Levels of NO2 - largely from car exhaust fumes - peaked as high as 102 microgrammes per cubic metre of air in 16 locations in the UK in 2016, including London, Birmingham, Leeds and Glasgow, compared to an EU limit of 40 microgrammes.

The European Commission also issued a letter of formal notice to the UK for disregarding EU measures to deter car manufacturers from trying to cheat emissions tests, introduced in the wake of the Volkswagen diesel scandal, reports the Mirror.

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France, Germany, Hungary, Italy and Romania were also referred to the European Court of Justice for breaching NO2 limits, though neither reached the pollution levels of the UK, with 82 microgrammes per cubic metre recorded in Stuttgart and 96 in Paris.

Mr Vella said: "The decision to refer member states to the Court of Justice of the EU has been taken on behalf of Europeans.

Air pollution accounts for 25,000 deaths in England a year.

"We have said that this Commission is one that protects. Our decision follows through on that claim.

"The member states referred to the Court today have received sufficient 'last chances' over the last decade to improve the situation.

"It is my conviction that today's decision will lead to improvements for citizens on a much quicker timescale."

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Warning that legal action alone will not solve the pollution problem, Mr Vella also unveiled a raft of new Commission measures to help member states promote cleaner air.

Conservative MP Neil Parish, chair of the Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee, said the Commission's action should be "a wake-up call" for the Government.

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"It is astonishing that, despite a series of legal defeats, the Government has consistently failed to come up with a coherent and effective plan to tackle this national health emergency," said Mr Parish.

"In our joint inquiry into air quality, we found little evidence of the decisive steps needed to protect the public. It is simply not acceptable that over 40,000 lives are being cut short each year because the Government is too timid to take the necessary action."

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Friends of the Earth clean air campaigner Jenny Bates said: "Time and time again the UK Government has faced legal action in the UK courts, and now from Europe itself, over its failure to clean up the toxic air we breathe with enough urgency.

"With repeated legal cases and tens of thousands of early deaths each year from dirty air in the UK, one must ask the question; what will it take to make the Government act?

"The benefits of cleaner air would be shared by everybody - with clearer roads, more liveable cities and towns, and fewer days off sick. We all have the right to clean air, though Government inaction suggests they think differently."

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) said the UK was one of 22 EU states exceeding NO2 limits.

It said the main reason for non-compliance was the failure of European standards for diesel cars to deliver the expected reductions in emissions.

A Defra spokesman said: "We continue to meet EU air quality limits for all pollutants apart from nitrogen dioxide, and data shows we are improving thanks to our efforts to bring levels of NO2 down.

"We will shortly build on our £3.5 billion plan to tackle roadside emissions with a comprehensive Clean Air Strategy setting out a wide range of actions to reduce pollution from all sources."

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"This announcement is good news for all those suffering from chronic air pollution," said Ms Lucas.

"People have been breathing in toxic air for too long because of the failure of the British Government in tackling this issue.

"Indeed this announcement from the European Commission is an extremely powerful reminder of just how much we'd miss the EU enforcement powers when it comes to environmental protection if Brexit happens.

"The current plans by the Government to enforce these kind of rules are simply not up to the task - and they clearly need an urgent rethink to ensure environmental protection isn't sacrificed as we hurtle towards Brexit."