As the people have no collective name for themselves, they have adopted the English term, "Copper Inuit",[3] it represents those westernmost Central Inuit who used and relied on native copper gathered along the lower Coppermine River and the Coronation Gulf.[4]

According to Rasmussen (1932), other Inuit referred to Copper Inuit as Kitlinermiut, as Kitlineq was an Inuit language name for Victoria Island.[5]

Copper Inuit are descendants of Thule culture. Changes in the local environment may have resulted in the transition from prehistoric Thule culture to Copper Inuit culture, a modern people.[2]

For approximately three millennia[6] Copper Inuit were hunter-gatherernomads, their settlement and acculturation to some of European-Canadian ways has occurred only since the 1940s, and they have also continued the hunting and gathering lifestyle.[7]

They lived in communal snowhouses during the winter and engaged in breathing-hole (mauliqtoq) seal hunting; in the summer, they spread out in smaller, family groups for inland caribou hunting and fishing.[1]

The people made copper arrows, spear heads, ulu blades, chisels, harpoons, and knives for both personal use and for trade amongst other Inuit; in addition to the copper products, Copper Inuit soapstone products were highly regarded in the Bering Strait trade network.[8] Other trade partners included Inuvialuit from Avvaq and Caribou Inuit to the south.[9] Many Copper Inuit gathered in the Cambridge Bay area in the summertime because of plentiful game.[10]

According to Robin McGrath there are Inuit stories that show there was a history of conflict between the Inuit and the Dene, as well as others which may have involved Europeans, this conflict seems to have been instigated by both the Dene and the Inuit and possibly was caused by trade disputes but sometimes due to raids for women.[11] One of the better known of these battles was recorded by European explorer, Samuel Hearne; in 1771, Samuel Hearne was the first European to explore the Coppermine River region. It was here that Hearne's Chipewyan Dene companions massacred a Copper Inuit group at Bloody Falls.[1] Further exploration did not take place until the period of 1820–1853, which included the Sir John Franklin expeditions of 1821 and 1825. John Rae encountered Copper Inuit at Rae River in 1847, and at Cape Flinders and Stromness Bay in 1851.[12] During the McClure Arctic Expedition, Irish explorer, Robert McClure abandoned his ship, HMS Investigator, at Mercy Bay on Banks Island in 1853 during his search for Franklin's lost expedition. It provided extensive amounts of wood, copper, and iron which the Copper Inuit used for years. Richard Collinson explored the area in 1850–1855.

In 1960, the federal government shipped three housing units to Holman, and another four in 1961; in the years to follow, some families moved to Holman permanently, while others lived there seasonally. Some Copper Inuit moved to the communities of Coppermine (Kugluktuk) or Cambridge Bay. Still others gravitated to outposts along Bathurst Inlet, Contwoyto Lake, Coronation Gulf, and on Victoria Island.[16]

The Copper Inuit have gradually adopted snowmobiles, satellite dish television service, and Christian churches. Many young people now speak English rather than Inuinnaqtun. Together, these introductions have created social change among the Copper Inuit.[1]

Copper Inuit wore short-waisted inner parkas accented with long, narrow back tails, and sleeves that came short of the wrist; in severe weather, they added a heavy outer parka. Women's parkas were distinguished by elongated hoods, and exaggerated, pointed shoulders. Boots extended up the leg to button at the waistline, they made the soles from feathers or bird skins.[16] Copper Inuit used different napkins for different meals: ptarmigan skins when eating caribou, and gull skins when eating seal.[19]

Contemporary clothing and boots may be made of a variety of skins, including:[16]

Copper Inuit had an animistic spiritual system,[20] which included belief that animal spirits could be offended through taboo violations.[3] They believed that dwarfs, giants, "caribou people", and the sea-goddess, Arnapkapfaaluk or big bad woman inhabit the world,[3] their conception of the tupilaq was similar to the Christiandevil.[21]

Shamans (angatkut) could be male or female. They warded off evil spirits, functioned as intermediaries between people and the spirit world, healed illness or taboo violations, and controlled weather.[3]

1.
Inuvialuktun
–
It was traditionally subsumed under a broader Inuktitut, and there is no consensus which dialects belong to which language. Rather than a coherent language, Inuvialuktun is a politically motivated grouping of three distinct and separate varieties. Inuvialuktun and Inuinnaqtun constitute two of the official languages of the Northwest Territories. Inuinnaqtun is also official alongside Inuktitut in Nunavut, with the exception of Natsilingmiutut they are written in a Latin alphabet and have no tradition of Inuktitut syllabics. Inuit from Alaska moved into traditionally Siglit areas in the 1910s and 1920s and these Inuit are called Uummarmiut – which means people of the green trees – in reference to their settlements near the tree line. Originally, there was an intense dislike between the Siglit and the Uummarmiut, but these differences have faded over the years, the Inuvialuktun dialects are seriously endangered, as English has in recent years become the common language of the community. Surveys of Inuktitut usage in the NWT vary, but all agree that usage is not vigorous, according to the Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre, only some 10% of the roughly 4,000 Inuvialuit speak any form of Inuktitut, and only some 4% use it at home. Statistics Canadas 2001 Census report is only better, reporting 765 self-identified Inuktitut speakers out of a self-reported Inuvialuit population of 3,905. The Kangiryuarmiutun subdialect is spoken in the community of Ulukhaktok. Siglitun was, until the 1980s, it was believed that the Siglitun dialect was extinct, the Inuvialuk dialects spoken in Nunavut are often counted as Inuktitut, and the government of the NWT only recognizes Inuinnaqtun and Inuvialuktun. Uummarmiutun is found in the communities of Inuvik and Aklavik, English has in recent years become the common language of the Inuvialuit. Surveys of Inuktitut usage in the NWT vary, but all agree that usage is not vigorous, according to the Inuvialuit Cultural Resource Centre, only some 10% of the roughly 4,000 Inuvialuit speak any dialect of Inuvialuktun, and only some 4% use it at home. Statistics Canadas 2001 Census reports 765 self-identified Inuvialuktun speakers out of a self-reported Inuvialuit population of 3,905

2.
Inuinnaqtun
–
Inuinnaqtun, is an indigenous Inuit language of Canada and a dialect of Inuvialuktun. It is related closely to Inuktitut, and some scholars, such as Richard Condon. The governments of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut recognise Inuinnaqtun as a language in addition to Inuktitut. The Official Languages Act of Nunavut, passed by the Senate of Canada on June 11,2009, Inuinnaqtun is used primarily in the communities of Cambridge Bay and Kugluktuk in the western Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut. Outside of Nunavut, it is spoken in the hamlet of Ulukhaktok and it is written using the Latin script

3.
Animism
–
Animism is the worlds oldest religion. Animism teaches that objects, places, and creatures all possess distinctive spiritual qualities, potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animate and alive. Animism is the oldest known type of system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in traditional societies. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples spiritual or supernatural perspectives. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names, or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the world also consider themselves animists. Earlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the old animism – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive, the old animism assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things. Critics of the old animism have accused it of preserving colonialist and dualist worldviews, according to Tylor, animism often includes an idea of pervading life and will in nature, i. e. a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as fetishism, thus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819, Tylors definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of primitive society by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology and their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of developed religions, in 1869, the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the armchair anthropologists remained focused on totemism rather than animism, indeed, anthropologists have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, stewart Guthrie saw animism – or attribution as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats

4.
Shamanism
–
The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis

5.
Inuit
–
Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities

6.
Tree line
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The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and in frigid environments, beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions. The tree line should not be confused with a lower timberline or forest line, at the tree line, tree growth is often sparse and stunted, with the last trees forming densely matted bushes, known as krummholz. The tree line, like other natural lines, appears well-defined from a distance. Trees grow shorter towards the inhospitable climate until they stop growing. The climate above the line of mountains is called an alpine climate. In the northern hemisphere treelines on north-facing slopes are lower than on south-facing slopes because the increased shade on north-facing slopes means the snowpack takes longer to melt and this shortens the growing season for trees. In the southern hemisphere, the slopes have the shorter growing season. The alpine tree line boundary is seldom abrupt, it forms a transition zone between closed forest below and treeless alpine tundra above. Environmentally dwarfed shrubs commonly forms the upper limit, the decrease in air temperature due to increasing elevation causes the alpine climate. Skin effects and topography can create microclimates that alter the general cooling trend, however, the number of degree days calculated from leaf temperatures may be very similar in the two kinds of timberlines. A series of warm summers in the 1940s seems to have permitted the establishment of “significant numbers” of spruce seedlings above the treeline in the hills near Fairbanks. Survival depends on a sufficiency of new growth to support the tree, the windiness of high-elevation sites is also a potent determinant of the distribution of tree growth. However, snow accumulation in sheltered gullies in the Selkirk Mountains of southeastern British Columbia causes timberline to be 400 metres lower than on exposed intervening shoulders. In a desert, the line marks the driest places where trees can grow. These tend to be called the tree line and occur below about 5,000 ft elevation in the Desert Southwestern United States. In some mountainous areas, higher elevations above the line or on equator-facing and leeward slopes can result in low rainfall. This dries out the soil, resulting in an arid environment unsuitable for trees

7.
Nunavut
–
Nunavut is the newest, largest, and northernmost territory of Canada. The creation of Nunavut resulted in the first major change to Canadas political map since the incorporation of the province of Newfoundland, Nunavut comprises a major portion of Northern Canada, and most of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Its vast territory makes it the fifth-largest country subdivision in the world, the capital Iqaluit, on Baffin Island in the east, was chosen by the 1995 capital plebiscite. Other major communities include the regional centres of Rankin Inlet and Cambridge Bay and it is Canadas only geo-political region that is not connected to the rest of North America by highway. Nunavut is the largest in area and the second least populous of Canadas provinces and territories. One of the worlds most remote, sparsely settled regions, it has a population of 35,944, mostly Inuit, spread over an area of just over 1,750,000 km2, Nunavut is also home to the worlds northernmost permanently inhabited place, Alert. A weather station farther down Ellesmere Island, Eureka, has the lowest average temperature of any Canadian weather station. Nunavut means our land in Inuktitut, Nunavut covers 1,877,787 km2 of land and 160,935 km2 of water in Northern Canada. This makes it the fifth largest subnational entity in the world, if Nunavut were a country, it would rank 15th in area. It also shares borders with Greenland and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario. Nunavuts highest point is Barbeau Peak on Ellesmere Island, the population density is 0.019 persons/km2, one of the lowest in the world. By comparison, Greenland has approximately the area and nearly twice the population. Nunavut experiences a climate in most regions, owing to its high latitude. In more southerly continental areas very cold climates can be found. The region now known as Nunavut has supported an indigenous population for approximately 4,000 years. Most historians identify the coast of Baffin Island with the Helluland described in Norse sagas, the materials were collected in five seasons of excavation at Cape Tanfield. Scholars determined that these provide evidence of European traders and possibly settlers on Baffin Island and they seem to indicate prolonged contact, possibly up to 1450. So you have to consider the possibility that as remote as it may seem, the ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit

8.
Kitikmeot Region
–
Kitikmeot Region is an administrative region of Nunavut, Canada. The regional seat is Cambridge Bay, before 1999, Kitikmeot Region existed under slightly different boundaries as Kitikmeot Region, Northwest Territories. Access to the capital of Iqaluit is difficult and expensive as there are no direct flights from any community in the region. For example, Iqaluit is approximately 1,069 km from Kugaaruk, in total a trip of about 3,627 km. Like the rest of Nunavut there is no access to the region. All five hamlets have certified airports, Cambridge Bay Airport, Gjoa Haven Airport, Kugaaruk Airport, Kugluktuk Airport and Taloyoak Airport, with scheduled flights by Canadian North, there are also five registered aerodromes in the region. Cambridge Bay Water Aerodrome is a floatplane base open in the summer only, Doris Lake Aerodrome, a 7,894 ft ice runway, the longest in the region which serves the Doris Lake mine. George Lake Aerodrome, an ice runway, like Doris Lake is only open from January to April, goose Lake Aerodrome also serves the Back River Gold Project and has both an ice and gravel runway. Hope Bay Aerodrome serves the Hope Bay mine site and is a gravel runway, none of the aerodromes have scheduled flights and are charter only. Bathurst Inlet and Umingmaktok have landing strips and no scheduled flights, seaplanes may land there in the summer. The region forms part of the Northwest Passage and has hosted several cruise ships, although the waterways are open in the summer there are no scheduled general passenger ships and only private yachts, such as the Octopus owned by Paul Allen, and cruise ships pass through. The region is home to the two communities in Nunavut that voted no in the 1982 division plebiscite, Cambridge Bay and Kugluktuk. The region has four districts, Cambridge Bay, which covers Bathurst Inlet, Cambridge Bay. The seat is held by Keith Peterson, Gjoa Haven, which covers the community of Gjoa Haven and is held by Tony Akoak. The seat is held by Peter Taptuna the Premier of Nunavut, netsilik, which covers Taloyoak and Kugaaruk. The seat is held by Emilino Qirngnuq, former districts include Akulliq, which covered Kugaaruk and Naujaat in the Kivalliq Region. It was the ony electoral district in Nunavut to cross two regions, nattilik, which covered Gjoa Haven and Taloyoak. The previous incumbent was the former federal Minister of Health, Leona Aglukkaq, however, the party was not formed and consequently no members ran for a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut which continues to run as a consensus government

9.
Northwest Territories
–
The Northwest Territories is a territory of Canada. At a land area of approximately 1,144,000 km2 and its estimated population as of 2016 is 44,291. Yellowknife became the capital in 1967, following recommendations by the Carrothers Commission. The Northwest Territories are bordered by Canadas two other territories, Nunavut to the east and Yukon to the west, and by the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan to the south. The name is descriptive, adopted by the British government during the era to indicate where it lay in relation to Ruperts Land. It is shortened from North-Western Territory, in Inuktitut, the Northwest Territories are referred to as ᓄᓇᑦᓯᐊᖅ, beautiful land. There was some discussion of changing the name of the Northwest Territories after the splitting off of Nunavut, one proposal was Denendeh, as advocated by the former premier Stephen Kakfwi, among others. One of the most popular proposals for a new name – one to name the territory Bob – began as a prank, in the end a poll conducted prior to division showed that strong support remained to keep the name Northwest Territories. This name arguably became more appropriate following division than it had been when the territories extended far into Canadas north-central and it possibly meets Manitoba at a quadripoint to the extreme southeast, though surveys have not been completed. It has an area of 1,183,085 km2. Territorial islands in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago include Banks Island, Borden Island, Prince Patrick Island and its highest point is Mount Nirvana near the border with Yukon at an elevation of 2,773 m. The Northwest Territories extends for more than 1,300,000 km2 and has a large climate variant from south to north, the southern part of the territory has a subarctic climate, while the islands and northern coast have a polar climate. Summers in the north are short and cool, with highs in the mid teens Celsius. Winters are long and harsh, daytime highs in the mid −20 °C, extremes are common with summer highs in the south reaching 36 °C and lows reaching into the negatives. In winter in the south, it is not uncommon for the temperatures to reach −40 °C, in the north, temperatures can reach highs of 30 °C, and lows can reach into the low negatives. In winter in the north it is not uncommon for the temperatures to reach −50 °C, thunderstorms are not rare in the south. In the north they are rare, but do occur. Tornadoes are extremely rare but have happened with the most notable one happening just outside Yellowknife that destroyed a communications tower, the Territory has a fairly dry climate due to the mountains in the west

10.
Inuvik Region
–
The Inuvik Region is one of five administrative regions in the Northwest Territories of Canada. The region consists of eight communities with the regional office situated in Inuvik, most of the communities are in the Beaufort Sea area and are a mixture of Inuit and First Nations. Formerly, there was also a Statistics Canada designated census division named Inuvik Region, Northwest Territories, the territorial extent of this census division was somewhat larger than the administrative region of the same name. The Inuvik Region administrative entity includes the communities

11.
Coronation Gulf
–
Coronation Gulf lies between Victoria Island and mainland Nunavut in Canada. To the northwest it connects with Dolphin and Union Strait and thence the Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean, to the northeast it connects with Dease Strait, the northwest point is Cape Krusenstern. South of that is Richardson Bay and the mouths of the Rae River, Richardson River and the large Coppermine River, Napaaktoktok River, the Tree River enters at the south center. At the southeast end is the large Bathurst Inlet, at the northeast end is Cape Flinders on the Kent Peninsula. In the center of the lies the Duke of York Archipelago. The gulf was named by Sir John Franklin in 1821, in honour of the coronation of King George IV, the environment and Native culture of the area were studied by Rudolph Anderson and Diamond Jenness in 1916 as part of the Canadian Arctic Expedition. The mainland south of the gulf may have substantial diamond and uranium deposits

12.
Victoria Island (Canada)
–
Victoria Island is a large island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago that straddles the boundary between Nunavut and the Northwest Territories of Canada. It is the eighth largest island in the world, and at 217,291 km21 in area and it is nearly double the size of Newfoundland, and is slightly larger than the island of Great Britain. It contains the worlds largest island within an island within an island, the western third of the island belongs to the Inuvik Region in the Northwest Territories, the remainder is part of Nunavuts Kitikmeot Region. In 1826 John Richardson saw the southwest coast and called it Wollaston Land, in 1839 Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson followed its southeast coast and called it Victoria Land. A map published by John Barrow in 1846 shows a complete blank from these two lands north to Banks Land which is the north coast of Banks Island, in 1851 John Rae charted its entire south coast and connected the two lands. In 1850 and 1851 Robert McClure circumnavigated most of Banks Island and his men also charted the northwest and west coasts of Victoria Island. Viscount Melville Soundmap1 lies to the north, and the MClintock Channelmap2, Victoria Island is an island of peninsulas, having a heavily indented coastline with many inlets. Another, broad peninsula is found in the north, Prince Albert Peninsula. map15 This ends at the Prince of Wales Strait, in the south, and pointing westwards, is the Wollaston Peninsula, map16 separated from the islands central areas by Prince Albert Sound. The island as a whole coincidentally resembles a stylized maple leaf, the highest point of Victoria Island is 655 m in the Shaler Mountainsmap17 in the north-central region. Located in the southeast, just north of Cambridge Bay is Ferguson Lakemap18 with an area of 562 km2 is the largest lake on the island, the island is named after Queen Victoria, the Canadian sovereign from 1867 to 1901. The features bearing the name Prince Albert are named after her consort, there is also a smaller Victoria Island in Nunavut, located in Amadjuak Lake on Baffin Island. They migrate across the Dolphin and Union Strait from their summer grazing on Victoria Island to their winter grazing area on the Nunavut-NWT mainland in Canada. It is unusual for North American caribou to cross sea ice. In the Canada 2006 Census the population of the island was 1,875,1,477 in Nunavut and 398 in the Northwest Territories, of the two settlements on the island the largest is Cambridge Bay, map19 which lies on the south-east coast and is in Nunavut. Ulukhaktokmap20 is on the west coast and is in the Northwest Territories, trading posts, such as Fort Collinsonmap21 on the northwest coast, have long since been abandoned. ^1 The United Nations Environment Programme says that Victoria Island has an area of 220,548 km2, however, the Atlas of Canada indicates the island is 217,291 km2. Parkers Notch Prince Albert Impact Crater Map of Victoria Island at the Atlas of Canada Victoria Island Expedition

13.
Banks Island
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Banks Island is one of the larger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Beaufort Sea lies to its west, and to its northeast MClure Strait separates the island from Prince Patrick Island and it is home to barren-ground caribou, polar bears, and birds such as robins and swallows. Over 68,000 muskoxen also live on the island, the majority of the worlds population, as of the 2011 census it had a human population of 112, all in Sachs Harbour. Pre-Dorset cultural sites have found that date from approximately 1500 BCE. In 1820 it was seen from Melville Island by Sir William Edward Parry, however, during the later exploration of the area by the McClure Arctic Expedition the island was marked on their maps as Baring Island. McClures ship, the HMS Investigator, was frozen in Prince of Wales Strait and that spring he sent out sledging parties and determined that Banks Island was an island. In the following year he almost circumnavigated the island but was frozen in at Mercy Bay where he. The only permanent settlement on the island is the Inuvialuit hamlet of Sachs Harbour, Knight Harbor was named after Lorne Knight son of John I. Knight, by the famous explorer Stefansson on the very northeast point of Banks Island while they were on their Arctic Adventure, Lorne Knight Knight joined the CAE as a member of the Polar Bear crew. He was a sailor on the schooner when she left Seattle in March 1915, Knight joined Stefanssons Northern Party and travelled to the new lands with the exploratory party in 1917. He also joined Storkersens last ice journey in 1918, Stefansson named Knight Harbour on northern Banks Island for Lorne before they left the Arctic in 1917. Knight became a policeman in Oregon, then joined Stefanssons Wrangel Island adventure. Knight tragically died of scurvy on Wrangel Island in June 1923 and his diary of his time with the CAE was prepared for publication by a family friend, Richard Montgomery, and published in 1931 under the title Pechuck, The Arctic Adventures of Lorne Knight. Banks Island covers an area 70,028 km2 and it is the worlds 24th largest island and it is about 380 km long, and at its widest point at the northern end,290 km across. The highest point of the island is in the south, Durham Heights and it is part of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and had a population of 112 in 2011, all in Sachs Harbour. The island is treeless, with the tallest plant, the Arctic willow, growing occasionally to about the height of a persons knee, Banks Island is home to two-thirds of the worlds population of lesser snow geese, which make their way across the Amundsen Gulf from the mainland. There is a goose hunt in the spring out of Sachs Harbour. The island is part of the tundra biome, which has extremely cold winters

14.
Dolphin and Union Strait
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Dolphin and Union Strait lies in both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada, between the mainland and Victoria Island. It links Amundsen Gulf, lying to the northwest, with Coronation Gulf, the southeastern end of the strait is marked by Austin Bay. It gets its name from the two used by John Richardson who first explored it in 1826. This is partly why the first explorers who ventured into this awe-inspiring, there are several islands within the strait, including the Liston and Sutton Islands, historically home to the Noahonirmiut band of Copper Inuit. The strait is about 161 km long and ranges from 32 to 64 km in width, when frozen, it is used by Barren-ground caribou, known the Dolphin and Union herd, to reach Victoria Island for the summer and to return to the mainland for the winter. Eider ducks are found in the strait. The caribou are known locally as tuktu which is understood across the circumpolar world, conversely, eider ducks are called kingalik which means, simply, big-nose. In recent decades, the local Inuvialuit have seen the reduction in average winter sea-ice thickness from roughly 6 to 7 ft in the early 1960s to about 110 to 120 cm even in the dead of winter today. There is also a preponderance of new species from flies to wasps, and new birds arriving that have never been seen before, grizzlies roam where they were once that most rare curiosity

15.
Great Bear Lake
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The Great Bear Lake is the largest lake entirely in Canada, the fourth largest in North America, and the eighth largest in the world. The lake is in the Northwest Territories, on the Arctic Circle between 65 and 67 degrees of latitude and between 118 and 123 degrees western longitude,156 m above sea level. The name originated from the words Satudene in Denesuline meaning “grizzly bear water people. ”The Sahtu Dene people are named after the lake. Grizzly Bear Mountain on the shore of the lake comes from Denesuline, meaning, “bear large hill. ”The Sahoyue peninsula on the south side of the lake. The lake has an area of 31,153 km2. Its maximum depth is 446 m and average depth 71.7 m, the shoreline is 2,719 km and the catchment area of the lake is 114,717 km2. Great Bear Lake is covered with ice from late November to July, arms of Great Bear Lake include the Smith Arm, the Dease Arm, the McTavish Arm, the McVicar Arm and the Keith Arm. The community of Deline is located on the Keith Arm near the outflow of the Great Bear River that flows west into the Mackenzie River at Tulita. Rivers flowing into Great Bear Lake include the Whitefish River, Big Spruce River, Haldane River, Bloody River, Sloan River, Dease River, Great Bear Lake lies between two major physiographic regions, the Kazan Uplands portion of the Canadian Shield and the Interior Plains. It was part of Glacial Lake McConnell in the pre-glacial valleys reshaped by ice during the Pleistocene. Since, the lake has changed from post-glacial rebound following the ice melting, Precambrian rocks of the Canadian Shield form the eastern margin of the McTavish Arm. These rocks of the Precambrian are sedimentary and metamorphic deposits supplemented by igneous intrusions forming dikes, the Deline settlement is on the lake, near the headwaters of the Bear River. There is an ice crossing from Deline to the road on the far side of the Great Bear River. In March 2016, a tank truck fell partway through the ice road just a few days after the government had increased the maximum weight limit to 40,000 kg on the road. The fuel was removed from the truck by 2 am,8 March, three lodges around the lake are destinations for fishing and hunting. In 1995, a 32.8 kg lake trout was caught, in 1930, Gilbert LaBine discovered uranium deposits in the Great Bear Lake region. The former mining area Port Radium, site of the Eldorado Mine where pitchblende was discovered, was located on the eastern shore, echo Bay Mines Limited leased the old camp and mill at Port Radium to recover silver and copper values from 1965 to 1981. List of lakes of Canada 1867 account of the lake by William Carpenter Bompas

16.
Lake Beechey
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Lake Beechey is a lake in Kitikmeot, Nunavut, Canada. It is a long, narrow, lake-expansion of the Back River and it is part of the western Canadian Precambrian Shield. It contains a few unnamed islands, historically, Lake Beechey was the southernmost territory of Copper Inuit. The lake was discovered by explorer George Back and named by Sir John Franklin in honor of Frederick William Beechey

17.
Netsilik Inuit
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The Netsilik Inuit live predominantly in the communities of Kugaaruk and Gjoa Haven of the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut and to a smaller extent in Taloyoak and the north Qikiqtaaluk Region. They were, in the early 20th century, among the last Northern indigenous people to encounter missionaries from the south, the missionaries introduced a system of written language called Qaniujaaqpait, based on syllabics, to the Netsilik in the 1920s. Eastern Canadian Inuit, among them the Netsilik, were the only Inuit peoples to adopt a system of writing. The Netsiliks spoken language is Natsilingmiutut, the Utkuhiksalingmiut, a Caribou Inuit band, speak a variant of it. The harsh arctic environment that the Netsilik inhabited yielded little plant life, in the summer months, the Netsilik would hunt caribou on the tundra. The caribou provided food as well as the hides most commonly used for clothing, Caribou antlers were also extremely important, and the Netsilik made many implements from caribous antler, including the breathing hole probe that was integral for seal hunting. The Netsilik fished for using a two-pronged leister to impale fish through a hole in the ice. Any excess fish were stored in ice blocks and saved for a time fishing and hunting were both unrewarding. Seals also provide the Netsilik with fat for their soapstone lamps and this made the Netsilik one of the few peoples to hunt for their heating fuel, rather than use wood. By 1923, the Netsilik were in possession of firearms, and iron and steel had also begun to replace flint and bone for arrowheads, harpoons, needles, knives and this made hunting much easier, and the traditional migration patterns of the Netsilik began to change. Netsilik was famous for having the highest murder rate in the Arctic, the Netsilik people were the subject of a 1970s U. S. educational project, Man, A Course of Study, which attracted criticism from American conservative groups. The Inuktitut Language in Project Naming, the identification of Inuit portrayed in photographic collections at Library and Archives Canada maddy

18.
Queen Maud Gulf
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Queen Maud Gulf lies between the northern coast of the mainland and the southeastern corner of Victoria Island in Nunavut, Canada. At its western end lies Cambridge Bay, leading to Dease Strait, to the east lies Simpson Strait, in 1839 it was crossed by Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson. It was named by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen in 1905 for the Norwegian queen Maud of Wales, the wreck of the HMS Erebus from lost Franklin Expedition of 1845 to the Northwest Passage was found in 2014. The wreck lies at the bottom of the portion of Queen Maud Gulf

19.
Native copper
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Native copper is an uncombined form of copper which occurs as a natural mineral. Copper is one of the few elements to occur in native form, although it most commonly occurs in oxidized states. Native copper was an important ore of copper in historic times and was used by pre-historic peoples, native copper occurs rarely as isometric cubic and octahedral crystals, but more typically as irregular masses and fracture fillings. It has a reddish, orangish, and/or brownish color on fresh surfaces and its specific gravity is 8.9 and its hardness is 2. 5–3. The mines of the Keweenaw native copper deposits of Upper Michigan were major producers in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The first commercial mines in the Keweenaw Peninsula opened in the 1840s, isle Royale in western Lake Superior was also a site of many tons of native copper. Some of it was extracted by native peoples, but only one of several attempts at mining turned a profit there. Another major native copper deposit is in Coro Coro, Bolivia, the name copper comes from the Greek kyprios, of Cyprus, the location of copper mines since pre-historic times

20.
Coppermine River
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The Coppermine River is a river in the North Slave and Kitikmeot regions of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada. It rises in Lac de Gras, a lake near Great Slave Lake and flows generally north to Coronation Gulf. The river freezes in winter but may still flow under the ice, the community of Kugluktuk is located at the rivers mouth. The river was named for the copper ores which could be found along the lower river, Samuel Hearne travelled down the river to the Arctic Ocean in 1771. Sir John Franklin also travelled down the river during the Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822, in 1826 its mouth was reached by John Richardson who followed the coast from the Mackenzie River. Bloody Falls, part of the Kugluk/Bloody Falls Territorial Park, is located 18.5 kilometres from Kugluktuk and it is the site of the Bloody Falls Massacre, when Matonabbee, Samuel Hearnes guide, and his fellow Chipewyan warriors ambushed and massacred the local Inuit. The river is used for canoeing and rafting, although it sees only a few groups each year. It features major rapids, such as Rocky Defile, Sandstone, Muskox, Bloody Falls is the final major rapid of the river, and must be portaged. The Coppermine River is the namesake of Coppermine Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority, List of longest rivers of Canada List of rivers of the Northwest Territories List of rivers of Nunavut Coppermine Heritage River - Nunavut Parks Coppermine Heritage River Coppermine River

21.
Knud Rasmussen
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Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen was a Greenlandic/Danish polar explorer and anthropologist. He has been called the father of Eskimology and was the first European to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled and he remains well known in Greenland, Denmark and among Canadian Inuit. Rasmussen was born in Jakobshavn, Greenland, the son of a Danish missionary, the vicar Christian Rasmussen, and he had two siblings, including a brother, Peter Lim. Rasmussen spent his years in Greenland among the Kalaallit where he learned from an early age to speak the language, hunt, drive dog sleds. My playmates were native Greenlanders, from the earliest boyhood I played and worked with the hunters and he was later educated in Lynge, North Zealand, Denmark. Between 1898 and 1900 he pursued a career as an actor. He went on his first expedition in 1902–1904, known as The Danish Literary Expedition, with Jørgen Brønlund, Harald Moltke and Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, to examine Inuit culture. After returning home he went on a circuit and wrote The People of the Polar North. In 1908, he married Dagmar Andersen, in 1910, Rasmussen and friend Peter Freuchen established the Thule Trading Station at Cape York, Greenland, as a trading base. The name Thule was chosen because it was the most northerly trading post in the world, Thule Trading Station became the home base for a series of seven expeditions, known as the Thule Expeditions, between 1912 and 1933. The First Thule Expedition aimed to test Robert Pearys claim that a channel divided Peary Land from Greenland and they proved this was not the case in a remarkable 1, 000-km journey across the inland ice that almost killed them. Clements Markham, president of the Royal Geographic Society, called the journey the finest ever performed by dogs, Freuchen wrote personal accounts of this journey in Vagrant Viking and I Sailed with Rasmussen. The Second Thule Expedition was larger with a team of seven men and this journey was documented in Rasmussens account Greenland by the Polar Sea. The trip was beset with two fatalities, the only in Rasmussens career, namely Thorild Wulff and Hendrik Olsen, the Third Thule Expedition was depot-laying for Roald Amundsens polar drift in Maud. The Fourth Thule Expedition was in east Greenland where Rasmussen spent several months collecting ethnographic data near Angmagssalik, Rasmussens greatest achievement was the massive Fifth Thule Expedition which was designed to attack the great primary problem of the origin of the Eskimo race. A ten volume account of ethnographic, archaeological and biological data was collected, the team of seven first went to eastern Arctic Canada where they began collecting specimens, taking interviews, and excavating sites. Rasmussen left the team and traveled for 16 months with two Inuit hunters by dog-sled across North America to Nome, Alaska - he tried to continue to Russia and he was the first European to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled. His journey is recounted in Across Arctic America, considered today a classic of polar expedition literature and this trip has also been called the Great Sled Journey and was dramatized in the Canadian film The Journals of Knud Rasmussen

22.
Inuit languages
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The Inuit languages are a closely related group of indigenous American languages traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and to some extent in the subarctic in Labrador. The Inuit live primarily in three countries, Greenland, Canada, and the United States, Greenland census estimates place the number of speakers of varieties of Inuit there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 35,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, although about 7,500 Alaskans speak varieties of Inuit out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit, the Inuit languages have a few hundred speakers in Russia. In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, thus, the global population of speakers of varieties of Inuit is on the order of nearly 100,000 people. However, there are no criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member languages since it forms a dialect continuum. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely its neighbours neighbours, in Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called Kalaallisut. In other languages, it is often called Greenlandic or some cognate term, in those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as Inuktitun to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called Inuttitut by its speakers, and often by other people, in Labrador, the language is called Inuttut or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name Labradorimiutut. Furthermore, Canadians – both Inuit and non-Inuit – sometimes use the word Inuktitut to refer to all Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska, see the article on Eskimo for more information on this word. The language of the Inuit is an Eskimo–Aleut language and it is fairly closely related to the Yupik languages and more remotely to the Aleut language. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western Alaska and Eastern Chukotka, some consider it a Paleosiberian language, although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the Thule people, by 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colonies in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastward migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka, until 1902, a possible enclave of the Dorset, the Sadlermiut, existed on Southampton Island. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a strange dialect and this suggests that they also spoke an Eskimo–Aleut language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today. The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically, the Inuit languages are a fairly closely linked set of languages which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language, The dialect of Igloolik versus the dialect of Iqaluit and this makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and this scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature. Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Iñupiat, as few as 3000 may still be able to speak the Iñupiat language, Alaskan Inupiat speak four distinct dialects, Qawiaraq is spoken on the southern side of the Seward Peninsula and the Norton Sound area

23.
Thule people
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The Thule or proto-Inuit were the ancestors of all modern Inuit. They developed in coastal Alaska by 1000 and expanded eastwards across Canada, in the process, they replaced people of the earlier Dorset culture that had previously inhabited the region. The appellation Thule originates from the location of Thule in northwest Greenland, facing Canada, the links between the Thule and the Inuit are biological, cultural, and linguistic. Evidence supports the idea that the Thule were in contact with the Vikings, in Viking sources, these peoples are called the Skræling. Some Thule migrated southward, in the Second Expansion or Second Phase, by the 13th or 14th century, the Thule had occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the 15th century, the Thule replaced the Dorset. Intensified contacts with Europeans began in the 18th century, compounded by the already disruptive effects of the Little Ice Age, the Thule communities broke apart, and the people were henceforward known as the Eskimo, and later, Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 B. C. to 1600 A. D. around the Bering Strait, Thule culture was mapped out by Therkel Mathiassen, following his participation as an archaeologist and cartographer of the Fifth Danish Expedition to Arctic America in 1921–1924. There are three stages of development leading up to Thule culture, they are Okvik/Old Bering Sea, Punuk, Birnirk and these groups of peoples have been referred to as “Neo-Eskimo” cultures, which are differentiated from the earlier Norton Tradition. There are several stages of the Thule tradition, Old Bering Sea Stage, Punuk Stage and these stages represent variations of the Thule Tradition as it expanded over time. And spread across the coasts of Labrador and Greenland and it is the most recent “neo-Eskimo” culture. Jenness identified the Bering Sea culture as a highly developed Inuit culture of northeastern Asiatic origin, a strong maritime adaptation is characteristic of the Thule, and the OBS stage, and then can be seen in the archaeological evidence. Both Kayaks and umiaks appear in the record for the first time. The toolkits of the people of the time are dominated by polished-slate rather than flaked-stone artifacts, including knives, projectile heads. There are many important innovations that emerged that allowed hunting to be more efficient, harpoon mounted ice picks were used for seal hunting, as well as ivory plugs and mouthpieces for inflating harpoon line floats, which enabled them to recover larger sea mammals when dispatched. These people relied heavily on seal and walrus for subsistence and it is easy to pick out OBS technology because of the artistic curvilinear dots, circles, and shorter lines that were used to decorate their tools. The chronological relationship between the Okvik and Old Bering Seas cultures has been the subject of debate and remains largely undecided, based mainly on art styles. The Punuk stage is a development of Old Bering Sea stage, with distribution along the major Strait islands, the Punuk culture was initially defined by Henry Collins in 1928 from a 16 ft deep midden on one of the Punuk Islands. Punuk is differentiated with Old Bering Sea through its artifact styles and house forms, as well as harpoon styles, Punuk settlements were larger and more common than earlier villages

24.
Hunter-gatherer
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A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanitys first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history, following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals. In the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that humans were obtaining food via scavenging. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view and this hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis, both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago and this specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as, fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica. Forest gardening was also being used as a production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens, many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, as the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements, mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available

25.
Nomad
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A nomad is a member of a community of people who live in different locations, moving from one place to another. Among the various ways nomads relate to their environment, one can distinguish the hunter-gatherer, as of 1995, there were an estimated 30–40 million nomads in the world. Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method, pastoralists raise herds, driving them, or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to regions such as steppe, tundra, or ice and sand. For example, many groups in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic and these nomads sometimes adapt the use of high technology such as solar photovoltaics to reduce their dependence on diesel fuel. These groups are known as peripatetic nomads, a nomad is a person with no settled home, moving from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. The word Nomad comes from a Greek word that one who wanders for pasture. Most nomadic groups follow an annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic peoples traditionally travel by animal or canoe or on foot, today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Most nomads live in tents or other portable shelters, Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, the Australian Aborigines, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and to gather wild plants. Some tribes of the Americas followed this way of life, Pastoral nomads make their living raising livestock, such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks. These nomads travel to find more camels, goats, and sheep through the deserts of Arabia, the Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may move to raid settled communities or avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers and they include the Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Romani traders, and the Irish Travellers. Most nomads travel in groups of families called bands or tribes and these groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs, in the case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements would generally occur during the summer and winter, the winter location is usually located near mountains in a valley and most families already have their fixed winter locations

26.
Igloo
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An igloo, also known as a snow house or snow hut, is a type of shelter built of snow, typically built when the snow can be easily compacted. Although igloos are stereotypically associated with all Inuit, they were associated with people of Canadas Central Arctic. Other Inuit people tended to use snow to insulate their houses, snow is used because the air pockets trapped in it make it an insulator. On the outside, temperatures may be as low as −45 °C, several dialects throughout the Canadian Arctic use iglu for all buildings, including snowhouses, and it is the term used by the Government of Nunavut. An exception to this is the used in the Igloolik region. Iglu is used for buildings, while igluvijaq, is specifically used for a snowhouse. Outside Inuit culture, however, igloo refers exclusively to shelters constructed from blocks of compacted snow, there are three traditional types of igloos, all of different sizes and used for different purposes. The smallest were constructed as shelters, usually only used for one or two nights. These were built and used during hunting trips, often on sea ice. Intermediate-sized igloos were for semi-permanent, family dwelling and this was usually a single room dwelling that housed one or two families. Often there were several of these in an area, which formed an Inuit village. The largest igloos were built in groups of two. One of the buildings was a structure built for special occasions. These might have had up to five rooms and housed up to 20 people, a large igloo might have been constructed from several smaller igloos attached by their tunnels, giving common access to the outside. These were used to hold community feasts and traditional dances, the stresses of snow as it ages and compresses against the igloo will not cause it to buckle because in an inverted paraboloid or catenoid the pressures are exclusively compressive. This design originates from the Central Inuit, in applied mechanics, the equation for this type of structure is written y = a where y is the height to any point in the surface, x is the horizontal distance to the same point, and a is a constant. The maximum compressive stress at the base of the igloo can be obtained by multiplying S, /yd times the unit weight y. Igloos gradually become shorter with time due to the creep of the snow

27.
Reindeer
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This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. While overall widespread and numerous, some of its subspecies are rare, for this reason, it is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN. Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size, both sexes can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between population and season. Antlers are typically larger on males, hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and Subarctic peoples. In traditional festive legend, Santa Clauss reindeer pull a sleigh through the sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The name Rangifer, which Carl Linnaeus chose for the genus, was used by Albertus Magnus in his De animalibus. This word may go back to a Saami word raingo, for the origin of the word tarandus, which Linnaeus chose as the specific epithet, he made reference to Ulisse Aldrovandis Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. However, Aldrovandi – and before him Konrad Gesner – thought that rangifer, in any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus – see In history below. Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer tarandus and some of its subspecies have names in many languages, the name rein is of Norse origin. The Finnish name poro may also stem from the same, the word deer was originally broader in meaning, but became more specific over time. In Middle English, der meant a wild animal of any kind. Cognates of Old English dēor in other dead Germanic languages have the sense of animal, such as Old High German tior, Old Norse djúr or dýr, Gothic dius, Old Saxon dier. The name caribou comes, through French, from Mikmaq qalipu, meaning snow shoveler, in Inuktitut, spoken in eastern Arctic North America, the caribou is known by the name tuktu. In the western North American Arctic, the used by the Iñupiat is tuttu. Across the range of a species, individuals may display considerable morphological, genetic, COSEWIC developed Designated Unit attribution to add to classifications already in use. The species taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the subspecies taxonomic name, Rangifer tarandus caribou was defined by Gmelin in 1788. Based on Banfields often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer, R. t. caboti, R. t. osborni and R. t. terraenovae were considered invalid and included in R. t. caribou. Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct and he affirms that true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention

28.
Ulu
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An ulu is an all-purpose knife traditionally used by Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut women. It is utilized in applications as diverse as skinning and cleaning animals, cutting a childs hair, cutting food and, if necessary, trimming blocks of snow and ice used to build an igloo. In the Nunatsiavummiutut variety of Inuttitut, which is spoken in Nunatsiavut, the word is spelled uluk, traditionally the ulu was made with a caribou antler, muskox horn or walrus ivory handle and slate cutting surface, due to the lack of metal smelting technology in the Arctic. The handle could also be carved from bone, and wood was used when it was available. In certain areas, such as Ulukhaktok Northwest Territories, copper was used for the cutting surface, today the ulu is still often made with a caribou antler handle but the blade is usually made of steel. The steel is often obtained by purchasing a hand saw or wood saw. A hardwood called sisattaq is also used for handles and these uluit are both kept for home use and sold to others. It is also possible to commercially produced uluit, sometimes made with a plastic handle. The size of the ulu typically reflects its usage, an ulu with a 5 cm blade would be used as part of a sewing kit to cut sinew. Kimaqtuut is a small ulu used for cutting out patterns from animals skins which is the two-inch blade, an ulu with a 15 cm blade would be used for general purposes. Occasionally, uluit can be found with blades as large as 30 cm, the ulu comes in four distinct styles, the Iñupiat, Canadian, West Greenlandic and East Greenlandic. With the Inupiat style ulu the blade has a piece cut out. In Canada the blade more often is attached to the handle by a stem in the centre. In the western areas of the Canadian Arctic the blade of the ulu tended to be of a triangular shape, the shape of the ulu ensures that the force is centered more over the middle of the blade than with an ordinary knife. This makes the ulu easier to use when cutting hard objects such as bone, because the rocking motion used when cutting on a plate or board with an ulu pins down the food being cut, it is also easier to use an ulu one-handed. Uluit have been found date back to as early as 2500 BCE. Traditionally, the ulu would be passed down generation to generation. It was believed that an ancestors knowledge was contained within the ulu, some countries, including Canada, prohibit the possession or carrying of knives where the blade is perpendicular to the handle

29.
Soapstone
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Soapstone is a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is largely composed of the mineral talc and is rich in magnesium. It has been a medium for carving for thousands of years, petrologically, soapstone is composed dominantly of talc, with varying amounts of chlorite and amphiboles, and trace to minor iron-chromium oxides. It may be schistose or massive, Soapstone is formed by the metamorphism of ultramafic protoliths and the metasomatism of siliceous dolostones. By mass, pure steatite is approximately 63. 37% silica,31. 88% magnesia and 4. 74% water and it commonly contains minor quantities of other oxides such as CaO or Al2O3. However, this mineral typically does not have such a feel as soapstone. Soapstone is relatively soft because of its high content, talc having a definitional value of 1 on the Mohs hardness scale. Softer grades may feel similar to soap when touched, hence the name, common, non-architectural grades of soapstone can just barely be scratched with a fingernail and are thus considered to have a hardness of 2.5 on the Mohs scale. If a candidate rock cannot be scratched with a knife blade, Soapstone is often used as an insulator for housing and electrical components, due to its durability and electrical characteristics and because it can be pressed into complex shapes before firing. Soapstone undergoes transformations when heated to temperatures of 1000–1200 °C into enstatite and cristobalite, in the Mohs scale, Soapstone is used for inlaid designs, sculpture, coasters, and kitchen countertops and sinks. The Inuit often use soapstone for traditional carvings, some Native American tribes and bands make bowls, cooking slabs, and other objects from soapstone, historically, this was particularly common during the Late Archaic archaeological period. Locally quarried soapstone was used for gravemarkers in 19th century northeast Georgia, US, around Dahlonega, vikings hewed soapstone directly from the stone face, shaped it into cooking-pots, and sold these at home and abroad. It is also used for counter tops and bathroom tiling because of the ease of working the material, a weathered or aged appearance will occur naturally over time as the patina is enhanced. Applying mineral oil simply darkens the appearance of the stone, it does not protect it in any way, tepe Yahya, an ancient trading city in southeastern Iran, was a center for the production and distribution of soapstone in the 5th–3rd millennia BC. It was also used in Minoan Crete, at the Palace of Knossos, archaeological recovery has included a magnificent libation table made of steatite. The Yoruba of West Nigeria utilized soapstone for several statues most notably at Esie where archaeologists have uncovered hundreds of male and female statues, about half of life size. The Yoruba of Ife also produced a miniature soapstone obelisk with metal studs called superstitiously the staff of Oranmiyan Soapstone has been used in India for centuries as a medium for carving, mining to meet world-wide demand for soapstone is threatening the habitat of Indias tigers. These handicrafts are sold in street markets found in cities across the state

30.
Bering Strait
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The Bering Strait is a strait of the Pacific, which borders with the Arctic to north. It is located between Russia and the United States, named after Vitus Bering, a Danish-born explorer in the service of the Russian Empire, it lies slightly south of the Arctic Circle being at about 65°40 N latitude. The present Russia-US east-west boundary is at 168°5837 W and this view of how Paleo-Indians entered America has been the dominant one for several decades and continues to be the most accepted one. Numerous successful crossings without the use of a boat have also recorded since at least the early 20th century. As of 2012, the Russian coast of the Bering Strait has been a military zone. Through organized trips and the use of permits, it is possible for foreigners to visit. All arrivals must be through an airport or a cruise port, unauthorized travelers who arrive on shore after crossing the strait, even those with visas, may be arrested, imprisoned briefly, fined, deported and banned from future visas. Its depth varies between 30 metres and 50 metres and it borders with the Chukchi Sea to north and with the Bering Sea to south. The eastern coast belongs to the U. S. state of Alaska, notable towns that straddle the Strait include Nome and the small settlement of Teller. The western coast belongs to the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, a Federal subject of Russia, major towns that lie along the Strait include Lorino and Lavrentiya. The Diomede Islands lie midway in the Strait, the village in Little Diomede has a school which belongs to Alaskas Bering Strait School District. The earliest reference of the strait were from maps from the Polo family, from at least 1562, European geographers thought that there was a Strait of Anián between Asia and North America. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov probably passed through the strait, Danish-born Russian navigator Vitus Bering entered it in 1728. In 1732, Mikhail Gvozdev crossed it for the first time, adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1878–79 sailed along the northern coast of Siberia, thereby proving that there was no northern land bridge from Asia to North America. In March 1913, Captain Max Gottschalk crossed from the east cape of Siberia to Shishmaref, Alaska, on dogsled via Little and he was the first documented modern voyager to cross from Russia to North America without the use of a boat. In 1987, swimmer Lynne Cox swam a 4. 3-kilometre course between the Diomede Islands from Alaska to the Soviet Union in 3.3 °C water during the last years of the Cold War. In June and July 1989, a British expedition, Kayaks Across the Bering Strait, completed the first sea kayak crossing of the Bering Strait from Wales, Alaska, to Cape Dezhnev, Siberia. The team of Robert Egelstaff, Trevor Potts, Greg Barton and Pete Clark landed on Little Diomede Island, rested a few days and they were escorted to Moscow from where they flew back to London at the end of July

31.
Inuvialuit
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The Inuvialuit or Western Canadian Inuit are Inuit people who live in the western Canadian Arctic region. They, like all other Inuit, are descendants of the Thule who migrated eastward from Alaska, the land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement. The Inuvialuit Settlement Region was primarily inhabited by Siglit Inuit, but in the half of the 19th century. Nunatamiut, Alaskan Inuit, moved into traditional Siglit areas in the 1910s and 20s, enticed in part by renewed demand for furs from the Hudsons Bay Company, the Nunatamiut who settled in the Siglit area became known as Uummarmiut. Originally, there was an intense dislike between the Siglit and the Uummarmiut, but these differences faded over the years, and the two aboriginal peoples intermarried, with improved healthcare and Nunatamiut intermarriage, the Inuvialuit now number approximately 3,100. The Inuvialuit Settlement Region Traditional Knowledge Report of 2006 identified additional naming characteristics and those Inuvialuit who live in the west are called Ualinirmiut by the people of the east. The Inuvialuit who occupy the east are known as Kivaninmiut by the people of the west, the Inuit of Ulukhaktok are neither Siglit nor Uummarmiut but are Copper Inuit and refer to themselves as Ulukhaktokmuit after Ulukhaktok, the native name for what used to be called Holman. The proposed Mackenzie Valley Pipeline would pass through both Inuvialuit and Gwichin territory, the traditional language is known as Inuvialuktun and it is made up of three or four dialects. Uummarmiutun, spoken by the Uummarmiut of Aklavik and Inuvik, is an Inupiatun dialect but is associated with Inuvialuktun. Siglitun is spoken by the Siglit of Sachs Harbour, Paulatuk, Tuktoyaktuk, kangiryuarmiutun is used by the Kangiryuarmiut of Ulukhaktok. Kangiryuarmiutun is essentially the same as Inuinnaqtun which is used in the Nunavut communities of Kugluktuk, Bathurst Inlet. Natsilingmiutut used by the Netsilingmiut of Gjoa Haven, Taloyoak, Kugaaruk, uummarmiutun, Siglitun and Inuinnaqtun are all written using Latin script while Natsilingmiutut is written in Inuktitut syllabics. Year-round, Inuvialuit hunt caribou from the Cape Bathurst and Bluenose herds, there has been some tension between the Inuvialuit and the Gwich’in over caribou hunting.68 km2. Aklavik and Inuvik are shared with the Gwich’in people who are represented by the Gwich’in Tribal Council, the Inuvialuit Inuvialuit Development Corporation Morrison, David

32.
Caribou Inuit
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They were originally named Caribou Eskimo by the Danish Fifth Thule Expedition of 1921 -1924 led by Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen. Caribou Inuit are the southernmost subgroup of the Central Inuit, Ahialmiut Ahialmiut relied on caribou year-round. They spent summers on the Qamanirjuaq calving grounds at Qamanirjuaq Lake, Akilinirmiut Akilinirmiut were located in the Thelon River area by the Akiliniq Hills to the north of Beverly Lake and also visible above Aberdeen Lake. Some lived northwest of Baker Lake, along with Qairnirmiut and Hauniqturmiut, many relocated to Aberdeen Lake because of starvation or education opportunities. Hanningajurmiut Hanningajurmiut, or Hanningaruqmiut, or Hanningajulinmiut lived at Garry Lake, many Hanningajurmiut starved in 1958 when the caribou bypassed their traditional hunting grounds, but the 31 who survived were relocated to Baker. Most never returned permanently to Garry Lake, Harvaqtuurmiut Harvaqtuurmiut were a northern group located in the region of Kazan River, Yathkyed Lake, Kunwak River, Beverly Lake, and Dubawnt River. By the early 1980s, most lived at Baker Lake, Hauniqtuurmiut Hauneqtormiut, or Hauniqtuurmiut, or Kangiqliniqmiut, were a smaller band who lived near the coast, south of Qairnirmiuts, around the Wilson River and Ferguson River. By the 1980s, they were absorbed into subgroups at Whale Cove, Ihalmiut Ihalmiut, or Ahiarmiut were located at the banks of the Kazan River, Ennadai Lake, Little Dubawnt Lake, and north of Thlewiaza. Relocations in the 1950s included to Henik Lake, Whale Cove, Paallirmiut Paallirmiut, or Padlermiut, or Padleimiut were the most populous band. They were located south of the Hauniqtuurmiut and Harvaqtuurmiut bands, Paallirmiut were split into a coast-visiting subgroup who spent the hunting season on the lower Maguse River, and an interior subgroup who stayed year-round in the Yathkyed Lake to Dubawnt Lake area. After Hudsons Bay Company ships discontinued trading the Keewatin coast in 1790, the Arviajuaq and Qikiqtaarjuk National Historic Site is the bands historic summer camping site. By the 1980s, most lived in Eskimo Point, by the early 1980s, most lived at Baker Lake. Utkuhiksalingmiut Utkuhiksalingmiut, were located in the Chantrey Inlet area around the Back River and they made their pots from soapstone of the area, therefore their name. Their dialect is a variant of Natsilingmiutut, spoken by the Netsilik, lacking an early written language, Caribou Inuit pre-history is unclear. There are three theories, Caribou Inuit are the descendents of an interior Eskimo culture that spread in Arctic North America. Caribou Inuit are the descendents of Thule people who had migrated from Alaska, Caribou Inuit were the 17th century descendents of a migratory subgroup of Copper Inuit from the arctic coast. While this is the most current hypothesis, it is still unproven, the Chipewyan Sayisi Dene were caribou hunters also, but they stayed inland year-round. Regular contact began around 1717 after the establishment of a permanent settlement in Churchill, the contact included access to guns, along with an introduction to trapping and whaling

33.
Cambridge Bay
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Cambridge Bay is a hamlet located on Victoria Island in the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut, Canada. It is named for Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, while the traditional Inuinnaqtun name for the area is Ikaluktuutiak or Iqaluktuttiaq meaning good fishing place. The traditional language of the area is Inuinnaqtun and is using the Latin alphabet rather than the syllabics of the Inuktitut writing system. Like Kugluktuk, Bathurst Inlet and Umingmaktok, syllabics are rarely seen, to the north of the community is Ferguson Lake which flows into Wellington Bay via the Ekalluk River. The Ekalluk River is both an important commercial fishing and archaeological area, and of importance is the short section of the river known as Iqaluktuuq. About 37 km west of the community lie the Finlayson Islands which were surveyed by Sir Richard Collinson on board the Enterprise during his search for Sir John Franklins lost expedition, the area was a traditional hunting and fishing location and archaeological sites are often found. Barren-ground caribou, muskox, Arctic char, lake trout and ringed seal were the primary, situated east of Cambridge Bay is Ovayok Territorial Park, which includes the large esker known as Ovayok. As of the 2016 census the population was 1,766, the median age of the population in 2011 was 27.4 and 71. 5% of the people were over 15. Both of these figures are higher than the numbers for Nunavut as a whole. In 2006,82. 7% of the population were listed as Aboriginal and 17. 7% as non-Aboriginal, of the total population 78. 9% were Inuit,1. 7% Métis and 1. 4% North American Indian. The first known people to occupy the area were the Pre-Dorset people, somewhere around 1800 BCE, about 4,000 years ago, the next group to enter the area were a Paleo-Eskimo peoples known as the Dorset, who arrived approximately 500 CE. They were the first known people to have fished for the Arctic char, the last of the Paleo-Eskimo people, who appeared here about 800 CE, were the Tuniit, and evidence of their living quarters can be seen close to Cambridge Bay. The Tuniit, who were known to the Inuit as giants, were taller and stronger than the Inuit, the next group to arrive were the Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, who arrived in the area around 1250 CE from present day Alaska. The Thule people built food cache and stone houses in the area and were noted for their sophisticated tools, although there is no positive evidence it is suspected that the Thule may have interacted with the Tuniit. About 500 years ago, around 1500 CE, the modern Inuit made an appearance, like the Thule they made use of caches, hunted caribou and fished for char. They also hunted seal from the ice in winter and returned to the land in spring and they were also known to make use of inukhuk and built igluit. The main groups that lived or interacted in the Cambridge Bay area were the Ekalluktogmiut, Ahiagmiut, the Killinirmuit, the first Europeans to see it were Thomas Simpson in 1839 and John Rae in 1851. Richard Collinson wintered here in 1852/53 and his ship came all the way from the Bering Strait

34.
Samuel Hearne
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Samuel Hearne was an English explorer, fur-trader, author, and naturalist. He was the first European to make an overland excursion across northern Canada to the Arctic Ocean, actually Coronation Gulf, in 1774, Hearne built Cumberland House for the Hudsons Bay Company, its first interior trading post and the first permanent settlement in present Saskatchewan. Samuel Hearne was born in February 1745 in London, England, Hearnes father was Secretary of the Waterworks, of the London Bridge who died in 1748. He remained with Hood during the Seven Years War, seeing action during the conflict. At the end of the Seven Years War, having served in the English Channel and then the Mediterranean, he left the Navy in 1763. In February 1766, he joined the Hudsons Bay Company as a mate on the sloop Churchill, two years later he became mate on the Brigantine Charlotte and participated in the companys short-lived black whale fishery. In 1767, he found the remains of James Knights expedition, in 1768, he examined portions of the Hudson Bay coasts with a view to improving the cod fishery. During this time he gained a reputation for snowshoeing, the English on Hudson Bay had long known that the Indians to the northwest used native copper, as indicated by such words as Yellowknife. When, in 1768, a northern Indian brought lumps of copper to Churchill, first Journey, Since there was no canoe route to the northwest, the plan was to go on foot over the frozen winter ground. Without canoes, they would have to carry as much food as possible, Hearne planned to join a group of northern Indians that had come to trade at Churchill and somehow induce them to lead him to the copper mine. He left Churchill on 6 November 1769 along with two employees, two Cree hunters and a band of Chipewyans and went north across the Seal River, an east-west river north of Churchill. By 19 November their European provisions gave out and their hunters had found little game and they headed west and north, finding only a few ptarmigan, fish and three stray caribou. The Indians, who knew the country, had better sense than to risk starvation in this way and began deserting. When the last Indians left, Hearne and his European companions returned to the valley of the Seal River, where he was able to find venison. Second Journey, Since he could not control the northern Indians, Hearne proposed to try again using home guards and he left Churchill on 23 February. Reaching the Seal River, he found good hunting and followed it west until he reached a large lake, here he decided to wait for better weather and live by fishing. In April the fish began to give out, on 24 April a large body of Indians, mostly women, arrived from the south for the annual goose hunt. On 19 May the geese arrived and there was now plenty to eat and they headed north and east past Baralzone Lake

35.
Chipewyan
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The Chipewyan are an aboriginal Dene ethnolinguistic group of the Athabaskan language family, whose ancestors are identified with the Taltheilei Shale archaeological tradition. They are part of the Northern Athabascan group of peoples, the French-speaking missionaries to the northwest of the Red River Colony referred to the Chipewyan people as Montagnais in their documents written in French. Montagnais therefore has often been translated to Montagnais, which refers to the Innu of northern Quebec. Chipewyan peoples live in the region spanning the western Canadian Shield to the Northwest Territories and including part of northern parts of the provinces of Manitoba, Alberta, all had Denesuline populations, however, several had a combination of Cree and Denesuline members. There are also many Dene -speaking Métis beghárehék’ą tąnısts’ęn beyası́ communities located throughout the region, the Saskatchewan village of La Loche, for example, had 2,300 residents who in the 2011 census identified as speaking Dene as their native language. About 1,800 of the residents were Métis and about 600 were members of the Clearwater River Dene Nation, the Dënesųłı̨ne people are part of many band governments spanning Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. Athabasca Tribal Council Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation, Reserves, Fort Chipewyan Chipewyan #201, 201A, 201B, 201C, 201D, 201E, 201F, 201G, c.348 km², Population,1,200 Fort McKay First Nation. Reserves, Fort McKay #174, 174C, 174D, Namur Lake #174B, 174A, Population,851 Chipewyan Prairie First Nation Reserves, Cowper Lake #194A, Janvier #194, Winefred Lake #194B, c.31 km². Population,923 Fort McMurray First Nation, Reserves, Fort McMurray #468, Clearwater #175, Gregoire Lake #176, 176A, 176B, c.31 km². Population,763 Tribal Chiefs Association Cold Lake First Nations, Reserves, Blue Quills First Nation, Cold Lake #149, 149A, 149B, 149C, c.209 km². Population,2,858 Akaitcho Territory Government Smiths Landing First Nation, thebati Dene Suhne Tthëbátthı́ dënesųłı̨ne, Thebacha Tthëbáchághë - beside the rapids, the Dene name for Fort Smith. Population,357 Keewatin Tribal Council Barren Lands First Nation has a Cree, reserve, Brochet #197, c.43 km². Population,1,139 Northlands First Nation also known as Northlands Denesuline First Nation, Reserves and communities, Lac Brochet, Lac Brochet #197A, Sheth chok, Thuycholeeni, Thuycholeeni azé, Tthekalé nu, c.22 km². Population,1,082 Sayisi Dene First Nation formerly known as Duck Lake Dene, reserve, Churchill 1, c.2 km². Population,817 Akaitcho Territory Government Deninu Kue First Nation, formerly known as Fort Resolution Dene, reserve, Fort Resolution Settlement Population,910 Lutsel Ke Dene First Nation, formerly known as Snowdrift Band. Population,782 Salt River First Nation#195 (Reserves, Fort Smith Settlement, Salt Plains #195, Salt River #195, Fitzgerald #196, c.230 km². Population,971 Yellowknives Dene First Nation Kés-ye-hot. ínne lived on the reaches of the Churchill River, along the Lac Île-à-la-Crosse, Methye Portage, Cold Lake, Heart Lake. Hoteladi Hótthę̈nádé dëne lived north of the Kés-ye-hot. ínne between Cree Lake, west of Reindeer Lake on the south and on the east shore of Lake Athabasca in the north, hâthél-hot. inne lived in the Reindeer Lake Region which drains south into the Churchill River

36.
John Franklin
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Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin KCH FRGS RN was an English Royal Navy officer and explorer of the Arctic. Franklin also served as Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemens Land from 1837 to 1843 and he disappeared on his last expedition, attempting to chart and navigate a section of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic. The icebound ships were abandoned and the crew perished from starvation, hypothermia, tuberculosis, lead poisoning. Franklin was born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, in 1786 and educated at King Edward VI Grammar School and he was the ninth of twelve children born to Hannah Weekes and Willingham Franklin, the descendant of a long line of country gentlemen. One of Johns sisters, Sarah, was the mother of Emily Tennyson and his father initially opposed Franklins interest in a career at sea and reluctantly allowed him to go on a trial voyage with a merchant ship. This confirmed his decision, so when he was 14, his father secured him a Royal Navy appointment on HMS Polyphemus. He also accompanied Captain Dance on the East India Companys ship the Earl Camden, in 1819, Franklin was chosen to lead an expedition overland from Hudson Bay to chart the north coast of Canada eastwards from the mouth of the Coppermine River. On his 1819 expedition, Franklin fell into the Hayes River at Robinson Falls and was rescued by a member of his expedition about 90 metres downstream, between 1819 and 1822, he lost 11 of the 20 men in his party. Most died of starvation, but there were also at least one murder, the survivors were forced to eat lichen and even attempted to eat their own leather boots. This gained Franklin the nickname of the man who ate his boots, in 1823, after returning to England, Sir John Franklin married the poet Eleanor Anne Porden. Their daughter, Eleanor Isabella, was born the following year, Eleanor died of tuberculosis in 1825. In 1825 he left for his second Canadian and third Arctic expedition, with him was John Richardson who would follow the coast east from the Mackenzie to the mouth of the Coppermine River. At the same time, William Edward Parry would try to sail west from the Atlantic, supplies were better organized this time, in part because they were managed by Peter Warren Dease of the Hudsons Bay Company. He erected a flagpole with buried letters for Parry and he returned to winter at Fort Franklin on the Great Bear Lake. Next summer he went downriver and found the ocean frozen and he worked his way west for several hundred miles and gave up on 16 August 1826 at Return Reef when he was about 150 miles east of Beecheys Point Barrow. He reached safety at Fort Franklin on 21 September and he left Fort Franklin on 20 February 1827 and spent the rest of the winter and spring at Fort Chipewyan, Alberta. He reached Liverpool on the first of September 1827, richardsons eastward journey was more successful. On 5 November 1828, he married Jane Griffin, a friend of his first wife, on 29 April 1829, he was knighted by George IV and the same year awarded the first Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie of France

37.
John Rae (explorer)
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John Rae was a Scottish surgeon who explored parts of northern Canada, found the final portion of the Northwest Passage and reported the fate of the Franklin Expedition. In 1846–47 he explored the Gulf of Boothia northwest of Hudson Bay, in 1848–51 he explored the Arctic coast near Victoria Island. In 1854 he went from Boothia to the Arctic coast and learned the fate of Franklin and he was noted for physical stamina, skill at hunting and boat handling, use of native methods and the ability to travel long distances with little equipment while living off the land. Rae was born at the Hall of Clestrain in the parish of Orphir in Orkney, whilst working for the company, treating both European and indigenous employees of the company, Rae became known for his prodigious stamina and skilled use of snow shoes. He learned to live off the land like a native and working with the local craftsmen and this knowledge allowed him to travel great distances with little equipment and few followers, unlike many other explorers of the Victorian Age. In 1836–39 Thomas Simpson sailed along much of the north coast of Canada, Sir George Simpson proposed to link Thomas Simpsons furthest east by sending an overland expedition from Hudson Bay. Rae was chosen because of his skill in overland travel. Rae first had to travel to the Red River Colony to learn the art of surveying, on 20 August 1844 Rae left Moose Factory, went up the Missinaibi River and took the usual voyageur route west. When he reached the Red River Colony on 9 October he found his instructor seriously ill, after the man died he headed for Sault Saint Marie to find another instructor. The two-month,1,200 mile winter journey was by dog sled along the shore of Lake Superior. From there Sir George told him to go to Toronto to study under J. H. LeFroy at the Magnetic Observatory, returning from Toronto, he received final instructions at Sault Sainte Marie. He left on 5 August 1845 and took the usual route via Lake Winnipeg and reached York Factory on 8 October. On 12 June 1846 he headed north in two 22-foot boats and reached Repulse Bay in July, the local Inuit told him that there was salt water to the northwest, so he chose this as his base. On his first journey, which began on 26 July, he dragged one of his boats forty miles northwest to the Committee Bay of the Gulf of Boothia. Here he learned from the Inuit that the Gulf of Boothia was a bay and he sailed part way up the east coast of the Bay, but soon turned back because he needed to make preparations for winter. That winter he became one of the first Europeans to winter in the high Arctic without the aid of a depot ship, by December he had learned how to build igloos which he later found warmer than European tents. His second journey began on 5 April 1847 and he crossed to Committee Bay, went up its west coast for four days and then headed west across the base of the Simpson Peninsula to Pelly Bay. He went north and from a hill thought he could see Lord Mayor Bay where John Ross had been frozen in from 1829 to 1833 and he circled much of the coast of the Simpson Peninsula and returned to Repulse Bay

38.
Rae River
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The Rae River is a waterway that flows from Akuliakattak Lake into Richardson Bay, Coronation Gulf. Its mouth is situated northwest of Kugluktuk, Nunavut and its shores were the ancestral home of Copper Inuit subgroups, the Kanianermiut and the Pallirmiut. The Rae River is named in honour of Scottish Arctic explorer John Rae

39.
McClure Arctic Expedition
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McClure and his crew spent three years locked in the pack ice aboard HMS Investigator before abandoning it and making their escape across the ice. Rescued by HMS Resolute, which was later lost to the ice, McClure returned to England in 1854. Lady Jane Franklin pressed the search for the Franklin Expedition, missing since 1847, McClure had served as first lieutenant of HMS Enterprise under James Clark Ross in 1848, which returned in 1849 without discovering a trace of the lost explorer. Two ships were assigned to this task, the Enterprise was returned to the search under Captain Richard Collinson, and the Investigator under Commander Robert J. McClure in his first Arctic command. Extensive repairs were required for ships, which had already weathered Arctic service, including the installation of a modern Sylvesters Heating Apparatus. The Investigator, her figurehead representing a walrus, had been fitted with a 10-horsepower locomotive engine, preserved meat was secured from Gamble of Cork, Ireland, and although some spoilage was experienced, it had no major impact on the voyage. Double rations of preserved limes were provisioned to offset scurvy, the ships were provisioned for a 3-year voyage. On 10 January 1850 the rapidly prepared ships set out from Woolrich, England, the crew numbered 66, including German clergyman John Miertsching, who served as Inuit interpreter. By 5 March they had crossed the equator southward and slave ships were observed in the latitude of Rio de Janeiro and their southernmost extent, the Strait of Magellan, was obtained on 15 March, the Enterprise always well ahead of the slower Investigator. The two ships lost direct contact after the strait was completed, although McClure reported that he considered their company formally parted on 1 February 1850. Continuing north through several storms, nearly 1000 lbs of stored biscuit was ruined by water leakage, on 15 June the Investigator re-crossed the equator amid clear skies and tropical birds, already having journeyed nearly 15,000 miles. Spirits ran high, with McClure noting of the crew in his journal, with such a spirit what may not be expected, even if difficulties should arise. On 1 July they made port at Honolulu, taking on fresh provisions, five days later McClure set out heading north-west, and aided by prevailing winds made the Arctic Circle on 28 July bypassing his consort ship and HMS Herald. The crew busied themselves by readying the arctic gear as they prepared to explore the Arctic alone, rather than waiting to rendezvous with the Enterprise, the unusual decision was made to take the Investigator alone into the ice near Cape Lisburne. The ice fields were sighted on 2 August at 72°1′ north, unable to find open leads, they rounded Point Barrow and entered unexplored waters and the first ice floes. The two ships never made contact for the remainder of their journeys, and the Enterprise carried out its own separate Arctic explorations, on 8 August McClure and the Investigator made contact with local Inuit, who offered no news of Franklin, and were unaccustomed to seeing sailing ships. Making their way along the coast east of Point Barrow, message cairns were left at the site of each landing, crews occasionally trading with local Inuit but obtaining no news of Franklin. The progress north-west was frustrated by ice and shoals, and at one time the Investigator became grounded so firmly that all stores had to be unloaded to her boats before she could be freed

40.
Robert McClure
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Sir Robert John Le Mesurier McClure was an Irish explorer of the Arctic. In 1854, he was the first to transit the Northwest Passage, the McClures are of Highland Scots ancestry, being a sept of Clan MacLeod of Harris. He entered the navy, however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experience of Arctic exploration as mate of HMS Terror in the commanded by Captain George Back. Two years later he joined the Franklin search expedition under James Clark Ross as first lieutenant of Enterprise. Although the Investigator was abandoned to the ice in the spring of 1853, McClure. Subsequently he completed his journey across the Northwest Passage, Resolute itself did not make it out of the Arctic that year, it was abandoned in ice, but later recovered. The wood from that ship became quite famous later, thus, McClure and his crew were the first both to circumnavigate the Americas, and to transit the Northwest Passage - considerable feats at that time. McClure and his crew shared a great monetary reward of £10,000 awarded them by the British Parliament and he subsequently was also awarded gold medals by the English and French geographical societies. In 1855 he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society, McClures account of this voyage, Discovery of the north-west passage, consists of excerpts of his journals from that time as edited by Captain Sherard Osborn. From 1856 to 1861 he served in Eastern waters, commanding the division of the Naval Brigade before Canton in 1858 and his latter years were spent in a quiet country life, he attained the rank of rear-admiral in 1867, and of vice-admiral in 1873. He died in that year and is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery, McClure Strait was later named after him, as well as the crater McClure on the Moon. The service also included the solemn re-interment of the remains of Lieutenant Henry Thomas Dundas Le Vesconte, James Wright, the Canadian High Commissioner. The following day a group of polar authors went to Londons Kensal Green Cemetery to pay their respects to the Arctic explorers buried there, after some difficulty, McClures gravestone was located. It is hoped that his memorial may be conserved in the future, the Discovery of the North-West Passage. London, Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed

In this view of an alpine tree line, the distant line looks particularly sharp. The foreground shows the transition from trees to no trees. These trees are stunted in growth and one-sided because of cold and constant wind.

In late spring (May), large chunks of ice float near the eastern shore of the bay, while the center of the bay remains frozen to the west. Between 1971 and 2007, the length of the ice-free season increased by about seven days in the southwestern part of the Hudson Bay, historically the last area to thaw.