The Phoenix Islands group in the mid-1930s was uninhabited. Consisting
of the islands of Canton, Enderbury, Phoenix, Birnie, McKean, Garner,
Hull, Sydney and the Carondelet Reef, they are now referred to as:
Kanton or Canton, Enderbury, Phoenix, Birnie, Orona, Nikumaroro, Manra,
and Carondelet Reef, and are part of the nation of Kiritbati. Geographically,
these islands straddle the dry/wet boundary of rainfall located near
the equator, so some islands appear to be lush with vegetation, whereas
others hardly have any groundcover at all.

By the late 1920s, the US and British governments independently
were considering many of the mid-Pacific islands as possible stepping
stones for commercial, and possibly military, purposes. With Pan
American Airways undertaking cross-Pacific air travel and mail service
in 1935, more serious consideration by various parties began. Probably
spurred by the president of PAA, Juan Trippe, the US Navy began
to consider occupying many of the mid-Pacific Islands by the end
of 1934, as PAA needed stops from Honolulu if it was to seriously
garner the American /Australian/ New Zealand air mail routes it
was coveting. PAA managed to sign a contract with New Zealand for
air mail services, despite not having plane equipment available.
There was just one problem with that contract: New Zealand wanted
reciprocal rights for British airlines to land in the US, as they
were most interested in connections to Canada. Clearly, Hawaii was
a necessary key to any cross-Pacific air routes, but the US government
was adamant that no foreign government be allowed to land any planes
in Hawaii, due to the large military bases located there.

Based upon national security reasons, the US government blocked
any attempts by Great Britain for reciprocal landing rights. Britain,
of course, resented this, and attempted to leverage the US into
ceding landing rights in Hawaii. Having already gained sovereignty
over most of the islands between Hawaii and the Australian region,
Britain began to gather in any other islands that it possibly could
claim rights to. If Britain could claim an island essential for
PAA to stop at while en route to New Zealand, perhaps that could
convince the US to cede reciprocal landing rights in Hawaii. Similarly,
the US began the same practice of claiming islands, as utilization
of islands by PAA could also be used militarily, if necessary, as
advance bases for Hawaii. Thus, the great island grab race was on.1

The
Sovereignty Cruises

In March, 1935, the Bureau of Air Commerce, under the Department
of Commerce, began formally colonizing the islands of Baker, Howland,
and Jarvis. The administrator of this project was William Miller
of the BAC, with help from the US Coast Guard to ferry supplies
and provisions to the islands from Hawaii. The first colonists were
US Army soldiers, appropriately renouncing their commissions to
become civilians. However, great discord arose among each of the
islands’ four colonists, and it was decided that better suited individuals
could be found from the Kamehameha School in Honolulu, devoted solely
to teaching Hawaiian natives. The thought at the time was that Hawaiian
natives could handle the harsh environments and isolation, as reprovisioning
cruises were every 3 months or so. There was no radio communication
between the islands and Hawaii, raising concerns about health emergencies,
etc. The colonists were instructed in taking meteorological and
tidal observations, and in keeping a diary of daily events. (Many
of these diaries still exist, and are fascinating to read.) Meanwhile,
the meteorological observations were forwarded to the Department
of Agriculture and to Pan American Airways. Preliminary surveys
of the islands indicate that Jarvis was the best suited for runways.

In March, 1936, an abrupt removal of the colonists from the islands
was undertaken. Behind the scenes, an interdepartmental fight was
goin on between the Department of Commerce and Interior. FDR finally
decided the dispute in favor of Interior, and signed a proclamation
of sovereignty on May 13, delegating administration to the Department
of Interior. The Division of Territories and Island Possessions,
headed by Dr. Ernest Gruening, sought out Richard Black, who served
Admiral Byrd in Antarctica, to be the administrator of the Equatorial
Islands, and would be based in Honolulu. The recolonization of the
island began in June, 1936, but neither Miller nor Black was available
to oversee the landing of men and supplies from the US Coast Guard
ships. Miller was temporarily assigned to the Department of Interior
to train Black, and both served on the next cruise for reprovisioning.
After this cruise, Miller went back to the Bureau of Air Commerce,
and Black took over. By this time, Chinese radio operators were
added to each island, so that daily communication of weather and
health issues could be handled. When Black took over, he was still
considering Jarvis as the prime island for construction of runways.
It wasn’t until Earhart discussed Howland with William Miller as
a possible landing site that Howland became the primary site. With
prodding from Earhart and Miller, FDR approved a Works Project Administration
effort for building the runways on Howland, early in 1937. To date,
no airplane has ever landed on Howland, although Baker supported
landing operations during World War II.

The Equatorial Islands were continuously inhabited until February,
1942, when evacuations were undertaken due to bombing of Howland
by the Japanese in December, 1941. Two colonists died in service:
one in 1938 due to a ruptured appendix; the other of wounds suffered
during the bombing of Howland.

The Gilbert and Ellice Islands, thickly inhabited,
were administered by Great Britain through the Western Pacific High
Commission. A serious overpopulation problem prompted consideration
of moving individuals to the Phoenix Islands. Along with the aeronautical
pressures, surveys of the Phoenix Islands were conducted by H.M.S.
Wellington in August, 1935,2
which resulted in the first modern, if not terribly accurate, map
of the atoll. The cruiser H.M.S. Leith visited the Phoenix
Islands in February, 1937, placing placards on all of the islands
stating the island was in possession of HM King George VI, and hoisting
the Union Jack. Based upon the ship logs, the individual visits
lasted approximately one hour or less.

The Battle of Canton Island

On June 8, 1937, a total eclipse of the sun was expected to cross
the mid-Pacific, and the Phoenix Islands appeared to be well situated
for viewing. Independently, a joint US Navy/National Geographic
and a British scientific team planned on setting up equipment on
either Enderbury or Canton Islands. The US team, staging out of
Honolulu, left on May 6 aboard the USS Avocet, a seaplane
tender, headed to Enderbury. Based upon advice from the US State
Department, no notification was provided to Great Britain about
this visit, as it would add credence to their possible claim of
sovereignty.

Upon arrival on May 13th, it was determined that
landing equipment would be too hazardous, and the ship moved to
Canton Island, which had decidedly better conditions for landing
equipment and men ashore. The first night, however, the ship’s anchor
slipped off the sandy bottom, and the Avocet had to cruise
under steam that night. The next day, a better moorage was found,
a dock set up on the beach, and equipment rapidly loaded onto land.
Events progressed reasonably, until H.M.S. Wellington showed
up on May 26 with their own eclipse equipment. The Wellington
requested the Avocet to vacate its mooring, as other moorings
for the Wellington were insufficient. An apocryphal account
indicates that shots over one another’s bows were made, but that
is doubtful. Nevertheless, the Avocet refused to vacate,
so the Wellington had to make do. Both ships radioed their
respective governments, and protests were filed back and forth,
as should good bureaucracies. Each party raised a plinth and raised
monument, with plaques proclaiming sovereignty and flags. The eclipse
on June 8 was viewed successfully, and each party vacated Canton
just as soon as equipment could be loaded aboard ship. Thus, the
First Battle of Canton ended in a draw.3

Also in May, 1937, John William Jones of the Burns-Philp Company,
arrived in the Phoenix Islands with 38 Tokelau natives, to plant
coconuts and work copra. His primary location was Hull, but Sydney
was also worked for copra. In November, 1937, the Itasca
visited Hull, and the official Equatorial Island Cruise Report written
by the Department of Interior representatives had this to say:

... Arrived at Hull about 8:30A.M [November 13, 1937]. After
looking over island reef for boat passages to lagoon, stood up to
camp site where British colors were flying. A boat put out carrying
two paddlers and Mr. John William Jones. He arrived in May, 1937,
on the Burns-Philp boat Makoa which was wrecked on the reef
at campsite. Her ribs alone remain now on the reef. In June Mr.
Jones was named Deputy Administrator of Phoenix Group, under Gilbert
and Ellice Islands Colony. He has 38 Tokelau natives working and
planting coconuts (seven married couples) and expects to ship about
ninety tons copra a year, almost negligible amount it seems. Natives
came with him in June. In October he placed eleven natives on Sydney
Island, but whether by his 38 foot open sailing boat (he is a Master
Mariner, from England) or in some ship, was not learned. He has
sailed to Sydney and back, we found. He asked us to take a row-boat
to Sydney, which we are doing. A letter written by one of his natives
explains this. We offered him use of our radio but he declined.
Later he took Mr. Kelhner aside and said "I don't know who those
other people are but I'll tell you that I have radio power enough
to work Australia." Earlier he said over a glass of beer, after
we talked of Baker and Howland and of getting coconuts for them,
"Why didn't you people take these islands (Phoenix) when you were
taking islands. Your claim to them is as good as ours," etc.

Mr. Jones told us of the wreck of the Norwich
City lying on Gardner Island. She struck in 1919, and the
Makoa saw her recently and stated there was much good material
aboard her such as anchors, winches, etc. The bodies of nine men
lost in the wreck, drowned or killed by sharks (he said) were
buried ashore, but wild pigs dug them up and their skeletons now
lie on the beach. The survivors were taken off the island.4

A tentative agreement was reached between Washington
and London that the various claims to the islands of the Phoenix Group
would be negotiated, and that further claims to sovereignty would
be placed on hold, as would further colonization. Britain did not
live up to their bargain, placing two British agents, G. V. Langdale
and F. H. Rostier, and a Gilbertese servant, were landed on Canton
on August 31, 1937, receiving supplies from British warships every
six months or so.5 A radio station was
established. Black and Gruening visited Canton on November 15, 1937,
and the two British agents clearly knew what was about. Gruening had
requested permission from the US State Department for a tour of the
Phoenix Islands, and was rebuffed, as negotiations were ongoing with
the British. Eventually, he was allowed to visit the islands, so long
as nothing was done to provoke the British. Clearly, though, this
visit to the Phoenix Islands was a precursor to colonization by the
US.

Negotiations had broken down between the British and the US, so
FDR acceded to action: direct inhabitation of Enderbury and Canton
to strengthen the claim of US sovereignty rights. Under great secrecy,
the Roger B. Taney sailed from Honolulu with provisions for
Howland, Baker, and Jarvis, along with a full complement of gear
and colonists for the two Phoenix Islands. On March 6, 1938, the
Taney landed at Enderbury, offloading supplies and personnel. Conspicuous
on the beach was a new plaque installed in October, 1937, by Harry
Maude, in charge of the Phoenix Island Settlement Scheme, who landed
Gilbertese colonists on Gardner, Hull, and Sydney Islands. On March
7, 1938, the Taney sailed to Canton, landing supplies and
personnel after finding the Union Jack flying. Langdale was still
in charge, but Rositier had been replaced by Tom Manning. Black,
along with Captain Coffin of the Taney, informed the British
agents that they were acting under orders from the US government
to set up a permanent camp and aerological station. The actual dialog
was recorded in the official Equatorial Cruise Report:

8:17AM: Black: This is a bit embarrassing. I have
instructions from my government to land and establish a camp here,
partly for scientific reasons and partly other things.Langdale: That's interesting. We can only say that you are
landing on British Territory. Of course, we cannot prevent your
landing.6

Additional information can be found in an undated report made by Richard
Black:

I [Black] then remarked that conversations were being held between
Washington and London concerning actual sovereignty, and that
I was merely following explicit orders from Washington. Mr. Langdale
then invited me into the house where he showed me his commission
and a copy of an Order in Council as printed in the Western Pacific
High Commission Gazette dated April 8, 1938 [sic - 1937],
at Suva, Fiji, extending the limits of the Gilbert and Ellice
Islands Colony to include the entire Phoenix Group. I informed
him that copies of the letter instrument were on file in Washington
and Honolulu. He then asked if it was our intention to hoist American
colors and he was informed that this was part of the plan. When
he officially protested this act I answered that the now joint
claim of ownership to Canton Island was a question to be settled
by the two Governments. He agreed that the matter was one for
diplomats, and we passed pleasant remarks about our respective
inexperience in diplomatic contact.7

Thus ended the Second Battle of Canton, fought without firing a single
round. Eventually, the two governments agreed to jointly administer
Canton in a condominium fashion, with signatures on August 10, 1938.
The agreement provided access to the British to share aeronautical
facilities on Canton, but no commercial ventures by the British were
undertaken. Shortly thereafter, Pan American Airways began to build
their hotel and landing facilities, and started operations in 1939.
During World War II, Canton became an important naval base for both
the British and Americans.

Footnotes

1

Background
on the trans-Pacific Island Grab is contained in three excellent review articles
by Francis X. Holbrook: "Commercial Aviation and the Colonization of
the Equatorial Islands, 1934-1936," Aerospace Historian, Dec.,
1970, pp. 144-149;"Aeronatucial Reciprocity and the Anglo-American
Island Race, 1936-1937," Journal of the Royal Australian Historical
Society, Dec., 1971, pp. 321-335; and "The Canton Island Controversy:
Compromise or American Victory?" Journal of the Royal Australian
Historical Society, June, 1973, pp. 128-147. Back.

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