DRPLA (Dentatorubropallidoluysian Atrophy) is a Rare Neurodegenerative Disorder that usually is inherited in an Autosomal Dominant pattern. The Clinical symptoms are variable depending on the age of onset of the disease Myoclonus, Epilepsy, and Mental Retardation are the main symptoms in Juvenile Onset, whereas Cerebellar Ataxia, Choreoathetosis, and Dementia are [...]

DSBs (DNA Double-Strand Breaks) are extremely genotoxic DNA lesions that pose problems for DNA Transcription, Replication and Segregation. Improper processing of DSBs gives rise to chromosomal instability that can result in carcinogenesis through activation of proto-oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. DSBs are caused by exogenous sources such as [...]

The DNA within our cells is continually being exposed to DNA-damaging agents. These include UV (Ultraviolet Light), natural and man-made mutagenic chemicals, ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) generated by IR (Ionizing Radiation), replication of ssDNA (single stranded DNA) breaks, mechanical stress on the chromosomes or by processes such as redox cycling by heavy [...]

Angiogenesis, the growth of new blood vessels, plays a key role in many physiological and pathological processes, such as ovulation, embryo-genesis, wound repair, inflammation, malignant tumor growth, retinopathies, rheumatoid arthritis, and angiogenesis-dependent diseases. One of the best-characterized modulators of angiogenesis is the heparin-binding FGF(Fibroblast Growth Factor).

Protein synthesis in eukaryotic organisms is a complex process that requires cooperation among a large number of polypeptides including ribosomal proteins, modification of enzymes, and ribosome-associated translation factors. The initiation phase of protein synthesis, during which ribosomes select mRNAs to be translated and identify the translational start site, requires a [...]

Stem Cells are undifferentiated cells with broad developmental potential. They are able to generate various specialized cell types and, in addition, have the capacity to self-renew and thus to produce undifferentiated progeny that retain Stem Cell features. These properties allow Stem Cells to provide developing organs with appropriate numbers of [...]

ESCs (Embryonic Stem Cells) are a population of Pluripotent, Self-renewing cells which can proliferate indefinitely and contribute to the formation of basically all cell types in vitro and in vivo. The study of mammalian ESCs, especially Mouse ESCs, has provided valuable insights into early embryogenesis in mammals. Mouse ES cells [...]

All cells need to interpret their environment. Efficient processing of signals from the extracellular milieu is achieved through dynamic signal-transduction systems. The components of this system that come into contact first with external signals are cell-surface receptors. RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) comprise one large group of receptors that respond to [...]

Cardiac hypertrophy describes an abnormal condition where the heart becomes enlarged. Several factors, such as increased mechanical loading and neuro-hormonal chemicals can induce hypertrophy. ET1 (Endothelin-1) is a 21-amino acid vasoconstrictor peptide, which is able to induce cardiac hypertrophy.

NO (Nitric Oxide) is a short-lived free radical gas involved in diverse physiological and pathological processes. It is produced along with L-Citrulline by the oxidation of L-Arginine and catalyzed by three different isoforms of NOS (NO Synthase). Type-I nNOS (neuronal NOS) and Type-III eNOS (endothelial NOS) are constitutively expressed as [...]

Pathogenic microbes subvert normal host-cell processes to create a specialized niche, which enhances their survival. A common and recurring target of pathogens is the host cell's cytoskeleton, which is utilized by these microbes for purposes that include attachment, entry into cells, movement within and between cells, vacuole formation and remodeling, [...]

The Eph family forms the largest group of RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) comprising 14 members in mammals that play critical roles in diverse biological processes during development as well as in the mature animal. They are activated by membrane-bound ligands called Ephrins, which are classified into two subclasses based on [...]

In numerous processes that are vital for the development and maintenance of organism function, cells must communicate crucial information to respond appropriately to the changing environment. As such, RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) are transmembrane proteins, which, on receiving an external stimulus, respond by transmitting a signal to the inside of [...]

Neuronal growth cones in the developing nervous system are guided to their targets by attractive and repulsive guidance molecules, which include members of the netrin, semaphorin, ephrin, and Slit protein families. The Eph family forms the largest group of RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) comprising 14 members in mammals that play [...]

Adhesion between neighboring epithelial cells is a crucial and tightly controlled process. The integrity of cell-cell contacts is essential for the regulation of electrolyte absorption and for the prevention of tumor metastasis. In polarized epithelia, specialized structures such as Adherens Junctions (AJs) and Tight Junctions (TJs) are responsible for the establishment of contacts between neighboring cells.

Epithelia in multicellular organisms constitute the frontier that separates the individual from the environment. Epithelia are sites of exchange as well as barriers, for the transit of ions and molecules from and into the organism. Epithelial cells achieve this by providing cellular borders that cover external and internal surfaces throughout the body.

Phagocytosis, the process by which cells engulf foreign particles, occurs in eukaryotes ranging from unicellular organisms, which use it for nutrition, to mammals, where it plays a key role in innate immunity. The remarkable phagocytic capacity of Macrophages is illustrated by their ability to internalize particles that can be as [...]

The ErbB (Erythroblastic Leukemia Viral Oncogene Homolog) or EGF (Epidermal Growth Factor) family of transmembrane RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) plays an important role during the growth and development of a number of organs including the heart, the mammary gland, and the central nervous system. In addition, ErbB overexpression is associated [...]

The ErbB (Erythroblastic Leukemia Viral Oncogene Homolog) family of transmembrane RTKs (Receptor Tyrosine Kinases) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many cancers (Ref.1). This family is comprised of four members EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor), ErbB2, ErbB3, and ErbB4 (Ref.2). ErbB2 also called Her2 (Heregulin-2) and ErbB3 are closely related to the EGFR/ErbB1, but unlike EGFR, ErbB2 is a ligandless receptor, whereas