A group of Lakota (Sioux) Indian leaders who were involved in negotiations to end war between the United States and the Lakota in the 1800s. 1

Native American tribes have lived and thrived upon the North American landscape for thousands of years—long before there was a United States. Historically, about 500 distinct Native languages were spoken in North America. All Code Talkers were fluent speakers of their tribe’s language.

Language is central to cultural identity. It is the code containing the subtleties and secrets of cultural life. In many ways, language determines thought. —W. Richard West, Jr., Southern Cheyenne and member of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma; Founding Director, National Museum of the American Indian

Language is the essence of culture. People’s ways of living, their histories, and their philosophies are all understood and communicated through language. Although most American Indian people today speak English, they still consider their traditional languages to be extremely important for cultural identity. Even though many of these Native languages have disappeared now, many are still spoken. When the last speaker of a language passes away, the language is gone forever. Native communities are working hard to keep Native languages alive.

This map shows the location and numbers of American Indian languages historically spoken in North America.

Map showing the historical Native languages and language families of North America. 2

During World War I and World War II, a variety of American Indian languages were used to send secret military messages.

Here are the American Indian Code Talkers’ languages and the numbers of tribal members who served, if known. There were at least two Code Talkers from each tribe.

World War I

World War II

Cherokee

Cheyenne

Choctaw (15)

Comanche

Osage

Yankton Sioux

Assiniboine

Cherokee

Chippewa/Oneida (17)

Choctaw

Comanche (17)

Hopi (11)

Kiowa

Menominee

Muscogee/Creek and Seminole

Navajo (about 420)

Pawnee

Sac and Fox/Meskwaki (19)

Sioux – Lakota and Dakota dialects

This map shows the names of the tribes and the communities (when known) of the World War I American Indian telephone squads. National Museum of the American Indian, Office of Education. 8

This map shows the names of the tribes and the communities (when known) of the World War II Code Talkers. National Museum of the American Indian, Office of Education. 9

The seal of the Navajo Nation.4

The Navajo people call themselves the “Naabeeho´ Dine’é, or sometimes, Diné.” “Diné Bizaad” is the Navajo term for the Navajo language. In many ways, today’s Navajos live like other people in the United States. Fortunately, many Navajos still speak their language. During World War II, about 420 Navajos served as Code Talkers—the most from any Native group. Today, the tribe works to preserve its language for future generations.

More about today’s Navajos:

Current population: The Navajos have more than 250,000 tribal members.

The Navajo homeland: Four sacred mountains covering 27,000 square miles of the four corners area of Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona define the Navajo homeland, “Dinétah.”

Arts: Traditionally, Navajo artists were well known for beautiful woven textiles and silver jewelry. Navajo artists today are musicians, painters, sculptors, and poets.

Tribal government: Navajo government operates under a constitution with a President, Vice President, Council (with 88 delegates), court system, police force, college, and many other programs and services for the Navajo people.

The seal of the Comanche Nation. 5

During World War II, 17 Comanches served as Code Talkers. The Comanche people call themselves the “NUMUNUU.” “NUMU TEKWAPUHA” is the Comanche term for the Comanche language. Even though the Comanches are a modern and contemporary people, their heritage is important to them. The Comanche language is still spoken today, but not by all tribal members. The tribe has created language and cultural preservation programs that have produced numerous language instructional materials.

More about today’s Comanches:

Current population: The Comanches have more than 13,000 tribal members.

Traditional Comanche homeland: Traditional Comanche homeland spanned large parts of the southern Great Plains in what are now Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas.

Homeland today: Most Comanches live in the Lawton-Ft. Sill area of southwest Oklahoma.

Importance of horses: Horses are a very important part of traditional Comanche culture. The Comanches kept large herds and were well known for their exceptional horsemanship. They introduced other tribes to the use of horses.

Tribal government: Comanche government is elected and guided by a constitution. The Comanche government is involved in many kinds of programs, including economic development, environmental protection, and education.

In 1985, Carl Gorman stands outside the house in which he was born in 1907. 6

Carl Gorman was born in 1907 in Chinle, Arizona, on the Navajo Reservation. According to the way that Navajo people introduce themselves, Carl was of the Black Sheep Clan and born for the Towering House Clan. This identifies his lineage on both his mother and father’s sides. English and Navajo were spoken in Carl’s boyhood home, and he learned both languages. As a young boy, Carl loved to draw pictures, ride his father’s horses, and tend his family’s sheep and cattle. He enjoyed watching his mother weave the beautiful and intricate traditional Navajo rugs. Carl learned the traditional Navajo ways and loved the beauty of the Navajo lands.

You are born with your culture. My culture is Navajo. That’s what you live with. Family, heritage—the roots are deep. —Carl Gorman, Navajo Code Talker (Power of a Navajo: Carl Gorman, the Man and His Life by Henry and Georgia Greenberg, 1996)

Pia toya, or Big Mountain (Mt. Scott), an important place to the Comanche people. 7

Charles Chibitty was born in 1921 near Medicine Park, Oklahoma. This community is part of the traditional Comanche territory and is in the Wichita Mountains, north of Lawton, Oklahoma. Charles grew up speaking his tribe’s language. His last name, Chibitty, means “holding on good” in the Comanche language. In today’s Comanche government, the tribe elects its leaders. However, in the past, the Comanche chiefs inherited their positions of leadership. According to the Comanche Nation, Mr. Chibitty was the last surviving hereditary chief of the tribe, descending on his mother's side from Chief Ten Bears.

Why is language such an important part of people’s cultures?

If everyone spoke the same language, would cultural differences cease to exist? Why or why not?

Be creative with Navajo and Comanche words.

Words in American Indian languages are often more than just a name for a person, place, or thing. Sometimes they have deeper meanings that tell a story. Just one word or a short phrase can explain some part of the people’s history or their relationship with the land.

Write a poem

Nilch’itsoh [nil-CHI-tso] is a Navajo word that means big wind. According to the Navajo Code Talker dictionary, it’s also the name for the month of November.

Here is a poem that uses the word Nilch’itsoh:

Nilch’itsoh
A big wind,
The wind of November,
A wolf that shreds leaves from trees,
A howl that keeps us close to the fire.

Pia toya [BEE-ah-DOY-uh] is the Comanche term for Big Mountain (Mt. Scott), an important place to the Comanche people. 8

Toya soni [DOY-uh-SAW-nee] is the Comanche term for “the grass around the mountain.” Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge in Oklahoma. 9

Tse-yi [TSAY-yee] is the Navajo term for “inside the rock,” or a canyon. Canyon de Chelly National Monument is an important place to the Navajos. 10

Now, choose a word and picture from above to write a poem about. Write the poem in your workbook.