Bartolomeo Scappi

Bartolomeo Scappi (c. 1500 – 13 April 1577) was a famous Italian Renaissancechef. His origins had been the subject of speculation, but recent research shows that he came from the town of Dumenza in Lombardy, according to the inscription on a stone plaque in the church of Luino.[1] Prior to this, the first known fact in his life had been that in April 1536 he organised a banquet while he was in the service of CardinalLorenzo Campeggio.[2] He served several other cardinals after this, then began to serve pope Pius IV, entering the service of the Vatican kitchen, he continued to work as a chef for the pope Pius V. Scappi is often considered one of the first internationally renowned celebrity chefs.

He acquired fame in 1570 when his monumental cookbook Opera dell'arte del cucinare was published; in the book he lists approximately 1000 recipes of the Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork.[3] He declared parmesan to be the best cheese on earth,[4] and noted that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds",[5] indicating that Jews of the time were practising the overfeeding needed to produce foie gras. Reprints of Opera were continually published from 1570 to 1643.[6]

Scappi died on 13 April 1577 and was buried in the church of SS. Vincenzo and Anastasio alla Regola, dedicated to cooks and bakers.[7]

1.
Italian Renaissance
–
The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt. The French word renaissance means Rebirth, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages. Though today perhaps best known for Italian Renaissance art and architecture, the period saw major achievements in literature, music, philosophy, Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, and to varying degrees retained this lead until about 1600. This was despite a turbulent and generally disastrous period in Italian politics, the European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centred in the city of Florence. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, the Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new allantico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch and his friend, famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci, Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Ludovico Ariosto. 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek, the same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peters Basilica in Rome, yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginning of economic regression for Italy. By the Late Middle Ages, Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France, in the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily, in contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, the main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining, thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper

2.
Chef
–
A chef is a highly trained and skilled professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation of a particular cuisine. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. Chefs can receive both formal training from an institution, as well as through apprenticeship with an experienced chef, the Brigade system is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, many of which use the word chef in their titles. Underneath the chefs are the kitchen assistants, a chefs standard uniform includes a hat called a toque, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. In English, the chef in the culinary profession originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. The culinary arts, among other aspects of the French language introduced French loan-words into the English language, various titles, detailed below, are given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the brigade de cuisine documented by Auguste Escoffier, other names include executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef. Chef de cuisine is the traditional French term from which the English word chef is derived and this is often the case for executive chefs with multiple restaurants. Involved in checking the sensory evaluation of dishes after preparation and they are aware of each sensory property of those specific dishes. The Sous-Chef de Cuisine is the second-in-command and direct assistant of the Chef de Cuisine and this person may be responsible for scheduling the kitchen staff, or substituting when the head chef is off-duty. Also, he or she will fill in for or assist the Chef de Partie when needed and this person is accountable for the kitchens inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the continuing training of its entire staff. A sous-chefs duties can also include carrying out the head chefs directives, conducting line checks, smaller operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one. The sous chef is also responsible when the Executive Chef is absent, a chef de partie, also known as a station chef or line cook, is in charge of a particular area of production. In large kitchens, each chef de partie might have several cooks or assistants, in most kitchens, however, the chef de partie is the only worker in that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with first cook, then second cook, kitchen-hands assist with basic food preparation tasks under the chefs direction. They carry out relatively unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad, stewards/ kitchen porters are involved in the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties may be incorporated, a communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift

3.
Luino
–
Luino is a small town and comune near the border with Switzerland on the eastern shore of Lake Maggiore, in the Province of Varese. Luino received the title of city with a presidential decree in 1969. Luino is well known for its market, currently held on Wednesdays. It is also a destination for tourists, especially from Switzerland, Germany. Although a Roman necropolis has been excavated in the area, Luino is mentioned by documents only in 1169 AD, in the Middle Ages it was contented between powerful families from Como and Milan, but was able to maintain its status as a free commune. The concession was confirmed in 1786, here in 1848 Italian patriots from Piedmont rose against the Austrian occupation. Giuseppe Garibaldi fought here against the Austrians, and Luino later was the first city in Italy to erect a monument to him, the area of Luino underwent a high industrialization process, starting from the late 19th century, which caused significant ecological damage to the eponymous Lake. The towns railway station, located on the Oleggio–Pino line, is an important border stop, although some shadows of this past trade do remain in the names of local streets and villas, the activity in this sector has now diminished considerably. One phenomenon which is widespread is the practice of local residents who travel every day to work in Switzerland. These so-called frontalieri make Luino and neighbouring towns and villages dormitory towns to some extent, two famous figures of 20th century Italian literature, Piero Chiara and Vittorio Sereni were born in Luino. The Nobel Prize for Literature-winning playwright Dario Fo also spent part of his youth here, Luino is twinned with, Sanary-sur-Mer, France, since 2001 Luino Tourism Information Luino Webcam Meteo News

4.
Banquet
–
A banquet is a large meal or feast, complete with main courses and desserts, always served with ad libitum alcoholic beverages, such as wine or beer. A banquet usually serves a purpose such as a gathering, a ceremony, or a celebration. In the majority of banquets, the gathering is seated at tables with around 8-10 people per table. Overall, there is a debate of when feasting began. During these feasts, luxury foods were offered to their guest, what these luxury goods were are still up to debate. However, Hayden argues that meat and rice are some of these luxury goods because they were domesticated despite their difficulty in doing so. The term banquet, however, termed from a different time period, the idea of banqueting is ancient. In the 16th century, a banquet was very different from our modern perception, after dinner, the guests would stand and drink sweet wine and spices while the table was cleared, or ‘voided’. During the 16th century, guests would no longer stand in the chamber whilst the table was cleared and the room prepared for entertainment. As the idea of banqueting developed, it could place at any time during the day and have much more in common with the later practice of taking tea. Banqueting rooms varied greatly from house to house, but were generally on an intimate scale, today, banquets serve many purposes from training sessions, to formal business dinners. Business banquets are a way to strengthen bonds between businessmen and their partners. It is common that a banquet is organized at the end of an academic conference, a luau is one variety of banquet originally used in Hawaii. The Nei Mongol provincial government in China levies a tax on banquets, banquet hall Beefsteak Feast Albala, Ken. The banquet, Dining in the Great Courts of late Renaissance Europe, board of Trustees, University of Illinois

5.
Cardinal (Catholicism)
–
A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs

6.
Lorenzo Campeggio
–
Lorenzo Campeggio was an Italian cardinal and politician. He was the last cardinal protector of England, Campeggio was born in Milan, the eldest of five sons. In 1500, he took his doctorate in canon and civil law at Bologna, when she died in 1509, Campeggio began an ecclesiastical career under Pope Julius IIs patronage. In 1513 he returned to Germany seeking a league against the Turks, Pope Leo X made him a Cardinal on 1 July 1517, and Maximilian made him Cardinal–protector of the Holy Roman Empire. On 3 March 1518 he was sent to England as part of Leos peace policy and he was also a member of Johann Goritzs humanist sodality. Campeggio was appointed cardinal–protector of England on 22 January 1523 and he was not involved in much English business, except for the referring of episcopal provisions in consistory. The election of Pope Adrian VI in 1522 cemented his position in the Roman Curia, Campeggio wrote his De depravato statu ecclesiae for Adrian, which proposed radical reforms for the papal bureaucracy. On 2 December 1524 he received the bishopric of Salisbury, which he had promised in 1518. The election of Pope Clement VII in 1523 further exalted Campeggios power, Clement made him bishop of Bologna on 2 December 1523 and then on 9 January 1524 legate to the Diet of Nuremberg. During the sack of Rome in 1527, Campeggio lost everything, Clement, who fled to Orvieto, left him behind as papal legate in the city, just when the English political situation required his attention. Wolsey and Henry VIII expected his support for their proposal that a papal co-legate should decide Henrys divorce from Catherine of Aragon in co-operation with Wolsey, Campeggio had, however, already given a legal opinion to the Pontiff supporting the validity of the marriage. Nevertheless, he was named legate on 8 June 1528, after a joint commission with Wolsey had been agreed on 13 April. Campeggio arrived in London on 8 October 1528 and held the first of many sessions with Wolsey and Henry, Campeggio found himself in a difficult position, since Emperor Charles V, Catherine of Aragons nephew, was determined to prevent the divorce, and was putting pressure on Clement. The deciding point in law for Campeggio was Juliuss dispensation for Henry, in Catherines possession from early in 1528, she showed it to Campeggio in October, and he took it to invalidate his commission, since the latter failed to cover the document. He tried to make the case disappear on 23 July 1529 by proroguing it until October, on his way back to Rome, Campeggio met Charles and Clement in Bologna, where the pope gave Campeggio the castle of Dozza and the Emperor took Campeggios family under his patronage. Campeggio was legate to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where he pursued negotiations with Philip Melanchthon, by 20 May 1531, Henry had dismissed Campeggio as legate. In August 1533, he lost the revenues of Salisbury, Campeggio was a member of the commission which excommunicated Henry in 1535. He remained protector of Germany until his death, at the same time devoting much energy to insuring the future of his family and he was named legate to the general council called first at Mantua and then at Vicenza, but he attended only the first session in May 1538

7.
Pope Pius IV
–
Pope Pius IV, born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was Pope from 25 December 1559 to his death in 1565. He is known for presiding over the session of the Council of Trent. Giovanni Angelo Medici was born in Milan on 31 March 1499 as the second of eleven children to Bernardino de Medici and he was not closely related to the Medicis of Florence. Giovanni Medici was the brother of condottiero Gian Giacomo Medici. Medici studied philosophy and medicine in Pavia, after studying at Bologna and acquiring a reputation as a jurist he obtained his doctorate in both canon and civil law on 11 May 1525. Medici went in 1527 to Rome, and as a favourite of Pope Paul III was rapidly promoted to the governorship of several towns, the archbishopric of Ragusa, in April 1549, Pope Paul III made Medici a cardinal. Under Papal authority, he was sent on missions to Germany. On the death of Pope Paul IV, he was elected pope on 25 December 1559, taking the name Pius IV. and installed on 6 January 1560. His first public acts of importance were to grant a pardon to the participants in the riot after the death of his predecessor. One, Cardinal Carlo Carafa, was strangled, and Duke Giovanni Carafa of Paliano, on 18 January 1562 the Council of Trent, which had been suspended by Pope Julius III, was convened by Pius IV for the third and final time. The more marked manifestations of stringency during his pontificate appear to have been prompted rather than spontaneous, his personal character inclining him to moderation, in the same year he published a bull granting the use of the cup to the laity of Austria and Bohemia. A conspiracy against Pius IV, headed by Benedetto Accolti the Younger, katherine Rinne said in her book Waters of Rome that Pius IV also ordered public construction to improve the water supply of Rome. Pius IV died on 9 December 1565 and he was buried in Santa Maria degli Angeli. Cardinals created by Pius IV List of popes from the Medici family House of Medici Bonora, roma 1564, La congiura contro il papa. Freedberg, Sydney J. Pelican History of Art, ed, catholic Hierarchy, Pope Pius IV Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Medici

8.
Pius V
–
Pope Saint Pius V, born Antonio Ghislieri, was Pope from 8 January 1566 to his death in 1572. He is venerated as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and he is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent, the Counter-Reformation, and the standardization of the Roman rite within the Latin Church. Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church, as a cardinal, Ghislieri gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French bishops for heresy. By means of the bull of 1570, Regnans in Excelsis, Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for heresy. He also arranged the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Catholic states, although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottoman Empire, which had threatened to overrun Europe, at the Battle of Lepanto. Pius V attributed the victory to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, biographers report that as the Battle of Lepanto ended, Pius rose and went over to a window, where he stood gazing toward the East. Then, turning around, he exclaimed The Christian fleet is victorious. Antonio Ghislieri was born 17 January 1504 in Bosco in the Duchy of Milan, Italy. At the age of fourteen he entered the Dominican Order, taking the name Michele, passing from the monastery of Voghera to that of Vigevano, ordained priest at Genoa in 1528, he was sent by his order to Pavia, where he lectured for sixteen years. At Parma he advanced thirty propositions in support of the papal chair and he became master of novices and was on several occasions elected prior of more than one Dominican priory. During a time of moral laxity, he insisted on discipline. He fasted, did penance, passed long hours of the night in meditation and prayer, traveled on foot without a cloak in deep silence, in 1556 he was made Bishop of Sutri by Pope Paul IV and was selected as inquisitor of the faith in Milan and Lombardy. In 1557 he was made a cardinal and named inquisitor general for all Christendom and his defense of the Archbishop of Toledo, who had been suspected of heresy by the Spanish Inquisition in earned him a rebuff from the Pope. Under Pope Pius IV he became bishop of Mondovi in Piedmont, frequently called to Rome, he displayed his unflinching zeal in all the affairs on which he was consulted. Thus he offered an insurmountable opposition to Pius IV when the latter wished to admit Ferdinand de Medici, then thirteen years old. His opposition to the pontiff procured his dismissal from the palace, before Michele Ghislieri could return to his episcopate, Pope Pius IV died. On 8 January 1566, Ghislieri, with the influential backing Charles Borromeo was elected to the papal throne and he was crowned ten days later, on his 62nd birthday by the protodeacon. His pontificate saw him dealing with reform of the Church, the spread of Protestant doctrines in the West. Three national synods were held during his pontificate at Naples under Alfonso Cardinal Caraffa, at Milan under Saint Charles Borromeo, accordingly, in order to implement a decision of that council, he standardised the Holy Mass by promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal

9.
Celebrity chef
–
A celebrity chef is a kitchen chef who has become famous and well known. Today celebrity chefs often become celebrities by presenting cookery advice and demonstrations via mass media, several chefs have been credited with being the first celebrity chef, among them historically Bartolomeo Scappi and Marie-Antoine Carême. In the modern era since the advent of several chefs have been attributed the title of the first celebrity chef, including Julia Child in the United States. Sales of certain foodstuffs can also be enhanced, such as when Delia Smith caused the sale of white eggs across the UK to increase by 10% in what has since been termed the Delia effect, in South Korea, a celebrity chef is referred to as a Cheftainer. The earliest chef to be credited with being a celebrity was the 16th-century Italian and he was the personal chef to Pope Pius V, and is credited with writing one of the first modern recipe books, Opera. The 19th-century French chef Marie-Antoine Carême has also since been referred to as a celebrity of his era, the first chef to achieve widespread fame and celebrity status was Alexis Soyer. Born in France, Soyer became the most celebrated cook in early Victorian England, in 1837, he became chef de cuisine at the Reform Club in London, where he designed the kitchens with Charles Barry. His exceptional cooking skills were combined with an excellent eye to marketing and his image was even successfully used as a trademark to market a range of bottled sauces produced by Crosse & Blackwell. Soyer also invented many popular new recipes and foods - he produced and marketed a drink made of a variety of fruits mixed with aerated water. His special dish at the Club, Soyers Lamb Cutlets Reform, is still on the Club menu today, at the Reform Club, he instituted many innovations including cooking with gas, refrigerators cooled by cold water, and ovens with adjustable temperatures. His kitchens were so famous that they were opened for conducted tours, when Queen Victoria was crowned on 28 June 1838, he prepared a breakfast for 2,000 people at the Club. He was also known for his philanthropy. During the Great Irish Famine in April 1847, he implemented a network of soup kitchens to feed the poor and his famine soup was served to thousands of the poor for free. Soyer wrote a number of bestselling books about cooking, one of them selling over a quarter of a million copies. His 1854 book A Shilling Cookery for the People was a book for ordinary people who could not afford elaborate kitchen utensils or large amounts of exotic ingredients. Other works included The Gastronomic Regenerator, The modern Housewife or ménagère, the earliest television celebrity chef in the UK was Fanny Cradock. She appeared on British television for two decades, from the 1950s through the 1970s. Her television career came to an end when she appeared as a judge on reality television show The Big Time in 1976 and she appeared to pretend to retch as contestant Gwen Troake described her menu for former Prime Minister Edward Heath

10.
Cuisine
–
A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. A cuisine is influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws, such as Hindu, Islamic and Jewish dietary laws, regional food preparation traditions, customs and ingredients often combine to create dishes unique to a particular region. Some factors that have an influence on a regions cuisine include the areas climate, for example a Tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish. The areas climate in large measure determines the native foods that are available, in addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, the trade among different countries also largely affects a regions cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago. Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws, Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. Rome was known for its cuisine, wealthy families would dine in the Triclinium on a variety of dishes, their diet consisted of eggs, cheese, bread, meat, cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. Molecular gastronomy, is a style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines. The term was coined in 1988 by late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti and it is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines, a global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats. Regional cuisines may vary based upon food availability and trade, cooking traditions and practices, for example, in Central and South America, corn, both fresh and dried, is a staple food. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta, china likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, the vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use of spices is characteristic, coconuts, african cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd, in much of tropical Africa, however, cows milk is rare and cannot be produced locally

11.
Fork
–
A fork, in cutlery or kitchenware, is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The usually metal utensil is used to food to the mouth or to hold ingredients in place while they are being cut by a knife. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines or by holding it on top of the tines, the early history of the fork is obscure. As a kitchen and dining utensil it is believed to have originated in the Roman Empire. The personal table fork most likely originated in the Eastern Roman Empire and its use spread to what is now the Middle East during the first millennium AD and then spread into southern Europe during the second millennium. It did not become common in northern Europe until the 18th century and was not common in North America until the 19th century, the fork is a primarily Western utensil, whereas in east Asia chopsticks have been more prevalent. Today, forks are available throughout east Asia. The word fork comes from the Latin furca, meaning pitchfork, some of the earliest known uses of forks with food occurred in Ancient Egypt, where large forks were used as cooking utensils. Bone forks had been found in the site of the Bronze Age Qijia culture as well as later Chinese dynasties tombs. The Ancient Greeks used the fork as a serving utensil, the Greek name for fork is still used in some European languages, for instance in the Venetian, Greek, and Albanian languages. In the Roman Empire, bronze and silver forks were used, the use varied according to local customs, social class and the nature of food, but forks of the earlier periods were mostly used as cooking and serving utensils. The personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman Empire, records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles. By the 10th century, the fork was in common use throughout the Middle East. By the 11th century, the fork had become increasingly prevalent in the Italian peninsula. At first, pasta was consumed using a wooden spike. In Italy, it became commonplace by the 14th century and was almost universally used by the merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena, in Portugal, forks were first used at the time of Infanta Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, King Manuel I of Portugals mother around 1450. However, forks were not commonly used in Southern Europe until the 16th century when they part of Italian etiquette

12.
Parmigiano-Reggiano
–
Parmigiano-Reggiano, or Parmesan cheese, is a hard, granular cheese. The name Parmesan is often used generically for various simulations of this cheese and it is named after the producing areas, which comprise the provinces of Parma, Reggio Emilia, Bologna, Modena, and Mantua, Italy. Parmigiano is the Italian adjective for Parma and Reggiano is the adjective for Reggio Emilia, outside the EU, the name Parmesan can legally be used for cheeses similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano, with only the full Italian name unambiguously referring to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. It has been called the King of Cheeses, Parmigiano-Reggiano is made from unpasteurized cows milk. The whole milk of the morning milking is mixed with the naturally skimmed milk of the previous evenings milking, resulting in a part skim mixture and this mixture is pumped into copper-lined vats. Starter whey is added, and the temperature is raised to 33–35 °C, calf rennet is added, and the mixture is left to curdle for 10–12 minutes. The curd is broken up mechanically into small pieces. The temperature is raised to 55 °C with careful control by the cheese-maker. The curd is left to settle for 45–60 minutes, the compacted curd is collected in a piece of muslin before being divided in two and placed in molds. There is 1100 L of milk per vat, producing two cheeses each, the curd making up each wheel at this point weighs around 45 kg. The remaining whey in the vat was used to feed the pigs from which Prosciutto di Parma was produced. The barns for these animals were usually just a few yards away from the cheese production rooms, the cheese is put into a stainless steel, round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day, after brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days, the cheese is also turned at this time. At 12 months, the Consorzio Parmigiano-Reggiano inspects every wheel, the cheese is tested by a master grader who taps each wheel to identify undesirable cracks and voids within the wheel. Wheels that pass the test are then heat branded on the rind with the Consorzios logo, traditionally, cows have to be fed only on grass or hay, producing grass fed milk. Only natural whey culture is allowed as a starter, together with calf rennet, the only additive allowed is salt, which the cheese absorbs while being submerged for 20 days in brine tanks saturated to near total salinity with Mediterranean sea salt

13.
Foie gras
–
Foie gras is a luxury food product made of the liver of a duck or goose that has been specially fattened. By French law, foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by force-feeding corn with a feeding tube, in Spain and other countries outside France it is occasionally produced using natural feeding. Ducks are force-fed twice a day for 12.5 days, Ducks are typically slaughtered at 100 days and geese at 112 days. Foie gras is a popular and well-known delicacy in French cuisine and its flavor is described as rich, buttery, and delicate, unlike that of an ordinary duck or goose liver. Foie gras is sold whole, or is prepared into mousse, parfait, or pâté, French law states that Foie gras belongs to the protected cultural and gastronomical heritage of France. The technique of gavage dates as far back as 2500 BC, today, France is by far the largest producer and consumer of foie gras, though it is produced and consumed worldwide, particularly in other European nations, the United States, and China. A number of countries and jurisdictions have laws against force-feeding, and the production, import or sale of foie gras, even where it is legal, as early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, at the side stand tables piled with more food pellets, and a flask for moistening the feed before giving it to the geese. The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean, the earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th century BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese, the emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign. After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine, some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasants food animals were mainly pig and sheep. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a gooses liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea or earlier from Egyptians, the Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe. The Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, forbade lard as a cooking medium, the delicate taste of the gooses liver was soon appreciated, Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some Rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions, the chasam sofer, Rabbi Moses Sofer, contended that it is not a forbidden food as none of its limbs are damaged. This matter remained a topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that, however, as liver is regarded as wholly blood, properly broiling a foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult, and therefore rarely practiced

14.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

15.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

16.
Integrated Authority File
–
The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format

17.
Bibsys
–
BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply