Abstract [en]

This thesis describes efforts to develop robust methods for the creation and use of digital archives of environmental samples, and proposes guidelines based on the results. Digital archives are repositories that store environmental samples digitally. Traditionally, samples are stored physically in environmental specimen banks over long time periods. However, this has several drawbacks, for example degradation effects and limited accessibility. During the course of my PhD project I developed methods that allow the comprehensive analysis of sewage sludge samples. Sewage sludge is a complex matrix that contains many commercial chemicals. In addition, sewage treatment plants form a link between the human society that generates the sewage and the environment, making sewage sludge a very interesting matrix to analyze. The developed methods enable analysis and subsequent identification of compounds of all sizes and with diverse chemical characteristics. I further explain how unknown compounds can be identified (non-target screening) using mass spectral analysis and several other approaches (e.g. retention indices).

The thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part, Data Generation, I describe the development of sample preparation methods for analyzing sewage sludge with gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). For the GC approach, two methods involving use of different extraction techniques, solvents, and matrix reduction techniques are presented while for the LC approach different extraction techniques are compared. The methods have been developed to enable the generation of data suitable for digital archiving. In the second part of the thesis, Data Evaluation, I present ways to find and identify compounds of interest. Firstly, time trend analyses provide a way to prioritize pollutants, for example by focusing on pollutants that are increasing with time. Thousands of compounds with significant time trends were detected and several hundred of them were tentatively identified. Compounds with strong increasing trends included, for example, UV-filters from sunscreens. Secondly, a new retention index system for comprehensive two‑dimensional chromatography (GC×GC) is introduced to characterize compounds in terms of their retention times in the second dimension. The new retention index system is based on co-injection of polyethylene glycols and was validated for various compounds of diverse classes. Thirdly, I tested different ways to predict GC×GC retention times or indices. Those methods include a multivariate prediction (PLS) approach using molecular descriptors, which proved to be the best approach, and use of commercially available software. The last part of my thesis, Data Archiving, discusses requirements to create digital archives and how they can be used. Here I present the current state and options for archiving data files, and give recommendations for each step, from sample collection, through instrumental analysis to storage of the final data.

Abstract [en]

To investigate the wide range of pollutants occurring in sewage sludge, an analytical method for comprehensive nontarget screening is needed. To the best of our knowledge, no procedures currently exist for the full screening of organic contaminants in sewage sludge, which is the ultimate goal of this project. We developed non-discriminating sample preparation methods for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) was used for extraction, with in-line (silica gel selective PLE, SPLE) or off-line clean-up (gel permeation chromatography, GPC). This combination allowed the analysis of non-polar compounds of all sizes and small semi-polar and non-polar compounds. The results show that the combination of SPLE and PLE with GPC is suitable for analysis of established as well as new contaminants. Both methods were validated for 99 compounds with different properties. For all GC suitable analytes, either one of the methods produced acceptable recoveries (64 to 136%). As a test, the two methods were used for non-target screening of Swedish sewage sludge. A tiered approach was used to tentatively identify the sludge contaminants. In total, 1865 and 1593 compounds were found of which 321 and 192 compounds were tentatively identified for the PLE and SPLE method, respectively. For a comprehensive coverage of contaminants, the two methods should be used together, with the PLE method covering a wider polarity range and the SPLE method a wider size range. In addition, polar substances will require liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, the method for which will be developed soon.

Abstract [en]

The characterization and identification of compounds in complex real-world samples is quite difficult and new concepts and workflows are highly desirable. Retention indices (RIs) are widely used in gas chromatography (GC) to support the identification of unknown compounds. Several attempts have been made to introduce a similar concept for the second dimension in comprehensive two-dimensional (2D) GC (GC × GC) but, an easily applicable and robust system remains elusive. In the present study, a new RI system for GC × GC was developed. Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) were used in combination with a simple linear regression, with n-alkanes as reference points for virtually unretained compounds and PEG homologs as reference compounds for second-dimension RIs (PEG-2I). The n-alkanes were assigned a PEG-2I of zero and the distance between consecutive PEG homologs from PEG-2 (diethylene glycol) and higher were assigned a PEG-2I value of 10. We used ethylene glycol and PEG-2 through PEG-10 as reference compounds, thereby covering a PEG-2I range from 20.0 for ethylene glycol, over 50.0 for diethylene glycol (PEG-2) to 130.0 for decaethylene glycol (PEG-10); additional PEGs can be added to cover a wider polarity range. The PEG-2I system was initially evaluated using a 30 m × 0.25 mm non-polar (5% phenyl, 0.25 μm film thickness) first-dimension column and a 1.6 m × 0.18 mm polar (50% phenyl, 0.18 μm film thickness) second-dimension column. This system was validated for use with non-polar first-dimension columns and a semi-polar (50% phenyl) second-dimension column, and exhibited robustness to changes in the carrier gas flow velocity, oven temperature ramping rate, and secondary oven temperature offset. An average relative standard deviation of 2.7%, equal to a 95% confidence interval of 1.27 PEG-2I units, was obtained for the PEG-2I values of 72 environmental pollutants. Additionally, the system was found to be applicable over a wide range of boiling points (in the current case, from n-heptane to n-dotriacontane (C7-C32)) and can be used with various column dimensions. Changing the second-dimension column to either a narrower 0.1 mm column or a wider 0.25 mm column, yielded similar 95%-percentiles to that of the 0.18 mm column, differing by only 3.20 and 2.80 PEG-2I units, respectively. Moreover, methods for improving the system were suggested.