This 5th edition of Handbook of Material Weathering contains systematic updates of knowledge generated in more than last 25 years when the 1st edition was prepared.

The information required for professional use has been growing so rapidly that additional books had to be written to accommodate essential knowledge for implementation in technological processes used to manufacture products, which deteriorate on exposure to weathering stress factors.

This edition contains 20 chapters, which can be divided into the following groups:

• Methods of testing of weathered samples (effect of weathering on material properties and testing methods of weathered specimens)

• Weathering of polymers (data on 52 most important polymers, including mechanisms of degradation, effect of thermal history, characteristic changes in properties with graphical illustrations, and tables with numerical data)

• Specific topics (suitability of weathered materials for recycling, interrelation between corrosion and weathering, and methods of study and prevention of deterioration of historical monuments made out of stone)

The above information is based on the thorough review of published papers, patents, and other relevant sources updated to the most recent data and information.

The first two books contain information relevant for protection of materials against biological and environmental stress factors. The Atlas of Material Damage has focus on structure and morphology of commercial materials and methods of damage prevention by tailoring morphology.

This set of monographic sources was prepared for research chemists in the photochemistry field, chemists and material scientists designing new materials, users of manufactured products, those who control the quality of manufactured products, and students who want to apply their knowledge to real materials. The books are invaluable for regulating agencies and patent and litigating attorneys.

Handbook of Material Weathering is now used in about 100 countries, although frequently old editions (as seen from citations) are still in use, which do not contain up-to-date information.

Preface

The first edition of this book was published by ChemTec Publishing in 1990. The book had 18 chapters and 518 pages filled with the most up-to-date information on the subject of material weathering available in 1990.

Considering the size of the book and typesetting, the present edition is at least 3 times larger, in spite of the fact that two chapters were omitted from the fourth edition: Chapter 17. Stabilization and Stabilizers and Chapter 18. Biodegradation. Even without these two chapters the present 5th edition is larger than the previous edition. The reason is quite obvious − the field is systematically growing with new data, methods, and discoveries happening every day.

The reasons for eliminating the two chapters are as follows:

• If these two chapters would still be included in the book, the book would need to have two volumes which makes a book more difficult to use (separate table of contents and indices).

• In anticipation of the need for specialized monographic sources, the two chapters mentioned above were not updated in the previous edition, so information was already lacking novelty.

• Short chapters can only present brief review of the subject, whereas in applications detailed information is needed

• Two handbooks were published by ChemTec Publishing on the subjects of the omitted chapters:

Handbook of Material Biodegradation, Biodeterioration, and Biostabilization by

Falkiewicz-Dulik, M, Janda, K, and Wypych, G., 2010

Handbook of UV Degradation and Stabilization by Wypych, G, 2011

These two books give much broader and comprehensive information, such as it is required today, especially considering rapid changes which occurred recently because of health and safety concerns (biostabilization) and new discoveries (UV stabilization).

In addition, to present volume and the above two books, there is also a new book:

Atlas of Material Damage, Wypych, G, 2012

This book was written to emphasize importance of the material structure in photodegradation and photostabilization and also to account for the morphological changes which occur when materials degrade. This addition makes narrative of material degradation more comprehensive, showing new ways to deal with unstable materials.

I hope that the information provided in these four books will help readers to advance their studies on particular subjects of their research and that the results of these studies will be implemented in the future editions of these books, since we try to report current developments to foster future discoveries.

George Wypych

Toronto, 2013

1 Photophysics

1.1 Nature of radiation

1.1.1 Radiative energy

1.1.2 Radiation intensity

1.1.3 Radiation incidence

1.2 Absorption of radiation by materials

1.2.1 General principles

1.3 Fate and utilization of absorbed energy

1.3.1 Deactivation

1.3.2 Intramolecular energy transfer

1.3.3 Intermolecular energy transfer

1.3.4 Luminescence

1.4 Radiative processes involving dimers

1.5 Modeling and photophysical data

References

2 Photochemistry

2.1 Typical routes of photochemical reactions

2.1.1 Photodissociation

2.1.2 Photooxidation

2.1.3 Peroxide and hydroperoxide conversions

2.1.4 Norrish type I and II reactions

2.1.5 Photo-Fries rearrangement

2.1.6 Photo-Fenton

2.1.7 Photosubstitution

2.1.8 Photoaddition

2.1.9 Photoelimination

2.1.10 Photodimerization

2.1.11 Photocondensation

2.1.12 Photoisomerization

2.2 Photochemical reactivity and quantum yield

2.3 Excitation of excited state

2.4 Parameters of photochemical reactions

2.6 Quenchers and photosensitizers

References

3 Parameters of Exposure

3.1 Radiation

3.1.1 The source

3.1.2 Solar radiative emission

3.1.3 Effect of orbital variations on energy supply

3.1.4 Interplanetary and near Earth space

3.1.5 Stratosphere

3.1.6 Troposphere

3.2 Temperature

3.3 Water

3.4 Atmosphere composition

3.5 Pollutants

3.5.1 Nitrogen compounds

3.5.2 Oxygen species

3.5.3 Hydrogen species

3.5.4 Carbon oxides

3.5.5 Sulfur-containing components

3.5.6 Chlorine-containing components

3.5.7 Particulate materials

3.6 Biological substances

3.7 Water pollutants

3.8 Stress

3.7 Cooperative action of different parameters

References

4 Measurements in Assessment of Weathering Conditions

4.1 Radiation

4.1.1 Measuring equipment and methods of measurement

4.1.2 Standards

4.2 Sunshine duration

4.3 Temperature

4.4 Relative humidity

4.5 Time of wetness

4.5 Rain

4.6 Pollutants

4.6.1 Carbon dioxide

4.6.2 Particulate matter

4.6.3 Sulfur dioxide

4.6.4 Nitrogen oxides

4.6.5 Carbon monoxide

4.6.6 Ozone

References

5 Climatic Conditions

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Radiation

5.3 Sunshine duration

5.4 Temperature

5.5 Precipitation

5.6 Relative humidity

5.7 Wetness time

5.8 Pollutants

5.9 Surface soiling

References

6 Methods of Outdoor Exposure

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Climatic conditions and degradation rate

6.3 Variability of weather conditions and its impact on the strategy in outdoor

exposures

6.4 Influence of specimen properties

6.5 Typical methods of outdoor exposure

6.5.1 Exposure sites

6.5.2 Exposure racks

6.5.3 Exposure of products and components

6.6 Other parameters of exposure

6.7 Relevant standards

References

7 Laboratory Degradation Studies

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Light sources

7.3 Filters

7.4 Radiation: delivery, monitoring and control

7.5 Temperature control

7.6 Humidity control

7.7 Specimen spraying

7.8 Specimen racks and holders

7.9 Weathering equipment

7.10 Correlation between different devices

7.11 Pollutants

7.12 Precision of studies

References

8 Weathering Cycles

References

9 Sample Preparation

References

10 Weathering Data Interpretation. Lifetime Prediction

References

11 Artificial Weathering Versus Natural Exposure

References

12 Effect of Weathering on Material Properties

12.1 Mass loss

12.2 Depth of degradation

12.3 Mechanical properties

12.4 Changes of color and optical properties

12.5 Surface changes

12.6 Molecular weight

12.7 Chemical composition of surface and bulk

12.8 Morphology and structure of surface layers

12.9 Glass transition temperature

12.10Self-healing

References

13 Testing Methods of Weathered Specimen

13.1 Visual evaluation

13.2 Microscopy

13.3 Imaging techniques

13.4 Gloss

13.5 Color changes

13.6 Visible spectrophotometry

13.7 UV spectrophotometry

13.8 Infrared spectrophotometry

13.9 Near infrared spectroscopy

13.10 Raman spectroscopy

13.11 Nuclear magnetic resonance

13.12 Electron spin resonance

13.13 Mass spectrometry

13.14 Positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy

13.15 Chemiluminescence, fluorescence, and phosphorescence

13.16 Atomic absorption spectroscopy

13.17 WAXS and SAXS

13.18 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS

13.19 X-ray microtomography

13.20 Mass change

13.21 Density

13.22 Contact angle

13.23 Diffusion of gases and water transport in polymer

13.24 Electrical properties

13.25 Ultrasonic measurements

13.26 Thermal analysis

13.27 Rheological properties of materials

13.28 Other physical parameters

13.29 Tensile strength

13.30 Elongation

13.31 Flexural strength

13.32 Impact strength

13.33 Creep and constant strain tests

13.34 Residual stress

13.35 Scratch and mar resistance

13.36 Other mechanical properties

13.37 Surface roughness

13.38 Molecular weight

13.39 Gas and liquid chromatography

13.40 Titrimetry

13.41 Dehydrochlorination rate

13.42 Gel fraction

13.43 Oxygen uptake

13.44 Water absorption, porosity

13.45 Microorganism growth test

13.46 Environmental stress cracking resistance

References

14 Data on Specific Polymers

14.1 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, ABS

14.2 Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate, ASA

14.3 Alkyd resins

14.4 Acrylic resins

14.5 Cellulose

14.6 Chitosan

14.7 Epoxy resins

14.8 Ethylene propylene rubber, EPR

14.9 Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer, EVAc

14.10 Ethylene propylene diene monomer, EPDM

14.11 Fluoropolymers

14.12 Melamine resins

14.13 Phenoxy resins

14.14 Polyacrylamide

14.15 Polyacrylonitrile

14.16 Polyamides

14.17 Polyaniline

14.18 Polycarbonates

14.19 Polyesters

14.20 Polyethylene

14.21 Polyethylene, chlorinated

14.22 Poly(ethylene glycol)

14.23 Polyfluorene

14.24 Polyimides

14.25 Poly(lactic acid)

14.26 Polymethylmethacrylate

14.27 Polyoxyethylene

14.28 Polyoxymethylene

14.29 Poly(phenylene oxide)

14.30 Poly(phenylene sulfide)

14.31 Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide)

14.32 Poly(p-phenylene vinylene)

14.33 Polypropylene

14.34 Polystyrenes

14.35 Polysulfones

14.36 Polytetrafluoroethylene

14.37 Polythiophene

14.38 Polyurethanes

14.39 Polyvinylalcohol

14.40 Polyvinylchloride

14.41 Poly(vinylidene fluoride

14.42 Poly(vinyl methyl ether)

14.43 Styrene acrylonitrile copolymer

14.44 Silicones

14.45 Polymer blends

14.46 Rubbers

14.46.1 Natural rubber

14.46.1 Polybutadiene

14.46.2 Polychloroprene

14.46.3 Polyisoprene

14.46.4 Polyisobutylene

14.46.5 Styrene butadiene rubber

14.46.6 Styrene butadiene styrene rubber

References

15 Effect of Additives on Weathering

15.1 Fillers and reinforcing fibers

15.2 Pigments

15.3 Plasticizers

15.4 Solvents and diluents

15.5 Flame retardants

15.6 Impact modifiers

15.7 Thermal stabilizers

15.8 Antioxidants

15.9 Antimicrobial additives

15.10 Curatives, crosslinkers, initiators

15.11 Catalysts

15.12 Compatibilizer

15.12 Impurities

15.13 Summary

References

16 Weathering of Compounded Products

16.1 Adhesives

16.2 Aerospace

16.3 Agriculture

16.4 Appliances

16.5 Automotive parts

16.6 Automotive coatings

16.7 Coated fabrics

16.8 Coil coated materials

16.9 Composites

16.10 Concrete

16.11 Conservation

16.12 Construction materials

16.13 Cosmetics

16.14 Dental materials

16.15 Electronics and electrical materials

16.16 Environmental pollutants

16.17 Foams

16.18 Food

16.19 Gel coats

16.20 Geosynthetics

16.21 Glass and glazing materials

16.22 Greenhouse film

16.23 Hair

16.24 Laminates

16.25 Medical equipment and supplies

16.26 Military applications

16.27 Molded materials

16.28 Packaging materials

16.28.1 Bottles

16.28.2 Containers

16.28.3 Crates and trays

16.28.4 Films

16.29 Paints and coatings

16.30 Pavements

16.31 Pharmaceutical products

16.32 Pipes and tubing

16.33 Pulp and paper

16.34 Roofing materials

16.35 Sealants

16.36 Sheet

16.37 Siding

16.38 Solar cells and collectors

16.39 Textiles

16.40 Windows

16.41 Wire and cable

16.42 Wood

References

17 Recycling

17.1 Effect of degradation on recycling

17.2 Re-stabilization of material for recycling

17.3 Multilayer materials

17.4 Removable paint

17.5 Chemical recycling

References

18 Environmental Stress Cracking

18.1 Definitions

18.2 Parameters controlling ESC

18.2.1 Material composition

18.2.2 Morphology and dimensions

18.2.3 Processing and performance conditions

18.2.4 Solubility parameters of solvents and polymers

18.2.5 Diffusion

18.2.6 Load and internal stress

18.2.7 Time

18.2.8 Temperature

18.3 Mechanisms of environmental stress cracking

18.4 Kinetics of environmental stress cracking

18.5 Effect of ESC on material durability

18.6 Methods of testing

References

19 Interrelation Between Corrosion and Weathering

References

20 Weathering of Stones

References

Index

George Wypych has a Ph. D. in chemical engineering. His professional expertise includes both university teaching (full professor) and research & development. He has published 17 books: PVC Plastisols, (University Press); Polyvinylchloride Degradation, (Elsevier); Polyvinylchloride Stabilization, (Elsevier); Polymer Modified Textile Materials, (Wiley & Sons); Handbook of Material Weathering, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Editions, (ChemTec Publishing); Handbook of Fillers, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Editions, (ChemTec Publishing); Recycling of PVC, (ChemTec Publishing); Weathering of Plastics. Testing to Mirror Real Life Performance, (Plastics Design Library), Handbook of Solvents, Handbook of Plasticizers, Handbook of Antistatics, Handbook of Antiblocking, Release, and Slip Additives (1st and 2nd Editions), PVC Degradation & Stabilization, PVC Formulary, Handbook of UV Degradation and Stabilization, Handbook of Biodeterioration, Biodegradation and Biostabilization, and Handbook of Polymers (all by ChemTec Publishing), 47 scientific papers, and he has obtained 16 patents. He specializes in polymer additives, polymer processing and formulation, material durability, and the development of sealants and coatings. He is included in the Dictionary of International Biography, Who's Who in Plastics and Polymers, Who's Who in Engineering, and was selected International Man of the Year 1996-1997 in recognition for his services to education.