Sample records for fusion reactor development

Thermonuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium constitutes an enormous potential for a safe, environmentally compatible and sustainable energy supply. The fuel source is practically inexhaustible. Further, the safety prospects of a fusionreactor are quite favourable due to the inherently self-limiting fusion process, the limited radiologic toxicity and the passive cooling property. Among a small number of approaches, the concept of toroidal magnetic confinement of fusion plasmas has achieved most impressive scientific and technical progress towards energy release by thermonuclear burn of deuterium-tritium fuels. The status of thermonuclear fusion research activity world-wide is reviewed and present solutions to the complicated physical and technological problems are presented. These problems comprise plasma heating, confinement and exhaust of energy and particles, plasma stability, alpha particle heating, fusionreactor materials, reactor safety and environmental compatibility. The results and the high scientific level of this international research activity provide a sound basis for the realisation of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), whose goal is to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of a fusion energy source for peaceful purposes. PMID:11402837

A supercritical helium (SHE) circulation pump, a jet pump, and a cold compressor were designed and manufactured as the first step of cryogenic component development for a large-scale cryogenic system which is required for the Fusion Experimental Reactor (FER). The SHE circulation pump achieved 320-g/s flow rate with an 0.88-MPa pressure head at 4.6 K, making it the biggest cold pump in the world. The jet pump's mass flow ratio was about 1.0 with an 0.07-MPa pressure head at about 10 K. The cold compressor was successfully operated with an inlet vapor pressure of 0.053 MPa (3.7 K), and outlet pressure of 0.12 MPa, and a mass flow rate of 60 g/s. The designs and test results are described in this paper.

The viability of various materials and blanket designs for use in nuclear fusionreactors can be tested using computer simulations and as parts of the test blanket modules within the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) facility. The work presented here focuses on blanket model simulations using the Monte Carlo simulation package MCNPX (Computational Physics Division Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2010) and FISPACT (Forrest, 2007) to evaluate the tritium breeding capability of a number of solid and liquid breeding materials. The liquid/molten salt breeders are found to have the higher tritium breeding ratio (TBR) and are to be considered for further analysis of the self sufficiency timing. PMID:22112596

Chromium-molybdenum ferritic (martensitic) steels are leading candidates for the structural components for future fusionreactors. However, irradiation of such steels in a fusion environment will produce long-lived radioactive isotopes that will lead to difficult waste-disposal problems. Such problems could be reduced by replacing the elements in the steels (i.e., Mo, Nb, Ni, N, and Cu) that lead to long-lived radioactive isotopes. We have proposed the development of ferritic steels analogous to conventional Cr-Mo steels, which contain molybdenum and niobium. It is proposed that molybdenum be replaced by tungsten and niobium be replaced by tantalum. Eight experimental steels were produced. Chromium concentrations of 2.25, 5, 9, and 12% were used (all concentrations are in wt %). Steels with these chromium compositions, each containing 2% W and 0.25% V, were produced. To determine the effect of tungsten and vanadium, 2.25 Cr steels were produced with 2% W and no vanadium and with 0.25% V and O and 1% W. A 9Cr steel containing 2% W, 0.25 V, and 0.07% Ta was also studied. For all alloys, carbon was maintained at 0.1%. Tempering studies on the normalized steels indicated that the tempering behavior of the new Cr-W steels was similar to that of the analogous Cr-Mo steels. Microscopy studies indicated that 2% tungsten was required in the 2.25 Cr steels to produce 100% bainite in 15.9-mm-thick plate during normalization. The 5Cr and 9Cr steels were 100% martensite, but the 12 Cr steel contained about 75% martensite with the balance delta-ferrite. 33 refs., 35 figs., 5 tabs.

Fusionreactors will utilize powerful magnetic fields for the confinement and heating of plasma and for the diversion of impurities. Large dipole fields generated by the plasma current and the divertor and transformer coils will radiate outward for several hundred meters, resulting in magnetic fields up to 450 gauss in working areas. Since occupational personnel could be exposed to substantial magnetic fields in a fusion power plant, an attempt has been made to assess the possible biological and health consequences of such exposure, using the existing literature. The available data indicate that magnetic fields can interact with biological material to produce effects, although the reported effects are usually small in magnitude and often unconfirmed. The existing data base is judged to be totally inadequate for assessment of potential health and environmental consequences of magnetic fields and for the establishment of appropriate standards. Requisite studies to provide an adequate data base are outlined. PMID:598345

The U.S. fusion energy program is focused on research with the potential for studying plasmas at thermonuclear temperatures, currently epitomized by the tokamak-based International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) but also continuing exploratory work on other plasma confinement concepts. Among the latter is the spheromak pursued on the SSPX facility at LLNL. Experiments in SSPX using electrostatic current drive by coaxial guns have now demonstrated stable spheromaks with good heat confinement, if the plasma is maintained near a Taylor state, but the anticipated high current amplification by gun injection has not yet been achieved. In future experiments and reactors, creating and maintaining a stable spheromak configuration at high magnetic field strength may require auxiliary current drive using neutral beams or RF power. Here we show that neutral beam current drive soon to be explored on SSPX could yield a compact spheromak reactor with current drive efficiency comparable to that of steady state tokamaks. Thus, while more will be learned about electrostatic current drive in coming months, results already achieved in SSPX could point to a productive parallel development path pursuing auxiliary current drive, consistent with plans to install neutral beams on SSPX in the near future. Among possible outcomes, spheromak research could also yield pulsed fusionreactors at lower capital cost than any fusion concept yet proposed.

Present and future irradiation facilities for the study of fusionreactor irradiation damage are reviewed. Present studies are centered on irradiation in accelerator-based neutron sources, fast- and mixed-spectrum fission reactors, and ion accelerators. The accelerator-based neutron sources are used to demonstrate damage equivalence between high-energy neutrons and fission reactor neutrons. Once equivalence is demonstrated, the large volume of test space available in fission reactors can be used to study displacement damage, and in some instances, the effects of high-helium concentrations and the interaction of displacement damage and helium on properties. Ion bombardment can be used to study the mechanisms of damage evolution and the interaction of displacement damage and helium. These techniques are reviewed, and typical results obtained from such studies are examined. Finally, future techniques and facilities for developing damage levels that more closely approach those expected in an operating fusionreactor are discussed.

Imaging bolometers utilize an infrared (IR) video camera to measure the change in temperature of a thin foil exposed to the plasma radiation, thereby avoiding the risks of conventional resistive bolometers related to electric cabling and vacuum feedthroughs in a reactor environment. A prototype of the IR imaging video bolometer (IRVB) has been installed and operated on the JT-60U tokamak demonstrating its applicability to a reactor environment and its ability to provide two-dimensional measurements of the radiation emissivity in a poloidal cross section. In this paper we review this development and present the first results of an upgraded version of this IRVB on JT-60U. This upgrade utilizes a state-of-the-art IR camera (FLIR/Indigo Phoenix-InSb) (3-5 microm, 256 x 360 pixels, 345 Hz, 11 mK) mounted in a neutron/gamma/magnetic shield behind a 3.6 m IR periscope consisting of CaF(2) optics and an aluminum mirror. The IRVB foil is 7 cm x 9 cm x 5 microm tantalum. A noise equivalent power density of 300 microW/cm(2) is achieved with 40 x 24 channels and a time response of 10 ms or 23 microW/cm(2) for 16 x 12 channels and a time response of 33 ms, which is 30 times better than the previous version of the IRVB on JT-60U. PMID:19044463

Imaging bolometers utilize an infrared (IR) video camera to measure the change in temperature of a thin foil exposed to the plasma radiation, thereby avoiding the risks of conventional resistive bolometers related to electric cabling and vacuum feedthroughs in a reactor environment. A prototype of the IR imaging video bolometer (IRVB) has been installed and operated on the JT-60U tokamak demonstrating its applicability to a reactor environment and its ability to provide two-dimensional measurements of the radiation emissivity in a poloidal cross section. In this paper we review this development and present the first results of an upgraded version of this IRVB on JT-60U. This upgrade utilizes a state-of-the-art IR camera (FLIR/Indigo Phoenix-InSb) (3-5 {mu}m, 256x360 pixels, 345 Hz, 11 mK) mounted in a neutron/gamma/magnetic shield behind a 3.6 m IR periscope consisting of CaF{sub 2} optics and an aluminum mirror. The IRVB foil is 7 cmx9 cmx5 {mu}m tantalum. A noise equivalent power density of 300 {mu}W/cm{sup 2} is achieved with 40x24 channels and a time response of 10 ms or 23 {mu}W/cm{sup 2} for 16x12 channels and a time response of 33 ms, which is 30 times better than the previous version of the IRVB on JT-60U.

The object of this invention is to provide a compact torus fusionreactor with dramatic simplification of plasma confinement design. Another object of this invention is to provide a compact torus fusionreactor with low magnetic field and small aspect ratio stable plasma confinement. In accordance with the principles of this invention there is provided a compact toroidal-type plasma confinement fusionreactor in which only the indispensable components inboard of a tokamak type of plasma confinement region, mainly a current conducting medium which carries electrical current for producing a toroidal magnet confinement field about the toroidal plasma region, are retained.

Cascade, originally conceived as a football-shaped, steel-walled reactor containing a Li/sub 2/O granule blanket, is now envisaged as a double-cone-shaped reactor containing a two-layered (three-zone) flowing blanket of BeO and LiAlO/sub 2/ granules. Average blanket exit temperature is 1670/sup 0/K and gross plant efficiency (net thermal conversion efficiency) using a Brayton cycle is 55%. The reactor has a low-activation SiC-tiled wall. It rotates at 50 rpm, and the granules are transported to the top of the heat exchanger using their peripheral speed; no conveyors or lifts are required. The granules return to the reactor by gravity. After considerable analysis and experimentation, we continue to regard Cascade as a promising reactor concept with the advantages of safety, efficiency, and low activation.

Caqscade, originally conceived as a football-shaped, steel-walled reactor containing a Li/sub 2/O granule blanket, is now envisaged as a double-cone-shaped reactor containing a two-layered (three-zone) flowing blanket of BeO and LiAlO/sub 2/ granules. Average blanket exit temperature is 1670 K and gross plant efficiency (net thermal conversion efficiency) using a Brayton cycle is 55%. The reactor has a low-activation SiC-tiled wall. It rotates at 50 rpm, and the granules are transported to the top of the heat exchanger using their peripheral speed; no conveyors or lifts are required. The granules return to the reactor by gravity. After considerable analysis and experimentation, we continue to regard Cascade as a promising reactor concept with the advantages of safety, efficiency, and low activation.

The recirculating power for virtually all types of fusionreactors has previously been calculated [1] with the Fokker-Planck equation. The reactors involve non-Maxwellian plasmas. The calculations are generic in that they do not relate to specific confinement devices. In all cases except for a Tokamak with D-T fuel the recirculating power was found to exceed the fusion power by a large factor. In this paper we criticize the generality claimed for this calculation. The ratio of circulating power to fusion power is calculated for the Colliding Beam Reactor with fuels D-T, D-He3 and p-B11. The results are respectively, 0.070, 0.141 and 0.493.

A fusionreactor is provided having a near spherical-shaped plasma with a modest central opening through which straight segments of toroidal field coils extend that carry electrical current for generating a toroidal magnet plasma confinement fields. By retaining only the indispensable components inboard of the plasma torus, principally the cooled toroidal field conductors and in some cases a vacuum containment vessel wall, the fusionreactor features an exceptionally small aspect ratio (typically about 1.5), a naturally elongated plasma cross section without extensive field shaping, requires low strength magnetic containment fields, small size and high beta. These features combine to produce a spherical torus plasma in a unique physics regime which permits compact fusion at low field and modest cost.

A fusionreactor is provided having a near spherical-shaped plasma with a modest central opening through which straight segments of toroidal field coils extend that carry electrical current for generating a toroidal magnet plasma confinement fields. By retaining only the indispensable components inboard of the plasma torus, principally the cooled toroidal field conductors and in some cases a vacuum containment vessel wall, the fusionreactor features an exceptionally small aspect ratio (typically about 1.5), a naturally elongated plasma cross section without extensive field shaping, requires low strength magnetic containment fields, small size and high beta. These features combine to produce a spherical torus plasma in a unique physics regime which permits compact fusion at low field and modest cost.

This paper first reviews briefly the status and plans for research in magnetic fusion energy and discusses the prospects for the tokamak magnetic configuration to be the basis for a fusion power plant. Good progress has been made in achieving fusionreactor-level, deuterium-tritium (D-T) plasmas with the production of significant fusion power in the Joint European Torus (up to 2 MW) and the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (up to 10 MW) tokamaks. Advances on the technologies of heating, fueling, diagnostics, and materials supported these achievements. The successes have led to the initiation of the design phases of two tokamaks, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) and the US Toroidal Physics Experiment (TPX). ITER will demonstrate the controlled ignition and extended bum of D-T plasmas with steady state as an ultimate goal. ITER will further demonstrate technologies essential to a power plant in an integrated system and perform integrated testing of the high heat flux and nuclear components required to use fusion energy for practical purposes. TPX will complement ITER by testing advanced modes of steady-state plasma operation that, coupled with the developments in ITER, will lead to an optimized demonstration power plant.

A nuclear pumped laser capable of producing long pulses of very high power laser radiation is provided. A toroidal fusionreactor provides energetic neutrons which are slowed down by a moderator. The moderated neutrons are converted to energetic particles capable of pumping a lasing medium. The lasing medium is housed in an annular cell surrounding the reactor. The cell includes an annular reflecting mirror at the bottom and an annular output window at the top. A neutron reflector is disposed around the cell to reflect escaping neutrons back into the cell. The laser radiation from the annular window is focused onto a beam compactor which generates a single coherent output laser beam.

The alloys 316L(N) and Mod. 9Cr-1Mo steel are the major structural materials for fabrication of structural components in sodium cooled fast reactors (SFRs). Various factors influencing the mechanical behaviour of these alloys and different modes of deformation and failure in SFR systems, their analysis and the simulated tests performed on components for assessment of structural integrity and the applicability of RCC-MR code for the design and validation of components are highlighted. The procedures followed for optimal design of die and punch for the near net shape forming of petals of main vessel of 500 MWe prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR); the safe temperature and strain rate domains established using dynamic materials model for forming of 316L(N) and 9Cr-1Mo steels components by various industrial processes are illustrated. Weldability problems associated with 316L(N) and Mo. 9Cr-1Mo are briefly discussed. The utilization of artificial neural network models for prediction of creep rupture life and delta-ferrite in austenitic stainless steel welds is described. The usage of non-destructive examination techniques in characterization of deformation, fracture and various microstructural features in SFR materials is briefly discussed. Most of the experience gained on SFR systems could be utilized in developing science and technology for fusionreactors. Summary of the current status of knowledge on various aspects of fission and fusion systems with emphasis on cross fertilization of research is presented.

Work on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) tokamak has refined understanding of the realities of a deuterium-tritium (D-T) burning magnetic fusionreactor. An ITER-like tokamak reactor using ITER costs and performance would lead to a cost of electricity (COE) of about 130 mills/kWh. Advanced tokamak physics to be tested in the Toroidal Physics Experiment (TPX), coupled with moderate components in engineering, technology, and unit costs, should lead to a COE comparable with best existing fission systems around 60 mills/kWh. However, a larger unit size, {approximately}2000 MW(e), is favored for the fusion system. Alternative toroidal configurations to the conventional tokamak, such as the stellarator, reversed-field pinch, and field-reversed configuration, offer some potential advantage, but are less well developed, and have their own challenges.

This report discusses the following aspects of Fusionreactors.: Activation Analysis; Tritium Inventory; Environmental and Safety Indices and Their Graphical Representation; Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) and Decision Analysis; Plasma Burn Control -- Application to ITER; and Other Applications.

A nuclear pumped laser capable of producing long pulses of very high power laser radiation is provided. A toroidal fusionreactor provides energetic neutrons which are slowed down by a moderator. The moderated neutrons are converted to energetic particles capable of pumping a lasing medium. The lasing medium is housed in an annular cell surrounding the reactor. The cell includes an annular reflecting mirror at the bottom and an annular output window at the top. A neutron reflector is disposed around the cell to reflect escaping neutrons back into the cell. The laser radiation from the annular window is focused onto a beam compactor which generates a single coherent output laser beam. 10 figs.

The major objective of fusion R and D at the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) is to construct the Fusion Experimental Reactor (FER) to follow JT-60. The construction of FER inevitably requires development of a large, reliable, and efficient helium liquefier/refrigerator and the more advanced cryogenic technology for cooling superconducting toroidal and poloidal coils. Typical characteristics required for the cryogenic system of FER are 10 to 20 kW at 4 K as one unit, reliability for > 8000 h, a stable pulsed heat load, and high-energy efficiency of > 1/500. In this cryogenic system, the major components such as the helium compressor, turbo-expander, cold circulation pump for supercritical helium, and cold compressor to reduce operating temperature below 4 K should be scaled up to a mass flow rate of > 1000 g/s. For this purpose, JAERI has developed cryogenics since 1980 in accordance with the development program in which the scaling up of the major components mentioned above are involved as well as cooling technology development.

Advanced fusionreactors like ITER and up coming Indian DEMO devices are having challenges in terms of their materials design and fabrication procedures. The operation of these devices is having various loads like structural, thermo-mechanical and neutron irradiation effects on major systems like vacuum vessel, divertor, magnets and blanket modules. The concept of double wall vacuum vessel (VV) is proposed in view of protecting of major reactor subsystems like super conducting magnets, diagnostic systems and other critical components from high energy 14 MeV neutrons generated from fusion plasma produced by D-T reactions. The double walled vacuum vessel is used in combination with pressurized water circulation and some special grade borated steel blocks to shield these high energy neutrons effectively. The fabrication of sub components in VV are mainly used with high thickness SS materials in range of 20 mm- 60 mm of various grades based on the required protocols. The structural components of double wall vacuum vessel uses various parts like shields, ribs, shells and diagnostic vacuum ports. These components are to be developed with various welding techniques like TIG welding, Narrow gap TIG welding, Laser welding, Hybrid TIG laser welding, Electron beam welding based on requirement. In the present paper the samples of 20 mm and 40 mm thick SS 316 materials are developed with TIG welding process and their mechanical properties characterization with Tensile, Bend tests and Impact tests are carried out. In addition Vickers hardness tests and microstructural properties of Base metal, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and Weld Zone are done. TIG welding application with high thick SS materials in connection with vacuum vessel requirements and involved criticalities towards welding process are highlighted.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR), the largest such facility in the U.S., is discussed with respect to instrumentation in general and mechanisms in particular. The design philosophy and detailed implementation of a universal probe mechanism for TFTR is discussed.

Fusion has the potential to be an attractive energy source. From the safety and environmental perspective, fusion must avoid concerns about catastrophic accidents and unsolvable waste disposal. In addition, fusion must achieve an acceptable level of risk from operational accidents that result in public exposure and economic loss. Finally, fusionreactors must control routine radioactive effluent, particularly tritium. Major progress in achieving this potential rests on development of low-activation materials or alternative fuels. The safety and performance of various material choices and fuels for commercial fusionreactors can be investigated relatively inexpensively through reactor design studies. These studies bring together experts in a wide range of backgrounds and force the group to either agree on a reactor design or identify areas for further study. Fusionreactors will be complex, with distributed radioactive inventories. The next generation of experiments will be critical in demonstrating that acceptable levels of safe operation can be achieved. These machines will use materials which are available today and for which a large database exists (e.g., for 316 stainless steel). Researchers have developed a good understanding of the risks associated with operation of these devices. Specifically, consequences from coolant system failures, loss of vacuum events, tritium releases, and liquid metal reactions have been studied. Recent studies go beyond next step designs and investigate commercial reactor concerns including tritium release and liquid metal reactions.

Proton collimators have been proposed for incorporation into inertial-electrostatic-confinement (IEC) fusionreactors. Such reactors have been envisioned as thrusters and sources of electric power for spacecraft and as sources of energetic protons in commercial ion-beam applications.

International development of reduced activation ferritic-martensitic (RAFM) steels has focused on 9 wt percentage Cr, which primarily contain M23C6 (M = Cr-rich) and small amounts of MX (M = Ta/V, X = C/N) precipitates, not adequate to maintain strength and creep resistance above ∼500 °C. To enable applications at higher temperatures for better thermal efficiency of fusionreactors, computational alloy thermodynamics coupled with strength modeling have been employed to explore a new generation RAFM steels. The new alloys are designed to significantly increase the amount of MX nanoprecipitates, which are manufacturable through standard and scalable industrial steelmaking methods. Preliminary experimental results of the developed new alloys demonstrated noticeably increased amount of MX, favoring significantly improved strength, creep resistance, and Charpy impact toughness as compared to current RAFM steels. The strength and creep resistance were comparable or approaching to the lower bound of, but impact toughness was noticeably superior to 9-20Cr oxide dispersion-strengthened ferritic alloys.

International development of reduced activation ferritic-martensitic (RAFM) steels has focused on 9 wt percentage Cr, which primarily contain M23C6 (M = Cr-rich) and small amounts of MX (M = Ta/V, X = C/N) precipitates, not adequate to maintain strength and creep resistance above ~500 °C. To enable applications at higher temperatures for better thermal efficiency of fusionreactors, computational alloy thermodynamics coupled with strength modeling have been employed to explore a new generation RAFM steels. The new alloys are designed to significantly increase the amount of MX nanoprecipitates, which are manufacturable through standard and scalable industrial steelmaking methods. Preliminary experimentalmore » results of the developed new alloys demonstrated noticeably increased amount of MX, favoring significantly improved strength, creep resistance, and Charpy impact toughness as compared to current RAFM steels. Furthermore, the strength and creep resistance were comparable or approaching to the lower bound of, but impact toughness was noticeably superior to 9–20Cr oxide dispersion-strengthened ferritic alloys.« less

The next step after ITER is to demonstrate the viability and generation of electricity by a future fusionreactor (DEMO). The specifications required to operate an NBI system on DEMO are very demanding. The system has to provide a very high level of power and energy, ~100MW of D° beam at 1MeV, including high wall-plug efficiency (η > 60%). For this purpose, a new injector concept, called Siphore, is under investigation between CEA and French universities. Siphore is based on the stripping of the accelerated negative ions by photo-detachment provided by several Fabry-Perot cavities (3.5MW of light power per cavity) implemented along the D- beam. The beamline is designed to be tall and narrow in order that the photon flux overlaps the entire negative ion beam. The paper will describe the present R&D at CEA which addresses the development of an ion source and pre-accelerator prototypes for Siphore, the main goal being to produce an intense negative ion beam sheet. The negative ion source Cybele is based on a magnetized plasma column where hot electrons are emitted from the source center. Parametric studies of the source are performed using Langmuir probes in order to characterize the plasma and to compare with numerical models being developed in French universities.

The next step after ITER is to demonstrate the viability and generation of electricity by a future fusionreactor (DEMO). The specifications required to operate an NBI system on DEMO are very demanding. The system has to provide a very high level of power and energy, ~100MW of D° beam at 1MeV, including high wall-plug efficiency (η > 60%). For this purpose, a new injector concept, called Siphore, is under investigation between CEA and French universities. Siphore is based on the stripping of the accelerated negative ions by photo-detachment provided by several Fabry-Perot cavities (3.5MW of light power per cavity) implemented along the D{sup −} beam. The beamline is designed to be tall and narrow in order that the photon flux overlaps the entire negative ion beam. The paper will describe the present R and D at CEA which addresses the development of an ion source and pre-accelerator prototypes for Siphore, the main goal being to produce an intense negative ion beam sheet. The negative ion source Cybele is based on a magnetized plasma column where hot electrons are emitted from the source center. Parametric studies of the source are performed using Langmuir probes in order to characterize the plasma and to compare with numerical models being developed in French universities.

The world scientific community is presently engaged in one of the toughest technological tasks of the current century, namely, exploitation of nuclear fusion in a controlled manner for the benefit of mankind. Scientific feasibility of controlled fusion of the light elements in plasma under magnetic confinement has already been proven. International efforts in a coordinated and co-operative manner are presently being made to build ITER - the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor - to test, in this first step, the concept of 'Tokamak' for net fusion energy production. To exploit this new developing option of making energy available through the route of fusion, India too embarked on a robust fusion programme under which we now have a working tokamak - the Aditya and a steady state tokamak (SST-1), which is on the verge of functioning. The programme envisages further development in terms of making SST-2 followed by a DEMO and finally the fusion power reactor. Further, with the participation of India in the ITER program in 2005, and recent allocation of half - a - port in ITER for placing our Lead - Lithium Ceramic Breeder (LLCB) based Test Blanket Module (TBM), meant basically for breeding tritium and extracting high grade heat, the need to understand and address issues related to materials for these complex systems has become all the more necessary. Also, it is obvious that with increasing power from the SST stages to DEMO and further to PROTOTYPE, the increasing demands on performance of materials would necessitate discovery and development of new materials. Because of the 14.1 MeV neutrons that are generated in the D+T reaction exploited in a tokamak, the materials, especially those employed for the construction of the first wall, the diverter and the blanket segments, suffer crippling damage due to the high He/dpa ratios that result due to the high energy of the neutrons. To meet this challenge, the materials that need to be developed for the tokamaks

Reliable and precise diagnostic of local magnetic field is crucial for successful operation of future thermonuclear fusionreactors based on magnetic confinement. Magnetic sensors at these devices will experience an extremely demanding operational environment with large radiation and thermal loads in combination with required long term, reliable, and service-free performance. Neither present day commercial nor laboratory measurement systems comply with these requirements. Metallic Hall sensors based on e.g. copper or bismuth could potentially satisfy these needs. We present the technology for manufacturing of such sensors and some initial results on characterization of their properties.

This study examines the status of understanding of blanket tritium recovery and the performance of potentially viable tritium breeding materials under conditions anticipated in a DT-fueled fusionreactor environment. The existing physicochemical, thermophysical, and ceramographic data for candidate liquid and solid breeders are reviewed and appropriate operating conditions defined. It is shown that selection of a breeding material and an appropriate tritium recovery method can impose significant constraints upon blanket design, particularly when considerations of breeder/coolant/structure compatibility and temperature limitations are taken into account.

The limitations of the Tokamak fusionreactor concept are discussed and various other fusionreactor concepts are considered that employ the containment of thermonuclear plasmas by magnetic fields (i.e., stellarators). Progress made in the containment of plasmas in toroidal devices is reported. Reactor design concepts are illustrated. The possibility of using fusionreactors as a power source in interplanetary space travel and electric power plants is briefly examined.

This is the Final Report for a three-year (FY 92--94) study of the Environmental, Safety, and Economic (ESE) aspects of fusion energy systems, emphasizing development of computerized approaches suitable for incorporation as modules in fusion system design codes. First, as is reported in Section 2, the authors now have operating a simplified but complete environment and safety evaluation code, BESAFE. The first tests of BESAFE as a module of the SUPERCODE, a design optimization systems code at LLNL, are reported in Section 3. Secondly, as reported in Section 4, the authors have maintained a strong effort in developing fast calculational schemes for activation inventory evaluation. In addition to these major accomplishments, considerable progress has been made on research on specific topics as follows. A tritium modeling code TRIDYN was developed in collaboration with the TSTA group at LANL and the Fusion Nuclear Technology group at UCLA. A simplified algorithm has been derived to calculate the transient temperature profiles in the blanket during accidents. The scheme solves iteratively a system of non-linear ordinary differential equations describing about 10 regions of the blanket by preserving energy balance. The authors have studied the physics and engineering aspects of divertor modeling for safety applications. Several modifications in the automation and characterization of environmental and safety indices have been made. They have applied this work to the environmental and safety comparisons of stainless steel with alternative structural materials for fusionreactors. A methodology in decision analysis utilizing influence and decision diagrams has been developed to model fusionreactor design problems. Most of the work during this funding period has been reported in 26 publications including theses, journal publications, conference papers, and technical reports, as listed in Section 11.

This report discusses the following aspects of Fusionreactors.: Activation Analysis; Tritium Inventory; Environmental and Safety Indices and Their Graphical Representation; Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) and Decision Analysis; Plasma Burn Control -- Application to ITER; and Other Applications.

During his visit to the KfK, Karlsruhe, F. W. Wiffen attended the IEA 12th Working Group Meeting on FusionReactor Materials. Plans were made for a low-activation materials workshop at Culham, UK, for April 1991, a data base workshop in Europe for June 1991, and a molecular dynamics workshop in the United States in 1991. At the 11th IEA Executive Committee on Fusion Materials, discussions centered on the recent FPAC and Colombo panel review in the United States and EC, respectively. The Committee also reviewed recent progress toward a neutron source in the United States (CWDD) and in Japan (ESNIT). A meeting with D. R. Harries (consultant to J. Darvas) yielded a useful overview of the EC technology program for fusion. Of particular interest to the US program is a strong effort on a conventional ferritic/martensitic steel for fist wall/blanket operation beyond NET/ITER.

The study examines the outlook for fusion hybrid reactors. The study evaluates the status of fusion hybrid technology in the United States and analyzes the circumstances under which such reactors might be deployed. The study also examines a related concept, the tritium-breeding fusionreactor. The study examined two potential applications for fusion hybrid technology: (1) the production of fissile material to fuel light-water reactors, and (2) the direct production of baseload electricity. For both applications, markets were sufficiently problematical or remote (mid-century or later) to warrant only modest current research and development emphasis on technology specific to the fusion hybrid reactor. For the tritium-breeding fusionreactor, a need for tritium for use in nuclear weapons might arise well before the middle of the next century, so that a program of design studies, experimentation, and evaluation should be undertaken.

Optical components including imagefiber, periscope, glass, reflecting mirror and adhesive for lens are essential elements of in-vessel viewing system use for fusion experimental reactor and extensive of gamma irradiation tests have been conducted. These components were irradiated in the range of 1 MGy - 100 MGy under the average exposure dose rate of 1 X 106 R/h. As a result, the observation limit of the imagefiber specially fabricated for radiation hard is obtained to be 12 MGy at a illuminance of 8500 lx. Deterioration of transmissivity of three kinds of glass (alkaline barium glass, lead glass and synthetic quartz glass) is small compared with standard glass for commercial periscope. A periscope which was made of these glasses is visible even after 20 MGy at 8500 lx and in case of the standard periscope, the observation limit is 1 kGy at 8500 lx. Decrease in the reflectance on chromium nitride coated reflecting mirror is extremely small than aluminum coated and platinum coated mirrors at accumulated dose of 100 MGy. Two types of adhesive made of polyester resin and epoxy resin became discolored and exfoliated after 50 MGy.

The long range program of the BNL Neutral Beam Development Group is to design a neutral beam system based on neutralization of negative ions, with an energy of 200 keV or higher, a D/sup -/ beam current of 10 A and operating in pulses of 5 s duration or longer; the beam system would be used on fusion devices for plasma heating. Presently, work is concentrated on the development of an H/sup -/ or D/sup -/ ion source, to deliver about 1 A of beam current, at an energy of at least 10 keV and operating in pulses longer than 5 s. A source of the magnetron type was designed and fabricated and is to be tested soon; the paper describes the background experiments that were necessary for the source design, the source parameters and design features, as well as a method under consideration that would improve the gas efficiency by an order of magnitude.

Very stringent purity specifications must be applied to low activation vanadium alloys, in order to meet recycling goals requiring low residual dose rates after 50--100 years. Methods of vanadium production and purification which might meet these limits are described. Following a suitable cooling period after their use, the vanadium alloy components can be melted in a controlled atmosphere to remove volatile radioisotopes. The aim of the melting and decontamination process will be the achievement of dose rates low enough for ``hands-on`` refabrication of new reactor components from the reclaimed metal. The processes required to permit hands-on recycling appear to be technically feasible, and demonstration experiments are recommended. Background information relevant to the use of vanadium alloys in fusionreactors, including health hazards, resources, and economics, is provided.

A preliminary conceptual study is made of the Modular Stellarator Reactor (MSR). A steady-state ignited, DT-fueled, magnetic fusionreactor is proposed for use as a central electric-power station. The MSR concept combines the physics of the classic stellarator confinement topology with an innovative, modular-coil design. Parametric tradeoff calculations are described, leading to the selection of an interim design point for a 4-GWt plant based on Alcator transport scaling and an average beta value of 0.04 in an l = 2 system with a plasma aspect ratio of 11. The physics basis of the design point is described together with supporting magnetics, coil-force, and stress computations. The approach and results presented herein will be modified in the course of ongoing work to form a firmer basis for a detailed conceptual design of the MSR.

This three-part module focuses on the principles of nuclear fusion and on the likely nature and components of a controlled-fusion power reactor. The physical conditions for a net energy release from fusion and two approaches (magnetic and inertial confinement) which are being developed to achieve this goal are described. Safety issues associated…

There is consensus in the fusionreactor community that active control will be one of the key enabling technologies. With further advancements in reduced-order fusion modeling, advances in control systems for fusion will continue, including vertical and shape control, kinetic and current profile control, MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) stabilization and plasma transport reduction. This dissertation addresses different control problems in tokamaks using as common denominator a nonlinear control approach. Contributions are made in the areas of kinetic control, magnetic control, and MHD flow control. In the area of kinetic control, we approach the problem of nonlinear control of burn instability in fission reactors, where a lumped-parameter nonlinear model involving approximate conservation equations for the energy and the densities of the species is used to synthesize a nonlinear feedback controller (backstepping, feedback linearization, passivity and input to state stability) for stabilizing the thermally unstable burn condition of a fusionreactor. In addition, the problem of control of kinetic profiles in non-burning plasmas, where a set of nonlinear partial differential equations (PDE's) describing approximately the dynamics of the density and energy was considered as the plant model used to synthesize a boundary controller (infinite-dimensional nonlinear backstepping) whose goal was the control of the density and energy spatial distributions, is also considered. In the area of magnetic control, the problem of plasma vertical position stabilization and shape control under actuation saturation in the DIII-D Tokamak at General Atomics is approached. In this case, modifications of the nominal control loops (nonlinear anti-windup augmentation) are proposed to ensure stability of the plant and good behavior of the nominal controller under the presence of voltage saturation in the coils that are used to vertically position and shape the plasma inside the tokamak. In the area

A multi-layered concrete structure has been developed to reduce induced activity in the shielding for neutron generating facilities such as a fusionreactor. The multi-layered concrete structure is composed of: (1) an inner low activation concrete, (2) a boron-doped low activation concrete as the second layer, and (3) ordinary concrete as the outer layer of the neutron shield. With the multi-layered concrete structure the volume of boron is drastically decreased compared to a monolithic boron-doped concrete. A 14 MeV neutron shielding experiment with multi-layered concrete structure mockups was performed at FNS and several reaction rates and induced activity in the mockups were measured. This demonstrated that the multi-layered concrete effectively reduced low energy neutrons and induced activity.

A laser-driven fusionreactor consisting of concentric spherical vessels in which the thermonuclear energy is derived from a deuterium-tritium (D + T) burn within a pellet'', located at the center of the vessels and initiated by a laser pulse. The resulting alpha -particle energy and a small fraction of the neutron energy are deposited within the pellet; this pellet energy is eventually transformed into sensible heat of lithium in a condenser outside the vessels. The remaining neutron energy is dissipated in a lithium blanket, located within the concentric vessels, where the fuel ingredient, tritium, is also produced. The heat content of the blanket and of the condenser lithium is eventually transferred to a conventional thermodynamic plant where the thermal energy is converted to electrical energy in a steam Rankine cycle. (Official Gazette)

The design of an advanced solid breeding blanket in a DEMO reactor requires a tritium breeder and a neutron multiplier that can withstand high temperatures and high neutron fluences, and the development of such advanced blanket materials has been carried out by collaboration between JAERI, universities and industries in Japan. The Li2TiO3 pebble fabricated by a wet process is a reference material as a tritium breeder, but its stability at high temperatures has to be improved for its application in a DEMO blanket. One of these improved materials, TiO2-doped Li2TiO3 pebbles, was successfully fabricated and studied. For the advanced neutron multiplier, beryllides that have a high melting point and good chemical stability have been studied. Some characterization of Be12Ti was conducted, and it became clear that it had lower swelling and tritium inventory than beryllium metal. Pebble fabrication study for Be12Ti was also performed and Be12Ti pebbles were successfully fabricated. These activities have shown that there is a bright prospect in realizing a DEMO blanket by the application of TiO2-doped Li2TiO3 and beryllides.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory was operated from 1982 until 1997. The last several years included operations with mixtures of deuterium and tritium. In September 2002, the three year Decontamination and Decommissioning (D&D) Project for TFTR was successfully completed. The need to deal with tritium contamination as well as activated materials led to the adaptation of many techniques from the maintenance work during TFTR operations to the D&D effort. In addition, techniques from the decommissioning of fission reactors were adapted to the D&D of TFTR and several new technologies, most notably the development of a diamond wire cutting process for complex metal structures, were developed. These techniques, along with a project management system that closely linked the field crews to the engineering staff who developed the techniques and procedures via a Work Control Center, resulted in a project that was completed safely, on time, and well below budget.

Because ferritic steels have been found to have excellent resistance to swelling when irradiated in a fast-breeder reactor, Cr-Mo steels have recently become of interest for nuclear applications, both as cladding and duct material for fast-breeder reactors and as a first-wall and blanket structural material for fusionreactors. In this paper we will assess the Cr-Mo steels for fusionreactor applications. Possible approaches on how Cr-Mo steels may be further developed for this application will be proposed.

An innovative winding method is developed by connecting high-temperature superconducting (HTS) conductors to enable efficient construction of a magnet system for the helical fusionreactor FFHR-d1. A large-current capacity HTS conductor, referred to as STARS, is being developed by the incorporation of several innovative ideas, such as the simple stacking of state-of-the-art yttrium barium copper oxide tapes embedded in a copper jacket, surrounded by electrical insulation inside a conductor, and an outer stainless-steel jacket cooled by helium gas. A prototype conductor sample was fabricated and reached a current of 100 kA at a bias magnetic field of 5.3 T with the temperature at 20 K. At 4.2 K, the maximum current reached was 120 kA, and a current of 100 kA was successfully sustained for 1 h. A low-resistance bridge-type mechanical lap joint was developed and a joint resistance of 2 nΩ was experimentally confirmed for the conductor sample.

Near breakeven conditions have been attained in the JET tokamak [Fusion Technol. 11, 13 (1987)], with beryllium as the first-wall material. A fusion triple product (nDτETi) of 8-9×1020 m-3 sec keV has been reached (within a factor of 8 of that required in a fusionreactor). However, this has only been achieved transiently. At high heating powers, an influx of impurities still limits the achievement of better performance and steady-state operation. In parallel, an improved quantitative understanding of fusion plasmas has emerged from the development of a particular plasma model. Good quantitative agreement is obtained between the model and JET data. The main predictions are also consistent with statistical scaling laws. With such a model, a predictive capability begins to emerge to define the parameters and operating conditions of a DEMO, including impurity levels. Present experimental results and model predictions suggest that impurity dilution is a major threat to a reactor. A divertor concept must be developed further to ensure impurity control before a DEMO can be constructed. A New Phase for JET is planned in which an axisymmetric pumped divertor configuration will be used to address the problems of impurity control, plasma fueling, and helium ash exhaust. It should demonstrate a concept of impurity control and the operational domain for such a device. A single Next Step facility (ITER) is a high risk strategy in terms of physics, technology, and management, since it does not provide a sufficiently sound foundation for a DEMO. A Next Step program is proposed, which could comprise several complementary facilities, each optimized with respect to specific clear objectives. In a minimum program, there could be two Next Step tokamaks, and a Materials Test Facility. Such a program would allow division of effort and sharing of risk across the various scientific and technical problems, permit cross comparison, and ensure continuity of results. It could even be

Tungsten (W) and ferritic-martensitic steel (FMS) as armor and structural materials, respectively, are the major candidates for plasma-facing components (PFCs) such as the blanket first wall (BFW) and the divertor, in a fusionreactor. In the present study, three W/FMS mockups were successfully fabricated using a hot isostatic pressing (HIP, 900 °C, 100 MPa, 1.5 hrs) with a following post-HIP heat treatment (PHHT, tempering, 750 °C, 70 MPa, 2 hrs), and the W/FMS joining method was developed based on the ITER BFW and the test blanket module (TBM) development project from 2004 to the present. Using a 10-MHz-frequency flat-type probe to ultrasonically test of the joint, we found no defects in the fabricated mockups. For confirmation of the joint integrity, a high heat flux test will be performed up to the thermal lifetime of the mockup under the proper test conditions. These conditions were determined through a preliminary analysis with conventional codes such as ANSYS-CFX for thermal-hydraulic conditions considering the test facility, the Korea heat load test facility with an electron beam (KoHLT-EB), and its water coolant system at the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI).

The original Generic Magnetic FusionReactor paper was published in 1986. This update describes what has changed in 30 years. Notably, the construction of ITER is providing important benchmark numbers for technologies and costs. In addition, we use a more conservative neutron wall flux and fluence. But these cost-increasing factors are offset by greater optimism on the thermal-electric conversion efficiency and potential availability. The main examples show the cost of electricity (COE) as a function of aspect ratio and neutron flux to the first wall. The dependence of the COE on availability, thermo-electric efficiency, electrical power output, and the present day's low interest rates is also discussed. Interestingly, at fixed aspect ratio there is a shallow minimum in the COE at neutron flux around 2.5 MW/m2. The possibility of operating with only a small COE penalty at even lower wall loadings (to 1.0 MW/m2 at larger plant size) and the use of niobium-titanium coils are also investigated. J. Sheffield was supported by ORNL subcontract 4000088999 with the University of Tennessee.

A homopolar gun is discussed that could produce the high currents required for pulsed spheromak fusionreactors even with unit current amplification and open field lines during injection, possible because close coupling between the gun and flux conserver reduces gun losses to acceptable levels. Example parameters are given for a gun compatible with low cost pulsed reactors and for experiments to develop the concept.

An investigation was conducted to study the nuclear design aspects of using very-low-activation materials, such as SiC, MgO, and aluminum for fusion-reactor first wall, blanket, and shield applications. In addition to the advantage of very-low radioactive inventory, it was found that the very-low-activation fusionreactor can also offer an adequate tritium-breeding ratio and substantial amount of blanket nuclear heating as a conventional-material-structured reactor does. The most-stringent design constraint found in a very-low-activation fusionreactor is the limited space available in the inboard region of a tokamak concept for shielding to protect the superconducting toroidal field coil. A reference design was developed which mitigates the constraint by adopting a removable tungsten shield design that retains the inboard dimensions and gives the same shield performance as the reference STARFIRE tokamak reactor design.

The IPFR (Integrated Pool FusionReactor) concept is to place a fusionreactor into a pool of molten Flibe. The Flibe will serve the multiple functions of breeding, cooling, shielding, and moderating. Therefore, the only structural material between the superconducting magnets and the plasma is the first wall. The first wall is a stand-alone structure with no coolant connection and is cooled by Flibe at the atmospheric pressure. There is also no need of the primary coolant loop. The design is expected to improve the safety, reliability, and maintainability aspects of the fusion system.

This report summarizes the International Conference on FusionReactor Materials (ICFRM-4) which was held December 4--9, 1989, in Kyoto, Japan, as well as the results of several workshops, planning meetings, and laboratory visits made by the travelers. The ICFRM-4 is the major forum to present and exchange information on materials research and development in support of the world's fusiondevelopment efforts. About 360 papers were presented by the 347 conference attendees. Highlights of the conference are presented. A proposal by the United States to host ICFRM-5 was accepted by the International Advisory Committee. ORNL will be the host laboratory. A meeting of the DOE/JAERI Annex I Steering Committee to review the US/Japan Collaborative Testing of First Wall and Blanket Structural Materials with Mixed Spectrum Fission Reactors was held at JAERI Headquarters on December 1. The Japanese emphasized the critical importance of a resumption of HFIR operation. Even though the HFIR outage has lasted three plus years this program has continued to provide new and important data on materials behavior which has particular relevance to ITER.

Conceptual design studies on fusionreactors based upon open-ended confinement schemes, such as the tandem mirror and rf plugged cusp, have been carried out in Japan. These studies may be classified into two categories: near-term devices (Fusion Engineering Test Facility), and long-term fusion power recators. In the first category, a two-component cusp neutron source was proposed. In the second category, the GAMMA-R, a tandem-mirror power reactor, and the RFC-R, an axisymetric mirror and cusp, reactor studies are being conducted at the University of Tsukuba and the Institute of Plasma Physics. Mirror Fusion Engineering Facility parameters and a schematic are shown. The GAMMA-R central-cell design schematic is also shown.

A list of the diagnostic systems presently used in magnetic confinement fusion experiments is compiled herein. The radiation-sensitive components are identified, and their locations in zones around the machine are indicated. A table of radiation sensitivities of components is included to indicate the data available from previous work in fission reactor, space probe, and defense-related programs. Extrapolation and application to hardening of fusion diagnostic systems requires additional data that are more specific to the fusion radiation environment and fusion components. A list is also given of present radiation-producing facilities where near-term screening tests of materials and components can be performed.

The Generic Magnetic FusionReactor paper, published in 1985, has been updated, reflecting the improved science and technology base in the magnetic fusion program. Key changes beyond inflation are driven by important benchmark numbers for technologies and costs from ITER construction, and the use of a more conservative neutron wall flux and fluence in modern fusionreactor designs. In this paper the generic approach is applied to a catalyzed D-D stellarator-like reactor. It is shown that an interesting power plant might be possible if the following parameters could be achieved for a reference reactor: R/ < a > ~ 4 , confinement factor, fren = 0.9-1.15, < β > ~ 8 . 0 -11.5 %, Zeff ~ 1.45 plus a relativistic temperature correction, fraction of fast ions lost ~ 0.07, Bm ~ 14-16 T, and R ~ 18-24 m. J. Sheffield was supported under ORNL subcontract 4000088999 with the University of Tennessee.

To satisfy the electricity and tritium self-sufficiency missions of a FusionDevelopment Facility (FDF), suitable blanket designs will need to be evaluated, selected and developed. To demonstrate closure of the fusion fuel cycle, 2-3 main tritium breeding blankets will be used to cover most of the available chamber surface area in order to reach the project goal of achieving a tritium breeding ratio, TBR > 1. To demonstrate the feasibility of electricity and tritium production for subsequent devices such as the fusion demonstration power reactor (DEMO), several advanced test blankets will need to be selected and tested on the FDF to demonstrate high coolant outlet temperature necessary for efficient electricity production. Since the design goals for the main and test blankets are different, the design criteria of these blankets will also be different. The considerations in performing the evaluation of blanket and structural material options in concert with the maintenance approach for the FDF will be reported in this paper.

Theory has contributed significantly to recent advances in magnetic fusion research. New configurations have been found for a stellarator experiment by computational methods. Solutions of a free-boundary problem are applied to study the performance of the plasma and look for islands in the magnetic surfaces. Mathematical analysis and numerical calculations have been used to study equilibrium, stability, and transport of optimized fusionreactors. PMID:14614129

Theory has contributed significantly to recent advances in magnetic fusion research. New configurations have been found for a stellarator experiment by computational methods. Solutions of a free-boundary problem are applied to study the performance of the plasma and look for islands in the magnetic surfaces. Mathematical analysis and numerical calculations have been used to study equilibrium, stability, and transport of optimized fusionreactors. PMID:14614129

The national fusion technology effort has made a good start at addressing the basic nucleonics issues, but only a start. No fundamental nucleonics issues are seen as insurmountable barriers to the development of commercial fusion power. To date the fusion nucleonics effort has relied almost exclusively on other programs for nuclear data and codes. But as we progress through and beyond ETF type design studies the fusion program will need to support a broad based nucleonics effort including code development, sensitivity studies, integral experiments, data acquisition etc. It is clear that nucleonics issues are extremely important to fusiondevelopment and that we have only scratched the surface.

This paper presents the results on the physical metallurgy studies in 9Cr Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (ODS) and Reduced Activation Ferritic/Martensitic (RAFM) steels. Yttria strengthened ODS alloy was synthesized through several stages, like mechanical milling of alloy powders and yttria, canning and consolidation by hot extrusion. During characterization of the ODS alloy, it was observed that yttria particles possessed an affinity for Ti, a small amount of which was also helpful in refining the dispersoid particles containing mixed Y and Ti oxides. The particle size and their distribution in the ferrite matrix, were studied using Analytical and High Resolution Electron Microscopy at various stages. The results showed a distribution of Y 2O 3 particles predominantly in the size range of 5-20 nm. A Reduced Activation Ferritic/Martensitic steel has also been developed with the replacement of Mo and Nb by W and Ta with strict control on the tramp and trace elements (Mo, Nb, B, Cu, Ni, Al, Co, Ti). The transformation temperatures ( Ac1, Ac3 and Ms) for this steel have been determined and the transformation behavior of the high temperature austenite phase has been studied. The complete phase domain diagram has been generated which is required for optimization of the processing and fabrication schedules for the steel.

The successful development of energy-conversion machines based upon nuclear fission or fusionreactors is critically dependent upon the behavior of the engineering materials used to construct the full containment and primary heat extraction systems. The development of radiation damage-resistant materials requires irradiation testing facilities which reproduce, as closely as possible, the thermal and neutronic environment expected in a power-producing reactor. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) reference core design for the Center for Neutron Research (CNR) reactor provides for instrumented facilities in regions of both hard and mixed neutron spectra, with substantially higher fluxes than are currently available. The benefits of these new facilities to the development of radiation damage resistant materials are discussed in terms of the major US fission and fusionreactor programs.

Through the innovative design of a novel end plug scheme employing octopole MHD stabilization, we present the conceptual design of ''MIMIMARS'', a small commercial fusionreactor based on the tandem mirror principle. The current baseline for MINIMARS has a net electric output of 600 MWe and we have configured the design for short construction times, factory-built modules, inherently safe blanket systems, and multiplexing in station sizes of approx. 600 to 2400 MWe. We demonstrate that the compact octopole end cell provides a number of advantages over the more conventional quadrupole (yin-yang) end cell encountered in the MARS tandem mirror reactor study, and enables ignition to be achieved with much shorter central cell lengths. Accordingly, being economic in small sizes, MINIMARS provides an attractive alternative to the more conventional larger conceptual fusionreactors encountered to date, and would contribute significantly to the lowering of utility financial risk in a developingfusion economy.

A packed fluidized bed blanket for a fusionreactor providing for efficient radiation absorption for energy recovery, efficient neutron absorption for nuclear transformations, ease of blanket removal, processing and replacement, and on-line fueling/refueling. The blanket of the reactor contains a bed of stationary particles during reactor operation, cooled by a radial flow of coolant. During fueling/refueling, an axial flow is introduced into the bed in stages at various axial locations to fluidize the bed. When desired, the fluidization flow can be used to remove particles from the blanket.

Large pedestrian dinosaurs have long been extinct, while flying dinosaurs have evolved from the archaeopteryx to the common sparrow. Removal of superfluous constraints was the key. In order for soi-disant intelligent life to have emerged on Earth, fusion-power emission from our Sun must have been kept sufficiently feeble and slow-changing (c.f., Bethe's Carbon-Cycle) so as to allow time for non-trivial evolution. By contrast, any economically viable fusion-reactor scheme must use some fast-burning fuel (e.g. D-D,D-T,etc.), so as to elude the economic constraints of excessive single-unit size and cost. The quest for livelier fusion fuel tends to motivate various departures from a strictly thermalized ``Maxwellian'' reactor-plasma distribution. Illustrative material will include specific options for applying the joint resources of the international ``Three-Large-Tokamak Collaboration''.

Vanadium-base alloys offer potentially significant advantages over other candidate alloys as a structural material for fusionreactor first wall/blanket applications. Although the data base is more limited than that for the other leading candidate structural materials, viz., austenitic and ferritic steels, vanadium-base alloys exhibit several properties that make them particularly attractive for the fusionreactor environment. This paper presents a review of the structural material requirements, a summary of the materials data base for selected vanadium-base alloys, and a comparison of projected performance characteristics compared to other candidate alloys. Also, critical research and development (R and D) needs are defined.

Improved methods for cryopumping helium were developed for application to fusionreactors where high helium generation rates are expected. In this study, small coconut charcoal granules were utilized as the sorbent, and braze alloys and low temperature curing cements were used as the bonding agents for attachment to a copper support structure. Problems of scale-up of the bonding agent to a 40 cm diam panel were also investigated. Our results indicate that acceptable helium pumping performance of braze bonded and cement bonded charcoals can be achieved over the range of operating conditions expected in fusionreactors.

In a PHYSOR 2010 paper(1) we introduced a fusion hybrid reactor whose fusion component is the gasdynamic mirror (GDM), and whose blanket was made of thorium - 232. The thrust of that study was to demonstrate the performance of such a reactor by establishing the breeding of uranium - 233 in the blanket, and the burning thereof to produce power. In that analysis, we utilized the diffusion equation for one-energy neutron group, namely, those produced by the fusion reactions, to establish the power distribution and density in the system. Those results should be viewed as a first approximation since the high energy neutrons are not effective in inducing fission, but contribute primarily to the production of actinides. In the presence of a coolant, however, such as water, these neutrons tend to thermalize rather quickly, hence a better assessment of the reactor performance would require at least a two group analysis, namely the fast and thermal groups. We follow that approach and write an approximate set of equations for the fluxes of these groups. From these relations we deduce the all-important quantity, k{sub eff}, which we utilize to compute the multiplication factor, and subsequently, the power density in the reactor. We show that k{sub eff} can be made to have a value of 0.99, thus indicating that 100 thermal neutrons are generated per fusion neutron, while allowing the system to function as 'subcritical.' Moreover, we show that such a hybrid reactor can generate hundreds of megawatts of thermal power per cm of length depending on the flux of the fusion neutrons impinging on the blanket. (authors)

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) Lithium Blanket Module (LBM) program is a first-of-kind neutronics experiment involving a toroidal fusion neutron source. Qualification experiments have been conducted to develop primary measurement techniques and verify dosimetry materials that will be used to characterize the neutron environment inside and on the surfaces of the LBM. The deuterium-tritium simulation experiments utilizing a 14-MeV neutron generator and a fusion blanket mockup facility at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory are described. Results and discussions are presented that identify the quality and limitations of the measured integral reaction data, including the minimum fluence requirement for the TFTR experiment.

A first-wall or first-wall coating for use in a fusionreactor having polarized fuel may be formed of a low-Z non-metallic material having slow spin relaxation, i.e., a depolarization rate greater than 1 sec/sup -1/. Materials having these properties include hydrogenated and deuterated amorphous semiconductors. A method for preventing the rapid depolarization of a polarized plasma in a fusion device may comprise the step of providing a first-wall or first-wall coating formed of a low-Z, non-metallic material having a depolarization rate greater than 1 sec/sup -1/.

The Tandem Mirror exhibits several distinctive features which make the reactor embodiment of the principle very attractive: Simple low-technology linear central cell; steady-state operation; high-..beta.. operation; no driven current or disruptions; divertorless operation; direction conversion of end-loss power; low-surface heat loads; and advanced fusion fuel capability. In this paper, we examine these features in connection with two tandem mirror reactor designs, MARS and MINIMARS, and several advanced reactor concepts including the wall-stabilized reactor and the field-reversed mirror. With a novel compact end plug scheme employing octopole stabilization, MINIMARS is expressly designed for short construction times, factory-built modules, and a small (600 MWe) but economic reactor size. We have also configured the design for low radioactive afterheat and inherent/passive safety under LOCA/LOFA conditions, thereby obviating the need for expensive engineered safety systems. In contrast to the complex and expensive double-quadrupole end-cell of the MARS reactor, the compact octopole end-cell of MINIMARS enables ignition to be achieved with much shorter central cell lengths and considerably improves the economy of scale for small (approx.250 to 600 MWe) tandem mirror reactors. Finally, we examine the prospects for realizing the ultimate potential of the tandem mirror with regard to both innovative configurations and novel neutron energy conversion schemes, and stress that advanced fuel applications could exploit its unique reactor features.

The Colliding Beam FusionReactor Space Propulsion System, CBFR-SPS, is an aneutronic, magnetic-field-reversed configuration, fueled by an energetic-ion mixture of hydrogen and boron11 (H-B11). Particle confinement and transport in the CBFR-SPS are classical, hence the system is scaleable. Fusion products are helium ions, α-particles, expelled axially out of the system. α-particles flowing in one direction are decelerated and their energy recovered to ``power'' the system; particles expelled in the opposite direction provide thrust. Since the fusion products are charged particles, the system does not require the use of a massive-radiation shield. This paper describes a 100 MW CBFR-SPS design, including estimates for the propulsion-system parameters and masses. Specific emphasis is placed on the design of a closed-cycle, Brayton-heat engine, consisting of heat-exchangers, turbo-alternator, compressor, and finned radiators.

In a fusionreactor a hot plasma of deuterium and tritium is confined by a strong magnetic field to produce helium ions and release energetic neutrons. The 3D geometry of a stellarator provides configurations for such a device that reduce net toroidal current that might lead to disruptions. We construct smooth coils generating an external magnetic field designed to prevent the plasma from deteriorating. PMID:17640879

In a fusionreactor a hot plasma of deuterium and tritium is confined by a strong magnetic field to produce helium ions and release energetic neutrons. The 3D geometry of a stellarator provides configurations for such a device that reduce net toroidal current that might lead to disruptions. We construct smooth coils generating an external magnetic field designed to prevent the plasma from deteriorating. PMID:17640879

Depolarization mechanisms arising from the recycling of the polarized fuel at the limiter and the first-wall of a fusionreactor are greater than those mechanisms in the plasma. Rapid depolarization of the plasma is prevented by providing a first-wall or first-wall coating formed of a low-Z, non-metallic material having a depolarization rate greater than 1 sec.sup.-1.

The economic prospects for magnetic fusion energy can be dramatically improved if for the same total power output the fusion neutron first-wall (FW) loading and the system power density can be increased by factors of 3 to 5 and 10 to 30, respectively. A number of compact fusionreactor embodiments have been proposed, all of which would operate with increased FW loadings, would use thin (0.5 to 0.6 m) blankets, and would confine quasi-steady-state plasma with resistive, water-cooled copper or aluminum coils. Increased system power density (5 to 15 MWt/m/sup 3/ versus 0.3 to 0.5 MW/m/sup 3/), considerably reduced physical size of the fusion power core (FPC), and appreciably reduced economic leverage exerted by the FPC and associated physics result. The unique materials requirements anticipated for these compact reactors are outlined against the well documented backdrop provided by similar needs for the mainline approaches. Surprisingly, no single materials need that is unique to the compact systems is identified; crucial uncertainties for the compact approaches must also be addressed by the mainline approaches, particularly for in-vacuum components (FWs, limiters, divertors, etc.).

After summarizing the economic and utility-based rationale for compact, higher-power-density fusionreactors, the gun-sustained spheromak concept is explored as one of a number of poloidal-field-dominated confinement configurations that might improve the prospects for economically attractive and operationally simplified fusion power plants. Using a comprehensive physics/engineering/costing model for the spheromak, guided by realistic engineering constraints and physics extrapolation, a range of cost-optimized reactor design points is presented, and the sensitivity of cost to key physics, engineering, and operational variables is reported. The results presented herein provide the basis for conceptual engineering designs of key fusion-power-core (FPC) subsystems and more detailed plasma modeling of this promising, high mass-power-density concept, which stresses single-piece FPC maintenance, steady-state current drive through electrostatic magnetic helicity injection, a simplified co-axial electrode-divertor, and efficient resistive-coal equilibrium-field coils. The optimal FPC size and the cost estimates project a system that competes aggressively with the best offered by alternative energy sources while simplifying considerably the complexity that has generally been associated with most approaches to magnetic fusion energy.

In this paper, a series of neutronics analysis of hybrid power reactor is proposed. The ideas of loading different fuels in a modular-type fission blanket is analyzed, fitting different level of fusiondevelopments, i.e., the current experimental power output, the level can be obtained in the coming future and the high-power fusionreactor like ITER. The energy multiplication of fission blankets and tritium breeding ratio are evaluated as the criterion of design. The analysis is implemented based on the D-type simplified model, aiming to find a feasible 1000MWe hybrid power reactor for 5 years' lifetime. Three patterns are analyzed: 1) for the low fusion power, the reprocessed fuel is chosen. The fuel with high plutonium content is loaded to achieve large energy multiplication. 2) For the middle fusion power, the spent fuel from PWRs can be used to realize about 30 times energy multiplication. 3) For the high fusion power, the natural uranium can be directly used and about 10 times energy multiplication can be achieved.

Neutral beams for magnetic fusionreactors are at an early stage of development, and require considerable effort to make them into the large, reliable, and efficient systems needed for future power plants. To optimize their performance to establish specific goals for component development, systematic analysis of the beamlines is essential. Three ion source characteristics are discussed: arc-cathode life, gas efficiency, and beam divergence, and their significance in a high-energy neutral-beam system is evaluated.

Organic materials requirements for fusion-reactor magnets are described with reference to the temperature, radiation, and electrical and mechanical stress environment expected in these magnets. A review is presented of the response to gamma-ray and neutron irradiation at low temperatures of candidate organic materials; i.e. laminates, thin films, and potting compounds. Lifetime-limiting features of this response as well as needed testing under magnet operating conditions not yet adequately investigated are identified and recomendations for future work are made.

Demountable vacuum seals for fusionreactor applications must be compatible with the reactor environment, easily scalable, very reliable and readily maintained by remote handling methods. We are investigating gate valves as well as flanges in our efforts to provide such seals. They are all metal and scalable without becoming massive and require no axial fasteners. Preliminary tests on an initial 30 cm aluminum flange using no soft metal coatings or gaskets have given several vacuum tight closures. Weld fatigue of this preliminary design caused degradation of the seal with further cycling to leakage levels of 10/sup -6/ Tl/sec, which is acceptable with differential pumping for either valves or flanges. Additional flange pairs using slightly altered geometry, fabrication techniques, and seal plating materials will be tested and reported on.

The ITER, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, which will be built in Cadarache in France, has finally started this year, 2006. Since the thermal energy produced by fusion reactions divided by the external heating power, i.e., the Q value, will be larger than 10, this is a big step of the fusion research for half a century trying to tame the nuclear fusion for the 6.5 Billion people on the Earth. The source of the Sun's power is lasting steadily and safely for 8 Billion years. As a potentially safe environmentally friendly and economically competitive energy source, fusion should provide a sustainable future energy supply for all mankind for ten thousands of years. At the frontier of fusion research important milestones are recently marked on a long road toward a true prototype fusionreactor. In its own merits, research into harnessing turbulent burning plasmas and thereby controlling fusion reaction, is one of the grand challenges of complex systems science. After a brief overview of a status of world fusion projects, a focus is given on fusion research at the National Institute for Fusion Science (NIFS) in Japan, which is playing a role of the Inter University Institute, the coordinating Center of Excellence for academic fusion research and by the Large Helical Device (LHD), the world's largest superconducting heliotron device, as a National Users' facility. The current status of LHD project is presented focusing on the experimental program and the recent achievements in basic parameters and in steady state operations. Since, its start in a year 1998, a remarkable progress has presently resulted in the temperature of 140 Million degree, the highest density of 500 Thousand Billion/cc with the internal density barrier (IDB) and the highest steady average beta of 4.5% in helical plasma devices and the largest total input energy of 1.6 GJ, in all magnetic confinement fusion devices. Finally, a perspective is given of the ITER Broad Approach program

Activated corrosion and neutron sputtering products will enter the coolant and/or tritium breeding material of fusionreactor power plants and experiments and cause personnel access problems. Radiation levels around plant components due to these products will cause difficulties with maintenance and repair operations throughout the plant. Similar problems are experienced around fission reactor systems. The determination of the transport of radioactive corrosion and neutron sputtering products through the system is achieved using the computer code RAPTOR. This code calculates the mass transfer of a number of activation products based on the corrosion and sputtering rates through the system, the deposition and release characteristics of various plant components, the neturon flux spectrum, as well as other plant parameters. RAPTOR assembles a system of first order linear differential equations into a matrix equation based upon the reactor system parameters. Included in the transfer matrix are the deposition and erosion coefficients, and the decay and activation data for the various plant nodes and radioactive isotopes. A source vector supplies the corrosion and neutron sputtering source rates. This matrix equation is then solved using a matrix operator technique to give the specific activity distribution of each radioactive species throughout the plant. Once the amount of mass transfer is determined, the photon transport due to the radioactive corrosion and sputtering product sources can be evaluated, and dose rates around the plant components of interest as a function of time can be determined. This method has been used to estimate the radiation hazards around a number of fusionreactor system designs.

A compact diamond neutral particle spectrometer with digital signal processing has been developed for fast charge-exchange atoms and neutrons measurements at ITER fusionreactor conditions. This spectrometer will play supplementary role for Neutral Particle Analyzer providing 10 ms time and 30 keV energy resolutions for fast particle spectra in non-tritium ITER phase. These data will also be implemented for independent studies of fast ions distribution function evolution in various plasma scenarios with the formation of a single fraction of high-energy ions. In tritium ITER phase the DNPS will measure 14 MeV neutrons spectra. The spectrometer with digital signal processing can operate at peak counting rates reaching a value of 106 cps. Diamond neutral particle spectrometer is applicable to future fusionreactors due to its high radiation hardness, fast response and high energy resolution.

Recent experiments, have shown the practically of using activated charcoal (coconut charcoal) at 4{degrees}K to pump helium and hydrogen isotopes for a fusionreactor. Both speed and capacity for deuterium/helium and tritium/helium-3 mixtures were shown to be satisfactory. The long term effects of tritium on the charcoal/cement system developed by Grumman and LLNL were not known and a program was undertaken to see what, if any, effect long term tritium exposure has on the cryosorber. Several charcoal on aluminum test samples were subjected to six months exposure of tritium at approximately 77{degrees}K. The tritium was scanned several times with a residual gas analyzer and the speed-capacity performance of the samples was measured before, approximately half way through and after the exposure. Modest effects were noted which would not seriously restrict charcoal's use as a cryosorber for fusionreactor high vacuum pumping applications. 4 refs., 8 figs.

A compact diamond neutral particle spectrometer with digital signal processing has been developed for fast charge-exchange atoms and neutrons measurements at ITER fusionreactor conditions. This spectrometer will play supplementary role for Neutral Particle Analyzer providing 10 ms time and 30 keV energy resolutions for fast particle spectra in non-tritium ITER phase. These data will also be implemented for independent studies of fast ions distribution function evolution in various plasma scenarios with the formation of a single fraction of high-energy ions. In tritium ITER phase the DNPS will measure 14 MeV neutrons spectra. The spectrometer with digital signal processing can operate at peak counting rates reaching a value of 10{sup 6} cps. Diamond neutral particle spectrometer is applicable to future fusionreactors due to its high radiation hardness, fast response and high energy resolution.

The energy confinement time of tokamak plasmas scales positively with plasma size and so it is generally expected that the fusion triple product, nTτ E, will also increase with size, and this has been part of the motivation for building devices of increasing size including ITER. Here n, T, and τ E are the ion density, ion temperature and energy confinement time respectively. However, tokamak plasmas are subject to operational limits and two important limits are a density limit and a beta limit. We show that when these limits are taken into account, nTτ E becomes almost independent of size; rather it depends mainly on the fusion power, P fus. In consequence, the fusion power gain, Q fus, a parameter closely linked to nTτ E is also independent of size. Hence, P fus and Q fus, two parameters of critical importance in reactor design, are actually tightly coupled. Further, we find that nTτ E is inversely dependent on the normalised beta, β N; an unexpected result that tends to favour lower power reactors. Our findings imply that the minimum power to achieve fusionreactor conditions is driven mainly by physics considerations, especially energy confinement, while the minimum device size is driven by technology and engineering considerations. Through dedicated R&D and parallel developments in other fields, the technology and engineering aspects are evolving in a direction to make smaller devices feasible.

Expressions are developed to allow ready comparison of a hybrid fission-fusion plant and a fast breeder with respect to the number of thermal reactors that their fissile production could support, both for their feed requirements and for the new inventory needs of an expanding industry. These relations are expressed in terms of the neutron multiplication factor obtained in the fusion blanket, and the analogous quantities represented by the conversion ratios of the fast and thermal fission associated with the comparison. Results are presented graphically both for the steady state and for industries of arbitrary growth rate, and include the influence of tritium production requirements. Even a modest blanket neutron multiplication factor could enable the hybrid fusion system greatly to outperform the fast breeder on this simple basis of material balances. PMID:17831749

Ion channeling is a recent idea for improving the performance of fusionreactors by increasing the fraction of the fusion power deposited in the ions. In this paper the authors assess the effect of ion channeling on D-T and D-{sup 3}He reactors. The figures of merit used are the fusion power density and the cost of electricity. It is seen that significant ion channeling can lead to about a 50-65% increase in the fusion power density. For the Apollo D-{sup 3}He reactor concept the reduction in the cost of electricity can be as large as 30%.

This report presents a two-year LDRD research effort into multisensor data fusion. We approached the problem by addressing the available types of data, preprocessing that data, and developingfusion algorithms using that data. The report reflects these three distinct areas. First, the possible data sets for fusion are identified. Second, automated registration techniques for imagery data are analyzed. Third, two fusion techniques are presented. The first fusion algorithm is based on the two-dimensional discrete wavelet transform. Using test images, the wavelet algorithm is compared against intensity modulation and intensity-hue-saturation image fusion algorithms that are available in commercial software. The wavelet approach outperforms the other two fusion techniques by preserving spectral/spatial information more precisely. The wavelet fusion algorithm was also applied to Landsat Thematic Mapper and SPOT panchromatic imagery data. The second algorithm is based on a linear-regression technique. We analyzed the technique using the same Landsat and SPOT data.

The optimization problem consists of four key elements: a figure of merit for the reactor, a technique for estimating the neutronic performance of the blanket as a function of the design variables, constraints on the design variables and neutronic performance, and a method for optimizing the figure of merit subject to the constraints. The first reactor concept investigated uses a liquid lithium blanket for breeding tritium and a steel blanket to increase the fusion energy multiplication factor. The capital cost per unit of net electric power produced is minimized subject to constraints on the tritium breeding ratio and radiation damage rate. The optimal design has a 91-cm-thick lithium blanket denatured to 0.1% /sup 6/Li. The second reactor concept investigated uses a BeO neutron multiplier and a LiAlO/sub 2/ breeding blanket. The total blanket thickness is minimized subject to constraints on the tritium breeding ratio, the total neutron leakage, and the heat generation rate in aluminum support tendons. The optimal design consists of a 4.2-cm-thick BeO multiplier and 42-cm-thick LiAlO/sub 2/ breeding blanket enriched to 34% /sup 6/Li.

The paper reviews the progress of fusion research and its prospects for electricity generation. It starts with a reminder of the principles of thermonuclear fusion and a brief discussion of its potential role in the future of the world energy production. The reactions allowing energy production by fusion of nuclei in stars and on earth and the conditions required to sustain them are reviewed. At the high temperatures required for fusion (hundred millions kelvins), matter is completely ionized and has reached what is called its 4th state: the plasma state. The possible means to achieve these extreme temperatures is discussed. The remainder of the paper focuses on the most promising of these approaches, magnetic confinement. The operating principles of the presently most efficient machine of this type — the tokamak — is described in some detail. On the road to producing energy with fusion, a number of obstacles have to be overcome. The plasma, a fluid that reacts to electromagnetic forces and carries currents and charges, is a complex medium. Fusion plasma is strongly heated and is therefore a good example of a system far from equilibrium. A wide variety of instabilities can grow in this system and lead to self-organized structures and spontaneous cycles. Turbulence is generated that degrades the confinement and hinders easy achievement of long lasting hot plasmas. Physicists have learned how to quench turbulence, thereby creating sort of insulating bottles inside the plasma itself to circumvent this problem. The recent history of fusion performance is outlined and the prospect of achieving power generation by fusion in a near future is discussed in the light of the development of the "International Tokamak Experimental Reactor" project ITER.

This system study extrapolates present physics knowledge and technology to predict the anticipated characteristics of D-He3 spherical torus fusionreactors and their sensitivity to uncertainties in important parameters. Reference cases for steady-state 1000 MWe reactors operating in H-mode in both the 1st stability regime and the 2nd stability regime were developed and assessed quantitatively. These devices would a very small aspect ratio (A=1,2), a major radius of about 2.0 m, an on-axis magnetic field less than 2 T, a large plasma current (80-120 MA) dominated by the bootstrap effect, and high plasma beta (greater than O.6). The estimated cost of electricity is in the range of 60-90 mills/kW-hr, assuming the use of a direct energy conversion system. The inherent safety and environmental advantages of D-He3 fusion indicate that this reactor concept could be competitive with advanced fission breeder reactors and large-scale solar electric plants by the end of the 21st century if research and development can produce the anticipated physics and technology advances.

Apparatus is provided for controlling the plasma energy production rate of a magnetic-confinement fusionreactor, by controlling the magnetic field ripple. The apparatus includes a group of shield sectors formed of ferromagnetic material which has a temperature-dependent saturation magnetization, with each shield lying between the plasma and a toroidal field coil. A mechanism for controlling the temperature of the magnetic shields, as by controlling the flow of cooling water therethrough, thereby controls the saturation magnetization of the shields and therefore the amount of ripple in the magnetic field that confines the plasma, to thereby control the amount of heat loss from the plasma. This heat loss in turn determines the plasma state and thus the rate of energy production.

Apparatus is provided for controlling the plasma energy production rate of a magnetic-confinement fusionreactor, by controlling the magnetic field ripple. The apparatus includes a group of shield sectors (30a, 30b, etc.) formed of ferromagnetic material which has a temperature-dependent saturation magnetization, with each shield lying between the plasma (12) and a toroidal field coil (18). A mechanism (60) for controlling the temperature of the magnetic shields, as by controlling the flow of cooling water therethrough, thereby controls the saturation magnetization of the shields and therefore the amount of ripple in the magnetic field that confines the plasma, to thereby control the amount of heat loss from the plasma. This heat loss in turn determines the plasma state and thus the rate of energy production.

A laser target comprising a thermonuclear fuel capsule composed of a centrally located quantity of fuel surrounded by at least one or more layers or shells of material for forming an atmosphere around the capsule by a low energy laser prepulse. The fuel may be formed as a solid core or hollow shell, and, under certain applications, a pusher-layer or shell is located intermediate the fuel and the atmosphere forming material. The fuel is ignited by symmetrical implosion via energy produced by a laser, or other energy sources such as an electron beam machine or ion beam machine, whereby thermonuclear burn of the fuel capsule creates energy for applications such as generation of electricity via a laser fusionreactor.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) will complete its experimental lifetime with a series of deuterium-tritium pulses in 1994. As a result, the machine structures will become radioactive, and vacuum components will also be contaminated with tritium. Dose rate levels will range from less than 1 mr/h for external structures to hundreds of mr/h for the vacuum vessel. Hence, decommissioning operations will range from hands on activities to the use of remotely operated equipment. After 21 months of cool down, decontamination and decommissioning (D and D) operations will commence and continue for approximately 15 months. The primary objective is to render the test cell complex re-usable for the next machine, the Tokamak Physics Experiment (TPX). This paper presents an overview of decommissioning TFTR and discusses the D and D objectives.

In this paper, the results of an IEA-Workshop on Strategy and Planning of Fusion Materials Research and Development (R&D), held in October 1998 in Risø Denmark are summarised and further developed. Essential performance targets for materials to be used in first wall/breeding blanket components have been defined for the major materials groups under discussion: ferritic-martensitic steels, vanadium alloys and ceramic composites of the SiC/SiC-type. R&D strategies are proposed for their further development and qualification as reactor-relevant materials. The important role of existing irradiation facilities (mainly fission reactors) for materials testing within the next decade is described, and the limits for the transfer of results from such simulation experiments to fusion-relevant conditions are addressed. The importance of a fusion-relevant high-intensity neutron source for the development of structural as well as breeding and special purpose materials is elaborated and the reasons for the selection of an accelerator-driven D-Li-neutron source - the International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility (IFMIF) - as an appropriate test bed are explained. Finally the necessity to execute the materials programme for fusion in close international collaboration, presently promoted by the International Energy Agency, IEA is emphasised.

Recently the National Academy of Engineering published a set of Grand Challenges in Engineering in which the second item listed was entitled 'Provide energy from fusion'. Clearly a key component of this challenge is the science and technology associated with creating and maintaining burning plasmas. This is being vigorously addressed with both magnetic and inertial approaches with various experiments such as ITER and NIF. Considerably less attention is being given to another key component of this challenge, namely engineering the first wall that will contain the burning plasma. This is a daunting problem requiring technologies and materials that can not only survive, but also perform multiple essential functions in this extreme environment. These functions are (1) shield the remainder of the device from radiation. (2) convert of neutron energy to useful heat and (3) breed and extract tritium to maintain the reactor fuel supply. The first wall must not contaminate the plasma with impurities. It must be infused with cooling to maintain acceptable temperatures on plasma facing and structural components. It must not degrade. It must avoid excessive build-up of tritium on surfaces, and, if surface deposits do form, must be receptive to cleaning techniques. All these functions and constraints must be met while being subjected to nuclear and thermal radiation, particle bombardment, high magnetic fields, thermal cycling and occasional impingement of plasma on the surface. And, operating in a nuclear environment, the first wall must be fully maintainable by remotely-operated manipulators. Elements of the first wall challenge have been studied since the 1970' s both in the US and internationally. Considerable foundational work has been performed on plasma facing materials and breeding blanket/shield modules. Work has included neutronics, materials fabrication and joining, fluid flow, tritium breeding, tritium recovery and containment, energy conversion, materials damage and

The purpose of this paper is to indicate the general direction of current fusionreactor concepts regarding tritium, and to indicate some options in tritium control strategies. Certain strategies, in addition to providing reduced potential health hazard, afford the potential for engineering alternatives for in-plant tritium control systems. The overall coupling of containment cleanup systems and health protection must continue to develop with increased knowledge of the health effects of different tritium species and the consequent systems options available subsequent to this understanding.

The optimum material has not yet been identified. This will result in heat from plasma to the first wall and divertor. That is, because of cracks and melting by thermal power and shock. Today, it is considered to be some kinds of copper, alloys, however, for using, it must have high conductivity. And it is also needed another property, for example, high strength and so on. We have developed some new beryllium copper alloys with high conductivity, high strength, and high endurance. Therefore, we are introducing these new alloys as suitable materials for the heat sink in fusionreactors.

Past trends, present status, and future directions in the search for an improved fusionreactor are reviewed, and promising options available to both the principle tokamak and other supporting concept are summarized.

A hybrid fusion-fission reactor for the transmutation of spent nuclear fuel is being developed at Georgia Tech. The Subcritical Advanced Burner Reactor (SABR) is a 3000 MWth sodium-cooled, metal TRU-Zr fueled fast reactor driven by a tokamak fusion neutron source based on ITER physics and technology. We are investigating the accident dynamics of SABR's coupled fission, fusion and heat removal systems to explore the safety characteristics of a hybrid reactor. Possible accident scenarios such as loss of coolant mass flow (LOFA), of power (LOPA) and of heat sink (LOHSA), as well as inadvertent reactivity insertions and fusion source excursion are being analyzed using the RELAP5-3D code, the ATHENA version of which includes liquid metal coolants.

It is concluded that He-3 blankets offers considerable promise for tritium breeding in fusionreactors: good breeding potential, low operational risk, and attractive safety features. The availability of He-3 resources is the key issue for this concept. There is sufficient He-3 from decay of military stockpiles to meet the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor needs. Extraterrestrial sources of He-3 would be required for a fusion power economy.

We describe a space propulsion system based on the Colliding Beam FusionReactor (CBFR). The CBFR is a high-beta, field-reversed, magnetic configuration with ion energies in the range of hundreds of keV. Repetitively-pulsed ion beams sustain the plasma distribution and provide current drive. The confinement physics is based on the Vlasov-Maxwell equation, including a Fokker Planck collision operator and all sources and sinks for energy and particle flow. The mean azimuthal velocities and temperatures of the fuel ion species are equal and the plasma current is unneutralized by the electrons. The resulting distribution functions are thermal in a moving frame of reference. The ion gyro-orbit radius is comparable to the dimensions of the confinement system, hence classical transport of the particles and energy is expected and the device is scaleable. We have analyzed the design over a range of 106-109 Watts of output power (0.15-150 Newtons thrust) with a specific impulse of, Isp~106 sec. A 50 MW propulsion system might involve the following parameters: 4-meters diameter×10-meters length, magnetic field ~7 Tesla, ion beam current ~10 A, and fuels of either D-He3,P-B11,P-Li6,D-Li6, etc. .

Fusionreactors will soon be employing superconducting magnets to confine plasma in which deuterium and tritium (D-T) are fused to produce usable energy. At present there is one small confinement experiment with superconducting toroidal field (TF) coils: Tokamak 7 (T-7), in the USSR, which operates at 4 T. By 1983, six different 2.5 x 3.5-m D-shaped coils from six manufacturers in four countries will be assembled in a toroidal array in the Large Coil Test Facility (LCTF) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) for testing at fields up to 8 T. Soon afterwards ELMO Bumpy Torus (EBT-P) will begin operation at Oak Ridge with superconducting TF coils. At the same time there will be tokamaks with superconducting TF coils 2 to 3 m in diameter in the USSR and France. Toroidal field strength in these machines will range from 6 to 9 T. NbTi and Nb/sub 3/Sn, bath cooling and forced flow, cryostable and metastable - various designs are being tried in this period when this new application of superconductivity is growing and maturing.

Results of a conceptual design study of a /sup 233/U-producing fusion breeder are presented. The majority of the study was devoted to conceptual design and evaluation of a fission-suppressed blanket and to fuel cycle issues such as fuel reprocessing, fuel handling, and fuel management. Studies in the areas of fusion engineering, reactor safety, and economics were also performed.

In this study, we developed new models for liquid wall (FW) state at ARIES-ST fusionreactor systems. ARIES-ST is a 1,000 MWe fusionreactor system based on a low aspect ratio ST plasma. In this article, we analyzed the characteristic properties of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and heat transfer conditions by using Monte-Carlo simulation methods (ARIES Team et al. in Fusion Eng Des 49-50:689-695, 2000; Tillack et al. in Fusion Eng Des 65:215-261, 2003) . In fusion applications, liquid metals are traditionally considered to be the best working fluids. The working liquid must be a lithium-containing medium in order to provide adequate tritium that the plasma is self-sustained and that the fusion is a renewable energy source. As for Flibe free surface flows, the MHD effects caused by interaction with the mean flow is negligible, while a fairly uniform flow of thick can be maintained throughout the reactor based on 3-D MHD calculations. In this study, neutronic parameters, that is to say, energy multiplication factor radiation, heat flux and fissile fuel breeding were researched for fusionreactor with various thorium and uranium molten salts. Sufficient tritium amount is needed for the reactor to work itself. In the tritium breeding ratio (TBR) >1.05 ARIES-ST fusion model TBR is >1.1 so that tritium self-sufficiency is maintained for DT fusion systems (Starke et al. in Fusion Energ Des 84:1794-1798, 2009; Najmabadi et al. in Fusion Energ Des 80:3-23, 2006).

A design is presented for a subcritical, He-cooled fast reactor, driven by a tokamak D-T fusion neutron source, for the transmutation of spent nuclear fuel (SNF). The reactor is fueled with coated transuranic (TRU) particles and is intended for the deep-burn (>90%) transmutation of the TRUs in SNF without reprocessing of the coated fuel particles. The reactor design is based on the materials, fuel, and separations technologies under near-term development in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Energy Program and on the plasma physics and fusion technologies under near-term development in the DOE Fusion Energy Sciences Program, with the objective of intermediate-term ({approx}2040) deployment. The physical and performance characteristics and research and development requirements of such a reactor are described.

In the development of magnetically confined fusion as an economically sustainable power source, International Tokamak Experimental Reactor (ITER) is currently under construction. Beyond ITER is the demonstration fusionreactor (DEMO) programme in which the physics and engineering aspects of a future fusion power plant will be demonstrated. DEMO will produce net electrical power. The DEMO programme will be outlined and the role of neutral beams for heating and current drive will be described. In particular, the importance of the efficiency of neutral beam systems in terms of injected neutral beam power compared to wallplug power will be discussed. Options for improving this efficiency including advanced neutralisers and energy recovery are discussed.

In the development of magnetically confined fusion as an economically sustainable power source, International Tokamak Experimental Reactor (ITER) is currently under construction. Beyond ITER is the demonstration fusionreactor (DEMO) programme in which the physics and engineering aspects of a future fusion power plant will be demonstrated. DEMO will produce net electrical power. The DEMO programme will be outlined and the role of neutral beams for heating and current drive will be described. In particular, the importance of the efficiency of neutral beam systems in terms of injected neutral beam power compared to wallplug power will be discussed. Options for improving this efficiency including advanced neutralisers and energy recovery are discussed. PMID:24593596

The power profile in the blanket material of a nuclear fusionreactor can be simulated by using microwaves at 200 MHz. Using these microwaves, ceramic breeder materials can be thermally tested to determine their acceptability as blanket materials without entering a nuclear fusion environment. A resonating cavity design is employed which can achieve uniform cross sectional heating in the plane transverse to the neutron flux. As the sample size increases in height and width, higher order modes, above the dominant mode, are propagated and destroy the approximation to the heating produced in a fusionreactor. The limits at which these modes develop are determined in the paper.

This is the fifteenth in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following progress reports: Alloy Development for Irradiation Performance; Damage Analysis and Fundamental Studies; Special purpose Materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials programs being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the U.S. Department of Energy. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of the program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the rest of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

The HYLIFE-II inertial fusion power plant design study uses a liquid fall, in the form of jets to protect the first structural wall from neutron damage, x-rays, and blast to provide a 30-y lifetime. HYLIFE-I used liquid lithium. HYLIFE-II avoids the fire hazard of lithium by using a molten salt composed of fluorine, lithium, and beryllium (Li{sub 2}BeF{sub 4}) called Flibe. Access for heavy-ion beams is provided. Calculations for assumed heavy-ion beam performance show a nominal gain of 70 at 5 MJ producing 350 MJ, about 5.2 times less yield than the 1.8 GJ from a driver energy of 4.5 MJ with gain of 400 for HYLIFE-I. The nominal 1 GWe of power can be maintained by increasing the repetition rate by a factor of about 5.2, from 1.5 to 8 Hz. A higher repetition rate requires faster re-establishment of the jets after a shot, which can be accomplished in part by decreasing the jet fall height and increasing the jet flow velocity. Multiple chambers may be required. In addition, although not considered for HYLIFE-I, there is undoubtedly liquid splash that must be forcibly cleared because gravity is too slow, especially at high repetition rates. Splash removal can be accomplished by either pulsed or oscillating jet flows. The cost of electricity is estimated to be 0.09$/kW{center dot}h in constant 1988 dollars, about twice that of future coal and light water reactor nuclear power. The driver beam cost is about one-half the total cost. 12 refs., 9 figs., 5 tabs.

Tritium management is a key enabling element in fusion technology. Tritium fuel was used in 3.5 years of successful deuterium-tritium (D-T) operations in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. The D-T campaign enabled TFTR to explore the transport, alpha physics, and MHD stability of a reactor core. It also provided experience with tritium retention and removal that highlighted the importance of these issues in future D-T machines. In this paper, the authors summarize the tritium retention and removal experience in TFTR and its implications for future reactors.

Fibre optical current sensor (FOCS) is a promising alternative to inductive sensors for the measurement of the plasma current in future thermonuclear fusionreactors. Standard FOCS relies on the measurement of the state of polarisation (SOP) of light at the output of an optical bre surrounding a current. Because of the Faraday eect, magnetic eld induced by electrical current rotates the SOP of light travelling into the bre. According to the Ampere's theorem this rotation is proportional to the surrounded current. In future tokamaks like ITER and DEMO, the plasma current will be suciently high to generate a rotation of the SOP higher than 2 radians. These conditions may lead to uncertainties on the determination of the plasma current if no post processing is performed. In this paper we propose a solution with a Polarisation Optical Time Domain Re ectometer (POTDR) setup allowing both unambiguous plasma current measurement and also local magnetic eld measurements. This measurement is based on the assessment of the SOP rotation of the Rayleigh backscattered POTDR signal. Thanks to the presence of an input polarizer, SOP variations are converted into power uctuations that contain information about the distribution of the magnetic eld and therefore about the plasma current. Using the Jones formalism we have developed a model accounting for the modication of the SOP of light travelling into the optical bre and the evolution of the POTDR signal. In parallel experimental PODTR measurements have been performed on the Tore Supra tokamak situated at CEA Cadarache in France. A comparison between the models and the experimental results conrms the capability of the system to measure the plasma current and the local magnetic eld even if further data post processing are still required.

The projected cost of electricity (COE) for fusion is compared with that from current and advanced nuclear fission and coal-fired plants. Fusion cost models were adjusted for consistency with advanced fission plants and the calculational methodology and cost factors follow guidelines recommended for cost comparisons of advanced fission reactors. The results show COEs of about 59--74 mills/kWh for the fusion designs considered. In comparison, COEs for future fission reactors are estimated to be in the 43--54 mills/kWh range with coal-fired plant COEs of about 53--69 mills/kWh ($2--3/GJ coal). The principal cost driver for the fusion plants relative to fission plants is the fusion island cost. Although the estimated COEs for fusion are greater than those for fission or coal, the costs are not so high as to preclude fusion's competitiveness as a safe and environmentally sound alternative.

JAEA (Japan Atomic Energy Agency) manages 2 tritium handling laboratories: Tritium Processing Laboratory (TPL) in Tokai and DEMO-RD building in Rokkasho. TPL has been accumulating a gram level tritium safety handling experiences without any accidental tritium release to the environment for more than 25 years. Recently, our activities have focused on 3 categories, as follows. First, the development of a detritiation system for ITER. This task is the demonstration test of a wet Scrubber Column (SC) as a pilot scale (a few hundreds m{sup 3}/h of processing capacity). Secondly, DEMO-RD tasks are focused on investigating the general issues required for DEMO-RD design, such as structural materials like RAFM (Reduced Activity Ferritic/Martensitic steels) and SiC/SiC, functional materials like tritium breeder and neutron multiplier, and tritium. For the last 4 years, we have spent a lot of time and means to the construction of the DEMO-RD facility and to its licensing, so we have just started the actual research program with tritium and other radioisotopes. This tritium task includes tritium accountancy, tritium basic safety research such as tritium interactions with various materials, which will be used for DEMO-RD and durability. The third category is the recovery work from the Great East Japan earthquake (2011 earthquake). It is worth noting that despite the high magnitude of the earthquake, TPL was able to confine tritium properly without any accidental tritium release.

Beryllium and tungsten have been selected as the plasma facing materials of the ITER first wall (FW) and divertor chamber, respectively. China, as a participant in ITER, will share the manufacturing tasks of ITER first-wall mockups with the European Union and Russia. Therefore ITER-grade beryllium has been developed in China and a kind of vacuum hot-pressed (VHP) beryllium, CN-G01, was characterized for both physical, and thermo-mechanical properties and high heat flux performance, which indicated an equivalent performance to U.S. grade S-65C beryllium, a reference grade beryllium of ITER. Consequently CN-G01 beryllium has been accepted as the armor material of ITER-FW blankets. In addition, a modification of tungsten by TiC dispersion strengthening was investigated and a W-TiC alloy with TiC content of 0.1 wt.% has been developed. Both surface hardness and recrystallization measurements indicate its re-crystallization temperature approximately at 1773 K. Deuterium retention and thermal desorption behaviors of pure tungsten and the TiC alloy were also measured by deuterium ion irradiation of 1.7 keV energy to the fluence of 0.5-5 × 1018 D/cm2; a main desorption peak at around 573 K was found and no significant difference was observed between pure tungsten and the tungsten alloy. Further characterization of the tungsten alloy is in progress. Fundamental physical and mechanical properties. Comparative thermal performance tests with respect to the reference grade S-65C. The program for thermal performance behaviors included several tests such as thermal shock resistance capabilities, vertical displacement event (VDE) simulation testing and subsequent thermal shock tests, and thermal cyclic fatigue tests after VDE simulation testing.Table 1 lists the data for physical and thermo-mechanical properties of CN-G01 beryllium measured at ambient temperature, in which the data are the average values measured by at least three samples, the measure procedures and the data at

A Japan-USA Program of irradiation experiments for fusion research, "JUPITER", has been established as a 6 year program from 1995 to 2000. The goal is to study "the dynamic behavior of fusionreactor materials and their response to variable and complex irradiation environment". This is phase-three of the collaborative program, which follows RTNS-II Program (Phase-1: 1982-1986) and FFTF/MOTA Program (Phase-2: 1987-1994). This program is to provide a scientific basis for application of materials performance data, generated by fission reactor experiments, to anticipated fusion environments. Following the systematic study on cumulative irradiation effects, done through FFTF/MOTA Program, JUPITER is emphasizing the importance of dynamic irradiation effects on materials performance in fusion systems. The irradiation experiments in this program include low activation structural materials, functional ceramics and other innovative materials. The experimental data are analyzed by theoretical modeling and computer simulation to integrate the above effects.

The performance of NASA Lewis fusion experiments (SUMMA and Bumpy Torus) is compared with other experiments and that necessary for a power reactor. Key parameters cited are gain (fusion power/input power) and the time average fusion power, both of which may be more significant for real fusionreactors than the commonly used Lawson parameter. The NASA devices are over 10 orders of magnitude below the required powerplant values in both gain and time average power. The best experiments elsewhere are also as much as 4 to 5 orders of magnitude low. However, the NASA experiments compare favorably with other alternate approaches that have received less funding than the mainline experiments. The steady-state character and efficiency of plasma heating are strong advantages of the NASA approach. The problem, though, is to move ahead to experiments of sufficient size to advance in gain and average power parameters.

A review and evaluation of D-He(3) fusionreactor technology is presented. The advantages and disadvantages of the D-He(3) and D-T reactor cycles are outlined and compared. In addition, the general design features of D-He(3) tokamaks and field reversed configuration (FRC) reactors are described and the relative merits of each are compared. It is concluded that both tokamaks and FRC's offer certain advantages, and that the ultimate decision as to which to persue for terrestrial power generation will depend heavily on how the physics performance of each of them develops over the next few years. It is clear that the D-He(3) fuel cycle offers marked advantages over the D-T cycle. Although the physics requirements for D-He(3) are more demanding, the overwhelming advantages resulting from the two order of magnitude reduction of neutron flux are expected to lead to a shorter time to commercialization than for the D-T cycle.

One and two-dimensional neutronic analyses treating the transport and scattering of neutrons and the production and transport of gamma rays in the TFTR demonstrate that the fusion energy production in a D-T pulse in the TFTR can be determined with an uncertainty of +- 15% or less, simply by integrating the measured profile of temperature increase along the central radial axis of a large hydrocarbon moderator that fills the bay between adjacent toroidal-field coils, just outside the vacuum vessel. Limitations in thermopile temperature measurements dictate a minimum fusion-neutron fluence at the vacuum vessel of the order of 10/sup 12/ n/cm/sup 2/ per pulse (a source strength of 10/sup 18/ n/pulse in TFTR), in order that this simple calorimeter can provide useful accuracy.

The TITAN Reversed-Field Pinch (RFP) fusionreactor study is a multi-institutional research effort to determine the technical feasibility and key developmental issues of an RFP fusionreactor, especially at high power density, and to determine the potential economics, operations, safety, and environmental features of high-mass-power-density fusion systems. The TITAN conceptual designs are DT burning, 1000 MWe power reactors based on the RFP confinement concept. The designs are compact, have a high neutron wall loading of 18 MW/m{sup 2} and a mass power density of 700 kWe/tonne. The inherent characteristics of the RFP confinement concept make fusionreactors with such a high mass power density possible. Two different detailed designs have emerged: the TITAN-I lithium-vanadium design, incorporating the integrated-blanket-coil concept; and the TITAN-II aqueous loop-in-pool design with ferritic steel structure. This report contains a collection of 16 papers on the results of the TITAN study which were presented at the International Symposium on Fusion Nuclear Technology. This collection describes the TITAN research effort, and specifically the TITAN-I and TITAN-II designs, summarizing the major results, the key technical issues, and the central conclusions and recommendations. Overall, the basic conclusions are that high-mass power-density fusionreactors appear to be technically feasible even with neutron wall loadings up to 20 MW/m{sup 2}; that single-piece maintenance of the FPC is possible and advantageous; that the economics of the reactor is enhanced by its compactness; and the safety and environmental features need not to be sacrificed in high-power-density designs. The fact that two design approaches have emerged, and others may also be possible, in some sense indicates the robustness of the general findings.

The development of fusion energy is one of the important International energy strategies with the important milestone is ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) project, initiated by many countries, such as: America, Europe, and Japan who agreed to set up TOKAMAK type fusionreactor in France. In ideal fusionreactor the fuel is purely deuterium, but it need higher temperature of reactor. In ITER project the fuels are deuterium and tritium which need lower temperature of the reactor. In this study tritium for fusionreactor can be produced by using reaction of lithium with neutron in the blanket region. With the tritium breeding blanket which react between Li-6 in the blanket with neutron resulted from the plasma region. In this research the material used in each layer surrounding the plasma in the reactor is optimized. Moreover, achieving self-sufficiency condition in the reactor in order tritium has enough availability to be consumed for a long time. In order to optimize Tritium Breeding Ratio (TBR) value in the fusionreactor, there are several strategies considered here. The first requirement is making variation in Li-6 enrichment to be 60%, 70%, and 90%. But, the result of that condition can not reach TBR value better than with no enrichment. Because there is reduction of Li-7 percent when increasing Li-6 percent. The other way is converting neutron multiplier material with Pb. From this, we get TBR value better with the Be as neutron multiplier. Beside of TBR value, fusionreactor can analyze the distribution of neutron flux and dose rate of neutron to know the change of neutron concentration for each layer in reactor. From the simulation in this study, 97% neutron concentration can be absorbed by material in reactor, so it is good enough. In addition, it is required to analyze spectrum neutron energy in many layers in the fusionreactor such as in blanket, coolant, and divertor. Actually material in that layer can resist in high temperature

The development of fusion energy is one of the important International energy strategies with the important milestone is ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) project, initiated by many countries, such as: America, Europe, and Japan who agreed to set up TOKAMAK type fusionreactor in France. In ideal fusionreactor the fuel is purely deuterium, but it need higher temperature of reactor. In ITER project the fuels are deuterium and tritium which need lower temperature of the reactor. In this study tritium for fusionreactor can be produced by using reaction of lithium with neutron in the blanket region. With the tritium breeding blanket which react between Li-6 in the blanket with neutron resulted from the plasma region. In this research the material used in each layer surrounding the plasma in the reactor is optimized. Moreover, achieving self-sufficiency condition in the reactor in order tritium has enough availability to be consumed for a long time. In order to optimize Tritium Breeding Ratio (TBR) value in the fusionreactor, there are several strategies considered here. The first requirement is making variation in Li-6 enrichment to be 60%, 70%, and 90%. But, the result of that condition can not reach TBR value better than with no enrichment. Because there is reduction of Li-7 percent when increasing Li-6 percent. The other way is converting neutron multiplier material with Pb. From this, we get TBR value better with the Be as neutron multiplier. Beside of TBR value, fusionreactor can analyze the distribution of neutron flux and dose rate of neutron to know the change of neutron concentration for each layer in reactor. From the simulation in this study, 97% neutron concentration can be absorbed by material in reactor, so it is good enough. In addition, it is required to analyze spectrum neutron energy in many layers in the fusionreactor such as in blanket, coolant, and divertor. Actually material in that layer can resist in high temperature

A model has been developed which is capable to describe in a self consistent way the plasma dynamics in the centre and edge region of a fusionreactor. The core plasma is treated in the frame of the 0D model in which an empirical scaling law for the energy confinement time is included. The model accounts for energy losses due to Bremsstrahlung and line radiation as well as alpha particle heating. A 1D analytical model for plasma and impurity transport outside the last close magnetic surface (LCMS) is applied. The model accounts for the strong gradients of the plasma parameters along the magnetic field lines in the divertor. The sputtering phenomena at the plate and radiating cooling by injected impurities are treated self consistently in the model. The model has been used to investigate operating regimes of the ignition experiment. Analysis have been performed for different first wall materials (C, Ni, Mo, W) for ITER like tokamak.

The LASREF facility is located in the beam stop area at LAMPF. The neutron spectrum is fission-like with the addition of a 3% to 5% component with E > 20 MeV. The present study evaluates the limits on geometry and material selection that will maximize the neutron flux. MCNP and LAHET were used to predict the neutron flux and energy spectrum for a variety of geometries. The problem considers 760 MeV protons incident on tungsten. The resulting neutrons are multiplied in uranium through (n,xn) reactions. Calculations show that a neutron flux greater than 10{sup 19} n/m{sup 2}/s is achievable. The helium to dpa ratio and the transmutation product generation are calculated. These results are compared to expectations for the proposed DEMO fusionreactor and to FFTF.

This is the second in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities in the following areas: (1) Alloy Development for Irradiation Performance; (2) Damage Analysis and Fundamental Studies; and (3) Special Purpose Materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. Separate analytics were prepared for the reports in this volume.

We present results of our reactor studies for inertial-fusion energy production. Design studies of liquid-metal wall chambers have led to reactors that are remarkably simple in design, and that promise long life and low cost. Variants of the same basic design, called HYLIFE, can be used for electricity production, as a fissile-fuel factory, a dedicated tritium breeder, or hybrids of each.

Nonbreeding D-T reactors have decisive advantages in minimum size, unit cost, variety of applications, and ease of heat removal over reactors using any other fusion cycle, and significant advantages in environmental and safety characteristics over breeding D-T reactors. Considerations of relative energy production demonstrate that the most favorable source of tritium for a widely deployed system of nonbreeding D-T reactors is the very large (approx. 10 GW thermal) semi-catalyzed-deuterium (SCD), or sub-SCD reactor, where none of the escaping /sup 3/He (> 95%) or tritium (< 25%) is reinjected for burn-up. Feasibility of the ignited SCD tokamak reactor requires spatially averaged betas of 15 to 20% with a magnetic field at the TF coils of 12 to 13 Tesla.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) is a one-of-a-kind, tritium-fueled fusion research reactor that ceased operation in April 1997. The Decontamination and Decommissioning (D and D) of the TFTR is scheduled to occur over a period of three years beginning in October 1999. This is not a typical Department of Energy D and D Project where a facility is isolated and cleaned up by ''bulldozing'' all facility and hardware systems to a greenfield condition. The mission of TFTR D and D is to: (a) surgically remove items which can be re-used within the DOE complex, (b) remove tritium contaminated and activated systems for disposal, (c) clear the test cell of hardware for future reuse, (d) reclassify the D-site complex as a non-nuclear facility as defined in DOE Order 420.1 (Facility Safety) and (e) provide data on the D and D of a large magnetic fusion facility. The 100 cubic meter volume of the donut-shaped reactor makes it the second largest fusionreactor in the world. The record-breaking deuterium-tritium experiments performed on TFTR resulted in contaminating the vacuum vessel with tritium and activating the materials with 14 Mev neutrons. The total tritium content within the vessel is in excess of 7,000 Curies while dose rates approach 75 mRem/hr. These radiological hazards along with the size and shape of the Tokamak present a unique and challenging task for dismantling.

The main functions of the blanket in fusion power reactors are basically independent of the type of magnetic fusionreactor (tokamak, helical, etc.) and inertia fusion. However, from technical point of view, many candidate designs of blanket have been proposed depending on the particular reactor concepts. Their main features are characterized for the recent typical designs, and key issues are defined.

The paper presents the results of the system research on the coordinated development of nuclear and fusion power engineering in the current century. Considering the increasing problems of resource procurement, including limited natural uranium resources, it seems reasonable to use fusionreactors as high-power neutron sources for production of nuclear fuel in a blanket. It is shown that the share of fusion sources in this structural configuration of the energy system can be relatively small. A fundamentally important aspect of this solution to the problem of closure of the fuel cycle is that recycling of highly active spent fuel can be abandoned. Radioactivity released during the recycling of the spent fuel from the hybrid reactor blanket is at least two orders of magnitude lower than during the production of the same number of fissile isotopes after the recycling of the spent fuel from a fast reactor.

The paper presents the results of the system research on the coordinated development of nuclear and fusion power engineering in the current century. Considering the increasing problems of resource procurement, including limited natural uranium resources, it seems reasonable to use fusionreactors as high-power neutron sources for production of nuclear fuel in a blanket. It is shown that the share of fusion sources in this structural configuration of the energy system can be relatively small. A fundamentally important aspect of this solution to the problem of closure of the fuel cycle is that recycling of highly active spent fuel can be abandoned. Radioactivity released during the recycling of the spent fuel from the hybrid reactor blanket is at least two orders of magnitude lower than during the production of the same number of fissile isotopes after the recycling of the spent fuel from a fast reactor.

A small-scale nuclear fusionreactor is suggested based on the concepts of plasma confinement (with a high pressure gas) which have been patented by the author. The reactor considered can be used as a power setup in space flights. Among the advantages of this reactor is the use of a D3He fuel mixture which at burning gives main reactor products — charged particles. The energy balance considerably improves, as synchrotron radiation turn out "captured" in the plasma volume, and dangerous, in the case of classical magnetic confinement, instabilities in the direct current magnetic field configuration proposed do not exist. As a result, the reactor sizes are quite suitable (of the order of several meters). A possibility of making reactive thrust due to employment of ejection of multiply charged ions formed at injection of pellets from some adequate substance into the hot plasma center is considered.

Limitations of the fission fuel resources will presumably mandate the replacement of thermal fission reactors by fast fission reactors that operate on a self-sufficient closed fuel cycle. This replacement might take place within the next one hundred years, so the direct competitors of fusionreactors will be fission reactors of the latter rather than the former type. Also, fast fission reactors, in contrast to thermal fission reactors, have the potential for transmuting long-lived actinides into short-lived fission products. The associated reduction of the long-term activation of radioactive waste due to actinides makes the comparison of radioactive waste from fast fission reactors to that from fusionreactors more rewarding than the comparison of radioactive waste from thermal fission reactors to that from fusionreactors. Radioactive waste from an experimental and a commercial fast fission reactor and an experimental and a commercial fusionreactor has been characterized. The fast fission reactors chosen for this study were the Experimental Breeder Reactor 2 and the Integral Fast Reactor. The fusionreactors chosen for this study were the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor and a Reduced Activation Ferrite Helium Tokamak. The comparison of radioactive waste parameters shows that radioactive waste from the experimental fast fission reactor may be less hazardous than that from the experimental fusionreactor. Inclusion of the actinides would reverse this conclusion only in the long-term. Radioactive waste from the commercial fusionreactor may always be less hazardous than that from the commercial fast fission reactor, irrespective of the inclusion or exclusion of the actinides. The fusion waste would even be far less hazardous, if advanced structural materials, like silicon carbide or vanadium alloy, were employed.

Rostoker, Binderbauer and Monkhorst have recently proposed a "colliding beam fusionreactor" (CBFR) for use with the p-B11 reaction. We have examined the various dissipative processes resulting from Coulomb collisions, and have concluded that the CBFR equilibrium cannot be sustained for long enough to permit net fusion gain. There are many collisional processes which occur considerably faster than fusion, and result in particle loss, energy loss, or detuning of the resonant energy for the p-B reaction. Pitch-angle scattering of protons off the boron beam, which occurs 100 times faster than fusion, isotropizes the proton beam and results in proton loss. Energy exchange between protons and boron, which is 20 times faster than fusion, detunes the resonance. Proton-proton scattering, which is faster than fusion for all CBFR scenarios, Maxwellianizes the protons and thus detunes the resonance. Ion-electron collisions lead indirectly to a friction between the two ion beams, which is typically fast compared to the fusion process. Results of Fokker-Planck analyses of each process will be shown.

This paper on overview of Indian activities on fusionreactor materials describes in brief the efforts India has made to develop materials for the first wall of a tokamak, its blanket and superconducting magnet coils. Through a systematic and scientific approach, India has developed and commercially produced reduced activation ferritic/martensitic (RAFM) steel that is comparable to Eurofer 97. Powder of low activation ferritic/martensitic oxide dispersion strengthened steel with characteristics desired for its application in the first wall of a tokamak has been produced on the laboratory scale. V-4Cr-4Ti alloy was also prepared in the laboratory, and kinetics of hydrogen absorption in this was investigated. Cu-1 wt%Cr-0.1 wt%Zr - an alloy meant for use as heat transfer elements for hypervapotrons and heat sink for the first wall - was developed and characterized in detail for its aging behavior. The role of addition of a small quantity of Zr in its improved fatigue performance was delineated, and its diffusion bonding with both W and stainless steel was achieved using Ni as an interlayer. The alloy was produced in large quantities and used for manufacturing both the heat transfer elements and components for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). India has proposed to install and test a lead-lithium cooled ceramic breeder test blanket module (LLCB-TBM) at ITER. To meet this objective, efforts have been made to produce and characterize Li2TiO3 pebbles, and also improve the thermal conductivity of packed beds of these pebbles. Liquid metal loops have been set up and corrosion behavior of RAFM steel in flowing Pb-Li eutectic has been studied in the presence as well as absence of magnetic fields. To prevent permeation of tritium and reduce the magneto-hydro-dynamic drag, processes have been developed for coating alumina on RAFM steel. Apart from these activities, different approaches being attempted to make the U-shaped first wall of the TBM box

This project is part of METC`s Power Systems Development Facility (PSDF) located at Wilsonville, Alabama. The primary objective of the Advanced Gasifier module is to produce vitiated gases for intermediate-term testing of Particulate Control Devices (PCDs). The Transport reactor potentially allows particle size distribution, solids loading, and particulate characteristics in the off-gas stream to be varied in a number of ways. Particulates in the hot gases from the Transport reactor will be removed in the PCDs. Two PCDs will be initially installed in the module; one a ceramic candle filter, the other a granular bed filter. After testing of the initial PCDs they will be removed and replaced with PCDs supplied by other vendors. A secondary objective is to verify the performance of a Transport reactor for use in advanced Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell (IG-FC), and Pressurized Combustion Combined Cycle (PCCC) power generation units. This paper discusses the development of the Transport reactor design from bench-scale testing through pilot-scale testing to design of the Process Development Unit (PDU-scale) facility at Wilsonville.

A comparative analysis of the modular stellarator and the torsatron concepts is made based upon a steady-state ignited, DT-fueled, reactor embodiment of each concept for use as a central electric-power station. Parametric tradeoff calculations lead to the selection of four design points for an approx. 4-GWt plant based upon Alcator transport scaling in l = 2 systems of moderate aspect ratio. The four design points represent high-aspect ratio. The four design points represent high-(0.08) and low-(0.04) beta versions of the modular stellarator and torsatron concepts. The physics basis of each design point is described together with supporting engineering and economic analyses. The primary intent of this study is the elucidation of key physics and engineering tradeoffs, constraints, and uncertainties with respect to the ultimate power reactor embodiment.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) is a one-of-a-kind, tritium-fueled fusion research reactor that ceased operation in April 1997. As a result, decommissioning commenced in October 1999. The 100 cubic meter volume of the donut-shaped reactor makes it the second largest fusionreactor in the world. The deuterium-tritium experiments resulted in contaminating the vacuum vessel with tritium and activating the materials with 14 MeV neutrons. The total tritium content within the vessel is in excess of 7,000 Curies, while dose rates approach 50 mRem/hr. These radiological hazards along with the size of the tokamak present a unique and challenging task for dismantling. Engineers at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) decided to investigate an alternate, innovative approach for dismantlement of the TFTR vacuum vessel: diamond wire cutting technology. In August 1999, this technology was successfully demonstrated and evaluated on vacuum vessel surrogates. Subsequently, the technology was improved and redesigned for the actual cutting of the vacuum vessel. Ten complete cuts were performed in a 6-month period to complete the removal of this unprecedented type of D&D (Decontamination and Decommissioning) activity.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) is a one-of-a-kind, tritium-fueled fusion research reactor that ceased operation in April 1997. As a result, decommissioning commenced in October 1999. The 100 cubic meter volume of the donut-shaped reactor makes it the second largest fusionreactor in the world. The deuterium-tritium experiments resulted in contaminating the vacuum vessel with tritium and activating the materials with 14 Mev neutrons. The total tritium content within the vessel is in excess of 7,000 Curies while dose rates approach 50 mRem/hr. These radiological hazards along with the size of the Tokamak present a unique and challenging task for dismantling. Engineers at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) decided to investigate an alternate, innovative approach for dismantlement of the TFTR vacuum vessel: diamond wire cutting technology. In August 1999, this technology was successfully demonstrated and evaluated on vacuum vessel surrogates. Subsequently, the techno logy was improved and redesigned for the actual cutting of the vacuum vessel. 10 complete cuts were performed in a 6-month period to complete the removal of this unprecedented type of D&D activity.

This is the tenth in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following progress reports: alloy development for irradiation performance; damage analysis and fundamental studies; special purpose materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the test of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

This is the twelfth in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following progress reports: Alloy Development for Irradiation Performance; Damage Analysis and Fundamental Studies; and Special Purpose Materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials programs being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of the program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the rest of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

This is the third in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following technical progress reports: Alloy Development for Irradiation Performances; Damage Analysis and Fundamental Studies; Special Purpose Materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of the program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the rest of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

This is the seventh in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following technical progress reports: alloy development for irradiation performance, damage analysis and fundamental studies, and special purpose materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of the program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the rest of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

This is the ninth in series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. This report combines research and development activities which were previously reported separately in the following technical progress reports: Alloy Development of Irradiation Performance; Damage Analysis and Fundamental Studies; and Special Purpose Materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. The FusionReactor Materials Program is a national effort involving several national laboratories, universities, and industries. The purpose of this series of reports is to provide a working technical record for the use of the program participants, and to provide a means of communicating the efforts of materials scientists to the rest of the fusion community, both nationally and worldwide.

The HEDL FusionReactor Safety Support studies are focused on characterizing blanket-coolant-material reactions for deuterium-tritium fusionreactor designs. The objective is to determine and examine potential safety and environmental issues associated with proposed blanket/coolant combinations under postulated accident conditions. The first studies considered liquid lithium as both blanket and coolant, and examined liquid lithium-material reactions. Liquid lithium reactions with oxygen, nitrogen, and various concretes have been characterized. Evaluations of lithium reaction extinguishment methods, lithium aerosol generation and collection, and the volatilization and transport of radioactive materials in connection with lithium-air reactions have been completed. Lithium compound blanket material reactions with water, a prime coolant candidate, have been characterized in terms of energy and gas release rates. Blanket materials considered were lithium aluminate, lithium oxide, lithium zirconate, lithium silicate, and lithium lead alloys (Li/sub 7/Pb/sub 2/ and Li/sub 17/Pb/sub 83/).

Although the use of solid materials as targets of divertor plasmas in magnetic fusion research is accepted as the standard solution for the very challenging issue of power and particle handling in a fusionreactor, a generalized feeling that the present options chosen for ITER will not represent the best choice for a reactor is growing up. The problems found for tungsten, the present selection for the divertor target of ITER, in laboratory tests and in hot plasma fusion devices suggest so. Even in the absence of the strong neutron irradiation expected in a reactor, issues like surface melting, droplet ejection, surface cracking, dust generation, etc., call for alternative solutions in a long pulse, high efficient fusion energy-producing continuous machine. Fortunately enough, decades of research on plasma facing materials based on liquid metals (LMs) have produced a wealth of appealing ideas that could find practical application in the route to the realization of a commercial fusion power plant. The options presently available, although in a different degree of maturity, range from full coverage of the inner wall of the device with liquid metals, so that power and particle exhaust together with neutron shielding could be provided, to more conservative combinations of liquid metal films and conventional solid targets basically representing a sort of high performance, evaporative coating for the alleviation of the surface degradation issues found so far. In this work, an updated review of worldwide activities on LM research is presented, together with some open issues still remaining and some proposals based on simple physical considerations leading to the optimization of the most conservative alternatives.

Various active control strategies of the Neoclassical tearing modes are being studied in present tokamaks using established detection techniques which exploit the measurements of the fluctuations of the magnetic field and of the electron temperature. The extrapolation of such techniques to the fusionreactor scale is made problematic by the neutron fluence and by the physics conditions related to the high plasma temperature and density which degrade the spatial resolution of such measurements.

Various active control strategies of the Neoclassical tearing modes are being studied in present tokamaks using established detection techniques which exploit the measurements of the fluctuations of the magnetic field and of the electron temperature. The extrapolation of such techniques to the fusionreactor scale is made problematic by the neutron fluence and by the physics conditions related to the high plasma temperature and density which degrade the spatial resolution of such measurements.

A number of significant differences in the irradiation environment of a fusionreactor are expected with respect to the fission reactor irradiation environment. These differences are expected to affect the characteristics of irradiation creep in the fusionreactor. Special conditions of importance are identified as the (1) large number of defects produced per pka, (2) high helium production rate, (3) cyclic operation, (4) unique stress histories, and (5) low temperature operations. Existing experimental data from the fission reactor environment is analyzed to shed light on irradiation creep under fusion conditions. Theoretical considerations are used to deduce additional characteristics of irradiation creep in the fusionreactor environment for which no experimental data are available.

A study has been conducted to evaluate the potential of various materials for use as first walls in high-power-density commercial fusionreactors. Operating limits for each material were obtained based on a number of criteria, including maximum allowable structural temperatures, critical heat flux, ultimate tensile strength, and design-allowable stress. The results with water as a coolant indicate that a modified alloy similar to HT-9 may be a suitable candidate for low- and medium-power-density reactor first walls with neutron loads of up to 6 MW/m/sup 2/. A vanadium or copper alloy must be used for high-power-density reactors. The neutron wall load limit for vanadium alloys is about 14 MW/sup 2/, provided a suitable coating material is chosen. The extremely limited data base for radiation effects hinders any quantitative assessment of the limits for copper alloys.

To further define the engineering and economic concerns for inertial confinement fusionreactors (ICR's), a conceptual design study was performed by Bechtel Group Incorporated under the direction of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The study examined alternatives to the LLNL HYLIFE concept and expanded the previous balance of plant design to incorporate information from recent liquid metal cooled fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) power plant studies. The majority of the effort was to incorporate present laser and target physics models into a reactor design with a low coolant flowrate and a high driver repetition rate. An example of such a design is the LLNL JADE concept. In addition to producing a power plant design for LLNL using the JADE example, Bechtel has also examined the applicability of the EAGLE (Energy Absorbing Gas Lithium Ejector) concept.

A preliminary design of a D-T fusionreactor blanket and MHD power conversion system is made based on the CFAR concept, and it was found that performance and costs for the reference cycle are very attractive. While much remains to be done, the potential advantage of liquid metal Rankine cycles for fusion applications are much clearer now. These include low pressures and mass flow rates, a nearly isothermal module shell which minimizes problems of thermal distortion and stresses, and an insensitivity to pressure losses in the blanket so that the two-phase MHD pressure drops in the boiling part of the blanket and the ordinary vapor pressure drops in the pebble-bed superheating zones are acceptable (the direct result of pumping a liquid rather than having to compress a gas). There are no moving parts in the high-temperature MHD power generators, no steam bottoming plant is required, only small vapor precoolers and condensers are needed because of the high heat rejection temperatures, and only a relatively small natural-draft heat exchanger is required to reject the heat to the atmosphere. The net result is a very compact fusionreactor and power conversion system which fit entirely inside an 18 meter radius reactor vault. Although a cost analysis has not yet been performed, preliminary cost estimates indicate low capital costs and a very attractive cost of electricity.

The exposure of metallic materials, such as structural components of the first wall and blanket of a fusionreactor, to neutron irradiation will induce changes in both the material composition and microstructure. Along with these changes can come a corresponding deterioration in mechanical properties resulting in premature failure. It is, therefore, essential to expect that the repair and replacement of the degraded components will be necessary. Such repairs may require the joining of irradiated materials through the use of fusion welding processes. The present ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) conceptual design is anticipated to have about 5 km of longitudinal welds and ten thousand pipe butt welds in the blanket structure. A recent study by Buende et al. predict that a failure is most likely to occur in a weld. The study is based on data from other large structures, particularly nuclear reactors. The data used also appear to be consistent with the operating experience of the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF). This reactor has a fuel pin area comparable with the area of the ITER first wall and has experienced one unanticipated fuel pin failure after two years of operation. The repair of irradiated structures using fusion welding will be difficult due to the entrapped helium. Due to its extremely low solubility in metals, helium will diffuse and agglomerate to form helium bubbles after being trapped at point defects, dislocations, and grain boundaries. Welding of neutron-irradiated type 304 stainless steels has been reported with varying degree of heat-affected zone cracking (HAZ). The objectives of this study were to determine the threshold helium concentrations required to cause HAZ cracking and to investigate techniques that might be used to eliminate the HAZ cracking in welding of helium-containing materials.

Fusion has a practically limitless fuel supply and is attractive as an energy source. The main goal of fusion research is to construct and operate an energy generating system. Fusion researches also contains fusion structural materials used fusionreactors. Material issues are very important for development of fusionreactors. Therefore, a wide range of fusion structural materials have been considered for fusion energy applications. Zirconium (Zr), Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta) containing alloys are important structural materials for fusionreactors and many other fields. Naturally Zr includes the 90Zr (%51.5), 91Zr (%11.2), 92Zr (%17.1), 94Zr (%17.4), 96Zr (%2.80) isotopes and 93Nb and 181Ta include the 93Nb (%100) and 181Ta (%99.98), respectively. In this study, the charge, mass, proton and neutron densities and the root-mean-square (rms) charge radii, rms nuclear mass radii, rms nuclear proton, and neutron radii have been calculated for 87-102Zr, 93Nb, 181Ta target nuclei isotopes by using the Hartree-Fock method with an effective Skyrme force with SKM*. The calculated results have been compared with those of the compiled experimental taken from Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables and theoretical values of other studies.

The evolution of the radiation damage structure, void and gas bubble swelling, and surface blistering effects in both model and potential first wall materials for a D-T fusionreactor system of the TOKAMAK type was investigated along with radiation effects in inorganic insulator materials. In addition, investigations were carried out into the effects of irradiation on organic insulators and on the performance of rubber seals. The principal achievements are summarized and a list of 50 references is given.

A method and apparatus for generating nuclear fusion by ion cyclotron resonance in an ion trap reactor. The reactor includes a cylindrical housing having an axial axis, an internal surface, and first and second ends. First and second end plates that are charged are respectively located at the first and second ends of the cylindrical housing. A gas layer is adsorbed on the internal surface of the cylindrical housing. Ions are desorbed from the gas layer, forming a plasma layer adjacent to the cylindrical housing that includes first ions that have a same charge sign as the first and second end plates. A uniform magnetic field is oriented along the axial axis of the cylindrical housing. Second ions, that are unlike the first ions, but have the same charge sign, are injected into the cylindrical housing along the axial axis of the cylindrical housing. A radio frequency field resonantly accelerates the injected second ions at the cyclotron resonance frequency of the second ions. The second ions circulate in increasing helical orbits and react with the first ions, at the optimum energy for nuclear fusion. The amplitude of the radio frequency field is adjusted to accelerate the second ions at a rate equal to the rate of tangential energy loss of the second ions by nuclear scattering in the first ions, causing the ions to continually interact until fusion occurs.

The IAEA has proposed a coordinated research program to address tritium retention and release in fusionreactor plasma facing components. This program will address materials which are mainly of interest to the design and construction of ITER, namely beryllium, carbon based materials and medium and high-Z metals, e.g. tungsten, vanadium and molybdenum, but will not be limited to these materials. Experimental data are needed for: recycling models, tritium inventory estimates, tritium permeation calculations and hydrogen embrittlement characterization. The ultimate use of the data would be to influence the formation of models for use by fusionreactor designers. Judicious material choices must be made by the designers and accurate predictive codes are required in order to make these choices. The proposed coordinated research program will provide a forum for discussions between experimentalists, theoreticians, modelers and reactor designers, provide financial support for relevant research projects and collect and evaluate experimental and theoretical data. This paper briefly reviews existing data, addresses the data gaps and points out experiments designed to obtain the needed data. 18 refs., 3 figs., 1 tab.

Three areas of innovative approaches to inertial confinement fusion (ICF) reactor design are given. First, issues pertaining to the Cascade reactor concept are discussed. Then, several innovative concepts are presented which attempt to directly recover the blast energy from a fusion target. Finally, the Turbostar concept for direct recovery of that energy is evaluated. The Cascade issues discussed are combustion of the carbon granules in the event of air ingress, the use of alternate granule materials, and the effect of changes in carbon flow on details of the heat exchanger. Carbon combustion turns out to be a minor problem. Four ICF innovative concepts were considered: a turbine with ablating surfaces, a liquid piston system, a wave generator, and a resonating pump. In the final analysis, none show any real promise. The Turbostar concept of direct recovery is a very interesting idea and appeared technically viable. However, it shows no efficiency gain or any decrease in capital cost compared to reactors with conventional thermal conversion systems. Attempts to improve it by placing a close-in lithium sphere around the target to increase gas generation increased efficiency only slightly. It is concluded that these direct conversion techniques require thermalization of the x-ray and debris energy, and are Carnot limited. They therefore offer no advantage over existing and proposed methods of thermal energy conversion or direct electrical conversion.

Inertial fusion energy reactors present great promise for the future as they are capable of providing baseline power with no carbon footprint. Simulation work regarding the chamber response and first wall insult is carried out using the 1-D BUCKY radiation hydrodynamics code for a variety of differing chamber fills, radii, chamber obstructions and first wall materials. Discussion of the first wall temperature rise, x-ray spectrum incident on the wall, shock timing and maximum overpressure are presented. An additional discussion of the impact of different gas opacities and their effect on overall chamber dynamics, including the formation of two shock fronts, is also presented. This work is performed under collaboration with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Fusion Technology Institute.

Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is of interest as a source of neutrons for proliferation-resistant and high burn-up fission reactor designs. ICF is a transient process, each implosion leading to energy release over a short period, with a continuous series of ICF operations needed to drive the fission reactor. ICF yields energy in the form of MeV-range neutrons and ions, and thermal x-rays. These radiations, particularly the thermal x-rays, can deposit a pulse of energy in the wall of the ICF chamber, inducing loading by isochoric heating (i.e. at constant volume before the material can expand) or by ablation of material from the surface. The explosion of the hot ICF system, and the compression of any fill material in the chamber, may also result in direct mechanical loading by a blast wave (decaying shock) reaching the chamber wall. The chamber wall must be able to survive the repetitive loading events for long enough for the reactor to operate economically. It is thus necessary to understand the loading induced by ICF systems in possible chamber wall designs, and to predict the response and life time of the wall. Estimates are given for the loading induced in the wall armor of the fusion chamber caused by ablative thermal radiation from the fusion plasma and by the hydrodynamic shock. Taking a version of the LIFE design as an example, the ablation pressure was estimated to be {approx}0.6 GPa with an approximately exponential decay with time constant {approx}0.6 ns. Radiation hydrodynamics simulations suggested that ablation of the W armor should be negligible.

Alpha particle physics experiments were done on the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) during its deuterium-tritium (DT) run from 1993-1997. These experiments utilized several new alpha particle diagnostics and hundreds of DT discharges to characterize the alpha particle confinement and wave-particle interactions. In general, the results from the alpha particle diagnostics agreed with the classical single-particle confinement model in magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) quiescent discharges. Also, the observed alpha particle interactions with sawteeth, toroidal Alfvén eigenmodes (TAE), and ion cyclotron resonant frequency (ICRF) waves were roughly consistent with theoretical modeling. This paper reviews what was learned and identifies what remains to be understood.

A limiter blade for a large tokomak fusionreactor includes three articulated blade sections for enabling the limiter blade to be adjusted for plasmas of different sizes. Each blade section is formed of a rigid backing plate carrying graphite tiles coated with titanium carbide, and the limiter blade forms a generally elliptic contour in both the poloidal and toroidal directions to uniformly distribute the heat flow to the blade. The limiter blade includes a central blade section movable along the major radius of the vacuum vessel, and upper and lower pivotal blade sections which may be pivoted by linear actuators having rollers held to the back surface of the pivotal blade sections.

A limiter blade for a large tokomak fusionreactor includes three articulated blade sections for enabling the limiter blade to be adjusted for plasmas of different sizes. Each blade section is formed of a rigid backing plate carrying graphite tiles coated with titanium carbide, and the limiter blade forms a generally elliptic contour in both the poloidal and toroidal directions to uniformly distribute the heat flow to the blade. The limiter blade includes a central blade section movable along the major radius of the vacuum vessel, and upper and lower pivotal blade sections which may be pivoted by linear actuators having rollers held to the back surface of the pivotal blade sections.

In this paper, a computational model is presented in order to assess the cost of tritium breeding in a fusion power reactor. This model compares the differential cost of the Li-bearing breeder blanket with that of a steel shield and adds the loss of revenue due to the lower energy multiplication of the breeder blanket compared to the steel shield. The cost of tritium production ranges from $215-$300/g for a simple breeder up to $1420/g for a high temperature breeder.

Recent z-pinch target physics progress has encouraged us to consider how a power reactor could be configured based on a fast z-pinch driver. Initial cost estimates show that recyclable transmission lines (RTLs) are economically viable. Providing 'standoff' between the primary power supply and the target, which is what disposable RTLs provide, has historically been the main obstacle to the consideration of pinches as fusion drivers. We will be introducing basic reactor scaling in terms of shot rate, yield, tritium breeding and neutron flux, etc. This concept has advantages in that z-pinches provide a robust mechanical environment, as well as a chamber which does not require low-pressure pumping between shots and the wall lifetime is expected to be limited factors other than neutron damage. Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.

Vanadium-base alloys are promising candidate materials for application in fusionreactor first-wall and blanket structures because they offer several important advantages, i.e., inherently low irradiation-induced activity, good mechanical properties, good compatibility with lithium, high thermal conductivity, and good resistance to irradiation-induced swelling and damage. As part of a program to screen candidate alloys and develop an optimized vanadium-base alloy, extensive investigations of various V-Ti, V-Cr-Ti, and V-Ti-Si alloys have been conducted after irradiation in lithium in fission reactors. From these investigations, V-4 wt.% Cr-4 wt.% Ti was identified as the most promising alloy. The alloy exhibited attractive mechanical and physical properties that are prerequisites for first-wall and blanket structures, i.e., high tensile strength, high ductility, good creep properties, high impact energy, low ductile-brittle transition temperature before and after irradiation, excellent resistance to irradiation-induced swelling and microstructural instability, and good resistance to corrosion in lithium. In particular, the alloy is virtually immune to irradiation-induced embrittlement, a remarkable property compared to other candidate materials being investigated in the fusion-reactor-materials community. Effects of helium, charged dynamically in simulation of realistic fusionreactor conditions, on tensile, ductile-brittle transition, and swelling properties were insignificant.

The liquid-metal-wall chamber has emerged as an attractive reactor concept for inertial fusion energy conversion. The principal feature of this concept is a thick, free-flowing blanket of liquid metal used to protect the structure of the reactor. The development and design of liquid-metal-wall chambers over the past decade provides a basis for formulating a conceptual design strategy for such chambers. Both the attractive and unattractive features of a LMW chamber are enumerated, and a design strategy is formulated which accommodates the engineering constraints while minimizing the liquid-metal flow rate.

First wall structures of fusionreactors are subjected to cyclic bending stresses caused by inhomogeneous temperature distribution during plasma burn cycles and by electromagnetically induced impact loads during plasma disruptions. Such a combination of loading can potentially lead to ratcheting or incremental accumulation of plastic strain with cycles. An elastic-plastic three-bar model is developed to investigate the ratcheting behavior of the first wall.

The recent identification of a substantial lunar resource of the fusion energy fuel He-3 may provide the first terrestrial market for a lunar commodity and, therefore, a major impetus to lunar development. The impact of this resource-when burned in D-He-3 fusionreactors for space power and propulsion-may be even more significant as an enabling technology for safe, efficient exploration and development of space. One possible reactor configuration among several options, the tandem mirror, illustrates the potential advantages of fusion propulsion. The most important advantage is the ability to provide either fast, piloted vessels or high-payload-fraction cargo vessels due to a range of specific impulses from 50 sec to 1,000,000 sec at thrust-to-weight ratios from 0.1 to 5x10(exp -5). Fusion power research has made steady, impressive progress. It is plausible, and even probable, that fusion rockets similar to the designs presented here will be available in the early part of the twenty-first century, enabling a major expansion of human presence into the solar system.

New techniques of bulk polarization could be used to fuel a reactor with polarized hydrogenic atoms, so as to form a plasma of polarized nuclei. Theoretical calculations indicate that, once the nuclei of the plasma are polarized in some preferred state, they can maintain this state with a probability near 100% during their lifetime in the reactor, including possible recycling. There are a number of practical advantages to be gained from the use of polarized plasma in a fusionreactor. The nuclear reaction rates can be increased or decreased, and/or the direction of emission of the reaction products can be controlled. The D-T reaction rate can be enhanced by as much as 50%, with the reaction products emitted perpendicular to the magnetic field. Alternatively, it is possible to direct the reaction products primarily along the field, with no enhancement. In this case of the D-D reaction, the theoretical predictions are somewhat less certain. Enhancement of the reaction rate by a factor of 1.5-2.5 is to be expected. In a different polarization state, suppression of D-D reactions may be feasible - a possibility that would be of interest for a neutron-free D-He/sup 3/ reactor. A quantitative discussion of the relevant nuclear physics as well as of the various mechanisms producing depolarization is given.

Composite tungsten-based materials were recently proposed for the heavy constituent of compact fusionreactor shields. These composite materials will enable the incorporation of tungsten - the most efficient nonfissionable inelastic scattering (as well as good neutron absorbing and very good photon attenuating) material - in the shield in a relatively cheap way and without introducing voids (so as to enable minimizing the shield thickness). It is proposed that these goals be achieved by bonding tungsten powder, which is significantly cheaper than high-density tungsten, with a material having the following properties: good shielding ability and relatively low cost and ease of fabrication. The purpose of this work is to study the effectiveness of the composite materials as a function of their composition, and to estimate the economic benefit that might be gained by the use of these materials. Two materials are being considered for the binder: copper, second to tungsten in its shielding ability, and iron (or stainless steel), the common fusionreactor shield heavy constituent.

Low-activation austenitic stainless steels have been suggested for applications within fusionreactors. The use of these nickel-free steels will help to reduce the radioactive waste management problem after service. one requirement for such steels is the ability to obtain sound welds for fabrication purposes. Thus, two austenitic Fe-Cr-Mn alloys were studied to characterize the welded microstructure and mechanical properties. The two steels investigated were a Russian steel (Fe-11.6Cr19.3Mn-0.181C) and an US steel (Fe-12.lCr-19.4Mn-0.24C). Welding was performed using a gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process. Microscopic examinations of the structure of both steels were conducted. The as-received Russian steel was found to be in the annealed state. Only the fusion zone and the base metal were observed in the welded Russian steel. No visible heat affected zone was observed. Examination revealed that the as-received US steel was in the cold rolled condition. After welding, a fusion zone and a heat affected zone along with the base metal region were found.

An analytic model is developed to estimate the classical pitch angle scattering loss of energetic fusion product ions into prompt loss orbits in a tokamak geometry. The result is applied to alpha particles produced by deutrium-tritium fusion reactions in a plasma condition relevant to Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR). A poloidal angular distribution of collisional fast ion loss at the first wall is obtained and the numerical result from the TRANSP code is discussed. The present model includes the effect that the prompt loss boundary moves away from the slowing-down path due to reduction in banana thickness, which enables us to understand, for the first time. the dependence of the collisional loss rate on Z{sub eff}.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) Lithium Blanket module (LBM) program is a first-of-kind neutronics experiment involving a toroidal fusion neutron source. Qualification experiments have been conducted to develop primary measurement techniques and verify dosimetry materials that will be used to characterize the neutron environment inside and on the surfaces of the LBM. The deuterium-tritium simulation experiments utilizing a 14-MeV neutron generator and a fusion blanket mockup facility at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory are described. Results and discussions are presented that identify the quality and limitations of the measured integral reaction data, including the minimum fluence requirement for the TFTR experiment and the use of such data in neutron spectrum adjustment and in predicting integral performance parameters, e.g., tritium production.

The complex nonlinear dependencies observed in typical reactor pressure vessel (RPV) material embrittlement data, as well as the inherent large uncertainties and scatter in the radiation embrittlement data, make prediction of radiation embrittlement a difficult task. Conventional statistical and deterministic approaches have only resulted in rather large uncertainties, in part because they do not fully exploit domain-specific mechanisms. The domain models built by researchers in the field, on the other hand, do not fully exploit the statistical and information content of the data. As evidenced in previous studies, it is unlikely that a single method, whether statistical, nonlinear, or domain model, will outperform all others. More generally, considering the complexity of the embrittlement prediction problem, it is highly unlikely that a single best method exists and is tractable, even in theory. In this paper, we propose to combine a number of complementary methods including domain models, neural networks, and nearest neighbor regressions (NNRs). Such a combination of methods has become possible because of recent developments in measurement-based optimal fusers in the area of information fusion. The information fusion technique is used to develop radiation embrittlement prediction models for reactor RPV steels from U.S. power reactors, including boiling water reactors and pressurized water reactors. The Charpy transition temperature-shift data is used as the primary index of RPV radiation embrittlement in this study. Six Cu, Ni, P, neutron fluence, irradiation time, and irradiation-parameters are used in the embrittlement prediction models. The results-temperature indicate that this new embrittlement predictor achieved reductions of about 49.5% and 52% in the uncertainties for plate and weld data, respectively, for pressurized water reactor and boiling water reactor data, compared with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.99, Rev. 2. The

ITER (in Latin ``the way'') is designed to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy. Fusion is the process by which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier one and thus release energy. In the fusion process two isotopes of hydrogen - deuterium and tritium - fuse together to form a helium atom and a neutron. Thus fusion could provide large scale energy production without greenhouse effects; essentially limitless fuel would be available all over the world. The principal goals of ITER are to generate 500 megawatts of fusion power for periods of 300 to 500 seconds with a fusion power multiplication factor, Q, of at least 10. Q >= 10 (input power 50 MW / output power 500 MW). In a Tokamak the definition of the functionalities and requirements for the Plasma Heating and Current Drive are relevant in the determination of the overall plant efficiency, the operation cost of the plant and the plant availability. This paper summarise these functionalities and requirements in perspective of the systems under construction in ITER. It discusses the further steps necessary to meet those requirements. Approximately one half of the total heating will be provided by two Neutral Beam injection systems at with energy of 1 MeV and a beam power of 16 MW into the plasma. For ITER specific test facility is being build in order to develop and test the Neutral Beam injectors. Remote handling maintenance scheme for the NB systems, critical during the nuclear phase of the project, will be developed. In addition the paper will give an overview over the general status of ITER. )

The blanket system is one of the most important components in a fusionreactor because it has a major impact on both the economics and safety of fusion energy. The primary functions of the blanket in a deuterium/tritium-fueled fusionreactor are to convert the fusion energy into sensible heat and to breed tritium for the fuel cycle. The Blanket Comparison and Selection Study, conducted earlier, described the overall comparative performance of various concepts, including liquid metal, molten salt, water, and helium. Based on the requirements for an electrically insulating coating on the first-wall structural material to minimize the MHD pressure drop during the flow of liquid metal in a magnetic field, AlN was selected as a candidate coating material for the Li self-cooled blanket concept. This report discusses the results from an ongoing study of physical and mechanical characteristics and chemical compatibility of AlN electrical insulator coatings in a liquid Li environment. Details are presented on the AlN coating fabrication methods, and experimental data are reported for microstructures, chemistry of coatings, pretreatment of substrate, heat treatment of coatings, hardness data for coatings, coating/lithium interactions, and electrical resistance before and after exposure to lithium. Thermodynamic calculations are presented to establish regions of stability for AlN coatings in an Li environment as a function of O concentration and temperature, which can aid in-situ development of AlN coatings in Li.

This paper focus on control engineering of the programmable AC power source which has capability to simulate power transient expected in fusionreactor. To generate the programmable power source, AC-AC power electronics converter is adopted to control the power of a set of heaters to represent the transient phenomena of heat exchangers or heat sources of a fusionreactor. The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) plasma operation scenario is used as the basic reference for producing this transient power source. (authors)

The prototype of the Japan 170 GHz ITER gyrotron holds the energy and efficiency world record of 2.88 GJ (0.8 MW, 3600 s, 57%) with 55% efficiency at 1 MW, 800 s, whereas the Russian 170 GHz ITER prototype tube achieved 0.83 MW with a pulse duration of 203 s at 48% efficiency and 1 MW at 116 s and 52%. The record parameters of the European megawatt-class 140 GHz gyrotron for the Stellarator Wendelstein W7-X are: 0.92 MW output power at 1800 s pulse duration, almost 45% efficiency and 97.5% Gaussian mode purity. All these gyrotrons employ a cylindrical cavity, a quasi-optical output coupler, a synthetic diamond window and a single-stage depressed collector (SDC) for energy recovery. In coaxial cavities the existence of the longitudinally corrugated inner conductor reduces the problems of mode competition and limiting current, thus allowing one to use even higher order modes with lower Ohmic attenuation than in cylindrical cavities. Synthetic diamond windows with a transmission capability of 2 MW, continuous wave (CW) are feasible. In order to keep the number of the required gyrotrons and magnets as low as possible, to reduce the costs of the ITER 26 MW, 170 GHz ECRH system and to allow compact upper launchers for plasma stabilization, 2 MW mm-wave power per gyrotron tube is desirable. The FZK pre-prototype tube for an EU 170 GHz, 2 MW ITER gyrotron has achieved 1.8 MW at 28% efficiency (without depressed collector). Design studies for a 4 MW 170 GHz coaxial-cavity gyrotron with two synthetic diamond output windows and two 2 MW mm-wave output beams for future fusionreactors are currently being performed at FZK. The availability of sources with fast frequency tunability (several GHz s-1, tuning in 1.5-2.5% steps for about ten different frequencies) would permit the use of a simple, fixed, non-steerable mirror antenna for local current drive (ECCD) experiments and plasma stabilization. GYCOM in Russia develops in collaboration with IPP Garching and FZK an industrial

The prototype of the Japan 170 GHz ITER gyrotron holds the energy and efficiency world record of 2.88 GJ (0.8 MW, 3600 s, 57%) with 55% efficiency at 1 MW, 800 s, whereas the Russian 170 GHz ITER prototype tube achieved 0.83 MW with a pulse duration of 203 s at 48% efficiency and 1 MW at 116 s and 52%. The record parameters of the European megawatt-class 140 GHz gyrotron for the Stellarator Wendelstein W7-X are: 0.92 MW output power at 1800 s pulse duration, almost 45% efficiency and 97.5% Gaussian mode purity. All these gyrotrons employ a cylindrical cavity, a quasi-optical output coupler, a synthetic diamond window and a single-stage depressed collector (SDC) for energy recovery. In coaxial cavities the existence of the longitudinally corrugated inner conductor reduces the problems of mode competition and limiting current, thus allowing one to use even higher order modes with lower Ohmic attenuation than in cylindrical cavities. Synthetic diamond windows with a transmission capability of 2 MW, continuous wave (CW) are feasible. In order to keep the number of the required gyrotrons and magnets as low as possible, to reduce the costs of the ITER 26 MW, 170 GHz ECRH system and to allow compact upper launchers for plasma stabilization, 2 MW mm-wave power per gyrotron tube is desirable. The FZK pre-prototype tube for an EU 170 GHz, 2 MW ITER gyrotron has achieved 1.8 MW at 28% efficiency (without depressed collector). Design studies for a 4 MW 170 GHz coaxial-cavity gyrotron with two synthetic diamond output windows and two 2 MW mm-wave output beams for future fusionreactors are currently being performed at FZK. The availability of sources with fast frequency tunability (several GHz s{sup -1}, tuning in 1.5-2.5% steps for about ten different frequencies) would permit the use of a simple, fixed, non-steerable mirror antenna for local current drive (ECCD) experiments and plasma stabilization. GYCOM in Russia develops in collaboration with IPP Garching and FZK an

A tritium pellet injector (TPI) system has been designed for the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) Q approx. 1 phase of operation. The injector gun utilizes a radial design with eight independent barrels and a common extruder to minimize tritium inventory. The injection line contains guide tubes with intermediate vacuum pumping stations and fast valves to minimize propellant leakage to the torus. The vacuum system is designed for tritium compatibility. The entire injector system is contained in a glove box for secondary containment protection against tritium release. Failure modes and effects have been analyzed, and structural analysis has been performed for most intense predicted earthquake conditions. Details of the design and operation of this system are presented in this paper.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) is an approach to nuclear fusion which utilises the properties of electrostatically accelerated ion-beams instead of hot plasmas. The best known device which uses the principle is the Farnsworth-Hirsch fusor. It has been argued that such devices have some potential advantages in spaceflight and in-particular as power-supplies for trans-atmospheric propulsion. This paper builds on previous work in the field and focuses on how the fixing of the fuel for such reactors in a solid, liquid or encapsulated form may provide a high enough energy-density to make such devices practical power sources. Several methods of fixing the fuel are discussed; theoretical calculations are presented and applicable literature is reviewed. Finally, there is a discussion of practical issues and feasibility, together with suggestions for further work.

A method and apparatus for making uniform pellets for laser driven fusionreactors which comprises selection of a quantity of glass frit which has been accurately classified as to size within a few micrometers and contains an occluded material, such as urea, which gasifies and expands when heated. The sized particles are introduced into an apparatus which includes a heated vertical tube with temperatures ranging from 800.degree. C to 1300.degree. C. The particles are heated during the drop through the tube to molten condition wherein the occluded material gasifies to form hollow microspheres which stabilize in shape and plunge into a collecting liquid at the bottom of the tube. The apparatus includes the vertical heat resistant tube, heaters for the various zones of the tube and means for introducing the frit and collecting the formed microspheres.

Stability for low β plasma confined by closed B field lines is PV^γ = C_0, P = pressure, V = flux tube volume, γ is c_p/cv = 5/3. Kesner(J. Kesner, Innovative Confinement Concepts Workshop, Mar. 3-6, 1997) proposed a levitated current ring with the plasma stabilized by this condition as an alternate fusionreactor. Such a reactor has many attractive features; at radii large compared to the ring radius, V goes like r^4; the stability condition is Pr^20/3 = C_1. If nr^4 = C_2, then interchanges keep the density constant. The temperature can drop according to Tr^8/3 = C_3. If the chamber is ten times the ring radius, the density can drop from 10^14 near the ring to 10^10 at the edge and the temperature can drop from 50 keV near the ring to 100 eV at the edge. This plasma should present no problems for a divertor. Reacting plasma near the ring will heat it, upsetting the stability relation and cause convection to carry burnt plasma out; it will cool as it expands. At the same time the convection will bring in fresh fuel from the outside which will be compressed and heated to ignition. A super conducting ring design that can float in reacting D-He^3 for 16 hours exists(J.M. Dawson, FUSION, edited by Edward Teller, Vol. 1, Magnetic Confinement, Part, Ch. 16, Academic Press, 1981).

This report is an initial effort to identify and evaluate safety issues associated with the use of Flibe (LiF-BeF{sub 2}) as a molten salt coolant for nuclear fusion power plant applications. Flibe experience in the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment is briefly reviewed. Safety issues identified include chemical toxicity, radiological issues resulting from neutron activation, and the operational concerns of handling a high temperature coolant. Beryllium compounds and fluorine pose be toxicological concerns. Some controls to protect workers are discussed. Since Flibe has been handled safely in other applications, its hazards appear to be manageable. Some safety issues that require further study are pointed out. Flibe salt interaction with strong magnetic fields should be investigated. Evolution of Flibe constituents and activation products at high temperature (i.e., will Fluorine release as a gas or remain in the molten salt) is an issue. Aerosol and tritium release from a Flibe spill requires study, as does neutronics analysis to characterize radiological doses. Tritium migration from Flibe into the cooling system is also a safety concern. Investigation of these issues will help determine the extent to which Flibe shows promise as a fusion power plant coolant or plasma-facing material.

This report is an initial effort to identify and evaluate safety issues associated with the use of Flibe (LiF-BeF2) as a molten salt coolant for nuclear fusion power plant applications. Flibe experience in the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment is briefly reviewed. Safety issues identified include chemical toxicity, radiological issues resulting from neutron activation, and the operational concerns of handling a high temperature coolant. Beryllium compounds and fluorine pose be toxicological concerns. Some controls to protect workers are discussed. Since Flibe has been handled safely in other applications, its hazards appear to be manageable. Some safety issues that require further study are pointed out. Flibe salt interaction with strong magnetic fields should be investigated. Evolution of Flibe constituents and activation products at high temperature (i.e., will Fluorine release as a gas or remain in the molten salt) is an issue. Aerosol and tritium release from a Flibe spill requires study, as does neutronics analysis to characterize radiological doses. Tritium migration from Flibe into the cooling system is also a safety concern. Investigation of these issues will help determine the extent to which Flibe shows promise as a fusion power plant coolant or plasma-facing material.

Within the magnetic fusion energy program in the US, a program called APEX is investigating the use of free flowing liquid surfaces to form the inner surface of the chamber around the plasma. As part of this work, the APEX Team has investigated several possible design implementations and developed a specific engineering concept for a fusionreactor with liquid walls. Our approach has been to utilize an already established design for a future fusionreactor, the ARIES-RS, for the basic chamber geometry and magnetic configuration and to replace the chamber technology in this design with liquid wall technology for a first wall and divertor and a blanket with adequate tritium breeding. This paper gives an overview of one design with a molten salt (a mixture of lithium, beryllium and sodium fluorides) forming the liquid surfaces and a ferritic steel for the structural material of the blanket. The design point is a reactor with 3840MW of fusion power of which 767MW is in the form of energetic particles (alpha power) and 3073MW is in the form of neutrons. The alpha plus auxiliary power total 909MW of which 430MW is radiated from the core mostly onto the first wall and the balance flows into the edge plasma and is distributed between the first wall and the divertor. In pursuing the application of liquid surfaces in APEX, the team has developed analytical tools that are significant achievements themselves and also pursued experiments on flowing liquids. This work is covered elsewhere, but the paper will also note several such areas to indicate the supporting science behind the design presented. Significant new work in modeling the plasma edge to understand the interaction of the plasma with the liquid walls is one example. Another is the incorporation of magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) effects in fluid modeling and heat transfer.

It is conjectured that the number of fusion events catalyzed by a single muon is orders of magnitude greater for deuterium and tritium concentrated in a transition metal than in gaseous form and that the recent observation of 2.5-MeV neutrons from a D/sub 2/O electrolytic cell with palladium and titanium cathodes can thereby be interpreted in terms of cosmic muon-catalyzed deuterium-deuterium fusion. This suggests a new fusionreactorreactor consisting of deuterium and tritium concentrated in transition metal fuel elements in a fusion core that surrounds an accelerator-produced muon source. The feasibility of net energy production in such a reactor is established in terms of requirements on the number of fusion events catalyzed per muon. The technological implications for a power reactor based on this concept are examined. The potential of such a concept as a neutron source for materials testing and tritium and plutonium production is briefly discussed.

Runs of the NSTAB nonlinear stability code show there are many three-dimensional (3D) solutions of the advanced tokamak problem subject to axially symmetric boundary conditions. These numerical simulations based on mathematical equations in conservation form predict that the ITER international tokamak project will encounter persistent disruptions and edge localized mode (ELMS) crashes. Test particle runs of the TRAN transport code suggest that for quasineutrality to prevail in tokamaks a certain minimum level of 3D asymmetry of the magnetic spectrum is required which is comparable to that found in quasiaxially symmetric (QAS) stellarators. The computational theory suggests that a QAS stellarator with two field periods and proportions like those of ITER is a good candidate for a fusionreactor. For a demonstration reactor (DEMO) we seek an experiment that combines the best features of ITER, with a system of QAS coils providing external rotational transform, which is a measure of the poloidal field. We have discovered a configuration with unusually good quasisymmetry that is ideal for this task.

Tissue fusion events during embryonic development are crucial for the correct formation and function of many organs and tissues, including the heart, neural tube, eyes, face and body wall. During tissue fusion, two opposing tissue components approach one another and integrate to form a continuous tissue; disruption of this process leads to a variety of human birth defects. Genetic studies, together with recent advances in the ability to culture developing tissues, have greatly enriched our knowledge of the mechanisms involved in tissue fusion. This review aims to bring together what is currently known about tissue fusion in several developing mammalian organs and highlights some of the questions that remain to be addressed. PMID:22510983

A beryllium dust oxidation model has been developed at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) by the Fusion Safety Program (FSP) for the MELCOR safety computer code. The purpose of this model is to investigate hydrogen production from beryllium dust layers on hot surfaces inside a fusionreactor vacuum vessel (VV) during in-vessel loss-of-cooling accidents (LOCAs). This beryllium dust oxidation model accounts for the diffusion of steam into a beryllium dust layer, the oxidation of the dust particles inside this layer based on the beryllium-steam oxidation equations developed at the INL, and the effective thermal conductivity of this beryllium dust layer. This paper details this oxidation model and presents the results of the application of this model to a wet bypass accident scenario in the ITER device.

The major increase in discharge duration and plasma energy in a next-step DT [deuterium-tritium] fusionreactor will give rise to important plasma-material effects that will critically influence its operation, safety, and performance. Erosion will increase to a scale of several centimeters from being barely measurable at a micron scale in today's tokamaks. Tritium co-deposited with carbon will strongly affect the operation of machines with carbon plasma-facing components. Controlling plasma wall interactions is critical to achieving high performance in present-day tokamaks and this is likely to continue to be the case in the approach to practical fusionreactors. Recognition of the important consequences of these phenomena has stimulated an internationally coordinated effort in the field of plasma-surface interactions supporting the Engineering Design Activities of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project and significant progress has been made in better under standing these issues. This paper reviews the underlying physical processes and the existing experimental database of plasma-material interactions both in tokamaks and laboratory simulation facilities for conditions of direct relevance to next-step fusionreactors. Two main topical groups of interactions are considered: (i) erosion/redeposition from plasma sputtering and disruptions, including dust and flake generation, (ii) tritium retention and removal. The use of modeling tools to interpret the experimental results and make projections for conditions expected in future devices is explained. Outstanding technical issues and specific recommendations on potential R and D [Research and Development] avenues for their resolution are presented.

Some of the critical issues associated with materials selection for proposed magnetic fusionreactors are reviewed, with a brief overview of refractory alloys (vanadium, tantalum, molybdenum, tungsten) and primary emphasis on ceramic materials. SiC/SiC composites are under consideration for the first wall and blanket structure, and dielectric insulators will be used for the heating, control and diagnostic measurement of the fusion plasma. Key issues for SiC/SiC composites include radiation-induced degradation in the strength and thermal conductivity. Recent work has focused on the development of radiation-resistant fibers and fiber/matrix interfaces (porous SiC, SiC multilayers) which would also produce improved SiC/SiC performance for applications such as heat engines and aerospace components. The key physical parameters for dielectrics include electrical conductivity, dielectric loss tangent and thermal conductivity. Ionizing radiation can increase the electrical conductivity of insulators by many orders of magnitude, and surface leakage currents can compromise the performance of some fusion energy components. Irradiation can cause a pronounced degradation in the loss tangent and thermal conductivity. Fundamental physical parameter measurements on ceramics which are of interest for both fusion and non-fusion applications are discussed.

Due to the low neutron-induced radioactivity of their main constituent, two novel Cr-based structural materials are examined, from the low-activation properties viewpoint, as candidate first-wall materials for fusionreactors. The two alloys are Cr sbnd 5Fe sbnd 1Y 2O 3, and Cr sbnd 44Fe sbnd 5Al sbnd 0.3Ti sbnd 0.5Y 2O 3. Their low-activation properties have been compared with those of some reference materials, in particular the austenitic steel AISI 316L, the Mn-based reduced-activation steel OPTSTAB, a V sbnd 5Ti alloy and a ceramic matrix composite (SiC/SiC). Impurities and tramp elements have been included in the calculations. Irradiation conditions envisaged for the SEAFP (Safety and Environmental Assessment of Fusion Power) study have been adopted. Advantages of the proposed materials with respect to steels, either reference alloys or reduced-activation ones, appear evident from the results of the activation analysis. Cr sbnd 5Fe sbnd 1Y 2O 3, in particular, show excellent low-activation characteristics. This material can be a good choice for further development and characterization of first-wall and blanket structural materials for fusion power reactors.

This report documents initial modifications made to the MELCOR code that allows MELCOR to predict the consequences of lithium spill accidents for evolving fusionreactor designs. These modifications include thermodynamic and transport properties for lithium, and physical models for predicting the rate of reaction of and energy production from the lithium-air reaction. A benchmarking study was performed with this new MELCOR capability. Two lithium-air reaction tests conducted at the Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory (HEDL) were selected for this benchmark study. Excellent agreement was achieved between MELCOR predictions and measured data. Recommendations for modeling lithium fires with MELCOR and for future work in this area are included in this report.

This report documents initial modifications made to the MELCOR code that allows MELCOR to predict the consequences of lithium spill accidents for evolving fusionreactor designs. These modifications include thermodynamic and transport properties for lithium, and physical models for predicting the rate of reaction of and energy production from the lithium-air reaction. A benchmarking study was performed with this new MELCOR capability. Two lithium-air reaction tests conducted at the Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory (HEDL) were selected for this benchmark study. Excellent agreement was achieved between MELCOR predictions and measured data. Recommendations for modeling lithium fires with MELCOR and for future work in this area are included in this report.

These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials program being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Department of Energy. The major areas of concern covered in this report are irradiation facilities, test matrices, and experimental methods; dosimetry, damage parameters and activation calculations; materials engineering and design requirements; radiation effects; development of structural alloys; solid breeding materials; ceramics and superconducting magnet materials. There are 61 reports cataloged separately. (LSP)

It is generally accepted that the route to fusion power involves large devices of ITER scale or larger. However, we show, contrary to expectations, that for steady state tokamaks operating at fixed fractions of the density and beta limits, the fusion gain, Qfus, depends mainly on the absolute level of the fusion power and the energy confinement, and only weakly on the device size. Our investigations are carried out using a system code and also by analytical means. Further, we show that for the two qualitatively different global scalings that have been developed to fit the data contained in the ITER ELMy H-mode database, i.e. the normally used beta-dependent IPB98y2 scaling and the alternative beta-independent scalings, the power needed for high fusion performance differs substantially, typically by factors of three to four. Taken together, these two findings imply that lower power, smaller, and hence potentially lower cost, pilot plants and reactors than currently envisaged may be possible. The main parameters of a candidate low power (˜180 MW), high Qfus (˜5), relatively small (˜1.35 m major radius) device are given.

The current status of research and development on unirradiated and irradiated V-Cr-Ti alloys intended for fusionreactor structural applications is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the flow and fracture behavior of neutron-irradiated vanadium alloys. Recent progress on fabrication, joining, oxidation behavior, and the development of insulator coatings is also summarized. Fabrication of large (>500 kg) heats of V-4Cr-4Ti with properties similar to previous small laboratory heats has now been demonstrated. Impressive advances in the joining of thick sections of vanadium alloys using GTA and electron beam welds have been achieved in the past two years, although further improvements are still needed.

The propagation of waves in the ion cyclotron range of frequencies has been investigated experimentally in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor. A small, broadband, radiofrequency (rf) magnetic probe located outside the plasma limiter, at a major radius near that of the plasma center, was excited with a low power, frequency swept source (1--200 MHz). Waves propagating to a distant location were detected with a second, identical probe. The rf transmission spectrum revealed a region of attenuation over a band of frequencies for which the minority fundamental resonance was located between the outer plasma edge and the major radius of the probe location. Distinct, non-overlapping attenuation bands were observed from hydrogen and helium-3 minority species; a distinct tritium band should be observed in future DT experiments. Rapid spectrum acquisition during a helium-3 gas puff experiment showed that the wave attenuation involved the plasma core and was not a surface effect. A model in which the received power varied exponentially with the minority density, averaged over the resonance region, fit the time evolution of the probe signal relatively well. Estimation of a 1-d tunneling parameter from the experimental observations is discussed. Minority concentrations of less than 0.5 % can be resolved with this measurement.

A conceptual design study of a high power density blanket has been carried out. The Fusion Experimental Breeder, FEB, is adopted as the reference reactor. The neutron wall loading is 0.5 MW/m2. The blanket is cooled by 10 MPa helium in tube. The concept of LiPb eutectic/transuranium oxide suspension is adopted. The neutronics design is performed to provide the design basis, and it gives an energy multiplication of 37 and a flattened power density distribution with a peak value of 70 W/m3. Multiple cooling panels are introduced to reduce the peak temperature of the blanket. In spite of up to 15 cooling panels, the blanket module is calculated using the ANSYS code and analytically as well. The results are consistent with each other and can meet the thermal criteria. However, structural calculation results from ANSYS did not satisfy the criterion: The blanket structure design is then improved by using curved cooling panels to model the structure in detail. Temperature distribution is obtained using the Pro/Mechanica code. Detailed structural analyses are also done by this code. Some satisfactory results are obtained.

The application of fusion power to space propulsion requires rethinking the engineering-design solution to controlled-fusion energy. Whereas the unit cost of electricity (COE) drives the engineering-design solution for utility-based fusionreactor configurations; initial mass to low earth orbit (IMLEO), specific jet power (kW(thrust)/kg(engine)), and reusability drive the engineering-design solution for successful application of fusion power to space propulsion. We applied three design principles (DP's) to adapt and optimize three candidate-terrestrial-fusion-reactor configurations for propulsion in space. The three design principles are: provide maximum direct access to space for waste radiation, operate components as passive radiators to minimize cooling-system mass, and optimize the plasma fuel, fuel mix, and temperature for best specific jet power. The three candidate terrestrial fusionreactor configurations are: the thermal barrier tandem mirror (TBTM), field reversed mirror (FRM), and levitated dipole field (LDF). The resulting three candidate space fusion propulsion systems have their IMLEO minimized and their specific jet power and reusability maximized. We performed a preliminary rating of these configurations and concluded that the leading engineering-design solution to space fusion propulsion is a modified TBTM that we call the Mirror Fusion Propulsion System (MFPS).

During reactor operation the plasma-facing materials have to fulfil very complex and sometimes contradicting requirements. At present, tungsten shows the highest promise as plasma-facing material. Experiments in the ASDEX Upgrade tokamak indicate that plasma operation is feasible with walls and divertor surfaces mostly covered with tungsten. Thick tungsten coatings have been deposited by plasma spraying on EUROFER first wall mock-ups and show good adhesion and stability. The performance of tungsten surfaces under intense transient thermal loads is another critical issue, since the formation of a melt layer may favour the generation of highly activated dust particles. Work on `nanocrystalline' tungsten shall improve the mechanical properties under neutron irradiation which is especially important for designs, where tungsten has also to fulfil structural functions. Alternative divertor heat sink materials with very high thermal conductivity like SiC-fibre reinforced copper composites are presently being developed and should allow operation at reactor relevant coolant temperatures.

A workshop to assess the potential application of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) for structural applications in fusionreactors was held on May 21--22, 1990, at University of California, Santa Barbara. Participants included individuals familiar with materials and design requirements in fusionreactors, ceramic composite processing and properties and radiation effects. The primary focus was to list the feasibility issues that might limit the application of these materials in fusionreactors. Clear advantages for the use of CMCs are high-temperature operation, which would allow a high-efficiency Rankine cycle, and low activation. Limitations to their use are material costs, fabrication complexity and costs, lack of familiarity with these materials in design, and the lack of data on radiation stability at relevant temperatures and fluences. Fusion-relevant feasibility issues identified at this workshop include: hermetic and vacuum properties related to effects of matrix porosity and matrix microcracking; chemical compatibility with coolant, tritium, and breeder and multiplier materials, radiation effects on compatibility; radiation stability and integrity; and ability to join CMCs in the shop and at the reactor site, radiation stability and integrity of joints. A summary of ongoing CMC radiation programs is also given. It was suggested that a true feasibility assessment of CMCs for fusion structural applications could not be completed without evaluation of a material tailored'' to fusion conditions or at least to radiation stability. It was suggested that a follow-up workshop be held to design a tailored composite after the results of CMC radiation studies are available and the critical feasibility issues are addressed.

Spin polarization of the deuterons and tritons in a reacting plasma can result in an increase in the fusion reactivity and variation of the angular distribution of emission of the fusion neutrons. The increased fusion reactivity relaxes the confinement-temperature conditions for breakeven and ignition. We have determined the effect of varying the angular distribution of the fusion neutrons on the spatial distribution of fusion neturon current and flux at the first wall, on the global tritium breeding ratio, and on the first-wall radiation damage in low-aspect-ratio toroidal geometry.

This work develops a conceptual design for a fusion-fission hybrid reactor operating in steady-state L-mode tokamak configuration with a subcritical natural or depleted uranium pebble bed blanket. A liquid lithium-lead alloy breeds enough tritium to replenish that consumed by the D-T fusion reaction. The fission blanket augments the fusion power such that the fusion core itself need not have a high power gain, thus allowing for fully non-inductive (steady-state) low confinement mode (L-mode) operation at relatively small physical dimensions. A neutron transport Monte Carlo code models the natural uranium fission blanket. Maximizing the fission power gain while breeding sufficient tritium allows for the selection of an optimal set of blanket parameters, which yields a maximum prudent fission power gain of approximately 7. A 0-D tokamak model suffices to analyze approximate tokamak operating conditions. This fission blanket would allow the fusion component of a hybrid reactor with the same dimensions as ITER to operate in steady-state L-mode very comfortably with a fusion power gain of 6.7 and a thermal fusion power of 2.1 GW. Taking this further can determine the approximate minimum scale for a steady-state L-mode tokamak hybrid reactor, which is a major radius of 5.2 m and an aspect ratio of 2.8. This minimum scale device operates barely within the steady-state L-mode realm with a thermal fusion power of 1.7 GW. Basic thermal hydraulic analysis demonstrates that pressurized helium could cool the pebble bed fission blanket with a flow rate below 10 m/s. The Brayton cycle thermal efficiency is 41%. This reactor, dubbed the Steady-state L-mode non-Enriched Uranium Tokamak Hybrid (SLEUTH), with its very fast neutron spectrum, could be superior to pure fission reactors in terms of breeding fissile fuel and transmuting deleterious fission products. It would likely function best as a prolific plutonium breeder, and the plutonium it produces could actually be more

This work develops a conceptual design for a fusion-fission hybrid reactor operating in steady-state L-mode tokamak configuration with a subcritical natural or depleted uranium pebble bed blanket. A liquid lithium-lead alloy breeds enough tritium to replenish that consumed by the D-T fusion reaction. The fission blanket augments the fusion power such that the fusion core itself need not have a high power gain, thus allowing for fully non-inductive (steady-state) low confinement mode (L-mode) operation at relatively small physical dimensions. A neutron transport Monte Carlo code models the natural uranium fission blanket. Maximizing the fission power gain while breeding sufficient tritium allows for the selection of an optimal set of blanket parameters, which yields a maximum prudent fission power gain of approximately 7. A 0-D tokamak model suffices to analyze approximate tokamak operating conditions. This fission blanket would allow the fusion component of a hybrid reactor with the same dimensions as ITER to operate in steady-state L-mode very comfortably with a fusion power gain of 6.7 and a thermal fusion power of 2.1 GW. Taking this further can determine the approximate minimum scale for a steady-state L-mode tokamak hybrid reactor, which is a major radius of 5.2 m and an aspect ratio of 2.8. This minimum scale device operates barely within the steady-state L-mode realm with a thermal fusion power of 1.7 GW. Basic thermal hydraulic analysis demonstrates that pressurized helium could cool the pebble bed fission blanket with a flow rate below 10 m/s. The Brayton cycle thermal efficiency is 41%. This reactor, dubbed the Steady-state L-mode non-Enriched Uranium Tokamak Hybrid (SLEUTH), with its very fast neutron spectrum, could be superior to pure fission reactors in terms of breeding fissile fuel and transmuting deleterious fission products. It would likely function best as a prolific plutonium breeder, and the plutonium it produces could actually be more

A fusionreactor is described in which a moving string of mutually repelling compact toruses (alternating helicity, unidirectional Btheta) is generated by repetitive injection using a magnetized coaxial gun driven by continuous gun current with alternating poloidal field. An injected CT relaxes to a minimum magnetic energy equilibrium, moves into a compression cone, and enters a conducting cylinder where the plasma is heated to fusion-producing temperature. The CT then passes into a blanketed region where fusion energy is produced and, on emergence from the fusion region, the CT undergoes controlled expansion in an exit cone where an alternating poloidal field opens the flux surfaces to directly recover the CT magnetic energy as current which is returned to the formation gun. The CT String Reactor (CTSTR) reactor satisfies all the necessary MHD stability requirements and is based on extrapolation of experimentally achieved formation, stability, and plasma confinement. It is supported by extensive 2D, MHD calculations. CTSTR employs minimal external fields supplied by normal conductors, and can produce high fusion power density with uniform wall loading. The geometric simplicity of CTSTR acts to minimize initial and maintenance costs, including periodic replacement of the reactor first wall.

Dust is generated in fusionreactors from plasma erosion of plasma facing components within the reactor’s vacuum vessel (VV) during reactor operation. This dust collects in cooler regions on interior surfaces of the VV. Because this dust can be radioactive, toxic, and/or chemically reactive, it poses a safety concern, especially if mobilized by the process of resuspension during an accident and then transported as an aerosol though out the reactor confinement building, and possibly released to the environment. A computer code used at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to model aerosol transport for safety consequence analysis is the MELCOR code. A primary reason for selecting MELCOR for this application is its aerosol transport capabilities. The INL Fusion Safety Program (FSP) organization has made fusion specific modifications to MELCOR. Recent modifications include the implementation of aerosol resuspension models in MELCOR 1.8.5 for Fusion. This paper presents the resuspension models adopted and the initial benchmarking of these models.

The HYLIFE-2 inertial fusion power plant design study uses a liquid fall, in the form of jets to protect the first structural wall from neutron damage, x rays, and blast to provide a 30-y lifetime. HYLIFE-1 used liquid lithium. HYLIFE 2 avoids the fire hazard of lithium by using a molten salt composed of fluorine, lithium, and beryllium (Li{sub 2}BeF{sub 4}) called Flibe. Access for heavy-ion beams is provided. Calculations for assumed heavy-ion beam performance show a nominal gain of 70 at 5 MJ producing 350 MJ, about 5.2 times less yield than the 1.8 GJ from a driver energy of 4.5 MJ with gain of 400 for HYLIFE-1. The nominal 1 GWe of power can be maintained by increasing the repetition rate by a factor of about 5.2, from 1.5 to 8 Hz. A higher repetition rate requires faster re-establishment of the jets after a shot, which can be accomplished in part by decreasing the jet fall height and increasing the jet flow velocity. Multiple chambers may be required. In addition, although not considered for HYLIFE-1, there is undoubtedly liquid splash that must be forcibly cleared because gravity is too slow, especially at high repetition rates. Splash removal can be accomplished by either pulsed or oscillating jet flows. The cost of electricity is estimated to be 0.09 $/kW{center dot}h in constant 1988 dollars, about twice that of future coal and light water reactor nuclear power. The driver beam cost is about one-half the total cost. 15 refs., 9 figs., 3 tabs.

The evolution of the plasma temperature and density in an international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER)-like fusion device has been studied by numerically solving the energy transport equation coupled with the particle transport equation. The effect of particle pinch, which depends on the magnetic curvature and the safety factor, has been taken into account. The plasma is primarily heated by the alpha particles which are produced by the deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. A semi-empirical method, which adopts the ITERH-98P(y,2) scaling law, has been used to evaluate the transport coefficients. The fusion performances (the fusion energy gain factor, Q) similar to the ITER inductive scenario and non-inductive scenario (with reversed magnetic shear) are obtained. It is shown that the particle pinch has significant effects on the fusion performance and profiles of a fusionreactor. When the volume-averaged density is fixed, particle pinch can lower the pedestal density by ˜30 % , with the Q value and the central pressure almost unchanged. When the particle source or the pedestal density is fixed, the particle pinch can significantly enhance the Q value by 60 % , with the central pressure also significantly raised.

The evolution of the plasma temperature and density in an international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER)-like fusion device has been studied by numerically solving the energy transport equation coupled with the particle transport equation. The effect of particle pinch, which depends on the magnetic curvature and the safety factor, has been taken into account. The plasma is primarily heated by the alpha particles which are produced by the deuterium-tritium fusion reactions. A semi-empirical method, which adopts the ITERH-98P(y,2) scaling law, has been used to evaluate the transport coefficients. The fusion performances (the fusion energy gain factor, Q) similar to the ITER inductive scenario and non-inductive scenario (with reversed magnetic shear) are obtained. It is shown that the particle pinch has significant effects on the fusion performance and profiles of a fusionreactor. When the volume-averaged density is fixed, particle pinch can lower the pedestal density by ∼30%, with the Q value and the central pressure almost unchanged. When the particle source or the pedestal density is fixed, the particle pinch can significantly enhance the Q value by 60%, with the central pressure also significantly raised.

The book abounds with fascinating anecdotes about fusion's rocky path: the spurious claim by Argentine dictator Juan Peron in 1951 that his country had built a working fusionreactor, the rush by the United States to drop secrecy and publicize its fusion work as a propaganda offensive after the Russian success with Sputnik; the fortune Penthouse magazine publisher Bob Guccione sank into an unconventional fusion device, the skepticism that met an assertion by two University of Utah chemists in 1989 that they had created "cold fusion" in a bottle. Aimed at a general audience, the book describes the scientific basis of controlled fusion--the fusing of atomic nuclei, under conditions hotter than the sun, to release energy. Using personal recollections of scientists involved, it traces the history of this little-known international race that began during the Cold War in secret laboratories in the United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union, and evolved into an astonishingly open collaboration between East and West.

This is the fourteenth in a series of semiannual technical progress reports on fusionreactor materials. These activities are concerned principally with the effects of the neutronic and chemical environment on the properties and performance of reactor materials; together they form one element of the overall materials programs being conducted in support of the Magnetic Fusion Energy Program of the US Depart of Energy. The other major element of the program is concerned with the interactions between reactor materials and the plasma and is reported separately. Separate abstracts were prepared for each individual section.

We applied three design principles (DPs) to adapt and optimize three candidate-terrestrial-fusion-reactor configurations for propulsion in space. The three design principles are: (1) provide maximum direct access to space for waste radiation, (2) operate components as passive radiators to minimize cooling-system mass, and (3) optimize the plasma fuel, fuel mix, and temperature for best specific Jet power. The three candidate-terrestrial-fusion-reactor configurations are: (1) the thermal-barrier-tandem-mirror (TBTM), (2) field-reversed-mirror (FRM), and (3) levitated-dipole-field (LDF). The resulting three candidate-space-fusion-propulsion systems have their initial-mass-to-LEO minimized and their specific jet power and reusability maximized. We performed a preliminary rating of these configurations and concluded that the leading engineering-design solution to space fusion propulsion is a modified TBTM that we call the Mirror Fusion Propulsion System.

As one of the key safety issues of fusionreactors, tritium environmental impact of fusion accidents has attracted great attention. In this work, the dynamic tritium concentrations in the air and human body were evaluated on the time scale based on accidental release scenarios under the extreme environmental conditions. The radiation dose through various exposure pathways was assessed to find out the potential relationships among them. Based on this work, the limits of HT and HTO release amount for arbitrary accidents were proposed for the fusionreactor according to dose limit of ITER. The dynamic results aim to give practical guidance for establishment of fusion emergency standard and design of fusion tritium system. PMID:26164282

We applied three design principles (DPs) to adapt and optimize three candidate-terrestrial-fusion-reactor configurations for propulsion in space. The three design principles are: (1) provide maximum direct access to space for waste radiation, (2) operate components as passive radiators to minimize cooling-system mass, and (3) optimize the plasma fuel, fuel mix, and temperature for best specific Jet power. The three candidate-terrestrial-fusion-reactor configurations are: (1) the thermal-barrier-tandem-mirror (TBTM), (2) field-reversed-mirror (FRM), and (3) levitated-dipole-field (LDF). The resulting three candidate-space-fusion-propulsion systems have their initial-mass-to-LEO minimized and their specific jet power and reusability maximized. We performed a preliminary rating of these configurations and concluded that the leading engineering-design solution to space fusion propulsion is a modified TBTM that we call the Mirror Fusion Propulsion System.

Engineering design studies of both magnetic and inertial fusion power plants have assumed that the plasma will undergo fusion reactions in a vacuum environment. Operation under vacuum requires an expensive additional major system for the reactor-a vacuum vessel with vacuum pumping, and raises the possibility of sudden unplanned outages if the vacuum containment is breached. It would be desirable in many respects if fusionreactors could be made to operate at one atmosphere with air surrounding the plasma, thus eliminating the requirement of a pressure vessel and vacuum pumping. This would have obvious economic, reliability, and engineering advantages for currently envisaged power plant reactors; it would make possible forms of reactor control not possible under vacuum conditions (i.e. adiabatic compression of the fusion plasma by increasing the pressure of surrounding gas); it would allow reactors used as aircraft engines to operate as turbojets or ramjets in the atmosphere, and it would allow reactors used as fusion rockets to take off from the surface of the earth instead of low earth orbit.

The SP-100 reactor subsystem consists of the pressure vessel, vessel internals, and fuel elements. Type A (standard) Nb-1Zr and rhenium materials development efforts related to fabrication of the vessel, vessel internals, and fuel cladding/liner have been completed. Type A and Type C (PWC-11) Nb-1Zr loop fabrication has been successfully demonstrated by prototypic testing with flowing lithium at 1350 K for 1500 hr. Development of UN fuel has been completed, and the performance validated by irradiation testing to the full life (7 yr. full power) burnup of 6 atom %. Neutronic and hydraulic core performance have been validated by engineering mockup critical experiments in the Zero Power Physics Reactor at Argonne National Laboratory, and detailed core hydraulic flow testing with water. Essentially all feasibility issues have been settled for the full life SP-100 reactor subsystem. Remaining SP-100 reactor subsystem development efforts are focused on further reducing mass by the use of Type C (PWC-11) Nb-1Zr rather than Type A, and demonstrating fuel life for beyond full life to perhaps 9 atom % burnup.

The Tandem Mirror Hybrid Reactor is a fusionreactor concept that incorporates a fission-suppressed breeding blanket for the production of /sup 233/U to be used in conventional fission power reactors. The present paper reports on compatibility considerations related to the blanket design. These considerations include solid-solid interactions and liquid metal corrosion. Potential problems are discussed relative to the reference blanket operating temperature (490/sup 0/C) and the recycling time of breeding materials (<1 year).

A neutronics analysis using the Monte Carlo method is carried out for the end-plug penetration and magnet system of a tandem mirror fusionreactor. Detailed penetration and the magnets' three-dimensional configurations are modeled. A method of position dependent angular source biasing is developed to adequately sample the DT fusion source in the central cell region and obtain flux contributions at the penetration components. To assure cryogenic stability, the barrier cylindrical solenoid is identified as needing substantial shielding of about 1 m of a steel-lead-boron-carbide-water mixture. Heating rates there would require a thermal-hydraulic design similar to that in the central cell blanket region. The transition coils, however, need a minimal 0.2 m thickness shield. The leakage neutron flux at the direct converters is estimated at 1.3×1015 n/(m2·s), two orders of magnitude lower than that reported at the neutral beam injectors for tokamaks around 1017 n/(m2·s) for a 1 MW/m2 14 MeV neutron wall loading. This result is obtained through a coupling between the nuclear and plasma physics designs in which hydrogen ions rather than deuterium atoms are used for energy injection at the end plug, to avoid creating a neutron source there. This lower and controllable radiation leakage problem is perceived as a potential major advantage of tandem mirrors compared to tokamaks and laser reactor systems.

A conceptual study of fusion-driven transmutation reactor was performed based on ITER physics and engineering constraints. A compact reactor concept is desirable from an economic viewpoint. For the optimal design of a reactor, a radial build of reactor components has to be determined by considering the plasma physics and engineering constraints which inter-relate various reactor components. In a transmutation reactor, design of blanket and shield play a key role in determining the size of a reactor; the blanket should produce enough tritium for tritium self-sufficiency, the transmutation rate of waste has to be maximized, and the shield should provide sufficient protection for the superconducting toroidal field (TF) coil. To determine the radial build of the blanket and the shield, not only a radiation transport analysis but also a burnup calculation were coupled with the system analysis and it allowed the self-consistent determination of the design parameters of a transmutation reactor.

Neoclassical simulations of alpha particle density profiles in high fusion power plasmas on the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) [Phys. Plasmas 5 (1998) 1577] are found to be in good agreement with measurements of the alpha distribution function made with a sensitive active neutral particle diagnostic. The calculations are carried out in Hamiltonian magnetic coordinates with a fast, particle-following Monte Carlo code which includes the neoclassical transport processes, a recent first-principles model for stochastic ripple loss and collisional effects. New global loss and confinement domain calculations allow an estimate of the actual alpha particle densities measured with the pellet charge exchange diagnostic.

An integrated continuous tubular reactor system was developed for processing an autoprotease expressed as inclusion bodies. The inclusion bodies were suspended and fed into the tubular reactor system for continuous dissolving, refolding and precipitation. During refolding, the dissolved autoprotease cleaves itself, separating the fusion tag from the target peptide. Subsequently, the cleaved fusion tag and any uncleaved autoprotease were precipitated out in the precipitation step. The processed exiting solution results in the purified soluble target peptide. Refolding and precipitation yields performed in the tubular reactor were similar to batch reactor and process was stable for at least 20 h. The authenticity of purified peptide was also verified by mass spectroscopy. Productivity (in mg/l/h and mg/h) calculated in the tubular process was twice and 1.5 times of the batch process, respectively. Although it is more complex to setup a tubular than a batch reactor, it offers faster mixing, higher productivity and better integration to other bioprocessing steps. With increasing interest of integrated continuous biomanufacturing, the use of tubular reactors in industrial settings offers clear advantages. PMID:24950296

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) is a one-of-a kind tritium fusion research reactor, and is planned to be decommissioned within the next several years. This is the largest fusionreactor in the world and as a result of deuterium-tritum reactions is tritium contaminated and activated from 14 Mev neutrons. This presents many unusual challenges when dismantling, packaging and disposing its components and ancillary systems. Special containers are being designed to accommodate the vacuum vessel, neutral beams, and tritium delivery and processing systems. A team of experienced professionals performed a detailed field study to evaluate the requirements and appropriate methods for packaging the radioactive materials. This team focused on several current and innovative methods for waste minimization that provides the oppurtunmost cost effective manner to package and dispose of the waste. This study also produces a functional time-phased schedule which conjoins the waste volume, weight, costs and container requirements with the detailed project activity schedule for the entire project scope. This study and project will be the first demonstration of the decommissioning of a tritium fusion test reactor. The radioactive waste disposal aspects of this project are instrumental in demonstrating the viability of a fusion power reactor with regard to its environmental impact and ultimate success.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California is currently in operation with the goal to demonstrate fusion energy gain for the first time in the laboratory-also referred to as "ignition." Based on these demonstration experiments, the Laser Inertial Fusion Energy (LIFE) power plant is being designed at LLNL in partnership with other institutions with the goal to deliver baseload electricity from safe, secure, sustainable fusion power in a time scale that is consistent with the energy market needs. For this purpose, the LIFE design takes advantage of recent advances in diode-pumped, solid-state laser technology and adopts the paradigm of Line Replaceable Units used on the NIF to provide high levels of availability and maintainability and mitigate the need for advanced materials development. The LIFE market entry plant will demonstrate the feasibility of a closed fusion fuel cycle, including tritium breeding, extraction, processing, refueling, accountability, and safety, in a steady-state power-producing device. While many fusion plant designs require large quantities of tritium for startup and operations, a range of design choices made for the LIFE fuel cycle act to reduce the in-process tritium inventory. This paper presents an overview of the delivery plan and the preconceptual design of the LIFE facility with emphasis on the key safety design principles being adopted. In order to illustrate the favorable safety characteristics of the LIFE design, some initial accident analysis results are presented that indicate potential for a more attractive licensing regime than that of current fission reactors. PMID:23629070

Materials behaviors caused by neutron irradiation under fission and/or fusion environments can be little understood without practical examination. Easily accessible material information system with large material database using effective computers is necessary for design of nuclear materials and analyses or simulations of the phenomena. The developed Embrittlement Data Base (EDB) at ORNL is this comprehensive collection of data. EDB database contains power reactor pressure vessel surveillance data, the material test reactor data, foreign reactor data (through bilateral agreements authorized by NRC), and the fracture toughness data. The lessons learned from building EDB program and the associated database management activity regarding Material Database Design Methodology, Architecture and the Embedded QA Protocol are described in this report. The development of IAEA International Database on Reactor Pressure Vessel Materials (IDRPVM) and the comparison of EDB database and IAEA IDRPVM database are provided in the report. The recommended database QA protocol and database infrastructure are also stated in the report.

A new code, bimc, is under development to determine if a beam of heavy ions can be focused to the necessary spot-size radius of about 2 mm within an inertial confinement reactor chamber where the background gas densities are on the order of 10{sup 14}--10{sup 15} cm{sup {minus}3} Lithium (or equivalent). Beam transport is expected to be strongly affected by stripping and collective plasma phenomena; however, if propagation is possible in this regime, it could lead to simplified reactor designs. The beam is modeled using a 2 1/2 D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation code coupled with a Monte Carlo (MC) method for analyzing collisions. The MC code follows collisions between the beam ions and neutral background gas atoms that account for the generation of electrons and background gas ions (ionization), and an increase of the charge state of the beam ions (stripping). The PIC code models the complete dynamics of the interaction of the various charged particle species with the self generated electromagnetic fields. Details of the code model and preliminary results are presented.

Present estimates of uranium resources and reserves in the US and the non-Communist world are reviewed. The resulting implications are considered for two proposed breeder technologies: the liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) and the fusion hybrid reactor. Using both simple arguments and detailed scenarios from the published literature, conditions are explored under which the LMFBR and fusion hybrid could respectively have the most impact, considering both fuel-supply and economic factors. The conclusions emphasize strong potential advantages of the fusion hybrid, due to its inherently large breeding rate. A discussion is presented of proposed US development strategies for the fusion hybrid, which at present is far behind the LMFBR in its practical application and maturity.

Research carried out by GA for the Department of Energy Office of Fusion Energy provides key information and insight necessary for the development of fusion power systems. Highlights of the fusion theory effort described in this report include progress in numerical simulations of turbulent transport in tokamak plasmas, extension of novel theories of the H-mode, development and application of advanced codes for evaluating ECRF current drive efficiency, and new understanding and techniques for dealing with high beta tokamak equilibria. Experimental plasma research efforts are addresssing several important issues in fusion research. Neutron and alpha particle spectroscopy and triton confinement diagnostics are being developed to enable fusion researchers to understand alpha particle confinement and slowdown in burning plasmas. Development of Li beam diagnostic systems continued and has shown a capability for measuring both magnetic field pitch angle and relative current density profiles. Experiments on Ergodic Magnetic Divertor (EMD) phenomena on the Texas Experimental Tokamak (TEXT) continued to demonstrate low plasma edge temperatures and impurity reduction that make the concept attractive for reactor applications. GA led efforts continuing the Resonant Island Divertor (RID) experiments on TEXT using the EMD as a controlled magnetic perturbation. Research carried out in GA's Development and Technology programs included reactor systems design studies, and development of ferritic steels suitable for use as a structural material in fusionreactors. In the reactor systems design area, GA participated in the TITAN Reserved Field Pinch (RFP) Reactor Design Study. GA is responsible for project operation, safety design and analysis, and blanket shield neutronics calculations for this study.

Adiabatic toroidal compression experiments were performed in conjunction with high power neutral beam injection in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR). Acceleration of beam ions to energies nearly twice the injection energy was measured with a charge-exchange neutral particle analyzer. Measurements were also made of 2.5 MeV neutrons and 15 MeV protons produced in fusion reactions between the deuterium beam ions and the thermal deuterium and /sup 3/He ions, respectively. When the plasma was compressed, the d(d,n)/sup 3/He fusion reaction rate increased a factor of five, and the /sup 3/He(d,p)/sup 4/He rate by a factor of twenty. These data were simulated with a bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck program, which assumed conservation of angular momentum and magnetic moment during compression. The results indicate that the beam ion acceleration was consistent with adiabatic scaling.

A high-power-density laser or charged-particle-beam fusionreactor system maximizes the directed kinetic energy imparted to a large mass of liquid lithium by a centrally located fusion target. A fusion target is embedded in a large mass of lithium, of sufficient radius to act as a tritium breeding blanket, and provided with ports for the access of beam energy to implode the target. The directed kinetic energy is converted directly to electricity with high efficiency by work done against a pulsed magnetic field applied exterior to the lithium. Because the system maximizes the blanket thickness per unit volume of lithium, neutron-induced radioactivities in the reaction chamber wall are several orders of magnitude less than is typical of other fusionreactor systems.

A high-power-density-laser or charged-particle-beam fusionreactor system maximizes the directed kinetic energy imparted to a large mass of liquid lithium by a centrally located fusion target. A fusion target is embedded in a large mass of lithium, of sufficient radius to act as a tritium breeding blanket, and provided with ports for the access of beam energy to implode the target. The directed kinetic energy is converted directly to electricity with high efficiency by work done against a pulsed magnetic field applied exterior to the lithium. Because the system maximizes the blanket thickness per unit volume of lithium, neutron-induced radioactivities in the reaction chamber wall are several orders of magnitude less than is typical of other fusionreactor systems. 25 figs.

Recent fusion power reactor designs have shown a trend toward lower power, lower cost, higher mass utilization compact configurations with inherent safety, in order to improve the economic aspects of fusion and make them more competitive with other energy sources. Since the blanket thickness directly impacts the size and mass of the remaining reactor components, it is prudent to minimize its thickness while ensuring adequate neutronic and thermal performance. This paper describes the blanket for the MINI-MARS compact tandem mirror fusion power reactor. The blanket which utilizes HT-9 ferritic steel structure, LiPb breeder, Be multiplier/moderator and He gas cooling is only 17 cm thick and is backed up by a steel reflector. Helium gas cools the blanket and reflector in series and the outlet temperature of 575/sup 0/C gives a gross thermal power cycle efficiency of 42.7%.

The fusion breeder is a fusionreactor designed with special blankets to maximize the transmutation by 14 MeV neutrons of uranium-238 to plutonium or thorium to uranium-233 for use as a fuel for fission reactors. Breeding fissile fuels has not been a goal of the US fusion energy program. This paper suggests it is time for a policy change to make the fusion breeder a goal of the US fusion program and the US nuclear energy program. The purpose of this paper is to suggest this policy change be made and tell why it should be made, and to outline specific research and development goals so that the fusion breeder will be developed in time to meet fissile fuel needs.

In recent years the methodology proposed for conversion of light elements into energy via fusion has made steady progress. Scientific studies and engineering efforts in advanced fusion systems designs have introduced some new concepts with unique aspects including consideration of Aneutronic fuels. The plant parameters for harnessing aneutronic fusion appear more exigent than those required for the conventional fusion fuel cycle. However aneutronic fusion propulsion plants for Space deployment will ultimately offer the possibility of enhanced performance from nuclear gain as compared to existing ionic engines as well as providing a clean solution to Planetary Protection considerations and requirements. Proton triggered 11Boron fuel (p- 11B) will produce abundant ion kinetic energy for In-Space vectored thrust. Thus energetic alpha particles' exhaust momentum can be used directly to produce high Isp thrust and also offer possibility of power conversion into electricity. p-11B is an advanced fusion plant fuel with well understood reaction kinematics but will require some new conceptual thinking as to the most effective implementation.

In recent years the methodology proposed for conversion of light elements into energy via fusion has made steady progress. Scientific studies and engineering efforts in advanced fusion systems designs have introduced some new concepts with unique aspects including consideration of Aneutronic fuels. The plant parameters for harnessing aneutronic fusion appear more exigent than those required for the conventional fusion fuel cycle. However aneutronic fusion propulsion plants for Space deployment will ultimately offer the possibility of enhanced performance from nuclear gain as compared to existing ionic engines as well as providing a clean solution to Planetary Protection considerations and requirements. Proton triggered 11Boron fuel (p- 11B) will produce abundant ion kinetic energy for In-Space vectored thrust. Thus energetic alpha particles "exhaust" momentum can be used directly to produce high ISP thrust and also offer possibility of power conversion into electricity. p- 11B is an advanced fusion plant fuel with well understood reaction kinematics but will require some new conceptual thinking as to the most effective implementation.

Energy for electricity and transportation is a national issue with worldwide environmental and political implications. The world must have energy options for the next century that are not vulnerable to possible disruption for technical, environmental, public confidence, or other reasons. Growing concerns about the greenhouse effect and the safety of transporting oil may lead to reduced burning of coal and other fossil fuels, and the incidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, as well as nuclear waste storage problems, have eroded public acceptance of nuclear fission. Meeting future world energy needs will require improvements in energy efficiency and conservation. However, the world will soon need new central station power plants and increasing amounts of fuel for the transportation sector. The use of fossil fuels, and possibly even fission power, will very likely be restricted because of environmental, safety, and, eventually, supply considerations. Time is running out for policymakers. New energy technologies cannot be brought to the marketplace overnight. Decades are required to bring a new energy production technology from conception to full market penetration. With the added urgency to mitigate deleterious environmental effects of energy use, policymakers must act decisively now to establish and support vigorous energy technology development programs. The U.S. has invested 8 billion over the past 40 years in fusion research and development. If the U.S. fusion program proceeds according to its present strategy, an additional 40 years, and more money, will be expended before fusion will provide commercial electricity. Such an extended schedule is neither cost-effective nor technically necessary. It is time to launch a national venture to construct and operate a fusion power pilot plant. Such a plant could be operational within 15 years of a national commitment to proceed.

The SAFIRE (Systems Analysis for ICF Reactor Economics) code incorporates analytical models for scaling the cost and performance of several inertial confinement fusionreactor concepts for electric power. The code allows us to vary design parameters (e.g., driver energy, chamber pulse rate, net electric power) and evaluate the resulting change in capital cost of power plant and the busbar cost of electricity. The SAFIRE code can be used to identify the most attractive operating space and to identify those design parameters with the greatest leverage for improving the economics of inertial confinement fusion electric power plants.

Magnetic confinement fusionreactors are tightly coupled systems. The parameters under a designer's control, such as magnetic field, wall temperature, and blanket thickness, simultaneously affect the behavior, performance, and components of the reactor, leading to complex tradeoffs and design optimizations. In addition, the engineering analyses require non-trivial, self-consistent inputs, such as reactor geometry, to ensure high fidelity between the various physics and engineering design codes. We present a framework for analysis and multidimensional optimization of fusionreactor systems based on the coupling of heterogeneous codes and engineering software. While this approach is widely used in industry, most code-coupling efforts in fusion have been focused on plasma and edge physics. Instead, we use a simplified plasma model to concentrate on how fusion neutrons and heat transfer affect the design of the first wall, breeding blanket, and magnet systems. The framework combines solid modeling, neutronics, and engineering multiphysics codes and software, linked across Windows and Linux clusters. Initial results for optimizing the design of a compact, high-field tokamak reactor based on high-temperature demountable superconducting coils and a liquid blanket are presented.

A project-oriented approach is beneficial for the selection and design of viable diagnostics for fusionreactors because of the associated complex physical and organizational environment. The project-oriented approach includes rigorous risk management. The nature and impact of risks related to technical, organizational and commercial aspects in relation to the development of ITER diagnostics under EU responsibility are analyzed. The majority of risks are related to organizational aspects and technical feasibility issues. The experience with ITER is extrapolated to DEMO and beyond. It should not be taken for granted that technical solutions will be found, while a risk analysis of various diagnostic techniques with quantitative assessments undertaken early in the design of DEMO would be beneficial.

Design and operation of fusionreactor structures will require an appropriate data base closely coupled to a reliable failure analysis method to safely manage irradiation embrittlement. However, ongoing irradiation programs will not provide the information on embrittlement necessary to accomplish these objectives. A new engineering approach is proposed based on the concept of a master toughness-temperature curve indexed on an absolute temperature scale using shifts to account for variables such as size scales, crack geometry and loading rates as well as embrittlement. While providing a simple practical engineering expedient, the proposed method can also be greatly enhanced by fundamental mechanism based models of fracture and embrittlement. Indeed, such understanding is required for the effective use of small specimen test methods, which is a integral element in developing the necessary data base.

Liquid metals can provide a continually replenished material for the first wall and extraction blankets of fusionreactors. However, research has shown that solid metal surfaces will experience embrittlement when exposed to liquid metals under stress. Therefore, it is important to understand the changes in structural strength of the solid metal materials and test different surface treatments that can limit embrittlement. Research was conducted to design and build an apparatus for exposing solid metal samples to liquid metal under high stress and temperature. The apparatus design, results of tensile testing, and surface imaging of fractured samples will be presented. This work was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Workforce Development for Teachers and Scientists (WDTS) under the Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internships Program (SULI).

A project-oriented approach is beneficial for the selection and design of viable diagnostics for fusionreactors because of the associated complex physical and organizational environment. The project-oriented approach includes rigorous risk management. The nature and impact of risks related to technical, organizational and commercial aspects in relation to the development of ITER diagnostics under EU responsibility are analyzed. The majority of risks are related to organizational aspects and technical feasibility issues. The experience with ITER is extrapolated to DEMO and beyond. It should not be taken for granted that technical solutions will be found, while a risk analysis of various diagnostic techniques with quantitative assessments undertaken early in the design of DEMO would be beneficial.

The paper presents the development of experimental investigations and recent results of the impact on tungsten at high level of radiation damage under steady-state deuterium plasma. Tungsten is considered as a plasma facing material for a fusionreactor. The effect of fusion neutron impact is simulated by surrogate irradiations with high-energy ions. The primary defects at 1-100 dpa were produced in tungsten samples by He and C ions accelerated in the Kurchatov cyclotron to 3-10 MeV at the total fluence of 1017-1019 cm-2. The irradiated material was studied in deuterium plasma on the LENTA linear divertor simulator at the plasma fluence 1021-1022 D/cm2. Erosion dynamics, development of the surface microstructure and deuterium retention were analyzed. Increased deuterium retention detected previously in tungsten pre-irradiated by He ions was also registered (ERDA) on C-irradiated samples at 2-3 dpa. In contrast, a significant decrease in the D uptake has been observed on those samples operated in the experiments at 500 °C.

Successful development of fusion energy will require the design of high-performance structural materials that exhibit dimensional stability and good resistance to fusion neutron degradation of mechanical and physical properties. The high levels of gaseous (H, He) transmutation products associated with deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion neutron transmutation reactions, along with displacement damage dose requirements up to 50-200 displacements per atom (dpa) for a fusion demonstration reactor (DEMO), pose an extraordinary challenge. The intense neutron source(s) is needed to address two complimentary missions: 1) Scientific investigations of radiation degradation phenomena and microstructural evolution under fusion-relevant irradiation conditions (to provide the foundation for designing improved radiation resistant materials), and 2) Engineering database development for design and licensing of next-step fusion energy machines such as a fusion DEMO. A wide variety of irradiation facilities have been proposed to investigate materials science phenomena and to test and qualify materials for a DEMO reactor. Currently available and proposed facilities include fission reactors (including isotopic and spectral tailoring techniques to modify the rate of H and He production per dpa), dual- and triple-ion accelerator irradiation facilities that enable greatly accelerated irradiation studies with fusion-relevant H and He production rates per dpa within microscopic volumes, D-Li stripping reaction and spallation neutron sources, and plasma-based sources. The advantages and limitations of the main proposed fusion materials irradiation facility options are reviewed. Evaluation parameters include irradiation volume, potential for performing accelerated irradiation studies, capital and operating costs, similarity of neutron irradiation spectrum to fusionreactor conditions, temperature and irradiation flux stability/control, ability to perform multiple-effect tests (e.g., irradiation in

This report describes models and analyses devised at Los Alamos National Laboratory to determine the technical characteristics of different inertial confinement fusion (ICF) reactor elements required for component integration into a functional unit. We emphasize the generic properties of the different elements rather than specific designs. The topics discussed are general ICF reactor design considerations; reactor cavity phenomena, including the restoration of interpulse ambient conditions; first-wall temperature increases and material losses; reactor neutronics and hydrodynamic blanket response to neutron energy deposition; and analyses of loads and stresses in the reactor vessel walls, including remarks about the generation and propagation of very short wavelength stress waves. A discussion of analytic approaches useful in integrations and optimizations of ICF reactor systems concludes the report.

For approximately a decade, the Heavy Ion Fusion Accelerator Research (HIFAR) group at LBL has been exploring the use of induction accelerators with multiple beams as the driver for inertial fusion targets. Scaled experiments have investigated the transport of space charge dominated beams (SBTE), and the current amplification and transverse emittance control in induction linacs (MBE-4) with very encouraging results. In order to study many of the beam manipulations required by a driver and to further develop economically competitive technology, a proposal has been made in partnership with LLNL to build a 10 MeV accelerator and to conduct a series of experiments collectively called the Induction Linac System Experiments (ILSE). The major components critical to the ILSE accelerator are currently under development. We have constructed a full scale induction module and we have tested a number of amorphous magnetic materials developed by Allied Signal to establish an overall optimal design. The electric and magnetic quadrupoles critical to the transport and focusing of heavy ion beams are also under development The hardware is intended to be economically competitive for a driver without sacrificing any of the physics or performance requirements. This paper will concentrate on the recent developments and tests of the major components required by the ILSE accelerator.

Experiments in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) have explored several novel regimes of improved tokamak confinement in deuterium-tritium (D-T) plasmas, including plasmas with reduced or reversed magnetic shear in the core and high-current plasmas with increased shear in the outer region (high-l{sub i}). New techniques have also been developed to enhance the confinement in these regimes by modifying the plasma-limiter interaction through in-situ deposition of lithium. In reversed-shear plasmas, transitions to enhanced confinement have been observed at plasma currents up to 2.2 MA (q{sub a} {approx} 4.3), accompanied by the formation of internal transport barriers, where large radial gradients develop in the temperature and density profiles. Experiments have been performed to elucidate the mechanism of the barrier formation and its relationship with the magnetic configuration and with the heating characteristics. The increased stability of high-current, high-l{sub i} plasmas produced by rapid expansion of the minor cross-section, coupled with improvement in the confinement by lithium deposition has enabled the achievement of high fusion power, up to 8.7 MW, with D-T neutral beam heating. The physics of fusion alpha-particle confinement has been investigated in these regimes, including the interactions of the alphas with endogenous plasma instabilities and externally applied waves in the ion cyclotron range of frequencies. In D-T plasmas with q{sub 0} > 1 and weak magnetic shear in the central region, a toroidal Alfven eigenmode instability driven purely by the alpha particles has been observed for the first time. The interactions of energetic ions with ion Bernstein waves produced by mode-conversion from fast waves in mixed-species plasmas have been studied as a possible mechanism for transferring the energy of the alphas to fuel ions.

Giant negative ion sources, producing high-current of several tens amps with high energy of several hundreds keV to 1 MeV, are required for a neutral beam injector (NBI) in a fusion device. The giant negative ion sources are cesium-seeded plasma sources, in which the negative ions are produced on the cesium-covered surface. Their characteristic features are discussed with the views of large-volume plasma production, large-area beam acceleration, and high-voltage dc holding. The international thermonuclear experimental reactor NBI employs a 1 MeV-40 A of deuterium negative ion source, and intensive development programs for the rf-driven source plasma production and the multistage electrostatic acceleration are in progress, including the long pulse operation for 3600 s. Present status of the development, as well as the achievements of the giant negative ion sources in the working injectors, is also summarized. PMID:20192420

Giant negative ion sources, producing high-current of several tens amps with high energy of several hundreds keV to 1 MeV, are required for a neutral beam injector (NBI) in a fusion device. The giant negative ion sources are cesium-seeded plasma sources, in which the negative ions are produced on the cesium-covered surface. Their characteristic features are discussed with the views of large-volume plasma production, large-area beam acceleration, and high-voltage dc holding. The international thermonuclear experimental reactor NBI employs a 1 MeV-40 A of deuterium negative ion source, and intensive development programs for the rf-driven source plasma production and the multistage electrostatic acceleration are in progress, including the long pulse operation for 3600 s. Present status of the development, as well as the achievements of the giant negative ion sources in the working injectors, is also summarized.

Past generations of nuclear reactors have been successively developed and the next generation is currently being developed, demonstrating the constant progress and technical and industrial vitality of nuclear energy. In 2000 US Department of Energy launched Generation IV International Forum (GIF) which is one of the main international frameworks for the development of future nuclear systems. The six systems that were selected were: sodium cooled fast reactor, lead cooled fast reactor, supercritical water cooled reactor, very high temperature gas cooled reactor (VHTR), gas cooled fast reactor and molten salt reactor. This paper discusses some of the proposed advanced reactor concepts that are currently being researched to varying degrees in the United States, and highlights some of the major challenges these concepts must overcome to establish their feasibility and to satisfy licensing requirements.

In this paper, the possibility of vapor explosions in superheat liquids in presence of a magnetic field that undergo sudden variation of magnetic field is discussed. This possible phenomenon may play a very important role in the blanket design of future fusionreactors, where transients in magnetic field on liquid metals, could will be a potential hazard for safety.

ARIES-RS is one of the major magnetic fusion energy reactor designs that uses a blanket having vanadium alloy structure cooled by lithium [1, 2]. It is a deuterium-tritium (DT) fusion driven reactor, having a fusion power of 2170 MW [1, 2]. This study presents the neutronic analysis of the ARIES-RS fusionreactor using heavy metal molten salts in which Li2BeF4 as the main constituent was mixed with increased mole fractions of heavy metal salt (ThF4 or UF4) starting by 2 mol.% up to 12 mol.%. Neutron transport calculations were carried out with the help of the SCALE 4.3 system by solving the Boltzmann transport equation with the XSDRNPM code in 238 neutron groups and a S 8- P 3 approximation. According to the numerical results, tritium self-sufficiency was attained for the coolants, Flibe with 2% UF4 or ThF4 and 4% UF4. In addition, higher energy multiplication values were found for the salt with UF4 compared to that with ThF4. Furthermore, significant amount of high quality nuclear fuel was produced to be used in external reactors.

A review of corrosion and environmental effects on the mechanical properties of austenitic and ferritic steels for use with liquid metals in fusionreactors is presented. The mechanisms and kinetics of the corrosion processes in liquid lithium and Pb-17Li systems are examined and their influence on degradation of structural material is discussed. Requirements for additional data are identified.

The potential for providing energy with minimal environmental impact is a powerful motivation for the development of fusion and is the long-term objective of most fusion programs. However, the societal acceptability of magnetic fusion may well be decided in the near-term when decisions are taken on the construction of DEMO to follow ITER (if not when the construction decision is taken on ITER). Component wastes were calculated for DEMOs based on each data base by first calculating reactor sizes needed to satisfy the physics, stress and radiation attenuation requirements, and then calculating component replacement rates based on radiation damage and erosion limits. Then, radioactive inventories were calculated and compared to a number of international criteria for {open_quote}near-surface{close_quote} burial. None of the components in either type of design would meet the Japanese LLW criterion (<1 Ci/m{sup 3}) within 10 years of shutdown, although the advanced (V/Li) blanket would do so soon afterwards. The vanadium first wall, divertor and blanket would satisfy the IAEA LLW criterion (<2 mSv/h contact dose) within about 10 years after shutdown, but none of the stainless steel or copper components would. All the components in the advanced data base designs except the stainless steel vacuum vessel and shield readily satisfy the US extended 10CFR61 intruder dose criterion, but none of the components in the {open_quotes}ITER data base{close_quotes} designs do so. It seems unlikely that a stainless steel first wall or a copper divertor plate could satisfy the US (class C) criterion for near surface burial, much less the more stringent international, criteria. On the other hand, the first wall, divertor and blanket of the V/Li system would still satisfy the intruder dose concentration limits even if the dose criterion was reduced by two orders of magnitude.

The invention is a laser or particle-beam-driven fusionreactor system which takes maximum advantage of both the very short pulsed nature of the energy release of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and the very small volumes within which the thermonuclear burn takes place. The pulsed nature of ICF permits dynamic direct energy conversion schemes such as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generation and magnetic flux compression; the small volumes permit very compact blanket geometries. By fully exploiting these characteristics of ICF, it is possible to design a fusionreactor with exceptionally high power density, high net electric efficiency, and low neutron-induced radioactivity. The invention includes a compact blanket design and method and apparatus for obtaining energy utilizing the compact blanket.

After many years of fusion research, the conditions needed for a D-T fusionreactor have been approached on the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) [Fusion Technol. 21, 1324 (1992)]. For the first time the unique phenomena present in a D-T plasma are now being studied in a laboratory plasma. The first magnetic fusion experiments to study plasmas using nearly equal concentrations of deuterium and tritium have been carried out on TFTR. At present the maximum fusion power of 10.7 MW, using 39.5 MW of neutral-beam heating, in a supershot discharge and 6.7 MW in a high-βp discharge following a current rampdown. The fusion power density in a core of the plasma is ≊2.8 MW m-3, exceeding that expected in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) [Plasma Physics and Controlled Nuclear Fusion Research (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1991), Vol. 3, p. 239] at 1500 MW total fusion power. The energy confinement time, τE, is observed to increase in D-T, relative to D plasmas, by 20% and the ni(0) Ti(0) τE product by 55%. The improvement in thermal confinement is caused primarily by a decrease in ion heat conductivity in both supershot and limiter-H-mode discharges. Extensive lithium pellet injection increased the confinement time to 0.27 s and enabled higher current operation in both supershot and high-βp discharges. Ion cyclotron range of frequencies (ICRF) heating of a D-T plasma, using the second harmonic of tritium, has been demonstrated. First measurements of the confined alpha particles have been performed and found to be in good agreement with TRANSP [Nucl. Fusion 34, 1247 (1994)] simulations. Initial measurements of the alpha ash profile have been compared with simulations using particle transport coefficients from He gas puffing experiments. The loss of alpha particles to a detector at the bottom of the vessel is well described by the first-orbit loss mechanism. No loss due to alpha-particle-driven instabilities has yet been observed

Neoclassical simulations of alpha particle density profiles in high fusion power plasmas on the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor [Phys. Plasmas {bold 5}, 1577 (1998)] are found to be in good agreement with measurements of the alpha distribution function made with a sensitive active neutral particle diagnostic. The calculations are carried out in Hamiltonian magnetic coordinates with a fast, particle-following Monte Carlo code which includes the neoclassical transport processes, a recent first-principles model for stochastic ripple loss and collisional effects. New calculations show that monotonic shear alpha particles are virtually unaffected by toroidal field ripple. The calculations show that in reversed shear the confinement domain is not empty for trapped alphas at birth and allow an estimate of the actual alpha particle densities measured with the pellet charge exchange diagnostic. {copyright} {ital 1999 American Institute of Physics.}

Accident scenarios for fusion power plants present the potential for release and transport of activated constituents volatilized from first wall and structural materials. The extent of possible mobilization and transport of these activated species, many of which are oxidation driven'', is being addressed by the Fusion Safety Program at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL). This report presents experimental measurements of volatilization from a copper alloy in air and steam and from a tungsten alloy in air. The major elements released included zinc from the copper alloy and rhenium and tungsten from the tungsten alloy. Volatilization rates of several constituents of these alloys over temperatures ranging from 400 to 1200{degree}C are presented. These values represent release rates recommended for use in accident assessment calculations. 8 refs., 3 figs., 5 tabs.

The Material Plasma Exposure eXperiment (MPEX) is a device planned to address scientific and technological gaps for the development of viable plasma facing components for fusionreactor conditions (FNSF, DEMO). It will have to address the relevant plasma conditions in a reactor divertor (electron density, electron temperature, ion fluxes) and it needs to be able to expose a-priori neutron irradiated samples. A pre design of a target station able to handle activated materials will be presented. This includes detailed MCNP as well as SCALE and MAVRIC calculations for all potential plasma-facing materials to estimate dose rates. Details on the remote handling schemes for the material samples will be presented. 2 point modeling of the linear plasma transport has been used to scope out the parameter range of the anticipated power fluxes to the target. This has been used to design the cooling capability of the target. The operational conditions of surface temperatures, plasma conditions, and oblique angle of incidence of magnetic field to target surface will be discussed. ORNL is managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, for the U.S. DOE under contract DE-AC-05-00OR22725.

The key functions required for tritium breeding blankets for a fusion power reactor are ; (1) self-sufficient tritium breeding, (2) in-situ tritium recovery and low tritium inventory, (3) high temperature cooling giving a high efficiency of electricity generation and (4) thermo-mechanical reliability and simplified remote maintenance to obtain high plant availability. Blanket performance is substantially governed by materials selection. Major options of structure/breeder/coolant/neutron multiplier materials considered for the present design study are PCA/Li/sub 2/O/H/sub 2/O/Be, Mo-alloy/Li/sub 2/O/He/Be, Mo-alloy/LiAlO/sub 2//He/Be, V-alloy/Li/Li/none, and Mo-alloy/Li/He/none. In addition, remote maintenance of blankets, tritium recovery system, heat transport and energy conversion have been investigated. In this report, technological problems and critical R and D issues for power reactor blanket development are identified and a comparison of major candidate blanket concepts is discussed in terms of the present materials data base, economic performance, prospects for future improvements, and engineering feasibility and difficulties based on the results obtained from individual design studies. improvements, and engineering feasibility and difficulties based on the results obtained from individual design studies.

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a promising technology to fabricate the blanket structure of fusionreactors. HIP joining of solid materials has been selected as a reference fabrication method for the shielding blanket/first wall of the international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER). On the basis of experimental results obtained in Europe, Japan and Russia, an evaluation of HIP joining for fusionreactor structural components has been carried out. The parameters of HIP fabrication for copper alloys and stainless steels are given. The results of microscopic observations, X-ray microanalysis, tensile, impact toughness, fracture toughness and fatigue tests are presented. Material science criteria for an estimation of quality for joints fabricated by HIP are discussed.

Design of four spectrally tailored capsules to irradiate magnetic fusion energy (MFE) materials specimens in the new High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) removable beryllium (RB∗) facility at temperatures of 60, 200, 330 and 400°C, is described. These designs incorporate provisions for removal, examination and reencapsulation of the specimens at intermediate exposure levels en route to a target exposure level of 30 displacements per atom (dpa). With the exception of the 60°C capsule, where the test specimens are in direct contact with the reactor cooling water, the specimen temperatures (monitored by 21 thermocouples) are controlled by varying the thermal conductance of a small gap region between the specimen holder and the containment tube. Hafnium shields are used to tailor the neutron spectrum to closely match the helium production-to-atom displacement ratio ( {14 appm}/{dpa}) expected in an austenitic stainless steel fusionreactor first wall. These MFE capsule irradiations will begin in early 1988.

Princeton's Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) is the first experimental fusion device to routinely use tritium to study the deuterium-tritium (DT) fusion reaction,allowing the first systematic study of DT alpha particles in tokamak plasmas. A crucial aspect of alpha-particle physics is the fraction of alphas that escape from the plasma, particularly since these energetic particles can do severe damage to the first wall of a reactor. An escaping alpha collector probe has been developed for TFTR's DT phase. Energy distributions of escaping alphas have been determined by measuring the range of alpha-particles implanted into nickel foils located within the alpha collector. Results at 1.0 MA of plasma current are in good agreement with predictions for first orbit alpha loss. Results at 1.8 MA, however, show a significant anomalous loss of partially thermalized alphas (in addition to the expected first orbit loss), which is not observed with the lost alpha scintillator detectors in DT plasmas, but does resemble the anomalous "delayed" loss seen in DD plasmas. None of the candidate explanations proposed thus far are fully consistent with the anomalous loss observations. An experiment designed to study the effect of plasma major radius shifts on alpha-particle loss has led to a better understanding of alpha-particle dynamics in tokamaks. Intuitively, one might suppose that confined marginally passing alpha-particles forced to move toward higher magnetic field during an inward major radius shift (i.e. compression) would mirror and become trapped particles, leading to increased alpha loss. Such an effect was looked for during the shift experiment, however, no significant changes in alpha loss to the 90 degree lost alpha scintillator detector were observed during the shifts. It is calculated that the energy gained by an alpha-particle during the inward shift is sufficient to explain this result. However, an unexpected loss of partially thermalized alpha-particles near the

Materials for a fusionreactor first wall and blanket structure must be able to reliably function in an extreme environment that includes 10-15 MW-year/m{sup 2} neutron and heat fluences. The various materials and structural challenges are as difficult and important as achieving a burning plasma. Overcoming radiation damage degradation is the rate-controlling step in fusion materials development. Recent advances with oxide dispersion strengthened ferritic steels show promise in meeting reactor requirements, while multi-timescale atomistic simulations of defect-grain boundary interactions in model copper systems reveal surprising self-annealing phenomenon. While these results are promising, simultaneous evaluation of radiation effects displacement damage ({le} 200 dpa) and in-situ He generation ({le} 2000 appm) at prototypical reactor temperatures and chemical environments is still required. There is currently no experimental facility in the U.S. that can meet these requirements for macroscopic samples. The E.U. and U.S. fusion communities have recently concluded that a fusion-relevant, high-flux neutron source for accelerated characterization of the effects of radiation damage to materials is a top priority for the next decade. Data from this source will be needed to validate designs for the multi-$B next-generation fusion facilities such as the CTF, ETF, and DEMO, that are envisioned to follow ITER and NIF.

For many years it has been accepted that significant differences exist in the helium/dpa ratios produced in fast reactors and various proposed fusion energy devices. In general, the differences arise from the much larger rate of (n,{alpha}) threshold reactions occurring in fusion devices, reactions which occur for energies {ge} 6 MeV. It now appears, however, that for nickel-containing alloys in fast reactors the difference may not have been as large as was originally anticipated. In stainless steels that have a very long incubation period for swelling, for instance, the average helium concentration over the duration of the transient regime have been demonstrated in an earlier paper to be much larger in the FFTF out-of-core regions than first calculated. The helium/dpa ratios in some experiments conducted near the core edge or just outside of the FFTF core actually increase strongly throughout the irradiation, as {sup 59}Ni slowly forms by transmutation of {sup 58}Ni. This highly exothermic {sup 59}Ni(n,{alpha}) reaction occurs in all fast reactors, but is stronger in the softer spectra of oxide-fueled cores such as FFTF and weaker in the harder spectra of metal-fueled cores such as EBR-II. The formation of {sup 59}Ni also increases strongly in out-of-core unfueled regions where the reactor spectra softens with distance from the core.

It is concluded that Deuterium/Helium-3 fusion faces a more difficult physics development path but an easier technology development path than does Deuterium/Tritium. Early D/He-3 tests in next generation D/T fusion experiments might provide a valuable D/He-3 proof-of-principle at modest cost. At least one high leverage alternate concept should be vigorously pursued. Space applications of D/He-3 fusion are critically important to large scale development.

The transmutation behaviour of the low activation steel Eurofer was analysed for irradiation simulations in the high flux test module (HFTM) of the International Fusion Material Irradiation Facility (IFMIF) neutron source and the first wall of a typical fusion power reactor (FPR) employing helium cooled lithium lead (HCLL) and pebble bed (HCPB) blankets. The transmutation calculations were conducted with the analytical and laplacian adaptive radioactivity analysis (ALARA) code and IEAF-2001 data for the IFMIF and the EASY-2003 system for the fusion power reactor (FPR) irradiations. The analyses showed that the transmutation of the main constituents of Eurofer, including iron and chromium, is not significant. Minor constituents such as Ti, V and Mn increase by 5-15% per irradiation year in the FPR and by 10-35% in the IFMIF HFTM. Other minor constituents such as B, Ta, and W show a different transmutation behaviour resulting in different elemental compositions of the Eurofer steel after high fluence irradiations in IFMIF and fusion power reactors.

Tritium technology development for the DOE fusion program is taking place principally at three laboratories, Mound Facility, Argonne National Laboratory and the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. This paper will review the major aspects of each of the three programs and look at aspects of the tritium technology being developed at other laboratories within the United States. Facilities and experiments to be discussed include the Tritium Effluent Control Laboratory and the Tritium Storage and Delivery System for the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor at Mound Facility; the Lithium Processing Test Loop and the solid breeder blanket studies at Argonne; and the Tritium Systems Test Assembly at Los Alamos.

Liquid lithium was selected as one of the coolants for the 1983 fusion breeder blanket used on the magnetically confined tokamak fusionreactor, and as a result, the thermal-hydraulic calculations were dominated by magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) considerations. The applicable sets of MHD equations for the engineering thermal-hydraulic design were reviewed and compared. Special attention was given to the MHD calculations for the fertile material zone, a packed bed of composite beryllium and thorium balls, since this region can dominate the thermal-hydraulic behavior of this blanket module. To keep the pressure drops acceptable, fertile fuel balls were omitted in the inboard blanket.

A comprehensive theoretical study has been performed on the reduction of the electrical breakdown potential of liquid and gaseous helium under neutron and gamma radiation. Extension of the conventional Townsend breakdown theory indicates that radiation fields at the superconducting magnets of a typical fusionreactor are potentially capable of significantly reducing currently established (i.e., unirradiated) helium breakdown voltages. Emphasis is given to the implications of these results including future deployment choices of magnet cryogenic methods (e.g., pool-boiling versus forced-flow), the possible impact on magnet shielding requirements and the analogous situation for radiation-induced electrical breakdown in fusion RF transmission systems.

A systematic approach for developing and verifying advanced controllers with potential application to commercial nuclear power plants is suggested. The central idea is to experimentally demonstrate an advanced control concept first on an ultra safe research reactor followed by demonstration on a passively safe experimental power reactor and then finally adopt the technique for improving safety, performance, reliability and operability at commercial facilities. Prior to completing an experimental sequence, the benefits and utility of candidate advanced controllers should be established through theoretical development and simulation testing. The applicability of a robust optimal observer-based state feedback controller design process for improving reactor temperature response for a TRIGA research reactor, Liquid Metal-cooled Reactor (LMR), and a commercial Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) is presented to illustrate the potential of the proposed experimental development concept.

A systematic approach for developing and verifying advanced controllers with potential application to commercial nuclear power plants is suggested. The central idea is to experimentally demonstrate an advanced control concept first on an ultra safe research reactor followed by demonstration on a passively safe experimental power reactor and then finally adopt the technique for improving safety, performance, reliability and operability at commercial facilities. Prior to completing an experimental sequence, the benefits and utility of candidate advanced controllers should be established through theoretical development and simulation testing. The applicability of a robust optimal observer-based state feedback controller design process for improving reactor temperature response for a TRIGA research reactor, Liquid Metal-cooled Reactor (LMR), and a commercial Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) is presented to illustrate the potential of the proposed experimental development concept.

The possibility of enhancing the ratio of output to input power Q in a simple mirror machine by polarizing Deuterium-Tritium (D- T) nuclei is evaluated. Taking the Livermore mirror reference design mirror ratio of 6.54, the expected sin(sup 2) upsilon angular distribution of fusion decay products reduces immediate losses of alpha particles to the loss cone by 7.6% and alpha-ion scattering losses by approx. 50%. Based on these findings, alpha- particle confinement times for a polarized plasma should therefore be 1.11 times greater than for isotropic nuclei. Coupling this enhanced alpha-particle heating with the expected greater than 50% D- T reaction cross section, a corresponding power ratio for polarized nuclei, Q(sub polarized), is found to be 1.63 times greater than the classical unpolarized value Q(sub classical). The effects of this increase in Q are assessed for the simple mirror.

The development for a new digital reactor control unit for the Topaz-II reactor is described. The unit is expected to provide the means for automated control during a possible Topaz flight experiment. The breadboard design and development is discussed.

This report examines, for technical merit, the combination of a fusionreactor driver and a thermochemical plant as a means for producing synthetic fuel in the basic form of hydrogen. We studied: (1) one reactor type - the Tandem Mirror Reactor - wishing to use to advantage its simple central cell geometry and its direct electrical output; (2) two reactor blanket module types - a liquid metal cauldron design and a flowing Li/sub 2/O solid microsphere pellet design so as to compare the technology, the thermal-hydraulics, neutronics and tritium control in a high-temperature operating mode (approx. 1200 K); (3) three thermochemical cycles - processes in which water is used as a feedstock along with a high-temperature heat source to produce H/sub 2/ and O/sub 2/.

A conceptual vehicle design enabling fast outer solar system travel was produced predicated on a small aspect ratio spherical torus nuclear fusionreactor. Initial requirements were for a human mission to Saturn with a greater than 5% payload mass fraction and a one way trip time of less than one year. Analysis revealed that the vehicle could deliver a 108 mt crew habitat payload to Saturn rendezvous in 235 days, with an initial mass in low Earth orbit of 2,941 mt. Engineering conceptual design, analysis, and assessment was performed on all ma or systems including payload, central truss, nuclear reactor (including divertor and fuel injector), power conversion (including turbine, compressor, alternator, radiator, recuperator, and conditioning), magnetic nozzle, neutral beam injector, tankage, start/re-start reactor and battery, refrigeration, communications, reaction control, and in-space operations. Detailed assessment was done on reactor operations, including plasma characteristics, power balance, power utilization, and component design.

A conceptual vehicle design enabling fast outer solar system travel was produced predicated on a small aspect ratio spherical torus nuclear fusionreactor. Initial requirements were for a human mission to Saturn with a>5% payload mass fraction and a one way trip time of less than one year. Analysis revealed that the vehicle could deliver a 108 mt crew habitat payload to Saturn rendezvous in 235 days, with an initial mass in low Earth orbit of 2,941 mt. Engineering conceptual design, analysis, and assessment was performed on all major systems including payload, central truss, nuclear reactor (including diverter and fuel injector), power conversion (including turbine, compressor, alternator, radiator, recuperator, and conditioning), magnetic nozzle, neutral beam injector, tankage, start/re-start reactor and battery, refrigeration, communications, reaction control, and in-space operations. Detailed assessment was done on reactor operations, including plasma characteristics, power balance, and component design.

Version 00 CCC-388/RACC was specifically developed to compute the radioactivity and radioactivity-related parameters (e.g., afterheat, biological hazard potential, etc.) due to neutron activation within Inertial Fusion Energy and Magnetic Fusion Energy reactor systems. It can also be utilized to compute the radioactivity in fission, accelerator or any other neutron generating and neutron source system. This new version designated RACC-PULSE is based on CCC-388 and has the capability to model irradiation histories of varying flux levelsmore » having varying pulse widths (on times) and dwell periods (off times) and varying maintenance periods. This provides the user with the flexibility of modeling most any complexity of irradiation history beginning with simple steady state operating systems to complex multi-flux level pulse/intermittent operating systems.« less

Because alpha particle losses can have a significant influence on tokamak reactor viability, the loss of deuterium-tritium alpha particles from the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) has been measured under a wide range of conditions. In TFTR, first orbit loss and stochastic toroidal field ripple diffusion are always present. Other losses can arise due to magnetohydrodynamic instabilities or due to waves in the ion cyclotron range of frequencies. No alpha particle losses have yet been seen due to collective instabilities driven by alphas. Ion Bernstein waves can drive large losses of fast ions from TFTR, and details of those losses support one element of the alpha energy channeling scenario.

The design of the irradiation test vehicle (ITV) for the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) has been completed. The main application for the ITV is irradiation testing of candidate fusion structural materials, including vanadium-base alloys, silicon carbide composites, and low-activation steels. Construction of the vehicle is underway at the Lockheed Martin Idaho Technology Company (LMITCO). Dummy test trains are being built for system checkout and fine-tuning. Reactor insertion of the ITV with the dummy test trains is scheduled for fall 1998. Barring unexpected difficulties, the ITV will be available for experiments in early 1999.

A U.S./Russia (RF) collaborative irradiation experiment, Fusion-1, was completed in June 1996 after reaching a peak exposure of {approx}17 dpa in the BOR-60 fast reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (RIAR) in Russia. The specimens were vanadium alloys, mainly of recent heats from both countries. In this reporting period, the capsule was disassembled at the RIAR hot cells and all test specimens were successfully retrieved. For the disassembly, an innovative method of using a heated diffusion oil to melt and separate the lithium bond from the test specimens was adopted. This method proved highly successful.

Presented is a thermodynamic model analysis and optimization of a helium Brayton power cycle for direct-drive inertial fusion energy (IFE) reactor. Preliminary reactor design goals include production of 2GW of thermal power and an estimated 700MW of electricity using a tertiary indirect helium Brayton cycle. A thermodynamic analysis of the proposed helium Brayton cycle is performed using baseline technology specifications and generalized thermodynamic assumptions. Analytic equations are developed using first and second law analysis. The model constraints are the turbine inlet temperature and pressure set by the reactor temperature of ˜700^oC and current turbine specifications of 7MPa, respectively. Optimization of this model is then performed using iterative numerical programming for key variables. Previous analysis shows a 51% cycle efficiency using current technology; best estimates of near-term technology increase the cycle efficiency to 64%. Results will be presented. R. Schleicher, A. R. Raffray, C. P. Wong, ``An Assessment of the Brayton Cycle for High Performance Power Plant,'' Fusion Technology, 39 (2), 823-827, March 2001.

Neutronic analyses or, more widely, nuclear analyses have been performed for the development of a dual-coolant He/LiPb (DCLL) conceptual design reactor. A detailed three-dimensional (3D) model has been examined and optimized. The design is based on the plasma parameters and functional materials of the power plant conceptual studies (PPCS) model C. The initial radial-build for the detailed model has been determined according to the dimensions established in a previous work on an equivalent simplified homogenized reactor model. For optimization purposes, the initial specifications established over the simplified model have been refined on the detailed 3D design, modifying material and dimension of breeding blanket, shield and vacuum vessel in order to fulfil the priority requirements of a fusionreactor in terms of the fundamental neutronic responses. Tritium breeding ratio, energy multiplication factor, radiation limits in the TF coils, helium production and displacements per atom (dpa) have been calculated in order to demonstrate the functionality and viability of the reactor design in guaranteeing tritium self-sufficiency, power efficiency, plasma confinement, and re-weldability and structural integrity of the components. The paper describes the neutronic design improvements of the DCLL reactor, obtaining results for both DEMO and power plant operational scenarios.

In order to establish a D-T fusionreactor as an energy source, it is not enough to have a DT burning plasma, and economical conversion of fusion energy to electricity and/or heat, a large enough margin of tritium breeding and tritium safety must be simultaneously achieved. In particular, handling of huge amount of tritium needs significant efforts to ensure that the radiation dose of radiological workers and of the public is below the limits specified by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). In this paper, after the introduction of tritium as a fuel of DT reactors and as a radioisotope of hydrogen, tritium safety issues in fuel cycle and blanket systems are summarized. In particular, in-vessel tritium inventory, the most important and uncertain tritium safety issue, is discussed in detail.

About three percent of the fusion energy produced by a D-{sup 3}He reactor is in the form of neutrons. Those neutrons are generated by D-D and D-T reactions, with the tritium produced by the D-D fusion. The neutrons will react with structural steel, deuterium, {sup 3}He and shielding material to produce tritium. About half of the tritium generated by the D-D reaction will not burn in the plasma and will exit as a part of the plasma exhaust. Thus, there is enough tritium produced in a D-{sup 3}He reactor and careful management will be required. The tritium produced in the shield and plasma can be managed with an acceptable effect on cost and safety. 3 refs., 2 figs., 3 tabs.

This paper presents concepts for Ion Cyclotron and Lower Hybrid Current Drive arrays applicable to fusionreactors and based on periodically loaded line power division. It is shown that, in large arrays, such as the ones proposed for fusionreactor applications, these schemes can offer, in principle, a number of practical advantages, compared with currently adopted ones, such as in-blanket operation at significantly reduced power density, lay out suitable for water cooling, single ended or balanced power feed, simple and load independent impedance matching In addition, a remote and accurate real time measurement of the complex impedance of all array elements as well as detection, location, and measurement of the complex admittance of a single arc occurring anywhere in the structure is possible.

Design and development of a second generation Plasma Pyrolysis Assembly (PPA) reactor is currently underway as part of NASA s Atmosphere Revitalization Resource Recovery effort. By recovering up to 75% of the hydrogen currently lost as methane in the Sabatier reactor effluent, the PPA helps to minimize life support resupply costs for extended duration missions. To date, second generation PPA development has demonstrated significant technology advancements over the first generation device by doubling the methane processing rate while, at the same time, more than halving the required power. One development area of particular interest to NASA system engineers is fouling of the PPA reactor with carbonaceous products. As a mitigation plan, NASA MSFC has explored the feasibility of using an oxidative plasma based upon metabolic CO2 to regenerate the reactor window and gas inlet ports. The results and implications of this testing are addressed along with the advanced PPA reactordevelopment work.

This article presents viewpoints and rationale for continuing and disbanding the US efforts to develop commercial fusion power. The views of W.D. Kay, an assistant professor of political science at Northeastern University, are presented regarding - yes, abandon efforts. Meanwhile, the views of Edwin Keutes, former director of the Magnetic Fusion Program for DOE, are presented for continued development.

The neutronic performance of the International Tokamak Reactor (INTOR) blanket was studied when several alternative structural materials were used instead of the INTOR reference structural material, type 316 stainless steel. The alternative structural materials included: ferritic-, vanadium-, titanium-, long range ordered-, manganese austenitic-, and nimonic-alloys. All were treated both with and without a first-wall coating of beryllium or graphite. The tritium breeding ratio, the nuclear heating, and the gas (hydrogen and helium) production rates in the structural materials were calculated for the possible combinations of structural material and first-wall coating. These parameters were compared with those obtained by using SS-316. The nimonic alloy was the only one with worse neutronic performance than the SS-316.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has been developing heterodyne receivers for plasma diagnostic applications for over 20 years. One area of this work has been the development of a diagnostic system for the measurement of the energy of alpha particles created in a thermonuclear fusionreactor. These particles originate with an energy of 3.5 MeV and cool to the thermal energy of the plasma (around 15 keV) after several seconds. To measure the velocity distribution of these alpha particles, a Thomson scattering diagnostic is under development based on a high power CO{sub 2} laser at 10 microns with a heterodyne receiver. The Doppler shift generated by Thomson scattering of the alpha particles requires a wideband heterodyne receiver (greater than 10 GHz). Because Mercury-Cadimum-Telluride (MCT) detectors are limited to a bandwidth of approximately 2 GHz, a Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP) detector was obtained from the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) and evaluated for its heterodyne performance using the heterodyne testing facility developed at ORNL.

The tritium cycle, technologies of process and control of the tritium in the plant will constitute a fraction of the environmental impact of the first generation of DT fusionreactors. The efforts of conceptual development of the tritium cycle are centered in the Internal Regenerator Cycle. The tritium could be recovered from a flow of He gas, or directly from solid breeder. The limits of transfers to the atmosphere are assumed ~ 1 gr-T/a (~20 Ci/a) (without species distinction). In the case of ITER, for example, we have global demands of control of 5 orders of magnitude have been demonstrated at experimental level. The transfer limits determine the key parameters in tritium Cycle (HT, HTO, as dominant, and T2, T2O as marginal). Presently, the transfer from the cycle to the environment is assumed through the exchange system of the power plant (primary to secondary). That transport is due to the permeation through HT, T2, or leakage to the coolant in the primary system. It is key the chemical optimitation in the primary system, that needs to be reanalyzed in terms of radiological impact both for permeable, HT, T2, and non-permeable HTO, T2O. It is necessary considered the pathway of tritium from the reactor to the atmosphere, these processes are modelled adequately. Results of the assessments were early and chronic doses which have been evaluated for the Most Exposed Individual at particular distance bands from the release point. The impact evaluations will be performed with the computational tools (NORMTRI), besides national regulatory models, internationally accepted computer these code for dosimetric evaluations of tritiated effluents in operational conditions.

For some future space power systems using high temperature nuclear heat sources most of the output energy will be used in other than electrical form, and only a fraction of the total thermal energy generated will need to be converted to electrical work. The paper describes the conceptual design of such a partial energy conversion system, consisting of a high temperature fusionreactor operating in series with a high temperature radiator and in parallel with dual closed cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power systems, also referred to as closed Brayton cycle (CBC) systems, which are supplied with a fraction of the reactor thermal energy for conversion to electric power. Most of the fusionreactor's output is in the form of charged plasma which is expanded through a magnetic nozzle of the interplanetary propulsion system. Reactor heat energy is ducted to the high temperature series radiator utilizing the electric power generated to drive a helium gas circulation fan. In addition to discussing the thermodynamic aspects of the system design the authors include a brief overview of the gas turbine and fan rotor-dynamics and proposed bearing support technology along with performance characteristics of the three phase AC electric power generator and fan drive motor.

A model has been developed for the investigation of the liquid-metal corrosion and the corrosion product transport in a liquid-metal-cooled fusionreactor blanket. The model describes the two-dimensional transport of wall material in the liquid-metal flow and is based on the following assumptions: (1) parallel flow in a straight circular tube; (2) transport of wall material perpendicular to the flow direction by diffusion and turbulent exchange; in flow direction by the flow motion only; (3) magnetic field causes uniform velocity profile with thin boundary layer and suppresses turbulent mass exchange; and (4) liquid metal at the interface is saturated with wall material. A computer code based on this model has been used to analyze the corrosion of ferritic steel by lithium lead and the deposition of wall material in the cooler part of a loop. Three cases have been investigated: (1) ANL forced convection corrosion experiment (without magnetic field); (2) corrosion in the MARS liquid-metal-cooled blanket (with magnetic field); and (3) deposition of wall material in the corrosion product cleanup system of the MARS blanket loop.

Irradiation creep has been investigated in the Oak Ridge Research Reactor in an assembly spectrally tailored to achieve a He : dpa ratio of 12-14:1 appm/dpa in austenitic stainless steels. Temperatures of 60-400°C were investigated to address the requirements of near term fusion devices. It was found that austenitic alloys, especially PCA, have higher creep rates at 60°C than at 330 and 400°C. Since this phenomenon could not be explained by existing theoretical models, a new mechanism was proposed and a corresponding theoretical model was developed. Since vacancy migration times can be a few orders of magnitude longer than the irradiation times in this temperature regime, the immobile vacancies do not cancel climb produced by mobile interstitials absorbed at dislocations. The result is a high climb rate independent of stress-induced preferred absorption (SIPA) mechanisms. Preliminary calculations indicate that this mechanism coupled with preferred-absorption-driven glide at higher temperatures predicts a high creep rate at low temperatures and a weak temperature dependence of irradiation creep over the entire temperature range investigated.

The PULSAR-II pulsed tokamak power plant design utilizes a blanket made of the vanadium alloy, V-5Cr-5Ti, and cooled with liquid lithium. The shield is made of a mixture of the low activation austenitic steel (Tenelon) and vanadium. The blanket is assumed to be replaced every 5.6 full power years (FPY) and the shield is assumed to stay in place for 30 FPY. The activity induced in the blanket at the end of its lifetime is higher than the activity induced in the shield after 30 FPY. At shutdown, the blanket and shield activities are 2678 MCi and 1747 MCi, respectively. One year after shutdown the shield activity drops to 18 MCi compared to 84 MCi for the blanket. The total decay heat generated in the blanket at the end of its lifetime is 34.7 MW and drops to 17.6 MW within an hour. At shutdown, 25.3 MW of decay heat are generated in the shield, dropping to only 0.1 MW within the first year. One week after shutdown, the values of the integrated decay heat are 1770 GJ for the blanket and 469 GJ for the shield. The radwaste classification of the reactor structure is evaluated according to both the NRC 10CFR61 and Fetter waste disposal concentration limits. After 5.6 years of irradiation, the blanket will only qualify for Class C low level waste. After 30 years of operation, the shield will also qualify for disposal as Class C waste. Only remote maintenance will be allowed inside the containment building.

This report presents a plan for the deployment of a fusion demonstration power plant within 35 years, leading to commercial application of fusion energy by mid-century. The plan is derived from the necessary features of a demonstration fusion power plant and from the time scale defined by President Bush. It identifies critical milestones, key decision points, needed major facilities and required budgets.

The safety features of the reference fission suppressed fusion breeder reactor are presented. These include redundancy and overcapacity in primary coolant system components to minimize failure probability, an improved valve location logic to provide for failed component isolation, and double-walled coolant piping and steel guard vessel protection to further limit the extent of any leak. In addition to the primary coolant and decay heat removal system, reactor safety systems also include an independent shield cooling system, the module safety/fuel transfer coolant system, an auxiliary first wall cooling system, a psssive dump tank cooling system based on the use of heat pipes, and several lithium fire suppression systems. Safety system specifications are justified based on the results of thermal analysis, event tree construction, consequence calculations, and risk analysis. The result is a reactor design concept with an acceptably low probability of a major radioactivity release. Dose consequences of maximum credible accidents appear to be below 10CFR100 regulatory limits.

An 11.5 kJ plasma focus (PF) device was used here to irradiate materials with fusion grade plasma. The surface modifications of different materials (W, Ni, stainless steel, Mo and Cu) were investigated using various available techniques. The prominent features observed through the scanning electron microscope on the sample surfaces were erosions, cracks, blisters and craters after irradiations. The surface roughness of the samples increased multifold after exposure as measured by the surface profilometer. The X-ray diffraction analysis indicated the changes in the microstructures and the structural phase transformation in surface layers of the samples. We observed change in volumes of austenite and ferrite phases in the stainless steel sample. The energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic analysis suggested alloying of the surface layer of the samples with elements of the PF anode. We report here the comparative analysis of the surface damages of materials with different physical, thermal and mechanical properties. The investigations will be useful to understand the behavior of the perspective materials for future fusionreactors (either in pure form or in alloy) over the long operations.

The TITAN research program is a multi-institutional effort to determine the potential of the Reversed-Field Pinch (RFP) magnetic fusion concept as a compact, high-power-density, and ''attractive'' fusion energy system from economic (cost of electricity, COE), environmental, and operational viewpoints. In particular, a high neutron wall loading design (18 MW/m/sup 2/) has been chosen as the reference case in order to quantify the issue of engineering practicality, to determine the physics requirements and plasma operating mode, to assess significant benefits of compact systems, and to illuminate the main drawbacks. The program has been divided into two phases, each roughly one year in length: the Scoping Phase and the Design Phase. During the scoping phase, the TITAN design team has defined the parameter space for a high mass power density (MPD) RFP reactor, and explored a variety of approaches to the design of major subsystems. Two major design approaches consistent with high MPD and low COE, the lithium-vanadium blanket design and aqueous loop-in-pool design, have been selected for more detailed engineering evaluation in the design phase. The program has retained a balance in its approach to investigating high MPD systems. On the one hand, parametric investigations of both subsystems and overall system performance are carried out. On the other hand, more detailed analysis and engineering design and integration are performed, appropriate to determining the technical feasibility of the high MPD approach to RFP fusionreactors. This report describes the work of the scoping phase activities of the TITAN program. A synopsis of the principal technical findings and a brief description of the TITAN multiple-design approach is given. The individual chapters on Plasma Physics and Engineering, Parameter Systems Studies, Divertor, Reactor Engineering, and Fusion Power Core Engineering have been cataloged separately.

This report delivers a comprehensive genetic alteration profile of lung adenocarcinomas (LADC) driven by ALK, RET, and ROS1 oncogene fusions. These tumors are difficult to study because of their rarity. Each drives only a low percentage of LADCs. Whole-exome sequencing and copy-number variation analyses were performed on a Japanese LADC cohort (n = 200) enriched in patients with fusions (n = 31, 15.5%), followed by deep resequencing for validation. The driver fusion cases showed a distinct profile with smaller numbers of nonsynonymous mutations in cancer-related genes or truncating mutations in SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex genes than in other LADCs (P < 0.0001). This lower mutation rate was independent of age, gender, smoking status, pathologic stage, and tumor differentiation (P < 0.0001) and was validated in nine fusion-positive cases from a U.S. LADCs cohort (n = 230). In conclusion, our findings indicate that LADCs with ALK, RET, and ROS1 fusionsdevelop exclusively via their dependence on these oncogene fusions. The presence of such few alterations beyond the fusions supports the use of monotherapy with tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting the fusion products in fusion-positive LADCs. PMID:25855381

The Nuclear Fusion Issues chapter contains a comprehensive list of engineering issues for fusionreactor nuclear components. The list explicitly defines the uncertainties associated with the engineering option of a fusionreactor and addresses the potential consequences resulting from each issue. The next chapter identifies the fusion nuclear technology testing needs up to the engineering demonstration stage. (MOW)

During the last decades number and quality of available remote sensing satellite sensors for Earth observation has grown significantly. The amount of available multi-sensor images along with their increased spatial and spectral resolution provides new challenges to Earth scientists. With a Fusion Approach Selection Tool (FAST) the remote sensing community would obtain access to an optimized and improved image processing technology. Remote sensing image fusion is a mean to produce images containing information that is not inherent in the single image alone. In the meantime the user has access to sophisticated commercialized image fusion techniques plus the option to tune the parameters of each individual technique to match the anticipated application. This leaves the operator with an uncountable number of options to combine remote sensing images, not talking about the selection of the appropriate images, resolution and bands. Image fusion can be a machine and time-consuming endeavour. In addition it requires knowledge about remote sensing, image fusion, digital image processing and the application. FAST shall provide the user with a quick overview of processing flows to choose from to reach the target. FAST will ask for available images, application parameters and desired information to process this input to come out with a workflow to quickly obtain the best results. It will optimize data and image fusion techniques. It provides an overview on the possible results from which the user can choose the best. FAST will enable even inexperienced users to use advanced processing methods to maximize the benefit of multi-sensor image exploitation.

During development of tubular networks such as the mammalian vascular system, the kidney and the Drosophila tracheal system, epithelial tubes must fuse to each other to form a continuous network. Little is known of the cellular mechanisms or molecular control of epithelial tube fusion. We describe the cellular dynamics of a tracheal fusion event in Drosophila and identify a gene regulatory hierarchy that controls this extraordinary process. A tracheal cell located at the developingfusion point expresses a sequence of specific markers as it grows out and contacts a similar cell from another tube; the two cells adhere and form an intercellular junction, and they become doughnut-shaped cells with the lumen passing through them. The early fusion marker Fusion-1 is identified as the escargot gene. It lies near the top of the regulatory hierarchy, activating the expression of later fusion markers and repressing genes that promote branching. Ectopic expression of escargot activates the fusion process and suppresses branching throughout the tracheal system, leading to ectopic tracheal connections that resemble certain arteriovenous malformations in humans. This establishes a simple genetic system to study fusion of epithelial tubes. PMID:8951068

Low activation ferritic/martensitic steels are good candidates for the future fusionreactors, for, relative to austenitic steels, their lower damage accumulation and moderate swelling under irradiation by the 14 MeV neutrons produced by the fusion reaction. Irradiation of these steels, e.g. EUROFER97, is known to produce hardening, loss of ductility, shift in ductile to brittle transition temperature and a reduction of fracture toughness and creep resistance starting at the lowest doses. Helium, produced by transmutation by the 14 MeV neutrons, is known to impact mechanical properties, but its effect at the microstructure level is still unclear. The mechanisms underlying the degradation of mechanical properties are not well understood, despite numerous studies on the evolution of the microstructure under irradiation. This impedes our ability to predict materials' behaviour at higher doses for use in the future fusionreactors. Simulations of these effects are now essential. An overview is presented on molecular dynamics simulations of the primary state of damage in iron and of the mobility of a dislocation, vector of plasticity, in the presence of a defect.

A system for generating steady state confining current for a toroidal plasma fusionreactor providing steady-state generation of the thermonuclear power. A dense, hot toroidal plasma is initially prepared with a confining magnetic field with toroidal and poloidal components. Continuous wave RF energy is injected into said plasma to establish a spectrum of traveling waves in the plasma, where the traveling waves have momentum components substantially either all parallel, or all anti-parallel to the confining magnetic field. The injected RF energy is phased to couple to said traveling waves with both a phase velocity component and a wave momentum component in the direction of the plasma traveling wave components. The injected RF energy has a predetermined spectrum selected so that said traveling waves couple to plasma electrons having velocities in a predetermined range .DELTA.. The velocities in the range are substantially greater than the thermal electron velocity of the plasma. In addition, the range is sufficiently broad to produce a raised plateau having width .DELTA. in the plasma electron velocity distribution so that the plateau electrons provide steady-state current to generate a poloidal magnetic field component sufficient for confining the plasma. In steady state operation of the fusionreactor, the fusion power density in the plasma exceeds the power dissipated in the plasma.

A system for generating steady state confining current for a toroidal plasma fusionreactor providing steady-state generation of the thermonuclear power. A dense, hot toroidal plasma is initially prepared with a confining magnetic field with toroidal and poloidal components. Continuous wave RF energy is injected into said plasma to estalish a spectrum of traveling waves in the plasma, where the traveling waves have momentum components substantially either all parallel, or all anti-parallel to the confining magnetic field. The injected RF energy is phased to couple to said traveling waves with both a phase velocity component and a wave momentum component in the direction of the plasma traveling wave components. The injected RF energy has a predetermined spectrum selected so that said traveling waves couple to plasma electrons having velocities in a predetermined range .DELTA.. The velocities in the range are substantially greater than the thermal electron velocity of the plasma. In addition, the range is sufficiently broad to produce a raised plateau having width .DELTA. in the plasma electron velocity distribution so that the plateau electrons provide steady-state current to generate a poloidal magnetic field component sufficient for confining the plasma. In steady state operation of the fusionreactor, the fusion power density in the plasma exceeds the power dissipated inthe plasma.

Hamiltonian coordinate, guiding center code calculations of the toroidal field ripple loss of alpha particles from a reversed shear plasma predict both total alpha losses and ripple diffusion losses to be greater than those from a comparable non-reversed magnetic shear plasma in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) [Fusion Technol. 21, 1324 (1992)]. High central q is found to increase alpha ripple losses as well as first orbit losses of alphas in the reversed shear simulations. A simple ripple loss model, benchmarked against the guiding center code, is found to work satisfactorily in transport analysis modelling of reversed and monotonic shear scenarios. Alpha ripple transport on TFTR affects ions within r/a=0.5, not at the plasma edge. The entire plasma is above threshold for stochastic ripple loss of alpha particles at birth energy in the reversed shear case simulated, so that all trapped 3.5 MeV alphas are lost stochastically or through prompt losses. The 40% alpha particle loss predictions for TFTR suggest that reduction of toroidal field ripple will be a critical issue in the design of a reversed shear fusionreactor.

The activation and transmutation of tungsten and tantalum as plasma facing materials was assessed for a helium cooled divertor irradiated in a typical fusion power reactor based on the use of Helium-cooled Lithium Lead (HCLL) blankets. 3D activation calculations were performed by applying a programme system linking the Monte Carlo transport code MCNP and the fusion inventory code FISPACT through an appropriate interface. Special attention was given to the proper treatment of the resonance shielding of tungsten and tantalum by using reaction rates provided directly by MCNP on the basis of continuous energy activation cross-section data. It was shown that the long-term activation behaviour is dominated by activation products of the assumed tramp material while the short-term behaviour is due to the activation of the stable Ta and W isotopes. The recycling limit for remote handling of 100 mSv/h can be achieved after decay times of 10 and 50 years for Ta and W, respectively. The elemental transmutation rates of Ta and W were shown to be on a moderate level for the HCLL-type fusion power reactor.

The information fusion technique is used to develop radiation embrittlement prediction models for reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels from U.S. power reactors, including boiling water reactors and pressurized water reactors. The Charpy transition temperature-shift data is used as the primary index of RPV radiation embrittlement in this study. Six parameters {Cu, Ni, P, neutron fluence, irradiation time, and irradiation temperature {are used in the embrittlement prediction models. The results indicate that this new embrittlement predictor achieved reductions of about 49.5% and 52% in the uncertainties for plate and weld data, respectively, for pressurized water reactor and boiling water reactor data, compared with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.99, Rev. 2. The implications of dose-rate effect and irradiation temperature effects for the development of radiation embrittlement models are also discussed.

An innovative high efficiency neutral beam injector concept for future fusionreactors is under investigation (simulation and R and D) between several laboratories in France, the goal being to perform a feasibility study for the neutralization of intense high energy (1 MeV) negative ion (NI) beams by photo-detachment.The objective of the proposed project is to put together the expertise of three leading groups in negative ion quantum physics, high power stabilized lasers and neutral beam injectors to perform studies of a new injector concept called SIPHORE (SIngle gap PHOto-neutralizer energy REcovery injector), based on the photo-detachment of negative ions and energy recovery of unneutralised ions; the main feature of SIPHORE being the relevance for the future Fusionreactors (DEMO), where high injector efficiency (up to 70-80%), technological simplicity and cost reduction are key issues to be addressed.The paper presents the on-going developments and simulations around this project, such as, a new concept of ion source which would fit with this injector topology and which could solve the remaining uniformity issue of the large size ion source, and, finally, the presentation of the R and D program in the laboratories (LAC, ARTEMIS) around the photo-neutralization for Siphore.

This paper reviews recent achievements as to "nuclear-grade" SiC composites in particular for materials-system integration. SiC composite component development are reviewed including VHTR control rod scale model and compact intermediate heat exchanger scale mode by current joining and assembly techniques. Joining methods for SiC to metal and results of characterization of joint shear strength by the torsion tests using small specimens were also reviewed. The recent results of neutron irradiation experiments were also reviewed including detailed analysis of mechanical properties, irradiation creep and preliminary results on tritium behavior in SiC.

The ITER tokamak requires diagnostics that on the one hand have a high sensitivity, high spatial and temporal resolution and a high dynamic range, while on the other hand are robust enough to survive in a harsh environment. In recent years significant progress has been made in addressing critical challenges to the development of spectroscopic (but also other) diagnostics. This contribution presents an overview of recent achievements in 4 topical areas: • First mirror protection and cleaning • Nuclear confinement • Radiation mitigation strategy for optical and electronic components • Calibration strategies

The most recent fundamental research results to investigate surface erosions of nuclear fusion candidate chamber materials are described in short. We used a commercial surface profiler with a red semiconductor laser. Various material surfaces ablated and eroded by a rather short pulse electron beam and a short pulse ArF laser light were measured with this surface profiler and the associated three-dimensional analysis software. Threshold input levels for various sample surface erosions with electron and laser beams were clearly decided for the first time with our new method in this article. After the above fundamental results were gathered, the methods to inspect inner surface conditions of nuclear fusionreactor chambers were newly proposed with various kinds of laser displacement sensors. The first one is the erosion monitor with the above profiler, and the second one is the laser induced ultrasonic wave detection method to inspect deeper surface layers than the first one.

Funding for fusion energy R&D by the Federal government is an important investment in the development of an attractive and possibly essential new energy source for this country and the world in the middle of the next century and beyond. This funding also sustains an important field of scientific research - plasma science - in which the United States is the world leader and which has generated a panoply of insights and techniques widely applicable in other fields of science and in industry. And U.S. funding has been crucial to a productive, equitable, and durable international collaboration in fusion science and technology that represents the most important instance of international scientific cooperation in history as well as the best hope for timely commercialization of fusion at this time because the development costs are too high and the potential economic returns too distant. But funding fusion is a bargain for society as a whole. However, in light of present congressional funding climates the authors are suggesting a program which falls far short of what US DOE is proposing, but provides monies to keep the program alive, and to retain limited participation in the international program which currently is aimed at the construction of ITER. This limited funding will severly strain the program as it exists domestically at present, will limit industrial participation, will stretch the reasonable date for an operating demonstation fusionreactor, but will maintain the basic stucture of a domestic fusion research program.

Fast-framing imaging of visible radiation from magnetically confined plasmas has lately become a useful tool for both machine operation and physics studies. Using an intensified, commercial Kodak Ektapro imaging system, the effects of a plasma disruption were observed in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR). The high-energy runaway electrons created soon after the disruption collide with the plasma facing components damaging this surface and producing a shower of debris that traverses the toroidal vessel and falls over the inner bumper limiter.

The liquid metal heat transfer experimental investigations were carried out at the joint MPEI-IIHI magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) complex. The united scientific group examines the liquid metal flow in a horizontal heated tube without and under a longitudinal or a transverse magnetic field. Various configurations of the applied heat flux were taken into consideration. All these cases correspond to the flow in the Tokamak fusionreactor blanket or divertor. Temperature fields, temperature fluctuations field, heat transfer intensities were measured. Strong influence of thermogravitational convection was observed in a horizontal heated tube. Depending on the MHD-configuration, magnetic fields (MF) can enhance or weaken this effect. Tables 2, Figs 5, Refs 8.

A significant industrial hygiene concern during the Decontamination and Decommissioning (D and D) of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) was the oxidation of the lead bricks' surface, which were utilized for radiation shielding. This presented both airborne exposure and surface contamination issues for the workers in the field removing this material. This paper will detail the various protection and control methods tested and implemented to protect the workers, including those technologies deployed to decontaminate the work surfaces. In addition, those techniques employed to recycle the lead for additional use at the site will be discussed.

In this paper the behavior of the electromagnetic and thermal qualitities in a plasma arc placed between two conducting rails is analyzed. The plasma hydrogen armature drives the hydrogen pellets for the refueling of magnetic fusionreactors. Considering the general equations of electromagnetic and of plasma fluid dynamics and assuming steady-state conditions in a frame which is moving at the same rate as the plasma arc armature, as monodimensional model is deduced. The effects of an applied magnetic field on the behavior of all flow variables are particularly investigated.

We present readout instrumentation for a MEMS magnetometer, placed 30 m away from the MEMS element. This is particularly useful when sensing is performed in high-radiation environment, where the semiconductors in the readout cannot survive. High bandwidth transimpedance amplifiers are used to cancel the cable capacitances of several nanofarads. A frequency doubling readout scheme is used for crosstalk elimination. Signal-to-noise ratio in the range of 60 dB was achieved and with sub-percent nonlinearity. The presented instrument is intended for the steady-state magnetic field measurements in the ITER fusionreactor.

A concept of demountable toroidal field magnets for a compact fusionreactor is discussed. The magnets generate a magnetic field of 9.2 T on axis, in a 3.3 m major radius tokamak. Subcooled YBCO conductors have a critical current density adequate to provide this large magnetic field, while operating at 20 K reduces thermodynamic cooling cost of the resistive electrical joints. Demountable magnets allow for vertical replacement and maintenance of internal components, potentially reducing cost and time of maintenance when compared to traditional sector maintenance. Preliminary measurements of contact resistance of a demountable YBCO electrical joint between are presented.

The Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) at Princeton will start its D-T experiments in late 1993, introducing and operating the tokamak with tritium in order to begin the study of burning plasma physics in D-T. Trace tritium injection experiments, using small amounts of tritium will begin in the fall of 1993. In preparation for these experiments, a series of tests with low concentrations of tritium inn deuterium have been performed as an initial qualification of the tritium systems. These tests began in April 1993. This paper describes the initial testing of the equipment in the TFTR tritium facility.

A comprehensive transmutation study for steels considered in the selection of structural materials for magnetic and inertial fusionreactors has been performed in the IFMIF neutron irradiation scenario, as well as in the ITER and DEMO ones for comparison purposes. An element-by-element transmutation approach is used in the study, addressing the generation of: (1) H and He and (2) solid transmutants. The IEAF-2001 activation library and the activation code ACAB were applied to the IFMIF transmutation analysis, after proving the applicability of ACAB for transmutation calculations of this kind of intermediate energy systems.

We present readout instrumentation for a MEMS magnetometer, placed 30 m away from the MEMS element. This is particularly useful when sensing is performed in high-radiation environment, where the semiconductors in the readout cannot survive. High bandwidth transimpedance amplifiers are used to cancel the cable capacitances of several nanofarads. A frequency doubling readout scheme is used for crosstalk elimination. Signal-to-noise ratio in the range of 60 dB was achieved and with sub-percent nonlinearity. The presented instrument is intended for the steady-state magnetic field measurements in the ITER fusionreactor. PMID:23742608

This chapter describes, in two parts, new-generation nuclear energy systems that are required to be in harmony with nature and to make full use of nuclear resources. The issues of transmutation and containment of radioactive waste will also be addressed. After a short introduction to the first part, Sect. 58.1.2 will detail the requirements these systems must satisfy on the basic premise of peaceful use of nuclear energy. The expected designs themselves are described in Sect. 58.1.3. The subsequent sections discuss various types of advanced reactor systems. Section 58.1.4 deals with the light water reactor (LWR) whose performance is still expected to improve, which would extend its application in the future. The supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) will also be shortly discussed. Section 58.1.5 is mainly on the high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR), which offers efficient and multipurpose use of nuclear energy. The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) is also included. Section 58.1.6 focuses on the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) as a promising concept for advanced nuclear reactors, which may help both to achieve expansion of energy sources and environmental protection thus contributing to the sustainable development of mankind. The molten-salt reactor (MSR) is shortly described in Sect. 58.1.7. The second part of the chapter deals with reactor systems of a new generation, which are now found at the research and development (R&D) stage and in the medium term of 20-30 years can shape up as reliable, economically efficient, and environmentally friendly energy sources. They are viewed as technologies of cardinal importance, capable of resolving the problems of fuel resources, minimizing the quantities of generated radioactive waste and the environmental impacts, and strengthening the regime of nonproliferation of the materials suitable for nuclear weapons production. Particular attention has been given to naturally safe fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle (CFC

The Combined Electrolysis Catalytic Exchange (CECE) process, utilizing AECL`s wetproofed catalyst, is ideally suited for extracting tritium from water because of its high isotopic separation factor and near-ambient operating conditions. Several CECE options are compared with the more conventional DW-VPCE arrangements for heavy water upgrading and detritiation of CANDU nuclear reactors and for detritiation of fusion facilities such as ITER. For both applications, CECE offers a more economical alternative over conventional technology. Experimental data on catalyst activity and lifetime are also presented and past commercial applications of the AECL catalyst are reviewed. AECL has recently committed to assembly of a CECE upgrading/detritiation demonstration facility. 15 refs., 5 figs., 1 tab.

Beta-spodumene was investigated as a candidate material for use in fusionreactor environments. Properties which support the use of beta-spodumene include good thermal shock resistance, a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, a low-Z composition which would result in minimum impact on the plasma, and flexibility in fabrication processes. Specimens were irradiated in the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) to a fluence of 5.3 x 10/sup 22/ n/m/sup 2/, E > 0.1 MeV, and 4.9 x 10/sup 23/ n/m/sup 2/ thermal fluence in order to obtain a preliminary evaluation of the impact of irradiation on the material. Preliminary data indicate that the mechanical properties of beta-spodumene are little affected by irradiation. Gas production and release have also been investigated.

The materials which compose the large composite superconducting fusionreactor magnets are subjected to mechanical stress, neutron and gamma-ray radiation with broad energy spectra, high magnetic fields, and thermal cycling from 4 to 300 K. Of the materials now considered for use in the magnets, results show that the organic insulators and the Cu stabilizer are the most sensitive to this environment. In response to the need for stabilizer data, magnetoresistivity changes were studied in eight variously prepared specimens of Cu throughout five cycles of an alternate neutron irradiation (4.0 K) and annealing (14 h at 307 K) program. The results were combined with those on the radiation behavior of epoxy and polyimide organic insulators to provide a preliminary assessment of their comparative radiation resistance in a typical magnet location of the Experimental Power Reactor (EPR).

Uncertainties regarding the feasibility of using an annular waterfall of liquid lithium to protect the first wall in inertial confinement fusionreactor cavities have prompted a theoretical investigation of annular jet stability. Infinitesimal perturbation techniques are applied to an idealized model of the jet with disturbances acting upon either or both of the free surfaces. Dispersion relations are derived that predict the range of disturbance frequencies leading to instability, as well as the perturbation growth rates and jet break-up length. The results are extended to turbulent annular jets and are evaluated for the lithium waterfall design. It is concluded that inherent instabilities due to turbulent fluctuations will not cause the jet to break up over distances comparable to the height of the reactor cavity.

Uncertainties regarding the feasibility of using an annular ''waterfall'' of liquid lithium to protect the first wall in inertial confinement fusionreactor cavities have prompted a theoretical investigation of annular jet stability. Infinitesimal perturbation techniques are applied to an idealized model of the jet with disturbances acting upon either or both of the free surfaces. Dispersion relations are derived that predict the range of disturbance frequencies leading to instability, as well as the perturbation growth rates and jet breakup length. The results are extended to turbulent annular jets and are evaluated for the lithium waterfall design. It is concluded that inherent instabilities due to turbulent fluctuations will not cause the jet to break up over distances comparable to the height of the reactor cavity.

The fusion breeder is a fusionreactor designed with special blankets to maximize the transmutation by 14 MeV neutrons of uranium-238 to plutonium or thorium to uranium-233 for use as a fuel for fission reactors. Breeding fissile fuels has not been a goal of the U.S. fusion energy program. This paper suggests it is time for a policy change to make the fusion breeder a goal of the U.S. fusion program and the U.S. nuclear energy program. There is wide agreement that many approaches will work and will produce fuel for five equal-sized LWRs, and some approach as many as 20 LWRs at electricity costs within 20% of those at today's price of uranium (30/lb of U3O8). The blankets designed to suppress fissioning, called symbiotes, fusion fuel factories, or just fusion breeders, will have safety characteristics more like pure fusionreactors and will support as many as 15 equal power LWRs. The blankets designed to maximize fast fission of fertile material will have safety characteristics more like fission reactors and will support 5 LWRs. This author strongly recommends development of the fission suppressed blanket type, a point of view not agreed upon by everyone. There is, however, wide agreement that, to meet the market price for uranium which would result in LWR electricity within 20% of today's cost with either blanket type, fusion components can cost severalfold more than would be allowed for pure fusion to meet the goal of making electricity alone at 20% over today's fission costs. Also widely agreed is that the critical-path-item for the fusion breeder is fusiondevelopment itself; however, development of fusion breeder specific items (blankets, fuel cycle) should be started now in order to have the fusion breeder by the time the rise in uranium prices forces other more costly choices.

This paper reports on a re-evaluation of the characteristics of the intermediate flow regime with simultaneous thermal accommodation has shown the full potential of the Cryogenic Diffusion Pump for FusionReactor applications. A device with a characteristic diameter of 1m will have a pumping speed of 150m{sup 3}s{sup {minus}1} for Deuterium at an inlet pressure of 2 {times} 10{sup 2}Pa (Reactor Burn phased) and 400m{sup 3} s{sup {minus}1} at an inlet pressure of 0.1 Pa (Reactor Dwell phase). Simultaneously, it separates impurities, Hydrogen isotopes and Helium and compresses the Helium. The Helium compression ratio (already proven to be {ge}25 for 3% Helium in D{sub 2}) can be further enhanced by additional D{sub 2} or He driven Diffusion Pump and Ejector stages. The latter feature will also simplify pumping requirements for the Helium Glow Discharge scenario: recirculation of Helium at 0.1 Pa (driven by D{sub 2} or He Ejector) and simultaneous removal of DT and impurities by cryocondensation requires no mechanical pump at all or only small turbomolecular-drag pump combinations of He jet drive. The design offers superior tritium compatibility: all metal, fully bakeable, it avoids use of absorbers and argon for helium pumping, thereby reducing overall tritium inventory both in the pump itself and by replacing major fuel clean-up facilities. The advantages of using the Cryogenic Diffusion Pump in a FusionReactor Vacuum System are discussed in detail.

Stabilization of the {open_quotes}resistive shell mode{close_quotes} is vital to the success of the {open_quotes}advanced tokamak{close_quotes} concept. The most promising reactor relevant approach is to apply external feedback using, for instance, the previously proposed {open_quotes}fake rotating shell{close_quotes} scheme [R. Fitzpatrick and T. H. Jensen, Phys. Plasmas {bold 3}, 2641 (1996)]. This scheme, like other simple feedback schemes, only works if the feedback controlled conductors are located inside the {open_quotes}critical radius{close_quotes} at which a perfectly conducting shell is just able to stabilize the ideal external kink mode. In general, this is not possible in a reactor, since engineering constraints demand that any feedback controlled conductors be placed {ital outside} the neutron shielding blanket (i.e., relatively far from the edge of the plasma). It is demonstrated that the fake rotating shell feedback scheme can be modified so that it works even when the feedback controlled conductors are located well beyond the critical radius. The gain, bandwidth, current, and total power requirements of such a feedback system for a reactor sized plasma are estimated to be less than 100, a few Hz, a fews tens of kA, and a few MW, respectively. These requirements could easily be met using existing technology. It is concluded that feedback stabilization of the resistive shell mode is possible in a tokamak fusionreactor. {copyright} {ital 1997 American Institute of Physics.}

AUS is a neutronics code system which may be used for calculations of a wide range of fission reactors, fusion blankets and other neutron applications. The present version, AUS98, has a nuclear cross section library based on ENDF/B-VI and includes modules which provide for reactor lattice calculations, one-dimensional transport calculations, multi-dimensional diffusion calculations, cell and whole reactor burnup calculations, and flexible editing of results. Calculations of multi-region resonance shielding, coupled neutron and photon transport, energymore » deposition, fission product inventory and neutron diffusion are combined within the one code system. The major changes from the previous release, AUS87, are the inclusion of a cross-section library based on ENDF/B-VI, the addition of the POW3D multi-dimensional diffusion module, the addition of the MICBURN module for controlling whole reactor burnup calculations, and changes to the system as a consequence of moving from IBM mainframe computers to UNIX workstations.« less

Samples of lanthanum, erbium and titanium which are constituents of structural materials, insulating coatings and tritium breeder for blankets of fusionreactor designs have been irradiated in a fusion peak neutron field. The induced gamma activities were measured and the results were used to check calculations with the European activation system EASY-2010. Good agreement for the prediction of major contributors to the contact dose rate of the materials was found, but for minor contributors the calculation deviated up to 50%.

The potential performance, in deuterium-tritium plasmas, of a new enhanced con nement regime with reversed magnetic shear (ERS mode) is assessed. The equilibrium conditions for an ERS mode plasma are estimated by solving the plasma transport equations using the thermal and particle dif- fusivities measured in a short duration ERS mode discharge in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor [F. M. Levinton, et al., Phys. Rev. Letters, 75, 4417, (1995)]. The plasma performance depends strongly on Zeff and neutral beam penetration to the core. The steady state projections typically have a central electron density of {approx}2:5x10 20 m{sup -3} and nearly equal central electron and ion temperatures of {approx}10 keV. In time dependent simulations the peak fusion power, {approx} 25 MW, is twice the steady state level. Peak performance occurs during the density rise when the central ion temperature is close to the optimal value of {approx} 15 keV. The simulated pressure profiles can be stable to ideal MHD instabilities with toroidal mode number n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and {infinity} for {beta}{sub norm} up to 2.5; the simulations have {beta}{sub norm} {le} 2.1. The enhanced reversed shear mode may thus provide an opportunity to conduct alpha physics experiments in conditions imilar to those proposed for advanced tokamak reactors.

One important aspect in selection of carbon based first-wall liner materials in fusionreactors is a sufficient oxidation resistance against steam and oxygen; this is because during accidents like loss of coolant into vacuum or loss of vacuum these oxidizing media can enter the vacuum vessel and may cause some corrosion of carbon followed by release of adsorbed tritium; in addition other consequences of oxidation like formation of burnable gases and their explosions have to be examined. Based on extensive experience on nuclear graphite oxidation in HTRs KFA has started in cooperation with NET some experimental investigations on oxidation of fusionreactor carbons. Results of first experiments on CFCs, Ti- and Si-doped carbons and graphites in steam (1273-1423 K) and oxygen (973 K) are reported. It was found that most materials have a similar reactivity as HTR nuclear graphites (which is much smaller than those of usual technical carbons); Si-doped CFCs however have a remarkably better oxidation resistance than those, which is probably due to the formation of a protecting layer of SiO 2. The measured kinetic data will be used in safety analyses for above mentioned accidents.

Nuclear fusion is seen as a much ''cleaner'' energy source than fission. Most of the studies and experiments on nuclear fusion are currently devoted to the Deuterium-Tritium (DT) fuel cycle, since it is the easiest way to reach ignition. The recent stress on safety by the world's community has stimulated the research on other fuel cycles than the DT one, based on 'advanced' reactions, such as the Deuterium-Helium-3 (DHe) one. These reactions pose problems, such as the availability of 3He and the attainment of the higher plasma parameters that are required for burning. However, they have many advantages, like for instance the very low neutron activation, while it is unnecessary to breed and fuel tritium. The extrapolation of Ignitor technologies towards a larger and more powerful experiment using advanced fuel cycles (Candor) has been studied. Results show that Candor does reach the passive safety and zero-waste option. A fusion power reactor based on the DHe cycle could be the ultimate response to the environmental requirements for future nuclear power plants.

The assessment of the primary survived defects rates in iron such as vacancies-interstitials pairs and simplest clusters have been performed for the IFMIF, fusion power plant and research reactor. This was achieved by a modified version of the NJOY code, when processing evaluated nuclear cross section file. The modifications accounted for the reduction of the available damage energy predicted by the standard NRT model by the surviving defects fractions. These fractions were picked-up from the molecular dynamics and binary collisions simulation results available in the literature. The number of primary survived and clustered defects in the α-iron irradiated in the high flux test module of IFMIF was estimated as 10 and 6 dpa/fpy or several times less than standard NRT estimates at the level of 30 dpa/fpy. The comparison with damages in iron calculated for irradiation in the first wall of fusion power plant gave however the same reduction factors, that supports the qualification of IFMIF as a fusion material irradiation facility.

In searching to attain optimum conditions for the controlled release of nuclear energy by fusion processes, the stationary confinement of low-pressure ring-shaped plasmas by strong magnetic fields is now regarded as the most promising approach. We consider a number of fuel combinations that could be operated in such low-beta reactor systems and look upon the relevant fuel reserves. The “classical” D-T-Li cycle will be used as a standard and is extensively discussed therefore. It could supply most of mankind's future long-term power needs—but only on condition that the required lithium fuel can be extracted from seawater at reasonable expenses. The estimated landbound lithium reserves are too small to that end, they will last for about 500 years at most, depending on forecasts of future energy consumption and on assumptions about exploitable resources. Recovery of lithium from seawater would extend the possible range by a factor of 300 or so, provided that extraction technologies which are at present available in the laboratory, could be extended to a very large and industrial scale. Deuterium is abundant on earth but D-D fusion is difficult, if not impossible, to be achieved in the low-beta systems presently investigated for D-T fusion. The same arguments apply to so-called “advanced” concepts, such as the D-3He and the D-6Li cycles.

The final hardware modifications for tritium operation have been completed for the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) [Fusion Technol. 21, 1324 (1992)]. These activities include preparation of the tritium gas handling system, installation of additional neutron shielding, conversion of the toroidal field coil cooling system from water to a FluorinertTM system, modification of the vacuum system to handle tritium, preparation, and testing of the neutral beam system for tritium operation and a final deuterium-deuterium (D-D) run to simulate expected deuterium-tritium (D-T) operation. Testing of the tritium system with low concentration tritium has successfully begun. Simulation of trace and high power D-T experiments using D-D have been performed. The physics objectives of D-T operation are production of ≊10 MW of fusion power, evaluation of confinement, and heating in deuterium-tritium plasmas, evaluation of α-particle heating of electrons, and collective effects driven by alpha particles and testing of diagnostics for confined α particles. Experimental results and theoretical modeling in support of the D-T experiments are reviewed.

This paper describes experiments carried out on the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) [R. J. Hawryluk et al., Plasma Phys. Controlled Fusion 33, 1509 (1991)] to investigate the dependence of β-limiting disruption characteristics on toroidal field strength. The hard disruptions found at the β-limit in high field plasmas were not found at low field, even for β's 50% higher than the empirical β-limit of β{sub n} ≈ 2 at high field. Comparisons of experimentally measured β's to TRANSP simulations suggest anomalous loss of up to half of the beam fast ions in the highest β, low field shots. The anomalous transport responsible for the fast ion losses may at the same time broaden the pressure profile. Toroidal Alfvén eigenmodes, fishbone instabilities, and Geodesic Acoustic Modes are investigated as possible causes of the enhanced losses. Here, we present the first observations of high frequency fishbones [F. Zonca et al., Nucl. Fusion 49, 085009 (2009)] on TFTR. The interpretation of Axi-symmetric Beam-driven Modes as Geodesic Acoustic Modes and their possible correlation with transport barrier formation are also presented.

In the design of liquid-metal cooling systems, corrosion resistance of structural materials and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) force and its subsequent influence on thermal hydraulics and corrosion are major concerns. The objective of this study is to develop stable corrosion-resistant electrical insulator coatings at the liquid-metal/structural-material interface, with emphasis on electrically insulating coatings that prevent adverse MHD-generated currents from passing through the structural walls. Vanadium and V-base alloys are potential materials for structural applications in a fusionreactor. Insulator coatings inside the tubing are required when the system is cooled by liquid metals. Various intermetallic films were produced on V, V-t, and V-20 Ti, V-5Cr-t and V-15Cr-t, and Ti, and Types 304 and 316 stainless steel. The intermetallic layers were developed by exposure of the materials to liquid lithium of 3--5 at.% and containing dissolved metallic solutes at temperatures of 416--880{degrees}C. Subsequently, electrical insulator coatings were produced by reaction of the reactive layers with dissolved nitrogen in liquid lithium or by air oxidation under controlled conditions at 600--1000{degrees}C. These reactions converted the intermetallic layers to electrically insulating oxide/nitride or oxy-nitride layers. This coating method could be applied to a commercial product. The liquid metal can be used over and over because only the solutes are consumed within the liquid metal. The technique can be applied to various shapes because the coating is formed by liquid-phase reaction. This paper will discuss initial results on the nature of the coatings and their in-situ electrical resistivity characteristics in liquid lithium at high temperatures.

Since the first description in 1989 of CD4-Fc-fusion antagonists that inhibit human immune deficiency virus entry into T cells, Fc-fusion proteins have been intensely investigated for their effectiveness to curb a range of pathologies, with several notable recent successes coming to market. These promising outcomes have stimulated the development of novel approaches to improve their efficacy and safety, while also broadening their clinical remit to other uses such as vaccines and intravenous immunoglobulin therapy. This increased attention has also led to non-clinical applications of Fc-fusions, such as affinity reagents in microarray devices. Here we discuss recent results and more generally applicable strategies to improve Fc-fusion proteins for each application, with particular attention to the newer, less charted areas. PMID:22837174

The thermal analysis of the blanket examines both the steady-state and transient reactor operations. The steady-state analysis covers full power and fractional power operation whereas the transient analysis examines the effects of power ramps and blanket preheat. The blanket configuration chosen for this study is a helium cooled solid breeder design. We first discuss the full power, steady-state temperature fields in the first wall, beryllium rods, and breeder rods. Next we examine the effects of fractional power on coolant flow and temperature field distributions. This includes power plateaus of 10%, 20%, 50%, 80%, and 100% of full power. Also examined are the restrictions on the rates of power ramping between plateaus. Finally we discuss the power and time requirements for pre-heating the primary from cold iron conditions up to startup temperature (250/sup 0/C).

A review was performed on the needs and status of nuclear data for fusion-reactor technology. Generally, the status of nuclear data for fusion has been improved during the past two decades due to the dedicated effort of the nuclear data developers. However, there are still deficiencies in the nuclear data base, particularly in the areas of activation and neutron scattering cross sections. Activation cross sections were found to be unsatisfactory in 83 of the 153 reactions reviewed. The scattering cross sections for fluorine and boron will need to be improved at energies above 1 MeV. Suggestions concerning a strategy to address the specific fusion nuclear data needs for dosimetry and activation are also provided.

The successful development of energy-conversion machines based on either nuclear fission or fusion is completely dependent on the behaviour of the engineering materials used to construct the fuel containment and primary heat extraction systems. Such materials must be designed in order to maintain their structural integrity and dimensional stability in an environment involving high temperatures and heat fluxes, corrosive media, high stresses and intense neutron fluxes. However, despite the various others damage issues, such as the effects of plasma radiation and particle flux, the neutron flux is sufficiently energetic to displace atoms from their crystalline lattice sites. It is clear that the understanding of the neutron damage is essential for the development and safe operation of nuclear systems. Considering this context, the work presents a study of neutron damage in the Gas Cooled Fast Transmutation Reactor (GCFTR-2) driven by a Tokamak D-T fusion neutron source of 14.03 MeV. The theoretical analysis was performed by MCNP-5 and the ENDF/B-VII.1 neutron data library. A brief discussion about the determination of the radiation damage is presented, along with an analysis of the total neutron energy deposition in seven points through the material of the plasma source wall (PSW), in which was considered the HT-9 steel. The neutron flux was subdivided into three energy groups and their behaviour through the material was also examined.

The current study focuses on the adiabatic expansion of aerosol impurity in the post-disruption and thermal quench scenario inside the vacuum chamber of a fusionreactor. A pulsed electrothermal plasma (ET) capillary source has been used as a source term simulating the surface ablation of the divertor or other interior critical components of a tokamak fusionreactor under hard disruption-like conditions. The capillary source generates particulates from wall evaporation by depositing transient radiant high heat flux onto the inner liner of the capillary. The particulates form a plasma jet moving towards the capillary exit at high speed and high pressure. The first chapter discusses briefly the relevance of the study pertaining to the impurities in a fusionreactor based on the work available in the form of published literature. The second chapter discusses briefly the operating principle of a pulsed electrothermal plasma source (PEPS), the virtual integration of PEPS with 1-D electrothermal plasma flow solver ETFLOW and the use of capillary plasma sources in various industrial applications. The third chapter discusses about primitive computational work, backed by the data from actual electrothermal source experiments from the in-house facility "PIPE" (Plasma Interactions with Propellants Experiment), that shows the supersonic bulk flow patterns for the temperature, density, pressure, bulk velocity and the flow Mach number of the impurity particulates as they get ejected as a high-pressure, high-temperature and hyper-velocity jet from the simulated source term. It also shows the uniform steady-state subsonic expansion of bulk aerosol inside the expansion chamber. The fourth chapter discusses scaling laws in 1-D for the aforesaid bulk plasma parameters for ranges of axial length traversed by the flow, so that one can retrieve the flow parameters at some preferred locations. The fifth chapter discusses the effect of temperature and the non--linearity of the adiabatic

The coupling of a new radiation transport (RT) solver with an existing multimaterial fluid dynamics code (ARWEN) using Adaptive Mesh Refinement named DAFNE, has been completed. In addition, improvements were made to ARWEN in order to work properly with the RT code, and to make it user-friendlier, including new treatment of Equations of State, and graphical tools for visualization. The evaluation of the code has been performed, comparing it with other existing RT codes (including the one used in DAFNE, but in the single-grid version). These comparisons consist in problems with real input parameters (mainly opacities and geometry parameters). Important advances in Atomic Physics, Opacity calculations and NLTE atomic physics calculations, with participation in significant experiments in this area, have been obtained. Early published calculations showed that a DT x fuel with a small tritium initial content ( x<3%) could work in a catalytic regime in Inertial Fusion Targets, at very high burning temperatures (≫100 keV). Otherwise, the cross-section of DT remains much higher than that of DD and no internal breeding of tritium can take place. Improvements in the calculation model allow to properly simulate the effect of inverse Compton scattering which tends to lower Te and to enhance radiation losses, reducing the plasma temperature, Ti. The neutron activation of all natural elements in First Structural Wall (FSW) component of an Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE) reactor for waste management, and the analysis of activation of target debris in NIF-type facilities has been completed. Using an original efficient modeling for pulse activation, the FSW behavior in inertial fusion has been studied. A radiological dose library coupled to the ACAB code is being generated for assessing impact of environmental releases, and atmospheric dispersion analysis from HIF reactors indicate the uncertainty in tritium release parameters. The first recognition of recombination barriers in Si

Beryllium is a leading candidate material for the neutron multiplier of tritium breeding blankets and the plasma facing component of first wall and divertor systems. Depending on the application, the fabrication methods proposed include hot-pressing, hot-isostatic-pressing, cold isostatic pressing/sintering, rotary electrode processing and plasma spraying. Product forms include blocks, tubes, pebbles, tiles and coatings. While, in general, beryllium is not a leading structural material candidate, its mechanical performance, as well its performance with regard to sputtering, heat transport, tritium retention/release, helium-induced swelling and chemical compatibility, is an important consideration in first-wall/blanket design. Differential expansion within the beryllium causes internal stresses which may result in cracking, thereby affecting the heat transport and barrier performance of the material. Overall deformation can result in loading of neighboring structural material. Thus, in assessing the performance of beryllium for fusion applications, it is important to have a good database in all of these performance areas, as well as a set of properties correlations and models for the purpose of interpolation/extrapolation.

The use of silicon carbide composites for structural materials is of growing interest in the fusion community. However, radiation effects in these materials are virtually unexplored, and the general state of ceramic matrix composites for nonnuclear applications is still in its infancy. Research into the radiation response of the most popular silicon carbide composite, namely, the chemically vapor-deposited (CVD) SiC-carbon-Nicalon fiber system is discussed. Three areas of interest are the stability of the fiber and matrix materials, the stability of the fiber-matrix interface, and the true activation of these [open quotes]reduced activity[close quotes] materials. Two methods are presented that quantitatively measure the effect of radiation on fiber and matrix elastic modulus as well as the fiber-matrix interfacial strength. The results of these studies show that the factor limiting the radiation performance of the CVD SiC-carbon-Nicalon system is degradation of the Nicalon fiber, which leads to a weakened carbon interface. The activity of these composites is significantly higher than expected and is dominated by impurity isotopes. 52 refs., 12 figs., 3 tabs.

Energy supply is an important prerequisite for further socio-economic development, especially in developing countries where the per capita energy use is only a very small fraction of that in industrialized countries. Nuclear energy is an essentially unlimited energy resource with the potential to provide this energy in the form of electricity, district heat and process heat under environmentally acceptable conditions. However, this potential will be realized only if nuclear power plants can meet the challenges of increasingly demanding safety requirements, economic competitiveness and public acceptance. Worldwide a tremendous amount of experience has been accumulated during development, licensing, construction and operation of nuclear power reactors. The experience forms a sound basis for further improvements. Nuclear programmes in many countries are addressing the development of advanced reactors which are intended to have better economics, higher reliability and improved safety in order to overcome the current concerns of nuclear power. Advanced reactors now being developed could help to meet the demand for new plants in developed and developing countries, not only for electricity generation, but also for district heating, desalination and for process heat. The IAEA, as the only global international governmental organization dealing with nuclear power, promotes international information exchange and international co-operation between all countries with their own advanced nuclear power programmes and offers assistance to countries with an interest in exploratory or research programmes.

Fusion materials research started in the early 1970s following the observation of the degradation of irradiated materials used in the first commercial fission reactors. The technological challenges of fusion energy are intimately linked with the availability of suitable materials capable of reliably withstanding the extremely severe operational conditions of fusionreactors. Although fission and fusion materials exhibit common features, fusion materials research is broader. The harder mono-energetic spectrum associated with the deuterium-tritium fusion neutrons (14.1 MeV compared to <2 MeV on average for fission neutrons) releases significant amounts of hydrogen and helium as transmutation products that might lead to a (at present undetermined) degradation of structural materials after a few years of operation. Overcoming the historical lack of a fusion-relevant neutron source for materials testing is an essential pending step in fusion roadmaps. Structural materials development, together with research on functional materials capable of sustaining unprecedented power densities during plasma operation in a fusionreactor, have been the subject of decades of worldwide research efforts underpinning the present maturity of the fusion materials research programme.

A spherical torus (ST) fusion energy development path which is complementary to proposed tokamak burning plasma experiments such as ITER is described. The ST strategy focuses on a compact Component Test Facility (CTF) and higher performance advanced regimes leading to more attractive DEMO and Power Plant scale reactors. To provide the physics basis for the CTF an intermediate step needs to be taken which we refer to as the ''Next Step Spherical Torus'' (NSST) device and examine in some detail herein. NSST is a ''performance extension'' (PE) stage ST with the plasma current of 5-10 MA, R = 1.5 m, and Beta(sub)T less than or equal to 2.7 T with flexible physics capability. The mission of NSST is to: (1) provide a sufficient physics basis for the design of CTF, (2) explore advanced operating scenarios with high bootstrap current fraction/high performance regimes, which can then be utilized by CTF, DEMO, and Power Plants, and (3) contribute to the general plasma/fusion science of high beta toroidal plasmas. The NSST facility is designed to utilize the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (or similar) site to minimize the cost and time required for the design and construction.

Three kinds of candidate copper alloys for divertor structural materials of fusion experimental reactors, that is, Oxygen Free High thermal conductivity Copper (OFHC), alumina disperse reinforced copper (DSC) and the composite of W and Cu (W/Cu), were prepared for strength and fatigue tests at temperatures ranging from R.T. to 500 C in a vacuum. High temperature strength of DSC and W/Cu with rapid fracture after peak loading at the temperatures is higher than that of OFHC by factor of 2, but fracture strains of DFC and W/Cu are smaller than that of OFHC. Fatigue life of DSC, which shows the same fatigue behavior of OFHC at room temperature, is longer than other materials at 400 C. Remarkable fatigue life reduction of OFHC found in this experiment is to be due to recrystallization of OFHC yielded above 400 C.

Intense magnetized hydrogen and deuterium plasmas have been produced with electron densities up to 3.6 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 20} m{sup -3} and electron temperatures up to 3.7 eV with a linear plasma generator. Exposure of a W target has led to average heat and particle flux densities well in excess of 4 MW m{sup -2} and 10{sup 24} m{sup -2} s{sup -1}, respectively. We have shown that the plasma surface interactions are dominated by the incoming ions. The achieved conditions correspond very well to the projected conditions at the divertor strike zones of fusionreactors such as ITER. In addition, the machine has an unprecedented high gas efficiency.

The calculational models, nuclear data, and radiation transport codes that are used in the analysis of integral measurements of the transport of approxmately 14 MeV neutrons through laminated slabs of materials typical of those found in fusionreactor shields are described. The two dimensional discrete ordinates calculations to optimize the experimental configuration of reducing the neutron and gamma ray background levels and for obtaining and equivalent, reduced geometry of the calculational model to reduce computer core storage and running times are also presented. The equations and data to determine the energy-angle relations to neutrons produced in the reactions of 250 keV deuterons in a titanium tritide target are given. The procedures used to collapse the 17ln 36gamma VATAMIN C cross section library to a 53n 21 gamma broad group library are described.

The objective of this work is to establish the tritium-permeation properties of structural alloys considered for Fusion systems and very high temperature reactors (VHTR). A description of the work performed to set up an apparatus to measure permeation rates of hydrogen and tritium in 304L stainless steel is presented. Following successful commissioning with hydrogen, the test apparatus was commissioned with tritium. Commissioning tests with tritium suggest the need for a reduction step that is capable of removing the oxide layer from the test sample surfaces before accurate tritium-permeation data can be obtained. Work is also on-going to clearly establish the temperature profile of the sample to correctly estimate the tritium-permeability data.

The cusp-mirror magnetic structure in a compact fusionreactor (CFR) is investigated to understand the properties of the particle confinement for the first time. Compared with a cascade magnetic mirror device, its advanced performance is shown by means of test particle simulations. Some interesting results are obtained as follows: the adiabatic region and non-adiabatic region are found in the CFR’s magnetic configuration. In the non-adiabatic region, due to the magnetic field-free space existing, the ions are scattered stochastically and are not directly guided into the loss cone, unlike the particles around the fixed magnetic lines in the adiabatic region, which decrease the ion loss fraction. The CFR’s configuration, combining advantages of cusp-magnetic configuration and mirror-magnetic configuration, leads to confine particles longer than cascade magnetic mirror’s. This phenomenon may be relevant to the construction of advanced magnetic-confinement devices.

Activation characteristics have been assessed for a helium cooled solid breeder blanket on the basis of three-dimensional activation calculations for a 2200 MW fusion power demonstration reactor. FISPACT inventory calculations were performed for the beryllium neutron multiplier, the Li 4SiO 4 breeder ceramics and the Eurofer low activation steel. Neutron flux spectra distributions were provided by a previous MCNP calculation. Detailed spatial distributions have been obtained for the nuclide inventories and related quantities such as activity, decay heat and contact dose rate. These data are available form the authors upon request. On the basis of the calculated contact gamma dose rates, the waste quality was assessed with regard to a possible re-use of the activated materials following the remote or the hands-on handling recycling options.

Integral experiments that measure the transport of approx. 14 MeV D-T neutrons through laminated slabs of proposed fusionreactor shield materials have been carried out. Measured and calculated neutron and gamma ray energy spectra are compared as a function of the thickness and composition of stainless steel type 304, borated polyethylene, and Hevimet (a tungsten alloy), and as a function of detector position behind these materials. The measured data were obtained using a NE-213 liquid scintillator using pulse-shape discrimination methods to resolve neutron and gamma ray pulse height data and spectral unfolding methods to convert these data to energy spectra. The calculated data were obtained using two-dimensional discrete ordinates radiation transport methods in a complex calculational network that takes into account the energy-angle dependence of the D-T neutrons and the nonphysical anomalies of the S/sub n/ method.

This report describes the study on safety for FER (Fusion Experimental Reactor) which has been designed as a next step machine to the JT-60. Though the final purpose of this study is to have an image of design base accident, maximum credible accident and to assess their risk or probability, etc., as FER plant system, the emphasis of this years study is placed on fuel-gas circulation system where the tritium inventory is maximum. The report consists of two chapters. The first chapter summarizes the FER system and describes FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) and related accident progression sequence for FER plant system as a whole. The second chapter of this report is focused on fuel-gas circulation system including purification, isotope separation and storage. Probability of risk is assessed by the probabilistic risk analysis (PRA) procedure based on FMEA, ETA and FTA.

Spectra of hydrogenlike iron, Fe26, have been observed from Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) plasmas with a high-resolution crystal spectrometer. The experimental arrangement permits simultaneous observation of the Fe26 Ly-{alpha}{sub 1}and Ly-{alpha}{sub 2} lines and the associated dielectronic satellites, which are due to transitions 1snl-2pnl{prime} with n {ge} 2, as well as the heliumlike 1s{sup 2}({sup 1}S{sub 0}){minus}1s4p({sup 1}P{sub 1})and both hydrogenlike Ly-{beta}{sub 1} and Ly-{beta}{sub 2} lines from chromium. Relative wavelengths and line intensities can be determined very accurately. The spectral data are in very good agreement with theoretical calculations. The observed spectra have also been used to estimate the total dielectronic recombination rate coefficient of Fe26. 30 refs., 4 figs., 3 tabs.

Recycling beryllium used in a fusionreactor might be a good way to overcome problems related to the disposal of neutron irradiated beryllium. The critical issues for the recycling of used first wall beryllium are the presence of tritium and (transuranic) impurities. High temperature annealing seems to be the most promising technique for detritiation. Purification of the de-tritiated beryllium can be achieved by chlorination of the irradiated beryllium and the subsequent reduction of beryllium chloride to highly pure metallic beryllium. After that, the beryllium can be re-fabricated into first wall tiles via powder metallurgy which is already a mature industrial practice. This paper outlines the path to define the experimental needs for beryllium recycling and tackles problems related to the detritiation and the purification via the chlorine route. (authors)

Niobium-base alloys are candidate materials for the divertor structure in fusionreactors. For this application, an alloy should resist aqueous corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, and radiation damage and should have high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion. Results of corrosion and embrittlement screening tests of several binary and ternary Nb alloys in high-temperature water indicated the Mb-1Zr, Nb-5MO-1Zr, and Nb-5V-1Z4 (wt %) showed sufficient promise for further investigation. These alloys, together with pure Nb and Zircaloy-4 have been exposed to high purity water containing a low concentration of dissolved oxygen (<12 ppb) at 170, 230, and 300{degrees}C for up to {approx}3200 h. Weight-change data, microstructural observations, and qualitative mechanical-property evaluation reveal that Nb-5V-1Zr is the most promising alloy at higher temperatures. Below {approx}200{degrees}C, the alloys exhibit similiar corrosion behavior.

The study of tritium dissolved in liquid lithium systems containing metallic impurities is of technological interest for tritium removal processes and suppression of the tritium leakages from the blanket in a fusionreactor. The interaction parameter formalism and coordination cluster theory have been used to calculate the tritium activity coefficients in Li-T-Al, Li-T-Mg, Li-T-Si, Li-T-Y and Li-T-La systems. Calculations performed demonstrated that silicon, aluminum and magnesium have no influence on the tritium activity coefficients in dilute lithium solutions within the temperature range 400-800{degree}C, but yttrium and lanthanum may be used to effectively decrease this coefficient in lithium melts. 13 refs., 3 figs., 2 tabs.

The final hardware modifications for tritium operation have been completed for the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR). These activities include preparation of the tritium gas handling system, installation of additional neutron shielding, conversion of the toroidal field coil cooling system from water to a Fluorinet{sup {trademark}} system, modification of the vacuum system to handle tritium, preparation and testing of the neutral beam system for tritium operation and a final deuterium-deuterium (D-D) run to simulate expected deuterium-tritium (D-T) operation. Testing of the tritium system with low concentration tritium has successfully begun. Simulation of trace and high power D-T experiments using D-D have been performed. The physics objectives of D-T operation are production of {approximately} 10 megawatts (MW) of fusion power, evaluation of confinement and heating in deuterium-tritium plasmas, evaluation of {alpha}-particle heating of electrons, and collective effects driven by alpha particles and testing of diagnostics for confined {alpha}-particles. Experimental results and theoretical modeling in support of the D-T experiments are reviewed.

ITER is an experimental Tokamak fusion energy reactor that is being built in Cadarache, France, in collaboration with seven agencies representing China, the European Union, India, Japan, Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, and the United States. The main objective of ITER is to demonstrate the scientific and technical feasibility of a controlled fusion reaction An important U.S. contribution is the design, fabrication, and delivery of the Tokamak Cooling Water System (TCWS). This paper describes the main sources of radioactivity in TCWS water, which are the nitrogen isotopes 16N and 17N, tritium, activated corrosion products, and the carbon isotope 14C; the relative contribution of each of these sources to the total radioactive contamination of water; issues related to excess accumulation of these species; and methods to control TCWS radioactivity within acceptable limits. Among these methods are: (1) water purification to minimize corrosion of materials in contact with TCWS water; (2) monitoring of vital chemistry parameters and control of water chemistry; (3) design of proper building structure and/or TCWS loop/geometry configuration; and (4) design of an ITER liquid radwaste facility tailored to TCWS operational requirements. Design of TCWS nuclear chemistry control is crucial to ensuring that the inventory of radioactive species is consistent with the principle of 'As Low as Reasonably Achievable.'

Several components of a STARFIRE fusionreactor have been studied. The breeding ratios were calculated as a function of lithium enrichment and neutron multiplier for systems containing either Li/sub 2/O or LiAlO/sub 2/. The lithium requirements for a fusion economy were also estimated for those cases and the current US resources were found to be adequate. However, competition with other lithium demands in the future emphasizes the need for recovering and reusing lithium. The radioactivities induced in the breeder and the impurities responsible for their formation were determined. The residual radioactivities of several low-activation structural materials were compared with the radioactivity from the prime candidate alloy (PCA) a titanium modified Type 316 stainless steel used in STARFIRE. The impurities responsible for the radioactivity levels were identified. From these radioactive impurity levels it was determined that V15Cr5Ti could meet the requirements for shallow land burial as specified by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (10CFR61), whereas PCA would require a more restrictive disposal mode, i.e. in a geologic medium. The costs for each of these disposal modes were then estimated.

Energy model analysis estimates the significant contribution of fusion in the latter half of the century under the global environment constraints if it will be successfully developed and introduced into the market. The total possible economical impact of fusion is investigated from the aspect of energy cost savings, sales, and its effects on Gross Domestic Products. Considerable economical possibility will be found in the markets for fusion related devices, of currently developing countries, and for synthesized fuel. The value of fusiondevelopment could be evaluated from these possible economic impact in comparison with its necessary investment.

A new approach of utilizing information fusion technique is developed to predict the radiation embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel steels. The Charpy transition temperature shift data contained in the Power Reactor Embrittlement Database is used in this study. Six parameters {Cu, Ni, P, neutron fluence, irradiation time, and irradiation temperature {are used in the embrittlement prediction models. The results indicate that this new embrittlement predictor achieved reductions of about 49.5% and 52% in the uncertainties for plate and weld data, respectively, for pressurized water reactor and boiling water reactor data, compared with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.99, Rev. 2. The implications of dose-rate effect and irradiation temperature effects for the development of radiation embrittlement models are also discussed.

Inertial Electrostatic Confinement fusion grade plasma containment has been sporadically researched since the early 1960's. In the 1990's the work of G. H. Miley and his team at the University of Illinios, Fusion Studies Laboratory, Champaign-Urbana has stimulated a collaboration with industry. The development and test program for the first industrial IEC neutron generator has progressed to the point where an endurance test is under way to demonstrate at least 10,000 hours of operational life of the sealed chamber device without servicing. The market entry goals of steady 10{sup 7} D-D n/s CW output with an air-cooled system have been achieved. DASA has invested in the development of the industrial product and the continuing basic research at the UI-FSL. The complete DASA FusionStar IEC-PS1 point source neutron generator set is described with emphasis on the interfaces to user NAA systems. The next product developments are pulsed neutron operations and higher fusion reaction rates of up to 10{sup 10} by means of affordable add-ons to the basic IEC-PS system. The production engineering experience gained will next be applied to a more challenging line source variant of the IEC. Beyond neutron and proton sources, several other IEC applications are being developed.

A laser fusionreactor concept is described that employs liquid metal walls. The concept envisions a porous medium, called the JADE, of specific geometry lining the reactor cavity. Some advantages and disadvantages of the concept are pointed out. The possibility of using heat pipes for passive cooling in ICF reactors is discussed. Some of the problems are outlined. (MOW)

Even on the most powerful supercomputers available today, computational nuclear fusionreactor divertor design is extremely CPU demanding, not least due to the large number of design variables and the hybrid micro-macro character of the flows. Therefore, automated design methods based on optimization can greatly assist current reactor design studies. Over the past decades, "adjoint methods" for shape optimization have proven their virtue in the field of aerodynamics. Applications include drag reduction for wing and wing-body configurations. Here we demonstrate that also for divertor design, these optimization methods have a large potential. Specifically, we apply the continuous adjoint method to the optimization of the divertor geometry in a 2D poloidal cross section of an axisymmetric tokamak device (as, e.g., JET and ITER), using a simplified model for the plasma edge. The design objective is to spread the target material heat load as much as possible by controlling the shape of the divertor, while maintaining the full helium ash removal capabilities of the vacuum pumping system.

Traditional tritium breeding blankets in fusionreactor designs include a large amount of structural material. This results in complex engineering requirements, complicated sector maintenance, and marginal tritium breeding ratios (TBR). We present a conceptual design of a fully liquid blanket. To maximize tritium breeding volume, the vacuum vessel is completely immersed in a continuously recycled FLiBe blanket, with the exception of small support posts. FLiBe has a wide liquid temperature window (459 C to 1430 C), low electrical conductivity to minimize MHD effects, similar thermal/fluid characteristics to water, and is chemically inert. While tritium breeding with FLiBe in traditional blankets is poor, we use MCNP neutronics analysis to show that the immersion blanket design coupled with a beryllium neutron multiplier results in TBR > 1. FLiBe is shown to be a sufficient radiation shield for the toroidal field magnets and can be used as a coolant for the vacuum vessel and divertor, allowing for a simplified single-phase, low-pressure, single-fluid cooling scheme. When coupled with a high-field compact reactor design, the immersion blanket eliminates the need for complex sector maintenance, allows the vacuum vessel to be a replaceable component, and reduces financial cost.

The martensitic alloys 12Cr-1MoVW and 9Cr-1MoVNb have been irradiated in the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) and subsequently tested in fatigue. In order to achieve helium levels characteristic of fusionreactors, the 12Cr-1MoVW was doped with 1 and 2% Ni, resulting in helium levels of 210 and 410 appm at damage levels of 25 dpa. The 9Cr-1MoVNb was irradiated to a damage level of 3 dpa and contained less than 5 appm He. Irradiations were carried out at 55°C and testing at 22°C. No significant changes were found in 9Cr-1MoVNb upon irradiation at this damage level, but effects that could possibly be attributed to helium were found in 12Cr-1MoVW. Levels of 210 and 410 appm He produced cyclic strengthening of 29 and 34% over unirradiated nickel-doped materials, respectively. This cyclic hardening, attributable largely to helium, resulted in degradation of the cyclic life. However, the fatigue life remained comparable to or better than unirradiated 20%-cold-worked 316 stainless steel.

Recent efforts in MELCOR development to address previously identified deficiencies have resulted in release of MELCOR 1.8.2, a much-improved version of the code. Major new models have been implemented for direct containment heating, ice condensers, debris quenching, lower plenum debris behavior, core materials interactions` and radial relocation of debris. Significant improvements have also been made in the modeling of interfacial momentum exchange and in the modeling of fission product release, condensation/evaporation, and aerosol behavior. Efforts are underway to address two-phase hydrodynamics difficulties, to improve modeling of water condensation on structures and fine-scale natural circulation within the reactor vessel, and to implement CORCON-Mod3. Improvements are also being made to MELCOR`s capability to handle new features of the advanced light water reactor designs, including drainage of water films on connected heat structures, heat transfer from the external surface of the reactor vessel to a flooded cavity, and creep rupture failure of the lower head. Additional development needs in other areas are discussed.

The purpose of this letter is to submit the Reactor Instrumentation and Control (I&C) software life cycle, development methodology, and programming language selections and rationale for project Prometheus to NR for approval. This letter also provides the draft Reactor I&C Software Development Process Manual and Reactor Module Software Development Plan to NR for information.

The significance of real-time feedback control is emphasized in this paper as an indispensable method to improve and sustain the improved plasma characteristics in JT-60U high fusion performance discharges as well as to operate the fusionreactor under the optimal divertor conditions with respect to the heat load and exhaust pumping. In accordance, substantial improvement in the equivalent fusion amplification gain of over unity has been reproducibly achieved at the JT-60U tokamak in the reversed shear mode of operation with the robust feedback controls, where the value of target density was deliberately optimized for the reliable internal transport barrier formation, and the magneto-hydrodynamic stability control was performed with the stored energy feedback. The feedback control techniques also demonstrated the effectiveness to produce quasi-steady-state high-performance plasmas. In addition, three major parameters associated with the fusionreactor instrumentations, namely the neutron production rate, operating density, and divertor radiation power, were simultaneously feedback controlled in the ELMy H-mode plasmas. Here, the matrix response function was evaluated to identify the limitations involved with the linear combination of independent controls. Other advanced feedback schemes, such as the feedback suppression of the neoclassical tearing mode required to sustain high plasma pressure in a steady-state, are also described. Finally, the controversial issues for the future intelligent plasma control necessary for the advanced steady-stated tokamak reactor are addressed.

The path towards next-step fusiondevelopment requires increased emphasis on the boundary/plasma-material interface. The new DIII-D Boundary/Plasma-Material Interactions (PMI) Center has been established to address these critical issues on a timescale relevant to the design of FNSF, adopting the following transformational approaches: (1) Develop and test advanced divertor configurations on DIII-D compatible with core plasma high performance operational scenarios in FNSF; (2) Validate candidate reactor PFC materials at reactor-relevant temperatures in DIII-D high-performance plasmas, in collaboration with the broad material research/development community; (3) Integrate validated boundary-materials interface with high performance plasmas to provide viable boundary/PMI solutions for next-step fusion devices. This program leverages unique DIII-D capabilities, promotes synergistic programs within the broad PMI community, including linear material research facilities. It will also enable us to build a compelling bridge for the US research on long-pulse facilities. Work supported by the US DOE under DE-FC02-04ER54698 and DE-AC52-07NA27344, DE-AC05-00OR2725.

The toroidal Alfvén eigenmodes (TAE) in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor [K. Young, et al., Plasma Phys. Controlled Fusion 26, 11 (1984)]deuterium-tritium plasmas are analyzed using the NOVA-K code [C.Z. Cheng, Phys. Reports 211, 1 (1992)]. The theoretical results are compared with the experimental measurements in detail. In most cases, the theory agrees with the observations in terms of mode frequency, mode structure, and mode stability. However, one mode with toroidal mode number n = 2 is observed to be poloidally localized on the high field side of the magnetic axis with a mode frequency substantially below the TAE frequency.

A novel diagnostic technique for the remote and nonperturbative sensing of the local magnetic field in reactor relevant plasmas is presented. Pulsed polarimetry [Patent No. 12/150,169 (pending)] combines optical scattering with the Faraday effect. The polarimetric light detection and ranging (LIDAR)-like diagnostic has the potential to be a local B{sub pol} diagnostic on ITER and can achieve spatial resolutions of millimeters on high energy density (HED) plasmas using existing lasers. The pulsed polarimetry method is based on nonlocal measurements and subtle effects are introduced that are not present in either cw polarimetry or Thomson scattering LIDAR. Important features include the capability of simultaneously measuring local T{sub e}, n{sub e}, and B{sub ||} along the line of sight, a resiliency to refractive effects, a short measurement duration providing near instantaneous data in time, and location for real-time feedback and control of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities and the realization of a widely applicable internal magnetic field diagnostic for the magnetic fusion energy program. The technique improves for higher n{sub e}B{sub ||} product and higher n{sub e} and is well suited for diagnosing the transient plasmas in the HED program. Larger devices such as ITER and DEMO are also better suited to the technique, allowing longer pulse lengths and thereby relaxing key technology constraints making pulsed polarimetry a valuable asset for next step devices. The pulsed polarimetry technique is clarified by way of illustration on the ITER tokamak and plasmas within the magnetized target fusion program within present technological means.

A novel diagnostic technique for the remote and nonperturbative sensing of the local magnetic field in reactor relevant plasmas is presented. Pulsed polarimetry [Patent No. 12/150,169 (pending)] combines optical scattering with the Faraday effect. The polarimetric light detection and ranging (LIDAR)-like diagnostic has the potential to be a local B(pol) diagnostic on ITER and can achieve spatial resolutions of millimeters on high energy density (HED) plasmas using existing lasers. The pulsed polarimetry method is based on nonlocal measurements and subtle effects are introduced that are not present in either cw polarimetry or Thomson scattering LIDAR. Important features include the capability of simultaneously measuring local T(e), n(e), and B(parallel) along the line of sight, a resiliency to refractive effects, a short measurement duration providing near instantaneous data in time, and location for real-time feedback and control of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities and the realization of a widely applicable internal magnetic field diagnostic for the magnetic fusion energy program. The technique improves for higher n(e)B(parallel) product and higher n(e) and is well suited for diagnosing the transient plasmas in the HED program. Larger devices such as ITER and DEMO are also better suited to the technique, allowing longer pulse lengths and thereby relaxing key technology constraints making pulsed polarimetry a valuable asset for next step devices. The pulsed polarimetry technique is clarified by way of illustration on the ITER tokamak and plasmas within the magnetized target fusion program within present technological means. PMID:19044521

We describe a neutralized-beam intense neutron source (NBINS) as a relevant application of fusion technology for the type of high-current ion sources and neutral beamlines now being developed for heating and fueling of magnetic-fusion-energy confinement systems. This near-term application would support parallel development of highly reliable steady-state higher-voltage neutral D/sup 0/ and T/sup 0/ beams and provide a relatively inexpensive source of fusion neutrons for materials testing at up to reactor-like wall conditions. Beam-target examples described incude a 50-A mixed D-T total (ions plus neutrals) space-charge-neutralized beam at 120 keV incident on a liquid Li drive-in target, or a 50-A T/sup 0/ + T/sup +/ space-charge-neutralized beam incident on either a LiD or gas D/sub 2/ target with calculated 14-MeV neutron yields of 2 x 10/sup 15//s, 7 x 10/sup 15//s, or 1.6 x 10/sup 16//s, respectively. The severe local heat loading on the target surface is expected to limit the allowed beam focus and minimum target size to greater than or equal to 25 cm/sup 2/.

Carbon-carbon composites increasingly are being used for plasma-facing component (PFC) applications in magnetic-confinement plasma-fusion devices. They offer substantial advantages such as enhanced physical and mechanical properties and superior thermal shock resistance compared to the previously favored bulk graphite. Next-generation plasma-fusionreactors, such as the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) and the Burning Plasma Experiment (BPX), will require advanced carbon-carbon composites possessing extremely high thermal conductivity to manage the anticipated extreme thermal heat loads. This report outlines a program that will facilitate the development of advanced carbon-carbon composites specifically tailored to meet the requirements of ITER and BPX. A strategy for developing the necessary associated design data base is described. Materials property needs, i.e., high thermal conductivity, radiation stability, tritium retention, etc., are assessed and prioritized through a systems analysis of the functional, operational, and component requirements for plasma-facing applications. The current Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Fusion Energy Program on carbon-carbon composites is summarized. Realistic property goals are set based upon our current understanding. The architectures of candidate PFC carbon-carbon composite materials are outlined, and architectural features considered desirable for maximum irradiation stability are described. The European and Japanese carbon-carbon composite development and irradiation programs are described. The Working Group conclusions and recommendations are listed. It is recommended that developmental carbon-carbon composite materials from the commercial sector be procured via request for proposal/request for quotation (RFP/RFQ) as soon as possible.

New compact, quasi-axially symmetric stellarator configurations have been developed as part of the ARIES-CS reactor studies. These new configurations have good plasma confinement and transport properties, including low losses of α particles and good integrity of flux surfaces at high β. We summarize the recent progress by showcasing two attractive classes of configurations — configurations with judiciously chosen rotational transforms to avoid undesirable effects of low order resonances on the flux surface integrity and configurations with very small aspect ratios (∼2.5) that have excellent quasi-axisymmetry and low field ripples.

V base alloys have advantages for fusionreactor first-wall and blanket structure. To screen candidate alloys and optimize a V-base alloy, physical and mechanical properties of V-Ti, V-Cr-Ti, and V-Ti- Si alloys were studied before and after irradiation in Li environment in fast fission reactors. V-4Cr-4Ti containing 500-1000 wppM Si and <1000 wppM O+N+C was investigated as the most promising alloy, and more testing is being done. Major results of the work are presented in this paper. The reference V-4Cr-4Ti had the most attractive combination of the mechanical and physical properties that are prerequisite for first-wall and blanket structures: good thermal creep, good tensile strength/ductility, high impact energy, excellent resistance to swelling, and very low ductile-brittle transition temperature before and after irradiation. The alloy was highly resistant to irradiation-induced embrittlement in Li at 420-600 C, and the effects of dynamically charged He on swelling and mechanical properties were insignificant. However, several important issues remain unresolved: welding, low-temperature irradiation, He effect at high dose and high He concentration, irradiation creep, and irradiation performance in air or He. Initial results of investigation of some of these issues are also given.

Original estimates stated that the amount of radioactive waste that will be generated during the dismantling of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor will approach two million kilograms with an associated volume of 2,500 cubic meters. The materials were activated by 14 MeV neutrons and were highly contaminated with tritium, which present unique challenges to maintain integrity during packaging and transportation. In addition, the majority of this material is stainless steel and copper structural metal that were specifically designed and manufactured for this one-of-a-kind fusion research reactor. This provided further complexity in planning and managing the waste. We will discuss the engineering concepts, innovative practices, and technologies that were utilized to size reduce, stabilize, and package the many unique and complex components of this reactor. This waste was packaged and shipped in many different configurations and methods according to the transportation regulations and disposal facility requirements. For this particular project, we were able to utilize two separate disposal facilities for burial. This paper will conclude with a complete summary of the actual results of the waste management costs, volumes, and best practices that were developed from this groundbreaking and successful project.

The major technical objectives of this program are threefold: (1) to develop the design tools and a fundamental understanding of the fluid dynamics of a slurry bubble column reactor to maximize reactor productivity, (2) to develop the mathematical reactor design models and gain an understanding of the hydrodynamic fundamentals under industrially relevant process conditions, and (3) to develop an understanding of the hydrodynamics and their interaction with the chemistries occurring in the bubble column reactor. Successful completion of these objectives will permit more efficient usage of the reactor column and tighter design criteria, increase overall reactor efficiency, and ensure a design that leads to stable reactor behavior when scaling up to large diameter reactors.

The major technical objectives of this program are threefold: (1) to develop the design tools and a fundamental understanding of the fluid dynamics of a slurry bubble column reactor to maximize reactor productivity, (2) to develop the mathematical reactor design models and gain an understanding of the hydrodynamic fundamentals under industrially relevant process conditions, and (3) to develop an understanding of the hydrodynamics and their interaction with the chemistries occurring in the bubble column reactor. Successful completion of these objectives will permit more efficient usage of the reactor column and tighter design criteria, increase overall reactor efficiency, and ensure a design that leads to stable reactor behavior when scaling up to large diameter reactors.

The major technical objectives of this program are threefold: (1) to develop the design tools and a fundamental understanding of the fluid dynamics of a slurry bubble column 0reactor to maximize reactor productivity, (2) to develop the mathematical reactor design models and gain an understanding of the hydrodynamic fundamentals under industrially relevant process conditions, and (3) to develop an understanding of the hydrodynamics and their interaction with the chemistries occurring in the bubble column reactor. Successful completion of these objectives will permit more efficient usage of the reactor column and tighter design criteria, increase overall reactor efficiency, and ensure a design that leads to stable reactor behavior when scaling up to large diameter reactors.

The major technical objectives of this program are threefold: (1) to develop the design tools and a fundamental understanding of the fluid dynamics of a slurry bubble column reactor to maximize reactor productivity, (2) to develop the mathematical reactor design models and gain an understanding of the hydrodynamic fundamentals under industrially relevant process conditions, and (3) to develop an understanding of the hydrodynamics and their interaction with the chemistries occurring in the bubble column reactor. Successful completion of these objectives will permit more efficient usage of the reactor column and tighter design criteria, increase overall reactor efficiency, and ensure a design that leads to stable reactor behavior when scaling up to large diameter reactors.

The SIRIUS-P conceptual design study is of a 1000 MWe laser driven inertial confinement fusion power reactor utilizing near symmetric illumination of direct drive targets. The reference driver is a KrF laser; however, any other laser capable of delivering short wavelength energy can be substituted. Sixty beams providing a total of 3.4 MJ of energy are used at a repetition rate of 6.7 Hz and a target gain of 118. The spherical chamber has an internal diameter of 6.5 m and consists of two independent components, a first wall assembly fabricated from a c/c composite and a blanket assembly made of SiC. First wall protection is provided by a xenon buffer gas at a pressure of 0.5 torr. The chamber is cooled by a flowing granular bed of solid ceramic material, TiO[sub 2] for the first wall assembly and Li[sub 2]O for the blanket assembly. The chamber is housed within a 42 m radius cylindrical reactor building which is 86 m high and which shares the same vacuum space as the chamber. All the laser beams are brought in at the bottom of the building, first onto a dielectrically coated final focusing mirror and finally onto a metallic grazing incidence mirror which reflects them into the chamber through beam ports open to the building. Neutron traps behind the grazing incidence mirrors are used to prolong the lifetimes of the final focusing optics. The nominal cost of electricity from this system is 65 mills/kwh assuming an 8% interest rate on capital.

The SIRIUS-P conceptual design study is of a 1000 MWe laser driven inertial confinement fusion power reactor utilizing near symmetric illumination of direct drive targets. The reference driver is a KrF laser; however, any other laser capable of delivering short wavelength energy can be substituted. Sixty beams providing a total of 3.4 MJ of energy are used at a repetition rate of 6.7 Hz and a target gain of 118. The spherical chamber has an internal diameter of 6.5 m and consists of two independent components, a first wall assembly fabricated from a c/c composite and a blanket assembly made of SiC. First wall protection is provided by a xenon buffer gas at a pressure of 0.5 torr. The chamber is cooled by a flowing granular bed of solid ceramic material, TiO{sub 2} for the first wall assembly and Li{sub 2}O for the blanket assembly. The chamber is housed within a 42 m radius cylindrical reactor building which is 86 m high and which shares the same vacuum space as the chamber. All the laser beams are brought in at the bottom of the building, first onto a dielectrically coated final focusing mirror and finally onto a metallic grazing incidence mirror which reflects them into the chamber through beam ports open to the building. Neutron traps behind the grazing incidence mirrors are used to prolong the lifetimes of the final focusing optics. The nominal cost of electricity from this system is 65 mills/kwh assuming an 8% interest rate on capital.

About three percent of the fusion energy produced by a D-{sup 3}He reactor is in the form of neutrons. Those neutrons are generated by D-D and D-T reactions, with the tritium produced by the D-D fusion. The neutrons will react with structural steel, deuterium, {sup 3}He and shielding material to produce tritium. About half of the tritium generated by the D-D reaction will not burn in the plasma and will exit as a part of the plasma exhaust. Thus, there is enough tritium produced in a D-{sup 3}He reactor and careful management will be required. The tritium produced in the shield and plasma can be managed with an acceptable effect on cost and safety. 3 refs., 2 figs., 3 tabs.

One of the most striking innovations in flower development is the congenital or postgenital union of petals (sympetaly) which has enabled dramatic specialization in flower structure and possibly accelerated speciation rates. Sympetalous flowers exhibit extraordinary variation in development, including the degree and timing of fusion, and fusion with other floral organs. Different axes of corolla tube complexity can be disentangled at the developmental level, with most variation being explained by differences in coordinated growth between interconnected and lobed regions of neighboring petal primordia, and between lower and upper portions of the corolla tube, defined by the stamen insertion boundary. Genetically, inter- and intra-specific variation in the degree of petal fusion is controlled by various inputs from genes that affect organ boundary and lateral growth, signaling between different cell types, and production of the cuticle. It is thus hypothesized that the evolution and diversification of fused petals, at least within the megadiverse Asteridae clade of core eudicots, have occurred through the modification of a conserved genetic pathway previously involved in free petal development. PMID:26094556

Applications of thermonuclear energy for peaceful and constructive purposes are surveyed. Developments and problems in the release and control of fusion energy are reviewed. It is pointed out that the future of thermonuclear power reactors will depend upon the construction of a machine that produces more electric energy than it consumes. The fuel for thermonuclear reactors is cheap and practically inexhaustible. Thermonuclear reactors produce less dangerous radioactive materials than fission reactors and, when once brought under control, are not as likely to be subject to dangerous excursions. The interaction of the hot plasma with magnetic fields opens the way for the direct production of electricity. It is possible that explosive fusion energy released underground may be harnessed for the production of electricity before the same feat is accomplished in controlled fusion processes. Applications of underground detonations of fission devices in mining and for the enhancement of oil flow in large low-specific-yield formations are also suggested.

A ten-channel far-infrared laser interferometer which is routinely used to measure the spatial and temporal behavior of the electron density profile on the TFTR tokamak is described and representative results are presented. This system has been designed for remote operation in the very hostile environment of a fusionreactor. The possible expansion of the system to include polarimetric measurements is briefly outlined. 13 refs., 8 figs.

In this manual we describe the use of the FORIG computer code to solve isotope-generation and depletion problems in fusion and fission reactors. FORIG runs on a Cray-1 computer and accepts more extensive activation cross sections than ORIGEN2 from which it was adapted. This report is an updated and a combined version of the previous ORIGEN2 and FORIG manuals. 7 refs., 15 figs., 13 tabs.

This paper discusses the use of a railgun accelerator to inject hydrogen pellets into a magnetic fusionreactor for refueling purposes. Specific studies in this paper include: 1.5 mm-diameter two-stage fuseless plasma-arc-driven electromagnetic railgun, construction and testing of a 3.2 mm-diameter two-stage railgun and a theoretical analysis of the behavior of a railgun plasma-arc armature inside a railgun. (LSP)

The first fast breeder reactors, constructed in the 1945-1960 time period, used metallic fuels composed of uranium, plutonium, or their alloys. They were chosen because most existing reactor operating experience had been obtained on metallic fuels and because they provided the highest breeding ratios. Difficulties in obtaining adequate dimensional stability in metallic fuel elements under conditions of high fuel burnup led in the 1960s to the virtual worldwide choice of ceramic fuels. Although ceramic fuels provide lower breeding performance, this objective is no longer an important consideration in most national programs. Mixed uranium and plutonium dioxide became the ceramic fuel that has received the widest use. The more advanced ceramic fuels, mixed uranium and plutonium carbides and nitrides, continue under development. More recently, metal fuel elements of improved design have joined ceramic fuels in achieving goal burnups of 15 to 20 percent. Low-swelling fuel cladding alloys have also been continuously developed to deal with the unexpected problem of void formation in stainless steels subjected to fast neutron irradiation, a phenomenon first observed in the 1960s.

If a loss of vacuum event (LOVE) occurs due to damage of the vacuum vessel of a nuclear fusion experimental reactor, some chemical reactions such as a graphic oxidation and a buoyancy-driven exchange flow take place after equalization of the gas pressure between the inside and outside of the vacuum vessel. The graphite oxidation would generate inflammable carbon monoxide and release tritium retained in the graphite. The exchange flow through the breaches may transport the carbon monoxide and tritium out of the vacuum vessel. To add confidence to the safety evaluations and analyses, it is important to grasp the basic phenomena such as the exchange flow and the graphite oxidation. Experiments of the exchange flow and the graphite oxidation were carried out to obtain the exchange flow rate and the rate constant for the carbon monoxide combustion, respectively. These experimental results were compared with existing correlations. The authors plan a scaled-model test and a full-scale model test for the LOVE.

In a tokamak fusionreactor, the frequency of occurrence and the severity of a plasma disruption event will determine the lifetime of the plasma facing components. Disruptions are plasma instabilities which result in rapid loss of confinement and termination of plasma current Intense energy fluxes to components like the rust wall and the divertor plate are expected during the disruptions. This high energy deposition in short times may cause severe surface erosion of these components resulting from melting and vaporization. Coatings and tile materials are proposed to protect and maintain the integrity of the underneath, structural materials from both erosion losses as well as from high thermal stresses encountered during a disruption. The coating thickness should be large enough to withstand both erosion losses and to reduce the temperature rise in the substrate structural material. The coating thickness should be minimized to enhance the structural integrity, to reduce potential problems from radioactivity, and to minimize materials cost. Tile materials such as graphite and coating materials such as beryllium and tungsten on structural materials like copper, steel, and vanadium are analyzed and compared as potential diverter and first wall design options. The effect of the sprayed coating properties during the disruption is investigated. Porous sprayed material may be found to protect the structure better than condensed phase properties. The minimum coating thickness required to protect the structural material during disruption is discussed. The impact of self shielding effect by the eroded material oil the response of both the type/coating and the substrate is discussed.

Implantation-driven permeation experiments have been conducted on samples of the ferritic steel HT-9, the austenitic Primary Candidate Alloy (PCA) and the vanadium alloy V-15Cr-5Ti using D/sub 3//sup +/ ions under conditions that simulate charge-exchange neutral loading on a fusionreactor first wall. The steels all exhibited an initially intense permeation ''spike'' followed by an exponential decrease to low steady-state values. That spike was not evident in the V-15Cr-5Ti experiments. Steady-state permeation was highest in the vanadium alloy and lowest in the austenitic steel. Though permeation rates in the HT-9 were lower than those in V-15Cr-5Ti, permeation transients were much faster in HT-9 than in other materials tested. Ion-beam sputtering of the surface in the steel experiments resulted in enhanced remission at the front surface, whereas in the vanadium tests, recombination and diffusivity both appeared to diminish as the deuterium concentration rose. This may be due to a phase change in the material. We conclude that for conditions comparable to those of these experiments, tritium retention and loss in first wall structures made of steels will be less than in structures made of V-15Cr-5Ti.

A primary goal in the MINIMARS fusion power reactor design is to achieve the lowest possible cost of electricity and highest mass utilization while maintaining credibility and passive safety. Because the blanket impacts many components, reducing its thickness-while achieving adequate breeding and a high energy multiplication-was of prime importance. The MINIMARS blanket is a helium-gas-cooled design using 17Li-83Pb (LiPb) breeder, HT-9 structure, and beryllium moderator/multiplier. The helium gas is contained in small tubes that are immersed in a close-packed matrix of beryllium balls and LiPb. The result is a compact blanket only 18 cm thick in which only the tubes are operated in a stressed condition, but the blanket structure is designed to withstand a helium gas leak in one of the tubes. By circulating the helium gas from the blanket into the reflector, the reflector energy is recovered at a high temperature giving a gross power cycle efficiency of 42.7% while maintaining a low interface temperature between the breeding material and structure.

Radioactivation of five types of candidate steel alloys for the structural materials of superconducting toroidal field coils (TFC) of a D-T fusionreactor has been comparatively studied. As a result, the use of a high Mn steel in place of 316 SS is shown to reduce the dose rate at the He vessel of the TFC to about1/3 the value with 316 SS at 1 day after shutdown, and to about1/1000 at 10 years after shutdown. These reductions are mostly caused by the 0.28 wt% Co assumed to be included in 316 SS but none in the high Mn steel. Newly defined dose rate sensitivities of constituent elements are shown to be useful in identifying the cause of dose rate change brought on by the steel composition change. They can also be utilized in estimating the dose rate change brought on by the replacement of 316 SS with any new steel alloy with similar composition.

Radioactivation of five types of candidate steel alloys for the structural materials of superconducting toroidal field coils (TFC) of a D-T fusionreactor has been comparatively studied. As a result, the use of a high Mn steel in place of 316 SS is shown to reduce the dose rate at the He vessel of the TFC to ˜ 1/3 the value with 316 SS at 1 day after shutdown, and to ˜ 1/1000 at 10 years after shutdown. These reductions are mostly caused by the 0.28 wt% Co assumed to be included in 316 SS but none in the high Mn steel. Newly defined dose rate sensitivities of constituent elements are shown to be useful in identifying the cause of dose rate change brought on by the steel composition change. They can also be utilized in estimating the dose rate change brought on by the replacement of 316 SS with any new steel alloy with similar composition.

In assessing possible potential issues for fusion applications, the compatibility of several metallic structural materials was examined using high temperature/pressure steam as test environment. High corrosion resistance associated with protective oxide film formation was regarded as essential for the function of protecting from tritium permeation and corrosion damage. A Ti-Al-based intermetallic compound with V addition, recently developed, showed excellent performance. A low-activation ferritic/martensitic steel, F82-H, was comparable with the current advanced materials for modern supercritical fossil boilers, while some potential vanadium alloys, although not intended for use in steam, were found less compatible.

The purpose of the STARFIRE study is to develop a design concept for a commercial tokamak fusion electric power plant based on the deuterium/tritium/lithium fuel cycle. The major features for STARFIRE include a steady-state operating mode based on a continuous rf lower-hybrid current drive and auxiliary heating, solid tritium breeder material, pressurized water cooling, limiter/vacuum system for impurity control and exhaust, high tritium burnup, superconducting EF coils outside the TF superconducting coils, fully remote maintenance, and a low-activation shield.

A new magnetic fusionreactor design, called APEX uses a liquid wall between fusion plasma and solid first wall to reach high neutron wall loads and eliminate the replacement of the first wall structure during the reactor's operation due to the radiation damage. In this paper, radiation damage behavior of the inboard and outboard first walls made of a ferritic steel, 9Cr-2WVTa, in the APEX blanket using various thorium molten salts, 75% LiF-25% ThF4, 75% LiF-24% ThF4-1% 233UF4 and 75% LiF-23% ThF4-2% 233UF4 was investigated. Furthermore, tritium breeding potential of these salts in such a blanket was also examined. Computations were carried out using the code Scale 4.3 by solving Boltzmann neutron transport equation. Numerical results brought out that only the liquid wall containing the molten salt, 75% LiF-23% ThF4-2% 233UF4 and having a thickness of ≥38 cm would be suitable to be used in the APEX reactor with respect to radiation damage criteria for the first wall structures and tritium self-sufficiency for the (DT) fusion driver.

An oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) ferritic steel with high temperature strength has been developed in line with low activation criteria for application in fusion power systems. The composition Fe-13.5Cr-2W-0.5Ti-0.25Y{sub 2}O{sup 3} was chosen to provide a minimum chromium content to insure fully delta-ferrite stability. High temperature strength has been demonstrated by measuring creep response of the ODS alloy in uniaxial tension at 650 and 900 C in an inert atmosphere chamber. Results of tests at 900 C demonstrate that this alloy has creep properties similar to other alloys of similar design and can be considered for use in high temperature fusion power system designs. The alloy selection process, materials production, microstructural evaluation and creep testing are described.

This biannual report summarizes the Argonne National Laboratory work performed for the Office of Fusion Energy during the April-September 1979 quarter in the following research and development areas: materials; energy storage and transfer; tritium containment, recovery and control; advanced reactor design; atomic data; reactor safety; fusion-fission hybrid systems; alternate applications of fusion energy; and other work related to fusion power. Separate abstracts were prepared for three sections. (MOW)

A new strategic energy plan decided by the Japanese Cabinet in 2014 strongly supports the steady promotion of nuclear fusiondevelopment activities, including the ITER project and the Broader Approach activities from the long-term viewpoint. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in Japan formulated the Third Phase Basic Program so as to promote an experimental fusionreactor project. In 2005 AEC has reviewed this Program, and discussed on selection and concentration among many projects of fusionreactordevelopment. In addition to the promotion of ITER project, advanced tokamak research by JT-60SA, helical plasma experiment by LHD, FIREX project in laser fusion research and fusion engineering by IFMIF were highly prioritized. Although the basic concept is quite different between tokamak, helical and laser fusion researches, there exist a lot of common features such as plasma physics on 3-D magnetic geometry, high power heat load on plasma facing component and so on. Therefore, a synergetic scenario on fusionreactordevelopment among various plasma confinement concepts would be important.

If the US is to meet the energy needs of the future, it is essential that new technologies emerge to compensate for dwindling supplies of fossil fuels and the eventual depletion of fissionable uranium used in present-day nuclear reactors. Fusion energy has the potential to become a major source of energy for the future. Power from fusion energy would provide a substantially reduced environmental impact as compared with other forms of energy generation. Since fusion utilizes no fossil fuels, there would be no release of chemical combustion products to the atmosphere. Additionally, there are no fission products formed to present handling and disposal problems, and runaway fuel reactions are impossible due to the small amounts of deuterium and tritium present. The purpose of the TPX Project is to support the development of the physics and technology to extend tokamak operation into the continuously operating (steady-state) regime, and to demonstrate advances in fundamental tokamak performance. The purpose of TFTR D&D is to ensure compliance with DOE Order 5820.2A ``Radioactive Waste Management`` and to remove environmental and health hazards posed by the TFTR in a non-operational mode. There are two proposed actions evaluated in this environmental assessment (EA). The actions are related because one must take place before the other can proceed. The proposed actions assessed in this EA are: the decontamination and decommissioning (D&D) of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR); to be followed by the construction and operation of the Tokamak Physics Experiment (TPX). Both of these proposed actions would take place primarily within the TFTR Test Cell Complex at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL). The TFTR is located on ``D-site`` at the James Forrestal Campus of Princeton University in Plainsboro Township, Middlesex County, New Jersey, and is operated by PPPL under contract with the United States Department of Energy (DOE).

In a tokamak fusionreactor, an electrically insulated part is needed for an in-vessel piping system in order to break an electric circuit loop. When a closed loop is formed in the piping system, large induced electromagnetic forces during a plasma disruption (rapid plasma current quench) could give damages on the piping system. Ceramic brazing joint is a conventional method for the electric circuit break, but an application to the fusionreactor is not feasible due to its brittleness. Here, a stainless steel / ceramics / stainless steel functionally gradient material (FGM) has been proposed and developed as an integrated insulation joint of the piping system. Both sides of the joint can be welded to the main pipes, and expected to be reliable even in the fusionreactor environment. When the FGM joint is manufactured by way of a sintering process, a residual thermal stress is the key issue. Through detailed computations of the residual thermal stress and several trial productions, tubular elements of FGM joints have been successfully manufactured.

Compared with the deuterium tritium (DT) fusion, the environmentally clean fusion of protons with 11B is extremely difficult. When instead of nanosecond laser pulses for thermal-ablating driven ignition, picosecond pulses are used, a drastic change by nonlinearity results in ultrahigh acceleration of plasma blocks. This radically changes to economic boron fusion by a measured new avalanche ignition.

Early efforts in 1992 were focused on relocating the membrane reactor system from Alcoa Separation Technology, Inc.`s Warrendale, PA facility to laboratory space at the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center (UPARC) in Harmarville, PA following the divestiture of Alcoa Separations to US Filter, Inc. Reconstruction was completed in March, 1992, at which time the reactor was returned to ethylbenzene dehydrogenation service. Efforts on ethylbenzene dehydrogenation to styrene focused on optimizing hybrid reactor performance relative to packed bed operation. Following this, the reactor system was converted to isobutane dehydrogenation. Experimentation on isobutane dehydrogenation focused on design of an inert reactor, evaluation of commercial light alkane dehydrogenation catalysts, and modeling of membrane reactor performance relative to the performance of a packed bed reactor. This report summarizes the effort in 1992 on the development of ceramic membranes as dehydrogenation reactors. In addition, outside interactions on behalf of this investigation are discussed.

This report describes a system model that can be used to analyze three advance small modular reactor (SMR) designs through their lifetime. Neutronics of these reactor designs were evaluated using Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended (MCNPX/6). The system models were developed in Matlab and Simulink. A major thrust of this research was the initial scoping analysis of Sandia's concept of a long-life fast reactor (LLFR). The inherent characteristic of this conceptual design is to minimize the change in reactivity over the lifetime of the reactor. This allows the reactor to operate substantially longer at full power than traditional light water reactors (LWRs) or other SMR designs (e.g. high temperature gas reactor (HTGR)). The system model has subroutines for lifetime reactor feedback and operation calculations, thermal hydraulic effects, load demand changes and a simplified SCO2 Brayton cycle for power conversion.

The US Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy’s Advanced Small Modular Reactor (SMR) research and development activities focus on four key areas: Developing assessment methods for evaluating advanced SMR technologies and characteristics; and Developing and testing of materials, fuels and fabrication techniques; and Resolving key regulatory issues identified by US Nuclear Regulatory Commission and industry; and Developing advanced instrumentation and controls and human-machine interfaces. This report focuses on development of assessment methods to evaluate advanced SMR technologies and characteristics. Specifically, this report describes the expansion and application of the economic modeling effort at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Analysis of the current modeling methods shows that one of the primary concerns for the modeling effort is the handling of uncertainty in cost estimates. Monte Carlo–based methods are commonly used to handle uncertainty, especially when implemented by a stand-alone script within a program such as Python or MATLAB. However, a script-based model requires each potential user to have access to a compiler and an executable capable of handling the script. Making the model accessible to multiple independent analysts is best accomplished by implementing the model in a common computing tool such as Microsoft Excel. Excel is readily available and accessible to most system analysts, but it is not designed for straightforward implementation of a Monte Carlo–based method. Using a Monte Carlo algorithm requires in-spreadsheet scripting and statistical analyses or the use of add-ons such as Crystal Ball. An alternative method uses propagation of error calculations in the existing Excel-based system to estimate system cost uncertainty. This method has the advantage of using Microsoft Excel as is, but it requires the use of simplifying assumptions. These assumptions do not necessarily bring into question the analytical results. In fact, the

Fusionreactor design concepts are being pursued in the research and development programme of various countries and studies are being undertaken on the possible environmental impact of fusion power reactors. The paper reviews and summarizes the results of such environmental impact studies. Attention is restricted to deuterium-tritium fusionreactor concepts and a preliminary environmental impact assessment is presented. The possible inventory tritium and radioactive materials in the neutron-activated blanket structure of fusion power reactors is described and potential hazards posed by this radioactive materials inventory are discussed. Non-radiological implications and accident considerations are outlined. In conclusion, various areas still awaiting further investigation and research work are identified. The paper contains 8 tables and 50 references. PMID:1212270

A systems analysis code named NEW-TORSAC (TOkamak Reactor Systems Analysis Code) has been developed by modifying the TORSAC which had been already developed by us. The NEW-TORSAC is available for tokamak reactor designs and evaluations from experimental machines to commercial reactor plants. It has functions to design tokamaks automatically from plasma parameter setting to determining configurations of reactor equipments and calculating main characteristics parameters of auxiliary systems and the capital costs. In the case of analyzing tokamak reactor plants, the code can calculate busbar energy costs. In addition to numerical output, some output of this code such as a reactor configuration, plasma equilibrium, electro-magnetic forces, etc., are graphically displayed. The code has been successfully applied to the scoping studies of the next generation machines and commercial reactor plants.

As the upper temperature for use of reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steels is presently limited by a drop in mechanical strength at about 550 °C, Europe, Japan and the US are actively researching steels with high strength at higher operating temperatures, mainly using stable oxide dispersion. In addition, the numerous interfaces between matrix and oxide particles are expected to act as sinks for the irradiation-induced defects. The main R&D activities aim at finding a compromise between good tensile and creep strength and sufficient ductility, especially in terms of fracture toughness. Oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) reduced activation ferritic (RAF) steels appear as promising materials for application in fusion power reactors up to about 750 °C. Six different ODS RAF steels, with compositions of Fe-(12-14)Cr-2W-(0.1-0.3-0.5)Ti-0.3Y2O3 (in wt%), were produced by powder metallurgy techniques, including mechanical alloying, canning and degassing of the milled powders and compaction of the powders by hot isostatic pressing, using various devices and conditions. The materials have been characterized in terms of microstructure and mechanical properties. The results have been analysed in terms of optimal chemical composition and manufacturing conditions. In particular, it was found that the composition of the materials should lie in the range Fe-14Cr-2W-(0.3-0.4)Ti-(0.25-0.3)Y2O3, as 14Cr ODS RAF steels exhibit higher tensile strength and better Charpy impact properties and are more stable than 12Cr materials (no risk of martensitic transformation), while materials with 0.5% Ti or more should not be further investigated, due to potential embrittlement by large TiO2 particles.

Bare POCO AXF-5Q graphite tiles were installed as the plasma-facing surface of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) movable limiter for a series of approx. 2700 high power discharges (600 with up to 6 MW neutral beams). During this operating phase, erosion and deposition processes modified the surface of the limiter. In the regions of the most intense plasma contact, which reached temperatures over 2400/sup 0/C, only small amounts of metallic impurities (<5 x 10/sup 16/ atoms/cm/sup 2/) are observed during subsequent beta backscattering and proton-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) analysis. Also observed in these regions are several small areas of surface crazing, and scattered droplets of metals (approx. 1 mm diam) presumed to originate from melted internal hardware. In regions more removed from direct plasma contact, thicker metallic deposits are observed (approx. 2 x 10/sup 18/ atoms/cm/sup 2/). There are more of these deposits on the side facing the electron drift direction than on the ion drift side. The metallic deposits are composed of approx. 55% Ni, 25% Cr, and 20% Fe and several trace elements. Near-surface retained deuterium levels vary from 10/sup 16/ to 10/sup 18//cm/sup 2/ along one ion-side/electron-side pair of tiles. Deuterium from TFTR operations in the bulk of a tile may have been as much as 5 ppm. Hydrogen in the tile was approx.1 at. %. Surface roughness measured outside the intense plasma contact region is much more than the original POCO AXF-5Q graphite, whereas within the plasma contact region, tile surfaces are somewhat smoother than they were initially. Two of the tiles in high heat flux regions broke during operation. The resulting geometry change led to areas of enhanced erosion and nearby redeposition of carbon.

This paper studied the adequacy of the World and China lithium resources, considering the most promising uses in the future, involving nuclear fusion and electric-vehicles. The lithium recycle model for D-T fusion power plant and electric-vehicles, and the logistic growth prediction model of the primary energy for the World and China were constructed. Based on these models, preliminary evaluation of lithium resources adequacy of the World and China for D-T fusionreactors was presented under certain assumptions. Results show that: a. The world terrestrial reserves of lithium seems too limited to support a significant D-T power program, but the lithium reserves of China are relatively abundant, compared with the world case. b. The lithium resources contained in the oceans can be called the “permanent" energy. c. The change in 6Li enrichment has no obvious effect on the availability period of the lithium resources using FDS-II (Liquid Pb-17Li breeder blanket) type of reactors, but it has a stronger effect when PPCS-B (Solid Li4 SiO4 ceramics breeder blanket) is used.

A conceptual space vehicle concept to support NASA's 21^st century requirements was designed to enable human, multi-month travel throughout the outer solar system. The design was predicated on an ignited, spherical torus fusionreactor (R=2.5 m; a=1.25 m) burning spin polarized D^3He fuel and operating at high beta (30%). Peaked plasma temperature (50 keV) and number density (5×10^20 m-3) profiles were used. Engineering design was performed on all major vehicle systems including fusionreactor, fast wave plasma heating, power conversion, magnetic nozzle (for direct plasma propulsion), tankage and others, with emphasis on 1D fusion power balance, operation physics, first wall, toroidal field coils, and heat transfer. Two related proof-of-concept experiments at OSU, LANL, and PPPL are discussed. Results showed a 108 mt crew habitat payload could be delivered to Saturn rendezvous in 214 days using 6,145 MW of plasma jet power.

The conductor development and the magnet design and construction for the MFTF are described. Future plans for the Mirror Program and their influence on the associated superconductor development program are discussed. Included is a summary of the progress being made to develop large, high-field, multifilamentary Nb/sub 3/Sn superconductors and the feasibility of building a 12-T yin-yang set of coils for the machine to follow MFTF. In a further look into the future, possible magnetic configurations and requirements for mirror reactors are surveyed.

This paper is a review of the current joining technologies for plasma facing components in the US for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project. Many facilities are involved in this project. Many unique and innovative joining techniques are being considered in the quest to join two candidate armor plate materials (beryllium and tungsten) to a copper base alloy heat sink (CuNiBe, OD copper, CuCrZr). These techniques include brazing and diffusion bonding, compliant layers at the bond interface, and the use of diffusion barrier coatings and diffusion enhancing coatings at the bond interfaces. The development and status of these joining techniques will be detailed in this report.

In fusion plasma reactors, fast ion generated by heating systems and fusion born particles must be well confined. The presence of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities can lead to a significant loss of these ions, which may reduce drastically the heating efficiency and may cause damage to plasma facing components in the vacuum vessel. In order to understand the physics underlying the fast ion loss mechanism, scintillator based detectors have been installed in several fusion devices. In this work we present the absolute photon yield and its degradation with ion fluence in terms of the number of photons emitted per incident ion of several scintillators thin coatings: SrGa2S4:Eu2+ (TG-Green), Y3Al5O12:Ce3+ (P46) and Y2O3:Eu3+ (P56) when irradiated with light ions of different masses (deuterium ions, protons and α-particles) at energies between approximately 575 keV and 3 MeV. The photon yield will be discussed in terms of the energy deposited by the particles into the scintillator. For that, the actual composition and thickness of the thin layers were determined by Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS). A collimator with 1 mm of diameter, which defines the beam size for the experiments, placed at the entrance of the chamber. An electrically isolated sample holder biased to +300 V to collect the secondary electrons, connected to a digital current integrator (model 439 by Ortec) to measure the incident beam current. A home made device has been used to store the real-time evolution of the beam current in a computer file allowing the correction of the IL yields due to the current fluctuations. The target holder is a rectangle of 150 × 112 mm2 and can be tilted. The X and Y movements are controlled through stepping motors, which permits a fine control of the beam spot positioning as well as the study of several samples without venting the chamber. A silica optical fiber of 1 mm diameter fixed to the vacuum chamber, which collects the light from the scintillators

Safety considerations in large future fusionreactors like ITER are important before licensing the reactor. Several scenarios are considered hazardous, which include safety of plasma-facing components during hard disruptions, high heat fluxes and thermal stresses during normal operation, accidental energy release, and aerosol formation and transport. Disruption events, in large tokamaks like ITER, are expected to produce local heat fluxes on plasma-facing components, which may exceed 100 GW/m{sup 2} over a period of about 0.1 ms. As a result, the surface temperature dramatically increases, which results in surface melting and vaporization, and produces thermal stresses and surface erosion. Plasma-facing components safety issues extends to cover a wide range of possible scenarios, including disruption severity and the impact of plasma-facing components on disruption parameters, accidental energy release and short/long term LOCA's, and formation of airborne particles by convective current transport during a LOVA (water/air ingress disruption) accident scenario. Study, and evaluation of, disruption-induced aerosol generation and mobilization is essential to characterize database on particulate formation and distribution for large future fusion tokamak reactor like ITER. In order to provide database relevant to ITER, the SIRENS electrothermal plasma facility at NCSU has been modified to closely simulate heat fluxes expected in ITER.

We have reported the present status in the development of a position measurement unit (PMU) for a flying inertial fusion energy (IFE) target. The PMU, which uses Arago spot phenomena, is designed to have a measurement accuracy smaller than 1 μm. By employing divergent, pulsed orthogonal laser beam illumination, we can measure the time and the target position at the pulsed illumination. The two-dimensional Arago spot image is compressed into one-dimensional image by a cylindrical lens for real-time processing. The PMU are set along the injection path of the flying target. The local positions of the target in each PMU are transferred to the controller and analysed to calculate the target trajectory. Two methods are presented to calculate the arrival time and the arrival position of the target at the reactor centre.

The target needs of the next ICF experiments that will lead toward ignition and energy are different from those of today`s experiments. The future experiments on OMEGA Upgrade, GEKKO XII Upgrade, the National Ignition Facility and Megajoule will need large, precise, cryogenic targets. Development is needed on a number of aspects of these targets, including shell fabrication, characterization, cryogenic layering and target handling. However, coordinated R and D programs are in place and work is in process to carry out the needed development. It is vital to the success of inertial fusion that this work be sustained. Coordinated effort, like the National Cryogenic Target Program in the USA, will help make the development activities as efficient and effective as possible, and should be encouraged.

A new two color far infrared (FIR) laser interferometer under development for future fusion devices will be presented. The laser wavelength is optimized from the consideration of the beam refraction effect due to plasma density gradient and signal-to-noise ratio for an expected phase shift due to plasmas. Laser lines of 57.2 and 47.6 {mu}m are found to be suitable for the applications to high performance plasmas of Large Helical Device and future fusion devices such as the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor. The output power of 57.2 {mu}m CH{sub 3}OD laser is estimated to be {approx}1.6 W, which is the highest laser power in the FIR wavelength regime. The optical configuration of a new interferometer system using two colors will be proposed. In the system, one detector simultaneously detects the beat signals of the 57.2 and 47.6 {mu}m laser lines, and each interference signal can be separated electronically (1 MHz for 57.2 {mu}m and 0.84 MHz expected for 47.6 {mu}m). Mechanical vibration can be compensated by using the two color interferometer. The present status of the development of the system is also presented.

The China Fusion Engineering Testing Reactor (CFETR) is currently under design. The SOLPS/B2-Eirene code package is utilized for the design and optimization of the divertor geometry for CFETR. Detailed modeling is carried out for an ITER-like divertor configuration and one with relatively open inner divertor structure, to assess, in particular, peak power loading on the divertor target, which is a key issue for the operation of a next-step fusion machine, such as ITER and CFETR. As expected, the divertor peak heat flux greatly exceeds the maximum steady-state heat load of 10 MW/m{sup 2}, which is a limit dictated by engineering, for both divertor configurations with a wide range of edge plasma conditions. Ar puffing is effective at reducing divertor peak heat fluxes below 10 MW/m{sup 2} even at relatively low densities for both cases, favoring the divertor configuration with more open inner divertor structure.

Glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs) are used as insulation materials for the superconducting magnet coils of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The radiation environment present at the magnet location will lead to gas production, swelling and weight loss of the laminate, which may result in a pressure rise combined with undefined stresses on the magnet coil casing. Consequently, these effects are important parameters for the engineering and design criteria of superconducting magnet coil structures. In this study, newly developed epoxy and cyanate-ester (CE) based S2-glass fiber reinforced insulation systems were irradiated at ambient temperature in the TRIGA-Mark II reactor (Vienna) to a fast neutron fluence of 1 and 5×1021 m-2 (E>0.1 MeV) prior to measurements of gas evolution, swelling and weight loss. The CE based laminates show increased radiation resistance, i.e. less gas evolution. The highest radiation hardness up to the highest dose was observed in a pure CE system. In addition, the effects of swelling and weight loss are either negligible or less pronounced for all systems. The results prove that the newly developed CE based composites are serious candidate insulation systems for ITER.

Glass-fiber reinforced plastics (GFRPs) are used as insulation materials for the superconducting magnet coils of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The radiation environment present at the magnet location will lead to gas production, swelling and weight loss of the laminate, which may result in a pressure rise combined with undefined stresses on the magnet coil casing. Consequently, these effects are important parameters for the engineering and design criteria of superconducting magnet coil structures. In this study, newly developed epoxy and cyanate-ester (CE) based S2-glass fiber reinforced insulation systems were irradiated at ambient temperature in the TRIGA-Mark II reactor (Vienna) to a fast neutron fluence of 1 and 5x1021 m-2 (E>0.1 MeV) prior to measurements of gas evolution, swelling and weight loss. The CE based laminates show increased radiation resistance, i.e. less gas evolution. The highest radiation hardness up to the highest dose was observed in a pure CE system. In addition, the effects of swelling and weight loss are either negligible or less pronounced for all systems. The results prove that the newly developed CE based composites are serious candidate insulation systems for ITER.

On December 31, 1990, the US Department of Energy entered into a contract with General Atomics (GA) to be the Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) Target Component Fabrication and Technology Development Support contractor. This report documents the technical activities of the period January 1, 1991 through September 30, 1992. During this period, GA was assigned 15 tasks in support of the Inertial Confinement Fusion program and its laboratories. These tasks included Facilities Activation, Staff Development, and Capabilities Validation to establish facilities and equipment, and demonstrate capability to perform ICF target fabrication research, development and production activities. The capabilities developed and demonstrated are those needed for fabrication and precise characterization of polymer shells and polymer coatings. We made progress toward production capability for glass shells, barrier layer coatings, and gas idling of shells. We fabricated over 1000 beam diagnostic foil targets for Sandia National Laboratory Albuquerque and provided full-time on-site engineering support for target fabrication and characterization. We initiated development of methods to fabricate polymer shells by a controlled mass microencapsulation technique, and performed chemical syntheses of several chlorine- and silicon-doped polymer materials for the University of Rochester's Laboratory for Laser Energetics (UR/LLE). We performed the conceptual design of a cryogenic target handling system for UR/LLE that will fill, transport, layer, and characterize targets filled with cryogenic deuterium or deuterium-tritium fuel, and insert these cryogenic targets into the OMEGA-Upgrade target chamber for laser implosion experiments. This report summarizes and documents the technical progress made on these tasks.

In fusion plasma reactors, fast ion generated by heating systems and fusion born particles must be well confined. The presence of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instabilities can lead to a significant loss of these ions, which may reduce drastically the heating efficiency and may cause damage to plasma facing components in the vacuum vessel. In order to understand the physics underlying the fast ion loss mechanism, scintillator based detectors have been installed in several fusion devices. In this work we present the absolute photon yield and its degradation with ion fluence in terms of the number of photons emitted per incident ion of several scintillators thin coatings: SrGa2S4:Eu2+ (TG-Green), Y3Al5O12:Ce3+ (P46) and Y2O3:Eu3+ (P56) when irradiated with light ions of different masses (deuterium ions, protons and α-particles) at energies between approximately 575 keV and 3 MeV. The photon yield will be discussed in terms of the energy deposited by the particles into the scintillator. For that, the actual composition and thickness of the thin layers were determined by Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS). A collimator with 1 mm of diameter, which defines the beam size for the experiments, placed at the entrance of the chamber. An electrically isolated sample holder biased to +300 V to collect the secondary electrons, connected to a digital current integrator (model 439 by Ortec) to measure the incident beam current. A home made device has been used to store the real-time evolution of the beam current in a computer file allowing the correction of the IL yields due to the current fluctuations. The target holder is a rectangle of 150 × 112 mm2 and can be tilted. The X and Y movements are controlled through stepping motors, which permits a fine control of the beam spot positioning as well as the study of several samples without venting the chamber. A silica optical fiber of 1 mm diameter fixed to the vacuum chamber, which collects the light from the scintillators

Three-dimensional neutronics optimization calculations were performed to analyse the parameters of Tritium Breeding Ratio (TBR) and maximum average Power Density (PDmax) in a helium-cooled multi-functional experimental fusion-fission hybrid reactor named FDS (Fusion-Driven hybrid System)-MFX (Multi-Functional experimental) blanket. Three-stage tests will be carried out successively, in which the tritium breeding blanket, uranium-fueled blanket and spent-fuel-fueled blanket will be utilized respectively. In this contribution, the most significant and main goal of the FDS-MFX blanket is to achieve the PDmax of about 100 MW/m3 with self-sustaining tritium (TBR {>=} 1.05) based on the second-stage test with uranium-fueled blanket to check and validate the demonstrator reactor blanket relevant technologies based on the viable fusion and fission technologies. Four different enriched uranium materials were taken into account to evaluate PDmax in subcritical blanket: (i) natural uranium, (ii) 3.2% enriched uranium, (iii) 19.75% enriched uranium, and (iv) 64.4% enriched uranium carbide. These calculations and analyses were performed using a home-developed code VisualBUS and Hybrid Evaluated Nuclear Data Library (HENDL). The results showed that the performance of the blanket loaded with 64.4% enriched uranium was the most attractive and it could be promising to effectively obtain tritium self-sufficiency (TBR-1.05) and a high maximum average power density ({approx}100 MW/m{sup 3}) when the blanket was loaded with the mass of {sup 235}U about 1 ton. (authors)

The original description of alpha particle driven instabilities in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor in terms of toroidal Alfvén eigenmodes (TAEs) remained inconsistent with three fundamental characteristics of the observations: (i) the variation of the mode frequency with toroidal mode number, (ii) the chirping of the mode frequency for a given toroidal mode number, and (iii) the antiballooning density perturbation of the modes. It is now shown that these characteristics can be explained by observing that cylindrical-like modes can exist in the weak magnetic shear region of the plasma that then make a transition to TAEs as the central safety factor decreases in time. PMID:14525368

The original description of alpha-particle-driven instabilities in the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR) in terms of Toroidal Alfvin Eigenmodes (TAEs) remained inconsistent with three fundamental characteristics of the observations: (i) the variation of the mode frequency with toroidal mode number, (ii) the chirping of the mode frequency for a given toroidal mode number, and (iii) the anti-ballooning density perturbation of the modes. It is now shown that these characteristics can be explained by observing that cylindrical-like modes can exist in the weak magnetic shear region of the plasma that then make a transition to TAEs as the central safety factor decreases in time.

The FUSION-1 irradiation capsule was inserted in Row 5 of the BOR-60 fast reactor in June 1995. The capsule contains a collaborative RF/U.S. experiment to investigate the irradiation performance of V-Cr-Ti alloys in the temperature range 310 to 350{degrees}C. This report describes the capsule layout, specimen fabrication history, and the detailed test matrix for the U.S. specimens. A description of the operating history and neutronics will be presented in the next semiannual report.

A fusionreactor is described in which a moving string of mutually repelling compact toruses (alternating helicity, unidirectional Btheta) is generated by repetitive injection using a magnetized coaxial gun driven by continuous gun current with alternating poloidal field. An injected CT relaxes to a minimum magnetic energy equilibrium, moves into a compression cone, and enters a conducting cylinder where the plasma is heated to fusion-producing temperature. The CT then passes into a blanketed region where fusion energy is produced and, on emergence from the fusion region, the CT undergoes controlled expansion in an exit cone where an alternating poloidal field opens the flux surfaces to directly recover the CT magnetic energy as current which is returned to the formation gun. The CT String Reactor (CTSTR) reactor satisfies all the necessary MHD stability requirements and is based on extrapolation of experimentally achieved formation, stability, and plasma confinement. It is supported by extensive 2D, MHD calculations. CTSTR employs minimal external fields supplied by normal conductors, and can produce high fusion power density with uniform wall loading. The geometric simplicity of CTSTR acts to minimize initial and maintenance costs, including periodic replacement of the reactor first wall. 60 /proj/ads/abstracts/absload/springerxml.pl* /proj/ads/abstracts/sources/SPRINGER/files/JOU=10894/VOL=2008.27/ISU=3/ART=9121: total 28 28 10894_2007_Article_9121.xml.meta /proj/ads/abstracts/sources/SPRINGER/files/JOU=10894/VOL=2008.27/ISU=3/ART=9122: total 16 16 10894_2007_Article_9122.xml.meta /proj/ads/abstracts/sources/SPRINGER/files/JOU=10894/VOL=2008.27/ISU=3/ART=9123: total 12 12 10894_2007_Article_9123.xml.meta /proj/ads/abstracts/sources/SPRINGER/files/JOU=10894/VOL=2008.27/ISU=3/ART=9124: total 36 36 10894_2007_Article_9124.xml.meta /proj/ads/abstracts/sources/SPRINGER/files/JOU=10894/VOL=2008.27/ISU=3/ART=9125: total 32 32 10894_2007_Article_9125.xml.meta /proj

Selection of lithium containing materials is very important in the design of a deuterium-tritium (DT) fusion driven hybrid reactor in order to supply its tritium self-sufficiency. Tritium, an artificial isotope of hydrogen, can be produced in the blanket by using the neutron capture reactions of lithium in the coolants and/or blanket materials which consist of lithium. This study presents the effect of lithium-6 enrichment in the coolant of the reactor on the tritium breeding of the hybrid blanket. Various liquid-solid breeder couples were investigated to determine the effective breeders. Numerical results pointed out that the tritium production increased with increasing lithium-6 enrichment for all cases.

Design and development of a second generation Plasma Pyrolysis Assembly (PPA) reactor is currently underway as part of NASA's Atmosphere Revitalization Resource Recovery effort. By recovering up to 75% of the hydrogen currently lost as methane in the Sabatier reactor effluent, the PPA helps to minimize life support resupply costs for extended duration missions. To date, second generation PPA development has demonstrated significant technology advancements over the first generation device by doubling the methane processing rate while, at the same time, more than halving the required power. One development area of particular interest to NASA system engineers is fouling of the PPA reactor with carbonaceous products. As a mitigation plan, NASA MSFC has explored the feasibility of using an oxidative plasma based upon metabolic CO2 to regenerate the reactor window and gas inlet ports. The results and implications of this testing are addressed along with the advanced PPA reactordevelopment.

Scientific feasibility of magnetic fusion is no longer seriously in doubt. Rapid advances have been made in both tokamak and mirror research, leading to a demonstration in the TFTR tokamak at Princeton in 1982 and the tandem mirror MFTF-B at Livermore in 1985. Accordingly, the basis is established for an aggressive engineering thrust to develop a reactor within this century. However, care must be taken to guide the fusion program towards an economically and environmentally viable goal. While the fusion fuels are essentially free, capital costs of reactors appear to be at least as large as current power plants. Accordingly, the price of electricity will not decline, and capital availability for reactor constructions will be important. Details of reactor cost projections are discussed and mechanisms suggested for fusion power implementation. Also discussed are some environmental and safety aspects of magnetic fusion.

Krivit is recognized internationally as an expert on the subject matter of cold fusion / condensed matter nuclear science. He is the editor of New Energy Times, the leading source of information for the field of cold fusion. He is the author of the 2005 book, The Rebirth of Cold Fusion and founder of New Energy Institute, an independent nonprofit public benefit corporation dedicated to accelerating the progress of new, sustainable and environmentally friendly energy sources.

An optical amplitude modulated laser radar has been developed for periodic in-vessel inspection in large fusion machines and its overall optical aiming is developed taking into account the extremely high radiation levels and operating temperatures foreseen in the large European fusion machines (JET and ITER). In this paper an in vessel viewing system based on a transceiving optical radar using an RF modulated single mode 840 nm wavelength laser beam is illustrated. The sounding beam is transmitted through a coherent optical fiber and a focusing collimator to the inner part of the vessel by a stainless steel probe on the tip of which a suitable scanning silica prism steers the laser beam along a linear raster spanning a -90 degree to +90 degree in elevation and 360 degrees in azimuth for a complete mapping of the vessel itself. All the electronics, including laser source, avalanche photodiode and all the active components are located outside the bioshield, while passive components (receiving optics, transmitting collimator, fiber optics), located in the torus hall, are in fused silica so that the overall vision system is radiation resistant. The Active and passive components are contained in separated stainless steel boxes connected through two silica fiber optics. The laser radiation backscattered by the resolved surface element of the vessel is received by a collecting silica optics and remotely transmitted through a multimode fiber on the surface of an avalanche photodiode detector located in the active module at 120 m distance. The received signal is then acquired, the raster lines being synchronized with the aid of optical encoders linked to the scanning prism, to give a TV like image. The scanning accuracy expected in scanning process is less than 1 mm at 10 m of distance: this is a suitable resolution to yield a high quality image showing all the damages due to plasma disruptions. Preliminary results have been obtained scanning large sceneries including

Anaerobic membrane reactors (AnMBRs) have recently evolved from aerobic MBRs, with the membrane either external or submerged within the reactor, and can achieve high COD removals (~98%) at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) as low as 3 h. Since membranes stop biomass being washed out, they can enhance performance with inhibitory substrates, at psychrophilic/thermophilic temperatures, and enable nitrogen removal via Anammox. Fouling is important, but addition of activated carbon or resins/precipitants can remove soluble microbial products (SMPs)/colloids and enhance flux. Due to their low energy use and solids production, and solids free effluent, they can enhance nutrient and water recycling. Nevertheless, more work is needed to: compare fouling between aerobic and anaerobic systems; determine how reactor operation influences fouling; evaluate the effect of different additives on membrane fouling; determine whether nitrogen removal can be incorporated into AnMBRs; recover methane solubility from low temperatures effluents; and, establish sound mass and energy balances. PMID:22749372

This proposal was peer reviewed and funded as a Collaboration on ''Low Phase Speed Radio Frequency Current Drive Experiments at the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor''. The original plans we had were to carry out the collaboration proposal by including a post doctoral scientist stationed at PPPL. In response to a 60+% funding cut, all expenses were radically pruned. The post doctoral position was eliminated, and the Principal Investigator (T. Intrator) carried out the brunt of the collaboration. Visits to TFTR enabled T. Intrator to set up access to the TFTR computing network, database, and get familiar with the new antennas that were being installed in TFTR during an up to air. One unfortunate result of the budget squeeze that TFTR felt for its last year of operation was that the experiments that we specifically got funded to perform were not granted run time on TFTR., On the other hand we carried out some modeling of the electric field structure around the four strap direct launch Ion Bernstein Wave (IBW) antenna that was operated on TFTR. This turned out to be a useful exercise and shed some light on the operational characteristics of the IBW antenna and its coupling to the plasma. Because of this turn of events, the project was renamed ''Modeling of Ion Bernstein Wave Antenna Array and Coupling to Plasma on Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor''.

It has been proposed to protect the structural walls of a future laser fusionreactor with a curtain or fluid-wall of liquid lithium jets. As part of the investigation of this concept, experiments have been performed on planar sheet water jets issuing vertically downward from slit nozzles. The nozzles were subjected to transverse forced harmonic excitation to simulate the vibrational environment of the laser fusionreactor, and experiments were run at both 1 atm and at lower ambient pressures. Linear temporal stability theory is shown to predict the onset of the unstable regime and the initial spatial growth rates quite well for the cases where the amplitudes of the nozzle vibration are not too large and the waveform is nearly sinusoidal. In addition, both the linear theory and a simplified trajectory theory are shown to predict the initial wave envelope amplitudes very well. For larger amplitude nozzle excitation, the waveform becomes highly nonlinear and non-sinusoidal and can resemble a sawtooth waveform in some cases; these latter experimental results can only be partially explained by existing theories at the present time.

Irradiation creep was investigated in Type 316 stainless steel (316 SS) and US Fusion Program PCA using a tailored spectrum of the Oak Ridge Research Reactor in order to achieve a He/dpa value characteristic of a fusionreactor first wall. Pressurized tubes with stresses of 20 to 470 MPa were irradiated at temperatures of 330, 400, 500, and 600°C. It was found that irradiation creep was independent of temperature in this range and varied linearly with stress at low stresses, but the stress exponent increased to 1.3 and 1.8 for 316 SS and PCA, respectively, at higher stresses. Specimens of PCA irradiated in the ORR and having helium levels up to 200 appm experienced a 3 to 10 times higher creep rate than similar specimens irradiated in the FFTF and having helium levels below 20 appm. The higher creep rates are attributed to either a lower flux or the presence of helium. A mechanism involving interstitial helium-enhanced climb is proposed.

The concept of a fast-ignition heavy-ion fusion (FIHIF) power plant involves a cylindrical target and superhigh energy ion beams. The driver produces one plus/minus charge state multimass platinum ions with energy of 100 GeV. The driver efficiency and the target gain are taken as 0.25 and 100, respectively. The preliminary data on the energy fluxes delivered to the reactor chamber wall by the 500-MJ fusion yield are presented. The reactor chamber designed has two sections. In the first section, the microexplosions occur, and in the second section of bigger volume the expansion and condensation of vapors take place. The response of the blanket and the thin liquid film at the first-wall surface is evaluated. Lithium-lead eutectic is taken as a coolant. The evaporated mass and the condensation time are estimated, taking into account major thermophysical effects. The estimated neutron spectrum from the FIHIF target gives an average neutron energy of 11.9 MeV. The mechanical stresses in the construction material due to neutron energy release are evaluated. The outlet coolant chamber temperature is taken as 550 deg. C. The heat conversion system consisting of three coolant loops provides a net efficiency of the FIHIF power plant of 0.37.

Fusion machines from all over the world have contributed to the knowledge accumulated in fusion science. This knowledge has been applied to design new experimental fusion machines and in particular ITER. Only two fusion devices based on magnetic confinement have used deuterium and tritium fuels to-date-the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor, TFTR, in Princeton, USA, and JET, the European tokamak. These machines have demonstrated that the fusion reaction is achievable with these fuels, and have provided valuable lessons on radioprotection-related issues as concerns tritium and workers. Dedicated tritium installations for fusion research and development have also contributed to this knowledge base. PMID:19690360

The major technical objectives of this program are threefold: (1) to develop the design tools and a fundamental understanding of the fluid dynamics of a slurry bubble column reactor to maximize reactor productivity, (2) to develop the mathematical reactor design models and gain an understanding of the hydrodynamic fundamentals under industrially relevant process conditions, and (3) to develop an understanding of the hydrodynamics and their interaction with the chemistries occurring in the bubble column reactor. Successful completion of these objectives will permit more efficient usage of the reactor column and tighter design criteria, increase overall reactor efficiency, and ensure a design that leads to stable reactor behavior when scaling up to large diameter reactors. Washington University's work for the quarter involved the study of the dynamic simulations of bubble columns in three dimensions. Work was also done in dynamic simulations of two-phase transient flow using CFDLIB. Ohio State measured the axial dispersion coefficients of the liquid phase. The steady-state thermal dispersion method was used to obtain the measurements. Iowa State followed the last quarter's work by using CFDLIB to simulate conditions described in the literature, with the objective of validating the simulation result. The group's work also led to a determination of the adequacy of periodic boundary conditions in representing small columns.

Fusion is an inexhaustible source of energy that has the potential for economic commercial applications with excellent safety and environmental characteristics. The primary focus for the fusion energy development program is the generation of central station electricity. Fusion has the potential, however, for many other applications. The fact that a large fraction of the energy released in a DT fusion reaction is carried by high energy neutrons suggests potentially unique applications. In addition, fusion R and D will lead to new products and new markets. Each fusion application must meet certain standards of economic and safety and environmental attractiveness. For this reason, economics on the one hand, and safety and environment and licensing on the other, are the two primary criteria for setting long range commercial fusion objectives. A major function of systems analysis is to evaluate the potential of fusion against these objectives and to help guide the fusion R and D program toward practical applications. The transfer of fusion technology and skills from the national labs and universities to industry is the key to achieving the long range objective of commercial fusion applications.

Two strategies were explored to improve the Pb-16Li compatibility of Fe-base alloys for a fusion energy blanket system. The use of thin (∼50 μm) Al-rich diffusion coatings on Grade 92 (9Cr-2W) substrates significantly reduced the mass loss in static Pb-Li capsule tests for up to 5000 h at 600 °C and 700 °C. However, significant Al loss was observed at 700 °C. Thicker coatings with Fe-Al intermetallic layers partially spalled after exposure at 700 °C, suggesting that coating strategies are limited to lower temperatures. To identify compositions for further alloy development, model FeCrAlY alloys with 10-20 wt.%Cr and 3-5%Al were exposed for 1000 h at 700 °C. There was little effect on mass change of varying the Cr content, however, alloys with <5% Al showed mass losses in these experiments. For both coatings and FeCrAl alloys, the surface reaction product was LiAlO2 after exposure and cleaning.

This report deals with the problem of neutron streaming through the laser beam ducts of an inertial confinement fusion power plant. The neutron flux through these ducts must be attenuated by a factor of 10/sup 12/ to meet radiological safety limits. The problem is dealt with by using mirrors to bend the path of the laser beam while cutting off a line of sight path for neutrons. The Monte Carlo Code MCNP was used to analyze the two mirror SOLASE design, which only attenuated the neutron flux by a factor of 10/sup 3/. The Westinghouse design, initially assuming four mirrors, attenuated the neutron flux by 10/sup 4/ per mirror bend, and hence only three mirror bends were needed. Further studies also revealed that the large length/diameter ratio of the ducts and the thinner mirror design were crucial to the large attenuation. It may also be possible to develop a two mirror system, at 10/sup 6/ attenuation per mirror bend, utilizing improvements such as point cross overs, a second flux trap, and acute column-to-column angles. Further studies are needed to check this possibility.

Discussions are currently going on as to whether it is suitable to employ thorium in the nuclear fuel cycle. This work demonstrates that the 231Pa-232U-233U-Th composition to be produced in the thorium blanket of a hybrid thermonuclear reactor (HTR) as a fuel for light-water reactors opens up the possibility of achieving high, up to 30% of heavy metals (HM), or even ultrahigh fuel burnup. This is because the above fuel composition is able to stabilize its neutron-multiplying properties in the process of high fuel burnup. In addition, it allows the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) to be better protected against unauthorized proliferation of fissile materials owing to an unprecedentedly large fraction of 232U (several percent!) in the uranium bred from the Th blanket, which will substantially hamper the use of fissile materials in a closed NFC for purposes other than power production.

Helium is attractive for use as a fusion blanket coolant for a number of reasons. It is neutronically and chemically inert, nonmagnetic, and will not change phase during any off-normal or accident condition. A significant disadvantage of helium, however, is its low density and volumetric heat capacity. This disadvantage manifests itself most clearly during undercooling accident conditions such as a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) or a loss of flow accident (LOFA). This thesis describes a new helium-cooled tritium breeding blanket concept which performs significantly better during such accidents than current designs. The proposed blanket uses reduced-activation ferritic steel as a structural material and is designed for neutron wall loads exceeding 4 MW/m{sup 2}. The proposed geometry is based on the nested-shell concept developed by Wong, but some novel features are used to reduce the severity of the first wall temperature excursion. These features include the following: (1) A ``beryllium-joint`` concept is introduced, which allows solid beryllium slabs to be used as a thermal conduction path from the first wall to the cooler portions of the blanket. The joint concept allows for significant swelling of the beryllium (10 percent or more) without developing large stresses in the blanket structure. (2) Natural circulation of the coolant in the water-cooled shield is used to maintain shield temperatures below 100 degrees C, thus maintaining a heat sink close to the blanket during the accident. This ensures the long-term passive safety of the blanket.

The Horsehead Resource Development Company, Inc. (HRD) Flame Reactor is a patented and proven high temperature thermal process designed to safely treat industrial residues and wastes containing metals. During processing, the waste material is introduced into the hottest portio...

A detailed rate-theory-based model of microstructural evolution under fast neutron irradiation has been developed. The prominent new aspect of this model is a treatment of dislocation evolution in which Frank faulted loops nucleate, grow and unfault to provide a source for network dislocations while the dislocation network can be simultaneously annihilated by a climb/glide process. The predictions of this model compare very favorably with the observed dose and temperature dependence of these key microstructural features over a broad range. This new description of dislocation evolution has been coupled with a previously developed model of cavity evolution and good agreement has been obtained between the predictions of the composite model and fast reactor swelling data as well. The results from the composite model also reveal that the various components of the irradiation-induced microstructure evolve in a highly coupled manner. The predictions of the composite model are more sensitive to parametric variations than more simple models. Hence, its value as a tool in data analysis and extrapolation is enhanced.

Fixed-bed reactors have been used at NASA-Marshall to purify wastewater generated by an end-use equipment facility, on the basis of a combination of multifiltration unibeds and enzyme unibeds. The enzyme beds were found to effectively remove such targeted organics as urea, alcohols, and aldehydes, down to levels lying below detection limits. The enzyme beds were also found to remove organic contaminants not specifically targeted.

Given the vital importance of using a scientific approach for curriculum development, the authors employed a design experiment methodology (Brown, 1992; Shavelson et al., 2003) to develop and evaluate, FUSION, a first grade mathematics intervention intended for students with or at-risk for mathematics disabilities. FUSION, funded through IES…

The goals of the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) are to expand the use of nuclear energy to meet increasing global energy demand in an environmentally sustainable manner, to address nuclear waste management issues without making separated plutonium, and to address nonproliferation concerns. The advanced burner reactor (ABR) is a fast reactor concept which supports the GNEP fuel cycle system. Since the integral fast reactor (IFR) and advanced liquid-metal reactor (ALMR) projects were terminated in 1994, there has been no major development on sodium-cooled fast reactors in the United States. Therefore, in support of the GNEP fast reactor program, the history of sodium-cooled reactordevelopment was reviewed to support the initiation of this technology within the United States and to gain an understanding of the technology gaps that may still remain for sodium fast reactor technology. The fuel-handling system is a key element of any fast reactor design. The major functions of this system are to receive, test, store, and then load fresh fuel into the core; unload from the core; then clean, test, store, and ship spent fuel. Major requirements are that the system must be reliable and relatively easy to maintain. In addition, the system should be designed so that it does not adversely impact plant economics from the viewpoints of capital investment or plant operations. In this gap analysis, information on fuel-handling operating experiences in the following reactor plants was carefully reviewed: EBR-I, SRE, HNPF, Fermi, SEFOR, FFTF, CRBR, EBR-II, DFR, PFR, Rapsodie, Phenix, Superphenix, KNK, SNR-300, Joyo, and Monju. The results of this evaluation indicate that a standardized fuel-handling system for a commercial fast reactor is yet to be established. However, in the past sodium-cooled reactor plants, most major fuel-handling components-such as the rotatable plug, in-vessel fuel-handling machine, ex-vessel fuel transportation cask, ex-vessel sodium-cooled storage

The High-Yield Lithium-Injection Fusion Energy (HYLIFE) concept to convent inertial confinement fusion energy into electric power has undergone intensive research and refinement at LLNL since 1978. This paper reports on the final HYLIFE design, focusing on five major areas: the HYLIFE reaction chamber (which includes neutronics, liquid-metal jet-array hydrocynamics, and structural design), supporting systems, primary steam system and balance of plant, safety and environmental protection, and costs. An annotated bibliography of reports applicable to HYLIFE is also provided. We conclude that HYLIFE is a particularly viable concept for the safe, clean production of electrical energy. The liquid-metal jet array, HYLIFE's key design feature, protects the surrounding structural components from x-rays, fusion fuel-pellet debris, neutron damage and activation, and high temperatures and stresses, allowing the structure to last for the plant's entire 30-year lifetime without being replaced. 127 refs., 18 figs.

Six austenitic stainless steels and two ferritic alloys were irradiated sequentially in two research reactors where the neutron spectrum was tailored to produce a He production rate typical of a fusion device. Irradiation began in the Oak Ridge Research Reactor where an atomic displacement level of 7.4 dpa was achieved and was then transferred to the High Flux Isotope Reactor for the remainder of the irradiation to a total displacement level of 19 dpa. Temperatures of 60 and 330{degree}C are reported on. At 330{degree}C irradiation creep was found to be linear in stress and fluence with rates in the range of 1.7 - 5.5 x 10{sup -4}% MPa{sup -1} dpa{sup -1}. Annealed and cold-worked materials exhibited similar creep rates. There is some indication that austenitic alloys with TiC or TiO precipitates had a slightly higher irradiation creep rate than those without. The ferritic alloys HT-9 and Fe-16Cr had irradiatoin creep rates about 0.5 x 10{sup -4}% MPa{sup -1} dpa{sup -1}. No meaningful data could be obtained from the tubes irradiated at 60{degree}C because of damage to the tubes.

The Spherical Torus configuration, together with other Innovative Confinement Concepts (ICCs) such as the Reversed Field Pinch and the Compact Stellarator, were identified as an integral part of a recent FESAC Fusion Energy Sciences Development Plan (March 2003), which aims to generate net electricity in 35 years. In the next 5 years, the NSTX National Research Team proposes to carry out research in the regime of order-unity beta and strong toroidicity and make contributions to this plan. The NSTX research plans to produce the physics database needed for the design of a Performance Extension stage ST (Next Step Spherical Torus, NSST) capable of testing solenoid-free plasma operations, transport and turbulence, MHD, heating and current drive, and boundary physics at 5 - 10 MA in plasma current. An ST-based Component Test Facility (CTF), with similar plasma conditions and capable of high steady-state neutron wall loading and accumulated dose, can then focus on nuclear technology development. These contributions, together with those from theory and simulation, burning plasmas (ITER), and materials testing, will in time establish the needed physics and technology basis for a Demonstration Power Plant. *Work supported by DoE Contract Nos. DE-AC02-76CH03073 and DE-AC05-96OR22464.