India has introduced several Armed Forces Special Powers Acts (AFSPA) to subdue separatist movements in certain parts of the country. The law was first enforced in Manipur and later enforced in other insurgency-ridden north-eastern states like Assam, Nagaland etc. It was extended to most parts of Indian state of Kashmir in 1990 after the outbreak of an armed insurgency in 1989, each Act gives soldiers immunity in specified regions against prosecution unless the Indian government gives prior sanction for such prosecution. The government maintains that the AFSPA is necessary to restore order in regions like Kashmir, Manipur and Assam.[1]

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The State of Jammu Kashmir and Ladakh has a history going back to ancient times , and was historically a part of Hindu India , culture and civilization , the citizens of the Kashmir valley were converted to Islam by 14th Century Islamic rulers , however there remained a Hindu minority of half a million in the valley , the Jammu region continued to remain Hindu and Ladakh continued to remain Buddhist .At the time of India's independence , undivided India consisted of British India and 563 princely states of which Kashmir was one , the British partitioned British India on religious lines , into India and Pakistan , and the rulers of the princely states were free to choose which country to join .

Hari Singh, the Ruler of Kashmir at that time, was undecided. However, Pakistan in an attempt to assimilate Kashmir as a part of the Pakistani state, sent forces in the guise of tribesmen to occupy Kashmir .The Maharaja of Kashmir asked India for military assistance, for which Nehru, the Prime Minister of India at that time, laid down a condition that Kashmir has to become a part of the Indian state. When the Pakistani ground troops reached deep into Kashmir, the Maharaja agreed to Nehru's condition, over the course of the conflict, Pakistan gained control over Gilgit and some parts of Kashmir and eventually created a state called Azad Kashmir; India gained control of the rest of Kashmir, creating the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The UN intervened with a cease fire line , and said a plebiscite would be held if Pakistan withdrew its troops from Kashmir which it never did , this would eventually result in the ongoing conflict between Pakistan and India over the Kashmir Valley. Pakistan has since sponsored terrorism in Kashmir which has been internationally recognized ; in 1990 the terrorist groups indulged in ethnic cleansing of Hindus in the valley by killing over 5000 Hindus as a result of which almost the entire Hindu population of half a million left the valley and ended up as refugees in Jammu and other parts of India . A small section of Kashmiri Muslims , supported by Pakistan wish to join Pakistan , another section wishes independence , which has lead to the insurgency in the valley . Ladakh and Jammu regions of the state remain relatively peaceful since they do not have majority Islamic population .

The militant organisation United Liberation Front of Assam demands a separate country for the indigenous people of Assam. The Government of India had banned the ULFA in 1990 and has officially labelled it as a terrorist group, whereas the US State Department lists it under "Other groups of concern".[2] Military operations against it by the Indian Army that began in 1990 continues until present; in the past two decades some 10,000 people have died in the clash between the rebels and the government.[3] The Assamese secessionists have protested against the illegal migration from the neighbouring regions, since the mid-20th century, people from present-day Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan) have been migrating to Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of Assamese language compulsory; It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam agitation[4] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls.

The Muslim United Liberation Tigers of Assam (MULTA), established in 1996, advocates a separate country for the illegal Bengali Muslims immigrants of the region.[5] The United People's Democratic Solidarity (UPDS) demands a sovereign nation for the Karbi people. It was formed in March 1999 with the merger of two militant outfits in Assam's Karbi Anglong district, the Karbi National Volunteers (KNV) and Karbi People’s Front (KPF),[6] the United People's Democratic Solidarity signed a cease-fire agreement for one year with the Union Government on 23 May 2002. However, this led to a split in the UPDS with one faction deciding to continue with its subversive activities while the other commenced negotiations with the Government.[citation needed]

The Nagalim is a proposed independent country for the Naga people; in the 1950s, the Naga National Council led a violent unsuccessful insurgency against the Government of India, demanding a separate country for the Nagas. The secessionist violence decreased considerably after the formation of the Naga-majority Nagaland state, and more militants surrendered after the Shillong Accord of 1975. However, the majority of Nagas, operating under the various factions of National Socialist Council of Nagaland, continue to demand a separate country.

2014 General Elections of India recorded voters turnout of more than 87% in Nagaland which was highest in India.[7]

The National Liberation Front of Tripura (or NLFT) is a Tripuri nationalist organisation which seeks for Tripura to secede from India and establish an independent Tripuri state. It has actively participated in the Tripura Rebellion, the NLFT manifesto says that they want to expand what they describe as the Kingdom of God and Christ in Tripura. The Tripura National Volunteers (also known as the Tribal National Volunteers or Tripura National Volunteer Force) was founded in 1978 with assistance from the Mizo National Front.[8]

However, it is perceived by Indian Government that separatist movement lacked people's support as 2014 General elections in India recorded more than 84% voters turnout in Tripura which was one of highest in India.[7]

Flag used by the UNPO to represent from 24th January 1993 to 4th August 1993; the membership was permanently suspended on 22 January 1995.

The Khalistan movement aimed to create a separate Sikh country, the territorial definition of the proposed country ranges from the Punjab state of India to the greater Punjab region, including the Indian Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Northern Districts of Rajasthan such as Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh.[9][10][11] The movement was mainly active in the Punjab state of India from the 1970s to the early 1990s.

After the partition of India, the majority of the Sikhs migrated from the Pakistani part to the Indian province of Punjab, which then included the parts of the present-day Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. Following India's independence in 1947, The Punjabi Suba Movement led by the Sikh political party Akali Dal led to the trifurcation of the Punjab state, the remnant Punjab state became Sikh-majority and Punjabi-majority. Subsequently, a section of the Sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, alleging that the Central government was discriminating against Punjab, although the Akali Dal explicitly opposed the demand for an independent Sikh country, the issues raised by it were used as a premise for the creation of a separate country by the proponents of Khalistan.

In June 1984, the Indian Government ordered a military operation, Operation Blue Star to clear Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar and thirty other Gurdwaras (Sikh Place of Worship) of armed terrorists who were desecrating Gurudwaras by using those as sanctuary, the Indian Army used 3,000 armed troops of the 9th Division of the National Security Guards, 175 Parachute Regiment and artillery units, and 700 CRPF Jawans. During this operation, Indian army had around 83+ casualties with 220 injuries, and 200- 250 Sikh militants were killed, the CBI is considered responsible for seizing historical artifacts from Sikh Reference Library, and burning the empty library afterwards. The handling of the operation, damage to the Holy shrine and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the Indian Government, the Indian government did this under complete media blockage. However, the eyewitness accounts of survivors revealed the real picture to public, this lead of widespread distrust and anger against Indian government and primarily the Indian Prime minister. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards in retaliation. Following her death, thousands of Sikhs were massacred in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, termed as a genocide by the Sikh groups,[12] the subsequent Punjab insurgency saw several secessionist militant groups becoming active in Punjab, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s, but Sikh political groups such as the Khalsa Raj Party and SAD (A) continued to pursue an independent Khalistan through non-violent means.[13][14][15] Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa (International) are also active outside India, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora.

Racine, Jean-Luc (2013). Secessionism in independent India: Failed attempts, irredentism, and accommodations. Secessionism and Separatism in Europe and Asia: To have a state of one’s own. Routledge. pp. 147–163.

^The foreign policy of Pakistan: ethnic impacts on diplomacy, 1971-1994ISBN1-86064-169-5 - Mehtab Ali Shah "Such is the political, psychological and religious attachment of the Sikhs to that city that a Khalistan without Lahore would be like a Germany without Berlin."

^Amritsar to Lahore: a journey across the India-Pakistan border - Stephen Alter ISBN0-8122-1743-8 "Ever since the separatist movement gathered force in the 1980s, Pakistan has sided with the Sikhs, even though the territorial ambitions of Khalistan include Lahore and sections of the Punjab on both sides of the border."

1.
Secession
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Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also any organization, union or military alliance. Threats of secession can also be a strategy for achieving more limited goals, theories of secession relate to a fundamental question of political philosophy, the basis of the states authority. Ramet, Rights of Secession by Daniel Kofman, The Very Idea of Secession by Donald Livingston and Secession, Autonomy, in 2007 the University of South Carolina sponsored a conference called Secession As an International Phenomenon which produced a number of papers on the topic. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices, if it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force, former President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William H. If any State in the Union will declare that it prefers separation with the first alternative, to a continuance in union without it, I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate. I would rather the States should withdraw, which are for unlimited commerce and war, economic enfranchisement of an economically oppressed class that is regionally concentrated within the scope of a larger national territory. e. Tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc, cultural Secessionism, any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state. Institutional empowerment - The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies, relative strength - Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. Negotiated consent - Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands, during the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859, however, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century, particularly in central Queensland in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland in the 1870s. Western Australia Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia, the referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution. The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, according to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality. Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27,1945 and this took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitlers Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. On August 25,1830, during the reign of William I, soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River, three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire. The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt and these three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the shot and its territory divided

2.
Right of revolution
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The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on, throughout Chinese history, rebels who opposed the ruling dynasty made the claim that the Mandate of Heaven had passed, giving them the right to revolt. In Europe, one example of the emergence of a right of revolution can be traced back to Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker, the lawspeaker claimed the King of Sweden was accountable to the people and would be overthrown by them if he continued with his unpopular war with Norway. Another example is Magna Carta, an English charter issued in 1215 and it included a security clause that gave the right to a committee of barons to overrule the will of the King through force if needed. Magna Carta directly influenced the development of democracy and many constitutional documents. The Golden Bull of 1222 was a bull, or edict. The law established the rights of Hungarys noblemen, including the right to disobey the King when he acted contrary to law, Thomas Aquinas also wrote of the right to resist tyrannical rule in the Summa Theologica. John of Salisbury advocated direct revolutionary assassination of unethical tyrannical rulers in his Policraticus and this theological notion was expanded in the Early Modern Period. In a commentary on the Book of Daniel, he observed that contemporary monarchs pretend to reign “by the grace of God, ” but the pretense was “a mere cheat” so that they could “reign without control. ”He believed that “Earthly princes depose themselves while they rise up against God, ” so “it behooves us to spit upon their heads than to obey them. ”When ordinary citizens are confronted with tyranny, he wrote, ordinary citizens have to suffer it. But magistrates have the duty to “curb the tyranny of kings, ” as had the Tribunes in ancient Rome, the Ephori in Sparta, and that Calvin could support a right of resistance in theory did not mean that he thought such resistance prudent in all circumstances. At least publicly, he disagreed with the Scottish Calvinist John Knox’s call for revolution against the Catholic Queen Mary I Tudor of England. The Catholic Church shared Calvins prudential concerns - the Pope condemned Guy Fawkes Gunpowder Plot, instead, the safest course of action for the people was to endure tyranny for as long as it could be borne, rather than run the larger risks of armed revolution. The right of revolution was expounded by the Monarchomachs in the context of the French Wars of Religion, the concept of the right of revolution was developed at the beginning of the Enlightenment era in the work Two Treatises of Government. In some cases, Locke deemed revolution an obligation, the right of revolution thus essentially acted as a safeguard against tyranny. ”Revolutionary movements subsequent to this, all drew on Lockes theory as a justification for the exercise of the right of revolution. Although Lockes treatise was published the year after, his ideas were already current in the English political system at the time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, Lockes mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, alternatively, the work is better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the Rye House Plot. The right to revolution played a part in the writings of the American revolutionaries in the run up to the American Revolution. The political tract Common Sense used the concept as an argument for rejection of the British Monarchy and separation from the British Empire, the right of revolution was also included in the 1793 preface to the French Constitution of 1793 during the French Revolution

3.
Khalistan movement
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The Khalistan movement was a Sikh nationalist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān in the Punjab region of South Asia. The Punjab region has been the homeland for the Sikhs. However, the region also has a number of Hindus and Muslims, and before 1947. They put forward the idea of Khalistan, envisaging it as a state covering a small part of the greater Punjab region. Following Indias independence in 1947, the Punjabi Suba Movement led by the Akali Dal aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority state in the Punjab region of India in the 1950s. Concerned that creating a Punjabi-majority state would mean creating a Sikh-majority state. Subsequently, the Sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, in 1971, the Khalistan proponent Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to the United States. He placed an advertisement in The New York Times proclaiming the formation of Khalistan and was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora. On 12 April 1980, he held a meeting with the Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi before declaring the formation of National Council of Khalistan and he declared himself as the President of the Council and Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan, a similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu, in Amritsar, who released stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried by Akali Dal headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal as a stunt by the Congress party of Indira Gandhi. Various pro-Khalistan outfits have been involved in a separatist movement against the government of India ever since, there are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into these pro-Khalistan militant groups. In the 1980s, some of the Khalistan proponents turned to militancy, the handling of the operation, damage to the Akal Takht and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the Indian Government. Many Sikhs strongly maintain that the attack resulted in the desecration of the holiest Sikh shrine, the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards in retaliation. Following her death, thousands of Sikhs were massacred in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots in Delhi, termed as a genocide by the congress activists, in January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal. On 26 January 1986, the gathering passed a resolution favouring the creation of Khalistan, subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa are also active outside India, in November 2015, a Sarbat Khalsa, or congregation of the Sikh community was called in response to recent unrest in the Punjab region. The Sarbat Khalsa adopted 13 resolutions to strengthen Sikh institutions and traditions, the 12th resolution reaffirmed the resolutions adopted by the Sarbat Khalsa in 1986, including the declaration of the sovereign state of Khalistan

4.
Punjab, India
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Punjab is a state in North India, forming part of the larger Punjab region. The state capital is located in Chandigarh, a Union Territory, after the partition of India in 1947, the Punjab province of British India was divided between India and Pakistan. The Indian Punjab was divided on the basis of language in 1966 and it was divided into 3 parts. Haryanvi speaking areas were carved out as Haryana, Hilly regions, Punjab is the only Sikh majority state in India with Sikhs being 57. 69% of the population. Agriculture is the largest industry in Punjab, Punjab has the largest number of steel rolling mill plants in India, which are located in Steel Town—Mandi Gobindgarh in the Fatehgarh Sahib district. The word Punjab is a compound of the Persian words panj, thus Panjāb roughly means the land of five rivers. The five rivers are the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, traditionally, in English, there used to be a definite article before the name, i. e. The name is sometimes spelled as Panjab. During the period when the epic Mahabharata was written, around 800–400 BCE, Punjab was known as Trigarta, the Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of the Punjab region with cities such as Rupar. The Vedic Civilization spread along the length of the Sarasvati River to cover most of northern India including Punjab and this civilisation shaped subsequent cultures in the Indian subcontinent. The Punjab region was conquered by many ancient empires including the Gandhara, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kushans, Guptas, Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, the furthest eastern extent of Alexander the Greats exploration was along the Indus River. Agriculture flourished and trading cities such as Jalandhar, Sangrur and Ludhiana grew in wealth, due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from both west and east. Punjab faced invasions by the Achaemenids, Greeks, Scythians, Turks and this resulted in the Punjab witnessing centuries of bitter bloodshed. Its culture combines Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Sikh and British influences, the regions of Azad Kashmir and Jammu have also been historically associated with the Punjab. The Punjab is the Sapta Sindhu region mentioned in the Rig Veda, among the classic books that were wholly or partly composed in this region are the following. The Brahmins of this region are called Saraswata after the legendary Saraswati river region, Hinduism has been prevalent in Punjab since historical times before the arrival of Islam and birth of Sikhism in Punjab. Some of the influential Sikh figures such as Guru Nanak, Banda Singh Bahadur, Bhai Mati Das, many of Punjabs Hindus converted to Sikhism. Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas, many modern day cities in Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab are still named from that period like Lahore, Jalandhar, Chandigarh and so on

5.
Northeast India
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Northeast India is the eastern-most region of India. It comprises of the contiguous Seven Sister States, and the Himalayan state of Sikkim, the Siliguri Corridor in West Bengal, with a width of 21 to 40 kilometres, connects the North Eastern region with East India. The region shares more than 4,500 kilometres of border with China in the north, Myanmar in the east, Bangladesh in the southwest. The northeast India states are officially recognised under the North Eastern Council, the North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd was incorporated on 9 August 1995 and the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region was set up in September 2001. The earliest settlers were Austro-Asiatic speakers, followed by Tibeto-Burmese and lastly by Indo-Aryans, due to the bio- and crop diversity of the region, archaeological researchers believe that early settlers of Northeast India had domesticated several important plants. Writers believe that the 100 BC writings of Chinese explorer, Zhang Qian indicate a trade route via Northeast India. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention a people called Sêsatai in the region, in the early historical period, Kamarupa straddled most of present-day Northeast India, besides Bhutan and Sylhet in Bangladesh. Xuanzang, a travelling Chinese Buddhist monk, visited Kamarupa in the 7th century and he described the people as short in stature and black-looking, whose speech differed a little from mid-India and who were of simple but violent disposition. He wrote that the people in Kamarupa knew of Sichuan, which lay to the kingdoms east beyond a treacherous mountain, for many of the tribal peoples, their primary identification is with subtribes and villages, which have distinct dialects and cultures. Many of the peoples in present-day Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland converted to Christianity under the influence of British missionaries, in the early 19th century, both the Ahom and the Manipur kingdoms fell to a Burmese invasion. The ensuing First Anglo-Burmese War resulted in the region coming under British control. In the colonial period, North East India was made a part of Bengal Province from 1839 to 1873, after Indian Independence from British Rule in 1947, the Northeastern region of British India consisted of Assam and the princely states of Manipur and Tripura. Subsequently, Nagaland in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, Arunachal Pradesh in 1975, Manipur and Tripura remained as Union Territories of India between 1956 until 1972, when they attained fully-fledged statehood. Sikkim was integrated as the eighth North Eastern Council state in 2002, the city of Shillong served as the capital of the Assam province created during the British Rule. It remained as the capital of undivided Assam until formation of the state of Meghalaya in 1972, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a part of Guwahati, and Shillong was designated as the capital of Meghalaya. In 1944, the Japanese planned an attack on India. Traveling through Burma, its forces were stopped at Kohima and Imphal by British and this marked the furthest western expansion of the Japanese Empire, its defeat in this area presaged Allied victory. Arunachal Pradesh, a state in the Northeastern tip of India, is claimed by China as South Tibet, Sino-Indian relations degraded, resulting in the Sino-Indian War of 1962

6.
Tripura
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Tripura /ˈtrɪpuːrɑː/ is a state in Northeast India. The third-smallest state in the country, it covers 10,491 km2 and is bordered by Bangladesh to the north, south, and west, in 2011 the state had 3,671,032 residents, constituting 0. 3% of the countrys population. The Bengali Hindu people form the majority in Tripura. Indigenous communities, known in India as scheduled tribes, form about 30 per cent of Tripuras population, the Kokborok speaking Tripuri people are the major group among 19 tribes and many subtribes. The area of modern Tripura was ruled for centuries by the Tripuri dynasty. The independent Tripuri Kingdom joined the newly independent India in 1949, Tripura lies in a geographically disadvantageous location in India, as only one major highway, the National Highway 8, connects it with the rest of the country. Five mountain ranges—Boromura, Atharamura, Longtharai, Shakhan and Jampui Hills—run north to south, with intervening valleys, Agartala, the state has a tropical savanna climate, and receives seasonal heavy rains from the south west monsoon. Forests cover more than half of the area, in which bamboo, Tripura has the highest number of primate species found in any Indian state. Due to its isolation, economic progress in the state is hindered. Poverty and unemployment continue to plague Tripura, which has a limited infrastructure, most residents are involved in agriculture and allied activities, although the service sector is the largest contributor to the states gross domestic product. The sculptures at the archaeological sites Unakoti, Pilak and Devtamura provide historical evidence of fusion between organised and tribal religions. The Ujjayanta Palace in Agartala was the royal abode of the Tripuri king. Tripur was the 39th descendant of Druhyu, who belonged to the lineage of Yayati, one of the Puranas, the text about the exploits of Shiva, tells the story of the sack of Tripura. Variants of the name include Tripra, Tuipura and Tippera, although there is no evidence of lower or middle Paleolithic settlements in Tripura, Upper Paleolithic tools made of fossil wood have been found in the Haora and Khowai valleys. An ancient name of Tripura is Kirat Desh, probably referring to the Kirata Kingdoms or the generic term Kirata. However, it is whether the extent of modern Tripura is coterminous with Kirat Desh. The region was under the rule of the Twipra Kingdom for centuries, the boundaries of the kingdom changed over the centuries. At various times, the borders reached south to the jungles of the Sundarbans on the Bay of Bengal, east to Burma, the Mughals had influence over the appointment of the Tripuri kings

7.
Meghalaya
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Meghalaya is a state in northeast India. The name means the abode of clouds in Sanskrit, the population of Meghalaya as of 2016 is estimated to be 3,211,474. Meghalaya covers an area of approximately 22,430 square kilometers, the state is bounded to the south by the Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and east by Indias State of Assam. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong, during the British occupation of India, the British imperialist authorities nicknamed it the Scotland of the East. Meghalaya was previously part of Assam, but on 21 January 1972, English is the official language of Meghalaya. The other principal languages spoken include Khasi, Pnar, Hajong, Rabha, Garo, the state is the wettest region of India, recording an average of 12,000 mm of rains a year. About 70% of the state is forested, the Meghalaya subtropical forests ecoregion encompasses the state, its mountain forests are distinct from the lowland tropical forests to the north and south. The forests are notable for their biodiversity of mammals, birds, Meghalaya has predominantly an agrarian economy with a significant commercial forestry industry. The important crops are potatoes, rice, maize, pineapples, bananas, papayas, spices, the service sector is made up of real estate and insurance companies. Meghalayas gross state product for 2012 was estimated at ₹16,173 crore in current prices. The state is rich in minerals, but it has no significant industries. The state has about 1,170 km of national highways and it is also a major logistical center for trade with Bangladesh. Ancient Meghalaya, along with neighboring Indian states, have been of archeological interest, people have lived here since neolithic era. Neolithic sites discovered so far are located in areas of high elevation such as in Khasi Hills, Garo Hills, here neolithic style jhum or shifting cultivation is practiced even today. The highland plateaus fed by abundant rains provided safety from floods, the importance of Meghalaya is its possible role in human history through domestication of rice. The limited archeology done in the hills of Meghalaya suggest human settlement since ancient times, modern history Meghalaya was formed by carving out two districts from the state of Assam, the United Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and the Garo Hills on 21 January 1972. Before attaining full statehood, Meghalaya was given semi-autonomous status in 1970, the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes had their own kingdoms until they came under British administration in the 19th century. Later, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835, the region enjoyed semi-independent status by virtue of a treaty relationship with the British Crown

8.
Mizoram
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Mizoram is one of the states of Northeast India, with Aizawl as its capital city. The name is derived from Mi, Zo and Ram, in the northeast, it is the southern most landlocked state sharing borders with three of the Seven, now with the addition of Sikkim, Eight sister states, namely Tripura, Assam, Manipur. The state also shares a 722 kilometre border with the countries of Bangladesh. Like several other states of India, Mizoram was previously part of Assam until 1972. It became the 23rd state of India, a step above Union Territory, on 20 February 1987, Mizorams population was 1,091,014, according to a 2011 census. It is the 2nd least populous state in the country, Mizoram covers an area of approximately 21,087 square kilometres. About 91% of the state is forested and this is the highest concentration of tribal people among all states of India, and they are currently protected under Indian constitution as a Scheduled Tribe. Mizoram is one of three states of India with a Christian majority and its people belong to various denominations, mostly Presbyterian in its north and Baptists in south. Mizoram is a highly literate agrarian economy, but suffers from slash-and-burn jhum or shifting cultivation, in recent years, the jhum farming practices are steadily being replaced with a significant horticulture and bamboo products industry. The states gross domestic product for 2012 was estimated at ₹6,991 crore. About 20% of Mizorams population lives below poverty line, with 35% rural poverty, the state has about 871 kilometres of national highways, with NH-54 and NH-150 connecting it to Assam and Manipur respectively. It is also a transit point for trade with Myanmar. The term Mizoram is derived from three Mizo words-Mi, zo and ram, Mi in Mizo means People and Ram means land. There is dispute on the term zo, According to one view, zo means highland and Mizoram means land of the hill people. Lalthangliana says zo may also mean cold region and therefore, Mizo signifies people of the cold region, the origin of the Mizos, like those of many other tribes in the northeastern India, is shrouded in mystery. The people living in the Mizo Hills were generally referred to as the cucis or kukis by their ethnic groups which was also a term adopted by the British writers. The claim that The Kukis are the earliest known residents of the Mizo hills area, the majority of the tribes classified as Mizo today most likely migrated to their present territories from the neighbouring countries in several waves, starting around 1500 CE. Before the British Raj, the various Mizo clans lived in autonomous villages, the tribal chiefs enjoyed an eminent position in the gerontocratic Mizo society

9.
Manipur
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Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. It is bounded by Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south, the state covers an area of 22,327 square kilometres and has a population of almost 3 million, including the Meitei, Kuki, Naga, and Pangal peoples, who speak Sino-Tibetan languages. Manipur has been at the crossroads of Asian economic and cultural exchange for more than 2,500 years and it has long connected the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia, enabling migration of people, cultures and religions. During the British Rule, the Kingdom of Manipur was one of the princely states, between 1917 and 1939, the people of Manipur pressed for their rights against the British Rule. By the late 1930s, the state of Manipur negotiated with the British administration its preference to be part of India. These negotiations were cut short with the outbreak of World War II, on 21 September 1949, Maharaja Budhachandra signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India. This merger is disputed by groups in Manipur as having been completed without consensus, the dispute and differing visions for the future has resulted in a 50-year insurgency in the state for independence from India, as well as in violence between ethnic groups in the state. Over 2010–2013, the militant insurgency was responsible for the violent death of about 1 civilian per 100,000 people, the world average annual death rate from intentional violence has been 7.9 per 100,000 people. The Meitei ethnic group, represents 53% of the population of Manipur state, the main language of the state is Meitei. By comparison, indigenous tribal peoples constitute 20% of the population, they are distinguished by dialects. Manipurs ethnic groups practice a variety of religions, according to 2011 census, Hinduism is the major religion in the state closely followed by Christianity. Other religions include Islam, Sanamahism, Buddhism etc, Manipur has primarily an agrarian economy, with significant hydroelectric power generation potential. It is connected to areas by daily flights through Imphal airport. Manipur is home to sports, the origin of Manipuri dance. Manipur is mentioned in texts as Kangleipak or Meeteileipak which covered only the three valleys districts, Bishnupur, Thoubal and Imphal. Sanamahi Laikan wrote that officials during the reign of Meidingu Pamheiba in the eighteenth century adopted Manipurs new name, according to Sakok Lamlen, the area had different names in its history. During the Hayachak period, it was known as Mayai Koiren poirei namthak saronpung or Tilli Koktong Ahanba, during the Langbachak era, it became Tilli Koktong Leikoiren, and finally Muwapali in the Konnachak epoch. Neighbouring cultures each had differing names for Manipur and its people, the Shan or Pong called the area Cassay, the Burmese Kathe, and the Assamese Meklee

10.
Assam
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Assam (English pronunciation, /əˈsæm/ listen is a state in northeastern India. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam, along with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya, is one of the Seven Sister States. Geographically, Assam and these states are connected to the rest of India via a 22 kilometres strip of land in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or Chickens Neck. Assam shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh, and its culture, people. Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk, the first oil well in Asia was drilled here. The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger. It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant, the Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism, centred around Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park which are World Heritage Sites. Sal tree forests are found in the state which, as a result of abundant rainfall, Assam receives more rainfall compared to most parts of India. This rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment, the precise etymology of Assam came from Ahom Dynasty. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, in medieval times the Mughals used Asham and Kamrup, and during British colonialism, the English used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama was the root, which has been rejected by Kakati, among possible origins are Tai and Bodo. Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1, 500–2,000 feet were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making. According to a text, Kalika Purana, the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna, narakas son Bhagadatta became the king, who fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Samudraguptas 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa and Davaka as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire, ruled by three dynasties Varmanas, Mlechchha dynasty and Kamarupa-Palas, from their capitals in present-day Guwahati, Tezpur and North Gauhati respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta, in the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman, the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels

11.
Nagaland
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Nagaland /ˈnɑːɡəlænd/ is a state in Northeast India. It borders the state of Assam to the west, Arunachal Pradesh and part of Assam to the north, Burma to the east, the state capital is Kohima, and the largest city is Dimapur. It has an area of 16,579 square kilometres with a population of 1,980,602 per the 2011 Census of India, each tribe is unique in character with its own distinct customs, language and dress. Two threads common to all are language and religion, Nagaland is one of three states in India where the population is mostly Christian. Nagaland became the 16th state of India on 1 December 1963, agriculture is the most important economic activity and the principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes, and fibres. Other significant economic activity includes forestry, tourism, insurance, real estate, the state has experienced insurgency as well as inter-ethnic conflict since the 1950s. The violence and insecurity have long limited Nagalands economic development, because it had to commit its scarce resources on law, order, and security. In the last 15 years, the state has seen violence and annual economic growth rates nearing 10% on a compounded basis. The state is mostly mountainous except those areas bordering Assam valley which comprises 9% of the area of the state. Mount Saramati is the highest peak at 3,840 metres and it lies between the parallels of 98 and 96 degrees east longitude and 26.6 and 27.4 degrees latitude north. The state is home to a variety of flora and fauna. The ancient history of the Nagas is unclear, tribes migrated at different times, each settling in the northeastern part of present India and establishing their respective sovereign mountain terrains and village-states. The origin of the word ‘Naga is also unclear, a popularly accepted, but controversial, view is that it originated from the Burmese word ‘naka’ or naga, meaning people with earrings. Others suggest it means pierced noses, both naka and naga are pronounced the same way in Burmese. The ancient name of Nagaland is Nakanchi or Naganchi, derived from the Naga language, before the arrival of European colonialism in South Asia, there had been many wars, persecution and raids from Burma on Naga tribes, Meitei people and others in Indias northeast. The invaders came for hunting and to seek wealth and captives from these tribes. When the British inquired Burmese guides about the living in northern Himalayas. This was recorded as ‘Naga’ and has been in use thereafter, with the arrival of British East India Company in the early 19th century, followed by the British Raj, Britain expanded its domain over entire South Asia including the Naga Hills

12.
Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act
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Armed Forces Acts, are Acts of the Parliament of India that grant special powers to the Indian Armed Forces in what each act terms disturbed areas. According to The Disturbed Areas Act,1976 once declared ‘disturbed’, one such act passed on September 11,1958 was applicable to the Naga Hills, then part of Assam. In the following decades it spread, one by one, to the other Seven Sister States in Indias northeast, another one passed in 1983 and applicable to Punjab and Chandigarh was withdrawn in 1997, roughly 14 years after it came to force. An act passed in 1990 was applied to Jammu and Kashmir and has been in force since, the Acts have received criticism from several sections for alleged concerns about human rights violations in the regions of its enforcement alleged to have happened. Politicians like P. Chidambaram and Saifuddin Soz of Congress have advocated revocation of AFSPA, the Armed Forces Special Powers Ordinance of 1942 was promulgated by the British on 15 August 1942 to suppress the Quit India Movement. In 1951, the Naga National Council reported that it conducted a free, there was a boycott of the first general election of 1952 which later extended to a boycott of government schools and ofﬁcials. In order to deal with the situation, the Assam government imposed the Assam Maintenance of Public Order Act in the Naga Hills in 1953, the Armed Forces Special Powers Ordinance 1958 was promulgated by the President Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 22 May 1958. It was replaced by the Armed Forces Special Powers Act,1958 on 11 September 1958, the territorial scope of Act also expanded to the five states of the North-East - Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. In addition, the words The Armed Forces Special Powers Act,1958 were substituted by Armed Forces Act,1958, recently the Tripura state government has decided to withdraw the controversial act, citing significant reduction in the extent of terrorist activities in the state. In June 2015, after review, the AFSPA in Nagaland state was extended by one more year, in November 2016, Government of India has extended AFSPA in three districts of Arunachal Pradesh- Tirap, Changlang and Longding. These have been declared as “disturbed area” under Section 3 of the AFSPA, in these districts, Naga underground factions including National Socialist Council of Nagaland and NSCN are involved in extortion, recruitment of locals, and rivalry. The Act was enforced in the whole of Punjab and Chandigarh on 15 October 1983, the terms of the Act broadly remained the same as that of the Armed Forces Special Powers Act of 1972 except for two sections, which provided additional powers to the armed forces. Sub-section was added to Section 4 stipulating that any vehicle can be stopped, searched and seized forcibly if it is suspected of carrying proclaimed offenders or ammunition. Section 5 was added to the Act specifying that a soldier has the power to open any locks if the key there of is withheld. The Act was withdrawn in 1997, roughly 14 years after it came to force, the Armed Forces Special Powers Act,1990 was enacted in September,1990. If the Governor of Jammu and Kashmir or the Central Government, is of opinion that the whole or any part of the State is in such a disturbed, such cases do not come under the purview of AFSPA. AFSPA is confined to be enacted only when a state, or part of it, is declared a disturbed area, continued unrest, like in the cases of militancy and insurgency, and especially when borders are threatened, are situations where AFSPA is resorted to. By Act 7 of 1972, the power to areas as being disturbed was extended to the central government

13.
Jammu and Kashmir
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Jammu and Kashmir is a state in northern India, often denoted by the acronym J&K. It is located mostly in the Himalayan mountains, and shares borders with the states of Himachal Pradesh, the state has special autonomy under Article 370 of the Constitution of India. A part of the erstwhile Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu, the western districts of the former princely state known as Azad Kashmir and the northern territories known as Gilgit-Baltistan have been under Pakistani control since 1947. The Aksai Chin region in the east, bordering Tibet, has been under Chinese control since 1962, Jammu and Kashmir consists of three regions, Jammu, the Kashmir Valley and Ladakh. Srinagar is the capital, and Jammu is the winter capital. Jammu and Kashmir is the state in India with a Muslim-majority population. The Kashmir valley is famous for its mountainous landscape. Ladakh, also known as Little Tibet, is renowned for its remote mountain beauty, Maharaja Hari Singh became the ruler of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir in 1925, and he was the reigning monarch at the conclusion of the British rule in the subcontinent in 1947. Jammu and Kashmir had a Muslim majority, following the logic of Partition, many people in Pakistan expected that Kashmir would join Pakistan. However, the predominant political movement in the Valley of Kashmir was secular, so many in India too had expectations that Kashmir would join India. The Maharaja was faced with indecision, on 22 October 1947, rebellious citizens from the western districts of the State and Pushtoon tribesmen from the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan invaded the State, backed by Pakistan. The Maharaja initially fought back but appealed for assistance to the India, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947 in return for military aid and assistance, which was accepted by the Governor General the next day. Once the Instrument of Accession was signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to evict the raiders, the resulting Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 lasted till the end of 1948. At the beginning of 1948, India took the matter to the United Nations Security Council, a ceasefire was agreed on 1 January 1949, supervised by UN observers. A special United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan was set up to negotiate the arrangements as per the Security Council resolution. The UNCIP made three visits to the subcontinent between 1948 and 1949, trying to find a solution agreeable to both India and Pakistan and it passed a resolution in August 1948 proposing a three-part process. It was accepted by India but effectively rejected by Pakistan, in the end, no withdrawal was ever carried out, India insisting that Pakistan had to withdraw first, and Pakistan contending that there was no guarantee that India would withdraw afterwards. No agreement could be reached between the two countries on the process of demilitarisation, India and Pakistan fought two further wars in 1965 and 1971

14.
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
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The insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir or the Kashmiri Insurgency is a conflict between various Kashmiri separatists and nationalists sometimes known as ultras, and the Government of India. Few groups favour Kashmir accession to Pakistan, while others seek Kashmirs complete independence, since 2002, skirmishes with the local insurgents have constituted the main conflict in the Kashmir region. The conflict in Jammu and Kashmir has strong Islamist elements among the insurgents, with many of the ultras identifying with Jihadist movements, the roots of the conflict between the Kashmiri insurgents and the Indian government are tied to a dispute over local autonomy. In 1987, a disputed State election created a catalyst for the insurgency when it resulted in some of the legislative assembly members forming armed insurgent groups. Thousands of people have died during fighting between insurgents and the government as well as thousands of civilians who have died as a result of being targeted by the armed groups. The Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan has been accused by India of supporting and training mujahideen. to fight in Jammu, in 2015, former President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf admitted that Pakistan had supported and trained insurgent groups in the 1990s. However, the number of insurgency-related deaths in the state have fallen sharply since the start of a peace process between India and Pakistan. After independence from colonial rule India and Pakistan fought a war over the state of Kashmir. At the end of the war India controlled the most valuable parts of Kashmir, while there were sporadic periods of violence there was no organised insurgency movement. During this period legislative elections in Jammu and Kashmir were first held in 1951 and he was an instrumental member in the accession of the state to India. However Sheikh Abdullah would fall in and out of favour with the central government and this was a time of political instability & power struggle in Jammu and Kashmir and it went through several periods of Presidents rule by the Federal Government. After Sheikh Abdullah’s death, his son Farooq Abdullah took over as Chief Minister of Jammu, Farooq Abdullah eventually fell out of favour with the Central Government and the Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi had him dismissed. A year later, Abdullah announced an alliance with the ruling Congress party for the elections of 1987, the elections were allegedly rigged in favour of Abdullah. This led to the rise of an insurgency movement composed, in part. Pakistan supplied these groups with support, arms, recruits. Beginning in 2004 Pakistan began to end its support for insurgents in Kashmir and this happened because terrorist groups linked to Kashmir twice tried to assassinate Pakistani President General Pervez Musharraf. His successor, Asif Ali Zardari has continued the policy, calling insurgents in Kashmir terrorists, There have been widespread protests against Indian rule. Once the most formidable face of Kashmir militancy, Hizbul Mujahideen is slowly fading away as its remaining commanders, some minor incidents of grenade throwing and sniper firing at security forces notwithstanding, the situation is under control and more or less peaceful

15.
Pakistan Army
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Pakistan Army is the land-based service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies it had an active force of approximately 620,000 active personnel as of 2017. In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for military service. Pakistan Army has started inducting women as commissioned officers, Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Since its establishment in 1947, the Army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, since 1947, it has also maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Toar-e-Tander, the Army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Serpent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pakistan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Army Staff, by statute a four-star general, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister. The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by General Qamar Javed Bajwa, the Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. Fearing that India would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts, in response to this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed Forces were then deployed to Kashmir and this led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. A ceasefire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir and this aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its modest beginnings. The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would later become Pakistans first democratically elected Prime Minister, tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch area during April 1965. The War began after the failure of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965, on the night of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, the Indian Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. The Indian Army conquered around 360 square kilometres square kilometres of Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore. Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had reached the village of Burki, the rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations. The War eventually ended with a United Nations backed ceasefire and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft,200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses, at the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000 killed

16.
Azad Kashmir
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Azad Jammu and Kashmir, abbreviated as AJK and commonly known as Azad Kashmir, is a self-governing administrative division of Pakistan. Azad Kashmir is part of the greater Kashmir region, which is the subject of a conflict between India and Pakistan. The territory shares a border with Gilgit–Baltistan, together with which it is referred to by the United Nations, the territory also borders Pakistans Punjab province to the south and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province to the west. To the east, Azad Kashmir is separated from the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir by the Line of Control, Azad Kashmir has a total area of 13,297 square kilometres, with an estimated population of around 4.6 million people. The territory has a form of government modeled after the Westminster system. The President of Azad Kashmir is the head of the state, while the prime minister. The unicameral Azad Jammu & Kashmir Legislative Assembly elects both the minister and president. The state has its own Supreme Court and a High Court, neither Azad Kashmir nor Gilgit-Baltistan elect members to Pakistans National Assembly. The 2005 earthquake killed 100,000 people and left another three million people displaced, with widespread devastation, since then, with help from the Government of Pakistan and foreign donors, reconstruction of infrastructure is underway. Azad Kashmirs economy largely depends on agriculture, services, tourism, nearly 87% of the households own farms in Azad Kashmir, while the region has a literacy rate of approximately 72% and has the highest school enrollment in Pakistan. At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the British abandoned their suzerainty over the princely states, hari Singh, the maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, wanted his state to remain independent. Muslims in Western Jammu province and the Frontier Districts Province had wanted to join Pakistan, in Spring 1947, an uprising against the Maharaja broke out in Poonch, an area bordering the Rawalpindi division of West Punjab. Maharajas administration is said to have started levying punitive taxes on the peasantry which provoked a local revolt, the areas population, swelled by recently demobilised soldiers following World War II, rebelled against the Maharajas forces and gained control of almost the entire district. Khwaja Ghulam Nabi Gilkar, under the assumed name Mr. Anwar, however, this government quickly fizzled out with the arrest of Anwar in Srinagar. On October 24, a provisional government of Azad Kashmir was established at Palandri under the leadership of Sardar Ibrahim. On October 21, several thousand Pashtun tribesmen from North-West Frontier Province poured into Jammu and they were led by experienced military leaders and were equipped with modern arms. The Maharajas crumbling forces were unable to withstand the onslaught, the raiders captured the towns of Muzaffarabad and Baramulla, the latter 20 miles northwest of the state capital Srinagar. On October 24, the Maharaja requested military assistance from India, Indian troops were immediately airlifted into Srinagar

17.
Kashmir Valley
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The Kashmir Valley is a valley in the portion of the Kashmir region administered by India. The valley is bounded on the southwest by the Pir Panjal Range and it is approximately 135 km long and 32 km wide, and is drained by the Jhelum River. Kashmir division is one of the three divisions of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Kashmir division borders Jammu Division to the south and Ladakh to the east while Line of Control forms its northern, the division consists of the following districts, Anantnag, Baramulla, Budgam, Bandipore, Ganderbal, Kupwara, Kulgam, Pulwama, Shopian and Srinagar. In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism, later still, in the ninth century, in 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani Empire and that year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy of the British Crown, subsequently, he transferred power to a popular government headed by Sheikh Abdullah. Following this, a war ensued between India and Pakistan, Kashmir valley is however fully under the control of India and is about 15,948 Square Kilometres in area which is about 15. 73% of the total area under Indian control. The major ethnic group of Kashmir Valley are Kashmiris and they speak the Kashmiri language, smaller ethno-linguistic groups include the Gujjars and Bakarwals who mostly live along mountain ranges of the valley. The valley has a Muslim majority population and Islam is practiced by 97. 16% of the population with the remaining being Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, the principal spoken languages in the valley are Kashmiri and Urdu, with Urdu being the official language. Many speakers of these languages also know English as a second language, Kashmir Division consists of ten districts, Srinagar is its main city and also the summer capital of the state. Other main cities are Handwara, Sopore, Baramulla, Kupwara, Anantnag, the major political parties in the region are the National Conference, the Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party and the Congress. Srinagar in the valley is the capital of the state of Jammu. The capital moves out of the valley in the winter to Jammu in a ceremony called Darbar Move. It can be described as cool in the spring and autumn, mild in the summer. As a large valley with significant differences in geo-location among various districts, summer is usually mild and fairly dry, but relative humidity is generally high and the nights are cool. The precipitation occurs throughout the year and no month is particularly dry, the hottest month is July and the coldest are December–January. Compared with other parts of India, Kashmir valley enjoys a more moderate climate

18.
Insurgency in Northeast India
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Some factions favour a separate state while others seek regional autonomy. Northeastern India consists of seven states, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, tensions exist between these states and the central government as well as amongst their native tribal people and migrants from other parts of India. Regional tensions eased off in late 2013, with the Indian, however, in late 2014 tensions again rose as the Indian government launched an offensive, which led to a retaliatory attack on civilians by tribal guerrillas. As of January 1,2015, major militant activities are being conducted in Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, the Indian general election,2014 had an 80% voter turnout in all northeastern states, the highest among all states of India. Indian authorities claim that this shows the faith of the people in Indian democracy. Despite this, a number of organizations listed as terrorist groups continue to promote an insurgency, the National Liberation Council of Taniland is active along the Assam – Arunachal Pradesh border, and its members belong to the Tani groups of people which are demanding Taniland. The Tani groups are Mongoloid people in India as well as the Luoba in China who live along the frontier of India, Assam has been a refuge for militants for a number of years, due to its porous borders with Bangladesh and Bhutan. The main causes of the friction include anti-foreigner agitation in the 1980s, the insurgency status in Assam is classified as very active. The government of Bangladesh has arrested and extradited senior leaders of the ULFA, the United Liberation Front of Assam was formed in April 1979 to establish a sovereign state of Assam through armed struggle. In recent times the organisation has lost its middle rung leaders after most of them were arrested, the National Democratic Front of Bodoland was formed in 1989 as the Bodo Security Force, and aims to set up an autonomous region Bodoland. The Karbi Longri N. C. Hills Liberation Front is a militant group operating in the Karbi Anglong, the outfit claims to fight for the cause of Karbi tribes, and its declared objective is Hemprek Kangthim, meaning self-rule/self-determination of the Karbi people. In 2004, the UPDS renamed itself as the Karbi Longri North Cachar Hills Liberation Front, in 2014 the UPDS disbanded, following the mass surrender of all it cadres and leaders. The Dima Halam Daoga is a descendant of the Dimasa National Security Force, commander-in-Chief Jewel Gorlosa, refused to surrender and launched the Dima Halam Daogah. After the peace agreement between the DHD and the government in the year 2003, the group further broke out. The Black Widows declared objective is to create Dimaraji for the Dimasa people in Dima Hasao district only, however the objective of DHD is to include parts of Cachar, Karbi Anglong, and Nagaon districts in Assam, and sections of Dimapur district in Nagaland. In 2009 the group surrendered en masse to the CRPF and local police,193 cadres surrendering on 2009-09-12, the objective of the Kamtapur Liberation Organisation is to carve out a separate Kamtapur State. Manipurs long tradition of independence can be traced to the foundation of the Kangleipak State in 1110, the Kingdom of Manipur was conquered by Great Britain following the brief Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891, becoming a British protectorate. Manipur became part of the Indian Union on 15 October 1949, despite the fact that Manipur became a separate state of the Indian Union on 21 January 1972, the insurgency continued

19.
Assam separatist movements
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Assam separatist movements are insurgency movements operating in Indias oil-rich state of Assam. The conflict started in the 1970s following tension between the local Assamese and the Indian government over alleged neglect and internal colonisation through its centre in Delhi. The conflict has resulted in the deaths of 12,000 United Liberation Front of Assam members and 18,000 others, the separatist movements initially was supported by the locals in Assam but later lost support because of innocent killings. The ULFA has attacked Hindi-speaking migrant workers and a movement exists favouring secession from the Republic of India, the alleged neglect and economic exploitation by the Indian state are the main reasons behind the growth of this secessionist movement. The ULFA seeks to establish a sovereign Assam via armed struggle, the Government of India banned the organization in 1990 and classifies it as a terrorist group, while the US State Department lists it under Other groups of concern. In the past two decades some 30,000 people have died in the clash between the rebels and the government, though separatist sentiment is considered strong, it is disputed if the secessionist movement continues to enjoy popular support. Conversely, assertions of Assamese nationalism are found in Assamese literature and culture, the neglect and exploitation by the Indian state are common refrains in the Assamese-language media with some reports casting the ULFA leaders as saviors. Internationally acclaimed Assamese novelist Indira Goswami has tried to broker peace for years between the rebels and the government. In a recent development Hiren Gohain, an intellectual, has stepped in to expedite the process. Operation All Clear 2008 Assam bombings Bhimajuli Massacre 2009 Guwahati bombings 2009 Assam serial blasts Bodo nationalism Insurgency in North-East India Separatist movements of India

20.
United Liberation Front of Assam
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The United Liberation Front of Assam is a separatist outfit operating in Assam, North East India. It seeks to establish a sovereign Assam with a struggle in the Assam conflict. The government of India banned the organisation in 1990 citing it as a terrorist organisation, according to ULFA sources, it was founded on 7 April 1979 at Rang Ghar, a historic structure dating to the Ahom kingdom and began operations in 1990. Military operations against the ULFA by the Indian Army began in 1990, on 5 December 2009, the chairman and the deputy commander-in-chief of ULFA was taken into Indian custody. In 2011, there was a crackdown on the ULFA in Bangladesh. In January 2010, ULFA softened its stance and dropped demands for independence as a condition for talks with the Government of India, on 3 September 2011, a tripartite agreement for Suspension of Operations against ULFA was signed between the Indian government, the Assam government and the ULFA. Paresh Baruah — sentenced to death by Bangladesh court, arabinda Rajkhowa, Released on bail Pradip Gogoi, Released on bail Anup Chetia — deported to India from Bangladesh. The organisations purpose was to engage in a struggle to form a socialist Assam. Ulfa during its heydays was quite popular among many Assamese people of the Brahmaputra valley, majority of the supporters felt that a powerful organisation was necessary to get the voice of a peripheral region heard in the corridors of power in Lutyen’s Delhi. But gradually, the organisation’s undue emphasis on collection of money and it witnessed a period marked by growing disillusionment and anger amid its supporters. In their bloody conflict with the security agencies, many innocent people lost their lives and it is estimated that more than ten thousand local youths perished during that turbulent period. In the process, owing to the factors of increasing pressure by the security agencies and dwindling support among its core sympathisers. Recruiting for the front did not begin until 1983, in 1986 it launched a fund raising campaign across India by way of extortion. It then began to set up camps in Tinsukia and Dibrugarh but was banned by New Delhi on 7 November, under the Unlawful Activities Act. In the early 1990s, ULFA launched a campaign with victims such as security forces, political opponents. In July 1991 the front captured and held 14 people for ransom, included in the abductees was an engineer, from the 1990s on the ULFA have continued to carry out terrorist attacks. The ULFA is a political organisation engaged in a liberation struggle against state terrorism and economic exploitation by India for the establishment of a sovereign. With the British army at Yandabo village, only 50 miles from the capital Ava, the Government of India has classified it as a terrorist organisation and had banned it under the Unlawful Activities Act in 1990

21.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States

22.
Indian Army
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The Indian Army is the land-based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. The President of India serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Army, and it is commanded by the Chief of Army Staff, two officers have been conferred with the rank of field marshal, a five-star rank, which is a ceremonial position of great honour. It conducts humanitarian rescue operations during calamities and other disturbances, like Operation Surya Hope. It is a component of national power alongside the Indian Navy. The army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan, other major operations undertaken by the army include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot and Operation Cactus. The Indian Army has a system, but is operationally and geographically divided into seven commands. It is a force and comprises more than 80% of the countrys active defence personnel. It is the 2nd largest standing army in the world, with 1,200,255 active troops and 990,960 reserve troops, a Military Department was created within the Government of the East India Company at Kolkata in the year 1776. Its main function was to sift and record orders relating to the Army that were issued by various Departments of the East India Company for the territories under its control. With the Charter Act of 1833, the Secretariat of the Government of the East India Company was reorganised into four Departments, including a Military Department. The army in the Presidencies of Bengal, Bombay & Madras functioned as respective Presidency Army until April 1895, for administrative convenience, it was divided into four commands at that point of time, namely Punjab, Bengal, Madras and Bombay. The British Indian Army was a force for the primacy of the British Empire both in India and across the world. In the 20th century, the Indian Army was an adjunct to the British forces in both the world wars. 1.3 million Indian soldiers served in World War I for the Allies, in 1915 there was a mutiny by Indian soldiers in Singapore. After the United Kingdom made promises of self-governance to the Indian National Congress in return for its support, Britain reneged on its promises after the war, following which the Indian Independence movement gained strength. Indian officers given a Kings commission after passing out were posted to one of the eight selected for Indianisation. In World War II Indian soldiers fought for the Allies, in 1939, British officials had no plan for expansion and training of Indian forces, which comprised about 130,000 men. Their mission was internal security and defence against a possible Soviet threat through Afghanistan, as the war progressed, the size and role of the Indian Army expanded dramatically, and troops were sent to battle fronts as soon as possible

23.
Illegal immigration to India
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An illegal immigrant in India is a person residing in the country without an official permission as prescribed by relevant Indian law. Those who are granted refugee status do not fall under this category. No reliable numbers on illegal immigrants are currently available,2001 India Census Gives information about Migrants but not exclusively Illegal Immigrants. Per 2001 Census Bangladeshi form the largest group of migrants in India followed by Pakistan, as per 2001 census there are 3,084,826 people in India who came from Bangladesh No reliable numbers on illegal immigrants are currently available. Extrapolating the census data for the state of Assam alone gives a figure of 2 million, figures as high as 20 million are also reported in the government and media. Samir Guha Roy of the Indian Statistical Institute called these estimates motivatedly exaggerated.2000 and this false identity can be bolstered with false documentation available for as little as Rs.200 can even make them part of the vote bank. Most of the Bengali speaking people deported from Maharashtra as illegal immigrants are originally Indian citizens from West Bengal, police would demand 2000-2500 from each of the detained Bengali speaking people for their release. If they fail to pay that amount, they are kept behind the bar for 10–15 days following which they would be taken to border, the Bangladesh Liberation War and continued political and economic turmoil in Bangladesh in the following decades forced some Bangladeshis to seek refuge in India. During the Bangladesh Liberation War at least 10 million Bangladeshis crossed into India illegal to seek refuge from widespread rape, most of them migrated to the border states, particularly West Bengal and Assam. This issue became more visible after the 1991 census when patterns of high growth rate of Muslims were observed in the border states Assam. See the following tables for detail, there are estimated 50, 000-100,000 Burmese Chin immigrants residing in India, mostly in the Indian state of Mizoram and a small number is found in Delhi. India has hundreds of thousands of people from Pakistan, living illegally, according to one figure from 2009, by 2009, India had over 13,000 illegal immigrants from Afghanistan. In Assam, agitation against immigrants started as early as 1979 and their demand was to put a stop on the influx of immigrants and deportation of those who have already settled. It gradually took violent form and ethnic violence started between Assamese and Bengalis, mostly Muslim and it eventually led to the infamous Nellie massacre in 1983 due to a controversy over the 1983 election. In 1985 Indian Government signed the Assam accord with the leaders of the agitation to stop the issue, as per the accord India started building a fence along the Assam-Bangladesh border which is now almost complete. However, Assam also has a number of genuine Indian Muslim Bengalis. It is difficult to distinguish between illegal Bangladeshis and local Bengali speakers, on the other hand, in some places reports of Bangladeshis being able to secure Indian ration and voter identity cards have come out. After 1991 census the changing patterns in border districts became more visible

24.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation

25.
East Pakistan
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Inter-religious violence during the partition drove Bengali Muslims and Hindus further apart, leading to political upheaval in Bengal. From 1947 until 1954, East Bengal was an independent administrative unit which was governed by the Pakistan Muslim League led by Nurul Amin. In 1955, the Bengali Prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra devolved the province of East Bengal, in the 1954 elections the Pakistan Muslim League were completely defeated by the United Front coalition of the Awami League, the Krishak Praja Party, the Democratic Party and Nizam-e-Islam. The Awami League gained the control of East Pakistan after appointing Huseyn Suhrawardy for the office of prime minister and this authoritarian period that existed from 1958 until 1971, is often regarded as period of mass repression, resentment, and political neglect and ignorance. Allying with the population of West Pakistan, the Easts population unanimously voted for Fatima Jinnah during the 1965 presidential elections against Ayub Khan. The elections were widely believed to be rigged in the favour of Ayub Khan using state patronage. The economic disparity, impression that West Pakistan, despite being less populated than East Pakistan, was ruling and prospering at its cost further popularize the Bengali nationalism. As response to this operation, the Awami League announced the declaration of independence of East Pakistan on 26 March 1971, East Pakistan had an area of 147,610 km2. India bordered it on three sides with the Bay of Bengal to the South, East Pakistan was one of the largest provincial states of Pakistan, with the largest population, the largest political representation, and the largest economy. Finally, on 16 December 1971, East Pakistan was officially disestablished and was succeeded by the independent state of Bangladesh, many notable Muslim Bengali figures were among the Founding fathers of present date, State of Pakistan. The country came into existence on 14 August 1947 confronted by seemingly insurmountable problems, until 1947, the East Wing of Pakistan, separated from the West Wing by 1,600 km of Indian territory, had been heavily dependent on Hindu management. Bengal was divided into two provinces on the midnight of 14 August 1947 following the Radcliffe Line, the two provinces each had their own chief ministers and governors. In August 1947, the West Bengal became part of India, throughout this time, the tensions between East Bengal and the West Pakistan led to the One-Unit policy by Bengali Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. In 1955, Bogra appointed communist leader Abu Hussain Sarkar as chief minister, the main objective of the new government was to end disruptive provincial politics and to provide the country with a new constitution. After a revision, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared that the Pakistan Constituent Assembly must be called, governor-General Ghulam Mohammad was unable to circumvent the order, and the new Constituent Assembly, elected by the provincial assemblies, met for the first time in July 1955. Bogra, who had support in the new assembly, fell in August and was replaced by Choudhry. Ghulam Mohammad, plagued by health, was succeeded as governor-general in September 1955 by Mirza

26.
Government of Assam
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The Government of Assam is the provincial governing authority of Assam, a state of India. It consists of the Governor as the head of the state, the head of government is the Chief Minister, who is the leader of the group that commands a majority in the 126-membered unicameral Assam Legislative Assembly. The Assam Assembly is elected by adult suffrage for a period of five years. The Chief Minister is assisted by a Council of Ministers that he nominates, in 2016, the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance won a majority of seats in the legislature, with 86 seats, followed by Congress with 26 seats and AIUDF with 13. Ministers sworn on 24 May 2016, Government of Assam, website

27.
Assamese language
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It is one of the easternmost of the Indo-Aryan languages it is spoken by over 13 million native speakers, and serves as a lingua franca in the region. It is also spoken in parts of Arunachal Pradesh and other northeast Indian states, Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language is widely used in Nagaland and parts of Assam. Nefamese is an Assamese-based pidgin used in Arunachal Pradesh, small pockets of Assamese speakers can be found in Bangladesh. In the past, it was the language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century. The origin of Assamese language is not clear, some believe that it originated from Kamarupi Prakrit used in ancient Kamarupa Kingdom. Its sister languages include Maithali, Odia, Chittagonian, Sylheti and it is written in the Assamese script, an abugida system, from left to right, with a large number of typographic ligatures. Assamese language was in use much before Bengali language was developed as Kamrupa was mentioned in Mahabharata, kampura has its northern boundary at Koshi River and Orissa. Assamese influence can be easily felt in Oriya and Maithali languages. Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the nature of its origin. It is generally believed that Assamese and the Kamatapuri lects derive from the Kamarupa dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit. </ref>By keeping to the north of the Ganges, the Indo-Aryan language in Kamarupa had differentiated by the 7th-century, before it did in Bengal or Orissa. These changes were due to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language. The evidence of language is found in the Prakritisms of the Kamarupa inscriptions. In these works, Assamese features coexist with features from other Modern Indian Languages, from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs – Borgeets, dramas – Ankiya Naat and the first prose writings were composed. The literary language, based on the dialects of Assam moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century. This period saw the development of prose infused with colloquial forms. The literary language, having become infused with the idiom, became the standard literary form in the nineteenth century. As the political and commercial center shifted to Guwahati after the mid-twentieth century, Assamese is native to Assam Valley which includes Upper-Assam and Lower-Assam regions of the state of Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland, presence of Assamese script can be found in Rakhine state of present Myanmar

28.
Bengali language
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Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary

29.
Cachar district
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Cachar is an administrative district in the state of Assam in India. The name Cachar has derived from the Dimasa word kachari, the district headquarters are located at Silchar. The name Cachar traces its origin to the Kachari kingdom, there are 3 towns in Cachar district namely Silchar, Lakhipur and Sonai. Cachar was a part of the greater Dimasa Kachari Kingdom which also included the adjoining Hailakandi, during his period Khaspur was the Capital of Cachar. Cachar was another native kingdom that fell victim to the imperialist design of the British, the Kingdom of Cachar was being ruled by two rulers having clearly defined areas of control. In the plains Govindrachandradwajanarayana Hasnu was the ruling prince, immediately after his assassination by Gambhir Singh, then king of Manipur, British annexed it to their dominion in India. Tularam was the chief of the hilly tract. His territories were annexed after he died in 1854, thus entire Cachar came under the British occupation. While south Cachar was annexed under Robertson, the hilly tract of Cachar came under British occupation when Jenkins was the Commissioner of Assam. The history of the district includes the participation and support of its people in the Indian freedom movement. Many leaders, such as Kamini Kumar Chanda, his son Arun Kumar Chandaand Abdul Matlib Mazumdar etc. led the people of the district to fight for the cause. While Chanda was instrumental in garnering support of the Bengali Hindus, Mazumdar, along with Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, became the most prominent Muslim opponents to the demand for a separate Muslim state of Pakistan, especially in the eastern part of the country. To counter the popularity of Muslim League, he successfully organised the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind movement in Assam. Jamiat was an ally of the Congress having a following among the nationalist Muslims. In the very crucial 1946 General Elections, conducted just on the eve of India’s independence and that victory virtually sealed the hopes and aspirations of the Muslim League to include southern Assam, including Cachar, in Pakistan. Assams Surma Valley had Muslim-majority population, on the eve of partition, hectic activities intensified by the Muslim League as well Congress with the former having an edge. A referendum had been proposed for Sylhet District, there after another big meeting was held at Silchar on 8 June 1947. Both the meetings, which were attended by a section of Muslims. He was also among the few who were instrumental in retaining the Barak Valley region of Assam, Mazumdar was the leader of the delegation that pleaded before the Radcliffe Commission that ensured that a part of Sylhet, the present Karimganj district, remains with India

30.
Karbi Anglong district
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East Karbi Anglong district is one of the 33 administrative districts of Assam state in Northeastern India. The district is bounded by Golaghat district on the east, Morigaon district on the west, Nagaon and Golaghat districts on the north and Dima Hasao district, the district is located between 25º 33′ and 26º 35′ North latitude and from 92º 10′ to 93º 50′ East longitude. Diphu is the headquarter of the district. Karbi are a living in Assam. Anglong is a Karbi noun word for Hill, literally Karbi Anglong means Hills of Karbi people. During the pre-British rule the territory was part of the Dimasa Kingdom till the demise of Sengya Tularam Hasnu in AD1854, after his death it went into the hands of the British under which it was declared a ‘Scheduled District’ constituted in 1874. Later, Mikir Hills tract was constituted as Partially Excluded areas under the Govt. of India Act,1935, Mikir Hills district was renamed as Karbi Anglong district on 14 October 1976. In 2016, the district was divided two, the western part including Hamren, Baithalangso and Donkamokam and other adjoining areas forming the new district of West Karbi Anglong. Hamren is made the headquarter of the newly created district, in 2006, the Indian government named Karbi Anglong one of the countrys 250 most backward districts. It is one of the districts in Assam currently receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme. One of CCI working factory is called Bokajan Cement Factory in Bokajan and its product is exported to the whole country. Rubber There are several Small scale industries which involves in mining and manufacturing, Karbi Anglong is known for its premium quality organic ginger. Karbi Anglong ginger has been accorded geographical indication rights by the GI Registry of India, Karbi Anglong produces the best organic ginger in the world. Growers of Karbi Anglong produce mainly two varieties of ginger-Nadia with high fibre and Aizol with less or no fibre, Aizol is more in demand and has negotiating value in domestic as well as international markets. Karbi Anglong ginger exists from the time of formation of the district in 1951, Ginger are grown in Singhasan Hills, Khonbamon area. Initiation by Ginger Growers Cooperative Federation Ltd led to the popularity of Karbi Anglong Ginger, the demand for organic ginger produced in Karbi Anglong is phenomenal. Ginger of Karbi Anglong is also exported to Germany, the average annual production of ginger in Karbi Anglong is 30,000 tonnes. About 10,000 farmers are growing this items, All are part of the 3 S. T

31.
Naga nationalism
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Naga nationalism is an ideology that supports self-determination by the Naga people of India and Burma and the furtherance of Naga culture. Some Naga groups share a belief of their ethnogenesis as a distinct people. According to this belief, the ancestors of the Nagas lived in together at a place called Mahkel. As their population grew, they decided to split and spread outside Makhel, according to the Heraka faith, the Naga peoples took an oath pledging that they would come together again and live as a kingdom. However, when the British arrived in India, the various Naga tribes had no national identity. The term Naga was an exonym, which referred to the different tribes in present-day Nagaland. The different tribes spoke mutually unintelligible languages and had distinct cultures, each Naga village was a sovereign state ruled by tribal elders. Internecine feuds, wars and headhunting campaigns were common among the Naga tribes, the British captured several Naga territories and consolidated them under the Naga Hills District of Assam. During the British rule, missionaries such as Miles Bronson and Edwin W. Clark introduced Christianity to the area, the common Christian identity led to peace and unity among the various Naga tribes. Nagamese developed as a language for inter-tribe communication. During the Kuki revolt and the World War I, the British Government recruited a number of labourers and porters from the Naga tribes. As part of the corps, around 2000 Nagas were sent to France. They agreed that after returning to their homeland, they work towards unity. These Nagas, together with the British officials, formed the Naga Club in 1918 and this club provided the socio-political foundation for the Naga nationalist movement. In 1929, the Club submitted a memorandum to the Simon Commission, Heraka was a religious movement led by Haipou Jadonang and his successor Rani Gaidinliu, who sought to establish the legendary kingdom of the Naga people during 1929-33. The two aimed at creating a feeling of nationalism among the Nagas, mainly the Zeliangrong tribes. They launched a struggle against the British, and sought to establish inter-tribal solidarity and unity. However, the movement was not widespread outside of the three Zeliangrong tribes due to its attitude towards Christian converts and the Kukis

32.
Naga people
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The Naga people are an ethnic group conglomerating of several tribes native to the North Eastern part of India and north-western Burma. The Naga speak various distinct Tibeto-Burman languages, including Sumi, Lotha, Sangtam, Angami, Pochuri, Phom, Ao, Mao, Inpui, Rongmei, Poumai, Tangkhul, Thangal, Maram, Zeme and Liangmai. In addition, they have developed Nagamese Creole, which use between tribes and villages, which each have their own dialect of language. As of 2012, the state of Nagaland officially recognises 17 Naga tribes, in addition, some other Naga tribes occupy territory in the contiguous adjoining states of Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, India, and across the border in Burma. P. Nagas have more language diversity than any other ethnic group or states in India. Naga people speak over 89 different languages and dialects, mostly unintelligible with each other, however there are many similarities in between different languages spoken by them. Per Griersons classification system, Naga languages can be grouped into Western, Central, the Western group includes among others Angami, Chokri, Khezha and Rengma. The Central Naga group includes Ao, and Lotha, while Eastern group includes Konyak, Phom, Sangtam, Khiamniungan, Yimchunger, the Sumi group originating in both central and western parts. In addition, there are Naga-Bodo group illustrated by Mikir language and these mostly belong to the Tibeto-Burman language group of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Shafer came up with his own system for languages found in. The diversity of languages and traditions of the Nagas results most likely from the multiple cultural absorptions that occurred during their successive migrations. According to legend, before settling in the region, these groups moved over vast zones, therefore until recent times, absorptions were a source of many interclan conflicts. In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the language of Nagaland. Other than English, Nagamese, a language form of Indo-Aryan Assamese, is a widely spoken language. Every tribe has its own mother tongue but communicates with other tribes in Nagamese or English, however, English is the predominant spoken and written language in Nagaland. The Nagas are organized by tribes differentiated by language and some traditions and they have a strong warrior tradition. Their villages are sited on hilltops and until the part of the 19th century. The tribes exhibit variation to a degree, particularly in their languages

33.
Mizo National Front
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The Mizo National Front is a regional political party in Mizoram, India. It staged an uprising in 1966, followed by years of underground activities. In 1986, it signed the Mizo Accord with the Government of India, renouncing secession, MNF won elections and formed state government in Mizoram twice, first under Laldenga and then under Zoramthanga. In 2008, it suffered a strong incumbency wave and managed to win only 3 seats in the elections, the cause of the famine was attributed to flowering of bamboos which consequently resulted in rat population boom in large numbers. After eating up bamboos seeds, the rats turned towards crops and infested the huts and houses, the havoc created by the rats was terrible and very little of the grain was harvested. For sustenance, many Mizos had to collect roots and leaves from the jungles while a number died of starvation. Earlier in 1955, Mizo Cultural Society was formed and Laldenga was its Secretary, in March 1960, the name of the Mizo Cultural Society was changed to Mautam front. During the famine of 1959–1960, this society took lead in demanding relief, in September 1960, the Society adopted the name Mizo National Famine Front. The MNFF gained considerable popularity as a number of Mizo Youth assisted in transporting rice. The first OB leaders elected were, President Laldenga, Vice President JF Manliana, R. Vanlawma, and Treasurer Rochhinga and the ways in which the Indian authority of the day handled the famine left the people disillusioned. The wave of secessionist and armed insurrection was running high among the Mizos, in 1966, MNF led a major uprising against the government, but failed to gain administrative control of the Mizo district. The secessionist movement held on for two decades. During that time, they invaded Burma claiming chin state and Tahan belong to Mizoram since most of the resident in Tahan are Mizo, under the terms of the peace accord, Mizoram was granted statehood in February 1987. Laldenga became Chief Minister, but soon lost power due to defections in the party, former guerrilla leader Pu Zoramthanga became party leader following the death of Laldenga in 1990. In 1998 and 2003 MNF won the assembly elections. In the 2003 elections MNF won 21 out of 40 seats in the state assembly, MNF was part of the National Democratic Alliance, but later withdrew in 2007. They were able to secure only 30. 65% votes in the state, the party has come out very strongly against idol-worship In the 2004 Lok Sabha elections MNF won the only seat of Mizoram. The MNF candidate Pu Vanlalzawma got 182864 votes, MNF abstained in the vote of confidence on 22 July 2008 to maintain distance from Bharatiya Janata Party and United Progressive Alliance

34.
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
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The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization is an international pro-democracy organization. It was formed on 11 February 1991 in The Hague, Netherlands and its purpose is to facilitate the voices of unrepresented and marginalised nations and peoples worldwide. Technically, it is not an organization as some of its members are governments or government agencies of unrecognized states. Its members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities, and unrecognised or occupied territories, UNPO trains groups in how to advocate their causes effectively. Some former members, such as Armenia, East Timor, Estonia, Latvia, Georgia and Palau, have gained full independence, UNPO has an advocacy office in Brussels, representation in Geneva and a network of associates and consultants based around the world. UNPO is funded by contributions and donations from individuals and foundations. To this end, UNPO trains its members in international law, international organizations, diplomacy, UNPO has built its credibility by being the first organization to release on-ground information from remote areas, typically press releases from groups like MOSOP. Like Amnesty International, its techniques include issuing action alerts and being a source of information. UNPO is funded by contributions and donations from individuals and foundations. It encourages nonviolent methodologies to reach peaceful solutions to conflicts and oppression, UNPO supports members in getting their human and cultural rights respected and in preserving their environments. The organization provides a forum for members to network and assists them in participating at an international level, although UNPO members often have different goals, they have one thing in common, they are generally not represented diplomatically in major international institutions, such as the United Nations. As a result, their ability to have their concerns addressed by the global bodies mandated to protect human rights, all members are required to sign and abide by the UNPO Covenant. UNPO members are required to be nonviolent and it should be noted that contrary to popular perception, self-determination does not necessarily imply secession, separate nationhood, or even autonomy. It simply refers to the right of all peoples to freely determine their status and freely pursue their economic. The exercise of this right can result in a variety of outcomes, the following listed as members by the UNPO. Original members are listed with pink background and in bold, organizations representing nations may become suspended from the UNPO if they fail to follow its covenant. Some members of the UNPO have left because of United Nations recognition, autonomy agreements, former members who became part of United Nations are highlighed with a blue background

35.
Sikh
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A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region of Northwestern Indian subcontinent. The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य or शिक्ष, Sikh properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the United Kingdom, therefore recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. Male Sikhs have Singh, and female Sikhs have Kaur as their middle or last name, initiated male and female Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban. The greater Punjab region is the homeland of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Gobind Singh initiated five people from a variety of backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare to form the Khalsa. During the period of Mughal rule in India several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule, after defeating the Afghan, Mughal and Maratha invaders, the Misls were formed, under Sultan-ul-Quam Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms, after the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the Sikhs and Punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British and this resulted in heavy recruiting from Punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the British Raj. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army, the British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India including Punjab. This included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the First and Second Singh Sabha respectively, the Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice. The later part of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement or the Gurdwara Reform Movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, the months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab

36.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter

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Haryana
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Haryana is one of the 29 states in India, situated in North India. It was carved out of the state of East Punjab on 1 November 1966 on a linguistic basis. It stands 21st in terms of its area, which is spread about 44,212 km2, as of 2011 census of India, the state is eighteenth largest by population with 25,353,081 inhabitants. The city of Chandigarh is its capital while the NCR city of Faridabad is the most populous city of the state, Haryana is one of the most economically developed regions in South Asia, and its agricultural and manufacturing industries have experienced sustained growth since the 1970s. Since 2000, the state has emerged as the largest recipient of investment per capita in India and it is bordered by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh to the north, and by Rajasthan to the west and south. The river Yamuna defines its border with Uttar Pradesh. Haryana surrounds the countrys capital Delhi on three sides, forming the northern, western and southern borders of Delhi, consequently, a large area of south Haryana is included in the National Capital Region for purposes of planning for development. The name Haryana is found in the works of the 12th-century AD Apabhramsha writer Vibudh Shridhar, the name Haryana has been derived from the Sanskrit words Hari and ayana, meaning the Abode of God. However, scholars such as Muni Lal, Murli Chand Sharma, HA Phadke and Sukhdev Singh Chib believe that the name comes from a compound of the words Hari and Aranya. Vedic state of Brahmavarta is claimed to be located in a new research in south Haryana, manusmriti, a flood time document composed by Manu and Bhrigu is now dated 10,000 years old. Rakhigarhi village in the Hisar district is home to the largest and one of the oldest ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites, evidence of paved roads, a drainage system, a large-scale rainwater collection storage system, terracotta brick and statue production, and skilled metal working have been uncovered. According to archeologists, Rakhigarhi may be the origin of Harappan civilisation, the area that is now Haryana has been ruled by major empires of India. Panipat is known for three seminal battles in the history of India, in the First Battle of Panipat, Babur defeated the Lodis. In the Second Battle of Panipat, Akbar defeated the local Haryanvi Hindu Emperor of Delhi, hemu, had earlier won 22 battles across India from Punjab to Bengal defeating Mughals and Afghans. Hemu had defeated Akbars forces twice at Agra and Battle of Delhi in 1556 to become last Hindu Emperor of India with formal Coronation at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7th Oct.1556, in the Third Battle of Panipat, the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas. Haryana state was formed on 1 November 1966, the commission delivered its report on 31 May 1966 whereby the then-districts of Hisar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind and Narwana in the Sangrur district—along with Naraingarh, Ambala, the commission recommended that the tehsil of Kharad, which includes Chandigarh, the state capital of Punjab, should be a part of Haryana. However, only a portion of Kharad was given to Haryana

38.
Himachal Pradesh
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Himachal Pradesh is a state of India located in Northern India. It is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab and Chandigarh on the west, Haryana on the south-west, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east. The name was coined from Sanskrit him snow and achal mountain, by Acharya Diwakar Datt Sharma, Himachal Pradesh is famous for its natural beauty, hill stations, and temples. Himachal Pradesh has been ranked fifteenth in the list of the highest per capita incomes of Indian states, many perennial rivers flow in the state, and numerous hydroelectric projects set up. Himachal produces surplus hydroelectricity and sells it to states such as Delhi, Punjab. Hydroelectric power projects, tourism, and agriculture form important parts of the states economy, the state has several valleys, and more than 90% of the population living in rural areas. Practically all houses have a toilet and 100% hygiene has been achieved in the state, the villages have good connectivity with roads, public health centres, and now with high-speed broadband. Shimla district has maximum urban population of 25%, according to a 2005 Transparency International survey, Himachal Pradesh was ranked the second-least corrupt state in the country, after Kerala. The history of the area that now constitutes Himachal Pradesh dates to the Indus valley civilisation that flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE, tribes such as the Koili, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kinnar, and Kirat inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains and these kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate a number of times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 10th century, timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state and captured a number of forts and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid tribute to the Mughals. The Gurkha people, a tribe, came to power in Nepal in the year 1768. They consolidated their power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Gorkhas annexed Sirmour and Shimla, under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Gurkha laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, however, the Gurkha could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjeet Singh in 1809. After the defeat, the Gurkha began to expand towards the south of the state, however, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War

39.
Punjabi Suba movement
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The Punjabi Suba movement aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority subah in the erstwhile East Punjab state of India in the 1950s. Led by the Akali Dal, it resulted in the formation of the Punjabi-majority Punjab state, the Hindi-majority Haryana state, some Pahari majority parts of the East Punjab were also merged with Himachal Pradesh as a result of the movement. In the 1950s, the groups across India sought statehood. At that time, the Punjab state of India included present-day states of Punjab, Haryana, the vast majority of the Sikhs lived in this Hindu-majority Punjab. The Akali Dal, a Sikh-dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, the Sikh leaders such Fateh Singh tactically stressed the linguistic basis of the demand, while downplaying its religious basis — a state where the distinct Sikh identity could be preserved. Fresh from the memory of the violent religion-based partition of India in 1947 and this later created a rift between Hindus and Sikhs of Punjab. The case for creating a Punjabi Suba was presented to the States Reorganisation Commission, the States Reorganisation Commission, not recognising Punjabi as a language that was grammatically very distinct from Hindi, rejected the demand for a Punjabi-majority state. Another reason that the Commission gave in its report was that the movement lacked general support of the people inhabiting the region, according to the States Reorganisation Act, the Patiala and East Punjab States Union was merged with Punjab. However, the state still did not have a clear Punjabi majority, the Akali Dal leaders continued their agitation for the creation of a Punjabi Suba after the merger of PEPSU to Punjab. The Akal Takht played a role in organising Sikhs to campaign for the cause. During the Punjabi Suba movement,12000 Sikhs were arrested for their demonstrations in 1955 and 26000 in 1960-61. In September 1966, the Indira Gandhi-led Union Government accepted the demand, areas in the south of Punjab that spoke the Haryanvi dialect of Hindi formed the new state of Haryana, while the areas that spoke the Pahari dialects were merged to Himachal Pradesh. The remaining areas, except Chandigarh, formed the new Punjabi-majority state, until 1966, Punjab was a Hindu majority state. But during the partition, the Hindu-majority districts were removed from the state. Chandigarh, the city built to replace Punjabs pre-partition capital Lahore, was claimed by both Haryana and Punjab. Pending resolution of the dispute, it was declared as a separate Union Territory which would serve as the capital of both the states, the prominent leaders of the movement included, Master Tara Singh Fateh Singh

40.
Shiromani Akali Dal
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The Shiromani Akali Dal, Punjabi, ਸ਼੍ਰੋਮਣੀ ਅਕਾਲੀ ਦਲ translation, Supreme Akali Party) is a Sikhism-centric political party in India. There are a number of parties with the name Shiromani Akali Dal. The party recognised as Shiromani Akali Dal by the Election Commission of India is the one led by Sukhbir Singh Badal and it controls Sikh religious bodies Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee, Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Management Committee and is the largest and most influential Sikh political party worldwide. The basic philosophy of Akali Dal is to give voice to Sikh issues and it believes that religion. Akali Dal was formed on 14 Dec 1920 as a force of the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee. The Akali Dal considers itself the representative of Sikhs. Sardar Sarmukh Singh Chubbal was the first president of a unified proper Akali Dal, the party launched the Punjabi Suba movement, demanding a state with majority of Punjabi speaking people, out of undivided East Punjab under the leadership of Sant Fateh Singh. In 1966, the present Punjab was formed, Akali Dal came to power in the new Punjab, but early governments didnt live long due to internal conflicts and power struggles within the party. Later, party strengthened and party governments completed full term, the current Punjab government is formed by Akali Dal in partnership with its regional and national ally Bharatiya Janata Party. It has 59 members in Punjab Legislative Assembly and combined with 12 of BJP, Akali Dal has absolute majority since 2015. Party patron and ex-president Parkash Singh Badal is the Chief Minister of Punjab, the party has 4 members in the Lok Sabha. Partys main political opponent is Indian National Congress, in the recent Delhi Assembly elections it did not retain the one seat it held in 2013 elections. Following is the list of presidents of the party as given on party website

41.
Punjabi language
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Punjabi /pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/ is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, making it the 10th most widely spoken language in the world. It is the language of the Punjabi people who inhabit the historical Punjab region of India. Among the Indo-European languages it is unusual in being a tonal language, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the 11th most widely spoken in India and the third-most spoken native language in the Indian Subcontinent. Punjabi is the fourth-most spoken language in the United Kingdom and third-most spoken native language in Canada, the language also has a significant presence in the United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. The Punjabi language is written in the Shahmukhi and Gurmukhi scripts, the word Punjabi is derived from the word Panj-āb, Persian for Five Waters, referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca and Greek πέντε five, the historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, Punjabi developed from Sanskrit through Prakrit language and later Apabhraṃśa From 600 BC Sanskrit gave birth to many regional languages in different parts of India. These all languages are called Prakrit language collectively, Shauraseni Prakrit was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi and western dialects of Hindi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Shauraseni Prakrit gave rise to Shauraseni Aparbhsha, Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. and became stable by the 10th century. By the 10th century, many Nath poets were associated with earlier Punjabi works, Arabic and Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. The Persian language was introduced in the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic, many Persian and Arabic words were incorporated in Punjabi. Punjabi has more Persian and Arabic vocabulary than Bengali, Marathi, later, it was influenced by Portuguese and English, though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. However, in India English words in the language are more widespread than Hindi. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the seventh-most widely spoken in India, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan. Punjabi is the language in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken as a language by over 44. 15% of Pakistanis. About 70. 0% of the people of Pakistan speak Punjabi as either their first or second language, Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province of Pakistan, is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. 86% of the population of Lahore is native Punjabi and Islamabad

General Ayub Khan arriving to take command of the Pakistan Army in 1951

Two AH-1S Cobra attack helicopters of the Pakistan Army Aviation Wing at AVN Base, Multan. These were sold to Pakistan by the US during the Soviet-Afghan war to help defend Pakistan against a possible attack by the Soviets.

French postcard depicting the arrival of 15th Sikh Regiment in France during World War I. The postcard reads, "Gentlemen of India marching to chasten the German hooligans."

A Sikh soldier of the 4th Division (the Red Eagles) of the Indian Army, attached to the British Fifth Army in Italy. Holding a captured swastika after the surrender of German forces in Italy, May 1945. Behind him, a fascist inscriptions says "VIVA IL DUCE", "Long live the Duce" (i.e. Mussolini).