal temperament has
grammatical meaning for us only because it is
interpreted in our subconsciousness in a system of
two different elements: the diatonic and the
chromatic halftones. We don't have such an
interpretation, for example, for quartertones,
because it was not provided from the passed
music culture (Curwen, 1858).
The author of this paper built, in 1977 in Moscow,
a guitar with a 29-tone temperament solely for the
purpose of convincing himself that these ideas are
valid. With help of this instrument, ten-year old
children could differentiate and precisely name 17
degrees in an octave. When attempting to work on
ear training, however, the guitar may not be the
most suitable instrument. Today, with the aid of
electronics, intentions of this type can be actuated
quite easily. On July 27th, 2003, I received from
Dr. Peter Trubinov a computer program created
by him that allows tuning any electronic keyboard
into various equal temperaments (including 29temperament).

3.
I would like to put forward a few things about the
problem of the “coloured” ear and its possibilities
of development. It is well known that the
phenomenon of synesthesia is not uncommon.
Regarding the coloured ear of Rimsky-Korsakov,
we know something from the Yastrebtsev's (1908)
testimonials. Also, Sabanejew (1911) published a
table
of
Skriabin’s
“colour-sound”
correspondences.
Despite the entire apparent casualty that occurs in
the matching up of tone and colour, the sensations
of Skriabin and Rimsky-Korsakov agree with each
other. Both composers perceived in colour, not so
much single sounds as tonal scales. For example,
in the major scales with flats, the cold colours,
meaning those colours that are located in the blue
section of the spectrum, were prevalent for both
composers while the scales having sharps were
associated with warm colours. Naturally however,
we are speaking only of tendencies, and
exceptions do exist. I am proceeding from the
assumption that, in their perception of coloured

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

scales, the composers express the structure of the
piano keyboard with C major in the central
position. We can represent C major as the supertonic in a system of tonal relationships in which
the other scales are situated at the greater or
smaller distance from C major. The nearest scales
are located at intervals of a fifth, a fact, which
corresponds to the greater proximity of fifthinterval sounds (the slightest interference of sound
waves in resonance). The first ones who have
written about the dependence of the merging of
the sounds making up an interval on the
correlation of the frequencies were Strumpf
(1890) and Helmholtz (1896), who counted the
theoretical oscillations, something that was proven
experimentally later on. (Taken rigorously, the
greatest proximity between notes is in the octave
and not in the fifth; however, the octave does not
generate any new function).
When disucussing colours that are near to one
another, we are referring to those that are next to
each other in the spectrum (rainbow). Let us
represent a spectrum of 12 colours, which should
correspond to the circle of fifths from D flat to F
sharp (see Table 1).
Table 1.
Violet D flat
Blue-violet A flat
Blue E flat
Light blue B flat
Aquamarine, blue-green F
Green C

Yellow-green
Lemon yellow
Yellow
Orange
Red
Scarlet, fire-engine red

G
D
A
E
B
F sharp

This coloured chain is condensed into chromatic
scale (see Figure 6).

Figure 6

Yel lo w gre en
Scarlet, fir e-engine red

G
F sharp

Aq uamarine , bl ue-gree n

F

Orange

E

Bl ue
Lemon yellow

E flat
D

Violet

D flat

Gree n

C

Re d

B

Li ght blue
Yel lo w
Bl ue-viole t
Yel lo w gre en

B f lat
A
A fl at
G

Figure 6.
We intend to devote our attention to the
circumstance whereby C corresponds here to the
colour green. The characteristic of the colour
green is that it produces, as psychologists tell us, a
sense of repose. The very same characteristic is to
be attributed to the main tonic in the process of
modulation and to the tonic in a non-modulating
passage. Considering the scales primarily as a
series of degrees, we obtain a relative soundcolour system.
For my purposes, I use 12 colours. After several
years in which children have uninterrupted contact
with coloured representations of a musical system,
they begin to have relative associations as regards
the “coloured” ear. However, are such
associations really necessary? Don't they lead the
perception of music outside of the musical field
itself?

4.
The phenomenon of Synesthesia – the
associations made among different sense organs –
does not pertain solely to the connection between
sound and colour. Guido d'Arezzo's idea about the
link-up between sounds and the different parts of
the palm of the hand appears, at first glance, to be
solely indicative. This is not true. The area of the
cerebral cortex, which is responsible for the
signals that depart from the hand, occupy a
disproportionately large part of the area of the
human brain that is delegated to movement.
Furthermore, we know from the practice of
Chinese acupuncture that on the palm of the hand
there actually are points corresponding to the ear.
As in the case of the “Guidonian hand”, the
question touches upon the formation of

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

determined reflex connections between auditory
sensations and tactile ones.
The gestures of John Curwen (1858) also belong
to a similar kind. It is just that here we are looking
at the connection between motor sensations and
auditory ones. Also, the very same idea of sol-fa
with conventional syllables pursues this purpose,
that is, to actuate a connection between
articulatory sensations and auditory ones. The
articulatory zone of the human cerebral cortex
occupies a large part of the motor zone that is not
comparable to the other ones (Nazaikinsky, 1967).
As for the names of the notes of the scale that
form the basis of the relative system, we use those
names proposed by the Estonian pedagogue Heino
Kaljuste. Their point of departure is do-re-mi-fasol-la-si (compare: yoh-leh-vee-nah-zoh-rah-tee).
The vowels of Kaljustian syllables are the same,
but the consonants have been substituted with
others. This came about in order to avoid the
confusion caused in the former Soviet Union by
the use of the Guidonian syllables as absolute
names. Following Agnes Hundoegger (Tonic “do”
Method), we end all the sharped notes with “ee”
and all the flatted notes with “uh.” The “forward”
vowels (such as “ee”) require more effort of the
articulatory apparatus and are naturally connected
with attractions of the tonal degrees that go
upward (“dominanting”). The only minor second
connection in the hexachordal Guidonian system,
mi-fa, has turned out to be extraordinarily rich in
potentiality (“Mi et fa sunt tota musica.” – Guido
d'Arezzo).
Most external information reaches us by means of
visual analyzers. Of these analyzers, the
perceptors of colour play an essential (emotional)
role. The idea of an association consists in the fact
that one part of the brain is sustained by another
part. Which areas of the brain are to be considered
dominant in a particular child cannot be
determined in advance. Therefore, the best
strategy is to enact in the child a process of intake
that comes from many different directions. Of
these associations, the one between colour and
music are to be considered useful (Shchetynsky,
1993).

ABSTRACT
This research describes an intervention where
parallel activities in music and in social
interaction were used to improve interpersonal
communication among children aged 4 - 6. All
children in the study, in both the experimental and
the control groups, received the same weekly
hours of music instruction. The intervention
included specialist music teaching, training of
preschool teachers in music and in conflict
resolution, creating an awareness of the
connections between music and communication,
and provision of a rich musical environment
within which children could participate in music
acitivities throughout the day, independent of
adult involvement. Both the experimental and the
control groups showed increased participation in
musical activities and in interpersonal
communication, but the gains were significantly
higher for children in the experimental group.
This research indicates that music has the
potential
for
improving
interpersonal
communication, using the intervention program
described here. The study describes a framework
for making connections between music and
communication, and contributes to a field where
there is little previous research.

INTRODUCTION
Music forms part of our lives, and provides
pleasure and satisfaction. At the same time, this
research suggests that learning music may also
carry side benefits. One of these is the potential
for improved interpersonal communication,
through the key factor shared by both activities:
listening. Music offers boundless opportunity for
developing listening skills but applying this
learning outside of music does not occur
automatically. The improvement of interpersonal
communication through music is dependent upon
making conscious connections between the
listening skills developed in a musical context,
and the application of these skills in other
contexts. The research presented here describes an
experiment with preschool children. The aim of
the research was to examine whether musical
skills developed in a rich musical environment,
placing emphasis on the use of voice in singing
ISBN 9780980456028

and in speech and providing a broad range of
musical activities, would improve interpersonal
communication among children in a deprived
neighborhood.

LITERATURE SURVEY
Many researchers have documented improved
social interaction and academic achievement
related to activities in the arts (Catterall, 2002).
Research conducted in schools has found that
music offers a medium for personal expression in
heterogeneous classrooms and encourages
tolerance, open-mindedness and an acceptance of
difference (Giles, 1991; Portowitz & Brand, 2004;
Storr, 1992). The present study suggests that there
may be parallel types of activity in certain areas of
music and communication. The literature survey
presents five such categories.
The first category relates to self-awareness,
approached through relaxation. Many performers,
sportsmen and people in all fields of endeavor
enlist the power of some form of relaxation or
meditation to reduce stress and improve general
functioning (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 1995; Kraag,
Zeegers, Kok, et al., 2006; Napper-Owen, 2006).
Relaxation influences the autonomic nervous
system (Ackerly, 2001) and the regular
performance of breathing excercises, attention and
concentration, channel energy and influence the
feeling of confidence and contact with others
(Glanz, 2000; Hammann & Gordon, 2000). For
music teachers, the practice of relaxation is not an
innovation. Reducing muscle tension, breathing
exercises, inhaling, and exhaling on vocal sounds
â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all are part of chorus warm up (Albrecht, 2000).
These routines are less frequently used in general
music classes and with young children, but the
process is familiar to music teachers and may
provide a valuable extension of accessible
knowlege and practice
The second parallel category is that of active
listening as a way of attending and responding
(Salem, 2003). Listening is a core skill that may
enhance the interpersonal effectiveness of
individuals. It is also a learnable skill that,
although not typically taught in school, may have
long-term implications for quality of life at an
individual and at a community level. This skill can
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

be learned at any age (Burley-Allen, 1995).
However, it is easier to build good habits than to
change bad ones, and attentive and empathic
listening can be cultivated in the very young.
Empathic listening legitimizes and encourages the
expression of feelings (Brand, 2002a, 2002b;
Gottman, 1997; Rogers, 1978) and listening to
music also generates emotion (Jackendoff &
Lerdahl, 2006; Jourdain, 1997; Langer, 1953;
Livitin, 2006; Meyer, 1956). Music is an ideal
medium for developing and practicing listening
skills, and activities associated with active
listening, such as moving, dancing, pantomime,
creating visual and graphic representations,
accompanying on musical instruments and singing
along are central to most music lessons for
children (Ministry of Education, 2007).
Learning through imitation is the third parallel
category of activity. This is the most basic form of
social learning (Bandura, 1994) and models are
central to the process. Imitation of models may be
an unconscious activity in some situations, and in
others, may require deep concentration, as in
imitating musical patterns in drumming and
singing.
The roots of dialogue, the fourth parallel category
of activity, stem from antiquity and continue
through the Middle Ages. Dialogue reached a
particular level of sophistication through the
Greek philosophers, Socrates and Plato, and so
through history to philosophers of our time.
Martin Buber included trust, mutual respect,
value, affection and hope in the characteristics of
dialogue (Smith, 2001). Musical dialogue is a
form of improvisation readily accessible to young
children. It encourages independent musical
creativity and provides a non-verbal expression of
emotion. It plays a central role in connecting
musical activity and interpersonal communication.
The fifth and final category of parallel activity
between music and interpersonal communication
presented here is the spontaneous involvement of
children in cooperative group activity. Positive
outcomes of cooperative learning are highly
evaluated in all age groups (Ciaburri & White,
1999; Cohen, 1986; Johnson & Johnson, 1989),
but these can only be achieved through effective
communication. The intervention described here
lays the foundation for cooperative learning that
makes it possible for every child to maximize his
or her potential.
To sum up, this survey examined five parallel
categories of activity for children in music and in
communication: relaxation and self-awareness,
listening, imitation, dialogue and cooperative
group activity. In each of these areas, music can
be used to improve interpersonal communication.

Hypotheses
This research proposes that children, who
participate in an intervention including a broad
range of musical activities that place emphasis on
voice in speech and singing, will show
significantly greater improvement in their
interpersonal communication than children in a
control group, who do not participate in this
intervention. It is expected that the more active the
child in these musical activities, the greater will be
the improvement in communication by the end of
the intervention.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Participants
A total of 93 children aged 4 – 6 years, from four
different government religious preschools,
participated in the study. Two of the classes
formed the experimental group (n=45) and two
classes the control group (n=48). Most of the
children came from lower income group families
in a deprived neighbourhood. The total population
of participants included 44 boys, (46.8%) and 50
girls (53.2%). Chi-square analysis showed no
significant difference between the groups in
gender distribution: Chi-square = 2.13, p > .05.

Procedure
The guiding principles of the musical activities
included in this research are drawn from the
program “Musical Minds” – Music Education for
Young Children, developed at the Institute for the
Advancement of Teaching, Learning and Social
Integration, at Bar-Ilan University. On the basis of
this program a rich musical environment was
developed in two preschools, with the support of
the Ministry of Education. The preschool program
included:
1. Music lessons given twice weekly for half-anhour by a music teacher from the Ministry of
Education, to all the children together. The
lessons included singing, movement, listening
and playing percussion instruments.
2. One extended music lesson per week given by
a specialist music teacher, in groups of up to
15 children. These lessons included
relaxation, breathing and vocal exercises,
singing, musical analysis through movement
analogues (“mirrors”), creative movement,
graphic representations, drumming, and
exposure to many different types of music.
The music teacher fostered interaction in pairs
and in groups in the course of singing, moving
and playing instruments, and made clear
connections between music and social
interaction.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

3. Daily musical activity with the preschool
teachers. The teachers and their helpers
attended professional development courses
where they participated in voice training,
guided listening for young children, music of
various ethnic groups, mediation for conflict
resolution and problem solving techniques.
They introduced the skills they learned into
their preschool classes through singing,
encouraging the children to listen and respond
to music, allowing the children free access to
musical instruments and providing feedback.
4. Independent musical activity on the part of the
children took place in two main places in the
preschool class: (1) the improvisation space,
equipped with a large gathering drum,
xylophone, glockenspiel, guitar, and a small
number of high quality percussion
instruments. Children were encouraged to
explore the sounds produced by these
instruments, to create their own compositions
and to interact in pairs or small groups in
musical dialogue. A list was posted on the
wall to help children control their accessibility
to this space, and no more than three children
participated simultaneously in independent
music making; (2) another place in the room,
the listening space, equipped with a tape/CD
player, a selection of recordings that the
children had learned in music classes, a small
number of musical recordings that had not yet
been
learned,
darbuka,
percussion
instruments, scarves and a small selection of
accessories. Children participated in selfdirected activities in the listening space,
situated in the centre of the room, with
adequate place for free movement. Groups of
4–5 children took turns in choosing recordings
to which they responded in song, movement,
dance, pantomime and accompaniment,
mainly based on activities initiated by the
music teacher. The activities in both music
spaces took place alongside children’s
participation in other creative learning and
play activities throughout the day.
Children in the control groups participated in the
same number of music lessons per week – biweekly full class half-hour lessons and an
additional lesson by a different teacher in small
groups. Musical activities during the week
consisted mainly of singing with the preschool
teacher. No facilities for independent musical
activity were available to the children in these
classes and specific connections were not made
between music and interpersonal communication.
In the experimental group, preschool teachers
made connections between musical activities and

61

interpersonal communication, particularly in the
context of problem solving situations. When
conflicts arose among the children, teachers used
techniques of “framing” and “reframing” (Brand
& Bar-Gil, 2006), and issues were discussed at
circle time. This began with relaxation and
musical activities directed towards reducing
tension and encouraging participation. Emphasis
was placed on listening to each child’s “story,”
using the listening skills developed through music.

Research Instruments
Four types of instruments were used to examine
the connection between music and interpersonal
communication among preschool children:
observations, videos, interviews with preschool
teachers and questionnaires. The observations,
videos and interviews were used to identify the
areas of parallel activity between music and
communication, and the questionnaires were
developed accordingly for the purpose of this
research. The questionnaires were completed by
the preschool teachers in the experimental and
control groups before and after the intervention.
The questionnaires were anonymous, and the
coding enabled comparison of each child’s
activities before and after the intervention.
Two questionnaires were used in the research:
1. Questionnaire describing musical activities.
2. Questionnaire
describing
interpersonal
communication.
These two questionnaires provided the data for
examining the dependent variables of the study.
The items related to the following categories:
1. Relaxation and self-awareness
2. Listening
3. Imitation
4. Dialogue
5. Cooperative group activity
The questionnaires were built on the assumption
that in these five categories there are parallel
activities between music and interpersonal
communication and that the items in each
category show internal consistency. After
completion of the questionnaires by the preschool
teachers, reliability analyses for internal
consistency were calculated using Cronbach alpha
coefficients. Relatively high internal consistency
was found for all five categories (between α = .70
and α = .96).

RESULTS
The results of the research relate to the
comparison between the experimental group and
the control group regarding their behaviors in four
categories of musical activities and in their
interpersonal communication before and after the

62

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

intervention. The fifth category, that of
cooperative group activity, was tested in the
experimental group only. Consequently, we begin
with results in the first four categories: relaxation
and self-awareness, listening, imitation, and
dialogue.
In order to test the hypotheses, Manova 2x2
analysis (group x time) with repeated measures
with regard to time was carried out. In this
analysis, significant differences were found
between before and after scores, F (4,88) = 46.38,
p<.001, Eta ² = .68 . In addition, a significant
interaction was found for the effect of group x
time F (4,88) = 4.18, p< .001, Eta ² = .16. The
means and standard deviations regarding musical
activities for the first four categories before and
after the intervention for each of the groups, as
well as Univariate Anova analyses were
calculated separately for each category.
Univariate Anova analysis revealed significant
differences between before and after scores in all
four areas. However, significant interaction of
group x time was found for Imitation and
Dialogue only. In other words, a significant
difference was found between the groups for these
measures before and after the intervention. The
increase of the experimental group in Imitation
and in Dialogue for musical activities was greater
than the increase in the control groups. Simple
Effects analyses carried out in order to examine
the source of the interaction for Imitation found a
significant difference between before and after
measurements in the experimental group F (1,44)
= 81.89, p < .001, Eta ² = .65. The difference in
the control group was also significant, but the
extent of the effect was much smaller than that of
the experimental group, F (1,47) = 22.54, p <
.001, Eta ² = .32.
For the measurement of Dialogue, the Simple
Effect analysis showed a difference between the
two groups before and after F (1,44) = 109.77, p <
.001, Eta ² = .71. The difference was far greater
for the experimental group than for the control
group F (1,47) = 17.20, p < .001, Eta ² = .27.
A further Manova analysis was carried out for
interpersonal communication. This analysis also
showed a significant difference between the two
groups F (4,86) = 43.05, p < .001, Eta ² = .67 as
well as a significant interaction between groups x
time, F(4,86) = 9.06, p < .001, Eta ² = .30.
Analysis of variance for each of the four separate
categories shows an improvement in all categories
from before the intervention as compared with
after the intervention. The Univariate Anova
analysis for each separate area shows significant
differences between before and after in all four

areas, as well as significant interactions for group
x time in all four areas. There was an increase in
both groups in all categories from before to after
the intervention. However, this increase was
greater in the experimental group. Simple Effect
analyses carried out separately for each category
found that the increase in the experimental group
was far greater than the increase in the control
group.
The fifth category, Cooperative Group Activity,
was tested for musical activity before and after the
intervention in the experimental group only. This
area could not be tested in the control group
because the children in these preschools did not
have free access to musical instruments and a CD
player. A one-way ANOVA analysis with
repeated measures was carried out in order to
assess the difference in musical activities before
and after the intervention. In this analysis, a
significant difference was found between the two
measurements for time – before and after, F (1,44)
= 109.77, p < .001, Eta² = .71. The mean before
the intervention, M = 2.60, SD = .76, was far
lower than the mean after the intervention M =
3.65, SD = .52.
Both groups were tested for Cooperative group
activity
in
interpersonal
communication.
Univariate Anova analysis showed significant
differences between before and after, F(1,89) =
108.22, p < .001, Eta² = .27, as well as significant
interactions for group x time, F(1,89) = 23.71, p <
.001, Eta² = .21. Mean scores for Cooperative
group activity in interpersonal communication
activities before and after the intervention in the
experimental and control groups are shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1
As can be seen from Figure 1, although the
experimental group started lower than the control
group, the increase for this group was far higher.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Similar patterns of interaction of group x time
were found in the other categories.
Finally, Pearson correlations between the
improvement in musical activities and the
improvement in interpersonal communication
were carried out separately for each category and
were found to be positive in all the categories:
Relaxation and self awareness, r = .22, p < .05;
Listening, r = .50, p < .001; Imitation, r = .69, p <
.001; Dialogue, r = .66, p < .001; Cooperative
group activity, r = .71, p < .001.

DISCUSSION
The children in both the experimental and the
control groups showed significant improvement in
musical activities as a result of the music
programs in which they participated. This
included their ability to sing songs and melodies
of musical compositions and to interact with peers
in music activities. Those who showed
improvement in musical activities also improved
in interpersonal communication. This emphasizes
the importance of music education in preschool,
both for its own sake, and also for the contribution
that it makes to social interaction. For the children
in the experimental group the gains were far
reaching. Their musical achievements included
improvement in self-awareness, emotional
expression, attention, response and memory,
musical knowledge, creativity, initiative and
cooperation in musical problem solving.
Similarly, in the parallel areas of communication
their achievements were significantly greater than
the children in the control group. It is clear from
these results that while all music education is
valuable, musical activities of the kind included in
this intervention contribute to the child’s musical,
emotional, cognitive and social functioning.
Although there is no statistical proof that music
brought about the improvement in behavior, and
not the reverse, the preschool teachers in this
study emphatically believe that music is the key to
this success. Two full days of video filmed at the
beginning of the year and again at the end showed
marked differences in children’s behavior.
Conflicts continued to arise and that is the nature
of life, yet children at the end of the intervention
were observed solving their problems with words
and not with fists. Through music, the children
learned basic skills for dealing with conflict.
This is a good start, but may not be enough to
achieve lasting effects. On the basis of this study,
programs are now under way for continuing the
program into elementary school, and maybe also
into high school. Music is basic to every
curriculum. In addition, music can be valued for
its role in developing listening skills that will

63

improve quality of life for individuals and for
society.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research reports on intensive work carried
out by a committed and talented group of
educators. I would like to thank each and every
person who took part in the process and hope that
it is the starting point of an approach that can
make a difference.

New Directions in Music Assessment:
Issues and Trends
Timothy S. Brophy
University of Florida School of Music
Gainesville, FL, USA
tbrophy@arts.ufl.edu

ABSTRACT
In March 2007, 136 music teachers, scholars,
researchers, administrators, and students from
across the world gathered at the University of
Florida in Gainesville, Florida, USA for the first
international symposium focused solely on
assessment in music education. Led by eminent
scholars and leaders in the field, the attendees met
each day of the symposium to discuss assessment
issues and to respond to the four Key Questions of
the symposium. This paper shares the results of
their deliberations and presents issues and trends
for music assessment as defined by the symposium
participants.

INTRODUCTION
In March 2007 the symposium Integrating
Curriculum, Theory, and Practice: A Symposium
on Assessment in Music Education was held at the
University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida,
USA. Forty presenters from across the world
gathered with music teachers, scholars,
researchers, administrators, and students to share
ideas and research in music assessment. The
symposium was centered on four Key Questions:
1. What is the purpose and role of assessment in
music education in an increasingly politicized,
data-driven, accountability-focused
educational environment?
2. In what ways can effective assessment
practice in K-12 music education be
facilitated?
3. In what ways can assessment data be most
effectively used to improve music teaching
and learning?
4. What are the current research priorities for
assessment in music education?
Led by imminent scholars and leaders in the field
of assessment in music education, the participants
gathered daily to discuss and address these
questions. This paper summarizes those
discussions and identifies issues and future
directions for assessment in music education.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

can provide evidence of a connection between
participation in arts in public schools and the
future impact of arts-educated citizens on society.
A second role of assessment in music education is
to facilitate communication among arts teachers,
classroom teachers, and other educational
stakeholders. Assessment advances music’s
eminence in the curriculum through academic
accountability. Appropriate statistical data can
show the importance of music as its own subject
area worthy of study in the larger curriculum.

QUESTION 2: WAYS TO FACILITATE
EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICE
Led by Dr. Paul Lehman and Dr. Tena Whiston,
participants identified four ways that music
educators can facilitate effective assessment
practice:
1. Education and professional development,
2. Accessible frameworks and models,
3. Information dissemination – electronic
delivery systems, and
4. The availability of more resources and
materials.
The attendees identified several needs in music
teacher education and professional development.
They recommended that the teacher certification
process should require evidence that music
teachers can implement appropriate assessment
practices. University undergraduate music teacher
education programs should include and
assessment course and/or embed assessment
knowledge and skills across the program. In
addition to pre-service inclusion of assessment
practices, there is a need for in-service teacher
training in assessment; music educators need
continued training and models of assessment
throughout their teaching careers. Participants also
called for additional symposia that address
assessment in schools; these symposia can play an
important role in networking with music educators
in other states and would be pivotal for
professional growth.
The attendees proposed that assessment
benchmarks and models are important as a frame
of reference for assessment in music education.
MENC—the National Association for Music
Education has done some work in this area, but
this work needs to be expanded. The United States
is a nation in which states run the educational
system with autonomy. Models of music
assessment that are universally applicable to
different standards and settings are needed.
The participants identified a need for a national
teacher sharing website to provide a place for
teachers to post and find quality assessment tools,
divided into grade levels, curricular area, or

standard. Online chat rooms for music educators
can be used to discuss assessment successes and
failures.

QUESTION 3: USING ASSESSMENT
DATA EFFECTIVELY
Led by Dr. Lynn Brinckmeyer and Dr. Bill Bauer,
the participants explored ways to use assessment
data effectively. They agreed that assessment data
can be effectively used to:
1. Facilitate change in teaching and learning, and
in
2. Curriculum and standards.
Using assessment data to identify professional
development needs has a positive effect on music
teaching at all levels, and provides foci for district
level professional development meetings and
national and state conference sessions,
Assessment results can help to establish age- and
developmentally appropriate student outcomes.
Assessment data also provide teachers with
evidence of what students learn, and this drives
instruction. This is the assessment/pedagogical
strategy “loop” – by knowing what students know
and are able to do, teachers know what to teach.
(Hansen, 2008).
In the United States, standards for music
education were developed and presented first
(Consortium of National Arts Education
Associations, 1994), and the strategies, models,
and recommendations for standards assessment
came later (MENC, 1996, 2003). Symposium
participants agreed that when the American music
standards are revised, assessment strategies for
these standards should be developed concurrently.
Participants agreed that good assessment data help
to evaluate the degree to which the standards are
realistic and achievable.
Data provides evidence as to whether or not group
success equals individual student learning in
music rooms.

QUESTION 4: RESEARCH PRIORITIES
FOR ASSESSMENT IN MUSIC
EDUCATION
Led by Dr. Edward Asmus and Dr. Maud Hickey,
participants in this discussion group listed many
research areas for future studies in music
education assessment. These ideas fell into
general areas of research interest. The following is
a listing of the general categories of research
needs they identified:
1. More practitioner-based action research
2. Assessment in professional development
practice

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

3. Research and thinking about what types of
processes and products that demonstrate
higher order skills
4. Establishing characteristics of strong rubrics,
and the validity and reliability of those rubrics
5. Determining the effectiveness of portfolios
6. Qualitative and quantitative research of best
practices in assessment
7. Identification of the essential music behaviors
in the standards, and which of these should be
assessed
8. Ways to efficiently and effectively provide
assessment feedback
9. Identification of the components of effective
models of in-service on assessment.

TRENDS IN ASSESSMENT IN MUSIC
EDUCATION
The presentations at the symposium provided
evidence that there are several trends in music
education assessment that are happening in the
United States and other countries. The
accountability of learning that is common in
mathematics, language arts, reading, science, and
social studies is carrying over into the music
classroom, and more and more music teachers are
being required to collect and manage data on the
individual progress of students. This is a
companion responsibility to the inclusion of music
as a core subject area in the curriculum.
State wide large-scale assessments are on the
increase in American music education (Colwell,
2008; Shuler, 2008). Several states are currently
developing or implementing large scale music
assessments. Some of these are: Washington’s
Classroom Based Performance Assessments
(Smith, 2008), Kentucky’s Music Listening
Project (Swanson, Shepherd, & Wood, 2008),
South Carolina’s Arts Assessment Project (Yap
&Pearsall, 2008), and Florida’s Florida Music
Assessment (Brophy, 2008).
The symposium participants have identified many
needs in music education assessment. The next
step is the initiation of our professional response
to these needs.

Curriculum, Theory, and Practice: Proceedings of the
2007 Florida Symposium on Assessment in Music
Education, 3-16 Chicago: GIA Publications.
Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (
1994). National standards for arts education: What
every young American should know and be able to do
in the arts. Reston, VA: MENC-The National
Association for Music Education.
Lehman, P. R. (2008) Getting down to basics. In T. S.
Brophy (Ed.), Integrating Curriculum, Theory, and
Practice: Proceedings of the 2007 Florida Symposium
on Assessment in Music Education, 17-28 Chicago:
GIA Publications.
Hansen, D. (2008). The Alignment Loop: A curriculum
planning sequence and critical inquiry as catalysts for
sound assessments. In T. S. Brophy (Ed.), Integrating
Curriculum, Theory, and Practice: Proceedings of the
2007 Florida Symposium on Assessment in Music
Education, 59-70 Chicago: GIA Publications.
Lindeman, C.A. (Ed.). (2003). Benchmarks in action: A
guide to standards-based assessment in music. Reston,
VA: MENC—The National Association for Music
Education.
MENC –The National Association for Music Education
(1996). Performance Standards for Music: Strategies
and Benchmarks for Assessing Progress Toward the
National Standards, Grades PreK-12. Reston, VA:
Author.
Shuler, S. (2008). Large-scale assessment of music
performance: Some whys and hows for today’s datadriven educational environment. In T. S. Brophy (Ed.),
Integrating Curriculum, Theory, and Practice:
Proceedings of the 2007 Florida Symposium on
Assessment in Music Education, 123-138 Chicago:
GIA Publications.
Smith, B. P. (2008). The development and
implementation of Washington’s Classroom-Based
Performance Assessments. In T. S. Brophy (Ed.),
Integrating Curriculum, Theory, and Practice:
Proceedings of the 2007 Florida Symposium on
Assessment in Music Education, 153-160 Chicago:
GIA Publications.
Swanson, R. K., Wood, M. R., & Shepherd, P. (2008).
The Kentucky Music Educators Association (KMEA)
and the Kentucky Department of Education (KDE)
Music Listening Assessment Pilot Project for grades 5,
8, and 11. In T. S. Brophy (Ed.), Integrating
Curriculum, Theory, and Practice: Proceedings of the
2007 Florida Symposium on Assessment in Music
Education, 161-182 Chicago: GIA Publications.
Yap, C.C. & Pearsall, T.M. (2008). A state-wide webbased music assessment: A collaborative effort. In T. S.
Brophy (Ed.), Integrating Curriculum, Theory, and
Practice: Proceedings of the 2007 Florida Symposium
on Assessment in Music Education, Chicago: GIA
Publications.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The Relevance of African American
Singing to Xhosa Children: A
Qualitative Study
Carolyn Burns
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT, USA
burnsclan77@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore which
African American singing games were most
meaningful to Xhosa children in regard to their
personal experiences, cultural backgrounds,
understanding of the musical properties of the
songs, and song preferences. This research also
factored authentic representation of multicultural
music, how multicultural music can be taught, and
how the African American singing games might be
implemented as a component of the Arts and
Culture Curriculum 2005 in South Africa.
In post-apartheid South Africa, there has been a
stronger emphasis on teaching traditional music
in the schools because the majority of the music
previously taught in public and private schools
was greatly influenced by Western European and
English systems. While the need to preserve the
varied South African cultural heritage is a major
goal, the South African Ministry of Education
recognizes the importance of multicultural
learning. The national school curriculum was
completed and adopted in 2005.
I conducted a qualitative study with 69 Xhosa
children in grades 5 and 6 at Good Shepherd
Primary School in Grahamstown, South Africa
over a period of ten weeks. The school is
comprised of disadvantaged Xhosa children who
live in Joza Township. The learners were taught
African American singing games created by
African American slave children of the Georgia
Sea Islands. The children had no previous
exposure to the songs, Head and Shoulders, Baby;
Draw a Bucket of Water; Way Down Yonder in
the Brickyard. The learners were introduced to a
brief history of slavery in the US and selected
books from currently used childrens’ literature in
US public schools were shared.
Following the teaching of these lessons,
interviews were conducted with 47 learners, five
primary school teachers, and six families who
were visited in their homes in the township. The
learners related their knowledge of African
American singing games with their traditional
Xhosa singing games and other music. They
ISBN 9780980456028

indicated a strong sense of connection with their
knowledge of African American slavery and the
apartheid era. A learners’ preference of song was
directly related to their previous experience with a
Xhosa children’s song or traditional music used
for rites and rituals.
Interviews with the teachers and parents were
very positive indicators that the African American
history and singing games should be included in
the curriculum. Parents remembered and sang
freedom songs, and they related the need for their
children to know about other African cultures. A
significant and unexpected outcome of the study
revealed that the learners shared the African
American singing games with their siblings and
neighborhood children in the township.
Teaching materials for African American singing
games that can be integrated with science, history,
and language could be developed. Music
educators from Rhodes University also agree that
the inclusion of these singing games would
provide a strong cultural bridge that returns to
Africa.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

we do not belong to that culture? Through careful
research and learning from someone of that
culture, I believe I can successfully replicate and
model an authentic representation.
In post-apartheid South Africa, there has been a
stronger emphasis on teaching traditional music in
the schools because the majority of the music
previously taught in public and private schools
was greatly influenced by Western European and
English systems (Herbst, deWet, & Rijsdijk,
2005). While the need to preserve the varied
South African cultural heritage is a major goal, the
South African Ministry of Education recognizes
the importance of multicultural learning. The
national school curriculum was completed and
adopted in 2005.
The implementation of a new curriculum is a
challenge because of many pre-existing factors,
such as the influences of colonialism, teaching
Western methodologies, a preference for written
music reading instead of oral literacy, and racial
segregation. These factors are difficult to change.
The outcome of this study may provide South
African teachers with materials to introduce
African American singing games as an applicable
multicultural music source because of its African
origins.

METHODOLOGY
I conducted a qualitative study with 69 Xhosa
children in grades five and six at Good Shepherd
Primary School in Grahamstown, South Africa
over a period of nine weeks. The school is
comprised of disadvantaged Xhosa children who
live in Joza Township. The school was chosen
with the assistance of Daniela Heunis, a lecturer in
music education at Rhodes University. Daniela
and I met at the ISME conference in South Africa
in 1998; and as colleagues, we shared
philosophies, music methods, and assessment
ideas. She observed my teaching in Montana in
1999 and occasionally observed my teaching at
Good Shepherd with one of her university music
education students. It was with Daniela’s
assistance that I contacted the principal, Prudence
Van Der Linde, who also teaches the Arts and
Culture studies.
At the suggestion of some university teachers and
a high school choral teacher, I attended two
schools in the township to make comparisons of
classroom conditions and teaching facilities. I also
attended a private girls’ primary school of mixed
ethnic groups (Xhosa, Coloured, and Afrikaaners),
which was in sharp contrast to the economic status
of the children. After visiting three other schools,
I felt Good Shepherd Primary was the best choice
in which to observe Xhosa children who

represented learners with strong cultural
backgrounds.
Mr. Cannon, the acting principal in the absence of
Mrs. Van Der Linde, outlined the ten-day class
schedule currently in place in the school. He was
very accommodating and scheduled my class time
during the designated time for Arts and Culture.
He gave me extra times to meet my needs, and it
was possible to meet with all of the classes in
Grades 3 through 7 at least once during my time at
Good Shepherd. I was invited to participate in the
annual walk for the first day of Spring, September
1, and was free to observe other classes when I
could. Although it was not a focus of my research
study, in the last week of my stay I introduced
American Indian music to Grades 5 and 6 and
taught them the Round Dance. I read the book,
Her Seven Brothers (Goble, 1993), a story of how
the Big Dipper was created according to native
folklore. Once again we compared the night sky of
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and
discussed another view of the Big Dipper.
Prior to the teaching of the lessons chosen for the
research study, the learners were introduced to the
American children’s songs, My Home’s in
Montana and I Love the Mountains. These were
chosen for two reasons. The first was to develop a
good rapport with the learners by sharing familiar
songs children know in the state of Montana
where I live. The second reason was to determine
how well they could sing new songs in English
and to assess how well they could sing a two-part
partner song and rounds.
One of the wonderful delights of teaching music is
being able to adapt to different situations. The
winter had been exceptionally cold and rainy.
There were two days when some of the children
were unable to travel out of the township due to
washed out streets. I took this opportunity to teach
the learners in Grades 5 and 6 the American folk
song, I Don’t Care if the Rain Comes Down, a
pentatonic song. It gave me the opportunity to
observe their aural understanding of pitch. They
did not seem to know Kodály hand signs, and I
did not have the time to teach them. However, I
introduced a diatonic set of BoomWhackers
(plastic colored-coded tubes) to Grades 5 and 6.
We used them to follow the pitches of the melody
-six learners, each with do, re, mi, fa, so, do. I
directed the song due to the time limit of the
period, but it would have been enjoyable for them
to experiment with the pattern on their own.
Following the melodic pattern exercise, I showed
the learners how they could use the
BoomWhackers for constructing triads. They
worked hard at trying to hear the key changes at
the appropriate time to accompany their singing.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

As an introduction to the African American
singing games, I presented the history of slavery
in the US by using selected children’s literature
from American schools to the learners. The books
were: The Story of Harriet Tubman, Conductor of
the Underground Railroad (McMullen, 1991); If
You Traveled on the Underground Railroad
(Levine, 1992) and Follow the Drinking Gourd
(Winter, 1992). In addition to the selected
literature, I provided information about the
Lovejoy Home, a historical home of the
Underground Railroad in my hometown of
Princeton, Illinois. The learners were then taught
three traditional African American singing games
of slave children - Draw a Bucket of Water, Head
and Shoulders, Baby, and Way Down Yonder in
the Brickyard - to which they had no previous
exposure.

INTEGRATING THE CURRICULUM
As the learners in Grade 5 were studying
astrology, it was an ideal time to create
connections between the night skies of the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. We were
able to make comparisons of the use of the
Southern Cross and the Big Dipper. It was
enlightening to share the comparison of the Big
Dipper to a calabash squash as many of the
learners were familiar with the calabash used for
traditional Xhosa ceremonies.
During the class sessions, the learners in both
Grades 5 and 6 shared traditional Xhosa songs led
by Joy (Matarie) Tendeka Veleti. As Prudence
was on medical leave during much of my time at
Good Shepherd, Matarie, a Grade 7 classroom
teacher, was assigned to Prudence’s arts and
culture classes. Matarie led the learners in a praise
poem, Lament for a Dead Cow by Francis Carey
Slater, and several traditional songs used for
weddings and rites of passage for boys into
manhood (circumcision). In the absence of a
classroom teacher, the learners often shared their
traditional songs and dances accented with handclapping and stomping of feet.
The African American songs I chose are
pentatonic, but the forms of the songs and the
movements for each are varied. They included one
of verse/refrain and two with call and response.
Traditional Xhosa children’s songs use a five-tone
scale that is not necessarily pentatonic, or a six
tone scale and other variants (Dargie, 1988). The
rhythm of Xhosa music cannot be divided in the
same manner as Western music. It is derived from
the dance or body movement of the singer, and the
rhythm may not feel as strict (Dargie, 1988).
When the learners experienced the African
American songs I taught, the songs, and

71

movements were taught simultaneously as they
would experience in their culture. They
improvised the movements to reflect the fluid and
natural ways of their traditional dance. They also
altered the melodies with their traditional
inflections. At my suggestion they changed the
words of Head and Shoulders, Baby to Xhosa
terms; however, they chose to keep the English
words, “one, two, three” and “baby”.

FINDINGS AND SUMMARY
Interviews were subsequently conducted with 47
learners, five teachers, and six families who were
visited in their homes in the township. The
learners related their knowledge of slavery in the
US and were able to compare their musical forms
and movements of the African American singing
games with their traditional Xhosa singing games.
They indicated a strong sense of connection with
their knowledge of African American slavery and
the apartheid era. Although the children were too
young to actually remember the 1994 end of the
apartheid, they were very much aware of the
changes still taking place. A learner’s preference
of song was directly related to their previous
experience with a Xhosa song; e.g., Draw a
Bucket of Water correlated with a song about a
train in which some of the motions were similar.
In Grade 5, the preference of Head and Shoulders,
Baby may have been influenced by changing some
of the English lyrics to Xhosa words. This
addresses one of the major learning barriers that
South African educators are currently facing in the
classroom. A Xhosa child learns his native
language before an introduction to English in
Grade One. This reflects one of the literacy
problems of an underdeveloped education system
and a nation that recognizes 11 official languages
(Webb, 2002).
Interviews with the teachers and parents were very
positive indicators that the African American
history and singing games should be included in
the curriculum. Parents remembered and sang
freedom songs. They related the need for their
children to know about other African cultures,
especially those in which people were enslaved
and set free. A significant and unexpected
outcome of the study revealed that the learners
shared the African American singing games with
their siblings and neighborhood children in their
township.
The study indicates that a part of the new South
African Curriculum 2005 should include African
American singing games. The lessons adhere to
the Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards
5.1.1.2 “Improvises and creates dance sequences
that use the concept of contrast, while making

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

clear transitions from one movement or shape to
another…,” 6.1.1.2 “Improvises and creates dance
sequences that use: steps and styles from various
South African dance forms…,” 5.1.2.2 “Responds
to aural, oral, visual, tactile and kinaesthetic
stimuli in dramatic games and exercises…,” 5.3.3
“Sings and/or plays an instrument in a group with
appropriate rhythm, pitch and dynamics in any
genre of music,” and 5.4.3.1 “Identifies and sings
songs from different societies, cultures and
contexts that seem to communicate the same
idea.” (Arts and Culture Curriculum, 2005).
The music lessons combined with history, science,
and language met other learning outcomes in the
general curriculum. In history the following are
met: 5.2.3 “Identifies similarities and differences
between ways of life in different places at
different times,” 6.2.3 “ Identifies some aspects of
society which have changed and some which have
stayed the same over time in more than one
context,” 5.3.1 “Recognises that there can be more
than one version of an historical event (e.g. that
there can be two accounts of the same story),” and
6.3.1 “Compares two versions of an historical
event using visual or written sources” (Revised
National Curriculum, 2005). In the area of natural
sciences, the music lessons included identifying
constellations and met the criteria for 5.2.1
“appropriately describes observable features of
objects in the environment, animals, plants or
features in the sky…” (Revised National
Curriculum, 2005).
The literature chosen to complement the African
American singing games was age appropriate.
Due to the time limit of the study, I read the
stories; whereas, these books might have been
read by learners during language class. They meet
some of the learning outcomes defined in the
language curriculum. Through listening the Grade
5 and Grade 6 student can “identify the main
message and themes,, “responds with sensitivity
to ideas and suggestions” and “discusses the
social, moral and cultural values, attitudes and
assumptions” (Revised National Curriculum,
2005).
There were many discoveries I made during this
study that helped me understand the musical
abilities of the learners, their comprehension of
African American singing games and history, and
their communication skills using the English

language during the interviews. They were able to
compare their traditional Xhosa songs to the
African American singing games and to describe
their traditions with pride. They were also able to
define their choice of African American singing
games when asked for a preference of song.
The experience I had with the children of Good
Shepherd was unforgettable. All of the children’s
books and copies of the music were left with
Prudence at Good Shepherd. The diatonic set of
BoomWhackers was also a gift. Good Shepherd
Primary School has the necessary teaching
materials to continue the lessons, but these
resources may be difficult to obtain for all of
South Africa. Learning objectives and assessment
tools would have to be further developed for a unit
on African American singing games to be
implemented in the South African school
curriculum. The positive response of the teachers
at Good Shepherd and music educators at Rhodes
University indicate that the inclusion of these
singing games would provide a strong cultural
bridge between the African cultures of the U.S.
and South Africa.

REFERENCES
Dargie, D. (1988). Xhosa music: Its technique and
instruments, with a collection of songs. Cape Town:
David Phillip.
Goble, P. (1993). Her seven brothers. New York:
Simon and Schuster Children’s Publishing.
Herbst, A., deWet, J., and Rijsdijk, S. (2005). A
survery of music education in the primary schools of
south africa’s cape peninsula. Journal of Research In
Music Education, 53, 26-283.
Levine, E. (1992). If you traveled on the underground
railroad. New York: Scholastic.
McMullan, K. (1991). The story of Harriet Tubman,
conductor of the underground railroad. New York: A
Yearling Book.
Revised National Curriculum 2005. Copies received at
Good Shepherd Primary School, Grahamstown, South
Africa, 2006.
Webb, V. (2002). Language Policy in Post-Apartheid
South Africa. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from
University of Pretoria Website:
http://www.up.ac.az/acadmic/afrikaans/afrikaans/publi
kasies/pub2002/webb_PostApartSA.doc
Winter, J. (1992). Follow the drinking gourd. New
York: Dragonfly Books.

A Critical Reflection on the Kodály
Approach and the Lens of Praxial
Music Education
Dafu Lai
Dept. of Arts & Social Science, China University of Petroleum in Beijing
Beijing, China
didalai@yahoo.com.cn

ABSTRACT
This paper seeks to offer a critical, reflective
analysis of the basic philosophy of Kodály’s
approach to music education in comparison with
David Elliott’s concept of praxial music
education. Drawing on detailed contemporary
examples, five issues are highlighted in the paper:
music literacy as common ground; the problems
of the “Singing-first” principle; the best time to
start children’s music education; mother-tongue
and
musical
mother-tongue;
and
the
“unquestioned quality music” issue. The paper is
not suggesting that the Kodály philosophy is
outdated but advocating the need for critical
reflection whenever we study or apply a theory.

INTRODUCTION
For years, I have been studying Kodály’s
approach to music education through attending
special workshops and other inputs (such as the
Kodály Institute). I had absorbed a rich mosaic of
understandings from different scholars but never
really thought about the basic theory until I read
Elliott’s (1995) Music Matters and the concept of
praxial music education at NYU. This enabled me
to reflect on what I have learned from a more
critical standpoint and to evaluate the relevance of
Kodály in our modern society. Subsequently, I
discovered new things in my studies.
Kodály’s approach is one of the most popular
contemporary music education methods in the
world. According to Lois Choksy’s (1981)
summary, the basic principles of the Kodály
approach to music include the following five
points:
• True musical literacy is the ability to read,
write, and think music; and it is the right of
every human being.
• To be internalized, musical learning must
begin with the child’s own natural instrument,
the voice.

ISBN 9780980456028

•

The education of the musical ear can be
successful only if it is begun early, in
Kindergarten and the primary grades or even
earlier if possible.
• As children possess a mother-tongue (i.e., the
language spoken at home), they also possess a
musical mother-tongue in the folk music of
that language. It is through this musical
mother-tongue that the skills and concepts
necessary to musical literacy should be taught.
• Only music of unquestioned quality, both folk
and composed, should be used in the
education of children. (Choksy, 1981)
Some of these points have close links to David
Elliott’s theory of praxial music education.
However, the application of a praxial view of
music education suggests that the Kodály
approach is not sufficiently comprehensive. Let
me explain my critical application of these five
points one by one.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

language are seen as subconscious keystones of
Hungarian-ness. “In the kindergarten, music is
perhaps even more important than language”
(Kodály, 1964, p. 130). Just like learning how to
speak, read, or write, it is necessary to develop
singing and the ability to read music “The
promotion of music literacy is as pressing as the
promotion of linguistic literacy” (Choksy, 1981,
p.6) I think that this concept supports Elliott’s
tenet that “music is the first and most basic art”
(NYU website).
Elliott mentions Kodály’s approach four times in
his Music Matters (1995, p. 31, p. 103, p. 105, and
p. 271), implying several key connections
between Elliott’s music philosophy and Kodály
concepts. For example, in terms of music
listening, Elliott writes:
If the body is in the mind, then it makes perfect
sense (as Dalcroze, Orff, and Kodály specialist
maintain) that the kinds of moving involved in
music making (including conducting) are essential
to improving musical understanding which, I have
argued, is essentially procedural. (p.104)

Just as every coin has two sides, however,
Kodály’s approaches are not beyond question and
require us to engage in critical reflection about
these concepts, not simply agree with them.

THE PROBLEMS OF “SINGING-FIRST”
PRINCIPLE
Based on Kodály and Elliott’s common ground,
we know the importance of music education. But
where and how do we start for the very young
beginners in music education? In the second
principle of the Kodály concept declared by
Choksy (1981) above, he advocates a “singingfirst approach.” That is, music teaching is highly
sequential: singing first, sight-reading second, and
then the use of other musical instruments. Kodály
said, “Singing without any instrument, free
singing is the really deep training of the child’s
musical faculties” (Kodály, 1964, p. 131). He also
declared: “A musical culture that has real depth
must always be founded on singing… The playing
of instruments is inevitably a matter for the
privileged few” (Eosze, 1962, p. 85).
The singing-first method is certainly one approach
to access music education. However, as the saying
goes, many roads lead to Rome. We cannot say
that other methods, such as “listening-first,”
“movement-first,” or “instrument-first, are
necessarily wrong. Whatever the teaching
sequence, the approaches that help developing
children’s musicianship are usually grounded in
experiencing the music as sound before learning
the written symbols. In practice, it may be that a
singing-first pedagogy (at least in a formal

educational setting) has certain limitations. For
example, in my own experience, when I taught in
a primary school several years ago, I found that
some young children simply did not like singing
or were too shy to sing aloud. Others might have
difficulty in matching the correct pitch, tempo, or
rhythm without hearing the accompaniment or
clear hints. Thus, if the teacher does not recognize
this diversity and merely asks the students to sing
aloud, it may be that the students could simply be
unable to respond appropriately, such as when the
teacher is indicating that the students should sing
by singing “Here we (you) go.” How do we help
them open their mouths and sing comfortably,
confidently, and naturally? “Using your own song
to elicit other’s song” is a common tradition in
China’s rural area. In this tradition, if you want to
hear somebody else’s singing, you should sing
first, then they might sing in response. In a music
class, except when the teacher demonstrates
singing, it may be a good idea to provide a clear
introductory accompaniment as this may help
students follow the music more readily.
In fact, what Kodály emphasized is not only
“singing-first,” but also “pure-singing first.” That
is to say, the teacher should teach student to sing
without any instrument accompaniment initially
because “any accompaniment tends to cover the
young child’s voice” (Choksy, 1981, p. 17).
Unfortunately, the children’s own voices can
cover each other too! How might we prevent that?
Actually, this is may not be a real problem as
children are able to hear different sounds at the
same time. Nevertheless, I found many
advantages using accompaniment when teaching
very young children. Firstly, accompaniment can
help them to get the right tempo, pitch, rhythm
and sense of musical expression quickly. Students
can follow the music accompaniment and be
involved with the music so that the teacher can
avoid a lot of explanation. Secondly, good
accompaniments usually attract children’s interest
and involvement. They can find the colourful
sound exciting and active rhythmic patterns can
motivate their movement and motor response to
the music. A strong accompaniment can give
students a deeper, more complex sound
impression than just a single voice. Thirdly, when
children are singing with accompanied music,
they hear several parts of the music: their own
individual voice, the other children’s voices, and
the colourful accompaniment. It means that they
are exposed in a rich musical world that has
different timbres, rhythmic patterns, and musical
layers. Singing with accompaniment can help
developing children’s polyphonic concept and
assist them to a better understanding of musical

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

cooperation or collaboration, that is, the social
aspects of music making. As to the potential
problem that Kodály pointed out, the teacher
should be sufficiently skilled to be able to control
the accompaniment volume so that it will not
cover the children’s voices. In short, children need
to hear colourful music that includes a wide
variety of musical elements. They are learning
music, not merely learning voice. I am not saying
that a singing-first method is not good necessarily,
but I am arguing that children should also be
exposed to a broad range of music from the very
beginning.

MOTHER-TONGUE AND MUSICAL
MOTHER-TONGUE ISSUE
Based on a Kodály approach, there are several
factors to consider with regards to the concept of
mother-tongue. First, most individuals (unless
they are developed in a multi-lingual household)
have one mother tongue and one musical mothertongue (in the sense of the underlying musical
language structures that predominate within the
musical examples of the culture). Kodály said,
“The basic layer of the soul cannot be made from
two different substances.” (Kodály, 1964, p. 131.)
Secondly, for him, folk songs include the “most
perfect relationship between language and
music”(Choksy, 1981, p. 8) Thirdly, children
should not learn a second language until they have
consciously mastered their mother tongue.
“Anyone who has learned a foreign language at an
age under ten will only mix up the different
structures of the two languages, their different
ways of shaping images” (Kodály, 1964, p. 131.)
I only partially agree with this point. It seems
unequivocal that folksongs present a close
relationship between language and music.
However, both music and human languages are
very diverse. Today, immigration, culture
exchange, and hi-tech connection technologies
are, on one level, making our world smaller than
ever. People are inevitably exposed to various
musics and languages. In many urban cities,
children are likely to be learning more than one
language and exposed to different musics from all
over the world. For example, in the Chinatown
areas of New York City (include Manhattan
Chinatown, Flushing and Brooklyn Chinatown),
most children speak at least two languages:
English, Chinese Mandarin or Cantonese. Most
daycare centers and Kindergartens in Chinatown
offer bilingual or even trilingual services. As a
result, most students there are exposed to a
multilingual environment. Fortunately, they
appear not to mix up the different language
structures. On the contrary, I found that my
landlord’s five-year-old son, a second generation

75

of Chinese immigrant, spoke English, Cantonese,
and Mandarin fluently. He could interpret English
games and chants into Chinese very accurately for
my son when the two were playing together. Here,
I did not find this little boy mixing any of these
languages.
Another example occurred at last Summer’s
Kodály Institute when we learned the song “Make
a Joyful Noise to the Lord” which has five
languages in the words. We very easily found
native speakers for each language: Italian,
Spanish, Korean, Hebrew and English. All of our
foreign language tutors were living in the U.S., an
immigrant nation that has probably the most
diverse set of languages in the world. Many
families speak more than one language. How do
they decide which one is the real mother tongue? I
think the non-English descent families could
regard English as their mother tongue after living
in an English-speaking country for a few
generations.
In “Music in the Kindergarten,” Kodály said
“Kindergarten is not the place for music with an
alien rhythm or an alien melodic line, just as no
place for a foreign language either” (Kodály,
1964, p. 145). However, today is a much different
world than when those words were written. Even
the concept of alien seems out of place in today’s
educational context. In fact, all children today
could hardly avoid their non-mother-tongue or
non-mother-tongue music when they are very
young. For instance, let me offer my son as an
example again. When he first learned to speak at
one year old, he learned “Papa” and “Mama” (in
Chinese). The third word that he learned was
“Bye-bye,” not in Chinese, but in English! And he
was born and raised in a real Chinese family with
a completely Chinese cultural background!
Actually, it’s not a wonder. The English term
“Bye-bye” is very commonly used among young
people in China today. Instead of the original
Chinese word “Zai-Jian” (which means good bye),
people tend to say the English word “Bye-bye”
when they leave each other. The English word
“Bye-bye” has become a simple Chinese word
even though we cannot yet find it in a Chinese
dictionary. So language is like music as even
toddlers are simply learning what they are
exposed to by inevitably learning foreign words.
After the Chinese government adopted a more
open policy, English has become more and more
popular in China. Most primary schools and lots
of Kindergartens have begun to provide English
lessons for students. Some private schools even
provide bilingual instructions in their curricula.
Most of them will hire English native speakers as
their student’s oral English teachers. Since

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

students are perceived to benefit from two
languages when they are very young, most parents
are very willing to send their children to these
bilingual or “English-Chinese” schools. There,
children are learning foreign language and nonmother-tongue music when they are only three or
four years old. Many English songs, such as “Old
MacDonald had a Farm,” “Happy Birthday,” and
“Mary Had a Little Lamb,” are as popular as any
Chinese folk songs and chants. However, there is
no evidence that these alien songs and language
are having a negative effect on the children.
China is not an immigrant country, but the
languages that people speak there are very
diverse. Due to the limitations of transportation
and exchange in the past, even two very close
towns could have totally different dialects.
Fortunately, it does not block them from learning
the official Chinese language, Mandarin, which is
based on a Northern Chinese accent, Beijing
dialect. Most Southern people speak very fluent
Mandarin and sing Mandarin songs very well.
Scientific research suggests that children who
were exposed to a bilingual environment have
higher IQ than those with a single language
background. A bilingual background is believed to
make children think things more broadly and
differently. Just as one thing can be expressed in
different ways in different languages, so children
tend to have more than one way to solve problems
if they know more than one language. Besides,
children seem to pronounce foreign languages
naturally and accurately if they start learning these
at an early age.
From a praxial viewpoint, Elliott (1995) has a
very good summary in terms of multicultural
music education today: “If music consists in a
diversity of music cultures, then music is
inherently multicultural. And if music is
inherently multicultural, then music education
ought to be multicultural in essence” (p. 207).

ABOUT MUSIC OF “UNQUESTIONED
QUALITY”
I agree with Kodály that children’s music
education materials should be chosen as carefully
as choosing food for them. As he said, “Food is
more carefully chosen for an infant than for adult.
Musical nourishment which is ‘rich vitamins’ is
essential for children” (Kodály, 1964, p. 122).
However, when it comes to the point that “only
music of ‘unquestioned quality’ should be used in
children’s music education,” we have to bring
another question: how do we define music of
“unquestioned quality” for children’s music
education, especially music of very different
cultures and standards?

From Kodály’s writings, we sense what he means.
The music of “unquestioned quality” could be
“masterpieces” or “good folk songs” of the
European culture (Kodály, 1964, p. 125). Today,
people are always puzzling, confusing, or even
troubling with too many options. If we cannot
define “unquestioned quality music,” we are going
to be really in trouble selecting materials for
music education if we must stick to this
“unquestioned quality” principle.
The real problem with this principle of quality is
that it involves the matter of musical taste and
appears to set some standard that we all can agree
upon. However, we know that tastes differ greatly
and are often related to preferences for styles,
genre, or musical practices. What is a good folk
song, and what is a bad folk song” In my
experience, good music is not necessarily a
masterwork. I can find many really fabulous
musical works that have been composed by
unknown young musicians, even young students.
For instance, one of my favorite short piano
pieces, “The Clever Bunny,” was composed by a
middle school student. I have used these “nonmasterpieces” as my teaching materials and they
have been well received. Here, I am not arguing
that masterpieces should not be included in music
education, but saying we must be open to many
alternatives.
Francis Aronoff (1979) makes the point that the
best music materials are not merely about quality:
The teacher must seek out a variety of material appropriate “pop” songs, art songs, advertising
jingles, folk ballads. Sometimes it is advisable to
focus on just one segment of a longer song, or
even on a theme from traditional or contemporary
instrumental music. It is of prime importance to
use a song only when you know it well, and when
you enjoy singing it and moving with it. (p. 197)

Here, Aronoff (1979) raises another important
point. That is, how familiar with the music is the
teacher? How much does the teacher like the
teaching materials? Not all masterworks are
suitable for children. For example, some of them
might be too sophisticated (complex) for young
students to learn. If the teachers know the music
well, they can perhaps re-arrange the sophisticated
masterpieces and make them suitable for children.
If the teachers are not familiar with the material
that they want to teach, the best masterpieces
cannot work well. So I think the best quality
music for children’s music education should
include these features:
• It must be music that the teacher knows well.
• It should be music that the children like or
that raise children’s interests, no matter who is
the composer.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

•

It should be music that the children like, or
that raise children’s interests, no matter where
are they are from, whether foreign music or
mother-tongue music.
In short, if we reflect on the standard of
“unquestioned quality music” critically, we will
discover that emphases on the quality or the
composer of the musical material are far from
adequate.

SUMMARY
New York has one of the most diverse cultures in
the world. This diversity is reflected in its range of
musics and music education approaches. Every
time when I attend an Orff workshop, I always
meet some friends from the NYC Kodály
Association. Some of these have more than two
memberships, such as Kodály, Orff, Dalcroze, or
Suzuki. When I have asked them which one they
apply most in their teaching practice, the usual
answer is that they assimilate virtues from each of
these music education approaches and teach with
a comprehensive approach, but not a specific one.
As a music educator, I think that this is the best
way to enhance music education. We cannot take
any music approach as gospel. Contrarily, a
critical reflection of such diverse music education
approaches helps us to understand them better and
improves our teaching practice. A praxial music
education philosophy provides us with a good
basis to reflect on any approaches that we
encounter.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Improvisation and Issues of Formal and
Informal Learning; A Perspective From
Singapore
Eugene Dairianathan

Peter Stead

Nanyang Technological University
Singapore
eugene.d@nie.edu.sg

Nanyang Technological University
Singapore

ABSTRACT
Our paper deals with improvisation and the
degree to which expert or formalised knowledge
helps or hinders free improvisation. In Lucy
Green’s research on learning among musicians in
popular culture, we note a similar lack of
communication between formal training and the
informal processes through which improvisational
ability is acquired. Discussions on musical
improvisation tend to concentrate on instrumental
proficiency and musical conventions. However, as
musical ability differs from culture to culture, so
do expectations of musical improvisation. By
studying the ways in which non-music specialists
are enabled in musical improvisation, we aim to
demonstrate the importance of informally
acquired skill as well as discover processes that
are common to those who are formally trained.
This paper relies on a study conducted between
July and October 2005 where a group of Physical
Education
teachers
participated
in
an
undergraduate course on improvisation. Research
data were obtained from their journal entries and
essays. Our findings yield five observations about
improvisation and non-music specialist teachers.
1. Improvisational ability can be improved even
for those who have had no formal musical
training; 2. The improvising activities of nonmusic teachers reveal a considerable variety and
diversity of formal and informal resources; 3.
Non-music teachers’ views of and about music
compare favourably with ethnomusicological
views of Blacking and “inclusive” views of
Schafer; 4.Enabling non-music specialist teachers
has yielded a valuable and valid “informal”
musical route to the teaching and learning of
improvisation; 5. The teaching and learning of
musical improvisation via informal processes has
helped non-music specialist teachers towards selfenablement in their everyday lives.
Besides underlining the importance of informal
learning
processes,
enabling
non-music
specialists through musical improvisation
challenges the privileging of “musical” skills in
musical improvisation at the expense of the
ISBN 9780980456028

uniqueness of “individually informed” skill. A
challenging question for music education is which
of these skills should be given priority and
privilege in the teaching and learning of musical
improvisation, and to what extent curricula in
music institutions can support both modes of
learning?

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

definitions of improvisation may have become
broader and more sensitised to context, Nettl
(1998) believes that it is propositional knowledge
in western art music traditions that remains the
dominant and dominating referential point. Such
privileged authorisation stems firstly from
attitudes towards societies or cultures where
improvisation plays a significant role in practices
in their arts, but possesses less significant
currency and as such is not taken very seriously
(Nettl, 1998:6). The teaching and learning of
musical improvisation, therefore, either valorizes
Euro-American art music traditions or considers
improvisation as a kind of third world music
(Nettl:1998:6-7). At best, it may develop
improvisation skills in their narrowest sense; but
at worst, it may devalue the essential nature of
improvisation.
Improvisational ability must encompass more than
the narrow-based expectations of instrumental
virtuosity and fidelity to conventions in
performance. Two examples observed by Sutton
(1998:86) in Javanese gamelan practices draw on
recovery from lapses in concentration and
working with uncertainty in the performing
present. However, Sutton’s observations relegate
improvisatory behaviours to the reflexive
expertise of good musicians to recover from
lapses of fidelity as well as revealing levels of
experience in negotiating uncertainty and
unpredictability.
Magrini’s (1998) explanation of improvisation as
inherently unpredictable devalues improvisational
ability and implicitly endorses formal structures in
the training and practice of improvisation. Such
explanations only consign improvisation to
recovery when improvisers are as likely to
respond to circumstances beyond their control as
chart the course of their responses. Both Magrini’s
(1998) and Sutton’s (1998) accounts reinforce
Berliner’s (1994:492) lament that popular
definitions of improvisation that emphasise only
its
spontaneous,
intuitive
nature…are
astonishingly incomplete.
If improvisational ability is contingent on musical
ability, Blacking (1973:100) suggests that what is
ultimately of most importance in music…is there
in the body, waiting to be brought out and
developed…all aspects of his/her behaviour are
subject to a series of interrelated, structured
systems, and when s/he improvises, s/he is
expressing these systems in relation to the
reactions s/he picks up from his/her audience.
Blacking’s (1973) observations articulate a dual
dimension in improvisation. The first is that which
is made possible through formal training and skills
situated in a context-dependent and practice-

specific system. But the second and equally
important dimension lies in intentional risking the
uncertainty of circumstances and/or human
behaviours.
Following
Berliner
(1994),
negotiating unpredictability cannot simply be
explained away as reflexivity in the face of errors
of omission or commission. Unpredictability may
also be read as intentional behaviour in risktaking.
Paraphrasing Green’s (2002) observation of the
ways popular musicians learn “informally”, this
intentional or unintentional negotiation of
uncertainty compels a study of improvising
behaviour other than musical techniques and
conventions. Both dimensions are linked
symbiotically in musical improvisation; both
dimensions merit serious consideration and
training. But any study of informal learning in the
teaching and learning of improvisation, however,
seems at odds with the authority of formal
training translated as prior preparation, systematic
training and regulation.

AIM OF STUDY
Our paper deals with improvisation and the degree
to which expert or formalised knowledge seems to
hinder inclusion of a participant without the same
level of expertise and questions the assumptions
on which improvisational ability is contingent
upon training towards such expertise. The crucial
question is that of membership. Are those without
prior training in music or improvisation capable of
being enabled through informal learning processes
when compared to those who possess skills and
training?
We draw on Lucy Green’s (2002, 2004) research
on learning among musicians in popular culture
and note, in the teaching and learning of musical
improvisation, a gap between formal training in
improvisation and informal processes by which
improvisational ability has been acquired. By
studying the ways in which non-music specialists
are enabled in musical improvisation, we will
demonstrate how important it is for any
improviser to be aware of informally acquired
skill to negotiate the extramusical present as much
as the training to prepare one for the musical
presence. We also aim to demonstrate how these
informally acquired skills rely on more
fundamental skill sets, which we argue, form the
prerequisites for any improviser, training
notwithstanding.

CONTEXT OF STUDY
At our institution, improvisation is available as an
unrestricted elective course and is open to all
students on the undergraduate programmes.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Certified or formal musical skills are not used as
criteria for selection of course participants.
This course has increasingly drawn substantial
numbers of non-music specialists who have little
or no formal practical music qualifications or
training, although not an absence of prior musical
experiences. The course has been run on a
framework using a variety of keywords and
media. Each week for instance, students work
towards performances based on a variety of
stimuli. Cross-cultural and historical perspectives
on improvisation are introduced via listening
excerpts and recorded performances by previous
cohorts. Much of the module is based on
experiential learning. They have at their disposal a
free choice of musical instruments and voice, and
they may also use their own musical instruments.
Assessment components involve a weekly journal,
an essay chosen from a list of questions, and a
final performance. Group performances are video
recorded with their permission and the knowledge
that the recordings might be used as the subject of
academic study and benefit of future cohorts.

METHOD
In an earlier study, respondents were Malay
language
and
culture
specialists
where
respondents referred to themselves as musically
illiterate. The emergent term in this exploratory
study was non music specialist teachers
(Dairianathan 2003). In this study in 2005,
eighteen of the twenty-two participants were
physical education teachers, and their narratives
made for an equally compelling case study. As
with the earlier study group, none of them
possessed formal musical qualifications although
a number of them played music informally. Data
for this study was drawn from the following with
their permission:
1. Journal reflections that cover every week of
activity.
2. Excerpts from their written assignment that
deals directly with their experiences of the
module.

REFLECTIONS
The students’ written accounts correspond
favourably
with
Green’s
(2004:228-236)
articulation of ways in which musicians learn
through musics of popular culture, which are
tabulated below:
• Enculturation – “immersion in the music and
musical practices of one’s environment”
(2004:228)
• Listening and copying
• Playing with peers
• Acquiring technique

81

•

Informal acquisition of knowledge of
technicalities
• Understanding practising
• Coming to terms with “feel”
• Encountering friendship and cooperation
• Articulation of enjoyment
• Expressions, implicit or otherwise, of self
esteem
• Appreciation and respect for “other music”
The respondents were working with sources and
resources familiar to them such as basketballs,
hula hoops, lacrosse sticks and imputing value to
them as musical instruments. Without the anchor
of formal musical training, the students were more
likely to focus more on procedural, informal
extra-musical learning.
Pressing (1998) lists some of the demands
expected of the improviser:
Effect real-time sensory and perceptual coding,
optimal attention allocation, even interpretation,
decision-making, prediction (of actions of others),
memory, storage and recall, error correction and
movement control, and further must integrate these
processes into an optimally seamless set of musical
statements that reflect both a personal perspective
on musical organisation and a capacity to affect
listeners. Both speed and capacity constraints
apply (1998:51-52).

Despite these high expectations, their writings
reveal confidence and assuredness. Their
experiences suggest the activity of improvising
leading to performance was based on “much
consideration from planning to execution of
improvisation”; an exercise of thinking about as
well as engaging in improvisation.
Their engagement in this course has yielded
positive aspects of informal learning of which five
are given special attention:
First, improvisational ability can be improved in a
short space of time, even for those who have had
no formal musical training. In the words of one
respondent in the weekly journal:
I don’t know how to read musical notes in the first
place! However, that did not deter me from
improvising freely as we did in the
module…without the teacher’s intervention,
performers would try to “piece” their own form of
improvised music…This critical (mind the pun)
aspect of beginning improvisation allows
flexibility in performances as well as encourages
introverted performers to practice in a more
comfortable
and
non-threatening
environment…improvising as a group has taught
me to be more calm and confident about
performing…peer support is important in
helping…to cope with the anxiety of beginning
performances…I experienced first-hand, the
enjoyable processes of improvisation in music…I

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

find “improvisation” allows us to express
ourselves individually (even though it’s a group
performance) and helps us develop a more intimate
relationship with music. Above all, this module
has introduced the learning of “improvisation” in a
fun and unrestricted way.

Second, improvising activities of non-music
specialist teachers reveal considerable variety and
diversity of formal and informal resources.
Another respondent notes:
Improvisation requires the performers to be given
time to think about what they want to improvise
while using and…try[ing] out as many implements
[instruments] as possible to experience the various
sounds elicited… The class was always in engaged
in a challenging learning environment where we
were constantly striving to improvise not only on
given themes but also to improvise on our use of
[instruments]…Themes not necessarily single in
interpretation and expression gave room for a
greater degree of improvisation. One of the
features of this module was the flexibility of the
class to form their own groups for each
performance. I had the chance to explore
improvisation with different groups of people. I
was able to learn and adapt to each different group
and each time produce a different performance.

Third, non-music specialist teachers’ views of and
about music compare favourably with Blacking’s
(1995:224-225) views as observable process and
product of human intentional thought and action
and Schafer’s (1986:95) observation that all
sounds belong to a continuous field of possibilities
lying within the comprehensive dominion of
music.
A respondent noted:
Improvisation to me had always been just playing
“drums” on the tables in the canteen or trying to
noodle on the guitar. This module not only tested
our breadth in creativity, it also allowed us to
explore and discover the wonderful outcome of our
efforts
and
collective
creative
output.
Improvisation was a crucial factor in achieving this
experience. I managed to explore various musical
instruments by combining them and playing
differently on them. I was even encouraged to go
beyond the use of musical instruments and explore
the sounds created [by] using everyday objects.
The myriad [possibilities] of improvised music that
is readily available has given me new interest
towards improvisation. This time round I feel I
could make music in a more educated and
constructive sense.

Fourth, in a comparison of accomplished
practitioners and beginning participants (children)
in tshikona in the Venda tradition, Blacking
(1973:101-102) noted how both performances
may have been contrasting on the surface but
identical in substance. Similarly, abilities of
enabled improvisers in this study group may be in

stark contrast to those of professional musicians,
but the basic substantial processes remain the
same. In the words of a respondent:
Throughout our course, we were given the freedom
to interpret and express either a theme or free
improvisation…First we took on the roles as
improvisers during our lessons…we improved in
our performance or expression of a particular idea
because…we had grown to understand the
importance of improvisation as we discussed our
performances within our small groups…Secondly,
improvisation became important to me through this
module because I came to realize that to put up a
good performance required me to successfully
incorporate all the minor roles we were playing as
well as the instruments chosen into one beautiful
whole. Much consideration had to be placed into
harmonizing the sounds and making sure they
ended up sounding what we would like them
to…or think of alternative sounds, sound making
methods, or instruments. I learnt that an
improvised
piece
cannot
be
perfectly
repeated…even when we practised before the
performance there would still be differing
instances between those rehearsals and the final
display. Improvising has taught me to look at one
theme in many different ways…The module has
brought me to understand improvisation in broader
terms… I can also use it in my teaching career to
put variety in the activities held in the classroom.

Fifth, informal learning of musical improvisation
has empowered them towards self-enablement and
applying lessons learnt to relevant aspects of their
everyday lives. One respondent considers the
application of such lessons in her own Physical
Education environment:
I remember in a Physical Education teaching
session, I faced a problem during my lesson
activity with a class of Primary Three students. I
was short of one floor marker to carry out that
particular activity. I reacted on the spot by using
my clipboard. This course has brought me to
understand the meaning of improvisation in
broader term. I can also use it in my teaching
career to put variety in the activities held in the
classroom; I [can] look forward to applying the
skills and knowledge that I have learnt in this
module in my daily life as well as in my music
making exploration.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MUSIC
EDUCATION
Enabling physical education teachers in musical
improvisation confronts fundamental issues of the
teaching and learning of musical improvisation. If
musical techniques, concepts and instrumental
skills are accorded priority, how then has it been
possible for a group of non-music specialist
teachers to be enabled in musical improvisation
through informal learning processes? Berliners
study of jazz musicians (Weick 2001:299)

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

83

reminds us how newly minted graduates laden
with technique risk failure not because of their
lack of technique and training but because these
formally acquired skills and resources are not
enough to succeed in live ensemble situations.
Sorrell (1992) believes that a good improvising
musician is one “whose intuition, imagination and
inspiration enable[s] him or her to steer a course
between…the obligatory and the forbidden.”

Magrini, T. (1998). Improvisation and Group
Interaction in Italian Lyrical Singing. In B. Nettl (Ed.),
In The Course of Performance: Studies in the world of
musical improvisation (pp. 169-198). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press,.

REFERENCES

Nettl, B. (1998). (Ed.), In the Course of Performance:
Studies in the world of musical improvisation. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Berliner, P.F. (1994). Thinking in Jazz: the Infinite art
of Improvisation. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Blacking, J. (1973). How musical is man? Seattle:
University of Washington Press.
Blacking, J. (1995). Music, Culture & Experience:
Selected Papers (Reginald Byron, Ed.). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Dairianathan E. (2003). Improvisation for non-music
specialist teachers; an exploratory experience in the
teaching and learning of improvisation at tertiary level
in Singapore. In S. Leong, (Ed.), Musicianship in the
21st century: Issues, trends and possibilities (pp. 5168). Sydney: Australian Music Centre.
Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn: A way
ahead for music education. Aldershot, England,
Ashgate.
Green, L. (2004). What can Music Educators learn
from Popular Musicians? In C. X. Rodriquez (Ed.),
Bridging the gap: Popular music and music education
(pp. 224-241). Reston, VA: MENC, The National
Association for Music Education.
Leong, S. (Ed.) (2003). Musicianship in the 21st
century: Issues, trends and possibilities. Sydney,
Australia: Australian Music Centre.

Nettl, B. (1998) ‘An Art Neglected in Scholarship’, 126, in Nettl, B. (Ed.), In the Course of Performance:
Studies in the world of musical improvisation. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

ABSTRACT
Music curricula have become increasingly
systematised in universities where students may be
segregated into class groupings that do not
naturally support collaboration and project-based
learning. At the same time, the Internet has
enabled global social networking which has
proven to be a source of engagement for young
people and an effective enabler of revised
professional practices and artistic collaborations.
This paper examines a project that draws upon
these contexts to provide a web-based discussion
board for music technology students in an
Australian conservatoire. It is shown that the
blending of online and face-to-face activity
effectively provides a “hidden curriculum” in
which students communicate, reflect and
collaborate to build and sustain an a,uthentic
participatory learning culture.

KEYWORDS
blended learning, music technology, participatory
culture.

BACKGROUND
In recent times, personal computing and global
networks have enabled what has become known
as “Web 2.0” (O’Reilly, 2005). In sites such as
MySpace and YouTube, a participatory culture is
transforming value systems, undermining notions
of authority, and creating new pathways for
autonomous creativity and innovation. Young
people continue to define the information society
and, in turn, re-define the music industry online
(Reding, 2006). Professional success includes the
ability to network, function in, and move between
professional communities. It also entails knowing
how to recognise opportunity and act upon it
where “exchange in the market through networks
of creativity” (Frederiksen & Sedita, 2005; p. 28)
becomes the new business model.
In contrast, Western university ideology has been
consumed by massification and a preoccupation
with branding (Fitzgerald, 2007). Institutions have
sought to control web sites as marketing tools
while e-learning systems format-shift, scale and
distribute
pedagogical
models
to
ISBN 9780980456028

compartmentalise
students’
educational
opportunities, that is, degree programs are divided
into year level and course codes, both on-line and
off, by school-like timetables and class groupings.
In university music education, students may be
separated from the rest of the cohort and the
ambiance of social and intellectual communities
(Smith, MacGregor, Matthews & Gabelnick,
2004) where complex tensions remain amid the
demands of conformity, attitudes about artistic
standards, notions of literacy, and the changing
professional workspace.

RESEARCH LOCATION
This project is set within a music technology
undergraduate program of an Australian
university-based conservatoire. In such a small
cohort of N=65 students, the expectation was that
students would naturally communicate and
collaborate as is appropriate to the discipline.
However, increasingly concerned academic
discussion and subsequent student program
evaluations revealed that:
• students remained separated into yearly
groupings;
• networking was viewed as unimportant;
• cliques of smaller groups persisted;
• learning transfer was poor across classes/year
levels;
• little cross-year communication or interaction
occurred.
Craft development was problematic, and many
appeared out of touch with working contexts and
key competencies. Students tended to maintain
outmoded ideas of just what music professionals
do and how they make a living. Inexperience,
together with the folklore of the trade magazines
and mass media control continues to assert this
(Lessig, 2004). Similarly, older or time-poor
faculty staff may remain disconnected from
contemporary, perhaps puzzling, new online viral
practices (Jenkins, 2007).

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

information and communication technology (ICT)
infrastructure and face-to-face opportunities
aiming to enhance the development of disciplinary
craft, to clarify professional contexts, and to
enable a new “hidden curriculum” across the
entire learning ecology. This student cohort
comprises composers and musicians who have
chosen the recording studio as their major study
“instrument” and who by nature are relatively
comfortable with ICT and so, provide an
appropriate platform from which to investigate
this blended approach. They also naturally provide
a conduit for collaboration across other musical
departments and arts faculties.
This paper will report on the framework and
outcomes related to one particular blended
learning instrument: the Mutech Discussion Board
(MDB) (2007). This instrument is based on
modified open source software (Phpbb2, 2007)
and positioned as an essential communication and
collaboration “glue” between the other learning
activities.

METHOD
Since 2004, the music technology curriculum has
been the subject of research, analysis, and
publication: in cross-year teams utilised for key
production events (Draper, 2005); a cohort-wide
face-to-face Mutech Forum provides opportunities
to share practice-based strategies (Carey, Draper,
Lebler & McWilliam, 2006); work-integrated
learning pathways have been enabled both on
campus and in the field (Draper & Hitchcock,
2006); and an Internet publication vehicle has
been enabled in the RadioIMERSD project
(Draper, 2007).
As a core blended learning component, the MDB
therefore shares in analyses that have taken place
across the area as part of an ongoing action
research project. Over four years, data have been
collected through student surveys, interviews,
course evaluations, and faculty workshops; and
the relevant summaries are presented below. This
paper focuses on revealing the impacts of the
MDB on promoting social networking, critique
and reflection, professional competencies, and
overall disciplinary memory.

RESULTS
Students and faculty staff have come to claim the
MDB as their own and argue that it is not the poor
imitator of the face-to-face experience when used
in a blended environment. They believe that
“online” is a different space where participants
display different personalities, where students
develop a deeper understanding of their cohort,
and where 70% of participants said they had
misjudged peers on face value but subsequently

made solid relationships
community interactions.

helped

by

online

Changed Perceptions
Interview data and exit surveys reveal that
students change their perceptions of others they
know in person because of discussion board
interactions. For example:
You start to form ideas about people and you start
to form ideas about how you learn, who you want
to learn with and who’s going to help you best….a
lot of that was based on discussion board identity
as well as through class-work and recording studio
projects.
A lot of people were different on the discussion
board than they are in person…it helped me to
gain a broader perception of some people…some
people might be really shy but on the discussion
board they actually talk and you get to see a
different side of them.

Many students comment on the cohesion they feel
between the face-to-face and online elements
where topics are discussed in both arenas:
As much as we talked about things on the
discussion board, we talked about it face to face
too. You’re trying to get it on the discussion board,
but when you actually come to uni and you talk
about it, it created a subject to talk about and I
think that’s something we all valued.
“That’s the weird thing for the first years
[freshers], although we see each other in
classes…it’s almost equal [time spent] between
class, seeing each other personally and talking on
the discussion board.

In attempting to explain differences between faceto-face and online, one student said
There is replication, but while there are little
groups within the class that tend to physically
study together, on the discussion board, you can
ask anyone…I think it’s a bit more homogenous
outside the class”.

The Value of the Individual
Web 2.0 literature posits that, in the new
workplace, hierarchies are being flattened and
value is now created less within vertical silos and
more through horizontal collaboration (Friedman,
2005). This has also been the experience of
students who were reporting that the predominant
source of cross-year interactions were in the
online environment; and while they recognised
their own year group as the strongest unit, they
also now felt part of a larger community. One
student commented, “It helps stop you feeling like
you are working in a vacuum,” while others said
that it provided “a sense of self-standing in the
community.”
Data reveal a strong equalisation between learning
community participants. Online, participants stand

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

on their displayed merits rather than on somewhat
artificial boundaries imposed by the segregation
of year rankings. For example, one first year
student came to the degree with a good level of
prior experience and, through the MBD, quickly
became a valued member of cross-year teams.
Students refer to these interactions as "working
with a group of friends” in an apprenticeship-like
environment where mature students now
recognise that each year’s new intake brings fresh
perspectives while also providing eager and
grateful recipients of older students’ more
developed experience and knowledge. A final year
student commented:
[It] introduced me to students that I may have
never otherwise worked with…I collaborated with
them in projects based on the opinions and
information they had given on the discussion
board”

First year students comment on the same
phenomena:
It revealed that [later] years are doing the same
thing but more advanced. You know, I’m building
on their blocks of what they’ve learnt in first year.
The quieter people and the loud people have equal
place in the discussion board. Some people hardly
talk at all [in class] but on the discussion board
they’ll write impressive posts about what they
think…it was really good in that sense…because
then you’d actually hear what their ideas were, so,
I think I certainly got to know the quieter people
that way”.

Collective Intelligence
There is a growing sense of value placed on
networking, collaboratively-formed constructions
of knowledge, and the idea of ”the wisdom of
crowds” (Surowiecki, 2004). In an educational
context, this can be equated to a sense of freedom
where the act of sharing presumes a sense of
ownership of knowledge and some degree of pride
that accompanies the desire to share, to speak up,
and to participate. Student feedback includes,
You learn better as a group. It was more a
discussion of how and why and what and where
instead of just learning the answer”.
What you’re thinking is just one train of thought,
another ten people could have ten different trains
of thought. You don’t get that in class.

Student Evaluation Summary
45 students responded to the last survey in 2007,
the majority believing that MDB now provides:
• immediate access to the music technology
community affording a feeling of meeting a
lot of new people in a short amount of time
(90%);
• an essential off-campus access point to
university – students perceive such access as

87

distinct from materials such as online texts or
lectures where peer networking and
engagement is important to them (95%);
• a tool for reference, learning, research, and
discussion to support face-to-face projects and
practices (70%);
• enhanced opportunities for self-reflection (and
were often surprised at these outcomes)
(75%);
• raised confidence due to community
interactions (80%);
• promotion of collaboration and critical
thought (70%);
• academic support, but freedom vs. instruction
(75%).
The MBD possesses integrated metrics tools that
show that, over the four years of operation, the
most highly ranked and engaged discussion
themes included:
• social networking and bonding;
• technical hints, tips, and information;
• creativity and perspectives of the creative
process;
• business, marketing, and publication;
• qualitative judgements where there may be no
‘right’ answer, simply differing approaches
and contexts.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
In conventional communities, history and working
knowledge tends to remain dispersed across the
memories of community members. Accessing this
knowledge requires interacting with and
integrating information from multiple, sometimes
conflicting, sources – in the case of university
teaching, increasingly delivered from the “sage on
the stage” (or distance education system) to
student receptors of instruction and targets for
grading.
In a community with a significant online presence,
however, evolutionary history and sociallyconstructed knowledge can be stored and
processed to facilitate purposeful browsing and
searching. This history is recorded as the practice
takes place and so maintains a holistic picture of
the community in real time. As a result, engaging
in this living historical record makes it easier for
newcomers to blend into the community and
participate in its practice.
In this music technology project, such
enculturation has proven to be an asset for
students and staff alike. The MDB not only
provides for institutional and disciplinary
memory, but it supports the development of
authentic learning together with significant
personal and professional competencies. Thus,
this participatory culture functions as a powerful

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

“hidden curriculum” (Jenkins, 2007) that the
authors believe will shape just which graduates
will succeed and be able to integrate within new
knowledge economies.

Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history
of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus &
Giroux.
Jenkins, H. (2007). Confronting the challenges of
participatory culture: Media education for the 21st
century. An occasional paper on digital media and
learning. Chicago, Ill.: The MacArthur Foundation.
Lessig, L. (2004). Free culture: How big media uses
technology and the law to lock down culture and
control creativity. New York: Penguin Press.
Mutech Discussion Board. (2007). A moderated
electronic forum for music technology students, staff
and alumni. [verified 16 June 2007]
www29.griffith.edu.au/discussions
O’Reilly, T. (2005). What Is Web 2.0 : Design patterns
and business models for the next generation of
software. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media.
Phpbb2. (2007). The Mutech Discussion Board is
based on freely available open source software,
phpbb2. [verified 16 August 2007] www.phpbb.com
Reding, V. (2006). The disruptive force of Web 2.0:
How the new generation will define the future. Speech
presented at the Youth Forum, ITU Telecom World
Hong Kong, China, 3 December 2006.
Smith, B. L., MacGregor, J., Matthews, R. &
Gabelnick, F. (2004). Learning communities:
reforming undergraduate education (1st Ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds: Why the
many are smarter than the few and how collective
wisdom shapes business, economies, societies and
nations. New York: Doubleday.

The Secret Life of Instruments: Musical
Practice and Actor-Network-Theory
Marc Duby
Department of Music and Musicology, Rhodes University
Grahamstown, South Africa
m.duby@ru.ac.za

ABSTRACT
Actor-network-theory (ANT), as theorized by
Bruno Latour (2005), raises some fascinating
questions about performers and their relationship
to the instruments they play. Latour's "third
uncertainty," which he states as "Objects too have
Agency," considers everyday objects as
participating in social networks, one of ANT's
central concerns. In this paper I consider how and
to what extent musical instruments themselves can
be construed as participants in musical activity,
examining notions of the athletic musician, Ted
Gioia's (1998) ideas about the inherent
characteristics of musical instruments, as well as
Tia DeNora's (2000) descriptions of the place of
music in everyday life and Umberto Eco's (2000)
thinking about the prosthetic qualities of objects.
The implication of these concepts for music
education is that, far from being merely inert
material objects, musical instruments can be seen
as partners ("actors," in Latour's terms) in musicmaking considered as social practice. If musical
instruments are considered in this way, and not
simply as technological adjuncts to the "more
authentic" reality of musical practice, a different
view of the partnership between performer and
instrument may begin to emerge.

LATOUR'S THIRD UNCERTAINTY
In their study, sociologists consider, for the most
part, an object-less social world, even though in
their daily routine they, like all of us, might be
constantly puzzled by the constant companionship,
the continuous intimacy, the inveterate contiguity,
the passionate affairs, the convoluted attachments
of primates with objects for the past one million
years. (Latour, 2005, p. 82-3)

Although he began his career as a student of
philosophy and anthropology, Bruno Latour
(1947-) is probably best known for his
contribution to the fields of science and
technology studies, ranging from his work on the
scientific method to studies on Pasteur and his
later theoretical writings on the sociology of
science.
Latour's third uncertainty (2005) is concerned
with his view of sociology as abandoning the
physical world to the natural sciences and its
ISBN 9780980456028

gradual retreat into an increasingly abstract realm
of generalized terms like "meaning," "symbol,"
"intention," and "language"; his sociology of
associations aims to reclaim for the discipline
territory previously ceded to the natural sciences
by acknowledging the influence of objects. It
seems a natural step to include musical
instruments in the class of objects for reclamation
by philosophers and sociologists of music, and as
Latour (2005) states:
For sociologists of associations, what is new is not
the multiplicity of objects any course of action
mobilizes along its trail窶馬o one ever denied they
were there by the thousands; what is new is that
objects are suddenly highlighted not only as being
full-blown actors, but also as what explains the
contrasted landscape we start with, the overarching powers of society, the huge asymmetries,
the crushing exercise of power. (p. 72)

With regard to the conventions of orchestration,
one speaks of desks and double basses, for
example, rather than mentioning the players by
name, as in the case of soloists in Western art
music or in the sometimes regular, sometimes
spontaneous, collections of individuals who make
up ensembles in jazz or improvised music. In such
cases, these soloists may well bring to a given
recording the inherited cachet of fame derived
from other performances, whether live or in the
context of the recording studio. Names, after all,
are significant factors for marketing purposes, and
musicians build niche areas for themselves in the
marketplace according to their reputations, based
on popularity and their quality or volume of
output.
Whether or not instruments are wielded by
household names or the relatively anonymous
members of an orchestral section, the question
remains: How is it that an instrument can be said
to become a "full-blown" actor?
For musicians, interaction with the realm of
objects begins with their chosen instrument, and
may include a number of subsidiary
accoutrements,
including
music
stands,
metronomes, literature for practising, appropriate
clothing (dress suits or evening gowns), and some
form of transport to allow them access to
Copyright ﾂｩ 2008 ISME

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

employment opportunities. This description is not
intended to exclude singers from the class of
musicians, but it is true to say that singers do not
interact with instruments made of metal, wood, or
ivory in performing. It is noteworthy perhaps to
consider how singers sometimes describe their
voices as instrumental terms, as in: "He or she is
possessed of a fine instrument."
In considering musical performance as an athletic
activity, the tools of the trade (musical
instruments as actors) may indeed affect
performers negatively. As Flohr and Hodges
(2006) suggest: "Musical performance activates
motor control areas in the brain to such a high
degree that musicians may be considered smallmuscle athletes" (p. 16). Sadly, the negative
effects of such athleticism are demonstrated in a
wide range of career-limiting injuries, and
musicians manifest injury patterns consistent with
the repetitive physical actions of practising and
performance (Paull & Harrison, 1997). In this
context, instruments may be said to act in negative
fashion on the bodies of performers.

THE INSTRUMENT AS EXTENSION OF
THE PERFORMER
Gioia (1998) approaches the relationship between
instrument and performer from the perspective of
jazz improvisation. In discussing the vibraphonist
Cal Tjader's playing style, Gioia states:
The vibraphone invites overplaying almost by its
very nature. The trumpet, by comparison, is at the
opposite extreme: The visceral feeling of
producing the tone is part and parcel of playing it.
Each note counts. Moreover, horn1 playing
inculcates a natural instinct for restrained phrasing,
if only because of the player's need to catch a
breath of air. (p. 103)

For Gioia (1998), the expressive qualities of
musical instruments are inherent in their physical
construction. This is true to a certain extent, but
unfortunately, for every exemplar of restraint (he
makes reference to the trumpet styles of Miles
Davis and Bix Beiderbecke), there are the
counter-examples of such bravura exemplars of
machismo playing as Dizzy Gillespie, Maynard
Ferguson, Arturo Sandoval, and many others,
whose technical ability sometimes comes to the
fore to the detriment of purely melodic concerns.
Gioia's (1998) suggestion, that the instruments he
mentions have characteristic properties affecting
how they are played, falls into the trap of
ascribing
inherent
qualities
(qualia,
in
In jazz parlance, the term "horn" refers to blown
instruments (trumpets, trombones, and saxophones) as
opposed to its Western European art music usage as a
shorthand for the French horn.

1

philosophical terms) to inanimate objects. There is
nothing in the attributes of the vibraphone or the
trumpet itself that allows for such a
generalization, and Gioia appears to be
considering the innate qualities of the instruments
he mentions as separate from the performers who
cause them to produce sound. In this sense, Gioia
seems to be considering instruments as "pure"
objects, not as part of an intimate and ongoing
relationship (or network) between performers and
their chosen instruments.

INSTRUMENTS AS PROSTHESES
DeNora (2000) examines the role of background
music in a variety of everyday contexts, such as
aerobics classes, neonatal units in hospitals, and
the workplace in general. Such everyday
situations are naturally quite different from the
more formal settings of the concert hall or the
recording studio. In the course of this discussion,
she considers amplification systems as examples
of "prosthetic" technologies, in so far as they
enhance the capacities of the human voices:
Prosthetic technologies are materials that extend
what the body can doâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;for example, steam
shovels, stilts, microscopes or amplification
systems enhance and transform the capacities of
arms, legs, eyes and voices. Through the creation
and use of such technologies actors (bodies) are
enabled and empowered, their capacities are
enhanced. (p. 102)

DeNora (2000) considers how musical activity
(whether through direct participation or listening)
facilitates daily tasks in disparate contexts such as
grass cutting in Ghana, weaving in the Hebrides,
and the tradition of sea shanties, many of which
are typified by the organizing principle of solo
and chorus. This principle also underpins and
animates such American musical practices as the
work song, in which demanding physical tasks are
accompanied by similar patterns of call and
response.
Broadly speaking, DeNora (2000) is considering
in this instance the ways in which music may be
said to enhance everyday activity by linking
physical responses to the varieties of music that
accompany them. Her interests in this discussion
may be seen as concerned with how people
interact with music as consumers. For the sake of
argument, extending the concept of prosthesis into
musical activity itself may form a useful starting
point for theorizing about the ways in which
musicians negotiate acoustic (as well as social and
political) space. It is suggested that in this instance
musical
instruments,
conductors'
batons,
microphones, scores, and amplification systems
may all be considered as prostheses, which line of
argument places the emphasis on the creation and

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

production of music as opposed to its
consumption.
Eco (2000) distinguishes between three different
types of prosthesis, categorized as substitutive,
extensive, and magnifying. Substitutive and
extensive prostheses are differentiated on the basis
that the first category does "what the body used to
do but for one accidental reason or another no
longer does," examples of which include artificial
limbs, walking sticks, eyeglasses, and hearing
aids. His category of extensive prostheses, those
"which extend the natural action of the body,"
includes such devices as megaphones, stilts, and
magnifying glasses. He also conceives of a third
category of magnifying prostheses such as levers,
telescopes, and microscopes, those that "do
something that our body had perhaps dreamed of
doing but without ever succeeding" (p. 362).
DeNora's (2000) view of background music as a
prosthetic technology considers such music as
extensive, in so far as it enhances human
capacities in everyday circumstances.
Considering a musical instrument as prosthetic
raises two related questions: into which of Eco's
(2000) categories does it fall, and, perhaps more
importantly, for what activity of the body does a
musical instrument function prosthetically?
To answer the first question, one might suggest
that instruments are not substitutive, in that they
do not obviously seem to make up for something
lost or missing, and, as tempting as it may be to
construe musical instruments and their attendant
technologies as magnifying (notwithstanding
adolescent fantasies of stardom and the high
volume levels of many rock concerts), they are
perhaps best seen (as DeNora's concept of music
itself suggests) as extensive. Musical instruments
as extensive prostheses (including the voice)
transform physical capabilities and enable
musicians to communicate something significant
about the human condition through musical
performance. In any case, musical instruments are
more than mere tools of the trade, as the music
thereby created contains the positive attribute of
enhancing the quality of everyday life.
As for the second question, the most immediate
answer seems to be that instruments act as
extensions of the activity of singing. If one were
to imagine an alternative history of civilization in
which the technology for inventing musical
instruments had not developed, the only remaining
musical resources for humankind to create music
would be drumming and the human voice itself.

CONCLUSION
Latour's ambitious aim, that of restoring objects to
equal partnership in the sociology of associations,

91

seems to have definite implications for the
philosophy of musical performance. Regarding
musical instruments as actors views them as equal
partners in networks of musical activity.
Viewing instruments as inert objects with inherent
timbral or physical qualia seems to be Gioia's
(1998) line of argument, and therefore he draws a
clear distinction between musician and
instrument, or subject and object, which ANT
seems very concerned to problematize. DeNora
(2000) emphasizes the place of music in everyday
contexts, and considers it a vital means of
enhancing routine physical activities. In her view,
amplification systems enhance the capacity of the
human voice to reach audiences, and so can be
construed in Eco's (2000) terms as extensive
prostheses, those that extend the natural action of
the human body.
While the negative effects of physical injury
through unnatural bodily activity suggest that
musicians can be construed as a highly specialized
class of athletes, subject to the risks inherent in
any athletic activity, it is also true that instruments
contribute to the positive and life-affirming
purpose of musical practice. While it is true that
musicians mould their bodies to accommodate
their chosen instruments, it holds that this
partnership works in the opposite direction, and
that instruments are the secret actors in the
musician's manifestation of identity in the course
of performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks go to Professor Caroline van Niekerk
for her comments on initial drafts of this material.
Professor Wendy Sims provided gracious support
throughout the process of getting the article to
press. I am especially grateful to Professor
Christopher Johnson for his thoughtful critical
suggestions and mentorship. Finally my thanks go
to the Research Office of Rhodes University for
financial support.

IN MEMORIAM
This paper is written in memory of Jan Carel
"John" Fourie (1937-2007).

Music for Children and Young People:
Intersections of Kabalevsky’s
Compositions and Practice
David Forrest
School of Education, RMIT
Melbourne, Australia
david.forrest@rmit.edu.au

ABSTRACT
This paper reports on ongoing research related to
the music of Kabalevsky and, in particular, his
music for children. This interdisciplinary study
connects the work in education, pedagogy,
practice of teaching, musicology and the
philosophy of music. The paper commences with a
presentation of the philosophical underpinnings of
Kabalevsky’s music, then a discussion of the
collections of smaller works for piano as an
introduction to the larger forms identified by
Kabalevsky as Music for Children and Young
People. These works form a bridge from the
elementary experiences in learning music through
to the performance of the concert repertoire.

KEYWORDS
Kabalevsky,
children.

piano,

instrumental

education,

INTRODUCTION
Under the conference theme of “Music at all
ages,” this paper focuses on the two
complementary areas of “Music for children” and
“Music for young people.” The work is situated
under the conference strands primarily of
“Instrumental and Vocal Teaching and Learning,”
particularly “Music in Studios (Instrumental),”
with a secondary strand of “Teaching, Learning
and
Enculturation”
concerning
teaching
approaches. This paper focuses on the piano
works published by Kabalevsky under the
collective title of Music for Children and Young
People. In particular, the paper will provide an
overview of the larger works for children and
young people.
This paper reports on ongoing research related to
the music of Kabalevsky and, in particular, his
music for children. The study is interdisciplinary
in that it connects the work in education,
pedagogy, practice of teaching, musicology and
the philosophy of music. The paper commences
with a presentation of the philosophical
underpinnings of the music, then a discussion of
the collections of smaller works for piano to
introduce the larger forms identified by
ISBN 9780980456028

Kabalevsky as Music for Children and Young
People.

PHILOSOPHY
Central to Kabalevsky’s compositional and
educational approach was the view that music
could be heard, explored, discussed and
understood under what he called the “three
whales.” His whales were the three basic forms of
the song, the dance and the march. Much of his
music can be seen through the lens of the three
whales; and in his discussions, they provide a way
of viewing larger works of music. He said they
“the bridges along which we can enter the large
world of music….Just cross these three little
bridges to enter into the world of…music and see
where these bridges lead on to” (Kabalevsky,
1965). He was careful to say that “despite the
important and large part the song, dance and
march play, music itself must not be limited to
these three forms” (Kabalevsky, 1972, p. 104). He
had alerted the reader to this much earlier in the
book when he said:
And of course, one who limits his acquaintance
with music only to the song, dance and march, will
be similar to a person who has slightly opened a
splendid railing of a gate, leading into a wonderful
fairytale garden, but not making a step further into
it during all of one’s life, and so not knowing what
there is further on in this garden and why people,
who have visited the depths of the garden, and
others who are trying to enter it, talk about its
wonders with such ecstasy and delight. This can be
compared to leaving the theatre after the prologue
of a play, closing a book after the first chapter. By
not rising to the heights we do not develop.
(Kabalevsky, 1972, p. 33)

He concluded the recorded Talks with a return to
the question “What does music tell us?” He
reiterated the large part that the song, the dance,
and the march played in music and then said, “I
wanted to show you that the song, dance and
march are bridges upon which it is easy to enter
into other spheres of music including opera,
symphony, oratorio - to go into the whole rich
musical world”. (Kabalevsky, 1965)

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

PIANO MUSIC FOR CHILDREN AND
YOUNG PEOPLE
Kabalevsky brought together his piano music for
the young in the twelve-volume collection
published under the title Piano Music for Children
and Young People. This collection was published
in Moscow by Sovetsky Kompozitor between
1971 and 1987 under the composer’s supervision.
This collection was assembled from his total
published output for the piano spanning the period
from 1927 to 1972.
As discussed in previous work (Forrest, 1996,
1999, 2004), so many of the smaller works were
designed with a single intent. Aside from the
overriding form of the song, dance or march,
Kabalevsky built in a defined technical or musical
element that was central to the piece and then
pursued this as a secondary intent in later pieces.
Within the tight (and often restricted) structures of
the small work, Kabalevsky encapsulated the
germ of the character and intent of the larger
musical structures. These works provide an
effective introduction to some of the standard (and
expanded) forms in the repertoire including the
rondo, variation, toccata, prelude and fugue,
sonatina and concerto.
Across the works, we not only see the
development of the structure, but we also see the
expansion of the expectation and capabilities of
the young pianist. As the works expand so does
the duration and expectations placed on the
capability of the pianist. They provide an
extended experience in preparation and carriage of
the larger concert works.
Kabalevsky was explicit in his application of the
three whales within the collections of elementary
piano music. The three collections include Thirty
Children’s Pieces Op. 27 (1938), Twenty-Four
Easy Pieces Op. 39 (1943), and Thirty-Five Easy
Pieces Op. 89 (1972). Within these pedagogical
and musical miniatures, we see the use of the
three whales not only in the titles and directions
but also within the character of the music. Of the
89 pieces that comprise the three collections, only
10 pieces are either identified as a toccata or with
a programmatic title that does not directly relate
the song, dance or march.
In the 1971 Preface to Volume 8 of Piano Music
for Children and Young People, Kabalevsky
(1971) described the more difficult works as being
“intended mainly for senior pupils of secondary
music schools and for junior students of music
colleges” (p. iii). He reinforced the view that in
order to play the works “one must possess
sufficient technical skill and, what is still more

important,
considerable
artistic
maturity”
(Kabalevsky, 1971, p. iii).
Crossing the structural and developmental divide
are the works that follow a programmatic or
directive title that give a clear direction to the
intent and character of the piece. It is not only
within the individual pieces but also within the
relationship of the pieces to the [comrades] within
the set. Kabalevsky was careful in his choice of
titles for his collections, as with the individual
titles of pieces. The works include From Pioneer
Life Op. 14 (1931), Preludes and Fugues Op. 61,
Spring Games and Dances Op. 81 (1965), In the
Pioneer Camp Op. 3/86 (1968), Lyric Tunes Op.
91 (1972), and Six Pieces Op. 88 (1971). While the
pianist is informed by the title and performing
directive, an overriding directive comes when there
is a reflection on the relationship of the piece to the
song, the dance and the march.
It is in the sets of variations and rondos that we
see Kabalevsky extending the pianist from the
single section structure that predominates in the
elementary sets. The two easy sets: Easy
Variations Op. 40 (1944), and Easy Variations on
Folk Themes Op. 51 (1952) provide a line through
to the technical and musically challenging
Variations on Folk Themes Op. 87 (1966-1969).
With each of the sets it is as though the pianist is
playing consecutive sets of pieces from the
elementary collections. The numerous sets of
Variations follow the normal pattern of a theme
and subsequent variations. The theme is either an
existing folk-song or a familiar song that students
would be acquainted with. The subsequent
variations explore a range of tonal, harmonic,
rhythmic and melodic developments. At all times
an overriding structure can be perceived within
the whole composition.
The trajectory of the progression of ideas/forms is
evident in Kabalevsky’s use of the rondo. Like the
variations, the form of the rondo is clearly
articulated, with the main theme and episodes well
defined. The form of the rondo is introduced within
the elementary sets by name (Op. 27 No. 11) and is
expanded in the Four Rondos Op. 60 (1958),
Three Rondos from the Opera “Colas Breugnon”
Op. 30 (1969), and Recitative and Rondo Op. 84
(1967). The form is further expanded in the
virtuoso Rondo in A minor Op. 59 (1959) written
for the first International Piano Competition in
Moscow. In the Op. 30 and Op. 60 collections, the
three genres are clearly evident from the titles. In
the Three Rondos from the opera “Colas
Breugnon”, Kabalevsky uses each of the three
genres as the basis of the separate rondos. The
three Op. 30 rondos are Grape-Gatherer’s Song,
Folk Dance, and March. The four Op. 60 rondos

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

again use the song, dance and march with the
addition of the toccata.
In Kabalevsky’s use of the framework of the
Prelude can be seen a progression from the simple
to the complex employment of the form. By its
very nature, the prelude provides a vast array of
structural and musical flexibility. The progression
from the little prelude Op. 39 No. 19 through to
the Prelude Op. 1, and the challenging sets of
preludes Four Preludes Op. 5, Four Preludes Op.
20, to the Twenty-Four Preludes Op. 38. The six
Preludes and Fugues Op. 61 (1959) provide a
programmatic introduction to the structure of the
prelude/toccata and fugue. The programmatic
titles include: A Summer Morning on the Lawn,
Becoming a Young Pioneer, An Evening Song
Beyond the River, At the Young Pioneer Camp,
The Story of a Hero, and A Feast of Labour. The
programs and titles are not always included in
some editions of the work.
The Two Sonatinas Op. 13 (1930, 1933) remain
some of Kabalevsky’s most recognised and
performed works. They bridge the divide between
the music for young people and the preparation
for concert performance and repertoire. The
sonatina was most developed of the forms
Kabalevsky employed for young pianists. The
composer provides a glimpse of his use of the
form in the single movement Sonatina Op. 27 No.
17. Both Op. 13 works are in three movements
and prepare the young pianist for the carriage of
an extended, multi-movement work. They provide
a clear insight into the composer’s use of sonata
form, and act as an introduction to his
explorations of sonata form in Sonata No. 1 Op. 6
(1927), Sonata No. 2 Op. 45 (1945), and Sonata
No. 3 Op. 46 (1946).
The final work within the Music for Children and
Young People is the Piano Concerto No. 3
“Youth” in D Op. 50 (1952). This works is the
third of his “youth” concertos written at this time:
Violin Concerto in C major Op. 48 and Cello
Concerto No.1 in G minor Op. 49. The third
concerto along with the Rhapsody on the theme of
the song “School Years” for piano and orchestra
Op. 75 (1963), and the Piano Concerto “Prague”
Op. 99 (1978) provide significant grounding to
lead his earlier explorations of the genre: Piano
Concerto No. 1 Op. 9, and Piano Concerto No. 2
Op. 23, as well as other works in the repertoire.

CONCLUSION
The piano works provide both an invitation and
facility for the young pianist to be introduced,

95

prepared and ready to approach the larger forms
within the repertoire. The young pianist is enabled
and empowered to venture into the concert works.
Within the music for children Kabalevsky was
aware that, as a composer, he not only had a
musical role but an educative one as well. It was
his ability to combine the two that resulted in the
collections of music for young people. As an
educator, he was aware that music theory would
have to be introduced to students. On the
introduction of music theory and rudiments,
Kabalevsky (1988) stated that it “should not be
introduced until the children have had experience
in listening to music and performing it” (p. 34).
He was of the belief that it should not be
introduced until it was necessary and could be
applied. Throughout his compositions there is the
gradual introduction of musical knowledge and it
is as if each piece in a collection builds on the
ones that precede it. As with his three whales, he
provides the young pianist with bridges to move
from the pedagogical character pieces through to
the concert repertoire.

ABSTRACT
This paper represents an autoethnographic
approach to interrogating the value of scholarship
in the Master of Music in Jazz Studies. Following
Elliott’s (1995) call for systematic inquiry into the
nature of music education and grounded in
Schön’s (1983) definition of practicum, this article
explores the relationship between scholarship and
musicianship. The aim of the ongoing study is to
examine the individual and collective experiences
and beliefs that guide the authors’ approach to
teaching the practice of music scholarship; this
particular article focuses on their own
perspectives of the meaning and value of
scholarship for jazz performance majors. The
authors, a jazz scholar and a music education
scholar, use writing as their method of inquiry
(Richardson, 2000) and construct dialogues from
conversations, email messages, and personal
reflections in the manner suggested by Ellis
(2004). This autoethnographic inquiry was
prompted by a lack of a clear rationale—both
inside and outside the music education
literature—for the role of master’s level
scholarship in music performance programs. It
uncovers and unravels the authors’ beliefs that
support and justify their teaching practice. Noted
are the cultural changes that a student makes
between practicing music and practicing
scholarship (Labaree, 2003). Included is
discourse that questions the value of a music
research practice for a performing jazz musician.
A difference in the authors’ perspectives on the
relationship
between
scholarship
and
musicianship is revealed. Fine distinctions are
made that conclude that formal musical
knowledge may not be an essential part of
musicianship but can significantly enhance it. The
study confirms the deep connection between the
authors’ personal values and their practice and
teaching of scholarship. They realized how their
hyphenated identities (as performer-scholar and
as musician-educator-scholar) informed their
personal philosophies that in turn informed their
ISBN 9780980456028

methodology and teaching practice. One
implication for music educators is that there is
great value in knowing yourself and your
colleagues. Additionally, the lack of a clear global
rationale for a master’s degree program in music
performance that includes the development of a
scholarly practice leaves a philosophical and
theoretical void that begs serious systematic
thought on the part of the profession. The authors’
discourse is ongoing; they plan to continue the
study by exploring their students’ perspectives,
and the intersection of these perspectives with
their own beliefs and realities.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

This study (which is ongoing) has prompted us to
examine the individual and collective experiences
and beliefs that guide our approach to teaching the
practice of music scholarship. This particular
paper is about our own perspectives of the
meaning and value of scholarship for jazz
performance majors. Our search is prompted by
Elliott’s (1995) claim that “determining the nature
of music education requires systematic thinking”
(p. 4), and his questions: “[I]f music education is a
‘good thing,’ who and what is it good for? And
what exactly are the ‘goods’?” (p. 4).
We have chosen writing as our method of inquiry
(Richardson, 2000). Like Richardson, we consider
writing to be “a way of finding out about yourself
and your topic . . . not just a mopping-up activity
at the end of a research project” (p. 923). Our
specific
representational
method
is
autoethnography, “an autobiographical genre of
writing and research that displays multiple layers
of consciousness, connecting the personal to the
cultural (Ellis & Bochner, 2000, p. 739). Our data
were collected from conversations, email
messages, and personal reflections (journals and
responses to readings). The exchanges that follow
represent these ethnographic details in the manner
suggested by Ellis (2004).

Prologue
Tim turns the corner and walks down the dimly lit
cinderblock hallway past the practice rooms just
as Carol opens her office door.
Carol speaks as he walks by: Hey, Tim!
Tim turns. “Oh, Hi, Carol. How's it going?”
“Pretty good,” answers Carol, “but the end of the
semester's coming, and I'm ‘up to here’ (waves
right hand over head, indicating drowning) in
theses—jazz theses—if you know what I mean.”
Tim laughs. “Me too—trying to strike a balance
between giving our students enough information
and letting them find their own way.”
Carol nods and answers: “I understand
completely. By the way, I've been reading the
comments you send your advisees about their
drafts, and I think between the two of us we're
helping students write some really good papers.”
Tim nods his agreement. “I think some of them
have the potential to make a real contribution to
jazz scholarship. But what’s most interesting to
me is I don’t think that they could have done this
work as well if they weren’t players that
understood the music first from the inside.”

RATIONALES FOR MASTER’S LEVEL
SCHOLARSHIP IN MUSIC
According to the National Association of Schools
of Music (2006), decisions about the “intent,

content, methodology, and product” of U.S.
graduate degree programs “shape the ways that
creativity, inquiry, and investigation” will teach
students to do the work of musicians (p. 113).
When the M.M. degree in Jazz Performance was
created at our university, the music department
chair contended that “a masters isn't just about
learning to play ‘Giant Steps’ that much faster
than a B.M. student, it's about the history and
background that went into that, all of the cultural
connections” (Demsey, 2007). While our
departmental rationale is clear, the literature
outside music education contains few descriptions
of or rationales for teaching master’s level music
scholarship beyond NASM’s policy document.
Our reading of the music education literature
confirms that clarification for this question is
needed. For instance, Dorfman and Lipscomb
(2005) suggest that for graduate music education
students, “applied instrument and voice studies,
conducting, and pedagogical studies . . . hold a
more clearly defined role than does the research
component” (¶1). Results of their survey of
summer graduate students from high-level music
education programs indicate that even when
students value scholarly learning in their degrees,
they may “view research as a peripheral element
of their graduate education” rather than one that
will impact their practice (Results ¶6). Madsen
(2003) suggests that one way to help students
bridge that gap is to establish and maintain an
active research environment (p. 73). Madsen
seems, however, to discount scholarship for
master’s students outside music education,
suggesting that “while any graduate degree
program ought to include enough research
expertise for every student to be able to read and
assimilate published research, the masters
program does not need to include a final research
product more sophisticated than the standard 1215 page topical paper with appropriate references”
(p. 73).
For practicing teachers, becoming an educational
researcher often involves a cultural change “from
normative to analytical, from personal to
intellectual, from the particular to the universal,
and from the experiential to the theoretical”
(Labaree, 2003, ¶27). This cultural clash mirrors
the experiences we perceive from many of our
students who aspire to be practicing musicians.
The way to help students adapt, argues Labaree, is
to create programs that are “bicultural” (¶28),
where both the analytical and normative are
honored, and students’ experience is one “of
adding a new perspective to their cultural
repertoire rather than abandoning one in favor of
the other” (¶40). We support and have been

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

working to create such a response, yet the lack of
a clear rationale for such a program leaves a
philosophical and theoretical void that begs
serious systematic thought on the part of the
profession.
Given the lack of a clear rationale for scholarship
as part of the master degree in music, we found it
crucial to look to our own beliefs to justify our
teaching practice. Our systematic inquiry provided
interesting details about our individual
perspectives of the relationship between
scholarship and musicianship. These perspectives
were uncovered during a series of conversations
about scholarly practice that was prompted by
Carol’s reading of Jensen-Hole’s (2005) study of a
collegiate vocal jazz ensemble.

Scene One: Jazz Scholarship as a
Practicum
Carol leads: “I think our program serves as a
practicum for scholarship.”
“What do you mean by practicum?” asks Tim.
“Well,” says Carol, “Catherine Jensen-Hole
writes about how vocal ensembles exemplify
Schön’s (1983) definition of practicum as a
‘setting designed for the task of learning a
practice,’ which ‘provide[s] students a venue to
simulate and practice real-world projects under
supervision’ (p. 43). She uses Elliott’s (1995)
forms
of
musicianship—formal,
informal,
impressionistic,
and
supervisory—as
the
philosophical grounding for her study. Isn’t
developing research as a practice (something
students do as opposed to something students read
about) one of our goals? The popular view of
research is that it is the opposite of practice, but
in fact it has its own practice—and that’s what we
try to develop in our students. It’s not just about
reading books and writing papers; eventually
they’re having conversations in the hallways with
their professors and colleagues, and they see us
doing the same thing. It’s Elliott’s discussion of
informal musical knowledge that seems to come
closest to what I think we do. Take a look!”
Tim reads:
. . . informal musical knowledge . . . is distinctive
in being closely tied to learning and working in
the local conditions of a practice. Informal
musical knowledge is situated knowledge: It is
knowledge that arises and develops chiefly from
musical problem finding and musical problem
solving in a genuine musical context, or a close
approximation of a real musical practice. (Elliott,
1995, p. 65)
“You see?” Carol says. “If we replace music with
music scholarship, that describes what we’re

99

trying to do. We teach students to solve real
musical problems by engaging in scholarly
inquiry. Of course, this involves formal music
knowledge, which can certainly be experienced
separately from other kinds of knowledge. But
that’s not what we’re trying to do. We’re trying to
have students learn scholarship by doing it, the
same way we have them learn musicianship by
playing music.”
“So,” Tim says, “you’re saying that we’re trying
to develop in our students a situated music
research practice with the same forms of
knowledge that Elliott says are in musicianship.”
“Exactly.” Says Carol.
Tim continues: “So research projects are realworld projects, in the real world of academia—we
are teaching students the skills needed to be
academics, and this is just as important as
teaching them to be musicians.”
“Wait a minute!” Carol says—“Elliott says
formal knowledge is part of musicianship.”
Tim shakes his head: “I can’t agree with that. I do
think that the opposite is true—that musicianship
contributes to scholarship. Lewis Porter (1998)
has said that ideally a jazz scholar should be a
player (p. 204), and David Ake (2002) not only
writes that a scholar with musical know-how
brings a different perspective to scholarship (p.
4), but also very successfully embodies this
himself.
“Okay,” says Carol, “I’ll go along with that.”
Tim continues: “But, I don’t know if I think it
works the other way around—that scholarship
contributes to musicianship. For example I’m not
sure Sam McCoy’s (2006) study of Max Roach
gave him a competitive edge in the New York
scene. There are plenty of jazz musicians that
conduct their own informal research—reading
biographies and autobiographies, some histories,
of course interviews and transcriptions of solos.
And there are the stories that get passed around
on the bus . . . If I hear a story about Coltrane
that’s inspiring and I think about that every day
when I pick up the horn, that’s definitely an
influence on musicianship. Is what we’re doing
providing them with the same sort of meaning?
Maybe the knowledge they get from this sort of
research does inform their playing in an indirect
way, and with the case of transcriptions more
directly, perhaps. But I’m not sure that there is
any direct connection between this academic type
of knowledge and musicianship for a jazz
musician—most of musicianship is learned other
ways.”
Carol thumbs hastily through the book in her
hands. “Let’s see . . . formal musical knowledge . .

100

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

. Here it is! According to Elliott (1995), ‘verbal
concepts about music history, music theory, and
vocal and instrumental performance practices can
influence, guide, shape, and refine a learner’s
musical thinking in-action’” (p. 61).
Tim continues where Carol leaves off. “But look
what else it says: ‘By itself, however, formal
musical knowledge is inert and unmusical. It must
be converted into procedural knowing-in-action to
achieve its potential. Accordingly, verbal concepts
about musical pieces and procedures ought to be
viewed as nothing more or less than resource
materials for improving the reliability, portability,
accuracy,
authenticity,
sensitivity,
and
expressiveness of musical thinking in action’
(Elliott, 1995, p. 61).”
“Wow!” Carol stops to think. I guess the lens I
use to view Elliott’s ideas has changed! I
underlined this quote as a school band director
who was trying to convince other music teachers
to focus more on active music making and less on
procedural information about music, because it
made the point that music education should be
more about making music—more about ‘knowing
how’ and less about ‘knowing that.’ But now I’m
a professor who loves to teach students to
research and write about music, and I think the
argument should also work in reverse. I’m having
a difficult time agreeing that unless students
choose to study a topic that relates directly to
performing (jazz) music, their studies don’t inform
musicianship.”
Whew!” Tim exclaims. “We’ve posed more
questions here than we have answered! Let’s take
another look at Elliott (1995), see what other
scholars say, and meet again next week.

Scene Two: Clarification
A few days later Tim and Carol meet again:
“I think that we both have a point.” Carol says.
“Elliott (1995) says formal knowledge is ‘not a
necessary prerequisite or a sufficient corequisite
for achieving competent, proficient, or expert
levels of musicianship’ (p. 62), and that when it
does enter into the picture it ought to be ‘filtered
into the teaching-learning situation parenthetically
and contextually’ (p. 61). So you are right—
according to Elliott, formal knowledge is not
essential in improving musicianship.
“Okay,” Tim says, ‘But, you are right too, since
writing and speaking can clarify thinking, which
informs doing, in this case the making of music
(Elliott, p. 62).
“Exactly” says Carol, “Formal knowledge may
not be required for musicianship, but it can be a
significant contributor to musicianship.”

Tim smiles. “Well I’m glad we made this
distinction; it seems important in justifying why
we do what we do.”

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
Our work confirms the deep connection between
our personal values and the practice and teaching
of scholarship. The collaborative practice of
writing this paper helped us to make explicit the
implicit beliefs that guide our work as teachers. It
also served as a model for scholarly practice in
music, an important part of our Master of Music
in Jazz Studies, and modeled this practice for our
students. We are aware that opportunities for this
kind of exploration among colleagues are rare; too
often, institutional duties and teaching loads
substitute for intellectual discourse. This is one
implication for music education—there is value in
knowing yourself and your colleagues.
We were somewhat surprised that so many of our
ideas revolved around issues of musicianship and
scholarship. The autoethnographic process helped
us to realize how our “hyphenated identities” (Tim
as performer-scholar and Carol as musicianeducator-scholar) inform our beliefs and practices
in both areas. Education scholars in and out of
music seem to be aware of the cultural differences
between scholars and practitioners, but we did not
find evidence of this awareness in other musical
fields. We agree with Labaree (2003): “If you are
going to restrict student liberty, it has to be for
very good reasons” (¶31). If the demands of the
thesis keep students out of the practice room, its
values must be clearly understood. What remains
is for us to explore our students’ perspectives of
this reality.
Our conversation about the relationship between
musicianship and scholarship continues. We agree
that the practice of scholarship gives students a
way other than performance to develop their
musical thinking. We diverge around this
question: Does formal knowledge have to be
expressed through performance to be part of
musicianship?

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the concept of “musical
topologies” and its applications in the real-time
creation of music as well as its potential
contribution to music education, with a particular
focus on people with special needs. This concept
was originated in 1984 by Rolf Gehlhaar in his
SOUND=SPACE,
an
electronic
musical
“instrument” that is “played” – usually by
several persons at the same time - by moving
around in an empty space surveyed by an
ultrasonic echolocation system that very
accurately measures the positions and movement
of people within that space.
This concept of musical topology is a unique
outcome of the application of technology to the
context of musical creation. It is not possible or
even conceivable without the specific technology
applied. Originally SOUND=SPACE aimed to
introduce the ideas of participatory and nongestural music, to redefine the role of the
composer and to integrate the audience as
performers.
We describe how SOUND=SPACE, as a result of
becoming available to disabled users, evolved
from being simply a participatory performance
environment into a creative resource and music
educational tool, integrating music and learning
for all. We also describe the work that developed
at Casa da Música - “Ao Alcance de Todos” –
and recent workshops with Ana Paula Almeida.
Rolf Gehlhaar and Luis Miguel Girao are
currently developing a new universal interactive
environment - based upon the lessons learnt from
SOUND=SPACE - which integrates advanced
multi-user interaction with audiovisual feedback,
gestural interfaces producing non-gestural music
and the possibilities for quasi-linguistic
engagement resulting in tools for real-time,
collaborative creation.
From our experience, often the process of nonformal learning is the most appropriate and
efficient pedagogical means to introduce new
ISBN 9780980456028

Ana Paula Almeida

ideas and new opportunities, such as the
development of a “musical” identity. The
development of such creative resources expands
the palette available for the creation of situations
in which non-formal learning can take place.

CONCEPT
A Musical Topology results from the analysis and
processing of information gathered about the
movement of a body, or several bodies, in a
sensorised space. This information, fed as control
variables to a computer executing compositional
algorithms and, via some digital synthesis
routines, produces sounds. Thus, the audience
becomes the performers.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

under the influence of the presence and activity
(amount of movement) of persons in the space. In
this case, successive measurements of position
within several independent zones are converted
into control parameters (“levels of activity”) of the
“composing” algorithm. The effect here is like
conducting or animating an “ensemble” of
musicians through movement within the space:
usually, the greater the level of activity in the
space, the more animated and complex the music
becomes. The active topology is a true real-time
compositional algorithm, employing interlinked
chains of probability matrices, and can be
programmed as well to produce many
recognizable, generically different styles of music.
The hybrid topology combines both of the above
into a space that reacts not only to movement (in a
non-deterministic or non-linear fashion) but also
to position. The effect here could be, for example,
like controlling the tempo or direction of a
musical flow (a sequence of sounds) by moving
about the space and, at the same time, triggering
specific events (e.g., changes in timbre, changes in
the number of elements that go to make up the
musical flow, etc.) by stepping into specific
places.
This classification is the result of the work
developed by the composer Rolf Gehlhaar with
SOUND=SPACE during the 1980s.

SOUND=SPACE
SOUND=SPACE is an electronic musical
“instrument” that is “played” – usually several
persons at the same time - by moving around in an
empty space surveyed by an ultrasonic
echolocation system that very accurately measures
the positions and movement of people within that
space. This system sends the measurements to a
computer programmed to convert them into
sounds via a synthesizer and/or sampler (or lately,
a signal processor again). Normally the space used
is square, measuring anywhere from 6m x 6m up
to 10m x 10m, providing enough space for 8-15
people simultaneously. The ultrasonic ranging
units are set up along two contiguous sides
looking inwards across the space to the other side,
thus creating a “grid” of measurements.

Figure 1. Classical SOUND=SPACE set-up.
The first SOUND=SPACE, developed with
Philippe Prevot at LIMCA in Auch, France, was
installed for 4 months in “Les Immateriaux” at the
Centre Pompidou, Paris in 1985, later in 1986
moved permanently to the newly finished Musee
de la Science et Technologie, La Villette, Paris.
This first system employed a PDP-11 midicomputer platform and a 128-voice signal
processor not unlike the then already famous 4C
signal processor developed by Pepino di Giugno
and colleagues at IRCAM. A second system was
created by LIMCA; it was used for touring, for
projects with dancers, musicians and installations.
Rolf Gehlhaar developed SOUND=SPACE as a
result of two interests. Firstly, in 1976 he began
searching for ways to make electronic music
“performable,” i.e., to move away from the then
current concert format of simply playing back
tapes, with no performers to watch, towards an
environment in which the audience could be more
involved. Secondly, as a result of the computer
aided composition algorithms he was developing
1980-83, he had the idea to try to develop a way
that an audience could influence a computer
running these compositional algorithms in real
time.
During a SOUND=SPACE installation at the
Gulbenkian Foundation in Lisbon in 1986 he
happened to discover that the Foundation also
operates/supports several schools for disabled
children. He suggested to the Director that they
bring some of these children to the installation.
This was a complete success and marked the
beginning of his intensive involvement with
SOUND=SPACE in the world of disability. His

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

vision of the future was changed by this
experience: he came to understand that technology
– and the computer - no longer allows us simply
to make art for a public; it demands that we create
opportunities for the public to make art. It is no
longer about handing out finished products to a
well-behaved audience that acquiesces, sits still
and listens, but about creating situations that
encourage an active, creative response, common
to all humans, able or disabled.
Only a few months later he decided to redesign
the entire sensor system and software and use
another platform upon which to run it, all with the
aim of making it easier to transport and install,
and to tailor the interactive aspects – the “musical
topologies” – more towards the highly varied skill
sets of disabled users.

SOUND=SPACE APPLICATION IN
CREATIVE WORKSHOPS WITH
SPECIAL NEEDS GROUPS
SOUND=SPACE is a complex, sophisticated
multi-functional, multi-user system; but its
environment is uncomplicated, friendly and not
intimidating. It consists simply of a large empty
space which, when invaded, responds immediately
with sound. No expertise is required in order to
create these sounds and musical sequences, and
they are generally exciting, engaging and pleasant.
During the past 20 years of running workshops,
sometimes quite intensively, Rolf Gehlhaar
developed many different versions of the
topologies, each with its own quite characteristic
mood and nature - calming, exciting, sustained,
rhythmical, percussive, ethereal, earthy, lyrical,
textual, physical, abstract, recognizable, strange,
and so forth. It is possible, within a workshop, to
move rapidly from one particular mood to
another, in order, with few words spoken, to
encourage participation, to support the mood and
activity of the moment, to focus the attention or to
shift the concentration of the participants, to calm
them down when they get too excited.
In the space, one can do nothing wrong, only
better. The structure of the topologies is such that
more or less random or chaotic movement by a
group of people in the space is transformed into a
musical flow that generally sounds elegant,
planned and structured. This in turn causes the
users to reflect upon their movements, leading to
increased planning and structuring – in short
choreographing.
Since the beginning, generally speaking, Rolf
Gehlhaar has worked mainly with 3 different
types of special needs groups: 1) regular daily
clients of community centres for the disabled,
most of whom live at home, 2) severely disabled

105

students resident at special schools and 3)
moderately disabled children (including visually
impaired), who live at home and are cared for by
their parents but enjoy most of the common
freedoms such as going to school, playing sports,
etc.
For a simple example, one of the techniques
employed is to give each of the participants a
small piece of paper with a “map” of the space.
Each has a different, simple “choreography” on it,
as in the three examples below:

Figure 2. Three examples of maps.
The x's indicate that they are to remain standing in
that spot for a while; the dotted line indicates that
they are to move very slowly.

THE INSTANCE OF “AO ALCANCE DE
TODOS”.
Luis Miguel Girão has recently run a number of
SOUND=SPACE workshops at Casa da Música,
in Porto, Portugal. These workshops were part of
an event named “Ao Alcance de Todos”
(“Accessible to Everyone”), an initiative of the
Director of the Educational Service of that
institution, Paulo Maria Rodrigues.
The system was set-up in a public space, and
participants were mainly sufferers of cerebral
palsy, educators and music students. The spatial
circumstances also allowed the interaction with
passers-by that became interested in participating.
This demonstrates that SOUND=SPACE is also –
and essentially - a social environment; its
interactivity is not limited to the interaction
between person and “instrument” but also, and
perhaps more importantly, includes the interaction
between person and person (disabled or nondisabled) while “playing” in the environment. In
this specific case, it became evident that nondisabled people had much to learn from the
disabled concerning awareness and sensitivity to a
musical environment.
It is important to understand SOUND=SPACE not
only as an interface that enables musical
expression with no special requirement of skills
but also as a music educational tool. Some
techniques of progressive exploration of the
instrument reveal basic principles of music
playing such as: sound/silence, musical phrase and
musical dialogue (question and answer). A deeper

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

approach may include the learning of harmony
and rhythm.
Since moving in space is the key to the playing of
this instrument, playing in it users improve their
perception of space, and, consequently their
movement skills, especially, if the kind of
techniques referred to above are employed, where
accuracy is required in order to produce an
intentional (musical) gesture.
It is here that SOUND=SPACE reveals its
universality: it is an instrument that allows
musical expression with no special skills at the
same time that it promotes the improvement or
development of new skills. It is also here that the
origin for new developments resides.

CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
The Casa da Música, Porto, is currently hosting a
long series of SOUND=SPACE workshops for
both disabled and non-disabled children, carried
out by Ana Paula Almeida. Her main interest is to
study the positive contribution of “free”
movement to the perception of musical
information and appreciation of sound, as well as
its contribution to the creation of a sense of
“musical identity.” Often the teaching of music in
schools does not involve free movement, i.e.,
movement not gesturally related to the sounds
produced. In these workshops, she will
concentrate upon the following process: how free
movement may lead to interesting sounds and an
interest in them, and how this may lead to a desire
to structure movement (to choreograph) that
results in planned sound sequences. The
information gathered during these workshops will
form the investigative basis of her PhD.

FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
SOUND=SPACE is an adaptive creative
environment that is meant to be manipulated, not
mastered; it is an interactive environment that is
meant to be experienced, and, if time and skills
permit, to be explored and controlled.

Therefore, Rolf Gehlhaar and Luis Miguel Girão
are developing new systems that explore further
the concept of the “musical topology” and ideas
such as advanced multi-user interaction involving
audiovisual feedback, gestural interfaces that
produce non-gestural music, quasi-linguistic
engagement and real-time composition tools.
“When can we come again?” is a constant
question at the end of every SOUND=SPACE
workshop. It is this, which motivates us to
develop improved systems that are inexpensive
and easier to transport, install and operate. The
installation of such a system in networks of
community arts centres – as represented by the
Educational Service of Casa da Música, in Porto,
Portugal - is essential to the meeting of both our
aims and the larger cultural-political aims of
public cultural institutions.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in the Training of
Professional Musicians
Karin Greenhead
Royal Northern College of Music
Manchester, UK;
Karin@themovementofmusic.com

ABSTRACT
The background of this paper lies in the
experience and observations of the author and
other experienced tutors and coaches during
many years of working with undergraduate and
post-graduate music students who aspire to a
performing career. The author notes the great
breadth of work in which musicians may be
involved today and also that, while selection
procedures commonly in use in conservatories
and other professional training courses do not
identify problems with core skills necessary to
successful musical performance, conventional
training frequently fails to resolve them when they
become evident.
The aim of the paper is to observe that problems
with core skills and knowledge can be identified
and effectively resolved during appropriately
taught courses in all three of the practical
branches of the tripartite method called Dalcroze
Eurhythmics especially if these are also combined
with theoretical and pedagogical studies and
Dynamic Rehearsal techniques. Such a training
would provide students with a complete portfolio
of knowledge, resources, practice and, “ways of
doing” with which one could sustain a wide
variety of musical careers from performing and
teaching to cross-disciplinary work and therapy.
The author lists common musical and extramusical problems encountered in students and
young professionals during 30 years of
experience. The range runs from problems with
stability of tempo and inner pitch hearing through
poor awareness and use of the physical self, coordination, adaptability, the sense of line and
phrase to poor ensemble skills, performance
anxiety, the loss of desire to play. Researching
available papers in contemporary neuroscience,
the author finds confirmation of the plasticity of
the brain in response to sensory input that
supports the Dalcroze approach and methods
devised to develop the musical imagination and
conviction and accuracy in performance reported
by practitioners and observers on multiple
occasions.
These skills of musical competence, combined
with individual creativity and freedom and the
ISBN 9780980456028

performance, social, and ensemble skills much
sought after by educationalists and psychologists
and supported by modern educational philosophy
and current scientific research, should provide
confidence in the integration of a Dalcroze
programme into professional training. The author
observes, however, that there are issues
concerning the implementation of such a
programme, not least the shortage of suitable
teachers. She highlights additional issues
concerning the training of teachers of this method
at the most advanced level and problems of style,
including the emphasis on a mechanistic
approach to rhythmic training and the tendency to
aim at the sense of pleasure in the lesson rather
than rigour in training.
The author concludes that an appropriate and full
Dalcroze programme would be both effective and
economical as part or even as foundation of a
professional training in music as it addresses so
many aspects of musicianship and performance
simultaneously; but, in the current circumstances,
teachers at this level need a dual training as
rhythmicians and as professional musicians. In
the author’s view, priority should be given to such
a training.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

music technology – the list is endless. Despite the
offers of degrees in music management most
trainee musicians want to play, and almost all
want to teach.
Entrance auditions for performance courses vary
but are generally based on a live audition for
which the applicant is asked to prepare three
pieces which will not be heard in their entirety
and, in fact, a maximum of 15 minutes may be all
that is heard. There may or may not be sightreading and an interview, but basic musical skills
are not tested at audition. Studies by Eriksson,
Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) and others
confirm that attaining expertise requires long
hours of individual practice.
It is not uncommon for music students to become
discouraged at college. This occurs because they
discover that the standard of playing required to
sustain a career is much higher than they supposed
and because the musicianship and performance
studies offered do not, in practice, connect to one
another or fully address the students’ needs. Since
Bachelor and Post-graduate courses today tend to
increase online rather than human teaching
resources and are generally modular, it is difficult
for anyone to have a true overview of what is
actually happening in the training of each and all
the students. It should be noted that the criticism
concerning the lack of any class in rhythm in the
European conservatories of the nineteenth century
still applies (Berlioz, 1969)!
The first study instrumental tutor may advise
students to practise more, but this may yield
disappointing results either because they do not
know how to practise or because the source of the
problem is more fundamental.
To sustain a career as a communicative and
flexible practising musician a combination of
musical and extra-musical skills are required. The
following table lists common problems that
interfere with these core skills found by the author
and other experienced teachers of professional
students at conservatories and universities in the
UK and internationally:

Table 1. Observed and reported problems with
core skills
Rhythm

•

•
•
•
•

•

•
•

•

Pitch

•
•

•
•

•
•

•
Psychophysical

•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•

•
•

Problems with maintaining
a steady tempo or adjusting
with ease
Poor aural recognition of
metre
Problems with cross- and
poly-rhythm
Poor estimation of duration
especially in silence
Poor perception of time
e.g. how long is a bar of
4/4?
Hurrying at the end of a
bar especially in compound
times such as 9/8; 12/8
Poor anticipation and
timing
Lack of “feel” for
syncopation and unequal
beat rhythms such as 5/8;
7/8; 8/8
Poor sense of rhythmic
flow, shape and phrase
Poor motor image
Poor intonation and
inaccurate pitching of
intervals
Poor aural image: little prehearing of sound; “playing
fingers” rather than music
Ignorance of pitch
structure and relationships,
chords and harmony
Poor sight-reading
Inability to hear the bass in
players of treble
instruments
Unable to listen to others
while playing oneself
Immature neurological
development (Goddard,
1996)
Tension and pain when
playing
Co-ordination problems
Poor sense of physical self
Poor breathing habit
affecting arm movements
Unable to maintain or
adjust intensity of tone in
long notes and phrases;
poor sense of line
Slow to adjust to changes
of speed, dynamic etc.
Thin/rough tone and
limited dynamic or
expressive range
Unable to act and listen
simultaneously
Difficulty attending
visually

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Psychosocial

•

•
•

•

•
•
Other

•
•
•
•
•

•
•

Poor ensemble skills: does
not attend to the group.
Ungenerous or in own
world
Cannot adapt or play a true
unison
Cannot decide, lead, or
communicate musical ideas
clearly
Difficulty holding own part
against another player’s
cross-rhythm
Disorganised. Arrives late
without equipment
Loss of joy in music;
anxiety about performing
Little perception or
understanding of structure:
“painting by numbers”
Limited knowledge of style
Assumes problems
unimportant or insoluble
No understanding of
physicality of performance
Poverty of musical ideas;
underdeveloped musical
imagination
Has heard little (live)
music
Focus on acquisition of
paper degree rather than on
competence

The dismissive attitude sometimes expressed that
students “have no talent” is not an adequate
explanation for these difficulties, nor does it help
the college fulfill its stated mission to “prepare
students for a career in the profession.” It is
beyond the scope of this paper to go into the
reasons for the widespread presence of these
problems but those who have seen the results of
good, Dalcroze-inspired training testify to its
effectiveness in resolving these issues effectively
and economically. I would like to show why this
might be so.
Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a tripartite method
(Greenhead 2006) consisting of Rhythmics, Solfa,
and Improvisation usually taught separately to
adults. All three are linked with singing and
improvisation in the rhythmics class, movement
and improvisation in the solfa class, and
movement and pitchwork in improvisation. All
three could be taught by the same person although
a team is preferable since as Dalcroze himself
stipulated all students should be taught by more
than one person in order to guarantee a rich
experience that was not limited to the style,
strengths, and weaknesses of a single teacher.

109

During the rhythmics class, students work
barefoot using natural, usually freely-chosen
movement of the whole-body in the study of the
relationships between time, space, and energy as
they apply to movement, music, and the
relationships between them. They work on the
elements of music itself from pulse, tempo and
metre, and poly- and cross-rhythm to hearing the
bass, perception of structure, dynamics, phrase,
articulation, and fine nuance. This is aural training
in and through movement, building both aural and
motor images in the brain (Jeannerod & Frak.,
1999) and going beyond conventional training
methods as participants express what they are
hearing in movement and use movement
creatively. This movement includes exercises in
balance and grounding, alignment and good use,
swings and rotations, use of weight and energy,
sustained movement, co-ordination, dissociation,
and successional flow. The exercises are
performed by individuals who share space and
time together and, from time to time, work cooperatively in pairs, small groups, or as a whole
group in exercises in unison and contrast, leading
and following. The class is guided by a teacher
who may function as an instructor or a guide but
whose relationship to it is primarily one of
dialogue. The teacher gives the class experiences
in music through a range of repertoire (mostly
communicated through musical improvisation),
and students show what they hear through
embodying movement, thought, and feeling.
According to their responses, the teacher modifies
his/her playing, simplifying, adding or changing
an element (e.g. dynamics), adding a further layer
of difficulty, or modifying the group’s behaviour
such as encouraging people to move further apart
or closer together simply by playing differently.
The armoury of rhythmics techniques includes
quick-response exercises that are designed to tune
up the nervous system, rendering it efficient and
accurate in its responses to every kind of stimulus.
Specific exercises relating to pitch and harmony
can also be included, and the students themselves
improvise not only in movement but in music
(vocal and instrumental). The genius of the
rhythmics class lies in the teacher’s specialist
knowledge of movement/music relationships and
ability to conjure up, through improvisation, a rich
and changing world of sound in personal dialogue
with the class.
The solfa/solfège class focuses on pitch and pitch
relationships using movement, space, and
improvisation to reinforce learning, creativity, and
social aspects of music-making. Instrumental
improvisation continues the aural development
and musical expression in the study of styles and

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

musical languages, and playing for movement.
Students also create original works in music and
movement.
The complete Dalcroze approach to training
includes classes in the Dalcroze Subjects (in
which inter-disciplinary study of the fundamental
elements of experience and expression can lead to
work in other fields like dance, theatre, visual arts
and therapy), Pedagogy and Dynamic Rehearsal:
the last-mentioned being the author’s own
application of the Dalcroze principles to the
rehearsal and performance of the concert
repertoire. Film (Goeller, 2001) and video
recordings as well as articles (Spillman, 2005),
unpublished Master’s dissertations, and verbal
feedback from observers provide compelling
evidence that the study of movement improves
both solo and ensemble performance.
This multi-layered, practical work is difficult even
cumbersome to describe in words while being
simple and clear in practice. Support for the
methodology can be found in neuroscience
(Jeannerod & Frank, 1999) concerning the effect
on the brain of actual and imagined motor activity.
Even this short description shows how it can
address all the problems listed in Table 1
including emotional factors such as joy.
Every year, students at the Royal Northern
College of Music relate how pleasurable they find
it to work together in a non-competitive way and
study music released from the technical problems
of playing. The very fact that they show what they
hear in movement provides the teacher with an
excellent tool for understanding their problems
and, simultaneously, a remediation. This
revelatory aspect of Eurhythmics can be hard for
some students to take; but, in the right supportive
environment, they can usually be helped to face
and resolve their difficulties. Students with this
training not only maximise their musicianship and
their playing but have effective tools for working
with and teaching others.

SO, IF IT IS SO GOOD, WHY ISN’T
EVERYONE DOING IT?
There are many historical reasons for the current
shortage of Dalcroze teachers, but an additional
factor is that thorough training is necessarily
lengthy if a teacher is to acquire the necessary
range of inter-connected skills at the top level.
For various pedagogical and historical reasons, the
Dalcroze method has been applied most widely in
the teaching of children. Dalcroze himself saw
early on that, if his work was so effective in
developing in conservatory students the
connections between ear, emotions, intellect and
executive body that had been missing in their

previous training, how much better it would be to
start with children and train them properly in the
first place (Dalcroze, 1921).
However, the teaching of children is thought of as
teaching basic, simple things not requiring
sophistication or complexity. As time went by,
this came to mean many people who were not
necessarily artists with a thorough grounding in
harmony and counterpoint and a high standard of
playing and singing could train to teach
Eurhythmics to children. The repertoire used in
class could be children’s songs and did not need to
be as sophisticated as the repertoire suitable for
music students and professionals. The focus on
the fundamentals of musical competence and
literacy, the breadth of the work, and the social
aspect always strong in the Dalcroze work meant
that the modern Dalcroze teacher could be a
generalist rather than a musician – teacher. I think
this focus on basics affected Dalcroze himself.
Ansermet (1965) criticised Dalcroze’s rhythmic
gymnastics for focusing on beat and metre at the
expense of the whole shape of the music itself, He
said that the choice of a “tempo giusto” and metre
became mechanical, divorced from musical
feeling if they were not influenced in particular by
the breath-shape of rise and fall and the nested
structures from motif to phrase, period, and,
ultimately, global form. Ansermet suggests that,
although Dalcroze himself had the sense of
musical shape (referred to by Ansermet as
“cadence”), it was his desire to liberate his
students from all stereotypical musical structures
that lead him to over-emphasise the metrical
aspect of rhythm and to compose “exercises which
could only be correctly performed by counting the
metres instead of simply feeling the cadence”.
Much teaching today still suffers from this
mechanical approach to rhythm that has caused
many methods including the Dalcroze work, so
rich in potential both broad and deep, to focus on
drill at the expense of music.
The type of teaching offered and its duration is
also important. In the introduction to her excellent
doctoral dissertation and other writings, Juntunen
(2004) describes Eurhythmics as “a process for
awakening
musicality
and
developing
musicianship in the broad sense”. While she goes
on to give examples of exercises, interviews with
teachers, and to connect this process to the bodily
understanding of a musical phenomenon and the
phenomenon as habit of action or Caldwell’s
learning of musical behaviour (Juntunen 2004),
her study is not concerned with rigour in training.
One can observe in practice and texts a tendency
to prioritise the therapeutic or “feel good factor”
and social aspects of the rhythmics class as it can

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

be so entirely pleasurable to do and accords with
the frequent mention of liberation and joy in
Dalcroze’s own writings as motivators in learning.
The result is that there is sometimes a reluctance
to demand anything of students or correct them so
leaving everything at the level of a stimulating
and often magical experience. The author’s
experience of teaching conservatory students and
professional trainees today shows that they want
to grasp and understand what they at first
experienced in wonderment and become irritated
if they feel their performance is not improving.
Sometimes they feel they are being bedazzled by a
brilliant teacher rather than being helped to
become excellent practitioners themselves. When
colleges offer “taster” courses students often feel,
in the words of one post-graduate, that they are
“shown the sweet but are not allowed to eat it:
they are not shown where the sweetshop is!” The
training for a professional musician must enable
him/her to become a very skilful, flexible,
creative, and expressive musical communicator.
Being allowed to “have and eat the cake” is an
essential part of praxial learning. Inherent in the
Dalcroze approach are both the process and the
product.
Teachers of Eurhythmics for professional
musicians must play well, have a highly
developed sense of music itself, and command of
a wide range of styles. They must possess
excellent diagnostic skills not only in music where
they must deal with problems of pitch,
performance, and ensemble but also in movement
covering the whole range from co-ordination to
good use of the body. For this reason, I suggest
that, until Dalcroze training is widely embedded
in
professional
music
training
courses,
Dalcrozians wishing to work in this environment
need a dual training as Dalcrozian and as a
professional musician, and that this should
become a priority.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With grateful thanks to all my students who have
inspired me with constant feedback in lessons,
Asta Hodgson, Christine Straumer, and many
colleagues in the Dalcroze world and at the Royal
Northern College of Music who have given me
their insights and observations on students and the
Dalcroze work, to the Dalcroze Society UK for

111

ongoing support and in particular to Sandra Nash,
Sydney, Australia, for her advice on presentation
at the eleventh hour.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Creating Emotional Intelligence
Opportunities for General Music
Students in the Keyboard Laboratory
Michael Griffin
Dubai British School
Dubai, UAE
mdgriffin2002@yahoo.com.au

ABSTRACT
Many educational research papers and
government curriculum documents are calling for
the inclusion of learning activities which promote
student well-being through emotional and social
learning. This paper explores the importance of
fostering emotional intelligence in schools and in
particular looks at a methodology specific to
music education. Michael Griffin has designed a
new modern keyboard course and delivers it to
every Key Stage 3 student at Dubai British School.
Using recent national music education research
papers from the U.K and Australia for guidance,
as well as the educational philosophies of Elliott,
Gardner, Goleman and Csikszentmihalyi, the
course has been particularly successful creating a
great deal of enjoyment and satisfaction for both
teacher and students. The keyboard course
consists of achievement based challenges,
incremental in complexity and contextual with
relevant theoretical, aural and listening –response
activities. The practical framework of the lessons
increases students’ curiosity for musicianship,
and hence provides a medium for the introduction
of the more abstract theoretical and aural
concepts. The result is multi-dimensional, wholebrain music learning experiences. Although the
focus of the course is on developing musical skills
and creativity, explicit procedures are in place to
promote emotional intelligence skills based on
Howard Gardner’s definitions of interpersonal
intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence. One of
the course features is in the assessment and
evaluation techniques where students learn simple
meta-cognitive approaches leading to selfevaluation and in turn peer-evaluation. The
course also provides many opportunities for
group work incorporating improvisation and
performance. Action research following this
course of instruction has been positive. In a
survey of 100 students of which 62% had never
played a keyboard prior to this course, 72%
reported a growing interest in music and 45%
were considering taking private lessons in the
future. Being an achievement based course, it
allows students to progress at their own rate. 91%
ISBN 9780980456028

of these middle-school students found the level of
difficulty appropriate for them and 89% were
pleased with their progress. The survey also
collected data on non-musical skill acquisition.
73% reported improved concentration skills; 70%
improved co-ordination; 70% are better at
working alone and 67% improved their group
work skills. 42% indicated a possibility that they
had improved in other subject areas, although this
piece of data was less specific. In conclusion this
course fusion of social and emotional but always
musical learning has been successful in this
workplace and continues to develop with new
learning materials, creative music challenges and
stimuli from new technologies such as YouTube.
For the students, they take increasing
responsibilities for their learning, evaluation and
assessment. Through enjoyable music learning,
seeds are sewn for increased future musical
participation and on the personal level an
increase in self-esteem, self-growth and selfknowledge.

INTRODUCTION
The importance of emotional intelligence
education is gaining momentum around the world.
Since Howard Gardner put forward his theory of
multiple intelligence (Gardner, 1984), researchers
such as Daniel Goleman have asserted the
essential value of emotional intelligence, also
known as EQ. It is increasingly being
acknowledged that EQ may be the most
significant and important domain of intelligence
in the overall success of our lives. Consequently,
many schools around the world are including EQ
as a core subject in their curricula or, at least,
encouraging the integration of EQ learning within
traditional subject pedagogy. The workforce, an
ever present driver in educational policy and
curriculum content, clearly understands the value
of the emotionally intelligent person, which adds

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

to this demand for education to renew pedagogy
and include a focus on EQ.
The 21st Century worker requires new
competencies
based
around
emotional
intelligence. Technical skills are not enough, life
skills are required (Microsoft, 2003).
One of the greatest additional benefits in the
integration of music in learning environments is
the enhancement of emotional intelligence. I say
additional because the primary aim of music
education is in the education of musical
intelligence. However, at the same time, music
educators would do well to realise the unique and
numerous opportunities for the integration of good
EQ practice.

THE GROUP ADVANTAGE
Group teaching plays a prominent and very
successful role in educational settings. Benefits
include the social context created, the opportunity
to observe others, and the opportunity to engage in
performance assessment. Many students find
group work more stimulating and fun than
independent learning. Group learning activities
have a strong effect on school achievement and
students enjoy the opportunity to strengthen
relationships with one another. There is a shared
power within the group lessons, which puts the
students in a stronger position with a more
dynamic interaction. Students want and need work
that will enhance their relationships with people
they care about. This drive towards interpersonal
involvement is innate. There is an excitement
about learning with others, making discoveries
with others, enhancing relationships, and
accepting
different
roles
within
those
relationships. Students learn from each other, not
just from the teacher. Group work has been found
to significantly improve student motivation.

Music Offers Unique Prospects for Group
Work
With ensemble activities, students need one
another’s knowledge and skills. Not all school
group work demands this. Student relations play
an important role in the development of musical
expertise as students often take on formal and
informal coaching functions for and with their
peers. This kind of group learning environment
promotes an awareness of the distributed nature of
expertise, which is the foundation for successful
collaboration in all domains. Students can be
provided with multiple roles while solving
musical problems. In fact, students who
participate in regular and structured group
learning environments implement many of the
same strategies as teachers. Group work
encourages constructive peer competition. Some

individuals are motivated by the spirit of
competition. The incentive to ‘keep up’ with the
group promotes practice and better preparation.
This occurs naturally within the classroom. A
group teacher understands how to use the
elements of competition in a healthy way and to
use the natural elements of a personality.
For some music teachers, ensemble work with
general music students is problematic. For one
thing, many of these students do not learn an
instrument and consider tuned percussion or
recorders alien to the musical experiences they
seek. I teach general music students in a keyboard
laboratory and have found group keyboard tuition
an excellent vehicle in providing EQ learning
opportunities for children. A thoughtful
pedagogical design can incorporate:
• Students learning how to work independently
• Students working in pairs and small group
ensemble
• Students taking on roles as teachers and
assessors
• Students
learning
meta-cognitive
and
reflective practice
• Students exploring their inner selves through
emotional response to music studied.
• Opportunities for student leadership and
development
• Greater variety of activities compared to the
traditional classroom
• Stimulating and enjoyable learning through a
strong social environment
• Creatively and aurally diverse group activity
Whenever possible, artistic learning should be
organized around meaningful projects, which are
carried out over a significant period of time, and
allow ample opportunity for feedback, discussion,
and reflection." (Gardner, 1993, 142).

EVALUATION
Evaluation is one of the features of a group
keyboard course that can exploit the range of
possibilities available for formative and
summative feedback. Regular feedback is
important to keep students suitably engaged and
challenged. With the students working on
individual challenges (and with the headphones
on), the opportunity presents itself for the teacher
to see to every student in the class and give
individual attention and immediate, positive
feedback. In the example below from Music and
Keyboard in the Classroom Book One -The
Fundamentals (Griffin, 2007), you will notice that
the learning challenge requires that both teacher
and student sign a statement similar to the one
below:

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

This piece has been played successfully.
Student signature…………………………….…..
Teacher signature…………………………….…..
Date………………………………...

Figure 1: (Griffin, 2007, p. 27)
By having students sign their work when they
think it is played correctly, students learn how to
assess their own level of musicianship and, by this
self-assessment, gain confidence in their
increasing competence. Students require regular
opportunities to reflect on their musicianship (and
that of their peers), and become knowledgeable,
independent judges of musical excellence. The
process of comparing their own judgments with
those of a teacher will move them closer to this
goal of valuing their own judgment.
When the student has signed an exercise, a teacher
should then listen to the exercise. If judged as
successful, it can be signed by the teacher and
dated. If it is not satisfactory, one way to reveal
this to the student is through a discovery method.
Telling the student what is wrong with their
playing without giving them an opportunity to
discover it for them selves deprives students of a
learning opportunity.
Creative questioning leads to a discovery of the
problem. For example:
T: Good. You played it fluently, and it was almost
note perfect. (Commenting on what was good
about it, not just “that was good”)
S: Almost? What was wrong with it?
T: (Pauses, allowing the student to ponder and start
the exploration. Sometimes, this alone will be
enough, but if more prompting is needed) Are
these two bars the same?
S: Yes. No!!

The student has discovered the error.
Another valuable self-evaluation technique is to
verbalise the thinking process. This metacognition often gets to the source of
misconceptions. With keyboard class sizes of up
to twenty students, it is demanding for a teacher to
evaluate every piece played by students. This can
be solved using two initiatives that, in addition to
increasing teacher observation time, produce
better learning outcomes for the students.

115

First, students do not need to summons the teacher
for evaluation. Once a student signs an exercise,
the student can move on to the next exercise.
Students need to learn to trust their own judgment
until the teacher has the time to see them. Selfevaluation encourages self-reflection and honesty.
Traditional feedback focuses on what the teacher
can observe that is unknown to the student,
whereas a more complete perception implies a
unity of self-perception and other perception.
Now, the teacher can now get around to all
students without interruption, and the process puts
more responsibility on the student to make
decisions regarding their progress.
Second, for the purpose of signing exercises,
capable students can be granted teacher
status.
This allows the student ‘teacher’ to browse the
class and assess others. In my classes, this has
been very successful. All students understand the
following:
• Student ‘teachers’ are to be respected and
treated like normal teachers. Students who do
not respect this process will not get an
opportunity to become ‘teachers’
• Student ‘teachers’ may have their rights
revoked if they are too lenient (or too harsh)
in signing student work
Students enjoy this type of assessment because it
gives them a new perspective on the educational
process. This creates opportunities to learn at a
higher level and, for the adult teacher, to observe
student interactions more closely. One should aim
to give every student the opportunity to be a
student ‘teacher’ and thus create opportunities for
them to develop student leadership and
responsibility. Students tend to model the
teacher’s style of instruction. I have observed my
student teachers’ using progressive questioning
techniques to help their pupils discover
performance problems. This provides us with an
excellent opportunity to commend the student on
their teaching and even to encourage them to
consider music teaching as a career:
I like the way you’re teaching, Susan. You use
questioning rather than just giving them the
answer. Anyone would have thought you were
doing it for years! We need good teachers. Maybe
one day, I could hire you as a music teacher!

Promoting the cause of music teaching and
conveying to students the importance and
worthwhileness of music education will be
effective when the students are enjoying a
teaching experience. We need to promote the
status of what we do. I also ask these young
‘teachers’ if they enjoy helping their peers.
Usually, they enjoy it very much, and many
indicate that they do not get these opportunities in

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

other classes. Again, an opportunity presents itself
to encourage them to consider teaching as a
profession, and perhaps a few seeds are sown. At
the outset, we cannot assume that students can
evaluate or assess themselves as this requires
higher order thinking skills that may not have
been developed. One exercise that can assist in
this is for the teacher to model different levels of
playing and ask the students to evaluate them. The
examples can illustrate work of high, average, and
low standard; and students should have a copy of
the music notation to which they can refer. I
would recommend keeping the criteria simple and
concrete, such as the following:
• Correct notes
• Fluency
• Appropriate dynamics
• Appropriate tempo
Whilst student attitudes are not necessarily
assessed, they are often required to be reported.
One benefit created through the introduction of
student teachers in the classroom is that it allows
more time for the teacher to observe student
behaviour and attitude and to document comments
that can be used in reporting. I make time during
each lesson for this and write comments at the
back of the student workbook in a designated
section for this purpose. This encourages a
transparent feedback process. For example:
I am really pleased with John’s acceptance of other
ideas in group work…
I am delighted to see Jill engage in her work with
so much joy. This has a positive effect on other
class members…

Not everything of value can be quantified. For
some things, observation is the best provider of
information, and these comments provide valuable
information come reporting time.
Not everything that counts can be counted and not
everything that can be counted counts. (Einstein
attributed)

As well as the teacher comment, I encourage
students to reflect on their learning and provide a
reflection page for this purpose in their workbook.
I encourage them to write one reflection per
lesson on a learning experience related to a
positive learning feeling. For example:
I just mastered lesson 7. I’m so pleased because
it’s been really difficult for me.
There’s one section in lesson 8 I just can’t get. I
think I need to repeat it a lot.
Jessie just helped me with lesson 5. It makes more
sense now.

These student-comments are simple, but they
encourage the meta-cognitive process essential for
independent learning. Research has shown that

musicians demonstrate acute self-awareness of
their strengths and weaknesses, extensive
knowledge regarding the nature of different tasks,
and an understanding of what is required to
accomplish that task. Music students are
encouraged to learn to learn.

Interpersonal learning outcomes resulting
from group work
What outcomes do we seek from our lessons?
Learning outcomes are about what a student
knows, understands, and can do. In a keyboard
course of instruction, all three can be contextually
related. The mastering of keyboard exercises
demonstrates keyboard skills and the development
of musicianship; but what about the implicit
outcomes such as group engagement, individual
learning, concentration, and helping others? These
are related to the big ideas of education and its
overarching aims. These are the EQ outcomes. Do
we want to assess and report on these,? If so, how
do we assess something like group work? This can
be determined with the students by way of a group
exercise. A list of EQ outcomes that a class of
mine came up with is presented below:
• Listening to others
• Politeness
• Being positive
• Making contributions
• Involving others
• Helping others
In this example, students understood that these
facets of their behaviour were going to be
observed and reported. When opportunities arose,
I would make written comments in their student
book, ready for use in the school report. Working
in groups is a highly complex and disciplined skill
and should be encouraged and assessed. Students
need guidance and practice in group work. As
well as my observation, I seek the student’s selfobservations. By encouraging this, we improve
student motivation as they are more likely to take
ownership for their learning. This also enables
better communication between student, teacher,
and peers. Also, it provides insights into student
self-perception, an essential concept in
intrapersonal intelligence. Autonomous learning
requires accuracy in self-perception and
assessment. Self-growth occurs when external and
internal perceptions grow closer together.

ACTION RESEARCH
Following on from the first draft version of the
group keyboard course I now teach, I surveyed
100 students using an internet-based questionnaire
site. Of those surveyed, 62% had never played a
keyboard prior to this course, 72% reported a
growing interest in music, and 45% were

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

considering taking private lessons in the future.
The course is achievement-based and allows
students to progress at their own rate. An
overwhelming majority, 91%, of these middleschool students found the level of difficulty
appropriate for them, and 89% were pleased with
their progress. This is particularly important given
the diversity of student experience that teachers
encounter in the classroom. The survey also
collected data on EQ skill acquisition. A majority
of 73% reported improved concentration skills,
70% improved co-ordination, 70% are better at
working alone, and 67% improved their group
work skills. Although students were not asked to
qualify their responses, 42% indicated a
possibility that they had improved in other subject
areas.

117

These results indicate that emotional intelligence
learnings can be explicitly incorporated into a
music teaching pedagogical framework. In this
particular study, the course of instruction was
based on the teaching of general music within a
group keyboard setting.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Unruly Rules: Guidelines for Australian
Practice-Based Doctorates in Music
Michael Hannan
School of Arts and Social Sciences, Southern Cross University
Lismore, NSW, Australia
michael.hannan@scu.edu.au

ABSTRACT
This project investigates issues in research
training in the field of music, specifically in
doctoral degrees where the focus is on creative
work or performance rather than on written
research. The official specifications in the rules
for practice-based PhDs and other-named
research music doctorates vary widely across the
Australian universities that offer these awards.
Usually these creative and performance research
degree projects in music involve a creative or
performance component and a written component
(often termed an "exegesis"), but each University
has a different (or no) specification of the length
and form the written component, of what the
relative weighting of the various components
should be, and of whether or not the weightings
can be negotiated as part of the supervision
process.
This paper examines the range of variation in the
rules and guidelines for creative and performance
doctorates in Australia. It analyses the problems
arising from different expectations of what the
nature, volume and depth of work should be,
deconstructs the language used to describe what
is expected, makes a number of recommendations
to the higher education music sector and suggests
further studies that need to be done in order to
understand the range of issues and practices.
Although dealing with the Australian situation,
issues raised in the paper will have relevance to
similar practices in New Zealand, the U.K, and
for the many European conservatoires that have
developed, or are developing, practice-based
doctorates in music.

INTRODUCTION
Doctorates in practical music study are a relatively
recent phenomenon in Australia, most of them
appearing after the higher education reforms of
the late 1980s when all Colleges of Advanced
Education (some of which were conservatoires)
where amalgamated with universities. In the early
1980s, the University of Wollongong established a
ISBN 9780980456028

Faculty of Creative Arts, which introduced a
Doctor of Creative Arts award. Since 1990 most
of the Australian public Universities that offer
undergraduate music programs have begun to
offer practical music doctorates, predominantly
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees.
The development of practical music doctorates in
Australia has taken place against a background of
struggle by music academics (many of whom are
primarily composers or performers) to gain access
to research funding, traditionally only available to
academics doing written research. A government
funded report by Strand (1998) made a compelling
case for the research “equivalence” of creative and
performing arts production, but little progress
resulting in grant funding opportunities for music
academics has been made on this issue.
While academics have argued for research
equivalence of creative and performance works,
the kinds of research project specifications that
have emerged for music (and other art-form)
doctorates typically involve creative (or
performance) work plus a written “exegesis” that
illuminates the research-basis of the practical
component(s). This type of research has become
known as “practice-based research” as concisely
defined by Candy (2006, p. 1):
Practice–based research is an original investigation
undertaken in order to gain new knowledge partly
by means of practice and the outcomes of that
practice. In a doctoral thesis, claims of originality
and contribution to knowledge may be
demonstrated through creative outcomes in the
form of designs, music, digital media,
performances and exhibitions. Whilst the
significance and context of the claims are
described in words, a full understanding can only
be obtained with direct reference to the outcomes.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

requirements
across
the
sector,
and
acknowledgement
and
understandings
of
academic and artistic standards.
It should be noted that there are standards for
doctoral education prescribed in the Australian
Qualifications Framework (AQF) and endorsed by
the Council of Australian Deans and Directors of
Graduate Studies. The latter body has produced a
Framework for Best Practice (2005), which
asserts:
a person who has earned a doctorate should be
expected to have undertaken a period of research
education leading to the successful design,
implementation, analysis, theorising and writing of
research that makes a significant and original
contribution to knowledge. (,p. 1)

Very little has been written that addresses the
issues of practice-based research and research
degrees in the field of music by contrast to
practice-based research in theatre arts, visual arts
and creative writing (for example Barrett & Bolt,
2007; Dawson, 1997; Sullivan, 2005). This paper
extends the work done by Reiner and Fox (2003),
which gives some coverage of Australian practicebased doctoral offerings in composition and
focuses mainly on the development of the
practice-based PhD in composition at Monash
University.

METHOD
A range of official documents including higher
degree rules and handbook course descriptions
from all Australian public universities that offer
practice-based music doctorates have been content
analysed. These universities are: Australian
National University (ANU), Edith Cowan
University (ECU), Griffith University (GU),
James Cook University (JCU), Macquarie
University (Macquarie), Monash University
(Monash), Queensland University of Technology
(QUT), Southern Cross University (SCU),
University of Adelaide (Adelaide), University of
Melbourne (Melbourne). University of Newcastle
(Newcastle), University of Queensland (UQ),
University of Sydney (Sydney), University of
Tasmania (UTAS), University of Western
Australia (UWA), University of Western Sydney
(UWS), and University of Wollongong (UOW).
(Note: There is a research website reference for
each of these universities in the Reference
section.)
A number of these universities offer professional
doctorates (for example DCA or DMA) as the
only practice-based doctoral option (UWS, UWA)
or as an alternative to the PhD (Griffith, UOW).
From the content analysis, a number of themes
emerged which are presented below. The research

methods also include reflection on the issues
arising from the analysis from experience as a
supervisor and examiner of practice-based music
research projects.

THEMES
Two universities in the sample have no specific
rules or regulations relating to practice-based
research in music or the other arts. In the PhD at
SCU (Specific Award Rules, no date), the only
clause relevant to the creative work/exegesis
model for a thesis is, “it must have a substantial
written component but may also contain a
significant amount of non-written material.” Even
less guidance is provided in the JCU Handbook
for Research Higher Degree Students (2007),
where all candidates for the PhD are expected to
comply with a more conventional definition of a
thesis that must demonstrate “originality of the
research data and/or analysis of the data,”
“coherence of argument and presentation,”
“technical and conceptual competence in analysis
and presentation,” and “critical knowledge of the
relevant literature.” (p. 67)
In some universities, the practical music
component is mentioned, but there appears to be a
focus on the written component. According to
ANU’s webpage, Graduate Studies in Music (no
date), “a thesis in this context means, in addition
to written material, performances, and audio and
video recordings submitted by the candidate for
the purposes of examination.” The focus on the
written word in some universities is also reflected
in guidelines that call for substantial word-lengths
for the exegesis. These include PhDs at QUT
(“not normally exceeding 50,000”), Melbourne
(“at least 40,000”), Sydney for performance but
not composition (30,000-80,000), and UOW
(30,000-45,000), as well as the DMA at UWA
(30-000 to 40,000) and the DCA at UWS (2500030,000). At the lower end for PhD exegesis wordlength requirement there is ECU (20,000-30,000),
Monash (20,000-25,000), UQ (20,000), UTAS
(20,000), and Sydney, for composition (15,00020,000). Universities that do not specify exegesis
word-lengths include Macquarie, Griffith,
Adelaide, Newcastle, SCU and JCU.
Another aspect of the mix of practical and written
work is the weighting of assessment for each
component. This is documented in only a few
instances: ECU and UOW both specify a 50/50
split for PhDs; and UWS a 70/30 split for its
DCA, weighted in favour of the practical work,
although this is negotiable. Negotiation between
the candidate and (usually) the supervisor of the
details of the composite research project,
including the relative weighting of components, is

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

a specified requirement at Griffith (personal
communication with Huib Schippers), Macquarie
(personal communication with Philip Hayward),
Newcastle, UQ, and UOW, and may indeed be a
more widespread undocumented practice.
As with exegesis word-length, there is a range of
guidelines relating to the composition or
performance component, but most universities are
not prescriptive. For composition projects, these
guidelines generally relate to the length and scale
of works to be submitted. For example, Monash
gives an indicative combined duration for the folio
(between 50 and 80 minutes) and requires at least
50% of the works to have been performed in
public concerts; and UQ’s webpage, Music
Composition (no date) specifies the kinds of
different media for which the candidate should
write (“a typical folio could include a work for
Orchestra, a piece for Chamber Ensemble, a Song
Cycle and a work for four part chorus”). Other
universities are less specific but stress the
inclusion of a work with substantial forces and
duration (UWA, UOW, UWS) or with
“recognisable” technical accomplishment and
originality
(Melbourne).
For
performance
projects, the number and length of recitals
required is indicated for Sydney (“3 substantial
recitals”), UWA (“two recitals of normally 70 to
90 minutes duration”), UWS (“three 60-90 minute
recitals”) and UOW (“three performances of
approximately 60 minutes duration”). In asserting
the primacy of the creative work in the composite
model, Adelaide’s PhD rules (Program RulesAdelaide Graduate Centre, no date) state that:
The creative work should provide a coherent
demonstration that the candidate has reached an
appropriate standard in the research and has made
a significant and original contribution to
knowledge in the area. The creative work should
be the research outcome.

The nature and purpose of the exegesis is outlined
in a larger number of cases (ANU, ECU, Monash,
QUT, Adelaide, Melbourne, Newcastle, UQ,
Sydney, UWA, UWS and UOW). QUT’s Doctor
of Philosophy Regulations (no date) state that the
exegesis “should describe the research process
and elaborate, elucidate and place in context the
artistic practice
undertaken.”
Newcastle’s
Procedures for the Examination of Theses in the
Creative Arts Guideline (2008) prescribes an
exegesis that “must provide a rationale for the
techniques and strategies adopted in the creative
component, and must situate them in relation to a
theoretical and/or historical cultural context,” and
adds that “Where appropriate it may include a
sustained account of the creative process.” ECU’s
webpage for Doctor of Philosophy (Performing

127

Arts) (no date) stipulates an exegesis “which will
involve contextualising the practical activity
within an appropriate theoretical framework, a
reflection of the aims of the practical work and a
consideration of the projects in terms of others
working within the same area.” In UWS’s Doctor
of Creative Arts Guidelines (2004, p. 1)
the exegesis explains the contextual and theoretical
underpinning of the creative work. It includes a
survey of recent representative literature in the
chosen discipline(s). It is a reflexive analysis of the
creative process and is an engaging piece of
writing constructed as a scholarly essay.

In Melbourne’s Standard of Examination of
Creative Work (no date), one of the attributes of
the exegesis is that “the documentation of the
work...is sufficiently thorough and is of a standard
that will ensure the work provides a reference for
subsequent researchers”; another is that “the
creative work and the dissertation together
constitute a substantive original contribution to
knowledge in the subject area with which it
deals.”
All these quoted descriptions of exegesis
requirements apply to doctoral degrees that
encompass a variety of art forms, not just music.
There are also examples that apply only to music
practice-based doctorates, for example, Monash’s
webpage for Doctor of Philosophy (no date) in
music composition:
The commentary must be scholarly in character
and at a minimum address the following: (1)
explication of a research-based argument that
provides the conceptual basis for the folio and its
contribution to knowledge, (2) compositional
approach, process, and techniques, (3) aesthetic
placement and stylistic predecessors, and (4)
performance context.

UQ’s PhD in Music Composition (no date) has a
similar list of requirements for the “critical
commentary”:
The critical commentary should be scholarly in
character and at a minimum, address the following
as far as they are relevant to the folio of
composition:
1. the genesis of the submitted compositions, from
initial concept through sketch and draft stages, to
finished product;
2. compositional principles and stylistic
predecessors;
3. interpretation of notations and realisation of the
compositions in performance;
4. guidelines for analysis of the compositions and
their critical reception; and
5. contribution to knowledge.

Some exegesis descriptions in the sample are far
less informative and even suggest approaches that

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

are outside the generally expected requirements of
practice-based research, such as the requirement
to articulate the way that the practical work
creates new knowledge. At UTAS (ResearchAreas, no date), the exegesis is “on a topic
centrally germane to the works in the folio”; at
UWA (Doctor of Musical Arts, 2007), a “thesis”
can be “on a topic related to one or more aspects
of the composition folio”; and at Melbourne
(Standard of Examination of Creative Work, no
date), it is even possible, as an alternative option,
to write a “dissertation” that is “independent of
the creative work.”

DISCUSSION
Given that there is a fairly universal agreement
that a conventional written PhD thesis in an
Australian university will be in the range of
80,000 words to 100,000 words, it is disturbing
that the range of prescribed exegesis word-lengths
across all those universities that offer practicebased research music doctorates is commonly
between 20,000 words, in some contexts, to
50,000 words in others. The scope of the exegesis
would vary immensely from one of these wordlengths to the other, particularly considering the
ability of candidates to position their work in
relationship to their fields in their surveys of the
written and “creative” literature. Consider the
candidate who is writing new work for symphonic
orchestra. Within the space of 20,000 words, how
could it be possible to argue that a symphonic
work creates new knowledge without an extensive
survey of the largely unindexed contemporary
symphonic repertoire? On the other hand, having
to write a longer exegesis would surely take the
focus away from creating the work that is
supposed to demonstrate the advance in
knowledge? The need to keep the focus on the
creative work in music practice-based projects is
the subject of a reflective essay, from the
perspective of being a supervisor, by Vella (2005).
A problem emerging from the introduction of
practice-based music doctorates is that many of
the academics who supervise these degrees do not
typically produce exegetical writings as adjuncts
to their own professional outputs as composers
and performers (even if they have previously done
a practice-based degree themselves). But as
supervisors, they need to be able to guide their
students through a practice-based research
process, and many find they have little to model
their guidance on. Exegeses from other
universities are not normally published, and are
not always available in the university library
where the thesis was written. Thus academics
involved in supervising practice-based theses
often have little idea of what the requirements and

standards are in other universities. These same
supervisors, when nominating external examiners
for their candidates, are not always confident of
judging the expectations of their colleagues. And
when contracted to examine projects from other
universities, they can be easily influenced by
what, from their own limited perspective, they
think the scope, the scale, and the balance
between the practical and theoretical components,
of a doctoral project should be.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
Unlike the fairly standard requirements for
traditional written PhDs, there are widely
divergent requirements across the Australian
Higher Education sector for practice-based music
(and other art-form) PhDs and professional
doctorates. The main implication of this is that
standards will vary from institution to institution,
particularly since the two basic components of the
submission, the practical work and the written
work, are assigned different emphases and
weightings.
This situation poses a problem because these
degrees are usually examined by two external
examiners who will be invariably more familiar
with the set of requirements for practice-based
degrees in their own institutions than with those of
the situations they find themselves examining in.
The lack of dissemination of practice-based music
theses, and the lack of academic literature about
practice-based music research in the field of
music, means that uncertainty about good practice
in supervision and assessment may prevail.
Supervisors and external examiners would benefit
from a dialogue about these practices and the
issues surrounding them. A future survey of the
outputs of this kinds of doctoral research with the
objective of analysing the range of practices and
identifying good-practice examples of music
exegeses, would go a long way towards improving
teaching and learning in this field of education.

Department of Music, University of Pretoria
Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
africamusic@mweb.co.za

Department of Music, University of Pretoria
Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
caroline.vanniekerk@up.ac.za

ABSTRACT
We are interested in contextualizing the
measurability of African musical arts (which
includes the disciplines of music, dance, drama,
poetry and costume art as an integrated whole),
using generic cross-cultural standards. Our
purpose is to consider the possibility of
structuring/standardizing African musics, using
Western systems, to the satisfaction of both
Western and African cultures. Doing this, in terms
of progressive skill development, is arguably not
only for the benefit of African cultures but should
also be implemented outside cultures of origin and
made available throughout the global village in
which world musics function.
Successful strategies from other cultures have
made us question preconceptions we had about
learning and teaching music in Western
mainstream traditions and institutions. Our
interest, therefore, does not only concern music
traditions from non-Western cultures transplanted
into Western settings or Western music
transplanted into non-Western settings, but also
the possibility of “new” negotiated settings for
and of all cultures involved. By exploring cultural
diversity and its translation between cultures, we
focus on music-cultural integration processes in
assessment. Important are cultural dialogue
within cross-cultural contexts; the learning,
teaching and grading situations in different
cultures and systems; and the integration of
different “voices” from many disciplines.
Assessment should form part of the dialogue
between
cultures,
be
inclusive
and
developmentally appropriate. Our theoretical
base is drawn from Bennett’s (1993)
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
(DMIS), Bhaba’s “third space”, Omibiyi’s (1973)
Model of an African Music Curriculum and
Schippers’ (2004) Seven Continuum Transmission
Model (SCTM).
In this research, we explore generic standardsbased assessment as a holistic and formative
process, as found in outcome(s)-based education,
with the aim of setting world-class standardsISBN 9780980456028

levels. At the same time we address the meaning
of generic cross-cultural standards as all-purpose
standards appropriate for large, rather than
specific, classes or groups, which may be
approached as “hybrid”, or “generalized”
standards. In considering what standards to
assess in African musical arts, we investigate the
assessment practices of international examining
bodies as well as forms of evaluation outside the
graded music exam systems, including the
principle of recognition of prior learning.
With reference to an emic and/or etic assessment
approach to African musical arts, we discuss
involvement and assistance from practicing
African musicians and cultural informants. By
exploring the dynamics of different models of
cultural capability, mediators/translators between
African and Western standards can evaluate their
own capability and sensitivity. The authors,
arguably as agents of change, consider the
creation of neutral space where, through
intercultural sensitivity, difference and otherness
can be negotiated when addressing assessment of
African musics. We have moved along the
continuum to, in our perspective, an adaptation
phase, and most importantly and consciously, an
area where boundaries are more flexible and
permeable. We intentionally review our own
situation and that of African music assessment, in
order to negotiate empathetically new boundaries
and perspectives needed for the construction of
curricula/syllabi/ assessment standards. The
implications of our work raise issues pertinent to
curriculum design and assessment of music
internationally.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

INTRODUCTION
Knowledge is a product of differing displacements
of reality perceived from different viewpoints
rather than a singular, authoritative perception.
(Tomlinson, 1991, p. 240)

We are interested in contextualizing the
measurability of African musical artsi, using
generic cross-cultural standards. Is it possible to
structure/standardize African musics with the help
of Western systems to the satisfaction of both
Western and African cultures? Contextualizing
this, in terms of progressive skill development, is
not only for the benefit of African cultures but
should also be implemented outside cultures of
origin and made available throughout the global
village in which world musics function.
However, at the forefront of the debate, this now
does not only concern music traditions from nonwestern cultures transplanted into western settings,
but also western music. Successful strategies from
other cultures have made us question
preconceptions we have about learning and
teaching music in western mainstream traditions
and institutions. In that way, our musical culture
has almost come full circle: from exoticism to
tolerance to acceptance to inclusion” and…in this
fluidity and constant questioning [of learning,
teaching and assessing] may well lie the key
strength of cultural diversity in music education
for the 21st century. (Schippers & ShehanCampbell, 2005, Introduction)

Our interest here lies in cultural diversity and its
translationii between cultures, focusing on musiccultural integration processes in assessment.
Important are cultural dialogue within a crosscultural context; learning, teaching and grading
situations in different cultures and systems; and
the integration of different “voices” from many
disciplines. Assessment should be collaborative,
inclusive, developmentally appropriate, globally
oriented, and religiously pluralistic (Cushner,
McClelland & Safford, 2006, p. xxv): in fact,
assessment itself is an important aspect of
diversity.

WHAT ARE GENERIC ASSESSMENT
STANDARDS?
“Generic” (Latin: genus = “race” or “kind”) means
“suitable and usable for a broad range and in a variety
of contexts.” Thus “generic” is “more or less

suitable.” Assessment determines where along the
continuum of the integration of knowledge and/or
skills students are. The importance of what and
how should be assessed forces us to look at
curriculumiii broadly: considerations of validity
and reliability are typically viewed as essential in
determining any assessment’s quality.
Central to the process of education is assessment
of progress or, approached differently, “measuring

[of] student achievement in terms of standardized
testing” (Cushner et al. 2006, p. 359). Although
standardized testing may be an accepted
measurement of achievement and knowledge, the
processes of assessmentiv and testing differ
greatly. According to Cushner et al. (2006):
(Assessment) looks carefully to the whole
individual within the educational process and
context; it implies a comprehensive, individualized
evaluation of the person's strengths as well as areas
that are in need. Assessment is formative … an inprocess act in which the information derived is
used as feedback to both teachers and students as
to how and where they might begin to look if
change is desired”. Testing, in contrast, “implies
standardizationv. Testing tends to be a summative
activity ... the resultant scores present a final
statement of how an individual compares with
others who have taken the same test. (p. 386)

Assessment is ongoing, encouraging development,
whereas summative tests are final: change and
improvement are mostly not possible and
development minimized. Standardized testing
systems are often not able to verify students’
holistic development, because of “incongruence
between their knowledge and the manner in which
it is assessed” (Cushner et al. 2006, p. 387).
“Indeed testing of individuals in and of itself
seems solely a Western concept associated with
Western models of schooling” (Cushner et al
2006, p. 392). Compare the typically Western
“educated” person, stressing the productive
process of society and competitiveness in the
learning situation, with the reproductive process
of the approach of many other cultures. Should the
“success of one student lie[s] in the failure of
another” (Cushner et al. 2006, p. 92)?
The American Educational Research Association
(see http://www.aera.net/) propose multiple
assessment forms as offering a solution to
concerns about stated purposes of standardized
tests. The American National Education
Association (see http://www.nea.org/index.html)
suggests that students should learn interaction
with their environment, skills of cooperation and
collaboration and evaluation should become less
individualistic and more collaborative. The
applicability of these last criteria to African
musical arts is notable.
Cushner et al. (2006, p. 393) discuss key elements
of multiple forms of assessment: students should
not only illustrate their knowledge and/or skill,
but also problem-solving ability (how you create
or apply while performing); they should
participate actively in the “in-process” evaluation,
and standards should not differ for different
students.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

We are clearly not interested in generic
assessment tests but in standards-based
assessment, as found in Outcome(s)-based
education (OBE), adopted inter alia by postApartheid South African education. OBE, widely
understood as standards-based education, does not
focus on traditional content-based education,
working within a specific time-frame, but on
universal standards with students expected to
demonstrate their knowledge and ability. Such
education rejects social promotion and
inevitability of inferior performance by
disadvantaged groups, recognizing that some will
learn faster than others; yet all are capable of
continuous improvement. OBE’s underlying belief
is that everyone can learn, regardless of ability,
race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender.
Its aim is to set a world class standards-level
(Wikipedia).
According to Carver (2002,), “applying standards
to
different
musical
styles
suggests…complexities. Standards are easier to
apply when the emphasis is on the products of
learning, but continuous assessment requires that
ongoing work and associated skills be assessed,
including practical music-making skills” (pp. 614). We agree with Gibson (1992) who supports a
praxialvi approach as giving flexibility to build a
broad curriculum not embedded in culturally
specific outcomes. She adds that “the focus of the
[praxial] curriculum is on understanding the
process of music-making within a particular
context and not on the attainment of a particular,
qualitative product”, continuing: “The quality of
products is not sacrificed as the fulfillment of the
artistic standards of particular music practices
guarantees a level of artistry and a quality of
music rarely found in uncontextualized
approaches” (p.41). Process-focused assessment
techniques must be applied; these may require a
range of skills such as assessing of learners’ and
educators’ journals, recording of performances,
feedback from peers and educators, and self
assessment. Where music performance takes place
within an ensemble, evaluation needs to adapt
accordingly (see Elliott, 1995, p. 264). “Standards
will not refer to finite products, be they sonic or
textual, but to processes and products which
incorporate relevant knowledge, skills and values”
(Carver, 2002, pp. 6-14).
Standards do not necessarily imply either unit
standardsvii or standardization: African music has
“many voices”. “Intertextuality of voices”viii has to
be considered; “authentic” African music, hybrid
music, “speech types in a single utterance” music,
popular music, contemporary music, etc. These
terminologies are confusing but important in

127

determining and answering the question: “What
can be standardized about African musics?”

What are generic cross-culturalix
standards?
“Generic cross-cultural standards” mean allpurpose standards appropriate for large, rather
than specific, classes or groups (Encarta
Dictionary UK). The term “generic cross-cultural
standards” may be approached as “hybrid”, “all
encompassing” or “generalised” standards for
different cultural groups. Meyer (1991), in
contrast,
suggests
focusing
on
mutual
understanding. But, adds Kordes (1991), in order
to address cross-over standards, a point of
intercultural competence (see also Borrelli, 1991)
should first be reached by at least assessors and
students in the different cultures.
The influence of students’ culture determines the
abilities that are not only important in their
cultures, but have been developed/learned, as well
as the:
context and strategies in which they are
expressed….In many ways an individual's cultural
experiences (defined rather broadly) determine the
kinds of abilities that are important … and are
therefore learned as well … as the context and
strategies in which they are expressed. (Cushner et
al. 2006, p. 395)

Context and authenticity are increasingly
approached from their delightfully confusing
contemporary realities. The challenges posed by
music travelling through time, place and contexts
are being addressed for what they are: fascinating
studies in the dynamic life of music, education
and culture (Mithen, 2006).

WHICH STANDARDS SHOULD BE
ASSESSED IN AFRICAN MUSICAL
ARTS?
Examining the essences of musics in question and
assessment standards of international examining
bodies such as the Associated Board of the Royal
Schools of Music (ABRSM) can be researched, as
can investigating evaluation outside graded music
exam systems and the general principle of
recognition of prior learning. These assessment
principles should be examined in a neutral spacex
“along the border zones of cultural contact” where
“innovation and improvisation intensify” (Bakhtin
in Papastergiadis, 2005, p.56). And by exploring
this “Third Space (sic) we may elude the politics
of polarity and emerge as the others of our selves”
(Bhabha, 1994, pp. 38,39).
There are, in Philip Mundey’s words (personal
communication, 2007):
widely accepted understandings as to what
constitutes average progress for developing

128

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

musicians learning, say, the piano or an orchestral
instrument. Incremental targets and outcomes have
been established … and they serve a useful
practical purpose in setting goals and motivating
and rewarding individual students.

Mundey (personal communication, 2007) feels
that in his experience these understandings are
less well articulated elsewhere, and, except to an
extent with some Indian and Chinese music
traditions, he has seen little evidence that
“practitioners have the stomach for the long,
arduous and extremely expensive process of
analysis, consultation, development, consensus
achievement, publication programme and
accreditation which is crucial to such a project
gaining the support of the community concerned”.
Nevertheless he suggests such a process being
“put in train for some, at least, of the musics of
Africa”.

WHO SHOULD ASSESS AFRICAN
MUSICAL ARTS?
We agree that, according to the checklist for
authenticity devised by Tucker (1992) in
consultation with the Society for Ethnomusicology
Education Committee, material preparation should
involvement someone within the culture. We seek
assistance from practising African musicians and
believe that by exploring the dynamics of the
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
(DMIS) as suggested by Bennett (1993)xi, the
Seven Continuum Transmission Model (SCTM)
by Schippers (2004) and Omibiyi’s (1973) Model
of an African Music Curriculum offer a basis for
African musical arts assessment. From such
models, mediators/translators between African
and Western standards can evaluate their
capability and sensitivity. We see ourselves on the
continuum between these cultural perspectives:
understanding both is possible, even if the African
system is community based, whereas the Western
system is characterized by a competitive, formally
structured Western philosophy.
Mundey (personal communication, 2007) claims
that, if ABRSM were to examine, say, tabla, they
should apply the same level of expertise they
bring to the assessment of Western classical
music. So culture bearing comes into the frame.
This
leads inevitably to other quality assurance
questions, not least to do with ‘proximity’ (the
examiner being known to and knowing the
candidates/teachers she/he is to examine - or
revisiting centres too regularly), and with ongoing
training,
standardization,
professional
development, monitoring and moderating of the
panel of examiners. Examination by specialist
instrumentalist (rather than by specialist in the

idiom) seems to be a prerequisite for practitioners
in some traditions.

Mundey (personal communication, 2007) also
mentions:
lengthy discussions with the Royal Scottish
Academy of Music and Drama about the
assessment of Scottish traditional instruments …
The sorts of challenge faced include how to
achieve parity of expectation across the
instrumental disciplines and, crucially, how to run
a commercially viable service with relatively small
numbers of candidates in isolated geographical
pockets. Finally, accreditation is very necessary
these days if a system is to be taken seriously, and
governmental ministries and non-governmental
agencies
require
painstakingly
detailed
documentation
of
every
aspect
of
national/international exam programmes before
accreditation is offered.

Who will undertake structured assessment of
African music, hitherto neglected? The aspect of
emic/etic roles for assessors needs to be
considered, bearing in mind that even African
music’s doyen, Nketia (2005, p. 54), has noted:
“There is no reason why we should not recognize
acculturation as a special field of study concerned
with the processes that go into the creation and recreation of music”. According to Lett
(http://faculty.ircc.edu/faculty/jlett/Default.htm):
Emic knowledge is essential for an intuitive and
empathic understanding of a culture, and it is
essential for conducting effective ethnographic
fieldwork. Furthermore, emic knowledge is often a
valuable source of inspiration for etic hypotheses.
Etic knowledge, on the other hand, is essential for
cross-cultural comparison, the sine qua non of
ethnology, because such comparison necessarily
demands standard units and categories.

Flolu (2003) is only one of many authors
recommending further research on educational
frameworks and publications within which:
development of strategies for teaching African
music to non-Africans can be situated” in order for
music educators to “understand the creative
principles of ethnic music making and the attitude
of ethnic musicians to the music of other cultures,
and to decide how to integrate these with modem
conceptions of musical instruction. (p. 8)

This includes the aspect of assessment.

WHO ARE WE TO PRESENT THIS
PAPER?
South African political developments since 1994
motivated concentrating “on the slow working
together of cultures that overlap, [and] borrow
from each other.” We believe one should “live
together in far more interesting ways than any
abridged or inauthentic mode of understanding
can allow” (Said, 2003, p. xxii). Yet approaching

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

the “truth” (Clifford, 1988, p. 10) of the
measurability of African musics, as white South
Africans, is difficult.
Both born and still living and working in South
Africa, we consider engaging with African music
as a way forward to negotiate “space” for the
assessment of African music for both nonAfricans and Africans. Although both Western
classically trained, we have learnt, performed and
continue to engage with African music as
endogenous experience and a way of
enculturation. We closely align our musical
identities to Ntuli’s (2001) notion of
“endogenous,” referring to indigenous knowledge
received from sources outside the original. As we
are not ethnically classified as African, this
“received knowledge” has been assimilated and
integrated into our perspectives, becoming part of
what Ntuli calls “collective heritage.”
Hopefully as agents of change in our
environments, we consider the creation of neutral
space where, through intercultural sensitivity,
difference and otherness can be negotiated when
addressing assessment of African musics. We
have moved on the continuum to, from our
perspective, an adaptation phase, and most
importantly and consciously, an area where
boundaries are more flexible and permeable. We
intentionally review our own situation and that of
African music assessment, in order to negotiate
empathetically new boundaries and perspectives
needed for the construction of curricula/syllabi/
assessment standards in free and neutral space
(see Joseph & Human, 2007).
We have had to (re)negotiate our white South
African identities, considering our “endogenous”
identities, related to our “collective African
heritage.” We have learnt that our identities not
only “lie on the borderline between oneself
[ourselves] and the other”, but, whether by birth
or place, our roots are already “half someone
else’s” (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 293). Thus we believe
that African music practitioners can also accept
the implied identity extension to include the
aspect and potential benefits of generic crosscultural assessment standards of “their”/all of our
African musical arts.

Here we follow the definition by Nzewi (2003, p. 13)
of musical arts as those in which “the performance arts
disciplines of music, dance, drama, poetry and costume
art are seldom separated from music in creative
thinking and performance practice.”
ii

“Translation is always a shift not between two
languages [or music languages], but between two
cultures … A translator must take into account rules
that are … broadly speaking, cultural” (Eco, 2003, p.
82). “Cultural translation” in the discipline of music is
a form of negotiation, a process of give and take
between two different cultures, where the culture
around the musical text gives meaning to the text.
iii

“The field of African musics poses some special
problems because it has been excluded from the
curriculum in the past and because the informal
learning traditions need careful attention if they are to
be adapted to formal learning contexts. A simple
substitution of African for Western music theory,
history and instrumental practice is not an appropriate
course of action, as African musics are rooted in a
philosophical framework that is quite different from
that of Western music” (Carver, 2002, p. ii).

“According to Elliott (1995, p. 264), a key element of
assessment is the provision of constructive feedback for
learners. This feedback enables the learners to reflect
on their progress and set new goals. It is another area
that requires musicianship in the educator … In the
case of African musics, educators need to be
completely familiar with the values of the music in
order to assess the success of the learners” (Carver,
2002, pp.6-23).
v

“Standardisation of indigenous music presents a
challenge insofar as examples of music have not been
systematically graded in syllabi. However, there is a
long tradition of music competitions which have
established standards of excellence according to the
performance values of the various styles. These
competitions do not cover all the styles that potentially
may be used to build curricula, and the responsibility to
assess accurately will fall on educators and informed
culture bearers. Competitions do present a conundrum
as regards the non-competitive nature of communal
African music-making …” (Carver, 2002, pp. 6-14).
vi

This clearly refers to the well-known approach
propagated by David Elliott. Further detail will not be
supplied in this paper.
vii

“These are statements of desired education and
training outcomes and their associated assessment
criteria” (Carver, 2002, pp. 1-13). “Unit standards must
include performance and assessment criteria and thus

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

are statements against which students can be assessed”
(Carver, 2002, p. 5-2). “Because each country has its
own particular history and social structure, each set of
standards carries within it the particular concerns of
that society … The present study suggests Performing,
Appraising and Creating as curriculum areas for
African musics in South Africa” (Carver , 2002, p. 54).
viii

According to Klein (2005), “intertextuality” is the
“cultural net of musical texts”, where “books speak
among themselves” (Klein, 2005, p. 1). In
contextualising our approach, towards generic crosscultural standards, we would like to draw a parallel
between Klein’s approach of “intertextuality” in art
music and generic and cross-cultural standards for
African music.
ix

The term “cross-cultural” can, according to various
authors, be replaced with trans/inter/multi-cultural,
with slightly different meanings attached by different
authorities.
x Bhabha (1994, pp. 38,39) explores the “third space”
or the space where cultures are able to interact and
negotiate unhindered. Third Space thinking is never
beyond the classical structures of identity and culture,
but the “renegotiations and insertions within and
between these identities can transform an
understanding of the dynamics of these categories”
(Papastergiadis 2005, p. 61).
xi

See also the closely related work by Banks (1988), on
ethnic identity development.

131

The Four Identity Dimensions of Music
Festivals
Sidsel Karlsen
Department of Music and Media, Luleå University of Technology
Luleå, Sweden
sidsel.karlsen@ltu.se

ABSTRACT
In this paper, I describe four dimensions of
identity work found in data collected through a
case study on one particular music festival. The
study’s theoretical framework was built upon
modernity theory, and the aim was to explore a
music festival as a source of informal learning
through investigating how the festival affected the
audiences’ musical identity and relation to their
local community. The findings showed that the
festival was connected to four different
dimensions of identity work: 1) the festival was an
arena for lifestyle choices; 2) it provided a basis
for the audiences’ self-regulatory strategies with
music; 3) it functioned as an outward
manifestation of community identity; and 4) it was
an occasion for reinforcement of social and
cultural community identity. In the study’s
epistemological framework of situated learning,
identity work and learning is closely connected.
Hence, the festival’s potential for being an arena
for informal processes of music learning through
impact on identity is discussed.

KEYWORDS
identity, music festival,
informal learning processes

modernity

theory,

INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses four dimensions of identity
work found in the data of a festival case study.
The study investigated the festival’s impact on the
musical identity of its audience and the local
identity of its host municipalities. The overall aim
was to explore the festival as a source of informal
processes of music learning.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The theoretical framework of the present study
built heavily upon theories of modernity (Beck,
1994; Giddens, 1990, 1991; Hall, 1992; Lyotard,
1984). This framework made it possible to put
into perspective identity development in
contemporary societies, whilst also throwing light
on other aspects of late modernity that were
recognisable in the music festival, such as the
dialectic between the local and the global and the
disembedding of social institutions. A late modern
understanding allows identity development to be
ISBN 9780980456028

seen as a reflexive project, created and maintained
by self-narratives. It also opens to the possibility
of people having several parallel and mutually
contradictory identities. The matter of music and
identity was further approached through the
theories of Hargreaves, Miell and MacDonald
(2002), Ruud (1997) and DeNora (2000, 2003).
As identities in general, musical identity is also
constructed through narratives, and the possession
of parallel musical identities is possible. Music
was discussed both as a means for the outward
staging of identity (Ruud, 1997), as material for
the everyday construction and reconstruction of
the self (DeNora, 2000, 2003), as a means of a
simultaneous experience of the subjective and the
collective (Frith, 1996), and as interconnected to
and interplaying with other, extra-musical aspects
of the self (Hargreaves et al., 2002). The festival’s
significance for the development of local identity
in its host municipalities was looked into using
theory and empirically based writings from the
field of festival research. In this perspective,
festivals are seen as connected to a community’s
social identity (Falassi, 1987), as image-makers
(Quinn, 2005), as enhancing community identity
(Delamere, 2001), and as creating opportunities
for attendants to draw on shared stories, cultural
practices and ideals (Ekman, 1999). The theory of
situated learning developed by Lave and Wenger
(1991) and Wenger (1998) was used as the study’s
epistemological framework, and the music festival
was explored as a community of practice, in
which the peripheral participation of the festival
attendees might lead to learning. This theory
emphasises learning and identity work as
integrated, mutually dependent processes.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

does the festival influence the audiences’ relation
to their local community?

This overarching question was further explored
through three specific research sub-questions,
concentrating respectively on how the festival
affected the audience’s construction of their
musical self-narratives; how the festival
contributed, both as a happening and in terms of
its content and form, to the audience’s
development and maintenance of parallel musical
identities; and how the festival contributed to the
development of local identity in the communities
in which it was arranged.

METHOD
The overall design of the research project was that
of a case study. Using the terminology of Yin
(2003), it was defined as an embedded singlecase, with one case, the festival, and two units of
analysis: 1) how the festival affected the
development of the audiences’ musical identity;
and 2) how it contributed to the development of
the local identity of its host municipalities.
Following Yin’s advice of collecting information
from multiple sources, the data was derived
through observations, defined as participantobservation because the researcher took the role of
an active member researcher (Adler & Adler,
1994); a survey, using a questionnaire; semistructured interviews; documentation in the form
of some of the festival’s administrative
documents, concert programmes and newspaper
clippings; and archival records in the form of
information from the festival’s budget and
accounts. Observations were made of 21 festival
events, 350 members of the festival audience
participated in the survey, and 12 of the survey
respondents were selected for in-depth interviews,
using a maximum variation sampling strategy
(Miles & Huberman, 1994). In addition, four
official
representatives
from
the
host
municipalities of the festival were interviewed.
This rich and varied data called for different
analytical approaches. These were categorisation
(Kvale, 1996); the creation of matrixes and
creating data displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994);
finding and creating narratives to enable narrative
analysis (Mishler, 1991; Riessman, 1993); and
statistical processing of survey data.

FINDINGS
The findings showed that four different
dimensions of identity work were present in the
data. Firstly, the festival was an arena for lifestyle
choices (Bocock, 1992), through its provision of
social rooms wherein the attendees could be seen
shopping for those lifestyles, cultural and musical
experiences that had strong distinctive value for

them (Bourdieu, 1984). The festival attendees also
had possibilities for staging the different aspects
of the self and cultivate many expressions of selfidentity (Hall, 1992). However, most members of
the festival audience chose to confirm and
maintain pre-existing identities instead of using
the festival arena for exploratory purposes.
Secondly, the festival provided a basis for its
audiences’ self-regulatory strategies (DeNora,
2000, p. 52) with music, and an arena for musicrelated identity work of a more inward kind, such
as emotional, memory and biographical (p. 45)
work. At this level, the audiences’ attendance was
connected to coping, generating pleasure, creating
a sense of occasion, and regulating feelings,
moods, concentration and energy levels (pp. 16,
53). Through these processes, the festival
attendees told themselves about who they were
through the music, and constructed, reinforced
and repaired the “inner” thread of self-identity (p.
62). Thirdly, the festival functioned at the
municipal level to advertise the identity of the
community or as an outward manifestation of
community identity. The festival was used as a
trademark to market its host municipalities and
also, as part of a larger plan, to strengthen a
particular municipality’s profile, thereby it
enhanced the community image (Delamere, 2001;
Gursoy, Kim & Uysal, 2004) and contributed to
the municipality’s work of deciding who they
wanted to present themselves as to the outside
world. Fourthly, the festival became an occasion
for reinforcement of social and cultural
community identity by creating opportunities for
drawing on shared stories, shared cultural
practices and ideals (Ekman, 1999) by artists
telling stories about local past and present
happenings, prejudices, traditions and customs.
Some of the concerts also gave examples of how
music symbolises and offers an “experience of
collective identity” (Frith, 1996, p. 121), and how
people come to know themselves as groups
“through cultural activity” (p. 111). Through these
activities, local continuity was enhanced (Ekman,
1999) and local history and culture was promoted.
Hence, the festival represented a strong tool for
telling community members or inhabitants who
they were. Summing up, it seems that a music
festival has four dimensions of identity work to
maintain and develop both individual and
municipality identity. Each of these has an
outward and an inward dimension. The different
dimensions interact with and affect each other,
and should therefore not be seen as completely
separate entities. Nonetheless, the figure below
provides a provisional model of the identity
dimensions
of
music
festivals.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

135

MUNICIPALITY

INDIVIDUAL

Table 1. The four identity dimensions of music festivals.

OUTWARD DIMENSION

INWARD DIMENSION

Arena for lifestyle choices

Basis for self-regulatory
strategies
Feeling, remembering and
knowing “who I am” and
“how I came to be this way”

Displaying, staging and
choosing
“who to be” and “who I am”
Outward manifestation of
community identity
Deciding “who we want to
present ourselves as to the
outside world”

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
As can be seen above, music festivals have
features that allow for attendees to generate and
maintain the stories about ourselves “that we tell
others and indeed ourselves” (Hargreaves et al.,
2002, p. 10) in order to construct meaningful
connections (Hall, 1992) and continuity in the
floating, ephemeral and open-ended identity work
of late modernity. A music festival enables the
past, present and future aspects of identity work,
from “how I came to be this way,” through “who I
am” to “who I want to appear as or become.” In
the present study’s chosen epistemological
framework, this work of becoming – the identity
work that combines the experience of being-inthe-world with the reflexivity necessary for
creating a sense of inner self – is not only a kind
of identity development, but also a process of
learning (Wenger, 1998). For instance, from the
data connected to the inward identity dimension of
the festival as a basis for self-regulatory strategies,
examples could be found of audience processing
grief, remembering childhood, reinforcing
Christian faith and regulating moods. These
activities can be related to Small’s (1998) concept
of “musicking,” meaning an action or a series of
actions that people do towards, with or alongside
music. In the examples above, the festival
attendants “musicked” internally as individual
listeners, though still together with others,
participating in a musical performance – the
concert. In other examples, not discussed here, the
musicking was more of an external activity. What
the audiences participating in these processes had

Occasion for reinforcement
of social and cultural
community identity
Telling, retelling and
celebrating “who we are”
in common was that the work they carried out
with music helped them make meanings, and gave
structure not only to their musical experiences, but
also to their experiences in general. Through
festival-related processes, the “musicking”
attendees told and retold themselves, by feeling,
remembering and knowing not only “who they
were,” but also “how they came to be this way.”
Hence, they also learnt about themselves through
or via music. Furthermore, they also learnt about
themselves as members of a community or
municipality. Other findings from the study, not
discussed in full in this paper, showed that the
audience also learned features of the music itself.
For instance, they learned to be familiar with and
enjoy musical styles and genres and to distinguish
between different music instruments, and the
festival attendees also learned about music in
different ways, for instance the history of some of
the music presented and “facts” about names of
composers and pieces of music. Summing up, it
seems that music festivals have large potentials
for being important sources for informal processes
of music learning through their impact on identity
maintenance and development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgments go to the structural funds of
EU – the Objective 1-programme – and to the
Department of music and media at Luleå
University of Technology for providing the
financial support necessary for conducting the
study.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT
This qualitative study explores the connection
between participation in singing and the
development of leadership qualities in women.
The theoretical framework upon which this
exploration is based is transformative learning,
which is a process of making meaning of one’s life
experiences. My assertion is that singing can be a
transformative learning process that enables a
shift away from limiting perspectives and toward
developing leadership qualities in women via
experiential
learning,
learning
within
relationship, public performance, and the inner
journey
of
reflection
and
subsequent
understanding that leads to individuation.
Women in every generation have fought for the
right to be heard, to participate in the leadership
of our society, to have voice both metaphorically
and literally. Indeed, the word “voice” is often
used as a metaphor for leadership, as well as for
personal leadership development. Voice is linked
to identity for the individual as she knows herself
and presents herself in context of her
environment, and identity emerges from selfreflection as well as communication with others. It
emerges from hearing and being heard.
Frequently, though, female voices are dismissed
or subverted. For women to claim their equitable
rights as leaders and meaning makers in this
society, they must know themselves, believe in
themselves, and make themselves heard.
Joyce (1996) addresses this when describing her
work using singing as a teaching tool with women.
She has found that the path of learning inherent in
singing engenders a holistic experience that
fosters self-knowledge and mastery, a sense of
power, well-being, and agency. These very
qualities are key components of effective leaders.
For this study, I engaged in narrative inquiry in
the form of semi-structured interviews with nine
female leaders of varying ages, backgrounds, and
professions who regularly participated in singing
for a minimum of three years. Through this
ISBN 9780980456028

inquiry, I investigated what these women learned
via singing and what meaning they made of their
singing experiences, especially as those
experiences pertained to their developing
identities and actions as leaders. I found that the
journey into revealing one’s voice through singing
can be one of self-discovery - empowering one to
find new meanings, new aspects of oneself that
enlarge and transform one’s identity. Three key
themes are central to this journey - Commitment,
Connection, and Congruence. These themes, in
dialectic relationship with one another, facilitate
the development of certain qualities, habits of
mind, and ways of being that enable a personal
transformation in service of a greater potential for
leadership.
The narrative stories shared by my participants
may inspire other women to embark on their own
learning journeys. As well, the findings of this
study could be of value to researchers in the field
of female development and to anyone working
with, teaching, coaching or advising women who
wants to encourage their authentic voices and the
growth of their leadership capabilities.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Frequently, though, female voices are ignored or
subverted, particularly as they age (Taylor,
Gilligan and Sullivan, 1995; Brown and Gilligan,
1992). Yet, for women to claim their equitable
rights as leaders and meaning makers in their
communities, they must know themselves and
make themselves heard. Belenky, Clinchy,
Goldberger, and Tarule (1997) have noted that the
development of a sense of voice, mind, and self
are closely knit. Joyce (1996) addresses this when
describing her work with the Women of Courage
program. She has found that participation in
singing engenders a holistic experience that
fosters self-knowledge and mastery as well as a
sense of power, well-being and agency in her
students. As a singer, voice teacher, and music
educator who has worked with diverse
populations of women, I have seen how
participation in singing can foster self-awareness,
self-confidence, and presence in my female
students. These are many of the qualities upon
which the development of a leader rests (Gergen,
2005). Therefore, to foster in females the wellbeing and self-knowledge that is the basis of
leadership potential, we must encourage them to
develop their voices, literally as well as
figuratively. We must foster the empowerment of
women through their expressive voices.
My goal is to share what I have learned from
studying women leaders who participated in
singing, and how they felt participation in singing
influenced the development of their leadership
capabilities. My research was guided by one
central question: How might participation in
singing foster leadership qualities in women? I
defined “participation in singing” as having
studied voice for a minimum of three years and
having significant solo performance experience.
Specific questions that underscore the main
question are: (a) What effect might voice lessons
have on the student’s awareness of her voice, (b)
what self-understanding might she gain from
exploring her voice, (c) how is her teacher
instrumental in shaping her awareness of and
confidence in her voice and herself, (d) how might
studying voice affect other aspects of her life, and
(e) how does the experience of performing in front
of an audience affect her? In short, what
transformative learning happens for women who
participate in singing and what meaning do these
women make of their singing experiences,
especially as those experiences pertain to their
developing identities?

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Transformative learning is a process of making
meaning of one’s life experiences. The theory,
first introduced by Mezirow (1991), originally

centered on three themes: centrality of past
experience, critical reflection on that experience,
and rational discourse to examine and make or reinterpret meaning about the experience. As
expanded upon by others, the meaning and
methods of transformative learning have enlarged
to include transformation as individuation (Boyd,
1991); transformative learning via experiential
learning (Gallagher as cited in Taylor, 1998);
transformation as affected by self-perception in
public interpersonal contexts (Tice, 1992); and the
impact
of
learning-within-relationship
on
transformative learning (Barlas, 2001). My
assertion is that singing can be a transformative
learning process that enables a shift away from
limiting perspectives and toward developing
leadership qualities in women via experiential
learning, learning within relationship, public
performance, and the inner journey of reflection
and subsequent understanding that leads to
individuation.
I have found scant primary research on singing as
an instrument for personal development in either
men or women. Patteson’s study (1999) supports
the idea that singing lessons empower and foster
personal well-being in women. Smithrim (1998)
found that singing was important to the emotional
and spiritual lives of her subjects, and Joyce
(1996) documented her use of singing as an
experiential teaching tool that provides a holistic
growth experience for abused women. While these
studies informed my thinking about the multileveled role that singing can play in the lives of
women, each focused solely on the personal
engagement in singing, not on the challenges and
growth potential that performing for an audience
provides for the solo singer. Further, no research
exists, to my knowledge, on singing per se as a
tool for leadership development or as a tool for
perspective transformation.
However, the work of Tice (1992) and Boyd
(1991)in the field of transformative learning
seems to support my premise. Boyd’s discussion
of individuation as the discovery of new talents,
confidence, sense of personal responsibility, and
empowerment provides integral links to the path
of learning within a voice lesson. Tice imparts,
from her investigation of change in self-concept
through public behavior, that publicly affecting a
behavior can lead to adopting that behavior as a
part of one’s self-concept. This relates to the
public performance aspect of singing. When a
singer performs in front of an audience, she
embodies a personality and displays the courage
to use her voice in public. In other settings, she
must conform, comply, even corrupt her voice. In
performance, however, she is free to reveal her

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

natural voice. Having this witnessed by an
audience is a powerful affirmation for her and can
contribute significantly to constructing a positive
self-perception. Using her voice in public
becomes a source of vigor, for performers “must
have a strong sense of self” (Gardner, 1994, p.
330).
We think of education as a life-long endeavor
through which we unfold. So, too, can it be in the
context of a woman learning to sing, exploring her
voice, learning about herself and her capabilities,
then sharing her voice in public and gaining
strength from all that is inherent in the act of
public performance. Within this autopoietic
learning system, the singer lives in relationship to
all things influencing her. Becoming aware of
how and what she learns and becoming more
aware of herself, she is better able to appropriate
new meanings that help her make choices, use her
voice, and direct her own life (Herda, 1999).

METHOD OF INQUIRY
I used narrative inquiry, focusing on life-story
interviews that allowed my participants to freely
reveal their thoughts and ideas about whether
participation in singing contributed to the
development of their leadership qualities. Just as
Clandinin and Connelly (2000) see “teacher and
teacher knowledge as expressions of embodied
individual and social stories” (p. 4), so the women
in my study embodied individual and social
stories about their involvement in singing. The
most important part of my research was to
discover what meaning my informants constructed
from their singing experiences and how they
comprehended the effects of participation in
singing on their development as leaders. My
search was not for sameness of results but for
coherence of meaning in their stories.
My participants shared their reflections about their
singing experiences as those experiences were
situated in “the continuity and wholeness of an
individual’s life experience” (Clandinin and
Connelly, 2000, p. 17). I, as the inquirer, was
careful to be “wakeful” (p. 184), which meant
being thoughtful and aware of my choices during
each conversation. I was also aware that my
personal biography is “thoroughly entwined with
the research project” (Kirby and McKenna as
cited in Patteson, 2000, p. 34). I am a singer and
have worked closely with female voice students
and performers. On one hand this background
gave me an appreciation of what my respondents
spoke about. On the other hand, though I aimed
for fairness and accuracy, my biases and
experiences certainly colored my interactions with
my participants as well as my reactions to the data

139

that I collected and analyzed. Therefore, in being
wakeful, I was careful to state my biases
forthrightly, particularly to my respondents, so
that the inquiry proceeded from the basis of
honesty.

SYNTHESIS OF CONTENT
The meaning that my respondents derived from
their involvement with singing tells the story and
reveals the meta–meaning of my exploration,
which Karpf (2006) fittingly expresses: “Finding
one’s voice…is a powerful experience, with the
capacity to alter one’s view of oneself and one’s
place in the world” (p. 131). Through participation
in singing, a transformation in their understanding
of themselves and their capabilities occurred. In
developing their voices, they developed aspects of
their individual identities and awareness of their
individual capacities. They developed a sense of
efficacy around singing that enabled their attitudes
of efficacy in other areas, including leadership.
The habits that they adopted and applied toward
the pursuit of singing turned into situated
behaviors, ways of thinking and being that these
women carried into their work lives. These habits
of mind and ways of being fall into three themes,
which live in dialectic relationship with one
another:
Commitment,
Connection,
and
Congruence. That this development occurred for
these women as they explored their voices is
significant because of the strong association
between voice and identity, between having a
voice and being known (Belenky et al, 1997).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
The issue of voice is important, especially for
women, because to have voice is to have identity.
Belenky et al (1997), refer to women having a
sense of voice as “the hallmark of women’s
emergent sense of self and sense of agency and
control” (p. 68).
To have voice is also to have the potential to lead.
Literal and figurative voice – how one
communicates her values, how one interacts in the
world – are the core of one’s identity and are
central to becoming an authentic leader. Leaders
“have to convey the integrity of an authentic,
congruent self” (Parks, 2005, p. 107). Leaders
who facilitate others to create change are those
who lead from within. Their habits of mind and
ways of being secure their individual sense of self,
sense of purpose, commitment, confidence and
personal congruence. The women in my study
seem to embody such qualities and have indicated
that their participation in singing helped foster
and/or reinforce these qualities.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The integral relationship between voice, selfexpression, and identity speaks to the evolution of
the self. My respondents, through their
participation in singing, took the time to evolve
their voices and themselves to fullness. Their
stories are rich with the meaning that they made
from their experiences. They tell, in part, of the
habits of mind and ways of being that blossomed
over time, within and without, as they mastered
singing. They tell what these women learned
about themselves and their capabilities that
transformed and enlarged their individual sense of
self, and fostered congruence. They tell, too, how
these women appropriated these qualities and
capabilities for their work as leaders. Their voices
represent who they are and express the fullness of
their individuality.
In our society, women’s voices are still, in large
part, given scant attention compared to men’s.
Ultimately, the tragedy of this is the loss of what
women have to contribute to their communities.
When women find their voices, they find their
identities. They discover their power. They
express what they have to give. They begin to
lead. The possibilities inherent in this are
manifold, for women and for society as a whole.
Because of our society’s ever-present systemic
challenges, we can ill-afford to ignore the voices
of women. We must tap the polysemy of women’s
voices yet unheard and reap the fruits of their
creative spirits. My research demonstrates that
participation in singing can be a powerful
transformative learning experience, enabling
women to gain their voices, encourage the growth
of their identities, make themselves heard and
realize their vanguard potential as leaders.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Using Music for Learning: A Case
Study of Foreign Spouses’ Preschool
Children
Angela Hao Chun Lee
Department of Early Childhood Education, Transworld Institute of Technology
Douliou, Yunlin, Taiwan, China

ABSTRACT
In the past ten years or more, in order to be
educationally responsive, early childhood
educators have needed to become sensitive to the
issues facing the children of foreign parents. The
Ministry of the Interior in Taiwan (2007)
estimated that, at the end of 1998, there were
22,905 foreign spouses living in Taiwan, of which
20,596 were women. This figure has increased: by
the end of June 2007, there were 341,859 foreign
spouses, of which 309,337 were women. The
reason for this change in population
demographics is the number of people
immigrating for marriage. Documentation from
the Ministry of the Interior also indicated that
newborn babies with foreign mothers increased
from 5.12% in 1998 to 10.52% at the end of April
2007. From 1998 to the end of April 2007, there
were approximately 229,210 babies born from
foreign mothers. The first female spouse
immigrated to Taiwan in the late 1970’s, at which
time there was an influx of immigrants from
different nations. A serious consequence of
immigration is that cultural barriers effect the
integration of both the mothers and their children.
Some experts have suggested that many
Taiwanese men who marry women from other
nations belong to social minorities, including
elderly men, men with low levels of education, or
men who are physically or financially
disadvantaged
This paper raises some broad issues and presents
vigorous debate about the future provision of
learning of music for preschool aged children
with foreign spouses (3-6 year olds) in Taiwan.
The current change in population demographics
has great significance for local communities and
government who wish to consider the quality of
education for the children of foreign spouses. It
argues that some researchers believe that the
cultural differences that foreign spouses’ children
experience has the effect of delaying the learning
of these children. This case study involves four
participants: two teachers (Mary and Amy) and
two children (Wendy and Andrew) who are
interviewed by the researcher. The interviews are
analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological
ISBN 9780980456028

Analysis (IPA). The interview questions for
teachers (Mary and Amy) focus on the content of
the learning attitudes and abilities of children.
Questions for children pertain to what the
students like and dislike in the musical activity
classes taught by teachers and why. The findings
from this study may be used to gain an
understanding of how children of foreign spouses
do not only experience improvement in the
symptoms of developmental delay through the
learning of musical activities but are also helped
in their development of confidence and selfesteem. This paper makes the assertion that there
are many valuable activities that occur through
learning music that can enhance the ability of
foreign spouses’ children to learn other subjects.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

social welfare institutions and academics. The
challenge consists of finding means for the
government to educate the masses about diversity
and setting up programs that help foreign spouses
and their children assimilate into society.
A report from a seminar of Educational
Department stated “cultural differences can slow
down the learning process of children in
interracial marriages” (Wu, 2004, p. 9; Yiu,
2004). Chief executive officer of the Pearl S.
Buck Foundation, Kathy Ke, argues that the
cultural differences that these children have to
negotiate has the effect of delaying the learning
processes of these children; more specifically,
they exhibit difficulties expressing themselves
verbally, imitating others, and developing an age
appropriate vocabulary (Yiu, 2004). News editor
Ding reported that many Kindergarten teachers
found that the delayed language development that
occurs with having a parent who speaks a
different language results in a slower ability to
learn and decreased concentration. Not
surprisingly, these children also tend to lack
confidence and be less self-reliant. Their negative
social behaviors may, in turn, cause problems
when they grow up (Ding, 2003). Mo and Lai
(2004) maintained that foreign spouses who came
to Taiwan did not have proper language training
that caused their Mandarin to be pronounced with
their own mother-tongue accent. This might effect
their children’s pronunciation. The children may
then be subjected to teasing at school, which in
turn causes poor social relationships and increased
learning barriers. Wang and Chang (2002) found
that foreign spouses’ children had poor
vocabularies and used less complex sentences in
comparison to other children in the same age
bracket. Decreased active communication with
others, decreased social behavior, and a lack of
additional supported learning (for example,
language learning games) at schools are
considered
responsible
for
language
developmental delay (Chang, 2006; Wang &
Chang, 2002; Wu, 2004). Results from some
medical research centers who looked at
developmental disabilities found that the children
of foreign spouses were the most effected by
language developmental delay, followed by delay
in cognitive development and behavioral
development. A serious consequence of
immigration is that cultural barriers including
language effect the integration of both the mothers
and their children (Hwang, 2007; Lin, 2003; Wu,
2004).
The following material examines past and present
literature on the way that learning music in
preschools can improve children’s abilities.

Examples are provided of the most effective
learning of music both in Taiwan and overseas
along with a set of recommendations, key
priorities and principles for the development of
future approaches and directions to improve the
quality of learning of music in Taiwanese
preschools.

THE VALUE OF MUSIC FOR
LEARNING
For decades the importance of learning of music
in early childhood has been strongly emphasized
by various music educators such as Emile Jaques
Dalcroze (1865-1950), Zoltán Kodály (18821967), Carl Orff (1895-1982), and Shinichi
Suzuki (1898-1998). In the 19th century,
educational theorists such as Froebel (1782-1852)
have emphasized the importance singing to infants
in the first period of their development has on
their growth and wellbeing (Froebel, 1894; Bates,
1897). Dalcroze, a Swiss music educator and a
prolific composer, supported Chen’s argument
that children develop their ability to concentrate
through rhythmic movement taught in early
childhood training (Lee, 1998). Shieh (1994)
argued that training in rhythmic movement would
enable children’s characters to develop more
completely, rapidly, confidently and creatively.
Kodály, a prominent Hungarian musician,
composer and ethnomusicologist as well as being
a philosopher, and educator, maintained that
“music teaching should be started in the
Kindergarten, so that the child can grasp the
fundamentals of music at an early age, since the
development of musical hearing can only be
successful if started early” (Sargeant & Sargeant,
1998,p.1). Orff, who was a German music
composer and educator, developed a pedagogical
approach and materials. Orff’s work had also been
adapted by his supporters Frazee (1987) and Chen
(1990) who suggested that word-games, riddles,
proverbs and poems from the child’s cultural
heritage can promote a knowledge of culture,
vocabulary, and ways of understanding (Chen,
1990; Frazee 1987). Spoken rhythms could also
be modified into a song to allow them to be
incorporated into a game or performed as a round.
For example, spoken rhythms should start with the
child’s everyday language and then be transferred
to natural movement and imitation, such as by
pretending to be an animal (Chen, 1990).
Music instruction for preschool education is still
as important today as it has ever been.
Researchers such as McLaughlin (1991) have
identified that “music has an important role to
play in developing children’s practical and social
skills, as well as their creativity” (p. 175). Ziv and
Goshen (2006) suggested that “both hearing music

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

and actively participating in musical games affects
emotional development and social processes” (p.
303). Stead (1999) emphasized that “music forms
an important part of the extended provision for
pupils with particular interests or abilities” (p.
130). In other words, music develops self-esteem
in the performer through his/her response to music
at his/her own level.
When considering the establishment of supportive
music programs to help foreign spouses’
preschool children, it is wise to take note of some
of the insightful ideas for preschool music
education put forward by researchers. This is
particularly important when considering how
music can be used to teach other subjects. From
the 19th century, music has supported the teaching
of language. For the Japanese authorities, music
was an important means for Taiwanese students to
learn Japanese during the Japanese protectorate
(1895-1945) (Lee, 2001).
McLaughlin (1991) found that “rhymes help to
develop a feeling for the beat, and are valuable
language experiences for young children as well.
Most kindergarten teachers have a wide range of
rhyme activities for children, and there are many
books of traditional rhymes and other speech
patterns available” (p. 184). Littleton (1989)
argued for the benefit of joining music with play
in order to form a pathway for learning. Littleton
stated that a musical play program “provided
opportunities for singing heritage songs by rote,
moving and singing with recorded music [and]
emphasizing basic skills such as color, shapes,
numbers, and letters of the alphabet” (p. xi).
Makin and Diaz (2002) pointed out that music
provided a source of pleasure and promoted
communication with others. “From the very early
years, children sing and respond to a vast range of
songs….This involvement in music continues
through childhood into adulthood, and, like
language, forms an important feature of human
cultures” (pp. 291-292).
Support for the idea that music helps to develop
cultural values, has been found as early as the
18th century when educational theorist
Pestalozzi’s (1746-1827) began educational
experiments into how music (in the form of
recreational singing) was perceived as a means of
strengthening social cohesion and inculcating
national and moral values (Rainbow, 1967). In
Taiwan, during the Japanese protectorate (18951945), one of the principles in the 1915 teaching
reference
indicated
that
psychological
development through cultivating aesthetics,
artistic taste, noble behavior, and morals could be
achieved through music (Taiwan Stokufu Office,
1915).

145

Contemplating the issue of cultural diversity,
Wright (1991) recommended that “parents, family
members and others in the community might
volunteer to sing, play an instrument or dance for
the children or to share the music of their culture”
(p. 144). Apart from the official language of
Mandarin in Taiwan, there are songs in Southern
Fukienese and Hakka dialects and an aboriginal
language that provide a mixture of diverse
cultures to draw on for the teaching of music.
Evidence supports the idea that learning of music
for preschool children should encompass the folk
traditions of these diverse cultures and suitable
materials should be selected to address the needs
of children, not only to preserve the culture but
also to promote the children’s understanding of
the concept of “nativist education”1 and encourage
their interest in learning (Lin, 1992, p. 7). Butler,
Lind, and McKoy (2007) found that in “the
rapidly changing school demographic, music
teachers should consider children from diverse
cultural backgrounds and develop pedagogical
practices in line with culturally responsive
teaching” (p. 247).

METHOD
This case study involved four participants: two
teachers (Mary and Amy) and two children
(Wendy and Andrew) who were interviewed by
the researcher. Their names have been changed to
safeguard confidentiality. The semi-structured
interviews were recorded and then transcribed.
The two teachers, Mary and Amy, were asked to
correct and confirm the interview transcript. The
advantages of the semi-structured interview as
described by Smith (2003) is that it “allows a
greater flexibility of coverage” (p. 57) allowing
the interview to proceed into new areas, which
will in turn produce for richer data. Southcott and
Simmonds (2006) stated that semi-structured
interviews “enable the participant to provide a rich
and hopefully in depth account of their
experiences and permit flexibility for the
researchers and participants to probe areas of
interest” (p. 111).
The interviews were analyzed using Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Smith and
Osborn (2003) identified that IPA “attempts to
explore personal experience and is concerned with
an individual’s personal perception or account of
an object or event….The participant are trying to
make sense of their world; the researcher is trying
to make sense of the participants trying to make
1

Hsu defined ‘nativist’ education as being where students are taught
‘about the natural history, geography, environment, dialects, arts, and
culture of Taiwan, and thus cultivate an affection for Taiwan and
respect for the island’s different cultures and ethnic groups’ (Hsu et
al., 2000, p. 48).

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

sense of their world” (p. 51). On a methodological
level, Larkin, Watts, and Clifton (2006) noted that
IPA “involves a highly intensive and detailed
analysis of the accounts produced by a
comparatively small number of participants.
These verbatim accounts are generally captured
via semi-structured interviews…and the analysis
then proceeds such that patterns of meaning are
developed, and then reported in a thematic form”
(pp. 103-104). The phenomenological analysis
created by the researcher is always overtly
interpretive (Larkin et al., 2006; Southcott &
Simmonds, 2006). Eatough and Smith (2006)
pointed out that IPA “sees the person as an
experiencing, meaning making, embodied and
discursive agent” (p. 486). Smith (2004) identifies
challenges interviewing children who may need
more guidance from the researcher.
In the analysis of data, first the researcher
identified themes and ideas present in the
transcript. The researcher will then provide a
coherent
narrative
of
the
researcher’s
interpretation of the participants’ accounts. Lastly,
the discussion will explore the implications of the
identified themes in relation to the existing
literature.

Participants
Mary is forty-six years old and married with two
children of her own. She is qualified in early
childhood education and has had more than fifteen
years of teaching experience in early childhood
institutions. Currently, she is teaching five-yearold children in a public nursery school in Douliou
City, Taiwan. There are thirty-two children in her
class and nine children of foreign spouses among
them. Amy is twenty-five years old and single.
She is qualified in early childhood education and
has had two years of teaching experience.
Currently, she is teaching four-year-old children
in the public nursery school in Yunlin county,
Taiwan. There are twenty-eight children in her
class and five children of foreign spouses among
them. Wendy is a five-year-old girl in Mary’s
class. Her mother came from Vietnam, and her
father is Taiwanese. Andrew is four-year-old boy
in Amy’s class. His mother came from Thailand,
and his father is Taiwanese.

Data Collection
An interview schedule was developed, and
classrooms were used for conducting semistructured individual interviews with Mary, Amy,
Wendy and Andrew. A mini-disk recorder was
used to record each teacher interview, which
lasted approximately one hour each. The
interviews with the children lasted five to ten
minutes each. The primary aim was for Mary and

Amy to discuss Wendy’s and Andrew’s learning
abilities and attitudes in the musical activity
classes and for Wendy and Andrew to talk about
what they liked and disliked in the musical
activity classes taught by Mary and Amy and why.
The interview with the teachers aimed to capture
the depth, richness and texture of Mary’s and
Amy’s cognitive experiences of the children
development in order to obtain a detailed
idiographic case study.

THE FIRST CASE STUDY: WENDY
When Wendy enrolled in her class, she was a shy,
quiet and disengaged girl. Her parents were busy
and did not have time to talk about or understand
Wendy’s studies. She was not willing to talk and
only used her head to indicate yes or no. When
there was a group activity occurring, she would
play on her own. Other children also complained
about her because she did not like to play or share
with others. Her teacher Mary tried hard to
encourage her to talk and to interact with the other
children but she was unsuccessful. When Wendy’s
mother picked her up after school. Mary asked her
about Wendy’s behavior at home, Wendy’s
mother said she did not have social problems.
Wendy also had a language literacy problem. Her
writing was quite slow, and it was difficult for
Mary to recognize whether Wendy could or could
not pronounce Chinese words. Mary said when
she tried harder, Wendy was not receptive and
acted strangely which frustrated her. Mary did
discover that Wendy liked the singing, dancing
and movement in the music activity class.
Unfortunately, thoug when Mary came forward to
listen and watch her, she stopped. Mary told
Wendy’s mother to pick her up later so that she
could spend some individual time teaching her
writing and reading. Mary often used songs
integrated with other things such as well-being,
moral education, life education, mathematics and
toilet training. Materials of songs and play came
from teaching references or existing melodies
with her own lyrics for some educational
purposes. After seven months, Wendy’s language
literacy and social behavior gradually improved,
and she started to enjoy joining in at drama class.
Interestingly, she also began to tidy the toys after
playing, placing them back in the original order.
When interviewed, Wendy said that she disliked
the music activities that her teacher Mary taught
because she did not think they were interesting,
although she thought Mary treated her very nicely
when she taught her literacy and other subjects.
Most of songs and movement did not attract her
attention. However, she did like the computing
teacher’s lessons, who taught children reading and
listening by the computer. Wendy said the

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

computing teacher included many songs that she
heard from TV or had on her own CDs.
Sometimes, this teacher taught them how to sing
these popular songs and did body movement to
them as well.

THE SECOND CASE STUDY: ANDREW
When Andrew enrolled in Amy’s class, he was a
quiet boy with little confidence and was anxious.
Amy found that when she asked him if he
understood what she was talking about, his
response was “I am not sure”. Andrew’s paternal
grandmother, who was born in Thailand, always
brought him to school. She could speak Mandarin
but not fluently and had less knowledge of
Chinese vocabulary. The teacher said she never
saw Andrew’s parents; and when she asked him
about them, he sounded afraid to respond and said
“they are busy.” Amy found that Andrew had
problems in language literacy and did not
complete any homework. Amy asked Andrew’s
grandmother to help him, but her response was
unpleasant. Andrew could only speak a couple of
simple sentences. He could read but had great
difficulty with writing. Amy felt very angry and
upset when she saw his homework and the work
he undertook in school. Amy said she wanted to
ignore him, but she could not because she had the
responsibility to teach him. Amy decided to spend
more time with him and asked him to stay back at
class to finish his homework after school. His
grandmother felt happy about teacher’s decision
(she could save some money from what she was
spending at the after-school care center).
However, Andrew enjoyed the music class,
especially dancing. He had a talent for dancing
without having had any training. Amy said
Andrew was very enthusiastic in music activities
in comparison to other children. He paid
considerable attention to learning single
movements and then demonstrated his ability.
Andrew could memorize the songs and
movements that Amy taught. During the music
lessons, Amy found that Andrew showed his
confidence and self-consciously smiled, which
was something she did not see very often. After
several months, Andrew had improved in
language literacy and emotional development.
When interviewed, Andrew said that he liked his
teacher’s musical activity class because she was a
“funny” teacher and her teaching attracted his
attention. Amy taught many songs, movement and
musical games that Andrew considered
interesting. Andrew said that he really enjoyed
singing, dancing and acting in the drama class.
Andrew said that he did not like doing his
homework because it was hard and there were too
many questions to answer.

147

DISCUSSION
These case studies raised a number of issues that
had also been explored in other research. For
example, both teachers believed that the children
of foreign spouses did not experience
developmental delay in the learning of musical
activity in pre-school even though they had social
and academic barriers to overcome. Both children
benefited from learning morals, life education,
and language through their engagement in music
activities. The fact that learning music placed a
very important role in child education had been
discussed by Bates (1897). In this discussion,
three particular issues will be considered.

Development of Self-esteem, Enjoyment
and Engagement
As demonstrated in the analysis of the interviews,
both teachers Mary and Amy suggested that their
pupils language literacy and social behavior had
progressed after several months of music
activities.
Furthermore,
enjoyment
and
engagement in other subjects such as drama and
physical education classes had improved. Both
children had benefited from their teachers’
individual attentions. Suzuki (1975) suggested
that music was a mother-tongue for all children
and should be started as early as possible. He also
pointed out that, given the value of music, one
should never turn away from children who drop
behind in learning because they could still turn
into excellent musicians. Shieh (1994) suggested
that training in rhythmic movement enabled
children to develop their self-confidence. Music
“offers opportunities for the development of selfesteem and self-worth through personal
expression and involvement in social activities”
(Stead, 1999).

Enhancement Language Teaching
Although cultural differences can slow down the
learning process of children from foreign spouses,
teachers can play an important role in taking care
of these children and assuring that they develop an
appropriate vocabulary (Dickinson & DeTemple,
1998Wu, 2004). Although both children had
reading and writing problems in the beginning,
through their singing, dancing, playing and
movement in the music activity class, they began
to improve. Although, as indicated by Moog
(1976), the reason children learn the lyrics of
songs is because of the sounds of the sung words
rather than their meanings. Wei (1993) noted that
children learn words and enrich their vocabulary
through the lyrics of songs. The children
interviewed obtained knowledge, felt happy, and
were inspired through singing. McLaughlin
(1991) had pointed out that the majority of

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

kindergarten teachers have a number of teaching
resources they can draw on for rhyme activities.

Overcoming of Cultural Differences
By engaging with lesson contents and with fellow
class members, both Wendy and Andrew
overcame cultural differences. Many studies
substantiate the notion that music experiences
benefit other areas of personal, social, and
intellectual development (Perry, 1993, as cited in
Kenney, 1997). Through social interaction and
personal experience in the music of a different
culture children overcome cultural differences.
Music is clearly beneficial for social and cultural
development.

CONCLUSION
This paper is concerned with the impact of music
classes on the cultural barriers experienced by
children of foreign spouses. The findings from
this study may be used to gain an understanding of
how children of foreign spouses do not only
experience improvement in the symptoms of
developmental delay through the learning of
musical activities but are also helped in their
development of confidence and self-esteem. One
factor considered important by teachers offering
pupils the opportunity to study music is the
exposure to social and cultural factors. Regelski
(2006) stated that “music has served an important
functional role in every culture” (p. 281). Ho and
Law (2006) identified that “music offered
numerous ways of giving artistic-cultural form to
their feelings and thoughts, and helped them to
objectify and articulate their emotions, interests
and understandings” (p. 54). It is important to take
into account pedagogical consideration about
understanding the unique needs of children from
foreign spouses; and hence, further knowledge
should be developed by attending seminars and
educational programs. Of greatest importance is
the recognition of the significant role music has in
improving the experience and outcomes of the
learning of various subjects for children of foreign
spouses.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Causal Beliefs of Latino Public School
Students About Success or Failure in
Music
Roy M. Legette
School of Music, University of Georgia
Athens, GA, USA
rlegette@uga.edu

ABSTRACT
The number of Latino children attending public
schools in the U.S. is steadily increasing. Since
1980, the Latino child population has nearly
doubled. Schools in the United States will
continue to experience growing enrollments in
Hispanic students in the years to come. The
Hispanic 5 to 19 year old population is projected
to grow from 11 million in 2005 to 16 million in
2020, and comprise 24% of the 5 to 19 year old
population. Latino students have made steady
progess in school; but despite these gains, there
still continues to be large disparities between
Hispanic students and their white counterparts
across the educational spectrum. While reasons
cited for this disparity in student achievement
often include poverty, lack of participation in preschool programs, and poor quality schools,
factors that influence student motivation as it
relates to academic achievement should not be
overlooked.
For many years, researchers have devoted a
considerable amount of attention to student
motivation and academic achievement. A specific
concern has involved attribution motivation.
Attribution motivation or, more broadly,
Attribution Theory is concerned with determining
the perceived causes to which one attributes
academic success or failure. Attribution Theory
suggests that when students fail or succeed they
will concern themselves more with the causes of
their success or failure rather than the outcome
itself. These causes may be attributed to a variety
of reasons such as test difficulty, inadequate
ability, insufficient test preparation, or bad luck.
The four attributions commonly associated with
this theory are ability, effort, task difficulty, and
luck. Some researchers have found that students
overwhelmingly attribute the cause of their
success or failure to effort and/or ability. Others
have found that causal beliefs may differ
according to race and/or ethnicity.
The purpose of this study was to examine
Attribution Theory and motivation as they pertain
to Latino public school students. Elementary and
ISBN 9780980456028

middle school students (N=226) enrolled in music
classes in the public schools were administered
the Asmus Music Attribution Orientation Scale
(MAOS) and asked to indicate those causes which
they attributed most to succeeding or failing in
music. Collectively, student mean responses were
higher for ability and effort causal attributions.
Causal attributions differed significantly by
school level but not by gender. Implications for
teaching are discussed.

INTRODUCTION
The number of Latino children attending public
schools in the U.S. is steadily increasing. Since
1980, the Latino child population has nearly
doubled, and the additional 4.5 million account for
the bulk of the growth in the total number of
children in the United States. As of 2001, Latino
children comprised 16% (8.4 million children) of
all students enrolled in grades K-12 (Pew
Research Center, 2005). Schools in the United
States will continue to experience growing
enrollments in Hispanic students in the years to
come. The Hispanic 5 to 19 year old population is
projected to grow from 11 million in 2005 to 16
million in 2020, and comprise 24% of the 5 to 19
year old population. By comparison, the second
largest youth minority group, African-Americans,
is not projected to grow, remaining at 10 million.
As enrollment numbers have increased, Hispanic
youth have been doing better in school. According
to the Pew Hispanic Center (2005), 40% of nativeborn Hispanic teens had finised high school in
1970. By 2000, the rate had improved
significantly to 60%, and the gap with white youth
had narrowed. In addition, Latino high school
graduates go on to college at much higher rates
than they did 30 years ago. Latino students have
made steady progress; but despite these gains and
decades of reform efforts, there still continues to
be large disparities between Hispanic students and
their white counterparts across the educational
spectrum (Pew Research Center, 2005). Hispanic
children are less likely to attend pre-school, more
likely to be subjected to a less-rigorous school
curriculum, to have lower GPAs and standardized
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

test scores, and to drop out of high school (Pew
Hispanic Center, 2005; Reyna, 2000). While
reasons cited for this disparity in student
achievement often include poverty, lack of
participation in pre-school programs, and poor
quality schools, factors that influence student
motivation as it relates to academic achievement
should not be overlooked. In light of the fact that
motivation has been cited by some researchers
(Cattel, Barton, & Dielman, 1972) as accounting
for as much as 25% of the variance in student
achievement,
an
examination
of
these
motivational differences as they relate to Latino
students and Attribution Theory seemed
warranted.
For many years, researchers have devoted a
considerable amount of attention to student
motivation and academic achievement. A specific
concern has involved attribution motivation.
Attribution motivation or, more broadly,
Attribution Theory has its origin in social
psychology and is concerned with determining the
perceived causes to which one attributes academic
success or failure (Alderman, 2004). Attribution
Theory suggests that when students fail or succeed
they will concern themselves more with the causes
of their success or failure rather than the outcome
itself. These causes may be attributed to a variety
of reasons such as test difficulty, inadequate
ability, insufficient test preparation, or bad luck
(Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). The four
attributions commonly associated with this theory
are ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.
(Weiner, 1972, 1972a, 1979). The attributions of
ability and effort are classified as internal and are
assumed to originate from the student, while task
difficulty and luck are considered to be external
and perceived as events happening outside of the
individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s control. In addition, Attribution
Theory has a time dimension that is considered to
be either stable (not varying over repeated
attempts at the same or similar task) or unstable
(varying over repeated attempts).
Research has shown that the causes attributed to
succeeding or failing at given tasks have a definite
influence on student expectations for approaching
future tasks (Bar-Tal, 1978; Kivet & Watkins,
1993;
Nicholls,
1976;
Thorkildsen
&
Nicholls,1998). That is, if students attribute the
cause of their success to ability, they often expect
to be successful in the future. On the other hand, if
students cite ability as a cause for being
unsuccessful, they often expect to fail at future
tasks. Should students attribute the cause of their
success or failure to effort, they are often hopeful
of changing future outcomes.

In music education, considerable attention has
been given to both effort and ability as success
and failure causal attributions. Reimer (1975)
investigated the influence of causal attributions
for success on subsequent achievement behavior.
Findings revealed that subjects given instructions
involving ability and effort reported more positive
affect than those receiving instructions involving
task difficulty and luck. Schmidt (1995) sought to
identify what students believe to be the most
important reasons for success and failure in vocal
music. Response frequencies were higher for
internal-unstable and internal-stable attributions
than for external-stable or external-unstable
attributions. Asmus (1986a) found that success or
failure was strongly attributed to task difficulty
when students talked about themselves and to
effort when they talked about others. Research
conducted by Legette (1993) revealed that girls
place more importance on effort as a causal
attribution than do boys. Findings from a
subsequent study (Legette, 1998) revealed that
collectively, students place more importance on
ability and effort as causal attributions, but
gender, school level, and school system were
found to have a significant effect on attribution
selection.
As shown, a relationship between success and
failure causal attributions and student achievement
is supported by the literature. Many of these
studies have found that students overwhelmingly
attribute the causes of their success or failure to
effort and/ or ability. However, some studies have
shown that causal beliefs may differ among
individuals according to race and/or ethnicity
(Flowers, Milner & Moore, 2003; Reyna, 2000;
Watkins, 1982). The purpose of the present study
was to examine Attribution Theory in relationship
to motivation as it pertains Latino public school
students. The following research questions were
investigated:
1. To what causes do Latino public school
students most attribute their success or failure
in music?
2. Do responses differ significantly between
genders?
3. Do responses differ significantly among
school levels?

SUBJECTS
Subjects were 226 elementary (n=128) and middle
school (n=98) students enrolled in music class in a
public school system in the southeastern United
States. Ninety-four percent of the students
identified themselves as Hispanic, and three
percent identified themselves as Caucasian. The
sample consisted of 139 girls and 87 boys. Eighty

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

PROCEDURE
Subjects were administered the Asmus (1986c)
Music Attribution Scale (MAOS) during one of
their weekly music classes. This scale was chosen
because, unlike Weinerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1972) model, it is
germane to music and uses a wider range of causal
attributions. The MAOS is comprised of 35 items
divided into five different subscales (effort,
background, classroom environment, musical
ability, and affect for music). There are seven
different questions corresponding to each
subscale. Students were asked to indicate how
important they thought each item was on a scale
of one to five with five being extremely important
and one being not important at all. Points for the
items in each subscale were summed (35 being the
maximum number of points obtainable) and
averaged, creating a single score for each
subscale. No points were assigned for unanswered
items. Asmus has determined reliabilities for each
subscale as follows: effort (.82), background (.77),
classroom environment (.76), musical ability
(.77), and affect for music (.69). A cover sheet
was attached to the MAOS by the researcher in
order to acquire demographic information.

RESULTS
The first research question was concerned with
those causes that Latino public school students
attribute most to success or failure in music. Mean
responses and standard deviations respectively for
each subscale of the MAOS are as follows: effort
(4.19, 0.67), background (3.34, 0.81), class
environment (3.79, 0.78), musical ability (4.21,
0.73), affect for music (3.88, 0.77). As these
descriptive data show, effort and musical ability
collectively are cited as the leading causes
attributed to success or failure in music.
Data pertaining to the questions involving gender
and school level were analyzed using T-Tests for
two independent samples. Because inflation of the
error rate was a concern due to multiple test
comparisons, the initial alpha of .05 was modified
using the Bonferroni Technique, resulting in a
probability of .01. An analysis of the data by
gender revealed no significant difference between
groups (p>.01). In regards to school level, a
significant difference between groups was shown
for the variables effort, class environment, and
musical ability in favor of middle school students
(p < .01). Means and standard deviations are
provided in Table 1.

153

Middle (n=98)

M

SD

M

SD

Effort

4.09

0.72

4.33

0.57 0.00*

Background

3.37
3.63

0.82
0.82

3.31
3.98

0.80 0.61
0.75 0.00*

3.98
3.78

0.80
0.80

4.51
4.01

0.50 0.00*
0.70 0.00

Class Environment
Musical Ability
Affect for Music

p

____________________________________________
* p< .01

DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicate that Latino
elementary and middle school students in general
tend to attribute their musical failure or success
primarily to effort or musical ability, consistent
with other studies where race or ethnicity was not
a primary consideration (Asmus, 1985; Asmus,
1986b; Chandler, Chiarella & Auria, 1988;
Legette, 1998). It is encouraging to see that
students also place a great amount of importance
on effort, a perceived modifiable causal
attribution. This is particularly important given the
fact that ability is perceived as unchangeable. If
students believe that they have some influence on
the outcome of a particular task, they may be less
likely to characterize themselves as helpless
learners. Instead, they may feel that subsequent
attempts at the same or similar tasks will yield
totally different outcomes.
Comparisons of the data by gender revealed no
significant difference between groups for any of
the variables. This result is inconsistent with
previous research that has shown females to place
more importance on effort as a success or failure
causal attribution (Legette, 2003).
There were significant differences in attributed
causes due to school level, with middle school
students placing more importance on effort, class
environment, and musical ability than elementary
school students. It was interesting to note that all
three of these attributions increased concurrently
as the students moved from elementary to middle
school.
This study as it relates to Attribution Theory has
important implications for teachers in terms of
understanding the causal beliefs of students as
well as their own teaching behaviors. Teachers
should be careful to not assume that causal
attribution selection is a matter of ethnicity, race,
culture, or propensity rather than a learned
behavior. This is especially important given the
effect that teacher expectation has been shown to
have on how minority students in general are
treated in the classroom. Previous studies have

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

found that some teachers expect lower
achievement from Hispanic, African American
and female students (Flowers, Milner & Moore,
2003; Reyna, 2000;).
If teachers believe that causal attributions are
indeed learned, perhaps they will be motivated to
focus more on attribution re-training and to utilize
different instructional approaches in addressing
the many motivational forces at work in their
classrooms at a given time. In some instances,
attributions that are perceived as changeable and
within the control of the student (e.g., effort) may
need to be reinforced. For other students,
behaviors related to ability may need to be
encouraged. In other instances, students may work
long and hard at a given task and still not
experience success. Rather than emphasize low
ability, directly or indirectly, it would be better for
the teacher to take an analytical approach and
point out why the student was not successful,
those things that are changeable and within his or
her control, and to provide strategies and teacher
help for making future effort more beneficial. The
emphasis here is to help students to believe that
they will retain some control of the learning
process, that their failure situation is not
permanent, and they can positively influence the
outcomes of future tasks.
Students consistently place a great amount of
importance on ability and effort as causal
attributions for success and failure in music. In
that motivation has been shown to play an
important part in student achievement, the causal
attributions of effort and ability as they relate to
motivation and subsequently student achievement
should be explored further.

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Asmus, E. (1986b). Student beliefs about the causes of
success and failure in music: A study of achievement
motivation. Journal of Research in Music Education,
34 (4), 262-278.
Asmus, E. (1986c). Factors students believe to be the
causes of success or failure in music. Paper presented

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The Education of the Professional
Musician: The Private Music Studio
Perspective
Sharon Lierse
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
sharon@sharonlierse.com

ABSTRACT
The training of the professional musician has been
focused on the tertiary years of training, but
university is too late. Most of the training occurs
in the private music studio prior to entering the
university. Often the private music studio teacher
is the first contact the student has with the music
profession. The paper will focus on how to best
musically and emotionally prepare the aspiring
musician in the private music studio prior to
entering the tertiary sector. It will explore which
skills are taught at the private music studio and
the limitations of the private music studio teacher.

INTRODUCTION
The private music studio plays an important role
in the education of the professional musician.
Often it is the first contact a student has with the
music industry. The private studio teacher exerts
an enormous influence over the student. They are
perceived as a role model and can determine
whether the student will continue music as a
career.
The training of the professional musician has been
focused on the tertiary years of training, but this is
too late. Students who wish to work as a
professional musician receive their intensive
training during the final years of their education,
yet the instrumental music teacher is limited in
what they can do in such a short period of time.
Their “one hour with God” is just not enough time
for the aspiring musician to learn all there is to
know.
If a classically trained performer wishes to work
in the music industry, they need to start their
training much earlier than university, especially
on instruments such as piano and violin. Soloists
often commence their training in infancy or early
childhood. There is much repertoire to learn, and
it is extremely competitive to attain a position in
an orchestra or a full-time performing ensemble.
Moreover, much of the technique and
idiosyncratic behaviour of the performer is
entrenched by the time the student begins at a
Conservatorium. From personal experience, when
I changed to a new teacher at the Conservatorium
ISBN 9780980456028

I had to “start again” on the instrument. The new
teacher had his “superior” technique that I had to
conform to, or not learn from him. As I was
learning two instruments, I felt that I became a
“born again” expert rather than receiving the
polish I so craved for at this level.
One of my students has decided to pursue a career
in music. He has just spent a term “teacher
shopping” so that he will be prepared for the
changeover from secondary to the tertiary level.
All the teachers want to start him again. Even
though he has been assured that his technique is
very good, they have a “new and improved” way
of playing. He was also told by a well-regarded
teacher that he will “not make it” as a performer
and should consider teaching or enter another
profession altogether. This attitude greatly
disturbed me as the student is an accomplished
player yet has been told that he will fail before he
has even started. Whether this is to protect the
reputation of the teacher or to give a reality check
on the music industry is difficult to know.
Polisi (2005) comments how “hundreds of young
people enter music schools around the country
with specific professional expectations that will
not be realized” (p. 124). He then discusses a
concern: “What is wrong is for any institution
involved with educating performing artists ignore
or reinforce a student’s sense of failure if it is
eventually realized that an initial career goal is
unattainable” (p. 125). Small (1996) observed that
it “is a sad fact that a sizeable minority, if not a
majority, of specialist teachers of music in schools
are musicians who tried, and failed, to establish
themselves as professional performers” (p. 194).
The paper is not on alternative avenues for the
performing musician, but how to best musically
and emotionally prepare the aspiring musician in
the private music studio prior to entering the
tertiary sector and ultimately the music profession.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

teacher carries a great responsibility for the music
education of children” (p. 49). Bridges (1988)
described the private music studio as the
“backbone” of music education and found that
“many children and older students owe their
personal musical development primarily to studio
teachers who give individual lessons” (p. 49).
Thomson (1974) and Tannhauser (1999) have
discussed the private music studio in general.
Sosniak (1988) has researched the different
developmental stages talented musicians progress
through from primary school to university. Frey
Boytim, (2003) has also researched the private
music studio and associated teaching issues with a
focus on vocal teaching.
Zhukov (2004) investigated Australian tertiary
institutions and the content of private music
lessons. She found that “research into individual
instrumental teaching is still in its infancy, there is
urgent need for further investigation in this area”
(p. 6). Gaunt (2005) investigated studio teaching
at the tertiary level in the United Kingdom. She
found that the weekly private music lesson was
perceived as the most important subject at the
Conservatorium. Drummond (1998) has discussed
the role of the Conservatoriums, and Singer
(1996) investigated the training of professional
musicians. Gregory (2005) has researched the role
of Conservatoriums and creativity.

THE PRIVATE MUSIC STUDIO
When training a musician to enter the profession,
there is much more to learn than how to perform
on stage. Musicians also have to be entrepreneurs
and find new and novel ways to earn a living.
They need to market themselves, understand
contracts and other legal documents, arrange
travel, catering and forms of sponsorship. The
assumption that if you are good enough and
talented enough you will get a position in an
orchestra is a fallacy. Polisi (2005) discusses how
artists in the twenty-first century:
will have to be an effective and active advocate for
the arts in communities large and small around the
nation. These artists must be not only
communicate through their art, but also
knowledgeable about the intricacies of our society
– politically, economically, socially. (p. 11)

In the private music studio, it is important to
firstly educate the parents on the current state of
the performing arts industry. Many parents have
the romantic notion of the performing artist jet
setting around the world and being treated like a
movie star. These ideas may stem from a
generation gap or watching too many old movies.
In order to change these attitudes, I encourage the
parents to take their students to symphony
orchestra designed specially for the family, a

variety of music performances and to explore
other aspects of the industry such as radio stations
and recording studios. In the private music studio,
I have the latest journals and music magazines for
parents to peruse, which often discuss issues
relating to the performing industry. Here, they can
gain a more rounded understanding of the music
profession.
In the private music studio, I encourage my
students to perform in public as often as possible.
They have opportunities to perform for the
students on either side of their lesson, at group
lessons and concerts. Each year I have a large
concert in which the whole is included. Through
the organization of all aspects of the concert
including arranging and rehearsing with the
accompanist, hiring of the venue, catering and
photographer, the students can gain insight into
the amount of behind the scenes work is involved
in performing in one concert. The students all
have to wear concert dress and present themselves
appropriately on stage. These details are picked up
by even the youngest students who comment on
the stagecraft of performers at other concerts who
are not up to par. Through these experiences, the
students have a clearer understanding of what it is
like to work as a professional musician.
The private music studio teacher is responsible for
more than teaching a musical instrument.
However, from personal experience, I found that
there are three things which cannot be taught.
These are talent, experience and initiative.
Musical talent is not a skill that can be taught. I
have taught students how to play with musicality
by going through the work phrase by phrase;
however, this has not been instinctive by the
student. With the increased technical standard of
students, there are students who perform with
technical proficiency and dexterity at a young age,
but their playing leaves me cold. Ultimately music
is about communicating emotions through sound.
Experience is something that cannot be taught, but
can be communicated. Experienced musicians can
get through a performance when something does
not go to plan. This can include equipment
malfunctioning such as instruments breaking or
when a stage is not set up correctly. Sometimes a
musician has not shown up for a performance or
has forgotten their instrument or their music.
Experienced musicians learn how to improvise
under these conditions.
Performing musicians require much initiative to
enter and remain in the industry. Musical talent is
not enough. Musicians need to be business
managers, do sales and marketing, and arrange
rehearsals when required. At the private music

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

studio level, students who show initiative are
more likely to give successful performances and
progress more quickly. You can be confident that
practice will be completed and any concerns will
be addressed at the beginning of the lesson. I had
a student who performed a double flute concerto
at my annual concert. She asked what orchestral
parts were available so that she could perform it at
school and on a music tour to England.
Students who do not display initiative can be
extremely frustrating. They usually require
someone to do all the organization for them and
tasks need to be explained in small steps. No
matter how many times you remind them to do
things, it is not done or is completed at the last
moment. The student never learns and does not
comprehend the amount of stress placed on the
teacher and parents. I have had students who have
rung me two minutes before a rehearsal with the
accompanist asking for the accompanist’s address
and whether the accompanist would have the
piano parts available because they left them at
home. If I had not answered the phone, the student
would have missed out on their rehearsal
altogether. However, most students do have
initiative and organizational skills. This is
connected with self-motivation and maturity.

CONCLUSION
The education of the profession musician begins
in the private music studio. The instrumental
music teacher carries a great responsibility for the
development of the performing musician. Here,
the music student learns not only technical and
musical skills but gains insight to the music
profession. Through the recognition and support
of the work of the private studio music teacher,
the standards of music making will be enhanced,
which will be a benefit to all.

Daniel, R. (2004). Innovations in piano teaching: A
small-group model for the tertiary level. Music
Education Research, 6(1), 21-43.
Drummond, J. (1998). “A change in the orders.”
Training the performers of the future. In H. Lundstrom
(Ed.), The ISME Commission for the Professional
Musician 1998 Seminar in Harare, Zimbabwe. The
Musician in New and Changing Contexts New
Challenges. Malmo Academy of Music: ISME.
Frey Boytim, J. (2003). The private voice studio
handbook: A practical guide to all aspects of teaching.
USA: Hal Leonard.
Gaunt, H. (2005). Instrumental/vocal teaching and
learning in conservatoires: a case study of teacher’s
perceptions. In G. Odam & N. B. Bannan (Eds.), The
reflective conservatoire: Studies in music education.
Hants: Ashgate.
Gregory, S. (2005). Creativity and conservatoires: The
agenda and the issues.” In G. Odam & N. B. Bannan
(Eds.), The reflective conservatoire: Studies in music
education. Hants: Ashgate.
Polisi, J. W. (2005). The Artist as citizen. New Jersey:
Amadeus Press.
Singer, M. J. (1996). Training professional musicians.
In G. M. Oliva (Ed.), The ISME Commission for the
Professional Musician 1996 Seminar. The Musician’s
Role: New Challenges. Malmo Academy of Music:
ISME.
Sosniak, L. (1988). Changing relationships between
student and teacher in the development of talent.
Education and Society, 6(1), 79-95.
Small, C. (1996). Music, Society, Education. Hanover:
Wesleyan University Press.
Tannhauser, R. (1999). Questioning the effectiveness of
learning strategies and practice in the instrumental
studio toward the new millennium. Paper presented at
the Australian Society for Music Education XII
National Conference Proceedings, University of
Sydney.
Thomson, W. (1974). The private music teacher.
Australian Journal of Music Education, 15, 39-40.
Zhukov, K. (2004). Teaching styles and student
behaviour in instrumental music lessons in Australian
conservatoriums. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
The University of New South Wales.

160

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The Contemporary Art Music in the
Teaching of a Musical Instrument
Antonietta Loffredo
Conservatory of Music “Giuseppe Tartini”
Trieste, Italy
carm.ant@tin.it

ABSTRACT
This paper relates the experiences garnered in
some seminars held by the author at the
Conservatory “G.Tartini” in Trieste, Italy. The
seminars were directed toward future piano
teachers to increase their knowledge of
contemporary art music and to make them reflect
about their approach to teaching. At the end of the
article, some data are reported with reflections
about why the young performers’ syllabus is often
lacking this type of repertoire.

INTRODUCTION
The promotion of the contemporary repertoire in
the beginning of the study of a musical instrument
meets, currently and not just in Italy, with two
kinds of difficulties: a) the lack of familiarity,
exhibition, and diffusion of the contemporary
repertoire that should be offered to young
performers without aesthetic compromises, and b)
the prejudices felt toward contemporary music
because it is considered part of a too difficult and
intellectualistic field.
An effective example of how to overcome these
difficulties is, in my opinion, offered by the work
carried on in a series of seminars for musical
instrument teachers and in-training teachers at the
Trieste Conservatory between the years 2005 and
2007.
The seminars, called “The Contemporary
Repertoire in the Teaching of Piano,” were given
by me in cooperation with the Maestri of the
above
mentioned
conservatory,
Stefano
Procaccioli, who teaches “The Analysis of the
Repertoires” and Stefano Bellon who teaches
“Composition for Teachers.”
The project’s aims were to awaken experts in this
field to provide their pupils the opportunities to
get to know the various languages of
contemporary music; to reflect on the importance
of this kind of repertoire in a training programme;
to supply teachers with a useful methodological
approach to choose and, if necessary, to produce
the repertoire.
In order to warm the participants up, they were
given an analysis and writing task. First, some
analysis on the existing repertoire was undertaken,
ISBN 9780980456028

in order to find out its pedagogical, technical and
musical elements and how to use them with
hypothetical pupils (between ten and thirteen
years of age). Afterwards, the participants were
asked to use these elements to compose short
pieces to help young pupils to get to know the
thought behind and the practical aspects of
contemporary music.

PEDAGOGICAL REMARKS
Before starting to describe the contents, I think it
is important to give some preliminary pedagogical
remarks.
The new trend in pedagogy promotes an approach
to knowledge that is not linear (i.e., from simple
to complex trough a hierarchical logic
classification of elements) but a holistic approach
where simple is not synonymous with elementary,
and complex does not mean difficult (Bartolini,
2002).
As far as our field is concerned, the idea is to
make pupils able to approach all the aspects (a
holistic approach) concerned in practising music
with an instrument starting from the beginning of
their studies.
These elements are:
• Gesture aspects (physical skills).
• Coding and decoding.
• Expressive aspects.
• Creative experience.
• Logic and analytical aspects (by recognising
simple elements as: repetition, contrast and so
on).

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

difficult to understand for young students. In
response, I want to suggest using the words of the
historian Marrou (1975): “We can understand just
what in some ways belongs to us or is next to
us….The understanding of what is completely
different and completely stranger, couldn’t be
thought as possible”. For this reason, it is very
important to promote the knowledge of a wide
range of music in the training period by getting
pupils used to different languages and aesthetics
areas from the beginning of their studies.
Otherwise, the danger is to cause their rejection or
simply their inhibition of interest and curiosity.

THE CONTENTS
Examples of Analysis and Its Implications
in Teaching and Composing
As previously said, during these seminars some
analyses of the existing repertoire were
undertaken. Some contemporary composers’
works, such as Sofia Gubaidulina, Ada Gentile,
György Kurtág, Helmut Lachenmann, Bent
Lorenzen, Sergiu Shapira, Mercedes Zavala, Arvo
Pärt, and Toru Takemitsu ,were analyzed from the
didactic and pedagogical point of view in order to
describe why and how to introduce these pieces in
a pedagogical project. Afterwards, the participants
were asked to compose short pieces to make
young pupils get to know the thought and the
practical aspects of contemporary music.
I’m going to show two examples of these steps.
The first one is an analysis made on “Perpetuum
mobile” from the first volume of Játékok by
György Kurtág (1979). The second one is the
piece “La Corona: curiosa, preoccupata, ansiosa!”
with the related analysis written by Marina
Masiero (2006), one of the participants at the
seminar. (The complete work consists of three
pages. In Figures 1 and 2, we can see the first two
pages.)

Global musical aim:
• Development of the ability to convey a
musical purpose and richness starting from a
simple title.
• Use of the whole piano compass with a
macrogesture (hands and fist) without fine
motion (finger).
• Provide
creative
experience
through
recognising simple elements (sound elements
and their alternance) so pupils use them in a
creative way to play a new piece.

Analysis on “La Corona: curiosa,
preoccupata, ansiosa!”, four hands piano,
M. Masiero
Technical aims:
• Play chords and clusters on the black keys
with fingers or fist with different dynamics.
• Play glissandi with fingers or palm with
different dynamics.
• Chromatic cluster pressed down mutely.
Theoretical aims:
• Coronas, signs indicating values and silences,
phrasing ties, and dynamics.
Global musical aim:
• Perceive the different kinds of resonances
made by helded cluster soundlessly.
• Feel the value of waiting related to the use of
coronas.
• Development of the ability to convey a
musical purpose and richness also starting
from a simple title.
• Provide
creative
experience
through
recognizing simple elements (sound and
silence and their alternance) so pupils use
them to create a new sounding dialogue. This
piece may be also used to accompany an
invented tale in order to make pupil reflect on
the prosodic aspects that join speech to music.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Figure 1.

163

Questions submitted were:
• Have you ever had the chance to study the
works of contemporary authors? Which?
• At which stage of your studies?
• During the concert activity?
• Do you usually propose your pupils
contemporary repertoire pieces?
• If so, at which level of their studies?
• If you believe it is an effective didactical
choice in the first years of the study of the
musical instrument, please write down, in
short, the reasons.
• Do you think it is difficult for pupils to face
this kind of repertoire?
To sum up, the answers to the first three questions
showed that the contemporary art music is almost
absent from the teachers’ syllabus; and, if present,
it is faced only during the last years at the
conservatory or even afterwards. Some
participants clearly misunderstood the questions
and quoted, among the studied work, pieces by
Satie, Poulenc, and Schönberg. The answers to the
fourth question were particularly important. Those
who answered in a negative way gave two
reasons: the lack of knowledge of literature
suitable for the first years of study and the belief
that this repertoire is scarcely understood by
pupils. Those who do believe it can be a valid way
to let recent styles be known complained that it is
not easy to find examples that are not too difficult.

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 2.

WHAT TEACHERS THINK: SOME
DATA
Apart from the top-level output at the end of the
sessions, it was particularly interesting to make a
comparison between (a) the participants’
comments, gathered during the repertoire’s
presentation and analysis and (b) other data from a
statistical analysis made on the same teachers that
intended to find out the reasons why the young
performers’ syllabus is often lacking in
contemporary repertoire.

The data analysis showed that, on the one hand, it
is quite simple to promote the teachers’ interest in
the repertoire (suggesting
methodological
approaches and offering occasions to learn more
about it, analyse it, and reflect upon it by
exchanging opinions). On the other hand, it is
clear the lack of diffusion of a repertoire, which
uses a simple, but rich and meaningful language,
could help people know the different poetics that
mark the contemporary music eclectic panorama.
There could be two different solutions: spreading
information through adequate databases (with
information about composers, compositions, and
their use in the classroom) and to awaken
composers so they could help future audiences
become familiar with the various aspects of
contemporary music by using a simple but
meaningful language.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acknowledgements are due to the Tartini
Conservatory of Trieste, which has hosted my
seminars since 2005 and to all the composers that,
during these years, personally have shared with
me their work.

164

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

It is a pleasure to acknowledge my gratitude to the
Maestri Stefano Procaccioli and Stefano Bellon,
colleagues at the Conservatory “G. Tartini” in
Trieste, who for several years have supported this
work in a variety of ways.
Grateful personal acknowledgments are also due
to students. This study would not have been
possible without their collaboration and feedback.

Why Does a Music Teacher Keep
Teaching? A Cuban Perspective
Lisa Lorenzino
Schulich School of Music, McGill University
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
lisa.lorenzino@mcgill.ca

ABSTRACT
How, in a country that suffers from a longstanding trade embargo, in a nation renown for
isolating itself via governmental bureaucracy,
does a 25-year veteran music teacher remain
motivated to teach? This article presents a Cuban
perspective of the reality of Pedro: an expert
pedagogue teaching in a state-sponsored
secondary school. Based upon a four-month
ethnographic study, this article investigates
themes arising from a critical analysis of Pedro’s
daily successes and challenges. A striking glimpse
into the personal and professional realities of a
music educator in contemporary Cuba, results
indicate that numerous interrelated factors affect
the personal motivation of this expert teacher
including a) feelings of being valued, b) collegial
sharing, c) curricular freedom, and d) knowledge
of his students. The article concludes with an
analysis of Pedro’s teaching reality as compared
to previous findings and suggests how music
educators can benefit from an analysis of these
factors in an effort to better understand their own
professional successes and challenges.

KEYWORDS
teacher retention, job satisfaction, multicultural
education

INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL
BASIS
We need to celebrate teachers who are as excited
about their own learning as they are about the
learning of their students. (Nieto, 2003, p. 397)

Recently, the educational environment has been
described as being in crisis (Cochran-Smith,
2003). With a boom of teachers nearing
retirement, concern has arisen over who will fill
the empty positions. Although many countries
graduate sufficient numbers to account for
attrition, over 45% of new teachers hired will
leave the profession within five years (Ingersoll,
2002; 2004).
Individual reasons for leaving are myriad but do
show specific trends. Low salaries, student
discipline, lack of administrative support, few
opportunities to participate in decision making,
and the semiprofessional status of teaching are
ISBN 9780980456028

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Drawing from Scribner (1999), this study purports
that professional development, linked to work
context, meaningful learning activities, and
intrinsic/extrinsic motivators, is the key to teacher
retention. Building upon the work of Nieto (2003),
rather than focusing on “fixing or filling
teachers,” investigations need to focus on methods
of supporting experienced teachers.

RESEARCH QUESTION AND
METHODOLOGY
The primary research question of this study was:
Why Does a Music Teacher Keep Teaching?
Specifically, the study focused on analyzing
themes found in the daily success and challenges
of Pedro, a 25-year veteran music teacher, who
works in a state-sponsored music school in
Santiago de Cuba. In a country suffering from a
long-standing trade embargo and well known for
its governmental bureaucracy, how does a veteran
music teacher remain motivated to teach?
Data were collected using the classic tools of
ethnography:
participant
observation,
ethnographic interview, and artifact collection.
Over a four-month period, I observed Pedro in a
range of professional and educational settings.
The majority of data were collected in Pedro’s
teaching environment, Conservatorio “Esteban
Salas” (CES), a state-sponsored nivel médio
school (high school). I also collected data as a
private flute student of Pedro at my home in Cuba.
Additionally, I observed and interviewed Pedro in
a variety of performance contexts including
graduation recitals, Orquesta Sinfónica de Oriente
(OSO) concerts, and rehearsals for his popular
music group. Additional data were collected in
pre- and post-performance as well as educational
contexts.
Data were recorded using a digital video camera, a
recording Mini Disc player, and a 35 mm camera.
Following methodology outlined by Jackson
(1987) and Emerson, Fretz & Shaw (1995), most
data were collected via field notes. Interviews,
best defined as “conversations of a purposeful
nature”, were completed in Spanish. In contrast,
field notes were written in English.
Santiago de Cuba, population 500,000, located in
the eastern part of the country, was chosen as the
setting for the study because of its ability to
provide a wide range of contexts within a
relatively small geographical area. A city known
for its revolutionary and musical roots, Santiago is
considered to be one of Cuba’s most important
cultural centres. With a rich heritage that draws
equally from both Iberian and African traditions
(Robbins, 1990), Santiago is championed for its

importance in the development of musical genres
such as danzón, son, and rumba.

FINDINGS
Participant Profile
Pedro, flutist and teacher, 52, blends in with the
varied population of Santiago. Average build, his
roots are Iberian with hints of African traits in his
skin tone and facial features. Married to a senior
solféo teacher at CES, Pedro has two 20 year-old
sons. The eldest is a saxophonist at the prestigious
el ISA (Instituto Superior di Arte) music
university in Havana. The youngest, a former
engineer, is a flute student of his father.
Pedro walks to Sala Dolores and CES, his two
major locations of employment daily. A typical
weekday morning begins with rehearsal for the
OSO, the professional ensemble that Pedro has
played with for over 25 years. Lunch often is at
home, followed by an afternoon spent with
students at CES. After an evening meal, Pedro
returns for a concert with the orchestra, a student
recital, or rehearsal with his popular music group.
Weekends are filled with performances, foreigners
seeking flute instruction (a common occurrence
for Cuban music teachers), socializing, movies,
and church. Sometimes, after the Sunday service,
Pedro heads to a downtown Cultural Center to
listen to colleagues performing for the
predominantly foreign tourist crowd.
Pedro has followed this schedule for over 25
years, with few interruptions. On occasion, the
government has allowed him to take extended
leave
from
his
teaching/performing
responsibilities to tour internationally. Tours have
been reduced in recent years due to travel
restrictions. Looking forward to retirement, Pedro
searches for new performance opportunities and
international ventures through jazz and popular
music.

Education
Pedro does not come from a family of musicians.
His career choice stems directly from policies
implemented by the Castro government. As is still
the practice in Cuba, Pedro was identified as a
potential music professional and was enrolled in a
state-sponsored nivel básico (elementary) music
school in Santiago at a young age (12). Pedro’s
elementary education included a free flute and 1418 hours of free music lessons per week above
and beyond his regular matriculation subjects.
Pedro’s musical training included private and
group instruction in theory, solféo, piano, flute,
music history, and ensembles.
For high school, Pedro moved to a state-sponsored
residential school in Havana and followed a

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

schedule similar to that of his elementary school
preparation. At 18, Pedro began his required army
residency spending two years in a military band.
Following his tour of duty, he returned to Santiago
where he began his professional career.
On the informal side of his musical preparation,
Pedro is an auto-didatic. Due to a childhood
interest in jazz, Pedro is a self-taught improviser.
Pedro recently taught himself to play the tenor
saxophone thereby increasing his performance
opportunities as a popular musician. A veteran of
both stage and classroom, Pedro’s combined
monthly income averages approximately $40.00
per month, a excellent salary in Cuba.

Emergent Themes
Negative factors
By North American standards, Pedro’s teaching
situation can be viewed as “difficult.”
Environmental factors severely affect his reality:
Classrooms…are also sparsely furnished and
contain few of the amenities found in North
American classrooms, such as telephones,
computer,
intercoms,
televisions
or file
cabinets…..There is a notable lack of print
materials such as paper supplies and books.
Lighting is poor….Space is at a premium….Sound
transmission, due to a lack of insulation, poor
construction, and open windows and doors
was…prevalent. (Lorenzino, 2006, p. 156)

Further, there is a:
(a) shortage of quality, well-working music
instruments; (b) shortage of miscellaneous supplies
such as repair materials, and music stands: and (c)
shortage of print materials. Of these three areas,
the shortage of high-quality musical instruments
has the greatest effect upon secondary music
education. (Lorenzino, 2006, p. 203)

Other negative factors affect Pedro’s daily reality.
Faltering communication between schools brings
about feelings of frustration. A lack of continuity
in the teaching body further fuels his concerns.
Feelings of isolation prevail. First, stemming from
Cuba’s bureaucratic policies limiting travel
(national and international), communication
(internet, television, radio), and trade, Pedro feels
cut off from the world. Second, living in Santiago,
Pedro feels isolated from the major Cuban
performing and recording venues which are
located in Havana.

Motivational factors
What fuels Pedro to remain motivated? A
complex set of interrelated themes best answers
this question. Of these themes, those that were
reoccurring were: a) feeling valued, b)
professional development/collegial sharing, c)
curricular freedom, and d) knowledge of students,.

167

1. Feeling valued: Pedro feels valued in his
profession because of his students, his colleagues,
and his community. He believes that he is making
an import contribution to the development of the
pupils, the school and the nation.
Pedro, like every one else that I have talked to here
in the entire county, really believes that the level of
music education has really increased over the past
years. He says that students are playing better and
better each year. (Field Notes, May 28)

This school he says is the most important nivel
médio school in the country…wonderful
international musicians have come from this
institution. . . this institution really is the major
supplier of wonderful musicians to el ISA in
Havana and to the wonderful musicians that are
coming out of this country. (Field Notes, March
20)
He says that right now…is the highlight or the
greatest time for flute students here at the
conservatory…Pedro says that this really makes
him feel like his efforts are worthwhile. (Field
Notes, March 20)

These feelings of accomplishment lead Pedro to
believe that his work is important. Surrounded by
an economy that provides ample jobs for
graduating students, Pedro is continually
motivated by his colleagues and the community to
raise both his and his students’ standard of
playing.
2. Professional development/collegial sharing:
The Cuban system is very supportive of the
professional development of music teachers in the
manner that it is organized.
Cuban music teachers can easily maintain
positions both as professional musicians and as
educators. In addition, the Cuban system easily
allows music teachers to travel internationally for
an extended period and time and to return to their
teaching posts….Students receive the benefits of
working with teachers who are actively developing
themselves as musicians. (Lorenzino, 2006, p. 283)

Because Pedro is working with music
professionals daily, he is easily able to discuss
issues related to teaching with colleagues. Given
the oral tradition and nature of Cuban society,
Pedro has both the inclination and opportunity to
discuss pedagogical concerns. Professional
development of a meaningful nature is integrated
into his daily activities. Plus, Pedro can maintain
dual careers and can identify himself as a
performer/educator.
3. Curricular freedom: Ironically, due to the U.S.
embargo and Cuban trade policies, Pedro’s
freedom to make curricular decisions stems from a
lack of supplies. By law, Pedro is bound to follow
the national music curriculum, a document that

168

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

has been unaltered since the state music schools
were established in the 1960s. Pedro is simply
unable to follow these requirements however.
Supplies (i.e., written music) are not available.
Therefore, Pedro is forced to choose his own
materials. Repeatedly, he stated that this was a
motivating factor in his professional development.
Pedro says that it [the national curriculum] exists
but that he rarely follows the curriculum. The
materials, including both the method books and the
specific pieces, are unavailable to him. So, he has
adapted the program himself so that this students
can reach a suitable level of playing. He says that
his current program has little to do with the
national curriculum. (Field Notes, May 28)

Upon exiting CES, Pedro’s students audition for
entrance into el ISA. Most are accepted because
they have already been playing extensively at the
post-secondary level under Pedro’s tutelage.
4. Knowledge of his students: Pedro is aware of
the realities of his students’ lives because their
reality is also his reality. Pedro lives in his
students’ neighbourhood, he attends their church,
and he socializes with their families. As found
throughout Cuba, Pedro maintains a bond that
goes beyond that frequently found in North
American schools. This was noted following a
student’s graduation recital:
When we arrived at the house there was barely
anyone there. Water was leaking into the salon and
two buckets were placed on the floor to catch the
drips. It was great, people began to dance and it
was a nice party atmosphere. Pedro sat nearby. A
few couples danced- teachers with students, and
the likes. We talked all about how hard life is in
Cuba. (Field Notes, May 20)

Pedro loves his students and goes to great lengths
to assist them. He travels to their homes, he works
with their parents, he knows their family
situations intimately. On holidays, Pedro is found
preparing students for recitals or tutoring hopefuls
wishing to audition for the school. Pedro is very
much an active part of his students’ lives.

DISCUSSION
Not surprisingly, in analyzing Pedro’s reality as
compared to that of novice and pre-service
teachers, many similarities can be found. Pedro
has issues relating to isolation, lack of
communication, and difficult working conditions
(Cockburn & Haydn, 2004). Like novice teachers,
so too does Pedro have concerns relating to
administrative support and leadership (Crocco &
Haydn, 2004). Unlike the 45% novice teachers
who leave the profession however, Pedro has
other motivators to keep him actively involved
and learning as an educator.

Novice urban teachers relate that they find it
difficult to work with a largely unmotivated
student body (Cockburn & Haydn, 2004; Crocco
& Costigan, 2007). Pedro does not experience this
reality, in fact, his students are a motivating
factor. Because Cuba’s economy is very
supportive of musicians and provides ample
performing and teaching opportunities for
graduates of the national music school system,
Pedro finds himself working with highly
motivated students. Because competition is fierce
for entry into the state-sponsored music schools,
Pedro finds himself working with a select group.
Novice teachers state that (Ingersoll 2002, 2003,
2004; Crocco & Costigan, 2007) they feel
disempowered, undermined and thwarted in their
development and in developing relationships with
their students. Pedro, in contrast, is motivated to
continue teaching due to a range of interrelated
factors that are in direct opposition to the feelings
expressed by novice educators.
As outlined in Scribner (1999), Pedro’s
development as a teacher depends highly upon his
professional development. His work context,
although difficult, allows him the freedom to
make curricular decisions and have a profound
influence upon his students. Further, the
organizational structure of the Cuban educational
system enables Pedro to build professional
development into his daily schedule. Learning
activities, such as his involvement with the OSO
and his popular music group, permit Pedro to gain
knowledge in his subject area. Additional
motivators, such as feeling valued, being involved
in
meaningful
collegial
sharing,
and
understanding the lived reality of his students, add
to the positive balance. All of the above factors
subscribe to Scribner’s model of meaningful
teacher development (Scribner, 1999).
An analysis of Pedro’s challenges and success
also subscribes to the themes introduced by Nieto
(2003). The author outlines seven interrelated
conditions and values that identify why excellent
teachers remain in teaching.
These include
autobiography, love, hope and possibility, anger
and desperation, intellectual work, democratic
practice and the ability to shape the future.
Pedro is excited about his teaching, he loves his
students, and he is confident in his ability to shape
the future. Active in the daily lives of his students,
Pedro lives a similar reality to those whom he sees
in his classroom. He views his work as important
and has great hope. Pedro understands how his
personal autobiography influences his daily
activities. He sees anger and desperation as a
natural reaction to his teaching reality and

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

169

believes that, if dealt with appropriately, this
reaction can lead to a positive end.

Despite living and working in a reality that can be
viewed as “difficult,” Pedro continues to develop
as an expert teacher after over 25 years of service
in the state-sponsored music schools in Cuba.
Working in a climate that enables him to be
involved in meaningful collegial sharing and daily
professional development, Pedro is continually
learning and developing skills. Motivated by an
educational system that allows him to work both
as a professional performer and educator, Pedro is
constantly acquiring knowledge. Living in a
country that values the contribution of musicians
to its cultural economy, Pedro is continually
striving to bring both himself and his students to
higher levels of achievement. Given the freedom
to make curricular decisions based upon an
intimate knowledge of his students, Pedro feels
valued in his professional life. On the edge of
retiring, Pedro believes that he has made a major
contribution to his students’ lives, his community,
and the nation itself.
We need to support those teachers who love their
students, who find creative ways to teach them,
and who do so under difficult circumstances.
(Nieto, 2003, p. 397)

Haack, P., & Smith, M. (2000). Mentoring new music
teachers. Music Educators Journal, 87(3), 23-27.
Ingersoll, R. (2002). The teacher shortage: A case of
wrong diagnosis and wrong prescription. The NASSP
Bulletin, 86, 16-31.
Ingersoll, R. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage?
A report co-sponsored by the Center for the Study of
Teaching and Policy and the Center for Policy
Research in Education. Seattle: University of
Washington, Center for the Study of Teaching and
Policy.
Ingersoll, R. (2004). Four myths about America’s
teacher quality problem. In M. Smylie & D. Miretzky
(Eds.), Developing the teacher workforce: The 103rd
yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education (pp. 1-33). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Jackson, B. (1987). Fieldwork. Chicago, IL:
University of Illinois.
King, G. (1998). Exemplary Music Educator: A case
study. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 137, 57-72.
Lamkin, J. (2003). Beyond the podium: A
phenomenological investigation of the lifeworlds of
experienced high school band directors. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.
Lorenzino, L. (2006). An ethnographic study of
secondary music education in Cuba: Insights for
Canadian music education. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Alberta.
Nieto, S. (2003). Challenging current notions of
“highly qualified teachers” through work in a teachers’
inquiry group. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(5),
386-398.
Nieto, S. (2003). What keeps teacher going? New
York: Teachers College Press.

Cox, G. (2002). Recollections and realities:
Conversations with student music teachers. Bulletin of
the Council for Research in Music Education, 153-154,
89-93.

Robbins, J. (1990). Making popular music in Cuba: A
study of the Cuban institutions of musical production
and the musical life of Santiago de Cuba. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 62(03), 835. (UMI. No.
9114389)

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Pre-service Teachers Make Music: A
Performance Venture in the Tertiary
Classroom
Maree Macmillan
School of Education, RMIT University
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
maree.macmillan@rmit.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Because students enter university education with
such a diversity of backgrounds and competencies
in music, the tendency is to devote the few hours
allocated to music in teacher education degrees to
activities that are immediately applicable to the
primary music classroom, and that require no
pre-existing formal musical knowledge. Thus, any
musical skills that students may have established
through their (often extensive) participation in
musical groups during their teenage years are
generally neither fully acknowledged nor further
developed. This paper outlines a venture
conducted with a group of first-year Australian
primary (elementary/preparatory school) preservice teachers who, as part of their study in
music education, were asked to present a
performance that included a substantial
component of live music. In line with the desire to
foster “autonomous learning” within a “learning
community” as advocated by current educational
thinking, (as specified in the recently implemented
Victorian
Essential
Learning
Standards
documents), these tertiary students were
challenged to take charge of their own musical
learning through playing together, experimenting,
and teaching each other in small groups in a
process not dissimilar to the way popular
musicians learn, as documented in the UK work of
Lucy Green.
This performance venture aimed to nurture preservice teachers’ sense of themselves as active
musicians possessing practical musical skills, and,
whatever their musical background, to empower
them in a way that would inspire them to foster
similar performance experiences with children in
their own classrooms. The project’s extremely
open brief asked students to present a group
performance that included live music, an
accompanying musical score, (traditional or nontraditional), together with an individual written
reflection on personal musical learning process,
and contribution to the group’s learning.
Assessment was on participation, willingness to
take risks, and effort undertaken towards
ISBN 9780980456028

development of musical skills, together with the
quality of their reflection on the experience,
rather than on any “absolute” musical standard
dependent on pre-existing experience or perceived
“ability”.
Students
worked
relatively
independently, with the lecturer on hand “in the
wings” to assist if required.
While some students were initially apprehensive,
all
discovered
performance
and/or
organisational/critical
skills
they
could
contribute. The result was a range of satisfying
and effective group performances, some involving
original composition and/or improvisation, while
other presentations were cross-curricular in
nature. Students’ personal reflections described
their pride in their achievements, with many
displaying considerable insight into their own
burgeoning musical development. As a result of
experiencing the “buzz” of being part of a live
group performance, almost all spontaneously
declared their intention to provide performance
opportunities for their own students; indeed, some
have already done so in their primary school
placements sites. On the evidence so far, it is
posited that this sort of venture to cultivate
musical performance skills of pre-service teachers
may play at least some small part in arresting the
decline of primary-school music identified by
Australia’s recent National Review of School
Music Education.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

classroom, and that require no pre-existing formal
musical experience. Consequently, any practical
and/or theoretical musical skills that students may
have acquired during their teenage years through
their (often extensive) participation in musical
groups – for example, rock eisteddfod, the school
musical, stage band, concert band, orchestra,
chamber group, choir, or student-run rock/other
groups – unless explicitly harnessed, are often
neither fully acknowledged nor further developed.
Thus, when the opportunity presented itself to
work more extensively in music with a group of
first-year pre-service primary trainees, the chance
to capture and cultivate students’ prior musical
and/or other performance skills was too good to
miss.
The idea to include a relatively formal studentinitiated musical performance as an additional
major component of the course, developed in the
first instance as a result of the extraordinarily
positive response from students to an elective
class in music for third and fourth year (mainly)
education students, conducted two years earlier. In
this class, students not only achieved performance
results and ensemble and composition skills far
beyond both their own and my expectations; but
they also reported and demonstrated considerable
gains in confidence, self-esteem, an enhanced
appreciation for the importance of music in
education and in life, and a willingness and ability
to include music in their own classrooms. I was
keen to discover whether some of the positive
features of this elective course could also be
implemented in the first-year core music
education course. As the elective course was used
as a model, a brief outline is useful here; a more
detailed account appears in a forthcoming article
(Macmillan, 2007).
In the third/fourth year elective first conducted in
2005, pre-service teachers were challenged to take
charge of their own learning in music
performance, improvisation and composition; to
create a musical score; to undertake a leadership
task; to set individual performance and ensemble
goals; and to consciously contribute to the
learning of others. Students were able to negotiate
how they fulfilled each of these aspects of the
course, and how they would weight the various
facets. The burgeoning musicianship and
innovative exploration both exhibited and reported
by all students, demonstrated that something very
special had occurred in this class. In creating their
own learning experience, students discovered
first-hand the meaning of “autonomous learning”
within a collaborative and supportive “learning
community,” as advocated in the recently
implemented Victorian Essential Learning

Standards.
The major theoretical bases of the elective course
are also important underlying factors in the
performance component of the first-year core
music education course that is the subject of this
paper. As documented more fully elsewhere, the
earlier elective course was underpinned by a
venerable tradition of composition and
performance-based music educational practice
that, in its encouragement of problem-solving and
co-construction of learning (Temmerman, 2006),
prefigures the more recent notion of New
Learning, discussed in the Australian Council of
Deans of Education document, New Teaching,
New Learning: A Vision for Australian Education
(ACDE, 2004). Particularly pertinent to both the
earlier elective course and to the first-year course
is the recent UK research by Lucy Green (2005)
into the music-learning and music-transmission
processes engaged in by popular musicians.
Green’s five key areas characterising the learning
practice of popular musicians are worth reiterating
here:
• Learning based on personal choice,
enjoyment, identification, and familiarity with
the music, as distinct from being introduced to
new and often unfamiliar music.
• Recorded music as the principal aural means
of musical transmission and skill acquisition
as distinct from notated or other written or
verbal instructions and exercises.
• Self-teaching and peer-directed learning, as
distinct from learning with adult supervision
and guidance, curricula, syllabi, or external
assessment.
• Assimilating skills and knowledge in
haphazard ways, according to musical
preferences, rather than following a
progression from simple to complex.
• Integration
of
listening,
performing,
improvising, and composing through the
learning process, as distinct from their
increasing differentiation.
All of these characteristics featured prominently
in both the elective and the core classes, with the
exception that the second feature, use of recorded
music, was evident in only a small minority of
groups; an additional difference was that both the
courses were assessed.

THE TASK
In the first-year core course that is the primary
concern of this paper, the pre-service teachers
were given an extremely open but more limited
brief than the elective students, with only one
major task specified. They were asked to prepare

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

and present a performance that included a
substantial component of live music, which could
be original, (but need not be), semi-improvised or
fully composed. The presentation could be purely
musical or could be associated with some other
domain such as movement/dance, a story, a poem,
a film-clip or other visuals. Groups were also
asked to create some kind of musical score; this
could employ traditional, grid, graphic, verbal, or
aleatory-based notation, a chord chart or guitar
chart/tab, or some combination of these, or even
incorporate another medium, such as a poem, as
its basis. In addition, students were asked to write
an individual reflection on their personal musical
learning process, and on their contribution to the
learning of the group.
In order to allay anxieties about disparity of
musical background and experience in the group,
and to attempt to be as equitable as possible, it
was emphasised that assessment would be based
on level of participation, willingness to take risks,
and the effort undertaken towards improvement of
musical skills, together with the quality of
reflection on the experience, not on any absolute
musical standard dependent on pre-existing
experience or perceived “ability.” The group
performance component was evaluated in terms of
evidence of preparation, structure and cohesion,
energy and engagement of the performance,
clarity of the score and overall impression. The
individual reflection asked students to document
their learning processes within the group and their
contribution to the group’s learning, with specific
reference to musical skills and concepts; they
were also asked to consider how far they had
challenged themselves, to compare their musical
endpoint with their starting point, and to assess
their overall participation in, and reactions to, the
project.

THE PROCESS
Although this music component occurred in the
second semester and most of these first-year
students had taken all of their first semester
courses together in the same tutorial groups, many
students knew surprisingly little about one
another’s prior experience and skills in music. A
“speed-dating” information sharing process
resulted in new alliances being made; some
students worked together in combinations not
previously experienced, with most choosing to
group themselves in clusters of four or five. Once
groups had been formed, students worked
relatively independently, mostly in class-time,
with the lecturer on hand “in the wings” available
to assist if required. While there were some
technical musical issues that needed the specific
expertise of the lecturer to resolve, the vast

173

majority of the musical work was undertaken by
the students themselves.
As might be expected, there was considerable
variation in the time taken by groups to become
productively focused on their task. At one end of
the spectrum was a group that included some
members with significant background in music
and some performance and song-writing
experience, who were highly organised from the
start, knew almost immediately what they would
perform, and often came an hour early to class for
extra practice; at the opposite end were groups
who appeared to need the focus of the impending
performance as impetus for their work to come
together. However, most groups settled relatively
quickly after some initial trial and error and
worked steadily towards their performance.

THE OUTCOMES
It was interesting to observe how the different
groups utilised and developed the particular
musical and extra-musical skills of their members
to complete the task in a way that was comfortable
and yet challenging for its members, with many
incorporating other performance aspects such as
acting and dance/movement, and including
costumes, props and lighting. One large group that
initially
lacked
direction
employed
its
accomplished gymnast and its two dancers accompanied by a pianist, a flautist, a ’cellist and
a percussion player - in a performance
incorporating a story of puppets coming to life.
Another group used its members’ acting skills and
the sound engineering background of one
member, to perform a traditional fairytale, with
music encompassing elements ranging from
theatrical melodrama to Foley Artist skills. A third
group featured its members’ tap-dancing expertise
in conjunction with live music performed by the
other participants, while yet another group wrote
their own fairytale, improvising Spanish-style
music on guitar and percussion to create
atmosphere and enhance the events of the
narrative.
Even the groups whose performances were purely
musical all utilised visual props and/or costumes and in one case, even food - to add colour to their
presentations. Their performances included: an
arrangement of music from Harry Potter; a salsastyle song initially adapted from a recording, then
performed live; and a totally original semiimprovised piece in jazz style for piano, alto
saxophone, percussion, and bass guitar line
(played on electric keyboard). The most polished
performance by a group featuring three-part
vocals, piano and guitar was almost professional
in standard. This group performed an original

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

song composed one of its members, and an
Andrews’ Sisters standard incorporating costumes
and movement. All groups also presented
effective scores, which ranged from traditional to
grid, and/or graphic/symbolic, with some groups
using storybooks or other narrative forms, and
even dance-step charts, as a basis for music/sound
annotation.
The quality of the students’ learning processes
was evident from observing their rehearsals, from
the standard of their performances, and from their
own verbal and written comments on their
growing appreciation of musical concepts,
acquisition of musical skills and refinement of
aesthetic judgement. (These comments are
discussed in more detail in a forthcoming article.)
All students were enthusiastic in their support of
their classmates, both because they understood
“from the inside” what was involved in preparing
and presenting a musical performance from
scratch, and from genuine surprise and
appreciation of hitherto unacknowledged skills
exhibited by their peers. Students also reported
pride in their own achievements, with many
identifying the “buzz” of successfully executing
their performance after initially feeling
apprehensive about the task. Almost all
spontaneously declared a determination to
implement similar performance opportunities for
children in their own classrooms; indeed, some
students even achieved this during the course of
the semester.

CONCLUSION
The positive results of this experiment challenging
pre-service primary education students to embark
on a major self-initiated performance task affirms,
yet again, the adage that the love of music is
something that is “caught” rather than taught.
While it is recognised that specific instruction in
music education pedagogy and familiarity with
musical materials appropriate to primary-level
children are important, the early indications of this
performance project are that education students’

deep knowledge of music and enthusiasm for its
implementation in the classroom are enhanced
when they acquire a sense of themselves as
musicians (rather than as teachers/facilitators
alone), through the hands-on experience of
autonomously
creating
a
composition/
performance at their own level. It is hoped that
this sort of venture in pre-service music education
will play at least some small part in arresting the
decline of music in primary schools, identified by
Australia’s recent National Review of School
Music Education.

REFERENCES
Australian Council of Deans of Education (2004). New
teaching, new learning: A vision for Australian
education. Retrieved 27/07/2007 from
http://www.acde.edu.au/docs/NewTeachingNewLearni
ng.pdf
Green, L. (2001). How popular musicians learn: A way
ahead for music education. London and New York:
Ashgate Press.
Green, L. (2005). The music curriculum as lived
experience: children’s “natural” music-learning
processes. Music Educators Journal, 91(4), 26 - 28.
Macmillan, M. (2007, in press). Autonomous learning
within a learning community? Musicians have been
doing it for years! Proceedings of the XXI th Annual
Conference of the Australian Association for Research
in Music Education: Music Education Research:
Initiatives, Melbourne, Monash University.
National Review of School Music Education (2005).
Retrieved 01/11/2007 from
http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/polic
y_initiatives_reviews/reviews/school_music_education
Temmerman, N. (2006). Equipping future arts
educators for primary schools of the 21st century: An
Australian perspective. International Journal of Music
Education, 24, 271-282.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority
(2004). Victorian curriculum reform 2004 consultation
paper. Retrieved 25/07/2007 from
http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/links/general.html

The Belly-Button Chord: Musical
Experiences During Pregnancy and
Their Effect on Mother-Child
Interdependency
Kaarina Marjanen
Department of Music, University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä, Finland
rikamarj@cc.jyu.fi

ABSTRACT
In this qualitative research, the impact of holistic
music education in mother-child early interactions
was investigated based on Grounded Theory
(Charmaz, 1994). The fetus’/infant’s development
was explored based on the ethological theory
(Hinde, 1992). It was assumed that musical
experiences would have an impact on both the
mother and the unborn baby. This study aims to
clarify the justifications of music education, and
to find new methods to benefit early interaction as
well as new evidence about the impacts of music.
Musical impacts to a child’s holistic development
and musical development were underlined
through constructivist theory (Cobb, 1994;
Järvelä & Niemivirta, 1997; Levine et al., 1993;
Pintrich et al. 1993; Salomon, 1993; Tynjälä,
1999; Von Glasersfeld, 1989). Goals to musical
actions were set. Emotionality was seen in
consciousness and in music. The sense, the
emotions and the body worked together.
The research material was analyzed via the Hyper
Research and the Praat–softwares. Because of the
varieties of personalities, musical genres, musical
impacts, experiences of music, and music making
ways and because of all the possibilities music
can offer us, there is a good possibility to succeed
in supporting communication skills like in the
Belly-Button Chord Programme. This will be
crucial information for the work of educators,
including those who work with expecting and new
mothers. This research is part of the author’s
doctoral thesis.

INTRODUCTION
My study concerns early interactions between a
mother and a child. In this study, emotions are
underlined as a meaningful factor in a learning
process. The basis for this research derives from
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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

deep down in our souls and minds (Boyce-Tilman,
2004; Naukkarinen, 2002).
Goals to musical actions are usually set according
socio-emotional,
cognitive,
psycho-motor,
aesthetical and musical sessions in music play
school (Anttila & Juvonen, 2002; Comittee
Report, 1980:31; Hongisto-Åberg, LindebergPiiroinen & Mäkinen, 1993; Lahdes, 1997;
Marjanen 2002, 2005; Wood, 1982), that is, a
Finnish music learning programme for children
under eight years of age. The efforts for achieving
them are done by using musical methods. Music is
an object to learning; communicational characters
of making music are set to the primary level. This
specific method of early childhood music
education has been adapted for the present study.
Several studies regarding babies’ musical learning
have been done (Beyer, 2006; Ilari, 2004; Ilari &
Majlis, 2004; McGraw, 2004; Street, 2004).
Research and knowledge on music and interaction
is well known (e.g., Wood 1980; Mullis. &
Mullis, 1986; Hargreaves, Miell & McDonald,
2005) and music making can be observed as a way
of communication. The theories of learning by
experience (Zelinski, 1991; Kolb, Osland &
Rubin, 1995) are also important. As an example,
Malloch (1999) has written about “Mothers and
Infants and Communicative Musicality” and
Dissanaynake (2000, 2004) has also observed the
mother-child interaction.
Studies referring to the prenatal period and early
parenting have recently become acknowledged,
perhaps due to the Mozart-effect phenomenon
(Campbell, 1997, 2000). However, prenatal
research area has been going on for some time
now (e.g. Chamberlain 1988; 1994; 1998; 2006a;
2006b; DeCasper & Prescott, 1984; DeCasper &
Spence, 1982; Fifer & DeCasper, 1980; JohnsonGreen & Custodero, 2004; Papousek & Papousek,
1981, 1994, 1996a, 1996b; Sallenbach, 2006;
Shahidullah & Hepper, 1992; Street, 2004;
Woodward, 1992; www.birthpsychology.com).
APPPAH or The Association for Pre- and
Perinatal Psychology and Health was grounded in
1983 in Toronto, Canada.
In my home country, Finland, this research area is
quite new. Some brain research has been done
(Huotilainen, 2005) as well as some medical
research (Raatikainen 2007; Ryttyläinen 2005).
Musical communication among mothers and
babies has also been observed in some smaller
studies (e.g., Järvelä, 2006; Kaipiainen, 2007), as
well as some interaction studies (Halonen, 2002;
Kuukka, 1999; Tirkkonen, 2002; Valjus, 2004).
Previous studies have often focused on the power
of a mother’s voice, and some studies on this
subject area are quantitative studies.

My study derives quite strongly from the previous
ones: it is a music education–based study that
focuses on both the prenatal and postnatal periods.
Holistic musical experiences deriving from
various musical experiences are put under
observation. The goals are set based on early
childhood music education methods.
It could be assumed, that the impacts of music
might be even more powerful when it comes to a
fetus. As noted, fetuses use their senses. Their
individual, personal profiles do develop before
birth. Fetuses react to voices at the age of 4-5
months (Pujol, Lavigne-Rebillard & Uziel, 1991).
The sense of hearing is one of the most important
for the fetus. The sense of touch combined with
music makes the experience even stronger.
Our influence on a child is at its peak during
development in uterus (Chamberlain, 1994). A
growing body of research is aiming to understand
the prenate as an intelligent and sentient being
(Chamberlain, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994). A
complextity of bonding and language processing
during the prenatal period has been revealed
(DeCasper & Prescott, 1984; DeCasper & Spence,
1982; Fifer & DeCasper, 1980), and a surprising
musical intelligence has been pointed out
(Chamberlain, 1994).
The matter, which really counts in this study, is
emotion. It is equally important and common to
the fetus and the mother, and it is inherent to
music. Because of the diverse personalities,
musical genres, musical impacts, experiences of
music and ways of making music, and because of
all the possibilities music can offer us there is a
good possibility to succeed in supporting
communication skills by versatile musical means
like in the Belly-Button Chord Programme.
Emotional intelligence is emphasized in various
professional references. A profound learning
process was observed as a sum of the senses, the
emotions and the body working together, in the
limbic system of the brain (Damasio, 1994).
The flow experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;
Elliott, 1995), which is the deepest form of
emotional artistic experiences, is important for an
individual, because it makes the learner’s, e.g., a
child’s, mind open. That is why we need teachers
with strong musical skills and musician’s identity
among young families.
This study is still in progress, but a figure of
music education vs. interaction and their effects
on the development of a child will be drawn as a
result. The purpose of this investigation is to
inform music education by assessing the potential
benefits of early interactions between a mother
and a newborn.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

AIMS
The underlying motivation of this study derives
from concern. Mothers are often not able to
nurture their babies because of stress, continuing
hurry and competition. We are living in a society
of hard values. Mothers are drifting away from
their natural senses (Odent, 1984; Papousek,
1996). We are losing our sensitivity. Sensitivity in
listening and also a strong will to understand is
needed.
According to David Chamberlain (1994), the
parents’ influence on the child is at its peak during
development in uterus. I claim mother-child
interaction is one of the most important matters
for the quality of life. Mothers are urgently needed
from the very beginning. Mother-child interaction
is a starting point for a good life. Interdependency
between a mother and a baby is important. Giving
support during early parenthood period could be
the answer to many problems.
The aims of the current study are to find new
methods in the field of early childhood music
education and to find possibilities for music
education to support mother-child interactions. It
is always important to find justification for music
in the levels of individuals and society, also,
which should be considered according to
educational programs for music specialists.
Pointing out the need for music education
resources could be helpful in the education of all
teachers, educators, and professionals in health
and social services and also in the day care
organization.
The aim can be reached by making pregnant
mothers “dive” into music on behalf of her
fetus/baby. Through the Belly-Button Chord
mothers are supposed to get musical ideas and
tools to be used in communication situations with
the baby. Our self-confidence can be supported by
musical practices.
Furthermore, the aim of the study is to find out
whether it is possible to support young mothers’
interaction and communication with their babies
beginning from the prenatal period.
The research questions are:
• Do musical experiences make the motherchild interdependency stronger?
• Is it possible to support mothers in their
communication with their newborn baby by
traditional ways or adaptations of early
childhood music education activities?
• What kinds of musical experiences seem to be
the most meaningful ones for a mother?
• How is her musical experience constructed? Is
there a similarity between a mother’s and a
baby’s experience?

•

•

•
•

177

How should musical quality be understood
when considering the interactions of a mother
and her baby?
Are common early childhood music education
methods suitable for the purpose of supporting
mothers in communicative skills, in
interaction?
Do pre-birth musical experiences affect a
baby’s communicative skills?
If there are effects to be seen, then how do
they appear? Where and how can those effects
be seen?

METHOD
This qualitative research is a phenomenological,
functional study based on the constructivist model
of Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 1994) along with
some narrative methods. The objective is to
produce a well-constructed theory based on the
data.
The members of the study groups are considered
active participants. The research process is cyclic.
Planning, action and estimation are alternated in
this action study. (Kuula, 1999.)
The fetus’/baby’s development was explored
based on the ethological theory (Hinde, 1992).
Music education was considered as a holistic
event, that is, a holistic process in which
vocalizing, singing, playing and moving serve as
means to foster deep and profound learning
experiences. The impacts of music on a child’s
holistic and musical development were
underlined.
Learning comprehension was based on the
constructivist theory. An emotional side in the
knowledge has been recognized (Izard, 1991). An
emotional dimension was seen as a part of one’s
consciousness and as a part of music. In all
learning and development of various skills, the
process goes on by using all the senses,
consciously, by thinking and understanding as
well as through movement and emotions
(Dennison & Dennison, 1985; Hannaford, 2004).
In a preliminary study, the mothers wrote short
essays about their musical backgrounds and
motherhood. According to the mothers’ writings,
the goals were set for the investigation, and the
plans for the music sessions (based on a specific
curriculum with certain goals) were created.
The researcher was also the teacher in the BellyButton Chord group for whom a special
curriculum, a goal-oriented plan was designed. By
communicating in a music group, mothers might
have models of interaction as a part of learning
processes. It was quite a challenge having the two
roles in one person at the same time, a researcher
and a teacher.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The Belly-Button Chord Programme’s actions
(Figure 1), from the teacher’s point of view, was
based on thorough planning. Prenatal period
music sessions (T1) were not held regularly
because to improve the possibilities of getting
clear results and data, e.g., to find out if the
amount of practice would be of importance or not.
The duration of the session varied from 45 to 90
minutes. The postnatal sessions were fulfilled for
two groups (T1, K1) each based on the same plan
and curriculum. Sessions were held once a week.

Every session lasted for 30 minutes because of the
babies’ tolerance. The goals in both the pre- and
the postnatal sessions were set for musical
components and a child’s development, which
were practiced through musical methods (such as
using one’s voice, the body and movement,
playing some rhythm instruments, listening to
music, etc.).

Figure 1. Music educational study for the mother-child interdependency.
Every session plan was based on the period plan,
classified based to the classification in the
which was written as a guideline for the program.
observation-/ follow up –forms and music session
Music’s impacts can be seen in a child’s holistic
plans and goals.
development and growth as well as in the musical
Subjects
development and growth.
There were 21 mothers and 22 babies participating
Mothers were given lesson plans and musical
in this study (there was one set of twin girls). Two
materials. The idea of giving the material was a
of the mothers had their second child. The
twofold: (1) mothers were more like to undertake
mothers of the group had no special musical
musical activities at home, and (2), filling out the
background. They represented different jobs,
follow up forms was easier with the support of the
trades and professions.
materials.
Mothers and babies were divided into three
Data was collected both pre- (T1) and postnatally
groups: the actual study group (T1) and two peer
(TI, K1, K2). Groups T1 and K1 participated at
groups (K1 and K2). The mothers in the study
music sessions (T1 at pre- and postnatal, K1 at
group were between 21 and 38 years of age
postnatal ones), and group K2 did not participate
(average 28, which represents the normal age of
at music sessions. An analysis was performed by
becoming a mother nowadays in Finland).
the Praat and the HyperResearch softwares and
Mothers in study group K1 were a bit younger

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

(average 26) than mothers in study groups T1 and
K2.
All mothers attended the prenatal study when they
were between 23 and 39 weeks into pregnancy,
and the postnatal study with babies was conducted
between 2 -14 weeks until 10-22 weeks. The
babies were born from the end of May until July
2006. Fourteen babies were girls and 8 were boys.

Measures
The prenatal study consisted of 8 sessions (+1 for
starting) during a 3 months period in spring 2006
with the actual study group (T1). Two of the
music sessions lasted for 45 minutes, four sessions
lasted for 60 minutes and two sessions lasted for
90 minutes. Fifty-six follow-up forms were
gathered, and 510 minutes of videotapes from
music sessions was gathered. Twenty-two songs
and 5 rhymes were learned during spring period in
multiple ways, and there were 6 musical pieces to
which the group listened.
The seven Belly-Button Group mothers were
attending group sessions from 23 to 39 pregnancy
weeks during the spring period 2006. Three
hundred and eleven different musical phenomena
were observed in the follow-ups. The range of
observations was highest in May 2006.
The postnatal study contained 10 sessions, each
lasting approximately 30 minutes. The sessions
took place once a week, as in an ordinary music
play school. Three hundred minutes of videotape
of sessions were gathered and 175 minutes of
interaction -videotapes per group (525 + 25
minutes from the other twin girl minutes all
together). Two hundred and ten observation forms
were returned.
A questionnaire was sent to mothers at the time
there children had their first birthday. The
percentage of the returned questionnaires was 76,
43%. The analysis of the postnatal study is still
going on; but by July 2008, when the ISME
conference will take place, there will be a lot more
to tell about the measures and the results.
In the analysis process, as an example of it, the
data from mothers’ follow-ups was typed and put
to HyperResearch in a text format and classified
(see Figure 1). The classified data were reclassified in looking for more specific details, and
then drawn back to excel to find out about the
results, which were estimated through the
mothers’
comprehensions
about
musical
components, etc. The results of this part were then
compared to the video materials. Figures will be
drawn after the entire analysis is finalized.

179

RESULTS
The most significant thing that emerged in group
T1 referred to melody: mothers’ used the voice in
a versatile manner. Enjoying the actions during
musical sessions was important. According to
maternal observations, the fetuses’ responses were
usually experienced through movements.
Individual differences and divided opinions were
clearly seen when looking more specifically at
session 7 (the 3rd of May, 2006), which stood out
from the range of observations and was a lot
higher when compared to observations in the other
sessions.

CONCLUSIONS
At the moment, only speculations can be done
according to conclusions. Knowledge about early
parenting and fetuses’ learning processes should
be brought into daylight. All parents should be
aware of these facts. Information should also be
brought in to the educational levels. The data
gathered must benefit the society. It might even
help in saving some costs from social and medical
care in future.
The value of a secure, profound and warm
relationship between a mother and child cannot be
overestimated. The mother is essential for a
child’s well being, with the support of the father,
of course.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study is not finalized yet, but until now I want
to express my gratitude to the Finnish Cultural
Foundation and to the Arts Council of Finland for
supporting me in this research and, as well, to my
family and my supervisors for patiently being
there for me and guiding me with this research.

REFERENCES
Anttila, M. & Juvonen, A. (2002). Kohti kolmannen
vuosituhannen musiikkikasvatusta. Joensuu University
Press Oy: Saarijärvi.
Bastian, H.G. (2000). Musik(erziehung) und ihre
Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner
Grundschulen. Mainz: Schott.
Beyer, E. (2004). The World Sounds and I Dance:
Looking to the Movements of the Babies when They
Hear Music. Proceedings at the ECME Commission,
2004, Spain
Bower, E. (1977). Learning to play, playing to learn.
New York: Human Sciences Press.
Boyce-Tillman, J. (2004).The beyond of music- music
as a spiritual experience with young children.
Proceedings at the ECME Commission, 2004, Spain
Campbell, D. (1997). The Mozart Effect. Tapping the
power of music to heal the body, strengthen the mind,
and unlock the creative spirit. London: Avon Books.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Wood, D. (1982). Move, Sing, Listen, Play. Preparing
Young Children for Music. Toronto: Thompson
Limited.
Wood, D. (1980). Teaching the Young Child: Some
Relationships between Social Interaction, Language,
and Thought. In D. Olson (ed.) Social Foundations of
Language and Thought. New York: Norton.

Woodward, S. (1992). The transmission of music into
the human uterus and the response to music of the
human fetus and neonate. Unpublished doctoral thesis,
Dept. of Music Education, University of Cape Town
South Africa.
Zelinski, Mark, Outward Bound: The Inward Odyssey,
Beyond Words Publishing, Hillsboro.

Professional Autonomy of Music
Teachers in Teaching and Related
Areas: A Case Study in Mainland China
Wang Miao
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
wangmiao@hkusua.hku.hk

ABSTRACT
Since the 1980’s, the distribution of power within
school systems has been a matter of concern for
both educational researchers and policy makers,
with the debate mainly focusing on the
distribution of power between individual teachers
and administrative groups. This research
examines the professional autonomy of music
teachers in order to understand the situation and
factors affecting professional autonomy among
teachers of “less regulated” subjects. In the
Western educational system, teachers are
considered to be comparatively independent in
their working context. In China, however,
individual teacher’s teaching activities are
integrated in the process of school-based teacher
professional development in accordance with the
state’s ideology of collectivism. Data of the study
were drawn from questionnaire survey among the
music teachers and interviews with individual
music teachers, school administrators and teacher
supervisors from the district teaching and
research centers in the city of Changsha in
mainland China. The quantitative data show that
music teachers perceive that they exercise
comparatively high autonomy in their teaching
and related areas. Referring to the in-depth
interviews with the informants, it is found out that
the music teachers’ professional autonomy is
related to the low status of music subject in
schools. Furthermore, the study finds that the
administrative and professional intervention of
teacher supervisors forms the major external
influence on music teachers’ practice of
professional autonomy.

KEYWORDS
music teachers; professional autonomy; music
teaching; school administration; school-based
teacher development

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

that is free from any form of examinations in
mainland China. It is one of the aims of this study
to determine the extent to which music teachers
perceive and exercise their professional
autonomy. The study probes the factors that affect
music teachers’ professional autonomy based on
an investigation of music teachers’ perception of
the impacts on both music teaching profession and
the powers outside the profession.
Along
with
the
development
of
professionalization of teachers in mainland China,
the professional autonomy of teachers is gaining
more and more concern from the academia as well
as the educational institutions. One of the
significant indicators is that teacher’s personal
rights and professional authority is prescribed and
guaranteed by the “Law for Teachers” (State
Council, 1994) and the “Law for Education”
(State Council, 1995). However, teachers’
autonomy remains insubstantial at the perceived
level. Academia argues two major factors in
teachers’ professional autonomy in mainland
China (Ma, 2004; Yao, 2005; Ye, 2006; Zhong,
2003): one is the hierarchical control from the
educational administration department toward
schools and teachers. Particularly, since teachers
are at the lowest level of the hierarchical
educational administration system, they hardly
have any opportunities to make their own
professional judgments or decisions. The other
factor is that teachers’ lack of consciousness and
desire for autonomy. In the highly hierarchical
educational administration system, teachers
consider their duties to be following the uniform
curriculum guidelines set by the Ministry of
Education and teaching the textbooks assigned by
the superior administrative departments. Teachers
are deemed to be “sightless copyist, obedient
implementer and passive spectator” of their
teaching activities under this circumstances. This
can be seen as a general picture of teachers’
autonomy in Mainland China. Music teacher
autonomy is overlaid by the general discussion of
teacher professional autonomy because of its
special status in school education.
The purpose of this study is to explore the gaps
between music teachers’ perceptions of their
preferred professional autonomy and their actual
existing professional autonomy. Are music
teachers autonomous in their teaching and related
activities? If so, then how and to what extent can
music teachers exercise professional autonomy?
What are the facilitating factors and barriers
affecting the perceptions and practice of
professional autonomy among music teachers in
their teaching and related activities? In short, the
study of the situation and perception of the

professional autonomy of music teachers can be
expected to discover some implications for the
literature on teacher autonomy.

METHODS & PROCEDURE
This is a case study of the professional autonomy
of music teachers in China’s Changsha city; the
study was conducted within several sampled
junior secondary schools in the city. For the sake
of reliable and convincing answers to the research
questions, both quantitative and qualitative
research methods were involved in the field
survey process of this study, a so-called “mixed
method research” (Muijs, 2004). The major
instruments of this study were questionnaire and
interview survey, supplemented with the methods
of
observations
(including
classroom
observations, teaching conference observations,
collective lesson preparation observations, etc.)
and document analysis.
The questionnaire was designed to investigate
teachers’ perceptions of their professional
autonomy. Two parallel “Likert scale” answers
were rated from “No autonomy” to “Complete
autonomy” to collect the informants’ perceptions
on the extent or degree of their professional
autonomy of both preferred and perceived
situations. The rating scale and part of the enquiry
items refer to Friedman’s (1999) TWA (Teacher
Work Autonomy) scale for measuring teachers
perceptions about their professional autonomy.
Quantitative
data
collected
from
the
questionnaires were also expected to provide
concrete evidence about how much autonomy
music teachers have, to reveal basic information
about the research problem, and help the
researcher to better develop and understand the
subsequent interview survey. Besides, two groups
of subjects were interviewe: (a) school music
teachers and (b) school principals, school
managers and music teacher supervisors from the
teaching and research centers. Two separate sets
of semi-structured interview questions were
designed – one for each group – in order to get
comprehensive responses to the research
questions.

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
The situation of music teachers’ exercising of
professional autonomy in their teaching practice is
perceived to be comparatively high. However,
their attitudes toward this situation comparing to
music teachers’ preferred situation of their
professional autonomy differ with the following
reasons: teachers’ perceptions of professional
autonomy; teachers’ self-perceptions; teachers’
attitudes toward their work; and the differences
between schools. Based on the information from

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

the interviews, it was found that the status of the
music as a subject as well as music teachers at
schools is an important factor that affects the
music teachers’ practice of their professional
autonomy. This finding also provides a standpoint
to understand the nature of the “autonomy”
possessed by the music teachers in their teaching.

Implications From Music Teachers’
Perceptions of High Professional
Autonomy in TRD
According to the questionnaire survey, the enquiry
list of TRD (Teaching and Related Domain) can
be divided into three areas (see Table 1): “General
Teaching Routines” (GTR), “Music Curriculum
Development” (MCD), and “Extra Curriculum
Activities” (ECA). Among the three areas, the
informants expect the highest PA in the area of
“ECA” (with Preferred mean=4.28), while the
least PA in “MCD” (with Preferred mean=4.16).
However, in their perceived exercise of PA,
teachers have the highest PA in the area of
“MCD” (with Perceived mean=3.26), and the
lowest PA in the area of “ECA” (with Perceived
mean=3.09). That is, the teachers reflect the
greatest gap between their preferred and perceived
situation of PA in the area of “Extra Curriculum
Activities” (with Difference mean=1.19), and least
gap in the area of “Music Curriculum
Development” (with Difference mean=0.90).
As shown in the questionnaire survey, most of the
music teachers indicated that they practice
comparatively high autonomy during the music
teaching process including the design of teaching
plan, the organization of teaching content and the
implementation of teaching methods. Based on
information gathered from interviews with music
teachers in different schools, there is no essential
difference between the perceptions of music
teachers in experimental schools and nonexperimental schools toward their exercise of
professional autonomy in teaching process, except
for some discrimination at extent.

Unlike the similarities in the perceptions toward
the extent of their perceived professional
autonomy, the interviewed music teachers hold
different attitudes towards the acquired “high
autonomy.” According to the interviews, the
attitudes towards perceived autonomy of music
teachers differ with teachers’ teaching experience
and the different schools in which they work.
Teachers with longer teaching experience seem to
be more satisfied with the perceived situation of
their professional autonomy. Moreover, teachers
in experimental schools enjoy more autonomy in
their teaching and related activities because music
education receives much more recognitions in
these schools, and the superiority in teaching
resources is another inevitable factor. However,
for those music teachers in non-experimental
schools, it is still a problem to guarantee the
teaching hours of music subjects, and music
activities are the last preference of students’
activities at schools. Although music teachers
perceive that they have large extent of “freedom”
in their teaching, this can be regarded as
“freedom” under broader restrictions caused by
the status of music subject as well as music
teachers at schools. These restrictions have
become habitual or even unconscious to the music
teachers.

External Impact on Music Teachers’
Professional Autonomy in TRD
The questionnaire also investigated music
teachers’ perceptions toward the extent of each
source of external control on the areas regarding
their exercise of professional autonomy. As shown
by the statistics (see Table 2), among the four
relevant external control agents in the music
teaching related areas, music teachers consider
that the most control on their teaching related
activities comes from the teacher supervisors from
the teaching and research centers of different

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

district levels (with mean=3.22), rather than the
external authorities from the school context, e.g.
the school principals (with mean for
principal=3.11 & with mean for deputy
principal=3.00) or subject leaders (with
mean=3.00).
Table 2. Means of MTs’ perceptions about the
extent of external control from different
sources
The External Control
Forces

Extent of Control Forces
in TRD

Principal

3.11

Deputy Principal

3.00

Subject Leader

3.00

Teacher Supervisor

3.22

The teaching and research centers are unique
educational departments in the hierarchical
administration system in mainland China. They
have large administrative authority over the
schools and teachers. The music teacher
supervisors take the role of advisors of music
teachers in their teaching and professional
development and training programs; they also take
charge of some in-service teacher training
programs and all kinds of music activities. For
music teachers in particular, due to the limited
amount of music teacher in each school, teacher
supervisors take the responsibility to carry out the
school-based collective activities for music
teachers by organizing music teachers from
different schools to communicate with each other,
such as doing collective lesson preparations
together, holding teaching conferences and
teaching competitions, etc. In these collective
teacher development activities, the grade and
comments regarding individual music teachers
made by the teacher supervisors are important
proof for teacher appraisal at school. Moreover,
the teacher supervisors are also in charge of
assigning music textbooks and teaching reference
materials.
According to the interviewed teacher supervisors,
they consider themselves as “buffer” between the
state’s educational policy and teachers by
conveying the latest concepts and theory in music
education and helping the music teachers
understand and implement the concepts and
theory appropriately. The teacher supervisors also
indicate their function as “conciliator” between
the schools and music teacher by using their
administrative authority to guarantee the status of
music education as well as music teachers in
schools. Referring to the music teachers, there are
two major different perceptions toward the role of

teacher supervisors. Some teachers, who are more
likely to be younger or junior teachers, consider it
necessary for them to get guidance from
“authoritative” and “experienced” experts, and the
advice provided is helpful for improving their
teaching. Other teachers, most of whom with
longer teaching experience, prefer more freedom
in their teaching practice, and they regard the
supervision and administrative directions from the
teacher supervisors as an impediment in carrying
out their own teaching method and developing
their own teaching style. Teachers with both
viewpoints indicate the function of teacher
supervisors as “pressure-riser” in their teaching
activities as well as professional development. In
this sense, it can explain why music teachers
imply that the most external control in their
teaching and related activities comes from the
music teacher supervisors, since the teacher
supervisors are involved in the music teaching
activities both administratively and professionally.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper reports the results of an investigation
on the music teachers’ professional autonomy in
teaching and related activities in Junior secondary
schools of China’s Changsha city. The study
comes out with two major implications. First,
although it is shown in the questionnaire survey
that most of the music teachers perceive
comparatively high autonomy in the teaching
related areas, inconsistencies are existed in the
interviews. In the interview survey, the informants
indicated that they have much “freedom” in
teaching activities within certain criteria, while the
results and achievements of the teaching activities
were not always supported, or even noticed by the
schools, especially in those non-experimental
schools with fewer resources. The paper ascribes
this situation to that the music teachers’ autonomy
is restricted by the comparatively low status of
music subject as well as music teachers at schools.
Since music subject is exempted from the entrance
examination
system,
music
teaching
is
circumscribed by the schools. Similar to what
happens to other examination-involved subjects.
This autonomy is more like “freedom without
notice” at the school context. Another explanation
of the informants’ inconsistent responses to the
extent of their professional autonomy in the
teaching area is that they are acquiescent and have
got used to the low professional status at their
working context. Second, it is an interesting
phenomenon that music teachers’ methods and
styles of teaching are greatly influenced by the
teacher supervisors from the district teaching and
research centers, rather than their own subject
leaders and school administrators. The major

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

reason for this situation is that the teacher
supervisors have the administrative authority in
the music teacher appraisal process and play a
crucial role in music teachers’ professional
promotion. This is an inevitable consequence of
China’s hierachical educational administration
system.
Music teachers’ professional autonomy in their
teaching activities is a complicated issue which
exists in a broad context and is caused by
multiplied factors. What is present in this short
paper is a fraction of discussion on this issue.
However, it can be taken as a down-lead to further
probe into the problem of professional autonomy
of music teachers and administration in music
education.

The author would like to express her gratitude to
all the music teachers, administrators of schools
and teacher supervisors involved in the study.
Thanks are also delivered to Dr. Wing-Wah Law
for his instructive guidance and invaluable
support.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Keeping Pace With the New Paradigm
of the “Engaged” University Dedicated
to the Public Good: Twenty-First
Century Imperatives for Schools of
Music
David R. Montaño
Lamont School of Music, University of Denver
Denver, CO, USA
dmontano@du.edu

ABSTRACT
Beginning especially during the last two decades
of the twentieth century, a new vision and
movement for liberal learning in higher
education—that of the “engaged” institution
dedicated to “engaged” learning and to the public
good—emerged in the United States. This
concerted trend has emphasized the ways in which
liberal learning must benefit learners not only as
individuals but also as people who can in turn
affect society in much more diverse and profound
ways. Challenges from accelerating social,
economic, and political complexities, including
those intimately related to increasing racial and
ethnic diversity in American society and in global
interactions, have been primary inspirations for
this development.
There are many ways in which collegiate music
programs have developed crucial curricular
foundations for contributing to the new paradigm
for liberal learning during recent decades.
However, despite this, it can be argued that there
are certain deeply embedded influences of the
Western “conservatory” model on tertiary music
programs that remain in profound conflict with
that paradigm. Through the method of
philosophical argumentation, the purpose of this
study was to generate a description of the nature
of these conflicts as well as of how philosophical
lines of thought already long evolving in the
profession can assist in overcoming them.
Cognitivism in the psychology of learning and of
the formation of models of the world is relevant to
this study in that in that it maintains that meaning
is derived from richly drawn relationships among
a richly constituted body of concepts. Domains
such as music are in themselves complex concepts
and, as such, have ultimately arbitrary boundaries
that are “soft” rather than “hard.”
An examination of the evolution of the Western
“conservatory” model reveals historical ties to
particular social and economic purposes
ISBN 9780980456028

associated with Western classical music
performance over more than two centuries that
continue to influence tertiary programs today by
privileging certain curricular centers (e.g.
performance, Western historical musicology and
formalist theory, the B.M. degree model) over
marginalized, or even absent, peripheries (e.g.
improvisation and composition, anthropological
perspectives and world music theories, the B.A.
degree model).
Any intentional or de facto use of artificially
“hard” boundaries such as those does not cohere
with ideals of liberal education and what it offers
toward the addressing of the needs of humanity,
which may never have been any more acute than
they are now in the twenty-first century.
Philosophical foundations for the new highereducation paradigm, as well as work in the
philosophy of music education that has been
engaged in illuminating paths toward the rich
potentials inherent in a comprehensiveness of
vision for decades, can provide conceptual means
for meeting this challenge.
The conclusion of this study is that for schools of
music to participate fully in meeting that
challenge, they must diligently locate, identify,
and dislodge any artificial boundaries and
ethnocentric characteristics in their degree
curricula. Otherwise, they will not be
participating in developing the full range of their
students’ potentials toward working for a better
world.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

affect society in much more diverse and profound
ways. Challenges from accelerating social,
economic, and political complexities, including
those intimately related to increasing racial and
ethnic diversity in American society and in global
interactions, have been primary inspirations for
this development.
There are many ways in which collegiate music
programs have developed crucial curricular
foundations for contributing to the new paradigm
for liberal learning during recent decades.
However, despite this, I argue that there are
certain deeply embedded influences of the
“conservatory” model on tertiary music programs
that remain in profound conflict with that
paradigm.
A “cognitive revolution” in research into the
psychology of human learning took place in the
1950s and 1960s. Bruner and Feldman (1990)
later described it as “an all-out effort to establish
meaning as the central concept of psychology—
not stimuli and responses, not overtly observable
behavior, not biological drives and their
transformation, but meaning” (p. 2). Whether
working from a construct for cognitive structure
that is closer in description to Bruner’s (1973)
metaphor of a coding system, to Ausubel’s (1968)
of a hierarchy resulting from derivative and
correlative subsumption, to Gagne’s (1977) of a
network of interrelated propositions, or to other
models that have been proposed, the perspective
contributed by cognitivism maintains that
meaning is derived from richly drawn
relationships among a richly constituted body of
concepts. Further, just as concepts themselves
represent categories with useful, but ultimately
arbitrary, boundaries, so it is with any particular
network of relationships that may be thought of as
a specific domain: those domains are in
themselves complex concepts and, as such, have
ultimately arbitrary boundaries. The boundaries
are “soft” rather than “hard,” because ultimately,
any
notion
of
a
closed
system
is
counterproductive. Such a closed system does not
allow
for
meaningful
further
learning,
hypothesizing, or experimentation.
As classically defined, concepts are categorized
phenomena that are associated with symbols that
are consistently used by experiencing humans to
refer to those phenomena. In that sense, concepts
have been found in human experience to be
invaluable tools for knowing “about.” However,
knowing “within,” or, as Reimer (2003) refers to
it, “perceptual structuring,” represents a vital area
of philosophical inquiry into human cognition as
well. As Reimer describes it, the process involved
in perceptual structuring is associated with

experiences that have feelingful meanings. As
with concepts, any grouping of such feelingful
meanings derived is ultimately arbitrary. Any
boundaries again must be understood as “soft”
rather than “hard,” because ultimately, any notion
of a closed system, in knowing “within” as well as
knowing “about,” is counterproductive. Such a
closed system does not allow for meaningful
expansion of feelingful experience.
Clearly, any semblance of a closed system must
be avoided in educational curricula that rise above
narrow vocational training. Open-ended systems
that offer and encourage life-long learning, the
pushing of current “soft” boundaries, the
development of integrated understandings in
multiple domains and disciplines, hypothesizing,
experimentation, and the cultivation of
understandings of self and others have always
been conceptually central to liberal education.
That is not to say, however, that institutions
conceptually devoted to liberal teaching and
learning have always succeeded in the endeavor.
As Schneider (2005a) has pointed out, a
twentieth-century phenomenon known as Western
universalism has come to be seen as profoundly
myopic and exclusionary. Small (1996) is among
those who have warned about how critical it is to
avoid arbitrary, “hard” boundaries in music
curricula.
Blacking (1973) famously referred to music as
“humanly organized sound” (p. 12). This would
appear to be especially broad at first glance, but
are there not many critical dimensions necessary
to a comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon other than sound itself? Blacking
himself, of course, is among many scholars who
have illustrated exactly that in a great body of
ethnomusicological research that has accumulated
during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. “I
am convinced that an anthropological approach to
the study of all musical systems makes more sense
of them than analyses of the patterns of sound as
things in themselves,” Blacking wrote (1973, p.
xi). “Music is a complex of activities, ideas, and
objects that are patterned into culturally
meaningful sounds recognized to exist on a level
different from secular communication,” offered
Merriam (1964, p. 27).
Given the vastly differing music-cultures of the
world, it is reasonable to ask whether treating
“music” as a unitary concept is justifiable. Nettl
(2007) notes that musicologists generally believe
that it is. This point bears on whether what will
continue to be a necessarily broad—and ever
evolving—concept can reasonably exist as a
named domain within any educational institution
or system. Walker (1996) has raised philosophical

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

misgivings about a continuing use of the term
music for this purpose, given its culturally laden
Western history of use, a situation further
complicated by its etymology. Bohlman (1999)
expresses a related concern that to use the singular
term music is perhaps to “capitulate to the
predominant ontological assumption of the West.”
“Yes and no,” he answers the question. “Yes,
because ontologies of music do almost always
concern themselves with a singular notion of
music. No, because that notion of music is
internally complex and multiple” (p. 34). A
relevant philosophical point from this is that, let
alone other musics, even many of the Western
musics that have been assembled under the name
Western classical (or art) music for so long a
tradition within American tertiary schools of
music are far more internally complex and
multiple in their ontologies
than
the
characterizations that effectively have been
imposed on them through essentially arbitrary
appropriation into the nineteenth-century aesthetic
of musical autonomy and related approaches to
compositional and performance practices. To
further the point, schools of music essentially
have already long been doing—albeit too often
with
attendant
musical
and
conceptual
distortions—what some within them might fear or
resist doing by further widening the domain and
breaking established boundaries.
The Western conservatory of music is a European
invention, and has always had as its central
feature—and center of gravity—goals associated
with the training of performers for particular
Western concert purposes, as is clear from a
survey of the history of the phenomenon by
Weber et al. (2006). The term derives from the
Italian conservatorio, used to refer to
Renaissance-era orphanages that gave their
conservati singing instruction at the expense of
the state. It was from these institutions that
seventeenth-century Italian opera companies
recruited many young singers. The rise of public
concerts during the eighteenth century stimulated
the founding of European conservatories whose
primary purpose was to train performers for them.
The bourgeois concert life of homes and private
salons also benefited.
The principal model for European conservatories
by the turn of the nineteenth century, and later for
American conservatories, was the Conservatoire
in Paris, founded in 1784, and whose principal
purpose after 1795 was to train performers for
public concerts, festivals, and state celebrations.
Nineteenth-century conservatories of Europe and
America were intent on training the best orchestral
players, opera singers, and/or oratorio singers of

191

their cities, with usually little, if any, focus on
composition until late in the century.
By the middle of the twentieth century, schools of
music patterned after conservatories had become
common within European and American
universities. Their most fundamental and
influential curricular roots remain unmistakably
the nineteenth-century conservatory model.
In a book detailing his ethnomusicological
observations about American schools of music,
Nettl (1995) has noted that “the ‘music’ in schools
of music always means, exclusively or
overwhelmingly, Western classical music” (p. 3).
In addition, “Music to Music Building society is
notated music” (p. 36).
Notation became of central importance in Western
music for many reasons; but for other equally
important reasons, it has little or no place in many
music-cultures of the world in which oral
transmissions and improvisations, and their
attendant effects on concepts of musicality, are
fundamental to their musical experiences.
Ironically, the latter is in fact largely true of many
European musical practices prior to the nineteenth
century for which notations left many details of
realization, often improvised, to performers, who
understood aspects of performance practice and
style through received aural transmission of
traditions.
Nettl (1995) proposed that many aspects of
American schools of music embody an opposition
of center and periphery, specifying that “there are
central and peripheral kinds of music in the music
school’s repertory…instruments…and perhaps
even degrees” (pp. 55-56). Most fundamental,
perhaps, is that “Within the Music Building, the
center, the people who do, is largely [composed]
of the performing faculty and student majors, and
the periphery consists of those who—broadly
speaking—teach without performing” (p. 56). To
this can be added that, while performance is at the
center, composition is at the periphery of the
curriculum. Even within performance itself, the
center consists of performance of repertories that
can be treated most easily according to notions of
the Western nineteenth-century art-work aesthetic;
all others are on the periphery.
Indeed, the typical required musicology
component of undergraduate degree programs in
American schools of music remains now in the
first decade of the twenty-first century a sequence
of courses designed to cover a history of Western
music—understood to mean Western art music
specifically. It is not typical for American schools
of music to include courses in the required core
curriculum for students majoring in effect in

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Western art-music performance or composition
that are designed to treat other musics. Neither is
it typical for core requirements to include courses
that
treat
human
music-making
from
ethnomusicology-modeled
cultural/topical
perspectives.
In arguing against a strictly formalist posture in
musical analysis, Blacking (1973) wrote that
“Functional analyses of musical structure cannot
be detached from structural analyses of its social
function” (p. 30). Yet, as Samson (1999) has
explained, the study of Western music theory
became institutionalized as a separate entity from
musicology at the turn of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. The separation, more
specifically, was away from contexts outside of
the musical work as an object.
The typical required music theory component of
undergraduate degree programs in American
schools of music remains now a sequence of
courses designed to cover aspects of formal,
structural analysis of Western music—understood
to mean Western art music specifically. But there
are many music theories that have vital existences
in the world, representing profoundly varying
ways of organizing sounds with equally
profoundly varying ways of reflecting human
relationships. And yet it is not typical for
American schools of music to include courses in
the required core curriculum designed to treat any
of those. Nor is it typical for them to significantly
integrate matters of cultural theory with those of
structural theory.
The reasons for these continuing curricular
phenomena seem clear from what we have seen
regarding the history of the conservatory and the
continuing influences of ways of thinking that
derive from them on American schools of music.
The central purpose of producing solo and
ensemble instrumentalists and vocalists to produce
concerts of Western art music—with all other
historically gathering purposes remaining at the
periphery—was and continues to be seen as best
associated with the study of music as a set of
aesthetic objects representing formal stylistic
evolutions to be traced. Understandings of cultural
and sociological dimensions of the music-cultures
from which those objects came were of distinctly
secondary, if any significant, interest because
those understandings were not seen as directly
affecting the skills needed to perform Western-artmusic-style concerts as they have been known at
least since the late nineteenth century. In addition,
in this way of thinking, music-cultures and their
repertories from outside Western art music had no
bearing. These outcomes represent a closed
system that, it can be argued, relates much more

closely to notions of vocational training than it
does to the ideals of liberal education.
As we have seen, composition received little or no
attention
in
European
and
American
conservatories until late in the nineteenth century,
and even now, during the early twenty-first
century, degree programs in schools of music
typically make it possible for many students to
graduate with degrees in performance after never
having taken any composition courses. When it is
considered that all human musical practices are by
nature and of necessity both creative and
recreative, and that creation and recreation overlap
and interact ontologically and operationally within
them in various ways, this curricular phenomenon
represents a peculiarity, if not an absurdity. It is a
product of ways of thinking that, again, had their
genesis in the nineteenth century with the fruition
of the Western work-concept. Goehr (1992) has
described a complex of conceptual consequences
of the Western work-concept applicable here that
was tied to the production of scores with as
complete notation as possible and an exclusion of
any of the improvised elements that were common
before 1800. These consequences also resulted in
an unprecedented interest in performance of music
of the past and the establishment of the notion of
what Goehr (1992) refers to as a kind of “museum
of musical works” embodied in concert-hall
performances.
A new industry had been created. Musicians could
think of themselves as either performers or
composers, and if performers, less and less as
improvisers, since
musical works
were
conceptualized as completely notated. In
economic terms of supply and demand within
such a climate, many more performers were
needed than before as compared with composers
or composer-performers. As a result, it is not
surprising, then, that the burgeoning industry of
conservatories was dedicated to the production of
performers far more than of composers.
In turn, pre-collegiate music education in America
has been vastly dominated by performance at the
expense of composition and improvisation, which
often are even entirely absent from music
curricula. In very large part, this phenomenon is a
result of the fact that music teachers are products
of schools of music that educate them as
performers, with the same lack of attention to
composition and improvisation. It is thus a
cyclical phenomenon. Reimer (1989) has detailed
the problem as it manifests itself in American
public schools, as well as the need to rectify it.
In the grand scheme of things as they exist in
human music-making as a global phenomenon,
what is most disturbing about this is at least two-

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

fold. First, American music education, including
in schools of music, has largely been failing, and
continues to fail, generations of students both by
not providing an infrastructure that would be
designed to consistently nurture their gifts in
compositional and improvisational creativity and
by not even making them significantly enough
aware that those gifts are of value to develop. It
also does this by profoundly skewing their
understanding of human musicality. Secondly, the
relatively stark separation of music-makers
between those who perform and those who
compose is a phenomenon that has been peculiar
to a certain set of practices of Western art music
that date historically only to the nineteenth
century. People of most music-cultures in the
world and in America do not conceptualize musicmaking in those terms. Thus, this is one of many
dimensions in which those populations have
perceived, and will continue to perceive, the work
of many performance graduates from schools of
music as highly remote to them. These are
additional outcomes representing a closed system
that, it can be argued, relates much more closely
to notions of vocational training than it does to the
ideals of liberal education.
Any intentional or de facto use of artificial
boundaries in education such as the ones I have
been describing here does not cohere with ideals
of liberal education and what it offers toward the
addressing of the needs of humanity. Those needs
may never have been any more acute than they are
now in the twenty-first century. One can argue
persuasively that consequences of the social and
political problems we face now will be no less
dire than those of global warming and climate
change if we do not bring all of our collective
understandings and creativity to bear on solving
them. Berman (2006) is among numerous
observers who have made this clear in particular
about American society and its effects on the
world, citing, for example, a social fragmentation
resulting from certain historical focuses on the
individual over the collective, a loss of capacity to
empathize that can be traced to radical
individualism, an aversion to working through
social and political problems and choosing
anodynes instead, and consequent, deleterious
effects on the life of the nation and on foreign
policy. Others have written eloquently and in
detail about problems of this kind and their
relationships to philosophical matters in
education, including music education (e.g. Boyer
1987; Chambers 2005; Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont
& Stephens 2003; Green & Trent 2005; Jorgensen
2003; Kezar 2005a, 2005b; Nussbaum 1997;
Schneider 2005b; and Woodford 2005).

193

The recently emerging paradigm of the “engaged”
institution dedicated to “engaged” learning and to
the public good represents an effort to revitalize
liberal education as a primary force in meeting
these challenges. Schneider (2005b) writes that
“Liberal education fosters the qualities of mind
and heart that prepare graduates to live productive
lives in a complex and changing world,” with
“cross-cultural,
aesthetic,
and
historical
knowledge,” “intercultural and collaborative
abilities,” and “ethical and civic engagement” (pp.
64-65) being among the intended outcomes for
students. These can no longer be considered goals
on a certain curricular fringe that it would be nice
to achieve if we can; they must be understood as
central imperatives. As Kezar (2005b) has
emphasized, “the capacity to engage, respect, and
negotiate the claims of multiple and disparate
communities and voices is critical to being
civically literate” (pp. 45-46). And civic
engagement itself, in a vast multiplicity of ways in
which societies need citizens who are prepared to
continuously imagine and create as well as pursue,
is critical to the social and political health of
humanity. Liberal education in the twentieth
century, influenced by Western universalism, did
not have a focus on democratic values that would
be sufficient to prod students in the direction of
public and civic questions (Schneider 2005a), but
the new paradigm is different. “As a new
millennium dawns, the fundamental challenge
with which we [in American higher education]
struggle is how to reshape our historic agreement
with the American people so that it fits the times
that are emerging instead of the times that have
passed,” (p. 9) the Kellogg Commission wrote in
2000.
For schools of music to participate fully in this
endeavor, they must diligently locate, identify,
and dislodge any artificial boundaries and
ethnocentric characteristics, such as those that I
described above, in their degree curricula.
Otherwise, they will not be participating in
developing the full range of their students’
potentials toward working for a better world. The
phenomenon of music is found in all human
societies. In profound and multifaceted ways
every musical practice provides a window into the
soul of its human culture. Human understandings
that can be built through musical interactions
among peoples are among those that will continue
to be vital to pursuing a humane world. Valuing
and supporting music-making in all societies will
continue to be essential. Elsewhere, I have
proposed a philosophical argument related to this
(Montaño 2000), stating that “At the dawn of the
twenty-first century we have both the need and the

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intellectual resources to grasp a historic
opportunity: to view and treat students throughout
music education as not only potential creators,
recreators, and consumers of the sounded results
of musical activity but as potential enablers of
musical activity in the broadest possible set of
ways” (p. 19).
Scholarship in the philosophy of music education
has been largely, and perhaps ultimately, engaged
in illuminating paths toward the rich potentials
inherent in a comprehensiveness of vision for
decades (e.g. Elliott 1995; Jorgensen 1997, 2003;
Reimer 1970, 1989, 2003; and Woodford 2005).
Twenty-first-century higher education in music
must ensure that what all of its students receive
includes systematic experiences in musics outside
of Western art music, in examining human musicmaking
from
cultural
and
sociological
perspectives,
and
in
composition
and
improvisation. These are imperatives if schools of
music are to produce graduates who are
consistently, collectively, and fully capable of
acting as engaged citizens across the full range of
what is needed in musical dimensions for the
public good.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The Involvement of Young Portuguese
People With Philharmonic Bands: A
Cultural and Social Perspective
GraĂ§a Mota
Music Education Department, College of Education, Polytechnic Institute
Porto, Portugal
gmota@ese.ipp.pt

ABSTRACT

Main research findings

Theoretical background

From the 301 questionnaires that were sent out,
129 were returned. Of these, 36 subjects reported
to be still involved with Philharmonic Bands.
Content analysis of the interviews showed that two
processes concurring to the production of a
musical identity, biographical and relational,
were strongly evidenced. Further, an impressive
relevance in terms of social and cultural analysis
came to light, revealing the many ways in which
the Philharmonic Band musicians see themselves
within that particular culture.

This paper gives an overview of a two and a half
year study addressing the involvement of young
Portuguese people with Philharmonic Bands. It
looks into the ways musical identities are
constructed within a specific cultural and social
context, the Philharmonic Band, and is, therefore,
affiliated to the area of cultural and social studies.

Aim of the study
The purpose of the study was to analyse and
interpret, under a social and cultural perspective,
the musical context of the Philharmonic Band as a
milieu of socialization and enculturation of young
people where musical identity is forged and a
personal narrative is constructed.

Methodology and Methods
This study used mainly a qualitative and
phenomenological methodology combined with
the case study approach both for the data
collection about the memories of the young
musicians on their participation in the
Philharmonic Bands and the characterisation of
these ensembles as an overall social and cultural
phenomenon. The purpose of obtaining significant
biographical information was achieved through
individual and collective interviewing. At the
beginning of the research (May 2005), a
questionnaire was sent out to the 301 students and
former students of the College of Education in
Porto in order to identify those who had
participated and/or still participate in the musical
activity of Philharmonic Bands. The questionnaire
included closed and open-ended questions
concerning the subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; family history and
personal past or current involvement with Bands.
Analysis and discussion of data includes the
results from the questionnaire and the findings of
an in depth collective case study built from
seventeen individual interviews and one collective
interview to former students with a long personal
and family history in Philharmonic Bands.

ISBN 9780980456028

Conclusions and implications for music
education
Taking into account the great discursive
complexity of the analysed data, the conceptual
definitions of identity in general, and musical
identity in particular, this topic seems to be in
need of further attention bearing in mind the
social and cultural contexts where a musical life
takes place and flourishes. Further, important
implications for music education might arise from
the understanding of the effect that a strong
instrumental practice in the context of a
Philharmonic Band may hae, as a motivator for
young children to pursue an involvement with
music for life.

INTRODUCTION
This study stems from the experience of almost
two decades in music teacher education
programmes of the College of Education in Porto,
Portugal. The acknowledgement that many of the
young musicians who apply to the music
education course have had their previous musical
training in Philharmonic Bands and the fact that
they go on participating in the Band activities, not
only as students but also later on as young
professionals, allowed us to identify a
phenomenon with possible multiple implications
for the construction of their musical identities
(Mota, 2001).
Philharmonic Bands are ensembles of brass,
woodwind and percussion instruments of about 50
musicians, mainly amateurs. In Portugal, playing
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

in a Philharmonic Band is often a family tradition.
It is normal to find several generations from one
family playing together in the same Band. In the
past, the musician with the best musical skills was
usually the conductor, and the training of all
instrumentalists was conducted by the older for
the younger ones based on imitative solfege
routines. These ensembles play mainly in popular
religious fests, parade through the villages, and
perform in open-air stages called Coretos.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In the last decades, developmental theories have
been under a certain systematic critique as their
approaches emphasize what can be explained by
biology and/or evolution rather than valuing the
fundamental role of situation and culture (Bruner,
1990, 1996; Graue & Walsh, 1995; Minick, 1989;
Walsh, 1991, 2002). In the same line of thought,
the perspective of cultural psychology (Bruner,
1990, 1996) approaches development as a process
of growth that happens within a certain culture
where meanings are shared and common
narratives are constructed. On the other hand,
culture has also been described as one of the most
difficult concepts in the human and social sciences
as it can build upon both traditional definitions,
such as the classic works of literature, and more
modern ones, such as mass culture or popular
culture, in terms of people’s everyday life. For the
purpose of this study, we would rather focus on a
more social science context, which uses the word
culture “to refer to whatever is distinctive about
the ‘way of life’ of a people, community, national
or social group” (Hall, 1997, 2003, p. 2). This is
what is being termed as the anthropological
definition. Another alternative is to use the word
to describe shared values setting an emphasis on
the sociological aspect. As a matter of fact, all
these interpretations seem to set the focus on the
importance of meaning to the definition of culture,
understanding it as “what gives us a sense of our
own identity” (p. 3). Moreover, it is the
communicative process that enables these
meanings to be shared with other people, using the
same linguistic codes, that is, speaking the same
language. In this sense, culture “is conceptualised
as a primary ‘constitutive’ process….and
‘discursive’ has become the general term used to
refer to any approach in which meaning,
representation and culture are considered to be
constitutive” (p. 6). This role of discourse is
particularly interesting to this study as it
highlights the way knowledge is constructed
within a shared practice, a shared way of talking
about it and the forms of associated behaviours in
a particular social, and institutional activity.

In the pursuit of building a clear theoretical
contour for the concept of identity in this study,
Dubar’s (2005) search for a sociological theory of
identity was reviewed, and our categories of
analysis, which will be presented later on in this
paper, were based on his approach. In the first
place, Dubar refuses to distinguish the individual
identity from the collective one, placing the
emphasis on the social identity as an articulation
between two types of transaction: “internal” or
individual transaction and “external” or between
the individual and the institutions with whom s/he
interacts. In his perspective, “identity is nothing
else but the result at one time stable and
provisional, individual and collective, subjective
and objective, biographical and structural, of
diverse socialization processes that altogether
construct the individuals and define the
institutions” (p. 136). For the purposes of this
paper, the importance of this view lies on the
acknowledgement that identities may be
understood as the product of tensions that are
inherent to the social world and not mere results
of psychic functioning.
In the field of musical identity, since Hargreaves
& North (1997) edited The Social Psychology of
Music, the most diverse ways in which people
interact with music and how it influences their
musical behaviour have been more systematically
presented as the result of their social context. On
the other hand, the extensive body of research
around the concept of musical identity
consistently
relates
individuals’
musical
experiences to their personal identities. In Musical
Identities, MacDonald, Hargreaves, and Miell
(2002) propose a conceptualisation of musical
identities in terms of Identities in Music (IIM) and
Music in Identities (MII). IIM was defined as the
ways in which people view themselves in relation
to the social and cultural roles within music while
MII refers to the ways in which music may form a
part of other aspects of the individual’s selfimage, such as those related to gender, age or
national identity (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003;
MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2002). The
context of this study points out to an affiliation to
the first categorisation – identities in music – and
draws on a concept of musical identity as the
result of multiple influences, biographical
contexts, and cultural settings (Born &
Hesmondhalgh, 2000; Frith, 1996).

AIM OF THE STUDY
Taking a cultural and social perspective, this study
seeks to understand the role that the involvement
of young Portuguese people with Philharmonic
Bands plays in the construction of their musical
identities. It aims at the interpretation of their

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

narratives as discourses of the past, present, and
future as young musicians playing in the Band.
Further, memories and present discourses are
interpreted in light of current definitions of
identity in general and musical identity in
particular.

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
This research used mainly a qualitative, and
phenomenological methodology (Hammersley &
Atkinson, 1993) combined with the case study
approach (Stake, 1995) for the data collection
about the memories of the young musicians on
their participation in the Philharmonic Bands.
Moreover, the building of a coherent narrative
also constituted a purpose to be attained
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
In the first phase of the study, a questionnaire was
sent out to the 301 students and former students of
our College of Education in order to identify those
that have participated and/or participate in the
Philharmonic Band. In the second phase, semistructured interviews were carried out with 7 Band
conductors (5 former students and 2 current
students) and 10 musicians (5 former students and
5 current students). Criteria for selection of the
participants were drawn by the research team from
the returned questionnaires and took into account
longer participation and early musical tuition in
the Band. Further, it was considered that, to be a
conductor, one had to have a considerable
knowledge about the conflict between tradition
and innovation in Portuguese Philharmonic
Bands. Therefore, all reported conductors were
included in the study. Later, as we received the
visit from the project consultant, a prominent
Brazilian researcher in community music, a
collective interview with Band specialists was
organised in order to allow her to have a first hand
experience with the study’s context. In this
interview, four of the research team members and
the project’s consultant were present with 5 band
musicians (1 conductor and 4 band members). The
main objective for this meeting was to allow
several people with different personal experiences
and musical pathways in the bands to interchange
and debate their personal knowledge, giving rise
to a shared base of common experiences and
shedding light on their personal and/or local
involvement with the band. This interview
embodied many of the characteristics of a focus
group interview, which is defined by Bader and
Rossi (2002) as “a special type of group interview
that is structured to gather detailed opinions and
knowledge about a particular topic from selected
participants”. The dialogue between them was
spontaneous, although it was sometimes
moderated by the interventions of the research

199

team members in order to propose further topics
for reflection and elicit the participants to engage
in interaction in order to produce significant
meanings behind their accounts.
In the process of constructing a system of content
analysis of the interviews, a categories’
framework was built that, on the one hand,
emerged from the data and, on the other, was
informed by our theoretical background. Taking
Dubar’s (2005) identity categories of analysis as
the main reference, this framework is organized
along two major axes and informed by two major
processes (Figure 1). These axes are “Identity for
oneself” and “Desired identity,” which are
intersected by the individual/institutional axes.
The processes, which are transversal to all these
dimensions, are the biographical process and the
relational process through which all identity is
shaped and reshaped continuously.

Figure 1. Categories’ framework

MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS
From the 301 questionnaires that were sent out,
129 were returned. Of these, 36 subjects reported
to be still involved with Bands. Table 1 shows the
distribution of their different types of involvement
in the Band. Gender distribution of this group
showed 64% male and 36% female.

200

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Table 1. Distribution of the subjects musical
involvement in band

Musician
Conductor
Musician and
teacher
Musician and
conductor
Musician and
management
Musician and
teacher
Total

Frequency

Percentage

21
4

58,3
11,1

4

11,1

4

11,1

2

5,6

1
36

2,8
100,0

philharmonic band musician is no longer a part of
my life. Now, I am a conductor. But for a long
time, I was a philharmonic person… (M.)

What defines my Band?
In the conflict between tradition and innovation,
our participants seem to have developed a
consciousness about the musical problems that
arise from this dichotomy.
There is a person, in many contexts…particularly
in the bands of the interior regions of the country,
the ‘mestre’. He is a charismatic figure who
‘knows it all’ and cannot be questioned. Here, in
my hometown, he was the one who first taught
me…but on a musical level. He is very
uninteresting. (F.)

Desired identity
The first approach to the content analysis of the
interviews revealed emergent themes that
indicated:
• The on-going participation in Philharmonic
Bands performs a significant role in the
participants’ overall musical lives.
• The fact that they have graduated or are in the
process of graduating as music educators has
significantly changed the way they approach
their activity as musicians in the Band, both in
the sense of the repertoire and in the pursuit of
excellence of performance.
• The experience of community music and
emotional and affective relationships among
participants plays a major role in their musical
and professional development.
• Participation of young women has been
growing continuously since the time the
interviewees first engaged with Philharmonic
Bands.
As the in-depth analysis proceeded according to
the previously shown categories framework, the
following ideas emerged:

Identity for oneself
Who am I as a musician?
A common trait in the interviewees’ narratives is
the idea that, without the Bands, they would have
never been musicians. Even if they acknowledge
some of the negative implications of the type of
music education they received in the Band,
subjects exhibited a strong sense of belonging to
that particular culture – being a philharmonic
person.
I would not be a musician today if I didn’t have
those beginnings in the Band. It opened to me the
music world. (A.)
I would consider myself to be a philharmonic
person, and I was, for a long time, a philharmonic
in its purest meaning. Right now, I certainly am
not because I have a career in music, and being a

Who do I want to become as a
musician/conductor/teacher?
Our interviewees cannot envision a future without
any connection to the bands:
When I finish my degree in Music Education, I
would like to go back to develop further my
instrumental skills, which is something can’t get in
my Band. But even if I think the musical standards
there may not be the highest, I will not let down
my colleagues, my conductor, my friends. I will
keep going to the rehearsals and playing with
them. (A.)
I may develop my artistic career, I may become a
soloist in a great Orchestra, I may become the
conductor of a large symphonic band, I may
develop an important research in higher education,
etc. But in fact, I think all my life I will be
connected to the Philharmonic Bands. (M.)

How have Bands been changing?
All participants acknowledged that Philharmonic
Bands currently are going through a dramatic
change:
Now there are people with a good music education
who participate in bands, and they are willing to
cooperate and ,even for financial reasons, teach in
the bands. (C.)
And nowadays, there are some bands with music
schools where there are teachers for virtually every
instrument….Some of the band schools have
evolved into conservatoires….Musical training has
improved 200% over the past 20 years. (M.)

COLLECTIVE INTERVIEW
The collective interview showed an impressive
relevance in terms of social analysis, revealing the
many ways in which the Philharmonic Band
musicians see themselves within that particular
culture. The gap between a desired identity and
the perceived social value of their practices seems
to be mediated by the strong emotional and
affective relationships among musicians. On the

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

other hand, a collective identification with the
Band as a completely legitimated social institution
also revealed a social identity that appears to be
marked by duality. While some of the musicians
referred the common association of Band
musicians with a less valued social belonging, the
one conductor participating in the collective
interview pointed out the stronger motivation,
ensemble skills, and sense of community that he
finds in Philharmonic Band musicians.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR MUSIC EDUCATION
The Philharmonic Bands appear as an
environment where young people are socialized
both in biographical and relational terms as two
processes concurring for the construction of their
identities (Dubar, 2005). This leads to a
permanent negotiation between innovation and
tradition where music is at the heart of the
construction of a cultural identity. The young
musicians that grew up in Philharmonic Bands in
Portugal remain imbedded in their cultural roots
while coming to terms with the different pathways
that are determinant for the construction of their
musical identities. Taking into account the great
discursive complexity of the analysed data, the
conceptual definitions of identity in general, and
musical identity in particular, this topic seems to
warrant further attention, bearing in mind the
social and cultural contexts where a musical life
takes place and flourishes. In this sense, this study
confirms the fundamental role of situation and
culture where development is faced as a process
of growth that happens within a certain context
where meanings are shared and common
narratives are constructed. Finally, important
direct implications for music education might
arise from the understanding of the effect that a
strong instrumental practice in the context of a
Philharmonic Band may have as a motivator for
young children to pursue an involvement with
music for life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was made possible by funding from
the Foundation for Science and Technology from
the Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology
and Higher Education.

ABSTRACT
Choosing the right instrument for beginning
instrumental music study is an important decision
faced by young students and their parents.
Information about students' musical abilities and
preferences could help students, parents, and
teachers to reach a decision about which
instrument to play that could result in fewer
dropouts from the instrumental music program.
The Student Musical Instrument Compatibility
Test (SMICT) (Nierman and Pearson, in progress)
was designed to provide relevant information for
this important decision. The tasks (subtests)
included in the SMICT consisted of the assessment
of (a) the ability to keep a steady beat, (b) tone
color preferences, (c) musical aptitude, and (d)
eye-hand coordination. The purpose of this paper
is to describe conceptually and with actual
examples from the subtest themselves how these
measurement tools purport to assess these
relevant dimensions of selecting an instrument.

INTRODUCTION
A young child and his/her parents often have an
instrument in mind (or perhaps already in the
home) with which to begin participation in the
instrumental music program. Is this instrument
conducive to the success of the young
instrumentalist, however? Information about, for
example, students' musical aptitude, timbre
preferences, eye-hand coordination could help
students, parents, and teachers to reach a decision
about which instrument to play that could result in
fewer dropouts from the instrumental music
program and ultimately, a lifetime of enjoyable
musical encounters for students. The Student
Musical Instrument Compatibility Test (SMICT)
(Nierman and Pearson, in progress) was designed
to provide relevant information for this important
decision. In addition to information gathered
about certain physical (hand size, length of arms,
etc.) and cognitive/social characteristics (reading
achievement level, parental support, etc.) of
students, the tasks (subtests) included in the
ISBN 9780980456028

SMICT are the assessment of (a) the ability to
keep a steady beat, (b) tone color preferences, (c)
musical aptitude, and (d) eye-hand coordination.
The purpose of this paper is to describe
conceptually and with actual examples from the
subtest themselves how these measurement tools
purport to assess these relevant dimensions of
selecting an instrument.

ASSESSING THE ABILITY TO KEEP A
STEADY BEAT
Assessing rhythmic ability has been a topic of
interest to authors of standardized music aptitude
and achievement tests since Carl Seashore devised
his Measures of Musical Talent (1939). Gordon
and Martin (1993-94), for example, used
keyboards to determine that one-third to one-half
of the subjects (ages 12 to 14) were unable to play
consistently in time. Some, such as Parncutt
(1994) and Fraisse (1982), looked theoretically at
the matter of pulse salience. Others (Duke,
Geringer, and Madsen, 1991; Geringer, Duke, and
Madsen, 1992; and Geringer, Madsen, and Duke,
1993-94) examined the perception of beat note
within varying contexts such as tempo changes.
Thackray's (1969) steady beat exercise asked
students to join in tapping the pulse at various
tempos and then to continue tapping for an
additional eight pulses at exactly the same speed.
This task, however, is very time consuming,
requiring students to be assessed individually.
John Flohr had a similar idea. His Rhythm
Performance Test Revised (2006) assesses skills
across two domains: (1) matching the steady beat
of recorded examples and (2) listening to and
repeating rhythm patterns.
The Steady Beat Exercise (SBE) of the SMICT
was constructed and validated to determine how
well students' inner pulse or sense of a steady beat
has developed. The directions for the revised SBE
were modified based on item analysis of the pilot
study and observations of those administering the
pilot study. The revised directions are noted
below:
In this exercise we are interested in determining
how well your inner pulse (P) or sense of a steady
beat has developed. For each item you will hear a
series of six tones sounded at different speeds-Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

204

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

sometimes fast, [P1: sound six beats at MM = 120]
sometimes slow [P2: sound six beats at MM = 60].
Count each of these six tones beginning with the
number “1” silently to yourself as they are sounded
[P3: sound six beats at MM = 96 with whispered
counts 1--6]. Continue counting to yourself at the
same speed using the numbers (7-8-9-10, etc.)
during the period of silence following the tones
until you hear a chord that sounds like this: [sound
chord alone]. The number you reached in your
silent counting when the chord is sounded is the
answer we are seeking. (Nierman & Pearson, in
progress)

ASSESSING TONE COLOR
PREFERENCES
According to Edwin Gordon, “Timbre [tone color]
preference may be next in importance to music
aptitude in determining the extent to which a
student will be successful in learning to play an
instrument” (1991, p. 33). For purposes of this
subtest, timbre preference was defined as a
student’s likes and dislikes of sounds associated
with various brass, string, woodwind, and
percussion instruments.
Timbre or tone color preference studies are found
in the literature (Kwalwasser and Dykema, 1930;
Bernier and Stafford, 1972), but Edwin Gordon’s
Instrument Timbre Preference Test [ITPT] (1984)
is currently the only test of its kind in print.
According to Schmidt & Lewis’ (1988) ITPT
validation study , the timbres (a) flute, (b) clarinet
and (e) trumpet were identified consistently with
Gordon’s labels with 84% or more accuracy.
Timbre (g) low brass was correctly identified
correctly 47% of the time, and timbre (d) double
reed was identified with 61.4% accuracy.
Surprisingly, the timbres (c) saxophone/horn and
(f) Horn, trombone and baritone horn were
identified correctly less than 30% of the time.
Thus some questions about the content validity of
the ITPT were raised.
There was enough concern about the validity of
the synthesized sounds and the length of Gordon’s
ITIP to warrant the construction of an original
Tone Color Preference Test (TCPT) using actual
instruments. One theory of attitude measurement
(Allport, Vernon, & Lindzey, 1960) says that one
cannot really determine the attitude of the
individual unless he/she is forced to make choices
between to seemingly equal alternatives. Applying
the Allport/Vernon “theory of forced choice” to
the measurement of instrumental timbre
preference, one could simply present all possible
pairs of instruments playing the same, short tune
and ask students to choose which instrumental
sound they liked best. While seemingly
appropriate in theory, representing each of the
brass, woodwind, string and percussion

instruments in all possible pairs would result in a
test of monumental length. Therefore, the authors
did what Gordon did; they combined instruments
into eight groups for the “all-possible
comparisons”:
1) Flute
2) Double Reed (oboe plays first half of phrase;
bassoon plays the second half)
3) Clarinet
4) High Brass (trumpet)
5) Low Brass (trombone)
6) High Strings (violin)
7) Low Strings (cello)
8) Percussion (snare drum; bass drum;
glockenspiel)
Numerous pilot tests followed. Despite the
differences in the synthesized sounds of the ITPT
and the recorded sounds of the actual instruments
used for the TCPT, there was a high correlation of
student likes and dislikes between the two
measures. Further, there was a high degree of
correlation between students’ likes and dislikes
when measured with the test of “all possible
comparisons” and when measured with students
responding to a simple 6-point Likert scale after
hearing each of the instrument sounds
individually. Both of these two formats yielded
similar results, but one—the Likert format—took
much less time. Therefore, the Likert format was
selected for the TCPT.

ASSESSING MUSIC APTITUDE
Reviews of musical aptitude tests by Colwell
(1970), Boyle (1982), and others reveal that music
aptitude tests may include some discrimination
tasks relative to pitch, loudness, timbre, and
duration of tones; and others require
discrimination between phrases of music in terms
of rhythm, meter, melody, harmony, or tempo.
Some aptitude tests include preference items, such
as the Gordon Musical Aptitude Profile (1965),
which requires the listener to determine which
phrase has be better musical phrasing, balance, or
style. These exercises tell us little about the
process by which the subjects arrived at these
answers, however.
Defining musical aptitude as the ability to process
musical information is novel, but not original to
the SMICT authors. A distinguished Finnish
researcher, Professor Kai Karma, has proposed a
theoretical construct of musical aptitude that
conceptualizes music aptitude as a series of
“mental operations or cognitive processes…which
are needed to analyze music” (Karma, 1985, p. 5).
Thus he defines musical aptitude as “the ability to
structure acoustic material” (Karma, 1985, p. 5).

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The structuring process may work something like
this: An individual seeks to understand (bring
meaning to) stimuli that are a perceived part of
his/her environment. Perhaps the first step in
beginning the analysis of the stimuli (in this case,
auditory stimuli) is to begin to group the auditory
material. Perception research in the area of
psychology has shown that, if a series of stimuli
consists of more than about 8 units, it is difficult
for the individual to conceptualize or memorize
without dividing the stimuli into smaller groups
(subgroups) of perhaps 2 to 6 units. Karma (1985)
says that when a long series of auditory units are
heard, “the mind actively searches for pauses,
stresses, or otherwise ‘different’ tones which
could be used as ‘markers’ for the beginnings of
the subgroups” (p. 11).
We are interested in the process by which
individuals go about structuring (grouping)
auditory material. The ability of the individual to
structure auditory material may be termed musical
aptitude. Previous research by Karma (1985)
suggests that the ability to recognize “strong
gestalts” may be one factor or strategy that
individuals use to group auditory stimuli. This
strategy takes it name from the term gestalt
meaning a configuration, pattern, or organized
field having specific properties that cannot be
derived from the summation of its component
parts. Thus a series of nine quarter notes with
accents (increased intensity) indicated on beats 1,
4, & 7 establishes a “gestalt” consisting of 3 units
per grouping. Pitch, duration, and timbre, as well
as intensity, might be used to establish gestalts or
groupings. The ability of the individual to
perceive these groupings constitutes the
individual’s musical aptitude for purposes of this
subtest of the SMICT.
After many pilot testings and refining of examples
based on reliability analyses, twelve items became
the aptitude subtest. Correct responses included
recognition of six “same” patterns and “six”
different patterns. The instructions for this subtest
reveal the nature of the task:
In music it is important to be able to identify
groups of musical ideas and to classify the groups
as being same or different. For each item in this
exercise, there are two parts. In the first part, you
will hear a musical idea that will be repeated three
times without a pause. After a short period of
silence you will hear the second part, which is a
single musical idea, played only once. Is the single
musical idea, in the second part, the same or
different than what was played three times in the
first part? You must decide. (Nierman & Pearson,
in progress)

205

ASSESSING EYE/HAND
COORDINATION
Conceptually, the starting point of this subtest
development was the realization that the
making of instrumental music from the
printed page is a complex psychomotor task
involving the coordination of mind and
muscle. Music exists in time. With the aid of
their sense of sight, students who make
instrumental music by reading notation from
the printed page must perceive notational
symbols and react with their hands by
depressing valves/keys or moving slides
sequentially and often rapidly in order to
realize the pitch and duration parameters
requested by the composer. This skill is often
termed eye-hand coordination.
In a study directly related to the development
of this subtest, Stancarone (1992) investigated
"the efficacy of selecting students for
participation in string instrument instruction
based on their performance on three
categories (sets) of variables, i.e., aptitudes,
behavioral/attitudinal characteristics and
academic achievement" (p. 1596).
Findings of particular interest related to eyehand coordination showed a moderate
positive correlation between general motor
development and musical performance
achievement. Further, multiple correlation
analyses showed the correlation for musical
performance achievement with music aptitude
and motor development combined was very
much akin to the correlation between musical
performance achievement and music aptitude
alone.
Further, Shuter-Dyson (1995) noted in her
review of Stancarone's (1992) research that
previously very little attention had been given
to coding, for example, visual-motor tests or
what is termed in this study "eye-hand
coordination." She reminded readers that
coding made a "unique contribution" (p. 75)
to the prediction formula in Stancarone's
research. Thus there is reason to suspect that
eye-hand coordination, what Stancarone
called "coding skills," may have a role to play
in predicting achievement in instrumental
music.
In developing a battery of such assessment
tools in order to predict which instruments
students could play successfully, the Reynolds

206

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Musical
Instrument
Adaptation
Test
(Reynolds, 1967) was purchased to measure
potential for dexterous skills (eye-hand
coordination). This timed, paper/pencil test
consists of associating common abstract
symbols with a corresponding number.
Previous research by Clark (1974) indicated a
moderate correlation between instrumental
performance achievement, as measured by the
Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (1954),
and scores on Reynold's test. According to
Clark, "This correlation accounts for almost
18 percent of the variance of the W-FPS
[Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale] scores
and would indicate that the RMIAT
{Reynolds Musical Instrument Adaptation
Test] would be a very good test to use with
prospective beginners" (p. 31). In fact, Clark
found that the RMIAT was a better predictor
of beginning instrumental music performance
success than the Gordon Musical Aptitude
Profile (1965).
For the paper/pencil version of the test, the
directions to students were as follows:
Section One is an eye-hand coordination exercise.
Your score suggests how quickly you react to
symbol matching. Look at the key. There are nine
symbols with a number below each symbol. Notice
how there is a square. Below the square is the
number 1. Next, there is a circle and below that is
a 2. Do the practice exercise by filling in the
matching numbers below each symbol in the
Practice Exercise. Stop at the heavy black line.
(Nierman & Pearson, in progress)

After a 30 second practice interval, the test
administrators examined students' answer sheets
and responded to questions. Then the directions
continued:
You are about to begin the exercise. Do the
exercise in the same way you did the sample
exercise. This is a two-minute exercise so proceed
as quickly as you can from one square to the next.
Do not skip. Do not guess. Ready. Begin.
(Nierman & Pearson, in progress)

Students then proceeded to write the appropriate
number in as many squares as possible within the
two-minute time period.

SUMMARY
In what stage of development is the SMICT now?
How long will it take before it is commercially
available? The SMICT is currently undergoing its
finally validity and reliability checks, and the
entire measure has been tested over a period of
one school year to determine its predictive
validity. If this validity can be ascertained, you

may see the SMICT available for students and
music educators in both paper/pencil and an
online format within the next year.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Social Transformation in South African
Farm Schools Through Musical Arts
Education: North-West Province in
Focus
Christian Onyeji
North-West University
Potchefstroom, South Africa
uconyeji@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The concern addressed in this article is not a
result of deliberate search for social intervention
in South African farm schools. Rather it was the
outcome of social realities that confronted me in
the process of my search for research on Tswana
traditional music in the North-West Province of
South Africa as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow.
As such, it was intervening or palpable social
realities in the context of another project that
constrained further enquiry in this direction.
Thus, while the primary research project was
being conducted, it was extremely difficult to
ignore pervading social conditions and constrains
impacting on learners that require the kind of
solutions that I have attempted to discuss in this
article.
A summary of socio-economic situations of farm
schools in the province is presented as a backdrop
to the music education intervention processes.
Theoretical framing, justification for social
transformation, musical arts education option,
objectives, interaction/learning process and
outcomes, views of the school children and
teachers are presented. The research focuses on
musical development of learners as a tool for
social transformation. Qualitative research design
is primarily employed.

KEYWORDS
social, transformation,
education

farm

school,

music,

INTRODUCTION
It began when the research team on Tswana
traditional music recording and documentation in
North-West University, Potchefstroom made
frantic efforts to establish contacts with locals to
enable recording and subsequent research
documentations from March 2007. This contacthunt took us to different locations and farm
schools
in
the
province-Venderskroon,
Rysmierbult, Musikraal, Ikageng, etc. without
much success (almost a frustrating exercise). Most
locals we met denied knowledge of Tswana
ISBN 9780980456028

traditional music and could not provide any. It
gradually turned into a process of one local
directing us to another who would, in turn,
redirect us to another, with none fruitful. In a
desperate attempt, the project leader made contact
with a farm school (Sizamele Primary School)
whose Head-Teacher (Elene VinSchalwyk) is well
known to her (A white South African Lady,
impressively), just so that the school children
could be challenged with the possibility of picking
out some of their local game songs or folk tunes
(if any) for possible recording. More importantly
too, it was planned to enable further contacts with
the parents of the school children and beyond. A
visiting date was immediately arranged, and the
team traveled to the school (12th April 2007),
50kilometers from Potchefstroom. On arrival at
the school, we all (myself and the South African
members) came face to face with more shocking
social and economic realities of farm schools and
the school children. While the children (many in
their early teens) managed to come out of their
extremely shy, timid and frightened disposition to
sing some songs (anyhow), after much prodding,
it was quite obvious to all of us that some socioeconomic intervention was critical not only to
significantly empower them but to assist them
interrogate/confront their social realities as well as
explore their natural creative potentials for self
determination in the future. It was also our
thinking that collaborative musical/aesthetic
activities in the school would nourish a symbiotic
relationship with the school whereby the children
would supply Tswana folk songs to us while we
give exploratory music lessons/drum sessions. I
immediately undertook to provide drum lessons to
the school children. This took off on 14th May,
2007 and is still running. The above is the
background to how a different research project
stimulated data collection for this presentation.

RESEARCH DESIGN
This research was made possible by the offer of
Post Doctoral Research Fellowship position to me
at the School of Music, North-West University in
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Potchefstroom, South Africa for a period of two
years (2007-2009), funded by National Research
Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and the NorthWest University. The fellowship prioritizes the
research, documentation and recording of Tswana
music. The position enabled me carry out
intensive field research for data collection for six
months
(recordings,
interviews,
personal
participation,
teaching,
observations
and
interactions) in the socio-educational context of
farm school children. These are complemented by
existing relevant secondary sources. Thus,
qualitative research methodology (Leedy &
Ormrod, 1985), which I find very adequate and
relevant for this work, was used in data collection.
The research explores the radical humanist
paradigm to present solutions to identified
research problem.

FARM SCHOOLS IN NORTH-WEST
PROVINCE: A SUMMARY
There are 59 farm schools in North-West province
at the moment scattered in farms many kilometers
apart. One farm school could serve children
located thirty kilometers apart who trek to and
from the schools most of the time. Documents
(Government position papers, None Governmental
Organizations’ documents and individual research
papers) exist on conditions in South African farms
schools. My summary would draw from three of
these (Christie and Gaganakis, 1989; Department
of Labour and Social Services, 2004; Human
Rights Watch, 2004) to support my personal
observations in the farm schools. With very few
exceptions, conditions in South African farm
schools are generally the same, having shared the
same history. Thus, generalization could be made
with respect to social challenges and their
solutions in the schools.
According to Human Rights Watch (2004):
The farmer built the school and claimed subsidy
from the government. It was in the interest of the
farmer to have a school on his farm; it kept the
children busy while their parents were working in
the fields, created an available future labour force,
and restricted possibilities for children outside the
farm. (p. 4)

Thus, the schools were not designed primarily as
agency for socio-economic empowerment and
development as such, but as necessary distraction
or diversion for the children while their parents
laboured in the farms. The schools were private
property of the farmers who administered them.
Existing documents capture high level socioeconomic lack and deprivations in such schools in
the past, the impact of which is still felt in
independent South Africa. Although progress has
been made in recent times to restructure the

schools through some educational policies,
infrastructural lack still exists. High level poverty
in absolute and relative terms (Muza, 2007) is
wide spread among farm workers whose children
attend farm schools. These pose various
challenges that manifest in divers forms and
impact heavily on social and economic aspirations
of the children. It is common knowledge that
“children from poor households are more
disadvantaged relative to other children” (Grimm,
2005, p. 234). In cases of extreme economic lack,
families are forced to chose between competing
alternatives constrained by social realities. In
many of such instances, education does not rank
higher than basic survival needs on the priority
list. Muza’s (2007) study identifies “financial
constraints among the major challenges faced by
the farm child. Farm children come from lowincome households, and as this study reports, the
average income of farm households is R938.”2
Incidences of school dropouts is quite high.
Children sometimes opt to work to support
household income. According to the Statistics
South Africa report (2000), “about 35.2% children
in commercial farms are engaged in farm labour.”
Many farm school children naturally develop
immunity to hunger, long distance trekking to and
from schools, alcohol abuse, violence, drug and
physical abuse by frustrated parents, necessity
lack, as well as accepting very low life image and
aspirations, if at all. In such instances, personality
drive and self esteem are nonexistent. Much of life
ambitions translate to mere dreams and wishes
that may never be achieved.
Wide spread food shortage and hunger among
farm school children constrained the policy of
meal provision in the new farm schools structure.
Such school meals, most times, are the main
meals the children get each school day. Many
school children do not appear in school uniforms
or proper dressing due to poverty. At a glance, the
farm school arrangement is quite shabby,
compromised and defined more from the
economic realities of the children than from a
unified national standard in education. As such,
farm schools are in a category way below the
national educational structure, operating by its
own standards. The question is whether the
2

The average income is calculated by summing the gross household
income of the farm households. From this gross household income,
all the total household expenses which include education, health,
electricity, rental, food consumption and any other household
miscellaneous.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

products of such schools would be able to
compete with the product of urban and city
schools?
It is evident from available sources and my
observations that present day farm school children
inherited fear, insecurity, lack of confidence and
poverty. These very adversely affect their social
personalities, self esteem, inter-personal relations,
trust, world view, drive and ambitions in life. The
consequences are suspicion, a tendency to be
withdrawn, timidity, inferiority complex, poverty
cycle and social delinquency leading to crime at
some points. Although education is tool for
economic and social change/development:
In the face of poverty, the dream of becoming a
better member of the society and the opportunity to
bail other family members seems to be eluding
capture. At the household level, the available
conditions work against the child’s chase of a
quality education. (Muza 2007)

According to Taylor (1989, p. 35),
One’s personal identity is determined by one’s
“self.” This self can never be described without
reference to those who surround it. Therefore, the
question “who am I”? can only be answered
through a “definition of where I am speaking from
and to whom.” (p.36)

Taylor (1989) continues, “the full definition of
someone’s identity thus usually involves not only
his stand on moral and spiritual matters but also
some reference to a defining community”.
As such, social and economic identities of farm
school children are directly influenced and partly
constructed and defined by the social community
in which they belong. The nature of such
community-determined social identity could be
positive or negative depending on which side is
dominant. With dominant social and economic
problems and frustrations, it is not difficult to
predict which side of the “coin” would be up. In
my view, socio-economic intervention is critical
to change in the schools. Such intervention
requires clear knowledge of social and economic
realities of the children and the ability to
anticipate the appropriate intervention mechanism.
Evidence of my study recommends exploration of
sources of social empowerment or transformation
within the control of the children that would
become critical part of education in the schools.
Such alternative, though subject to competing
variables, is not dependent on uncontrollable life
disparities of rich and poor. One of such ways is
to develop the creative and artistic potentials of
the children. To enable them discover the
existence in the first instance and find ways to
harness them to their benefit. This study makes a
case for musical arts education for social

211

transformation of the children as a critical means
of social empowerment to enable them confront
competing negative social realities with their own
creative talents.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND
JUSTIFICATION OF SOCIAL
TRANSFORMATION OF F ARM
SCHOOL CHILDREN
The concept of social is linked to theories about
society both in terms of organization of people
and actions (Olsson, 2007). Social facts are ways
of being, including (ideal) representations and
(material) actions (Deflem, 1999). In general,
social issues research focuses on the nature and
direction of societies (Risner & Costantino, 2007,
p. 942). Social facts theory reflects intrinsic
assessment of material actions and ways of being
in symmetry with the goals of a society. The
outcome of such assessment sometimes
recommends social transformation. Social
transformation is a commonly used expression
and not particularly new. Generally it implies an
underlying notion of the way society and culture
change in response to such factors as economic
growth, war or political upheavals (Castles, 2000)
as well as in confronting other negative realities of
life. Social transformation is a course of action in
human dynamics of life, positive or negative,
leading to achievement of set goals. It is often a
conscious process based on choice but sometimes
imposed when it is not negotiated. Contrary to
Castles’ (2000) view, social transformation
implies predetermined outcome, but his notion
that the process is not essentially a positive one
highlights possible contrasting objectives of social
transformation. While social transformation
among youths is a process that has predetermined
goals, such goals are not always positive. Social
transformation of youths to drug addicts,
alcoholics or criminal gangs by their peers
represents a case in point. In this wise, social
transformation may not lead to acceptance or
adaptation to general social norms or facts, but
could be in conflict with such norms.
Need for social transformation often emanates
from individual or societal interrogation of social
realities in a social context. Ideological conflicts,
social threats and uncertainties set in motion a
desire for change. Social transformation thus
reflects “rejection” by the individual or society, a
rejection of social facts or order, a rejection in
physical, psychological, spiritual and mental
perspectives resulting from perceived constrains
and disadvantages in given social circumstances.
Such rejections are sometimes in consonance with
social dynamism of life and human quest for

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

social enhancement and stability. Of course,
changes in social patterns, norms and values result
from social transformation at different layers of
societal
structures.
Social
transformation,
therefore, is a constant process of reconstructing
meaning and values in a society, sometimes in
response to individual or global social realities.
Position paper of African National Congress
(ANC) on social transformation of South Africa,
among other things, affirms the following:
Economic growth and human development are
linked and should have the aim of achieving
sustainable improvements in the quality of life of
all South Africans; Capabilities of disadvantaged
communities, households and individuals need to
be improved by enhancing access to both physical
and social infrastructure; Inefficiencies in
markets, institutions, spatial structure and delivery
mechanisms that prejudice those who are
underprivileged should be identified and removed
to ensure that the macro-economic conditions
support sustainable growth and reduces
vulnerability
of
the
poor
(http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/conf/conf
erence50/resolutions3.html. accessed on 14th Aug,
2007).
“Political and social transformation in South
Africa has as its ultimate goal the improvement of
the quality of life of all residents” (Delport, 2006,
p. 80). At the macro level, transformation is
critical to national identity of South Africa as a
country. The scope of this presentation is limited
to the micro level of individual social constrains
resulting from social and economic parameters or
variables within the individual’s location. In this
case, the farm school children. According to
Delport (2006), “Social transformation is often
understood merely in terms of attending to
structural aspects. Such a restricted understanding,
however, neglects and marginalizes the equally
crucial aspect of the personal transformation of
citizens” (p. 82). Delport’s position on citizenbased social transformation makes a case for
critical review of situations in South African farm
schools. Although it could be argued that there is
global need for social transformation in South
Africa, especially among blacks, given the wide
spread economic and social destitution, it is easy
to observe unique social imbalance among farm
school children calling for desperate attention.
When viewed in its absolute and relative terms,
socio-economic conditions summarised in the
preceding section show that farm workers whose
children make up the farm school population rank
lowest in socio-economic status. Given such
overbearing social and economic constrains, it
becomes legitimate to ask whether social

transformation is not critical to farm schools. The
answer should not be far fetched if the
fundamental purpose of education is social and
economic
transformation
and
human
development.
Given the obvious personality crises, low image
perception of self and economic “fire walls”
militating against farm school children, education
for social transformation must explore diverse
means of tackling such social problems to achieve
results. Improvement of social identity becomes
significant to developing trust in the teacher,
fellow learners and the objective of the entire
educational process. As it is often said in medical
practices that healing is faster when the patient
believes in the physician and the treatment, a
learner learns faster and also enjoys the learning
programme if he/she develops trust in the teacher,
fellow learners and the prospect of the learning
outcome. Thus, social balance is fundamental to
human transformation. This is much more critical
in educational situations.
Priority attention is a necessity in South African
farm schools to achieve social transformation in
the following areas:
• Social perception of self
• Reconstruction of social values as a result of
economic constrains
• Re-framing social identity perception of self
and the community
• Elimination of suspicion and lack of trust
• Individual positive perception of national
interest in ones development
• Inter-personal responsibilities
• General attitude to life.
In general, social transformation of South African
farm school children (described as forgotten
schools by Human Rights Watch (2004)) would
entail re-positioning of their social view of
themselves and the society in the above
perspectives. If the consciousness of farm school
children is filled with fear, doubt, anguish, and
emotional disability, their creative energies,
natural potency and drive would, literally, be
suppressed if not fractured. Efforts to turn the
situation around would require more than
classroom teaching to incorporate individual
empowerment activities and search for creative
energies locked up in individual child. Active
exploration by each child would also require
deconstructing all such inhibitions resulting from
negative social realities confronting them such
that emotional and social “freedom” guarantee
creative freedom and uninhibited exploration in
all human ramifications. Critical to the children’s
development is emotional balance, realignment of
negative self-perception as well as de-construction

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

of poor self-esteem underlying their thought and
worldview.

MUSICAL ARTS EDUCATION FOR
SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION
The platforms for social transformation are varied.
The specific choice and manner of its application
is determined by the needs and realities as well as
available tools to an individual or society. Boal
and Brecht (1985) (as cited in McCammon, 2007),
for instance, sought transformative social
interventions through theater. According to
McCammon (2007), Brecht advocated a theater
from where the audience members were active
learners who could use their learning for social
transformation, while Boal engaged participants
rehearsing strategies for personal and social
change. Music is a platform for social
transformation also. Guided by the perception that
the words, thoughts and deeds of individual
human beings are profoundly influenced by the
nature of the social circumstances in which they
occur (Martin, 1995; Mueller, 2002), studies in
sociology of music have focused on “music as a
social product, social resource and social practice”
(Martin, 1995), and “music as device of social
ordering; music’s social powers” (DeNora, 2000).
It is increasingly becoming clearer that music may
influence people’s conducts, experience of
passage of time, and feelings about themselves,
others and situations (DeNora, 2000). Hargreaves,
Marshall and North (2003) believe that all musical
behaviour is social because musical meanings are
socially and culturally constructed. Musical
thought not only promoted social cohesion, but
communicated many messages through song texts
and dance features (Kruger, 1999) According to
Skyllstad (2007), music plays positive role in
facilitating social integration, and conflict
transformation.
Corroborating
the
above
submissions, evidence from the present research

213

shows that music is a potent tool for social change
resulting from its intrinsic nature to influence and
effect change in people.
While there are many levels on which social
transformation might be looked at, I am going to
focus on the application of musical arts for social
transformation in the farm schools.
My objective is to illuminate the value of musical
arts as a significant agency for social
transformation and identity in South African farm
schools. Recognition of music as a potent means
of social transformation in South Africa at the
moment is still hindered by the general perception
of music as frivolous entertainment or for
celebration of successes in economic and political
attainments. It is still marginally recognized as a
tool for social transformation in the country. The
attempt of this article is not to present a
comprehensive study of social transformation
through music but to highlight its prospects that
could interconnect with existing national efforts to
convey a broader perspective of social
transformation and identity processes in South
African farm schools.

SAMPLE ACTIVITY IN THE SCHOOL
The activity presented below is based entirely on
the National Arts and Culture Curriculum (2003)
that is utilized in South Africa. A “palm-top”
summary of the Arts and Culture curriculum
designed by Pietro Grove (2007) is given below as
a glimpse of the general concepts and expectations
of the curriculum. In other words, while musical
arts education aims at transforming and reintegrating farm school children, it does not
detract from the national education programme. It
merely re-enforces it and harnesses the creative
abilities of the children in special ways.

Table 1. Summary of South African Arts & Culture Curriculum

Used by special permission of Pietro Grove, 2007.

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Detailed description of the activity /
methodology
Creativity
through
drumming,
playing
percussions, dancing and their application to
learning in A & C.
Step1: Identification and description of the drum
and other percussion instruments as art objects.
Materials used in their construction, colour,
drawing of the instruments and their appreciation
as aesthetic materials, etc.
Step 2: Describing their uses (musical and extra
musical) in different cultures.
Step 3: Beginning drumming and playing of
percussion instruments:
i. sitting position.
ii. holding the instrument.
iii. striking the instrument with one hand (different
tone levels).
iv. striking the instrument with two hands.
v. striking in time with both hands.
vi. playing short rhythmic patterns in time.
vii. playing different dynamic ranges on drum
rolls.
viii. playing shared patterns in groups in different
meters.
ix. combining group patterns.
x. playing against solos and call patterns.

Learning outcomes
1. Make verbal descriptions of the instruments
used 2. mention some examples in the culture area
of the students 3. mention some materials used in
making the instruments 4. make aesthetic
statements on the instruments and their uses.
1. reproduce patterns in given meters 2. strike the
drum to given note values 3. strike the drum on
different dynamic ranges 4. describe the
drumming steps learnt.
1. find a song in the culture of the student that fits
the instrumental accompaniment learnt 2. sing and
play instruments using own examples.
1. Describe the dance and movement patterns
learnt 2. demonstrate the dance patterns 3. find
examples from the culture of the students.
1. Give the story of the elephant 2. find an
example from the culture of the students 3.
significance of the drama in the culture 4.
participation in the presentation package.

Song

Step 4: Accompanying the song (enyimba).
i. learn the simple song.
ii. play group patterns in the time of the song.
iii. isolate the patterns in the time of the song.
iv. combine the patterns with the song.

Step 5: Learn dance or movement patterns in the
time and mood of the song and drumming.

Repeat these patterns till they are mastered, using
one hand first then two hands.

Step 6: act the role of Elephant in the cultural
context of the music.
i. tell the full story of the elephant.
ii. chose appropriate dramatic setting for the
drama.
iii. select a cast for the elephant role.
iv. try the acting separately.

The two groups will play the patterns one after the
other and then combine them:

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The four groups will play the patterns one after
the other and then combine them:

The drum groups will combine with the wood
block player to accompany the song and dance:

Drama story
This is a boasting song also used for wrestling
matches and protests. It uses the metaphor of
elephant as a large animal that kills by trampling
to deliver threats to enemies or opponents. The
song says:
Trample, elephant of our land,
Trample men, elephant of our land,
Trample women, elephant of our land.

The children may imitate the giant movements of
the elephant in time with the song or imitate the
crushing activity. A costume could also be
prepared for this to look like real elephant. The
song could be used to instil courage and ability to
resist threats in the children.

215

OBSERVATIONS
The sample activity presented above is the basic
material on which further performance activities
were structured, allowing the children to make
strong contributions within their skill levels. Their
overwhelming interest and participation in group
music making enabled group integration and
social interaction. The ensemble offered a
platform for the children to step outside their
social cum emotional barriers to construct new
perception of self and other school members. It
was an opportunity to construct new self esteem,
introspection and evaluation by peers as well as
for active creative drive from within the natural
ability of each child. Each drumming session was
a small setting for musicality, creative competition
and showcasing of individual talent as well as for
freedom of expression, musically and socially.
Strong efforts were made by them to reproduce
and sustain given drum patterns and respond
creatively to musical stimuli.
It was rewarding to observe how elated and
focused the children were in all the drum and
music sessions. They freely expressed themselves
and co-operated in all given instructions. Our
visits to the school was always a welcome time.
The children promptly rushed out to carry the
drums, set the venue and returned the drums to the
car at the end of each session. I assessed the
success of the activities by the prompt request
from the students for the date for next drum and
music session at the end of every meeting. Some
of them were able to say how pleased they were to
participate while others let their gestures express
their positive feelings. Also, the Head teacher,
Elene, was always quick to express her joy on the
effect of the musical activities and always
arranged the next visit. The activities culminated
in an end of year performance for the parents in
November 2007. The overall mutual satisfaction
was highly motivating. The musical activity
opened up a new channel of social communication
and transformation that the children are entirely in
control of. They became aware of themselves as
co-constructors of the outcome of the social
situation and felt responsible and recognized as
important. Thus, opportunity was provided for
them to prove themselves as socially relevant in
their context. Such positive feeling permeates
educational and social drive for self development
and high social attainments necessary for positive
contributions in the society. It was generally felt
that it is imperative to sustain it. The feedback
from the school activities showed that musical arts
education is a tool with which social
transformation could be achieved in the farm
schools, if properly explored.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

CONCLUSION
The study presents a description of attempt at
social transformation and possible new social
identity on the platform of a musical arts
education via exploring drum ensemble not as a
model but as a form of such process through
music. It bears further evidence of efficacy of
music as a transformational tool. Social order, as
predicated on the cultivation of compassionate
citizens who would construct a society of their
social vision, is the pervading notion of the
transformation process. Although meaning, value
and significance of music vary from culture to
culture, evidence of existing studies show that its
power to engender emotional, social and spiritual
change through its intrinsic qualities is fairly
universally acknowledged. Its exploitation and
success in the goal of social transformation and
identity in the farm school is a South African
experience that could be explored in different
farm schools to tackle growing social problems
impacting negatively on farm school learners.

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Skyllstad, K. (2007). Music in peace education and
conflict transformation: Nordic perspectives
International handbook of research in arts education
part two,vol.16 Dordrecht: Springer.

DeNora, T. (2000). Music in everyday life. Cambridge,
MA: Cambridge University Press.

Statistics South Africa. (2000). Survey of activities of
young people, 1999. Commissioned to the department
of labour

Department of Labour and Social Services. (2004).
Conditions on farms. Crystal Prince. Unit for Social
Research. Directorate Research and Population
Development. Western Cape.

Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the self. The making of
modern identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

ABSTRACT
Starting during the period of Anatolian Seljuks,
Turkish music has developed in various ways.
These different ways and styles are classical
music developed by the intellectual people in the
cities, Turkish folk music developed as a direct
expression of the people throughout the centuries,
religious music and mehter (janissary band)
music. In music studies and shows following the
declaration of the Turkish Republic, a movement
started under the leadership of Atatürk toward
western music based on contemporary music
together with Turkish folk music by using
international technology and instruments. Books
were published on polyphonic music theory, and
Turkish folk music and its sources were
researched. Basic institutions were established
both with the help of students who had been sent
abroad for education and the experts. The most
important of those institutions were of course “the
teacher training schools” as they were called at
that time. Today, music teacher training schools
are affiliated to the universities and future music
teachers are trained in the main music training
branches of the fine arts academies in the
faculties of education of these universities.
As a result of all the efforts with a view to
standardization of the curriculums including the
books, papers and articles written on the subject,
interdependence between the departments has
been achieved by reconstruction work, but is this
standard program sufficient enough to meet its
objectives? These kinds of questions have recently
been the main issues of music training institutions
in Turkey. In this study, the researchers, who
based their work on these issues, emphasized the
importance and the role of piano and voice
training lessons in the curriculums and tried to
draw attention to the existing problems with the
help of the ideas and experiences of music
teachers.
In terms of today’s state of the “Piano and Voice
training” subjects in the graduate program of
teaching music, music teachers’ present
ISBN 9780980456028

achievement levels and their stance toward the
programs they have been trained is of great
importance with regard to the periods of these two
subjects. In the research done with a view to this
issue, we emphasized the role of piano and voice
training in music teacher training institutions and
tried to make a general assessment of piano and
voice training lessons.
Although the objective of this study covers the
function of the “piano” subject on voice training,
it also aims to make statistical analyses by
examining the necessity for teacher candidates to
be able to use the piano and their voice in their
professional life, the problems faced with
compulsory piano and voice training lessons in
the graduate program, the professional success
and failure of the teachers, and a general
assessment on the subject analysis.
The data in this study have been obtained through
a test which was applied to 55 music teachers
teaching at primary and intermediate levels. The
efficiency of the teachers in piano and voice
training areas was determined by this test and
how they could benefit from the piano and voice
training was statistically figured out.
At the end of the study, some fundamental
suggestions were made with regard to the solution
of the problems determined in accordance with
the opinions of the teachers.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

value unity occurs. Society reaches the aesthetic
sensitivity, the integrity of goal, sense and
treatment needing for its development. Also,
society innovates and improves its own culture
(Karolyi, 1996).
Many philosophers in history considered music an
essential part of education. Plato defined music as
“rhythm and harmony, the only and the most
powerful indicator positioned in the depths of the
soul of a human being which emphasizes the
body’s elegance and shows that a person is on the
right way.” Aristotle pointed out the importance
of “an early and intensive music training in order
to acquire a good personality.” Pointing the
individual and political power of music,
Confucius remarked, “A superman is the one who
uses music in perfecting human culture. When
music spreads around, and the people reach their
aims and ideals, we can notice the emergence of
great nations.” Together with geometry,
astronomy and arithmetic, music was known to be
one of the four fundamental dimensions of
learning throughout the middle ages (Tarman,
2002:17).
Unfortunately, music as a subject today is
regarded as the first lesson to be removed from the
curriculum when a change is required. With the
elimination of music training, most schools
committed themselves basically to spending more
time on math and science. Nevertheless, it seems
strange, considering that music made a
considerable contribution to the American
students in developing the above mentioned skills
and achieving their aims. For example, in a report
published by the Music Educators National
Conference (MENC), it was stated that the
students taking music lessons between the years
1987-1989 got 20-40 more points in the numerical
section of a general skills test (SAT). Again, a
research done by the American university
entrance exam committee, with the same students
taking music or art lessons for 4 years or more,
showed that they got 34 more points in SAT
verbal test and 18 points more in the SAT math
test. This shows that music has a positive effect on
general academic success. Performance enhancing
activities such as building or playing instruments,
playing or singing in a music group, viewing
dancing and concerts can make positive changes
in the standard education of the students (Tarman,
2002:18).
Musical education aims at providing the
individuals who will constitute such a society
these qualifications in a scientific way. Therefore,
it is important to give the individuals the best
musical education. At this point, music teachers
are needed. In teaching in a scientific education,

there are the periods of planning, orientation,
realization and control. Its function comes true by
using General and Occupational musical teaching
methods (Erden, 1998).
Instrument and voice training form two important
dimensions of professional music training (Gence,
1988). Piano has an important role in music
training. As with the other trainings on musical
instruments, the objective of piano training is also
to help teacher candidates develop musical
thinking and perception, to consider music
training as a whole with all its branches and to
acquire behavior directed toward cognitive,
sensory and psychomotor areas.
The candidate teachers taking piano training,
which is included among the compulsory subjects
in music teacher training institutions in Turkey,
are expected to have the basically determined
principles and technique of playing the piano. In
addition, they are supposed to be able to apply
their knowledge in their profession as much as
possible. However, we cannot yet say that the
training program called “piano lessons” is
practiced in these institutions in an appropriate
way for the objectives of this subject. It becomes
rather difficult to teach the students at university
level to play the piano, which is an ability usually
acquired at an early age. Although they start
school as physically able candidates, the students
cannot acquire the essential target behaviors that
they are supposed to learn in piano playing
technique. Naturally, the students who are
unwilling and reluctant for the lessons cannot
devote enough time for playing the piano.
Due to the above mentioned factors, the music
teacher who completes his education cannot
master the piano efficiently enough and cannot get
the expected response from the piano while
teaching. Nevertheless, a music trainer should
utilize his/her four-year piano education for
various purposes in his/her profession. A music
trainer should help students recognize and love
music as an art form by giving suitable training.
Furthermore, he/she will come to know, through
time and experience, that many subjects he/she
intends to teach can be understood much more
clearly and easily by students.
Since he/she can use a musical instrument, a
music educator can enrich students’ taste for
music and develop their musical hearing
sensitivity. This kind of musical communication
among students, which can be achieved by using
the piano, has a dramatic effect on developing
individual behaviors and their modified forms
(Sungurtekin, 2002).

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Similar to the piano, the element of voice is
another instruments widely used by the music
teacher in accordance with the objectives of the
training in the process of forming required
behavioral changes in an individual. Therefore,
the development of the voice is of great
importance. The development of voice, as a means
of training, can be carried out by following the
rules of voice training principles.
Because of its above mentioned quality, voice
music can be said to be the essential factor in
school music. As a known fact, human voice is the
most natural, the most practical and the most
effective of all musical instruments. The important
thing in music training at school is to help
students train his/her voice and sing properly. The
voice of a child is a sensitive element that must be
carefully cared for starting especially from the
early ages. A teacher should carefully encourage
students to sing without letting them overdo their
singing. Therefore, music teachers must have the
right and sufficient knowledge and skills
regarding voice training (Öztürk, 2003), and they
can get these skills only as long as they receive
music training.
However, in recent years, it has been observed
that the number of weekly class hours in the
faculties of education in Turkey has decreased.
This is of course to the detriment of music
teachers. Teachers should keep their voice quality,
which they acquire during their school years, and
they should be given voice training technique that
will help them create voice-word agreement. This
kind of detailed training needs long and
comprehensive work because a music teacher may
not find a musical instrument at every school to
which he is assigned or he may not be competent
at his/her instrument. In this case, the only
instrument at hand is his/her own voice.
On the other hand, the studies done in music
training field in Turkey show that the methods and
the technique used in teaching music at the
intermediate school level are substantially based
on the voice of teacher and the student (Süer,
1980).
In the piano and voice training given at the Music
Training Main Branches of the Faculties of
Education, the factors such as the attitude of the
student towards the lessons, working conditions,
social environment, attendance rates, musical
experience, the kind of high school they finish,
and the sufficiency of the given piano and voice
lessons affect the quality and the efficiency of the
training in a negative way. In addition, it is
unknown how students finishing their schooling
with these problems can benefit from the piano
and their voice in their careers.

219

In this research, the place and the importance in
the program (credit, hours, terms, content, aim)
for these two fundamental subjects ,whose lack
are always felt in music teacher training, has been
emphasized, and some solutions for the existing
deficiencies are suggested. In addition, by
applying music teachers a test, the degree of how
they benefit from the piano and voice as musical
instruments has been determined and will be
discussed.

Training Music Teachers
In Turkey, music teacher training is given in
musical educational departments of Education
Faculties of the universities. Since the years 19981999 in Turkey, Higher Education Council and
World Bank made new arrangements in teacher
training departments of universities’ Education
Faculties. Since 1998-1999 with this practice,
music teacher departments have trained their
music teachers under the name of faculty of fine
arts musical education department by combining
the music teacher departments and the art
education departments.
Today, the student sources of Music Training
Main Branches are created by the music
departments of Anatolia Fine Arts High Schools,
conservatories, music; art branch graduates of
various vocational schools; and high school
graduates who do not have basic music training
(Töreyin, 2002).
In accordance with their establishment purposes
of Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools, the number
of music techers have recently increased, and their
music training at the main branches has acquired
the quality of preparatory school. As the graduates
of these schools increased, in addition to the scale
and level of the “ability,” which were tested
during the previous years by special ability
entrance exams, the need for determining the level
of “musical knowledge and skill” arose; and
according to this the methods of testing and
evaluation of the said exams, they have been
changed.
During the 77 year long process of training of
music teachers in Turkey, special ability exams,
which had been developed with regard to the
conditions of the time at various periods
(1931,1950,1960 and 1990), and the attendance
rates of the student candidates have taken their
latest form, which has been applied since 2000.
The elections of the individuals who will be given
musical education are maintained with a “test of
ability” that measures how much ability they have
for the required musical skills. To enter these
universities, candidates have to a) have graduated
from a high school, b) take a university entry

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

exam, which every high school graduates wanting
to go to university have to take (the minimum
points of the departments change every year), and
c) win the “entry test of ability.” Everybody can
take these tests without an age limit.
The duration of this education is for eight terms
(four years). University students have the lessons
of “School Experience I-II” in the 2nd and 7th
terms, and “Teaching Practice” in the 8th term in
primary, secondary and high schools. The aim is
for teacher candidates to know the places where
they will practice their music teaching, to find out
their mistakes by using their knowledge in this
environment and to help themselves to enhance
attitudes towards teaching before their graduation.
During the lessons, general knowledge,
educational formation, and terms of musical
culture are held in a balanced level and supported
with excursions, observation, seminars and
concerts. Furthermore, in the departments,
scientific and artistic activities showing coherence
with education, research and practice are
organized. At the end of the four-year education
all the students graduating successfully are given
the rights of being a teacher.
The education of music teacher in faculties in
Turkey is especially teacher-training oriented. The
training is not like the art lesson-based ones given
in conservatory. The “music teacher training
programs” which are being applied on the
university level in Turkey have some basic
targets. They are;
(1) to train teachers who are qualified to teach the
music lessons in primary, high or vocational
schools, to conduct the music training studies, and
to be a guide in this field in their environments,
(2) to do “Theoretical and Practical” vocational
training in their fields; to grow creative
individuals of the future; to internalize Turkish
music and other musical cultures; to grow
dynamic,
intellectual,
contemporary
and
productive music trainers, and specialists and
researchers who can play his own instrument and
use his voice very well.
(3) to educate individuals who are capable and
well-informed, who will make a contribution to
the improvement of this field in the future, who
can successfully undertake the method of
scientific work, who can think rationally, who can
concentrate on a task and finish that task, and
especially who can undertake post graduate
studies.
The graduates from these departments not only
have rights to be a teacher in primary, high or
similar vocational schools but also serve in
production or broadcast companies directly or

indirectly related with musical training and gain
promotion to various suitable positions in private
and formal incorporations. Moreover, they can
study within “postgraduate education” programs
(instrument, voice, chorus, composership, musical
concepts-composing education, and school music
education) in the musical education field related to
Educational Science Institutes of Universities.
And they can have a position as a researcher at
Higher Education Foundations on these branches.

Importance of Piano and Voice Training in
the Music Teacher Training Institutions:
And its place in the Program
Piano and voice training has a very important part
in music teaching career. Every music teacher has
more or less a programmed basic piano and voice
training and consequently he/she is supposed to be
competent and educated at his/her instrument.
The role undertaken to achieve success is crucial
not only for the student but also for the teacher.
As Agay (1981) remarked on this subject, “It is an
important feature of the teacher to create an
atmosphere and to maintain it, which will help
students to develop his/her inner ability and his
musical interests individually” (Agay, 1981:301).
For Suzuki, a good instrument trainer should have
these
characteristics:
creativity,
patience,
continuous encouragement, interest, psychological
perception, technical and musical expertise, good
material handling and methodology.
The piano possesses the feature of being a basic
instrument in understanding and practicing
polyphonic music. Today, in music teacher
training programs in Turkey, there are two-hour
piano classes a week for the 3rd and the 4th year
students in every term. For eight year term, this
subject is defined as “Piano Training and
Education,” which forms the base of music
teacher training program. Technical exercises and
studies cover successively the examples of the
pieces of works of Turkish and world famous
composers, training music examples, piano
literature and learning and teaching technique in
school music (YÖK, 1998). The piano training in
this program is taken seriously by students.
However, the lack of piano classes is apparently a
crucial drawback. Since the students who pass the
branch exam and wish to focus on the piano
professionally cannot choose the piano as an
individual instrument, they are forced to start a
different instrument that they have never tried
before. This has a dramatic effect on the time they
could spare for playing the piano.
An understanding in music training, which aims at
creating training music literature with the
accompaniment of the piano, accentuates the fact

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

that piano training is valued. However, in this
program, where the piano is not chosen as an
individual class instrument, it is observed that the
students do not take the four year compulsory
piano lessons seriously enough and study only as
much as to get a passing note and do not practice
enough on the piano with the related subjects
(solfeggio, voice training, co-repetition, etc.).
However, being able to play the piano as a
supporting instrument while teaching students
how to sing, accompany the songs, and teach
musical notes in the classroom is their natural
expectation (Karkın, 2007).
Voice training is also of great importance both in
speaking and singing appropriately (Ünal, 1989).
Not everyone is naturally gifted with a beautiful
voice, but everyone can have a reasonably good
voice which can be enjoyable to listeners. Voice is
the instrument of the music teacher, an instrument
that he/she cannot give up throughout his/her life.
The basic purpose of music teacher training
schools is to train the teacher so as to qualify him
to teach music lessons, to administer music
activities at the intermediate and vocational school
level and to educate him as a guide helping the
people around him/her in this field. Music
teachers have vital tasks to reach the objectives in
music training. Music teacher’s primary helper in
carrying out these tasks is his/her own voice.
Fundamentally, the voice is the means by the
teacher most facilitates behavioral changes in the
student in accordance with the objectives of music
training. Therefore, the training of the voice is of
great importance, and the training of voice as a
means of education can be achieved by following
the voice training rules. Due to the above
mentioned feature, we can say that what is
important in the school music is “the voice
music”. As it is known, human voice is the most
natural, the best, the most practical and the most
effective of all the musical instruments. The
important thing in music training at schools is
basically to refine the student’s voice and help
him/her sing properly. As a prerequisite for the
musical development, the voice of a child is an
element to be cared for especially starting at early
ages. A teacher should carefully encourage
students without letting them overdo their way of
singing. The teachers giving music training at
schools must have sufficient and right knowledge
and skills regarding voice training. Today, voice
training at schools is given priority with similar
approaches all over the world. Throughout the
educational process, maintaining the voice quality,
the technique of voice training which will create
voice-word agreement, are especially valued.

221

Utilizing voice in its natural form without
exaggeration is adopted as a principle.
However, the Voice Training subject, which was
removed from the modified program and
individual instrument training is now given to all
students as a compulsory subject under the name
of “Individual Voice Training” for only one hour
a week for two years (4 terms). In this case, the
hope of training music teachers who can sing and
have their students sing appropriately is getting
slighter. It is the greatest aim of all the voice
trainers who educate music teachers to correct this
mistake in the program by means of academic
researches.
Staven remarked about skill training, “It clearly
includes description, demonstration and practice.
In order to perform a certain skill successively
that is to acquire it, an individual has to transform
it into a habit by repeating it continuously”
(Karkın, 2007:414). In addition to acquiring some
skills in voice and instrument training, the
scientists defend the need to have an ability to
play an instrument in teaching playing an
instrument. On this subject, Hoffer pointed out,
“Among the factors affecting the performance in
music, the ability to play an instrument is of
utmost importance” (Hoffer, 1989). As it is
understood from these definitions, developing
sufficient level of technical knowledge and skills
and having enough instrument and voice training
and theoretical knowledge in combination with
each other are the factors that play important roles
for candidate teachers from the point of their
musical education. This study has been carried out
depending on this idea.

Details of the Study
This study is focused on music teachers. In this
study, the problems that the music teachers face
regarding the use of the piano and voice in their
careers were examined, and the teachers were
asked to assess their situation on this issue
professionally. Within the framework of this
objective, data were collected with an organized
questionnaire (we believe that the teachers
answered the questions honestly).

METHODOLOGY
Data of this research have been collected from 55
(32 women, 23 men) public school music
teachers. Fifty-six percent of the music teachers in
Turkey work for the government, and 44% of
them work for private schools. Since the teachers
participating in the questionnaire graduated from
the faculties of education in various years, the
“piano and voice training” subjects may differ
depending on the graduation year. The majority of
the teachers are graduates of the years 1997-2003.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

The questionnaire was prepared by the researcher
under two main titles to seek answers for the
questions.
• Form 1: Personal information
• Form 2: Musical abilities of the music
teachers and their feasibility on their careers
will be searched and evaluated.

10%

Findings Regarding the Self-perception
Levels of the Music Teachers in Terms of
Professional Efficiency
While 65% of the participating music teachers
consider themselves “partly qualified” in “playing
an instrument,” 20% of them consider themselves
as “very little qualified” and 15% of them think
that they are “not qualified at all” (Figure 1).

15%

20%
65%

Not qualifie d
Ve ry little

15%

25%

Fai rl y
C ompl e te l y
A l i ttl e
Li ttl e

50%

Figure 2.
In the light of these results, only 25% music
teachers find themselves qualified (fairly and
completely) on the subject. These results bring out
the fact that music teachers cannot use their voice
in music classes as much as possible.
It has been determined that music teachers can
accompany their classes with an instrument at a
rate of 26%, and that 52% of them find
themselves “A little qualified.” The remaining
22% of them find themselves “not qualified at all”
(Figure 3).

Partly

26%

22%

Figure 1.
In accordance with this result, it is observed that
the teachers can partly use musical instruments in
the classes they teach.
It was observed that, throughout their four-year
education, 22.9% teachers chose the voice training
as an individual instrument, 23.6% of them the
piano, 26.4% of them chose the violin and 27.1%
of them chose wind and percussion instruments
(for the teachers participating in the research,
piano and voice training were not among the
compulsory subjects but could be chosen as
individual instruments).
Fifteen percent of the music teachers participating
answered the question, “How qualified do you
find yourself in using your voice?” as “Fairly
qualified,” 10% of them answered as “Completely
qualified,” 50% of them answered as “A little
qualified” and 25% of them answered as “Little
qualified” (Figure 2).

Q ualifie d
A little

52%

Not qualifie d

Figure 3.
The conclusion reached on the subject is that
music teachers consider themselves qualified in
accompanying with an instrument only at a rate of
26%, which shows that they are not qualified in
this field either.

Findings Related to the Ideas of Music
Teachers on Piano and Voice Training
As a result of the research, with a view to the
contribution of piano training to the accompanied
singing as in the content of curriculum, 70% of
piano training has been found to contribute to the
voice training activities. This conclusion has
shown how much the teachers value the function
of the piano in voice training. Besides, the
teachers stated that teaching songs and singing
without accompanying was very a difficult and
uniform activity.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

When they were asked, “Do you think piano and
voice training you have received is necessary in
terms of the benefits of your teaching music?”
80% of the teachers remarked that piano and voice
training was a necessity in music teaching career.
This finding support the idea that this study
emphasizes, that is, more time should be allotted
to piano and voice training activities in the music
branch programs gains support.
When they are asked, “Do you think that ‘voice
training’ lessons should be included in a 4 year
program instead of 2 year 4 term compulsory
programs in individual instrument training?” 85%
of the teachers agreed that just like individual
instrument training in the program; and unlike a
two-year compulsory subject, voice training
lesson should also be included in the program.
Finally, 15% of the teachers were observed to
have answered negatively to the same question. In
line with these opinions ,we can say that, just like
individual instrument training, teaching voice
training lessons for 4 years (8 terms) will increase
the rate of success on this subject even more.
The answers given by the teachers for the same
type of question on the period of piano training
were almost the same as above. As in the case of
voice training lessons, the teachers approved with
a rate of 75% that piano training lessons should
also be included in the individual instrument
lessons and be taught for 4 years in accordance
with the literature determined by the level of each
student.

CONCLUSION
Today all over the world, it is stressed that it is no
longer enough to know only the subject which
will be taught but teacher candidates must be
highly equipped with general knowledge,
educational sciences and educational technology,
and that this profession needs a special education
for all educational schools. If it is really wanted
for the educational quality of the new generation
to be improved, the teacher candidates must be
chosen according to their personalities, their
attitudes to the profession, their performance and
their other skills before being accepted to the
teacher training institutions (Glasser, 1992).
In research based on the above mentioned
findings, which was carried out on the educational
development of music teachers in Turkey, a
questionnaire was organized with 55 music
teachers currently working for the government
and private schools concerning their professional
qualifications and existing drawbacks. Because
the time which is allotted, to the piano and voice
training program applied in the institutions
training music teachers is insufficient, the

223

objective of this study was to expose the problems
faced by music teachers in their careers and to
find solutions in both f these areas.
While the results in the research on the “Selfperception
levels
concerning
professional
competency” showed that the 65% of the music
teachers consider themselves “Partly qualified” in
the subject of “Instrument Playing,” the rest of the
teachers find themselves very little qualified or
unqualified. There are not any music teachers who
find themselves “Completely qualified” on this
subject. However, all of the teachers have already
taken instrument training all through their
academic lives (23.6% piano, 26.4 violin, 27.1
wind and percussion instruments). The results
have proven that the teachers cannot develop their
instruments during the period of their education as
much as they can use them in their future careers.
In short, today, the teachers cannot benefit from
the musical instruments in their profession as
required.
Another question related to competency in
instrument playing asked has brought out the fact
that the teachers can accompany their classes with
their instruments at a rate of 26%. However,
accompanying a class with an instrument is
presumably very hard for the teachers who
consider themselves being at a medium rate.
Therefore, this rate of 26% is rather surprising.
The reason for this can be explained as the need
they feel to accompany the students in class with
the songs they learn. The teacher who
accompanies the students in class can gain
experience through experience. But unfortunately,
in terms with these results, the teachers do not
seem to be competent even in the subject of
accompanying the class.
When they were asked about their competency in
“using voice,” only 10% of the teachers thought
that they were qualified. This shows that the
teachers cannot use their voice in class
comfortably or practically. When we think of the
importance of using voice in music classes, we
notice that the deficiencies of the teachers on this
subject are at an outstanding level.
Based on the findings related to the opinions of
the music teachers on “piano and voice training
lessons,” we have concluded that 70% of them
think that piano training contributes to voice
training activities. This conclusion shows that
music teachers recognize the importance of piano
and voice training and agree that they should
spend effort to make up what they lack. Moreover,
when the teacher can accompany the songs sung
by the students, he/she can sustain the lessons
more enjoyably and colorfully.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

80% of the teachers agree that piano and voice
training is essential in teaching music. Positive
thoughts of teachers on the necessity of these two
subjects bring forward the need for a revision of
piano and voice training lessons in music teacher
training programs as class hours, terms and credit.
Without feeling this need, the music teachers of
the next generation may inevitably consider
themselves incompetent. For this reason, in terms
of drawing attention to the existing problem, this
study is of great importance.
Another conclusion of the study supporting the
need for a modification in the currently used
program is that 85% of the teachers believe that
voice training lesson should be taught within the
content of “Individual instrument training” for 4
years, not compulsorily for 2 years. Consequently,
the gradual approval of the idea of training music
teachers who can sing and have their students sing
can be thought as a comforting result.
The situation, being the similar with piano
training lessons, 75% of the teachers favored the
idea that these lessons should be contained in the
“Individual instrument training” lessons for four
years. In fact, piano lessons in the present
program is included among the compulsory
lessons taught for four years. Some educators
supported the idea that each student must take
piano training for four years compulsorily and that
nobody who cannot play the piano can be a music
teacher. And some others think that this will
lessen and decrease the quality of compulsory
piano training. For them, a student who is
unwilling to learn to play the piano will lower the
level of the program and hinder the improvement
of the promising students. On the other hand, both
groups agree on the requirement of a piano
training program and literature, which will ensure
the level with a piano accompaniment. In
accordance with this requirement, the program
should be revised and different piano training
programs suitable for each student should be
developed.
As a conclusion of this study, the following basic
suggestions can be made: In music teacher
training in Turkey,
• Piano and voice training curriculums in the
musical education departments should be
organized in a contemporary way and
developed continuously.
• Audiovisual sources about piano and voice
training should be developed.
• Necessary arrangements should be made to
encourage the translation of the lyrics of
music pieces of foreign origin (lied and arias)
into Turkish. Resource works created with the

•

•

•

•

•

•

tonal pieces suitable for the voice levels of the
students should be prepared.
Development of the ability to play the piano
and voice training as an essential supporter of
the music educator, and having the students
acquire the related methods and technique
should be taken into consideration.
The individual voice training of the music
teacher candidates, especially the co-repetition
and diction lessons should be included in the
academic programs.
Piano and voice training staff and piano
teachers should periodically meet and
evaluate the existing subjects and exchange
information on teaching methods.
Considering the importance of voice training
from the point of the music teacher, voice
training lessons should be given at least for
years in teacher training programs (1 hour a
week with 1st, 2nd and 3rd year classes with
one student). Main objective of these
programs should be to train music teachers.
The authorized teachers should introduce the
examples of Turkish and western music in the
voice training lessons with the piano together
with the features, pitches and harmony
patterns of these two types.
Although it has been observed that students
are conscious of the contribution of both
lessons to each other, the importance of the
piano and voice training in teaching music
career should also be emphasized periodically
through seminars.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Retirees Making Music Together
Through Group Piano: A Case Study of
the UALR 3rd-Age Piano Class from
2002-2007
Pamela D. Pike, Ph.D.
Music Department, University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
pdpike@ualr.edu

ABSTRACT
Based on findings from U.S Census data and from
studies of retirees involved in music instruction, it
was noted that there had been a significant
increase in the number of adults over the age of
50 who were engaged in playing a musical
instrument for pleasure. In the spring of 2002, a
program for active retired senior citizens (3rdAge) wishing to return to piano study was
initiated at the University of Arkansas at Little
Rock (UALR), a metropolitan campus in a midsized and diverse urban center. The piano class
quickly reached capacity, which it has maintained
for five years. Students in the 3rd-age piano class
are divided into three sub-groups, based on
playing ability. Ensemble music is the primary
vehicle for weekly musical instruction, which
takes place in digital piano labs.
This extended case study took place from 20022007 and included in-depth interviews with
students, observation of classes and performances
and interviews with educators involved in the
program. The constant-comparative method was
used to identify common themes. The purpose was
to understand the experience of the UALR 3rdAge Piano Class from the perspective of the
students who were actively engaged in it.
The research found that these students remain
engaged through various stages of their grouppiano study. As students rehearse keyboard
ensemble music, they support their peers and
collaborate to overcome musical challenges.
These particular students formed a partnership
with the university community as a result of the
class, and many have pursued other educational
opportunities on campus.
Rehearsal of high-quality ensemble music
improves student concentration and listening
skills,
andit
provides
opportunities
for
development of musical and technical skills at the
keyboard. Ensemble music ensures that students
remain accountable to one another for

ISBN 9780980456028

maintaining the integrity of the musical
performance.
The program also offers opportunities for
camaraderie and laughter throughout the musical
and educational experience. Non-threatening
performance opportunities, where students at
various levels of ability collaborate to play
carefully chosen ensemble music together on
portable digital keyboards, is critical in helping
students to achieve short-term musical objectives.
Their performance poise and musicianship levels
have increased dramatically over the course of the
study.
Universities might explore incorporating similar
group music-making programs for seniors into
their community outreach curricula. Such
programs will meet the increasing demand for
educational and musical experiences for retirees
who wish to study and make music with others.

CONTEXT & SYNOPSIS OF THE 3RDAGE GROUP-PIANO PROGRAM
The 2000 U.S. Census data revealed that, since
1985, there had been a 16% increase in adults
over the age of 50 who were engaged in playing a
musical instrument for pleasure. Another study of
piano students aged 55 and older (Pike, 2001)
found that active retirees perceived that they had
ample time to pursue leisure and educational
activities, however, in actuality they had limited
time for practice due to their busy schedules.
Additionally, the study found that the emotional
outlet and social benefits that group-piano classes
offered participants were invaluable. Playing
piano was a relaxing activity, and weekly group
lessons motivated individuals to practice enough
to demonstrate a basic level of preparation for
their classmates. The 2001 study identified that
playing repertoire with the group, even if each
participant did not play every note in the
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

228

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

composition, was beneficial and musically
satisfying for the student. Surprisingly, the
research found that although the participants
reported no desire to perform in “recitals,” there
were quantifiable benefits experienced by students
who participated in performance opportunities.
In the spring of 2002, a program for active retired
senior citizens (3rd-Age) wishing to return to
piano study was initiated at the University of
Arkansas at Little Rock (UALR). UALR is a
metropolitan campus, located in an urban area of
about 300,000 people. The class quickly grew
from 6 during the first semester to its capacity of
25 students, which has been maintained since
2002. The class meets for three semesters each
year: spring, summer and fall. Students enrolled in
the 3rd-Age piano program are divided into three
groups based on playing ability: novice,
intermediate and advanced. Students are
encouraged to meet musical milestones and
progress from the novice through advanced levels.
Due to anticipated musical, educational, and
social benefits of non-threatening performance
opportunities for the students, performing is an
integral part of the UALR program. The smaller
sub-groups combine to perform compositions
during performance. The students learn to be
accountable to the larger group and understand
that no single person is responsible for success or
failure, rather everyone in the group must
collaborate to create musically satisfying
performances.

Importance of Ensemble Music
Weekly classes are held in two state-of-the-art
digital piano labs, and performances are given on
portable MIDI keyboards. Ensemble music is the
primary type of music studied. Individually, the
parts are not too technically demanding or
cognitively challenging, so as not to overload the

students as they deal with normal aging issues
including eye-sight decline, coordination issues,
slowed reaction time, arthritis, stiff muscles and
hearing problems. The challenge for the students
is to combine their individual parts to form a
cohesive ensemble together. Many of these
students are accustomed to playing piano
independently. Thus, learning to follow the score,
listen to one’s own part as well as to the others
and staying with the conductor become
educational and musical challenges for even the
most talented soloist in the group. Each semester,
there
are
non-threatening
performance
opportunities at senior centers, book clubs, retiree
luncheons and at outdoor arts festivals in the
region where students demonstrate what they have
accomplished.

Study Design
Since January 2002, data has been gathered every
four months via participant questionnaires, group
interviews, and video tapes of classes and
performances. A series of in-depth interviews with
each of the participants has taken place since
2002. This data was triangulated through
additional interviews with educators who have
witnessed performances, through interviews with
pedagogy interns and teaching assistants and
through detailed researcher notes of classes and
performances. All students are between the ages
of 65 and 92. The ratio of males to females in
each subgroup is shown in figure 1. The purpose
of the study was to understand the experience of
the student engaged in the UALR 3rd-Age piano
program.
The constant-comparative method of analysis was
used to identify common themes. Quotes from
participants are included to provide the essence of
these
students’
experience.

3rd-Age Piano Program (sub-groups by gender)

Female
Advanced
44%

Male
Novice Female
4% Novice
16%
Male
Intermediate
12%

Female
Male Intermediate
Advanced
16%
8%

Figure 1. The 3rd-age students (study participants) categorized by sub-group and gender.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

BROAD THEMES THAT EMERGED
Student Engagement
Students remain engaged through various
stages of piano study
The program is structured to engage the students
at each level (novice through advanced) and to
encourage students to feel a sense of belonging in
the sub-group in which they participate.
Continuous enrollment and weekly attendance
numbers indicate that students are committed to
the program. Students encourage each other to
improve skills with the goal of eventually moving
into the advanced group. Students support one
another through learning difficulties and celebrate
successes together. Bob, a recently-retired 66-year
old member of the intermediate group, noted that,
during a recent performance where he and Jim
played two compositions with members of the
advanced group, “it wasn’t intimidating and it was
much more sophisticated music [than he could
effectively perform my himself], so I really
enjoyed playing with the advanced group!” The
students have shared their enthusiasm with their
friends, and the majority of our new students have
enrolled based upon the recommendation of a
friend, not as a result of our printed publicity.
Betty, a retired school teacher, said, “I just tell
everybody how wonderful this [class] is!”
The director of the division of performance
studies at UALR noted;
The evaluations that I read and the conversations
that I have with these students [where I] challenge
them to tell me that they’ve had a good experience
are always positive…there is a multi-layered
instructional model that is occurring where the
more advanced students are modeling and being
supportive [of their peers] while being honest in a
kind of direct way.

He added:
The measurement of success is that music [is
being] used and shared by the students as an
effective way to communicate and socialize. This
program lives in the world of music, [engaging]
people who might not have done music before and
those who have played in the past. As an
administrator I can send people to the program,
they go to it and they stay with it. That’s how I
measure the success of this program.

Campus and community partnership
The context for the program is unique. The class
gets these students, who are life-long learners,
onto the university campus each week where they
encounter other traditional-aged students. The
American Council on Education recently reported
that universities will need to provide more
programs for 3rd-aged citizens in order to meet

229

demand (ACE, 2007). The UALR 3rd-age
program has created a sense of partnership and
ownership between these citizens and the campus
community.
Consequently,
a
significant
percentage of the students have registered for
other music courses at the university. Katherine,
an 88 year old said, “the 3rd-age class made me
realize that I could take other classes on campus.
If not for those classes I’d be in deep depression
right now!” Bob said:
I’ve enjoyed the [3rd-age] class so much that I’ve
registered in two classes this semester and I intend
to continue on with the sequence of [group] piano
classes. I’ve taken on too many activities since
retirement, but I would rather push some other
things to the side than give up piano classes.

Increased Musical Skills
Individual technique and performance levels
While no one in the group is playing solo piano
music much beyond a level six or seven (leveling
system based on Magrath, 1995), each of the class
members has noted an increased level of
knowledge of basic music theory, along with
improved technique and physical coordination at
the keyboard. Seventy-one year old Mary said,
“my skills have definitely improved [since
beginning the class] because I didn’t remember
much at all from my year of piano lessons as a
child.” While the researcher and instructors have
noted steady and consistent improvement in
musical and technical skills since the 3rd-Age
program began, the important point is that the
students are aware of improvement in their own
music skills and abilities.
The level of difficulty of the ensemble music that
the group is rehearsing and performing continues
to increase. More importantly, there has been a
marked improvement in the musical quality of the
ensemble and the interpretive details, both in class
and during the performances. Students are
beginning to understand how these ensemble
pieces go together, and they are listening and
adapting their playing in order to make
adjustments that they anticipate will improve the
overall musical effect. Many students of piano
never have the experience of participating in a
band or orchestra. Piano ensembles afford pianists
the opportunity to be an “orchestra member” and
to contribute to a musically satisfying
performance.
Many of the students who participated in this
study had been playing the piano for much of their
lives. These students were inclined to overestimate their abilities at the keyboard and to not
listen to one another as they played. Through the
musical and technical intricacies revealed while

230

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

studying ensemble music, these students
encountered meaningful musical challenges,
structured in such a way as to yield progress
toward attainable short-term goals while
maintaining their sights on their broader long-term
goals. Students and educators noted a sense of
satisfaction throughout the process of music study
that leads toward the milestones, which can
sometimes take the form of performances.

Internalizing pulse
From an educator’s perspective, both performing
and rehearsing in an ensemble have helped each
of the students internalize the beat and rhythm that
they must execute accurately in this music.
Internalizing the pulse is one of the most difficult
concepts for students to learn. Older adults often
play with inaccurate rhythm that has been
reinforced through decades of playing without
formal music study. One of the most frustrating
activities for these students when they begin the
3rd-Age Piano Program is playing with a steady
beat and jumping back into the piece again after
making a mistake or losing one’s place. This
valuable musical skill has improved greatly
among the veteran group members, and they can
be heard reassuring the newer students each week
that they too will learn this skill.

Listening
Another difficult skill for these students to acquire
is listening to one another as they play. Ensemble
keyboard music that utilizes various instrumental
timbres enables students to take part in the
creation of beautiful music without becoming
cognitively overloaded with one’s own musical
part. Since students do not feel as exposed when
playing in a group, they are more likely to play
with gusto and can thus learn subtle lessons from
their mistakes and gain confidence with each
success. However, before a student can rejoin the
ensemble following a blunder or take pleasure in
well-executed music, that student must be able to
listen both to his or her own part and to the
ensemble as a whole.
Results of this study suggest that listening skills
can be developed dramatically in a relatively short
period of time. Students noted that they listen
more attentively and purposefully to music
outside of class now. Nola, age 65, insightfully
remarked, “I have learned so much from this
class. Maybe most importantly, I’ve noticed that I
listen better – not just to music or in class, but in
life. When people talk to me now, I listen
differently.”

Performance Benefits
The 3rd-Age Piano Class presents at least three
off-campus performances each semester. The

students have learned how to listen to one another
while performing and have begun to adapt and
adjust their individual parts during performance in
order to maintain the musical integrity of each
composition. The musical ensemble has become
more cohesive and the level of musicianship has
matured.
The video and audio tape comparisons of recitals
reveals continuous development of technical
skills, perception, performance poise, and
musicianship during the performances. More
importantly, it was noted that the students were
proud of themselves, which contributed to an
increased level of confidence at the piano during
future performances. Students have noted personal
technical improvement, as there is increased focus
and attention to individual practice and
preparation as performances approach.
These students are achieving success on many
levels. The value of the program is intrinsic:
project-oriented learning where the weekly
process of studying piano and developing
technical skills becomes a reward in itself. This
process leads to a significant musical event: the
off-campus performance. The extrinsic value of
the performance is significant also.

Project-oriented Learning and Social Value
For the reasons enumerated above, the UALR 3rdAge Piano Program can be considered a success.
For these students, ensemble music is the vehicle
through which they engage in learning that
ultimately teaches them to listen and problem
solve and make music together. The performance
opportunities encourage the students to work
toward short-term objectives and achieve
measurable successes at strategically placed
intervals throughout the course of study, which
enables them to gain confidence in their abilities
at the piano – the long-term goal for each student.
This study found that appropriately leveled
keyboard
ensemble repertoire, seamlessly
introduced into a spiral curriculum, can enable
students to accomplish musical objectives and
goals of the program while maintaining the
students’ interest and motivation. Numerous
students noted that they experience a “flow” or
optimal experience while practicing at home or
during class. Nola said, “we are making music,
being, and doing at the piano for that hour [of
class each week].” Margaret noted that she often
looks up from the keyboard at the end of the
[class] hour and doesn’t want it to be over, there’s
so much more left to learn, it’s good for our
brains!” Shirley exclaimed, “I could stay in class
for another hour or two. I would never get tired of
it.”

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

To outsiders, the social value of the program is
perhaps the most obvious benefit. On the surface,
the social benefits appear to be extrinsic: students
gather in a piano lab each week where they
experience a great deal of fun while making music
together. However, the intrinsic motivation
generated as students collaborate and cooperate is
significant. Each student participates at his or her
individual skill level. During both the class period
and the performances, students exhibit a spirit of
joy while making music, a sense of collegiality
toward their peers regardless of their level of
competency, and a level of focus and attention
that is significant at any age.

SUMMARY & RECOMMENDATIONS
In short, for the UALR 3rd-Age Piano Program
keeps students engaged in the learning and
musical process. Rehearsal of high-quality
ensemble music improves student concentration,
listening skills, and provides opportunities for
development of musical and technical skills at the
keyboard. Ensemble music ensures that students
remain accountable to one another for maintaining
the integrity of the musical performance. The
program also offers opportunities for camaraderie

231

and laughter throughout the musical and
educational experience. Universities might
explore incorporating similar group music-making
programs into their community outreach curricula
to meet the increasing demand for educational and
musical experiences for retirees who wish to study
and make music with others.

The Journey, Relevance and Meaning
of Folk Songs: A South African
Perspective
Hetta Potgieter
North-West University
Potchefstroom, South Africa
mushmp@puk.ac.za

ABSTRACT
The journey of folksongs has rich research
possibilities that can be explored through
ethnographic and social study. Such study
stimulates deep learning and enables music
education students to enter a discourse about
other issues such as the underlying meaning of the
lyrics and the song’s identity. In this paper, the
journey, relevance and the meaning of folksongs
were studied in an undergraduate music
education module at the School of Music, NorthWest University in Potchefstroom, South Africa.
The author used an interpretivist as well as a
critical constructivist paradigm to explore the
topic. Through an interpretivist lens, the author
developed an understanding of the value and
relevance of folksongs. Using a critical
constructivist paradigm, the study underscored
that the most powerful learning arises in
situations when learners actively and intentionally
construct meaning for themselves.

INTRODUCTION
Thinking about the cultural activities of young
Afrikaners1 a century ago, I have a mental picture
of them singing and dancing together, playing
games and making music. Most of the songs they
sang were folk songs, like Wat maak oom Kalie
daar? and Sarie Marais. Sometimes these
folksongs were performed with volkspele (folk
dances) and accompanied by instruments like the
banjo, concertina and accordion. During these
occasions, Afrikaners met new people and courted
for fun, but these meetings were also an ideal
opportunity to find one’s soul mate – a romantic,
uncomplicated scene, much different from similar
occasions nowadays.
During the past century, much has happened to
Afrikaners. Prior to 1994, they were the political,

cultural and religious leaders of the country; but in
1994, the elections were won by the African
National Congress, a black liberation movement.
The 2001 Census clearly identified the position of
the different cultural groups in South Africa, with
Afrikaans-speaking people comprising only
13.4% of the population (Statistics South Africa,
2001). Of the 11 official South African languages,
Afrikaans is the third most widely spoken
language. However, there are traditionalists who
are concerned that Afrikaans will become obsolete
both as a spoken and written language. Yet,
nowadays the revival of Afrikaans folksongs,
mainly in a popular modern style, gives the
language more prestige and relevance, especially
amongst the younger generation Afrikaners
(Schoeman & Potgieter, 2006).
The purpose of this study, then, is to focus on the
journey and relevance of folksongs in the context
of young Afrikaners and to discuss the
underpinning messages of folklore. The
discussion of the development and meaning of
Afrikaans folksongs is of particular interest in the
education of music teachers. In addition to being
an important part of the South African musical
heritage, the songs have hidden messages about
the hardships and social problems of everyday life
in the past. Themes of alcohol and sexual abuse,
violence, depression, are interwoven in playful
lyrics. In their modern revived form, the lyrics of
the old folk songs are used within a new context
and with new meanings and relevance. A
literature review was conducted to contextualise
the study and to argue a case for the relevance and
meaning of folk music. An ethnographic study
was undertaken to capture the journey of two
Afrikaans folksongs, Wat maak oom Kallie daar?
and Sarie Marais, through history, and to apply
the findings in music education.

THE JOURNEY OF FOLK SONGS
1

The term ‘Afrikaner’ is derived from the Dutch word Afrikaander
that referred to the original colonists. Dr J.A. Heese notes in his
book, Die herkoms van die Afrikaner 1657-1867, that the Afrikaner is
constituted of 34,8% Dutch, 33,7% German, 13,2% French, 6,9%
non-whites, 5,2% English, 2,7% other nationalities and 3,5%
unknown (Albertyn 1971:Book 1, 203).

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

be dying out. Dundes (1965) states that “neglected
customs, fading legend and fragmentary ballad”
(p. 4) reflect this view. People were interested in
preserving songs, stories, dances in the interest of
revival – cultural or otherwise.
A catchy song or story cannot be suppressed; it
will always find its way into the collective
memory. People will change the words or add to
the melody; but, in the end, the song will survive.
“A folk song must be accepted or it will die. There
is another alternative: if it is not accepted by its
audience, it may be changed to fit the needs and
Afrikaans lyrics
Wat maak ou Kalie daar?
Wat maak ou Kalie daar?
Ou Kalie steek ’n stywe dop,
Hy slaan sy vrou met die besemstok!
Wat maak ou Kalie daar?

desires of the people who perform and hear it”
(Nettl, 1973, p. 4). To try and trace the roots of
folk songs is a journey that may take one through
different countries and various peoples’
contributions. The tune of Wat maak oom Kalie
daar?, for example, was used by Smetana in 1848
for March der Prager Studentelegion, but
originally it was an 18th century German students’
song, Das Fuchslied. In England the same tune
was used for an old children’s game, The farmer
in the dell. In 1875, Wat maak ou Kalie daar? was
born again in South Africa (Grobbelaar, 1992).
English translation
What is old Kalie doing there?
What is old Kalie doing there?
Old Kalie is taking a strong drink
He beats his wife with broomstick!
What is old Kalie doing there?

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Sarie Marais is another example of a folk song,
this time with American roots. The melody and
text show similarities with Ellie Rhee of Septimus
Winner (1872-1902). Sweet Ellie Rhee originated
during the American Civil War and was first
published in the Scottish Students’ Songbook
(1893) (Willems accessed 2006-06-05).
By 1899, Sarie Marais was already a popular song
in Pretoria. During the Anglo-Boer War, it was
not only a hit among the Boers but was also sung
by the other soldiers. More and more soldiers sang
the song during the First and Second World Wars,
and it became internationally known. The

different occasions and places this song is used
worldwide prove its popularity: it is one of the
rules of procedure marches of the British Royal
Marines and of the Corps of Signals of Paraguay.
It is also used by the French Foreign Legion, the
Girl Guides in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and the South
African Defence Force.
Sarie Marais is an authentic Afrikaans song that
was played in New York as the official anthem at
the Olympic games of 1932. From boats to hotels,
from roses to cabarets and even to a women’s
periodical: all were named after Sarie Marais.

Ellie Rhee
Sweet Ellie Rhee, so dear to me,
Is lost for ever more;
Our home was down in Tennessee
Before the cruel war.
Den carry me back to Tennessee,
Among the fields of yellow corn;
To my darling Ellie Rhee.

Other
examples
include the
first South African sailing-yacht, a pleasure boat
in Durban harbour and the first Afrikaans movie.
Even the Germans named a pink rose Sarie Marais
(Nieuwoudt, 2001). And yet, there is controversy
concerning the identity of the author of the text.

One theory
is that Sarie
Marais was
Ella de Wet, wife of Rudolph de Wet (18541922), and another that claims it was Jesete
Toerien, a journalist of Di Patriot, an Afrikaans
newspaper.2 Many Afrikaans speakers identified
with this folk tune: young popular artists,
composers of serious music, and arrangers of
choir music all gave a new flair to the artistic
portrayal
of
this
old
lady.

2

According to an oral historical source, Ella Maré de Wet entertained
the Boere soldiers with piano solos. In one of the army camps, she
found an American songbook. When the soldiers sang Ellie Rhee
they changed the words ‘Tennessee’ to ‘Transvaal’ and Ellie Rhee to
‘Sarie Marais’. Another source has it that Jacobus Petrus Toerien
often wrote poems about family issues. He heard from the
Americans, who worked at the mines in Transvaal, that Ellie Rhee,
translated it and dedicated it to his wife, Susara Margaretha Maré
(1869-1939). The Maré was later changed by mistake to Marais.
However, while Sarie admitted this version in 1937, she later denied
it. Before she died in 1939, she also gave instructions that original
documents should be burned. Her children stated that she was a shy
and rigidly religious person and did not like the publicity (Maré
2006/06/05, Nieuwoudt, 2001, & Willems).

235

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

APPLICATION TO MUSIC
EDUCATION
The discussion of the development and meaning
of Afrikaans folk songs is an interesting topic in
music education classes. In studying folklore, the
important question is: “What does folklore do for
the folk?...The folk do not realize how much of
themselves they are giving away when they allow
a folklorist to collect their folklore” (Dundes,
1965, p. 278). The folk songs mentioned in this
paper do not always correspond with my romantic
image of people a century ago. The songs also

have hidden messages about the hardships and
social problems of everyday life (alcohol and
sexual abuse, violence, depression, etc.), which
are interwoven in the songs’ playful lyrics. These
messages are evident in lyrics such as “Old Kalie
is taking a strong drink; He beats his wife with a
broomstick,” and the sorrows of war as described
in the lyrics of Sarie Marais.
Amanda Strydom (2003) appropriates the lyrics of
Sarie Marais to the reality of contemporary South
Africans’
life.

New version
Izinyana ... the forgotten one
(Strydom 2003)
Here lies Sarie Marais
I wonder what my grandfather
would say she lies in the sand
with her bonnet in her hand and it
appears to me as though she has
been assailed.
Yonder under the mealies
adjacent to the green thorn tree
many people had lived in a wood
and iron shanty.
Then one day the bulldozers came
and razed the houses to the
ground. Then they again built
their houses next to the national
road Izinyana ... the forgotten
ones.
(Free translation)

Folk song
Sarie Marais
My Sarie Marais is so far from my
heart
But I hope to see her again;
She stayed in the district of the Mooiriver

before the war began.
Oh carry me back to the old Transvaal
There where my Sarie stays

There yonder under mealies at the
green thorn tree
There stays my Sarie Marais
There yonder under mealies at the
green thorn tree
(Translation according to the FAK songbook 1979
No. 143)

The “new” lyrics are presented in the context of
today, and the text is written in an abrupt manner:
open and provocative, whilst it challenges and
questions society, moral values, authority,
religion, politics, and identity. These new songs
freed Afrikaans music from an old fashioned,
conservative image. They have a vitality and
diversity, and they help the Afrikaner youth with
their process of identifying with “new” Afrikaners
and a new South African social identity
(Engelbrecht, 2004).
Whilst discussing the topic of Afrikaans folklore,
Afrikaans-speaking music education students have
different responses. Some react with, “We belong
to this history, its people, habits, music and are
proud about it,” whilst others remark, “[Al]though
our forefathers were Afrikaans-speakers, we
cannot identify with their music or behaviour.”

These diverse opinions usually lead to a
discussion about “who’s who, and what’s what.”
In a discourse about identity as sameness and
difference, individuality and grouping are key
concepts. An outcome of the National Curriculum
(South Africa, 2003) is that, through exploring the
music of different cultures, learners will recognize
the culture of the self and that of the other. Music
education students should be sensitive about the
cultural identity of learners; and by discovering
their own identity. they are experiencing the
process of finding the self.
There will be some cultural aspects of the
Afrikaner to which the young Afrikaners may
relate3. These aspects are not static and will
3

Inge Burger writes in Potgieter (2006, 93 & 94):

“There are several factors one has to consider when it comes to the
appreciation of Afrikaner music and culture, and peoples’ reactions

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

inevitably change over time. “Culture—the
community as experienced by its members—does
not consist in social structure or in “the doing” of
social behaviour. It inheres, rather, in the
‘thinking about it’” (Cohen 1985, p. 98, in
Jenkins, 2004, p. 111). Afrikaners, especially from
1994 forward, have had to deal with change, and
one of the challenges relating to change is to live
creatively. The South African author, Antjie Krog
(2003), writes in her book, A change of tongue,
how people interact in times of fundamental
change, how they “tend to find a space, lose it and
then find another space as life and the world
transform around them” (cover page). The
“transformation” of Afrikaans folk songs is an
example of a cultural group finding a new
identity.
After studying the module about the journey,
relevance and meaning of folksongs, the
undergraduate
Afrikaans-speaking
music
education students of North-West University think
differently about their own culture and are
enthusiastic to write lyrics expressing their views
on Afrikaner identity, as well as current social,
moral and political issues in the community.

to them - factors which are at the root and heart of this tradition:
1
The Afrikaners’ traditional religious affiliation - predominantly
Calvinist
2
Astrict moral codes including notions of:
o
Male dominance
o

Children having to be ‘seen and not heard’

o

Sexual chastity

o

Detachment from the material world
(characterised by not asking much, not
desiring much, and always saying ‘thank you
very, very much’ - even after having received
only very little]

o

Restraint of expression

o

Interracial taboos

o

Loyalty to the State

o

Submission to a judgemental, controlling God

3
General, yet hidden breach of these codes
4
Severe ostracism of dissenters
5
A close bond to the earth, expressed in a passion for farming
6
Disillusionment, as the result of failed farming ventures (in an
essentially arid
7
The sanctity of the Afrikaans language
8
A deep passion for rugby
9
Various
schismsEnglish/Afrikaans,
Black/White,
Pentecostal/Reformed
10 A migration to a more charismatic theology
11 A redefinition of Afrikaner identity, recognising their inherent
resourcefulness and tenacity
12 The great exodus of South Africans to other countries,
especially since the nineties, a migration that continues at present”.

Process Over Product: Emphasizing
Artistic Growth and Development in a
Philosophical Model for the
Assessment of Studio Instruction
Krista Riggs
California State University, Fresno
Fresno, California, USA
kdriggs@csufresno.edu

ABSTRACT
This paper proposes a new spiral model for
assessing college-level music studio instruction
drawn from a synthesis of existing theories
regarding curriculum, motivation, creative
development, and assessment in arts education.
The theories of writers such as Amabile, Colwell,
Dorn, Madeja, Sabol, and Falchikov are
considered. Drawing on these theories, the
purpose of the study is to present a new visual
model for assessing college-level students in
studio instruction. The method used includes a
deconstruction of theories regarding the purpose
of assessment and types of assessment available
pertaining to studio instruction, as well as the
effects of assessment on student motivation.
Challenges of assessing music performance study
are described. Dichotomies of a focus on process
versus product, formative versus summative
assessment, and intrinsic versus extrinsic
motivation are discussed in relation to assessment
and curriculum. Effects of performance goals and
mastery goals on student assessment and
motivation are noted. The importance of
input/feedback between teacher and student is
discussed in relation to identifying goals and
objectives, devising a path of study, and reflecting
upon and assessing individual progress and
artistic growth for each student. Limitations of a
visual model to represent philosophical theories
are discussed. Practical application to tertiarylevel studio instruction and implications for music
education are addressed.

INTRODUCTION
Assessment of students in American college-level
studio instruction poses many challenges. Varied
facets of performance study are often slighted in
the
typical
product-oriented,
summative
assessment of semester juries and recitals.
ISBN 9780980456028

Without articulated objectives, the assessment of
studio instruction may seem arbitrary and
subjective. Studio instructors may also grapple
with defending assessment outcomes without a
quantitative means of measurement. Yet,
quantitative
means
of
assessing
music
performance may not be adequate to account for
the equally important artistic development of each
student. A lack of established standards for
assessing college-level studio instruction also
poses problems for instructors looking for
precedents and proven practices. As Colwell
(2003) states, present and past efforts at
assessment in arts education have been simply
week attempts to hide ignorance, and many arts
educators often feel without â&#x20AC;&#x153;substantial clothingâ&#x20AC;?
or the necessary tools and understanding to define
and implement effective means of assessment.
Through increased understanding of the
challenges
and
purpose
of
assessment,
consideration of various types of assessment, and
reflection on the value of motivation in a
curriculum, a new philosophical model for
assessing studio instruction can be derived.

CHALLENGES OF ASSESSMENT
Both drawbacks and positive effects result from
applying assessment tools to arts education. A
recent study (Dorn, Madeja, & Sabol, 2004) finds
common drawbacks to include an imbalance
between large numbers of students and little time
for adequate assessment, as well as a lack of
uniform standards for assessing the arts. Negative
aspects found also include valuing a final product
over the learning process. Difficulty in assessing
development, an increase in student anxiety, and a
resulting decline in creativity are further noted
drawbacks. Positive effects for students include an
increased awareness of goals, increased
accountability, and improved motivation. For
teachers, positive effects include an increase in
respect from administrators, increased selfreflection, and generally improved teaching.
Falchikov (2005) writes that assessment tools can
be claimed valid if they measure the objectives
Copyright ÂŠ 2008 ISME

238

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

purported to measure. However, the subjective
nature of arts assessment may cause students to
feel an assigned grade is arbitrary or
challengeable, despite possible use of quantitative
tools such as assessment rubrics. While perhaps
influenced by a jury committee and accountable to
administrators, studio instructors may otherwise
have complete control over the final grade of
performance study. As Falchikov (2005) warns, a
system of checks and balances to regulate power
in the assessment of studio instruction seldom
exists. Lopez (2004) notes that such absolute
control over assessment can lead to “cynical or
negative” attitudes in students and a general
“disenfranchised” feeling in the implementation of
a decided means of assessment. Studio instructors
may be conflicted whether to grade students based
on their “rank” of talent and abilities in
comparison with peers or established ideals, or to
assess students as individuals with unique paths of
development by measuring individual growth over
time.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
Despite inherent challenges, most instructors will
agree that assessment is an integral part of
academia. Yet, the underlying purpose of
assessment may not be as obvious. As Colwell
(2003) notes, purposes of assessment include
providing a source of motivation for students and
feedback for teachers and administrators. He also
notes the usefulness of assessment to validate or
modify an established curriculum to accommodate
current needs of students, and to indicate which
goals are reached and which aspects of the
curriculum are attained. Falchikov (2005) points
to Rowntree’s six purposes for assessment to
further justify assessment in arts education. The
six purposes include proper selection of concepts,
materials, and learning objectives for a path of
study. Other purposes include motivating students,
providing feedback for students, providing
feedback for teachers, and preparing students for
future study or careers. Similarly, the American
Association for Higher Education (2004)
describes nine principles to practice for quality
assessment of student learning. The nine
principles include clearly stating objectives and
values, and assessing “multidimensional” learning
over time with attention to both outcomes and the
journey to attain outcomes (product and process).
Ongoing assessment is promoted rather than
“final” evaluation. Assessment by more than one
representative from the academic community is
preferred over absolute authority.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Performance study inherently contains diverse
aspects for assessment. Some teachers may favor
the technical side of performance, while others
may focus on expressive qualities. While
quantitative scores appear more objective and less
challengeable to students and administrators,
qualitative assessment may better accommodate
some facets of music performance. As Silvestrone
(2004) notes, either the process, the final product,
or a combination of the two can be an underlying
nature of assessment.
Central to discourse on assessment in arts
education is the question of process versus
product: whether the learning process or the final
product should take precedent in assessment. As
Falchikov (2005) explains, “process” is more
“continuous,” relating to a student’s growth over
time. Process can also include an increase in
demonstrated understanding and application of
fundamentals and concepts. In contrast, the term
“product” in a curriculum is more “terminal,”
focusing
on
tests,
examinations,
jury
performances, and recitals as the primary form of
assessment.
Similar to the question of process versus product
in regard to curriculum is the choice of either a
formative or summative means of assessment for
studio instruction. As Pemberton, Rademaker,
Tyler-Wood, and Cereijo (2006) relate, formative
assessment is “continuous,” tracking progress
along a path of study or long-term objective. The
authors define summative assessment as
information gathered toward the end of a semester
or year to measure the “amount of progress” a
student has achieved during a specific time frame.
While research supports formative assessment of
the arts, the nature of music performance study
also inherently contains the product-oriented
summative aspect of juries and recitals.
As Nardone (2005) describes, assessment can be a
combination of formative evaluation to “allow for
improved instruction” during the learning process
as well as a summative “performance assessment”
to allow students to “demonstrate their
knowledge”
through
performance.
While
summative assessment is useful to compare
student performances from one grading period to
the next, these typical occurrence at the end of
instruction may hinder the opportunity to better
cater a curriculum to the transforming needs on
each student’s path of development. As Sampson
(2006) notes, information gathered from
assessment should be applied to the curriculum
before and during instruction, not just at the end.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Although the nature of weekly lessons encourages
a regular diagnosis of challenges and prescription
for improvement and studio instructors may
intuitively employ a means of formative
assessment through the course of the semester,
such assessing may not be distinctly articulated or
directly explained as relating to goals and
objectives of an individualized path of study.
While formative assessment may best allow
teachers to measure growth over time and adjust a
path of study accordingly, studio instructors may
lack specific training or awareness for such
assessment. As Nardone (2005) explains,
formative assessment can be difficult if instructors
are not trained to “assess a process,” as most
instructors have an understanding of assessment
as functioning as a “final evaluation.”

MOTIVATION
Stiggins (2005) writes that the typical nature of
summative assessment can negatively motivate
students by “maximizing anxiety,” serving as the
“great intimidator.” Amabile (1996) finds that
while intrinsic motivation is conducive to
creativity, extrinsic motivation can hinder it. She
notes that the possibility of failure, threat of
evaluation, and pressure of competition can all
“undermine intrinsic motivation.” Motivation in
studio instruction can be intrinsic or extrinsic,
drawing upon either performance goals or mastery
goals. Shim and Ryan (2005) write that mastery
goals lead to positive responses even from
struggling students, with a corresponding increase
in self-confidence. The authors explain that in
instances in which students are focused on their
performance compared with other students,
motivation is “vulnerable to negative changes.”
Yet, the authors found that when students focus on
“self-improvement and mastery” the result is
positive and beneficial regardless of the final
evaluation.
Similarly, in a highly competitive discipline such
as music performance, the environment within a
studio may inherently favor the top students with
spotlights of opportunity while others are left in
the shadows. Focusing on a more formative means
of assessment that emphasizes individual progress
through mastery-oriented goals may better allow
all students to succeed at their own rate of
development. As Stiggins (2005) writes, prior
assessment practices that only allow a select
number of students to attain feelings of success
should be revised to allow all students the
experience of success at “some appropriate level.”
In studio instruction, teachers can emphasize
mastery goals over performance goals by favoring
a more formative means of the assessment of

239

progress. As the student identifies objectives for
an individualized path of study, specific
weaknesses may be recognized. With guidance
from the teacher, mastery goals can be defined to
address the challenges. Because the goals are
specific to the individual, they are relatively free
from the more competitive nature of performance
goals.
Through input and feedback in a dialogic process
between teacher and student and through periodic
articulated moments of formative assessment of
progress, the student can become intrinsically
motivated by individual growth rather than
extrinsically motivated through grades or extreme
competition. Nardone (2005) highlights the
importance of keeping evaluative remarks “actionoriented.” She writes that active criticism can pose
a question, promote a response, or encourage a
student to reflect, rather than “pointing out a
weakness.” Using tools such as mastery goals,
teachers can provide feedback regarding a
student’s rate of growth through formative
assessment. Students can take responsibility for
their own development through self-reflection and
self-assessment. As Stiggins (2005) describes,
teaching students to “monitor their own
improvement over time” through assessment tools
can help bridge the gulf between current
development and long-term objectives in a
curriculum.

A NEW MODEL
Drawing on Bruner’s (1975) notion of a spiral
curriculum, the model for assessment includes
specific points along a path of study for
articulated moments of formative and summative
assessment. Starting at the center of the spiral, a
student will move progressively along a catered
curriculum among quadrants of setting individual
goals and objectives, identifying a path of study,
participating in self-reflection, and undertaking
self-assessment amidst determined intervals for
input/feedback and formative and summative
assessment. The design of a spiral allows the
student and teacher to re-evaluate and apply the
quadrants to aspects of study at progressively
higher levels of preparation and intricacy (See
Figure 1).

240

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Figure 1. A New Model for Assessment
Although the spiral nature of the model implies a
progressive motion along a path of study, the twodirectional arrows imply freedom to re-visit and
strengthen any aspect based on the current needs
of the student. Performance study is cumulative,
and each link of the chain needs to be regularly
practiced for reinforcement. As Gentile (2004)
describes, fundamentals should undergo periodic
assessment so as not to be mistakenly assumed
mastered. Similarly, the open-ended arrow at the
outside of the model is intended to imply that the
process is continuous, extending even beyond
formal studies. As with reflective practicing in
performance study, where the ultimate goal is to
have students learn the tools of problem solving to
essentially become their own teachers, the model
for assessment can continue beyond formal study
as students learn the tools to effectively reflect
upon and assess individual progress and
development.

APPLICATION
Using initial objectives agreed upon through
dialogue between teacher and student, individual
progress will be assessed on a regular basis over

the course of a semester or academic year. While
a diagnosis/prescription format of formative
assessment likely occurs naturally in studio
instruction, the points of formative assessment on
the model indicate a definite, articulated effort to
assess individual progress in relation to set
objectives at established intervals through the
curriculum. For example, the three formative
points on the model could occur during the first
three quarters of an academic year, while the point
of summative assessment could occur at the final
jury or recital of the second semester. Formative
assessment may include a written exercise of selfreflection in which the student honestly assesses
his or her rate of progress, then accordingly
redefines individual goals through dialogue and
guidance from the instructor. Overall, the sum of
assessment for an academic year places more
value on the observed rate of individual progress
evaluated through formative assessment than on a
summative assessment of a final playing exam or
single performance.
The model does not attempt to compare strengths
among students or weigh abilities within or
between studios of the same or different
instruments. Instead, it offers a guide for the
teacher and student to set objectives and measure
progress through moments of self-reflection and
self-assessment. Summative assessment will
arguably occur naturally throughout instruction
due to facets of performance study such as jury or
recital evaluations, solo competitions, and
ensemble auditions. Rather than avoid such
assessment, the model instead places primary
value on more frequent and articulated moments
of formative assessment.

LIMITATIONS
Limitations are inherent in an attempt to
synthesize theories into a visual model. Unlike
some European conservatories with more
standardized performance exams, levels of study,
and set proficiencies, studio instruction in
American higher education typically consists of a
diverse range of curricula for individual studios
within and among conservatories and universities.
Various academic institutions tend to also have
differing standards and requirements, such as how
many juries or formal performances are required
and how requirements are valued within a grading
scheme. The model should remain flexible enough
to accommodate such differences while
maintaining an emphasis on more moments of
articulated formative assessment over a final
summative evaluation. Testing of the model
remains as an implication for future research.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

CONCLUSION
A new model for the assessment of studio
instruction considers the establishment of
individual goals and objectives, an identified path
of study, self-reflection, and self-assessment
between articulated points of formative and
summative assessment. Central to the model is the
process of individual development, with a
corresponding emphasis on formative assessment.
Coinciding with student input in devising an
individual path of study, the model also
incorporates assessment through formal moments
of input and feedback between teacher and
student. Drawing upon theories of curriculum and
motivation, the model emphasizes intrinsic
motivation through the value of the learning
process and individual artistic growth.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Who Wants to Play a Musical
Instrument? Some Models for Primary
School Instrumental Music.
Jennifer C. Rosevear
Elder Conservatorium of Music, The University of Adelaide
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
jennifer.rosevear@adelaide.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Access to instrumental tuition is recognised as an
important element of music education in both
Australia and the UK. The costs associated with
learning an instrument can prevent many children
from participating in instrumental music
programs. All children have musical potential and
the capacity to be involved in music learning
through class activities such as singing, creating
music, listening and responding to music, and by
playing instruments, such as simple percussion
instruments. Such activities provide readiness for
small group instrumental lessons. Learning to
play an instrument can be facilitated by
introducing sounds before symbols, including
aural, visual
and
creative approaches,
encouraging informal learning aspects, and
maximising opportunities for enjoyment through
achieving goals.
This paper aims to outline current systems and
practices being used in the provision of
instrumental music teaching in primary
(elementary) schools in metropolitan Adelaide in
the state of South Australia, and to compare these
with the changes being proposed by the state’s
Department for Education and Children’s
Services [DECS]. Its purpose is also to describe
some models for primary instrumental music
teaching being used in non-government schools.
Key points relating to primary instrumental music
instruction are drawn from the Australian
National Review of School Music Education and
the report commissioned by the South Australian
Department for Education and Children’s
Services for the examination of its Instrumental
Music Service. A survey of primary instrumental
music practices in non-government schools in
Adelaide was conducted by the author.
Access to instrumental music instruction is a key
priority in the National Review of School Music
Education, and access is a key feature of proposed
changes to the delivery of instrumental music in
government schools in South Australia. Whilst the
proposed changes will enable more children to
access the Instrumental Music Service, there are
ISBN 9780980456028

many unresolved issues, particularly to do with
staffing and resources. One of the most
contentious aspects is the proposed phasing out of
small group instrumental instruction in order to
implement compulsory Year 5 whole class models.
There is an expectation that the current specialist
peripatetic staff undergo re-training in order to
undertake the Year 5 whole class teaching. It is
envisaged that trials be undertaken before the
proposed changes are implemented. Many nongovernment
schools
offer
compulsory,
introductory instrumental music programs, but
these mostly rely on small group instruction in
conjunction with related ensemble activity as well
as classroom music.
With the positive efforts being made by the UK
and Australian governments to improve music
education, the chances of more children in those
countries having the opportunity to learn a
musical instrument are increasing.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

average far more for materials for music than for
any other subject” (DfES, 2005, p. 68). With
regard to instrumental music, there are significant
challenges to face due to the high costs involved
for instruments and teaching. “Not all children
have the opportunity to learn to play an instrument
or have specialised vocal tuition” (Hallam, 2006a,
p. 91), which leads to “access being restricted to
those who can pay, denying opportunities to those
who cannot” (Hallam, 1998, p. 6). In order to
increase the provision of instrumental music, it is
necessary to develop approaches that have
educational integrity, and yet, are cost effective.
Such provision is likely to be more effective when
it is preceded by classroom music activities that
involve students in music-making, creating and
responding, thereby laying the foundations for the
development of musical thinking, which affects all
areas of musical activity and underpins music
learning.
There is growing recognition that all humans children and adults - have musical potential
(Hallam, 2006a; Mills, 2005) and “that every
young person has the potential and capacity for
positive engagement in musical activities”
(O’Neill, 2006, p. 461). Gardner’s theory of
multiple intelligences, which identifies musical
intelligence as one of nine separate intelligences
(Hallam, 2006b, p. 96), has strengthened the
importance of music in education and has given
“credence to the notion of musical thinking as a
unique way of knowing the world” (Wiggins,
2001, p. 7). Music learning involves various
activities, such as playing, singing, creating or
listening; and learning occurs “by doing the
activities that musicians do –performing,
composing, and listening….[that is] through, not
about, music” (Mills, 2005, p. 13).
Having the opportunity to learn an instrument is
considered here as part of a broader musical
education. It is desirable that, in class activities,
children will be participating by singing, creating
music, listening and responding to music, and by
playing instruments, such as simple percussion
instruments. Through such activities, basic
concepts such as beat, tempo, pitch, dynamics,
form and texture can be developed. Such activities
are easily accessible and more achievable than the
fine motor skills needed for playing traditional
instruments. Class activities on instruments, such
as keyboard and recorder, can be helpful in
introducing finer bodily-kinaesthetic skills. Thus,
class music activities provide experiences that can
assist with readiness for learning an instrument,
which probably initially involves group lessons,
and over time and with increasing skills, may

involve small group or individual lessons with a
specialist teacher.
When children are learning to play a musical
instrument, McPherson (1995) suggests that
learning is most efficient when the sound is
emphasized before the sign. McPherson (1995)
identifies five aspects of musical performance that
can be grouped according to whether they have a
visual, aural, or creative orientation. Including
learning experiences in all orientations provides a
more balanced and integrated approach to playing
an instrument. “Performing music by ear serves as
preparation for literacy development in the
beginning stages of musical involvement, and …
performing with and without notation is
encouraged during all subsequent levels of
development” (McPherson & Gabrielsson, 2002,
p. 111).
Learning an instrument is a complex process that
involves the acquisition of aural, cognitive,
technical, musicianship, performance and learning
skills (Hallam, 1998). In order to improve skills,
practice is needed, and it is therefore important
that children can develop self-regulatory
behaviour and sustain motivation when faced with
difficulties. Children’s beliefs about their
competence and value of the task, as in Eccles’
(1983) expectancy-value theory of motivation,
play an important role in instrument learning.
Pitts, Davidson and McPherson (2000) remind us
that “ultimately, the most important factor in
children’s musical instrument learning is their
own enjoyment and satisfaction” (p. 54). Green
(2006) identifies the main characteristics of
informal approaches typically used by popular
musicians, which include: choice of music by
learner; copying recordings by ear; the informal
learner is self-taught and learning takes place in
groups; and there is an integration of listening,
performing, improvising and composing, with an
emphasis on creativity.

PURPOSE/AIM
This paper aims to provide an overview of current
systems and practices being used in the provision
of instrumental music teaching in primary
(elementary) schools in metropolitan Adelaide in
the state of South Australia, and to compare these
with the changes being proposed by the state’s
Department for Education and Children’s Services
[DECS]. Its purpose is also to describe some
models for primary instrumental music teaching
being used in non-government schools.

METHOD
Key points relating to primary instrumental music
instruction are drawn from the NRSME (2005)
and the report commissioned by the Department

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

for Education and Children’s Services [DECS] for
the examination of its Instrumental Music Service
(Anderson, 2007). A survey of primary
instrumental music practices in non-government
schools in Adelaide was conducted by the author.
Data from the survey shows a range of models for
primary instrumental music instruction being
used. The proposed changes to the Instrumental
Music Service, put forward by DECS in June,
2007, are compared to current practices and the
data from non-government schools.

SYNTHESIS OF CONTENT
The NRSME (2005) reported on the quality and
status of music education in schools, and found
that “while there are examples of excellent music
education in schools, many Australian students
miss out on effective music education because of
the lack of equity of access, lack of quality of
provision, and the poor status of music in many
schools” (p. v). With regard to instrumental
music, the NRSME recommends that “every
Australian student participates and engages in
initial instrumental music programmes” (p. 127).
In South Australia, the DECS Instrumental Music
Service [IMS] provides small group instrumental
instruction to approximately 9000 children, and
this is carried out by peripatetic specialist
teachers. There are 87.4 full-time equivalent IMS
teachers (NRSME, 2005). The IMS had its
beginnings in the 1950s, and expanded
substantially during the 1960s and 1970s. During
the 1990s, there were ongoing financial pressures,
with a threatened 25% government cut in 1995
being reduced, as a result of public pressure, to
around a 10% cut. Some schools receive very
little, if any, tuition through the IMS, thereby
creating inequities with access to the IMS. In
other words, there is simply not enough to go
around. In late 2006 and early 2007, DECS
carried out an examination of its IMS, with the
following Terms of Reference:
1. To examine school access to instrumental
music.
2. To examine the availability of the
instrumental music program for disadvantaged
students.
3. To examine the provision of instrumental
music in the early years of schooling.
4. To examine the general effectiveness of the
current Instrumental Music Service.
The Instrumental Music Service Examination
report (Anderson, 2007) recommended some new
models to maximise access and participation for
students. This report acknowledged the Wider
Opportunities: A Stimulating Start program
developed by the Manchester Music Service in the

245

UK. Many of the recommendations of the
Anderson report were adopted by DECS,
including that specialist music teaching be
introduced in R-4 classes, that all Year 5 students
learn an instrument in whole class groups, and that
Year 6 and Year 7 students who wish to continue
to do so in groups of approximately 15 students
(see Table 1). Another DECS proposal, but which
was not in the Anderson report, was that small
group tuition (currently offered in many primary
and secondary schools) be phased out.
In attempting to address the equity and access
issues, the government has put forward proposals
that, on the surface, would appear to enable much
greater access to instrumental music instruction.
For example, the Education Minister’s News
Release on June 29th, 2007 (DECS, 2007b) stated
that the proposals would be “boosting the number
of primary and secondary school children who
gain instrumental music tuition from the current
9,000 to 28,000. All students will now have
instrumental music tuition at Year 5” [bold in
original] (p. 2). In the Chief Executive’s circular
letter (DECS, 2007a) to all IMS staff on the same
day, it was stated that “small group tuition will be
phased out from all schools” (p.2).
The government’s proposals have been
strenuously opposed, not only by IMS staff but by
many school teachers, principals, parents and the
general community. As
a result, the
implementation of the proposals has been delayed
and the “status quo” will remain in 2008 whilst
some voluntary trials are carried out. The
proposed changes arose from attempts to address
issues of access and equity to the IMS. However,
the method for implementing the changes was
proposed to come about by re-configuring and redeploying the current specialist instrumental
music staff with no additional funding to support
the reconfiguration. There is an expectation that
existing specialist instrumental music staff be
voluntarily retrained to teach in R-4 and the whole
class Year 5 program.

246

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Table 1: Summary of current practices and
proposed
Current practices in
government schools

Proposed
IMS

changes

to

R-4: very few
specialist music
teachers, and few class
teachers include music

Specialist R-4 music
teachers to deliver
classroom music programs
along with professional
development of R-4
generalist teachers

Years 5-7 - small
group instrumental
instruction available in
selected schools

Year 5 whole class
instrumental instruction
for all students
Year 6-7 continuing
students in
groups/ensembles of
approximately 15
Years 5-7 - small group
instrumental instruction to
be phased out

Years 8-12 - small
group instrumental
instruction available in
selected schools

The introduction of music programs for the early
years (R-4) across all schools is educationally a
sound idea. However, there are many complex
issues with staffing – who will teach this?
Instrumental Music Service teachers typically are
specialists on one instrument; and in recent years,
many have diversified their skills so that they are
able to teach, say, a family of instruments (e.g.,
woodwind, brass, or string). The stipulation that
all year 5 students have whole class instrumental
tuition has raised many questions, particularly
with regard to the likely quality of the experience
and many unanswered questions about the
practical logistics such as which instruments (type
and availability). For any continuing students, it is
proposed that these be in groups of around 15, and
for secondary schools that 1.5 hours of ensemble
tuition be provided (DECS, 2007a). The idea of
“ensemble tuition” does not seem to be a suitable
substitute for small group specialised instrumental
instruction.
In the non-government sector, parents pay fees to
send their children to Catholic and independent
schools, with a large range in the yearly fees at the
primary level, from approximately $A1,300 for a
small Catholic school to $A9,960 for a top-of-therange independent school. Optional instrumental
music instruction, which is an additional cost, can

be arranged through most non-government
schools and is usually taught in small groups or
individually. Many non-government schools also
offer a range of compulsory, introductory
experiences on instruments, often either included
in the cost of the school fees or for a small
additional charge. In September of 2007, the
author conducted a survey of Heads of Music in
non-government schools in order to ascertain
models being used to provide compulsory
instrumental instruction at the primary level.
There were responses from 12 schools, and the
data collected revealed that most of the schools
offer various small group instrumental lessons in
addition to classroom music lessons. Many
children are able to learn a stringed instrument in
Year 2 for around 2 terms, and cost is included in
school fees. Also, students can study a wind
instrument as well in Year 4 or 5 with the cost
either included in school fees or for an extra
nominal amount (e.g. $A50 per semester). Most of
the schools have an ensemble component in
addition to the small group instruction. The types
of offerings, even with an ensemble component,
still incorporate small group instruction, which is
distinctly in contrast to the DECS proposals.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS FOR
MUSIC EDUCATION
Learning to play a musical instrument can be
considered to have various phases, ranging from
introductory experiences right through to
committed, intensive instrumental learning.
Whilst many classroom music activities can
develop basic musical concepts, the development
of fine motor skills needs small group tuition and,
as expertise increases, more individualised
instruction. Informal music learning practices, as
identified by Green (2006), as well as a balance of
aural, visual and creative learning orientations
(McPherson, 1995) could play a more prominent
role in instrumental music instruction, particularly
with respect to developing musical thinking,
engagement and motivation. Given limitations
with access to instrumental instruction, Hallam
(2006) recommends that “interest in music and
motivation to engage with it may prove to be
better determinants of success than traditional
tests of musical ability” (pp. 55-56). Learning to
play an instrument is a popular activity with
primary school children, and can provide lifelong
pleasure and satisfaction (NRSME, 2005). Whilst
schools may aim to develop balanced ensembles
(for
example,
concert
band),
students’
instrumental preferences still need to be
considered. “Instrumental music must connect
with and support the broad aims of music
education” (NRSME, 2005, p. 126). With the

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

247

positive efforts being made by the UK and
Australian governments to improve music
education, the chances of more children in those
countries having the opportunity to learn a
musical instrument are increasing.

Anderson, R. (2007). Instrumental music program
examination report. Adelaide, SA: Department for
Education and Children’s Services.
Department for Education and Children’s Services.
(2007a). Circulars to staff, CE Circ 07:026,
Instrumental Music Program (29 June 2007). Retrieved
October 30, 2007 from
http://www.decs.sa.gov.au/mediacentre/
Department for Education and Children’s Services.
(2007b). Media Release. More school children to gain
aquatics and music skills (29 June 2007). Retrieved
October 30, 2007 from
http://www.decs.sa.gov.au/mediacentre/
Department for Education and Skills [DfES] (2005).
Music Manifesto Report No. 1. Nottingham: Author.
Department for Education and Skills [DfES]. (2006).
Music Manifesto Report No. 2. Nottingham: Author.
(can also be downloaded at www.musicmanifesto.co.uk
and at www.teachernet.gov.uk/publications)
Eccles, J. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic
behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and
achievement motives (pp. 75-146). San Francisco:
Freeman.
Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for
itself, and for “other” music: current research in the
classroom. International Journal of Music Education,
24, 101-118.

Hallam, S. (2006a). Music psychology in education.
London: Institute of Education, University of London.

McPherson, G. (1995). Redefining the teaching of
musical performance. The Quarterly Journal of Music
Teaching and Learning, 6(2), pp. 56-64.
McPherson, G. E. & Gabrielsson, A. (2002). From
sound to sign. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson
(Eds.), The science and psychology of music
performance (pp. 99-116). Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
Mills, J. (2005). Music in the school. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
National review of school music education (2005).
Barton, ACT: Australian Government.
O’Neill, S. (2006). Positive youth musical engagement.
In In G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The child as musician
(pp. 461-476). Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
Pitts, S. E., Davidson, J. W., & McPherson, G. E.
(2000). Models of success and failure in instrumental
learning: Case studies of young players in the first 20
months of learning. Bulletin of the Council for
Research in Music Education, 146, 51-69.
Wiggins, J. (2001). Teaching for musical
understanding. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

A Study in Characteristics of Chinese
Traditional Five-Tone Mode Preference
Among Preschool Children in Shanghai
Ting Ruan
Dept. of Preschool Education, East China Normal University
Shanghai, China
tingruan2000@yahoo.com.cn

ABSTRACT
Music education based on the view of
multicultural education is being highlighted in the
primary, secondary, and university levels across
the world. By embodying multicultural thought
and establishing a multicultural system in
preschool music education, preschool music
education in China should catch up with the
amazing development in the world. But, the fact is
that Chinese children like Chinese traditional
music less than Western music due to music
education in China emphasis on Western music,
neglecting the Chinese traditional music culture.
Therefore, a serious issue confronting us is how
we can foster our children’s preference for
Chinese traditional music and how their music
preference could be changed in an appropriate
way. Through the study of children’s music
preference, we may find ways to stimulate their
interest in learning and to help them to become
better educated. The purpose of this study was to
measure the characteristics of Chinese traditional
five-tone mode preference among preschool
children. Meanwhile, this study also aimed to take
a first step towards showing the cross-cultural
applicability of the results from Western majorminor mode to Chinese traditional five-tone mode.
The study adopted controlled music materials, five
melodies of Chinese folk children songs in each of
the Chinese traditional five-tone modes
respectively. The study used repeated-measure
design to test the variables of “Tempo,” “Vocal
register,” and “mode” preferences among 270
from 3- to 6-years old preschool children living in
Shanghai. The results of MANOVA indicate that
there are no significant differences in preschool
children’s preference for Chinese traditional fivetone mode. Nevertheless, the preference for yutone is the highest, and gong-tone is the lowest.
When investigating the “Tempo” and “Vocal
register” melody elements individually, the
preschool children preferred the melodies with
faster tempo and in higher vocal register. This
conclusion is consistent with those results of
Western music preferences. Besides, according to
the relative degree between gong-tone-major and
ISBN 9780980456028

yu-tone-minor, I conclude that there are
differences between Chinese and Western
children’s preference for major-minor mode.
Through the investigation on the characteristics of
Chinese traditional five-tone mode preference
among preschool children, we can design helpful
strategies, which provide some feasible
recommendations in music activities for
Kindergartens--especially in material choices and
presentation during music appreciation classes,
for the innovation of preschool music education.

KEYWORDS:
preschool children, music preference, the Chinese
national five-tone mode, music appreciation,
music multi-education

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

their interest in learning and to help them to be
better educated.
The present study aimed at investigating the music
preference of preschool children using the
Chinese traditional five-tone mode. The study not
only would offer useful information for the
development of kindergarteners’ activities
involving the national music culture, but also
filled a gap in the literature on domestic and
foreign music preference studies. Furthermore, the
study could open a window to apply findings from
Western music preference studies in China.
In preference studies using the Western majorminor mode system, the prevalent conclusion
concerning pitch was that listeners preferred high
pitches over lower pitches (Hevner, 1935; 1937;
Jame & Robert, 1993; Rigg, 1964). The
conclusion in tempo preference was that faster
tempo was preferred (Fung, 1996; Getz, 1966;
LeBlanc, 1981; LeBlanc, Colman, McCary,
Sherrill, & Main, 1988; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983;
Montgomery 1996;).
In the related music preference studies in China,
the conclusions in tempo preference were mainly
the side-products in investigating the music style
preference (Bai, 2006; Shen, 2004; P. Wang,
2003; T. Wang, 2005), and there were limited
investigations in pitch-level preferences. Chinese
traditional five-tone mode is one of the most
popular Chinese modes. The mode includes the
five notes: gong, shang, jue, zi, and yu. Study of
the preferences for this five-note mode represent a
void in the literature, domestic and foreign.

METHOD
Participants
The participants were 270 preschool children aged
between three to six years (135 boys and 135
girls) from nine Kindergartens in Putuo, Zhabei,
and Changning Districts in Shanghai.

Music Materials
The melodies for the study were selected from
“Selected Chinese Folk Songs For Children,”
including Calling Ants, All Kinds of Birds Flying,
Thangseng Ridding Horse-Dong Dong Dong,
Sweet Candy, and Flying Together. Melodies were

chosen because of their similarities in rhythmic,
time, tonal range, melodic structure, and phrase
length. In addition, each participant was
unfamiliar with these eight-measure melodies
according to the results of prior telephone
interviews and questionnaires. The melodies were
recorded in MP3 format using Overture 4.0 with
the piano timbre.

Procedure
One main test administrator controlled the time of
playing the music, and four to five assistants
asked and recorded the preference choice of each
child participant who listened to all possible pairs
of melodies. The main test administrator played
the music, and the audio-frequencies were
adjusted from an IBM portable computer and
powered speakers.
An assistant recorded the preference choice of
each child. Before the test, the main test
administrator used the directive words:
Little friends, today, let us play an interesting
musical game. We will listen to some pairs of
music melodies, then, please tell the older sisters
beside you which melody is your favorite one. And
of course, you can like them all. OK?

Every participant was expected to show their
preference to the assistants when he/she finished
listening to a pair of children songs. The
preference of “like” was 1 point, “dislike” was 0
point, and “like all” was 0.5 point.
Each children song had six presentation modes:
1. Lower register 60 bpm
2. Lower register 120 bpm
3. Mediant register 60 bpm
4. Mediant register 120 bpm
5. High register 60 bpm
6. High register 120 bpm
Useing the six music presenting modes, five
different combination orders were yielded as
Table 1:
Table 1. 15 Paring Combination Orders
Comb.
Order

Comb.
Order

1

2

Comb.
Order
3

Comb.
Order
4

Comb.
Order
5

1
3

6
5

1
4

3
6

1
2

4
3

1
2

5
6

1
3

2
6

2

4

2

5

5

6

3

4

4

5

The same number of participants was randomly
assigned to one of the five testing ways. In a
testing way, every children song had a different
combination order. And the combination music
presentations in every children song melody could
be fully represented through the five testing ways.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

Regarding the initial-ending effect and the
successive influences to the preference testing
outcome in the same music presentation way, the
pairing ways of children song presentation mode
in every testing way and between the testing ways
was controlled.
Furthermore, when a participant finished listening
one pairing way of five children songs, the
participant listened to the next pairing way of the
five children songs. So, I avoided the adverse
influence to the testing outcomes caused by
fatigue.

DISCUSSION

STATISTICAL OUTCOMES

Vocal Register

The results of “Mode,” “Vocal register,” and
“Tempo” preference among preschool children are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Means and Standard Deviation of
“mode”, “Vocal register” and “Tempo” M

The results of MANOVA and multiple
comparisons show that “Vocal register” has
highly significant main effect and differences
between any two levels of the variable. Preschool
children prefer those melodies performed at
higher vocal register to middle and lower vocal
register. They do not like melodies presented in
the lower vocal register. This conclusion using the
system of Chinese traditional five-tone mode is
consistent with the results using Western music in
that the listeners prefer high pitch to lower pitch
(Hevner, 1935, 1937; Jame & Robert, 1993; Rigg,
1964).

Z

0.450±0.475

0.491±0.475

Tempo

Y

0.444±0.475

0.469±0.474

The results of MANOVA show that “Tempo” has
a highly significant difference between the two
levels. Preschool children prefer those melodies
performed faster. This conclusion is also
consistent with studies using Western music.
The common understanding about tempo
preference among Western scholars is that faster
tempo induces happy emotion. LeBlanc (1981)
found a slight partiality for faster tempos. And
then, several studies of music preference showed
the similar result to tempo preference. The fact
was that examples at faster tempos received the
highest preference ratings, while the slowest
excerpts received the lowest ratings. (LeBlanc &
Cote, 1983; LeBlanc & McCrary, 1983;
Montgomery, 1996) .
Results of this study supported the statement that
"the correlation between increasingly fast tempo
and increasingly higher preference was strong,
positive, and statistically significant" (LeBlanc et
al., 1988, p. 163).

Chinese Traditional five-Tone mode
The results of MANOVA indicate that there are
no significant differences in preschool children’s
preference for Chinese traditional five-tone modes
in general. Nevertheless, the preference for the yutone is the highest and the gong-tone is the lowest.
By analyzing the relationship between the Chinese

252

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

five-tone modes and the Western major and minor
modes, one may deduce a conclusion that the
results of this study which measures the mode
preference of preschool children in the system of
Chinese five-tone modes differs from those
studies of mode preference using the Western
major-minor modes.
Quite a few researchers advocate that children are
more likely to prefer major melodies than minor
melodies. Chinese five-tone modes are divided
into two kinds of styles, one is zi-type, including
the gong-tone and zi-tone, which are similar to the
bright hue of the Western major mode. The other
is yu-type, including the shang-tone, the jue-tone
and the yu-tone, which are similar to the soft hue
of the Western minor mode. Moreover, gong-tone
is closer to the major color than zi-tone, while yutone is the closest to the minor color (Shi, 2002).
Therefore, according to the relative degree
between gong-tone-major and yu-tone-minor, I
come to the conclusion that there is a difference
between Chinese and Western children preference
to major-minor mode, through the investigation in
the characteristics of Chinese traditional five-tone
mode preference among preschool children.

CONCLUSION
From the investigation outcomes mentioned above
in Chinese five-tone mode, vocal register, and
tempo of preschool children’s general preference,
I can see that the conclusions in vocal register and
tempo are identical, but the one in mode has the
tendency for cross-cultural differences. The
associated conclusions in Western major-minor
modes are not completely applicable in Chinese
five-tone mode.

RECOMMENDATION
The conclusions of this study suggest important
revelation and recommendation in developing
music activities for Chinese kindergartens,
especially in music appreciation.
This study suggests that children could take easily
ways of presenting music in every national mode.
In addition, the mode preference differences of
Chinese and Western children reflected from the
Chinese five-tone mode remind us of the
importance of implementing further cross-cultural
comparative studies, especially in relation to the
Western major-minor mode system and its crosscultural transferabilities.

REFERENCES
Bai, S. (2006). The experimental research on the
college students’ behaviors of music contacting.
Unpublished master’s dissertation, Hebei

University.(No.180,Eastern WuSi Road ,Boao ding,
071002, Baoding,China)
Fung, C. V. (1996). Musicians’ and nonmusicians’
preferences for world musics: Relation to musical
characteristics and familiarity. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 44(1), 60-83.
Getz, R. P. (1966). The effects of repetition on listening
response. Journal of Research in Music Education, 14,
178-92.
Hever, K. (1935). The affective characters of the major
and minor modes in musical phrases. American Journal
of Psychology, 47.
Hever, K. (1937). The affective value of pitch and
tempo in music. American Journal of Psychology, 49.
Jame, J. K., & Robert, J. K. (1993). An exploratory
investigation of responses elicited by music varying in
tempo, tonality, and texture. Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 2.
LeBlanc, A. (1981). Effects of style, tempo, and
performing medium on children's music preference.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 29, 143-56.
LeBlanc, A. (1982). An interactive theory of music
preference. Journal of Music Therapy, 19, 28-45.
LeBlanc, A., Colman, J., McCary, J., Sherrill, C., &
Main, S. (1988). Tempo preferences of different age
music listeners. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 36(3), 156-168.
LeBlanc, A., & Cote, R. (1983). Effects of tempo and
performing medium on children's music preference.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 31, 57-66.
Montgomery, A. P. (1996). Effect of tempo on music
preferences of children in elementary school. Journal
of Research in Music Education, 44, 134-46.
Rigg, M. G. (1964). The mood effects of music: A
comparison of data from four investigators. The
Journal of Psychology, 58, 427-438.
Shen, J. (2004). Music factors and individual
differences influencing music preference of college
students. Unpublished master’s dissertation, East China
Normal University.(No.3663,Northern ZhongShan
Road,200062, Shanhai ,China)
Shi, Y. (2002). The cultural view of music theory.
Western-Southern China Normal University Press, 6162.
Wang, P. (2003). The study of children songs
preference of preschool children. Unpublished master’s
dissertation, Nanjin Normal University.(No. 122,NiHai
Road, 210097 ,Nanjin,,China)
Wang, T. (2005). The primary study of music
preference among high school students. Unpublished
master’s dissertation, Western-Northern China Normal
University.(No.967, Eastern AnNing
Road,,730070,Lanzhou, China)

Integrate or Syntegrate? Models for
Integrating Music Across the Primary
Curriculum
Deirdre Russell-Bowie
School of Education, University of Western Sydney
Sydney, NSW, Australia
d.russell-bowie@uws.edu.au

ABSTRACT

KEYWORDS

In many primary schools, generalist teachers say
they do not have the time to teach music due to the
crowded curriculum. This then has led to some
teachers finding different ways of teaching all they
need to teach within the given time period, which
has sometimes led to their integrating the learning
experiences.
For many years, teachers and
academics have advocated the use of integration
in the educational classroom to provide children
with holistic and meaningful learning experiences
from which they can generalise understandings
and then apply these to other situations, as well as
addressing the issues created by the crowded
curriculum. However, in investigating how to
integrate the curriculum effectively, practitioners
and researchers have found that, in many cases,
integration has become a meaningless and often
overworked word. Everyone seems to have a
different understanding and explanation of the
word. Some are ardent proponents for their
interpretation of integration, and others are just
as ardently against it, seeing integration as a
diluting of important outcomes within subjects
such as music or visual arts. This paper discusses
three models or levels of integration where
curriculum subjects can work together to achieve
outcomes. Each is valid in itself when used by a
creative and resourceful teacher to promote the
children’s understanding and application of their
learning and can also be used alongside the other
models within the context of a program of work.
They are service connections (one subject
servicing learning in another subject), symmetric
correlations (two subjects using the same material
to achieve their own outcomes), and what we will
call syntegration (a created word which indicates
that different subjects are working together
synergistically to explore a theme, concept, or
focus question and achieving their own outcomes
as well as generic outcomes). This paper will
examine the three models and give examples of
how they can be used to teach music within the
primary school curriculum.

Proceedings: International Society for Music Education 28th World Conference, Bologna, Italy

TO INTEGRATE OR NOT TO
INTEGRATE, THAT IS THE
QUESTION!
However, in investigating how to integrate the
curriculum
effectively,
practitioners
and
researchers have found that, in many cases,
integration has become a meaningless and
overworked word. Everyone seems to have a
different understanding and explanation of the
word. Some are ardent proponents for their
interpretation of integration (Jensen, 2001;
Donmoyer, 1995; Wilkinson, 2000), and others
are just as whole heartedly against it, seeing
integration as possibly leading to the dilution of
important outcomes within discrete subjects (Best,
1995; Eisner, 2002; Smith, 1995).
For some teachers, integration means developing
learning experiences based on a theme; for others,
it is using the same song or artwork in two
different subjects. One set of teachers may use the
word “integration” when they have children
colour in a stencil about a Science experiment,
and another set of teachers ask their children to
complete an integrated project exploring a theme
then having them present their work using some
type of technology, (Bresler, 1995; Wiggins,
2001).
Adding to the confusion of definitions, there are
distinct connotations for the word ‘integration’
within the context of special education where
children with disabilities are schooled alongside
‘regular’ children in the classroom. Although
integration of special needs children is an
important aspect of schooling, this paper refers to
integration within the context of curriculum and
not special education.
To develop a definition for integration, we can
begin by examining its opposite. In a nonintegrated environment, children move from one
subject to another, making no links or connections
among them and learning the skills, knowledge,
and understandings of each subject within the
closed doors of that particular subject. Then, they
pack up their books, take out new ones,
sometimes move to another room, and become
involved in learning experiences within another
subject that are totally unrelated to what they were
engaged in several minutes before. This can lead
to the curriculum being moulded into boxes of
learning with little external context, links, or
explanations as to how what was learned in one
subject can relate to what they are learning in
another subject.
However, in realising that this type of learning
environment may not be meaningful to many
children, some teachers respond by moving to the

other end of the continuum and planning
‘integrated’ programs that lose all integrity within
the individual subjects. These programs end up
being superficial activities loosely based on a
theme, but with little depth or meaningful
outcomes in any subject.
Either approach rarely gives children holistic and
authentic learning experiences that use their
preferred intelligences or provide them the
opportunity
for
in-depth
understanding,
development of generic skills, and the ability to
generalise and apply what they have learned to
other situations. Therefore, a balance between the
two extremes is needed so that children are
achieving discrete indicators and outcomes in
each of the subjects and/or art forms but are also
engaging in authentic learning within a
meaningful, holistic context, and being given the
opportunity to develop generic skills as well.

THREE MODELS OF INTEGRATION
Learning experiences that involve music, media,
visual arts, dance, or drama can achieve outcomes
within the specific art form, across art forms,
and/or across other subjects. This paper presents
three models or levels of integration where
subjects or subjects can work together to achieve
outcomes. Each is valid in itself when used by a
creative and resourceful teacher to promote the
children’s understanding and application of their
learning, and each can also be used alongside the
other models within the context of a program of
work.
Because the word integration had both positive
and negative connotations and understandings in
education, this paper uses it in a broad sense and
includes the following models of integration. They
are service connections (one subject servicing
learning in another subject), symmetric
correlations (two subjects using the same material
to achieve their own outcomes) and what we will
call syntegration, a created word which indicates
that subjects are working together synergistically
to explore a theme, concept or focus question
while achieving their own outcomes as well as
generic outcomes. In explaining these three
models, integrating learning experiences across
subjects is used as examples. However,
integration across art forms can also be viewed in
the same ways (Russell-Bowie, 2006).

Service Connections
Service connections within subjects or subjects
occur when concepts and outcomes are learned
and reinforced in one subject by using material or
resources from another subject with no