Birth outside of marriage.qxd

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Births Outside of Marriage: Perceptions vs. Reality
By Elizabeth Terry-Humen, M.P.P., Jennifer Manlove, Ph.D. and Kristin A. Moore, Ph.D.Births to unmarried women have risen substantially in recent decades. In 1970, the over-whelming majority of children in this country - 89 percent - were born to married couples.By 1999, one in every three births occurred outside of marriage. This increase in child-bearing outside of marriage - nonmarital childbearing - has been under way at least since the1940s. After very large increases in the 1970s and 1980s, nonmarital childbearing rates peaked inthe first half of the 1990s, and then declined slightly. However, rates of nonmarital childbearingremain high, as have concerns about what this means for children, families, and the larger society.Indeed, the high rate of nonmarital childbearing is one of the factors that led to welfare reform. Research supports the anecdotal observation that unmarried mothers and their children facegreater obstacles and suffer greater strains than married couples and their children. Much less isknown about the specific characteristics of the women who have births outside of marriage. Thisresearch brief paints a fuller picture of nonmarital childbearing. The data presented here dispelmany inaccurate perceptions about unmarried mothers. The classic image of an unmarried moth-er is that she is a teen, a member of a racial or ethnic minority group, a first-time mother of achild born outside of marriage, and that she is not in a relationship with the father of her child.The data show that the reality today is often quite different.Trends in Nonmarital Child-
The percentage of births to unmarried women has
The percentage of births to unmarriedwomen increased substantially until1994 and has since plateaued. Data
assembled and analyzed by the National Cen-
ter for Health Statistics show that the per-
centage of births that occur outside of mar-
riage has risen dramatically over the past
several decades. Approximately one-tenth of
all births (11 percent) were to unmarried
women in 1970, compared with one-third (33
Source: Ventura SJ, Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in the United States, 1940-1999.
percent) of all births in 1994 (see Figure 1).1
National vital statistics reports; vol 48 no 16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health
This percentage remained virtuallyunchanged from 1994 until 1999.
 The vast majority (79 percent) of births to
 Almost a quarter (23 percent) of births to
The rate of births to unmarried women
 Rates for women older than 29 were also
increased until the mid-1990s and thendeclined slightly. The nonmarital birthrate measures the number of births for every
rate rose steadily across the second half of thetwentieth century for U.S. women. For exam-
Teens account for a diminishing share
ple, the nonmarital birth rate for all women
of all births outside of marriage. In
aged 15-44 increased from 26.4 births per
1970, 50 percent of all nonmarital births
1999, less than one-third of all nonmarital
unmarried women in 1994. After peaking in
births (29 percent) were to teens. The pro-
1994, the nonmarital birth rate declined to
portion of all nonmarital births to women in
43.9 births per 1,000 unmarried women aged
increased from 32 percent in 1970 to 36 per-cent in 1999. The largest percentage point
Women in their early twenties have the
increase during this time period was found
highest rate of births outside of mar-riage. When most people think of nonmari-
less than one-fifth (18 percent) of all nonmari-
tal childbearing, the image that comes most
tal births were to women aged 25 and older.
readily to mind is of a teen mother. In the
By 1999, women aged 25 and older accounted
public perception, nonmarital childbearing is
for more than one-third (34 percent) of all
majority of teens who give birth are indeed
not married, women in their early twenties
Teens account for a diminishing share of nonmarital births.*
have the highest nonmarital birth rates (seeFigure 2).1 In 1998:
Women in their early twenties have the highest rates of births
* Due to rounding, percentages may not equal 100%.
Source: Ventura SJ, Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in the United States, 1940-1999. National
vital statistics reports; vol 48 no 16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics. 2000.Still, many nonmarital births were pre-ceded by teen births. Although the per-
centage of all nonmarital births to teens has
declined, teen mothers are likely to have sub-
sequent births outside of marriage. Between
1992 and 1995, more than one-third (35 per-
Source: Ventura SJ, Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in the United States, 1940-1999.
National vital statistics reports; vol. 48 no 16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health
twenty and older were preceded by a teenage
 In comparison, teens aged 15-17 had 27.0
birth.2 In addition, among all first nonmarital
births, teens do account for a larger propor-
Only about half of nonmarital births arefirst births. The public perception is that
The majority of births outside of marriage are
nonmarital births are first births. RecentVital Statistics estimates show that only 50
percent of all nonmarital births in 1998 were
Family Growth to examine nonmarital births
between 1992 and 1995. It also found that
about half of nonmarital births were first
births. Of the remaining nonmarital births,
slightly more than one-quarter were second-
born children and slightly less than one-quar-
Source: Henshaw, SK. Unintended Pregnancy in the United States, Family Planning Perspectives,
ter were third or later births.2 Thus, despitethe widely held idea that births outside of
nic minorities. And, indeed, the nonmarital
marriage are generally first births, about half
birth rate for black women has been higher
births. In addition, 16 percent of all nonmari-
women since statistics began to be collected
tal births in 1994 occurred to “formerly mar-
by race and ethnicity in 1940.1 Over the past
ried women” who are currently divorced or
three decades, however, the United States has
witnessed an increase in the nonmarital birthrate among white women and a decline among
The majority of births outside of mar-riage are unintended at conception. The
public perception is that many nonmarital
birth rate of 13.9 births per 1,000 unmar-
births are planned by the mother. In reality,
the vast majority of nonmarital pregnancies
(78 percent of pregnancies to never married
women and 63 percent of pregnancies to for-
merly married women) are unintended.4 Data
birth rate of 95.5 births per 1,000 unmar-
from the mid-1990s show that more than 60
ried women aged 15-44. This rate declined
percent of unintended pregnancies to unmar-
by almost one-quarter by 1998, to 73.3 per
according to 1994 estimates, more than half
(55 percent) of all nonmarital births were
Racial and ethnic disparities in nonmarital birth rates
that a birth is unintended differs by prior
marital status. For example, 58 percent of
tended, compared with 37 percent of births to
(see Figure 4).4 In comparison, 22 percent of
births that occur within marriage are unin-
Racial and ethnic disparities in nonmar-
Source: Ventura SJ, Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in the United States, 1940-1999. National
vital statistics reports; vol 48 no 16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics.ital childbearing are declining. The pub-
lic perception is that childbearing outside ofmarriage is driven by births to racial and eth-
nonmarital birth rate of all racial and eth-
The percentage of all nonmarital births that are to cohabiting
nic groups. Data have only been collected
nonmarital birth rate was 89.6 births per
15-44. The rate steadily increased, reach-
ing a peak in 1994 (101.2 per 1,000) before
The Cohabitation Factor Cohabitation refers to two unmarried peo-
Source: Bumpass, L and Lu, H. Trends in cohabitation and implications for children’s family context in the
United States, Population Studies, March 2000, pp29-41.
ple who are living together in a marriage-like relationship. The proportion of people
Whites show the greatest increase inbirths to cohabiting couples. Data
living in a cohabiting union is increasing.
In 1987, one-third (33 percent) of the adult
reported they had ever cohabited, compared
race and ethnicity in the percentage of non-
with almost one-half of adults (45 percent)
marital births to cohabiting couples (see
in 1995.5 Sometimes these cohabiting cou-
whites had higher proportions of nonmari-tal births to cohabiting parents (53 percent
The proportion of nonmarital births
and 50 percent respectively) than African
to cohabiting parents is increasing.
women are not in contact with the father of
births within cohabitation, increasing from
their child. The reality is that childbearing
33 percent in the early 1980s to 50 percent
outside of marriage is not confined to sin-
nonmarital births that occurred to cohabit-
Whites show the greatest increase in births to cohabiting
ing couples has increased from 29 percent
in the early 1980s to 39 percent in the early
1990s (see Figure 6).5 Recent declines in
the percentage of births to married couplesare almost entirely due to an increase in
births to cohabiting parents.5 Yet, cohabit-
ing relationships are fragile and relatively
short in duration, with less than half last-
ing five years or more.5 Cohabiting fami-
lies are also more likely to be economically
Source: Bumpass, L and Lu, H. Trends in cohabitation and implications for children’s family context in the
United States, Population Studies, March 2000, pp29-41.The majority of unmarried mothers areromantically involved with the father
The percentage of women who are unmarried has
of their baby at the time of the birth.
Although nonmarital relationships are less
stable than marital unions, the majority of
cohabiting with or "romantically involved"
with the father of their child at the time of
the birth (see Figure 8).7 A recent study of
areas (Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study) found that 45 percent of
Source: Ventura SJ, Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in the United States, 1940-1999. National vital
cohabiting with the father of the child at the
statistics reports; vol 48 no 16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics. 2000.
time of the birth. An additional 37 percent and older. For example, in 1970, less than one-reported they were romantically involved fifth (16 percent) of all women aged 25-29 were
unmarried. By 1998, almost one-half (45 per-
cent) were unmarried. The decline in mar-
Most urban unmarried mothers cohabit or are “romantically
involved” with the father of their child at the time of birth.
riage is due to a later age at first marriage,increases in cohabitation and divorce, and a
growing number of people who never marry.8,9
In addition, the percentage of unmarried preg-nant women who marry before they give birth
has declined.1 Thus, the increase in nonmari-
tal childbearing reflects not so much changesin childbearing patterns as in marriage and
Source: Fragile Families Research Brief, Dispelling Myths About Unmarried Fathers, Bendheim-
Thoman Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, Princeton University & Social Indicators Survey
A variety of factors may have con-
Center, Columbia Univeristy, May 2000.tributed to the trends in nonmarital
with the child's father but were living apart births. During the time period when the non-from him.7 (The remaining 18 percent of marital birth rate first soared and then moreunmarried mothers reported they were nei- recently declined slightly, many changes werether living with the child's father nor in a occurring both politically and socially in theromantic relationship with him.)
United States. Factors that may have con-tributed to the increase in the nonmarital
Behind the Trends in Non-
birth rate in past decades include changes in
marital Childbearing
social norms; stagnant wages for low-skilled
The percentage of women who are workers; and, in some places, urban social dis-unmarried is increasing in all age cate- integration related to drugs, unemployment,gories. The increase in childbearing outside and poverty. of marriage reflects a reduction in the likeli-hood of marriage at all ages. For example, the Factors that may be associated with the recentpercentage of women aged 15-44 who were small decline in nonmarital birth rates include:unmarried increased from 36 percent in 1970  A vigorous economic expansion;to 49 percent in 1998.1 Increases in the per-  Changes in the age composition of thecentage of unmarried women can be seen in
every age group (see Figure 9),1 with especially  Use of new methods of contraception, espe-notable increases among women aged twenty
 A focus on males as targets for reproductive
Perception vs. Reality
health policies and an increased emphasis The data presented in this research brief chal-on child support enforcement;
lenge some common notions about women who
 Welfare reform efforts targeting nonmari-
have births outside of marriage, as illustrated
tal births and the strengthening of mar- by these five contrasts:riage;
 The public perception is that nonmarital
 Increased public education about HIV and
births are equivalent to teen births. The
reality is that women aged twenty or older
 A rise in conservative attitudes toward pre-
marital births, and that women in theirtwenties have the highest rates of nonmar-
An Important Implication of
ital childbearing. The increase in nonmar-
Nonmarital Childbearing
ital childbearing in the past three decades
Unmarried mothers and their childrenare more likely to be disadvantaged. The
image projected by movie stars or well-educat-  The public perception is that nonmaritaled, well-paid professional women who choose
births are first births. The reality is that
unwed motherhood has little in common with
the situation of most unmarried mothers.
who have already had one or more children.
Women who have nonmarital births are, on  The public perception is that nonmaritalaverage, more disadvantaged than women who
have births within marriage, both before and
women who have nonmarital births have lower
reality is that almost one in six nonmarital
educational attainments and lower incomes,
are less likely to work full-time, and are more
been married but are now divorced or wid-
likely to receive welfare.11 Women who have a
nonmarital birth are also less likely to marry  The public perception is that nonmaritalby age 35.12 Being older doesn't seem to make
births are not much of an issue for whites.
the circumstances of unmarried motherhood
The reality is that, although black and
much easier. Unmarried women who are aged
20 and older at the time they give birth are
likely to be as poor as their teenage counter-
increases in nonmarital childbearing in thepast three decades, while nonmarital birth
Children born to unmarried mothers are more
likely to be economically disadvantaged.14
and stabilized among Hispanic women.
These children are more likely to grow up in a  The public perception is that unmarriedsingle parent family and to experience multiple
living arrangements during childhood.5,15
been abandoned by the child's father. The
reality is that the relationship context of
among children born to unmarried parents are
associated with reduced educational attain-
ment, an increased risk of having premarital
unmarried mothers are cohabiting with the
sex during adolescence and of having a pre-
father of their baby, at least at the time of
marital birth, and a premature assumption of
the birth. In addition, even when couples
are not married or living together, a largepercentage of unmarried mothers reportthat they are romantically involved with
the father of the baby and hope to marry. that many children raised in other circum-Nevertheless, history suggests that these stances develop well. Thus, future researchunions have a disproportionate risk of dis- should explore the factors that promote well-solution.
being among children born to unmarried par-ents.ConclusionAlthough nonmarital childbearing has Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan researchincreased dramatically across several decades, center that studies children and families. Forthere has been a recent modest downturn in additional information, please visit our web sitenonmarital birth rates, and the percentage of at www.childtrends. org.women who have a birth outside of marriagehas stabilized. At this point, it is difficult to Child Trends thanks the Charles Stewart Mottdetermine whether this is a temporary small Foundation and the William and Flora Hewlettdecline or the start of a sustained reduction in Foundation for support of this brief and otherchildbearing outside of marriage. We do know work on teen and nonmarital childbearing.that historical changes in marriage patterns - Child Trends also acknowledges the John D. andnot fertility rates per se - have driven the Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for generalincreases in childbearing outside of marriage.
Policy makers and the public have various
motivations for wanting the decline in non- 1Ventura SJ, & Bachrach CA. Nonmarital childbearing in themarital childbearing to continue. The federal United States, 1940-99. National vital statistics reports; vol 48 no
16. Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics.
welfare reform law, passed in 1996, set out to 2000.encourage the formation and strengthening of 2Unpublished tabulations of NSFG data by Child Trends. 2001.two-parent families in an effort to reduce 3Ventura, SJ. National Center for Health Statistics unpublisheddependence on public assistance and provide data. 2001.
4Henshaw, S. Unintended Pregnancy in the United States. Family
better environments for children. Some mem- Planning Perspectives, 30, 1, 24-29, 46. 1998.bers of the public want to increase marriage 5Bumpass, L, and Lu, H. Trends in cohabitation and implicationsrates and strengthen the institution of the for children's family contexts in the United States. Population
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Princeton University and Social Indicators Survey Center, Colum-bia University. Fragile Families Brief, "Dispelling Myths AboutUnmarried Fathers," May 2000.
Child Trends focuses on the children born to 8U.S. Bureau of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Populationunmarried parents because they are at a dis- Reports, Series P20-514, Marital status and living arrangements:tinct disadvantage as they move through life. March 1998 (Update), and earlier reports, MS-1. Marital status of
the population 15 years old and over, by sex and race: 1950 to pres-
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We Marriage and Family, 61, 1, 178-187. 1999.
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