Sample records for flux density measurements

Cas A is used as a flux calibrator throughout the radio spectrum. Therefore it is important to know the spectral and secular variations in its fluxdensity. Earlier observations by Scott et. al. (1969) and Baars et. al. (1972) suggested a secular decrease in fluxdensity of Cas A at a rate of about 1% per year at all frequencies. However later observations by Erickson & Perley (1975) and Read (1977) indicated anomalously high flux from Cas A at 38 MHz. Also, these observations suggested that the original idea of faster decay of the fluxdensity rate at low frequencies may be in error or that something more complex than simple decay is affecting the fluxdensity at low frequencies. The source changes at 38 MHz still remains a mystery. We intend to present the results of follow up observations made from 1995 to 1998 with a three element interferometer in Green Bank operating in frequency range 30 to 120 MHz. We will discuss the problems at such low frequencies due to large beamwidth and unstable ionosphere. We will also discuss the strategies we have used so far to to find the fluxdensity of Cas A by calculating the ratio of fluxdensity of Cas A to that of Cyg A, assuming fluxdensity of Cyg A to be constant. Above mentioned work was performed in summer student program sponsored by National Radio Astronomy Observatory.

The measurement of radon flux from soil surface is the useful tool for the assessment of radon-prone areas and monitoring of radon releases from uranium mining and milling residues. The accumulation chambers with hollow headspace and chambers with activated charcoal are the most used devices for these purposes. Systematic errors of the measurements strongly depend on the geometry of the chamber and diffusion coefficient of the radon in soil. The calibration system for the attestation of devices for radon fluxmeasurements was constructed. The calibration measurements of accumulation chambers and chambers with activated charcoal were conducted. The good agreement between the results of 2D modelling of radon flux and measurements results was observed. It was demonstrated that reliable measurements of radon flux can be obtained by chambers with activated charcoal (equivalent volume ~75 l) or by accumulation chambers with hollow headspace of ~7-10 l and volume/surface ratio (height) of >15 cm. PMID:25977351

Atmospheric muons fluxmeasurements provide information on sub-surface density distribution, giving insights on the medium structure. We measured the muons flux from the underground galleries of the Tournemire experimental platform to image the medium between the galleries and the surface. The experiment aimed at evaluating the capacity of the method to detect the presence of discontinuities produced either by secondary strike-slip faults that present small vertical displacements or by a karstic network may be present at the level of an upper aquifer. Measurements were performed from three different sites so the trajectories of detected muons paths intersect in the medium. Such a configuration provided complementary information on the density distribution, offering the possibility to seek density variations at different depths. A specific calibration method was applied in order to interpolate the data acquired at different times with the same muons sensor. Muons fluxmeasurements variations were then processed through a non-linear inversion, producing a 3D image of the density together with an evaluation of the different distinguished targets reliability. The density distribution showed the presence of a very low density region at the level of the upper aquifer, suggesting the presence of a karstic network hosting locally cavities. The trace of secondary strike-slip faults did not appear clearly on the image as the density contrast they produce might be too low compared to the signal to noise ratio present in the muons flux data. We propose different strategies to improve the density image accuracy.

On August 22, 2001 all 4 Cluster spacecraft nearly simultaneously penetrated a magnetic flux rope in the tail. The flux rope encounter took place in the central plasma sheet, Beta(sub i) approx. 1-2, near the leading edge of a bursty bulk flow. The "time-of-flight" of the flux rope across the 4 spacecraft yielded V(sub x) approx. 700 km/s and a diameter of approx.1 R(sub e). The speed at which the flux rope moved over the spacecraft is in close agreement with the Cluster plasma measurements. The magnetic field profiles measured at each spacecraft were first modeled separately using the Lepping-Burlaga force-free flux rope model. The results indicated that the center of the flux rope passed northward (above) s/c 3, but southward (below) of s/c 1, 2 and 4. The peak electric currents along the central axis of the flux rope predicted by these single-s/c models were approx.15-19 nA/sq m. The 4-spacecraft Cluster magnetic field measurements provide a second means to determine the electric current density without any assumption regarding flux rope structure. The current profile determined using the curlometer technique was qualitatively similar to those determined by modeling the individual spacecraft magnetic field observations and yielded a peak current density of 17 nA/m2 near the central axis of the rope. However, the curlometer results also showed that the flux rope was not force-free with the component of the current density perpendicular to the magnetic field exceeding the parallel component over the forward half of the rope, perhaps due to the pressure gradients generated by the collision of the BBF with the inner magnetosphere. Hence, while the single-spacecraft models are very successful in fitting flux rope magnetic field and current variations, they do not provide a stringent test of the force-free condition.

The radial component of the heliospheric magnetic field vector is used to estimate the open magnetic fluxdensity of the Sun. This parameter has been calculated using observations from the Ulysses mission that covered heliolatitudes from 80 Degree-Sign S to 80 Degree-Sign N, from 1990 to 2009 and distances from 1 to 5.4 AU, the Advanced Composition Explorer mission at 1 AU from 1997 to 2010, the OMNI interplanetary database from 1971, and the Helios 1 and 2 missions that covered the distance range from 0.3 to 1 AU. The fluxdensity was found to be much affected by fluctuations in the magnetic field which make its calculated value dependent on heliospheric location, type of solar wind (fast or slow), and the level of solar activity. However, fluctuations are distributed symmetrically perpendicular to the average Parker direction. Therefore, distributions of the field vector in the two-dimensional plane defined by the radial and azimuthal directions in heliospheric coordinates provide a way to reduce the effects of the fluctuations on the measurement of the fluxdensity. This leads to a better defined fluxdensity parameter; the distributions modified by removing the effects of fluctuations then allow a clearer assessment of the dependence of the fluxdensity on heliospheric location, solar wind type, and solar activity. This assessment indicates that the fluxdensity normalized to 1 AU is independent of location and solar wind type (fast or slow). However, there is a residual dependence on solar activity which can be studied using the modified fluxdensitymeasurements.

We present fluxdensitymeasurements and pulse profiles for the millisecond pulsar PSR J2145–0750 spanning 37 to 81 MHz using data obtained from the first station of the Long Wavelength Array. These measurements represent the lowest frequency detection of pulsed emission from a millisecond pulsar to date. We find that the pulse profile is similar to that observed at 102 MHz. We also find that the fluxdensity spectrum between ≈40 MHz to 5 GHz is suggestive of a break and may be better fit by a model that includes spectral curvature with a rollover around 730 MHz rather than a single power law.

Multiple-beam observations of solar flares at submillimeter wavelengths need detection with at least four beams to derive the fluxdensity of the emitting source, its size, and centroid position. When this condition is not fulfilled, the assumptions on the location and/or size of the emitting source have to be made in order to compute . Otherwise, only a fluxdensity range can be estimated. We report on simultaneous flare observations at 212 and 210 GHz obtained by the Solar Submillimeter Telescope (SST) and the Bernese Multibeam Radiometer for Kosma (BEMRAK), respectively, during two solar events on 28 October 2003. For both events, BEMRAK utilized four beam information to calculate the source fluxdensity F 210, its size and position. On the other hand, the SST observed the events with only one beam, at low solar elevation angles and during high atmospheric attenuation. Therefore, because of these poor observing conditions at 212 GHz, only a fluxdensity range Δ F 212 could be estimated. The results show that Δ F 212 is within a factor of 2.5 of the fluxdensity F 210. This factor can be significantly reduced ( e.g. 1.4 for one of the studied events) by an appropriate choice of the 212 GHz source position using flare observations at other wavelengths. By adopting the position and size of the 210 GHz source measured by BEMRAK, the fluxdensity at 212 GHz, F 212b, is comparable to F 210 within the uncertainties, as expected. Therefore our findings indicate that even during poor observing conditions, the SST can provide an acceptable estimate of the fluxdensity at 212 GHz. This is a remarkable fact since the SST and BEMRAK use quite different procedures for calibration and fluxdensity determination. We also show that the necessary assumptions made on the size of the emitting source at 212 GHz in order to estimate its fluxdensity are not critical, and therefore do not affect the conclusions of previous studies at this frequency.

Initial results from GOSAT flux inversions of column-integrated carbon dioxide suggest a significant redistribution of surface fluxes compared to inversions using only surface-based inversions as an observational constraint. New evidence suggests that this redistribution of fluxes is a robust feature, and is related to the increased spatial density of the measurements made available by remote sensing. However GOSAT's rather large measurement footprint and sparse sampling still provide poor coverage over many areas of the globe, particularly regions characterized by consistent cloud cover, such as the tropics, and all passive near-infrared sensors suffer from a seasonal sampling bias due to limited sunlight during high latitude winter. As such, errors in the pattern of retrieved fluxes may still be significant. Active sensors based on lidar do not suffer from the same seasonal (or diurnal) sampling biases, and their exceptionally small instantaneous field of view (~150 m) promises to greatly improve the spatial coverage of the measurements over partially cloudy regions. Using the case of MERLIN, a planned joint French-German lidar mission designed to measure XCH4, the implications of this increased spatial coverage is considered in an inverse modelling framework, and compared to presently available measurement coverage from the surface-based network and GOSAT. The gain in knowledge about the absolute size of the regional methane fluxes, particularly in currently undersampled regions such as the Arctic permafrost zones and tropical wetlands, is quantified.

As capillaries exhibit heterogeneous and fluctuating dynamics even during baseline, a technique measuring red blood cell (RBC) speed and flux over many capillaries at the same time is needed. Here, we report that optical coherence tomography can capture individual RBC passage simultaneously over many capillaries located at different depths. Further, we demonstrate the ability to quantify RBC speed, flux, and linear density. This technique will provide a means to monitor microvascular flow dynamics over many capillaries at different depths at the same time. PMID:24022621

A radiometric method has been developed, suitable for both total power and fluxdensity profile measurement of concentrated solar radiation. The high-fluxdensity radiation is collected by a first optical cavity, integrated, and driven to a second optical cavity, where, attenuated, it is measured by a conventional radiometer operating under a stationary irradiation regime. The attenuation factor is regulated by properly selecting the aperture areas in the two cavities. The radiometer has been calibrated by a pulsed solar simulator at concentration levels of hundreds of suns. An optical model and a ray-tracing study have also been developed and validated, by which the potentialities of the radiometer have been largely explored. PMID:17415384

In this paper, we propose novel inversion methods to estimate defects or localized current anomalies in membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) in polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs). One method is an imaging approach with L1-norm regularization that is suitable for estimation of focal anomalies compared to Tikhonov regularization. The second is a complex analysis based method in which multiple pointwise current anomalies can be identified directly and algebraically from the measured magnetic fluxdensity.

We present first results from a LOFAR census of non-recycled pulsars. The census includes almost all such pulsars known (194 sources) at declinations Dec > 8° and Galactic latitudes |Gb| > 3°, regardless of their expected fluxdensities and scattering times. Each pulsar was observed for ≥20 min in the contiguous frequency range of 110-188 MHz. Full-Stokes data were recorded. We present the dispersion measures, fluxdensities, and calibrated total intensity profiles for the 158 pulsars detected in the sample. The median uncertainty in census dispersion measures (1.5 × 10-3 pc cm-3) is ten times smaller, on average, than in the ATNF pulsar catalogue. We combined census fluxdensities with those in the literature and fitted the resulting broadband spectra with single or broken power-law functions. For 48 census pulsars such fits are being published for the first time. Typically, thechoice between single and broken power-laws, as well as the location of the spectral break, were highly influenced by the spectral coverage of the available fluxdensitymeasurements. In particular, the inclusion of measurements below 100 MHz appears essential for investigating the low-frequency turnover in the spectra for most of the census pulsars. For several pulsars, we compared the spectral indices from different works and found the typical spread of values to be within 0.5-1.5, suggesting a prevailing underestimation of spectral index errors in the literature. The census observations yielded some unexpected individual source results, as we describe in the paper. Lastly, we will provide this unique sample of wide-band, low-frequency pulse profiles via the European Pulsar Network Database. Tables B.1-B.4 are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (ftp://130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/591/A134

Micrometeorological methods and ecosystem-scale energy and mass fluxdensitymeasurements have become increasingly important in soil, agricultural, and environmental sciences. For many scientists without formal training in atmospheric science, these techniques are relatively inaccessible. Eddy cov...

While natural spatial temperature gradients between measurement needles have been thoroughly investigated for continuous heat-based sap flow methods, little attention has been given to how natural changes in stem temperature impact heat pulse-based methods through temporal rather than spatial effects. By modelling the theoretical equation for both an ideal instantaneous pulse and a step pulse and applying a finite element model which included actual needle dimensions and wound effects, the influence of a varying stem temperature on heat pulse-based methods was investigated. It was shown that the heat ratio (HR) method was influenced, while for the compensation heat pulse and Tmax methods changes in stem temperatures of up to 0.002 °C s(-1) did not lead to significantly different results. For the HR method, rising stem temperatures during measurements led to lower heat pulse velocity values, while decreasing stem temperatures led to both higher and lower heat pulse velocities, and to imaginary results for high flows. These errors of up to 40% can easily be prevented by including a temperature correction in the data analysis procedure, calculating the slope of the natural temperature change based on the measured temperatures before application of the heat pulse. Results of a greenhouse and outdoor experiment on Pinus pinea L. show the influence of this correction on low and average sap fluxdensities. PMID:25145698

The energy flux transferred from a plasma to a surface is a key issue for materials processing (sputtering, etching). We present direct measurements made with a Heat Flux Microsensor (HFM) in an Ar plasma interacting with the surface of the sensor. The HFM is a thermopile of about one thousand metal couples mounted in parallel. An Inductively Coupled Plasma in Argon was used to make the experiments. Langmuir probe and tuneable laser diode absorption measurements were carried out to estimate the contribution of ions, neutrals (conduction) and metastables. In order to evaluate the ability of the HFM to measure the part due to chemical reactions, a Si surface in contact with the HFM was submitted to an SF6 plasma. The direct measurements are in good agreement with the estimation we made knowing the etch rate and the enthalpy of the reaction. Finally, tests were performed on a sputtering reactor. Additional energy flux provided by condensing atoms (Pt) was also measured.

Two luminaires were evaluated to determine the light fluxdensity pattern on a horizontal plane surface. NASA supplied both luminaires; one was made by NASA and the other is commercially available. Tests were made for three combinations of luminaire height and luminaire lens material using the NASA luminaire; only one configuration of the commercial luminaire was tested. Measurements were made using four sensors with different wavelength range capabilities. The data are presented in graphical and tabular formats.

This work proposes a new approach with which to measure the magnetic fluxdensity using the characteristics of magnetorheological fluid (MRF) that is integrated with a variable resistor. For convenience, it is called a magnetorheological fluid variable resistor (MRF-VR) system in this study. The mechanism of the MRF-VR is based on the interaction between ferromagnetic iron particles of the MRF due to an external magnetic field, which causes its electrical resistance to be field dependent. Using this salient principle, the proposed MRF-VR system is constructed with electrodes and MRF, and its performance is demonstrated by evaluating its electrical resistive characteristics such as dimensional influence, response time, hysteresis and frequency response. After evaluating the performance characteristics, a feedback control system with a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is established, and resistance-trajectory control experiments are carried out. Based on this MRF-VR system, a magnetic field-sensing system is constructed using a Wheatstone bridge circuit, and a polynomial model for calculating the magnetic fluxdensity is formulated from the measured voltage. Finally, the accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed sensing system associated with the empirical polynomial model is successfully verified by comparing the calculated values of magnetic fluxdensity with those measured by a commercial tesla meter.

As part of its efforts to determine environmental and phenological states from radar imagery, the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) Remote Sensing Science (RSS)-17 team collected in situ tree xylem flow measurements for one growing season on five Picea mariana (black spruce) trees. The data were collected to obtain information on the temporal and spatial variability in water uptake by trees in the Southern Study Area-Old Black Spruce (SSA-OBS) stand in the BOREAS SSA. Temporally, the data were collected in 30-minute intervals for 120 days from 31 May 1994 until 27 September 1994. The data are stored in tabular ASCII files. The xylem flux data are available from the Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC). The data files are available on a CD-ROM (see document number 20010000884).

We infer dynamical masses in eight multiplanet systems using transit times measured from Kepler's complete data set, including short-cadence data where available. Of the 18 dynamical masses that we infer, 10 pass multiple tests for robustness. These are in systems Kepler-26 (KOI-250), Kepler-29 (KOI-738), Kepler-60 (KOI-2086), Kepler-105 (KOI-115), and Kepler-307 (KOI-1576). Kepler-105 c has a radius of 1.3 R⊕ and a density consistent with an Earth-like composition. Strong transit timing variation (TTV) signals were detected from additional planets, but their inferred masses were sensitive to outliers or consistent solutions could not be found with independently measured transit times, including planets orbiting Kepler-49 (KOI-248), Kepler-57 (KOI-1270), Kepler-105 (KOI-115), and Kepler-177 (KOI-523). Nonetheless, strong upper limits on the mass of Kepler-177 c imply an extremely low density of ˜0.1 g cm-3. In most cases, individual orbital eccentricities were poorly constrained owing to degeneracies in TTV inversion. For five planet pairs in our sample, strong secular interactions imply a moderate to high likelihood of apsidal alignment over a wide range of possible eccentricities. We also find solutions for the three planets known to orbit Kepler-60 in a Laplace-like resonance chain. However, nonlibrating solutions also match the transit timing data. For six systems, we calculate more precise stellar parameters than previously known, enabling useful constraints on planetary densities where we have secure mass measurements. Placing these exoplanets on the mass-radius diagram, we find that a wide range of densities is observed among sub-Neptune-mass planets and that the range in observed densities is anticorrelated with incident flux.

A study was performed on the use of geometric shape factors to estimate earth-emitted fluxdensities from radiation measurements with wide field-of-view flat-plate radiometers on satellites. Sets of simulated irradiance measurements were computed for unrestricted and restricted field-of-view detectors. In these simulations, the earth radiation field was modeled using data from Nimbus 2 and 3. Geometric shape factors were derived and applied to these data to estimate fluxdensities on global and zonal scales. For measurements at a satellite altitude of 600 km, estimates of zonal fluxdensity were in error 1.0 to 1.2%, and global fluxdensity errors were less than 0.2%. Estimates with unrestricted field-of-view detectors were about the same for Lambertian and non-Lambertian radiation models, but were affected by satellite altitude. The opposite was found for the restricted field-of-view detectors.

A variety of thermal approaches are used to estimate sap fluxdensity in stems of woody plants. Models have proven valuable tools for interpreting the behavior of heat pulse, heat balance, and heat field deformation techniques, but have seldom been used to describe heat transfer dynamics for the heat dissipation method. Therefore, to better understand the behavior of heat dissipation probes, a model was developed that takes into account the thermal properties of wood, the physical dimensions and thermal characteristics of the probes, and the conductive and convective heat transfer that occurs due to water flow in the sapwood. Probes were simulated as aluminum tubes 20 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter, whereas sapwood, heartwood, and bark each had a density and water fraction that determined their thermal properties. Base simulations assumed a constant sap fluxdensity with sapwood depth and no wounding or physical disruption of xylem beyond the 2 mm diameter hole drilled for probe installation. Simulations across a range of sap fluxdensities showed that the dimensionless quantity k defined as ( Tm T)/ T where Tm is the temperature differential ( T) between the heated and unheated probe under zero flow conditions was dependent on the thermal conductivity of the sapwood. The relationship between sap fluxdensity and k was also sensitive to radial gradients in sap fluxdensity and to xylem disruption near the probe. Monte Carlo analysis in which 1000 simulations were conducted while simultaneously varying thermal conductivity and wound diameter revealed that sap fluxdensity and k showed considerable departure from the original calibration equation used with this technique. The departure was greatest for abrupt patterns of radial variation typical of ring-porous species. Depending on the specific combination of thermal conductivity and wound diameter, use of the original calibration equation resulted in an 81% under- to 48% over-estimation of sap fluxdensity at

In 1991, the USAF Phillips Laboratory Microelectronics and Photonics Research Branch installed a low energy x-ray facility (LEXR) for use in microelectronics radiation-effects analysis and research. Techniques developed for measuring the x-ray spectral energy distribution (differential intensity) from a tungsten-target bremsstrahlung x-ray source are reported. Spectra with end-point energies ranging from 20 to 160 keV were recorded. A separate effort to calibrate the dosimetry for the Phillips Laboratory low-energy x-ray facility established a need to know the spectral energy distributions at some point within the facility (previous calibration efforts had relies on spectra obtained from computer simulations). It was discovered that the primary discrepancy between the simulated and measured spectra was in the L- K-line data. The associated intensity (energy fluxdensity) of the measured distributions was found to be up to 30% higher. Based on the measured distributions, predicted device responses were within 10% of the measured response as compared to about 30% accuracy obtained with simulated distributions.

VLA C array configuration observations at 2 and 6 cm are presented for Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto at eastern and western elongations with respect to Jupiter, which allowed measurements in right ascension and declination of the satellites with an rms precision of about + or - 0.03 arcsec. The transfer of the mean offsets of Ganymede to Jupiter yields offsets of -0.185 + or - 0.03 arcsec and -0.06 + or - 0.03 arcsec, with respect to JPL-DE-200, at the mean epoch of April 28, 1983; the large offset in right ascension is a combination of the Jupiter ephemeris error and the error in the frame tie of the Jovian planets with the VLBI system of precise positions which was used as the absolute reference frame for the observations. A significant error is noted in the orbital position of Callisto with respect to Ganymede. 12 references.

A compact and high-particle-flux thermal-lithium-beam source for two-dimensional measurement of electron density profiles has been developed. The thermal-lithium-beam oven is heated by a carbon heater. In this system, the maximum particle flux of the thermal lithium beam was ∼4 × 10{sup 19} m{sup −2} s{sup −1} when the temperature of the thermal-lithium-beam oven was 900 K. The electron density profile was evaluated in the small tokamak device HYBTOK-II. The electron density profile was reconstructed using the thermal-lithium-beam probe data and this profile was consistent with the electron density profile measured with a Langmuir electrostatic probe. We confirm that the developed thermal-lithium-beam probe can be used to measure the two-dimensional electron density profile with high time and spatial resolutions.

β -PdBi2 (Tcmax = 5 . 4 K) is a newcomer of the multiple-band superconductors, revealed by the specific heat and the upper critical field measurements, and the angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. In addition, authors of ref. observed the spin-polarized band dispersion and proposed that β-PdBi2 is a candidate of topological superconductor. However, there is less information on superconducting properties so far. In order to clarify the superconducting gap function, we measured the temperature (T) and magnetic field (B) dependence of microwave complex conductivity of β-PdBi2 single crystals. We found that the superfluid density exhibits the thermally activated T dependence, manifesting the absence of nodes in the superconducting gaps. We also found that the flux-flow resistivity increased with B with downward-convex shape. Based on some theories, we considered that such a behavior originated from the backflow of supercurrents around vortices reflecting rather small Ginzburg-Landau parameter (κ ~= 5). This work was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Numbers 15K17697 and 26-9315), and the JSPS Research Fellowship for Young Scientists.

A new automated, computer controlled heat fluxmeasurement facility is described. Continuous transient and steady-state surface heat flux values varying from about 0.3 to 6 MW/sq m over a temperature range of 100 to 1200 K can be obtained in the facility. An application of this facility is the development of heat flux gauges for continuous fast transient surface heat fluxmeasurement on turbine blades operating in space shuttle main engine turbopumps. The facility is useful for durability testing at fast temperature transients.

Advanced micrometeorological methods have become increasingly important in soil, crop, and environmental sciences. For many scientists without formal training in atmospheric science, these techniques are relatively inaccessible. Surface renewal and other fluxmeasurement methods require an understanding of boundary layer meteorology and extensive training in instrumentation and multiple data management programs. To improve accessibility of these techniques, we describe the underlying theory of surface renewal measurements, demonstrate how to set up a field station for surface renewal with eddy covariance calibration, and utilize our open-source turnkey data logger program to perform flux data acquisition and processing. The new turnkey program returns to the user a simple data table with the corrected fluxes and quality control parameters, and eliminates the need for researchers to shuttle between multiple processing programs to obtain the final flux data. An example of data generated from these measurements demonstrates how crop water use is measured with this technique. The output information is useful to growers for making irrigation decisions in a variety of agricultural ecosystems. These stations are currently deployed in numerous field experiments by researchers in our group and the California Department of Water Resources in the following crops: rice, wine and raisin grape vineyards, alfalfa, almond, walnut, peach, lemon, avocado, and corn. PMID:24378712

Advanced micrometeorological methods have become increasingly important in soil, crop, and environmental sciences. For many scientists without formal training in atmospheric science, these techniques are relatively inaccessible. Surface renewal and other fluxmeasurement methods require an understanding of boundary layer meteorology and extensive training in instrumentation and multiple data management programs. To improve accessibility of these techniques, we describe the underlying theory of surface renewal measurements, demonstrate how to set up a field station for surface renewal with eddy covariance calibration, and utilize our open-source turnkey data logger program to perform flux data acquisition and processing. The new turnkey program returns to the user a simple data table with the corrected fluxes and quality control parameters, and eliminates the need for researchers to shuttle between multiple processing programs to obtain the final flux data. An example of data generated from these measurements demonstrates how crop water use is measured with this technique. The output information is useful to growers for making irrigation decisions in a variety of agricultural ecosystems. These stations are currently deployed in numerous field experiments by researchers in our group and the California Department of Water Resources in the following crops: rice, wine and raisin grape vineyards, alfalfa, almond, walnut, peach, lemon, avocado, and corn. PMID:24378712

Several experiments in fundamental physics demand an environment of very low, homogeneous, and stable magnetic fields. For the magnetic characterization of such environments, we present a portable SQUID system that measures the absolute magnetic fluxdensity vector and the gradient tensor. This vector-tensor system contains 13 integrated low-critical temperature (LTc) superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) inside a small cylindrical liquid helium Dewar with a height of 31 cm and 37 cm in diameter. The achievable resolution depends on the fluxdensity of the field under investigation and its temporal drift. Inside a seven-layer mu-metal shield, an accuracy better than ±23 pT for the components of the static magnetic field vector and ±2 pT/cm for each of the nine components of the gradient tensor is reached by using the shifting method.

The Southern Great Plains (SGP) carbon dioxide flux (CO2 flux) measurement systems provide half-hour average fluxes of CO2, H2O (latent heat), and sensible heat. The fluxes are obtained by the eddy covariance technique, which computes the flux as the mean product of the vertical wind component with CO2 and H2O densities, or estimated virtual temperature. A three-dimensional sonic anemometer is used to obtain the orthogonal wind components and the virtual (sonic) temperature. An infrared gas analyzer is used to obtain the CO2 and H2O densities. A separate sub-system also collects half-hour average measures of meteorological and soil variables from separate 4-m towers.

Geometric shape factors were computed and applied to satellite simulated irradiance measurements to estimate Earth emitted fluxdensities for global and zonal scales and for areas smaller than the detector field of view (FOV). Wide field of view flat plate detectors were emphasized, but spherical detectors were also studied. The radiation field was modeled after data from the Nimbus 2 and 3 satellites. At a satellite altitude of 600 km, zonal estimates were in error 1.0 to 1.2 percent and global estimates were in error less than 0.2 percent. Estimates with unrestricted field of view (UFOV) detectors were about the same for Lambertian and limb darkening radiation models. The opposite was found for restricted field of view detectors. The UFOV detectors are found to be poor estimators of fluxdensity from the total FOV and are shown to be much better as estimators of fluxdensity from a circle centered at the FOV with an area significantly smaller than that for the total FOV.

The eddy correlation (ECOR) fluxmeasurement system provides in situ, half-hour measurements of the surface turbulent fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, latent heat, and carbon dioxide (CO2) (and methane at one Southern Great Plains extended facility (SGP EF) and the North Slope of Alaska Central Facility (NSA CF). The fluxes are obtained with the eddy covariance technique, which involves correlation of the vertical wind component with the horizontal wind component, the air temperature, the water vapor density, and the CO2 concentration.

Two stations (site 1612 and site 2008) were operated by the University of Georgia group from 6 July 1991 to 18 August 1991. The following data were collected continuously: surface energy fluxes (i.e., net radiation, soil heat fluxes, sensible heat flux and latent heat flux), air temperature, vapor pressure, soil temperature (at 1 cm depth), and precipitation. Canopy reflectance and light interception data were taken three times at each site between 6 July and 18 August. Soil moisture content was measured twice at each site.

We studied the magnetic fluxdensity carried by solar wind to various locations in the heliosphere, covering a heliospheric distance range of 0.3-5.4 AU and a heliolatitudinal range from 80° south to 80° north. Distributions of the radial component of the magnetic field, BR , were determined over long intervals from the Helios, ACE, STEREO, and Ulysses missions, as well as from using the 1 AU OMNI data set. We show that at larger distances from the Sun, the fluctuations of the magnetic field around the average Parker field line distort the distribution of BR to such an extent that the determination of the unsigned, open solar magnetic fluxdensity from the average lang|BR |rang is no longer justified. We analyze in detail two methods for reducing the effect of fluctuations. The two methods are tested using magnetic field and plasma velocity measurements in the OMNI database and in the Ulysses observations, normalized to 1 AU. It is shown that without such corrections for the fluctuations, the magnetic fluxdensitymeasured by Ulysses around the aphelion phase of the orbit is significantly overestimated. However, the matching between the in-ecliptic magnetic fluxdensity at 1 AU (OMNI data) and the off-ecliptic, more distant, normalized fluxdensity by Ulysses is remarkably good if corrections are made for the fluctuations using either method. The main finding of the analysis is that the magnetic fluxdensity in the heliosphere is fairly uniform, with no significant variations having been observed either in heliocentric distance or heliographic latitude.

We studied the magnetic fluxdensity carried by solar wind to various locations in the heliosphere, covering a heliospheric distance range of 0.3-5.4 AU and a heliolatitudinal range from 80° south to 80° north. Distributions of the radial component of the magnetic field, B{sub R} , were determined over long intervals from the Helios, ACE, STEREO, and Ulysses missions, as well as from using the 1 AU OMNI data set. We show that at larger distances from the Sun, the fluctuations of the magnetic field around the average Parker field line distort the distribution of B{sub R} to such an extent that the determination of the unsigned, open solar magnetic fluxdensity from the average (|B{sub R} |) is no longer justified. We analyze in detail two methods for reducing the effect of fluctuations. The two methods are tested using magnetic field and plasma velocity measurements in the OMNI database and in the Ulysses observations, normalized to 1 AU. It is shown that without such corrections for the fluctuations, the magnetic fluxdensitymeasured by Ulysses around the aphelion phase of the orbit is significantly overestimated. However, the matching between the in-ecliptic magnetic fluxdensity at 1 AU (OMNI data) and the off-ecliptic, more distant, normalized fluxdensity by Ulysses is remarkably good if corrections are made for the fluctuations using either method. The main finding of the analysis is that the magnetic fluxdensity in the heliosphere is fairly uniform, with no significant variations having been observed either in heliocentric distance or heliographic latitude.

... 47 Telecommunication 2 2010-10-01 2010-10-01 false Power fluxdensity limits. 25.208 Section 25... COMMUNICATIONS Technical Standards § 25.208 Power fluxdensity limits. (a) In the band 3650-4200 MHz, the power fluxdensity at the Earth's surface produced by emissions from a space station for all conditions...

Determination of energy transport is crucial for understanding the energy budget and fluid circulation in density varying fluids such as the ocean and the atmosphere. However, it is rarely possible to determine the energy flux field J =p u , which requires simultaneous measurements of the pressure and velocity perturbation fields p and u , respectively. We present a method for obtaining the instantaneous J (x ,z ,t ) from density perturbations alone: A Green's function-based calculation yields p ; u is obtained by integrating the continuity equation and the incompressibility condition. We validate our method with results from Navier-Stokes simulations: The Green's function method is applied to the density perturbation field from the simulations and the result for J is found to agree typically to within 1% with J computed directly using p and u from the Navier-Stokes simulation. We also apply the Green's function method to density perturbation data from laboratory schlieren measurements of internal waves in a stratified fluid and the result for J agrees to within 6 % with results from Navier-Stokes simulations. Our method for determining the instantaneous velocity, pressure, and energy flux fields applies to any system described by a linear approximation of the density perturbation field, e.g., to small-amplitude lee waves and propagating vertical modes. The method can be applied using our matlab graphical user interface EnergyFlux.

The eddy correlation (ECOR) fluxmeasurement system provides in situ, half-hour measurements of the surface turbulent fluxes of momentum, sensible heat, latent heat, and carbon dioxide (CO2) (and methane at one Southern Great Plains extended facility (SGP EF) and the North Slope of Alaska Central Facility (NSA CF). The fluxes are obtained with the eddy covariance technique, which involves correlation of the vertical wind component with the horizontal wind component, the air temperature, the water vapor density, and the CO2 concentration. The instruments used are: • a fast-response, three-dimensional (3D) wind sensor (sonic anemometer) to obtain the orthogonal wind components and the speed of sound (SOS) (used to derive the air temperature) • an open-path infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) to obtain the water vapor density and the CO2 concentration, and • an open-path infrared gas analyzer (IRGA) to obtain methane density and methane flux at one SGP EF and at the NSA CF. The ECOR systems are deployed at the locations where other methods for surface fluxmeasurements (e.g., energy balance Bowen ratio [EBBR] systems) are difficult to employ, primarily at the north edge of a field of crops. A Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) has been installed collocated with each deployed ECOR system in SGP, NSA, Tropical Western Pacific (TWP), ARM Mobile Facility 1 (AMF1), and ARM Mobile Facility 2 (AMF2). The surface energy balance system consists of upwelling and downwelling solar and infrared radiometers within one net radiometer, a wetness sensor, and soil measurements. The SEBS measurements allow the comparison of ECOR sensible and latent heat fluxes with the energy balance determined from the SEBS and provide information on wetting of the sensors for data quality purposes. The SEBS at one SGP and one NSA site also support upwelling and downwelling PAR measurements to qualify those two locations as Ameriflux sites.

A new airborne radiometric system with a time resolution as high as 60 msec has been designed for measuring radiative fluxes in the atmosphere. To verify the instrument performance, the solar constant at the top of the atmosphere has been calculated using the radiative fluxdensitiesmeasured in the troposphere, and the result obtained has been found to agree with the standard value to within 4%. Total heating rates of 0.175 and 0.377 K/h have been determined for hazy and foggy atmospheres, respectively, and aerosol heating rates of 0.065 and 0.235 K/h have been deduced from the total heating rates.

Various methods and devices for obtaining experimental data on heat fluxdensity over wide ranges of temperature and pressure are examined. Laboratory tests and device fabrication details are supplemented by theoretical analyses of heat-conduction and thermoelectric effects, providing design guidelines and information relevant to further research and development. A theory defining the measure of correspondence between transducer signal and the measured heat flux is established for individual (isolated) heat flux transducers subject to space and time-dependent loading. An analysis of the properties of stacked (series-connected) transducers of various types (sandwich-type, plane, and spiral) is used to derive a similarity theory providing general governing relationships. The transducers examined are used in 36 types of derivative devices involving direct heat loss measurements, heat conduction studies, radiation pyrometry, calorimetry in medicine and industry and nuclear reactor dosimetry.

The solution of the forward equation that models the transport of light through a highly scattering tissue material in diffuse optical tomography (DOT) using the finite element method gives fluxdensity (Φ) at the nodal points of the mesh. The experimentally measuredflux (U) on the boundary over a finite surface area in a DOT system has to be corrected to account for the system transfer functions (R) of various building blocks of the measurement system. We present two methods to compensate for the perturbations caused by R and estimate true fluxdensity (Φ) from Umeasuredcal. In the first approach, the measurement data with a homogeneous phantom (Umeasuredhomo) is used to calibrate the measurement system. The second scheme estimates the homogeneous phantom measurement using only the measurement from a heterogeneous phantom, thereby eliminating the necessity of a homogeneous phantom. This is done by statistically averaging the data (Umeasuredhetero) and redistributing it to the corresponding detector positions. The experiments carried out on tissue mimicking phantom with single and multiple inhomogeneities, human hand, and a pork tissue phantom demonstrate the robustness of the approach.

Blazars are strong -ray emitters, the -ray emissions are likely strongly beamed, therefore, one should use the intrinsic (de-beamed) emissions to investigate its emission nature. In this work, we compiled a sample of Fermi blazars with available beaming Doppler factors, , to investigate the correlation between -ray fluxdensity, , and redshift, . The analysis shows that there is no correlation between and for the observed -ray fluxdensity, but there is a clear strong correlation between the intrinsic fluxdensities, and . We also discussed the relationship of -ray luminosity and short time scale for the observed data and the intrinsic data. Our analysis suggests that the intrinsic -ray fluxdensity obeys the fluxdensity and redshift relation, and the jet in -rays maybe a continuous case. The intrinsic luminosity and the short time scales obey the Elliot and Shapiro relation and Abramowicz and Nobili relation as well.

The fluxdensity structure functions of PSRs B0525+21 and B2111+46 are calculated with the refractive interstellar scintillation (RISS) theory. The theoretical curves are in good agreement with observations [Astrophys. J. 539 (2000) 300] (hereafter S2000). The spectra of the electron density fluctuations both are of Kolmogorov spectra. We suggest that the fluxdensity variations observed for these two pulsars are attributed to refractive interstellar scintillation, not to intrinsic variability.

The surface energy balance includes a term for soil heat flux. Soil heat flux is difficult to measure because it includes conduction and convection heat transfer processes. Accurate representation of soil heat flux is an important consideration in many modeling and measurement applications. Yet, the...

A flux of neutrons is measured by disposing a detector in the flux and applying electronic correlation techniques to discriminate between the electrical signals generated by the neutron detector and the unwanted interfering electrical signals generated by the incidence of a neutron flux upon the cables connecting the detector to the electronic measuring equipment at a remote location.

We develop an absolute fluxdensity scale for centimeter-wavelength astronomy by combining accurate fluxdensity ratios determined by the Very Large Array between the planet Mars and a set of potential calibrators with the Rudy thermophysical emission model of Mars, adjusted to the absolute scale established by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. The radio sources 3C123, 3C196, 3C286, and 3C295 are found to be varying at a level of less than {approx}5% per century at all frequencies between 1 and 50 GHz, and hence are suitable as fluxdensity standards. We present polynomial expressions for their spectral fluxdensities, valid from 1 to 50 GHz, with absolute accuracy estimated at 1%-3% depending on frequency. Of the four sources, 3C286 is the most compact and has the flattest spectral index, making it the most suitable object on which to establish the spectral fluxdensity scale. The sources 3C48, 3C138, 3C147, NGC 7027, NGC 6542, and MWC 349 show significant variability on various timescales. Polynomial coefficients for the spectral fluxdensity are developed for 3C48, 3C138, and 3C147 for each of the 17 observation dates, spanning 1983-2012. The planets Venus, Uranus, and Neptune are included in our observations, and we derive their brightness temperatures over the same frequency range.

Flux magnification is an interesting complement to shear-based lensing measurements, especially at high redshift where sources are harder to resolve. One measures either changes in the source density (magnification bias) or in the shape of the flux distribution (e.g. magnitude shift). The interpretation of these measurements relies on theoretical estimates of how the observables change under magnification. Here, we present simulations to create multiband photometric mock catalogues of Lyman-break galaxies in a CFHTLenS (Canada France Hawaii Telescope Lensing Survey)-like survey that include several observational effects that can change these relations, making simple theoretical estimates unusable. In particular, we show how the magnification bias can be affected by photometric noise, colour selection, and dust extinction. We find that a simple measurement of the slope of the number-counts is not sufficient for the precise interpretation of virtually all observations of magnification bias. We also explore how sensitive the shift in the mean magnitude of a source sample in different photometric bands is to magnification including the same observational effects. Again we find significant deviations from simple analytical estimates. We also discover a wavelength-dependence of the magnitude-shift effect when applied to a colour-selected noisy source sample. Such an effect can mimic the reddening by dust in the lens. It has to be disentangled from the dust extinction before the magnitude shift/colour-excess can be used to measure the distribution of either dark matter or extragalactic dust. Using simulations like the ones presented here these observational effects can be studied and eventually removed from observations making precise measurements of flux magnification possible.

CO2 storage in a 30-minute period in a tall forest canopy often makes significant contributions to net ecosystem exchange (NEE) in the early morning and at night. When CO2 storage is properly measured and taken into account, underestimations of NEE on calm nights can be greatly reduced. Using CO2 data from a 12-level profile, we demonstrate that the lower canopy layer (below the thermal inversion) is a disproportional contributor to the total CO2 storage. This is because time derivative of CO2 density ( c/ t) generally shows increasing magnitude of mean and standard deviation with decreasing heights at night and from sunrise to 1000 hr in both growing and dormant seasons. Effects of resolution and configuration in a profiling system on the accuracy of CO2 storage estimation are evaluated by comparing subset profiles to the 12-level benchmark profile. It is demonstrated that the effectiveness of a profiling system in estimating CO2 storage is not only determined by its number of sampling levels but, more importantly, by its vertical configuration. To optimize a profile, one needs to balance the influence of two factors, c/ t and layer thickness, among all vertical sections within a forest. As a key contributor to the total CO2 storage, the lower canopy (with relatively large means and standard deviations of c/ t) requires a higher resolution in a profile system than the layers above. However, if the upper canopy is over-sparsely sampled relative to the lower canopy, the performance of a profile system might be degraded since, in such a situation, the influence of layer thickness dominates over that of c/ t. We also find that, because of different level of complexity in canopy structure, more sampling levels are necessary at our site in order to achieve the same level of accuracy as at a boreal aspen site. These results suggest that, in order to achieve an adequate accuracy in CO2 storage measurements, the number of sampling levels in a profile and its design should

In the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, the electronic wave function is typically real-valued and hence the electronic fluxdensity (current density) seems to vanish. This is unfortunate for chemistry, because it precludes the possibility to monitor the electronic motion associated with the nuclear motion during chemical rearrangements from a Born-Oppenheimer simulation of the process. We study an electronic fluxdensity obtained from a correction to the electronic wave function. This correction is derived via nuclear velocity perturbation theory applied in the framework of the exact factorization of electrons and nuclei. To compute the correction, only the ground state potential energy surface and the electronic wave function are needed. For a model system, we demonstrate that this electronic fluxdensity approximates the true one very well, for coherent tunneling dynamics as well as for over-the-barrier scattering, and already for mass ratios between electrons and nuclei that are much larger than the true mass ratios. PMID:26878256

Correlated fluxdensities of extragalactic radio sources in the very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) astrometric catalog are required for the VLBI tracking of Galileo, Mars Observer, and future missions. A system to produce correlated and total fluxdensity catalogs was developed to meet these requirements. A correlated fluxdensity catalog of 274 sources, accurate to about 20 percent, was derived from more than 5000 DSN VLBI observations at 2.3 GHz (S-band) and 8.4 GHz (X-band) using 43 VLBI radio reference frame experiments during the period 1989-1992. Various consistency checks were carried out to ensure the accuracy of the correlated fluxdensities. All observations were made on the California-Spain and California-Australia DSN baselines using the Mark 3 wideband data acquisition system. A total fluxdensity catalog, accurate to about 20 percent, with data on 150 sources, was also created. Together, these catalogs can be used to predict source strengths to assist in the scheduling of VLBI tracking passes. In addition, for those sources with sufficient observations, a rough estimate of source structure parameters can be made.

Experiments that measure neutrino interaction cross sections using accelerator neutrino sources require a prediction of the neutrino flux to extract the interaction cross section from the measured neutrino interaction rate. This article summarizes methods of estimating the neutrino flux using in-situ and ex-situ measurements. The application of these methods by current and recent experiments is discussed.

The authors present a method of recovering the thermal flux acting on a sensing element with respect to measurements of sensing element signals. The solution of such problems is prompted by the need for information on the actual values of the energy density entering parts of various power plants. The dynamics of temperatures at the sensing element surfaces in a thermal flux data unit is shown during start up from cold of a power plant. The variation in time of the thermal fluxdensity is also shown as calculated by the proposed method.

Data from a land-use study of small- and medium-sized towns in New Zealand are used to ascertain the relationship between official and effective densitymeasures. It was found that the reliability of official measures of density is very low overall, although reliability increases with community size. (Author/RLV)

Fatigue failure of steel occurs when small cracks form in a component and then continue to grow to a size large enough to cause failure. In order to understand the strength of steel components it is important to find the cracks which eventually grow to cause failures. However, at present, it is not easy to distinguish, in the early stages of growth, the cracks which will grow fast and cause failure. We hypothesized that it may be possible to distinguish them by comparing changes in the magnetic fluxdensity around the tips of those cracks that grew large enough to cause failure. In order to measure these changes in magnetic fluxdensity, we developed a scanning Hall probe microscope and observed the fatigue cracks growing from artificial slits in carbon tool steels (JIS SKS93). We also compared the changes in magnetic fluxdensity around crack tips which grew under different loads and found that there is a strong correlation between the magnetic fluxdensity, crack growth and stress intensity factors. In order to understand this relation, we measured the changes in the magnetic fluxdensity and residual tensile stress by using an X-ray system, and found that the magnetic fluxdensity changes not only in the plastic deformation area but also in the area of elastic stress field with increased stress.

Fatigue failure of steel occurs when small cracks form in a component and then continue to grow to a size large enough to cause failure. In order to understand the strength of steel components it is important to find the cracks which eventually grow to cause failures. However, at present, it is not easy to distinguish, in the early stages of growth, the cracks which will grow fast and cause failure. We hypothesized that it may be possible to distinguish them by comparing changes in the magnetic fluxdensity around the tips of those cracks that grew large enough to cause failure. In order to measure these changes in magnetic fluxdensity, we developed a scanning Hall probe microscope and observed the fatigue cracks growing from artificial slits in carbon tool steels (JIS SKS93). We also compared the changes in magnetic fluxdensity around crack tips which grew under different loads and found that there is a strong correlation between the magnetic fluxdensity, crack growth and stress intensity factors. In order to understand this relation, we measured the changes in the magnetic fluxdensity and residual tensile stress by using an X-ray system, and found that the magnetic fluxdensity changes not only in the plastic deformation area but also in the area of elastic stress field with increased stress.

A gauge for measuring heat flux, especially heat flux encountered in a high temperature environment, is provided. The gauge includes at least one thermocouple and an anisotropic pyrolytic graphite body that covers at least part of, and optionally encases the thermocouple. Heat flux is incident on the anisotropic pyrolytic graphite body by arranging the gauge so that the gauge surface on which convective and radiative fluxes are incident is perpendicular to the basal planes of the pyrolytic graphite. The conductivity of the pyrolytic graphite permits energy, transferred into the pyrolytic graphite body in the form of heat flux on the incident (or facing) surface, to be quickly distributed through the entire pyrolytic graphite body, resulting in small substantially instantaneous temperature gradients. Temperature changes to the body can thereby be measured by the thermocouple, and reduced to quantify the heat flux incident to the body.

Plume monitoring frequently relies on the evaluation of point-scale measurements of concentration at observation wells which are located at control planes or `fences' perpendicular to groundwater flow. Depth-specific concentration values are used to estimate the total mass flux of individual contaminants through the fence. Results of this approach, which is based on spatial interpolation, obviously depend on the density of the measurement points. Our contribution relates the accurracy of mass flux estimation to the point density and, in particular, allows to identify a minimum point density needed to achieve a specified accurracy. In order to establish this relationship, concentration data from fences installed in the coal tar creosote plume at the Borden site are used. These fences are characterized by a rather high density of about 7 points/m2 and it is reasonable to assume that the true mass flux is obtained with this point density. This mass flux is then compared with results for less dense grids down to about 0.1points/m2. Mass flux estimates obtained for this range of point densities are analyzed by the moving window method in order to reduce purely random fluctuations. For each position of the moving window the mass flux is estimated and the coefficient of variation (CV) is calculated to quantify variablity of the results. Thus, the CV provides a relative measure of accurracy in the estimated fluxes. By applying this approach to the Borden naphthalene plume at different times, it is found that the point density changes from sufficient to insufficient due to the temporally decreasing mass flux. By comparing the results of naphthalene and phenol at the same fence and at the same time, we can see that the same grid density might be sufficient for one compound but not for another. If a rather strict CV criterion of 5% is used, a grid of 7 points/m2 is shown to allow for reliable estimates of the true mass fluxes only in the beginning of plume development when

Measurements of diamagnetic flux in Aditya tokamak for different discharge conditions are reported for the first time. The measured diamagnetic flux in a typical discharge is less than 0.6 mWb and therefore it has required careful compensation for various kinds of pick-ups. The hardware and software compensations employed in this measurement are described. We introduce compensation of a pick-up due to plasma current of less than 20 kA in short duration discharges, in which plasma pressure gradient is supposed to be negligible. The fluxmeasurement during radio frequency heating is also presented in order to validate compensation.

Plant sensitivity to extended photoperiod has been well documented, with little attention to the possibility that quantum fluxdensity used to extend photoperiod has an influence on the expression of photoperiod response. This study was undertaken with 4 grass species under field conditions to exami...

Estimates of the location and extension of the upwind ground area that affects flux observations most directly are examined to determine the reliability of airborne versus near-ground fluxmeasurements. The theoretical issues regarding the 'footprint' are examined, and specific observations are analyzed by studying the data over a grid regarding sensible heat, latent heat, CO2, and greenness. The grid is footprint-corrected to correlate better with independently observed surface characteristics, and an optimized footprint is developed that satisfies the relationships between the observed variables. Optimized mapping of the surface flux is given which demonstrates the importance of considering local advection to correlate airborne and ground-based flux observations. The technique is particularly applicable to situations in which significant variations in the surface fluxdensity exist.

Measurement system evaluates the integrated bone density over a specific cross section of bone. A digital computer converts stored bone scan data to equivalent aluminum calibration wedge thickness, and bone density is then integrated along the scan by using the trapezoidal approximation integration formula.

The knowledge of the subsurface properties is essentially obtained by geophysical methods, e.g. seismic imaging, electric prospection or gravimetry. The present work develops a recent method to investigate the in situ density of rocks using atmospheric the muon fluxmeasurement , its attenuation depending on the rock density and thickness. This new geophysical technique have been mainly applied in volcanology (Lesparre N., 2011) using scintillator detectors. The present project (T2DM2) aims to realize underground muons fluxmeasurements in order to characterizing the rock massif density variations above the LSBB underground research facility in Rustrel (France). The muon flux will be measure with a new Muon telescope instrumentation using Micromegas detectors in Time Projection Chambers (TPC) configuration. The first step of the work presented considers the muon flux simulation using the Gaisser model, for the interactions between muons and atmospheric particles, and the MUSIC code (Kudryavtsev V. A., 2008) for the muons/rock interactions. The results show that the muon flux attenuation caused by density variations are enough significant to be observed until around 500 m depth and for period of time in the order of one month. Such a duration scale and depth of investigation is compatible with the duration of the water transfer processes involved within the Karst unsaturated zone where LSBB is located. Our work now concentrates on the optimization of the spatial distribution of detectors that will be deployed in future.

The functional dependence of the critical current density on magnetic field, J(H), observed at fixed temperatures in the unconventional type-II superconductor, LaAgMn ( c=0.1,0.2,0.3) alloys, but not the relative magnitude of J in different alloy compositions at any given temperature and field, is adequately described by the exponential-decay critical state model. In accordance with the predictions of the Kramer's flux-pinning model, the peak value of the pinning force density FPmax∝( with the exponent 1.7⩽m⩽2.8 and F/FPmax scales with h=H/Hc_2, where Hc_2 is the upper critical field. Irrespective of sample composition and temperature in the superconducting state, the pinning of the flux line lattice (FLL) dominates over the plastic FLL shear.

A precise knowledge of ionization at given temperature and density is crucial in order to properly model compressibility and heat capacity of ICF ablator materials for efficient implosions producing energy gain. Here, we present a new experimental platform to perform spectrally resolved x-ray scattering measurements of ionization, density and temperature in imploding CH or beryllium capsules on the National Ignition Facility. Recording scattered x-rays at 9 keV from a zinc He-alpha plasma source at a scattering angle of 120 degrees, first experiments show strong sensitivity to k-shell ionization, while at the same time constraining density and temperature. This platform will allow for x-ray Thomson scattering studies of dense plasmas with free electron densities up to 1025 cm-3, giving the possibility to investigate effects of continuum lowering and Pauli blocking on the ablator ionization state right before stagnation of the implosion.

Metabolic flux is a fundamental property of living organisms. In recent years, methods for measuring metabolic flux in plants on a network scale have evolved further. One major challenge in studying flux in plants is the complexity of the plant's metabolism. In particular, in the presence of parallel pathways in multiple cellular compartments, the core of plant central metabolism constitutes a complex network. Hence, a common problem with the reliability of the contemporary results of {sup 13}C-Metabolic Flux Analysis in plants is the substantial reduction in complexity that must be included in the simulated networks; this omission partly is due to limitations in computational simulations. Here, I discuss recent emerging strategies that will better address these shortcomings.

Soil energy is an important parameter in order to understand the flux of energy between the plant and the soil. This parameter could determine the potential for future production of soil. Pattern of surface energy flux varies depending on several factors, mainly on coverage. Also, this behaviour is strongly conditioned by the physical condition of soil. In order to evaluate the trend and behaviour of soil energy depending on soil coverage the aim of the present study was to evaluate soil heat fluxdensity (G) in three different soil conditions depending on seasonal weather temperatures. Therefore, the authors monitored soil energy every half hour from soil located on bare soil, on soil covered by crops at root level and in between crop rows. The selected crop was corn. Soil heat fluxdensity was measured with a heat flux plate sensor buried at a depth of 0.05 m in experimental sites. The change in heat storage in the soil layer above the heat flux plates was measured by inserting temperature sensors at an angle from near the bottom to near the top of the soil layer (above the plate sensor). The results indicated that the soil energy flux depends mainly on radiation and soil conditions. Although net radiation (Rn) was the same for all the sites, the evolution for G is different. Greater G fluctuation is produced in bared soils and decreases as soil is covered by the crops, especially at root level.

Sound transmission through gases in an enclosure is considered. Analytical results are given in terms of geometrical parameters, wave numbers, and source type for simple model problems, and are compared with data obtained by Haran (1983). It is concluded that densitymeasurements can be made in a gas contained in an enclosure by measuring the sound pressure level at a receiver located near a dipole source driven at a constant velocity amplitude at low frequencies.

Simultaneous measurement of neutron flux and temperature is provided by a single sensor which includes a phosphor mixture having two principal constituents. The first constituent is a neutron sensitive 6LiF and the second is a rare-earth activated Y203 thermophosphor. The mixture is coated on the end of a fiber optic, while the opposite end of the fiber optic is coupled to a light detector. The detected light scintillations are quantified for neutron flux determination, and the decay is measured for temperature determination.

A contact-less method for determining transport critical current density and flux penetration depth in bulk superconductor material. A compressor having a hollow interior and a plunger for selectively reducing the free space area for distribution of the magnetic flux therein are formed of superconductor material. Analytical relationships, based upon the critical state model, Maxwell's equations and geometrical relationships define transport critical current density and flux penetration depth in terms of the initial trapped magnetic fluxdensity and the ratio between initial and final magnetic fluxdensities whereby data may be reliably determined by means of the simple test apparatus for evaluating the current density and flux penetration depth.

Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound (BVOC) fluxes were measured onboard the CIRPAS Twin Otter aircraft as part of the California Airborne BVOC Emission Research in Natural Ecosystem Transects (CABERNET) campaign during June 2011. The airborne virtual disjunct eddy covariance (AvDEC) approach used measurements from a PTR-MS and a wind radome probe to directly determine fluxes of isoprene, MVK + MAC, methanol, monoterpenes, and MBO over ∼10 000 km of flight paths focusing on areas of California predicted to have the largest emissions of isoprene. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) approach was used to calculate fluxes over long transects of more than 15 km, most commonly between 50 and 150 km. The Continuous Wavelet Transformation (CWT) approach was used over the same transects to also calculate "instantaneous" fluxes with localization of both frequency and time independent of non-stationarities. Vertical flux divergence of isoprene is expected due to its relatively short lifetime and was measured directly using "racetrack" profiles at multiple altitudes. It was found to be linear and in the range 5% to 30% depending on the ratio of aircraft altitude to PBL height (z / zi). Fluxes were generally measured by flying consistently at 400 ± 50 m (a.g.l.) altitude, and extrapolated to the surface according to the determined flux divergence. The wavelet-derived surface fluxes of isoprene averaged to 2 km spatial resolution showed good correspondence to Basal Emission Factor (BEF) landcover datasets used to drive biogenic VOC (BVOC) emission models. The surface flux of isoprene was close to zero over Central Valley crops and desert shrublands, but was very high (up to 15 mg m-2 h-1) above oak woodlands, with clear dependence of emissions on temperature and oak density. Isoprene concentrations of up to 8 ppb were observed at aircraft height on the hottest days and over the dominant source regions. While isoprene emissions from agricultural crop regions, shrublands, and

An absolute two-sided radiometer, designed on the principle of replacing absorbed radiant energy with electrical energy, is described. The sensitive element of the detector is a thermoelectric transducer of thermal flux. The fabrication technology, methods of measurement, technical characteristics, and general operation of the instrument are presented.

During six encounters between 2008 and 2013, the Cassini Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) made in situ measurements deep within the Enceladus plumes. Throughout each encounter, those measurements contained density variations that reflected the nature of the source, particularly of the high-velocity jets. Since the dominant constituent of the vapor, H2O, interacted with the walls of the INMS inlet, we track changes in the external vapor density by using more-volatile species that responded promptly to those changes. However, the most-abundant volatiles, at 28 u and 44 u, behaved differently from each other in the plume. At least a portion of their differences may be attributed to mass-dependent thermal velocity that affects Mach number in the high-velocity jets. Variations between volatiles place an emphasis on modeling as a means to construct overall plume density from the volatile densities and to investigate the velocity, gas temperature, and location of the jets. Ice grains, entering the INMS aperture add complexity and uncertainty to the physical interpretation of the data because the grains modified the INMS measurements. A comparison of data from the last three encounters, E14, E17, and E18, are consistent with the VIMS observation of variability in jet production and a slower, more diffuse gas flux from the four sulci or tiger stripes. We provide and describe the INMS data, its processing, and its uncertainty.

A new method for determining the approximate amount of magnetic flux in various solar wind structures in the ecliptic (and solar rotation) plane is developed using single-spacecraft measurements in interplanetary space and making certain simplifying assumptions. The method removes the effect of solar wind velocity variations and can be applied to specific, limited-extent solar wind structures as well as to long-term variations. Over the 18-month interval studied, the ecliptic plane flux of coronal mass ejections was determined to be about 4 times greater than that of HFDs.

Invention comprises an instrument in which momentum flux onto a biasable target plate is transferred via a suspended quartz tube onto a sensitive force transducer--a capacitance-type pressure gauge. The transducer is protected from thermal damage, arcing and sputtering, and materials used in the target and pendulum are electrically insulating, rigid even at elevated temperatures, and have low thermal conductivity. The instrument enables measurement of small forces (10.sup.-5 to 10.sup.3 N) accompanied by high heat fluxes which are transmitted by energetic particles with 10's of eV of kinetic energy in a intense magnetic field and pulsed plasma environment.

In a dish-type point-focusing solar thermal collector, the spillage and the fluxdensity on the receiver aperture lip are related in a very simple way, if the aperture is circular and centered on the optical axis. Specifically, the fluxdensity on the lip is equal to the spillage times the peak fluxdensity in the plane of the lip.

Sap flow measurement method is a technique widely used for measuring forest transpiration. However, variations in sap flow distribution can make accurately estimating individual tree-scale transpiration difficult. Significant spatial variations in sap flow across the sapwood within tree have been reported in many studies. In contrast, few studies have discussed azimuthal variations in sap flow, and even fewer have examined their seasonal change characteristics. This study was undertaken to clarify within-tree special and temporal variations in sap flow, and to propose an appropriate design for individual-tree scale transpiration estimates for Japanese cedar trees. The measurement was conducted in a Japanese cedar plantation located in Central Taiwan. Spatial distribution of sap fluxdensity through the sapwood cross-section was measured using Granier's thermal dissipation technique. Sensors were installed at 1.3 m high on the east, west, north and south sides of the stem at 0-2 cm in 8 trees, and at 2-4 cm in the 6 larger trees. We found, in radial profile analysis, that sap fluxdensitiesmeasured at the depth of 2-4 cm were 50 % in average of those measured at depth of 0-2 cm. In azimuthal profile analysis, we found significant azimuthal variations in sap fluxdensity. In one individual tree, the ratio of sap fluxdensity on one aspect to another could be approximately 40-190 %, with no dependency on directions. Both radial and azimuthal profiles in most sample trees were fairly consistent throughout the measurement period. We concluded that radial and azimuthal variations in sap flow across sapwood might introduce significant errors in individual tree-scale transpiration estimations based on single point sap flow measurement, and seasonal change of within-tree spatial variations in sap flow could have insignificant impacts on accuracy of long-term individual tree-scale transpiration estimates. Keywords: transpiration, sap flow measurement, scaling up, sap flow

A multiple-point Rayleigh scattering diagnostic is being developed to provide mass fluxmeasurements in gas flows. Spectroscopic Rayleigh scattering is an established flow diagnostic that has the ability to provide simultaneous density, temperature, and velocity measurements. Rayleigh scattered light from a focused 18 Watt continuous-wave laser beam is directly imaged through a solid Fabry-Perot etalon onto a CCD detector which permits spectral analysis of the light. The spatial resolution of the measurements is governed by the locations of interference fringes, which can be changed by altering the etalon characteristics. A prototype system has been used to acquire data in a Mach 0.56 flow to demonstrate feasibility of using this system to provide mass fluxmeasurements. Estimates of measurement uncertainty and recommendations for system improvements are presented

The Planck mission detected thousands of extragalactic radio sources at frequencies from 28 to 857 GHz. Planck's calibration is absolute (in the sense that it is based on the satellite’s annual motion around the Sun and the temperature of the cosmic microwave background), and its beams are well characterized at sub-percent levels. Thus, Planck's fluxdensitymeasurements of compact sources are absolute in the same sense. We have made coordinated Very Large Array (VLA) and Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) observations of 65 strong, unresolved Planck sources in order to transfer Planck's calibration to ground-based instruments at 22, 28, and 43 GHz. The results are compared to microwave fluxdensity scales currently based on planetary observations. Despite the scatter introduced by the variability of many of the sources, the fluxdensity scales are determined to 1%–2% accuracy. At 28 GHz, the fluxdensity scale used by the VLA runs 2%–3% ± 1.0% below Planck values with an uncertainty of +/- 1.0%; at 43 GHz, the discrepancy increases to 5%–6% ± 1.4% for both ATCA and the VLA.

The eddy covariance (EC) technique is the only direct measurement of the momentum, heat, and trace gas (e.g. water vapor, CO2 and ozone) fluxes. The measurements are expected to be most accurate over flat terrain where there is an extended homogenous surface upwind from the tower, and when the environmental conditions are steady. Additionally, the one dimensional approach assumes that vertical turbulent exchange is the dominant flux, whereas advective influences should be negligible. The application of EC method under non-ideal conditions, for example in complex terrain, has yet to be fully explored. To explore the possibilities and limitations of EC technique under non-ideal conditions, an EC system was set up at Selles beach, Crete, Greece (35.33°N, 25.71°E) in the beginning of July 2012. The dominant wind direction was west, parallel to the coast. The EC system consisted of a sonic anemometer (CSAT3 Campbell Scientific), an infrared open-path CO2/H2O gas analyzer (LI-7500, Li-COR Biosciences) and a fast chemiluminescence ozone analyzer (enviscope GmbH). All the signals of these fast response instruments were sampled at 10 Hz and the measurement height was 3 m. Besides, another gradient system was setup. Air temperature, relative humidity (HYGROMER MP 103 A), and wind speed (WMT700 Vaisala) were measured every 10 seconds at 3 heights (0.7, 1.45, 3 m). Air intakes were set up at 0.7m and 3m. A pump drew the air through a flow system and a telflon valve alternately switched between the two heights every 30 seconds. H2O, CO2 (LI-840A, Li-COR Biosciences) and ozone mixing ratio s (model 205, 2BTechnologies) were measured every 10 seconds. Momentum, heat, CO2 and ozone fluxes were evaluated by both EC and gradient technique. For the calculation of turbulent fluxes, TK3 algorithm (Department of Micrometeorology, University Bayreuth, Germany) was applied. We will present the measuredfluxes of the two systems and assess the data quality under such non-ideal condition.

In rounding out the education of students in advanced courses in applied electromagnetics it is incumbent on us as mentors to raise issues that encourage appreciation of certain subtle aspects that are often overlooked during first exposure to the field. One of these has to do with the interplay between fields and potentials, with the latter often seen as just a convenient mathematical artifice useful in solving Maxwell’s equations. Nonetheless, to those practiced in application it is well understood that various alternatives in the use of fields and potentials are available within electromagnetic (EM) theory for the definitions of energy density, momentum transfer, EM stress–energy tensor, and so forth. Although the various options are all compatible with the basic equations of electrodynamics (e.g., Maxwell’s equations, Lorentz force law, gauge invariance), nonetheless certain alternative formulations lend themselves to being seen as preferable to others with regard to the transparency of their application to physical problems of interest. Here we argue for the transparency of an energy density/power flux option based on the EM potentials alone.

The aim of magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT) is to visualize the electrical properties, conductivity or current density of an object by injection of current. Recently, the prolonged data acquisition time when using the injected current nonlinear encoding (ICNE) method has been advantageous for measurement of magnetic fluxdensity data, Bz, for MREIT in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). However, the ICNE method results in undesirable side artifacts, such as blurring, chemical shift and phase artifacts, due to the long data acquisition under an inhomogeneous static field. In this paper, we apply the ICNE method to a gradient and spin echo (GRASE) multi-echo train pulse sequence in order to provide the multiple k-space lines during a single RF pulse period. We analyze the SNR of the measured multiple Bz data using the proposed ICNE-Multiecho MR pulse sequence. By determining a weighting factor for Bz data in each of the echoes, an optimized inversion formula for the magnetic fluxdensity data is proposed for the ICNE-Multiecho MR sequence. Using the ICNE-Multiecho method, the quality of the measured magnetic fluxdensity is considerably increased by the injection of a long current through the echo train length and by optimization of the voxel-by-voxel noise level of the Bz value. Agarose-gel phantom experiments have demonstrated fewer artifacts and a better SNR using the ICNE-Multiecho method. Experimenting with the brain of an anesthetized dog, we collected valuable echoes by taking into account the noise level of each of the echoes and determined Bz data by determining optimized weighting factors for the multiply acquired magnetic fluxdensity data.

The 145 to 300-km altitude variation of the measured photoelectron flux in the 13 to 18 eV, 28 to 34 eV, and 50 to 55 eV energy regions are compared with the variations expected from theory. There is a strong linear relationship between the measured photoelectron flux and the attenuation of the solar EUV flux at these energies. Therefore, the photoelectron flux is sensitive to changes in the solar zenith angle, neutral density scale height, and total neutral density. However, contrary to previous assertions, the photoelectron flux at most energies is not sensitive to the relative densities of the neutral constituents. In addition, good agreement between theory and measurement is obtained. By using the concept of photoelectron production frequencies, the usually complex evaluation of the local equilibrium photoelectron flux is reduced to a trivial calculation so that the steps in the calculation can be readily verified.

The disk temperature of Venus was measured at 608 MHz near the inferior conjunction of 1972, and a value of 498 plus or minus 33 K was obtained using a nominal CKL flux-density scale. The result is consistent with earlier measurements, but has a much smaller uncertainty. Our theoretical model prediction is larger by a factor of 1.21 plus or minus 0.09. This discrepancy has been noticed previously for frequencies below 1400 MHz, but was generally disregarded because of the large observational uncertainties. No way could be found to change the model to produce agreement without causing a conflict with well-established properties of Venus. Thus it is suggested that the flux-density scale may require an upward revision, at least near this frequency, in excess of what has previously been considered likely.

Flux plate measurements of soil heat flux (G) may include significant errors unless the plates are carefully installed and known errors accounted for. The objective of this research was to quantify potential errors in G when using soil heat flux plates of contrasting designs. Five flux plates with...

A Rayleigh scattering diagnostic has been developed to provide mass fluxmeasurements in wind tunnel flows. Spectroscopic molecular Rayleigh scattering is an established flow diagnostic tool that has the ability to provide simultaneous density and velocity measurements in gaseous flows. Rayleigh scattered light from a focused 10 Watt continuous-wave laser beam is collected and fiber-optically transmitted to a solid Fabry-Perot etalon for spectral analysis. The circular interference pattern that contains the spectral information that is needed to determine the flow properties is imaged onto a CCD detector. Baseline measurements of density and velocity in the test section of the 15 cm x 15 cm Supersonic Wind Tunnel at NASA Glenn Research Center are presented as well as velocity measurements within a supersonic combustion ramjet engine isolator model installed in the tunnel test section.

The latitudinal variation of the solar proton flux and energy causes a density increase at high solar latitudes of the neutral gas penetrating the heliosphere. Measurements of the neutral density by UV resonance radiation observations from interplanetary spacecraft thus permit deductions on the dependence of the solar proton flux on heliographic latitude. Using both the results of Mariner 10 measurements and of other off-ecliptic solar wind observations, the values of the solar proton fluxes and energies at polar heliographic latitudes are determined for several cases of interest. The Mariner 10 analysis, together with IPS results, indicate a significant decrease of the solar proton flux at polar latitudes.

Autophagy is an important physiological process in the heart, and alterations in autophagic activity can exacerbate or mitigate injury during various pathological processes. Methods to assess autophagy have changed rapidly as the field of research has expanded. As with any new field, methods and standards for data analysis and interpretation evolve as investigators acquire experience and insight. The purpose of this review is to summarize current methods to measure autophagy, selective mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy), and autophagic flux. We will examine several published studies where confusion arose in in data interpretation, in order to illustrate the challenges. Finally we will discuss methods to assess autophagy in vivo and in patients. PMID:25634973

It is commonly assumed that the Herschel far-IR fluxes are a measure of column density, hence, mass of interstellar clouds. The Polaris Flare, a high galactic latitude cirrus cloud, with several starless molecular cores, has been previously observed with the Herschel Space Telescope. We used Cloudy version 13.02 to model a molecular cloud MCLD 123.5+24.9, one of the denser regions of the Polaris Flare. These models include a detailed calculation of far-IR grain opacities, subject to various assumptions about grain composition, and predict far-IR fluxes. The models suggest that the observed fluxes reflect the incident stellar UV radiation field rather than the column density, if N(H) > a few times 1021 cm2 (AV > 1). For higher column densities, the models show that dust temperatures decline rapidly into the cloud. Therefore, the cloud interiors contribute very little additional far-IR flux, and column densities based upon far-IR fluxes can be significantly underestimated. The Polaris Flare, 150 pc distant, is well within the Galactic disc. There are no nearby hot stars. Therefore, the stellar UV radiation field incident on the cloud should be close to the mean interstellar radiation field (ISRF). In addition, the calculated grain opacities required to reproduce the far-IR fluxes in the Cloudy models are a few factors larger than that calculated for standard ISM graphite and silicate grains. This result suggests that the grains in dense regions are coated with water and ammonia ices, increasing their sizes and opacities. The Cloudy models also predict mm-wavelength CO line strengths for comparison with published observations at the IRAM 30-m telescope. In order to reproduce the observed CO line strengths for cores in MCLD 123.5+24.9, the models require that CO molecules be partially frozen out onto the grains. This result places age constraints upon the cores. We have also modeled CO emission from inter-core regions in MCLD 123.5+24.9. For these regions, the models

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca(2+) fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function (1,2). Changes in Ca(2+) activity in response to extracellular agents is predominantly regulated by the phospholipase Cβ- Gα(q;) pathway localized on the plasma membrane which is stimulated by agents such as acetylcholine (3,4). We have recently found that plasma membrane protein domains called caveolae(5,6) can entrap activated Gα(q;)(7). This entrapment has the effect of stabilizing the activated state of Gα(q;) and resulting in prolonged Ca(2+) signals in cardiomyocytes and other cell types(8). We uncovered this surprising result by measuring dynamic calcium responses on a fast scale in living cardiomyocytes. Briefly, cells are loaded with a fluorescent Ca(2+) indicator. In our studies, we used Ca(2+) Green (Invitrogen, Inc.) which exhibits an increase in fluorescence emission intensity upon binding of calcium ions. The fluorescence intensity is then recorded for using a line-scan mode of a laser scanning confocal microscope. This method allows rapid acquisition of the time course of fluorescence intensity in pixels along a selected line, producing several hundreds of time traces on the microsecond time scale. These very fast traces are transferred into excel and then into Sigmaplot for analysis, and are compared to traces obtained for electronic noise, free dye, and other controls. To dissect Ca(2+) responses of different flux rates, we performed a histogram analysis that binned pixel intensities with time. Binning allows us to group over 500 traces of scans and visualize the compiled results spatially and temporally on a single plot. Thus, the slow Ca(2+) waves that are difficult to discern when the scans are overlaid due to different peak placement and noise, can be readily seen in the binned histograms. Very fast fluxes in the time scale of the measurement show a narrow distribution of intensities in the very short time bins whereas longer Ca(2+) waves

Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound (BVOC) fluxes were measured onboard the CIRPAS Twin Otter aircraft as part of the California Airborne BVOC Emission Research in Natural Ecosystem Transects (CABERNET) campaign during June 2011. The airborne virtual disjunct eddy covariance (AvDEC) approach used measurements from a PTR-MS and a wind radome probe to directly determine fluxes of isoprene, MVK+MAC, methanol, monoterpenes, and MBO over ~10,000-km of flight paths focusing on areas of California predicted to have the largest emissions of isoprene. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) approach was used to calculate fluxes over long transects of more than 15 km, most commonly between 50 and 150 km. The Continuous Wavelet Transformation (CWT) approach was used over the same transects to also calculate "instantaneous" fluxes with localization of both frequency and time independent of non-stationarities. Vertical flux divergence of isoprene is expected due to its relatively short lifetime and was measured directly using "racetrack" profiles at multiple altitudes. It was found to be linear and in the range 5% to 30% depending on the ratio of aircraft altitude to PBL height (z/zi). Fluxes were generally measured by flying consistently 1 at 400 m ±50 m (a.g.l.) altitude, and extrapolated to the surface according to the determined flux divergence. The wavelet-derived surface fluxes of isoprene averaged to 2 km spatial resolution showed good correspondence to Basal Emission Factor (BEF) landcover datasets used to drive biogenic VOC (BVOC) emission models. The surface flux of isoprene was close to zero over Central Valley crops and desert shrublands, but was very high (up to 15 mg m-2 h-1) above oak woodlands, with clear dependence of emissions on temperature and oak density. Isoprene concentrations of up to 8 ppb were observed at aircraft height on the hottest days and over the dominant source regions. While isoprene emissions from agricultural crop regions, shrublands, and

Among the Compton Gama-Ray Observatory instruments, the BATSE Spectroscopic Detectors (SD) have the distinction of being able to detect photons of energies less than about 20 keV. This is an interesting energy range for the examination of low mass X-ray binaries (LMXB's). In fact, Sco X-1, the prototype LMXB, is easily seen even in the raw BATSE spectroscopic data. The all-sky coverage afforded by these detectors offers a unique opportunity to monitor this source over time periods never before possible. The aim of this investigation was to test a number of ways in which both continous and discrete fluxmeasurements can be obtained using the BATSE spectroscopic datasets. A instrumental description of a SD can be found in the Compton Workshop of Apr. 1989, this report will deal only with methods which can be used to analyze its datasets. Many of the items discussed below, particularly in regard to the earth occultation technique, have been developed, refined, and applied by the BATSE team to the reduction of BATSE LAD data. Code written as part of this project utilizes portions of that work. The following discussions will first address issues related to the reduction of SD datasets using the earth occultation technique. It will then discuss methods for the recovery of the flux history of strong sources while they are above the earth's limb. The report will conclude with recommended reduction procedures.

An apparatus is described for measuring momentum flux from an intense plasma stream, comprising: refractory target means oriented normal to the flow of said plasma stream for bombardment by said plasma stream where said bombardment by said plasma stream applies a pressure to said target means, pendulum means for communicating a translational displacement of said target to a force transducer where said translational displacement of said target is transferred to said force transducer by an elongated member coupled to said target, where said member is suspended by a pendulum configuration means and where said force transducer is responsive to said translational displacement of said member, and force transducer means for outputting a signal representing pressure data corresponding to said displacement.

The instrument under development is designed to characterize the flux and size distribution of the lunar micrometeoroid and secondary ejecta environment. When deployed on the lunar surface, the data collected will benefit fundamental lunar science as well as enabling more reliable impact risk assessments for human lunar exploration activities. To perform this task, the instrument requirements are demanding. It must have as large a surface area as possible to sample the very sparse population of the larger potentially damage-inducing micrometeorites. It must also have very high sensitivity to enable it to measure the flux of small (<10 micron) micrometeorite and secondary ejecta dust particles. To be delivered to the lunar surface, it must also be very low mass, rugged and stow compactly. The instrument designed to meet these requirements is called FOMIS. It is a large-area thin film under tension (i.e. a drum) with multiple fiber optic displacement (FOD) sensors to monitor displacements of the film. This sensor was chosen since it can measure displacements over a wide dynamic range: 1 cm to sub-Angstrom. A prototype system was successfully demonstrated using the hypervelocity impact test facility at the University of Kent (Canterbury, UK). Based on these results, the prototype system can detect hypervelocity (approx.5 km/s) impacts by particles as small as 2 microns diameter. Additional tests using slow speeds find that it can detect secondary ejecta particles (which do not penetrate the film) with momentums as small as 15 pico-gram 100m/s, or nominally 5 microns diameter at 100 m/s.

Performance assessments for the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site on the Nevada Test Site have used three different mathematical models to estimate Rn-222 fluxdensity. This study describes the performance, uncertainty, and sensitivity of the three models which include the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 3.64 analytical method and two numerical methods. The uncertainty of each model was determined by Monte Carlo simulation using Latin hypercube sampling. The global sensitivity was investigated using Morris one-at-time screening method, sample-based correlation and regression methods, the variance-based extended Fourier amplitude sensitivity test, and Sobol's sensitivity indices. The models were found to produce similar estimates of the mean and median fluxdensity, but to have different uncertainties and sensitivities. When the Rn-222 effective diffusion coefficient was estimated using five different published predictive models, the radon fluxdensity models were found to be most sensitive to the effective diffusion coefficient model selected, the emanation coefficient, and the radionuclide inventory. Using a site-specific measured effective diffusion coefficient significantly reduced the output uncertainty. When a site-specific effective-diffusion coefficient was used, the models were most sensitive to the emanation coefficient and the radionuclide inventory.

A series of polycrystalline SmFeAs1 - xOx bulks was prepared to systematically investigate the influence of sample density on flux pinning properties. Different sample densities were achieved by controlling the pelletizing pressure. The superconducting volume fraction, the critical current densities Jcm and the flux pinning force densities Fp were estimated from the magnetization measurements. Experimental results show that: (1) the superconducting volume fraction increases with the increasing of sample density; (2) the Jcm values have a similar trend except for the sample with very high density due to different connectivity and pinning mechanisms, moreover, the Jcm(B) curve develops a peak effect at approximately the same field at which the high density sample shows a kink; (3) the Fp(B) curve of the high density sample shows a low-field peak and a high-field peak at several temperatures, which can be explained by improved intergranular current, while only one peak can be observed in Fp(B) of the low density samples. Based on the scaling behaviour of flux pinning force densities, the main intragranular pinning is normal point pinning.

The surface energy balance includes a term for soil heat flux. Soil heat flux is difficult to measure because it includes conduction and convection heat transfer processes. Accurate representation of soil heat flux is an important consideration in many modeling and measurement applications. Yet, the...

We report about the growing fluxes of the quasar S5 1044+71, identified with the FERMI source 2FGL J1048.3+714, since detection of the high state in the rest of January 2014 (ATEL #5792). We continue measurements and again detect the increase of the fluxdensities at frequencies 8.2-21.7 GHz in February.

Measuring the z-component of magnetic fluxdensity B = (Bx, By, Bz) induced by transversally injected current, magnetic resonance electrical impedance tomography (MREIT) aims to visualize electrical property (current density and/or conductivity distribution) in a three-dimensional imaging object. For practical implementations of MREIT technique, it is critical to reduce injection of current pulse within safety requirements. With the goal of minimizing the noise level in measured Bz data, we propose a new method to enhance the measure Bz data using steady-state coherent gradient multi-echo (SSC-GME) MR pulse sequence combining with injection current nonlinear encoding (ICNE) method in MREIT, where the ICNE technique injects current during a readout gradient to maximize the signal intensity of phase signal including Bz. The total phase offset in SSC-GME includes additional magnetic fluxdensity due to the injected current, which is different from the phase signal for the conventional spoiled MR pulse sequence. We decompose the magnetization precession phase from the total phase offset including Bz and optimize Bz data using the steady-state equilibrium signal. Results from a real phantom experiment including different kinds of anomalies demonstrated that the proposed method enhanced Bz comparing to a conventional spoiled pulse sequence.

This study is part of a continuing investigation to develop methods for measuring local transient surface heat flux. A method is presented for simultaneous measurements of dual heat fluxes at a surface location by considering the heat flux as a separate function of heat stored and heat conducted within a heat flux gage. Surface heat flux information is obtained from transient temperature measurements taken at points within the gage. Heat flux was determined over a range of 4 to 22 MW/sq m. It was concluded that the method is feasible. Possible applications are for heat fluxmeasurements on the turbine blade surfaces of space shuttle main engine turbopumps and on the component surfaces of rocket and advanced gas turbine engines and for testing sensors in heat flux gage calibrators.

An AMC system was installed at the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Climate Research Facility’s North Slope Alaska (NSA) Barrow site, also known as NSA C1 at the ARM Data Archive, in August 2012. A second AMC system was installed at the third ARM Mobile Facility deployment at Oliktok Point, also known as NSA M1. This in situ system consists of 12 combination soil temperature and volumetric water content (VWC) reflectometers and one set of upwelling and downwelling PAR sensors, all deployed within the fetch of the Eddy Correlation FluxMeasurement System. Soil temperature and VWC sensors placed at two depths (10 and 30 cm below the vegetation layer) at six locations (or microsites) allow soil property inhomogeneity to be monitored across a landscape. The soil VWC and temperature sensors used at NSA C1 are the Campbell Scientific CS650L and the sensors at NSA M1 use the Campbell Scientific CS655. The two sensors are nearly identical in function, and vendor specifications are based on the CS650 unless otherwise stated.

Biogenic isoprene fluxes were measured onboard the CIRPAS Twin Otter aircraft as part of the California Airborne Biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) Emission Research in Natural Ecosystem Transects (CABERNET) campaign during June 2011. The airborne virtual disjunct eddy covariance (AvDEC) approach used measurements from a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) and a wind radome probe to directly determine fluxes of isoprene over 7400 km of flight paths focusing on areas of California predicted to have the largest emissions. The fast Fourier transform (FFT) approach was used to calculate fluxes of isoprene over long transects of more than 15 km, most commonly between 50 and 150 km. The continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) approach was used over the same transects to also calculate instantaneous isoprene fluxes with localization of both frequency and time independent of non-stationarities. Fluxes were generally measured by flying consistently at 400 m ± 50 m (a.g.l.) altitude, and extrapolated to the surface according to the determined flux divergence determined in the racetrack-stacked profiles. The wavelet-derived surface fluxes of isoprene averaged to 2 km spatial resolution showed good correspondence to basal emission factor (BEF) land-cover data sets used to drive BVOC emission models. The surface flux of isoprene was close to zero over Central Valley crops and desert shrublands, but was very high (up to 15 mg m-2 h-1) above oak woodlands, with clear dependence of emissions on temperature and oak density. Isoprene concentrations of up to 8 ppb were observed at aircraft height on the hottest days and over the dominant source regions. Even though the isoprene emissions from agricultural crop regions, shrublands, and coniferous forests were extremely low, observations at the Walnut Grove tower south of Sacramento demonstrate that isoprene oxidation products from the high emitting regions in the surrounding oak woodlands accumulate at night in

We measured the integrated low frequency flux noise ({approx}1 m{phi}{sub 0}) of an rf SQUID as a flux qubit by fitting the resonant peaks from photon assistant tunneling (PAT). The energy relaxation time Tl between the ground and first excited states in the same potential well, measured directly in time domain, is 3 ns. From these results we identified low frequency flux noise as the dominant source of decoherence. In addition, we found that the measured values of integrated flux noise in three qubits of various sizes differ more than an order of magnitude.

Many monoterpenes have been identified in forest emissions using gas chromatography (GC). Until now, it has been impossible to determine whether all monoterpenes are appropriately measured using GC techniques. We used a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) coupled with the eddy covariance (EC) technique to measure mixing ratios and fluxes of total monoterpenes above a ponderosa pine plantation. We compared PTR-MS-EC results with simultaneous measurements of eight speciated monoterpenes, β-pinene, α-pinene, 3-carene, d-limonene, β-phellandrene, α-terpinene, camphene, and terpinolene, made with an automated, in situ gas chromatograph with flame ionization detectors (GC-FID), coupled to a relaxed eddy accumulation system (REA). Monoterpene mixing ratios and fluxesmeasured by PTR-MS averaged 30±2.3% and 31±9.2% larger than by GC-FID, with larger mixing ratio discrepancies between the two techniques at night than during the day. Two unidentified peaks that correlated with β-pinene were resolved in the chromatograms and completely accounted for the daytime difference and reduced the nighttime mixing ratio difference to 20±2.9%. Measurements of total monoterpenes by PTR-MS-EC indicated that GC-FID-REA measured the common, longer-lived monoterpenes well, but that additional terpenes were emitted from the ecosystem that represented an important contribution to the total mixing ratio above the forest at night.

Many monoterpenes have been identified in forest emissions using gas chromatography (GC). Until now, it has been impossible to determine whether all monoterpenes are appropriately measured using GC techniques. We used a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) coupled with the eddy covariance (EC) technique to measure mixing ratios and fluxes of total monoterpenes above a ponderosa pine plantation. We compared PTR-MS-EC results with simultaneous measurements of eight speciated monoterpenes, β-pinene, α-pinene, 3-carene, d-limonene, β-phellandrene, α-terpinene, camphene, and terpinolene, made with an automated, in situ gas chromatograph with flame ionization detectors (GC-FID), coupled to a relaxed eddy accumulation system (REA). Monoterpene mixing ratios and fluxesmeasured by PTR-MS averaged 30±2.3% and 31±9.2% larger than by GC-FID, with larger differences at night than during the day. Four unidentified peaks that correlated with β-pinene were resolved in the chromatograms and completely accounted for the daytime difference and reduced the nighttime difference to 19±3.4%. Measurements of total monoterpenes by PTR-MS-EC indicated that GC-FID-REA measured the common, longer-lived monoterpenes well, but that additional monoterpenes were emitted from the ecosystem that represented an important contribution to the total mixing ratio above the forest at night, and that must have been oxidized during the day before they escaped the forest canopy.

Many materials and techniques have been developed by the authors to sample the flux of particles in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), and through regular insitu sampling of the flux in LEO, the materials and techniques have produced data which complement the data now being amassed by the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) research activities. Recent flight experiments on STS-32, STS-44, STS-46, and STS-52 have been conducted to develop an understanding of the spatial density as a function of size (mass) for particle sizes 1x10(exp -6) cm and larger. In addition to the enumeration of particle impacts, it was also the intent of these experiments that hypervelocity particles be captured and returned intact. Measurements were performed post-flight to determine the fluxdensity, diameters, and subsequent effects on various optical, thermal control, and structural materials. During the course of the STS-44 mission, the Space Shuttle corrected its altitude by 26 km to evade a spent upper stage. The results of this near encounter suggests that a cloud of micron sized particles exist in the vicinity of the object. Data also suggest that the fluxdensity is nearly two (2) orders of magnitude higher than background flux. A comparison of the number fluxdensity along with microphotographs of the captured particles will be presented for the referenced shuttle flights.

A new thin-film heat flux gage has been fabricated specifically for severe high temperature operation using platinum and platinum-10 percent rhodium for the thermocouple elements. Radiation calibrations of this gage were performed at the AEDC facility over the available heat flux range (approx. 1.0 - 1,000 W/cu cm). The gage output was linear with heat flux with a slight increase in sensitivity with increasing surface temperature. Survivability of gages was demonstrated in quench tests from 500 C into liquid nitrogen. Successful operation of gages to surface temperatures of 750 C has been achieved. No additional cooling of the gages is required because the gages are always at the same temperature as the substrate material. A video of oxyacetylene flame tests with real-time heat flux and temperature output is available.

Report discusses research on use of laser-induced fluorescence in oxygen and Raman scattering in air for simultaneous measurement of temperature and density of air. Major application of laser spectroscopic techniques, measurement of fluctuations of temperature and density in hypersonic flows in wind tunnels.

Continuous soil flux chamber measurements remains a key tool for determining production and sequestration of direct and indirect greenhouse gases. The Picarro G2508 Cavity Ring-down Spectrometer has radically simplified soil flux studies by providing simultaneous measurements of five gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, NH3, and H2O, and by lending itself to field deployment. Successful use of the Picarro G2508 for continuous soil fluxmeasurements in a variety of ecosystem types has already been demonstrated. Most recently, Picarro is developing a real-time processing software to simplify chamber measurements of soil flux with the G2508 CRDS. The new Realtime Chamber Flux Processor is designed to work with all chamber types and sizes, and provides real-time flux values of N2O, CO2 & CH4. The software features include chamber sequence table, flexible data tagging feature, ceiling concentration measurement shut-off parameter, user-defined run-time interval, temperature/pressure input for field monitoring and volumetric conversion, and manual fluxmeasurement start/stop override. Realtime Chamber Flux Processor GUI interface is presented, and results from a variety of sampling designs are demonstrated to emphasize program flexibility and field capability.

Research involves analysis and field direction of AmeriFlux operations, and the PI provides scientific leadership of the AmeriFlux network. Activities include the coordination and quality assurance of measurements across AmeriFlux network sites, synthesis of results across the network, organizing and supporting the annual Science Team Meeting, and communicating AmeriFlux results to the scientific community and other users. Objectives of measurement research include (i) coordination of flux and biometric measurement protocols (ii) timely data delivery to the Carbon Dioxide Information and Analysis Center (CDIAC); and (iii) assurance of data quality of flux and ecosystem measurements contributed by AmeriFlux sites. Objectives of integration and synthesis activities include (i) integration of site data into network-wide synthesis products; and (ii) participation in the analysis, modeling and interpretation of network data products. Communications objectives include (i) organizing an annual meeting of AmeriFlux investigators for reporting annual fluxmeasurements and exchanging scientific information on ecosystem carbon budgets; (ii) developing focused topics for analysis and publication; and (iii) developing data reporting protocols in support of AmeriFlux network goals.

Two methods were devised to measure heat flux through a thick ceramic using thin film thermocouples. The thermocouples were deposited on the front and back face of a flat ceramic substrate. The heat flux was applied to the front surface of the ceramic using an arc lamp Heat Flux Calibration Facility. Silicon nitride and mullite ceramics were used; two thicknesses of each material was tested, with ceramic temperatures to 1500 C. Heat flux ranged from 0.05-2.5 MW/m2(sup 2). One method for heat flux determination used an approximation technique to calculate instantaneous values of heat flux vs time; the other method used an extrapolation technique to determine the steady state heat flux from a record of transient data. Neither method measures heat flux in real time but the techniques may easily be adapted for quasi-real time measurement. In cases where a significant portion of the transient heat flux data is available, the calculated transient heat flux is seen to approach the extrapolated steady state heat flux value as expected.

The variations of the normalized quasilinear particle and energy fluxes with artificial changes in the density and temperature gradients, as well as the variations of the linear growth rates and real frequencies, for ion temperature gradient and trapped-electron modes, are calculated. The quasilinear fluxes are normalized to the total energy flux, summed over all species. Here, realistic cases for tokamaks and spherical torii are considered which have two impurity species. For situations where there are substantial changes in the normalized fluxes, the ''diffusive approximation,'' in which the normalized fluxes are taken to be linear in the gradients, is seen to be inaccurate. Even in the case of small artificial changes in density or temperature gradients, changes in the fluxes of different species (''off-diagonal'') generally are significant, or even dominant, compared to those for the same species (''diagonal'').

The approach solves for both Reynolds and Favre averaged quantities and calculates the scalar pdf. Turbulent models used to close the governing equations are formulated to account for complex mixing and variable density effects. In addition, turbulent mass diffusivities are not assumed to be in constant proportion to turbulent momentum diffusivities. The governing equations are solved by a combination of finite-difference technique and Monte-Carlo simulation. Some preliminary results on simple variable density shear flows are presented. The differences between these results and those obtained using conventional models are discussed.

A novel differential interferometer is being developed to measure the electron density gradient and its fluctuations. Two separate laser beams with slight spatial offset and frequency difference are coupled into a single mixer making a heterodyne measurement of the phase difference which is <1% of the total phase change experienced by each beam separately. This measure of the differential phase is made at multiple spatial points and can be inverted directly to provide the local density distribution.

Some of the strongest electromagnetic fields (EMF) are found in the workplace. A European Directive sets limits to workers' exposure to EMF. This review summarizes its origin and contents and compares magnetic field exposure levels in high-risk workplaces with the limits set in the revised Directive. Pubmed, Scopus, grey literature databases, and websites of organizations involved in occupational exposure measurements were searched. The focus was on EMF with frequencies up to 10 MHz, which can cause stimulation of the nervous system. Selected studies had to provide individual maximum exposure levels at the workplace, either in terms of the external magnetic field strength or fluxdensity or as induced electric field strength or current density. Indicative action levels and the corresponding exposure limit values for magnetic fields in the revised European Directive will be higher than those in the previous version. Nevertheless, magnetic fluxdensities in excess of the action levels for peripheral nerve stimulation are reported for workers involved in welding, induction heating, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The corresponding health effects exposure limit values for the electric fields in the worker's body can be exceeded for welding and MRI, but calculations for induction heating and transcranial magnetic stimulation are lacking. Since the revised European Directive conditionally exempts MRI-related activities from the exposure limits, measures to reduce exposure may be necessary for welding, induction heating, and transcranial nerve stimulation. Since such measures can be complicated, there is a clear need for exposure databases for different workplace scenarios with significant EMF exposure and guidance on good practices. PMID:24557933

Some of the strongest electromagnetic fields (EMF) are found in the workplace. A European Directive sets limits to workers’ exposure to EMF. This review summarizes its origin and contents and compares magnetic field exposure levels in high-risk workplaces with the limits set in the revised Directive. Pubmed, Scopus, grey literature databases, and websites of organizations involved in occupational exposure measurements were searched. The focus was on EMF with frequencies up to 10 MHz, which can cause stimulation of the nervous system. Selected studies had to provide individual maximum exposure levels at the workplace, either in terms of the external magnetic field strength or fluxdensity or as induced electric field strength or current density. Indicative action levels and the corresponding exposure limit values for magnetic fields in the revised European Directive will be higher than those in the previous version. Nevertheless, magnetic fluxdensities in excess of the action levels for peripheral nerve stimulation are reported for workers involved in welding, induction heating, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The corresponding health effects exposure limit values for the electric fields in the worker’s body can be exceeded for welding and MRI, but calculations for induction heating and transcranial magnetic stimulation are lacking. Since the revised European Directive conditionally exempts MRI-related activities from the exposure limits, measures to reduce exposure may be necessary for welding, induction heating, and transcranial nerve stimulation. Since such measures can be complicated, there is a clear need for exposure databases for different workplace scenarios with significant EMF exposure and guidance on good practices. PMID:24557933

Surface heat flux values were measured in the turbine blade thermal cycling tester located at NASA-Marshall. This is the first time heat flux has been measured in a space shuttle main engine turbopump environment. Plots of transient and quasi-steady state heat flux data over a range of about 0 to 15 MW/sq m are presented. Data were obtained with a miniature heat flux gage device developed at NASA-Lewis. The results from these tests are being incorporated into turbine design models. Also, these gages are being considered for airfoil surface heat fluxmeasurement on turbine vanes mounted in SSME turbopump test bed engine nozzles at Marshall. Heat flux effects that might be observed on degraded vanes are discussed.

The equations for rigorously calculating the particle flux and density surrounding a cylindrical aperture in the free molecular flow regime are developed and presented. The fundamental equations for particle flux and density from a reservoir and a diffusely reflecting surface will initially be developed. Assumptions will include a Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution, equal particle and wall temperatures, and a linear flux distribution along the cylindrical aperture walls. With this information, the equations for axial flux and density surrounding a cylindrical aperture will be developed. The cylindrical aperture will be divided into multiple volumes and regions to rigorously determine the surrounding axial flux and density, and appropriate limits of integration will be determined. The results of these equations will then be evaluated. The linear wall flux distribution assumption will be assessed. The axial flux and density surrounding a cylindrical aperture with a thickness-to-radius ratio of 1.25 will be presented. Finally, the equations determined in this study will be verified using multiple methods.

We have observed a rapid fluxdensity increase of BL Lacertae (2200+420) at 15 GHz (2 cm) and 95 GHz (3 mm) following the report on highest millimeter fluxdensity ever observed at the SMA (ATel #4557). Since 2009, BL Lacertae has been observed approximately twice per week at 15 GHz with the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) 40m Telescope as part of our gamma-ray blazar monitoring program (Richards et al....

We revealed an increase in the density of thermal neutron flux in forest biocenoses, which was not associated with astrogeophysical events. The maximum spike of this parameter in the biocenosis reached 10,000 n/(sec x m2). Diurnal pattern of the density of thermal neutron flux depended only on the type of biocenosis. The effects of biomodulation of corpuscular radiation for balneology are discussed. PMID:18214289

Extending the absolute fluxdensity scale at microwave wavelengths, the absolute fluxdensities at 22.285 GHz of several standard sources were determined using the absolute calibrations of the 6.1 meter antenna of the Hat Creek Observatory. Interpolation formulas for each nonthermal standard source have been derived by combining these data with those determined at lower frequencies. The suitability of employing the standard sources for calibrating other antennas is discussed.

An accurate method for determination of in situ soil water fluxdensity continues to be the most sought after and yet elusive hydrologic measurement. The penta-needle heat pulse probe (PHPP) employs a central heater needle surrounded by an orthogonal arrangement of four thermistor needles for two-component water fluxdensity estimation. An analytical solution and inverse fitting method are presented for simultaneous estimation of thermal properties and soil water fluxdensity using PHPP measurements. The approach yields estimates of both components of the flux in a plane normal to the axis of the PHPP needles. The method was evaluated using data measured by PHPPs in a laboratory experiment using a wide range of saturated water fluxes ranging from 1.2 to 33,200 cm d-1. Improved water fluxdensity determination was achieved from zero-flux adjusted estimates of the apparent heater-thermistor radii, radj, which were used in the inverse analysis. Thermal diffusivity and conductivity were estimated with coefficients of variation less than 1.35%, indicating that the inverse problem is well posed and yields unique parameter estimates when water flux is less than 2000 cm d-1. Estimates of the x and y components of water fluxdensity agreed well with measured water fluxes up to 7000 cm d-1 exhibiting R2 values greater than 0.976. Estimation of water flow direction based on 2-D water fluxdensity was in good agreement with installation angle for water fluxes ranging from 10 to 7000 cm d-1.

A working non-contact heat flux sensor was demonstrated using a transparent material (sapphire) and a multiwavelength pyrometer. The pyrometer is used to measure the temperatures of the two surfaces of the sensor from the spectrum of radiation originating from them. The heat conducted through the material is determined from the temperature difference of the two surfaces and the thermal conductivity of the material. The measured heat flux is equal to the incident heat flux within experimental error indicating that no calibration would be necessary. A steady state heat flux of 100 kW/sq m was easily achieved.

The bimodality in galaxy properties has been observed at low and high redshifts, with a clear distinction between star-forming galaxies in the blue cloud and passively evolving objects in the red sequence; the absence of galaxies with intermediate properties indicates that the quenching of star formation and subsequent transition between populations must happen rapidly. In this paper, we present a study of over 100 transiting galaxies in the so-called green valley at intermediate redshifts (z {approx} 0.8). By using very deep spectroscopy with the DEIMOS instrument at the Keck telescope we are able to infer the star formation histories of these objects and measure the stellar mass fluxdensity transiting from the blue cloud to the red sequence when the universe was half its current age. Our results indicate that the process happened more rapidly and for more massive galaxies in the past, suggesting a top-down scenario in which the massive end of the red sequence is forming first. This represents another aspect of downsizing, with the mass fluxdensity moving toward smaller galaxies in recent times.

Densitometer was developed which produces linear voltage proportional to changes in density of flowing liquid hydrogen. Unit has fast response time and good system stability, statistical variation, and thermal equilibrium. System accuracy is 2 percent of total density span. Basic design may be altered to include measurement of other flowing materials.

The measure problem of cosmology is how to obtain normalized probabilities of observations from the quantum state of the universe. This is particularly a problem when eternal inflation leads to a universe of unbounded size so that there are apparently infinitely many realizations or occurrences of observations of each of many different kinds or types, making the ratios ambiguous. There is also the danger of domination by Boltzmann Brains. Here two new Spacetime Average Density (SAD) measures are proposed, Maximal Average Density (MAD) and Biased Average Density (BAD), for getting a finite number of observation occurrences by using properties of the Spacetime Average Density (SAD) of observation occurrences to restrict to finite regions of spacetimes that have a preferred beginning or bounce hypersurface. These measures avoid Boltzmann brain domination and appear to give results consistent with other observations that are problematic for other widely used measures, such as the observation of a positive cosmological constant.

Calorimetric methods for measuring surface heat flux use Joulean heating to keep the surface isothermal. This limits them to measuring the heat flux of surfaces that are hotter than their surroundings. Presented in this paper is a method whereby reversible Peltier effect heat transfer is used to maintain this isothermality, making it suitable for surfaces that are either hotter or colder than the surroundings. The paper outlines the theory for the method and describes physical models that have been constructed, calibrated, and tested. The tested physical models were found capable of measuring heat fluxes with an absolute accuracy of 1 percent over a wide range of temperature (5-50C) and heat flux (15-500 W/m{sup 2}), while maintaining isothermality to within 0.03 K. A drawback of the method is that it appears to be suited only for measuring the heat flux from thick metallic plates.

Measurements of surface-atmosphere fluxes of carbon dioxide (FCO2) and latent heat in urban environments are rare even though cities are a major source of atmospheric CO2 and users of water. In this paper, an overview of urban FCO2 measurements will be presented to illustrate how and where such measurements are being conducted and emerging results to date. Most of these studies have been conducted over short periods of time; few studies have considered annual sources/sinks. More investigations have been conducted, and are planned, in European cities than elsewhere, most commonly in areas of medium density urban development. The most dense urban sites are significant net sources of carbon. However, in areas where there is large amounts of vegetation present, there is a net sink of carbon during the summertime. In the second part of the presentation, more detailed attention will be directed to an ongoing measurement program in Baltimore, MD (part of the Baltimore Ecosystem Study). Eddy covariance instrumentation mounted on a tall-tower at 41.2 m has continuously measured local-scale fluxes of carbon dioxide from a suburban environment since 2001. Several features make this particular study unique: 1) for an urban area, the study site is extensively vegetated, 2) the period of record (2001-2005) is among the longest available for urban FCO2 measurements, 3) both closed-path and open-path infrared gas analyzers are used for observations, and 4) several unique data quality control and gap-filling methods have been developed for use in an urban environment. Additionally, detailed surface datasets and GIS software are used to perform flux source area analysis. Results from Baltimore indicate that FCO2 is very dependent on source area land-cover characteristics, particularly the proportion of vegetated and built surfaces. Over the course of a year, the urban surface is a strong net source of CO2, though there is considerable inter-annual variability depending on

Real-time diamagnetic fluxmeasurements are now available on ASDEX Upgrade. In contrast to the majority of diamagnetic fluxmeasurements on other tokamaks, no analog summation of signals is necessary for measuring the change in toroidal flux or for removing contributions arising from unwanted coupling to the plasma and poloidal field coil currents. To achieve the highest possible sensitivity, the diamagnetic measurement and compensation coil integrators are triggered shortly before plasma initiation when the toroidal field coil current is close to its maximum. In this way, the integration time can be chosen to measure only the small changes in flux due to the presence of plasma. Two identical plasma discharges with positive and negative magnetic field have shown that the alignment error with respect to the plasma current is negligible. The measured diamagnetic flux is compared to that predicted by TRANSP simulations. The poloidal beta inferred from the diamagnetic fluxmeasurement is compared to the values calculated from magnetic equilibrium reconstruction codes. The diamagnetic fluxmeasurement and TRANSP simulation can be used together to estimate the coupled power in discharges with dominant ion cyclotron resonance heating. PMID:27250425

Density determinations are very important not only for science and production but also in everyday life, since very often a product is sold by mass but the content of the package is measured by volume (or vice versa) so that the density is needed to convert the values. In production processes the density serves as a measure of mixing ratios and other properties. In science, the determination of Avogadro's constant using silicon single crystals and the potential replacement of the kilogram prototype boost density determination to an extremely low relative uncertainty of 10-7 or less. The book by S V Gupta explains in detail the foundations of any densitymeasurement, namely the volume determination of solid artefacts in terms of the SI base unit of length and the density of water and mercury. Both the history and the actual state of science are reported. For practical densitymeasurements, these chapters contain very useful formulae and tables. Water is treated in detail since it is most widely used as a standard not only for density determination but also to gravimetrically calibrate the capacity of volumetric glassware. Two thirds of the book are devoted to the practical densitymeasurement of solids and liquids, mainly using classical instruments like pycnometers and hydrometers. Methods using free flotation of samples in a liquid without suspension are especially useful for small samples. Also, density determinations of powders and granular or porous samples are explained. Unfortunately, modern density meters of the oscillation type are dealt with in only a few pages. The book is clearly written and easy to understand. It contains a lot of evaluations of formulae that for practical measurements are represented in detailed tables. Methods and measurement procedures are described in detail, including also the calculation of uncertainty. Listings of the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods are very helpful. S V Gupta has written a book that will be

The significance of aquatic CO2 emissions has received attention in recent years. For example annual aquatic emissions in the Amazon basin have been estimated as 500 Mt of carbon1. Methods for determining the flux rates include eddy covariance flux tower measurements, flux estimates calculated from partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in water and the use floating flux chambers connected to an infra-red gas analyser. The flux chamber method is often used because it is portable, cheaper and allows smaller scale measurements. It is also a direct method and hence avoids problems related to the estimation of the gas transfer coefficient that is required when fluxes are calculated from pCO2. However, the use of a floating chamber may influence the fluxmeasurements obtained. The chamber shields the water underneath from effects of wind which could lead to lower flux estimates. Wind increases the flux rate by i) causing waves which increase the surface area for efflux, and ii) removing CO2 build up above the water surface, hence maintaining a higher concentration gradient. Many floating chambers have an underwater extension of the chamber below the float to ensure better seal to water surface and to prevent any ingress of atmospheric air when waves rock the chamber. This extension may cause additional turbulence in flowing water and hence lead to overestimation of flux rates. Some groups have also used a small fan in the chamber headspace to ensure thorough mixing of air in the chamber. This may create turbulence inside the chamber which could increase the flux rate. Here we present results on the effects of different chamber designs on the detected flux rates. 1Richey et al. 2002. Outgassing from Amazonian rivers and wetlands as a large tropical source of atmospheric CO2. Nature 416: 617-620.

A simple technique is described for measuring absolute and relative liquid density based on Archimedes' principle. The technique involves placing a container of the liquid under test on an electronic balance and suspending a probe (e.g. a glass marble) attached to a length of line beneath the surface of the liquid. If the volume of the probe is known, the density of liquid is given by the difference between the balance reading before and after immersion of the probe divided by the volume of the probe. A test showed that the density of water at room temperature could be measured to an accuracy and precision of 0.01 ± 0.1%. The probe technique was also used to measure the relative density of milk, Coca-Cola, fruit juice, olive oil and vinegar.

The widely observed differences between net carbon dioxide (CO2) flux estimates derived from eddy covariance systems deploying open- and closed-path infrared gas analyzers (IRGAs) pose a major challenge for site intercomparison studies. Our limited knowledge about potential systematic biases in the derivation of CO2 flux estimates by these two types of systems hampers our ability to detect significant differences in CO2 fluxmeasurements made at contrasting ecosystems. Here we explore potential systematic biases in CO2 fluxesmeasured with two open-path IRGAs. Comparison of fluxes from open- (EC150 & IRGASON, Campbell Scientific Inc.) and (en)closed-path IRGAs (LI7000 & LI7200, LI-COR Biosciences) at a northern peatland and a northern boreal forest site revealed consistent differences in CO2 flux estimates across a wide range of environmental conditions. These differences directly scaled with the magnitude of the sensible heat flux indicating a selectively systematic bias in open-path CO2 fluxmeasurements due to the temperature sensitivity of the CO2 densitymeasurements. We present two empirical correction procedures: the "direct" approach requires data from a limited period of concurrent CO2 fluxmeasurements by open- and closed-path IRGA-based eddy covariance systems, whereas the second approach only requires wintertime CO2 flux data from the open-path IRGA. The "direct" approach effectively removes the bias in the open-path CO2 fluxmeasurements and results in remaining differences with the closed-path CO2 fluxes smaller than 0.5 µmol m-2 s-1. In contrast, the "wintertime" approach seems to overcompensate for the sensible heat effects with differences remaining between 0.9 µmol m-2 s-1 and 1.8 µmol m-2 s-1. When a high-frequency air temperature is used to compensate for the temperature sensitivity of the CO2 densitymeasurements, open- and closed-path CO2 flux agree within ±0.5 µmol m-2 s-1, similar to the "direct" post-processing correction. These

The accuracy and representativeness of fluxmeasurements from a tall tower in a complex landscape was assessed by examining the vertical and sector variability of the ratio of wind speed to momentum flux and the ratio of vertical advective to eddy flux of heat. The 30-60 m ratios were consistent with theoretical predictions which indicate well mixed flux footprints. Some variation with sector was observed that were consistent with upstream roughness. Vertical advection was negligible compared with vertical flux except for a few sectors at night. This implies minor influence from internal boundary layers. Flux accuracy is a function of sector and stability but 30-60 m fluxes were found to be generally representative of the surrounding landscape. This paper will study flux data from a 300 m tower, with 4 levels of instruments, in a complex landscape. The surrounding landscape will be characterized in terms of the variation in the ratio of mean wind speed to momentum flux as a function of height and wind direction. The importance of local advection will be assessed by comparing vertical advection with eddy fluxes for momentum and heat.

Here we provide a summary and brief review of some of the work done with solid 4He at the University of Massachusetts Amherst below a sample pressure of 28 bar. The motivation for the work has been to attempt to pass 4He atoms through solid 4He without directly applying mechanical pressure to the solid itself. The specific technique chosen is limited to pressures near the melting curve and was initially designed to provide a yes/no answer to the question of whether or not it might be possible to observe such a mass flux. The thermo-mechanical effect and direct mass injection have been separately used to create chemical potential differences between two reservoirs of superfluid 4He connected to each other through superfluid-filled Vycor rods in series with solid 4He, which is in the hcp region of the phase diagram. The thermo-mechanical effect is a more versatile approach. And, in a particular symmetric application it is designed to provide a mass flux with little or no net increase in the density of the solid. Our observations, off but near the melting curve, have included: (1) the presence of an increasing DC flux of atoms through the solid-filled cell with decreasing temperature below ≈650 mK and no flux above this temperature; (2) the presence of a flux minimum and flux instability in the vicinity of 75-80 mK, with a flux increase at lower temperatures; (3) the temperature dependence of the flux above 100 mK and the dependence of the flux on the net driving chemical potential difference provide interesting insights on the possible mechanism that leads to the flux above 100 mK. The most recent data suggest that whatever is responsible for the flux in solid 4He, at least for T>100 mK, may be an example of a Bosonic Luttinger liquid.

Cloud formation and its relation to climate change is the greatest weakness in current numerical climate models. Surface heat flux in some cases causes clouds to form and in other to dissipate and the differences between these cases are subtle enough to make parameterization difficult in a numerical model. One of the goals of the DOE Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program is to make long term measurements at representative sites to improve radiation and cloud formation parameterization. This paper compares spatially averaged optical measurements of heat flux and convergence with a goal of determining how point measurements of heat fluxes scale up to the larger scale used for climate modeling. It was found that the various optical techniques used in this paper compared well with each other and with independent measurements. These results add confidence that spatially averaging optical techniques can be applied to transform point measurements to the larger scales needed for mesoscale and climate modeling. 10 refs., 6 figs. (MHB)

The Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) instruments on board NASA's Terra, Aqua, and Soumi-NPP satellites provide the only measurements of reflected solar shortwave and emitted longwave radiative flux over the Arctic. Various methods have shown the uncertainty of CERES fluxes over sea ice to be higher than other scene types. However validation against an independent radiative fluxmeasurement has never been attempted. We present here an attempt to better quantify the uncertainty of time-and-space averaged CERES fluxmeasurements using airborne measurements from the Arctic Radiation - IceBridge Sea Ice Experiment (ARISE). The ARISE campaign took place during September of 2014 based out of Fairbanks, Alaska, with most of the measurements taken in the vicinity of the sea ice edge between 125°W and 150°W, and 71°N to 77°N. For six of the flights, measurements were taken in a lawnmower type pattern over either 100 x 200 km box regions at a constant altitude of >6 km, or 100 x 100 km box regions at an altitude of between 200 m to 500 m. They were designed to resemble the CERES Level 3 spatial averaging grids, and were located and timed to coincide with a high number of CERES overpasses. On board the aircraft were a set of upward and downward facing shortwave and longwave broadband radiometers (BBR), along with other instruments measuring meteorological conditions and cloud properties. We have compared the broadband radiative fluxes from BBR with those from CERES for the three days where the aircraft was flying the high altitude pattern. We use the Fu-Liou radiative transfer model to account for differences in the measurement altitude between BBR and CERES. We will present results of the comparisons between the computed fluxes and the measured longwave and shortwave radiative fluxes.

Bamboos are grasses (Poaceae) that are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. We aimed at exploring water use patterns of four tropical bamboo species (Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa atroviolacea, and G. apus) with sap fluxmeasurement techniques. Our approach included three experimental steps: (1) a pot experiment with a comparison of thermal dissipation probes (TDPs), the stem heat balance (SHB) method and gravimetric readings using potted B. vulgaris culms, (2) an in situ calibration of TDPs with the SHB method for the four bamboo species, and (3) field monitoring of sap flux of the four bamboo species along with three tropical tree species (Gmelina arborea, Shorea leprosula, and Hevea brasiliensis) during a dry and a wet period. In the pot experiment, it was confirmed that the SHB method is well suited for bamboos but that TDPs need to be calibrated. In situ, species-specific parameters for such calibration formulas were derived. During field monitoring we found that some bamboo species reached high maximum sap fluxdensities. Across bamboo species, maximal sap fluxdensity increased with decreasing culm diameter. In the diurnal course, sap fluxdensities in bamboos peaked much earlier than radiation and vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and also much earlier than sap fluxdensities in trees. There was a pronounced hysteresis between sap fluxdensity and VPD in bamboos, which was less pronounced in trees. Three of the four bamboo species showed reduced sap fluxdensities at high VPD values during the dry period, which was associated with a decrease in soil moisture content. Possible roles of internal water storage, root pressure and stomatal sensitivity are discussed. PMID:26779233

Bamboos are grasses (Poaceae) that are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. We aimed at exploring water use patterns of four tropical bamboo species (Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa atroviolacea, and G. apus) with sap fluxmeasurement techniques. Our approach included three experimental steps: (1) a pot experiment with a comparison of thermal dissipation probes (TDPs), the stem heat balance (SHB) method and gravimetric readings using potted B. vulgaris culms, (2) an in situ calibration of TDPs with the SHB method for the four bamboo species, and (3) field monitoring of sap flux of the four bamboo species along with three tropical tree species (Gmelina arborea, Shorea leprosula, and Hevea brasiliensis) during a dry and a wet period. In the pot experiment, it was confirmed that the SHB method is well suited for bamboos but that TDPs need to be calibrated. In situ, species-specific parameters for such calibration formulas were derived. During field monitoring we found that some bamboo species reached high maximum sap fluxdensities. Across bamboo species, maximal sap fluxdensity increased with decreasing culm diameter. In the diurnal course, sap fluxdensities in bamboos peaked much earlier than radiation and vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and also much earlier than sap fluxdensities in trees. There was a pronounced hysteresis between sap fluxdensity and VPD in bamboos, which was less pronounced in trees. Three of the four bamboo species showed reduced sap fluxdensities at high VPD values during the dry period, which was associated with a decrease in soil moisture content. Possible roles of internal water storage, root pressure and stomatal sensitivity are discussed. PMID:26779233

Precise timing of an ensemble of pulsars spread across the sky (a pulsar timing array, PTA) can be used to search for gravitational waves. The Parkes Pulsar Timing Array project (PPTA) currently observes 23 pulsars with the Parkes Radio Telescope, largely in the southern sky, with the primary goal of searching for gravitational waves. The pulsars in the sample show large variations in fluxdensity due to refractive scintillation in the interstellar medium (ISM). These flux variations cause timing uncertainty to vary by more than an order of magnitude. A better understanding of flux-density variations associated with the interstellar medium (ISM) is crucial for optimizing observing strategy and increase the sensitivity of the PPTA to gravitational waves. Flux-density variations can also potentially be caused by magnetospheric state changes. We use fluxdensity time series and structure functions to examine both the properties of the ISM and search for intrinsic flux variation in these pulsars. We present intriguing features of the datasets and general implications of the results.

Electromechanical densitometer continuously measures the densities of either single-phase or two-phase flowing cryogenic fluids. Measurement is made on actual flow. The instrument operates on the principle that the mass of any vibrating system is a primary factor in determining the dynamic characteristics of the system.

Coronal holes are regions on the Sun's surface that map the footprints of open magnetic field lines. We have developed an automated routine to detect and track boundaries of long-lived coronal holes using full-disk extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) images obtained by SOHO/EIT, SDO/AIA, and STEREO/EUVI. We measure coronal hole areas and magnetic flux in these holes, and compare the measurements with calculations by the potential field source surface (PFSS) model. It is shown that, from 1996 through 2010, the total area of coronal holes measured with EIT images varies between 5% and 17% of the total solar surface area, and the total unsigned open flux varies between (2-5)× 10{sup 22} Mx. The solar cycle dependence of these measurements is similar to the PFSS results, but the model yields larger hole areas and greater open flux than observed by EIT. The AIA/EUVI measurements from 2010-2013 show coronal hole area coverage of 5%-10% of the total surface area, with significant contribution from low latitudes, which is under-represented by EIT. AIA/EUVI have measured much enhanced open magnetic flux in the range of (2-4)× 10{sup 22} Mx, which is about twice the fluxmeasured by EIT, and matches with the PFSS calculated open flux, with discrepancies in the location and strength of coronal holes. A detailed comparison between the three measurements (by EIT, AIA-EUVI, and PFSS) indicates that coronal holes in low latitudes contribute significantly to the total open magnetic flux. These low-latitude coronal holes are not well measured with either the He I 10830 line in previous studies, or EIT EUV images; neither are they well captured by the static PFSS model. The enhanced observations from AIA/EUVI allow a more accurate measure of these low-latitude coronal holes and their contribution to open magnetic flux.

The hemispherical optimized net radiometer (HONER) is an instrument under development at the Los Alamos National Laboratory as part of the Atmospheric Radiation measurements/Unmanned Aerospace Vehicles (ARM/UAV) program. HONER is a radiometer which will either measure directly the difference between the total upwelling and downwelling fluxes or the individual fluxes and will provide a means of measuring the atmospheric radiative flux divergence. Unlike existing instruments which only measure the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately, HONER will achieve an optical difference by chopping the two fluxes alternately onto a common pyroelectric detector. HONER will provide data resolved into the two relevant spectral bands; one covering the solar dominated region from less than 0.4 micrometer to approximately 4 micrometers and the other covering the region from approximately 4 micrometers to greater than 50 micrometers, dominated by thermal radiation. The means of separating the spectral regions guarantees seamless summation to calculate the total flux. The fields-of-view are near-hemispherical, upward and downward. The instrument can be converted, in flight, from the differential mode to absolute mode, measuring the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately and simultaneously. The instrument also features continuous calibration from on-board sources. We describe the basic design and operation of the sensor head and the on-board reference sources as well as the means of the initial deployment on a UAV. This instrument can also be used in ground-based, space, or other airborne applications.

Beam interaction with background gas and walls produces ubiquitous clouds of stray electrons that frequently limit the performance of particle accelerator and storage rings. Counterintuitively we obtained the electron cloud accumulation by measuring the expelled ions that are originated from the beam-background gas interaction, rather than by measuring electrons that reach the walls. The kinetic ion energy measured with a retarding field analyzer (RFA) maps the depressed beam space-charge potential and provides the dynamic electron cloud density. Clearing electrode current measurements give the static electron cloud background that complements and corroborates with the RFA measurements, providing an absolute measurement of electron cloud density during a 5 {micro}s duration beam pulse in a drift region of the magnetic transport section of the High-Current Experiment (HCX) at LBNL.

In this paper we present experimental measurements of the electron density in very electronegative ‘ion–ion’ Ar–SF6 plasmas where previous investigations using Langmuir probes have observed electronegativities of up to 5000. The electron density is measured using a short matched dipole probe technique that provides a tolerance better than ±2 · 1013 m‑3. The results demonstrate that the electron density in the low pressure plasma source (which contains a magnetic filter) can be reduced to around 2.7 · 1013 m‑3 with a corresponding plasma electronegativity of about 4000; close to that from fluid simulation predictions. The highest electronegativity, and lowest electron density, is achieved with a pure SF6 plasma, while adding only 6% SF6 to Ar allows the electronegativity to be increased from 0 to a few hundred with a corresponding decrease in the electron density by more than a thousand. The impedance probe based on a short matched dipole appears to be a practical diagnostic that can be used for independent measurements of the electron density in very electronegative plasmas, and opens up the possibility to further investigate and optimize electronegative plasma sources.

A mechanistic understanding of the global carbon cycle requires quantification of terrestrial ecosystem CO2 fluxes at regional scales. In this paper, we analyze the potential of a Doppler DIAL system to make fluxmeasurements of atmospheric CO2 using the eddy-covariance and boundary layer budget methods and present results from a ground based experiment. The goal of this study is to put CO2 flux point measurements in a mesoscale context. In June 2007, a field experiment combining a 2-m Doppler Heterodyne Differential Absorption Lidar (HDIAL) and in-situ sensors of a 447-m tall tower (WLEF) took place in Wisconsin. The HDIAL measures simultaneously: 1) CO2 mixing ratio, 2) atmosphere structure via aerosol backscatter and 3) radial velocity. We demonstrate how to synthesize these data into regional flux estimates. Lidar-inferred fluxes are compared with eddy-covariance fluxes obtained in-situ at 396m AGL from the tower. In cases where the lidar was not yet able to measure the fluxes with acceptable precision, we discuss possible modifications to improve system performance.

Measurements of glycolytic rate and maximum glycolytic capacity using extracellular flux analysis can give crucial information about cell status and phenotype during normal operation, development of pathology, differentiation, and malignant transformation. They are also of great use when assessing the effects of chemical or drug treatments. Here, we experimentally define maximum glycolytic capacity, demonstrate how it differs from glycolytic rate, and provide a protocol for determining the basal glycolytic rate and maximum glycolytic capacity in cells using extracellular fluxmeasurements. The results illustrate the power of extracellular flux analysis to describe the energetics of adherent cells in culture in a fully quantitative way. PMID:27031845

Magnetic field fluctuation-induced particle transport has been directly measured in the high-temperature core of the MST reversed field pinch plasma. Measurement of radial particle transport is achieved by combining various interferometry techniques, including Faraday rotation, conventional interferometry, and differential interferometry. It is observed that electron convective particle flux and its divergence exhibit a significant increase during a sawtooth crash. In this paper, we describe the basic techniques employed to determine the particle flux.

In late 1992, the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) was planning to switch the solution contained in the poison injection tank from cadmium nitrate to gadolinium nitrate. The poison injection system is an emergency system used to shut down the reactor by adding a neutron poison to the cooling water. This system must be able to supply a minimum of 69 pounds of gadolinium to the reactor coolant system in order to guarantee that the reactor would become subcritical. A graph of the density of gadolinium nitrate solutions over a concentration range of 5 to 30 wt% and a temperature range of 15 to 40{sup o}C was prepared. Routine densitymeasurements of the solution in the poison injection tank are made by HFIR personnel, and an adaptation of the original graph is used to determine the gadolinium nitrate concentration. In late 2008, HFIR personnel decided that the heat tracing that was present on the piping for the poison injection system could be removed without any danger of freezing the solution; however, the gadolinium nitrate solution might get as cold as 5{sup o}C. This was outside the range of the current density-concentration correlation, so the range needed to be expanded. This report supplies a new density-concentration correlation that covers the extended temperature range. The correlation is given in new units, which greatly simplifies the calculation that is required to determine the pounds of gadolinium in the tank solution. The procedure for calculating the amount of gadolinium in the HFIR poison injection system is as follows: (1) Calculate the usable volume in the system; (2) Measure the density of the solution; (3) Calculate the gadolinium concentration using the following equation: Gd(lb/ft{sup 3}) = measureddensity (g/mL) x 34.681 - 34.785; (4) Calculate the amount of gadolinium in the system using the following equation: Amount of Gd(lb) = Gd concentration (lb/ft{sup 3}) x usable volume (ft{sup 3}). The equation in step 3 is exact for a temperature of

An elementary model is presented which illustrates the conditions under which flux-lattice shear, rather than pin breaking, limits the critical current density. An expression for the shear strength of the flux-lattice, based on the plasticity of metals and alloys, is used to derive the critical current density, including the effect of thermal activation in the flux creep regime.

An elementary model is presented which illustrates the conditions under which flux-lattice shear, rather than pin breaking, limits the critical current density. An expression for the shear strength of the flux-lattice, based on the plasticity of metals and alloys, is used to derive the critical current density, including the effect of thermal activation in the flux creep regime.

This paper presents the experimental dependence of the evaporation rate of a nondeaerated distilled water drop from the heat fluxdensity on the surfaces of non-ferrous metals (copper and brass). A drop was placed on a heated substrate by electronic dosing device. To obtain drop profile we use a shadow optical system; drop symmetry was controlled by a high-speed video camera. It was found that the evaporation rate of a drop on a copper substrate is greater than on a brass. The evaporation rate increases intensively with raising volume of a drop. Calculated values of the heat fluxdensity and the corresponding evaporation rates are presented in this work. The evaporation rate is found to increase intensively on the brass substrate with raising the heat fluxdensity.

The difficulty of measuring regional fluxes of CO2 has limited our understanding of the global carbon budget and the processes controlling carbon exchange across politically relevant spatial scales. A Lagrangian experiment was conducted over Iowa on June 19, 2007 as part of the North American Carbon Program's Mid-Continent Intensive using a light-weight, cost-effective aircraft to measure a net drawdown of CO2 concentration within the boundary layer. The drawdown is related to photosynthetic uptake when emission footprints are considered using a combination of emission inventories from the Vulcan project and HYSPLIT source contributions. Entrainment through the top of the boundary layer is measured directly using turbulence measurements from an onboard probe capable of measuring winds in 3-dimensions. Results show a total average CO2 flux of -5.3±0.7 μmol m-2 s-1. The average flux from fossil fuels over the measurement area is 2.8±0.4 μmol m-2 s-1. Thus, the CO2 flux attributable to the vegetation is -8.1±0.8 μmol m-2 s-1. The magnitude of the vegetative flux is comparable to other studies using the Lagrangian approach, but it is smaller than tower- based eddy covariance fluxes over the same period and measurement area. Sensitivities to analysis procedures and discrepancies between aircraft and tower-based measurements are discussed. We describe an aircraft Lagrangian experiment that offers direct, reliable, and cost-effective means for measuring CO2 fluxes at regional scales that can be used to compare to ecosystem models or to satellite measurements.

Methyl bromide volatilization fluxes were calculated for a tarped and a nontarped field using 2 and 4 hour sampling periods. These field measurements were averaged in 8, 12, and 24 hour increments to simulate longer sampling periods. The daily flux profiles were progressively smoothed and the cumulative volatility losses increased by 20 to 30% with each longer sampling period. Error associated with the original fluxmeasurements was determined from linear regressions of measured wind speed and air concentration as a function of height, and averaged approximately 50%. The high errors resulted from long application times, which resulted in a nonuniform source strength; and variable tarp permeability, which is influenced by temperature, moisture, and thickness. The increase in cumulative volatilization losses that resulted from longer sampling periods were within the experimental error of the flux determination method.

This study designed a simple, custom-made system to estimate the diffusive radon flux from solid materials (e.g., sediments, soils, building materials). Determination of the radon flux is based on the measurement of the radon activity in the air over time inside a closed loop system. For sediments, the system consists of wet sediment and water inside a gas-tight flask connected in a closed loop to a drying system and a radon analyzer (Durridge RAD7). The flux is determined based on an initial slope method in which the slope of radon activities vs. time plot during the first 12 h is evaluated. The slope is then multiplied by the total air volume and divided by the exposed sediment area to obtain the radon flux. The minimal thickness or mass of wet sediment should be about 4 cm or (equivalent to approximately 150 g of wet sediment) to obtain a reliable radon diffusive flux in this study.

The passive flux meter (PFM) measures local cumulative water and contaminant fluxes at an observation well. Conditional stochastic simulation accounting for both spatial correlation and data skewness is introduced to interpret passive flux meter observations in terms of probability distributions of discharges across control planes (transects) of wells. An estimator of the effective number of independent data is defined and applied in the development of two significantly simpler approximate methods for estimating discharge distributions. One method uses a transformation of the t statistic to account for data skewness and the other method is closely related to the classic bootstrap. The approaches are demonstrated with passive flux meter data from two field sites (a trichloroethylene [TCE] plume at Ft. Lewis, WA, and a uranium plume at Rifle, CO). All methods require that the flux heterogeneity is sufficiently represented by the data and maximum differences in discharge quantile estimates between methods are ˜7%.

The Hemispherical Optimized NEt Radiometer (HONER) is an instrument under development at the Los Alamos National Laboratory for deployment on an unmanned aerospace vehicle as part of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM/UAV) program. HONER is a differential radiometer which will measure the difference between the total upwelling and downwelling fluxes and is intended to provide a means of measuring the atmospheric radiative flux divergence. Unlike existing instruments which measure the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately, HONER will achieve an optical difference by chopping the two fluxes alternately onto a common pyroelectric detector. HONER will provide data resolved into two spectral bands; one covering the solar dominated region from less than 0.4 micrometer to approximately 4.5 micrometers and the other covering the region from approximately 4.5 micrometers to greater than 50 micrometers, dominated by thermal radiation. The means of separating the spectral regions guarantees seamless summation to calculate the total flux. The fields-of-view are near-hemispherical, upward and downward. The instrument can be converted, in flight, from the differential mode to absolute mode, measuring the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately and simultaneously. The instrument also features continuous calibration from on-board sources. We will describe the design and operation of the sensor head and the on-board reference sources as well as the means of deployment.

The Hemispherical Optimized NEt Radiometer (HONER) is an instrument under development at the Los Alamos National Laboratory for deployment on an unmanned aerospace vehicle as part of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurements (ARM/UAV) program. HONER is a differential radiometer which will measure the difference between the total upwelling and downwelling fluxes and is intended to provide a means of measuring the atmospheric radiative flux divergence. Unlike existing instruments which measure the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately, HONER will achieve an optical difference by chopping the two fluxes alternately onto a common pyroelectric detector. HONER will provide data resolved into two spectral bands; one covering the solar dominated region from less than 0.4 micrometer to approximately 4.5 micrometers and the other covering the region from approximately 4.5 micrometers to greater than 50 micrometers, dominated by thermal radiation. The means of separating the spectral regions guarantees seamless summation to calculate the total flux. The fields-of-view are near-hemispherical, upward and downward. The instrument can be converted, in flight, from the differential mode to absolute mode, measuring the upwelling and downwelling fluxes separately and simultaneously. The instrument also features continuous calibration from on-board sources. We will describe the design and operation of the sensor head and the on-board reference sources as well as the means of deployment.

We present results from a superthermal electron transport code adapted for the Mars environment to study the controlling factors of high-altitude/escaped photoelectron fluxes at this planet. In addition to numerical checks of the code, we investigate the influences of the following effects: magnetic field configuration, solar EUV flux input, and atmospheric density/temperature profiles. In particular, we explore the causes of the extremely high photoelectron fluxes, resulting into two linear dependent trends on solar EUV proxy, measured by the Mars Global Surveyor MAGnetometer/Electron Reflector (MGS MAG/ER) in late 2001-early 2002 (Mars year 25). Studies have shown the relation between these high fluxes and the global dust storm that occurred in the same time period. This modeling work further explores the physical explanations of this relation. Our preliminary results suggest that an increase in CO2 density in the upper thermosphere (150-300 km altitude) is necessary to match the observed changes in photoelectron flux at the MGS altitude of ~400 km.

Methodology and results of measuring the differential density of the neutron flux in irradiation beam line no. 3 of the IBR-2 reactor using neutron activation analysis (NAA) are presented in the paper. The results are compared to the calculation performed on the basis of the 3D MCNP model. The data that are obtained are required to determine the integrated radiation dose of the studied samples at various distances from the reactor.

The objective is to determine how the stratospheric tropospheric exchange of water vapor is affected by the interaction of solar (visible) and planetary (infrared) radiation with tropical cumulonimbus anvils. This research involves field measurements from the ER-2 aircraft as well as radiative transfer modelling to determine heating and cooling rates and profiles that directly affect the exchange between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

The measurement of the mass, or the density, of air can easily be done with very simple materials and offers many interesting phenomena for discussion--buoyancy and its effects being the most obvious but not the only one. Many interesting considerations can be done regarding the behavior of gases, the effect of the external conditions in the…

Inland lakes play important roles in water and greenhouse gas cycling in the environment. This study aims to test the performance of a flux-gradient system for simultaneous measurement of the fluxes of water vapor, CO2, and CH4 at a lake-air interface. The concentration gradients over the water surface were measured with an analyzer based on the wavelength-scanned cavity ring-down spectroscopy technology, and the eddy diffusivity was measured with a sonic anemometer. Results of a zero-gradient test indicate a fluxmeasurement precision of 4.8 W m(-2) for water vapor, 0.010 mg m(-2) s(-1) for CO2, and 0.029 μg m(-2) s(-1) for CH4. During the 620 day measurement period, 97%, 69%, and 67% of H2O, CO2, and CH4 hourly fluxes were higher in magnitude than the measurement precision, which confirms that the flux-gradient system had adequate precision for the measurement of the lake-air exchanges. This study illustrates four strengths of the flux-gradient method: (1) the ability to simultaneously measure the flux of H2O, CO2, and CH4; (2) negligibly small density corrections; (3) the ability to resolve small CH4 gradient and flux; and (4) continuous and noninvasive operation. The annual mean CH4 flux (1.8 g CH4 m(-2) year(-1)) at this hypereutrophic lake was close to the median value for inland lakes in the world (1.6 g CH4 m(-2) year(-1)). The system has adequate precision for CH4 flux for broad applications but requires further improvement to resolve small CO2 flux in many lakes. PMID:25377990

The understanding of the origin of 1/f magnetic flux noise commonly observed in superconducting devices such as SQUIDs and qubits is still a major unsolved puzzle. Here we discuss the possibility that a significant part of the observed low-frequency flux noise measured in these devices is ultimately seeded by cosmological fluctuations. We consider a theory where a primordial flux noise field left over in unchanged form from an early inflationary or quantum gravity epoch of the universe intrinsically influences the phase difference in SQUIDs and qubits. The perturbation seeds generated by this field can explain in a quantitatively correct way the form and amplitude of measured low-frequency flux noise spectra in SQUID devices if one takes as a source of fluctuations the primordial power spectrum of curvature fluctuations as measured by the Planck collaboration. Our theoretical predictions are in excellent agreement with recent low-frequency flux noise measurements of various experimental groups. Magnetic flux noise, so far mainly considered as a nuisance for electronic devices, may thus contain valuable information about fluctuation spectra in the very early universe. PMID:27320418

The understanding of the origin of 1/f magnetic flux noise commonly observed in superconducting devices such as SQUIDs and qubits is still a major unsolved puzzle. Here we discuss the possibility that a significant part of the observed low-frequency flux noise measured in these devices is ultimately seeded by cosmological fluctuations. We consider a theory where a primordial flux noise field left over in unchanged form from an early inflationary or quantum gravity epoch of the universe intrinsically influences the phase difference in SQUIDs and qubits. The perturbation seeds generated by this field can explain in a quantitatively correct way the form and amplitude of measured low-frequency flux noise spectra in SQUID devices if one takes as a source of fluctuations the primordial power spectrum of curvature fluctuations as measured by the Planck collaboration. Our theoretical predictions are in excellent agreement with recent low-frequency flux noise measurements of various experimental groups. Magnetic flux noise, so far mainly considered as a nuisance for electronic devices, may thus contain valuable information about fluctuation spectra in the very early universe.

The understanding of the origin of 1/f magnetic flux noise commonly observed in superconducting devices such as SQUIDs and qubits is still a major unsolved puzzle. Here we discuss the possibility that a significant part of the observed low-frequency flux noise measured in these devices is ultimately seeded by cosmological fluctuations. We consider a theory where a primordial flux noise field left over in unchanged form from an early inflationary or quantum gravity epoch of the universe intrinsically influences the phase difference in SQUIDs and qubits. The perturbation seeds generated by this field can explain in a quantitatively correct way the form and amplitude of measured low-frequency flux noise spectra in SQUID devices if one takes as a source of fluctuations the primordial power spectrum of curvature fluctuations as measured by the Planck collaboration. Our theoretical predictions are in excellent agreement with recent low-frequency flux noise measurements of various experimental groups. Magnetic flux noise, so far mainly considered as a nuisance for electronic devices, may thus contain valuable information about fluctuation spectra in the very early universe. PMID:27320418

In this article, the results from a series of muon fluxmeasurements conducted at the Kimballton Underground Research Facility (KURF), Virginia, United States, are presented. The detector employed for these investigations, is made of plastic scintillator bars readout by wavelength shifting fibers and multianode photomultiplier tubes. Data was taken at several locations inside KURF, spanning rock overburden values from ~ 200 to 1450 m.w.e. From the extracted muon rates an empirical formula was devised, that estimates the muon flux inside the mine as a function of the overburden. The results are in good agreement with muon flux calculations based on analytical models and MUSIC.

Most European lowland rivers are afflicted by high nitrate loads, modified morphology and discharge regulations, resulting in restricted capacity to retain nitrate. In those nutrient saturated rivers, sediment bound denitrification is the only process by which nitrate is removed from the system. Despite the importance of the hyporheic zone in nutrient reduction we are lacking detailed information on the transport to and retention at those reactive sites. Passive flux meters have successfully been used to measure contaminant transport to aquifers (eg Cho and Annable 2007). Here we present how a modification of those samplers can be used to quantify nitrate flux to and intermediate storage patterns in the interstices of an agriculturally impacted river. Installed in the river bed sediments, water flux and nutrient quantities passing through the device are recorded. While the amount of water flux serves as an index for connectivity of the hyporheic zone (exchange surface-subsurface water) the nitrate flux through the device can be seen as the portion of nitrate subjected to denitrification. The generated data on solute behavior in hyporheic zones are the missing puzzle to in-stream nitrate dynamics. Complementing flume and tracer experiments our approach depicts how discharge, morphology and sediment characteristics control the denitrification rate via the connectivity of the hyporheic zone. Passive hyporheic flux meter are a novel method to directly asses the quantity of removed nitrate by an in situ experiment.

The sensible heat flux component of the surface energy balance is typically computed using eddy covariance or two point profile measurements while alternative approaches such as the flux variance method based on convective scaling has been much less explored and applied. Flux variance (FV) certainly has a few limitations and constraints but may be an interesting and competitive method in low-cost and power limited wireless sensor networks (WSN) with the advantage of providing spatio-temporal sensible heat flux over the domain of the network. In a first step, parameters such as sampling frequency, sensor response time, and averaging interval are investigated. Then we explore the applicability and the potential of the FV method for use in WSN in a field experiment. Low-cost sensor systems are tested and compared against reference instruments (3D sonic anemometers) to evaluate the performance and limitations of the sensors as well as the method with respect to the standard calculations. Comparison experiments were carried out at several sites to gauge the fluxmeasurements over different surface types (gravel, grass, water) from the low-cost systems. This study should also serve as an example of spatially distributed sensible heat fluxmeasurements.

Vineyard ecosystems are typical in the Mediterranean area, since wine is one of the most important economic sectors. Nevertheless, only a few studies have been conducted to investigate the interactions between this kind of vegetation and the atmosphere. These information are important both to understand the behaviour of such ecosystems in different environmental conditions, and are crucial to parameterize crop and flux simulation models. Combining direct measurements and modelling can obtain reliable estimates of surface fluxes and crop evapotranspiration. This study would contribute both to (1) directly measure energy fluxes and evapotranspiration in a typical Mediterranean vineyard, located in the South of Sardinia (Italy), through the application of the Eddy Covariance micrometeorological technique and to (2) evaluate the land surface model ACASA (Advanced-Canopy-Atmosphere-Soil Algorithm) in simulating energy fluxes and evapotranspiration over vineyard. Independent datasets of direct measurements were used to calibrate and validate model results during the growing period. Statistical analysis was performed to evaluate model performance and accuracy in predicting surface fluxes. Results will be showed as well as the model capability to be used for future studies to predict energy fluxes and crop water requirements under actual and future climate.

Photosynthesis is fundamentally driven by photon flux rather than energy flux, but not all absorbed photons yield equal amounts of photosynthesis. Thus, two measures of photosynthetically active radiation have emerged: photosynthetic photon flux (PPF), which values all photons from 400 to 700 nm equally, and yield photon flux (YPF), which weights photons in the range from 360 to 760 nm according to plant photosynthetic response. We selected seven common radiation sources and measured YPF and PPF from each source with a spectroradiometer. We then compared these measurements with measurements from three quantum sensors designed to measure YPF, and from six quantum sensors designed to measure PPF. There were few differences among sensors within a group (usually <5%), but YPF values from sensors were consistently lower (3% to 20%) than YPF values calculated from spectroradiometric measurements. Quantum sensor measurements of PPF also were consistently lower than PPF values calculated from spectroradiometric measurements, but the differences were <7% for all sources, except red-light-emitting diodes. The sensors were most accurate for broad-band sources and least accurate for narrow-band sources. According to spectroradiometric measurements, YPF sensors were significantly less accurate (>9% difference) than PPF sensors under metal halide, high-pressure sodium, and low-pressure sodium lamps. Both sensor types were inaccurate (>18% error) under red-light-emitting diodes. Because both YPF and PPF sensors are imperfect integrators, and because spectroradiometers can measure photosynthetically active radiation much more accurately, researchers should consider developing calibration factors from spectroradiometric data for some specific radiation sources to improve the accuracy of integrating sensors.

Absolute photon-fluxmeasurements in the vacuum ultraviolet have extended to short wavelengths by use of rare-gas ionization chambers. The technique involves the measurement of the ion current as a function of the gas pressure in the ion chamber. The true value of the ion current, and hence the absolute photon flux, is obtained by extrapolating the ion current to zero gas pressure. Examples are given at 162 and 266 A. The short-wavelength limit is determined only by the sensitivity of the current-measuring apparatus and by present knowledge of the photoionization processes that occur in the rate gases.

We present estimates of the average characteristic energy and energy flux of energetic precipitating auroral particles. These estimates are derived from irradiance data measured on the Global Ultraviolet Imager (GUVI) flying on the TIMED satellite. We will present both the average and standard deviation of global maps of the energy and energy flux during the first year of GUVI data. We will compare results of the GUVI derived measurements to previous estimates of Hardy who used in-situ particle measurements from the Defense Meteorological Support Satellite (DMSP) program.

We generate tightly focused optical vector beams whose electric fields spin around an axis transverse to the beams' propagation direction. We experimentally investigate these fields by exploiting the directional near-field interference of a dipolelike plasmonic field probe placed adjacent to a dielectric interface. This directionality depends on the transverse electric spin density of the excitation field. Near- to far-field conversion mediated by the dielectric interface enables us to detect the directionality of the emitted light in the far field and, therefore, to measure the transverse electric spin density with nanoscopic resolution. Finally, we determine the longitudinal electric component of Belinfante's elusive spin momentum density, a solenoidal field quantity often referred to as "virtual." PMID:25723220

The capability of ultrasonic levitators operating in air to perform densitymeasurements has been demonstrated. The remote determination of the density of ordinary liquids as well as low density solid metals can be carried out using levitated samples with size on the order of a few millimeters and at a frequency of 20 kHz. Two basic methods may be used. The first one is derived from a previously known technique developed for acoustic levitation in liquid media, and is based on the static equilibrium position of levitated samples in the earth's gravitational field. The second approach relies on the dynamic interaction between a levitated sample and the acoustic field. The first technique appears more accurate (1 percent uncertainty), but the latter method is directly applicable to a near gravity-free environment such as that found in space.

The capability of ultrasonic levitators operating in air to perform densitymeasurements has been demonstrated. The remote determination of the density of ordinary liquids as well as low density solid metals can be carried out using levitated samples with size on the order of a few millimeters and at a frequency of 20 kHz. Two basic methods may be used. The first one is derived from a previously known technique developed for acoustic levitation in liquid media, and is based on the static equilibrium position of levitated samples in the earth's gravitational field. The second approach relies on the dynamic interaction between a levitated sample and the acoustic field. The first technique appears more accurate (1 percent uncertainty), but the latter method is directly applicable to a near gravity-free environment such as that found in space.

The seasonal trends and diurnal patterns of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) were investigated in the San Francisco Bay Area of Northern California from March through August in 2007 and 2008. During these periods, the daily values of PAR fluxdensity (PFD), energy loading with PAR (PARE), a...

Accurate relations between neutron current densities and neutron flux are obtained using the integral transport equation. Using these relations and Fick's Law, diffusion constants can be calculated. These diffusion constants are better than those usually used for the cases in which {sigma}{sub a}/{sigma}{sub s} is not small.

Fatigue failure of steel occurs when small cracks form in a component and then continue to grow to a size large enough to cause failure. In order to understand the strength of steel components it is important to find these cracks. However, at present, it is not easy to distinguish the cracks that will grow fast and cause failure. We developed a three-dimensional scanning Hall probe microscope (3D-SHPM) and observed fatigue cracks at room temperature while they were growing. Four-point-bending fatigue tests were carried out using pre-cracked specimens (JIS-SUJ2, bearing steel). We observed the two-dimensional magnetic fluxdensity distributions around the crack tips and found that there is a strong correlation between the changes in the magnetic fluxdensities and the crack growth. In order to understand this, we looked into all the three components of the magnetic fluxdensities, and found that they shape an arched bridge around a crack. We also found that the magnetic fluxdensity moves in front of the crack tip along the crack growth direction.

Fatigue failure of steel occurs when small cracks form in a component and then continue to grow to a size large enough to cause failure. In order to understand the strength of steel components it is important to find these cracks. However, at present, it is not easy to distinguish the cracks that will grow fast and cause failure. We developed a three-dimensional scanning Hall probe microscope (3D-SHPM) and observed fatigue cracks at room temperature while they were growing. Four-point-bending fatigue tests were carried out using pre-cracked specimens (JIS-SUJ2, bearing steel). We observed the two-dimensional magnetic fluxdensity distributions around the crack tips and found that there is a strong correlation between the changes in the magnetic fluxdensities and the crack growth. In order to understand this, we looked into all the three components of the magnetic fluxdensities, and found that they shape an arched bridge around a crack. We also found that the magnetic fluxdensity moves in front of the crack tip along the crack growth direction.

Wind and many rotary based ocean energy conversion devices rely on a mechanical gearbox to increase their speed so as to match the requirements of the electromagnetic generator. However, mechanical gearboxes have a number of disadvantages such as the need for gear lubrication, no overload protection and the creation of acoustic noise. Frequently direct-drive generators are employed to overcome these issues, wherein the gearbox is removed and the shaft of the turbine is directly connected to the synchronous generator, either with an electrically excited or permanent magnet rotor. If the input speed to the generator is very low the torque must be very high in order to generate the necessary power. However, as the electrical loading of a synchronous generator is thermally limited, the size of the generator will become excessively large at high power levels. An alternative to these technologies is to consider replacing the mechanical gearbox with a magnetic gear. A magnetic gear can create speed change without any physical contact. It has inherent overload protection, and its non-contact operation offers the potential for high reliability. Despite significant progress, existing magnetic gear designs do not achieve torque densities that are competitive with mechanical gearboxes. This research has focused on designing a coaxial magnetic gear that can operate at a volumetric torque density that is comparable to a mechanical gearbox. A flux-focusing rotor topology also called spoke-type rotor magnet arrangement was adopted to improve the air-gap magnetic fluxdensity which in turn improves the torque transferred between the rotors. Finite element analysis was utilized to conduct a parameter sweep analysis of the different geometric parameters of the magnetic gear. A sub-scale magnetic gear with a diameter of 110 mm and a scaled-up magnetic gear with a diameter of 228 mm was designed, constructed and experimentally evaluated. The torque and torque density of sub

Mass flux and mass discharge measurements at contaminated sites have been applied to assist with remedial management, and can be divided into two broad categories: point-scale measurement techniques and pumping methods. Extrapolation across un-sampled space is necessary when usi...

We report measurements of radiance behind a shock wave in Martian simulant (96% CO2, 4% N2) atmosphere at conditions relevant for aerodynamic decelerators. Shock waves are generated in the NASA Ames Electric Arc Shock Tube (EAST) facility at velocities from 6-8 km/s and freestream densities from 1.2-5.9 x 10(exp -4) kilograms per cubic meter (0.05-0.25 Torr, corresponding to 35-50 km altitude). Absolute radiance is measured as a function of wavelength and position in the shock. Radiance measurements extend from the vacuum ultraviolet to near infrared (120-1650 nm). As at higher density/velocity, radiation is dominate by CO 4th positive radiation in the vacuum ultraviolet, though CN contribution is also significant. At most low density conditions, the shock does not relax to equilibrium over several centimeters. A small number of measurements in the mid-infrared were performed to quantify radiation from the fundamental vibrational transition in CO, and this is found to be a minor contributor to the overall radiance at these speeds. Efforts to extend test time and reliability in the 60 cm (24) shock tube will be discussed in the full paper.

Passive nondestructive assay methods are used to monitor the reactor's operation. It is required for nuclear regulatory, calculation validation and safeguards purposes. So, it plays a vital role in the safety and security of the nuclear plants. The possibility of MNSR operation monitoring by measuring the subcritical state photoneutron flux were investigated in this work. The photoneutron flux is induced by the fuels hard gamma radiation in the beryllium reflector. Theoretical formulation and experimental tests were performed. The results show that within a specified cooling time range, the photoneutron flux is induced by a single dominant hard gamma emitter such as (117)Cd (activation product) and (140)Ba ((140)La fission product). This phenomenon was utilized to monitor the cooling time and the operation neutron flux during the last campaign. Thus a passive nondestructive assay method is proposed with regard to the reactor operation's monitoring. PMID:21168337

During summer 2006 eddy correlation CO2 fluxes were measured in the Greenland Sea using a novel system set-up with two shrouded LICOR-7500 detectors. One detector was used exclusively to determine, and allow the removal of, the bias on CO2 fluxes due to sensor motion. A recently published correction method for the CO2-H2O cross-correlation was applied to the data set. We show that even with shrouded sensors the data require significant correction due to this cross-correlation. This correction adjusts the average CO2 flux by an order of magnitude from -6.7 × 10-2 mol m-2 day-1 to -0.61 × 10-2 mol m-2 day-1, making the corrected fluxes comparable to those calculated using established parameterizations for transfer velocity.

Four gas analyzers, capable of measuring methane concentration at a response time necessary for eddy covariance fluxmeasurements, were operated in parallel for about six months between March and August 2010. Their reliability, need of maintenance, user friendliness, data coverage, and data quality were evaluated. The primary aim of this campaign was to provide an instrumentation suggestion for the European Research Infrastructure ICOS (Integrated Carbon Observation System). The instruments used were TGA100A (Campbell Scientific Inc.), RMT-200 (Los Gatos Research Inc.) , G1301-f (Picarro Inc.), and LI-7700 (Li-Cor Inc.). The last one, LI-7700, was a prototype of a later commercialized open path analyzer. The other instruments were closed path analyzers. The measurement site is an oligotrophic open fen Siikaneva, located in southern Finland. The site provides spatially quite uniform methane flux within the footprint. The methane flux rises in the spring, peaks in early August and falls down during the autumn. This provides excellent opportunity to study the performance of the analyzers at different CH4 flux levels from near zero up to about 5 mg m-2 h-1. The preliminary results show great similarity among the instruments in both concentrations and fluxes. Detailed numbers of the measurement characteristics will be provided later. The reliability and need of maintenance are difficult to evaluate quantitatively during that short period.

We will present various observations regarding the geomagnetic energy input and the response of Ionosphere-Thermosphere (IT) system during the March 17, 2015 storm, the largest one in solar cycle 24. The Poynting fluxesmeasured by Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites (F16, F17 and F18) show significant enhancements in the auroral oval and at high latitudes poleward of the auroral oval. Moreover, the ion temperatures observed by DMSP satellites (F16, F17 and F19) at magnetic latitudes greater than 80° are higher than those in the auroral oval, and the their averaged increases are 316K in the northern hemisphere and 248 K in the southern hemisphere, respectively. In addition, the neutral density residuals measured by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite indicate the largest values at the highest orbital latitudes. The wave-like perturbations originating at high latitudes move equatorward with decreasing amplitudes along GRACE orbits, implying a source region for Traveling Atmospheric Disturbances (TADs) at polar latitudes.

Semi-arid climates experience large seasonal and inter-annual variability in radiation and precipitation, creating natural conditions adequate to study how year-to-year changes affect atmosphere-biosphere fluxes. Especially, savanna ecosystems, that combine tree and below-canopy components, create a unique environment in which phenology dramatically changes between seasons. We used a 10-year flux database in order to define seasonal and interannual variability of climatic inputs and fluxes, and evaluate model capability to reproduce observed variability. This is based on the perception that model capability to construct the deviation, and not the average, is important in order to correctly predict ecosystem sensitivity to climate change. Our research site is a low density and low LAI (0.8) semi-arid savanna, located at Tonzi Ranch, Northern California. In this system, trees are active during the warm season (Mar - Oct), and grasses are active during the wet season (Dec - May). Measurements of carbon and water fluxes above and below the tree canopy using eddy covariance and supplementary measurements have been made since 2001. Fluxes were simulated using bio-meteorological process-oriented ecosystem models: BEPS and 3D-CAONAK. Models were partly capable of reproducing fluxes on daily scales (R2=0.66). We then compared model outputs for different ecosystem components and seasons, and found distinct seasons with high correlations while other seasons were purely represented. Comparison was much higher for ET than for GPP. The understory was better simulated than the overstory. CANOAK overestimated spring understory fluxes, probably due to the capability to directly calculated 3D radiative transfer. BEPS underestimated spring understory fluxes, following the pre-description of grass die-off. Both models underestimated peak spring overstory fluxes. During winter tree dormant, modeled fluxes were null, but occasional high fluxes of both ET and GPP were measured following

We wish to point out that a secular change in the Earth's atmospheric neutral density alters charged-particle lifetime in the inner trapped radiation belts, in addition to the changes recently reported as produced by greenhouse gases. Heretofore, changes in neutral density have been of interest primarily because of their effect on the orbital drag of satellites. We extend this to include the orbital lifetime of charged particles in the lower radiation belts. It is known that the charged-belt population is coupled to the neutral density of the atmosphere through changes induced by solar activity, an effect produced by multiple scattering off neutral and ionized atoms along with ionization loss in the thermosphere where charged and neutral populations interact. It will be shown here that trapped-belt flux J is bivariant in energy E and thermospheric neutral density , as J(E,rho). One can conclude that proton lifetimes in these belts are also directly affected by secular changes in the neutral species populating the Earth s thermosphere. This result is a consequence of an intrinsic property of charged-particle flux, that flux is not merely a function of E but is dependent upon density rho when a background of neutrals is present.

Plants require solar radiation for photosynthesis and their growth is directly related to the amount received, assuming that other environmental parameters are not limiting. Therefore, precise estimation of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is necessary to enhance overall accuracies of plant growth models. This study aimed to explore the PAR radiant flux in the San Francisco Bay Area of northern California. During the growing season (March through August) for 2 years 2007-2008, the on-site magnitudes of photosynthetic photon fluxdensities (PPFD) were investigated and then processed at both the hourly and daily time scales. Combined with global solar radiation ( R S) and simulated extraterrestrial solar radiation, five PAR-related values were developed, i.e., fluxdensity-based PAR (PPFD), energy-based PAR (PARE), from-flux-to-energy conversion efficiency (fFEC), and the fraction of PAR energy in the global solar radiation (fE), and a new developed indicator—lost PARE percentages (LPR)—when solar radiation penetrates from the extraterrestrial system to the ground. These PAR-related values indicated significant diurnal variation, high values occurring at midday, with the low values occurring in the morning and afternoon hours. During the entire experimental season, the overall mean hourly value of fFEC was found to be 2.17 μmol J-1, while the respective fE value was 0.49. The monthly averages of hourly fFEC and fE at the solar noon time ranged from 2.15 in March to 2.39 μmol J-1 in August and from 0.47 in March to 0.52 in July, respectively. However, the monthly average daily values were relatively constant, and they exhibited a weak seasonal variation, ranging from 2.02 mol MJ-1 and 0.45 (March) to 2.19 mol MJ-1 and 0.48 (June). The mean daily values of fFEC and fE at the solar noon were 2.16 mol MJ-1 and 0.47 across the entire growing season, respectively. Both PPFD and the ever first reported LPR showed strong diurnal patterns. However, they had

By means of the refractive interstellar scintillation theory (RISS), the fluxdensity structure functions of PSRs B1642-03, B0736-40, B0740-28 and B0329+54 are calculated and compared with the observations at 610 MHz by Stinebring et al. (\\cite{Stinebring00}, hereafter S2000). The theoretical results are in good agreement with observations and the spectra of the electron density fluctuation are all consistent with the Kolmogorov spectra. The theoretical modulation indices m are comparatively less sensitive to the distance H from the observer to the scattering screen but critically depend on the scattering strength line CN2. The structure function does not change remarkably with the variation of H if the scattering screen is closer to the pulsar than to the observer. The results in this paper indicate that the fluxdensity variations observed for these four pulsars are due to a propagation effect (refractive scintillation), not to the intrinsic variability.

Radioactive tracers induced by neutron irradiation provide a gamma ray flux proportional to the density of a metal, allowing densitymeasurement of these metals in extreme high-temperature and high-pressure environments. This concept is applicable to most metals, as well as other substances.

Prototype instrument provides measurement data from which one computes mass density of strand of yarn. Includes fixtures placing known length of yarn under known tension across fixed and movable support. Transverse vibrations induced in yarn by moving movable support up and down. Source of light illuminates photodetector at midlength of yarn, and photodetector senses repeated shadowing caused by vibration of yarn through light, thereby measuring vibrations. Also used for continuous real-time monitoring of such yarn-manufacturing processes as coating or impregnation.

Recently, instruments became available on the market that provide the possibility to perform eddy covariance fluxmeasurements of CH4 and many other trace gases, including the traditional CO2 and H2O. Most of these instruments employ laser spectroscopy, where a cross-sensitivity to H2O is frequently observed leading to an increased dilution effect. Additionally, sorption processes at the intake tube walls modify and delay the observed H2O signal in closed-path systems more strongly than the signal of the sampled trace gas. Thereby, a phase shift between the trace gas and H2O fluctuations is introduced that dampens the H2O flux observed in the sampling cell. For instruments that do not provide direct H2O measurement in the sampling cell, transfer functions from externally measured H2O fluxes are needed to estimate the effect of H2O on trace gas fluxmeasurements. The effects of cross-sensitivity and the damping are shown for an eddy covariance setup with the Fast Greenhouse Gas Analyzer (FGGA, Los Gatos Research Inc.) that measures CO2, CH4, and H2O fluxes. This instrument is technically identical with the Fast Methane Analyzer (FMA, Los Gatos Research Inc.) that does not measure H2O concentrations. Hence, we used measurements from a FGGA to derive a modified correction for the FMA accounting for dilution as well as phase shift effects in our instrumental setup. With our specific setup for eddy covariance fluxmeasurements, the cross-sensitivity counteracts the damping effects, which compensate each other. Hence, the new correction only deviates very slightly from the traditional Webb, Pearman, and Leuning density correction, which is calculated from separate measurements of the atmospheric water vapor flux.

We present a measurement of the relaxation and the dephasing times in a flux qubit. In order to improve coherence of the qubit, two external parameters were optimized: the applied flux through the qubit loop and the bias current of the SQUID which serves as a readout device of the qubit state. At the optimal point the dephasing time measured with spin-echo technique was twice longer than the energy relaxation time. By changing one of the two bias parameters while keeping the other at the optimal value, one can separate the contribution of the noise in each parameter to the decoherence of the qubit.

Expendable, slug-type calorimeter probes were developed for measuring high heat-flux levels of 10-30 kW/sq cm in electric-arc jet facilities. The probes were constructed with thin tungsten caps mounted on Teflon bodies. The temperature of the back surface of the tungsten cap is measured, and its time rate of change gives the steady-state absorbed heat flux as the calorimeter probe heats to destruction when inserted into the arc jet. Design, construction, test, and performance data are presented.

Recent progress in techniques employed in the measurement of very high heat-transfer rates in reentry-type facilities at the Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) is described. These advances include thermal analyses applied to transducer concepts used to make these measurements; improved heat-flux sensor fabrication methods, equipment, and procedures for determining the experimental time response of individual sensors; performance of absolute heat-flux calibrations at levels above 2,000 Btu/cu ft-sec (2.27 kW/cu cm); and innovative methods of performing in-situ run-to-run characterizations of heat-flux probes installed in the test facility. Graphical illustrations of the results of extensive thermal analyses of the null-point calorimeter and coaxial surface thermocouple concepts with application to measurements in aerothermal test environments are presented. Results of time response experiments and absolute calibrations of null-point calorimeters and coaxial thermocouples performed in the laboratory at intermediate to high heat-flux levels are shown. Typical AEDC high-enthalpy arc heater heat-flux data recently obtained with a Calspan-fabricated null-point probe model are included.

In this paper the sensitivity of a future kilometre-sized neutrino detector to detect and measure the diffuse flux of high energy neutrinos is evaluated. Event rates in established detection channels, such as muon events from charged current νμ interactions or cascade events from νe and ντ interaction, are calculated using a detailed Monte Carlo simulation. Neutrino fluxes as expected from prompt charm decay in the atmosphere or from astrophysical sources such as Active Galactic Nuclei are modelled assuming power laws. The ability to measure the normalization and slope of these spectra is then analysed. It is found that the cascade channel generally has a high sensitivity for the detection and characterization of the diffuse flux, when compared to what is expected for the upgoing- and downgoing-muon channels. A flux at the level of the Waxman Bahcall upper bound should be detectable in all channels separately while a combination of the information of the different channels will allow detection of a flux more than one order of magnitude lower. Neutrinos from the prompt decay of charmed mesons in the atmosphere should be detectable in future measurements for all but the lowest predictions.

Aerosol fluxes were measured above a mixed forest by Eddy Covariance (EC) with a Fast Mobility Particle Sizer (FMPS) at the Borden Forest Research Station in Ontario, Canada between 13 July and 12 August 2009. The FMPS, mounted at a height of 33 m (approximately 10 m above the canopy top) and housed in a temperature controlled enclosure, measured size-resolved particle concentrations for 3 to 410 nm at a rate of 1 Hz. For the size range 20fluxes were upward. The exchange velocity is between -0.5 and 2.0 mm s-1, with median values near 0.5 mm s-1 for all sizes between 24 and 280 nm. The net production rate of particles is highest for 75 nm particles and is near 0.4×106 m-2 s-1. Results indicate a decoupling of the above and below canopy spaces, whereby particles are stored in the canopy space at night, and are then diluted with cleaner air above during the day. Chemically speciated fluxmeasurements from a previous study at the same location using a Quadrupole Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (Q-AMS) demonstrate a tendency towards downward fluxes, which may be due to an organic particle component which can not be resolved by the flux mode of the Q-AMS.

In muon-neutrino elastic scattering on electrons is an observable neutrino process whose cross section is precisely known. Consequently a measurement of this process in an accelerator-based νμ beam can improve the knowledge of the absolute neutrino flux impinging upon the detector; typically this knowledge is limited to ~10% due to uncertainties in hadron production and focusing. We also isolated a sample of 135±17 neutrino-electron elastic scattering candidates in the segmented scintillator detector of MINERvA, after subtracting backgrounds and correcting for efficiency. We show how this sample can be used to reduce the total uncertainty on the NuMI νμ flux frommore » 9% to 6%. Finally, our measurement provides a flux constraint that is useful to other experiments using the NuMI beam, and this technique is applicable to future neutrino beams operating at multi-GeV energies.« less

Muon-neutrino elastic scattering on electrons is an observable neutrino process whose cross section is precisely known. Consequently a measurement of this process in an accelerator-based νμ beam can improve the knowledge of the absolute neutrino flux impinging upon the detector; typically this knowledge is limited to ˜10 % due to uncertainties in hadron production and focusing. We have isolated a sample of 135 ±17 neutrino-electron elastic scattering candidates in the segmented scintillator detector of MINERvA, after subtracting backgrounds and correcting for efficiency. We show how this sample can be used to reduce the total uncertainty on the NuMI νμ flux from 9% to 6%. Our measurement provides a flux constraint that is useful to other experiments using the NuMI beam, and this technique is applicable to future neutrino beams operating at multi-GeV energies.

Background 13C metabolic flux analysis is one of the pertinent ways to compare two or more physiological states. From a more theoretical standpoint, the structural properties of metabolic networks can be analysed to explore feasible metabolic behaviours and to define the boundaries of steady state flux distributions. Elementary flux mode analysis is one of the most efficient methods for performing this analysis. In this context, recent approaches have tended to compare experimental fluxmeasurements with topological network analysis. Results Metabolic networks describing the main pathways of central carbon metabolism were set up for a bacteria species (Corynebacterium glutamicum) and a plant species (Brassica napus) for which experimental flux maps were available. The structural properties of each network were then studied using the concept of elementary flux modes. To do this, coefficients of flux efficiency were calculated for each reaction within the networks by using selected sets of elementary flux modes. Then the relative differences - reflecting the change of substrate i.e. a sugar source for C. glutamicum and a nitrogen source for B. napus - of both flux efficiency and fluxmeasured experimentally were compared. For both organisms, there is a clear relationship between these parameters, thus indicating that the network structure described by the elementary flux modes had captured a significant part of the metabolic activity in both biological systems. In B. napus, the extension of the elementary flux mode analysis to an enlarged metabolic network still resulted in a clear relationship between the change in the coefficients and that of the measuredfluxes. Nevertheless, the limitations of the method to fit some particular fluxes are discussed. Conclusion This consistency between EFM analysis and experimental fluxmeasurements, validated on two metabolic systems allows us to conclude that elementary flux mode analysis could be a useful tool to complement 13C

The measurement of the mass, or the density, of air can easily be done with very simple materials and offers many interesting phenomena for discussion—buoyancy and its effects being the most obvious but not the only one. Many interesting considerations can be done regarding the behavior of gases, the effect of the external conditions in the measurement, and the reason for the choice of the procedure, among others. One of the most widespread approaches makes use of rubber balloons. Such an approach can be misleading if attention is not paid to the effect of the buoyant force on the balloon, exerted by the surrounding air. Air is weightless in an environment full of it. While this fact can usually be neglected in daily, nontechnical weight measurements, it is not the case when we are interested in the weight of air itself. A sketch such as the one depicted in Fig. 1 is often presented in elementary science textbooks, as a demonstration that air has weight. A search of the Internet will reveal that this misleading approach is often presented as the simplest one for this kind of measurement at an elementary level and represents one among other common misconceptions that can be found in K-6 science textbooks as discussed, for instance, in Ref. 2. For a more detailed description of the flaws inherent to the measurement of air's weight with a rubber balloon, see Ref. 3. In this paper we will describe two procedures to measure the density of air: weighing a PET bottle and a vacuum rigid container. There are other interesting ways to estimate the weight of air; see, for instance, the experiment of Zhu and Se-yuen using carbon dioxide and Archimedes' principle.4 We emphasize the experimental implications and the physical reasons for the accuracy and conceptual correctness of each method. It is important not to undervalue the importance of both simplicity and reliability for any experimental measurement made in a didactic context.

One of the most pressing questions with regard to climate feedback processes in a warming Arctic is the regional-scale greenhouse gas release from Arctic permafrost areas. Ground-based eddy covariance (EC) measurements provide continuous in-situ observations of the surface-atmosphere exchange of energy and matter. However, these observations are rare in the Arctic permafrost zone and site selection is bound by logistical constraints among others. Consequently, these observations cover only small areas that are not necessarily representative of the region of interest. Airborne measurements can overcome this limitation by covering distances of hundreds of kilometers over time periods of a few hours. The Airborne Measurements of Methane Fluxes (AIRMETH) campaigns are designed to quantitatively and spatially explicitly address this question. During the AIRMETH-2012 and AIRMETH-2013 campaigns aboard the research aircraft POLAR 5 we measured turbulent exchange of energy, methane, and (in 2013) carbon dioxide along thousands of kilometers covering the North Slope of Alaska and the Mackenzie Delta, Canada. Time-frequency (wavelet) analysis, footprint modeling, and machine learning techniques are used to (i) determine spatially resolved turbulence statistics, fluxes, and contributions of biophysical surface properties, and (ii) extract regionally valid functional relationships between environmental drivers and the observed fluxes. These environmental response functions (ERF) are used to explain spatial flux patterns and - if drivers are available in temporal resolution - allow for spatio-temporal scaling of the observations. This presentation will focus on 2012 methane fluxes on the North Slope of Alaska and the relevant processes on the regional scale and provide an updated 100 m resolution methane flux map of the North Slope of Alaska.

The micrometeorological technique of eddy correlation was used to measure the vertical fluxes of NO, NO{sub 2}, and ozone in rural North Carolian during spring 1995 as part of the Natural emission of Oxidant precurssors-Validation of techniques and Assessment (NOVA) field experiment. Net fluxdensities were measured at heights 5 and 10 m above an agricultural field with short corn plants and large amount of exposed bare soil between the rows. Large upward eddy fluxes of NO{sub 2} were seen, and strong NO emissions from the soil were measured by collaborators using environmental enclosures on the soil surface. Data indicate that about 50% of the nitrogen emitted from the soil as NO was converted into NO{sub 2} at 5 m. Rest of the emitted nitrogen may remain as NO flux and be returned back to the vegetation and soil by deposition. Divergence of the NO{sub 2} and O{sub 3} fluxes were detected between 5 and 10 m. This is consistent with likely net NO{sub 2} and O{sub 3} destruction rates. The data will be used to help develop parameterizations of the flux of nitrogen oxides into the lower troposphere.

To understand how terrestrial ecosystems respond to global climate change, colleagues have globally measured the energy, water and carbon dioxide fluxdensities (F) over various vegetations by the eddy covariance (EC) method. However, the process of F calculation and the method of quality control and quality assurance (QCQA) are complex and site specific. Moreover, instantly maintaining remote EC fluxmeasurement sites against instrumentation problems and administrative difficulties is laborious. To overcome these issues, particularly those of realtime F monitoring and prompt site management, FluxPro was created. FluxPro is consisted of three functional systems: 1) gathering system that transports EC measurements from various sites to the FluxPro management server; 2) cooking system that computes F and its frictional uncertainty (ɛ) together with micrometeorological variables (V); and 3) serving system that presents the above two results as charts to be distributed over the internet in realtime. Consequently, FluxPro could become an appropriate system in realtime-multi-site management, since it not only to automatically monitors F with ɛ and V but also continuously surveils EC sites, providing copious information and an email alert system.

Measurement of aerosol properties is very important for understanding climate change. Aerosol optical properties influence solar radiation throughout the troposphere. According to the Working Group I report of the intergovernmental panel for climate change [IPCC, 2007], aerosols have a direct radiative forcing of - 0.5±0.4 W/m2 with a medium to low level of scientific understanding. This relatively large uncertainty indicates the need for more frequent and precise measurements of aerosol properties. We will show how actinic fluxmeasurements can be used to derive important optical aerosol parameters such as aerosol optical thickness and depth, surface albedo, angstrom exponent, radiative forcing by clouds and aerosols, aerosol extinction, and others. The instrument used for this study is a combination of two spectroradiometers measuring actinic flux in the ultraviolet and visible radiation range from 280 to 690 nm with a resolution of 1 nm. Actinic flux is measured as the radiation incident on a spherical surface with sensitivity independent of direction. In contrast, irradiance is measured as the radiation incident on a plane surface, which depends on the cosine of the incident angle. Our goal is to assess the capabilities of using spectral actinic fluxmeasurements to derive various aerosol properties. Here we will compare 1) actinic fluxmeasurements to irradiance measurements from the spectral solar flux radiometer (SSFR), 2) derived aerosol size distributions with measurements from a white light optical particle counter (WLOPC) and ultra high sensitivity aerosol size spectrometer (UHSAS), and 3) derived aerosol optical extinction with measurements from a cavity ringdown aerosol extinction spectrometer (CRD-AES). These comparisons will utilize data from three recent field campaigns over New England and the Atlantic Ocean (ICARTT 2004), Texas and the Gulf of Mexico during (TexAQS/GoMACCS 2006), and Alaska and the Arctic Ocean (ARCPAC 2008) when the instruments

Evapotranspiration (ET) may be measured by mass balance methods and estimated by flux sensing methods. The mass balance methods are typically restricted in terms of the area that can be represented (e.g., surface area of weighing lysimeter (LYS) or equivalent representative area of neutron probe (NP...

This project uses a novel approach to measure real-world pollutant fluxes on an extended spatial and temporal scale, and to infer from those the source-specific pollutant emissions needed for a comparison to and an improvement of current emissions inventories. Air pollutants a...

Recent measurements of meson production in proton-nucleus interactions have made possible reliable neutrino flux determinations at modern neutrino experiments. This article discusses preliminary results from the HARP, MIP, and E910 are discussed along with some of their implications for the MINOS, K2K, and MiniBooNE neutrino experiments.

Overhead isolated powerline conductors (hereinafter: "OIPLC") are the most compact form for distributing low voltage currents. From the known physics of magnetic field emission from 3-phase power lines, it is expected that excellent symmetry of the 120° shifted phase currents and where compact configuration of the 3-phase+neutral line exist, the phase current vectorial summation of the magnetic field fluxdensity (MFFD) is expected to be extremely low. However, despite this estimation, an unexpectedly very high MFFD was found in at least three towns in Israel. This paper explains the reasons leading to high MFFD emissions from compact OIPLC and the proper technique to fix it. Analysis and measurement results had led to the failure hypothsis of neutral line poor connection design and poor grounding design of the HV-LV utility transformers. The paper elaborates on the low MFFD exposure level setup by the Israeli Environmental Protection Office which adopted a rather conservative precaution principal exposure level (2 mG averaged over 24 h). PMID:23675630

Malva parviflora L. (mallow) is a species that occupies high-light habitats as a weedy invader in orchards and vineyards. Species of the Malvaceae are known to solar track and anecdotal evidence suggests this species may also. How M. parviflora responds physiologically to light in comparison with other species within the Malvaceae remains unknown. Tracking and photosynthetic responses to photon fluxdensity (PFD) were evaluated on plants grown in greenhouse conditions. Tracking ability was assessed in the growth conditions and by exposing leaves to specific light intensities and measuring changes in the angle of the leaf plane. Light responses were also determined by photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence. Leaves followed a heliotropic response which was highly PFD-dependent, with tracking rates increasing in a curvilinear pattern. Maximum tracking rates were up to 20 degrees h(-1) and saturated for light above 1,300 micromol (photons) m(-2) s(-1). This high-light saturation, both for tracking (much higher than the other species), and for photosynthesis, confirmed mallow as a high-light demanding species. Further, because there was no photoinhibition, the leaves could capture the potential of an increased carbon gain in higher irradiance by resorting to solar tracking. Modelling suggested the tracking response could increase the annual carbon gain by as much as 25% compared with leaves that do not track the sun. The various leaf attributes associated with solar tracking, therefore, help to account for the success of this species as a weed in many locations worldwide. PMID:19576789

The aim of the present work was to analyse the relationship of seedlings and saplings of Taxus baccata to the photosynthetic photon fluxdensity (PPFD) reaching the forest floor under natural conditions. Two permanent plots, subdivided into 1 × 1 m square plots, were established in a naturally regenerating population of T. baccata formed during last decades in the Kórnik Arboretum, Poland. All seedlings in every 1 × 1 m plots were counted. Relative PPFD was measured for every plot at the canopy height of the yew seedlings. The dependence of seedling density upon PPFD was examined. We found, that the frequency of the smallest seedlings (to 6.0 cm tall) was highest in the most shaded plots and decreased in plots with increasing PPFD. Thus, the youngest yew seedlings can germinate and grow in very shady conditions. However, the older seedlings (6.1-25.0 and 25.1-100.0 classes) were observed most frequently in 2-7% PPFD. The small numbers of older, taller seedlings in deep shade likely indicate a higher mortality rate of seedlings less than 6 cm in height without promotion to the next height class. Probably the low value of PPFD under the canopy of the stand significantly reduces the competition of other plants with the youngest yew seedlings. At higher light levels they may not be able to compete with more light-demanding plants, such as herbs and seedlings of broad-leaved trees. The seedlings of the second (6.1-25.0 cm) and third (25.1-100.0 cm) height classes were observed most frequently in the plots with 2-7% PPFD ( Fig. 1b and c).

The non-uniform concentrated solar flux distribution on the outer surface of the absorber pipe can lead to large circumferential gradient temperature and high concentrated temperature of the absorber pipe wall, which is one of the primary causes of parabolic trough solar receiver breakdown. In this study, a novel shape of the parabolic trough absorber pipe is proposed as a solution to well homogenize the solar flux distribution, as well as, the temperature in the absorber wall. The conventional straight absorber located along the focal line of the parabola is replaced by wavy one (invention patent by Y. Demagh [1]) for which the heat fluxdensity distribution on the outer surface varies in both axial and azimuthal directions (3D) while it varies only in the azimuthal direction on the former (2D). As far as we know, there is not previous study which has used a longitudinally wavy pipe as an absorber into the parabolic trough collector unit.

This paper describes a new low-power instrument for measuring methane flux by eddy covariance method at sites without grid power. Design and field performance of the LI-7700 Methane Analyzer (LI-COR Biosciences) are examined in this study. The instrument uses 8 W of power in steady-state operation and employs a tunable diode laser in an open Herriott cell configuration with 0.47 m base path and 30 m optical path length. Methane number density is measured using wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) with 2f detection. Typical signal noise is <5 ppb rms at 10 Hz. Corrections for variations in temperature, pressure and water vapor are described. Data losses due to mirror contamination and condensation are minimized by a radiation shield and automatic mirror cleaning system and are shown to be small. Measured spectra and co-spectra are shown to follow the Kaimal model at deployment sites meeting classical criteria, and to follow sensible heat flux co-spectra from the sonic anemometer in most other cases, including difficult ones. Measuredfluxes are similar in magnitude to those expected from the literature, and zero flux was measured during both summer and winter at a site known to have fluxes at or very near zero.

We report a synthesis of seven years of eddy covariance (EC) fluxmeasurements in the city of Florence, Italy. The measurement site is located in a densely urbanized area in the central city area, where fluxes are governed by anthropogenic emissions, considering the lack of green-space in the flux footprint. EC fluxmeasurements of CO2 are made long-term since seven years, while short-term campaigns have been aimed at measuring CH4 and particles fluxes. CO2 and CH4 densities are measured with fast open-path sensors, while particles in the range 0.32 - 7.00 µm optical diameter are measured with a custom-built optical counter. CO2 long-term fluxes are always a net source, with a small inter-annual variability associated with a high seasonality, ranging from 39 to 172% of the mean annual value in summer and winter respectively. CH4 fluxes to the atmosphere are relevant, representing about 8% of CO2-equivalent emissions, and do not exhibit any significant seasonality. Relative contributions of road traffic and domestic heating to observed emissions has been estimated through multi-variate analysis combined with inventorial data and emission proxies such as traffic counters and gas network flow rates, revealing that domestic heating accounts for more than 80% of observed CO2 fluxes. Heating and road traffic are instead responsible for only 14% of observed CH4 fluxes, while the major residual part is likely dominated by gas network leakages. Particles flux data show a smaller seasonal trend and a pronounced weekend decrease, highlighting that the contribution of heating to particle emissions is relatively small compared to road traffic. Dynamics at hourly time scales during week and week-end days allows the analysis of the coupled role of emission strength and atmospheric processes such as advection and entrainment in regulating atmospheric concentrations. This set of observations highlights the potential of urban EC fluxmeasurements as a validation tool for

An infrared imaging system has been installed on NSTX (National Spherical Torus Experiment) at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory to measure the surface temperatures on the lower divertor and center stack. The imaging system is based on an Indigo Alpha 160 x 128 microbolometer camera with 12 bits/pixel operating in the 7-13 {micro}m range with a 30 Hz frame rate and a dynamic temperature range of 0-700 degrees C. From these data and knowledge of graphite thermal properties, the heat flux is derived with a classic one-dimensional conduction model. Preliminary results of heat flux scaling are reported.

No simple algorithm seems to exist for calculating proton fluxes and lifetimes in the Earth's inner, trapped radiation belt throughout the solar cycle. Most models of the inner trapped belt in use depend upon AP8 which only describes the radiation environment at solar maximum and solar minimum in Cycle 20. One exception is NOAAPRO which incorporates flight data from the TIROS/NOAA polar orbiting spacecraft. The present study discloses yet another, simple formulation for approximating proton fluxes at any time in a given solar cycle, in particular between solar maximum and solar minimum. It is derived from AP8 using a regression algorithm technique from nuclear physics. From flux and its time integral fluence, one can then approximate dose rate and its time integral dose. It has already been published in this journal that the absorbed dose rate, D, in the trapped belts exhibits a power law relationship, D = A(rho)(sup -n), where A is a constant, rho is the atmospheric density, and the index n is weakly dependent upon shielding. However, that method does not work for flux and fluence. Instead, we extend this idea by showing that the power law approximation for flux J is actually bivariant in energy E as well as density rho. The resulting relation is J(E,rho)approx.(sum of)A(E(sup n))rho(sup -n), with A itself a power law in E. This provides another method for calculating approximate proton flux and lifetime at any time in the solar cycle. These in turn can be used to predict the associated dose and dose rate.

Atmospheric oxygen provides one of the most powerful tracers to study the carbon cycle through its close interaction with carbon dioxide. Keeling and co-workers demonstrated this at the global scale by using small variations in atmospheric oxygen content to disentangle oceanic and terrestrial carbon sinks. It would be very exciting to apply similar ideas at the ecosystem level to improve our understanding of biosphere-atmosphere exchange and our ability to predict the response of the biosphere and atmosphere to climate change. The eddy covariance technique is perhaps the most effective approach available to quantify the exchange of gases between these spheres. Therefore, eddy covariance fluxmeasurements of oxygen would be extremely valuable. However, this requires a fast response (0.1 seconds), high relative precision (0.001% or 10 per meg) oxygen sensor. We report recent progress in developing such a sensor using a high resolution visible laser to probe the oxygen A-band electronic transition. We have demonstrated precision of 1 ppmv or 5 per meg for a 100 second measurement duration. This sensor will enable oxygen fluxmeasurements using eddy covariance. In addition, we will incorporate a second laser in this instrument to simultaneously determine the fluxes of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor within the same sampling cell. This will provide a direct, real time measurement of the ratio of the flux of oxygen to that of carbon dioxide. This ratio is expected to vary on short time scales and small spatial scales due to the differing stoichiometry of processes producing and consuming carbon dioxide. Thus measuring the variations in the ratio of oxygen and carbon dioxide fluxes will provide mechanistic information to improve our understanding of the crucial exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and biosphere.

Entanglement spectrum (ES), the eigenvalues of the reduced density matrix of a subsystem, serves as a powerful theoretical tool to study many-body systems. For example, the gap and degeneracies of the entanglement spectrum have been used to identify various topological phases. However, the usefulness of such a concept in real experiments has been debated, since it is believed that obtaining the ES requires full state tomography, at a cost which exponentially grows with the systems size. Inspired by a recent density matrix exponentiation technique, we propose a scheme to measure ES by evolving the system with a Hamiltonian that is the subsystem's own reduced density matrix. Such a time evolution can be induced by an ancilla photon that is coupled to multiple qubits at the same time. The phase associated with the time evolution can be detected and converted into ES through either a digital or an analogue scheme. The digital scheme involves a modified quantum phase estimation algorithm based on random time evolution, while the analogue scheme is in the spirit of Ramsey interferometry. Both schemes are not limited by the size of the system, and are especially sensitive to the gap and degeneracies. We also discuss the implementation in cavity/circuit-QED and ion trap systems.

The principle and physics issues of charged particle beam diagnostics using a current flux grating are presented. Unidirectional array of conducting channels with interstitial insulating layers of spacing d is placed in the beam path to capture flux of charge and electronically reproduce an exact beam current profile with density variation. The role of secondary electrons due to the impinging particle beam (both electron and ion) on the probe is addressed and a correction factor is introduced. A 2-dimensional profile of the electron beam is obtained by rotating the probe about the beam axis. Finally, a comparison of measured beam profile with a Gaussian is presented.

The estimation of CO2 exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere is essential to understand the global carbon cycle. The eddy-covariance technique offers a very direct approach to observe these fluxes. The turbulent CO2 flux is measured, as well as the sensible and latent heat flux and the momentum flux, a few meters above the ocean in the atmosphere. Assuming a constant-flux layer in the near-surface part of the atmospheric boundary layer, this flux equals the exchange flux between ocean and atmosphere. The purpose of this paper is the comparison of long-term fluxmeasurements at two different heights above the Baltic Sea to investigate this assumption. The results are based on a 1.5-year record of quality-controlled eddy-covariance measurements. Concerning the flux of momentum and of sensible and latent heat, the constant-flux layer theory can be confirmed because flux differences between the two heights are insignificantly small more than 95 % of the time. In contrast, significant differences, which are larger than the measurement error, occur in the CO2 flux about 35 % of the time. Data used for this paper are published at http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.808714.

Micro plastic-magnetic rotors of various sizes and shapes are widely used in industry, their magnetic fluxmeasurement is one of the most important links in the production process, and therefore some technologies should be adopted to improve the measurement precision and efficiency. In this paper, the automatic measurement principle of micro plastic-magnetic rotors is proposed and the integration time constant and the integrator drift’s suppression and compensation in the measurement circuit are analyzed. Two other factors influencing the measurement precision are also analyzed, including the relative angles between the rotor magnetic poles and the measurement coil, and the starting point of the rotors in the coil where the measurement begins. An instrument is designed to measure the magnetic flux of the rotors. Measurement results show that the measurement error is within ±1%, which meets the basic requirements in industry application, and the measurement efficiency is increased by 10 times, which can cut down labor cost and management cost when compared with manual measurement.

Apparatus for research in combustion of solid propellants measures oscillatory response of rate of burning to oscillating thermal radiation from modulated CO2 laser. Determines response to rate of burning to equivalent oscillation in pressure. Rod of propellant mounted in burner assembly including waveguide at one end and infrared window at other end. Microwave Doppler velocimeter measures motion of combustion front. Microwave, laser-current, and heat-flux signals processed into and recorded in forms useful in determining desired response of propellent.

A new method to determine the thermal accommodation coefficient of gases on solid surfaces based on heat-fluxmeasurements is presented. An experimental chamber and supporting diagnostics have been developed that allow accurate heat-fluxmeasurements between two parallel plates. The heat flux is inferred from temperature-difference measurements across the plates using precision thermistors, where the plate temperatures are set with two carefully controlled thermal baths. The resulting heat flux is used in a recently derived semi-empirical formula to determine the thermal accommodation coefficient. This formula has the advantage of eliminating the ˜8% discrepancy between molecular simulations and the predictions of the more approximate Sherman-Lees formula used in most studies. Nitrogen, argon, and helium on stainless steel with various finishes and on other silicon-based surfaces are examined. The thermal accommodation coefficients thus determined indicate that the Maxwell gas-surface interaction model can adequately represent all of the experimental observations. Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.

We report on high-fidelity dispersive measurements of a long-lived flux qubit using a Josephson superconducting traveling wave parametric amplifier (JTWPA). A capacitively shunted flux qubit that incorporates high-Q MBE aluminum will have longer relaxation and dephasing times when compared to a conventional flux qubit, while also maintaining the large anharmonicity necessary for complex gate operations. The JTWPA relies on a Josephson junction embedded transmission line to deliver broadband, nonreciprocal gain with large dynamic range. This research was funded in part by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA); and by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research & Engineering under Air Force Contract number FA8721-05-C-0002. All statements of fact, opinion or conclusions contained herein are those of the authors and should not be construed as representing the official views or policies of

Soil moisture importantly controls land surface processes such as energy and water partitioning. A good understanding of these controls is needed especially when recognizing the challenges in providing accurate hyper-resolution hydrometeorological simulations at sub-kilometre scales. Soil moisture controlling factors can, however, differ at distinct scales. In addition, some parameters in land surface models are still often prescribed based on observations obtained at another scale not necessarily employed by such models (e.g., soil properties obtained from lab samples used in regional simulations). To minimize such effects, parameters can be constrained with local data from Eddy-Covariance (EC) towers (i.e., latent and sensible heat fluxes) and Point Scale (PS) soil moisture observations (e.g., TDR). However, measurement scales represented by EC and PS still differ substantially. Here we use the fact that Cosmic-Ray Neutron Sensors (CRNS) estimate soil moisture at horizontal footprint similar to that of EC fluxes to help answer the following question: Does reduced observation scale mismatch yield better soil moisture - surface fluxes representation in land surface models? To answer this question we analysed soil moisture and surface fluxesmeasurements from twelve COSMOS-Ameriflux sites in the USA characterized by distinct climate, soils and vegetation types. We calibrated model parameters of the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES) against PS and CRNS soil moisture data, respectively. We analysed the improvement in soil moisture estimation compared to uncalibrated model simulations and then evaluated the degree of improvement in surface fluxes before and after calibration experiments. Preliminary results suggest that a more accurate representation of soil moisture dynamics is achieved when calibrating against observed soil moisture and further improvement obtained with CRNS relative to PS. However, our results also suggest that a more accurate

In this communication we define electronic symmetry operation and symmetry group measures, eSOM and eSGM, respectively, develop the basic algorithms to obtain them, and give some examples of the possible applications of these new computational tools. These new symmetry measures based on the electron density have been tested in an analysis of (a) the inversion symmetry for heteronuclear diatomic molecules, for the eclipsed and staggered conformations of ethane and tetrafluoroethane, and for a series of octahedral sulfur halides; (b) the reflection symmetry of three different conformers of tetrafluoroethene; and (c) the loss of C(6) symmetry along the B(2u) distortion mode of benzene and an analysis of rotational symmetry for different six-member ring heterocycles. PMID:20652983

We report measurements of the energy dependence of flux thresholds and incubation fluences for He-ion induced nano-fuzz formation on hot tungsten surfaces at UHV conditions over a wide energy range using real-time sample imaging of tungsten target emissivity change to monitor the spatial extent of nano-fuzz growth, corroborated by ex situ SEM and FIB/SEM analysis, in conjunction with accurate ion-flux profile measurements. The measurements were carried out at the multicharged ion research facility (MIRF) at energies from 218 eV to 8.5 keV, using a high-flux deceleration module and beam flux monitor for optimizing the decel optics on the low energy MIRF beamline. The measurements suggest that nano-fuzz formation proceeds only if a critical rate of change of trapped He density in the W target is exceeded. To understand the energy dependence of the observed flux thresholds, the energy dependence of three contributing factors: ion reflection, ion range and target damage creation, were determined using the SRIM simulation code. The observed energy dependence can be well reproduced by the combined energy dependences of these three factors. The incubation fluences deduced from first visual appearance of surface emissivity change were (2-4) × 1023 m-2 at 218 eV, and roughly a factor of 10 less at the higher energies, which were all at or above the displacement energy threshold. The role of trapping at C impurity sites is discussed.

In the present work, the water fluxdensities of nozzles with flat jet and full cone jet were experimentally measured using an apparatus in industrial scale that reproduces the secondary cooling of the continuous casting of round billets of Vallourec Tubos do Brasil. A mathematical function was defined to express the water fluxdensity in both longitudinal and angular directions of the strand. A mathematical model for heat transfer and solidification for the continuous casting of round billets was developed applying the experimental water fluxdensity profile, establishing a non-uniform water distribution approach. The mathematical model was validated by experimental measurements of the billet superficial temperature, performed at the industrial plant. The results of the mathematical model using both uniform and non-uniform water fluxdensity approaches were compared. The non-uniform water distribution approach enabled to identify important variations of the heat transfer coefficients and the billet temperatures, especially in the first cooling zones where the steel temperature is higher, and to assess more accurately the local effects of the water distribution on the thermal behavior of the strand. The non-uniform water fluxdensity approach applied to the mathematical model was a useful and more accurate tool to improve the comprehension of the thermal behavior of the steel along the secondary cooling.

Measurements of the underground atmospheric muon flux are important in order to determine accurately the overburden in mwe (meter water equivalent) of an underground laboratory for appreciating which kind of experiments are feasible for that location. Slanic- Prohava is one of the 7 possible locations for the European large underground experiment LAGUNA (Large Apparatus studying Grand Unification and Neutrino Astrophysics). A mobile device consisting of 2 scintillator plates (≍0.9 m2, each) one above the other and measuring in coincidence, was set-up for determining the muon flux. The detector it is installed on a van which facilitates measurements on different positions at the surface or in the underground and it is in operation since autumn 2009. The measurements of muon fluxes presented in this contribution have been performed in the underground salt mine Slanic-Prahova, Romania, where IFIN-HH has built a low radiation level laboratory, and at the surface on different sites of Romania, at different elevations from 0 m a.s.l up to 655 m a.s.l. Based on our measurements we can say that Slanic site is a feasible location for LAGUNA in Unirea salt mine at a water equivalent depth of 600 mwe. The results have been compared with Monte-Carlo simulations performed with the simulation codes CORSIKA and MUSIC.

We present an original implementation of the absolute-sphere method recently proposed by Ohno. The luminous-flux unit, the lumen, is realized by means of an integrating sphere with an opening calibrated by a luminous-intensity standard placed outside. The adapted experimental setup permits one to measure luminous-flux values between 5 and 2500 lm with a significant improvement with respect to the simulated performances reported in the literature. Traditionally, the luminous-flux unit, the lumen, is realized by goniophotometric techniques in which the luminous-intensity distribution is measured and integrated over the whole solid angle. Thus sphere results are compared with those obtained with the Istituto Elettrotecnico Nazionale goniophotometer. In particular, a set of standards, characterized by luminous-flux values of approximately 2000 lm, has been calibrated with both techniques. We highlight some of the problems encountered. Experimental results show that the agreement between the two methods is within the estimated uncertainty and suggest promising areas for future research.

The lack of temporally and spatially resolved measurements under nucleate bubbles has complicated efforts to fully explain pool-boiling phenomena. The objective of this current work was to acquire time and space resolved temperature distributions under nucleating bubbles on a constant heat flux surface using a microheater array with 100x 100 square microns resolution, then numerically determine the wall to liquid heat flux. This data was then correlated with high speed (greater than l000Hz) visual recordings of The bubble growth and departure from the heater surface acquired from below and from the side of the heater. The data indicate that microlayer evaporation and contact line heat transfer are not major heat transfer mechanisms for bubble growth. The dominant heat transfer mechanism appears to be transient conduction into the liquid as the liquid rewets the wall during the bubble departure process.

The Heat Flux Microsensor is a new sensor which was recently patented by Virginia Tech and is just starting to be marketed by Vatell Corp. The sensor is made using the thin-film microfabrication techniques directly on the material that is to be measured. It consists of several thin-film layers forming a differential thermopile across a thermal resistance layer. The measured heat flux q is proportional to the temperature difference across the resistance layer q= k(sub g)/delta(sub g) x (t(sub 1) - T(sub 2)), where k(sub g) is the thermal conductivity and delta (sub g) is the thickness of the thermal resistance layer. Because the gages are sputter coated directly onto the surface, their total thickness is less than 2 micrometers, which is two orders of magnitude thinner than previous gages. The resulting temperature difference across the thermal resistance layer (delta is less than 1 micrometer) is very small even at high heat fluxes. To generate a measurable signal many thermocouple pairs are put in series to form a differential thermopile. The combination of series thermocouple junctions and thin-film design creates a gage with very attractive characteristics. It is not only physically non-intrusive to the flow, but also causes minimal disruption of the surface temperature. Because it is so thin, the response time is less than 20 microsec. Consequently, the frequency response is flat from 0 to over 50 kHz. Moreover, the signal of the Heat Flux Microsensor is directly proportional to the heat flux. Therefore, it can easily be used in both steady and transient flows, and it measures both the steady and unsteady components of the surface heat flux. A version of the Heat Flux Microsensor has been developed to meet the harsh demands of combustion environments. These gages use platinum and platinum-10 percent rhodium as the thermoelectric materials. The thermal resistance layer is silicon monoxide and a protective coating of Al2O3 is deposited on top of the sensor. The

The goal of this project was to develop a sensor that incorporates the field-tested concepts of the passive flux meter to provide direct in situ measures of flux for uranium and groundwater in porous media. Measurable contaminant fluxes [J] are essentially the product of concentration [C] and groundwater flux or specific discharge [q ]. The sensor measures [J] and [q] by changes in contaminant and tracer amounts respectively on a sorbent. By using measurement rather than inference from static parameters, the sensor can directly advance conceptual and computational models for field scale simulations. The sensor was deployed in conjunction with DOE in obtaining field-scale quantification of subsurface processes affecting uranium transport (e.g., advection) and transformation (e.g., uranium attenuation) at the Rifle IFRC Site in Rifle, Colorado. Project results have expanded our current understanding of how field-scale spatial variations in fluxes of uranium, groundwater and salient electron donor/acceptors are coupled to spatial variations in measured microbial biomass/community composition, effective field-scale uranium mass balances, attenuation, and stability. The coupling between uranium, various nutrients and micro flora can be used to estimate field-scale rates of uranium attenuation and field-scale transitions in microbial communities. This research focuses on uranium (VI), but the sensor principles and design are applicable to field-scale fate and transport of other radionuclides. Laboratory studies focused on sorbent selection and calibration, along with sensor development and validation under controlled conditions. Field studies were conducted at the Rifle IFRC Site in Rifle, Colorado. These studies were closely coordinated with existing SBR (formerly ERSP) projects to complement data collection. Small field tests were conducted during the first two years that focused on evaluating field-scale deployment procedures and validating sensor performance under

The Heat Flux Microsensor is a new sensor which was recently patented by Virginia Tech and is just starting to be marketed by Vatell Corp. The sensor is made using the thin-film microfabrication techniques directly on the material that is to be measured. It consists of several thin-film layers forming a differential thermopile across a thermal resistance layer. The measured heat flux q is proportional to the temperature difference across the resistance layer q= k(sub g)/delta(sub g) x (t(sub 1) - T(sub 2)), where k(sub g) is the thermal conductivity and delta (sub g) is the thickness of the thermal resistance layer. Because the gages are sputter coated directly onto the surface, their total thickness is less than 2 micrometers, which is two orders of magnitude thinner than previous gages. The resulting temperature difference across the thermal resistance layer (delta is less than 1 micrometer) is very small even at high heat fluxes. To generate a measurable signal many thermocouple pairs are put in series to form a differential thermopile. The combination of series thermocouple junctions and thin-film design creates a gage with very attractive characteristics. It is not only physically non-intrusive to the flow, but also causes minimal disruption of the surface temperature. Because it is so thin, the response time is less than 20 microsec. Consequently, the frequency response is flat from 0 to over 50 kHz. Moreover, the signal of the Heat Flux Microsensor is directly proportional to the heat flux. Therefore, it can easily be used in both steady and transient flows, and it measures both the steady and unsteady components of the surface heat flux. A version of the Heat Flux Microsensor has been developed to meet the harsh demands of combustion environments. These gages use platinum and platinum-10 percent rhodium as the thermoelectric materials. The thermal resistance layer is silicon monoxide and a protective coating of Al2O3 is deposited on top of the sensor. The

Measurements of mass flux are obtained in a vitiated supersonic ground test facility using a sensor based on line-of-sight (LOS) diode laser absorption of water vapor. Mass flux is determined from the product of measured velocity and density. The relative Doppler shift of an absorption transition for beams directed upstream and downstream in the flow is used to measure velocity. Temperature is determined from the ratio of absorption signals of two transitions (lambda(sub 1)=1349 nm and lambda(sub 2)=1341.5 nm) and is coupled with a facility pressure measurement to obtain density. The sensor exploits wavelength-modulation spectroscopy with second-harmonic detection (WMS-2f) for large signal-to-noise ratios and normalization with the 1f signal for rejection of non-absorption related transmission fluctuations. The sensor line-of-sight is translated both vertically and horizontally across the test section for spatially-resolved measurements. Time-resolved measurements of mass flux are used to assess the stability of flow conditions produced by the facility. Measurements of mass flux are within 1.5% of the value obtained using a facility predictive code. The distortion of the WMS lineshape caused by boundary layers along the laser line-of-sight is examined and the subsequent effect on the measured velocity is discussed. A method for correcting measured velocities for flow non-uniformities is introduced and application of this correction brings measured velocities within 4 m/s of the predicted value in a 1630 m/s flow.

Over the past 40 years, there has been growing interest in both laser communications and directed energy weapons that operate from moving aircraft. As a laser beam propagates from an aircraft in flight, it passes through boundary layers, turbulence, and shear layers in the near-region of the aircraft. These fluid instabilities cause strong density gradients which adversely affect the transmission of laser energy to a target. Adaptive optics provides corrective measures for this problem but current technology cannot respond quickly enough to be useful for high speed flight conditions. This research investigated the use of plasma as a medium for adaptive optics for aero-optics applications. When a laser beam passes through plasma, its phase is shifted proportionally to the electron density and gas heating within the plasma. As a result, plasma can be utilized as a dynamically controllable optical medium. Experiments were carried out using a cylindrical dielectric barrier discharge plasma chamber which generated a sub-atmospheric pressure, low-temperature plasma. An electrostatic model of this design was developed and revealed an important design constraint relating to the geometry of the chamber. Optical diagnostic techniques were used to characterize the plasma discharge. Single-wavelength interferometric experiments were performed and demonstrated up to 1.5 microns of optical path difference (OPD) in a 633 nm laser beam. Dual-wavelength interferometry was used to obtain time-resolved profiles of the plasma electron density and gas heating inside the plasma chamber. Furthermore, a new multi-wavelength infrared diagnostic technique was developed and proof-of-concept simulations were conducted to demonstrate the system's capabilities.

After the AGILE detection the gamma-ray flare from the quasar PSK2023-07 (correctly PKS B2022-077) by Piano et al, ATel #8879 we carried out its observations with the RATAN-600 radio telescope SAO RAS. The measuredfluxdensities are equal to 1.50, 1.96, 2.54 Jy at 4.8, 11.2, 21.7 GHz respectively on 1 Apr 2016.

Recent technological advances have enabled the wider application of automated chambers for soil greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxmeasurements, several of them commercially available. However, few studies addressed the challenges associated with operating these systems. In this contribution we compared two commercial soil GHG chamber systems - the LI-8100A Automated Soil CO2 Flux System and the greenhouse gas monitoring system AGPS. From April until August 2014, the two systems monitored in parallel soil respiration (SR) fluxes at a recently harvested poplar (Populus) plantation, which provided a bare field situation directly after the harvest as well as a closed canopy later on. For the bare field situation (15 April-30 June 2014), the cumulated average SR obtained from the unfiltered data sets of the LI-8100A and the AGPS were 520 and 433 g CO2 m-2 respectively. For the closed canopy phase (1 July-31 August 2014), which was characterized by a higher soil moisture content, the cumulated average SR estimates were not significantly different with 507 and 501 g CO2 m-2 for the AGPS and the LI-8100A respectively. Flux quality control and filtering did not significantly alter the results obtained by the LI-8100A, whereas the AGPS SR estimates were reduced by at least 20 %. The main reasons for the observed differences in the performance of the two systems were (i) a lower data coverage provided by the AGPS due to technical problems; (ii) incomplete headspace mixing in the AGPS chambers; (iii) lateral soil CO2 diffusion below the collars during AGPS chamber measurements; and (iv) a possible overestimation of nighttime SR fluxes by the LI-8100A. Additionally, increased root growth was observed within the LI-8100A collars but not within the AGPS collars, which might have also contributed to the observed differences. In contrast to the LI-8100A, the AGPS had the gas sample inlets installed inside the collars and not the chambers. This unique design feature enabled for the first

Recent technological advances have enabled the wider application of automated chambers for soil greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxmeasurements, several of them commercially available. However, only few studies addressed the difficulties and challenges associated with operating these systems. In this contribution we compared two commercial soil GHG chamber systems-the LI-8100A Automated Soil CO2 Flux System and the Greenhouse Gas Monitoring System AGPS. From April 2014 until August 2014, the two systems monitored in parallel soil respiration (SR) fluxes at a recently harvested poplar plantation, which provided a bare field situation directly after the harvest as well as a closed canopy later on. For the bare field situation (15 April-30 June 2014), the cumulated average SR obtained from the unfiltered datasets of the LI-8100A and the AGPS were 520 and 433 g CO2 m-2, respectively. For the closed canopy phase (01 July-31 August 2014), which was characterized by a higher soil moisture content, the cumulated average SR estimates were not significantly different with 507 and 501 g CO2 m-2 for the AGPS and the LI-8100A, respectively. Flux quality control and filtering did not significantly alter the results obtained by the LI-8100A, whereas the AGPS SR estimates were reduced by at least 20 %. The main reasons for the observed differences in the performance of the two systems were (i) a lower data coverage provided by the AGPS due to technical problems; (ii) incomplete headspace mixing in the AGPS chambers; (iii) lateral soil CO2 diffusion below the collars during AGPS chamber measurements; (iv) increased root growth within the LI-8100A collars; and (v) a possible overestimation of nighttime SR fluxes by the LI-8100A. In contrast to the LI-8100A, the AGPS had the gas sample inlets installed inside the collars and not the chambers. This unique design feature enabled for the first time the detection of disturbed chamber measurements during nights with a stratified atmosphere

Aerosol fluxes were measured above a mixed forest by Eddy Covariance (EC) with a Fast Mobility Particle Sizer (FMPS) at the Borden Forest Research Station in Ontario, Canada between 13 July and 12 August 2009. Chemically speciated fluxmeasurements were made at a height of 29 m at the same location between 19 July and 2 August, 2006 using a Quadrupole Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (Q-AMS). The Q-AMS measured an average sulphate deposition velocity of 0.3 mm s-1 and an average nitrate deposition velocity of 4.8 mm s-1. The FMPS, mounted at a height of 33 m (approximately 10 m above the canopy top) and housed in a temperature controlled enclosure, measured size-resolved particle concentrations from 3 to 410 nm diameter at a rate of 1 Hz. For the size range 18 < D < 452 nm, 60 % of fluxes were upward. The exchange velocity was between -0.5 and 2.0 mm s-1, with median values near 0.5 mm s-1 for all sizes between 22 and 310 nm. The size distribution of the apparent production rate of particles at 33 m peaked at a diameter of 75 nm. Results indicate a decoupling of the above and below canopy spaces, whereby particles are stored in the canopy space at night, and are then diluted with cleaner air above during the day.

The Born-Oppenheimer (BO) description of electronically adiabatic molecular processes predicts a vanishing electronic fluxdensity (j(e)), =1/2∫dR[Δ(b) (x;R) - Δ(a) (x;R)] even though the electrons certainly move in response to the movement of the nuclei. This article, the first of a pair, proposes a quantum-mechanical "coupled-channels" (CC) theory that allows the approximate extraction of j(e) from the electronically adiabatic BO wave function . The CC theory is detailed for H(2)(+), in which case j(e) can be resolved into components associated with two channels α (=a,b), each of which corresponds to the "collision" of an "internal" atom α (proton a or b plus electron) with the other nucleus β (proton b or a). The dynamical role of the electron, which accommodates itself instantaneously to the motion of the nuclei, is submerged in effective electronic probability (population) densities, Δ(α), associated with each channel (α). The Δ(α) densities are determined by the (time-independent) BO electronic energy eigenfunction, which depends parametrically on the configuration of the nuclei, the motion of which is governed by the usual BO nuclear Schrödinger equation. Intuitively appealing formal expressions for the electronic fluxdensity are derived for H(2)(+). PMID:22103768

The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of bone densitymeasurement with a new OCT technology. A phantom was fabricated using two materials, a water-equivalent compound and hydroxyapatite (HA), combined in precise proportions (QRM GrnbH, Germany). The phantom was designed to have the approximate physical size and range in bone density as a human calcaneus, with regions of 0, 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 mg/cc HA. The phantom was scanned at 80, 120 and 140 KVp with a GE CT/i HiSpeed Advantage scanner. A ring of highly attenuating material (polyvinyl chloride or teflon) was slipped over the phantom to alter the image by introducing non-axi-symmetric beam hardening. Images were corrected with a new OCT technology using an estimate of the effective X-ray beam spectrum to eliminate beam hardening artifacts. The algorithm computes the volume fraction of HA and water-equivalent matrix in each voxel. We found excellent agreement between expected and computed HA volume fractions. Results were insensitive to beam hardening ring material, HA concentration, and scan voltage settings. Data from all 3 voltages with a best fit linear regression are displays.

Ultraviolet radiation is the key factor driving tropospheric photochemistry. It is strongly modulated by clouds and aerosols. A quantitative understanding of the radiation field and its effect on photochemistry is thus only possible with a detailed knowledge of the interaction between clouds and radiation. The overall objective of the project INSPECTRO was the characterization of the three-dimensional actinic radiation field under cloudy conditions. This was achieved during two measurement campaigns in Norfolk (East Anglia, UK) and Lower Bavaria (Germany) combining space-based, aircraft and ground-based measurements as well as simulations with the one-dimensional radiation transfer model UVSPEC and the three-dimensional radiation transfer model MYSTIC. During both campaigns the spectral actinic fluxdensity was measured at several locations at ground level and in the air by up to four different aircraft. This allows the comparison of measured and simulated actinic radiation profiles. In addition satellite data were used to complete the information of the three dimensional input data set for the simulation. A three-dimensional simulation of actinic fluxdensity data under cloudy sky conditions requires a realistic simulation of the cloud field to be used as an input for the 3-D radiation transfer model calculations. Two different approaches were applied, to derive high- and low-resolution data sets, with a grid resolution of about 100 m and 1 km, respectively. The results of the measured and simulated radiation profiles as well as the results of the ground based measurements are presented in terms of photolysis rate profiles for ozone and nitrogen dioxide. During both campaigns all spectroradiometer systems agreed within ±10% if mandatory corrections e.g. stray light correction were applied. Stability changes of the systems were below 5% over the 4 week campaign periods and negligible over a few days. The J(O1D) data of the single monochromator systems can be

Ultraviolet radiation is the key factor driving tropospheric photochemistry. It is strongly modulated by clouds and aerosols. A quantitative understanding of the radiation field and its effect on photochemistry is thus only possible with a detailed knowledge of the interaction between clouds and radiation. The overall objective of the project INSPECTRO was the characterization of the three-dimensional actinic radiation field under cloudy conditions. This was achieved during two measurement campaigns in Norfolk (East Anglia, UK) and Lower Bavaria (Germany) combining space-based, aircraft and ground-based measurements as well as simulations with the one-dimensional radiation transfer model UVSPEC and the three-dimensional radiation transfer model MYSTIC. During both campaigns the spectral actinic fluxdensity was measured at several locations at ground level and in the air by up to four different aircraft. This allows the comparison of measured and simulated actinic radiation profiles. In addition satellite data were used to complete the information of the three dimensional input data set for the simulation. A three-dimensional simulation of actinic fluxdensity data under cloudy sky conditions requires a realistic simulation of the cloud field to be used as an input for the 3-D radiation transfer model calculations. Two different approaches were applied, to derive high- and low-resolution data sets, with a grid resolution of about 100 m and 1 km, respectively. The results of the measured and simulated radiation profiles as well as the results of the ground based measurements are presented in terms of photolysis rate profiles for ozone and nitrogen dioxide. During both campaigns all spectroradiometer systems agreed within ±10% if mandatory corrections e.g. stray light correction were applied. Stability changes of the systems were below 5% over the 4 week campaign periods and negligible over a few days. The J(O1D) data of the single monochromator systems can be

Power spectral density (PSD) was used to analyze the outputs of several gyros in the frequency range from 0.01 to 200 Hz. Data were accumulated on eight inertial quality instruments. The results are described in terms of input angle noise (arcsec 2/Hz) and are presented on log-log plots of PSD. These data show that the standard deviation of measurement noise was 0.01 arcsec or less for some gyros in the passband from 1 Hz down 10 0.01 Hz and probably down to 0.001 Hz for at least one gyro. For the passband between 1 and 100 Hz, uncertainties in the 0.01 and 0.05 arcsec region were observed.

Uranium and thorium within the Earth produce a major portion of terrestrial heat along with a measurableflux of electron antineutrinos. These elements are key components in geophysical and geochemical models. Their quantity and distribution drive the dynamics, define the thermal history, and are a consequence of the differentiation of the Earth. Knowledge of uranium and thorium concentrations in geological reservoirs relies largely on geochemical model calculations. This article describes the methods and criteria to experimentally determine average concentrations of uranium and thorium in the continental crust and in the mantle by using site-specific measurements of the terrestrial antineutrino flux. Optimal, model-independent determinations involve significant exposures of antineutrino detectors remote from nuclear reactors at both a midcontinental and a midoceanic site. This would require major, new antineutrino detection projects. The results of such projects could yield a greatly improved understanding of the deep interior of the Earth. PMID:18172211

An alpha-gamma counter was used to measure the absolute neutron flux of a monochromatic cold neutron beam to sub-0.1,% precision. Simultaneously, the counter was used to calibrate a thin neutron flux monitor based on neutron absorption on ^6Li to the same precision. This monitor was used in the most precise beam-based measurement of the neutron lifetime, where the limiting systematic effect was the uncertainty in the neutron counting efficiency (0.3,%). The counter uses a thick target of ^10B-enriched boron carbide to completely absorb the beam. The rate of absorbed neutrons is determined by counting 478 keV gamma rays from neutron capture on ^10B with calibrated high-purity germanium detectors. The calibration results and the implications for the neutron lifetime will be discussed.

Laboratory experiments show a linear relationship between the total heat flux from a water surface to air and the standard deviation of the surface temperature field, {sigma}, derived from thermal images of the water surface over a range of heat fluxes from 400 to 1800 Wm{sup -2}. Thermal imagery and surface data were collected at two power plant cooling lakes to determine if the laboratory relationship between heat flux and {sigma} exists in large heated bodies of water. The heat fluxes computed from the cooling lake data range from 200 to 1400 Wm{sup -2}. The linear relationship between {sigma} and Q is evident in the cooling lake data, but it is necessary to apply band pass filtering to the thermal imagery to remove camera artifacts and non-convective thermal gradients. The correlation between {sigma} and Q is improved if a correction to the measured {sigma} is made that accounts for wind speed effects on the thermal convection. Based on more than a thousand cooling lake images, the correlation coefficients between {sigma} and Q ranged from about 0.8 to 0.9.

Knowledge of aerothermally induced convective heat transfer is important in the design of thermal protection systems for launch vehicles. Aerothermal models are typically calibrated via the data from circular, in-flight, flush-mounted surface heat flux gauges exposed to the thermal and velocity boundary layers of the external flow. Typically, copper or aluminum Schmidt- Boelter gauges, which take advantage of the one-dimensional Fourier's law of heat conduction, are used to measure the incident heat flux. This instrumentation, when surrounded by low-conductivity insulation, has a wall temperature significantly lower than the insulation. As a result of this substantial disturbance to the thermal boundary layer, the heat flux incident on the gauge tends to be considerably higher than it would have been on the insulation had the calorimeter not been there. In addition, radial conductive heat transfer from the hotter insulation can cause the calorimeter to indicate heat fluxes higher than actual. An overview of an effort to develop and calibrate gauge correction techniques for both of these effects will be presented.

Observations of turbulent transport in magnetized plasmas indicate that plasma losses can be due to coherent structures or bursts of plasma rather than a classical random walk or diffusion process. A model for synthetic data based on coherent plasma flux events is proposed, where all basic properties can be obtained analytically in terms of a few control parameters. One basic parameter in the present case is the density of burst events in a long time-record, together with parameters in a model of the individual pulse shapes and the statistical distribution of these parameters. The model and its extensions give the probability density of the plasma flux. An interesting property of the model is a prediction of a near-parabolic relation between skewness and kurtosis of the statistical flux distribution for a wide range of parameters. The model is generalized by allowing for an additive random noise component. When this noise dominates the signal we can find a transition to standard results for Gaussian random noise. Applications of the model are illustrated by data from the toroidal Blaamann plasma.

A flux mapping system has been designed, implemented and experimented at the top of the Themis solar tower in France. This system features a moving bar associated to a CCD video camera and a flux gauge mounted onto the bar used as reference measurement for calibration purpose. Images and flux signal are acquired separately. The paper describes the equipment and focus on the data processing to issue the distribution of fluxdensity and concentration at the aperture of the solar receiver. Finally, the solar power entering into the receiver is estimated by integration of fluxdensity. The processing is largely automated in the form of a dedicated software with fast execution. A special attention is paid to the accuracy of the results, to the robustness of the algorithm and to the velocity of the processing.

The disjunct eddy covariance (DEC) method is an interesting alternative to the conventional eddy covariance (EC) method because it allows the estimation of turbulent fluxes of species for which fast sensors are not available. We have developed and validated a new disjunct sampling system (called MEDEE). This system is built with chemically inert materials. Air samples are taken quickly and alternately in two cylindrical reservoirs, the internal pressures of which are regulated by a moving piston. The MEDEE system was designed to be operated either on the ground or aboard an aircraft. It is also compatible with most analysers since it transfers the air samples at a regulated pressure. To validate the system, DEC and EC measurements of CO2 and latent heat fluxes were performed concurrently during a field campaign. EC fluxes were first compared to simulated DEC (SDEC) fluxes and then to actual DEC fluxes. Both the simulated and actual DEC fluxes showed a good agreement with EC fluxes in terms of correlation. The determination coefficients (R2) were 0.93 and 0.91 for DEC and SDEC latent heat fluxes, respectively. For DEC and SDEC CO2 fluxes R2 was 0.69 in both cases. The conditions of low fluxes experienced during the campaign impaired the comparison of the different techniques especially for CO2 fluxmeasurements. Linear regression analysis showed an 14% underestimation of DEC fluxes for both CO2 and latent heat compared to EC fluxes. A first field campaign, focusing on biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions, was carried out to measure isoprene fluxes above a downy oak (Quercus Pubescens) forest in the south-east of France. The measured standard emission rate was in the lower range of reported values in earlier studies. Further analysis will be conducted through ground-based and airborne campaigns in the coming years.

Rainfall interception plays an important role in the water cycle in natural ecosystems. Interception by the forest canopies have been widely observed or estimated over various ecosystems, such as tropical rainforest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest. However interception by the short canopies, e.g. shrubby plant, grassland and crop, has been rarely observed since it has been difficult to obtain reliable precipitation measurements under the canopy. In this study, we estimated monthly and annual rainfall interception in grassland using evapotranspiration data of eddy fluxmeasurements. Experiments were conducted in grassland (Italian ryegrass) from 2010 to 2012 growing season in Kumamoto, Japan. Evapotranspiration (latent heat flux) were observed throughout the year based on the eddy covariance technique. A three dimensional sonic anemometer and an open path CO2/H2O analyzer were used to calculate 30 min flux. Other meteorological factors, such as air temperature, humidity and solar radiation, were also observed. Rainfall interception was estimated as follows. 1) Using evapotranspiration data during dry period, environmental response of surface conductance (gc) was inversely calculated based on the big-leaf model. 2) Evapotranspiration without interception during precipitation period was estimated using above model and environmental response of gc. 3) Assuming that evaporation of intercepted rainfall is equal to the difference in evapotranspiration between above estimation and actual measurements, rainfall interception was estimated over experimental period. The account of rainfall interception in grassland using this technique will be presented at the meeting.

Methanol is the second most abundant volatile organic compound in the troposphere and plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. While there is consensus about the dominant role of living plants as the major source and the reaction with OH as the major sink of methanol, global methanol budgets diverge considerably in terms of source/sink estimates, reflecting uncertainties in the approaches used to model and the empirical data used to separately constrain these terms. Here we compiled micrometeorological methanol flux data from eight different study sites and reviewed the corresponding literature in order to provide a first cross-site synthesis of the terrestrial ecosystem-scale methanol exchange and present an independent data-driven view of the land–atmosphere methanol exchange. Our study shows that the controls of plant growth on production, and thus the methanol emission magnitude, as well as stomatal conductance on the hourly methanol emission variability, established at the leaf level, hold across sites at the ecosystem level. Unequivocal evidence for bi-directional methanol exchange at the ecosystem scale is presented. Deposition, which at some sites even exceeds methanol emissions, represents an emerging feature of ecosystem-scale measurements and is likely related to environmental factors favouring the formation of surface wetness. Methanol may adsorb to or dissolve in this surface water and eventually be chemically or biologically removed from it. Management activities in agriculture and forestry are shown to increase local methanol emission by orders of magnitude; however, they are neglected at present in global budgets. While contemporary net land methanol budgets are overall consistent with the grand mean of the micrometeorological methanol fluxmeasurements, we caution that the present approach of simulating methanol emission and deposition separately is prone to opposing systematic errors and does not allow for full advantage to be taken of

Methanol is the second most abundant volatile organic compound in the troposphere and plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. While there is consensus about the dominant role of living plants as the major source and the reaction with OH as the major sink of methanol, global methanol budgets diverge considerably in terms of source/sink estimates, reflecting uncertainties in the approaches used to model and the empirical data used to separately constrain these terms. Here we compiled micrometeorological methanol flux data from eight different study sites and reviewed the corresponding literature in order to provide a first cross-site synthesis ofmore » the terrestrial ecosystem-scale methanol exchange and present an independent data-driven view of the land–atmosphere methanol exchange. Our study shows that the controls of plant growth on production, and thus the methanol emission magnitude, as well as stomatal conductance on the hourly methanol emission variability, established at the leaf level, hold across sites at the ecosystem level. Unequivocal evidence for bi-directional methanol exchange at the ecosystem scale is presented. Deposition, which at some sites even exceeds methanol emissions, represents an emerging feature of ecosystem-scale measurements and is likely related to environmental factors favouring the formation of surface wetness. Methanol may adsorb to or dissolve in this surface water and eventually be chemically or biologically removed from it. Management activities in agriculture and forestry are shown to increase local methanol emission by orders of magnitude; however, they are neglected at present in global budgets. While contemporary net land methanol budgets are overall consistent with the grand mean of the micrometeorological methanol fluxmeasurements, we caution that the present approach of simulating methanol emission and deposition separately is prone to opposing systematic errors and does not allow for full advantage to be

Volatilization of organic contaminants is a potentially significant removal mechanism from wetlands, but field measurements are scarce and the physiochemical controls on volatilization from wetland soils remain poorly understood. It has been established that volatilization rates of certain pollutants are enhanced by vegetation and are strongly correlated with evapotranspiration (ET). These observations rely on flux chambers measurements, which are characterized by significant uncertainty due the chamber's effects on the meteorological variables around the plant and consequent impact on the biophysical processes governing ET and plant uptake of soil contaminants. Here we present data from a mesocosm study using a modified single-well push-pull test to measure in-situ volatilization rates from inundated soils vegetated with the wetland macrophytes Scirpus acutus and Typha latifolia, as well as from unplanted soil. This new method uses a test solution containing the volatile tracers sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), helium (He), and dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC-12) to estimate first-order volatilization rates and examine the relationship between physiochemical properties and volatilization rates. The test also yields an estimate for the volume of subsurface gas bubbles, which is used to derive a retardation factor for the effect of interphase partitioning on the estimation of kinetic parameters. We evaluate models to partition observed fluxes into different pathways for plant-mediated volatilization: transpirational uptake and consequent volatilization, and gas-phase diffusion through porous root aerenchyma. Those models are then used to scale tracer-derived volatilization fluxes to priority organic pollutants including benzene, trichloroethylene, and vinyl chloride. We also discuss the implementation of this method at field scales to estimate volatilization as a component of phytoremediation applications.

Methanol is the second most abundant volatile organic compound in the troposphere and plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. While there is consensus about the dominant role of living plants as the major source and the reaction with OH as the major sink of methanol, global methanol budgets diverge considerably in terms of source/sink estimates reflecting uncertainties in the approaches used to model, and the empirical data used to separately constrain these terms. Here we compiled micrometeorological methanol flux data from eight different study sites and reviewed the corresponding literature in order to provide a first cross-site synthesis of the terrestrial ecosystem-scale methanol exchange and present an independent data-driven view of the land–atmosphere methanol exchange. Our study shows that the controls of plant growth on the production, and thus the methanol emission magnitude, and stomatal conductance on the hourly methanol emission variability, established at the leaf level, hold across sites at the ecosystem-level. Unequivocal evidence for bi-directional methanol exchange at the ecosystem scale is presented. Deposition, which at some sites even exceeds methanol emissions, represents an emerging feature of ecosystem-scale measurements and is likely related to environmental factors favouring the formation of surface wetness. Methanol may adsorb to or dissolve in this surface water and eventually be chemically or biologically removed from it. Management activities in agriculture and forestry are shown to increase local methanol emission by orders of magnitude; they are however neglected at present in global budgets. While contemporary net land methanol budgets are overall consistent with the grand mean of the micrometeorological methanol fluxmeasurements, we caution that the present approach of simulating methanol emission and deposition separately is prone to opposing systematic errors and does not allow taking full advantage of the rich

Methanol is the second most abundant volatile organic compound in the troposphere and plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. While there is consensus about the dominant role of living plants as the major source and the reaction with OH as the major sink of methanol, global methanol budgets diverge considerably in terms of source/sink estimates reflecting uncertainties in the approaches used to model, and the empirical data used to separately constrain these terms. Here we compiled micrometeorological methanol flux data from eight different study sites and reviewed the corresponding literature in order to provide a first cross-site synthesis of the terrestrial ecosystem-scale methanol exchange and present an independent data-driven view of the land-atmosphere methanol exchange. Our study shows that the controls of plant growth on the production, and thus the methanol emission magnitude, and stomatal conductance on the hourly methanol emission variability, established at the leaf level, hold across sites at the ecosystem-level. Unequivocal evidence for bi-directional methanol exchange at the ecosystem scale is presented. Deposition, which at some sites even exceeds methanol emissions, represents an emerging feature of ecosystem-scale measurements and is likely related to environmental factors favouring the formation of surface wetness. Methanol may adsorb to or dissolve in this surface water and eventually be chemically or biologically removed from it. Management activities in agriculture and forestry are shown to increase local methanol emission by orders of magnitude; they are however neglected at present in global budgets. While contemporary net land methanol budgets are overall consistent with the grand mean of the micrometeorological methanol fluxmeasurements, we caution that the present approach of simulating methanol emission and deposition separately is prone to opposing systematic errors and does not allow taking full advantage of the rich

Methanol is the second most abundant volatile organic compound in the troposphere and plays a significant role in atmospheric chemistry. While there is consensus about the dominant role of living plants as the major source and the reaction with OH as the major sink of methanol, global methanol budgets diverge considerably in terms of source/sink estimates, reflecting uncertainties in the approaches used to model and the empirical data used to separately constrain these terms. Here we compiled micrometeorological methanol flux data from eight different study sites and reviewed the corresponding literature in order to provide a first cross-site synthesis of the terrestrial ecosystem-scale methanol exchange and present an independent data-driven view of the land-atmosphere methanol exchange. Our study shows that the controls of plant growth on production, and thus the methanol emission magnitude, as well as stomatal conductance on the hourly methanol emission variability, established at the leaf level, hold across sites at the ecosystem level. Unequivocal evidence for bi-directional methanol exchange at the ecosystem scale is presented. Deposition, which at some sites even exceeds methanol emissions, represents an emerging feature of ecosystem-scale measurements and is likely related to environmental factors favouring the formation of surface wetness. Methanol may adsorb to or dissolve in this surface water and eventually be chemically or biologically removed from it. Management activities in agriculture and forestry are shown to increase local methanol emission by orders of magnitude; however, they are neglected at present in global budgets. While contemporary net land methanol budgets are overall consistent with the grand mean of the micrometeorological methanol fluxmeasurements, we caution that the present approach of simulating methanol emission and deposition separately is prone to opposing systematic errors and does not allow for full advantage to be taken of

The upstream scrape-off layer (SOL) profiles and downstream particle fluxes are measured with a fast reciprocating Langmuir probe assembly (FRLPA) at the outboard mid-plane and a fixed edge Langmuir probe array (ELPA) at divertor region, respectively in the KSTAR. It is found that the SOL has a two-layer structure in the outboard wall-limited (OWL) ohmic and L-mode: a near SOL (∼5 mm zone) with a narrow feature and a far SOL with a broader profile. The near SOL width evaluated from the SOL profiles in the OWL plasmas is comparable to the scaling for the L-mode divertor plasmas in the JET and AUG. In the SOL profiles and the divertor particle flux profile during the ELMy H-modes, the characteristic e-folding lengths of electron temperature, plasma density and particle flux during an ELM phase are about two times larger than ones at the inter ELM.

The objective of this systematic literature review is to discuss the latest French recommendation issued in 2012 that a fall within the past year should lead to bone mineral density (BMD) measurement using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). This recommendation rests on four facts. First, osteoporosis and fall risk are the two leading risk factors for nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women. Second, BMD measurement using DXA supplies significant information on the fracture risk independently from the fall risk. Thus, when a fall occurs, the fracture risk increases as BMD decreases. Third, osteoporosis drugs have been proven effective in preventing fractures only in populations with osteoporosis defined based on BMD criteria. Finally, the prevalence of osteoporosis is high in patients who fall and increases in the presence of markers for frailty (e.g., recurrent falls, sarcopenia [low muscle mass and strength], limited mobility, and weight loss), which are risk factors for both osteoporosis and falls. Nevertheless, life expectancy should be taken into account when assessing the appropriateness of DXA in fallers, as osteoporosis treatments require at least 12months to decrease the fracture risk. Another relevant factor is the availability of DXA, which may be limited due to geographic factors, patient dependency, or severe cognitive impairments, for instance. Studies are needed to better determine how the fall risk and frailty should be incorporated into the fracture risk evaluation based on BMD and the FRAX® tool. PMID:24703626

High-energy neutrons are a ubiquitous and often poorly measured background. Below ground, these neutrons could potentially interfere with antineutrino based reactor monitoring experiments as well as other rare-event neutral particle detectors. We have designed and constructed a transportable fast neutron detection system for measuring neutron energy spectra and flux ranging from tens to hundreds of MeV. The spectrometer uses a multiplicity technique in order to have a higher effective area than traditional transportable high-energy neutron spectrometers. Transportability ensures a common detector-related systematic bias for future measurements. The spectrometer is composed of two Gd containing plastic scintillator detectors arranged around a lead spallation target. A high-energy neutron may interact in the lead producing many secondary neutrons. The detector records the correlated secondary neutron multiplicity. Over many events, the response can be used to infer the incident neutron energy spectrum and flux. As a validation of the detector response, surface measurements have been performed; results confirm agreement with previous experiments. Below ground measurements have been performed at 3 depths (380, 600, and 1450 m.w.e.); results from these measurements will be presented.

An instrument to measure the momentum flux (total pressure) of plasma and neutral particle jets onto a surface has been developed. While this instrument was developed for magnetized plasmas, the concept works for non-magnetized plasmas as well. We have measured forces as small as 10(exp -4) Newtons on a surface immersed in the plasma where small forces are due to ionic and neutral particles with kinetic energies on the order of a few eV impacting the surface. This instrument, a force sensor, uses a target plate (surface) that is immersed in the plasma and connected to one end of an alumina rod while the opposite end of the alumina rod is mechanically connected to a titanium beam on which four strain gauges are mounted. The force on the target generates torque causing strain in the beam. The resulting strain measurements can be correlated to a force on the target plate. The alumina rod electrically and thermally isolates the target plate from the strain gauge beam and allows the strain gauges to be located out of the plasma flow while also serving as a moment arm of several inches to increase the strain in the beam at the strain gauge location. These force measurements correspond directly to momentum flux and may be used with known plasma conditions to place boundaries on the kinetic energies of the plasma and neutral particles. The force measurements may also be used to infer thrust produced by a plasma propulsive device. Stainless steel, titanium, molybdenum, and aluminum flat target plates have been used. Momentum fluxmeasurements of H2, D2, He, and Ar plasmas produced in a magnetized plasma device have been performed.

Magneto-inertial fusion utilizes embedded magnetic fields to reduce thermal transport and enhance alpha particle heating during an implosion reducing the required areal density, implosion speed, and convergence for fusion ignition. This enables the use of efficient inexpensive pulsed power, reducing the gain required for breakeven (e.g. ηG = 0 . 5 * 10 (MIF), = 0 . 05 * 100 (ICF)). The FRX-L and FRCHX experiments at Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Air Force Research Laboratory at Kirtland AFB are investigating a subset of MIF called Magnetized Target Fusion (MTF) in which a Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) plasmoid is injected into a converging solid, conductive liner and compressed to fusion conditions. Traditional FRC formation techniques utilizing ringing- θ pre-ionization have proved to be incapable of forming target plasmoids with enough density and magnetic flux, limiting the particle inventory, confinement, and lifetime. An alternative formation technique utilizing magnetoplasmadynamic arc sources has been developed to increase the density and trapped flux of the target plasmoid. Plasma source technology and operation are presented, as well as changes to the target formation process, plasmoid characteristics, and implications to MTF. Work supported by the DOE, OFES, under LANS Contract No. DE-AC52-06NA25369. Public release number LA-UR 11-03950.

A short-pulse CO2 Doppler lidar with 150-m range resolution measured vertical profiles of turbulence and momentum flux. Example measurements are reported of a daytime mixed layer with strong mechanical mixing caused by a wind speed of 15 m/sec, which exceeded the speed above the capping inversion. The lidar adapted an azimuth scanning technique previously demonstrated by radar. Scans alternating between two elevation angles allow determination of mean U-squared, V-squared, and W-squared. Expressions were derived to estimate the uncertainty in the turbulence parameters. A new processing method, partial Fourier decomposition, has less uncertainty than the filtering used earlier.

Shading banana and other orchard crops with screens is popular in arid and semi-arid regions for decreasing water use and increasing fruit quality. However, crop water use within this unique environment is much less studied than for canopies in the open. Previous studies of our research group have established the use of the Eddy Covariance (EC) technique for reliable evapotranspiration and sensible heat fluxmeasurements within screenhouses. These studies focused on operating conditions of the system. The present paper is a comprehensive study which examined the performance of the EC system in different types of screenhouses (shading and insect-proof), different crops (banana and pepper) at different development stages (small and large plants) and different climatic regions in Israel. The main goal was to establish guidelines for optimal application of the EC technique in screenhouses. The research consisted of 6 field campaigns: in 3 campaigns two EC systems were simultaneously deployed either vertically or horizontally, and in 3 other campaigns a single EC system was deployed at one measurement height. EC systems were deployed at different normalized system heights, Zs, which define the relative measurement heights within the air gap between the canopy top and the horizontal screened roof. System performance was examined using quality tests like energy balance closure, flux variance similarity, friction velocity, footprint modeling, energy spectrum, turbulence intensity and vertical and horizontal flux gradient analyses. Resulting energy balance closure slopes averaged 0.81±0.08 and 0.91±0.08 for the smaller and larger plants, respectively. Turbulent flows were found to be marginally developed within the air gap between the top of the plants and the horizontal screened roof. Turbulence intensity, flux variance similarity test, energy spectrum decay rate and friction velocity were essentially independent of the measurement height and were within the common range

Radon flux via diffusion from sediments and other materials may be determined in the laboratory by circulating air through the sample and a radon detector in a closed loop. However, this approach is complicated by the necessity of having to determine the total air volume in the system and accounting for any small air leaks that can arise if using extended measurement periods. We designed a simple open-loop configuration that includes a measured mass of wet sediment and water inside a gas-tight reaction flask connected to a drying system and a radon-in-air analyzer. Ambient air flows through two charcoal columns before entering the reaction vessel to eliminate incoming radon. After traveling through the reaction flask, the air passes the drier and the radon analyzer and is then vented. After some time, the radon activity will reach a steady state depending upon the airflow rate. With this approach, the radon flux via diffusion is simply the product of the steady-state radon activity (Bq/m(3)) multiplied by the airflow rate (mL/min). We demonstrated that this setup could produce good results for materials that produce relatively high radon fluxes. We also show that a modified closed system approach, including radon removal of the incoming air by charcoal filtration in a bypass, can produce very good results including samples with very low emission rates. PMID:27064564

Spatial pattern and the correlation of different soil and plant parameters were examined in a green bean field experiment carried out at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy. The experiment aimed to evaluate the role of local processes of salt accumulation and transport which mainly influences the evapotranspiration (and thus the root uptake) processes under different water salinity levels. The experiment consisted of three transects of 30m length and 4.2 m width, irrigated with three different salinity levels (1dSm-1, 3dSm-1, 6dSm-1). Soil measurements (electrical conductivity and soil water content) were monitored along transects in 24 sites, 1 m apart by using TDR probes and Diviner 2000. Water storage measured by TDR and Diviner sensor were coupled for calculating directly the evapotranspiration fluxes along the whole soil profile under the different salinity levels imposed during the experiment. In the same sites, crop monitoring involved measurements of Leaf Area Index (LAI), Osmotic Potential (OP), Leaf Water Potential (LWP), and Root length Density (RlD). Soil and plant properties were analyzed by classical statistics, geostatistics methods and spectral analysis. Results indicated moderate to large spatial variability across the field for soil and plant parameters under all salinity treatments. Furthermore, cross-semivariograms exhibited a strong positive spatial interdependence between electrical conductivity of soil solution ECw with ET and RlD in transect treated with 3dSm-1 as well as with LAI in transect treated with 6dSm-1 at all 24 monitoring sites. Spectral analysis enabled to identify the observation window to sample the soil salinity information responsible for a given plant response (ET, OP, RlD). It is also allowed a clear identification of the spatial scale at which the soil water salinity level and distribution and the crop response in terms of actual evapotranspiration ET, RlD and OP, are actually correlated. Additionally

A balloon-borne instrument has been used to detect cosmic-ray antiprotons. These are identified topologically by the appearance of annihilation prongs in a thick lead-plate spark chamber. The initial recording of the data is enriched in potential antimatter events by a selective trigger. After a small subtraction for background, 14 identified antiprotons yield a flux of 1.7 plus or minus 0.00005 antiproton/(sq m ster sec MeV) between 130 and 320 MeV at the top of the atmosphere. When combined with higher energy antiproton fluxmeasurements, this result indicates that the antiprotons have a spectrum whose shape is the same as that of the protons, but with a magnitude reduced by a factor of 1/3000.

A device has been developed to measure the force caused by a beam of charged and neutral particles impacting a target plate. This device, an impact thrust stand, was developed to allow thrusters, during early stages of development, to be quickly and easily exhausted and compared to other thrusters. Since some thruster concepts are tested using laboratory equipment that is heavy and cumbersome, measuring the momentum flux of the particles in the plume can be much simpler than placing the entire thruster on a thrust stand. Conservation of momentum requires the momentum fluxmeasured in the plume to be related to the thrust produced by the thruster. The impact thrust stand was designed to be placed in the plume of an electric thruster and has been tested and compared to the thrust measured from a Hall thruster placed on a pendulum thrust stand. Force measurements taken at several axial locations in the magnetic nozzle region of the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket will be presented.

A device has been developed to measure the force caused by a beam of charged and neutral particles impacting a target plate. This device, an impact thrust stand, was developed to allow thrusters, during early stages of development, to be quickly and easily evaluated and compared to other thrusters. Since some thruster concepts are tested using laboratory equipment that is heavy and cumbersome, measuring the momentum flux of the particles in the plume can be much simpler than placing the entire thruster on a thrust stand. Conservation of momentum requires the momentum fluxmeasured in the plume to be related to the thrust produced by the thruster. The impact thrust stand was designed to be placed in the plume of an electric thruster and has been tested and compared to the thrust measured from a Hall thruster placed on a pendulum thrust stand. Force measurements taken at several axial locations in the magnetic nozzle region of the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket will be presented.

Surface temperatures and reflectances of an upper elevation Sierran mixed conifer forest were monitored using the Thematic Mapper Simulator sensor during the summer of 1985 in order to explore the possibility of using remote sensing to determine the distribution of solar energy on forested watersheds. The results show that the method is capable of quantifying the relative energy allocation relationships between the two cover types defined in the study. It is noted that the method also has the potential to map forest latent heat fluxdensities.

Estimating the landscape-scale exchange of ecologically relevant trace gas and energy fluxes from tower eddy-covariance (EC) measurements is often complicated by surface heterogeneity. For example, a tower EC measurement may represent less than 1% of a grid cell resolved by mechanistic models (order 100-1000 km2). In particular for data assimilation or comparison with large-scale observations, it is hence critical to assess and correct the spatial representativeness of tower EC measurements. We present a procedure that determines from a single EC tower the spatio-temporally explicit flux field of its surrounding. The underlying principle is to extract the relationship between biophysical drivers and ecological responses from measurements under varying environmental conditions. For this purpose, high-frequency EC flux processing and source area calculations (≈60 h-1) are combined with remote sensing retrievals of land surface properties and subsequent machine learning. Methodological details are provided in our companion presentation "Towards the spatial rectification of tower-based eddy-covariance flux observations". We apply the procedure to one year of data from each of four AmeriFlux sites under different climate and ecological environments: Lost Creek shrub fen wetland, Niwot Ridge subalpine conifer, Park Falls mixed forest, and Santa Rita mesquite savanna. We find that heat fluxes from the Park Falls 122-m-high EC measurement and from a surrounding 100 km2 target area differ up to 100 W m-2, or 65%. Moreover, 85% and 24% of the EC flux observations are adequate surrogates of the mean surface-atmosphere exchange and its spatial variability across a 900 km2 target area, respectively, at 5% significance and 80% representativeness levels. Alternatively, the resulting flux grids can be summarized as probability density functions, and used to inform mechanistic models directly with the mean flux value and its spatial variability across a model grid cell. Lastly

Coherent tunnelling in molecular systems with cyclic and non-cyclic symmetric double well potentials may proceed with similar nuclear densities, but with entirely different fluxdensities. For sufficiently high potential barriers, the nuclear densities may even become indistinguishable, whereas the patterns of the fluxdensities at a given time remain pincer-motion type for the cyclic systems, but unidirectional for the non-cyclic one. This effect is traced back to symmetry breaking of the cyclic to the non-cyclic model. Accordingly, nuclear fluxdensities are much more sensitive to symmetry breaking than nuclear densities. For a proof of principle, the phenomenon is demonstrated by means of three one-dimensional models. The cyclic model I represents torsion in oriented B2Cl2F2, the non-cyclic model II is constructed from I by symmetry breaking and the non-cyclic model III represents tunnelling by inversion of oriented NH3.

The activation of the biological shield is an important process for waste management considerations of nuclear facilities. The final activity can be estimated by modeling using the neutron fluxdensity rather than the radiometric approach of activity measurements. Measurement series at the TRIGA reactor Vienna reveal that the fluxdensity next to the biological shield is in the order of 10(9)cm(-2)s(-1) at maximum power; but it is strongly influenced by reactor installations. The data allow the estimation of the final waste categorization of the concrete according to the Austrian legislation. PMID:21646026

Accurate measurements of soil CO2 efflux are extraordinarily challenging due to the very properties of CO2 transport in a porous medium of soil. The most commonly used method today is the chamber method, which provides direct measurements of CO2 efflux at the soil surface, but it can not measure the soil CO2 flux continuously. In order to develop new measurement methods in soil CO2 efflux, small solid-state CO2 sensors have been used to continuously to monitor soil CO2 profiles by burying these sensors at different soil depths. Using this method we compared soil CO2 efflux of four different soil types: forests soil, grassland soil (collected in Maryland) commercial potting soil and pure sand as control. CO2 concentration varied between 500 ppm in sand and 8000 ppm in forest soil at depth 12 cm. CO2 flux had the following order: Forest (0.3~0.4 mg CO2 m-2 s-1), potting soil (0.1~0.14 mg CO2 m-2 s-1 ), grassland (0.03~0.05 mg CO2 m-2 s-1), sand ( 0 mg CO2 m-2 s-1 ). Exponential relationship between temperature and CO2 flux was established for forest soil and potting soil only. Leaf litter, often thick layer in many terrestrial ecosystems and a significant source of CO2 production, is not part of the of the diffusivity models. We are currently conducting experiments which include the effect of leaf litter and soil invertebrates into soil respiration.

It has been proven that twin boundaries in YBa2Cu 3O7-delta (YBCO) are effective flux pinning centers. By increasing the twin density of a YBCO sample, it is possible to achieve a high critical current density (Jc). In this work, twin engineering for high critical current densities and strong flux pinning has been achieved in melt processed YBCO by increasing the annealing temperature up to 680°C. When the isothermal oxygenation temperature increases from 450°C to 680°C, the average twin boundary spacing of the samples decreases significantly, and its critical current density and flux pinning force are greatly increased. The prerequisites for twin boundary engineering for high critical current densities and strong flux pinning are also pointed out. For the first time, temperature dependent twin boundary energies (gammatw's) of melt processed YBCO are measured by the twin spacing method and the twin tip or shape method, and the geometrical factor alpha in the twin spacing method is estimated. As expected, the twin boundary energy of YBCO decreases with increasing temperature. In addition, the correlation between Jc and the concentrations of Y2BaCuO5 (211) and Samarium (Sm) in the melt-textured growth (MTG) YBCO has been studied, as well as the distributions of 211 and Sm in the MTG YBCO pellets. All our results can be applied towards microstructure tailoring for a high Jc and strong flux pinning in YBCO, especially in bulk YBCO samples.

The relationship between proton temperature and momentum fluxdensity/unit mass at 1 AU is examined using Helios 1 solar wind data from 1974 to 1980. In high-speed plasma (V greater than 500 km/s) T(p) increases with increasing n(0) V-squared, where n(0) and T(p) are the density and proton temperature at 1 AU and V is the flow speed. In lowspeed plasma (V less than 500 km/s), T(p) does not increase with increasing n(0) V-squared, and perhaps tends to decrease slightly. These basic relationships between T(p) and n(0) V-squared are not significantly affected by stream interactions. A qualitative explanation of these results is offered in the context of a solar wind model that includes deposition of momentum and energy extending well outward into the interplanetary medium.

The effect of flux creep is discussed for projected strongly pinned oxide superconductors. It is determined, that if a superconducting wire with a critical current density higher than 10-billion A/sq m at 77 K and 5 T can be produced, the wire will be able to be applied to equipment at high fields; nonzero critical density will be obtained even at 77 K and high fields. The decay of persistent current is expected to be noticeable even in such strongly pinned superconductors, when those are used at 77 K. Although this will be managed in power equipment by lowering the operating current; variation in the magnetic field due to the variation in the current distribution inside superconducting wires appears to be unavoidable. It is suggested that an effort should be made to reduce the variation by reducing the diameter of the superconducting filaments.

A high sensitivity momentum fluxmeasuring instrument based on a compound pendulum has been developed for use with electric propulsion devices and radio frequency driven plasmas. A laser displacement system, which builds upon techniques used by the materials science community for surface stress measurements, is used to measure with high sensitivity the displacement of a target plate placed in a plasma thruster exhaust. The instrument has been installed inside a vacuum chamber and calibrated via two different methods and is able to measure forces in the range of 0.02-0.5mN with a resolution of 15μN. Measurements have been made of the force produced from the cold gas flow and with a discharge ignited using argon propellant. The plasma is generated using a Helicon Double Layer Thruster prototype. The instrument target is placed about 1 mean free path for ion-neutral charge exchange collisions downstream of the thruster exit. At this position, the plasma consists of a low density ion beam (10%) and a much larger downstream component (90%). The results are in good agreement with those determined from the plasma parameters measured with diagnostic probes. Measurements at various flow rates show that variations in ion beam velocity and plasma density and the resulting momentum flux can be measured with this instrument. The instrument target is a simple, low cost device, and since the laser displacement system used is located outside the vacuum chamber, the measurement technique is free from radio frequency interference and thermal effects. It could be used to measure the thrust in the exhaust of other electric propulsion devices and the momentum flux of ion beams formed by expanding plasmas or fusion experiments.

A high sensitivity momentum fluxmeasuring instrument based on a compound pendulum has been developed for use with electric propulsion devices and radio frequency driven plasmas. A laser displacement system, which builds upon techniques used by the materials science community for surface stress measurements, is used to measure with high sensitivity the displacement of a target plate placed in a plasma thruster exhaust. The instrument has been installed inside a vacuum chamber and calibrated via two different methods and is able to measure forces in the range of 0.02-0.5 mN with a resolution of 15 {mu}N. Measurements have been made of the force produced from the cold gas flow and with a discharge ignited using argon propellant. The plasma is generated using a Helicon Double Layer Thruster prototype. The instrument target is placed about 1 mean free path for ion-neutral charge exchange collisions downstream of the thruster exit. At this position, the plasma consists of a low density ion beam (10%) and a much larger downstream component (90%). The results are in good agreement with those determined from the plasma parameters measured with diagnostic probes. Measurements at various flow rates show that variations in ion beam velocity and plasma density and the resulting momentum flux can be measured with this instrument. The instrument target is a simple, low cost device, and since the laser displacement system used is located outside the vacuum chamber, the measurement technique is free from radio frequency interference and thermal effects. It could be used to measure the thrust in the exhaust of other electric propulsion devices and the momentum flux of ion beams formed by expanding plasmas or fusion experiments.

A high sensitivity momentum fluxmeasuring instrument based on a compound pendulum has been developed for use with electric propulsion devices and radio frequency driven plasmas. A laser displacement system, which builds upon techniques used by the materials science community for surface stress measurements, is used to measure with high sensitivity the displacement of a target plate placed in a plasma thruster exhaust. The instrument has been installed inside a vacuum chamber and calibrated via two different methods and is able to measure forces in the range of 0.02-0.5 mN with a resolution of 15 microN. Measurements have been made of the force produced from the cold gas flow and with a discharge ignited using argon propellant. The plasma is generated using a Helicon Double Layer Thruster prototype. The instrument target is placed about 1 mean free path for ion-neutral charge exchange collisions downstream of the thruster exit. At this position, the plasma consists of a low density ion beam (10%) and a much larger downstream component (90%). The results are in good agreement with those determined from the plasma parameters measured with diagnostic probes. Measurements at various flow rates show that variations in ion beam velocity and plasma density and the resulting momentum flux can be measured with this instrument. The instrument target is a simple, low cost device, and since the laser displacement system used is located outside the vacuum chamber, the measurement technique is free from radio frequency interference and thermal effects. It could be used to measure the thrust in the exhaust of other electric propulsion devices and the momentum flux of ion beams formed by expanding plasmas or fusion experiments. PMID:19485509

The Eddy-Covariance Method for quantifying surface-atmosphere fluxes is a foundational technique for measuring net ecosystem exchange and validating regional-to-global carbon cycle models. While towers or ships are the most frequent platform for measuring surface-atmosphere exchange, experiments using aircraft for fluxmeasurements have yielded contributions to several large-scale studies including BOREAS, SMACEX, RECAB by providing local-to-regional coverage beyond towers. The low-altitude flight requirements make airborne fluxmeasurements particularly dangerous and well suited for unmanned aircraft.

The addition of a capacitive or inductive shunt across one of the junctions can alter the coherence properties of a classic flux or RF-SQUID qubit. We have studied the performance of capacitively shunted flux qubits fabricated with MBE aluminum, starting from a 2D coplanar waveguide geometry used in similar high-performance transmon qubits, and measured dispersively. We will detail the importance of design parameters that preserve the flux qubit's anharmonicity and discuss conclusions about materials quality based on calculations of the participation of junction, dielectric, and superconductor components. This research was funded in part by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA); and by the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Research & Engineering under Air Force Contract number FA8721-05-C-0002. All statements of fact, opinion or conclusions contained herein are those of the authors and should not be construed as representing the official views or policies of IARPA, the ODNI, or the U.S. Government Present address: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA.

The contribution of ions to the growth of microcrystalline silicon thin films has been investigated in the well-known high-pressure-depletion (HPD) regime by coupling thin-film analysis with plasma studies. The ion flux, measured by means of a capacitive probe, has been studied in two regimes, i.e., the amorphous-to-microcrystalline transition regime and a low-to-high power regime; the latter regime had been investigated to evaluate the impact of the plasma power on the ion flux in collisional plasmas. The ion flux was found not to change considerably under the conditions where the deposited material undergoes a transition from the amorphous to the microcrystalline silicon phase; for solar-grade material, an ion-to-Si deposition flux of ∼0.30 has been determined. As an upper-estimation of the ion energy, a mean ion energy of ∼19 eV has been measured under low-pressure conditions (<1 mbar) by means of a retarding field energy analyzer. Combining this upper-estimate with an ion per deposited Si atom ratio of ∼0.30, it is concluded that less than 6 eV is available per deposited Si atom. The addition of a small amount of SiH{sub 4} to an H{sub 2} plasma resulted in an increase of the ion flux by about 30% for higher power values, whereas the electron density, deduced from optical emission spectroscopy analysis, decreased. The electron temperature, also deduced from optical emission spectroscopy analysis, reveals a slight decrease with power. Although the dominant ion in the HPD regime is SiH{sub 3}{sup +}, i.e., a change from H{sub 3}{sup +} in pure hydrogen HPD conditions, the measured larger ion loss can be explained by assuming steeper electron density profiles. These results, therefore, confirm the results reported so far: the ion-to-Si deposition flux is relatively large but has neither influence on the microcrystalline silicon film properties nor on the phase transition. Possible explanations are the reported high atomic hydrogen to deposition flux ratio

By clarifying a plant evolutive process, useful information may be obtained on engineering. Consequently, an analysis algorithm that investigates the optimal arrangement of plant leaves was developed. In the developed algorithm, the Monte Carlo method is introduced and sunlight is simulated. Moreover, the arrangement optimization of leaves is analyzed using a Genetic Algorithm (GA). The number of light quanta (photon fluxdensity) that reaches leaves, or the average photosynthetic rate of the same was set as the objective function, and leaf models of a dogwood and a ginkgo tree were analyzed. The number of leaf models was set between two to four, and the position of the leaf was expressed in terms of the angle of direction, elevation angle, rotation angle, and the representative length of the branch of a leaf. The chromosome model introduced into GA consists of information concerning the position of the leaf. Based on the analysis results, the characteristics of the leaf of an actual plant could be simulated by ensuring the algorithm had multiple constrained conditions. The optimal arrangement of leaves differs in maximization of the photon fluxdensity, and that of the average value of a photosynthetic rate. Furthermore, the leaf form affecting the optimal arrangement of leave and also having a significant influence also on a photosynthetic rate was shown.

The far scrape-off layer transport is studied in ASDEX Upgrade H-mode discharges with high divertor neutral density N0,div, high power across the separatrix Psep and nitrogen seeding to control the divertor temperature. Such conditions are expected for ITER but usually not investigated in terms of turbulent SOL transport. At high N0,div and Psep the H-mode discharges enter a regime of high cross-field particle and power transport in the SOL which is accompanied by a significant change of the turbulence characteristic analogous to the transition from conductive to convective transport in L-mode. Parallel particle and power fluxdensities of several 1023 m-2 s-1 and 10 MW m-2 have been detected about ∼40 to 45 mm outside the separatrix mapped to the outer mid-plane. The particle flux fall-off length reached up to 45 mm. This paper presents for the first time an empirical condition to enter the high transport regime in H-mode and the relation of this regime to changes in the filamentary transport.

This paper presents a microsystem for remote sensing of high energy radiation in extremely low fluxdensity conditions. With wide deployment in mind, potential applications range from nuclear non-proliferation, to hospital radiation-safety. The daunting challenge is the low level of photon fluxdensities - emerging from a Scintillation Crystal (SC) on to a ~1 mm-square detector, which are a factor of 10000 or so lower than those acceptable to recently reported photonic chips (including `single-photon detection' chips), due to a combination of low Lux, small detector size, and short duration SC output pulses - on the order of 1 μs. These challenges are attempted to be overcome by the design of an innovative `System on a Chip' type microchip, with high detector sensitivity, and effective coupling from the SC to the photodetector. The microchip houses a tiny n+ diff p-epi photodiode (PD) as well as the associated analog amplification and other related circuitry, all fabricated in 0.5micron, 3-metal 2-poly CMOS technology. The amplification, together with pulse-shaping of the photocurrent-induced voltage signal, is achieved through a tandem of two capacitively coupled, double-cascode amplifiers. Included in the paper are theoretical estimates and experimental results.

A system (10) for measuring magnetic fields, wherein the system (10) comprises an unmodulated or direct-feedback flux locked loop (12) connected by first and second unbalanced RF coaxial transmission lines (16a, 16b) to a superconducting quantum interference device (14). The FLL (12) operates for the most part in a room-temperature or non-cryogenic environment, while the SQUID (14) operates in a cryogenic environment, with the first and second lines (16a, 16b) extending between these two operating environments.

Wind tunnel experiments have been carried out at the EnFlo laboratory to measure mean and turbulent tracer fluxes in geometries of real street canyon intersections. The work was part of the major DAPPLE project, focussing on the area surrounding the intersection between Marylebone Road and Gloucester Place in Central London, UK. Understanding flow and dispersion in urban streets is a very important issue for air quality management and planning, and turbulent mass exchange processes are important phenomena that are very often neglected in urban modelling studies. The adopted methodology involved the combined use of laser Doppler anemometry and tracer concentration measurements. This methodology was applied to quantify the mean and turbulent flow and dispersion fields within several street canyon intersections. Vertical profiles of turbulent tracer flux were also measured. The technique, despite a number of limitations, proved reliable and allowed tracer balance calculations to be undertaken in the selected street canyon intersections. The experience gained in this work will enable much more precise studies in the future as issues affecting the accuracy of the experimental technique have been identified and resolved.

Using high-resolution vector magnetograms obtained by the balloon-borne Flare Genesis Experiment (FGE), we construct maps of the vertical current density in the emerging flux region NOAA 8844. The vertical current density has been decomposed into components that are field-aligned and perpendicular to the magnetic field, thus allowing a straightforward identification of force-free areas, as well as of areas where the force-free approximation breaks down. Small-scale chromospheric activity, such as H α Ellerman bombs and Ultraviolet bright points in 1600 Åshow a remarkable correlation with areas of strong current density. Simultaneous data of overlying coronal loops, observed by TRACE in the Extreme Ultraviolet (171 Åand 195 Å), have been carefully co-aligned with the FGE photospheric maps. We find that the footpoints of the TRACE loops always coincide with strong vertical currents and enhancements of the current helicity density. We also investigate whether the force-free approximation is valid on the photosphere during various evolutionary stages of the active region.

In 1984, Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) management recognized the need to develop a measurement system that would quantify the operational performance of the FFTF and the human resources needed to operate it. Driven by declining budgets and the need to safely manage a manpower rampdown at FFTF, an early warning system was developed. Although the initiating event for the early warning system was the need to safely manage a manpower rampdown, many related uses have evolved. The initial desired objective for the FFTF performance measurements was to ensure safety and control of key performance trends. However, the early warning system has provided a more quantitative, supportable basis upon which to make decisions. From this initial narrow focus, efforts in the FFTF plant and supporting organizations are leading to measurement of and, subsequently, improvements in productivity. Pilot projects utilizing statistical process control have started with longer range productivity improvement.

Accurate methods to measure autophagic activity in vivo in neurons are not available, and most of the studies are based on correlative and static measurements of autophagy markers, leading to conflicting interpretations. Autophagy is an essential homeostatic process involved in the degradation of diverse cellular components including organelles and protein aggregates. Autophagy impairment is emerging as a relevant factor driving neurodegeneration in many diseases. Moreover, strategies to modulate autophagy have been shown to provide protection against neurodegeneration. Here we describe a novel and simple strategy to express an autophagy flux reporter in the nervous system of adult animals by the intraventricular delivery of adeno-associated viruses (AAV) into newborn mice. Using this approach we efficiently expressed a monomeric tandem mCherry-GFP-LC3 construct in neurons of the peripheral and central nervous system, allowing the measurement of autophagy activity in pharmacological and disease settings. PMID:24232093

A portable fluxmeasurement system has been used within the AmeriFlux network of CO{sub 2} fluxmeasurement stations to enhance the comparability of data collected across the network. No systematic biases were observed in a comparison between portable system and site H, LE, or CO{sub 2} flux values although there were biases observed between the portable system and site measurement of air temperature and PPFD. Analysis suggests that if values from two stations differ by greater than 26% for H, 35% for LE, and 32% for CO{sub 2} flux they are likely to be significant. Methods for improving the intercomparability of the network are also discussed.

We are using a new multivariate statistical technique to quantitatively divide the lower 48 United States into a series of flux-relevant ecoregions. On the basis of these flux-relevant ecoregions, we will quantify the representativeness of the existing network of AmeriFlux towers, showing how well each ecoregion is represented by the current stations in the AmeriFlux network. Quantifying AmeriFlux representation will indicate the best locations where additional AmeriFlux towers should be placed. Using a "paint-by-number" approach, we are attempting to use the flux ecoregions as the statistical basis for extrapolating measurements made at the 52 actively-reporting AmeriFlux towers into a continuous 1-km grid across the United States seasonally. We will use the similarity of the suite of flux-relevant ecosystem characteristics to modify existing fluxmeasurements and estimate fluxes within unmeasured flux ecoregions. Weights calculated for each environmental gradient will allow us to mix new "paint-by-number" colors, extending the process beyond the palette of existing fluxmeasurements. The map of 2000 to 5000 flux ecoregions will produce a highly-resolved national map of estimated fluxes, and will be equivalent to creating thousands of new "virtual" flux towers across the nation. Once flux ecoregions and representation weights have been determined, it may be possible to use them to obtain an interpolated grid of the estimated flux at any point in time across the United States.

Continuous soil flux chamber measurements remains a key tool for determining production and sequestration of direct and indirect greenhouse gases. Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy has radically simplified soil flux studies by providing simultaneous measurements of five gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, NH3, and H2O in one analyzer (Picarro G2508) and by lending itself to field deployment. Successful use of the Picarro G2508 for continuous soil fluxmeasurements in a variety of ecosystem types has already been demonstrated. Most recently, we have developed a real-time processing software to simplify chamber measurements and calculations of soil flux with the G2508 CRDS analyzer. The new Realtime Soil Flux Processor is designed to work with all chamber types and sizes, and provides a multi-option for real-time flux curve mathematical fitting and generation of flux values of N2O, CO2 & CH4 in addition to NH3 and H2O. The software features include: Sequence table Flexible data tagging feature Ceiling concentration shut-off parameter Set run-time interval Temperature/pressure input for field monitoring and volumetric conversion Manual start/stop override The Realtime Soil Flux Processor GUI interface and functionalities are presented, and results from a variety of sampling designs are demonstrated to emphasize program flexibility and field capability.

A variety of wind tunnels and flux chambers have been used to measurefluxes of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and ammonia (NH3) at animal feeding operations (AFO). However, there has been little regard to the extreme variation and inaccuracy caused by inappropriate air velocity or sweep air flow...

Experiments have been conducted using laser-driven cylindrical hohlraums whose walls are machined from Ta{sub 2}O{sub 5} foams of 100 mg/cc and 4 g/cc densities. Measurements of the radiation temperature demonstrate that the lower density walls produce higher radiation temperatures than the high density walls. This is the first experimental demonstration of the prediction that this would occur [M. D. Rosen and J. H. Hammer, Phys. Rev. E 72, 056403 (2005)]. For high density walls, the radiation front propagates subsonically, and part of the absorbed energy is wasted by the flow kinetic energy. For the lower wall density, the front velocity is supersonic and can devote almost all of the absorbed energy to heating the wall.

Water-fog densities were measured in a laboratory experiment using x-ray diagnostics. Fog densities were measured, varying the flow rate, nozzle type, nozzle configuration, nozzle height above the x-ray beam, and water surface tension. Suspended water volume fractions between 0.0008 and 0.0074 percent were measured. The fog density increases approximately as the square root of the flow rate; the other parameters had little effect on the density.

Open-Top Chambers (OTCs) are commonly used to evaluate the effect of CO{sub 2},O{sub 3}, and other trace gases on vegetation. This study developed and tested a new technique for measuring forced air flow and net CO{sub 2} flux from OTCs. Experiments were performed with a 4.5-m diam. OTC with a sealed floor and a specialized air delivery system. Air flow through the chamber was computed with the Bernoulli equation using measurements of the pressure differential between the air delivery ducts and the chamber interior. An independent measurement of air flow was made simultaneously to calibrate and verify the accuracy of the Bernoulli relationship. The CO{sub 2} fluxdensity was calculated as the product of chamber air flow and the difference in CO{sub 2} concentration between the air entering and exhausting from the OTC (C{sub in}-C{sub out}). Accuracy was evaluated by releasing CO{sub 2} within the OTC at known rates. Data were collected with OTCs at ambient and elevated CO{sub 2} ({approx}700 {mu}mol{sup -1}). Results showed the Bernoulli equation, with a flow coefficient of 0.7, accurately measured air flow in the OTC within {+-}5% regardless of flow rate and air duct geometry. Experiments in ambient OTCs showed CO{sub 2} fluxdensity ({mu}mol m{sup -2} s{sup -1}), computed from 2-min averages of air flow and C{sub in} - C{sub out,} was typically within {+-} 10% of actual flux, provided that the exit air velocity at the top of the OTC was greater than 0.6 m s{sup -1}. Obtaining the same accuracy in CO{sub 2}-enriched OTCs required a critical exit velocity near 1.2 m s{sup -1} to minimize the incursion of ambient air and prevent contamination of exit gas sample. When flux data were integrated over time to estimate daily CO{sub 2} flux ({mu}mol m{sup -2} d{sup -1}), actual and measured values agreed to within {+-}2% for both ambient and CO{sub 2}-enriched chambers, suggesting that accurate measurements of daily net C exchange are possible with this technique.

Scientists use passive heat flow meters to measure body heat exchanges with the environment. In recent years, several such sensors have been developed and concerns about their proper calibration have been addressed. However, calibration methods have differed in the geometry of the heated device as well as in the heat transfer mechanism. Therefore, a comparison of calibration methods is needed in order to understand the obtained differences in calibration lines. We chose three commercially available heat flux sensors and placed them on four different heated devices: a hot plate, double hot plate, nude cylinder and a cylinder covered with a spacer material. We found differences between the calibration line of the manufacturer and our own measurements, especially when forced convection was involved as the main heat transfer mechanism. The results showed clearly that the calibration method should be chosen according to the intended purpose of use. In addition, we recommend use a thin, light heat flux sensor with good thermal conduction in human subject studies.

Scientists use passive heat flow meters to measure body heat exchanges with the environment. In recent years, several such sensors have been developed and concerns about their proper calibration have been addressed. However, calibration methods have differed in the geometry of the heated device as well as in the heat transfer mechanism. Therefore, a comparison of calibration methods is needed in order to understand the obtained differences in calibration lines. We chose three commercially available heat flux sensors and placed them on four different heated devices: a hot plate, double hot plate, nude cylinder and a cylinder covered with a spacer material. We found differences between the calibration line of the manufacturer and our own measurements, especially when forced convection was involved as the main heat transfer mechanism. The results showed clearly that the calibration method should be chosen according to the intended purpose of use. In addition, we recommend use a thin, light heat flux sensor with good thermal conduction in human subject studies. PMID:23824222

Vertical transport by turbulent mixing plays a fundamental role in establishing the thermal and constituent structure of the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT). Because of observational challenges, eddy heat, constituent, and momentum fluxes, and the associated coefficients for thermal (kH), constituent (kzz), and momentum (kM), diffusion have not been well characterized in the MLT. We show that properly configured Na and Fe Doppler lidars, with sufficient resolution to observe the turbulence-induced wind, temperature, and density fluctuations, can make direct measurements of eddy fluxes throughout the mesopause region. When the horizontal (zθL with z = altitude and θL = full width at half maximum laser divergence), vertical (Δz), and temporal (Δt) resolutions of the lidar satisfy the condition LC≃ (3zθL) 2+ (0.6u>¯Δt) 2+ (1.5Δz) 2 ≤ 270 m (125 m), where u>¯ is the mean horizontal wind velocity, the observations include more than 80% (90%) of the energy in the turbulence fluctuations, and the observed fluxes and derived diffusivities will be highly representative of the actual values. For existing Na and Fe Doppler lidars, which have modest power-aperture products of about 1 W m2, long averaging times (5-20 h) are required to obtain statistically significant estimates of the eddy fluxes, kzz, kH, and kM profiles, and the turbulent Prandtl number (Pr = kM/kH) between about 85 and 100 km. These systems are capable of measuring the weekly or monthly mean flux and diffusivity profiles. Systems with power-aperture products of 5-100 W m2 or larger could be used to study the eddy fluxes generated by the dissipation and breaking of individual gravity waves to altitudes as high as the turbopause (~110 km).

In this paper, formulas are proposed for the self and mutual inductance calculations of the helical toroidal coil (HTC) by the direct and indirect methods at superconductivity conditions. The direct method is based on the Neumann’s equation and the indirect approach is based on the toroidal and the poloidal components of the magnetic fluxdensity. Numerical calculations show that the direct method is more accurate than the indirect approach at the expense of its longer computational time. Implementation of some engineering assumptions in the indirect method is shown to reduce the computational time without loss of accuracy. Comparison between the experimental measurements and simulated results for inductance, using the direct and the indirect methods indicates that the proposed formulas have high reliability. It is also shown that the self inductance and the mutual inductance could be calculated in the same way, provided that the radius of curvature is >0.4 of the minor radius, and that the definition of the geometric mean radius in the superconductivity conditions is used. Plotting contours for the magnetic fluxdensity and the inductance show that the inductance formulas of helical toroidal coil could be used as the basis for coil optimal design. Optimization target functions such as maximization of the ratio of stored magnetic energy with respect to the volume of the toroid or the conductor’s mass, the elimination or the balance of stress in some coordinate directions, and the attenuation of leakage flux could be considered. The finite element (FE) approach is employed to present an algorithm to study the three-dimensional leakage flux distribution pattern of the coil and to draw the magnetic fluxdensity lines of the HTC. The presented algorithm, due to its simplicity in analysis and ease of implementation of the non-symmetrical and three-dimensional objects, is advantageous to the commercial software such as ANSYS, MAXWELL, and FLUX. Finally, using the

The Belgrade underground laboratory is a shallow underground one, at 25 meters of water equivalent. It is dedicated to low-background spectroscopy and cosmic rays measurement. Its uniqueness is that it is composed of two parts, one above ground, the other bellow with identical sets of detectors and analyzing electronics thus creating opportunity to monitor simultaneously muon flux and ambient radiation. We investigate the possibility of utilizing measurements at the shallow depth for the study of muons, processes to which these muons are sensitive and processes induced by cosmic rays muons. For this purpose a series of simulations of muon generation and propagation is done, based on the CORSIKA air shower simulation package and GEANT4. Results show good agreement with other laboratories and cosmic rays stations.

A windowless rare-gas ionization chamber has been developed to measure the absolute value of the solar extreme UV flux in the 50-575-A region. Successful results were obtained on a solar-pointing sounding rocket. The ionization chamber, operated in total absorption, is an inherently stable absolute detector of ionizing UV radiation and was designed to be independent of effects from secondary ionization and gas effusion. The net error of the measurement is + or - 7.3 percent, which is primarily due to residual outgassing in the instrument, other errors such as multiple ionization, photoelectron collection, and extrapolation to the zero atmospheric optical depth being small in comparison. For the day of the flight, Aug. 10, 1982, the solar irradiance (50-575 A), normalized to unit solar distance, was found to be 5.71 + or - 0.42 x 10 to the 10th photons per sq cm sec.

In many regions, crystalline rocks are covered by hundreds of meters of unconsolidated and poorly consolidated sediments. Estimates of heat flux within these sediments using standard continental techniques (temperature and conductivity measurements at intervals of 10 to 30 meters) are unreliable, mainly because of the difficulty in obtaining and preserving representative lengths of core. However, it is sometimes feasible to use what amounts to an oceanographic technique by making closely spaced temperature and conductivity measurements within short cored intervals. This is demonstrated in a borehole at Menlo Park, California (37??27???N, 122??10???W, elevation 16 meters), where heat flows determined over 12 separate 1-meter intervls al lie within 10% of their mean value; 2.2 ??cal/cm2 sec. ?? 1968.

This contribution describes new robust procedures for the measurement of sound power flux at appropriate axial positions along a duct with flow, using pairs of flush wall mounted microphones, or pressure transducers. The technology includes the application of selective averaging, order tracking, and optimized sampling rate methods to identify the small fraction of the total fluctuating wave energy that is being propagated along the flow path in a reverberent, or highly reactive duct system. Such measurements can also be used to quantify the local acoustic characteristics that govern the generation, transfer, and propagation of wave energy in the system. Illustrative examples include the determination of the acoustic characteristics of individual silencing elements installed in IC engine intakes and exhausts both on the flow bench and during controlled acceleration or run down on a test bed, where the wave component spectral levels approached 170 dB. PMID:12509008

Particle energies and fluxes have predominantly been measured from instruments onboard satellites. In this study, we use daytime ground-based oxygen redline emission measurements, along with the ionospheric electron density, and electron temperature profiles measured from the incoherent scatter radar, and a physics-based modeling approach to derive the energy and flux of particles incident over Boston during the storm of 30 October 2003. We find that the characteristic energy and the associated flux vary between 0.07.5.7 keV and 0.5.130 mW/sq m, respectively, during the intense magnetic disturbance that brought aurora to midlatitudes. Such an approach not only offers another method to estimate the incident particle energies and fluxes but also enhances our understanding on the channels of energy deposition in the upper atmospheric region, especially during magnetic disturbances, about which database is poor.

Particle energies and fluxes have predominantly been measured from instruments onboard satellites. In this study, we use daytime ground-based oxygen redline emission measurements, along with the ionospheric electron density, and electron temperature profiles measured from the incoherent scatter radar, and a physics-based modeling approach to derive the energy and flux of particles incident over Boston during the storm of 30 October 2003. We find that the characteristic energy and the associated flux vary between 0.07-5.7 keV and 0.5-130 mW m-2, respectively, during the intense magnetic disturbance that brought aurora to midlatitudes. Such an approach not only offers another method to estimate the incident particle energies and fluxes but also enhances our understanding on the channels of energy deposition in the upper atmospheric region, especially during magnetic disturbances, about which database is poor.

Tidal frequencies are observed in the spectral analysis of time series muon fluxmeasurements performed by the MARIACHI experiment over a period of seven years. The prominent peaks from the frequency spectrum correspond to tidal frequencies S1,S2,S3,K1,P1 and Ψ1 . We will present these results and compare them to the regular density oscillations from balloon sounding data. We interpret the observed data as being the effect of regular atmospheric density oscillations induced by the thermal heating of layers in Earth's atmosphere. As the density of the atmosphere varies, the altitude where particles are produced varies accordingly. As a consequence, the muon decay path elongates or contracts, modulating the number of muons detected at ground level. The role of other tidal effects, including geomagnetic tides, will also be discussed.

Soil carbon dioxide (CO2) flux is an important component of the terrestrial carbon cycle. Accurate measurements of soil CO2 flux aids determinations of carbon budgets. In this study, we investigated soil CO2 fluxes with time and depth and above ground CO2 fluxes in a bare field. CO2 concentrations w...

To support the mission for the NASA Vision for Space Exploration, the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center conducted a program in 2005 to improve the capability to predict local thermal compatibility and heat transfer in liquid propellant rocket engine combustion devices. The ultimate objective was to predict and hence reduce the local peak heat flux due to injector design, resulting in a significant improvement in overall engine reliability and durability. Such analyses are applicable to combustion devices in booster, upper stage, and in-space engines, as well as for small thrusters with few elements in the injector. In this program, single element and three-element injectors were hot-fire tested with liquid oxygen and ambient temperature gaseous hydrogen propellants at The Pennsylvania State University Cryogenic Combustor Laboratory from May to August 2005. Local heat fluxes were measured in a 1-inch internal diameter heat sink combustion chamber using Medtherm coaxial thermocouples and Gardon heat flux gauges. Injectors were tested with shear coaxial and swirl coaxial elements, including recessed, flush and scarfed oxidizer post configurations, and concentric and non-concentric fuel annuli. This paper includes general descriptions of the experimental hardware, instrumentation, and results of the hot-fire testing for three of the single element injectors - recessed-post shear coaxial with concentric fuel, flush-post swirl coaxial with concentric fuel, and scarfed-post swirl coaxial with concentric fuel. Detailed geometry and test results will be published elsewhere to provide well-defined data sets for injector development and model validatation.

Although several studies have reported eddy covariance (EC) measurements at several tallgrass prairie sites to investigate the dynamics of carbon and water vapor fluxes, the EC measurements of methane (CH4) fluxes over grazed tallgrass prairie sites are lacking. CH4 fluxes were measured during the 2...

An interferometer which combines the advantages of a coupled cavity interferometer requiring alignment of only one light beam, and a quadrature interferometer which has the ability to track multi-fringe phase excursions unambiguously. The device utilizes a Bragg cell for generating a signal which is electronically analyzed to unambiguously determine phase modulation which is proportional to the path integral of the plasma density.

Relatively small discrepancies between Apollo 17 lunar neutron probe experiment (LNPE) data and theoretical calculations by Lingenfelter, Canfield, and Hampel in the effect of Cd absorption on the neutron density, and in the relative Sm-149 to Gd-157 capture rates reported previously, imply that the true lunar Gd-157 capture rate is about one-half of that derived theoretically.

In conventional vector surveillance systems, adult mosquito density and the rate of human-mosquito contact is estimated from the mosquito numbers captured in mechanical traps. However, the design of the traps, their placement in the habitat and operating time, microclimate, and other environmental ...

... on Research 2012 May 2012 (historical) Baseline Bone Mineral DensityMeasurements Key to Future Testing Intervals How often a woman should have bone mineral density (BMD) tests to track bone mass is ...

Energy-independent first-flight transport kernels are evaluated for a spherical region with an R(-2) density distribution. The uncollided angular-flux distribution is obtained and integrated for a source distribution that is proportional to the density to give the uncollided emitted particle flux and current density. These are useful for the calculation of mass, energy, and momentum carried away by fast particles born in the medium. The data are relevant to estimate escape from weakly bound atmospheres such as comet comae, dilute circumstellar envelopes, and some unconfined laboratory plasmas.

Evaluating the impact of land use practices on ground water quality has been difficult because few techniques are capable of monitoring the quality and quantity of soil water flow below the root zone without disturbing the soil profile and affecting natural flow processes. A recently introduced method, known as equilibrium tension lysimetry, was a major improvement but it was not a true equilibrium since it still required manual intervention to maintain proper lysimeter suction. We addressed this issue by developing an automated equilibrium tension lysimeter (AETL) system that continuously matches lysimeter tension to soil-water matric potential of the surrounding soil. The soil-water matric potential of the bulk soil is measured with a heat-dissipation sensor, and a small DC pump is used to apply suction to a lysimeter. The improved automated approach reported here was tested in the field for a 12-mo period. Powered by a small 12-V rechargeable battery, the AETLs were able to continuously match lysimeter suction to soil-water matric potential for 2-wk periods with minimal human attention, along with the added benefit of collecting continuous soil-water matric potential data. We also demonstrated, in the laboratory, methods for continuous measurement of water depth in the AETL, a capability that quantifies drainage on a 10-min interval, making it a true water-flux meter. Equilibrium tension lysimeters have already been demonstrated to be a reliable method of measuring drainage flux, and the further improvements have created a more effective device for studying water drainage and chemical leaching through the soil matrix. PMID:15224955

The "Influence Method" is conceived for the absolute determination of a nuclear particle flux in the absence of known detector efficiency. This method exploits the influence of the presence of one detector, in the count rate of another detector when they are placed one behind the other and define statistical estimators for the absolute number of incident particles and for the efficiency. The method and its detailed mathematical description were recently published (Rios and Mayer, 2015 [1]). In this article we apply it to the measurement of the moderated neutron flux produced by an 241AmBe neutron source surrounded by a light water sphere, employing a pair of 3He detectors. For this purpose, the method is extended for its application where particles arriving at the detector obey a Poisson distribution and also, for the case when efficiency is not constant over the energy spectrum of interest. Experimental distributions and derived parameters are compared with theoretical predictions of the method and implications concerning the potential application to the absolute calibration of neutron sources are considered.

The Flux Monitor Experiment was conducted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Tower Shielding Facility (TSF) during the months of May and June 1992, as part of the continuing series of eight experiments planned for the Japanese-American Shielding Program for Experimental Research (JASPER) program that was started in 1986. This series of experiments was designed to examine shielding concerns and radiation transport effects pertaining to in-vessel flux monitoring systems (FMS) in current reactor shield designs proposed for both the Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor (ALMR) design and the Japanese loop-type design. The program is a cooperative effort between the United States Department of Energy (US DOE) and the Japanese Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC). The Tower Shielding Reactor H (TSR-II) neutron source was altered by the spectrum modifier (SM) used previously in the Axial Shield Experiment, and part of the Japanese Removable Radial Shield (RRS) before reaching the axial shield. In the axial shield were placed six homogeneous boron carbide (B{sub 4}C) hexagons around a center hexagon of aluminum used to represent sodium. Shield designs to be studied were placed beyond the axial shield, each design forming a void directly behind the axial shield. Measurements were made in the void and behind each slab as successive slabs were added.

The fluxdensity of light exiting scintillator crystals is an important factor affecting the performance of radiation detectors, and is of particular importance for position sensitive instruments. Recent work by T. Woldemichael developed an analytic expression for the shape of the light spot at the bottom of a single crystal [1]. However, the results are of limited utility because there is generally a light pipe and photomultiplier entrance window between the bottom of the crystal and the photocathode. In this study, we expand Woldemichael s theory to include materials each with different indices of refraction and compare the adjusted light spot shape theory to GEANT 4 simulations [2]. Additionally, light reflection losses from index of refraction changes were also taken into account. We found that the simulations closely agree with the adjusted theory.

Flux tower measurements using eddy-covariance techniques are used as the primary data for calibration and validation of remote sensing estimates and ecosystem models. Therefore, understanding the characteristics of the land surface contributing to the flux, the so-called footprint, is critical to upscale tower flux to the regional landscape. This is especially true for the towers locating in heterogeneous ecosystems such as mixed forests. Here we (1) estimated the seasonal footprints of a flux tower, the EMS-tower (US-Ha1) in the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Harvard Forest, from 1992 to 2008 with a footprint climatology. The Harvard Forest is a temperate mixed-species ecosystem that is composed of deciduous stands (red oak and red maple) and evergreen coniferous stands (eastern hemlock and white pine). The heterogeneity of the landscape is primarily driven by the phenology of the deciduous stands which are not uniformly distributed over the forest and around the tower. The overall prevailing footprints are known to lie toward the southwest and northwest, but there were profound interannual variability in the extents and the orientations of the seasonal footprints. Furthermore we (2) examined whether vegetation density variation within the tower footprint in each season could adequately represent the vegetation density characteristics of moderate spatial resolution remote sensing estimates and ecosystem models (i.e. 1.0 km and 1.5 km). The footprints were found to cover enough area to be representative of the 1.0 km scale but not 1.5 km scale. Finally we (3) investigated the influence of the interannual variations in the land cover variability in the footprints on the seasonal fluxmeasurements from 1999 to 2008, and found almost half of the interannual anomalies in the summertime GPP flux can be explained by the coniferous stand fraction within the footprint.

Based on the Australia Telescope Low Brightness Survey (ATLBS) we present a sample of extended radio sources and derive morphological properties of faint radio sources. One hundred nineteen radio galaxies form the ATLBS Extended Source Sample (ATLBS-ESS) consisting of all sources exceeding 30'' in extent and integrated fluxdensities exceeding 1 mJy. We give structural details along with information on galaxy identifications and source classifications. The ATLBS-ESS, unlike samples with higher flux-density limits, has almost equal fractions of FR-I and FR-II radio galaxies, with a large fraction of the FR-I population exhibiting 3C31-type structures. Significant asymmetry in lobe extents appears to be a common occurrence in the ATLBS-ESS FR-I sources compared with FR-II sources. We present a sample of 22 FR-Is at z > 0.5 with good structural information. The detection of several giant radio sources, with size exceeding 0.7 Mpc, at z > 1 suggests that giant radio sources are not less common at high redshifts. The ESS also includes a sample of 28 restarted radio galaxies. The relative abundance of dying and restarting sources is indicative of a model where radio sources undergo episodic activity in which an active phase is followed by a brief dying phase that terminates with restarting of the central activity; in any massive elliptical a few such activity cycles wherein adjacent events blend may constitute the lifetime of a radio source and such bursts of blended activity cycles may be repeated over the age of the host. The ATLBS-ESS includes a 2 Mpc giant radio galaxy with the lowest surface brightness lobes known to date.

A fuel-gamma-densitometer (FGD) has been developed to examine nondestructively the uniformity of plutonium in aluminum-clad fuel tubes at the Savannah River Plant (SRP). The monitoring technique is ..gamma..-ray spectroscopy with a lead-collimated Ge(Li) detector. Plutonium density is correlated with the measured intensity of the 208 keV ..gamma..-ray from /sup 237/U (7d) of the /sup 241/Pu (15y) decay chain. The FGD measures the plutonium density within 0.125- or 0.25-inch-diameter areas of the 0.133- to 0.183-inch-thick tube walls. Each measurement yields a density ratio that relates the plutonium density of the measured area to the plutonium density in normal regions of the tube. The technique was used to appraise a series of fuel tubes to be irradated in an SRP reactor. High-density plutonium areas were initially identified by x-ray methods and then examined quantitatively with the FGD. The FGD reliably tested fuel tubes and yielded density ratios over a range of 0.0 to 2.5. FGD measurements examined (1) nonuniform plutonium densities or hot spots, (2) uniform high-density patches, and (3) plutonium density distribution in thin cladding regions. Measurements for tubes with known plutonium density agreed with predictions to within 2%. Attenuation measurements of the 208-keV ..gamma..-ray passage through the tube walls agreed to within 2 to 3% of calculated predictions. Collimator leakage measurements agreed with model calculations that predicted less than a 1.5% effect on plutonium density ratios. Finally, FGD measurements correlated well with x-ray transmission and fluoroscopic measurements. The data analysis for density ratios involved a small correction of about 10% for ..gamma..-shielding within the fuel tube. For hot spot examinations, limited information for this correction dictated a density ratio uncertainty of 3 to 5%.

The ion flux from vacuum arc cathode spots was measured in two vacuum arc systems. The first was a vacuum arc ion source which was modified allowing us to collect ions from arc plasma streaming through an anode mesh. The second discharge system essentially consisted of a cathode placed near the center of a spherically shaped mesh anode. In both systems, the ion current streaming through the mesh was measured by a biased collector. The mesh anodes had geometric transmittances of 60 percent and 72 percent, respectively, which were taken into account as correction factors. The ion current from different cathode materials was measured for 50-500 A of arc current. The ion current normalized by the arc current was found to depend on the cathode material, with values in the range from 5 percent to 19 percent. The normalized ion current is generally greater for elements of low cohesive energy. The ion erosion rates were determined from values of ion current and ion charge states, which were previously measured in the same ion source. The absolute ion erosion rates range from 16-173 mu g/C.

Data on air emissions from open-lot beef cattle feedlots are limited. This research was conducted to determine PM10 emission fluxes from a commercial beef cattle feedlot in Kansas using the flux-gradient technique, a widely-used micrometeorological method for gaseous emissions from open sources. V...

Bulk, high temperature superconductors have significant potential for use as powerful permanent magnets in a variety of practical applications due to their ability to trap record magnetic fields. In this paper, soft ferromagnetic sections are combined with a bulk, large grain Y-Ba-Cu-O high temperature superconductor to form superconductor/ferromagnet hybrid structures. We study how the ferromagnetic sections influence the shape of the profile of the trapped magnetic induction at the surface of each structure and report the surface magnetic fluxdensitymeasured by Hall probe mapping. These configurations have been modelled using a 2D axisymmetric finite element method based on the H -formulation and the results show excellent qualitative and quantitative agreement with the experimental measurements. The model has also been used to study the magnetic flux distribution and predict the behaviour for other constitutive laws and geometries. The results show that the ferromagnetic material acts as a magnetic shield, but the fluxdensity and its gradient are enhanced on the face opposite to the ferromagnet. The thickness and saturation magnetization of the ferromagnetic material are important and a characteristic ferromagnet thickness d* is derived: below d*, saturation of the ferromagnet occurs, and above d*, a weak thickness-dependence is observed. The influence of the ferromagnet is observed even if its saturation magnetization is lower than the trapped fluxdensity of the superconductor. Conversely, thin ferromagnetic discs can be driven to full saturation even though the outer magnetic field is much smaller than their saturation magnetization.

Density is a fundamental property of porous media such as snow. A wide range of snow properties and physical processes are linked to density, but few studies have addressed the uncertainty in snow densitymeasurements. No study has yet considered the recent advances in snow measurement methods such as micro-computed tomography (CT). During the MicroSnow Davos 2014 workshop different approaches to measure snow density were applied in a controlled laboratory environment and in the field. Overall, the agreement between CT and gravimetric methods (density cutters) was 5 to 9 %, with a bias of -5 to 2 %, expressed as percentage of the mean CT density. In the field, the density cutters tend to overestimate (1 to 6 %) densities below and underestimate (1 to 6 %) densities above 296 to 350 kg m-3, respectively, depending on the cutter type. Using the mean per layer of all measurement methods applied in the field (CT, box, wedge and cylinder cutter) and ignoring ice layers, the variation of layer density between the methods was 2 to 5 % with a bias of -1 to 1 %. In general, our result suggests that snow densitiesmeasured by different methods agree within 9 %. However, the density profiles resolved by the measurement methods differed considerably. In particular, the millimeter scale density variations revealed by the high resolution CT contrasted the thick layers with sharp boundaries introduced by the observer. In this respect, the unresolved variation, i.e. the density variation within a layer, which is lost by sampling with lower resolution or layer aggregation, is critical when snow densitymeasurements are used as boundary or initial conditions in numerical simulations.

Density is a fundamental property of porous media such as snow. A wide range of snow properties and physical processes are linked to density, but few studies have addressed the uncertainty in snow densitymeasurements. No study has yet quantitatively considered the recent advances in snow measurement methods such as micro-computed tomography (μCT) in alpine snow. During the MicroSnow Davos 2014 workshop, different approaches to measure snow density were applied in a controlled laboratory environment and in the field. Overall, the agreement between μCT and gravimetric methods (density cutters) was 5 to 9 %, with a bias of -5 to 2 %, expressed as percentage of the mean μCT density. In the field, density cutters overestimate (1 to 6 %) densities below and underestimate (1 to 6 %) densities above a threshold between 296 to 350 kg m-3, dependent on cutter type. Using the mean density per layer of all measurement methods applied in the field (μCT, box, wedge, and cylinder cutters) and ignoring ice layers, the variation between the methods was 2 to 5 % with a bias of -1 to 1 %. In general, our result suggests that snow densitiesmeasured by different methods agree within 9 %. However, the density profiles resolved by the measurement methods differed considerably. In particular, the millimeter-scale density variations revealed by the high-resolution μCT contrasted the thick layers with sharp boundaries introduced by the observer. In this respect, the unresolved variation, i.e., the density variation within a layer which is lost by lower resolution sampling or layer aggregation, is critical when snow densitymeasurements are used in numerical simulations.

A new passive flux sampler (PFS) was developed to measure emission rates of formaldehyde and to determine emission sources in indoor environments. The sampler consisted of a glass Petri dish containing a 2,4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine (DNPH)-impregnated sheet. At the start of sampling, the PFS was placed with the open face of the dish on each of the indoor materials under investigation, such as flooring, walls, doors, closets, desks, beds, etc. Formaldehyde emitted from a source material diffused through the inside of the PFS and was adsorbed onto the DNPH sheet. The formaldehyde emission rates could be determined from the quantities adsorbed. The lower determination limits were 9.2 and 2.3 μg m -2 h -1 for 2- and 8-h sampling periods. The recovery rate and the precision of the PFS were 82.9% and 8.26%, respectively. The emission rates measured by PFS were in good agreement with the emission rates measured by the chamber method ( R2=0.963). This shows that it is possible to take measurements of the formaldehyde emission rates from sources in a room and to compare them. In addition, the sampler can be used to elucidate the emission characteristics of a source by carrying out emission measurements with different air-layer thicknesses inside the PFS and at different temperatures. The dependency of the emission rate on the thickness of the air layer inside the PFS indicated whether the internal mass transfer inside the source material or the diffusion in the gas-phase boundary layer controlled the formaldehyde emission rate from a material. In addition, as a pilot study, the formaldehyde emission rates were measured, and the largest emission source of formaldehyde could be identified from among several suspected materials in a model house by using the PFS.

We present measured current and its time derivative correlated with the corresponding electric field intensity and magnetic fluxdensity and their time derivatives measured at 15 m for two lightning return strokes triggered in 1999 at Camp Blanding, Florida. Lightning was triggered to a vertical 2-m rod mounted at the center of a 70 × 70 m buried metallic grid. The rocket-launching system was located underground at the center of the grid. The experiment was designed to minimize any influence of either the strike object or a finite-conducting Earth (ground surface arcing and propagation effects) on the fields and field derivatives. The measured current derivative waveform and the return stroke portion of the magnetic fluxdensity derivative and electric field intensity derivative waveforms associated with the two strokes are observed to be essentially unipolar pulses that have similar waveshapes for the first 150 ns or so, including the initial rising portion, the peak, and about 50 ns after the peak. The current and magnetic field derivative waveshapes are very similar for their total duration, and both decay to near zero about 200 ns after the peak derivative is reached. The electric field derivative decays more slowly than the current derivative after about 150 ns, taking about 500 ns to decay to near zero. The transmission-line model, the simplest available and most used return stroke model, is employed to calculate the return stroke field derivatives, given the measured current derivative as a model input, for return stroke speeds of 1 × 108 m s-1, 2 × 108 m s-1, and 3 × 108 m s-1 (the speed of light). A reasonable match between calculated and measured field derivative waveshapes is achieved for both strokes for a return stroke speed between 2 × 108 m s-1 and 3 × 108 m s-1. Although the measured field and current derivatives have similar waveshapes for about 150 ns, which might appear to be consistent with the hypothesis that the radiation field component

Metabolic flux, the flow of metabolites through networks of enzymes, represents the dynamic productive output of cells. Improved understanding of intracellular metabolic fluxes will enable targeted manipulation of metabolic pathways of medical and industrial importance to a greater degree than is currently possible. Flux balance analysis (FBA) is a constraint-based approach to modeling metabolic fluxes, but its utility is limited by a lack of experimental measurements. Incorporation of experimentally measuredfluxes as system constraints will significantly improve the overall accuracy of FBA. We applied a novel, two-tiered approach in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to measure nutrient consumption rates (extracellular fluxes) and a targeted intracellular flux using a (14)C-labeled precursor with HPLC separation and flux quantitation by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). The use of AMS to trace the intracellular fate of (14)C-glutamine allowed the calculation of intracellular metabolic flux through this pathway, with glutathione as the metabolic end point. Measuredflux values provided global constraints for the yeast FBA model which reduced model uncertainty by more than 20%, proving the importance of additional constraints in improving the accuracy of model predictions and demonstrating the use of AMS to measure intracellular metabolic fluxes. Our results highlight the need to use intracellular fluxes to constrain the models. We show that inclusion of just one such measurement alone can reduce the average variability of model predicted fluxes by 10%. PMID:21062031

An area of persistent concern in micrometeorological measurements is the failure to close the energy balance at surface flux stations. While most attention has focused on corrections associated with the eddy fluxes, none of the energy balance terms are measured without error. The flux plate method i...

Passive capillary lysimeters (PCLs) are uniquely suited for measuring water fluxes in variably-saturated soils. The objective of this work was to compare PCL fluxmeasurements with simulated fluxes obtained with a calibrated unsaturated flow model. The Richards equation-based model was calibrated us...

Researchers and practitioners have used many varied designs of wind tunnels and flux chambers to measure the flux of volatile organic compounds, odor, and ammonia from area sources at animal feeding operations. The measuredfluxes are used to estimate emission factors or compare treatments. We sho...

We investigate the measurement of alkali number densities using the Faraday rotation of linearly polarized light. We find that the alkali number density may be reliably extracted even in regimes of very high buffer gas pressure, and very high alkali number density. We have directly verified our results in potassium using absorption spectroscopy on the second resonance (4 2S→5 2P).

Metastable atom probe was developed for measuring current density in electron beam as function of two arbitrary coordinates, with spatial resolution better than 0.5 mm. Probe shows effects of space charge, magnetic fields, and other factors which influence electron current density, but operates with such low beam densities that introduced perturbation is very small.

contributes to each measurement interval (30 min), which varies with wind direction and stability. A detailed geographic information system of the urban surface combined with traffic counts and building energy models makes it possible to statistically relate fluxes to vehicle density (km driven) and buildings (gas heated volume) - and ultimately quantify the contribution of space heating, transport sector and fugitive emissions to the total emitted CH4 from an urban environment. The measuredfluxes of CH4 over the selected urban environment averaged to 22.8 mg CH4 m-2 day-1 during the study period. Compared with the simultaneously measured CO2 emissions, the contribution of CH4, however, accounts for only about 3% of the total LLGHG emissions from this particular urban surface. Traffic contributed 8.8 mg CH4 m-2 day-1, equivalent to 39% of the total CH4 flux. The determined emission factor for the typical fleet composition is 0.062 g CH4 per km driven which is higher than upscaled fleet emission factors (EPA) by a factor of two. This discrepancy can be partially explained through the slower city traffic with frequent idling (traffic congestion), fleet composition and cold starts. Emissions of CH4 by domestic space heating (55% of the total CH4 flux or 12.7 mg CH4 m-2 day-1) are also higher than estimated from upscaled emission factors. There is no evidence of substantial unknown sources such as soil processes, combustion of wood, and leakages from gas distribution pipes (residual: 6% or 1.3 mg CH4 m-2 day-1). The presented study is among the first direct measurements of CH4 emissions over an urban surface and demonstrates that fluxmeasurements of greenhouse gases can be used to determine sources and emission factors in complex urban situations.

In this study, a noncontact main cable NDE method has been developed. This cable NDE method utilizes the direct current (DC) magnetization and a searching coil-based total fluxmeasurement. A total flux sensor head prototype was fabricated that consists of an electro-magnet yoke and a searching coil sensor. To obtain a B-H loop, a magnetic field was generated by applying a cycle of low frequency direct current to the electro-magnet yoke. During the magnetization, a search coil sensor measures the electromotive force from magnetized cable. During the magnetization process, a search coil sensor was measured the magnetic fluxdensity. Total flux was calculated by integrating the measured magnetic flux using a fluxmeter. A B-H loop is obtained by using relationship between a cycle of input DC voltage and measured total flux. The B-H loop can reflect the property of the ferromagnetic materials. Therefore, the cross-sectional loss of cable can be detected using variation of features from the B-H curve. To verify the feasibility of the proposed steel cable NDE method, a series of experimental studies using a main-cable mock-up specimen has been performed in this study.

The Balloon-borne Experiment with a Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS) instrument pro-vides precise measurements of the elemental and isotopic composition of the light Galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) component. The ability to determine the charge sign of incident par-ticles enables the instrument to search for GCR antimatter, which is a major objective of the BESS program. Since 1993, the US-Japan BESS collaboration has conducted 11 successful balloon flights, nine northern-latitude flights of 1-day duration and most recently two long-duration balloon flights (8.5 days in 2004 & 24.5 days in 2007/2008), with the BESS-Polar instrument. The BESS-Polar instrument is the current effort of BESS program specifically designed for long-duration, low-geomagnetic cutoff Antarctic flights with significantly increased transparency for incident CR particle allowing to study anti/proton down to 100 MeV and a faster data acquisition enables processing of all CR events without event selection. The first BESS-Polar flight was launched on Dec 13, 2004 from Williams Field, near McMurdo Station in Antarctica. The instrument recorded data for 8.5 days, limited by the cryogenic life time of the superconducting magnet. During this flight the BESS-Polar instrument recorded 0.9 x 109 CR events. In this paper, we present the absolute proton and helium flux for the first BESS-Polar flight as well as the time variation of the fluxes due to solar activity.

This article presents a new device devoted to the simultaneous measurement of bioluminescence and optical density of a bioluminescent bacterial culture. It features an optoelectronic bioreactor with a fully autoclavable module, in which the bioluminescent bacteria are cultivated, a modulated laser diode dedicated to optical densitymeasurement, and a detection head for the acquisition of both bioluminescence and optical density signals. Light is detected through a bifurcated fiber bundle. This setup allows the simultaneous estimation of the bioluminescence and the cell density of the culture medium without any sampling. The bioluminescence is measured through a highly sensitive photomultiplier unit which has been photometrically calibrated to allow light fluxmeasurements. This was achieved by considering the bioluminescence spectrum and the full optical transmission of the device. The instrument makes it possible to measure a very weak light flux of only a few pW. The optical density is determined through the laser diode and a photodiode using numerical synchronous detection which is based on the power spectrum density of the recorded signal. The detection was calibrated to measure optical density up to 2.5. The device was validated using the Vibrio fischeri bacterium which was cultivated under continuous culture conditions. A very good correlation between manual and automatic measurements processed with this instrument has been demonstrated. Furthermore, the optoelectronic bioreactor enables determination of the luminance of the bioluminescent bacteria which is estimated to be 6×10-5 W sr-1 m-2 for optical density=0.3. Experimental results are presented and discussed.

Wavelet and fractal analyses have been used successfully to analyze one-dimensional data sets such as time series of financial, physical, and biological parameters. These techniques have been applied to two-dimensional problems in some instances, including the analysis of remote sensing imagery. In this respect, these techniques have not been widely used by the remote sensing community, and their overall capabilities as analytical tools for use on satellite and aircraft data sets is not well known. Wavelet and fractal analyses have the potential to provide fresh insight into the characterization of surface properties such as temperature and emissivity distributions, and surface processes such as the heat and water vapor exchange between the surface and the lower atmosphere. In particular, the variation of sensible heat fluxdensity as a function of the change In scale of surface properties Is difficult to estimate, but - in general - wavelets and fractals have proved useful in determining the way a parameter varies with changes in scale. We present the results of a limited study on the relationship between spatial variations in surface temperature distribution and sensible heat flux distribution as determined by separate wavelet and fractal analyses. We analyzed aircraft imagery obtained in the thermal infrared (IR) bands from the multispectral TIMS and hyperspectral MASTER airborne sensors. The thermal IR data allows us to estimate the surface kinetic temperature distribution for a number of sites in the Midwestern and Southwestern United States (viz., San Pedro River Basin, Arizona; El Reno, Oklahoma; Jornada, New Mexico). The ground spatial resolution of the aircraft data varied from 5 to 15 meters. All sites were instrumented with meteorological and hydrological equipment including surface layer fluxmeasuring stations such as Bowen Ratio systems and sonic anemometers. The ground and aircraft data sets provided the inputs for the wavelet and fractal analyses

Air-sea open ocean CO2 fluxmeasurements have been made using the Eddy Covariance (EC) technique onboard the weathership Polarfront in the North Atlantic between September 2006 and December 2009. Fluxmeasurements were made using an autonomous system ‘AutoFlux’. CO2 mass density was measured with an open-path infrared gas analyzer. Following quality control procedures, 3938 20-minute fluxmeasurements were made at mean wind speeds up to 19.6 m/s, significantly higher wind speeds than previously published results. The uncertainty in the determination of gas transfer velocities is large, but the mean relationship to wind speed allows a new parameterisation of the gas transfer velocity to be determined. A cubic dependence of gas transfer on wind speed is found, suggesting a significant influence of bubble-mediated exchange on gas transfer.

An apparatus and method for rapidly and accurately determining the pressure of a fluid medium in either a static or dynamic state. The pressure is determined by making a measurement of the velocity of a light beam that is directed through the fluid medium along a pathway that enables an integrated pressure measurement to be made along the pathway, rather than making such a measurement only at a single point in the medium. A HeNe laser is configured to emit a beam of two frequencies separated by about 2 MHz. One of these beam frequencies is directed through the fluid medium and is reflected back through the medium to a non-linear diode detector. The other beam frequency is passed directly to a diode detector without traversing said medium. The diode detector is operated to determine the frequency shift or beat frequency between the two beam frequencies. Any variation in the frequency of said reflected beam that is caused by a change in its velocity as it is passed through the fluid medium causes a change in the beat frequency. This beat frequency change is then converted to an output signal value corresponding to the pressure of the medium. The measurement instrument apparatus is remotely positioned relative to the medium being measured, thus the apparatus is immune from electro-magnetic interference and can operate in conditions of high radiation, corrosion and extraordinarily high temperature.

An apparatus and method are disclosed for rapidly and accurately determining the pressure of a fluid medium in either a static or dynamic state. The pressure is determined by making a measurement of the velocity of a light beam that is directed through the fluid medium along a pathway that enables an integrated pressure measurement to be made along the pathway, rather than making such a measurement only at a single point in the medium. A HeNe laser is configured to emit a beam of two frequencies separated by about 2 MHz. One of these beam frequencies is directed through the fluid medium and is reflected back through the medium to a non-linear diode detector. The other beam frequency is passed directly to a diode detector without traversing said medium. The diode detector is operated to determine the frequency shift or beat frequency between the two beam frequencies. Any variation in the frequency of said reflected beam that is caused by a change in its velocity as it is passed through the fluid medium causes a change in the beat frequency. This beat frequency change is then converted to an output signal value corresponding to the pressure of the medium. The measurement instrument apparatus is remotely positioned relative to the medium being measured, thus the apparatus is immune from electro-magnetic interference and can operate in conditions of high radiation, corrosion and extraordinarily high temperature. 4 figs.

Spectral broadening measurements conducted at S-band (13-cm wavelength) during solar minimum conditions in the heliocentric distance range of 3-8 R(sub O) by Mariner 4, Pioneer 10, Mariner 10, Helios 1, Helios 2, and Viking have been combined to reveal a factor of 2.6 reduction in bandwidth from equator to pole. Since spectral broadening bandwidth depends on electron density fluctuation and solar wind speed, and latitudinal variation of the former is available from coherence bandwidth measurements, the remote sensing spectral broadening measurements provide the first determination of the latitudinal variation of solar wind speed in the acceleration region. When combined with electron densitymeasurements deduced from white-light coronagraphs, this result also leads to the first determination of the latitudinal variation of mass flux in the acceleration region. From equator to pole, solar wind speed increases by a factor of 2.2, while mass flux decreases by a factor of 2.3. These results are consistent with measurements of solar wind speed by multi-station intensity scintillation measurements, as well as measurements of mass flux inferred from Lyman alpha observations, both of which pertain to the solar wind beyond 0.5 AU. The spectral broadening observations, therefore, strengthen earlier conclusions about the latitudinal variation of solar wind speed and mass flux, and reinforce current solar coronal models and their implications for solar wind acceleration and solar wind modeling.

The significant role of ion beam flux during nitriding 304 austenitic stainless steel has been investigated by using a radio frequency inductively-coupled plasma reactor into which a sample with negative bias voltage was inserted. A milliammeter is used to detect the current of ions which collide with the sample and optical emission spectroscopy is used to discern the reactive species included in the nitrogen plasma. The nitriding efficiency is indicated by X-ray diffraction and the microhardness test. The reported data reveal that the ion beam fluxdensity as well as the deposition pressure, bias voltage and time can strongly affect the nitriding of stainless steel via the expanded multiphase microstructure inside the nitrided layer. The increase in the density of ion flux results in an ascent in the intensity of the expanded peak and a simultaneous decline in the intensity of the γ austenite peak. The evolution trend of ion beam fluxdensity is described as a function of the operating pressure and the bias voltage. The maximum ion fluxdensity has been achieved at 10 Pa pressure and -500 V bias voltage. A reasonable nitriding region has been, consequently, suggested after comparing this work with previously reported results.

An X-ray absorption method for measuring the amount of uranium confined in high density, rf-heated uranium plasmas is described. A comparison of measured absorption of 8 keV X-rays with absorption calculated using Beer Law indicated that the method could be used to measure uranium densities from 3 times 10 to the 16th power atoms/cu cm to 5 times 10 to the 18th power atoms/cu cm. Tests were conducted to measure the density of uranium in an rf-heated argon plasma with UF6 infection and with the power to maintain the discharge supplied by a 1.2 MW rf induction heater facility. The uranium density was measured as the flow rate through the test chamber was varied. A maximum uranium density of 3.85 times 10 to the 17th power atoms/cu cm was measured.

A fast response ozone analyzer based on the ozone-nitric oxide chemiluminescence method was integrated into the NOAA-ESRL flux system to achieve the first ship-borne, direct ozone fluxmeasurements over the open ocean. Air was collected from an inlet at 18 m height over the ocean surface mounted to the bow-jackstaff and via a 30 m-long sampling line to the ozone instrument on the ship deck. A "puff" system was used for accurate and regular determination of the sample transport time (lag) between the inlet and the chemical analyzer. A Nafion-membrane dryer facilitated removal of fast water vapor fluctuations, which eliminated the need for quenching and density correction of the ozone signal. The sampling-analyzer system was found to have a ~0.25-0.40 s response time at a sensitivity of ~2800 counts s-1 per ppbv of ozone. Quality control and data filtering procedures for eliminating data that did not meet measurement requirements were critically evaluated. The new ozone flux system was deployed aboard the NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown, and evaluated using results obtained during several research cruises off the coasts of the North and South America continents, yielding ozone deposition velocities (mean ± standard error) ranging from 0.009±0.001 cm s-1 to 0.24±0.020 cm s-1.

A fast response ozone analyzer based on the ozone-nitric oxide chemiluminescence method was integrated into the NOAA-ESRL flux system to achieve the first ship-borne, direct ozone fluxmeasurements over the open ocean. Air was collected from an inlet at 18 m height over the ocean surface mounted to the bow-jackstaff and via a 30 m-long sampling line to the ozone instrument on the ship deck. A "puff" system was used for accurate and regular determination of the sample transport time (lag) between the inlet and the chemical analyzer. A Nafion-membrane dryer facilitated removal of fast water vapor fluctuations, which eliminated the need for quenching and density correction of the ozone signal. The sampling-analyzer system was found to have a ~0.25-0.40 s response time at a sensitivity of ~2800 counts s-1 per ppbv of ozone. Quality control and data filtering procedures for eliminating data that did not meet measurement requirements were critically evaluated. The new ozone flux system was deployed during several cruises aboard the NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown, and evaluated using results obtained during several research cruises off the coasts of the North and South America continents.

The bulk and tapped density of pharmaceutical powders are often measured for processability. The tapped density is measured for two primary purposes: (i) the tapped value is more reproducibly measured than the bulk value, and (ii) the "flowability" of a powder is inferred from the ratio of these two measureddensities. The density ratio method is compared to flowability measurements on a Johanson Flow Indicizer. These methods are evaluated for monodisperse glass beads as well as for common pharmaceutical excipients and blends. The "tapped" density of a pharmaceutical powder is determined using a tapped density tester, which is set to tap the powder at a fixed impact force and frequency. The methods for measurement in the U.S. pharmaceutical industry are specified in the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). Tapped density by the USP method is determined by a linear progression of the number of taps. In light of experiments performed over the past decade, exhibiting a slow relaxation approach to the final packing state (logarithmic with the number of taps), the tapped densitymeasured with the USP method is further explored. Additionally, the dependence of the tapped density on the conditions specified in the USP method, e.g., sample size and time separation between taps, is examined.

The monitoring of PKS 0405-385 commenced in 1993 November, as part of the ATCA IDV Survey (Kedziora-Chudczer et al., 2001, Cat. ) with the Australia Telescope Compact Array.1 The source showed rapid variability in total fluxdensity at 8.6, 4.8 and 2.4GHz during these observations. The time-scale of variability, defined throughout this paper as HWHP of auto-correlation function of fluxdensity, was faster than 2h (the frequency of sampling used in the survey). (2 data files).

A nonintrusive technique for measuring dynamic gas density properties is described. Molecular Rayleigh scattering is used to measure the time-history of gas density simultaneously at eight spatial locations at a 50 kHz sampling rate. The data are analyzed using the Welch method of modified periodograms to reduce measurement uncertainty. Cross-correlations, power spectral density functions, cross-spectral density functions, and coherence functions may be obtained from the data. The technique is demonstrated using low speed co-flowing jets with a heated inner jet.

This invention relates to a nondestructive method for measuring the density of articles composed of elements having a low atomic number such as plastic and carbon composites. The measurement is accomplished by striking the article with a collimated beam of X radiation, simultaneously monitoring the radiation scattered and the radiation transmitted by the article, then relating the ratio of the radiation scattered to the radiation transmitted with the density of the article. The above method is insensitive to all variables except density.

The Eddy-Covariance Method for quantifying surface-atmosphere fluxes is a foundational technique for measuring net ecosystem exchange and validating regional-to-global carbon cycle models. While towers or ships are the more frequent platform for measuring surface-atmosphere exchange, experiments using aircraft for fluxmeasurements have yielded contributions to several large-scale studies including BOREAS, SMACEX, RECAB by providing local-to-regional coverage beyond towers. The low-altitude flight requirements make airborne fluxmeasurements particularly dangerous and well suited for unmanned aircraft. In a series of flights in June of 2011, the NASA SIERRA carried a payload consisting of the NASA Ames Meteorological Measurement System (MMS) and a fast response (10Hz) CO2, CH4, and H2O vapor analyzer in order to demonstrate the feasibility of measuringfluxes from unmanned aircraft and to characterize accuracy and precision based upon ground measurements. The flights were conducted in Railroad Valley, NV in order to provide a simple model for understanding biases and uncertainties. This paper describes the system specifications, provides preliminary data compared against coincident ground measurements, and discusses future applications of the system.

This report recommends instrumentation and methods suitable for measuring radon fluxes emanating from covered disposal sites of residual radioactive materials such as uranium mill tailings. Problems of spatial and temporal variations in radon flux are discussed and the advantages and disadvantages of several instruments are examined. A year-long measurement program and a two month measurement methodology are then presented based on the inherent difficulties of measuring average radon flux over a cover using the recommended instrumentation.

To facilitate the study of flux heterogeneity within a region, the authors have designed, built, and field-tested a highly portable, rapidly deployable, eddy covariance CO{sub 2} fluxmeasurement system. The system is built from off-the-shelf parts and was assembled at a minimal cost. The unique combination of features of this system allow for a very rapid deployment with a minimal number of field personnel. The system is capable of making high precision, unattended measurements of turbulent CO{sub 2} fluxes, latent heat (LE) fluxes, sensible heat fluxes (H), and momentum transfer fluxes. In addition, many of the meteorological and ecosystem variables necessary for quality control of the fluxes and for running ecosystem models are measured. A side-by-side field comparison of the system at a pair of established AmeriFlux sites has verified that, for single measurements, the system is capable of CO{sub 2} flux accuracy of about {+-} 1.2 {micro}mole/m{sup 2}/sec, LE flux accuracy of about {+-} 15 Watts/m{sup 2}, H flux accuracy of about {+-} 7 Watts/m{sup 2}, and momentum transfer flux accuracy of about {+-} 11 gm-m/sec/sec. System deployment time is between 2 and 4 hours by a single person. The system was measured to draw between 30 and 35 Watts of power and may be run from available line power, storage batteries, or solar panels.

The Indianapolis Flux Experiment (INFLUX) was created in order to develop and evaluate methods for the measurement of greenhouse gas emission fluxes from urban environments. Such methods are important for a variety of reasons, including that more than half the global population now resides in cities, and because it is likely that many CO2 emissions reductions strategies will be implemented on local, largely urban, scales. INFLUX is using Indianapolis as a test case for measurements of urban scale greenhouse gas fluxes, because it is a fairly isolated urban environment with tractable meteorology, and a well-developed emission inventory (Vulcan/Hestia). INFLUX aims to quantify and reduce the uncertainty limits for such flux determinations, and to define the uncertainties for individual and combined approaches. The project currently combines a network of towers (currently 10 with 12 possible by the end of 2012) at which CO, CO2 and CH4 are measured, along with periodic flask sampling for 14CO2 and ~50 other trace gases and isotopes. Aircraft-based measurements of CO2, CH4 and H2O, along with flask samples for a variety of gases including 14CO2 are conducted from a light twin aircraft that enables fluxmeasurements using the on-board turbulence/wind measurements via mass balance or eddy covariance methods. As of August of 2012 INFLUX has a Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) Fourier Transform Spectrometer at a downwind site, measuring column total CO2, CH4, H2O (and other greenhouse gases). The data from these tower, TCCON and aircraft measurements are then used in an inverse-modeling approach, using the Weather Research and Forecast model with chemistry (WRF-Chem) and the Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model (LDPM) to yield estimates of the urban area flux at 1 km2 resolution. When aggregated these fluxes can be compared to estimates derived from aircraft mass-balance estimates, and the 14CO2 and CO data are used to extract the fossil fuel component of the

The use of classical techniques for neutron fluxmeasurements in nuclear reactors involves the switching between several detection chains as the power grows up to 10 decades. In space applications where mass and size constraints are of key significance, such volume of hardware represents a clear disadvantage. Instead of requiring different instruments for each reactor operating range (start-up, ramping-up, and nominal power), a single instrument chain should be desirable. A Wide Range Neutron Detector (WRND) system, combining a classic pulse Counting Channel with a Campbell's theorem based Fluctuation Channel can be implemented for the monitoring and control of a space nuclear reactor. Such an instrument will allow for a reduction in the complexity of space-based nuclear instrumentation and control systems. In this presentation we will discuss the criteria and tradeoffs involved in the development of such a system. We will focus particularly on the characteristics of the System On Chip (SOC) and the DSP board used to implement this instrument.

Nanocrystalline Fe-Si-B-P-Cu alloys exhibit high saturation magnetic fluxdensity (Bs) and extremely low magnetic core loss (W), simultaneously. Low amorphous-forming ability of these alloys hinders their application potential in power transformers and motors. Here we report a solution to this problem. Minor addition of C is found to be effective in increasing the amorphous-forming ability of Fe-Si-B-P-Cu alloys. It allows fabrication of 120 mm wide ribbons (which was limited to less than 40 mm) without noticeable degradation in magnetic properties. The nanocrystalline (Fe85.7Si0.5B9.5P3.5Cu0.8)99C1 ribbons exhibit low coercivity (Hc)~4.5 A/m, high Bs~1.83 T and low W~0.27 W/kg (@ 1.5 T and 50 Hz). Success in fabrication of long (60-100 m) and wide (~120 mm) ribbons, which are made up of low cost elements is promising for mass production of energy efficient high power transformers and motors

A detailed description of a NASA/JPL Deep Space Network program to improve S-band gain calibrations of large aperture antennas is reported. The program is considered unique in at least three ways; first, absolute gain calibrations of high quality suppressed-sidelobe dual mode horns first provide a high accuracy foundation to the foundation to the program. Second, a very careful transfer calibration technique using an artificial far-field coherent-wave source was used to accurately obtain the gain of one large (26 m) aperture. Third, using the calibrated large aperture directly, the absolute fluxdensity of five selected galactic and extragalactic natural radio sources was determined with an absolute accuracy better than 2 percent, now quoted at the familiar 1 sigma confidence level. The follow-on considerations to apply these results to an operational network of ground antennas are discussed. It is concluded that absolute gain accuracies within + or - 0.30 to 0.40 db are possible, depending primarily on the repeatability (scatter) in the field data from Deep Space Network user stations.

We measured CO2 and evapotranspiration (ET) fluxes above a Chihuahuan desert grassland from 1996 through 2001. Averaged across six years, this ecosystem was a source (positive flux)of CO2 in every month. Over that period, sustained periods of carbon uptake (negative flux)were rare. Averaged across a...

The flux plate method is the most commonly employed method for measuring soil heat flux (G) in surface energy balance studies. Although relatively simple to use, the flux plate method is susceptible to significant errors. Two of the most common errors are heat flow divergence around the plate and fa...

A coherence imaging camera has been set up at Pilot-PSI. The system is to be used for imaging the plasma density through the Stark effect broadening of the H{sub {gamma}} line. Local density values are then obtained by the Abel inversion of the measured interferometric fringe contrast. This report will present the instrument setup and proof-of-principle demonstration. The inverted spatial electron density profiles obtained near the cascaded arc source of Pilot-PSI in discharges with axial magnetic field of B=0.4 T are compared with an independent measurement of electron density by Thomson scattering and good agreement is found.

This paper proposes a new measurement method of electron density using the reactance spectrum of the plasma in the cutoff probe system instead of the transmission spectrum. The highly accurate reactance spectrum of the plasma-cutoff probe system, as expected from previous circuit simulations [Kim et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 99, 131502 (2011)], was measured using the full two-port error correction and automatic port extension methods of the network analyzer. The electron density can be obtained from the analysis of the measured reactance spectrum, based on circuit modeling. According to the circuit simulation results, the reactance cutoff probe can measure the electron density more precisely than the previous cutoff probe at low densities or at higher pressure. The obtained results for the electron density are presented and discussed for a wide range of experimental conditions, and this method is compared with previous methods (a cutoff probe using the transmission spectrum and a single Langmuir probe).

Understanding chamber-based soil flux model fitting and measurement error is key to scaling soils GHG emissions and resolving the primary uncertainties in climate and management feedbacks at regional scales. One key challenge is the selection of the correct empirical model applied to soil flux rate analysis in chamber-based experiments. Another challenge is the characterization of error in the chamber measurement. Traditionally, most chamber-based N2O and CH4 measurements and model derivations have used discrete sampling for GC analysis, and have been conducted using extended chamber deployment periods (DP) which are expected to result in substantial alteration of the pre-deployment flux. The development of high-precision, high-frequency CRDS analyzers has advanced the science of soil flux analysis by facilitating much shorter DP and, in theory, less chamber-induced suppression of the soil-atmosphere diffusion gradient. As well, a new software tool developed by Picarro (the "Soil Flux Processor" or "SFP") links the power of Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy (CRDS) technology with an easy-to-use interface that features flexible sample-ID and run-schemes, and provides real-time monitoring of chamber accumulations and environmental conditions. The SFP also includes a sophisticated flux analysis interface which offers a user-defined model selection, including three predominant fit algorithms as default, and an open-code interface for user-composed algorithms. The SFP is designed to couple with the Picarro G2508 system, an analyzer which simplifies soils flux studies by simultaneously measuring primary GHG species -- N2O, CH4, CO2 and H2O. In this study, Picarro partners with the ARS USDA Soil & Water Management Research Unit (R. Venterea, St. Paul), to examine the degree to which the high-precision, high-frequency Picarro analyzer allows for much shorter DPs periods in chamber-based flux analysis, and, in theory, less chamber-induced suppression of the soil

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a shade plant, native to the under-story of the evergreen rain forest of the Amazon basin and adapted to low levels of photosynthetic photon fluxdensity (PPFD). The influence of PPFD, leaf to air water vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and external carbon dioxide concentration...

The noninvasively measurement of the density and viscosity of static or flowing fluids in a section of pipe such that the pipe performs as the sensing apparatus, is described. Measurement of a suitable structural vibration resonance frequency of the pipe and the width of this resonance permits the density and viscosity to be determined, respectively. The viscosity may also be measured by monitoring the decay in time of a vibration resonance in the pipe.

Concentration trends of arsenic are typically used to evaluate the performance of remediation efforts designed to mitigate arsenic contamination in groundwater. A complementary approach would be to track changes in mass flux of the contaminant through the subsurface, for exampl...

The electron temperature and density profiles of plasmas in the Helicity Injected Torus [HIT-II: T. R. Jarboe et al., Phys. Plasmas 5, 1807 (1998)] experiment are measured by multipoint Thomson scattering (MPTS). The HIT-II device is a small low-aspect-ratio tokamak (major radius 0.3 m, minor radius 0.2 m, toroidal field of up to 0.5 T), capable of inductive ohmic (OH) current drive, Coaxial Helicity Injection (CHI) current drive, or combinations of both. The temperature and density characteristics have been characterized by a ruby laser MPTS diagnostic at up to six locations within the plasma for a single diagnostic time per discharge. Observed hollow temperature profiles of CHI discharges are inconsistent with open flux only predictions for CHI and indicate a closed flux region during CHI current drive.

Electron density and neutral gas density have been measured in a non-equilibrium air breakdown plasma using optical emission spectroscopy and two-dimensional laser interferometry, respectively. A plasma was created with a focused high frequency microwave beam in air. Experiments were run with 110 GHz and 124.5 GHz microwaves at powers up to 1.2 MW. Microwave pulses were 3 μs long at 110 GHz and 2.2 μs long at 124.5 GHz. Electron density was measured over a pressure range of 25 to 700 Torr as the input microwave power was varied. Electron density was found to be close to the critical density, where the collisional plasma frequency is equal to the microwave frequency, over the pressure range studied and to vary weakly with input power. Neutral gas density was measured over a pressure range from 150 to 750 Torr at power levels high above the threshold for initiating breakdown. The two-dimensional structure of the neutral gas density was resolved. Intense, localized heating was found to occur hundreds of nanoseconds after visible plasma formed. This heating led to neutral gas density reductions of greater than 80% where peak plasma densities occurred. Spatial structure and temporal dynamics of gas heating at atmospheric pressure were found to agree well with published numerical simulations.

A general overview of the structure, technology, and methodology of the investigation of surface flux is presented for the First International Satellite Land-Surface Climatology Project Field Experiment. The paper examines the placement of stations, choice of constants, instruments, and micrometeorological techniques, the information system, and comparisons between the data from the sensors and data from different sites. The differences between sites are generally small, and a similarity is noted in the magnitude of fluxes across all sites.

In this paper, we present calibration methods in order to estimate reactor neutron flux spectrum and its uncertainties by using integral activation measurements. These techniques are performed using Bayesian and MCMC framework. These methods are applied to integral activation experiments in the cavity of the CALIBAN reactor. We estimate the neutron flux and its related uncertainties. The originality of this work is that these uncertainties take into account measurements uncertainties, cross-sections uncertainties and model error. In particular, our results give a very good approximation of the total flux and indicate that neutron flux from MCNP simulation for energies above about 5 MeV seems to overestimate the 'real flux'. (authors)

Open-path analyzers offer a number of advantages for measuring methane fluxes, including undisturbed in-situ fluxmeasurements, spatial integration using the Eddy Covariance approach, zero frequency response errors due to tube attenuation, confident water and thermal density terms from co-located fast measurements of water and sonic temperature, and possibility of remote and mobile solar-powered or small-generator-powered deployments due to lower power demands in the absence of a pump. The LI-7700 open-path methane analyzer is a VCSEL (vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser)-based instrument. It employs an open Herriott cell and measures levels of methane with RMS noise below 5 ppb at 10 Hz sampling in controlled laboratory conditions. The power consumption of the stand-alone LI-7700 in steady-state is about 8W, so it can be deployed in any methane-generating location of interest on a portable or mobile solar-powered tower, and it does not have to have grid power or permanent industrial generator. Eddy Covariance measurements of methane flux using the LI-7700 open-path methane analyzer were conducted in 2006-2009 in five ecosystems with contrasting weather and moisture conditions: (1) sawgrass wetland in the Florida Everglades; (2) coastal wetlands in an Arctic tundra; and (3) pacific mangroves in Mexico; (4) maize field and (5) ryegrass field in Nebraska. Methane co-spectra behaved in a manner similar to that of the co-spectra of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and air temperature, demonstrating that the LI-7700 adequately measured fluctuations in methane concentration across the whole spectrum of frequencies contributing to vertical atmospheric turbulent transport at the experimental sites. All co-spectra also closely followed the Kaimal model, and demonstrated good agreement with another methane co-spectrum obtained with a TDLS (Tunable Diode Laser Spectroscope; Unisearch Associates, Inc.) over a peatland. Overall, hourly methane fluxes ranged from near-zero at

Paramagnetic ionic liquids (PILs) provide new capabilities to measurements of density using magnetic levitation (MagLev). In a typical measurement, a diamagnetic object of unknown density is placed in a container containing a PIL. The container is placed between two magnets (typically NdFeB, oriented with like poles facing). The density of the diamagnetic object can be determined by measuring its position in the magnetic field along the vertical axis (levitation height, h), either as an absolute value or relative to internal standards of known density. For densitymeasurements by MagLev, PILs have three advantages over solutions of paramagnetic salts in aqueous or organic solutions: (i) negligible vapor pressures; (ii) low melting points; (iii) high thermal stabilities. In addition, the densities, magnetic susceptibilities, glass transition temperatures, thermal decomposition temperatures, viscosities, and hydrophobicities of PILs can be tuned over broad ranges by choosing the cation-anion pair. The low melting points and high thermal stabilities of PILs provide large liquidus windows for densitymeasurements. This paper demonstrates applications and advantages of PILs in density-based analyses using MagLev. PMID:23972068

The purpose of this bilateral comparison is to check the conformance of the base quantities of magnetic measurements, DC magnetic fluxdensity and its ratio to a current, as reproduced at VNIIM and KRISS. In these institutes adequate conditions for precise measurements in low magnetic fields are provided and the appropriate equipment for attaining a high level of accuracy is available. The results in this report cover the comparisons of two units, T/A and T, reproduced by the two institutes. The experimental comparison data show good agreement within the estimated uncertainty components of the standards. The coordinated values of the unit of DC magnetic fluxdensity and its ratios to DC current show a standard uncertainty at the level of 1 × 10-6 to 1.2 × 10-6 (k = 1) using the value of the gyromagnetic ratio of the shielded protons γp that was recommended by CODATA in 2010, the experimental determination of the ratio (γ4He/γp) of 4He atoms to protons, and the standards of the two institutes. The results give a basis for carrying out multilateral comparisons of standard quantum magnetometers of metrological institutes in the framework of APMP with participation of geomagnetic observatories, which require the establishment of a unified standard of the unit of DC magnetic fluxdensity. They also show the possibility of decreasing the uncertainty of the determination of the unit of DC magnetic fluxdensity from direct comparisons of standard quantum magnetometers. Main text. To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/. The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by APMP, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

A laser radiation absorption technique, suitable for temporal measurement of the electron density, the temperature, or a simultaneous determination of both, in an LTE plasma, is discussed. The theoretical calculation of the absorption coefficient for a hydrogen plasma is outlined; some results are presented for visible wavelengths. Measurements of electron density and temperature are presented and shown to be in good agreement with those values obtained by other methods. Finally, the possible use of the argon ion laser for simultaneous electron density and temperature measurement is discussed, and the theoretical curves necessary for its application to hydrogen plasma diagnostics are shown.

Report presents theoretical and experimental studies directed toward development of optoelectronic instrument to measuredensity of air at altitudes from 50 to 90 km and possibly beyond. Instrument mounted in Space Shuttle orbiter and operated during reentry into atmosphere. Data gathered by instrument needed because density of upper atmosphere highly variable in space and time and this variability affects aerodynamic behavior and trajectory of reentering Shuttle. Variations in density also meteorologically significant.

The symmetry energy coefficients for nuclei with mass number A=20-250 are extracted from more than 2000 measured nuclear masses. With the semiempirical connection between the symmetry energy coefficients of finite nuclei and the nuclear symmetry energy at reference densities, we investigate the density dependence of the symmetry energy of nuclear matter at subnormal densities. The obtained results are compared with those extracted from other methods.

We have recently published observations of significant fluxdensity variations at 1.3 cm in H ii regions in the star-forming regions Sgr B2 Main and North. To further study these variations, we have made new 7 mm continuum and recombination line observations of Sgr B2 at the highest possible angular resolution of the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA). We have observed Sgr B2 Main and North at 42.9 GHz and at 45.4 GHz in the BnA configuration (Main) and the A configuration (North). We compare these new data to archival VLA 7 mm continuum data of Sgr B2 Main observed in 2003 and Sgr B2 North observed in 2001. We find that 1 of the 41 known ultracompact and hypercompact H ii regions in Sgr B2 (K2-North) has decreased ∼27% in fluxdensity from 142 ± 14 to 103 ± 10 mJy (2.3σ) between 2001 and 2012. A second source, F3c-Main, has increased ∼30% in fluxdensity from 82 ± 8 to 107 ± 11 mJy (1.8σ) between 2003 and 2012. F3c-Main was previously observed to increase in fluxdensity at 1.3 cm over a longer time period between 1989 and 2012. An observation of decreasing fluxdensity, such as that observed in K2-North, is particularly significant since such a change is not predicted by the classical hypothesis of steady expansion of H ii regions during massive star accretion. Our new observations at 7 mm, along with others in the literature, suggest that the formation of massive stars occurs through time-variable and violent accretion.

A transport equation has been derived which is the difference between the volume- and mass-averaged velocities and is simply related to the turbulent heat flux phi sup h. Using this equation and an assumption analogous to the drift flux approximation of two-phase flow modeling, an algebraic closure relation for phi sup h that exibits fluxes due to directed transport proportional to -del anti p and due to gradient transport proportional to -del tau has been obtained.

A microwave probe is known to be a suitable method to measure plasma density, even in the processing condition and is widely used in various environments of low-temperature processing plasmas. Various types of microwave probes have been researched and developed to measure the precise plasma density. Extensive research has been conducted to investigate each probes characteristic responding to the plasma parameters (plasma density, electron temperature, pressure, sheath width, and so forth) based on both experiments and simulations. However, a comparative study elucidating the relative characteristics of each probe has not been completed yet, despite the wide applications of the probes in processing plasma. We conduct a comparative study among the microwave probes using the numerical method of three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain simulation. In this study, the microwave probes are compared by investigating the precision of plasma densitymeasurement under a comprehensive range of plasma parameters (plasma density, pressure, and sheath width).

The ratio of mass and magnetic flux determines the relative importance of magnetic and gravitational forces in the evolution of molecular clouds and their cores. Its measurement is thus central in discriminating between different theories of core formation and evolution. Here, we discuss the effect of chemical depletion on measurements of the mass-to-flux ratio using the same molecule (OH) both for Zeeman measurements of the magnetic field and the determination of the mass of the region. The uncertainties entering through the OH abundance in determining separately the magnetic field and the mass of a region have been recognized in the literature. It has been proposed however that, when comparing two regions of the same cloud, the abundance will in both cases be the same. We show that this assumption is invalid. We demonstrate that when comparing regions with different densities, the effect of OH depletion, in measuring changes of the mass-to-flux ratio between different parts of the same cloud can even reverse the direction of the underlying trends (for example, the mass-to-flux ratio may appear to decrease as we move to higher density regions). The systematic errors enter primarily through the inadequate estimation of the mass of the region.

Surface divergence has been shown to be a robust predictor of the air-water gas transfer velocity, k. We used this surface divergence model to investigate the effects of wind on k in wetlands with emergent vegetation. We used fluoropolymer tubes to represent plant stems in a laboratory tank equipped with a wind tunnel. The fluoropolymer material provided optical access to the water flows directly around the ``stems'' for PIV. The k values predicted by the surface divergence model from PIV-derived near surface divergence fields in the tank matched directly-measured k values in the tank. The surface divergence fields also illustrated a mechanism for wind-induced gas transfer in wetlands with emergent vegetation. We observed an area of high surface divergence surrounding each stem and order of magnitude lower surface divergence in areas away from any stems. Thus we expect a nearly linear relationship between stem density and k (if average wind speed in the emergent canopy is held constant). The agreement between modeled and measured k values in this low-Reynolds-number, obstructed flow provides further support for the universality of the surface divergence model for k. The results also permit improved prediction of k in wetlands.

The quantitative relationship between local changes in magnetic fields and photon emissions within ∼2 mm of aggregates of 105–106 cells was explored experimentally. The vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field as measured by different magnetometers was ∼15 nT higher when plates of cells removed from incubation were measured compared to plates containing only medium. Additional experiments indicated an inverse relationship over the first ∼45 min between changes in photon counts (∼10−12 W·m−2) following removal from incubation and similar changes in magnetic field intensity. Calculations indicated that the energy within the aqueous volume containing the cells was equivalent for that associated with the fluxdensities of the magnetic fields and the photon emissions. For every approximately 1 nT increase in magnetic field intensity value there was a decrease of ∼2 photons (equivalent of 10−18 J). These results complement correlation studies and suggest there may be a conservation of energy between expression as magnetic fields that are subtracted or added to the adjacent geomagnetic field and reciprocal changes in photon emissions when aggregates of cells within a specific volume of medium (water) adapt to new environments. PMID:26005634

Multichannel system employing a radioisotope radiation source, strontium-90, radiation detector, and a silicon surface barrier detector, measures the local density of liquid hydrogen at various levels in a storage tank. The instrument contains electronic equipment for collecting the density information, and a data handling system for processing this information.

Semi-volatile persistent organic pollutants (POPs) cycle between the atmosphere and terrestrial surfaces; however measuringfluxes of POPs between the atmosphere and other media is challenging. Sampling times of hours to days are required to accurately measure trace concentrations of POPs in the atmosphere, which rules out the use of eddy covariance techniques that are used to measure gas fluxes of major air pollutants. An alternative, the modified Bowen ratio (MBR) method, has been used instead. In this study we used data from FLUXNET for CO2 and water vapor (H2O) to compare fluxesmeasured by eddy covariance to fluxesmeasured with the MBR method using vertical concentration gradients in air derived from averaged data that simulate the long sampling times typically required to measure POPs. When concentration gradients are strong and fluxes are unidirectional, the MBR method and the eddy covariance method agree within a factor of 3 for CO2, and within a factor of 10 for H2O. To remain within the range of applicability of the MBR method, field studies should be carried out under conditions such that the direction of net flux does not change during the sampling period. If that condition is met, then the performance of the MBR method is neither strongly affected by the length of sample duration nor the use of a fixed value for the transfer coefficient.

Nuclear heating measurements in Material Testing Reactors (MTR) are crucial for the design of the experimental devices and the prediction of the temperature of the hosted samples. Nuclear heating in MTR materials (except fuel) is mainly due to the energy deposition by the photon flux. Therefore, the photon flux is a key input parameter for the computer codes which simulate nuclear heating and temperature reached by samples/devices under irradiation. In the Jules Horowitz MTR under construction at the CEA Cadarache, the maximal expected nuclear heating levels will be about 15 to 18 W g-1 and it will be necessary to assess this parameter with the best accuracy. An experiment was performed at the OSIRIS reactor to combine neutron flux, photon flux and nuclear heating measurements to improve the knowledge of the nuclear heating in MTR. There are few appropriate sensors for selective measurement of the photon flux in MTR even if studies and developments are ongoing. An experiment, called CARMEN-1, was conducted at the OSIRIS MTR and we used in particular a gas ionization chamber based on miniature fission chamber design to measure the photon flux. In this paper, we detail Monte-Carlo simulations to analyze the photon fluxes with ionization chamber measurements and we compare the photon flux calculations to the nuclear heating measurements. These results show a good accordance between photon fluxmeasurements and nuclear heating measurement and allow improving the knowledge of these parameters.

After a brief introduction, what is provided there is brief summary of work with solid He done at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and an outlook for future work. What is presented here is based on a presentation made at the Quantum Gases Fluids and Solids Workshop in Sao Paulo, Brazil in August of 2014. Our work with solid He is aimed at the question: Can a sample cell filled with solid He support a mass flux through the cell? The answer, as will be shown here, is yes. Evidence for this from several types of experiments will be reviewed. There will be an emphasis on more recent work, work that explores how the flux observed depends on temperature and on the He impurity level. The behavior observed suggests that solid He may be an example of a material that demonstrates Bosonic Luttinger liquid behavior. The normalized He flux has a universal temperature dependence. The presence of He at different impurity levels shows that the He blocks the flux at a characteristic temperature. The behavior appears to be consistent with the cores of dislocations as the entity that carries the flux, but it is clear that more work needs to be done to fully understand solid He.

We have used digitized scanning electron micrographs and computer image analysis programs to measure track densities in lunar soil grains. Tracks were formed by highly ionizing solar energetic particles and cosmic rays. Back-scattered electron images produced suitable high contrast images for analysis. We used computer counting and measurement of area to obtain track densities. We found an excellent correlation with manual measurements for track densities below 1x10(exp 8) cm(exp -2). For track densities between 1x10(exp 8) to 1x10(exp 9) cm(exp -2) we found that a regression formula using the percentage area covered by tracks gave good agreement with manual measurements. Measurement of tract densities in lunar samples has been a very rewarding technique for measuring exposure ages and soil maturation processes. We have shown that we can reliably measure track densities in lunar grains using image analysis techniques. Automating track counting may allow application of this technique to important problems in regolith dynamics including the ratio of radiation exposure to reworking in various surface and core samples and in regolith breccias.

Euglena gracilis is a unicellular phototactic flagellate; it escapes from light sources if the light intensity is higher than 200 W/m2 (negative phototaxis). When the suspension of E. gracilis is illuminated from the bottom by strong light, bioconvection patterns are generated. In the case of E. gracilis, the patterns can be spatially localized. The localization mechanism has not been clarified. We report experimental results related to the localization mechanism. In particular, we experimentally measured the strength of the phototaxis in the lateral direction as well as vertical direction. We prepared a thin container in which the suspension is included, and gave the linearly-changing light intensity. We found the number density gets a peak at a particular light intensity, which never happens if the suspension has the vertical phototaxis only. Further, we succeeded in getting the function representing lateral phototaxis. The relationship between the measured functions and the localized convection cells will be also reported.

Ozone densitities were measured in the troposphere and stratosphere of Natal using ECC sondes launches on balloons. The data analyzed so far show tropospheric densities and total ozone contents larger than expected.

Arguably a major success of the landscape picture is the prediction of a small, nonzero vacuum energy density. The details of this prediction depend in part on how the diverging spacetime volume of the multiverse is regulated, a question that remains unresolved. One proposal, the causal diamond measure, has demonstrated many phenomenological successes, including predicting a distribution of positive vacuum energy densities in good agreement with observation. In the string landscape, however, the vacuum energy density is expected to take positive and negative values. We find the causal diamond measure gives a poor fit to observation in such a landscape - in particular, 99.6% of observers in galaxies seemingly just like ours measure a vacuum energy density smaller than we do, most of them measuring it to be negative.

We propose a simple experiment on the air densitymeasurement which does not require any special equipment: just an A4 sheet of paper, a stopwatch and a ruler. The discussed method uses the most basic air resistance model.

A method whereby the average paper fiber area density (weight per unit area) can be directly calculated from the intensity of transmitted, scattered light at two different wavelengths, one being a non-absorpted wavelength. Also, the method makes it possible to derive the water percentage per fiber area density from a two-wavelength measurement. In the optical measuring technique optical transmitted intensity, for example, at 2.1 microns cellulose absorption line is measured and compared with another scattered, optical transmitted intensity reference in the nearby spectrum region, such as 1.68 microns, where there is no absorption. From the ratio of these two intensities, one can calculate the scattering absorption coefficient at 2.1 microns. This absorption coefficient at this wavelength is, then, experimentally correlated to the paper fiber area density. The water percentage per fiber area density can be derived from this two-wavelength measurement approach.

Concerning an increasing demand for environmentally friendly refrigerants including hydrocarbons, thermodynamic properties of such new refrigerants, especially densities, are essential information for refrigeration engineering. A rapid density-measurement system with vibrating-tube densimeter was developed in the present study with an aim to supply large numbers of high-quality PVT property data in a short period. The present system needs only a few minutes to obtain a single datum, and requires less than 20 cm3 sample fluid. PVT properties in the entire fluid-phase, vapor-pressures, saturated-liquid densities for pure fluid are available. Liquid densities, bubble-point pressures and saturated-liquid densities for mixture can be obtained. The measurement range is from 240 to 380 K for temperature and up to 7 MPa for pressure. By employing a new calibration function, density can be precisely obtained even at lower densities. The densimeter is calibrated with pure water and iso-octane which is one of the density-standard fluids, and then measurement uncertainty was evaluated to be 0.1 kg m-3 or 0.024% whichever greater in density, 0.26 kPa or 0.022% whichever greater in pressure and 3 mK for temperature, respectively. The performance of the present measurement system was examined by measuring thermodynamic properties for refrigerant R134a. The experimental results were compared with available equation of state and confirmed to agree with it within ±0.05% for liquid densities while ±0.5% in pressure for the gas phase.

In this work, the energetic conditions at the substrate were investigated in dc magnetron sputtering (DCMS), pulsed dc magnetron sputtering (pDCMS), and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharges by means of an energy flux diagnostic based on a thermopile sensor, the probe being set at the substrate position. Measurements were performed in front of a titanium target for a highly unbalanced magnetic field configuration. The average power was always kept to 400 W and the probe was at the floating potential. Variation of the energy flux against the pulse peak power in HiPIMS was first investigated. It was demonstrated that the energy per deposited titanium atom is the highest for short pulses (5 {mu}s) high pulse peak power (39 kW), as in this case, the ion production is efficient and the deposition rate is reduced by self-sputtering. As the argon pressure is increased, the energy deposition is reduced as the probability of scattering in the gas phase is increased. In the case of the HiPIMS discharge run at moderate peak power density (10 kW), the energy per deposited atom was found to be lower than the one measured for DCMS and pDCMS discharges. In these conditions, the HiPIMS discharge could be characterized as soft and close to a pulsed DCMS discharge run at very low duty cycle. For the sake of comparison, measurements were also carried out in DCMS mode with a balanced magnetron cathode, in the same working conditions of pressure and power. The energy flux at the substrate is significantly increased as the discharge is generated in an unbalanced field.

The feasibility of using radio frequency receivers to collect data from automated weather stations to model fluxes of latent heat, sensible heat, and radiation using routine weather data collected by automated weather stations was tested and the estimated fluxes were compared with fluxesmeasured over wheat. The model Cupid was used to model the fluxes. Two or more automated weather stations, interrogated by radio frequency and other means, were utilized to examine some of the climatic variability of the First ISLSCP (International Satellite Land-Surface Climatology Project) Field Experiment (FIFE) site, to measure and model reflected and emitted radiation streams from various locations at the site and to compare modeled latent and sensible heat fluxes with measured values. Some bidirectional reflected and emitted radiation data were collected from 23 locations throughout the FIFE site. Analysis of these data along with analysis of the measured sensible and latent heat fluxes is just beginning.

A new method for measurement of local heat flux to water-walls of steam boilers was developed. A flux meter tube was made from an eccentric tube of short length to which two longitudinal fins were attached. These two fins prevent the boiler setting from heating by a thermal radiation from the combustion chamber. The fins are not welded to the adjacent water-wall tubes, so that the temperature distribution in the heat flux meter is not influenced by neighbouring water-wall tubes. The thickness of the heat flux tube wall is larger on the fireside to obtain a greater distance between the thermocouples located inside the wall which increases the accuracy of heat flux determination. Based on the temperature measurements at selected points inside the heat flux meter, the heat flux absorbed by the water-wall, heat transfer coefficient on the inner tube surface and temperature of the water-steam mixture was determined.

Although several methods exist for the determination of the flux of an atmospheric species, the airborne eddy correlation method has the advantage of providing direct fluxmeasurements that are representative of regional spatial domains. The design criteria pertinent to the construction of chemical instrumentation suitable for use in airborne eddy correlation fluxmeasurements are discussed. A brief overview of the advantages and limitations of the current instrumentation used to obtain fluxmeasurements for CO, CH4, O3, CO2, and water vapor are given. The intended height of the measurement within the convective boundary layer is also shown to be an important design criteria. The sensitivity, or resolution, which is required in the measurement of a scalar species to obtain an adequate species fluxmeasurement is discussed. The relationship between the species flux resolution and the more commonly stated instrumental resolution is developed and it is shown that the standard error of the flux estimate is a complicated function of the atmospheric variability and the averaging time that is used. The use of the recently proposed intermittent sampling method to determine the species flux is examined. The application of this technique may provide an opportunity to expand the suite of trace gases for which direct fluxmeasurements are possible.

Using the dynamo theory method to predict solar activity, a value for the smoothed sunspot number of 109 + or - 20 is obtained for solar cycle 22. The predicted cycle is expected to peak near December, 1990 + or - 1 year. Concommitantly, F(10.7) radio flux is expected to reach a smoothed value of 158 + or - 18 flux units. Global mean exospheric temperature is expected to reach 1060 + or - 50 K and global total average total thermospheric density at 400 km is expected to reach 4.3 x 10 to the -15th gm/cu cm + or - 25 percent.

Using the 'dynamo theory' method to predict solar activity, a value for the smoothed sunspot number of 109 + or - 20 is obtained for solar cycle 22. The predicted cycle is expected to peak near December, 1990 + or - 1 year. Concommitantly, F(10.7) radio flux is expected to reach a smoothed value of 158 + or - 18 flux units. Global mean exospheric temperature is expected to reach 1060 + or - 50 K and global total average total thermospheric density at 400 km is expected to reach 4.3 x 10 to the -15th gm/cu cm + or - 25 percent.

The measurement of high flux charged particle beams, specifically at medical accelerators and with small fields, poses several challenges. In this work we propose a single particle counting method based on CMOS imagers optimized for visible light collection, exploiting their very high spatial segmentation (> 3 106 pixels/cm2) and almost full efficiency detection capability. An algorithm to measure the charged particle flux with a precision of ~ 1% for fluxes up to 40 MHz/cm2 has been developed, using a non-linear calibration algorithm, and several CMOS imagers with different characteristics have been compared to find their limits on fluxmeasurement.

An ultrasonic technique, invariant to temperature changes, for a densitymeasurement of different liquids under in situ extreme conditions is presented. The influence of geometry and material parameters of the measurement system (transducer, waveguide, matching layer) on measurement accuracy and reliability is analyzed theoretically along with experimental results. The proposed method is based on measurement of the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave, reflected from the interface of the solid/liquid medium under investigation. In order to enhance sensitivity, the use of a quarter wavelength acoustic matching layer is proposed. Therefore, the sensitivity of the measurement system increases significantly. Densitymeasurements quite often must be performed in extreme conditions at high temperature (up to 220 °C) and high pressure. In this case, metal waveguides between piezoelectric transducer and the measured liquid are used in order to protect the conventional transducer from the influence of high temperature and to avoid depolarization. The presented ultrasonic densitymeasurement technique is suitable for densitymeasurement in different materials, including liquids and polymer melts in extreme conditions. A new calibration algorithm was proposed. The metrological evaluation of the measurement method was performed. The expanded measurement uncertainty Uρ = 7.4 × 10(-3) g/cm(3) (1%). PMID:26262619

An ultrasonic technique, invariant to temperature changes, for a densitymeasurement of different liquids under in situ extreme conditions is presented. The influence of geometry and material parameters of the measurement system (transducer, waveguide, matching layer) on measurement accuracy and reliability is analyzed theoretically along with experimental results. The proposed method is based on measurement of the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave, reflected from the interface of the solid/liquid medium under investigation. In order to enhance sensitivity, the use of a quarter wavelength acoustic matching layer is proposed. Therefore, the sensitivity of the measurement system increases significantly. Densitymeasurements quite often must be performed in extreme conditions at high temperature (up to 220 °C) and high pressure. In this case, metal waveguides between piezoelectric transducer and the measured liquid are used in order to protect the conventional transducer from the influence of high temperature and to avoid depolarization. The presented ultrasonic densitymeasurement technique is suitable for densitymeasurement in different materials, including liquids and polymer melts in extreme conditions. A new calibration algorithm was proposed. The metrological evaluation of the measurement method was performed. The expanded measurement uncertainty Uρ = 7.4 × 10−3 g/cm3 (1%). PMID:26262619

The aim of this study is to compare mammographic breast density assessment with automated volumetric software with Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BIRADS) categorization by radiologists on two imaging systems. A data set of 120 mammograms was classified by twenty American Board of Radiology (ABR) Examiners. The mammograms were of 20 women (mean age, 60 years; range, 42-89 years). These women were image twice once with GE system and the following year with Hologic system. These images also had their volumetric density classified by using Volpara Density Grade (VDG). The radiologists were asked to estimate the mammographic density according to BIRADS categories (1- 4). There was a moderate agreement between VDG classification and radiologist BIRADS density shown with Cohen's Kappa (K=0.45; p<0.001). Radiologists estimated percentage density to be lower by an average of 0.37, the radiologist's BIRADS having a mean of 2.13 and the mean VDG higher at 2.50 (t = -11.99; p<0.001). VDG and radiologist's BIRADS showed a positive strong correlation (r=0.84; p<0.001). Radiologist BIRADS and VDG AvBD% also showed a strong positive correlation (r=0.86; p<0.001). There was a large spread of radiologist's BIRADS categories for each of the VDG AvBD% classifications. Using Volpara, the Hologic system showed a higher meanAvBD% (10.02 vs. 9.97). However using BIRADS the Hologic systems showed a lower mean (2.05 vs. 2.21). Automated systems demonstrated higher internal validity. The results demonstrated a moderate agreement and a strong correlation between VDG classification and radiologist BIRADS density assessment.

The high power helicon (HPH) deposits up to 40 kW of power into a plasma, generating a plasma beam with a measured source density of 1x10^20 m-3 and energies in the range of 20-40 eV. Recently, the arrangement of magnetic nozzles downstream of the plasma source has been modified in order to produce a flux conserving configuration. Retarded field energy analyzer (RFEA) measurements of the ion energy distribution functions at two locations downstream of the plasma source, 67 cm and 144 cm away, have been carried out. Data on the number density, ion velocity, and energy density of the plasma beam at these locations will be presented. An improvement in performance over the previous nozzle configuration is observed. Additionally, results suggest that the energy density of the beam does not decrease with distance from the source between the two locations.

Hydrothermal systems are associated to most of the dormant volcanoes. Heat is transported by steam from the hot magma body in the connected porosity and the fissures of the rock to the surface. If the flux is low enough (<500 W/m²), the steam mainly condensates in the soil close to surface, and a significant proportion of the heat is transported to the surface by conduction, producing a gradient of temperature and a thermal anomaly detectable at the surface. Detecting and monitoring these fluxes is crucial for hazard management, since it reflects the state of the magma body in depth. In order to quantify this flux two methods are considered. First, a vertical profile of temperature is measured by a series of thermocouples, and the conducted flux is estimated thanks to the Fourier law. Secondly, a more recent method uses the thermal infrared imagery to monitor the surface temperature anomaly (STA) between the studied zone and an equivalent zone not affected by the geothermal flux. The heat flux from the soil to the atmosphere is computed as the sum of (1) the radiative flux, (2) the sensible flux and (3) the residual steam flux. These two methods are complementary and have an equivalent uncertainty of approximately 20%, which would allow to track the major changes in the hydrothermal system. However, the surface and sub-surface temperatures are strongly influenced by the climate. For instance, it has been widely demonstrated that the surface temperature dramatically decreases after a rainfall. In order to estimate the reliability of the measurements, a numerical model simulating the evolution of the subsurface temperature in low flux fumarolic zone has been built. In depth, the heat can be transported either by conduction, or by the rising steam, or by condensed water. In surface, both the radiative flux and the sensible flux (convection of the atmosphere) are taken into account. This model allows to estimate the changes of temperature due to a variation of solar

This contribution reviews the papers presented in the Session on 'Heat Flux' and 'Thermography' at a NATO Advanced Research Workshop entitled 'New Trends in Instrumentation for Hypersonic Research', 27 April-1 May, 1992, Le Fauga, France. The present status and problem areas associated with specific methods are discussed and recommendations for future research and development are presented.

Assessment of effective field practices on emission reductions from soil fumigation relies on continuous and reliable emission data. Dynamic (flow through) flux chambers can provide continuous sampling for fumigants volatilized from the soil surface. The objective of this project was to design and c...

A newly developed pulsed cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) system for measuring atmospheric gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) concentrations at high temporal resolution (25 Hz) was used to successfully conduct the first eddy covariance (EC) fluxmeasurements of GEM. GEM is the main gaseous atmospheric form, and quantification of bidirectional exchange between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere is important because gas exchange is important on a global scale. For example, surface GEM emissions from natural sources, legacy emissions, and re-emission of previously deposited anthropogenic pollution may exceed direct primary anthropogenic emissions. Using the EC technique for fluxmeasurements requires subsecond measurements, which so far has not been feasible because of the slow time response of available instrumentation. The CRDS system measured GEM fluxes, which were compared to fluxesmeasured with the modified Bowen ratio (MBR) and a dynamic flux chamber (DFC). Measurements took place near Reno, NV, in September and October 2012 encompassing natural, low-mercury (Hg) background soils and Hg-enriched soils. During nine days of measurements with deployment of Hg-enriched soil in boxes within 60 m upwind of the EC tower, the covariance of GEM concentration and vertical wind speed was measured, showing that EC fluxes over an Hg-enriched area were detectable. During three separate days of fluxmeasurements over background soils (without Hg-enriched soils), no covariance was detected, indicating fluxes below the detection limit. When fluxes were measurable, they strongly correlated with wind direction; the highest fluxes occurred when winds originated from the Hg-enriched area. Comparisons among the three methods showed good agreement in direction (e.g., emission or deposition) and magnitude, especially when measuredfluxes originated within the Hg-enriched soil area. EC fluxes averaged 849 ng m(-2) h(-1), compared to DFC fluxes of 1105 ng m(-2) h(-1) and MBR fluxes

We present results from the Martian Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), aboard the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft in orbit around Mars. MARIE operated successfully from March 2002 through October 2003. At the time of this writing, the instrument is off due to a loss of communications during an extremely intense Solar Particle Event. Efforts to revive MARIE are planned for Spring 2004, when Odyssey's role as a communications relay for the MER rovers is completed. During the period of successful operation, MARIE returned the first detailed energetic charged particle data from Mars. Due to limitations of the instrument, normalizing MARIE data to flux or dose is not straightforward - several large corrections are needed. Thus normalized results (like dose or flux) have large uncertainties and/or significant model-dependence. The problems in normalization are mainly due to inefficiency in detecting high-energy protons (signal-to-noise problems force the trigger threshold to be higher than optimal), to the excessively high gains employed in the signal processing electronics (many ions deposit energy sufficient to saturate the electronics, and dE/dx information is lost), and to artifacts associated with the two trigger detectors (incomplete registration of dE/dx). Despite these problems, MARIE is efficient for detecting helium ions with kinetic energies above about 30 MeV/nucleon, and for detecting high-energy ions (energies above about 400 MeV/nucleon) with charges from 5 to 10. Fluxes of these heavier ions can be compared to fluxes obtained from the ACE/CRIS instrument, providing at least one area of direct comparison between data obtained at Earth and at Mars; this analysis will be presented as a work in progress. We will also present dose-rate data, with a detailed explanation of the many sources of uncertainty in normalization. The results for both flux and dose will be compared to predictions of the HZETRN model of the GCR.

An electronic meter to measure surface seawater density is presented. It is based on the measurement of the difference in displacements of a surface level probe and a weighted float, which according to Archimedes' law depends on the density of the water. The displacements are simultaneously measured using a high-accuracy magnetostrictive sensor, to which a custom electronic board provides a wireless connection and power supply so that it can become part of a wireless sensor network. The electronics are designed so that different kinds of wireless networks can be used, by simply changing the wireless module and the relevant firmware of the microcontroller. Lastly, laboratory and at-sea tests are presented and discussed in order to highlight the functionality and the performance of a prototype of the wireless density meter node in a Bluetooth radio network. The experimental results show a good agreement of the values of the calculated density compared to reference hydrometer readings. PMID:22736986

Premixed, turbulent flames are important in connection with investigations of fundamental, turbulent-reacting-flow processes and the study of practical combustion devices, such as spark ignition engines and premixed, prevaporized gas turbine combustors which burn premixed reactants. The considered investigation is concerned with the application of laser induced Rayleigh scattering to measure the gas density in premixed, methane-air flames. A description is provided of the results of density and velocity measurements in an open, lean, premixed methane-air flame stabilized in grid turbulence of low Reynolds number. It is found that where applicable, Rayleigh scattering can be used to good advantage to measure molecular number density. Mean and rms density results show that the mean flame thickens with axial distance but that the maximum in rms does not change appreciably.

Evidence contained within lunar rocks concerning possible variations in solar activity over the last 1 to 2 million years is reviewed. The effects of solar wind particles, which are implanted at shallow depths, solar flare protons, which produce thermoluminescence as well as stable and radionuclides, and solar flare heavy nuclei, which produce tracks, are considered, and the quality and limitations of nuclear tracks measurements as indicators of solar flare flux histories are discussed. Methods used for the determination of the solar flare track production rate, which must be known in order to measure lunar rock surface exposure times, are compared, and it is concluded that most of the evidence favors the rate obtained by Blanford et al. (1975). Information on the constancy of the solar flare particle flux obtained by comparison of the effects of different surface phenomena with solar particle effects is then illustrated for the cases of comparisons between solar flare tracks and microcrater densities, solar flare particle fluxesmeasured over different periods, and comparisons of the solar flare track production rate with the solar wind flux and microcratering rate. It is noted that these studies provide no evidence for a change in solar particle flux by more than a factor of two over the last 10,000 to 1 million years, or for a change in the solar flare Fe/H ratio in the last 2 million years.

We present observations of the topside ionosphere made at the Jicamarca Radio Observatory in March and September 2013, made using a full-profile analysis approach. Recent updates to the methodology employed at Jicamarca are also described. Measurements of plasma number density, electron and ion temperatures, and hydrogen and helium ion fractions up to 1500 km altitude are presented for 3 days in March and September. The main features of the observations include a sawtooth-like diurnal variation in ht, the transition height where the O+ ion fraction falls to 50%, the appearance of weak He+ layers just below ht, and a dramatic increase in plasma temperature at dawn followed by a sharp temperature depression around local noon. These features are consistent from day to day and between March and September. Coupled Ion Neutral Dynamics Investigation data from the Communication Navigation Outage Forecast System satellite are used to help validate the March Jicamarca data. The SAMI2-PE model was able to recover many of the features of the topside observations, including the morphology of the plasma density profiles and the light-ion composition. The model, forced using convection speeds and meridional thermospheric winds based on climatological averages, did not reproduce the extreme temperature changes in the topside between sunrise and noon. Some possible causes of the discrepancies are discussed.

Various soil water samplers are used to monitor measure and estimate drainage water, fluxes and solute transport in the soil vadose zone. Passive capillary samplers (PCAPs) have shown potential to provide better measurements and estimates of soil water drainage and fluxes than other lysimeters.Twelv...

Natural volatile organic compounds (VOC) fluxes were measured in three U.S. woodlands in summer 1993. Fluxes from individual leaves and branches were estimated with enclosure techniques and used to initialize and evaluate VOC emission model estimates. Ambient measurements were us...

Chamber-based measurement of greenhouse gas emissions from soil is a common technique. However, when changes in chamber headspace gas concentrations are small over time, determination of the flux can be problematic. Several factors contribute to the reliability of measuredfluxes, including: samplin...

A deconvolution-based correction method of the beam emission spectroscopy (BES) density profile measurement is demonstrated by its application to simulated measurements of the COMPASS and TEXTOR tokamaks. If the line of sight is far from tangential to the flux surfaces, and the beam width is comparable to the scale length on which the light profile varies, the observation may cause an undesired smoothing of the light profile, resulting in a non-negligible underestimation of the calculated density profile. This effect can be reduced significantly by the emission reconstruction method, which gives an estimate of the emissivity along the beam axis from the measured light profile, taking the finite beam width and the properties of the measurement into account in terms of the transfer function of the observation. Characteristics and magnitude of the mentioned systematic error and its reduction by the introduced method are studied by means of the comprehensive alkali BES simulation code RENATE.

Methanol (CH3OH) is, after methane, the second most abundant VOC in the troposphere and globally represents nearly 20% of the total biospheric VOC emissions. With typical concentrations of 1-10 ppb in the continental boundary layer, methanol plays a crucial role in atmospheric chemistry, which needs to be evaluated in the light of ongoing changes in land use and climate. Previous global methanol budgets have approached the net land flux by summing up the various emission terms (namely primary biogenic and anthropogenic emissions, plant decay and biomass burning) and by subtracting dry and wet deposition, resulting in a net land flux in the range of 75-245 Tg y-1. The data underlying these budget calculations largely stem from small-scale leaf gas exchange measurements and while recently column-integrated remotely sensed methanol concentrations have become available for constraining budget calculations, there have been few attempts to contrast model calculations with direct net ecosystem-scale methanol fluxmeasurements. Here we use eddy covariance methanol fluxmeasurements from 8 sites in Europe and North America to study the magnitude of and controls on the diurnal and seasonal variability in the net ecosystem methanol flux. In correspondence with leaf-level literature, our data show that methanol emission and its strong environmental and biotic control (by temperature and stomatal conductance) prevailed at the more productive (agricultural) sites and at a perturbed forest site. In contrast, at more natural, less productive sites substantial deposition of methanol occurred, in particular during periods of surface wetness. These deposition processes are poorly represented by currently available temperature/light and/or production-driven modelling algorithms. A new framework for modelling the bi-directional land-atmosphere methanol exchange is proposed which accounts for the production of methanol in leaves, the regulation of leaf methanol emission by stomatal

Numerous studies have investigated the relation between mammographic density and breast cancer risk. These studies indicate that women with dense breasts have a four to six fold risk increase. There is currently no gold standard for automatic assessment of mammographic density. In previous work two different automated methods for measuring the effect of HRT w.r.t. changes in breast density have been presented. One is a percentage density based on an adaptive global threshold, and the other is an intensity invariant measure, which provides structural information orthogonal to intensity-based methods. In this article we investigate the ability to detect density changes induced by HRT for these measures and compare to a radiologist's BI-RADS rating and interactive threshold percentage density. In the experiments, two sets of mammograms of 80 patients from a double blind, placebo controlled HRT experiment are used. The p-values for the statistical significance of the separation of density means, for the HRT group and the placebo group at end of study, are 0.2, 0.1, 0.02 and 0.02 for the automatic threshold, BI-RADS, the stripyness and the interactive threshold respectively.

The quantum density of states of the Henon-Heiles potential displays a pronounced beating pattern. This has been explained by the interference of three isolated classical periodic orbits with nearby actions and periods. A singular magnetic flux line, passing through the origin, drastically alters the beats even though the classical Lagrangian equations of motion remain unchanged. Some of the changes can be easily understood in terms of the Aharonov-Bohm effect. However, we find that the standard periodic orbit theory does not reproduce the diffraction-like quantum effects on those classical orbits which intersect the singular flux line, and argue that corrections of relative order variant Planck's over 2pi are necessary to describe these effects. We also discuss the changes in the distribution of nearest-neighbor spacings in the eigenvalue spectrum, brought about by the flux line. (c) 1995 American Institute of Physics. PMID:12780185

Features of the LDEX data and collection properties of the LDEX instrument suggest that the integrated current signal comprises other sources in addition to dust grains. In particular, the LDEX current is highly correlated with the solar wind flux, a puzzling issue because high energy ions should be excluded from the integrated signal. One leading possibility is that energetic neutral atoms, produced by solar wind reflected from the moon's surface, are contributing to the signal, either through scattering from the LDEX target or through sputtering material from the target surface into the collector. In this work, models for the contribution of energetic neutrals to the LDEX integrated current signal are evaluated. Determining the LDEX current's dependency on energetic neutrals would allow a high signal-to-noise ratio measurement of energetic neutral atoms and allows the placement of stricter limits on the dust density in the lunar exosphere.

An apparatus is described which can deliver uniform heat fluxdensities of up to 80 W/sq cm over an area 7.8 cm x 15.2 cm for use in measuring the heat transfer and pressure drop in thin (6 mm or less), compact heat exchangers. Helium gas at flow rates of 0 to 40 kg/h and pressures to 6.9 MPa (1000 psi) is the working fluid. The instrumentation used in the apparatus and the methods for analyzing the data is described. The apparatus will be used initially to test the performance of prototype cooling jackets for the engine struts of the National Aerospace Plane (NASP).

As part of the MILAGRO field campaign in March 2006 we deployed a flux system in a busy district of Mexico City surrounded by congested avenues. The flux system consisted of a tall tower instrumented with fast-response sensors coupled with eddy covariance (EC) techniques to measurefluxes of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), CO2, CO, aerosols and energy. The measuredfluxes represent direct measurements of emissions that include all major and minor emission sources from a typical residential and commercial district. In a previous study we demonstrated that the EC techniques are valuable tools to evaluate emissions inventories in urban areas, and understand better the atmospheric chemistry and the role that megacities play in global change. We measuredfluxes of olefins using a Fast Olefin Sensor (FOS) and the EC technique, fluxes of aromatic and oxygenated VOCs by Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectroscopy (PTR-MS) and the disjunct eddy covariance (DEC) technique, fluxes of CO2 and H2O with an open path Infrared Gas Analyzer (IRGA) and the EC technique, fluxes of CO using a modified gradient method and a commercial CO instrument, and fluxes of aerosols (organics, nitrates and sulfates) using an Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (AMS) and the EC technique. In addition we used a disjunct eddy accumulation (DEA) system to extend the number of VOCs. This system collected whole air samples as function of the direction of the vertical wind component, and the samples were analyzed on site using gas chromatography / flame ionization detection (GC-FID). We also measuredfluxes of sensible and latent heat by EC and the radiation components with a net radiometer. Overall, these fluxmeasurements confirm the results of our previous fluxmeasurements in Mexico City in terms of the magnitude, composition, and distribution. We found that the urban surface is a net source of CO2 and VOCs. The diurnal patterns show clear anthropogenic signatures, with important contributions from

Most models of carbon gain as a function of photosynthetic irradiance assume an instantaneous response to increases and decreases in irradiance. High- and low-light-grown plants differ, however, in the time required to adjust to increases and decreases in irradiance. In this study the response to a series of increases and decreases in irradiance was observed in Chrysanthemum × morifolium Ramat. “Fiesta” and compared with calculated values assuming an instantaneous response. There were significant differences between high- and low-light-grown plants in their photosynthetic response to four sequential photosynthetic photon fluxdensity (PPFD) cycles consisting of 5-minute exposures to 200 and 400 micromoles per square meter per second (μmol m−2s−1). The CO2 assimilation rate of high-light-grown plants at the cycle peak increased throughout the PPFD sequence, but the rate of increase was similar to the increase in CO2 assimilation rate observed under continuous high-light conditions. Low-light leaves showed more variability in their response to light cycles with no significant increase in CO2 assimilation rate at the cycle peak during sequential cycles. Carbon gain and deviations from actual values (percentage carbon gain over- or underestimation) based on assumptions of instantaneous response were compared under continuous and cyclic light conditions. The percentage carbon gain overestimation depended on the PPFD step size and growth light level of the leaf. When leaves were exposed to a large PPFD increase, the carbon gain was overestimated by 16 to 26%. The photosynthetic response to 100 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD increases and decreases was rapid, and the small overestimation of the predicted carbon gain, observed during photosynthetic induction, was almost entirely negated by the carbon gain underestimation observed after a decrease. If the PPFD cycle was 200 or 400 μmol m−2 s−1, high- and low-light leaves showed a carbon gain overestimation of 25

A small polycrystalline aluminium nitride detector with a thickness of 381 μm was used to measure a 200,000 Ci Co 60 source and to measure the flux in a research reactor where the neutron flux is about 10 14/cm 2 s, which is nearly the same order as in the commercial power plant. If the applied voltage is greater than or equal to 2000 V and if the measurements are done in a short period of time so that the heat energy does not build up in the aluminium nitride, then the measured electric current is linearly proportional to the input flux. It is assumed of course that the energy spectrum of the input flux remains constant. This linearity relation is illustrated by the results of a measurement in which the reactor power has been controlled so that the flux becomes a step function.

1. Concerns for the future of the Earth's climate centre around the anthropogenically-driven continuing increases in atmospheric concentrations of the major 'greenhouse gases' (GHGs) which include CO2, CH4 and N2O. A major component of the global budgets for all three of these gases is the flux between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems. 2. Currently, these fluxes are poorly quantified, largely due to technical limitations associated with making these fluxmeasurements. Whilst eddy covariance systems have greatly improved such measurements at the ecosystem scale, fluxmeasurements at the plot scale are commonly made using labour intensive traditional 'cover box' approaches; technical limitations have frequently been a bottle-neck in producing adequate and appropriate GHG flux data necessary for making land management decisions. For example, there are almost no night time flux data for N2O fluxes, and frequently such data are only measured over bare soil patches. 3. We have been addressing the design of novel field equipment for the automation of GHG fluxmeasurements at the chamber and plot scale and will present here some of the technical solutions we have developed. These solutions include the development of the SkyLine and SkyGas approaches which resolve many of the common problems associated with making high frequency, sufficiently replicated GHG fluxmeasurements under field conditions. 4. Unlike most other automated systems, these technologies 'fly' a single chamber to the measurement site, rather than have multiple replicated chambers and analysers. We will present data showing how such systems can deliver high time and spatial resolution flux data, with a minimum of operator intervention and, potentially, at relatively low per plot cost. We will also show how such measurements can be extended to monitoring fluxes from freshwater features in the landscape.

CH4 was very small. Daily mean CH4 emissions compared well to emission values calculated based on animal weights and milk yields. Based on a corresponding quality analysis we investigated to which extent the presence of cows can be detected or missed in the CO2 exchange measurements. For CO2 a partitioning of the net flux was performed to separate the animal respiration flux from contributions of vegetation and soil (assimilation and respiration). The resulting animal related CO2 emissions showed a considerable scatter but scaled with the animal density in the EC footprint.

We report measurements of the energy dependence of flux thresholds and incubation fluences for He-ion induced nano-fuzz formation on hot tungsten surfaces using real-time sample imaging of tungsten target emissivity change together with accurate ion-beam flux-profile measurements. The measurements were carried out at the Multicharged Ion Research Facility (MIRF) at ion energies from 218 eV to 8.5 keV, using a high-flux deceleration module and beam flux monitor for optimizing the decel optics on the low energy MIRF beamline. The measurements suggest that nano-fuzz formation proceeds only if a critical rate of change of trapped He density in the W target is exceeded. The energy dependence of three factors contributing to the overall energy dependence, ion reflection, ion range and target damage creation, were determined using the SRIM simulation code. The observed energy dependence can be well reproduced by the combined energy dependences of these three factors. The incubation fluences deduced from first visual appearance of surface emissivity change were 2-4x1023/m2 at 218 eV, and roughly a factor of 10 less at the higher energies, which were all at or above the displacement energy threshold. Additional measurements at 100 and 200 keV, using beams from the MIRF HV-platform-based ECR source will be presented. Research sponsored by the LDRD program at ORNL, managed by UT-Battelle for the USDOE, and by the DOE OFES.

Energy and angular momentum fluxdensity characteristics of an optical nondiffracting nonparaxial vector Bessel vortex beam of fractional order are examined based on the dual-field method for the generation of symmetric electric and magnetic fields. Should some conditions determined by the polarization state, the half-cone angle as well as the beam-order (or topological charge) be met, the axial energy and angular momentum fluxdensities vanish (representing Poynting singularities), before they become negative. These negative counterintuitive properties suggest retrograde (negative) propagation as well as a rotation reversal of the angular momentum with respect to the beam handedness. These characteristics of nondiffracting nonparaxial Bessel fractional vortex beams of progressive waves open new capabilities in optical tractor beam tweezers, optical spanners, invisibility cloaks, optically engineered metamaterials, and other applications. PMID:27607486

Continuum VLBI observations at 3.6 cm of the RS CVn binary star IM Pegasi (HR 8703) for ~16 hr beginning on 1997 January 16 revealed an apparent motion of the star's radio position that coincided temporally with a large relative change in its fluxdensity. Specifically, a rise in fluxdensity from 18 to 46 mJy in 1.4 hr coincided with a detected position change over that interval of (Δα, Δδ)=(-0.68+/-0.15, 0.55+/-0.20) mas. The magnitude of this position change is much larger than can be explained by parallax, proper motion, and orbital motion and is about two-thirds the estimated angular diameter of the primary component of the binary.

A grating groove densitymeasurement system is developed to measure the groove variation of VLS grating in NSRL. It has certain advantages over methods like Atomic force microscopy(AFM), Moire fringe method and long trace profiler(LTP). It is applicable to gratings of arbitrary surface shape and with arbitrary groove density distribution. The errors affecting the measurement accuracy are analyzed. The mechanical setup sketch is given. The mechanical accuracy is calibrated in order to control the uncertainty. The first result of a VLS plane grating is tested. The system accuracy ({delta}N/N) is about 2x10-4.

A simple method based on the moment of forces and Archimedes' principle is described for finding density without measuring the mass and volume of an object. The method involves balancing two unknown objects of masses M[subscript 1] and M[subscript 2] on each side of a pivot on a metre rule and measuring their corresponding moment arms. The object…

As wind is the major agent of sediment transport on Mars, a quantitative estimate of aeolian processes is therefore essential to assess recent geological evolution and current climate. We adapted the Co-registration of Optically Sensed Image and Correlation (COSI-Corr) toolbox to the MRO HiRISE imager specifications to produce a dense map of the ripples migration on the surface of the Martian dunes on the Nili Patera area. The ripple migration rate, along with an estimate of the ripple height, were used to derive the sand flux, a key quantity that controls the style and rate of landscape evolution. Using the dunes shape, size, and height, which were extracted from a DEM of the dune field, we show that the dunes are near steady state, and we observe that dune migration rate varies inversely with size and position within the dune field. The time scale associated with the formation and evolution of the Nili Patera dune field, estimated from comparing the sand volume with the sand flux and the dunes migration rates with the length scale of the dune field, is on the order of 10s to 100s of thousands Earth years. However, sand fluxes at the dune crests are 0.7 - 4.8 m3 m-1 per Earth year, which is comparable to that of dunes in Victoria Valley, Antarctica. This implies that rates of landscape modification from aeolian abrasion on Mars may be comparable to that on Earth.

Approaches which have the potential to make densitymeasurements in a compressible flow, where one or more laser beams are used as probes, were investigated. Saturation in sulfur hexafluoride iodine and a crossed beam technique where one beam acts as a saturating beam and the other is at low intensity and acts as a probe beam are considered. It is shown that a balance between an increase in fluorescence intensity with increasing pressure from line broadening and the normal decrease in intensity with increasing pressure from quenching can be used to develop a linear relation between fluorescence intensity and number density and lead to a new densitymeasurement scheme. The method is used to obtain a density image of the cross section of an iodine seeded underexpanded supersonic jet of nitrogen, by illuminating the cross section by a sheet of laser light.

We study the orientation and density profiles of the cosmological voids with Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; Ahn et al.) 10 data. Using voids to test Alcock-Paczynski effect has been proposed and tested in both simulations and actual SDSS data. Previous observations imply that there exist an empirical stretching factor which plays an important role in the voids' orientation. Simulations indicate that this empirical stretching factor is caused by the void galaxies' peculiar velocities. Recently Hamaus et al. found that voids' density profiles are universal and their average velocities satisfy linear theory very well. In this paper, we first confirm that the stretching effect exists using independent analysis. We then apply the universal density profile to measure the cosmological parameters. We find that the void density profile can be a tool to measure the cosmological parameters.

The present invention is a quantitative method for measuring the total heat flux, and of deriving the total power dissipation, of a heat-fluxing object which includes the steps of placing an electrical noise-emitting heat-fluxing object in a liquid helium bath and measuring the superfluid transition temperature of the bath. The temperature of the liquid helium bath is thereafter reduced until some measurable parameter, such as the electrical noise, exhibited by the heat-fluxing object or a temperature-dependent resistive thin film in intimate contact with the heat-fluxing object, becomes greatly reduced. The temperature of the liquid helum bath is measured at this point. The difference between the superfluid transition temperature of the liquid helium bath surrounding the heat-fluxing object, and the temperature of the liquid helium bath when the electrical noise emitted by the heat-fluxing object becomes greatly reduced, is determined. The total heat flux from the heat-fluxing object is determined as a function of this difference between these temperatures. In certain applications, the technique can be used to optimize thermal design parameters of cryogenic electronics, for example, Josephson junction and infrared sensing devices.

The present invention is a quantitative method for measuring the total heat flux, and of deriving the total power dissipation, of a heat-fluxing object which includes the steps of placing an electrical noise-emitting heat-fluxing object in a liquid helium bath and measuring the superfluid transition temperature of the bath. The temperature of the liquid helium bath is thereafter reduced until some measurable parameter, such as the electrical noise, exhibited by the heat-fluxing object or a temperature-dependent resistive thin film in intimate contact with the heat-fluxing object, becomes greatly reduced. The temperature of the liquid helum bath is measured at this point. The difference between the superfluid transition temperature of the liquid helium bath surrounding the heat-fluxing object, and the temperature of the liquid helium bath when the electrical noise emitted by the heat-fluxing object becomes greatly reduced, is determined. The total heat flux from the heat-fluxing object is determined as a function of this difference between these temperatures. In certain applications, the technique can be used to optimize thermal design parameters of cryogenic electronics, for example, Josephson junction and infra-red sensing devices.

The spindle microtubule (MT) flux is the continuous translocation of MTs toward the spindle poles caused by MT polymerization at plus ends coupled to depolymerization at minus ends. Poleward flux is observed in both mitotic and meiotic spindles; it is evolutionarily conserved and contributes to the regulation of spindle length and anaphase chromosome movement. MT photobleaching is a tool frequently used to measure poleward flux. Spindles containing fluorescently tagged tubulin are photobleached to generate a non-fluorescent stripe, which moves toward the spindle poles allowing a measure of the flux. However, this method only permits rapid measurements of the flux, because the fluorescence of the bleached stripe recovers rapidly due to the spindle MT turnover. Here, we describe a modification of the current photobleaching-based method for fluxmeasurement. We photobleached two large areas at the opposite sides of the metaphase plate in spindles of Drosophila S2 cells expressing Cherry-tagged tubulin, leaving unbleached only the area near the chromosomes. We then measured the speed with which the fluorescent MTs move toward the poles. We found that this method allows a measure of the flux over a two- to threefold longer time than the "single stripe" method, providing a reliable evaluation of the flux rate. PMID:27317357

Particle density is a fundamental soil physical parameter that represents the density of the solid soil particles (mineral and organic) and is expressed as the ratio of the mass to the volume of the solid. Particle density serves as input value in many models, such as soil compression and bearing capacity models. Particle density is often estimated rather than measured. In Estonia particle density is typically estimated based on soil organic matter content by Kitse's (1978) and Reppo's (1968) formulas for mineral and peat soils. The standard method for measuring particle density is the pycnometer method in which entrapped air is removed by vacuum or by boiling the soil-water mixture. The ultrasonic technology is widely used in chromatography for degassing of solutions and is easy to use. This ultrasonic energy can also be used for sweeping out the gaseous phase from the soil-water mixture, however the appropriate treatment time is not yet specified. The purpose of this study was to test the usability of ultrasonic energy in particle density determination as well to test different treatment time steps with ultrasonic path. We sampled 15 typical Estonian mineral soils with different texture and organic content. Also 3 peat soils were analysed. Particle density was determined by the pycnometer method and with ultrasonic bath. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content was determined by the Tjurin method and the soil organic matter content (SOM) was calculated as SOM=1.724SOC. The particle density values determined with the pycnometer method were compared to values measured with the ultrasonic bath with different time steps, as well as to calculated values according to Kitse (1978) and Reppo (1968). The applicability of formulas by Kitse and Reppo were tested by comparing the estimated particle densities with measured particle densities. Based on the results of this study it can be concluded that ultrasonic method is applicable for particle density determination and the most

A novel diagnostic technique, angular filter refractometry (AFR), has been developed to characterize high-density, long-scale-length plasmas relevant to high-energy-density physics experiments. AFR measures plasma densities up to 10{sup 21} cm{sup −3} with a 263-nm probe laser and is used to study the plasma expansion from CH foil and spherical targets that are irradiated with ∼9 kJ of ultraviolet (351-nm) laser energy in a 2-ns pulse. The data elucidate the temporal evolution of the plasma profile for the CH planar targets and the dependence of the plasma profile on target radius for CH spheres.

The local dark matter density plays the key role in the distribution of the dark matter halo near the Galactic disk. It will also answer whether a dark matter disk exists in the Milky Way. We measure the local dark matter density with LAMOST observed stars located at around the north Galactic pole. The selection effects of the observations are well considered and corrected. We find that the derived DM density, which is around 0.0159+0.0047 -0.0057 M ⊙ pc-3 providing a flat local rotation curve.

An in situ measurement of the lunar neutron density from 20 to 400 g/sq cm depth between the lunar surface was made by the Apollo 17 Lunar Neutron Probe Experiment using particle tracks produced by the B10(n, alpha)Li7 reaction. Both the absolute magnitude and depth profile of the neutron density are in good agreement with past theoretical calculations. The effect of cadmium absorption on the neutron density and in the relative Sm149 to Gd157 capture rates obtained experimentally implies that the true lunar Gd157 capture rate is about one half of that calculated theoretically.

A high density Langmuir probe array has been developed for measurements of scrape-off layer parameters in NSTX. Relevant scale lengths for heat and particle fluxes are 1-5 cm. Transient edge plasma events can occur on a time scale of several milliseconds, and the duration of a typical plasma discharge is {approx}1 s. The array consists of 99 individual electrodes arranged in three parallel radial rows to allow both swept and triple-probe operation and is mounted in a carbon tile located in the lower outer divertor of NSTX between two segments of the newly installed liquid lithium divertor. Initial swept probe results tracking the outer strike point through probe fluxmeasurements are presented.

Long-term urban carbon cycle studies remain rare despite the importance of carbon for energy, air quality, and climate change. To study spatial and temporal variations of energy and carbon fluxes in a subtropical urban environment, eddy covariance fluxmeasurements were conducted north of downtown Houston, TX, using a tall radio-tower installation. The results of the first 2 yr of measurements show that both concentrations and fluxes of CO display typical seasonal and diurnal variations in urban areas. The seasonal variation of net CO flux is driven by steady anthropogenic emissions dominated by car traffic and human respiration, moderated by the local deciduous tree foliage. Weekday-weekend differences were observed in carbon fluxes, but not concentrations, while diurnal changes were dominated by rush-hour peaks from traffic and vegetation influences. Interestingly, CO and CO concentrations, but not CO flux, exhibited long-term declines, especially comparing pre- and post-Hurricane Ike periods. A directional analysis of CO fluxes revealed that the highest fluxes typically occurred from northwest directions, most likely due to emissions from small industrial sources. Car traffic as carbon source was revealed via correlations of CO with CO during the morning rush hours, and of CO flux with traffic counts during winter time. The influence of urban vegetation on net CO fluxes was identified via correlations with daytime photosynthetically active radiation due to photosynthesis, and with nighttime temperatures due to ecosystem respiration. The study site is a net source of CO throughout all seasons. PMID:26828181

This paper presents methods that use Magnetic Levitation (MagLev) to measure very small differences in density of solid diamagnetic objects suspended in a paramagnetic medium. Previous work in this field has shown that, while it is a convenient method, standard MagLev (i.e., where the direction of magnetization and gravitational force are parallel) cannot resolve differences in density <10(-4) g/cm(3) for macroscopic objects (>mm) because (i) objects close in density prevent each other from reaching an equilibrium height due to hard contact and excluded volume, and (ii) using weaker magnets or reducing the magnetic susceptibility of the medium destabilizes the magnetic trap. The present work investigates the use of weak magnetic gradients parallel to the faces of the magnets as a means of increasing the sensitivity of MagLev without destabilization. Configuring the MagLev device in a rotated state (i.e., where the direction of magnetization and gravitational force are perpendicular) relative to the standard configuration enables simple measurements along the axes with the highest sensitivity to changes in density. Manipulating the distance of separation between the magnets or the lengths of the magnets (along the axis of measurement) enables the sensitivity to be tuned. These modifications enable an improvement in the resolution up to 100-fold over the standard configuration, and measurements with resolution down to 10(-6) g/cm(3). Three examples of characterizing the small differences in density among samples of materials having ostensibly indistinguishable densities-Nylon spheres, PMMA spheres, and drug spheres-demonstrate the applicability of rotated Maglev to measuring the density of small (0.1-1 mm) objects with high sensitivity. This capability will be useful in materials science, separations, and quality control of manufactured objects. PMID:26815205

The exchange of trace gases between the biosphere and the atmosphere affects the atmospheric concentrations of gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia, volatile organic compounds, nitrogen dioxide and others. The quantification of the exchange between a biogenic system and the atmosphere is necessary for the evaluation of the impact of these interactions. This is of special interest for agricultural systems which can be sources or sinks of trace gases, and the measurement of the fluxes is necessary when evaluating both the environmental impact of agricultural activities and the impact of atmospheric pollution on agricultural production and sustainability. With the exception of CO2, micrometeorological measurements of the fluxes of greenhouse gases from agricultural activities are still mostly possible only in campaign mode due to the complexity and logistical requirements of the existing measurement techniques. This limitation precludes studies of fluxes which run for longer periods, for example over full seasonal or growing cycles for both animal- and crop-based agriculture. We have developed an instrument system for long-term fluxmeasurements through a combination of micrometeorological fluxmeasurement techniques such as Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) and Flux-Gradient (FG) with the high precision multi-species detection capabilities of FTIR spectroscopy. The combined technique is capable of simultaneous fluxmeasurements of N2O, CH4 and CO2 at paddock to regional scales continuously, over longer terms (months, seasonal cycles, years). The system was tested on a 3 weeks field campaign in NSW, Australia on a flat, homogeneous circular grass paddock with grazing cattle. The flux of the atmospheric trace gas CO2 was measured with three different micrometeorological techniques: Relaxed Eddy Accumulation, Flux-Gradient, and Eddy Correlation. Simultaneously, fluxes of CH4 and N2O were measured by REA and FG technique.

An FMCW (frequency-modulated continuous-wave) reflectometer is being developed and installed on the Lithium Tokamak Experiment (LTX). The initial system will have two channels covering 13.5--33 GHz for (O-mode) electron densitymeasurements in the range of 0.2-1.3x10^13 cm-3. The reflectometer is designed to provide electron density profile measurements for fueling studies using the molecular cluster injector (MCI), the supersonic gas injector (SGI), as well as external gas puffing. The ultrafast time resolution >=4 μs allows tracking of both the fast evolution of the density profile as well as fluctuations. A future third channel will extend the frequency range to 53 GHz for coverage up to 3.5x10^13 cm-3. The system design, along with simulations using ray tracing and 2-D full-wave codes showing the measurement capabilities and data as available, will be presented.

We monitored sap fluxdensity (v) diurnally in nine mature southeastern pine (Pinus spp.) trees with a thermal dissipation probe that spanned the sapwood radius. We found the expected pattern of high v near the cambium and decreasing v with depth toward the center of the tree; however, the pattern was not constant within a day or between trees. Radial profiles of trees were steeper earlier in the day and became less steep later in the day. As a result, time-dependent changes in the shape of the radial profile of v were sometimes correlated with daily changes in evaporative demand. As the radial profile became less steep, the inner xylem contributed relatively more to total tree sap flow than it did earlier in the day. We present a 3-parameter Gaussian function that can be used to describe the radial distribution of v in trees. Parameters in the function represent depth in the xylem from the cambium, maximum v, depth in the xylem where maximum v occurs, and the rate of radial change in v with radial depth (beta). Values of beta varied significantly between trees and with time, and were sometimes correlated with air vapor pressure deficit (D). We hypothesize that this occurred during periods of high transpiration when the water potential gradient became great enough to move water in the inner sapwood despite its probable high hydraulic resistance. We examined discrepancies among estimates of daily water use based on single-point, two-point and multi-point (i.e., every 20 mm in the sapwood) measurements. When radial distribution of v was not considered, a single-point measurement resulted in errors as large as 154% in the estimate of daily water use relative to the estimate obtained from a multi-point measurement. Measuring v at two close sample points (10 and 30 mm) did not improve the estimate; however, estimates derived from v measured at two distant sample points (10 and 70 mm) significantly improved the estimate of daily water use, although errors were as great

No simple algorithm seems to exist for calculating proton fluxes and lifetimes in the Earth's inner, trapped radiation belt throughout the solar cycle. Most models of the inner trapped belt in use depend upon AP8 which only describes the radiation environment at solar maximum and solar minimum in Cycle 20. One exception is NOAAPRO which incorporates flight data from the TIROS/NOAA polar orbiting spacecraft. The present study discloses yet another, simple formulation for approximating proton fluxes at any time in a given solar cycle, in particular between solar maximum and solar minimum. It is derived from AP8 using a regression algorithm technique from nuclear physics. From flux and its time integral fluence, one can then approximate dose rate and its time integral dose.

Lead-acid batteries are an energy storage system used in automotive sector, electric traction, communication remote control, etc. In all of this applications, and specially in remote control, is interested to know, among other variables, the electrolyte density. This measurement allow us to manage a battery or a set of batteries. In this work we present an optoelectronic sensor developed for the measurement of the lead-acid electrolyte density. The sensor has an optical emitter-receiver pair, two plastic optical fibers and the electronic circuit. One fiber is used like a reference in order to minimize the possible common mode errors, due temperature, power supplies, etc. The other fiber is the sensitive fiber and the measurements are taken with it, the functioning principle is an U bend configuration which allows losses due the refraction to the surrounding liquid, this losses depends on the liquid density (electrolyte density). Several tests were done with different conditions and different charging and discharging strategies, the results demonstrate the validity of this technique for the lead-acid electrolyte densitymeasurement with a good stability in the time.

Brain connectivity declines in Alzheimer's disease (AD), both functionally and structurally. Connectivity maps and networks derived from diffusion-based tractography offer new ways to track disease progression and to understand how AD affects the brain. Here we set out to identify (1) which fiber network measures show greatest differences between AD patients and controls, and (2) how these effects depend on the density of fibers extracted by the tractography algorithm. We computed brain networks from diffusion-weighted images (DWI) of the brain, in 110 subjects (28 normal elderly, 56 with early and 11 with late mild cognitive impairment, and 15 with AD). We derived connectivity matrices and network topology measures, for each subject, from whole-brain tractography and cortical parcellations. We used an ODF lookup table to speed up fiber extraction, and to exploit the full information in the orientation distribution function (ODF). This made it feasible to compute high density connectivity maps. We used accelerated tractography to compute a large number of fibers to understand what effect fiber density has on network measures and in distinguishing different disease groups in our data. We focused on global efficiency, transitivity, path length, mean degree, density, modularity, small world, and assortativity measures computed from weighted and binary undirected connectivity matrices. Of all these measures, the mean nodal degree best distinguished diagnostic groups. High-density fiber matrices were most helpful for picking up the more subtle clinical differences, e.g. between mild cognitively impaired (MCI) and normals, or for distinguishing subtypes of MCI (early versus late). Care is needed in clinical analyses of brain connectivity, as the density of extracted fibers may affect how well a network measure can pick up differences between patients and controls. PMID:25404994

We have developed techniques to use digitized scanning electron micrographs and computer image analysis programs to measure track densities in lunar soil grains. Tracks were formed by highly ionizing solar energetic particles and cosmic rays during near surface exposure on the Moon. The track densities are related to the exposure conditions (depth and time). Distributions of the number of grains as a function of their track densities can reveal the modality of soil maturation. We used a sample that had already been etched in 6 N NaOH at 118 C for 15 h to reveal tracks. We determined that back-scattered electron images taken at 50 percent contrast and approximately 49.8 percent brightness produced suitable high contrast images for analysis. We ascertained gray-scale thresholds of interest: 0-230 for tracks, 231 for masked regions, and 232-255 for background. We found no need to set an upper size limit for distinguishing tracks. We did use lower limits to exclude noise: 16 pixels at 15000x, 4 pixels at 10000x, 2 pixels at 6800x, and 0 pixels at 4600x. We used computer counting and measurement of area to obtain track densities. We found an excellent correlation with manual measurements for track densities below 1x10(exp 8) sq cm. For track densities between 1x10(exp 8) sq cm to 1x10(exp 9) sq cm, we found that a regression formula using the percentage area covered by tracks gave good agreement with manual measurements. Finally we used these new techniques to obtain a track density distribution that gave more detail and was more rapidly obtained than using manual techniques 15 years ago.

Abstract. Mammographic density (MD) is a significant risk factor for breast cancer and has been shown to reduce the sensitivity of mammography screening. Knowledge of a woman’s density can be used to predict her risk of developing breast cancer and personalize her imaging pathway. However, measurement of breast density has proven to be troublesome with wide variations in density recorded using radiologists’ visual Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BIRADS). Several automated methods for assessing breast density have been proposed, each with their own source of measurement error. The use of differing mammographic imaging systems further complicates MD measurement, especially for the same women imaged over time. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether having a mammogram on differing manufacturer’s equipment affects a woman’s MD measurement. Raw mammographic images were acquired on two mammography imaging systems (General Electric and Hologic) one year apart and processed using VolparaDensity™ to obtain the Volpara Density Grade (VDG) and average volumetric breast density percentage (AvBD%). Visual BIRADS scores were also obtained from 20 expert readers. BIRADS scores for both systems showed strong positive correlation (ρ=0.904; p<0.001), while the VDG (ρ=0.978; p<0.001) and AvBD% (ρ=0.973; p<0.001) showed stronger positive correlations. Substantial agreement was shown between the systems for BIRADS (κ=0.692; p<0.001), however, the systems demonstrated an almost perfect agreement for VDG (κ=0.933; p<0.001). PMID:26158085

We demonstrate that muon tomography can be used to precisely measure the properties of various materials. The materials which have been considered have been extracted from an experimental blast furnace, including carbon (coke) and iron oxides, for which measurements of the linear scattering density relative to the mass density have been performed with an absolute precision of 10%. We report the procedures that are used in order to obtain such precision, and a discussion is presented to address the expected performance of the technique when applied to heavier materials. The results we obtain do not depend on the specific type of material considered and therefore they can be extended to any application.

The relation of the density of the lunar surface layer to depth is probably best determined from spacecraft measurements of the bearing capacity as a function of depth. A comparison of these values with laboratory measurements of the bearing capacity of low-cohesion particulate materials as a function of the percentage of solid indicates that the bulk density at the lunar surface is about 1.1 grams per cubic centimeter and that it increases nearly linearly to about 1.6 grams per cubic centimeter at a depth of 5 centimeters.

Results are reported on the measurement of the atmospheric neutrino-induced muon flux at a depth of 2 kilometers below the Earth's surface from 1229 days of operation of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). By measuring the flux of through-going muons as a function of zenith angle, the SNO experiment can distinguish between the oscillated and un-oscillated portion of the neutrino flux. A total of 514 muon-like events are measured between -1 {le} cos {theta}{sub zenith} 0.4 in a total exposure of 2.30 x 10{sup 14} cm{sup 2} s. The measuredflux normalization is 1.22 {+-} 0.09 times the Bartol three-dimensional flux prediction. This is the first measurement of the neutrino-induced flux where neutrino oscillations are minimized. The zenith distribution is consistent with previously measured atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters. The cosmic ray muon flux at SNO with zenith angle cos {theta}{sub zenith} > 0.4 is measured to be (3.31 {+-} 0.01 (stat.) {+-} 0.09 (sys.)) x 10{sup -10} {micro}/s/cm{sup 2}.

Results are reported on the measurement of the atmospheric neutrino-induced muon flux at a depth of 2 kilometers below the Earth's surface from 1229 days of operation of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). By measuring the flux of through-going muons as a function of zenith angle, the SNO experiment can distinguish between the oscillated and un-oscillated portion of the neutrino flux. A total of 514 muon-like events are measured between -1 {le} cos {theta}{sub zenith} 0.4 in a total exposure of 2.30 x 10{sup 14} cm{sup 2} s. The measuredflux normalization is 1.22 {+-} 0.09 times the Bartol three-dimensional flux prediction. This is the first measurement of the neutrino-induced flux where neutrino oscillations are minimized. The zenith distribution is consistent with previously measured atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters. The cosmic ray muon flux at SNO with zenith angle cos {theta}{sub zenith} > 0.4 is measured to be (3.31 {+-} 0.01 (stat.) {+-} 0.09 (sys.)) x 10{sup -10} {micro}/s/cm{sup 2}.

Eddy fluxmeasurements of "sticky" molecules have historically proven difficult due to strong interactions with instrument surfaces. A novel approach has been developed to improve these response times, enabling fluxmeasurements of nitric acid (HNO3) and and ammonia (NH3). Deliberate addition of the vapor of perfluorinated acids and bases into a sample stream serves to eject existing surface-bound sample molecules and passivate instrument surfaces. HNO3 response times for an Aerodyne quantum cascade laser absorption spectrometer (QCLAS) improve by a factor of 60-fold when actively passivating. This approach was used during field measurements of HNO3 fluxes at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory, where an actively passivated inertial inlet at 8 m height yielded HNO3 deposition fluxes of 0.5 - 2 nmol/m2/sec. The dependence of the deposition flux upon urban vs rural outflow is discussed.

Measurements of soil-surface CO2 fluxes are important for characterizing the carbon budget of boreal forests because these fluxes can be the second largest component of the budget. Several methods for measuring soil-surface CO2 fluxes are available: (1) closed-dynamic-chamber systems, (2) closed-static-chamber systems, (3) open-chamber systems, and (4) eddy covariance systems. This paper presents a field comparison of six individual systems for measuring soil-surface CO2 fluxes with each of the four basic system types represented. A single system is used as a reference and compared to each of the other systems individually in black spruce (Picea mariana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), or aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests. Fluxes vary from 1 to 10 ??mol CO2 m-2 s-1. Adjustment factors to bring all of the systems into agreement vary from 0.93 to 1.45 with an uncertainty of about 10-15%.

Filter radiometers sensitive from 280 to 320 nm and from 280 to 400 nm, respectively, were used for measurements of the actinic flux in the stratosphere. Since the instruments are calibrated for absolute spectral sensitivity the data can be compared with model calculations of the actinic flux. Data were obtained during seven balloon flights during the European Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Experiment (EASOE).

Sensible and latent heat and mass flux represent a significant component of the snowcover energy and mass balance in mountain environments. Though these fluxes are computed in energy balance snow models, limited measurements exist for comparison or validation in complex, mountainous sites. Sensibl...

Snow-covered complex terrain is an extremely important runoff generating landscape in high altitude and latitude environments, yet is often considered non-viable for eddy covariance measurements of turbulent fluxes. Turbulent flux data are useful for evaluating the coupled snow cover mass and energ...

This is the final report for AmeriFlux QA/QC at Oregon State University. The major objective of this project is to contribute to the AmeriFlux network by continuing to build consistency in AmeriFluxmeasurements by addressing objectives stated in the AmeriFlux strategic plan and self evaluation, the North American Carbon Program, and the US Carbon Cycle Science Program. The project directly contributes to NACP and CCSP goals to establish an integrated, near-real time network of observations to inform climate change science.

We report on an alternative way to measure the absolute beam flux at the NDCX-I, LBNL linear accelerator. Up to date, the beam flux is determined from the analysis of the beam-induced optical emission from a ceramic scintilator (Al-Si). The new approach is based on calorimetric technique, where energy flux is deduced from the melting dynamics of a gold foil. We estimate an average 260 kW/cm2 beam flux over 5 {micro}s, which is consistent with values provided by the other methods. Described technique can be applied to various ion species and energies.

The non-intrusive densitymeasurement of the thin plasma produced by a mini-helicon space thruster (HPH.com project) is a challenge, due to the broad density range (between 1016 m-3 and 1019 m-3) and the small size of the plasma source (2 cm of diameter). A microwave interferometer has been developed for this purpose. Due to the small size of plasma, the probing beam wavelength must be small (λ = 4 mm), thus a very high sensitivity interferometer is required in order to observe the lower density values. A low noise digital phase detector with a phase noise of 0.02° has been used, corresponding to a density of 0.5 × 1016 m-3.

The non-intrusive densitymeasurement of the thin plasma produced by a mini-helicon space thruster (HPH.com project) is a challenge, due to the broad density range (between 10{sup 16} m{sup -3} and 10{sup 19} m{sup -3}) and the small size of the plasma source (2 cm of diameter). A microwave interferometer has been developed for this purpose. Due to the small size of plasma, the probing beam wavelength must be small ({lambda}= 4 mm), thus a very high sensitivity interferometer is required in order to observe the lower density values. A low noise digital phase detector with a phase noise of 0.02 Degree-Sign has been used, corresponding to a density of 0.5 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 16} m{sup -3}.

The non-intrusive densitymeasurement of the thin plasma produced by a mini-helicon space thruster (HPH.com project) is a challenge, due to the broad density range (between 10(16) m(-3) and 10(19) m(-3)) and the small size of the plasma source (2 cm of diameter). A microwave interferometer has been developed for this purpose. Due to the small size of plasma, the probing beam wavelength must be small (λ = 4 mm), thus a very high sensitivity interferometer is required in order to observe the lower density values. A low noise digital phase detector with a phase noise of 0.02° has been used, corresponding to a density of 0.5 × 10(16) m(-3). PMID:23556819

The plasmoid produced by a half-scale contoured gap coaxial plasma accelerator using ablative polyethylene capillary plasma injectors is measured using a quadrature heterodyne HeNe interferometer. The plasmoid is found to have a sharp rise in density at the leading edge, with a gradual falloff after the peak density. For this early test series, an average bulk density of 5×1014 cm-3 is observed, with densities up to 8×1014 cm-3 seen on some shots. Although plasmoid mass is only about 58 μg due to the low current and injected mass used in these tests, good shot-to-shot repeatability is attained making analysis relatively straightforward, thus providing a solid foundation for interpreting future experimental results.

A molecular Rayleigh scattering technique is utilized to measure gas temperature, velocity, and density in unseeded gas flows at sampling rates up to 10 kHz, providing fluctuation information up to 5 kHz based on the Nyquist theorem. A high-power continuous-wave laser beam is focused at a point in an air flow field and Rayleigh scattered light is collected and fiber-optically transmitted to a Fabry-Perot interferometer for spectral analysis. Photomultiplier tubes operated in the photon counting mode allow high-frequency sampling of the total signal level and the circular interference pattern to provide dynamic density, temperature, and velocity measurements. Mean and root mean square velocity, temperature, and density, as well as power spectral density calculations, are presented for measurements in a hydrogen-combustor heated jet facility with a 50.8-mm diameter nozzle at NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field. The Rayleigh measurements are compared with particle image velocimetry data and computational fluid dynamics predictions. This technique is aimed at aeronautics research related to identifying noise sources in free jets, as well as applications in supersonic and hypersonic flows where measurement of flow properties, including mass flux, is required in the presence of shocks and ionization occurrence.

A molecular Rayleigh scattering technique is utilized to measure gas temperature, velocity, and density in unseeded gas flows at sampling rates up to 10 kHz, providing fluctuation information up to 5 kHz based on the Nyquist theorem. A high-power continuous-wave laser beam is focused at a point in an air flow field and Rayleigh scattered light is collected and fiber-optically transmitted to a Fabry-Perot interferometer for spectral analysis. Photomultiplier tubes operated in the photon counting mode allow high-frequency sampling of the total signal level and the circular interference pattern to provide dynamic density, temperature, and velocity measurements. Mean and root mean square velocity, temperature, and density, as well as power spectral density calculations, are presented for measurements in a hydrogen-combustor heated jet facility with a 50.8-mm diameter nozzle at NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field. The Rayleigh measurements are compared with particle image velocimetry data and computational fluid dynamics predictions. This technique is aimed at aeronautics research related to identifying noise sources in free jets, as well as applications in supersonic and hypersonic flows where measurement of flow properties, including mass flux, is required in the presence of shocks and ionization occurrence.

The reactive gas plasmas, such as C_4F_8, SiH4 and SF6 gas plasmas, have been widely used in plasma etching or CVD. The radicals and ions species in these plasmas have been reported in a lot of study. However, the negative ion density has not been measured quantitatively, since the conventional Langmuir probe cannot be used due to film depositions on its surface. In this study, the negative ion density in the reactive gas plasmas was measured with a heated Langmuir probe and an 8-mm microwave interferometer as a function of gas flow rate and radial position. Furthermore, the following equation was suggested to estimate the negative ion density only from the probe measurements: fracI_+(X )I_+(Ar) = [ fracI_-(X)I_-(Ar) + fracN_-(X )N_+(Ar)√fracT_e(X)T_e(Ar) ] √fracM_+(Ar)M_+(X), where N- denotes negative ion density and the other characteristics represent the conventional ones. The positive ion mass M+ should be assumed properly. It was confirmed that this equation provides the negative ion density both in the magnetized plasmas, such as ECR plasmas, and non-magnetized plasmas.

The densities of pore-confined fluids were measured for the first time by means of vibrating tube densimetry (VTD). A custom-built high-pressure, high-temperature vibrating tube densimeter was used to measure the densities of propane at subcritical and supercritical temperatures (between 35 and 97 °C) and carbon dioxide at supercritical temperatures (between 32 and 50 °C) saturating hydrophobic silica aerogel (0.2 g/cm(3), 90% porosity) synthesized inside Hastelloy U-tubes. Additionally, supercritical isotherms of excess adsorption for CO(2) and the same porous solid were measured gravimetrically using a precise magnetically coupled microbalance. Pore fluid densities and total adsorption isotherms increased monotonically with increasing density of the bulk fluid, in contrast to excess adsorption isotherms, which reached a maximum and then decreased toward zero or negative values above the critical density of the bulk fluid. The isotherms of confined fluid density and excess adsorption obtained by VTD contain additional information. For instance, the maxima of excess adsorption occur below the critical density of the bulk fluid at the beginning of the plateau region in the total adsorption, marking the end of the transition of pore fluid to a denser, liquidlike pore phase. Compression of the confined fluid significantly beyond the density of the bulk fluid at the same temperature was observed even at subcritical temperatures. The effect of pore confinement on the liquid-vapor critical temperature of propane was less than ~1.7 K. The results for propane and carbon dioxide showed similarity in the sense of the principle of corresponding states. Good quantitative agreement was obtained between excess adsorption isotherms determined from VTD total adsorption results and those measured gravimetrically at the same temperature, confirming the validity of the vibrating tube measurements. Thus, it is demonstrated that vibrating tube densimetry is a novel experimental

Dephasing induced by magnetic flux noise limits the performance of modern superconducting quantum processors. We measure the flux noise power spectrum in planar, frequency-tunable, Xmon transmon quantum bits (qubits), with several SQUID loop geometries. We extend the Ramsey Tomography Oscilloscope (RTO) technique by rapid sampling up to 1 MHz, without state reset, to measure the flux noise power spectrum between 10-2 and 105 Hz. The RTO measurements are combined with idle gate randomized benchmarking and Ramsey decay to give a more complete picture of dephasing in SQUID-based devices.

Ozone (O3) fluxes above a temperate mountain grassland were measured by means of the eddy covariance (EC) method using a slow-response O3 analyser. The resultant flux loss was corrected for by a series of transfer functions which model the various sources of high- and, in particular, low-pass filtering. The resulting correction factors varied on average between 1.7 and 3.5 during night and day time, respectively. A cospectral analysis confirmed the accuracy of this approach. O3 fluxes were characterised by a comparatively large random uncertainty, which during daytime typically amounted to 60 %. EC O3 fluxes were compared against O3 fluxmeasurements made concurrently with the flux-gradient (FG) method. The two methods generally agreed well, except for a period between sun rise and early afternoon, when the FG method was suspected of being affected by the presence of photochemical sources/sinks. O3 flux magnitudes and deposition velocities determined with the EC method compared nicely with the available literature from grassland studies. We conclude that our understanding of the causes and consequences of various sources of flux loss (associated with any EC system) has sufficiently matured so that also less-than-ideal instrumentation may be used in EC flux applications, albeit at the cost of relatively large empirical corrections. PMID:24348085

We derive an analytical density functional for the single-site entanglement of the one-dimensional homogeneous Hubbard model by means of an approximation to the linear entropy. We show that this very simple density functional reproduces quantitatively the exact results. We then use this functional as input for a local-density approximation to the single-site entanglement of inhomogeneous systems. We illustrate the power of this approach in a harmonically confined system, which could simulate recent experiments with ultracold atoms in optical lattices as well as in a superlattice and in an impurity system. The impressive quantitative agreement with numerical calculations--which includes reproducing subtle signatures of the particle density stages--shows that our density functional can provide entanglement calculations for actual experiments via densitymeasurements. Next we use our functional to calculate the entanglement in disordered systems. We find that, in contrast with the expectation that disorder destroys the entanglement, there exist regimes for which the entanglement remains almost unaffected by the presence of disordered impurities.

One experimental technique based on the Faraday rotation effect of radio waves is presented for measuring electron density in the nighttime ionosphere at midlatitudes. High frequency linearly-polarized radio signals were transmitted to a linearly-polarized receiving system located in a spinning rocket moving through the ionosphere. Faraday rotation was observed in the reference plane of the rocket as a change in frequency of the detected receiver output. The frequency change was measured and the information was used to obtain electron density data. System performance was evaluated and some sources of error were identified. The data obtained was useful in calibrating a Langmuir probe experiment for electron density values of 100/cu cm and greater. Data from two rocket flights are presented to illustrate the experiment.

This paper describes the measurement of the density fluctuation using beam emission spectroscopy in Heliotron J, having the non-symmetrical helical-magnetic-axis configuration. In order to optimize the sightlines, the numerical calculations are carried out to estimate the spatial resolution and the observation location. When a tangential neutral beam is used as diagnostic one, suitable sightlines from the newly installed diagnostic port are selected whose spatial resolution {Delta}{rho} is less than {+-}0.07 over the entire plasma region. Modification of the interference filter and the detection systems enables us to measure the radial profile of the density fluctuation. Each of the three coherent modes due to the fast-ion-driven magnetohydrodynamic instabilities has different radial structure of the density fluctuation.

The role of forests in global methane (CH4) turnover is currently not well constrained, partially because of the lack of spatially integrative forest-scale measurements of CH4 fluxes. Soil chamber measurements imply that temperate forests generally act as CH4 sinks. Upscaling of chamber observations to the forest scale is however problematic, if the upscaling is not constrained by concurrent 'top-down' measurements, such as of the eddy-covariance type, which provide sufficient integration of spatial variations and of further potential CH4 flux components within forest ecosystems. Ongoing development of laser absorption-based optical instruments, resulting in enhanced measurement stability, precision and sampling speed, has recently improved the prospects for meaningful eddy-covariance measurements at sites with presumably low CH4 fluxes, hence prone to reach the flux detection limit. At present, we are launching eddy-covariance CH4 measurements at a long-running ICOS flux tower site (Hainich National Park, Germany), located in a semi natural, unmanaged, beech dominated forest. Eddy-covariance measurements will be conducted with a laser spectrometer for parallel CH4, H2Ov and CO2 measurements (FGGA, Los Gatos Research, USA). Independent observations of the CO2 flux by the FGGA and a standard Infrared Gas Analyser (LI-7200, LI-COR, USA) will allow to evaluate data quality of measured CH4 fluxes. Here, we want to present first results with a focus on uncertainties of the calculated CH4 fluxes with regard to instrument precision, data processing and site conditions. In future, we plan to compare eddy-covariance flux estimates to side-by-side turbulent flux observations from a novel eddy accumulation system. Furthermore, soil CH4 fluxes will be measured with four automated chambers situated within the tower footprint. Based on a previous soil chamber study at the same site, we expect the Hainich forest site to act as a CH4 sink. However, we hypothesize that our

The eddy covariance method is widely used for direct measurements of turbulent exchange of gases and energy between the surface and atmosphere. In the past, raw data were collected first in the field and then processed back in the laboratory to achieve fully corrected publication-ready flux results. This post-processing consumed significant amount of time and resources, and precluded researchers from accessing near real-time final flux results. A new automated measurement system with novel hardware and software designs was developed, tested, and deployed starting late 2013. The major advancements with this automated flux system include: 1) Enabling logging high-frequency, three-dimensional wind speeds and multiple gas densities (CO2, H2O and CH4), low-frequency meteorological data, and site metadata simultaneously through a specially designed file format 2) Conducting fully corrected, real-time on-site flux computations using conventional as well as user-specified methods, by implementing EddyPro Software on a small low-power microprocessor 3) Providing precision clock control and coordinate information for data synchronization and inter-site data comparison by incorporating a GPS and Precision Time Protocol. Along with these innovations, a data management server application was also developed to chart fully corrected real-time fluxes to assist remote system monitoring, to send e-mail alerts, and to automate data QA/QC, transfer and archiving at individual stations or on a network level. Combination of all of these functions was designed to help save substantial amount of time and costs associated with managing a research site by eliminating the post-field data processing, reducing user errors and facilitating real-time access to fully corrected flux results. The design, functionality, and test results from this new eddy covariance measurement tool will be presented.

Questions regarding the density of the local zodiacal clouds have recently become important in many areas. Several planned searches for extrasolar system planets require a better knowledge of the behavior of zodiacal clouds, the solar system zodiacal cloud has been suggested as a driving force for glaciations, and it is becoming clear that discussions regarding prebiotic chemistry must include the flux of interplanetary particles onto Earth. No certain upper limits can today be set for transient density variations in the local zodiacal cloud, nor for fluctuations in the particle-flux onto Earth. Some new results have, however, created a possibility to measure this in the geological record. An interdisciplinary project is described. The goal for the project is to set upper limits for the zodiacal dust-flux onto Earth during passages through IRAS dust-bands during the last 2.5 million years, and use these limits to calculate the maximum density of the bands. We estimate the predicted flux of zodiacal particles onto Earth through orbital modeling., where it is assumed that the source for the IRAS dust-bands are a few Hirayama asteroid families. The orbits of the asteroids and the produced dust are integrated to find the times when Earth revolved within a dust-band. This forms the basis for a geochemical analysis of oceanic sediments, lake sediments, ice-cores and loess-deposits, with the goal to find the signal from a passage through a dust-band. Apart from providing an excellent stratigraphic dating tool, the identification and characterization of such a signal would give important information about the behavior of the zodiacal cloud over shorter times (1-2 My). Some astronomical results are presented and compared with sedimentological observations.

Meteorologically measuredfluxes of energy and matter between the surface and the atmosphere originate from a source area of certain extent, located in the upwind sector of the device. The spatial representativeness of such measurements is strongly influenced by the heterogeneity of the landscape. The footprint concept is capable of linking observed data with spatial heterogeneity. This study aims at upscaling eddy covariance derived fluxes to a grid size of 1 km edge length, which is typical for mesoscale models or low resolution remote sensing data. Here an upscaling strategy is presented, utilizing footprint modelling and SVAT modelling as well as observations from a target land-use area. The general idea of this scheme is to model fluxes from adjacent land-use types and combine them with the measuredflux data to yield a grid representative flux according to the land-use distribution within the grid cell. The performance of the upscaling routine is evaluated with real datasets, which are considered to be land-use specific fluxes in a grid cell. The measurements above rye and maize fields stem from the LITFASS experiment 2003 in Lindenberg, Germany and the respective modelled timeseries were derived by the SVAT model SEWAB. Contributions from each land-use type to the observations are estimated using a forward lagrangian stochastic model. A representation error is defined as the error in flux estimates made when accepting the measurements unchanged as grid representative flux and ignoring flux contributions from other land-use types within the respective grid cell. Results show that this representation error can be reduced up to 56 % when applying the spatial integration. This shows the potential for further application of this strategy, although the absolute differences between flux observations from rye and maize were so small, that the spatial integration would be rejected in a real situation. Corresponding thresholds for this decision have been estimated as

The formulation of the crossed beam correlation technique is generalized to include strongly absorbing media. The first measurements of point density fluctuations at contact surfaces have been obtained. The presence of turbulent bursts is confirmed and a characteristic spectral frequency of approximately 400 Hz is estimated.

The concept of the annular-geometry ion engine, or AGI-Engine, has been shown to have many potential benefits when scaling electric propulsion technologies to higher power. However, the necessary asymmetric location of the discharge cathode away from thruster centerline could potentially lead to non-uniformities in the discharge not present in conventional geometry ion thrusters. In an effort to characterize the degree of this potential nonuniformity, a number of current densitymeasurements were taken on a breadboard AGI-Engine. Fourteen button probes were used to measure the ion current density of the discharge along a perforated electrode that replaced the ion optics during conditions of simulated beam extraction. Three Faraday probes spaced apart in the vertical direction were also used in a separate test to interrogate the plume of the AGI-Engine during true beam extraction. It was determined that both the discharge and the plume of the AGI-Engine are highly uniform, with variations under most conditions limited to 10% of the average current density in the discharge and 5% of the average current density in the plume. Beam flatness parameter measured 30 mm from the ion optics ranged from 0.85 0.95, and overall uniformity was shown to generally increase with increasing discharge and beam currents. These measurements indicate that the plasma is highly uniform despite the asymmetric location of the discharge cathode.