Abstract

A cross-sectional study was carried out in Wakiso district
to determine antibiotic usage in intensive poultry farms from December 15th 2013
to January 28th 2014. A total of 30 poultry farmers, three veterinary drug
sellers and two veterinary officers were interviewed to collect information
related to antibiotic use in intensive poultry farms. The data was analyzed by
using SPSS version 20.

Majority (96.7%) of the respondents reported to frequently use antibiotics
for their chickens. Ten (33.3%) of the respondents
were reported to use antibiotics to promote growth and enhance feed efficiency. Twenty-two
(73.3%) of antibiotics used in poultry farms were tetracycline groups. Sixteen
(53.3%) of respondents were aware of withdrawal periods of antibiotics. However,
most of them were reported to sell/consume their products during with-holding
time. This clearly show the risks of exposing of humans to products
containing antibiotic residues. Thus, a restrictive use of antibiotics will
potentially have a positive contribution for the poultry farmers and consumers
of poultry products. Therefore, to regulate the problem, collaborative actions
with different relevant stakeholders are the most helpful strategy we recommend.

Introduction

An antimicrobial agent is a chemical compound that in low
concentrations can inhibit the growth of bacteria or kill without causing the
host significant adverse effect. Antimicrobial agents can be naturally produced
by a mold or bacterium, semi-synthetic or synthetically made (WHO/FAO/OIE 2003).
Antimicrobial agents have been used for prevention, control and treatment of
infectious diseases of animals worldwide and for non-therapeutic purposes, such
as growth promotion in food-producing animals in some countries. However, the
use of antimicrobials can be linked to the emergence and increasing prevalence
of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (Tamura 2003).

Without the use of antibiotics, bird health and welfare
would be compromised and the cost of poultry and poultry products would increase
substantially (Deborah 2001). However, the use of antimicrobials in
food animals is not without risks (FDA 2013). Poultry farmers use various
antibiotics with or without the directives of veterinarians to prevent or treat
diseases and enhance production. The increased use of antimicrobials may be
associated with misuse and, therefore, increased risk of human exposure to
harmful residues (Sasanya et al 2005).

Antibiotics are supposed to be a restricted medicine, used
only by trained and authorized professionals. It is however evident that there
is widespread to use antibiotics in poultry production in Uganda, especially in
the intensive farming systems (Sasanya et al 2005; Rebecca, 2007). The widespread
use of antibiotics encourages the growth of antibiotic resistance in pathogen
populations. In agriculture, increased resistance to animal antibiotics can lead
to more severe outbreaks of disease among animal and poultry populations.
Resistant bacteria may cause disease directly or they may pass genetic material
associated with resistance on to other bacteria. Consequently, there is concern
that the widespread use of antibiotics, including STAs in animals, could promote
development of drug-resistant bacteria that could pass from animals to humans,
thus posing a danger to human health (MacDonald and Wang 2009; Al-Bahry et al
2013). Increased human infections by resistant foodborne
pathogens occur as the resistance micro-organisms increases and as humans are
exposed to antibiotics. The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial resistance
among these pathogens increases the potential for treatment failures and other
adverse outcomes, including death (Anderson et al 2003). Thus, the information
and knowledge on use of antibiotics in chicken is necessary to sustain its
usefulness and reduce the potential for spread of resistant pathogens.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Wakiso district surrounds Kampala and boarders
Mukono in the East, Mubende and Mpigi in the West, Luwero in the North and
Kalangala in the South. The study was conducted in five sub counties of Wakiso
district of Uganda.Wakiso is located at Latitude of 0º 10’South and 1º 00’ South
and Longitude 32º 01’ East and 32º 52’ East. The district has a total human
population of 1,260,900 and almost 2.8 million chicken (UBOS, 2008). The minimum
surface air temperature of the district is 11.0 degrees centigrade while the
maximum is 33.3 degrees centigrade. The altitude of the district ranged from 900
- 1,340 meters above sea level (Wakiso District Statistical Abstract 2008/09).

Study design and approach

A cross sectional questionnaire
survey was carried out in Wakiso district intensive poultry farms from 15th
December 2013 to 28th January 2014 to assess antibiotic usage in intensive
poultry farms. A non-probability sampling method (Purposive and convenient
sampling techniques) was used to collect the data. Sample size was determined
according to the methods described by Morse (2000) which depended on scope of
the study, time, logistics, and the amount of valuable information gotten from
individual participants. For this study, the study area (sub counties) andstudy
population (poultry farms) were selected purposively and conveniently based on
flock size (200 and above chickens per farm), breed (only exotics), management
system (Intensive)ability to read and write, keeping of good records and
willingness to be interviewed. A sampling frame was a list of farmers obtained
from the District Production Office and the data was collected by the assistance
of Veterinary Officers working in those areas.

Semi structured questionnaires were administered to 30
selected poultry farmersin five selected sub counties of Wakiso district.Two
veterinary officers were interviewedfor most commonly experienced poultry health
challenges and frequently used antibiotics in the poultry farms.These two
Veterinary Officers were selected, because they were working at District
Veterinary Office, actively involved in supervising all sub county’s animal
health workers, abattoir workers, veterinary drug vendors and solving livestock
health problems. Nine veterinary drug vendors were surveyed to evaluate and
ensure that they meet the inclusion criteria for the purpose of achieving the
objective of this study. As a result, only three drug shops met the inclusion
criteria as they keep better records of drugs sold and were willing to be
interviewed to assess the most commonly sold poultry drugs and available poultry
drugs in stock.

Data analysis

The data was analyzed by using SPSS version
20. Descriptive statistic (mean, Media, Standard Deviation, Percentage etc.) was
used to express prevalence and types of antibiotics used in poultry farms, and
practices related to antibiotics.

Ethical Clearance

The study has been approved by
College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Bio-security’s (CoVAB),
Makerere University ethical committee. The data were collected after informed
consent was made with study participants.

Results

Background information

A total of 30 respondents interviewed, majority (73%) were
males and their educational background ranged from non-formal education (30%) to
University graduates (23.3%). The age of respondents ranged from 35 to 65 and
the mean age was 48 with standard deviation of ± 7 years. The median and modal
age of the respondents was 49 and 50 years, respectively. The flock size of the
farms were 200 – 500 birds (53.3%), 501-1000 (20%) and above 1000 (26.7%).
Twenty-six (86.7%) farmers reported that they used commercially prepared feeds
to their chickens.

Prevalence of antibiotic use in intensive poultry farms

Out of 30 respondents interviewed, 96.7% reported frequent
use antibiotics to their chicken for prevention and control of different poultry
infectious diseases (e.g. Infectious Coryza, Fowl cholera, Salmonellosis etc.).
Majority of respondents were described to provide antibiotics to their flocks as
a prophylaxis. In addition to this, 33.3% of respondents were reported to use
antibiotics to promote growth and enhance feed efficiency (Table 1).

Table 1. Prevalence of antibiotic use in the
intensive poultry farms

Description

Category

Frequency

Percent (%)

Antibiotic use

Yes

29

96.7

No

1

3.3

Growth promoter

Yes

10

33.3

No

20

66.7

Types of antibiotics used and major chicken health
challenges

Results presented on Table (2) shows, types of antibiotics
used in the poultry farms and major poultry health challenges encountered.
Twenty-two (73.3%) of antibiotics analyzed were oxytetracyline groups, which
contains different trademarks and formulations, and 26.7% were sulphonamides.
Out of 30 poultry producers interviewed, 63.3% (19) were reported that, the most
commonly and frequently occurring problems were infectious disease, 13.3% and
23% were cannibalism and deficiency problem, respectively.

Table 2. Types of antibiotics used and major
chicken health challenges

Respondentspractices on antibiotic usage

Respondents participating in the study were interviewed on
practices related to antibiotic use (Table 3). Out of respondents interviewed,
30.0 % and 63.3 % of the farmers reported to use antibiotics following the
direction of veterinary doctors and para-veterinarians respectively. However,
6.7% treat their own chickens by following the manufacturer’s instructions.
Of the study participants interviewed, 73.3% reported to provide
antibiotics to their birds through oral route after they diluted with water,
whereas 26.7% practicing both oral and intramuscular (IM) routes. Sixteen (53.3%)
of respondents were aware of withdrawal periods of antibiotics. Fourteen (46.7%)
participants reported to use for house consumption and/or sell to their
customers’ and 53.3% described to dispose their eggs during withdrawal periods
of antibiotics. Thirteen (43.3%) poultry producers have records on antibiotic
use.

Table 3. Respondentspractices on antibiotic use in
the intensive poultry farms

Practices

Category

Frequency

Percent (%)

Consultants/ service providers

Vet. doctor

9

30

Para-vets

19

63.3

Farmers

2

6.7

Administration routes

Orally with water

22

73.3

Orally + injection

8

26.7

Awareness on withdrawal periods

Yes

16

53.3

No

14

46.7

Use of poultry products during withholding time

Sell/consume

14

46.7

Dispose

16

53.3

Record keeping

Yes

13

43.3

No

17

56.7

Consultation of veterinary officers and veterinary drug
sellers

The survey of three veterinary drug seller revealed that,
the most frequently sold poultry drugs include: Ox tetracycline, Amprollium,
Sulfadimidine, and Multivitamins. The two veterinary officers and three
para-veterinarians interviewed reported that the commonly experienced poultry
diseases in the study areas were Infectious Coryza, Coccidiosis, New castle
disease, Salmonellosis, Infectious bronchitis, and Fowl cholera. In addition to
this, veterinary officers listed Oxytetracyclines, Sulphonamides and Amproliumas
the most commonly used drugs in poultry farms.

Discussion

The prevalence of antibiotic usage in intensive poultry
farms in Wakiso district was 96.7%. This finding is comparable with the reports
of other studies; 59% (Sirdar et al2012), 52% (Turkson 2008) and 90% (Nonga et
al2009) who reportedhigh usage of antibiotics in chicken production. Sasanya et
al (2005) found that, 58 poultry farmersdescribed to applying antibiotics to
their chickens in and around Kampala. The result of the current study was also
in agreement with the observation of Idowu et al (2010); in his report 96.5% of
respondent were treated their birds with antimicrobial agents.

In this study, 73.3% and 26.7% of antibiotics used in the
poultry farms were tetracycline and Sulphonamides respectively. These are
available in different trade names and formulations. Other drugs like
amprollium, vitamins andanthelminthic were also commonly used by poultry
farmers. However, the aim of the study was targeted on
antibiotic drugs only. Relatively, similar findings have been reported by
several authors. In Tanzania, a study by Nonga et al (2009) reported the use of
tetracycline and sulphonamidesin poultry farms at 90% and 85%, respectively,
while Turkson (2008) reported as follows: tetracyclines (35.7%), nitrofurans
(23.1%), penicillin-streptomycin combinations (18%), and sulphonamides and
sulphonamide combinations (8.3%). In another study by Mubito et al (2014), use
of tetracyclines was reported at 32.2%, and sulfonamides 20.8%. Comparable
results were also reported elsewhere (Mitema et al 2001; Sirdar 2010; and
Al-Mazeedi et al 2010).

The current study has revealed that most farmers rely on
Para veterinarians for prescription, although some get prescriptions from
Veterinary Doctors and a relatively small percentage depend solely on
manufacturers’ prescription (Table 3). This results do not completely differ
from Nonga et al (2009) reported. However, Olatoye et al (2013) reported finding
out 67.9% of respondents treating their own flocks, while Idowu et al (2010)
discovered that 88.2% of the farmers had veterinarians for consultation. The
variability of results among different studies could be due to the existence of
different factors. The constraints to the judicious use of antimicrobial drugs
vary widely in different countries. Factors such as lack of legislation, lack of
knowledge, lack of resources and lack of veterinary serviceshave been reported
by Vuuren (2001).

The current study indicated that 46.7%respondents continue
to use poultry products for home consumption and/or sell to their customers.
Although this is still high, it is relatively lower than the findings reported
by different authors; 100% by Kabir et al (2004),91.1% by Turkson (2008), 95.0%
and 80.0% by Nonga et al (2009 and 2010), respectively. However, the frequent
use of antimicrobial agents in food animals and non-adherence to antibiotic
withdrawal periods is contributing to increasing antimicrobial resistance in
foodborne pathogens (Mubito et al 2014; Doyle 2006; Stolker and Brinkman 2005:
Donoghue 2003).

On record keeping, 43.3% of the respondents’ keep
records. Record keeping is an integral part of the integrated poultry industry
(FDA 2001); production records including medication costs, evaluation and
outcome are kept and placed in the history of the farm for future reference in
determining any changing antibiotic susceptibility patterns. Producers should
also maintain their own records of flock treatments (product used, date of use,
duration of treatment, dosage, outcome of treatment, etc.) for future reference.

The survey of the three Veterinary drug seller showed
that, the most frequently sold poultry drugs were: Oxytetracyclines, Amprollium,
Sulfadimidine, and Multivitamins. In addition to this, veterinary officers were
asked for common antibiotics used in poultry farms. They believe that,
Oxytetracyclines, Sulphonamides and Amprollium were the most familiar drugs used
in the poultry farms. Veterinary drug sellers were also asked for the reasons
why farmers were frequently purchasing these drugs from them. According to their
perception, due to the affordable price, broad spectrum characteristics, and
prescriptions obtained from veterinarians.

As the two veterinary officer and three para-veterinarians
complained, among the poultry diseases Infectious Coryza, Coccidiosis, New
castle disease, Salmonellosis, Infectious bronchitis, and Fowl cholera were most
knowledgeablediseases in the study area. The presence of these diseases could be
a reason for the frequent use of antibiotics in the poultry farms. However, they
are doing blanket treatment thus could be promoting growing antibiotic
resistance and exposing humans to residues of animal drugs and the potential
negative consequences.

In conclusion, given that there is an increasing use of
antibiotics in poultry farms and lack of observing recommended withdrawal
periods of antibiotics was observed in Wakiso district. In addition, some
farmers were treating their chicken without directives of veterinarians. These
practices may increase the misuse and/or overuse of antibiotics and likely to
expose humans to products containing antibiotic residues. A restrictive use of
antibiotics could have better effects for the poultry farmers and poultry
product consumers. Therefore, a strict regulatory action should be implement
through collaborative activity with relevant stakeholders are the most helpful
strategy we recommend.

Study limitations

The sample size was very small due to lack of a complete
and up to date sampling frame. Difficulties in accessing farms and lack of prior
studies.The data was collected using a non-random sampling (purposive convenient
sampling) due to limited time and financial constraints this could limit its
comparison with other studies.

Acknowledgement

The authors are very grateful to the poultry farm owners
in Wakiso district for their co-operation. The assistant provided by Dr Oine,
Dr Kalungi and Dr Kirembe is highly appreciated.

Stolker A A and Brinkman U A 2005 Analytical strategies
for residue analysis of veterinary drugs and growth-promoting agents in
food-producing animals – a review. Journal of Chromatography, 1067,
15–53, fromhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2005.02.037