The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historicawwy certain facts about Jesus.[9][10]James Dunn states dat dese "two facts in de wife of Jesus command awmost universaw assent" and "rank so high on de 'awmost impossibwe to doubt or deny' scawe of historicaw facts" dat dey are often de starting points for de study of de historicaw Jesus.[9]Bart Ehrman states dat de crucifixion of Jesus on de orders of Pontius Piwate is de most certain ewement about him.[11]John Dominic Crossan states dat de crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historicaw fact can be.[12] Eddy and Boyd state dat it is now "firmwy estabwished" dat dere is non-Christian confirmation of de crucifixion of Jesus.[13]Craig Bwomberg states dat most schowars in de dird qwest for de historicaw Jesus consider de crucifixion indisputabwe.[4]Christopher M. Tuckett states dat, awdough de exact reasons for de deaf of Jesus are hard to determine, one of de indisputabwe facts about him is dat he was crucified.[14]

Whiwe schowars agree on de historicity of de crucifixion, dey differ on de reason and context for it. For exampwe, bof E. P. Sanders and Pauwa Fredriksen support de historicity of de crucifixion but contend dat Jesus did not foreteww his own crucifixion and dat his prediction of de crucifixion is a "church creation" (p. 126).[15]Geza Vermes awso views de crucifixion as a historicaw event but provides his own expwanation and background for it.[15]

John P. Meier views de crucifixion of Jesus as historicaw fact and states dat, based on de criterion of embarrassment, Christians wouwd not have invented de painfuw deaf of deir weader.[16] Meier states dat a number of oder criteria, e.g., de criterion of muwtipwe attestation (i.e., confirmation by more dan one source) and de criterion of coherence (i.e., dat it fits wif oder historicaw ewements) hewp estabwish de crucifixion of Jesus as a historicaw event.[17]

Awdough awmost aww ancient sources rewating to crucifixion are witerary, de 1968 archeowogicaw discovery just nordeast of Jerusawem of de body of a crucified man dated to de 1st century provided good confirmatory evidence dat crucifixions occurred during de Roman period roughwy according to de manner in which de crucifixion of Jesus is described in de gospews.[18] The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkow and probabwy died about 70 AD, around de time of de Jewish revowt against Rome. The anawyses at de Hadassah Medicaw Schoow estimated dat he died in his wate 20s. Anoder rewevant archaeowogicaw find, which awso dates to de 1st century AD, is an unidentified heew bone wif a spike discovered in a Jerusawem gravesite, now hewd by de Israew Antiqwities Audority and dispwayed in de Israew Museum.[19][20]

The earwiest detaiwed accounts of de deaf of Jesus are contained in de four canonicawgospews. There are oder, more impwicit references in de New Testament epistwes. In de synoptic gospews, Jesus predicts his deaf in dree separate pwaces.[21] Aww four Gospews concwude wif an extended narrative of Jesus' arrest, initiaw triaw at de Sandhedrin and finaw triaw at Piwate's court, where Jesus is fwogged, condemned to deaf, is wed to de pwace of crucifixion initiawwy carrying his cross before Roman sowdiers induce Simon of Cyrene to carry it, and den Jesus is crucified, entombed, and resurrected from de dead. His deaf is described as a sacrifice in de Gospews and oder books of de New Testament.[22] In each Gospew dese five events in de wife of Jesus are treated wif more intense detaiw dan any oder portion of dat Gospew's narrative. Schowars note dat de reader receives an awmost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.[23]:p.91

After arriving at Gowgoda, Jesus was offered wine mixed wif myrrh or gaww to drink. Matdew's and Mark's Gospews record dat he refused dis. He was den crucified and hung between two convicted dieves. According to some transwations of de originaw Greek, de dieves may have been bandits or Jewish rebews.[24] According to Mark's Gospew, he endured de torment of crucifixion for some six hours from de dird hour, at approximatewy 9 am,[25] untiw his deaf at de ninf hour, corresponding to about 3 pm.[26] The sowdiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazaref, King of de Jews" which, according to de Gospew of John, was in dree wanguages, and den divided his garments and cast wots for his seamwess robe. According to de Gospew of John, de Roman sowdiers did not break Jesus' wegs, as dey did to de two crucified dieves (breaking de wegs hastened de onset of deaf), as Jesus was dead awready. Each gospew has its own account of Jesus' wast words, seven statements awtogeder.[27] In de Synoptic Gospews, various supernaturaw events accompany de crucifixion, incwuding darkness, an eardqwake, and (in Matdew) de resurrection of saints. Fowwowing Jesus' deaf, his body was removed from de cross by Joseph of Arimadea and buried in a rock-hewn tomb, wif Nicodemus assisting.

The Crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Christ on de Cross between two dieves. Iwwumination from de Vaux Passionaw, 16f century

According to aww four gospews, Jesus was brought to de "Pwace of a Skuww"[28] and crucified wif two dieves,[29] wif de charge of cwaiming to be "King of de Jews",[30] and de sowdiers divided his cwodes[31] before he bowed his head and died.[32] Fowwowing his deaf, Joseph of Arimadea reqwested de body from Piwate,[33] which Joseph den pwaced in a new garden tomb.[34]

Luke is de onwy gospew writer to omit de detaiw of sour wine mix dat was offered to Jesus on a reed,[43] whiwe onwy Mark and John describe Joseph actuawwy taking de body down off de cross.[44]

There are severaw detaiws dat are onwy found in one of de gospew accounts. For instance, onwy Matdew's gospew mentions an eardqwake, resurrected saints who went to de city and dat Roman sowdiers were assigned to guard de tomb,[45] whiwe Mark is de onwy one to state de actuaw time of de crucifixion (de dird hour, or 9 am) and de centurion's report of Jesus' deaf.[46] The Gospew of Luke's uniqwe contributions to de narrative incwude Jesus' words to de women who were mourning, one criminaw's rebuke of de oder, de reaction of de muwtitudes who weft "beating deir breasts", and de women preparing spices and ointments before resting on de Sabbaf.[47] John is awso de onwy one to refer to de reqwest dat de wegs be broken and de sowdier's subseqwent piercing of Jesus' side (as fuwfiwwment of Owd Testament prophecy), as weww as dat Nicodemus assisted Joseph wif buriaw.[48]

According to de First Epistwe to de Corindians (1 Cor. 15:4), Jesus was raised from de dead ("on de dird day" counting de day of crucifixion as de first) and according to de canonicaw Gospews, appeared to his discipwes on different occasions before ascending to heaven, uh-hah-hah-hah.[49] The account given in Acts of de Apostwes says dat Jesus remained wif de apostwes for forty days, whereas de account in de Gospew of Luke makes no cwear distinction between de events of Easter Sunday and de Ascension, uh-hah-hah-hah.[50][51] However, most bibwicaw schowars agree dat St. Luke awso wrote de Acts of de Apostwes as a fowwow-up vowume to his Gospew account, and de two works must be considered as a whowe.[52]

In Mark, Jesus is crucified awong wif two rebews, and de sun goes dark or is obscured for dree hours.[53] Jesus cawws out to God, den gives a shout and dies.[53] The curtain of de Tempwe is torn in two.[53] Matdew fowwows Mark, but mentions an eardqwake and de resurrection of saints.[54] Luke awso fowwows Mark, awdough he describes de rebews as common criminaws, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises dat he (Jesus) and de criminaw wiww be togeder in paradise.[55] Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in de face of his crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[56] John incwudes severaw of de same ewements as dose found in Mark, dough dey are treated differentwy.[57]

An earwy non-Christian reference to de crucifixion of Jesus is wikewy to be Mara Bar-Serapion's wetter to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before de 3rd century AD.[58][5][59] The wetter incwudes no Christian demes and de audor is presumed to be neider Jewish nor Christian, uh-hah-hah-hah.[58][5][60] The wetter refers to de retributions dat fowwowed de unjust treatment of dree wise men: Socrates, Pydagoras, and "de wise king" of de Jews.[58][59] Some schowars see wittwe doubt dat de reference to de execution of de "king of de Jews" is about de crucifixion of Jesus, whiwe oders pwace wess vawue in de wetter, given de possibwe ambiguity in de reference.[60][61]

Now dere was about dis time Jesus, a wise man, ... He drew over to him bof many of de Jews and many of de Gentiwes ... And when Piwate, at de suggestion of de principaw men amongst us, had condemned him to de cross ...

Most modern schowars agree dat whiwe dis Josephus passage (cawwed de Testimonium Fwavianum) incwudes some water interpowations, it originawwy consisted of an audentic nucweus wif a reference to de execution of Jesus by Piwate.[6][7][8]James Dunn states dat dere is "broad consensus" among schowars regarding de nature of an audentic reference to de crucifixion of Jesus in de Testimonium.[63]

Nero fastened de guiwt and infwicted de most exqwisite tortures on a cwass hated for deir abominations, cawwed Christians by de popuwace. Christus, from whom de name had its origin, suffered de extreme penawty during de reign of Tiberius at de hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Piwatus.

Schowars generawwy consider de Tacitus reference to de execution of Jesus by Piwate to be genuine, and of historicaw vawue as an independent Roman source.[64][67][68][69][70][71] Eddy and Boyd state dat it is now "firmwy estabwished" dat Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of de crucifixion of Jesus.[13]

On de eve of de Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before de execution took pwace, a herawd went forf and cried, 'He is going forf to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israew to apostasy. Anyone who can say anyding in his favour, wet him come forward and pwead on his behawf.' But since noding was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on de eve of de Passover!

Awdough de qwestion of de eqwivawence of de identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree dat de above 2nd-century passage is wikewy to be about Jesus, Peter Schäfer stating dat dere can be no doubt dat dis narrative of de execution in de Tawmud refers to Jesus of Nazaref.[72]Robert Van Voorst states dat de Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not onwy from de reference itsewf, but from de context dat surrounds it.[73]

Muswims maintain dat Jesus was not crucified and dat dose who dought dey had kiwwed him had mistakenwy kiwwed Judas Iscariot, Simon of Cyrene, or someone ewse in his pwace.[74] They howd dis bewief based on various interpretations of Quran4:157–158, which states: "dey kiwwed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to dem [or it appeared so unto dem], ... Nay, Awwah raised him up unto Himsewf".[74]

Some earwy Christian Gnostic sects, bewieving Jesus did not have a physicaw substance, denied dat he was crucified.[75][76] In response, Ignatius of Antioch insisted dat Jesus was truwy born and was truwy crucified and wrote dat dose who hewd dat Jesus onwy seemed to suffer onwy seemed to be Christians.[77][78]

There is no consensus regarding de exact date of de crucifixion of Jesus, awdough it is generawwy agreed by bibwicaw schowars dat it was on a Friday on or near Passover (Nisan 15), during de governorship of Pontius Piwate (who ruwed AD 26–36).[79] Schowars have provided estimates for de year of crucifixion in de range 30–33 AD,[80][81][82] wif Rainer Riesner stating dat "de fourteenf of Nisan (7 Apriw) of de year A.D. 30 is, apparentwy in de opinion of de majority of contemporary schowars as weww, far and away de most wikewy date of de crucifixion of Jesus."[83] Anoder preferred date among schowars is Friday, Apriw 3, 33 AD.[84][85]

Since an observationaw cawendar was used during de time of Jesus, incwuding an ascertainment of de new moon and ripening barwey harvest, de exact day or even monf for Passover in a given year is subject to specuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[86][87][not in citation given] Various approaches have been used to estimate de year of de crucifixion, incwuding de canonicaw Gospews, de chronowogy of de wife of Pauw, as weww as different astronomicaw modews.

The consensus of schowarship is dat de New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have awso been proposed.[88][89] Some schowars expwain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "doubwe sabbaf" caused by an extra Passover sabbaf fawwing on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of de normaw weekwy Sabbaf.[88][90] Some have argued dat Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on de grounds of de mention of "dree days and dree nights" in Matdew before his resurrection, cewebrated on Sunday. Oders have countered by saying dat dis ignores de Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, dat de expression in Matdew is idiomatic, not a statement dat Jesus was 72 hours in de tomb, and dat de many references to a resurrection on de dird day do not reqwire dree witeraw nights.[88][91]

In Mark 15:25 crucifixion takes pwace at de dird hour (9 a.m.) and Jesus' deaf at de ninf hour (3 p.m.).[92] However, in John 19:14 Jesus is stiww before Piwate at de sixf hour.[93] Schowars have presented a number of arguments to deaw wif de issue, some suggesting a reconciwiation, e.g., based on de use of Roman timekeeping in John but not in Mark, yet oders have rejected de arguments.[93][94][95] Severaw schowars have argued dat de modern precision of marking de time of day shouwd not be read back into de gospew accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was avaiwabwe, and time was often approximated to de cwosest dree-hour period.[93][96][97]

Luke's gospew awso describes an interaction between Jesus and de women among de crowd of mourners fowwowing him, qwoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusawem, do not weep for me, but weep for yoursewves and for your chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. For behowd, de days are coming when dey wiww say, 'Bwessed are de barren and de wombs dat never bore and de breasts dat never nursed!' Then dey wiww begin to say to de mountains, 'Faww on us,' and to de hiwws, 'Cover us.' For if dey do dese dings when de wood is green, what wiww happen when it is dry?"[Lk. 23:28-31]

The Gospew of Luke has Jesus address dese women as "daughters of Jerusawem", dus distinguishing dem from de women whom de same gospew describes as "de women who had fowwowed him from Gawiwee" and who were present at his crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[99]

Cawvary as an Engwish name for de pwace is derived from de Latin word for skuww (cawvaria), which is used in de Vuwgate transwation of "pwace of a skuww", de expwanation given in aww four Gospews of de Aramaic word Gûwgawtâ which was de name of de pwace where Jesus was crucified.[106] The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but severaw deories have been put forward. One is dat as a pwace of pubwic execution, Cawvary may have been strewn wif de skuwws of abandoned victims (which wouwd be contrary to Jewish buriaw traditions, but not Roman). Anoder is dat Cawvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent wif bof of de proposed modern sites). A dird is dat de name was derived from de physicaw contour, which wouwd be more consistent wif de singuwar use of de word, i.e., de pwace of "a skuww". Whiwe often referred to as "Mount Cawvary", it was more wikewy a smaww hiww or rocky knoww.[107]

The traditionaw site, inside what is now occupied by de Church of de Howy Sepuwchre in de Christian Quarter of de Owd City, has been attested since de 4f century. A second site (commonwy referred to as Gordon's Cawvary[108] ), wocated furder norf of de Owd City near a pwace popuwarwy cawwed de Garden Tomb, has been promoted since de 19f century.

The Gospew of Matdew describes many women at de crucifixion, some of whom are named in de Gospews. Aside from dese women, de dree Synoptic Gospews speak of de presence of oders: "de chief priests, wif de scribes and ewders";[109] two robbers crucified, one on Jesus' right and one on his weft,[110] whom de Gospew of Luke presents as de penitent dief and de impenitent dief;[111] "de sowdiers",[112] "de centurion and dose who were wif him, keeping watch over Jesus";[113] passers-by;[114] "bystanders",[115] "de crowds dat had assembwed for dis spectacwe";[116] and "his acqwaintances".[117]

Whereas most Christians bewieve de gibbet on which Jesus was executed was de traditionaw two-beamed cross, de Jehovah's Witnesses howd de view dat a singwe upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in de earwiest Christian writings are ambiguous. The Koine Greek terms used in de New Testament are stauros (σταυρός) and xywon (ξύλον). The watter means wood (a wive tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earwier forms of Greek, de former term meant an upright stake or powe, but in Koine Greek it was used awso to mean a cross.[122] The Latin word crux was awso appwied to objects oder dan a cross.[123]

However, earwy Christian writers who speak of de shape of de particuwar gibbet on which Jesus died invariabwy describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, de Epistwe of Barnabas, which was certainwy earwier dan 135,[124] and may have been of de 1st century AD,[125] de time when de gospew accounts of de deaf of Jesus were written, wikened it to de wetter T (de Greek wetter tau, which had de numeric vawue of 300),[126] and to de position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17:11–12.[127]Justin Martyr (100–165) expwicitwy says de cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That wamb which was commanded to be whowwy roasted was a symbow of de suffering of de cross which Christ wouwd undergo. For de wamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in de form of de cross. For one spit is transfixed right drough from de wower parts up to de head, and one across de back, to which are attached de wegs of de wamb."[128]Irenaeus, who died around de end of de 2nd century, speaks of de cross as having "five extremities, two in wengf, two in breadf, and one in de middwe, on which [wast] de person rests who is fixed by de naiws."[129]

The assumption of de use of a two-beamed cross does not determine de number of naiws used in de crucifixion and some deories suggest dree naiws whiwe oders suggest four naiws.[130] However, droughout history warger numbers of naiws have been hypodesized, at times as high as 14 naiws.[131] These variations are awso present in de artistic depictions of de crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[132] In de Western Church, before de Renaissance usuawwy four naiws wouwd be depicted, wif de feet side by side. After de Renaissance most depictions use dree naiws, wif one foot pwaced on de oder.[132] Naiws are awmost awways depicted in art, awdough Romans sometimes just tied de victims to de cross.[132] The tradition awso carries to Christian embwems, e.g. de Jesuits use dree naiws under de IHS monogram and a cross to symbowize de crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[133]

The pwacing of de naiws in de hands, or de wrists is awso uncertain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Some deories suggest dat de Greek word cheir (χειρ) for hand incwudes de wrist and dat de Romans were generawwy trained to pwace naiws drough Destot's space (between de capitate and wunate bones) widout fracturing any bones.[134] Anoder deory suggests dat de Greek word for hand awso incwudes de forearm and dat de naiws were pwaced near de radius and uwna of de forearm.[135] Ropes may have awso been used to fasten de hands in addition to de use of naiws.[136]

Anoder issue of debate has been de use of a hypopodium as a standing pwatform to support de feet, given dat de hands may not have been abwe to support de weight. In de 17f century Rasmus Bardowin considered a number of anawyticaw scenarios of dat topic.[131] In de 20f century, forensic padowogist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angwes and hand positions.[135] His experiments support an angwed suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given dat in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by de Nazis in de Dachau concentration camp during Worwd War II), deaf comes rader qwickwy.[137]

The onwy words of Jesus on de cross mentioned in de Mark and Matdew accounts, dis is a qwotation of Psawm 22. Since oder verses of de same Psawm are cited in de crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it a witerary and deowogicaw creation; however, Geza Vermes points out dat de verse is cited in Aramaic rader dan de Hebrew in which it usuawwy wouwd have been recited, and suggests dat by de time of Jesus, dis phrase had become a proverbiaw saying in common usage.[141] Compared to de accounts in de oder Gospews, which he describes as 'deowogicawwy correct and reassuring', he considers dis phrase 'unexpected, disqwieting and in conseqwence more probabwe'.[142] He describes it as bearing 'aww de appearances of a genuine cry'.[143]Raymond Brown wikewise comments dat he finds 'no persuasive argument against attributing to de Jesus of Mark/Matt de witeraw sentiment of feewing forsaken expressed in de Psawm qwote'.[144]

Luke

"Fader, forgive dem, for dey know not what dey do." [Some earwy manuscripts do not have dis][Lk. 23:34]

"Truwy, I say to you, today you wiww be wif me in Paradise."[Lk. 23:43]

The words of Jesus on de cross, especiawwy his wast words, have been de subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of audors have written books specificawwy devoted to de wast sayings of Christ.[146][147][148][149][150][151]

The synoptics report various miracuwous events during de crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[152][153] Mark mentions a period of darkness in de daytime during Jesus' crucifixion, and de Tempwe veiw being torn in two when Jesus dies.[53] Luke fowwows Mark;[55] as does Matdew, additionawwy mentioning an eardqwake and de resurrection of dead saints.[54] No mention of any of dese appears in John, uh-hah-hah-hah.[154]

In de synoptic narrative, whiwe Jesus is hanging on de cross, de sky over Judea (or de whowe worwd) is "darkened for dree hours," from de sixf to de ninf hour (noon to mid-afternoon). There is no reference to darkness in de Gospew of John account, in which de crucifixion does not take pwace untiw after noon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[155]

Some Christian writers considered de possibiwity dat pagan commentators may have mentioned dis event, mistaking it for a sowar ecwipse - awdough dis wouwd have been impossibwe during de Passover, which takes pwace at de fuww moon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Christian travewwer and historian Sextus Juwius Africanus and Christian deowogian Origen refer to Greek historian Phwegon, who wived in de 2nd century AD, as having written "wif regard to de ecwipse in de time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and de great eardqwakes which den took pwace".[156]

Sextus Juwius Africanus furder refers to de writings of historian Thawwus: "This darkness Thawwus, in de dird book of his History, cawws, as appears to me widout reason, an ecwipse of de sun, uh-hah-hah-hah. For de Hebrews cewebrate de passover on de 14f day according to de moon, and de passion of our Saviour fawws on de day before de passover; but an ecwipse of de sun takes pwace onwy when de moon comes under de sun, uh-hah-hah-hah."[157] Christian apowogist Tertuwwian bewieved de event was documented in de Roman archives.[158]

Cowin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington of Oxford University considered de possibiwity dat a wunar, rader dan sowar, ecwipse might have taken pwace.[159][160] They concwuded dat such an ecwipse wouwd have been visibwe, for dirty minutes, from Jerusawem and suggested de gospew reference to a sowar ecwipse was de resuwt of a scribe wrongwy amending a text. Historian David Henige dismisses dis expwanation as 'indefensibwe'[161] and astronomer Bradwey Schaefer points out dat de wunar ecwipse wouwd not have been visibwe during daywight hours.[162][163]

Modern bibwicaw schowarship treats de account in de synoptic gospews as a witerary creation by de audor of de Mark Gospew, amended in de Luke and Matdew accounts, intended to heighten de importance of what dey saw as a deowogicawwy significant event, and not intended to be taken witerawwy.[164] This image of darkness over de wand wouwd have been understood by ancient readers, a typicaw ewement in de description of de deaf of kings and oder major figures by writers such as Phiwo, Dio Cassius, Virgiw, Pwutarch and Josephus.[165]Géza Vermes describes de darkness account as typicaw of "Jewish eschatowogicaw imagery of de day of de Lord", and says dat dose interpreting it as a databwe ecwipse are "barking up de wrong tree".[166]

The synoptic gospews state dat de veiw of de tempwe was torn from top to bottom.

The Gospew of Matdew mentions an account of eardqwakes, rocks spwitting, and de opening of de graves of dead saints and describes how dese resurrected saints went into de howy city and appeared to many peopwe.[167]

A widespread 6.3 magnitude eardqwake has been confirmed to have taken pwace between 26-36 AD in de time of Jesus.[168] The audors concwuded dat:

Pwausibwe candidates incwude de eardqwake reported in de Gospew of Matdew, an eardqwake dat occurred sometime before or after de crucifixion and was in effect ‘borrowed’ by de audor of de Gospew of Matdew, and a wocaw eardqwake between 26 and 36 AD dat was sufficientwy energetic to deform de sediments at Ein Gedi but not energetic enough to produce a stiww extant and extra-bibwicaw historicaw record. If de wast possibiwity is true, dis wouwd mean dat de report of an eardqwake in de Gospew of Matdew is a type of awwegory.

A number of deories to expwain de circumstances of de deaf of Jesus on de cross have been proposed by physicians and Bibwicaw schowars. In 2006, Matdew W. Maswen and Piers D. Mitcheww reviewed over 40 pubwications on de subject wif deories ranging from cardiac rupture to puwmonary embowism.[169]

In 1847, based on de reference in de Gospew of John (John 19:34) to bwood and water coming out when Jesus' side was pierced wif a spear, physician Wiwwiam Stroud proposed de ruptured heart deory of de cause of Christ's deaf which infwuenced a number of oder peopwe.[170][171]

The cardiovascuwar cowwapse deory is a prevawent modern expwanation and suggests dat Jesus died of profound shock. According to dis deory, de scourging, de beatings, and de fixing to de cross wouwd have weft Jesus dehydrated, weak, and criticawwy iww and dat dis wouwd have wed to cardiovascuwar cowwapse.[172][173]

In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physician and forensic padowogistFrederick Zugibe studied de wikewy circumstances of de deaf of Jesus in great detaiw.[175][176] Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over severaw years to test his deories whiwe he was a medicaw examiner.[177] These studies incwuded experiments in which vowunteers wif specific weights were hanging at specific angwes and de amount of puww on each hand was measured, in cases where de feet were awso secured or not. In dese cases de amount of puww and de corresponding pain was found to be significant.[177]

Pierre Barbet, a French physician, and de chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospitaw in Paris,[178] hypodesized dat Jesus wouwd have had to rewax his muscwes to obtain enough air to utter his wast words, in de face of exhaustion asphyxia.[179] Some of Barbet's deories, e.g., wocation of naiws, are disputed by Zugibe.

In 2003, historians FP Retief and L. Ciwwiers reviewed de history and padowogy of crucifixion as performed by de Romans and suggested dat de cause of deaf was often a combination of factors. They awso state dat Roman guards were prohibited from weaving de scene untiw deaf had occurred.[183]

Christians bewieve dat Jesus' deaf was instrumentaw in restoring humankind to rewationship wif God.[184][185] Christians bewieve dat drough faif in Jesus' substitutionary deaf (among oder interpretive deories see bewow) and triumphant resurrection[186][187] peopwe are reunited wif God and receive new joy and power in dis wife as weww as eternaw wife in heaven after de body's deaf. Thus de crucifixion of Jesus awong wif his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence, wove and grace as weww as de confidence of eternaw wife.[188]

A centraw ewement in de Christowogy presented in de Acts of de Apostwes is de affirmation of de bewief dat de deaf of Jesus by crucifixion happened "wif de foreknowwedge of God, according to a definite pwan".[196] In dis view, as in Acts 2:23, de cross is not viewed as a scandaw, for de crucifixion of Jesus "at de hands of de wawwess" is viewed as de fuwfiwwment of de pwan of God.[196][197]

Pauw's Christowogy has a specific focus on de deaf and resurrection of Jesus. For Pauw, de crucifixion of Jesus is directwy rewated to his resurrection and de term "de cross of Christ" used in Gawatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of de message of de gospews.[198] For Pauw, de crucifixion of Jesus was not an isowated event in history, but a cosmic event wif significant eschatowogicaw conseqwences, as in 1 Corindians 2:8.[198] In de Pauwine view, Jesus, obedient to de point of deaf (Phiwippians 2:8) died "at de right time" (Romans 4:25) based on de pwan of God.[198] For Pauw de "power of de cross" is not separabwe from de Resurrection of Jesus.[198]

However, de bewief in de redemptive nature of Jesus' deaf predates de Pauwine wetters and goes back to de earwiest days of Christianity and de Jerusawem church.[199] The Nicene Creed's statement dat "for our sake he was crucified" is a refwection of dis core bewief's formawization in de fourf century.[200]

John Cawvin supported de "agent of God" Christowogy and argued dat in his triaw in Piwate's Court Jesus couwd have successfuwwy argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to de Fader.[201][202] This Christowogicaw deme continued into de 20f century, bof in de Eastern and Western Churches. In de Eastern Church Sergei Buwgakov argued dat de crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternawwy" determined by de Fader before de creation of de worwd, to redeem humanity from de disgrace caused by de faww of Adam.[203] In de Western Church, Karw Rahner ewaborated on de anawogy dat de bwood of de Lamb of God (and de water from de side of Jesus) shed at de crucifixion had a cweansing nature, simiwar to baptismaw water.[204]

Among Eastern Ordodox Christians, anoder common view is Christus Victor.[211] This howds dat Jesus was sent by God to defeat deaf and Satan. Because of his perfection, vowuntary deaf, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and deaf, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no wonger bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God drough faif in Jesus.[212]

Some rewigious interpretations howd, dat Jesus was actuawwy not crucified, but it had onwy appeared to de peopwe. This doctrine is, amongst oder dings, expwained by Docetism (often associated wif Gnosticism or rewigions infwuenced by Gnosticism) or de Substitution deory. A dird and rader rationawistic dan deowogicaw deory, de Swoon hypodesis, howds, Jesus merewy feww unconscious.

Most Iswamic traditions, save for a few, categoricawwy deny dat Jesus physicawwy died, eider on a cross or anoder manner. The contention is found widin de Iswamic traditions demsewves, wif de earwiest Hadif reports qwoting de companions of Muhammad stating Jesus having died, whiwe de majority of subseqwent Hadif and Tafsir have ewaborated an argument in favor of de deniaw drough exegesis and apowogetics, becoming de popuwar (ordodox) view.

Professor and schowar Mahmoud M. Ayoub sums up what de Quran states despite interpretative arguments:

"The Quran, as we have awready argued, does not deny de deaf of Christ. Rader, it chawwenges human beings who in deir fowwy have dewuded demsewves into bewieving dat dey wouwd vanqwish de divine Word, Jesus Christ de Messenger of God. The deaf of Jesus is asserted severaw times and in various contexts." (3:55; 5:117; 19:33.)[213]

The bewow qwranic verse says Jesus was neider kiwwed nor crucified:

"And dey said we have kiwwed de Messiah Isa son of Maryam, de Messenger of God. They did not kiww him, nor did dey crucify him, dough it was made to appear wike dat to dem; dose dat disagreed about him are fuww of doubt, wif no knowwedge to fowwow, onwy supposition: dey certainwy did not kiww him. On de contrary, God raised him unto himsewf. God is awmighty and wise."

Contrary to Christian teachings, some Iswamic traditions teach dat Jesus ascended to Heaven widout being put on de cross, but dat God transformed anoder person to appear exactwy wike him and to be den crucified instead of him. This dought is supported in misreading an account by Irenaeus, de 2nd-century AwexandrianGnosticBasiwides when refuting a heresy denying de deaf.[215]

Some as Gnostic identified scriptures, reject de atonement of Jesus' deaf by distinguishing de eardwy body of Jesus and his divine and immateriaw essence. According to de Second Treatise of de Great Sef, Yawdabaof (de Creator of de materiaw universe) and his Archons tried to kiww Jesus by crucifixion, but onwy kiwwed deir own man (dat is de body). Whiwe Jesus ascended from his body, Yawdabaof and his fowwowers dought Jesus to be dead.[216][217] In Apocawypse of Peter, Peter tawks wif de savior whom de "priets and peopwe" bewieved to have kiwwed.[218]

Manichaeism, which was infwuenced by Gnostic ideas, adhered to de idea, dat not Jesus, but somebody ewse was crucified instead.[219] Jesus suffering on de cross is depicted as de state of wight particwes (spirit) widin matter instead.[220]

According to Bogomiwism, de crucifixion was an attempt by Lucifer to destroy Jesus, whiwe de eardwy Jesus regarded as a prophet, Jesus himsewf was merewy an immateriaw being, dat can not be kiwwed. Accordingwy, Lucifer faiwed and Jesus' sufferings on de cross were onwy an iwwusion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[221]

There are some Christian sects in Japan who bewieve in a simiwar substitution dough dis deory contradicts wif oder Muswim bewiefs about Jesus. According to wocaw Japanese Christian sects, Jesus Christ did not die on de cross at Gowgoda. Instead his younger broder, Isukiri,[222] took his pwace on de cross, whiwe Jesus fwed across Siberia to Mutsu Province, in nordern Japan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Once in Japan, he became a rice farmer, married, and raised a famiwy wif dree daughters near what is now Shingō. Whiwe in Japan, it is asserted dat he travewed, wearned, and eventuawwy died at de age of 106. His body was exposed on a hiwwtop for four years. According to de customs of de time, Jesus' bones were cowwected, bundwed, and buried in de mound purported to be de grave of Jesus Christ.[223][224] There is awso a museum in Japan which has "evidence" of dese cwaims.[225]

Jesus is awso an important figure in Yazidism. However, Jesus is dought of as a "figure of wight" which couwd not be crucified. This interpretation couwd be taken from de Quran or Gnostics.[226]

Devotions based on de process of crucifixion, and de sufferings of Jesus are fowwowed by various Christians. The Stations of de Cross fowwows a number of stages based on de stages invowved in de crucifixion of Jesus, whiwe de Rosary of de Howy Wounds is used to meditate on de wounds of Jesus as part of de crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Eddy, Pauw Rhodes and Gregory A. Boyd (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for de Historicaw Rewiabiwity of de Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic. p. 172. ISBN0801031141. ...if dere is any fact of Jesus' wife dat has been estabwished by a broad consensus, it is de fact of Jesus' crucifixion, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revowutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN0-06-061662-8. That he was crucified is as sure as anyding historicaw can ever be, since bof Josephus and Tacitus ... agree wif de Christian accounts on at weast dat basic fact.

^Matdew 27:37 - "This is Jesus, de King of de Jews."; Mark 15:26 - "The King of de Jews."; Luke 23:38 - "This is de King of de Jews." Some manuscripts add in wetters of Greek and Latin and Hebrew; John 19:19-22 - "Jesus of Nazaref, de King of de Jews." "... it was written in Aramaic, in Latin, and in Greek."

^Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on de rumors in Rome dat during de Eucharist rituaws Christians ate de body and drank de bwood of deir God, interpreting de symbowic rituaw as cannibawism by Christians. References: Ancient Rome by Wiwwiam E. Dunstan 2010 ISBN0-7425-6833-4 page 293 and An introduction to de New Testament and de origins of Christianity by Dewbert Royce Burkett 2002 ISBN0-521-00720-8 page 485

^The Cradwe, de Cross, and de Crown: An Introduction to de New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kewwum 2009 ISBN978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 142–143

^Cycwopaedia of Bibwicaw, deowogicaw, and eccwesiasticaw witerature: Vowume 7 John McCwintock, James Strong - 1894 "... he way in de grave on de 15f (which was a 'high day' or doubwe Sabbaf, because de weekwy Sabbaf coincided ..."

^Eucherius of Lyon. "Letter to de Presbyter Faustus". Archived from de originaw on 2008-06-13. The dree more freqwented exit gates are one on de west, anoder on de east, and a dird on de norf. As you enter de city from de nordern side, de first of de howy pwaces due to de condition of de directions of de streets is to de church which is cawwed de Martyrium, which was by Constantine wif great reverence not wong ago buiwt up. Next, to de west one visits de connecting pwaces Gowgoda and de Anastasis; indeed de Anastasis is in de pwace of de resurrection, and Gowgoda is in de middwe between de Anastasis and de Martyrium, de pwace of de Lord's passion, in which stiww appears dat rock which once endured de very cross on which de Lord was. These are however separated pwaces outside of Mount Sion, where de faiwing rise of de pwace extended itsewf to de norf.

^For a discussion of de date of de work, see Information on Epistwe of Barnabas and Andrew C. Cwark, "Apostweship: Evidence from de New Testament and Earwy Christian Literature," Evangewicaw Review of Theowogy, 1989, Vow. 13, p. 380

^"The Spirit saif to de heart of Moses, dat he shouwd make a type of de cross and of Him dat was to suffer, dat unwess, saif He, dey shaww set deir hope on Him, war shaww be waged against dem for ever. Moses derefore piwef arms one upon anoder in de midst of de encounter, and standing on higher ground dan any he stretched out his hands, and so Israew was again victorious" (Epistwe of Barnabas, 12:2-3).

^John Harawson Hayes, Bibwicaw Exegesis: A Beginner's Handbook (Westminster John Knox Press, 1987) page 104-5. The audor suggests dis possibwy was designed to pway down de suffering of Jesus and repwace a cry of desperation wif one of hope and confidence, in keeping wif de message of de Gospew in which Jesus dies confident dat he wouwd be vindicated as God's righteous prophet.

^Awexander Watson, 1847 The seven sayings on de Cross John Masters Pubwishers, London, page 5. The difference between de accounts is cited by James Dunn as a reason to doubt deir historicity. James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779–781.

^"In de same hour, too, de wight of day was widdrawn, when de sun at de very time was in his meridian bwaze. Those who were not aware dat dis had been predicted about Christ, no doubt dought it an ecwipse. You yoursewves have de account of de worwd-portent stiww in your archives."Tertuwwian. "Apowogeticum".

^Cowin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, The Date of de Crucifixion Journaw of de American Scientific Affiwiation 37 (March 1985)[1]

^The Physicaw Deaf Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo CwinicArchived 2009-01-31 at de Wayback Machine citing studies by Buckwin R (The wegaw and medicaw aspects of de triaw and deaf of Christ. Sci Law 1970; 10:14–26), Mikuwicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in de crucified Christ. Med News 1966; 14:30–40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medicaw point of view. Ariz Med 1965; 22:183-187), and Barbet P (A Doctor at Cawvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon, Earw of Wickwow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubweday Image Books 1953, pp 12–18, 37–147, 159–175, 187–208).

^Kempis, Thomas (2005). "12: On de Royaw Road of de Howy Cross". The Inner Life. New York: Penguin Books. Onwine: https://books.googwe.com/books?id=13QRjJjhEqkC “In de Cross is sawvation; in de Cross is wife; in de Cross is protection against our enemies; in de Cross is infusion of heavenwy sweetness; in de Cross is strengf of mind; in de Cross is joy of spirit; in de Cross is excewwence of virtue; in de Cross is perfection of howiness. There is no sawvation of souw, nor hope of eternaw wife, save in de Cross.”

^Who do you say dat I am? Essays on Christowogy by Mark Awwan Poweww and David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN0-664-25752-6 page 106

^"Wherefore he did not himsewf suffer deaf, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compewwed, bore de cross in his stead; so dat dis watter being transfigured by him, dat he might be dought to be Jesus, was crucified, drough ignorance and error, whiwe Jesus himsewf received de form of Simon, and, standing by, waughed at dem. For since he was an incorporeaw power, and de Nous (mind) of de unborn fader, he transfigured himsewf as he pweased, and dus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding dem, inasmuch as he couwd not be waid howd of, and was invisibwe to aww" (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, book I, ch. 24, 4).