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Sustainable Transport Environment in Indian Megacities: Problems and Remedies

by Ashok Kumar*

ABSTRACT Like world, India is becoming increasingly urbanized in which the dynamics of population growth, coupled with the current trends of urbanization are highly debilitating. Presently, approximately 30 percent of Indian population is living in cities, out of which about one fifth is residing in six megacities. Current trends of urbanization, as inspired by better quality of life, are posing multiple stresses on our environment and human population. Coupled with rapid urbanization each city consists of a number of supporting systems. Transport is one of them, which provides mobility, flexibility and accessibility to urban people. For all practical purposes, a sustainable transport system must offer mobility and approachability to all urban residents in safe, risk-free and eco-friendly mode of transport.

In such a complex situation, linkages between environment, modes of public/private motorised transport, non-motorised transport and safety must be given adequate attention.

This paper deals with the idea and challenge of creating a “sustainable transport environment” in Indian megacities, alongwith a comprehensive discussion on the existing problems of air and noise pollution and poor motorised system of transport. The scheme of this paper is to examine the extent of problem and suggest remedial measures.

Keywords: Population and urban growth, air and noise pollution, sustainable transport system.

each city consists of a large number of constituent systems. and rampant diseases linked to an unhealthy environment. My own study of literature pertaining to transportation and health reveals the fact that most public discussions and policy documents in India focus only on air pollution as a matter of prime
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. The urban population of the world as a whole has been expanding at the rate of nearly 3 percent per year. sustainable transport system and other facilities. Similarly. public transport. It is to be realized. which provides mobility. Secure infrastructure for bicyclists and pedestrians may require segregation of road space or reduction of speeds of moving vehicles.. 1984). poor transport and inadequate facilities.then they have to either walk as pedestrians or use bicycles to work. resources and trained personnel to provide their rapidly growing population with clean drinking water. non-motorised transport and safety must be given proper and adequate attention. buses and inappropriate industrialization. Presently approximately 30 percent India’s population lives in urban areas.INTRODUCTION The world is becoming increasingly urbanised. If a large portion of population cannot afford to avail motorised transport-private vehicles or public buses. Indian cities are filled with automobiles like scooters and private cars. increased overcrowding. increases in vehicular speeds may reduce emissions of pollutants but they can accelerate the rate of road accidents. linkages between environmental issues. J. In such a complex situation. Kolkata and Delhi. flexibility and accessibility to people. on an average. pollution. Coupled with rapid urbanization. In both the cases. The proportion is significantly higher in cities like Mumbai. presumably faster than the existing world population growth rate. sanitation. The current trends of urbanization inspired by better quality of life are posing multiple stresses on our environment. in general.
The result is mushrooming illegal settlements and slums. Transport is one of them. A sustainable transport system must offer mobility and approachability to all urban residents in a secure and eco-friendly mode of transport. Roughly. Along with over-crowding. measures to reduce air and noise pollution may at times confront with those required for reduction in road accidents. Indian cities are faced with the challenge of power. Chennai. restriction of mobility on vehicle users in bound to take place.the time to allow the damage to environment now and clean up later. that there are neither resources nor-given rapid technological change. half of the global population lives in cities (Peterson. For Example.

Ministry of statistics and programme implementation. Hence. it will be almost implausible to procure any sustainable transport environment for India's urban areas in general and in megacities in particular.
OBJECTIVES The broad objectives of this paper are as under: To examine trends in the level of pollution in metropolitan cities in terms of three major pollutants: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2). secondary sources of data have been largely used for analysis. Central Statistical Organisation (CSO). The data on air and noise pollution have been taken from the Compendium of Environment Statistics. Data on the vehicular mode of transport have been obtained from Motor
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. Health problems due to pollution are considered as worthy of public action whereas those caused by accidents as due to personal mistakes. covenience and safety. and to elucidate the main causes and effect our pollutions on health due to vehicular growth. Of all these concerns the one involving safety is the most challenging for any person. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx). Government of India and from the publications of the Central Pollution Control Board. The safety advantages are realised only by a relatively smaller segment of people who save many years of their lives without falling prey to pre-mature accidental deaths. To analyse the effects of noise pollution on health. This requires a constant bearing on planning for public transport. An essential aspect in the consideration of advantage of mobility versus perception of accidental risk is that the road user's sense of time saved by driving faster exceeds that in reality. Options regarding mode of transport by individuals are based on economic factor. It is relatively simple to co-relate and quantify the relationship between the numbers of vehicles. exhaust fumes and morbidity due to increased pollution.concern. and the safety on the roads. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM). A major problem in articulating a sustainable transport strategy aimed at increasing mobility of motorised vehicles is that pedestrians and non-motorised road users who do not benefit from increased mobility are largely open to increased accident risk. unless the requirements of non-motorised modes of transport are fulfilled. To suggest remedial measures for a sustainable transport environment in Indian megacities on selective basis
DATABASE During the course of this study.

60 0.97 19. Analytical and statistical techniques have been used for interpretation and data representation. The scheme of this paper is to examine the extent of the problem and to suggest remedial measures.41 38. Data on population growth and urban growth have been obtained from Census of India (2001).14 36. One-fifth of the urban population of India lives in six megacities (Shukla. Table 1 indicated that the numbers of cities have more than doubled over the hundred years from ten decades.
FINDINGS Trends of Urban Growth in India The current trends of population growth coupled with urban growth are highly debilitating in India.76 2.35 8. Delhi’s population in 1991 stood at 9.80 0.84 10.99 13.16 Tempo of Urbanisation 0. Table 1: Urban Growth in India
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 No.68 2.
METHODOLOGY The paper makes an absorbing quest for the creation of a sustainable transport environment in Indian megacities alongwith a detailed investigation of the existing problems of air and noise pollution and poor motorised transport system. The classic urban nightmare has already gained ground in the cities of India.4 millions. at.40 1.74 Growth Rate 0.79 1. of Towns 1827 1815 1949 2072 2250 2843 2365 2590 3378 3768 % of Urban Popn / Total Popn 10. el.03 0.87 3.42 26. showing an increase of 3.83 1.21 23. 1996). Over the last ten decades. According to census of India (2001).34 25.27 19.52 2.65 0.97 41.68 3.2 millions over the 1981 figure. India has experienced more than two-fold increase in its level of urbanization during 1901 and 2001.23 46.29 17.Transport Statistics of India.86 17. 2001 The number of metropolitan cities in India has reached the figure of 40 in 2001.28 3.30 3.19 Average Annual Growth Rate 0.18 11.12 31. Delhi’s population has reached the figure of
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.80 1.37
Source: Census of India 1991.29 11.28 1. Thus.

With the increasing urbanization and industrialization.a 3119
Source: Motor Transport Statistic of India 1997.67 Human Popn (in million) 361. environmental pollutions.16.1 No.2 683.91 213.2 548. 1997). range and scope of problems arising out of unbridled urban growth Population growth coupled with urbanisation causes over-crowding. Kolkata and Mumbai on the other have marked the entire domain.3 846.65 18. The city of Chennai has reached a growth rate of 41. as against 2.3 n.137. health problems and civil amenities and transportation.74 235. particularly due to enormous increase in personal mode of transport.07 252. 2001). The composition of vehicles represents that the Indian roads are crowded by 50-80 percent two wheelers and cars.
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.a 890.82. Table 2 indicates that the vehicular population increased by 91 times during 1991-96 (Motor Transport Statistics of India.1 million of Popn 85 151 340 789 2526 2734 2897 n.06 6.65 53.99 n. of Vehicles / 0.1 439. etc stretched to almost disrupting edge. In majority of the Indian cities the private mode of transport is increasing at the rate of 10-18 percent per year.05 percent and the population has reached the figure of 42. an inference can be drawn that the road transport scenario has been gradually worsening in India in the preceding decades.3 859.976.1 million) 3. Vehicular Growth and Air and Noise Pollution The problems of air and noise pollution have been increasing by leaps and bounds over the past few decades as a result of urbanisation and faster rate of motorisation. Table 2:Vehicular Growth in India
Year 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Vehicular Popn (0. Public transport accounts for a meager 2 percent. the transport demand has also increased consequently.268 (Census. Hence.5 times increase in human population during the same period.a 277.7 873.

1997).21 HC 249. the age of vehicles.3 5.88 50.25
Source: Central Pollution Control Board 1994
According to the Transport Department.03 3. in 2000.46 CO 651.02 NO2 126.57 108. Kolkata and Chennai.01 469. Table 4 shows daily vehicle emission loads in Delhi. The different pollution-centric factors are the types of engines. Government of National Capital Region of Delhi.25 2. Table 5 shows the trends.No 1 2 3 4 Category Delhi Mumbai Kolkata Chennai All India Total Total no. the estimated vehicular emission load in Delhi has shown tremendous rise.65 2.30 659.82 54. Urban transport is expected to grow by 2. The main vehicular pollutants are carbon monoxide. Mumbai.92 188.71 43.69 28.71 226.34 SO2 8.46 70.22 Total 1046.
Table 4: Daily Vehicle Emission Loads in Four Metropolitan cities in India (Tonnes/Day)
City Delhi Mumbai Kolkata Chennai SPM 10.96 4. of all Vehicles 2629645 723632 81196 9315093
Source: Motor Transport Statistics of India 1997
The table 3 indicates the total number of vehicles in 4 Indian megacities as on 31 March 1996.Table 3: Total Registered Motor Vehicles in Metropolitan City of India as on 31 March 1996
S. the number of vehicle increased from about 11 million in 1986 to more than 33 million in 1996 of which about 28 percent remained concentrated in 23 metropolitan cities (Motor Transport Statistics of India.24 143. a varying amount of sulphurdioxide depending on the sulphur contents of the fuel and lead compounds. As investigated. Nitrogen Oxide. poor roads and over-crowded traffic.57 293.6 times by the year 2016 in the large and medium-size cities of India. thus culminating into increased and compound vehicular pollution.59 3.
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following facts are worth-mentioning to grasp the health problems generated by air pollutants: • A World Bank report underlines that more than 40. • Nearly 80-90 percent lead in ambient air is attributed to the composition of leaded petrol (Compendium of Environment Statistics. Mumbai is the noisiest city of the world with average noise level of 75 dBA. Mumbai. • Studies reveal that the cases of respiratory diseases and allergies have almost doubled since 1990. which may cause lung cancer. 1999). A study conducted jointly by Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Board.000 people die prematurely per year in India due to health problems caused by air pollution. • By the year 2001. The noise pollution levels are no good in other Indian megacities. • It is estimated that almost 50 percent population in Mumbai has absorbed 30 microgram of lead in 100 millilitre of blood. behavioral and physiological effects can be summarized as under:
Type of effect 8 Health Hazards
.Kolkata. As per record. while simply 50 microgram is sufficient to culminate in brain damage and muscular problems. which in Delhi it varies between 75-80 dBA. The levels of other pollutants are expected to rise by 5 times (Satyaramchandar. 1997). • The levels of air pollution in large cities have been increasing with such a tremendous magnitude that the World Health Organisation has suggested the international tourists to limit their visits to the four megacities of India. Kolkata in 1994-95 underlines that in most of the situations the traffic noise index contributes to 10 dBA to the noise pollution index in Kolkata. noise pollution is the second most hazardous pollutant of environment from the health point of view.
Noise Pollution and Health After vehicular emission. carbon monoxide levels were estimated to increase by seven times and that of hydrocarbons by 9 times. Unleaded petrol in India contains a very high level of benzene. Delhi and Chennai. The net effects of high traffic intensity in noise pollution in the city are well-known facts. The health hazards of noise pollution in terms of subjective. This study also reveals that the noise levels at the road crossings in Kolkata are much higher.As studied. Encyclopedia Britannica (1968) and Encyclopedia Americana (1973) define noise as ‘undesired’ and ‘unwanted’ sound respectively.

1 SO2 0. both air and noise. an Environmental Pollution Control Authority was set up for the city. There after. reduced work efficiency. CONFLICT BETWEEN SAFETY AND SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT It can be seen that: • Non-motorised modes of transport is an integral component of all trips and are likely to remain so in the foreseeable future in all Indian cities. disturbance. annoyance. pedestrians and bicyclists are more prone to accidental risks per trip than the car users. • Any accretion in the use of public transport also causes an increase in walking/bicycling trips in these cities.
Subjective effects (below 40 dBA) Behavioral effects (up to 90 dBA)
Disturbance. particularly n Indian megacities.1. therefore. For example.1997. Table 7: Potential annual savings per person in air pollution from using public transport instead of driving to work
HC Kg Percent 13. 2. sleep irritation. Sustainable transport systems can be optimised by the promotion of public transport and non-motorised modes of mobility and accessibility in Indian megacities. headache.05 85.
Physiological effects
Fatigue. urgently required to check the rising levels of noise pollution as a result of heavy traffic in the cities.3 NO2 7. are given as under:
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.1 PM 0. frustration. disappointment.50 97. Some of the options suggested to check vehicular pollution. However. increases in blood pressure.6
Source: Rutter. in governmental response.47 98. • In the prevailing situations. deafness. Communication interference. et al. strain. abortion.14 46. the Government of India in 1997 drafted a White Paper on pollution in Delhi.6 CO 99. including mega cities. some of these measures do not find adequate expression at the level of policy decisions.12 27.
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It is. • It seems difficult to have sustainable bus transport systems with marked lanes for buses unless segregated lanes are provided for non-motorised modes of transport in these cities.

• Priority should be given for the design and development of modern and sophisticated bus transport systems to increase their use in the megacities of India. specifically building of two or three lines at very high costs. Introduction of one-way streets and introduction of synchronised signals and area traffic control systems. • Introduction of safe entry and exist modus operandi for bus passengers.
Segregated Lanes for Non-Motorised Transport and Safe Pedestrian Modes Following arrangements are required for: • Comprehensive adherence to urban and road design characteristics to ensure the safety of pedestrians and bicyclists. • India must evaluate the cost-effectiveness of metro rail systems. This can be ensured by adjusting of trip times and introduction of speed limiting devices in buses.
• •
Construction of metro rail transport systems. Constructions of convenient under-street sub-ways and crossing facilities for pedestrians. • • Construction/provision of segregated bicycle lanes on all arterial roads in megacities. This will require all buses to be fitted with closing doors. Experiences from Chinese cities suggest that the construction of metro systems does not necessarily help in the reduction of private vehicle use.• •
Construction of expressways and grade separated intersections. • (B) Movement of buses with relatively safer speeds. congestion or pollution.
REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS (A) Public Transport • Shift from private / personal transport to mass public transport can lower the vehicular emission to large extent. • Introduction/acquisition of such engines and transmission technologies fitted with buses that ensure clean burning and combustion at the passenger loads and driving cycles in Indian megacities. Phasing out older buses and induction of new buses. low floors and properly designed bus stops.
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. This will be an important step towards a sustainable public transport system.

public and non-motorised transport. Adequate measures must be taken in terms of technological modifications in vehicles.
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. sensitive areas and the ring roads. urgently required to develop a safe and eco-friendly transport environment. properly planned transport system management. introduction of new technologies fuel integrated land-use transportation planning.(C)
Environmental Protection and Monitoring • Increase in the distances between residential blocks. • We have to design and implement schemes that remain at a human scale and protect all aspects of human health. Elevated roads should be reduced and the use of double-layered or multi-layered roads should not be adhered to ensure sustainable transport environment. It is. industrialization and motorized transport have caused unbridled problems of air and noise pollution in all the cities of India in varying degrees. • The safety and environmental dimensions of change in transport and land use should find adequate expression in technical and public analyses and estimates. The levels of these pollutions in Indian megacities have risen to alarming proportions. haphazard urban growth. • • Strict control of speeds by all vehicles to prevent noise pollution. • In order to ensure a sustainable transport environment. therefore. (1991). to cater to the need of people for a sustainable transport environment. This indicates that any high traffic road in a megacity affects the land use around it and makes it less usable for people or user-friendly.
REFERENCES Census of India.
CONCLUSION The increases in urban population. it is irrevocably required to have a simultaneous evaluation of safety and environmental concerns by involving related department and agencies. • Buildings sensitive to vibrations not to be constructed within a range of 40 m of the road. etc.