potentially requires more subtle measures (Godbout et al., 2006), the reaction of non-abusing parents may explain the extent to which CSA survivors experience negative outcomes (Beaudoin, Hébert, & Bernier, 2013). In fact, several studies indicated that CSA survivors with positive family environments and high levels of support experience less severe long-term sequelae than their peers who reported less parental support (Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Elliott & Carnes, 2001; Gries et al., 2000; Hébert, Tourigny, Cyr, McDuff, & Joly, 2009; Thériault, Cyr, & Wright, 1997). Other researchers, however, report that parental support is a relatively weak predictor of later outcomes (Bolen & Lamb, 2007). This discrepancy suggests that the protective role of speciﬁc parenting factors on the well-being of CSA survivors remains an underresearched area. Although research and clinical data revealed that CSA victims who never disclosed the abuse or who delayed disclosure report more psychological distress in adulthood, more information is needed on the impacts of parents who were unaware of the ongoing abuse of their child (e.g., Hébert et al., 2009). Also, no study has evaluated an integrative model to explore the pathways linking parental support after CSA to each partner’s adult psychological and couple distress. The current study aims to address these gaps by exploring the relationships between CSA, perceived parental support, psychological distress, and couple adjustment using attachment as a conceptual framework. An attachment perspective may offer a helpful framework for understanding the role of parental support at the time of CSA disclosure and subsequent intrapersonal and dyadic outcomes. The theoretical and empirical literatures indicate that parental support in the context of CSA inﬂuences the development of positive models of self and other or secure attachment behaviors toward the principal attachment ﬁgure (for literature reviews on parental support and CSA, see Elliott & Carnes, 2001; Kendall-Tackett, Williams, & Finkelhor, 1993; for an application of attachment theory to the study of sexual abuse, see Alexander, 1992). The supportive intervention of a nonabusive parent is likely to assist the formation of positive models of self and others (Bowlby, 1969). Those positive internalized models (secure attachment) may eventually lead to better personal and couple outcomes (Godbout, Dutton, Lussier, & Sabourin, 2009; Godbout, Sabourin, & Lussier, 2009; Roche, Runtz, & Hunter, 1999). Conversely, lack of intervention or deﬁciency of protective behaviors by nonabusive parents after learning that their children were sexually abused may contribute to the survivors’ perceptions of themselves as nonvaluable and of others as not available for help in time of need. We therefore hypothesized that report of parental support should be related to higher attachment security. In contrast, nonsupport should be related to higher attachment insecurity. Despite its relative commonness in clinical contexts, the effects of a nonabusive parent who is perceived as unaware of the CSA have been less frequently studied (Hébert et al., 2009; Hershkowitz, Lanes, & Lamb, 2007). Based on attachment theory, we hypothesized that perceived parental nonawareness of CSA might produce two types of outcomes. It might be associated with more positive models of self and other than what would be observed in CSA victims with nonsupportive parents because it did not involve direct rejection or refusal to help. However, unaware parents may also be perceived as neglectful to the extent that the victim thinks that the parents should have known about the abuse. In this case, victims with parents perceived as unaware of the abuse might develop less secure attachment representations than victims reporting parental support in the aftermath of CSA. Internal models based on early experiences have been found to relate to adult romantic attachment which, in turn, are related to one’s psychological and relational adjustment (Godbout et al., 2006). Some authors report that attachment is relatively stable, developing from childhood in relation with parents and persisting into adulthood in relation with signiﬁcant others, especially the intimate partner (Bowlby, 1973; Collins & Read, 1990; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Scharfe & Bartholomew, 1994). Other authors, however, contend that attachment is variable in time (evolving representations), as it depends upon signiﬁcant life experiences with signiﬁcant others (Kagan, 1996; Lewis, Feiring, & Rosenthal, 2000; Zhang & Labouvie-Vief, 2004). Although this debate continues, we hypothesized in the current study that attachment representations might have been either developed or altered by an exposure to an interpersonal trauma (CSA) depending of the parental behaviors (i.e., support) associated with this trauma. As such, attachment representations are hypothesized to act as mediators in the relation between CSA-related parental support and adult dyadic adjustment. Disordered attachment is also a robust predictor of psychological distress (Putnam, 2003; Shapiro & Levendosky, 1999), which in turn might diminish couple adjustment (Godbout et al., 2006). In this context, psychological distress is conceived as an intrapersonal proximal variable that reﬂects the effects of daily hassles and pervasive vulnerabilities associated with past negative experiences and that may impact the couple relationship (Whisman & Uebelacker, 2003). In the present study, we compared four groups of individuals (CSA survivors with perceived parental support, survivors without perceived parental support, survivors who reported that their parent(s) were unaware of the abuse, and nonsurvivors) on their relational and psychological adjustment as adults. We then tested an integrative model of the associations between parental support, psychological distress, and couple satisfaction, with attachment acting as a mediator between parental support and psychosocial adjustment. Lastly, we conducted an Actor–Partner Interdependance Model analysis (Kenny, Kashy, & Cook, 2006) to examine the dynamic aspect of relationships between parental support after CSA and long term adjustment in intimate relationships. Method Participants The sample (N = 348) consisted of 153 men and 195 women who were in couple relationships, either married (n = 103) or cohabiting (n = 245) with their partner. Both members of the couple were invited to participate to the study;

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130 participated individually (i.e., only one partner was involved in the study), and 218 participated as couples (i.e., both partners were involved to the study; 109 couples). The average duration of these relationships was 9.4 years. The mean age of the participants was 31.5 years (SD = 13.6). On average, participants had 13.3 years of education (SD = 2.2). The average annual income was $27,475 (SD = $20,999). The mean number of children per couple was .92 (SD = 1.07). All participants were French speaking Canadian and reported being engaged in a heterosexual relationship. Those who identiﬁed themselves as homosexual (N = 3) or bisexual (N = 4) were excluded from the study because their small number would not allow any comparison among groups. No sociodemographic difference was observed between individuals who participated individually or as a couple. Procedure Upon receiving approval from Laval University’s Institutional Review Board, participants were recruited on a voluntary basis through various media outlets (radio, TV, newspapers, e-mail) and invited to take part in the study. Interested participants called the research team with their contact information. To ensure conﬁdentiality, two separate envelopes (one for each member of the couple) containing a questionnaire packet and a prepaid return envelope were mailed to interested participants. Of these, 348 (45.5%) returned completed packets. All participants were informed that the study addressed various dimensions associated with close relationships. They were instructed to complete the questionnaires individually and to not discuss their responses with their partner. No ﬁnancial compensation was offered. Measures History of CSA was measured using the Childhood Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (Godbout, Lefebvre, & Sabourin, 2002), which assesses a variety of sexually abusive experiences. Participants were ﬁrst asked about any unwanted sexual experience prior to age 18 with an adult, and/or ﬁve year older person, and/or authority ﬁgure (e.g., guardian). Survivors were then asked to specify their age at the ﬁrst and last abuse, the frequency of abuse, the status of the perpetrator(s) (e.g., father, teacher, stranger), the act(s) perpetrated (e.g., complete penetration, oral sex, touching), and the level of violence used. Perceived parental support was assessed by asking the participant about the reaction of his/her nonabusive parent(s) once sexual abuse was disclosed. The options offered to the participant were as follows (translated from French-Canadian into English): “She/he did nothing,” “She/he did not help me,” “She/he intervened to protect me,” “She/he supported or helped me,” “I think she/he did not know,” and “I am sure she/he did not know.” Although there was a “not applicable” option with space provided to explain other options such as contradictory parental reactions (e.g., one nonabusive parent was supportive but the other was not), no participants endorsed this category. Based on the rationale presented in the introduction, the ﬁnal categories of abuse and parental support were as follows: 0 (the participant did not report any CSA; nonsurvivors), 1 (the participant reported CSA and perceived that the nonabusive parent(s) took action in response to the abuse to offer support or protection; survivors with supportive parent), 2 (the participant reported CSA and perceived that the nonabusive parent(s) were unaware of the abuse; survivors with unaware parent), and 3 (the participant reported CSA and perceived that the nonabusive parent(s) did not intervene to provide help, protection or support; survivors with unsupportive parent). This simple and direct assessment method was selected to allow a clear representation of the participants’ perception of CSA-related parental support based on our four categories. Attachment representations were measured using the 36-item Experiences in Close Relationships scale (ECR; Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998; translated in French by Lafontaine & Lussier, 2003), composed of two 18-item subscales labeled attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. The reliability, construct, predictive, and discriminant validity of the two scales have been demonstrated in many studies (e.g., Crowell, Fraley, & Shaver, 1999; Godbout, Dutton et al., 2009; Lafontaine & Lussier, 2003). In the present study, alpha coefﬁcients were high (˛ = .88 for anxiety; ˛ = .87 for avoidance). Psychological distress was measured using the 29-item Psychiatric Symptom Index (PSI; Boyer, Préville, Légaré, & Valois, 1993; Ilfeld, 1976). Items on the PSI assess symptoms of depression, anxiety, aggression, and cognitive problems during the last week. Scores range between 0 and 100, with higher scores representing a higher level of psychological distress. The PSI shows good internal consistency (˛ = .92), construct validity, and criteria validity (Préville, Potvin, & Boyer, 1995). In the current study, the alpha coefﬁcient was high (˛ = .94). The 32-item Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976; translated in French by Baillargeon, Dubois, & Marineau, 1986) was used to assess level of relationship quality and satisfaction. Global dyadic adjustment scores range from 0 to 151, with higher scores reﬂecting a higher level of relationship quality and satisfaction. Typically, cutoff scores between 92 and 107 are used to differentiate between distressed and nondistressed couples (Sabourin, Valois, & Lussier, 2005). The DAS is widely used to evaluate couple functioning in clinical and research settings and has satisfactory internal consistency (˛ range from .76 to .96) and predictive validity (Sabourin et al., 2005). In the present sample, the alpha was .89. Analyses First, group differences on attachment, psychological distress, and dyadic adjustment were assessed using a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and controlling for socioeconomic variables (i.e., gender, education level, marital status,

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and income). Tamhane’s T2 (Hochberg & Tamhane, 1987; Tamhane, 1977) post hoc tests, a conservative pairwise comparisons test allowing groups and observed variances to be unequal, were performed to identify signiﬁcant differences. An additional MANCOVA was performed to assess the potential contribution of CSA characteristics, including level of force, type of abusive acts, relationships with the perpetrator, duration, and frequency. The hypothesized integrated model was tested through path analysis. This procedure is an extension of multiple regression and depicts the direct dependencies among a set of variables while considering all relationships simultaneously in the model. The current study used a cross-sectional design and the causal order of the variables was determined based on theoretical grounds (e.g., attachment theory) and historical bases (e.g., CSA was experienced before current dyadic adjustment). This theoretically based analytic strategy is a routine statistical recommendation (Byrne, 2006, 2011) and is frequently adopted in the trauma literature (e.g., Briere, Hodges, & Godbout, 2010; Godbout, Dutton et al., 2009). In path analysis, evidence of mediation is found when: (a) there is good model ﬁt for the mediational model, (b) the indirect paths (i.e., from parental support to attachment and from attachment to psychological distress and couple adjustment) are nonzero and signiﬁcant, (c) direct paths from the predictor (i.e., parental support) to outcome variables (i.e., psychological distress and couple adjustment) are zero and nonsigniﬁcant when the mediator is inserted in the model, and (d) there is no difference in model ﬁt as indicated by a nonsigniﬁcant 2 DIF test when comparing the mediation model to the model with direct paths between the predictor and outcomes variables. The dynamic aspect of relationships between parental support after CSA and long-term adjustment in intimate relationships was examined with a path analysis based on the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM; see Kashy & Kenny, 2000; Kenny et al., 2006), within the subsample of intact couples (i.e., both partners participated to the study, n = 109 couples). APIM involves using the couple as a unit of analysis, and consider (a) the covariance between men and women’s predictors, (b) paths from women’s variables to their own outcomes, (c) paths from men’s variables to their own outcomes, (d) paths from women’s variables to their partner’s outcomes, (e) paths from men’s variables to their partner’s outcomes, and (f) covariances between the residual terms of the men and women’s outcomes (see Kashy & Kenny, 2000; Kenny et al., 2006). The ﬁt of estimated models to the observed data was assessed with several indices of adjustment: goodness-of-ﬁt index (GFI), comparative ﬁt index (CFI), and non-normed ﬁt index (NNFI). These indices range from 0 to 1, where 1 indicates the best possible ﬁt. Values above .90 indicate a good ﬁt, but values superior to .95 are ideal (Hu & Bentler, 1999). We computed the chi-square test, with nonsigniﬁcant value being preferred (Byrne, 2006) and the relative chi-square, with values between 1 and 5 indicating a model adequate ﬁt (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993; Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Finally, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was examined. Values less than .08 are used as thresholds for adequate model ﬁt (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Kline, 1998). Results The prevalence of CSA in the present sample was 17% (n = 59). Five participants failed to respond to CSA related questions and were excluded from further analyses. Among CSA survivors, 80% were female, the average age at the ﬁrst assault was 9.7 years (SD = 4.2, range: 2–17), 32 (54%) reported threats and 7 (12%) reported violence during the assault, 6 (10%) reported abuse by their father ﬁgure, 48 (81%) reported unwanted oral or digital sexual touching, 22 (38%) reported had been forced to orally or digitally touch the perpetrator sexually, 9 (15%) reported anal or vaginal penetration, and 33 (56%) reported more than one CSA incident. A total of 8 (14%) reported parental intervention after the disclosure of the sexual abuse, whereas 42 (71%) reported that the nonabusive parent(s) was unaware of the sexual abuse, and 9 (15%) reported lack of parental intervention. A MANCOVA was performed on four dependent variables: attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, psychological distress, and dyadic adjustment. Self-reported parental support was the independent variable, with four levels: nonsurvivor, supportive parent, unaware parent, and unsupportive parent, and covariates were gender, education level, marital status, and income. Wilks’ criterion indicated the combined dependent variables were signiﬁcantly affected by parental support F(12, 873) = 3.02; p = .001, 2 = .04. An additional MANCOVA was performed to assess the potential contribution of CSA characteristics (i.e., level of force, type of abusive acts, relationships with the perpetrator, duration, and frequency). However, those covariables were not signiﬁcant and were excluded from further analyses to avoid multicollinearity. Univariate analyses (see Table 1) revealed a signiﬁcant effect of perceived parental support on all dependent variables: anxiety about abandonment, avoidance of intimacy, psychological distress, and couple distress. Post hoc tests revealed that CSA survivors who reported parental support were less avoidant in their romantic relationship as compared to all other groups (nonsurvivors, survivors with unaware parent, and survivors with unsupportive parent). As compared to all other groups, CSA survivors with unsupportive parent(s) showed a higher level of anxiety about abandonment in their romantic relationship and more psychological distress. Finally, as compared to survivors with supportive parent(s) and the nonabused group, CSA survivors with unsupportive parent(s) also showed more couple distress. Integrative model We then tested the integrative model examining the role of parental support (0 = nonsurvivor to 3 = survivors with unsupportive parent) on the development of insecure attachment representations, psychological distress, and couple adjustment

in adulthood. Results of a path analysis performed with AMOS 5 (Arbuckle, 2003) supported the hypothesis that lack of parental support might predict the development of anxiety about abandonment and avoidance of intimacy toward the life partner. In turn, these insecure attachment representations were related to elevated psychological distress and lower couple adjustment (all path were signiﬁcant with ps between .02 and