Constitutional framework

The Slovak National Council adopted a new constitution for the republic on September 1, 1992, four months before the partition of the federation. In general philosophy, this document—like its Czech counterpart—reflects the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms passed by the former Czechoslovak Federal Assembly in 1991. The constitution provides for a unicameral legislature (the National Council), consisting of deputies chosen by direct general election. The head of state, the president, is elected for a five-year term. The 1992 constitution specified that the president was to be elected by a three-fifths majority of the National Council; however, in 1999 the government approved a constitutionalamendment that changed the procedure so that subsequent presidents would be directly elected. The supreme executive body of the republic is the government formed by the prime minister, whom the president appoints. The prime minister is usually the leader of the majority party or coalition in the National Council.

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Local government

The constitution addresses the issue of local administration only cursorily, defining the single unit of municipality as a territorial and administrative entity exercising jurisdiction over its permanent residents. Actually, Slovakia is composed of eight administrative regions (including Greater Bratislava), with each region divided into a number of districts. In March 1996 the Mečiar government implemented a new scheme of local governments that resulted in a redrawing of the political borders of many southern districts, with borders running from north (where the population is solidly Slovak) to south. The ultimate aim of this reconfiguration was transparent: to reduce the number of ethnic Hungarians elected to the municipal and district councils. However, the reconfiguration of 15 existing southern districts and the creation of 37 new ones did not substantially change the ethnic balance in the southern councils, as was shown in subsequent elections. Mečiar’s other attempt to introduce ethnic quotas in municipal elections procedures in 1998 was turned down by the Constitutional Court.

Justice

The apex of the Slovak judicial system is the Supreme Court, to which district and regional courts are subordinated. The Constitutional Court, comprising a panel of judges appointed by the president, occupies a special position, as it deals with matters arising from the constitution and the application of international treaties. The lower courts of justice resolve civil and criminal matters and assess the legality of administrative rulings. Slovakia’s civil law code is based on Austro-Hungarian codes, as amended after 1918 and 1945, but has been revised to eliminate language dating from the communist era and to comply with requirements set by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.

Iveta Radičová of the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union (SDKU) being sworn in as …

Peter Hudec—EPA/Landov

Security

In 1991, with the withdrawal of Soviet troops and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, federated Czechoslovakia assumed control of its own military affairs. This responsibility, in turn, devolved to Slovakia and the Czech Republic on January 1, 1993. The apportionment of formerly federal military property between the two new republics was a major hurdle in the partition process, as was the creation of separate armed forces.

Slovakia’s armed forces comprise an army and an air force. The country also has separate civil defense troops and internal security forces. The right to conscientious objection is enshrined in the 1992 constitution; however, this right does not apply to those who are already serving in the military. In 2004 conscription was reduced from one year to six months of service; in 2006 it was phased out. The transformation from conscript army to professional army was undertaken to comply with the standards of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which Slovakia joined in 2004.

National and local police forces enforce the law. As in the Czech Republic, democratization and liberalization precipitated an increase in crime, which overburdened the existing police forces for a time. Since independence, Slovak police also have had to contend with international criminal gangs.

Health and welfare

The 1992 constitution retains the federal guarantees of free health care under a public insurance program. The health care system remains largely under state control, though private facilities and private medical insurance have been introduced. Factory and community clinics, first aid stations, and other outpatient facilities supplement the national system of hospitals. In addition, spas such as those at Piešt’any and Bardejov and sanatoria in the High Tatras long have been a feature of Slovak health care.

An act introduced in 2003 required employers to contribute a percentage of their payroll and the self-employed to contribute a portion of their earnings toward social insurance. Old-age pensions are paid to both men and women.

Most employed Slovaks enjoy an adequate standard of living. However, members of the Roma minority frequently have a much lower standard of living than the general population, owing to high unemployment and instances of discrimination.

Housing

A housing shortage continues to be one of the most severe problems affecting the country. In addition, many of the urban high-rise housing estates dating from the 1970s are badly in need of repair. In the cities and towns, almost all housing units are supplied with electricity, water, and bathrooms. Housing in some rural areas is considerably inferior.

Education

The Slovak constitution guarantees free public education at the primary and secondary levels for all citizens. There are also a number of private and church-affiliated schools. Kindergartens are available for children ages 3 to 6. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 and usually includes instruction in a major foreign language. General secondary schools offer preparation for university study. Vocational secondary schools provide training in technical and clerical fields and the service industries.

Slovakia has a number of institutions of higher education, of which the largest and oldest is Comenius University in Bratislava (founded 1919). Also in Bratislava are the Slovak University of Technology, the University of Economics, and several arts academies. Košice also has universities and a school of veterinary medicine. Since independence, additional colleges and universities have opened in Trnava, Banská Bystrica, Nitra, Prešov, Zvolen, and Trenčín. There is a Roman Catholic university in Ruomberok.

The significant Hungarian minority in Slovakia has been provided with primary, secondary, and vocational schools. The training of Hungarian schoolteachers in Slovakia is secured through special classes at the Bratislava and Nitra universities. For the first time, a Hungarian-language university opened in 2004 in Komárno.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

The antecedents of a distinct Slovak culture date from the Christian mission sent to Moravia in 863 ce by the Byzantine emperor Michael III at the request of the Moravian prince Rostislav; the Moravian state then encompassed at least part of the territory of present-day Slovakia. Byzantine influence was short-lived, however, and did not survive the competition with Latinized western Christianity. Slavic liturgy disappeared from the region after the invasions by nomadic Magyar (Hungarian) tribes toward the end of the 9th century. These Magyar invasions also succeeded in separating the West Slavic ancestors of today’s Slovaks, living north of the Danube River, from the South Slavs. Thereafter, until the founding of Czechoslovakia in 1918, the history of the Slovaks was closely connected with that of Hungary.

Slovak culture, particularly the Slovak language, survived despite Hungarian hegemony and the widespread use of Czech, Latin, and German. In the 15th century, Hussites from Bohemia brought the Czech language and culture to Slovakia, and Slovak Lutherans used Czech as both their liturgical and literary language, but they remained a distinct minority. Roman Catholicism continued as the majority religion, and Latin was used not only for liturgical purposes but also as the main administrative language until almost the mid-19th century, when it was replaced by Hungarian. German was widely used by the aristocracy and the urban middle class, owing to the influence of the Habsburg monarchy. The first Slovak intellectuals to be concerned with the preservation of the Slovak language and culture emerged during the Enlightenment and the French revolutionary wars. Although primarily educated in Hungarian, the Slovak intelligentsia—whether priests, lawyers, or doctors—communicated with Slovak peasants and servants in their language and helped to accelerate the spread of modern Slovak literacy. Hungarian nationalists reacted by enforcing Magyarization at every level of education beyond primary school; contemporary experts predicted the extinction of the Slovak nation within a generation. Nevertheless, the number of Slovaks attending secondary schools and colleges in Hungary continued to increase, and selective censorship could not stop the spread of Slovak newspapers and books. With the creation of Slovakia within the new country of Czechoslovakia, the durability of the Slovak language and culture was confirmed. Shortly after Slovakia’s independence, Slovak became enshrined as the country’s official language.

Daily life and social customs

The rich folklore and customs of many Slovak regions have survived into modern times. They are on full display in the Catholic parishes, especially during the two main Christian holidays. A genuine Roman Catholic Christmas in Slovakia includes the three days of Christmas (December 24–26) and is carried over to Three Kings’ Day (January 6). Traditional Christmas carols are typically a part of the festivities. In some regions Easter, particularly Good Friday, is the biggest religious holiday of the year. Apart from religious celebrations, numerous folk music festivals take place in Slovakia. These may feature both Slovak and Roma performers.

Slovak food and drink have been influenced by the surrounding, mostly Hungarian and German, cuisine. Traditional Slovak food consists of a wide range of soups, gruels, boiled and stewed vegetables, roasted and smoked meats, and dairy products, especially sheep’s milk cheese (bryndza). Bryndzové halušky, small potato dumplings mixed with bryndza, is a Slovak specialty. Viticulture was brought to Slovakia by the ancient Romans as they advanced along the Danube 2,000 years ago, and vineyards still are found along the Danube and Váh rivers. In addition to wine, brandy is a popular drink in Slovakia. Typical Slovak brandies include the plum-based slivovica and the juniper-based borovička.

The arts

Literature and drama

Although Slovak dialects had been distinct from Czech since the Middle Ages, a Slovak literary language did not develop until the late 18th century. The Catholic priest Ján Hollý (1785–1849) was the first Slovak writer to use the Slovak language successfully in his poetry. The language had been recently codified by another priest, Anton Bernolák, who had based his codification on the Western Slovak dialect. Yet Bernolák’s Slovak failed to catch on, owing to a lack of followers and strong opposition by educated Slovak Lutherans, who used Czech as their literary language. Even Ján Kollár’s Slávy dcera (1824; “The Daughter of Sláva”), considered a principal work of Slovak literature and among the impulses behind Pan-Slavism, was written in Czech. It was up to a younger group of Slovak Lutheran writers, headed by L’udovít Štúr, to abandon Czech in favour of Slovak. This time the codification was based on the Central Slovak dialect. Later poets, using a refined form of literary Slovak, continued to produce nationalistic and Romantic works, such as Marína (1846), by Andrej Sládkovič (Andrej Braxatoris), and the ballads of Janko Král’, whose exploits in the Revolutions of 1848 made him a legend.

With the foundation of Czechoslovakia and the further expansion of Slovak education, Slovak writings multiplied. The difficulties of World War II and its aftermath of communist rule found vivid, personal expression in the work of Ladislav Mňačko, Alfonz Bednár, and Dominik Tatarka. Mňačko was among the first eastern European writers to criticize Stalinism, in his popular novel The Taste of Power (1967), while Tatarka attacked the Gustav Husák regime’s process of “normalization” in Czechoslovakia after 1969 in Sám proti noci (1984; “Alone Against the Night”). In the years leading up to the Velvet Revolution of 1989, such novelists as Ladislav Ballek, Vincent Šikula, and Ján Johanides asserted a distinct Slovak voice. During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, a new generation of writers—including Dušan Mitana, Pavel Vilikovský, and Martin Šimečka—distinguished themselves.

Slovak drama developed at about the same time as Slovak literature; Juraj Palkovič’s play Dva buchy a tri šuchy (1800; “Two Bumps and Three Rubs”) is considered the first example. Ján Chalupka produced a lively satire, Kocúrkovo, in 1830, while Ján Palárik wrote popular comedies, including Inkognito (1857; “Incognito”) and Zmierenie (1862; “The Reconciliation”). The best-known Slovak playwright of the 20th century was Peter Karvaš, author of The Diplomats, The Midnight Mass, and Antigone and the Others, among many other plays. (See alsoSlovak literature.)

Music

Music occupies an important place in Slovak cultural life. Its development has been traced to Roman times, and it was nurtured by the Roman Catholic Church and by the Magyar nobility. In addition, a strong folk tradition developed; this became an object of scholarly interest in the first half of the 19th century, when a separate national musical tradition began to emerge under the influence of such composers as Frico Kafenda. Modern Slovak music has drawn from both classical and folk traditions, particularly with such 20th-century composers as Ján Cikker, Gejza Dusík, Eugen Suchoň, Andrej Očenáš, and Alexander Moyzes. Slovak opera singer Lucia Popp performed internationally during the 1970s and 1980s. Bratislava and Košice have symphony orchestras and opera ensembles.

Painting

Slovak painters typically have looked outside the country for inspiration, particularly to Prague. At the end of the 19th century, however, Slovakia was “discovered” by Mikoláš Aleš from Bohemia and Jóža Úprka from Moravia. At the same time, a national school of Slovak painters emerged with Peter Michal Bohúň and Jozef Boetech Klemens. After 1918 a number of Slovak painters studying in Prague developed the “descriptive realism” school. In the 1950s and ’60s a younger generation of painters began to leave this school behind and follow other European trends. Among the early 20th-century painters, Dominik Skutecký, Lajos Csordák, Július Jakoby, Martin Benka, Mikuláš Galanda, L’udovít Fulla, and Cyprián Majerník became prominent. By the end of the 20th century the following painters made their imprint: Daniel Brunovský, Stano Bubán, Laco Teren, and Ivan Csudai.

Motion pictures

The Slovak motion picture industry emerged in the 1920s. Notable from this period is the silent film Jánošík (1921), based on the life and legend of the so-named Slovak folk hero. Of the films produced after World War II, perhaps the best known internationally is The Shop on Main Street (1965), directed by Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos. It received an Academy Award (for best foreign-language film), the first ever awarded to a Czechoslovakian production. Among internationally recognized Slovak film directors is Juraj Jakubisko, who first gained acclaim during the late 1960s as part of the Czech New Wave. His strongly visual, metaphorical films include It’s Better to Be Healthy and Wealthy Than Poor and Ill (1993) and An Ambiguous Report About the End of the World (1997). Other Slovak directors who have received international attention include Martin Sulik and Dušan Hanák, best known for their documentary Paper Heads (1995). Film continued to be a respected art form in Slovakia in the early 21st century, as evidenced by the country’s film festivals and the work of the Slovak Film Institute. Slovak animation also gained in importance.

Jozef Kroner in The Shop on Main Street (1965).

Courtesy of Prominent Films

Cultural institutions

The Slovak National Library is in the city of Martin, which is also the seat of the foremost Slovak cultural society, the Matica Slovenská (founded 1863). The Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information (formerly the Slovak Technical Library) and the University Library are in Bratislava. The last, founded in 1919, is the oldest and largest academic library in Slovakia. In addition, Slovakia has a large network of smaller public libraries and branch libraries.

Most major museums, including the Slovak National Museum (founded 1893) and the Slovak National Gallery (founded 1948) are located in Bratislava. The Museum of Jewish Culture, a part of the Slovak National Museum, opened in 1991. The Museum of Carpathian German Culture and the Museum of Hungarian Culture in Slovakia are both in Bratislava, while other regional ethnographic museums are located throughout the country—for example, the Museum of Ukrainian-Ruthenian Culture in Svidník. Other noteworthy museums include the Slovak Museum of Mining in Banská Štiavnica and the Slovak Agricultural Museum in Nitra. A unique museum of visual arts, the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art, opened in Medzilaborce in 1991; its collection includes a number of works by Andy Warhol, whose parents were from the region.

The first professional theatre featuring performances in the Slovak language was the Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava, established in 1920. In addition to plays, the theatre also mounts ballets and operas. A new theatre building was built in 2007, but productions also continued to be mounted at the original Neo-Renaissance theatre built in 1886. The state subsidizes a number of theatre companies, including professional companies focused on ethnic minorities. The Slovak Folk Artistic Ensemble and the dance ensemble Lúčnica perform programs of traditional Slovak music and dance; both have played a role in disseminating Slovak folk culture to other parts of the world. Slovakia’s leading orchestra is the Slovak Philharmonic.

Dancers in traditional costume performing at a folklore festival in Detva, Slovakia.

Slovakia boasts several UNESCOWorld Heritage sites, including Spiš Castle, one of the largest castle complexes in central Europe. Among the other sites are the wonderfully well-preserved village of Vlkolínec, the medieval town of Bardejov, the historic town centre of Levoča, and the traditional wooden churches in the Carpathian Mountains.

Sports and recreation

Slovaks take full advantage of the mountainous terrain of their country; hiking, mountaineering, downhill skiing, and rock climbing are popular pursuits. Other outdoor recreational activities—such as fishing, white-water rafting, ice skating, cycling, spelunking, horseback riding, and bathing in thermal or mineral water—also attract large numbers of enthusiasts. Among spectator sports, football (soccer) and ice hockey draw the largest crowds. Slovak athletes participated in the Olympics as members of the Czechoslovak team until 1994, when the republic first competed as a separate country at the Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. Slovakia won its first Olympic medals in canoe events at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta.

People bathing in hot mineral water at a spa in Bešeňová, Slovakia.

Pe3kZA

The republic has several national parks. Two of these, Tatry (High Tatras) and Pieniny national parks, are situated along the Polish border and are administered in cooperation with Polish authorities; Low Tatras National Park is located in the interior. These areas feature glacial landscapes, alpine flora and fauna, and relict species from the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). Smaller nature reserves also protect distinctive wilderness areas.

Media and publishing

Slovakia has a number of daily Slovak-language newspapers. SME and Pravda, the latter formerly the organ of the Communist Party but now independent, have large circulations. The state subsidizes a number of periodicals in such minority languages as Hungarian, Czech, Ukrainian, German, and Romany. The number of book publishers in Slovakia increased dramatically following the collapse of communism, but a substantial number did not survive their first book launchings.

The state-controlled monopolies on newspaper and book publishing were broken up with greater ease in Czechoslovakia after 1989 than was the monopoly in broadcasting. The division of Czechoslovakia, however, brought about the collapse of the federal broadcasting system, which ended on January 1, 1993. Both state-sponsored and commercial radio and television stations operate in Slovakia.

The independent country of Slovakia came into existence on Jan. 1, 1993, when the nation of Czechoslovakia voluntarily separated into two countries. From 1918 until the end of 1992 Slovakia had been one of the three provinces of Czechoslovakia, along with Bohemia and Moravia. The other two provinces became the Czech Republic. (See also Czechoslovakia; Czech Republic.) Area 18,932 square miles (49,034 square kilometers). Population (2015 est.) 5,424,000.