I am interested in using multi-disciplinary tools to address questions relating to evolutionary biology; such as the role selection pressures play in trait evolution and how multi-locus gene families evolve.

To investigate these areas I have been using venomous animals as model organisms. Snake venoms provide a model system to assess extreme modes of evolution, with the gene families that encode venom components (toxins) typically evolving rapidly by frequent gene duplication and directional selection. I have been using molecular and evolutionary techniques to infer the evolutionary history of the venom ‘character’ and the gene families that encode venom toxins. In contrast to the predatory venoms used by snakes, a number of fish lineages contain defensive venoms that appear to have evolved independently.

I am currently using proteomic and molecular techniques to assess the composition of venom from a number of bony and cartilaginous fish lineages in order to reconstruct the evolutionary history of piscine venoms. As an aside from my interest in evolutionary biology, I am also involved in research projects focusing on improving the safety, stability and efficacy of snake antivenoms.

Research Interests

Elucidating the venom composition of venomous animals

Venoms are an important trait in the animal kingdom and have evolved on many occasions in different animal lineages. I am interested in utilising molecular tools, including next-generation sequencing, to elucidate the genes expressed in the venom glands of fish, cnidarians and snakes. Coupling gene expression with proteomic tools allows us to investigate which of these genes are present in the secreted venom of the animal and which cause pathology when the venom is used for predation or defence against natural prey or predators and humans.

Reconstructing the origin of the venom trait in fish

Despite representing the largest group of venomous vertebrates after reptiles, very little is known about fish venom. Fish venoms appear to have evolved independently on many occasions, including multiple times in both bony and cartilaginous fish, and are used for protection the animal against predation. I am using a multi-disciplinary approach to identify toxin components in the venoms of these independent fish lineages to use them as characters to reconstruct the evolutionary origin of the venom trait in this large vertebrate lineage. This NERC funded project will also permit comparisons of the relative complexity of venoms from defensively and predatory venomous animals.

Multi-locus gene family evolution and sites of expression in venomous reptiles

The venoms of reptiles, particularly many snakes, contain numerous protein and peptide components (toxins) that are often encoded by multi-locus gene families. Such gene families are responsible for the production of multiple, related, toxin components thanks to the duplication of genes. I am particularly interested in the mode and tempo of evolution in these gene families, because of their often extreme and rapid nature. Interestingly, venom-related genes appear to have evolved from physiological genes important for homeostasis, and we recently have demonstrated that this process is reciprocal, with some physiological genes evolving from venom toxins. I am interested in exploring the genetic mechanisms responsible for this dynamic phenomenon, using genomic and transcriptomic molecular data.

Development and testing of snake antivenoms

Venomous snakebite is a serious medical concern, particularly in areas of the tropics. Snakebite mortality is thought to approach approximately 100,000 cases worldwide per year, resulting in the World Health Organisation classifying snakebite as a neglected tropical disease. Antivenoms are the only specific treatment for snakebite - they work by containing immunoglobulins that are specific to the toxins found in venom, allowing them to bind and neutralise the activity of the venom. In collaboration with colleagues at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and MicroPharm Ltd I have been investigating methods to improve the safety, stability, efficacy and geographical scope of existing antivenom products, alongside developing new methods to produce ‘next-generation antivenoms’.