While an undergraduate at Calvin College, Wolterstorff was greatly influenced by professors William Harry Jellema, Henry Stob and Henry Zylstra, who introduced him to schools of thought that have dominated his mature thinking: Reformed theology and common sense philosophy (these have also influenced the thinking of Wolterstorff's friend and colleague Alvin Plantinga, another alumnus of Calvin College).

Wolterstorff builds upon the ideas of the Scottish common sense philosopher Thomas Reid, who approached knowledge "from the bottom-up". Instead of reasoning about transcendental conditions of knowledge, Wolterstorff suggests that knowledge and our knowing faculties are not the subject of our research but have to be seen as its starting point. Wolterstorff rejects classical foundationalism and instead sees knowledge as based upon insights in reality which are direct and indubitable.

Bigelow, Minnesota
–
Bigelow is a city in Nobles County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 235 at the 2010 census, According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.40 square miles, all of it land. The town of Bigelow is located in southcentral Nobles County in section 31 of Bigelow Township, the southern corporate limit of the tow

1.
Topographic map of Bigelow, Minnesota

2.
Location of Bigelow, Minnesota

3.
Charles H. Bigelow, namesake of Bigelow, Minnesota, circa 1894

4.
Hiawatha pageant, Bigelow school, 1908

Minnesota
–
Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S.

4.
Eagle Mountain, the highest natural point in Minnesota at 2,301 feet (701 m) is located in northeastern part of the state.

20th-century philosophy
–
20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons

Western Philosophy
–
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Gree

Analytic philosophy
–
Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the

Epistemology
–
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously person

Metaphysics
–
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fundamental nature of reality. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two questions, Ultimately, what is there. Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, a central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation

Philosophy of Religion
–
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, philosophy of religion is, the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It is an ancient discipline, being found in the earliest known manuscripts concerning philosophy, and relates to other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epis

1.
Aristotle

2.
Kierkegaard

3.
Aquinas

Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern Englis

Political Philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political

2.
Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.

Reformed epistemology
–
In the philosophy of religion, reformed epistemology is a school in philosophical thought concerning the nature of knowledge as it applies to religious beliefs. Central to reformed epistemology is the proposition that belief in God may be properly basic, Alvin Plantinga distinguishes between what he calls de facto from de jure objections to Christi

1.
Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist. From the collection of the Bibliothèque de Genève (Library of Geneva)

Alvin Plantinga
–
Plantinga is widely known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics and Christian apologetics. He is the author of books including God and Other Minds, The Nature of Necessity. He has delivered the Gifford Lectures two times and was described by TIME magazine as Americas leading orthodox Protestant philosopher of God, Planti

1.
Plantinga in 2009

Thomas Reid
–
Thomas Reid FRSE was a religiously trained Scottish philosopher, a contemporary of David Hume as well as Humes earliest and fiercest critic. He was the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, the early part of his life was spent in Aberdeen and he graduated from the University of Aberdeen. He began his career as a Minister of the Church of

1.
Thomas Reid

Abraham Kuyper
–
Abraham Kuijper, generally known as Abraham Kuyper, was a Dutch journalist, statesman and neo-Calvinist theologian. He founded the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, a newspaper, the Free University of Amsterdam, and he served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands between 1901 and 1905. He vigorously denounced modernism in theology as a fad that

1.
Abraham Kuyper

2.
Signature

Augustine
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his

John Calvin
–
John Calvin was an influential French theologian, pastor and reformer during the Protestant Reformation. Various Congregational, Reformed, and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged c

1.
Calvin was originally interested in the priesthood, but he changed course to study law in Orléans and Bourges. Painting titled Portrait of Young John Calvin from the collection of the Library of Geneva.

4.
Saint-Nicolas Church, Strasbourg, where Calvin preached in 1538. The building was architecturally modified in the 19th century.

Kendall Walton
–
Kendall Lewis Walton is an American philosopher, the Charles Stevenson Collegiate Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Art and Design at the University of Michigan. His work mainly deals with questions about the arts and issues of philosophy of mind, metaphysics. His book Mimesis as Make Believe, On the Foundations of the Representational Arts

1.
Kendall Lewis Walton

American philosopher
–
American philosophy is the philosophical activity or output of Americans, both within the United States and abroad. I think that in no country in the world is less attention paid to philosophy than in the United States. Most of the operations of the mind, each American appeals to the exercise of his own understanding alone. The American philosophic

Political philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political

2.
Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.

Philosophy of religion
–
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, philosophy of religion is, the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It is an ancient discipline, being found in the earliest known manuscripts concerning philosophy, and relates to other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epis

1.
Aristotle

2.
Kierkegaard

3.
Aquinas

Philosophy of education
–
As an academic field, philosophy of education is the philosophical study of education and its problems. its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy. The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. Although there is overlap, ph

Calvin College
–
Calvin College is a liberal arts college located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1876, Calvin College is an institution of the Christian Reformed Church. Calvin College is named after John Calvin, the 16th-century Protestant Reformer, the Christian Reformed Church in North America founded the school on August 4,1876, as part of Calvin College

1.
Calvin College Chapel and Hiemenga Hall seen from the Science Building

Grand Rapids
–
Grand Rapids is the second-largest city in Michigan, and the largest city in West Michigan. It is on the Grand River about 30 miles east of Lake Michigan, as of the 2010 census, the city population was 188,040. In 2010, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area had a population of 1,005,648, Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County, Michigan. A hist

Michigan
–
Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state t

Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confus

1.
A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree

Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberali

PhD
–
A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate

Vrije Universiteit
–
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam is a university in Amsterdam, Netherlands, founded in 1880. VU is one of two large, publicly funded universities in the city, the other being the University of Amsterdam. The literal translation of the Dutch name Vrije Universiteit is Free University. Free refers to independence of the university from both the State and

3.
Former eastern entrance to the campus, since 2010 the location of a new building for the Faculty of Law.

4.
New 'O2' Lab Building under construction (January 2014).

Noah Porter
–
Rev. Noah Thomas Porter, III was an American academic, philosopher, author, lexicographer and President of Yale College. He was born to Rev. Noah Porter, Jr. and his wife, born Mehitable Meigs, in Farmington and his younger sister was Sarah Porter, founder of Miss Porters School, a college preparatory school for girls. He graduated in 1831 from Yal

1.
Noah Porter

Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, info

1.
A science professor lecturing to university students.

2.
The Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.

Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use variou

Yale University
–
Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of

Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with th

1.
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of Nassau Hall

Oxford University
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University o

4.
In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)

University of Notre Dame
–
The University of Notre Dame du Lac is a Catholic research university located adjacent to South Bend, Indiana, in the United States. In French, Notre Dame du Lac means Our Lady of the Lake and refers to the patron saint. The main campus covers 1,250 acres in a setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the

3.
The University's historic center comprising the Basilica, the Golden Dome and Washington Hall, were built in the early years of the University

4.
The current Main Building, built in 1879.

University of Texas
–
Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in

University of Michigan
–
The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan

3.
The Central Campus Diag, viewed from the Graduate Library, looking North

4.
Law Library Interior

Temple University
–
Temple University is a state-related-public doctoral university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. It was founded in 1884 by Baptist Minister Russell Conwell, in 1882, Conwell came to Pennsylvania to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. The

University of Virginia
–
The University of Virginia, frequently referred to simply as Virginia, is a public research university and the flagship for the Commonwealth of Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Declaration of Independence author Thomas Jefferson, UVA is known for its foundations, student-run honor code. UNESCO designated UVA as Americas first and only collegiate World

3.
James Madison was the 2nd rector of the University of Virginia until 1836

4.
Edwin Alderman was UVA's first president between 1904 and 1931, and instituted many reforms toward modernization

St Andrews University
–
The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a var

4.
The "Gateway" building, built in 2000 and now used for the university's management department

Southern Methodist University
–
Southern Methodist University is a private research university in Dallas, University Park, and Highland Park, Texas. Founded in 1911 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, SMU operates satellite campuses in Plano, Texas, SMU is owned by the South Central Jurisdiction of the United Methodist Church. Of the universitys 11,643 students,6,411 are un

Princeton Theological Seminary
–
Princeton Theological Seminary is an independent school of theology in Princeton, New Jersey and the largest of ten seminaries associated with the Presbyterian Church. Princeton Seminary has long been influential in theological scholarship, with many leading scholars, theologians. It houses one of the largest theological seminaries in the world and

1.
Princeton Theological Seminary

2.
Princeton Seminary in the 1800s

3.
Miller Chapel

4.
Areas

Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
–
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, in Louisville, Kentucky, is the oldest of the six seminaries affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention. The seminary was founded in 1859 at Greenville, South Carolina, after being closed during the Civil War, it moved in 1877 to a newly built campus in downtown Louisville and later moved to its curre

1.
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

Regent College
–
Not affiliated with a particular religious denomination, Regent College is a transdenominational evangelical protestant institution in its general outlook. The schools stated mission is to cultivate intelligent, vigorous, and joyful commitment to Jesus Christ, His church, about 500 students are enrolled in full- or part-time studies. In any given y

1.
Regent College

Scottish Common Sense Realism
–
Not to be confused with the art movement, see Scottish art. Reid emphasized mans innate ability to perceive common ideas and that process is inherent in. Common sense therefore, is the foundation of philosophical inquiry, the Scottish School of Common Sense was an epistemological philosophy that flourished in Scotland in the late 18th and early 19t

William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
–
Eerdmans Publishing Company is a religious publishing house based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1911 by William B, William Bernard Eerdmans was a Dutch American publisher known for the William B. Eerdmans was born Wiltje Eerdmans, the son of Dirkje Pars and he immigrated to the United States in 1902, heading for Grand Rapids, Michigan, a ce

1.
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company

American philosophy
–
American philosophy is the philosophical activity or output of Americans, both within the United States and abroad. I think that in no country in the world is less attention paid to philosophy than in the United States. Most of the operations of the mind, each American appeals to the exercise of his own understanding alone. The American philosophic

The Christian Century
–
The Christian Century is a Christian magazine based in Chicago, Illinois. Considered the flagship magazine of U. S. mainline Protestantism, the reports on religious news, comments on theological, moral, and cultural issues, and reviews books, movies. Matt Fitzgerald hosts a podcast entitled, Preachers on Preaching, the Christian Centurys current ed

1.
Cover of December 14, 2010 issue

Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and h

Augustine of Hippo
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his

4.
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms

2.
In the Allegory of the Cave, the objects that are seen are not real, according to Plato, but literally mimic the real Forms.

3.
The central image from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509-1511), depicting Plato (left) and Aristotle (right). Plato is depicted pointing upwards, in reference to his belief in the higher Forms, while Aristotle disagrees and points downwards to the here-and-now, in reference to his belief in empiricism.

1.
Bigelow, Minnesota
–
Bigelow is a city in Nobles County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 235 at the 2010 census, According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.40 square miles, all of it land. The town of Bigelow is located in southcentral Nobles County in section 31 of Bigelow Township, the southern corporate limit of the town is defined by the Iowa border. The first two were Worthington and Brewster, throughout the summer of 1872, the site was occupied only by a large tent which furnished shelter for the construction crew. A railroad depot was constructed in September 1872, and Mr. S. O. Morse assumed duties as station agent and he went into partnership with a man named Frothingham, and the two established a small grocery store in the depot. This was the business established in 1872. Source of name, Even before railroad tracks had reached present-day Bigelow and it was named after Charles H. Bigelow. He was also a director of the St. Paul & Sioux City Railway, Bigelow Township was also named after Mr. Bigelow. There is no record of Charles Bigelow visiting the town bears his name. Incorporation, The townsite was platted and a dedication was made on September 24,1873, two new business came to town in 1873. S. D. Tinnes opened a general store and John DeBoos. A grain dealer, a yard, and a coal business were established in 1874. A school house was built in that year and began that fall with 24 students. The 1880 census gave Bigelow a population of only 28, Charles L. Davidson, of Hull, Iowa, purchased the townsite on January 25,1892, and decided to boom the town, or attract investment and settlers. His efforts apparently paid off, for by 1894, Bigelow claimed 150 residents, a census taken on November 16,1899, counted 224 residents. On February 13,1900, an election was held, the first president of Bigelow was a Mr. W. C. Bigelow today, According to the 2010 census, Bigelow has a population of 235, perhaps a half-dozen businesses exist in the town. In recent years, Minnesota State Highway 60, which passed directly through town, was upgraded to four-lanes

2.
Minnesota
–
Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean

Minnesota
Minnesota
–
Flag
Minnesota
Minnesota
–
Eagle Mountain, the highest natural point in Minnesota at 2,301 feet (701 m) is located in northeastern part of the state.

3.
20th-century philosophy
–
20th-century philosophy saw the development of a number of new philosophical schools— including logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology, existentialism, and poststructuralism. In terms of the eras of philosophy, it is labelled as contemporary philosophy. However, there have been disputes regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as bridging the divide, in addition, philosophy in the twentieth century became increasingly technical and harder for lay people to read. Analytic philosophy is a term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was radically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettiers 1963 paper Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. This paper provided counter-examples to the formulation of knowledge going back to Plato. Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. V. O and it repudiates the notion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism, representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objectivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological implications and this approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theories in favour of close attention to the details of the use of everyday, ordinary language. The later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophys most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle, second generation figures include Stanley Cavell and John Searle. Continental philosophy, in usage, refers to a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy from mainland Europe. This sense of the term originated among English-speaking philosophers in the half of the 20th century. Existentialism is generally considered a philosophical and cultural movement that holds that the point of philosophical thinking must be the individual. Common themes are the primacy of experience, Angst, the absurd, while György Lukácss History and Class Consciousness and Karl Korschs Marxism and Philosophy, first published in 1923, are often seen as the works that inaugurated this current. Maurice Merleau-Ponty coined the phrase Western Marxism much later, phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a philosophical movement founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserls conception, is concerned with the systematic reflection on, and study of, the structures of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis, which sees the world as objects, sets of objects. Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to prominence in the 1960s and 70s

4.
Western Philosophy
–
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. The word philosophy itself originated from the Hellenic, philosophia, literally, the scope of philosophy in the ancient understanding, and the writings of the ancient philosophers, were all intellectual endeavors. Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor with Thales of Miletus and his most noted students were respectively Anaximander and Anaximenes of Miletus. Pythagoras, from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia, pythagoreans hold that all is number, giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians. They also believe in metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation, Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates. Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified, Socrates used a critical approach called the elenchus or Socratic method to examine peoples views. He aimed to study human things, the life, justice, beauty. Although Socrates wrote nothing himself, some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations and he was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, although his friends offered to help him escape from prison, he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles. His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B. C, Plato Socrates most important student was Plato. Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, some central ideas of Platos dialogues are the immortality of the soul, the benefits of being just, that evil is ignorance, and the Theory of Forms. Forms are universal properties that constitute reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called becoming. Aristotle Platos most outstanding student was Aristotle, Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist. He wrote books on physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers, including Greek, Roman, Christian, Jewish, the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the prominent figure of this period was St. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers up until the 13th century. The foundations of many northern European universities were built in the Middle Ages by waves of Irish, Scottish & English monks from the Celtic Church begun by Columba, see Celtic Christianity. Erigena is said to have been stabbed to death by his students with their pens and his theology would today be called pantheistic, in keeping with Celtic resolutions of pagan and Christian philosophy

5.
Analytic philosophy
–
Analytic philosophy is a style of philosophy that became dominant in English-speaking countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, as a historical development, analytical philosophy refers to certain developments in early 20th-century philosophy that were the historical antecedents of the current practice. Central figures in historical development are Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, Gottlob Frege. This may be contrasted with the traditional foundationalism, which considers philosophy to be a science that investigates the fundamental reasons. Consequently, many philosophers have considered their inquiries as continuous with, or subordinate to. This is an attitude that begins with John Locke, who described his work as that of an underlabourer to the achievements of scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth century, the most influential advocate of the continuity of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Quine, the principle that the logical clarification of thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the logical form of philosophical propositions. The logical form of a proposition is a way of representing it, to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, however, analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language. The neglect of generalized philosophical systems in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigorously and it is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. Its methods, in respect, resemble those of science. Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism and phenomenology. British idealism, as taught by such as F. H. Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. With reference to this basis the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Inspired by developments in logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism — the opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism, Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Like Frege, Russell attempted to show that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics, later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic

6.
Epistemology
–
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief, the term Epistemology was first used by Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, according to Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had previously personified this philosophical concept as the character Epistemon in 1591 and this philosophical approach signified a Philomath seeking to obtain greater knowledge through epistemology with the use of theology. The dialogue was used by King James to educate society on various concepts including the history, the word epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek epistēmē meaning knowledge and the suffix -logy, meaning a logical discourse to. J. F. Ferrier coined epistemology on the model of ontology, to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge, and called it the true beginning of philosophy. The word is equivalent to the concept Wissenschaftslehre, which was used by German philosophers Johann Fichte, French philosophers then gave the term épistémologie a narrower meaning as theory of knowledge. Émile Meyerson opened his Identity and Reality, written in 1908, in mathematics, it is known that 2 +2 =4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person, place, thing, or activity. Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between knowing that, knowing how, and acquaintance-knowledge, with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these, while these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are defined explicitly in other languages. In French, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch to know is translated using connaître, conhecer, conocer, modern Greek has the verbs γνωρίζω and ξέρω. Italian has the verbs conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, German has the verbs wissen and kennen. The verb itself implies a process, you have to go from one state to another and this verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the episteme in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name Erkenntnistheorie. The theoretical interpretation and significance of linguistic issues remains controversial. In his paper On Denoting and his later book Problems of Philosophy Bertrand Russell stressed the distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance, gilbert Ryle is also credited with stressing the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in The Concept of Mind. This position is essentially Ryles, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between knowledge that and knowledge how leads to infinite regress and this includes the truth, and everything else we accept as true for ourselves from a cognitive point of view. Whether someones belief is true is not a prerequisite for belief, on the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. It would not be accurate to say that he knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported his weight, then he might say that he had believed that the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to himself, epistemologists argue over whether belief is the proper truth-bearer. Some would rather describe knowledge as a system of justified true propositions, plato, in his Gorgias, argues that belief is the most commonly invoked truth-bearer

7.
Metaphysics
–
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fundamental nature of reality. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two questions, Ultimately, what is there. Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, a central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to one another. Another branch is metaphysical cosmology, which seeks to understand the origin, there are two broad conceptions about what world is studied by metaphysics. The strong, classical view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist independently of any observer, the weaker, more modern view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject becomes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis. Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these worlds and what can be inferred about each one, some philosophers and scientists, such as the logical positivists, reject the entire subject of metaphysics as meaningless, while others disagree and think that it is legitimate. Ontology deals with the determination whether categories of being are fundamental and it is the inquiry into being in so much as it is being, or into beings insofar as they exist—and not insofar as particular facts may be obtained about them or particular properties belong to them. Most ontologies assume or assert the existence of categories including objects, properties, space, immediate questions arising from this include the nature of objects. Only properties can be observed directly, so what does it mean for an object to exist, how can we be sure that such objects exist at all. The word is has two uses in English, separated out in ontology. It can denote existence as in there is an elephant in the room, some philosophers also include sub-classing as a third form of is-ness or being, as in the elephant is a mammal. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Other controversial categories of objects and properties which may be argued to exist or not include aesthetic and moral properties, stances about the status of such things may form the foundation for other branches of philosophy such as aesthetics, ethics and political philosophy. Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue, metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself. Other issues of identity arise in the context of time, what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time, how do we account for this. Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity, and how does the reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions

8.
Philosophy of Religion
–
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, philosophy of religion is, the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It is an ancient discipline, being found in the earliest known manuscripts concerning philosophy, and relates to other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology. It is designed such that it can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers, some aspects of Philosophy of religion has classically been regarded as a part of metaphysics. In Aristotles Metaphysics, the necessarily prior cause of motion was an unmoved mover. This, according to Aristotle, is God, the subject of study in theology, although the term did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, perhaps the earliest strictly philosophical writings about religion can be found in the Hindu Upanishads. Around the same time, the works of Daoism and Confucianism also dealt, in part, the Buddhist writing in the Pali canon contains acute philosophical thinking, and we have in Buddhism a very shrewd grasp of the nature of religion as philosophy illuminates it. The philosophy of religion has been distinguished from theology by pointing out that, for theology, also, theology is responsible to an authority that initiates its thinking, speaking, and witnessing. Philosophy bases its arguments on the ground of timeless evidence, three considerations that are basic to the philosophy of religion concerning deities are, the existence of God, the nature of God, and the knowledge of God. There are several positions with regard to the existence of God that one might take. Pantheism - the belief that God exists as all things of the cosmos, panentheism - the belief that God encompasses all things of the cosmos but that God is greater than the cosmos, God is both immanent and transcendent. Deism - the belief that God does exist but does not interfere with human life, monotheism - Usually defined as the belief that a single deity exists which is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent created everything. Polytheism - the belief that deities exist which rule the universe as separate. Henotheism - the belief that multiple deities may or may not exist, henology - believing that multiple avatars of a deity exist, which represent unique aspects of the ultimate deity. Agnosticism - the belief that the existence or non-existence of deities or God is currently unknown or unknowable, a weaker form of this might be defined as simply a lack of certainty about gods existence or nonexistence. Atheism - the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, apatheism - a complete disinterest in, or lack of caring for, whether or not any deity or deities exists. Possibilianism These are not mutually exclusive positions, for example, agnostic theists choose to believe God exists while asserting that knowledge of Gods existence is inherently unknowable. Similarly, agnostic atheists reject belief in the existence of all deities, the attempt to provide proofs or arguments for the existence of God is one aspect of what is known as natural theology or the natural theistic project. This strand of natural theology attempts to justify belief in God by independent grounds, there is plenty of philosophical literature on faith and other subjects generally considered to be outside the realm of natural theology

9.
Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps

10.
Political Philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition

Political Philosophy
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), from a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.
Political Philosophy
–
Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.

11.
Reformed epistemology
–
In the philosophy of religion, reformed epistemology is a school in philosophical thought concerning the nature of knowledge as it applies to religious beliefs. Central to reformed epistemology is the proposition that belief in God may be properly basic, Alvin Plantinga distinguishes between what he calls de facto from de jure objections to Christian belief. A de facto objection is one that attempts to show that Christian truth claims are false, in contrast, de jure objections attempt to undermine Christian belief even if it is, in fact, true. Plantinga argues that there are no objections to Christian belief apart from de facto objections. The third in the series was Warranted Christian Belief, published in 2000, Reformed epistemology is a position argued by William Lane Craig, William Alston, and Michael C. Plantingas reformed epistemology includes two arguments against classical foundationalism, the first grew out of his earlier argument in God and Other Minds. In that work Plantinga argued that if our belief in other minds is rational without propositional or physical evidence, Plantingas second argument against classical foundationalism is that it is self-referentially incoherent. It fails the test of its own rules, which require that it be either self-evident, incorrigible, in Plantingas view, warrant is defined as the property of beliefs that makes them knowledge. Because there is a possible model according to which theistic belief is properly basic and designed to form true belief in God. Plantinga does not argue that this model is true, but makes the case if the model is true if theistic belief is also likely true. This point is answered by many arguments which provide sufficient propositional and physical evidence to warrant that belief. In his magnum opus, Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts, the knowledge of God and of ourselves. Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world, the only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide, Calvin interpreted the following passages of the Bible as teaching this epistemology, Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen. For now we see through a glass, darkly, but then face to face, now I know in part, according to this line of reasoning, Our science-dominated culture has ruled out religious experience as a clue to reality, but on what grounds. Science in the 1600s was so successful in understanding the physical dimension of reality that people in the 1700s began to think that the physical may be the dimension of reality. But success in one area of inquiry does not invalidate other areas, the burden of proof is on those who would exclude a particular kind of experience from being a source of knowledge. Under this view, knowledge is not static and reason and evidence are not the only sources of knowledge

Reformed epistemology
–
Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist. From the collection of the Bibliothèque de Genève (Library of Geneva)
Reformed epistemology
–
Linus awaits the Great Pumpkin in the comic Peanuts.

12.
Alvin Plantinga
–
Plantinga is widely known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, metaphysics and Christian apologetics. He is the author of books including God and Other Minds, The Nature of Necessity. He has delivered the Gifford Lectures two times and was described by TIME magazine as Americas leading orthodox Protestant philosopher of God, Plantinga is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Plantinga was born on November 15,1932, in Ann Arbor, Michigan, to Cornelius A. Plantinga, Plantingas father was a first-generation immigrant, born in the Netherlands. His family is from the Dutch province of Friesland, plantinga’s father earned a Ph. D. in philosophy from Duke University and a masters degree in psychology, and taught several academic subjects at different colleges over the years. One of Plantingas brothers, Cornelius Neal Plantinga, Jr. is a theologian, another of his brothers, Leon, is an emeritus professor of musicology at Yale University. His brother Terrell worked for CBS News, in 1955, Plantinga married Kathleen De Boer. Plantinga and his wife have four children, Carl, Jane, Harry, both of his sons are professors at Calvin College, Carl in Film Studies and Harry in computer science. Harry is also the director of the colleges Christian Classics Ethereal Library, at the end of 11th grade, Plantingas father urged Plantinga to skip his last year of high school and immediately enroll in college. Plantinga reluctantly followed his fathers advice and in 1949, a few months before his 17th birthday, he enrolled in Jamestown College, in Jamestown, during that same year, his father accepted a teaching job at Calvin College, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In January 1950, Plantinga moved to Grand Rapids with his family, during his first semester at Calvin, Plantinga was awarded a scholarship to attend Harvard University. Beginning in the fall of 1950, Plantinga spent two semesters at Harvard, in 1954, Plantinga began his graduate studies at the University of Michigan where he studied under William Alston, William Frankena, and Richard Cartwright, among others. A year later, in 1955, he transferred to Yale University where he received his Ph. D. in 1958, in 1963, he accepted a teaching job at Calvin College, where he replaced the retiring Jellema. He then spent the next 19 years at Calvin before moving to the University of Notre Dame in 1982 and he retired from the University of Notre Dame in 2010 and returned to Calvin College, where he serves as the first holder of the William Harry Jellema Chair in Philosophy. Plantinga served as president of the American Philosophical Association, Western Division, 1981–1982. and he has honorary degrees from Glasgow University, Calvin College, North Park College, the Free University of Amsterdam, Brigham Young University, and Valparaiso University. He was a Guggenheim Fellow, 1971–1972, and elected a Fellow in the American Academy of Arts, in 2006, the University of Notre Dames Center for Philosophy of Religion renamed its Distinguished Scholar Fellowship as the Alvin Plantinga Fellowship. The fellowship includes a lecture by the current Plantinga Fellow. Plantinga has argued that people can know that God exists as a basic belief

Alvin Plantinga
–
Plantinga in 2009

13.
Thomas Reid
–
Thomas Reid FRSE was a religiously trained Scottish philosopher, a contemporary of David Hume as well as Humes earliest and fiercest critic. He was the founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, the early part of his life was spent in Aberdeen and he graduated from the University of Aberdeen. He began his career as a Minister of the Church of Scotland but ceased to be a Minister when he was given a professorship at Kings College and he obtained his doctorate and wrote An Inquiry Into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense. He and his colleagues founded the Aberdeen Philosophical Society which was known as the Wise Club. Shortly after the publication of his first book, he was given the prestigious Professorship of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow when he was called to replace Adam Smith. Reid was buried at Blackfriars Church in the grounds of Glasgow College, see separate article on Thomas Reids tombstone. Reid believed that common sense is, or at least should be, by contrast, Reid claimed that the foundations upon which our sensus communis are built justify our belief that there is an external world. In his day and for years into the 19th century. He had an admiration for Hume and had a mutual friend send Hume an early manuscript of Reids Inquiry. His theory of knowledge had a influence on his theory of morals. His moral philosophy is reminiscent of Roman stoicism in its emphasis on the agency of the subject and he often quotes Cicero, from whom he adopted the term sensus communis. Reids answer to Humes sceptical and naturalist arguments was to enumerate a set of principles of common sense which constitute the foundations of rational thought. For Reid, the belief in the truth of these principles is not rational, rather, reason itself demands these principles as prerequisites and it is for this reason that Reid sees belief in the principles of common sense as a litmus test for sanity. One of the first principles he goes on to list is that qualities must necessarily be in something that is figured, coloured, hard or soft and it is not to these qualities, but to that which is the subject of them, that we give the name body. Reid also made positive arguments based in phenomenological insight to put forth a novel mixture of direct realism and this point relies both on an account of the subjective experience of conceiving an object and also on an account of what we mean when we use words. In the case of the latter, Reid saw this as based on an innate capacity pre-dating human consciousness, also, language then becomes a means of examining the original form of human cognition. Reid notes that current human language contains two elements, first, the acoustic element and secondly the meanings which seem to have nothing to do with the sounds as such. This state of language, which he calls artificial, cannot be the one, which he terms natural, wherein sound was not an abstract sign

Thomas Reid
–
Thomas Reid

14.
Abraham Kuyper
–
Abraham Kuijper, generally known as Abraham Kuyper, was a Dutch journalist, statesman and neo-Calvinist theologian. He founded the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, a newspaper, the Free University of Amsterdam, and he served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands between 1901 and 1905. He vigorously denounced modernism in theology as a fad that would pass away, in politics, he dominated the Anti-Revolutionary Party from its founding in 1879 to his death in 1920. Abraham Kuijper was born on 29 October 1837 in Maassluis in the Netherlands and his father Jan Frederik Kuyper served as a minister for the Dutch Reformed Church in Hoogmade, Maassluis, Middelburg and Leiden. Kuijper was home-schooled by his father, the boy received no formal primary education, but received secondary education at the Gymnasium of Leiden. In 1855, he graduated from the Gymnasium and began to study literature, philosophy and he received his propaedeuse in literature in 1857, summa cum laude, and in philosophy in 1858, also summa cum laude. He also took classes in Arabic, Armenian and physics, in comparing the views of John Calvin and Jan Łaski, Kuyper showed a clear sympathy for the more liberal Łaski. During his studies Kuyper was a member of the tendency within the Dutch Reformed Church. In May 1862, he was declared eligible for the ministry and 1863 he accepted a call to minister for the Dutch Reformed Church for the town of Beesd. In the same year he married Johanna Hendrika Schaay and they would have five sons and three daughters. In 1864 he began corresponding with the anti-revolutionary MP Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, around 1866, he began to sympathise with the orthodox tendency within the Dutch Reformed Church. He was inspired by the robust reformed faith of Pietje Balthus, a woman in her early 30s. He began to oppose the centralization in the church, the role of the King and began to plead for the separation of church, in 1867, Kuyper was asked to become minister for the parish in Utrecht and he left Beesd. In 1870 he was asked to come to Amsterdam, in 1871 he began to write for the De Heraut. In 1872, he founded his own paper, De Standaard and this paper would lay the foundation for the network of Reformed organisation, which Kuyper would found. In 1886, Kuyper led an exodus from the Dutch Reformed Church and he grieved the loss of Reformed distinctives within this State Church, which no longer required office bearers to agree to the Reformed standards which had once been foundational. Kuyper and the consistory of Amsterdam insisted that both ministers and church members subscribe to the Reformed confessions and this was appealed to Classis, and Kuyper, along with about 80 members of the Amsterdam consistory, were suspended in Dec.1885. This was appealed to the synod, which upheld the ruling in a 1 July 1886 ruling

Abraham Kuyper
–
Abraham Kuyper
Abraham Kuyper
–
Signature

15.
Augustine
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage

Augustine
–
Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving
Augustine
–
The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15
Augustine
–
The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.
Augustine
–
Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).

16.
John Calvin
–
John Calvin was an influential French theologian, pastor and reformer during the Protestant Reformation. Various Congregational, Reformed, and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon, in addition to his seminal Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents, and various other theological treatises. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530, at the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city. Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of government and liturgy. During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having a view of the Trinity, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and burned at the stake for heresy by the city council, following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvins opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe, John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509, at Noyon, a town in Picardy, a province of the Kingdom of France. He was the first of four sons who survived infancy and his mother, Jeanne le Franc, was the daughter of an innkeeper from Cambrai. She died of a cause in Calvins childhood, after having borne four more children. Calvins father, Gérard Cauvin, had a career as the cathedral notary and registrar to the ecclesiastical court, he died in 1531. Gérard intended his three sons — Charles, Jean, and Antoine — for the priesthood, however, by age 12, he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the tonsure, cutting his hair to symbolise his dedication to the Church. He also won the patronage of a family, the Montmors. Through their assistance, Calvin was able to attend the Collège de la Marche, Paris, once he completed the course, he entered the Collège de Montaigu as a philosophy student. In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from the Collège de Montaigu, according to contemporary biographers Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon, Gérard believed that Calvin would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest. After a few years of study, Calvin entered the University of Bourges in 1529

John Calvin
–
Calvin was originally interested in the priesthood, but he changed course to study law in Orléans and Bourges. Painting titled Portrait of Young John Calvin from the collection of the Library of Geneva.
John Calvin
–
Portrait attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger
John Calvin
–
William Farel was the reformer who convinced Calvin to stay in Geneva. 16th Century painting. In the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire, Geneva.
John Calvin
–
Saint-Nicolas Church, Strasbourg, where Calvin preached in 1538. The building was architecturally modified in the 19th century.

17.
Kendall Walton
–
Kendall Lewis Walton is an American philosopher, the Charles Stevenson Collegiate Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Art and Design at the University of Michigan. His work mainly deals with questions about the arts and issues of philosophy of mind, metaphysics. His book Mimesis as Make Believe, On the Foundations of the Representational Arts develops a theory of make-believe and uses it to understand the nature and varieties of representation in the arts. Walton studied as an undergraduate at the University of California, Berkeley, originally pursuing a major in music, having been a serious musician, however, a philosophy course in his sophomore year convinced him to change his major, tentatively, from music to philosophy. After a few courses, he became convinced he had found his calling, stating that he had always been “more or less hooked” on philosophy. Because of his background in music, Walton expected that he would have an interest in aesthetics and philosophy of art, but was unmoved by his contacts with these fields at Berkeley. D. After having been invited to teach a course on aesthetics that he was not fully prepared for, he stayed up all night brainstorming topics. And I don’t have to leave behind my interests in music and the other arts” He joined the University of Michigan faculty in 1965, and became Charles L. Stevenson Collegiate Professor in 1999. He was elected as a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1998 and he was president of the American Society for Aesthetics from 2003 to 2005. Waltons major contribution to philosophy is his theory of representation, known as the make-believe theory, in the context of ontology, the same theory is usually referred to as pretence theory, and in the context of representational arts, prop theory. Walton has been working on this theory since 1973, and it is expounded in his 1990 magnum opus Mimesis as Make -Believe. Via certain principles of generation, any such prop generates fictional truths, Walton identifies two kinds of such worlds, the game world of each participant and the work world, which can be thought of as containing only such content as is true in any well-formed game world. Props are divided into two forms, sensory depictions, and verbal representations, Walton states that “Imagining aims at the fictional as belief aims at the true. What is true is to be believed, what is fictional is to be imagined, Walton identifies a pretence construal whereby a person pretends to describe the real world, when actually describing a fictional world. So, for instance, when a person who has watched a horror movie declares that they felt afraid, it is true that they were emotionally moved, Walton refers to these fictional emotions as quasi emotions. And prop oriented make-believe, in which the participants interest is in the nature of the prop itself, stephen Yablo has developed Waltons concept of prop oriented make-believe in connection with numbers and concluded that our understanding of cardinality is essentially based upon fiction. Simo Säätelä compared Waltons approach with the theory to that of Gilbert Ryle in The Concept of Mind. Patrick Maynard has praised Waltons achievement, saying, he has worked out a theory of representation relevant to the arts, in an age of aesthetics glib about theory, I wonder if it will be appreciated how significant an accomplishment this is

Kendall Walton
–
Kendall Lewis Walton

18.
American philosopher
–
American philosophy is the philosophical activity or output of Americans, both within the United States and abroad. I think that in no country in the world is less attention paid to philosophy than in the United States. Most of the operations of the mind, each American appeals to the exercise of his own understanding alone. The American philosophical tradition began at the time of the European colonization of the New World, the Puritans arrival in New England set the earliest American philosophy into the religious tradition, and there was also an emphasis on the relationship between the individual and the community. This is evident by the colonial documents such as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. The 18th century saw the introduction of Francis Bacon and the Enlightenment philosophers Descartes, Newton, Locke, Wollaston, both were originally ordained Puritan Congregationalist ministers who embraced much of the new learning of the Enlightenment. Both were Yale educated and Berkeley influenced idealists who became influential college presidents, both were influential in the development of American political philosophy and the works of the Founding Fathers. Then in 1714, a donation of 800 books from England, collected by Colonial Agent Jeremiah Dummer and he now considered what he had learned at Yale nothing but the scholastic cobwebs of a few little English and Dutch systems that would hardly now be taken up in the street. Johnson was appointed tutor at Yale in 1716 and he began to teach the Enlightenment curriculum there, and thus began the American Enlightenment. One of his students for a time was a fifteen-year-old Johnathan Edwards. But each had a different view on the issues of predestination versus freewill, original sin versus the pursuit of happiness though practicing virtue. Jonathan Edwards is considered to be Americas most important and original philosophical theologian, noted for his energetic sermons, such as Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, Edwards emphasized the absolute sovereignty of God and the beauty of Gods holiness. The non-material mind consists of understanding and will, and it is understanding, interpreted in a Newtonian framework, whatever features an object may have, it has these properties because the object resists. Though Edwards reformed Puritan theology using Enlightenment ideas from natural philosophy, and Locke, Newton, Jonathan Edwards also rejected the freedom of the will, saying that we can do as we please, but we cannot please as we please. According to Edwards, neither good works nor self-originating faith lead to salvation, Samuel Johnson has been called The Founder of American Philosophy and the first important philosopher in colonial America and author of the first philosophy textbook published there. Johnson strongly rejected Calvins doctrine of Predestination and believed people were autonomous moral agents endowed with freewill. His fusion philosophy of Natural Religion and Idealism, which has been called American Practical Idealism, was developed as a series of textbooks in seven editions between 1731 and 1754. His moral philosophy is defined in his college textbook Elementa Philosophica as the Art of pursuing our highest Happiness by the practice of virtue

19.
Political philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition

Political philosophy
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), from a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.
Political philosophy
–
Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.

20.
Philosophy of religion
–
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, philosophy of religion is, the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It is an ancient discipline, being found in the earliest known manuscripts concerning philosophy, and relates to other branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology. It is designed such that it can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers, some aspects of Philosophy of religion has classically been regarded as a part of metaphysics. In Aristotles Metaphysics, the necessarily prior cause of motion was an unmoved mover. This, according to Aristotle, is God, the subject of study in theology, although the term did not come into general use until the nineteenth century, perhaps the earliest strictly philosophical writings about religion can be found in the Hindu Upanishads. Around the same time, the works of Daoism and Confucianism also dealt, in part, the Buddhist writing in the Pali canon contains acute philosophical thinking, and we have in Buddhism a very shrewd grasp of the nature of religion as philosophy illuminates it. The philosophy of religion has been distinguished from theology by pointing out that, for theology, also, theology is responsible to an authority that initiates its thinking, speaking, and witnessing. Philosophy bases its arguments on the ground of timeless evidence, three considerations that are basic to the philosophy of religion concerning deities are, the existence of God, the nature of God, and the knowledge of God. There are several positions with regard to the existence of God that one might take. Pantheism - the belief that God exists as all things of the cosmos, panentheism - the belief that God encompasses all things of the cosmos but that God is greater than the cosmos, God is both immanent and transcendent. Deism - the belief that God does exist but does not interfere with human life, monotheism - Usually defined as the belief that a single deity exists which is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent created everything. Polytheism - the belief that deities exist which rule the universe as separate. Henotheism - the belief that multiple deities may or may not exist, henology - believing that multiple avatars of a deity exist, which represent unique aspects of the ultimate deity. Agnosticism - the belief that the existence or non-existence of deities or God is currently unknown or unknowable, a weaker form of this might be defined as simply a lack of certainty about gods existence or nonexistence. Atheism - the rejection of belief in the existence of deities, apatheism - a complete disinterest in, or lack of caring for, whether or not any deity or deities exists. Possibilianism These are not mutually exclusive positions, for example, agnostic theists choose to believe God exists while asserting that knowledge of Gods existence is inherently unknowable. Similarly, agnostic atheists reject belief in the existence of all deities, the attempt to provide proofs or arguments for the existence of God is one aspect of what is known as natural theology or the natural theistic project. This strand of natural theology attempts to justify belief in God by independent grounds, there is plenty of philosophical literature on faith and other subjects generally considered to be outside the realm of natural theology

21.
Philosophy of education
–
As an academic field, philosophy of education is the philosophical study of education and its problems. its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy. The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. Although there is overlap, philosophy of education should not be conflated with educational theory, Philosophy of education also should not be confused with philosophy education, the practice of teaching and learning the subject of philosophy. These theories are also called educational philosophies, for example, a teacher might be said to follow a perennialist educational philosophy or to follow a perennialist philosophy of education. Date, 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC Platos educational philosophy was grounded in his vision of the ideal Republic, Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art, which he considered the highest form of endeavor. Plato believed that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born in any social class and he built on this by insisting that those suitably gifted were to be trained by the state so that they might be qualified to assume the role of a ruling class. While elementary education made the soul responsive to the environment, higher education helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it, both boys and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to train and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual, at the age of 20, a selection was made. The best students would take a course in mathematics, geometry, astronomy. The first course in the scheme of education would last for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science, at the age of 30 there would be another selection, those who qualified would study dialectics and metaphysics, logic and philosophy for the next five years. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50, Date, 1724–1804 Immanuel Kant believed that education differs from training in that the former involves thinking whereas the latter does not. In addition to educating reason, of importance to him was the development of character. Kant was a proponent of education and of learning by doing. Date, 1770–1831 Date,384 BC –322 BC Only fragments of Aristotles treatise On Education are still in existence and we thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be important forces to be cultivated in education. Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits, the teacher was to lead the student systematically, this differs, for example, from Socrates emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas. Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught, subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics, music, physical education, literature and history, and a wide range of sciences

22.
Calvin College
–
Calvin College is a liberal arts college located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1876, Calvin College is an institution of the Christian Reformed Church. Calvin College is named after John Calvin, the 16th-century Protestant Reformer, the Christian Reformed Church in North America founded the school on August 4,1876, as part of Calvin College and Theological Seminary to train church ministers. The college and seminary began with seven students, in an upper room on Spring Street, in Grand Rapids. The initial six-year curriculum included four years of studies and two years of theology. In 1892, the moved to the intersection of Madison Avenue. In September 1894, the school expanded the curriculum for those who were not pre-theological students, in 1900, the curriculum further broadened, making it more attractive to students interested in teaching or preparing for professional courses at universities. In 1901, Calvin admitted the first women to the school, in 1906, the literary department of the college became known as John Calvin Junior College and the college held its first commencement. The student newspaper Chimes was first published in 1907, around 1910, the West Michigan cities of Muskegon and Kalamazoo fought to have Calvin relocate to their respective cities. Muskegon offered US$10,000 and a tract of land to attract the college, the city of Grand Rapids countered with its own $10,000 offer and the junior college chose to stay in Grand Rapids. In time, the college became a four-year college. In 1917, John Calvin Junior College moved to the Franklin Street Campus, two years later the college appointed its first president, the Rev. J. J. The next year the college awarded its first bachelors degree, in 1925, the college began a teacher training program and, in 1926, appointed its first female faculty member, Johanna Timmer, as Dean of Women. The college dedicated its library, the Hekman Library on March 8,1928, the college later dedicated its seminary building at the Franklin Street Campus on October 29,1930. Still under the leadership of Rev. Hiemenga the college faced significant trouble during the Great Depression as financial hardship beset the college, although the school grew slowly in these early years, by 1930 it had reached its pre-World War I size of 350-450 students. Like many colleges in the United States, the end of the war led to the fastest enrollment increase in Calvins history, by 1950 the enrollment had climbed to 1,270 and Calvin joined the M. I. A. A. The enrollment increase led to space limitations at the Franklin Campus, William Spoelhoef became president of Calvin in 1951. In 1956, the Synod of the Christian Reformed Church authorized the college to purchase the Knollcrest Farm from J. C. Miller for $400,000

23.
Grand Rapids
–
Grand Rapids is the second-largest city in Michigan, and the largest city in West Michigan. It is on the Grand River about 30 miles east of Lake Michigan, as of the 2010 census, the city population was 188,040. In 2010, the Grand Rapids metropolitan area had a population of 1,005,648, Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County, Michigan. A historic furniture-manufacturing center, Grand Rapids is home to five of the leading office furniture companies. Its more common nickname of River City refers to the landmark river for which it was named. The city and surrounding communities are diverse, based in the health care, information technology, automotive, aviation. Grand Rapids is the hometown of U. S. President Gerald Ford, for thousands of years, succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the area. Over 2000 years ago, people associated with the Hopewell culture occupied the Grand River Valley, later, a tribe from the Ottawa River traveled to the Grand River valley, fighting three battles with the Prairie Indians who were established in the area. The tribe later split, with the Chippewas settling in the lower peninsula, the Pottawatomies staying south of the Kalamazoo River. In 1740, an Ottawa man who would later be known as Chief Noonday, between 1761 and 1763, Chief Pontiac visited the area annually, gathering over 3,000 natives and asking them to volunteer to fight the British in Detroit, which would culminate into Pontiacs War. The Potawatomi attacked the Ottawa in 1765, attempting to take the Grand River territory but were defeated, by the end of the 1700s, there were an estimated 1,000 Ottawa in the Kent County area. After the French established territories in Michigan, Jesuit missionaries and traders traveled down Lake Michigan, at the start of the 19th century, European fur traders and missionaries established posts in the area among the Ottawa. They generally lived in peace, trading European metal and textile goods for fur pelts and they were French-speaking and Roman Catholic. They likely both spoke Ottawa, Madelines maternal ancestral language, La Framboise, whose mother was Ottawa and father French, later merged her successful operations with the American Fur Company. By 1810, Chief Noonday established a village on the west side of the river with about 500 Ottawa, madeline La Framboise retired the trading post to Rix Robinson in 1821 and returned to Mackinac. The first permanent European-American settler in the Grand Rapids area was Isaac McCoy, general Lewis Cass, who commissioned Charles Christopher Trowbridge to establish missions for Native Americans in Michigan, ordered McCoy to establish a mission in Grand Rapids for the Ottawa. In 1824, Baptist missionary Rev. L. Slater traveled with two settlers to Grand Rapids to perform work, the winter of 1824 proved to be difficult, with Slaters group having to resupply and return before the spring. Slater then erected the first settler structures in Grand Rapids, a log cabin for himself, in 1825, McCoy returned and established a missionary station

24.
Michigan
–
Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year

25.
Bachelor of Arts
–
A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme

Bachelor of Arts
–
A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree

26.
Harvard University
–
Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model‍—‌many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge‍—‌but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified

27.
PhD
–
A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy

28.
Vrije Universiteit
–
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam is a university in Amsterdam, Netherlands, founded in 1880. VU is one of two large, publicly funded universities in the city, the other being the University of Amsterdam. The literal translation of the Dutch name Vrije Universiteit is Free University. Free refers to independence of the university from both the State and Church, both within and outside the university, the institution is commonly referred to as the VU. Although founded as an institution, VU has received government funding on a parity basis with public universities since 1970. Over the past decades, VU has transformed from an institution into a broad. While the Netherlands does not have a ranking system, according to the CWTS Leiden Ranking. The university is located on an urban campus in the southern Buitenveldert neighbourhood of Amsterdam. In 2014, VU had 23,656 registered students, most of whom were full-time students and that year, the university had 2,263 faculty members and researchers, and 1,410 administrative, clerical and technical employees, based on FTE units. The universitys annual endowment for 2014 was circa €480 million, about three quarters of this endowment is government funding, the remainder is made up of tuition fees, research grants, and private funding. The official university seal is entitled The Virgin in the Garden, in 1990, the university adopted the mythical griffin as its common emblem. The position of its wings symbolizes the freedom in the name from both the State and Church. The bright and blue postmodern symbol has been the point of the universitys Main Building ever since. The VU was founded in 1880 by a group of orthodox-Protestant Christians led by Abraham Kuyper as the first orthodox-Protestant university in the Netherlands, Kuyper was a theologian, journalist, politician, and prime minister of the Netherlands from 1901 to 1905. He was a professor of theology at VU as well as the universitys first rector magnificus, kuypers worldview and philosophy is referred to as Neo-Calvinism. As a reflection of his beliefs, Vrije Universiteit literally means Free University to signify independence from government and church. Teaching at the Vrije Universiteit started in 1880 in a few rooms rented at the Scottish Missionary Church, here, Kuyper and four fellow professors began lecturing in three faculties, theology, law, and the arts. By the turn of the 20th century, the Scottish Missionary Church became too small for the number of students. In the following years, the university acquired more buildings throughout the city, in 1905, VU was formally accredited and granted the legal right to award academic degrees

Vrije Universiteit
–
Bust of Abraham Kuyper, founder of the VU, in the Main Building.
Vrije Universiteit
–
Seal: Maiden in the Garden
Vrije Universiteit
–
Former eastern entrance to the campus, since 2010 the location of a new building for the Faculty of Law.
Vrije Universiteit
–
New 'O2' Lab Building under construction (January 2014).

29.
Noah Porter
–
Rev. Noah Thomas Porter, III was an American academic, philosopher, author, lexicographer and President of Yale College. He was born to Rev. Noah Porter, Jr. and his wife, born Mehitable Meigs, in Farmington and his younger sister was Sarah Porter, founder of Miss Porters School, a college preparatory school for girls. He graduated in 1831 from Yale College, where he was a member of the Linonian Society, on April 13,1836, in New Haven, he married Mary Taylor, daughter of Rev. Nathaniel Taylor and his wife Rebecca Marie Hine. They had several children, and two daughters survived them and he was ordained as a Congregational minister in New Milford, Connecticut from 1836 to 1843. He served as pastor at a Congregational Church in Springfield, Massachusetts from 1843 to 1846 and he was elected professor of moral philosophy and metaphysics at Yale in 1846. Porter was inaugurated as President of Yale College on Wednesday, October 11,1871 and he continued to serve as head of the college until 1886. Porter edited several editions of Websters Dictionary, and wrote on education, influenced by the German refugee writer and philosopher Francis Lieber, Porter opposed slavery and integrated an antislavery position with religious liberalism. He was a frequent visitor to the Adirondack Mountains of New York, of great importance were two other works, Elements of Intellectual Science and Elements of Moral Science. He died on March 4,1892 in New Haven, and was buried in the Grove Street Cemetery there, ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5, OCLC810552 Levesque, George. “Noah Porter Revisited, ” History of Higher Education Annual,26, welch, Lewis Sheldon and Walter Camp. Yale, Her Campus, Class-rooms, and Athletics, OCLC2191518 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Civil Liberty, A Sermon, from the Antislavery Literature Project The Human Intellect, With an Introduction upon Psychology, professor Porters Human Intellect, The Nation 8, 211–13

Noah Porter
–
Noah Porter

30.
Professor
–
Professor is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a person who professes being usually an expert in arts or sciences, in much of the world, the unqualified word professor is used formally to indicate the highest academic rank, informally known as full professor. Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, graduate, or professional courses in their fields of expertise, in universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. Professors typically hold a Ph. D. another doctorate or a different terminal degree, some professors hold a masters degree or a professional degree, such as an M. D. as their highest degree. The term professor was first used in the late 14th century to one who teaches a branch of knowledge. As a title that is prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706, the hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The term professor is used with a different meaning, ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, a professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor is also the highest rank, in these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, the term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor, which are not considered professor-level positions in some European countries. In Australia, the associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer. However, such professors usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution, in general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis. Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place, a professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in her institution earns additional income, some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, or giving speeches or coaching executives. Some fields give professors more opportunities for outside work, the anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority

Professor
–
A science professor lecturing to university students.
Professor
–
The Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was one of the earliest recorded professors.

31.
Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages

32.
Yale University
–
Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity

Yale University
–
Charter creating Collegiate School, which became Yale College, October 9, 1701
Yale University
–
Yale University Seal
Yale University
–
A Front View of Yale-College and the College Chapel, Daniel Bowen, 1786.
Yale University
–
First diploma awarded by Yale College, granted to Nathaniel Chauncey, 1702.

33.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides

Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of Nassau Hall
Princeton University
–
Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
–
John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906

34.
Oxford University
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected

Oxford University
–
Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
Oxford University
–
University of Oxford seal
Oxford University
–
Aerial view of Merton College 's Mob Quad, the oldest quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
Oxford University
–
In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)

35.
University of Notre Dame
–
The University of Notre Dame du Lac is a Catholic research university located adjacent to South Bend, Indiana, in the United States. In French, Notre Dame du Lac means Our Lady of the Lake and refers to the patron saint. The main campus covers 1,250 acres in a setting and it contains a number of recognizable landmarks, such as the Golden Dome, the Word of Life mural. The school was founded on November 26,1842, by Father Edward Sorin, CSC, Today, many Holy Cross priests continue to work for the university, including the president of the university. Notre Dame is a large, four-year, highly residential research university, undergraduate students are organized into four colleges, and the Architecture School. The latter is known for teaching New Classical Architecture and for awarding the globally renowned annual Driehaus Architecture Prize, the university offers over 50 foreign study abroad yearlong programs and over 15 summer programs. It maintains a system of libraries, cultural venues, artistic and scientific museums, including the Hesburgh Library and the Snite Museum of Art. Over 80% of the universitys 8,000 undergraduates live on campus in one of 29 single-sex residence halls, each with its own traditions, legacies, events, the university counts approximately 120,000 alumni. The universitys athletic teams are members of the NCAA Division I and are known collectively as the Fighting Irish, other ND sport teams, chiefly in the Atlantic Coast Conference, have accumulated 16 national championships. The Notre Dame Victory March is often regarded as the most famous, started as a small all-male institution in 1842 and charter in 1844, Notre Dame reached international fame at the beginning of the 20th century. Ever since, the University has seen growth, and under the leadership of the next two presidents, Rev. Malloy and Rev. Jenkins, many infrastructure and research expansions have been completed. In 1842, the Bishop of Vincennes, Célestine Guynemer de la Hailandière, offered land to Father Edward Sorin of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on the condition that he build a college in two years. Sorin arrived on the site with eight Holy Cross brothers from France and Ireland on November 26,1842 and he soon erected additional buildings, including the Old College, the first church, and the first main building. They immediately acquired two students and set about building additions to the campus, Notre Dame began as a primary and secondary school, but soon received its official college charter from the Indiana General Assembly on January 15,1844. Under the charter the school is named the University of Notre Dame du Lac. Because the university was only for male students, the female-only Saint Marys College was founded by the Sisters of the Holy Cross near Notre Dame in 1844. The first degrees from the college were awarded in 1849, the university was expanded with new buildings to accommodate more students and faculty. With each new president, new programs were offered and new buildings built to accommodate them

University of Notre Dame
–
The Very Rev.Edward Sorin, founder of the University, arrived at Notre Dame in 1842
University of Notre Dame
–
Seal of the University of Notre Dame
University of Notre Dame
–
The University's historic center comprising the Basilica, the Golden Dome and Washington Hall, were built in the early years of the University
University of Notre Dame
–
The current Main Building, built in 1879.

36.
University of Texas
–
Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth

37.
University of Michigan
–
The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy

University of Michigan
–
University of Michigan (1855) Jasper Francis Cropsey
University of Michigan
–
Seal of the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
–
The Central Campus Diag, viewed from the Graduate Library, looking North
University of Michigan
–
Law Library Interior

38.
Temple University
–
Temple University is a state-related-public doctoral university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. It was founded in 1884 by Baptist Minister Russell Conwell, in 1882, Conwell came to Pennsylvania to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. These students, later dubbed night owls, were taught in the basement of Conwells Baptist Temple, hence the origin of the universitys name, by 1907, the institution revised its institutional status and incorporated as a university. In 2015, Temple received $227.5 million in funding, ranking it 93rd out of 905 institutions in the NSF’s Higher Education Research. Temple is among the nations largest providers of education, preparing the largest body of professional practitioners in Pennsylvania. Conwell came to Pennsylvania in 1882 to lead the Grace Baptist Church while he began tutoring working class citizens late at night to accommodate their work schedules. These students, later dubbed night owls, were taught in the basement of Conwells Baptist Temple, hence the origin of the universitys name, the Grace Baptist Church quickly grew popular within the North Philadelphia area. A temporary board of trustees was created to handle the rapidly growing formalities associated with the churchs programs, when the board conducted its first meeting they named Russell H. Conwell president of The Temple College. Within the following months, Grace Baptist Church appointed a new board of trustees, printed official admissions files, regardless of whether they had the resources to support the school, Conwell’s desire was “to give education to those who were unable to get it through the usual channels”. Philadelphia granted a charter in 1888 to establish “The Temple College of Philadelphia”, by 1888, the enrollment of the college was nearly 600. It was in 1907 that Temple College revised its institutional status, Legal recognition as a university enhanced Temple in noticeable ways including its reputation, professional and graduate programs, overall enrollment, and financial support. Over time, Temple expanded, Samaritan Hospital was founded, a Medical School was added, after the merger, Temple officially reincorporated as Temple University on December 12,1907. Today, Temple is a Pennsylvania state-related university, meaning the university receives state funds, subject to state appropriations, but is independently operated. In U. S. News & World Reports 2017 rankings, Temple is tied for 56th among U. S. public universities, tied for 118th among all national universities, Temple undergraduate college is among the top colleges profiled in The Princeton Reviews The Best 379 colleges. Temples Social Science faculty is also ranked 76-100 in the world in 2015 by ARWU, Temple is ranked 94th out of 643 US institutions in National Science Foundations 2013 Higher education Research and Development Survey. Tylers graduate programs are highly selective, maintaining their reputation for providing one of the finest programs in the nation, as of 2015, Tyler’s overall ranking is 13th in the nation. Tyler’s individual graduate programs, as of 2015, ranked highly in their fields, painting and drawing, sculpture, printmaking, ceramics. Temples Fox School of Business, founded in 1918, is one of the largest business schools in the country, the Fox School offers 13 undergraduate majors,10 professional masters programs, two PhD programs, and the school has a variety of international partnerships

Temple University
–
Postcard depicting the original Baptist Temple and Russell Conwell
Temple University
–
Seal of Temple University
Temple University
–
President Harry S. Truman visits Temple University
Temple University
–
Martin Luther King, Jr. lecturing at Temple University

39.
University of Virginia
–
The University of Virginia, frequently referred to simply as Virginia, is a public research university and the flagship for the Commonwealth of Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Declaration of Independence author Thomas Jefferson, UVA is known for its foundations, student-run honor code. UNESCO designated UVA as Americas first and only collegiate World Heritage Site in 1987, the university was established in 1819, and its original governing Board of Visitors included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe. Monroe was the sitting President of the United States at the time of its foundation, former Presidents Jefferson and Madison were UVAs first two rectors and the Academical Village and Jefferson conceived and designed the original courses of study. The universitys research endeavors are highly recognized, in 2015, Science honored UVA faculty for discovering two of its top 10 annual scientific breakthroughs, from the fields of Medicine and Psychology. UVA is one of 62 institutions in the Association of American Universities and it is the only AAU member university in Virginia. UVA is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation, the university was the first non-founding member, and the first university of the American South, to attain AAU membership in 1904. UVAs academic strength is broad, with 121 majors across the eight undergraduate, students compete in 26 collegiate sports and UVA leads the Atlantic Coast Conference in mens NCAA team national championships with 17. UVA is second in womens NCAA titles with 7, UVA was awarded the Capital One Cup in 2015 after fielding the top overall mens athletics programs in the nation. Students come to attend the university in Charlottesville from all 50 states and 147 countries, the historic 1, 682-acre campus is internationally protected by UNESCO and considered one of the most beautiful collegiate grounds in the country. UVA additionally maintains 2,913 acres southeast of the city, the university also manages the College at Wise in Southwest Virginia, and until 1972 operated George Mason University and the University of Mary Washington in Northern Virginia. In 1817, three Presidents and Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court John Marshall joined 24 other dignitaries at a meeting held in the Mountain Top Tavern at Rockfish Gap, after some deliberation, they selected nearby Charlottesville as the site of the new University of Virginia. Farmland just outside Charlottesville was purchased from James Monroe by the Board of Visitors as Central College, the school laid its first buildings cornerstone late in that same year, and the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered the new university on January 25,1819. John Hartwell Cocke collaborated with James Madison, Monroe, and Joseph Carrington Cabell to fulfill Jeffersons dream to establish the university, Cocke and Jefferson were appointed to the building committee to supervise the construction. The universitys first classes met on March 7,1825, another innovation of the new university was that higher education would be separated from religious doctrine. Jefferson opined to philosopher Thomas Cooper that a professorship of theology should have no place in our institution, Jefferson was intimately involved in the university to the end, hosting Sunday dinners at his Monticello home for faculty and students until his death. Thus, he eschewed mention of his accomplishments, such as the Louisiana Purchase. This was a source of frustration for Jefferson, who assembled the students during the schools first year, on October 3,1825, to such behavior

University of Virginia
–
Thomas Jefferson is the founder of the University of Virginia
University of Virginia
–
University of Virginia
University of Virginia
–
James Madison was the 2nd rector of the University of Virginia until 1836
University of Virginia
–
Edwin Alderman was UVA's first president between 1904 and 1931, and instituted many reforms toward modernization

40.
St Andrews University
–
The University of St Andrews is a British public research university in St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. It is the oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland, St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413, when the Avignon Antipope Benedict XIII issued a papal bull to a small founding group of Augustinian clergy. St Andrews is made up from a variety of institutions, including three constituent colleges and 18 academic schools organised into four faculties, the university occupies historic and modern buildings located throughout the town. The academic year is divided into two terms, Martinmas and Candlemas, in term time, over one-third of the towns population is either a staff member or student of the university. It is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom in national league tables, the Times Higher Education World Universities Ranking names St Andrews among the worlds Top 50 universities for Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities. St Andrews has the highest student satisfaction amongst all multi-faculty universities in the United Kingdom, St Andrews has many notable alumni and affiliated faculty, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, theologians, philosophers, and politicians. Six Nobel Laureates are among St Andrews alumni and former staff, a charter of privilege was bestowed upon the society of masters and scholars by the Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, on 28 February 1411. Wardlaw then successfully petitioned the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls. King James I of Scotland confirmed the charter of the university in 1432, subsequent kings supported the university with King James V confirming privileges of the university in 1532. A college of theology and arts called St Johns College was founded in 1418 by Robert of Montrose, St Salvators College was established in 1450, by Bishop James Kennedy. St Leonards College was founded in 1511 by Archbishop Alexander Stewart, St Johns College was refounded by Cardinal James Beaton under the name St Marys College in 1538 for the study of divinity and law. Some university buildings that date from this period are still in use today, such as St Salvators Chapel, St Leonards College Chapel, at this time, the majority of the teaching was of a religious nature and was conducted by clerics associated with the cathedral. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the university had mixed fortunes and was beset by civil. He described it as pining in decay and struggling for life, in the second half of the 19th century, pressure was building upon universities to open up higher education to women. In 1876, the University Senate decided to allow women to receive an education at St Andrews at a roughly equal to the Master of Arts degree that men were able to take at the time. The scheme came to be known as the L. L. A and it required women to pass five subjects at an ordinary level and one at honours level and entitled them to hold a degree from the university. In 1889 the Universities Act made it possible to admit women to St Andrews. Agnes Forbes Blackadder became the first woman to graduate from St Andrews on the level as men in October 1894

St Andrews University
–
College Hall, within the 16th century St Mary's College building
St Andrews University
–
University of St Andrews shield
St Andrews University
–
St Salvator's Chapel in 1843
St Andrews University
–
The "Gateway" building, built in 2000 and now used for the university's management department

41.
Southern Methodist University
–
Southern Methodist University is a private research university in Dallas, University Park, and Highland Park, Texas. Founded in 1911 by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, SMU operates satellite campuses in Plano, Texas, SMU is owned by the South Central Jurisdiction of the United Methodist Church. Of the universitys 11,643 students,6,411 are undergraduates, the main campus of the university is divided into seven schools, including the Dedman College of Humanities and Sciences, the Bobby B. The university was chartered on April 17,1911, by the five Annual Conferences in Texas of the Methodist Episcopal Church, classes were originally planned to start in 1913 but were postponed until 1915. SMU was established after the attempt to relocate Southwestern University from Georgetown, Texas, the first relocation effort by Polytechnic College president Hiram A. Boaz and spearheaded by Southwestern president Robert Stewart Hyer involved merging Southwestern with Polytechnic College. The post-merger university would retain the Southwestern name while occupying Polytechnics campus in Fort Worth, the merger never came to fruition, primarily because the Dallas Chamber of Commerce set up a committee to raise funds and entice Southwestern to relocate to Dallas. This proposal gained traction since Southwestern was operating a medical school in Dallas. Plans were drawn for the campuss first building, Memorial Hall, Southwesterns trustees rejected the relocation plan, prompting Hyers resignation and move to Dallas to establish Southern Methodist University. SMU retained close connections to Southwestern and Polytechnic, Southwestern president Hyer became SMUs first president and Hiram A. Boaz, a Southwestern graduate, resigned as president of Polytechnic to become SMUs second president. Polytechnic attempted to become a school of SMU before becoming a womens college. SMU acquired Southwesterns medical school in Dallas and operated it until 1915, Southwestern and SMU were athletic rivals until Southwestern became a small liberal arts college. The church decided to support the establishment of SMU and dramatically increase the size of Emory University at a new location in DeKalb County, at the 1914 meeting of the General Conference, SMU was designated the connectional institution for all Conferences west of the Mississippi River. Classes were planned to begin in 1913, but construction delays on the universitys first building prevented classes from starting until 1915. In the interim, the only functioning academic department at SMU was the college it had acquired from Southwestern University. SMU named its first building Dallas Hall in gratitude for the support of Dallas leaders and local citizens and it remains the universitys symbol and centerpiece. Designed by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge after the Rotunda at the University of Virginia, Dallas Hall opened its doors in 1915 and housed the university as well as a bank. It is registered in the National Register of Historic Places, SMUs nickname The Hilltop was inspired by Dallas Hall, which was built on a hill. The universitys first president, Robert Stewart Hyer, selected Harvard crimson, in 1927, Highland Park United Methodist Church, designed by architects Mark Lemmon and Roscoe DeWitt, was erected on campus

42.
Princeton Theological Seminary
–
Princeton Theological Seminary is an independent school of theology in Princeton, New Jersey and the largest of ten seminaries associated with the Presbyterian Church. Princeton Seminary has long been influential in theological scholarship, with many leading scholars, theologians. It houses one of the largest theological seminaries in the world and hosts a number of special collections, Today, the seminary enrolls approximately 500 students. The institution also has a relationship with the Center of Theological Inquiry. The plan to establish a seminary in Princeton was in the interests of advancing and extending the theological curriculum. The educational intention was to go beyond the arts course by setting up a postgraduate. The Seminary remains an institution of the Presbyterian Church, being the largest of the ten theological seminaries affiliated with the 1. 6-million-member denomination, in 1812, the Seminary boasted three students and the Reverend Dr. Archibald Alexander as its first professor. By 1815 the number of students had increased and work began on a building, Alexander Hall was designed by John McComb, Jr. a New York architect. The original cupola was added in 1827, but it burned in 1913 and was replaced in 1926, the building was simply called Seminary until 1893, when it was officially named Alexander Hall. Some of the institutions active in this movement included Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen. The college was later the center of the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, the library has over 1,252,503 bound volumes, pamphlets, and microfilms. It currently receives about 2,100 journals, annual reports of bodies and learned societies, bulletins, transactions, and periodically issued indices, abstracts. The Libraries are, Princeton Theological Seminary Library was opened in 2013, ashbel Green, Dr. William Buell Sprague, Prof. Joseph Addison Alexander, Dr. Alexander Balloch Grosart, Prof. William Henry Green, Prof. Samuel Miller, and Prof. B. B. Speer Library, opened in 1957 and named in honor of the missionary statesman Robert E. Speer. It was closed in late 2010 and was replaced by the new library, Henry Luce III Library, dedicated in 1994 and named in honor of a distinguished trustee, Henry Luce III,350,000 volumes and 250 readers. This library was closed for renovation in 2013, in 2015, the U. S. News & World Report placed Princeton Seminary among the top 50 graduate programs for the field of history in the United States. Built in 1834, Princetons chapel was named to honor Samuel Miller and it was designed in the Greek Revival style by Charles Steadman, who also designed the nearby Nassau Presbyterian Church. Originally located beside Alexander Hall, it was moved in 1933 toward the center of the campus, Miller Chapel underwent a complete renovation in 2000, with the addition of the Joe R. Engle Organ

43.
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
–
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, in Louisville, Kentucky, is the oldest of the six seminaries affiliated with the Southern Baptist Convention. The seminary was founded in 1859 at Greenville, South Carolina, after being closed during the Civil War, it moved in 1877 to a newly built campus in downtown Louisville and later moved to its current location in the Crescent Hill neighborhood. For more than fifty years Southern has been one of the worlds largest theological seminaries, in the wake of the Civil War, the seminary suspended classes for several years. With the financial help of several wealthy Baptists, including John D, in 1926, during the administration of Southern president Edgar Y. Mullins, the seminary occupied The Beeches, a 100-acre suburban campus east of the city designed by the Frederick Law Olmsted firm. The campus now contains 10 academic and residential buildings in Georgian architecture, in 1951, President Duke Kimbrough McCall integrated the campus, in defiance of Kentucky state laws that established segregation at public facilities. Later, at the height of the Civil Rights Movement, Southern was the only SBC agency to host a visit by Baptist minister and civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King. As a result, many donors withheld their gifts to Southern, in 1938, Southern was among the first group of seminaries and divinity schools accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. Thirty years later, in 1968, Southern was one of the first seminaries to be accredited by its accrediting body, Southern Association of Colleges. In 1953, President McCall and the trustees reorganized the institution along the lines of a small university, the school was disbanded in 1997 by a subsequent seminary administration. It decided that social work was inappropriate for a seminary. In 1968, Southern helped establish Kentuckiana Metroversity, a consortium of two seminaries, two state universities, a community college and two private colleges. They offer a joint library catalog, cross-registration of any student in any member institution and they provide inter-institutional team teaching, cross registration among students, and a joint library catalog. The seminary is governed by a board of trustees nominated and elected by the SBC, in fiscal year 2007–08, Southern received $9.5 million through the Cooperative Program. Its endowments and invested reserves totaled $78 million, Southern was one of the first seminaries in the nation to offer the PhD degree, beginning in 1892. During the 1970s and 1980s, it had the largest accredited PhD program in religion in the United States and it was the first seminary in the nation to offer courses in religious education, beginning in 1903. This program ultimately expanded into a School of Religious Education in 1953, in 1907, William Owen Carver founded the Womens Missionary Union Training School, which eventually became the Carver School of Missions and Social Work. In 1910, Southern established the Norton Lectures, a series of lectures on Science, speakers have included conservative scholars William A. Dembski, Marvin Olasky, Gregory Alan Thornbury, and Alvin Plantinga

44.
Regent College
–
Not affiliated with a particular religious denomination, Regent College is a transdenominational evangelical protestant institution in its general outlook. The schools stated mission is to cultivate intelligent, vigorous, and joyful commitment to Jesus Christ, His church, about 500 students are enrolled in full- or part-time studies. In any given year, one-third to one-half of students are Canadian, another one-quarter to one-third are American, Chinese students make up a considerable proportion of the latter group, whether from the Mainland, Taiwan, or the Chinese diaspora. Hong Kong is home to more Regent alumni/ae than any city in the world after Vancouver. Regent was established in 1968 to provide theological education to the laity. After the first summer school class, the graduate Diploma of Christian Studies began, affiliation with UBC followed in 1975, and accreditation by the Association of Theological Schools in 1985. The last comprehensive evaluation occurred in 2010, the principals and presidents of the college have been Dr. James M. Houston, Dr. Carl Armerding, Dr. Walter Wright, Jr. and outgoing president Dr. Rod Wilson. Dr. Jeffrey P. Greenman began his term as the president on February 1,2015. Dr. Greenman is the first alumnus of Regent College to become president, Regent initially rented rooms in various buildings at UBC, including St. Andrews Hall and Vancouver School of Theology, and occupyied two fraternity houses on Wesbrook Mall for a time. In 1989, Regent moved into its own new building in the current location at the corner of Wesbrook & University, a subsequent capital campaign finished in 2006, adding the John Richard Allison Library and the Windtower to Regent Colleges architectural distinctiveness. Over 4500 students have graduated from Regent College and, due to the summer programs, after Vancouver, Hong Kong hosts the second greatest number of Regent graduates, with other major pockets in Seattle, Calgary, Edmonton, Toronto, Singapore and London. At present, Regent College employs 17 full-time faculty, notable faculty emeriti include Eugene Peterson, Maxine Hancock, Loren Wilkinson, Gordon T. Smith, Paul Stevens, Gordon Fee, J. I. Packer and Bruce Waltke. Summer school classes are taught by some notable Christian thinkers. Wright, Andrew Walls, Luci Shaw, Richard Mouw, Alister McGrath, for a complete list of current faculty, emeriti, and notable alumni, see List of Regent College alumni and faculty. The John Richard Allison Library is one of the major libraries in Western Canada. It houses the resources of Regent and Carey Theological College and its catalogue is shared with Carey Theological College, Vancouver School of Theology, and St. Regent College Bookstore is one of the premier theological bookstores in Western Canada and it frequently hosts public lectures and booksignings, and has its own publishing program. The Lookout Gallery showcases seven annual exhibitions, including shows by Regent students in the Christianity, the Chapel is the heart of worship and community building at Regent

Regent College
–
Regent College

45.
Scottish Common Sense Realism
–
Not to be confused with the art movement, see Scottish art. Reid emphasized mans innate ability to perceive common ideas and that process is inherent in. Common sense therefore, is the foundation of philosophical inquiry, the Scottish School of Common Sense was an epistemological philosophy that flourished in Scotland in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Philosophically, Scottish Realism served as a rebuttal to scepticism while keeping with the teachings of Isaac Newton. While largely understated for many years, the influence it had on philosophers elsewhere in Europe, One central concern of the school was to defend common sense against philosophical paradox and scepticism. It argued that common-sense beliefs govern the lives and thoughts even of those who avow non-commonsensical beliefs, the Scottish School of Common Sense was founded by Reid in opposition to Descartess Theory of Ideas. But the epistemology of sense experience led John Locke and David Hume to a philosophy that realists found absurd. Thus Hume and his sceptical argument would serve as the foil to the development of Reids philosophy. Under the tutelage of George Turnbull, Reid embraced the tenets of Providential Naturalism and its four interconnected tenets, Scottish Common Sense Realism is rooted in Aristotelian thought and advocates an empirical and scientific philosophy wherein trust of our senses is implicit and necessary. The principles of common sense are fundamental to our accumulation of knowledge of metaphysical and physical constructs. However, observation alone cannot account for all knowledge and truth can be garnered by reflection, in Reids own words, I can likewise conceive an individual object that really exists, such as St. Pauls Church in London. I have an idea of it, I conceive it, the immediate object of this conception is 400 miles distant, and I have no reason to think it acts upon me or that I act on it. These principles laid the foundation for Reids influential theory of perception, Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart offered related theories of perception rooted in Scottish Common Sense Realism. Dugald Stewarts theory of perception acknowledges a great influence from Reid whose philosophy he termed fundamental laws of belief, however, Stewart proffered a more moderate approach to realism and his theory of perception emphasized the utility of the senses. Common Sense Realism not only dominated Scottish thought in the 19th century, it had an influence as well in France, the United States. Victor Cousin was the most important proponent in France, reidian thought was the orthodox philosophy of colleges and universities in the early 18th century and provided an intellectual bedrock for the Age of Enlightenment. Common Sense Realism swept American intellectual circles in the 18th century, Reids philosophy was pervasive during the American Revolution and served as a stabilizing philosophical influence. Evidence of the influence of Scottish Common Sense realism can readily be found in the philosophy of both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, Adams compared the contributions of Dugald Stewart favorably to works of Aristotle and René Descartes

46.
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
–
Eerdmans Publishing Company is a religious publishing house based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1911 by William B, William Bernard Eerdmans was a Dutch American publisher known for the William B. Eerdmans was born Wiltje Eerdmans, the son of Dirkje Pars and he immigrated to the United States in 1902, heading for Grand Rapids, Michigan, a center of 19th century Dutch immigration and Calvinism. In 1911 with his partner, Brant Sevensma, Eerdmans formed the Eerdmans–Sevensma book dealership, in 1915, Sevensma left, and Eerdmans continued as sole owner of the renamed William B. After his death in 1966, he was succeeded by his son, Eerdmans Jr. Eerdmans Books for Young Readers began in 1995 as an imprint of Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, specializing in quality fiction and non-fiction for younger readers, New International Commentary on the New Testament New International Greek Testament Commentary Wm. B. Eerdmans at the New Netherland Institute 100 Years of Eerdmans, A Timeline of Major Events Eerdmans Books for Young Readers

47.
American philosophy
–
American philosophy is the philosophical activity or output of Americans, both within the United States and abroad. I think that in no country in the world is less attention paid to philosophy than in the United States. Most of the operations of the mind, each American appeals to the exercise of his own understanding alone. The American philosophical tradition began at the time of the European colonization of the New World, the Puritans arrival in New England set the earliest American philosophy into the religious tradition, and there was also an emphasis on the relationship between the individual and the community. This is evident by the colonial documents such as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. The 18th century saw the introduction of Francis Bacon and the Enlightenment philosophers Descartes, Newton, Locke, Wollaston, both were originally ordained Puritan Congregationalist ministers who embraced much of the new learning of the Enlightenment. Both were Yale educated and Berkeley influenced idealists who became influential college presidents, both were influential in the development of American political philosophy and the works of the Founding Fathers. Then in 1714, a donation of 800 books from England, collected by Colonial Agent Jeremiah Dummer and he now considered what he had learned at Yale nothing but the scholastic cobwebs of a few little English and Dutch systems that would hardly now be taken up in the street. Johnson was appointed tutor at Yale in 1716 and he began to teach the Enlightenment curriculum there, and thus began the American Enlightenment. One of his students for a time was a fifteen-year-old Johnathan Edwards. But each had a different view on the issues of predestination versus freewill, original sin versus the pursuit of happiness though practicing virtue. Jonathan Edwards is considered to be Americas most important and original philosophical theologian, noted for his energetic sermons, such as Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, Edwards emphasized the absolute sovereignty of God and the beauty of Gods holiness. The non-material mind consists of understanding and will, and it is understanding, interpreted in a Newtonian framework, whatever features an object may have, it has these properties because the object resists. Though Edwards reformed Puritan theology using Enlightenment ideas from natural philosophy, and Locke, Newton, Jonathan Edwards also rejected the freedom of the will, saying that we can do as we please, but we cannot please as we please. According to Edwards, neither good works nor self-originating faith lead to salvation, Samuel Johnson has been called The Founder of American Philosophy and the first important philosopher in colonial America and author of the first philosophy textbook published there. Johnson strongly rejected Calvins doctrine of Predestination and believed people were autonomous moral agents endowed with freewill. His fusion philosophy of Natural Religion and Idealism, which has been called American Practical Idealism, was developed as a series of textbooks in seven editions between 1731 and 1754. His moral philosophy is defined in his college textbook Elementa Philosophica as the Art of pursuing our highest Happiness by the practice of virtue

48.
The Christian Century
–
The Christian Century is a Christian magazine based in Chicago, Illinois. Considered the flagship magazine of U. S. mainline Protestantism, the reports on religious news, comments on theological, moral, and cultural issues, and reviews books, movies. Matt Fitzgerald hosts a podcast entitled, Preachers on Preaching, the Christian Centurys current editor and publisher is Peter W. Marty, while David Heim is its executive editor. Rodney Clapp, Philip Jenkins, and Carol Howard Merritt are columnists, other contributors include Carol Zaleski, Walter Brueggemann, Barbara Brown Taylor. The magazine takes an editorial stance. The magazine describes its mission as follows, For decades, the Christian Century has informed and shaped progressive, committed to thinking critically and living faithfully, the magazine explores through argument and reflection what it means to believe and live out the Christian faith in our time. As a voice of generous orthodoxy, the Century is both loyal to the church and open to the world, the Christian Century was founded in 1884 as The Christian Oracle in Des Moines, Iowa, as a Disciples of Christ denominational magazine. Around this same time, the Centurys offices moved to Chicago, the magazine did not receive widespread support in its denomination and was sold in a mortgage foreclosure in 1908. It was purchased by Charles Clayton Morrison, who labeled the magazine nondenominational. The magazine was a target for criticism by fundamentalists during the Fundamentalist - Modernist debate of the early 20th century. During the Second World War, the magazine helped provide a venue for promotion of ideas by Christian activists who opposed the internment of Japanese Americans. Critiques of the internment policy, by such as Galen Fisher appeared, regularly in the Century. Both magazines continue to flourish, with the Christian Century remaining the major independent publication within ecumenical, Marty and former editor James M. Wall concluded long runs as Century columnists. Other notable writers published by the Century over its history include Jane Addams, Reinhold Niebuhr, Martin Luther King Jr. Richard John Neuhaus. Marty has described The Christian Century as an anti-Zionist publication, elesha Coffman, A Long Ride on the Mainline, Books and Culture, November 14,2008. Elesha Coffman, The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline, new York, Oxford University Press,2013. Official website Editors blog Blog network Christian Century Foundation Archives, 1908-2003 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Century

The Christian Century
–
Cover of December 14, 2010 issue

49.
Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans

50.
Augustine of Hippo
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage

Augustine of Hippo
–
Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving
Augustine of Hippo
–
The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15
Augustine of Hippo
–
The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.
Augustine of Hippo
–
Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).