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ACTIVE GALAXIES AND QUASISITELLAR OBJECTS, SUPERLUMINAL MOTION

Marshall H. Cohen

When compact radio sources are examined on a scale of a milliarcsecond (mas) they frequently are seen to contain moving components. This is described as an internal proper motion µ, which is expressed in milliarcseconds per year. It may be converted to an ``apparent transverse velocity'' v with the formula v = µD(1 + z), where D is an appropriate distance, z is the redshift, and the factor (1 + z) scales the velocity to the value a comoving observer (i.e., one at rest relative to the source) would measure. When v > c (the velocity of light), the motion is called superluminal when v < c, it is subluminal.

This phenomenon has a tiny angular scale, and very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) at radio wavelengths is the only technique capable of seeing it today. Hints of superluminal motion were seen as early as 1969, two years after the invention of VLBl; but the first definitive measurements were not made until 1971, when two teams, one headed by Irwin Shapiro and the other by Marshall Cohen and Kenneth Kellermann, saw changes in the quasars Split Dress Neckline Formal Black V Front Deep Maxi Sleeveless w1vAEv and Women Dress Sheath Sleeve Long Casual Striped Gray Casual azAqwfxf. These observations followed by four months the accidental discovery, by Shapiro's group, that those objects had simple double structure. For both sources the separation increased in four months, with v > c.

The velocity v is not limited to c by the special theory of relativity, because it may be due to phase or retardation effects. The usual description has two bright spots, one (A) stationary, and the other (BYellow Mini Crew Cocktail Shift Dress J qPgCH) moving with velocity c at an angle to the line of sight. In unit time B moves a distance c, whereas its transverse distance from Collection Gardenlove NY Printed Palazzo Pants Navy Drawstring A increases by c sin . But the elapsed time for the observer to see the beginning and end of this motion is only (1 - cos ) because the velocity of light is finite. Hence the apparent transverse velocity is

and v has a maximum value c when csc = = (1 - 2)-1/2. Equation (1) is a general formula and can apply when B is a ``light echo'' with = 1 as well as to luminous ``bullets'' with < 1, or to regions successively excited by a wave. In 1967, Martin Rees used Eq. (1) to explain rapid flux variations in active nuclei, and at that time he predicted superluminal motion, four years before it was seen!

A different kinematic model could involve motion that is simulated by independent fluctuations in intensity of a few stationary spots. This explanation, however, is incapable of explaining two key features of the observations: (a) all well-determined motions are expansions, never contractions and (b) in some cases spots have been observed to more than double their separation.

Figure 1. A sequence of maps of 3C 345 made at 10.7 GHz. The smoothing beam is a circular Gaussian of half-width 0.6 milliarcseconds (mas), shown in the lower left corner. [Reproduced from Biretta, Moore, and Cohen (1986) Ap. J. 308, 93.]

Figure 2. Expansion diagram for component C2 of 3C 345. The line represents a uniform proper motion of 0.47 mas yr-1Casual Party Maxi Silk Garden Joie Dress qO5StUCwnx. The points, each corresponding to the centroid of C2 at the labeled frequency, cluster tightly about the line, showing that the location of the centroid is nearly independent of frequency.

2. Several sources have stationary components in addition to moving components. The most famous case is 4C39.25, which had been a stable double for a decade. Around 1980, however, a new component appeared near one of the original ones and began traveling superluminally toward the other, which has remained stationary but is fading. None of the three components appears to be a core in the sense described previously, and it is not at all certain that any of the three is truly stationary on the sky.

3. A source with more than two components is usually not straight but shows curvature or even a kink. A major question then has been whether the components move ballistically, on straight lines, or move on curved tracks and perhaps even follow each other like beads on a string. The present indication in both Split Dress Neckline Formal Black V Front Deep Maxi Sleeveless w1vAEv and Night Dress Out People Free Haiku Mini Black fX8WIYq is that the motion is along a curved track. In Night Dress Out People Free Haiku Mini Black fX8WIYq the new components C5 and C4 have had curved tracks, but they were at different position angles; that is, they were not like beads on a fixed string. Component C3, however, may be following the track taken earlier by C2. There evidently is a variety of possible motions, and it will take many years of observation to sort them out.

DISTRIBUTION OF SUPERLUMINAL VELOCITIES

Proper motions (or upper limits) have now been established in about 33 objects, of which 23 are superluminal, 2 are subluminal, and 8 have upper limits that generally require v < 1.5h-1c. Figure 3 shows the histogram of their apparent transverse velocities; for those sources with more than one moving component only the fastest is plotted. The sample is inhomogeneous and incomplete, but most of the objects were chosen because they are ``active''; that is, they are variable and strong, and blend check suit Ben Sherman Blue wool slim linen fit trouser broken UqCTqwO is probably representative of core-dominated objects. Thus it is significant that the median velocity corresponds to angle much less than 60°. The median velocity for all objects in blend check suit Ben Sherman Blue wool slim linen fit trouser broken UqCTqwO is 3.3Navy Collection NY Drawstring Printed Gardenlove Palazzo Pants h-1c. From Eq. (1)the median ``maximum allowed angle'' (for = 1) is approximately 34h°, which for 0.5 < h < 1 means that most of the objects are pointed close to our line of sight. Why is there such a strong selection effect? Three possibilities have been suggested.

STATISTICS

The synchrotron radiation from a beam with bulk relativistic motion has an angular pattern given by n, where nYellow Casual Short Joie Dress Beatrissa 8nw6cddqU (2 - ), is the spectral index of the radiation, and is the Doppler factor -1 (1 - cos)-1. A source with = 1O thus has an enormous front-to-back ratio, so that an intrinsically weak source aimed at us may look strong, whereas an intrinsically strong one aimed away will be weak. When this strong boosting is combined with an intrinsic luminosity function (many more weak sources than strong ones), the result is that a flux-limited sample of beamed sources will consist nearly entirely of objects at small angles. When this calculation is carried through in detail, it turns out that the expected distribution of superluminal velocities has a strong peak near the maximum possible velocity, vmax = c. Thus the histogram in blend check suit Ben Sherman Blue wool slim linen fit trouser broken UqCTqwO may reflect the distribution of Lorentz factors, rather than revealing the angular distribution of superluminal sources.

A more direct way to study these objects is to select a sample on the basis of some ``aspect-independent'' quantity. The superluminal motions will then be oriented at random, and so the measured distribution of velocities should be a direct test of the beaming hypothesis. Several experiments along this line are currently under way. The aspects- independent quantity is taken to be the flux density in the outer lobes; nearly everyone thinks that the outer lobes radiate isotropically. This work is difficult and slow, because the central components are generally weak. The first results from these tests are in crude agreement with the beaming hypothesis: The velocities observed so far are smaller, on average, than those of the strong core-dominated sources.

COSMOLOGY

The superluminal objects include quasars at large redshifts, and they may contain a ``standard velocity,'' that is, the velocity of light. Thus, almost from their discovery, there have been attempts to use them for cosmology. The early work used a ``light echo'' model, but it now is clear that this picture is too simple. It does not easily allow for the observed morphology, especially the asymmetry around the core.

The same objections have been raised against models that use excitations along magnetic field lines. More recent work has used models with relativistic beams. If two-jet objects could be found they should be near the plane of the sky, and then from Eq. (1) vc; that is, we have recovered the standard velocity. Unfortunately, there are as yet no reliable two-sided motions. A different method uses the highest velocities that are measured; these are limited to vMacy's Leave Mesh Created Black Swing Top Embroidered Alfani for Petite PRw1zYmaxc and so the top bin in blend check suit Ben Sherman Blue wool slim linen fit trouser broken UqCTqwO implies H0 900 km sec-1 Mpc-1. If there were a reliable physical model from which the Lorentz factor could be found, then the Hubble constant could be calculated. So far, though, it has been the other way around; H0 is used to estimate the Lorentz factor. Values of found this way generally agree with those needed to explain the variability and the spectrum.