Although many of the FBI's functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. Unlike the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection abroad, the FBI is primarily a domestic agency, maintaining 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States, and more than 400 resident agencies in lesser cities and areas across the nation. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence.[6][7]

Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint, operating 60 Legal Attache (LEGAT) offices and 15 sub-offices in US embassies and consulates across the globe, these foreign offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries.[8] The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas,[9] just as the CIA has a limited domestic function; these activities generally require coordination across government agencies.

Budget, mission, and priorities

FBI Domestic Investigations and Operations Guide

In the fiscal year 2016, the Bureau's total budget was approximately $8.7 billion.[2]

The FBI's main goal is to protect and defend the United States, to uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United States, and to provide leadership and criminal justice services to federal, state, municipal, and international agencies and partners.[5]

Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service, for personnel, investigators in particular. On May 27, 1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department.[13] Again at Roosevelt's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, which would then have its own staff of special agents.[11]

Creation

The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer.[11] Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds,[11] hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service,[14][15] to work for a new investigative agency. Its first "Chief" (the title is now known as "Director") was Stanley Finch. Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908.[11]

The bureau's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the "White Slave Traffic Act," or Mann Act, passed on June 25, 1910; in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI) before finally becoming an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935;[14] in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI.

J. Edgar Hoover as FBI Director

J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director from 1924 to 1972

J. Edgar Hoover served as FBI Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure, but as detailed below, his proved to be a highly controversial tenure as Bureau Director, especially in its later years. After Hoover's death, the Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI Directors to ten years.

Other activities of its early decades included a decisive role in reducing the scope and influence of the Ku Klux Klan. Additionally, through the work of Edwin Atherton, the BOI claimed success in apprehending an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of General Enrique Estrada in the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California.

Hoover began using wiretapping in the 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers;[16] in the 1927 case Olmstead v. United States, in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping.[16] After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed the Communications Act of 1934, which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging;[16] in the 1939 case Nardone v. United States, the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court.[16] After the 1967 case Katz v. United States overturned the 1927 case that had allowed bugging, Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act, allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand.[16]

National security

Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed (Ex parte Quirin) under their sentences. Also during this time, a joint US/UK code-breaking effort called "The Venona Project"—with which the FBI was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications, this effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence.[17] Hoover was administering this project, but he failed to notify the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of it until 1952. Another notable case was the arrest of Soviet spy Rudolf Abel in 1957,[18] the discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US allowed Hoover to pursue his longstanding obsession with the threat he perceived from the American Left, ranging from Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA) union organizers to American liberals.

Japanese American internment

In 1939, the Bureau began compiling a custodial detention list with the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations, the majority of the names on the list belonged to Issei community leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existing Naval Intelligence index that had focused on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the West Coast, but many German and Italian nationals also found their way onto the secret list.[19] Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling over Pearl Harbor.[20] Mass arrests and searches of homes (in most cases conducted without warrants) began a few hours after the attack, and over the next several weeks more than 5,500 Issei men were taken into FBI custody,[21] on February 19, 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. FBI Director Hoover opposed the subsequent mass removal and confinement of Japanese Americans authorized under Executive Order 9066, but Roosevelt prevailed,[22] the vast majority went along with the subsequent exclusion orders, but in a handful of cases where Japanese Americans refused to obey the new military regulations, FBI agents handled their arrests.[20] The Bureau continued surveillance on Japanese Americans throughout the war, conducting background checks on applicants for resettlement outside camp, and entering the camps (usually without the permission of War Relocation Authority officials) and grooming informants to monitor dissidents and "troublemakers." After the war, the FBI was assigned to protect returning Japanese Americans from attacks by hostile white communities.[20]

Sex deviates program

According to Douglas M. Charles, the FBI's "sex deviates" program began on April 10, 1950 when J. Edgar Hoover forwarded the White House, U.S. Civil Service Commission, and branches of the armed services a list of 393 alleged federal employees who were allegedly arrested in Washington D.C., since 1947, on charges of "sexual irregularities". On June 20, 1951, Hoover expanded the program by issuing a memo establishing a "uniform policy for the handling of the increasing number of reports and allegations concerning present and past employees of the United State Government who assertedly [sic] are sex deviates." The program was expanded to include non-government jobs. According to Athan Theoharis, "In 1951 he [Hoover] had unilaterally instituted a Sex Deviates program to purge alleged homosexuals from any position in the federal government, from the lowliest clerk to the more powerful position of White house aide." On May 27, 1953, Executive Order 10450 went into effect. The program was expanded further by this executive order by making all federal employment of homosexuals illegal, on July 8, 1953, the FBI forwarded to the U.S. Civil Service Commission information from the sex deviates program; in 1977–1978, 300,000 pages, collected between 1930 to the mid-1970s, in the sex deviates program were destroyed by FBI officials.[23][24][25]

Civil rights movement

During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or "fellow travellers." In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South.[26] The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation it called the COINTELPRO, a portmanteau derived from "COunter-INTELligence PROgram."[27] It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations, among its targets was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who is addressed in more detail below.[28]

The FBI frequently investigated Martin Luther King, Jr. In the mid-1960s, King began publicly criticizing the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most "notorious liar" in the United States;[30] in his 1991 memoir, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide.[31] Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 "suicide package" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him "You are done. There is only one way out for you..." with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions.[32]

In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent in Media, Pennsylvania was burgled by a group calling itself the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, including The Harvard Crimson.[33] The files detailed the FBI's extensive COINTELPRO program, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including a black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry Reuss of Wisconsin.[33] The country was "jolted" by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of the Congress, including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs,[33] the phones of some members of the Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped.[33]

Kennedy's assassination

When President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation.[34] To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, the Congress passed a law that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction, this new law was passed in 1965.[35][36][37]

Organized crime

In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program, the national office directed field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers.[38] After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, or RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns. All of the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act. Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups, although Hoover initially denied the existence of a National Crime Syndicate in the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by Sam Giancana and John Gotti. The RICO Act is still used today for all organized crime and any individuals who may fall under the Act's provisions.

In 2003 a congressional committee called the FBI's organized crime informant program "one of the greatest failures in the history of federal law enforcement."[39] The FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of the March 1965 gangland murder of Edward "Teddy" Deegan in order to protect Vincent Flemmi, an FBI informant. Three of the men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison), and the fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison.[39] Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years; in July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza, the U.S. Government was ordered to pay $100 million in damages to the four defendants.[40]

Special FBI teams

In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit[41] to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held in Los Angeles, particularly terrorism and major-crime. This was a result of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, when terrorists murdered the Israeli athletes. Named the Hostage Rescue Team, or HRT, it acts as the FBI lead for a national SWAT team in related procedures and all counter-terrorism cases. Also formed in 1984 was the Computer Analysis and Response Team, or CART.[42]

From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime the sixth national priority, with reduced cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War,[42] the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense. The FBI Laboratory helped develop DNA testing, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924.

After Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, 1994), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA, 1996), and the Economic Espionage Act (EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991. Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase in Internet-related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that threatened US operations, with these developments, the FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to the telecommunications advancements that changed the nature of such problems.

September 11 attacks

September 11 attacks at the Pentagon

During the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, FBI agent Leonard W. Hatton Jr. was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed. Within months after the attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller, who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations, he made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cyber security threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime.[45]

In February 2001, Robert Hanssen was caught selling information to the Russian government, it was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty to treason and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that led to the September 11, 2001 attacks.[46]

The 9/11 Commission's final report on July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports that could have prevented the September 11, 2001, attacks; in its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the FBI.[47] While the FBI did accede to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new Director of National Intelligence, some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.[48]

On July 8, 2007, The Washington Post published excerpts from UCLA Professor Amy Zegart's book Spying Blind: The CIA, the FBI, and the Origins of 9/11.[49] The Post reported, from Zegart's book, that government documents showed that both the CIA and the FBI had missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the primary reasons for the failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between the FBI, CIA and the rest of the United States Intelligence Community. The book blamed the FBI's decentralized structure, which prevented effective communication and cooperation among different FBI offices, the book suggested that the FBI had not evolved into an effective counter-terrorism or counter-intelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained agency cultural resistance to change. For example, FBI personnel practices continued to treat all staff other than special agents as support staff, classifying intelligence analysts alongside the FBI's auto mechanics and janitors.[50]

Faulty bullet analysis

For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures, it was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets. The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18-month independent review of comparative bullet-lead analysis. In 2003, its National Research Council published a report whose conclusions called into question 30 years of FBI testimony, it found the analytic model used by the FBI for interpreting results was deeply flawed, and the conclusion, that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition, was so overstated that it was misleading under the rules of evidence. One year later, the FBI decided to stop conducting bullet lead analyses.[51]

After a 60 Minutes/Washington Post investigation in November 2007, two years later, the Bureau agreed to identify, review, and release all pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given.[52]

Organization

Organizational structure

The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch, each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge.

Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director, the functions branches of the FBI are:

The Office of the Director serves as the central administrative organ of the FBI, the office provides staff support functions (such as finance and facilities management) to the five function branches and the various field divisions. The office is managed by the FBI associate director, who also oversees the operations of both the Information and Technology and Human Resources Branches.

Legal authority

The FBI's mandate is established in Title 28 of the United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the Attorney General to "appoint officials to detect and prosecute crimes against the United States."[54] Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes.

The USA PATRIOT Act increased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially in wiretapping and monitoring of Internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called sneak and peek provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards. Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions, the FBI also resumed inquiring into the library records[55] of those who are suspected of terrorism (something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s).

In the early 1980s, Senate hearings were held to examine FBI undercover operations in the wake of the Abscam controversy, which had allegations of entrapment of elected officials, as a result, in following years a number of guidelines were issued to constrain FBI activities.

A March 2007 report by the inspector general of the Justice Department described the FBI's "widespread and serious misuse" of national security letters, a form of administrative subpoena used to demand records and data pertaining to individuals, the report said that between 2003 and 2005, the FBI had issued more than 140,000 national security letters, many involving people with no obvious connections to terrorism.[56]

Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted.

There are 565 federally recognized American Indian Tribes in the United States, and the FBI has federal law enforcement responsibility on nearly 200 Indian reservations, this federal jurisdiction is shared concurrently with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Office of Justice Services (BIA-OJS).

Located within the FBI's Criminal Investigative Division, the Indian Country Crimes Unit (ICCU) is responsible for developing and implementing strategies, programs, and policies to address identified crime problems in Indian Country (IC) for which the FBI has responsibility.

The FBI does not specifically list crimes in Native American land as one of its priorities.[61] Often serious crimes have been either poorly investigated or prosecution has been declined. Tribal courts can impose sentences of up to three years, under certain restrictions.[62][63]

According to The Washington Post, the FBI "is building a vast repository controlled by people who work in a top-secret vault on the fourth floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, this one stores the profiles of tens of thousands of Americans and legal residents who are not accused of any crime. What they have done is appear to be acting suspiciously to a town sheriff, a traffic cop or even a neighbor."[65]

The FBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI,[67] did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974, the lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work. Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building, the services the lab conducts include Chemistry, Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), Computer Analysis and Response, DNA Analysis, Evidence Response, Explosives, Firearms and Tool marks, Forensic Audio, Forensic Video, Image Analysis, Forensic Science Research, Forensic Science Training, Hazardous Materials Response, Investigative and Prospective Graphics, Latent Prints, Materials Analysis, Questioned Documents, Racketeering Records, Special Photographic Analysis, Structural Design, and Trace Evidence.[68] The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge, the lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy.

The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia, is home to the communications and computer laboratory the FBI utilizes, it is also where new agents are sent for training to become FBI Special Agents. Going through the 21-week course is required for every Special Agent.[69] First opened for use in 1972, the facility located on 385 acres (1.6 km2) of woodland. The Academy trains state and local law enforcement agencies, which are invited to the law enforcement training center, the FBI units that reside at Quantico are the Field and Police Training Unit, Firearms Training Unit, Forensic Science Research and Training Center, Technology Services Unit (TSU), Investigative Training Unit, Law Enforcement Communication Unit, Leadership and Management Science Units (LSMU), Physical Training Unit, New Agents' Training Unit (NATU), Practical Applications Unit (PAU), the Investigative Computer Training Unit and the "College of Analytical Studies."

In 2000, the FBI began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated information technology (IT) infrastructure, this project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up over budget and behind schedule.[70] Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), were not. Virtual Case File, or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals, and repeated changes in management.[71] In January 2005, more than two years after the software was originally planned for completion, the FBI officially abandoned the project, at least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which never became operational. The FBI has been forced to continue using its decade-old Automated Case Support system, which IT experts consider woefully inadequate; in March 2005, the FBI announced it was beginning a new, more ambitious software project, code-named Sentinel, which they expected to complete by 2009.[72]

Carnivore was an electronic eavesdropping software system implemented by the FBI during the Clinton administration; it was designed to monitor email and electronic communications. After prolonged negative coverage in the press, the FBI changed the name of its system from "Carnivore" to "DCS1000." DCS is reported to stand for "Digital Collection System"; the system has the same functions as before. The Associated Press reported in mid-January 2005 that the FBI essentially abandoned the use of Carnivore in 2001, in favor of commercially available software, such as NarusInsight.

The Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division[73] is located in Clarksburg, West Virginia. Organized beginning in 1991, the office opened in 1995 as the youngest agency division, the complex is the length of three football fields. It provides a main repository for information in various data systems. Under the roof of the CJIS are the programs for the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR), Fingerprint Identification, Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), NCIC 2000, and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). Many state and local agencies use these data systems as a source for their own investigations and contribute to the database using secure communications. FBI provides these tools of sophisticated identification and information services to local, state, federal, and international law enforcement agencies.

Personnel

As of December 31, 2009, the FBI had a total of 33,852 employees, that includes 13,412 special agents and 20,420 support professionals, such as intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals.[75]

Hiring process

To apply to become an FBI agent, one must be between the ages of 23 and 37. Due to the decision in Robert P. Isabella v. Department of State and Office of Personnel Management, 2008 M.S.P.B. 146, preference-eligible veterans may apply after age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on the Isabella decision,[77] the applicant must also hold U.S. citizenship, be of high moral character, have a clean record, and hold at least a four-year bachelor's degree. At least three years of professional work experience prior to application is also required. All FBI employees require a Top Secret (TS) security clearance, and in many instances, employees need a TS/SCI (Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance.[78] To obtain a security clearance, all potential FBI personnel must pass a series of Single Scope Background Investigations (SSBI), which are conducted by the Office of Personnel Management.[79] Special agent candidates also have to pass a Physical Fitness Test (PFT), which includes a 300-meter run, one-minute sit-ups, maximum push-ups, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Personnel must pass a polygraph test with questions including possible drug use.[80] Applicants who fail polygraphs may not gain employment with the FBI.[81] Up until 1975, the FBI had a minimum height requirement of 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm).[82]

BOI and FBI directors

FBI Directors are appointed (nominated) by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by the United States Senate to serve a term of office of ten years, subject to resignation or removal by the President at his/her discretion before their term ends. Additional terms are allowed following the same procedure

J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924, was by far the longest-serving director, serving until his death in 1972. In 1968, Congress passed legislation, as part of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, requiring Senate confirmation of appointments of future Directors.[83] As the incumbent, this legislation did not apply to Hoover, the last FBI Director was James B. Comey, who was appointed in 2013 by President Barack Obama. In 2017 he was fired by President Donald J. Trump.[84]

Firearms

A Glock 22 pistol in .40 S&W caliber

Upon qualification, an FBI special agent is issued a full-size Glock 22 or compact Glock 23 semi-automatic pistol, both of which are chambered in the .40 S&Wcartridge. In May 1997, the FBI officially adopted the Glock, in .40 S&W, for general agent use, and first issued it to New Agent Class 98-1 in October 1997. At present, the Glock 23 "FG&R" (finger groove and rail; either 3rd generation or "Gen4") is the issue sidearm.[85] New agents are issued firearms, on which they must qualify, on successful completion of their training at the FBI Academy, the Glock 26 (subcompact 9mm Parabellum), Glock 23 and Glock 27 (.40 S&W compact and subcompact, respectively) are authorized as secondary weapons. Special agents are also authorized to purchase and qualify with the Glock 21 in .45 ACP.[86]

In June 2016, the FBI awarded Glock a contract for new handguns. Unlike the currently issued .40 S&W chambered Glock pistols, the new Glocks will be chambered for 9mm Parabellum. The contract is for the full-size Glock 17M and the compact Glock 19M, the "M" means the Glocks have been modified to meet government standards specified by a 2015 government request for proposal.[90][91][92][93]

Crime statistics

In the 1920s, the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments.[97] Due to limitations of this system found during the 1960s and 1970s—victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place—the Department of Justice developed an alternate method of tallying crime, the victimization survey.[97]

Uniform Crime Reports

The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country, they provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information. The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes.[96] Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be as uniform as its name implies, the UCR data only reflect the most serious offense in the case of connected crimes and has a very restrictive definition of rape. Since about 93% of the data submitted to the FBI is in this format, the UCR stands out as the publication of choice as most states require law enforcement agencies to submit this data.

Preliminary Annual Uniform Crime Report for 2006 was released on June 4, 2006, the report shows violent crime offenses rose 1.3%, but the number of property crime offenses decreased 2.9% compared to 2005.[98]

National Incident-Based Reporting System

The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) crime statistics system aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data, the system is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems. Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category, the Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories. Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system; in addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information. The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary-based UCR system, as of 2004, 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data. That amount represents 20% of the United States population and 16% of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI.

eGuardian

eGuardian is the name of an FBI system, launched in January 2009, to share tips about possible terror threats with local police agencies. The program aims to get law enforcement at all levels sharing data quickly about suspicious activity and people.[99]

eGuardian enables near real-time sharing and tracking of terror information and suspicious activities with local, state, tribal, and federal agencies. The eGuardian system is a spin-off of a similar but classified tool called Guardian that has been used inside the FBI, and shared with vetted partners since 2005.[100]

Controversies

Throughout its history, the bureau has been the subject of a number of controversial cases, both at home and abroad.

Covert operations on political groups

COINTELPRO tactics have been alleged to include discrediting targets through psychological warfare; smearing individuals and groups using forged documents and by planting false reports in the media; harassment; wrongful imprisonment; and illegal violence.[102][103] The FBI's stated motivation was "protecting national security, preventing violence, and maintaining the existing social and political order."[104]

Files on Puerto Rican independence advocates

The FBI also spied upon and collected information on Puerto Rican independence leader Pedro Albizu Campos and his Nationalist political party in the 1930s. Abizu Campos was convicted three times in connection with deadly attacks on US government officials: in 1937 (Conspiracy to overthrow the government of the United States), in 1950 (attempted murder), and in 1954 (after an armed assault on the US House of Representatives while in session; although not present, Abizu Campos was considered the mastermind).[117] The FBI operation was covert and did not become known until U.S. Congressman Luis Gutierrez had it made public via the Freedom of Information Act in the 1980s.[118]

In the 2000s, researchers obtained files released by the FBI under the Freedom of Information Act revealing that the San Juan FBI office had coordinated with FBI offices in New York, Chicago and other cities, in a decades-long surveillance of Albizu Campos and Puerto Ricans who had contact or communication with him. The documents available are as recent as 1965.[119][120]

Activities in Latin America

From the 1950s to the 1980s, the governments of many Latin American and Caribbean countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico and others were infiltrated by the FBI,[121] these operations began in World War II as 700 agents were assigned to monitor Nazi activity, but soon expanded to monitoring communist activity in places like Ecuador.[122]

Internal investigations of shootings

During the period from 1993 to 2011, FBI agents fired their weapons on 289 occasions; FBI internal reviews found the shots justified in all but 5 cases, in none of the 5 cases were people wounded. Samuel Walker, a professor of criminal justice at the University of Nebraska Omaha said the number of shots found to be unjustified was "suspiciously low." In the same time period, the FBI wounded 150 people, 70 of whom died; the FBI found all 150 shootings to be justified. Likewise, during the period from 2011 to the present, all shootings by FBI agents have been found to be justified by internal investigation; in a 2002 case in Maryland, an innocent man was shot, and later paid $1.3 million by the FBI after agents mistook him for a bank robber; the internal investigation found that the shooting was justified, based on the man's actions.[123]

In December 1994, after being tipped off by his former FBI handler about a pending indictment under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, Bulger fled Boston and went into hiding. For 16 years, he remained at large, for 12 of those years, Bulger was prominently listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list.[131] Beginning in 1997, the New England media exposed criminal actions by federal, state, and local law enforcement officials tied to Bulger, the revelation caused great embarrassment to the FBI.[132][133][134] In 2002, Special Agent John J Connolly was convicted of federal racketeering charges for helping Bulger avoid arrest; in 2008, Special Agent Connolly completed his term on the federal charges and was transferred to Florida where he was convicted of helping plan the murder of John B Callahan, a Bulger rival. In 2014, that conviction was overturned on a technicality. Connolly was the agent leading the investigation of Bulger.[135]

Death of Filiberto Ojeda Rios

In 2005, fugitive Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Filiberto Ojeda Ríos died in a gun battle with FBI agents that some charged was an assassination.[citation needed] Puerto Rico Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá criticized the FBI assault as "improper" and "highly irregular" and demanded to know why his government was not informed of it,[149] the FBI refused to release information beyond the official press release, citing security and agent privacy issues. The Puerto Rico Justice Department filed suit in federal court against the FBI and the US Attorney General, demanding information crucial to the Commonwealth's own investigation of the incident, the case was dismissed by the U.S Supreme Court.[150] Ojeda Rios' funeral was attended by a long list of dignitaries, including the highest authority of the Roman Catholic Church in Puerto Rico, Archbishop Roberto Octavio González Nieves, ex-Governor Rafael Hernández Colón, and numerous other personalities.[151]

In the aftermath of his death, the United NationsSpecial Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution urging a "probe of [the] pro-independence killing, human rights abuses", after "Petitioner after petitioner condemned the assassination of Mr. Ojeda Rios by agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)".[152]

Associated Press impersonation case

In 2007, an agent working in Seattle, Washington for the FBI falsely impersonated an Associated Press (AP) journalist and unwittingly infected a 15-year-old suspect's computer with a malicious surveillance software,[153][154] the incident sparked a strongly-worded statement from the AP demanding the bureau from ever impersonating a member of the news media again.[155] Moreover, in September 2016 the incident resulted in a condemnation by the Justice Department.[156]

In December 2017, following a US court appearance, a judge ruled in favor of the AP in a lawsuit against the FBI for frauduently impersonating a member of the news media.[157][158]

Wikipedia edits

In August 2007 Virgil Griffith, a Caltech computation and neural-systems graduate student, created WikiScanner, a searchable database that linked changes made by anonymous Wikipedia editors to companies and organizations from which the changes were made. The database cross-referenced logs of Wikipedia edits with publicly available records pertaining to the Internet IP addresses edits were made from.[159] Griffith was motivated by the edits from the United States Congress,[160][161][162][163] and wanted to see if others were similarly promoting themselves, the tool was designed to detect conflict of interest edits.[164] Among his findings were that FBI computers were used to edit the FBI article on Wikipedia,[165] although the edits correlated with known FBI IP addresses, there was no proof that the changes actually came from a member or employee of the FBI, only that someone who had access to their network had edited the FBI article on Wikipedia.[161] Wikipedia spokespersons received Griffith's "WikiScanner" positively, noting that it helped prevent conflicts of interest from influencing articles[165] as well as increasing transparency[161][166] and mitigating attempts to remove or distort relevant facts.[167]

Hillary Clinton email investigation

On July 5, 2016, FBI Director Comey announced the bureau's recommendation that the United States Department of Justice file no criminal charges relating to the Hillary Clinton email controversy.[168] During an unusual 15 minute press conference in the J. Edgar Hoover Building, Comey called Secretary Clinton's and her top aides' behavior "extremely careless", but concluded that "no reasonable prosecutor would bring such a case".[168] On October 28, 2016, less than two weeks before the presidential election, Director Comey, a long-time Republican, announced in a letter to Congress that additional emails potentially related to the Clinton email controversy had been found and that the FBI will investigate "to determine whether they contain classified information as well as to assess their importance to our investigation."[169] At the time Comey sent his letter to Congress, the FBI had still not obtained a warrant to review any of the e-mails in question and was not aware of the content of any of the e-mails in question,[170] after Comey's letter to Congress, commentator Paul Callan of CNN and Niall O'Dowd of Irish Central compared Comey to J. Edgar Hoover in attempting to influence and manipulate elections, on November 6, 2016, in the face of constant pressure from both Republicans and Democrats, Comey conceded in a second letter to Congress that through the FBI's review of the new e-mails, there was no wrongdoing by Clinton. On November 12, 2016, unsuccessful presidential candidate Hillary Clinton directly attributed her election loss to FBI Director James Comey.[171]

2017 dismissal of Director Comey

On May 9, 2017, President Trump dismissed FBI Director Comey after Comey had misstated several key findings of the email investigation in his testimony to the Senate Judiciary Committee.[172] Some[who?] question whether the dismissal was in response to Comey's request for more resources to expand the probe into Russian interference into the Presidential election.[173] Following Comey's dismissal, Deputy Director Andrew G. McCabe became Acting Director.[174] On August 1, 2017, President Trump's nominee for FBI director Christopher A. Wray was officially confirmed by the Senate in a 92–5 vote and was sworn in as Director the next day.[175]

The Nunes memo

On February 2, 2018, a four-page confidential memo by Republican House Intelligence Committee chairman Devin Nunes, was released after being signed by President Trump. According to the memo, a dossier by Christopher Steele and opposition research firm Fusion GPS, was utilized by DOJ and FBI officials for FISA warrants to surveil Trump's campaign member Carter Page. Additionally, former FBI Deputy Director Andrew McCabe, who resigned before the release of the memo, stated that the FISA warrant wouldn't have been obtained without the information in the Steele dossier. All four FISA applications were signed by McCabe, Rod Rosenstein, and former FBI Director James Comey.[176] President Trump commented on the release of the memo, saying: "A lot of people should be ashamed."[177]

Florida school shooting

On February 16, 2018, two days after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, the FBI released a statement detailing information the organization's Public Access Line had received a month prior, on January 5, from a person close to Nikolas Cruz, the suspected shooter. According to the statement, "The caller provided information about Cruz's gun ownership, desire to kill people, erratic behavior, and disturbing social media posts, as well as the potential of him conducting a school shooting." After conducting an investigation, the FBI reported that it had not followed protocol when the tip was not forwarded to the Miami Field Office, where further investigative steps would have been taken.[178]

The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s, the bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process of film or TV series development, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases.[179] A few of the notable portrayals of the FBI on television are the 1993–2002 series The X-Files, which concerned investigations into paranormal phenomena by five fictional Special Agents, and the fictional Counter Terrorist Unit (CTU) agency in the TV drama 24, which is patterned after the FBI Counterterrorism Division. The 1991 movie Point Break is based on the true story of an undercover FBI agent who infiltrated a gang of bank robbers, the 1997 movie Donnie Brasco is based on the true story of undercover FBI agent Joseph D. Pistone infiltrating the Mafia. The 2015 TV series Quantico, titled after the location of the Bureau's training facility, deals with Probationary and Special Agents, not all of whom, within the show's format, may be fully reliable or even trustworthy.

^Bonaparte, Charles Joseph. "Annual Report of the Attorney General of the United States, 1908, p.7". Historical Documents from the Bureau's Founding. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on 3 July 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012. In my last annual report I called attention to the fact that this department was obliged to call upon the Treasury Department for detective service, and had, in fact, no permanent executive force directly under its orders. Through the prohibition of its further use of the Secret Service force, contained in the Sundry Civil Appropriation Act, approved May 27, 1908, it became necessary for the department to organize a small force of special agents of its own, although such action was involuntary on the part of this department, the consequences of the innovation have been, on the whole, moderately satisfactory. The Special Agents, placed as they are under the direct orders of the Chief Examiner, who receives from them daily reports and summarizes these each day to the Attorney General, are directly controlled by this department, and the Attorney General knows or ought to know, at all times what they are doing and at what cost.

^Vanderpool, Bill (August 22, 2011). "A History of FBI Handguns". American Rifleman. National Rifle Association. The only personally owned handguns now on the approved list are the Glock 21 (full-size .45 ACP), the Glock 26 (sub-compact 9 mm) and the 27 (sub-compact .40 S&W).

^Vanderpool, Bill (August 22, 2011). "A History of FBI Handguns". American Rifleman. National Rifle Association. Also in the ’80s, HRT adopted the Browning Hi-Power. The first Hi-Powers were customized by Wayne Novak and later ones by the FBI gunsmiths at Quantico, they were popular with the “super SWAT” guys, and several hesitated to give them up when they were replaced by .45 ACP single-action pistols, the first ones built by Les Baer, which used high-capacity Para Ordnance frames. Later, Springfield Armory’s “Bureau Model” replaced the Baer guns. Field SWAT teams were also issued .45s, and most still use them.

^"RO® ELITE SERIES". Springfield Armory. Every new RO Elite series pistol is clad in the same Black-T® treatment specified on Springfield Armory 1911s built for the FBI’s regional SWAT and Hostage Rescue Teams.

^FBI Secrets: An Agent's Expose. M. Wesley Swearingen. Boston. South End Press. 1995. Special Agent Gregg York: "We expected about twenty Panthers to be in the apartment when the police raided the place. Only two of those black nigger fuckers were killed, Fred Hampton and Mark Clark."

1.
Symbols of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Seal of the Federal Bureau of Investigation is the symbol of the FBI. It is used by the FBI to represent the organization and to authenticate certain documents that it issues, the term is used both for the physical seal itself, and more generally for the design impressed upon it. The current version of the seal has been in use since 1941 and it should not be confused with the FBI badge, which is older and has a different design. The seals usage is regulated by U. S. federal law, under which it is an offense to make unauthorized commercial or otherwise inappropriate use of the seal. The FBI actively polices the use of its seal and has taken action against commercial vendors using it without authorization, the FBI has, however, also given approval to third party publishers to convey messages endorsed by the Bureau, such as campaigns against drug abuse and copyright infringement. The colors and symbol of the seal of the FBI represent the values and standards of the FBI, the center of the seal depicts a shield bracketed by two laurel branches, with an inscribed scroll below, set against a blue field. A gold-outlined strip occupies the circumference of the field, bearing the words DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, a circle of thirteen golden stars surrounds the shield and laurels, representing unity of purpose and the original thirteen founding states of the United States. The laurel branches represent academic honors, distinction and fame, the two branches depict a total of 46 leaves, standing for the number of U. S. states when the FBI was founded in 1908. The blue field behind the shield represents justice, as do the stripes set on a golden field at the shields top. Five parallel vertical red and white stripes make up the rest of the shield, as with the flag, there is one more red stripe than white. The stripes symbolize the values of the FBI, the red stripes stand for courage, valor, and strength, while the white ones represent light, cleanliness, below the wreath and shield is a scroll bearing the words Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity. This slogan, which was devised in 1935 by FBI Inspector W. H. Drane Lester, describes the moral standards. It also reflects the Bureaus own initials as a backronym of sorts, however a NEWSWEEK article from 2008 credits Edward Allen Tamm, once a top aide to J. The outer edge of the consists of a series of beveled golden peaks. This represents the challenges that the FBI faces every day. The gold color represents the richness and history of the Bureaus mission, the FBI seal should not be confused with the FBI badge, which dates from 1935 and has a very different design that does not incorporate the seal. The badge consists of a miniature shield crested by an eagle, the face of the shield depicts Justitia holding her scales and a sword, alongside the names of the FBI and the Department of Justice. The FBI Police symbol is a shield with the seal set at the center flanked by twin laurel branches

2.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

3.
J. Edgar Hoover Building
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The J. Edgar Hoover Building is a low-rise office building located at 935 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. in the United States. It is the headquarters of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Planning for the building began in 1962, and a site was formally selected in January 1963. Design work, focusing on avoiding the typical blocky, monolithic structure typical of most federal architecture at the time, land clearance and excavation of the foundation began in March 1965, delays in obtaining congressional funding meant that only the three-story substructure was complete by 1970. Work on the began in May 1971. These delays meant that the cost of the project grew to $126.108 million from $60 million, Construction finished in September 1975, and President Gerald Ford dedicated the structure on September 30,1975. The building is named for former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, President Richard Nixon directed federal agencies to refer to the structure as the J. Edgar Hoover FBI Building on May 4,1972, but the order did not have the force of law. The U. S. Congress enacted legislation formally naming the structure on October 14,1972, the building has three floors below-ground, and an underground parking garage. The structure is eight stories high on the Pennsylvania Avenue NW side, two wings connect the two main buildings, forming an open-air, trapezoidal courtyard. The exterior is buff-colored precast and cast-in-place concrete with repetitive, square, critical reaction to the J. Edgar Hoover Building ranged from strong praise to strong disapproval when it opened. More recently, it has been condemned on aesthetic and urban planning grounds. As of 2012, the J. Edgar Hoover Building is nearing the end of its useful lifespan and it is suffering from deterioration due to deferred maintenance and mediocre design. Since 1935, as an element of the United States Department of Justice, in March 1962, the Kennedy administration proposed spending $60 million to construct a headquarters for the FBI on the north side of Pennsylvania Avenue NW opposite the Justice Department. The administration argued that the FBI, which had offices in the Justice Department building as well as 16 other sites in the capital, was too dispersed to function effectively, initially, prospects for the new building seemed good. A House committee approved the budget request on April 11, but the United States House of Representatives deleted the funds when the budget reached the House floor. A budget conference committee voted in September to restore enough funds for site selection, planning. The site selection process for the new FBI headquarters was largely driven by factors unrelated to organizational efficiency, Kennedy noticed the dilapidated condition of the street when his inaugural procession traversed Pennsylvania Avenue in January 1961. At a cabinet meeting on August 4,1961, Kennedy established the Ad Hoc Committee on Federal Office Space to recommend new structures to accommodate the federal government. Assistant Secretary of Labor Daniel Patrick Moynihan was assigned to staff the committee

4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

5.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common

6.
Fiscal year
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A fiscal year is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries. It is also used for reporting by business and other organizations. Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, the calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxation, such as income tax. Many annual government fees—such as Council rates, licence fees, etc. —are also levied on a year basis. The fiscal year end is the date marks the end of the fiscal year. Some companies—such as Cisco Systems—end their fiscal year on the day of the week each year. Under such a system, some years will have 52 weeks. Many universities have a year which ends during the summer. In the northern hemisphere this is July to the next June, in the southern hemisphere this is calendar year, January to December. Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year, the American football league NFL uses the term league year, which in effect forms the leagues fiscal year. In Afghanistan, the year was recently changed from 1 Hamal –29 Hoot to 1 Jadi –30 Qaus. The fiscal year runs with the Afghan calendar, thus resulting in difference of the Gregorian dates once in a four-year span, in Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a financial year and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June. Financial years are designated by the year of the second half of the period. For example, financial year 2017 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2017 and it is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises. Business enterprises may opt to use a year that ends at the end of a week. All entities within the one group must use the financial year. The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901, the reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget. In Austria the fiscal year is the year,1 January to 31 December

7.
Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation is the head of that agency and responsible for its day-to-day operations. The FBI Director is appointed for a single 10-year term by the President, the current Director of the FBI is James Comey, who assumed office on September 4,2013. The FBI Director is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, along with the Deputy Director, the Director ensures cases and operations are handled correctly. The Director also is in charge of staffing the leadership in any one of the FBI field offices with qualified agents. The Director briefed the president on any issues arose from within the FBI until the Intelligence Reform. Since then, the Director reports to the Director of National Intelligence, the Director is also supervised by the Attorney General, as the FBI is an agency of the Department of Justice. When the Bureau of Investigation was established in 1908, its head was called the Chief of the Bureau of Investigation. It was changed to the Director of the Bureau of Investigation since the term of William J. Flynn, the FBI became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935. Senate confirmation of nominee was required after 1972. fbi. gov

8.
United States Department of Justice
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The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration. In its early years, the DOJ vigorously prosecuted Ku Klux Klan members, the Department of Justice administers several federal law enforcement agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Administration. The department has responsibility to investigate instances of fraud, to represent the United States in legal matters such as in the Supreme Court. The department also has responsibilities to review actions of law enforcement conduct by the Violent Crime Control. The Department is headed by the United States Attorney General, who is nominated by the President, the current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions. The U. S. Attorney General was initially a one-person and it was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, but this grew with the bureaucracy. At one time the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U. S. Congress as well as the President, until March 3,1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early Attorneys General supplemented their salary by engaging in private practice of law. Following unsuccessful efforts to put the Attorney Generals Office on a footing, in 1869. On February 19,1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice, President Ulysses S. Grant then signed the bill into law on June 22,1870. The Department of Justice officially began operations on July 1,1870, just prior to the Civil War, in February 1861, the Confederate States of America established a Department of Justice. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as Americas first Solicitor General, both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grants first term in there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. The result was a decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was better or stronger then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akermans successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, the law did create a new office, that of Solicitor General, to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, new facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924. The U. S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary, upon Medarys death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project

9.
Director of National Intelligence
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Further, by Presidential Policy Directive 19 signed by Barack Obama in October 2012, the DNI was given overall responsibility for Intelligence Community whistleblowing and source protection. Only one of the two positions can be held by an officer at any given time. The statute does not specify what rank the officer will hold during his or her tenure in either position. On July 20,2010, President Obama nominated retired Lt. Gen. James R. Clapper for the position, Clapper was confirmed by the Senate on August 5,2010, and replaced acting Director David C. The prior DNI was retired Navy four-star admiral Dennis C, blair, whose resignation became effective May 28,2010. Before the DNI was formally established, the head of the Intelligence Community was the Director of Central Intelligence, senators Dianne Feinstein, Jay Rockefeller and Bob Graham introduced S.2645 on June 19,2002, to create the Director of National Intelligence position. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on December 17,2004, in addition, the law required the CIA Director to report his agencys activities to the DNI. Critics say compromises during the bills crafting led to the establishment of a DNI whose powers are too weak to lead, manage. In particular, the law left the United States Department of Defense in charge of the National Security Agency, the National Reconnaissance Office, and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. On February 17,2005, President George W. Bush named US Ambassador to Iraq John Negroponte to the post, pending confirmation by the Senate. Negroponte was confirmed by a Senate vote of 98 to 2 in favor of his appointment on April 21,2005, on February 13,2007, John Michael McConnell became the 2nd Director of National Intelligence, after Negroponte was appointed Deputy Secretary of State. Donald M. Kerr was confirmed by the U. S. Senate to be Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence on October 4,2007 and sworn in on October 9,2007. Declan McCullagh at News. com wrote on August 24,2007 and this effectively made the DNI website invisible to all search engines and in turn, any search queries. Ross Feinstein, Spokesman for the DNI, said that the cloaking was removed as of September 3,2007, were not even sure how got there – but it was again somehow hidden the next day. Another blog entry by McCullagh on September 7, states that the DNI site should now be open to search engines, robots. txt has been configured to allow access to all directories for any agent. In September 2007, the Office of the DNI released Intelligence Community 100 Day &500 Day Plans for Integration & Collaboration and these plans include a series of initiatives designed to build the foundation for increased cooperation and reform of the U. S. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 established the Office of the Director of National Intelligence as an independent agency to assist the DNI, the ODNIs goal is to effectively integrate foreign, military and domestic intelligence in defense of the homeland and of United States interests abroad. The budget for the ODNI and the Intelligence Community for fiscal year 2013 was $52.6 billion, the ODNI has about 1,750 employees

10.
Intelligence agency
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Means of information gathering are both overt and covert and may include espionage, communication interception, cryptanalysis, cooperation with other institutions, and evaluation of public sources. The assembly and propagation of information is known as intelligence analysis or intelligence assessment. Intelligence agencies can provide the services for their national governments. There is a distinction between security intelligence and foreign intelligence, security intelligence pertains to domestic threats. Foreign intelligence involves information collection relating to the political, or economic activities of foreign states, zegart, Flawed by Design, The Evolution of the CIA, JCS, and NSC, Stanford, Calif. Нариси з історії розвідки субєктів державотворення на теренах України / Заг, journals The Journal of Intelligence History Reports Ruiz, Victor H.2010. A Knowledge Taxonomy for Army Intelligence Training, An Assessment of the Military Intelligence Basic Officer Leaders Course Using Lundvalls Knowledge Taxonomy

11.
Security agency
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A security agency is a governmental organization which conducts intelligence activities for the internal security of a nation. They are the cousins of foreign intelligence agencies, and typically conduct counterintelligence to thwart other countries foreign intelligence efforts. A similar relationship exists in Britain between MI5 and MI6, the distinction, or overlap, between security agencies, national police, and gendarmerie organizations varies by country. For example, in the United States, one organization, the FBI, is a police, an internal security agency. In other countries, separate agencies exist, although the nature of their work causes them to interact, for example, in France, the Police nationale and the Gendarmerie nationale both handle policing duties, and the Direction centrale du renseignement intérieur handles counterintelligence. Likewise, the distinction, or overlap, between military and civilian security agencies varies between countries, in the United States, the FBI and CIA are civilian agencies, although they have various paramilitary traits and have professional relationships with the U. S. s military intelligence organizations. In many countries all intelligence efforts answer to the military, whether by design or at least on a de facto basis. In Ireland, for example, intelligence operations relevant to internal security are conducted by the military and police, security agencies frequently have security, intelligence or service in their names

12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

13.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities

14.
United States Intelligence Community
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Member organizations of the IC include intelligence agencies, military intelligence, and civilian intelligence and analysis offices within federal executive departments. The IC is headed by the Director of National Intelligence, who reports to the President of the United States, among their varied responsibilities, the members of the Community collect and produce foreign and domestic intelligence, contribute to military planning, and perform espionage. The IC was established by Executive Order 12333, signed on December 4,1981, the term Intelligence Community was first used during Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smiths tenure as Director of Central Intelligence. Intelligence is information that agencies collect, analyze, and distribute in response to government leaders questions, safeguarding these processes and this information through counterintelligence activities. Execution of covert operations approved by the President. S, international terrorist and/or narcotics activities, and other hostile activities directed against the U. S. The IC is headed by the Director of National Intelligence, whose leadership is exercised through the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. Under the law, the DNI is responsible for directing and overseeing the NIP, the MIP is directed and controlled by the Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence. In 2005 the Department of Defense combined the Joint Military Intelligence Program, since the definitions of the NIP and MIP overlap when they address military intelligence, assignment of intelligence activities to the NIP and MIP sometimes proves problematic. The overall organization of the IC is primarily governed by the National Security Act of 1947, the statutory organizational relationships were substantially revised with the 2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act amendments to the 1947 National Security Act. Prior to 2004, the Director of Central Intelligence was the head of the IC, following the passage of IRTPA in 2004, the head of the IC is the Director of National Intelligence. The member elements in the branch are directed and controlled by their respective department heads. By law, only the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency reports to the DNI, in light of major intelligence failures in recent years that called into question how well Intelligence Community ensures U. S. Attempts to modernize and facilitate cooperation within the IC include technological, structural, procedural. The U. S. intelligence budget in fiscal year 2013 was appropriated as $52.7 billion, in fiscal year 2012 it peaked at $53.9 billion, according to a disclosure required under a recent law implementing recommendations of the 9/11 Commission. The 2012 figure was up from $53.1 billion in 2010, $49.8 billion in 2009, $47.5 billion in 2008, $43.5 billion in 2007, and $40.9 billion in 2006. About 70 percent of the budget went to contractors for the procurement of technology and services. Intelligence spending has increased by a third over ten years ago, in inflation-adjusted dollars, according to the Center for Strategic, how the money is divided among the 16 intelligence agencies and what it is spent on is classified. It includes salaries for about 100,000 people, multibillion-dollar satellite programs, aircraft, weapons, electronic sensors, intelligence analysis, spies, computers, and software

15.
United States Attorney General
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The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U. S. C. §503, concerned with affairs, and is the chief law enforcement officer. The 84th and current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions, who assumed the office on February 9,2017, the attorney general serves as a member of the Cabinet of the President of the United States and is the only cabinet officer who does not have the title Secretary of. The Attorney General is appointed by the President and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate, the office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1870, the Department of Justice was established to support the general in the discharge of their responsibilities. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno on November 7,2016. Barr served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. 2 Richard L. Thornburgh and Eric Holder served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. Both subsequently served as general, Thornburgh 1988–1991 and Holder 2009–2015. 4 Assistant Attorney General for the DOJ Civil Division Stuart M. Gerson was acting general from January 20,1993. Gerson was fourth in the line of succession at the Justice Department, during his time as Acting AG, Gerson supported the Brady bill and was in office in the beginnings of the Waco siege. Janet Reno, President Clintons nominee for attorney general, was confirmed on March 12, Acting Attorney General Gersons last day at the Justice Department was March 19. 5 On August 27,2007, President Bush named Solicitor General Paul Clement as the acting attorney general, to take office upon the resignation of Alberto Gonzales. According to administration officials, Clement took that office at 12,01 am September 17,2007, keisler served as acting attorney general until the nomination of Michael Mukasey on November 9,2007. 6 Deputy Attorney General Mark Filip was asked to assume the position of acting attorney general by then President-elect Obama, Filip led the Department while President Obamas nominee, then Attorney-General Designate Eric Holder, awaited confirmation by the United States Senate. Holder was confirmed on February 2,2009, and sworn in the next day, thus ending Filips tenure as the acting attorney general

16.
Counter-terrorism
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Counter-terrorism strategies include attempts to counter financing of terrorism. If terrorism is part of an insurgency, counter-terrorism may employ counter-insurgency measures. Harcourt envisioned a permanent unit dedicated to the prevention of politically motivated violence through the use of techniques such as undercover infiltration. This pioneering branch was the first to be trained in counter-terrorism techniques and its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counterterrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies, in Britain and elsewhere, established similar units, Counterterrorism forces expanded with the perceived growing threat of terrorism in the late 20th century. Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in police and domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional, interception of communications, and the tracing of persons, new technology has, however, expanded the range of military and law enforcement operations. Domestic intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or religion, mass surveillance of an entire population raises objections on civil liberties grounds. Homegrown terrorists, especially lone wolves are often harder to detect because of their citizenship or legal status, good intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as political and social understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Counterintelligence is a challenge with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal. Financial tracking can play a role, as can communications intercept, in response to the growing legislation. United Kingdom The United Kingdom has had anti-terrorism legislation in place for more than thirty years, the Prevention of Violence Act 1939 was brought in response to an Irish Republican Army campaign of violence under the S-Plan. This act had allowed to expire in 1953 and was repealed in 1973 to be replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Acts a response to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. From 1974 to 1989 the temporary provisions of the act were renewed annually, in 2000 the Acts were replaced with the more permanent Terrorism Act 2000, which contained many of their powers, and then the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was formally introduced into the Parliament November 19,2001 two months after the September 11,2001 attacks in the United States and it received royal assent and went into force on December 13,2001. On December 16,2004 the Law Lords ruled that Part 4 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but under the terms of the Human Rights Act 1998 it remained in force. The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was drafted to answer the Law Lords ruling and the Terrorism Act 2006 creates new offences related to terrorism, and amends existing ones. The Act was drafted in the aftermath of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, since 1978 the UKs terrorism laws have been regularly reviewed by a security-cleared Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, whose reports are submitted to Parliament and published in full

17.
Counterintelligence
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Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies were developed over the course of the late 19th century. A key background to this development was the Great Game, a period denoting the strategic rivalry, as espionage became more widely used, it became imperative to expand the role of existing police and internal security forces into a role of detecting and countering foreign spies. The Austro-Hungarian Evidenzbureau was entrusted with the role from the late 19th century to counter the actions of the Pan-Slavist movement operating out of Serbia. The Okhrana was initially formed in 1880 to combat terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity throughout the Russian Empire. Its main concern was the activities of revolutionaries, who worked and plotted subversive actions from abroad. It created an antenna in Paris run by Pyotr Rachkovsky to monitor their activities, the agency used many methods to achieve its goals, including covert operations, undercover agents, and perlustration—the interception and reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana became notorious for its use of provocateurs who often succeeded in penetrating the activities of revolutionary groups including the Bolsheviks. Integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly by governments were also established, the British Secret Service Bureau was founded in 1909 as the first independent and interdepartmental agency fully in control over all government counterintelligence activities. Its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming alias C, the Secret Service Bureau was split into a foreign and counter intelligence domestic service in 1910. The latter was headed by Sir Vernon Kell and was aimed at calming public fears of large scale German espionage. Many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separate and distinct from their intelligence services for specialized purposes. In most countries the counterintelligence mission is spread over multiple organizations, there is usually a domestic counterintelligence service, usually part of a larger law enforcement organization such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States. The Russian Federations major domestic security organization is the FSB, which came from the Second Chief Directorate. Canada separates the functions of general defensive counterintelligence, security intelligence, law enforcement intelligence, military organizations have their own counterintelligence forces, capable of conducting protective operations both at home and when deployed abroad. Depending on the country, there can be various mixtures of civilian, for example, while offensive counterintelligence is a mission of the US CIAs National Clandestine Service, defensive counterintelligence is a mission of the U. S. Diplomatic Security Service, Department of State, who work on security for personnel. In the United States, there is a careful line drawn between intelligence and law enforcement. In the United Kingdom, there is a distinction between the Security Service and the Special Branch of the Metropolitan Police, other countries also deal with the proper organization of defenses against FIS, often with separate services with no common authority below the head of government

18.
Jurisdiction
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Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area

19.
Federal crime in the United States
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In the United States, a federal crime or federal offense is an act that is made illegal by U. S. federal legislation. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, the Internal Revenue Service, and the Secret Service, kennedys assassination, assassinating the President or Vice President. In drug-related federal offenses mandatory minimums can be enforced, federal law is implicated when a defendant manufactures, sells, imports/exports, traffic, or cultivate illegal controlled substances across state boundaries or national borders. A mandatory minimum is a federally regulated minimum sentence for offenses of certain drugs, prosecution guidelines are established by the United States Attorney in each federal judicial district and by laws that Congress has already established

20.
MI5
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MI5 is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee, and the service is bound by the Security Service Act 1989. The service is directed to protect British parliamentary democracy and economic interests, within the civil service community the service is colloquially known as Box 500. The service has had a headquarters at Thames House on Millbank in London since 1995. Thames House was, until March 2013, shared with the Northern Ireland Office and is home to the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre. The service has offices across the United Kingdom including an HQ in Northern Ireland, details of the northern operations centre in Greater Manchester were revealed by the firm who built it. The Security Service comes under the authority of the Home Secretary within the Cabinet, the service is directed by the Joint Intelligence Committee for intelligence operational priorities. It liaises with SIS, GCHQ, DIS, and a number of bodies within the British government. Judicial oversight of the conduct is exercised by the Investigatory Powers Tribunal. Information held by the service is exempt from disclosure under section 23 of the Freedom of Information Act 2000, all employees of the service are bound by the Official Secrets Act. The current Director General is Andrew Parker, who succeeded Jonathan Evans on 22 April 2013, the service marked its centenary in 2009 by publishing an official history, written by Christopher Andrew, Professor of Modern and Contemporary History at Cambridge University. The Bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign target espionage and this specialisation was a result of the Admiralty intelligence requirements related to the maritime strength of the Imperial German Navy. The founding head of the Army section was Vernon Kell of the South Staffordshire Regiment and its role was originally quite restricted, existing purely to ensure national security through counter-espionage. These arrests have provoked recent historical controversy and this view has been challenged by Nicholas Hiley who has asserted that it is a complete fabrication. In 2006 his article Entering the Lists was published in the journal Intelligence, Hiley was sent an advance copy of the official history and objected to the retelling of the story. He later wrote another article, Re-entering the Lists, which asserted that the list of those published in the official history was concocted from later case histories. After this auspicious start, the history of MI5 becomes darker and it was consistently successful throughout the rest of the 1910s and 1920s in its core counter-espionage role. Throughout World War 1, Germany continued trying to infiltrate Britain but MI5 was able to identify most, if not all, MI5 used a method that depended on strict control of entry and exit to the country and, crucially, large-scale inspection of mail. In post-war years, attention turned to attempts by the Soviet Union, MI5s expertise, combined with the early incompetence of the Soviets, meant the bureau was successful once more in correctly identifying and closely monitoring these activities

21.
Federal Security Service
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The Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation is the principal security agency of Russia and the main successor agency to the USSRs Committee of State Security. It is headquartered in Lubyanka Square, Moscows centre, in the building of the former KGB. The Director of the FSB since 2008 is army general Aleksandr Bortnikov, the two major structural components of the former KGB that remain administratively independent of the FSB are the Foreign Intelligence Service and the State Guards. The FSB is mainly responsible for security of the Russian state, counterespionage, and the fight against organized crime, terrorism. Since 2003, when the Federal Border Guards Service was incorporated to the FSB, the FSB is engaged mostly in domestic affairs, while espionage duties are responsibility of the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service. However, the FSB also includes the FAPSI agency, which electronic surveillance abroad. All law enforcement and intelligence agencies in Russia work under the guidance of FSB, customs and Border Protection, United States Coast Guard, and partly the Drug Enforcement Administration. The FSB employs about 66,200 uniformed staff, including about 4,000 special forces troops and it also employs about 160, 000–200,000 border guards. The Federal Security Service is one of the organisations of the Soviet Committee of State Security. Following the attempted coup of 1991—in which some KGB units as well as the KGB head Vladimir Kryuchkov played a major part—the KGB was dismantled and ceased to exist from November 1991. In January 1992, another new institution, the Ministry of Security took over domestic, following the 1993 constitutional crisis, the Ministry of Security was reorganized on 21 December 1993 into the Federal Counter-Intelligence Service. The FSK was headed by Sergei Stepashin, before the start of the main military activities of the First Chechen War the FSK was responsible for the covert operations against the separatists led by Dzhokhar Dudayev. In 1995, the FSK was renamed and reorganized into the Federal Security Service by the Federal Law of 3 April 1995, the FSB reforms were rounded out by decree No. 633, signed by Boris Yeltsin on 23 June 1995, the decree made the tasks of the FSB more specific, giving the FSB substantial rights to conduct cryptographic work, and described the powers of the FSB director. Yeltsin appointed Colonel-General Mikhail Ivanovich Barsukov as the new director of the FSB, in 1998 Yeltsin appointed Vladimir Putin, a KGB veteran who would later succeed Yeltsin as federal president, as director of the FSB. Putin was reluctant to take over the directorship, but once appointed conducted a thorough reorganization, Putin appointed Nikolai Patrushev as the head of FSB in 1999. While the army lacked technical means of tracking the guerrilla groups, in the autumn of 2002, the separatists launched a massive campaign of terrorism against the Russian civilians, including the Dubrovka theatre attack. After becoming President, Vladimir Putin launched a reorganization of the FSB

22.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

23.
Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure

24.
Headquarters
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Headquarters denotes the location where most, if not all, of the important functions of an organization are coordinated. In the United States, the corporate headquarters represents the entity at the center or the top of a corporation taking full responsibility for managing all business activities, in the UK, the term head office is most commonly used for the HQs of large corporations. The term is also used regarding military organizations, a headquarters is the entity at the top of a corporation that takes full responsibility for the overall success of the corporation, and ensures corporate governance. Many companies have an office at a different address to their corporate office. A headquarters normally includes the leader of business unit and his or her staff as well as all functions to manage the business unit, the head of the business unit is responsible for overall result of the business unit. Military headquarters take many forms depending on the size and nature of the unit or formation they command, typically, they are split into the forward, main and rear components, both within NATO nations, and those following the organization and doctrine of the former Soviet Union. The forward or tactical HQs is a group of staff. The main HQs is less mobile and is involved in both the planning and execution of operations, there are a number of staff assembled here from various staff branches to advise the commander, and to control the various aspects of planning and the conduct of discrete operations. A main HQ for a large formation will have a chief of staff who coordinates the staff effort, the rear or logistic HQs is some distance from the battle or front line in conventional operations. The headquarters of the Catholic Church is Vatican City, the headquarters of the Russian Orthodox Church is in Danilov Monastery, Moscow. The World Council of Churches, including Orthodox Churches, has its headquarters in Geneva, the headquarters of Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is located in Istanbul, Turkey. The headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is located in Salt Lake City, Utah, the Anglican Communion Office is in London. In Japanese budō martial arts such as karate, judo, aikido, kendo, there is usually a headquarters for each organization or region. The Japanese word honbu is generally used for that, also outside Japan, sometimes they refer to this headquarters as honbu dojo in which dojo is a facility provided for practicing discipline, the training ground. Sometimes honbu is written as hombu, the way it is pronounced, but according to the Hepburn transcription, weapons and Tactics of the Soviet Army Janes, London,516 pp. Wanner, Herbert Global and regional corporate headquarters in, Kählin, Christian, H. Switzerland Business & Investment Handbook, Orell Füssli and Wiley, Wanner, Herbert, LeClef, Xavier, & Shimizu, Hiroshi Global Headquarters on the Move, From Administrators to Facilitators Prims Second Semester 2004, Arthur D. Little

25.
Political corruption
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Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, though is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents, the activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, some political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another, in some cases, government officials have broad or ill-defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually, a state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning rule by thieves. Some forms of corruption – now called institutional corruption – are distinguished from bribery, a similar problem of corruption arises in any institution that depends on financial support from people who have interests that may conflict with the primary purpose of the institution. In politics, corruption undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or even subverting formal processes and it violates a basic principle of republicanism regarding the centrality of civic virtue. More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government if procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off, Corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic values as trust and tolerance. Recent evidence suggests that variation in the levels of corruption amongst high-income democracies can vary depending on the level of accountability of decision-makers. Evidence from fragile states also shows that corruption and bribery can adversely impact trust in institutions, although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting bureaucracy, the availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Openly removing costly and lengthy regulations are better than allowing them to be bypassed by using bribes. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it distorts the playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition. Corruption also generates economic distortion in the sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes. Officials may increase the complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave the way for such dealings. In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigerias leaders between 1960 and 1999, University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 Sub-Saharan countries totaled $187bn, exceeding those nations external debts. In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behavior was political instability, and this encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation. In contrast, Asian administrations such as Suhartos New Order often took a cut on business transactions or provided conditions for development, through investment, law and order

26.
Civil and political rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes

27.
White-collar crime
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White-collar crime refers to financially motivated nonviolent crime committed by business and government professionals. Within criminology, it was first defined by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation. Some crime is only possible because of the identity of the offender, Shover and Wright point to the essential neutrality of a crime as enacted in a statute. It almost inevitably describes conduct in the abstract, not by reference to the character of the persons performing it, thus, the only way that one crime differs from another is in the backgrounds and characteristics of its perpetrators. By organizational culture rather than the offender or offense which overlaps with organized crime, organizational or corporate crime which occurs when corporate executives commit criminal acts to benefit their company by overcharging or price fixing, false advertising, etc. The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender, blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such as vandalism or shoplifting. In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior and it is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported. Corporate crime deals with the company as a whole, the crime benefits the investors or the individuals who are in high positions in the company or corporation. The relationship white-collar crime has with corporate crime is that they are similar because both are involved within the business world. Their difference is that white-collar crime benefits the individual involved, one well-known insider trading case in the United States is the ImClone stock trading case. In December 2001, top-level executives sold their shares in ImClone Systems, the SEC reached a settlement in 2005. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime, evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority, when senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes called control fraud. Some examples include human trafficking, money laundering, drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing, terrorism, the two most common forms are theft and fraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car, insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide the crimes into some laws, crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination of imprisonment, fines, restitution, community service, disgorgement, probation, or other alternative punishment. In other countries, such as China, white-collar criminals can be given the death penalty, certain countries like Canada consider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature on sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved

28.
Violent crime
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A violent crime or crime of violence is a crime in which an offender uses or threatens force upon a victim. This entails both crimes in which the violent act is the objective, such as murder, as well as crimes in which violence is the means to an end, Violent crimes may, or may not, be committed with weapons. Depending on the jurisdiction, violent crimes may vary from homicide to harassment, the comparison of violent crime statistics between countries is usually problematic, due to the way different countries classify crime. Valid comparisons require that similar offences between jurisdictions be compared, often this is not possible, because crime statistics aggregate equivalent offences in such different ways that make it difficult or impossible to obtain a valid comparison. Depending on the jurisdiction, violent crimes may include, homicide, murder, assault, manslaughter, sexual assault, rape, robbery, negligence, endangerment, kidnapping, extortion, different countries also have different systems of recording and reporting crimes. The first annual survey of crime victimization in Australia, the Crime Victimisation Survey, was conducted in 2008-09. Canada conducts an annual measure of crime incidences called the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey, UCR Violent Criminal Code violations include, homicide, attempted murder, sexual assault, assault, robbery, criminal harassment, uttering threats, and other violent violations. Canada also collects information on crime victimization every five years via its General Social Survey on Victimisation, among the eight GSS crimes tracked are three violent crimes, sexual assault, robbery, and physical assault. Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, England, Latvia, Netherlands, Portugal, Greece, an example is the case of Ilias Kasidiaris in 2012. Kasidaris, then spokesperson for Greeces far-right Golden Dawn party, slapped a female opponent in the face during a live televised debate. He was subsequently wanted by Greek prosecutors for assault and faced an arrest warrant, france does not count minor violence like slapping somebody as assault. The United Kingdom includes all violence against the person, sexual offences, today violent crimes are considered the most heinous whereas historically, according to Simon Dedo, crimes against property were equally important. Rates of violent crime in the UK are recorded by the British Crime Survey, for the 2010/2011 report on crime in England and Wales, the statistics show that violent crime continues a general downward trend observed over the last few decades as shown in the graph. The 2010/11 BCS showed overall violence was down 47 per cent on the level seen at its peak in 1995, in 2010/11,31 people per 1000 interviewed reported being a victim of violent crime in the 12 preceding months. Regarding murder, increasing levels of homicide from the 1960s through to the end of the twentieth century, recently the murder rate has declined, a fall of 19 per cent in homicides since 2001/02, as measured by The Homicide Index. Non-fatal violence is reported in the NCVS, which measures rape and sexual assault, robbery, the UCR tracks similar non-fatal violence, plus murder and non-negligent manslaughter recorded by law enforcement. The UCR includes homicide, arson, and commercial crimes, while the NCVS does not, the UCR excludes simple assault and sexual assault, which are in the NCVS. The NCVS data are estimates from a representative sample of U. S. households

29.
Assassination of William McKinley
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William McKinley, the 25th President of the United States, was assassinated on September 6,1901 inside the Temple of Music on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. He was shaking hands with the public when Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, McKinley died eight days later on September 14 of gangrene caused by the gunshot wounds. He was the third American president to have been assassinated, following Abraham Lincoln in 1865, McKinley had been elected for a second term in 1900. He enjoyed meeting the public, and was reluctant to accept the security available to his office, Secretary to the President George B. Cortelyou feared that an attempt would take place during a visit to the Temple of Music. Czolgosz had lost his job during the economic Panic of 1893 and turned to anarchism, regarding McKinley as a symbol of oppression, Czolgosz was convinced that it was his duty as an anarchist to kill him. Unable to get near the President during the presidential visit earlier, one bullet grazed McKinley, the other entered his abdomen and was never found. In September 1901, William McKinley was at the height of his power as president, elected in 1896, during the serious economic depression resulting from the Panic of 1893, he had defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan. McKinley led the nation both to a return to prosperity and to victory in the Spanish–American War in 1898, taking possession of such Spanish colonies as Puerto Rico and the Philippines. McKinleys original vice president, Garret Hobart, had died in 1899, in advance of the convention, New Yorks Republican political boss, Senator Thomas C. Platt, saw an opportunity to politically sideline his states governor, former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt accepted the nomination and was elected on McKinleys ticket. Leon Czolgosz was born in Detroit, Michigan, in 1873, the Czolgosz family moved a number of times as Paul Czolgosz, Leons father, sought work throughout the Midwest. As an adult, Leon Czolgosz worked in a Cleveland factory until he lost his job in a dispute in 1893. Thereafter, he worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings, in so doing, he became interested in anarchism. By 1901, this movement was feared in the United States—New Yorks highest court had ruled that the act of identifying oneself as an anarchist in front of an audience was a breach of the peace. Two American presidents had been assassinated in the 19th century—Abraham Lincoln in 1865, although two presidents had been struck down by assassins, McKinley did not like security personnel to come between him and the people. When in his hometown, Canton, Ohio, he walked to church or the business district without protection. McKinley gave a speech at his second inauguration on March 4,1901

30.
Anarchism in the United States
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As the post-World War II era anarchism regained influence through new developments such as anarcho-pacifism, the American new left and the counterculture of the 1960s. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration, the economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the male population were self-employed. The great majority of Americans during this time were working their own land, primarily for their own needs. While communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are forms of industrial socialism, historian Wendy McElroy reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence of 3 European thinkers. Another major foreign influence was the german philosopher Max Stirner, after success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren, considered to be the first individualist anarchist, after New Harmony failed Warren shifted his ideological loyalties from socialism to anarchism. Warren was a follower of Owen and joined Owens community at New Harmony, Warren termed the phrase Cost the limit of price, with cost here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did and they could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce. He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor for labor store called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism and these included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid, Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, Civil Disobedience is an essay by Thoreau that was first published in 1849. Thoreau was motivated in part by his disgust with slavery and the Mexican–American War and it would influence Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Buber and Leo Tolstoy through its advocacy of nonviolent resistance. It is also the main precedent for anarcho-pacifism, Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of American individualist anarchist and transcendentalist Thoreau. In his book Walden, he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization, many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against Civilization, Readings

31.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr

32.
Oregon land fraud scandal
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The Oregon land fraud scandal of the early 20th century involved U. S. government land grants in the U. S. state of Oregon being illegally obtained with the assistance of public officials. Most of Oregons U. S. congressional delegation received indictments in the case, Senator John H. Mitchell and U. S. Representatives John N. Williamson and Binger Hermann, in 1870, the United States government granted the Oregon and California Railroad 3 million acres of land to build a line from Portland south to California. Since much of the land was unfit for development, it did not attract many settlers, however, the land was very rich in timber, which meant that timber companies would pay much more than $2.50 an acre. The accumulated parcels were sold in large blocks to the highest bidder for timber harvest. Harriman eventually had a dispute with Puter and fired him, initially, more than 1,000 indictments were issued in the case. U. S. District Attorney Francis J. Heney narrowed down the list to the 35 most egregious offenders, Senator John H. Mitchell and U. S. Representatives John N. Williamson and Binger Hermann, Heney charged that Mitchell had illegally used his position to aid a client in the acquisition of patents to fraudulent land claims. Mitchells law partner and personal secretary both testified against him, and on July 3,1905, the jury found him guilty and he was sentenced to six months in prison and a $1,000 fine. Mitchell appealed, but before the appeal could be heard, he died from complications associated with a tooth extraction, Mitchell was convicted under Rev. Stat. §1782 which prohibited Senators and other officials from engaging in compensated representation in matters in which the United States was interested. The year before, in a case under the same statute. Williamsons trial also resulted in conviction for subornation of perjury in 1905, the prosecution argued that the three defendants had attempted to illegally obtain land claims under the Timber and Stone Act. Williamson appealed his case to the U. S. Supreme Court, in 1907, Hermann was found not guilty of destroying public documents. His second trial for collusion with the land fraud was postponed until 1910. Heney charged Hall with failure to prosecute fraudulent land companies and for using knowledge of the fraudulent activities for his own advantage. Hall was later pardoned by President William Howard Taft, published by, University of California Press, DOI,10. 2307/3636627 Tatom, Oliver

33.
Charles Joseph Bonaparte
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Charles Joseph Bonaparte was an American lawyer and political activist for progressive and liberal causes. Originally from Baltimore, Maryland, he served in the cabinet of the 26th U. S. President, Bonaparte was the U. S. Secretary of the Navy and later the U. S. Attorney General. During his tenure as the general, he created the Bureau of Investigation which later grew and expanded by the 1920s under the director J. Edgar Hoover. It was so renamed in 1935 and he was a great-nephew of French Emperor Napoleon I. Bonaparte was one of the founders, and for a time the president and he was also a long time activist for the rights of black residents of his city. However, the American Bonapartes were not considered part of the dynasty and he graduated from Harvard College and Harvard Law School in Cambridge, Massachusetts, across from Boston, where he later served as a university overseer. He practiced law in Baltimore and became prominent in municipal and national reform movements and he spoke on The Significance of the Bachelors Degree, Today, and here for the first time in America, a Catholic college for the education of young ladies bestows the bachelors degree. Which benefits the recipient of the degree has two distinctive and essential marks. It implies in the first place a broad, generous sympathy with every form of honest, rational, a Scholar who is also, and first of all, a gentleman may be. Specially interested is some particular field of knowledge, but he is indifferent to none and he knows how to value every successful effort to master truth, how to look beyond the little things of science. To the great things - Gods handiwork as seen in nature, young ladies, if this degree has such meaning for your brothers, what meaning has it for you. His home, Bella Vista, was designed by the architects James Bosley Noel Wyatt and it lies east of the Harford Road in an area called Glen Arm. C. Maryland voters elected him to be one of their presidential electors in 1904, in 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Bonaparte Secretary of the Navy. In 1906 Bonaparte moved to the office of Attorney General, which he held until the end of Roosevelts term and he was active in suits brought against the trusts and was largely responsible for breaking up the tobacco monopoly. He became known as Charlie, the Crook Chaser, in 1908, Bonaparte established a Bureau of Investigation within the Department of Justice which had been earlier established in 1870 under the direction of the Attorney General himself. By the 1920s, under its director, J. Edgar Hoover. Bonaparte died in Bella Vista, and is interred at southwest Baltimores landmark Loudon Park Cemetery and he died of Saint Vitus Dance. A nearby street in Baltimore County bears the name of Bonaparte Avenue, after Bonapartes death, the house was later owned by bootleggers Peter and Michael Kelly

34.
United States Secret Service
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The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U. S. Department of the Treasury, the Secret Services initial responsibility was to investigate counterfeiting of U. S. currency, which was rampant following the U. S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency, the Secret Service has two primary missions, investigation of financial crimes and physical protection of designated protectees. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States, Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. From 1997 until 2013, legislation became effective limiting Secret Service protection to former Presidents, President Barack Obama signed legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection on January 10,2013. The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents a year of individuals threatening the President of the United States, the Director of Secret Service is appointed by the President of the United States. With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D. C. as the Secret Service Division of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting, the legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincolns desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police. Post Office Departments Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations, and the U. S. Marshals Service, the Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection, a year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, the Secret Service was the first U. S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation upon the FBIs creation in 1908, the Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. Secret Service is not a part of the U. S, on October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C. R. Moore, in 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1,1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman, Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, as of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979, in 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedys assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees

35.
Secret police
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Secret police organisations are often utilised for the purposes of policing the activities of dissidents, and weakening opposition organisations. Secret police forces are only to the executive branch of the government. They operate entirely or partially in secrecy, that is, most or all of their operations are obscure and hidden from the general public, secret police agencies have often been used as an instrument of political repression. States where the secret police wield significant power are sometimes referred to as states or counterintelligence states. Despite such overview, there exists the possibility of domestic-security agencies acting unlawfully. In some cases, certain police agencies are accused of being secret police, for example, political groups and civil liberties organizations in the United States have at various times accused the Federal Bureau of Investigation of being secret police. Which government agencies may be classed or characterized, in whole or part, secret police organizations can exist at sub-national levels in a political unit in which entrenched leadership is largely unaccountable. A single secret service has the weapons to arrogate to itself complete political power and it may therefore pose a potential threat to the central political authority. In dictatorships, a relative of the dictator often heads the secret police. For example, Saddam Hussein, as head of the State Internal Security Department placed his secret police under the authority of his first cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid. In addition, secret police have a tendency to view potential political enemies as concrete threats. In some cases, a dictator may manufacture such enemies for the purpose of directing national output toward a common goal, the tactics of investigation and intimidation used by secret police enable them to accrue so much power that they usually operate with little or no practical restraint. Secret police may open mail, tap telephone lines, use techniques to trick, blackmail. Secret police are notorious for raiding homes between midnight and dawn, to people suspected of dissent. People apprehended by the police are often arbitrarily arrested and detained without due process. While in detention, arrestees may be tortured or subjected to inhumane treatment, suspects may not receive a public trial, and instead may be convicted in a kangaroo court-style show trial, or by a secret tribunal. Secret police known to have used these approaches in history include the police of East Germany. Secret police have used by many types of governments

36.
Stanley Finch
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Stanley Wellington Finch was the first director of the Bureau of Investigation, which would eventually become the FBI. He would soon retire from office, Finch was born in Monticello, New York. In 1893, he became a clerk in the United States Department of Justice, Finch rose from the position of clerk to that of chief examiner between 1893 and 1908. It was only working in the Justice Department that Finch earned his LL. B degree. The Washington, DC bar association admitted him to practice in 1911, previously when the Justice Department needed to investigate a crime it would borrow Secret Service personnel from the Treasury Department. As chief examiner, Finch advocated setting up a squad of detectives within the Justice Department, attorney General Charles Joseph Bonaparte created a Special Agent force, and gave oversight of the force, later named the Bureau of Investigation, to Finch. Thus he created what would become the FBI, from 1913 to the 1930s, Finch alternated between private employment—primarily in the novelty manufacturing business—and positions in the Department of Justice. He finally retired from the Department of Justice in 1940

37.
Mann Act
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The White-Slave Traffic Act, or the Mann Act, is a United States federal law, passed June 25,1910. Its primary stated intent was to address prostitution, immorality, and human trafficking and this is one of several acts of protective legislation aimed at moral reform during the progressive era. In practice, its ambiguous language about immorality has resulted in its used to criminalize even consensual sexual behavior between adults. It was amended by Congress in 1978 and again in 1986 to apply to transport for the purpose of prostitution or illegal sexual acts and it is in this changing social sphere that concern over white slavery began. This term referred to women being kidnapped for the purposes of prostitution, the second significant action at the local level was to close the brothels and the red light districts. From 1910 to 1913, city after city changed previously tolerant approaches, opposition to openly practiced prostitution had been growing steadily throughout the last decades of the 19th century. The federal governments response was the Mann Act, the purpose of the act was to make it a crime to transport or cause to be transported, or aid to assist in obtaining transportation for or to persuade, induce, entice or coerce a woman to travel. Many of the changes occurred after 1900 were a result of tensions between social ideals and practical realities. Family form and functions changed in response to a set of circumstances that were the effects of economic class. These white slave narratives, or white-slave tracts, began to circulate around 1909, such narratives often portrayed innocent girls victimized by a huge, secret and powerful conspiracy controlled by foreigners, as they were drugged or imprisoned and forced into prostitution. This is perhaps especially true of those ice cream saloons and fruit stores kept by foreigners, scores of cases are on record where young girls have taken their first step towards white slavery in places of this character. A number of Vice Commission reports had drawn attention to the issue, some contemporaries questioned the idea of abduction and foreign control of prostitution through cartels. For example, noted radical and feminist Emma Goldman asked What is really the cause of the trade in women, not merely white women, but yellow and black women as well. Exploitation, of course, the merciless Moloch of capitalism that fattens on underpaid labor, thus driving thousands of women, with Mrs. Warren these girls feel, Why waste your life working for a few shillings a week in a scullery, eighteen hours a day. Whether our reformers admit it or not, the economic and social inferiority of woman is responsible for prostitution, suffrage activists, especially Harriet Burton Laidlaw and Rose Livingston, took up the concerns. Other groups like the Womans Christian Temperance Union and Hull House focused on children of prostitutes, the American Purity Alliance also supported the Mann Act. Although the law was created to stop forced sexual slavery of women, in addition to its stated purpose of preventing human trafficking, the law was used to prosecute unlawful pre-marital, extra-marital, and inter-racial relationships. The penalties would be applied to men whether or not the woman involved consented and, if she had consented, some attribute enactment of the law to the case of world champion heavyweight boxer Jack Johnson

38.
Bureau of Prohibition
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When it was first established in 1920, it was a unit of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. On April 1,1927, it became an independent entity within the Department of the Treasury, in 1930, it became part of the Department of Justice. The Bureau of Prohibition’s main function was to stop the selling. Agents would be tasked with taking down illegal bootlegging rings and became notorious in cities like New York City, Agents were often paid low wages and the Bureau was notorious for allowing many uncertified people to become agents. However, doing so strengthened the bureau, as they were able to hire agents in greater numbers, in 1929, the Jones Law was passed. The Jones Law increased violations previously set in the Volstead Act, first time offenders were now expected to serve a maximum of five years and a $10,000 fine as opposed to the previous 6 months and $1,000 fine in the Volstead Act. Its investigators were called Prohibition Agents, or more colloquially prohis /ˈproʊhiː/ and its most famous agent was Eliot Ness. Some of the other famous lawmen who carried a Prohis badge at one time or another in their career include former Texas Ranger Frank Hamer, full-blooded Cherokee Tom Threepersons, lone Wolf Asher and Chicagoan Pat Roche. The two-agent team of Isidor Izzy Einstein and Moe Smith, working out of the New York City office, Izzy and Moe, as they would later be called, had 4,932 arrests while confiscating over 5,000,000 bottles of alcohol. The duo would disguise themselves as street vendors, fishermen and many others as well as having the ability to multiple languages. The Untouchables were by far the most famous group of prohibition agents and they earned their famous nickname because they were seen as fearless agents who were not as easily corrupted as other prohibition agents were. Nevertheless, the Untouchables gained national acclaim, particularly their leader, in the public opinion, the Bureau agents were not perceived as positive people. Bureau agents were supposedly notorious for killing civilians that were caught in the middle of gunfights between them and bootleggers, also, the general public did not like the fact that Bureau agents were able to wire tap phones. Many cases have reported of civilians lashing out at agents such as a woman scratching an agent in his face after he pointed his gun at her. With the passing of the Jones Act, tensions rose further as Prohibition agents were now able to launch a full-scale war on illegal speakeasies. This, in conjunction with police, ended up raising the tensions of civilians in cities such as Chicago. Even though Prohibition agents were tasked with stopping the consumption of alcohol, during the early stages of Prohibition, it was alleged that some agents accepted bribes in exchange for turning a blind eye to bootlegged liquor, mainly as a result of relatively low wages. It was also rumored that many agents imbibed the very alcohol which they were charged with confiscating, on July 1,1930, the Prohibition Bureau was transferred from the Treasury Department to the Department of Justice

39.
J. Edgar Hoover
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John Edgar Hoover, better known as J. Edgar Hoover, was the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the United States. Later in life and after his death, Hoover became a figure as evidence of his secretive abuses of power began to surface. Hoover consequently amassed a great deal of power and was in a position to intimidate, according to biographer Kenneth Ackerman, the notion that Hoovers secret files kept presidents from firing him is a myth. However, Richard Nixon was recorded as stating in 1971 that one of the reasons he did not fire Hoover was that he was afraid of reprisals against him from Hoover, according to President Harry S. Truman, Hoover transformed the FBI into his private secret police force. Truman stated, we want no Gestapo or secret police, the FBI is tending in that direction. They are dabbling in sex-life scandals and plain blackmail, J. Edgar Hoover would give his right eye to take over, and all congressmen and senators are afraid of him. John Edgar Hoover was born on New Years Day 1895 in Washington, D. C. to Anna Marie, who was of Swiss-German descent, Hoovers maternal great-uncle, John Hitz, was a Swiss honorary consul general to the United States. He was the closest to his mother in the family, who was the moral guide. Hoover did not have a birth certificate filed upon his birth, two of his siblings had certificates, but Hoovers was not filed until 1938 when he was 43. During debates, he argued against women getting the right to vote, the school newspaper applauded his cool, relentless logic. Hoover stuttered as a boy, which he overcame by teaching himself to talk quickly—a style that he carried through his adult career and he eventually spoke with such ferocious speed that stenographers had a hard time following him. Hoover lived in Washington, D. C. for his entire life, Hoover was 18 years old when he accepted his first job, an entry-level position as messenger in the orders department, at the Library of Congress. The library was a mile from his house. The experience shaped both Hoover and the creation of the FBI profiles, as Hoover noted in a 1951 letter and it gave me an excellent foundation for my work in the FBI where it has been necessary to collate information and evidence. Immediately after getting his LL. M. degree, Hoover was hired by the Justice Department to work in the War Emergency Division. He soon became the head of the Divisions Alien Enemy Bureau, authorized by President Wilson at the beginning of World War I to arrest and he received additional authority from the 1917 Espionage Act. Out of a list of 1,400 suspicious Germans living in the U. S. the Bureau arrested 98, americas First Red Scare was beginning, and one of Hoovers first assignments was to carry out the Palmer Raids. Hoover and his assistant, George Ruch, monitored a variety of U. S. radicals with the intent to punish, arrest

40.
FBI Laboratory
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The lab is currently located at Marine Corps Base Quantico in Quantico, Virginia. Opening November 24,1932, the lab was first known as the Technical Laboratory and it became a separate division when the Bureau of Investigation was renamed in the FBI. From September 1934 to September 1975, the Lab was located on the 6th floor, public tours of the lab work area were available until the FBI moved across the street to the newly constructed J. Edgar Hoover Building in 1974. Tours of the J. Edgar Hoover Building still were available, the laboratory expanded to such an extent that the Forensic Science Research and Training Center was established at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. Methods at the FSRTC helped establish standardized forensic practices for law enforcement agencies, the FBI Lab has been in Quantico since the transition from Washington around 2004. It is an operation, with some 500 scientific experts. The lab generally enjoys the reputation as the crime lab in the United States. According to John F. Kelly & Phillip K. Lab employees failed to keep abreast of developments in forensic science. Lab employees began to work backwards, from a conclusion preordained by the prosecutors they served, the history of the FBI Lab has not been without controversy. Dr. Frederic Whitehurst, who joined the FBI in 1982 and served as a Supervisory Special Agent at the Lab from 1986 to 1998, more than a decade later, cases were still being overturned because of this massive fraud. As a result of Whitehursts whistleblowing, the FBI Lab implemented forty major reforms, including undergoing an accreditation process

The J. Edgar Hoover Building is a low-rise office building located at 935 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., …

The J. Edgar Hoover Building in October 2005.

The first floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building on Pennsylvania Avenue NW. The FBI opposed an arcade and retail shops here; the final design features a windowless wall with black granite infill panels at street level.

Elizabeth Ulman Rowe, chair of the NCPC from 1961 to 1968.

Equipment "penthouses" atop the Hoover building created controversy over building height limits on Pennsylvania Avenue NW.

The 113 stars on the CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action

Suspended from the ceiling of the glass enclosed atrium: three models of the U-2, Lockheed A-12, and D-21drone. These models are exact replicas at one-sixth scale of the real planes. All three had photographic capabilities. The U-2 was one of the first espionage planes developed by the CIA. The A-12 set unheralded flight records. The D-21 drone was one of the first unmanned aircraft ever built. Lockheed Martin Corporation donated all three models to the CIA.

William McKinley (to the left of center, with white shirtfront) delivers his final speech.

The "last posed photograph" of President McKinley, in the Government Building on September 5, 1901. Left to right: Mrs. John Miller Horton, Chairwoman of the Entertainment Committee of the Woman's Board of Managers; John G. Milburn; Manuel de Azpíroz, the Mexican Ambassador; the President; George B. Cortelyou, the President's secretary; Col. John H. Bingham of the Government Board.

Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, …

Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine brewery during the Prohibition era

The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846

"Who does not love wine, wife and song, will be a fool for his lifelong!" Intended as an assertion of the cultural values of German-Americans in 1873

This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette newspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union's campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii.

Telephone tapping (also wire tapping or wiretapping in American English) is the monitoring of telephone and Internet …

Telephone line control device "Jitka", used in late 1960s by Czechoslovakian StB to signal line occupancy, and connect a recorder

A telephone recording adapter (in-line tap). The phone jack connects to the wall socket while the phone being monitored is connected to the adapter's socket. The audio plug connects to the recording device (computer, tape recorder, etc.).

CrimethInc. sticker on a telephone warning users of phone tapping by the U.S. government

The White-Slave Traffic Act, or the Mann Act, is a United States federal law, passed June 25, 1910 (ch. 395, 36 Stat. …

Newspaper clip "Wanted 60,000 girls to take the place of 60,000 white slaves who will die this year"

"Ice cream parlors of the city and fruit stores combined, largely run by foreigners, are the places where scores of girls have taken their first step downward. Does her mother know the character of the place and the man she is with?"