The purpose of this protocol is to perform serial physiological measurements and blood testing on mechanically ventilated patients comparing conditions of eucapnia and hypercapnia in the same patient. We will be testing two hypotheses: (1) while administering inspired carbon dioxide (CO2), eucapnia achieved by high respiratory rate (EHR) significantly decreases pulmonary artery pressures compared to hypercapnia with a lower respiratory rate (HLR), and (2) that EHR decreases myocardial strain compared to HLR.

Pulmonary artery pressure will be measured directly by transducing the pulmonary artery catheter, and will include systolic (PASP) and diastolic (PADP) Ppa. The mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) will be calculated according to the formula: mPAP = 1/3 PASP + 2/3 PADP

Patients in this arm will have the "hypercapnia with low respiratory rate" (HLR) strategy first. Once hypercapnia is achieved via inspired carbon dioxide, no additional changes will be made to the ventilator. Once steady-state is achieved, physiological measurements will be taken. The patient will be returned to baseline settings for a 15-minute "rest period" before starting the EHR strategy per the cross-over design.

Other: HLR

Other Name: hypercapnia with low respiratory rate

Other: EHR

Other Name: eucapnia with high respiratory rate

Experimental: EHR-first

Patients in this arm will have the "eucapnia with high respiratory rate" (EHR) strategy first. Once hypercapnia is achieved via inspired carbon dioxide, respiratory rate will be increased until PetCO2 returns to baseline or up to 35 breaths per minute, as limited by the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) ARDS Network protocol. fraction of inspired oxygen inspired oxygen fraction and set tidal volume will be maintained. Once steady-state is achieved, physiological measurements will be taken. The patient will be returned to baseline settings for a 15-minute "rest period" before starting the HLR strategy per the cross-over design.

Other: HLR

Other Name: hypercapnia with low respiratory rate

Other: EHR

Other Name: eucapnia with high respiratory rate

Detailed Description:

The purpose of this protocol is to perform serial physiological measurements and blood testing on mechanically ventilated patients comparing conditions of eucapnia (maintaining alveolar ventilation to target carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2) 35-40 mm Hg) and hypercapnia (providing inspired CO2 to target pCO2 55-60 mm Hg) in the same patient. This prospective clinical study will enroll consenting adult patients scheduled for elective cardiac surgery and who require postoperative mechanical ventilation, pulmonary artery (Swan-Ganz) catheter monitoring, and arterial catheterization as part of routine standard care during the immediate postoperative period. The study will perform measurements using available ventilator monitors, ventilator in-line pneumotachograph and capnograph, measurements from the indwelling pulmonary artery catheter, transesophageal echocardiography, and other measurements available as part of routine care. The entire experimental protocol will be performed in one day over 2-4 hours, and the protocol will not interfere with routine postoperative care, nor prolong the need for mechanical ventilation, pulmonary artery catheterization, arterial catheterization, or intensive care unit length of stay.

Ventilation with low tidal volumes has been shown definitively to improve mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)1 and may provide benefit even in patients without ARDS.2 During low tidal volume ventilation, practice varies on whether to allow some degree of alveolar hypoventilation with incidental hypercapnic acidosis (termed "permissive hypercapnia"),3 or to increase respiratory rate to maintain alveolar ventilation and target eucapnia, often requiring respiratory rates > 30/min.4 The physiological consequences of these divergent strategies remain to be fully elucidated. We propose the following study to distinguish the effects of a eucapnic high respiratory rate (EHR) strategy from a hypercapnic low respiratory rate (HLR) strategy on pulmonary hemodynamics during low tidal volume ventilation.

Elevated intracranial pressure or conditions where hypercapnia-induced elevations in intracranial pressure should be avoided, including:

Intracranial hemorrhage

Cerebral contusion

Cerebral edema

Mass effect (midline shift on head CT)

Flat EEG for > 2 hours

Evidence of active air leak from the lung, such as broncho-pleural fistula or ongoing air leak from an existing chest tube.

Treating physician refusal.

Inability to obtain informed consent directly from the subject prior to surgery.

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Please refer to this study by its ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01927237