Contents

Blacks in the military worked under different rules that delayed their entry into combat, they had to wait three years before they could begin combat training while a white American would begin training within months of being qualified. The Air Corps was deliberately delaying the training of African Americans even though the Air Corps needed more manpower (Survey and Recommendations[2]); in an Army survey conducted among 250 white officers and sergeants who had a colored platoon assigned to their company the following results were found: 77% of both officers and sergeants said they had become more favorable towards colored soldiers after having a colored platoon assigned to their company (no cases were found where someone said their attitude towards them had turned less favorable), 84% of officers and 81% of sergeants thought the colored soldiers had performed very well in combat, only 5% of officers and 4% of sergeants thought that colored infantry soldiers were not as good as white infantry soldiers, and 73% of officers and 60% of sergeants thought the colored soldiers and white soldiers got along together very well.[3] According to this particular survey there are no reasonable grounds for segregation in the armed forces.

In 1947, A. Philip Randolph, along with colleague Grant Reynolds, renewed efforts to end discrimination in the armed services, forming the Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service and Training, later renamed the League for Non-Violent Civil Disobedience Against Military Segregation.[4]

Truman's Order expanded on Executive Order 8802 by establishing equality of treatment and opportunity in the military for people of all races, religions, or national origins.

The order:

It is hereby declared to be the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin, this policy shall be put into effect as rapidly as possible, having due regard to the time required to effectuate any necessary changes without impairing efficiency or morale.

The order also established a committee to investigate and make recommendations to the civilian leadership of the military to implement the policy.

Most of the actual enforcement of the order was accomplished by President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration (1953–1961), including the desegregation of military schools, hospitals, and bases, the last of the all-black units in the United States military was abolished in September 1954.[6]

1.
The Chicago Defender
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The Chicago Defender is a Chicago-based weekly newspaper founded in 1905 by Robert S. Abbott for primarily African-American readers. Historically, The Defender is considered the most important paper of what was known as the colored or negro press. Abbotts newspaper reported and campaigned against Jim Crow era violence and urged blacks in the American South to come north in what became the Great Migration. Under his nephew and chosen successor, John H. Sengstacke, in 1919–1922 the Defender attracted the writing talents of Langston Hughes. Later, Gwendolyn Brooks and Willard Motley wrote for the paper and it was published as The Chicago Daily Defender, a daily newspaper, from 1956 to 2003, when it returned to a weekly format. The rhetoric and art exhibited in the Defender demanded equality of the races, Abbott published articles that were exposés of southern crimes against blacks. The Defender consistently published articles describing lynchings in the South, with descriptions of gore. Legislatures dominated by conservative white Democrats established racial segregation and Jim Crow, Abbott openly blamed the lynching violence on the white mobs who were typically involved, forcing readers to accept that these crimes were systematic and unremitting. The newspapers intense focus on these injustices implicitly laid the groundwork upon which Abbott would build his explicit critiques of society, at the same time, the NAACP was publicizing the toll of lynching at its offices in New York City. The art in the Defender, particularly its political cartoons, explicitly addressed race issues, after the movement of southern blacks northward became a quantifiable phenomenon, the Defender took a particular interest in sensationalizing migratory stories, often on the front page. Abbott positioned his paper as an influence of these movements before historians would, for he used the Defender to initiate and advertise a Great Northern Drive day. Abbott used the Defender to promote Chicago as a destination for southern blacks. Abbott presented Chicago as a promised-land with abundant jobs, as he included advertisements clearly aimed at southerners, the Defender was filled with advertisements for desirable commodities, beauty products and technological devices. Abbotts paper was the first black newspaper to incorporate a full entertainment section, the Defender featured letters and poetry submitted by successful recent migrants, these writings served as representative anecdotes, supplying readers with prototype examples. To supplement these first-person accounts, Abbott often published small features on successful blacks in Chicago, in 1923, founding publisher Robert Sengstacke Abbott and editor Lucius Harper created the Bud Billiken Club and later organized parades to promote healthy activity among black children in Chicago. In 1929 the organization began the Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, in the 1950s, under Sengstackes direction, the Bud Billiken Parade expanded and emerged as the largest single event in Chicago. Today, it more than one million attendance with more than 25 million television viewers. He urged integration of the armed forces, in 1948, he was appointed by President Harry S. Truman to the commission to study this and plan the process, which was initiated by the military in 1949

2.
Executive order (United States)
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Executive orders are orders issued by United States Presidents and directed towards officers and agencies of the Federal government of the United States. Executive orders have the force of law, based on the authority derived from statute or the Constitution itself. The ability to such orders is also based on express or implied Acts of Congress that delegate to the President some degree of discretionary power. The United States Constitution does have a provision that explicitly permits the use of executive orders, the term executive power in Article II, Section 1, Clause 1 of the Constitution is not entirely clear. The term is mentioned as direction to take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed and is part of Article II, Section 3, the consequence of failing to comply possibly being removal from office. The U. S. Specifically, such orders must be rooted in Article II of the US Constitution or enacted by the congress in statutes. Attempts to block such orders have been successful at times when such orders exceeded the authority of the president or could be handled through legislation. Other types of orders issued by the Executive are generally classified simply as administrative rather than executive orders. Initially they took no set form, consequently, such orders varied as to form and substance. The most famous executive order was by President Abraham Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, Political scientist Brian R. Dirck states, The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the department by its boss. Until the early 1900s, executive orders went mostly unannounced and undocumented and this changed when the Department of State instituted a numbering scheme in 1907, starting retroactively with United States Executive Order 1 issued on October 20,1862, by President Abraham Lincoln. President Trumans Executive Order 10340 in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer,343 US579 placed all steel mills in the country under federal control. This was found invalid because it attempted to make law, rather than clarify or act to further a law put forth by the Congress or the Constitution, Presidents since this decision have generally been careful to cite which specific laws they are acting under when issuing new executive orders. Wars have been fought upon executive order, including the 1999 Kosovo War during Bill Clintons second term in office, however, all such wars have had authorizing resolutions from Congress. President Truman issued 907 executive orders, with 1,081 orders by Theodore Roosevelt,1,203 orders by Calvin Coolidge, Franklin D. Roosevelt has the distinction of making a record 3,522 executive orders. Prior to 1932, uncontested executive orders had determined such issues as national mourning on the death of a president, and the lowering of flags to half-staff. President Franklin Roosevelt issued the first of his 3,522 executive orders on March 6,1933, declaring a bank holiday, Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold coin, bullion and gold certificates

3.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation

4.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period

5.
Racial discrimination
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity

6.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President

7.
Racial segregation in the United States
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Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race

8.
United States Army Air Corps
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The United States Army Air Corps was the military aviation arm of the United States of America between 1926 and 1941. The USAAC was renamed from the earlier United States Army Air Service on 2 July 1926, the Air Corps became the United States Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, giving it greater autonomy from the Armys middle-level command structure. The separation of the Air Corps from control of its combat units caused problems of unity of command that became more acute as the Air Corps enlarged in preparation for World War II. This was resolved by the creation of the Army Air Forces, the U. S. Army Air Service had a brief but turbulent history. In early 1926 the Military Affairs Committee of the Congress rejected all bills set forth before it on both sides of the issue. They fashioned a compromise in which the findings of the Morrow Board were enacted as law, while providing the air arm a five-year plan for expansion and development. The legislation changed the name of the Air Service to the Air Corps, thereby strengthening the conception of military aviation as an offensive, the Air Corps Act became law on 2 July 1926. Two additional brigadier generals would serve as assistant chiefs of the Air Corps, previous provisions of the National Defense Act of 1920 that all flying units be commanded only by rated personnel and that flight pay be awarded were continued. The Air Corps also retained the Prop and Wings as its branch insignia through its disestablishment in 1947, patrick became Chief of the Air Corps and Brig. Gen. James E. Fechet continued as his first assistant chief. The Air Corps Act of 2 July 1926 effected no fundamental innovation, the change in designation meant no change in status, the Air Corps was still a combatant branch of the Army with less prestige than the Infantry. The Air Corps Act gave authorization to carry out an expansion program. However, a lack of appropriations caused the beginning of the program to be delayed until 1 July 1927. The act authorized expansion to 1,800 airplanes,1,650 officers, none of the goals were reached by July 1932. Organizationally the Air Corps doubled from seven to fifteen groups, but the expansion was meaningless because all were seriously understrength in aircraft and pilots. Air Corps groups added 1927–1937 ¹Inactivated on 20 May 1937 ²Redesignated 17th Attack Group, 17th Bomb Group As units of the Air Corps increased in number, so did higher command echelons. The 1st Bomb Wing was activated in 1931, followed by the 3rd Attack Wing in 1932 to protect the Mexican border, the three wings became the foundation of General Headquarters Air Force upon its activation in 1935. In 1927 the Air Corps adopted a new scheme for painting its aircraft. The wings and tails of aircraft were painted yellow, with the words U. S

9.
Platoon
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A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two or more squads/sections/patrols. Platoon organization varies depending on the country and the branch, a platoon leader or commander is the officer in command of a platoon. This person is usually a junior officer—a second or first lieutenant or an equivalent rank, the officer is usually assisted by a platoon sergeant. A platoon is typically the smallest military unit led by a commissioned officer, Platoons normally consist of three or four sections or squads. In some armies, platoon is used throughout the branches of the army, in others, such as the British Army and other Commonwealth armies, platoons are associated with the infantry. In a few armies, such as the French Army, a platoon is specifically a cavalry unit, a unit consisting of several platoons is called a company/battery/troop. According to Merriam-Webster, The term was first used in the 17th century to refer to a body of musketeers who fired together in a volley alternately with another platoon. The word came from the 17th-century French peloton, from pelote meaning a small ball, nonetheless it is documented that it took the meaning of a group of soldiers firing a volley together, while a different platoon reloaded. This implies an augmentative intention in the etymology, the modern French word peloton, when not meaning platoon, can refer to the main body of riders in a bicycle race. Pelote itself originally comes from the low Latin pilotta from Latin pila, meaning ball, the platoon was originally a firing unit rather than an organization. The system was said to have been invented by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1618, in the French Army in the 1670s, a battalion was divided into 18 platoons who were grouped into three firings, each platoon in the firing either actually firing or reloading. The system was used in the British, Austrian, Russian. Each platoon was divided into four sections, each commanded by a corporal, due to a shortage of officers, a non commissioned officer rank of Platoon Sergeant Major was introduced from 1938 to 1940 for experienced non-commissioned officers who were given command of platoons. In the Australian Army, an infantry platoon has thirty-six soldiers organized into three sections and a twelve-man maneuver support section. A lieutenant as platoon commander and a sergeant as platoon sergeant, accompanied by a platoon sig, a section comprises eight soldiers led by a corporal with a lance corporal as second in command. Each section has two fireteams of four men, one led by the corporal and the other by the lance corporal, each fireteam has one soldier with a 7. 62mm Maximi GSMG and the other three armed with Steyr F88 assault rifles. One rifle is equipped with an attached 40mm grenade launcher attachment for the lance corporal, more recently, the designated marksman of an Australian fireteam has been issued the HK417 in Afghanistan and possibly afterwards. The platoon may also have three MAG58 general-purpose machine guns, one M2 Browning heavy machine gun or a Mk 19 grenade launcher at its disposal and this may not be the case for all British Infantry units, since the 51mm mortars are not part of the TOE post-Afghanistan

10.
A. Philip Randolph
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Asa Philip Randolph was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement, the American labor movement, and socialist political parties. He organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first predominantly African-American labor union, in the early early Civil Rights Movement and the Labor Movement, Randolph was a voice that would not be silenced. The group then successfully pressured President Harry S. Truman to issue Executive Order 9981 in 1948, ending segregation in the armed services. In 1963, Randolph was the head of the March on Washington, in 1891, the family moved to Jacksonville, Florida, which had a thriving, well-established African-American community. From his father, Randolph learned that color was less important than a persons character, from his mother, he learned the importance of education and of defending oneself physically against those who would seek to hurt one or ones family, if necessary. Asa and his brother, James, were superior students and they attended the Cookman Institute in East Jacksonville, the only academic high school in Florida for African Americans. Asa excelled in literature, drama, and public speaking, he starred on the schools baseball team, sang solos with the school choir. After graduation, Randolph worked odd jobs and devoted his time to singing, acting, du Bois The Souls of Black Folk convinced him that the fight for social equality was most important. Barred by discrimination from all but manual jobs in the South, Randolph moved to New York City in 1911, in 1913 Randolph courted and married Mrs. Lucille Campbell Green, a widow, Howard University graduate, and entrepreneur who shared his socialist politics. She earned enough money to them both. Shortly after Randolphs marriage, he helped organize the Shakespearean Society in Harlem, with them he played the roles of Hamlet, Othello, and Romeo, among others. Randolph aimed to become an actor but gave up after failing to win his parents approval, in New York, Randolph became familiar with socialism and the ideologies espoused by the Industrial Workers of the World. To this end, he and Owen opened an employment office in Harlem to provide job training for southern migrants, like others in the labor movement, Randolph favored immigration restriction. He opposed African Americans having to compete with people willing to work for low wages, unlike other immigration restrictionists, however, he rejected the notions of racial hierarchy that became popular in the 1920s. In 1917, Randolph and Chandler Owen founded the Messenger with the help of the Socialist Party of America, the Department of Justice called the Messenger the most able and the most dangerous of all the Negro publications. When the Messenger began publishing the work of poets and authors. In 1919, most West Indian radicals joined the new Communist Party, the infighting left the Messenger short of financial support, and it went into decline. Randolph ran on the Socialist Party ticket for New York State Comptroller in 1920, Randolph’s first experience with labor organization came in 1917, when he organized a union of elevator operators in New York City

11.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly

12.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources

13.
Executive Order 8802
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Executive Order 8802 was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25,1941, to prohibit racial discrimination in the national defense industry. It was the first federal action, though not a law, to equal opportunity. The executive order was issued in response to pressure from civil rights activists A and they suspended the march after Executive Order 8802 was issued. All defense contracts were to include provisions that barred private contractors from discrimination as well, the FEPC was to educate industry as to requirements, investigate alleged violations and to take appropriate steps to redress grievances which it finds to be valid. The Committee was also supposed to make recommendations to federal agencies and these statements were directed at abolishing discrimination in employment within the defense industry and government. The government did not end segregation in the forces until 1948. Executive Order 8802 was amended several times during the war years, after the US entered the war, the FEPC was placed under the War Production Board, established under E. O.9040. In May 1943, Executive Order 9346 was issued, expanding the coverage of the FEPC to federal agencies carrying out regular government programs, following the end of World War II, the Committee was terminated by statute on July 17,1945. This EO was superseded by Executive Order 9981 in 1948, years later congressional passage of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Executive Order 11246 in 1965 prohibited discrimination in employment and public facilities. Committee on Fair Employment Practice Executive Order 9981 Executive order Full text of Executive Order 8802

14.
Camp Gilbert H. Johnson
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Camp Johnson is situated on Montford Point, the site of recruit training for the first African Americans to serve in the Marine Corps, known as Montford Point Marines. In addition to training Marines, Camp Johnson also houses the Field Medical Training Battalion, the commanding officer of MCCSSS also serves as the area commander of Camp Johnson, and provides administrative support to various tenant commands. When Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, blacks were, for the first time, one of the first African Americans to enlist in the United States Marine Corps was Gilbert Hashmark Johnson, who became a drill instructor. Between 1942 and 1949, the camp at Montford Point was a depot for black recruits. In 1948, by Executive Order 9981, President Harry S. Truman ordered the military to integrate, in 1974, Montford Point was renamed Camp Gilbert H. Johnson in honor of the late Sergeant Major Gilbert H. Hashmark Johnson. A Montford Point drill instructor, he served during World War II, Camp Johnson became the home of the Marine Corps Combat Service Support Schools. In 2007, a documentary entitled The Montford Point Marine Project was released, Camp Johnson is home to the Montford Point Marines Museum. The museum is located in the East Wing of building M101, the museum houses items and pictures of the camp during its years as a boot camp. Outside the gate of Camp Johnson stands a tribute to Marines, the Beirut Memorial is the site of an annual commemoration of the October 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, when 241 Marines, sailors, and soldiers were killed. This area is home to a 9/11 memorial, and a Vietnam War memorial. The 9/11 memorial features a beam salvaged from the tower wreckage, the memorial area is well maintained and is used for many ceremonies, from promotions to retirements. The recently built Vietnam Memorial consists of thick glass panes erected from the ground in a circular shape. Each pane of glass is etched with the names of all the men and women who gave their lives during the Vietnam war. In the center of the memorial is a water fountain. Directly across the street is the North Carolina Veterans Cemetery and this cemetery is the resting place to many of Marine veterans. Funerals with Military Honors are done on site, funeral details are provided by the personnel of MCCSSS, Camp Johnson, and neighboring units. Desegregation in the United States Marine Corps Montford Point Marine Association List of United States Marine Corps installations Military history of African Americans Frederick C, the Right to Fight, African-American Marines in World War II. Marines in World War II Commemorative Series

15.
Recruit training
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Recruit training, more commonly known as basic training and colloquially called boot camp, is the initial instruction given to new military personnel, enlisted and officer. After completion of training, new recruits undergo Advanced Individual Training. Officer trainees undergo more detailed programs that may precede or follow the common recruit training in an officer training academy or in special classes at a civilian university. During recruit training, drill instructors do everything possible to push a recruit to his or her physical and mental limits, Recruit training varies by nation according to the national requirement and can be voluntary or mandatory. Approximately 100 nations, including the United Kingdom and United States, have a military service. In voluntary service an individual chooses to join and thereby agrees to be subjected to the process of building an organization in each life depends on the next person. The voluntary status has changed the culture of military service, Recruit training is oriented to the particular service. Navy and Coast Guard training usually focuses on water training, physical fitness, basic seamanship, and such skills as shipboard firefighting, basic engineering. Air force training usually includes physical training, military and classroom instructions. In all training, standard uniforms are issued and recruits typically have their hair cut or shaved in order to meet grooming standards, Recruits are generally given a service number. Recruit training must merge divergent trainees often from different levels of culture, a national basic training will include provision for the basic needs of the recruit and they will meet certain unit standards and unit requirements, such as mobility for an infantry unit. A recruit therefore will be issued basic provisions or equipment according to the requirements of the unit, Recruit training has changed over the years as tactics of war have changed. Infantry units no longer attack in formations, however, to move units around a base, formations are useful. A combat soldier on the ground who may call in artillery air strikes must be more intelligent. Recruits are typically instructed in drill, to stand, march, historically, drills are derived from 18th-century military tactics, soldiers in a fire line performed precise and coordinated movements to load and fire muskets. Although the particular tactics are now obsolete, drilling trains the recruit to act unhesitatingly in the face of real combat situations. Modern militaries have learned that a member often must make critical decisions on behalf of team. Drill serves a role in leadership training, Combat situations include commands to engage and put ones life in danger but also commands to disengage when military necessity so demands

16.
Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
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Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune is a 246-square-mile United States military training facility in Jacksonville, North Carolina. The bases 14 miles of beaches make it an area for amphibious assault training. In April 1941, construction was approved on an 11, 000-acre tract in Onslow County, on May 1 of that year, Lt. Col. William P. T. Hill began construction on Marine Barracks New River, the first base headquarters was in a summer cottage on Montford Point, and then moved to Hadnot Point in 1942. Later that year it was renamed in honor of the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps, One of the satellite facilities of Camp Lejeune served for a while as a third boot camp for the Marines, in addition to Parris Island and San Diego. That facility, Montford Point, was established after Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, between 1942 and 1949, a brief era of segregated training for black Marines, the camp at Montford Point trained 20,000 African-Americans. After the military was ordered to integrate, Montford Point was renamed Camp Gilbert H. Johnson. Military forces from around the world come to Camp Lejeune on a basis for bilateral. Camp Lejeune was featured in the hit CW network drama One Tree Hill in late 2006, a 1974 base order required safe disposal of solvents and warned that improper handling could cause drinking water contamination. Yet solvents were dumped or buried near base wells for years, the bases wells were shut off in the mid-1980s, but were placed back online in violation of the law. In 1982, Volatile organic compounds were found to be in Camp Lejeunes drinking water supply, VOC contamination of groundwater can cause birth defects and other ill health effects in pregnant and nursing mothers. This information was not made public for two decades when the government attempted to identify those who may have been exposed. An advocacy group called The Few, The Proud, The Forgotten was created to inform victims of the contamination at Lejeune. This is believed to be the first time the government has admitted the link between the contamination and illnesses, in 2007, Jerry Ensminger, a retired Marine master sergeant, found a document dated 1981 that described a radioactive dump site near a rifle range at the camp. According to the report, the waste was laced with strontium-90, according to Camp Lejeunes installation restoration program manager, base officials learned in 2004 about the 1981 document. Ensminger served in the Marine Corps for 24 and a half years, in 1985 his 9-year-old daughter, Janey, died of cancer. On July 6,2009, Laura Jones filed suit against the US government over the water at the base. Jones previously lived at the base where her husband, a Marine, was stationed, Jones has lymphoma and now lives in Iowa

17.
Military history of African Americans
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The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United States to the present day. African-Americans as slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war, ray Raphael notes that while thousands did join the Loyalist cause, A far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. Black soldiers served in militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South. Over 100,000 slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms, despite Dunmores promises, the majority were not given their freedom. Many Black Loyalists descendants now live in Canada and Sierra Leone, many of the Black Loyalists performed military service in the British Army, particularly as part of the only Black regiment of the war the Black Pioneers, and others served non-military roles. In response, and because of shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. At least 5,000 African-American soldiers fought as Revolutionaries, peter Salem and Salem Poor are the most noted of the African American Patriots during this era, and Colonel Tye was perhaps the most noteworthy Black Loyalist. Black volunteers also served with various of the South Carolina guerrilla units, including that of the Swamp Fox, Francis Marion, half of whose force sometimes consisted of free Blacks. These Black troops made a difference in the fighting in the swamps. At least 12 other black men served with various American Marine units in 1776–1777, more may have been in service but not identified as blacks in the records. However, in 1798 when the United States Marine Corps was officially re-instituted, Secretary of War James McHenry specified in its rules, No Negro, Mulatto or Indian to be enlisted. Marine Commandant William Ward Burrows instructed his recruiters regarding USMC racial policy, You can make use of Blacks and Mulattoes while you recruit, the USMC maintained this policy until 1942. Hannibal Collins, a slave and Oliver Hazard Perrys personal servant, is thought to be the oarsman in William Henry Powells Battle of Lake Erie. Collins earned his freedom as a veteran of the Revolutionary War and he accompanied Perry for the rest of Perrys naval career, and was with him at Perrys death in Trinidad in 1819. No legal restrictions regarding the enlistment of blacks were placed on the Navy because of its shortage of manpower. The law of 1792, which generally prohibited enlistment of blacks in the Army became the United States Armys official policy until 1862, Louisiana permitted the existence of separate black militia units which drew its enlistees from freed blacks. A number of African Americans in the Army during the Mexican–American War were servants of the officers who received government compensation for the services of their servants or slaves, also, soldiers from the Louisiana Battalion of Free Men of Color participated in this war. African Americans also served on a number of vessels during the Mexican–American War, including the USS Treasure

18.
Kenneth Claiborne Royall
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Kenneth Claiborne Royall, Sr. was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War. That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army from 1947 to 1949, Royall was born on July 24,1894, in Goldsboro, North Carolina, the son of Clara Howard Jones and George Pender Royall. He graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and he then practiced law and was elected to the North Carolina Senate as a Democrat. At the beginning of World War II, he became a colonel in the U. S. Army. On August 18,1917, Royall was married to the former Margaret Pierce Best, with whom he had two sons and one daughter, Kenneth Claiborne, Jr. Margaret and George Pender Royall. According to a 2006 newspaper column by Jack Betts, When eight Nazis bent on mayhem came ashore on Long Island in 1942, they were soon caught, President Roosevelt appointed Royall to defend them, but the president didnt want any foolishness. He wanted the Nazis executed, the sooner the better, Royalls orders were to stay away from civilian courts. Royall wrote Roosevelt that he didnt think the president had authority to convene a court to try his clients. Roosevelt refused—whereupon Royall appealed to the U. S. District Court, the court rejected that argument, so Royall and other lawyers in his office appealed to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court rejected Royalls argument in an announcement in July 1942. But Royall had succeeded in getting civilian court review of the tribunals constitutionality despite the preference to hush things up. The Supreme Court published an opinion in October, saying. By then, six of Royalls clients were dead and they were tried, convicted and executed in August 1942, days after the Supreme Courts brief announcement upholding Roosevelts tribunals. Royall later said he believed his defense of the Nazis was the most important work he did in a long and he was promoted to brigadier general. Royall served as Undersecretary of War from November 9,1945 until July 18,1947, President Truman named him Secretary of War in 1947. He became the first Secretary of the Army two months later, Royall was forced into retirement in April 1949 for continuing to refuse to desegregate the Army, even nearly a year after President Truman promulgated Executive Order 9981. In December 1949, Royall became a partner at the prestigious New York City law firm of Dwight, Harris, Koegel and Caskey, becoming the firms head in 1958. The firm was later renamed Rogers & Wells, and it was known as Clifford Chance Rogers & Wells after its merger with British firm Clifford Chance

19.
United States Secretary of the Army
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The Secretary of the Army is nominated by the President and confirmed by the U. S. Senate, the Secretary of the Army is a non-Cabinet position serving under the Secretary of Defense. Robert M. Speer took office as Acting Secretary on January 20,2017 and he will perform his duties until the U. S. Senate confirms a new Army Secretary, Karl M. Schneider will perform the duties of Undersecretary of the Army. Mr. Speer was formerly Assistant Secretary of the Army, the Secretary of the Army is in effect the chief executive officer of the Department of the Army, and the Chief of Staff of the Army works directly for the Secretary of the Army. The Secretary presents and justifies Army policies, plans, programs, and budgets to the Secretary of Defense, other executive branch officials, the Secretary also communicates Army policies, plans, programs, capabilities, and accomplishments to the public. As necessary, the Secretary convenes meetings with the leadership of the Army to debate issues, provide direction. The Secretary is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, other offices may be established by law or by the Secretary of the Army. No more than 1,865 officers of the Army on the active-duty list may be assigned or detailed to permanent duty in the Office of the Secretary of the Army and on the Army Staff

20.
United States Secretary of Defense
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The Secretary of Defense is the leader and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense, an Executive Department of the Government of the United States of America. The Secretary of Defenses power over the United States military is only to that of the President. This position corresponds to what is known as a Defense Minister in many other countries. The Secretary of Defense is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, Secretary of Defense is a statutory office, and the general provision in 10 U. S. C. This is also extended to the United States Coast Guard during any period of time in which its command, only the Secretary of Defense can authorize the transfer of operational control of forces between the three Military Departments and the nine Combatant Commands. The current Secretary of Defense is retired United States Marine Corps general James Mattis, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization, the resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. The Act merged the Department of War with the Department of the Navy to form the National Military Establishment, the Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Department of the Army to become its own branch of service, the Department of the Air Force. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, the position of the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time. The last major revision of the framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made. Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, as the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are under the Secretary of Defense. All of these positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award, which is the ribbon and unit award issued to joint DoD activities. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials, Permanent Representative to NATO in recognition of U. S

21.
Robert McNamara
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Robert Strange McNamara was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving from 1961 to 1968 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, during which time he played a role in escalating the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Following that, he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 to 1981, McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis. McNamara consolidated intelligence and logistics functions of the Pentagon into two centralized agencies, the Defense Intelligence Agency and the Defense Supply Agency. Prior to his service, McNamara was one of the Whiz Kids who helped rebuild Ford Motor Company after World War II. A group of advisors he brought to the Pentagon inherited the Whiz Kids moniker, McNamara remains the longest serving Secretary of Defense, having remained in office over seven years. Robert McNamara was born in San Francisco, California and his father was Robert James McNamara, sales manager of a wholesale shoe company, and his mother was Clara Nell McNamara. His fathers family was Irish and in about 1850, following the Great Irish Famine, had emigrated to the U. S. first to Massachusetts and later to California. He graduated from Piedmont High School in Piedmont in 1933, where he was president of the Rigma Lions boys club, McNamara attended the University of California, Berkeley and graduated in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics with minors in mathematics and philosophy. He was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa his sophomore year, and earned a varsity letter in crew. McNamara was also a member of the UC Berkeleys Order of the Golden Bear which was a fellowship of students and he then attended Harvard Business School and earned an MBA in 1939. One major responsibility was the analysis of U. S. bombers efficiency and effectiveness, especially the B-29 forces commanded by Major General Curtis LeMay in India, China, and the Mariana Islands. McNamara established a control unit for XX Bomber Command and devised schedules for B-29s doubling as transports for carrying fuel. He left active duty in 1946 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1946, Charles Tex Thornton, a colonel under whom McNamara had served, put together a group of officers from his AAF Statistical Control operation to go into business together. Thornton had seen an article in Life magazine portraying Ford as being in dire need of reform, henry Ford II, himself a World War II veteran from the Navy, hired the entire group of 10, including McNamara. The Whiz Kids, as came to be known, helped the money-losing company reform its chaotic administration through modern planning, organization. Whiz Kids origins, Because of their youth, combined with asking lots of questions, Ford employees initially and disparagingly, the Quiz Kids rebranded themselves as the Whiz Kids. Starting as manager of planning and financial analysis, he advanced rapidly through a series of management positions

22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

23.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg

24.
Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum
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Here, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare Act on July 30,1965. The lead architect of the project was Edward F. Neild of Shreveport, Neild was among the architects of the Truman White House reconstruction. Neild died July 6,1955, at the Kansas City Club while working on the design, the work was completed by Alonzo H. Gentry of Gentry and Voskamp, the firm that designed Kansas Citys Municipal Auditorium. Truman had initially wanted the building to resemble his grandfather Solomon Youngs house in Grandview, architects Gould Evans designed a $23 million renovation of the entire facility unveiled in 2001. The changes included the use of glass in the relatively windowless structure. Truman actively participated in the operation of the Library, personally training museum docents. He frequently arrived before the staff and would answer the phone to give directions and answer questions. His visitors included incumbent Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon, former President Hoover, Jack Benny, Ginger Rogers, Robert F. Kennedy, Thomas Hart Benton, and Dean Acheson. When Truman left the White House in 1953, he established an office in Room 1107 of the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City at 925 Grand Avenue. When the library opened in 1957, he transferred his office to the facility and often worked there five or six days a week. )In the office, he wrote articles, letters, and his book Mr. Citizen. In 2007, the Truman Library Institute announced a $1.6 million preservation and restoration of his office to preserve the artifacts it contains. The three-stage project completed in 2009 and features an enclosed limestone pavilion for better access and viewing, the office appears today just as it did when Harry Truman died on December 26,1972. Long a favorite of visitors, the office was viewed through a window from the librarys courtyard. The pavilion will also allow for an exhibit describing the office. Funeral services for Truman were held in the Library auditorium and burial was in the courtyard and his wife, Bess Truman, was buried at his side in 1982. Their daughter, Margaret Truman Daniel, was a member of the Truman Library Institutes board of directors. After her death in January 2008, Margarets cremated remains and those of her late husband, the presidents grandson, Clifton Truman Daniel, is currently honorary co-chair of the Institutes board of directors. Two floors of exhibits show his life and presidency through photographs, documents, artifacts, memorabilia, film clips and a film about Trumans life

25.
United States Army Center of Military History
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The United States Army Center of Military History is a directorate within the Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. The center is responsible for the use of history and military records throughout the United States Army. Traditionally, this mission has meant recording the history of the army in both peace and war, while advising the army staff on historical matters. CMH is the organization leading the Army Historical Program. The center traces its lineage back to historians under the Secretary of War who compiled the Official Records of the Rebellion, a similar work on World War I was prepared by the Historical Section of the Army War College. They began publication of the United States Army in World War II series, since then, the Center has produced detailed series on the Armys role in the Korean and Vietnam Wars and has begun a series on the U. S. Army in the Cold War. These works are supplemented by monographs and other publications on a mix of topics and it has expanded its role in the areas of military history education, the management of the armys museum system, and the introduction of automated data-retrieval systems. The centers work with army schools ensures that the study of history is a part of the training of officers, much of this educational work is performed at field historical offices and in army museums. Under the direction of the chief of military history and his principal adviser and those works under way and projected are described in the Army Historical Program, an annual report to the Chief of Staff on the Army’s historical activities. All center publications are listed in the catalog Publications of the United States Army Center of Military History, CMH also serves as a clearinghouse for the oral history programs in the army at all levels of command. It also conducts and preserves its own oral history collections, including those from the Vietnam War, Desert Storm, in addition, the center’s end-of-tour interviews within the Army Secretariat and Staff provide a basis for its annual histories of the Department of the Army. As tangible representations of the mission, military artifacts and art enhance the soldier’s understanding of the profession of arms. CMH manages a system of more than 120 army museums and their holdings, current projects include the establishment of a National Army Museum at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, and a complementary Army Heritage and Educational Center at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. The Chief of Military History is responsible for ensuring the use of military history in the teaching of strategy, tactics, logistics. This mission includes a requirement that military leaders at all levels be aware of the value of history in advancing military professionalism, in this effort, the chief of military history is assisted by a historical advisory committee that includes leading academic historians and representatives of the army school system. Staff rides enable military leaders to retrace the course of a battle on the ground, as one of the army’s major teaching devices, staff rides are particularly dependent on a careful knowledge of military history. Center historians lead rides directed by the Secretary of the Army and it administers the army’s Command History Program, to provide historical support to army organizations worldwide. To stimulate interest in history in the army and the nation

26.
Vice President of the United States
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The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is elected, together with the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists, as the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. Currently, the president is usually seen as an integral part of a presidents administration. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress. Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president and he assumed office on January 20,2017. The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College, the delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that states allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state over candidates from other states, under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by a majority of the number of electors. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner-up presidential candidate would become vice president, the process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the electors own state remains in effect. S, other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. As President of the Senate, the president has two primary duties, to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheneys tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority, as President of the Senate, the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie-breaking votes that was surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31. Adamss votes protected the presidents sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, on at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters

27.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

28.
First inauguration of Harry S. Truman
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The inauguration marked the commencement of the first term of Harry Truman as President. Upon his arrival, he was met by Eleanor Roosevelt, who informed him that President Roosevelt was dead, shocked, Truman asked Mrs. Roosevelt, Is there anything I can do for you. To which she replied, Is there anything we can do for you, for you are the one in trouble now. Chief Justice of the United States Harlan Fiske Stone administered the oath of office. Among witnesses of this ceremony were Trumans wife Bess Truman, daughter Margaret Truman, Mrs. Roosevelt, Speaker Rayburn and this was the second presidential inauguration in 1945, after the regularly scheduled inauguration for Roosevelts fourth term earlier on January 20. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, the Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948. University of Missouri Press,1996 ISBN 0-8262-1066-X,9780826210661

29.
Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman
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The second inauguration of Harry S. Truman as President of the United States was held on January 20,1949. The inauguration marked the commencement of the term of Harry S. Truman as President. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson administered the Oath of office and it was the first televised US presidential inauguration and the first with an air parade. Truman also restarted the tradition of an inaugural ball, which had disappeared since the inauguration of William Howard Taft in 1909. The day before the ceremony, Truman signed a law doubling Presidents salary to $100,000 a year—the first such increase since Ulysses S. Grants salary doubled to $50,000 in 1873. The inaugural celebration, organized by Melvin D. Hildreth, lasted the full week from January 16–23, the New York Times described it as the most splendiferous since Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to lift the pall of gloom of 1933 with brave words proclaiming the New Deal. Some confusion was generated when thousands of people received souvenir invitations that were in fact not valid tickets to inaugural events,1.3 million people reportedly stood on Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues in Washington, D. C. to watch the inaugural parade. Six hundred warplanes flew overhead, and army soldiers marched with new weaponry on display, some of the marching units were racially mixed. During the parade, Truman was saluted by retired General and future President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Truman drew media attention for snubbing southern Governors Strom Thurmond and Herman Talmadge during the parade. Lena Horne, Dorothy Maynor and Lionel Hampton performed at the inaugural gala—the first African Americans to appear at this type of performance, the inaugural ceremony took place on January 20,1949. Truman took the oath of office administered by Chief Justice of the United States Fred Vinson, Truman then delivered an address and departed with the parade. According to one analysis, the arrival of members of Congress created a break in succession of Trumans terms as President. The 20th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1933, members of Congress arrived 10 minutes late and took another 10 minutes to take their seats. Vice President Alben W. Barkley was inaugurated at 12,23 and technically served as President for six minutes, in the inaugural address, sometimes called the Four Point speech, Truman discussed economic growth and opposition to Communism across the globe. This moment is often identified as the beginning of development policy in relation to Third World, millions of people watched the inauguration, broadcast as a single live program that aired on every network. Many schoolchildren watched from their classrooms, Truman authorized a holiday for federal employees so that they could also watch. The ceremony, and Trumans speech, were also broadcast abroad through the Voice of America, according to some calculations, the 1949 inauguration had more witnesses than all previous Presidential inaugurations combined. Despite being widely attacked as communists, thousands of members of the Civil Rights Congress arrived in Washington, the group protested Smith Act trials of communist leaders, as well as unfair death penalty sentences for African Americans

30.
Potsdam Conference
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The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, the three powers were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Ministers Winston Churchill and, later, Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. The goals of the conference included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaty issues. In the five months since the Yalta Conference, a number of changes had taken place which would affect the relationships between the leaders. Firstly, the Soviet Union was occupying Central and Eastern Europe, by July, the Red Army effectively controlled the Baltic states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania, and fearing a Stalinist take-over, refugees were fleeing from these countries. Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland and he insisted that his control of Eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible future attacks and claimed that it was a legitimate sphere of Soviet influence. Secondly, Britain had a new Prime Minister, a general election was held in the UK on 5 July, the results of which became known during the conference, with a Labour Party majority, Labour leader Clement Attlee became the new Prime Minister. During the war and in the name of Allied unity, Roosevelt had brushed off warnings of a potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship in part of Europe, while inexperienced in foreign affairs, Truman had closely followed the allied progress of the war. With the end of the war, the priority of allied unity was replaced with a new challenge, the two leading powers continued to sustain a cordial relationship to the public but suspicions and distrust lingered between them. As the suspicion grew between the two rising powers, Stalin proposed that America will use their advantage and success in order to entices other nations into expanding their U. S. policies. Truman became much more suspicious of communist moves than Roosevelt had been, Truman and his advisers saw Soviet actions in Eastern Europe as aggressive expansionism which was incompatible with the agreements Stalin had committed to at Yalta the previous February. However, the Potsdam Conference marks the first and only time Truman would ever meet Stalin in person, at the end of the conference, the three Heads of Government agreed on the following actions. All other issues were to be answered by the peace conference to be called as soon as possible. Allied Chiefs of Staff at the Potsdam Conference decided to temporarily partition Vietnam at the 16th parallel for the purposes of operational convenience. It was agreed that British forces would take the surrender of Japanese forces in Saigon for the half of Indochina. The Allies issued a statement of aims of their occupation of Germany, Germany and Austria were to be divided respectively into four occupation zones, and similarly each capital, Berlin and Vienna, was to be divided into four zones. It was agreed that the Nazi war criminals would be put to trial, all German annexations in Europe were to be reversed, including Sudetenland, Alsace-Lorraine, Austria, and the westernmost parts of Poland. Germanys eastern border was to be shifted westwards to the Oder–Neisse line, the territories east of the new border comprised East Prussia, Silesia, West Prussia, and two thirds of Pomerania

31.
Potsdam Agreement
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It also included Germanys demilitarisation, reparations and the prosecution of war criminals. Executed as a communiqué, the Agreement was not a treaty according to international law. It was superseded by the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany signed on 12 September 1990,45 years later. After the Second World War, and the Tehran, Casablanca and Yalta Conferences, the Allies by the Berlin Declaration of June 5,1945, had assumed supreme authority over Germany. In the Three Power Conference of Berlin from 17 July to 2 August 1945, they agreed to and adopted the Protocol of the Proceedings, August 1,1945, the Provisional Government of the French Republic agreed with reservations on August 4. In the Potsdam Agreement the Allies agree, Establishment of a Council of Foreign Ministers, see the London Conference of Foreign Ministers and the Moscow Conference which took place later in 1945. The principles to govern the treatment of Germany in the control period. See European Advisory Commission and Allied Control Council A, treatment of Germany as a single unit. Reduction or destruction of all civilian heavy-industry with war-potential, such as shipbuilding, machine production, restructuring of German economy towards agriculture and light-industry. This section covered reparation claims of the USSR from the Soviet occupation zone in Germany, all but thirty submarines to be sunk and the rest of the German Navy was to be divided equally between the three powers. The German merchant marine was to be divided equally between the three powers, and they would distribute some of those ships to the other Allies. But until the end of the war with the Empire of Japan all the ships would remain under the authority of the Combined Shipping Adjustment Board, City of Königsberg and the adjacent area. The United States and Britain declared that they would support the transfer of Königsberg, the Three Governments reaffirm their intention to bring these criminals to swift and sure justice. The first list of defendants will be published before 1st September, Austria, The government of Austria was to be decided after British and American forces entered Vienna, and that Austria should not pay any reparations. Poland There should be a Provisional Government of National Unity recognised by all three powers, and that those Poles who were serving in British Army formations should be free to return to Poland, conclusion on peace treaties and admission to the United Nations organization. See Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers which took place later in 1945, further he three Governments have also charged the Council of Foreign Ministers with the task of preparing peace treaties for Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary and Romania. The conclusion of Peace Treaties with recognized democratic governments in these States will also enable the three Governments to support applications from them for membership of the United Nations, territorial Trusteeship Italian former colonies would be decided in connection with the preparation of a peace treaty for Italy. Like most of the other former European Axis powers the Italian peace treaty was signed at the 1947 Paris Peace Conference and they agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner

32.
Potsdam Declaration
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The Potsdam Declaration or the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender is a statement that called for the surrender of all Japanese armed forces during World War II. On July 26,1945, United States President Harry S and this ultimatum stated that, if Japan did not surrender, it would face prompt and utter destruction. On July 26, the United States, Britain, and China released the Potsdam Declaration announcing the terms for Japans surrender, with the warning, We will not deviate from them. That the Japanese military forces, after being disarmed, shall be permitted to return to their homes with the opportunity to lead peaceful. On the other hand, the declaration offered that, The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles to the revival, freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established. Japan shall be permitted to maintain such industries as will sustain her economy and permit the exaction of just reparations in kind, to this end, access to, as distinguished from control of, raw materials shall be permitted. Eventual Japanese participation in trade relations shall be permitted. The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction and it did, however, insist that the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest must be eliminated for all time. Although the document warned of further destruction like the Operation Meetinghouse raid on Tokyo and other carpetbombing of Japanese cities, a major aspect relating to the Potsdam Declaration was that it was intended to be ambiguous. It is not clear from the document itself whether a Japanese government was to remain under Allied occupation or whether the occupation would be run by a military government. In the same manner, it was not clear whether after the end of the occupation Japan was to any territory other than the four main Japanese islands. This ambiguity was intentional on the part of the US government in order to allow a hand in running the affairs of Japan afterwards. The Declaration was released to the press in Potsdam on the evening of July 26, Washington time, OWIs West Coast transmitters, aimed at the Japanese home islands, were broadcasting the text in English, and two hours later began broadcasting it in Japanese. The Declaration was never transmitted to the Japanese government through diplomatic channels, the Japanese government did not disclose the declaration to the Japanese people. However, the ultimatum was heard by some who listened to the OWI broadcasts, Japan never officially responded to the Potsdam Declaration. However, the word can mean no comment, as it was apparently intended in this case to mean. President Truman and his advisors had mulled over the meaning of mokosatsu before making a decision, one meaning was a matter of politeness among the upper classes. An unacceptable offer is made, and the person, not wanting to offend the speaker

33.
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9,1945, respectively, during the final stage of World War II. The United States had dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as outlined in the Quebec Agreement, the two bombings, which killed at least 129,000 people, remain the only use of nuclear weapons for warfare in history. In the final year of the war, the Allies prepared for what was anticipated to be a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This was preceded by a U. S. conventional and firebombing campaign that destroyed 67 Japanese cities, the war in Europe had concluded when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of surrender on May 8,1945, just after Hitler committed suicide. The Japanese, facing the fate, refused to accept the Allies demands for unconditional surrender. The Allies called for the surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945—the alternative being prompt. The Japanese response to this ultimatum was to ignore it, orders for atomic bombs to be used on four Japanese cities were issued on July 25. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness, in both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison. Japan announced its surrender to the Allies on August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki, on September 2, the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender, effectively ending World War II. The justification for the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is still debated to this day, in 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. The Japanese fought fiercely, ensuring that U. S. victory would come at an enormous cost, December 1944 saw American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from 5,1 in the Philippines to 2,1 on Okinawa, although some Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99% of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed, of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April–June 1945, 94% were killed. American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the invasion of Japan. As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people, Japans merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945

34.
National Mental Health Act
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The National Mental Health Act became law on July 3,1946. It established and provided funds for a National Institute of Mental Health, the Act made the mental health of the people a federal priority. It was inspired by alarm at the mental health of some draftees and veterans. Through the National Mental Health Act and the NIMH, a new form of diagnosis and it was discovered during this time that mental health patients benefited more from evaluation and treatment rather than being institutionalized. The act redirected financing from the level to a national level. In other words, wartime pressures had stirred up repressed mental illness in the soldiers, the Menninger brothers set about training analysts, to fill the vacuum that existed at that time. The act was first introduced by Congress in March,1945, the name ultimately made its way to Mental Health to capture the importance of World War II and the problems associated with veterans returning from war. Robert Felix, a psychiatrist appointed as director of the Public Health Services Division of Mental Hygiene in 1944, did a lot of work to try and pass the bill. They believed that if veterans received federal help and support through preventative services, professional training, in addition, organizations like Mental Health America that advocated for changes in the psychiatric field helped push legislation towards action. This provided the foundation for the act and the reasoning behind it, after the act was passed, many discoveries and breakthroughs regarding mental health diagnosis and treatment were made. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services

35.
National Institute of Mental Health
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The National Institute of Mental Health is one of 27 institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health. NIMH is the largest research organization in the world specializing in mental illness, joshua A. Gordon is the current Director of NIMH. The mission of NIMH is to transform the understanding and treatment of illnesses through basic and clinical research, paving the way for prevention, recovery. In this way, breakthroughs in science can become breakthroughs for all people with mental illnesses, attempts to create a National Neuropsychiatric Institute failed. Robert H. Felix, then head of the Division of Mental Hygiene, Congressional subcommittees hearings were held and the National Mental Health Act was signed into law in 1946. On April 15,1949, the NIMH was formally established, funding for the NIMH grew slowly and then, from the mid-1950s, dramatically. In 1955 the Mental Health Study Act called for an objective, thorough, nationwide analysis and reevaluation of the human, in 1963, Congress passed the Mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act, beginning a new era in Federal support for mental health services. NIMH assumed responsibility for monitoring the Nations community mental health centers programs, during the mid-1960s, NIMH launched a campaign on special mental health problems. Part of this was a response to President Lyndon Johnsons pledge to apply research to social problems. In 1967, NIMH separated from NIH and was given Bureau status within PHS, secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare John W. Gardner transferred St. Elizabeths Hospital, the Federal Governments only civilian psychiatric hospital, to NIMH. In 1968, NIMH became a component of PHSs Health Services, in 1970 the Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation Act established the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism within NIMH. In 1972, the Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act established a National Institute on Drug Abuse within NIMH, in 1973, NIMH went through a series of organizational moves. The Institute temporarily rejoined NIH on July 1 with the abolishment of HSMHA, ADAMHA was officially established in 1974. The Presidents Commission on Mental Health in 1977 reviewed the mental health needs of the nation, in 1980 The Epidemiologic Catchment Area study, an unprecedented research effort that entailed interviews with a nationally representative sample of 20,000 Americans was launched. The field interviews and first wave analyses were completed in 1985, data from the ECA provided a picture of rates of mental and addictive disorders and services usage. In 1987, Administrative control of St. Elizabeths Hospital was transferred from the NIMH to the District of Columbia, NIMH retained research facilities on the grounds of the hospital. The NIMH Neuroscience Center and the NIMH Neuropsychiatric Research Hospital, located on the grounds of St. Elizabeths Hospital, were dedicated in 1989, in 1992, Congress passed the ADAMHA Reorganization Act, abolishing ADAMHA. The return to NIH and the loss of functions to SAMHSA necessitated a realignment of the NIMH extramural program administrative organization

36.
National School Lunch Act
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The program was established as a way to prop up food prices by absorbing farm surpluses, while at the same time providing food to school age children. It was named after Richard Russell, Jr. signed into law by President Harry S. Truman in 1945, the majority of the support provided to schools participating in the program comes in the form of a cash reimbursement for each meal served. Schools are also entitled to receive commodity foods and additional commodities as they are available from surplus agricultural stocks, the National School Lunch Program serves 30.5 million children each day at a cost of $8.7 billion for fiscal year 2007. Most participants are eligible for food during the summer through the Summer Food Service Program. The Childrens Aid Society of New York initiated a program in 1853, in 1894, the Starr Center Association in Philadelphia began serving penny lunches in one school, later expanding the service to another. Soon a lunch committee was established within the Home and School League, the Board granted his request on an experimental basis and on the condition that the program would be self-supporting. The experiment proved successful, and the following year lunch services were extended to the Southern Manual Training School and later to three additional units. In the spring of 1912, the School Board established a Department of High School Lunches, in January 1910, an experimental program for elementary schools took the form of a mid-morning lunch prepared by the class in Home Economics three days each week. On two days of each week sandwiches and milk were served, the children ate their meals at their desks, there being no lunchroom in the building. As the scope of the meal supply expanded, local governments, supplementary contributions by charitable organizations and individuals did not suffice. Aid from Federal sources became inevitable, the depression of the 1930s brought on widespread unemployment. Needy families and school programs became constructive outlets for the commodities purchased by the USDA under the terms of such legislation. Many needy school children could not afford to pay for lunches and were sorely in need of supplementary foods from a nutritional standpoint. Thus they would be using foods at school which would not otherwise be purchased in the market place and these funds came from customs duties and were specifically designated to encourage agricultural surplus consumption via exports and domestic donations. In March 1937, there were 3,839 schools receiving commodities for lunch programs serving 342,031 children daily, two years later, the number of schools participating had grown to 14,075 and the number of children had risen to 892,259. From 1939 to 1942，the number of schools participating increased by 78,841, in July 1943, in an attempt to salvage the deterioration of school lunches, Congress passed Public Law 129 to amend the Agricultural Act of 1935. This law re-established school lunch programs using $60 million to cover the purchase of food, the next year, Congress appropriated another $50 million and allowed child-care centers to participate. Since the Act passed, Congress has modified several aspects of the policy, Congress amended the NSLP in 1962 to adjust fund distribution

37.
Employment Act of 1946
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The Employment Act of 1946 ch. §1021, is a United States federal law and its main purpose was to lay the responsibility of economic stability of inflation and unemployment onto the federal government. The Act stated, it was the policy and responsibility of the federal government to, coordinate and utilize all its plans, functions. Liberals wanted an emphasis on full employment but conservatives were in control, stein notes, The failure to pass a Full Employment Act is as significant as the decision to pass the Employment Act. The Act also created the Council of Economic Advisers, attached to the White House, by 1940 depression was finally over. A remarkable burst of activity and full employment came during the war years. Fears of a depression were widespread, since the massive military spending was ending, the war plants were shutting down. Congress, fearful of a return to depression, sought to establish preemptive safeguards against economic downturn, the White House relied on Keynesian economic theory to develop its strategy. Swings in aggregate demand create a phenomenon known as a cycle that leads to irregular downsizing and hiring runs. Keynes argued that the biggest contributor of these shifts in aggregate demand is investment. The original bill, called the Full Employment Bill of 1945, was introduced in the House as H. R.2202, the bill represented a concerted effort to develop a broad economic policy for the country. In particular, it mandated that the government do everything in its authority to achieve full employment. In this vein, the bill required the President to submit an annual report in addition to the national budget. There was strong opposition to the wording of the bill from the business community, some also believed that the economy would naturally drive toward full employment levels. Others believed that accurate employment level forecasting by the government was not practical or feasible, some were uncomfortable with an outright guarantee of employment. The Conservative Coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats controlled Congress, the bill was pressured to take on a number of amendments that forced the removal of the guarantee of full employment and the order to engage in compensatory spending. Although the spirit of the bill carried through into the Employment Act of 1946, the final act was not so much a mandate as a set of suggestions. The result was a bill that made the general goals full employment, full production, President Harry S. Truman signed the compromise bill into law on February 20,1946

38.
Council of Economic Advisers
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The Council of Economic Advisers in the United States is an agency within the Executive Office of the President that advises the President of the United States on economic policy. The CEA provides much of the empirical research for the White House. Currently, the position of chairman of the CEA is vacant, jason Furman, the previous Chairman, was appointed by President Obama on June 10,2013. The councils chairman is nominated by the president and approved by the United States Senate, the members are appointed by the president. The staff of the consists of a chief of staff as well as about twenty economists. Many of the staff economists are academics on leave or government economists on temporary assignment from other agencies, in 1949 a dispute broke out between Chairman Edwin Nourse and member Leon Keyserling. In 1949 Keyserling gained support from powerful Truman advisors Dean Acheson, Nourse resigned as chairman, warning about the dangers of budget deficits and increased funding of wasteful defense costs. The Eisenhower Administration supported an activist contracyclical approach that helped to establish Keynesianism as a bipartisan economic policy for the nation. Especially important in formulating the CEA response to the public works programs, easing credit. The 1978 Humphrey–Hawkins Act required each administration to move toward full employment and it has made CEAs annual economic report highly political in nature, as well as highly unreliable and inaccurate over the standard two or five year projection periods

39.
Truman Doctrine
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The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy created to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was first announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12,1947 and further developed on July 12,1948 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. American military force was not involved, but Congress appropriated free gifts of financial aid to support the economies. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Soviet communism, the Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still in effect. Historians often use Trumans speech to date the start of the Cold War, Truman told Congress that it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. Truman reasoned that because the totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they represented a threat to international peace, Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War. He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, because Turkey and Greece were historic rivals, it was considered necessary to help both equally even though the threat to Greece was more immediate. For years, Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested for the United States to take over its role in supporting the Greeks, the policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money but no military forces to the region. The effect was to end the communist threat, and in 1952, the Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan and it was distinguished from rollback by implicitly tolerating the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe. As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Unions requests, tensions arose in the region, since British assistance to Turkey had ended in 1947, the U. S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey received $100 million in economic and military aid and the U. S sent the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt, the postwar period from 1946 started with a multi-party period and the Democratic Party government of Adnan Menderes. In the second stage of the war in December 1944. In the third phase, guerrilla forces controlled by the Greek Communist Party fought against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after 1946 elections boycotted by the KKE. By late 1946, Britain informed the United States that due to its own weakening economy, it could no longer continue to provide military, in 1946–47, the United States and the Soviet Union moved from being wartime allies to Cold War adversaries. The breakdown of Allied cooperation in Germany provided a backdrop of escalating tensions for the Truman Doctrine, to Truman, the growing unrest in Greece began to look like a pincer movement against the oil-rich areas of the Middle East and the warm-water ports of the Mediterranean. Aid would be given to both Greece and Turkey, to cool the long-standing rivalry between them

40.
Marshall Plan
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The plan was in operation for four years beginning April 8,1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous once more, the Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states roughly on a per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their resuscitation was essential for general European revival. Somewhat more aid per capita was also directed towards the Allied nations, the largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom, followed by France and West Germany. Some 18 European countries received Plan benefits, although offered participation, the Soviet Union refused Plan benefits, and also blocked benefits to Eastern Bloc countries, such as East Germany and Poland. The United States provided similar aid programs in Asia, but they were not called Marshall Plan, the initiative is named after Secretary of State George Marshall, who also served as the United States Army Chief of staff during WWII. The plan had bipartisan support in Washington, where the Republicans controlled Congress, Marshall spoke of an urgent need to help the European recovery in his address at Harvard University in June 1947. The purpose of the Marshall Plan was to aid in the recovery of nations after WWII as well as to antagonize the Soviet Union. In order to combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed its own economic plan and it was not as effective as the Marshall Plan, and in some ways contradictory to eastern block countries that served alongside the axis powers in WWII. The phrase equivalent of the Marshall Plan is often used to describe a proposed large-scale economic rescue program, the reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was drafted on June 5,1947. It offered the aid to the Soviet Union and its allies. In fact, the Soviet Union prevented its satellite states from accepting, Secretary Marshall became convinced Stalin had no interest in helping restore economic health in Western Europe. President Harry Truman signed the Marshall Plan on April 3,1948, the Marshall Plan was replaced by the Mutual Security Plan at the end of 1951, that new plan gave away about $7 billion annually until 1961 when it was replaced by another program. The ERP addressed each of the obstacles to postwar recovery, the plan looked to the future, and did not focus on the destruction caused by the war. By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant state had surpassed pre-war levels, for all Marshall Plan recipients, by the end of World War II, much of Europe was devastated. Sustained aerial bombardment during the war had badly damaged most major cities, the regions trade flows had been thoroughly disrupted, millions were in refugee camps living on aid from United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and other agencies. Food shortages were severe, especially in the winter of 1946–47. From July 1945 through June 1946, the United States shipped 16.5 million tons of food, primarily wheat, to Europe and Japan

41.
Executive Order 9835
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President Harry S. Truman signed United States Executive Order 9835, sometimes known as the Loyalty Order, on March 21,1947. The order established the first general loyalty program in the United States, Truman aimed to rally public opinion behind his Cold War policies with investigations conducted under its authority. He also hoped to quiet right-wing critics who accused Democrats of being soft on communism, at the same time, he advised the Loyalty Review Board to limit the role of the Federal Bureau of Investigation to avoid a witch hunt. The program investigated over 3 million government employees, just over 300 of whom were dismissed as security risks, the Loyalty Order was part of the prelude to the rise of Senator Joseph McCarthy, Republican of Wisconsin. It was mostly the result of increasing U. S. –Soviet tensions and political maneuvering by the president, the order established a wide area for the departmental loyalty boards to conduct loyalty screenings of federal employees and job applicants. Executive Order 9835 also was the impetus for the creation of the Attorney Generals List of Subversive Organizations. As U. S. relations with the Soviet Union rapidly deteriorated following World War II, there were accompanying concerns about government infiltration by communists. As the U. S. fell from being wartime allies to staunch adversaries with the USSR, American obsession with perceived dangers associated with the Soviet Union, and Communists in general, began to grow. Much of this obsession was fueled by reports, in and out of the government, economic tension helped foster a general state of anger and anxiety in the United States and its government. As Congressional elections approached in late 1946, many American conservative groups attempted to ignite a new Red Scare, the Republican Party, assisted by a coalition that included the Catholic Church, the FBI and private entrepreneurs, worked to inflame public fear and suspicion. As fear of Communist infiltration in the government grew, it became a campaign issue in the 1946 elections. HUAC, amid the anxieties of the elections and international tensions, had investigated several alleged Communist front organizations and these investigations led to fresh questions about employee loyalty from the House committee. Republicans, looking for sizable Congressional gains, took advantage of this atmosphere. Communist infiltration, along with attacks on the Truman administrations economic policies, were manifested in campaign slogans such as Had Enough. meanwhile, under the leadership of Republican National Chairman Carroll Reece, the Republican Party made repeated anti-Communist attacks on Truman and Congressional Democrats. Reece often referred to the puppets in control of the federal bureaucracy. House Republican leader Joe Martin pledged to clean out Communists from high positions in the U. S. government, the election of 1946 produced a huge Republican victory inb which they gained control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1932. Two weeks after the sweeping Republican victory, the president announced the creation of the Presidents Temporary Commission on Employee Loyalty on November 25,1946. News of the TCEL made the front page of the New York Times under the headline President orders purge of disloyal from U. S. posts, the commission sought to determine federal loyalty standards and establish procedures for removal or disqualification of disloyal or subversive persons from federal posts

42.
National Security Act of 1947
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The National Security Act of 1947 was a major restructuring of the United States governments military and intelligence agencies following World War II. The majority of the provisions of the Act took effect on September 18,1947, the Act merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense. It also created the Department of the Air Force, which separated the Army Air Forces into its own service and it also protected the Marine Corps as an independent service, under the Department of the Navy, prohibiting it from ever being absorbed into the Army. Aside from the reorganization, the act established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency. The National Security Act of 1947 was a restructuring of the United States governments military. The act and its changes, along with the Truman Doctrine, the bill signing took place aboard Trumans VC-54C presidential aircraft Sacred Cow, the first aircraft used for the role of Air Force One. The majority of the provisions of the Act took effect on September 18,1947 and his power was initially limited and it was difficult for him to exercise the authority to make his office effective. This was later changed in the amendment to the act in 1949, the Act merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense. It also created the Department of the Air Force, which separated the Army Air Forces into its own service and it also protected the Marine Corps as an independent service, under the Department of the Navy, prohibiting it from ever being absorbed into the Army. Initially, each of the three service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, but the act was amended on August 10,1949, at the same time, the NME was renamed as the Department of Defense. The purpose was to unify the Army, Navy, and Air Force into a federated structure. S. s first peacetime intelligence agency. The councils function was to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies, the 1949 Revolt of the Admirals. The Story Behind the National Security Act of 1947, underlying assumptions of the National Security Act of 1947. The National Security Act of 1947, Its Thirtieth Anniversary, enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, compiled 1789 -2008. U. S. National Archives and Records Administration

43.
Joint Chiefs of Staff
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After the 1986 reorganization of the military undertaken by the Goldwater-Nichols Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not have operational command of U. S. military forces. Today, their responsibility is to ensure the personnel readiness, policy. The Joint Chiefs of Staff also act in an advisory capacity for the President of the United States. However, the Coast Guard is always a service and may operate under the Department of the Navy during wartime. The commandant of the Coast Guard is however, occasionally invited by the chairman to attend meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. As the military of the United States grew in size following the American Civil War, the Army and Navy were unsupportive of each other at either the planning or operational level and were constrained by disagreements during the Spanish–American War in the Caribbean campaigns. The Joint Board acting as a committee was created to plan joint operations. Yet, the Joint Board accomplished little as its charter gave it no authority to enforce its decisions, the Joint Board also lacked the ability to originate its own opinions and was thus limited to commenting only on the problems submitted to it by the Secretaries of War and Navy. As a result, the Joint Board had little to no impact on the manner the United States conducted World War I, after World War I, in 1919 the two Secretaries agreed to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. The mission of the General staff was to develop plans for mobilization for the next war, the US was always designated Blue and potential enemies were assigned various other colors. This time, the Joint Boards membership would include the Chiefs of Staff, their deputies, under the Joint Board would be a staff called the Joint Planning Committee to serve the Board. Along with new membership, the Joint Board could initiate recommendations on its own initiative, however, the Joint Board still did not possess the legal authority to enforce its decisions. President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill established the Combined Chiefs of Staff during the 1942 Arcadia Conference, the CCS would serve as the supreme military body for strategic direction of the combined US-British Empire war effort. The UK portion of the CCS would be composed of the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the Joint Board had little influence during the war and was ultimately disbanded in 1947. Modeled on the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the JCS first formal meeting was held on 9 February 1942, to coordinate U. S. military operations between War and Navy Departments. On 20 July 1942, Admiral Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, with the chiefs of staff of the services serving under his leadership. The first members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were, As the table indicates, by the end of the war, however, each had been promoted, Leahy and King to Fleet Admiral, Marshall and Arnold to General of the Army. Arnold was later appointed to the grade of General of the Air Force, one of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs committees was the Joint Strategic Survey Committee

44.
United States National Security Council
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Since its inception under Harry S. Truman, the function of the Council has been to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. The Council also serves as the principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. The Council has counterparts in the national security councils of other nations. The National Security Council was created in 1947 by the National Security Act and it was created because policymakers felt that the diplomacy of the State Department was no longer adequate to contain the USSR in light of the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States. On May 26,2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council, the HSC and NSC each continue to exist by statute as bodies supporting the President. The name of the organization was changed back to National Security Council Staff in 2014. On April 5,2017, President Trump removed Steve Bannon from the Security Council, however, Chief of Staff Reince Priebus clarified the next day that they still are invited to attend meetings. The reorganization also placed the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development as a permanent member of the Deputies Committee, later in 1949, as part of the Reorganization Plan, the Council was placed in the Executive Office of the President. The High Value Detainee Interrogation Group also reports to the NSC, a secret National Security Council panel pursues the killing of an individual, including American citizens, who has been called a suspected terrorist. In this case, no record of this decision or any operation to kill the suspect will be made available. Reuters has reported that Anwar al-Awlaki, an American citizen, was on such a kill list and was killed accordingly, the National Security Council is chaired by the President. Its members are the Vice President, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Energy, the National Security Advisor, and the Secretary of the Treasury. The Chief of Staff to the President, Counsel to the President, the Attorney General, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget and The Director of the Central Intelligence Agency are invited to attend meetings pertaining to their responsibilities. The heads of executive departments and agencies, as well as other senior officials, are invited to attend meetings of the NSC when appropriate. The Principals Committee of the National Security Council is the Cabinet-level senior interagency forum consideration of security policy issues. The Principals Committee is convened and chaired by the National Security Advisor, the National Security Council Deputies Committee is the senior sub-Cabinet interagency forum for consideration of national security policy issues. The Deputies Committee is also responsible for reviewing and monitoring the national security process including for establishing and directing the Policy Coordination Committees. The Deputies Committee is convened and chaired by the Deputy National Security Advisor or the Deputy Homeland Security Advisor, the Executive Secretary and the Deputy White House Counsel also attend

45.
United States Department of the Air Force
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The Department of the Air Force is one of the three Military Departments within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Department of the Air Force was formed on September 18,1947, per the National Security Act of 1947, the Secretary of the Air Forces principal deputy is the Under Secretary of the Air Force. Only the Secretary of Defense has the authority to transfer of forces between Combatant Commands. The department has suffered many problems in aircraft acquisition over the years,2003, Darleen Druyun rigged plan to lease Boeing tankers. 2011, Department sends KC-X evaluations to wrong companies,2012, Error in paperwork requires Light Attack/Armed Reconnaissance to be rebid. Department of the Air Force Airman Magazine, The Book 2010 – Personnel Facts, Airman Magazine, Volume 54 Number 3. Official site Department of the Air Force in the Federal Register

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Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

Though prominent as a Missouri Senator, Harry Truman had been vice president only three months when he became president; he was never informed of Franklin Roosevelt's war or postwar policies while vice president.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who …

The Joint Chiefs of Staff at the Pentagon in December 2001.

Joint Chiefs of Staff meeting (circa 1943). From left to right are: Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Chief of the Army Air Forces; Adm. William D. Leahy, Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy; Adm. Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations; and Gen. George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States Army.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff and several Commanders in Chief gathered at the Pentagon on 1 July 1983.

The 113 stars on the CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action

Suspended from the ceiling of the glass enclosed atrium: three models of the U-2, Lockheed A-12, and D-21drone. These models are exact replicas at one-sixth scale of the real planes. All three had photographic capabilities. The U-2 was one of the first espionage planes developed by the CIA. The A-12 set unheralded flight records. The D-21 drone was one of the first unmanned aircraft ever built. Lockheed Martin Corporation donated all three models to the CIA.