By the death of JS Bach in 1750,
a major successor to Baroque style was not available. The period between then
(or even 1730) and the start of the (high) Classical era in 1780, is called the
early Classical period. Even before the death of JS Bach, there was a movement
towards replacing majestic splendor by graceful delicacy. If Baroque music is
notable for its textural intricacy, the Classical music is characterized by a
near-obsession with its structural clarity. The search for intellectual freedom
was to be the main principle of this new age of enlightenment. A more
spontaneous musical expression was preferred. The better known composers of the
pre-classical era were Gluck, Boccherini and CPE, WF and JC Bach brothers.

The end of Baroque coincides with
the Rococo period which is a reaction to the formalism, rigidity, and
seriousness of Baroque. The pre-classical Rococo style flourished around 1720. Music
with refined ornamentation can be seen as counterpart to the movement in
architecture. It represents the breakdown of the severe grandeur of high
Baroque music with graceful music and detailed elaboration. In music, the term
Rococo has been too loosely applied and the term galant is more appropriate.
One of the earliest composers wrote in galant style was F. Couperin (1668-1733)
in France (his keyboard character pieces). This style can be summarized as
pleasing tunefulness and prettiness. Music was designed to be entertaining.
Seriousness was avoided. Polyphony was replaced by a single melody placed
uppermost in a composition and supplied with most transparent harmony
(homophonic texture=melody with chordal accompaniment). The melody consisted of
short motives cast in four- or eight-bar phrases (instead of an uninterrupted
stream of music with a single affekt). Repetition of short phrases became the
characteristic of stile galant. Music stopped for frequent cadences but freely
used sevenths and diminished sevenths. The elements of the grand Baroque style
were abandoned. Among those were basso continuo, contrapuntal texture and
polyphonic writing. Inner parts were fully written out. The mood of music was
changeable in the same piece as opposed to constant affekt of Baroque music.
Establishing a single emotional quality and maintaining it throughout a
composition seemed constricting to the younger composers. A meaning was given
to the music by providing titles for them (program music). The flute and solo voice
used frequently. The Classical period saw the introduction of a form which has
dominated instrumental composition to the present day: the sonata-form emerged
from the rounded binary form of Baroque during this period. It appeared in
embryonic form in A. Scarlatti's opera overtures, D. Scarlatti's sonatas,
Pergolesi's trio sonatas, Sammartini's and Monn's sinfonias.

The German equivalent of style
galant was empfindsamer Stil (sensitive style) represented mainly by CPE Bach.
This style expressed a wider range of emotions. This style was a refined
passionateness and melancholy. This is expressed through surprising turns of
harmony, chromaticism, nervous rhythmic figures and free speech-like melody.
Bach's music expressed contrasting emotions in close juxtaposition. CPE Bach
was among the leading composers who brought sonata principle to the concerto.
Baroque textures were abandoned, and a series of textures in which chordal
patterns, running figures, unsupported melodies, and other devices alternated
according to the expressive requirements of the composer. The long lines of
Baroque music were still used but conflicted with the desire to create
expressive variety. The balance between variety and unity was accomplished only
by later Viennese composers. The inner voices were raised to the level of real
accompaniments. Motives derived from the melody often appeared in the inner
voices. The bass was freed from its old function of providing merely a
continuous harmonic support. It could now become melodic. A new era of fully
written-out music, free in texture and varied in emotional content started. The
Germans played a significant role in the development of abstract forms, such as
sonata form, and in the development of large instrumental genres, such as
concerto, sonata, and symphony.

In the new era, the role of the
harpsichord as a continue player was no longer needed. Instead it became a solo
instrument in concertos of the new type (especially by CPE Bach). With the
abandonment of figured-bass, the trio sonata vanished. It was replaced by
harpsichord sonata accompanied by violin, or cello or both. The roles of the
harpsichord and string instruments were reversed. With the advent of the piano,
the sonatas for piano and violin or cello, or piano trios became fashionable.
The three string instruments of the trio sonata was complemented by viola for
additional harmonic support and the modern string quartet resulted. Much of the
music for a string quartet was cast in the form of the divertimento which
originated about the beginning of the Rococo period. This was written purely
for entertainment purposes.

The enlightenment age brought
about nationalism and humanitarian ideas. Mysticism and superstitions faded.
The idea of extending culture to the ordinary people resulted in the emergence
of opera buffa (opera comique in France) in native languages and for public
performances. The buffa style appeared about 1730 and is characterized by an
exuberant, simple, lively, seemingly spontaneous style.

The eminent centers of the early
classical era were Mannheim and Vienna. The Mannheim school was developed
through the efforts of Johann Stamitz who was the violinist and concertmaster
of the Mannheim orchestra. Stamitz has a place in the music history owing to
his development of a new style of composition and orchestration. Stamitz also
contributed to the development of the sonata principle in the first movement of
symphonies. Stamitz's second theme, in contrast to his dramatic, striking, or
incisive first theme, is often filled with cantabile expressiveness, bringing a
lyric note into the symphony. Abrupt dynamic changes in short intervals were
first introduced by the Mannheim orchestra. Stamitz also expanded the movement
scheme of symphony from fast-slow-fast to fast-slow-minuet-fast (first used by
GM Monn). This plan became a standard in symphonies and string quartet during
Haydn's early musical life.

Pre-Classical Musical Styles:

Rococo: This style was chiefly associated with
France. It is a rather fussy, elaborate style typified in Rameau and F.
Couperin's music (another example is D. Scarlatti). Telemann represents the
German equivalent.

Galant: Light and elegant musical style of the
Rococo period as opposed to the serious and elaborate style of the Baroque era.
Galant referred to a particularly courtly manner of social manner. In music, it
is generally used to refer to lightly accompanied pleasing music with balanced
phrasing (JC Bach, Sammartini, Hasse and Pergolesi). Galant shares with rococo
the idea of heavy ornamentation, but differs from it in its clear phrase
structure and mannered cadences.

Empfindsamkeit: It is translated as sensitive style. It
was the North German equivalent of Stile Galant in 1750-1780. The romantic
variety of Rococo style. It tries to arrive at an expression of true and
natural feelings, anticipating to some extent the Romanticism of the nineteenth
century. It aims to portray subjective expression, especially melancholy.
Typical example is CPE Bach's music. WF Bach's music also falls into this category.
The volkstumliche Lied and Singspiel are the results of this movement.

Sturm und Drang: Means storm and stress. It found its
most potent expression in serious, minor-key works, full of sudden and
sometimes violent dynamic effects. A number of Haydn's symphonies from his
middle period are in this style (No 44,45,49 written in 1770-80). Mozart's
earlier G minor symphony (K183) is also in this group. An interesting example
of this style is Mozart's opera Idomeneo which contains long recitatives
accompanied by orchestra for passionate expression and storm scenes in minor
keys.

Some generalizations about
Classical period music:

* A near obsession with structural clarity. A clearly articulated
structure exists in classical music

* Themes are made of very short fragments (instead of long unbroken
melodies of Baroque music) in the form of antecedent-consequent. Four-bar
phrases became a norm

* As opposed to constant moods of Baroque pieces, different moods
in close succession existed in Classical pieces (duality in affekt). With the
contrasting themes of the sonata form, thematic dualism became an essential
structural element in Classical music as opposed to the principle of the basic
affection of Baroque music

* Tonic-dominant harmony, IV-V-I harmonic progression, and
classical cadential progression IIb-V-I were used frequently. The use of strong
cadential progression frequently compensated for the use of chromaticism in
terms of tonality

* Feminine cadence

* Appoggiaturas

* Use of chromaticism for expressive effect was common. This was
usually melodic chromaticism without affecting the underlying plain harmony. In
its simplest form, it occurs in unaccented passing or auxiliary notes. Melodic
chromaticism was used to compensate for the underlying harmonic plainness
(especially by Mozart)

* Slow harmonic progression (among the most striking features that
distinguish harmony after about 1730 from that of the Baroque era)

* Tune-and-accompaniment texture

* Extensive modulations (equivalent to use of dissonance by Baroque
composers) to build longer arches of tension and release

* Tonality plays a role in articulation of the musical structure.
Change of tonality points to a structural landmark

* Borrowing one or two chords from the tonic minor key or modulating
to the tonic minor (major-to-minor shift was typical of Mozart and Schubert and
only used in Vienna)

* Enriched use of rhythm and silence

* Use of dynamics and orchestral color in a thematic way (Mannheim
influence)

* Less frequent use of the ternary form, except in the minuet and
trio

* Predominant use of the sonata principle which provided musical
drama (contrast-elaboration-reconciliation)

* Evolution of the trio sonata into the string quartet; concerto
grosso into symphony concertante; and emergence of symphony and modern solo
concerto.

Chromaticism in the Classical
era: In Baroque music,
chromaticism (the use of notes extraneous to the diatonic scale) was used
freely for expressive effects at emotionally intense situations such as grief
or lament especially in recitatives (opera, oratorio), cantata, and in
instrumental program pieces. In the Classical style, melodic chromaticism was
used frequently (especially by Mozart) to compensate for the underlying
harmonic plainness. In its simplest form, it occurs in unaccented passing or
auxiliary notes. Melodic chromaticism does not usually affect the harmony. It
is mainly used for color-modification of diatonicism (the coloristic use).

By the Viennese composers,
chromaticism was used to interchange tonic major with minor (the modulatory
use). This becomes evident when the chromatic notes used in a passage are those
of the parallel minor or major key. The true modulation to tonic minor is again
a feature of the Classical style, but mainly in Neapolitan opera written in the
first half of the eighteenth century.

Personal Characteristics:

HAYDN (1732-1809): Mainly influenced by CPE
Bach. Follows the French overture style for symphony writing (slow chordal
introduction and contrapuntal allegro). His hallmark in symphony writing is
motivic development. Haydn minimizes contrasting subjects in movements in
sonata form; thematic development, instead, pervades all parts of the movement.
Closely related first and second subject (monothematic sonata form), but strong
observation of key relationships. As in Symphony No.96, drama was his priority.
He achieves this with rather surprising effects such as sudden key changes,
changes in dynamic, infinitely varying textures including counterpoint,
conflict and contrast of keys, and the use of silence and pause for special
effects. Later interest in unusual and irregular phrase length (3,5,7 bars).
Also in later works, less frequent use of the tonic chord and perfect cadence,
more frequent use of chord VI and imperfect cadence. In string quartets, he
observed air of conversation, and equal partnership (except those written for
the violin virtuoso Tomasini). He was fond of variation form. He used it in
most slow movements. It was often double variation (two ideas were
alternatively used): A-B - A'-B' - A''-B'' - A''', etc. He developed the
sonata-rondo form for the last movements of his symphonies in the late 1760s
(2/4 or 4/4 allegro or presto as opposed to earlier 3/8 or 6/8 presto finales).
Most of these features were inherited by Beethoven. He imitated Haydn in his
use of harmonic richness, remote keys, concentrated use of motifs and dynamic
effects.

MOZART (1756-1791): Mainly influenced by the
elegant symphonies of JC Bach whose cantabile style and lyrical second themes
had the greatest impact. Like him, Mozart followed the Italian style in
symphony writing: melodiousness, flowing melodies, smooth lyricism, longer
phrases. Rich texture with many sixths and thirds over repeated basses.
Abundance of themes linked together. His instrumental writing has analogies
with operatic arias especially in the piano concertos. He has one particularly
routine formula to delay the final cadence particularly in vocal music: V7d
- Ib - I - Ic - V7 - VI. In his operas, he does not simply present lively
tunes with light accompaniment as in other Italian operas of the time, but the
melodic line, suggestive harmony and the rich orchestration carry messages
about the emotion behind the words. The main similarity of Beethoven to Mozart
was thematic richness in his music. Beethoven, however, built his themes on
characteristic motifs suitable for extensive development.

SCHUBERT (1797-1828): Effortless modulations,
parallel use of minor and major modes, thirds relationships. The major-minor
alternations are so telling that no richer chromaticism is needed to ensure its
effect. Moving from the tonic to a key a third above or below the tonic, often
seen in Beethoven, was a potent means for Schubert to enrich his harmonic
scheme. The most personal Schubertian trait in instrumental music is expansion:
longer, more lyrical themes; richer, less diatonic tonal relations.

Schubert's use of the sonata form: In first movements, he typically repeats the first-theme
group before introducing the second, with the repetition generally more
elaborate than the first statement. The repetition, however, seldom occurs in
the recapitulation. That section, in turn, often begins with the second-theme
group (in early works in the subdominant instead of the tonic), the first theme
then being reserved for the coda of the movement. The development sections are
usually extended, giving Schubert full opportunity to express his sense for
harmonic color contrasts; consequently, transposed repetitions of thematic
sections rather than true developments are to be looked for.