JPL 50th anniversary open house special edition
Jet Propulsion Laboratory UNIVERSE
Pasadena, California - Vol. 24, No. 14 - July 15, 1994
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Martin Marietta named contractor for Mars Global Surveyor orbiter
Development of the Mars Global Surveyor--the first in a series of low-
cost spacecraft to explore the Martian environment--will begin this month,
leading up to a November 1996 launch and America's return to the red
planet.
JPL Director Dr. Edward Stone has announced the selection of the
contractor, Martin Marietta Technologies Inc. of Denver, Colo., to build the
light-weight orbiter after a rapid, industry-wide competition.
"Martin Marietta Technologies Inc. has a successful record of developing
unique planetary spacecraft, including the highly successful Magellan
Venus radar mapping mission and the Viking Mars landers," Stone said.
"This is the beginning of a new era in the exploration of the Martian
environment and a new way of conducting business with our partners in
industry," he said. "We are now on the way to building a viable, state-of-
the-art spacecraft that will be ready for launch by November 1996 and
assure us of many scientifically important results."
The Mars Global Surveyor will be readied for launch from Cape
Canaveral, Fla., in just 28 months, beginning NASA's decade-long plan to
launch orbiters and landers to Mars every 26 months through the year
2005. The rigorous timeline--trimmed from an average five years or more
in the past--reflects NASA's new policy of streamlining the development
and deployment of new planetary missions.
Performance objectives for the new orbiter called for a low mass, polar-
orbiting spacecraft that could carry all but two of the eight science
instruments that were on board the Mars Observer spacecraft when it was
lost on Aug. 21, 1993.
Project costs through 30 days after launch have been capped at $155
million.
The Mars Global Surveyor will provide high-resolution, global maps of
the Martian surface, profile the planet's atmosphere and study the nature
of the magnetic field. The orbiter will be small enough to be launched on a
Delta expendable launch vehicle and will spend 10 months in transit to
Mars before entering a polar orbit around the planet in September 1997.
JPL will manage the Mars Global Surveyor mission for NASA's Office of
Space Science, Washington, D.C. ###
__________________________________________________________________
Mars Global Surveyor innovations
Mars Global Surveyor demonstrates NASA's new approach to
streamlining the development, deployment and on-orbit costs of new
spaceflight missions. Features of the Mars Global Surveyor project include:
-- Fast-track in development; costs constrained to $100 million or less per
year.
-- Utilization of existing infrastructure and hardware to achieve rapid
launch readiness.
Project management
-- Capped, cost-driven management approach; project management staff
significantly reduced.
-- Fast-track schedule with built-in performance measurement to assure
on-time readiness for launch in just 28 months. (On average, planetary
spacecraft development in the recent past has taken about 66 months or
five-and-a-half years.)
-- Shared launch vehicle engineering and launch site support personnel
with Mars Pathfinder mission to minimize personnel and costs.
-- Colocation of JPL project personnel at spacecraft contractor's facility.
Industry participation/ procurement innovations
-- Rapid request-for-proposal preparation.
-- Simple, innovative fee approach that warrants on-orbit performance
and rewards cost control.
-- Contractor selection and contract award completed in eight weeks,
compared with an average five to six months on similar procurements in
the past.
Spacecraft implementation
-- JPL and spacecraft contractor personnel will team to share in
development activities.
-- Spacecraft contractor will use inherited elements and new technology
to minimize schedule risk and provide adequate margins for completion of
sublevel system tasks.
Flight operations
Flight operations system redesigned to eliminate a layer of management,
provide a centralized command tracking database, ensure electronic
document distribution, establish a seamless uplink process whereby
commands are generated by a single team, and establish a single downlink
team for performance assessment.
Small and minority-owned business participation
Small and minority-owned businesses participating in the Mars Global
Surveyor mission will represent 33.3 percent of the prime contractor's
hardware and software procurement.
-- Technologies that will be provided by small and minority-owned
businesses include: solid state recorders, propulsion valves, solar panels,
gimbal actuators, central clock, testing and high technology material.
Educational outreach
Mars Global Surveyor will participate in a vigorous educational outreach
program to promote excellence in America's educational system and help
expand U.S. scientific and technological competence.
The focus of these educational outreach efforts will support science,
mathematics and space mission development curricula at the kindergarten
through 12th grade levels, provide educational enrichment for teachers
and a better public understanding of science. ###
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Astronomers preparing for the crash
By KARRE MARINO and MARK WHALEN
It has been called the event of a thousand lifetimes. In other words,
something we--or many future generations--probably never will see again.
The problem is, we may not even get to see this one.
When the 20-odd fragments--each following their own path--of Comet
Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) collide with Jupiter July 16-22, their impacts
could release more energy into the planet's atmosphere than that of the
world's combined nuclear arsenals, minus the radiation (according to one
theory). But because the impacts will occur on the night side of Jupiter, the
explosions will not be directly observable from Earth.
Yet, scientists around the world are hoping they'll gain new insight into
the composition of comets, as well as the atmosphere of Jupiter, according
to Dr. Donald Yeomans, senior research scientist in JPL's Solar Systems
Dynamics Group in Section 314. He explained the event's significance to a
packed von Karman Auditorium July 11. "We're not expecting any visually
impressive phenomena, nor do we expect any changes on Earth.
"What we do expect--besides the once-in-a-lifetime event--is a large
standing army of excited astronomers, as well as a change in how we're
beginning to view comets."
Until recently, scientists believed comets to be dirty ice balls, a few
kilometers in size. But, Yeomans said, "The Hubble Space Telescope
indicates that SL9 is a not a monolithic iceball but a concentration of
loosely bound fragments. If SL9 is typical of comets, perhaps cometary
interiors are very fragile structures, composed of separate pieces--a sort of
rubble pile.
"We're trying to learn how large the pieces are, which will determine the
kind of reactions we can expect upon impact, as well as shed light on the
question of what comprises comets," Yeomans said.
"This particular comet orbited the sun for about 4 1/2 billion years," he
told the audience, "only to be captured by Jupiter a few decades ago, then
torn apart by an exceptionally close approach to the planet in 1992.
"This raises an interesting question: We know how fragile SL9 is, but
given the ease with which it became fragmented, how did it live for 4 1/2
billion years?" he wondered.
That long life is not the only thing that about Shoemaker-Levy 9 that
strikes researchers as unusual. According to Dr. Paul Chodas, Yeomans'
colleague in Section 314 and architect of the software that predicts the
times of impact, "We've never had the opportunity to study the impact of a
large solar system body on a planet.
"Also unusual is the fact that this comet is orbiting Jupiter," Chodas
added. "Comets usually orbit the sun.
"When we trace the motion of comets backward in time, we find that a
few of them have been temporarily captured by Jupiter, but SL9 is the
first comet to be actually observed orbiting the planet."
Chodas also pointed out that SL9 came closer to Jupiter than any other
comet. In July 1992, it made the closest known approach--113,000
kilometers (70,000 miles) from Jupiter's center. "The difference in the
gravitational pull between the near and far sides caused the comet to
break apart," he explained.
"Although other comets have broken apart, none has broken into so
many pieces as SL9," Chodas added.
While Chodas and Yeomans know the hour of that close pass, they cannot
say precisely where SL9 came from before that. "We think that for the past
two decades it has been orbiting Jupiter in a loosely bound path," Chodas
said.
The pair will be stationed on-Lab for the week of impacts, predicting
impact times and locations while astronomers worldwide attempt to
observe various effects of the impacts, such as flashes reflected off the
inner satellites of Jupiter.
Chodas said professional astronomers from such far-flung spots as
Arizona, Texas, Chile, Australia and Japan have been observing and
tracking the comet for a year, sending back information on the comet's
position, which is used to refine impact predictions. "However," he said,
"the pieces of the comet are faint, and are getting harder to see. As it
approaches Jupiter, the planet's light interferes with the observations."
The comet was discovered by Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker and David
Levy. It was first detected on a photograph taken March 24, 1993, from
Caltech's Palomar Observatory in California.
Most of the bigger pieces of the comet have been estimated by Dr.
Zdenek Sekanina [senior research scientist, Division 32], along with Chodas
and Yeomans, and to be 3 km (1.8 miles), while the smaller ones are
guessed to be about 0.5 km (1,600 feet).
"We think the nucleus of the original comet [before it broke up] was
about 10 km (6 miles) across," Chodas said, "based on the positions of the
fragments as they have been observed over the last year."
The comet is accelerating tremendously as it approaches Jupiter, Chodas
also noted. On June 27--20 days before impact--the comet's speed was
about 4 km per second (9,400 mph). But when the fragments strike the
planet, they will be traveling at 60 km per second (135,000 mph).
Fragments of the comet have been named by Sekanina, Chodas and
Yeomans using the letters A through W, with A hitting first on July 16.
Southern California astronomers who hope to get a peek at the action may
have to wait until July 20 at roughly 10:24 p.m., when fragment R will hit,
followed by fragment V's impact on July 21, at roughly 9:15 p.m. (See table
below for predicted impact times for each fragment.)
Powerful telescopes are not the only means by which scientists hope to
view the event and its results. JPL's Galileo spacecraft will be about 240
million kilometers (150 million miles) from Jupiter, as it makes it way to
its Dec. 7, 1995, rendezvous. The spacecraft has a direct view of the impact
sites and should be able to observe impact flashes.
The pictures will go on Galileo's tape recorder and will be returned to
Earth over several months.
Voyager 2 will observe impact signatures via planetary radio astronomy
and ultraviolet spectrometer. Ulysses will use infrared radio and plasma
wave experiments to observe radio emissions and radio bursts from the
planet during the fragments' entries.
In answer to a journalist's question on how the impact will affect the
general public, Yeomans said that besides being able to witness something
that happens approximately once every thousand years, the event's
greatest significance is really intellectual. "It's an amazing opportunity for
scientists to learn about comets, Jupiter and the solar-system formation
process." ###
__________________________________________________________________
Project Design Center dedicated
By MARK WHALEN
Dedication ceremonies were held July 6 for JPL's new Project Design
Center, a facility that will enable concurrent engineering of missions by
bringing all those involved in designing a project together at its inception.
"The Project Design Center will represent a direct manifestation of
changes in the way JPL does business," said Laboratory Director Dr. Edward
Stone. "Employees involved in the study and design process will be able to
try out ideas that would not be practical in a larger-scale sequential
process."
Stone also noted that the facility--which took a little more than a year to
develop--will be an important element in JPL's future of small and
moderate missions.
The design center--which is housed on the second floor of Building 264--
features seven major nodes: mission design, avionics, science, management,
design, project design, mechanical, mission operations and
telecommunications. Each node is connected to a common database, where
engineers and scientists can, at any time, check proposed changes in
spacecraft design as well as projecting their cost ramifications.
"Design iterations that previously took months can now be achieved in
days, or even hours," said Kane Casani, manager of JPL's Implementation
Development Program Office, who led JPL guests and industry
representatives on a brief tour of the facility.
Design center staff demonstrated to visitors how computer programs in
the facility will utilize spreadsheets to capture mission and systems design
knowledge and associated cost information. Mission designers working on
different aspects of projects will be able to pass information to each other
via the common database.
Three major programs will be available to users of the facility. One
program, called a multidisciplinary integrated design assistant for
spacecraft, is a tool for expressing solution methodologies. By providing
project constraints such as launch vehicle, launch date, performance
requirements, or antenna size, the program can show a potential spacecraft
design and project concept.
The center's project trades model captures mission- and system-design
knowledge and associated cost projections for alternative mission
implementations. The model is a set of Excel spreadsheets and represents a
capability that is essential for doing design-to-cost analyses.
The third program allows integrated modeling of complex
optomechanical systems. It combines optics, structures, thermal design and
controls analysis in a unified modeling environment; this allows true
multidisciplinary modeling.
JPL Chief Engineer John Casani, the former assistant Laboratory director
for the Office of Flight Projects, noted that "in many ways, the Project
Design Center means going back to the basics. Thirty years ago, when JPL
was a lot smaller, we used to work in small teams, and the design team
meetings actually took place in the hallways.
"People have to be in close proximity and have eye-to-eye contact.
Putting them back together in this strategic way and utilizing modern
technologies is the way to go."
Initial users of the design center include Mars Global Surveyor, Pluto
Fast Flyby Preproject, Satellite Test of the Equivalence Principle (STEP) and
Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF). ###
__________________________________________________________________
Stone discusses freeze on wages
By KARRE MARINO
Laboratory Director Dr. Edward Stone told JPL employees July 6 that his
decision to enact a Labwide freeze on merit increases for fiscal year 1995
is not a punishment but a reaction to "a shrinking NASA budget and high-
level reviews of the role of federally funded research and development
centers and other government laboratories."
During the town hall meeting in von Karman Auditorium, he reiterated
that the decision is supported by the Executive Council and Campus.
"From a strategic point of view, it's much better to get out in front of
these changing external expectations, much as we did in the restructuring
of Cassini two years ago," Stone said.
The freeze means that no one will receive a merit increase this October,
including the director. (Contractors are not included in this compensation
plan.) In addition, there will be no FY '95 increases for special programs,
including academic part time, co-op or post-doc, nor will new degree
funding be available. Salary ranges will not change.
Stone noted that a very small FY '95 salary improvement fund has been
established for special cases, including gross inequities or major
promotions to positions of significantly greater responsibility.
An FY '96 compensation plan will be developed in spring 1995.
The director laid the groundwork for taking the aggressive action by
summarizing a series of surveys on what comparable positions in similar
industries--locally, regionally and nationally--pay.
Salaries for engineers and scientists average about 5.7 percent more than
those for their aerospace-industry counterparts. The surveys for 1994
indicated that administrative employees' salaries are close to the local
industry average, while the average salary for JPL office/clerical,
technician/trade and service classes workers is 7 percent more than the
average salary for comparable positions in local-area industry.
Stone also noted that nine federally funded labs had salary freezes for FY
'94, and 10 other high-technology organizations have frozen or deferred
salary increases in the last two years.
He cited statistics comparing the recent JPL salary improvement budget
with the rate of inflation.
"The salary improvement budget totalled 20 percent compounded over
the last four years, while the California consumer price index has increased
by 14 percent. This may not agree with the feeling that we're not keeping
up with inflation, but we are. And JPL's overall budget has decreased by
8.4 percent over the same period. These are not irrelevant factors in my
decision," he explained.
"Yes, we are expected to do important things with our government
support," he said. "Yes, we are expected to do hard things that no one else
does. We're also expected to demonstrate an increasing sensitivity to
aspects affecting the cost of what we do for the government."
Stone noted that, "There is a perception in some quarters that our level
of comfort at JPL is higher than is warranted by the fiscal stress felt
throughout the government due to the deficit, and throughout industry
due to global competition. Any actions that we take to reinforce that
perception are clearly counter to the demonstration of increased
sensitivity to cost."
Throughout his presentation, Stone reiterated the concept of this shared
reality in an effort to make JPLers understand that the fight for a finite
resource--federal dollars--has forced every constituency to make hard
decisions. Yet, the uphill battle to assure this understanding is apparent to
the director, who received some 300 comments regarding his salary-freeze
memo.
The largest number of responses fell into six groups of similar sentiment:
comments on the effects of the freeze on promotions, how inequities will
be worked out and how outstanding performance will be recognized; those
who understood and supported the plan; comments that suggested
alternatives to a salary freeze; suggestions to penalize poor performers and
reward high performance--a zero-base plan; and comments that such
policy will force talented people to seek employment elsewhere.
To deal with the changing environment in which JPL as an institution
and employees must function, "it's critical that we have a shared reality as
to what that environment is and how we must respond," he explained.
Just as JPL does not exist in an economic vacuum, the decision to freeze
raises was not made independent of a variety of considerations. Options
considered for FY '95 salary increases included "business as usual, meaning
we offered our regular merit raises," he said. Or, limit the raises to '94
consumer price index numbers; the merit budget could be shaped by using
different formulas for various groups of employees; increases could be
postponed for six months; or offer no increases.
Stone admitted that he had no illusions that a salary freeze "would be
widely regarded as a morale booster. Individuals will be affected
differently by such an action." Yet, he insisted that there is no escaping the
economic environment. "The discussion today is intended to help develop
for the whole Laboratory a shared reality about the environment that led
to this decision."
The freeze is expected to save about $10 million in direct and indirect
salaries. The money will help "JPL deal with the continuing downward
pressure of the budget," he said. "We've saved some jobs," he added, "but
again, this was not the primary reason we've done this. I hope that's clear.
This isn't the best way to save money."
Nor was it demanded by JPL's sponsor. "NASA did not suggest this
option. I did not ask for advice. The decision was made internally.
"When I informed NASA of my decision, the reaction was that this was
responsible, courageous and the right thing to do."
Stone called it a strategic decision. "There will be long-term benefits for
the Lab, as we better position ourselves in a transition to a different
economic environment," he said.
"These and similar adjustments to changing external environment are
not easy. Such adjustments cannot be viewed effectively from just an
internal or individual perspective. Instead, the best way to deal with them
is to develop a shared reality. By redoubling our efforts to do so, we can
get out in front and maintain our focus on the challenges of doing what we
do best--expanding the frontiers of space."
The director opened up the presentation to a question-and-answer
session, then ended the Lab's second town hall meeting by explaining that
"Technical excellence and sensitivity to cost are now equally important
factors in determining the job we're doing.
"This is probably not the last adjustment we'll have impressed upon us
by the external environment. Getting in front of changing expectations will
offer us greater control of our future." ###
__________________________________________________________________
EC accepts space-allocation PAT's plan of action
By KARRE MARINO
JPL's Executive Council has accepted the Space-Allocation Process Action
Team's recommendations for a new process to provide an equitable,
understandable and responsive policy for assigning space on Lab.
One of the new processes' highlights includes the creation of a Facilities
Space Council, to be chaired by Associate Laboratory Director Kirk Dawson.
Members of the council are the directors for each Lab directorate or their
empowered, permanent designees from the Engineering and Science
Directorate (300), Business Operations Directorate (600), Space and Earth
Science Programs Directorate, Technology and Applications Programs
Directorate (800) and Telecommunications and Mission Operations
Directorate. Two employees at large and the Facilities Division manager
will round out the group.
The council will assist Dawson in making decisions on allocating facilities
for optimum use by the Lab's programs. The council will have final
authority on space-allocation issues.
It will also aid in the acquisition of new facilities by planning, providing
advocacy and developing strategies for consideration by the associate
director and the Institutional Management Committee.
The council will also prepare and maintain a JPL Facilities Plan, which
will offer housing goals and a current summary of resources, as well as
assure use and adherence to the location process, develop and maintain
facilities standards, and provide oversight to the annual construction-of-
facilities submission to NASA.
The council's additional tasks include identifying, creating and allocating
float space by recovering unused or underused facilities.
To foster communications Labwide--ensuring that everyone
comprehends the new process and has the ability to offer suggestions--an
electronic bulletin board will be available, with postings for downward
communications.
The facilities plan will offer housing goals and a current summary of
resources.
In addition, positive incentives are being implemented as a way to
ensure cost-effective management of the new process.
The council administers the program and selects the winners from the
nominees chosen by division managers. The selection criteria are based on
the cost-effective use of assigned facility space.
The automated incentive system, one of the incentives still under
development, will offer a financial incentive based on facility occupancy
charges.
The awarding of funds in recognition of the innovative and efficient use
of assigned facility space is designed to motivate managers. These awards,
according to the team's report, allow trades of facility space for other uses
of the manager's burden budget, such as infrastructure improvements.
An organization that relinquishes space may use the saved facilities
occupancy money for other infrastructure purposes.
The concept appears feasible, according to team members, and is being
worked on by Financial Planning and the Facilities Division. Oct. 1, 1995 is
the targeted implementation date.
According to Dr. Diane Evans, SIR-C project scientist, the team reached its
stated goals, as the new allocation process "has been codified and
streamlined. The new process offers several advantages: the Facilities
Space Council should empower employees; the incentives will yield
positive actions; communication has been established at all levels of the
Lab, and the actual time it takes to make these decisions will be
significantly reduced."
In addition, she pointed out that metrics--six process measures--have
been delineated as a way to quantify the new processes' success. One such
measure is employee surveys that will assess knowledge of the Facilities
Space-Allocation Process, satisfaction with the process and communications
related to the process.
"One of the benefits of this experience has been the lessons learned,"
according to Evans. "This matter took some time, but we finished, and we
have a product that will work. People were dedicated."
One of the first test scenarios to present itself to the new process are "the
deliberations regarding space for Earth science activities. This is a perfect
way for the Facilities Council to be tested."
The new process was implemented July 1. team members are Bob Beale
(380); Ed Bohanan (661); Winston Gin (100); Wes Menard (300); Steve
Dombrowski (650); Luis Alfaro (652); Evans (710); Dr. Amy Walton (710);
Dr. Harold Lang (326); Teo Almaguer (510); Dave Linick (220); Dr. Lynn
Gref (840); and Larry Koss (660). ###
__________________________________________________________________
PC fair coming to Lab Aug. 5
JPL will host a personal computer data acquisition fair Aug. 5, so that
employees and contractors can learn about the most advanced technical
capabilities of data acquisition products for the PC.
The fair will be held from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. in von Karman Auditorium.
Company representatives will demonstrate their data acquisition solutions
using hardware and software for IBM-compatible computers.
A series of technical talks about technical issues associated with data-
acquisition topics will also be held during the event.
For more information, call Ed Baroth at ext. 4-8339 or Jim McGregor at
ext. 4-6404. ###
__________________________________________________________________
Von Karman, Malina laid the groundwork for the future JPL
By DR. JOHN BLUTH
On June 15, 1940, Frank Malina, the supervisor of GALCIT Project #1,
finished a report for Theodore von Karman, chair of the Subcommittee on
Jet Propulsion of the National Academy of Science Committee on Air Corps
Research, and director of Caltech's Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory
(GALCIT). This report described "Jet Propulsion Research" completed for
the Army Air Corps, which had provided the project funds.
It really wasn't jet propulsion research as the term "jet" is used today
but rather basic rocket research conducted at Caltech for the Air Corps as a
graduate-student research project under the direction of the students'
professor, von Karman.
Von Karman wore two hats at the time: head of the GALCIT and the chair
of a short-lived subcommittee of the National Academy of Science. The
project arrangement worked fairly well; significant jet-assisted take-off
(JATO) research produced small solid-fueled rockets.
In August 1941, solid rockets helped make the Ercoupe the first U.S.
airplane to take off using JATOs. In April 1942, five months after World
War II began, a Douglas A-20a airplane used permanently mounted liquid-
fueled JATOs to take off. This had also been developed by GALCIT Project
#1; significant and applicable research had been accomplished for the Air
Corps. This project-type organization simply continued, and the Air Corps
funded other and continuing GALCIT research in which it was interested.
At this time there was no Jet Propulsion Laboratory--or at least nothing
called by those three words. The handful of people who worked together in
1940-41 referred to where they worked, what they did, and who they
worked for as "The Project." When they used these words, they could mean
the Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project, the GALCIT #1 Project, or the
Arroyo Seco Project (after 1941).
One part of the Project doing research on an Army torpedo--the
hydrobomb--was called the Armament Laboratory. Another part of the
Project was called the Materials Testing Laboratory. The confusion and
imperatives of wartime activities caused and was reflected in these
varying names for plural research projects.
The Project gained a new focus, however, after July 1943, when a series
of events began that would bring the Jet Propulsion Laboratory into being
both in name and in function.
In July, the Air Corps Materiel Center asked von Karman to comment on
three British photos of German V-11 buzz-bomb installations in France, as
well as on verbal reports about the V-2 ballistic missile that military
intelligence had obtained. Von Karman could only confirm that secret
developments could have indeed created a threat to Allied plans for the
conduct of the war.
The previous April, Winston Churchill had first heard of the V-2, a rocket
that could deliver about 743 kg (1,650 pounds) of explosives to a target
240 km (150 miles) away. The Vergeltungswaffe (revenge weapon) had
been under secret development in Germany since 1929. In December
1935, Germany had planned research and testing facilities on the Baltic
Coast, and in October 1942, the first successful V-2 had been test-
launched. It would first be fired against a military target in September
1944.#
On Aug. 2, 1943, the Caltech-Air Corps Materiel Command liaison officer,
W.H. Joiner, suggested that von Karman prepare a report about the
possibility of the United States building a similar long-range rocket. If the
United States were to counter the strategic threat that the V-2 offered, it
had to have its own version, with all of the accompanying advances in
technology that such development entailed. The "targetable artillery shell
of great magnitude"--fired from beyond the horizon and moving so fast
fighter aircraft would be unable to intercept or even detect it--could
fundamentally change the techniques of international warfare.
In September 1943, another Army branch--known as Army Ordnance--
created its own Rocket Development Branch. In that same month, Army
Ordnance's Aberdeen Ballistic Research Laboratories in Maryland
completed a study called "Development of Long-Range Rocket Projectile."
Army Ordnance submitted this to the National Defense Research
Committee, an agency created just before World War II to guide and direct
advanced-weapons research and construction.
In October 1943, the NDRC suggested the Air Corps appoint a general
officer to coordinate a guided-missile program. In the following month, Air
Corps' Hap Arnold's work emphasized guided-missile research-and-
development and procurement.
Meanwhile, at the Project, von Karman enlisted the help of Malina and
another of von Karman's graduate students of promise, Hsue-shen Tsien.
Dr. Tsien had finished his Ph.D. at Caltech in 1939.
The three wrote a memorandum analyzing rockets with ranges of up to
120 km (75 miles); they finished their report on Nov. 20, 1943. Von
Karman wrote six pages on "The Possibilities of Long-Range Rocket
Projections," and Malina and Tsien attached a longer, more formal study
with charts and drawings titled "A Review and Preliminary Analysis of
Long-Range Rocket Projections."
Von Karman proposed three devices: a solid-fueled, 16-km-range (10-
mile) missile; a liquid-fueled, 19.-km-range (12-mile) missile; and a
supersonic ramjet-powered device with wings--maybe with rocket-assisted
takeoff--to fly 120 km (75 miles), somewhat equivalent to the German V-1.
Tsien and Malina described a U.S. version of the V-2, a ballistic missile
that would follow an upward trajectory into the ionosphere under power,
expend its fuel, and then fall at supersonic speeds to its target more than
160 km (100 miles) from its launch point, carrying with it about a half ton
of high explosives.
On Nov. 30, 1943, Air Corps liaison officer Joiner sent this long-range
rocket report to the Commanding General, Materiel Command, at Wright
Field. The commanding general did not respond. This may have been
because the Air Corps already had in hand the Aberdeen rocket report.
Maybe the Air Corps envisioned only Aberdeen as the future venue for
rocket research and development.
Nevertheless, Joiner was convinced of the importance of rocket
development. He may have known that in fall 1943 the Ordnance
Department had requested Division 3 of the National Defense Research
Committee to investigate developing a long-range rocket to carry a 22.5-kg
(50-pound) payload. For whatever reason, he handed a copy of the report
to his fellow Army Ordnance liaison officer at Caltech, Robert Staver, who
immediately forwarded the report to Colonel Gervais Trichel, the chief of
Rocket Development Branch in the Technical Division of Ordnance.
The long-range rocket report on its title page included the #first known
use of the three words "Jet Propulsion Laboratory." Von Karman signed the
document as "Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory," whereas he had
previously signed similar Project reports as "Director, Guggenheim
Aeronautical Laboratory." No such Jet Propulsion Laboratory existed at the
time, as far as Caltech was concerned.
It is not clear what prompted the change of name for the Project and for
von Karman; the new usage was unprecedented. The long-range rocket
document itself was clearly different from the reports the Project had sent
previously to the Air Corps. Perhaps von Karman was engaged in wishful
thinking or simply chose an organization name that did not include the
words "Army Air Corps" so he could send the report to Army Ordnance
without giving offense.#
Army Ordnance's Trichel responded promptly. In a Jan. 15, 1944 letter
he asked von Karman to expand the proposal. The rockets suggested in the
report "could only be considered as being laboratory models of the desired
missile" envisioned by Ordnance.
Ordnance requested a research proposal that would last one year and
cost no more than $3 million. It would include a plan of operations, test-
model construction and additional personnel. Ordnance would sign a cost-
plus-fixed-fee contract with Caltech and would make available other
Ordnance facilities and engineering services. Out of this work Army
Ordnance expected a liquid-fueled rocket motor with 9,000 kg (20,000
pounds) of thrust burning for 60 seconds, powering a missile with the
range of about 50-65 km (30-40 miles).
When Malina heard of this research windfall-to-come, he commented,
"This letter threw us into a proper dither." In response, he and von Karman
prepared by Jan. 22, 1944, a proposal for long-range rocket projectile
development.#
The pair proposed to set up a rocket research team they would lead
(including Tsien, others from Caltech, and W.A. Sandberg, chief engineer
for Lacy Manufacturing Company of Los Angeles). An Army Ordnance team
would complete the remote-control work, make the warhead, and conduct
the firing tests, as well as provide facilities and engineering services.
Two short-range missiles would be built by Lacy: a 158-kg (350-pound)
thrust, solid-fueled model rocket (using an Aerojet engine with an
Ordnance booster), and a 900 kg (2,000-pound) thrust liquid-fuel model
rocket (using an Aerojet liquid motor and an Ordnance launcher).
A to-be-determined subcontractor would build a prototype liquid-fueled,
long-range rocket--with separate booster rockets--to be sustained in long
flight by a ramjet.
These five arms of activity--two teams and three rockets--would be
directed by an executive board chaired by von Karman and including
Malina and Clark Millikan, a Caltech aeronautics professor, with R.R. Martel,
also of Caltech, as supervising engineer. Representatives of Ordnance,
Army Air Corps and the National Defense Research Committee would
advise this board.
NDRC barrage rockets (built in Pasadena during the war in the separate
Physics 3 Project) and Ordnance rockets would be needed as boosters. New
research facilities would be constructed on land already purchased by
Caltech adjacent to existing GALCIT Project land. All this would require
cooperation of the Air Corps Materiel Command, since the Project had
ongoing contracts with the Command.#
Major General Gladion Barnes of Army Ordnance visited Caltech Jan. 28-
29, 1944. Presumably von Karman and Malina talked with him, told him
what they might do and listened to what he thought were the prospects for
a well-funded, wartime research project.
At about this time, von Karman urged the Caltech Board of Trustees to
negotiate with Army Ordnance this new contract to build a long-range
rocket weapon. The board agreed and authorized von Karman to pursue
the matter with contractual reservations that respected Caltech as a
scientific institution.
The trustees recognized that such a new contract implied more land in
the Arroyo Seco would become available for this new work. On Feb. 1,
Caltech bought 45.16 acres from Flintridge Realty Company on the western
edge of the Project's land, thereby tripling Caltech holdings in the Arroyo.#
Von Karman urged Air Corps Materiel Command to cooperate; he was
convincing, and on Feb. 17, 1944, they also agreed to support the proposed
Ordnance project.
On Feb. 28, von Karman outlined a research-and-development program
for rockets for Ordnance's Technical Division. First, theoretical and
experimental studies would decide whether a pure projectile or a winged
missile would be built. Studies would also decide the best stabilizing
devices and propulsion systems--liquid- or solid-fueled rockets or ramjets
launched on rails from the ground. Models would be built, remote control
would be investigated, and techniques for test-firing developed.
For this project, a new laboratory complex would be built on the new
adjacent land. Ordnance would pay the cost for this plus "the overhead
involved by the general administration of the Institute." However, the
Ordnance Department would have to provide test-firing sites and provide
personnel to execute the test firings.
The location of testing facilities, who would build and own them, and
who would conduct what tests, where, became some of the issues discussed
during negotiations concerning terms of the definitive contract that lasted
until 1945.
Another issue of concern in February 1944 was the development of
remote control. Von Karman and Malina assumed that this was Ordnance's
problem; Ordnance assured the two men it was their problem. Ordnance
prevailed, and Caltech professor William Pickering was "drafted" to help
the Project. In July 1944, a subcontractor, the Sperry Corporation, was also
hired to develop remote-control systems for the rockets.
Von Karman, however, was not satisfied with all the changes in the
Project that were called for in the new Army Ordnance contract. He made
another, wholly different proposal, also on Feb. 28, this time to the Air
Corps Materiel Center to build a ramjet test facility.
The ramjet principle was simple, but no data were available to guide the
creation of an efficient and reliable design. Estimated cost of buildings,
equipment and a year's operation was $288,352. Four buildings would be
constructed west of the Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project land in
the Arroyo and separately fenced with new water-and-power lines
installed. Von Karman envisioned making prototypes that would
eventually lead to ramjets that could be the main power plant in missiles,
eventually transonic and supersonic in speed.
In this Air Corps proposal, von Karman again signed himself as "Director,
Jet Propulsion Laboratory," when no such organization existed. The
document also was labeled "Jet Propulsion Laboratory Proposal JPL-1;" the
concept of JPL was firming up.
In March, von Karman followed up the ramjet proposal with a theoretical
report similar to the long-range rocket report, with the help again of
Malina and Tsien, as well as Martin Summerfield, a former student of von
Karman's and a consultant at the Aerojet Corp.
Von Karman considered the theoretical limits of various airplane and
rocket-propulsion systems such as ramjets, turbojets and propellers. He
circumspectly concluded that, theoretically, ramjets--in combination with
boosters, wings and launching circumstances--would be best for high-
speed, medium-duration flights where 450-kg (1,000-pound) warheads
were to be delivered. The short-burning time rockets of 1944 were good
only for short-duration flights over short distances.
To supplement the February ramjet proposal, in April, von Karman asked
for an additional $85,500 for one year to support ramjet research by seven
professionals and eight staff members. Caltech would receive 12 1/2
percent in administration and overhead expenses.#
The February proposal, the March report and the April supplemental
proposal resulted in an Air Corps Air Technical Services Command contract
for the study of ramjets. "Power Plant Laboratory Project MX527" started
slightly later in 1944 as GALCIT Projects 20 and 23, and continued until
1946 as the JPL-3 Project. Ramjets might operate airplanes at more than
1,600 km/h (1,000 mph) plus operate winged missiles powered by a
ramjet/rocket combination.
Presumably to deal with the upcoming changes in work load and type of
research, the Project was administratively restructured by May 1944, with
four functional divisions.
Von Karman was again the director of GALCIT Project No. 1; Malina as
the chief engineer reported to him. Summerfield as assistant chief engineer
(with no staff) and Eugene Pierce as technical aid (with no staff) both
reported to Malina, as did the members of each of the four new divisions.
New staff were hired, adding up to 102 people who worked either full- or
part-time for the Project.
In June 1944, von Karman went to New York City for intestinal cancer
surgery. He had a slow recovery due to two surgery-caused hernias and
did not return to Pasadena until about mid-September. During this period,
von Karman stayed at Lake George, N.Y., for recovery and conducted
project business from there.
Air Corps General Arnold telephoned von Karman at Lake George in the
early days of September and then visited with him in New York City on a
runway at La Guardia Airport a week later. Then, with no previous hint,
Arnold proposed that von Karman move to Washington to lead a strategic
scientific advisory board and become a long-range planning consultant to
the military.
Von Karman was appointed to such a position on Oct. 23, 1944, and
eventually left Caltech in December 1944. But the process of change he had
set in motion in the Arroyo Seco played itself out as the new contract with
Army Ordnance began.
A letter of intent--a "letter contract" for $1.6 million--began June 22 and
expired Aug. 15, 1944, and was supplemented periodically until February
1945, when a definitive contract was finally signed.
To clear the way for the Corps of Engineers to build structures on
federally owned land, Caltech transferred title to its land to the
government. Eventually, half of JPL's land was sold to the Corps of
Engineers for $7,300. Briefly called the "Karmal Project" (presumably for
von Karman-Malina) but soon known as the ORDCIT Project, long-range
rocket research started slowly. In July no new employees were hired, but
Colonel Leslie Skinner opened a new Ordnance/Caltech ORDCIT liaison
office on July 1, 1944.
The ORDCIT Project was to develop--within a year--"a long-range rocket
missile with suitable launching equipment" to carry a high-explosive
payload of at least 450 kg (1,000 pounds) to a distance of 120-240 km (75-
150 miles).
"Dispersion at maximum range" (a measure of accuracy) was not to
exceed 2 percent. To achieve this degree of accuracy meant achieving in-
flight control of the missile--so that it was steerable after launching by
either an internal, possibly gyroscope-based system--or by radio control,
command and ranging techniques. These latter techniques bordered the
technically undeveloped area of telemetry.
No Project employee, however, felt qualified to work in the development
of either remote control or telemetry. The development of the technologies
also portended that the future development of guided missiles would
emphasize the word "guided."
To successfully launch and fly was one thing, but to deliver on target was
a problem even the Germans with their V-2 had not overcome.
Of all launched V-2s, 74 percent fell within a target circle of about 30 km
(18 miles) and 44 percent within a circle of about 9.6 km (6 miles) The
high drift rate of the V-2's internal gyroscope control could not be
improved further at the point in World War II when the V-2 was pressed
into service.
In fact, 40 percent of the test-fired V-2s exploded about 3-5 km (2-3
miles) above the ground during their ballistic descent. No proximity fuses
were mass-produced in Germany during the war, and therefore, military
V-2s used a very insensitive fuse to withstand launch and flight stresses.
Most military V-2s simply made a big hole in the ground where they hit,
often not near their target.
With this new ORDCIT contract, the graduate student GALCIT Project now
became more than just relatively small-scale Air Corps research and
development. Also, with the higher level of new financing, it passed
beyond a project able to being run by a few brilliant graduate students.
This indicated how influential Army Ordnance work came to be in the lives
of Project personnel.
In pragmatic terms, the present JPL traces its origins to the evolution of
this ORDCIT contract and the change it brought to the Project.
However, perhaps the most pragmatic beginning date for JPL is Aug. 30,
1944, when the Caltech Assistant Comptroller literally sent A.W.
Sommerfield up to the Arroyo Seco to oversee and rationalize the
"involved" accounting problems associated with "the GALCIT Project."
Sommerfield, assigned as JPL project comptroller, was to review various
contract expenditures and approve and distribute payrolls and
requisitions. He was to observe "sound business practice and the terms of
the contracts involved."
The financial rationalization process continued when the GALCIT project
workers, paid under three Caltech job categories--Miscellaneous Mechanics,
Faculty and Special Contracts--were all transferred to a new single,
separately coded payroll Oct. 1, 1944.
The first supplies list that used the words "Jet Propulsion Laboratory"
was dated June 29, 1944. Malina typed "Jet Propulsion Laboratory, ORDCIT
Project" as a letterhead on an Aug. 9, 1944 memo. The first proposal for
new work that used "Jet Propulsion Laboratory" was dated Aug. 21, 1944.
The "Jet Propulsion Laboratory GALCIT" made its first monthly Army
Ordnance report on Sept. 1, 1944.
The continuing series of monthly progress reports to the Army Air Force
Materiel Center Aircraft Laboratory also first used "Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Project No. JPL-1" to replace "GALCIT Project No.1" on Sept. 1.
However, until after October 1944, the Caltech assistant comptroller still
called the Project the "Arroyo Seco Project."
In November 1944, the Project's street address was changed from 2401
N. Arroyo Blvd., Pasadena to 4800 Oak Grove Drive, La Canada. Previously,
the U.S. Post Office had designated RFD Box 44-A, Route 1, Pasadena, as a
rural-route mailing address for the Project.
Malina believed that GALCIT Project No. 1 was founded in 1936 and
ended on Nov. 1, 1944, when JPL began; von Karman formally turned the
leadership of the Laboratory over to the new JPL Executive Board on Dec.
16, 1944, when he left Pasadena for Washington, D.C. "The Guide to the
Microfiche Edition of the Frank Malina Papers," p. viii, accepted Nov. 1,
1944 as the beginning date for JPL.
Interestingly, however, Malina had signed an ORDCIT report dated Aug.
20, 1944, from the "Jet Propulsion Laboratory, GALCIT."
When von Karman left Pasadena in December, he proposed to the Caltech
Executive Council that Caltech aeronautics professor Millikan act as GALCIT
director, a JPL Executive Board be created, Malina be appointed acting JPL
director, and Louis Dunn to be assistant JPL director. Von Karman felt that
he had left JPL " ... in the capable hands of Frank Malina and his assistant
Louis Dunn."
Malina knew it was in November when things changed and he "took over
the direction of the Laboratory with Dunn as assistant director." In making
this judgment about a date for the change, Malina focused on the loss of
the shaping influence of von Karman on GALCIT affairs. Malina did not see
the start of the less tangible ORDCIT contract as the key turning point
leading to the modern JPL.
Malina did not sign any proposals using "JPL" until Feb. 13, 1945. From
then until April 20, 1946, he signed no documents as anything other than
"Acting Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, GALCIT."
By December 1944, the first of the ORDCIT test missiles, called the
Private A, was assembled. A series of rockets was test-fired at Leach
Springs near Barstow, away from the Caltech campus. JPL bought an off-
the-shelf booster from the Army for the Private A (the Tiny Tim) and a
solid-fuel JATO unit from the Aerojet Corporation (the Aerojet 30AS-
1000C), assembled the other parts and designed and built a launcher.
JPL also learned how to organize personnel and conduct field operations
for test launches that formed the basis of many years of future activity.
This was the beginning of the Lab's morphological approach to research
and development that would create the United States' first tactical nuclear
missile, the Corporal, America's answer to the V-2.
In spring 1945, JPL employees test-fired an improved Private F at the
newly opened White Sands Proving Grounds in New Mexico. Both the
Private A and the Private F were the forerunners to the Corporal--which
von Karman, Malina and Tsien had described in November 1943.
Work on the Corporal had begun in August 1944, but due to tank-
fabrication problems and research time for motor development, it wasn't
until May 1947 that a successful flight test occurred.
The end of World War II, the beginning of the Cold War and other
technological advances and military priorities changed and shaped JPL
developments after this point in time. The name "Jet Propulsion
Laboratory" became the name by which the Project would be known from
then on. However, it took until June 6, 1946, before the JPL Executive
Board decided to list "Jet Propulsion Laboratory" under the Js in the public
telephone book.
The JPL board agreed on Feb. 7, 1947, to thereafter only refer to the
Laboratory as "Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of
Technology." The use of "GALCIT" following "Jet Propulsion Laboratory"
ended.
In 1964, during congressional pressure for JPL to change organizationally
following the series of Ranger failures, Sy Ramo, an influential presence in
the aerospace community and one of the founders of TRW Corp., suggested
JPL "shed its old skin" and take on a new name. The suggestion has never
been adopted. ###
Dr. John Bluth is the oral history coordinator for the JPL Archives.
__________________________________________________________________
Open house July 16-17 celebrates 50 years of JPL history
JPL's 50th anniversary of space exploration will be the focus of a two-
day open house at the Lab Saturday and Sunday, July 16-17.
The open house will run from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. both days, and admission
is free.
Hosts at JPL's main entrance will answer questions and direct visitors to
points of interest. Displays in the mall will focus on ongoing projects
representing the Lab's work for NASA and other agencies.
Parking
All employees who show their badges will be permitted to park on Lab
in any legal space except for those reserved for the handicapped or under
the 167 Cafeteria. The East Gate will also be open for those who wish to
enter the Lab through the east parking lot.
Cafeteria
The 167 Cafeteria will be open from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. both days of the
open house.
Display and demonstration highlights
167 Conference Room
"It's Cool Inside"--comet demonstrations and liquid nitrogen tricks. Learn
what makes up the nucleus of a comet and how different objects behave
under extremely cold conditions.
Cafeteria Building (167), east end
Mission videos will be shown. A schedule of show times will be posted in
several places throughout the Lab.
Spacecraft Assembly Facility (179)
On display are the original Wide Field Planetary Camera from the Hubble
Space Telescope, the NSCAT Scatterometer and a full-scale model of the
Cassini spacecraft.
Flight System Testbed (179)
Tour of the facility provides rapid development of spacecraft prototypes,
early spacecraft system-level testing, evaluation and infusion of new
technology, reduced time and cost for spacecraft system integration and
designs legacy and knowledge for future missions.
Administration Building (180), lobby
"Toward the Final Frontier: The Robotic Exploration of the Solar System."
Speakers will describe JPL's space exploration efforts from Explorer I to
the Pluto Fast Flyby Mission.
Demonstrations of the JPL Library information center online systems,
emergency preparedness and ridesharing.
Building 183, room 328
Computers have been set up to demonstrate the use of Internet on Lab,
including the ease of use and the effectiveness of Mosaic and the use of the
World Wide Web.
Von Karman Auditorium (186)
"Welcome to Outer Space," a multi-image production about JPL's history,
missions and future vision, will be shown on an alternating basis with
"From the Arroyo to Deep Space: the first 50 years of JPL," a new video to
commemorate the Lab's 50th anniversary.
Museum (186)
Models of the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) instrument, TOPEX/Poseidon satellite, and a display
of Wide Field Planetary Camera photos from the Hubble Space Telescope
are available for viewing, as well as full-size models of the Voyager and
Galileo spacecraft and Galileo images of Earth, the moon and asteroids.
Updates on the July 16-22 collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 will also
be provided.
Project Design Center (264)
The newly opened facility provides a focused environment in which to
automate and coordinate project-level design efforts using design-to-cost
methodology and project life cycle estimating through rapid,
comprehensive design, cost and schedule iterations.
Fire Department (mall)
JPL's Fire Department will provide demonstrations by its hazardous
material response team, as well as the emergency robotics response
project, including Hazbot III. ###
STAR PARTY JULY 16
Collisions of the fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 will be the focus
of a get-together open to the public and hosted by the JPL Astronomy Club,
following the first day of the open house, July 16, from about 6 to 10 p.m.
in the west parking lot.
Organizers hope to have several telescopes on hand to observe the event,
and club members will be on hand to answer questions about the event
and astronomy in general. ###
__________________________________________________________________
Celebration to continue throughout July
JPL will join with NASA July 20 in observing one of the agency's most
significant anniversaries--the landing of the Apollo 11 spacecraft on the
moon 25 years ago.
At 11:30 a.m. on the 20th, the Lab will serve as the official venue for the
first public offering of the Apollo 11 25th Anniversary Commemorative
Stamp. JPL Chief Engineer John Casani will host the event, and Robert
Mysel, Pasadena postmaster, will unveil the new stamp.
Fun and games will round out the month's festivities, as participants in
the JPL Bowl test their knowledge of Lab history July 25-29, from 11:30
a.m. to 1 p.m. each day.
Six teams will compete in the double-elimination tournament, to be held
in von Karman Auditorium. Each team will field seven players, plus
alternates. Team names are the Business Bears, Corporals, Lab-abouts, Plan
10 from Outer Space, Sergeants and Saturn's Ringers. ###
__________________________________________________________________
DSN helped bring Apollo 11 mission to television
The Legacy of Apollo
Second of a three-part series
By DIANE AINSWORTH
In a remote corner of the windswept Mojave Desert, JPL's 64-meter
(210-foot) antenna dish was pointed at the sky on July 20, 1969--along
with a network of communications antennas in the United States, Australia
and across the Pacific--as Apollo astronaut Neil Armstrong lowered his foot
onto the ashen surface of the moon.
Armstrong was not sure how far his foot would sink into the powdery
material or how well his thermally controlled spacesuit would shield him
from the 82-degree Celsius (180-degree Fahrenheit) heat of the lunar day.
His heartbeat, monitored via this 64-meter guardian of the worldwide
Deep Space Network (DSN), raced from its normal 77 beats per minute to
168.
Without this vital communications link at Goldstone, Calif., and at
facilities around the globe that were providing communications during the
Apollo 11 lunar landing, high-resolution televised coverage of Armstrong's
first steps on the moon--perhaps the greatest shared adventure in all of
human history--would not have been possible.
"In those days, the moon was a very long way away, and communicating
with the Apollo astronauts was no easy feat," said Raymond Amorose,
manager of the JPL Telecommunications and Data Acquisition Operations
Office, which manages the day-to-day operations of NASA's worldwide
network of deep-space communications complexes.
"The communications stations at Goldstone and Honeysuckle Creek,
Australia, made it possible for all Americans--in fact, for the world--to
watch the most historic moment of the space program."
JPL's experience in communicating with unmanned lunar spacecraft was
well under way when President John F. Kennedy issued his challenge to
the nation in May 1961 to put astronauts on the moon and return them
safely to Earth before the end of the decade.
The first of these projects was JPL's Ranger series, which demonstrated
the accuracy and feasibility of precise radio guidance to the moon and the
value of continuous telecommunications between a distant spacecraft and a
network of Earth-based communications stations.
The Ranger project was followed by JPL's Surveyor and the NASA
Langley Research Center's Lunar Orbiter projects. All three contributed
valuable knowledge about the moon and its environment, which laid the
groundwork for many of the decisions made in the Apollo era.
Two of the most critical decisions during the evolution of the Apollo
network involved JPL. These were the decision to use the so-called "S-
band" for communication with the Apollo spacecraft and the decision to
capitalize on JPL's existing deep-space communications expertise and
tracking facilities.
The S-band technology represented a major advance in spacecraft
technology, said Dr. Nicholas A. Renzetti, who oversees science operations
for the Telecommunications and Missions Operations Directorate. Signals
for voice, data communications, television and commanding were
integrated into a single radio carrier.
"In a single stroke, the many various separate transmitters, receivers
and antennas of Mercury and Gemini were consolidated," Renzetti said.
"The S-band meant economy and simplicity on the spacecraft and on the
ground."
In the early 1960s, JPL was operating three deep-space complexes, using
26-meter (85-foot) antennas at Goldstone, Woomera, Australia and near
Johannesburg, South Africa.
"The locations of these deep-space stations around the globe assured
communications with spacecraft by at least one facility at all times,"
Amorose added. "A ground-communications facility and space flight
operations facility, located at JPL, completed the requirements to provide
an integrated capability designed to communicate with lunar and
planetary probes in deep space."
But with the inception of Apollo, larger antennas were needed to
maintain radio communications in the vicinity of the moon, some 400,000
kilometers (250,000 miles) away. In addition, the DSN would have to
maintain contact with two vehicles and three men in each Apollo flight: the
command module, which would orbit the moon, carrying one astronaut;
and the lunar module, which would land the other two astronauts on the
moon and later launch them to dock once again with the mothership.
New antennas were added to meet the communications needs of the
Apollo program. JPL dedicated the Goldstone Pioneer 26-meter antenna,
now a historical monument, to the Apollo flights. NASA's Goddard Space
Flight Center named a newly built 26-meter antenna Apollo.
Additionally, new communications wings housing special Apollo
transmitting and receiving equipment, plus switching connections, were
built at the deep-space communications stations to augment the Manned
Spaceflight Network facilities at Goldstone, the Robledo complex near
Madrid, Spain, and the Tidbinbilla complex near Canberra, Australia.
The DSN's 64-meter antenna at Goldstone, called the Mars site, was later
added to the Apollo network during lunar operations for two important
reasons: It would provide reception of color television signals and a high
data flow from space to Earth during the descent of the lunar module in
case the spacecraft's steerable S-band antenna faltered.
During preparations for the Apollo 11 flight, though, it became apparent
that the Goldstone antenna dish would not be able to see the lunar module
during the critical walk on the moon, said John Saxon, currently on
assignment to JPL from the Australian Deep Space Communications
Complex, and who had been stationed at the Manned Space Flight Network
prime station at Honeysuckle Creek, Australia, during Apollo 11. The moon
would be setting on Goldstone's horizon, and another facility would have to
be used, he explained.
"The schedule called for the moon walk to begin when the spacecraft was
in view from Australia, but the Manned Spaceflight Network had only one
26-meter antenna in Australia," Saxon said. However, west of Sydney, at
Parkes, the Australians operated a 64-meter antenna as part of their
radio-astronomy research program. By using this antenna through various
microwave links, televised coverage of the moon walk could be improved.
NASA negotiated an agreement with the Australian government
whereby the Parkes antenna could be used to augment the Manned
Spaceflight Network for the televised portions of the moon walk.
"As it turned out, the moon walk began early," Saxon said. "The
astronauts just wanted to get out there once they landed. The walk was
moved up by about two hours. But the moon was low on Goldstone's
horizon, so Honeysuckle's TV link was used for Armstrong's first steps.
Then, later, the Parkes antenna in Australia was brought on line to provide
most of the television coverage of Armstrong's and Aldrin's walk."
The Apollo 11 lunar module carried a special transmitter designed to
beam television images of the moon to the communications facilities. The
technology, which had to operate in the vacuum of space and in the
absence of an atmosphere, was cutting-edge at the time. And it worked
like a charm.
Hundreds of millions of people around the world watched the astronauts
step out onto the lunar surface and followed their activities on the barren
moonscape. Historians and broadcast anchors alike commented that those
ghostly television images were indelibly etched in the minds of every
witness to the event.
During lunar operations, there were four sources of communication
signals: the two astronauts, the lunar module and the command module
that was orbiting the moon, Saxon said.
"It was a complicated business, because each communications facility
was receiving all of the data streams at the same time, from the command
module, the lunar module, the astronauts' backpacks and, in the later
years, the lunar rovers," he said.
"There were all sorts of weird and wonderful modes that were used to
communicate with the astronauts and lunar modules, and they all took a
lot of simulation on the ground," he said. "We rehearsed endlessly before
every mission. The simulations were generally much tougher than the real
thing. By the time Apollo 11 was in progress, tracking was pretty much a
well-oiled machine"
Voice communication was crucial to the Apollo landing missions. Two-
way voice communication was established using microwave frequencies
from the astronaut crews to the deep-space viewing stations and then to
mission control at Houston. During landing of the Apollo 11 module,
Armstrong flew the command module manually, explaining over the voice
link to Houston that he was searching for the best place to land.
"I think Armstrong landed about a hundred yards from where they had
planned to land because there were a lot of boulders in the way," said
Saxon, who was monitoring the voice net at the time. "It was a tense
moment, needless to say, because Armstrong was really down to the last
10 percent of fuel. They had about 20 seconds of fuel left and they almost
ran out."
During their brief, two-hour moon walk, Armstrong and Aldrin planted
an American flag in the fine moon sand of Tranquility Base, talked to then-
President Richard Nixon, gathered geologic samples and set up the first two
science experiments to be left on the lunar surface.
One of the instruments, designed by JPL scientists, measured
moonquakes, meteoroid impacts and volcanic eruptions on the lunar
surface. The other, a JPL laser reflector array, continues to operate today,
enabling highly accurate measurements of the moon's orbit around Earth
by way of laser ranging.
An exhibit of JPL's role in the Apollo era will be included in Space Week
activities, being sponsored in part by NASA, the week of July 18-22 in
Washington, D.C. The JPL exhibit will showcase the Laboratory's robotic
missions to the moon, the DSN's role in the Apollo program and computer-
simulated flights over other planets of the solar system. ###
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JPL outplacement organization, 090, helps in transition period
By KARRE MARINO
The three numbers "090" don't have to strike terror in the hearts of JPL
employees.
Being transferred to JPL's outplacement organization because of
downsizing, slashed budgets or completed projects can be viewed as a
transition period and an opportunity, according to Deanna Kraemer, JPL
outplacement coordinator.
"We find that a person's attitude is one of the most important aspects of
success. The outplacement program can assist them, but being positive and
focused really makes a difference."
The Section 090 facility is located in Building 510 and comprises a well-
stocked resource center and computer resources. Employees in the
technical, administrative, engineering, office/clerical, technician/trade and
service classifications who have been transferred to 090 have access to a
wide variety of reference books, newspapers' classified advertising
sections from local and out-of-state areas, phone books, an 090 newsletter
filled with jobs and networking tips, and actual job listings for JPL, Caltech
and outside companies.
Computers, laser printers, phones and faxes are available for letter- and
resume-writing (mailing privileges are free), and users may even tap into
the Internet to access job-listing databases, as well as post their own
resume in the appropriate groups. Individuals also continue to receive
internal JPL mail at the Outplacement Center.
In addition to the printed materials, Kraemer explained that she offers a
series of three classes that teach job hunting, resume writing and
interviewing skills.
"We've been reminded that the job market has changed in recent years,
which means the way resumes are written has changed, too. That's why
the classes we offer can be helpful," she noted, "as many people have been
out of the job market for some time, and this is a way to update their job-
hunting skills."
An important aspect of JPL's outplacement program is career counseling,
which is headed by counselor Alice Fairhurst. "She has a testing method
that helps individuals identify their temperament, work style and
transferable skills," Kraemer explained.
"Alice aids them in understanding where they might go next in terms of
their search for employment. Via interest inventories and tips, she enables
them to focus on what they can do to gain employment that will satisfy
them."
Kraemer encourages everyone who comes into 090 to see Fairhurst. "One
of the things they have to look at in order to be successful in the next job
is their transferable skills. We offer a great resource with which to do
that."
Most JPL employees find out well in advance of their transfer that they
will be sent to 090. "Supervisors and management give verbal notice to the
employee, who then receives formal written notice, called a notice of
layoff," Kraemer explained. Employees must contact 090 within three days
of being transferred there, and they must plan to attend an orientation.
She described the first day in 090 as a transitional period, "one in which
the individual creates a job marketing plan. That serves to help them
determine goals and job-hunting activities. They also write a resume.
"While in 090 they must be accountable for their time, so every two
weeks they write a memo, documenting their activities. It's important that
they are focused on looking for work, or on acquiring additional skills for
work that will assist them or transitioning into a new position."
Those in 090 may use their time to return to school--whether to finish a
nearly completed degree or to acquire additional skills and knowledge.
She added that two people currently in 090 are in school. "One is
transitioning into a new field, and the other wants to become an expert in
another area; he's currently reading as much as he can about his particular
field."
Kraemer emphasized that the program is flexible, which means the staff
works to meet employees' needs, schedules and personal style of job
hunting. "No one is expected to come in here every day, 9-5," she said.
"And we realize that people have their own way of doing things. We're
here to ensure that they have the helpful tools."
Those in 090 are still employed by JPL, and receive their full paychecks
and benefits. (Employees are paid for 22 days and receive five additional
days for each year of completed service to JPL. Exempt employees max out
at 130 paid days, and nonexempt at 65 paid days.) "They continue to
accrue vacation and sick time while in 090, as well. They do have to come
in here to pick up their paycheck, at which time they verify employment
status." These individuals may also leave the area for job interviews or
employment leads--as long as they have Kraemer's prior approval.
JPL's outplacement program is fairly unique, she said, as in a survey she
conducted, Kraemer "could not find another program like ours; with
respect to aerospace programs, ours is unique. While some companies do
have such an outplacement program, they are generally a result of
downsizing, and after the cuts in employment have been made, the
program is discontinued. "Our program is ongoing, whether you have one
or 100 people in program. Numbers do not determine whether we exist or
not.
"090 offers a great support system for people experiencing significant
change. Someone is available to talk to when one feels frustrated, and
people can network and help each other."
Kraemer emphasized that "People who come in here regularly and use
the facilities in a constructive way gain good results. We don't get people
jobs, but we do provide the tools that will make their effort more
successful."
JPL's outplacement program facility is available Monday through Friday,
8 a.m.-4:45 p.m. For information, call ext. 7-9061. ###
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Predicted impact times for fragments of Shoemaker-Levy 9
Predictions as of July 11, by Drs. Paul Chodas and Don Yeomans
Fragment Impact Time (PDT) Best locations for viewing Jupiter
at impact time
A July 16 12:58 p.m. Africa (except W. Africa), Middle East, eastern
Europe
B 7:54 p.m. Eastern North America, Mexico, western S. America
C 11:59 p.m. New Zealand, Hawaii, (also West Coast of U.S., barely)
D July 17 4:45 a.m. Australia, New Zealand, Japan
E 8:05 a.m. India, southern China, Southeast Asia, western Australia
F 5:27 p.m. South America
G July 18 12:28 a.m New Zealand, Hawaii
H 12:26 p.m. Africa (except W. Africa), Middle East, eastern Europe
K July 19 3:18 a.m Australia, New Zealand
3:07 p.m. Brazil, western Africa, Spain
N July 20 3:21 a.m. Australia, New Zealand
P2 8:10 a.m. India, southern China, southeast Asia, western Australia
Q1 12:59 p.m. Africa (except western Africa)
Q2 12:32 p.m. Middle East, eastern Europe
R 10:24 p.m. Hawaii, west coast of North America
S July 21 8:10 a.m. India, southern China, southeast Asia,
western Australia
T 11:06 a.m. Africa (except W. Africa), Middle East, eastern Europe
U 2:53 p.m. Brazil, western Africa, Spain
V 9:15 p.m. Western U.S., Mexico
W July 22 12:57 a.m. New Zealand, Hawaii, eastern Australia
Note: Except for fragments T, U and V, these predictions are accurate to
plus or minus 15 minutes. For fragments T, U and V, the predictions are
accurate to plus or minus half an hour. ###
__________________________________________________________________
Editor, Mark Whalen
Assistant Editor, Karre Marino
Photos, JPL Photo Lab
Universe is published every other Friday by the Public Affairs Office of the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak
Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109.