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MICHAEL FREEMAN
THE PHOTOGRAPHER’S EYE
MICHAEL FREEMAN
THE PHOTOGRAPHER’S EYE
Composition and Design for Better Digital Photos
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier
CONTENTS
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4HIS BOOK WAS CONCEIVED DESIGNED AND PRODUCED BY
4HE )LEX 0RESS ,EWES %NGLAND
0UBLISHER !LASTAIR #AMPBELL
#REATIVE $IRECTOR 0ETER "RIDGEWATER
!SSOCIATE 0UBLISHER 2OBIN 0EARSON
%DITORIAL $IRECTOR 4OM -UGRIDGE
%DITOR !DAM *UNIPER
!RT $IRECTOR *ULIE 7EIR
$ESIGNER 3IMON 'OGGIN
$ESIGN !SSISTANT +ATE (AYNES
$IGITAL POST PRODUCTION 9UKAKO 3HIBATA
0RINTED AND BOUND IN #HINA
#(!04%2 4(% )-!'% &2!-%
&RAME DYNAMICS
&RAME SHAPE
3TITCHING AND EXTENDING
#ROPPING
&ILLING THE FRAME
0LACEMENT
$IVIDING THE FRAME
(ORIZON
&RAMES WITHIN FRAMES
#(!04%2 $%3)'. "!3)#3
;
#ONTRAST
'ESTALT PERCEPTION
"ALANCE
$YNAMIC TENSION
&IGURE AND GROUND
2HYTHM
0ATTERN TEXTURE MANY
0ERSPECTIVE AND DEPTH
6ISUAL WEIGHT
,OOKING AND INTEREST
#ONTENT WEAK STRONG
#(!04%2 '2!0()#
0(/4/'2!0()# %,%-%.43
! SINGLE POINT
3EVERAL POINTS
(ORIZONTAL LINES
6ERTICAL LINES
$IAGONAL LINES
#URVES
%YE LINES
4RIANGLES
#IRCLES AND RECTANGLES
6ECTORS
&OCUS
-OTION
-OMENT
/PTICS
%XPOSURE
#(!04%2 #/-0/3).' 7)4(
,)'(4 !.$ #/,/2
#HIAROSCURO AND KEY
#OLOR IN COMPOSITION
#OLOR RELATIONSHIPS
-UTED COLORS
"LACK AND WHITE
#(!04%2 ).4%.4
#ONVENTIONAL OR CHALLENGING
2EACTIVE OR PLANNED
$OCUMENTARY OR EXPRESSIVE
3IMPLE OR COMPLEX
#LEAR OR AMBIGUOUS
$ELAY
3TYLE AND FASHION
#(!04%2 02/#%33
4HE SEARCH FOR ORDER
(UNTING
#ASE STUDY *APANESE MONK
2EPERTOIRE
2EACTION
!NTICIPATION
%XPLORATION
2ETURN
#ONSTRUCTION
*UXTAPOSITION
0HOTOGRAPHS TOGETHER
0OST PRODUCTION
3YNTAX
)NDEX
!CKNOWLEDGMENTS "IBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
“ …how you build a picture, what a picture consists of,
how shapes are related to each other, how spaces are
filled, how the whole thing must have a kind of unity.”
0
hilosophical, lyrical, sometimes obscure
commentaries on how photographs are made
and what they mean are thick on the ground,
usually by non-photographers. Not that there
is anything at all wrong with the perceptive
outsider’s view; indeed, the distance of this kind
of objectivity brings new, valuable insights.
Roland Barthes even held his non-understanding
of photographic processes (“I could not join the
troupe of those…who deal with Photographyaccording-to-the-Photographer”) as an advantage
in investigating the subject (“I resolved to start
my inquiry with no more than a few photographs,
the ones I was sure existed for me. Nothing to do
with a corpus...”).
This book, however, is intended to be
different, to explore the actual process of taking
photographs. I think I’d like to call it an insider’s
view, though that smacks of hubris, because I’m
drawing on the experience of photographers,
myself included, at the time of shooting. A
great deal goes on in the process of making an
exposure that is not at all obvious to someone
else seeing the result later. This will never prevent
art critics and historians from supplying their
own interpretations, which may be extremely
interesting but not necessarily have anything to
do with the circumstances and intentions of the
photographer. What I will attempt to do here is to
show how photographers compose their images,
according to their intentions, moods, and abilities,
and how the many skills of organizing an image
in the viewfinder can be improved and shared.
The important decisions in photography,
digital or otherwise, are those concerned with
the image itself: the reasons for taking it, and
the way it looks. The technology, of course, is
6
vital, but the best it can do is to help realize ideas
and perception. Photographers have always had
a complex and shifting relationship with their
equipment. In part there is the fascination with
the new, with gadgets, with bright, shiny toys.
At the same time there is, at least among those
who are reasonably self-confident, a belief that
their innate ability overrides the mere mechanics
of cameras. We need the equipment and yet are
cautious, sometimes even dismissive about it.
One of the things that is clearly needed for
successful photography is a proper balance in this
conflict. Nevertheless, there have been very few
attempts in publishing to deal comprehensively
with composition in photography, as opposed to
the technical issues. This is a rich and demanding
subject, too often trivialized even when not
ignored outright. Most people using a camera
for the first time try to master the controls but
ignore the ideas. They photograph intuitively,
liking or disliking what they see without stopping
to think why, and framing the view in the
same way. Anyone who does it well is a natural
photographer. But knowing in advance why some
compositions or certain combinations of colors
seem to work better than others, better equips
any photographer.
One important reason why intuitive rather
than informed photography is so common is
that shooting is such an easy, immediate process.
Whatever the level of thought and planning
that goes into a photograph, from none to
considerable, the image is created in an instant,
as soon as the shutter release is pressed. This
means that a picture can always be taken casually
and without thought, and because it can, it often
is. Johannes Itten, the great Bauhaus teacher in
0!5, 342!.$
Germany in the 1920s, talking about color in art,
told his students: “If you, unknowing, are able to
create masterpieces in color, then unknowledge
is your way. But if you are unable to create
masterpieces in color out of your unknowledge,
then you ought to look for knowledge.” This
applies to art in general, including photography.
In shooting, you can rely on natural ability or on
a good knowledge of the principles of design. In
other graphic arts, design is taught as a matter
of course. In photography it has received less
attention than it deserves, and here I set out to
redress some of this lack.
A relatively new element is the rapid shift
from film-based photography to digital, and
this, at least in my opinion, has the potential
to revitalize design. Because so much of the
image workflow between shooting and printing
is now placed on the computer in the hands of
the photographer, most of us now spend much
more time looking at and doing things to images.
This alone encourages more study, more analysis
of images and their qualities. Moreover, digital
post-production, with all its many possible
adjustments of brightness, contrast, and color,
restores to photographers the control over the
final image that was inherent in black-and-white
film photography but extremely difficult in color.
This comprehensive control inevitably affects
composition, and the simple fact that so much
can be done with an image in post-production
increases the need to consider the image and its
possibilities ever more carefully.
).42/$5#4)/.
).42/$5#4)/.
7
HOTOGRAPHS ARE CREATED WITHIN A
0
USED FOR LATER CROPPING ,ARGE FORMAT
EDGES ASSUME A CONSIDERABLE IMPORTANCE AS
SPATIAL CONTEXT AND THAT CONTEXT IS
FILM SUCH AS X INCH AND X INCH IS
OBJECTS MOVE INTO FRAME AND IMMEDIATELY
THE VIEWFINDER FRAME 4HIS MAY BE CARRIED
LARGE ENOUGH TO ALLOW CROPPING WITHOUT
INTERACT WITH THEM 4HE LAST CHAPTER IN THIS
THROUGH UNCHANGED TO THE FINAL IMAGE
MUCH LOSS OF RESOLUTION IN THE FINAL IMAGE
BOOK 0ROCESS DEALS WITH MANAGING THIS
WHETHER PRINT OR ON SCREEN OR IT MAY BE
AND IS ALSO OFTEN CROPPED PARTICULARLY IN
CONSTANTLY CHANGING INTERACTION BETWEEN
CROPPED OR EXTENDED )N WHICHEVER CASE
COMMERCIAL WORK .OW DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
VIEW AND FRAME EDGES )T IS COMPLEX EVEN
THE BORDERS OF THE IMAGE NEARLY ALWAYS
ADDS ITS OWN TWIST TO THIS AS STITCHING
WHEN DEALT WITH INTUITIVELY )F THE SUBJECT
A RECTANGLE EXERT STRONG INFLUENCES ON
BECOMES MORE WIDELY USED FOR PANORAMAS
IS STATIC LIKE A LANDSCAPE IT IS EASY TO SPEND
WHAT IS ARRANGED INSIDE THEM
AND OVER SIZED IMAGES SEE PAGES
ENOUGH TIME STUDYING AND EVALUATING THE
4HERE IS AN IMPORTANT DISTINCTION
#(!04%2
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
)N TRADITIONAL SHOOTING TO THE FINAL
FRAME 7ITH ACTIVE SUBJECTS HOWEVER THERE
NEVERTHELESS BETWEEN COMPOSING
COMPOSITION PHOTOGRAPHY THE FRAME PLAYS
IS NOT THIS PERIOD OF GRACE $ECISIONS ABOUT
PHOTOGRAPHS IN THE FRAME AS THEY ARE
A DYNAMIC ROLE AND ARGUABLY MORE SO
COMPOSITION WHATEVER THEY ARE MUST OFTEN
INTENDED TO BE AND PLANNING AHEAD TO
THAN IN PAINTING 4HE REASON IS THAT WHILE
BE TAKEN IN LESS TIME THAN IT TAKES FOR THEM
EITHER CROP OR EXTEND THE FRAME -OST
A PAINTING IS BUILT UP FROM NOTHING OUT OF
TO BE RECOGNIZED AS SUCH
MM FILM PHOTOGRAPHY HAS BEEN
PERCEPTION AND IMAGINATION THE PROCESS OF
CONCERNED WITH TIGHT FINAL COMPOSITION
PHOTOGRAPHY IS ONE OF SELECTION FROM REAL
ON TWO THINGS KNOWING THE PRINCIPLES OF
AT THE TIME OF SHOOTING AND AT TIMES THIS
SCENES AND EVENTS 0OTENTIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
DESIGN AND THE EXPERIENCE THAT COMES
HAS LED TO A CULTURE OF DEMONSTRATING THE
EXIST IN THEIR ENTIRETY INSIDE THE FRAME EVERY
FROM TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS REGULARLY 4HE
FACT BY SHOWING THE REBATES THE FRAME
TIME THE PHOTOGRAPHER RAISES THE CAMERA
TWO COMBINE TO FORM A PHOTOGRAPHER´S
EDGES OF THE FILM IN THE FINAL PRINT°A
AND LOOKS THROUGH THE VIEWFINDER )NDEED
WAY OF SEEING THINGS A KIND OF FRAME
WAY OF SAYING ±HANDS OFF² ONCE THE SHUTTER
IN VERY ACTIVE FAST SHOOTING SUCH AS STREET
VISION THAT EVALUATES SCENES FROM REAL LIFE
HAS BEEN RELEASED 3QUARE FORMAT FILM AS
PHOTOGRAPHY THE FRAME IS THE STAGE ON
AS POTENTIAL IMAGES 7HAT CONTRIBUTES TO
WE´LL SEE ON PAGES IS LESS AMENABLE
WHICH THE IMAGE EVOLVES -OVING AROUND A
THIS FRAME VISION IS THE SUBJECT OF THE FIRST
TO COMFORTABLE COMPOSITION AND IS OFTEN
SCENE WITH THE CAMERA TO THE EYE THE FRAME
SECTION OF THIS VOLUME
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
&ACILITY AT USING THIS FRAME DEPENDS
9
FRAME DYNAMICS
4
he setting for the image is the picture frame.
In photography, the format of this frame
is fixed at the time of shooting, although it is
always possible later to adjust the shape of the
frame to the picture you have taken. Nevertheless,
whatever opportunities exist for later changes
(see pages 58-61), do not underestimate the
influence of the viewfinder on composition.
Most cameras offer a view of the world as a
bright rectangle surrounded by blackness, and
the presence of the frame is usually strongly felt.
Even though experience may help you to ignore
the dimensions of the viewfinder frame in order
to shoot to a different format, intuition will work
against this, encouraging you to make a design
that feels satisfying at the time of shooting.
The most common picture area is the one
shown at the top of this page: that of a horizontal
frame in the proportions 3:2. Professionally, this is
the most widely used camera format, and holding
it horizontally is the easiest method. As an empty
frame it has certain dynamic influences, as the
diagram shows, although these tend to be felt
only in very minimal and delicately toned images.
More often, the dynamics of lines, shapes, and
colors in the photograph take over completely.
Depending on the subject and on the
treatment the photographer chooses, the
edges of the frame can have a strong or weak
influence on the image. The examples shown
here are all ones in which the horizontal and
vertical borders, and the corners, contribute
strongly to the design of the photographs.
They have been used as references for diagonal
lines within the pictures, and the angles that
have been created are important features.
What these photographs demonstrate is that
the frame can be made to interact strongly with
the lines of the image, but that this depends on
the photographer’s intention. If you choose to
shoot more loosely, in a casual snapshot fashion,
the frame will not seem so important. Compare
the structural images on these two pages with less
formally composed picture taken on a Calcutta
street on page 165.
10
4(% %-049 &2!-%
*UST THE EXISTENCE OF A PLAIN RECTANGULAR FRAME
INDUCES SOME REACTION IN THE EYE 4HIS IS ONE
SCHEMA OF HOW THE EYE MIGHT REACT THERE ARE
OF COURSE MANY )T BEGINS IN THE MIDDLE DRIFTS
UP AND LEFT THEN BACK DOWN AND RIGHT WHILE AT
SOME POINT°EITHER THOUGH PERIPHERAL VISION OR
BY FLICKING°REGISTERS THE ±SHARP² CORNERS 4HE
DARK SURROUND SEEN THROUGH A CAMERA VIEWFINDER
EMPHASIZES CORNERS AND EDGES
$)!'/.!, 4%.3)/.
4HE DYNAMIC MOVEMENT IN THIS WIDE ANGLE
PHOTOGRAPH COMES FROM THE INTERPLAY OF DIAGONALS
WITH THE RECTANGULAR FRAME !LTHOUGH THE DIAGONAL
LINES HAVE AN INDEPENDENT MOVEMENT AND DIRECTION
IT IS THE REFERENCE STANDARD OF THE FRAME EDGES THAT
ALLOWS THEM TO CREATE TENSION IN THIS PICTURE
!,)'.-%.4
/NE SIMPLE DEVICE FOR
ORIGINATING AN IMAGE
THAT HAS PROMINENT LINES
IS TO ALIGN ONE OR TWO OF
THEM WITH THE FRAME
)N THE CASE OF THIS OFFICE
BLOCK THE ALIGNMENT OF
TOP EDGES AVOIDS THE
UNTIDINESS OF TWO CORNER
AREAS OF SKY !LIGNMENT
LIKE THIS EMPHASIZES THE
GEOMETRY OF AN IMAGE
).4%23%#4).' &/2 !"342!#4)/.
"REAKING THE NORMAL RULES A PANORAMIC FRAME IS
USED HERE TO EXAGGERATE AN ABSTRACT TREATMENT
OF THE BACK OF AN ADOBE CHURCH IN .EW -EXICO
! CONVENTIONAL APPROACH WOULD HAVE BEEN TO SHOW
THE TOP OF THIS BUILDING AND THE LOWER BUTTRESSING
DOWN TO THE GROUND 4HE SUBJECT HERE HOWEVER IS
NOT A LITERAL VERSION OF THE CHURCH BUT THE GEOMETRY
AND TEXTURES OF THE UNUSUAL PLANES 3QUEEZING THE
IMAGE AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM REMOVES SOME OF
THE REALISM AND COMPELS THE EYE TO CONSIDER THE
STRUCTURE OUT OF CONTEXT
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
11
FRAME SHAPE
4
he shape of the viewfinder frame (and LCD
screen) has a huge influence on the form that
the image takes. Despite the ease of cropping it
later, there exists a powerful intuitive pressure
at the time of shooting to compose right up to
the edges of the frame. Indeed, it takes years of
experience to ignore those parts of an image that
are not being used, and some photographers
never get used to this.
Most photography is composed to a few
rigidly defined formats (aspect ratios), unlike
in other graphic arts. Until digital photography,
by far the most common format was 3:2—that
of the standard 35mm camera, measuring
36x24mm—but now that the physical width
of film is no longer a constraint, the majority
of low- and middle-end cameras have adopted
the less elongated, more “natural” 4:3 format that
fits more comfortably on printing papers and
monitor displays. The question of which aspect
ratios are perceived as the most comfortable
is a study in its own right, but in principle,
there seems to be a tendency toward longer
horizontally (the increasing popularity of widescreen and letterbox formats for television), but
less elongated for vertically composed images.
THE 3:2 FRAME
This is the classic 35mm frame, which has been
transferred seamlessly to digital SLRs, creating
in the process a sort of class distinction between
professional and serious amateur photographers
on the one hand, and everyone else on the other.
The reason for these proportions is a matter
of historical accident; there are no compelling
aesthetic reasons why it should be so. Indeed,
more “natural” proportions would be less
elongated, as evidenced by the bulk of the ways in
which images are displayed—painting canvases,
computer monitors, photographic printing paper,
book and magazine formats, and so on. Part of
the historical reason was that 35mm film was
long considered too small for good enlargements,
and the elongated shape gave more area.
Nevertheless, its popularity demonstrates how
easily our sense of intuitive composition adapts.
Overwhelmingly, this format is shot
horizontally, and there are three reasons for this.
The first is pure ergonomics. It is difficult to
design a camera used at eye level so that it is just as
easy to photograph vertically as horizontally, and
few manufacturers have even bothered. SLRs are
made to be used for horizontal pictures. Turning
them on their side is just not as comfortable, and
most photographers tend to avoid it. The second
reason is more fundamental. Our binocular
vision means that we see horizontally. There is no
frame as such, as human vision involves paying
attention to local detail and scanning a scene
rapidly, rather than taking in a sharp overall view
all at once. Our natural view of the world is in
the form of a vague-edged, horizontal oval, and
a standard horizontal film frame is a reasonable
approximation. The final reason is that 3:2
proportions are often perceptually too elongated
to work comfortably in portrait composition.
The net result is that a horizontal frame
is natural and unremarkable. It influences the
composition of an image, but not in an insistent,
outstanding way. It conforms to the horizon,
and so to most overall landscapes and general
views. The horizontal component to the frame
encourages a horizontal arrangement of elements,
naturally enough. It is marginally more natural to
place an image lower in the frame than higher—
this tends to enhance the sensation of stability—
but in any particular photograph there are likely
to be many other influences. Placing a subject
or horizon high in the frame produces a slight
downward-looking, head-lowered sensation,
which can have mildly negative associations.
For naturally vertical subjects, however, the
elongation of a 2:3 frame is an advantage, and the
human figure, standing, is the most commonly
found vertical subject—a fortunate coincidence,
as in most other respects the 2:3 proportions are
rarely completely satisfactory.
0!./2!-!
(5-!. 6)3)/.
/UR NATURAL VIEW OF THE WORLD IS BINOCULAR AND
HORIZONTAL SO A HORIZONTAL PICTURE FORMAT SEEMS
ENTIRELY NORMAL 4HE EDGES OF VISION APPEAR VAGUE
BECAUSE OUR EYES FOCUS SHARPLY AT ONLY A SMALL ANGLE
AND THE SURROUNDING IMAGE IS PROGRESSIVELY INDISTINCT
.OTE HOWEVER THAT THIS IS NOT CONVENTIONAL BLURRING
AS EDGES CAN BE DETECTED WITH PERIPHERAL VISION
4HE LIMITS OF THE VIEW HERE SHOWN IN GRAY ARE ALSO
NORMALLY NOT PERCEIVED JUST IGNORED
4HE CORRESPONDENCE OF THE HORIZON LINE AND THE FORMAT MAKES A
HORIZONTAL FRAME NATURAL FOR MOST LONG SCENIC VIEWS 4HIS IS THE FIRST
SIGHT FOR VISITORS OF "LENHEIM 0ALACE /XFORD AND ITS LANDSCAPED GROUNDS
CHRISTENED AT THE TIME IT WAS BUILT ±THE FINEST VIEW IN ALL OF %NGLAND²
4HE LENGTH IS NECESSARY FOR THIS CONTROLLED SCENE BUT DEPTH IS NOT
4(% 34!.$!2$ &2!-%
)TS EXTRA LENGTH WHEN COMPARED TO THE FRAME OF CONSUMER CAMERAS
AND MOST MONITOR DISPLAYS MAKES THIS ASPECT RATIO INTERESTING TO WORK
IN 4HERE IS ALWAYS A SENSE OF HORIZONTALITY )N THIS PHOTOGRAPH OF THE ,ORD
-AYOR´S 3HOW IN THE #ITY OF ,ONDON THE BASIC STRUCTURE DEPENDS ON A
BALANCE BETWEEN THE SOLDIER IN THE LEFT FOREGROUND AND THE ORNATE COACH
BEHIND WITH A CLEAR LEFT TO RIGHT VECTOR AND A DISTINCT FEELING OF DEPTH
!30%#4 2!4)/
K_`j`jk_\n`[k_$kf$_\`^_kiXk`ff]Xe`dX^\fi[`jgcXp%?\i\#
]fiZfej`jk\eZp#n\Xjjld\k_\n`[k_`jcfe^\i#lec\jji\]\ii`e^
kfXjg\Z`]`Zm\ik`ZXc`dX^\%Jf#XjkXe[Xi[JCI]iXd\`j*1)#
YlkZfdgfj\[m\ik`ZXccp`j)1*%
12
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
13
4:3 AND SIMILAR FRAMES
Traditionally, and once again with digital
photography and on-screen presentations, these
“fatter” frames are the most “natural” image
formats. In other words, they are the least insistent
and most accommodating to the eye. In the days
when there was a rich variety of large-format film,
formats included 5×4-inch, 10×8-inch, 14×11inch, and 8½×6½-inch. There is now a reduced
choice, but the proportions all work in much the
same way, and equally for rollfilm formats, digital
backs, and lower-end digital cameras.
In terms of composition, the frame dynamics
impose less on the image, because there is less of
a dominant direction than with 3:2. At the same
time, that there is a distinction between height
and width is important in helping the eye settle
into the view, with the understanding that the
view is horizontal or vertical. Compare this with
the difficulties of a square format, which often
suffers from lack of direction. As noted opposite,
these proportions are very comfortable for most
vertically composed images.
3(//4).' 6%24)#!,,9
8j\ogcX`e\[#k_\i\`jXjc`^_keXkliXci\j`jkXeZ\
kfg_fkf^iXg_`e^m\ik`ZXccp#\m\ek_fl^_gi`ek
d\[`XXZklXccp]Xmfik_`jfi`\ekXk`feY\ZXlj\f]
k_\efidXc]fidXkf]dX^Xq`e\jXe[Yffbj]fi
k_`ji\Xjfe#gif]\jj`feXcg_fkf^iXg_\ijljlXccp
dXb\Xe\]]fikkfj_ffkm\ik`ZXccpXjn\ccXj
_fi`qfekXccpY\ZXlj\f]Zc`\ek[\dXe[j %K_\
eXkliXce\jjf]_fi`qfekXcm`j`fei\`e]fiZ\jk_\
\p\Ëj[\j`i\kfjZXe]ifdj`[\kfj`[\#Xe[X
Zfii\jgfe[`e^i\clZkXeZ\kfjZXelgXe[[fne%
N`k_Xefe$\cfe^Xk\[jlYa\Zk#dfjkg\fgc\
k\e[kfgcXZ\`kY\cfnk_\Z\ek\if]k_\]iXd\#
37)4#().' /2)%.4!4)/.
6%24)#!, 35"*%#43 ). (/2):/.4!, &2!-%3
)N THESE PHOTOGRAPHS OF A MAN
SLEEPING ON THE +HYBER RAILWAY
THE NATURAL BALANCE OCCURS WHEN
HIS HEAD IS PLACED SLIGHTLY LOW IN
THE VERTICAL SHOT AND TO ONE SIDE
IN THE HORIZONTAL
!LTHOUGH THIS FORMAT IS NOT VERY WELL SUITED TO
VERTICAL SUBJECTS LIKE STANDING FIGURES AND TALL
BUILDINGS INERTIA OFTEN ENCOURAGES PHOTOGRAPHERS
TO MAKE IT WORK AS WELL AS POSSIBLE /NE TECHNIQUE IS
TO OFF CENTER THE SUBJECT LIKE THIS SO AS TO PERSUADE
THE EYE TO MOVE HORIZONTALLY ACROSS THE FRAME
,/7 ). 4(% &2!-%
4HE EYE IS NATURALLY RELUCTANT TO SCAN UP AND
DOWN AND THE BOTTOM EDGE OF A PICTURE FRAME
REPRESENTS A BASE THUS GRAVITY AFFECTS VERTICAL
COMPOSITION 3UBJECTS TEND TO BE PLACED BELOW
THE CENTER THE MORE SO WITH TALL FORMATS AS IN
THIS SHOT OF A "ANGKOK RIVER BOAT THE DIRECTION
OF MOVEMENT ALSO SUGGESTED A LOW PLACEMENT
37)4#().' /2)%.4!4)/.
3EEN VERTICALLY FROM THE AIR THE
MULTI HUED 'RAND 0RISMATIC
3PRING IN 9ELLOWSTONE .ATIONAL
0ARK NATURALLY FITS A HORIZONTAL
FRAME .EVERTHELESS A VERTICAL
WAS ALSO NEEDED FOR POSSIBLE FULL
PAGE USE 3WITCHING TO VERTICAL
MEANT PLACING THE SUBJECT LOWER
IN THE FRAME AND FINDING ANOTHER
ELEMENT ANOTHER SPRING TO FILL
THE VOID ABOVE
14
Xe[k_\dfi\\cfe^Xk\[k_\]fidXk#k_\cfn\i#
gifgfik`feXk\cp#k_\fYa\Zk^f\j%K_\eXkliXc
k\e[\eZpn`k_X[fd`eXekj`e^c\jlYa\Zk`jkfglj_
k_\]fZljf]Xkk\ek`fe[fnenXi[#Xe[[\dfejkiXk\j
Xe`eZc`eXk`fekfXmf`[k_\lgg\igXikf]Xm\ik`ZXc
]iXd\%Fe\\ogcXeXk`fe]fik_`j`jk_Xk#Xjn`k_
_fi`qfekXc]iXd\j#k_\i\`jXeXjjldgk`fek_Xkk_\
Yfkkfdf]k_\g`Zkli\`jXYXj\1Xc\m\cjli]XZ\fe
n_`Z_fk_\ik_`e^jZXei\jk%K_`jnfibjlei\dXibXYcp
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4HE STANDING HUMAN FIGURE IS ONE OF SEVERAL
CLASSES OF SUBJECT WHICH SUITS A VERTICAL FORMAT
/THERS INCLUDE TALL BUILDINGS TREES MANY
PLANTS BOTTLES AND DRINKING GLASSES DOORWAYS
AND ARCHWAYS
!. 5.).3)34%.4 &2!-%
AND SIMILAR ±FATTER² FRAME SHAPES TEND TO
DOMINATE COMPOSITION LESS THAN OR PANORAMAS
4HERE IS USUALLY MORE FLEXIBILITY AT THE TIME OF
SHOOTING )NDEED THIS HORIZONTAL OF !NGKOR 7AT
IN #AMBODIA WAS EVENTUALLY CROPPED IN AT THE
SIDES AND USED FOR A BOOK COVER
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
15
0!44%2.3 7)4(/54 ")!3
35"$)6)$).' 4(% 315!2%
0ATTERNS AND OTHER FORMLESS
ARRANGEMENTS FIT WELL INTO A
SQUARE FORMAT BECAUSE THE FRAME
HAS NO DIRECTIONAL EMPHASIS
5NDER THESE CIRCUMSTANCES IT
DOES NOT INTRUDE ON THE IMAGE
4HE EQUAL DIMENSIONS OF A SQUARE FRAME MAKE
IT SUSCEPTIBLE TO SYMMETRICAL DIVISION AS THESE
EXAMPLES SHOW 6ERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINES
ENHANCE THE SQUARE´S STABILITY DIAGONALS ARE
MORE DYNAMIC
(%N`k_`kjjkife^cp`dgc`\[Z\ek\iXe[\hlXcj`[\j#X
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+%8dfi\[peXd`Z#Ylkjk`ccZ\ek\i\[#jlY[`m`j`fe
`jYpd\Xejf][`X^feXcjXe[[`Xdfe[j%
)
SQUARE
While all other photographic frames are
rectangular, with varying proportions, one is
fixed: the square. A few film cameras have this
unusual format—unusual in that very few images
lend themselves well to square composition. In
general, it is the most difficult format to work
with, and most design strategies for a square
frame are concerned with escaping the tyranny
of its perfect equilibrium.
We ought to look a little more closely at
why most subjects are ill-suited to a square
arrangement. In part, this has to do with the axis
of the subject. Few shapes are so compact that
16
they have no alignment. Most things are longer
in one direction than in another, and it is natural
to align the main axis of an image with the longer
sides of a rectangular picture frame. Hence, most
broad landscape views are generally handled as
horizontal pictures, and most standing figures
as verticals.
The square, however, has absolutely no bias.
Its sides are in perfect 1:1 proportions, and its
influence is a very precise and stable division
of space. Here lies the second reason for the
unsympathetic nature of square proportions: they
impose a formal rigidity on the image. It is hard
to escape the feeling of geometry when working
with a square frame, and the symmetry of the
sides and corners keeps reminding the eye of
the center.
Occasionally a precise symmetrical image is
interesting; it makes a change from the normally
imprecise design of most photographs. However,
a few such images quickly become a surfeit. It
is fairly normal for photographers who work
consistently with a square-format camera to
imagine a vertical or horizontal direction to the
picture, and to crop the resulting image later.
Practically, this means composing fairly loosely in
the viewfinder, to allow a certain amount of free
space either at the sides or at the top and bottom.
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
*
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
17
STITCHING AND EXTENDING
$
igital stitching software has evolved into
a widely used tool for creating images
that are larger and wider. These are actually
two separate functions. Shooting a scene with
a longer focal length in overlapping frames is
one technique for achieving higher resolution
and so larger printed images—an equivalent
of large-format photography. From the point
of view of this book, however, the interest is in
changing the shape of the final image. This tends
to be panoramic, as long horizontal images have
an enduring appeal for reasons we’ll go into
shortly, but there is also complete freedom, as the
examples here show. What is often overlooked
is the effect this stitching has on the process
of shooting, because it demands anticipation
of how the final image will look. There is no
preview at the time, and this is a situation new
to photography—that of having to imagine what
the final image and frame shape will be. It gives
stitched, extended images an unpredictability
which can be refreshing.
Panoramas have a special place in photography.
Even though proportions that exceed 2:1 seem to
be extreme, for landscapes and other scenic views,
they are actually very satisfying. To understand
why, we have to look again at the way human
vision works. We see by scanning, not by taking in
a scene in a single, frozen instant. The eye’s focus
of attention roams around the view, usually very
quickly, and the brain builds up the information.
All of the standard photographic formats—and
most painting formats, for that matter—are
areas that can be absorbed in one rapid scanning
sequence. The normal process of looking at the
picture is to take in as much as possible in one
prolonged glance, and then to return to details that
seem interesting. A panorama, however, allows the
eye to consider only a part of the image at a time,
but this is by no means a disadvantage, because it
replicates the way we look at any real scene. Apart
from adding an element of realism to the picture,
this slows down the viewing process, and, in
theory at least, prolongs the interest of exploring
the image. All of this depends, however, on the
photograph being reproduced fairly large and
viewed from sufficiently close.
This virtue of the panorama—to draw the
viewer in and present some of the image only to
the peripheral vision—is regularly exploited in
the cinema, where an elongated screen is normal.
Special projection systems, such as Cinerama
and IMAX, are premised on the realistic effect
of wrapping the image around the viewer. Still
panoramic images have a similar effect.
The frame can also be extended in postproduction in other ways, by stretching (using
warping, distortion, and other geometric software
tools, and even by cloning). Certain images lend
themselves to being extended in one or more
directions—for instance, extending the sky
upwards, or widening the background in a studio
still-life. Magazine layouts often suggest this,
although there are ethical considerations with this
kind of manipulation, in that the final image is
not necessarily as it was seen.
%80%2)-%.4).' 7)4( 4(% &2!-%
! SEQUENCE OF FIVE OVERLAPPING FRAMES WAS SHOT FOR
THIS VIEW OF WHITE CHALK CLIFFS NEAR $OVER %NGLAND
.ORMALLY STITCHED PANORAMAS ARE SHOT WITH THE
CAMERA CAREFULLY LEVELLED SO THAT THE HORIZON WILL BE
STRAIGHT 0OINTING THE CAMERA DOWN PREVENTS THIS
BECAUSE OF THE STRONG CURVED DISTORTION BUT HERE
IT WAS PUT TO DELIBERATE USE 4HE ARC SHAPED FRAME
WAS CUT AT THE END OF THE PROCESS
0!./2!-!
)N THIS STITCHED PANORAMIC
VIEW MUCH OF THE SKY AND
THE FOREGROUND ARE REMOVED
LEAVING THE EYE FREE TO FOLLOW
THE RHYTHM OF THE HORIZON
LINE AND THE INTERACTION OF
CLOUD AND MOUNTAIN 4REATED
LIKE THIS A LARGE NUMBER OF
NATURAL LANDSCAPES FIT VERY
COMFORTABLY INTO STRETCHED
PROPORTIONS %IGHT OVERLAPPING
HORIZONTAL IMAGES WERE SHOT
18
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
34)4#().' &/2 #/.42/,
!.$ %.,!2'%-%.4
&OR A LARGE SCALE IMAGE AND
EXTRA WIDE COVERAGE A
PERSPECTIVE CONTROL SHIFT LENS
WAS ROTATED FRAME BY FRAME
AT FULL SHIFT 3TITCHING THESE
IMAGES IS IN A SENSE THE
DIGITAL EQUIVALENT OF LARGE
FORMAT PHOTOGRAPHY .ORMALLY
THIS REDENTED SHAPE WOULD BE
CROPPED BUT HERE IT HAS BEEN
LEFT NOT ONLY TO SHOW THE
PROCESS BUT TO BE PART OF THE
FORM OF THE IMAGE
19
CROPPING
#
3#/44)3( ,!.$3#!0%
ropping is an editing skill that was highly
developed during the days of black-andwhite photography, lapsed somewhat in the color
slide era, and is now revived fully as an integral
part of preparing the final digital image. Even
when the framing as shot is judged to be fine,
technical adjustments such as lens distortion
correction will demand it.
Cropping is one way of reworking the image
well after it has been shot; an option for deferring
design decisions, and even of exploring new ways
of organizing an image. Unlike stitching, however,
it reduces the size of the image, so demands a
high resolution to begin with. In traditional
enlarger printing, the enlarging easel itself acts
as a cropping guide, but it may be easier to
experiment first with L-shaped cropping masks
on film (on a light box) or a contact sheet. With
digital images (or scanned film), the process
is infinitely easier and clearer, using software
cropping tools.
It is important not to think of cropping as
a design panacea or as an excuse for not being
decisive at the time of shooting. The danger of
having the opportunity to alter and manipulate
a frame after it is shot is that it can lull you into
imagining that you can perform a significant
proportion of photography on the computer.
Cropping introduces an interruption in the
process of making a photograph, and most
images benefit from continuity of vision.
)N THE CASE OF THIS MISTY LANDSCAPE ON THE )SLE OF
3KYE LET´S LOOK AT THE KIND OF DECISIONS INVOLVED
4HE ORIGINAL FRAMING HAS CLEARLY BEEN CHOSEN TO
MAKE SOMETHING OF THE RIPPLED CLOUDS AT THE TOP
OF THE FRAME AND THE HORIZON HAS BEEN PLACED
CORRESPONDINGLY LOW 4HIS IN ITSELF REDUCES OUR
OPTIONS A LITTLE
./24(%2. 4(!) ,!.$3#!0%
&OR THIS 4HAI LANDSCAPE THE SEVERAL VIABLE ALTERNATIVES
ARE SHOWN TOGETHER SUPERIMPOSED ON A BLACK AND
WHITE VERSION OF THE IMAGE 4HE ABANDONED TEMPLE
ITSELF MUST REMAIN THE DOMINANT ELEMENT IN THE
IMAGE°THERE IS NOTHING ELSE°AND THE CHOICES ARE
IN THE PLACEMENT OF THE HORIZON LINE AND IN WHETHER
OR NOT TO INCLUDE THE CLUMP OF BAMBOO ON THE LEFT
0LACING THE HORIZON LOW PURPLE AND GREEN FRAMES
GIVES A MORE SPACIOUS OPEN FEELING AND EMPHASIZES
WHAT IS HAPPENING IN THE SKY SUNRISE AND SOME
THREATENING CLOUDS 2AISING THE HORIZON LINE RED
FRAME DRAWS ATTENTION TO THE RICE IN THE FIELD !
VERTICAL CROP BLUE ALSO NEEDS A SIGNIFICANT AREA OF
RICE TO KEEP IT ANCHORED
20
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21
FILLING THE FRAME
)
n order to be able to talk about the different
graphic elements in composition, and to
look at the way they interact, the first thing we
must do is to isolate them, choosing the most
basic situations for composing pictures. A little
caution is needed here, because in practice there
is usually a multitude of possibilities, and a single,
isolated subject is something of a special case. The
examples here may seem a little obvious, but at
this stage we need clear, uncluttered examples.
The most basic of all photographic situations
is one single, obvious subject in front of the
camera, but even this presents two options. We
have an immediate choice: whether to close
right in so that it fills up the picture frame, or
to pull back so that we can see something of its
surroundings. What would influence the choice?
One consideration is the information content of
the picture. Obviously, the larger the subject is
in the photograph, the more detail of it can be
shown. If it is something unusual and interesting,
this may be paramount; if very familiar, perhaps
not. For example, if a wildlife photographer has
tracked down a rare animal, we would reasonably
expect to see as much of it as possible.
Another consideration is the relationship
between the subject and its setting. Are the
surroundings important, either to the content of
the shot or to its design? In the studio, subjects
are often set against neutral backgrounds; then
the setting has nothing to tell the viewer, and
its only value is for composition. Outside the
studio, however, settings nearly always have some
relevance. They can show scale (a climber on a
rock-face) or something about the activity of
the subject.
A third factor is the subjective relationship
that the photographer wants to create between
the viewer and the subject. If presence is
important, and the subject needs to be imposing,
then taking the viewer right up to it by filling
the frame is a reasonable option. There are
some mechanical matters involved, such as the
ultimate size of the picture when displayed, the
focal length of lens, and the scale of the subject
22
6!29).' 4(% 3):% ). 4(% &2!-%
to begin with. Nevertheless, a big subject filling
the frame of a big picture usually acquires force
and impact. Moreover, as the examples here show,
there can also be a satisfying precision in just
matching subject to frame—particularly if the
image has to be composed rapidly.
The shape of the subject in relation to the
format of the frame clearly has an effect. In the
sequence of the Hong Kong ferry on the right,
the main picture shows a very satisfactory fit:
the boat from this angle just reaches the edges all
round. In the majority of single-subject pictures,
however, the focus of attention does not fill the
frame. The shape may not coincide with the
format of the picture (cropping is always possible,
but it is not necessarily elegant, and it may not
suit the intended display method). Another
possible risk with running the edges of the subject
right up to the borders of the picture is that the
eye may feel uncomfortable concentrating on
points falling very near the edges of the picture.
It often needs—or at least benefits from—a little
free area around a subject to be able to move
without feeling constricted.
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THIS USUALLY MEANS QUICK WORK WITH EITHER FEET OR A
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23
PLACEMENT
)
n any construction involving one, obvious
subject, other than filling the frame with it,
there is always the decision of where to place it,
remaining sensitive to the proportions of the
space surrounding it. As soon as you allow free
space around the subject, its position becomes an
issue. It has to be placed, consciously, somewhere
within the frame. Logically, it might seem that
the natural position is right in the middle with
equal space around, and indeed, there are many
occasions when this holds true. If there are no
other elements in the picture, why not?
One compelling reason why not is that it is
very predictable—and, if repeated, boring. We are
faced with a conflicting choice. On the one hand,
there is a desire to do something interesting with
the design and escape the bull’s-eye method of
framing a subject. On the other hand, placing the
subject anywhere but in a natural position needs a
reason. If you place a subject right in the corner of
an otherwise empty frame, you need a justification,
or the design becomes simply perverse. Eccentric
composition can work extremely well, but as we
will see later in the book, its success depends on
there being some purpose behind it.
The importance of placement increases as
the subject becomes smaller in the frame. In
the photograph of the sentry on page 15, we are
not really conscious that the figure is actually in
any position in the frame. It is, in fact, centered
but with not so much space around it as to be
obvious. With the photograph of the waterbound hamlet here, we are made very aware of
its position in the frame because it is obviously
isolated and surrounded by ocean. Some offcenteredness is usually desirable simply in order
to set up a relationship between the subject and
its background. A position dead center is so
stable as to have no dynamic tension at all. If
slightly away from the middle, the subject tends
to appear to be more in context. There are also
considerations of harmony and balance, which
we’ll come to in the next chapter.
In practice, other elements do creep into
most images, and even a slight secondary point
24
of interest is usually enough to influence the
placement of the subject. In the case of the stilted
houses, we aware of the position of the sun above
and left; there is an inferred relationship here, one
that makes it natural to offset the houses slightly
in the opposite direction.
Vectors can also influence an off-center
position. For instance, if the subject is obviously
in motion, and its direction is plain, then the
natural tendency is to have it entering the frame
rather than leaving it. I emphasize the word
natural, however, because there may always be
special reasons for doing things differently—and
different usually gets more attention. In a more
general sense, subjects that “face” in one direction
(not necessarily literally) also often fit more
comfortably so that they are offset, so that
some of the direction they “see” is in the frame.
As a rule of thumb, when the setting
is significant—that is, when it can actually
contribute to the idea behind the picture—then
it is worth considering this kind of composition,
in which the subject occupies only a small area. In
the case of the houses in the sea, the whole point
of the picture is that people live in such unusual
circumstances: surrounded by water. Closing in
would miss the point. Unfortunately, moving
further back would only reduce the size of the
houses so much that they would be indecipherable,
although it would show still more ocean.
! "%.#( ). 4(% '2!33
4HIS IS AN EXERCISE IN PLACEMENT 4HE OVERALL VIEW
SHOWS THAT THE OLD BENCH IS NEXT TO A POND AND
SURROUNDED BY GREEN ALTHOUGH THE FOREGROUND
IS MORE CONTINUOUS THAN THE BACKGROUND WHERE
PATCHES OF SKY CAN BE SEEN &OR THIS LAST REASON
CLOSING IN MEANT KEEPING THE BENCH NEAR THE TOP
OF THE FRAME
(
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K_`j`jefnXj\Zfe[jlYa\ZkX[[\[kfk_\`dX^\#
Xe[k_\]iXd`e^Xkk\dgkjkfYXcXeZ\k_\knf%
/#%!. ,)6).'
4HE PURPOSE OF THIS AERIAL VIEW OF STILTED HOUSES
BUILT IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 3ULU 3EA IN THE 0HILIPPINES
IS TO DRAW ATTENTION TO THEIR UNUSUAL AND ISOLATED
LOCATION /FF CENTERING THE SUBJECT BRINGS SOME LIFE TO
THE DESIGN AND ENCOURAGES THE EYE TO MOVE FROM THE
HOUSES TOWARDS THE UPPER LEFT CORNER OF THE FRAME
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
25
DIVIDING THE FRAME
!
ny image, of any kind, automatically creates
a division of the picture frame. Something
like a prominent horizon line does this very
obviously, but even a small object against a bland
background (a point, in other words) makes an
implied division. Look at any of the pictures in
this book which comprise a single small subject—
shifting the position of the subject changes the
areas into which the frame is divided.
There are, naturally, an infinite number of
possible divisions, but the most interesting ones
are those that bear a definable relationship to
each other. Division is essentially a matter of
proportion, and this has preoccupied artists
in different periods of history. During the
Renaissance, in particular, considerable attention
was given to dividing the picture frame by
geometry. This has interesting implications
for photography, for while a painter creates
the structure of a picture from nothing, a
photographer usually has little such opportunity,
so much less reason to worry about exact
proportions. Nevertheless, different proportions
evoke certain responses in the viewer, whether
they were calculated exactly or not.
During the Renaissance, a number of painters
realized that proportions of division based on
simple numbers (like 1:1, 2:1, or 3:2) produced an
essentially static division. By contrast, a dynamic
division could be made by constructing more
interesting ratios. The Golden Section, which
was known to the Greeks, is the best known
“harmonious” division. As outlined below, the
Golden Section is based on pure geometry, and
photographers almost never have either the need
or the opportunity to construct it. Its importance
lies in the fact that all the areas are integrally
related; the ratio of the small section to the large
one is the same as that of the large section to the
complete frame. They are tied together, hence the
idea that they give a sense of harmony.
The logic of this may not seem completely
obvious at first, but it underlies more than just
the subdivision of a picture frame. The argument
is that there are objective physical principles
that underlie harmony. In this case, they are
geometric, and while we may not be aware of
them in operation, they still produce a predictable
effect. The subdivision of a standard 3:2 frame
according to the Golden Section is shown
opposite. Precision is not of major importance,
as the photographs show.
The Golden Section is not the only way of
making a harmonious division. It is not even the
only method in which the ratios are integrally
related. Another basis, also from the Renaissance,
is the Fibonacci series—a sequence of numbers
in which each is the sum of the previous two:
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, and so on. In yet another method,
the frame is subdivided according to the ratio of
its own sides. There is, indeed, a massive variety
of subdivisions that obey some internal principle,
and they all have the potential to make workable
and interesting images.
This is all very well for a painter or illustrator,
but how can photography make sensible use of
it? Certainly, no-one is going to use a calculator
to plan the division of a photograph. Intuitive
composition is the only practical approach for
the majority of photographs. The most useful
approach to dividing a frame into areas is to
prime your eye by becoming familiar with the
nuances of harmony in different proportions.
If you know them well, intuitive composition
will naturally become more finely tuned. As
photographers, we may be able to ignore the
geometry, but we can not ignore the fact that
these proportions are fundamentally satisfying.
Notice also that, by dividing the frame in both
directions, an intersection is produced, and this
makes a generally satisfying location for a point,
or any other focus of attention. Compare this
with the off-center placement of small subjects
on pages 66-69.
).4%'2!4%$ 02/0/24)/.3
)N PRINCIPLE ANY SUBDIVISION OF THE FRAME THAT
IS INTEGRATED INTERNALLY PRODUCES A SENSE OF
HARMONIOUS BALANCE 4HE FIRST DIAGRAM BELOW
DEMONSTRATES A SUBDIVISION ACCORDING TO THE
&IBONACCI SERIES SEE PAGE 4HE SECOND SHOWS
A GEOMETRIC BASE USING THE FRAME´S OWN SIDES
-OST OF THE USEFUL SUBDIVISIONS ARE RECTILINEAR BUT
DIAGONALS CAN BE USED TO CREATE TRIANGULAR SPACES
)N THE PHOTOGRAPH TO THE RIGHT THE COMPOSITION
WAS OF COURSE INTUITIVE BUT THE CHANGING ALIGNMENTS
VERY CLEARLY SUGGESTED A RECTILINEAR DIVISION !S THE
SEQUENCE SHOWS THE INITIAL SCENE WAS OF JUST THE
HORIZON AND DISTANT BOATS HENCE THE EXPERIMENTS
UP AND DOWN 4HE ARRIVAL OF THE FISHERMAN IN A RED
ROWING BOAT CHANGED THE DYNAMICS AND THE INSTANT
WHEN BOTH HE AND THE BOAT WERE ALIGNED VERTICALLY
IN THE FRAME MADE THE SHOT ! MOMENT LATER THIS
ALL FELL APART
'/,$%. 3%#4)/. 02/0/24)/.3
4WO PARTS ARE SAID TO BE IN THE GOLDEN RATIO IF THE
WHOLE THE SUM OF THE TWO PARTS IS TO THE LARGER
PART AS THE LARGER PART IS TO THE SMALLER PART 4HE
CALCULATION FOR THIS IS
FIBONACCI DIVISIONS
BEFORE
GEOMETRICAL (BASED ON SIDES)
AFTER
A B A
A
B
WHERE A IS THE LARGER PART AND B IS THE SMALLER PART
4HIS RATIO DENOTED ǇPHI IS AN IRRATIONAL NUMBER
WITH THE VALUE
Ǉ
¢ ¤
)N PHOTOGRAPHY THIS IS ANALYSIS AFTER THE EVENT NO
PHOTOGRAPHER EVER CALCULATES THIS BUT FAMILIARITY
WITH THESE PROPORTIONS MAKES IT EASY TO REPRODUCE
THEM MORE OR LESS IN A COMPOSITION INSTINCTIVELY
26
'/,$%. 2!4)/ &2!-%
4HE FRAME ON THE LEFT IS IN THE RATIO OR
WHICH ARGUES FOR ITS BEING AESTHETICALLY PLEASING
AND BALANCED &OR MORE ON RATIOS AND THE PRINCIPLE
OF BALANCE SEE PAGES &OR COMPARISON ON THE
RIGHT IS THE STANDARD MM NOW DIGITAL 3,2 FRAME
IN THE RATIO 4HEY ARE BY NO MEANS DISSIMILAR
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
27
HORIZON
0
robably the most common photographic
situation in which the frame must be divided
cleanly and precisely is the one that includes the
horizon line. In landscapes of the type shown
on these pages it becomes the dominant graphic
element, the more so if there are no outstanding
points of interest in the scene.
Plainly, if the line of the horizon is the only
significant graphic element, placing it becomes
a matter of some importance, and the simple
case is when it is actually horizontal (no hilly
contours). There is a natural tendency to place
the line lower in the frame than higher, related to
the association of the bottom of the picture frame
with a base. We explore this later, on pages 40-43
(Balance), but a low placement for most things
in principle gives a greater sense of stability.
This apart, the question of the exact position
remains open. One method is to use the linear
relationships described on the preceding pages.
Another is to balance the tones or colors (see
pages 118-121 for the principles of combining
colors according to their relative brightness).
Yet another method is to divide the frame
according to what you see as the intrinsic
importance of the ground and sky. For instance,
the foreground may be uninteresting, distracting,
or in some other way unwanted, while the skyscape
is dynamic, and this might argue for a very low
horizon, almost to the edge of the frame. There are
examples of this here and elsewhere in this book
(cropping, as discussed on pages 20-21, is another
opportunity to explore these considerations). In
the shot of Lake Inle, the form of the clouds is
definitely worth making part of the image, but
the clouds are too delicate in tone simply to use a
wider angle of lens and include more of the dark
foreground. They can register properly only if the
proportion of the ground is severely reduced so
that it does not overwhelm the picture.
If, on the other hand, there is some distinct
feature of interest in the foreground, this will
encourage a higher position for the horizon.
Indeed, if the sky has no graphic value and the
foreground has plenty of interest, it may make
more sense to reverse whatever subdivision you
choose, and place the horizon much closer to
the top of the frame.
There is, needless to say, no ideal position
even for any one particular scene and angle
of view. Given this, and the kind of decisions
just mentioned, there may be good reasons
for experimenting with different positions.
There is little point, however, in simply starting
low and moving progressively higher without
considering the influences and reasons. As the
pair of photographs shot in Monument Valley
illustrates, different horizon positions can have
equal validity, depending on the circumstances
of the picture, and also on personal taste.
&!6/2).' 4(% 3+9
4HE ATMOSPHERIC SKY AND MOUNTAINS IN THIS TELEPHOTO SHOT
OF ,AKE )NLE IN "URMA JUSTIFY A VERY LOW PLACEMENT AND AVOID
WHAT WOULD BE AN OUT OF FOCUS FOREGROUND
! #(/)#% /& ()'( /2 ,/7
4HE 4OTEM 0OLE AND 9EI "ICHEI 2OCKS IN -ONUMENT
6ALLEY SEEN FROM THE FOOT OF A SAND DUNE 4HE TEXTURE
OF THE DUNE SEEN IN RAKING SUNLIGHT AND THE CLOUD
PATTERN IN THE SKY COMPETED IN INTEREST SUGGESTING
TWO EQUALLY VALID ALTERNATIVE FRAMINGS
! .!452!, ,/7 0/3)4)/.
)N THIS VIEW OF -ONO ,AKE
#ALIFORNIA THE HORIZON IS
UNINTERRUPTED AND THE SKY
EMPTY OF CLOUDS WHICH
SIMPLIFIES THE FACTORS AFFECTING
THE PLACEMENT 4HIS POSITION
APPROXIMATES TO THE 'OLDEN
3ECTION SEE PAGE
28
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
.%',%#4).' 4(% 3+9
! WIDE ANGLE VIEW OF $EATH 6ALLEY SAND DUNES PLACES
THE INTEREST IN THE DETAILS OF THE RIPPLES 4HE SETTING
SUN GIVES SUFFICIENT INTEREST TO THE HORIZON WITHOUT
NEEDING MORE SKY IN THE COMPOSITION
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
29
FRAMES WITHIN FRAMES
/
ne of the most predictably successful of all
photographic design constructions is an
internal frame. As with any established design
formula, it contains real risks of overuse, and has
the makings of a cliché, but these dangers are only
evidence of the fact that it does work. It simply
needs a little more care and imagination when it
is being applied.
The appeal of frames within frames is partly to
do with composition, but at a deeper level it relates
to perception. Frames like those shown here and
on the next few pages enhance the dimensionality
of a photograph by emphasizing that the viewer
is looking through from one plane to another. As
we’ll see at other points in this book, one of the
recurrent issues in photography is what happens
in converting a fully three-dimensional scene
into a two-dimensional picture. It is more central
to photography than to painting or illustration
because of photography’s essentially realistic roots.
Frames within the picture have the effect of pulling
the viewer through; in other words, they are a
kind of window. There is a relationship between
the frame of the photograph and an initial step
in which the viewer’s attention is drawn inward
(the corners are particularly important in this).
Thereafter, there is an implied momentum forward
through the frame. Walker Evans, for example,
often made deliberate use of this device. As his
biographer, Belinda Rathbone, writes, “That his
photographs saw through windows and porches
and around corners gave them a new dimension
and power and even an aura of revelation.”
Another part of the appeal is that by drawing a
boundary around the principal image, an internal
frame is evidence of organization. A measure of
control has been imposed on the scene. Limits
have been set, and the image held back from
flowing over the edges. Some feelings of stability
and even rigidity enter into this, and this type
of photograph lacks the casual, freewheeling
associations that you can see in, for example, classic
journalistic or reportage photography. As a result,
frames within frames appeal to a certain aspect
of our personalities. It is a fundamental part of
human nature to want to impose control on the
environment, and this has an immediate corollary
in placing a structure on images. It feels satisfying
to see that the elements of a picture have been
defined and placed under a kind of control.
On a purely graphic level, frames focus the
attention of the viewer because they establish
a diminishing direction from the outer picture
frame. The internal frame draws the eye in by
one step, particularly if it is similar in shape to
the picture format. This momentum is then
easily continued further into the picture. Another
important design opportunity to note is the
shape relationship between the two frames. As
we saw when we looked at the dynamics of the
basic frame, the angles and shapes that are set up
between the boundary of the picture and lines
inside the image are important. This is especially
so with a continuous edge inside the picture. The
graphic relationship between the two frames is
strongest when the gap between them is narrow.
).42/$5#).' -/6%-%.4
-UCH OF THE SUCCESS OF USING INTERNAL FRAMES IS
DUE TO FINDING THE RIGHT CORRESPONDENCE OF SHAPE
FOLLOWED BY A COMBINATION OF CAMERA POSITION
AND FOCAL LENGTH TO MAKE THE MATCH )N THIS CASE
THE UNDULATION OF THE HEAVY SILHOUETTED BRANCH
IN THE FOREGROUND CREATES A ROTATING VECTOR TO
ENLIVEN THE IMAGE
-!.(!44!. "2)$'%
%.(!.#).' 0%230%#4)6%
4HIS PAIR OF RELATED PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN A SHORT
DISTANCE APART OF THE %MPIRE 3TATE "UILDING AND
THE -ANHATTAN "RIDGE IN .EW 9ORK SHOWS HOW
THE FRAME WITHIN FRAME TECHNIQUE CAN ALTER THE
DYNAMICS OF THE IMAGE )N THE FIRST PHOTOGRAPH
THE VIEWPOINT WAS CHOSEN SO THAT THE IMAGE OF
THE BUILDING BUTTS RIGHT UP TO THE EDGE OF THE
BRIDGE´S TOWER 4HE PRINCIPAL DYNAMIC HERE IS THE
CORRESPONDENCE OF SHAPES ENCOURAGING THE EYE
TO MOVE BETWEEN THE TWO AS SHOWN IN THE FIRST
DIAGRAM &ROM A VIEWPOINT SLIGHTLY TO THE RIGHT THE
BUILDING CAN BE MADE TO FIT NEATLY INTO THE BRIDGE
TOWER´S CENTRAL ARCH .OW THE EYE IS DIRECTED INWARD
TOWARD THE BUILDING IN THREE STEPS AS SHOWN BY
THE ARROWS IN THE SECOND DIAGRAM /NCE AGAIN THE
INTERNAL FRAME STRUCTURES THE IMAGES MORE FORMALLY
&ROM A LOW AND EXACT CAMERA POSITION ONE WITH LITTLE
LATITUDE FOR MOVEMENT THE NATURAL FRAME FORMED
BY THE TREE IN THE FOREGROUND HELPS TO STRENGTHEN A
COMPOSITION IN WHICH THE EYE IS LED UNDER THE BRANCH
AND UP THE LAWN TOWARD THE BUILDING
30
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
4(% )-!'% &2!-%
31
OMPOSITION IS ESSENTIALLY ORGANIZATION
#
IN MAKING THESE COMPARISONS BUT IT IS
COMPOSITION $ENYING THE EYE PERFECT
THE ORDERING OF ALL THE POSSIBLE GRAPHIC
IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THAT THERE ARE
BALANCE CAN MAKE A MORE INTERESTING
ELEMENTS INSIDE THE FRAME 4HIS IS BASIC
OBJECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN THAT IS THEY
IMAGE AND HELP TO PROVOKE THE RESPONSE
DESIGN AND PHOTOGRAPHY HAS THE SAME
EXIST INDEPENDENTLY OF INDIVIDUAL TASTE
THE PHOTOGRAPHER WANTS %FFECTIVE
FUNDAMENTAL NEEDS IN THIS RESPECT AS ANY
4HEY EXPLAIN WHY CERTAIN PHOTOGRAPHS
COMPOSITION IS NOT COMMITTED TO PRODUCING
OTHER GRAPHIC ART 4HE DANGER IS THE SAME
CREATE THE IMPRESSIONS THEY DO AND
GENTLE IMAGES IN FAMILIAR PROPORTIONS )T IS
ALSO°THAT DETAILING A TECHNIQUE ON PAPER
WHY PARTICULAR WAYS OF ORGANIZING THE
USUALLY VISUALLY SATISFYING BUT ULTIMATELY
CAN LEAD TO IT BEING READ AS A DOGMATIC
IMAGE HAVE PREDICTABLE EFFECTS
GOOD DESIGN IS FUNCTIONAL )T BEGINS WITH
SET OF RULES )T IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT TO
THE PHOTOGRAPHER HAVING A CLEAR IDEA OF
TREAT BASIC DESIGN AS A FORM OF INQUIRY AN
ARE CONTRAST AND BALANCE #ONTRAST STRESSES
THE POTENTIAL FOR A PICTURE AND OF WHAT
ATTITUDE OF MIND AND A SUMMARY OF THE
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GRAPHIC ELEMENTS
THE EFFECT OF THE IMAGE SHOULD BE
RESOURCES AVAILABLE )T IS NOT A QUICK FIX
IN A PICTURE WHETHER IT IS CONTRAST OF TONE
&INALLY DESIGN HAS TO WORK WITHIN
COLOR FORM OR WHATEVER 4WO CONTRASTING
LIMITS WHAT ITS AUDIENCE ALREADY KNOWS
5SING THE FRAME WHICH WE HAVE JUST LOOKED
ELEMENTS REINFORCE EACH OTHER "ALANCE
ABOUT PHOTOGRAPHS 4HIS AUDIENCE MAY
AT AS THE CONTEXT OR SETTING DESIGN BASICS
IS INTIMATELY RELATED TO CONTRAST IT IS THE
KNOW NOTHING OF DESIGN TECHNIQUES
FORM THE GRAMMAR THE GRAPHIC ELEMENTS
ACTIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPPOSING
BUT IT HAS AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE
IN THE NEXT CHAPTER ARE THE VOCABULARY
ELEMENTS )F THE BALANCE BETWEEN BLOCKS
CONVENTIONS BASED ON FAMILIARITY FROM
AND THE PROCESS IN THE LAST CHAPTER IS THE
OF COLOR FOR EXAMPLE IS RESOLVED THERE
SEEING COUNTLESS IMAGES 3HARP FOCUS
SYNTAX°THE WAY IN WHICH THE FORMS IN
IS A SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM IN THE IMAGE
FOR INSTANCE IS UNDERSTOOD TO MARK
PHOTOGRAPHY ARE PUT TOGETHER ULTIMATELY
)F UNRESOLVED THE IMAGE SEEMS OUT OF
THE POINTS OF INTEREST AND ATTENTION
DEFINING ITS NATURE
BALANCE AND A VISUAL TENSION REMAINS
#ERTAIN WAYS OF COMPOSING AN IMAGE
4HERE IS A USEFUL ANALOGY WITH LANGUAGE
#(!04%2
$%3)'. "!3)#3
4HE TWO MOST FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
4HE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN PHOTOGRAPHY
"OTH EXTREMES AND ALL VARIETIES OF
ARE CONSIDERED NORMAL SO THAT THERE
ARE TO AN EXTENT DIFFERENT FROM THOSE
BALANCE IN BETWEEN HAVE THEIR USES IN
ARE ASSUMED STANDARDS THE PHOTOGRAPH
IN PAINTING AND ILLUSTRATION &OR THE
PHOTOGRAPHY 4HE EYE SEEKS HARMONY
CAN MEET THESE OR CHALLENGE THEM
MOST PART THERE IS NO PARTICULAR VALUE
ALTHOUGH THIS DOES NOT MAKE IT A RULE OF
ACCORDING TO THE PHOTOGRAPHER´S INTENTION
$%3)'. "!3)#3
33
CONTRAST
4
he most fundamental overhaul of design
theory in the 20th century took place in
Germany in the 1920s and its focus was the
Bauhaus. Founded in 1919 in Dessau, this school
of art, design, and architecture was a major
influence because of its experimental, questioning
approach to the principles of design. Johannes
Itten ran the Basic Course at the Bauhaus. His
theory of composition was rooted in one simple
concept: contrasts. Contrast between light and
dark (chiaroscuro), between shapes, colors, and
even sensations, was the basis for composing an
image. One of the first exercises that Itten set the
Bauhaus students was to discover and illustrate
the different possibilities of contrast. These
included, among many others, large/small, long/
short, smooth/rough, transparent/opaque, and so
on. These were intended as art exercises, but they
translate very comfortably into photography.
Itten’s intention was “to awaken a vital feeling
for the subject through a personal observation,”
and his exercise was a vehicle for plunging in
and exploring the nature of design. Here is an
adaptation of his exercises for photography.
The project is in two parts. The first is rather
easier—producing pairs of photographs that
contrast with each other. The easiest way to do this
is to make a selection from pictures you’ve already
taken, choosing those that best show a certain
contrast. More demanding but more valuable is
to go out and look for images that illustrate a preplanned type of contrast—executing shots to order.
The second part of the project is to combine
the two poles of the contrast in one photograph,
an exercise that calls for a bit more imagination.
There are no restrictions to the kind of contrast,
and it can be to do with form (bright/dark,
blurred/sharp) or with any aspect of content. For
example, it could be contrast in a concept, such as
continuous/intermittent, or something non-visual,
like loud/quiet. The list in the box below is from
Itten’s original Bauhaus exercise.
A passionate educator, Itten wanted his
students to approach these contrasts from three
directions; “they had to experience them with their
senses, objectivize them intellectually, and realize
them synthetically.” That is, each student had first
to try to get a feeling for each contrast without
immediately thinking of it as an image, then list the
ways of putting this sensation across, and finally
make a picture. For example, for “much/little,” one
first impression might be of a large group of things
with one of them standing out because it is in
some way different. On the other hand, it could be
treated as a group of things with an identical object
standing a little apart, and so isolated. These are
just two approaches out of several alternatives.
3/&4
(!2$
4HE VERY FINE TEXTURE OF THIS MARSH GRASS NEAR -ONO
,AKE #ALIFORNIA IS MADE TO APPEAR EVEN MORE DELICATE
BY CHOOSING A VIEWPOINT AGAINST THE SUN
4HE DULL LIGHTING DRAB URBAN SETTING AND FORESHORTENING EFFECT OF A
TELEPHOTO LENS ALL CONTRIBUTE TO THE SPIKY AGGRESSIVE QUALITY OF THESE
ARCHITECTURAL ROOF PYRAMIDS
)44%.´3 #/.42!343
0OINT LINE
!REA LINE
0LANE VOLUME
!REA BODY
,ARGE SMALL
,INE BODY
(IGH LOW
3MOOTH ROUGH
,ONG SHORT
(ARD SOFT
"ROAD NARROW
3TILL MOVING
4HICK THIN
,IGHT HEAVY
,IGHT DARK
4RANSPARENT OPAQUE
"LACK WHITE
#ONTINUOUS INTERMITTENT
-UCH LITTLE
,IQUID SOLID
3TRAIGHT CURVED
3WEET SOUR
0OINTED BLUNT
3TRONG WEAK
(ORIZONTAL VERTICAL
,OUD SOFT
$IAGONAL CIRCULAR
34
/.%
&,!4
4O EMPHASIZE THE ISOLATION OF THIS ABANDONED BOAT A
WIDE ANGLE LENS INCREASES THE PERSPECTIVE SEPARATING
IT FROM THE DISTANT SHORE 4HE COMPOSITION HELPS BY
ELIMINATING FROM THE VIEW OTHER EXTRANEOUS POINTS
OF ATTENTION
4HE LOW CONTRAST IN THIS VIEW OF A 3HAKER VILLAGE
IN -AINE IS DUE ENTIRELY TO THE QUALITY OF LIGHTING
EARLY MORNING FOG
-!.9
#/.42!349
4O MAXIMIZE THE IMPRESSION OF QUANTITY THIS SHOT
OF DRYING FISH WAS COMPOSED RIGHT TO THE EDGES OF
THE RACK BUT NOT BEYOND SO THAT THE FISH APPEAR
TO EXTEND BEYOND THE FRAME EDGES
4HE HIGHEST CONTRAST LIGHTING EFFECT IS PRODUCED BY A HIGH SUN IN
CLEAR WEATHER AND UNPOLLUTED AIR 4HE STRONG RELIEF OF THESE ROCK
ARCHES CREATES DEEP UNRELIEVED SHADOW
$%3)'. "!3)#3
$%3)'. "!3)#3
35
3/&4(!2$
! FLAMINGO´S PINK FEATHER
FALLEN ONTO CRACKED BAKED
MUD IN -EXICO´S 2IO LAGARTOS
RESERVE IN 9UCATAN
,)15)$
7ATER AND OTHER LIQUIDS HAVE NO INTRINSIC SHAPE
SO ONE COMMON METHOD OF REPRESENTING THEM IS
AS DROPLETS OR FALLING STREAMS AGAINST A NON LIQUID
BACKGROUND (ERE HOWEVER THE WAVE PATTERNS OF
SUNLIGHT CONVEY THE EFFECT IN A SWIMMING POOL
MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO SHOOT NOTHING BUT WATER
3/,)$,)15)$
#OMBINING THE TWO CONTRASTS SHOWN OPPOSITE IN ONE
THIS STILL LIFE SHOWS A STEEL SUPERCONDUCTING DEVICE
IN ITS COOLING BATH OF LIQUID NITROGEN BUBBLING IN
THE HIGHER TEMPERATURE OF THE STUDIO
$%,)#!4%"2!3(
#HERRY BLOSSOM WEEK IN *APAN
IS A HOLIDAY OCCASION FOR VIEWING
THE DELICATE PINK FLOWERS (ERE
HOWEVER THEY ARE SEEN AGAINST
GARISH HOARDINGS IN 4OKYO 4HE
CONTRAST IS EVEN MORE POIGNANT
IN *APANESE AS THE CHARACTERS
READ ±2EALLY #HEAP²
3/,)$
(ARD LIGHTING AND ROUGH DRY TEXTURE GIVE THE
IMPRESSION OF ROCKY SOLIDITY ! TELEPHOTO LENS
COMPRESSES THE VIEW OF THESE CANYONS INTO A
WALL LIKE STRUCTURE FILLING THE FRAME
36
$%3)'. "!3)#3
$%3)'. "!3)#3
37
GESTALT PERCEPTION
'
estalt psychology was founded in Austria
and Germany in the early 20th century, and
while some of its ideas (such as that objects seen
form similarly shaped traces in the brain) have
long been abandoned, it has had an important
revival in its approach to visual recognition.
Modern Gestalt theory takes a holistic
approach to perception, on the basic principle
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,
and that in viewing an entire scene or image, the
mind takes a sudden leap from recognizing the
individual elements to understanding the scene in
its entirety. These two concepts—appreciating the
greater meaning of the entire image and grasping
it suddenly and intuitively—may at first seem at
odds with what is known about how we look at
images. (The principle that we build up a picture
from a series of rapid eye movements to points of
interest is explored more thoroughly on pages
80-81.) However, in reality, Gestalt theory has
adapted to experimental research, and, despite
its sometimes vague assertions, offers some
valid explanations about the complex process
of perception. Its importance for photography
lies mainly in its laws of organization, which
underpin most of the principles of composing
images, particularly in this and the next chapter.
The word “Gestalt” has no perfect English
translation, but refers to the way in which
something has been gestellt, that is, “placed”
or “put together,” with obvious relevance
to composition. As a way of understanding
perception, it offers an alternative to the
atomistic, iterative way in which computers
and digital imaging work, step-by-step, and
stresses the value of insight. Another principle
from Gestalt is “optimization,” favoring clarity
and simplicity. Allied to this is the concept of
pragnanz (precision), which states that when
understanding takes place as a whole (“grasping
the image”), it involves minimal effort.
The Gestalt laws of organization, listed in the
box, go a long way toward explaining the ways
in which graphic elements in photographs, such
as potential lines, points, shapes, and vectors, are
38
“completed” in viewers’ minds and understood
to animate and give balance to an image. One of
the most important and easy-to-grasp laws is that
of Closure, usually illustrated by the well-known
Kanizsa triangle (illustrated opposite). We can
see this principle time and again in photography,
where certain parts of a composition suggest a
shape, and this perceived shape then helps to
give structure to the image. In other words, an
implied shape tends to strengthen a composition.
It helps the viewer make sense of it. Triangles
are among the most potent of “closure-induced”
shapes in photography, but the example
illustrated opposite is the somewhat more
unusual one of a double circle.
As we’ll see in more detail when we come to
the process of shooting (in Chapter 6), creating
and reading a photograph heavily involves the
principle of making sense of a scene or an image,
of taking the visual input and attempting to fit
it to some hypothesis that explains the way it
looks. Gestalt theory introduces the idea of
regrouping and restructuring the visual elements
so that they make sense as an entire image—also
known as the “phi-phenomenon.” However,
whereas Gestalt theory is used in instructional
design—for example, to eliminate confusion
and speed up recognition (diagrams, keyboards,
plans, and so on)— in photography it can play
an equally valuable opposite role.
As we’ll see when we come to Chapter 6,
Intent, there are many advantages in slowing
down the way people view a photograph, so as
to deliver a surprise or to involve them more
deeply in the image (Gombrich’s “beholder’s
share”, page 140). For example, the principle of
Emergence (see box) is valuable in explaining
how, in a sudden moment, the mind comprehends
something in a photograph that was visually
“hidden” (pages 144-145, Delay, go into this
in more detail). Normally, in presenting
information, making the viewer’s mind work
harder is not considered a good thing, but in
photography and other arts it becomes part of
the reward for viewing.
'%34!,4 ,!73 !.$ 02).#)0,%3
4(% '%34!,4 ,!73 /& 0%2#%045!,
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(% ,AW OF 0ROXIMITY 6ISUAL ELEMENTS ARE GROUPED
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TO EACH OTHER
)% ,AW OF 3IMILARITY %LEMENTS THAT ARE SIMILAR
IN SOME WAY BY FORM OR CONTENT TEND TO BE
GROUPED
*% ,AW OF #LOSURE %LEMENTS ROUGHLY ARRANGED
TOGETHER ARE SEEN TO COMPLETE AN OUTLINE
SHAPE 4HE MIND SEEKS COMPLETENESS
+% ,AW OF 3IMPLICITY 4HE MIND TENDS TOWARDS
VISUAL EXPLANATIONS THAT ARE SIMPLE SIMPLE
LINES CURVES AND SHAPES ARE PREFERRED AS IS
SYMMETRY AND BALANCE
,% ,AW OF #OMMON &ATE 'ROUPED ELEMENTS
ARE ASSUMED TO MOVE TOGETHER AND BEHAVE
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-% ,AW OF 'OOD #ONTINUATION 3IMILAR TO THE
ABOVE THIS STATES THAT THE MIND TENDS TO
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ENDING POINTS
.% ,AW OF 3EGREGATION )N ORDER FOR A FIGURE
TO BE PERCEIVED IT MUST STAND OUT FROM ITS
BACKGROUND &IGURE GROUND IMAGES SEE
PAGE EXPLOIT THE UNCERTAINTY OF
DECIDING WHICH IS THE FIGURE AND WHICH
IS THE BACKGROUND FOR CREATIVE INTEREST
'ROUPING PLAYS A LARGE PART IN 'ESTALT THINKING
AND THIS IS KNOWN AS ±CHUNKING²
'%34!,4 02).#)0,%3 ).#,5$%
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(% %MERGENCE 0ARTS OF AN IMAGE THAT DO NOT
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4HE MOST WELL KNOWN DEMONSTRATION OF CLOSURE
IS THIS DESIGNED BY )TALIAN PSYCHOLOGIST 'AETANO
+ANISZA IN WHICH THE ONLY SHAPES ARE THREE CIRCLES
WITH WEDGES CUT OUT OF THEM YET THE EYE SEES
A TRIANGLE
$%3)'. "!3)#3
CONTAIN SUFFICIENT INFORMATION TO EXPLAIN
THEM SUDDENLY POP OUT AS A RESULT OF LOOKING
LONG ENOUGH AND FINALLY GRASPING THE SENSE
)% 2EIFICATION 4HE MIND FILLS IN A SHAPE OR AREA
DUE TO INADEQUATE VISUAL INPUT 4HIS INCLUDES
CLOSURE ABOVE
*% -ULTISTABILITY )N SOME INSTANCES WHEN THERE
ARE INSUFFICIENT DEPTH CLUES OBJECTS CAN BE
SEEN TO INVERT SPONTANEOUSLY 4HIS HAS BEEN
EXPLOITED MORE IN ART - # %SCHER 3ALVADOR
$ALI THAN IN PHOTOGRAPHY
+% )NVARIANCE /BJECTS CAN BE RECOGNIZED
REGARDLESS OF ORIENTATION ROTATION ASPECT
SCALE OR OTHER FACTORS
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#,/352% 4/ #)2#,%3
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4HE 'ESTALT ,AW OF #LOSURE GOVERNS MANY OF THE
COMPOSITIONAL TECHNIQUES THAT HELP GIVE STRUCTURE
TO IMAGES )N THIS PHOTOGRAPH OF CEREMONIAL GUARDS
AT THE ANNUAL 'AREBEG CEREMONY AT THE PALACE OF
9OGYAKARTA *AVA THE EYE SEES TWO APPROXIMATE
CIRCLES LEFT AND RIGHT AND THIS HELPS ORDER THE IMAGE
9ET THESE ARE ENTIRELY NOTIONAL )N ;= APPLYING
A MEDIAN FILTER TO SIMPLIFY THE VIEW THE SHAPES
STAND OUT MORE )N ;= THE ACTUAL CURVED SECTIONS
ARE MARKED AND CAN BE SEEN TO BE VERY FAR FROM
COMPLETED CIRCLES YET AS HIGHLIGHTED IN ;= THE
IMPLIED CIRCLES WORK TO CONCENTRATE THE ATTENTION
ON THE UNIFORMED SOLDIERS INSIDE THEM 4HIS IS
ESSENTIALLY THE MECHANISM DEMONSTRATED ON
PAGES WHICH COVER THE THEME OF SHAPES
39
BALANCE
!
t the heart of composition lies the concept
of balance. Balance is the resolution of
tension, opposing forces that are matched to
provide equilibrium and a sense of harmony. It is
a fundamental principle of visual perception that
the eye seeks to balance one force with another.
Balance is harmony, resolution, a condition that
intuitively seems aesthetically pleasing. In this
context, balance can refer to any of the graphic
elements in a picture (in Chapter 3 we will review
each of these in turn).
If we consider two strong points in a picture,
for example, the center of the frame becomes
a reference against which we see their position.
If one diagonal line in another image creates a
strong sense of movement in one direction, the
eye is aware of the need for an opposite sense of
movement. In color relationships, successive and
simultaneous contrasts demonstrate that the eye
will seek to provide its own complementary hues.
When talking about the balance of forces
in a picture, the usual analogies tend to be ones
drawn from the physical world: gravity, levers,
weights, and fulcrums. These are quite reasonable
40
analogies to use, because the eye and mind have
a real, objective response to balance that works in
a very similar way to the laws of mechanics. We
can develop the physical analogies more literally
by thinking of an image as a surface balanced at
one point, rather like a weighing scale. If we add
anything to one side of the image—that is, offcenter—it becomes unbalanced, and we feel the
need to correct this. It does not matter whether
we are talking about masses of tone, color, an
arrangement of points, or whatever. The aim is
to find the visual “center of gravity.”
Considered in this way, there are two distinct
kinds of balance. One is symmetrical or static;
the other is dynamic. In symmetrical balance, the
arrangement of forces is centered—everything
falls equally away from the middle of the picture.
We can create this by placing the subject of a
photograph right in the middle of the frame. In
our weighing-scale analogy, it sits right over the
fulcrum, the point of balance. Another way of
achieving the same static balance is to place two
equal weights on either side of the center, at equal
distances. Adding a dimension to this, several
graphic elements equally arranged around the
center have the same effect.
The second kind of visual balance opposes
weights and forces that are unequal, and in doing
so enlivens the image. On the weighing scale, a
large object can be balanced by a small one, as
long as the latter is placed far enough away from
the fulcrum. Similarly, a small graphic element
can successfully oppose a dominant one, as long
as it is placed toward the edge of the frame.
Mutual opposition is the mechanism by which
most balance is achieved. It is, of course, a type
of contrast (see Contrast, on pages 34-37).
These are the ground rules of visual balance,
but they need to be treated with some caution.
All we have done so far is to describe the way
the balance works in simple circumstances. In
many pictures, a variety of elements interact,
and the question of balance can only be resolved
intuitively, according to what feels right. The
weighing scale analogy is fine as far as it goes—
to explain the fundamentals—but I would
certainly not recommend actually using it as
an aid to composition.
$%3)'. "!3)#3
Apart from this, a more crucial consideration
is whether or not balance is even desirable.
Certainly, the eye and brain need equilibrium,
but providing it is not necessarily the job of
art or photography. Georges Seurat, the neoImpressionist painter, claimed that “Art is
harmony,” but as Itten pointed out, he was
mistaking a means of art for its end. If we
accepted a definition of good photography as
the creation of images that produce a calm,
satisfying sensation, the results would be very
dull indeed. An expressive picture is by no means
always harmonious, as you can see time and again
throughout this book. We will keep returning
to this issue, and it underlines many design
decisions, not just in an obvious way—where to
place the center of interest, for example—but in
the sense of how much tension or harmony to
create. Ultimately, the choice is a personal one,
and not determined by the view or the subject.
In composing the image, the poles are
symmetry and eccentricity. Symmetry is a
special, perfect case of balance, not necessarily
satisfying, and very rigid. In the natural run of
$%3)'. "!3)#3
views that a photographer is likely to come across,
it is not particularly common. You would have
to specialize in a group of things that embody
symmetrical principles, such as architecture or
seashells, to make much use of it. For this reason,
it can be appealing if used occasionally. On the
subject of a mirrored composition in Sequoia
National Park, the landscape photographer Galen
Rowell wrote, “When I photographed Big Bird
34!4)# "!,!.#% 63 )-"!,!.#%
5SING THE ANALOGY OF A WEIGHING SCALE THINK OF A
PICTURE AS BALANCED AT ITS CENTER )N THIS CLOSE UP OF
THE EYES ON THE "UDDHIST STUPA AT 3WAYAMBUNATH
IN .EPAL THE SIMPLE ARRANGEMENT IS SYMMETRICAL
4HE ARRANGEMENT IS BALANCED EXACTLY OVER THE
FULCRUM THE FORCES ARE EVENLY BALANCED (OWEVER
IF WE REMOVE ONE ELEMENT DONE HERE DIGITALLY FOR
THE EXERCISE THE VISUAL CENTER OF GRAVITY IS SHIFTED
TO THE LEFT AND THE BALANCE IS UPSET 4HE NATURAL
TENDENCY WOULD BE TO SHIFT THE VIEW TO THE LEFT
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k_Xk`k[f\jefk_`e^n`k_flkk_\_\cgf]eldY\ijXe[gifgfik`fej1`k`jk_ifl^_eldY\ijk_Xk`k_lekj]fi
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Y\Xlkp%ÉE\m\ik_\c\jj#XkdXepk`d\j`ek_\_`jkfipf]Xikk_\i\_XjY\\eZfe]c`ZkY\kn\\ek_fj\n_f
jfl^_k`ejg`iXk`fe]ifddXk_\dXk`ZXc#_Xidfe`Zfi[\iXe[k_fj\n_f]fle[`k[ip#jk\i`c\#Xe[jk`]c`e^kf
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41
$9.!-)# "!,!.#%
$YNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM OPPOSES TWO UNEQUAL SUBJECTS
OR AREAS *UST AS A SMALL WEIGHT CAN BALANCE A LARGER
MASS BY BEING PLACED FURTHER FROM THE FULCRUM LARGE
AND SMALL ELEMENTS IN AN IMAGE CAN BE BALANCED
BY PLACING THEM CAREFULLY IN THE FRAME .OTE HERE
THAT THE CONTENT OF THE UPPER RIGHT AREA°#HINESE
CHARACTERS°INCREASES ITS VISUAL IMPORTANCE SEE
PAGES FOR MORE ON VISUAL WEIGHT
Lake with a fine reflective surface on the water,
I intuitively broke traditional rules of composition
and split my image 50-50 to strengthen the patterns
and emphasize the similarity between the two
halves of my image.” To succeed, symmetrical
composition must be absolutely precise. Few
images look sloppier than an almost symmetrical
view that did not quite make it.
We ought now to consider how tension
actually works in an unbalanced composition.
The mechanics are considerably more subtle
than the balancing-scale analogy can show.
While the eye and brain search for balance, it
would be wrong to assume that it is satisfying
to have it handed on a plate. Interest in any
image is in direct proportion to the amount
of work the viewer has to do, and too perfect
a balance leaves less for the eye to work at.
Hence, dynamic balance tends to be more
interesting than static balance. Not only this,
but in the absence of equilibrium, the eye tries
42
to produce it independently. In color theory,
this is the process involved in successive and
simultaneous contrast (see pages 118-121).
This can be seen in action in any eccentrically
composed picture. In the photograph of a
farmer in a rice field on page 69, according to
the weighing-scale analogy the equilibrium
is completely upset, yet the image is not at all
uncomfortable in appearance. What happens is
that the eye and brain want to find something
closer to the center to balance the figure in the
top-right corner, and so keep coming back to the
lower-left center of the frame. Of course, the only
thing there is the mass of rice, so that the setting in
fact gains extra attention. The green stalks of rice
would be less dominant if the figure were centrally
placed. As it is, it would be difficult to say whether
the photograph is of a worker in a rice field or
of a rice field with, incidentally, a figure working
in it. This process of trying to compensate for an
obvious asymmetry in an image is what creates
visual tension, and it can be very useful indeed
in making a picture more dynamic. It can help
draw attention to an area of a scene that would
normally be too bland to be noticed.
A second factor involved in eccentrically
composed images is that of logic. The more
extreme the asymmetry, the more the viewer
expects a reason for it. Theoretically, at least,
someone looking at such an image will be
more prepared to examine it carefully for the
justification. Be warned, however, that eccentric
composition can as easily be seen as contrived.
Finally, all considerations of balance must
take into account the sheer graphic complexity
of many images. In order to study the design
of photographs, we are doing our best in this
book to isolate each of the graphic elements we
look at. Many of the examples, such as the rice
field picture, are deliberately uncomplicated. In
reality, most photographs contain several layers
of graphic effect.
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"),!4%2!, 39--%429
#ERTAIN CLASSES OF SUBJECT ARE NATURALLY SYMMETRICAL
AROUND ONE AXIS AS WITH THIS 'REEK FISHING BOAT
SEEN FROM THE FRONT !RCHITECTURE ALSO OFTEN FALLS
INTO THIS CATEGORY AS DO HEAD ON VIEWS OF MANY
LIVING THINGS SUCH AS A HUMAN FACE 0RECISION
IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT WITH A SYMMETRICAL
COMPOSITION BECAUSE THE SMALLEST MISALIGNMENT
WILL STAND OUT IMMEDIATELY AND MAY SIMPLY LOOK
LIKE A FAILURE
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43
DYNAMIC TENSION
7
e have already seen how certain of the
basic graphic elements have more energy
than others: diagonals, for instance. Some design
constructions are also more dynamic; rhythm
creates momentum and activity, and eccentric
placement of objects induces tension as the eye
attempts to create its own balance. However,
rather than think of an image as balanced or
unbalanced, we can consider it in terms of its
dynamic tension. This is essentially making use
of the energy inherent in various structures, and
using it to keep the eye alert and moving outward
from the center of the picture. It is the opposite of
the static character of formal compositions.
Some caution is necessary, simply because
introducing dynamic tension into a picture seems
such an easy and immediate way of attracting
attention. Just as the use of rich, vibrant colors
is instantly effective in an individual photograph
but can become mannered if used constantly, so
this kind of activation can also become wearing
after a while. As with any design technique that
is strong and obvious when first seen, it tends to
lack staying power. Its effect is usually spent very
quickly, and the eye moves on to the next image.
The techniques for achieving dynamic
tension are, however, fairly straightforward, as
the examples here show. While not trying to
reduce it to a formula, the ideal combination
is a variety of diagonals in different directions,
opposed lines, and any structural device
that leads the eye outward, preferably in
competing directions. This argues against, for
example, using circular enclosing structures,
and suggests that good use can be made of a
powerful standby, eye-lines (see pages 82-83).
"%,, &/5.$29
%YE LINES AND THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THINGS APPEAR
TO FACE ARE RESPONSIBLE HERE FOR THE DIVERGING LINES
OF VIEW 4HE MAN FACES LEFT AND THE LINE OF HIS STANCE
CONTRIBUTES TO THIS 4HE HOPPER FULL OF MOLTEN METAL
FACES FORWARD AND TO THE RIGHT 4HE TWO PULL AGAINST
EACH OTHER VISUALLY
/!+ !,,%9 0,!.4!4)/.
$IVERGING LINES AND MOVEMENT ARE THE KEY TO
DYNAMIC TENSION (ERE THE BRANCHES OF A TREE
AND ITS STRONG CURVING SHADOW HAVE POWERFUL
OUTWARD MOVEMENT EXAGGERATED BY THE MM
EFL EQUIVALENT FOCAL LENGTH WIDE ANGLE LENS
4HE DISTORTION AND PLACEMENT OF THE BUILDING
MAKE IT SEEM TO MOVE LEFT OUT OF FRAME
(),, /& #/44/.
3ORTING AND TRAMPING DOWN FRESHLY PICKED COTTON
SOUTH OF +HARTOUM TWO 3UDANESE WOMEN MOVE
DEFTLY AND GRACEFULLY ! WIDE ANGLE LENS EXAGGERATES
THE GEOMETRY OF THE IMAGE CLOSE TO THE EDGES OF THE
FRAME AND FROM A SEQUENCE OF SHOTS THE ONE CHOSEN
HERE HAS THE MOST ENERGY AND MOVEMENT°THE LINES
AND GESTURES PULL THE ATTENTION OUTWARD AT BOTH LEFT
AND RIGHT
44
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45
FIGURE AND GROUND
7
e are conditioned to accepting the idea
of a background. In other words, from
our normal visual experience, we assume that
in most scenes that is something that we look at
(the subject), and there is a setting against which
it stands or lies (the background). One stands
forward, the other recedes. One is important, and
the reason for taking a photograph; the other is
just there because something has to occupy the
rest of the frame. As we saw, this is an essential
principle of Gestalt theory.
In most picture situations, that is essentially
true. We select something as the purpose of the
image, and it is more often than not a discrete
object or group of objects. It may be a person,
a still-life, a group of buildings, a part of
something. What is behind the focus of interest
is the background, and in many well-designed
and satisfying images, it complements the subject.
Often, we already know what the subject is
before the photography begins. The main point
of interest has been decided on: a human figure,
perhaps, or a horse, or a car. If it is possible to
control the circumstances of the picture, the
next decision may well be to choose the
background: that is, to decide which of the
locally available settings will show off the
subject to its best advantage. This occurs so
often, as you can see from a casual glance at
most of the pictures in this book, that it
scarcely even merits mention.
There are, however, circumstances when
the photographer can choose which of two
components in a view is to be the figure and
which is to be the ground against which the
figure is seen. This opportunity occurs when
there is some ambiguity in the image, and it helps
to have a minimum of realistic detail. In this
respect, photography is at an initial disadvantage
to illustration, because it is hard to remove the
inherent realism in a photograph. In particular,
the viewer knows that the image is of something
real, and so the eye searches for clues.
Some of the purest examples of ambiguous
figure/ground relationships are in Japanese and
Chinese calligraphy, in which the white spaces
between the brush strokes are just as active
and coherent as the black characters. When
the ambiguity is greatest, an alternation of
perception occurs. At one moment the dark tones
advance, at another they recede. Two interlinked
images fluctuate backwards and forwards. The
preconditions for this are fairly simple. There
should be two tones in the image, and they should
contrast as much as possible. The two areas
should be as equal as possible. Finally, there
should be limited clues in the content of
the picture as to what is in front of what.
The point of importance here is not how to
make illusory photographs, but how to use or
remove ambiguity in the relationship between
subject and background. The two examples
shown here, both silhouettes, use the same
technique as the calligraphy: the real background
is lighter than the real subject, which tends to
make it move forward; the areas are nearly equal;
the shapes are not completely obvious at first
glance. The shapes are, however, recognizable,
even if only after a moment’s study. The figure/
ground ambiguity is used, not as an attempt to
create and abstract illusion, but to add some
optical tension and interest to the images.
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4HE VIEW ACROSS THE COURTYARD OF A .UBIAN HOUSE IN
NORTHERN 3UDAN IS THROUGH TWO RAMMED EARTH OPEN
WINDOW FRAMES )N THE HARSH SUNLIGHT THE CONTRAST
BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADE IS EXTREME AND CROPPING
THE FRAME CAREFULLY SO THAT THE AREAS OF LIGHT AND DARK
ARE EQUAL CREATES A FIGURE GROUND AMBIGUITY°THE
MORE SO BECAUSE LIGHT IS NORMALLY EXPECTED TO STAND
FORWARD FROM DARK
46
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*
+
47
RHYTHM
7
hen there are several similar elements in
a scene, their arrangement may, under
special conditions, set up a rhythmic visual
structure. Repetition is a necessary ingredient, but
this alone does not guarantee a sense of rhythm.
There is an obvious musical analogy, and it makes
considerable sense. Like the beat in a piece of
music, the optical beat in a picture can vary from
being completely regular to variations similar to,
for instance, syncopation.
Rhythm in a picture needs time and the
movement of the eye to be appreciated. The
dimensions of the frame, therefore, set some limits,
so that what can be seen is not much more than
a rhythmical phrase. However, the eye and mind
are naturally adept at extending what they see (the
Gestalt Law of Good Continuation), and—in a
photograph such as that of the row of soldiers on
page 183— readily assume the continuation of the
rhythm. In this way, a repeating flow of images is
perceived as being longer than can actually be seen.
Rhythm is a feature of the way the eye scans the
picture as much as of the repetition. It is strongest
when each cycle in the beat encourages the eye
to move (just as in the example to the right). The
natural tendency of the eye to move from side to
side (see pages 12-15) is particularly evident here, as
rhythm needs direction and flow in order to come
alive. The rhythmical movement is therefore usually
up and down, as vertical rhythm is much less easily
perceived. Rhythm produces considerable strength
in an image, as it does in music. It has momentum,
and because of this, a sense of continuation. Once
the eye has recognized the repetition, the viewer
assumes that the repetition will continue beyond
the frame.
Rhythm is also a feature of repetitive
action, and this has real practical significance in
photographing work and similar activity. In the
main picture opposite, of Indian farmers in the
countryside near Madras winnowing rice, the
potential soon became apparent. The first picture
in the sequence is uninteresting but shows the
situation. The individual action was to scoop rice
into the basket and hold it high, tipping it gently
48
4(% $9.!-)#3
so that the breeze would separate the rice from
the chaff. Each person worked independently,
but inevitably two or more would be in the same
position at the same time. It was then a matter of
waiting for the moment in which three were in
unison, and finding a viewpoint that would align
them so that the rhythm has maximum graphic
effect. These things are never certain—someone
could simply stop work—but the possibility in a
situation like this is high.
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7HEN THE RHYTHM IS PREDICTABLE AS IN THIS PALACE
FAlADE IN *AIPUR )NDIA THE REPETITION IS FREQUENTLY
BORING )N THIS CASE AN ANOMALY THAT INTERRUPTS THE
RHYTHM CAN MAKE THE IMAGE MORE DYNAMIC (ERE
A MAN SWEEPING PROVIDES THE NECESSARY BREAK
.OTE THAT AS THE EYE NATURALLY FOLLOWS A RHYTHMICAL
STRUCTURE FROM LEFT TO RIGHT IT WORKS BETTER TO PLACE
THE FIGURE ON THE FAR RIGHT SO THAT THE EYE HAS TIME
TO ESTABLISH THE RHYTHM
,
$%3)'. "!3)#3
$%3)'. "!3)#3
49
PATTERN, TEXTURE, MANY
,
ike rhythm, pattern is built on repetition,
but unlike rhythm it is associated with area,
not direction. A pattern does not encourage the
eye to move in a particular way, but rather to
roam across the surface of the picture. It has at
least an element of homogeneity, and, as a result,
something of a static nature.
The prime quality of a pattern is that it covers
an area, thus the photographs that show the
strongest pattern are those in which it extends
right to the edges of the frame. Then, as with
an edge-to-edge rhythm, the phenomenon of
continuation occurs, and the eye assumes that
the pattern extends beyond. The photograph
of the bicycle saddles illustrates this. In other
words, showing any border at all to the pattern
establishes limits; if none can be seen, the image
is take to be a part of a larger area.
At the same time, the larger the number of
elements that can be seen in the picture, the more
there is a sense of pattern than of a group of
individual objects. This operates up to a quantity
at which the individual elements become difficult
to distinguish and so become more of a texture.
In terms of the number of elements, the effective
limits lie between about ten and several hundred,
and a useful exercise when faced with a mass of
similar objects is to start at a distance (or with
a focal length) that takes in the entire group,
making sure that they reach the frame edges,
and then take successive photographs, closing in,
ending with just four or five of the units. Within
this sequence of images there will be one or two
in which the pattern effect is strongest. Pattern,
in other words, also depends on scale.
A pattern seen at a sufficiently large scale
takes on the appearance of texture. Texture is
the primary quality of a surface. The structure
of an object is its form, whereas the structure of
the material from which it is made is its texture.
Like pattern, it is determined by scale. The
texture of a piece of sandstone is the roughness
of the individual compacted grains, a fraction
of a millimeter across. Then think of the same
sandstone as part of a cliff; the cliff face is now
50
2%'5,!2 0!44%2.
/RDERED ROWS AND OTHER GEOMETRIC ARRANGEMENTS OF
LARGE NUMBERS OF THINGS MAKE REGULAR PATTERNS 4HE
ALIGNMENT IN AN EXAMPLE LIKE THIS IS NOT PARTICULARLY
ATTRACTIVE AND THE INTEREST OF THE PHOTOGRAPH
DEPENDS VERY MUCH ON THE NATURE OF THE OBJECT
BOTTLE TOPS WOULD BE LESS APPEALING THAN THESE SMALL
RELIGIOUS PLAQUES .OTE THAT THE SENSE OF PATTERN
DEPENDS ON SCALE AND NUMBER A CROP WOULD LOSE IT
)22%'5,!2 0!44%2.
4O BE IRREGULAR AND YET STILL APPEAR
AS A PATTERN OBJECTS MUST STILL BE
GROUPED CLOSELY THE IRREGULARITY
IS NOT QUITE SO DISORDERED AS IT
MAY SEEM 4HE EFFECTIVENESS
OF A PATTERN ALSO DEPENDS ON
HOW MUCH AREA IT COVERS )F THE
ELEMENTS REACH THE BORDERS OF
THE FRAME ALL ROUND AS IN THIS
PHOTOGRAPH THE EYE ASSUMES
THAT THEY CONTINUE BEYOND
the surface, and the texture is on a much larger
scale, the cracks and ridges of the rock. Finally,
think of a chain of mountains that contains this
cliff face. A satellite picture shows even the largest
mountains as wrinkles on the surface of the earth:
its texture. This kind of repeating scale of texture
is related to fractal geometry.
Texture is a quality of structure rather than
of tone or color, and so appeals principally to
the sense of touch. Even if we cannot physically
reach out and touch it, its appearance works
through this sensory channel. This explains why
texture is revealed through lighting—at a small
scale, only this throws up relief. Specifically, the
direction and quality of the lighting are therefore
important. Relief, and thus texture, appears
strongest when the lighting is oblique, and when
the light is hard rather than soft and diffuse.
These conditions combine to create the sharpest
shadows thrown by each element in the texture,
whether it is the weave in a fabric, the wrinkles
in leather, or the grain in wood. As a rule, the
finer the texture, the more oblique and hard the
lighting it needs to be seen clearly—except that
-!.9
4HE MASSING OF SUBJECTS HAS ITS OWN APPEAL BOTH
GRAPHIC AND IN THE SENSE OF WONDER AT SHEER
UNEXPECTED QUANTITY &ILLING OR NEARLY FILLING
THE FRAME IS MORE OR LESS ESSENTIAL FOR THIS KIND
OF IMAGE TO WORK )N THIS CASE EVEN THOUGH THE
ANGLE OF VIEW IS LOW A MM TELEPHOTO LENS
COMPRESSES THE MASS
the smoothest of all surfaces are reflective,
such as polished metal, and texture is replaced
by reflection (see page 124).
Related to pattern and texture, but with
content playing a stronger role, is the idea
of many, as in a crowd of people or a large
shoal of fish. The appeal of huge numbers
of similar things lies often in the surprise of
seeing so many of them in one place and at
one time. The view of the Kaaba in Mecca,
seen from one of the minarets, for example,
is said to take in at least a million peop