“I demand of art,” says Le Corbusier,
“the role of the challenger…of play
and interplay, play being the very
manifestation of the spirit.”
1

The absence in art of a wellformulated and systemaÂ­tized
body of literature makes
the problem of teaching a
perplexing one. The subject
is further complicated by the
elusive and personal nature
of art. Granted that a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
ultimate success will depend
largely on his natural talents,
the problem still remains: how
best to arouse his curiosity, hold
his attention, and engage his
creative faculties.
2

Paul Rand

“The best Renaissance
teachers, instead of beating
their pupils, spurred them
on by a number of appeals
to the play-principle.”

Through trial and error, I have

Two powerful instincts exist in

found that the solution to this

all human beings which can be

enigma rests, to a large extent,

used in teaching, says Gilbert

on two factors: the kind of

Highet: one is the love of play.

problem chosen for study, and

“The best Renaissance teachers,

the way in which it is posed. I

instead of beating their pupils,

believe that if, in the statement

spurred them on by a number

of a problem, undue emphasis

of appeals to the play-principle.

is placed on freedom and

They made games out of the

self-expression, the result is

chore of learning difficult

apt to be an indifferent student

sub­jects—Montaigne’s father, for

and a meaningless solution.

instance, started him in Greek

Conversely, a problem with

by writing the letters and the

defined limits, with an implied

easiest words on playing cards

or stated discipline (system of

and inventing a game to play

rules) that in turn is conducive

with them.” 2

to the instinct of play, will
most likely yield an interested
student and, very often, a
meaningful and novel solution.

Gilbert Highet

Design and the Play Instinct

3

Depending on the nature of
the problem, some or all of the

motivation

competition

psychological and intellectual
factors implicit in game-playing
are equally implicit in successful
prob­lem-solving:

timing

challenge

Without the basic rules or

curiosity

concentration
stimulus

goal

abstraction
discretion

promise
anticipation

economy

observation
analysis
perception
judgment
improvisation

4

Paul Rand

ultimate reward—in short, no
game. The rules are the means
to the end, the conditions
the player must understand
order to participate. For the
student, the limits of a wellstated problem operate in
much the same way. “Limited

patience

means,” says Braque, “beget
new forms, invite creation, make
the style. Progress in art does

restraint
exploitation
excitement
enjoyment
discovery

coordination
interest

no motivation, test of skill, or

thoroughly and work with in

discrimination

skill

disciplines, however, there is

reward
fulfillment

not lie in extending its limits,
but in knowing them better.” 3

Unfortunately, in some of our
schools little attempt is made to
guide the student’s thinking in
a logical progression from basic
design to applied design. We
are all familiar with the so-called
practical problems formulated
by a teacher in an attempt
to duplicate the conditions

Without specific formal
limitations and without
the challenge of play,
both teacher and student
cannot help but be bored.

has the illusion of creating
great art in an atmosphere of
freedom, when in fact he is
handicapped by the absence of
certain disciplines which would
evoke ideas, make playing
with those ideas possible,
work absorbing, and results
interesting.

of industry—the atmosphere
of the advertising agency,

The product may take the form

Similarly, there are badly stated

The basic design problem,

for example. Such problems

of a superficial (but sometimes

problems in basic design that

properly stated, is an effective

are frequently stated in the

“professional looking”) literal

stress pure aesthetics and

vehicle for teaching the

broadest terms with emphasis,

translation of the problem,

free expression without any

possibilities of relationships:

if any, on style and technique

or of a meaningless abstract

restraints or practical goals.

harmony, order, proportion,

in advertising, rather than on

pattern or shape, which,

Such a problem may be posed

number, measure, rhythm,

interpreting advertising in terms

incidentally, may be justified

in this fashion: arrange a group

symmetry, contrast, color,

of visual design principles.

with enthusiasm but often with

of geometric shapes in any

texture, space. It is an equally

specious reasoning.

manner you see fit, using any

effective means for exploring

number of colors, to make a

the use of unorthodox materials

pleasing pattern. The results of

and for learning to work within

such vagaries are sometimes

specific limitations.

pretty, but mostly meaningless
or monotonous. The student

Design and the Play Instinct

5

To insure that theoretical study

If possible, teaching should

the comprehension of abstract

does not end in a vacuum,

alternate between theoretical

thought and in the analysis of

practical applications of the

and practical problems, and

facts.” 5

basic principles gleaned

between problems with tightly

from this exercise should be

stated “rules” imposed by the

There are many ways in which

undertaken at the proper time

teacher and problems with

the play-principle serves as a

(they may involve typography,

rules implied by the problem

base for serious problem-

photography, page layout,

itself. But this can happen only

solving, some of which are

displays, symbols, etc.).

after the student has been

discussed here. These examples

The student learns to conceptualize, to associate,
to make analogies; to see a sphere, for example,
transformed into an orange, or a button into a
letter, or a group of letters into a broad picture.
“The pupils,” says Alfred North

taught basic disciplines and

indicate, I believe, the nature

Whitehead, “have got to be

their application. He then is

of certain disciplines and may

made to feel they are studying

able to invent his own system

suggest the kind of problems

for “playing the game.” “A

which will be useful to the

mind so disciplined should be

student as well as to the teacher

both more abstract and more

of design.

something, and are not merely
executing intellectual minuets.”

4

concrete. It has been trained in
6

Paul Rand

The crossword puzzle is a
variation on the acrostic, a word
game that has been around
since Roman times. There have
been many reasons given for
the popularity of the game. One
is that it fulfills the human urge
to solve the unknown, another
that it is orderly, a third that it
represents, according to the

C R O S S

WO R D

P U Z Z L E

puzzle editor of The New York
Times, “a mental stimulation…
and exercise in spelling and
vocabulary building.” 6 But the
play in such a game is limited
to finding the exact word to fit a
specific number of squares in a
vertical and horizontal pattern.
It allows for little imagination
and no invention or aesthetic
judgment, qualities to be found
in abundance, for example, in
the simple children’s game, the
Tangram.

Design and the Play Instinct

7

8
Paul Rand

Ta the
ng
ra
m

The Tangram is an ingenious

five triangles, one square,

little Chinese toy in which a

and one rhombus. The rules

square is divided into this

are quite simple: rearrange

configuration. It consists of

to make any kind of figure or

seven pieces, called tans:

pattern.
Here [above] is one possibility.
Many design problems can
be posed with this game in
mind, the main principle to be
learned being that of economy
of meansâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;making the most
of the least. Further, the game
helps to sharpen the powers
of observation through the
discovery of resemblances
between geometric and natural
forms. It helps the student to
abstract: to see a triangle, for
example, as a face, a tree, an
eye, a nose, depending on the
context in which the pieces are
arranged. Such observation is
essential in the study of visual
symbols.
Design and the Play Instinct

9

Hokusai’s
This drawing is reproduced
from the first volume of
Hokusai’s Rapid Lessons
in Abbreviated Drawing
(Riakougwa Hayashinan, 1812).
In the book Hokusai shows how
he uses geometric shapes as a
guide in drawing certain birds.
This exercise may be compared
to the Tangram in that both use
geometric means. The Tangram,
however, uses geometry as
an end in itself—to indicate
or symbolize natural forms—
whereas Hokusai uses it as a
clue or guide to illustrate them.
10

Paul Rand

Drawing
In the artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own words, his
system â&#x20AC;&#x153;concerns the manner
of making designs with the
aid of a ruler or compass, and
thosewho work in thismanner
will understand the proportion
of things.â&#x20AC;?

Design and the Play Instinct

11

12

Paul Rand

This character for the word
tan (sunrise) is designed
within an imaginary grid.
Geometry functions here in a
manner similar to the previous
illustration, namely as a guide
to filling the space correctly,
but not to produce a geometric
pattern.

The Chinese character is always
written in an imaginary square.
The ninefold square, invented
by an anonymous writer of
the T’ang dynasty, has been
employed as the most useful,
because it prevents rigid
symmetry and helps to achieve
balanced asymmetry. 7 At the
same time it makes the writer
aware of negative and positive

“Each part of the character
touches one of the nine
squares, thus achieving
harmony between the two
elements and the whole.”

spaces.
Within this rather simple
discipline the calligrapher is
able to play with space, filling
it as he feels would be most
appropriate. The composition
of Chinese characters, says

Chinese
Character

Chiang Yee, “is not governed by
inviolable laws…however,
there are general principles
which cannot be ignored with
impunity.” 8

Design and the Play Instinct

13

The Modulor is a system based
on a mathematical key. Taking
account of the human scale, it is
a method of achieving harmony
and order in a given work.
In his book, The Modulor,
Le Corbusier describes his
invention as “a measuring
tool [the proportions] based
on the human body [6-foot

the

Modulor

man] and on mathematics
[the golden section]. A manwith-arm-upraised provides, at

of the upraised arm—three

the determining points of his

intervals which give rise to a

occupation of space—foot, solar

series of golden sections, called

plexus, head, tips of fingers

the Fibonacci series.” 9 [1, 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13, etc.]

“All this work on proportioning and measures
is the outcome of a passion, disinterested and
detached, an exercise, a game.”
Le Corbusier
14

Paul Rand

The Modulor is a discipline
which offers endless variations
and opportunities for play.
Le Corbusier’s awareness of
these potentialities is evident
from the numerous references
to the game and play in his

book, such as “All this work on
proportioning and measures
is the outcome of a passion,
disinterested and detached, an
exercise, a game.” Further, he
goes on to say, “for if you want
to play modulor…” 10
In comparison to most so-called
systems of proportion, the
Modulor is perhaps the least
confining. The variations, as will
be seen from this illustration,
are practically inexhaustible
(and this example utilizes
only a very limited number of
possibilities). This drawing is
one of a limitless number of socalled Panel Exercises, played

judgment, Le Corbusier himself

for pleasure or for some real

provides the answer: “I still

application in order to discover

reserve the right at any time to

a most satisfactory or beautiful

doubt the solutions furnished

configuration. If, however,

by the Modulor, keeping

the system should present

intact my freedom which must

difficulties which happen to

depend solely on my feelings

run counter to one’s intuitive

rather than on my reason.’’ 11
Design and the Play Instinct

15

Like the architectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plan, the

between text and pictures,

grid system employed by the

columns of text, page numbers,

graphic designer provides for

picture captions, headings and

an orderly and harmonious

other miscellaneous items.

distribution of miscellaneous
graphic material. It is a system

Here is a simple grid system for

of proportions based on a

a booklet. Devising such a

module, the standard of which

grid involves two creative acts:

is derived from the material

developing the pattern that is

itself. It is a discipline imposed

suitable for the given material

by the designer. Unlike the

and arranging this material

Modulor, it is not a fixed system

within the pattern. In a sense,

based on a specific concept

the creative ability required

of proportion, but one which

for the former is no less than

must be custom-made for each

that for the latter, because the

problem. Creating the grid

making of the grid necessitates

calls for the ability to classify

analyzing simultaneously all the

and organize miscellaneous

elements involved. But once it is

material, with sufficient

evolved, the designer is free to

foresight to allow for flexibility

play to his heartâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s content: with

in handling content which may,

pictures, type, paper, ink, color,

for one reason or another,

and with texture, scale, size and

be altered. The grid must

contrast.

define the areas of operation
and provide for different
techniques, pictures, text, space
16

Paul Rand

The grid, then, is the discipline
which frees him from the timeconsuming burden of making

the

Grid System
The grid must define
the areas of operation
and provide for different
techniques, pictures, text,
space between text and
pictures, columns of text,
page numbers, picture
captions, headings and
other miscellaneous items.

certain decisions (dimensions,
proportions) without which
fruitful and creative work is
extremely difficult. He can move
directly to those aspects of the
problem in which individual
expression, novel ideas, and
freedom of choice are essential.
The grid system has as many

and sequence. In brief, the

detractors as it has adherents.

intelligent designer will

Its detractors generally

recognize that the grid can

misunderstand its use or its

help him achieve harmony

potentialâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and that it is merely a

and order, but also that it

tool. It has been condemned

may be abandoned when

as stifling, rigid and cold. But

and if necessary. To function

this confuses the product with

successfully, the grid system,

the process. The grid does not

like all workable systems, must

automatically insure an exciting

be interpreted as freely as

product. The designer must

necessary. It is the very freedom

still exercise all the experience

which adds richness and a

at his command, discretion,

note of surprise to what might

timing, and a sense of drama

otherwise be potentially lifeless.
Design and the Play Instinct

17

Masons’ Marks
We find other variations of the
geometric plan in Japanese
architecture, modern painting,
and in Byzantine masons’
marks, such as the seal. This
seal “employs a mathematical
key as its design basis. The thick
lines represent the mark, the
thin lines represent the ground
lattice which allows an infinite
number of combinations.’’ 12
The geometric scheme is the
discipline in which the designer
works. Designs stemming from
such a scheme are limited only
by his imagination.
18

Paul Rand

tatami

(floor mats)

The Tatami, a straw mat
approximately 3 by 6 feet and
2 inches thick, is the module
or standard from which the
plan of the house grows.
Edward S. Morse, in his book,
Japanese Homes, describes
the mat system as follows:

six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen,

“The architect invariably plans

sixteen, and so on.’’ 13 This

his rooms to accommodate a

illustration shows the “plan” of

The kind of grid employed by

certain number of mats; and

a four-and-one-half mat room.

Japanese architects in their

since these mats have a definite

Once the outer dimensions

traditional houses combines

size, any indication on the plan

of the house are determined,

the virtues of determining the

of the number of mats a room

the mats, together with the

size of various rooms in the

is to contain gives at once its

Japanese system of sliding

house, floors, walls, furniture,

dimensions also. The mats are

doors, give complete flexibility

etc., and creating the style and

laid in the following numbers:

in the arrangement and

appearance of the house.

two, three, four-and-one-half,

number of rooms.

A perfect
example
of form and
function, of
discipline
and play.
Design and the Play Instinct

19

Albers

Much of the painting of
Josef Albers is based on

3

this geometric pattern. The
pattern is not used, however,

3

in the same manner as the
masonsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lattice. Here it is the
painting itself. It represents a

3

strict, immutable arrangement
(theme) in which the artist, by
juxtaposing colors (variations)
plays the fascinating game of
deceiving the eye. The squares

2

2

2

2
1
1
1

20

Paul Rand

2

2

as we see them here appear

The many variations based on

to recede into the picture

this and similar designs attest

plane. However, by skillful

to the fascination the artist finds

manipulation of colors, the

from the interplay of a great

painting flattens out and is

variety of color schemes and

thus seen as a two dimensional

an extremely limited geometric

picture.

format.

Cubist Collages
Similarly, the early Cubist
collages, in which cut paper
played an important part, are
products of strict rules, limited
materials: newspaper mounted
on a surface, with the addition
of a few charcoal or pencil lines,
usually in black and white and
sometimes with tan or brown
or similarly muted colors. These
elements were juggled until
they satisfied the artist’s eye.
The playfulness and humor
in the production of some of
these compositions in no way
detracts from the end result of
a serious work of art.

“The playfulness and humor in the production of
some of these compositions in no way detracts
from the end result of a serious work of art.”
Design and the Play Instinct

21

Matisse
It is inconceivable to consider
Matisse’s compositions with
cut paper without; in some
way, linking them to the play
element—the joy of working
with simple colors and the fun
of “cutting paper dolls.” But the
greatest satisfaction, perhaps,
is derived from creating a work
of art with ordinary scissors and
some colored paper— with so
simple means, such satisfying
ends.
22

Paul Rand

One cannot underestimate the
importance of restraint and
playfulness in almost any phase
of Picasso’s work. Here, for
example, one sees a restrained
use of the brush and one flat
color. The drawing of the child’s

Picasso

face, the ornament and the
lettering are all one. Lettering
is not used as a complement to
the drawing, but as an integral
part of the drawing. It serves

Similarly, this ability to do much

as both a garland and a verbal

with little—to find a bull’s head

image—a visual pun. What

in a bicycle seat and handle

emerges is a kind of game

bars—is another aspect of

itself, revealing the ingenuity

Picasso’s wizardry, his humor,

and playfulness of the artist, his

his childlike spontaneity, his

ability to deal with problems in

skill as a punster and ability

the simplest, most direct, and

to improvise and invent with

meaningful manner.

limited, often surprising means.

Design and the Play Instinct

23

Mu Châ&#x20AC;&#x2122;i

24

Paul Rand

This monochrome, Persimmons,
by Mu Châ&#x20AC;&#x2122;i, a thirteenth century
Zen priest and painter, is a
splendid example of a painting
in which the artist plays with

The reader may find a parallel,

contrasts (the male and female

at least in spirit, between this

principle in Chinese and

painting and the preceding

Japanese painting): rough and

one by Picasso. Both employ

smooth, empty and full, one

a single color, and exploit

and many, line and mass, black

this limitation to achieve as

and white, tint and shade, up

much variety as possible,

and down. It is a study in the

and both undoubtedly

metamorphosis of a fruit, as

were painted very rapidly, a

well as of a painting. (The artist,

condition often conducive

incidentally, never used any

to utmost simplification and

color but black.)

improvisation.

The idea of the photogram
or cameraless photography
goes back as far as the 19th
century with Fox Talbotâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
photogenic drawings. In
our time the pioneers of
photography without use of a
camera were Christian Schad,
Man Ray, Moholy Nagy, and
Kurt Schwitters. Among the
first to apply this technique
in advertising was the
constructivist El Lissitzky. Later,
Picasso experimented with the
photogram. In advertising, the
photogram has yet to be fully

the

Photogram
In a sense, it is not a picture of the object
but the object itself; and, as in stroboscopic
photography, it makes picturization of
continuous movement possible as in this
photogram of an abacus, by the author.

exploited.
Although the effectiveness of

Although some of its effects

the photogram depends chiefly

may be approximated with pen,

on straight-forward mechanical

brush, or scissors, the quality

methods (light on sensitized

inherent in the subtle light

paper), it offers the designer

modulations can be achieved,

ample opporÂ­tunity for aesthetic,

perhaps, only by means of the

manual control.

photogram.
Design and the Play Instinct

25

Piet
Zwart

The disciplines which de Stijl
encouraged are evident in this
Zwart design: functional use
of material and meaningful
form, and the restrained use
of color (black and/or primary
colors). From a few simple
typographic elements and an
ingenious play on the letter

26

Paul Rand

The de Stijl movement,

O, a humorous, yet significant

founded in 1917, had a

design was evolved. A picture is

profound influence on

created by typographic means:

painting, architecture, and

a few type characters and type

typography. Piet Zwart, the

rules are so manipulated as

designer responsible for

to make a useful product, an

this advertisement for the

advertisement. Many examples

Dutch firm Nederlansche

of this artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work reveal this

Kabelfabriek, was associated

same playful approach and are

with this group.

worthy of serious study.

Japanese
Craftsman

Some years ago in Kyoto I was
fortunate enough to witness
a young Japanese craftsman
make the chasen you see here.
It is a whisk used in the tea
ceremony and is cut from a
single piece of bamboo with

The earth colors of Africa, the

a simple tool resembling a

ice of the polar regions, the

penknife. Both the material

bamboo of Japan, are among

and manufacturing process

the many challenging materials

(about one-half hour) are the

with which artists and artisans

quintessence of discipline,

create their idols, their utensils,

simplicity and restraint. The

and their housesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;all natural

invention of such an article

limitations which provide

could not possibly have been

their own built-in disciplines

achieved by anyone lacking

which, in turn, contribute to the

the ability to improvise and the

creative solution.

patience to play with a specific
material: to see the myriad
possibilities and discover the
ideal form.

Design and the Play Instinct

27

These examples indicate, I believe, the nature
of certain disciplines and may suggest the
kind of problems which will be useful to the
student as well to the teacher of design.
28