DISCUSSION: Over the course of time, it is well-understood that a combination of disease and natural disasters has the inherent ability to bring a variety of fruit and/or vegetable species to a very weakened state. This exact scenario recently played out across the state of Florida in the southeastern United States. When Hurricane Irma impacted much of the state of Florida back in mid-September of 2017, it goes without saying that there was tremendous amount of large-scale damage which was inflicted on a good portion of southern, central, and some parts of northern Florida. Having said that, one of the more sensitive types of plants which call Florida their home are the primary citrus plants. Such citrus plants include (but are certainly not limited to) orange, grapefruits, and tangerines. With the strong onshore flow associated with the eastern half of Hurricane Irma impacting the Floridian Peninsula, this consequently acted to knock a major percentage of the net citrus fruit harvest out of commission.

Furthermore, in addition to all of the citrus crop production potential lost due to the immediate impacts from Hurricane Irma, there are also major issues pertaining to a term referred to as citrus greening. It is during this process that citrus plants are infected with a certain type of parasitic insect and is particularly effectively spread during events such as hurricane landfalls.

Attached here for your reading convenience is a link which provides much more information on this story courtesy of NBC News.

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DISCUSSION: One of the major issues in meteorology right now is figuring out an effective method of communicating vital weather information to the public. In severe weather situations, it is especially important for meteorologists to issue life saving warnings and information in a timely manner. But what if something was preventing meteorologists from recognizing a threat with enough time to warn the public? This is a reality for regions within areas of poor radar coverage, also known as radar holes. In a radar hole, the area may be on the edge of one or more radar, only allowing for the top of a storm to be seen by the radar’s beam, which means any low-level rotation which may indicate a tornado would be missed. One major radar hole falls over the Charlotte, North Carolina (NC) metropolitan area, which has a population of 2,474,314 people as of the 2016 census. That is over 2 million people who are in danger of not receiving sufficient warning notice when severe weather strikes. While Charlotte may not be as prone to the occurrence of tornadoes as other regions of the country, it is still a very real possibility.

Around 2:30 am on March 3, 2012, an un-warned tornado struck the Charlotte metro area, just miles northeast of the city center. Given that this tornado occurred at night, the likelihood of the storm being reported to the National Weather Service by a spotter before it touched down would be very low to begin with. Meteorologists would have been relying on Doppler radar to determine whether to warn a storm. The nearest radar to the Charlotte metro area is outside of Greenville, South Carolina, at least 80-90 miles away from where this tornado occurred. That would put the radar beam well into the mid-to-upper levels of the storm, completely missing any low-level rotation. By the time rotation would have been detected by radar, it was already too late. Thankfully, in this case, no fatalities were reported. But this may have been a lucky break.

It is only a matter of time before another devastating tornado hits the area, and this time the outcome may not be as favorable. This is why it is is incredibly important to address the gaps in radar coverage throughout the country, especially in large metro areas such as Charlotte, NC. Increased radar coverage could end up saving lives.

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DISCUSSION: There is no debate that from a global perspective, there is a conscious understanding that the degree to which society continues to maintain, increase, or decrease current as well as future fossil fuel consumption will be critical. The reason for that is because of the fact that the magnitude of future global fossil fuel consumption will greatly influence the extent of future planetary warming. This is a result of the fact that fossil fuel emissions act to collectively enhance the global influence of the greenhouse effect. As a point of clarification, the greenhouse effect is best defined as the process by which the molecules which compose gases including (but certainly not limited to) carbon dioxide act to trap anthropogenic (i.e., man-made) heat energy within the Earth's atmosphere which has a net increased heating effect.

Therefore, the graphic which is attached above (courtesy of Climate Central) further reflects the above concepts based on the respective trajectories which are shown for the respective future net planetary temperature changes. As you can clearly see, if we do not change the manner in which most of society goes about day-to-day functions, we are destined to arrive at a dangerously amount of net planetary warming which would create a tremendous global atmospheric/oceanic "ripple effect." More specifically, by not changing (or possibly increasing) our net global consumption of fossil fuel resources left on Earth, this would propel net planetary temperature increases well-above current threshold concerns. So, many atmospheric scientists and climate scientists around the world are therefore trying there best to push global education initiatives so as to largely avoid such an extreme planetary temperature increase scenario.

On the flip side, by considering the other end of the planetary temperature change spectrum, we can clearly see that considerable cuts to our net reliance on global fossil fuel resources would likely facilitate a scenario wherein we could actually potentially observe a net decrease from current global average temperature changes. Despite the high likelihood of such a scenario never playing out due to current global political issues at play, a scenario somewhere in between the two ends of the spectrum is certainly plausible and is where we need to aim for in the coming years and decades. That is, if Earth is going to maintain some semblance of future sustainability potential.

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Light allows humans to see better at night, but did you know light is also a pollutant? Light pollution is a problem that many people aren't aware of. Light being emitted into the atmosphere has many negative impacts on Earth. Accumulating light can damage and modify the behavior of organisms and ecosystems.

There are several light sources that affect organisms. The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) states that many light sources include building lighting, advertising, commercial properties, offices, factories, street lamps, and illuminated sporting venues. There is so much unnecessary light that it causes light trespass which is best defined as light being positioned in places where it is not intended or needed. A study by “World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness,” stated that the 99% population of the United States and Europe live under light polluted skies!

This extra light disturbs animals and plants, depending upon the natural darkness of night. Most life forms have cyclic behaviors that typically occur over the course of a 24-hour time span which is referred as a circadian rhythm. Plants, for example, are organisms that most often exhibit this cyclic behavior. By adding artificial light to the night sky, this disrupts the ability of plants to determine when to prepare for winter dormancy, thus increasing the propensity for a more unexpected (or early onset of) death. Sunlight is more powerful, compared to moonlight and artificial light, but artificial light at night can be more powerful than moonlight which is why plants are often more affected by artificial light. This information originated from a study about plants in the “Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability”.

Many types of living organisms are affected by light pollution as well. Nocturnal animals sleep during the day and are active at night. IDA found that light pollution alters their night-time environment by creating the illusion of it being day-time during night-time hours. Some animals that aren’t nocturnal need the darkness of night to survive. Sea turtle eggs are known to hatch at night on the beach. The hatchlings use the phosphorescence by microscopic sea life as a guide to get to the ocean. The phosphorescence appears as a green luminescent glow in the water. Anthropogenic light at night misleads the hatchlings away from the ocean, often resulting in their death. IDA states that in Florida, millions of hatchlings die this way every year.

You would think that because humans are the reason for this emitted light, that it wouldn’t affect them, right? According to the “Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability”, light pollution disrupts sleep for humans as well. Humans produce hormones at night that help our bodies get ready for sleep. Night lighting disturbs a human’s ability to fall asleep which could result in health problems. If we can reduce the amount of emitted light at night, it would be beneficial to many different types of organisms living on planet Earth. (Credit: IDA, the Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability, World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness)

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The central U.S. is no stranger to interesting and sometimes unusual weather patterns, but for those who have been watching, this winter has been unusual to say the least. Arkansas and Missouri went from cold and snowy at the beginning of one week, to tornadoes and warm by week’s end. This brings up the question, how have the forecasters in these locations been doing so well? One of the tools that forecasters use is known as VIV or Verification, Initialization and Verification. First, it is important to note that any sort of weather models are mathematical algorithms. That is not to state that these models do poorly, it’s quite the opposite in that they are getting better as time goes on. They do, however, need to be checked for accuracy of the product, sometimes one model will work better that then others, sometimes none work well. While each forecaster seemingly has their own take and models they prefer, much of this process remains the same.The first step of this process is Verification. This stage is checking the model against current weather observations. If the forecaster is looking at a 12 hour model run for winds, they are going to check this against the observations for winds in their given area. The model may be disregarded based on what the current weather pattern is, or adjusted. Whether or not the model is thrown out can, honestly, be situational. For instance, forecasters in Europe would have one or more products that would not handle the position of a cut-off low well. The model would handle winds, temperatures, and clouds accurately, but would want to move the pressure system out of the region sooner than expected. In situations like this, an experienced forecaster would adjust the model for the movement out and continue to use it. The second part of the process is Initialization. This stage is checking the model against the previous model run. This is primarily to make sure there are not any major discrepancies between the two runs. If any are found and the new model is handling the situation well, the new model can be picking up on things the forecaster could have missed.The final step is, again, Verification, this is continuing to check the model against current weather observations to make sure it’s still accurate. This part of the process runs similar to the first part, wherein the forecaster can check and see if their forecast is still accurate or if it needs to be amended. The only major difference between this step and the first step is that the final Verification is done every hour.The VIV process is a handy and important process in every forecaster’s tool belt. Done properly and regularly it can help enhance a forecast and insure a more accurate forecast. This process or one of a similar nature is done for every forecast and has only continued to become more prevalent as model forecasting is becoming more of the norm. To learn more about other high-impact weather events from across North America, be sure to click here!

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DISCUSSION: When looking at a map of the world, many people are often intrigued by the way in which the various landmasses are sized up and positioned around the globe. However, there is often a series of major misconceptions which are held by the general public. The chief illusion is the fact that the respective continents are in fact not accurately represented on most global maps. This is a result of the fact that the globe is an oblate spheroid (i.e., a predominantly round shape) which when laid out as most maps commonly are, the respective continents are inaccurately distorted along a flat surface. Thus, as described in more detail in the brief video attached above, the flat world maps which we always like to look at on our mobile devices or in grade-school are quite inaccurate and misleading. They are misleading because of the way in which given countries and continents are laid out from a flat vs. from a round perspective.

As a result of the world being extended across a Mercator projection, as discussed above, this changes the perspective by which we perceive and are essentially taught to understand the way in which the world is laid out. Therefore, the next time you decide to look at a map of the world, keep the information discussed in the paragraph as well as the brief video attached above in mind when viewing a world map in the future.

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We are all familiar with the illuminating reds, pinks, yellows and oranges that grace us every day as the Sun meets the horizon. Many people are enthralled with a good sunrise and sunset, rushing to the beach or the top of a hill to catch one. Many people will go most of their lives in love with the colorful show and wonder what really causes the sky to light up with such vibrant colors.

The colors of a sunset or sunrise is an atmospheric phenomenon associated with light optics. In our atmosphere, air molecules are referred to as selective scatterers because they selectively scatter certain colors of the light spectrum. The scattering of light occurs when light hits the surface of an air molecule and bounces off it in all different directions. The visible light spectrum (light we can see with our naked eye) consists of wavelengths of red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet with red having the largest wavelength and violet the smallest. Selective scatterers tend to scatter light waves of a shorter wavelength like blue, violet and green. During the day when the Sun is highest in the sky, visible light hits your eyes at a more direct angle and the light has less atmosphere to travel through. Here the Sun appears white as most of the light waves hit our eyes at the same intensity. When the Sun hits the horizon, there is much more atmosphere that the light travels through. As the light travels through that length of the atmosphere, most of the blue, violet and green light is scattered away. The red, orange and yellow light is the what makes it through and reaches our eyes. This is what would make the Sun appear orange and red.

There are also particles in the air that contribute to the color of the Sun at sunset. These particles have a larger diameter than air molecules, thereby scattering the larger wavelengths of light such as yellow. When the atmosphere is filled with more of these particles you can see a redder Sun. For example, salt particles and water molecules are responsible for red sunsets observed over water at a beach.

Sunsets and sunrises are just one of many of the incredible things we are blessed with on Earth. Knowing the science behind them only enhances our admiration. It also makes for a good conversation to have with a friend next time you find each other enjoying one.

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Ever since Sun Tzu listed the weather as the second of the five most influential factors in “The Art of War”, the military has sought to exploit these factors in the strategic decision process. The most famous of these is D-Day, where a Royal Air Force captain found the ideal break in the weather to send the Allied Forces across the English Channel and onto the various beaches begin the end of WWII. As such military weather forecasters have continued the culture of excellence to this day.

So what it is a military weather forecaster and why do they matter so much? A military weather forecaster in the US Armed Forces is an Airmen, Sailor, or Marine who has completed the Basic Weather Forecasting School at Keesler, AFB and has gone on to serve in the field. Once out there they ply their trade, creating forecast for various bases, flight operations, and other types of operations. These can range from new pilots training to events like medical evacuations or strategic level planning for events such as the Ebola event in Africa.

As such the question now becomes why do they matter so much? As with D-Day, every mission has ideal weather conditions. It is the job of the forecaster to know only know these ideal condition, but to find a time, and sometimes place, were these conditions are closest to the ideal condition. Once these condition are identified than the operation can either be delayed, canceled or proceed. As such weather has become, in most cases, the first thing that the operator is informed about.

These skills also translate into the civilian world. For instance, an accurate wind speed and direction forecast can help with determining how widespread chemical or nuclear fallout can reach. Space and Solar forecasting skills are used for determining impacts to communications and GPS. Weather observations are also used to help verify Watches, Warnings and Advisories. Even accurate temperature and dew point forecasts can help law enforcement in predicting time of death through body decomposition.

Soft skills are also acquired in this field as well. Standing up and briefing flag officers requires strong public communication skills. Eventually management skills and team skills are developed working with and leading people of various backgrounds. Strong writing skills and logic skills are developed and refined through writing forecast reasoning and lateral thinking is used when figuring out the best way to accomplish a mission. A good example of lateral thinking in this field would be the forecaster cannot tell a pilot how to adjust the mission, merely “strongly encourage” the pilot to adjust times or flight routes. Finally, time management skills are a must as in the case of Medical Evacuations or Search and Recovery, operations the author has personally supported, seconds truly matter and accuracy cannot be compromised.

While a Weather Forecaster cannot and will not be able to do everything, a great many skills are quite useful. It almost goes without saying that forecasting the weather has a strong role in National Defense as well as an extensive history. In addition to this, a strong foundation in meteorology has been built which only serves to benefit the meteorological community and the public itself as a whole.

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DISCUSSION: Although we may no longer be in the heart of or anywhere close to what is typically the climatological peak of tornado season across the United States, there is still a ton of value in knowing how to prepare. Regardless of the fact that we are not currently in the heart of tornado season across the south-central United States, winter-time low-pressure systems still have the ability to generate substantial tornado threats during their existence. Hence, it is critical to always know what to do both before and after tornado threats and/or actual occurrences. Attached above is an informative tornado preparation video which will help to lend insights for how to best prepare for future tornado threats.

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