Introduction
In order both to gain an understanding of the tectonics of an area and for
seismic hazard evaluation, it is important to extend our knowledge about
the earthquakes which occurred there as far back in time as possible. This
paper draws on previously unpublished historical sources, supplemented by
the re-examination of published but not readily accessible documents, to
investigate the seismicity of the Eastern Mediterranean region during the
period 1690 to 1710 (Fig. 1). It aims in particular at the investigation
of a number of important but little-known earthquakes in the region.
In what follows we present the results of our investigation and show the
procedure followed that allowed the identification of a considerable number
of hitherto unknown earthquakes in this region. Both occidental and oriental
sources containing useful data about earthquakes during the years under
consideration have been identified, particularly Venetian, Turkish, and to
a lesser extent Slavonic, Arabic, and Armenian, but not Greek.
At present very little is known in any detail about the seismicity of the
Eastern Mediterranean region during this relatively late period of its history.
Of the 47 events identified in this paper, only a small fraction are listed
in earthquake catalogues and for most of these the information given is
fragmentary and incomplete. For instance, almost nothing is known about the
seismic activity of the region of Negreponte (Chalkis), northeast of Athens,
a region associated with active tectonics today. Similarly obscure are the
facts about the earthquake in Athens at the turn of the seventeenth century,
the only earthquake alleged to have caused damage to the city during its
long history. Nothing is known about the earthquake of 1705 in the Bekaa
valley in Lebanon, the site of earlier and later destructive earthquakes
(Ambraseys & Melville, 1988; Ambraseys, 1989; Ambraseys & Barazangi,
1989).

Fig. 1 - Eastern Mediterranean region showing the location of the earthquakes
identified for the period 1690 to 1710. Numbers refer to the entries in case
histories.

The short time-period and wide area over which this study has been carried
out were selected with the aims of (a) achieving as complete a retrieval
of information as possible around the time and location of the larger earthquakes
under investigation (b) demonstrating the importance of utilising information
derived from disparate sources, and indicating how well documents in different
languages complement each other, and (c) showing how much new information
about the seismicity of the region can be found, even for this short period
of observation of two decades.
The reasons for choosing such a large area (Fig. 1) are, first, that we need
to be aware of the extent of earthquake activity during the period of our
observations - we must look, therefore, not only for near, destructive shocks
but also beyond the immediate vicinity of an affected area for large earthquakes
that could have easily caused damage at large epicentral distances. Secondly,
we must assess how adequate our sources of information are, whether they
provide us with information continuously, or only at certain periods.

Data
The area under consideration is roughly co-terminus with that of the Ottoman
Empire during the years of the turn of the seventeenth century. While we
find sources in various languages for the parts of the Empire where these
were current, for instance Venetian in the Morea, and Armenian in Eastern
Anatolia, a greater degree of spatial continuity than is in fact encountered
might be anticipated in the case of Ottoman sources.
The Ottoman archival documents utilised here come, mostly, from the voluminous
registers of the financial bureaux of the central government. The procedure
followed when earthquake damage occurred was that an initial report was sent
to Istanbul by local bodies, upon receipt of which a detailed estimate of
the extent of the damage and the cost of repairs was ordered, and officials
were appointed to oversee the work. After further exchanges between officials
in the area damaged by the earthquake and Istanbul, during which estimates
could be reassessed, pared down, and other necessary building works ordered
to be carried out, the earthquake damage was repaired, sometimes several
years after it had occurred.

The areas best documented in Ottoman sources during these years are Greece,
which was the site of Ottoman-Venetian hostilities during the period of study,
and the eastern Adriatic region, which did not escape the consequences of
warfare with the Sacra Lega powers in the 1690s. Repairs to damaged fortresses
were thus urgent, and this may go part of the way to explain why there are
more documents relating to these areas than to others. By contrast, the several
earthquakes in Eastern Anatolia which are not listed here and which are recorded
in Armenian marginal notes appear to go unrecorded in Ottoman archival sources,
as do a number of other events for which we have non-Ottoman source material
- maybe their repair was not considered urgent, or was paid for from local
sources. As a rule, we may say that earthquakes are only recorded in the
registers of the fisc if money was sought from central funds.
It may be that with time the body of material retrieved here will be enlarged.
However, although the number of fiscal registers for this period is substantial,
it appears that most of those in which information on earthquakes may possibly
be found have survived. Given that correspondence between local bodies and
the Porte concerning any one event produced a number of documents, and we
see below that we have usually been able to trace more than one of such documents
for each event, it is unlikely that much new material concerning the earthquakes
of this period will come to light in sources of the type utilised here. Local
sources, such as the registers of the cadi's courts may, nevertheless, yield
further data.

The Ottoman documents relating to earthquake repairs are not without internal
problems. As becomes clear below, particular in relation to the Egriboz
earthquake of 1694, it can be hard to isolate the earthquake-related element
in a schedule of the cost of repairs: as the execution of such was delayed,
other necessary repairs were carried out at the same time. So, too, the date
of an earthquake is only rarely given in Ottoman documents, which demonstrates
the necessity of collating Ottoman materials with those in other languages;
below, dates written in italics are those of the cited document itself where
it has not been possible to precisely date an event from the information
to hand.

Case histories In what follows we present
the data retrieved for earthquakes during the period 1690 to 1710 over the
region shown in Fig. 1. Costs of repairs given in Ottoman gurus may
be reckoned at an approximate rate of 1 gurus to 5 English shillings
in 1700; s.a. indicates sub annum. The dates of earthquakes whose
occurrence is uncertain are shown in italics. This material forms a part
of a more general study to be published in the Istanbuler Mittheilungen.

2) 1690 Jan. 13
A damaging earthquake in Smyrna (Izmir) and adjacent regions. Not a single
house was left undamaged along that coast (Theatrum Europaeum, 1698; Beer,
1709, p. 293). Further inland the effects of the shock were more serious,
but details are lacking.

3) 1690 Jul. 11
A damaging earthquake in Istanbul. It damaged some domes of the Fatih mosque
and destroyed part of the Topkapi gate and adjacent parts of the city walls
(Rasid, 1282 [1865], 2, p. 122; IEN, 89), together with a number of houses,
killing 20 people (Bonito, 1691). The earthquake is described as a major
event (al-Umari, c. 219v). However, the absence of information from other
towns suggests the possibility that this was a local shock with an epicentre
offshore Istanbul. Aftershocks continued to be felt for several days.
4) 1692 Nov. 9
A strong earthquake was reported from Nagyajta, north of Brasov in Romania
(Rethly, 1952, s.a.).

5) 1693 Jan. 9
A strong earthquake was reported from Cefalonia in the Ionian Islands, with
no further details (Tsitselis, 1960). We know, however, that this earthquake
originated outside our area, in fact offshore Siracuse in Sicily, and that
it was felt over a large area (Baratta, 1901).

7) 1693-94
An earthquake, specified in a document as having occurred in 1105 A.H. [2
Sep. 1693 - 21 Aug. 1694], damaged the castle of Kamengrad in Bosnia in
Jugoslavia. A section of the castle wall from the gate to the treasury tower,
which was already damaged, was ruined (MMD 3992.130; MMD 9879.154). We have
no other information about this event which occurred in the region between
Banja Luka and Bihac.

8) 1694 Mar. 5
About three o'clock in the night there was a violent shock at Smyrna (Izmir)
which was followed by strong aftershocks for three days (Careri, 1704). The
earthquake was also felt very strongly in the island of Chios (Argentis &
Kyriakides, 1946). There is no evidence that the shocks caused any serious
damage.

9) 1694 Jun. ?
From a brief newspaper notice, dated August 1694, we learn that in July 1694
in Sicily, and at the same time in Greece, there was an earthquake that destroyed
the bastion of Negreponte (Egriboz in Turkey, modern Chalkis). This information
is repeated by Perrey (1850), Mallet (1853), Schmidt (1867b) and other
cataloguers. This press notice obviously refers to two distinct events -
to an earthquake on 6 Jul. 1694, that we know caused considerable damage
in Mantova in Italy (Boccone, 1697), and to a separate, earlier shock that
affected Negreponte in Greece before August. A later issue of the same newspaper,
which refers specifically to the Negreponte earthquake, says that this was
quite a large event that destroyed a curtain of the fort (Anonymous, 1694b).
More information about this earthquake in Greece is to be found in another
news-item, published in the September 1694 issue of the Lettres
Historiques. It says "... an important earthquake occurred throughout
the island of Negrepont and ... the fortifications of the city of
the same name were entirely overthrown. The Venetians, taking advantage of
the situation, contemplate laying siege to this place" (Anonymous, 1694a).
The date of the event is not given.
In mid-1694, the town and castle of Negreponte were in Ottoman hands. Six
years earlier, between July and October 1688, the castle of Negreponte as
well as the fort of Kara Baba, which is located on the mainland opposite
the castle, were damaged and their walls breached during siege by the Venetians
(Garzoni, 1705, p. 260). Soon after the siege however, by the end of 1688,
these castles were repaired by the Turks and their garrisons strengthened
(Sathas, 1869, p. 382). The information in the European press therefore refers
to damage related to an earthquake that must have taken place before the
middle of 1694. Contemporary historians also confirm the information in the
European press that in the autumn of 1693, and also in the summer of 1694,
the Venetians were again contemplating laying siege to Negreponte: such plans
were in both instances abandoned because of the superior power of the opponents
(Locatelli, 1705, s.a.; Garzoni, 1705, p. 264).
Damage to Negreponte caused by an earthquake is evidenced in an order from
the Ottoman fisc to Vezir Ismail Pasha, who was charged with the defence
of the place; this document, which is dated 16 Dhu'l-Hijja 1112 A.H. [23
May 1701], and is the earliest so far located of the series which refers
to earthquake damage at Negreponte in these years, gives precise details
regarding the costs of the materials required to repair the damage sustained,
whose extent is described thus: "... 35 cubits of the castle wall adjoining
the armoury outside the Yali Gate of Egriboz castle, which is opposite Kara
Baba, is demolished in an earthquake; and near to this, part of the corner
wall and part of the castle wall near to the Mansur Tower, which is near
the upper gate, is demolished; again, in these places some parts have cracked
from dryness (?) and need repair; (thus) 32x3x18=1728 sq.cubits of the castle
wall will be repaired and built from the foundations up, and the demolished
area of the castle wall outside the Yali Gate 6x10x5=300 sq.cubits, and from
the foundations up, the demolished castle wall near the Mansur Tower,
14x112x1.5=252 sq.cubits, and the cracked (?) wall in the same place,
10x7x1.5=105 sq.cubits, which is 2385 sq.cubits in total ...". It is
also noted in this document that the total cost of repairs, assessed locally
but accepted by the Porte, is put at 189,420 akce/1,578 gurus
(MMD 3134.450).
Other relevant documents confuse rather than clarify: a schedule dated 17
Dhu'l-Hijja 1115 [22 Apr. 1704] specifies the dimensions of each area of
damage and the related cost of repair, for a total cost of 1,829,093
akce/15,242 gurus - but the damage is not ascribed to an earthquake
nor, indeed, to any identified cause (MMD 3992.530-32). In documents dated
18 Jumada-II 1117 [7 Sep. 1705] the extent of earthquake-related repairs
at Egriboz is put at 10,253 cubits (MMD 9895.36-37; MMD 4355.318-20), a rather
larger figure than before; since other contemporaneous repairs, such as the
need for poles to repair the palisades at both Egriboz and Kara Baba castles
(MMD 9895.124-25) are listed separately on these pages, we may be justified
in assuming that further earthquakes had occurred since that recorded in
the earlier document of 1701.
The extent of earthquake damage, though not the date on which it occurred,
is confirmed in an account for the repairs which were finally carried out
between 28 Jumada-II 1117 A.H. [19 Sep. 1705] and 28 Muharram 1118 A.H. [12
May 1706]: here, damage which occurred "after the earthquake" is recorded
separately, with details being given of the extent of damage to named structures,
and earthquake-related repairs actually carried out are thus shown to have
totalled 9,662 cubits, only a little short of the estimate of 10,253 cubits;
the cost of both earthquake-related and other repairs was c. 19,500
gurus (MMD 4355.325-26).
The Ottoman documents so far found which relate to earthquake activity in
Egriboz at this time show, at the least, that there was a damaging earthquake
here before late-May 1701, and possibly another soon after. The issue is
obscured further by a document dated 22 Muharram 1112 A.H. [9 Jul. 1700]
which refers to the need for repairs to damage to the foundations of Egriboz
castle caused by the action of the sea and the hard winter (MMD 3134.40;
MMD 3992.332): the absence of reference to earthquake damage here does not,
however, imply that an earthquake must have occurred between mid-1700 and
mid-1701.
It is possible, then, that the earthquake alluded to in these Ottoman documents
is that of June 1694 reported in the European press. However, it is strange
that the extent of the damage due to this event was still being estimated
some seven years later. Early in 1694, the Venetians were again making raids
into Negreponte territory, advancing as far as Livadia, before retreating
finally in the Peloponessus by the middle of 1694 (Garzoni, 1705, p. 512);
it is possible that the removal of the Venetian threat from this part of
Greece after the middle of 1694, and the continuing hostilities elsewhere
in the Empire hindered or delayed repairs to structures being weakened
progressively through neglect, war action and earthquake shocks. It is also
possible, however, that the details in these documents, written several years
after the 1694 earthquake, may refer to cumulative damage caused by more
than one event: our full understanding of the sequence must await the retrieval
of further relevant documentation.
The earthquake of 1694 shook the whole island of Negreponte (Anonymous, 1694a),
but no details are available for damage caused beyond the limits of the castle,
where the shock apparently affected vulnerable structures already weakened
by the siege of 1688. The shock does not seem to have been responsible for
casualties or widespread destruction in the town of Negreponte itself. The
absence of any mention of earthquake damage elsewhere by contemporary Venetian
chroniclers in their accounts of their operations in Greece is, unless damage
was very small, rather puzzling.

10) 1695
A great earthquake occurred in Egypt (Misr=Cairo?); people went into the
open for three days until it ceased; some houses were destroyed (al-Umari,
c. 221r). No contemporary source has been located for this event.

11) 1696 Sep. 4
An earthquake in the Ionian Islands, locally destructive in Zante, caused
the collapse of houses and damage to churches and bell-towers. In Zante a
few people were killed and many were injured (Katramis, 1880, p. 464).

12) 1696-97
At some time prior to 3 Dhu'l Qaada 1108 A.H. [24 May 1697] an earthquake
damaged the castle of Ulgun (Ulcinj), which lies on the coast on the
Yugoslav-Albanian border; the extent of the repairs was 6,685 cubits and
the cost was put at some 5,000 gurus. Some parts of the castle were
demolished. An earlier repair at Ulgun, dated 4 Rabi-I 1107 A.H. [13 Oct.
1695] makes no reference to an earthquake, and it is thus possible that the
event occurred between 1 October 1695 and 24 May 1697 (MMD 3992.198-99).

13) 1697 Apr. 11
A strong earthquake, followed by many aftershocks, was reported from the
region of Karlovac in Jugoslavia (Kispatic, 1891, p. 125).

14) 1698 Sep. 3
An earthquake was felt in the regions of Brasov and Sibiu in Romania (Rethly,
1952, s.a.).

15) 1698 Oct. 2
An earthquake was felt in Rosetta (Rashid) and Alexandria between 8 and 9
in the morning (Maillet, 1735). No contemporary source for this information
has been identified.

16) 1698 Nov.
An earthquake at 7 in the night shook the monastery of Megalon Pylon (Doukissiou)
near Trikala in central Greece (Lampros, 1910, p. 205).

19) 1699 Feb. 20
A destructive earthquake in Croatia ruined the towns of Veliki Kalinka, Medvedski
Breg and Svetica, killing a few people. In the epicentral area the ground
opened up in places and streams were dammed. The shock caused widespread
damage within a radius of about 100 km, particularly to public buildings,
churches and castles, as far as Agram (Zagreb). It was felt over a large
area and followed by a short sequence of damaging aftershocks (Kispatic,
1891, p. 125).

21) 1701
A document dated 18 Dhu'l Hijja 1112 [26 May 1701] reports that 250 cubits
of a wall in the inner castle of the castle of Foca-yi Atik (Foca) was damaged
in an earthquake (MMD 3992.365; MMD 9889.336). This is perhaps the same
earthquake which was felt strongly in Smyrna (Izmir) and dated vaguely by
Kist (1847, p. 170) to 1700. It is not certain, however, whether this is
also the same event referred to by Pinar & Lahn (1952) who, without quoting
an authority, say that a shock was felt in Kutahya during the turn of the
17th century.

22) 1701 Mar. 19
A destructive shock at Berat in Albania. From a marginal note we learn that:
"At night, towards dawn of Sunday, 8 March 7209 A.M. [19 March 1701],
there was a great earthquake; it shattered churches and caused the collapse
of many houses, churches, towers and castles, and in many places the earth
was torn apart and water came out [from] the ground; and the shocks
lasted 17 days" (Lampros, 1910, p. 206). We could find no other information
about this event.

23) 1701 Apr. 5
This was probably a destructive aftershock of the earthquake of 19 March
in Albania. The same marginal note from Berat adds: "On Annunciation day,
at vespers, 25 March 7209 A.M. [5 April 1701], there was [another] great
shock as a result of which the castle of Tepeleni collapsed killing 300 people;
after this the shocks gradually ceased" (Lampros, 1910, p. 206).
This, or the shock of 19 March, was perhaps responsible for damaging the
Kasimiye mosque, formerly the church of S. Demetrius, in Thessaloniki. A
document dated Jumada-II 1118 A.H. [Aug.-Sep. 1706] says: "The mosque
known as the Kasimiye mosque in the centre of the city of Selanik was given
new life in 898 A.H. by Sultan Bayazid; over the years there have been
earthquakes, and a few years ago, the mihrab side was completely demolished
- because the whole building was shaken, now the ends of the structure and
its roof have fallen in and it is completely ruined and close to collapse;
if [the damage is not rectified] the marbles will be broken and the
lead coverings lost ..." (MMD 4355.394).

24) 1701 Jun. 12
A widely-felt earthquake caused extensive damage in Vallachia, Bessarabia
and Transylvania. The shock occurred on Sunday morning; it was felt strongly
at Izmail where it caused damage and perceived over a large area of Central
Europe (Hakobyan, 1951, p. 285; Rethly, 1952, s.a.).

25) 1701
An earthquake at Blagaj in the region of Mostar in Jugoslavia. A document
dated 17 Muharram 1113 A.H. [15 June 1701] reports that "... three corners
of the dome of the mosque ordered built by Sultan Suleyman in the town of
Balagay are cracked; also the lead-covered roof over [the dome] is
opened by the wind and the covering of adjacent parts is also ruined; because
repairs were not carried out it is possible that complete destruction will
follow owing to the abundant rains ..." (MMD 9889.20). Documents dated
12 Jumada-I 1121 A.H. [20 Jul. 1709] refer also to the cracking of "three
corners of the dome and the ruin of adjacent parts", but ascribes this
damage to a "former earthquake" (MMD 3882.185; MMD 9899.237). It thus
appears that earthquake damage prior to 15 June 1701 was not repaired until
at least 1709. We could find no additional information about this event.

26) 1701
It is not certain whether in this year an earthquake was felt in Aleppo (Panzac,
1985, p. 38).

27) 1702 Feb. 25
A destructive earthquake in western Turkey: "In 1114 A.H. [28 May
1702-16 May 1703] there was a frightful earthquake in the kaza of Denizli
and surrounding towns and villages; countless houses and shops and mescids
were destroyed and people are living in tents ..." (Rasid, 1282 [1865],
2, p. 584).
Katib (1146 [1733], 145) says that the kaza of Denizli was ruined
in an earthquake in Dhu'l-Hijja 1114 A.H. [Apr.-May 1703]. However, an eyewitness
account places the earthquake precisely at 8.30, on the morning of 25 February
1702 (Lucas, 1731). It is said that 12,000 people were killed and that this,
or another earthquake diverted the course of the Gumus Cay near Eskihisar
(Pococke, 1745).
In Smyrna the shock was very violent. There was no damage in the city but
elsewhere, another eyewitness says, it caused great destruction (Egmont &
Heyman, 1759). The shock was strongly felt in Chios (Lucas, 1731). The difference
of one year given by Ottoman and European sources is difficult to reconcile.
However, there is no evidence for two different events, since Egmont, who
was in Smyrna between 1700 and 1709, mentions only one.

28) 1703 Feb.
An earthquake in the region of the Gulf of Corinth caused damage to Inebahti
(Nafpaktos). An order dated 19 Dhu'l-Qa'da 1114 A.H. [27 Apr. 1703] says:
"Inebahti castle is an old structure and in the repeated earthquakes of
the month of Ramadan the bastion in its middle level known as the Tekye Bastion
has fallen down and the curtain walls on the right and left hand sides [of
the towers] are cracked and on the west side of the upper castle the curtain
walls known as divanhane and Yolma Kapu are cracked ..." (MMD 3992.520;
MMD 2945.504). The dating of the earthquake to Ramadan 1114 A.H. [19 Jan.-16
Feb. 1703] is confirmed in another document concerning arrangements for the
repair of the castle (MMD 4355.162; MMD 4355.116). Here, as at Negreponte
(Egriboz) after the earthquake of 1694, the Ottomans took the opportunity
to make good damage which had not been caused by the earthquake, as well
as to build some new structures.

30) 1704 Nov. 22
This earthquake in the Ionian Islands was destructive in Lefkas. A contemporary
account of the earthquake written in Lefkas says that "On 11 November
1704 [O.S.], Saturday night, which was the day of St. Minas, at one
hour and a half of the night, there happened a terrifying earthquake in which
all stone masonry houses in Amaxiki and a few made of bricks as well as the
churches collapsed; only the church of St. Athanasius, which was made of
timber, survived. Also, at Kastro a few houses collapsed and the rest were
damaged; 13 people were killed at Amaxiki and 3 at Kastro and others were
injured; similarly many houses collapsed in Fryni, and the earthquake was
terrifying throughout the island of Lefkas, where a few monasteries and many
houses in the villages collapsed and in [the church of] Sta Anastasia
at Tsukalades, Athanasoula the wife of Michu Sofrona was killed; also the
cells and bishopric and [the church of] of Panagia in Gyra fell; in
particular, a house at Dragano sunk all into the ground so that only a few
stones could be seen; and great destruction was wrought to the island of
Sta Maura [Lefkas]; and after this earthquake there were many others
for many days; and no one had experienced in the past such a destruction;
there fell arcades and hazinades, and similarly at Peratia many houses collapsed;
and the earthquake was felt in Arta, but it was not as strong as here, and
at Korfus [Corfu] and Cefalinia where it was not so strong" (Sathas,
1867).
The earthquake almost totally ruined the church of Sta Maura in the castle
of Lefkas which was later rebuilt by the Venetians (Vladis, 1902). Damage
was concentrated in the island of Lefkas and along the opposite coast of
mainland Greece, and did not extend very far (Codex VVA, c. 56v).

32) 1705 Aug. 8
Preceded by foreshocks an earthquake in Bursa, late in the afternoon, destroyed
a dozen houses, without casualties (Lucas, 1712, 1, p. 98). It appears that
this was a local shock, not felt very widely.

33) 1705 Sep. 3
Evidence for earthquake damage in Athens about the turn of the seventeenth
century is found in a 4-page manuscript history of Athens, the so-called
Anargyrian Fragments, published by Pittakis (1853). This, most probably
18th-century manuscript, the authenticity of which was in doubt (Zisiou,
1885), is made up of fragments of a history of Athens and contains two garbled
passages about earthquake damage to the town. Unfortunately, events in this
chronicle are not dated and they are hopelessly confused; later events are
given first and a series of earlier events, running consecutively, are given
later. Attempts to date the fragments in this chronicle and identify conclusively
their sequence, have been so far unsuccessful (Kambouroglou, 1959, pp.
60-67).

The first page of the manuscript contains the following passage:
(a) "... and the citizens [of Athens] restored the south wall of
the Fort, which the earthquakes had destroyed two years ago ...".
The second page ends with the following passage:
(b) "During this year there was a great earthquake, and all the houses
were shaken, and the church of St. Dionysius was rent in two, and the upper
story of the residence of the Metropolitan was destroyed by the fall of a
boulder from the Rock above. This happened in the evening of St. Chariton's
day; and many dwellings belonging to the monastery of Sotiros Nikodimou were
overthrown, and the Vasiliki Ekklisia was cracked, and on the third day,
in the cathedral [metropolis], Demetrios was struck dead by a
thunderbolt" (Pittakis, 1853).
The year in which this happened is not given, but the context in which these
events are recorded suggests that they must have taken place after the return
of the Athenians to the town from their voluntary exile, about three years
after the departure of the Venetians in 1688. The first passage clearly refers
to repairs of the walls of the Fort (Acropolis) of Athens, and the second
to the general effects, presumably of the same earthquake, which is dated
on St. Chariton's day, that is on 28 September (Grumel, 1958). However, St.
Chariton's day does not fix the date of the earthquake uniquely. In the menology
of the Greek Church different sanctified Charitons are celebrated on different
dates, viz. St. Chariton is celebrated on the 3rd as well as on 9 September;
the two martyrs of the same name on 1 June and on 28 November, and Osios
(Pious) Chariton on 28 September (Menologion, 1989).

Well before 1687, Athens had sunk to the status of a small country town with
a population of about 10,000. In that year, the town was besieged by the
Venetians and taken on 28 September. On this occasion the Acropolis was damaged
and the Parthenon within largely destroyed by a shell which caused the explosion
of the ammunition stores there (Lampros, 1926). Shortly afterwards, in April
1688, Athens was given up by the Venetians. The Turks re-entered but only
after the inhabitants, who feared reprisals, had abandoned the town, taking
refuge on nearby islands. Much of the countryside around Athens and the town
itself continued to remain deserted for almost three years and people did
not begin to return until December 1690 (Sathas, 1869, pp. 354-377).
Being aware of the confusions which are possible in the Fragments, we might
wonder whether the disaster which, in this chronicle, has come to sound like
an earthquake, might not actually have been originally the destruction caused
by the Venetians during the siege of Athens, which would have struck the
town almost as heavily as an earthquake. Also we might even wonder why the
date of the event, reckoned from the second passage of the chronicle, i.e.
28 September, is the same as that of the surrender of Athens to the Venetians,
a date perhaps associated with the damage sustained by the Acropolis during
the siege (Dandolo, 1687). It is not possible to decide whether this dating
of the earthquake is prejudiced by this event.
Thus recent writers, using some poetic licence in the interpretation of the
very few elements in the Anargyrian Fragments, have deduced a variety of
dates for this event. For instance Sieberg (1932, p. 77), and Galanopoulos
(1956; 1961) give 1 June 1641; Schmidt (1879), Lambakis (1885) and Kambouroglou
(1888) suggest 1 June 1651; Papazachos & Papazachou (1989) date it to
16 September 1694; Kambouroglou (1959, p. 62) gives 28 September 1701, Schmidt
(1880) suggests some time between 1636 and 1660. Mommsen (1868) and Zisiou
(1868), in contrast, dismiss altogether the evidence for an earthquake in
Pittakis (1853) as a fabrication. In fact, the only real evidence in these
Fragments for such an event suggests that the earthquake must have occurred
sometime between 1687 and 1751 (Lampros, 1881). This we may surmise from
the fact that the residence of the Metropolite was intact in 1676, when seen
by Spon (1678), and also probably during the Venetian occupation of Athens,
while in 1751 only the ruins of this building and the remains of the church
of St. Dionysius could be seen (Stuart, 1789). It is quite clear that to
fix the year of this earthquake requires information additional to that in
the Anargyrian Fragments.
Such additional information is now provided by a series of unpublished Turkish
documents that fix unambiguously the year of the earthquake, confirming at
the same time that the passages referring to such an event in the Fragments
are not a fabrication.
One of these documents, dated 7 Ramadan 1117 A.H. [23 Dec. 1705] states that
the castle of Athens was damaged in an earthquake in 1117 A.H., as reported
by the cadi of Athens on 16 Rajab 1117 A.H. [3 Nov. 1705] (MMD 4355.367):
"Athens castle ... was this year damaged and ruined in an earthquake
..."; the earthquake may thus be dated to between 25 April (which fell
on the first day of 1117 A.H.) and 3 November 1705. An estimate of the extent
of the damage, 6,264 cubits, and the amount which it would cost to repair,
6,369 gurus, of which the Porte agreed to provide 4,000 gurus
from central funds, was recorded in the registers of the central treasury
on 4 Sha'ban 1119 A.H. [31 Oct. 1707]: "For the repair of some places
and the cistern and the armoury inside the castle of Athens in the liva of
Egriboz, which was earlier ruined and damaged by an earthquake ...";
it is further noted that the earthquake had ruined all but 5 or 6 of the
24 cisterns within the castle, and that because of continual pirate raids
in the vicinity, the repair of all the earthquake damage was deemed of the
utmost urgency (MMD 4355.447; MMD 3878.324). By 7 Rabi-II 1120 A.H. [26 Jun.
1708], repairs were complete (MMD 4355.447), according to strict specifications
as to the local sources from which should be drawn materials and labour (MMD
3878.324).
It is clear therefore, that the earthquake occurred in 1705, probably on
St. Chariton's day, that is 3 September which, in the old style, was a Thursday.
We have chosen this date for St. Chariton's day because, if it be assumed
that the very last phrase in the second page of the Anargyrian Fragments
refers to a Sunday mass, St. Chariton's day should have been on a Thursday,
the only one which fell before the month of Ramadan in the year 1117 A.H.
The shock caused considerable damage to various structures in the Acropolis
as well in Athens, to buildings already weakened by the siege of 1687 and
subsequently abandoned. Of the buildings affected by the earthquake in Athens,
the church of St. Dionysius and the nearby residence of the Metropolitan,
neither of which is extant, were located at the north foot of the rock of
Areopagus (Lampros, 1881). The cells of the monastery of Nikodimou must have
been located in the vicinity of the modern Russian church (Lambakis, 1885).
The location of the Vasiliki Ekklisia is not certain: perhaps it was located
near the Stadium (Lampros, 1881). There is no evidence that the earthquake
caused any loss of life among the inhabitants and garrison of the Acropolis
or serious damage in the town itself: the extract from the Fragments shows,
for example, that the Cathedral of Athens must have survived the shock intact,
since three days later it was safe enough to be used for congregation. The
occurrence of an earthquake is not mentioned in the history of Athens written
by the Ottoman cadi at the time (Orhonlu, 1974; Anonymous, 1705). Nor is
any damage mentioned by a French traveller who was in Athens a year after
the earthquake, between 27 June and 9 August 1706, and who found the town
sparsely inhabited but prosperous; the ruins which he noticed, he attributed
to the recent wars (Lucas, 1712, 1, p. 285): this confirms our impression
that its effects were not serious for had there been serious damage due to
an earthquake a year earlier, it is unlikely that it could have escaped him,
and he would have recorded it, as he did for other places on his travels.
There is no reason to suppose, however, that other towns were not affected
in this earthquake. It is possible that some of the damage reported from
Negreponte at about the same time (MMD 9895.124, dated Sha'ban 1117 A.H.
[Nov. 1705]), could have been the result of the same earthquake. However,
damage in Negreponte cannot have been too serious, and was probably quickly
repaired, as the same traveller, who was passing through Negreponte a year
after the event, did not remark on it (Lucas, 1712, 1, pp. 281, 286).
Although some doubt must remain as to the actual date of the event, the year
of the earthquake mentioned in the Anargyrian Fragments can now be fixed
in 1705, and the epicentre of the event located somewhere between Athens
and Negreponte, probably in the vicinity of Oropos, a location about 30 km
distant from both Athens and Negreponte. Unfortunately, Venetian sources
for this region become scarce after the Carlowitz treaty in 1699, and no
information about this event so far has been found therein.
A shock reported from Zante in 1705 (Schmidt, 1867a), may well be a different
event, belonging to the aftershock sequence of the earthquake of November
1704 in the Ionian islands.
However, the fact that as yet we have found no mention of an earthquake in
1705 in central Greece in the consular correspondence from towns in the Morea
and neighbouring regions (Egina, Corinto, Napoli di Romania, Patrasso, Smyrna,
Constantinople), as well as no mention in the European press, implies that
perhaps the shock that affected Athens in 1705 was not felt very far and
did not cause any great concern in nearby towns - in other words, that the
1705 earthquake was not a large magnitude event.

34) 1705 Nov. 24
This was a destructive earthquake with an epicentral region in the northern
part of the Bekaa valley in Lebanon. It occurred on Tuesday night, 7 Sha'ban
1117 A.H. [24 Nov. 1705], and was preceded by a strong foreshock that caused
panic in the area of Damascus. From an eyewitness in Jabal Qasyun in the
Salihiyah we learn that "... several hours after the first shock that
night a stronger earthquake occurred, driving us out into the yard where
we heard the people of Damascus crying out ... it lasted for two or three
minutes ... two or three minutes later a lighter shock occurred. Matters
continued in this way until Ramadan began [17 Dec.], a light earthquake
occurring every day and night, some people fleeing them and some not ...
The second shock caused some houses to fall, destroyed walls, shook roofs
and buildings in Damascus and its surrounding villages to such an extent
that many people were killed in the debris. The top of the eastern minaret
of the Umayyad Mosque was split and two stones fell from the top of the western
minaret, but caused no damage. The upper portion of the Murshidiyah minaret
fell in al-Salihiyah, as did the minaret of the al-Afram mosque and part
of the buildings in Magharat al-Damm up on Jabal Qasyun ... We heard that
the fortress of al-Qastal and its villages were destroyed; likewise a monastery
[dair] in Yabrud, and many houses in the villages ..." (al-Nablusi,
s.a.).
Damage extended to Tripoli. A first assessment of the effects of the earthquake
there had reached Istanbul by 9 Ramadan 1117 A.H. [26 Dec. 1705] viz. "As
the result of a great earthquake the roofs and walls of the city of Trablus-i
Sham, and in the port, some of the walls of the towers of the coastal fort
and some of the quarters of the garr [in] on therein are destroyed
and urgently need repair ..." (MMD 4355.362; MMD 9895.191); the local
estimate for the cost of repairs, nearly 7.500 gurus, was revised
in Istanbul to 5,000 gurus for the 6 towers. A revised estimate of
damage, which reached Istanbul by 16 Jumada-I 1120 A.H. [3 Aug. 1708], testifies
that the sea towers were still "mostly leaning over ... because the earthquake
demolished most parts of these structures and their foundations in the sea
are gapped ..."; the reason for the delay to repairs was apparently that
the money sent earlier had been sufficient only for 2 of the towers, and
the structure had further deteriorated in the intervening period (MMD 4355.538).
Later Arab writers who mention this earthquake refer only to the damage in
the region of Damascus.

35) 1705
A violent earthquake in Smyrna caused great panic but no damage. The shock
was strongly felt on board a ship anchored 15 miles offshore Smyrna (Izmir)
(Forbin, 1748).

36) 1706 Dec. 26
A strong earthquake was felt in Konya early in the evening, causing some
panic (Lucas, 1712, 1, p. 328). This may be the shock which, we learn from
an order dated Dhu'l-Hijja 1121 [Feb. 1710], (badly) damaged the mosque of
Daud Pasha in Ladik, the repair to which was delayed because permission was
withheld by the administrators of its wakf, and funds had to be sought
from the central treasury (MMD 3882.87). If so, this should have been a
comparatively large earthquake in Anatolia about which more information is
likely to be found.

38) 1707 May 18
Earthquake shocks began to be felt in the Aegean about this time, premonitory
of the eruption of the volcano of Santorin (Thera). More violent shocks were
felt on the 23rd with the commencement of the submarine eruption consequent
on the raising of the island of Nea Kameni between Palaia and Micra Kameni.
The sea was violently agitated by the upheaval of the new island, and Santorin
was not entirely at rest until 1711, the volcanic action being particularly
violent until May 1708 (Tarillon, 1714; Leycester, 1851). Strangely enough,
the shocks were hardly perceptible 200 km away from the island (Anonymous,
1707, s.a.).

39) 1707 Jun. 2
This earthquake caused the collapse of some non-structural parts of the castle
of Sedd ul-Bahr, in the Dardanelles (MMD 3882.56; MMD 7551.444; MMD 3882.58;
MMD 9899.88).
The shock, which apparently had an offshore epicentre in the northern part
of the Aegean Sea, was strongly felt in Smyrna (Izmir) (Kist, 1847, s.a.)
and it may be the same event that was felt in other parts of Asia Minor (Beer,
1709, p. 1035) was perceptible in Istanbul (Rasid, 1282 [1865], 3, p. 222).

40) 1707 Jun. 6
Katramis (1880, p. 466) mentions an earthquake that caused considerable damage
in Zante, followed by a stronger aftershock five days later. It ispossible
that the shock felt in the island of Corfu some time in 1707 is due to the
same earthquake (Beer, 1709, p. 1035). We could find no other sources for
this event.

41) 1708 Feb. 9
The beginning of a long series of local earthquakes associated with the Santorin
volcano, and continuing for a long time, (Tarillon, 1714; Leycester, 1851).

42) 1708
An earthquake was reported from Smyrna (Izmir) during the year (Kist, s.a.),
probably associated with the activity of the Santorin volcano.

43) 1709 Jul. 3
An earthquake on Tuesday, 24 Rabi-II 1121 A.H. [3 Jul. 1709] destroyed the
castle of Foca-yi Atik (Foca), northwest of Izmir; according to an official
estimate of the extent of the damage sent to Istanbul, "6 towers and the
walls of the castle ... on the west side between the great gate which is
attached to the harbour wall and the cannonry, are completely collapsed and
need rebuilding; the towers on each side of the great gate are also ruined,
and by falling onto the mescid which is attached to this gate, have also
ruined the mescid; and again, two towers of the wall between the gate of
the inner castle and the great gate have collapsed, and the castle side of
this wall, as far as its foundations, has fallen in towards the castle and
ruined the hous[e]s opposite it; and the two towers of the inner castle
where the commandant lives and where the arsenal will be stored have fallen,
and since the walls have fallen onto the rooms, the commandant cannot live
there; on the east side of the castle, most parts of the walls are ruined
and both upper and lower parts of some of the towers are ruined [but]
only the upper part of some others and they need repair; because the minaret
of the mosque of Sultan Mehmed [II], above its balcony, fell onto
the dome and the dome is cracked in several places and because the outer
domes are ruined, it is impossible to perform the five prayers and the prayers
are held outside the castle [or in the outer castle]; and the minaret
of the mescid near the inner castle fell from its foundations up onto the
mescid and the mescid is ruined; some of the 30 or 40 houses in the castle
are ruined and others need repair; the castle is still not free of earthquakes,
the people are all living outside the castle and they are in a parlous state
... repairs must be done this year ..." (CD, 1108).
Damage was put at 51,146 cubits, and was ordered to be paid for from local
sources of state revenue (MMD 9899.329).
An earthquake shock felt in Smyrna (Izmir) during the year was probably
associated with this event (Kist, 1847, s.a.).

44) 1709
The exact date of this apparently damaging earthquake in western Greece is
not known. On 24 Rabi-II 1121 A.H. [3 Jul. 1709] an order was sent from Istanbul
requiring an accurate estimate of the extent of earthquake damage to the
castle of Dubnice, of which the Porte had earlier been apprised: "...
because the previously-repaired west side of the castle of Dubnice, [which
lies] on the border, in the sancak of Karli Ili, opposite Aya Mavra, was
weak, ... the wall of the castle on that side was demolished in the great
earthquake of this year [i.e. 1121 A.H.] ..."; the damaged area
had at first been assessed at 160 cubits long and 15 wide (MMD 3882.176;
MMD 9899.217). A later report, dated 27 Safar 1124 [31 Mar. 1712], shows
that the castle had still not been repaired 3 years later (MMD 3882.176;
MMD 3439.127).
In another imperial order, dated 18 Shawwal 1122 [10 Dec. 1711], we read:
"... some parts of the mosque[s] built by Sultans Mehmed and Suleyman
in the castle of the town of Kesriye were demolished in the earthquake of
1121 A.H. ..." (MMD 3882.271).
It seems then, that an earthquake, which apparently took place after 13 March
and before 3 July 1709, caused damage to both the castle of Dubnice - which
is modern Domnitsa, a location southwest of Agrafa, opposite Lefkas (Ott.
Aya Mavra) - and to buildings in Kesriye - which is mod. Kastoria.
This should have been a relatively large earthquake with an epicentral region
in the sparsely-populated region of the northern Pindos mountain.

45) 1710 Mar. 22
An earthquake was felt in in the region of Sofia (?), or Mt. Athos (?). The
chronological elements in the marginal note which mentions this event, are
confused. The date is given as A.M. 72187 March 11, a Tuesday midnight
(Stojanovic, 1903): if we disregard the fifth number 7 added to the year,
the date corresponds to 11 Mar. 1710 [O.S.] which was a Saturday. Years in
which 11 March [O.S.] was a Tuesday were 1701, 1707, 1712 and 1718.
Alternatively, this may be the event of 12 July 1709 described in a marginal
note from the monastery of St. Panteleimon on Mt. Athos (Lampros, 1910, p.
216). No confirmation of this event in other sources has yet been found.

46) 1710 May 17
Just after midnight a very strong earthquake in Zante caused the collapse
of many buildings and the loss of a few lives (Barbiani, 1863, s.a.). There
is no evidence that the shock was felt elsewhere.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. J. Vogt, Mr. P. Pantelopoulos and Ms. P. Albini
for information. This work is supported by NERC/CEC and is part of the research
project for the study of the seismicity of the Eastern Mediterranean region.