An aroma compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance, or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. A chemical compound has a smell or odor when it is sufficiently volatile to be transported to the olfactory system in the upper part of the nose.

Generally molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of <300. Flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be naturally occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic.[1]

'Fragrance' was voted Allergen of the Year in 2007 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. The composition of fragrances is usually not disclosed in the label of products, hiding the actual chemicals of the formula, which raises concerns among some consumers.[7]

Fragrances are regulated in the United States by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 that "grandfathered" existing chemicals without further review or testing and put the burden of proof that a new substance is not safe on the EPA. The EPA, however, does not conduct independent safety testing but relies on data provided by the manufacturer.[8]

In 2010 the International Fragrance Association published a list of 3,059 chemicals used in 2011 based on a voluntary survey of its members. It was estimated to represent about 90% of the world's production volume of fragrances.[9]

1.
Chemical compound
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A chemical compound is an entity consisting of two or more atoms, at least two from different elements, which associate via chemical bonds. Many chemical compounds have a numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service. For example, water is composed of two atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, the chemical formula is H2O. A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described as AB + CD → AC + BD, where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms, and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds. A chemical element bonded to a chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element. Examples are the diatomic hydrogen and the polyatomic molecule sulfur. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure held together in a spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, failing the two or more atom requirement, though they often consist of molecules composed of multiple atoms. There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly. Characteristic properties of compounds include that elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion, for example, the molecule of the compound water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 2,1. In addition, compounds have a set of properties. The physical and chemical properties of compounds differ from those of their constituent elements, however, mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone, but a compound can be created only by a chemical reaction. Some mixtures are so combined that they have some properties similar to compounds. Other examples of compound-like mixtures include intermetallic compounds and solutions of metals in a liquid form of ammonia. Compounds may be described using formulas in various formats, for compounds that exist as molecules, the formula for the molecular unit is shown. For polymeric materials, such as minerals and many metal oxides, the elements in a chemical formula are normally listed in a specific order, called the Hill system

Chemical compound
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Pure water (H 2 O) is an example of a compound: the ball-and-stick model of the molecule (above) shows the spatial association of two parts hydrogen (white) and one part oxygen (red)

2.
Volatility (chemistry)
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In chemistry and physics, volatility is quantified by the tendency of a substance to vaporize. Volatility is directly related to a vapor pressure. At a given temperature, a substance with higher vapor pressure vaporizes more readily than a substance with a vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure at which its gas phase is in equilibrium with its condensed phases and it is a measure of the tendency of molecules and atoms to escape from a liquid or a solid. The higher the pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the higher the volatility. The vapor pressure chart displays the vapor pressures dependency for a variety of liquids as a function of temperature, for example, at any given temperature, chloromethane has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point, which is where the pressure curve intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere of absolute vapor pressure

3.
Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce

4.
Perfume
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Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents - used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces a pleasant scent. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations, the word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning to smoke through. Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the worlds first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered, in India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, in 2004 –2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the worlds oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years and they were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4, 000-square-meter factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, the book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation and he first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking account the monks recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de Medici, Rene the Florentine and his laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume, cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing, partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, by the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design, Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types, the intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used

5.
Ripening
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Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green, and softer as it ripens, even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio, Ripening agents speed up the ripening process. They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, for example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene. Calcium carbide is used in some countries for artificially ripening fruit. When calcium carbide comes in contact with moisture, it produces acetylene gas, acetylene acts like ethylene and accelerates the ripening process. Industrial-grade calcium carbide may also contain traces of arsenic and phosphorus which makes it a health concern. The use of chemical for this purpose is illegal in most countries. Catalytic generators are used to produce ethylene gas simply and safely, Ethylene sensors can be used to precisely control the amount of gas. Covered fruit ripening bowls are commercially available, the manufacturers claim the bowls increase the amount of ethylene and carbon dioxide gases around the fruit, which promotes ripening. Climacteric fruits are able to continue ripening after being picked, a process accelerated by ethylene gas, non-climacteric fruits can ripen only on the plant and thus have a short shelf life if harvested when they are ripe. Some fruits can be ripened by placing them in a bag with a ripe banana. Iodine can be used to determine whether fruit is ripening or rotting by showing whether the starch in the fruit has turned into sugar. For example, a drop of iodine on a slightly rotten part of an apple will stay yellow or orange, if the iodine is applied and takes 2–3 seconds to turn dark blue or black, then the process of ripening has begun but is not yet complete. If the iodine becomes black immediately, then most of the starch is still present at concentrations in the sample. Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening, the major changes include fruit softening, sweetening, decreased bitterness, and colour change. Colour change is the result of pigments, which were present in the fruit. However, additional pigments are produced by the fruit as it ripens

6.
Fermentation (wine)
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The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. During fermentation, yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol, in winemaking, the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation. The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans, the Latin fervere means, literally, to boil. The most common genera of yeasts found in winemaking include Candida, Klöckera/Hanseniaspora, Metschnikowiaceae, Pichia. Wild yeasts can produce high-quality, unique-flavored wines, however, they are unpredictable and may introduce less desirable traits to the wine. The cultured yeasts most commonly used in winemaking belong to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, the use of different strains of yeasts is a major contributor to the diversity of wine, even among the same grape variety. Alternative, non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeasts are being used more prevalently in the industry to add complexity to wine. After a winery has been in operation for a number of years, the use of active dry yeasts reduces the variety of strains that appear in spontaneous fermentation by outcompeting those strains that are naturally present. The addition of cultured yeast normally occurs with the yeast first in a dried or inactive state and is reactivated in warm water or diluted grape juice prior to being added to the must. To thrive and be active in fermentation, the yeast needs access to a supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus as well as access to various vitamins. These components are present in the grape must but their amount may be corrected by adding nutrients to the wine. Newly formulated time-release nutrients, specifically manufactured for wine fermentations, offer the most advantageous conditions for yeast. Oxygen is needed as well, but in making, the risk of oxidation. During this process, the carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, an amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess. After the yeast has exhausted its life cycle, they fall to the bottom of the tank as sediment known as lees. The metabolism of amino acids and breakdown of sugars by yeasts has the effect of creating other biochemical compounds that can contribute to the flavor and aroma of wine

Fermentation (wine)
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Fermenting must
Fermentation (wine)
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"Bloom", visible as a dusting on the berries
Fermentation (wine)
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Dry winemaking yeast (left) and yeast nutrients used in the rehydration process to stimulate yeast cells.
Fermentation (wine)
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Carbon dioxide is visible during the fermentation process in the form of bubbles in the must.

7.
Geranyl acetate
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Geranyl acetate is a natural organic compound that is classified as a monoterpene. It is a liquid with a pleasant floral or fruity rose aroma. Its condensed liquid has a yellow color. Geranyl acetate is insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents such as alcohol. It can be obtained by distillation of essential oils. Geranyl acetate is an ester that can be prepared semi-synthetically by the condensation of the more common natural terpene geraniol with acetic acid. Geranyl acetate is used primarily as a component of perfumes for creams and soaps and it is used particularly in rose, lavender and geranium formulations where a sweet fruity or citrus aroma is desired. It is designated by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe, neryl acetate Carcinogenesis Studies of Food Grade Geranyl Acetate Fragrance raw materials monographs Geranyl acetate

Geranyl acetate

8.
Rose
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A rose is a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae, or the flower it bears. There are over a species and thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies, Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has used in the development of the wide range of garden roses. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem, most roses are deciduous but a few are evergreen or nearly so. The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea, each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals and these may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes, the aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination, the hips of most species are red, but a few have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer layer, the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 seeds embedded in a matrix of fine. Rose hips of some species, especially the dog rose and rugosa rose, are rich in vitamin C. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds. While the sharp objects along a stem are commonly called thorns. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation growing over it. Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer, a few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points. Hesperrhodos contains Rosa minutifolia and Rosa stellata, from North America, platyrhodon with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii

9.
Methyl formate
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Methyl formate, also called methyl methanoate, is the methyl ester of formic acid. The simplest example of an ester, it is a liquid with an ethereal odour, high vapor pressure. It is a precursor to other compounds of commercial interest. In some cases people have found that the pleasant smell is of lemons or lemonade, the catalyst for this process is sensitive to water, which can be present in the carbon monoxide feedstock, which is commonly derived from synthesis gas. Very dry carbon monoxide is, therefore, essential, Methyl formate is used primarily to manufacture formamide, dimethylformamide, and formic acid. These compounds are precursors or building blocks for many useful derivatives, because of its high vapor pressure, it is used for quick-drying finishes and as a blowing agent for some polyurethane foam applications and as a replacement for CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. Methyl formate has zero ozone depletion potential and zero global warming potential and it is also used as an insecticide. A historical use of methyl formate, which brings it attention, was in refrigeration. Before the introduction of less-toxic refrigerants, methyl formate was used as an alternative to sulfur dioxide in domestic refrigerators, NIST Chemistry WebBook, Methyl formate ChemicalLand21. com entry on METHYL FORMATE CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

Methyl formate

10.
Pineapple
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The pineapple is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a cutting of the fruit, possibly flowering in 5-10 months. Pineapples do not ripen significantly after harvest, pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in an array of cuisines. The fiber is used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings. The word pineapple in English was first recorded to describe the organs of conifer trees. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in the Americas, they called them pineapples, other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine, as well, in other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña, or ananá, the pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, when creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots are produced in the axils of the main stem. These may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant, commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem, in the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into an inflorescence up to 15 cm long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender, through light purple to red, the ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction,13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number. The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis, fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, seed formation needs pollination, but the presence of seeds harms the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples open their flowers only at night

11.
Ethyl acetate
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Ethyl acetate is the organic compound with the formula CH3–COO–CH2–CH3, simplified to C4H8O2. This colorless liquid has a sweet smell and is used in glues, nail polish removers, decaffeinating tea and coffee. Ethyl acetate is the ester of ethanol and acetic acid, it is manufactured on a scale for use as a solvent. The combined annual production in 1985 of Japan, North America, in 2004, an estimated 1.3 million tonnes were produced worldwide. Ethyl acetate is synthesized in industry mainly via the classic Fischer esterification reaction of ethanol and this method is more cost effective than the esterification but is applied with surplus ethanol in a chemical plant. Typically, dehydrogenation is conducted with copper at an elevated temperature, the copper may have its surface area increased by depositing it on zinc, promoting the growth of snowflake-like fractal structures. Surface area can be increased by deposition onto a zeolite. Traces of rare earth and alkali metals are beneficial to the process, byproducts of the dehydrogenation include diethyl ether, which is thought to arise primarily due to aluminum sites in the catalyst, acetaldehyde and its aldol products, higher esters, and ketones. These azeotropes are broken by pressure swing distillation or membrane distillation, ethyl acetate is used primarily as a solvent and diluent, being favored because of its low cost, low toxicity, and agreeable odor. For example, it is used to clean circuit boards. Coffee beans and tea leaves are decaffeinated with this solvent and it is also used in paints as an activator or hardener. Ethyl acetate is present in confectionery, perfumes, and fruits, in perfumes, it evaporates quickly, leaving only the scent of the perfume on the skin. In the laboratory, mixtures containing ethyl acetate are used in column chromatography. Ethyl acetate is rarely selected as a solvent because it is prone to hydrolysis. Ethyl acetate is volatile at room temperature and has a boiling point of 77 °C. Due to these properties, it can be removed from a sample by heating in a hot water bath and providing ventilation with compressed air. Ethyl acetate is the most common ester in wine, being the product of the most common organic acid – acetic acid. The aroma of ethyl acetate is most vivid in younger wines and contributes towards the general perception of fruitiness in the wine, sensitivity varies, with most people having a perception threshold around 120 mg/L

Ethyl acetate
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Ethyl acetate

12.
Isoamyl acetate
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Isoamyl acetate, also known as isopentyl acetate, is an organic compound that is the ester formed from isoamyl alcohol and acetic acid. It is a liquid that is only slightly soluble in water. Isoamyl acetate has an odor which is also described as similar to both banana and pear. Banana oil may be either pure isoamyl acetate, or flavorings that are mixtures of isoamyl acetate, amyl acetate, Isoamyl acetate is prepared by the acid catalyzed reaction between isoamyl alcohol and glacial acetic acid as shown in the reaction equation below. Typically, sulfuric acid is used as the catalyst, alternately, an acidic ion exchange resin can be used as the catalyst. Isoamyl acetate is used to confer banana flavor in foods, pear oil commonly refers to a solution of isoamyl acetate in ethanol that is used as an artificial flavor. It is also used as a solvent for some varnishes and nitrocellulose lacquers, now that most aircraft are all-metal, such use is now mostly limited to historically accurate reproductions and scale models. In addition, isoamyl acetate serves as a pheromone in honey bees. Because of its intense, pleasant odor and its low toxicity and it is also used in thermometers Isoamyl acetate occurs naturally in the banana plant and it is also produced synthetically. Isoamyl acetate is released by a bees sting apparatus where it serves as a pheromone beacon to attract other bees

Isoamyl acetate

13.
Banana plant
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The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions

14.
Apricot
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An apricot is a fruit, or the tree that bears the fruit, of several species in the genus Prunus. The apricot is a tree, 8–12 m tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm in diameter. The leaves are ovate, 5–9 cm long and 4–8 cm wide, with a base, a pointed tip. The flowers are 2–4.5 cm in diameter, with five white to pinkish petals, the flesh is usually firm and not very juicy. Its taste can range from sweet to tart, the single seed is enclosed in a hard, stony shell, often called a stone, with a grainy, smooth texture except for three ridges running down one side. The origin of the apricot is disputed and it was known in Armenia during ancient times, and has been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to have originated there. Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca derives from that assumption, for example, the Belgian arborist baron de Poerderlé, writing in the 1770s, asserted, Cet arbre tire son nom de lArménie, province dAsie, doù il est originaire et doù il fut porté en Europe. An archaeological excavation at Garni in Armenia found apricot seeds in an Eneolithic-era site, other sources say that the apricot was first cultivated in India in about 3000 BC. Subsequent sources were often confused about the origin of the species, john Claudius Loudon believed it had a wide native range including Armenia, the Caucasus, the Himalayas, China, and Japan. Apricots have been cultivated in Persia since antiquity, and dried ones were an important commodity on Persian trade routes, apricots remain an important fruit in modern-day Iran, where they are known under the common name of zard-ālū. Egyptians usually dry apricots, add sweetener, and then use them to make a drink called amar al-dīn, in the 17th century, English settlers brought the apricot to the English colonies in the New World. Most of modern American production of apricots comes from the seedlings carried to the west coast by Spanish missionaries, almost all U. S. commercial production is in California, with some in Washington and Utah. In states other than South Australia, apricots are still grown, particularly in Tasmania and western Victoria and southwest New South Wales, today, apricot cultivation has spread to all parts of the globe with climates that support it. Although the apricot is native to a climate region with cold winters. A dry climate is good for fruit maturation, the tree is slightly more cold-hardy than the peach, tolerating winter temperatures as cold as −30 °C or lower if healthy. A limiting factor in culture is spring frosts, They tend to flower very early. Furthermore, the trees are sensitive to changes during the winter season. In China, winters can be cold, but temperatures tend to be more stable than in Europe and especially North America

Apricot
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Apricot and its cross-section
Apricot
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Apricot tree in central Cappadocia, Turkey
Apricot
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Apricot flowers in the village of Benhama, Kashmir
Apricot
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Apricots drying on the ground in Turkey

15.
Benzyl acetate
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Benzyl acetate is an organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O2. It is the ester formed by condensation of alcohol and acetic acid. Benzyl acetate is found naturally in many flowers and it is the primary constituent of the essential oils from the flowers jasmine, ylang-ylang and tobira. It has pleasant sweet aroma reminiscent of jasmine, consequently, it is used widely in perfumery and cosmetics for its aroma and in flavorings to impart apple and pear flavors. Benzyl acetate is used as a solvent in plastics and resin, cellulose acetate, nitrate, oils, lacquers, polishes

Benzyl acetate
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Benzyl acetate

16.
Strawberry
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The garden strawberry is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus Fragaria. It is cultivated worldwide for its fruit, the fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice creams, milkshakes. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also used in many products like lip gloss, candy, hand sanitizers, perfume. Cultivars of Fragaria × ananassa have replaced, in production, the woodland strawberry. Technically, the strawberry is an accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plants ovaries. Each apparent seed on the outside of the fruit is one of the ovaries of the flower. The first garden strawberry was grown in Brittany, France during the late 18th century, prior to this, wild strawberries and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of the fruit. The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use, the French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th century. Charles V, Frances king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal garden, in the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, the entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses. By the 16th century references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common, people began using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century, the combination of strawberries and cream was created by Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry VIII. Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578, by the end of the 16th century three European species had been cited, F. vesca, F. moschata, and F. viridis. The garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be propagated asexually by cutting off the runners, two subspecies of F. vesca were identified, F. sylvestris alba and F. sylvestris semperflorens. The introduction of F. virginiana from Eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important part of history because this gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th century, when a French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, it introduced the strawberry plant with female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry that we have today. The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551 when the Spanish came to conquer the land, in 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation of F. chiloensis, the Chilean strawberry

17.
Strawberries
–
The garden strawberry is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus Fragaria. It is cultivated worldwide for its fruit, the fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma, bright red color, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is consumed in quantities, either fresh or in such prepared foods as preserves, fruit juice, pies, ice creams, milkshakes. Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also used in many products like lip gloss, candy, hand sanitizers, perfume. Cultivars of Fragaria × ananassa have replaced, in production, the woodland strawberry. Technically, the strawberry is an accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plants ovaries. Each apparent seed on the outside of the fruit is one of the ovaries of the flower. The first garden strawberry was grown in Brittany, France during the late 18th century, prior to this, wild strawberries and cultivated selections from wild strawberry species were the common source of the fruit. The strawberry fruit was mentioned in ancient Roman literature in reference to its medicinal use, the French began taking the strawberry from the forest to their gardens for harvest in the 14th century. Charles V, Frances king from 1364 to 1380, had 1,200 strawberry plants in his royal garden, in the early 15th century western European monks were using the wild strawberry in their illuminated manuscripts. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, the entire strawberry plant was used to treat depressive illnesses. By the 16th century references of cultivation of the strawberry became more common, people began using it for its supposed medicinal properties and botanists began naming the different species. In England the demand for regular strawberry farming had increased by the mid-16th century, the combination of strawberries and cream was created by Thomas Wolsey in the court of King Henry VIII. Instructions for growing and harvesting strawberries showed up in writing in 1578, by the end of the 16th century three European species had been cited, F. vesca, F. moschata, and F. viridis. The garden strawberry was transplanted from the forests and then the plants would be propagated asexually by cutting off the runners, two subspecies of F. vesca were identified, F. sylvestris alba and F. sylvestris semperflorens. The introduction of F. virginiana from Eastern North America to Europe in the 17th century is an important part of history because this gave rise to the modern strawberry. The new species gradually spread through the continent and did not become completely appreciated until the end of the 18th century, when a French excursion journeyed to Chile in 1712, it introduced the strawberry plant with female flowers that resulted in the common strawberry that we have today. The Mapuche and Huilliche Indians of Chile cultivated the female strawberry species until 1551 when the Spanish came to conquer the land, in 1765, a European explorer recorded the cultivation of F. chiloensis, the Chilean strawberry

18.
Methyl anthranilate
–
Methyl anthranilate, also known as MA, methyl 2-aminobenzoate, or carbomethoxyaniline, is an ester of anthranilic acid. It is a clear to yellow liquid with melting point 24 °C. It has a density of 1.168 g/cm3 at 20 °C and it has a refractive index of 1.583 at 589 nm of wavelength and 20 °C. It shows a blue fluorescence. It is very soluble in water, and soluble in ethanol. It is insoluble in paraffin oil and it is combustible, with flash point at 104 °C. At full concentration, it has a fruity smell, at 25 ppm it has a sweet, fruity, Concord grape-like smell with a musty. Methyl anthranilate acts as a bird repellent and it is food-grade and can be used to protect corn, sunflowers, rice, fruit, and golf courses. Dimethyl anthranilate has a similar effect and it is also used for the flavor of grape Kool-Aid. It is used for flavoring of candy, soft drinks, e. g. grape soda, chewing gum, drugs, methyl anthranilate both as a component of various natural essential oils and as a synthesised aroma-chemical is used extensively in modern perfumery. It is also used to produce Schiff bases with aldehydes, many of which are used in perfumery. In a perfumery context the most common Schiffs Base is known as aurantiol, produced by combining methyl anthranilate and it is also a primary component of the essential apple flavor, along with ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate

Methyl anthranilate
–
Methyl anthranilate

19.
Lemon
–
The lemon, Citrus limon Osbeck, is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia. The trees ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, the pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, the distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam, a study of the genetic origin of the lemon reported it to be hybrid between bitter orange and citron. Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, however, they were not widely cultivated. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD, the lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century, the lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds and it was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida, in 1747, James Linds experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known. The origin of the lemon may be Middle Eastern. The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a term for citrus fruit. The Bonnie Brae is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless, the Eureka grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as Four Seasons because of its ability to produce fruit and this variety is also available as a plant to domestic customers. There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon, with a green, the Femminello St. Teresa, or Sorrento is native to Italy. This fruits zest is high in lemon oils and it is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello. The Meyer is a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, and was named after Frank N. Meyer, who first introduced it to the USA in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons often mature to a yellow-orange color

20.
Nerol
–
Nerol is a monoterpene found in many essential oils such as lemongrass and hops. It was originally isolated from oil, hence its name. This colourless liquid is used in perfumery, like geraniol, nerol has a sweet rose odor but it is considered to be fresher. Isomeric with nerol is geraniol, wherein the double bond is trans, nerol readily loses water to form dipentene. Nerol can be synthesized by pyrolysis of beta-pinene, which affords myrcene, hydrochlorination of myrcene gives a series of isomeric chlorides, one of which converts to neryl acetate

Nerol
–
Nerol

21.
Neroli
–
Neroli oil is an essential oil produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree. Its scent is sweet, honeyed and somewhat metallic with green, Orange blossom is also extracted from the same blossom and both extracts are extensively used in perfumery. Orange blossom can be described as smelling sweeter, warmer and more floral than neroli. The difference between how neroli and orange blossom smell and why they are referred to different names, is a result of the process of extraction that is used to obtain the oil from the blooms. Neroli is extracted by distillation and orange blossom is extracted via a process of enfleurage. The blossoms are gathered, usually by hand, in late April to early May, the oil is extracted by steam distillation. Since then, the term neroli has been used to describe this essence, neroli has a refreshing and distinctive, spicy aroma with sweet and flowery notes. It is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery and it is a nontoxic, nonirritant, nonsensitizing, nonphototoxic substance. It blends well with any oil, various floral absolutes. Neroli oil is an element in fragrance design and one of the most commonly used in the industry. It also has a use in flavorings. Neroli oil is one of the ingredients in the closely guarded secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink. It is an ingredient of open source cola recipes, although some variants consider it as optional. Nerol Orange oil Orange flower water Petitgrain oil Citrus × aurantium Entry in the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1911

Neroli
–
Bitter orange foliage, blossoms and fruit

22.
Lemongrass
–
Cymbopogon, better known as lemongrass, is a genus of Asian, African, Australian, and tropical island plants in the grass family. Some species are cultivated as culinary and medicinal herbs because of their scent. Common names include lemon grass, lemongrass, barbed wire grass, silky heads, citronella grass, cha de Dartigalongue, fever grass, tanglad, hierba Luisa, or gavati chaha, amongst many others. Lemongrass is widely used as a herb in Asian cuisines. It has a citrus flavor and can be dried and powdered. It is commonly used in teas, soups, and curries and it is also suitable for use with poultry, fish, beef, and seafood. It is often used as a tea in African countries such as Togo, lemongrass oil is used as a pesticide and a preservative. Research shows that oil has antifungal properties. Despite its ability to repel insects, such as mosquitoes. Lemongrass works conveniently as well as the created by the honeybees Nasonov gland. Because of this, lemongrass oil can be used as a lure when trapping swarms or attempting to draw the attention of hived bees, citronella grass grow to about 2 m and have magenta-colored base stems. These species are used for the production of oil, which is used in soaps, as an insect repellent in insect sprays and candles. The principal chemical constituents of citronella, geraniol and citronellol, are antiseptics, hence their use in household disinfectants, besides oil production, citronella grass is also used for culinary purposes, as a flavoring. Citronella is usually planted in gardens to ward off insects such as whitefly adults. Its cultivation enables growing some vegetables without applying pesticides, intercropping should include physical barriers, for citronella roots can take over the field. Lemongrass oil, used as a pesticide and preservative, is put on the ancient palm-leaf manuscripts found in India as a preservative. The oil also injects natural fluidity into the palm leaves. While both can be used interchangeably, C. citratus is more suitable for cooking, in India, C. citratus is used both as a medical herb and in perfumes

Lemongrass
–
Lemongrass
Lemongrass
–
C. citratus from the Philippines, where it is locally known as tanglad
Lemongrass
–
Lemon grass at a market
Lemongrass
–
Prepared lemon grass

23.
Lemon myrtle
–
Backhousia citriodora is a flowering plant in the family Myrtaceae, genus Backhousia. It is endemic to rainforests of central and south-eastern Queensland, Australia. Other common names are sweet verbena tree, sweet verbena myrtle, lemon scented verbena and it can reach 20 m in height, but is often smaller. The leaves are evergreen, opposite, lanceolate, 5–12 cm long and 1. 5–2.5 cm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The flowers are creamy-white, 5–7 mm diameter, produced in clusters at the ends of the branches from summer through to autumn, Lemon myrtle was given the botanical name Backhousia citriodora in 1853 after the English botanist, James Backhouse. The common name reflects the strong smell of the crushed leaves. Lemon scented myrtle was the common name until the shortened trade name. Lemon myrtle is now the common name for the plant. Lemon myrtle is sometimes confused with lemon ironbark, which is Eucalyptus staigeriana, B. citriodora has two essential oil chemotypes, The citral chemotype is more prevalent and is cultivated in Australia for flavouring and essential oil. Citral as an isolate in steam distilled lemon myrtle oil is typically 90–98% and it is the highest natural source of citral. The citronellal chemotype is uncommon, and can be used as an insect repellent, indigenous Australians have long used lemon myrtle, both in cuisine and as a healing plant. The oil has the highest citral purity, typically higher than lemongrass and it is also considered to have a cleaner and sweeter aroma than comparable sources of citral–lemongrass and Litsea cubeba. Lemon myrtle is one of the well known bushfood flavours and is referred to as the Queen of the lemon herbs. The leaf is used as dried flakes, or in the form of an encapsulated flavour essence for enhanced shelf-life. It has a range of uses, such as lemon myrtle flakes in shortbread, flavouring in pasta, whole leaf with baked fish, infused in macadamia or vegetable oils, and made into tea, including tea blends. It can also be used as a lemon flavour replacement in milk-based foods, such as cheesecake, lemon flavoured ice-cream, the dried leaf has free radical scavenging ability. Lemon myrtle essential oil possesses antimicrobial properties, however the undiluted essential oil is toxic to cells in vitro. When diluted to approximately 1%, absorption through the skin and subsequent damage is thought to be minimal, Lemon myrtle oil has a high Rideal–Walker coefficient, a measure of antimicrobial potency

24.
Citronellal
–
Citronellal or rhodinal or 3, 7-dimethyloct-6-en-1-al is a monoterpenoid, the main component in the mixture of terpenoid chemical compounds that give citronella oil its distinctive lemon scent. Citronellal is an isolate in distilled oils from the plants Cymbopogon, lemon-scented gum. The --enantiomer of citronellal makes up to 80% of the oil from kaffir lime leaves and is the compound responsible for its characteristic aroma. Citronellal has insect repellent properties, and research shows high repellent effectiveness against mosquitoes, research shows that citronellal has strong antifungal qualities. British Pharmacopoeia Citral Citronellol Geraniol Citronella oil Hydroxycitronellal Perfume allergy

Citronellal
–
(+)-Citronellal

25.
Pelargonium
–
Pelargonium /ˌpɛlɑːrˈɡoʊniəm/ is a genus of flowering plants which includes about 200 species of perennials, succulents, and shrubs, commonly known as geraniums. Confusingly, Geranium is the name of a separate genus of related plants often called cranesbills. Both genera belong to the family Geraniaceae, linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus, Geranium, and they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’Héritier in 1789. Pelargonium species are evergreen perennials indigenous to temperate and tropical regions of the world and they are drought and heat tolerant, but can tolerate only minor frosts. Some species are popular garden plants, grown as bedding plants in temperate regions. Pelargonium occurs in a number of growth forms, including herbaceous annuals, shrubs, subshrubs, stem succulents. The erect stems bear five-petaled flowers in clusters, which are occasionally branched. Because not all flowers appear simultaneously but open from the centre outwards, the flower has a single symmetry plane, which distinguishes it from the Geranium flower, which has radial symmetry. Thus the lower three petals are differentiated from the two petals. The posterior sepal is fused with the pedicel to form a hypanthium, the nectary tube varies from only a few millimeters, up to several centimeters, and is an important floral characteristic in morphological classification. Stamens vary from 2 to 7, and their number, position relative to staminodes, there are five stigmata in the style. For the considerable diversity in morphology, see figure 1 of Röschenbleck et al. Leaves are usually alternate, and palmately lobed or pinnate, often on long stalks, the leaves of Pelargonium peltatum, have a thick cuticle better adapting them for drought tolerance. The Geraniaceae have a number of features unique amongst angiosperms, including highly rearranged plastid genomes differing in gene content, order. The first species of Pelargonium known to be cultivated was P. triste and it was probably brought to the Botanical Garden in Leiden before 1600 on ships which had stopped at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1631, the English gardener John Tradescant the elder bought seeds from Rene Morin in Paris, by 1724 P. odoratissimum, P. vitifolium, P. inquinans, P. zonale and P. peltatum had been introduced to Europe. The name Pelargonium was first proposed by Dillenius in 1732, who described and illustrated seven species of geraniums from South Africa that are now classified as Pelargonium, the name was then formally introduced by Johannes Burman in 1738. Linnaeus reputation prevented further differentiation for forty years, the eventual distinction between them was made by Charles Louis LHéritier de Brutelle based on the number of stamens or anthers, seven in the case of Pelargonium

26.
Coriander
–
Coriander, also known as cilantro or Chinese parsley, is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. All parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves, Coriander is native to regions spanning from southern Europe and northern Africa to southwestern Asia. It is a plant growing to 50 cm tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, the flowers are borne in small umbels, white or very pale pink, asymmetrical, with the petals pointing away from the center of the umbel longer than those pointing toward it. The fruit is a globular, dry schizocarp 3–5 mm in diameter, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek ko-ri-ja-da-na written in Linear B syllabic script which later evolved to koriannon or koriandron. Cilantro is the Spanish word for coriander, also deriving from coriandrum and it is the common term in North American English for coriander leaves, due to their extensive use in Mexican cuisine. Coriander grows wild over an area of Western Asia and southern Europe, prompting the comment, It is hard to define exactly where this plant is wild. Fifteen desiccated mericarps were found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B level of the Nahal Hemar Cave in Israel, Coriander seems to have been cultivated in Greece since at least the second millennium BC. Coriander was brought to the British colonies in North America in 1670, all parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the parts most traditionally used in cooking. Coriander is used in cuisines throughout the world, the leaves are variously referred to as coriander leaves, fresh coriander, dhania, Chinese parsley, or cilantro. Coriander potentially may be confused with culantro, an Apiaceae like coriander, culantro has a distinctly different spiny appearance, a more potent volatile leaf oil and a stronger aroma. The leaves have a different taste from the seeds, with citrus overtones, however, some people find the leaves to have an unpleasant soapy taste or a rank smell and avoid them. Chopped coriander leaves are a garnish on Indian dishes such as dal, as heat diminishes their flavour, coriander leaves are often used raw or added to the dish immediately before serving. In Indian and Central Asian recipes, coriander leaves are used in large amounts, the leaves spoil quickly when removed from the plant, and lose their aroma when dried or frozen. The dry fruits are known as coriander seeds, the word coriander in food preparation may refer solely to these seeds, rather than to the plant. The seeds have a citrus flavour when crushed, due to terpenes linalool. It is described as warm, nutty, spicy, and orange-flavoured and they are used extensively for grinding and blending purposes in the spice trade. Types with smaller fruit are produced in regions and usually have a volatile oil content around 0. 4-1. 8%

27.
Ginger
–
Ginger is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or simply ginger, is widely used as a spice or a folk medicine. It is a perennial which grows annual stems about a meter tall bearing narrow green leaves. Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, to also belong turmeric, cardamom. Ginger originated in the tropical rainforest in Southern Asia, although ginger no longer grows wild, it is thought to have originated on the Indian subcontinent because the ginger plants grown in India show the largest amount of genetic variation. Ginger was exported to Europe via India in the first century AD as a result of the spice trade and was used extensively by the Romans. The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. But this may be Sanskrit folk etymology, and the word may be from an ancient Dravidian name that produced the Tamil and Malayalam name for the spice, inchi-ver. The word probably was readopted in Middle English from Old French gingibre, ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates. It is a perennial plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers, it is scalded, or washed and scraped, to kill it. The fragrant perisperm of the Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu, ginger produces a hot, fragrant kitchen spice. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes and they can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger tisane, to which honey is often added, sliced orange or lemon fruit may be added. Ginger can be made into candy, or ginger wine, which has been made commercially since 1740, mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavors of fresh, powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Candied ginger, or crystallized ginger, is the root cooked in sugar until soft, fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag, in Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based

28.
Limonene
–
Limonene is a colorless liquid hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic terpene. The more common d-isomer possesses a strong smell of oranges and it is used in chemical synthesis as a precursor to carvone and as a renewables-based solvent in cleaning products. The less common l-isomer is found in mint oils and has a piney, limonene takes its name from the lemon, as the rind of the lemon, like other citrus fruits, contains considerable amounts of this compound, which contributes to their odor. Limonene is a molecule, and biological sources produce one enantiomer, the principal industrial source, citrus fruit, contains d-limonene. Racemic limonene is known as dipentene, d-Limonene is obtained commercially from citrus fruits through two primary methods, centrifugal separation or steam distillation. Limonene is a relatively stable terpene and can be distilled without decomposition and it oxidizes easily in moist air to produce carveol, carvone, and limonene oxide. With sulfur, it undergoes dehydrogenation to p-cymene, limonene occurs commonly as the d or -enantiomer, but racemizes to dipentene at 300 °C. When warmed with mineral acid, limonene isomerizes to the conjugated diene α-terpinene, evidence for this isomerization includes the formation of Diels-Alder adducts between α-terpinene adducts and maleic anhydride. It is possible to effect reaction at one of the double bonds selectively, anhydrous hydrogen chloride reacts preferentially at the disubstituted alkene, whereas epoxidation with mCPBA occurs at the trisubstituted alkene. In another synthetic method Markovnikov addition of trifluoroacetic acid followed by hydrolysis of the acetate gives terpineol, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of a proton from the cation to form the alkene, the most widely practiced conversion of limonene is to carvone. The three step reaction begins with the addition of nitrosyl chloride across the trisubstituted double bond. This species is then converted to the oxime with base, d-Limonene applied to skin may cause irritation, but otherwise appears to be safe for human uses. Limonene is common in cosmetic products, as the main odor constituent of citrus, d-limonene is used in food manufacturing and some medicines, e. g. It is added to cleaning products such as hand cleansers to give a lemon-orange fragrance, in contrast, l-limonene has a piney, turpentine-like odor. In natural and alternative medicine, d-limonene is marketed to relieve gastroesophageal reflux disease, limonene is increasingly being used as a solvent for cleaning purposes, such as the removal of oil from machine parts, as it is produced from a renewable source. It is used as a paint stripper and is useful as a fragrant alternative to turpentine. Limonene is also used as a solvent in some model airplane glues, all-natural commercial air fresheners, with air propellants, containing limonene are used by philatelists to remove self-adhesive postage stamps from envelope paper

Limonene
–
Limonene

29.
Cinnamomum camphora
–
Cinnamomum camphora is a large evergreen tree that grows up to 20–30 m tall. The leaves have a glossy, waxy appearance and smell of camphor when crushed, in spring, it produces bright green foliage with masses of small white flowers. It produces clusters of black, berry-like fruit around 1 cm in diameter and its pale bark is very rough and fissured vertically. Cinnamomum camphora is native to China south of the Yangtze River, Taiwan, southern Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, and has been introduced to many other countries. In Japan, where the tree is called kusunoki, five camphor trees are known with a circumference above 20 m, with the largest individual, Kamō no Ōkusu. Camphor laurel contains volatile compounds in all plant parts. Camphor laurel has six different chemical variants called chemotypes, which are camphor, linalool,1, 8-cineole, nerolidol, safrole, in China, field workers avoid mixing chemotypes when harvesting by their odour. The cineole fraction of camphor laurel is used in China to manufacture fake Eucalyptus oil, the chemical variants seem dependent upon the country of origin of the tree. The tree is native to China, Japan, and Taiwan and it has been introduced to the other countries where it has been found, and the chemical variants are identifiable by country. E. g. C. camphora grown in Taiwan and Japan is normally high in linalool. In India and Sri Lanka, the high camphor variety/chemotype remains dominant, C. camphora grown in Madagascar, though, is high in 1,8 cineole. The essential oil from the Madagascar trees is known as ravintsara. Camphor is a crystalline substance, obtained from the tree C. camphora. Camphor has been used for centuries as a culinary spice, a component of incense. It is also an insect repellent and a flea-killing substance, C. camphora is native to Jeju off the coast of Korea, Taiwan, southern Japan, southeast China, and Indochina, where it is also cultivated for camphor and timber production. The production and shipment of camphor, in a solid, waxy form, was an industry in Taiwan prior to. It was used medicinally and was also an important ingredient in the production of smokeless gunpowder, primitive stills were set up in the mountainous areas in which the tree is usually found. The wood was chipped, these chips were steamed in a retort, allowing the camphor to crystallize on the inside of a crystallization box and it was then scraped off and packed out to government-run factories for processing and sale

30.
Menthol
–
Menthol is an organic compound made synthetically or obtained from corn mint, peppermint, or other mint oils. It is a waxy, crystalline substance, clear or white in color, the main form of menthol occurring in nature is -menthol, which is assigned the configuration. Menthol has local anesthetic and counterirritant qualities, and it is used to relieve minor throat irritation. Menthol also acts as a kappa opioid receptor agonist. Natural menthol exists as one pure stereoisomer, nearly always the form, the eight possible stereoisomers are, In the natural compound, the isopropyl group is in the trans orientation to both the methyl and hydroxyl groups. Thus, it can be drawn in any of the ways shown, The -, with the ring itself in a chair conformation, all three bulky groups can orient in equatorial positions. The two crystal forms for racemic menthol have melting points of 28 °C and 38 °C, pure -menthol has four crystal forms, of which the most stable is the α form, the familiar broad needles. Menthols ability to trigger the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin is responsible for the well-known cooling sensation it provokes when inhaled, eaten. In this sense, it is similar to capsaicin, the responsible for the spiciness of hot chilis. Menthols analgesic properties are mediated through an activation of κ-opioid receptors. Menthol also blocks sodium channels, reducing neural activity that may stimulate muscles. A study showed that absorption of ibuprofen is not increased by menthol. Some studies show that menthol acts as GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator, Menthol also shares anaesthetic properties similar to propofol, by modulating same sites of GABAA receptor. Menthol is widely used in dental care as an antibacterial agent, effective against several types of streptococci. Mentha arvensis is the species of mint used to make natural menthol crystals. This species is grown in the Uttar Pradesh region in India. -Menthol occurs naturally in peppermint oil, obtained from Mentha x piperita, japanese menthol also contains a small percentage of the 1-epimer, -neomenthol. The biosynthesis of menthol has been investigated in M. x piperita and it begins with the synthesis of the terpene limonene, followed by hydroxylation, and then several reduction and isomerization steps

31.
Carvone
–
Carvone is a member of a family of chemicals called terpenoids. Carvone is found naturally in many essential oils, but is most abundant in the oils from seeds of caraway, spearmint, both carvones are used in the food and flavor industry. R--Carvone is also used for air freshening products and, like many essential oils, oils containing carvones are used in aromatherapy, as the compound most responsible for the flavor of caraway, dill and spearmint, carvone has been used for millennia in food. Wrigleys Spearmint Gum and spearmint flavored Life Savers are major users of natural spearmint oil from Mentha spicata, caraway seed is extracted with alcohol to make the European drink Kümmel. S--Carvone is also used to prevent premature sprouting of potatoes during storage, --Carvone has been proposed for use as a mosquito repellent, and the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency is reviewing a request to register it as a pesticide. Carvone is available inexpensively in both enantiomerically pure forms, making it a starting material for the asymmetric total synthesis of natural products. For example, --carvone was used to begin a 1998 synthesis of the terpenoid quassin and its mirror image, S--carvone, smells like caraway seeds. Not all enantiomers have distinguishable odors, squirrel monkeys have also been found to be able to discriminate between carvone enantiomers. The two forms are referred to by the older names of laevo referring to R--carvone. S--Carvone is the constituent of the oil from caraway seeds. It also occurs to the extent of about 40-60% in dill seed oil, r--Carvone is also the most abundant compound in the essential oil from several species of mint, particularly spearmint oil, which is composed of 50-80% R--carvone. Spearmint is a source of naturally produced R--carvone. However, the majority of R--carvone used in applications is synthesized from R--limonene. The R--carvone isomer also occurs in kuromoji oil, some oils, like gingergrass oil, contain a mixture of both enantiomers. Many other natural oils, for example peppermint oil, contain trace quantities of carvones, caraway was used for medicinal purposes by the ancient Romans, but carvone was probably not isolated as a pure compound until Franz Varrentrapp obtained it in 1849. It was originally called carvol by Schweizer, goldschmidt and Zürrer identified it as a ketone related to limonene, and the structure was finally elucidated by Georg Wagner in 1894. The dextro-form, S--carvone is obtained practically pure by the distillation of caraway oil. The levo-form obtained from the oils containing it usually requires additional treatment to produce high purity R--carvone, Carvone may be synthetically prepared from limonene via limonene nitrosochloride which may be formed by treatment of limonene with isoamyl nitrite in glacial acetic acid

Carvone
–
Carvone

32.
Caraway
–
Caraway, also known as meridian fennel, and Persian cumin, is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe, and North Africa. The plant is similar in appearance to other members of the family, with finely divided, feathery leaves with thread-like divisions. The main flower stem is 40–60 cm tall, with white or pink flowers in umbels. Caraway fruits are crescent-shaped achenes, around 2 mm long, with five pale ridges, the etymology of caraway is complex and poorly understood. English use of the term dates back to at least 1440. The fruits, usually used whole, have a pungent, anise-like flavor and aroma that comes from essential oils, mostly carvone, limonene, caraway is used as a spice in breads, especially rye bread. Caraway is also used in desserts, liquors, casseroles, and it is also found in European cuisine. For example, it is used in caraway seed cake, the roots may be cooked as a vegetable like parsnips or carrots. Additionally, the leaves are consumed as herbs, either raw, dried, or cooked. In Serbia, caraway is commonly sprinkled over home-made salty scones and it is also used to add flavor to cheeses such as bondost, pultost, havarti and Tilsit cheese. Scandinavian Akvavit, including Icelandic Brennivin, and several liqueurs are made with caraway, in Middle Eastern cuisine, caraway pudding, called Meghli, is a popular dessert during Ramadan. It is typically made and served in the Levant area in winter, caraway is also added to flavor harissa, a Tunisian chili pepper paste. In Aleppian, Syrian cuisine it is used to make the sweet scones named keleacha, caraway fruit oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes. Caraway is also used as a breath freshener, and it has a tradition of use in folk medicine. Caraway is distributed throughout all of Europe except the Mediterranean region. All other European species of Carum generally have smaller fruits, some grow on rocks in the mountains, chiefly in the Balkans, Italian Alps and Apennines. However the only one that is cultivated is Carum Carvi, its fruits being used in ways in cooking and its essential oils in the preparation of certain medicines. The plant prefers warm, sunny locations and well-drained soil rich in organic matter, in warmer regions, it is planted in the winter as an annual

33.
Terpineol
–
Terpineol is a naturally occurring monoterpene alcohol that has been isolated from a variety of sources such as cajuput oil, pine oil, and petitgrain oil. There are four isomers, alpha-, beta-, gamma-terpineol, beta- and gamma-terpineol differ only by the location of the double bond. Terpineol is usually a mixture of isomers with alpha-terpineol as the major constituent. Terpineol has a pleasant odor similar to lilac and is an ingredient in perfumes, cosmetics. α-Terpineol is one of the two most abundant aroma constituents of lapsang souchong tea, the α-terpineol originates in the smoke used to dry the tea. -α-Terpineol is a constituent of skullcap. Although it is occurring, terpineol is commonly manufactured from the more readily available alpha-pinene. Side-products are the β-terpineol in a mixture of the cis-isomer, the trans-isomer, MSDS for alpha-terpineol Media related to Terpineol at Wikimedia Commons

Terpineol

34.
Viola (plant)
–
Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species, most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes. Some Viola species are plants, some are annual plants. A large number of species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers, in horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-coloured, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, Viola typically have heart-shaped, scalloped leaves, though a number have palmate leaves or other shapes. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately, plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like. The flowers of the vast majority of the species are zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry, the flowers are formed from five petals, four are upswept or fan-shaped petals with two per side, and there is one broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have 5 sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming, the flower styles are thickened near the top and the stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules, Viola are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well-developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open, in some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile. After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that open by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters, the nutlike seeds have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily. The seeds of species have elaiosomes and are dispersed by ants. Flower colours vary in the genus, ranging from violet, through shades of blue, yellow, white. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring, see List of Viola species for a more complete list. Note, Neither Saintpaulia nor Erythronium dens-canis are related to the true Viola, the genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common Viola in many areas, sweet violet, and many other species whose common name includes the word violet. Several species are known as pansies, including the yellow pansy of the Pacific coast, common blue violet Viola sororia is the state flower of Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Illinois, and New Jersey

35.
Thujone
–
Thujone is a ketone and a monoterpene that occurs naturally in two diastereomeric forms, -α-thujone and -β-thujone. Though it is best known as a compound in the spirit absinthe. Thujone acts on GABA and as a component of essential oils, is also used in perfumery. It is also found in species of Mentha. Based on studies that looked only at molecular shape, for many years thujone was thought to act similarly to THC on the receptors, however. Thujone is a GABAA receptor antagonist, by inhibiting GABA receptor activation, neurons may fire more easily, which can cause muscle spasms and convulsions. Thujone is also a 5-HT3 antagonist, the median lethal dose, or LD50, of alpha-thujone, the more active of the two isomers, in mice, is around 45 mg/kg, with 0% mortality rate at 30 mg/kg and 100% at 60 mg/kg. Mice exposed to the higher dose have convulsions that lead to death within 1 minute, from 30 to 45 mg/kg, the mice experience muscle spasms in the legs, which progress to general convulsions until death or recovery. Pretreatment with diazepam, phenobarbital, or 1 g/kg of ethanol protects against a lethal dose of 100 mg/kg and these effects are in line with other GABA antagonists. Also, alpha-thujone is metabolized quickly in the liver in mice, attention performance has been tested with low and high doses of thujone in alcohol. The high dose had a negative effect on attention performance. The lower dose showed no noticeable effect, Thujone is reported to be toxic to brain, kidney, and liver cells and could cause convulsions if used in too high a dose. Other thujone-containing plants such as the tree arborvitae are used in herbal medicine, side effects from the essential oil of this plant include anxiety and sleeplessness, which confirms the central nervous system effects of thujone. Thujone is most famous for being a compound in the spirit absinthe, in the past, absinthe was thought to contain up to 260–350 mg/l thujone, but modern tests have shown this to be far too high. The compound was discovered after absinthe became popular in the mid-19th century, dr. Valentin Magnan, who studied alcoholism, tested pure wormwood oil on animals and discovered it caused seizures independent from the effects of alcohol. Based on this, absinthe, which contains an amount of wormwood oil, was assumed to be more dangerous than ordinary alcohol. Eventually, thujone was isolated as the cause of these reactions, Magnan went on to study 250 abusers of alcohol and noted that those who drank absinthe had seizures and hallucinations. More recently, following European Council Directive No, 88/388/EEC allowing certain levels of thujone in foodstuffs in the EU, the studies described above were conducted and found only minute levels of thujone in absinthe

Thujone
–
Research-grade thujone
Thujone
–
Brands

36.
Eucalyptol
–
Eucalyptol is a natural organic compound that is a colorless liquid. It is an ether and a monoterpenoid. In 1870, F. S. Cloez identified and ascribed the name eucalyptol to the dominant portion of Eucalyptus globulus oil, Eucalyptol comprises up to 90 percent of the essential oil of some species of the generic product Eucalyptus oil, hence the common name of the compound. It is also found in laurel, bay leaves, tea tree, mugwort, sweet basil, wormwood, rosemary, common sage, Cannabis sativa. Eucalyptol with a purity from 99.6 to 99.8 percent can be obtained in large quantities by fractional distillation of eucalyptus oil. Although it can be used internally as a flavoring and medicine ingredient at very low doses, typical of many essential oils, Eucalyptol has a fresh mint-like smell and a spicy, cooling taste. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with ether, ethanol, the boiling point is 176 °C and the flash point is 49 °C. Eucalyptol forms crystalline adducts with hydrohalic acids, o-cresol, resorcinol, formation of these adducts are useful for purification. Because of its pleasant spicy aroma and taste, eucalyptol is used in flavorings, fragrances, cineole-based eucalyptus oil is used as a flavouring at low levels in various products, including baked goods, confectionery, meat products and beverages. In a 1994 report released by five top cigarette companies, eucalyptol was listed as one of the 599 additives to cigarettes and it is claimed that it is added to improve the flavor. Eucalyptol is an ingredient in many brands of mouthwash and cough suppressant, Eucalyptol is used as an insecticide and insect repellent. One such study with Euglossa imperialis, a non-social orchid bee species, has shown that the presence of cineole, elevates territorial behavior, in higher-than-normal doses, eucalyptol is hazardous via ingestion, skin contact, or inhalation. It can have health effects on behavior, respiratory tract. The acute oral LD50 is 2480 mg/kg and it is classified as a reproductive toxin for females and a suspect reproductive toxin for males. In a 2004 study, it was found to inhibit cytokine production in cultured human lymphocytes and monocytes, in a 2004 study, eucalyptol was found to be an effective treatment for nonpurulent rhinosinusitis. Side effects from treatment were minimal, a 2000 study found eucalyptol to reduce inflammation and pain when applied topically. In a 2002 study, it was found to kill cells of two cultured human leukemia cell lines, but not cells of a human stomach cancer cell line in vitro. Butterfly lily British Pharmacopoeia Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia 31 N. B, listed as cineole in some pharmacopoeia

37.
Eucalyptus globulus
–
Eucalyptus globulus, the Tasmanian bluegum, southern blue-gum or blue gum, is an evergreen tree, one of the most widely cultivated trees native to Australia. They typically grow from 30–55 m tall, the tallest currently known specimen in Tasmania is 90.7 m tall. There are historical claims of even taller trees, the tallest being 101 m, the natural distribution of the species includes Tasmania and southern Victoria. There are also isolated occurrences on King Island and Flinders Island in Bass Strait, there are naturalised non-native occurrences in Spain and Portugal, and other parts of southern Europe incl. Cyprus, southern Africa, New Zealand, western United States, Hawaii, Macaronesia, the dEntrecasteaux expedition made immediate use of the species when they discovered it, the timber being used to improve their oared boats. The Tasmanian blue gum was proclaimed as the emblem of Tasmania on 27 November 1962. The species name is from the Latin globulus, a little button, the bark sheds often, peeling in large strips. The broad juvenile leaves are borne in pairs on square stems. They are about 6 to 15 cm long and covered with a blue-grey, waxy bloom, the mature leaves are narrow, sickle-shaped and dark shining green. They are arranged alternately on rounded stems and range from 15–35 cm in length, the buds are top-shaped, ribbed and warty and have a flattened operculum bearing a central knob. The cream-coloured flowers are borne singly in the axils and produce copious nectar that yields a strongly flavoured honey. The fruits are woody and range from 1. 5–2.5 cm in diameter, numerous small seeds are shed through valves which open on the top of the fruit. It produces roots throughout the profile, rooting several feet deep in some soils. The plant was first described by the French botanist Jacques Labillardière in his publications Relation du Voyage à la Recherche de la Pérouse, the author collected specimens at Recherche Bay during the dEntrecasteaux expedition in 1792. Blue gum is one of the most extensively planted eucalypts and its rapid growth and adaptability to a range of conditions is responsible for its popularity. It is especially well-suited to countries with a Mediterranean-type climate, and it comprises 65% of all plantation hardwood in Australia with approximately 4,500 km2 planted. The tree is cultivated elsewhere in the world. It is primarily planted as a pulpwood, and also as an important fuelwood in many countries, Blue gums have historically been used as street trees but are now regarded as unsuitable by many municipalities due to their rapid growth and mature size

38.
Benzaldehyde
–
Benzaldehyde is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is the simplest aromatic aldehyde and one of the most industrially useful and this colorless liquid has a characteristic almond-like odor. Benzaldehyde is the component of bitter almond oil and can be extracted from a number of other natural sources. Synthetic benzaldehyde is the agent in imitation almond extract, which is used to flavor cakes. Benzaldehyde was first extracted from bitter almonds in 1803 by the French pharmacist Martrès, in 1832 German chemists Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig first synthesized benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde can be obtained by many processes, in the 1980s, an estimated 18 million kilograms were produced annually in Japan, Europe, and North America, a level that can be assumed to continue. Currently liquid phase chlorination and oxidation of toluene are the main routes, numerous other methods have been developed, such as the partial oxidation of benzyl alcohol, alkali hydrolysis of benzal chloride, and the carbonylation of benzene. Site-specific nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which evaluates 1H/2H isotope ratios, has used to differentiate between naturally occurring and synthetic benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde and similar chemicals occur naturally in many foods, most of the benzaldehyde that people eat is from natural, traditional foods, such as almonds. Almonds, apricots, apples and cherry kernels, contain significant amounts of amygdalin and this glycoside breaks up under enzyme catalysis into benzaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide and two molecules of glucose. Benzaldehyde contributes to the scent of oyster mushrooms, on oxidation, benzaldehyde is converted into the odorless benzoic acid, which is a common impurity in laboratory samples. Benzyl alcohol can be formed from benzaldehyde by means of hydrogenation, benzaldehyde is commonly employed to confer almond flavor to foods and scented products. It is sometimes used in cosmetics products, in industrial settings, benzaldehyde is used chiefly as a precursor to other organic compounds, ranging from pharmaceuticals to plastic additives. The aniline dye malachite green is prepared from benzaldehyde and dimethylaniline and it is a precursor to certain acridine dyes as well. Via aldol condensations, benzaldehyde is converted into derivatives of cinnamaldehyde, the synthesis of mandelic acid starts from benzaldehyde, First hydrocyanic acid is added to benzaldehyde, and the resulting nitrile is subsequently hydrolysed to mandelic acid. It is used as a bee repellant, a small amount of benzaldehyde-containing solution is placed on a fume board near the honey combs. The bees promptly move away from the combs to get away from the fumes. Benzaldehyde allows the beekeeper to remove the honey frames from the bee hive with greater safety to both bees and the beekeeper, for a 70-kg human, the lethal dose is estimated at 50 mL

Benzaldehyde

39.
Bitter almond
–
The almond is a species of tree native to the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North Africa. Almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree, within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell surrounding the seed. The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of a hull and a hard shell with the seed. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed, almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, the almond is a deciduous tree, growing 4–10 m in height, with a trunk of up to 30 cm in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, the leaves are 3–5 inches long, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm petiole. The flowers are white to pink, 3–5 cm diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, the optimal temperature for their growth is between 15 and 30 °C and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 300 to 600 hours below 7.2 °C to break dormancy. Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting, the fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The almond fruit measures 3. 5–6 cm long, in botanical terms, it is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat, inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell called the endocarp. Inside the shell is the seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur, the almond is native to the Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East, eastward as far as the Yamuna River in India. The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant, the fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed. Selection of the type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the created the domesticated species. Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed

Bitter almond
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Brabejum
Bitter almond
–
Brabejum growing as a hedge in Cape Town.
Bitter almond
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New leaves are soft, golden and velvety.
Bitter almond
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Young flower buds. The name stellatifolium refers to the star-shaped rosettes of its leaves.

40.
Cinnamaldehyde
–
Cinnamaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula C6H5CH=CHCHO. Occurring naturally as predominately the trans isomer, it gives cinnamon its flavor and odor and it is a flavonoid that is naturally synthesized by the shikimate pathway. This pale yellow, viscous liquid occurs in the bark of cinnamon trees, the essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 50% cinnamaldehyde. Cinnamaldehyde was isolated from cinnamon essential oil in 1834 by Dumas and Péligot, the molecule consists of a benzene ring attached to an unsaturated aldehyde. As such, the molecule can be viewed as a derivative of acrolein and its color is due to the π → π* transition, increased conjugation in comparison with acrolein shifts this band towards the visible. The biosynthesis of cinnamaldehyde begins with deamination of L-phenylalalanine into cinnamic acid by the action of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, PAL catalyzes this reaction by a non-oxidative deamination. This deamination relies on the MIO prosthetic group of PAL, PAL gives rise to trans-cinnamic acid. In the second step, 4-coumarate, CoA ligase converts cinnamic acid to cinnamoyl-CoA by an acid-thiol ligation, 4CL uses ATP to catalyze the formation of cinnamoyl-CoA. 4CL effects this reaction in two steps, 4CL forms a hydroxycinnamate-AMP anhydride, followed by a nucleophile attack on the carbonyl of the acyl adenylate. Cinnamoyl-CoA is reduced by NADPH catalyzed by CCR to form cinnamaldehyde, several methods of laboratory synthesis exist, but cinnamaldehyde is most economically obtained from the steam distillation of the oil of cinnamon bark. The compound can be prepared from related compounds such as cinnamyl alcohol, cinnamaldehyde occurs widely, and closely related compounds give rise to lignin. All such compounds are biosynthesized starting from phenylalanine, which undergoes conversion, cinnamoyl-CoA reductase is an enzyme responsible for the production of cinnamoyl-CoA from cinnamaldehyde. The most obvious application for cinnamaldehyde is as flavoring in chewing gum, ice cream, candy and it is also used in some perfumes of natural, sweet, or fruity scents. Almond, apricot, butterscotch, and other aromas may partially employ the compound for their pleasant smells, cinnamaldehyde can be used as a food adulterant, powdered beechnut husk aromatized with cinnamaldehyde can be marketed as powdered cinnamon. Some breakfast cereals contain as much as 187 ppm cinnamaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde is also used as a fungicide. Proven effective on over 40 different crops, cinnamaldehyde is typically applied to the systems of plants. Its low toxicity and well-known properties make it ideal for agriculture, cinnamaldehyde is an effective insecticide, and its scent is also known to repel animals, such as cats and dogs. It has been tested as a safe and effective insecticide against mosquito larvae, a concentration of 29 ppm of cinnamaldehyde kills half of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae in 24 hours

Cinnamaldehyde
–
Cinnamaldehyde

41.
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria

42.
Cinnamomum aromaticum
–
Cinnamomum cassia, called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, is an evergreen tree originating in southern China, and widely cultivated there and elsewhere in southern and eastern Asia. It is one of several species of Cinnamomum used primarily for their aromatic bark, in the United States, Chinese cassia is the most common type of cinnamon used. The buds are used as a spice, especially in India. The tree grows to 10–15 m tall, with bark and hard. Chinese cassia is a relative to Ceylon cinnamon, Saigon cinnamon, also known as Vietnamese cinnamon, Indonesian cinnamon, also called korintje. In all five species, the bark is used as a spice. Chinese cassias flavour is less delicate than that of Ceylon cinnamon and its bark is thicker, more difficult to crush, and has a rougher texture than that of Ceylon cinnamon. Most of the spice sold as cinnamon in the United States, United Kingdom, Indonesian cinnamon is sold in much smaller amounts. Chinese cassia is produced in both China and Vietnam, until the 1960s, Vietnam was the worlds most important producer of Saigon cinnamon, which has a higher oil content, and consequently has a stronger flavor. Because of the caused by the Vietnam War, however. Indonesian cassia has the lowest oil content of the three types of cassia, so commands the lowest price, Chinese cassia has a sweeter flavor than Indonesian cassia, similar to Saigon cinnamon, but with lower oil content. Cassia bark is used as a agent for confectionery, desserts, pastries, and meat, it is specified in many curry recipes. Cassia is sometimes added to Ceylon cinnamon, but is a thicker, coarser product. Cassia is sold as pieces of bark or as neat quills or sticks, cassia buds, although rare, are also occasionally used as a spice. They resemble cloves in appearance and have a mild, flowery cinnamon flavor, cassia buds are primarily used in old-fashioned pickling recipes, marinades, and teas. Chinese cassia is produced primarily in the provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong. It is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, due to a blood-thinning component called coumarin, which could damage the liver if taken in huge amounts, European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia. Other bioactive compounds found in the bark, powder and essential oils of C. cassia are cinnamaldehyde, in high doses these substances can also be toxic for humans

43.
Vanilla
–
Vanilla is a flavoring derived from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from the Mexican species, flat-leaved vanilla. The word vanilla, derived from the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina, is translated simply as little pod, pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vine of the vanilla orchid, called tlilxochitl by the Aztecs. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés is credited with introducing both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s, pollination is required to set the fruit from which the flavoring is derived. In 1837, Belgian botanist Charles François Antoine Morren discovered this fact, the method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a slave who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, hand-pollination allowed global cultivation of the plant. Three major species of vanilla currently are grown globally, all of which derive from a species found in Mesoamerica. Vanilla is the second-most expensive spice after saffron, because growing the vanilla seed pods is labor-intensive, despite the expense, vanilla is highly valued for its flavor. As a result, vanilla is used in both commercial and domestic baking, perfume manufacture, and aromatherapy. According to popular belief, the Totonac people, who inhabit the east coast of Mexico in the state of Veracruz, were the first to cultivate vanilla. According to Totonac mythology, the tropical orchid was born when Princess Xanat, forbidden by her father from marrying a mortal, the lovers were captured and beheaded. Where their blood touched the ground, the vine of the tropical orchid grew, in the 15th century, Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs, and soon developed a taste for the vanilla pods. They named the fruit tlilxochitl, or black flower, after the matured fruit, subjugated by the Aztecs, the Totonacs paid tribute by sending vanilla fruit to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. Until the mid-19th century, Mexico was the producer of vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla fruits to the islands of Réunion, after Edmond Albius discovered how to pollinate the flowers quickly by hand, the pods began to thrive. Soon, the orchids were sent from Réunion to the Comoros Islands, Seychelles. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros Islands produced 200 metric tons of vanilla beans, the market price of vanilla rose dramatically in the late 1970s after a tropical cyclone ravaged key croplands. Prices remained high through the early 1980s despite the introduction of Indonesian vanilla, in the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded. Prices dropped 70% over the few years, to nearly US$20 per kilogram

Vanilla
–
Vanilla fruits, dried
Vanilla
–
Vanilla cultivation
Vanilla
–
Drawing of Vanilla from the Florentine Codex (circa 1580) and description of its use and properties written in the Nahuatl language
Vanilla
–
A bottle of vanilla extract

44.
Anise
–
Anise, also called aniseed, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia. Its flavor has similarities with other spices, such as star anise, fennel. Anise is an annual plant growing to 3 ft or more tall. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 3⁄8–2 in long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery pinnate, the flowers are white, approximately 1⁄8 inch in diameter, produced in dense umbels. The fruit is an oblong dry schizocarp, 1⁄8–1⁄4 in long, Anise is a food plant for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug. Anise was first cultivated in Egypt and the Middle East, but was brought to Europe for its medicinal value, Anise plants grow best in light, fertile, well-drained soil. The seeds should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in spring, because the plants have a taproot, they do not transplant well after being established, so they should be started either in their final location or transplanted while the seedlings are still small. Western cuisines have long used anise to flavor dishes, drinks, the word is used for both the species of herb and its licorice-like flavor. Star anise is considerably expensive to produce, and has gradually displaced P. anisum in Western markets. While formerly produced in quantities, by 1999 world production of the essential oil of anise was only 8 tons. As with all spices, the composition of anise varies considerably with origin and these are typical values for the main constituents. The yield of oil is influenced by the growing conditions and extraction process. Regardless of the method of isolation the main component of the oil is anethole, with minor components including 4-anisaldehyde, estragole and pseudoisoeugenyl-2-methylbutyrates, Anise is sweet and very aromatic, distinguished by its characteristic flavor. It is a key ingredient in Mexican atole de anís and champurrado, which is similar to hot chocolate, the Ancient Romans often served spiced cakes with aniseed called mustaceoe at the end of feasts as a digestive. This tradition of serving cake at the end of festivities is the basis for the tradition of serving cake at weddings and these liquors are clear, but on addition of water become cloudy, a phenomenon known as the ouzo effect. It is believed to be one of the ingredients in the French liqueur Chartreuse. It is also used in some beers, such as Virgils in the United States. Anise has also thought a treatment for menstrual cramps and colic

45.
Anethole
–
Anethole is an organic compound that is widely used as a flavoring substance. It is a derivative of phenylpropene, a type of compound that occurs widely in nature. It contributes a component of the odor and flavor of anise and fennel, anise myrtle, liquorice, camphor, magnolia blossoms. Closely related to anethole is its isomer estragole, abundant in tarragon and basil and it is a colorless, fragrant, mildly volatile liquid. Anethole is only soluble in water but exhibits high solubility in ethanol. This difference causes certain anise-flavored liqueurs to become opaque when diluted with water, anethole is an aromatic, unsaturated ether related to lignols. It exists as both isomers, involving the double bond outside the ring. The more abundant isomer, and the one preferred for use, is the trans or E isomer, like related compounds, anethole is poorly soluble in water. Historically, this property was used to detect adulteration in samples, most anethole is obtained from terpentine-like extracts from trees. Of only minor commercial significance, anethole can also be isolated from essential oils and it is also readily prepared from anisole and propionic acid via the intermediacy of 4-methoxypropiophenone. It is distinctly sweet, measuring 13 times sweeter than sugar and it is perceived as being pleasant to the taste even at higher concentrations. It is used in alcoholic drinks ouzo, rakı and Pernod and it is also used in seasoning and confectionery applications, oral hygiene products, and in small quantities in natural berry flavors. Because they metabolize anethole into several chemical compounds, some bacteria are candidates for use in commercial bioconversion of anethole to more valuable materials. Bacterial strains capable of using trans-anethole as the carbon source include JYR-1. Anethole has potent antimicrobial properties, against bacteria, yeast, reported antibacterial properties include both bacteriostatic and bactericidal action against Salmonella enterica but not when used against Salmonella via a fumigation method. Anethole also has activity against the plant nematode Meloidogyne javanica in vitro. Anethole also is a promising insecticide, several essential oils consisting mostly of anethole have insecticidal action against larvae of the mosquitos Ochlerotatus caspius and Aedes aegypti. In a similar manner, anethole itself is effective against the fungus gnat Lycoriella ingenua, against the mite, anethole is a slightly more effective pesticide than DEET, but anisaldehyde, a related natural compound that occurs with anethole in many essential oils, is 14 times more effective

46.
Trimethylamine
–
Trimethylamine is an organic compound with the formula N3. This colorless, hygroscopic, and flammable tertiary amine has a fishy odor in low concentrations. It is a gas at room temperature but is sold in pressurized gas cylinders or as a 40% solution in water. TMA is a base and can be readily protonated to give trimethylammonium cation. Trimethylammonium chloride is a colorless solid prepared from hydrochloric acid. Trimethylamine is a nucleophile, and this reaction is the basis of most of its applications. Trimethylamine is a product of decomposition of plants and animals, in humans, it is synthesized exclusively by gut microbiota from dietary nutrients such as choline and carnitine. High levels of trimethylamine are associated with the development of fish odor syndrome, TMA is the substance mainly responsible for the odor often associated with rotting fish, some infections, bad breath and can be a cause of vaginal odor due to bacterial vaginosis. It is also associated with taking large doses of choline and carnitine, one or more additional odorant receptors appear to be involved in trimethylamine olfaction in humans as well. Gas sensors to test for fish freshness detect trimethylamine, trimethylaminuria is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder involving a defect in the function or expression of flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 which results in poor trimethylamine metabolism. Individuals with trimethylaminuria develop a characteristic fish odor - the smell of trimethylamine - in their sweat, urine, ammonia, NH3 Ammonium, NH4+ Methylamine, NH2 Triethylamine Molecule of the Month, Trimethylamine NIST Webbook data CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

Trimethylamine
–
Trimethylamine

47.
Atropa belladonna
–
Atropa belladonna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the Nightshade family Solanaceae, native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Its distribution extends from Great Britain in the west to western Ukraine and it is also naturalised and/or introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States. The foliage and berries are toxic, containing tropane alkaloids. These toxins include atropine, scopolamine and hyoscyamine, which cause a bizarre delirium and hallucinations, the antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine, the same as for atropine. It has a history of use as a medicine, cosmetic. Before the Middle Ages, it was used as an anesthetic for surgery, the ancient Romans used it as a poison, Atropa belladonna is a branching herbaceous perennial, often growing as a subshrub, from a fleshy rootstock. Plants grow to 2 metres tall with ovate leaves 18 centimetres long, the bell-shaped flowers are dull purple with green tinges and faintly scented. The fruits are berries, which are green, ripening to a shiny-black, the berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though the seeds contain toxic alkaloids. There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale-yellow fruit, Atropa belladonna is native to temperate southern and central Europe but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in gardens near Malmö. In Britain it is only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows. More widespread as an alien, it is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb, seed is spread mainly by birds. It is naturalized in parts of North America, where it is found in shady. It is considered a species in parts of the world. Atropa belladona is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its upright habit. Germination of the seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid, the seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting. The name Atropa belladonna was published by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753 and it is in the nightshade family, which it shares with potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, jimsonweed, tobacco, wolfberry, and chili peppers

48.
Indole
–
Indole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound with formula C8H7N. It has a structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring. Indole is widely distributed in the environment and can be produced by a variety of bacteria. As an intercellular signal molecule, indole regulates various aspects of physiology, including spore formation, plasmid stability, resistance to drugs, biofilm formation. The amino acid tryptophan is a derivative and the precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Indole is a solid at room temperature, Indole can be produced by bacteria as a degradation product of the amino acid tryptophan. It occurs naturally in feces and has an intense fecal odor. At very low concentrations, however, it has a flowery smell and it also occurs in coal tar. The corresponding substituent is called indolyl, Indole undergoes electrophilic substitution, mainly at position 3. Substituted indoles are structural elements of the tryptophan-derived tryptamine alkaloids like the neurotransmitter serotonin, other indolic compounds include the plant hormone auxin, tryptophol, the anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin, the betablocker pindolol, and the naturally occurring hallucinogen dimethyltryptamine. The name indole is a portmanteau of the indigo and oleum. Indole chemistry began to develop with the study of the dye indigo, indigo can be converted to isatin and then to oxindole. Then, in 1866, Adolf von Baeyer reduced oxindole to indole using zinc dust, in 1869, he proposed a formula for indole. Certain indole derivatives were important dyestuffs until the end of the 19th century, in the 1930s, interest in indole intensified when it became known that the indole substituent is present in many important alkaloids, and it remains an active area of research today. It condenses with serine by Michael addition of indole to PLP-aminoacrylate, as an intercellular signal molecule, indole regulates various aspects of bacterial physiology, including spore formation, plasmid stability, resistance to drugs, biofilm formation, and virulence. The amino acid tryptophan is a derivative and the precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Indole is a constituent of coal tar, and the 220–260 °C distillation fraction is the main industrial source of the material. Indole and its derivatives can also be synthesized by a variety of methods, the main industrial routes start from aniline via vapor-phase reaction with ethylene glycol in the presence of catalysts, In general, reactions are conducted between 200 and 500 °C

49.
Herbaceous
–
Herbaceous plants are plants that have no persistent woody stem above ground. Herbaceous plants may be annuals, biennials or perennials, annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing season or when they have flowered and fruited, and they then grow again from seed. Herbaceous perennial and biennial plants may have stems that die at the end of the growing season, but parts of the plant survive under or close to the ground from season to season. New growth develops from living tissues remaining on or under the ground, including roots, examples of herbaceous biennials include carrot, parsnip and common ragwort, herbaceous perennials include potato, peony, hosta, mint, most ferns and most grasses. Some relatively fast-growing herbaceous plants are pioneers, or early-successional species, others form the main vegetation of many stable habitats, occurring for example in the ground layer of forests, or in naturally open habitats such as meadow, salt marsh or desert. Some herbaceous plants can grow large, such as the Musa genus. The age of some herbaceous plants can be determined by analyzing annual growth rings in the secondary root xylem

Herbaceous
–
Trientalis latifolia (Broadleaf Starflower) is a perennial herbaceous plant of the ground layer of forests in western North America.

50.
Grass
–
Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as grasses. Poaceae includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and cultivated lawns, Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath, with ca 780 genera and around 12,000 species, Poaceae are the fifth-largest plant family, following the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae. Grasslands such as savannah and prairie grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40. 5% of the land area of the Earth, excluding Greenland. Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many habitats, including wetlands, forests. Though commonly called grasses, seagrasses, rushes, and sedges fall outside this family, the rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the order Poales, but the seagrasses are members of order Alismatales. The name Poaceae was given by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895, based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by Robert Brown, the term is derived from the Ancient Greek πόα. Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms, a cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets, Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Recent findings of grass-like phytoliths in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites have pushed this back to 66 million years ago. In 2011, revised dating of the origins of the rice tribe Oryzeae suggested a date as early as 107 to 129 Mya, a multituberculate mammal with grass-eating adaptations seems to suggest that grasses were already around at 120 mya. This separation occurred within the short time span of about 4 million years. Grass leaves are always alternate and distichous, and have parallel veins. Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the stem, the leaf blades of many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths, which discourage grazing animals, some, such as sword grass, are sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or fringe of hairs called the ligule lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing water or insects from penetrating into the sheath, flowers of Poaceae are characteristically arranged in spikelets, each having one or more florets. The spikelets are further grouped into panicles or spikes, the part of the spikelet that bears the florets is called the rachilla. A spikelet consists of two bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets, a floret consists of the flower surrounded by two bracts, one external—the lemma—and one internal—the palea. The flowers are usually hermaphroditic—maize being an important exception—and anemophilous or wind-pollinated, the perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules, that expand and contract to spread the lemma and palea, these are generally interpreted to be modified sepals. This complex structure can be seen in the image on the right, the fruit of grasses is a caryopsis, in which the seed coat is fused to the fruit wall

51.
Peppermint
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Peppermint is a hybrid mint, a cross between watermint and spearmint. Indigenous to Europe and the Middle East, the plant is now widespread in cultivation in regions of the world. It is occasionally found in the wild with its parent species, peppermint was first described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England, he treated it as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid. It is a rhizomatous perennial plant that grows to be 30–90 cm tall, with smooth stems. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots, the leaves can be 4–9 cm long and 1. 5–4 cm broad. They are dark green with reddish veins, and they have an acute apex, the leaves and stems are usually slightly fuzzy. The flowers are purple, 6–8 mm long, with a corolla about 5 mm diameter, they are produced in whorls around the stem, forming thick. Flowering season lasts from mid to late summer, the chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66,72,84, and 120 recorded. Peppermint is a plant, once it sprouts, it spreads very quickly. Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches, being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions, peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground rhizomes. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 1.5 feet apart and they grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a supply of water, without being water-logged. The leaves and flowering tops are used, they are collected as soon as the begin to open. The wild form of the plant is suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, peppermint has a high menthol content. The oil also contains menthone and carboxyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate, dried peppermint typically has 0. 3–0. 4% of volatile oil containing menthol, menthone, menthyl acetate, menthofuran and 1, 8-cineol

52.
Acetaldehyde
–
Acetaldehyde is an organic chemical compound with the formula CH3CHO, sometimes abbreviated by chemists as MeCHO. It is one of the most important aldehydes, occurring widely in nature, Acetaldehyde occurs naturally in coffee, bread, and ripe fruit, and is produced by plants. It is also produced by the oxidation of ethanol by the liver enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. Pathways of exposure include air, water, land, or groundwater, as well as drink, consumption of disulfiram inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of acetaldehyde, thereby causing it to build up in the body. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has listed acetaldehyde as a Group 1 carcinogen, Acetaldehyde is one of the most frequently found air toxins with cancer risk greater than one in a million. In 1835, Liebig named it aldehyde, the name was altered to acetaldehyde. In 2003, global production was about 1 million tonnes, before 1962, ethanol and acetylene were the major sources of acetaldehyde. Since then, ethylene is the dominant feedstock, smaller quantities can be prepared by the partial oxidation of ethanol in an exothermic reaction. This process typically is conducted over a silver catalyst at about 500–650 °C, cH3CH2OH + 1⁄2 O2 → CH3CHO + H2O This method is one of the oldest routes for the industrial of preparation of acetaldehyde. Prior to the Wacker process and the availability of cheap ethylene and this reaction is catalyzed by mercury salts, C2H2 + Hg2+ + H2O → CH3CHO + Hg The mechanism involves the intermediacy of vinyl alcohol, which tautomerizes to acetaldehyde. The reaction is conducted at 90–95 °C, and the acetaldehyde formed is separated from water and mercury, in the wet oxidation process, iron sulfate is used to reoxidize the mercury back to the mercury salt. The resulting Iron sulfate is oxidized in a reactor with nitric acid. The process was once attractive because of the value of the hydrogen coproduct, the hydroformylation of methanol with catalysts like cobalt, nickel, or iron salts also produces acetaldehyde, although this process is of no industrial importance. Similarly noncompetitive, acetaldehyde arises from synthesis gas with modest selectivity, at room temperature, acetaldehyde is more stable than vinyl alcohol by 42.7 kJ/mol, Overall the keto-enol tautomerization occurs slowly but is catalyzed by acids. Photo-induced keto-enol tautomerization is viable under atmospheric or stratospheric conditions and this photo-tautomerization is relevant to the earths atmosphere, because vinyl alcohol is thought to be a precursor to carboxylic acids in the atmosphere. Acetaldehyde is an electrophile in organic synthesis. In condensation reactions, acetaldehyde is prochiral and it is used primarily as a source of the CH3C+H synthon in aldol and related condensation reactions. Grignard reagents and organolithium compounds react with MeCHO to give hydroxyethyl derivatives, in one of the more spectacular condensation reactions, three equivalents of formaldehyde add to MeCHO to give pentaerythritol, C4

Acetaldehyde
–
Production Of Acetaldehyde

53.
Tomato
–
The tomato is the edible fruit of Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant, which belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The species originated in Central and South America, the Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato originates. Numerous varieties of tomato are widely grown in temperate climates across the world, with greenhouses allowing its production throughout the year, the plants typically grow to 1–3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its habitat, and grown as an annual in temperate climates. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomato is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in dishes, sauces, salads. While tomatoes are botanically fruits, they are considered culinary vegetables. The word tomato comes from the Spanish tomate, which in turn comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl and it first appeared in print in 1595. The native Mexican tomatillo is tomate, meaning fat water or fat thing), when Aztecs started to cultivate the Andean fruit, bigger and red, they called the new species xitomatl. It first appeared in print in 1595, the scientific species epithet lycopersicum means wolf peach, and comes from German werewolf myths. The Italian word, pomodoro was borrowed into Polish, and via Russian, the usual pronunciations of tomato are /təˈmeɪtoʊ/ and /təˈmɑːtoʊ/. The words dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwins 1937 song Lets Call the Whole Thing Off and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has become an American and British slang term. Or Its all the same to me, botanically, a tomato is a fruit, a berry, consisting of the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a lower sugar content than other edible fruits. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is, in the US, considered a culinary vegetable. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices, they are acidic enough to process in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as vegetables require. Tomatoes are not the food source with this ambiguity, bell peppers, cucumbers, green beans, eggplants, avocados

54.
Furfural
–
Furfural /ˈfɜːrfjᵿræl/ is an organic compound derived from a variety of agricultural byproducts, including corncobs, oat, wheat bran, and sawdust. The name furfural comes from the Latin word furfur, meaning bran, Furfural is a heterocyclic aldehyde, with the ring structure shown at right. It is an oily liquid with the odor of almonds. It is one of the found in vanilla. Furfural was first isolated in 1821 by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, at the time, formic acid was formed by the distillation of dead ants, and Döbereiners ant bodies probably contained some plant matter. George Fownes named this oil furfurol in 1845 and this name persisted prominently in the literature until 1901 when the German chemist Carl Harries deduced furfurals structure. Except for occasional use in perfume, furfural remained a relatively obscure chemical until 1922, today, furfural is still produced from agricultural byproducts like sugarcane bagasse and corn cobs. The main countries producing furfural today are the Dominican Republic, South Africa, furfurals physical properties are summarized in the table at top right. Furfural dissolves readily in most polar solvents, but is only slightly soluble in either water or alkanes. Chemically, furfural participates in the kinds of reactions as other aldehydes. Indicating its diminished aromaticity relative to benzene, furfural is readily hydrogenated to the corresponding tetrahydrofuran derivatives, when heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly solidifies, i. e. a thermosetting polymer. Furfural may be obtained by the acid catalyzed dehydration of 5-carbon sugars and these sugars may be obtained from hemicellulose present in lignocellulosic biomass and as such furfural may be considered a green chemical. Furfural and water evaporate together from the mixture, and separate upon condensation. The global production capacity is about 800,000 tons as of 2012, China is the biggest supplier of furfural, and accounts for the greater part of global capacity. The other two major producers are Illovo Sugar in the Republic of South Africa and Central Romana in the Dominican Republic. In the laboratory, synthesis of furfural from corn cobs takes place by reflux with dilute sulfuric acid, the lignocellulosic residue that remains after the removal of the furfural is used to generate all the steam requirements of the furfural plant. Newer and more efficient plants have excess residue, which is or can be used for co-generation of electricity, cattle feed, activated carbon, mulch/fertiliser. It also has used as a glue extender in the North American board industry

Furfural

55.
Cuminaldehyde
–
Cuminaldehyde, or 4-isopropylbenzaldehyde, is a natural organic compound with the molecular formula C10H12O. It is a benzaldehyde with an isopropyl group substituted in the 4-position, cuminaldehyde is a constituent of the essential oils of eucalyptus, myrrh, cassia, cumin and others. It has a pleasant smell and contributes to the aroma of these oils and it is used commercially in perfumes and other cosmetics. Cuminaldehyde can be prepared synthetically by the reduction of 4-isopropylbenzoyl chloride or by the formylation of cumene, the thiosemicarbazone of cuminaldehyde has antiviral properties

Cuminaldehyde
–
Cuminaldehyde

56.
Floral
–
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens

57.
Ethyl methylphenylglycidate
–
Ethyl methylphenylglycidate, commonly known as strawberry aldehyde, is an organic compound used in the flavor industry in artificial fruit flavors, in particular strawberry. Because of its pleasant taste and aroma, ethyl methylphenylglycidate finds use in the industry, in artificial flavors. Its end applications include perfumes, soaps, beauty products, detergents, pharmaceuticals, baked goods, candies, ice cream. Ethyl methylphenylglycidate is classified as an ester and an epoxide, but, despite its common name and it is a colourless to pale-yellow liquid that is insoluble in water. Long-term, high-dose studies in rats have demonstrated that ethyl methylphenylglycidate has no significant adverse effects and is not carcinogenic. The US Food and Drug Administration has classified ethyl methylphenylglycidate as generally recognized as safe

Ethyl methylphenylglycidate
–
Ethyl methylphenylglycidate

58.
Oct-1-en-3-one
–
Oct-1-en-3-one, also known as 1-octen-3-one, is the odorant that is responsible for the typical metallic smell of metals and blood coming into contact with skin. Oct-1-en-3-one is the reduction product of the chemical reaction of skin lipid peroxides. Skin lipid peroxides are formed from skin lipid by oxidation, either enzymatically by lipoxygenases or by air oxygen, oct-1-en-3-one is a ketone analog of the alkene 1-octene. It is also produced by Uncinula necator, a fungus that causes powdery mildew of grape, odorant 1-Octen-3-ol, the alcohol analog that is used by mosquitoes as an odor cue Science Daily, The Smell of Money The smell of iron CID from PubChem

Oct-1-en-3-one

59.
Wine lactone
–
Wine lactone is a pleasant smelling compound found naturally in apples, orange juice, grapefruit juice, orange essential oil, clementine peel oil and various grape wines. It was first discovered as an essential oil metabolite in Koala urine by Southwell in 1975 and it was discovered several years later by Guth in white wines and was named wine lactone. This monoterpene imparts coconut, woody and sweet odors to a wine, there are 8 possible isomers of wine lactone with the isomer being the only one that has been found in wine. This isomer is also the most potent of all eight with a detection threshold of 10 ng/L in model wine. The odor threshold of the -wine lactone stereoisomer is 0. 00001-0.00004 ng/l in air, leffingwell website lists a number of wine lactone variants, notably the 0. 00001-0.00004 ng/l version with animated structures

Wine lactone
–
Wine lactone

60.
Maple syrup
–
Maple syrup is a syrup usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple, red maple, or black maple trees, although it can also be made from other maple species. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before the winter, Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the exuded sap, which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water, leaving the concentrated syrup. Maple syrup was first collected and used by the peoples of North America, and the practice was adopted by European settlers. Technological improvements in the 1970s further refined syrup processing, Vermont is the largest producer in the United States, generating about 6% of the global supply. Maple syrup is graded according to the Canada, United States, or Vermont scales based on its density, sucrose is the most prevalent sugar in maple syrup. In Canada, syrups must be made exclusively from maple sap to qualify as maple syrup, in the United States, a syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap to be labelled as maple, though states such as Vermont and New York have more restrictive definitions. Maple syrup is often eaten with pancakes, waffles, French toast and it is also used as an ingredient in baking, and as a sweetener or flavouring agent. Culinary experts have praised its flavour, although the chemistry responsible is not fully understood. Three species of trees are predominantly used to produce maple syrup, the sugar maple, the black maple. The black maple is included as a subspecies or variety in a more broadly viewed concept of A. saccharum, of these, the red maple has a shorter season because it buds earlier than sugar and black maples, which alters the flavour of the sap. A few other species of maple are also used as sources of sap for producing maple syrup, including the box elder or Manitoba maple, the silver maple. Similar syrups may also be produced from birch or palm trees, indigenous peoples living in northeastern North America were the first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar. According to aboriginal oral traditions, as well as archaeological evidence, other stories credit the development of maple syrup production to Nanabozho, Glooskap, or the squirrel. Aboriginal tribes developed rituals around sugar-making, celebrating the Sugar Moon with a Maple Dance, many aboriginal dishes replaced the salt traditional in European cuisine with maple sugar or syrup. The Algonquians recognized maple sap as a source of energy and nutrition, andré Thevet, the Royal Cosmographer of France, wrote about Jacques Cartier drinking maple sap during his Canadian voyages. By 1680, European settlers and fur traders were involved in harvesting maple products, however, rather than making incisions in the bark, the Europeans used the method of drilling tapholes in the trunks with augers. Maple sugaring parties typically began to operate at the start of the thaw in regions of woodland with sufficiently large numbers of maples. Sap filled the buckets, and was either transferred to larger holding vessels, often mounted on sledges or wagons pulled by draft animals

61.
Curry
–
Curry is a dish originating in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent. The common feature is the use of combinations of spices or herbs. The use of the term is limited to dishes prepared in a sauce. Curry dishes prepared in the states of India may be spiced with leaves from the curry tree. There are many varieties of dishes called curries, such dishes are called by specific names that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods. Traditionally, spices are used whole and ground, cooked or raw, and they may be added at different times during the cooking process to produce different results. Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices, is largely a Western creation, such mixtures are commonly thought to have first been prepared by Indian merchants for sale to members of the British Colonial government and army returning to Britain. Dishes called curry may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, additionally, many instead are entirely vegetarian, eaten especially among those who hold ethical or religious proscriptions against eating meat or seafood. Curries may be dry or wet. Dry curries are cooked with very little liquid which is allowed to evaporate, wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on yoghurt, cream, coconut milk, coconut cream, legume purée, or broth. The first curry recipe in English was published in 1747 by Hannah Glasse, archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food. Black pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia and has known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, influenced some curries, Curry was introduced to English cuisine starting with Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century as spicy sauces were added to bland boiled and cooked meats. The 1758 edition of Hannah Glasses The Art of Cookery contains a recipe To make a currey the Indian way, Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809, and has been increasingly popular in Great Britain, with major jumps in the 1940s and the 1970s. During the 19th century, curry was also carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry, since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine. It is usual to distinguish broadly between northern and southern styles of Indian cuisine, recognising that within those categories are innumerable sub-styles and variations. The distinction is made with reference to the staple starch, wheat in the form of unleavened breads in the north, rice in the east, rice. Bengali cuisine, which refers to the cuisine of Bangladesh and the West Bengal state of India, includes curries, including seafood, Mustard seeds and mustard oil are added to many recipes, as are poppy seeds

62.
Thioacetone
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Thioacetone is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula 2CS. It is a lightly studied compound, the compound has been isolated as an orange or brown liquid at low temperatures. Above -20 °C, thioacetone readily converts to a polymer and a trimer, Thioacetone is usually obtained by cracking the cyclic trimer 3. The trimer is prepared by pyrolysis of allyl isopropyl sulfide or by treating acetone with hydrogen sulfide in the presence of Lewis acids, the trimer cracks at 500-600 °C to give the thione. The trimer of thioacetone is a white or colorless compound with a point of 24 °C. It also has a disagreeable odor and it is also known as 1,1,3,3,5, 5-hexamethyltrithiane. Taste at 0. 35-0.50 ppm is recommended, its characteristics are described as berry, earthy, minty. Like many low molecular weight compounds, the smell is potent. And like such compounds it can be detected at high dilution, the soap manufacturer Whitehall Soap Works later noted in an 1890 report that dilution seemed to make the smell worse and described the smell as fearful. Thioacetone is considered a dangerous due to its extremely foul odor and ability to render people unconscious, induce vomiting. Thiobenzophenone, a thioketone that can be isolated as a solid Thioacetone, NIST Trithioacetone, Aldrich

Thioacetone

63.
Ethanethiol
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Ethanethiol, commonly known as ethyl mercaptan, is a clear liquid with a distinct odor. It is a compound with the formula CH3CH2SH. Abbreviated EtSH, it consists of a group, CH3CH2, attached to a thiol group. Its structure parallels that of ethanol, but with sulfur in place of oxygen, the odor of EtSH is infamous. Ethanethiol is more volatile than ethanol due to an ability to engage in hydrogen bonding. It occurs naturally as a component of petroleum, and may be added to otherwise odorless gaseous products such as liquefied petroleum gas to help warn of gas leaks. At these concentrations, ethanethiol is not harmful, ethanethiol is prepared by the reaction of ethylene with hydrogen sulfide over a catalyst. The various producers utilize different catalysts in this process and it has also been prepared commercially by the reaction of ethanol with hydrogen sulfide gas over an acidic solid catalyst, such as alumina. Ethanethiol was originally reported by Zeise in 1834, Zeise treated calcium ethyl sulfate with a suspension of barium sulfide saturated with hydrogen sulfide. He is credited with naming the C2H5S- group as mercaptum, ethanethiol can also be prepared by a halide displacement reaction, where ethyl halide is reacted with aqueous sodium bisulfide. This conversion was demonstrated as early as 1840 by Henri Victor Regnault, ethanethiol has a strongly disagreeable odor that humans can detect in minute concentrations. The threshold for detection is as low as one part in 2.8 billion parts of air. Its odor resembles that of leeks, onions, durian or cooked cabbage, employees of the Union Oil Company of California reported first in 1938 that turkey vultures would gather at the site of any gas leak. After finding that this was caused by traces of ethanethiol in the gas it was decided to boost the amount of ethanethiol in the gas, to make detections of leaks easier. Ethanethiol is intentionally added to butane and propane to impart an easily noticed smell to these normally odorless fuels that pose the threat of fire, explosion, in the underground mining industry, ethanethiol or ethyl mercaptan is referred to as stench gas. The gas is released into mine ventilation systems to alert mine workers during an emergency, ethanethiol is a reagent in organic synthesis. In the presence of hydroxide, it gives the powerful nucleophile SEt−. The salt can be generated quantitatively by reaction with sodium hydride, ethanethiol can be oxidized to ethyl sulfonic acid, using strong oxidizing agents

Ethanethiol

64.
Grapefruit mercaptan
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Grapefruit mercaptan is the common name for a natural organic compound found in grapefruit. It is a monoterpenoid that contains a functional group. Structurally a hydroxy group of terpineol is replaced by the thiol in grapefruit mercaptan, volatile thiols typically have very strong, often unpleasant odors that can be detected by humans in very low concentrations. Grapefruit mercaptan has a potent, but not unpleasant, odor. This characteristic aroma is a property of only the R enantiomer, pure grapefruit mercaptan, or citrus-derived oils rich in grapefruit mercaptan, are sometimes used in perfumery and the flavor industry to impart citrus aromas and flavors. Nootkatone, another aroma compound in grapefruit Terpineol, where a hydroxyl is in place of the thiol

Grapefruit mercaptan

65.
Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules

Butter
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Butter at the Borough Market, London
Butter
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Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a butter knife.
Butter
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Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Butter
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Liquid clarified butter

66.
Tetrahydrothiophene
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Tetrahydrothiophene is an organosulfur compound with the formula 4S. It consists of a ring containing four carbon atoms and a sulfur atom. It is the analog of thiophene. It is a volatile, colorless liquid with an unpleasant odor. It is also known as thiophane, thiolane or THT and it is prepared by the reaction of tetrahydrofuran with hydrogen sulfide. This vapor-phase reaction is catalyzed by alumina and other heterogenous acid catalysts and this compound is a ligand in coordination chemistry, an example being the complex chlorogold. Oxidation of THT gives the solvent called sulfolane, a solvent with almost no odor. Sulfolane is more conventionally prepared from butadiene, because of its smell, tetrahydrothiophene has been used as an odorant in LPG, albeit no longer in North America. It is also used as an odorant for natural gas, usually in mixtures containing tert-butylthiol

Tetrahydrothiophene

67.
2,4,6-Trichloroanisole
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2,4, 6-Trichloroanisole is a chemical compound that is a chlorinated derivative of anisole. TCA is a metabolite of 2,4, 6-trichlorophenol. It can be found in minute traces on packaging materials stored in the presence of fiberboard treated with trichlorophenol, TCA is the chemical primarily responsible for cork taint in wines. TCA has also implicated as a major component of the Rio defect in coffees from Central and South America. TCA is usually produced when naturally occurring airborne fungi and bacteria are presented with chlorinated phenolic compounds, the chlorophenols can originate from various contaminants such as those found in some pesticides and wood preservatives. Chlorophenols can also be a product of the bleaching process used to sterilize or bleach wood, paper. They can also migrate from other such as shipping pallets treated by chlorophenols. The odor of TCA is not directly perceived, instead, the molecule distorts the perception of smell by suppressing olfactory signal transduction. The effect occurs at low concentrations, so even very minute amounts of TCA can be detected. It causes unpleasant earthy, musty and moldy aromas

2,4,6-Trichloroanisole
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2,4,6-Trichloroanisole

68.
Cork taint
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Cork taint can affect wines irrespective of price and quality level. TCA is a compound which does not occur naturally and it is created when some fungi are treated with chlorinated phenolic compounds, which are a type of antimicrobial agent used in the processing of wood. This compound is one of the factors responsible for the problem associated with mold liable to be found in cork. Very small amounts of compound, on the order of nanograms. Corked wine containing TCA has an odor, variously described as resembling a moldy newspaper, wet dog, damp cloth. In almost all cases of corked wine the wines native aromas are reduced significantly, while the human threshold for detecting TCA is measured in the single-digit parts per trillion, this can vary by several orders of magnitude depending on an individuals sensitivity. Detection is also complicated by the systems particularly quick habituation to TCA. Chlorophenols taken up by cork trees are an industrial pollutant found in pesticides and wood preservatives. Ironically, chlorophenols can also be a product of the bleaching process used to sterilize corks. The cork-industry group APCOR cites a study showing a 0. 7-1. 2% taint rate, in a 2005 study of 2800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa, California, 7% of the bottles were found to be tainted. In 2013, the Cork Quality Council ran over 25 thousand tests, the results, compared with data from eight years ago, show a sharp reduction in TCA levels, of around 81 percent. In the last test,90 percent of samples of natural cork stopper shipments showed values of under 1.0 ppt, screw caps and synthetic corks, however, are thought be prone to another aroma taint, sulphidisation. Systemic TCA tainting occurs when TCA has infiltrated a winery via means other than cork and this occurs when wine barrels, drain pipes, wooden beams in the cellars, or rubber hoses are tainted by TCA. Sometimes entire cellars have to be rebuilt in order to all potential systemic TCA culprits. Rubber hoses or gaskets have an affinity for TCA and therefore concentrate TCA from the atmosphere. Wine or water that passes through infected hoses can become tainted with TCA. Another possible means of TCA contamination is through the use of Bentonite, Bentonite has a high affinity for TCA and will absorb TCA and related chemicals in the atmosphere. If an open bag of Bentonite is stored in an environment with a high TCA concentration and it is notable that this systemic TCA will often impart a trace to the wine, which itself is not detected by most consumers

69.
Pyrazine
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Pyrazine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound with the chemical formula C4H4N2. Pyrazine is a molecule with point group D2h. Pyrazine is less basic than pyridine, pyridazine and pyrimidine, derivatives such as phenazine are well known for their antitumor, antibiotic and diuretic activities. Many methods exist for the synthesis of pyrazine and its derivatives. Some of these are among the oldest synthesis reactions still in use, in the Staedel–Rugheimer pyrazine synthesis 2-chloroacetophenone is reacted with ammonia to the amino ketone, then condensed and then oxidized to a pyrazine

Pyrazine

70.
Gene expression
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Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes. The process of gene expression is used by all known life—eukaryotes, prokaryotes, several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated, including the transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein. Gene regulation gives the cell control over structure and function, and is the basis for differentiation, morphogenesis. In genetics, gene expression is the most fundamental level at which the genotype gives rise to the phenotype, the genetic code stored in DNA is interpreted by gene expression, and the properties of the expression give rise to the organisms phenotype. Such phenotypes are expressed by the synthesis of proteins that control the organisms shape. Regulation of gene expression is critical to an organisms development. A gene is a stretch of DNA that encodes information, genomic DNA consists of two antiparallel and reverse complementary strands, each having 5 and 3 ends. This RNA is complementary to the template 3 →5 DNA strand, therefore, the resulting 5 →3 RNA strand is identical to the coding DNA strand with the exception that thymines are replaced with uracils in the RNA. A coding DNA strand reading ATG is indirectly transcribed through the non-coding strand as AUG in RNA, in prokaryotes, transcription is carried out by a single type of RNA polymerase, which needs a DNA sequence called a Pribnow box as well as a sigma factor to start transcription. RNA polymerase I is responsible for transcription of ribosomal RNA genes, RNA polymerase II transcribes all protein-coding genes but also some non-coding RNAs. Pol II includes a C-terminal domain that is rich in serine residues, when these residues are phosphorylated, the CTD binds to various protein factors that promote transcript maturation and modification. RNA polymerase III transcribes 5S rRNA, transfer RNA genes, transcription ends when the polymerase encounters a sequence called the terminator. These include 5 capping, which is set of reactions that add 7-methylguanosine to the 5 end of pre-mRNA. The m7G cap is then bound by cap binding complex heterodimer, another modification is 3 cleavage and polyadenylation. They occur if polyadenylation signal sequence is present in pre-mRNA, which is usually between protein-coding sequence and terminator, the pre-mRNA is first cleaved and then a series of ~200 adenines are added to form poly tail, which protects the RNA from degradation. Poly tail is bound by multiple poly-binding proteins necessary for mRNA export, a very important modification of eukaryotic pre-mRNA is RNA splicing. The majority of eukaryotic pre-mRNAs consist of alternating segments called exons and introns, in certain cases, some introns or exons can be either removed or retained in mature mRNA

Gene expression
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The patchy colours of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.
Gene expression
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Genes are expressed by being transcribed into RNA, and this transcript may then be translated into protein.
Gene expression
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In situ-hybridization of Drosophilaembryos at different developmental stages for the mRNA responsible for the expression of hunchback. High intensity of blue color marks places with high hunchback mRNA quantity.

71.
Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states

Environmental Protection Agency
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Stacks emitting smoke from burning discarded automobile batteries, photo taken in Houston in 1972 by Marc St. Gil (cs), official photographer of recently founded EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
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Seal of the Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Protection Agency
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Same smokestacks in 1975 after the plant was closed in a push for greater environmental protection
Environmental Protection Agency
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Ruckelshaus sworn in as first EPA Administrator.

72.
Pheromone
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A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, Pheromones are used from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones, the portmanteau word pheromone was coined by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek φερω pheroo and ὁρμων hormon. Pheromones are also classified as ecto-hormones. For this reason, bacteria are too small to use pheromones as sex attractants on an individual basis, however, they do use them to determine the local population density of similar organisms and control behaviors that take more time to execute. Aggregation pheromones function in mate selection, overcoming host resistance by mass attack, a group of individuals at one location is referred to as an aggregation, whether consisting of one sex or both sexes. Most sex pheromones are produced by the females, only a percentage of sex attractants are produced by males. Aggregation pheromones have been found in members of the Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Dictyoptera, aggregation pheromones are among the most ecologically selective pest suppression methods. They are nontoxic and effective at low concentrations. Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight or aggression in members of the same species, for example, Vespula squamosa use alarm pheromones to alert others to a threat. In Polistes exclamans, alarm pheromones are used as an alert to incoming predators. Pheromones also exist in plants, Certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon and these tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore. Epideictic pheromones are different from territory pheromones, when it comes to insects, releaser pheromones are pheromones that cause an alteration in the behavior of the recipient. For example, some organisms use powerful attractant molecules to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more, in general, this type of pheromone elicits a rapid response, but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone has an onset and a longer duration. For example, rabbit release mammary pheromones that trigger immediate nursing behavior by their babies, signal pheromones cause short-term changes, such as the neurotransmitter release that activates a response

73.
Aroma of wine
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It is through the aromas of wine that wine is smelled. The human tongue is limited to the primary tastes perceived by taste receptors on the tongue-sourness, bitterness, saltiness, sweetness and savoriness. The wide array of fruit, earthy, floral, herbal, mineral, in wine tasting, wine is sometimes smelled before being drunk in order to identify some components of the wine that may be present. Different terms are used to describe what is being smelled, the most basic term is aroma which generally refers to a pleasant smell as opposed to odor which refers to an unpleasant smell or possible wine fault. The term aroma may be distinguished from bouquet which generally refers to the smells that arise from the chemical reactions of fermentation. In professional wine tasting, there is generally a distinction made between aromas and a wines bouquet while in casual wine tasting these two terms are used interchangeably. An aroma refers to the unique to the grape variety and are most readily demonstrated in a varietal wine—such as lychees with Gewürztraminer or black currant with Cabernet Sauvignon. These are smells that are associated with a young wine. As a wine ages, chemical reactions among acids, sugars, alcohols and these can include honey in an aged Sauternes or truffles in a Pinot noir. The term bouquet can also be expanded to include the smells derived from fermentation, in Burgundy, the aromas of wines are sub-divided into three categories-primary, secondary and tertiary aromas. Primary aromas are those specific to the grape variety itself, secondary aromas are those derived from fermentation. Tertiary aromas are those that develop through either bottle or oak aging, the technique of microoxygenation affects the aromatic bouquet. Within wine there are volatile and non-volatile compounds that contribute to the make up of a wines aroma, as a wine ages and matures, changes and developments in aroma will continue to take place but at a slower and more gradual pace. Volatile aroma compounds are present in the skin and juice of a grape berry, the diverse spectrum of aromas associated with individual grape varieties is a reflection of the vines adaptation to ecological conditions and competition among other plants. The majority of volatile compounds responsible for aroma combine with sugars in the wine to form odorless glycosides, through the process of hydrolysis, caused by enzymes or acids in the wine, they revert into an aromatic form. The act of tasting wine is essentially the act of smelling these vaporized aroma compounds, olfactory receptors cells, each sensitive to a different aroma, pick up these compounds and transfer the information to the brain by way of the olfactory bulb. In the 1980s there was renewed focus in studying the correlation between aroma/flavor compounds in grapes and the quality of wine. Scientists were able to use chromatograph-mass spectrometers to identify volatile aroma compounds in various grape varieties, study of the compounds responsible for aroma and flavor, as well as their correlation with a wines quality, is ongoing

Aroma of wine
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Smelling is an important part of wine tasting; it is thought that much of perceived taste is due to olfactory receptors at the back of the nasal cavity.
Aroma of wine
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A common aroma associated with the grape variety Gewürztraminer is that of lychee fruit.
Aroma of wine
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It is theorized that the grapevine developed aroma compounds as an evolutionary advancement to attract insects and animals to assist in pollination and dispersion of seeds.
Aroma of wine
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A section of the Aroma Wheel invented by Ann C. Noble detailing the fruity aromas that are most commonly encountered in table wines. Used with permission from Ann Noble.

74.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed

75.
History of perfume
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The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, per fumus, meaning through smoke. The word Perfumery refers to the art of making perfumes, Perfume was further refined by the Romans, the Persians and the Arabs. Although perfume and perfumery existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The basic ingredients and methods of making perfumes are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, the worlds first recorded chemist is a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. Perfume and perfumery existed in Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillation of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, the perfume references are part of a larger text called Brihat-Samhita written by Varahamihira, an Indian astronomer, mathematician and astrologer who lived in the historic city of Ujjain. He was one of the ‘nine jewels’ in the court of the Maharaja of Malwa, the perfume portion mainly deals with the manufacture of perfumes to benefit ‘royal personages and inmates of harems’. The text is written as Sanskrit slokas with commentary by a 10th Century Indian commentator Utpala, to date, the oldest perfumery was discovered on the island of Cyprus. Excavations in 2004-5 under the initiative of an Italian archaeological team unearthed evidence of a factory that existed 4,000 years ago during the Bronze Age. This covered a surface area of over 4, 000m² indicating that perfume manufacturing was on an industrial scale. The news of discovery was reported extensively through the world press. The Bible describes a sacred perfume consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon, fragrant cane and its use was forbidden, except by the priests. The women wore perfume to present their beauty, both have greatly influenced Western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. The rise of the Christianity ended the use of perfume around the Middle East, in daily life, meanwhile, Arabs preserved it, and later with a rise of Islam, Muslims improved its production and continued to use perfumes in daily life and in practicing religion. They used musk, roses and amber, among other materials, as traders, Islamic cultures such as the Arabs and Persians had wider access to a wide array of spices, resins, herbs, precious woods, herbs and animal fragrance materials such as ambergris and musk. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century, muhammad said, They often used to blend extracts with the cement of which mosques were built. Such rituals gave incentives to scholars to search and develop a way to produce incenses. Many great discoveries originates from the region in 10th century, the time when the still was invented, thanks to the hard work of two talented Arabian chemists, Jābir ibn Hayyān, and Al-Kindi who established the perfume industry

History of perfume
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Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume

76.
Scented water
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Scented water, odoriferous water or sweet water, is a water with a sweet aromatic smell. It is made of flowers or herbs and is the precursor of the modern day perfume, scented waters are also used in making other products such as pomanders and body care products. Some of the flowers and herbs used to make scented water are, also used to cleanse a curse from another shaman or demon. Lemon lavender - from the Latin word lavare, meaning to wash, myrtle - one of the original types. Orange blossoms - one of the best known waters, orange flower water is also used in various cuisines, to flavor desserts and to mask the taste of hard water. Roses - distilled are used in cosmetics, rose water, a byproduct of traditional rose oil production, is prominently used in desserts in Middle Eastern and North Indian cuisine. Rosemary - believed to refuse to grow in gardens of evil people. In Medieval times a scented water was used for hygiene by a person washing their hands with it before meals, the wealthy of Medieval times had their linen clothes boiled in scented water. Varahamihira was using scented water to clean his toothbrushes, just prior to Marie Antoinettes execution in 1793 one of her servants was able to smuggle her some minimal need requests, one being some scented water for her teeth. The overhead awning shielding the spectators for the Colosseum was saturated with scented water for dripping fragrant water on spectators heads to keep them cool. Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland in 1511-12 had various scented waters made for him, in the 1571 estate inventory of John Brodocke, an apothecary in Southampton, lists 32 types of scented water that he had as some of the items in his shop. In 17th century Constantinople the Venetians and Genoese had apothecary shops that had merchants of scented water including rose water, scented waters were still being used into the 19th century of the wealthy nobles in Egypt as a type of perfume. It was an Egyptian custom then to sprinkle guests with rose water or orange-flower water after dinner just before they were to go home. Even though it is said by scholars that the art of perfumery has it roots in antiquity, in the 18th century they honored guests of the city with scented water and other gifts of fragrance. There are even perfume manuals that describe Montpellier perfumes as being a la mode de Montpellier because of extra ingredients used that enhance their fragrances, scented rose water is and has been used from time to time for cooking and flavoring foods in various recipes. Rose water is used in Greek cuisine, in Medieval times scented water was used for sensual pleasures. In Medieval times scented water was used at baptisms, mary Hooper in her book called Petals in the Ashes about the Great Fire of 1666 explains that the first step in making rose water is to gather together 3 or 4 full roses. These roses should not have treated in any way with toxic pesticide for obvious reasons

Scented water
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Scented water with rose petals
Scented water
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Rosemary scented water is popular.
Scented water
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Lavender scented water is popular.

77.
Pomander
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A pomander, from French pomme dambre, i. e. apple of amber, is a ball made of perfumes, such as ambergris, musk, or Civet. The pomander was worn or carried in a vase, also known by the same name, sometimes they contained several partitions, in each of which was placed a different perfume. The term “pomander” can refer to the material itself or to the container that which contains such material. The container could be made of gold or silver and eventually evolved to be shaped like nuts, skulls, hearts, books, smaller versions were made to be attached by a chain to a finger ring and held in the hand. Even smaller versions served as cape buttons or rosary beads, pomander can be a bag containing fragrant herbs. Pomanders were a form of aromatherapy. Pomanders can be considered related to censers, where aromatics are burned rather than naturally evaporated, pomanders were first mentioned in literature in the mid-thirteenth century. They were used in the late Middle Ages through the 17th century, also a version of the pomander with oranges, cloves, oils and a golden ribbon can be used as a recovery charm in witchcraft. Pomanders were first made for carrying as religious keepsakes, the cooked mixture was then removed from the fire, rolled into an apple shape and coated with a powdered mixture of cinnamon, sweet sanders, and cloves. After this, a concoction was made from three grains each of ambergris, deer musk, and civet musk, the ambergris was dissolved first and the deer and civet musk mixed in later. The apple ball was rolled through the musk concoction to blend in these ingredients and then kneaded to combine, michel de Nostredame had a similar method and formula using similar ingredients, but a rather different procedure. Rose tablets were made by soaking a pound of roses without the heads in deer musk water overnight. The water was then squeezed out and the roses ground with seven ounces of benzoin. This produced a ball of the most supreme perfume. It was favoured by the classes who appreciated the delicacy of the liquid perfumes. Its name stemmed from the fact that the box was pounced or pierced to release the scent, one modern style of pomander is made by studding an orange or other fruit with whole dried cloves and letting it cure dry, after which it may last several years. This modern pomander serves the functions of perfuming and freshening the air and also of keeping drawers of clothing and linens fresh, pleasant-smelling and it figures as a central part of the plot development. Medieval pomander paste formulas usually contained ambergris, from this came pomme ambre and from there the word pomander was developed

78.
Note (perfumery)
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Notes in perfumery are descriptors of scents that can be sensed upon the application of a perfume. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process, the idea of notes is used primarily for the marketing of fine fragrances. The term is used by perfumers to describe approximately scents or the perfumery process to laypeople. Fragrant materials are listed by Poucher in order of volatility and are grouped under respective evaporation coefficients that range from 1 to 100, top notes are otherwise called the head notes. Perceived immediately upon application of a perfume, top notes consist of small and they form a persons initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of the product. The scents of this class are usually described as fresh. The compounds that contribute to top notes are strong in scent, very volatile, although not as saliently perceived, the heart and base-notes contribute much to the scent in the top notes. Citrus and ginger scents are common top notes and they are also called the heart notes. The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate, the middle note compounds form the heart or main body of a perfume and emerge in the middle of the perfumes dispersion process. They serve to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, not surprisingly, the scent of middle note compounds is usually more mellow and rounded. Scents from this class appear anywhere from two minutes to one hour after the application of a perfume. Lavender and rose scents are typical middle notes, the scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume, compounds of this class are often the fixatives used to hold and boost the strength of the lighter top and middle notes. Some base notes can still be detectable in excess of twenty-four hours after application, particularly the animalic and musk notes

Note (perfumery)
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Fragrance pyramid.

79.
The Fragrance Foundation
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The Fragrance Foundation is the non-profit, educational arm of the international fragrance industry. Elizabeth Musmanno is the president of the Fragrance Foundation and Jill Belasco is chair of the Fragrance Foundation, the FiFi Awards & Celebration is an annual event hosted by The Fragrance Foundation that honors creative excellence and achievement in the fragrance industry. The 40th Annual FiFi Awards & Celebration was scheduled for May 21,2012, the Sense of Smell Institute is a research and education division of The Fragrance Foundation. It was founded by Annette Green in 1981 as the Fragrance Foundation Philanthropic Fund dedicated to funding scientific studies on the sense of smell, National Sense of Smell Day is an annual event sponsored by the Sense of Smell Institute. It is held on the last Saturday of April at children’s museums, the day is focused on how the sense of smell plays an important role in daily life and how it interacts with other senses. Typically, museums and science centers celebrating the day will feature hands-on activities, the Fragrance Foundation Homepage Sense of Smell Institute Homepage 13th Annual National Sense of Smell Day http, //www. fragrance. org/FF_past. html page of past winners of the awards

The Fragrance Foundation
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FiFi Award

80.
Michael Edwards (fragrance expert)
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Michael Anthony Edwards is a British fragrance expert, author, and founding editor of Fragrances of the World, the largest guide to perfume classification. He resides in Australia, France, and the United States, Michael Edwards was born on 10 December 1943 in Zomba, Nyasaland. Edwards later moved to Paris to join Norton Simon as the marketing director for Halston. By 1984, Michael Edwards, then working in Sydney, was aware of the need for a guide to help retailers suggest perfumes to consumers and that year, Edwards independently published The Fragrance Manual, the first retailer’s guide to fragrance classification. The manual proved a success, going through several editions, and was expanded at the request of Nordstrom, first to include American fragrances, followed by mens fragrances, the 1992 edition of The Fragrance Manual was the first to feature a fragrance wheel. It was widely adopted in the industry, renamed Fragrances of the World in 2000 and published annually, Edwards’ guide has become an authoritative reference in the fragrance industry, colloquially termed the Fragrance Bible. Its online database, updated weekly, archives profiles of over 16,000 fragrances and this was to be a novel effort, as perfumers rarely discussed their work publicly, instead preferring the secrecy traditional to the fragrance industry. Robert agreed to lend his support, becoming, alongside perfumer Edmond Roudnitska, over the course of six years, Edwards interviewed some 150 perfumers, couturiers, bottle designers, and industry executives, while gaining unprecedented access to private and corporate archives. The resulting book was titled Perfume Legends, French Feminine Fragrances, Fragrances of the World Fragrance wheel Halston History of perfume Perfume Perfumer Guy Robert Edmond Roudnitska White Africans of European ancestry Fragrances of the World - Official website

Michael Edwards (fragrance expert)
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Michael Edwards, 2014

81.
International Flavors and Fragrances
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International Flavors & Fragrances is an American corporation, it is major producer of flavors and fragrances which it markets globally. It is headquartered in New York City and has creative, sales, International Flavors & Fragrances was formed in 1958 by the merger between Polak & Schwarz and van Ameringen-Haebler. Polak & Schwarz was founded in 1889 by Leopold Schwarz, who had an interest in spices, flavors and fragrances, P&S quickly grew to 36 sites globally. Arnold Louis van Ameringen was hired by Polak & Schwarz to open P&Ss US office in 1917 before losing his job with them. Relieved of his duties, he opened van Ameringen & Co. at 13 Gold Street in Manhattan, took over Morana, Inc. in 1920, van Ameringen is credited with suggesting to bar soap and detergent manufacturers that they scent their products to boost sales. The two companies did well through the bulk of the 20th century, despite difficulties for P&S during World War II, while both companies managed flavors and fragrances, Polak & Schwarz had particular strengths in flavors and van Ameringen-Haebler built a powerful reputation in fragrances. In 1958, the two announced their merger to become International Flavors & Fragrances Inc. IFF was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1964, in 2000, IFF acquired Bush Boake Allen with its complementary products, technologies, and presence in key markets, making IFF the largest flavor and fragrance house in the world for several years. IFF has creative, sales, and manufacturing facilities in 29 different countries and is a member of the S&P500 Index. IFF is a $7 billion market capital company with a footprint that generated over 75 percent of its 2010 sales outside the United States and 45 percent in the emerging markets. In 2016, IFF announced that it completed the acquisition of David Michael & Company of Philadelphia, the plaintiffs claim the manufacturers knew about the dangers of the butter flavoring used in the popcorn factory but failed to give a warning. The defendants said they were unaware of the risk and suggested there was not enough evidence to prove their product had caused the disease, several suits have already been settled amounting to almost $53 million in damages. Firmenich Takasago Symrise Givaudan Frutarom Official website The World of Smell, An Inside Tour of the Worlds Largest Perfume Lab Time magazine,2007

International Flavors and Fragrances
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Corporate headquarters on 57th Street
International Flavors and Fragrances
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International Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.

82.
Firmenich
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Firmenich SA is a private Swiss company in the perfume and flavor business. It is the largest privately owned company in the field and ranks number two worldwide, Firmenich has created perfumes for over 100 years and produced a number of well-known flavors. Firmenich employs 6,200 people in 63 countries, major competitors include Givaudan, International Flavors and Fragrances, Frutarom and Symrise. It bought Noville in 2006 and in 2007 acquired Daniscos flavor division, the company was founded as Chuit & Naef in 1895 in Geneva by chemist Philippe Chuit and businessman Martin Naef. Fred Firmenich joined in 1900 and later became the majority partner, the company was renamed Firmenich SA. Firmenichs board named Gilbert Ghostine as CEO to succeed Patrick Firmenich, yves Boisdron was elected as chairman of Firmenich’s Board of Directors as of July 1,2013. Originally a fragrance company, Firmenich branched into the business by creating a raspberry substitute in 1938, followed by creations of citrus. Other synthetic flavors followed for use in processed foods and preserved foods, in 1939, Firmenich Director of Research and Development Lavoslav Ružička was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. On May 3,2007, Firmenich announced that it would be acquiring the flavors division of Danisco in a deal worth €450 million, the deal was expected to move Firmenich ahead of IFF as the second largest flavor company in the world