The production of methane gas from coal and coal-bearing rocks is one of the prime objectives of the Department of Energy's Methane Recovery from Coalbeds Project. This report contains brief description of wells that are presently producing gas from coal or coal-bearing rocks. Data from three gob gas production areas in Illinois, an in-mine horizontal borehole degasification, and eleven vertical boreholes are presented. Production charts and electric logs of the producing zones are included for some of the wells. Additional information on dry gas production from the San Juan Basin, Colorado/New Mexico and the Greater Green River Coal Region, Colorado/Wyoming is also included.

Biogenic methane is a common constituent in deep subsurface environments such as coalbeds and oil shale beds. Coalbedmethane (CBM) makes significant contributions to world natural gas industry and CBM production continues to increase. With increasing CBM production, the production of CBM co-produced water increases, which is an environmental concern. This study investigated the feasibility in re-using CBM co-produced water and other high sodic/saline water to enhance biogenic methane production from coal and other unconventional sources, such as oil shale. Microcosms were established with the selected carbon sources which included coal, oil shale, lignite, peat, and diesel-contaminated soil. Each microcosm contained either CBM coproduced water or groundwater with various enhancement and inhibitor combinations. Results indicated that the addition of nutrients and nutrients with additional carbon can enhance biogenic methane production from coal and oil shale. Methane production from oil shale was much greater than that from coal, which is possibly due to the greater amount of available Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) from oil shale. Inconclusive results were observed from the other sources since the incubation period was too low. WRI is continuing studies with biogenic methane production from oil shale.

CoalbedMethane Produced Water Screening Tool for Treatment Technology and Beneficial Use 2013 1 (to sustain instream #12;CoalbedMethane Produced Water Screening Tool for Treatment Technology Supporting Information 1.0 Produced Water Regulatory Framework for WY and NM

ANALYSIS OF ENHANCED COALBEDMETHANE RECOVERY THROUGH CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN THE CENTRAL recovered. Carbon sequestration, therefore, allows the utilization of unexploited mineral resources while potential of coalbedmethane production using carbon dioxide sequestration in the Central Appalachian Basin

reserve estimation for a coalbedmethane reservoir. Other numerical reservoir simulation studies were presented by David, H. and Law, S.18, Hower, T.L.19, and Jalal, J. and Shahab, D.M.20. They showed the application of a compositional simulator...

Storage ponds provide a cost-effective means to temporarily retain water produced with coalbedmethane and permit gas production during times when stream flow rates drop. Normally, water produced with the gas is run into nearby streams, with the dilution rate closely monitored and controlled by environmental agencies. During low stream flow in the Black Warrior basin, Ala., large volumes of produced water must be stored to prevent shut-in of coalbedmethane fields. The authors discuss how they constructed such production water facilities for the Cedar Cove field to eliminate periodic field shut-ins as a result of excess water production. The effectiveness of such a storage approach is governed by receiving stream flow variability, production water flow characteristics, and the economics of storage pond construction.

Over the past decade in the US, coalbedmethane (CBM) has become an increasingly important source of unconventional natural gas. The most significant CBM production occurs in the San Juan basin of Colorado and new Mexico and the Black Warrior basin of Alabama, which collective in 1995 accounted for about 94% of US CBM production. The paper discusses early CBM production, recent production, gas composition, undiscovered potential, and new exploration areas.

The sub-surface of the Netherlands is generally underlain by coal-bearing Carboniferous strata at greater depths (at many places over 1,500 m). These coal seams are generally thinner than 3 meter, occur in groups (5--15) within several hundred meters and are often fairly continuous over many square kilometers. In many cases they have endured complex burial history, influencing their methane saturation. In certain particular geological settings, a high, maximum coalbedmethane saturation, may be expected. Carboniferous/Permian coals in the Tianjin-region (China) show many similarities concerning geological settings, rank and composition. Economical coalbedmethane production at greater depths is often obstructed by the (very) low permeabilities of the coal seams as with increasing depth the deformation of the coal reduces both its macro-porosity (the cleat system) and microporosity. Experiments in abandoned underground mines, as well as after underground coal gasification tests indicate ways to improve the prospects for coalbedmethane production in originally tight coal reservoirs. High permeability areas can be created by the application of underground coal gasification of one of the coal seams of a multi-seam cycle with some 200 meter of coal bearing strata. The gasification of one of the coal seams transforms that seam over a certain area into a highly permeable bed, consisting of coal residues, ash and (thermally altered) roof rubble. Additionally, roof collapse and subsidence will destabilize the overburden. In conjunction this will permit a better coalbedmethane production from the remaining surrounding parts of the coal seams. Moreover, the effects of subsidence will influence the stress patterns around the gasified seam and this improves the permeability over certain distances in the coal seams above and below. In this paper the effects of the combined underground coal gasification and coalbedmethane production technique are regarded for a single injection well. Known geotechnical aspects are combined with results from laboratory experiments on compaction of thermally treated rubble. An axi-symmetric numerical model is used to determine the effects induced by the gasified coal seam. The calculation includes the rubble formation, rubble compaction and induced stress effects in the overlying strata. Subsequently the stress effects are related to changes in coal permeability, based on experimental results of McKee et al.

This paper reviews the actual performance of 53 conventionally drilled vertical coalbedmethane wells developed by a joint coal industry/gas industry effort. The unique characteristics of the coalbed reservoir are briefly described. Actual gas production and computer model predictions are compared and the costs and revenues are discussed with specific emphasis on the economic results. This paper differs from previous technically oriented discussions of coalbedmethane production in that economic viability, initially established in February of 1982, continues to be demonstrated.

This document describes the program goals, research activities, and the role of the Federal Government in a strategic plan to reduce the uncertainties surrounding the reserve potential of the unconventional gas resources, namely, the Eastern Gas Shales, the Western Gas Sands, CoalbedMethane, and methane from Geopressured Aquifers. The intent is to provide a concise overview of the program and to identify the technical activities that must be completed in the successful achievement of the objectives.

Historically, interest in the Appalachian basin coal-bedmethane resource extends at least over the last 50 years. The Northern and Central Appalachian basins are estimated to contain 61 tcf and 5 tcf of coal-bedmethane gas, respectively. Development of this resource has not kept pace with that of other basins, such as the Black Warrior basin of Alabama of the San Juan basin of northern New Mexico and Colorado. Without the benefit of modern completion, stimulation, and production technology, some older Appalachian basin coal-bedmethane wells were reported to have produced in excess of 150 used here to characterize some past projects and their results. This work is not intended to comprise a comprehensive survey of all Appalachian basin projects, but rather to provide background information from which to proceed for those who may be interested in doing so. Several constraints to the development of this resource have been identified, including conflicting legal rights of ownership of the gas produced from the coal seams when coal and conventional oil and gas rights are controlled by separate parties. In addition, large leaseholds have been difficult to acquire and finding costs have been high. However, the threshold of minimum economic production may be relatively low when compared with other areas, because low-pressures pipelines are available and gas prices are among the highest in the nation. Interest in the commercial development of the resource seems to be on the increase with several projects currently active and more reported to be planned for the near future.

of the various modeling parameters on its reservoir performance. A dual porosity coalbedmethane simulator is used to model primary production from a single well coal seam, for a variety of coal properties for this work. Varying different coal properties...

Progress made on the Methane Recovery from Coalbeds Project (MRCP) is reported in the Raton Mesa Coal Region. The Uinta and Warrior basin reports have been reviewed and will be published and delivered in early December. A cooperative core test with R and P Coal Company on a well in Indiana County, Pennsylvania, was negotiated. In a cooperative effort with the USGS Coal Branch on three wells in the Wind River Basin, desorption of coal samples showed little or no gas. Completed field testing at the Dugan Petroleum well in the San Juan Basin. Coal samples showed minimal gas. Initial desorption of coal samples suggests that at least a moderate amount of gas was obtained from the Coors well test in the Piceance Basin. Field work for the Piceance Basin Detailed Site Investigation was completed. In the Occidental Research Corporation (ORC) project, a higher capacity vacuum pump to increase CH/sub 4/ venting operations has been installed. Drilling of Oxy No. 12 experienced delays caused by mine gas-offs and was eventually terminated at 460 ft after an attempt to drill through a roll which produced a severe dog leg and severely damaged the drill pipe. ORC moved the second drill rig and equipment to a new location in the same panel as Oxy No. 12 and set the stand pipe for Oxy No. 13. Drill rig No. 1 has been moved east of the longwall mining area in anticipation of drilling cross-panel on 500 foot intervals. Waynesburg College project, Equitable Gas Company has received the contract from Waynesburg College and has applied to the Pennsylvania Public Utilities Commission for a new tariff rate. Waynesburg College has identified a contractor to make the piping connections to the gas line after Equitable establishes their meter and valve requirements.

Coalbedmethane (CBM) wells are usually dewatered with sucker rod or progressive cavity pumps to reduce wellbore water levels, although not without problems. This paper describes high-volume artificial-lift technology that incorporates specifically designed gas-lift methods to dewater Black Warrior CBM wells. Gas lift provides improved well maintenance and production optimization by the use of conventional wireline service methods.

For the past few decades, the Fort Union Formation in the Powder River Basin has supplied the Nation with comparatively clean low ash and low sulfur coal. However, within the past few years, coalbedmethane from the same Fort Union coal has become an important energy by-product. The recently completed US Geological Survey coal resource assessment of the Fort Union coal beds and zones in the northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains (Fort Union Coal Assessment Team, 1999) has added useful information to coalbedmethane exploration and development in the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana. Coalbedmethane exploration and development in the Powder River Basin has rapidly accelerated in the past three years. During this time more than 800 wells have been drilled and recent operator forecasts projected more than 5,000 additional wells to be drilled over the next few years. Development of shallow (less than 1,000 ft. deep) Fort Union coal-bedmethane is confined to Campbell and Sheridan Counties, Wyoming, and Big Horn County, Montana. The purpose of this paper is to report on the US Geological Survey's role on a cooperative coalbedmethane project with the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Wyoming Reservoir Management Group and several gas operators. This paper will also discuss the methodology that the USGS and the BLM will be utilizing for analysis and evaluation of coalbedmethane reservoirs in the Powder River Basin. The USGS and BLM need additional information of coalbedmethane reservoirs to accomplish their respective resource evaluation and management missions.

Investigation of coalbedmethane reservoirs in the Black Warrior basin of Alabama has established a correspondence between productivity and structural position, but the reasons for this correspondence remain uncertain. In Cedar Cove field, for example, exceptionally productive wells are concentrated in a rollover anticline, whereas in Oak Grove field, exceptionally productive wells are aligned along a synclinal axis. This suggests that factors controlling gas production are a derivative of the structural geometry, and not the geometry by itself. Natural fractures and a low state of in-situ stress facilitate depressurization of coalbed reservoirs by dewatering, and hence, desorption and production of coalbed gas. Our hypothesis is that the abundance and openness of natural fractures in the Black Warrior basin are a direct expression of the layer-parallel strain dictated by map-scale structural geometry. Area balancing techniques can be used to quantify requisite strain, which is the homogeneous layer-parallel strain required for local area balance, and can also be used to constrain and verify structural cross sections. Application of area balancing techniques to extensional structures in the Black Warrior basin indicates that coalbed gas is produced from thin-skinned structures detached within the coal-bearing Pottsville Formation. Within reservoir intervals, requisite strain values are as high as 10 percent and increase downward toward the basal detachment. Mapping structure and production indicates that some productivity sweet spots correlate with enhanced bed curvature. Whereas requisite strain is the homogeneous strain calculated for discrete bed segments, curvature affects the distribution of strain within those segments. Recognizing this, our research is now focused on integrating area balancing techniques with curvature analysis to explain production patterns in coalbedmethane reservoirs.

such as power plants. CO2 emissions can be offset by sequestration of produced CO2 in natural reservoirs such as coal seams, which may initially contain methane. Production of coalbedmethane can be enhanced through CO2 injection, providing an opportunity...

Coal is one of the richest known sources of hydrocarbons. This heterogeneous material has the unique characteristic of being both a source and a reservoir of natural gas. By virtue of their maturation to high rank some coals have the capacity to generate more than 8,000 ft{sup 3} of methane per ton of coal. Although most of this gas eventually has been lost over 400 trillion ft{sup 3} remains in place in US coal basins. The Potential Gas Committee has estimated that at least 90 trillion ft{sup 3} likely are recoverable. Coal-bedmethane exploration requires application of both coal geology and petroleum geology as well as nonconventional approaches to reservoir engineering. With advanced technologies developed largely through cooperative efforts of the Gas Research Institute and industry, researchers and explorationists are better understanding the geological and engineering peculiarities of coal reservoirs. Commercial coal-bedmethane development occurs basically in two diverse geologic settings: (1) thin, shallow coals of Pennsylvanian age in the Black Warrior and Appalachian basins and (2) thicker, deeper coals of Cretaceous age in the Rocky Mountains, principally the San Juan, Piceance, Raton, and Green River basins. Recent exploration has targeted shallow, anomalously thick but lower-rank, low-gas-content Tertiary coals in Wyoming. Coal basins in Washington, British Columbia, and Alberta also show potential. Methane in coal beds is an immense, virtually untapped source of environmentally acceptable, pipeline-quality energy. In light of increasing demand for natural gas, coal-bedmethane is becoming an economically viable, low-risk exploratory and development objective.

The modern coalbedmethane industry was born in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama and has to date produced more than 2.6 trillion cubic feet of gas and 1.6 billion barrels of water. The coalbed gas industry in this area is dependent on instream disposal of co-produced water, which ranges from nearly potable sodium-bicarbonate water to hypersaline sodium-chloride water. This study employed diverse analytical methods to characterize water chemistry in light of the regional geologic framework and to evaluate the full range of water management options for the Black Warrior coalbedmethane industry. Results reveal strong interrelationships among regional geology, water chemistry, and gas chemistry. Coalbedmethane is produced from multiple coal seams in Pennsylvanian-age strata of the Pottsville Coal Interval, in which water chemistry is influenced by a structurally controlled meteoric recharge area along the southeastern margin of the basin. The most important constituents of concern in the produced water include chlorides, ammonia compounds, and organic substances. Regional mapping and statistical analysis indicate that the concentrations of most ionic compounds, metallic substances, and nonmetallic substances correlate with total dissolved solids and chlorides. Gas is effectively produced at pipeline quality, and the only significant impurity is N{sub 2}. Geochemical analysis indicates that the gas is of mixed thermogenic-biogenic origin. Stable isotopic analysis of produced gas and calcite vein fills indicates that widespread late-stage microbial methanogenesis occurred primarily along a CO{sub 2} reduction metabolic pathway. Organic compounds in the produced water appear to have helped sustain microbial communities. Ammonia and ammonium levels increase with total dissolved solids content and appear to have played a role in late-stage microbial methanogenesis and the generation of N{sub 2}. Gas production tends to decline exponentially, whereas water production tends to decline hyperbolically. Hyperbolic decline indicates that water volume is of greatest concern early in the life of a coalbedmethane project. Regional mapping indicates that gas production is controlled primarily by the ability to depressurize permeable coal seams that are natively within the steep part of the adsorption isotherm. Water production is greatest within the freshwater intrusion and below thick Cretaceous cover strata and is least in areas of underpressure. Water management strategies include instream disposal, which can be applied effectively in most parts of the basin. Deep disposal may be applicable locally, particularly where high salinity limits the ability to dispose into streams. Artificial wetlands show promise for the management of saline water, especially where the reservoir yield is limited. Beneficial use options include municipal water supply, agricultural use, and industrial use. The water may be of use to an inland shrimp farming industry, which is active around the southwestern coalbedmethane fields. The best opportunities for beneficial use are reuse of water by the coalbedmethane industry for drilling and hydraulic fracturing. This research has further highlighted opportunities for additional research on treatment efficiency, the origin of nitrogen compounds, organic geochemistry, biogenic gas generation, flow modeling, and computer simulation. Results of this study are being disseminated through a vigorous technology transfer program that includes web resources, numerous presentations to stakeholders, and a variety of technical publications.

Sequestration of CO{sub 2} in coal has potential benefits for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the highly industrialized Carboniferous coal basins of North America and Europe and for enhancing coalbedmethane recovery. Hence, enhanced coalbedmethane recovery operations provide a basis for a market-based environmental solution in which the cost of sequestration is offset by the production and sale of natural gas. The Black Warrior foreland basin of west-central Alabama contains the only mature coalbedmethane production fairway in eastern North America, and data from this basin provide an excellent basis for quantifying the carbon sequestration potential of coal and for identifying the geologic screening criteria required to select sites for the demonstration and commercialization of carbon sequestration technology. Coalbedmethane reservoirs in the upper Pottsville Formation of the Black Warrior basin are extremely heterogeneous, and this heterogeneity must be considered to screen areas for the application of CO{sub 2} sequestration and enhanced coalbedmethane recovery technology. Major screening factors include stratigraphy, geologic structure, geothermics, hydrogeology, coal quality, sorption capacity, technology, and infrastructure. Applying the screening model to the Black Warrior basin indicates that geologic structure, water chemistry, and the distribution of coal mines and reserves are the principal determinants of where CO{sub 2} can be sequestered. By comparison, coal thickness, temperature-pressure conditions, and coal quality are the key determinants of sequestration capacity and unswept coalbedmethane resources. Results of this investigation indicate that the potential for CO{sub 2} sequestration and enhanced coalbedmethane recovery in the Black Warrior basin is substantial and can result in significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while increasing natural gas reserves. Coal-fired power plants serving the Black Warrior basin in Alabama emit approximately 31 MMst (2.4 Tcf) of CO{sub 2} annually. The total sequestration capacity of the Black Warrior coalbedmethane fairway at 350 psi is about 189 MMst (14.9 Tcf), which is equivalent to 6.1 years of greenhouse gas emissions from the coal-fired power plants. Applying the geologic screening model indicates that significant parts of the coalbedmethane fairway are not accessible because of fault zones, coal mines, coal reserves, and formation water with TDS content less than 3,000 mg/L. Excluding these areas leaves a sequestration potential of 60 MMst (4.7 Tcf), which is equivalent to 1.9 years of emissions. Therefore, if about10 percent of the flue gas stream from nearby power plants is dedicated to enhanced coalbedmethane recovery, a meaningful reduction of CO{sub 2} emissions can be realized for nearly two decades. If the fresh-water restriction were removed for the purposes of CO{sub 2} sequestration, an additional 10 MMst (0.9 Tcf) of CO{sub 2} could feasibly be sequestered. The amount of unswept coalbedmethane in the fairway is estimated to be 1.49 Tcf at a pressure of 50 psi. Applying the screening model results in an accessible unswept gas resource of 0.44 Tcf. Removal of the fresh-water restriction would elevate this number to 0.57 Tcf. If a recovery factor of 80 percent can be realized, then enhanced recovery activities can result in an 18 percent expansion of coalbedmethane reserves in the Black Warrior basin.

Sequestration of CO{sub 2} in coal has potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power plants while enhancing coalbedmethane recovery. Data from more than 4,000 coalbedmethane wells in the Black Warrior basin of Alabama provide an opportunity to quantify the carbon sequestration potential of coal and to develop a geologic screening model for the application of carbon sequestration technology. This report summarizes stratigraphy and sedimentation, structural geology, geothermics, hydrology, coal quality, gas capacity, and production characteristics of coal in the Black Warrior coalbedmethane fairway and the implications of geology for carbon sequestration and enhanced coalbedmethane recovery. Coal in the Black Warrior basin is distributed among several fluvial-deltaic coal zones in the Lower Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation. Most coal zones contain one to three coal beds that are significant targets for coalbedmethane production and carbon sequestration, and net coal thickness generally increases southeastward. Pottsville strata have effectively no matrix permeability to water, so virtually all flow is through natural fractures. Faults and folds influence the abundance and openness of fractures and, hence, the performance of coalbedmethane wells. Water chemistry in the Pottsville Formation ranges from fresh to saline, and zones with TDS content lower than 10,000 mg/L can be classified as USDW. An aquifer exemption facilitating enhanced recovery in USDW can be obtained where TDS content is higher than 3,000 mg/L. Carbon dioxide becomes a supercritical fluid above a temperature of 88 F and a pressure of 1,074 psi. Reservoir temperature exceeds 88 F in much of the study area. Hydrostatic pressure gradients range from normal to extremely underpressured. A large area of underpressure is developed around closely spaced longwall coal mines, and areas of natural underpressure are distributed among the coalbedmethane fields. The mobility and reactivity of supercritical CO{sub 2} in coal-bearing strata is unknown, and potential exists for supercritical conditions to develop below a depth of 2,480 feet following abandonment of the coalbedmethane fields. High-pressure adsorption isotherms confirm that coal sorbs approximately twice as much CO{sub 2} as CH{sub 4} and approximately four times as much CO{sub 2} as N{sub 2}. Analysis of isotherm data reveals that the sorption performance of each gas can vary by a factor of two depending on rank and ash content. Gas content data exhibit extreme vertical and lateral variability that is the product of a complex burial history involving an early phase of thermogenic gas generation and an ongoing stage of late biogenic gas generation. Production characteristics of coalbedmethane wells are helpful for identifying areas that are candidates for carbon sequestration and enhanced coalbedmethane recovery. Many geologic and engineering factors, including well construction, well spacing, and regional structure influence well performance. Close fault spacing limits areas where five-spot patterns may be developed for enhanced gas recovery, but large structural panels lacking normal faults are in several gas fields and can be given priority as areas to demonstrate and commercialize carbon sequestration technology in coalbedmethane reservoirs.

Interference for adjacent wells may be beneficial to Coalbed-Methane production. The effect is the acceleration of de-watering which should lead to earlier and higher gas rate peaks. It is inherent that permeability ...

The Colorado Geological Survey and Southern Ute Indian Tribe proposed to determine the cause of several gas seeps which are occurring on the western outcrop of the coalbedmethane producing Fruitland Formation on the Southern Ute Indian Reservation. Correlation between outcrop coals and subsurface coals was necessary to determine seep source in the northern part of the study area. Subsurface studies include structure and net coal isopach maps, stratigraphy was cross-sections, production maps, and a production database. Detailed coal stratigraphy was correlated through production wells near the outcrop region. These maps and cross-sections were correlated to new surface outcrop maps generated by the Colorado, Geological Survey and the Southern Ute Division of Energy Resources. Methane gas seepage has been noted historically within the study area. The total investigation may help determine if gas seepage is natural, a result of coalbedmethane development, or some combination of the above.

Matrix shrinkage and swelling can cause profound changes in porosity and permeability of coalbedmethane reservoirs during depletion or when under CO{sub 2} injection processes, with significant implication for primary or enhanced methane recovery. Two models that are used to describe these effects are discussed. The first was developed by Advanced Resources International (ARI) and published in 1990 by Sawyer, et al. The second model was published by Palmer and Mansoori in 1996. This paper shows that the two provide equivalent results for most applications. However, their differences in formulation cause each to have relative advantages and disadvantages under certain circumstances. Specifically, the former appears superior for undersaturated coalbedmethane reservoirs while the latter would be better if a case is found where matrix swelling is strongly disproportional to gas concentration. Since its presentation in 1996, the Palmer and Mansoori model has justifiably received much critical praise. However, the model developed by ARI for the COMET reservoir simulation program has been in use since 1990, and has significant advantages in certain settings. A review of data published by Levine in 1996 reveals that carbon dioxide causes a greater degree of coal matrix swelling compared to methane, even when measured on a unit of concentration basis. This effect is described in this report as differential swelling. Differential swelling may have important consequences for enhanced coalbedmethane and carbon sequestration projects. To handle the effects of differential swelling, an extension to the matrix shrinkage and swelling model used by the COMET simulator is presented and shown to replicate the data of Levine. Preliminary field results from a carbon dioxide injection project are also presented in support of the extended model. The field evidence supports that considerable changes to coal permeability occur with CO{sub 2} injection, with significant implication for the design, implementation and performance of enhanced coalbedmethane recovery and CO{sub 2} sequestration projects.

The Bureau of Mines has been investigating several techniques, including the use of horizontal and vertical boreholes, to remove gas from coal in advance of mining. Horizontal boreholes drilled from underground workings as part of the mining cycle have been shown to be very effective in providing short-term, immediate relief from high methane emissions. The vertical borehole technique has the additional advantage over horizontal boreholes of allowing work to be performed on the surface instead of in the more restrictive underground environment. However, except for the relatively large scale vertical borehole programs for both mine safety and commercial production in the Black Warrior Basin of Alabama the technique has been underutilized. The primary reason for this seems to be a combination of the current economic climate in the coal industry, legal questions as to the ownership of coalbed gas, and potential roof damage from the stimulation treatments required to increase the characteristically low permeability of coalbeds to enhance gas production. The question of potential roof damage is the subject of this paper.

The presentation slides from the October 23, 1992 workshop on coalbedmethane exploration and production are assembled in this volume. They illustrate the following discussions: Overview of GRI Research at Rock Creek: Eight Years of Cooperative Research, Drilling and Completing CoalbedMethane Wells: Techniques for Fragile Formations, Connecting the Wellborne to the Formation: Perforations vs. Slotting, CoalbedMethane Well Testing in the Warrior Basin, Reservoir Engineering: A Case Study at Rock Creek, Fraccing of Multiple Thin Seams: Considerations and Constraints, Implementing Coal Seam Stimulations: Requirements for Successful Treatments, Coal-Fluid Interactions, Mine-Through Observations of Coal Seam Stimulations: Reality vs. Theory, and Recompleting CoalbedMethane Wells: The Second Try at Success.

The Drunkard`s Wash Project produces dry, coalbedmethane gas from coals within the Ferron Sandstone Member of the Mancos Shale. The project covers 120,000 acres on the western flank of the San Rafael Uplift in east-central Utah. Gas was first produced into the sales line in January 1993. The field is being developed on 160 acre spacing with 73 wells currently producing 32.2 MMCFD for an average of 437 MCFD/well. Thirty three of those wells have been producing for 32 months and now average 637 MCFD/well. Most of the wells show a classic coalbedmethane negative decline curve with increasing gas rates as the reservoir pressure declines due to production of water. Daily water production is 14,500 BPD, for an average of 199 BWPD/well. Total coal thickness ranges from 7 ft. to 48 ft., with an average of 24 ft. The coals occur in 3 to 6 seams at depths of 1350 to 2450 ft. The coal rank is high volatile A&B bituminous. We can not yet see a correlation between total coal thickness and current production. All wells are cased and hydraulically stimulated and most require pumping units to handle the large volumes of water. However, 22 wells do not require pumps and flow unassisted to the surface. The structure consists of monoclinal westward dip. A thin tonstein layer in the bottom coal seam serves as an excellent datum for mapping. Enhanced production is encountered along a southwest-plunging nose that probably formed additional fracture permeability within the coals. Northeast-trending reverse faults with small displacement appear to compartmentalize the reservoir. The Ferron coals were deposited in a river-dominated deltaic system that prograded to the east and southeast during Turonian-Coniacian (Upper Cretaceous) time. The Ferron Sandstone Member represents an eastward-thinning elastic wedge that was deposited during regression of the Western Interior Cretaceous seaway.

As of December 31, 1988, the potential Gas Committee, a group of industry experts, estimates that the remaining undiscovered potential supplies of natural gas amounted to 795.6 trillion cubic feet (TCF) in the United States, including the offshore areas. Besides the conventional sources, the sandstone and carbonate reservoirs that geologists have been looking for since Drake, there are a number of unconventional sources of natural gas. One of these, coal-bedmethane (CBM) is being actively developed today and promises to provide significant additions to the proved reserves of this nation in the next ten years. The potential supplies of CBM are variously estimates to be between 400 to 1,000 tcf, or equal to the remaining undiscovered conventional supplies of natural gas. If these estimates are real, they will have a profound effect on forecasts of future prices and availability of natural gas. How valid are these estimates At what rate will this new source of natural gas come on stream The answers to these questions are dependent in part upon the uniqueness of the coal reservoir. Coal can contain more natural gas than a comparable size conventional reservoir. A coal reservoir exhibits positive production decline instead of the negative decline of conventional reservoirs. There are legal and economic considerations that will affect the development of this relatively new and exciting source of natural gas. All of these questions are discussed by the author.

Field procedures and laboratory experiments to stimulate production from coalbedmethane reservoirs have largely been designed from experience with fractured reservoirs and coal geochemistry. This paper describes experiments to investigate the occurrence of cements in the permeability pathways in coal samples from mines and cores and how these diagenetic materials interact with completion and stimulation fluids based on core flow tests. Core flow testing of coals generally suggests damage by polymers and stimulation by several acids. Examination of cleat surfaces from the Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin and Fruitland coal from the San Juan Basin by light microscopy, SEM and XRD analyses show the presence of carbonate, quartz and iron sulfide cements in impermeable cleats and quartz, illite, kaolinite, barite, gypsum, and iron sulfates in permeable fractures. Fracture morphology is also complex with W branching shapes and surface textures. Illite is typically the most abundant clay and is also interlaminated with or interspersed in the coal. Kaolinite is most likely to migrate and its occurrence in meniscus forms and packed against steps in the cleats document mobility. Coal fines are also present in the cleats, concentrated with clays at steps and bends in the cleats. Injection of fluorescin tagged guar through coal plugs demonstrated the polymer`s affinity for clay and identified permeability pathways in coal.

The production of natural gas from coal typically requires stimulation in the form of hydraulic fracturing and, more recently, cavity completions. The results of hydraulic fracturing treatments have ranged from extremely successful to less than satisfactory. The purpose of this work is to characterize common and potential fracturing fluids in terms of coal-fluid interactions to identify reasons for less than satisfactory performance and to ultimately devise alternative fluids and treatment procedures to optimize production following hydraulic fracturing. The laboratory data reported herein has proven helpful in designing improved hydraulic fracturing treatments and remedial treatments in the Black Warrior Basin. Acid inhibitors, scale inhibitors, additives to improve coal relative permeability to gas, and non-damaging polymer systems for hydraulic fracturing have been screened in coal damage tests. The optimum conditions for creating field-like foams in the laboratory have been explored. Tests have been run to identify minimum polymer and surfactant concentrations for applications of foam in coal. The roll of 100 mesh sand in controlling leakoff and impairing conductivity in coal has been investigated. The leakoff and proppant transport of fluids with breaker has been investigated and recommendations have been made for breaker application to minimize damage potential in coal. A data base called COAL`S has been created in Paradox (trademark) for Windows to catalogue coalbedmethane activities in the Black Warrior and San Juan Basins.

One of the approaches suggested for sequestering CO{sub 2} is by injecting it in coalbedmethane (CBM) reservoirs. Despite its potential importance for CO{sub 2} sequestration, to our knowledge, CO{sub 2} injection in CBM reservoirs for the purpose of sequestration has not been widely studied. Furthermore, a key element missing in most of the existing studies is the comprehensive characterization of the CBM reservoir structure. CBM reservoirs are complex porous media, since in addition to their primary pore structure, generated during coal formation, they also contain a variety of fractures, which may potentially play a key role in CO{sub 2} sequestration, as they generally provide high permeability flow paths for both CO{sub 2} and CH{sub 4}. In this report we present an overview of our ongoing experimental and modeling efforts, which aim to investigate the injection, adsorption and sequestration of CO{sub 2} in CBM reservoirs, the enhanced CH{sub 4} production that results, as well as the main factors that affect the overall operation. We describe the various experimental techniques that we utilize, and discuss their range of application and the value of the data generated. We conclude with a brief overview of our modeling efforts aiming to close the knowledge gap and fill the need in this area.

Coalbedmethane resources throughout the entire Powder River Basin were reviewed in this analysis. The study was conducted at the township level, and as with all assessments conducted at such a broad level, readers must recognize and understand the limitations and appropriate use of the results. Raw and derived data provided in this report will not generally apply to any specific location. The coal geology in the basin is complex, which makes correlation with individual seams difficult at times. Although more than 12,000 wells have been drilled to date, large areas of the Powder River Basin remain relatively undeveloped. The lack of data obviously introduces uncertainty and increases variability. Proxies and analogs were used in the analysis out of necessity, though these were always based on sound reasoning. Future development in the basin will make new data and interpretations available, which will lead to a more complete description of the coals and their fluid flow properties, and refined estimates of natural gas and water production rates and cumulative recoveries. Throughout the course of the study, critical data assumptions and relationships regarding gas content, methane adsorption isotherms, and reservoir pressure were the topics of much discussion with reviewers. A summary of these discussion topics is provided as an appendix. Water influx was not modeled although it is acknowledged that this phenomenon may occur in some settings. As with any resource assessment, technical and economic results are the product of the assumptions and methodology used. In this study, key assumptions as well as cost and price data, and economic parameters are presented to fully inform readers. Note that many quantities shown in various tables have been subject to rounding; therefore, aggregation of basic and intermediate quantities may differ from the values shown.

There are similarities and differences in employing amplitude variation with offset (AVO) to explore for gas-sand reservoirs, as opposed to coal-bedmethane (CBM) reservoirs. The main similarity is that large Poisson's ratio contrasts, resulting in AVO gradient anomalies, are expected for both kinds of reservoirs. The main difference is that cleating and fracturing raise the Poisson's ratio of a coal seam as it improves its reservoir potential for CBM, while gas always lowers the Poisson's ratio of a sandstone reservoir. The top of gas sands usually has a negative AVO gradient, leading to a class one, two, or three anomaly depending on the impedance contrast with the overlying caprock. On the other hand, the top of a CBM reservoir has a positive AVO gradient, leading to a class four anomaly. Three environmental factors may limit the usage of AVO for CBM reservoirs: the smaller contrast in Poisson's ratio between a CBM reservoir and its surrounding rock, variations in the caprock of a specific CBM reservoir, and the fact that CBM is not always free to collect at structurally high points in the reservoir. However, other factors work in favor of using AVO. The strikingly high reflection amplitude of coal improves signal/noise ratio and hence the reliability of AVO measurements. The relatively simple characteristics of AVO anomalies make them easy to interpret. Because faults are known to improve the quality of CBM reservoirs, faults accompanied by AVO anomalies would be especially convincing. A 3D-AVO example offered in this paper shows that AVO might be helpful to delineate methane-rich sweet spots within coal seams.

To assist coalbedmethane in their efforts to manage produced waters in an environmentally acceptable manner, GRI, in cooperation with the member companies of the CoalbedMethane Association of Alabama, developed a guidance manual that presents the state-of-the-art methodology for managing Black Warrior Basin produced water through the use of treatment ponds and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. Six treatment pond systems were studied to develop information for the manual. Topics included in the manual are produced water characteristics, NPDES permit requirements, sample collection and testing, pond based treatment methods, treatment pond management, and process troubleshooting.

The production performance of many Black Warrior Basin coalbedmethane wells has been economically attractive, but there are also approximately 2,000 poorly producing wells in the Basin. To help operators determine why these wells are producing poorly and what to do about it, the Gas Research Institute formed the Productivity Improvement Project (PIP). Three different study areas were selected to investigate why some wells are producing poorly, to develop effective remediation strategies, and to test various diagnostic tools and methods to identify remediation candidates.

In 1921 and again in 1988, workers demonstrated that the high volatile A and B coals of the Pennsylvanian Cherokee Group can be produced economically from vertically drilled holes, and that some of these coals have a gas content as high as 200 ft{sup 3}/ton. Detailed subsurface mapping on a county-by-county basis using geophysical logs shows the Weir coal seam to be the thickest (up to 6 ft thick) and to exist in numerous amoeba-shaped pockets covering several thousand acres. Lateral pinch-out into deltaic sands offers a conventional gas source. New attention to geophysical logging shows most coals have a negative SP response, high resistivities, and densities of 1.6 g/cm{sup 3}. Highly permeable coals cause lost circulation during drilling and thief zones during cementing, and they are the source of abundant unwanted salt water. Low-permeability coals can be recognized by their high fracture gradients, which are difficult to explain but are documented to exceed 2.2. Current successful completions use both limited-entry, small-volume nitrogen stimulations or an open hole below production casing. Subsurface coals are at normal Mid-Continent pressures and may be free of water. Initially, some wells flow naturally without pumping. Saltwater disposal is often helped by the need for water in nearby waterflood projects and the easy availability of state-approved saltwater disposal wells in Mississippi and Arbuckle carbonates. Recent attempts to recomplete coal zones in slim-hole completions are having mixed results. The major restraints to coal-bedmethane production are restricted to low permeability of the coals and engineering problems, not to the availability or gas content of the coals.

Geologic evaluation of critical production parameters for coalbed-methane resources in the Black Warrior basin of Alabama employed an interdisciplinary approach that utilized structural, coal-quality, sedimentologic, hydrologic, and engineering data. Results indicate that geologic factors are a major control on the producibility of coalbedmethane and that completion techniques may be used to increase recovery if tailored to specific geologic settings. Sedimentologic and coal-quality parameters may be used to locate regions for coalbed-methane development by characterizing the occurrence, rank, and grade of coal resources. However, high-productivity trends within those regions are localized, and geologic data suggest that productivity trends may be predictable. Several highly productive trends occur along northeast-oriented lineaments. These lineaments are the inferred surface expression of zones of enhanced permeability which are related to fractures. Productive trends also are associated with areas of low reservoir pressure, and salinity maps indicate that fresh water has migrated toward areas with low reservoir pressure. The available data indicate that structure and hydrology are critical production parameters that may be used to identify favorable well sites within regions containing significant coalbed-methane resources.

The presentation slides from the October 21, 1992 workshop on coalbedmethane exploration and production are assembled in this volume. They illustrate the following discussions Overview of GRI Research at Rock Creek: Eight Years of Cooperative Research, Drilling and Completing Coalbed to the Formation: Perforations vs. Slotting, CoalbedMethane Well Testing in the Warrior Basin, Reservoir Engineering: A Case Study at Rock Creek, Fraccing of Multiple Thin Seams: Considerations and Constraints, Implementing Coal Seam Stimulations: Requirements for Successful Treatments, Coal-Fluid Interactions, Mine-Through Observations of Coal Seam Stimulations: Reality vs. Theory, and Improving Gas Production: Techniques of Operations.

Water associated with coalbedmethane (CBM) production is a significant and costly process waste stream, and economic treatment and/or disposal of this water is often the key to successful and profitable CBM development. In the past decade, advances have been made in the treatment of CBM produced water. However, produced water generally must be transported in some fashion to a centralized treatment and/or disposal facility. The cost of transporting this water, whether through the development of a water distribution system or by truck, is often greater than the cost of treatment or disposal. To address this economic issue, BC Technologies (BCT), in collaboration with Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and International Petroleum Environmental Consortium (IPEC), proposed developing a mechanical unit that could be used to treat CBM produced water by forming gas hydrates at the wellhead. This process involves creating a gas hydrate, washing it and then disassociating hydrate into water and gas molecules. The application of this technology results in three process streams: purified water, brine, and gas. The purified water can be discharged or reused for a variety of beneficial purposes and the smaller brine can be disposed of using conventional strategies. The overall objectives of this research are to develop a new treatment method for produced water where it could be purified directly at the wellhead, to determine the effectiveness of hydrate formation for the treatment of produced water with proof of concept laboratory experiments, to design a prototype-scale injector and test it in the laboratory under realistic wellhead conditions, and to demonstrate the technology under field conditions. By treating the water on-site, producers could substantially reduce their surface handling costs and economically remove impurities to a quality that would support beneficial use. Batch bench-scale experiments of the hydrate formation process and research conducted at ORNL confirmed the feasibility of the process. However, researchers at BCT were unable to develop equipment suitable for continuous operation and demonstration of the process in the field was not attempted. The significant achievements of the research area: Bench-scale batch results using carbon dioxide indicate >40% of the feed water to the hydrate formation reactor was converted to hydrate in a single pass; The batch results also indicate >23% of the feed water to the hydrate formation reactor (>50% of the hydrate formed) was converted to purified water of a quality suitable for discharge; Continuous discharge and collection of hydrates was achieved at atmospheric pressure. Continuous hydrate formation and collection at atmospheric conditions was the most significant achievement and preliminary economics indicate that if the unit could be made operable, it is potentially economic. However, the inability to continuously separate the hydrate melt fraction left the concept not ready for field demonstration and the project was terminated after Phase Two research.

Disposal of produced waters, pumped to the surface as part of coalbedmethane (CBM) development, is a significant environmental issue in the Wyoming portion of the Powder River Basin, USA. High sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) of the waters could degrade agricultural land, especially if directly applied to the soil surface. One method of disposing of CBM water, while deriving beneficial use, is subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), where acidified CBM waters are applied to alfalfa fields year-round via tubing buried 0.92 m deep. Effects of the method were studied on an alluvial terrace with a relatively shallow depth to water table (?3 m). Excess irrigation water caused the water table to rise, even temporarily reaching the depth of drip tubing. The rise corresponded to increased salinity in some monitoring wells. Three factors appeared to drive increased groundwater salinity: (1) CBM solutes, concentrated by evapotranspiration; (2) gypsum dissolution, apparently enhanced by cation exchange; and (3) dissolution of native Na–Mg–SO{sub 4} salts more soluble than gypsum. Irrigation with high SAR (?24) water has increased soil saturated paste SAR up to 15 near the drip tubing. Importantly though, little change in SAR has occurred at the surface.

Geologic evaluation of critical production parameters in the Black Warrior basin employed an interdisciplinary approach that utilized structural, sedimentologic, coal-quality, hydrologic, completion, and production data. Results indicate that geologic structure affected sedimentation, coalification, hydrogeology, and the ultimate occurrence and producibility of coalbedmethane. Geologic trend analysis was used to characterize regional coalbed-methane potential, and results indicate that many parts of the basin have untapped resources. Some highly productive trends coincide with northeast-trending structures that apparently are zones of enhanced fracture permeability. Water-production data indicate that many high-permeability trends exist that are not associated with exceptional coalbed-methane production and that the coal beds are structurally compartmentalized reservoirs. Water-level data indicate that all highly productive coalbed-methane wells occur where reservoir pressure has been lowered significantly. Therefore, highly productive areas apparently represent structural compartments where formation pressure has been lowered enough to facilitate desorption of a large quantity of methane. Results of the research suggest that completion technology and field design can be tailored to specific geologic settings to produce from reservoir compartments that are readily depressurized, thereby optimizing reservoir drainage.

Energy development is expanding across the United States, particularly in western states like Wyoming. Federal and state land management agencies, local governments, industry and non-governmental organizations have realized the need to access spatially-referenced data and other non-spatial information to determine the geographical extent and cumulative impacts of expanding energy development. The Wyoming Energy Resources Information Clearinghouse (WERIC) is a web-based portal which centralizes access to news, data, maps, reports and other information related to the development, management and conservation of Wyomingâ??s diverse energy resources. WERIC was established in 2006 by the University of Wyomingâ??s Ruckelshaus Institute of Environment and Natural Resources (ENR) and the Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center (WyGISC) with funding from the US Department of Energy (DOE) and the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The WERIC web portal originated in concept from a more specifically focused website, the CoalbedMethane (CBM) Clearinghouse. The CBM Clearinghouse effort focused only on coalbedmethane production within the Powder River Basin of northeast Wyoming. The CBM Clearinghouse demonstrated a need to expand the effort statewide with a comprehensive energy focus, including fossil fuels and renewable and alternative energy resources produced and/or developed in Wyoming. WERIC serves spatial data to the greater Wyoming geospatial community through the Wyoming GeoLibrary, the WyGISC Data Server and the Wyoming Energy Map. These applications are critical components that support the Wyoming Energy Resources Information Clearinghouse (WERIC). The Wyoming GeoLibrary is a tool for searching and browsing a central repository for metadata. It provides the ability to publish and maintain metadata and geospatial data in a distributed environment. The WyGISC Data Server is an internet mapping application that provides traditional GIS mapping and analysis functionality via the web. It is linked into various state and federal agency spatial data servers allowing users to visualize multiple themes, such as well locations and core sage grouse areas, in one domain. Additionally, this application gives users the ability to download any of the data being displayed within the web map. The Wyoming Energy Map is the newest mapping application developed directly from this effort. With over a 100 different layers accessible via this mapping application, it is the most comprehensive Wyoming energy mapping application available. This application also provides the public with the ability to create cultural and wildlife reports based on any location throughout Wyoming and at multiple scales. The WERIC website also allows users to access links to federal, state, and local natural resource agency websites and map servers; research documents about energy; and educational information, including information on upcoming energy-relate conferences. The WERIC website has seen significant use by energy industry consultants, land management agencies, state and local decision-makers, non-governmental organizations and the public. Continued service to these sectors is desirable but some challenges remain in keeping the WERIC site viable. The most pressing issue is finding the human and financial resources to keep the site continually updated. Initially, the concept included offering users the ability to maintain the site themselves; however, this has proven not to be a viable option since very few people contributed. Without user contributions, the web page relied on already committed university staff to publish and link to the appropriate documents and web-pages. An option that is currently being explored to address this issue is development of a partnership with the University of Wyoming, School of Energy Resources (SER). As part of their outreach program, SER may be able to contribute funding for a full-time position dedicated to maintenance of WERIC.

Measurements of sorption isotherms and transport properties of CO2 in coal cores are important for designing enhanced coalbedmethane/CO2 sequestration field projects. Sorption isotherms measured in the lab can provide the upper limit on the amount of CO2 that might be sorbed in these projects. Because sequestration sites will most likely be in unmineable coals, many of the coals will be deep and under considerable lithostatic and hydrostatic pressures. These lithostatic pressures may significantly reduce the sorption capacities and/or transport rates. Consequently, we have studied apparent sorption and diffusion in a coal core under confining pressure. A core from the important bituminous coal Pittsburgh #8 was kept under a constant, three-dimensional external stress; the sample was scanned by X-ray computer tomography (CT) before, then while it sorbed, CO2. Increases in sample density due to sorption were calculated from the CT images. Moreover, density distributions for small volume elements inside the core were calculated and analyzed. Qualitatively, the computerized tomography showed that gas sorption advanced at different rates in different regions of the core, and that diffusion and sorption progressed slowly. The amounts of CO2 sorbed were plotted vs. position (at fixed times) and vs. time (for various locations in the sample). The resulting sorption isotherms were compared to isotherms obtained from powdered coal from the same Pittsburgh #8 extended sample. The results showed that for this single coal at specified times, the apparent sorption isotherms were dependent on position of the volume element in the core and the distance from the CO2 source. Also, the calculated isotherms showed that less CO2 was sorbed than by a powdered (and unconfined) sample of the coal. Changes in density distributions during the experiment were also observed. After desorption, the density distribution of calculated volume elements differed from the initial distribution, suggesting hysteresis and a possible rearrangement of coal structure due to CO2 sorption.

Coal in the Brookwood and Oak Grove fields in Alabama generally ranges from low- to medium-volatile bituminous rank. Lithologic and stratigraphic evidence indicates that the coal was deposited in structurally influenced alluvial environments. Coal beds are thickest and easily mined on structurally stable, uplifted fault block and the coal beds thin and split in the more heavily faulted downdropped areas, which are amenable to coalbed degasification. In Brookwood field, mine dewatering and deep degasification zones may act in concert, causing upward movement of saline water along faults. In Oak Grove field, mine dewatering evidently creates areas of low fluid pressure and promotes downward movement of fresh water along faults. Production of methane is greatest in wells producing the most water. The method of well stimulation is of minor importance in Brookwood field, however, in Oak Grove field the water-sand-fracture method gives the highest initial-production rate. High-yield wells are located close to faults and lineaments. Lower productivity in Brookwood field may be related to venting of methane in nearby underground mines.

. This basin was studied to investigate the potential of CO2 sequestration and ECBM. Primary recovery of methane is controversial ranging between 20-60% based on reservoir properties in coal bed reservoirs15. Using CO2 sequestration as a secondary recovery...

Power generation in the Illinois Basin is expected to increase by as much as 30% by the year 2030, and this would increase the cooling water consumption in the region by approximately 40%. This project investigated the potential use of produced water from CO{sub 2} enhanced oil recovery (CO{sub 2}-EOR) operations; coal-bedmethane (CBM) recovery; and active and abandoned underground coal mines for power plant cooling in the Illinois Basin. Specific objectives of this project were: (1) to characterize the quantity, quality, and geographic distribution of produced water in the Illinois Basin; (2) to evaluate treatment options so that produced water may be used beneficially at power plants; and (3) to perform a techno-economic analysis of the treatment and transportation of produced water to thermoelectric power plants in the Illinois Basin. Current produced water availability within the basin is not large, but potential flow rates up to 257 million liters per day (68 million gallons per day (MGD)) are possible if CO{sub 2}-enhanced oil recovery and coal bed methane recovery are implemented on a large scale. Produced water samples taken during the project tend to have dissolved solids concentrations between 10 and 100 g/L, and water from coal beds tends to have lower TDS values than water from oil fields. Current pretreatment and desalination technologies including filtration, adsorption, reverse osmosis (RO), and distillation can be used to treat produced water to a high quality level, with estimated costs ranging from $2.6 to $10.5 per cubic meter ($10 to $40 per 1000 gallons). Because of the distances between produced water sources and power plants, transportation costs tend to be greater than treatment costs. An optimization algorithm was developed to determine the lowest cost pipe network connecting sources and sinks. Total water costs increased with flow rate up to 26 million liters per day (7 MGD), and the range was from $4 to $16 per cubic meter ($15 to $60 per 1000 gallons), with treatment costs accounting for 13 â?? 23% of the overall cost. Results from this project suggest that produced water is a potential large source of cooling water, but treatment and transportation costs for this water are large.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from energy consumption is a primary source of greenhouse gases. Injection of CO2 from power plants in coalbed reservoirs is a plausible method for reducing atmospheric emissions, and it can have the ...

Impact on water quality and the beneficial use of the coal bed methane (CBM) produced water are imminent questions to be answered due to the rapidly growing CBM exploration in the Powder River Basin (PRB). The practice of discharging large volumes of water into drainage channels or using it to irrigate rangeland areas has the potential of causing serious problems. The elevated salinity and sodicity in the CBM water may be detrimental to soils, plants and the associated microbial communities. There are limited studies on CBM water characterization; however, a comprehensive understanding of CBM water influence on the local ecosystem is lacking. It is very important that the water applied to soils meets the favorable combination of salinity and sodicity that will allow the plants to grow at good production levels and that will maintain the structure of the soils. The purpose of this study was to access various CBM water treatment technologies and the influence of the treated water on local biogeochemical settings in order to evaluate and identify the proper technologies to treat the CBM produced water from CBM operations, and use it in an environmentally safe manner. Unfortunately, a suitable field site was not identified and the funds for this effort were moved to a different project.

. This permeability anisotropy tends to create a preferential flow. In facts, the permeability has impacts on the coal bed methane production. One of the well known impacts is the drainage pattern shape. 1.4 Cleats Compression and Matrix Shrinkage Effect (Palmer.... This theory, in facts, has impacts on coal bed methane production. Because the matrix shrinkage phenomenon tends to develop permeability rebound at lower pressure. It might also have implications for enhanced coal bed methane recovery such as CO2...

of enhancing methane recovery from coal. Most previous studies have evaluated the merits of CO2 disposal in high-rank coals. Low-rank coals in the Gulf Coastal plain, specifically in Texas, are possible targets for CO2 sequestration and enhanced methane...

The authors' long term goal is to develop accurate prediction methods for describing the adsorption behavior of gas mixtures on solid adsorbents over complete ranges of temperature, pressure and adsorbent types. The major objectives of the project are to: (1) measure the adsorption behavior of pure CO{sub 2}, methane, nitrogen and their binary and ternary mixtures on several selected coals having different properties at temperatures and pressures applicable to the particular coal being studied, (2) generalize the adsorption results in terms of appropriate properties of the coals, to facilitate estimation of adsorption behavior for coals other than those studied experimentally, (3) delineate the sensitivity of the competitive adsorption of CO{sub 2}, methane and nitrogen to the specific characteristics of the coal on which they are adsorbed; establish the major differences (if any) in the nature of this competitive adsorption on different coals, and (4) test and/or develop theoretically-based mathematical models to represent accurately the adsorption behavior of mixtures of the type for which measurements are made. The specific accomplishments of this project during this reporting period are summarized below in three broad categories outlining experimentation, model development, and coal characterization. (1) Experimental Work: Our adsorption apparatus was reassembled, and all instruments were tested and calibrated. Having confirmed the viability of the experimental apparatus and procedures used, adsorption isotherms for pure methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen on wet Fruitland coal were measured at 319.3 K (115 F) and pressures to 12.4 MPa (1800 psia). These measurements showed good agreement with our previous data and yielded an expected uncertainty of about 2%. Preparations are underway to measure adsorption isotherms for pure methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen on two other coals. (2) Model Development: The experimental data were used to evaluate the predictive capabilities of various adsorption models, including the Langmuir/loading ratio correlation, two-dimensional cubic equations of state, and the local density model. In general, all models performed well for Type I adsorption exhibited by methane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide up to 8.3 MPa (average deviations within 2%). However, for pressures higher than 8.3 MPa (1200 psia), carbon dioxide produced multilayer adsorption behavior similar to Type IV adsorption. Our results to date indicate that the SLD model may be a suitable choice for modeling multilayer coalbed gas adsorption. However, model improvements are required to (a) account for coal heterogeneity and structure complexity, and (b) provide for more accurate density predictions. (3) Coal Characterization: We have identified several well-characterized coals for use in our adsorption studies. The criteria for coal selection has been guided by the need for coals that (a) span the spectrum of properties encountered in coalbedmethane production (such as variation in rank), and (b) originate from coalbedmethane recovery sites (e.g., San Juan Basin, Black Warrior Basin, etc.). At Pennsylvania State University, we have completed calibrating our instruments using a well-characterized activated carbon. In addition, we have conducted CO{sub 2} and methane uptakes on four samples, including (a) a widely used commercial activated carbon, BPL from Calgon Carbon Corp.; (b) an Illinois No.6 bituminous coal from the Argonne Premium Coal sample bank; (c) a Fruitland Intermediate coal sample; (d) a dry Fruitland sample. The results are as expected, except for a greater sensitivity to the outgassing temperature. ''Standard'' outgassing conditions (e.g., 383.2 K, overnight), which are often used, may not be appropriate for gas storage in coalbeds. Conditions that are more representative of in-situ coal (approximately 313.2 K) may be much more appropriate. In addition, our results highlight the importance of assessing the degree of approach to adsorption equilibrium.

Production data from coalbed degasification wells characteristically exhibit a negative decline curve. The dynamics of this methane production are complex and interrelated. As production begins, water and free gas are often first recovered. Continued production lowers pressure and increases permeability to gas, allowing adsorbed gas to flow. This pressure drop within the formation causes sublimation whereby gas, which is absorbed within the coal, forms on the walls of the micropores. Finally, the desorption through production disturbs the chemical and physical equilibrium of the coal, thus enabling the coal to resume generation of methane.

A preliminary three-dimensional numerical model was developed to simulate hydraulically driven fracturing for application to coal seam methane drainage. The initial focus was development of a circular fracture model which served, in part, as a test bed for concepts and formulations applicable to the more general three-dimensional model. Findings from circular model studies were used to design a multiseam fracture treatment. The three-dimensional model involved development of exact influence coefficients for the elastic calculations, inclusion of the aperture time derivative, implementation of an equilibrium tip condition, incorporation of modulus and stress layering, dynamic grid rezoning, incorporation of a two-dimensional fluid flow solution, implementation of the applicable fluid flow boundary conditions, development of a physically realistic fracture front propagation scheme, and proper coupling and control of the various fracture, flow, and calculational model components. Model simulations illustrate important physical effects of fracturing in coal. Preliminary simulations are discussed which show the effects of different viscosity fluids, and effects of stress and modulus variations on vertical fracture containment.

Three primary factors that control gas content in coal beds are present depth of coal, maximum original burial depth, and depositional environments of the coal. Complex distribution of gas content suggests an interplay between these primary factors, as well as other controls. Present depth can be predicted in terms of surface geology and structure. Four closely spaced core holes in the Tuscaloosa area provide detailed data for interpretation of depositional environments and for inference of relative original depth of burial. Gas content apparently is higher in bayfill and bay-margin coals than in coals that were deposited in other environments. Data from petrophysical logs of petroleum wells can be used for regional stratigraphic mapping to outline extent of depositional systems. Correlations show that the section in the Cahaba synclinorium is thicker and contains more coal beds than that in the Black Warrior basin. 15 refs., 22 figs., 5 tabs.

The authors' long-term goal is to develop accurate prediction methods for describing the adsorption behavior of gas mixtures on solid adsorbents over complete ranges of temperature, pressure, and adsorbent types. The originally-stated, major objectives of the current project are to: (1) measure the adsorption behavior of pure CO{sub 2}, methane, nitrogen, and their binary and ternary mixtures on several selected coals having different properties at temperatures and pressures applicable to the particular coals being studied, (2) generalize the adsorption results in terms of appropriate properties of the coals to facilitate estimation of adsorption behavior for coals other than those studied experimentally, (3) delineate the sensitivity of the competitive adsorption of CO{sub 2}, methane, and nitrogen to the specific characteristics of the coal on which they are adsorbed; establish the major differences (if any) in the nature of this competitive adsorption on different coals, and (4) test and/or develop theoretically-based mathematical models to represent accurately the adsorption behavior of mixtures of the type for which measurements are made. As this project developed, an important additional objective was added to the above original list. Namely, we were encouraged to interact with industry and/or governmental agencies to utilize our expertise to advance the state of the art in coalbed adsorption science and technology. As a result of this additional objective, we participated with the Department of Energy and industry in the measurement and analysis of adsorption behavior as part of two distinct investigations. These include (a) Advanced Resources International (ARI) DOE Project DE-FC26-00NT40924, ''Adsorption of Pure Methane, Nitrogen, and Carbon Dioxide and Their Mixtures on Wet Tiffany Coal'', and (b) the DOE-NETL Project, ''Round Robin: CO{sub 2} Adsorption on Selected Coals''. These activities, contributing directly to the DOE projects listed above, also provided direct synergism with the original goals of our work. Specific accomplishments of this project are summarized below in three broad categories: experimentation, model development, and coal characterization.

Potential public health and safety problems and the potential environmental impacts from the recovery of gas from coalbeds are identified and examined. The technology of methane recovery is described and economic and legal barriers to production are discussed. (ACR)

Coalbedmethane (CBM) occurs in coal beds of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian (Carboniferous) age in the Appalachian basin, which extends almost continuously from New York to Alabama. In general, the basin includes three structural subbasins: the Dunkard basin in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and northern West Virginia; the Pocahontas basin in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and southwestern Virginia; and the Black Warrior basin in Alabama and Mississippi. For assessment purposes, the Appalachian basin was divided into two assessment provinces: the Appalachian Basin Province from New York to Alabama, and the Black Warrior Basin Province in Alabama and Mississippi. By far, most of the coalbedmethane produced in the entire Appalachian basin has come from the Black Warrior Basin Province. 8 refs., 1 fig., 1 tab.

U.S. emphasis on domestic energy independence, along with advances in knowledge of vast biogenically sourced coalbedmethane reserves at relatively shallow sub-surface depths with the Powder River Basin, has resulted in rapid expansion of the coalbedmethane industry in Wyoming and Montana. Techniques have recently been developed which constitute relatively efficient drilling and methane gas recovery and extraction techniques. However, this relatively efficient recovery requires aggressive reduction of hydrostatic pressure within water-saturated coal formations where the methane is trapped. Water removed from the coal formation during pumping is typically moderately saline and sodium-bicarbonate rich, and managed as an industrial waste product. Current approaches to coalbedmethane product water management include: surface spreading on rangeland landscapes, managed irrigation of agricultural crop lands, direct discharge to ephermeral channels, permitted discharge of treated and untreated water to perennial streams, evaporation, subsurface injection at either shallow or deep depths. A Department of Energy-National Energy Technology Laboratory funded research award involved the investigation and assessment of: (1) phytoremediation as a water management technique for waste water produced in association with coalbedmethane gas extraction; (2) feasibility of commercial-scale, low-impact industrial water treatment technologies for the reduction of salinity and sodicity in coalbedmethane gas extraction by-product water; and (3) interactions of coalbedmethane extraction by-product water with landscapes, vegetation, and water resources of the Powder River Basin. Prospective, greenhouse studies of salt tolerance and water use potential of indigenous, riparian vegetation species in saline-sodic environments confirmed the hypothesis that species such as Prairie cordgrass, Baltic rush, American bulrush, and Nuttall's alkaligrass will thrive in saline-sodic environments when water supplies sourced from coalbedmethane extraction are plentiful. Constructed wetlands, planted to native, salt tolerant species demonstrated potential to utilize substantial volumes of coalbedmethane product water, although plant community transitions to mono-culture and limited diversity communities is a likely consequence over time. Additionally, selected, cultured forage quality barley varieties and native plant species such as Quail bush, 4-wing saltbush, and seaside barley are capable of sustainable, high quality livestock forage production, when irrigated with coalbedmethane product water sourced from the Powder River Basin. A consequence of long-term plant water use which was enumerated is elevated salinity and sodicity concentrations within soil and shallow alluvial groundwater into which coalbedmethane product water might drain. The most significant conclusion of these investigations was the understanding that phytoremediation is not a viable, effective technique for management of coalbedmethane product water under the present circumstances of produced water within the Powder River Basin. Phytoremediation is likely an effective approach to sodium and salt removal from salt-impaired sites after product water discharges are discontinued and site reclamation is desired. Coalbedmethane product water of the Powder River Basin is most frequently impaired with respect to beneficial use quality by elevated sodicity, a water quality constituent which can cause swelling, slaking, and dispersion of smectite-dominated clay soils, such as commonly occurring within the Powder River Basin. To address this issue, a commercial-scale fluid-bed, cationic resin exchange treatment process and prototype operating treatment plant was developed and beta-tested by Drake Water Technologies under subcontract to this award. Drake Water Technologies secured U.S. Patent No. 7,368,059-B2, 'Method for removal of benevolent cations from contaminated water', a beta Drake Process Unit (DPU) was developed and deployed for operation in the Powder River Basin. First year operatio

curves. Further solution of a specific CBM single-well problem and parametric study for evaluation impact of separate parameters were conducted. Focus of the studies was on well production forecasting, effect of mechanical properties of coal...

AFDC Printable Version Share this resource Send a link to EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page to someone by E-mail Share EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Facebook Tweet about EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Twitter Bookmark EERE: Alternative1 First Use of Energy for All Purposes (Fuel and Nonfuel), 2002; Level: National5Sales for On-Highway4,1,50022,3,,,,6,1,9,1,50022,3,,,,6,1,Decade EnergyTennesseeYear Jan Next MECS will be fieldedYearLocation

AFDC Printable Version Share this resource Send a link to EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page to someone by E-mail Share EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Facebook Tweet about EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Twitter Bookmark EERE: Alternative1 First Use of Energy for All Purposes (Fuel and Nonfuel), 2002; Level: National5Sales for On-Highway4,1,50022,3,,,,6,1,9,1,50022,3,,,,6,1,Decade EnergyTennesseeYear Jan Next MECS will be fieldedYearLocationCubic

Methane is an important greenhouse gas whose concentration in the atmosphere is increasing. Although this increase in atmospheric methane is correlative with growth in human population and activities, the exact causes for the increase are not fully understood. Because of increasing energy demand, particularly in developing countries where population is increasing, coal production is likely to increase over the next few decades and this could further increase the flux of atmospheric methane. In addition, no data are currently available on methane flux from coalbeds as a result of natural processes such as leakage at outcrops, or along faults and fractures that could provide avenues for methane migration upward from coal at depth. To better understand the global methane cycle and the role of fossil fuels in methane emissions, field measurements of methane emissions are needed from coalbeds, from areas of active mining, from coalbed gas production, and from undisturbed coals. In this paper, we report results of field measurements of CH[sub 4] emissions from surface and underground mines, fault zones, and coreholes in the Black Warrior Basin, Alabama. Ventilation of underground mines in Mary Lee group coals (of economic usage) gave the highest methane emissions rates - about 71,480,000 m[sup 3]/yr (2.5 Bcf or billion cubic feet) from one ventilation shaft. In contrast, very low emissions occurred from active or abandoned coreholes and from Brookwood group coals (of economic usage) exposed by surface mining (about 81 m[sup 3]/yr (2.9 Mcf or thousand cubic feet)). Methane flux of as much as about 500 m[sup 3]/yr occurs from a small section of a normal fault and associated joints exposed at Bankhead Lock and Dam. The carbon isotopic composition of CH[sub 4] collected at the Bankhead Fault ([delta][sup 13]C -49.3 permil) indicates a coalbed origin. 50 refs., 15 figs., 4 tabs.

The primary project goal is to develop and test tools for optimization of ECBM recovery and geologic storage of CO{sub 2} in coalbeds, in addition to tools for monitoring CO{sub 2} sequestration in coalbeds to support risk assessment. Three critical topics identified are (1) the integrity of coal bed methane geologic and engineered systems, (2) the optimization of the coal bed storage process, and (3) reliable monitoring and verification systems appropriate to the special conditions of CO{sub 2} storage and flow in coals.

The formation and retention of methane in coalbeds was studied for ten Utah coal samples, one Colorado coal sample and eight coal samples from the Argonne Premium Coal Sample Bank.Methane gas content of the Utah and Colorado coals varied from zero to 9 cm{sup 3}/g. The Utah coals were all high volatile bituminous coals. The Colorado coal was a gassy medium volatile bituminous coal. The Argonne coals cover a range or rank from lignite to low volatile bituminous coal and were used to determine the effect of rank in laboratory studies. The methane content of six selected Utah coal seams and the Colorado coal seam was measured in situ using a special sample collection device and a bubble desorbometer. Coal samples were collected at each measurement site for laboratory analysis. The cleat and joint system was evaluated for the coal and surrounding rocks and geological conditions were noted. Permeability measurements were performed on selected samples and all samples were analyzed for proximate and ultimate analysis, petrographic analysis, {sup 13}C NMR dipolar-dephasing spectroscopy, and density analysis. The observed methane adsorption behavior was correlated with the chemical structure and physical properties of the coals.

The Warrior basin in Alabama is the most active area in the US producing natural gas from coal beds. As of 1986, 300 coal-bedmethane wells were producing from eight degasification fields, mainly from the Pennsylvanian coal seams along the eastern margin of the basin. Despite difficult market conditions, drilling and expansion are continuing. A detailed geologic analysis of Warrior basin coal-bedmethane targets the areas of the basin that show the most promise for future gas production. The geologic analysis is based on extensive well and core data and basin-wide correlations of the Pennsylvanian coal groups. Four detailed cross sections were constructed, correlating the target coal groups in the basin, namely the Cobb, Pratt, Mary Lee, and Black Creek. They estimate that the Warrior basin contains nearly 20 tcf of in-place coal-bedmethane, mainly in three of the target coal groups - the Pratt, Mary Lee, and Black Creek coals, with 4, 7, and 8 tcf, respectively. The east-central area of the basin contains the greatest volume of natural gas resource due to its concentration of thicker, higher ranked coals with high gas content. The geologic analysis also provided the underlying framework for the subsequent engineering analysis of economically recoverable gas reserves. For example, analysis of structure and tectonics showed the east-central area to be promising for gas recovery due to its proximity to the Appalachian structural front and consequent structural deformation and permeability enhancement.

In October, 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy, through contractor Advanced Resources International, launched a multi-year government-industry R&D collaboration called the Coal-Seq project. The Coal-Seq project is investigating the feasibility of CO{sub 2} sequestration in deep, unmineable coalseams, by performing detailed reservoir studies of two enhanced coalbedmethane recovery (ECBM) field projects in the San Juan basin. The two sites are the Allison Unit, operated by Burlington Resources, and into which CO{sub 2} is being injected, and the Tiffany Unit, operating by BP America, into which N{sub 2} is being injected (the interest in understanding the N{sub 2}-ECBM process has important implications for CO{sub 2} sequestration via flue-gas injection). The purposes of the field studies are to understand the reservoir mechanisms of CO{sub 2} and N{sub 2} injection into coalseams, demonstrate the practical effectiveness of the ECBM and sequestration processes, an engineering capability to simulate them, and to evaluate sequestration economics. In support of these efforts, laboratory and theoretical studies are also being performed to understand and model multi-component isotherm behavior, and coal permeability changes due to swelling with CO{sub 2} injection. This report describes the results of an important component of the overall project, applying the findings from the San Juan Basin to a national scale to develop a preliminary assessment of the CO{sub 2} sequestration and ECBM recovery potential of U.S. coalbeds. Importantly, this assessment improves upon previous investigations by (1) including a more comprehensive list of U.S. coal basins, (2) adopting technical rationale for setting upper-bound limits on the results, and (3) incorporating new information on CO{sub 2}/CH{sub 4} replacement ratios as a function of coal rank. Based on the results of the assessment, the following conclusions have been drawn: (1) The CO{sub 2} sequestration capacity of U.S. coalbeds is estimated to be about 90 Gt. Of this, about 38 Gt is in Alaska (even after accounting for high costs associated with this province), 14 Gt is in the Powder River basin, 10 Gt is in the San Juan basin, and 8 Gt is in the Greater Green River basin. By comparison, total CO{sub 2} emissions from power generation plants is currently about 2.2 Gt/year. (2) The ECBM recovery potential associated with this sequestration is estimated to be over 150 Tcf. Of this, 47 Tcf is in Alaska (even after accounting for high costs associated with this province), 20 Tcf is in the Powder River basin, 19 Tcf is in the Greater Green River basin, and 16 Tcf is in the San Juan basin. By comparison, total CBM recoverable resources are currently estimated to be about 170 Tcf. (3) Between 25 and 30 Gt of CO{sub 2} can be sequestered at a profit, and 80-85 Gt can be sequestered at costs of less than $5/ton. These estimates do not include any costs associated with CO{sub 2} capture and transportation, and only represent geologic sequestration. (4) Several Rocky Mountain basins, including the San Juan, Raton, Powder River and Uinta appear to hold the most favorable conditions for sequestration economics. The Gulf Coast and the Central Appalachian basin also appear to hold promise as economic sequestration targets, depending upon gas prices. (5) In general, the 'non-commercial' areas (those areas outside the main play area that are not expected to produce primary CBM commercially) appear more favorable for sequestration economics than the 'commercial' areas. This is because there is more in-place methane to recover in these settings (the 'commercial' areas having already been largely depleted of methane).

After reviewing all previously published data it appeared that if the Mississippi portion of the Black Warrior Basin contained potentially economic seams of coal the thicker downdip section was a more likely place to look. The generosity of several exploration companies in providing an extensive suite of logs that could be correlated with samples contained in the Bureau of Geology Sample Library allowed the authors to correlate and identify these upper Pottsville coal groups previously unknown in Mississippi. The purpose of this study was to identify the potential for coal resources in western Clay County, Mississippi, and to correlate laterally any coal seams identified in order to develop a gross volumetric estimate of in-place resources. It became apparent that many of the shallow coal seams (1,800 feet-3,700 feet) had appreciable quantities of gas, for they exhibited excellent gas shows when drilled. Efforts to determine rank for these coals were made by vitrinite reflectance and thus a preliminary estimate was also made for the potential coalbedmethane reserves. 73 refs., 8 figs., 3 tabs.

The formation and retention of methane in coalbeds was studied for ten Utah coal samples, one Colorado coal sample and eight coal samples from the Argonne Premium Coal Sample Bank.Methane gas content of the Utah and Colorado coals varied from zero to 9 cm{sup 3}/g. The Utah coals were all high volatile bituminous coals. The Colorado coal was a gassy medium volatile bituminous coal. The Argonne coals cover a range or rank from lignite to low volatile bituminous coal and were used to determine the effect of rank in laboratory studies. The methane content of six selected Utah coal seams and the Colorado coal seam was measured in situ using a special sample collection device and a bubble desorbometer. Coal samples were collected at each measurement site for laboratory analysis. The cleat and joint system was evaluated for the coal and surrounding rocks and geological conditions were noted. Permeability measurements were performed on selected samples and all samples were analyzed for proximate and ultimate analysis, petrographic analysis, {sup 13}C NMR dipolar-dephasing spectroscopy, and density analysis. The observed methane adsorption behavior was correlated with the chemical structure and physical properties of the coals.

;Contents: Geologic Controls on Open-Hole Cavity Completions in the San Juan Basin; Is It Time to Put the Final Nail in the Fraccing Coffin; Improving Dynamic Open-Hole Completion Techniques in the San Juan Basin; Well Testing for San Juan Basin Open-Hole Completion Evaluation; Creation of an Open-Hole Cavity--Theory and Laboratory Result; Parametric Study of Open-Hole Cavity Performance; Preliminary Results of Cooperative Research Efforts with Phillips Petroleum Company and Amax Oil and Gas Inc., San Juan Basin; Black Warrior Basin CoalbedMethane Productivity Improvement Project; and Recent Publications.

The Powder River Basin in northeastern Wyoming is one of the most active areas of coalbed natural gas (CBNG) development in the western United States. This resource provides clean energy but raises environmental concerns. Primary among these is the disposal of water that is co-produced with the gas during depressurization of the coal seam. Beginning with a few producing wells in Wyoming's Powder River Basin (PRB) in 1987, CBNG well numbers in this area increased to over 13,600 in 2004, with projected growth to 20,900 producing wells in the PRB by 2010. CBNG development is continuing apace since 2004, and CBNG is now being produced or evaluated in four other Wyoming coal basins in addition to the PRB, with roughly 3500-4000 new CBNG wells permitted statewide each year since 2004. This is clearly a very valuable source of clean fuel for the nation, and for Wyoming the economic benefits are substantial. For instance, in 2003 alone the total value of Wyoming CBNG production was about $1.5 billion, with tax and royalty income of about $90 million to counties, $140 million to the state, and $27 million to the federal government. In Wyoming, cumulative CBNG water production from 1987 through December 2004 was just over 380,000 acre-feet (2.9 billion barrels), while producing almost 1.5 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of CBNG gas statewide. Annual Wyoming CBNG water production in 2003 was 74,457 acre-feet (577 million barrels). Total production of CBNG water across all Wyoming coal fields could total roughly 7 million acre-feet (55.5 billion barrels), if all of the recoverable CBNG in the projected reserves of 31.7 tcf were produced over the coming decades. Pumping water from coals to produce CBNG has been designated a beneficial water use by the Wyoming State Engineer's Office (SEO), though recently the SEO has limited this beneficial use designation by requiring a certain gas/water production ratio. In the eastern part of the PRB where CBNG water is generally of good quality, most of it is discharged to surface drainages or to soil (for irrigation). CBNG water quality generally declines when moving from the Cheyenne River drainage northwestward to the Belle Fourche, Little Powder, and Powder River drainages and in the central and western part of the PRB, most CBNG water goes to evaporation-infiltration ponds or is discharged directly to surface drainages. Concerns center on the salinity of the water, usually measured as total dissolved solids (TDS), or electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Other management options currently in use include injection, managed irrigation (with additives to mitigate the effects of high salinity), atomization, and treatment by reverse osmosis or ion exchange. A key water quality issue is the cumulative effect of numerous CBNG water discharges on the overall water quality of basin streams. This leads to one of the most contentious issues in CBNG development in Wyoming's PRB: Montana's concern about the potential downstream effects of water quality degradation on rivers flowing north into Montana. Many of the benefits and costs associated with CBNG development have been debated, but dealing with CBNG water quantity and quality arguably has been the most difficult of all the issues. Given the importance of these issues for continued development of CBNG resources in Wyoming and elsewhere, the DOE-NETL funded project presented here focuses on CBNG co-produced water management. The research was organized around nine separate, but interrelated, technical project tasks and one administrative task (Task 1). The nine technical project tasks were pursued by separate research teams at the University of Wyoming, but all nine tasks were coordinated to the extent possible in order to maximize information gained about CBNG co-produced waters. In addition to project management in Task 1, the key research tasks included: (2) estimating groundwater recharge rates in the PRB; (3) groundwater contamination of trace elements from CBNG disposal ponds; (4) use of environmental tracers in assessing wate

The purpose of the work is to characterize common and potential fracturing fluids in terms of coal-fluid interactions to identify reasons for less than satisfactory performance and to ultimately devise alternative fluids and treatment procedures to optimize production following hydraulic fracturing. The laboratory data reported herein has proven helpful in designing improved hydraulic fracturing treatments and remedial treatments in the Black Warrior Basin. Acid inhibitors, scale inhibitors, additives to improve coal relative permeability to gas, and non-damaging polymer systems for hydraulic fracturing have been screened in coal damage tests. The optimum conditions for creating field-like foams in the laboratory have been explored. Tests have been run to identify minimum polymer and surfactant concentrations for applications of foam in coal. The roll of 100 mesh sand in controlling leakoff and impairing conductivity in coal has been investigated.

Cleat surfaces from Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin and Fruitland coal from the San Juan Basin show significant amounts of diagenetic quartz, illite, kaolinite, carbonate minerals, barite, gypsum and iron sulfides and sulfates. SEM, XRD, thin section and reflected light microscopy analyses were used to identify and describe diagenetic minerals and surface textures observed along permeable cleat surfaces. SEM-EDS analysis reveals a variety of pore-lining diagenetic minerals with complex crystal morphologies in permeable cleats of preserved core and mine samples. Surface textures were varied from smooth and vitreous, dull and pitted, to rough and irregular with imbedded diagenetic minerals, often clays or sulfides. Illite is the most abundant clay and occurs as surface coatings, aggregates, authigenic crystals embedded in the coal surface, or oriented subparallel to the fracture face. Kaolinite is also abundant and occurs as abraded platelets and loosely attached aggregates packed against steps, as meniscus shapes on smooth fracture faces, and as a thick crust of anhedral crystals. Chlorite, the least abundant clay, appears as sheets of small crystals. Locally abundant sulfate, sulfide and carbonate minerals are present in masses of euhedral crystals or concentrated as thick crusts. Surface irregularities sometimes control the distribution of diagenetic minerals. Coal fines of unambiguous internal origin and masses of clays are often concentrated at surface irregularities such as steps, laminations of interbedded clays, or sulfides and coal and rough areas of fractures. Their distribution suggests mobility within fractures.

Cleat surfaces from Mary Lee and Black Creek coal seams in the Black Warrior Basin and Fruitland coal from the San Juan Basin show significant amounts of diagenetic quartz, illite, kaolinite, carbonate minerals, barite, gypsum and iron sulfides and sulfates. SEM, XRD, thin section and reflected light microscopy analyses were used to identify and describe diagenetic minerals and surface textures observed along permeable cleat surfaces. SEM-EDS analysis reveals a variety of pore-lining diagenetic minerals with complex crystal morphologies in permeable cleats of preserved core and mine samples. Surface textures were varied from smooth and vitreous, dull and pitted, to rough and irregular with imbedded diagenetic minerals, often clays or sulfides. Illite is the most abundant clay and occurs as surface coatings, aggregates, authigenic crystals embedded in the coal surface, or oriented subparallel to the fracture face. Kaolinite is also abundant and occurs as abraded platelets and loosely attached aggregates packed against steps, as meniscus shapes on smooth fracture faces, and as a thick crust of anhedral crystals. Chlorite, the least abundant clay, appears as sheets of small crystals. Locally abundant sulfate, sulfide and carbonate minerals are present in masses of euhedral crystals or concentrated as thick crusts. Surface irregularities sometimes control the distribution of diagenetic minerals. Coal fines of unambiguous internal origin and masses of clays are often concentrated at surface irregularities such as steps, laminations of interbedded clays, or sulfides and coal and rough areas of fractures. Their distribution suggests mobility within fractures.

Gas and Oil Recovery Partnership Program with American industry, has undertaken an integrated program of development to show that the cost of obtaining subsurface information can be drastically reduced through microhole technologies specifically developed to obtain that information. Collectively termed "Microhole

rights reserved. Introduction Water is generated as a byproduct of oil and gas production and represents is a byproduct of oil and gas production and represents the largest volume waste stream in the oil and gas (New Mexico) Basins. Potential beneficial uses evaluated include crop irrigation, on-site use, potable

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential benefits of applying multiseam [well] completion (MSC) technology to the massive stack of low-rank coals in the Powder River Basin. As part of this, the study objectives are: Estimate how much additional CBM resource would become accessible and technically recoverable--compared to the current practice of drilling one well to drain a single coal seam; Determine whether there are economic benefits associated with MSC technology utilization (assuming its widespread, successful application) and if so, quantify the gains; Briefly examine why past attempts by Powder River Basin CBM operators to use MSC technology have been relatively unsuccessful; Provide the underpinnings to a decision whether a MSC technology development and/or demonstration effort is warranted by DOE. To a great extent, this assessment builds on the previously published study (DOE, 2002), which contains many of the key references that underlie this analysis. It is available on the U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy technology Laboratory, Strategic Center for Natural Gas website (www.netl.doe.gov/scng). It is suggested that readers obtain a copy of the original study to complement the current report.

Water co-produced with coal-bedmethane (CBM) in the semi-arid Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana commonly has relatively low salinity and high sodium adsorption ratios that can degrade soil permeability where used for irrigation. Nevertheless, a desire to derive beneficial use from the water and a need to dispose of large volumes of it have motivated the design of a deep subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) system capable of utilizing that water. Drip tubing is buried 92 cm deep and irrigates at a relatively constant rate year-round, while evapotranspiration by the alfalfa and grass crops grown is seasonal. We use field data from two sites and computer simulations of unsaturated flow to understand water and solute movements in the SDI fields. Combined irrigation and precipitation exceed potential evapotranspiration by 300–480 mm annually. Initially, excess water contributes to increased storage in the unsaturated zone, and then drainage causes cyclical rises in the water table beneath the fields. Native chloride and nitrate below 200 cm depth are leached by the drainage. Some CBM water moves upward from the drip tubing, drawn by drier conditions above. Chloride from CBM water accumulates there as root uptake removes the water. Year over year accumulations indicated by computer simulations illustrate that infiltration of precipitation water from the surface only partially leaches such accumulations away. Field data show that 7% and 27% of added chloride has accumulated above the drip tubing in an alfalfa and grass field, respectively, following 6 years of irrigation. Maximum chloride concentrations in the alfalfa field are around 45 cm depth but reach the surface in parts of the grass field, illustrating differences driven by crop physiology. Deep SDI offers a means of utilizing marginal quality irrigation waters and managing the accumulation of their associated solutes in the crop rooting zone.

This final report document summarizes the activities undertaken and the output from three primary deliverables generated during this project. This fifteen month effort comprised numerous key steps including the creation of an international methane hydrate science team, determining and reporting the current state of marine methane hydrate research, convening an international workshop to collect the ideas needed to write a comprehensive Marine Methane Hydrate Field Research Plan and the development and publication of that plan. The following documents represent the primary deliverables of this project and are discussed in summary level detail in this final report. • Historical Methane Hydrate Project Review Report • Methane Hydrate Workshop Report • Topical Report: Marine Methane Hydrate Field Research Plan • Final Scientific/Technical Report

A methanation assembly for use with a water supply and a gas supply containing gas to be methanated in which a reactor assembly has a plurality of methanation reactors each for methanating gas input to the assembly and a gas delivery and cooling assembly adapted to deliver gas from the gas supply to each of said methanation reactors and to combine water from the water supply with the output of each methanation reactor being conveyed to a next methanation reactor and carry the mixture to such next methanation reactor.

Communication Definitions... general definition "the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way by both sender and receiver" (Wikipedia)! Biological communication Action by one organism (individual

Fracture stimulation is commonly used for coal degasification at the Black Warrior basin in Alabama. To understand coalbed fracturing better, Well AM-1 in the Oak Grove field was completed openhole in the section bracketing the Black Creek coals. Special diagnostics used on this project included various injection tests, static-line pressure measurements, and a downhole television camera. The television camera observed fractures during injection tests and after the propped fracture treatment. The authors believe these are the first successful downhole television pictures of propped fractures in coalbeds. Results are compared with predictions of hydraulic fracture simulators. This is a way of calibrating hydraulic fracture models for improved design/optimization.

Carbon dioxide sequestration coupled with hydrocarbon resource recovery is often economically attractive. Use of CO2 for enhanced recovery of oil, conventional natural gas, and coal-bedmethane are in various stages of common practice. In this report, we discuss a new technique utilizing CO2 for enhanced recovery of an unconventional but potentially very important source of natural gas, gas hydrate. We have focused our attention on the Alaska North Slope where approximately 640 Tcf of natural gas reserves in the form of gas hydrate have been identified. Alaska is also unique in that potential future CO2 sources are nearby, and petroleum infrastructure exists or is being planned that could bring the produced gas to market or for use locally. The EGHR (Enhanced Gas Hydrate Recovery) concept takes advantage of the physical and thermodynamic properties of mixtures in the H2O-CO2 system combined with controlled multiphase flow, heat, and mass transport processes in hydrate-bearing porous media. A chemical-free method is used to deliver a LCO2-Lw microemulsion into the gas hydrate bearing porous medium. The microemulsion is injected at a temperature higher than the stability point of methane hydrate, which upon contacting the methane hydrate decomposes its crystalline lattice and releases the enclathrated gas. Small scale column experiments show injection of the emulsion into a CH4 hydrate rich sand results in the release of CH4 gas and the formation of CO2 hydrate

pressure falloff and matrix shrinkage because of gas desorption together in one equation. The matrixHow Permeability Depends on Stress and Pore Pressure in Coalbeds: A New Model Ian Palmer, SPE, permeability is sensitive to changes in stress or pore pressure (i.e., changes in effective stress). This paper

The primary objectives of this research were to seek previously unidentified anaerobic methanotrophs and other microorganisms to be collected from methane seeps associated with coal outcrops. Subsurface application of these microbes into anaerobic environments has the potential to reduce methane seepage along coal outcrop belts and in coal mines, thereby preventing hazardous explosions. Depending upon the types and characteristics of the methanotrophs identified, it may be possible to apply the microbes to other sources of methane emissions, which include landfills, rice cultivation, and industrial sources where methane can accumulate under buildings. Finally, the microbes collected and identified during this research also had the potential for useful applications in the chemical industry, as well as in a variety of microbial processes. Sample collection focused on the South Fork of Texas Creek located approximately 15 miles east of Durango, Colorado. The creek is located near the subsurface contact between the coal-bearing Fruitland Formation and the underlying Pictured Cliffs Sandstone. The methane seeps occur within the creek and in areas adjacent to the creek where faulting may allow fluids and gases to migrate to the surface. These seeps appear to have been there prior to coalbedmethane development as extensive microbial soils have developed. Our investigations screened more than 500 enrichments but were unable to convince us that anaerobic methane oxidation (AMO) was occurring and that anaerobic methanotrophs may not have been present in the samples collected. In all cases, visual and microscopic observations noted that the early stage enrichments contained viable microbial cells. However, as the levels of the readily substrates that were present in the environmental samples were progressively lowered through serial transfers, the numbers of cells in the enrichments sharply dropped and were eliminated. While the results were disappointing we acknowledge that anaerobic methane oxidizing (AOM) microorganisms are predominantly found in marine habitats and grow poorly under most laboratory conditions. One path for future research would be to use a small rotary rig to collect samples from deeper soil horizons, possibly adjacent to the coal-bearing horizons that may be more anaerobic.

During the second half of the 1990's Coal Bed Methane (CBM) production increased dramatically nationwide to represent a significant new source of income and natural gas for many independent and established producers. Matching these soaring production rates during this period was a heightened public awareness of environmental concerns. These concerns left unexplained and under-addressed have created a significant growth in public involvement generating literally thousands of unfocused project comments for various regional NEPA efforts resulting in the delayed development of public and fee lands. The accelerating interest in CBM development coupled to the growth in public involvement has prompted the conceptualization of this project for the development of a CBM Primer. The Primer is designed to serve as a summary document, which introduces and encapsulates information pertinent to the development of Coal Bed Methane (CBM), including focused discussions of coal deposits, methane as a natural formed gas, split mineral estates, development techniques, operational issues, producing methods, applicable regulatory frameworks, land and resource management, mitigation measures, preparation of project plans, data availability, Indian Trust issues and relevant environmental technologies. An important aspect of gaining access to federal, state, tribal, or fee lands involves education of a broad array of stakeholders, including land and mineral owners, regulators, conservationists, tribal governments, special interest groups, and numerous others that could be impacted by the development of coal bed methane. Perhaps the most crucial aspect of successfully developing CBM resources is stakeholder education. Currently, an inconsistent picture of CBM exists. There is a significant lack of understanding on the parts of nearly all stakeholders, including industry, government, special interest groups, and land owners. It is envisioned the Primer would being used by a variety of stakeholders to present a consistent and complete synopsis of the key issues involved with CBM. In light of the numerous CBM NEPA documents under development this Primer could be used to support various public scoping meetings and required public hearings throughout the Western States in the coming years.

A membrane separation process is described for treating a gas stream containing methane and nitrogen, for example, natural gas. The separation process works by preferentially permeating methane and rejecting nitrogen. The authors have found that the process is able to meet natural gas pipeline specifications for nitrogen, with acceptably small methane loss, so long as the membrane can exhibit a methane/nitrogen selectivity of about 4, 5 or more. This selectivity can be achieved with some rubbery and super-glassy membranes at low temperatures. The process can also be used for separating ethylene from nitrogen. 11 figs.

A membrane separation process for treating a gas stream containing methane and nitrogen, for example, natural gas. The separation process works by preferentially permeating methane and rejecting nitrogen. We have found that the process is able to meet natural gas pipeline specifications for nitrogen, with acceptably small methane loss, so long as the membrane can exhibit a methane/nitrogen selectivity of about 4, 5 or more. This selectivity can be achieved with some rubbery and super-glassy membranes at low temperatures. The process can also be used for separating ethylene from nitrogen.

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) may be to blame for a gradual rise in the average global temperature. The state of Texas emits more CO2 than any other state in the U.S., and a large fraction of emissions are ...

basin, Alabama. It considered the injection and production rate, the components of injected gas, coal dewatering, permeability anisotropy, various CO2 soak times, completion of multiple reservoir layers and pressure constraints at the injector...

This paper reports that coalbeds have long been known to contain natural gas in varying amounts. To the mining industry, this is basically a hazard to be controlled and avoided where possible. To the petroleum industry, it is an exploitable resource that holds significant economic potential because of shallow drilling and the promising of long well life. The variability of coal as a gas reservoir raises the need for oil and gas-well explorers to develop the capability of evaluating coalbed gas content to identify and produce coal gas plays. Current petrophysical models for gas reservoir analysis in traditional clastic or carbonate environments are notable inadequate for evaluation of gas content in coal beds. However, numerous physical models exist for coals throughout the country, primarily from the efforts of the mining industry. A theoretical model was chosen and used to establish a method for evaluating gas content of coalbeds in the Black Warrior basin of Alabama. Core data in the form of proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and gas desorption measurements were used, along with wireline data, to build the models. Results of data analysis in wells with coals ranging from low-volatile bituminous to high-volatile B bituminous are compared with core gas desorption measurements to demonstrate the accuracy of the process.

Coalbed gas is an important source of natural gas in the United States. In 1993, approximately 740 BCF of coalbed gas was produced in the United States, or about 4.2% of the nation`s total gas production. Nearly 96% of this coalbed gas is produced from just two basins, the San Juan (615.7 BCF; gas in place 84 TCF) and Black Warrior (105 BCF; gas in place 20 TCF), and current production represents only a fraction of the nation`s estimated 675 TCF of in-place coalbed gas. Coal beds in the Greater Green River Basin in southwest Wyoming and northwest Colorado hold almost half of the gas in place (314 TCF) and are an important source of gas for low-permeability Almond sandstones. Because total gas in place in the Greater Green River Basin is reported to exceed 3,000 TCF (Law et al., 1989), the basin may substantially increase the domestic gas resource base. Therefore, through integrated geologic and hydrologic studies, the coalbed gas potential of the basin was assessed where tectonic, structural, and depositional setting, coal distribution and rank, gas content, coal permeability, and ground-water flow are critical controls on coalbed gas producibility. Synergism between these geologic and hydrologic controls determines gas productivity. High productivity is governed by (1) thick, laterally continuous coals of high thermal maturity, (2) basinward flow of ground water through fractured and permeable coals, down the coal rank gradient toward no-flow boundaries oriented perpendicular to the regional flow direction, and (3) conventional trapping of gas along those boundaries to provide additional sources of gas beyond that sorbed on the coal surface.

Highlights: • Compilation of methane generation potential of mechanical biological treated (MBT) municipal solid waste. • Impacts and kinetics of landfill gas production of MBT landfills, approach with differentiated half-lives. • Methane oxidation in the waste itself and in soil covers. • Estimation of methane emissions from MBT landfills in Germany. - Abstract: Within the scope of an investigation for the German Federal Environment Agency (“Umweltbundesamt”), the basics for the estimation of the methane emissions from the landfilling of mechanically and biologically treated waste (MBT) were developed. For this purpose, topical research including monitoring results regarding the gas balance at MBT landfills was evaluated. For waste treated to the required German standards, a methane formation potential of approximately 18–24 m{sup 3} CH{sub 4}/t of total dry solids may be expected. Monitoring results from MBT landfills show that a three-phase model with differentiated half-lives describes the degradation kinetics in the best way. This is due to the fact that during the first years of disposal, the anaerobic degradation processes still proceed relatively intensively. In addition in the long term (decades), a residual gas production at a low level is still to be expected. Most of the soils used in recultivation layer systems at German landfills show a relatively high methane oxidation capacity up to 5 l CH{sub 4}/(m{sup 2} h). However, measurements at MBT disposal sites indicate that the majority of the landfill gas (in particular at non-covered areas), leaves the landfill body via preferred gas emission zones (hot spots) without significant methane oxidation. Therefore, rather low methane oxidation factors are recommended for open and temporarily covered MBT landfills. Higher methane oxidation rates can be achieved when the soil/recultivation layer is adequately designed and operated. Based on the elaborated default values, the First Order Decay (FOD) model of the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, 2006, was used to estimate the methane emissions from MBT landfills. Due to the calculation made by the authors emissions in the range of 60,000–135,000 t CO{sub 2-eq.}/a for all German MBT landfills can be expected. This wide range shows the uncertainties when the here used procedure and the limited available data are applied. It is therefore necessary to generate more data in the future in order to calculate more precise methane emission rates from MBT landfills. This is important for the overall calculation of the climate gas production in Germany which is required once a year by the German Government.

The net flux of methane from methane hydrates and other sources to the atmosphere depends on methane degradation as well as methane production and release from geological sources. The goal of this project was to examine methane-degrading archaea and organic carbon oxidizing bacteria in methane-rich and methane-poor sediments of the Beaufort Sea, Alaska. The Beaufort Sea system was sampled as part of a multi-disciplinary expedition (â??Methane in the Arctic Shelfâ?ť or MIDAS) in September 2009. Microbial communities were examined by quantitative PCR analyses of 16S rRNA genes and key methane degradation genes (pmoA and mcrA involved in aerobic and anaerobic methane degradation, respectively), tag pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes to determine the taxonomic make up of microbes in these sediments, and sequencing of all microbial genes (â??metagenomesâ?ť). The taxonomic and functional make-up of the microbial communities varied with methane concentrations, with some data suggesting higher abundances of potential methane-oxidizing archaea in methane-rich sediments. Sequence analysis of PCR amplicons revealed that most of the mcrA genes were from the ANME-2 group of methane oxidizers. According to metagenomic data, genes involved in methane degradation and other degradation pathways changed with sediment depth along with sulfate and methane concentrations. Most importantly, sulfate reduction genes decreased with depth while the anaerobic methane degradation gene (mcrA) increased along with methane concentrations. The number of potential methane degradation genes (mcrA) was low and inconsistent with other data indicating the large impact of methane on these sediments. The data can be reconciled if a small number of potential methane-oxidizing archaea mediates a large flux of carbon in these sediments. Our study is the first to report metagenomic data from sediments dominated by ANME-2 archaea and is one of the few to examine the entire microbial assemblage potentially involved in anaerobic methane oxidation.

Methane is a key component in the global carbon cycle with a wide range of anthropogenic and natural sources. Although isotopic compositions of methane have traditionally aided source identification, the abundance of its ...

A method for converting methane to methanol is provided comprising subjecting the methane to visible light in the presence of a catalyst and an electron transfer agent. Another embodiment of the invention provides for a method for reacting methane and water to produce methanol and hydrogen comprising preparing a fluid containing methane, an electron transfer agent and a photolysis catalyst, and subjecting said fluid to visible light for an effective period of time. 3 figs.

A method for converting methane to methanol is provided comprising subjecting the methane to visible light in the presence of a catalyst and an electron transfer agent. Another embodiment of the invention provides for a method for reacting methane and water to produce methanol and hydrogen comprising preparing a fluid containing methane, an electron transfer agent and a photolysis catalyst, and subjecting said fluid to visible light for an effective period of time.

Methane Activation Structural and Mechanistic Requirements for Methane Activation and Chemical and petrochemical processes and in fuel cells. The strong bonds in CH4 (439 kJmolŔ1 [1] ) and the endothermic nature by BP as part of the Methane Conversion Cooperative Research Program at the University of California

A method for purifying wastewater of biodegradable organics by converting the organics to methane and carbon dioxide gases is disclosed, characterized by the use of an anaerobic attached film expanded bed reactor for the reaction process. Dilute organic waste material is initially seeded with a heterogeneous anaerobic bacteria population including a methane-producing bacteria. The seeded organic waste material is introduced into the bottom of the expanded bed reactor which includes a particulate support media coated with a polysaccharide film. A low-velocity upward flow of the organic waste material is established through the bed during which the attached bacterial film reacts with the organic material to produce methane and carbon dioxide gases, purified water, and a small amount of residual effluent material. The residual effluent material is filtered by the film as it flows upwardly through the reactor bed. In a preferred embodiment, partially treated effluent material is recycled from the top of the bed to the bottom of the bed for further treatment. The methane and carbon dioxide gases are then separated from the residual effluent material and purified water.

is an important greenhouse gas, whose radiative forcing (1750­1998) has been estimated to be 0.48 Wm -2 , 20). The methane bud-15 get (sources and sinks) was believed to be relatively well known, however, recently confusing results were obtained in studies of CH4 soil fluxes in the Venezuelan savanna region (Hao et al

An organic solid waste digester for producing methane from solid waste, the digester comprising a reactor vessel for holding solid waste, a sprinkler system for distributing water, bacteria, and nutrients over and through the solid waste, and a drainage system for capturing leachate that is then recirculated through the sprinkler system.

While methane is chemically quite inert to reactions with atmospheric molecular species, it does react with atomic species and molecular radicals. Because of its relatively large abundance in the global troposphere and ...

The purpose of this study was to investigate the thermochemical properties of a transient supersonic flame. Creation of the transient flame was controlled by pulsing air in 200 millisecond intervals into a combustor filled with flowing methane...

Home is an elusive concept. In one manner it is highly specific and individual in its definition, and in other aspects it is ubiquitous, present in our every act. In this thesis I explore several possible definitions of ...

, and that the ratios of methane to ethane and propane were different [figure 4b (3)]. Furthermore, the methane present underground gas storage, leading to documented leaks into well water (5). The DEP correspondence they cite

The dynamics of methane transport in lake sediments control the release of methane into the water column above, and the portion that reaches the atmosphere may contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect. The observed ...

A greenhouse study was conducted to investigate the mechanisms causing diurnal variations in methane emission from rice plants (Oryza sativa L.). Methane emission was measured using a closed chamber system on individual rice plants at five stages...

Methane hydrate is being examined as a next-generation energy resource to replace oil and natural gas. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that methane hydrate may contain more organic carbon the the world's coal, oil, and natural gas combined. To assist in developing this unfamiliar resource, the National Energy Technology Laboratory has undertaken intensive research in understanding the fate of methane hydrate in geological reservoirs. This presentation reports preliminary computational fluid dynamics predictions of methane production from a subsurface reservoir.

Bench scale (1 to 6 gram) methane cracking tests have been performed on a variety of pure elements, some alloys, and SAES{reg_sign} commercial getters St 101, St 198, St 707, St 737, and St 909 to determine methane cracking performance (MCP) of 5% methane in a helium carrier at 700 C, 101.3 kPa (760 torr) with a 10 sccm feed. The MCP was almost absent from some materials tested while others showed varying degrees of MCP. Re, Cr, V, Gd, and Mo powders had good MCP, but limited capacities. Nickel supported on kieselguhr (Ni/k), a Zr-Ni alloy, and the SAES{reg_sign} getters had good MCP in a helium carrier. The MCP of these same materials was suppressed in a hydrogen carrier stream and the MCP of the Zr-based materials was reduced by nitride formation when tested with a nitrogen carrier gas.

Bench scale (1 to 6 gram) methane cracking tests have been performed on a variety of pure elements, some alloys, and SAES{sup R} commercial getters St 101, St 198, St 707, St 737, and St 909 to determine methane cracking performance (MCP) of 5% methane in a helium carrier at 700 deg.C, 101.3 kPa (760 torr) with a 10 seem feed. The MCP was almost absent from some materials tested while others showed varying degrees of MCP. Re, Cr, V, Gd, and Mo powders had good MCP, but limited capacities. Nickel supported on kieselguhr (Ni/k), a Zr-Ni alloy, and the SAESr getters had good MCP in a helium carrier. The MCP of these same materials was suppressed in a hydrogen carrier stream and the MCP of the Zr-based materials was reduced by nitride formation when tested with a nitrogen carrier gas. (authors)

This invention relates to a process for converting solid carbonaceous material, such as coal, to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons utilizing methane, generally at a residence time of about 20 to 120 minutes at a temperature of 250 to 750/sup 0/C, preferably 350 to 450/sup 0/C, pressurized up to 6000 psi, and preferably in the 1000 to 2500 psi range, preferably directly utilizing methane 50 to 100% by volume in a mix of methane and hydrogen. A hydrogen donor solvent or liquid vehicle such as tetralin, tetrahydroquinoline, piperidine, and pyrolidine may be used in a slurry mix where the solvent feed is 0 to 100% by weight of the coal or carbonaceous feed. Carbonaceous feed material can either be natural, such as coal, wood, oil shale, petroleum, tar sands, etc., or man-made residual oils, tars, and heavy hydrocarbon residues from other processing systems. 1 fig.

This invention relates to a process for converting solid carbonaceous material, such as coal, to liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons utilizing methane, generally at a residence time of about 20-120 minutes at a temperature of 250.degree.-750.degree. C., preferably 350.degree.-450.degree. C., pressurized up to 6000 psi, and preferably in the 1000-2500 psi range, preferably directly utilizing methane 50-100% by volume in a mix of methane and hydrogen. A hydrogen donor solvent or liquid vehicle such as tetralin, tetrahydroquinoline, piperidine, and pyrolidine may be used in a slurry mix where the solvent feed is 0-100% by weight of the coal or carbonaceous feed. Carbonaceous feed material can either be natural, such as coal, wood, oil shale, petroleum, tar sands, etc., or man-made residual oils, tars, and heavy hydrocarbon residues from other processing systems.

The Production of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons by Marine Plankton Stephanie Lyn Shaw Center for Global://web.mit.edu/cgcs/ Printed on recycled paper #12;1 The Production of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons by Marine Plankton by Stephanie of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons by Marine Plankton by Stephanie Lyn Shaw Submitted to the Department of Earth

of methane in the atmosphere is controlled by oxidation, mainly in chemical reaction with the hydroxyl by the combination of pre-industrial methane concentration levels from ice cores and bottom-up estimates based important terms in the global methane budget. Anthropogenic source estimates are mainly based on socio

Measurements of Methane Emissions at Natural Gas Production Sites in the United States #12;Why = 21 #12;Need for Study · Estimates of methane emissions from natural gas production , from academic in assumptions in estimating emissions · Measured data for some sources of methane emissions during natural gas

To determine the factors that influence the distribution of methane in Texas ground water, water samples were collected from 40 wells in east-central and central Texas aquifers. Among the chemical parameters examined, sulfate is most important in controlling methane distribution. Methane occurs in high concentration in east-central Texas only where sulfate concentration is low, supporting the hypothesis that abundant microbial methane production does not begin until sulfate is depleted. Because water samples from central Texas are high in either oxygen or sulfate, methane concentrations are low in these waters. A positive correlation between methane and sulfate in these waters indicates a different, perhaps thermogenic, origin for the trace methane. The {sup 13}C/{sup 12}C ratios of dissolved methane ranged from {minus}80{per_thousand} to {minus}21{per_thousand} in east-central Texas and {minus}41.2{per_thousand} to {minus}8.5{per_thousand} in central Texas. Low values of < {minus}50{per_thousand} in the east-central Texas ground water indicate a microbial origin for methane and are consistent with the observed sulfate-methane relationship; high {sup 13}C/{sup 12}C ratios of > {minus}31{per_thousand} likely result from bacterial methane oxidation. Similarly, methane with high {sup 13}C/{sup 12}C ratios in central Texas may reflect partial oxidation of the methane pool. Overall, water samples from both regions show a positive correlation between sulfate concentration and the {sup 13}C/{sup 12}C ratio of methane, suggesting that methane oxidation may be associated with sulfate reduction in Texas ground water.

A study was made of the production of methane from desugared spent sulfite liquor (SSL) reacted with ozone. The ozonated SSL was fed continuously to three anaerobic fermenters for three months as the sole source of carbon and energy. The fermenters were inoculated with anaerobic bacteria obtained from sewage sludge and acclimated for 1 month in ozonated SSL prior to continuous fermentation. Chemical and biological parameters such as COD, BOD, total sulfur content, redox potential, pH, fatty acid composition, and methane bacteria populations were monitored to determine changes in the SSL during fermentation. Methane production from ozone-treated SSL averaged 1.7 liters/ liter or 17 ml of CH/sub 4/ produced/gram of volatile solids fed. Fatty acis analysis of fermenter effluent indicated a net production of 58 mM/ liter of acetate during ozonated SSL fermentation. This acetic acid production shows future potential for further fermentation by protein-producing yeast. Although the rate of conversion of volatile solids to CH/sub 4/ in this process was not competitive with domestic or agricultural waste digesters, this study did indicate the potential benefits of ozonating organic wastes for increased methane fermentation yields.

Desalination of brines produced from oil and gas fields is an attractive option for providing potable water in arid regions. Recent field-testing of subsurface sequestration of carbon dioxide for climate management purposes provides new motivation for optimizing efficacy of oilfield brine desalination: as subsurface reservoirs become used for storing CO{sub 2}, the displaced brines must be managed somehow. However, oilfield brine desalination is not economical at this time because of high costs of synthesizing membranes and the need for sophisticated pretreatments to reduce initial high TDS and to prevent serious fouling of membranes. In addition to these barriers, oil/gas field brines typically contain high concentrations of multivalent counter cations (eg. Ca{sup 2+} and SO{sub 4}{sup 2-}) that can reduce efficacy of reverse osmosis (RO). Development of inorganic membranes with typical characteristics of high strength and stability provide a valuable option to clean produced water for beneficial uses. Zeolite membranes have a well-defined subnanometer pore structure and extreme chemical and mechanical stability, thus showing promising applicability in produced water purification. For example, the MFI-type zeolite membranes with uniform pore size of {approx}0.56 nm can separate ions from aqueous solution through a mechanism of size exclusion and electrostatic repulsion (Donnan exclusion). Such a combination allows zeolite membranes to be unique in separation of both organics and electrolytes from aqueous solutions by a reverse osmosis process, which is of great interest for difficult separations, such as oil-containing produced water purification. The objectives of the project 'Treating Coalbed Natural Gas Produced Water for Beneficial Use by MFI Zeolite Membranes' are: (1) to conduct extensive fundamental investigations and understand the mechanism of the RO process on zeolite membranes and factors determining the membrane performance, (2) to improve the membranes and optimize operating conditions to enhance water flux and ion rejection, and (3) to perform long-term RO operation on tubular membranes to study membrane stability and to collect experimental data necessary for reliable evaluations of technical and economic feasibilities. Our completed research has resulted in deep understanding of the ion and organic separation mechanism by zeolite membranes. A two-step hydrothermal crystallization process resulted in a highly efficient membrane with good reproducibility. The zeolite membranes synthesized therein has an overall surface area of {approx}0.3 m{sup 2}. Multichannel vessels were designed and machined for holding the tubular zeolite membrane for water purification. A zeolite membrane RO demonstration with zeolite membranes fabricated on commercial alpha-alumina support was established in the laboratory. Good test results were obtained for both actual produced water samples and simulated samples. An overall 96.9% ion rejection and 2.23 kg/m{sup 2}.h water flux was achieved in the demonstration. In addition, a post-synthesis modification method using Al{sup 3+}-oligomers was developed for repairing the undesirable nano-scale intercrystalline pores. Considerable enhancement in ion rejection was achieved. This new method of zeolite membrane modification is particularly useful for enhancing the efficiency of ion separation from aqueous solutions because the modification does not need high temperature operation and may be carried out online during the RO operation. A long-term separation test for actual CBM produced water has indicated that the zeolite membranes show excellent ion separation and extraordinary stability at high pressure and produced water environment.

Catalytic oxidation of methane to partial oxidation products, primarily formaldehyde and C[sub 2] hydrocarbons, was found to be directed by the catalyst used. In this project, it was discovered that a moderate oxidative coupling catalyst for C[sub 2] hydrocarbons, zinc oxide, is modified by addition of small amounts of Cu and Fe dopants to yield fair yields of formaldehyde. A similar effect was observed with Cu/Sn/ZnO catalysts, and the presence of a redox Lewis acid, Fe[sup III] or Sn[sup IV], was found to be essential for the selectivity switch from C[sub 2] coupling products to formaldehyde. The principle of double doping with an oxygen activator (Cu) and the redox Lewis acid (Fe, Sn) was pursued further by synthesizing and testing the CuFe-ZSM-5 zeolite catalyst. The Cu[sup II](ion exchanged) Fe[sup III](framework)-ZSM-5 also displayed activity for formaldehyde synthesis, with space time yields exceeding 100 g/h-kg catalyst. However, the selectivity was low and earlier claims in the literature of selective oxidation of methane to methanol over CuFe-ZSM-5 were not reproduced. A new active and selective catalytic system (M=Sb,Bi,Sn)/SrO/La[sub 2]O[sub 3] has been discovered for potentially commercially attractive process for the conversion of methane to C[sub 2] hydrocarbons, (ii) a new principle has been demonstrated for selectivity switching from C[sub 2] hydrocarbon products to formaldehyde in methane oxidations over Cu,Fe-doped zinc oxide and ZSM-5, and (iii) a new approach has been initiated for using ultrafine metal dispersions for low temperature activation of methane for selective conversions. Item (iii) continues being supported by AMOCO while further developments related to items (i) and (ii) are the objective of our continued effort under the METC-AMOCO proposed joint program.

At the start of this project, it was known that methanogens were Archaeabacteria (now Archaea) and were therefore predicted to have gene expression and regulatory systems different from Bacteria, but few of the molecular biology details were established. The goals were then to establish the structures and organizations of genes in methanogens, and to develop the genetic technologies needed to investigate and dissect methanogen gene expression and regulation in vivo. By cloning and sequencing, we established the gene and operon structures of all of the “methane” genes that encode the enzymes that catalyze methane biosynthesis from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. This work identified unique sequences in the methane gene that we designated mcrA, that encodes the largest subunit of methyl-coenzyme M reductase, that could be used to identify methanogen DNA and establish methanogen phylogenetic relationships. McrA sequences are now the accepted standard and used extensively as hybridization probes to identify and quantify methanogens in environmental research. With the methane genes in hand, we used northern blot and then later whole-genome microarray hybridization analyses to establish how growth phase and substrate availability regulated methane gene expression in Methanobacterium thermautotrophicus ?H (now Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus). Isoenzymes or pairs of functionally equivalent enzymes catalyze several steps in the hydrogen-dependent reduction of carbon dioxide to methane. We established that hydrogen availability determine which of these pairs of methane genes is expressed and therefore which of the alternative enzymes is employed to catalyze methane biosynthesis under different environmental conditions. As were unable to establish a reliable genetic system for M. thermautotrophicus, we developed in vitro transcription as an alternative system to investigate methanogen gene expression and regulation. This led to the discovery that an archaeal protein, designated TFE, that had sequences in common with the eukaryotic general transcription factor TFIIE, stimulated archaeal transcription initiation and that the archaeal TATA-box binding protein (TBP) remained attached to the promoter region whereas the transcription factor TFB dissociated from the template DNA following initiation. DNA sequences that directed the localized assembly of archaeal histones into archaeal nucleosomes were identified, and we established that transcription by an archaeal RNA polymerase was slowed but not blocked by archaeal nucleosomes. We developed a new protocol to purify archaeal RNA polymerases and with this enzyme and additional improvements to the in vitro transcription system, we established the template requirements for archaeal transcription termination, investigated the activities of proteins predicted to be methane gene regulators, and established how TrpY, a novel archaeal regulator of expression of the tryptophan biosynthetic operon functions in M. thermautotrophicus. This also resulted in the discovery that almost all M. thermautotrophicus mutants isolated as spontaneously resistant to 5-methyl tryptophan (5MTR) had mutations in trpY and were therefore 5MTR through de-repressed trp operon expression. This established a very simple, practical procedure to determine and quantify the DNA sequence changes that result from exposure of this Archaeon to any experimental mutagenesis protocol. Following the discovery that the Thermococcus kodakaraensis was amenable to genetic manipulation, we established this technology at OSU and subsequently added plasmid expression, a reporter system and additional genetic selections to the T. kodakaraensis genetic toolbox. We established that transcription and translation are coupled in this Archaeon, and by combining in vitro transcription and in vivo genetics, we documented that both TFB1 and TFB2 support transcription initiation in T. kodakaraensis. We quantified the roles of ribosome binding sequences and alternative initiation codons in translation initiation, established that polarity e

The availability of clean, affordable energy is essential for the prosperity and security of the United States and the world in the 21st century. Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO{sub 2}) into the atmosphere are an inherent part of electricity generation, transportation, and industrial processes that rely on fossil fuels. These energy-related activities are responsible for more than 80 percent of the U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, and most of these emissions are CO{sub 2}. Over the last few decades, an increased concentration of CO{sub 2} in the earth's atmosphere has been observed. Carbon sequestration technology offers an approach to redirect CO{sub 2} emissions into sinks (e.g., geologic formations, oceans, soils and vegetation) and potentially stabilize future atmospheric CO{sub 2} levels. Coal seams are attractive CO{sub 2} sequestration sinks, due to their abundance and proximity to electricity-generation facilities. The recovery of marketable coalbedmethane (CBM) provides a value-added stream, potentially reducing the cost to sequester CO{sub 2} gas. Much research is needed to evaluate this technology in terms of CO{sub 2} storage capacity, sequestration stability, commercial feasibility and overall economics. CONSOL Energy Inc., Research & Development (CONSOL), with support from the US DOE, has embarked on a seven-year program to construct and operate a coal bed sequestration site composed of a series of horizontally drilled wells that originate at the surface and extend through two overlying coal seams. Once completed, all of the wells will be used initially to drain CBM from both the upper (mineable) and lower (unmineable) coal seams. After sufficient depletion of the reservoir, centrally located wells in the lower coal seam will be converted from CBM drainage wells to CO{sub 2} injection ports. CO{sub 2} will be measured and injected into the lower unmineable coal seam while CBM continues to drain from both seams. In addition to metering all injected CO{sub 2} and recovered CBM, the program includes additional monitoring wells to further examine horizontal and vertical migration of CO{sub 2}. This is the fifth Technical Progress report for the project. Progress this period was focused on reclamation of the north access road and north well site, and development of revised drilling methods. This report provides a concise overview of project activities this period and plans for future work.

Research is underway at NETL to understand the physical properties of methane hydrates. One area of investigation is the storage of methane as methane hydrates. An economical and efficient means of storing methane in hydrates opens many commercial opportunities such as transport of stranded gas, off-peak storage of line gas, etc.We have observed during our investigations that the ability to convert methane to methane hydrate is enhanced by foaming of the methane–water solution using a surfactant. The density of the foam, along with the bubble size, is important in the conversion of methane to methane hydrate.

In 1991, 27 coalbed gas wells were drilled, creating Virginia Mines field. In early 1993, average production rate was 55 Mcf/d per well, less than the geometric mean of 63 Mcf/d for wells in this region of the Warrior Basin. To clarify controls on gas production rates, we evaluated the production trends and the geologic setting. Strata on the southeast side of the project dip steeply northwestward off the Birmingham Anticlinorium toward the synclinal axis of the basin, which plunges approximately 2[degrees] southwestward. Northeast-trending normal faults having throws as great as 115 ft divide the project area into horsts and graben. Virginia Mines coalbed gas wells are completed in 13 to 16 ft of coal in 2 coal groups. Closure pressure (minimum stress) varies with structural setting and is 1,500 to 2,300 psi in the Black Creek group and 950 to 1,900 psi in overlying the Mary Lee group. Fracture gradient is greatest (commonly > 1.0 psi/ft) on the southeast of the project, along basin margin, suggesting that induced fractures have complex (T-shaped) geometries. Peak gas production at Virginia Mines occurred within the first 2 months and ranged from 40 to 180 Mcf/d; production rates fell sharply to 30 to 80 Mcf/d in the 18th month. Gas production rates are highest in the northern part of the project and lowest on the southeast side of the project and in one major fault block. Water production rates were 95 to 330 b/d initially but decreased an average of less than 40 b/d by the 18th month. Rapid gas and water decline rates are attributed to ineffective stimulations due to high fracture gradients and to low permeability caused by high in-situ stress. In-situ stress differences, in turn, reflect a highly variable structural setting. To improve production from low-rate wells will require new completion and stimulation techniques. Such techniques could have far-reaching implications, because coal beds in many other areas have high in-situ stresses.

In 1991, 27 coalbed gas wells were drilled, creating Virginia Mines field. In early 1993, average production rate was 55 Mcf/d per well, less than the geometric mean of 63 Mcf/d for wells in this region of the Warrior Basin. To clarify controls on gas production rates, we evaluated the production trends and the geologic setting. Strata on the southeast side of the project dip steeply northwestward off the Birmingham Anticlinorium toward the synclinal axis of the basin, which plunges approximately 2{degrees} southwestward. Northeast-trending normal faults having throws as great as 115 ft divide the project area into horsts and graben. Virginia Mines coalbed gas wells are completed in 13 to 16 ft of coal in 2 coal groups. Closure pressure (minimum stress) varies with structural setting and is 1,500 to 2,300 psi in the Black Creek group and 950 to 1,900 psi in overlying the Mary Lee group. Fracture gradient is greatest (commonly > 1.0 psi/ft) on the southeast of the project, along basin margin, suggesting that induced fractures have complex (T-shaped) geometries. Peak gas production at Virginia Mines occurred within the first 2 months and ranged from 40 to 180 Mcf/d; production rates fell sharply to 30 to 80 Mcf/d in the 18th month. Gas production rates are highest in the northern part of the project and lowest on the southeast side of the project and in one major fault block. Water production rates were 95 to 330 b/d initially but decreased an average of less than 40 b/d by the 18th month. Rapid gas and water decline rates are attributed to ineffective stimulations due to high fracture gradients and to low permeability caused by high in-situ stress. In-situ stress differences, in turn, reflect a highly variable structural setting. To improve production from low-rate wells will require new completion and stimulation techniques. Such techniques could have far-reaching implications, because coal beds in many other areas have high in-situ stresses.

Steam-methane reforming (SMR) has been the conventional route for hydrogen and carbon monoxide production from natural gas feedstocks. However, several alternative technologies are currently finding favor for an increasing number of applications. The competing technologies include: steam-methane reforming combined with oxygen secondary reforming (SMR/O2R); autothermal reforming (ATR); thermal partial oxidation (POX). Each of these alternative technologies uses oxygen as a feedstock. Accordingly, if low-cost oxygen is available, they can be an attractive alternate to SMR with natural gas feedstocks. These technologies are composed technically and economically. The following conclusions can be drawn: (1) the SMR/O2R, ATR and POX technologies can be attractive if low-cost oxygen is available; (2) for competing technologies, the H{sub 2}/CO product ratio is typically the most important process parameter; (3) for low methane slip, the SMR/O2R, ATR and POX technologies are favored; (4) for full CO{sub 2} recycle, POX is usually better than ATR; (5) relative to POX, the ATR is a nonlicensed technology that avoids third-party involvement; (6) economics of each technology are dependent on the conditions and requirements for each project and must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

The disclosed invention relates to a process for separating methane or nitrogen from a fluid mixture comprising methane and nitrogen, the process comprising: (A) flowing the fluid mixture into a microchannel separator, the microchannel separator comprising a plurality of process microchannels containing a sorption medium, the fluid mixture being maintained in the microchannel separator until at least part of the methane or nitrogen is sorbed by the sorption medium, and removing non-sorbed parts of the fluid mixture from the microchannel separator; and (B) desorbing the methane or nitrogen from the sorption medium and removing the desorbed methane or nitrogen from the microchannel separator. The process is suitable for upgrading methane from coal mines, landfills, and other sub-quality sources.

The subject of this paper is the definition of species based on the assumption that genome is the fundamental level for the origin and maintenance of biological diversity. For this view to be logically consistent it is necessary to assume the existence and operation of the new law which we call genome law. For this reason the genome law is included in the explanation of species phenomenon presented here even if its precise formulation and elaboration are left for the future. The intellectual underpinnings of this definition can be traced to Goldschmidt. We wish to explore some philosophical aspects of the definition of species in terms of the genome. The point of proposing the definition on these grounds is that any real advance in evolutionary theory has to be correct in both its philosophy and its science.

''Conventional'' waste landfills emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas, in quantities such that landfill methane is a major factor in global climate change. Controlled landfilling is a novel approach to manage landfills for rapid completion of total gas generation, maximizing gas capture and minimizing emissions of methane to the atmosphere. With controlled landfilling, methane generation is accelerated and brought to much earlier completion by improving conditions for biological processes (principally moisture levels) in the landfill. Gas recovery efficiency approaches 100% through use of surface membrane cover over porous gas recovery layers operated at slight vacuum. A field demonstration project's results at the Yolo County Central Landfill near Davis, California are, to date, highly encouraging. Two major controlled landfilling benefits would be the reduction of landfill methane emissions to minuscule levels, and the recovery of greater amounts of landfill methane energy in much shorter times than with conventional landfill practice. With the large amount of US landfill methane generated, and greenhouse potency of methane, better landfill methane control can play a substantial role in reduction of US greenhouse gas emissions.

Extreme Methane Emissions from a Swiss Hydropower Reservoir: Contribution from Bubbling Sediments and their importance were quantified during a yearlong survey of a temperate hydropower reservoir. Measurements using

Methane contributes 20% annually to increases in global warming, and is explosive at concentrations of 5-15% in air. Landfills contribute 15% to total methane emissions. This study was conducted to determine the potential decrease in methane...

Methane conversion to heavier hydrocarbons was studied using electrical furnaces and a plasma apparatus. The experiments were performed with pure methane for the electrical furnace experiments while pure methane and additions such as hydrogen...

Research is underway at NETL to understand the physical properties of methane hydrates. Five key areas of research that need further investigation have been identified. These five areas, i.e. thermal properties of hydrates in sediments, kinetics of natural hydrate dissociation, hysteresis effects, permeability of sediments to gas flow and capillary pressures within sediments, and hydrate distribution at porous scale, are important to the production models that will be used for producing methane from hydrate deposits. NETL is using both laboratory experiments and computational modeling to address these five key areas. The laboratory and computational research reinforce each other by providing feedback. The laboratory results are used in the computational models and the results from the computational modeling is used to help direct future laboratory research. The data generated at NETL will be used to help fulfill The National Methane Hydrate R&D Program of a “long-term supply of natural gas by developing the knowledge and technology base to allow commercial production of methane from domestic hydrate deposits by the year 2015” as outlined on the NETL Website [NETL Website, 2005. http://www.netl.doe.gov/scngo/Natural%20Gas/hydrates/index.html]. Laboratory research is accomplished in one of the numerous high-pressure hydrate cells available ranging in size from 0.15 mL to 15 L in volume. A dedicated high-pressure view cell within the Raman spectrometer allows for monitoring the formation and dissociation of hydrates. Thermal conductivity of hydrates (synthetic and natural) at a certain temperature and pressure is performed in a NETL-designed cell. Computational modeling studies are investigating the kinetics of hydrate formation and dissociation, modeling methane hydrate reservoirs, molecular dynamics simulations of hydrate formation, dissociation, and thermal properties, and Monte Carlo simulations of hydrate formation and dissociation.

consortium led by Chevron, in gas hydrate drilling, research expeditions [6], and observatories [5, 7] which help to evaluate methane hydrate as an energy resource. Although the existence of gas hydrates and energy recovery involving the evolution of methane gas in the subsurface. In particular, we develop

Homogeneous Catalysis Selective Oxidation of Methane to Methanol Catalyzed, with CŔH Activation (generated by dissolution[6] of Au2O3) react with methane at 1808C to selectively generate methanol (as a mixture of the ester and methanol) in high yield (Table 1, entries 1 and 2). As expected, the irreversible

Methane from oil shale can potentially provide a significant contribution to natural gas industry, and it may be possible to increase and continue methane production by artificially enhancing methanogenic activity through the addition of various substrate and nutrient treatments. Western Research Institute in conjunction with Pick & Shovel Inc. and the U.S. Department of Energy conducted microcosm and scaled-up reactor studies to investigate the feasibility and optimization of biogenic methane production from oil shale. The microcosm study involving crushed oil shale showed the highest yield of methane was produced from oil shale pretreated with a basic solution and treated with nutrients. Incubation at 30 C, which is the estimated temperature in the subsurface where the oil shale originated, caused and increase in methane production. The methane production eventually decreased when pH of the system was above 9.00. In the scaled-up reactor study, pretreatment of the oil shale with a basic solution, nutrient enhancements, incubation at 30 C, and maintaining pH at circumneutral levels yielded the highest rate of biogenic methane production. From this study, the annual biogenic methane production rate was determined to be as high as 6042 cu. ft/ton oil shale.

Major; People's Institute for Survival and Beyond, New Orleans 2. Power is the ability to define reality and to convince other people that it is their definition. ~ Dr. Wade Nobles 3. Power is the capacity to act. 4 different cultures. [JL] RACISM Racism is race prejudice plus power [See Racist]. People's Institute calls

3 Library Regulations Definitions In Regulation 3: 'Library' means the University Library as defined in Regulation 3.1; 'Library staff' means the staff of the University Library; 'Librarian' means the University Librarian and Head of Information Resources Directorate or nominee; `Library Committee' means

Definitions Â· Numbered Space Â­ a single space marked with a number and reserved for a single permit 24/7 Â· Unnumbered Space Â­ a space which can be used by any customer allowed to park in that lot. High Low Average Question 4: If I buy a staff permit for an UNNUMBERED* space in a non-gated surface

Gas hydrates are crystalline compounds made of gas and water molecules. Methane hydrates are found in marine sediments and permafrost regions; extensive amounts of methane are trapped in the form of hydrates. Methane hydrate can be an energy resource, contribute to global warming, or cause seafloor instability. This study placed emphasis on gas recovery from hydrate bearing sediments and related phenomena. The unique behavior of hydrate-bearing sediments required the development of special research tools, including new numerical algorithms (tube- and pore-network models) and experimental devices (high pressure chambers and micromodels). Therefore, the research methodology combined experimental studies, particle-scale numerical simulations, and macro-scale analyses of coupled processes. Research conducted as part of this project started with hydrate formation in sediment pores and extended to production methods and emergent phenomena. In particular, the scope of the work addressed: (1) hydrate formation and growth in pores, the assessment of formation rate, tensile/adhesive strength and their impact on sediment-scale properties, including volume change during hydrate formation and dissociation; (2) the effect of physical properties such as gas solubility, salinity, pore size, and mixed gas conditions on hydrate formation and dissociation, and it implications such as oscillatory transient hydrate formation, dissolution within the hydrate stability field, initial hydrate lens formation, and phase boundary changes in real field situations; (3) fluid conductivity in relation to pore size distribution and spatial correlation and the emergence of phenomena such as flow focusing; (4) mixed fluid flow, with special emphasis on differences between invading gas and nucleating gas, implications on relative gas conductivity for reservoir simulations, and gas recovery efficiency; (5) identification of advantages and limitations in different gas production strategies with emphasis; (6) detailed study of CH4-CO2 exchange as a unique alternative to recover CH4 gas while sequestering CO2; (7) the relevance of fines in otherwise clean sand sediments on gas recovery and related phenomena such as fines migration and clogging, vuggy structure formation, and gas-driven fracture formation during gas production by depressurization.

The Mn-W-Na/SiO{sub 2} catalyst was studied by running the methane coupling reactions at different methane to oxygen ratios, temperatures and dilution gas flow rates. For methane to oxygen ratios less than 3, the C{sub 2} yield was almost the same; and C{sub 2} yield began to decrease as the methane to oxygen ratio was further increased. The optimal temperature observed was around 800{degrees}C, where the C{sub 2} yield reached a maximum value. Increasing the dilution gas (helium) flow rate resulted in higher C{sub 2} selectivity; however, after a certain dilution gas flow rate the C{sub 2} yield began to decrease due to a decrease in methane conversion as a result of the reduced contact time. The stability study of the catalyst showed that, after five successive run cycles, the C{sub 2} yield obtained decreased from 24% to 19% at 780 {degrees}C, and methane, oxygen and helium flow rates of 12.2, 4.1, and 44. 3 mm/min, respectively. XRD analysis showed that, after the reaction, the XRD peaks of the cristabolite and Na{sub 2}WO{sub 4} phases in the catalyst became smaller than those in the fresh catalyst, and that at least one new, unidentified phase was observed. Mn-W-Na/SiO{sub 2} catalyst was used as the methane oxidative coupling catalyst in a porous membrane reactor and its performance was compared with a packed reactor operated at similar conditions. Although the membrane reactor showed lower methane conversion at the same reaction conditions, it gave higher C{sub 2} selectivity and C{sub 2} yield at similar methane conversions.

Definitions and motivation Examples More theory The Importance of being Equivalent: The Ubiquity of being Equivalent: #12;Definitions and motivation Examples More theory Fractions Geometry Real life Equivalent: #12;Definitions and motivation Examples More theory Fractions Geometry Real life Summary Equality

The Tank Waste Remediation System (TWRS) Information Systems Definition architecture evaluated information Management (IM) processes in several key organizations. The intent of the study is to identify improvements in TWRS IM processes that will enable better support to the TWRS mission, and accommodate changes in TWRS business environment. The ultimate goals of the study are to reduce IM costs, Manage the configuration of TWRS IM elements, and improve IM-related process performance.

The design and operation of catalyst-sprayed tube wall reactors for methanation are discussed. Reactor tubes were either coated on the inner surface or on the outer surface with a Raney nickel catalyst. A liquid coolant, which was opposite the catalyst-reactant gas-side, removed the heat of methanation. Catalyst performance, reactor operating conditions, spent catalyst analyses, and other results are presented for five PDU tests.

technique studied hydrogen physisorbed on graphitized carbon black. In their study, temperatures ranged from 12 K to 28 K, and coverages ranged from 0. 03 to 0. 33 of a statistical monolayer. Their results showed that both Tt and Tz increased... of methane adsorbed on graphite. The thermal properties of the 2-D system are inuch more complex than that of bulk methane. Results from neutron scattering, calorimetric 3 4 and thermodynamic studies showed the existence of a, complicated phase diagram...

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDY OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON A Thesis by FENG I I Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas ARM University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE... May 1992 Major Subject: Physics NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDY OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON A Thesis by FENG LI Approved as to style and content by: . P. Kirk (Chair of Committee) i G. Agnolet (Member) J. H. Ross, r (Member) M...

THE STUDY OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON BY NMR A Thesis by ADAM KAZIMIERZ CZERMAK Submitted to the Graduate College of Texas ARM University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE August 1986... Major Subject: Physics THE STUDY OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON BY NMR A Thesis by ADAM KAZIMIERZ CZERMAK Approved as to style and content by: e Wile . Kirk (Chairman of Committee) J eevak M. Par pi a (Member) Randall L. Geiger...

VELOCITY OF SOUND IN SOLID METHANE NEAR MELTING TEMPERATURES A Thesis By JOHN MARTIN WHITEHEAD Submitted to the Graduate College of the Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE May... 1968 Ma)or Sub)ect: Physics VELOCITY OF SOVND IN SOLID METHANE NEAR MELTING TEMPERATURES A Thesis By JOHN MARTIN WHITEHEAD Approved as to style and content by& (Chairman of Committee) (Head of Departsmnt) (Mem er (Member) May 1968...

TWO DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON A Thesis by RICHARD FRANKLIN TENNIS Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas ASM University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER... OF SCIENCE May 1989 Major Subject: Physics TWO DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE ADSORBED ON POROUS SILICON A Thesis by RICHARD FRANKLIN TENNIS Approved as to style and content by: P. Kirk (C ir of Committee) Glenn olet (M er) Da J. Ernst...

Methods of using microchannel separation systems including absorbents to improve thermal efficiency and reduce parasitic power loss. Energy is typically added to desorb methane and then energy or heat is removed to absorb methane using a working solution. The working solution or absorbent may comprise an ionic liquid, or other fluids that demonstrate a difference in affinity between methane and nitrogen in a solution.

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a drilling hazard by the oil and gas industry for years. Drilling engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous problems, including drilling kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrates as a potential energy source agree that the resource potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained from physical samples taken from actual hydrate-bearing rocks. This gas-hydrate project is a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Anadarko Petroleum, Noble Corporation, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. The project team drilled and continuously cored the Hot Ice No. 1 well on Anadarko-leased acreage beginning in FY 2003 and completed in 2004. An on-site core analysis laboratory was built and used for determining physical characteristics of hydrates and surrounding rock. After the well was logged, a 3D vertical seismic profile (VSP) was recorded to calibrate the shallow geologic section with seismic data and to investigate techniques to better resolve lateral subsurface variations of potential hydrate-bearing strata. Paulsson Geophysical Services, Inc. deployed their 80 level 3C clamped borehole seismic receiver array in the wellbore to record samples every 25 ft. Seismic vibrators were successively positioned at 1185 different surface positions in a circular pattern around the wellbore. This technique generated a 3D image of the subsurface. Correlations were generated of these seismic data with cores, logging, and other well data. Unfortunately, the Hot Ice No. 1 well did not encounter hydrates in the reservoir sands, although brine-saturated sands containing minor amounts of methane were encountered within the hydrate stability zone (HSZ). Synthetic seismograms created from well log data were in agreement with reflectivity data measured by the 3D VSP survey. Modeled synthetic seismograms indicated a detectable seismic response would be expected in the presence of hydrate-bearing sands. Such a response was detected in the 3D VSP data at locations up-dip to the west of the Hot Ice No. 1 wellbore. Results of this project suggest that the presence of hydrate-bearing strata may not be related as simply to HSZ thickness as previously thought. Geological complications of reservoir facies distribution within fluvial-deltaic environments will require sophisticated detection technologies to assess the locations of recoverable volumes of methane contained in hydrates. High-resolution surface seismic data and more rigorous well log data analysis offer the best near-term potential. The hydrate resource potential is huge, but better tools are needed to accurately assess their location, distribution and economic recoverability.

Controlled landfilling is an approach to manage solid waste landfills, so as to rapidly complete methane generation, while maximizing gas capture and minimizing the usual emissions of methane to the atmosphere. With controlled landfilling, methane generation is accelerated to more rapid and earlier completion to full potential by improving conditions (principally moisture, but also temperature) to optimize biological processes occurring within the landfill. Gas is contained through use of surface membrane cover. Gas is captured via porous layers, under the cover, operated at slight vacuum. A field demonstration project has been ongoing under NETL sponsorship for the past several years near Davis, CA. Results have been extremely encouraging. Two major benefits of the technology are reduction of landfill methane emissions to minuscule levels, and the recovery of greater amounts of landfill methane energy in much shorter times, more predictably, than with conventional landfill practice. With the large amount of US landfill methane generated, and greenhouse potency of methane, better landfill methane control can play a substantial role both in reduction of US greenhouse gas emissions and in US renewable energy. The work described in this report, to demonstrate and advance this technology, has used two demonstration-scale cells of size (8000 metric tons [tonnes]), sufficient to replicate many heat and compaction characteristics of larger ''full-scale'' landfills. An enhanced demonstration cell has received moisture supplementation to field capacity. This is the maximum moisture waste can hold while still limiting liquid drainage rate to minimal and safely manageable levels. The enhanced landfill module was compared to a parallel control landfill module receiving no moisture additions. Gas recovery has continued for a period of over 4 years. It is quite encouraging that the enhanced cell methane recovery has been close to 10-fold that experienced with conventional landfills. This is the highest methane recovery rate per unit waste, and thus progress toward stabilization, documented anywhere for such a large waste mass. This high recovery rate is attributed to moisture, and elevated temperature attained inexpensively during startup. Economic analyses performed under Phase I of this NETL contract indicate ''greenhouse cost effectiveness'' to be excellent. Other benefits include substantial waste volume loss (over 30%) which translates to extended landfill life. Other environmental benefits include rapidly improved quality and stabilization (lowered pollutant levels) in liquid leachate which drains from the waste.

Proof and Definition in Logic and Type Theory Proof and Definition in Logic and Type Theory Robin questions. #12;Proof and Definition in Logic and Type Theory Definition and Proof Definition and proof -- but they are not in predicate logic or type theory. #12;Proof and Definition in Logic and Type Theory Methods of Definition

Conventional steam reformers are large and expensive for small scale fuel cell installations. But also the high endothermicity of the reforming reaction for the production of synthesis gas is a drawback. An alternative to conventional steam reforming is the partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas. This process is slightly exothermic. The flexibility of the process makes small scale application possible. However, the partial oxidation process seems especially attractive for application within a high temperature fuel cell, because of relatively high CO/H{sub 2}-ratio for the output gases. In this paper the results of the study on the mechanism of the partial oxidation to synthesis gas on silica-supported nickel catalysts are discussed. Moreover, a process for the partial oxidation is proposed in which air instead of oxygen can be used. Based on the results of the mechanistic study two processes for the catalytic partial oxidation are proposed and simulated using the Aspen Plus flowsheeting program with which the mass and heat balances were optimized.

Methane (CH{sub 4}) in natural gas is a major energy source in the U.S., and is used extensively on Alaska's North Slope, including the oilfields in Prudhoe Bay, the community of Barrow, and the National Petroleum Reserve, Alaska (NPRA). Smaller villages, however, are dependent on imported diesel fuel for both power and heating, resulting in some of the highest energy costs in the U.S. and crippling local economies. Numerous CH{sub 4} gas seeps have been observed on wetlands near Atqasuk, Alaska (in the NPRA), and initial measurements have indicated flow rates of 3,000-5,000 ft{sup 3} day{sup -1} (60-100 kg CH{sub 4} day{sup -1}). Gas samples collected in 1996 indicated biogenic origin, although more recent sampling indicated a mixture of biogenic and thermogenic gas. In this study, we (1) quantified the amount of CH{sub 4} generated by several seeps and evaluated their potential use as an unconventional gas source for the village of Atqasuk; (2) collected gas and analyzed its composition from multiple seeps several miles apart to see if the source is the same, or if gas is being generated locally from isolated biogenic sources; and (3) assessed the potential magnitude of natural CH{sub 4} gas seeps for future use in climate change modeling.

This work explored the possibility of using the soluble methane monooxygenase (MMO) enzyme, a three-component enzyme which catalyzes the oxygenation of methane and other substrates, to design a methane sensor for use in ...

This topical report represents a pathway toward better understanding of the impact of marine methane hydrates on safety and seafloor stability and future collection of data that can be used by scientists, engineers, managers and planners to study climate change and to assess the feasibility of marine methane hydrate as a potential future energy resource. Our understanding of the occurrence, distribution and characteristics of marine methane hydrates is incomplete; therefore, research must continue to expand if methane hydrates are to be used as a future energy source. Exploring basins with methane hydrates has been occurring for over 30 years, but these e?orts have been episodic in nature. To further our understanding, these e?orts must be more regular and employ new techniques to capture more data. This plan identifies incomplete areas of methane hydrate research and o?ers solutions by systematically reviewing known methane hydrate “Science Challenges” and linking them with “Technical Challenges” and potential field program locations.

) means the chemical compound containing one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. (2) "Carbon dioxide) "Global Warming Potential factor" (GWP) means the radiative forcing impact of one mass-based unit. For instance, methane (CH4) has a GWP of 23, meaning that every gram of methane will trap 23 times as much

The purpose of this project is to design and demonstrate an approach to upgrade low-BTU methane streams from coal mines to pipeline-quality natural gas. The objective of Phase I of the project was to assess the technical feasibility and cost of upgrading low-BTU methane streams using ultra-fast thermal swing adsorption (TSA) using Velocys modular microchannel process technology. The objective of Phase II is to demonstrate the process at the bench scale. The project is on schedule and on budget. A technical and economic feasibility assessment was completed in Task 3. The proposed Velocys technology appears feasible for the methane upgrading market. Evaluated categories include adsorbent selection, rapid-cycle valve selection, microchannel manufacturability assessment, and system design and cost. The selected adsorbent, granular microporous carbon from either Barnaby-Sutcliffe or Calgon, experimentally demonstrated sufficient methane capacity under differential temperature at 100 pounds per square inch gauge. Several valve options were identified, including candidates that can operate millions of cycles between refurbishment. The microchannel adsorber and desorber designs were made using internal Velocys manufacturability standards, and the associated costs are acceptable as included with the complete nitrogen rejection unit (NRU) cost projection. A system design and cost estimate was completed for the NRU section of the methane upgrading system. As integrated into the complete system, the cost is in line with the market requirement. The system has six main unit operations: feed compressor, dehydration unit, nitrogen rejection unit, deoxygenator, carbon dioxide scrubber, and a sales compressor. The NRU is the focus of the development program, and a bench-scale demonstration will be initiated in the next fiscal year. The Velocys NRU system targets producing methane with greater than 96% purity and at least 90% recovery for final commercial operation. A preliminary cost analysis of the methane upgrading system, including the Velocys NRU, suggests that costs below $2.00 per million (MM) BTU methane may be achieved. The cost for a conventional methane upgrading system is well above $2.30 per MM BTU, as benchmarked in an Environmental Protection Agency study.

In addition to inorganic catalysts that react with methane, it is well-known that a select group of aerobic soil/water bacteria called methanotrophs can efficiently and selectively utilize methane as the sole source of their energy and carbon for cellular growth. The first reaction in this metabolic pathway is catalyzed by the enzyme methane monooxygenase (MMO) forming methanol. Methanol is a technology important product from this partial oxidation of methane since it can be easily converted to liquid hydrocarbon transportation fuels (gasoline), used directly as a liquid fuel or fuel additive itself, or serve as a feedstock for chemicals production. This naturally occurring biocatalyst (MMO) is accomplishing a technologically important transformation (methane directly to methanol) for which there is currently no analogous chemical (non-biological) process. The authors approach has been to use the biocatalyst, MMO, as the initial focus in the development of discrete chemical catalysts (biomimetic complexes) for methane conversion. The advantage of this approach is that it exploits a biocatalytic system already performing a desired transformation of methane. In addition, this approach generated needed new experimental information on catalyst structure and function in order to develop new catalysts rationally and systematically. The first task is a comparative mechanistic, biochemical, and spectroscopic investigation of MMO enzyme systems. This work was directed at developing a description of the structure and function of the catalytically active sites in sufficient detail to generate a biomimetic material. The second task involves the synthesis, characterization, and chemical reactions of discrete complexes that mimic the enzymatic active site. These complexes were synthesized based on their best current understanding of the MMO active site structure.

Quantification of methane emission from landfills is important to evaluate measures for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Both the United Nations and the European Union have adopted protocols to ensure quantification of methane emission from individual landfills. The purpose of these protocols is to disclose emission data to regulators and the general public. Criteria such as timeliness, completeness, certainty, comparability, consistency and transparency are set for inclusion of emission data in a publicly accessible database. All methods given as guidance to landfill operators to estimate landfill methane emissions are based on models. In this paper the consequences of applying six different models for estimates of three landfills are explored. It is not the intention of this paper to criticise or validate models. The modelling results are compared with whole site methane emission measurements. A huge difference in results is observed. This raises doubts about the accuracy of the models. It also indicates that at least some of the criteria previously mentioned are not met for the tools currently available to estimate methane emissions from individual landfills. This will inevitably lead to compiling and comparing data with an incomparable origin. Harmonisation of models is recommended. This may not necessarily reduce uncertainty, but it will at least result in comparable, consistent and transparent data.

The structural stability of methane hydrate under pressure at room temperature was examined by both in-situ single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction techniques on samples with structure types I, II, and H in diamond-anvil cells. The diffraction data for types II (sII) and H (sH) were refined to the known structures with space groups Fd3m and P6{sub 3}/mmc, respectively. Upon compression, sI methane hydrate transforms to the sII phase at 120 MPa, and then to the sH phase at 600 MPa. The sII methane hydrate was found to coexist locally with sI phase up to 500 MPa and with sH phase up to 600 MPa. The pure sH structure was found to be stable between 600 and 900 MPa. Methane hydrate decomposes at pressures above 3 GPa to form methane with the orientationally disordered Fm3m structure and ice VII (Pn3m). The results highlight the role of guest (CH{sub 4})-host (H{sub 2}O) interactions in the stabilization of the hydrate structures under pressure.

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrate potential agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. The work scope drilled and cored a well The Hot Ice No. 1 on Anadarko leases beginning in FY 2003 and completed in 2004. An on-site core analysis laboratory was built and utilized for determining the physical characteristics of the hydrates and surrounding rock. The well was drilled from a new Anadarko Arctic Platform that has a minimal footprint and environmental impact. The final efforts of the project are to correlate geology, geophysics, logs, and drilling and production data and provide this information to scientists developing reservoir models. No gas hydrates were encountered in this well; however, a wealth of information was generated and is contained in this report. The Hot Ice No. 1 well was drilled from the surface to a measured depth of 2300 ft. There was almost 100% core recovery from the bottom of surface casing at 107 ft to total depth. Based on the best estimate of the bottom of the methane hydrate stability zone (which used new data obtained from Hot Ice No. 1 and new analysis of data from adjacent wells), core was recovered over its complete range. Approximately 580 ft of porous, mostly frozen, sandstone and 155 of conglomerate were recovered in the Ugnu Formation and approximately 215 ft of porous sandstone were recovered in the West Sak Formation. There were gas shows in the bottom part of the Ugnu and throughout the West Sak. No hydrate-bearing zones were identified either in recovered core or on well logs. The base of the permafrost was found at about 1260 ft. With the exception of the deepest sands in the West Sak and some anomalous thin, tight zones, all sands recovered (after thawing) are unconsolidated with high porosity and high permeability. At 800 psi, Ugnu sands have an average porosity of 39.3% and geometrical mean permeability of 3.7 Darcys. Average grain density is 2.64 g/cc. West Sak sands have an average porosity of 35.5%, geometrical mean permeability of 0.3 Darcys, and average grain density of 2.70 g/cc. There were several 1-2 ft intervals of carbonate-cemented sandstone recovered from the West Sak. These intervals have porosities of only a few percent and very low permeability. On a well log they appear as resistive with a high sonic velocity. In shallow sections of other wells these usually are the only logs available. Given the presence of gas in Hot Ice No. 1, if only resistivity and sonic logs and a mud log had been available, tight sand zones may have been interpreted as containing hydrates. Although this finding does not imply that all previously mapped hydrate zones are merely tight sands, it does add a note of caution to the practice of interpreting the presence of hydrates from old well information. The methane hydrate stability zone below the Hot Ice No. 1 location includes thick sections of sandstone and conglomerate which would make excellent reservoir rocks for hydrates and below the permafrost zone shallow gas. The Ugnu formation comprises a more sand-rich section than does the West Sak formation, and the Ugnu sands when cleaned and dried are slightly more porous and significantly more permeable than the West Sak.

GRAPH THEORY STUDY GUIDE 1. DefinitionsDefinition 1 (Partition of A). A set A = A1, ..., Ak. Definition 2 (Vertex set). The set of vertices in a graph denoted by V (G). Definition 3 (Edge set). The set of edges in a graph denoted by E(G). Definition 4 (Order). the number of vertices of a graph G written |G

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Oil-field engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in Arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrates agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. This gas-hydrate project is a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Anadarko Petroleum, Noble Corporation, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to help identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. As part of the project work scope, team members drilled and cored the HOT ICE No. 1 on Anadarko leases beginning in January 2003 and completed in March 2004. Due to scheduling constraints imposed by the Arctic drilling season, operations at the site were suspended between April 21, 2003 and January 30, 2004. An on-site core analysis laboratory was designed, constructed and used for determining physical characteristics of frozen core immediately after it was retrieved from the well. The well was drilled from a new and innovative Anadarko Arctic Platform that has a greatly reduced footprint and environmental impact. Final efforts of the project were to correlate geology, geophysics, logs, and drilling and production data and provide this information to scientists for future hydrate operations. Unfortunately, no gas hydrates were encountered in this well; however, a wealth of information was generated and is contained in the project reports.

Climate Policy Design: Interactions among Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Urban Air Pollution Policy Design: Interactions among Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Urban Air Pollution Constraints by Marcus. The third case examines the benefits of increased policy coordination between air pollution constraints

This thesis will introduce the study of methane as a mineral. Along with ammonia and water, methane is one of the main planetary-forming materials in the outer solar system. The topic of `new mineralogy of the outer solar ...

Géosciences, 1A rue de la Férolerie, 45071 Orléans Cedex 2, France Abstract Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas and its concentration in the atmosphere has increased over the past decades. Methane produced

Author's personal copy Unified behaviour of maximum soot yields of methane, ethane and propane the current study and the previous measurements in similar flames with methane, ethane, and propane flames

Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide, and it can significantly impact global climate change. Considerable amounts of methane can be released to the atmosphere from freshwater lakes, ...

of greenhouse gases, most notably methane and carbon dioxide, and these gases have dissimilar properties. This research finds that methane-emitting energy such as natural gas becomes significantly more carbon dioxide

A modelling experiment has been conceived to assess the impact of transport model errors on methane emissions estimated in an atmospheric inversion system. Synthetic methane observations, obtained from 10 different model ...

Methanotrophs consume methane as their major carbon source and have an essential role in the global carbon cycle by limiting escape of this greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. These bacteria oxidize methane to methanol by ...

Energy technologies emitting differing proportions of methane and carbon dioxide vary in their relative climate impacts over time, due to the different atmospheric lifetimes of the two gases. Standard technology comparisons using the global warming potential (GWP) emissions equivalency metric do not reveal these dynamic impacts, and may not provide the information needed to assess technologies and emissions mitigation opportunities in the context of broader climate policy goals. Here we formulate a portfolio optimization model that incorporates changes in technology impacts as a radiative forcing (RF) stabilization target is approached. An optimal portfolio, maximizing allowed energy consumption while meeting the RF target, is obtained by year-wise minimization of the marginal RF impact in an intended stabilization year. The optimal portfolio calls for using certain higher methane-emitting technologies prior to an optimal switching year, followed by methane-light technologies as the stabilization year approac...

CONSOL Energy Inc., in conjunction with MEGTEC Systems, Inc., and the U.S. Department of Energy with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, designed, built, and operated a commercial-size thermal flow reversal reactor (TFRR) to evaluate its suitability to oxidize coal mine ventilation air methane (VAM). Coal mining, and particularly coal mine ventilation air, is a major source of anthropogenic methane emissions, a greenhouse gas. Ventilation air volumes are large and the concentration of methane in the ventilation air is low; thus making it difficult to use or abate these emissions. This test program was conducted with simulated coal mine VAM in advance of deploying the technology on active coal mine ventilation fans. The demonstration project team installed and operated a 30,000 cfm MEGTEC VOCSIDIZER oxidation system on an inactive coal mine in West Liberty, WV. The performance of the unit was monitored and evaluated during months of unmanned operation at mostly constant conditions. The operating and maintenance history and how it impacts the implementation of the technology on mine fans were investigated. Emission tests showed very low levels of all criteria pollutants at the stack. Parametric studies showed that the equipment can successfully operate at the design specification limits. The results verified the ability of the TFRR to oxidize {ge}95% of the low and variable concentration of methane in the ventilation air. This technology provides new opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by the reduction of methane emissions from coal mine ventilation air. A large commercial-size installation (180,000 cfm) on a single typical mine ventilation bleeder fan would reduce methane emissions by 11,000 to 22,100 short tons per year (the equivalent of 183,000 to 366,000 metric tonnes carbon dioxide).

Methane-to-Methanol Conversion by Gas-Phase Transition Metal Oxide Cations: Experiment and Theory-phase transition metal oxide cations can convert methane to methanol. Methane activation by MO+ is discussed such as methanol has attracted great experimental and theoretical interest due to its importance as an industrial

Electronic spectroscopy of intermediates involved in the conversion of methane to methanol by Fe.1063/1.1448489 I. INTRODUCTION The direct oxidation of methane to an easily transport- able liquid such as methanol process and as the simplest model for alkane oxidation.1,2 Although no direct, efficient methane­methanol

Chapter 65 EFFECTS OF WATER SPRAYS AND SCRUBBER EXHAUST ON FACE METHANE CONCENTRATIONS Ch.D. Taylor-mounted scrubber and water sprays can reduced methane levels at the face. The current research was conducted to determine how the sprays and scrubber interact to reduce methane levels, and what spray configurations

Conventional steam reforming of methane to synthesis gas (CO and H{sub 2}) hasa conversion efficiency of about 85%. Replacement of metal tubes in the reformer with ceramic tubes offers the potential for operation at temperatures high enough to increase the efficiency to 98-99%. However, the two candidate ceramic materials being given strongest consideration, sintered alpha Si carbide and Si carbide particulate-strengthened alumina, have been shown to react with components of the reformer environment. Extent of degradation as a function of steam partial pressure and exposure time has been studied, and results suggest limits under which these structural ceramics can be used in advanced steam-methane reformers.

with distance along the reactor, and therefore the coke distribution should follow a similar pattern. A distribution of coke deposits along the reactor was also observed by Noda er al. (1974) in a study of iso-pentane isomerization. In this case the coke..., methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, iso-butane, butane, iso-pentane, pentane and hexanes. Also, the flow rate of the effluent stream is measured using the bubble meter. The mole percentages of methane and ethylene are subtracted of the effluent stream...

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrate potential agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. This gas-hydrate project was a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Noble Corporation, Anadarko Petroleum, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. The work scope included drilling and coring a well (Hot Ice No. 1) on Anadarko leases beginning in FY 2003 and completed in 2004. During the first drilling season, operations were conducted at the site between January 28, 2003 to April 30, 2003. The well was spudded and drilled to a depth of 1403 ft. Due to the onset of warmer weather, work was then suspended for the season. Operations at the site were continued after the tundra was re-opened the following season. Between January 12, 2004 and March 19, 2004, the well was drilled and cored to a final depth of 2300 ft. An on-site core analysis laboratory was built and implemented for determining physical characteristics of the hydrates and surrounding rock. The well was drilled from a new Anadarko Arctic Platform that has a minimal footprint and environmental impact. Final efforts of the project are to correlate geology, geophysics, logs, and drilling and production data and provide this information to scientists developing reservoir models and to research teams for developing future gas-hydrate projects. No gas hydrates were encountered in this well; however, a wealth of information was generated and has been documented by the project team. This Topical Report documents drilling and coring operations and other daily activities.

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrate potential agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. This gas-hydrate project was a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Noble Corporation, Anadarko Petroleum, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. The work scope included drilling and coring a well (Hot Ice No. 1) on Anadarko leases beginning in FY 2003 and completed in 2004. During the first drilling season, operations were conducted at the site between January 28, 2003 to April 30, 2003. The well was spudded and drilled to a depth of 1403 ft. Due to the onset of warmer weather, work was then suspended for the season. Operations at the site were continued after the tundra was re-opened the following season. Between January 12, 2004 and March 19, 2004, the well was drilled and cored to a final depth of 2300 ft. An on-site core analysis laboratory was built and utilized for determining the physical characteristics of the hydrates and surrounding rock. The well was drilled from a new Anadarko Arctic Platform that has a minimal footprint and environmental impact. The final efforts of the project are to correlate geology, geophysics, logs, and drilling and production data and provide this information to scientists planning hydrate exploration and development projects. No gas hydrates were encountered in this well; however, a wealth of information was generated and is contained in this and other project reports. This Topical Report contains details describing logging operations.

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrate potential agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. This gas-hydrate project is in the final stages of a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Noble Corporation, Anadarko Petroleum, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. Hot Ice No. 1 was planned to test the Ugnu and West Sak sequences for gas hydrates and a concomitant free gas accumulation on Anadarko's 100% working interest acreage in section 30 of Township 9N, Range 8E of the Harrison Bay quadrangle of the North Slope of Alaska. The Ugnu and West Sak intervals are favorably positioned in the hydrate-stability zone over an area extending from Anadarko's acreage westward to the vicinity of the aforementioned gas-hydrate occurrences. This suggests that a large, north-to-south trending gas-hydrate accumulation may exist in that area. The presence of gas shows in the Ugnu and West Sak reservoirs in wells situated eastward and down dip of the Hot Ice location indicate that a free-gas accumulation may be trapped by gas hydrates. The Hot Ice No. 1 well was designed to core from the surface to the base of the West Sak interval using the revolutionary and new Arctic Drilling Platform in search of gas hydrate and free gas accumulations at depths of approximately 1200 to 2500 ft MD. A secondary objective was the gas-charged sands of the uppermost Campanian interval at approximately 3000 ft. Summary results of geophysical analysis of the well are presented in this report.

Natural-gas hydrates have been encountered beneath the permafrost and considered a nuisance by the oil and gas industry for years. Engineers working in Russia, Canada and the USA have documented numerous drilling problems, including kicks and uncontrolled gas releases, in arctic regions. Information has been generated in laboratory studies pertaining to the extent, volume, chemistry and phase behavior of gas hydrates. Scientists studying hydrate potential agree that the potential is great--on the North Slope of Alaska alone, it has been estimated at 590 TCF. However, little information has been obtained on physical samples taken from actual rock containing hydrates. This gas-hydrate project is a cost-shared partnership between Maurer Technology, Anadarko Petroleum, Noble Corporation, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Methane Hydrate R&D program. The purpose of the project is to build on previous and ongoing R&D in the area of onshore hydrate deposition to help identify, quantify and predict production potential for hydrates located on the North Slope of Alaska. As part of the project work scope, team members drilled and cored a well (the Hot Ice No. 1) on Anadarko leases beginning in January 2003 and completed in March 2004. Due to scheduling constraints imposed by the Arctic drilling season, operations at the site were suspended between April 21, 2003 and January 30, 2004. An on-site core analysis laboratory was constructed and used for determining physical characteristics of frozen core immediately after it was retrieved from the well. The well was drilled from a new and innovative Anadarko Arctic Platform that has a greatly reduced footprint and environmental impact. Final efforts of the project were to correlate geology, geophysics, logs, and drilling and production data and provide this information to scientists for future hydrate operations. No gas hydrates were encountered in this well; however, a wealth of information was generated and is contained in the project reports. Documenting the results of this effort are key to extracting lessons learned and maximizing the industry's benefits for future hydrate exploitation.

Case histories and laboratory test data are presented to compare the predictive utility of NACE MR0175 with three alternatives. With some exceptions, the MR0175 definition is useful and conservative for most cases. The definition based on water phase pH and hydrogen sulfide (H{sub 2}S) partial pressure, proposed in European Federation of Corrosion (EFC) pub. 16, is not recommended since it does not predict sulfide stress cracking (SSC) in refining environments and presents higher risk of SSC of sweet service materials in certain Arabian Gulf production environments. A modified definition of sour service is proposed, which uses the MR0175 definition except in cases of very low water phase pH. 47 refs., 4 figs., 1 tab.

This publication is a glossary of terms used by the crop insurance industry. There are definitions for terms used in crop insurance documents and for terms pertaining to coverage levels, farming, reports, units and parties to contracts....

RICH METHANE PREMIXED LAMINAR FLAMES DOPED BY LIGHT UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS PART I: ALLENE developed in our laboratory for the reactions of C3-C4 unsaturated hydrocarbons. The main reaction pathways2007 #12;3 INTRODUCTION Soots and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are present in the exhaust gas

), in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and an industry consortium led by Chevron, in gas hydrate as an energy resource. Although the existence of gas hydrates in nature has been known for many decades, our and energy recovery involving the evolution of methane gas in the subsurface. In particular, we develop

In this study, the authors developed an approach for accurately quantifying the helium content in a gas mixture also containing hydrogen and methane using commercially available getters. The authors performed a systematic study to examine how both H{sub 2} and CH{sub 4} can be removed simultaneously from the mixture using two SAES St 172{sup ®} getters operating at different temperatures. The remaining He within the gas mixture can then be measured directly using a capacitance manometer. The optimum combination involved operating one getter at 650?°C to decompose the methane, and the second at 110?°C to remove the hydrogen. This approach eliminated the need to reactivate the getters between measurements, thereby enabling multiple measurements to be made within a short time interval, with accuracy better than 1%. The authors anticipate that such an approach will be particularly useful for quantifying the He-3 in mixtures that include tritium, tritiated methane, and helium-3. The presence of tritiated methane, generated by tritium activity, often complicates such measurements.

The performance of Rh/ZnO/{gamma}-Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} catalyst for partial oxidation of methane to syngas was compared in fixed and fluidised bed reactors. Catalyst activity was found not to be a limiting factor under any experimental conditions and complete oxygen conversions were observed in all tests. In the fixed bed reactor both methane conversion and syngas selectivity were increasing with space velocity as the result of an autothermal effect. Satisfactory control of the catalyst temperature at high space velocities could only be achieved with addition of inert diluent or steam to the feed. Different conversion and selectivity patterns were observed in fluidised bed reactor. Methane conversion and carbon monoxide selectivity were decreasing with increasing gas flow. By contrast, hydrogen selectivity showed distinct maximum at medium space velocities. These results are interpreted in terms of catalyst backmixing and its effect on primary and secondary reactions. Improved temperature control was also achieved in fluidised bed reactor. Several experiments using fluidised bed reactor were carried out at elevated pressures. To eliminate the occurrence of non-catalytic gas phase reactions between methane and oxygen very short feed mixing times (< 1 ms) were employed. Despite these measures the reactor could not be successfully operated at pressures above 0.7 MPa. The implications of these findings for process development are discussed.

Recent observations have evidenced traces of methane CH4 heterogeneously distributed in the martian atmosphere. However, because the lifetime of CH4 in the atmosphere of Mars is estimated to be around 300-600 years on the basis of photochemistry, its release from a subsurface reservoir or an active primary source of methane have been invoked in the recent literature. Among the existing scenarios, it has been proposed that clathrate hydrates located in the near subsurface of Mars could be at the origin of the small quantities of the detected CH4. Here, we accurately determine the composition of these clathrate hydrates, as a function of temperature and gas phase composition, by using a hybrid statistical thermodynamic model based on experimental data. Compared to other recent works, our model allows us to calculate the composition of clathrate hydrates formed from a more plausible composition of the martian atmosphere by considering its main compounds, i.e. carbon dioxyde, nitrogen and argon, together with methane. Besides, because there is no low temperature restriction in our model, we are able to determine the composition of clathrate hydrates formed at temperatures corresponding to the extreme ones measured in the polar caps. Our results show that methane enriched clathrate hydrates could be stable in the subsurface of Mars only if a primitive CH4-rich atmosphere has existed or if a subsurface source of CH4 has been (or is still) present.

produced from renewable energy sources (such as wind, solar, or biomass) into a biofuel (methane) as well. Revised manuscript received March 5, 2009. Accepted March 6, 2009. New sustainable methods are needed to produce renewable energy carriers that can be stored and used for transportation, heating, or chemical