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2 Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 Background Immigration to the United States Anti-Immigrant Sentiment before the 1890s The Rise of Restrictionism Wild Motley Throng : The New Immigrants and the Growth of Race-Thinking Americanization and Anti-Radicalism Arguing Restriction in Congress The Quota Acts Arguing Restriction Race: Assimilation and Unassimilables Japanese Exclusion Southern and Eastern Europeans Immigrants and the Economy Saving American Institutions The Anti-Immigrant Climate Theoretical and Popular Prejudice The Influence of Eugenics Patricians, Patriots and Klansmen: Organizations in Support of Restriction Societal Groups and Restriction The Context of the Quota Acts Immigration Legislation in Other Countries Countries of High Immigration: Canada, Australia, and Latin America Excluding Asians Attitudes Toward European Immigrants European States and Immigration The Domestic Context Conclusion 125 Works Cited 129

3 Chapter 1 Introduction Between 1830 and 1924, over 35 million immigrants arrived to the United States from Europe. This so-called century of immigration ended rather abruptly in the early 1920s, when the United States enacted what became known as the Quota Acts, that significantly limited immigration from Europe. The first of these acts, passed in 1921, introduced quotas for all European immigrants, cutting the total to about 350,000 European immigrants per year. This temporary legislation was superseded by the Immigration Act of 1924, which not only made the quotas stricter but also calculated them in a manner designed to favor Northern and Western European immigrants. It also altogether barred immigration from Japan. With this legislation, a fundamental American policy was turned on its head. Until the late 19th century, the United States had had a strong commitment, on both economic and ideological grounds, to free immigration. Economically, immigrants were seen as not only a boon but a necessity; ideologically, they strengthened the image of America as a land of opportunity composed of the most enterprising elements of all European nations. As early as 1782, Hector St. John de Crèvecoueur, himself a French immigrant, had famously declared that 1

4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 2 He is an American who, leaving behind him all ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the government he obeys, and the new rank he holds [... ] Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world. 1 This idea of American identity as a matter of choice and action, and American nationality as a blend of the best from all peoples, persisted throughout the 19th century and well into the 20th as well. There was, however, an underlying assumption that the blend would be composed of white newcomers: naturalization was not granted to non-whites. 2 Accordingly, when concern about the benefits of immigration began to spread in the late 19th century, the first to feel the changing winds of policy were the Chinese, whose entry was prohibited in 1882; in 1917, the creation of an Asian Barred Zone prevented the admittance of all Asians except the Japanese, whose immigration was regulated through diplomatic means. The first serious proposals to limit European immigration came in the 1890s, a time of serious economic depression and general unease about the future of the country, and also a time when the shift in the sources of immigration from Northern and Western Europe to Southern and Eastern Europe began to be apparent. This shift, combined with economic problems, disturbed many observers, but was especially unsettling to the old-stock New Englanders who saw their cities increasingly populated by immigrants who seemed to them ignorant and utterly alien. One of these patricians, the Congressman Henry Cabot Lodge, in 1891 put forth a bill to impose a literacy test on all immigrants. Between that initial proposal of the literacy test and its final enactment 1 Quoted in Gerstle, Liberty, p. 524; emphasis in original. 2 After 1870, persons of African descent could be naturalized, but the assumption was that their numbers would be so small as to be practically non-existent. See section and Ngai, Architecture.

5 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 3 in the Immigration Act of 1917, the attitude toward immigrants swung from fear to confidence and back again. Faith in the immigrants assimilation alternated with suspicions concerning their loyalty to America and their willingness to adopt an American lifestyle. Belief in the economic benefits of immigration occasionally outweighed and occasionally was submerged by belief in their adverse impact on the society as a whole. The Americanization movement, a systematic attempt at immigrant assimilation that began around 1907 and reached its height in 1919, was one response to the conflict of economic benefits and cultural threat. At the same time, however, various versions of the literacy test were repeatedly introduced in Congress, indicating the persistence of the idea; moreover, a favorable attitude to limiting immigration was beginning to take hold even in the traditionally immigrant-hungry areas of the South and the West. The Quota Acts, then, were preceded by a lengthy if erratic growth of restrictionist sentiment. Nevertheless, in both form and scale they represented a radical departure from earlier ideas: all previous regulations of European immigration had concerned the individual characteristics of the immigrant, and never before had the number of entries per year been dictated by law. The turn of the tide was remarkably complete: by the last stages of the Congressional debate there were few groups in America (apart from immigrants themselves) that raised voices of serious opposition. Even those who wished for a different kind of law often conceded that restriction in some form was necessary. A variety of factors combined to bring about this consensus regarding the need to drastically curb immigration. Probably the most striking feature of the support for restriction is the diversity of its sources: patrician New Englanders, labor unionists, Republicans, Democrats, black leaders, Klans-

6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 4 men, industrialists and eugenists all seemed to expect some benefit from limiting the influx of newcomers. All of these groups emphasized different aspects of the question: eugenists felt that America s racial and biological composition and therefore the country s future were at risk; labor unionists blamed the immigrant for bringing down wages; the elites said that immigrants of lower-class and culturally alien backgrounds would destroy American institutions and culture. In other words, immigration restriction could be supported on such diverse grounds that a group which might find some aspect of the law less than perfect or even distasteful often had reason to commend its other features. Industrialists, for example, would have preferred more flexibility, but often agreed that restriction nevertheless was a good thing; similarly, black leaders condemned the racist implications of the act but felt that a smaller labor pool would certainly be desirable. The debate over the Quota Acts moved largely on the level of ideology and emotion: advocates of restriction emphasized the need to preserve American culture and national unity, while opponents appealed to traditional ideals which painted America as the haven for all those huddled masses yearning to breathe free, as the poem engraved on the Statue of Liberty loftily declared. Nevertheless, a number of more tangible factors contributed to the passage of immigration restriction. By the 1920s, the demand for agricultural settlers and unskilled industrial labor, which had largely been the driving force of immigration, had decreased dramatically. The frontier was now closed, agriculture suffered from overproduction, and major labor-intensive infrastructural projects had been completed. Technological innovations and better communications had created an industrial society that increasingly relied on machines rather than men to do the work. The First World War, by practically closing off

7 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 5 European immigration, had accelerated the focus on capital-intensive production; and, it had drawn Southern blacks to industrial jobs in the North, making manufacturers aware of a domestic labor pool that could supplant immigrants. A comparison with other countries of high immigration such as Canada, Australia and Argentina underlines the importance of longterm economic factors in producing a restriction-friendly climate: while all of these countries expressed concern about the immigrants impact on society, none of them enacted restrictions as strict as those in the United States, probably because of their greater need for agricultural and industrial labor. Economic factors, mechanization, and falling farm prices were occasionally noted in the debate, but they were clearly not the main issue: any economic argument for immigration, for example, could be immediately dispelled by warning that continued immigration would change America so fundamentally that no economic profit could compensate for the loss. The most consistent arguments of the restrictionists focused on the size and character of immigration. Such huge numbers of Europeans, they claimed, wanted to escape the war-weary continent that the impact on the American economy and American culture would be intolerable. They also argued that the quality of immigrants had deteriorated that the new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were racially and culturally inferior to the Western and Northern Europeans that had constituted the bulk of immigrants up to about Intense concern over the fate of the nation, and over change itself, surrounded the debate on immigration restriction. This led many contemporary observers to argue that restrictionism was simply one more manifestation of the same impulse that passed the Prohibition Amendment, condemned short skirts, sang the praises of rural America, and advocated a return to

8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 6 old-time religion. This impulse, said writers like H.L. Mencken and Walter Lippman, was simply the dying gasp of traditional, rural, Victorian America, trying to stave off the inevitable arrival of modernity. The debate on the Quota Acts certainly lends some support to this view: congressmen, journalists, and social scientists over and over again repeated that it was time for America to stop and catch its breath, to take stock of its population, to devise an immigration policy that would prevent America from losing its soul and becoming de-americanized. In other words, there was clearly a widespread sentiment that the pace of change was too rapid, and that immigrants were at least partly responsible for this. But immigration restriction was in many senses as much a part of modernity as it was a reaction against it. First of all, the Immigration Act of 1924 established an intricate bureaucracy for consular inspection of prospective immigrants. Second, many of the advocates especially eugenists, New England elites, and some congressmen placed great weight on the argument that America needed a scientific and efficient immigration policy, and that this was exactly what the new legislation would provide. Third, the underpinnings of the quota system lay in eugenics, which drew the greater part of its impetus from an interpretation of Darwin s theory of evolution and natural selection. All of these three aspects indicate that the law s designers were not so much trying to recreate an earlier, simpler era as they were determined to define and fashion an acceptable modern one. They had few qualms about new scientific theories, no matter how seriously those theories might undermine traditional interpretations of the world (after all, the issue of Darwinian evolution versus a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation has often been cited as one of the major controversies of the

9 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 7 twenties). And, while they praised the virtues of simple farm and village life, they also implicitly accepted that America had become a modern, complex society that could not function without a certain amount of efficient state bureaucracy. In the debate over the first Quota Act, many opponents still argued that no new restrictions were necessary and the rumors of an immigrant flood were greatly exaggerated. The temporary nature of the first Act, however, probably eased its passage, and by 1924, there was fairly strong consensus over the need for a permanent and restrictive immigration policy. The controversy in 1924 arose mainly from the proposed form of restrictions: the quotas that discriminated against Southern and Eastern Europeans and the exclusion of Japanese immigrants spurred heated debate. Recent research, too, has emphasized the racist ideology behind the 1924 Act and the support it received from contemporary race-thinkers and eugenists. 3 The influence of eugenics certainly was important and the prejudices embedded in the Act are not in doubt. But while racism may have been sufficient to shut out Japanese immigrants, it hardly suffices to explain the drive against Europeans. The way in which congressmen spoke about Japanese exclusion was very different from the way they discussed the relative merits of European nationalities. The alleged racial inferiority of Southern and Eastern Europeans remained controversial throughout the debate, and the racial case against them never fully distinguished itself from arguments based on economic or cultural aspects. By contrast, the racial otherness of the Japanese and their consequent undesirability as citizens was treated as a self-evident fact, one that did not require further argumentation. This view was not contested even by those who most eloquently denounced the at- 3 See e.g. King, Making Americans; Ngai, Architecture.

10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 8 tempt to put Europeans into separate racial categories, and consequently the discussion on Japanese exclusion centered on the correct legislative or diplomatic way to accomplish it. Popular stereotypes did much to buttress the scientific racism directed at Europeans, although as many opponents of restriction pointed out the claim that the newest arrivals were inferior to those who came before had been advanced over and over again in the nation s history. What distinguished the 1920s from earlier eras was the relative absence of strong opposition to restriction. Especially industry, which in earlier times had insisted on substantial immigrant labor, was no longer united on the question. Another important factor in creating the consensus against immigrants was the prevailing spirit of Americanism. More popular than the racist view of European immigrants, Americanism (and its flip side, un- Americanism) functioned as a catch-all concept that could always be evoked against foreigners and against American dissenters. Through declarations of Americanism and accusations of un-americanism, anti-immigrant agitation also contributed to the control of the domestic population, both by declaring activities such as labor organizing (especially in its more radical variants) un-american and alien in origin, and by shifting the blame for various social problems from politicians or businessmen to the immigrants. Immigration restriction, then, resonated with Americans for many reasons. The conditions that had made immigration essential a need for agricultural settlers and unskilled labor had been replaced by an increasingly urban, mechanized society. Intense nationalism, buttressed by wartime propaganda, created an atmosphere that was distrustful of everything foreign, and many things domestic. The propensity of new immigrants to stay in cities not only made them more conspicuous but also underscored the ur-

11 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 9 banization of America and made both the immigrant and the big city seem perhaps even more alien to many Southern and Western Americans. Various new theories seemed to confirm the popular ideas that Southern and Eastern Europeans were different, inferior, and unassimilable. In the public mind, immigrants were also associated with radicalism and Bolshevism, and in the anti-union climate after the Red Scare, this probably did as much to discredit them as their strange customs and languages. And finally, immigration restriction provided many groups and politicians with a clear-cut, concrete issue that could, after all, be fairly simply solved. In examining the debate surrounding the Quota Acts, I have focused mostly on the Congressional discussions, the views of those who appeared before the House or Senate Committees on Immigration, and the writings of major eugenists of the time. Using the Congressional debates as research material is, of course, wrought with a number of problems: much that was said may have been directed more to the voting public or the congressman s constituency rather than for the benefit of his fellow members of Congress. Nearly certainly, too, many congressmen downplayed their prejudices, preferring to draw attention to their lofty sentiments about American ideals and pay lip service to their concern for the American working man. And indeed, an examination of the popular magazines and publications of popular organizations tends to show much more forthright and unabashed variety of anti-immigrant sentiment, and two issues that rarely entered the Congressional debate, anti-catholicism and anti-semitism, probably nevertheless played a major role in creating popular support for the Quota Acts. But as those who sat in Congress and those who consulted them and wrote scientific and semi-scientific works on the subject of immigration certainly had more

12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 10 power to influence the final form of the law, I feel justified in focusing more on them. For the same reason, and because of their significant majority, the arguments and people in favor of the law receive the bulk of attention here, and the opposing side is only examined inasmuch as it is necessary to unfold the restrictionist case. Another problem connected with focusing on the Congressional debate, or indeed on any short-term debate, is that many underlying and perhaps extremely influential issues are never discussed as the participants prefer to score easier rhetorical points. Therefore, to provide a background and a context for the Quota Acts debate, I have used secondary sources to try to examine both the immigration laws of other countries and American domestic developments at some length.

13 Chapter 2 Background Although the Quota Acts of the 1920s can be described as the end of an era, this does not mean that nativist sentiment was a product of the twenties or even that its appearance on the scene of national politics was by any means sudden. As John Higham has shown, nativist sentiment had deep roots in American society, dating back to the earliest days of the republic. Hostility to foreigners has usually flared up in economically and/or politically insecure times, and has often served to deflect the potential for class conflict inherent in them to the less disruptive goal of diminishing the rights of the immigrant. 2.1 Immigration to the United States At the time of the first census in 1790, the white population was predominantly of English origin. Sixty percent of the white residents of the continental United States came from England; about eight percent came from Scotland. Other white national or linguistic stocks consisted of Irish (9.5 percent), German (8.6 percent) and Dutch (3.1 percent); Swedish and Spanish persons comprised less than one percent each and 6.8 percent were not classified. About 20 percent of the population were of African origin. Many 11

14 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 12 of the European groups were concentrated in particular areas, so that a third of Pennsylvania s population, for instance, was German, and a sixth of New York and New Jersey was Dutch in origin. 1 Between 1820 and 1924 the influx of immigrants grew steadily, with the exceptions of the Civil War period, the depression of the 1890s, and the years of the First World War. The earliest arrivals of this century of immigration were Irish, German and Scandinavian; the Irish comprised well over thirty percent of immigrants up to 1860, while the Germans totaled about percent between 1830 and Scandinavians, of course, never reached the numbers that Germans or Irish did, although in proportion to the population of the Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden and Denmark) their migration was in fact greater than that of the Germans. A total of 2.1 million Scandinavians arrived in the U.S. between 1820 and 1920; the bulk of this movement occurred between 1865 and After about 1880, the numbers of Southern and Eastern European immigrants began to increase dramatically. Only ca. 55,000 Italians, for example, had arrived in the 1870s, while in the 1880s they totaled over 300,000. Between 1880 and 1920, over four million Italians arrived in the United States. Other prominent groups from the Mediterranean were the Greeks, the Turks (about 300,000 each) and the Armenians (about 100,000). Data on East European arrivals are more difficult to interpret because ethnic groups and national boundaries, as they were perceived, rarely coincided. Russia and Austria-Hungary sent over three million immigrants to the U.S. between 1901 and 1910, but Americans (and the immigrants themselves) spoke of 1 Daniels, Coming, pp Daniels, Coming, tables on pages 129 and 146. The Irish immigration continued to comprise over 10 percent of the total until 1900; Germans still held 13.7 percent of the total in , after which their share dropped to low single digits. 3 Daniels, Coming, pp

15 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 13 Magyars, Slovaks, Poles and Jews. Statistics of the mother tongue of first and second generation immigrants in the 1910 census showed about 1.7 million Polish speakers; about half a million Magyars arrived between 1890 and 1914; and an estimated three million Eastern European Jews were in the U.S. in Immigration from England and Scotland continued throughout this period, although it received little attention; English immigrants were considered easily assimilable and aroused little opposition or interest. English and Scottish immigrants were also fewer than either Irish or German immigrants: between 1820 and 1951, about 3.5 million English and Scottish immigrants arrived in the U.S., as opposed to about 4.6 million Irish and 6.3 million Germans. By the late 19th century, the numbers of English immigrants (and of other Western European immigrants as well) were decreasing, and the quota allotted to Great Britain in the Immigration Act of 1924 was in fact larger than the number of would-be British immigrants. 5 Over 90 percent of the immigrants who arrived during the century of immigration were Europeans, and much of the history of immigration to the U.S., until quite recently, has focused almost exclusively on European arrivals. But the slave trade, of course, brought a significant number of Africans to the United States. There were, too, arrivals from Asia and the Western Hemisphere; these immigrants (especially Asians) tended to be concentrated in very few states, making them conspicuous despite relatively small numbers. 6 Chinese immigration began roughly with the California gold rush in 1849, and between that time and the enactment of the Chinese Exclusion 4 Daniels, Coming, pp , , Taft and Robbins, International Migrations, pp. 390, Daniels, Coming, p. 238.

16 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 14 Act in 1882 about 300,000 Chinese entered the United States. There were, however, probably a great number of repeated entries; the census of 1880 showed about 105,000 Chinese living in the United States. 7 Of these, over two thirds lived in California; only three percent lived outside the Western states or territories. 8 Like the Chinese, Japanese immigrants were heavily concentrated in the West, especially the Pacific Coast. The Japanese began arriving to the mainland U.S. in significant numbers in the 1890s, both directly from Japan and from Hawaii (which the U.S. annexed in 1898 and where about 30,000 Japanese had been employed on plantations). The census of 1920 showed about 110,000 Japanese in the contiguous United States; of these, 85 percent lived on the Pacific Coast. 9 Statistics relative to immigration from the Western Hemisphere are much less reliable than those regarding European and Asian entrants: crossing the land border was, obviously, much simpler than undertaking a long sea voyage, and controls were lax: for example, there was no Border Patrol on the Mexican border until Still, about 720,000 Mexicans were counted as entering between the Mexican Revolution of 1909 and 1930, roughly tripling the number of foreign-born Mexican Americans. Most Mexicans stayed in the Southwest as agricultural laborers, although the First World War and the subsequent restrictions on European immigration also drew significant numbers to industrial jobs in the North Chinese was a racial category and included both the foreign-born and their descendants. 8 Daniels, Coming, pp Japanese, too, was a racial classification and included both immigrants and those born in the United States. Daniels, Coming, pp Daniels, Coming, pp It should be noted that many Mexican Americans were not immigrants, but had remained in the areas annexed by the United States after Mexican-American War in Also, although Mexicans composed well over half of the immigrants from southern Western Hemisphere, immigrants from West Indies totaled about 400,000 between 1820 and 1930, and there were also immigrants from Central and

17 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 15 An immigrant group from north of the border, French Canadians, were almost as numerous as the Mexicans; like the Mexicans, they too stayed fairly close to the border, settling in the New England states. Again, statistics are unreliable, but the census figures show that in 1890 there were about 520,000 French Canadians (first and second generation) in the U.S.; by 1920 this figure had increased to almost 850,000. Most of these immigrants came to work in the growing industries of the New England states, and their acculturation was fairly slow due to both the steady pace of migration and the ease of visiting their homeland. This provoked considerable resentment among the native American population. The French Canadians, like the Chinese, were often seen as sojourners who had no intention of becoming true Americans Anti-Immigrant Sentiment before the 1890s One of the earliest attempts to incorporate nativist sentiment into the legislative body came in 1798 in the form of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were a response to the unease caused by the French Revolution. The Acts were intended to make citizenship more difficult, create an alien registration system, give the President the power to order the apprehension and deportation of aliens, and criminalize a broad range of expression opposed to the U.S. government. There was substantial opposition to these laws, and no immigrant was in fact deported under the Alien Act, which was allowed to expire in The fear of revolutionary forces that motivated the Alien and Sedition Acts may seem incongruous; after all, the United States itself had only South America. 11 Daniels, Coming, pp Hong, Origin, pp. 3-4.

18 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 16 recently come into being through revolution. However, as John Higham puts it, [i]n retrospect, the spirit of 76 could appear even more sober than it was, and vastly different from the temper of foreign revolutions. 13 Far from dying with the expiration of the Alien Act, this fear of revolution (and of radicalism in general) would continue to influence immigration policy for decades indeed, centuries to come. The next wave of nativism appeared in the 1830s, this time directed not at radicals but at Catholics. Anti-Catholicism had been a feature of American society since colonial times, and as increasing numbers of Irish and German Catholics entered the country from the 1820s onward, it was transformed from largely rhetorical to a major social and political force. 14 The Catholic Church seemed dangerously un-american 15 in its authoritarian structures, Catholic immigrants were seen as bowing to a foreign power, and Catholicism in general brought to disrepute by popular exposés of the immoral proceedings taking place in convents. 16 Anti-Catholicism was strongly connected to the temperance movement, since Catholic immigrants coming from cultures where the saloon or the beer garden was much more of a conventional social gathering place than in America were among the most vigorous opponents of anti-liquor laws. Moreover, it was also tied to general dissatisfaction at immigrants political 13 Higham, Strangers, p. 7, emphasis in original. 14 Daniels, Coming, p Higham, Strangers, p Higham, Strangers; Anbinder, Ideology. The most prominent of these exposés was Maria Monk s Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Dieu Nunnery of Montreal, published in 1836 and widely read; the publication of a sequel (Further Disclosures) indicates the book s popularity. Monk claimed that during the time she had lived at the convent she had been sexually taken advantage of, and that when she became pregnant she had decided to flee to avoid having her child killed by the priests (according to her, a standard practice at the convent). Her evidence was discredited fairly soon, however, once it became clear that she had in fact never stayed at a convent, and especially once she became pregnant again. (Monk, 1998); (Daniels, 1990).

19 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 17 power and allegations of corruption and machine politics. 17 Anti-Catholic sentiment was especially violent in the eastern cities, and drew much of its support from the working class, incited to fear and hatred by church leaders and street-corner orators. In the 1850s, the anti-foreign and anti- Catholic American Party (aka the Know-Nothing Party) reached its climax through populist condemnations of politicians and calls for national unity, spiced with the many-faceted accusations leveled at Catholics. 18 The Know- Nothing party eventually dissolved as a result of internal conflicts; there is, however, evidence that the Republican party, which emerged in this period, inherited a significant number of Know-Nothing supporters. While the specifics of the connections between nativism and antebellum Republican politics are somewhat controversial, it is fairly well established that nativism as a political force was significant enough to require Republicans to take it into account in devising electoral strategy. Especially at the state level, concessions were made to nativist opinion, partly because of ideological similarities between Republicans and nativists and partly because of political expediency. 19 Neither the Know-Nothing anti-immigrant agitation or the Republicans concessions to nativism, however, led to significant legislation regarding immigration, and the force of the nativist movement declined after Foner, Free Soil; Boyer, Urban Masses. 18 Anbinder, Ideology; Higham, Strangers; Daniels, Coming. 19 Gienapp, Nativism. Gienapp also points out that while nativist agitation was not entirely limited to Catholics during this period, the Republican party focused on anti- Catholicism in its nativist planks, because it feared that blanket condemnations of foreigners might drive away the immigrant support it had managed to attract. Many Protestant immigrants, however, shared the natives fear of Catholics, and as Catholic immigrants were unlikely to leave the Democratic party in any case, anti-catholicism was a safe way to attract nativist support. 20 The Know-Nothings focused on tightening naturalization laws, not on restricting entry. There are, however, indications that the violence of the anti-catholic movement led to a reduction in immigration from Catholic countries as prospective emigrants heard about the unwelcoming atmosphere in the U.S; see Cohn, Nativism. In addition, Calavita, U.S. Immigration Law has argued that there was significant popular demand for restriction.

20 CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND 18 Anti-Catholicism did not disappear, but the question of immigration was subsumed in the much more pressing issues of the Civil War, and the following years of expansion did not provide much breeding ground for nativism. By the late 1870s, however, the gradual decrease in the employment rate and in the supply of available land once again focused attention on foreigners this time the Chinese. The two major complaints against the Chinese were that they were by nature, disposition and habits incapable of assimilating with American laws and customs and that they came as contract laborers, thereby decreasing the opportunities available to American workers. Another prominent argument in anti-chinese agitation was that Chinese women were being imported to work as prostitutes. 21 The vast majority of Chinese immigrants resided on the West Coast, mainly in California, and the exclusion movement was originally strongest among the white workers of that region who saw the Chinese as unfair competition (Chinese contract labor was often used as a device to undermine union power and to break strikes). 22 The workers received support from Southern congressmen, who, while not usually favorably disposed toward unions, were willing to support exclusion because of racial considerations. Moreover, some Californian capitalists, faced with competition from Chinese manufacturing firms, were themselves becoming favorably disposed toward exclusion. 23 As a result, the Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese laborers for ten years and made the Chinese explicitly ineligible for citizenship (the Act was later extended indefinitely and amended to include all Chinese persons). 24 Chinese exclusion, and the later anti-japanese agitation, often appear as 21 Hutchinson, Legislative, p. 68; Takaki, Strangers; Cox, Anti-Asiatic Movement. 22 Rudolph, Chinamen. 23 Cox, Anti-Asiatic Movement; Berthoff, Southern Attitudes; Rudolph, Chinamen. 24 Hutchinson, Legislative.

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