Sample records for chemical reactions consuming

A color-change reaction is described in which two colorless solutions are combined to afford a black mixture. Two more colorless solutions are combined to afford a white mixture. The black and white mixtures are then combined to afford a clear, colorless solution. The reaction uses chemicals that are readily available on the retail market: vitamin C, tincture of iodine, vinegar, ammonia, bleach, Epsom salt, and laundry starch.

Conversion of legacy radioactive high-level waste at the Savannah River Site into a stable glass waste form involves a chemical pretreatment process to prepare the waste for vitrification. Waste slurry is treated with nitric and formic acids to achieve certain goals. The total quantity of acid added to a batch of waste slurry is constrained by the catalytic activity of trace noble metal fission products in the waste that can convert formic acid into hydrogen gas at many hundreds of times the radiolytic hydrogen generation rate. A large block of experimental process simulations were performed to characterize the chemicalreactions that consume acid prior to hydrogen generation. The analysis led to a new equation for predicting the quantity of acid required to process a given volume of waste slurry.

New microfluidic devices, useful for carrying out chemicalreactions, are provided. The devices are adapted for on-chip solvent exchange, chemical processes requiring multiple chemicalreactions, and rapid concentration of reagents.

Discusses the role of chemical-equation problem solving in helping students predict reaction products. Methods for helping students learn this process must be taught to students and future teachers by using pedagogical skills within the content of chemistry. Emphasizes that solving chemicalreactions should involve creative cognition where…

... this page: //medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000059.htm Chemical burn or reaction To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. Chemicals that touch skin can lead to a reaction on the skin, throughout the body, or both. ...

Chemicalreactions at surfaces underlie some of the most important processes of today, including catalysis, energy conversion, microelectronics, human health and the environment. Understanding surface chemicalreactions at a fundamental level is at the core of the field of surface science. The Gordon Research Conference on ChemicalReactions at Surfaces is one of the premiere meetings in the field. The program this year will cover a broad range of topics, including heterogeneous catalysis and surface chemistry, surfaces in environmental chemistry and energy conversion, reactions at the liquid-solid and liquid-gas interface, electronic materials growth and surface modification, biological interfaces, and electrons and photons at surfaces. An exciting program is planned, with contributions from outstanding speakers and discussion leaders from the international scientific community. The conference provides a dynamic environment with ample time for discussion and interaction. Attendees are encouraged to present posters; the poster sessions are historically well attended and stimulate additional discussions. The conference provides an excellent opportunity for junior researchers (e.g. graduate students or postdocs) to present their work and interact with established leaders in the field.

Methods of enhancing selected chemicalreactions. The population of a selected high vibrational energy state of a reactant molecule is increased substantially above its population at thermal equilibrium by directing onto the molecule a beam of radiant energy from a laser having a combination of frequency and intensity selected to pump the selected energy state, and the reaction is carried out with the temperature, pressure, and concentrations of reactants maintained at a combination of values selected to optimize the reaction in preference to thermal degradation by transforming the absorbed energy into translational motion. The reaction temperature is selected to optimize the reaction. Typically a laser and a frequency doubler emit radiant energy at frequencies of .nu. and 2.nu. into an optical dye within an optical cavity capable of being tuned to a wanted frequency .delta. or a parametric oscillator comprising a non-centrosymmetric crystal having two indices of refraction, to emit radiant energy at the frequencies of .nu., 2.nu., and .delta. (and, with a parametric oscillator, also at 2.nu.-.delta.). Each unwanted frequency is filtered out, and each desired frequency is focused to the desired radiation flux within a reaction chamber and is reflected repeatedly through the chamber while reactants are fed into the chamber and reaction products are removed therefrom.

DSMC simulations of chemically reacting gas flows have generally employed procedures that convert the macroscopic chemical rate equations to reaction cross-sections at the microscopic level. They therefore depend on the availability of experimental data that has been fitted to equations of the Arrhenius form. This paper presents a physical model for dissociation and recombination reactions and a phenomenological model for exchange and chain reactions. These are based on the vibrational states of the colliding molecules and do not require any experimentally-based data. The simplicity of the models allows the corresponding rate equations to be written down and, while these are not required for the implementation of the models, they facilitate their validation. The model is applied to a typical hypersonic atmospheric entry problem and the results are compared with the corresponding results from the traditional method. It is also used to investigate both spontaneous and forced ignition as well as the structure of a deflagration wave in an oxygen-hydrogen mixture.

DSMC simulations of chemically reacting gas flows have generally employed procedures that convert the macroscopic chemical rate equations to reaction cross-sections at the microscopic level. They therefore depend on the availability of experimental data that has been fitted to equations of the Arrhenius form. This paper presents a physical model for dissociation and recombination reactions and a phenomenological model for exchange and chain reactions. These are based on the vibrational states of the colliding molecules and do not require any experimentally-based data. The simplicity of the models allows the corresponding rate equations to be written down and, while these are not required for the implementation of the models, they facilitate their validation. The model is applied to a typical hypersonic atmospheric entry problem and the results are compared with the corresponding results from the traditional method. It is also used to investigate both spontaneous and forced ignition as well as the structure of a deflagration wave in an oxygen-hydrogen mixture.

Describes the organization of a graduate course dealing with mass transfer, particularly as it relates to chemicalreactions. Discusses the course outline, including mathematics models of mass transfer, enhancement of mass transfer rates by homogeneous chemicalreaction, and gas-liquid systems with chemicalreaction. (TW)

A new sympathetic ink that produces a violet color upon development was developed to develop chemical demonstrations using consumerchemicals. The demonstration was to have a simple, relatively safe reagent system that could be used to make a brightly colored, highly visible "magic sign" for use in science outreach programs.

... different products that contain toxic chemicals such as ammonia and bleach. The mixture can give off hazardous ... chemicals immediately after use. Use paints, petroleum products, ammonia, bleach, and other products that give off fumes ...

A previous article stated that only the matrix method was powerful enough to balance a particular chemical equation. Shows how this equation can be balanced without using the matrix method. The approach taken involves writing partial mathematical reactions and redox half-reactions, and combining them to yield the final balanced reaction. (JN)

We present numerical results for a chemicalreaction of colloidal particles which are transported by a laminar fluid and are focused by periodic obstacles in such a way that the two components are well mixed and consequently the chemicalreaction is speeded up. The roles of the various system parameters (diffusion coefficients, reaction rate, and obstacles sizes) are studied. We show that focusing speeds up the reaction from the diffusion limited rate ˜t-1/2 to very close to the perfect mixing rate, ˜t-1.

An attempt is made to reconcile the different terminologies pertaining to reduction of chemicalreaction models. The approaches considered include global modeling, response modeling, detailed reduction, chemical lumping, and statistical lumping. The advantages and drawbacks of each of these methods are pointed out.

Motivated by the intriguing complexity of biochemical circuitry within individual cells we study Stochastic ChemicalReaction Networks (SCRNs), a formal model that considers a set of chemicalreactions acting on a finite number of molecules in a well-stirred solution according to standard chemical kinetics equations. SCRNs have been widely used for describing naturally occurring (bio)chemical systems, and with the advent of synthetic biology they become a promising language for the design of artificial biochemical circuits. Our interest here is the computational power of SCRNs and how they relate to more conventional models of computation. We survey known connections and give new connections between SCRNs and Boolean Logic Circuits, Vector Addition Systems, Petri nets, Gate Implementability, Primitive Recursive Functions, Register Machines, Fractran, and Turing Machines. A theme to these investigations is the thin line between decidable and undecidable questions about SCRN behavior.

Fragranced consumer products are pervasive in society. Relatively little is known about the composition of these products, due to lack of prior study, complexity of formulations, and limitations and protections on ingredient disclosure in the U.S. We investigated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from 25 common fragranced consumer products-laundry products, personal care products, cleaning supplies, and air fresheners-using headspace analysis with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Our analysis found 133 different VOCs emitted from the 25 products, with an average of 17 VOCs per product. Of these 133 VOCs, 24 are classified as toxic or hazardous under U.S. federal laws, and each product emitted at least one of these compounds. For 'green' products, emissions of these compounds were not significantly different from the other products. Of all VOCs identified across the products, only 1 was listed on any product label, and only 2 were listed on any material safety data sheet (MSDS). While virtually none of the chemicals identified were listed, this nonetheless accords with U.S. regulations, which do not require disclosure of all ingredients in a consumer product, or of any ingredients in a mixture called 'fragrance.' Because the analysis focused on compounds emitted and listed, rather than exposures and effects, it makes no claims regarding possible risks from product use. Results of this study contribute to understanding emissions from common products, and their links with labeling and legislation.

Presents demonstrations of chemicalreactions by employing different features of various compounds that can be altered after a chemical change occurs. Experimental activities include para- and dia-magnetism in chemicalreactions, aluminum reaction with base, reaction of acid with carbonates, use of electrochemical cells for demonstrating chemical…

Although Consumer products are a primary source of chemical exposures, little information is available on the chemical ingredients of these products and the concentrations at which they are present. To address this data gap, we have created a database of chemicals in consumer pro...

Experimental studies of dynamic molecular processes are described with particular emphasis on the use of a powerful infrared diode laser probe technique developed in our laboratory. This technique allows us to determine the final states of CO{sub 2} (and other molecules) produced by collisions, photofragmentation, or chemicalreactions with a spectral resolution of 0.0003 cm{sup {minus}1} and a time resolution of 10{sup {minus}7} sec. Such high spectral resolution provides a detailed picture of the vibrational and rotational states of molecules produced by these dynamic events. We have used this experimental method to probe collisions between hot hydrogen/deuterium atoms and CO{sub 2}, between O({sup 1}D) atoms and CO{sub 2}, to study the final states of DC1 molecules produced as a result of the reactions of hot Cl atoms, and to investigate the dynamics of the reaction between OH and CO molecules. Advances in our techniques over the past two years have allowed us to identify and study more than 200 final rotational states in ten different vibrational levels of CO{sub 2} encompassing all 3 normal modes, many overtones, and combination states of the molecule. We have extended the technique to probe a variety of new molecules such as OCS, N{sub 2}O, DCl, and CS{sub 2}. All of this work is aimed at providing experimental tests for polyatomic molecule potential energy surfaces, chemical transition states in complex systems, and theories of reaction dynamic in molecules with more than 3 atoms.

Being able to predict the course of arbitrary chemicalreactions is essential to the theory and applications of organic chemistry. Approaches to the reaction prediction problems can be organized around three poles corresponding to: (1) physical laws; (2) rule-based expert systems; and (3) inductive machine learning. Previous approaches at these poles, respectively, are not high throughput, are not generalizable or scalable, and lack sufficient data and structure to be implemented. We propose a new approach to reaction prediction utilizing elements from each pole. Using a physically inspired conceptualization, we describe single mechanistic reactions as interactions between coarse approximations of molecular orbitals (MOs) and use topological and physicochemical attributes as descriptors. Using an existing rule-based system (Reaction Explorer), we derive a restricted chemistry data set consisting of 1630 full multistep reactions with 2358 distinct starting materials and intermediates, associated with 2989 productive mechanistic steps and 6.14 million unproductive mechanistic steps. And from machine learning, we pose identifying productive mechanistic steps as a statistical ranking, information retrieval problem: given a set of reactants and a description of conditions, learn a ranking model over potential filled-to-unfilled MO interactions such that the top-ranked mechanistic steps yield the major products. The machine learning implementation follows a two-stage approach, in which we first train atom level reactivity filters to prune 94.00% of nonproductive reactions with a 0.01% error rate. Then, we train an ensemble of ranking models on pairs of interacting MOs to learn a relative productivity function over mechanistic steps in a given system. Without the use of explicit transformation patterns, the ensemble perfectly ranks the productive mechanism at the top 89.05% of the time, rising to 99.86% of the time when the top four are considered. Furthermore, the system

Being able to predict the course of arbitrary chemicalreactions is essential to the theory and applications of organic chemistry. Approaches to the reaction prediction problems can be organized around three poles corresponding to: (1) physical laws; (2) rule-based expert systems; and (3) inductive machine learning. Previous approaches at these poles respectively are not high-throughput, are not generalizable or scalable, or lack sufficient data and structure to be implemented. We propose a new approach to reaction prediction utilizing elements from each pole. Using a physically inspired conceptualization, we describe single mechanistic reactions as interactions between coarse approximations of molecular orbitals (MOs) and use topological and physicochemical attributes as descriptors. Using an existing rule-based system (Reaction Explorer), we derive a restricted chemistry dataset consisting of 1630 full multi-step reactions with 2358 distinct starting materials and intermediates, associated with 2989 productive mechanistic steps and 6.14 million unproductive mechanistic steps. And from machine learning, we pose identifying productive mechanistic steps as a statistical ranking, information retrieval, problem: given a set of reactants and a description of conditions, learn a ranking model over potential filled-to-unfilled MO interactions such that the top ranked mechanistic steps yield the major products. The machine learning implementation follows a two-stage approach, in which we first train atom level reactivity filters to prune 94.00% of non-productive reactions with a 0.01% error rate. Then, we train an ensemble of ranking models on pairs of interacting MOs to learn a relative productivity function over mechanistic steps in a given system. Without the use of explicit transformation patterns, the ensemble perfectly ranks the productive mechanism at the top 89.05% of the time, rising to 99.86% of the time when the top four are considered. Furthermore, the system

Interfaces or phase boundaries are a unique chemical environment relative to individual gas, liquid, or solid phases. Interfacial reaction mechanisms and kinetics are often at variance with homogeneous chemistry due to mass transfer, molecular orientation, and catalytic effects. Aqueous interfaces are a common subject of environmental science and engineering research, and three environmentally relevant aqueous interfaces are investigated in this thesis: 1) fluorochemical sonochemistry (bubble-water), 2) aqueous aerosol ozonation (gas-water droplet), and 3) electrolytic hydrogen production and simultaneous organic oxidation (water-metal/semiconductor). Direct interfacial analysis under environmentally relevant conditions is difficult, since most surface-specific techniques require relatively `extreme' conditions. Thus, the experimental investigations here focus on the development of chemical reactors and analytical techniques for the completion of time/concentration-dependent measurements of reactants and their products. Kinetic modeling, estimations, and/or correlations were used to extract information on interfacially relevant processes. We found that interfacial chemistry was determined to be the rate-limiting step to a subsequent series of relatively fast homogeneous reactions, for example: 1) Pyrolytic cleavage of the ionic headgroup of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) adsorbed to cavitating bubble-water interfaces during sonolysis was the rate-determining step in transformation to their inorganic constituents carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and fluoride; 2) ozone oxidation of aqueous iodide to hypoiodous acid at the aerosol-gas interface is the rate-determining step in the oxidation of bromide and chloride to dihalogens; 3) Electrolytic oxidation of anodic titanol surface groups is rate-limiting for the overall oxidation of organics by the dichloride radical. We also found chemistry unique to the interface, for example: 1

An experiment is conducted for the oxidation of iron in a gel using consumerchemicals, which is pertinent to the students' understanding of redox chemistry and of the relative oxidation potentials of various metals. The experiment can be carried out with consumerchemicals that might be purchased at a supermarket and commonly found in the home.

We study the effect of the variation of reaction efficiency in binary reactions. We use the well-known A + B → 0 model, which has been extensively studied in the past. We perform simulations on this model where we vary the efficiency of reaction, i.e., when two particles meet they do not instantly react, as has been assumed in previous studies, but they react with a probability γ, where γ is in the range 0 < γ < 1. Our results show that at small γ values the system is reaction limited, but as γ increases it crosses over to a diffusion limited behavior. At early times, for small γ values, the particle density falls slower than for larger γ values. This fall-off goes over a crossover point, around the value of γ = 0.50 for high initial densities. Under a variety of conditions simulated, we find that the crossover point was dependent on the initial concentration but not on the lattice size. For intermediate and long times simulations, all γ values (in the depleted reciprocal density versus time plot) converge to the same behavior. These theoretical results are useful in models of epidemic reactions and epidemic spreading, where a contagion from one neighbor to the next is not always successful but proceeds with a certain probability, an analogous effect with the reaction probability examined in the current work.

Endoreversible thermodynamics is a theory for the (approximate) description of thermodynamic non-equilibrium systems, which allows us to capture the ever present irreversibilities of real processes. For instance in heat engines the dissipation due to finite heat transport capabilities, as well as the resulting limitations in the energy fluxes, can be incorporated into the theory. It has thus been very successful in closing the gap between observed and theoretically predicted efficiencies. Here an extension of the theory is provided, with which chemicalreactions can be included in the formalism. This opens up a wide field of applications for endoreversible modeling and the investigation of dissipative processes, for instance in fuel cells or batteries.

Meat demand has been affected by safety controversies that have struck the European meat chain during the last decade. The major issue was the occurrence of the BSE crisis, with its major impact in mainland Europe from 1996 on. Much research has addressed concern over declining consumer confidence in the meat food category and what can be done to counter the deteriorating image for fresh meat. This contribution focuses on consumerreactions and consequent economic implications of the BSE crisis in Belgium. With respect to consumerreactions, the reported data and analyses result from consumer studies that are on going since 1996 until today. The studies combine econometric demand analyses based on time series data with descriptive analyses of consumer survey data. The findings show shifts of consumer attitude and perception in line with mass media coverage. In the case of beef, a negative press to advertising ratio of five is found, with the total gain attributed to advertising being five times lower in absolute value than the total loss resulting from negative publicity. In terms of economic impact, direct and indirect costs are discussed. Most of those cost items have not yet been quantified comprehensively. Based on all findings from an economic perspective, it is clear that taking away the grounds for negative press, as well as searching for better and more effective ways of communication emerge as major recommendations for the meat industry, and particularly for the beef sector. PMID:11813505

The Gordon Research Conference (GRC) on 2005 ChemicalReactions at Surfaces was held at Ventura Beach Marriott, Ventura California from February 13, 2005 through February 18, 2005. The Conference was well-attended with 124 participants (attendees list attached). The attendees represented the spectrum of endeavor in this field coming from academia, industry, and government laboratories, both U.S. and foreign scientists, senior researchers, young investigators, and students. In designing the formal speakers program, emphasis was placed on current unpublished research and discussion of the future target areas in this field. There was a conscious effort to stimulate lively discussion about the key issues in the field today. Time for formal presentations was limited in the interest of group discussions. In order that more scientists could communicate their most recent results, poster presentation time was scheduled. Attached is a copy of the formal schedule and speaker program and the poster program. In addition to these formal interactions, 'free time' was scheduled to allow informal discussions. Such discussions are fostering new collaborations and joint efforts in the field.

A highly flexible learning tool, referred to as a dynamic reaction figure, is described. Application of these figures can (i) yield the correct chemical equation by simply following a set of menu driven directions; (ii) present the underlying "mechanism" in chemicalreactions; and (iii) help to solve quantitative problems in a number of different…

A detector cell for a silicon-based or non-silicon-based sleeve type chemicalreaction chamber that combines heaters, such as doped polysilicon for heating, and bulk silicon for convection cooling. The detector cell is an electrochemiluminescence cell constructed of layers of silicon with a cover layer of glass, with spaced electrodes located intermediate various layers forming the cell. The cell includes a cavity formed therein and fluid inlets for directing reaction fluid therein. The reaction chamber and detector cell may be utilized in any chemicalreaction system for synthesis or processing of organic, inorganic, or biochemical reactions, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or other DNA reactions, such as the ligase chain reaction, which are examples of a synthetic, thermal-cycling-based reaction. The ECL cell may also be used in synthesis instruments, particularly those for DNA amplification and synthesis.

The Apollo-Soyuz flight experiment, 'Chemical Foams' demonstrated that foams and air/liquid dispersions are much more stable in low-gravity than on the ground. It thus should be possible to conduct unique chemicalreactions in space foams. The low-g results and subsequent ground work on the formaldehyde clock reaction indicate that the reaction is strongly influenced by (1) dissociated and undissociated solution species being adsorbed at solid/liquid and gas/liquid surfaces and (2) chemicalreaction rates apparently being affected by long-range forces determined by the liquid mass and the extent and nature of all surface interfaces.

Microwave (MW) irradiation in conjunction with water as reaction media has proven to be a greener chemical approach for expeditious N-alkylation reactions of amines and hydrazines wherein the reactions under mildly basic conditions afford tertiary amines and double N-alkylation t...

A silicon-based sleeve type chemicalreaction chamber that combines heaters, such as doped polysilicon for heating, and bulk silicon for convection cooling. The reaction chamber combines a critical ratio of silicon and non-silicon based materials to provide the thermal properties desired. For example, the chamber may combine a critical ratio of silicon and silicon nitride to the volume of material to be heated (e.g., a liquid) in order to provide uniform heating, yet low power requirements. The reaction chamber will also allow the introduction of a secondary tube (e.g., plastic) into the reaction sleeve that contains the reaction mixture thereby alleviating any potential materials incompatibility issues. The reaction chamber may be utilized in any chemicalreaction system for synthesis or processing of organic, inorganic, or biochemical reactions, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or other DNA reactions, such as the ligase chain reaction, which are examples of a synthetic, thermal-cycling-based reaction. The reaction chamber may also be used in synthesis instruments, particularly those for DNA amplification and synthesis.

The Gordon Research Conference (GRC) on ChemicalReactions at Surfaces was held at Holiday Inn, Ventura, California, 2/16-21/03. Emphasis was placed on current unpublished research and discussion of the future target areas in this field.

Scholars have studied the various pressures that companies face related to socially responsible behavior when stakeholders know the particular social issues under consideration. Many have examined social responsibility in the context of environmental responsibility and the general approaches companies take regarding environmental management. The issue of currently unregulated, but potentially hazardous, chemicals in consumer products is not well understood by the general public, but a number of proactive consumer product companies have voluntarily adopted strategies to minimize use of such chemicals. These companies are exceeding regulatory requirements by restricting from their products chemicals that could harm human or environmental health, despite the fact that these actions are costly. They do not usually advertise the details of their strategies to end consumers. This article uses interviews with senior environmental directors of 20 multinational consumer product companies to investigate why these companies engage in voluntary chemicals management. The authors conclude that the most significant reasons are to achieve a competitive advantage and stay ahead of regulations, manage relationships and maintain legitimacy with stakeholders, and put managerial values into practice. Many of the characteristics related to the case of chemicals management are extendable to other areas of stakeholder management in which risks to stakeholders are either unknown or poorly understood. PMID:27471326

This program concerning kinetic studies of elementary chemicalreactions is presently focussed on understanding reactions of NH{sub x} species. To reach this goal, the author is pursuing experimental studies of reaction rate coefficients and product branching fractions as well as using electronic structure calculations to calculate transition state properties and reaction rate calculations to relate these properties to predicted kinetic behavior. The synergy existing between the experimental and theoretical studies allow one to gain a deeper insight into more complex elementary reactions.

Urges chemistry teachers to have students annotate the chemicalreactions in aqueous-solutions that they see in their textbooks and witness in the laboratory. Suggests this will help students recognize the reaction type more readily. Examples are given for gas formation, precipitate formation, redox interaction, acid-base interaction, and…

Entropy generation in a chemicalreaction is analysed without using the general formalism of non-equilibrium thermodynamics at a level adequate for advanced undergraduates. In a first approach to the problem, the phenomenological kinetic equation of an elementary first-order reaction is used to show that entropy production is always positive. A…

Utilizing supercritical fluids as environmentally benign solvents for chemical synthesis is one of the new approaches in the "greening" of chemistry. Carbon dioxide is the most widely used gas for supercritical fluid studies because of its moderate critical constants, nontoxic nature, and availability in pure form. One unique property of supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO2) is its high solubility for fluorinated compounds. Thus sc-CO2 can be used to replace Freons that are conventionally used as solvents for synthesis of perfluoro-polymers. Another property of sc-CO2 is its miscibility with gases such as H2. Heterogeneous reactions involving these gases may become homogeneous reactions in sc-CO2. Reactions in sc-CO2 may offer several advantages including controlling phase behavior and products, increasing speed of reactions, and obtaining specific reaction channels. This paper describes the following nine types of chemicalreactions reported in the literature utilizing sc-CO2 as a solvent to illustrate the unique properties of the supercritical fluid reaction systems: (i) hydrogenation and hydroformylation, (ii) synthesis of organometallic compounds, (iii) metal chelation and extraction, (iv) preparation of inorganic nanoparticles, (v) stereo-selectivity of lipase-catalyzed reactions, (vi) asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation, (vii) polymerization, (viii) Diels-Alder reaction, and (ix) free radical reactions.

Quantum mechanical methods have been used to compute potential energy surfaces for chemicalreactions. The reactions studied were among those believed to be important to the NASP and HSR programs and included the recombination of two H atoms with several different third bodies; the reactions in the thermal Zeldovich mechanism; the reactions of H atom with O2, N2, and NO; reactions involved in the thermal De-NO(x) process; and the reaction of CH(squared Pi) with N2 (leading to 'prompt NO'). These potential energy surfaces have been used to compute reaction rate constants and rates of unimolecular decomposition. An additional application was the calculation of transport properties of gases using a semiclassical approximation (and in the case of interactions involving hydrogen inclusion of quantum mechanical effects).

In this critical review, we survey the wide range of chemicalreactions that have been confined within carbon nanotubes, particularly emphasising how the pairwise interactions between the catalysts, reactants, transition states and products of a particular molecular transformation with the host nanotube can be used to control the yields and distributions of products of chemicalreactions. We demonstrate that nanoscale confinement within carbon nanotubes enables the control of catalyst activity, morphology and stability, influences the local concentration of reactants and products thus affecting equilibria, rates and selectivity, pre-arranges the reactants for desired reactions and alters the relative stability of isomeric products. We critically evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the confinement of chemicalreactions inside carbon nanotubes from a chemical perspective and describe how further developments in the controlled synthesis of carbon nanotubes and the incorporation of multifunctionality are essential for the development of this ever-expanding field, ultimately leading to the effective control of the pathways of chemicalreactions through the rational design of multi-functional carbon nanoreactors. PMID:27301444

The alchemists of old sought the knowledge to transform one material to another-for example, base metals into gold-as a path to the elixir of life. As chemists have concerned themselves with the transformation from compound to compound, so they have become involved in trying to uncover the structures of molecules and the pathways that reactions follow. Classically, the study of reaction mechanisms in chemistry encompasses reaction kinetics, the study of velocities or rates of reactions, and reaction dynamics, the study of the nanoscopic motion and rearrangement of atoms during a reactive event. An essential aim of this article is to bring the reader to a favorable vantage point with a brief introduction to reactive dynamics, and from there to describe some examples of recent strategies that have been employed to promote a fundamental understanding of the anatomy of elementary chemicalreactions. In the final section we ponder future directions for this rapidly evolving field of research.

Just as complex electronic circuits are built from simple Boolean gates, diverse biological functions, including signal transduction, differentiation, and stress response, frequently use biochemical switches as a functional module. A relatively small number of such switches have been described in the literature, and these exhibit considerable diversity in chemical topology. We asked if biochemical switches are indeed rare and if there are common chemical motifs and family relationships among such switches. We performed a systematic exploration of chemicalreaction space by generating all possible stoichiometrically valid chemical configurations up to 3 molecules and 6 reactions and up to 4 molecules and 3 reactions. We used Monte Carlo sampling of parameter space for each such configuration to generate specific models and checked each model for switching properties. We found nearly 4,500 reaction topologies, or about 10% of our tested configurations, that demonstrate switching behavior. Commonly accepted topological features such as feedback were poor predictors of bistability, and we identified new reaction motifs that were likely to be found in switches. Furthermore, the discovered switches were related in that most of the larger configurations were derived from smaller ones by addition of one or more reactions. To explore even larger configurations, we developed two tools: the “bistabilizer,” which converts almost-bistable systems into bistable ones, and frequent motif mining, which helps rank untested configurations. Both of these tools increased the coverage of our library of bistable systems. Thus, our systematic exploration of chemicalreaction space has produced a valuable resource for investigating the key signaling motif of bistability. PMID:18636099

The numerical simulation of aerosol transport, including the effects of chemical and nuclear reactions presents a challenging dynamic accounting problem. Particles of different sizes agglomerate and settle out due to various mechanisms, such as diffusion, diffusiophoresis, thermophoresis, gravitational settling, turbulent acceleration, and centrifugal acceleration. Particles also change size, due to the condensation and evaporation of materials on the particle. Heterogeneous chemicalreactions occur at the interface between a particle and the suspending medium, or a surface and the gas in the aerosol. Homogeneous chemicalreactions occur within the aersol suspending medium, within a particle, and on a surface. These reactions may include a phase change. Nuclear reactions occur in all locations. These spontaneous transmutations from one element form to another occur at greatly varying rates and may result in phase or chemical changes which complicate the accounting process. This paper presents an approach for inclusion of these effects on the transport of aerosols. The accounting system is very complex and results in a large set of stiff ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The techniques for numerical solution of these ODEs require special attention to achieve their solution in an efficient and affordable manner. 4 refs.

Quantum chemical calculations in solution are becoming more and more important in chemistry. Reference interaction site model self-consistent field (RISM-SCF) is one of the powerful approaches to perform quantum chemical calculations in solution. In this work, we developed a new generation of RISM-SCF, where a robust fitting method was newly introduced. We applied the new method to tautomerization reaction of cytosine in aqueous phase. Our calculation reproduced experimentally obtained relative stabilities and relative free energies correctly.

Background: Laboratory and human studies raise concerns about endocrine disruption and asthma resulting from exposure to chemicals in consumer products. Limited labeling or testing information is available to evaluate products as exposure sources. Objectives: We analytically quantified endocrine disruptors and asthma-related chemicals in a range of cosmetics, personal care products, cleaners, sunscreens, and vinyl products. We also evaluated whether product labels provide information that can be used to select products without these chemicals. Methods: We selected 213 commercial products representing 50 product types. We tested 42 composited samples of high-market-share products, and we tested 43 alternative products identified using criteria expected to minimize target compounds. Analytes included parabens, phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), triclosan, ethanolamines, alkylphenols, fragrances, glycol ethers, cyclosiloxanes, and ultraviolet (UV) filters. Results: We detected 55 compounds, indicating a wide range of exposures from common products. Vinyl products contained > 10% bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and could be an important source of DEHP in homes. In other products, the highest concentrations and numbers of detects were in the fragranced products (e.g., perfume, air fresheners, and dryer sheets) and in sunscreens. Some products that did not contain the well-known endocrine-disrupting phthalates contained other less-studied phthalates (dicyclohexyl phthalate, diisononyl phthalate, and di-n-propyl phthalate; also endocrine-disrupting compounds), suggesting a substitution. Many detected chemicals were not listed on product labels. Conclusions: Common products contain complex mixtures of EDCs and asthma-related compounds. Toxicological studies of these mixtures are needed to understand their biological activity. Regarding epidemiology, our findings raise concern about potential confounding from co-occurring chemicals and misclassification due to variability in

In this study we explore the strategies that undergraduate and graduate chemistry students use when engaged in classification tasks involving symbolic and microscopic (particulate) representations of different chemicalreactions. We were specifically interested in characterizing the basic features to which students pay attention when classifying…

This invention is directed to conducting chemicalreactions in reverse micelle or microemulsion systems comprising a substantially discontinuous phase including a polar fluid, typically an aqueous fluid, and a microemulsion promoter, typically a surfactant, for facilitating the formation of reverse micelles in the system. The system further includes a substantially continuous phase including a non-polar or low-polarity fluid material which is a gas under standard temperature and pressure and has a critical density, and which is generally a water-insoluble fluid in a near critical or supercritical state. Thus, the microemulsion system is maintained at a pressure and temperature such that the density of the non-polar or low-polarity fluid exceeds the critical density thereof. The method of carrying out chemicalreactions generally comprises forming a first reverse micelle system including an aqueous fluid including reverse micelles in a water-insoluble fluid in the supercritical state. Then, a first reactant is introduced into the first reverse micelle system, and a chemicalreaction is carried out with the first reactant to form a reaction product. In general, the first reactant can be incorporated into, and the product formed in, the reverse micelles. A second reactant can also be incorporated in the first reverse micelle system which is capable of reacting with the first reactant to form a product.

Chemicalreactions are responsible for information processing in living organisms. It is believed that the basic features of biological computing activity are reflected by a reaction-diffusion medium. We illustrate the ideas of chemical information processing considering the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction and its photosensitive variant. The computational universality of information processing is demonstrated. For different methods of information coding constructions of the simplest signal processing devices are described. The function performed by a particular device is determined by the geometrical structure of oscillatory (or of excitable) and non-excitable regions of the medium. In a living organism, the brain is created as a self-grown structure of interacting nonlinear elements and reaches its functionality as the result of learning. We discuss whether such a strategy can be adopted for generation of chemical information processing devices. Recent studies have shown that lipid-covered droplets containing solution of reagents of BZ reaction can be transported by a flowing oil. Therefore, structures of droplets can be spontaneously formed at specific non-equilibrium conditions, for example forced by flows in a microfluidic reactor. We describe how to introduce information to a droplet structure, track the information flow inside it and optimize medium evolution to achieve the maximum reliability. Applications of droplet structures for classification tasks are discussed. PMID:26078345

This collaborative program with the Theoretical Chemistry Group at Argonne involves theoretical studies of gas phase chemicalreactions and related energy transfer and photodissociation processes. Many of the reactions studied are of direct relevance to combustion; others are selected they provide important examples of special dynamical processes, or are of relevance to experimental measurements. Both classical trajectory and quantum reactive scattering methods are used for these studies, and the types of information determined range from thermal rate constants to state to state differential cross sections.

Computed potential energy surfaces are often required for computation of such parameters as rate constants as a function of temperature, product branching ratios, and other detailed properties. We have found that computation of the stationary points/reaction pathways using CASSCF/derivative methods, followed by use of the internally contracted CI method to obtain accurate energetics, gives useful results for a number of chemically important systems. The talk will focus on a number of applications to reactions leading to NOx and soot formation in hydrocarbon combustion.

Fabrication of self-assembled nanostructures is one of the important aspects in nanoscience and nanotechnology. The study of self-assembled soft materials remains an area of interest due to their potential applications in biomedicine. The versatile properties of soft materials can be tuned using a bottom up approach of small molecules. Peptide based self-assembly has significant impact in biology because of its unique features such as biocompatibility, straight peptide chain and the presence of different side chain functionality. These unique features explore peptides in various self-assembly process. In this review, we briefly introduce chemicalreaction-mediated peptide self-assembly. Herein, we have emphasised enzymes, native chemical ligation and photochemical reactions in the exploration of peptide self-assembly. PMID:25984603

Emulsions consisting of droplets immersed in a fluid are typically unstable and coarsen over time. One important coarsening process is Ostwald ripening, which is driven by the surface tension of the droplets. Ostwald ripening must thus be suppressed to stabilize emulsions, e.g. to control the properties of pharmaceuticals, food, or cosmetics. Suppression of Ostwald ripening is also important in biological cells, which contain stable liquid-like compartments, e.g. germ granules, Cajal-bodies, and centrosomes. Such systems are often driven away from equilibrium by chemicalreactions and can thus be called active emulsions. Here, we show that non-equilibrium chemicalreactions can suppress Ostwald Ripening, leading to stable, monodisperse emulsions. We derive analytical approximations of the typical droplet size, droplet count, and time scale of the dynamics from a coarse-grained description of the droplet dynamics. We also compare these results to numerical simulations of the continuous concentration fields. Generally, we thus show how chemicalreactions can be used to stabilize emulsions and to control their properties in technology and nature.

We develop a theoretical method for solving the quantum mechanical reactive scattering problem in the presence of external fields based on a hyperspherical coordinate description of the reaction complex combined with the total angular momentum representation for collisions in external fields. The method allows us to obtain converged results for the chemicalreaction LiF+H→Li+HF in an electric field. Our calculations demonstrate that, by inducing couplings between states of different total angular momenta, electric fields with magnitudes <150 kV/cm give rise to resonant scattering and a significant modification of the total reaction probabilities, product state distributions, and the branching ratios for reactive versus inelastic scattering. PMID:26207466

We develop a theoretical method for solving the quantum mechanical reactive scattering problem in the presence of external fields based on a hyperspherical coordinate description of the reaction complex combined with the total angular momentum representation for collisions in external fields. The method allows us to obtain converged results for the chemicalreaction LiF +H →Li +HF in an electric field. Our calculations demonstrate that, by inducing couplings between states of different total angular momenta, electric fields with magnitudes <150 kV /cm give rise to resonant scattering and a significant modification of the total reaction probabilities, product state distributions, and the branching ratios for reactive versus inelastic scattering.

Sunlight-driven, photochemical reactions can be a major degradative force for anthropogenic organic compounds in the aquatic environment. Chlorinated phenols, various classes of pesticides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are among some examples of the compounds shown to be degraded by sunlight. Most environmental photochemistry has been studied in fresh water, despite the fact that the oceans cover more than 70% of the earths surface and receive large inputs of anthropogenic chemicals via atmospheric transport, runoff, and coastal outfalls. This fact, along with increasing pressure for ocean waste disposal as land options dwindle, present a need for information on the photochemical reactions of anthropogenic organic chemicals in seawater. Several probable seawater pollutants were selected as probes for studying photochemical reactions including, 2-nitrotoluene, 4-nitrotoluene, styrene, 4,5-dichloroguaiacol, 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol and tetrachloroguaiacol. Dilute solutions of each probe were prepared in buffered (pH 8), distilled water (DW), synthetic seawater (SSW) and natural seawater (NSW), then irradiated in a temperature-controlled photoreactor fitted with a General Electric F40BL fluorescent lamp to simulate sunlight. Samples were taken at regular intervals, concentrated using solid phase extraction techniques and analyzed by gas chromatography. Photolysis rates were determined assuming first, or pseudo-first, order kinetics. Photoproducts were identified by gas chromatography;mass spectrometry and confirmed by comparison to standards when available. By determining rates in DW containing selected components of SSW, at SSW concentrations, the inorganic compounds mediating the photochemical reactions in seawater could be determined.

Background Chemicalreaction networks provide an abstraction scheme for a broad range of models in biology and ecology. The two common means for simulating these networks are the deterministic and the stochastic approaches. The traditional deterministic approach, based on differential equations, enjoys a rich set of analysis techniques, including a treatment of reaction fluxes. However, the discrete stochastic simulations, which provide advantages in some cases, lack a quantitative treatment of network fluxes. Results We describe a method for flux analysis of chemicalreaction networks, where flux is given by the flow of species between reactions in stochastic simulations of the network. Extending discrete event simulation algorithms, our method constructs several data structures, and thereby reveals a variety of statistics about resource creation and consumption during the simulation. We use these structures to quantify the causal interdependence and relative importance of the reactions at arbitrary time intervals with respect to the network fluxes. This allows us to construct reduced networks that have the same flux-behavior, and compare these networks, also with respect to their time series. We demonstrate our approach on an extended example based on a published ODE model of the same network, that is, Rho GTP-binding proteins, and on other models from biology and ecology. Conclusions We provide a fully stochastic treatment of flux analysis. As in deterministic analysis, our method delivers the network behavior in terms of species transformations. Moreover, our stochastic analysis can be applied, not only at steady state, but at arbitrary time intervals, and used to identify the flow of specific species between specific reactions. Our cases study of Rho GTP-binding proteins reveals the role played by the cyclic reverse fluxes in tuning the behavior of this network. PMID:24314153

The use of identification technology by commercial entities has broad and, for some consumers, disturbing social implications. This two-phase study was done to specify consumers' concerns regarding various identification technologies which may be encountered in retail environments. From the qualitative findings, a 26-item survey was constructed to quantify identified areas of concern with 303 survey participants (147 women and 156 men), whose mean age category was 30 to 39 years. Using exploratory factor analysis (principal components with varimax rotation), five dimensions of consumers' concern emerged: privacy, ethics, health, humanity, and complexity. PMID:17958132

Recent studies of state-resolved angular distributions show the participation of reactive scattering resonances in the simplest chemicalreaction. This review is intended for those who wish to learn about the state-of-the-art in the study of the H + H2 reaction family that has made this breakthrough possible. This review is also intended for those who wish to gain insight into the nature of reactive scattering resonances. Following a tour across several fields of physics and chemistry where the concept of resonance has been crucial for the understanding of new phenomena, we offer an operational definition and taxonomy of reactive scattering resonances. We introduce simple intuitive models to illustrate each resonance type. We focus next on the last decade of H + H2 reaction dynamics. Emphasis is placed on the various experimental approaches that have been applied to the search for resonance behavior in the H + H2 reaction family. We conclude by sketching the road ahead in the study of H + H2 reactive scattering resonances.

The aims of this research are to explore, develop, and apply theoretical methods for the evaluation of the dynamics of gas phase collision processes, primarily chemicalreactions. The primary theoretical tools developed for this work have been quantum scattering theory, both in time dependent and time independent forms. Over the past several years, the authors have developed and applied methods for the direct quantum evaluation of thermal rate constants, applying these to the evaluation of the hydrogen isotopic exchange reactions, applied wave packet propagation techniques to the dissociation of Rydberg H{sub 3}, incorporated optical potentials into the evaluation of thermal rate constants, evaluated the use of optical potentials for state-to-state reaction probability evaluations, and, most recently, have developed quantum approaches for electronically non-adiabatic reactions which may be applied to simplify calculations of reactive, but electronically adiabatic systems. Evaluation of the thermal rate constants and the dissociation of H{sub 3} were reported last year, and have now been published.

Experimental studies of dynamic molecular processes are described with particular emphasis on the use of a powerful infrared diode laser probe technique developed in our laboratory. This technique allows us to determine the final states of CO{sub 2} (and other molecules) produced by collisions, photofragmentation, or chemicalreactions with a spectral resolution of 0.0003 cm{sup {minus}1} and a time resolution of 10{sup {minus}7} sec. Such high spectral resolution provides a detailed picture of the vibrational and rotational states of molecules produced by these dynamic events. We have used this experimental method to probe collisions between hot hydrogen/deuterium atoms and CO{sub 2}, between O({sup 1}D) atoms and CO{sub 2}, to study the final states of DC1 molecules produced as a result of the reactions of hot Cl atoms, and to investigate the dynamics of the reaction between OH and CO molecules. Advances in our techniques over the past two years have allowed us to identify and study more than 200 final rotational states in ten different vibrational levels of CO{sub 2} encompassing all 3 normal modes, many overtones, and combination states of the molecule. We have extended the technique to probe a variety of new molecules such as OCS, N{sub 2}O, DCl, and CS{sub 2}. All of this work is aimed at providing experimental tests for polyatomic molecule potential energy surfaces, chemical transition states in complex systems, and theories of reaction dynamic in molecules with more than 3 atoms.

In living cells, chemicalreactions are connected by sharing their products and substrates, and form complex networks, e.g., metabolic pathways. Here we developed a theory to predict the sensitivity, i.e., the responses of concentrations and fluxes to perturbations of enzymes, from network structure alone. Nonzero response patterns turn out to exhibit two characteristic features, localization and hierarchy. We present a general theorem connecting sensitivity with network topology that explains these characteristic patterns. Our results imply that network topology is an origin of biological robustness. Finally, we suggest a strategy to determine real networks from experimental measurements.

The major focus of the research in this program is the study of the behavior of molecular systems confined in nanoscale environments. The goal is to develop a theoretical framework for predicting how chemicalreactions occur in nanoscale environments. To achieve this goal we have employed ab initio quantum chemistry, classical dynamics and quantum dynamics methods. Much of the research has focused on the behavior of molecules confined within single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). We have also studied interactions of small molecules with the exterior surface of SWCNTs. Nonequilibrium molecular dynamics of interfaces of sliding surface interfaces have also been performed.

One of the simulation engines of an open-source program called the Molecular Workbench, which can simulate thermodynamics of chemicalreactions, is described. This type of real-time, interactive simulation and visualization of chemicalreactions at the atomic scale could help students understand the connections between chemicalreaction equations…

Two separate gas-phase kinetics investigations were performed using a low-pressure fast-flow system with mass spectrometer detection. The first part of this research was a study of the atmospheric reactivity of diatomic sulfur, S/sub 2/. Rates of the reactions of sulfur with O, O/sub 2/, O/sub 3/, N/sub 2/O, NO, and NO/sub 2/ were investigated at 409 K and low pressure (0.89-3.0 Torr) in a discharge-flow system with mass spectrometric detection. The second investigation involves a study of the synergistic coupling of atmospheric bromine and chlorine chemistry. Recent measurements of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica have shown that the springtime ozone column decreased by 40% from 1960 to 1985. Both dynamical and chemical theories have been advanced to explain the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole. Prominent among these theories is that a synergistic interaction between gas-phase BrO and ClO radicals may be responsible for springtime ozone loss. The overall rate constant for the reaction, BrO + ClO ..-->.. Br + OClO ..-->.. Br + Cl + O/sub 2/ ..-->.. BrCl + O/sub 2/, has been measured over the temperature range 241-408 K. The rate constant for the overall reaction equals (8.2 +/- 1.0) 10/sup -12/ cm/sup 3//molecule s, independent of temperature.

For a theoretical understanding of the reactivity of complex chemical systems, accurate relative energies between intermediates and transition states are required. Despite its popularity, density functional theory (DFT) often fails to provide sufficiently accurate data, especially for molecules containing transition metals. Due to the huge number of intermediates that need to be studied for all but the simplest chemical processes, DFT is, to date, the only method that is computationally feasible. Here, we present a Bayesian framework for DFT that allows for error estimation of calculated properties. Since the optimal choice of parameters in present-day density functionals is strongly system dependent, we advocate for a system-focused reparameterization. While, at first sight, this approach conflicts with the first-principles character of DFT that should make it, in principle, system independent, we deliberately introduce system dependence to be able to assign a stochastically meaningful error to the system-dependent parametrization, which makes it nonarbitrary. By reparameterizing a functional that was derived on a sound physical basis to a chemical system of interest, we obtain a functional that yields reliable confidence intervals for reaction energies. We demonstrate our approach on the example of catalytic nitrogen fixation. PMID:27159007

This report summarizes research on the geochemical behavior of Se present in utility coal-combustion wastes. Laboratory experiments quantified select geochemical reactions that control the concentrations of selenite (SeO{sub 3}{sup 2{minus}}) and selenate (SeO{sub 4}{sup 2{minus}}) in soil solutions and groundwater and determined the magnitude and mechanisms of chemical attenuation of these species in soils and subsurface materials. Thermodynamic data, equilibrium constants, and modeling procedures were developed that to utilities to make improved predictions of the mobility of Se species from ponded and dry landfill sites. An adsorption-constant database for selenite and selenate on common soil minerals was developed. The database, which can be used to estimate the extent of Se attenuation by adsorption in utility soils, was used to determine the specific mineral phases control the adsorption of selenite (Fe oxides) and selenate (Al oxides). Solubility studies were performed with two Se solid phases that may form in the environment [BaSeO{sub 4}(c) and Fe{sub 2}(SeO{sub 3}){sub 3}{lg_bullet}6H{sub 2}0(c)] to establish upper limits on Se concentrations. New thermodynamic data were developed to allow prediction of aqueous Se concentrations where these phases may exist. Eleven soil and subsurface materials, collected nationally and representative of properties frequently encountered at waste sites, were used in experiments involving adsorption of selenite and selenate to assess their potential for Se chemical attenuation and to determine chemical and mineralogic factors that control Se adsorption. Selenite was far more strongly adsorbed by the geologic materials than the selenate. The adsorption of both Se species depended on the type of natural materials and showed positive correlation with Fe and Al oxides associated with particle surfaces. Procedures were developed to predict Se adsorption from comprehensive chemical and mineralogic characterization data.

This paper presents the analysis efficiency of a chemicalreaction model of four states, such that their activated states can occur at any point (fixed but arbitrary) of the transition from one state to another. This mechanism operates under a single heat reservoir temperature, unlike the internal combustion engines where there are two thermal sources. Different efficiencies are compared to this model, which operate at different optimum engine regimes. Thus, some analytical methods are used to give an approximate expression, facilitating the comparison between them. Finally, the result is compared with that obtained by other authors considered a general model of an isothermal molecular machine. Taking into account the above, the results seems to follow a similar behaviour for all the optimized engines, which resemble that observed in the case of heat engine efficiencies.

A silicon-based sleeve type chemicalreaction chamber that combines heaters, such as doped polysilicon for heating, and bulk silicon for convection cooling. The reaction chamber combines a critical ratio of silicon and silicon nitride to the volume of material to be heated (e.g., a liquid) in order to provide uniform heating, yet low power requirements. The reaction chamber will also allow the introduction of a secondary tube (e.g., plastic) into the reaction sleeve that contains the reaction mixture thereby alleviating any potential materials incompatibility issues. The reaction chamber may be utilized in any chemicalreaction system for synthesis or processing of organic, inorganic, or biochemical reactions, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or other DNA reactions, such as the ligase chain reaction, which are examples of a synthetic, thermal-cycling-based reaction. The reaction chamber may also be used in synthesis instruments, particularly those for DNA amplification and synthesis.

A silicon-based sleeve type chemicalreaction chamber is described that combines heaters, such as doped polysilicon for heating, and bulk silicon for convection cooling. The reaction chamber combines a critical ratio of silicon and silicon nitride to the volume of material to be heated (e.g., a liquid) in order to provide uniform heating, yet low power requirements. The reaction chamber will also allow the introduction of a secondary tube (e.g., plastic) into the reaction sleeve that contains the reaction mixture thereby alleviating any potential materials incompatibility issues. The reaction chamber may be utilized in any chemicalreaction system for synthesis or processing of organic, inorganic, or biochemical reactions, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or other DNA reactions, such as the ligase chain reaction, which are examples of a synthetic, thermal-cycling-based reaction. The reaction chamber may also be used in synthesis instruments, particularly those for DNA amplification and synthesis. 32 figs.

Plasmon-driven sequential chemicalreactions were successfully realized in an aqueous environment. In an electrochemical environment, sequential chemicalreactions were driven by an applied potential and laser irradiation. Furthermore, the rate of the chemicalreaction was controlled via pH, which provides indirect evidence that the hot electrons generated from plasmon decay play an important role in plasmon-driven chemicalreactions. In acidic conditions, the hot electrons were captured by the abundant H+ in the aqueous environment, which prevented the chemicalreaction. The developed plasmon-driven chemicalreactions in an aqueous environment will significantly expand the applications of plasmon chemistry and may provide a promising avenue for green chemistry using plasmon catalysis in aqueous environments under irradiation by sunlight. PMID:24958029

Plasmon-driven sequential chemicalreactions were successfully realized in an aqueous environment. In an electrochemical environment, sequential chemicalreactions were driven by an applied potential and laser irradiation. Furthermore, the rate of the chemicalreaction was controlled via pH, which provides indirect evidence that the hot electrons generated from plasmon decay play an important role in plasmon-driven chemicalreactions. In acidic conditions, the hot electrons were captured by the abundant H+ in the aqueous environment, which prevented the chemicalreaction. The developed plasmon-driven chemicalreactions in an aqueous environment will significantly expand the applications of plasmon chemistry and may provide a promising avenue for green chemistry using plasmon catalysis in aqueous environments under irradiation by sunlight.

It is demonstrated that a photoinitiated emulsion polymerization can be carried out to a significant conversion in a SPAR rocket prototype polymerization vessel within the six minutes allowed for the experiment. The percentage of conversion was determined by both dilatometry and gravimetric methods with good agreement. The experimental results lead to the following conclusions: (1) emulsion polymerizations can be carried out to conversions as high as 75%, using a stable micellized styrene-SLS system plus photoinitiator; (2) dilatometry can be used to accurately determine both the rate and conversion of polymerization; (3) thermal expansion due to the light source and heat of reaction is small and can be corrected for if necessary; (4) although seeded emulsion polymerizations are unfavorable in photoinitiation, as opposed to chemical initiation, polymerizations can be carried out to at least 15% conversion using 7940A seed particles, with 0.05% solids; and (5) photoinitiation should be used to initiate polymerization in the SPAR rocket experiments because of the mechanical simplicity of the experiment.

The research includes: (1) hot hydrogen atom reactions in terms of the nature of products produced, mechanism of the reactions and the implication and application of such reactions for molecules existing in interstellar clouds, in planetary atmospheres, and in chemical evolution; (2) photochemical reactions that can lead to molecules important in chemical evolution, interstellar clouds and as constituents in planetary atmospheres; and (3) spectroscopic and theoretical properties of biomolecules and their precursors and where possible, use these to understand their photochemical behavior.

Consumer products are an important target of chemical innovation. Used daily for personal hygiene, home care, disinfection and cleaning, consumer products provide a host of benefits, and also an efficient delivery vehicle for a variety of chemicals into our homes and bodies. Al...

Points out that chemical hazards are the major cause of accidents in chemical industry and describes a safety teaching approach using a simulation. Explains a problem statement on exothermic liquid-phase reactions. (YDS)

Strongly exothermic reactions can occur between equipment structural components and process gases under certain accident conditions in the diffusion enrichment cascades. This paper describes the conditions required for initiation of these reactions, and describes the range of such reactions experienced over nearly 50 years of equipment operation in the US uranium enrichment program. Factors are cited which can promote or limit the destructive extent of these reactions, and process operations are described which are designed to control the reactions to minimize equipment damage, downtime, and the possibility of material releases.

Chemicalreaction networks (CRNs) formally model chemistry in a well-mixed solution. CRNs are widely used to describe information processing occurring in natural cellular regulatory networks, and with upcoming advances in synthetic biology, CRNs are a promising language for the design of artificial molecular control circuitry. Nonetheless, despite the widespread use of CRNs in the natural sciences, the range of computational behaviors exhibited by CRNs is not well understood. CRNs have been shown to be efficiently Turing-universal (i.e., able to simulate arbitrary algorithms) when allowing for a small probability of error. CRNs that are guaranteed to converge on a correct answer, on the other hand, have been shown to decide only the semilinear predicates (a multi-dimensional generalization of “eventually periodic” sets). We introduce the notion of function, rather than predicate, computation by representing the output of a function f : ℕk → ℕl by a count of some molecular species, i.e., if the CRN starts with x1, …, xk molecules of some “input” species X1, …, Xk, the CRN is guaranteed to converge to having f(x1, …, xk) molecules of the “output” species Y1, …, Yl. We show that a function f : ℕk → ℕl is deterministically computed by a CRN if and only if its graph {(x, y) ∈ ℕk × ℕl ∣ f(x) = y} is a semilinear set. Finally, we show that each semilinear function f (a function whose graph is a semilinear set) can be computed by a CRN on input x in expected time O(polylog ∥x∥1). PMID:25383068

Semiclassical approximations, simple as well as rigorous, are formulated in order to be able to describe gas phase chemicalreactions in large systems. We formulate a simple but accurate semiclassical model for incorporating multidimensional tunneling in classical trajectory simulations. This model is based on the existence of locally conserved actions around the saddle point region on a multidimensional potential energy surface. Using classical perturbation theory and monitoring the imaginary action as a function of time along a classical trajectory we calculate state-specific unimolecular decay rates for a model two dimensional potential with coupling. Results are in good comparison with exact quantum results for the potential over a wide range of coupling constants. We propose a new semiclassical hybrid method to calculate state-to-state S-matrix elements for bimolecular reactive scattering. The accuracy of the Van Vleck-Gutzwiller propagator and the short time dynamics of the system make this method self-consistent and accurate. We also go beyond the stationary phase approximation by doing the resulting integrals exactly (numerically). As a result, classically forbidden probabilties are calculated with purely real time classical trajectories within this approach. Application to the one dimensional Eckart barrier demonstrates the accuracy of this approach. Successful application of the semiclassical hybrid approach to collinear reactive scattering is prevented by the phenomenon of chaotic scattering. The modified Filinov approach to evaluating the integrals is discussed, but application to collinear systems requires a more careful analysis. In three and higher dimensional scattering systems, chaotic scattering is suppressed and hence the accuracy and usefulness of the semiclassical method should be tested for such systems.

The objective was to obtain accurate potential energy surfaces (PES's) for a number of reactions which are important in the H/N/O combustion process. The interest in this is centered around the design of the SCRAM jet engine for the National Aerospace Plane (NASP), which was envisioned as an air-breathing hydrogen-burning vehicle capable of reaching velocities as large as Mach 25. Preliminary studies indicated that the supersonic flow in the combustor region of the scram jet engine required accurate reaction rate data for reactions in the H/N/O system, some of which was not readily available from experiment. The most important class of combustion reactions from the standpoint of the NASP project are radical recombinaton reactions, since these reactions result in most of the heat release in the combustion process. Theoretical characterizations of the potential energy surfaces for these reactions are presented and discussed.

, they performed a sensitivity analysis for velocity, height and polydispersity and compared results against literature data for experimental studies of CLC beds with no reaction. Finally, they present an optimization space using simple non-reactive configurations. In Subtask 5.3, through a series of experimental studies, behavior of a variety of oxygen carriers with different loadings and manufacturing techniques was evaluated under both oxidizing and reducing conditions. The influences of temperature, degree of carrier conversion and thermodynamic driving force resulting from the difference between equilibrium and system O{sub 2} partial pressures were evaluated through several experimental campaigns, and generalized models accounting for these influences were developed to describe oxidation and oxygen release. Conversion of three solid fuels with widely ranging reactivities was studied in a small fluidized bed system, and all but the least reactive fuel (petcoke) were rapidly converted by oxygen liberated from the CLOU carrier. Attrition propensity of a variety of carriers was also studied, and the carriers produced by freeze granulation or impregnation of preformed substrates displayed the lowest rates of attrition. Subtask 5.4 focused on gathering kinetic data for a copper-based oxygen carrier to assist with modeling of a functioning chemical looping reactor. The kinetics team was also responsible for the development and analysis of supported copper oxygen carrier material.

Consumer products are a primary source of chemical exposures, yet little structured information is available on the chemical ingredients of these products and the concentrations at which ingredients are present. To address this data gap, we created a database of chemicals in consumer products using product Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) publicly provided by a large retailer. The resulting database represents 1797 unique chemicals mapped to 8921 consumer products and a hierarchy of 353 consumer product "use categories" within a total of 15 top-level categories. We examine the utility of this database and discuss ways in which it will support (i) exposure screening and prioritization, (ii) generic or framework formulations for several indoor/consumer product exposure modeling initiatives, (iii) candidate chemical selection for monitoring near field exposure from proximal sources, and (iv) as activity tracers or ubiquitous exposure sources using "chemical space" map analyses. Chemicals present at high concentrations and across multiple consumer products and use categories that hold high exposure potential are identified. Our database is publicly available to serve regulators, retailers, manufacturers, and the public for predictive screening of chemicals in new and existing consumer products on the basis of exposure and risk. PMID:24374094

This paper aims at discussing new facets on stereodynamical behaviors in chemicalreactions, i.e. the effects of molecular orientation and alignment on reactive processes. Further topics on macroscopic processes involving deviations from Arrhenius behavior in the temperature dependence of chemicalreactions and chirality effects in collisions are also discussed.

On the basis of special relativity and the classical theory of chemicalreaction rates it is shown how the surface chemicalreaction rates vary as v --> c, where v is the velocity of the object under study and c is the velocity of light. PMID:15178286

General chemical kinetics computer program for complex gas mixtures has been developed. Program can be used for any homogeneous reaction in either one dimensional flow or static system. It is flexible, accurate, and easy to use. It can be used for any chemical system for which species thermodynamic data and reaction rate constant data are known.

Analyzes the algebraic method for balancing chemicalreactions. Introduces a third general condition that involves a balance between the total amount of oxidation and reduction. Requires the specification of oxidation states for all elements throughout the reaction. Describes the general conditions, the mathematical treatment, redox reactions, and…

A simplified model of heat transfer and chemicalreaction has been adapted to evaluate the expected behavior of droplets containing unreacted Zircaloy and stainless steel moving through the containment atmosphere during postulated accidents involving direct containment heating. The model includes internal and external diffusive resistances to reaction. The results indicate that reactions will be incomplete for many conditions characteristic of direct containment heating sequences.

The chemical research in the late 1990's witnessed a paradigm shift towards "environmentally-friendly chemistry" more popularly known as "green chemistry" due to the increasing environmental concerns and legislative requirements to curb the release of chemical waste into the atmo...

Presents a discussion of some of the fundamental concepts in thermodynamics and quantum mechanics including entropy, enthalpy, free energy, the partition function, chemical kinetics, transition state theory, the making and breaking of chemical bonds, electronegativity, ion sizes, intermolecular energies and of their role in explaining the nature…

A new global potential energy surface (PES) is being generated for O(P-3) + H2 yields OH + H. This surface is being fit using the rotated Morse oscillator method, which was used to fit the previous POL-CI surface. The new surface is expected to be more accurate and also includes a much more complete sampling of bent geometries. A new study has been undertaken of the reaction N + O2 yields NO + O. The new studies have focused on the region of the surface near a possible minimum corresponding to the peroxy form of NOO. A large portion of the PES for this second reaction has been mapped out. Since state to state cross sections for the reaction are important in the chemistry of high temperature air, these studies will probably be extended to permit generation of a new global potential for reaction.

Provides an overview of an experiment on reaction kinetics of the anthracene-hydrogen system. Includes a description of the laboratory equipment, procedures, and data analysis requirements. Points out the advantages of the recommended technique. (ML)

In part I of the paper the theory of flame propagation is developed along the lines followed by Frank-Kamenetsky and one of the writers. The development of chain processes in flames is considered. A basis is given for the application of the method of stationary concentrations to reactions in flames; reactions with branching chains are analyzed. The case of a diffusion coefficient different from the coefficient of temperature conductivity is considered.

Consumer products are a primary source of chemical exposures, yet little structured information is available on the chemical ingredients of these products and the concentrations at which ingredients are present. To address this data gap, we created a database of chemicals in cons...

We have introduced an approach to nonequilibrium thermodynamics of an open chemicalreaction network in terms of the propensities of the individual elementary reactions and the corresponding reverse reactions. The method is a microscopic formulation of the dissipation function in terms of the relative entropy or Kullback-Leibler distance which is based on the analogy of phase space trajectory with the path of elementary reactions in a network of chemical process. We have introduced here a fluctuation theorem valid for each opposite pair of elementary reactions which is useful in determining the contribution of each sub-reaction on the nonequilibrium thermodynamics of overall reaction. The methodology is applied to an oligomeric enzyme kinetics at a chemiostatic condition that leads the reaction to a nonequilibrium steady state for which we have estimated how each step of the reaction is energy driven or entropy driven to contribute to the overall reaction.

The work on the NH + NO system which was described in the last progress report was written up and a draft of the manuscript is included in the appendix. The appendix also contains a draft of a manuscript on an Ar + H + H surface. New work which was completed in the last six months includes the following: (1) calculations on the (1)CH2 + H2O, H2 + HCOH, and H2 + H2CO product channels in the CH3 + OH reaction; (2) calculations for the NH2 + O reaction; (3) calculations for the CH3 + O2 reaction; and (4) calculations for CH3O and the two decomposition channels--CH2OH and H + H2CO. Detailed descriptions of this work will be given in manuscripts; however, brief descriptions of the CH3 + OH and CH3 + O2 projects are given.

Reaction rate data were collected for chemicalreactions occurring at high temperatures during reentry of space vehicles. The principle of detailed balancing is used in modeling kinetics of chemicalreactions at high temperatures. Although this principle does not hold for certain transient or incubation times in the initial phase of the reaction, it does seem to be valid for the rates of internal energy transitions that occur within molecules and atoms. That is, for every rate of transition within the internal energy states of atoms or molecules, there is an inverse rate that is related through an equilibrium expression involving the energy difference of the transition.

We examine theoretically a new idea for spatial and temporal control of chemicalreactions. When chemicalreactions take place in a mixture of solvents, an external electric field can alter the local mixture composition, thereby accelerating or decelerating the rate of reaction. The spatial distribution of electric field strength can be non-trivial and depends on the arrangement of the electrodes producing it. In the absence of electric field, the mixture is homogeneous and the reaction takes place uniformly in the reactor volume. When an electric field is applied, the solvents separate and the reactants are concentrated in the same phase or separate to different phases, depending on their relative miscibility in the solvents, and this can have a large effect on the kinetics of the reaction. This method could provide an alternative way to control runaway reactions and to increase the reaction rate without using catalysts.

We examine theoretically a new idea for spatial and temporal control of chemicalreactions. When chemicalreactions take place in a mixture of solvents, an external electric field can alter the local mixture composition, thereby accelerating or decelerating the rate of reaction. The spatial distribution of electric field strength can be non-trivial and depends on the arrangement of the electrodes producing it. In the absence of electric field, the mixture is homogeneous and the reaction takes place uniformly in the reactor volume. When an electric field is applied, the solvents separate and the reactants are concentrated in the same phase or separate to different phases, depending on their relative miscibility in the solvents, and this can have a large effect on the kinetics of the reaction. This method could provide an alternative way to control runaway reactions and to increase the reaction rate without using catalysts. PMID:27208928

An undercover agent: graphene has been used as an imaging agent to visualize interfacial reactions under its cover, and exhibits a strong confinement effect on the chemistry of molecules underneath. In a CO atmosphere, CO penetrates into the graphene/Pt(111) interface and reacts with O(2) therein, whereas intercalated CO desorbs from the Pt surface. PMID:22492473

Discusses methods that can be used to encourage students to use chemical principles to evaluate claims made in advertising. Considers weight loss diets, structure and properties, and reproducibility of evidence. (CW)

Synthetic organic chemicals can be used in personal care and consumer products. Data on potential human health effects of these chemicals are limited-sometimes even contradictory-but because several of these chemicals are toxic in experimental animals, alternative compounds are entering consumer markets. Nevertheless, limited information exists on consequent exposure trends to both the original chemicals and their replacements. Biomonitoring (measuring concentrations of chemicals or their metabolites in people) provides invaluable information for exposure assessment. We use phthalates and bisphenol A-known industrial chemicals-and organophosphate insecticides as case studies to show exposure trends to these chemicals and their replacements (e.g., other phthalates, non-phthalate plasticizers, various bisphenols, pyrethroid insecticides) among the US general population. We compare US trends to national trends from Canada and Germany. Exposure to the original compounds is still prevalent among these general populations, but exposures to alternative chemicals may be increasing. PMID:26342608

Describes an empirical study concerning the introduction of the concept of chemical equilibrium in chemistry classrooms in a way which challenges students' initial conceptions of chemicalreactions. Contains 23 references. (DDR)

This laboratory manual, part of a series of instruction books on basic experimental chemistry, is designed to provide the secondary school students of developing countries in Asia with laboratory experiences that bring out the fundamental concepts and ideas of chemical kinetics. Taking into consideration the possibility of limited facilities of…

A manuscript describing the calculations on the (1)CH2 + H2O, H2 + HCOH, and H2 + H2CO product channels in the CH3 + OH reaction, which were described in the last progress report, has been accepted for publication in J. Chem. Phys., and a copy of the manuscript is included in the appendix. The production of (1)CH2 in this reaction is important in hydrocarbon combustion since (1)CH2 is highly reactive and would be expected to insert into N2, possibly leading to a new source for prompt NO(x) (vide infra). During the last six months new calculations have been carried out for the NH2 + NO system, which is important in the thermal de-NO(x) process.

The treatment and effects of chemicalreaction kinetics during metamorphism are developed along with the incorporation of fluid flow, diffusion, and thermal evolution. The interplay of fluid flow and surface reaction rates, the distinction between steady state and equilibrium, and the possible overstepping of metamorphic reactions are discussed using a simple analytic model. This model serves as an introduction to the second part of the paper, which develops a reaction model that solves the coupled temperature-fluid flow-chemical composition differential equations relevant to metamorphic processes. Consideration of stable isotopic evidence requires that such a kinetic model be considered for the chemical evolution of a metamorphic aureole. A general numerical scheme is discussed to handle the solution of the model. The results of this kinetic model allow us to reach several important conclusions regarding the factors controlling the chemical evolution of mineral assemblages during a metamorphic event. 41 refs., 19 figs., 5 tabs.

Recent literature concerning the modeling of chemicalreactions during transport in ground water is examined with emphasis on sorption reactions. The theory of transport and reactions in porous media has been well documented. Numerous equations have been developed from this theory, to provide both continuous and sequential or multistep models, with the water phase considered for both mobile and immobile phases. Chemicalreactions can be either equilibrium or non-equilibrium, and can be quantified in linear or non-linear mathematical forms. Non-equilibrium reactions can be separated into kinetic and diffusional rate-limiting mechanisms. Solutions to the equations are available by either analytical expressions or numerical techniques. Saturated and unsaturated batch, column, and field studies are discussed with one-dimensional, laboratory-column experiments predominating. A summary table is presented that references the various kinds of models studied and their applications in predicting chemical concentrations in ground waters.

Chemicalreactions of organic compounds including pesticides at the interlayer and exterior surfaces of clay minerals and with soil organic matter are reviewed. Representative reactions under moderate conditions possibly occurring in natural soils are described. Attempts have been made to clarify the importance of the chemical nature of molecules, their structures and their functional groups, and the Brönsted or Lewis acidity of clay minerals. PMID:2533556

Phthalates have been detected in various types of retail foods. Consumers' exposure to phthalates is common. Consumers are concerned about chemicals in food. Our aim was to investigate the relationships between consumers' exposure to phthalates through food, consumers' interest in a natural and healthy diet, risk perception of food chemicals, and consumers' diet patterns. We collected data through a mail survey in the adult Swiss-German population (N = 1,200). We modeled exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP) based on a food frequency questionnaire and phthalate concentrations reported from food surveys. Using rating scales, we assessed risk perceptions of chemicals in food and interest in a natural and healthy diet. Higher risk perceptions and higher natural and healthy diet interest were associated with higher daily doses of DEHP, BBP, and DEP. No health risk from phthalates in food was identified for the vast majority of the population. Four consumers' diet clusters were discerned, with differences in phthalate exposure, risk perceptions, and interest in a natural and healthy diet. This study shows that even those consumers who express strong interest in natural food and low acceptance of food chemicals, and who try to make respective food choices, are exposed to contaminants such as phthalates. PMID:19392672

Leidenfrost levitated droplets can be used to accelerate chemicalreactions in processes that appear similar to reaction acceleration in charged microdroplets produced by electrospray ionization. Reaction acceleration in Leidenfrost droplets is demonstrated for a base-catalyzed Claisen-Schmidt condensation, hydrazone formation from precharged and neutral ketones, and for the Katritzky pyrylium into pyridinium conversion under various reaction conditions. Comparisons with bulk reactions gave intermediate acceleration factors (2-50). By keeping the volume of the Leidenfrost droplets constant, it was shown that interfacial effects contribute to acceleration; this was confirmed by decreased reaction rates in the presence of a surfactant. The ability to multiplex Leidenfrost microreactors, to extract product into an immiscible solvent during reaction, and to use Leidenfrost droplets as reaction vessels to synthesize milligram quantities of product is also demonstrated. PMID:27465311

Thermodynamics plays an increasingly important role in modeling and engineering metabolism. We present the first nonempirical computational method for estimating standard Gibbs reaction energies of metabolic reactions based on quantum chemistry, which can help fill in the gaps in the existing thermodynamic data. When applied to a test set of reactions from core metabolism, the quantum chemical approach is comparable in accuracy to group contribution methods for isomerization and group transfer reactions and for reactions not including multiply charged anions. The errors in standard Gibbs reaction energy estimates are correlated with the charges of the participating molecules. The quantum chemical approach is amenable to systematic improvements and holds potential for providing thermodynamic data for all of metabolism.

Solar energy can be used for driving endothermic reactions, either photochemically or thermally. The fraction of the solar spectrum that can be photochemically active is quite small. Therefore, it is desirable to be able to combine photochemical and thermal processes in order to increase the overall efficiency. Two thermally driven reactions are being studied: oil shale gasification and methane reforming. In both cases, the major part of the work was done in opaque metal reactors where photochemical reactions cannot take place. We then proceeded working in transparent quartz reactors. The results are preliminary, but they seem to indicate that there may be some photochemical enhancement. The experimental solar facilities used for this work include the 30 kW Schaeffer Solar Furnace and the 3 MW Solar Central Receiver in operation at the Weizmann Institute. The furnace consists of a 96 sq. m flat heliostat, that follows the sun by computer control. It reflects the solar radiation onto a spherical concentrator, 7.3 m in diameter, with a rim angle of 65 degrees. The furnace was characterized by radiometric and calorimetric measurements to show a solar concentration ratio of over 10,000 suns. The central receiver consists of 64 concave heliostats, 54 sq. m each, arranged in a north field and facing a 52 m high tower. The tower has five target levels that can be used simultaneously. The experiments with the shale gasification were carried out at the lowest level, 20 m above ground, which has the lowest solar efficiency and is assigned for low power experiments. We used secondary concentrators to boost the solar flux.

A method for cutting with a laser beam where an oxygen-hydrocarbon reaction is used to provide auxiliary energy to a metal workpiece to supplement the energy supplied by the laser. Oxygen is supplied to the laser focus point on the workpiece by a nozzle through which the laser beam also passes. A liquid hydrocarbon is supplied by coating the workpiece along the cutting path with the hydrocarbon prior to laser irradiation or by spraying a stream of hydrocarbon through a nozzle aimed at a point on the cutting path which is just ahead of the focus point during irradiation.

A method is described for cutting with a laser beam where an oxygen-hydrocarbon reaction is used to provide auxiliary energy to a metal workpiece to supplement the energy supplied by the laser. Oxygen is supplied to the laser focus point on the workpiece by a nozzle through which the laser beam also passes. A liquid hydrocarbon is supplied by coating the workpiece along the cutting path with the hydrocarbon prior to laser irradiation or by spraying a stream of hydrocarbon through a nozzle aimed at a point on the cutting path which is just ahead of the focus point during irradiation. 1 figure.

This invention is comprised of a method for cutting with a laser beam where an oxygen-hydrocarbon reaction is used to provide auxiliary energy to a metal workpiece to supplement the energy supplied by the laser. Oxygen is supplied to the laser focus point on the workpiece by a nozzle through which the laser beam also passes. A liquid hydrocarbon is supplied by coating the workpiece along the cutting path with the hydrocarbon prior to laser irradiation or by spraying a stream of hydrocarbon through a nozzle aimed at a point on the cutting path which is just ahead of the focus point during irradiation.

Chemicalreaction kinetics and equilibrium are essential core concepts of chemistry but are challenging topics for many students, both at the high school and undergraduate university level. Visualization at the molecular level is valuable to aid understanding of reaction kinetics and equilibrium. This activity provides a discovery-based method to…

Modern computational methods have become so powerful for predicting the outcome for the H + H2 → H2 + H bimolecular exchange reaction that it might seem further experiments are not needed. Nevertheless, experiments have led the way to cause theorists to look more deeply into this simplest of all chemicalreactions. The findings are less simple. PMID:24367084

Bioorthogonal chemicalreactions are paving the way for new innovations in biology. These reactions possess extreme selectivity and biocompatibility, such that their participating reagents can form covalent bonds within richly functionalized biological systems—in some cases, living organisms. This tutorial review will summarize the history of this emerging field, as well as recent progress in the development and application of bioorthogonal copper-free click cycloaddition reactions. PMID:20349533

In this Brief Report, we show that balanced chemicalreaction systems governed by the law of mass action have an elegant conservation-dissipation structure. From this structure a number of important conclusions can be easily deduced. In particular, with the help of this structure we can rigorously justify the classical partial equilibrium approximation in chemical kinetics. PMID:23368081

A survey of faculty teaching the chemicalreaction engineering course or sequence during the 2009-2010 academic year at chemical engineering programs in the United States and Canada reveals change in terms of content, timing, and approaches to teaching. The report consists of two parts: first, a statistical and demographic characterization of the…

Gillespie's exact stochastic simulation algorithm (SSA) [J. Phys. Chem. 81, 2350 (1977)] has been widely used to simulate the stochastic dynamics of chemically reacting systems. In this algorithm, it is assumed that all reactions occur instantly. While this is true in many cases, it is also possible that some chemicalreactions, such as gene transcription and translation in living cells, take certain time to finish after they are initiated. Thus, the product of such reactions will emerge after certain delays. Apparently, Gillespie's SSA is not an exact algorithm for chemicalreaction systems with delays. In this paper, the author develops an exact SSA for chemicalreaction systems with delays, based upon the same fundamental premise of stochastic kinetics used by Gillespie in the development of his SSA. He then shows that an algorithm modified from Gillespie's SSA by Barrio et al. [PLOS Comput. Biol. 2, 1017 (2006)] is also an exact SSA for chemicalreaction systems with delays, but it needs to generate more random variables than the author's algorithm.

A detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanism for the combustion of propane is presented and discussed. The mechanism consists of 27 chemical species and 83 elementary chemicalreactions. Ignition and combustion data as determined in shock tube studies were used to evaluate the mechanism. Numerical simulation of the shock tube experiments showed that the kinetic behavior predicted by the mechanism for stoichiometric mixtures is in good agrement with the experimental results over the entire temperature range examined (1150-2600K). Sensitivity and theoretical studies carried out using the mechanism revealed that hydrocarbon reactions which are involved in the formation of the HO2 radical and the H2O2 molecule are very important in the mechanism and that the observed nonlinear behavior of ignition delay time with decreasing temperature can be interpreted in terms of the increased importance of the HO2 and H2O2 reactions at the lower temperatures.

The dynamics of a rising bubble under the action of gravity and in the presence of an exothermic chemicalreaction at the interface is investigated via direct numerical simulation using Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) method. The product of the chemicalreaction, and temperature rise due to the exothermic chemicalreaction influence the local viscosity and surface tension near the interfacial region, which in turn give rise to many interesting dynamics. The flow is governed by continuity, Navier-Stokes equations along with the convection equation of the volume fraction of the outer fluid and the energy equation. The effects of the Bond, Damkohler, and Reynolds numbers, and of the dimensionless heat of reaction are investigated. The results of this parametric study will be presented at the meeting.

Large databases of chemicalreactions provide new data-mining opportunities and challenges. Key challenges result from the imperfect quality of the data and the fact that many of these reactions are not properly balanced or atom-mapped. Here, we describe ReactionMap, an efficient atom-mapping algorithm. Our approach uses a combination of maximum common chemical subgraph search and minimization of an assignment cost function derived empirically from training data. We use a set of over 259,000 balanced atom-mapped reactions from the SPRESI commercial database to train the system, and we validate it on random sets of 1000 and 17,996 reactions sampled from this pool. These large test sets represent a broad range of chemicalreaction types, and ReactionMap correctly maps about 99% of the atoms and about 96% of the reactions, with a mean time per mapping of 2 s. Most correctly mapped reactions are mapped with high confidence. Mapping accuracy compares favorably with ChemAxon's AutoMapper, versions 5 and 6.1, and the DREAM Web tool. These approaches correctly map 60.7%, 86.5%, and 90.3% of the reactions, respectively, on the same data set. A ReactionMap server is available on the ChemDB Web portal at http://cdb.ics.uci.edu . PMID:24160861

Many chemicalreactions of environmental significance involve reactants or end products that exchange with the atmosphere. The transferable constituents are the atmospheric gases--oxygen, carbon dioxide, and, to a more limited degree, nitrogen--and volatile substances that are not usually present in the atmosphere, such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Reactions of this type have many applications in natural water systems, as well as water and waste treatment processes. It is the general purpose of this paper to present a mathematical approach to the analysis of these reactions and to demonstrate the application to various environmental problems. Both variable and constant pH conditions are addressed. The latter frequently characterizes laboratory experiments in batch reactions, in which a constant pH is maintained. The former is commonly present in natural waters, in which the pH changes through the course of the chemicalreaction.

The minimum energy path for the addition of a hydrogen atom to N2 is characterized in CASSCF/CCI calculations using the (4s3p2d1f/3s2p1d) basis set, with additional single point calculations at the stationary points of the potential energy surface using the (5s4p3d2f/4s3p2d) basis set. These calculations represent the most extensive set of ab initio calculations completed to date, yielding a zero point corrected barrier for HN2 dissociation of approx. 8.5 kcal mol/1. The lifetime of the HN2 species is estimated from the calculated geometries and energetics using both conventional Transition State Theory and a method which utilizes an Eckart barrier to compute one dimensional quantum mechanical tunneling effects. It is concluded that the lifetime of the HN2 species is very short, greatly limiting its role in both termolecular recombination reactions and combustion processes.

Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) is one promising fuel-combustion technology, which can facilitate economic CO2 capture in coal-fired power plants. It employs the oxidation/reduction characteristics of a metal, or oxygen carrier, and its oxide, the oxidizing gas (typically air) and the fuel source may be kept separate. This work focused on two classes of oxygen carrier, one that merely undergoes a change in oxidation state, such as Fe3O4/Fe2O3 and one that is converted from its higher to its lower oxidation state by the release of oxygen on heating, i.e., CuO/Cu2O. This topical report discusses the results of four complementary efforts: (1) the development of process and economic models to optimize important design considerations, such as oxygen carrier circulation rate, temperature, residence time; (2) the development of high-performance simulation capabilities for fluidized beds and the collection, parameter identification, and preliminary verification/uncertainty quantification (3) the exploration of operating characteristics in the laboratory-scale bubbling bed reactor, with a focus on the oxygen carrier performance, including reactivity, oxygen carrying capacity, attrition resistance, resistance to deactivation, cost and availability (4) the identification of mechanisms and rates for the copper, cuprous oxide, and cupric oxide system using thermogravimetric analysis.

The combination of chemoinformatics approaches with NMR techniques and the increasing availability of data allow the resolution of problems far beyond the original application of NMR in structure elucidation/verification. The diversity of applications can range from process monitoring, metabolic profiling, authentication of products, to quality control. An application related to the automatic analysis of complex mixtures concerns mixtures of chemicalreactions. We encoded mixtures of chemicalreactions with the difference between the (1)H NMR spectra of the products and the reactants. All the signals arising from all the reactants of the co-occurring reactions were taken together (a simulated spectrum of the mixture of reactants) and the same was done for products. The difference spectrum is taken as the representation of the mixture of chemicalreactions. A data set of 181 chemicalreactions was used, each reaction manually assigned to one of 6 types. From this dataset, we simulated mixtures where two reactions of different types would occur simultaneously. Automatic learning methods were trained to classify the reactions occurring in a mixture from the (1)H NMR-based descriptor of the mixture. Unsupervised learning methods (self-organizing maps) produced a reasonable clustering of the mixtures by reaction type, and allowed the correct classification of 80% and 63% of the mixtures in two independent test sets of different similarity to the training set. With random forests (RF), the percentage of correct classifications was increased to 99% and 80% for the same test sets. The RF probability associated to the predictions yielded a robust indication of their reliability. This study demonstrates the possibility of applying machine learning methods to automatically identify types of co-occurring chemicalreactions from NMR data. Using no explicit structural information about the reactions participants, reaction elucidation is performed without structure elucidation of

The combination of chemoinformatics approaches with NMR techniques and the increasing availability of data allow the resolution of problems far beyond the original application of NMR in structure elucidation/verification. The diversity of applications can range from process monitoring, metabolic profiling, authentication of products, to quality control. An application related to the automatic analysis of complex mixtures concerns mixtures of chemicalreactions. We encoded mixtures of chemicalreactions with the difference between the 1H NMR spectra of the products and the reactants. All the signals arising from all the reactants of the co-occurring reactions were taken together (a simulated spectrum of the mixture of reactants) and the same was done for products. The difference spectrum is taken as the representation of the mixture of chemicalreactions. A data set of 181 chemicalreactions was used, each reaction manually assigned to one of 6 types. From this dataset, we simulated mixtures where two reactions of different types would occur simultaneously. Automatic learning methods were trained to classify the reactions occurring in a mixture from the 1H NMR-based descriptor of the mixture. Unsupervised learning methods (self-organizing maps) produced a reasonable clustering of the mixtures by reaction type, and allowed the correct classification of 80% and 63% of the mixtures in two independent test sets of different similarity to the training set. With random forests (RF), the percentage of correct classifications was increased to 99% and 80% for the same test sets. The RF probability associated to the predictions yielded a robust indication of their reliability. This study demonstrates the possibility of applying machine learning methods to automatically identify types of co-occurring chemicalreactions from NMR data. Using no explicit structural information about the reactions participants, reaction elucidation is performed without structure elucidation of the

Since the identification of the OH radical as an interstellar species, over 50 molecular species were identified as interstellar denizens. While identification of new species appears straightforward, an explanation for their mechanisms of formation is not. Most astronomers concede that large bodies like interstellar dust grains are necessary for adsorption of molecules and their energies of reactions, but many of the mechanistic steps are unknown and speculative. It is proposed that data from matrix isolation experiments involving the reactions of refractory materials (especially C, Si, and Fe atoms and clusters) with small molecules (mainly H2, H2O, CO, CO2) are particularly applicable to explaining mechanistic details of likely interstellar chemicalreactions. In many cases, matrix isolation techniques are the sole method of studying such reactions; also in many cases, complexations and bond rearrangements yield molecules never before observed. The study of these reactions thus provides a logical basis for the mechanisms of interstellar reactions. A list of reactions is presented that would simulate interstellar chemicalreactions. These reactions were studied using FTIR-matrix isolation techniques.

One of the most attractive hypothesis for the origin of homochirality in terrestrial bio-organic compounds (L-amino acid and D-sugar dominant) is nominated as "Cosmic Scenario"; a chiral impulse from asymmetric excitation sources in space triggered asymmetric reactions on the surfaces of such space materials as meteorites or interstellar dusts prior to the existence of terrestrial life. 1) Effective asymmetric excitation sources in space are proposed as polarized quantum beams, such as circularly polarized light and spin polarized electrons. Circularly polarized light is emitted as synchrotron radiation from tightly captured electrons by intense magnetic field around neutron stars. In this case, either left-or right-handed polarized light can be observed depending on the direction of observation. On the other hand, spin polarized electrons is emitted as beta-ray in beta decay from radioactive nuclei or neutron fireballs in supernova explosion. 2) The spin of beta-ray electrons is longitudinally polarized due to parity non-conservation in the weak interaction. The helicity (the the projection of the spin onto the direction of kinetic momentum) of beta-ray electrons is universally negative (left-handed). For the purpose of verifying the asymmetric structure emergence in bio-organic compounds by polarized quantum beams, we are now carrying out laboratory simulations using circularly polarized light from synchrotron radiation facility or spin polarized electron beam from beta-ray radiation source. 3,4) The target samples are solid film or aqueous solution of racemic amino acids. 1) K.Kobayashi, K.Kaneko, J.Takahashi, Y.Takano, in Astrobiology: from simple molecules to primitive life; Ed. V.Basiuk; American Scientific Publisher: Valencia, 2008. 2) G.A.Gusev, T.Saito, V.A.Tsarev, A.V.Uryson, Origins Life Evol. Biosphere. 37, 259 (2007). 3) J.Takahashi, H.Shinojima, M.Seyama, Y.Ueno, T.Kaneko, K.Kobayashi, H.Mita, M.Adachi, M.Hosaka, M.Katoh, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 10, 3044

Many hazardous atmospheric releases involve chemicalreactions that occur within a few kilometers of the source. Reactions with commonly occurring atmospheric compounds such as the OH radical, can transform and potentially neutralize original release compounds. Especially in these cases, accurately resolving flow around nearby structures and over surrounding topography can be critical to correctly predicting material dispersion, and thus, the extent of any hazard. Accurate prediction of material dispersion around complex geometries near the source of an atmospheric release requires high-resolution computation. Further complications arise if the compounds released undergo chemicalreactions which could alter the extent of the main plume. The reaction products form dispersion patterns separate from, and often more complicated than, the original plume. Directions for future work include expanding the library of chemicalreaction mechanisms, adding capabilities for aqueous and heterogeneous reactions, and integrating this model within larger-scale models. We plan that the larger-scale models will provide meteorological and chemical boundary conditions, and that this model could provide a source term in larger-scale models, both for momentum and for dispersed compounds.

Recently, a new metaheuristic called chemicalreaction optimization was proposed. This search algorithm, inspired by chemicalreactions launched during collisions, inherits several features from other metaheuristics such as simulated annealing and particle swarm optimization. This fact has made it, nowadays, one of the most powerful search algorithms in solving mono-objective optimization problems. In this paper, we propose a multiobjective variant of chemicalreaction optimization, called nondominated sorting chemicalreaction optimization, in an attempt to exploit chemicalreaction optimization features in tackling problems involving multiple conflicting criteria. Since our approach is based on nondominated sorting, one of the main contributions of this paper is the proposal of a new quasi-linear average time complexity quick nondominated sorting algorithm; thereby making our multiobjective algorithm efficient from a computational cost viewpoint. The experimental comparisons against several other multiobjective algorithms on a variety of benchmark problems involving various difficulties show the effectiveness and the efficiency of this multiobjective version in providing a well-converged and well-diversified approximation of the Pareto front. PMID:25373137

Reaction Mechanism Generator (RMG) constructs kinetic models composed of elementary chemicalreaction steps using a general understanding of how molecules react. Species thermochemistry is estimated through Benson group additivity and reaction rate coefficients are estimated using a database of known rate rules and reaction templates. At its core, RMG relies on two fundamental data structures: graphs and trees. Graphs are used to represent chemical structures, and trees are used to represent thermodynamic and kinetic data. Models are generated using a rate-based algorithm which excludes species from the model based on reaction fluxes. RMG can generate reaction mechanisms for species involving carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. It also has capabilities for estimating transport and solvation properties, and it automatically computes pressure-dependent rate coefficients and identifies chemically-activated reaction paths. RMG is an object-oriented program written in Python, which provides a stable, robust programming architecture for developing an extensible and modular code base with a large suite of unit tests. Computationally intensive functions are cythonized for speed improvements.

The electronic transfer that occurs during a chemical process is analysed in term of a new concept, the electronic flux, that allows characterizing the regions along the reaction coordinate where electron transfer is actually taking place. The electron flux is quantified through the variation of the electronic chemical potential with respect to the reaction coordinate and is used, together with the reaction force, to shed light on reaction mechanism of the Schiff base formation in the Maillard reaction. By partitioning the reaction coordinate in regions in which different process might be taking place, electronic reordering associated to polarization and transfer has been identified and found to be localized at specific transition state regions where most bond forming and breaking occur.

Based on a survey with members of an online consumer panel (N= 699), this study revealed that: (a) a substantial percentage of consumers held misperceptions about the chemical imbalance theory of depression; (b) personal and interpersonal experiences with depression positively related to such misperceptions; (c) overall, exposure to direct-to-consumer (DTC) antidepressant advertising did not significantly relate to misperceptions; and (d) DTC exposure magnified misperceptions when consumers were highly trustful of DTC advertising, whereas exposure diluted misperceptions when consumers were highly skeptical. Theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed, especially in light of the social responsibility of DTC advertising. PMID:24308414

Finding transition paths for chemicalreactions can be computationally costly owing to the level of quantum-chemical theory needed for accuracy. Here, we show that a multilevel preconditioning scheme that was recently introduced (Tempkin et al. J. Chem. Phys.2014, 140, 184114) can be used to accelerate quantum-chemical string calculations. We demonstrate the method by finding minimum-energy paths for two well-characterized reactions: tautomerization of malonaldehyde and Claissen rearrangement of chorismate to prephanate. For these reactions, we show that preconditioning density functional theory (DFT) with a semiempirical method reduces the computational cost for reaching a converged path that is an optimum under DFT by several fold. The approach also shows promise for free energy calculations when thermal noise can be controlled. PMID:25516726

Finding transition paths for chemicalreactions can be computationally costly owing to the level of quantum-chemical theory needed for accuracy. Here, we show that a multilevel preconditioning scheme that was recently introduced (Tempkin et al. J. Chem. Phys. 2014, 140, 184114) can be used to accelerate quantum-chemical string calculations. We demonstrate the method by finding minimum-energy paths for two well-characterized reactions: tautomerization of malonaldehyde and Claissen rearrangement of chorismate to prephanate. For these reactions, we show that preconditioning density functional theory (DFT) with a semiempirical method reduces the computational cost for reaching a converged path that is an optimum undermore » DFT by several fold. In conclusion, the approach also shows promise for free energy calculations when thermal noise can be controlled.« less

Finding transition paths for chemicalreactions can be computationally costly owing to the level of quantum-chemical theory needed for accuracy. Here, we show that a multilevel preconditioning scheme that was recently introduced (Tempkin et al. J. Chem. Phys. 2014, 140, 184114) can be used to accelerate quantum-chemical string calculations. We demonstrate the method by finding minimum-energy paths for two well-characterized reactions: tautomerization of malonaldehyde and Claissen rearrangement of chorismate to prephanate. For these reactions, we show that preconditioning density functional theory (DFT) with a semiempirical method reduces the computational cost for reaching a converged path that is an optimum under DFT by several fold. In conclusion, the approach also shows promise for free energy calculations when thermal noise can be controlled.

The detailed behavior of many molecular processes in the cell, such as protein folding, protein complex assembly, and gene regulation, transcription and translation, can often be accurately captured by stochastic chemical kinetic models. We investigate a novel computational problem involving these models – that of finding the most-probable sequence of reactions that connects two or more states of the system observed at different times. We describe an efficient method for computing the probability of a given reaction sequence, but argue that computing most-probable reaction sequences is EXPSPACE-hard. We develop exact (exhaustive) and approximate algorithms for finding most-probable reaction sequences. We evaluate these methods on test problems relating to a recently-proposed stochastic model of folding of the Trp-cage peptide. Our results provide new computational tools for analyzing stochastic chemical models, and demonstrate their utility in illuminating the behavior of real-world systems. PMID:21629860

The IUPAC International Chemical Identifier (InChI) provides a method to generate a unique text descriptor of molecular structures. Building on this work, we report a process to generate a unique text descriptor for reactions, RInChI. By carefully selecting the information that is included and by ordering the data carefully, different scientists studying the same reaction should produce the same RInChI. If differences arise, these are most likely the minor layers of the InChI, and so may be readily handled. RInChI provides a concise description of the key data in a chemicalreaction, and will help enable the rapid searching and analysis of reaction databases. PMID:24152584

The present invention is directed toward monitoring a thermally driven gas evolving chemicalreaction with an acoustic apparatus. Signals from the acoustic apparatus are used to control a heater to prevent a run-away condition. A digestion module in combination with a robotic arm further automate physical handling of sample material reaction vessels. The invention is especially useful for carrying out sample procedures defined in EPA Methods SW-846. 8 figs.

The present invention is directed toward monitoring a thermally driven gas evolving chemicalreaction with an acoustic apparatus. Signals from the acoustic apparatus are used to control a heater to prevent a run-away condition. A digestion module in combination with a robotic arm further automate physical handling of sample material reaction vessels. The invention is especially useful for carrying out sample procedures defined in EPA Methods SW-846.

A treatment of a chemicalreaction network theory is given from the perspective of nonlinear network dynamics, in particular of consensus dynamics. By starting from the complex-balanced assumption, the reaction dynamics governed by mass action kinetics can be rewritten into a form which allows for a very simple derivation of a number of key results in the chemicalreaction network theory, and which directly relates to the thermodynamics and port-Hamiltonian formulation of the system. Central in this formulation is the definition of a balanced Laplacian matrix on the graph of chemical complexes together with a resulting fundamental inequality. This immediately leads to the characterisation of the set of equilibria and their stability. Furthermore, the assumption of complex balancedness is revisited from the point of view of Kirchhoff's matrix tree theorem. Both the form of the dynamics and the deduced behaviour are very similar to consensus dynamics, and provide additional perspectives to the latter. Finally, using the classical idea of extending the graph of chemical complexes by a 'zero' complex, a complete steady-state stability analysis of mass action kinetics reaction networks with constant inflows and mass action kinetics outflows is given, and a unified framework is provided for structure-preserving model reduction of this important class of open reaction networks.

Nucleic acid templated reactions are enabled by the hybridization of probe-reagent conjugates resulting in high effective reagent concentration and fast chemical transformation. We have developed a reaction that harnesses cellular microRNA (miRNA) to yield the cleavage of a linker releasing fluorogenic rhodamine in a live vertebrate. The reaction is based on the catalytic photoreduction of an azide by a ruthenium complex. We showed that this system reports specific expression of miRNA in living tissues of a vertebrate. PMID:27413783

Chemicalreactions can demonstrably occur in a fuel-air mixture compressed in the working cylinder of an Otto-cycle (spark ignition) internal-combustion engine even before the charge is ignited by the flame proceeding from the sparking plug. These are the so-called "prelinminary reactions" ("pre-flame" combustion or oxidation), and an exact knowledge of their characteristic development is of great importance for a correct appreciation of the phenomena of engine-knock (detonation), and consequently for its avoidance. Such reactions can be studied either in a working engine cylinder or in a combustion bomb. The first method necessitates a complicated experimental technique, while the second has the disadvantage of enabling only a single reaction to be studied at one time. Consequently, a new series of experiments was inaugurated, conducted in a motored (externally-driven) experimental engine of mixture-compression type, without ignition, the resulting preliminary reactions being detectable and measurable thermometrically.

We present a theoretical investigation of the chemicalreaction SrF + SrF {yields} products, focusing on reactions at ultralow temperatures. We find that bond swapping SrF + SrF {yields} Sr{sub 2} + F{sub 2} is energetically forbidden at these temperatures. Rather, the only energetically allowed reaction is SrF + SrF {yields} SrF{sub 2} + Sr, and even then only singlet states of the SrF{sub 2} trimer can form. A calculation along a reduced reaction path demonstrates that this abstraction reaction is barrierless and proceeds by one SrF molecule ''handing off'' a fluorine atom to the other molecule.

Cellular automata (CA) are discrete, agent-based, dynamic, iterated, mathematical computational models used to describe complex physical, biological, and chemical systems. Unlike the more computationally demanding molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo approaches, which use "force fields" to model molecular interactions, CA models employ a set of local rules. The traditional approach for modeling chemicalreactions is to solve a set of simultaneous differential rate equations to give deterministic outcomes. CA models yield statistical outcomes for a finite number of ingredients. The deterministic solutions appear as limiting cases for conditions such as a large number of ingredients or a finite number of ingredients and many trials. Here we present a 2-dimensional, probabilistic CA model of a second-order gas phase reaction A + B → C, using a MATLAB basis. Beginning with a random distribution of ingredients A and B, formation of C emerges as the system evolves. The reaction rate can be varied based on the probability of favorable collisions of the reagents A and B. The model permits visualization of the conversion of reagents to products, and allows one to plot concentration vs. time for A, B and C. We test hypothetical reaction conditions such as: limiting reagents, the effects of reaction probabilities, and reagent concentrations on the reaction kinetics. The deterministic solutions of the reactions emerge as statistical averages in the limit of the large number of cells in the array. Modeling results for dynamic processes in the atmosphere will be presented.

Accurate modelling and simulation of dynamic cellular events require two main ingredients: an adequate description of key chemicalreactions and simulation of such chemical events in reasonable time spans. Quite logically, posing the right model is a crucial step for any endeavour in Computational Biology. However, more often than not, it is the associated computational costs which actually limit our capabilities of representing complex cellular behaviour. In this paper, we propose a methodology aimed at representing chains of chemicalreactions by much simpler, reduced models. The abridgement is achieved by generation of model-specific delay distribution functions, consecutively fed to a delay stochastic simulation algorithm. We show how such delay distributions can be analytically described whenever the system is solely composed of consecutive first-order reactions, with or without additional "backward" bypass reactions, yielding an exact reduction. For models including other types of monomolecular reactions (constitutive synthesis, degradation, or "forward" bypass reactions), we discuss why one must adopt a numerical approach for its accurate stochastic representation, and propose two alternatives for this. In these cases, the accuracy depends on the respective numerical sample size. Our model reduction methodology yields significantly lower computational costs while retaining accuracy. Quite naturally, computational costs increase alongside network size and separation of time scales. Thus, we expect our model reduction methodologies to significantly decrease computational costs in these instances. We anticipate the use of delays in model reduction will greatly alleviate some of the current restrictions in simulating large sets of chemicalreactions, largely applicable in pharmaceutical and biological research.

Research developments in the area of biocatalysis in organic solvents are expected to greatly expand the role of bioprocessing in chemical synthesis, fuel processing, and bioremediation technologies. Many biological transformation reactions of interest to DOE site remediation inv...

Evaluation of the mixing process in aquifers is of primary importance when assessing attenuation of pollutants. In aquifers different hydraulic and chemical properties can increase mixing and spreading of the transported species. Mixing processes control biogeochemical transformations such as precipitation/dissolution reactions or degradation reactions that are fast compared to mass transfer processes. Reactions are local phenomena that fluctuate at the pore scale, but predictions are often made at much larger scales. However, aquifer heterogeities are found at all scales and generates flow heterogeneities which creates complex concentration distributions that enhances mixing. In order to assess the impact of spatial flow heterogeneities at pore scale we study concentration profiles, gradients and reaction rates using a random walk particle tracking (RWPT) method and kernel density estimators to reconstruct concentrations and gradients in two setups. First, we focus on a irreversible bimolecular reaction A+B → C under homogeneous flow to distinguish phenomena of incomplete mixing of reactants from finite-size sampling effects. Second, we analise a fast reversible bimolecular chemicalreaction A+B rightleftharpoons C in a laminar Poiseuille flow reactor to determine the difference between local and global reaction rates caused by the incomplete mixing under flow heterogeneities. Simulation results for the first setup differ from the analytical solution of the continuum scale advection-dispersion-reaction equation studied by Gramling et al. (2002), which results in an overstimation quantity of reaction product (C). In the second setup, results show that actual reaction rates are bigger than the obtained from artificially mixing the system by averaging the concentration vertically. - LITERATURE Gramling, C. M.,Harvey, C. F., Meigs, and L. C., (2002). Reactive transport in porous media: A comparison of model prediction with laboratory visualization, Environ. Sci

Describes ChemicalReaction Engineering (CRE) as the discipline that quantifies the interplay of transport phenomena and kinetics in relating reactor performance to operating conditions and input variables. Addresses the current status of CRE in both academic and industrial settings and outlines future trends. (TW)

A rigorous quantum mechanical theory (and a semiclassical approximation thereto) is described for calculating chemicalreaction rates ``directly``, i.e., without having to solve the complete state-to-state reactive scattering problem. The approach has many vestiges of transition state theory, for which it may be thought of as the rigorous generalization.

Ex machina: A computational method for predicting rate constants for reactions within microporous zeolite catalysts with chemical accuracy has recently been reported. A key feature of this method is a stepwise QM/MM approach that allows accuracy to be achieved while using realistic models with accessible computer resources. PMID:27329206

Several examples of nuclear reactions occurring under the stimulation of chemical type energies are given. The production of tritium from deuterium in Pd has more than 100 published confirmations. Three models suggest circumstances such that barriers between nucleii may become transparent. 24 refs.

The Gordon Research Conference on ChemicalReactions at Surfaces is dedicated to promoting and advancing the fundamental science of interfacial chemistry and physics by providing surface scientists with the foremost venue for presentation and discussion of research occurring at the frontiers of their fields.

Green chemistry is a rapid developing new field that provides us a pro-active avenue for the sustainable development of future science and technologies. When designed properly, clean chemical technology can be developed in water as a reaction media. The technologies generated f...

Understanding chemicalreactions is crucial in learning chemistry at all educational levels. Nevertheless, research in science education has revealed that many students struggle to understand chemical processes. Improving teaching and learning about chemicalreactions demands that we develop a clearer understanding of student reasoning in this area and of how this reasoning evolves with training in the discipline. Thus, we have carried out a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews as the main data collection tool to explore students reasoning about reaction mechanism and causality. The participants of this study included students at different levels of training in chemistry: general chemistry students (n=22), organic chemistry students (n=16), first year graduate students (n=13) and Ph.D. candidates (n=14). We identified major conceptual modes along critical dimensions of analysis, and illustrated common ways of reasoning using typical cases. Main findings indicate that although significant progress is observed in student reasoning in some areas, major conceptual difficulties seem to persist even at the more advanced educational levels. In addition, our findings suggest that students struggle to integrate important concepts when thinking about mechanism and causality in chemicalreactions. The results of our study are relevant to chemistry educators interested in learning progressions, assessment, and conceptual development.

It is shown that chemicalreactions played an essential role in the Chernobyl accident at all of its stages. It is important that the reactor before the explosion was at maximal xenon poisoning, and its reactivity, apparently, was not destroyed by the explosion. The reactivity release due to decay of Xe-235 on the second day after the explosion led to a reactor power of 80-110 MW. Owing to this power, the chemicalreactions of reduction of uranium, plutonium, and other metals at a temperature of about 2000 Degree-Sign C occurred in the core. The yield of fission products thus sharply increased. Uranium and other metals flew down in the bottom water communications and rooms. After reduction of the uranium and its separation from the graphite, the chain reaction stopped, the temperature of the core decreased, and the activity yield stopped.

The purpose of this research was the development and application of theoretical/computational methods for accurate predictions of the rates of reactions in many-atom systems. The specific aim was to improve computational methods for studying the chemical dynamics of large, complex systems and to obtain a better understanding of the chemicalreactions involving large polyatomic molecules and radicals. The focus was on the development an automatic potential energy surface generation algorithm that takes advantage of high-performance computing environments; e.g., software for rate calculations that direct quantum chemistry codes to produce ab initio predictions of reaction rates and related dynamics quantities. Specifically, we developed interpolative moving least-squares (IMLS) methods for accurately fitting ab initio energies to provide global PESs and for use in direct dynamics simulations.

We report on a beating polymer gel that exhibits periodical volume changes (swelling and deswelling) in a closed solution without external stimuli, like autonomous heartbeat. The mechanical oscillation is driven by the chemical energy of the oscillatory Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction. The gel is a copolymer gel of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) in which ruthenium tris(2,2'-bipyridine) [Ru(bpy)3], known as a catalyst of the BZ reaction, is covalently bonded to the polymer chain. The poly[NIPAAm-co-Ru(bpy)3] gel provides an open system where the BZ reaction proceeds, when immersed in an aqueous solution containing the reactants of the BZ reaction (with the exception of a catalyst). The chemical oscillation in the BZ reaction generates the periodical changes of the charge of Ru(bpy)3 in the gel network between reduced [Ru(II)] and oxidized [Ru(III)] states. The gel swells at the oxidized state because the hydrophilicity of the polymer chains increases, while at the reduced state the gel deswells. Thus, the chemical energy is transduced into the mechanical energy to drive the polymer gel oscillation with a period of about 5 min, depending on the composition of the surrounding solution. The oscillation mode of the gel depends on its size scaled by the wavelength of the BZ pattern. Sufficiently small bead-like gels demonstrate isotropic beating. A large rectangular gel shows mechanical oscillation with a peristaltic motion coupled with the propagating chemical waves. The dynamic behavior of the chemical and mechanical oscillations have been analyzed with a model simulation.

Current first-principles models of complex chemistry, such as combustion reaction networks, often give inaccurate predictions of the time variation of chemical species. Moreover, the high complexity and dimensionality of these models render them impractical for real-time prediction and control of chemical network processes. These limitations have motivated us to search for an alternative paradigm that is able to both identify the correct model from the observed dynamical data and reduce complexity while preserving the underlying network structure. In this talk, I will present one such modeling paradigm under the scenarios of complete and incomplete observability of the dynamics. The proposed approach is applicable to combustion chemistry and a range of other chemicalreaction networks. Research supported by ARO Grant W911NF-14-1-0359.

The alternative method of atomic iodine generation for a chemical oxygen - iodine laser (COIL) in chemicalreactions with gaseous reactants is investigated experimentally. The influence of the configuration of iodine atom injection into the laser cavity on the efficiency of the atomic iodine generation and small-signal gain is studied. (lasers)

Investigates Grade 12 students' understandings of the nature of chemical bonds and the energetics elicited across five familiar chemicalreactions following a course of instruction. Discusses the many ways in which students can misconstruct concepts and principles. Contains 63 references. (DDR)

Currently, the incidence of tattooing is on the rise compared to the past, especially among adolescents, and it leads to the urgency of monitoring the security status of tattooing centers, as well as to inform people about the risks of tattoo practice. In our clinical experience, 20% of tattooed patients presented adverse reactions, like allergic contact dermatitis, psoriasis with Koebner's phenomena and granulomatous reactions, with the latter most prevalent and most often related to red pigment. Adverse reactions to tattoo pigments, especially the red one, are well known and described in literature. Great attention has to be focused on the pigments used, especially for the presence of new substances, often not well known. For this reason, we decided to perform a study on 12 samples of red tattoo ink, obtained by patients affected by different cutaneous reactions in the site of tattoo, to analyze their chemical composition. PMID:26934738

The history of consumer protection against household poisons presents a key case study of the uniquely American struggle to balance public health and safety with the interests of business. By the late 19th century, package designs, warning labels, and state statutes had formed an uneven patchwork of protective mechanisms against accidental poisonings. As household chemicals proliferated in the early 20th century, physicians concerned with childhood poisonings pressured the federal government to enact legislation mandating warning labels on packaging for these substances. Manufacturers of household chemicals agreed to labeling requirements for caustic poisons but resisted broader regulation. Accidental poisonings of children continued to increase until the enactment of broad labeling and packaging legislation in the 1960s and 1970s. This history suggests that voluntary agreements between government agencies and manufacturers are inadequate to protect consumers against household poisonings and that, in the United States, protective household chemical regulation proceeds in a reactive rather than a precautionary manner. PMID:23488510

The history of consumer protection against household poisons presents a key case study of the uniquely American struggle to balance public health and safety with the interests of business. By the late 19th century, package designs, warning labels, and state statutes had formed an uneven patchwork of protective mechanisms against accidental poisonings. As household chemicals proliferated in the early 20th century, physicians concerned with childhood poisonings pressured the federal government to enact legislation mandating warning labels on packaging for these substances. Manufacturers of household chemicals agreed to labeling requirements for caustic poisons but resisted broader regulation. Accidental poisonings of children continued to increase until the enactment of broad labeling and packaging legislation in the 1960s and 1970s. This history suggests that voluntary agreements between government agencies and manufacturers are inadequate to protect consumers against household poisonings and that, in the United States, protective household chemical regulation proceeds in a reactive rather than a precautionary manner. PMID:23488510

Photo-induced chemicalreaction of trans-resveratrol has been studied. UV B, liquid state and sufficient exposure time are essential conditions to the photochemical change of trans-resveratrol. Three principal compounds, cis-resveratrol, 2,4,6-phenanthrenetriol and 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5,6-benzofurandione, were successively generated in the reaction solution of trans-resveratrol (0.25 mM, 100% ethanol) under 100 μW cm(-2) UV B radiation for 4h. cis-Resveratrol, originated from isomerization of trans-resveratrol, resulted in 2,4,6-phenanthrenetriol through photocyclisation reaction meanwhile loss of 2 H. 2,4,6-Phenanthrenetriol played a role of photosensitizer producing singlet oxygen in the reaction pathway. The singlet oxygen triggered [4+2] cycloaddition reaction of trans-resveratrol, and then resulted in the generation of 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5,6-benzofurandione through photorearrangement and oxidation reaction. The singlet oxygen reaction was closely related to the substrate concentration of trans-resveratrol in solution. PMID:25308653

Context. Chemistry often plays an important role in astrophysical gases. It regulates thermal properties by changing species abundances and via ionization processes. This way, time-dependent cooling mechanisms and other chemistry-related energy sources can have a profound influence on the dynamical evolution of an astrophysical system. Modeling those effects with the underlying chemical kinetics in realistic magneto-gasdynamical simulations provide the basis for a better link to observations. Aims: The present work describes the implementation of a chemicalreaction network solver into the magneto-gasdynamical code NIRVANA. For this purpose a multispecies structure is installed, and a new module for evolving the rate equations of chemical kinetics is developed and coupled to the dynamical part of the code. A small chemical network for a hydrogen-helium plasma was constructed including associated thermal processes which is used in test problems. Methods: Evolving a chemical network within time-dependent simulations requires the additional solution of a set of coupled advection-reaction equations for species and gas temperature. Second-order Strang-splitting is used to separate the advection part from the reaction part. The ordinary differential equation (ODE) system representing the reaction part is solved with a fourth-order generalized Runge-Kutta method applicable for stiff systems inherent to astrochemistry. Results: A series of tests was performed in order to check the correctness of numerical and technical implementation. Tests include well-known stiff ODE problems from the mathematical literature in order to confirm accuracy properties of the solver used as well as problems combining gasdynamics and chemistry. Overall, very satisfactory results are achieved. Conclusions: The NIRVANA code is now ready to handle astrochemical processes in time-dependent simulations. An easy-to-use interface allows implementation of complex networks including thermal processes

The general concepts, advantages, and applications of on-line and off-line screening to organic reaction mechanistic studies applying API-MS are reviewed. An overview is presented of the development and the present stage of connected microreactors to API ion-sources. Examples of the successful application of API in revealing, elucidating, and helping to consolidate several proposed mechanisms of organic reactions are summarized. Finally, a variety of outstanding features and advantages that make API-MS the most suitable tool for the fast screening of intermediates directly from solution, and the exceptional gains in chemical information for organic chemists are also emphasized.

This work has concentrated on several interrelated projects in the area of laser photochemistry and photophysics which impinge on a variety of questions in combustion chemistry and general chemical kinetics. Infrared diode laser probes of the quenching of molecules with {open_quotes}chemically significant{close_quotes} amounts of energy in which the energy transferred to the quencher has, for the first time, been separated into its vibrational, rotational, and translational components. Probes of quantum state distributions and velocity profiles for atomic fragments produced in photodissociation reactions have been explored for iodine chloride.

A chemical accelerator instrument has been used to study the dynamics of ion-molecule reaction processes in the gas phase. Specifically, the following reactions are investigated: eqalign{rm CO^+ + H_2&longrightarrowrm HCO ^+ + Hcrrm CO^+ + D_2& longrightarrowrm DCO^+ + Dcrrm CO^+ + HDlongrightarrow &rm HCO ^+ (DCO^+) + D (H)cr} . Both angular and velocity distributions of reactively scattered product ions are measured, as well as reaction cross sections as a function of reactant relative translational energy. Formation of HCO^+ ion from rm CO^+ + H_2 over the collision energy range from 0.35 to 3.02 eV (c.m.) follows closely the predictions of the spectator stripping model, and results in highly excited HCO^+ product ions. This reaction is found to proceed via a direct impulsive mechanism, without any long-lived intermediate complexes involved. The reaction cross section is proportional to E_{T} ^{-1/2}, where E_ {rm T} is the reactant ion relative translational energy. Deuterium atom transfer from D_2 to CO^+ over the collision energy range from 0.41 to 5.14 eV (c.m.) occurs also in a direct process. Reaction cross section is proportional to rm E_{T}^{ -1/2}. The results are very similar to those of the reaction rm CO^+ + H_2. The reaction CO^+ + HD has two product channels, leading to the formation of HCO ^+ and DCO^+, respectively. The reaction is studied over the energy range from 0.88 to 5.00 eV (c.m.). It is found that the production of HCO^+ is consistently the slightly favored reaction channel, which is attributed to the orientation isotope effect. The translational exoergicity for both reaction channels follows closely the prediction of spectator stripping model. Product DCO^+ ions are in higher excited states than HCO ^+ ions. Product velocity distribution contour maps indicate that, at the lowest energies, the DCO ^+ production channel has a longer reaction duration than the HCO^+ production channel, but both reaction channels are dominated by direct

The dynamics of several elementary chemicalreactions that are important in atmospheric chemistry are investigated. The reactive scattering of ground state chlorine or bromine atoms with ozone molecules and ground state chlorine atoms with nitrogen dioxide molecules is studied using a crossed molecular beams apparatus with a rotatable mass spectrometer detector. The Cl + O{sub 3} {yields} ClO + O{sub 2} reaction has been studied at four collision energies ranging from 6 kcal/mole to 32 kcal/mole. The derived product center-of-mass angular and translational energy distributions show that the reaction has a direct reaction mechanism and that there is a strong repulsion on the exit channel. The ClO product is sideways and forward scattered with respect to the Cl atom, and the translational energy release is large. The Cl atom is most likely to attack the terminal oxygen atom of the ozone molecule. The Br + O{sub 3} {yields} ClO + O{sub 2} reaction has been studied at five collision energies ranging from 5 kcal/mole to 26 kcal/mole. The derived product center-of-mass angular and translational energy distributions are quite similar to those in the Cl + O{sub 3} reaction. The Br + O{sub 3} reaction has a direct reaction mechanism similar to that of the Cl + O{sub 3} reaction. The electronic structure of the ozone molecule seems to play the central role in determining the reaction mechanism in atomic radical reactions with the ozone molecule. The Cl + NO{sub 2} {yields} ClO + NO reaction has been studied at three collision energies ranging from 10.6 kcal/mole to 22.4 kcal/mole. The center-of-mass angular distribution has some forward-backward symmetry, and the product translational energy release is quite large. The reaction proceeds through a short-lived complex whose lifetime is less than one rotational period. The experimental results seem to show that the Cl atom mainly attacks the oxygen atom instead of the nitrogen atom of the NO{sub 2} molecule.

A fouling model was developed on the premise that the chemicalreaction for generation of precursor can take place in the bulk fluid, in the thermalboundary layer, or at the fluid/wall interface, depending upon the interactive effects of flu id dynamics, heat and mass transfer, and the controlling chemicalreaction. The analysis was used to examine the experimental data for fouling deposition of polyperoxides produced by autoxidation of indene in kerosene. The effects of fluid and wall temperatures for two flow geometries were analyzed. The results showed that the relative effects of physical parameters on the fouling rate would differ for the three fouling mechanisms; therefore, it is important to identify the controlling mechanism in applying the closed-flow-loop data to industrial conditions.

A new procedure closely linking dissociation and exchange reactions in air to the vibrational levels of the diatomic molecules has been implemented in both one- and two-dimensional versions of Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) programs. The previous modeling of chemicalreactions with DSMC was based on the continuum reaction rates for the various possible reactions. The new method is more closely related to the actual physics of dissociation and is more appropriate to the particle nature of DSMC. Two cases are presented: the relaxation to equilibrium of undissociated air initially at 10,000 K, and the axisymmetric calculation of shuttle forebody heating during reentry at 92.35 km and 7500 m/s. Although reaction rates are not used in determining the dissociations or exchange reactions, the new method produces rates which agree astonishingly well with the published rates derived from experiment. The results for gas properties and surface properties also agree well with the results produced by earlier DSMC models, equilibrium air calculations, and experiment.

Here, we apply the harmonic Fourier beads (HFB) path optimization method to study chemicalreactions involving covalent bond breaking and forming on quantum mechanical (QM) and hybrid QM/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) potential energy surfaces. To improve efficiency of the path optimization on such computationally demanding potentials, we combined HFB with conjugate gradient (CG) optimization. The combined CG-HFB method was used to study two biologically relevant reactions, namely, L- to D-alanine amino acid inversion and alcohol acylation by amides. The optimized paths revealed several unexpected reaction steps in the gas phase. For example, on the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) potential, we found that alanine inversion proceeded via previously unknown intermediates, 2-iminopropane-1,1-diol and 3-amino-3-methyloxiran-2-ol. The CG-HFB method accurately located transition states, aiding in the interpretation of complex reaction mechanisms. Thus, on the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) potential, the gas phase activation barriers for the inversion and acylation reactions were 50.5 and 39.9 kcal/mol, respectively. These barriers determine the spontaneous loss of amino acid chirality and cleavage of peptide bonds in proteins. We conclude that the combined CG-HFB method further advances QM and QM/MM studies of reaction mechanisms.

Fuel-oxidizer reaction product (FORP), the product of incomplete reaction of monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide propellants prepared under laboratory conditions and from firings of Shuttle Reaction Control System thrusters, has been characterized by chemical and thermal analysis. The composition of FORP is variable but falls within a limited range of compositions that depend on three factors: the fuel-oxidizer ratio at the time of formation; whether the composition of the post-formation atmosphere is reducing or oxidizing; and the reaction or post-reaction temperature. A typical composition contains methylhydrazinium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, methylammonium nitrate, and trace amounts of hydrazinium nitrate and 1,1-dimethylhydrazinium nitrate. Thermal decomposition reactions of the FORP compositions used in this study were unremarkable. Neither the various compositions of FORP, the pure major components of FORP, nor mixtures of FORP with propellant system corrosion products showed any unusual thermal activity when decomposed under laboratory conditions. Off-limit thruster operations were simulated by rapid mixing of liquid monomethylhydrazine and liquid nitrogen tetroxide in a confined space. These tests demonstrated that monomethylhydrazine, methylhydrazinium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, or Inconel corrosion products can induce a mixture of monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide to produce component-damaging energies. Damaging events required FORP or metal salts to be present at the initial mixing of monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.

Stochasticity in the dynamics of small reacting systems requires discrete-probabilistic models of reaction kinetics instead of traditional continuous-deterministic ones. The master probability equation is a complete model of randomly evolving molecular populations. Because of its ambitious character, the master equation remained unsolved for all but the simplest of molecular interaction networks. With the first solution of chemical master equations, a wide range of experimental observations of small-system interactions may be mathematically conceptualized. PMID:25215268

A new method to generate chemicalreaction network is proposed. The particularity of the method is that network generation and mechanism reduction are performed simultaneously using sampling techniques. Our method is tested for hydrocarbon thermal cracking. Results and theoretical arguments demonstrate that our method scales in polynomial time while other deterministic network generator scale in exponential time. This finding offers the possibility to investigate complex reacting systems such as those studied in petroleum refining and combustion.

Electric current density imaging was used to image conductivity changes that occur as a chemical process or reaction progresses. Feasibility was assessed in two models representing the dissolving of an ionic solid and the formation of an insoluble precipitate. In both models, temporal and spatial changes in ionic concentrations were obtained on current density images. As expected, the images showed significant signal enhancement along the ionization/dissociation sites.

The isotopes of boron, .sup.10 B and .sup.11 B, are separated by means of a gas-liquid chemical exchange reaction involving the isotopic equilibrium between gaseous BF.sub.3 and a liquid BF.sub.3 . donor molecular addition complex formed between BF.sub.3 gas and a donor chosen from the group consisting of: nitromethane, acetone, methyl isobutyl ketone, or diisobutyl ketone.

Energetic structural materials (ESMs) constitute a new class of materials that provide dual functions of strength and energetic characteristics. ESMs are typically composed of micron-scale or nano-scale intermetallic mixtures or mixtures of metals and metal oxides, polymer binders, and structural reinforcements. Voids are included to produce a composite with favorable chemicalreaction characteristics. In this thesis, a continuum approach is used to simulate gas-gun or explosive loading experiments where a strong shock is induced in the ESM by an impacting plate. Algorithms are developed to obtain equations of state of mixtures. It is usually assumed that the shock loading increases the energy of the ESM and causes the ESM to reach the transition state. It is also assumed that the activation energy needed to reach the transition state is a function of the temperature of the mixture. In this thesis, it is proposed that the activation energy is a function of temperature and the stress state of the mixture. The incorporation of such an activation energy is selected in this thesis. Then, a multi-scale chemicalreaction model for a heterogeneous mixture is introduced. This model incorporates reaction initiation, propagation, and extent of completed reaction in spatially heterogeneous distributions of reactants. A new model is proposed for the pore collapse of mixtures. This model is formulated by modifying the Carol, Holt, and Nesterenko spherically symmetric model to include mixtures and compressibility effects. Uncertainties in the model result from assumptions in formulating the models for continuum relationships and chemicalreactions in mixtures that are distributed heterogeneously in space and in numerical integration of the resulting equations. It is important to quantify these uncertainties. In this thesis, such an uncertainty quantification is investigated by systematically identifying the physical processes that occur during shock compression of ESMs which are

Saturated or unsaturated octafluorocarbons(OFCs) have been used extensively in dry etching processes due to their relatively low global warming potential and their high CF2 radical levels in commercial plasma treatments. Many experimental and theoretical studies of these species have been performed for useful information about physical and chemical properties of OFCs. However, direct experimental studies of these chemicals are difficult because of their high reactivity in plasma state and high-level theoretical approaches such as G3(MP2) and CCSD(T)/CBS need huge computational cost. Recently, it has been shown that the ωB97X-D/aVTZ method is strongly recommended as the best practical density functional theory(DFT) for rigorous and extensive studies of OFCs because of its high performance and reliability for van der Waals interactions. All the feasible isomerization and dissociation paths of OFCs were investigated at ωB97X-D/aVTZ and rate constants of their chemicalreactions were computed by using variational transition-state theory(VTST) for a deep insight into OFCs' reaction mechanisms. Fates and roles of OFCs and their fragments in plasma phases could be clearly explained based on the obtained reaction mechanisms. This work was supported by R&D Program of ``Plasma Convergence & Fundamental Research'' through NFRI of Korea funded by the Government funds.

Recent progress in the ab-initio molecular dynamics method and the power of parallel computing, allow the detailed study of complex chemicalreaction of great industrial relevance. We illustrate this unprecedented capability by investigating the second generation Ziegler-Natta catalytic process. In this inhomogeneous catalyst, a polymerization reaction is induced by TiCl4 molecules deposited on an MgCl2 solid support. A density functional based ab-initio molecular dynamics calculation conducted with a minimum of initial assumption allows to understand the nature of the catalytic center and to determine the reaction path with the associated free energy barrier. Furthermore our calculation can explain in a nontrivial way the stereo-selectivity of the process.

We report on laser-initiated chemicalreactions in colloidal carbon suspensions. Irradiation of carbon particles ranging in size from 13 to 75 nm in diameter suspended in water, toluene, and benzene with high power nanosecond, picosecond, and femtosecond laser pulses leads to the formation of a number of gaseous hydrocarbons as well as a series of liquid-phase products. In the product gas above irradiated carbon suspensions in water, H{sub 2} and CO, the main reaction products of the carbon-steam reaction, and numerous hydrocarbons ranging from C{sub 1}-C{sub 4} were detected. Irradiation of particulate carbon in toluene and benzene gave H{sub 2} as the main gas product with small amounts of C{sub 1}-C{sub 3} hydrocarbons. Bibenzyl and biphenyl were found as the main liquid products produced in toluene and benzene suspensions, respectively, but with numerous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smaller concentrations. The amount of products generated by pulsed laser irradiation is shown to depend on particle size and concentration, as well as the laser fluence and pulse width. The chemicalreactions reported take place under conditions characterized by extremely high temperatures and pressures of short duration.

The pioneering work on obtaining a quantum degenerate sample of ground state KRb molecules is one of the great successes in ultracold physics. The early experimental and theoretical investigations to describe quantum chemicalreactions of ultracold KRb molecules with residual ultracold K atoms have been based on probing their inelastic collision loss rates. A natural progression towards control of molecular reactivity would be to study the potential landscape of the collisional complex with the inherited degeneracies and intersections between two lowest electronic states. The topology of these surfaces provide us with a qualitative understanding of the reaction mechanism. Here we study how the ability to prepare unique initial states combined with the presence of conical intersections can be used to control the outcome of ultracold chemicalreactions of alkali-metal atoms and molecules. We locate and determine properties of conical intersections for the KRbK molecular system and determine signatures of non-adiabatic passage through the conical intersection to distinguish between relaxation and reaction pathways. This work is supported by the ARO-MURI and NSF Grants.

A major goal of this research is to obtain an understanding of the molecular reaction dynamics of three and four atom chemicalreactions using numerically accurate quantum dynamics. This work involves: (i) the development and/or improvement of accurate quantum mechanical methods for the calculation and analysis of the properties of chemicalreactions (e.g., rate constants and product distributions), and (ii) the determination of accurate dynamical results for selected chemical systems, which allow one to compare directly with experiment, determine the reliability of the underlying potential energy surfaces, and test the validity of approximate theories. This research emphasizes the use of recently developed time-dependent quantum mechanical methods, i.e. wave packet methods.

This paper analyzes the way risk management measures (RMMs) for consumer products have been used to date in authority and industry risk assessments. A working concept for consumer product RMMs is developed, aimed at controlling, limiting or avoiding exposures, and helping to insure the safe use (or handling) of a substance as part of a consumer product. Particular focus is placed on new requirements introduced by REACH (registration, evaluation, and authorization of chemicals). A RMMs categorization approach is also developed, dividing consumer product RMMs into those that are product integrated and those that are communicated to consumers. For each of these categories, RMMs for normal use, accidental use or misuse need to be distinguished. The level of detail for documenting, assessing and communicating RMMs across supply chains can vary, depending on the type of the assessment (tiered approach). Information on RMMs was collected from published sources to demonstrate that a taxonomical approach using standard descriptors for RMMs libraries is needed for effective information exchange across supply chains. PMID:17609687

The mechanisms of the complicated periodical phenomenas in the nature (e.g. hearth beat, sleep cycle, circadian rhythms, etc) could be understood with using the laws of nonlinear chemical systems. In this article the newest result in the research of the subfield of nonlinear chemical dynamics aimed at constructing oscillatory chemicalreactions, which are novel either in composition or in configuration, are presented. In the introductory part the concept of chemical periodicity is defined, then the forms as it can appear in time and space and the methods of their study are discussed. Detailed description of the experimental work that has resulted in two significant discoveries is provided. A method was developed to design pH-oscillators which are capable of operating under close conditions. The batch pH-oscillators are more convenient to use in some proposed applications than the equivalent CSTR variant. A redox oscillator that is new in composition was found. The permanganate oxidation of some amino acids was shown to take place according to oscillatory kinetics in a narrow range of the experimental parameters. The KMnO4 - glycine - Na2HPO4 system represents the first example in the family of manganese based oscillators where amino acids is involved. In the conclusion formal analogies between the simple chemical and some more complicated biological oscillatory phenomena are mentioned and the possibility of modeling periodic processes with the use of information gained from the studies of chemical oscillations is pointed out. PMID:25872277

In this work, a humidity independent mass spectrometric method was developed for rapid analysis of gas phase chemicals. This method is based upon ambient proton transfer reaction between gas phase chemicals and charged water droplets, in a reaction chamber with nearly saturate humidity under atmospheric pressure. The humidity independent nature enables direct and rapid analysis of raw gas phase samples, avoiding time- and sample-consuming sample pretreatments in conventional mass spectrometry methods to control sample humidity. Acetone, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and meta-xylene were used to evaluate the analytical performance of present method. The limits of detection for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and meta-xylene are in the range of ∼0.1 to ∼0.3 ppbV; that of benzene is well below the present European Union permissible exposure limit for benzene vapor (5 μg m(-3), ∼1.44 ppbV), with linear ranges of approximately two orders of magnitude. The majority of the homemade device contains a stainless steel tube as reaction chamber and an ultrasonic humidifier as the source of charged water droplets, which makes this cheap device easy to assemble and facile to operate. In addition, potential application of this method was illustrated by the real time identification of raw gas phase chemicals released from plants at different physiological stages. PMID:25813029

Several of the technologies being evaluated for the treatment of waste material involve chemicalreactions. Our example is the in situ vitrification (ISV) process where electrical energy is used to melt soil and waste into a ``glass like`` material that immobilizes and encapsulates any residual waste. During the ISV process, various chemicalreactions may occur that produce significant amounts of products which must be contained and treated. The APOLLO program was developed to assist in predicting the composition of the gases that are formed. Although the development of this program was directed toward ISV applications, it should be applicable to other technologies where chemicalreactions are of interest. This document presents the mathematical methodology of the APOLLO computer code. APOLLO is a computer code that calculates the products of both equilibrium and kinetic chemicalreactions. The current version, written in FORTRAN, is readily adaptable to existing transport programs designed for the analysis of chemically reacting flow systems. Separate subroutines EQREACT and KIREACT for equilibrium ad kinetic chemistry respectively have been developed. A full detailed description of the numerical techniques used, which include both Lagrange multiplies and a third-order integrating scheme is presented. Sample test problems are presented and the results are in excellent agreement with those reported in the literature.

Several of the technologies being evaluated for the treatment of waste material involve chemicalreactions. Our example is the in situ vitrification (ISV) process where electrical energy is used to melt soil and waste into a glass like'' material that immobilizes and encapsulates any residual waste. During the ISV process, various chemicalreactions may occur that produce significant amounts of products which must be contained and treated. The APOLLO program was developed to assist in predicting the composition of the gases that are formed. Although the development of this program was directed toward ISV applications, it should be applicable to other technologies where chemicalreactions are of interest. This document presents the mathematical methodology of the APOLLO computer code. APOLLO is a computer code that calculates the products of both equilibrium and kinetic chemicalreactions. The current version, written in FORTRAN, is readily adaptable to existing transport programs designed for the analysis of chemically reacting flow systems. Separate subroutines EQREACT and KIREACT for equilibrium ad kinetic chemistry respectively have been developed. A full detailed description of the numerical techniques used, which include both Lagrange multiplies and a third-order integrating scheme is presented. Sample test problems are presented and the results are in excellent agreement with those reported in the literature.

Introduction Lupin allergy remains a significant cause of food-induced allergic reactivity and anaphylaxis. Previous work suggests a strong association with legume allergy and peanut allergy in particular. Both doctors and the public have little awareness of lupin as an allergen. Case presentation Case 1 was a 41-year-old Caucasian woman without previous atopy who developed facial swelling, widespread urticaria with asthma and hypotension within minutes of eating a quiche. Her lupin allergy was confirmed by both blood and skin tests. Her lupin sensitivity was so severe that even the miniscule amount of lupin allergen in the skin testing reagent produced a mild reaction. Case 2 was a 42-year-old mildly atopic Caucasian woman with three episodes of worsening urticaria and asthma symptoms over 6 years occurring after the consumption of foods containing lupin flour. Blood and skin tests were positive for lupin allergy. Case 3 was a 38-year-old Caucasian woman with known oral allergy syndrome who had two reactions associated with urticaria and vomiting after consuming foods containing lupin flour. Skin testing confirmed significant responses to a lupin flour extract and to one of the foods inducing her reaction. Case 4 was a 54-year-old mildly atopic Caucasian woman with a 7 year history of three to four episodes each year of unpredictable oral tingling followed by urticaria after consuming a variety of foods. The most recent episode had been associated with vomiting. She had developed oral tingling with lentil and chickpeas over the previous year. Skin and blood tests confirmed lupin allergy with associated sensitivity to several legumes. Conclusions Lupin allergy can occur for the first time in adults without previous atopy or legume sensitivity. Although asymptomatic sensitisation is frequent, clinical reactivity can vary in severity from severe anaphylaxis to urticaria and vomiting. Lupin allergy may be confirmed by skin and specific immunoglobulin E estimation

At high temperatures carbon dioxide may absorb solar radiation and react to form carbon monoxide and molecular oxygen. The CO, so produced, may be converted by well-established means to a combustible fuel, such as methanol. We intend to make a future demonstration of the solar reduction of CO2 based on these processes. This paper, however, addresses only the problem of preserving, or even enhancing, the initial photolytic CO by quenching the hot gas with colder H2O or CO2. We present model calculations with a reaction mechanism used extensively in other calculations. If a CO2 gas stream is heated and photolyzed by intense solar radiation and then allowed to cool slowly, it will react back to the initial CO2 by a series of elementary chemicalreactions. The back reaction to CO2 can be terminated with the rapid addition of CO2, water, or a mixture. Calculations show that a three-fold quench with pure CO2 will stop the reactions and preserve over 90% of the initial photolytic CO. We find that water has one of two effects. It can either increase the CO level, or it can catalyze the recombination of O and CO to CO2. The gas temperature is the determining factor. If the quench gas is not sufficient to keep the temperature below approximately 1100 K, a chain-branching reaction dominates and the reaction to CO2 occurs. If the temperature stays below that level a chain terminating reaction dominates and the CO is increased. The former case occurs below approximately a fourfold quench with a water/CO2 mixture. The later case occurs when the quench is greater than fourfold. We conclude that CO2, H2O, or a mixture may quench the hot gas stream photolyzed by solar radiation and preserve the photolytic CO. PMID:11589409

Reaction coordinate diagrams are used to relate the free energy changes that occur during the progress of chemical processes to the rate and equilibrium constants of the process. Here I briefly review the application of these diagrams to the thermodynamics and kinetics of the generation of force and motion by cytoskeletal motors and polymer ratchets as they mediate intracellular transport, organelle dynamics, cell locomotion, and cell division. To provide a familiar biochemical context for discussing these subcellular force generators, I first review the application of reaction coordinate diagrams to the mechanisms of simple chemical and enzyme-catalyzed reactions. My description of reaction coordinate diagrams of motors and polymer ratchets is simplified relative to the rigorous biophysical treatment found in many of the references that I use and cite, but I hope that the essay provides a valuable qualitative representation of the physical chemical parameters that underlie the generation of force and motility at molecular scales. In any case, I have found that this approach represents a useful interdisciplinary framework for understanding, researching, and teaching the basic molecular mechanisms by which motors contribute to fundamental cell biological processes. PMID:23408787

Computational approaches to understanding chemicalreaction mechanisms generally begin by establishing the relative energies of the starting materials, transition state, and products, that is, the stationary points on the potential energy surface of the reaction complex. Examining the intervening species via the intrinsic reaction coordinate (IRC) offers further insight into the fate of the reactants by delineating, step-by-step, the energetics involved along the reaction path between the stationary states. For a detailed analysis of the mechanism and dynamics of a chemicalreaction, the reaction path Hamiltonian (RPH) and the united reaction valley approach (URVA) are an efficient combination. The chemical conversion of the reaction complex is reflected by the changes in the reaction path direction t(s) and reaction path curvature k(s), both expressed as a function of the path length s. This information can be used to partition the reaction path, and by this the reaction mechanism, of a chemicalreaction into reaction phases describing chemically relevant changes of the reaction complex: (i) a contact phase characterized by van der Waals interactions, (ii) a preparation phase, in which the reactants prepare for the chemical processes, (iii) one or more transition state phases, in which the chemical processes of bond cleavage and bond formation take place, (iv) a product adjustment phase, and (v) a separation phase. In this Account, we examine mechanistic analysis with URVA in detail, focusing on recent theoretical insights (with a variety of reaction types) from our laboratories. Through the utilization of the concept of localized adiabatic vibrational modes that are associated with the internal coordinates, q(n)(s), of the reaction complex, the chemical character of each reaction phase can be identified via the adiabatic curvature coupling coefficients, A(n,s)(s). These quantities reveal whether a local adiabatic vibrational mode supports (A(n,s) > 0) or resists

Low-molecular weight chemicals (haptens) include a large group of chemical compounds occurring in work environment, items of everyday use (cleaning products, clothing, footwear, gloves, furniture), jewelry (earrings, bracelets), drugs, especially in cosmetics. They cause type IV hypersensitive reactions. During the induction phase of delayed-type hypersensitivity, haptens form complexes with skin proteins. After internalization through antigen presenting cells, they are bound to MHC class II molecules. Next, they are exposed against specific T-lymphocytes, what triggers activation of Th1 cells mainly. After repeating exposition to that hapten, during effector phase, Th1 induce production of cytokines affecting non-specific inflammatory cells. Usually, it causes contact dermatitis. However, occasionally incidence of immediate generalized reactions after contact with some kinds of haptens is noticed. A question arises, how the hapten does induce symptoms which are typical for anaphylaxis, and what contributes to amplification of this mechanism. It seems that this phenomenon arises from pathomechanism occurring in contact urticaria syndrome in which an anaphylactic reaction may be caused either by contact of sensitized skin with protein antigens, high-molecular weight allergens, or haptens. One of the hypotheses indicates the leading role of basophiles in this process. Their contact with haptens, may cause to release mediators of immediate allergic reaction (histamine, eicosanoids) and to produce cytokines corresponding to Th2 cells profile. Furthermore, Th17 lymphocytes secreting pro-inflammatory interleukin-17 might be engaged into amplifying hypersensitivity into immediate reactions and regulatory T-cells may play role in the process, due to insufficient control of the activity of effector cells. PMID:25661919

This paper provides a framework to represent a Biochemical Systems Theory (BST) model (in either GMA or S-system form) as a chemicalreaction network with power law kinetics. Using this representation, some basic properties and the application of recent results of ChemicalReaction Network Theory regarding steady states of such systems are shown. In particular, Injectivity Theory, including network concordance [36] and the Jacobian Determinant Criterion [43], a "Lifting Theorem" for steady states [26] and the comprehensive results of Müller and Regensburger [31] on complex balanced equilibria are discussed. A partial extension of a recent Emulation Theorem of Cardelli for mass action systems [3] is derived for a subclass of power law kinetic systems. However, it is also shown that the GMA and S-system models of human purine metabolism [10] do not display the reactant-determined kinetics assumed by Müller and Regensburger and hence only a subset of BST models can be handled with their approach. Moreover, since the reaction networks underlying many BST models are not weakly reversible, results for non-complex balanced equilibria are also needed. PMID:26363083

Cultured meat has evolved from an idea and concept into a reality with the August 2013 cultured hamburger tasting in London. Still, how consumers conceive cultured meat is largely an open question. This study addresses consumers' reactions and attitude formation towards cultured meat through analyzing focus group discussions and online deliberations with 179 meat consumers from Belgium, Portugal and the United Kingdom. Initial reactions when learning about cultured meat were underpinned by feelings of disgust and considerations of unnaturalness. Consumers saw few direct personal benefits but they were more open to perceiving global societal benefits relating to the environment and global food security. Both personal and societal risks were framed in terms of uncertainties about safety and health, and possible adverse societal consequences dealing with loss of farming and eating traditions and rural livelihoods. Further reflection pertained to skepticism about 'the inevitable' scientific progress, concern about risk governance and control, and need for regulation and proper labeling. PMID:25541372

Determination of the concentration and distribution of the Pu and Am isotopes is hindered by the isobaric overlaps between the elements themselves and U, generally requiring time-consumingchemical separation of the elements. A method is described in which chemical resolution of the elemental ions is obtained through ion-molecule reactions in a reaction cell of an ICPMS instrument. The reactions of "natural" U(+), (242)Pu(+), and (243)Am(+) with ethylene, carbon dioxide, and nitric oxide are reported. Since the net sensitivities to the isotopes of an element are similar, chemical resolution is inferred when one isobaric element reacts rapidly with a given gas and the isobar (or in this instance surrogate isotope) is unreactive or slowly reactive. Chemical resolution of the m/z 238 isotopes of U and Pu can be obtained using ethylene as a reaction gas, but little improvement in the resolution of the m/z 239 isobars is obtained. However, high efficiency of reaction of U(+) and UH(+) with CO(2), and nonreaction of Pu(+), allows the sub-ppt determination of (239)Pu, (240)Pu, and (242)Pu (single ppt for (238)Pu) in the presence of 7 orders of magnitude excess U matrix without prior chemical separation. Similarly, oxidation of Pu(+) by NO, and nonreaction of Am(+), permit chemical resolution of the isobars of Pu and Am over 2-3 orders of magnitude relative concentration. The method provides the potential for analysis of the actinides with reduced sample matrix separation. PMID:15167781

Computer modeling of Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) reactors can greatly aid in the understanding, design, and optimization of these complex systems. Modeling is particularly attractive in these systems since the costs of experimentally evaluating many design alternatives can be prohibitively expensive, time consuming, and even dangerous, when working with toxic chemicals like Arsine (AsH{sub 3}): until now, predictive modeling has not been possible for most systems since the behavior is three-dimensional and governed by complex reaction mechanisms. In addition, CVD reactors often exhibit large thermal gradients, large changes in physical properties over regions of the domain, and significant thermal diffusion for gas mixtures with widely varying molecular weights. As a result, significant simplifications in the models have been made which erode the accuracy of the models` predictions. In this paper, the authors will demonstrate how the vast computational resources of massively parallel computers can be exploited to make possible the analysis of models that include coupled fluid flow and detailed chemistry in three-dimensional domains. For the most part, models have either simplified the reaction mechanisms and concentrated on the fluid flow, or have simplified the fluid flow and concentrated on rigorous reactions. An important CVD research thrust has been in detailed modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer in the reactor vessel, treating transport and reaction of chemical species either very simply or as a totally decoupled problem. Using the analogy between heat transfer and mass transfer, and the fact that deposition is often diffusion limited, much can be learned from these calculations; however, the effects of thermal diffusion, the change in physical properties with composition, and the incorporation of surface reaction mechanisms are not included in this model, nor can transitions to three-dimensional flows be detected.

In many low and middle income countries (LMIC), workers' and consumers' only access to risk and hazard information in relation to the chemicals they use or work with is on the chemical label and safety data sheet. Recall of chemical hazard information is vital in order for label warnings and precautionary information to promote effective safety behaviors. A literature review, therefore, was conducted on determinants of chemical hazard information recall among workers and consumers globally. Since comprehension and recall are closely linked, the determinants of both were reviewed. Literature was reviewed from both online and print peer reviewed journals for all study designs and countries. This review indicated that the level of education, previous training and the inclusion of pictograms on the hazard communication material are all factors that contribute to the recall of hazard information. The influence of gender and age on recall is incongruent and remains to be explored. More research is required on the demographic predictors of the recall of hazard information, the effect of design and non-design factors on recall, the effect of training on the recall among low literate populations and the examining of different regions or contexts. PMID:27258291

Two new semiquantitative green chemistry metrics, the green circle and the green matrix, have been developed for quick assessment of the greenness of a chemicalreaction or process, even without performing the experiment from a protocol if enough detail is provided in it. The evaluation is based on the 12 principles of green chemistry. The…

Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) was developed in early 1990s and has been successfully used for root perforation repair, root end filling, and one-visit apexification. MTA is composed mainly of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate. When MTA is hydrated, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium hydroxide is formed. Formed calcium hydroxide interacts with the phosphate ion in body fluid and form amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) which finally transforms into calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). These mineral precipitate were reported to form the MTA-dentin interfacial layer which enhances the sealing ability of MTA. Clinically, the use of zinc oxide euginol (ZOE) based materials may retard the setting of MTA. Also, the use of acids or contact with excessive blood should be avoided before complete set of MTA, because these conditions could adversely affect the hydration reaction of MTA. Further studies on the chemical nature of MTA hydration reaction are needed. PMID:23429542

Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) was developed in early 1990s and has been successfully used for root perforation repair, root end filling, and one-visit apexification. MTA is composed mainly of tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate. When MTA is hydrated, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium hydroxide is formed. Formed calcium hydroxide interacts with the phosphate ion in body fluid and form amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) which finally transforms into calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). These mineral precipitate were reported to form the MTA-dentin interfacial layer which enhances the sealing ability of MTA. Clinically, the use of zinc oxide euginol (ZOE) based materials may retard the setting of MTA. Also, the use of acids or contact with excessive blood should be avoided before complete set of MTA, because these conditions could adversely affect the hydration reaction of MTA. Further studies on the chemical nature of MTA hydration reaction are needed. PMID:23429542

Three of the most serious problems of asphalt pavements today are rutting, cracking, and susceptibility to moisture damage (stripping). Asphalt manufacturers have been mixing asphalts with polymers to produce polymer-modified asphalts with improved rheological properties. However, the costs for these improved polymer-modified asphalts are almost double that of regular asphalts. FHWA researchers have found that asphalt modified by the chemical, furfural (which is prepared by simple elimination reaction of aldopentoses obtained from oat hulls), exhibited better stripping properties and was less temperature susceptible than the virgin asphalt while costing less than polymer-modified asphalts. This paper discusses the possible structure of the furfural-modified asphalt, data for the virgin and furfural-modified asphalts and their Corbett fractions, data from a model reaction between phenol and furfural, and a possible explanation of this structure based on these data.

The principles involved in thermal energy storage by sensible heat, chemical potential energy, and latent heat of fusion are examined for the purpose of evolving selection criteria for material candidates in the low ( 0 C) and high ( 100 C) temperature ranges. The examination identifies some unresolved theoretical considerations and permits a preliminary formulation of an energy storage theory. A number of candidates in the low and high temperature ranges are presented along with a rating of candidates or potential candidates. A few interesting candidates in the 0 to 100 C region are also included. It is concluded that storage by means of reactions whose reversibility can be controlled either by product removal or by catalytic means appear to offer appreciable advantages over storage with reactions whose reversability cannot be controlled. Among such advantages are listed higher heat storage capacities and more favorable options regarding temperatures of collection, storage, and delivery. Among the disadvantages are lower storage efficiencies.

Within industrial process development, powerful screening techniques are required to select the optimal biocatalyst regarding such process characteristics as cost effectiveness, turnover number or space time yield. Conventional measurement of the initial enzyme activity, which is the established high throughput screening technique, disregards the long-term stability of an enzyme. A new model based technique called "enzyme test bench" was recently presented before by our group which addresses this issue. It combines the high throughput screening approach with an extensive enzyme characterization, focusing especially on the long-term stability. The technique is based on modeling enzyme activation and deactivation as temperature dependent reactions in accordance with the Arrhenius law. Controlling these reactions by tailor made temperature profiles, the slow long-term deactivation effects are accelerated and characterizing models are parameterized. Thus, the process properties of an enzyme can be predicted and included into the screening procedure. Moreover, the optimum process temperature as function of the envisaged operation time can be found by these means. In this work, the technique is extended to the important class of oxygen consumingreactions. For this aim, a suitable assay and a defined oxygen supply were established. This extended technique was applied to characterize and to optimize a complex, multi-stage laccase-mediator system (LMS). For the variation and optimization of the enzyme to mediator to substrate ratio, experiments in microtiter plates were performed. Predictions from this high throughput characterization were compared to long-term experiments in a RAMOS device (Respiration Activity Monitoring System), a technique for on-line monitoring of the oxygen transfer rate in shake flasks. Within the limits of the model validity, the enzyme test bench predictions are in good agreement with the long-term experiments. PMID:23928872

A method is described for detecting and measuring trace amounts of pollutants of the group consisting of ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide in a gaseous environment. A sample organic solid material that will undergo a chemicalreaction with the test pollutant is exposed to the test environment and thereafter, when heated in the temperature range of 100-200 C., undergoes chemiluminescence that is measured and recorded as a function of concentration of the test pollutant. The chemiluminescence of the solid organic material is specific to the pollutant being tested.

In this study, the chemicalreactions between As(III) and As(V) with glutathione, which is a target compound in As biochemistry due to its primordial role in As immobilization and intracellular reduction, in various molar ratios were investigated using As K-edge XAFS spectroscopy. Results showed a gradual substitution of As-O bonds in the coordination of aqueous As(III) and As(V) for three As-S bonds in the As+GSH complex. Moreover, the data showed reduction of As(V) to As(III) prior or concomitant to the As+GSH complex formation.

The central feature of the Combustion Chemistry project at LLNL is the development, validation, and application of detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms for the combustion of hydrocarbon and other types of chemical fuels. For the past 30 years, LLNL's Chemical Sciences Division has built hydrocarbon mechanisms for fuels from hydrogen and methane through much larger fuels including heptanes and octanes. Other classes of fuels for which models have been developed include flame suppressants such as halons and organophosphates, and air pollutants such as soot and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur. Reaction mechanisms have been tested and validated extensively through comparisons between computed results and measured data from laboratory experiments (e.g., shock tubes, laminar flames, rapid compression machines, flow reactors, stirred reactors) and from practical systems (e.g., diesel engines, spark-ignition engines, homogeneous charge, compression ignition (HCCI) engines). These kinetic models are used to examine a wide range of combustion systems.

The research focus in this group is state-to-state dynamics of reaction and energy transfer in collisions of free radicals such as H, OH, and CH{sub 3} with H{sub 2}, alkanes, alcohols and other hydrogen-containing molecules. The motivation for the work is the desire to provide a detailed understanding of the chemical dynamics of prototype reactions that are important in the production and utilization of energy sources, most importantly in combustion. The work is primarily experimental, but with an important and growing theoretical/computational component. The focus of this research program is now on reactions in which at least one of the reactants and one of the products is polyatomic. The objective is to determine how the high dimensionality of the reactants and products differentiates such reactions from atom + diatom reactions of the same kinematics and energetics. The experiments use highly time-resolved laser spectroscopic methods to prepare reactant states and analyze the states of the products on a single-collision time scale. The primary spectroscopic tool for product state analysis is coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) spectroscopy. CARS is used because of its generality and because the extraction of quantum state populations from CARS spectra is straightforward. The combination of the generality and easy analysis of CARS makes possible absolute cross section measurements (both state-to-state and total), a particularly valuable capability for characterizing reactive and inelastic collisions. Reactant free radicals are produced by laser photolysis of appropriate precursors. For reactant vibrational excitation stimulated Raman techniques are being developed and implemented.

Liquid marbles, liquid droplets coated by non-wetting particles, have been well demonstrated as a promising template for various droplet-based applications, in particular for chemicalreactions. In these applications, controlled manipulations on liquid marbles, including coalescence and mixing, are highly demanded but yet rarely investigated. In this work, we study the coalescence and mixing of liquid marbles controlled by an electric field. We found that a sufficiently large applied voltage can cause the coalescence of two or multiple marbles arranged in a chain. This critical voltage, leading to the consequent coalescence, increases with the number of the liquid marbles. In addition, the imposed electric stress can induce convective liquid flow within the different liquid marbles, resulting in rapid and efficient mixing. The mixing efficiency can be conveniently tuned through varying the applied voltage. Our approach based on electro-assisted manipulations of liquids marbles represents a robust and feasible template for chemical or biomedical reactions involving multiple reagents and steps. We have demonstrated its potential by performing a chemiluminescence to detect the hydrogen peroxide encapsulated in liquid marbles.

Experimental data obtained by the Huygens-Cassini mission demonstrate the chemical complexity of the Titan's atmosphere. To rationalize such a complexity it is important to set-up laboratory investigations of the chemical processes occurring in the energetic processing of hydrocarbon nitrogen mixtures followed by the detailed study of selected key reactions. In laboratory, energetic conditions can be simulated in the plasma treatment of hydrocarbon-nitrogen samples and molecular synthesis as well as polymerization can be observed [1]. In the last months we investigated the dynamics of non equilibrium discharges containing benzene focusing on the growth of complex molecular systems [2]. Our study has been performed combining well established analytical methods for neutral product detection with mass spectrometric analysis of the ion population. In this communication, preliminary results on the molecular growth in nitrogen-hydrocarbon plasma processes will be presented and the dynamics of the C6 H+ + C6 H6 reaction will be discussed. 5 References [1] R. Hodyss, Methods for the analysis of organic chemistry on Titan, Phd Dissertation, California Institute of Technology (2005). [2] G. Guella, D. Ascenzi, P. Franceschi, P. Tosi, Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 19, 1-6 (2005).

Humans can be exposed to chemicals in consumer products through product use and environmental emissions over the product life cycle. Exposure pathways are often complex, where chemicals can transfer directly from products to humans during use or exchange between various indoor and outdoor compartments until sub-fractions reach humans. To consistently evaluate exposure pathways along product life cycles, a flexible mass balance-based assessment framework is presented structuring multimedia chemical transfers in a matrix of direct inter-compartmental transfer fractions. By matrix inversion, we quantify cumulative multimedia transfer fractions and exposure pathway-specific product intake fractions defined as chemical mass taken in by humans per unit mass of chemical in a product. Combining product intake fractions with chemical mass in the product yields intake estimates for use in life cycle impact assessment and chemical alternatives assessment, or daily intake doses for use in risk-based assessment and high-throughput screening. Two illustrative examples of chemicals used in personal care products and flooring materials demonstrate how this matrix-based framework offers a consistent and efficient way to rapidly compare exposure pathways for adult and child users and for the general population. This framework constitutes a user-friendly approach to develop, compare and interpret multiple human exposure scenarios in a coupled system of near-field ('user' environment), far-field and human intake compartments, and helps understand the contribution of individual pathways to overall human exposure in various product application contexts to inform decisions in different science-policy fields for which exposure quantification is relevant. PMID:27318619

Considerable progress was achieved on the quantum mechanical treatment of electronically nonadiabatic collisions involving energy transfer and chemicalreaction in the collision of an electronically excited atom with a molecule. In the first step, a new diabatic representation for the coupled potential energy surfaces was created. A two-state diabatic representation was developed which was designed to realistically reproduce the two lowest adiabatic states of the valence bond model and also to have the following three desirable features: (1) it is more economical to evaluate; (2) it is more portable; and (3) all spline fits are replaced by analytic functions. The new representation consists of a set of two coupled diabatic potential energy surfaces plus a coupling surface. It is suitable for dynamics calculations on both the electronic quenching and reaction processes in collisions of Na(3p2p) with H2. The new two-state representation was obtained by a three-step process from a modified eight-state diatomics-in-molecules (DIM) representation of Blais. The second step required the development of new dynamical methods. A formalism was developed for treating reactions with very general basis functions including electronically excited states. Our formalism is based on the generalized Newton, scattered wave, and outgoing wave variational principles that were used previously for reactive collisions on a single potential energy surface, and it incorporates three new features: (1) the basis functions include electronic degrees of freedom, as required to treat reactions involving electronic excitation and two or more coupled potential energy surfaces; (2) the primitive electronic basis is assumed to be diabatic, and it is not assumed that it diagonalizes the electronic Hamiltonian even asymptotically; and (3) contracted basis functions for vibrational-rotational-orbital degrees of freedom are included in a very general way, similar to previous prescriptions for locally

Considerable progress was achieved on the quantum mechanical treatment of electronically nonadiabatic collisions involving energy transfer and chemicalreaction in the collision of an electronically excited atom with a molecule. In the first step, a new diabatic representation for the coupled potential energy surfaces was created. A two-state diabatic representation was developed which was designed to realistically reproduce the two lowest adiabatic states of the valence bond model and also to have the following three desirable features: (1) it is more economical to evaluate; (2) it is more portable; and (3) all spline fits are replaced by analytic functions. The new representation consists of a set of two coupled diabatic potential energy surfaces plus a coupling surface. It is suitable for dynamics calculations on both the electronic quenching and reaction processes in collisions of Na(3p2p) with H2. The new two-state representation was obtained by a three-step process from a modified eight-state diatomics-in-molecules (DIM) representation of Blais. The second step required the development of new dynamical methods. A formalism was developed for treating reactions with very general basis functions including electronically excited states. Our formalism is based on the generalized Newton, scattered wave, and outgoing wave variational principles that were used previously for reactive collisions on a single potential energy surface, and it incorporates three new features: (1) the basis functions include electronic degrees of freedom, as required to treat reactions involving electronic excitation and two or more coupled potential energy surfaces; (2) the primitive electronic basis is assumed to be diabatic, and it is not assumed that it diagonalizes the electronic Hamiltonian even asymptotically; and (3) contracted basis functions for vibrational-rotational-orbital degrees of freedom are included in a very general way, similar to previous prescriptions for locally

A recently proposed approach for the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method to calculate chemical-reaction rates is assessed for high-temperature atmospheric species. The new DSMC model reproduces measured equilibrium reaction rates without using any macroscopic reaction-rate information. Since it uses only molecular properties, the new model is inherently able to predict reaction rates for arbitrary non-equilibrium conditions. DSMC non-equilibrium reaction rates are compared to Park's phenomenological nonequilibrium reaction-rate model, the predominant model for hypersonic-flow-field calculations. For near-equilibrium conditions, Park's model is in good agreement with the DSMC-calculated reaction rates. For far-from-equilibrium conditions, corresponding to a typical shock layer, significant differences can be found. The DSMC predictions are also found to be in very good agreement with measured and calculated non-equilibrium reaction rates, offering strong evidence that this is a viable and reliable technique to predict chemicalreaction rates.

A vorticity-based, low-Mach-number model for simulating combustion in closed chambers is constructed. Numerical scheme is based on a mixed finite-difference pseudo-spectral discretization of the governing equations. Discrete evolution equations are integrated in time using a predictor-corrector scheme, while discrete elliptic systems are inverted with the help of fast-Poisson solver. Scheme is applied to analyze mixing and combustion in an idealized swirl cavity, which consists of the annular space between a spinning inner cylinder and a stationary reaction. To this end, we assume that the oxidizer and fuel are initially separated by a thin mixed region, and carefully control mixing levels by varying the duration of the swirl-driven mixing period. The mixture is then ignited along the boundary of the inner cylinder. When pre-mixing is complete, an axisymmetric flame front is established, and the reactants are consumed as the front propagates radially outwards. When the charge is partially mixed, combustion in the early stages predominantly occurs within a non-uniform premixed front. As this non-uniform front approaches the outer cylinder, a transition to a distributed combustion regime occurs. Following the transition, the remaining fuel burns at a slow rate within non-premixed flames which wrap around the inner cylinder. Results show that the mixing time has substantial effects on the pressure rise within the cavity and on the evolution of the burnt fraction, and that these effects become more pronounced as the Damkoehler number increases.

We report the discovery of a highly active Ni-Co alloy electrocatalyst for the oxidation of hydrazine (N(2)H(4)) and provide evidence for competing electrochemical (faradaic) and chemical (nonfaradaic) reaction pathways. The electrochemical conversion of hydrazine on catalytic surfaces in fuel cells is of great scientific and technological interest, because it offers multiple redox states, complex reaction pathways, and significantly more favorable energy and power densities compared to hydrogen fuel. Structure-reactivity relations of a Ni(60)Co(40) alloy electrocatalyst are presented with a 6-fold increase in catalytic N(2)H(4) oxidation activity over today's benchmark catalysts. We further study the mechanistic pathways of the catalytic N(2)H(4) conversion as function of the applied electrode potential using differentially pumped electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS). At positive overpotentials, N(2)H(4) is electrooxidized into nitrogen consuming hydroxide ions, which is the fuel cell-relevant faradaic reaction pathway. In parallel, N(2)H(4) decomposes chemically into molecular nitrogen and hydrogen over a broad range of electrode potentials. The electroless chemical decomposition rate was controlled by the electrode potential, suggesting a rare example of a liquid-phase electrochemical promotion effect of a chemical catalytic reaction ("EPOC"). The coexisting electrocatalytic (faradaic) and heterogeneous catalytic (electroless, nonfaradaic) reaction pathways have important implications for the efficiency of hydrazine fuel cells. PMID:21425793

Blast furnace (BF) slag, which is the main byproduct in the ironmaking process, contains large amounts of sensible heat. To recover the heat, a new waste heat-recovery system—granulating molten BF slag by rotary multinozzles cup atomizer and pyrolyzing printed circuited board with obtained hot BF slag particle—was proposed in this study. The feasibility of the waste heat-recovery system was verified by dry granulation and pyrolyzation experiments. The energy of hot BF slag could be converted to chemical energy through the pyrolysis reaction, and a large amount of combustible gas like CO, H2, C m H n , and CH4 can be generated during the process.

Hot-pressing of MoSi2 powders with carbon at high temperatures reduces the siliceous grain boundary phase in the resultant compact. The chemicalreactions in this process were examined using the Knudsen cell technique. A 2.3 wt pct oxygen MoSi2 powder and a 0.59 wt pct oxygen MoSi2 powder, both with additions of 2 wt pct carbon, were examined. The reduction of the siliceous grain boundary phase was examined at 1350 K and the resultant P(SiO)/P(CO) ratios interpreted in terms of the SiO(g) and CO(g) isobars on the Si-C-O predominance diagram. The MoSi2 + carbon mixtures were then heated at the hot-pressing temperature of 2100 K. Large weight losses were observed and could be correlated with the formation of a low-melting eutectic and the formation and vaporization of SiC.

We report on a new method for realizing an exceptionally strong inertial confinement of a gas in a liquid: A centimetric spherical bubble filled with a reactive gaseous mixture in a liquid is expanded by an exothermic chemicalreaction whose products condense in the liquid at the bubble wall. Hence, the cavity formed in this way is essentially empty as it collapses. The temperatures reached at maximum compression, inferred from the cavity radius dynamics and further confirmed by spectroscopic measurements exceed 20 000 K. Because the cavity is typically big, our findings also provide unique space and time resolved sequences of the events accompanying the collapse, notably the development of the inertial instability notoriously known to deter strong compression.

We have experimentally investigated miscible viscous fingering with chemicalreactions producing gel. Here, two systems were employed. In one system, sodium polyacrylate (SPA) solution and aluminum ion (Al3 +) solution were used as the more and less viscous liquids, respectively. In another system, SPA solution and ferric ion (Fe3 +) solution were used as the more and less viscous liquids, respectively. In the case of Al3 +, displacement efficiency was smaller than that in the non-reactive case, whereas in the case of Fe3 +, the displacement efficiency was larger. We consider that the difference in change of the patterns in the two systems will be caused by the difference in the properties of the gels. Therefore, we have measured the rheological properties of the gels by means of a rheometer. We discuss relationship between the VF patterns and the rheological measurement.

In many low and middle income countries (LMIC), workers’ and consumers’ only access to risk and hazard information in relation to the chemicals they use or work with is on the chemical label and safety data sheet. Recall of chemical hazard information is vital in order for label warnings and precautionary information to promote effective safety behaviors. A literature review, therefore, was conducted on determinants of chemical hazard information recall among workers and consumers globally. Since comprehension and recall are closely linked, the determinants of both were reviewed. Literature was reviewed from both online and print peer reviewed journals for all study designs and countries. This review indicated that the level of education, previous training and the inclusion of pictograms on the hazard communication material are all factors that contribute to the recall of hazard information. The influence of gender and age on recall is incongruent and remains to be explored. More research is required on the demographic predictors of the recall of hazard information, the effect of design and non-design factors on recall, the effect of training on the recall among low literate populations and the examining of different regions or contexts. PMID:27258291

This is the final technical report for the project titled 'Mathematically Reduced ChemicalReaction Mechanism Using Neural Networks'. The aim of the project was to develop an efficient chemistry model for combustion simulations. The reduced chemistry model was developed mathematically without the need of having extensive knowledge of the chemistry involved. To aid in the development of the model, Neural Networks (NN) was used via a new network topology known as Non-linear Principal Components Analysis (NPCA). A commonly used Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network (MLP-NN) was modified to implement NPCA-NN. The training rate of NPCA-NN was improved with the GEneralized Regression Neural Network (GRNN) based on kernel smoothing techniques. Kernel smoothing provides a simple way of finding structure in data set without the imposition of a parametric model. The trajectory data of the reaction mechanism was generated based on the optimization techniques of genetic algorithm (GA). The NPCA-NN algorithm was then used for the reduction of Dimethyl Ether (DME) mechanism. DME is a recently discovered fuel made from natural gas, (and other feedstock such as coal, biomass, and urban wastes) which can be used in compression ignition engines as a substitute for diesel. An in-house two-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code was developed based on Meshfree technique and time marching solution algorithm. The project also provided valuable research experience to two graduate students.

Under the assumption of local thermal equilibrium, a numerical algorithm is proposed to find the equation of state for laser-induced plasmas (LIPs) in which chemicalreactions are permitted in addition to ionization processes. The Coulomb interaction in plasma is accounted for by the Debye-Hückel method. The algorithm is used to calculate the equation of state for LIPs containing carbon, silicon, nitrogen, and argon. The equilibrium reaction constants are calculated using the latest experimental and ab initio data of spectroscopic constants for the molecules {N}_2, {C}_2, {Si}_2, {CN}, {SiN}, {SiC} and their ions. The algorithm is incorporated into a fluid dynamic numerical model based on the Navier-Stokes equations describing an expansion of LIP plumes into an ambient gas. The dynamics of LIP plumes obtained by the ablation of SiC, solid silicon, or solid carbon in an ambient gas containing {N}_2 and Ar is simulated to study formation of molecules and molecular ions.

The DCR (Dispersion by ChemicalReaction) technologies are a group of patented waste treatment processes using CaO (quicklime) for the immobilization of heavily oiled sludges, oil-contaminated soils, acid-tars, and heavy metals in Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 matrices. The objectives of this project were to: (1) evaluate the DCR process for remediating soils contaminated with pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons (oils and fuels), and heavy metals in cold regions and (2) evaluate DCR-treated oil-contaminated soil as a non-frost-susceptible (NFS) construction material. Three major studies evaluated the DCR process to remediate (1) hydrocarbons at Eareckson Air Force Station on Shemya in the Aleutians, (2) pesticide-contaminated soils from Rocky Mt. Arsenal, and (3) heavy-metal contaminated soils from a former zinc smelter site at Palmerton, Pennsylvania. The DCR process was successful in stabilizing liquid organics and heavy metals in contaminated soils. The chemical properties of soils contaminated by solid organics (asphalt tar and pesticides) were not generally improved by the DCR process, but even in these cases, the physical properties were improved for potential reuse as construction materials.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an important signaling molecule that exerts action on various bioinorganic targets. Despite this importance, few studies have investigated the differential reactivity of the physiologically relevant H2S and HS– protonation states with metal complexes. Here we report the distinct reactivity of H2S and HS– with zinc(II) and cobalt(II) phthalocyanine (Pc) complexes and highlight the chemical reversibility and cyclability of each metal. ZnPc reacts with HS–, but not H2S, to generate [ZnPc-SH]−, which can be converted back to ZnPc by protonation. CoPc reacts with HS–, but not H2S, to form [CoIPc]−, which can be reoxidized to CoPc by air. Taken together, these results demonstrate the chemically reversible reaction of HS– with metal phthalocyanine complexes and highlight the importance of H2S protonation state in understanding the reactivity profile of H2S with biologically relevant metal scaffolds. PMID:24785654

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an important signaling molecule that exerts action on various bioinorganic targets. Despite this importance, few studies have investigated the differential reactivity of the physiologically relevant H2S and HS(-) protonation states with metal complexes. Here we report the distinct reactivity of H2S and HS(-) with zinc(II) and cobalt(II) phthalocyanine (Pc) complexes and highlight the chemical reversibility and cyclability of each metal. ZnPc reacts with HS(-), but not H2S, to generate [ZnPc-SH](-), which can be converted back to ZnPc by protonation. CoPc reacts with HS(-), but not H2S, to form [Co(I)Pc](-), which can be reoxidized to CoPc by air. Taken together, these results demonstrate the chemically reversible reaction of HS(-) with metal phthalocyanine complexes and highlight the importance of H2S protonation state in understanding the reactivity profile of H2S with biologically relevant metal scaffolds. PMID:24785654

The chemical transformation of the polar chloroaluminum phthalocyanine, AlClPc, to μ-(oxo)bis(phthalocyaninato)aluminum(III), (PcAl)2O, in thin films on indium tin oxide is studied and its influence on the molecular orientation is discussed. The studies were conducted using complementary spectroscopic techniques: Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy. In addition, density functional theory calculations were performed in order to identify specific vibrations and to monitor the product formation. The thin films of AlClPc were annealed in controlled environmental conditions to obtain (PcAl)2O. It is shown that the chemical transformation in the thin films can proceed only in the presence of water. The influence of the reaction and the annealing on the molecular orientation was studied with Raman spectroscopy and NEXAFS spectroscopy in total electron yield and partial electron yield modes. The comparison of the results obtained from these techniques allows the determination of the molecular orientation of the film as a function of the probing depth. PMID:23494276

Accomplishments of this program include the following: (1) Scalable, chemical generation of oxygen atoms by reaction of fluorine atoms and water vapor. (2) Production of nitrogen atom densities of 1 {times} 10{sup 1}5 cm{sup {minus}3} with 5% electrical efficiency by injecting trace amounts of fluorine into microwave discharged nitrogen. (3) Production of cyanide radicals by reaction of high densities of N atoms with cyanogen. (4) Production of carbon atoms by reaction of nitrogen atoms with cyanogen or with fluorine atoms and hydrogen cyanide. (5) Confirmation that the reaction of carbon atoms and carbonyl sulfide produces CS(a{sup 3} {Pi}{sub r}), as predicted by conservation of electron spin and orbital angular momenta and as proposed by others under another SWCL program. (6) Production of cyanide radicals by injection of cyanogen halides into active nitrogen and use as spectroscopic calibration source. (7) Demonstration that sodium atoms react with cyanogen chloride, bromide and iodide and with cyanuric trifluoride to produce cyanide radicals. (8) Demonstration of the potential utility of the fluorine atom plus ammonia reaction system in the production of NF(b{sup l}{Sigma}{sup +}) via N({sup 2}D) + F{sub 2}.

The development of processes to produce fullerenes and carbon nanotubes has largely been empirical. Fullerenes were first discovered in the soot produced by laser ablation of graphite [1]and then in the soot of electric arc evaporated carbon. Techniques and conditions for producing larger and larger quantities of fullerenes depended mainly on trial and error empirical variations of these processes, with attempts to scale them up by using larger electrodes and targets and higher power. Various concepts of how fullerenes and carbon nanotubes were formed were put forth, but very little was done based on chemical kinetics of the reactions. This was mainly due to the complex mixture of species and complex nature of conditions in the reactors. Temperatures in the reactors varied from several thousand degrees Kelvin down to near room temperature. There are hundreds of species possible, ranging from atomic carbon to large clusters of carbonaceous soot, and metallic catalyst atoms to metal clusters, to complexes of metals and carbon. Most of the chemical kinetics of the reactions and the thermodynamic properties of clusters and complexes have only been approximated. In addition, flow conditions in the reactors are transient or unsteady, and three dimensional, with steep spatial gradients of temperature and species concentrations. All these factors make computational simulations of reactors very complex and challenging. This article addresses the development of the chemicalreaction involved in fullerene production and extends this to production of carbon nanotubes by the laser ablation/oven process and by the electric arc evaporation process. In addition, the high-pressure carbon monoxide (HiPco) process is discussed. The article is in several parts. The first one addresses the thermochemical aspects of modeling; and considers the development of chemical rate equations, estimates of reaction rates, and thermodynamic properties where they are available. The second part

Binuclear metallohydrolases are a large family of enzymes that require two closely spaced transition metal ions to carry out a plethora of hydrolytic reactions. Representatives include purple acid phosphatases (PAPs), enzymes that play a role in bone metabolism and are the only member of this family with a heterovalent binuclear center in the active form (Fe(3+)-M(2+), M = Fe, Zn, Mn). Other members of this family are urease, which contains a di-Ni(2+) center and catalyzes the breakdown of urea, arginase, which contains a di-Mn(2+) center and catalyzes the final step in the urea cycle, and the metallo-β-lactamases, which contain a di-Zn(2+) center and are virulence factors contributing to the spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Binuclear metallohydrolases catalyze numerous vital reactions and are potential targets of drugs against a wide variety of human disorders including osteoporosis, various cancers, antibiotic resistance, and erectile dysfunctions. These enzymes also tend to catalyze more than one reaction. An example is an organophosphate (OP)-degrading enzyme from Enterobacter aerogenes (GpdQ). Although GpdQ is part of a pathway that is used by bacteria to degrade glycerolphosphoesters, it hydrolyzes a variety of other phosphodiesters and displays low levels of activity against phosphomono- and triesters. Such a promiscuous nature may have assisted the apparent recent evolution of some binuclear metallohydrolases to deal with situations created by human intervention such as OP pesticides in the environment. OP pesticides were first used approximately 70 years ago, and therefore the enzymes that bacteria use to degrade them must have evolved very quickly on the evolutionary time scale. The promiscuous nature of enzymes such as GpdQ makes them ideal candidates for the application of directed evolution to produce new enzymes that can be used in bioremediation and against chemical warfare. In this Account, we review the mechanisms employed by binuclear

A kinetic model of the Boltzmann equation for chemicalreactions without energy barrier is considered here with the aim of evaluating the reaction rate and characterizing the transport coefficient of shear viscosity for the reactive system. The Chapman-Enskog solution of the Boltzmann equation is used to compute the chemicalreaction effects, in a flow regime for which the reaction process is close to the final equilibrium state. Some numerical results are provided illustrating that the considered chemicalreaction without energy barrier can induce an appreciable influence on the reaction rate and on the transport coefficient of shear viscosity.

Predicting the course and major products of arbitrary reactions is a fundamental problem in chemistry, one that chemists must address in a variety of tasks ranging from synthesis design to reaction discovery. Described here is an expert system to predict organic chemicalreactions based on a knowledge base of over 1,500 manually composed reaction transformation rules. Novel rule extensions are introduced to enable robust predictions and describe detailed reaction mechanisms at the level of electron flows in elementary reaction steps, ensuring that all reactions are properly balanced and atom-mapped. The core reaction prediction functionalities of this expert system are illustrated with applications including: (1) prediction of detailed reaction mechanisms; (2) computer-based learning in organic chemistry; (3) retro synthetic analysis; and (4) combinatorial library design. Select applications available via http://cdb.ics.uci.edu. PMID:19719121

Predicting the course and major products of arbitrary reactions is a fundamental problem in chemistry, one that chemists must address in a variety of tasks ranging from synthesis design to reaction discovery. Described here is an expert system to predict organic chemicalreactions based on a knowledge base of over 1500 manually composed reaction transformation rules. Novel rule extensions are introduced to enable robust predictions and describe detailed reaction mechanisms at the level of electron flows in elementary reaction steps, ensuring that all reactions are properly balanced and atom-mapped. The core reaction prediction functionalities of this expert system are illustrated with applications including: (1) prediction of detailed reaction mechanisms; (2) computer-based learning in organic chemistry; (3) retrosynthetic analysis; and (4) combinatorial library design. Select applications are available via http://cdb.ics.uci.edu. PMID:19719121

Epidemiologic approaches to assessing human cancer risk from consuming fish from contaminated waters must confront the problems of long latency and rarity of the end point (cancer). The latency problem makes determination of diet history more difficult, while the low frequency of cancer as an end point reduces the statistical power of the study. These factors are discussed in relation to the study designs most commonly employed in epidemiology. It is suggested that the use of biomarkers for persistent chemicals may be useful to mitigate the difficulty of determining exposure, while the use of more prevalent and timely end points, such as carcinogen-DNA adducts or oncogene proteins, may make the latency and rarity problems more tractable. PMID:2050052

Reviews some important properties of the bimolecular reaction between the hydroxyl radical and carbon monoxide. Investigates the kinetics of the reaction, the temperature and pressure dependence of the rate constant, the state-to-state dynamics of the reaction, and the reverse reaction. (MVL)

This is the final technical report of the subject grant. It describes the scientific results obtained during the reporting period. These results are focused on the reactions of atomic oxygen with terminal alkenes. We have studied the production of vinoxy in these reactions. We have characterized the energy disposal in the reactions and have elaborated the reaction mechanism.

This research program focuses on both the development and application of accurate quantum mechanical methods to describe gas phase chemicalreactions and highly excited molecules. Emphasis is often placed on time-dependent or integrative approaches that, in addition to computational simplifications, yield useful mechanistic insights. Applications to systems of current experimental and theoretical interest are emphasized. The results of these calculations also allow one to gauge the quality of the underlying potential energy surfaces and the reliability of more approximate theoretical approaches such as classical trajectories and transition state theories.

This research program focuses on both the development and application of accurate quantum mechanical methods to describe gas phase chemicalreactions and highly excited molecules. Emphasis is often placed on time-dependent or integrative approaches that, in addition to computational simplifications, yield useful mechanistic insights. Applications to systems of current experimental and theoretical interest are emphasized. The results of these calculations also allow one to gauge the quality of the underlying potential energy surfaces and the reliability of more approximate theoretical approaches such as classical trajectories and transition state theories.

New chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms are developed for two of the five major components of biodiesel fuel, methyl stearate and methyl oleate. The mechanisms are produced using existing reaction classes and rules for reaction rates, with additional reaction classes to describe other reactions unique to methyl ester species. Mechanism capabilities were examined by computing fuel/air autoignition delay times and comparing the results with more conventional hydrocarbon fuels for which experimental results are available. Additional comparisons were carried out with measured results taken from jet-stirred reactor experiments for rapeseed methyl ester fuels. In both sets of computational tests, methyl oleate was found to be slightly less reactive than methyl stearate, and an explanation of this observation is made showing that the double bond in methyl oleate inhibits certain low temperature chain branching reaction pathways important in methyl stearate. The resulting detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanism includes more approximately 3500 chemical species and more than 17,000 chemicalreactions.

This is an annual technical report for the work done over the last year (period ending 9/30/2004) on the project titled ''Mathematically Reduced ChemicalReaction Mechanism Using Neural Networks''. The aim of the project is to develop an efficient chemistry model for combustion simulations. The reduced chemistry model will be developed mathematically without the need of having extensive knowledge of the chemistry involved. To aid in the development of the model, Neural Networks (NN) will be used via a new network topology know as Non-linear Principal Components Analysis (NPCA). We report on the development of a procedure to speed up the training of NPCA. The developed procedure is based on the non-parametric statistical technique of kernel smoothing. When this smoothing technique is implemented as a Neural Network, It is know as Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRNN). We present results of implementing GRNN on a test problem. In addition, we present results of an in house developed 2-D CFD code that will be used through out the project period.

It is well known that it takes no work for Water to rise in a Capillary tube against the force of Gravity. There is a precise balance in this system that resembles Robert Millikan's ``Oil Drop'' experiment, where mass was balanced against the electrostatic force. If at the top of the capillary tube there is evaporation, one can see that the system is cooled as another water molecule has room to move up the column. Furthermore, if the evaporation process can be controlled one photon at a time, a precise balance is created between a photon, and the height/mass of the column. If other molecules are place in the column, they can be moved up and down the column, in a chromatograph way, in a fairly precise manner, by controlling evaporation and molecular weight. If in addition to all of this, the interface of the solution against the walls of the column have Fermi levels, it can be seen as a very precise Electrochemical Device. In the situation of nanotubes, as opposed to trees and plants, these properties can be used to create measure environmental properties and to Balance ChemicalReactions. Forests, and Plants may cool themselves and their environment using this process, and using this process coupled with more energetic photons through photosynthesis.

The diffusion of heat through gases is treated where the coefficients of thermal conductivity and diffusivity are functions of temperature. The diffusivity is taken proportional to the integral of thermal conductivity, where the gas is ideal, and is considered constant over the temperature interval in which a chemicalreaction occurs. The heat diffusion equation is then solved numerically for a semi-infinite gas medium with constant initial and boundary conditions. These solutions are in a dimensionless form applicable to gases in general, and they are used, along with measured shock velocity and heat flux through a shock reflecting surface, to evaluate the integral of thermal conductivity for air up to 5000 degrees Kelvin. This integral has the properties of a heat flux potential and replaces temperature as the dependent variable for problems of heat diffusion in media with variable coefficients. Examples are given in which the heat flux at the stagnation region of blunt hypersonic bodies is expressed in terms of this potential.

Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) is the technique that combines the nanoscale spatial resolution of a scanning probe microscope and the highly sensitive Raman spectroscopy enhanced by the surface plasmons. It is suitable for chemical analysis at nanometer scale. Recently, TERS exhibited powerful potential in analyzing the chemicalreactions at nanoscale. The high sensitivity and spatial resolution of TERS enable us to learn the reaction processes more clearly. More importantly, the chemicalreaction in TERS is assisted by surface plasmons, which provides us an optical method to manipulate the chemicalreactions at nanoscale. Here using our home-built high-vacuum tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (HV-TERS) setup, we successfully observed the plasmon-assisted molecule dimerization and dissociation reactions. In HV-TERS system, under laser illumination, 4-nitrobenzenethiol (4NBT) molecules can be dimerized to p,p'-dimercaptoazobenzene (DMAB), and dissociation reaction occurs for malachite green (MG) molecules. Using our HV-TERS setup, the dynamic processes of the reactions are clearly revealed. The chemicalreactions can be manipulated by controlling the plasmon intensity through changing the power of the incident laser, the tunneling current and the bias voltage. We also investigated the role of plasmonic thermal effect in the reactions by measuring both the Stokes and anti- Stokes Raman peaks. Our findings extend the applications of TERS, which can help to study the chemicalreactions and understand the dynamic processes at single molecular level, and even design molecules by the plasmon-assisted chemicalreactions.

This paper presents a reaction-based water quality transport model in subsurface flow systems. Transport of chemical species with a variety of chemical and physical processes is mathematically described by M partial differential equations (PDEs). Decomposition via Gauss-Jordan column reduction of the reaction network transforms M species reactive transport equations into two sets of equations: a set of thermodynamic equilibrium equations representing NE equilibrium reactions and a set of reactive transport equations of M-NE kinetic-variables involving no equilibrium reactions (a kinetic-variable is a linear combination of species). The elimination of equilibrium reactions from reactive transport equations allows robust and efficient numerical integration. The model solves the PDEs of kinetic-variables rather than individual chemical species, which reduces the number of reactive transport equations and simplifies the reaction terms in the equations. A variety of numerical methods are investigated for solving the coupled transport and reaction equations. Simulation comparisons with exact solutions were performed to verify numerical accuracy and assess the effectiveness of various numerical strategies to deal with different application circumstances. Two validation examples involving simulations of uranium transport in soil columns are presented to evaluate the ability of the model to simulate reactive transport with complex reaction networks involving both kinetic and equilibrium reactions.

A new efficient hybrid Monte Carlo (MC)/molecular dynamics (MD) reaction method with a rare event-driving mechanism is introduced as a practical ‘atomistic’ molecular simulation of large-scale chemically reactive systems. Starting its demonstrative application to the racemization reaction of (R)-2-chlorobutane in N,N-dimethylformamide solution, several other applications are shown from the practical viewpoint of molecular controlling of complex chemicalreactions, stereochemistry and aggregate structures. Finally, I would like to mention the future applications of the hybrid MC/MD reaction method.

The heat and mass transfer phenomena in micro-scale for the mass transfer phenomena on drug in cylindrical matrix system, the simulation of oxygen/drug diffusion in a three dimensional capillary network, and a reduced chemical kinetic modeling of gas turbine combustion for Jet propellant-10 have been studied numerically. For the numerical analysis of the mass transfer phenomena on drug in cylindrical matrix system, the governing equations are derived from the cylindrical matrix systems, Krogh cylinder model, which modeling system is comprised of a capillary to a surrounding cylinder tissue along with the arterial distance to veins. ADI (Alternative Direction Implicit) scheme and Thomas algorithm are applied to solve the nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs). This study shows that the important factors which have an effect on the drug penetration depth to the tissue are the mass diffusivity and the consumption of relevant species during the time allowed for diffusion to the brain tissue. Also, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model has been developed to simulate the blood flow and oxygen/drug diffusion in a three dimensional capillary network, which are satisfied in the physiological range of a typical capillary. A three dimensional geometry has been constructed to replicate the one studied by Secomb et al. (2000), and the computational framework features a non-Newtonian viscosity model for blood, the oxygen transport model including in oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation and wall flux due to tissue absorption, as well as an ability to study the diffusion of drugs and other materials in the capillary streams. Finally, a chemical kinetic mechanism of JP-10 has been compiled and validated for a wide range of combustion regimes, covering pressures of 1atm to 40atm with temperature ranges of 1,200 K--1,700 K, which is being studied as a possible Jet propellant for the Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE) and other high-speed flight applications such as hypersonic

This is an annual technical report for the work done over the last year (period ending 9/30/2005) on the project titled ''Mathematically Reduced ChemicalReaction Mechanism Using Neural Networks''. The aim of the project is to develop an efficient chemistry model for combustion simulations. The reduced chemistry model will be developed mathematically without the need of having extensive knowledge of the chemistry involved. To aid in the development of the model, Neural Networks (NN) will be used via a new network topology know as Non-linear Principal Components Analysis (NPCA). We report on the significant development made in developing a truly meshfree computational fluid dynamics (CFD) flow solver to be coupled to NPCA. First, the procedure of obtaining nearly analytic accurate first order derivatives using the complex step method (CSM) is extended to include computation of accurate meshfree second order derivatives via a theorem described in this report. Next, boosted generalized regression neural network (BGRNN), described in our previous report is combined with CSM and used to obtain complete solution of a hard to solve wave dominated sample second order partial differential equation (PDE): the cubic Schrodinger equation. The resulting algorithm is a significant improvement of the meshfree technique of smooth particle hydrodynamics method (SPH). It is suggested that the demonstrated meshfree technique be termed boosted smooth particle hydrodynamics method (BSPH). Some of the advantages of BSPH over other meshfree methods include; it is of higher order accuracy than SPH; compared to other meshfree methods, it is completely meshfree and does not require any background meshes; It does not involve any construction of shape function with their associated solution of possibly ill conditioned matrix equations; compared to some SPH techniques, no equation for the smoothing parameter is required; finally it is easy to program.

Isotope effects in reactions between Mg{sup +} in the 3p {sup 2}P{sub 3/2} excited state and molecular hydrogen at thermal energies are studied through single reaction events. From only {approx}250 reactions with HD, the branching ratio between formation of MgD{sup +} and MgH{sup +} is found to be larger than 5. From an additional 65 reactions with H{sub 2} and D{sub 2} we find that the overall fragmentation probability of the intermediate MgH{sub 2}{sup +}, MgHD{sup +}, or MgD{sub 2}{sup +} complexes is the same. Our study shows that few single ion reactions can provide quantitative information on ion-neutral reactions. Hence, the method is well suited for reaction studies involving rare species, e.g., rare isotopes or short-lived unstable elements.

Isotope effects in reactions between Mg+ in the 3p P3/22 excited state and molecular hydrogen at thermal energies are studied through single reaction events. From only ˜250 reactions with HD, the branching ratio between formation of MgD+ and MgH+ is found to be larger than 5. From an additional 65 reactions with H2 and D2 we find that the overall fragmentation probability of the intermediate MgH2+, MgHD+, or MgD2+ complexes is the same. Our study shows that few single ion reactions can provide quantitative information on ion-neutral reactions. Hence, the method is well suited for reaction studies involving rare species, e.g., rare isotopes or short-lived unstable elements.

Sour cream is a widely popular acidified dairy product. Volatile compounds and organic acids and their specific contributions to flavor or acceptance have not been established, nor has a comprehensive study been conducted to characterize drivers of liking for sour cream. The objective of this study was to characterize chemical and sensory properties of sour cream and to determine the drivers of liking for sour cream. Descriptive sensory and instrumental analyses followed by consumer testing were conducted. Flavor and texture attributes of 32 (22 full-fat, 6 reduced-fat, and 4 fat-free) commercial sour creams were evaluated by a trained descriptive sensory panel. Percent solids, percent fat, pH, titratable acidity, and colorimetric measurements were conducted to characterize physical properties of sour creams. Organic acids were evaluated by HPLC and volatile aroma active compounds were evaluated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with gas chromatography-olfactometry. Consumer acceptance testing (n=201) was conducted on selected sour creams, followed by external preference mapping. Full-fat sour creams were characterized by the lack of surface gloss and chalky textural attributes, whereas reduced-fat and fat-free samples displayed high intensities of these attributes. Full-fat sour creams were higher in cooked/milky and milk fat flavors than the reduced-fat and fat-free samples. Reduced-fat and fat-free sour creams were characterized by cardboard, acetaldehyde/green, and potato flavors, bitter taste, and astringency. Lactic acid was the prominent organic acid in all sour creams, followed by acetic and citric acids. High aroma-impact volatile compounds in sour creams were 2,3-butanedione, acetic acid, butyric acid, octanal, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, 1-octene-3-one, and acetaldehyde. Positive drivers of liking for sour cream were milk fat, cooked/milky and sweet aromatic flavors, opacity, color intensity, and adhesiveness. This comprehensive study established

OBJECTIVE To analyze consumer opinion on genetically modified foods and the information included on the label. METHODS A systematic review of the scientific literature on genetically modified food labeling was conducted consulting bibliographic databases (Medline – via PubMed –, EMBASE, ISI-Web of knowledge, Cochrane Library Plus, FSTA, LILACS, CINAHL and AGRICOLA) using the descriptors “organisms, genetically modified” and “food labeling”. The search covered the first available date, up to June 2012, selecting relevant articles written in English, Portuguese or Spanish. RESULTS Forty articles were selected after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. All of them should have conducted a population-based intervention focused on consumer awareness of genetically modified foods and their need or not, to include this on the label. The consumers expressed a preference for non-genetically modified products, and added that they were prepared to pay more for this but, ultimately, the product bought was that with the best price, in a market which welcomes new technologies. In 18 of the articles, the population was in favor of obligatory labelling, and in six, in favor of this being voluntary; seven studies showed the consumer knew little about genetically modified food, and in three, the population underestimated the quantity they consumed. Price was an influencing factor in all cases. CONCLUSIONS Label should be homogeneous and clarify the degree of tolerance of genetically modified products in humans, in comparison with those non-genetically modified. Label should also present the content or not of genetically modified products and how these commodities are produced and should be accompanied by the certifying entity and contact information. Consumers express their preference for non-genetically modifiedproducts and they even notice that they are willing to pay more for it, but eventually they buy the item with the best price, in a market that welcomes

The chemical research during the last decade has witnessed a paradigm shift towards "environmentally-friendly chemistry" more popularly known as "green chemistry" due to the increasing environmental concerns and legislative requirements to curb the release of chemical waste into ...

Chemical Treatment is one of several treatment techniques used for the remediation of toxic and hazardous chemicals. Chemical treatment in this report is defined as substitution of halogens by hydrogens for the conversion of halogenated organic toxicant into its native hydrocarb...

Direct numerical simulations were made to examine the local structure of the reaction zone for a moderately fast reaction between unmixed species in decaying, homogeneous turbulence and in a homogeneous turbulent shear flow. Pseudospectral techniques were used in domains of 64 exp 3 and higher wavenumbers. A finite-rate, single step reaction between non-premixed reactants was considered, and in one case temperature-dependent Arrhenius kinetics was assumed. Locally intense reaction rates that tend to persist throughout the simulations occur in locations where the reactant concentration gradients are large and are amplified by the local rate of strain. The reaction zones are more organized in the case of a uniform mean shear than in isotropic turbulence, and regions of intense reaction rate appear to be associated with vortex structures such as horseshoe vortices and fingers seen in mixing layers. Concentration gradients tend to align with the direction of the most compressive principal strain rate, more so in the isotropic case.

A locally optimized control theory is developed. This theory is applied to pump-dump laser-driven chemicalreactions via an electronically excited state. The results show that the theory can design the pulse shapes for chemicalreactions with high quantum yields in strong laser intensity regimes in which perturbative treatments break down.

The stochastic simulation of chemicalreactions, specifically, a simple reversible chemicalreaction obeying the first-order, i.e., linear, rate law, has been presented by Martinez-Urreaga and his collaborators in this journal. The current contribution is intended to complement and augment their work in two aspects. First, the simple reversible…

Under conditions of constant temperature T and pressure P, chemical equilibrium occurs in a closed system (fixed mass) when the Gibbs free energy G of the reaction mixture is minimized. However, when chemicalreactions occur under other conditions, other thermodynamic functions are minimized or maximized. For processes at constant T and volume V,…

The invention involves a novel method of increasing the efficiency of a thermal engine. Heat is generated by a non-linear chemicalreaction of reactants, said heat being transferred to a thermal engine such as Rankine cycle power plant. The novel method includes externally perturbing one or more of the thermodynamic variables of said non-linear chemicalreaction. 7 figs.

The central goal of this qualitative research study was to uncover major implicit assumptions that students with different levels of training in the discipline apply when thinking and making decisions about chemicalreactions used to make a desired product. In particular, we elicited different ways of conceptualizing why chemicalreactions happen…

This study aimed to investigate the contribution of motivational factors to 10th grade students' achievement in gases and chemicalreactions in chemistry. Three hundred fifty nine 10th grade students participated in the study. The Gases and ChemicalReactions Achievement Test and the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire were…

The design criteria for heterogeneous chemicalreactions in liquid/liquid systems formally correspond to those of classical physical extraction. More complex models are presented which describe the material exchange at the individual droplets in an extraction with chemicalreaction and in liquid membrane permeation.

Examples of acid-base reactions from Robert Boyle's "The Sceptical Chemist" are used to illustrate the rich information content of chemical equations. Boyle required lengthy passages of florid language to describe the same reaction that can be done quite simply with a chemical equation. Reading or hearing the words, however, enriches the student's…

The invention involves a novel method of increasing the efficiency of a thermal engine. Heat is generated by a non-linear chemicalreaction of reactants, said heat being transferred to a thermal engine such as Rankine cycle power plant. The novel method includes externally perturbing one or more of the thermodynamic variables of said non-linear chemicalreaction.

The average home has chemical products to clean floors, kill insects, clean ovens, thin paint, remove grease, and perform countless other chores. Many consumers remain unaware of the dangers these products bring into the home. This booklet provides information on the safe use, storage, and disposal of these products. The compounds found in…

We demonstrate that chemicalreactions in collisions of molecular beams can generally produce low-velocity molecules in the laboratory-fixed frame. Our analysis shows that collisions of beams may simultaneously yield slow reactant molecules and slow products. The reaction products are formed in selected rovibrational states and scattered in a specific direction, which can be controlled by tuning the kinetic energies of the incident beams and the angle between the beams. Our calculations indicate that chemicalreactions of polar alkali-metal dimers are barrierless and we suggest that chemicalreactions involving alkali-metal dimers may be particularly suitable for producing slow molecules in crossed beams.

Calculations of thermodynamic data are performed for fatty acid triglycerides, free fatty acids, and fatty acid methyl esters, participants of the transesterification reaction of vegetable oils that occurs in methanol. Using the obtained thermodynamic parameters, the phase diagrams for the reaction mixture are constructed, and the chemical equilibria of the esterification reaction of free fatty acids and the transesterification reaction of fatty acid triglycerides attained upon treatment with supercritical methanol are determined. Relying on our analysis of the obtained equilibria for the esterification reaction of fatty acids and the transesterification reaction of triglycerides attained upon treatment with lower alcohols, we select the optimum conditions for performing the reaction in practice.

Chemical models of aqueous geochemical systems are usually built on the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium. Though many elementary reactions in a geochemical system may be close to equilibrium, others may not be. Chemical models of aqueous fluids should take into account that many aqueous redox reactions are among the latter. The behavior of redox reactions may critically affect migration of certain radionuclides, especially the actinides. In addition, the progress of reaction in geochemical systems requires thermodynamic driving forces associated with elementary reactions not at equilibrium, which are termed irreversible reactions. Both static chemical models of fluids and dynamic models of reacting systems have been applied to a wide spectrum of problems in water-rock interactions. Potential applications in nuclear waste disposal range from problems in geochemical aspects of site evaluation to those of waste-water-rock interactions. However, much further work in the laboratory and the field will be required to develop and verify such applications of chemical modeling.

In this laboratory, students perform a synthetic reaction in two ways: (i) by traditional bulk-phase reaction and (ii) in the course of reactive paper spray ionization. Mass spectrometry (MS) is used both as an analytical method and a means of accelerating organic syntheses. The main focus of this laboratory exercise is that the same ionization…

A study was conducted to identify the specific organic reaction products of natural aquatic humic materials with selected oxidants (KMnO4, HOCl, Cl02, O3 and monochloramine). Reaction products were identified by GC/MS after solvent extraction and derivatization. The two most reac...

We discuss the deduction of reaction pathways in complex chemical systems from measurements of time series of chemical concentrations of reacting species. First we review a technique called correlation metric construction (CMC) and show the construction of a reaction pathway from measurements on a part of glycolysis. Then we present two new improved methods for the analysis of time series of concentrations, entropy metric construction (EMC), and entropy reduction method (ERM), and illustrate (EMC) with calculations on a model reaction system.

A global model for the generation of oil and gas from petroleum source rocks is presented. The model consists of 13 chemical species and 10 reactions, including an alternate-pathway mechanism for kerogen pyrolysis. Reaction rate parameters and stoichiometry coefficients determined from a variety of pyrolysis data are given for both type I and type II kerogen. Use of the chemicalreaction model is illustrated for typical geologic conditions.

The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) is an independent regulatory agency that was created in 1973. The CPSC has jurisdiction over more the 15,000 types of consumer products used in and around the home or by children, except items such as food, drugs, cosmetics, medical devices, pesticides, certain radioactive materials, products that emit radiation (e.g., microwave ovens), and automobiles. The CPSC has investigated many low-level exposures from consumer products, including formaldehyde emissions from urea-formaldehyde foam insulation and pressed wood products, CO and NO2 emmissions from combustion appliances, and dioxin in paper products. Many chemical hazards are addressed under the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA), which applies to acute and chronic health effects resulting from high- or low-level exposures. In 1992 the Commission issued guidelines for assessing chronic hazards under the FHSA, including carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive/developmental toxicity, exposure, bioavailability, risk assessment, and acceptable risk. The chronic hazard guidelines describe a series of default assumptions, which are used in the absence of evidence to the contrary. However, the guidelines are intended to be sufficiently flexible to incorporate the latest scientific information. The use of alternative procedures is permissible, on a case-by-case basis, provided that the procedures used are scientifically defensible and supported by appropriate data. The application of the chronic hazard guidelines in assessing the risks from low-level exposures is discussed. PMID:9539035

Each day, social networking sites become increasingly inundated with food imagery. Since many of these images are of fresh, vibrant, and healthy eats, photo sharing of food through social media should have a long-term positive effect on consumption habits. Yet, obesity rates in the United States continue to rise, suggesting that people are spending more time posting images of healthy foods and paying less attention to the actual foods they consume. This confounding relationship could be explained by consumer weight, in that overweight consumers desire to engage with social media maybe for the purpose of expressing, presenting, and identifying with a healthy lifestyle. In the context of food posts, individuals higher in body mass index may be more likely to engage in social media activity (e.g., likes, shares, comments) that validates healthy food choices to others in their online community. A between-subjects experimental design tested this proposed effect using a manipulated Instagram post of a healthy food item (i.e., black bean veggie burger). Results indicate that obese individuals are more likely to engage with healthy food posts compared with their normal weight and overweight counterparts. The effect is even more pronounced when posts are absent of prior social media activity. Based upon these results, obese individuals are encouraged to establish and maintain social network connections with others who routinely post images of healthy food in their social media feeds. Limitations and directions for future research are provided. PMID:27494330

We have developed a methodology for including effects of chemicalreactions in coarse-grained computer simulations such as those that use the united atom or bead and spring approximations. The new coarse-grained chemicalreaction model (CGCRM) adopts the philosophy of kinetic Monte Carlo approaches and includes a probabilistic element to predicting when reactions occur, thus obviating the need for a chemically correct interaction potential. The CGCRM uses known chemicalreactions along with their probabilities and exothermicities for a specific material in order to assess the effect of chemicalreactions on a physical process of interest. The reaction event in the simulation is implemented by removing the reactant molecules from the simulation and replacing them with product molecules. The position of the product molecules is carefully adjusted to make sure that the total energy change of the system corresponds to the reaction exothermicity. The CGCR model was initially implemented in simulations of laser irradiation at fluences such that there is ablation or massive removal of material. The initial reaction is photon cleavage of a chemical bond thus creating two radicals that can undergo subsequent abstraction and radical-radical recombination reactions. The talk will discuss application of the model to photoablation of PMMA. Y. G. Yingling, L. V. Zhigilei and B. J. Garrison, J. Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 145, 173-181 (2001); Y. G. Yingling and B. J. Garrison, Chem. Phys. Lett., 364, 237-243 (2002).

Although irreversible reaction of NO with the oxyheme of hemoglobin (producing nitrate and methemoglobin) is extremely rapid, it has been proposed that, under normoxic conditions, NO binds preferentially to the minority deoxyheme to subsequently form S-nitrosohemoglobin (SNOHb). Thus, the primary reaction would be conservation, rather than consumption, of nitrogen oxide. Data supporting this conclusion were generated by using addition of a small volume of a concentrated aqueous solution of NO to a normoxic hemoglobin solution. Under these conditions, however, extremely rapid reactions can occur before mixing. We have thus compared bolus NO addition to NO generated homogeneously throughout solution by using NO donors, a more physiologically relevant condition. With bolus addition, multiple hemoglobin species are formed (as judged by visible spectroscopy) as well as both nitrite and nitrate. With donor, only nitrate and methemoglobin are formed, stoichiometric with the amount of NO liberated from the donor. Studies with increasing hemoglobin concentrations reveal that the nitrite-forming reaction (which may be NO autoxidation under these conditions) competes with reaction with hemoglobin. SNOHb formation is detectable with either bolus or donor; however, the amounts formed are much smaller than the amount of NO added (less than 1%). We conclude that the reaction of NO with hemoglobin under normoxic conditions results in consumption, rather than conservation, of NO.

The use of microwave (MW) irradiation to increase the rate of chemicalreactions has attracted much attention recently in nearly all fields of chemistry due to substantial enhancements in reaction rates. However, the intrinsic nature of the effects of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions remains unclear. Herein, the highly effective conversion of NO and decomposition of H2S via MW catalysis were investigated. The temperature was decreased by several hundred degrees centigrade. Moreover, the apparent activation energy (Ea’) decreased substantially under MW irradiation. Importantly, for the first time, a model of the interactions between microwave electromagnetic waves and molecules is proposed to elucidate the intrinsic reason for the reduction in the Ea’ under MW irradiation, and a formula for the quantitative estimation of the decrease in the Ea’ was determined. MW irradiation energy was partially transformed to reduce the Ea’, and MW irradiation is a new type of power energy for speeding up chemicalreactions. The effect of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions was determined. Our findings challenge both the classical view of MW irradiation as only a heating method and the controversial MW non-thermal effect and open a promising avenue for the development of novel MW catalytic reaction technology.

The use of microwave (MW) irradiation to increase the rate of chemicalreactions has attracted much attention recently in nearly all fields of chemistry due to substantial enhancements in reaction rates. However, the intrinsic nature of the effects of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions remains unclear. Herein, the highly effective conversion of NO and decomposition of H2S via MW catalysis were investigated. The temperature was decreased by several hundred degrees centigrade. Moreover, the apparent activation energy (Ea') decreased substantially under MW irradiation. Importantly, for the first time, a model of the interactions between microwave electromagnetic waves and molecules is proposed to elucidate the intrinsic reason for the reduction in the Ea' under MW irradiation, and a formula for the quantitative estimation of the decrease in the Ea' was determined. MW irradiation energy was partially transformed to reduce the Ea', and MW irradiation is a new type of power energy for speeding up chemicalreactions. The effect of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions was determined. Our findings challenge both the classical view of MW irradiation as only a heating method and the controversial MW non-thermal effect and open a promising avenue for the development of novel MW catalytic reaction technology. PMID:27118640

The use of microwave (MW) irradiation to increase the rate of chemicalreactions has attracted much attention recently in nearly all fields of chemistry due to substantial enhancements in reaction rates. However, the intrinsic nature of the effects of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions remains unclear. Herein, the highly effective conversion of NO and decomposition of H2S via MW catalysis were investigated. The temperature was decreased by several hundred degrees centigrade. Moreover, the apparent activation energy (Ea’) decreased substantially under MW irradiation. Importantly, for the first time, a model of the interactions between microwave electromagnetic waves and molecules is proposed to elucidate the intrinsic reason for the reduction in the Ea’ under MW irradiation, and a formula for the quantitative estimation of the decrease in the Ea’ was determined. MW irradiation energy was partially transformed to reduce the Ea’, and MW irradiation is a new type of power energy for speeding up chemicalreactions. The effect of MW irradiation on chemicalreactions was determined. Our findings challenge both the classical view of MW irradiation as only a heating method and the controversial MW non-thermal effect and open a promising avenue for the development of novel MW catalytic reaction technology. PMID:27118640

Background: Simultaneous or sequential exposure to multiple environmental stressors can affect chemical toxicity. Cumulative risk assessments consider multiple stressors but it is impractical to test every chemical combination to which people are exposed. New methods are needed to prioritize chemical combinations based on their prevalence and possible health impacts. Objectives: We introduce an informatics approach that uses publicly available data to identify chemicals that co-occur in consumer products, which account for a significant proportion of overall chemical load. Methods: Fifty-five asthma-associated and endocrine disrupting chemicals (target chemicals) were selected. A database of 38,975 distinct consumer products and 32,231 distinct ingredient names was created from online sources, and PubChem and the Unified Medical Language System were used to resolve synonymous ingredient names. Synonymous ingredient names are different names for the same chemical (e.g., vitamin E and tocopherol). Results: Nearly one-third of the products (11,688 products, 30%) contained ≥ 1 target chemical and 5,229 products (13%) contained > 1. Of the 55 target chemicals, 31 (56%) appear in ≥ 1 product and 19 (35%) appear under more than one name. The most frequent three-way chemical combination (2-phenoxyethanol, methyl paraben, and ethyl paraben) appears in 1,059 products. Further work is needed to assess combined chemical exposures related to the use of multiple products. Conclusions: The informatics approach increased the number of products considered in a traditional analysis by two orders of magnitude, but missing/incomplete product labels can limit the effectiveness of this approach. Such an approach must resolve synonymy to ensure that chemicals of interest are not missed. Commonly occurring chemical combinations can be used to prioritize cumulative toxicology risk assessments. Citation: Gabb HA, Blake C. 2016. An informatics approach to evaluating combined chemical

At Los Alamos the author is interested in sonochemistry because there is potential for accelerating reactions involving the synthesis of certain nitro compounds and for reducing the possibility of decomposition under milder reaction conditions. The author has initiated the study of the nitration of 2,4-dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazol-3-one with concentrated nitric acid under sonication. The preparation of 3,6-bis(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-1,2-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine, and oxidation of 3,6-diamino-1,2,4,5-tetrazine were also studied. Sonication reaction conditions and results of these reactions under ultrasound are discussed in detail.

At Los Alamos the author is interested in sonochemistry because there is potential for accelerating reactions involving the synthesis of certain nitro compounds and for reducing the possibility of decomposition under milder reaction conditions. The author has initiated the study of the nitration of 2,4-dihydro-3H-1,2,4-triazol-3-one with concentrated nitric acid under sonication. The preparation of 3,6-bis(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl)-1,2-dihydro-1,2,4,5-tetrazine, and oxidation of 3,6-diamino-1,2,4,5-tetrazine were also studied. Sonication reaction conditions and results of these reactions under ultrasound are discussed in detail.

A virtual reality application for undergraduate chemical kinetics and reactor design education, Vicher (Virtual ChemicalReaction Model) was originally designed to simulate a portion of a modern chemical plant. Vicher now consists of two programs: Vicher I that models catalyst deactivation and Vicher II that models nonisothermal effects in…

Amphibian secondary metabolites are well known chemically, but their ecological functions are poorly understood—even for well-studied species. For example, the eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) is a well known secretor of tetrodotoxin (TTX), with this compound hypothesized to facilitate this salamander's coexistence with a variety of aquatic consumers across the eastern United States. However, this assumption of chemical defense is primarily based on observational data with low replication against only a few predator types. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that N. viridescens is chemically defended against co-occurring fishes, invertebrates, and amphibian generalist predators and that this defense confers high survivorship when newts are transplanted into both fish-containing and fishless habitats. We found that adult eastern newts were unpalatable to predatory fishes (Micropterus salmoides, Lepomis macrochirus) and a crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), but were readily consumed by bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus). The eggs and neonate larvae were also unpalatable to fish (L. macrochirus). Bioassay-guided fractionation confirmed that deterrence is chemical and that ecologically relevant concentrations of TTX would deter feeding. Despite predatory fishes rejecting eastern newts in laboratory assays, field experiments demonstrated that tethered newts suffered high rates of predation in fish-containing ponds. We suggest that this may be due to predation by amphibians (frogs) and reptiles (turtles) that co-occur with fishes rather than from fishes directly. Fishes suppress invertebrate consumers that prey on bullfrog larvae, leading to higher bullfrog densities in fish containing ponds and thus considerable consumption of newts due to bullfrog tolerance of newt chemical defenses. Amphibian chemical defenses, and consumer responses to them, may be more complex and indirect than previously appreciated. PMID:22164212

Horizontally sectioned liquid-phase reactors with a filling coefficient of 0.2-0.6 are finding wider use in the production of highly viscous polyesters and polyamides. The power of their electric motors fluctuates in the range of 2-70 kW. In this paper, in order to provide design and efficiency criteria for the electric motors and other components of the reactors, parameters are determined for calculating the power consumed during the mixing process. The fluids are considered highly viscous and Newtonian. Experimental data in support of the calculations are derived using a multicomponent xylitol solution that is close in rheological properties to polyethylene terephthalate.

We have developed a comprehensive understanding of thermal TEOS (tetracthylorthosificate, Si(OCH{sub 2}CH{sub 3}){sub 4}) surface chemistry at CVD (chemical vapor deposition) temperatures and pressures. This was accomplished by examining how TEOS reaction rate are influenced by factors critical to the heterogeneous reaction. This includes determining the TEOS pressure dependence, testing if reaction by-products inhibit TEOS decomposition, identifying reaction sites on the surface, and establishing the reaction sites coverage dependencies. We evaluated the pressure dependencies and by-product inhibition with GCMS. The experiments in a cold-wall research reactor revealed that the TEOS surface reaction at 1000K (1) was first-order with respect to TEOS pressure (0.10 to 1.50Torr) and (2) was not inhibited by surface reaction by-products (ethylene, ethanol, and water). Reactivities of surface sites and their coverage dependencies were compared with FTIR. Our experiments demonstrated that two-membered siloxane ((Si-O){sub 2}) rings on the SiO{sub 2} surface were consumed almost instantaneously when exposed to TEOS. Our FTIR experiments also revealed that TEOS decomposition was zero-order with respect to coverages of hydroxyl groups and (by indirect evidence) three-membered siloxane ((Si-O){sub 3}) rings. This type of site-independent reactivity is consistent with TEOS reacting with hydroxyl groups and (Si-O){sub 3} rings via a common rate-determining step at 1000K. With respect to deposition uniformity, our results predict that deposition rates will be insensitive to the relative coverages of (Si-O){sub 3} rings and hydroxyls on SiO{sub 2} as well as the re-adsorbed by-products of the surface reaction. Therefore, it is likely that nonuniform SiO{sub 2} depositions from TEOS reactions are due to depletion of TEOS in the gas-phase and/or thermal gradients.

A lattice gas automata (LGA) model is described, which couples solute transport with chemicalreactions at mineral surfaces and in pore networks. Chemicalreactions and transport are integrated into a FHP-I LGA code as a module so that the approach is readily transportable to other codes. Diffusion in a box calculations are compared to finite element Fickian diffusion results and provide an approach to quantifying space-time ratios of the models. Chemicalreactions at solid surfaces, including precipitation/dissolution, sorption, and catalytic reaction, can be examined with the model because solute diffusion and mineral surface processes are all treated explicitly. The simplicity and flexibility of the LGA approach provides the ability to study the interrelationship between fluid flow and chemicalreactions in porous materials, at a level of complexity that has not previously been computationally possible. 20 refs., 8 figs.

Chemicalreactions of molecular gases like methane are so complicated that a chart of decomposed and/or synthesized species originating from molecules in plasma resembles a weblike network in which we write down species and reactions among them. Here we consider properties of the network structures of chemicalreactions in methane plasmas. In the network, atoms/molecules/radical species are assumed to form nodes and chemicalreactions correspond to directed edges in the terminology of graph theory. Investigation of the centrality index reveals importance of CH3 in the global chemicalreaction, and difference of an index for each radical species between cases with and without electrons clarifies that the electrons are at an influential position to tighten the network structure.

Chemicalreactions of molecular gases like methane are so complicated that a chart of decomposed and/or synthesized species originating from molecules in plasma resembles a weblike network in which we write down species and reactions among them. Here we consider properties of the network structures of chemicalreactions in methane plasmas. In the network, atoms/molecules/radical species are assumed to form nodes and chemicalreactions correspond to directed edges in the terminology of graph theory. Investigation of the centrality index reveals importance of CH{sub 3} in the global chemicalreaction, and difference of an index for each radical species between cases with and without electrons clarifies that the electrons are at an influential position to tighten the network structure.

As an electrochemical energy-storage technology with the highest theoretical capacity, lithium-oxygen batteries face critical challenges in terms of poor stabilities and low charge/discharge round-trip efficiencies. It is generally recognized that these issues are connected to the parasitic chemicalreactions at the anode, electrolyte, and cathode. While the detailed mechanisms of these reactions have been studied separately, the possible synergistic effects between these reactions remain poorly understood. To fill in the knowledge gap, this Minireview examines literature reports on the parasitic chemicalreactions and finds the reactive oxygen species a key chemical mediator that participates in or facilitates nearly all parasitic chemicalreactions. Given the ubiquitous presence of oxygen in all test cells, this finding is important. It offers new insights into how to stabilize various components of lithium-oxygen batteries for high-performance operations and how to eventually materialize the full potentials of this promising technology. PMID:27381169

The mechanism of parasitic reactions among trimethylaluminum (TMA), trimethylgallium (TMG), and NH 3 in atmospheric pressure (AP) MOVPE for growth of AlGaN is theoretically studied using the quantum chemical method. The calculations show that metal-nitrogen chain growth reaction easily proceeds through the successive reactions of 'complex formation with NH 3' and 'CH 4 elimination by the bimolecular mechanism'. Additionally, a parasitic reaction in APMOVPE using other raw material is also investigated. The calculated result shows that small change of raw material raises activation energy of parasitic reaction, and, thus, the parasitic reaction is suppressed. This result suggests a way to improve APMOVPE by a suitable choice of substituent.

This report summarizes the work completed during FY2009 for the LDRD project 09-1332 'Molecule-Based Approach for Computing Chemical-Reaction Rates in Upper-Atmosphere Hypersonic Flows'. The goal of this project was to apply a recently proposed approach for the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method to calculate chemical-reaction rates for high-temperature atmospheric species. The new DSMC model reproduces measured equilibrium reaction rates without using any macroscopic reaction-rate information. Since it uses only molecular properties, the new model is inherently able to predict reaction rates for arbitrary nonequilibrium conditions. DSMC non-equilibrium reaction rates are compared to Park's phenomenological non-equilibrium reaction-rate model, the predominant model for hypersonic-flow-field calculations. For near-equilibrium conditions, Park's model is in good agreement with the DSMC-calculated reaction rates. For far-from-equilibrium conditions, corresponding to a typical shock layer, the difference between the two models can exceed 10 orders of magnitude. The DSMC predictions are also found to be in very good agreement with measured and calculated non-equilibrium reaction rates. Extensions of the model to reactions typically found in combustion flows and ionizing reactions are also found to be in very good agreement with available measurements, offering strong evidence that this is a viable and reliable technique to predict chemicalreaction rates.

Precipitated asphaltene was subjected to pyrolysis and hydropyrolysis, both neat and in solvents, and catalytic hydroprocessing. A solvent extraction procedure defined gas, maltene, asphaltene, and coke product fractions. The apparent first order rate constant for asphaltene conversion at 400/sup 0/C was relatively insensitive to the particular reaction scheme. The yield of gases likewise showed little variation and was always less than 10%. On the other hand, the maltene and coke yields were about 20% and 60%, respectively, from neat pyrolysis, and about 60% and less than 5%, respectively, from catalytic reactions. The temporal variations of the product fractions allowed discernment of asphaltene reaction pathways. The primary reaction of asphaltene was to residual asphaltene, maltenes, and gases. The residual asphaltene reacted thermally to coke and catalytically to maltenes at the expense of coke. Secondary degradation of these primary products led to lighter compounds. Reaction mechanism for pyrolysis of asphaltene model compounds and alkylaromstics were determined. The model compound kinetics results were combined with a stochastic description of asphaltene structure in a mathematical model of asphaltene pyrolysis. Individual molecular product were assigned to either the gas, maltene, asphaltene, or coke product fractions, and summation of the weights of each constituted the model's predictions. The temporal variation of the product fractions from simulated asphaltene pyrolysis compared favorably with experimental results.

The mechanism for the reaction of HCCO and OH has been investigated at different high-levels of theory. The reaction was found to occur on singlet and triplet potential energy surfaces with multiple accessible paths. Rate constants predicted by variational RRKM/ME calculations show that the reaction on both surfaces occurs primarily by barrierless OH attack at both C atoms producing excited intermediates which fragment to produce predominantly CO and 1,3HCOH with kS = 3.12 × 10-8T-0.59exp[-73.0/T] and kT = 6.29 × 10-11T0.13exp[108/T] cm3 molecule-1 s-1 at T = 300-2000 K, independent of pressure at P < 76 000 Torr.

In this paper, a numerical solution of the unsteady two-dimensional natural convection along a vertical plate in the presence of Soret and chemicalreaction effects is presented. The governing non-dimensional coupled non-linear partial differential equations have been evaluated by using an implicit finite-difference technique of Crank-Nicolson scheme. Numerical predictions for the velocity, concentration, local and average skin-friction and Sherwood number for distinct values of chemicalreaction parameter and Soret number are plotted graphically. It is found that the fluid velocity and concentration decreases while increasing chemicalreaction parameter whereas an increase in the Soret number increases the fluid velocity and concentration.

This paper suggests a nontraditional pedagogic approach to the subject of redox reactions and electrode potentials suitable for freshman chemistry. Presented is a method for the representation of galvanic cells without the introduction of the symbology and notation of conventional cell diagrams. (CW)

Recent research effort has focussed on several reactions pertinent to combustion. The formation of the formyl radical from atomic hydrogen and carbon monoxide, recombination of alkyl radicals and halo-alkyl radicals with halogen atoms, and the thermal dissociation of hydrogen cyanide and acetylene have been studied by modeling. In addition, the inelastic collisions of NCO with helium have been investigated.

The use of multi-configurational wave functions is demonstrated for several processes: tautomerization reactions in the ground and excited states of the DNA base adenine, dissociation of glycine molecule after electronic excitation, and decomposition/deformation of novel rare gas molecules HRgF. These processes involve bond brealung/formation and require multi-configurational approaches that include dynamic correlation.

Soils provide long-term storage of environmental contaminants, which helps to protect water and air quality and diminishes negative impacts of contaminants on human and ecosystem health. Characterizing solid-phase chemical species in highly complex matrices is essential for developing principles that can be broadly applied to the wide range of notoriously heterogeneous soils occurring at the earth's surface. In the context of historical developments in soil analytical techniques, we describe applications of bulk-sample and spatially resolved synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) for characterizing chemical species of contaminants in soils, and for determining the uniqueness of trace-element reactivity in different soil microsites. Spatially resolved X-ray techniques provide opportunities for following chemical changes within soil microsites that serve as highly localized chemical micro- (or nano-)reactors of unique composition. An example of this microreactor concept is shown for micro-X-ray absorption near edge structure analysis of metal sulfide oxidation in a contaminated soil. One research challenge is to use information and principles developed from microscale soil chemistry for predicting macroscale and field-scale behavior of soil contaminants. PMID:21546654

Soils provide long-term storage of environmental contaminants, which helps to protect water and air quality and diminishes negative impacts of contaminants on human and ecosystem health. Characterizing solid-phase chemical species in highly complex matrices is essential for developing principles that can be broadly applied to the wide range of notoriously heterogeneous soils occurring at the earth's surface. In the context of historical developments in soil analytical techniques, we describe applications of bulk-sample and spatially resolved synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) for characterizing chemical species of contaminants in soils, and for determining the uniqueness of trace-element reactivity in different soil microsites. Spatially resolved X-ray techniques provide opportunities for following chemical changes within soil microsites that serve as highly localized chemical micro- (or nano-)reactors of unique composition. An example of this microreactor concept is shown for micro-X-ray absorption near edge structure analysis of metal sulfide oxidation in a contaminated soil. One research challenge is to use information and principles developed from microscale soil chemistry for predicting macroscale and field-scale behavior of soil contaminants.

In this talk I will describe the implementation of local control theory for laser pulse shaping within the framework of TDDFT-based nonadiabatic dynamics. The method is based on a set of modified Tully's surface hopping equations and provides an efficient way to control the population of a selected reactive state of interest through the coupling with an external time-dependent electric field generated on-the-fly during the dynamics. This approach is applied to the investigation of the photoinduced intramolecular proton transfer reaction in 4-hydroxyacridine in gas phase and in solution. The generated pulses reveal important information about the underlying excited-state nuclear dynamics highlighting the involvement of collective vibrational modes that would be neglected in studies performed on model systems. Finally, this approach can help to shed new light on the photophysics and photochemistry of complex molecular systems and guide the design of novel reaction paths.

This paper deals with the boundary layer flow of nanofluid over power-law stretched surface. Analysis has been carried out in the presence of applied magnetic field and chemicalreaction. Heat and mass transfer characteristics are studied using heat and mass convective conditions. The governing partial differential equations are transferred to the nonlinear ordinary differential equations. Convergent series solutions are obtained for fluid velocity, temperature and concentrations fields. Influences of pertinent parameters including Hartman number, thermal and concentration Biot numbers and chemicalreaction parameters are discussed on the velocity, temperature and concentration profiles. Graphical result are presented and discussed. Computations for local Nusselt and Sherwood numbers are carried out. It is observed that the heat transfer rate is enhanced by increasing power-law index, thermal Biot number and chemicalreaction parameter while mass transfer rate increases for power-law index and chemicalreaction parameter.

The phase separation induced by chemicalreaction in blends of tetraglycidyl-diaminodiphenylmethane epoxy resin with an aromatic diamine hardener and a thermoplastic was monitored. Rheological measurements and morphologies are described.

A general chemical kinetics and sensitivity analysis code for complex, homogeneous, gas-phase reactions is described. The main features of the code, LSENS, are its flexibility, efficiency and convenience in treating many different chemicalreaction models. The models include static system, steady, one-dimensional, inviscid flow, shock initiated reaction, and a perfectly stirred reactor. In addition, equilibrium computations can be performed for several assigned states. An implicit numerical integration method, which works efficiently for the extremes of very fast and very slow reaction, is used for solving the 'stiff' differential equation systems that arise in chemical kinetics. For static reactions, sensitivity coefficients of all dependent variables and their temporal derivatives with respect to the initial values of dependent variables and/or the rate coefficient parameters can be computed. This paper presents descriptions of the code and its usage, and includes several illustrative example problems.

We consider an alternative formulation of the master equation for complex-forming chemicalreactions with multiple wells and bimolecular products. Within this formulation the dynamical phase space consists of only the microscopic populations of the various isomers making up the reactive complex, while the bimolecular reactants and products are treated equally as sources and sinks. This reformulation yields compact expressions for the phenomenological rate coefficients describing all chemical processes, i.e., internal isomerization reactions, bimolecular-to-bimolecular reactions, isomer-to-bimolecular reactions, and bimolecular-to-isomer reactions. The applicability of the detailed balance condition is discussed and confirmed. We also consider the situation where some of the chemical eigenvalues approach the energy relaxation time scale and show how to modify the phenomenological rate coefficients so that they retain their validity. PMID:24053787

Three investigations conducted aboard Skylab IV and Apollo-Soyuz involved phenomena that are of interest to the biochemistry community. The formaldehyde clock reaction and the equilibrium shift reaction experiments conducted aboard Apollo Soyuz demonstrate the effect of low-g foams or air/liquid dispersions on reaction rate and chemical equilibrium. The electrodeposition reaction experiment conducted aboard Skylab IV demonstrate the effect of a low-g environment on an electrochemical displacement reaction. The implications of the three space experiments for various applications are considered.

Carbon nanotubes can be chemically modified by attaching various functionalities to their surfaces, although harsh chemical treatments can lead to their break-up into graphene nanostructures. On the other hand, direct coupling between functionalities bound on individual nanotubes could lead to, as yet unexplored, spontaneous chemicalreactions. Here we report an ambient mechano-chemicalreaction between two varieties of nanotubes, carrying predominantly carboxyl and hydroxyl functionalities, respectively, facilitated by simple mechanical grinding of the reactants. The purely solid-state reaction between the chemically differentiated nanotube species produces condensation products and unzipping of nanotubes due to local energy release, as confirmed by spectroscopic measurements, thermal analysis and molecular dynamic simulations. PMID:26073564

Studies of unexplained symptoms observed in chemically sensitive subjects have increased the awareness of the relationship between neurological and immunological diseases due to exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs). However, there is no direct evidence that links exposure to low doses of VOCs and neurological and immunological dysfunction. We review animal model data to clarify the role of VOCs in neuroimmune interactions and discuss our recent studies that show a relationship between chronic exposure of C3H mice to low levels of formaldehyde and the induction of neural and immune dysfunction. We also consider the possible mechanisms by which VOC exposure can induce the symptoms presenting in patients with a multiple chemical sensitivity. PMID:24228055

Composition-gradient electrode materials have been proven to be one of the most promising materials in lithium-ion battery. To study the mechanism of mechanical degradation in spherical composition-gradient electrodes, the finite deformation theory and reversible chemical theory are adopted. In homogeneous electrodes, reversible electrochemical reaction may increase the magnitudes of stresses. However, reversible electrochemical reaction has different influences on stresses in composition-gradient electrodes, resulting from three main inhomogeneous factors—forward reaction rate, backward reaction rate, and reaction partial molar volume. The decreasing transition form of forward reaction rate, increasing transition form of backward reaction rate, and increasing transition form of reaction partial molar volume can reduce the magnitudes of stresses. As a result, capacity fading and mechanical degradation are reduced by taking advantage of the effects of inhomogeneous factors.

An experimental and numerical study of filtration accompanied by chemicalreactions between displacing fluid and solid skeleton is considered. Glass balls (400-500 μm in diameter) were placed in 1 cm gap between two glass sheets and were used as model porous medium. The baking soda was added to the glass balls. The 70% solution of acetic acid was used as the displacer. The modeling porous medium was saturated with a mineral oil, and then 70% solution of colored acetic acid was pumped through the medium. The glass balls and a mineral oil have a similar refractive index, so the model porous medium was optically transparent. During the filtration, the gas phase was generated by the chemicalreactions between the baking soda and acetic acid, and time-dependent displacement of the chemicalreaction front was observed. The front of the chemicalreaction was associated with the most intensive gas separation. The front moved, stopped, and then moved again to the area where it had been already. We called this process a secondary oxidation wave. To describe this effect, we added to the balance equations a term associated with the formation and disappearance of phases due to chemicalreactions. The equations were supplemented by Darcy's law for multiphase filtration. Nonstationarity front propagation of the chemicalreaction in the numerical experiment was observed at Damköhler numbers greater than 100. The mathematical modelling was agreed well with the experimental results.

We present RPMDRATE, a computer program for the calculation of gas phase bimolecular reaction rate coefficients using the ring polymer molecular dynamics (RPMD) method. The RPMD rate coefficient is calculated using the Bennett-Chandler method as a product of a static (centroid density quantum transition state theory (QTST) rate) and a dynamic (ring polymer transmission coefficient) factor. The computational procedure is general and can be used to treat bimolecular polyatomic reactions of any complexity in their full dimensionality. The program has been tested for the H+H2, H+CH4, OH+CH4 and H+C2H6 reactions. Catalogue identifier: AENW_v1_0 Program summary URL: http://cpc.cs.qub.ac.uk/summaries/AENW_v1_0.html Program obtainable from: CPC Program Library, Queen's University, Belfast, N. Ireland Licensing provisions: MIT license No. of lines in distributed program, including test data, etc.: 94512 No. of bytes in distributed program, including test data, etc.: 1395674 Distribution format: tar.gz Programming language: Fortran 90/95, Python (version 2.6.x or later, including any version of Python 3, is recommended). Computer: Not computer specific. Operating system: Any for which Python, Fortran 90/95 compiler and the required external routines are available. Has the code been vectorized or parallelized?: The program can efficiently utilize 4096+ processors, depending on problem and available computer. At low temperatures, 110 processors are reasonable for a typical umbrella integration run with an analytic potential energy function and gradients on the latest x86-64 machines.

The density functional theory methods were used on the model molecules of penicillin to determine the possible reactions after their acylation on ?-lactamase, and the results were compared with sulbactam we have studied. The results show that, the acylated-enzyme tetrahedral intermediate can evolves with opening of ?-lactam ring as well as the thiazole ring; the thiazole ring-open products may be formed via ?-lactam ring-open product or from tetrahedral intermediate directly. Those products, in imine or enamine form, can tautomerize via hydrogen migration. In virtue of the water-assisted, their energy barriers are obviously reduced.

A comprehensive first-principles theoretical investigation of the gas phase reaction Ca + HF - CaF + H is reported. Ab initio potential energy calculations are first discussed, along with characteristics of the computed potential energy surface. Next, the fitting of the computed potential energy points to a suitable analytical functional form is described, and maps of the fitted potential surface are displayed. The methodology and results of a classical trajectory calculation utilizing the fitted potential surface are presented. Finally, the significance of the trajectory study results is discussed, and generalizations concerning dynamical aspects of Ca + HF scattering are drawn.

The Rate-Controlled Constrained-Equilibrium (RCCE) method for simplifying the treatment of reactions in complex systems is summarized and the selection of constraints for both close-to and far-from equilibrium systems is discussed. Illustrative examples of RCCE calculations of carbon monoxide concentrations in the exhaust products of an internal combustion engine and ignition delays for methane-oxygen mixtures in a constant volume adiabatic chamber are given and compared with "detailed" calculations. The advantages of RCCE calculations over "detailed" calculations are discussed.

Environmental risk factors affect human biological system to different extent from modification of biochemical reaction to cellular catastrophe. There are considerable public concerns about electromagnetic fields and endocrine disruptors. Their risk assessments have not been fully achieved because of their scientific uncertainty: electromagnetic fields just modify the bioreaction in the restricted cells and endocrine disruptors are quite unique in that their expression is dependent on the exposure periods throughout a life. Thus, we here describe their molecular characterization to establish the new risk assessments for environmental physicochemicals.

Widely cited and accepted explanation of reaction mechanism of the case study reaction of chemical kinetics between Cr(III) ions and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) contradicts modern chromium(III) coordination chemistry data. Absorption UV and visible light spectra were recorded during the reaction between aqueous solution of Cr(NO(3))(3) and EDTA in order to obtain new information about this reaction. Analysis of the spectra showed that only very small fraction of intermediates may be present in solution during the course of the reaction. The reaction scheme was established and according to it calculations based on a simplified model were carried out. Literature data for constants were used if known, otherwise, adjusted values of their sound estimates were applied. Reasonable agreement of the model calculations with the experimental data was obtained for pH values 3.8 and 4.5 but the model failed to reproduce measured rate of reaction at pH 5.5, probably due to the use of the oversimplified model. PMID:26454587

Chemical functional use -- the functional role a chemical plays in processes or products -- may be a useful heuristic for predicting human exposure potential in that it comprises information about the compound's likely physical properties and the product formulations or articles ...

Existing models of the ferrocyanide-iodate-sulfite (FIS) reaction seek to replicate the oscillatory pH behavior that occurs in open systems. These models exhibit significant differences in the amplitudes and waveforms of the concentration oscillations of such intermediates as I(-), I3(-), and Fe(CN)6(3-) under identical conditions and do not include several experimentally found intermediates. Here we report measurements of sulfite concentrations during an oscillatory cycle. Knowing the correct concentration of sulfite over the course of a period is important because sulfite is the main component that determines the buffer capacity, the pH extrema, and the amount of oxidizer (iodate) required for the transition to low pH. On the basis of this new result and recent experimental findings on the rate laws and intermediates of component processes taken from the literature, we propose a mass action kinetics model that attempts to faithfully represent the chemistry of the FIS reaction. This new comprehensive mechanism reproduces the pH oscillations and the periodic behavior in [Fe(CN)6(3-)], [I3(-)], [I(-)], and [SO3(2-)]T with characteristics similar to those seen in experiments in both CSTR and semibatch arrangements. The parameter ranges at which stationary and oscillatory behavior is exhibited also show good agreement with those of the experiments. PMID:26949219

The objective of this research was to develop and apply methods for more accurate predictions of reaction rates based on high-level quantum chemistry. We have developed and applied efficient, robust methods for fitting global ab initio potential energy surfaces (PESs) for both spectroscopy and dynamics calculations and for performing direct dynamics simulations. Our approach addresses the problem that high-level quantum calculations are often too costly in computer time for practical applications resulting in the use of levels of theory that are often inadequate for reactions. A critical objective was to develop practical methods that require the minimum number of electronic structure calculations for acceptable fidelity to the ab initio PES. Our method does this by a procedure that determines the optimal configurations at which ab initio points are computed, and that ensures that the final fitted PES is uniformly accurate to a prescribed tolerance. Our fitting methods can be done automatically, with little or no human intervention, and with no prior knowledge of the topology of the PES. The methods are based on local fitting schemes using interpolating moving least-squares (IMLS). IMLS has advantages over the very effective modified-Shepard methods developed by Collins and others in that higher-order polynomials can be used and does not require derivatives but can benefit from them if available.

Because of the association between allergy and asthma and the increasing incidence of morbidity and mortality due to asthma, there is growing concern over the potential of industrial chemicals to produce allergic reactions in the respiratory tract. Two classes of chemicals have b...

Research in science education has revealed that many students struggle to understand chemicalreactions. Improving teaching and learning about chemical processes demands that we develop a clearer understanding of student reasoning in this area and of how this reasoning evolves with training in the domain. Thus, we have carried out a qualitative…

A classical trajectory mapping method was developed to study chemicalreactions in solution and in enzymes. In this method, the trajectories were calculated on a classical potential surface and the free energy profile was obtained by mapping the classical surface to the quantum mechanical surface obtained by the semiempirical AM1 method. There is no need to perform expensive quantum mechanical calculations at each iteration step. This method was applied to proton transfer reactions both in aqueous solution and in papain. The results are encouraging, indicating the applicability of this hybrid method to chemicalreactions both in solution and in enzymes.

Chemicalreaction path calculations were used to model the minerals that might have formed at or near the Martian surface as a result of volcano or meteorite impact driven hydrothermal systems; weathering at the Martian surface during an early warm, wet climate; and near-zero or sub-zero C brine-regolith reactions in the current cold climate. Although the chemicalreaction path calculations carried out do not define the exact mineralogical evolution of the Martian surface over time, they do place valuable geochemical constraints on the types of minerals that formed from an aqueous phase under various surficial and geochemically complex conditions.

In the nonequilibrium atmospheric chemistry regime that will be encountered by the proposed Aeroassisted Orbital Transfer Vehicle in the upper atmosphere, where air density is too low for thermal and chemical equilibrium to be maintained, the detailed high temperature air chemistry plays a critical role in defining radiative and convective heating loads. Although vibrational and electronic temperatures remain low (less than 15,000 K), rotational and translational temperatures may reach 50,000 K. Attention is presently given to the effects of multiple temperatures on the magnitudes of various chemicalreaction rate constants, for the cases of both bimolecular exchange reactions and collisional excitation and dissociation reactions.

This report presents the development of a mixed chemical Kinetic and Equilibrium MODel in which every chemical species can be treated either as a equilibrium-controlled or as a kinetically controlled reaction. The reaction processes include aqueous complexation, adsorption/desorption, ion exchange, precipitation/dissolution, oxidation/reduction, and acid/base reactions. Further development and modification of KEMOD can be made in: (1) inclusion of species switching solution algorithms, (2) incorporation of the effect of temperature and pressure on equilibrium and rate constants, and (3) extension to high ionic strength.

Under sustained pumping, kinetics of macroscopic nonlinear biochemical reaction systems far from equilibrium either can be in a stationary steady state or can execute sustained oscillations about a fixed mean. For a system of two dynamic species X and Y, the concentrations nx and ny will be constant or will repetitively trace a closed loop in the (nx, ny) phase plane, respectively. We study a mesoscopic system with nx and ny very small; hence the occurrence of random fluctuations modifies the deterministic behavior and the law of mass action is replaced by a stochastic model. We show that nx and ny execute cyclic random walks in the (nx, ny) plane whether or not the deterministic kinetics for the corresponding macroscopic system represents a steady or an oscillating state. Probability distributions and correlation functions for nx(t) and ny(t) show quantitative but not qualitative differences between states that would appear as either oscillating or steady in the corresponding macroscopic systems. A diffusion-like equation for probability P(nx, ny, t) is obtained for the two-dimensional Brownian motion in the (nx, ny) phase plane. In the limit of large nx, ny, the deterministic nonlinear kinetics derived from mass action is recovered. The nature of large fluctuations in an oscillating nonequilibrium system and the conceptual difference between "thermal stochasticity" and "temporal complexity" are clarified by this analysis. This result is relevant to fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and metabolic reaction networks. fluorescence correlation spectroscopy | limit cycle | nanobiochemistry | nonequilibrium steady state | random walk

A detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanism is developed to describe incineration of the chemical warfare nerve agent sarin (GB), based on commonly used principles of bond additivity and hierarchical reaction mechanisms. The mechanism is based on previous kinetic models of organophosphorus compounds such as TMP, DMMP and DIMP that are often used as surrogates to predict incineration of GB. Kinetic models of the three surrogates and GB are then used to predict their consumption in a perfectly stirred reactor fueled by natural gas to simulate incineration of these chemicals. Computed results indicate that DIMP is the only one of these surrogates that adequately describes combustion of GB under comparable conditions. The kinetic pathways responsible for these differences in reactivity are identified and discussed. The most important reaction in GB and DIMP that makes them more reactive than TMP or DMMP is found to be a six-center molecular elimination reaction producing propene.

We consider ultracold collisions of polar molecules confined in a one-dimensional optical lattice. Using a quantum scattering formalism and a frame transformation method, we calculate elastic and chemical quenching rate constants for fermionic molecules. Taking {sup 40}K{sup 87}Rb molecules as a prototype, we find that the rate of quenching collisions is enhanced at zero electric field as the confinement is increased but that this rate is suppressed when the electric field is turned on. For molecules with 500 nK of collision energy, for realistic molecular densities, and for achievable experimental electric fields and trap confinements, we predict lifetimes for KRb molecules to be 1 s. We find a ratio of elastic to quenching collision rates of about 100, which may be sufficient to achieve efficient evaporative cooling of polar KRb molecules.

The Chemoton model constitutes a minimalistic description of a protocell unit. The original formulation assumes three coupled chemical networks, representing a proto-metabolism, a template duplication and the membrane growth. An improved version is here proposed that explicitly incorporates the effects of the volume changes, due to the membrane growth. A stochastic mechanism is also introduced that mimics a stochastic source of error in the template duplication process. Numerical simulations are performed to monitor the time evolution of a family of protocells, under the chemoton hypothesis. An open-ended Darwinian evolution under the pressure of the environment is reproduced thus allowing to conclude that differentiation into species is an emergent property of the model.

A qualitative case study was conducted to investigate the understanding of the limiting reagent concept and the strategies used by five Year 11 students when solving four reaction stoichiometry problems. Students' written problem-solving strategies were studied using the think-aloud protocol during problem-solving, and retrospective verbalisations…

A simple laboratory test has been developed which simulates the reaction between limestone/water and sulfur dioxide in flue gas desulfurization systems. By adding various chemicals, in differing concentrations, to the limestone/water mixture, the quantitative impact on the sulfur dioxide/limestone reaction can be qualified and quantified. This paper will present the impact of several water treatment chemicals on the reaction of limestone and sulfur dioxide. An attempt has been made to predict the effect through mathematical correlations. All of the additive chemicals tend to decrease the rate of dissolution of limestone to various degrees. Some of the chemicals retard crystal growth thus adversely impacting solids separation in the thickener. The physical appearance of the crystal growth retarded limestone absorber slurry approaches a colloidal suspension.

Time-resolved imaging of chemically active valence electron densities is a long-sought goal, as these electrons dictate the course of chemicalreactions. However, X-ray scattering is always dominated by the core and inert valence electrons, making time-resolved X-ray imaging of chemically active valence electron densities extremely challenging. Here we demonstrate an effective and robust method, which emphasizes the information encoded in weakly scattered photons, to image chemically active valence electron densities. The degenerate Cope rearrangement of semibullvalene, a pericyclic reaction, is used as an example to visually illustrate our approach. Our work also provides experimental access to the long-standing problem of synchronous versus asynchronous bond formation and breaking during pericyclic reactions.

The role of viscosity in coupling between chemicalreaction (complex formation) and diffusion in membranes has been investigated. The Fick law was replaced by the momentum balance equation with the viscous term. The irreversible thermodynamics admits coupling of the chemicalreaction rate with the gradient of velocity. The proposed model has shown the contrary effect of viscosity and confirmed the experimental results. The chemicalreaction rate increases only above the limit value of viscosity. The parameter Q (degree of complex formation) was introduced to investigate coupling. Q equals to the ratio of the chemical contribution into the flux of the complex to the total flux of the substance transported. For different values of the parameters of the model the dependence of Q upon position inside the membrane has been numerically calculated. The assumptions of the model limit it to a specific case and they only roughly model the biological situation. PMID:6537360

Time-resolved imaging of chemically active valence electron densities is a long-sought goal, as these electrons dictate the course of chemicalreactions. However, X-ray scattering is always dominated by the core and inert valence electrons, making time-resolved X-ray imaging of chemically active valence electron densities extremely challenging. Here we demonstrate an effective and robust method, which emphasizes the information encoded in weakly scattered photons, to image chemically active valence electron densities. The degenerate Cope rearrangement of semibullvalene, a pericyclic reaction, is used as an example to visually illustrate our approach. Our work also provides experimental access to the long-standing problem of synchronous versus asynchronous bond formation and breaking during pericyclic reactions. PMID:25424639

Research in science education has revealed that many students struggle to understand chemicalreactions. Improving teaching and learning about chemical processes demands that we develop a clearer understanding of student reasoning in this area and of how this reasoning evolves with training in the domain. Thus, we have carried out a qualitative study to explore students reasoning about chemical causality and mechanism. Study participants included individuals at different educational levels, from college to graduate school. We identified diverse conceptual modes expressed by students when engaged in the analysis of different types of reactions. Main findings indicate that student reasoning about chemicalreactions is influenced by the nature of the process. More advanced students tended to express conceptual modes that were more normative and had more explanatory power, but major conceptual difficulties persisted in their reasoning. The results of our study are relevant to educators interested in conceptual development, learning progressions, and assessment.

A pulsed Laval nozzle apparatus employing tunable VUV synchrotron photoionization and quadrupole mass spectrometry for the study of radical-neutral chemicalreactions of importance for modeling the atmosphere of Titan and the outer planets is described. The apparatus enables the study of low-temperature kinetics and isomer-resolved product branching of highly reactive radicals with unsaturated hydrocarbons reactions. The low-temperature branching ratio for the reaction of the ethynyl radical (C2H) with allene (C3H4) has been measured for the first time at 79 K. This reaction is found to yield 1,4-pentadiyne as the major reaction product (50+10%), followed by ethynylallene (28+10%) and methyldiacetylene (22+10%) via H-atom elimination from the initially formed C5H5 adduct. The derived branching ratios can be directly used to predict the chemical evolution of Titan's atmosphere.

A brief review of the application of the crossed molecular beams technique to the study of hot atom chemicalreactions in the last twenty years is given. Specific emphasis is placed on recent advances in the use of photolytically produced energetic deuterium atoms in the study of the fundamental elementary reactions D + H{sub 2} -> DH + H and the substitution reaction D + C{sub 2}H{sub 2} -> C{sub 2}HD + H. Recent advances in uv laser and pulsed molecular beam techniques have made the detailed study of hydrogen atom reactions under single collision conditions possible.

A brief review of the application of the crossed molecular beams technique to the study of hot atom chemicalreactions in the last twenty years is given. Specific emphasis is placed on recent advances in the use of photolytically produced energetic deuterium atoms in the study of the fundamental elementary reactions D + H/sub 2/ /minus/> DH + H and the substitution reaction D + C/sub 2/H/sub 2/ /minus/> C/sub 2/HD + H. Recent advances in uv laser and pulsed molecular beam techniques have made the detailed study of hydrogen atom reactions under single collision conditions possible. 18 refs., 9 figs.

The authors have used a Merrill-Bassett diamond anvil cell and Raman spectroscopy to study methane at high pressures (up to 13 GPa) and high temperatures (up to 912 K). At 2.5-5.0 GPa and 912 K, methane photoreacts with the laser light used for Raman spectroscopy and forms a graphitelike soot compound. At room temperature and pressure the Raman spectrum of the new material has an intense peak with a frequency of 1597 cm[sup [minus]1]. At higher pressures and temperatures (10-13 GPa and 948 K) a sample of [sup 13]CD[sub 4] methane photoreacted with the laser light and formed a hard, clear, solid film. At 0.34 GPa and 300 K, this film had Raman peaks at 541 and 1605 cm[sup [minus]1]. The 541-cm[sup [minus]1] peak may correspond to the 550-cm[sup [minus]1] peak found in some diamondlike carbon (DLC) films formed by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), but the 1605-cm[sup [minus]1] peak does not appear to have any such counterpart. Other possible Raman peaks were masked by interference from the diamond anvils. Thus, while the hard, clear film has some similarities to CVD DLC films, some important differences and questions remain. 35 refs., 5 figs.

Metalloproteins play indispensable roles in biology owing to the versatile chemical reactivity of metal centres. However, studying their reactivity in many metalloproteins is challenging, as protein three-dimensional structure encloses labile metal centres, thus limiting their access to reactants and impeding direct measurements. Here we demonstrate the use of single-molecule atomic force microscopy to induce partial unfolding to expose metal centres in metalloproteins to aqueous solution, thus allowing for studying their chemical reactivity in aqueous solution for the first time. As a proof-of-principle, we demonstrate two chemicalreactions for the FeS4 centre in rubredoxin: electrophilic protonation and nucleophilic ligand substitution. Our results show that protonation and ligand substitution result in mechanical destabilization of the FeS4 centre. Quantum chemical calculations corroborated experimental results and revealed detailed reaction mechanisms. We anticipate that this novel approach will provide insights into chemical reactivity of metal centres in metalloproteins under biologically more relevant conditions.

Background: Humans may be exposed to thousands of chemicals through contact in the workplace, home, and via air, water, food, and soil. A major challenge is estimating exposures to these chemicals, which requires understanding potential exposure routes directly related to how che...

Lattice Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) simulations offer a powerful alternative to using ordinary differential equations for the simulation of complex chemicalreaction networks. Lattice KMC provides the ability to account for local spatial configurations of species in the reaction network, resulting in a more detailed description of the reaction pathway. In KMC simulations with a large number of reactions, the range of transition probabilities can span many orders of magnitude, creating subsets of processes that occur more frequently or more rarely. Consequently, processes that have a high probability of occurring may be selected repeatedly without actually progressing the system (i.e. the forward and reverse process for the same reaction). In order to avoid the repeated occurrence of fast frivolous processes, it is necessary to throttle the transition probabilities in such a way that avoids altering the overall selectivity. Likewise, as the reaction progresses, new frequently occurring species and reactions may be introduced, making a dynamic throttling algorithm a necessity. We present a dynamic steady-state detection scheme with the goal of accurately throttling rate constants in order to optimize the KMC run time without compromising the selectivity of the reaction network. The algorithm has been applied to a large catalytic chemicalreaction network, specifically that of methanol oxidative dehydrogenation, as well as additional pathways on CeO2(111) resulting in formaldehyde, CO, methanol, CO2, H2 and H2O as gas products.

Characteristics of chemicalreaction (A + B --> P) near the turbulent/non-turbulent (T/NT) interface are investigated by using the direct numerical simulation of reactive planar jet. The reactants A and B are separately premixed into the jet and ambient flows, respectively. DNS is performed at three different Damköhler numbers. The conditional statistics conditioned on the distance from the T/NT interface is used to investigate the chemicalreaction near the T/NT interface. The conditional mean concentration of product P shows a sharp jump near the T/NT interface, and the product P hardly exists in the non-turbulent region. This implies that the chemicalreaction takes place in the turbulent region after the reactant B in the ambient flow is entrained into the turbulent region. The conditional mean scalar dissipation rate of mixture fraction has a large peak value slightly inside the T/NT interface. At the same point, the chemicalreaction rate also has a peak value in the case of large Damköhler number. On the other hand, when the Damköhler number is small, the chemicalreaction rate near the T/NT interface is smaller than that in the turbulent region. This work was carried out under the Collaborative Research Project of the Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University. Part of this work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 25002531 and MEXT KAKENHI Grant Numbers 25289030, 25289031, 2563005.

An out-of-equilibrium physical environment can drive chemicalreactions into thermodynamically unfavorable regimes. Under prebiotic conditions such a coupling between physical and chemical non-equilibria may have enabled the spontaneous emergence of primitive evolutionary processes. Here, we study the coupling efficiency within a theoretical model that is inspired by recent laboratory experiments, but focuses on generic effects arising whenever reactant and product molecules have different transport coefficients in a flow-through system. In our model, the physical non-equilibrium is represented by a drift-diffusion process, which is a valid coarse-grained description for the interplay between thermophoresis and convection, as well as for many other molecular transport processes. As a simple chemicalreaction, we consider a reversible dimerization process, which is coupled to the transport process by different drift velocities for monomers and dimers. Within this minimal model, the coupling efficiency between the non-equilibrium transport process and the chemicalreaction can be analyzed in all parameter regimes. The analysis shows that the efficiency depends strongly on the Damköhler number, a parameter that measures the relative timescales associated with the transport and reaction kinetics. Our model and results will be useful for a better understanding of the conditions for which non-equilibrium environments can provide a significant driving force for chemicalreactions in a prebiotic setting. PMID:27147197

Biological systems have evolved for a long time under the normal gravity. The Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction is a nonlinear chemical system far from the equilibrium that may be considered as a simplified chemical model of the biological systems so as to study the effect of gravity. The reaction solution is comprised of bromate in sulfuric acid as an oxidizing agent, 1,4-cyclohexanedione as an organic substrate, and ferroin as a metal catalyst. Chemical waves in the BZ reaction-diffusion system are visualized as blue and red patterns of ferriin and ferroin, respectively. After an improvement to the tubular reaction vessels in the experimental setup, the traveling velocity of chemical waves in aqueous solutions was measured in time series under normal gravity, microgravity, hyper-gravity, and normal gravity using the free-fall facility of JAMIC (Japan Microgravity Center), Hokkaido, Japan. Chemical patterns were collected as image data via CCD camera and analyzed by the software of NIH image after digitization. The estimated traveling velocity increased with increasing gravity as expected. It was clear experimentally that the traveling velocity of target patterns in reaction diffusion system was influenced by the effect of convection and correlated closely with the gravity field.

Low-temperature reaction rates are important ingredients for astrophysical reaction networks modeling the formation of interstellar matter in molecular clouds. Unfortunately, such data is difficult to obtain by experimental means. In an attempt to study low-temperature reactions of astrophysical interest, we have investigated relevant reactions at ultralow temperature in liquid helium droplets. Being prepared by supersonic expansion of helium gas at high pressure through a nozzle into a vacuum, large helium clusters in the form of liquid droplets constitute nano-sized reaction vessels for the study of chemicalreactions at ultra-low temperature. If the normal isotope {sup 4}He is used, the helium droplets are superfluid and characterized by a constant temperature of 0.37 K. Here we present results obtained for Mg, Al, and Si reacting with O{sub 2}. Mass spectrometry was employed to characterize the reaction products. As it may be difficult to distinguish between reactions occurring in the helium droplets before they are ionized and ion-molecule reactions taking place after the ionization, additional techniques were applied to ensure that the reactions actually occurred in the helium droplets. This information was provided by measuring the chemiluminescence light emitted by the products, the evaporation of helium atoms by the release of the reaction heat, or by laser-spectroscopic identification of the reactants and products.

Low-temperature reaction rates are important ingredients for astrophysical reaction networks modeling the formation of interstellar matter in molecular clouds. Unfortunately, such data is difficult to obtain by experimental means. In an attempt to study low-temperature reactions of astrophysical interest, we have investigated relevant reactions at ultralow temperature in liquid helium droplets. Being prepared by supersonic expansion of helium gas at high pressure through a nozzle into a vacuum, large helium clusters in the form of liquid droplets constitute nano-sized reaction vessels for the study of chemicalreactions at ultra-low temperature. If the normal isotope 4He is used, the helium droplets are superfluid and characterized by a constant temperature of 0.37 K. Here we present results obtained for Mg, Al, and Si reacting with O2. Mass spectrometry was employed to characterize the reaction products. As it may be difficult to distinguish between reactions occurring in the helium droplets before they are ionized and ion-molecule reactions taking place after the ionization, additional techniques were applied to ensure that the reactions actually occurred in the helium droplets. This information was provided by measuring the chemiluminescence light emitted by the products, the evaporation of helium atoms by the release of the reaction heat, or by laser-spectroscopic identification of the reactants and products.

Flowing trains of uniformly sized bubbles/droplets (i.e., segmented flows) and the associated mass transfer enhancement over their single-phase counterparts have been studied extensively during the past fifty years. Although the scaling behaviour of segmented flow formation is increasingly well understood, the predictive adjustment of the desired flow characteristics that influence the mixing and residence times, remains a challenge. Currently, a time consuming, slow and often inconsistent manual manipulation of experimental conditions is required to address this task. In my thesis, I have overcome the above-mentioned challenges and developed an experimental strategy that for the first time provided predictive control over segmented flows in a hands-off manner. A computer-controlled platform that consisted of a real-time image processing module within an integral controller, a silicon-based microreactor and automated fluid delivery technique was designed, implemented and validated. In a first part of my thesis I utilized this approach for the automated screening of physical mass transfer and solubility characteristics of carbon dioxide (CO2) in a physical solvent at a well-defined temperature and pressure and a throughput of 12 conditions per hour. Second, by applying the segmented flow approach to a recently discovered CO2 chemical absorbent, frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs), I determined the thermodynamic characteristics of the CO2-FLP reaction. Finally, the segmented flow approach was employed for characterization and investigation of CO2-governed liquid-liquid phase separation process. The second part of my thesis utilized the segmented flow platform for the preparation and shape control of high quality colloidal nanomaterials (e.g., CdSe/CdS) via the automated control of residence times up to approximately 5 minutes. By introducing a novel oscillatory segmented flow concept, I was able to further extend the residence time limitation to 24 hours. A case study of a

Specific external control of chemicalreaction systems and both dynamic control and signal processing as central functions in biochemical reaction systems are important issues of modern nonlinear science. For example nonlinear input-output behavior and its regulation are crucial for the maintainance of the life process that requires extensive communication between cells and their environment. An important question is how the dynamical behavior of biochemical systems is controlled and how they process information transmitted by incoming signals. But also from a general point of view external forcing of complex chemicalreaction processes is important in many application areas ranging from chemical engineering to biomedicine. In order to study such control issues numerically, here, we choose a well characterized chemical system, the CO oxidation on Pt(110), which is interesting per se as an externally forced chemical oscillator model. We show numerically that tuning of temporal self-organization by input signals in this simple nonlinear chemicalreaction exhibiting oscillatory behavior can in principle be exploited for both specific external control of dynamical system behavior and processing of complex information.

resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) detected by ion imaging is a powerful method for measuring the product state-resolved differential cross section (DCS) of bimolecular scattering reactions. Polarization of the REMPI probe light also makes imaging data potentially sensitive to product angular momentum polarization, as is well known from imaging studies of photodissociation. We exploit this sensitivity to obtain the state-resolved product angular momentum polarization as a function of recoil angle. Previous measurements of molecular angular momentum polarization in bimolecular scattering have either been constrained to detection in the scattering plane or have averaged around the azimuthal angle of the recoil velocity vector in the collision frame. Imaging detection captures the entire product recoil velocity sphere, enabling a more complete determination of product angular momentum polarization than is possible for experiments of lower detection dimensionality.

Near threshold photo-induced isomerization and photo-induced chemicalreactions have long been sough after as sensitive probes of the underlying potential energy surface. One of the most important questions asked is how the initially bright quantum state couples to the reaction coordinate, and thus relates to energy transfer in general. Helium droplets have now allowed us to stabilize entrance channel clusters behind very small reaction barriers such that vibrational excitation may result in reaction. Through two examples, namely the isomerization of the 2 binary complexes of HF-HCN Douberly et al. PCCP 2005, 7,463, and the induced reaction of the gallium-HCN complex Merritt et al. JPCA 2007, DOI:10.1021/jp074981e we will show how the branching ratios for reaction and predissociation can determined and the influence of the superfluid He solvent.

A cross ELF-NCI analysis is tested over prototypical organic reactions. The synergetic use of ELF and NCI enables the understanding of reaction mechanisms since each method can respectively identify regions of strong and weak electron pairing. Chemically intuitive results are recovered and enriched by the identification of new features. Non covalent interactions are found to foresee the evolution of the reaction from the initial steps. Within NCI, no topological catastrophe is observed as changes are continuous to such an extent that future reaction steps can be predicted from the evolution of the initial NCI critical points. Indeed, strong convergences through the reaction paths between ELF and NCI critical points enable to identify key interactions at the origin of the bond formation. VMD scripts enabling the automatic generation of movies depicting the cross NCI/ELF analysis along a reaction path (or following a Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics trajectory) are provided as S.I. PMID:23185140

Classical chemical kinetics uses rate-equation models to describe how a reaction proceeds in time. Such models are sufficient for describing state transitions in a reaction where coherences between different states do not arise, in other words, a reaction that contains only incoherent transitions. A prominent example of a reaction containing coherent transitions is the radical-pair model. The kinetics of such reactions is defined by the so-called reaction operator that determines the radical-pair state as a function of intermediate transition rates. We argue that the well-known concept of quantum walks from quantum information theory is a natural and apt framework for describing multisite chemicalreactions. By composing Kraus maps that act only on two sites at a time, we show how the quantum-walk formalism can be applied to derive a reaction operator for the standard avian radical-pair reaction. Our reaction operator predicts the same recombination dephasing rate as the conventional Haberkorn model, which is consistent with recent experiments [K. Maeda et al., J. Chem. Phys. 139, 234309 (2013), 10.1063/1.4844355], in contrast to previous work by Jones and Hore [J. A. Jones and P. J. Hore, Chem. Phys. Lett. 488, 90 (2010), 10.1016/j.cplett.2010.01.063]. The standard radical-pair reaction has conventionally been described by either a normalized density operator incorporating both the radical pair and reaction products or a trace-decreasing density operator that considers only the radical pair. We demonstrate a density operator that is both normalized and refers only to radical-pair states. Generalizations to include additional dephasing processes and an arbitrary number of sites are also discussed.

Recent developments by the authors in the field of comprehensive detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms for hydrocarbon fuels are reviewed. Examples are given of how these mechanisms provide fundamental chemical insights into a range of combustion applications. Practical combustion consists primarily of chemical heat release from reactions between a fuel and an oxidizer, and computer simulations of practical combustion systems have become an essential tool of combustion research (Westbrook et al., 2005). At the heart of most combustion simulations, the chemical kinetic submodel frequently is the most detailed, complex and computationally costly part of a system model. Historically, the chemical submodel equations are solved using time-implicit numerical algorithms, due to the extreme stiffness of the coupled rate equations, with a computational cost that varies roughly with the cube of the number of chemical species in the model. While early mechanisms (c. 1980) for apparently simple fuels such as methane (Warnatz, 1980) or methanol (Westbrook and Dryer, 1979) included perhaps 25 species, current detailed mechanisms for much larger, more complex fuels such as hexadecane (Fournet et al., 2001; Ristori et al., 2001; Westbrook et al., 2008) or methyl ester methyl decanoate (Herbinet et al., 2008) have as many as 2000 or even 3000 species. Rapid growth in capabilities of modern computers has been an essential feature in this rapid growth in the size and complexity of chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms.

Study of the special features of molecular charge exchange and its competition with chemicalreaction in the case of the D2(+) + H system. The trajectory surface hopping (TSH) model proposed by Tully and Preston (1971) is used to study this competition for a number of reactions involving the above system. The diatomics-in-molecules zero-overlap approximation is used to calculate the three adiabatic surfaces - one triplet and two singlet - which are needed to describe this system. One of the significant results of this study is that the chemicalreaction and charge exchange are strongly coupled. It is also found that the number of trajectories passing into the chemical regions of the three surfaces depends very strongly on the surface crossings.-

The EPA`s Fish Contamination Program (FCP) provides technical assistance and guidance to State, Federal, and Tribal agencies for assessing human health risks associated with dietary exposure to chemically contaminated noncommercial freshwater and estuarine fish and shellfish. the program includes guidance documents which may be used for developing fish consumption advisories. One series of guidance documents, titled Guidance for Assessing Chemical Contaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories, are designed to provide the States, Tribes, and other interested parties with a scientifically defensible, cost effective methodology for developing, implementing, managing and communicating risk-base fish consumption advisories. The fist document of the series, Volume 1: Fish Sampling and Analysis (September 1993), provides recommended methods for sampling strategies, field collection procedure, chemical analysis, data management and profiles of 24 chemicals which have been identified as analyses of concern with respect to dietary exposure to chemical contaminants in fish. volume 2: Risk Assessment and Fish Consumption Limits (June 1994), provides chemical specific risk based fish consumption limits for 24 analyses based on the amount and frequency of individual fish consumption patterns. Specific fish consumption limits and advice for the general population and women of child-bearing age are provided. Volume 3: Risk Management, is scheduled for release in late 1 994. This document will review management options which should be considered in the development of fish consumption advisories. Volume 4: Risk Communication, is scheduled for release in the fall of 1994. This document will address effective communication of fish consumption advisories to targeted audiences.

A molecular simulation method to study the dynamics of chemically reacting mixtures is presented. The method uses a combination of stochastic and dynamic simulation steps, allowing for the simulation of both thermodynamic and transport properties. The method couples a molecular dynamics simulation cell (termed dynamic cell) to a reaction mixture simulation cell (termed control cell) that is formulated upon the reaction ensemble Monte Carlo (RxMC) method, hence the term reaction ensemble molecular dynamics. Thermodynamic and transport properties are calculated in the dynamic cell by using a constant-temperature molecular dynamics simulation method. RxMC forward and reverse reaction steps are performed in the control cell only, while molecular dynamics steps are performed in both the dynamic cell and the control cell. The control cell, which acts as a sink and source reservoir, is maintained at reaction equilibrium conditions via the RxMC algorithm. The reaction ensemble molecular dynamics method is analogous to the grand canonical ensemble molecular dynamics technique, while using some elements of the osmotic molecular dynamics method, and so simulates conditions that directly relate to real, open systems. The accuracy and stability of the method is assessed by considering the ammonia synthesis reaction N2+3H2⇔2NH3 . It is shown to be a viable method for predicting the effects of nonideal environments on the dynamic properties (particularly diffusion) as well as reaction equilibria for chemically reacting mixtures.

On the basis of representation of a turbulent fluid as an aggregation of independent turbulent particles (vortexes), we derive relations for the effective rate of chemicalreactions and obtain a closed system of equations describing reactions with turbulent mixing of reactants. A variant of instantaneous reactions is considered that explains the proposed approach simply. In particular, the turbulent mixing events according to this approach are uniquely related to the acts of chemical interaction, which makes it possible to exclude from consideration the mixing of inert impurities–the most difficult point of the theory formulated using classical notions. The obtained system of equations is closed without introducing arbitrarily adopted correlations, by naturally introducing the concept of effective reaction and writing the equations of conservation for both the concentrations of reactants and their volumes.

On the basis of representation of a turbulent fluid as an aggregation of independent turbulent particles (vortexes), we derive relations for the effective rate of chemicalreactions and obtain a closed system of equations describing reactions with turbulent mixing of reactants. A variant of instantaneous reactions is considered that explains the proposed approach simply. In particular, the turbulent mixing events according to this approach are uniquely related to the acts of chemical interaction, which makes it possible to exclude from consideration the mixing of inert impurities-the most difficult point of the theory formulated using classical notions. The obtained system of equations is closed without introducing arbitrarily adopted correlations, by naturally introducing the concept of effective reaction and writing the equations of conservation for both the concentrations of reactants and their volumes.

We present results from the first d =3 molecular dynamics (MD) study of phase-separating fluid mixtures (AB) with simple chemicalreactions (A ⇌B ). We focus on the case where the rates of forward and backward reactions are equal. The chemicalreactions compete with segregation, and the coarsening system settles into a steady-state mesoscale morphology. However, hydrodynamic effects destroy the lamellar morphology which characterizes the diffusive case. This has important consequences for the phase-separating structure, which we study in detail. In particular, the equilibrium length scale (ℓeq) in the steady state suggests a power-law dependence on the reaction rate ɛ :ℓeq˜ɛ-θ with θ ≃1.0 .

We present a simple protocol which allows fully automated discovery of elementary chemicalreaction steps using in cooperation double- and single-ended transition-state optimization algorithms--the freezing string and Berny optimization methods, respectively. To demonstrate the utility of the proposed approach, the reactivity of several single-molecule systems of combustion and atmospheric chemistry importance is investigated. The proposed algorithm allowed us to detect without any human intervention not only "known" reaction pathways, manually detected in the previous studies, but also new, previously "unknown", reaction pathways which involve significant atom rearrangements. We believe that applying such a systematic approach to elementary reaction path finding will greatly accelerate the discovery of new chemistry and will lead to more accurate computer simulations of various chemical processes. PMID:26575920

We present results from the first d=3 molecular dynamics (MD) study of phase-separating fluid mixtures (AB) with simple chemicalreactions (A⇌B). We focus on the case where the rates of forward and backward reactions are equal. The chemicalreactions compete with segregation, and the coarsening system settles into a steady-state mesoscale morphology. However, hydrodynamic effects destroy the lamellar morphology which characterizes the diffusive case. This has important consequences for the phase-separating structure, which we study in detail. In particular, the equilibrium length scale (ℓ(eq)) in the steady state suggests a power-law dependence on the reaction rate ε:ℓ(eq)∼ε(-θ) with θ≃1.0. PMID:26651704

We investigate the behaviors of chemicalreactions of the Lotka-Volterra model with small number of molecules; hence the occurrence of random fluctuations modifies the deterministic behavior and the law of mass action is replaced by a stochastic model. We model it by using Abstract Rewriting System on Multisets, ARMS; ARMS is a stochastic method of simulating chemicalreactions and it is based on the reaction rate equation. We confirmed that the magnitude of fluctuations on periodicity of oscillations becomes large, as the number of involved molecules is getting smaller; and these fluctuations induce another structure, which have not observed in the reactions with large number of molecules. We show that the underling mechanism through investigating the coarse grained phase space of ARMS.

This paper investigates the role played by vapor-phase chemicalreactions on CVD rates by comparing the results of two extreme theories developed to predict CVD mass transport rates in the absence of interfacial kinetic barrier: one based on chemically frozen boundary layer and the other based on local thermochemical equilibrium. Both theories consider laminar convective-diffusion boundary layers at high Reynolds numbers and include thermal (Soret) diffusion and variable property effects. As an example, Na2SO4 deposition was studied. It was found that gas phase reactions have no important role on Na2SO4 deposition rates and on the predictions of the theories. The implications of the predictions of the two theories to other CVD systems are discussed.

Quantum simulation can beat current classical computers with minimally a few tens of qubits. Here we report an experimental demonstration that a small nuclear-magnetic-resonance quantum simulator is already able to simulate the dynamics of a prototype laser-driven isomerization reaction using engineered quantum control pulses. The experimental results agree well with classical simulations. We conclude that the quantum simulation of chemicalreaction dynamics not computable on current classical computers is feasible in the near future. PMID:21797586

The subject of this dissertation is the deformation process of a single metal - polymer system (titanium - polytetrafluoroethylene) and how this process leads to initiation of chemicalreaction. Several different kinds of experiments were performed to characterize the behavior of this material to shock and impact. These mechanical conditions induce a rapid plastic deformation of the sample. All of the samples tested had an initial porosity which increased the plastic flow condition. It is currently believed that during the deformation process two important conditions occur: removal of the oxide layer from the metal and decomposition of the polymer. These conditions allow for rapid chemicalreaction. The research from this dissertation has provided insight into the complex behavior of plastic deformation and chemicalreactions in titanium - polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon). A hydrodynamic computational code was used to model the plastic flow for correlation with the results from the experiments. The results from this work are being used to develop an ignition and growth model for metal/polymer systems. Three sets of experiments were used to examine deformation of the 80% Ti and 20% Teflon materials: drop- weight, gas gun, and split-Hopkinson pressure bar. Recovery studies included post shot analysis of the samples using x-ray diffraction. Lagrangian hydrocode DYNA2D modeling of the drop-weight tests was performed for comparison with experiments. One of the reactions know to occur is Ti + C → TiC (s) which results in an exothermic release. However, the believed initial reactions occur between Ti and fluorine which produces TixFy gases. The thermochemical code CHEETAH was used to investigate the detonation products and concentrations possible during Ti - Teflon reaction. CHEETAH shows that the Ti - fluorine reactions are thermodynamically favorable. This research represents the most comprehensive to date study of deformation induced chemicalreaction in metal/polymers.

Vibronic coupling constant (VCC) and density (VCD) defined for a pure state, which have been successfully applied for reactions of fullerenes and nanographenes as reactivity indices, are extended for a mixed state. The extended VCC and VCD, thermodynamical vibronic coupling constant (ThVCC) and density (ThVCD), are formulated in the finite-temperature grand-canonical ensemble. ThVCD can be applied for charge transfer of a fractional number of electron. Based on the total differential of chemical potential, the relationship between chemical potential, absolute hardness, and vibronic coupling in a bimolecular reaction is discussed.

In this work chemically reacting mixtures of viscous flows are analyzed within the framework of Boltzmann equation. By applying a modified Chapman-Enskog method to the system of Boltzmann equations general expressions for the rates of chemicalreactions and vibrational energy transitions are determined as functions of two thermodynamic forces: the velocity divergence and the affinity. As an application chemically reacting mixtures of N{sub 2} across a shock wave are studied, where the first lowest vibrational states are taken into account. Here we consider only the contributions from the first four single quantum vibrational-translational energy transitions. It is shown that the contribution to the chemicalreaction rate related to the affinity is much larger than that of the velocity divergence.

Post-consumer poly(ethylene therephthalate) (PET) obtained from milled water bottles was chemically degraded by glycolysis, using suitable amounts of diethylene glycol (DEG) and Ca/Zn stearate as catalyst system. The process was carried out by employing a melt mixer as the chemical reactor, which is the facility generally used for plastic compounding. The degraded PET products were first characterized from structural and thermal point of view by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Proton nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR), Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and thereafter used alone or together with di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in poly(vinyl chloride) PVC formulations. The plasticization was, in fact, accomplished by using a binary system consisting of DEHP as primary plasticizer and a degraded PET product as secondary plasticizer (SP). The obtained materials were characterized through the main methods used to assess flexible PVC compounds: hardness in Shore A scale, thermal properties and quantitative migration of the plasticizer. The solid secondary plasticizer obtained from post-consumer PET improves both the processing characteristics and the thermal stability of the final flexible PVC compounds while maintaining their hardness within the top values of the Shore A scale. In addition, a considerable reduction of the plasticizers migration (23%) was obtained by optimizing the formulation. PMID:26376120

Thermodynamic and transport properties of high temperature air, and the reaction rates for the important chemical processes which occur in air, are reviewed. Semiempirical, analytic expressions are presented for thermodynamic and transport properties of air. Examples are given illustrating the use of these properties to evaluate (1) equilibrium conditions following shock waves, (2) stagnation region heat flux to a blunt high-speed body, and (3) some chemical relaxation lengths in stagnation region flow.

The paper presents a chemical composition analysis of the gases emanated from geothermal sources in the Herculane Spa area (Romania). The upper homologues of methane have been identified in these gases. An ion-molecule reaction mechanism could be implicated in the formation of the upper homologues of methane. The CH4+ ions that appear under the action of radiation are the starting point of these reactions. The presence of hydrogen in the emanated gases may be also a result of these reactions. PMID:19325844

The first measurements are reported of the reaction pathways for the interaction between oxygen atoms in the 4.19 eV S-1 state, and four molecules, N2O, CO2, H2O, and NO. Distinction is made between three possible paths - quenching to O(D-1), quenching to O(P-3), and chemicalreaction. With N2O, the most reasonable interpretation of the data indicates that there no reaction, in sharp contrast with the interaction between O(D-1) and N2O, which proceeds entirely by reaction. Similarly, there is no reaction with CO2. With H2O, the reactive pathway is the dominant one, although electronic quenching is not negligible. With NO, O(D-1) is the preferred product.

We have measured the reaction rates of trapped, buffer gas cooled Th{sup 3+} and various gases and have analyzed the reaction products using trapped ion mass spectrometry techniques. Ion trap lifetimes are usually limited by reactions with background molecules, and the high electron affinity of multiply charged ions such as Th{sup 3+} make them more prone to loss. Our results show that reactions of Th{sup 3+} with carbon dioxide, methane, and oxygen all occur near the classical Langevin rate, while reaction rates with argon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are orders of magnitude lower. Reactions of Th{sup 3+} with oxygen and methane proceed primarily via charge exchange, while simultaneous charge exchange and chemicalreaction occurs between Th{sup 3+} and carbon dioxide. Loss rates of Th{sup 3+} in helium are consistent with reaction with impurities in the gas. Reaction rates of Th{sup 3+} with nitrogen and argon depend on the internal electronic configuration of the Th{sup 3+}.

Examines 9th grade students' explanations of chemicalreactions using two forms of open-ended essay questions, those providing students with key terms to be used as "anchors" on which to base their essay, and those that do not provide terms. Results indicate that more misunderstandings were elicited by the use of key terms as compared to the…

The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of conceptual change text instruction (CCT) in the context of energy in chemicalreactions. The subjects of the study were 60, 10th grade students at a high school, who were in two different classes and taught by the same teacher. One of the classes was randomly selected as the experimental…

The central goal of this study was to analyze the complexity of students' explanations about how and why chemicalreactions happen in terms of the types of causal connections students built between expressed concepts and ideas. We were particularly interested in characterizing differences in the types of reasoning applied by students with…

The chemical processes and soil factors that affect the concentrations of As and Se in soil solution were discussed. Both elements occur in two redox states differing in toxicity and reactivity. Methylation and volatilization reactions occur in soils and can act as detoxification pathways. Precip...

The nature and kinetics of reactions in dry seeds determines how long they survive. We used gas chromatography to assay volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted from seeds of three unrelated species as a means to non-invasively probe chemical changes during very dry, dry and humid (15, 33 and 75% RH...

In this study, we investigated how students used a drawing tool to visualize their ideas of chemicalreaction processes. We interviewed 30 students using thinking-aloud and retrospective methods and provided them with a drawing tool. We identified four types of connections the students made as they used the tool: drawing on existing knowledge,…

This study involved the evaluation of the efficacy of a planned instructional program to facilitate understanding of the macroscopic, submicroscopic and symbolic representational systems when describing and explaining chemicalreactions by sixty-five Grade 9 students in a Singapore secondary school. A two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument…

In this paper we discuss a pedagogical approach aimed at pointing out the role played by the Boltzmann factor in describing phenomena usually perceived as regulated by different mechanisms of functioning. Experimental results regarding some aspects of a chemicalreaction and of the viscous flow of some liquids are analysed and described in terms…

Preliminary calculations suggest that heterogeneous reactions are important in calculating the impact on ozone from emissions of trace gases from aircraft fleets. In this study, three heterogeneous chemical processes that occur on background sulfuric acid aerosols are included and their effects on O3, NO(x), Cl(x), HCl, N2O5, ClONO2 are calculated.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the basic concepts related to the unit of "ChemicalReactions and Energy" and the sub-concepts underlying for meaningful learning of the unit and to investigate the effectiveness of them on students' learning achievements. For this purpose, the basic concepts of the unit were…

The purpose of this study was to investigate inscriptions used in "Types of ChemicalReactions" topic in Turkish, Indian, and American chemistry textbooks. We investigated both the types of inscriptions and how they were used in textbooks to support learning. A conceptual analysis method was employed to determine how those textbooks use…

The number of molecules involved in a cell or subcellular structure is sometimes rather small. In this situation, ordinary macroscopic-level fluctuations can be overwhelmed by non-negligible large fluctuations, which results in drastic changes in chemical-reaction dynamics and statistics compared to those observed under a macroscopic system (i.e., with a large number of molecules). In order to understand how salient changes emerge from fluctuations in molecular number, we here quantitatively define small-number effect by focusing on a "mesoscopic" level, in which the concentration distribution is distinguishable both from micro- and macroscopic ones and propose a criterion for determining whether or not such an effect can emerge in a given chemicalreaction network. Using the proposed criterion, we systematically derive a list of motifs of chemicalreaction networks that can show small-number effects, which includes motifs showing emergence of the power law and the bimodal distribution observable in a mesoscopic regime with respect to molecule number. The list of motifs provided herein is helpful in the search for candidates of biochemical reactions with a small-number effect for possible biological functions, as well as for designing a reaction system whose behavior can change drastically depending on molecule number, rather than concentration. PMID:27608993

By means of descriptive analysis four varieties of tea (Thea sinensis) were assesed: Argentinean OP (orange pekoe) tea (black), Brazilian OP tea (black), Ceylan OP tea (black) and Darjeeling OP tea (green). The appearance of dry tea leaves were qualitatively characterized comparing with dry leaves standard. The attributes: colour, form, regularity of the leaves, fibre and stem cutting were evaluated The differences obtained were related to the differences produced by the effect of the fermentation process. Flavour and aroma descriptors of the tea liqueur were generated by a trained panel. Colour and astringency were evaluated in comparison with qualified standards using non structured linear scales. In order to relate the sensory analysis and the chemical composition for the different varieties of tea, following determinations were made: chemical moisture, dry material, aqueous extract, tannin and caffeine. Through multifactor regression analysis the equations in relation to the following chemical parameters were determined. Dry material, aqueous extract and tannins for colour and moisture, dry material and aqueous extract for astringency, respectively. Statistical analysis through ANOVA (3 variation sources: samples, judges and replications) showed for samples four significant different groups for astringency and three different groups for colour. No significant differences between judges or repetitions were found. By multifactor regression analysis of both, colour and astringency, on their dependence of chemist results were calculated in order to asses the corresponding equations. PMID:16187684

Theory for cyclic square wave voltammetry of electrode reactions with chemicalreactions preceding the electron transfer is presented. Theoretical voltammograms were calculated following systematic variation of empirical parameters to assess their impact on the shape of the voltammogram. From the trends obtained, diagnostic criteria for this mechanism were deduced. When properly applied, these criteria will enable non-experts in voltammetry to assign the electrode reaction mechanism and accurately measure reaction kinetics. PMID:27443581

We present elements of a stability theory for small, stochastic, nonlinear chemicalreaction networks. Steady state probability distributions are computed with zero-information (ZI) closure, a closure algorithm that solves chemical master equations of small arbitrary nonlinear reactions. Stochastic models can be linearized around the steady state with ZI-closure, and the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix can be readily computed. Eigenvalues govern the relaxation of fluctuation autocorrelation functions at steady state. Autocorrelation functions reveal the time scales of phenomena underlying the dynamics of nonlinear reaction networks. In accord with the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, these functions are found to be congruent to response functions to small perturbations. Significant differences are observed in the stability of nonlinear reacting systems between deterministic and stochastic modeling formalisms.

Synthesis of boron-carbon-nitride (BCN) hybrid alloys has been attempted extensively by many researchers because the BCN alloys are considered an extremely hard material called {open_quotes}super diamond,{close_quotes} and the industrial application for wear-resistant materials is promising. A mechanical alloying (MA) method of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) with graphite has recently been studied to explore the industrial synthesis of the BCN alloys. To develop the MA method for the BCN alloy synthesis, it is necessary to confirm the chemicalreaction processes in the mechanical milling systems and to identify the reaction products. Therefore, the authors have attempted to confirm the chemicalreaction process of the h-BN and graphite in mechanical milling systems using x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) methods.

Cell surface proteins such as lipid tethered GPI-anchored proteins and Ras-proteins are distributed as monomers and nanoclusters on the surface of living cells. Recent work from our laboratory suggests that the spatial distribution and dynamics of formation and breakup of these nanoclusters is controlled by the active remodeling dynamics of the underlying cortical actin. To explain these observations, we propose a novel mechanism of nanoclustering, involving the transient binding to and advection along constitutively occuring ``asters'' of cortical actin. Here we study the consequences of such active actin based clustering, in the context of chemicalreactions involving conformational changes of cell surface proteins. We find that active remodeling of cortical actin, can give rise to a dramatic increase in the reaction efficiency and output levels. In general, such actin driven clustering of membrane proteins could be a cellular mechanism to spatiotemporally regulate and amplify local chemicalreaction rates, in the context of signalling and endocytosis.

We present elements of a stability theory for small, stochastic, nonlinear chemicalreaction networks. Steady state probability distributions are computed with zero-information (ZI) closure, a closure algorithm that solves chemical master equations of small arbitrary nonlinear reactions. Stochastic models can be linearized around the steady state with ZI-closure, and the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix can be readily computed. Eigenvalues govern the relaxation of fluctuation autocorrelation functions at steady state. Autocorrelation functions reveal the time scales of phenomena underlying the dynamics of nonlinear reaction networks. In accord with the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, these functions are found to be congruent to response functions to small perturbations. Significant differences are observed in the stability of nonlinear reacting systems between deterministic and stochastic modeling formalisms.

The stability of a two-dimensional compressible supersonic flow in the wake of a flat plate is discussed. The fluid is a multi-species mixture which is undergoing finite rate chemicalreactions. The spatial stability of an infinitesimal disturbance in the fluid is considered. Numerical solutions of the eigenvalue stability equations for both reactive and nonreactive supersonic flows are presented and discussed. The chemicalreactions have significant influence on the stability behavior. For instance, a neutral eigenvalue is observed near the freestream Mach number of 2.375 for the nonreactive case, but disappears when the reaction is turned on. For reactive flows, the eigenvalues are not very dependent on the free stream Mach number.

I recently reported some examples of mass-action equations that have a continuous manifold of marginally stable stationary states [Brogioli, D., 2010. Marginally stable chemical systems as precursors of life. Phys. Rev. Lett. 105, 058102; Brogioli, D., 2011. Marginal stability in chemical systems and its relevance in the origin of life. Phys. Rev. E 84, 031931]. The corresponding chemicalreaction networks show nonclassical effects, i.e. a violation of the mass-action equations, under the effect of the concentration fluctuations: the chemical system drifts along the marginally stable states. I proposed that this effect is potentially involved in abiogenesis. In the present paper, I analyze the mathematical properties of mass-action equations of marginally stable chemicalreaction networks. The marginal stability implies that the mass-action equations obey some conservation law; I show that the mathematical properties of the conserved quantity characterize the motion along the marginally stable stationary state manifold, i.e. they allow to predict if the fluctuations give rise to a random walk or a drift under the effect of concentration fluctuations. Moreover, I show that the presence of the drift along the manifold of marginally stable stationary-states is a critical property, i.e. at least one of the reaction constants must be fine tuned in order to obtain the drift. PMID:23160143

The use of emerging microwave (MW) -assisted chemistry techniques is dramatically reducing chemical waste and reaction times in several organic syntheses and chemical transformations. A brief account of our experiences in developing MW-assisted organic transformations, which invo...

Molecular rotational spectroscopy has several advantages for detection of reaction intermediates and products under extreme laboratory conditions. Rotational spectroscopy has high sensitivity to the molecular structure and provides high spectral resolution in low pressure environments. Furthermore, quantum chemistry provides accurate estimates of the spectroscopic parameters. As a result, rotational spectroscopy can identify molecular species in complex reaction mixtures without the need for chromatographic separation and without the need for a previously recorded ``library spectrum'' of the molecule. The application of chirped pulse Fourier transform rotational spectroscopy methods for the identification of molecules of astrochemical interest formed in pulsed discharge sources will be described including recent advances for high-throughput mm-wave spectroscopy. The set of reaction products created in the experiment can provide insight into the reaction mechanism. Reactions involving the CN radical will be discussed. These reactions can be barrierless making them candidates for interstellar gas reactions. The possibility that interstellar cyanomethanimine is produced by gas phase radical-neutral reactions instead of surface chemistry on grain-supported ices will be discussed using recent spatially resolved chemical images in Sagittarius B2 observed with the Jansky Very Large Array. This work supported by NSF CHE 1213200.

The ion-molecule reactions of ions from acetone, dimethyl ether, 2-methoxyethanol, and vinyl methyl ether with vincamine were investigated. Reactions with dimethyl ether result in [M+13](+) and [M+45](+) products, reactions with 2-methoxyethanol produce [M+13](+) and [M+89](+) ions, and reactions with acetone or vinyl methyl ether ions generate predominantly [M+43](+) ions. Collision-activated dissociation and deuterium labeling experiments allowed speculation about the product structures and mechanisms of dissociation. The methylene substitution process was shown to occur at the hydroxyl oxygen and the phenyl ring of vincamine for dimethyl ether reactions, but the methylene substitution process was not favored at the hydroxyl oxygen for the 2-methoxyethanol reactions, instead favored at the 12 phenyl position. The reaction site is likely different for the 2-methoxyethanol ion due to its capability for secondary hydrogen-bonding interactions. For the [M+45](+) and [M+89](+) ions, evidence suggests that charge-remote fragmentation processes occur from these products. In general, the use of dimethyl ether ions or 2-methoxyethanol ions for ionmolecule reactions prove highly diagnostic for the characterization of vincamine; both molecular weight and structural information are obtained. Limits of detection for vincamine with dimethyl ether chemical ionization via this technique on a benchtop ion trap gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometer are in the upper parts per trillion range. PMID:24203296

Multilayer Al/Sb thin films have been evaporated on GaSb single crystals in ultra-high vacuum and pulsed-laser irradiated in-situ above the energy density threshold for surface melting. Superficial and interfacial chemicalreactions have been characterized in-situ by Auger electron spectroscopy; and later, by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy profiling, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy. The chemicalreaction between the Al and Sb films is considered as a model reaction for laser-assisted synthesis of high-purity intermetallic compounds. The observation of a strong interfacial reaction between the melted film and the substrate is also a subject of great concern for optical data recording and laser alloying of ohmic contacts on semiconductors. We show that a suitable choice of the substrate and adding a low surface tension element into the metallic film can improve its stability during melting, and prevent inhomogeneous reaction and formation of holes, cracks and particles. Finally, other solutions are suggested to improve the control of these reactions.

In our previous study, we experimentally studied the effects of changes in the viscosity of the displaced more-viscous liquid by instantaneous reactions on miscible viscous fingering pattern [Y. Nagatsu, K. Matsuda, Y. Kato, and Y. Tada, "Experimental study on miscible viscous fingering involving viscosity changes induced by variations in chemical species concentrations due to chemicalreactions," J. Fluid Mech. 571, 475 (2007)]. In the present study, experiments have been performed on the miscible viscous fingering involving changes in the viscosity of the displacing less-viscous liquid by instantaneous reactions in a radial Hele-Shaw cell. We have found that the shielding effect is suppressed and the fingers are widened when the viscosity is increased. As a result, the reaction makes the fingering pattern denser. In contrast, the shielding effect is enhanced, and the fingers are narrowed when the viscosity is decreased. As a result, the reaction makes the fingering pattern less dense. These results are essentially same as those obtained by the above-mentioned previous study. This shows that the effects of changes in the viscosity due to the instantaneous reactions are independent of whether the changes occur in the displaced liquid or in the displacing liquid. A mechanism for the independence is discussed.

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), a complex flavoprotein, catalyzes the metabolic reactions leading from hypoxanthine to xanthine and from xanthine to urate, and both reactions take place at the molybdenum cofactor. The enzyme is a target of drugs for therapy of gout or hyperuricemia. We review the chemical nature and reaction mechanisms of the molybdenum cofactor of XOR, focusing on molybdenum-dependent reactions of actual or potential medical importance, including nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. It is now generally accepted that XOR transfers the water-exchangeable -OH ligand of the molybdenum atom to the substrate. The hydroxyl group at OH-Mo(IV) can be replaced by urate, oxipurinol and FYX-051 derivatives and the structures of these complexes have been determined by x-ray crystallography under anaerobic conditions. Although formation of NO from nitrite or formation of xanthine from urate by XOR is chemically feasible, it is not yet clear whether these reactions have any physiological significance since the reactions are catalyzed at a slow rate even under anaerobic conditions. PMID:23116398

An anaytical study of hydrogen air kinetics was performed. Calculations were made over a range of pressure from 0.2 to 4.0 atm, temperatures from 850 to 2000 K, and mixture equivalence ratios from 0.2 to 2.0. The finite rate chemistry model included 60 reactions in 20 species of the H2-O2-N2 system. The calculations also included an assessment of how small amounts of the chemicals H2O, NOx, H2O2, and O3 in the initial mixture affect ignition and reaction times, and how the variation of the third body efficiency of H2O relative of N2 in certain key reactions may affect reaction time. The results indicate that for mixture equivalence ratios between 0.5 and 1.7, ignition times are nearly constant; however, the presence of H2O and NO can have significant effects on ignition times, depending on the mixture temperature. Reaction time is dominantly influenced by pressure but is nearly independent of initial temperature, equivalence ratio, and the addition of chemicals. Effects of kinetics on reaction at supersonic combustor conditions are discussed.

High potential energy barriers and engagement of solvent coordinates set challenges for in silico studies of chemicalreactions, and one is quite commonly limited to study reactions along predefined reaction coordinate(s). A systematic protocol, QM/MM MD simulations using enhanced sampling of reactive trajectories (ESoRT), is established to quantitatively study chemical transitions in complex systems. A number of trajectories for Claisen rearrangement in water and toluene were collected and analyzed, respectively. Evidence was found that the bond making and breaking during this reaction are concerted processes in solutions, preferentially through a chairlike configuration. Water plays an important dynamic role that helps stabilize the transition sate, and the dipole-dipole interaction between water and the solute also lowers the transition barrier. The calculated rate coefficient is consistent with the experimental measurement. Compared with water, the reaction pathway in toluene is "narrower" and the reaction rate is slower by almost three orders of magnitude due to the absence of proper interactions to stabilize the transition state. This study suggests that the "in-water" nature of the Claisen rearrangement in aqueous solution influences its thermodynamics, kinetics, as well as dynamics. PMID:26485567

Background and purpose : Chemistry examinations can favour the deployment of algorithmic procedures like Le Chatelier's Principle (LCP) rather than reasoning using chemical principles. This study investigated the explanatory resources which high school students use to answer equilibrium problems and whether the marks given for examination answers require students to use approaches beyond direct application of LCP. Sample : The questionnaire was administered to 162 students studying their first year of advanced chemistry (age 16/17) in three high achieving London high schools. Design and methods : The students' explanations of reversible chemical systems were inductively coded to identify the explanatory approaches used and interviews with 13 students were used to check for consistency. AS level examination questions on reversible reactions were analysed to identify the types of explanations sought and the students' performance in these examinations was compared to questionnaire answers. Results : 19% of students used a holistic explanatory approach: when the rates of forward and reverse reactions are correctly described, recognising their simultaneous and mutually dependent nature. 36% used a mirrored reactions approach when the connected nature of the forward and reverse reactions is identified, but not their mutual dependency. 42% failed to recognize the interdependence of forward and reverse reactions (reactions not connected approach). Only 4% of marks for AS examination questions on reversible chemical systems asked for responses which went beyond either direct application of LCP or recall of equilibrium knowledge. 37% of students attained an A grade in their AS national examinations. Conclusions : Examinations favour the application of LCP making it possible to obtain the highest grade with little understanding of reversible chemical systems beyond a direct application of this algorithm. Therefore students' understanding may be attenuated so that they are

Motivated by the study of rare events for a typical genetic switching model in systems biology, in this paper we aim to establish the general two-scale large deviations for chemicalreaction systems. We build a formal approach to explicitly obtain the large deviation rate functionals for the considered two-scale processes based upon the second quantization path integral technique. We get three important types of large deviation results when the underlying two timescales are in three different regimes. This is realized by singular perturbation analysis to the rate functionals obtained by the path integral. We find that the three regimes possess the same deterministic mean-field limit but completely different chemical Langevin approximations. The obtained results are natural extensions of the classical large volume limit for chemicalreactions. We also discuss its implication on the single-molecule Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Our framework and results can be applied to understand general multi-scale systems including diffusion processes.

The use of STM to study chemicalreactions has been hampered by the general inability to identify molecules and molecular fragments on surfaces. By combining the ability of the STM to probe local electronic structure with systematic study as a function of temperature and concepts from coordination chemistry, a priori chemical identification can be achieved, and this information can be used to elucidate new information about the mechanisms of chemicalreactions. On silicon, this approach has been applied to study the decomposition of disilane, phosphine, and diborane. On metals, the delocalized bonding necessitates different approaches. We have also applied STM and tunneling spectroscopy to study the adsorption and decomposition of thiophene and related molecules on Ag(111) surfaces at 120 Kelvin. Here, voltage-dependent STM imaging is used to identify the rotational orientation of the molecules and to study polymerization at the molecular level. Methodologies for molecular identification will be discussed, with recent applications on semiconductors and metals.

A general chemical kinetics program is described for complex, homogeneous ideal-gas reactions in any chemical system. Its main features are flexibility and convenience in treating many different reaction conditions. The program solves numerically the differential equations describing complex reaction in either a static system or one-dimensional inviscid flow. Applications include ignition and combustion, shock wave reactions, and general reactions in a flowing or static system. An implicit numerical solution method is used which works efficiently for the extreme conditions of a very slow or a very fast reaction. The theory is described, and the computer program and users' manual are included.

Chemicalreactions at high temperatures have been considered extensively because of their importance to the heating effects on re-entry of space vehicles. Data on these reactions however, are not abundant and even when found there are discrepancies in data collected by various investigators. In particular, data for recombination reactions are calculated from the dissociation reactions or vice versa through the equilibrium constant. This involves the use of the principle of detailed balancing. This principle is discussed in reference to conditions where it is valid as well as to those where it is not valid. Related topics that merit further study or for which applicable information was available are briefly mentioned in an appendix to this report.

The ab initio prediction of reaction rate constants for systems with hundreds of atoms with an accuracy that is comparable to experiment is a challenge for computational quantum chemistry. We present a divide-and-conquer strategy that departs from the potential energy surfaces obtained by standard density functional theory with inclusion of dispersion. The energies of the reactant and transition structures are refined by wavefunction-type calculations for the reaction site. Thermal effects and entropies are calculated from vibrational partition functions, and the anharmonic frequencies are calculated separately for each vibrational mode. This method is applied to a key reaction of an industrially relevant catalytic process, the methylation of small alkenes over zeolites. The calculated reaction rate constants (free energies), pre-exponential factors (entropies), and enthalpy barriers show that our computational strategy yields results that agree with experiment within chemical accuracy limits (less than one order of magnitude). PMID:27008460

Work is described that was designed to determine the kinetic constants necessary to extrapolate kinetic data on Li/SOCl2 cells over the temperature range from 25 to 75 C. A second objective was to characterize as far as possible the chemicalreactions that occur in the cells since these reactions may be important in understanding the potential hazards of these cells. The kinetics of the corrosion processes in undischarged Li/SOCl2 cells were determined and separated according to their occurrence at the anode and cathode; the effects that switching the current on and off has on the corrosion reactions was determined; and the effects of discharge state on the kinetics of the corrosion process were found. A thermodynamic analysis of the current-producing reactions in the cell was done and is included.

The rate of heating which occurs in the middle atmosphere due to four exothermic reactions involving members of the odd-hydrogen family is calculated. The following reactions are considered: O + OH yields O2 + H; H + O2 + M yields HO2 + M; H + O3 yields OH + O2; and O + HO2 yields OH + O2. It is shown that the heating rates due to these reactions rival the oxygen-related heating rates conventionally considered in middle-atmosphere models. The conversion of chemical potential energy into molecular translational energy (heat) by these odd-hydrogen reactions is shown to be a significant energy source in the middle atmosphere that has not been previously considered.

The present invention is a method and apparatus (vessel) for providing a heat transfer rate from a reaction chamber through a wall to a heat transfer chamber substantially matching a local heat transfer rate of a catalytic thermal chemicalreaction. The key to the invention is a thermal distance defined on a cross sectional plane through the vessel inclusive of a heat transfer chamber, reaction chamber and a wall between the chambers. The cross sectional plane is perpendicular to a bulk flow direction of the reactant stream, and the thermal distance is a distance between a coolest position and a hottest position on the cross sectional plane. The thermal distance is of a length wherein the heat transfer rate from the reaction chamber to the heat transfer chamber substantially matches the local heat transfer rate.

Abstract The ab initio prediction of reaction rate constants for systems with hundreds of atoms with an accuracy that is comparable to experiment is a challenge for computational quantum chemistry. We present a divide‐and‐conquer strategy that departs from the potential energy surfaces obtained by standard density functional theory with inclusion of dispersion. The energies of the reactant and transition structures are refined by wavefunction‐type calculations for the reaction site. Thermal effects and entropies are calculated from vibrational partition functions, and the anharmonic frequencies are calculated separately for each vibrational mode. This method is applied to a key reaction of an industrially relevant catalytic process, the methylation of small alkenes over zeolites. The calculated reaction rate constants (free energies), pre‐exponential factors (entropies), and enthalpy barriers show that our computational strategy yields results that agree with experiment within chemical accuracy limits (less than one order of magnitude). PMID:27008460

The rates of mass transfer from a gas bubble to an impinging flow of a biological fluid such as whole blood and plasma are investigated analytically and experimentally. Gases commonly found dissolved in body fluids are included. Consideration is given to the effects of the chemicalreaction between the dissolved gas and the liquid on the rate of mass transfer. Through the application of boundary layer theory the over-all transfer is found to be Sh/(Re)1/2 = 0.845 Sc1/3 in the absence of chemicalreaction, and Sh/(Re) 1/2 = F′ (0) in the presence of chemicalreaction, where Sh, Re, and Sc are the Sherwood, Reynolds, and Schmidt numbers, respectively, and F′ (0) is a function of Sc and the dimensionless reaction rate constant. Analytical results are also obtained for the bubble lifetime and the bubble radius-time history. These results, which are not incompatible with experimental results, can be applied to predict the dissolution of the entrapped gas emboli in the circulatory system of the human body. PMID:4642218

This investigation concerns the initial chemicalreactions that affect the ionization of matrixes in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). The study focuses on the relaxations of photon energy that occur on a comparable time scale to that of ionization, in which the available laser energy is shared and the ionization condition is changed. The relaxations include fluorescence, fragmentation, and nonradiative relaxation from the excited state to the ground state. With high absorption cross section and long excited-state lifetime, photoionization of matrix plays an important role if sufficient laser energy is used. Under other conditions, thermal ionization of the molecule in the ground state is predicted to be one of the important reactions. Evidence of change in the branching ratio of initial reactions with the matrix and the excitation wavelength was obtained with α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid, sinapinic acid, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and 2,4,6-trihydroxyacetophenone. These matrixes are studied by obtaining their mixed crystal absorption spectra, fluorescence properties, laser-induced infrared emission, and product ions. The exact ionization pathway depends on the chemical properties of matrixes and the excitation conditions. This concept may explain the diversity of experimental results observed in MALDI experiments, which provides an insight into the ensemble of chemicalreactions that govern the generation of ions. PMID:22799495

This report presents a summary of the research work accomplished to date on the utilization of solar photo-thermal energy to convert low cost chemical feedstocks into high $-value chemical products. The rationale is that the solar IR-VIS-UV spectrum is unique, supplying endothermic reaction energy as well as VIS-UV for photochemical activation. Chemical market analysis and product price distribution focused attention on speciality chemicals with prices >$1.00/lb, and a synthesis sequence of n-paraffins to aromatics to partial oxidized products. The experimental work has demonstrated that enhanced reaction effects result from VIS-UV irradiation of catalytically active V2O5/SiO2. Experiments of the past year have been on dehydrogenation and dehydrocyclization of n-paraffins to olefins and aromatics with preference for the latter. Recent results using n-hexane produced 95% conversion with 56% benzene; it is speculated that aromatic yield should reach {approximately}70% by further optimization. Pilot- and commercial-scale reactor configurations have been examined; the odds-on-favorite being a shallow fluid-bed of catalyst with incident radiation from the top. Sequencing for maximum cost effectiveness would be day-time endothermic followed by night-time exothermic reactions to produce the products.

This is a report describing the modifications which have been made to the heat flow code TOPAZ to allow the inclusion of thermally controlled chemical kinetics. This report is broken into parts. The first part is an introduction to the general assumptions and theoretical underpinning that were used to develop the model. The second section describes the changes that have been implemented into the code. The third section is the users manual for the input for the code. The fourth section is a compilation of hints, common errors, and things to be aware of while you are getting started. The fifth section gives a sample problem using the new code. This manual addenda is written with the presumption that most readers are not fluent with chemical concepts. Therefore, we shall in this section endeavor to describe the requirements that must be met before chemistry can occur and how we have modeled the chemistry in the code.

The nature of chemical bonds on dynamic paths was investigated using the complete active space valence-bond (CASVB) method and the Born-Oppenheimer dynamics. To extract the chemical bond picture during reactions, a scheme to collect contributions from several VB (resonance) structures into a small numbers of indices was introduced. In this scheme, a tree diagram for the VB structures is constructed with the numbers of the ionic bonds treated as generation. A pair of VB structures is related to each other if one VB structure is transferred into the other by changing a covalent bond to an ionic bond. The former and latter VB structures are named parent and child structures, respectively. The weights of the bond pictures are computed as the sum of the CASVB occupation numbers running from the top generation to the bottom along the descent of the VB structures. Thus, a number of CASVB occupation numbers are collected into a small number of indices, and a clear bond picture may be obtained from the CASVB wave function. The scheme was applied to the hydrogen exchange reaction H2+F→H+HF and the Diels-Alder reaction C5H6(cyclopentadiene)+CH2=CH2(ethylene)→C7H10(norbornene). In both the reactions, the scheme gave a clear picture for the Born-Oppenheimer dynamics trajectories. The reconstruction of the bonds during reactions was well described by following the temporal changes in weight.

Experiments in St. Kevin Gulch, an acid mine drainage stream, examined the coupling of hydrologic transport to chemicalreactions affecting metal concentrations. Injection of LiCl as a conservative tracer was used to determine discharge and residence time along a 1497-m reach. Transport of metals downstream from inflows of acidic, metal-rich water was evaluated based on synoptic samples of metal concentrations and the hydrologic characteristics of the stream. Transport of SO4 and Mn was generally conservative, but in the subreaches most affected by acidic inflows, transport was reactive. Both 0.1-??m filtered and particulate Fe were reactive over most of the stream reach. Filtered Al partitioned to the particulate phase in response to high instream concentrations. Simulations that accounted for the removal of SO4, Mn, Fe, and Al with first-order reactions reproduced the steady-state profiles. The calculated rate constants for net removal used in the simulations embody several processes that occur on a stream-reach scale. The comparison between rates of hydrologie transport and chemicalreactions indicates that reactions are only important over short distances in the stream near the acidic inflows, where reactions occur on a comparable time scale with hydrologic transport and thus affect metal concentrations.

For the equilibrium reaction having a gaseous phase, there is established the equation of the isoconversion curve Kx = constant, with variables of pressure and temperature: ln P (atm) = -ln Kx/Delta n -Delta G°T/Delta nRT where Delta G°T is the function of Gibbs for the chemicalreaction at the temperature T and pressure p = 1 atm: Delta G°T = Delta H°T -TDelta G°T For the special case of Kx = 1 (or APT = 0) there is obtained "the curve of normal null affinity". This curve divides the plane ln P- T into two regions. On one side of the curve AP,T > 0, Kx > 1, and the reaction is thermodynamically possible; on the other side, APT < 0, 0reaction does not take place. Also discussed are the particularities of these curves for 12 kinds of thermodynamic chemicalreactions which are taken in a multivariant or monvariant system.

The effective Hamiltonian-molecular orbital and valence bond (EH-MOVB) method based on non-orthogonal block-localized fragment orbitals has been implemented into the program CHARMM for molecular dynamics simulations of chemical and enzymatic reactions, making use of semiempirical quantum mechanical models. Building upon ab initio MOVB theory, we make use of two parameters in the EH-MOVB method to fit the barrier height and the relative energy between the reactant and product state for a given chemicalreaction to be in agreement with experiment or high-level ab initio or density functional results. Consequently, the EH-MOVB method provides a highly accurate and computationally efficient QM/MM model for dynamics simulation of chemicalreactions in solution. The EH-MOVB method is illustrated by examination of the potential energy surface of the hydride transfer reaction from trimethylamine to a flavin cofactor model in the gas phase. In the present study, we employed the semiempirical AM1 model, which yields a reaction barrier that is more than 5 kcal/mol too high. We use a parameter calibration procedure for the EH-MOVB method similar to that employed to adjust the results of semiempirical and empirical models. Thus, the relative energy of these two diabatic states can be shifted to reproduce the experimental energy of reaction, and the barrier height is optimized to reproduce the desired (accurate) value by adding a constant to the off-diagonal matrix element. The present EH-MOVB method offers a viable approach to characterizing solvent and protein-reorganization effects in the realm of combined QM/MM simulations. PMID:20694172

The chemical functionality within porous architectures dictates their performance as heterogeneous catalysts; however, synthetic routes to control the spatial distribution of individual functions within porous solids are limited. Here we report the fabrication of spatially orthogonal bifunctional porous catalysts, through the stepwise template removal and chemical functionalization of an interconnected silica framework. Selective removal of polystyrene nanosphere templates from a lyotropic liquid crystal-templated silica sol-gel matrix, followed by extraction of the liquid crystal template, affords a hierarchical macroporous-mesoporous architecture. Decoupling of the individual template extractions allows independent functionalization of macropore and mesopore networks on the basis of chemical and/or size specificity. Spatial compartmentalization of, and directed molecular transport between, chemical functionalities affords control over the reaction sequence in catalytic cascades; herein illustrated by the Pd/Pt-catalysed oxidation of cinnamyl alcohol to cinnamic acid. We anticipate that our methodology will prompt further design of multifunctional materials comprising spatially compartmentalized functions.

Pure coupons of chemically vapor deposited (CVD) SiC were oxidized for 100 h in dry flowing oxygen at 1300 C. The oxidation kinetics were monitored using thermogravimetry (TGA). The experiments were first performed using high-purity alumina reaction tubes. The experiments were then repeated using fused quartz reaction tubes. Differences in oxidation kinetics, scale composition, and scale morphology were observed. These differences were attributed to impurities in the alumina tubes. Investigators interested in high-temperature oxidation of silica formers should be aware that high-purity alumina can have significant effects on experiment results.

A parameterized reaction mechanism has been created to examine the interactions between isoprene and other tropospheric gas-phase chemicals. Tests of the parameterization have shown that its results match those of a more complex reaction set to a high degree of accuracy. Comparisons between test runs have shown that the presence of isoprene at the start of a six day interval can enhance later ozone concentrations by as much as twenty-nine percent. The test cases used no input fluxes beyond the initial time, implying that a single input of a biogenic hydrocarbon to an airmass can alter its ozone chemistry over a time scale on the order of a week.

Computed potential energy surfaces are often required for computation of such observables as rate constants as a function of temperature, product branching ratios, and other detailed properties. We have found that computation of the stationary points/reaction pathways using CASSCF/derivative methods, followed by use of the internally contracted CI method with the Dunning correlation consistent basis sets to obtain accurate energetics, gives useful results for a number of chemically important systems. Applications to complex reactions leading to NO and soot formation in hydrocarbon combustion are discussed.

The motivations for the research issues addressed in this thesis are based on the needs of the aerospace structural analysis and the design community. The specific focus is related to the characterization and shock induced chemicalreactions of multi-functional structural-energetic materials that are also known as the reactive structural materials and their reaction capabilities. Usually motivation for selection of aerospace structural materials is to realize required strength characteristics and favorable strength to weight ratios. The term strength implies resistance to loads experienced during the service life of the structure, including resistance to fatigue loads, corrosion and other extreme conditions. Thus, basically the structural materials are single function materials that resist loads experienced during the service life of the structure. However, it is desirable to select materials that are capable of offering more than one basic function of strength. Very often, the second function is the capability to provide functions of sensing and actuation. In this thesis, the second function is different. The second function is the energetic characteristics. Thus, the choice of dual functions of the material are the structural characteristics and energetic characteristics. These materials are also known by other names such as the reactive material structures or dual functional structural energetic materials. Specifically the selected reactive materials include mixtures of selected metals and metal oxides that are also known as thermite mixtures, reacting intermetallic combinations and oxidizing materials. There are several techniques that are available to synthesize these structural energetic materials or reactive material structures and new synthesis techniques constitute an open research area. The focus of this thesis, however, is the characterization of chemicalreactions of reactive material structures that involve two or more solids (or condensed matter). The

The patent literature is a rich catalog of biologically relevant chemicals; many public and commercial molecular databases contain the structures disclosed in patent claims. However, patents are an equally rich source of metadata about bioactive molecules, including mechanism of action, disease class, homologous experimental series, structural alternatives, or the synthetic pathways used to produce molecules of interest. Unfortunately, this metadata is discarded when chemical structures are deposited separately in databases. SCRIPDB is a chemical structure database designed to make this metadata accessible. SCRIPDB provides the full original patent text, reactions and relationships described within any individual patent, in addition to the molecular files common to structural databases. We discuss how such information is valuable in medical text mining, chemical image analysis, reaction extraction and in silico pharmaceutical lead optimization. SCRIPDB may be searched by exact chemical structure, substructure or molecular similarity and the results may be restricted to patents describing synthetic routes. SCRIPDB is available at http://dcv.uhnres.utoronto.ca/SCRIPDB. PMID:22067445

The patent literature is a rich catalog of biologically relevant chemicals; many public and commercial molecular databases contain the structures disclosed in patent claims. However, patents are an equally rich source of metadata about bioactive molecules, including mechanism of action, disease class, homologous experimental series, structural alternatives, or the synthetic pathways used to produce molecules of interest. Unfortunately, this metadata is discarded when chemical structures are deposited separately in databases. SCRIPDB is a chemical structure database designed to make this metadata accessible. SCRIPDB provides the full original patent text, reactions and relationships described within any individual patent, in addition to the molecular files common to structural databases. We discuss how such information is valuable in medical text mining, chemical image analysis, reaction extraction and in silico pharmaceutical lead optimization. SCRIPDB may be searched by exact chemical structure, substructure or molecular similarity and the results may be restricted to patents describing synthetic routes. SCRIPDB is available at http://dcv.uhnres.utoronto.ca/SCRIPDB. PMID:22067445

We review studies of molecular interactions and chemicalreactions at metal surfaces, emphasizing progress toward a predictive theory of surface chemistry and catalysis. For chemistry at metal surfaces, a small number of central approximations are typically made: (a) the Born-Oppenheimer approximation of electronic adiabaticity, (b) the use of density functional theory at the generalized gradient approximation level, (c) the classical approximation for nuclear motion, and (d) various reduced-dimensionality approximations. Together, these approximations constitute a provisional model for surface chemical reactivity. We review work on some carefully studied examples of molecules interacting at metal surfaces that probe the validity of various aspects of the provisional model.

We review studies of molecular interactions and chemicalreactions at metal surfaces, emphasizing progress toward a predictive theory of surface chemistry and catalysis. For chemistry at metal surfaces, a small number of central approximations are typically made: (a) the Born-Oppenheimer approximation of electronic adiabaticity, (b) the use of density functional theory at the generalized gradient approximation level, (c) the classical approximation for nuclear motion, and (d) various reduced-dimensionality approximations. Together, these approximations constitute a provisional model for surface chemical reactivity. We review work on some carefully studied examples of molecules interacting at metal surfaces that probe the validity of various aspects of the provisional model. PMID:25580627

A model system is presented that takes into account the main physical and chemical processes on the regional scale here in an area of 100x100 sq km. The horizontal gridsize used is 2x2 sq km. For a case study, it is demonstrated how the model system can be used to separate the contributions of the processes advection, turbulent diffusion, and chemicalreactions to the diurnal cycle of ozone. In this way, typical features which are visible in observations and are reproduced by the numerical simulations can be interpreted.

Phenolic compounds, which are released in significant amounts from biomass burning, may undergo fast aqueous-phase reactions to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) in the atmosphere. Understanding the aqueous-phase reaction mechanisms of these compounds and the composition of their reaction products is thus important for constraining SOA sources and predicting organic aerosol properties in models. In this study, we investigate the aqueous-phase reactions of three phenols (phenol, guaiacol and syringol) with two oxidants - excited triplet states (3C*) of non-phenolic aromatic carbonyls and hydroxyl radical (OH). By employing four analytical methods including high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, total organic carbon analysis, ion chromatography, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we thoroughly characterize the chemical compositions of the low volatility reaction products of phenols and propose formation mechanisms based on this information. Our results indicate that phenolic SOA is highly oxygenated, with O/C ratios in the range of 0.83-1.03, and that the SOA of phenol is usually more oxidized than those of guaiacol and syringol. Among the three precursors, syringol generates the largest fraction of higher molecular weight (MW) products. For the same precursor, the SOA formed via reaction with 3C* is less oxidized than that formed via reaction with OH. In addition, oxidation by 3C* enhances the formation of higher MW species, including phenolic dimers, higher oligomers and hydroxylated products, compared to reactions initiated by OH, which appear to favor the formation of organic acids. However, our results indicate that the yields of small organic acids (e.g., formate, acetate, oxalate, and malate) are low for both reaction pathways, together accounting for less than 5% of total SOA mass.

We found a rotating global structure induced by the dynamical force of local chemical activity in a thin solution layer of excitable Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction coupled with diffusion. The surface flow and deformation associated with chemical spiral waves (wavelength about 1 mm) represents a global unidirectional structure and a global tilt in the entire Petri dish (100 mm in diameter), respectively. For these observations, we scanned the condition of hierarchal pattern selection. From this result, the bromomalonic acid has an important role to induce the rotating global structure. An interaction between a reaction-diffusion process and a surface-tension-driven effect leads to such hierarchal pattern with different scales. PMID:19658764

Chemicalreactions at the ferromagnet/oxide interface in [Pt/Fe]{sub 3}/MgO and [Pt/Fe]{sub 3}/SiO{sub 2} multilayers before and after annealing were investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results show that Fe atoms at the Fe/MgO interface were completely oxidized in the as-grown state and significantly deoxidized after vacuum annealing. However, only some of the Fe atoms at the Fe/SiO{sub 2} interface were oxidized and rarely deoxidized after annealing. The anomalous Hall effect was modified by this interfacial chemicalreaction. The saturation anomalous Hall resistance (R{sub xy}) was greatly increased in the [Pt/Fe]{sub 3}/MgO multilayers after annealing and was 350% higher than that in the as-deposited film, while R{sub xy} of the [Pt/Fe]{sub 3}/SiO{sub 2} multilayer only increased 10% after annealing.

An acid-functionalized polyolefin material that can be used as an acid catalyst in a wide range of acid-promoted chemicalreactions, wherein the acid-functionalized polyolefin material includes a polyolefin backbone on which acid groups are appended. Also described is a method for the preparation of the acid catalyst in which a precursor polyolefin is subjected to ionizing radiation (e.g., electron beam irradiation) of sufficient power and the irradiated precursor polyolefin reacted with at least one vinyl monomer having an acid group thereon. Further described is a method for conducting an acid-promoted chemicalreaction, wherein an acid-reactive organic precursor is contacted in liquid form with a solid heterogeneous acid catalyst comprising a polyolefin backbone of at least 1 micron in one dimension and having carboxylic acid groups and either sulfonic acid or phosphoric acid groups appended thereto.

The introduction of femto-chemistry has made it a primary goal to follow the nuclear and electronic evolution of a molecule in time and space as it undergoes a chemicalreaction. Using Coulomb Explosion Imaging, we have shot the first high-resolution molecular movie of a to and fro isomerization process in the acetylene cation. So far, this kind of phenomenon could only be observed using vacuum ultraviolet light from a free-electron laser. Here we show that 266 nm ultrashort laser pulses are capable of initiating rich dynamics through multiphoton ionization. With our generally applicable tabletop approach that can be used for other small organic molecules, we have investigated two basic chemicalreactions simultaneously: proton migration and C=C bond breaking, triggered by multiphoton ionization. The experimental results are in excellent agreement with the timescales and relaxation pathways predicted by new and quantitative ab initio trajectory simulations. PMID:25034613

The introduction of femto-chemistry has made it a primary goal to follow the nuclear and electronic evolution of a molecule in time and space as it undergoes a chemicalreaction. Using Coulomb Explosion Imaging, we have shot the first high-resolution molecular movie of a to and fro isomerization process in the acetylene cation. So far, this kind of phenomenon could only be observed using vacuum ultraviolet light from a free-electron laser. Here we show that 266 nm ultrashort laser pulses are capable of initiating rich dynamics through multiphoton ionization. With our generally applicable tabletop approach that can be used for other small organic molecules, we have investigated two basic chemicalreactions simultaneously: proton migration and C=C bond breaking, triggered by multiphoton ionization. The experimental results are in excellent agreement with the timescales and relaxation pathways predicted by new and quantitative ab initio trajectory simulations.

Direct detection of hot electrons generated by exothermic surface reactions on nanocatalysts is an effective strategy to obtain insight into electronic excitation during chemicalreactions. For this purpose, we fabricated a novel catalytic nanodiode based on a Schottky junction between a single layer of graphene and an n-type TiO2 layer that enables the detection of hot electron flows produced by hydrogen oxidation on Pt nanoparticles. By making a comparative analysis of data obtained from measuring the hot electron current (chemicurrent) and turnover frequency, we demonstrate that graphene's unique electronic structure and extraordinary material properties, including its atomically thin nature and ballistic electron transport, allow improved conductivity at the interface between the catalytic Pt nanoparticles and the support. Thereby, graphene-based nanodiodes offer an effective and facile way to approach the study of chemical energy conversion mechanisms in composite catalysts with carbon-based supports. PMID:26910271

The study of heterogeneous catalytic reactions remains a major challenge because it involves a complex network of reaction steps with various intermediates. If the vibrational spectra of individual molecules could be monitored in real time, one could characterize the structures of the intermediates and the time scales of reaction steps without ensemble averaging. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy does provide vibrational spectra with single-molecule sensitivity, but typical single-molecule SERS signals exhibit spatial heterogeneities and temporal fluctuations, making them difficult to be used in single-molecule kinetics studies. Here we show that SERS can monitor the single-molecule catalytic reactions in real time. The surface-immobilized reactants placed at the junctions of well-defined nanoparticle-thin film structures produce time-resolved SERS spectra with discrete, step-transitions of photoproducts. We interpret that such SERS-steps correspond to the reaction events of individual molecules occurring at the SERS hotspot. The analyses of the yield, dynamics, and the magnitude of such SERS steps, along with the associated spectral characteristics, fully support our claim. In addition, a model that is based on plasmonic field enhancement and surface photochemistry reproduces the key features of experimental observation. Overall, the result demonstrates that it is possible, under well-controlled conditions, to differentiate the chemical and physical processes contributing to the single-molecule SERS signals, and thus shows the use of single-molecule SERS as a tool for studying the metal-catalyzed organic reactions. PMID:26964567

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), a complex flavoprotein, catalyzes the metabolic reactions leading from hypoxanthine to xanthine and from xanthine to urate, and both reactions take place at the molybdenum cofactor. The enzyme is a target of drugs for therapy of gout or hyperuricemia. We review the chemical nature and reaction mechanisms of the molybdenum cofactor of XOR, focusing on molybdenum-dependent reactions of actual or potential medical importance, including nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. It is now generally accepted that XOR transfers the water-exchangeable -OH ligand of the molybdenum atom to the substrate. The hydroxyl group at OH-Mo(IV) can be replaced by urate, oxipurinol and FYX-051 derivatives and the structures of these complexes have been determined by xray crystallography under anaerobic conditions. Although formation of NO from nitrite or formation of xanthine from urate by XOR ischemically feasible, it is not yet clear whether these reactions have any physiological significance since the reactions are catalyzed at a slow rate even under anaerobic conditions. PMID:23116398

In many plasma simulations, ion-molecule reactions are modeled using ion energy independent reaction rate coefficients that are taken from low temperature selected-ion flow tube experiments. Only exothermic or nearly thermoneutral reactions are considered. This is appropriate for plasma applications such as high-density plasma sources in which sheaths are collisionless and ion temperatures 111 the bulk p!asma do not deviate significantly from the gas temperature. However, for applications at high pressure and large sheath voltages, this assumption does not hold as the sheaths are collisional and ions gain significant energy in the sheaths from Joule heating. Ion temperatures and thus reaction rates vary significantly across the discharge, and endothermic reactions become important in the sheaths. One such application is plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition of carbon nanotubes in which dc discharges are struck at pressures between 1-20 Torr with applied voltages in the range of 500-700 V. The present work investigates The importance of the inclusion of ion energy dependent ion-molecule reaction rates and the role of collision induced dissociation in generating radicals from the feedstock used in carbon nanotube growth.

As the superparamagnetic limit is reached, the magnetic storage industry looks to circumvent the barrier by implementing patterned media (PM) as a viable means to store and access data. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is a semiconductor fabrication technique used to planarize surfaces and is investigated as a method to ensure that the PM is polished to surface roughness parameters that allow the magnetic read/write head to move seamlessly across the PM. Results from this research have implications in feasibility studies of utilizing CMP as the main planarization technique for PM fabrication. Benchmark data on the output parameters of the CMP process, for bit patterned media (BPM), based on the machine process parameters, pad properties, and slurry characteristics are optimized. The research was conducted in a systematic manner in which the optimized parameters for each phase are utilized in future phases. The optimum results from each of the phases provide an overall optimum characterization for BPM CMP. Results on the CMP machine input parameters indicate that for optimal surface roughness and material removal, low polish pressures and high velocities should be used on the BPM. Pad characteristics were monitored by non destructive technique and results indicate much faster deterioration of all padcharacteristics versus polish time of BPM when compared to IC CMP. The optimum pad for PM polishing was the IC 1400 dual layer Suba V pad with a shore hardness of 57, and a k-groove pattern. The final phase of polishing evaluated the slurry polishing properties and novel nanodiamond (ND) slurry was created and benchmarked on BPM. The resulting CMP output parameters were monitored and neither the ND slurry nor the thermally responsive polymer slurry performed better than the commercially available Cabot iCue slurry for MRR or surface roughness. Research results indicate CMP is a feasible planarization technique for PM fabrication, but successful implementation of CMP

A microscale laboratory for teaching chemical kinetics utilizing the iodine clock reaction is described. Plastic pipets, 3 mL volume, are used to store and deliver precise drops of reagents and the reaction is run in a 24 well plastic tray using a total 60 drops of reagents. With this procedure, students determine the rate of reaction and the…

A laboratory experiment on the study of the chemical equilibrium based on the reaction between ferric and iodide ions in solution with the formation of ferrous ions, free iodine, and triiodide ions is developed. The total concentration of iodide and triiodide ions in the reaction mixture during the reaction is determined by the argentometric…

New laboratory experiments quantify the destabilising effect of a second-order chemicalreaction on the fingering instability of a diffusive boundary layer in a Hele-Shaw cell. We show that, for a given chemical system, the dynamics of such a reactive boundary layer is fully determined by two dimensionless groups, Da/Ra(2), which measures the timescale for convection compared to those for reaction and diffusion, and CBo', which reflects the excess of the environmental reactant species relative to the diffusing solute. Results of a systematic study varying CBo' in the range 0-0.1 are presented. It is shown that the chemicalreaction increases the growth rate of a perturbation and favours small wavelengths compared to the inert system. A higher concentration of CBo' not only accelerates the onset of convection, but crucially also increases the transport of the solute by up to 150% compared to the inert system. This increase in solute transfer has important practical implications, such as in the storage of carbon dioxide in saline aquifers. PMID:27510413

Characteristics of flow, mixing and chemicalreaction of two liquids in a thin gap (less than 1mm) are examined experimentally. The flow in a thin gap is formed in a Hele-Shaw cell, consisting of two parallel closely spaced glass plates. A less viscous liquid is injected at a constant volumetric flow rate into the cell that is filled with a more viscous liquid. Experiments are done varying the viscosities of liquids, the concentrations of reactants, the injection flow rate and the gap of the cell respectively. The viscosities of viscous liquids are varied by weight concentrations of water and glycerin. As reactants, Ferric Nitrate(‡V)(Fe(NO3)) is used for the more viscous liquid and Potassium Thiocyanate(KSCN) for the less one. (Chemicalreaction used in this study is as follows ; Fe3+(yellow)+KSCN(colorless)\\x81¨[FeSCN]2+(bloody red) ) Regions of reactants and product are identified by the difference of the colors of reactants and product. The images of the patterns of flow, mixing and chemicalreaction photographed by a video camera are analyzed. The region of product changes remarkably as the gap of the cell is decreased. Additional experimental results will be presented at the meeting.

The role of chemicalreactions is investigated versus the thermal and mechanical processes occurring in a polymer substrate during irradiation by a laser pulse and subsequent ablation. Molecular dynamics simulations with an embedded Monte Carlo based reaction scheme were used to study ultraviolet ablation of poly(methyl methacrylate) at 157 nm. We discuss the onset of ablation, the mechanisms leading to ablation, and the role of stress relaxation of the polymer matrix during ablation. Laser induced heating and chemical decomposition of the polymer substrate are considered as ablation pathways. It is shown that heating the substrate can set off ablation via mechanical failure of the material only for very short laser pulses. For longer pulses, the mechanism of ejection is thermally driven limited by the critical number of bonds broken in the substrate. Alternatively, if the photon energy goes towards direct bond breaking, it initiates chemicalreactions, polymer unzipping, and formation of gaseous products, leading to a nearly complete decomposition of the top layers of substrates. The ejection of small molecules has a hollowing out effect on the weakly connected substrates which can lead to lift-off of larger chunks. Excessive pressure buildup upon the creation of gaseous molecules does not lead to enhanced yield. The larger clusters are thermally ejected, and an entrainment of larger polymer fragments in gaseous molecules is not observed.

In this paper, we report a novel sample introduction and chemicalreaction strategy by drop-by-drop inkjet injection for an electrophoretically mediated microanalysis (EMMA). This method makes it possible to achieve an on-line introduction of reactant solutions by alternately ejecting small plugs, with an overlapping region of the plugs for mixing the reactants by electrophoresis, supporting chemicalreactions, followed by electrophoretic separation of the final compounds. As a proof-of-concept of the method, the EMMA of an inkjetted mixture of 4-fluoro-7-nitrobenzofurazan (NBD-F) and amino acids was carried out as a model chemicalreaction. The product NBD-amino acids were quantified by detection with laser induced fluorescence. The optimal conditions for the procedure were: inkjet driving voltage: +40-44 V; pulse width: 20-24 μs; drop-by-drop injection of reactant solutions: alternately 2 drops × 25 times for the amino acid solution and the NBD-F solution; zone overlapping voltage and time: 3 kV and 2 s; incubation time after overlapping: 5 min; separation voltage: 18 kV. Under the optimized conditions, a significant enhancement in sensitivity and a sensitive quantitative analysis were realized. The results obtained were comparable with those using the off-line labeling method. This method is rapid, cost-effective, and readily automated for EMMA. PMID:25728632

Using a laser-cooled ion trapping apparatus, we have investigated laser-induced chemicalreactions between cold trapped Ba+ ions and several neutral molecular gases at room temperature, O2 , CO2 , and N2O , leading to the production of cold trapped (≈20mK) BaO+ ions. The BaO+ ions were converted back to Ba+ ions via reaction with room-temperature CO. Reaction rates were determined by employing molecular dynamics simulations. The cold mixed-species ion ensembles produced were used for studying the efficiency of sympathetic cooling, by variation of the ratio of laser-cooled to sympathetically cooled ion numbers. In one extreme case, 20 laser-cooled Ba+138 ions were capable of maintaining the translational temperature of 120 sympathetically cooled barium isotopes (Ba+135-137) and 430 Ba16138O+ molecules at approximately 25mK .

A rapidly convergent successive approximation process is described that simultaneously determines both composition and temperature resulting from a chemicalreaction. This method is suitable for use with any set of reactants over the complete range of mixture ratios as long as the products of reaction are ideal gases. An approximate treatment of limited amounts of liquids and solids is also included. This method is particularly suited to problems having a large number of products of reaction and to problems that require determination of such properties as specific heat or velocity of sound of a dissociating mixture. The method presented is applicable to a wide variety of problems that include (1) combustion at constant pressure or volume; and (2) isentropic expansion to an assigned pressure, temperature, or Mach number. Tables of thermodynamic functions needed with this method are included for 42 substances for convenience in numerical computations.

Although important to heterogeneous catalysis, the ability to accurately model reactions of polyatomic molecules with metal surfaces has not kept pace with developments in gas phase dynamics. Partnering the specific reaction parameter (SRP) approach to density functional theory with ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) extends our ability to model reactions with metals with quantitative accuracy from only the lightest reactant, H2, to essentially all molecules. This is demonstrated with AIMD calculations on CHD3 + Ni(111) in which the SRP functional is fitted to supersonic beam experiments, and validated by showing that AIMD with the resulting functional reproduces initial-state selected sticking measurements with chemical accuracy (4.2 kJ/mol ≈ 1 kcal/mol). The need for only semilocal exchange makes our scheme computationally tractable for dissociation on transition metals. PMID:27284787

The return maps, as an element of mathematical phenomenology appropriate for general examinations of complex dynamic states of the oscillatory systems were used to detect and explain the evolution of mixed-mode oscillations and chaos in a six-dimensional nonlinear reaction system of the Bray-Liebhafsky (BL) reaction, a well-studied nonlinear chemicalreaction system that exhibits complex dynamic behavior. For this purpose principally different Poincaré sections were applied and different transition scenarios between periodic and aperiodic states were examined by numerical simulations. It is shown that emergence of new periodic patterns can be detected by return maps already within chaotic windows. Besides, we also show that the higher dimensionality of manifold gives the impression of having several layers of manifolds.

Although important to heterogeneous catalysis, the ability to accurately model reactions of polyatomic molecules with metal surfaces has not kept pace with developments in gas phase dynamics. Partnering the specific reaction parameter (SRP) approach to density functional theory with ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) extends our ability to model reactions with metals with quantitative accuracy from only the lightest reactant, H2, to essentially all molecules. This is demonstrated with AIMD calculations on CHD3 + Ni(111) in which the SRP functional is fitted to supersonic beam experiments, and validated by showing that AIMD with the resulting functional reproduces initial-state selected sticking measurements with chemical accuracy (4.2 kJ/mol ≈ 1 kcal/mol). The need for only semilocal exchange makes our scheme computationally tractable for dissociation on transition metals. PMID:27284787

Gillespie's direct method (DM) [D. Gillespie, J. Chem. Phys. 81, 2340 (1977)] for exact stochastic simulation of chemicalreaction systems has been widely adopted. It is easy to implement but requires large computation for relatively large systems. Recently, two more efficient methods, next reaction method (NRM) [M. A. Gibson and J. Bruck, J. Phys. Chem. A 105, 1876 (2000)] and optimized DM (ODM) [Y. Cao et al., J. Chem. Phys. 121, 4059 (2004)], have been developed to improve simulation speed. It has been demonstrated that the ODM is the state-of-the-art most efficient method for exact stochastic simulation of most practical reaction systems. In this paper, we first develop an exact stochastic simulation algorithm named ODMK that is more efficient than the ODM. We then develop an approximate method named K-skip method to further accelerate simulation. Using two chemicalreaction systems, we demonstrate that our ODMK and K-skip method can save 20%-30% and 70%-80% simulation time, respectively, comparing to the ODM. We also show that our ODMK and K-skip method provide almost the same simulation accuracy as the ODM. PMID:19691379

The Rate-Controlled Constrained-Equilibrium (RCCE) method is applied to study the interaction between mixing and chemicalreaction in a constant pressure Partially-Stirred Reactor (PaSR). The objective is to understand the influence of mixing on RCCE predictions. The RCCE is a computationally efficient method based on thermodynamics to implement the combustion chemistry. In the RCCE the dynamics of reacting systems is described by a small number of rate-controlling reactions and slowly-varying constraints. The method is applied to study methane combustion via 12 constraints and 133 reaction steps. Simulations are carried out over a wide range of initial temperatures and equivalence ratios. The RCCE predictions are assessed by comparing with those of detailed kinetics model, in which the same kinetics, involving 29 species and 133 reaction steps, is integrated directly. Chemical kinetics and mixing interactions are studied for different residence and mixing time scales. Results show that the RCCE accurately represents the effect of mixing with different mixing strengths. An assessment of numerical performance of the RCCE is also performed. It is shown that the method is effective to reduce the stiffness of the kinetics and thus allows simulations with much lower computation costs.

Imore » mperfect mixing is a concern in industrial processes, everyday processes (mixing paint, bread machines), and in understanding salt water-fresh water mixing in ecosystems. The effects of imperfect mixing become evident in the unstirred ferroin-catalyzed Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction, the prototype for chemical pattern formation. Over time, waves of oxidation (high ferriin concentration, blue) propagate into a background of low ferriin concentration (red); their structure reflects in part the history of mixing in the reaction vessel. However, it may be difficult to separate mixing effects from reaction effects. We describe a simpler model system for visualizing density-driven pattern formation in an essentially unmixed chemical system: the reaction of pale yellow Fe 3 + with colorless SCN − to form the blood-red Fe ( SCN ) 2 + complex ion in aqueous solution. Careful addition of one drop of Fe ( NO 3 ) 3 to KSCN yields striped patterns after several minutes. The patterns appear reminiscent of Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and convection rolls, arguing that pattern formation is caused by density-driven mixing.« less

A complex computing problem can be solved efficiently on a system with multiple computing nodes by dividing its implementation code into several parallel processing modules or tasks that can be formulated as directed acyclic graph (DAG) problems. The DAG jobs may be mapped to and scheduled on the computing nodes to minimize the total execution time. Searching an optimal DAG scheduling solution is considered to be NP-complete. This paper proposed a tuple molecular structure-based chemicalreaction optimization (TMSCRO) method for DAG scheduling on heterogeneous computing systems, based on a very recently proposed metaheuristic method, chemicalreaction optimization (CRO). Comparing with other CRO-based algorithms for DAG scheduling, the design of tuple reaction molecular structure and four elementary reaction operators of TMSCRO is more reasonable. TMSCRO also applies the concept of constrained critical paths (CCPs), constrained-critical-path directed acyclic graph (CCPDAG) and super molecule for accelerating convergence. In this paper, we have also conducted simulation experiments to verify the effectiveness and efficiency of TMSCRO upon a large set of randomly generated graphs and the graphs for real world problems. PMID:25143977

In the search for new bioactive compounds, there is a trend toward increasingly complex compound libraries aiming to target the demanding targets of the future. In contrast, medicinal chemistry and traditional library design rely mainly on a small set of highly established and robust reactions. Here, we probe a set of 58 such reactions for their ability to sample the chemical space of known bioactive molecules, and the potential to create new scaffolds. Combined with ~26,000 common available building blocks, the reactions retrieve around 9% of a scaffold-diverse set of compounds active on human target proteins covering all major pharmaceutical target classes. Almost 80% of generated scaffolds from virtual one-step synthesis products are not present in a large set of known bioactive molecules for human targets, indicating potential for new discoveries. The results suggest that established synthesis resources are well suited to cover the known bioactivity-relevant chemical space and that there are plenty of unexplored regions accessible by these reactions, possibly providing valuable "low-hanging fruit" for hit discovery. PMID:22512717

A consumer survey was organized in Spain and Belgium to obtain consumption data and to gain insight into consumer handling practices for fresh vegetables consumed raw or minimally processed (i.e., heads of leafy greens, bell peppers, tomatoes, fresh herbs, and precut and packed leafy greens) and fruits to be consumed without peeling (i.e., apples, grapes, strawberries, raspberries, other berries, fresh juices, and precut mixed fruit). This information can be used for microbiological and/or chemical food safety research. After extensive cleanup of rough databases for missing and extreme values and age correction, information from 583 respondents from Spain and 1,605 respondents from Belgium (18 to 65 years of age) was retained. Daily intake (grams per day) was calculated taking into account frequency and seasonality of consumption, and distributions were obtained that can be used in quantitative risk assessment for chemical hazards with chronic effects on human health. Data also were recalculated to obtain discrete distributions of consumption per portion and the corresponding frequency of consumption, which can be used in acute microbiological risk assessment or outbreak investigations. The ranked median daily consumption of fruits and vegetables was similar in Spain and Belgium: apple > strawberry > grapes > strawberries and raspberries; and tomatoes > leafy greens > bell peppers > fresh herbs. However, vegetable consumption was higher (in terms of both portion and frequency of consumption) in Spain than in Belgium, whereas the opposite was found for fruit consumption. Regarding consumer handling practices related to storage time and method, Belgian consumers less frequently stored their fresh produce in a refrigerator and did so for shorter times compared with Spanish consumers. Washing practices for lettuce heads and packed leafy greens also were different. The survey revealed differences between these two countries in consumption and consumer handling practices

Detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms are developed for combustion of all nine isomers of heptane (C{sub 7}H{sub 16}), and these mechanisms are tested by simulating autoignition of each isomer under rapid compression machine conditions. The reaction mechanisms focus on the manner in which the molecular structure of each isomer determines the rates and product distributions of possible classes of reactions. The reaction pathways emphasize the importance of alkylperoxy radical isomerizations and addition reactions of molecular oxygen to alkyl and hydroperoxyalkyl radicals. A new reaction group has been added to past models, in which hydroperoxyalkyl radicals that originated with abstraction of an H atom from a tertiary site in the parent heptane molecule are assigned new reaction sequences involving additional internal H atom abstractions not previously allowed. This process accelerates autoignition in fuels with tertiary C-H bonds in the parent fuel. In addition, the rates of hydroperoxyalkylperoxy radical isomerization reactions have all been reduced so that they are now equal to rates of analogous alkylperoxy radical isomerizations, significantly improving agreement between computed and experimental ignition delay times in the rapid compression machine. Computed ignition delay times agree well with experimental results in the few cases where experiments have been carried out for specific heptane isomers, and predictive model calculations are reported for the remaining isomers. The computed results fall into three general groups; the first consists of the most reactive isomers, including n-heptane, 2-methyl hexane and 3-methyl hexane. The second group consists of the least reactive isomers, including 2,2-dimethyl pentane, 3,3-dimethyl pentane, 2,3-dimethyl pentane, 2,4-dimethyl pentane and 2,2,3-trimethyl butane. The remaining isomer, 3-ethyl pentane, was observed computationally to have an intermediate level of reactivity. These observations are generally

The knowledge of reaction mechanism is very important in designing reactors for chemical-looping combustion (CLC) of coal. Recent CLC studies have considered the more technically difficult problem of reactions between abundant solid fuels (i.e. coal and waste streams) and solid metal oxides. A definitive reaction mechanism has not been reported for CLC reaction of solid fuels. It has often been assumed that the solid/solid reaction is slow and therefore requires that reactions be conducted at temperatures high enough to gasify the solid fuel, or decompose the metal oxide. In contrast, data presented in this paper demonstrates that solid/solid reactions can be completed at much lower temperatures, with rates that are technically useful as long as adequate fuel/metal oxide contact is achieved. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations as well as experimental techniques such as thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), flow reactor studies, in situ X-ray photo electron spectroscopy (XPS), in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are used to evaluate how the proximal interaction between solid phases proceeds. The data indicate that carbon induces the Cu-O bond breaking process to initiate the combustion of carbon at temperatures significantly lower than the spontaneous decomposition temperature of CuO, and the type of reducing medium in the vicinity of the metal oxide influences the temperature at which the oxygen release from the metal oxide takes place. Surface melting of Cu and wetting of carbon may contribute to the solid-solid contacts necessary for the reaction. (author)

Chemicalreaction rates must increasingly be determined in systems that evolve under the control of external stimuli. In these systems, when a reactant population is induced to cross an energy barrier through forcing from a temporally varying external field, the transition state that the reaction must pass through during the transformation from reactant to product is no longer a fixed geometric structure, but is instead time-dependent. For a periodically forced model reaction, we develop a recrossing-free dividing surface that is attached to a transition state trajectory [T. Bartsch, R. Hernandez, and T. Uzer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 058301 (2005)]. We have previously shown that for single-mode sinusoidal driving, the stability of the time-varying transition state directly determines the reaction rate [G. T. Craven, T. Bartsch, and R. Hernandez, J. Chem. Phys. 141, 041106 (2014)]. Here, we extend our previous work to the case of multi-mode driving waveforms. Excellent agreement is observed between the rates predicted by stability analysis and rates obtained through numerical calculation of the reactive flux. We also show that the optimal dividing surface and the resulting reaction rate for a reactive system driven by weak thermal noise can be approximated well using the transition state geometry of the underlying deterministic system. This agreement persists as long as the thermal driving strength is less than the order of that of the periodic driving. The power of this result is its simplicity. The surprising accuracy of the time-dependent noise-free geometry for obtaining transition state theory rates in chemicalreactions driven by periodic fields reveals the dynamics without requiring the cost of brute-force calculations. PMID:25702003

Chemicalreaction rates must increasingly be determined in systems that evolve under the control of external stimuli. In these systems, when a reactant population is induced to cross an energy barrier through forcing from a temporally varying external field, the transition state that the reaction must pass through during the transformation from reactant to product is no longer a fixed geometric structure, but is instead time-dependent. For a periodically forced model reaction, we develop a recrossing-free dividing surface that is attached to a transition state trajectory [T. Bartsch, R. Hernandez, and T. Uzer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 058301 (2005)]. We have previously shown that for single-mode sinusoidal driving, the stability of the time-varying transition state directly determines the reaction rate [G. T. Craven, T. Bartsch, and R. Hernandez, J. Chem. Phys. 141, 041106 (2014)]. Here, we extend our previous work to the case of multi-mode driving waveforms. Excellent agreement is observed between the rates predicted by stability analysis and rates obtained through numerical calculation of the reactive flux. We also show that the optimal dividing surface and the resulting reaction rate for a reactive system driven by weak thermal noise can be approximated well using the transition state geometry of the underlying deterministic system. This agreement persists as long as the thermal driving strength is less than the order of that of the periodic driving. The power of this result is its simplicity. The surprising accuracy of the time-dependent noise-free geometry for obtaining transition state theory rates in chemicalreactions driven by periodic fields reveals the dynamics without requiring the cost of brute-force calculations.

Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels has been a very challenging scientific and engineering problem due to the complexity of turbulent flows and hydrocarbon reaction kinetics. There is an urgent need to develop an efficient modeling capability to accurately predict the combustion of complex fuels. Detailed chemical kinetic models for the surrogates of fuels such as gasoline, diesel and JP-8 consist of thousands of chemical species and Arrhenius reaction steps. Oxygenated fuels such as bio-fuels and heavier hydrocarbons, such as from newer fossil fuel sources, are expected to have a much more complex chemistry requiring increasingly larger chemical kinetic models. Such models are beyond current computational capability, except for homogeneous or partially stirred reactor type calculations. The advent of highly parallel multi-core processors and graphical processing units (GPUs) promises a steep increase in computational performance in the coming years. This paper will present a software framework that translates the detailed chemical kinetic models to high-performance code targeted for GPU accelerators.

Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels has been a very challenging scientific and engineering problem due to the complexity of turbulent flows and hydrocarbon reaction kinetics. There is an urgent need to develop an efficient modeling capability to accurately predict the combustion of complex fuels. Detailed chemical kinetic models for the surrogates of fuels such as gasoline, diesel and JP-8 consist of thousands of chemical species and Arrhenius reaction steps. Oxygenated fuels such as bio-fuels and heavier hydrocarbons, such as from newer fossil fuel sources, are expected to have a much more complex chemistry requiring increasingly larger chemical kinetic models. Such models are beyond current computational capability, except for homogeneous or partially stirred reactor type calculations. The advent of highly parallel multi-core processors and graphical processing units (GPUs) promises a steep increase in computational performance in the coming years. This paper will present a software framework that translates the detailed chemical kinetic models to high- performance code targeted for GPU accelerators.

The method of characteristics for a chemically reacting gas is used in the construction of the time-dependent, one-dimensional flow field resulting from the normal reflection of an incident shock wave at the end wall of a shock tube. Nonequilibrium chemicalreactions are allowed behind both the incident and reflected shock waves. All the solutions are evaluated for oxygen, but the results are generally representative of any inviscid, nonconducting, and nonradiating diatomic gas. The solutions clearly show that: (1) both the incident- and reflected-shock chemical relaxation times are important in governing the time to attain steady state thermodynamic properties; and (2) adjacent to the end wall, an excess-entropy layer develops wherein the steady state values of all the thermodynamic variables except pressure differ significantly from their corresponding Rankine-Hugoniot equilibrium values.

Fluor Hanford is decommissioning the Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP) at the Hanford site in Eastern Washington. Aggressive chemicals are commonly used to remove transuranic contaminants from process equipment to allow disposal as low level waste. Chemicals being considered for decontamination of gloveboxes in PFP include cerium(IV) nitrate in a nitric acid solution, and proprietary commercial solutions that include acids, degreasers, and sequestering agents. Fluor's decontamination procedure involves application of chemical solutions as a spray on the contaminated surfaces, followed by a wipe-down with rags. This process effectively transfers the transuranic materials to the decontamination liquids, which are then absorbed by rags and packaged for disposal as TRU waste. Concerns regarding the safety of this procedure developed following a fire at Rocky Flats in 2003. The fire occurred in a glovebox that had been treated with cerium nitrate, which is one of the decontamination chemicals that Fluor Hanford has proposed to use. The investigation of the event was hampered by the copious use of chemicals and water to extinguish the fire, and was not conclusive regarding the cause. However, the reviewers noted that rags were found in the glovebox, suggesting that the combination of rags and chemicals may have contributed to the fire. With that uncertainty, Fluor began an investigation into the potential for fire when using the chemicals and materials in the decontamination process. The focus of this work has been to develop a disposal strategy that will provide a chemically stable waste form at expected Hanford waste storage temperatures. Treatability tests under CERCLA were used to assess the use of certain chemicals and wipes during the decontamination process. Chemicals being considered for decontamination of gloveboxes at PFP include cerium (IV) nitrate in a nitric acid solution, and proprietary commercial solutions as RadPro{trademark} that include acids, degreasers

In recent years there has been great interest in studying systems where the reactants are initially separated in space. In this case, one can expect to find phenomenon exemplified by an interface or front that separates the reactants and persists in time. The presence of a reaction front is a characteristic of a variety of biological, chemical and physical processes. In this thesis we describe experimental and simulation results for several different reaction-diffusion systems with initially separated reactants. We describe an experimental study of a reversible A + B ↔ C reaction diffusion process with initially separated reactants in a convectionless capillary. We show that the dynamics of the system can be described in terms of a crossover between an 'irreversible' and a 'reversible' regime. Scaling exponents are derived. Rich spatio-temporal patterns were observed for competing reactions under initially separated conditions. The patterns are explained by a reaction-diffusion model. The reaction parameters that determine whether pattern formation is observable at the front are the difference in the microscopic reaction constants and in the concentrations of the competing species. Monte Carlo simulations for two different types of third- order reactions, A + A + A → 0 and A + 2B → 0, were performed for both one and two dimensional lattices. Our numerical results show that for the two-dimensional case the behavior of the reaction follows mean-field theory while in one dimension the result is 'anomalous'. Under initial separation of reactants the A + 2B → C reaction-diffusion experimental system exhibits the non- classical phenomena of reactant segregation and depletion-zone formation. The scaling exponents differ from the simple A + B → C system. A theoretical study of the early time behavior based on a perturbation analysis was derived and compares well with Monte Carlo simulation. The chemistry at the silica surface is a very important field, not only

Conditions for carrying out chemically targeted identification of peptides containing phosphorylated or glycosylated serine residues have been investigated. Ba(OH)2 was used at ambient temperature to catalyze the beta-elimination reaction at 25 degrees C. Nucleophilic addition of 2-aminoethanethiol was performed in both parallel and tandem experiments. The method was demonstrated by the reaction of beta-casein tryptic digest phosphopeptides and an O-glycosylated peptide. Contrary to an earlier report by others, the glycopeptide was found to react with essentially the same kinetics as phosphopeptides. Conversion of four phosphoserines in residues 15, 17, 18, and 19 from bovine beta-casein N-terminal tryptic phosphopeptides were followed by monitoring the time course of the addition reaction. The chemistry proceeded rapidly at room temperature with a half-reaction time of 15 min. No side-reaction products were observed; however, care was taken to minimize all counter ions that either precipitate barium or neutralize the base. Digestion of the converted peptides with lysine endopeptidase identified all five phosphoserines in the beta-casein tryptic digest. Alternatively, preincubation with base followed by nucleophilic addition of the thiol was found to work satisfactorily. The use of the water-soluble hydrochloride of 2-aminoethanethiol allowed beta-elimination, nucleophilic addition, and desalting to be carried out on a micro C18 reverse phase pipette tip. PMID:15585826

Bimolecular chemicalreaction control of gaseous CO and H(2) at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, without any catalyst, using shaped femtosecond laser pulses is presented. High intensity laser radiation applied to a reaction cell facilitates non-resonant bond breakage and the formation of a range of ions, which can then react to form new products. Stable reaction products are measured after irradiation of a reaction cell, using time of flight mass spectroscopy. Bond formation of C-O, C-C, and C-H bonds is demonstrated as CO(2)(+), C(2)H(2)(+), CH(+), and CH(3)(+) were observed in the time of flight mass spectrum of the product gas, analyzed after irradiation. The formation of CO(2) is shown to be dependent on laser intensity, irradiation time, and on the presence of H(2) in the reaction cell. Using negatively chirped laser pulses more C-O bond formation takes place as compared to more C-C bond formation for unchirped pulses. PMID:22128931

Bimolecular chemicalreaction control of gaseous CO and H2 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, without any catalyst, using shaped femtosecond laser pulses is presented. High intensity laser radiation applied to a reaction cell facilitates non-resonant bond breakage and the formation of a range of ions, which can then react to form new products. Stable reaction products are measured after irradiation of a reaction cell, using time of flight mass spectroscopy. Bond formation of C-O, C-C, and C-H bonds is demonstrated as CO2+, C2H2+, CH+, and CH3+ were observed in the time of flight mass spectrum of the product gas, analyzed after irradiation. The formation of CO2 is shown to be dependent on laser intensity, irradiation time, and on the presence of H2 in the reaction cell. Using negatively chirped laser pulses more C-O bond formation takes place as compared to more C-C bond formation for unchirped pulses.

Computed potential energy surfaces are often required for computation of such parameters as rate constants as a function of temperature, product branching ratios, and other detailed properties. For some dynamics methods, global potential energy surfaces are required. In this case, it is necessary to obtain the energy at a complete sampling of all the possible arrangements of the nuclei, which are energetically accessible, and then a fitting function must be obtained to interpolate between the computed points. In other cases, characterization of the stationary points and the reaction pathway connecting them is sufficient. These properties may be readily obtained using analytical derivative methods. We have found that computation of the stationary points/reaction pathways using CASSCF/derivative methods, followed by use of the internally contracted CI method to obtain accurate energetics, gives usefull results for a number of chemically important systems. The talk will focus on a number of applications including global potential energy surfaces, H + O2, H + N2, O(3p) + H2, and reaction pathways for complex reactions, including reactions leading to NO and soot formation in hydrocarbon combustion.

The scaled up chemical reactor for a SiF4-Na reaction system is examined for increased reaction rate and production rate. The reaction system which now produces 5 kg batches of mixed Si and NaF is evaluated. The reactor design is described along with an analysis of the increased capacity of the Na chip feeder. The reactor procedure is discussed and Si coalescence in the reaction products is diagnosed.

The purpose of this article is to discuss two colorful reactions not widely used by chemical educators in high schools or college chemistry laboratories: The synthesis of zinc iodide from its elements, zinc and iodine, and the subsequent decomposition of zinc iodide back into its elements. These reactions are important for chemistry teachers to know about because they can be performed by introductory students to understand different aspects of chemical change such as the concepts of reaction, compound, bonding, excess and limiting reactants, an empirical formula, balanced chemical equation, the conservation of matter and energy, the Law of the Conservation of Mass, and the Law of Constant Composition. These concepts, in turn, are important because they are fundamental to chemistry, are widely taught by chemistry teachers, and are deceptively difficult for introductory chemistry students to understand. The synthesis of zinc iodide has many scientific advantages over current syntheses of binary compounds from elements such as the syntheses of copper sulfide and magnesium oxide. For example, zinc iodide can be synthesized to 1% of theoretical mass in less than a half an hour and can be readily analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively by two different titrations. As a set of reactions, the synthesis and decomposition of zinc iodide is safe to perform, reliable, inexpensive, and does not pose a threat to the environment. The author has developed a small collection of teacher activities describing the synthesis and decomposition of zinc iodide. The activities are innovative because they contain improvements not found in the existing literature. Appropriate for high school and first year college chemistry teachers, all of the activities contain detailed procedures and discussions as well as safety and disposal requirements.

This report documents the Surftherm program that analyzes transport coefficient, thermochemical- and kinetic rate information in complex gas-phase and surface chemicalreaction mechanisms. The program is designed for use with the Chemkin (gas-phase chemistry) and Surface Chemkin (heterogeneous chemistry) programs. It was developed as a ``chemist`s companion`` in using the Chemkin packages with complex chemicalreaction mechanisms. It presents in tabular form detailed information about the temperature and pressure dependence of chemicalreaction rate constants and their reverse rate constants, reaction equilibrium constants, reaction thermochemistry, chemical species thermochemistry and transport properties. This report serves as a user`s manual for use of the program, explaining the required input and the output.

The reaction of the two different substitue carbonyl oximes (isonitrosoacetylnaphthaline, inanH and nitro-isonitrosoacetophenone, ninapH) with two different amines (1-phenylethanol amine, pea, and ethanol amine, ea) was carried out and characterized by elemental analyses, IR, and (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopic methods. As a result of these experimental studies, two different levels for all reactions were determined: (I) formation of imine oxime and (II) rearrangement of imine oxime or formation of amido alcohol. After a mechanism was suggested for all of these reactions, the reaction mechanism of carbonyl oxime with amine was first studied by means of the B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) method. Because of the deficiency of density functional theory (DFT) on dispersion effects, the wB97X-D/6-311G(d,p) method, which includes dispersion correction, was used to obtain the reaction heat and free energy barriers to explain why the formation (imine oxime) and unexpected rearrangement products (amido alcohol) occurred or did not occur. The statistical thermodynamic method was used to obtain the changes in thermodynamic properties of the studied molecules between 100 and 500 K. From a kinetic viewpoint, the slowest step of the reactions is the IN1-TS2-IN2 step, which determines the steps of the reaction kinetics. In addition, spectroscopic properties such as vibrational and NMR chemical shifts were studied for all of the molecules. The frontier molecular orbitals (FMOs), highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMOs), and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMOs) were monitored for all of the molecules. PMID:27362286

Electronic structure methods have been applied to calculate the gas and aqueous phase reaction energies for base-induced rearrangements of N-chloropiperidine, N-chloro-3-(hydroxymethyl)piperidine, and N-chloro-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-(hydroxymethyl)piperidine. These derivatives have been selected as representative models for studying the chemical fate of environmentally relevant chloramines. The performance of different computational methods (MP2, MP4, QCISD, B3LYP and B2PLYP) for calculating the thermochemistry of rearrangement reactions was assessed. The latter method produces energies similar to those obtained at G3B3(+) level, which themselves have been tested against experimental results. Experimental energy barriers and enthalpies for ring inversion, nitrogen inversion and dehydrochlorination reactions in N-chloropiperidine have been accurately reproduced when solvent effects have been included. It was also found that the combined use of continuum solvation models (e.g. CPCM) and explicit consideration of a single water molecule is sufficient to properly describe the water-assisted rearrangement of N-chlorinated compounds in basic media. In the case of N-chloro-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-(hydroxymethyl)piperidine, which represents the chlorinated metabolite of the antidepressant paroxetine, several different reactions (intramolecular addition, substitution, and elimination reactions) have been investigated. Transition state structures for these processes have been located together with minimum energy structures of conceivable products. Imine 4A is predicted to be the most stable reaction product, closely followed by imine 4B and oxazinane 8, while formation of isoxazolidine 7 is much less favourable. Calculated reaction barriers in aqueous solution are quite similar for all four processes, the lowest barrier being predicted for the formation of imine 4A. PMID:21503305

To model the complex degradation phenomena occurring in concrete affected by alkali–silica reaction (ASR), we formulate a poro-mechanical model with two isotropic internal variables: the chemical and the mechanical damage. The chemical damage, related to the evolution of the reaction, is caused by the pressure generated by the expanding ASR gel on the solid concrete skeleton. The mechanical damage describes the strength and stiffness degradation induced by the external loads. As suggested by experimental results, degradation due to ASR is considered to be localized around reactive sites. The effect of the degree of saturation and of the temperature on the reaction development is also modeled. The chemical damage evolution is calibrated using the value of the gel pressure estimated by applying the electrical diffuse double-layer theory to experimental values of the surface charge density in ASR gel specimens reported in the literature. The chemo-damage model is first validated by simulating expansion tests on reactive specimens and beams; the coupled chemo-mechanical damage model is then employed to simulate compression and flexure tests results also taken from the literature. -- Highlights: •Concrete degradation due to ASR in variable environmental conditions is modeled. •Two isotropic internal variables – chemical and mechanical damage – are introduced. •The value of the swelling pressure is estimated by the diffuse double layer theory. •A simplified scheme is proposed to relate macro- and microscopic properties. •The chemo-mechanical damage model is validated by simulating tests in literature.

The detection of nucleic acid bases in carbonaceous meteorites suggests that their formation and survival is possible outside of the Earth. Small N-heterocycles, including pyrimidine, purines and nucleobases, have been extensively sought in the interstellar medium. It has been suggested theoretically that reactions between some interstellar molecules may lead to the formation of cytosine, uracil and thymine though these processes involve significantly high potential barriers. We attempted therefore to use quantum chemical techniques to explore if cytosine can possibly form in the interstellar space by radical-radical and radical-molecule interaction schemes, both in the gas phase and in the grains, through barrier-less or low barrier pathways. Results of DFT calculations for the formation of cytosine starting from some of the simple molecules and radicals detected in the interstellar space are being reported. Global and local descriptors such as molecular hardness, softness and electrophilicity, and condensed Fukui functions and local philicity indices were used to understand the mechanistic aspects of chemicalreaction. The presence and nature of weak bonds in the molecules and transition states formed during the reaction process have been ascertained using Bader's quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIMs). Two exothermic reaction pathways starting from propynylidyne (CCCH) and cyanoacetylene (HCCCN), respectively, have been identified. While the first reaction path is found to be totally exothermic, it involves a barrier of 12.5 kcal/mol in the gas phase against the lowest value of about 32 kcal/mol reported in the literature. The second path is both exothermic and barrier-less. The later has, therefore, a greater probability of occurrence in the cold interstellar clouds (10-50 K).

Regulatory agencies often face a dilemma when regulating chemicals in consumer products-namely, that of making decisions in the face of multiple, and sometimes conflicting, lines of evidence. We present an integrative approach for dealing with uncertainty and multiple pieces of evidence in toxics regulation. The integrative risk analytic framework is grounded in the Dempster-Shafer (D-S) theory that allows the analyst to combine multiple pieces of evidence and judgments from independent sources of information. We apply the integrative approach to the comparative risk assessment of bisphenol-A (BPA)-based polycarbonate and the functionally equivalent alternative, Eastman Tritan copolyester (ETC). Our results show that according to cumulative empirical evidence, the estimated probability of toxicity of BPA is 0.034, whereas the toxicity probability for ETC is 0.097. However, when we combine extant evidence with strength of confidence in the source (or expert judgment), we are guided by a richer interval measure, (Bel(t), Pl(t)). With the D-S derived measure, we arrive at various intervals for BPA, with the low-range estimate at (0.034, 0.250), and (0.097,0.688) for ETC. These new measures allow a reasonable basis for comparison and a justifiable procedure for decision making that takes advantage of multiple sources of evidence. Through the application of D-S theory to toxicity risk assessment, we show how a multiplicity of scientific evidence can be converted into a unified risk estimate, and how this information can be effectively used for comparative assessments to select potentially less toxic alternative chemicals. PMID:23804574