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THE
Jewish Encyclopedia
A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF
THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY
Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists
UNDER THE DIRECTION oK THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD
Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. [Departments of Post- Joseph Jacobs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews
of England and A nthropology; Revising Editor).
Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. (Department of the
Talmud ) .
Kaufmann Kohler, Ph D. (Departments of
Theology and Philosophy) .
Herman Rosenthal (Department of the Jews of
Russia and Poland ).
Isidore Singer, Ph.D. {Department of Afodern
Biography from ly^o to fgo2) .
Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D. (Department of Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments
the Bible). of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature).
Biblical Antiqttities ; the Jews of America) .
Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. (Department of
History from I4g2 to iqoz) .
Louis Ginzblkg, Ph.D. (Department of Rab-
binical Literature) .
Richard Gottheh., Ph.D. (Departments of
History from Ezra to I4g2 ; History of Post-
Talmudic Literature) .
ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D.
Chairman of the Board
FRANK H. VIZETELLY
Secretary of the board
ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.
Projector and Managing Editor
ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS
COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES
EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK AND LONDON
FUNK
AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
M DC C C C I I
THE
Jewish Encyclopedia
A DESCR.IPTIVE R.ECORD OF
THK HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OE THE JEWISH PEOPLE EROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY
Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists
I'NIIER rilF. IlIRECrlON OF TlIF, FOLL'IWING ElinnKIAl. IUJAKH
Cyrus Adler, I'lr.I). [Di-l^arlmeitts of Post- Joseph Jacobs, B.A. {Dcjtartments of the Jews
Bibtieal Ajttiqtiities ; t lie Jews of Ameriea) . of England and Anthropology ; Revising Editor).
Gotthard Df.utscii, PilO. ( Department of Marcus Jastrow, J'h.I). {Department of t/,e
History from 141^2 to igo2) . Talmud) .
Kaukmann Kohler, Pll U. (Departments of
Louis GlNznERC, I'li.!). [Department of Rah- Theology and Philosophy) .
hhtieal Literature) .
Hf,rmav Rosenthal (Departmmt of the Jews of
RlcHAun CoTTHEii., Ph.D. {Departments of Russia and Poland).
History from Ezra to I4g2 ; History of Post- is,r,„RE SiNGER, Ph.D. {Department of Modern
Talmudie Literature) . Biography from 1730 to igo2) .
Emil (;. lIlRSCH, Ph.D., Ll..i). {Department of CrawforI) TI. Toy, D.I)., I.L.D. [Departments
the Bible). of Jtehrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature).
I.SAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. FRANK H. VIZETEl.LY
Chairman of the Board Secretary of the Board
ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.
Projector and Managing Editor
ASSISTED PV AMERICAN AND KOREIC.X liOAKDS OI" CI )NSl'I,TIN( ', EDITORS
VOLUME III
BENCEMERO— CHAZANUTH
NEW YOR/ ND LONDON
FUNK
AND WA^NALLS COMPANY
M D C C C C I I
Copyright, 1902, by
FUNK & W A G N A L L S C O M P A N V
All rights of translation reserved
Registered at Stationers' Hall. London, England
{Printed in the United States 0/ A merica ]
College
Library
LITERARY DIRECTORATE
EDITORIAL BOARD
CYRTJS ADLEB, Ph.D.
(Departiucnl.-i n/ I uxt-Bihlinil Antiijliiliis: lln Jewm
America.)
President of the American Jewish Hlstoriivil Suiiely ; Liljra-
rian, Smithsonian Institution, VVashint'lnn. I). C.
GOTTHABD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.
(/ , lailiiuiil nf llnituru Iniiii l'.:)J In i:h)J.)
Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union Coileijc', Cineinnati,
(ihio ; Editor of " Deborah."
LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.
{Dciiarlninil nf Ilitliliiiiinll Litj ralilir.)
Professor of Tahnud. Jewish Theological Seminary of America,
New York ; Author of " Die Hajrgailu bci den
Klrchenvatern."
BICHABD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.
(Deparlmcrita (if Histinu 11(1111 Ezra la ;/,.''-',• JIMaruaf
Post-TaliKiuUv Literature.)
ProfessorofSemiticl.anifuaBes, Columbia Uniyerslty, New York:
Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;
President of the Federation of A merlcan Zionists.
EMIL G. HIBSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.
tDeiiarimeat af tlie Bihle.)
Rabbi of Cbicai!0 Sinai Congregation, Chicago, III.; Professor of
Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, Uniyerslty of
Chicago ; Editor of " The Reform Advocate."
JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.
{Dciinrtmetxts af ll(r .Jeirs af Eatilaiid and Anthropnlagu;
lieri.siiifj Editor.)
Formerly PiTsldent of the Jewish Historical Society of England ;
Author of " Jews of Angevin England," etc.
MABCUS JASTBOW, Ph.D.
i,D( li((rtiiielil(if tlie TalKdid.i
Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
phia, Pa.; Author "f "Dictionary of the Tahnud."
KAUFMANN KOHLEB, Ph.D.
{Dcijnrtmenis af Tla-aUniii: Pliilasaiilin.)
Rabbiof Temple Beth-r.l, New York ; ex-President of the Board
of Jewish Ministers, New York.
HEBMAN BOSENTHAL.
(Department af tlte Jews af Husnia and I'alnnd.)
Chief of the Slavonic Departiiiciit, New York Library.
ISIDOBE SINGEB, Ph.D.
MANAUJNIi EniTOR.
IDcyiartmcnt (if Madern Biagraph]i fram n.'eita i:io?.)
CBAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.
{Departments (if Helirew Pliildlauii and llrlleni.'<lie.
Literature.)
Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.;
Author of "The Religion of Israel," "Judaism and
Christianity." etc.
I. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D.
iCIiairman at tin ll(Ktr(t.)
Editor-in-Chief of the ST.\XDARn Dictionary or tiik Exiii.ish
La.ngi'age. etc.
FBANK H. VIZETELLY.
(.Sceretariiaf ll(( Dnard.l
As.soclate Editor of "The Columbian Cvclcipedia." and on the
Standard Dictioxarv Editorial St^iU, etc.
AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS
BEBNABD DBACHMAN, Ph.D.,
RaJibi nf the Congregation Zichron Ephraiin ; Instructor in the
Hible and in Hebrew (irammar, Jewish Theological Semi-
nary of America, New York.
B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,
Riibbl Emeritus of Zion Congregation, ('hicago; Author of
"A Practical (iranmiar of the Hebrew Language."
GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,
Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-EI, New York.
HENBY HYVEBNAT, D.D.,
Head of Ihe Department of Semitic and EgjTitian Literatures,
Catholii' University of America, Washington, D. C.
MOBBIS JASTBOW, Jr., Ph.D.,
Profes.sor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. I'a. ; Author of "Re-
ligion of the Babylonians and Assyrians," etc.
J. FBEDEBIC McCUBDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of (iriental Languages, University C<illcge, Tori>nto,
Canada ; Author of " History. Proiihecy, and
the Monuments."
H. PEBEIBA MENDES, M.D.,
Rabbiof IheSbearith Israel ((ingrciralion .Spanish and I'oriu-
guese). New York ; President of the Board of Jewish
Ministers, New York.
MOSES MIELZINEB, Ph.D., D.D.,
President of ilie Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Dhlo;
Author df " Introduction to the Talmud."
LITERARY DIRECTORATE
GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,
Professor of Bibliial Litenmire luul the History of Religions
in Harvard University, t ambridge. Mass.; Author of
" A Commentary on the Book of Judges," etc.
DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,
Uabblof theCorigrcgjilion lltnc Isnn-1 : Pinfossor of Homiletics,
Hebrew I'nion College, C'inrinnati. Ohio ; President of
Hebrew Sabbat^ Vbo<»I Union of America.
IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Laaguages and Literatures, University of
Chicago, 111.: Author of "' The Monuments and
the Old Testauient," etc.
SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.,
President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary of
America. New York ; Author of " Studies in Judaism."
JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,
President of I'eulral Conferemc of .\meri. au Rabbis : Rabbi of
Temple Enianu-El. New York.
JACOB VOORS ANGER, D.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro-
fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.
EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,
Editor of " Tlie Literary Digest," New Y'ork ; Author of " Stories
in Rhyme," etc.
FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,
Coedil*irof " The Jewislnjuarlerly lieview "; .\ utlior of " Jew-
ish Life in the Middle Agt'S," etc.: Reader of Biibbinic,
Cauittridgc I'nivei-siiy. England.
W. BACHER, Ph.D.,
Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest,
Hungary.
M. BR ANN, Ph.D.,
Pn^fessor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau. Ger-
many ; Editor of " M^matsschrift fiir Geschichte und
Wissenschafl des Judentliums."
H. BRODY, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria : Coeditor of " Zeltschrift fiir
Heliraische Bililiographie."
ABRAHAM DANON,
Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,
Turkey.
HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D.,
Profes.'^ur of Litei-ary Arabic at the SpcLial Scliiwl of Oriental
Languages, Paris ; Member of the InsUtut de France.
S. M. DUBNOW,
.\uthorof "Istoriya Vevrcyt'v." iidessji, Russia.
MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,
Principal of Jews' ("liege, London. England; Aiilli i of "The
Jewish Religion," etc.
IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,
Professor of SHUiitic Philology. I iiivci-siiy ..f Huda|>est,
Hungary.
M. GtJDEMANN, Ph.D.,
chief Rablii of \'it.iina, ,\ustria.
BARON DAVID GXJNZBURG,
M. I'clcisliuil-'. KUv-iM.
A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,
Chief of the Hehrew l)fpariinem of the |[iipenal Public Library,
St. Peterslmrg, Ru.-^sia.
ZADOC KAHN,
Chief Rabbi of France: llonoiiiry Prcsulent of the Alliance
Israelite Universelle: Ollicerof the Legion
of Honor. Paris, Fnmce.
M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,
R;ibli, Budapest. Huiig:iiy : i orrespoiiding Member of the
Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain.
MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,
Professor Emeritus <-if Psychology, University of Berlin ; Meran,
Austria.
ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU,
Member of Uu- l-'n-uili Iti>tiiuie; rri'fes.sor at the Free School
of Political Scient-e. Paris, France ; Authi.>r of
" Israel Chez U^ Nations."
ISRAEL LEVI,
Professor in the Jewish ThetUogical Seminary ; Editor of
" Revue des Etudes Julves." Paris, France.
ETTDE LOLLI, D.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Padua; Professor of Hebrew at the Universiiy,
Padua, Italy.
IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D.,
Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary: .\uthorof " Die Ai^ainaischen
Phanzeniiamen."
S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,
Principal of the Jewish Theiplogical Seminary; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.
H. OORT, D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew Language and .\ix"heology at the State
University, Leyden, Holland.
ABBE PIETRO PERREAU,
Formerly Lilmirian of ilie Uealf Hil>liote<'a Palalina, Parma,
MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,
Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and
Brussels ; President of the Deuts^'h-Judi.-iChe
Gemeindehund, Berlin, Germany.
SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,
Kabhi ill \V:ii>aw. Kussia.
E. SCHWARZFELD, LL.D.,
Secretary-liener.il of iht- .Icwish (>.>loiiizatioh .\s.sociation. Paris.
Fnince.
LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,
Professor of PliilosM]ihy. IniM-rsiiv cif Bern. Switzerland ; Editor
of " .\r<-lMv fill- (,(■>. lurhlo liiT rhilosophie." etc.
HERMANN L. STRACE, Ph.D.,
Professor of old Testament E.\egesis and Semitic l.anguiiges.
University of Berlin, Germany,
CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,
Master of SI. John's i ollege, Camliridge. England: Editor ol
" Sayings of the Jewish Fathers." etc.
SYSTEMS OF TRA^^SLITERATION AND OF CITATION
OF PROPER NAMES*
S u-ith dagesh, p
B> sh
D without dagesh, f
t s
X ?
n t
P ^
^ r
A. — Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic.
1. All important names which occur in tlie Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James
version; e.g., Moses, not Mosheh ; Isaac, not Yizha^ ; Saul, not Sha'ul or Shaiil; Solomon, not
Shelomoh, etc.
18. Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become
familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic
be treated under tlie form transliterated according to the system tabulated below.
3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer-
ences are made as in the case of personal names.
4. The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic :
N Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise ' or by dieresis; e.g., Ze'eb or Melr.
2 b 12 hi
i g PI A 12 m
id D < J n
n h ^ y OS
•\ w 3 fc V '
Note : The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi-
cated by doubling the letter.
5. The vowels have been transcribed as follows :
— a T u -^ a. — B ^o
-=-c — e -s-o '~i
-^ i : e -=; a ^ u
Kamez hatuf is represented by o.
The so-called " Continental" pronunciation of the English vowels is implied.
6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following
letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Bosh ha-shshanah.]
B.— Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic.
1. All Arabic names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another
form, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system :
*^b O d ^J>s
i^t J d/i ^Jod
iJLith J r y t
Zi ^ V^s ^ '
U. Only the three vowels — a, i, u — are represented:
— a or a — t or i
No account has been taken of the imalah; i has not been written e, nor u written o,
^9h
u"
wJ/
fi h
J*
3 »
CJfc
^v
J^
r "*
— M or M
* In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the Standard Dictionart has usually beeu followed. Typo-
graphical exigencies Lave rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary.
viii SYSTEMS OP TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NA5IES
3. The Arabic article is InTariably written al; no account being taken of the assimilation cf the I to
the following letter; e.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Aa/Ts ctl-Daukth, not A«/ts ad-Daulah.
The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word.
4. At tlie end of words the feminine termination is wi-itten ah ; but, when followed by a genitive,
at ; e.g., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but HVat al-Aflak.
5. No account is taken of the oTerhanging vowels which distinguish the cases ; e.g.. 'Amr, not 'Amrv,
or 'Amrun; Ya'akub, not Ya'akubun; or in a title, Kitab al-amandt wal-'itikadat.
C. — Rules for the Transliteration of Russian.
All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in another
form, as Czar, Alexander, dedatine, Moscoic, are transliterated according to the following system :
Aa
a
Hh
71
mm
shch
B6
b
Oo
tl.
mute
Bb
V
nn
p
Liu
V
rr
h, V, or g
Pp
r
bb
half mute
Aj^
d
Cc
8
it
ye
Ee
e and ye
attlie
bcginiiing.
Tt
■ t
33
e
JKai
zh
yy
u
lOio
yu
33
z
*4>
f
flfl
ya
Hh
i
Xx
kh
ee
F
Kk
h
^^
tz
Yv
OR
JI Ji
I
^1
ch
Jgg
i
Mm m in ffl sh
Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise.
1. Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name: e.g., Moses Nigrin under
Nigri7i ; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto : Moses Kieti under Rieti: all the Kimhis (or Kaml.iis)
under Kimhi ; Israel ben Josepli Drohobiczer under JJrohobiczei: Cross-references are freely
made from any other form to the most specific one : e.g., to Moses T/doZ from Moses Narbo7ii ; to
Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meiri ; to Samuel Kaii.ii from Samuel Astruc Dascola ;
to Jedaiah Penini, from both Bedersi and En Bonet ; to John of Avignon from Moses de
Moquemaure.
2. When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed
by his official or other title ; or, where he has borne no sucli title, by "of " followed by the place
of his birth or residence ; e.g., Jolianan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah ha-llasid ; Gershom
of Metz, Isaac of Corbeil.
3. Names containing the word d', de, da, di, or i^tin, von. y, are arranged under the letter of
the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob
d'lUescas under Illescas.
4. In arranging the alphabetical order of. personal names hen, da, de, di, ha-, fbn*, of have not been
taken into account. These names thus follow tlie order of the next succeeding capital letter :
Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron
Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Ze'eb
Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste
5. In order to facilitate reference, complete groups of all persons bearing such common names as
Aaron, Abraham, Jacob, are given in small type in a group immediately under the first key-word.
• When IBN has come to be a epeciflc part of a name, as Ibn Ezra, euch name is treated in its alphabetical place under "I."
LIST OF ABBREYIATIOXS
[Self-evident abbreviations, particulaily those used in the bibliography, are not included liere.]
At) Abot, Pfrkp
Ab. It. N Aliiittle-K'ahWNatban
*Ab. Ziirab 'Abodah Zarali
od (oc at the place
A. II in the yeaiof tbe Hefrira
AllK. Zeit. des Jud.. Allgemeine ZeituiiR des Judenthums
Am. Jew. Hist. SDcAiDeriuan Jewisli Historical Society
■^T^nfr"' ■ '^^""'- I- American Journal of Semitic Languages
Anglo-Jew. Assoc... Anglo-Jewisb Association
Apoe Apocalypse
A pocr Apocrypha
Apost. Const Apostolical Constitutions
'Ar 'Arakin iTalmud) ,
Arcb. Isr Archives Israelites
art article
A. T r>as A Ite Testament
A. V Authorized \'ersion
b ben iir bar or born
Bah Babli (Babylonian Talmud)
^ Anwr '*''' "".''' !' •^''^''''T- Agada der Babylonischen Amoraer
Bacher, Ag. Pal. I Bacher. Agada der Palli.stinensisclien Auio-
Amor r liier
Bacher, Ag. Tan.. ..Bacher, Agada der I'annaiten
Bar Baruch
B. B Baba Batra (Talmud)
B.c before the Christian era
Bek Bekorot (Talmud)
Benxinger, Arch. . .Henzinger. Hebriiische Archaologle
Ber Herakot i Taluiud )
Berliner's i Beiliner's Magazin ftir die Wissenschatt des
Magazin \ JuiieDtiiiuns
Bik Bikkuriiu (. I'alumri)
B. K Baba Kamma (Talmud)
B. M Baba Mezi*a (Talmud)
-Rniotii, i,.n,i Hiuf ' Boletin dtf la Ileal Academia de ia Histoi'ia
B0ieiinAi.ad.Hi!,t. , ,jviaj,.|£i)
w...".n'o Tr,>,pv. I Brail's Jahrbiicher ftir Jiidiscbe Geschichte
Bi uil s Janrn -^ ^,^^1 ijiteratur
Bulletin All. Isr Bulletin of the Alliance Israelite Universelle
c about
Cant Canticles (Song of Solomon)
Cant. R Cantit^les Uabbah
Cat. Anglo-Jew. i catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex-
Hlst. Exh t hibition
C.E conunon era
""text.".'!'.""^: ".°.'' !• ^-""I""' "<■ "^^"apters
'^'Encyc*' Bibi'." l*." ! <heyne and Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica
I Cbnm I Chronicles
II Chrcm II ('Innniclcs
C I. A CorpUN iDsniitlionum Atticainim
C. 1. (i Corpus liis'ii|iti(inuiii (ii-iecarum
C. I. H Corims ltisi-ri|tni'ninii Ih-brairaiiim
C. I. L ('oi'j>us iMMriplioiuini I.;iImi:u mmi
C. [. S Corpus Inscriiitioiium ^emilicaium
Col Colossians
Cor Corinthians
d died
D Deuteronomist
Dan Daniel
De (jubernatis, / De Gubernatis, Dizionario Biograflco degli
I)iz. Biog f Scritlori Contemporanei
Dem l)em:ii (Talinud)
nprpr.iinnro- Hi.it ) DercMbi.urg, Eusai sur I'Histoire et la Gfo-
uereuuourg, Hist. ^ j,r,,p,|j,. ,j^ |,j Palestine, etc.
Deut Deuteronon)y
Deut. U .«. . . Deuteronomy Uabbah
E Elohist
EccI Ecclesiastes
Eccl. K Ecclesiastes Rabbah
Ecclus. (Sirach) E(«'lesiasti(ais
ed edition
'Eiluy 'Eduyyot (Talmud)
Encyc. Brit Encyclopiedia Britannica
Eng English
Eph Ephesians
Epiphanius, Hieres. Kpipbanliis, Adversus Haereses
'Er 'Erubin ITalmuil)
Ersch and / Ersch and limber, Allg. Encyklopadie der
(iruber, Encyc. \ Wissenschatt und Kiiuste
Esd Esdras
Esth Esther
Esther R Esther Rabbah
et seq and following
Eusebius, Hist. EccI.Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica
Ex Exodus
Ex. R Exodus Rabbah
Ezek Ezekiel
Krankel. Mebo Frankel. Mebo Yerushalmi
Fijrst, Bibl. Jud Fiir-st, Bibliotheca Judaica
^"Karitei-r' ''' ''*'^ I' ^"'^'' tiest'liii'li'« des Karilerthums
(ial Galatians
"^'"Bevis Marks'*. !' ''"stei-, Bevis Marks Memorial Volume
\ Geiger. Urschrift und IVbersetzungen der
Geiger, Urschrift.- Bibel in Ihrer Ahhiingigkeit von der In-
( neren Entwicklung des .ludenthiuns
r'oicror'c Tfirt 7oif ' Gciger's Jiidisclie Zeit.schritt fiir Wissen-
Geiger s jua.ieii. ■, ^^.^^.^J^ ,|^,| j^^,|,^,||
Geiger'sWiss. i Geiger's Wlssenschaftliche Zeitschrlft fiir
Zeit. Jiid. Theol. t JUdische Theologie
Gem Geinara
Gen Genesis
(ien. R (Jenesis Rabbah
Gescb Geschichte
Gesenius. <ir Gesenius, Grammar
(iesenius. Th Gesenius, Thesaurus
Gibbon, Decline (Gibbon, Htstory of the Decline and Fall of
and Fall 1 the Roman Empire
finthnro--,; Hihin t Glusburg's Masoretlco-Crltlcal Edition of
uinsoui}, s ciuiL.. I j^i, Hebrew Bible
Git Gittin (Tahnuill
(ir'aetz. Hist Graetz, History of the .lews
Griitz, Gesch (iriitz, descliicliie der Judeu
Hab Habakkuk
Hag Haggai
Hag Hagigah (Talmud)
Hal Hallah (Talmud)
Hiimburger, ' Hamburger, Realencyclopiidie fiir Bibel
R. B. T.. I' und Talumii
"'iiibl'e **' ^"^'" \ Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible
Heh Epistle to the Hebrews
Hebr Masoretic Text
Herzipg-lMitt or J Real-Encyklopiidie fiir rrotestantische The-
Herzog-Hauek, - ologie und Kirche (»d and 3d editi(ms re-
Real-Encyc — i siiectively)
nir<oh Ri„ir T ov ' Hirsch, Blographlsches Lexikon Hervorra-
uirscn, liiof,. Lex. , gander Aerate A Her Zeiten und Volker
Hom Honiiletics or Homily
Hor Horayot (Talmud)
Hul Hiillin (Talmud)
ill same place
iiivni same author
Isa Isaiah
I.^r. Letterbode Israelitische I.etterbode
J Jahvist
Jaarboeken Jaarboeken voor de Israeliten in Nederland
ia....i,u si,„,n.i.- 'Jacobs, luq u iiv liito ihc Sourccs ot Spauish-
jacoiis, ftouries..-^ Jewish History
''''Bibr Anglo-Jud" I ■J"™''* i"'"1 "'""• Bltillotheca Anglo-Jndaica
Jahil). 'iesch. der ( Jahrbuch fiir die (ieschichte der Judeu und
Jud ( des Judenthums
inatrnix- lilrf ) Jastrow, Dlcl i. .Tiai v rif ihc Targumlui, Tal-
jasiron,uKi ^ mudim, and Midrasliiui
Jellinek, B. H JeUinek, Bet ha-Miilrasli
Jer Jeremiah
Jew. Chron Jewish Chronicle, Lomlcm
Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. Jewish Hist^irical Society of England
Jew. tjuart. Rev Jewish Quarterly \i.v\ lew
Jew. World Jewish World. London
Josephus, Ant Josephus, Anii<|iiiiies of the Jews
Josephus, B. J Josephus. De Itello Judaico
''Tifl'.".'!'.'.'.'!"'™. !■ ■'"S-^Plu's. t'onti-a Apioneui
Josh Joshua
Jost's Annalen Jost's Israelitische Annalen
Joui'. Bib. Lit Journal of Biblical Literature
''"■rryilh'^""'.'.'."'" !' Justin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Jud:t>o
K a u f m a n n Ge- 1. Gedenkbuch zur Erinneruiig an David Kauf-
denkbuch 1 maun
Kayserling, Bibl. ( Kayserling.BibllotecaEspanola-Fortugueza-
Esp.-Port.-Jud.. ( Judaica
Ker Kerilot (Talmuil)
Ket Ketub<it (Talmud )
Kid Kiddushin (Talmud)
Kil Kilayam (Tahimd)
I^in Kiniiim (Talmud)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Volume...?"'!.. 1 S*''iii''t' Studies in Memory of A. Kohut
Kraiiss, Lehn- I. Kraiiss. Grieehisebe und Lateinische Lehn-
wOrter i woner, ete.
Lam Lamentations
Lam. R Lamentations Rabbali
Larousse Diet ' Larou.sse. Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
' XIXe Sieeie
!.c in the place cited
Le%* Leviticus
Lev. R Leviticus Rabbah
TpYY Chfll (
Worterb.' i Le\T. Chaldaisches WOrterbuch, etc.
Levy. Xeuhebr. (. Levy. Xeuliebraisches und Chaldaisches
Wonerb i WOrterbuch, etc.
LXX Septuagint
m married
Ma'as Ma'aserot (Talnnul 1
Ma'as. Sh Ma'aserSheni (Talmud)
Mace Miiccaliees
Mak Makkot ' Talmud)
Maksh iviakshirin (Talmud)
Mai .Malachi
Mas .Masorah
Massek Miusseket
Matt Matthew
T\f<'riinfr>ck nnri \ MiClintixk and Stronp. Cvcloptedia of Bib-
stmnff rv • ■, ''™l- Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter-
■Meg Megillah (Talmud)
^e1 Me'ilah (Talmud)
Mek Mekilta
Men Menahnt (Talmud)
3lid Midtli.t (Talmud)
Widr Midrash
Midr. R Midrash Rabbah
Midr. Teh Midrash Tehillim ( Psalms)
Mik Mikwaot (Tahnud)
M.'K Mo'ed Kaian (Talmud)
Mr,nit««,.hrift ' Monatss<-lirift fur Geschichte und Wissen-
Monatsscnnit , ^.^^j^ j^^, jmienihums
Mortara. Indice Mortara. Indice Alfabetico
MS Manuscript
Muller, Frag. Hist. (Muller, fnismenta Uistoriconim Groeco-
Gr^c ) rum
Naz Xazir (Talmud)
n.d no date
Ned Nedaiim (Talmud )
Neg N"ega"im
Neh Nehemiah
Keubauer. fat. / Seubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS.
Bodl.Hebr.MSS. \ in the Bodleian Lilirary
Keubauer, G. T Xeubauer. Geographie du Talmud
N. T New Testament
Num Numbei-s
Num. R Numl>ei^ Rabbah
Obad Obadiah
Oest.Wochenschrift.Oesierreicbische Wochenschrift
Oh ( ihal.it (Talmud)
Onk (inkelos
Orient, Lit Literaturhlatt lies Orients
O. T Old Testament
P Priestly coile
\ Pagel. BiographischPS Lexikon Hervorra-
Pagel, Biog. Le.\. - gender Aerzte des Seunzehnten Jahrhun-
/ derts
Pal. E.xplor. Fund. .Palestine Exploration Fund
Pauly-AVissowa. ( Pauly-Wissowa. Real-EncydopadiederClas-
Real-Encyc (' sischen A Itertumswissenschaf t
Pent ." Pentateuch
Pes Pesiihim iTalnuidl
Pesh Peshito. Pesliitia
Pesik Pesikta de-UaO Kahaua
Pesik. R Pesikta Rabbati
Phil'. Philipiiians
Plrke R. El Pirke Rabbi Eliezer
Prov ProVerl>s
Ps Psalm iir Psalms
R Rabbi or Rab (before names)
^ Li™-Blatt "*^' 1 Kahmer's Judiscbes Litteratur-Blatt
Regesty Regesty 1 Xadpisi
Rev. As Revue .\siati<|ue
Rev. Bib Revue Biblique
Rev. Et. Juives Revue des Etudes Juives
Rev. Sem Revue Semiticiue
R. H Rosh ha-Shanah (Talmud)
Rios (Amador del Estmiios Historicos, Politicos y Literarios,
los), Estudios. . { etc.
Rios (Amador de i Hisloria . . . de los Judios de Espana y
los). Hist ( Portugal
T>i.>„, v,.Ai...„^^ ( Ritter, Die Erdkunde iin Verhaltnis zur
Kitter, trdkunae. -^ j;^,^^ ^^j ^i^. Geschichte des Menschen
Roest, Cat. (R.k-si. Calah.g der Hebraica und Judaica
Rosenthal. Bibl. i aus der L. RosenthaPsohen Bibliothek
Rom Romans
R. V Revised Version
Salfeld, Martyriv t salfeld. Das MaUvrologium des Nurnbenter
logiuin 1 .Meiiuirbuches
I Sam I Samuel
II Sam II Samuel
Sanh sanhedrin (Talmud)
S B O T ■' 'Sacred B«.ks of the Old Testament) Polv-
I cluwme Bible, ed. Paul HaupC
" Encycf^^'^f!.... J Schaff-Herzog, A Religious Encycloptedia
Schraiier, / Schrader. Cuneiform Inscriptions and the
C. I. O. T 1 oldTestauient. Eng. irans.
Schrader, K. A. T. ' Sdirailer, Keilinsehriflen und das Alte Tes-
Schrader, K. B Schraiier, Keilinschriflliche Uibliolhek
Schrader K G F ■ S<liradcr, Keilinsehriflen und Geschichts-
■ ■ ^ ■ '■ I fiirschung
Schiirer. Gescli Schiirer, (ieschii-hte des Judischen Volkes
Sem SeuHihot (Talim(d)
Shall Shabliai (Talumdi
Shell Shchi -it ( Tahuud)
Shebu Shebu-ot (Talmud)
Sliek Shekalim (Talmud)
Sibyllines Sibylline Hooks
Smith, Rel. of .Sem.. Smith, Leciures on Religion of the Semites
Stade's Zeitschrift ' *""'^^ Zeit.schrift fiir die Alltestameiit-
( liche Wissenschaft
Steinschneider, 1 Sleinscliueider, Catalogue of the Hebrew
Cat. Bodl ) Books in the Bodleian Library
Steinschneidei', I o» • , ■* .r . -■ . «.l.,
Hebr. Bibl...... , Steinschneider, Hebraische Bibliographie
Steinschneider. ( c.. ■ , -j ... -, . .. ..
Hebr. Cebers. i' Steiiis<hneider. Hebraische Leberselzungen
Suk Sukkah (Talmud)
s.r under the woixl
Ta'an Ta'anit iTaluiud)
Tan Tanhuma
Targ Tarsrumim
Targ. onk Targum imkelns
Targ. Ter Tai-gum Yerushalmi or Targtim Jonathan
Tein Teiiiur.ih (Talmud)
Ter Terumoi (Taliuud)
Tliess Tliessiiioniaus
Tim Timothy
Toh Tohomt
tos tosiifot
Tosef Tosefta
transl translation
Tr. Soc. Bibl. (Transactions of the Society of Biblical Ar-
Aix'h ( cha^dogv
T. Y Tebul Yom (Talmud)
•Ik •fkzin (Talmud)
I'liiv. Isr I'nivers Israelite
Vulg Vulgate
Weiss, Dor \Veis.<, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw
Wellhausen, i Wellhausen, Israeliliscbe und Judiscbe
I. J. (i 1 Geschichte
Winer, B. It Winer, Biblisches Realworterbuch
Wisdom Wisdom of Siilomoii
Wolf, Bibl. Hebr.. .Wolf, lilblioiheca Hebr.ua
w 7 IT M ' Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des
" • ■^^ **■• -^ I Morgeulaudes
Yad Yadayim i Talmud)
"Yad" Y'ad lia-Hazakah
Y"alk Y'alkut
Y'eli' Y'ebaiiiot (Talmud)
Y'er Ycnishalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)
Y'nwH Jehovah
Zah Zaliim iTalinud )
~ „ ,, ,. I Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenliindi-
'■• "• ■"• ^' '( schen Gesellschaft
Zeb Zebahim (Talmud)
Zech Zei'hariah
Zedner. Cat. Hebr. I Zedner, Catalngue of the Hebrew Books in
Books Brit.Mus. ( the liriiisli Museum
Zeit. fiir .\ssyr Zeitst'hrifl fur Assyrlologie
^"palSs"' Ver' ' Zeitsihiift des Deutschen Palastina-Verelns
Zeit. (iir Hebr. Bibl. Zeitschrift fiir Hebriiische Bibliograiihie
Zeitlin, Bibl. Post- ' Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebratca Post-Mendels-
Mendels 1 sohniana
Zeph Zcphaniah
Zunz, (J. S Zunz. i;cs;immelte Schriften
Zunz, G. V iutrz, iiciiicsdienslliihe Vortrage
Zunz, Lileratur- (Zunz, Llteraluigescljichte der SynaRogalen
gesch 1 Poesie
•7,.„, nil... ' Zunz, Die Ritus des Svnagogalen Gottes-
iiunz, Kitus ■, rtienstes
Zunz, S. P Zunz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelallers
Zunz. Z. G Zunz, Zur Geschichte und Literatur
Note to the Reader.
Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewliere in this worlv are indicated by the
use of capitals and small capitals in the text ; as, Abba Arika; Pumbedita; Vocalization.
CONTRIBUTORS TO YOLllIE III
A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,
President ot the A iiierlciin Jewish Histoileal
Society; President uf the Ituaid itf Trustees
of the Jewisli Tlieolnfrirul Seminary of
Ameriea: Lilirarian of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, Wasiiintrton. D.C.
A. A. G AroSlie Andr^ Gedalge,
Paris, P'raiice.
A. Bi A. Biach,
iJatilii at Briix, Bohemia. Austria.
A. Bu Alexander Buchler, Ph.D.,
Italpiji, Kesziliely, Comitat Zola, Hungary.
A. Co A. Cowley, M.A.,
Oriental sublilii-ai'ian, Bodleian Library, Ox-
ford Universily, o.\ford, England.
A. F A. Freimaun, Ph.D.,
Editor of tlie "Zeitschrift fiir Helii-iiische
Bibliographie " : Liht-arian of the Hebrew
Department, Stadtbiblicjthek, Frankfort.ijU-
Ihe-Main, (Teniiiiny.
A. Fe Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D.,
Principal of the Realsehule, Piirth, Bavaria,
Germauy.
A. F.-G Adolph Frankl-Griin, Ph.D.,
Ratibi in Kremsier, Moravia, Austi'ia.
A. Fl A. Fleischmann,
N't.'W Yoik (_'itv.
A. H. V A. Henriques Valentine,
London, England.
A. Ka Adolph Kamphauseu, Ph.D. ,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis at the
University of Bonn, lieriiiany.
A. Ku A. Kurrein, Ph.D.,
Habbi, Teplit/, Iloliemia, Austria.
A. M Axel Moth, LL.B., _
New Vnrk I'ubbi- l.ilirary. New York City.
A. M. F Albert M. Friedenberg-, B.S.,
CofTespondent of "Tile .lewi^b Comment,"
Baltimore, Md. ; New York City.
A. P A. Porter,
Koi'Mierly Assoeiate Editor of "The Formn,"
New Yi irk ; Revising Editor " Standard Cyclo-
pedia." New York City.
A. Pe A. Pelgrinsky, Ph.D.,
New York City.
A. R A. Rhine,
Rabbi. Hot Springs, Ark.
A. S. C Alexander S. Chessin,
Professor of Mathematics. ^Vashiugton I'ni-
\ersity, St. Louis. Mo.
A. Sz Adele Szold,
Baltimciie. Md.
B. B Benuel H. Brumber?,
Contributor to " National Cyclopedia of Araerl-
can Biography," New York City.
B. D Bernard Drachman, Ph.D.,
Rabbi (.f ilie Cciugri'gaiion zicliron Epiiralm ;
Instructor in the Bible and in Hebrew Grain-
nutr at the Jewish Theological Seminary ot
Amerii'a, New York City.
B. E B. Eerdmans, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Jewish
Religious History, Babylonian and As.syrian
Languages, Uijks University. Leyden, Hol-
land.
C. Br C. Bruckmau,
New York City.
C. F. K Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.,
Professor of Biblical Lileraluie and History,
Y'ale Uni\cr-siiy, New llaveu. Conn.
C. H. B C. H. Bjerregaard,
Formerly Piofessor, Fivdericia College, Frede-
ricia, Deninaik ; Librarian of the New York
Public Libiary. New York City.
C. I. De S Clarence I. De Sola,
Montreal, Canada.
C. J. M Charles J. Mendelsohn,
Philadelphia, Pa.
C. L Caspar Levias, M.A.,
Instructor in Exegesis and Talinudic Ara-
maic, Hebrew Union College. Cincinnati,
Ohio.
C. T Charles Taylor, D.D., LL.D.,
Master, St. John's ( ollege, Cambridge, Eng-
lanii.
D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,
Professor of Jewish llistoiy. Hebrew Union
College, Cinciiniati, Ohio.
D. B. M.
D. P.
D.
W
A
F
A.
C.
E.
E.
G.
H
.Duncan B. McDonald, B.D.,
Professor of Semiiic Languages at Hartford
Theological Seminary, Hartford, Coini.
..David Philipson, D.D.,
Iliibbi of the CoiigiegaliiMi B'ne Israel ; Pro-
fessor of Homiletlcs, Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati. Ohio
David Werner Amram, LiL.B.,
Attorney at Law, Philadelphia, Pa.
Edward Andre,
Paris. France.
Executive Committee of the Editorial
Board.
Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Rabbi of Chicago Sinai (■ongregalioii,Chlcagio,
111.: Professor of Rabbinical Lileraliiiv and
Philosophy in (he Univei'sily of Chicago.
zu
CONTHlBLTOHtJ TO VOl.l .ME 111
E. Ills Edgar Mels,
NiH- Yurk ( ily.
E. N Eduard Neumann. Ph.D.,
I'liief liabbi of Nai-'.v-Kiiiiisza, Hungary.
E. N. A ElkanN. Adler,
Lonilon. England.
E. N. S Elvira N. Solis,
Ni-\v York l_'ily.
E. Schr E. Schreiber, Ph.D.,
Halihi uf Couvivfraliun Enianu-EI, Cbicagci, III.
E. Sd E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D.,
Si'cn-lai-y of Ji'wislj c.ilouization .\ssoriation,
I'aris, France.
F. Bu FrantsBuhl, Ph.D.,
I'nifi-ssor of Si'mitii' Philology at tbe Univer-
sity cif Copeubagell, Deumalk.
F. H. "V Frank H. Vizetelly ,
Associate Editor of '■The i. uliiniliian Cyclope-
ciia," and on !STANn.\KD Dictionary Edito-
rial staff. New Y"ork City.
F. L. C Francis L. Cohen,
Itablii, Borough New S>Tiagogue, London,
England; Coedltor of "Voice of Prayer and
Praise."
F. de S. M. .Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D.,
Uabbi of the \Vest End Synagogue, New York
City.
F. T. H Frederick T. Hannemann, M.D.,
lirooklyn, N. Y.
G Kichard Gottheil, Ph.D.,
Professor of Seiriilic Languages. Columbia
Univei-sity, New Y'ork; Chief of the Oriental
Department, New York Public Library ; I^-esi-
dent of the Fedei'atii n of American Zionists.
G. A. B Georg-e A. Barton, Ph.D.,
.-Associate Professor in Biblical Literature and
Semitic Languages at Bryn Mawr College,
Bryn Mawi-, Pa.
G. A. K Georg-e Alexander Kohut. Ph.D.,
Koniierly Rabbi in Dallas, Te-xas; now New
Y'ork City.
G. B. Ii Gerson B. Levi,
Philadelphia, Pa.
G. L Goodman Lipkind, B.A.,
liahbi in Loudon. England.
G. M G. Margroliouth,
Assistant Custodian, Oriental Department,
British Museum, London, England.
G. Mo Godfrey Morse,
Lawyer in Boston, Mass.
G. Se G. Selikovitch,
New Y'oi'k City.
H. B H. Brody, Ph.D.,
Coedltor of the " Zeitsohrift fiir Hebrilische
Bibliographie " ; Itablii at Nacliod, Bohemia,
Austria.
H. Be Henry Berkowitz, D.D.,
Chancellor Jewish Cliautauiiua Society, Phila-
delphia, Pa.
H. Bl Heinrich Bloch, Ph.D.,
Priifessor of Hi.'itorv ai the Jewish Theological
Seminai-y Buihipcst, Hungary.
H. G. E H. G. Enelow, D.D.,
Rabbi of the Congregation Adalh Israel, Louis-
ville, Ky.
H. Gut H. Guttenstein,
New York (ily.
H. H Henry Hyvernat, D.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages and Arche-
ology, Catliolic Cnivei-sity of America, >Vasli-
ington, D.C.
H. Hir Hartwig: Hirschfeld, Ph.D.,
Professor in Ji-ws' College, London, England.
H. L. S Hermann L. Strack, Ph.D.,
Professiu- of Old Tesianienl Exegesis and Sem-
itic Languages at the University of Berlin,
Germany.
H. M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,
Assistant Piotessor, Hebrew Uuiou College,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
H. R Herman Rosenthal,
Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New
Y'ork Public Librai y. New York City.
H. S Henrietta Szold,
Secretary of Ihe Publicaticui Committee of the
Jewish Publication Society of America, Balti-
more. Mii.
H. V Hermann Vosalsteiu, Ph.D.,
Rabhi in Kdnigslieig, lieiiiiany.
I. Aa Israel Aaron, D.D.,
Rabbi in BulTalo, N. Y.
I. B Isaac Bloch,
Chief Kabbi of Nancy, France.
I. Be Immanuel Benzingrer, Ph.D.,
Profes.sor of iild ■ri'starueut E.\egesls at the
University of Berlin, Germany.
I.Ber Israel Berlin,
Chemist, .New Y'ork City.
I. Br I. Broyde,
Diplome of tiie Ecole des Hautes Etude.s;
Formerly Librarian of Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle. Palis. KT-an<-e ; now New Y'ork City.
I. D Israel Davidson, Ph.D.,
New Y'ork City.
I. E Ismar Elbog-en, Ph.D.,
Instructor at Ihe l.eluanstalt ffir die Wlssen-
schaft des Judenthums, Berlin, Germany.
I. G. D I. Georg:e Dobsevag-e,
New York ciiy.
I. Hu Isaac Husik,
Tutor, (iialz College, Philadelphia, I^i.
I. L Israel Levi,
Professor in the Jewish Theologiral Seminary,
Paris. France; Editor of "Kevue des Eludes
Juives."
I. Lo Inimanuel liOiff,
Chief llalihi of Szegedin, Hungary.
I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, B.D.,Ph.D.,
Professor of SiMuilic Languages and Litera-
tures in the University of Chicago, 111.
J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,
Fornierlv Pnsnlenl of the .lewish Historical
Society of England; Corresponding Member
of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid:
New Y'ork City.
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME III
J. Co Josiah Cohen,
Jiiilfre of the Orphan's t'niirt of Allegheny
Ccjuuty, Pa.
J. D. B J. D. Bravermann, Ph.D.,
New York City.
J. D. E J. D. Eisenstein,
New York City.
J, E Joseph Ezekiel, J. P.,
IViiubay. India.
J. F. McC.J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professoi- of oriental Lan^'iiaL,'e.s in the L'ui-
versity College, Toi'outo, Canada.
J. G. Ij J. G. Lipman,
Assistant Agrieultiu-ist, New .lersey State E-i-
perinient Station, New Brunswick, N. J.
J. Hf Josef Hoff, Ph.D.,
Kulilii at Bisenz, Moravia, Austria.
J. H. G Julius H. Greenstone,
llabhi in Philadelphia, Pa.
J. H. M. C.J. H. M. Chumaceiro,
liablii in New York City.
J. Hy J. Hyams,
lloMihay, India.
J. Jr Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. So Joseph Sohn,
Contributor to "The New International Epcy-
clopedia"; formerly of "The Forum," New
York City.
J. Sr Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D.,
Eabbi Emei'itus of the Uungregation Rodef
Shalom, Philadelphia, Pa.
J. T J. Theodor, Ph.D.,
Ualilji in Cojauowo, Posen, Germany.
J. V Jacob Voorsanger, D.D.,
Kabbi of the Coiitriegation Emanu-El, San
Francisco, Cal.; Professor of Semitic Lan-
guages and Literatures in the University of
California. Berkeley, Cal.
J. W Julien Weill,
Rabbi in Pai'is, France.
K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,
Ualibi of Temple Beth-El, New York; ex-
President of Board of Jewish Ministers, New
York City.
K. H. C KarlHeinrich Cornill, Ph.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and old Testament E.xe-
Kesisat the Cniversity of lireslau, liermany.
li. B Ludwig- Blau, Ph.D.,
Professor of the Jewish Theological Seminary,
Budapest, Hungary ; Editor of " Magyar Zsidd-
Sztole."
L. E li. Edelstein,
New -v. Ilk City.
li. G Louis Ginzberg-, Ph.D.,
Professor of Tahlilid al the Jewish Theolog-
ical Seminary of America, New York City.
L. Gr Louis Grossmann,
I iiicinnafi. ( ibio.
L. H. G Louis H. Gray,
Assistant Pi'ofessor at Columbia Univei'sity.
New York ( iiv.
L. HU L. Hiihner, A.M., LL.B.,
Attorney at Law, New York City.
L. J. G Leopold J. Greenberg,
Formerly Editor of " Israel," London, Eng-
land.
L. K. F Lee K. Frankel,
Manager of the United Hebrew Charities,
New York City.
L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz,
Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky.
L. V Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D. ,
Kal>bi in Neupest, Hungary.
M. B Moses Beer,
Loudon, England.
M. Bl Maurice Bloch,
Piincipalof the Bischollsheim School at Paris,
France.
M. Br M. Brann, Ph.D.,
Professor in the Jewish Theological Semi-
nary at Breslau, Germany.
M. C M. Caimi,
( orfu. Greece.
M. Co Max Cohen,
Attorney at Law, New York City.
M. E M. Elling-er,
Editor of " The Menorah," New York City.
M. F Michael Friedlander, Ph.D.,
Prini-ipal of Jews' ('ollege, London, England.
M, Fi Maurice Fishberg:, M.D.,
Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen-
sary; Medical E.\aininer to the United He-
brew Charities, New York City.
M. Fr M. Franco,
Principal of the Alliance Israc-lite Universelle
School, Shumla, Bulgaria.
M. Gr M. Grunwald, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Hamburg, Germany.
M. J. K Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.D.,
Attorney at Law : Recording Secretary of the
American Jewish Historical Society, New York
City.
M. K Moritz Kayserling-, Ph.D.,
Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary.
M. L. B Moses Lob Bamberg-er, Ph.D.,
Itabbi at Aschallcnburg, Bavaria, Germany.
M. L. M Max L. Margolis, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor of Seriiiiic Languages in
tlie l-'niversity of California, Berkeley, Cal,
M. R Max Rosenthal, M.D.,
Yisiting Physician, German Dispensary, New
Y'oi-k C Ity.
M. Ra Max Raisin,
Uabbi at Portsmouth, Ohio.
M. S Mo'ise Schwab, Ph.D.,
Librarian of Uie -Hebrew Department at the
Bibliothec|ue Nationale, Palis, France.
M. Sc Max Schlossinger, Ph.D.,
Heidelberg, (iermany.
M. Schw....M. Schwarzfeld, M.D.,
Bucharest, Ituiuailia.
M. Se M. Seiffert,
New Y'ork City.
COXTIUBL'TUHS TO VULUMi: III
M. Sel M. Seligsohn,
lii|ilonii' nf tlie Ecole des Hautes Etudes,
Paris, France ; now New York City.
M. Si M. Silberstein, Fh,D.,
Rabbi of Wiesbaden, Germany.
M. S. Z M. S. Zuckermandel, Ph.D.,
I'iofes*or at the Tliwlot-'ieal Seminary, Bres-
lau. tieniiany.
M. W Max Weisz, Pli.D.,
Ual>lu lu Buiiapt'st. Hungary.
M. W. L.... Martha Washington Levy, B.A.,
Contribntor to " The New International En-
cyclopedia."
M. Z M. Zametkin,
Ni-w Vurk City.
N. P N. Porges, Ph.D.,
nalibi in Leipsic. tiermany.
N. Sc Nathaniel Schmidt, Ph.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera-
tures, Cornell University. Ithaoa, X. Y.
O. S. S Oscar S. Straus,
Funuer Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of the United States to Tur-
key : Member of the Court of Arbitration at
The Hague : New York City.
P. B Philipp Blooh, Ph.D.,
Itabbi in Posen, Germany.
P. Co P. Cowen,
PublLsher of " The Amencan Hebrew," New
York City.
P. Wi Peter Wiernik,
New York City.
R. W. R... Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe-
gesis, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison,
N.J.
S Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,
Maxauixg Editor. New York City,
S. B Samuel Baeck, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Lissa. Germany.
S. J S. Janovsky,
Lawyer, St. Petersburg. Russia.
S. K S. Kahn,
Rabbi in Nimes, France.
S. Kr S. Krauss, Ph.D.,
rp'fessor.Nonnal College, Budapest, Hungary.
S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D.,
Rabbi in Wilmington, N. C.
S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,
lusiructi.r, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio.
S. M. D S. M. Dubnow,
Attorney at law, Odessa, Russia.
S. R S. Roubin,
Rabbi, Woodbine, N. J.
S. Sa Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D.,
Uabbi. Mayeuce, He>se. Germany.
S. Sc S. Schulman,
Associaie Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New
Yurk City.
T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebivw in Harvard University,
Cambridge. Mass.
T. F. S Theodore F. Seward (Deceased).
Late Editor of the " New York Musical
Gazette," New York City.
V. C Victor Castiglioni,
Professor, Triesl, Austria.
V. R Vasili Rosenthal,
Kremenchug. Russia.
Vi Ry Victor Ryssel, Ph.D.,
Professor of old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages at the University of
Zurich, Switzerland.
■W. B W. Bacher, Ph.D.,
Professor at the Jewish Theological Semi-
nary. Budapest. Hungary.
W. H. B William H. Bennett, M. A.,
Pixifessor of Old Testament Exegesis, New
College, London, England.
W. M. M. ..W. MaxMiiller, Ph.D.,
I'rufesSi'r of Bible Exegesis in the Reformed
Episcopal Theological Semitiary, Philadelphia,
Pa.
W. N William Nowack, Ph.D.,
Professor of old Teslament Exegesis at the
Uiiivei^ity of strasburg. Gennany.
W. P William Popper, Ph.D.,
New York City.
W. Rei W. Reich,
Rabbi in Vienna, .\ustria.
W. S William Salant, M.D.,
New York City.
Z. K Zadoc Kahn,
Chief Rabbi of France : Honorary President of
the .alliance Israelite Universelle ; OfHcer of
the Legion of Honor, Paris, France.
LIST OF ILLLSTUATIOXS IX yOLl31E III
N. B.— la the folliiwing list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated
under each headiu;'.
PAGE
Agrippa II., Copper Coin of, Struck at Cssarea 487
Al'ph as a Symbol of the Four Cabalistic Worlds 476
Almemar of the Old Synagogue at Charleston, S. C 678
see also Moses, Chair of.
America: see Mkxico; United States.
Amsterdam : see ^Meaii Behakot.
Anthropology : see Types.
" Arba' Turim," A Censored Page from Jacob ben Asher's. Printed by Soneino in I'tXG 643
Archeology : see Boundaky-Stone ; Bracelet ; Camel ; Candlestick ; Captive ; C.vtacombs ; Chains ;
CuAKioT; Coin.
Architecture: see C^sarea, RriNS of; Caupentras; Cemetery; IIoise; . Synagogues; see also
Candlestick.
Ark of the Law: see Berlin, Interior of the Old Synagogue xt.
Art: see Archeology; Architecture; Binding; Book-Plate; Border; Bottles; Ewer; Typog-
raphy.
Assyria: see Boundary-Stone; Camel; Chains; Chariot.
Assyrian Soldiers Guarding Jewish Captives 563
Auto da Fe: see Carar.wal, Mariana de. Execution of.
Autographs: see Bende.mann, Eduard; Benfey, Tueodor; Benjamin, Judah Philip; Borne,
Karl Ludwig; Brcll, Ignaz; Bcbek, Solomon.
Babylonian Boundary-Stone, Dated 1120 b.c 343
Bendavid, Lazarus, German Philosopher and Reformer 1
Bendemann, Eduard, German Painter 3
Painting of "Jeremiah at the Fall of Jerusalem "by FruHtinpiece
Benedict, Marcus: see Benet, Mordecai.
Sir Julius, Composer, Conductor, and Teacher of Music 7
Benedictions; Title-Page of " .Mcah Berakot," Amsterdam, 1787 8
Benedikt, jMoriz, Austrian Neurologist 13
Benet. ^lordecai, Moravian Rabbi and Talmudist 14
Benfey, Theodor, German Sanskritist and Philologist 16
Beni Israel Family at Bombay 10
Group of, iu Ancient Costume 18
of Bombay 19
Second Synagogue of the, at Bombay, Erected 1848 20
see also BoM RAY'.
Benjamin II., .1. J., Rumanian Traveler 35
Benjamin, Judah Philip, Statesman, Orator, and Lawyer 29
"Berah Dodi," Music of 48
Berdychcv, Great Synagogue at 51
Berlin, Exterior of the Old Synagogue at 70
Interior of the Old Synagogue at 71
Plan of the Interior of the Svnasrosue on Lindenstrasse 73
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III
PAGE
Berlin, Synagogue on Oranienburgerstrasse *5
Beiliii, Moses, Scholar and Couimuual Worker •*•*
Berliner, Abraham, Jewish Scholar and Historian !^-i
Beiuays, Isaac, Chief IJabbi in Hamburg !•()
Bernstein, Aaron, German Publicist, Scientist, and Reformer 9*
Beth El, View of 120
Betrothal Deed. Italian, Dalcd 55.-).5 a.m. From the New York Public Library colored jilale facing 128
Ring, Bearing Letter o for " Mazzal Tuh " 128
with Bo.\ Containing Perfumes and Opening with a Key 128
Scene at Nuremberg, Early Eighteenth Century 127
• of German Jews, Eighteenth Century 126
Bevis Marks Synagogue, London, Interior of 133
Bible, Erfurt Manuscript of the Hebrew, with Targum on Alternate Lines. Formerly belonging to
Johann Reuehlin 181
First Page of E.xodus. From an illuminated manuscript, formerly in the possession of the Duke
of Sussex 183
First Page of Leviticus. From the first Rabbinic Bible, printed by Daniel Bomberg, Venice, 1517.
In the collection of Hon. Mayer Sulzberger lilKte hetiretii 160-161
Illuminated Hebrew (Gen. i.), Spain, 1476. From the Bodleian Library, coloietl plate facing 178
Page from the Biescia Edition of the, 1494. Copy used by Luther 158
from the Compluteusian Polyglot Edition of 1514. In the New York Public Library 159
from the First Hebrew Edition of Psalms, 1477, with David Kimhi's Commentary. In the
collection of Hon. Mayer Sulzberger 155
from the First Hebrew Edition of the Pentateuch, Printed at Bologna, 1482. In the New-
York Public Library 157
from the Vatican Manuscript of the Septuagint Version of Exodus xix. 14-xx. 17 187
. of the Hebrew, with Superlincar Punctuation. From the St. Petersburg Codex, 916 C.E.. . . 179
Biedermann, Jlichael Lazar, Austrian Merchant 208
Binding, Leather, of " 'Or Ammim," 1587, Tooled in Gold. In the collection of Hon. Mayer Sulzberger 213
Silver, of a Hebrew Prayer Book. In the collection of J. Kauflmann of Frankfort-on-the-JIaiu. 214
"Birkat Kohanim," Music of 246, 247
Bischitz de Heves, Johanna, Hungarian Philanthropist 226
Black Death: Map of Central Europe Showing Chief Towns Where Outbreaks Against the Jews
Occurred During 1348-49 235
Blessing, Priestly, JIusic of: see Birkat Kohanlm.
of Moon : see Beseoictioxs.
Blioch, Ivan Stanislavovich, Russo-Polish Financier and Economist 250
Bloch, Marcus Eliezer, German Ichthyologist and Physician 255
Blumenthal, Oskar. German Author and Playwright 275
B'nai B'rith Building, New York 276
Seal of the^Order of 276
Bodleian Library, Ewer with Hebrew Insciiption, in the 282
Illuminated Hebrew Bible (Gen. 1.) from the, written in Spain 1476 colored plate facing 178
Bokhara, Interior of the Great Synagogue at 295
Jewess, Type of a 294
Jews Celebrating the Feast of Tabernacles 293
Bologna, Page from the First Hebrew Edition of the Pentateuch, 1482, Printed at 157
" Tefillot Latini," 1538, Italian-Jewish Prayers in Hebrew Characters, Printed at 299
Bombay, Benilsrael Family at 19
Benilsrael of 19
Keneseth Eliyahu Synagogue at 20
ilagen David or Sha'ar ha-Rahamim Synagogue at 21
Second Benilsrael Synagogue at. Erected 1848 20
Bomberg, Daniel: First Page of Leviticus from First Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 15l~ , plate beticeen 160-161
Page from the Talmud of 1520, Printed by 301
Bonn, Synagogue at 308
Book-Plate of David Friedlander 314
■ -of D. 11. <le Castro 313
of De Pinto Family 313
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIOXS IN VOLUME III
PAGE
Book-PIate of Dr. Emil Simonson 315
of L;Kly Kotliscliild 314
of Ruben Braiuin 315
Bordeaux, Plan of the Northwest Section of the City of, About 1450, Showing the "Rua Jutlaica" and
the Jewisli Quarters Outside the City Walls 317
Border, Soncino, from the Title-Page of " Sefer Yelioshua' " 321
Borne, Karl Ludwig, German Political and Literary Writer 323
Bottles, Goatskin, Jlode of Filling Jars from 340
, Now in Use in Palestine 341
Boundary-Stone at Tell-Arnamia 343
Babylonian, Dated 1120 B.c 343
of Gezer. with tlie Inscription lU Dim ("Limit of Gezer"), Discovered by ^I. Clermont-
Ganneau 342
Bracelet from Cyprus. In the Cesuola collection. Metropolitan JIuseum of Art, New VnrU 345
Bragadini, Printers, Imprint of, on the Title-Page of the First Edition of Caro's Sliulhau 'Aruk,
Venice, 1,'5G4 587
Braham, John, English Singer 347
Brainin, Ruben. Book-Plate of 315
Brandos, Georg, Danish Author and Critic 351
Brazen Sea of Solomon's Temple, with View of Section. Restored according to Calmet 358
Brcal, Jlicliel, French Philologist 305
Breastplate of the High Priest 3C0
Breithauiit, John Frederick, Christian IIebrai.st 309
Brescia, Page from tlie First Hebrew liilile. 1494, Printed at. Copy u.sed by Luther 158
Bricks, Captives Making, for the Temple of Amnion at Thebes in Egypt ))l(tle hclireen 380-381
Bride and Bridegroom, Costumes of. Among German Jews of tlie Eighteenth Century 128
Bridegroom and Bridal Processions of German Jews, About 1700 129
of the Law, Procession of, on the Eve of the Rejoicing of the Law. After Picart 383
Bristol, Plan of City of. Showing Position of Jewry, About 1350 c.e 387
Brody, The Jewish Cemetery at 040
Bri'iU, Ignaz, Austrian Composer 402
■ Jakob, Austrian Talmudist and Author 402
Nehemiah, Rabbi and Scliolar 403
Brussels, Host Tragedy at, 1370. After the Tapestries in the Cathedral of St. Gudule, showing:
Sale of Host 407
Jews Represented as Transfixing Hosts 408
Jews Dragged to Prison 407
Martyrdom of Jews 407
Buber, Solomon, Galician Scholar 410
Budapest, The Tabakgasse Synagogue at 417
Budweis, Synagogue at (Pointed Style) 421
Bueno, Ephraim Hezekiah. From the painting by Rembrandt 422
Burial : Carrying a Body to a Grave 434
Slourners Throwing Grass Behind Them as They Leave the Cemetery 437
Placing Body in a Collin 433
Sephardic Jews in Procession Round a Collin 433
Tlirowing Earth upon a Collin 435
"Burning Bush, Jloses at the." From the Sarajevo Ilaggadah of the fourteenth century 439
Buxtorf, Johannes, Cliristian Rabbinical Scliolar 445
Byelostok, The Old Synagogue of 448
Cabala : Correct Order of Sefirot Arranged in a Circle 470
IJelation of the Cabalistic Spheres 474
Selirot in the Form of a Menorah 470
The Alepli as a Symbol of the Four Cabalistic Worlds 470
The Setirot in Relation to One Another 475
Cajsarea, Copper Coin of Agrippa II. , Struck at 487
Ruins of 486
Camel on an Assvrian Cvlinder 521
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IX VOLOfE III
PAGE
Camel on a South Anjbian ^lonunient 521
Camels Leil as Tribute to Shalmancser 520
Candlestick, Karliest Known Representations of the Golden 532
From a Gilt Glass Vase Found in the Jewish Catacombs at Rome 533
• a Gratlito Foimd in the Jewish Catacomb at Venosa 532
a Lintel in the Ruins of the Ancient Synagogue of Xebratein 533
a Rock-Cut Tomb Xear Jaffa 532
the Bottom of a Glass Vase Now in the JIuseo Borgiano at Rome 533
the Great Mosiiue at Gaza, Discovered by Clermont Ganneau 532
Hexagonal Arrangement of the Golden (Hypothetical) 532
■ On a Lamp Found Among the Ruins of Carthage bj' P. Delattre 532
On a Lamp Found at Khirbat Sammaka, Near Carniel 532
On the Arch of Titus, as It Api>eared in 1710. After Reland 532
On the Entrance to a Tomb at Wadi alNahal 532
Representation of the Golden, on a Sarcophagus from the Vigna Randaniui at Rome 614
Canterbury, Map of, Showing Position of Jewry 536
Cantillation. ilarks: see Bible, Brescia Editios, 1494: PEXT.\TErcn. 14S2; Polyglot. 1514: St.
PETERSBtUG CoDEX, 916. Sec also Castillatios, >[csic of.
Music of 539-550
Cantor, iloritz, German Historian of 3Iathematics 551
Captive, Assyrian, iu Chains .• 659
Captives, Jewish, in Attitude of Supplication 563
flaking Bricks for the Temple of Amnion at Thebes in Egypt pUite beticeen 380-^1
Carabajal, Francisca de, Torture of, at Jlexico. 1590 569
■ Mariana de, E.xecution of, at Mexico, 1601 568
Carmel, Mount, from the Sea 5T9
Caro, Joseph: Title Page of the First Edition of the Shulhan 'Aruk, Printed at Venice, 18tli of
Kislew, 5325=1564. In the collection of Hon. Mayer Sulzberger 587
Carpentras, North Gate of the Jewry at 590
Carregal, Raphael Hayyim Isaac, Itinerant Rabbi and Preacher 592
Cartography ; see Ciiartoguaphy.
Case of the Law of the Great Synagogue at Bokhara 295
Cassel, David, German-Jewish Historian and Theologian 603
German}-, Exterior of Synagogue at 602
Castro, De: Arms of the Family 608
D. H. de, Book-Plate of 313
Catacomb: Fragment of a Sarcophagus from the Vigna Randanini at Rome, Showing Jewish
Symbols 614
Greek Epitaph in Hebrew Characters on a Sarcophagus in the Vigna Cimarra at Rome 616
Inscription on a Gravestone in the Vigna Cimarra at Rome ' 614
Inscriiition on a Sarcophagus iu the Vigna Cimarra at Rome 615
Catacombs, Ground-Plan of the Jewish, at Venosii 617
see also Candlestick.
Catalan Map, The, Drawn by Cresques Lo Jiiheu (The Jew) of Majorca, 1375 .folder hetteeen 67S-679
Caucasus Jewess and Her Children 628
^louutaiu Jews ( ■' Bergjuden '') of the 629
Cavaillon. The Old Synagogue at 632
Cedars of Lebanon 635
Cemetery, Jewish, at Brody 640
Between Langnau and Eudingen 639
Old, of the Community of Frankfort -on-the-Main 638
Part of the Emanu-El Congregation, at Salem Fields, New York (Ul
see also Bi"kial.
Censorship: A Censored Page of Jacob ben Asher's "Arba' Turim." Printed by Soncino in 1516 6-13
A Censored Page of the Jewish Encyclopedia 631
An Expurgated Page from "Sefer Sha'ar ha-Shamaym " of Gersbon ben Solomon. Printed at
Venice. 1547 645
Holograph Apiirobation of the Censor Vincentius Mattellica on the Front Cover of Gerslion ben
Solomon's "Sefer Sha'ar ha-Sharaayim," Printed at Venice. VAl 645
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S IX VOLUME III
PAGE
Censorship: Russian Censor's Marks on the Title-Page of tlie Manuscript of A. B. Doljsevage's "Lo
Dubbim AVelo Yaar " 649
Central Europe, Jlap of, Showing Chief Towns Where Outbreaks Against the Jews Occurred During
the Black Death, 184S-49 235
Ceremonial: see Betrothal; Blessing of JIoox: BniUEOUooM op the Law; Bckial; CincrMci-
siox; EwEii; Habdalaii; Siiofar-Blowing ; Tabeuxacles, Feast of.
Chains, Assyrian Captive in 6'>0
Chajes, Zebi Ilirsch, Talnuulist and Rabbi COO
Chariot, Assyrian 067
Egy ]5tian 066
Ililtite OOG
Charleston, S. C. Interior of the Old Synagogue at. Destroyed by Fire April 27, 1838 678
Chartogruphy : The Catalan Map Drawn by Crcs(iues Lo Juheu of Majorca, 1375. ...folder betteeen 678-679
Chautauqua Sociel.v, Seal of the Jewish 683
Circumcision: see Benedictions.
Cities, Plans of : see Bordeaux; Bristol; Canterbury.
Coat of Arms of the De Castro Faiuih- 608
Coffin, Placing the Body in a 433
Scphardic Jews in Procession Rouud a 433
■ Throwing Eaitli upon a 435
Coin, Copper, of Agrippa II., Struck at Ca'sarea .... 487
Columbia University Library ; see Arba" T''«i-^' ; Gershon ben Solomon's Sefer Siia'ar iia-Siia-
MAYi.M; 5[?;aii Berakot; Tefillot Latini.
Complutensiau Polyglot Edition of the Bible, 1514 159
Costumes of Bride and Biidcgroom Among the German Jews, Eighteenth Century 128
of German Jews of the Eighteenth Century 126
of Jews of Nuremberg, 1726 127
see also Beni-Israel; Betrothal; Bokhara; Bkideoroo.m of the Law; Brussels; Buhial;
Caruegal, Raphael Hayyi.m Isaac ; Caucasus.
Covers of Books: see Binding.
Ciesques Lo Juheu (The Jew) of Majorca: see Catalan Map.
Decalogue, Pdrtion of Deuteronomy Containing the. From the first llelirew ediiion of the Pen-
tateuch, printed at Bologna, 1482 157
Deed: see BETiurriiAL.
De Pinto Family, Book Plate of 313
Dobscvage, A. B.. A Censor's 3Iarks on the Title-Page of the Manuscript of " Lo Dubbim Welo
Ya'ar "of (149
Editio Princeps: see First Editions.
Egypt: see Boundary-Stone ; Bricks; Chariot.
Emanu El Congregation. Part of the Cemetery of the, at Salem Fields, New York 641
Endingen, Jewish Ceuu'tery Between Ijangnau and 639
England; see Bodleian Lihuary; Bbistol; Canteiusury; London.
Erfurt >Ianuscript of the Hebrew Bible, with Targum on Alternate Lines. Formerly belonging to
Johann Reuchlin 181
Ethnology: see Camels; Captive; Chariot.
Etrog, Representation of. on a Sarcophagus. From the Vigna Randanini at Rome 614
Europe: see Black Death; Brody; England; Germany; Hungary; Italy; Russia.
Ewer with Hebrew Inscription, in the Bodleian Library 282
E.xecution of JIariana de C'arabajal at Mexico, IGOl 568
Ex Libris: see Book-Plate.
First Editions: Page from the Hebrew- Psalms, with David Kimhi's Commentary, 1477 155
Page from the Hebrew Pentateuch, Bologna, 1482 157
from the Complutensiau Polyglot, 1514 1.59
from the Rabbinic Bible, Printed by Daniel Bomberg, Venice, 1517 plate between 160-161
Title-Page of Joseph Caro's Shulhan 'Aruk, Venice, 1564 587
Four Worlds, The Aleph as a Symbol of the Cabalistic 476
France: see Bordeaux ; Carpentras; Cavaillon.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S IN VOLUME III
TAGE
Fraiikfort-on-ilioMain, Tlic OM Cemetery of the Communily of 638
Fricdliiuiicr, DaviiL Book-riale c.f '. 314
Gate, Xorth, to tlie Jewry at Carpentras 590
Gaza, Great Mosque at. Represcntatiou of the Golden Camlleslick on the •'iSS
Germany, Betrothal Scenes of Jews of. Eighteenth Century 12(>-1"27
Costumes of Jews of, Eighteenth Century 129
see also Beulix; Bonn; Budweis; Cassel; FuAXKFOKT-oN-TiiEilAix.
Gershou ben Solomon: An Expurgated Page from "Sefer Shaar ha-Sliamayim." Venice, 1547 645
Gezer, Boundary-Stone of, with the Inscription itj Qnn ("Limit of Gezer"), Discovered by M. Cler-
mont -Ganueau 343
Goatskin Water-Bottlcs. NTow in L'se in Palestine 341
Graves: sec BriUAL; Cemetery.
Gravestone: see Bvriai.; Cemetery.
Greek; see Candlestick; Catacomb; Coin; Polyglot; V.^tic ax Manuscript.
"HabdalaJi": see Bexedictioxs.
" Halikafot "" ; Sephardic Jews in Procession Round a Coffin 433
" Hatan Torali " : see BRiDEGnooM of the Laav.
Hats: see Costumes.
Hebrew: see Betrothal Deed: C.vbala; C.\xdi,e6Tick ; Catacombs; Ewer; Gezer; Grave-
stone; TVPOGRAPIIY.
High Priest. Breastplate of the 366
Ilittite Chariot 666
Host Tragedy at Brussels, 1370. After the Tapestries in the Cathedral of St. Gudulc. sliowing;
Sale of tlie Host 407
Jews Represented as Transfixing Hosts 408
Jews Dragged to Prison 407
ilarty rdom of the Jews 407
House, Interior of a German Jew's. Eighteenth Century 126
Interior of a Jew-'s, at Nuremberg, About 1700 127
Hungary : see Budapest.
Illuminated First Page of Exodus. From a manuscript formerly in the possession of the Duke of
Sussex 1S3
Hebrew Bible (Gen. i.) Written in Spain. 1476. colored plate facing 178
Imprint of tlie Bragadini, Printers, on the TitlcPage of the First Edition of Caro's Shull.ian "Aruk,
Venice, 1564 587
India : see Bexi-Israel ; Bo.MnAY.
Int|uisit:on: see Carab.\jal. Fraxcisca de. Torture of: Caraba.ial. JIariaxa de, Execctios of.
Inscriptions: see BouxdaryStoxe: Caxdi.estick ; Catacombs; Cemetery; Coi>i,
Italy: see Bologxa; Ketubah; Rome; Vexice.
Jars, Mode of Fillin?, from Water-Bottles 340
"Jeremiah at tlie Fall of Jerusalem." Painting by Eduard Beudemann Frontispiece
Jewish Encyclopedia, Censored Page of tlie 651
Jewries: see Bordeaux; Bristol; Canterbury; Carpextras.
Keneset Eliyaliu Synagogue at Bombay 20
Ketubah. Italian, or Betrothal Deed. Dated 5555 a. M colored plate facing 128
Kimlii, David: see Bible, First Hebrew- Editiox of.
Lamp, with IJepresentatiou of the Golden Candlestick, Found Among the Ruins of Carthage by
P. Delattrc 532
with Representation of the Golden Candlestick, Found at Khirbat Sammaka, Xear Carmel 532
Langnau, Jewish Cemetery Between Endiugen and 639
Lebanon, Cedars of 635
Leviticus, First Page of, from the First Rabbinic Bible. Venice. 1517 plate betireen 160-161
Lilien, E. X. : see Book-Pl.\tes of Ruben Brainix and Dr. Emil Simonson 315
Liturgy: see Meaii Berakot ; Tefillot Latini.
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III
PAGE
London : Interior of the Bevis JIarks Synagogue 133
Magen David or Slia'ar ba-Hahamim Sj'uagogue at Bombay 21
•'Mail 2<isiitaiuiaii," jNIusic of 550
^lauuscripts: see Betuotiiai- Deed;Bibi,e. Illuminated; Erfurt; St. Petersburg Codex ; Vaticax.
Maps: see Black Death; Bordeaux; Bristol; Cantehhury; Catalan.
■' Jlcali Beraliot," Title-Page of. Printed at Amsterdam, 1787 • 8
Menorah, Sefirot in the Form of a 476
Mexico : see Ixijuisition.
"Moses at the Burning Bush." From tlie Sarajevo Haggadah, fourteentli century 439
Moses, Chair of: see Bokhara, The Great Synagogue at.
.Mountain Jews of tlie Caucasus 629
.Mount Carniel from tlie Sea 579
Mourners Throwing Grass Beliind Tiiem as Tliey Leave the Cemetery 437
see also Buri.vl.
Music. •' Beral.i Dodi " 48
"Birkat Kohanini " 346, 347
Cantillation 539-550
" Mall Nishtanuali. " 550
New York: see B'nai B'rith; Emanu-El Congregation Cemetery; see also Columbia Univer-
sity LiBR.VRY; New York Public Library.
Public Library : see Betrothal Deed; Pentateuch; Polyglot.
Nuremberg, Betrothal Scene at, 1726 127
Oranienburgerstrasse Synagogue, Berlin 75
(Jxfurd: see Bodleian Library.
Palestine: see Beth-El ; Bottles; C-esarea; Candlestick; C'.\rmel, Mount; Cedars of Leba-
non; Gezer.
Peutatcueh, Page from the First Hebrew Edition of the. Printed at Bologna, 1483 157
Persecutions: Map of Central Europe Showing Chief Towns Where Outbreaks Against the Jews
Occurred During the Black Death, 1348-49 235
Picart, Bcrnhard: see Bridegroom op the Law; Burial.
Polyglot Edition of the Bible, 1514, Page from the Complutensian 159
Portraits: see
Benih VII), Lazarus. Ber.n'stkin, Aaron. BkCi.l. Ic.n'az.
Bendeman.v, KiHARn. BiEDERMAXS, -Michael Lazar. BrI'll, Jakob.
Benedict, Sui JcLiLS. Biscimtzde Heves, Johanna. BrI'll, Nkmemiah.
Bexedikt, Moriz. Bliocm, Ivan S. Bchkr, Siilumon.
Bexkt. Morhecai. Block, MarccsEmezer. Bcexo, Ephraim Hezekiah.
BENKEV, TllEODOR. BLc'mENTHAI., OSKAR. BUXTORF, JOHANNES.
Benjamin II., J. J. BOrne, Karl Ludwig. Cantor, Moritz.
Benjamlv, JrnAH Philip. Braham, John. Carreoai, Raphael Hattim Isaac.
Berlin, Muses. Brandes, Georg. Cassel, David,
Berliner, Abraham. Br^al, Michel. Chajes, Zebi Hih.sch.
Bkrnavs, Isaac. Brejthacpt, John Frederick.
Prayers, It;ilian-Jewisli, Printed in Hebrew Characters, Bologna, 1538 299
Printer's iMark: see Imprint.
Procession of Bridegroom of the Law on the Eve of the Kejoicing of the Law 383
of Sephardic Jews Round a Coflin 433
Processions of Bridegroom and of Bride, About 1700 129
Rabbinic Bible: see Bo.mberg, Daniel.
lic'joiciiig of the Law, Procession of Bridegroom of the Law on the Kve of the 383
Reiichlin, .Tohaiin, The Erfurt Manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Targuni, Foniicrly Belonging to. 181
Ring, Betrothal, Bearing Letter a for " iMazzal Tob " 128
with Bo.x Containing Perfumes and Opening with a Key 138
Rome, see Candlestick; Catacomb; Ce.metert.
Uothschild, Lady, Book-Plate of 314
Russia- see Berdychev; Byelostok; Caucasus; Censorship.
St. Petersburg- Codex of the Hebrew Bible, with Superlinear Punctuation 179
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III
PAGE
Sarcophagus. Fnigmcnt of a, from the Vigna Raudaaini at Rome, Showing Jewisli Symbols 614
see also Catacomb.
Seal of the B'uai Brith Order 276
of the Jewish Chautauqua Society 6!<3
Scfirot, Correct Order of, Arranged in a Circle ^iG
in Relation to One Another ■^'S
in the Form of a Menorah ■*'"
Sephardic Jews in Prwes-sion Round a Coffin 433
Sepiuairint Version of Exodus xi.\. 14-xs. IT. From a page of the Vatican manuscript 1^7
Shofar-Blowing: see Bknkuktioss.
Shulhan Aruk, TitlePage of Caros, Printed at Venice, 18th of Kislew, 5325=1564 587
Signatures: see Aitoorapiis.
Simhat Torali : see Rfjoici.ng of the Law.
Simonson, Dr. Emil, Book-Plate of 315
Soncino Border from the Title-Page of *' Sefer Yehoshua' " 321
Spheres. Relation of the Cabalistic 474
Symbol, The Aleph as a. of the Four Cabalistic WorUls 476
Symbols. Jewish, on a Fragment of a Sarcophagus from the Vigna Randauini at Rome 614
Synagogues: see Bkhdvciiev: Beiilix; Bf.vis JIauks: Bokhaua; Bombay; Boxx; Bud.apest; Bud-
WEis; Byelostok: Cassel: Cavaii.i.os: Ciia:{LEStox.
Tabakgasse Synagogue at Budapest 417
Tabernacles, Feast of, as Celebrated by Bokhara Jews 2!>3
Talmud, Page from Bomberg's Edition of. 1526 301
Targum: seeEuFURT; Polyglot.
" Tefillot Latini " : Italian-Jewish Prayers Printed in Hebrew Characters, Bologna, 1538 299
Tell Arnamia. Boundary-Stone at 342
Temple of Solomon, Brazen Sea of the, with View of Section. Restored according to Calmet 358
Thebes: see Bricks.
TitlePages: see JIeaii Beuakot; Sihliian 'AnrK; Soxciso Border.
Titus, The Golden Caniliestick on the Arch of, as It Appeareil in 1710. After Reland 532
Translations, Biblical: see Polyglot; Seitcagext; Targum.
Tribute, Camels Led to Shalmanescr as 520
Types, Jewish: see Bexi-Israel; Bokhara; Caucasus.
Typography: sec Bible; Bologxa; Bomberg. Daxiel; Caro, Joseph ; JIeah Bekakot; Soxcixo
Border.
United States: see CnAiiLESTOS, S. C. ; Chautauqua Society; New York.
Vatican ^lanuscript of the Scptuagint Version of Exodus xix. 14-xx. 17, Page of 187
Venice: see Bomberg, Daxiel: Shulhax 'Aruk; Sonclso Border.
Venosa, Ground-Plan of the Jewish Catacombs at C17
see also Caxdi.estick.
Vinceutius Mattellica, Holograph Approbation of, to "Sefer Slia'ar ha-Shamayim " of Gerehon ben
Solomon, Printed at Venice, 1547 •. . . 645
"Water- Bottles, Goatskin, Now in Use in Palestine 341
:Jlode of F"illiug Jars from 340
Writing, Cursive : see Dobsevage, A. B.
THE
Jewish Encyclopedia
BENCEMERO, oi BEN ZAMAIRA, ABRA-
HAM : Mediator, in 152G, bclwix'ii tUu JIoois uud
the governor of SafFee and Azamor, employed by the
Portuguese. He lived at Azanior on the west coast
of Africa. Abraham Cazan (Hazau), the most prom-
inent Jew of that city, was also employed in the
same capacity.
Bibliography: JtiSo de Souso, DiK-umrntn^ Aralii^iii* jtara
la Hi-ituria Porlvuvcza, pp. l-W ft .>■*;'/■* Lisbon, 17H((; Kay-
serling, Geftclt. dcr Jiiden in PitrtttfjuU p. l*il.
«. M. K.
BENCEMERO, ISAAC : Kelalive of Abraham
Beneemero of Azamor; the deliverer of Nuno Fer-
nandes d'Afayde, eommander-iu-chief of Saffee.
When in loll tliis latter city was besieged and sur-
I'ounded by an army of more than 100,000 men aud
Ataydc was exposed to the greatest danger, Benee-
mero and a certain Ismael formed the bokl jilan of
bringing assistance to the Portuguese. At their own
e.\pcnse they titted out two vessels, manned them
with co-religionists, and sailed to Saffee. Eluding the
sentinels on watch, they entered the city in the dark-
ness of night, and thus saved Atayde and his men.
BiBi.iOGRAPiiv: Hieronymo de Meudoi;a, Jornada de Africa,
p. S9a, Lisbon, 1B67; Kayserling, Ocsc/i. dcrjudeyi in Portu-
gai, p. 159.
(i. M. K.
BENDAVID, LAZARUS: German philoso-
pher aud reformer; born in Berlin Oct. 18, 17(52;
died there ^laich 28, 1833. In his younger days he
supported himself by
polishing glasses, and
in his leisure time
studied matliematics,
in which he attained
great piofieieney. His
earliest published work
was on a geometrieul
subject, " Ueber die
Parallellinien" (Berlin,
1786), and attracted
much attention. Ben-
david .studied at the
universities of Gdt-
tingen and Halle and
became a stanch adherent of the Kantian philosophy.
After failing in his effort to enter the service of
the Prussian government in the Department of Jus-
HI. — 1
Lazarus Bendavid,
tice, Bendavid in 1793 went to Vienna and lectured
on Kant's philosophical system in one of the liallsof
the university. He was. however, soon comi)elled
to terminate his lectures thei'c, but continued them in
tlie mansion of Count Harrach, where he attracted
large and distinguished audiences. When, in 1797,
foreign residents were forced to leave
Lectures Vienna, Bendavid returned to Berlin,
on Kant, and was for several years editor of the
"Spener'sche Zeitung," which he di-
rected with great ability aud eiieiimspeetion during
the dangerous times of the French domination.
In 1806 Bendavitl became the director of the Frei-
schule (Jewish Free School), which had been founded
in 1778 by David Friedljlnder and Daniel Itzig.
Bendavid brought the school to such a high stand
ard that nearly a third of its pupils were non-Jews
'in 1819, when the attendance of Christian children
at Jewish schools was prohibited by the government.
He served witliout comjiensation until the school
was closed in 1835. His services as an expert ac-
covmtant were much sought after by comnu'rcial and
tinaucial institutions; and he was also employed in
that capacity for many j-eais by the directors of the
Royal Fund for Widows (Konigliche "Wittwcnkasse).
The extreme simplicity of liis mode of living brought
him Ihe nickname of " The jModi-rn Diogenes " ; while
by his thrifty habits he succeeded in
"The being as independent in worldly af-
Modern fairs as he strove to be in the domain
Diogenes." of philosojihy. He is called by Heine
" a Siige after the pattern of antiquity."
He never mariied.
In philoso])liy Bendavid remained a Kantian
throughout his life. His pulilished lectui-es. such
as the " Vorlesiingeu liber die Kritik der Praktischen
Vernunft" (Vienna, 179G), " Vorlesungcn uber die
Kritik der Reinen Vernunft" (/i. 1796), and several
similar works, are simply expo.sitions of the philos-
ojihy of his great luaster. When new nietaphy.sical
leaders like Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel commenced
to dominate the world of German thought, Bendavid
offered no resistance and engaged in no polemics
like other Kantians, b\it withdrew from the field of
active philosophical studies and exercised his mind
on other subjects.
Bendavid's influence on the development and pop-
ularization of philosophy in his time is generally
Bendavid
Bender
THE .JEWltSlI ENCYCLOPEDIA
recognized. His " Ueber den Ursprung Unserer Er-
kenntnisse" (Berlin, 1S02) wiis crowned by the
Aeademy of Berlin. This work and his other inde-
jiendent philosopliical researches, like "Beiliage zur
Kritik des Geschniaeks" (Vienna. 171I7). " Versueh
cincrGesehniaekslehre" (Berlin, 17!I8). and" Versueh
einer Rechlslehre " (Berlin. 18(rJ). wliieli are now
almost forijotten, were of inijiortance al the lime of
their appearanee. The truths which they contain,
now genendly accepted, had to sirugirle hard for
recognition in those <lays: and Bendavid's lucid
style contributed much to their popularization. He
will always be reineudiered as one of the trio of
Jewish ])hilosophers (the other two being JIarcus
Herz and Solomon Maiinon) who. as much as any
other German thinkers. helpe<l to spread the Kant-
ian philosophy at the end of the eighteenth century.
In the .lewish world Bendavid's inHuenco was also
considerable, and by no means imperceptible, as is
claimed by Griitz. In his "Etwas zur Charakter-
istiek der .luden " (Vicnna-Leipsic. 17!)3; improved
ed.. Berlin, 181^) he idcaded boldly for abolition of
ceremonial laws, and is thus among the first, if not
actually the first, advocate of jiractical religioiis re-
form in Judaism as the only means to stem the tide
of conversi<ms to Christianity which began to rise
in those days with startling rapidity. In this work
(pp. 33, 34) Bendavid pays high tribute to Moses
Mendelssohn, who befiieuded and encouraged him
in his early struggles. It is interesting to note that
Bendavid was summoned before Cardiiud Jligazzi
in Vienna to defend himself against the charge that
he traduced Christianity in that work (see Sehreiber,
"Reformed Judaism." y]i. 2S-31, Spokane, Wash.,
1892).
Bendavid was one of tli<' tiist radical Bible critics
among the Jews of Germany. His "Ueber die Re-
ligion der Ebriier vor Jloses" (Berlin, 1S12) and the
essay "Ueber Geschriebenes tuul IMi'indliehes Ge-
setz," which appeared in Zun/.'s "Zcitsehrift fiir
liie Wissenschaft des .Indenlhums," 1S23, claim to
be parts of a comprehensive critical study of the
Pentateuch which was inobably never tinished. In
the same |)enoilieal also ajipeaied his
A Radical " Ueberden Glaubender Judeuaneiuen
Bible Kiinftigen Messiah." wlierehe uses his
Critic. knowledge of the Tabnud and rab-
binical literature to insist on the prin-
ciple, first brought forward by Joseph Albo. that
the bi'lief in the connng of a Jlessiah is not essential
to Judaism. His "Zur Bereehnung und Geschichte
des Ji'idischen ICalenders" (Berlin, 1817) was also a
radical departure from the usual treatment of the
subject by Jewish writers, and called forth a vehe-
ment rejoinder in the booklet, " Dabar Beitto," by
MeVr ben Moses Koniick (Breslau. 1817). The last
work p\iblished by Bendavid. which appeared in
Berlin in 1824, was a rcjiorl on the condition of the
Freisch\de.
hUiLiOGKAPHV : ttendavid wrote an nutobiographit-al ,sketfh
which appeared ni Ihe Uilduiss, Ittiilm vti'}thyt> n, lierhn,
IHOti. His bioffraphv, written bv Muritz Vril, appcan-il in the
nimtcr fnr Lit. Vntcrli. fur ISC'. Alkiiiiniiir I fuitxeU,
Hiiiuritiiliie. il. :!IS :«!; criilz. Cimli. ilir.iuih II. xi\. lyil; Jost,
Hiscli. ili.i Jiiili iithiiiiix tiiiii Si nil r Sihliii. Ui. :)I8; L.
(ieicer. (ii.-<ch.iii'r JIUI. iiimiiiuii in llirliii. pp. ItiKrt i<fii.',
Xdt. filr (liscli. ilir Juiliii in Dcuti^ihUiiHl, iv. 7!> SU (his
letters U> BellerinuD).
8. P. Wl.
)f Berlin and associ-
BENDEMANN, EDUAKD JULIUS
FKIEDRICH : Gerniiin painter; born Dec. 3. 1811.
in IJciliii: died Dec. 27. 1S8!», at Diisseldorf. His
father was a i)i-omiiienl li.-iiiUer
ated with the intellec
tinil eiicles of the cap
ital. His talented son
was therefore at ;m
earl}' age brought into
conttict with such ce
Icbrities as Goltfrieil
Schadow and his two
sons, a.s well as with
Feli.x Mendelssohn ami
Werder. It was, how-
ever, the intercourse
with Jvdius llilbucr.
who afterward be-
came his brother in-
law and was then a '
pupil at the Berlin Academy, that iuduceel Beiule-
mauu to devote himself to tirl. After a .short course of
elementary study with W. Schadow at Berlin. Beude
mann accompaiiietl him to Diisseldorf. where lie lu-
camea memberof that celebrated fnitcridty ofart stu-
dents iif terward designated " the Diisseldorf School. "
As early as 1828 Bendemann had attracted attention
in Berlin by an excellent portrait of his giaudmollier,
which had been exhibited in that city. His next
jiicture. "Boaz and Ruth," his first independent cre-
ation, also met with recognition, without, however,
giving evidence of the triumiihs that the painter
was sotm to achieve. When, in 18;t(1. Schadow went
to Italy, Bendemann, Karl Sohn. Th. Hildebraudt,
and Hiibner acconiptinied him. and remained there
for an cntii'e year, devoting themselves exclusively
to the .study of Raffael and ^lichelangelo.
Upon his return in 1831. Bendemann began the
work "Jews Mourning in the Kabylonian Exile."
now exhibited (lilUl ) in the Stiidtisches
His " Jews .Museinn. Cologne. This work was
in Baby- considered tlie masterpiece of the 1833
Ionian c.vhibilioti of the Berlin Acailemy, and
Exile." at once elevated theyoungarlist to an
eqiiidity w ith the leading painters of
the day. The gnmdeur and majesty of the con-
ception, the nobility and depth of the emotions
portrayed, the simjde aiui earnest rhythm of the
composition, and the avoidance of the extremes of
charaiterizalion, all cimibiued to make this picture
remarkable in the world of art, and one that was
welcomed with the most intense satisfaction.
From 1831 to 1835 Bendemann jiroduct'd several
of his best works. In the latter year the crown
prince of Prussia, upon the recommeudatiou of
Schadow, renounced his intention to order a copy
of "The Jlourning Jews." and commissioned Bende-
mann to paint a iiieture on the subject "Jeremiah
at the Fall of Jerusilem." (See Fidutis])iece. ) This
work, now ( li(Ol) in the I'oyal pala<-e at Hanover, was
tirst exhibited at the Berlin Academy of Art, where
it attracted the greatest attention. About 183.') the
artist married a daughter of Gottfried Schadow. and
went to live in the house of his father-in-law at Ber-
lin. There he executed the famous painting, "The
Arts at the Fountain of Poetry."
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
Bendavid
Bender
Unsuccessful iu his attempt to obtain an order for
a work of monumental iiroportions in Berlin, Bende-
mann in 183.S accepted a professorship at the Dres-
den Academy, and there, iu the fol-
Becomes lowing year, he was commissioned to
Professor ilecorate three rooms of the royal pal-
at ace. Notwithstanding an affection of
Dresden, the e3'e, that in 1841 compelled him to
go to Italy, Bi ndeniann, Ihniughont a
period of sixteen years, actively prosecuted this
work, which to-day constitutes the greatest monu-
ment to his .genius. I'pou the resignation I if Sclia-
dow in 1859, Bendemann accepted the directorship
of the Dus.scldorf Academy. This position he re-
tained until 1867, when an affection of th<^ throat
compelled him to resign. Among his most distin-
guished pupils may be mentioned his son Rudolf.
Theodor Grosse, and Peter Jaussen.
Bendemann was a knight of the Ordrr I'liur le
Merite, member or honorary member of the principal
art academics nf the world, and the reciiiient of
numerous liomirs and decoralii>ns,
Bendcmann's principal works on liiblical subjects
arc, besides those jilready mentioned : "TIk; Three
Wise Men of tin; East on Their Way to Ijethlehem "
(1833); "Jeremiah At the Fall "of Jerusalem"
(original title, "The .Jews Led into Ca|)tivity in
Babylon ''). The lasi-menti(jned work — perhaps
Bendcmann's greatest — was first exhibited in 1873,
and iu 1876 was in the National Gallery at Ber-
lin, It is described iu the official catalogue as
follows :
"In tile fitn'^jnuinii, the iirttpliHi .Icreiniali is .seated uptm [tie
ruins in spee('lile.s.s sot-row, atlendoii tiy liis faitliful pupil,
Baruch, who kneels tieside him in prayer. Ttie prophet is com-
pelled to hear the cni'ses of his countrymen, who, firiven int^i
exile, accuse him of conniving: with the enemy. To the right is
a jrroup of despairint' women and children, from whose midst a
Babylonian warrito" has jnst seized a txjy. In
"Jeremiah the center, Nehnchadnezzar, in royal attire.
at the Fall of rides in a chariot drawn by two hoi-ses. He is
Jerusalezn." accompanied l)y a frroup of jubilant women,
and is preceded by the army, heavily laden w-ilh
spoils. Following Nehui'hadnczzar's chariot is King Zedekiah,
blind, and groping his way with a stalT. The latter is accom-
panied by his wives, and followed tiy the priests hearing the Ark
of the Covenant, and by the camels and the baggage-train. In
the background, and somewhat to the left, are the smoking
ruins of Yhwh's Temple."
In addition to paintings of Biblical subjects,
Bendemann produced numerous other couipositions,
such as "The TwoGirlsat the Well" (1833); "Shep-
herd and Sbe|dierdcss'" ; "Penelope" (now in the
Antwerp Aeudeiny), and " Ivaiscr r.,(jthar" (Imperial
Gallery of the Hiimer, Fraidifort-on-the-Main). He
also drew the designs for the Cornelius Gallery in
Berlin, and these were affcrwaiil executed in en
caustic by his pupils (see lludolf Bende.mann).
Equally noteworthy was his genius as a portrait
painter, as evidenced by th(^ numerous pictures of
distinguished persons painted by him during a
period of thirty years. Among these are life-size
portraits of the following: Quandt
Asa HHiJO); Droysen (18.>5): Karl Sohn
Portrait- (1858); L. Hichter (18.J9); Kietschel
Painter. (1862); Joachim (186.j); Cornelius
(1870); Achenbachn878); ClaraSchu-
mann(1878); Pu Bois-Reymond (1880) ; Langenbeck
(1880); Niels W. Gade (1881); W. v. Schadow ; the
artist's father; and Fiirst Ant(m v. Holienzollerii.
Bendemann's portrait of General Oberwitz and his
wife is ranked by Pecht "among the best which has
ever been produced in this genre"; and the .sjune
critic considers that the siilcndid ])icture of the art-
ist's wife (first exhibited in \»41\ would alone entitle
Bendemann to enduring fame, .\moug the most
jiopular illusti'ations by Bendemann are those lo
Lcssing's "Nathan der Weisc " (187.")).
nntLiOGi{.\rnv : Julius Meyer. .llliji-tnt-iiH's Kllnsthr-Lcj-i-
/lo/K Kolnit, Bn'UbmIc IsrarUtischr Mflnmr inid Frtiuen,
ix. «KI ; Kdtiilnii ilir K<''iii<lL \iili,,iinl linllrrir. Berlin,
s. J. So.
BENDEMANN, RUDOLF CHRISTIAN
EUGEN : (Jciinuii |iniiilii' nf lii-.l(irjcal and griire
pictures: son of Eduard Bendemann ; liorn at Dres-
den Nov. 11, 18.51. He was educated at the Diissel-
dorf Academy under the supervision of his father.
From 1877 to 1879 he lived at Munich, and later
made sevcial visits to Egypt. The mui-al paintings
in the Corneliu.>* hall of the National Gallery at
Berlin were executed by him iu ;i<'cordance with his
father's plans, and in collaboration with Kiiber and
Wilhelm liecUmann (187(>). Amnng his works the
following ai'c the most noteworthy: " Frith jof und
Ingeborg als Kinder" (1874): "Nymiihe" (1877);
" Bieiaiis.schank " (1878) ; "Beerdigiing des Frauen-
lob ' ; " Kin Fest im Kilen Jahrhuudert " ; "Laulen-
sehlager" ( 1879) ; " Wirthshaussccnen in Oiicrbaiern "
(1880); "Ausgang aus einer Moscliee in Kairo " ;
"Schopfbrunncn in Obenigyptcn." Bendemann
has also achieved considi'i'alile siu-ccss as a porlniit-
paintcr.
Bihi.io(;kaim(v : J. Meyer. KtUistlcr-Lt:.i-il\fni ; Koliut. Jte-
rlUiintf Isravlitisrfu' Milniwr nnil FniuiH.
s. J. .So.
BENDER, ALFRED PHILIPP : Rabbi at
Cape Town, South Africa: born al Dublin. Ireland.
18K3; educated by his father. Rev. Philipp Render,
fur many yeais rabbi of the Dublin congregation.
Bender tinislicd his education al St. John's College,
('.■imliridge, Eng.. and in 1891 was appointed rabbi
iif the Hebrew congregation at Cape Town, South
Afiiea, where he continues to rcsidi' (1901). Hi' is
professor of Hebrew at the South .\frican College,
and is a member of the council of the University of
(4ood Hojie. Render is connected with many local
idiilauthropic institutions besides those of his own
congregatidU. He has conti-ibuted to the "Jewish
Quai'tcrly Review " (vols, vi., vii.) a series of papers
nil the burial customs of the Jews. -
B)i)i.io(;RAi'nv: .lacobs. ./niWi Vi nr nunl,. ism luen.
BENDER, JOHANN HEINRICH : German
jurist; burn at Frankfort .May nr Sept. 29. 1797;
died there Sept. (i. ISHQ. He studied law at Giessen,
where he was also lecturer from 1819 to 1823. In
1831 he went to Frankfort to ijractise law. and five
years later he was made a memlicr of the executive
committee of the tariff coininission (ZolUlirections-
rath), a position he fillid until his death. He was
the author of " Grundriss der Deiitschen Staats- und
Rechtsgeschichte." 1819; " Ueber das Miiudliche
und Oeffeutliche Verfahren in ( 'riminalsachen, " 1821 ;
"Grundsiltzc des Dcutschcii Handclsrcchts," 2 vols..
Bendery
Benedetti
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
1824-29; "Der Frllliere iind Jetzige Zustand der
Isnii'liten zvi Frankfurt. Ni-l.st Verbesscrungs-Vor-
schlilgcu," 1833: suid otlii-r works.
Bibliography: Allgcmeim D.ii(.<f)if BiVviap''", ii. ^1.
s. E. Ms.
BENDEKY : District town in tin- govoruinent
of Hissanibia. In 1898 it luul a Jewish population
of 12,0(10 out of a total of 33.000 inliabitnuts. Com-
nu-rce is the main occupation i>f the J<-ws theif-. only
l.Otil of Ihcm being engaged in handicnifts(39T mas
ters. 515 journevinenr a"^iid 149 apprentices). Ten
Jewish families." who own about si.xty-eight acres
of land within the city limits, are engaged in viti-
culture. The most important among the Jewish
benevolent institutions are the Jewish Hospital,
which has an annual expenditure of 6.4t10 rubles.
and the Talmud Torah. In siiecial Jewish schools
religious instruction is imparted to 325 children,
while at tlie public schools 240 cliildren receive such
instruction.
H. K. S- J-
BENDETSOHN. MENAHEM MANUS :
Russian pedasoiiue and Hebrew writer: l)oru in '•
Grodno 1817:" died there March 20. 1888. After a
careful Talmudic education in his native town lie
was sent, while still young, to Brcslau, Germany,
where lusfatherin-law. Reubeu Liebling, the cantor
of the Reformed synagogue, supported him during
his studies. There he published in lfi47 IS nDIDH
yen n'inN ("The Denunciator"), a Polish tale,
adapted from the German version of W, Tugend-
liold. In 1853 he returned to Russia, and then
tiiuglit formore than twenty yeare in the government
school for Jewish children at Grodno, and for a
short time in Volkovisk. In Grodno he also con-
ducted a private school for many years. Among
his pupils may be mentioned the Hebrew poet Kon-
stantin Shapiro, the public spirited lawyer L.
Kupernik of Kiev, and the jurist and writer D.
Slonimski of 'Wilna.
Besides Hebrew, he wrote fluently in Russian and
German, and being possessed of an exceptionally
retentive memory Uc knew by heart the Scriptures
and many of the writings of Schiller and other
German classics.
As an esthetic writer and stylist, be could not
approve of the Germanized Hebrew of the young
generation, and in his preface to " Alluf Xe'urim " he
severely criticized it. This called forth a reply from
R, A. Braudes in an article entitled " Ha-Safah Bike-
wodah ube 'Ozmah." which appeared in "Gan Pera
l.iim." Wilna. 18sl. pp. 12 el xeq. Besides the work
mentioned above, Bendetsohu published: "Ebcn
Bohau," the princi])al rules of Hebrew grammar in
the form of questions and answers (Wilna, 18.56>;
"Higgayon la-'Ittim," a Hebrew adaptation of the
•'Stunden der Andacht fiir Israeliten," by Samson
Wolf Rosenfeld, rabbi of Bamberg (vol, i,, Wilna,
18.5t>; vol. ii., 18(i2»: "Moda' le-Yalde Israel"
(Frieud of Jewish Children), instriictive tales, anec-
dotes, etc., from the lives of noble men, partly de-
rived from Willulm Oertel's " Praclischer Unterricht
in der Deutschen Spracbe," Hebrew and Russian
(Warsaw, 1872); "Alluf Xe'urim," a collection of in
structive tales for youth and a manual of elementary
instruction in the Hebrew tongue, translated from
the Russian (Wilna, 1879).
As a master of classical Hebrew he ranks among
the best Xeo-IIebniic writers, his style l)eing almost
equal to that of JIapu, who is considered the fore-
most classical writer of the "Maskilim,"
BiBLioiiRAPHv: nn-Ziiiinh. IS**. Nos. B8.69; Gnn Perahim,
Wilna, ISSl : private smines.
H, K, ^V FL,
BENDIG, MEIR, OF ABLES ( = Maestro
Bendig d'Ai-les) : 'rahiuulist at Aries, in the Pro-
vence, probably in the second half of the fifteenth
centuiy. He wrote the following works: (1) An
index of all the Biblical passiiges cited in the Baby-
lonian Talmud, including tlie "minor treati.ses," and.
the Abot de-Uabbi Nathan, with a list of the pas-
sages in which they are cited. A later copyist gave
the work the name "Em le-Mikra" (Scriptural
Sources). It is manuscript No. 1637, 3, of Neu-
bauer. "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.," and occurs also in
a Verona manuscript. (2) A collection of the hag
•radic passiiges of the Talmud, erroneously entitled
by the copyist "Em le-Masoret" (Sources of Tradi-
tion). It is contained in the sjimc manuscripts as
the preceding work. In his works Bcndig carried
out a plan of^Isiiac Nathan, aiithorof "ileir Netib,"
who also lived at Aries, but before Bendig,
bibliography: cross, in Mmots-ochnfl. 18S0. p K3: idem.
(iiiUm Jiiilniia, p, !KI: Neubauer, Cat. Bmll. Hebr. Hbb.
p..^Tl.
1.. (i.
I. Ber.
BENDIN. See Petrikov.
BENDIT. See Benedict.
BENDIX. FRITS EMIL : Danish violoncellist
and composer: born Jan. 12, 1847, at Copenhagen,
He lirst studied with F. Ranch, and later with
Friedrich Neruda and Fried rich Griitzmacher in
Dresden. From 1866 to 1871 he lived in Germany,
where he successively played in the orchestras at
Meiningen and Cassel. He also appeared as a solo-
ist and in chamber-music performances. On his re-
turn to Denmark in 1871 he became a member of the
royal orchestra at Copenhagen, and since 1887 he
has been its leader.
Beudix has published a book of children's songs,
of which he composed both text and music. In
1884 a one-act comedy of his was performed at the
Royal Theater in Copenhagen. Another play, en-
titU'd "En Hustru," was published by him under
the pseudonym "Carston Hoist."
Bibliography: SalmonsieD, Store mu^lrerede Konvcrm-
tionsldisikon; C. F, Bricka.Daiu* Bingraftsk Lerikon.
s. J. So.
BENDIX, OTTO JXTLITJS EMANUEL:
Danish oboist and pianist : born July 26. 1843. at
Copenhagen; a brother of Frits Beudix. He first
devoted himself to the study of the oboe, and re-
ceived instruction on that instrument from Christian
Schliemanu. He was also a pupil of Gade and Ree.
In 1868 he received an appointment as oboist in the
royal orchestra ; and he remained a member of that
organization until 1880. In the mean time he had
diligently devoted himself to the study of the piano;
and in order to perfect himself as a pianist, he took
THE JEWISH EXCVCLOPEDIA
Bendery
Benedetti
a coui-sp with Theodore Kiillak at Berlin and with
Liszt at Weimar (1873-74).
The piiiuo now gradually became his favorite in-
strument. For a nuuiber of years he performed at
concerts and tauglit in Copenhagen ; but in 1H80 he
left his native city for Boston. Mass., where he now
occupies ( 101)2) a distinguislied position as a teacher
and virtuoso. In the latter cajiacity he has made
frequent tours, one of which extended as far as Sau
Francisco.
BiBLiociKAPUY : Saliiionsen. Store IHii^rercile Knnvei'va-
titmsiflisihint : C. K. Brieka. Dnusk BiograHttk Lcxikon ;
Bakw. liiiiurai>liir(tl DM. of ilusiciiing. New York. I'Ml
s. J. 80.
BENDIX, VICTOR EMANUEL: Danish
violin virtuosi 1, ]iianisl, and conipo.ser; born May
17, I80I. at Copeidiagcn; brother of Frit.s Bemlix.
He early manifested a remarkable talent for music.
From 18G7 to 18(ii( he was a pupil at the newly
founded conservatory of music at Copenhagen.
where he studied the piano under August Winding
and composition under Xiels W. Gade. who.se favor-
ite pupil and protege he became. In association
with Axel Liebmann, he conducted from 1872 to
1876 the concerts of the choral society founded by
the latter. A few years later he; became instructor
of the chorusat the Koyal Openi. and Gade"sassistant
at the ciiorjil rehearsals of the .Music-al Society. He
also at this time frequently ap])eared as soloist and
in ehambermusic recitals, and during the .season of
1893 conducted the popular concerts given at the
Concert Palace.
Bendi.\ has occasionally visited Germany and other
foreign countries, and his ccnnpositions reveal the
influence of modiTu German romanticism. They
are characterized by a consummate mastery of tech-
nic, anil embrace orchestral and chamber music, as
well as numerous songs and minor compositions
for the piano. The following is a list of his princi-
I)al works: "The Thirty-third Psalm," for orchestra
and chorus, op. 7 : symphony in C, entitled " Fyaeld-
stigning" (German title "Zur Hijlie"). publislied in
1891; symi)liouy in I), entitled " Sommerklange
fra Kusland " ; symphony in A (1895?): "Lystspil-
ouverture," op. 19: pianoforte concerto, op. 17:
pianoforte trio. op. 11: ten songs, op. 18; "Poesies
de Victor Hugo." op. 21: "Album." ten pianoforte
pieces.
BlBLio(iR.\iMiv : Saimonseii. Sltur lUittil irrede Koiiveriia-
tUitislfhsikiii) ; c F. Brii'ka. Dtntsh JiunfraHnk Lexiknn,
s. J. So.
BENE-BEBAK : A tow 11 a.ssigned to Dan (Josh.
xix. 4')i. ll was situated on the seaeoast plain
southeast of Joppa. and is to be identitied with
the modern Ibn lbnik(Buhl. "Geographic." p. 196).
The Danitcs, however, did not continue to hold the
place, since Sennacliirili (Hawliusou. "Cuneiform
Inscriptions of Western Asia." i., plate "u. col. ii.
66) mentions Banaibarka as belonging to Zidka. In
later times Bene-Biiak lucanie the seat of Akiba's .
school (Sanli, :«ln. ,
.1 .11: G. B. L.
BENE BERITH. See Bn.vi Bhith.
BENE MIKRA. See Kar.\ites.
BENEDETTI, SALVATORE DE: Italian
scholar; born April 18, IMIM, at Xovara, a town in
Piedmont : died Aug. 4, 1891, at Pisii. In his time the
public schools of Italy were closed to Jews, and
therefore Benedetti attended the only school of
importance in Piedmont open to Hebrews — a col-
lege founded in Vercelli by a certain Foa and
intended more especially for the preparation of
nibbis. After finishing his studies there and feeling
no inclination for the ministry, Benedetti earned a
livelihood by teaching, and by eilitorial work for
some Piedmont and Milan papers. At this time also
he translated, in abridged form. Adolph Franck's
book on the Cabala. In 1844 Beneiletti was named
superintendent of the Pie Scuole Israel itiche at Leg-
horn. In 1848 he became one of the most militant
participants of the JIaz7.ini faction, and took an
active pari in the publication of the " Corriere Li-
vornesc. "
When the Austrians invaded Leghorn, Benedetti
left the city in order to return to his native province.
Piedmont. He remained some time in Turin actively
engaged as a journalist, and when Cesare Cor-
renti founded the " Progresso, " Benedetti became a
member of the editorial staff of that paper. After
its cessatiim Benedetti went back to Xovarsi, and
after having delivered public lectures on history he
founded and edited the paper "'La Vedetta," which
served as intermediary between free Piedmont and
Lombardy, then still uuder the Austrian yoke.
In view of the changed political situation pro-
voked by the ))olicy of Victor Enunanuel and of his
minister Cavour, Benc(U>tli decided thenceforward
to devote his life to science and literature. In 1862
he became jirofessor of Hebrew at the University of
Pisa, and n'tained the position till his death. He
also contributed from time to time to local papers of
his new dwelling-place. He devoted the greater part
of his energy to scientitic publications: distinguish-
ing himself b)' his exact knowledge of the bibliogra-
phy of each subiect he treated, by tin- severe method
of research that he applii-d to every topic he dis-
cussed, and, above all. by the choice language he em-
ployed.
One of the most interesting of Benedetti"s works
was his "Vitae^Iorte di Jlose." 1879, wherein he
gathered and translated the legends concerning the
great Hebrew legislator. His "Canzonieie Sacro di
Gimla Levita,"' 1871, a translation of the poems of
Judali ha-Levi, helped largely toaciiuaint the Italian
])ublic with the Hebrew poetry of the Middle Ages.
Besides the above-mentioneil works Benedetti pub-
lished: " 11 TerzoCetitenario di Galileo," a historical
tale, Pisa, 1H64: "DelMetododi Galileo nella Filo-
logia," Turin, 1864: "Delia Educa/.ione Rustics, "
Florence, 180."): ''Elisa Finocchieiti Toscanelli,"
Ilsa, 187(1; "I Teologi Xaturali " (translated from
the Hebrew). Pissi, 1871 : " La Leggenda Ebraica <lei
Dieei ]Martiri e la Pcrdonanza suUo Stes.so Argo-
mento. " in " Anniiario della Societil Italiana per gli
Studj Orieiitale," ii. : "Giuseppe Levi, "a biography
of the famous Italian poet, Florence, 1876; "JIari
anna Foa Uziclli." biography, Leghorn, 1880: "Dei
Presenti Studj sul Talmud e Specialmentc suU'
Aggada," in '• Proceedings of the Fourth Congress
of Orientalists." held in Florence. 1878. Florence,
Benedict VIII.
Benedict. Hoses
TIIK .lEWISII ENCYCLOPEDIA
1880; "LAulico TisliuiK'iito c In Lettcratiim Ita-
li)iii;i." Pisii. 1HN.">.
BiHi.ioGKAiMiv: AU's.siinilT"il'.Uuiiim. .NVi/rafiirc dc BeueOelli.
in yliimi(iii<M/i7/" riiir,i:-it<i ■'<■ /'i.v<i (» ;■ C.lii/io ^ai<(c-
IllilO, IWIl If.
BENEDICT VIII.: P.i|ic Irom inr,' lo 1024. A
great |ji;r.scculiiiii of iIk' .It-ws liiok place iliuiiif;- liis
IHintilicatc. A tciiilili' eaitlKiuakc and limricuMc
visitod tlio lily cif Hniiir i>n (luod Friday. lO'il. and
(he followinj;' <lay, in wliicli many persons jh'I'
islu'd. Accordinu: to the views of Iliat lime, tliis
visitation was considered as a punisliment sent by
God; and tlie jxipe was persuaded, by one who i)re-
tended to have discovered tlie canse of tlie divine
anger, that tlie Jews had insidted tlie host wliile
the Christians were jiayinir their adoration to tlie
cro.ss. .\n iii(|uiiy, eondueted with all the partial
ily which cliaraclerized that ejiocli. luivinj; demon
strated the veracity of the allesred facts, Benedict
ordered the execnfion of the gnilly Jews. Accord
iiig to Zunz, the selihali 131 U'ilV DK. written by
Simeon ben Isiuic, refers to this peiseciilion.
BiBi.iooRAi'Hv: Voirflslein ami Itif^'er. Cisi-hU-hti- ilfr Jinh'n
ill Hinti, i. ~I1. :iV-i, :5;">4 ; Bei'linei', ffrsrhirfth ittr Juilfit in
Hunt. ii. T: Zutiz. Lit' nituriii ■« till lil'\ |t. :;:!.'i.
I.. 1. I'.i;,
BENEDICT XII. (JACaUES DE NO-
VEX.LES): A inonk of llic ( ■isiciviiin onler;
<l<MTed pope Dc'C. MO, 1;«4; died April -J."), i;W.i.
Although he (lisi)layed the fjreatest /.eal for the ex-
tcnninalion of the Albijienses and other heretic's, he
clieiished kindly feelinjis toward tin; Jews and pro-
teclcd them by every means in his jiower. AVhen, in
133f<. bloody persecutions of the Jews broke out in
several places in (lerinany because they had been ac-
cused of profanin^r sacraniciilal wafers. Heneilict ad
dressed to Duke Allien of Austria a letter recom-
inendini; him to take ineaslires for the protection
of llie .lews. About the .same time he wrote also
to the bishop of Passaii. in whose diocese many
Jews had been slain on this aceusiition, direclina
him to invcsliiiate sciniiulously the charge, which
lie. Benedict, did not believe, and lo punish se
verely lliosc who liaci iinentcd suili false accu-
sations.
I1ihi,ioi;k.vi'HV : Itiirunuis. Annuifs Kl•cU,^i4lAti^'i nO Ainntnt
MCrcXXXVIII.: Hi VIII Oriciitah: ii. 40(1: (iriitz, (Irscli.
ill r Jmlcii, 'M ed.. vii. :c.J7.
<;. I. Bit.
BENEDICT XIII. (PEDRO DE LUNA):
Antipopc; lioniat .VniLHon abniil i:);34; I'leclcd Sept.
2H, 1394; dieil at l^eniscola June 1 (according lo
some, Xov. 29), 1424. This " unfrocked and spuri-
ous pope," as he was lerined by the Council of Con-
slance which deposed him (I41.~i). caused much suf-
fcrinsr to the Jews. Zeahins for their conversion,
he shrank from no nieasnrcs to bring about this re-
sult. While he was still a c'ardiiml he forced Sliein-
Tobben Isaac Shaprul loappearat Panijilona before
an a.s.seinbly of bishops and high ecclesiastics in
order to debate thc> (|Uestioii of original sin and
salvation.
This zeal for coiiversiou and controversy was en-
coura.ged by the baptized Jew, the unfrocked rabbi
Salomon Levi Burgos (calleil bv his Christian name
Pablo de Santa ^Maria), and Benedict"*, pliysiciau,
Joshua Lonpii, whose Christian name was Geronimo
de Santa Fe. They iiersuaded theirmastertlnit they
were able lo demonstrate from the Bible and the
Talmud thai the .Messiah had already come in the
person of Jesus.
Benedict, who had perjured himself in order to
save his liara. hoped to atone for his sin before
Christendom by a splendid deed, such
The as the conversion of tlie Jews en masse,
Tortosa lie therefore summoned the Jewish
Con- notables to a controversy at Tortosa.
troversy. Twenty two of the chief Aragone.se
Jews answered the summons, and as
scmbled at Tortosa Feb. (>, 1413. At first Benedict
tri'ated them with kindness; but seeing, in the course
of the debates, that he could not hope to convert
them by persuasion, he threw off his mask and
vented his wrath on the Talmud. AVlien all means
of converting lliem were c.xhansteci without bring-
ing about the desired results, he dismissed them in
anger.
The consequence of. this unprecedented contro-
versy, which extended over a year and nine months
(Feb. G, 1418, to Nov. 12, 1414), was the issuance of
an anti-Jewish bull containing eleven clauses. By
the terms of this bull the Jews were prohibited from
studying the Talmud and Talmud-
Bull of ical literature. All copies of the Tal-
1414. mud were contiscated. The commu-
nities were forbidden to build more
than one synagogue poorly equipped. The Jews
were not allowed to eat. bathe, or trade with CMiris-
tians. They were not to hold any public office; not
to follow any handicrafis, nor even to practise medi
cine. They were com]ielled to wear a red or a yel-
low badge, and three times a year, during Advent,
at Easier, and in the summer, tliey were to attend
('hristiau sermons.
Benedict, being just then deposed by the Council
of Constance, did n<it live to see liis bull enforced,
bill it bore its fruits; and the sad end of the Jews
of Spain was due to this .sehi.sniatic ]Kipe and the
schismatic rabbi Bnrgos.
liiBLiOGRAPIIV : Ibn Versra, ,SVi(7h( Vi'limhiit^ eel. AViener, jip.
tiS-7;i: Halberstaimn. in jf-sc/oo-joi, vi. i~t tt seq.; Basnage,
liititoiri: ilii< Juils^ vii. eh. xx. 5; Beu(?iiot, Leu Jnifs
il'Occiilcnt, ]<. HIS: liedarride. Lis ./iiiCx <■;. Fiance, en
Itiilii\ et en t^sjiniiin, p. 27ii : (iriitz, fii'fich. lii'r Juilfii. viil.
\'^i rt si'if.
li. I. Bh
BENEDICT XIV. (PROSPEBO LAMBER-
TINI) : Two huiidied iind tifty-fourlh pojie; born
ai Bologna in KiT."): elecled pope Aug. 17, 1740;
died May 3, 17."iS. This pope, who graeioiisly ac-
cepted a dedication from V'ollaire and was full of
amenity toward all heretics, thought it liis duty to
pursue by all means the conversion of the Jews. In
1747 he issued a bull regulating Jewish convei-sions.
.Vecordingto this bull all children above .seven years
of age could be baptized without the consent of
their parents. A Christian nurse was allowed to
baptize her Jewish charge against the will of the
pareiit.s. One of the latter could baptize the child
contrary to the wish of the other; and the grand-
father could baptize his fatherless grandchild against
I he will of its mother.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Benedict Viil.
Benedict, Moses
By a. (U'Cici' dated Si'pt. 16 of tin- sjiiiie year. Ben-
edict forbade converted married Jews to divorci-
their wives aceordiuii to Jewish hiw. At the re-
Hiiest of the Jewish coiniiiviiiity of Rome (prese-uted
in Feb., 1751) to allow its members to fre(iiieiit
the market and to live outside the ghetto, Bem'dict
renewed the severe project elaliorated by the In(|ui-
sition in 1732, aeeording to whieli a Jew was not
permitted to pass a single night .iway from ll»'
ghetto.
Notwithslaniliiig lliis, Henediet was far from be-
ing hostile to the Jews. On all occasions, except iu
the matter of eonvi-rsion, he showed s.vmpatliy wiih
thenL When i)ersectitions bn)ke out in Poland he
energetically defended the Jews and enjoined the
Polish archbishop and primate to protect them.
In Italy Benedict was especially hostile to Hebrew
Ijooks. The censor Constanzi prepared in 174S a
new list of forbidden books. Bene<lict ordered all
those enumerated therein to be seized and confis-
cated; and on Sept. l."). l".")!. this decree was en-
forced. It having been rumored that the Jews
smuggled prohibited books into the ghetto. Benedi<'t
ordered a strict search of the houses, with the result
that a general conlisciition ensued. Later he gave
directions to Conslanzi to revise the ".Sefer ha-Zik-
kuk " (Book of E.\ purgation) and to .add to it an
Index Ejii'Dytiloniii, comprising a new series of
books to be forbiilden.
In Holy Week of 17r>(> llu' body of a child was
found at Jampol, Poland, and a blood-accusation
followed by persecutions ensued. To free them-
selves and all other Jew s from the oft-rejieated ac-
cusation, the Polish .Tews .sent .Jacob Selik to Bene-
dict to procure an oHicial eX]>osure of the falsehood
of the charge. Benedict charged the counselor of
the holy ofiice. Lorenzo Ganganelli — later Pope
Clement XIV. — to report on this subject; and on
March 21, l?.^, the aiMjuittal of the .lews was
pronounced.
BIBI.IOORAPHV: IJIiriitiiililiill 1I1.1 Oritiitx. 1.S41. p. iiil; Hr-
Fue OrirulaW. iii. Ih' ; Hiriie ilt-i KliiilisJuirci, Hi. 107, IDS ;
Berliner, Ct:ttimr uuil CitntisrntUnu p. ;i">; Vo^elstein anii
Rieger. tle^fch, ilrr Jiultn in Itont. ii. ;Ml-247; l*opper, Ttic
C«H«>rs/iiji t)f Hrhrni- /{.u./is. pp. 131, Vif,.
I. Bu.
BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS : Compcser, con-
ductor, and teacher of music; born at Stuttgart
Nov. 37, 1804; died in London June ,5, 1885. Show-
ing considerable musical talent as a boy, ho became,
at the age of lifteen. the pu|)il of Hummel at Wei-
mar, and was introduced by him to Beethoven. In
1821 he Went to Dresden to study nuisical composi-
tion under Webei'. who treated him lik<' a son.
Having tilled conductors' ])osls at Vienna from 182;!
to 1825, he went with Barbaja to Italy in the latter
year, and obtained an apiiointmeni as conductor at
Naples, where he produced two of his own operas,
"Gracintaed Ernesto" and "1 Porthocesi in Goa."
In 1835 he went from Paris lo London, where he re-
sided till his death, lie was conductor at the Ly-
ceum in 1831) and at Drury Lane in 1838, where some
of his own chief works for the operatic stage were
produced. After vLsiting America with Jeiniy Lind
in 18.50, he became successively conductor at Her
Majesty's Theater and at Drury Lane. Sir .Julius
held a prominent position in the musical world for
upwanl of forty years, as comluctor and as teacher.
He contributed much to the initial success of the
.Monday Popular Concerts at St. James' Hall. lie
was knighted in 1871 ; and. amongotherdistinctions,
was decorated by the
emperor of Austria in
1S74, and made knight
couunander of the Or
iler of Frederick by the
king of Wi'irttemberg.
He was twice married.
Among liis composi-
tions arc: a one-act
operetta, "L'u Anno
cd un Giorno," pro-
duced at the Lyceum
in 1S:1G: "TheGvpsv's
Warning," 18.^8; -'The
Bride of Venice," 184:1
" The Crusaders," 18411.
produced at Drury
Lane ; " L'ndine." a can-
tata produced in 1800
at the Norwich Festival, of which he was for many
years conductor; "The Lily of Killarney." 1862,
his most successful opera, the libretto to which was
founded upon Boucicault's ■•Colleen Bawn"; an
operetta, "The Bride of .Song," performed in 1864;
"Richard Cu'ur de Lion," 1863. and an oratorio,
"St. Cecilia," 1866, the last two comjiosed for the
Norwich Festival; ''St. Peter," 1870; and "Grazi-
ella." 1882. besides symphonies and pianoforte
nuisic. The recitatives for the Italian version of
Weber's "Oberon," which was produced at Drury
Lane in 1865, were also written by Sir Julius,
Bibliography: Dictinnaru nf Aiiliniial Bingraphu; drove,
Diotitninni of yitmc^ s.v.; 'Lontioii newspapers, June B,
l.SHTt; Hervev, Criehrated Musiciitn.-<.
.1. G. L.
Sir .luhus Ileiietiii't.
Bknk-
MOR-
BENEDICT, MARCUS. S( ,
l>h:i Al
BENEDICT, MOSES: (Jcrnian banker and art-
ist ; born in 1772 at Stuttgart. Germany; died there
July 8, 18.52. He was destined for the profession of
sculptor. With his brother Seligmaun Li'ib he was
sent in 1785 to the Karlsschulc in Stuttgart. Later
on ihe two conducted the banking business of Ben-
edict Brothers. Moses showed considerable talent
for art. and as a painter of miniatinvs was jiarticu-
larly clever. He was an intimate friend of the
painter Christian Gottlieb Schick, with whom he
corrispouded for years.
liMU.Ht<;F:.\pnv : Si'lnn'thim-lir ilinmil,. N"n\ . 1.1, 1865,
s M. K
BENEDICT, NAPHTALI. See Benet, N.mmi
rAi.i.
BENEDICT OF YORK; Leading member of
Ihe Jewish connuiuiity in York, England, at the end
of Ihe twelfthcentury ; died in 1 18il. Togelherwith
Jo.sce of Y'ork he attended the coronation of Richard
I., and in the riot which took place on that occasion
was forced to submit to baptism, when he took the
name of "William." Afterw;ird he appealetl to
the king, who permitted him to return to his
religion, though this was against the canon laws.
Benedict, Naphtali
Benedictions
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
His doath occurred soon after tliis at Xorthaiiipton
(Roger de Hovedeii. "Chronica." ed. Stubbs. iii. 14).
where he was the owner of houses. William of
Newbury describes Beuedicfs house at York as
being like unto a royal palace in size and strength
C Historia," ed. How-
lett, i. 312). His
widow and children
were burnetl alive in
it during the York
riot of Easter, USIO.
BIBLIOGRAPHT : Jaiiil>s.
Jcireor Atiiji'Vin Knij-
laml, pp. IW, ll!l.
.1
BENEDICTIONS
(Hebrew. "Berakot");
Blessings, or prayers
of thank.sgiving and
praise, recited either
during di\ine service
or on special occa-
sions. They were,
according to rabbin-
ical triidition (Ber.
33a), instituted and
formulated by the
founders of the syna
gogue, the "Anslic
Keneset ha-Gedolali "
(Men of the Great
Synagogvie), "the
hundred and twenty
elders" at the head
of the comnionwealtli
in the time of Ezr;i
(Meg. ITa: Ycr. Ber.
ii. 4d; compare Yad
ha-Hazakah, Tetillah
u-Birkat Kohaiiim, i.
4;Ber. i. 5). Thanks
givings in the form
of "Baruk Yiiwii "
(Blessed be the Lord •
were ociasionally of-
fered in the time i>r
the Patriarchs, the
Judges, and I li e
Kings (see Gen. x.\iv.
27: E.\. xviii. 10;
Ruth iv. 14: I Sam.
XXV. 32; II &»m. .wiii. 28; I Kings i. 48:
21; viii. 15, 5(>; I Chron. .\vi. 36; fl Chron.
nrtytyi mg P rrma t erm paQJ ^ll?!!
Title-Page of "Meah Berakot." Anisierdani, 1787.
V.
ii.
11, vi. 4) and by the Psalmists (Ps. xxviii. C. xxxi.
22 [A. V. 21]. and elsewhere): and in the form of
"Baruk Attali Yiiwii" (Blessed be thou. O Lortl:
I Chron. xxix. 10; Ps. cxix. 12); also in the prayer
of Azariah(Song of the Three Holy Children, verse
3; Tobit iii. 11: viii. .5. ].5: xi. 14)."
In the time of Ezni public worship was begun
with the call. "Biireku et Adonay " (Bless ye the
Lord! Nell. ix. 5). each thanksgiving Ix-ing fol-
lowed by the congregational response Amkx (Xeb
viii. 6) or a longer doxology, "Baruk . . . Amen"
(Ps. xli. 14; Ixxii. 18, 19; cvi. 48). Thenceforth the
designation "Berakah." or benediction, becaiue the
standing name for each individual thank.sgiviug
in the service. Accordingly, the ancient Mishnah.
R. H. iv. 3, calls the service "Seder Berjikot"
(Order of Benedictions). Thus eight benedictions
are mentioned in Yoma vii. 1. which are recited by
the high priest in the
Temple service on
the Day of Atone-
ment, namely; (l)on
the Law, (2) the
Abodah, (3) the
tliank.sgiving, (4) the
forgiveness of sin, (5)
the sanctuary. (6) Is-
mel, (7) the priestly
blessing, and (8) the
closing prayers.
The recitation of
the SiiE.MA' every
morning in the
Temple was pre-
ceded by one benedic-
lion, and followed by
three benedictions,
which consisted of
E.MET we-Y'azlb, the
AiiODAu, and the
Priestly Bi.essikg
(closing with "Sha-
lom "=peace: Tamid
iv. 1). In the sj'na-
gogue the Sliema' is
precedeil by two
benedictions, one for
the light of day:
"Vozer-Or" (see
LiTiUGY), closing
wilh "Blessed be He
who created the
lights!" and one for
the Law: Auabah
Raubah, ending
with "Bles-sed be He
who 1 o v e t h His
people Israel I " and
follow(>d by one ben-
ediction beginning
w i t h E .M E T w E -
Yazih and closing
wiih "Ga'al Yisrael
"(Blessed be He who
liath redeemed Israel!), after which the eighteen (or
seven) benedictions follow. The Shenia' in the eve-
ning is preceded by the benedictions " Ma'arib 'Ara-
bim, "concluding with "Bles-Scd be He who bringeth
on the twilight! " and Ah.ujat 'Oi.am. closing with
" Bl('s,sed be He who loveth His people Israel!"
and followed by two benedictions, namely: " Ga'al
Yisrael," as in the morning, and "Hashkibenu"
("Grant us peaceful rest in the night !"i. ending
with "Bles,scd be He who guardeth Israel!" or, on
Sabbath and holy days, with "Blessed be He who
sprea<lcth the tabernacle of His peace over Israel!"
The prayer (Shemoneh 'Eskeh) in the daily ritual
of the .synagogue consists of eighteen benedictions
(Ber. 28b); tlie corresponding festival prayer, of
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedict, Naphtali
Benedictions
seven (Tos. R. II. iv. 11); the ouc on fast-days, of
twenty-four, six special benedictions being added
to tlie eigliteen of tlie daily praj'er. each being fol-
lowed by the response "Amen " (Ta'an. ii. 2-5).
A special benediction was also offered ]>y Ezra be-
fore the reading from the Book of the Law, the assem-
bly responding with "Amen! Amen!" (Neh. viii.
6.) Hence it became the regular practise in both
the temple and the sj-uagogue to recite a benedic-
tion before reading the Law, with the introductory
"Bareku " (Bless ye the Lord), and after the reading
with the closing formula, "Blessed be He who gave
the Law," followed by the response " Amen " (Yoma
vii. 1, p. 69b ; " JIasseket Soferim," xiii, V, cil. Mi'illcr,
p. 178). The benedictions recited at the reading
from the Prophets, the Haktakaii, one befon- and
three or four benedictions after the rcailing on Sab-
bath and holy days, have the same character. Thcj'
are thanksgivings for the words of comfort and of
Messianic hope offered by the prophetic writings
as interpreted by the Ilaggadah. Originally these
also were accompanied b)' congregational responses
("Masseket Soferim," xiii. 9-14, ed. Mi'dler, pp. 181-
185). Similarly the reading of the Hali^kl Psalms
on the New Moon and holy days is preceded and
followed by a benediction; the latter
TIpon known in Mishnaic time as " Birkat ha-
Beading Shir" (Benediction of the P.salm, Pes.
from .\. 7). To the same categorj' belong
Scripture, the benediction Barik siie-Amar.
which precedes, and the Yishtabah
(with or without the Nishmat), which follows, the
reading of Psalms iu the early morning si^rvice; the
benediction in each case closing with "Blessed be
Thou, O Lord, who art extolled by praises! " (Com-
pare Ps. xxii. 4 |:^] and E.x. xv. 11.) The corre-
sponding evening benediction " Baruk le 'Olam " ap-
pears originally to have been also a benediction on
the Psalms (see S. Baer, " 'Abodat Yisrael." p. 109;
and Kohler, "The- Psalms and Their Place in the Lit-
urgy," Graetz College Publications, 1897, i. 31.
The benedictions recited over the meals are of
very ancient origin. As early as the Book of Sam-
uel people would not eat before the blessing liad
been offered over tlie sacrifice (I Sam. ix. 13). Ac-
cordingly, the words in Dent. viii. 10, "When thou
ha.st eaten and art full, thou shalt bless the Lord thy
God for the good land which He hath given thee.''
are referred by the Kabbis to the benediction over
the meal, to both the grace before the meal and the
threefold benediction after it (Ber. 31a, 48b; Tos.
Ber. vii. 1; compare Sibyllines. iv. 2,"); .lo.seijhus.
"B. J." ii. 8, S 5; Letter "of Aristeas, § 184; Matt.
xiv. 19, XV. 30, xxvi. 20; Acts xxvii. 35). "Seeing
thee eat without washing the hands and without
saying the benediction, I took thee to be a heathen,"
said an innkeeper to his brother Jew (Num. R. xx.).
"Whosoever eats or drinks or enjoys some pleasure
of the senses without offering a benediction commits
a sacrilegious theft against God " (Ber. 35a, b).
Especially .solenui, beeau.se accompanied with re-
sponses in accordance with the number of the par-
ticipants, is the GiiACii AT jMicai.s, consi-sting of tJu'ec
benedictions, later increased to four. According to
Ber. 48b, the first "Ila-zan et ha-kol" (Blessed be
He who giveth food to all!) was instituted by
Moses; the second, "Nodeh leka" (closing with
" Blessed be Thou for the land and for the food! "),
by Joshua, who led Israel into the land ;
Before and the third, " Bid.iem na "(closing
and After with "Blessed be He who rebuihleth
Meals. [buildeth] .leru.salem "), by King .Solo-
mon; while the fourth, " Ha-tob we-ha-
-Metib" (Blessed be He who is good and doeth good!)
— recited as a rule whenever new wine is served to
cheer the guests — is ascribed to the rabbis of Jainnia
in Bar Kokba's time. All meals having had a dis-
tinctly social rather than a mere domestic character
in olden times, the benedictions recited at the table
were accordingly, like those in the synagogue, in-
troduced by an exhcntatory call, "Zimmun," and
accompanied by responses (Ber. vii. 1, 2; Geiger,
"Urschrift," p. 123; Kohler. /.-■. pp. 34, 35).
Gladdening wine as a social element served on
such occasions gave rise to benedictions connected
with the Sabbath and the fe.-ilival meals, the KiD-
iitsii (the sanctiticaticm of the day, Mek., Yitro,
vii.; Pes. 106a) an<l HAnnAt.Aii ("the leave-taking
from the holy day "), which formed originally the
conclusion of the Sabbath meal (IJer. viii. 1 ; Geiger.
"Zeitschr." vi. llti); the Passover Seder (Pes. x. 6);
also to a benediction now no longer in use at the new-
moon meal ("Mas. Soferim," xix. 9); to the seven
benedictions recited at marriage festivities (Ket. 7b;
compare Tobit viii. 6-17). which lasted a full week
ortwo; the benedictionsatciicumcision (Shab. 137b;
Tosef., Ber. vii. 12, 13); and the benedictions at the
mourners' meal, which were still in use in Euroi)e in
the eleventh century (" Ma.s. Sof<'rim," xix. 11, ed.
Midler, p. 276; Ber. 46b; Seinahof xii., xiv.; "Sid
dur Rab Anuam," i. .55; iNIahzor Vilry, No. 348).
Every new enjoyment offered at the festal table, such
as various kinds of fruits, or perfumes, gave rise to
another benediction (Ber. vi. viii.; Tos. Ber. vi.).
"To God belongs the earth and all its produce, ac-
cording to Ps. xxiv. 1 ; but when consecrated by a
benediction it becomes man's privilege to enjoy it,
according to Ps. cxv. IB," says K. Levi (Ber. ijGa).
Besides these three forms of benediction, a fourth,
bearing a more per.sonal character, came into tisc
in ancient times — a thanksgiving for the manifes-
tation of divine goodness experienced in one's life.
The one lumdred and seventh Psalm has been cor-
rectly understood by rabbinical tiadition to refer ti>
four different kinds of thanksgiving for benelits re-
ceived from God ; (1) for escaping the dangers of a
journey through the desert (verses 4-9) ; or (2) being
rescued from jirison (10-16); or (3) recovering from
a grave illness (17-22); or (4) having gone .safely
through the perils of a sea voyage. .Ml who have
undergone^ any of tln'se experiences are bidden to
offer loud thanksgiving to the Lord in the midst of
worshiping assendilies. Out of this developed the
"Birkat ha-Gomel" (Bh'ssed be the
Thanks- Lord, who bestoweth l)enefits upon
giving for the undeserving), the benediction re-
Personal cited by men m ho are calU'd uj) to the
Benefits. Law the first time I hey appear in the
synagogue after deliverance from dan
ger; the congregation responding: "May He who
hath bestowed all good tipon thee, further bestow
good unto thee! Amen." As a matter of course.
Benedictions
THK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
10
each niiraculims csciipc or iitlifi- joyous I'xpcrifiiic
gave rise to anolhcr ln-iiodiclion. In fact, iiiaiiv
Psalms are the outpouringof such thanksgiving (Ps.
xxii. 26 [A. V. 25], xl. 11 [A. Y. 10], ciii. 1-5).
Y'ct not only experiences of joy. hut also severe
trials, prompted the sjiints ti> otl'er thanksgiving, a-;
in the case of Job. "The Lord gave, and the Lonl
hath taken awav: lilessed lie the name of the Lord"
(.lob i. 21).
Every manifestation of divine proleition and la-lp
became an opiiortunity for tlie pious Israelite to
offer up thanksgiving in the usual form of a bene-
diction; thus, after the victory over Nicanor the
people exclaimed: "Blessed be He who hath kept
His holy place undetiled " (II Mace. xv. 34). A
similar benediction is given: " Blessed be Thou, the
truthful Judge who disclosest the things hidden "
(/*. xii. 41). Not only did the experience of mirac-
ulous help from I'rovidence give an opjiorl unity for
thanksgiving, as when Jetliro exclaimed. "Blessed
be the Lord, who hath delivered you out of the baud
of the Egyptian" (Ex. xviii. 1(1; Ber. 54a). but the
very season or i)lace which lecalled the wondrous
event to the memory of the people or of the indi-
vidual gave rise to !i liene<liclion : "Blessed beThdu
who wroughtest a miracle unto me." or "unto our
fathers of old." There is an instriKtive passage in
the Book of Enoch: " Each time Enoch beheld some
of the wonders of nature, he blessed the Lord of
Glory, who had made great ami glorious wonders
to show the greatness of His work to the angels and
the souls of men. that they might praise His work
and all Ilis creation . . . and bless Ilini for ever. "
Obviously, at the time Enocli was written, the Hasi-
dim had already made it a custom to
Develop- s;iy a benediction at the sight of every
ment of great jdienomenoii of nature, " 'Oseh
Bene- ma'aseh Bereshit " (Blessed be the
dictions. Worker of Creation) (Ber. 54a: com
pare Ben Sira [Eeclus.] xliii. 11. "Look
upon the rainbow and praise Him that made it ").
In the course of time all these benedictions as-
sumed a stereoty|)ed form; and the ride is given by
Kab that, to be regaided as a regular benediction
(Ber. 40b), every benediction must t'ontain the name
of God, and by K. Johauan that it must contain the
attiibute of God's kingship. It was always the
Nam<! that called forlh tla- response, since the verse
Peut. xxxii. 3 (Hebr. ). "When I call upon the name
of the Lord, ascribe ye greatness imto our God."
was interpreted in this sense by the Habbis(see Sifre.
Dcut. 30fi). In view of this response in the syna-
gogue, "Amen": in the Templi'. "Baruk Adonaj- "
(Blessed be the Lord the God of Israel from everlast-
ing to everlasting), particvdar stress was always laid
upon the closing formula ("liotcm berakot") (Misli
nail Ber. ix. 5; Ta'anit ii. 3; To.sef.. Ber. vii. 21. 22:
Tosef., Ta'anit i. 10-13): whereas full freedom as to
the form of the main br'nediction was granted to the
individual who oll'ercd the jirayer or praise. It has
been suggested that I'salms. such as exxxvi.. cxlvii.,
cxiviii., or oilier Biblical verses, originally formed
the basis of each benediction (si'c Isidore Loeb. " Li-
terature des Pauvres," p. 1.58: Mi'iller. " JIasseket So-
ferim," p. 228; Kohler. I.r. pp. 32-34). A specimen
in the Airocryphon to an old beuediction witli choral
response is given in the Song of the Three Children
( verses 29-34, 39-67). Out of the recitative benedic-
tions spoken in a.s.semblies. as seen in the prevalent
use of the plural, developed at a much later stage the
solitary prayer without the element of responses
(Ber. viii. 8). which had previously been essential.
Great importance was laid, however, on the exact
Iraditioiial form of the various benedictions. Only
a recognized scholar ("Talmid hakam ") was pre-
sumed to know them to a reliable degree; whereas
lho.se who comjiiled them for common use were, in
Mishnaic time, regarded with susiiicion. "Those
who write down the benedictions are equal in mis-
chief doing to such as burn the Law " — ostensibly
because they infringed the rights of those authorized
to olTer the benediction (.see Tosef., Ber. i. 8; Sliab.
xiii. [xix.] 4 ; Ber. 38a. 50a; Shab. 115b). Neverthe-
less it was from sucli wiitten collections of benedic-
lions that compilations like those enumerated iu
^lislinah Berakot ix.. Ta'anit ii.. Tosef.. Ber. vii.,
and elsewhere were made. At any rate, by the
second century they were already fixed as to form
and number, since R. Me'ir declares it to be the duty
of every one to say one hundred beuedictions daily
(!\Ieii. 43b); and U. Yose says: "He who alters the
f(irm of benedictions fixed by the wise has failed to
fultil his obligations" (Ber. 40b; Yer.
One Ber. vi. 2. lOb). According to Num.
Hundred K. xviii. (compare Tan., Korah, ed.
Bene- Vienna, 1853), it was King David who
dictions instituted the one hundred daily bene-
Daily. dictions. These hundred benedictions
re((uircd dail)' by R. Me'ir are shown
l)y Abudrahini in gate iii. ("Birkat ha-Mizwah ") of
his commeutary to correspond with the beiudic-
tions given in the daily prayers.
JIaimonides (Yad ha-IIa/akah, Berakot. i. 4) di-
vides the benedictions into three classes: (1) for en-
joyments; (2) for the privilege of the performance
of a religious duty ; and (3) forms of liturgical thanks-
giving and praise. Abudrahim. in Hi I kot Berakot,
divides them into four classes: (1) such as are com-
prised in the daily ])r.ayer; (2) such as precede the
jii'rformance of religious duties; (3) such as are of-
fered for enjoyments; and (4) such as are offered on
special occasions of thanksgiving and praise.
The following is a list of benedictions prescribed
in the Talmud and adopted in the liturgy; each of
them licginning with the formula " Blessed art Thou,
O Lord, our God, King of the Universe!'"
fl> tJt'ft)rf ivtirinir to rest at nijrlit : "... whn makes tJie
l)auds of sleep full iipou mine eves ami sluinbe'' upon mine eye-
lids. May it be Thy will, (i Lord, to make me lie down in ^teaee
and rise up u^ain in peiiee. Let not my thought.s nor evil
dreams nor evil Imaginations trouble me. but let my bed he
spotless before Tbee, and yive lifTht apain to mine eyes lest I
sleep tbe sleep of death" il's. Niii. 4 fA.V.:!]i; " for it is Tliou
who ffivest light to the apple of the eye " ( Ps. xvii. 8). " Blessed
art Thou who givest light to the whole world with Thy glory "
(lier. HOh). ■
I") In the morninp. before reeitinsr any l)enedietion, one has
to wasli the hands and say; "... who hast .sanctified us by
Thy eonnnandments and enjoined us to wa-sh the hands"
("Netilat Vadayim," "lifting up the hands"); compare Targ.
to I's.'e.xxxiv. a (lier. ."kSb).
Ctt After the perfonnan<'e of the functions of the Itody:
"... who has formed man in wisdom and created many t>ri-
Ilces and vessels, upon the opening or closing of which life
depends." "... Iwho healest all tlesh audi who hast made
man wondrously " latter I's. c.\.\.\i.\. Id.
11
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedictions
(4) After awiikenjnfr from the niM'lJt's sleep (wliich wns w-
parded as the returninjr of the soul to the body) sonierahbis
pie.'^criltr tlie lienediitiiiii : " . . . who revi-
Moruing: vest tlie iti-ad " i Ver. llei-. iv. :•. Td*; hut the
Bene- Uniu (■oiiinumlv adoiiied is: "My Lord, the
dictions. soul whieh Thou hast driven lue is pure. Thou
hast created ami formed it. and Thou ilidsl
hreathf it iuto nie and preservest it withiu me :ind wilt one (lji>
tiike it from rnc and restore it unto me ln'reafter. So Uiuu a.s
the soul is within me, 1 will jrive thanks unto Thee, o Lord my
(ii>d. Sovereign of all works. Lord of all souls, . . . who i-estur-
e>t the souls unto dead bodies."
'"ii On heariuM' the cock crow, one says: "... who hast
Kiven the cock intelligence to distinifuish between <)ay and
'-liirhl/'' (Job xxxviii. :Mi). Compare " Apost. ("(mst." viii. ;i4.
d») (In openintr the eyes In the morninjJT : "... whr>npenest
the eyes of the blind " (after I's.exlvi. iS).
movni)^ on
I I's. cxlvi. 7).
. who clothesl
'7i When sittiufT up and
loosest them that are bound "
(X) When divssintr: " . .
rxlvi. SI.
liti When standintr erei-i :
:ire U.wed down " (compart*
mer, p. 77;. When slttinir U|
I'.w" tih.).
'lOt When steppinp: up"n tlu- yn)und :
lim
who
Ihi* naked" (IS
' . . . who raises! up those that
llalakni (iedolot," ed. Hildesliei-
" Who liftesl up thosi- that are
who spreadi'st
IPs. cxxxvi. ti).
who hast made llrn
\\ ho hath supplied me
who ifird-
forth the earth above the waters'
'111 On steppi?!}? forth t^i walk
Ilie steps of man " (Ps. xxxvii. 'ZU
' l~l When puttUiiJ on shoes: "
with every want."
ii;i) When irirding the bell alnnd oneself:
est Israel with might " Uer. xiii. II ; Ps. xlv. 7).
(14 1 When putting on a head-coveiiniE: : "... who erownesl
Israel with glory" (Isa. Ixi. lU; "ind = "glory," name ftu-
mitert.
"The following alternative is not found in the Talmud, and is
disallowed in Shuihan *Aruk. orah Hayyim, xlvi. (»: "...
who givest strength to the weary.")
(!')) When washing the face: "... who i-eniovest sleep
from ndne eyes and slumber fi'om nune eyelids."
Here follows a prayer foi- a da> free fnmi sin ami temptation
an<l grated by favor of (iod and nian. whirh closes thus: "...
who bestowest Uning-kiMdness " (late addition. *" upon Thy
peo[»le Israel ").
'It'M Every one must offer three biMiedictions daily, namel> :
"... who hast made me an Israelite (<ii' who hast not maile
iiir a lieathem"; "... who hast not made nie a woman";
"... who ha.st not made me a slave |or a boor]" (T'wef..
Ber. vii. IH; Yer. Ber. ix. :.', p. Kib; Men. 4:!b; " Halakot (Jedo-
lot/'p,?". Persian and Creek parallels aiv given by Joel, " Blicke
indie Religionsgeschiciite." i. Hit; Kautmann. "Monatsschrift,"
pii. 14-lH). For Woman the benediction is substituted: "...
who hast made nie accoiiiing to Thy will."
Ttie following benediction adopted in the I'rayer-Book is. ae-
conling to Yer. Ber. ix. 2, ]iieserved in full in Yalkut, Wa'etha-
nan, KJti, offered by the angels at the time when the Shema" is
ret-ited by Isniel : "Tlum wast one ere the world was created;
Thou hast been the same sim-e the world hath been created.
Thou art the same in this world and tin- same in the world to
is!i;i, come. Sanctify Thy iiiuiie through those that sanctify it,
. . . who sanctiUest Thy name among the multitudes."
'17l Before and after the reading <pf the I*salms in the inorn-
fng service: Bari'K siik-Amai: and Yisiitaiih.vh.
lis, 1*1) llefoii' reading Shema' in the morning, " Yozer Or"
ail'l AllAHAH Uaukah.
'~tii After Shema', Emkt \vk-Va/.iii.
C'l-^Rh The " Wmidah." seven <oi- cigbtei-n, increased latei-
oil to nineteeni, benedictions, consisting of three principal
lieriediclions of pi-aise at the i)egiiuilng. three at the close, and
twelve or thirteen ion week-ilays; on Sal)baih and holy days
only one) inserted in the middle (see Siikmoxk 'KstiKI. In
case of need one benediction. HAHtNKNir. containing the con-
Innts of the twelve, is olTered as substitute for week-days also
nier. ^la).
140) Before the reading from the Law two dilTerent bene-
dii'tions were in use in the third century, and both have been
adopted in the Prayer-Book ; one bi-ginning. " . . . who teach-
esl the Law txi Thy people Israel." and emling with. " . . . who
liiu-it commanded us to occupy oui-selves with the words of the
Law " : the other. "... who hast chosen us from all peoples
and hast given us Thy Law." and closing with, "... who
gayest the Law." After the reading; "... who ha.st given
us tbe Law of trutli and hast planted everUisting life in our
midst"; and closing with, "... who gavesi the Law" (see
Ber. lib: "Massekei Soferim," xiii. S).
(41) The benediction "Hashkibenu" in the evening prayer
has been mentioned above; this is followed on week-days liy :
(4:ii " Baruk .\douay le-*Olain," Psalm verses corresponding to
the "Baruk she-Amar," which are concluded with the bene-
diction referring to the Messianic kingdom : " . . . the King
who will reign forever and aye over all His creatures."
(4:{) Before and after the recitiiiion of Hai.lki, a.s mentioned
above.
(44) "Miisaf" consists of .seven lienedictions. with the excep-
tion of that of New- Year, which has three mon-.
(4o) The benedictions before and after the Haktakah, men-
tioned above.
(4(») To the same category a.s the preceding belong the bene-
diction i)efore aufi that after the recitation of the Megillah or
scroll of the Book of Esther <»n Puriin (Meg. :ilb).
i47t The benediction t»ver the reading of the four scrolls
Canticles, on Passover: Rnth. on Shabu'ot; Ecclesia.sies, on
Sukkot ; and Lamentutions, on the Ninth of Ah, mentioned in
"Mas-seket Sofeiim," xiv. ;J. has fallen into disuse, as has also
the bcncdiciion over the reading of the Hag4<igrapha (i7i. 4).
(4S, p.)( (m puttincron the udlit andthe teilllin (tn the arm and
the forelH-ad respectively (Ber. tajb ; Yer. Ber. ix. :.', Ua : T(»sef..
Ber. vii. 10; and Men. '.itiii, 42bt.
(511) Benediction for the Aaronites when they olfi-r the priestly
benediction (Sotah 'i'.hi).
<.'di on kindling the lights on Sabbath and festival eve
("Vaii," shabbat, v. 1: Hagahot Maimuni referring to Yer.
Ber. ix.i; see Bl.KssiNc, Pkiksti.v.
(.'i:*) (»n kindling the Hanukkah lights. Willi the additional
benediction: "... who ha.st done wundei-s to our fathers in
ilays of old at this season " (Shab. 'JHnK
t-W, 54) KlPPl^sM and Habkalaii, q.v.
(5.'>-4J2) (in alllxing a Mk/.tzah to a diKtrptist: "... who
hast sanctitted us by Thy commandnienls and enjoined us to
a nix the Mezuzah." Similarly, on imililing the l>att]ement for
the roof prescribed in iJeiit. xxii. M; on the consecniti<m of the
Hai.lah. or Teruimdi ; on the 'F;iu"B; at the performance of
the ritual slaughtering, and the covering of the blood, special
blessings are said, as also at the removal of the leavened bread
before Passover and the eating of the 'M\'/.y..\n ; at the cotniting
of the days of 'OMKK : ai the inepiiration for and IIinI entering
into the StrKKAii ; on the blowing of tlie suofakou New-Year'a
[>ay; at the performance of the rite of ablution of peiNons and
vessels (Yer. Ber. ix. 2. p. 14a: Tosef., Ber. vii. 9-10; " Yad,"
Berakot, xi.; Baer's Prayer-Book. pp. rj7()-o71; Ber. 5Ia).
Mwt. (U) On betrothai and marriage, see Bkthothai. and
MAliRIAGK.
(t>5) on circumcision, see riKcvMcisioN.
((»»>) On redeeming the Hi-st-born, see Pidvon 11a*Ben.
(117) over the mourners' nieal (Ket. Sb).see Ft'NKRAi, UiTKS.
(fiH) On the arrival of a new season, or of any j«)yous event in
erne's life : " . . . who hast kept us in life and pivservetl us and
permitted us to reach this season."
Thanks- (09) Blessing over the bread; "... who
g-iving- for hast brought forth bread from the earth"
Bnjoyments. (Ber. vi. I, -iSu, after Ps. civ. 14).
(7(1) Over the wine : " . . . who hast created
the fruit of the vine" (Ber. vi. 1).
()li over food other than breail prepared of thuir : " . . . who
hast created various kinds t)f food " (Ber. 'Mb).
(7^) (bleating fruit which grows on trees : "... who hast
created the fruit of the tree " (Ber. vi. I).
(7:{) On eating fruit which grows on the ground : "... who
iia.st created the fruit of the gr<nind " (Ber. vi. I).
(74) After having Onished the meal, see (Jkack AFTKK MKAL.
(7.'>) A benediction <'ontaining in abridged form three of the
n.sual gnu-es after meals, after having eaten such fruits as the
Holy Land is especially blessed with, such as grapes, dates, flgs,
ami pomegranates, or after having taken wine or partaken of
other food than bread.
(7(>t i)n eating food that does not grow on the ground, or drink-
ing water, or other liijuor: "... by whose word all things
have been maile to exist" (Ber. vi. 3).
(77) After partjiking of any of these, or of fruit: "... who
hast created beings and what they need. For all that Thou
ha.st created to stistain therewith the life of each living being,
blessed be He who livest forever " ( Ber. vi. S ; Tos. Iv. Ki ; ae-
cording Ut It. Tarfon, before the eating. Yer. Bei-. lOb). In
Yer. Ber. I.e., anil Tosef. Ber. iv. 4 other benedictions over spe-
cial kinds of food are given ; but these were not a<lopted by tlie
casuists.
(7H) On smelling: "Blessed art Thoii who ha.st created fra-
Benedictions
Benedikt
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
13
(mint wixKls," ■■ fnijirniiil spUfs," anil "ti'Ufrraut oils," '■uiliir-
ous plants," and "Oilonms fniilii'' (Ber. -tibK
(79) On seeing IlKhtiiim;, falling stars, lofty mountains, Kreal
deserts (also the sun at the iH'pinninj; of a new lycle of twenty-
eight years!, or the sky in all its beauty:
Upon Seeing "... who hast made Creation" (Ber. Ix. 2:
Natural Tosef., Ber. yii. 6 : Her. iiiUii.
Phenomena. iSU) on hearinir thunder, or wllnessing an
earilK|Uake or hurrieane: "... whose mipht
and power nil the worhl " (Her. i.t. ~'i.
(81) At the sight of the sea : " . . . who hast made the great
sea" (ift.).
(S3) On swing blossoms hudding for Ihe tlr^t Inue in the
spring: "... who ha.st nuide Th\ world lucking in naught,
but hast pi\)dured goodly cn-atures and goodly Ir-es wherewith
to give delight to the ehildivii of men " (Her. 4;!h: li. H. 11a).
(S}) On seeing beautiful persons, trees, or animals: "... who
hast such as these in the wiprld" iBer. .">8b: Tosef., Ber. vii. 4).
(»tl On seeing strangely formed lieings such as giants and
dwarfs, or elephants and apes : " . . . who variest the totms of
Thy creatures" (Ber. (.c; Tos. vii. 5).
(tVi) On seeing persons stricken with blindness, lameness, or
loathsome diseases, or holy places in a state of desolation, or on
bearing evil tidings : "... the true Judge " (Ber. Ix. 3
and I.e.).
(8ti) On hearing good tidings or witnessing joy: "... who
art good and dispeusest good " (Ber. I.e.).
(H7) On seeing the rainbow : " . . . who rememberest the
covenant, art faithful to Thy covenant, and keepest Thy prom-
ise " (Tosef., Ber. vii. ■"» : a composite prayer, see Ber. 59b) .
(88) On seeing holy places restored after long desolation,:
"... who reestablishest the border of the widow " (Ber. 58b,
after Prov. xv. 3.^1 .
(89) On seeing a friend after a year's separation : " . . . who
revivest the dead" (Her. ">8b ; compare Pirke U. F.I. xxxi.).
When restored from a dangerous sickness: "... Blessed b*'
tile Meiiiful who gave Thee back to us and
On Seeing not to the earth " (Ber. .Mb).
RemarkalDle (9(b On seeing a scholar or sage of dislinc-
Fersous. tion : " . . . who hast imparted iif Thy wis-
d<Mu to Oesh and Idood " (tVi.i.
(91) On seeing a king or ruler of a country : " . . . who hast
imparted of Thy glory to lle.sh and blood " (ib.).
(92) On seeing the myriads of Israel gathered tugether:
" Blessed be He who knowest the secret thoughts of all these "
(Ber. (.c).
(9:}) After having esi-aped perils, see (ioMKt. Be.N'siien.
(94) On entering a burial-ground : " Blessed be the Lord who
bath formeii you in judgment, and nourished and sustained you
in judgment, and hath brought death on you in judgment. He
knoweth themmiberof you in judgment and will hereafter r(>-
store you to life in judgment. . . . who revivest the dead "
(Ber. .5Shl.
(9.5) On seeing a place where a nnnicle happened to Israel of
old : " . . . who hast performed miracles for our fathers at
this place " (Ber. Ix. 1).
(91!) On seeing a place from which idolatrous imictises have
been remned : "... who bast removed iilolatry from this
place" (i7).i. On seeing a place where Idolatry is practised:
"... who showest long-suffering to those who transgress Thy
will" (Ber. .5Tb).
(i)7) On the appearance of the new mfxm, see Nkw Moo.\.
BlBLioiSRAPiiY : Sifer Almilrahiiii : Maimonides, Yad lia-lln-
ziikali. Jlirdhiit; Baer, 'Abodnt Yi.trael; S. Singer, yjiii()/
I'raiicr-Hnnli. pp. 387-393: Landshnth, //fj/j/oii icli; M.
Bloch. ItiatitiitioiiiH il<s ,Tuih)ilhuins,V<<i; I. H. Weis.«. in
Kobak's Jiselnirun, 18(i4, ii. part 1, pp. :jT-44.
A. K
BENEDICTTJS, COENRAAD : " Mdlid " and
surj;i'(iii ;it SiiriiKiiii, Dtili li (Iiiijitni, ahnut 188(1.
Notliiiii; is UiKiwiiof his life nor <if his lilciury activ-
ity other tliaii tlichaiv fait tliat he imtilishedat Para-
maribo in ls:i() ( y) a tract (Icscribing tlic o])eratinii
i)f circuimisiiin, tDirelher with a series of (|Ueslioiis
iiiiil answers for use in e.xainining ojuiditlates for
the office of mohel. The liook is extremely nirc.
The Hebrew i|iiot;ilions oreiirriiig in tin- tt'.xt are
filled ill l)y tlic aiilhiir in liis own writing, as tliere
was probably no Hebrew type to be liad in Pani
maribo at tliat time. Tlie title of tlie book is
"E-\ameu voor den Nieiiw aan te Neraen MoBl of
Besuijder der IsiaOl. Kinderen. Hierbij Gedeellc-
lijk hel Manneli.jk lid Oiitleed, ook Leersaine Be-
schrijving der Besnijdenis eu Circitui Ciaione Openx-
tie ... in Vragen en Aiitwoorden."
Biui.ioiiRAPnv: M. Roest, "'2D^ ^'2, p. 202, n. 3S01, Amster-
ilam, IsiiS; (i. A. Koluit, in I'lililieatinns nf the AinerUnii
Jt trisli IIi.-<tnrieitt Sneitiii. iii. l:il, iv. 7.
c. G. A. K.
BENEDIKT, EDMUND: Austrian jurist:
born at Dobliug, near Vieiiiui, Oet. 6, IH.')!. He
studied law at the University of Vienna, and after
graduation became the [mblishcr of the ".Iiiri.stische
Blatter." In addilion to his editorial labore he wrote:
"Reform des hichadenicelits bei Ehrenbeleidignii-
gen,'' 1885; "Reformation der Konknrsordniing."
1887: "Eintliissdcs Schwtii-genclils anf ihis Materi-
elle Strafreeht," 1888: and " Bemerkimgen i'lber das
Urheberreeht midden Gesetzeutwiirf der Oesterrci-
chischeu Regiening," 1893.
BiBLiouKAPny : Kiirschner. Z)i(((.sc/t(r Litrrattfr-Kalen(i4't\
1898. p. 75: liKll. p. 78.
E. Ms.
BENEDIKT, MORITZ : (ii riiian jonrnali.st,
publisher, and editor of the Vienna "Neiic Freit?
Presse " ; born at Gnatscliitz, Moravia, May 27. 1849.
On attaining his majoiity he chose jonrnalisin as a
profession, eoutiibiitiug with considerable success
to vaiiims dailies and jieriodicals in Germany. In
1873 he joined Ihe start of the "Xeiie Freie Presse,"
becoming editor of the economic .section in 1879. The
two years following he devoted to the publication
of ;{ series of articles on ecnnomic, commercial, and
financial subjects, which articles attracted consider
able attention. In 1880 he l)ecame chief editor.
Bim.IoiiKAPIIV: /)(!.< f;(i»(i|;c )I'i< II, p. 27 : Kohut, Bil-W)iili»r
Israelitischc Miitniir timi Frauen. xii. p. i:j9: Kfirschner,
Deutiieher Lit. KaietHl(tt\ p. 78.
s, E. Ms.
BENEDIKT, MORIZ : Austrian neurologist;
born ;ii Eisenstadt. Hungary. July 6, 1835. Upon
his graduation from the University of Vienna,
where he hail jirepai-ed
liim.self for his iiro-
fcssional career under
Ilyrtl. Briicke. Skoda.
Oppol/er, Aril, and
Rokitaiisky, he re
ceived, in 1850, tin-
degree of doctor ol
meilicine and surgery
and immediately eti
listed in the Austrian
army — the war then
going on with Pittnci'
and Italy demanding
the services of stirgeon
volunteers. .\t the
do.se of the ctimpaign that was so disastrous to
.\ustria, Benedikt was sippointed privat-docent at
the University of Vienna, first delivering lectures
on electrotheraiieiitiis and litter iidding a course on
neuropathy.
In the mean lime, in I86(!. .Vuslria became in-
volved in another war, this time with Prus.sia and
Italy, and Benedikt again volunteered his services
to tlie iirmy. At the conclusion of tliat short but
Mori/ Bftitnlikt.
13
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedictions
Benedikt
bloody contest wliieh resulted in the establishment
of the dual stale of Austria-Hungary, Benedikt,
who took an active part in llie reorganization of the
Democratic part}' in C'isleithania (that is, Austria as
distinct from Hungar}'), was, in istis, offered a chair
of neurology at the University of Vienna. He has
remained in that position to the present time, serving
also as chief of one of the departments of the poli-
clinic of the Austrian metropolis.
The greater part of Benedikt's professional work
appertains undoubtedly to the domains of neurop-
athy and electrotherapeutics, but while his inves-
tigations in tliis special field form an imjiortant ad-
dition to the progress of medicine, and would alone
entitle him to a prominent position iu the medical
world, they in no waj' overshadow his researches in
other lines, esjiecially his important
A Pioneer psychological and anthropological
Crim- studii^s with regard to criminals. In-
inolog'ist. deed, it may be said that he is one of
the pioneers of modern criminology,
which seeks to base its tlieories directly on anthro-
pological and psychological data.
Among his contributions to the .study and treat-
ment of nervous diseases the following deserve first
mention: "Electrolherapie." Vienna, 1868; and
"Nervenpathologie und Electrotherapie," Leijisie,
1874-75 — two treatises embodying the lectures de-
livered by Benedikt at the University of Vienna.
In the field of psychology, both normal and jjatho-
logical, two works from his pen have met with
marked .success: nameh', "Seelenkunde des Meii-
schen" (also translated into Polish) and "Hypno-
tismus und Suggestion " (also iu Italian).
Among his anthropological studies dealing for the
greater part with craniometrio and cranioscopic in-
vestigations, especially with regard to criminals,
may he mentioned " Kraniometrie und Kephulo-
metrie " (also in French). Another important con-
tribution to modern criminology — namely, his
"Anatomische Studien an Verlirechergehiruen."
Vienna, 1870 — has been trau.slated into English un-
der the title "Stu<lles on the Brains of Criminals."
Besides the above-named larger works, Benedikt
has contributed a great number of important pa-
pers on anthropolog}' ; on normal.
Wide comparative, and pathological anat-
Range of omy ; on physiology and neurology ;
Con- on normal, pathological, and criminal
tributions. psychology ; on ophthalmology and
otiatrics. Among these contrilnitions,
scattered throughout various periodical publica-
tions, the following are noteworthy:
"Experimentelle Studien iiber die Wirkung von
Jod, etc., auf's Nervensystem." in " .lahrbucji der
Gesellschaft der Aerzte," Vicuna, 1801; "Beitriige
zur Neuropathologischeu Casuistik," iu "Deutsehes
Archiv filr Klinische Mediciu," i.v. and xiii. : "Zur
Pathologischen Auatoniie der Lys.sa,"' in " Virchow's
Archiv," Ixiv.. Ixxii. (and in the "Wiener Medic.
Presse," 1874); "Ueber die Innervation des Plex.
Choroid. Inf.," ih., lix. ; "Zur Lehre der Ent-
zlindlichen Kernwucherung." in "Centrall)l. fiir
Medic. Wissensch.," 1874; " Zur Lehre des Raubthier-
typus am Menschlichen Gehirne," ih. 1876; "Der
Hinterhauptstypus der Saugethiere," ib. 1877;
"Zur Frage des Vierwindungstypus," ib. 1880;
" Ueber Lymphorrhagie in Granulardesintegra-
tion," in " Mittheilungen des Aerztlichen Vereins."
Vienna. 1874; "Ueber Katalep.sie und Mesmeris-
mus," in "Wiener Klinik," 188tJ; "Zur Lehre von der
Localisiition der Gehirnfnnctionen," rt. 1883; "Die
Elektricitiit iu der Mediciu," (V<. 1884; ireber Einige
Grundformeln des Neuropathologischen Denkens."
ib. 1886, A number of important papers, which
have appeared in the pages of the " Wiener iMedi<-.
Piesse," between the years 1869 and 1882, deal with
neuropathic cases observed by Benedikt. and with
electrotherapeutic methods, either
Ophthal- demonstrated or invcnte<I by him.
mology, Among his contributions to ophthal-
Otiatrics, niology and otiatrics should be men-
Physics, tioned: "Studien uber xVugeumus-
kellilbmungeu," in "Griife's Archiv,"
vol. X.; " Der Daltonismus bei Sehnervenatrophie,"
ib.\ "Die Theorie der Neurotinotis." in "Pester
Medic. Presse." 1867; "Horuerven." in "Wiener
Medic. Presse," 1870.
Benedikt has also labored in the field of pure
physics, and among the many papers that have
appeared over his name in the " Sitzungsberichte
der Wiener K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften "
for 18.57 are : " Ueber die Aenderung des Magnetis-
mus Durch Reibungselectricitiit " and "Ueber die
Abhangigkeit des Electrischen Leitungswider-
standes von der Gro.sse und Datior des Stromcs."
In the second of these papers the author announces,
for the first time, the fact discovered by him, that
the resistance of a conductor is affected by the cur-
rent itself.
In the midst of his various professional duties and
extensive scientific research, Benedikt found time to
write on social and political questions of the day,
and on moral philo.sophy aud esthetics — his arti-
cles appearing in French. Italian, and English, as
well as in German. At the beginning
Politics, of his professional career Benedikt
Ethics, devoted himself to the study of mod-
Literatui-e. ern literature, and his first published
work was one on dramatic art in Aus-
tria, written while he was still a medical student
at the university, entitled "Studien iiber Oestcr
reichische Dranuitische Dichter," Vieiuia, 1854.
Benedikt is a champion of woman's rights, and was
the first male president of the Vereiu fiir Erwei-
tcrte Frauenbildung in Vienna. His valuable pro-
fessional services have been recognized by different
governments as well as by numerous scientific
bodies. A recipient of the degree of LL. D. (IioudHh
causa) from several iirominent universities, he has
also been decorated with various orders and crosses.
He is corresponding member of the academies of
medicine of Paris and of Pome, and member of a
great many medical and .scientific societies in Europe
and the United States.
BiBLioORAPHY: Binqrfiphi.'*ch€''* Ijfxihon iln- He rrnrra^jen-
iien Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Volker, ciiiii'd »)v Wfrnich and
Hirsch, Vienna and Leipslc, ls.si-»t8; Ludwje EisiMilierg, In
Daji GeMi'ie IVien, Vienna. 1.^9:j ; and privule sutures,
s. A. S. C.
BENEDIKT, RTTDOIiPH: Austrian chemist;
born at Dijbliiig .July 12. 1853; died in Vienna Feb.
6, 1896. He was ediicated at the Polytechnic (High
Benet
Benfelden
THK .IKWISH KNfVlLUl'EDlA
14
School) of Vieuiui, wIuti' iu IST'J he was appoiiiti'il
ail assistant leeturiTof tecliuical clu'iuisliy. lu 187l>
lie was nominated to a similar post iu connection
with the studies in analytical cheniistrv, and in 1890
was appointed full professor. His principal work
is "Pie KUnstlichen Farbstolfe." 1883. Among his
articles in technical journals are: " I'eher Salze und
Borsiiure," in " Vortrag. Getreben in der Deut.schen
Chemischen Gesellschaft." Berlin, 1874; and " Ilalo-
genderivate ■' in "Sit/.ung-Berieht der Kais. Akade-
mie der Wisscnseliaften," Vienna, 1884.
Bibhooraphy: Pucirenilcirf. Bhui-Lit. Hiiiidw<iilii))tuh.
1898, Hi. 11)7.
s. E. .Ms.
BENET , MORDECAI B. ABKAHAM (MAR-
CUS BENEDICT): Talinudisl and chiL-f rabbi
of Monivia: born in 1753 at Csurgo, a .small vil
lage in the county of Stuhhveisseuburg, Hungary;
died at Carlsbad Aug. I'i. 1829. As Benct's parents
were very poor and consequently unable to engage
a teacher, tliey sent their son when only five years old
to his grandmother at Xikolsburg. There Gabriel
Markbrciter provided for the tuition of the gifted
ihild for a period of si-\ years, and then sent him to
Ittingen, Als;ice, the rabbi of which place was Jlark-
breitcr's brother-in-law. The latter became Benet's
teacher, and took great delight in his
A Gifted pupil's wonderful devclo))mcnt. At
Child. Benet's "bar nii/.wah'" (religious ma-
jority) celebration his teacher showeil
the guests, to their great astonishment, three of the
b()y's manuscripts— a commentary on the Penta-
teuch, a commentiiry on the Passover Haggadah.
anil novelUt on the Talmud.
From his thirteenlli tn his tifteeutli year Benet de
voted himself exclu
sively to the study of
the Bible, with the aid
of the Jewish com-
mentaries and of the
Haggadali in Talnuid
and Midrash : and his
strictly halakic studies
he completed later in
theyesliibah of Joseph
Sleinhard at Fi'irth.
where he remained
three years. He thin
went as a "haber " lo
Plague, where Mei'r
ICarpeles started a pri
vate ■■ klaus " for him ;
and though Ezekiel Landau eoudueted a large yeshi
bah in the same city, a number of able Talmudists
came daily to hear Benet's discourses. After stay-
ing at Prague two years he married Sarah Finkel
(died 1828). the daughter of a prominent well-to-do
citizen of Fi'irth, and settled at Nikolsburg (1773), and
within a year was made "ab bet din '" (eeclesiastiea!
assessor). Thirteen years later he accepted the rab-
binate at Lundenburg in Moravia, whi< h he held for
si.v months, when he resigned to become rabbi at
Schh)s.sberg. Hungary. His stay in his native eoun
try was short; and in 1789 he was made nibbi of
Nikolsburg and chief rabbi of Moravia. Later on
he received offers also from Presburg and Cracow,
Mordecai Benet.
but yielding to the solicitations of his congregation,
he remained at Nikolsburg. Overstud}', however,
had brought on a nervous affection in his youth,
which clung to him throughout life, and was the
cause of his death, which, as stated, took place at.
Carlsbad, whilher he had gone for treatment. His
body was buried temporarily at Lichtenstadt. near
Carlsbad, but seven moiilhs later was permanently
interred at Nikolsburg in accordance witii his will.
Although Benet s works are neither numerous nor
exhaustive, they are among the classic products of
Talmudie literature in the eighteenth century. They
are (1) " Biur Mordecai " (The Commentary of Morde-
cai). Vienna, 1813. a commentary on
His 'Works. Mordecai b. Hillel's compendium;
(2) -'Mageu Abot " (Shield of the Fa-
thers), Zolkiev. 183.'). a treatise on the forty-nine
acts prohibited on the Sabbath; (3) "Har lia-Mor''
(Mountain of .Myrrh), respousii, with allusion to the
rabbinical explanation of the name ■"Mordecai" by
■■ Mara dakya '" {— yime myrrh): (4) " Parashat Mor-
decai " (The Explanations of Mordecai), Szigeth,
1889. responsa; and (.5) "Tekelet Mordecai" (Mor-
decai's Purple Garment). Lemlierg. 1892, halakic
and liaggadic discourses.
All these works clearly show Benet's keenness,
wide knowledge of ndibinieal litei-ature, and, what
is still more important, his logical and strictly scien-
tific method. In coutrsjst to his friends Moses Sofer
and Akiba Eger. who were casuists, Benet avoided
casuistry iu discussing involved halakic questions;
gaining his ends by means of a purely critical ex-
planation and a systematic srrangement of the mat-
ter. An excellent example of Benet "s criticism is
his letter to the chief rabbi of Berlin. Zebi Hirsch
Levin, whom he tries to convince of the spuriou.sness
of the collection of respoiisfi " Besiimim Kosh. " This
collection was published by Saul BiCRi.ix, Levin's
son. as the work of Asher b. Jeliiel ("Parashat Mor-
decai." No. 5; "Literaturblatt des Orients." v. 53,
')■>. 140). A comparison of Benet's criticism on the
work withZiin/.'s remarks on it(" Hitus," pp. 22(5-238)
can not fail to excite adminition of Benet's method.
Benet's works differ in other respects from those
of his contemporaries. AVhile his style is clear and
elegant, and his language a purc He-
Superiority brew, the style of his colleagues is
of confused and barbarous, and their lan-
His Style, guage an incorrect Hebrew mixed
with the corrupt Aramaic found in
rabbinical literature. Moreover, Benet's attitude
toward the strict orthodoxy of his friends and col-
leagues was exce]itioual. and may be attributed to
his knowledge of modern thought (compare his let-
ter to Zebi Hirsch Levin in " Literaturblatt des Ori-
ents," v. .")4). These characteristics gave him an
independent positiim in the struggle between ortho-
doxy and the so-called "spirit of enlightenment."
Though Benet's course in this struggle was in ac-
cordance with his early training and station in life,
he was probably the only orthodox
Benet and rabbi who thoroughly understood the
the Reform new current of thought, into which
Movement. Jews as well as non-Jews were being
drawn at that time. He knew the
enemy that confronted him, and realized the futility
15
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benet
Benfelden
i)f employing for defense the rusty weapons of the
Talmud. It is true, lie avoided the name of Men-
delssohn in his approbation (dated Nov. H, 1816) tn
the new edition of tlie Pentateuch with Mendels-
sohn's translation; but the very faet that he aji
proved a German translation of the Bible at all
shows that he ought not to be elassed with men like
Moses Sofer. He opposed tlie attemjited reforms of
Aaron Choriu ; but he did it quietly and temperately,
contenting himself with the remark that something
more than pliilosophical study is required to decide
theological cpiestions.
Frequently Benet showed an insight lacking in
his opponents. In his memorial to the government
on the education of ral)bis (printed in "Toledot Mor-
decai," pp. 8.1-37), he remarked that if the course of
studies which th<' gyninasium demanded of can<li-
dates lor all other ju'ofessions Mere reciuired of a
ral)binical candidate, the latter would be fit for any-
thing except the rabbinate. Still, far
Views on from ol)jccting to a secular education
Education, for rabbis, as he was vmdei'Stood to do
(see LOw, "Gesammelte Sclu-iften." ii.
190 111 sri/.), he favored it; but he thought that a
rabbi should tirst of all possess suHicient knowledge
of rabbinical matters ; and he proposed that a ralj-
binical candidate should devote his time chiefly to
Jewish subjects until his eighteenth year. His
opinions concerning the duties of a rabbi, espe-
cially in regard to the instruction of children, show
the strong influence that modern views had upon
him. He wrote a cateehism for religious instruction
and submitted it in manuscript to the government.
'I'o judge from the letter accompanying it. Bend's
views on the education of the young were sensible
and in accordance with llie spirit of the time.
Nevertheless, Benet, conscientiously opposing the
new tendency, declared every reform in religi(uis
observance to be wrong and harmful. Thus, in a
letter to the government concerning the introduction
of German into divine .service {»/;. pp. 38-42), he
wrote in favor of the preservation of Hebrew. His
attitude is significant in view of the fact that, many
years later, Zacharias Prankel used the
Opposes same arguments in the convention of
Religious rabbis at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1845;
Reform, and evc'uts have proved the truth of
the prophecy made by Benet, that if the
)uaj'ers ai'e saiil in another language fi-w Jews will
care to study Hebrew, and familiarity with the He-
brew Scripture will gradually cease.
Altliough Benet was independent in his attitude.
his learning and high cliaraeter gained for him many
faithful friends among young and old. Even the Ila-
sidim respeete<l him ; and Baer Sclmeiersohn. the so-
called "middle rabbi." speaks highly of him in a
letter now in the possession of .1. L. Sossnitz of New
York. Comiiareal.so 'Weiss. "Zikronotai," pp. 77-81.
Th(( comnuuiities of Lic^htenstadt and Nikolslnu'g
contended for the honor of interring his mortal re-
mains; and the dispute which later arose over the
exhumation of the body was fought with the weap-
ons of learning, and figures in the responsa literature
of the timi'.
HiBi.iOGKAPny : J. A. Benet. Tulethit Mmdevai Benet. Buda-
IKSt, 1833; Berditschewsky, In Ha-Asif, 1887, Iv. ei-dl;
Ehrenlheil, JlUlitit-he Charahtcilnlihr, 18*i7 ; Kaufniauo, in
Ha-Asif. V. 12!) ( ( .«(<,.; Fiirth. Siiiinuim, ii. 301-ais.
L. (',
BENET (BENEDICT), NAPHTALI BEN
MORDECAI : .Vulhor and rabbi ; born at the end
ot tlie eighteenth century; died October. 1857, at
Schafa, Moravia, where he was rabbi. He was the.
author of the following works: (1) "Berit Jlelah"
(Covenant of Salt), Prague, 181(i. a collection and
explanation of the precepts in regard to the laws
of salting th<' meat, in order to remove the blood
(Yoreh De'ah, 09-78); (2) " .Misped Gadol " (Great
Mourning), Vienna, 1830, a eulogy on the death
of his father, Mordecai Benet ; (3) "Emuuat Yisrael "
(Israel's Faith), Prague, 1832, a Jewish catechism in
Hebrew anil German; (4) " Imre Sliefer " (Goodly
Words, Gen. xlix. 31), Presbuig, 1840, a funeral
oration on Moses Sofer; (5) "'Torat Dat Moslieh
we-Yisniel" (Doctrine of the Law of Mo.ses and
Israel), Prague, 1820, on the principles of the Jew-
ish religion.
The catechism became very jiopular and iiassed
through several editions. Though Bend's stand-
point was strictly orthodo.x, he did not carry his
orthodoxy to extremes, as can be seen from a corre-
spondence with Isaac Samuel Keggio on the ques-
tion of future ininishment (" Kerdu Ilenied," i. 9),
in which he shows himself vacillating on this point.
Benet's "Torat Dat Moslieh we- Yisrael " is also
written from a moderate ortliodox point of view ;
but he accepted his father's views in opposing the
Reform movement, and assails Aaron Chorin as a
man actuated by personal motives in advocating
reform.
Bibliography: Fiirst, Bihl. J mi. i. in:!; Zeiluer, Cat. Hehr.
JSuiihs Brit. Mm. p. S!.
L. G.
BENEVENTO : City in southern Italy; capital
of the province of the same name; about 32 miles
northeast of the city of Najiles. Benjamin of
Tudela visited it about 1165, and found there 200
Jewish families, having at their head three par-
na-sim; Kalonymus, Zerah, and Abraham ("JIas'ot
Binyamin," <'d. Asher, p. 13). This unimportant
community increased after the Spani.sh exile. When
King Ferdinand conquered the kingdom of Naples
(1504), he established the Imiuisition at Benevento
in order to exterminate the Spanisli and Portuguese
Marauos who had settled there in somewhat large
numbers.
BiBi.iooRAPHV : lin'uc f}}-icutnlf. u. l.il : (iriilz. fiesrh. dir
Jwlcn.'iUi cd., vi. :!:itt ; p. M. Lonurdu, iili Khrt-i a Bcnevcutu.
1899.
I). I. Bit.
BENFELDEN: Town in Alsace, 17 miles from
Strasburg. It was here, in the year 1348, when
Europe was devastated by the Black Death (the
sjiread of which was ascribed to the Jews), that a
council was held of the representatives of the towns
in Alsace to con.sider the projier course to be adopted
with reference to the Jews. One of the leading
spirits in the C(nineil was Bishop Berthold of Stras-
burg, who firmly demanded that the Jews be entirely
destroyed. Tlie representatives from Strasburg
maintained a gallant struggle against the supersti-
tious bigotry that sought .some scapegoat for the
evil that had befallen the land, and against the cupid-
ity and rapacity that scented a prosjiect for plunder.
Benfey
Beni-Israel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
16
The struggU' was \isclcss. am) it was dfculod that all
the Jews should be banishi'<i from tho citit-s of the
upper Hhiue. The results of this decision of the
Council of Beufeldeu constitute one of the most
tragic diaplers in the gloomy history of the perse-
cutii>n I'f the Jews.
G.
BENFEY, THEODOR: Ccrman Saiiskritist
and cdiiipanitivc iihilologist; burn at Xorten. Han-
over. Jan. is. l(S(l!l: became a convert to Christianity
in 1M4(!<; died June Sti, ISSl. His father, who had
seven ciiildren besides ThetRlor, was a Jewish mer-
chant deeply versed in the Talmud. Tlieodor re-
ceived his preliminary traiuing at the gymnasium
in Gottiugen. which he left at the age of si.xteeu for
the university of the sjime city. As a imivcrsity
student he devoted himself to cla-isiial philolog}'.
Mf& A-.
and remained in GOttingen— with the exception of
the year 1827, spent at Munich— until 1830. On Oct.
34, 1828. he received the degree of Ph.D.. and the
year following became privat-docent. He left GiH-
tingen in 1830 and lived in Frankfort-on-the Main
for two years. Here he occupied himself with a
translation of Terence, his only printed contribution
to classics; and. what was of far more importance
for his life-work, devoted himself seriously to San-
skrit.
In 1832 he left Frankfort for Heidelberg, where
he contemplated teaching Sanskrit, but his love for
his alma mater was too strong to permit him to be-
come a member of the faculty of another univei-sity.
Accordingly, in 1834, he returned to Gottingen.
where he began his teaching rather in classical than
in Oriental or comparative philology. Gra<luall3-.
however, he concentrated his energy on Sanskrit and
comparative linguistics. Benfey 's teaching covered
a large range within his chosen limits. In addition
to his regular work he lectured on
His Wide Indian antiquities, on the Avesta, and.
Range. going farther atield, gave courses in
ethnography from the linguistic point
of view (1843). and in Bengali and Hindustani (18t>3-
64). It is interesting to note that, in 1843. he
lectured on the affinity of the Egyptian and Semitic
groups of languages. This single series of lectures,
together with the book which was the result of the
course — " Ceber das Verhiiltniss der Aegyptischen
Sprjiche zum Semitischen Sprachstamni." 1844 — is
his only important work that deals with Semitic
linguistics.
His literary activity began comparatively late.
Before 1839 he published very little. Even his doc-
torate dissertation. " De Liguris." and his disseita-
tiou to obtain the nnia Icgemli. " Observationes
ad Anacreontis Fragmenta Geuuina. " remained vm-
printed. Besides the translation of Terence in 1837,
already referred to. and a few reviews, his only
work i)ublished prior to 1830 was one written in
collaboration with Moritz A. Stern, " Ueber die
Monatsnaraen Einiget Alten Yolker," 1880.
The silent years before 1839 had been a time of
preparation, but after that period his contributions to
linguistics were numerous. His"GriechischesWur-
zellexikon," 1839^2. won the Volney
Sem^itic prize. The year 1840 saw the appear-
and ance of his article on "India " in Ersch
Sanskritic and Gruber"s " Encyklopadie der Wis-
Works. senschaften und Kiinste," and his
Semitic contribution, already noted,
was published in 1844. In 1847 he brought out the
first German edition of the Old Persian Inscriptions,
basing his work mainly on Rawlinson's results,
which hail appeared the previous year. The year
1848 was the date of Benfey 's edition of the Sauia
Veda, with iutroductioi;, glossary, and translation.
He published in 1852 his " VoUstiindige Grammatik
der Sanskritsprache." and followed this the next
year with his valuable "Chrestomathieaus Sanskrit-
werken." and in 1855 with his "Kurze Sanskiit-
grammatik." His two English books — the "Prac-
lieal Grammar of the Sanskrit Language" (1863-66),
and the "Sanskrit -English Dictionary." 180G — were,
as he himself recognized, less creditable to his schol-
arship than were his earlier works.
The resultsof his studiesin comparative literature
were summed up in his translation and commentary
on the Panchatantra, which appeared in 1859. and is
still a standard. In the preface of this work, which
comprises the entire tirst volume, he
His Last traces the development of the various
Important Indian tales through other Oriental
Works. literature to European collections of
beast fables and stoiies. partly through
the intermediation of Jewish translators (see K.M.iiuV
w.\-Dnt>A). His last great work was the "Ge-
scliichte der Sprachwi.<.sensehaft und Orientalischen
Pliilologie in Deutschland." 1869. Here he traces
the history of Oriental research in Germany, both in
Scmitics and in Indo-Irauian. down to his own time,
with a thoroughness which makes the work still one
17
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benfey
Beni-Israel
of value. After 1869 he published no books, al-
though he continued to write reviews and maga-
zine articles. At his death he left material, which
lie had been gathering for j-ears, fur a grammar of
Vedic Sanskrit. This he hail hoped to make the
thief production of liis life. Unforttniately this
work was h'ft in such a chaotic state that it is im-
possible to edit it or to know what the author's con-
ciu.sions were to have been.
Hcnfey's rise was by no means rapid, yet he never
lost patience, even when those inferior to himself in
age or ability were promoted over him. Beginning
his work at (iiUlingcn in 1834 as privat-doccnt, he
waited fnurtecn years before he became assistant
professor without salary, in 1848. after
Silent which a second period of fourteen
Heroism years elapsed before he was appointed
and |>rofessor in 1862. Under these cir-
Influence. cumstanccs he made .several cfl'orls to
gain a more profitable position else-
whiTi' liiil all liis endeavors in this direction were
in vain.
As a leaehi'r IJenfey was broad, and his interests
were manifold. Few men have exercised an influ-
ence over more jnipils, for he was a teacher as well
as a savant. This breadth of view explains tlie rea-
son why he founded no school, and trained no pupil
who can be said to have succeeded him to carrj' on.
unchanged, his method and tradition. He estab-
lished a periodical. "Orient imd Occident," in 1862,
t« defend his scicntitic principles, and both he and
his .students contributeil to it numerous articles.
Unfortimatcly the magazine had to be discontinued
in 1866.
He hift the .lewish faith in 1848, and with his
family joined the Evangelical Church. His change
of religion was prompted solely by the social ]irivi
leges that wvn- tlKTi jiossessed by Christians alone.
The result of his abandonment of Judaism was not
what he had ex))ected. It was a positive disadvan-
tage to him, and accounts in part for his slow rise to
full professorship.
Bini.iooRAriiv: A life iif Bmifey is niven by Ills daiarhler Mitii
In the edition «f Ills Kkimn: Sehriften, edited hy Hezzi ii-
berger,
8. L. H. G,
BEIfGAZI (.r BENGHAZY : City of Trip
oli, Africa, on ilie east cdust of the Guff of Sidra.
Little is known of the tirst settlement of the Jews
there; according to local traditions, they can\e orig-
inally from Tri|inli.
The chief nibliis of the community in llic nine
teenth century wcic: Moses Ilakmon, Lsaac Moharon,
and Kahamim Farju of Tripoli; the last, installed
in 1871, still holds oHicc (HtOl). As rabbinical au-
thor must be mcntioiK'd Eli j.-di Labi, a centenarian
(1783-1883). He wrote the "'Sefer Ge'ullat Adonai "
(Book of Gods Deliverance) (Leghorn, 1864), in He-
brew, and the "Orah Yesharim " (The Path of the
Upright) and " Mcnuhali le-Hayyim " (Rest for the
Living) (Leghorn, 1ST2 and 1SS2), in Jud.-eo-.Vraliic ;
i.e., in rj;dibinic cliaract<'rs and in Araliic-Tripdlitan
dialect.
As a bit of history must he uicnlioncil the kidnaji-
ing of a young .Tcwish girl hy Arabs, in 1868, an
affair that was (ndv adjusted by the intervention of
III.— 2
the Alliance Israelite Universelle and the European
consuls.
In 1901 the community numbered 3,000 Jews, in a
total population of 38,000. It has two synagogues
— the Low Synagogue, which is said to be verj- old;
and the High Synagogue, of more recent date — and
four Talmiid Torahs, "attended by 200 pupils. The
community is governed by a supreme judge (Abra-
ham Habib in 1901), in addition to the rabbi and by
three syndics ("gabbaim"). The .Sidaries of these
oflicials are paid from the meat-ta.\, amounting an-
nually to 3,000 francs. There are two societies:
the Hebra Kaddishah, a burial society, and the Bik;-
kiirHolim, which furnishes medicine and physicians
to the poor.
The Jews of Bengazi are prosperous. The major-
ity trade in wool, barley, and butter. Others follow
trades, as jewelers, tinsmiths, carpenters, etc. A
Jew, Hamus Komani, is one of the higher oflicials of
the Serail, or administration of the department. The
richest families are those of Tchuba, Y'oueli, and
Hakmon. There are very few poor. Some of the
Jews have very curious names; e.<j., as "Schima,"
"Touajir," "Bedoussa," etc.
Buu.iographt: nuUclin of the Alliance IsnulUe I'niver-
fifltt\ lss."> ; private snurres.
i>. M. Pk.
BENHAM, ARTHUR: Diamatic author; born
1S7.J; died at Brighton, Eng., Sept. 8, 189.5. He
was a plajwright of considerable promise, and
was the author of two plays, "The County" and
"The Awakening" — the latter produced for a short
run at the Garrick, and the former at Terry's Thea-
ter — when he was only twenty yi'ars old. He died
of consumiition when scarcely past his twentieth
year. Ilis sister was the actress Estelle Burney,
who collaborated in his plays, and was his tender
nurse <luring his long illness.
BiHi.TocRAPiiv: Jewish Clirrmicle, Sept. n. l.sft'i; Die .sTtetch,
si-pi. IS. isir,.
.1. G. L.
BENI-ISRAEL: Native Jews of India, dwell-
ing mainly in the presidency of Bnmbayand known
formerlj- by the name of Shan var Telis ("Saturday
t)il-Pressers") in allusion to their chief occupation
and their Sabbath-day. The Beni-Israel avoided tbe
use of the name " Jew," probably in defci-cnce to the
pi'cjudicc of their Mohammedan neighbors, and pre-
ferred the name Beni-Israel in reference to the favor-
able use of the term in the Koran (sura ii. 110). Ac-
cording to their own traditions, they are descended
from the siuvivors of a band of Jews 'fleeing from
persecution who were wrecked near the Ilenery and
Kenery islands in the Indian ocean, fifteen miles
from Cheul, formerly the chief em])orium of the
tiade between Arabia and India. Seven men and
seven women are slated to have been saved frmn
drowning; and from them arc descended the Bcui-
Israel. This is said to have been from si.xteen hun
died to eighteen hundred years ago. Benjamin of
Tudela appears to have heard of them in the twelfth
( entury, and JIarco Polo in the thirteenth ; but they
were first brought to the knowledge of Europeans,
simultaneously with the White and Black Jews of
tlociiiN on the Malabar coast, by C!hristian mission-
aries in India, like Drs. C. Buchanan and Wilson,
Beni-Israel
THK JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
18
at tbc beginuiug of the uiui-k'eutli ceiitary. l)u
the advent of the Sassoo.n fimiily at Bombay, more
direct interest was taken in the Bcni-Isiiiel by
Western Jews, and much educational worli lias
since been done anionir them.
The Beni-Israel themselves refer to two religious
revivals among them during their stay in India: the
first, iilaced by them about 900 years ago, due to
David BAiiAiii. and anotlier. about the year 179t).
due to Samuel DivKKAit. According
Internal to tradition. Raliabi was a Cochin Jew.
History, whose family had come from Egyjit.
and on visiting the Beni-Israel lie
found among them several customs similar to those
current among Jews, and to test them he gave tlieir
women some tish to
cook, including some
that had neither fins
nor scales. These
they separated from
the others, saying
that they never ate
them. Bahabi was
thereupon satisfied
they were r c a 1 1 y
Jews, and imparted
instruction to them.
After the attention
of the European Jews
had been called to
the Beni-Israel, the
rites and ceremonies
of the latter were as-
similated to those of
the Sepluudic Jews,
and ]irayer-books in
Mahrati, their vernac-
ular, have been pro-
vided for them. Pre-
viously, however. In
this their festivals
and customs dill'ered
considerably from thi-
rest of tlie Jews both
in name and in cere-
monial.
The festivals of the
Beni-Israel. before
they became ac-
quainted with the
ordinary religious
calendar of modern
Jews, had only
native names, one set of which was in JIahrati and
the other in Hindustani. The latter are attributed
to the reforms of David Raliabi. JIany of the names
in the former end in " San," meaning "holiday," and
among them arc the following:
Navyacha San ("New-Year liolklay"), kept im the Urst
day of Tisliri, tlie seamd-day observatiee not l>piiip liiiowii
anion); the lleni-lsnn'l.
Khiricha San ("Pudding liollday"), on tlie evening of
the fourth of Tishri. Tliis \v.is fplebrated liy eating "lihir." a
sort of pudiiing made of new corn nii.xed with
Festivals, cwtinut-jnire anil sweets; a censer with buru-
inf frankiiu'eiLsc hfini; pluied near tliedisli.
Thi- lihir was i-alen hv tlie family after sayinp tlie Slienia'.
Carfalnicba San ("Closing-of-doors holiday"!, on the
(iroup of lieni-Tsrael in Aneient I'osluine.
[■holograph.)
iKr.
tenth of Tishri, during which they tasted from five o'clock in
ttie evening until the ne.Kt evening at seven. During it they
did not stir out-of-dooi-s, nor touch nor speak to people of other
denondnations. Tliey dres.sed themselves in white, and he-
lieved that departed souls visited their liahitations on the pre-
ceding day aud left them on the following day, called Shila
San {"Stale holiday"', on which day they gave alms to the
poor and visiled tlieir friends.
Holicha San, on the thiileenth and fourteenth of Adar:
the former kept as a fast, ami the latter as a feast, on which
they sent honie-tnatle sweetmeats to one ani>ther. This corre-
sponds to I'urim ; hut the ISeni-Israel did not observe the second
day or "Shiishaii Pmiui."
Anasi Dakacha San (".\nas-cIosing holiday "), on llie
fourteenth and twenty-llrsl of N'isan. This was celebrated by
<'losing an earthen chatty or pot containing a sour liiiuid coui-
nionly used as sjiuce. This festival corresptinded to Passover :
itut. fis the Hindus generally did not use any leaven with their
rice, the object of the ceremony seems to have been forgotten.
Birdiacha San
(" Binia-curry holiday ",i,
on the niiuU of Ab, on
which they ate nothing
but rice with a curry of
"birda" or pulse. This
was served on plantain-
leaves. During the pre-
ceding eight days no meat
was eaten. This corre-
sponds toTish'a be-Ah, in
memory of the destruction
"f the Temple; but thei-e
does not seem to have been
any conscious recognition
of that fact.
The other festivals,
chiefly known by the
name of " Roja" (fast-
ing), appear to have
been of later intro-
duction, and aie con-
netted with the
reforms of David
Ualiabi. These are
a^ t'dllows:
Ramzan, a fast held
ihniiigliout the month of
i:Ud; the name is doubt-
:.-ss derived from liie
.Mohammedan month of
faslimr. "Raniazan."
Navyacha Roja
{" Xew-Vear fast "), on
the third of Tishri, cor-
responding to the fast of
(iedaliah, but not associ-
ated with his murder.
£li.iahHannabicha
Oorus I "The fan- of
Klijah the I'rophi't"!, to
celebrate the ascension
of Elijah on that ilay at
Khandalla in the Konkau.
Various kinds of fruit
"malida" (pieces of ru'e.
censer of burning frankin-
were placed on plates, together with
Itread besmeareii \vilh sirup), and
cense. The fruit was eaten by the family.
Sababi Koja, a fast on the seventeenth of Taminuz. a rem-
iniscence of the siege of Jerusalem, hut not known as such by
the Beni-Israel.
From this enumeration of the festivals it will ap-
pear that the Bi-ni-Israel retain from the earliest
times (as indicated by their JIahrati names ending
with "San") the New-Year, Day of Atonement,
Purim, Passover. Ninth of Ab, tind in addition a
form I if Tabernacles which has been transferred to
the Fourth of Tishri. Later on they introduced,
doubtless under the influence of David Raliabi (as
19
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beni-Israel
is shown by the Hindustani names), the fasts of
Gedaliah, Tebet, ami Tanimuz, together witli the
New-Year of the trees, associated with the name of
Beni-Israel of Bombay.
(From Wilson, " Lan.is .,f tht^ Bible.";
Elijah llie Prophet; while still later the custom of
fasting throughout the whole mouth of Elul seems
to have been borrowed from the Mohammedans.
The feasts of Pentecost and Hanukkah seem to
have dropped out of use, It would appear tliat be-
fore the second revival under Samuel Divekar the
only other remains of Judaism current among the
Beni-Israel were the strict observance of the Sabbath,
circumcision, and the reading of the Shema", which
is the sole piece of Hebrew retained by them. The
latter was said at every meal, at wedding-festivals,
at burial-feasts, and indeed on all sacred occasions.
The only animals eousidercil (it for food were fowl,
sheep, and goats. The IJcni-Isi-ael probably re-
frained from beef, in order not to olTend their Hindu
neighbors.
It is ditlicult at this time to determine with any
degree of accuracy the relative age of the customs
they follow. Even before the religious revival of
179(5 the Beni-Israel customarily removed the sciatic
nerve from animals used for food, and they salted
ihi- meat in order to abstract tlie blood from it ;
otherwise they dill not observe the
Customs, law of shehilah and bedikah. They
also left a morsel of bread or rice in a
little dish after they had dined. Among them the
l)irth of a girl was eelebratcJ on the .si.xth night,
iind that of a boy on the si.\th and eighth ; and on
tlie latter day the rite of circumcision was per-
formed. Girls were iisually betrothi'd some montlis
before marria.ire; and imtil the wedding they wore
the hair flowing from their shoidders. At the
betrothal ceremony the intende<l bride and bride-
groom sat face to face and dined together, sweetened
rice being served to the assendily. On the day
when the marriage ceremony was to take place the
bridegroom, who had been crowned with a wreath
of flowers, was led in procession on horse-
hack to tlie bride's house, and the ceremony
Beni-Israei. Famu.y at Bombay.
{From \ pbolnpraph.)
Beni-Israel
Benisch
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
20
took phipp uiiilcr a bootli. At the fi-iist licUl before
the wedditifr took place a ilisli eontaiiiins; a pieee of
leaven <-ake, tin- liver of a sroal, fried esgs, and a
twig of "stibja" was placed with burning frankin-
cense on wliite cloth, and alter the Shema' had been
Kenesetb Eliyabu SynaKDiruf. Bmubuv.
(From K photo^rn)ili.>
repealed the dish was taken inside and, with the ex
ception of five jiicces of the cakes an<l liver, wliich
were set aside for the person olliciatiug as priest, the
food was eaten. Polygamy is allowed, and in some
cases divorce is given according to the civil law:
but the ISeni Israel did not practise "get," "yib-
bum," or "lializah " An adulteress and her issue
are regarded as "Rlack Israel."
After burials the mourners wash both themselves
and their clothes, and on the third day the house is
cleansed; the ceremony being known as "Tizova,"
or the "Third-Day Cleansing." When a person died,
all the water was emptied from the jiots in tin-
house, and the body was buried with the head
toward the east. (Jrape-juiceor milk was drunk by
those visiting tin- mourners in the evening during the
days of mourning. It was customary for relatives
and friends to bring "meals of condolence" to the
house of mourning. On the seventh day after burial
there was a mourning ceremony known as the
".laharulh," in which a dish, containing eakes and
pieces of liver, and a glass of li(|uor, was placed on
a white .sheet. Afti'r repeating the Shema' about a
dozen times, the contents of the glass were drunk
in honor of the dead: and after the food was eaten,
the chief moinner was presented with a new turban
by a relative, .bdiaruth was also observed on tin- tirsi .
sixth, and twelfth months. If a boy w<ic born after
a vow made by the mother, his hair was not shaved
for six or .seven years, after which jieriod it was
completely ,shaved and weighed against coins (gold
or silver), to be given in charity. The shaved hair
was thrown into the sea and not burned. A feast
was held in the evening, at which the mother was
informed that she was free from her vow.
Formerly the Beni-Israel wore turbans, but now
they use mainly the Turkish fez. The women
adopt the Hindu dress, and arc accustomed to wear
anklets and nose rings. Most of the Beni-Israel
nami-s have been changed from Hebrew to Hindu
forms: thus. " Ezekicl" into "Ilas-
Costume ssiji": "Benjamin " into "Bunnajee" :
and "Abraham" into" Abajee"; "Samuel"
Names. into " Samajee " ; " Elijah " into " EUo-
jee": "Isaac" into "Essajee"; "Jo-
scpli '" into " Essoobjee " ; " Moses " into " Moosajee " ;
" Kidiamin\ " into " Ramajce " : " David " into " Da-
wdodjcc." and "Jacob" into "Akhoobjee." Their
surnames are mostly derived from neighboring vil-
lages; thvis. those who resided at Kehimwcre called
" Kehimker. " and those who lived at Pen were named
■ IVnker,"
.Vbout 17!>."> Sam\i(l Kzi-Uiil |)i\ i-:K.\ii. a Beni-
Israel soldier in the East India (diuiiany's service,
was captured by Tipu Sahib. He
Later made a vow that if he esca])ed he
History, would build a synagogue at Bombay.
He succeeded in escaping, and built
the synagogue JIagen David, now called Sha'ar Ha-
Ital.iamim, at Bomliay, and introduced the Sephardic
rilual from Cochin. The Bcni-Isracl shortly after-
ward attracted the attention of t'hristian mission-
aries at Bombay, who about 1812 brought Mi(;hael
S.MiooN from Cochin, who, though a convert to
i Christianity, op<'ned schools for tlie Beni Israel in
Bombay. Rebdanda, and I'alle for over thirty years;
explaining to the children jjarts of the Old Testa-
ment, and rarely, if ever, speaking of Christianity
to them.
The chief instrument iu introducing the fidl
knowledge of Judaism to the Beni-Israel was Shcl-
SiTiinil lieni-lsraul S>iiiit;ugiii.-, liuiutm.v, Krei-tetl 1.S4S.
(From a )>lii<tf>^apb.)
lomo (Solomcm) SnfRii.\ni. who was w-recked near
Bombay about 1830, and for twenty years acted
as religious instructor of the community. Owing
to his influence several new synagogues were built
21
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beni-Israel
Benisch
in the vicinity of Boinba)', and a general interejit in
their religion was shown by the Beni-Israel. The
advent of the Sassoons at Bombay brought the Beni-
Israel into connection with the real life of Israel ;
and the family, as well as Christian missionaries,
liberally supported religious, philanthropic, and
educational establishments for the benefit of Beiii-
Israel. A.special school for them was established
in July, 1875, which, owing to the support given
by the Anglo-Jewish Association, was enlarged in
1881, and now accommodates about 270 children.
As their native name implies, the original Beni-
Israel were mainly oilmen or oil-pressers; but during
the existence of the East India Company many of
them adopted the career of soldier and obtained the
MaL'eu t)aviil ur Sha'ar Ha-Raliaiuim Synagogue. Bombay,
(From ft phologrnph.)
highest rank, that of sirdar bahadur. Owing to the
spread of education among them several have gone
into learned professions and become engineers, doe
tors, and teachers.
The following are the chief places where Beni-
Israel are to be found, with the popu-
Statistics. lation as given by the last accessible
census (1801):
Bo.MB.w Presidkscy.
Ahmadabad 110 I Pen 183
Alibag 9(1 1 Poinad +i)
Ambepore 39 i Puna 350
Bombay .i.(ei | Hahoon 191
Borlai .51 Revadanda 193
Karachi i:)0 Koha Ashtann 333
Panwell 301 1
Of recent years many works suitable for instruc-
tion have been translated into Mahrati for the ben-
efit of the Beni-Israel. chiefly by the exertions of
Joseph Ezekiel, whose works cover the whole cycle
of Jewish ritual and liturgy, besides treatises on
the Jewish religion and text-books of Hebrew
grammar. In addition to these, sev-
Mahrati cral newspapers in Mahrati were ptdj-
Literature. lislied. amimg them the "Bene Israel-
ite" (Lamp of Judaism).
The task of determining with any degree of ex-
actness the amount of Jewish blood that at present
pervades the Beni-Israel is a very difii<ult one. In
appearance theydilTer but slightly from their lU'igh-
bors. They themselves are proud of their juirity of
descent, and jxiint to the care taken by Jews of
Cochin to separate the Black Jews, or pro.selytes.
from the White. The use of the word " Hamzan " f(jr
the feast of the month of Elul nn'glit seem to indicate
that they were originally Moliammedaus. and were
converted to Judaism bj- David Uahabi: but. on the
other hand, it may have been the word only that was
adopted, the custom of fasting during that month
liiing derived from the Sepliardi<- ritual, which is
that current in Cochin. If originally Jews, the
Beni-Israel retained very little of Jewish cu.stom
luitil the revival under I)ivikar, except the institii-
ti(m of the Sabbath, the repetition of the Shema',
and the rite of circumcision: but in this they re-
semble the Jews in China, who appear to have
kept their purity of descent almost up to the pres-
ent time. For a full discussion of this que.stion,
see Cochin.
Biiu.iO(iRAPHY : Wilson, Apijrnt for the nirixtian Kilucalinn
of tin- Bciii-Isrnct. IWlti: Idem. Laiiils of the Bihh. II. titiT-
liTK; Benjamin II., KigM Ytarx in .^.tio, cb. xviii.-xix.;
Hitter, KnlUnmh. Axirti II., § v., i. .WMKIl : J. Sappliir. llin
Snilr. 1S75, ii.; liiiwhan Gazellccr. xvHi. .T(lti-,T.3ti. Puna: K.
Si-hhigintweit, in Westeniiann's Itltistrirte Lkutmhe 3/o-
iintKirhrift ; JeirUi i'lin:tiitk, Aug. 31, Sept. 7, (let, 13, WsS;
H, Samuel, slirlrli nf Hi iii-lsmr.l, Issil; Jwobs. JcH'i.s(i Yidr
Hunk. 19I«>-1, pp. .•il«i-.iU0.
.r. J. E.-J.
BENISCH, ABRAHAM: Jouiiialist and theo-
liigiaii; born at Dnisau. a small town eight miles
southwest of Klattau, B(jhemia. in ISH; died at
Hornsey Rise, a suburb of London, England, July
:^1, 1878. lie studied surgery in Piague about
1S3() — while a commentary on Ezekiel which he
had written was being ])ublished — with a view to
preimring himself for a journey to Palestine. To-
gether Avith his fellow-students, .\lbert Liiwy and
Moritz 8teinsehneider, he was inspired by the lofty
mis,si(m of restoring Jewish independence in the
Holy Land; and while still a student at the Univer-
sity of Vienna, he had attiacted round him a large
numberof his coreligionists, to wJKim his scheme for
the liberation of his Jewisli fellow-countrymen com-
mended itself. Largely through his etfilrts a secret
society was formed, of which Benisch was aj)-
I)ointed to act as emissary and visit ceitain foreign
lands with a view to finding a suitable basis for the
liberation and emigration .scheme. The main reliance
for support in the carrying out of the idans was
|)laced on the English Jews. In 1841, in pursuance
of his mission, Benisch came to London, where he
submitted the essential part of his jjioposals to vari-
ous persons, who opposed them unanimously. Al-
though temporarily compelled to lay aside his plans,
he never completely abandoned them. Soon after
his arrival in London he devoted himself to Jewish
journalism and literature, and acciuired considerable
iufluence in Jewish and Christian circles.
Benjacob
Benjaoun
THE .TE\VISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA
22
Wlu'U amonj: Cliristians Btiiisch stremiously coiii-
bati'd tlic once rampant ciin%ti-sii)U idea. In 1854
lie became editor of the "Jewish Chronicle." which
position he held till 18fi!t; resuming the editorship
again from 1870 till the year of his death. His
editorial influence was e.verted in favor of a mod-
erate orthodo.xy. He made quite a feature of the
correspimdence colunms of the pajier. Benisch took
an active part in comnumal alTairs. and helped
to found several learned societies, including The
Biblical Institute and its allies. The Syro-Egyp-
tian and The Biblical Chronological societies.
These three were afterward fused into the Society
of Biblical Archeology. In IffifiO. when the Alli-
ance Israelite was started. Benisch's hopes and ideals
were revived, and by suggesting and aiding the
inauguration, in IMTl. of the Anoi.o-Jkwisii Associ-
.\Tiox, he hel|>ed tOAvard the realization of many of
the hopes and as])iriitions of his youth.
Benisch wrote numerous works in the domain of
Bible studies. biograi>liy. travel, the defense of Juda-
ism: and weekly articles contributed to the pages of
the "Jewisli Chronicle" during a period of nearly
forty j'ears. He left the copyright of the paper to
the Anglo-Jewish Association, which, shortly sifter
his death, sold it. His most important works were:
(1) "Judaism Surveyed. Being a Sketch of the Rise
and Develoinuent of Judaism from Jloses to Our
Days," 1S74; (2) "Why I Should Remain a Jew,"
thirty -three letters contributed to the " Jewish Chron-
icle," and published posthumously. He also wrote:
"Two Lectures on the Life and Writings of Jlairaon-
ides," 1847: "A Translation of the Old Testament.
Published with the Hebrew Text," 18.")1 : " An Esssiy
onColenso'sCriticisuiof the Pentateuch and Joshua,"
1863. Benisch also published an "Elementary He-
brew Grammar," in 1852: and a "Manual of Scrij)
ture History," in 1853.
BiBLiOGR.kPnv : Jeir. Chnm. May. and Jul.T 31, 1S79: Nov.,
1891 (jubilt* numlx'rl ; Diet, nf Nat. Bioy.
■T G. L.
BEN JACOB, ISAAC B. JACOB: Hussiaubib-
liogi-aplier, author, and publisher: born in Uamgola,
near Wilna, Jan. Id, 1801 : died in Wilna July 2,
1863. His parents moved to Wilna when he was
still a child, and there he received instruction in
Hebrew grammar and rabbinical lore. He began to
write early, and coraiioscd short poems and epi-
grams in |)ure Biblical Hebrew which are among
the best of their kiuil in Xeo Hebraic literature. For
several years he lived in Riga, where he was engaged
in business, always studying and writing in his lei-
sure hours. Later he became a imblisher and book-
seller and went to Leipsic, where he published his
first work, "Aliktamim we-Shirim" (Epigrams ami
Songs), which also contains an important essay on
epigrammatic composition (Leipsic. 1842). Of the
other works which he jndilished there, his corrected
edition of R. Bahy;i ibn Pakuda's "Hobot ha Leba-
bot," with an introduction, a short commentary,
and a biography of the author, togelher with notes
and fragments of Jo.sei)h Kimhi's translation by H.
Jellinek. is the most valuable (Leipsic, 1846: Ki'migs-
berg, 1859, without the introduction).
In 1848 Benjacob returned to Wilna, and for the
next five years he and the poet Abraham Bar Leben
sohn were engaged in the publication of the Bible
with a German translation (in Hebrew type) and the
new " Biurim " ( Wilna. 1848-53. 17 vols.), which did
much good as a means of spreading the knowledge
of German and a proper understanding of the He-
brew text among the Jews in Russia. When this
work was done he brought out his corrected and
amended edition of Hayyiiu Joseph David Azulai's
"Shem ha-Gedolim" ^Wilna. 1853: Vienna. 1862),
which is still the standard edition of that important
work. In 1862 B<'njacob announced his intention
to begin the publication of popular editions of clas-
sical Hebrew works which had become rare or high-
priced. He died soon after the appearance of the
first volume of A/.ariah dei Rossi's "Jleor 'Ena-
vim." with which he stsirted the series (Wilna.
1863).
In his later years Benjacob was one of the leaders
and representatives of the Jewish community of
Wilna, and took an active part in all communal af-
fairs. In his conespoudence with Isaac Bar Lewin-
sohn, which is partly published in "Ha-Kerem"
(pp. 41-62. Warsaw, 1888), Benjacob throws much
light on the condition of the community in the be-
giiming of the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tury, and especially on the lamentable condition of
the Ralibiuer Schule (Rabbinical Seminary) which
the government established there and in Jitomir in
1848. and closed in 1873. Benjacob himself was
originally destined to be one of the teachers of the
Wilna Seminary, but never filled the position: and
later he became one of the severest critics of that
institution. These letters are also interesting on ac-
count of the idea they give of the perplexities of the
old Maskilim of the Mendelssohuian school in Rus-
sia, like Benjacob. who w ere being swept aside by
the younger generation which had the advantage of a
Russian training. He could not speak Russian, and
most of the representatives of the community suf-
fered from the siime disability, excepting a few mer-
chants who cared little for the fate of the seminary :
and the older members were at a great disadvantage
when pitted against the young students, who could
gaiu whatever they desired from the authorities on
accovmt of their correct Russian accent.
Benjacob corresponded with Jewish scholars in
Western countries, and was known during his life-
time for his great achievements as a bibliographer,'
although his monumental work, the "0?ar ha-
Sefarim. Thesaurus Libroruiu Hebra-orum tam Im-
pressorum quam Manuscriptorum," did not appear
till seventeen years after his death (Wilna, 1880).
It was published by his sou .Jacob, and contains
17.000 entries of Hebrew printed and manuscript
works, with valuable notes by M. Steinschneider.
An author-index to the work together with addi-
tions has been promised by Steinschneider ("Hebr.
Bibl."xx. 73: "Festschrift," p. vii.). It is the great-
est Jewish bibliographical work in the Hebrew lan-
guage, and is still the standard bibliography of
printed books down to 1863.
Besides other minor works and articles published
in various Hebrew periodicals and collections, Ben-
jacob also commenced a German-Hebrew dictionary
and a Mishnaic-Tahnudic dictionary with a German
translation, both of which were left unfinished.
23
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bergacob
Benjamin
Bibliography: Fiirst. BihI.Jutl. i. lii:)-l(W isee also vol. hi..
Preface, p. vii.): BtuU'< ./nliiliiiiiu r. v. »'1T : Miniatssdirift,
.\xx. 37.5-3&1, 570-.')?:-'; Kwiii Ifrmi'l. v. S; Fuenn. Kemnct
l'is)-ae;, pp. o97-.59!J; Ihi-MaiMiil. v il. '^U: Ha-KarmcU iU.
365, 36«.
G. P. \Vl.
BENJAMIN.— Biblical Data: Yimngcst son
of Jacob by Rucliol. wlio died ou the road between
Bethel and Ephrath, while giving him birth. She
named him "Ben-oni" (sou of ray sorrow); but Ja-
cob, to avert the evil omen, called liim "Ben Y'amin,"
son of the right hand; that is, of good luck (Gen.
XXXV. 17, 18).
Benjamin stayed with his fatlicr when his brothers
went down to Egypt to buy corn during the famine,
but Joseph insisted that he should come down with
them on their second visit. Jacob being afraid to
let him go from his side, as he was the only remain-
ing son of Rachel, Jvidah vouclieil for his safety, and
finally obtained his father's permission to take him
along (Gen. xlii.. xliii. 8-10). Joseph received his
younger brother witli marks of special attention ;
but as the time came for the brothers to return to
their fatlier with the newly bought corn, he put
them severely to test by laying a traji and bringing
the charge against Benjamin of having stolen his
silver cup, in punishment for whicli he wanted to
keep him as a slave. Judah, faithful to his pledge,
stepped before Joseph, begging to be taken as a
slave instead of Benjamin, whose failure to return
would cause his father to go down in sorrow to
Sheol ; whereupon Joseph, seeing that tlie brothers
were not so cruel toward one of Racliel's sons as
they had been to hini, made himself Iviiown to them
(Gen. xliii., xlv.). Benjamin, until that time spoken
of as "a child" (Gen, xlii. 13, xliv. 20), moved to
Egypt with his father, Jacob, himself being the
father of ten sons (Gen. xlvi. 21).
The tribe of Benjamin is described in Jacob's
blessing (Gen. xlix. 27) as warlike; "Benjamin is a
wolf that raveneth; in the morning he shall devour
tlie prey, at evening he shall divide the spoil." In
the desert, where Benjamin formed ]>art of the camp
of the sons of Joseph, the tribe counted 35,400 war-
riors, and later on 45,600 men (Num.
The Tribe i. 36; ii. 22, 23; x. 22-24; xxvi. 41).
of In I C'hron. vii. 6-11, 59,434 men arc
Benjamin, given. The astute and pugnacious
nature of the Benjamites is evidenceil
by the fact that they were drilled as left-handed
warriors to attack the enemy unawares (Judges iii.
1.5-21, XX. 16; I Chron. xii. 2). They were known
as brave and skilled archers (I Chron. viii. 40, xii.
2; II Chron. xiv. 7). A cruel act of inhospitality
by the men of Gibeah, reminding one of the Sodom-
ites, brought the whole tribe under a ban ("herem");
and a war followed in whicli all the other tribes
very nearly exterminated the little tribe; moreover,
they took an oath not to give to the Benjamites any
of their daughters in marriage. Only at the last
moment, when all but6(X)mcn had been slain, a wa.y
was found to provide the; survivors with wives in
order to prevent the tribe from dying o\it (Judges
xix.-xxi.). Still the little tribe of Benjamin was
destined to a prominent place in the history of Israel.
It gave the nation its first king, in the person of
Saul, son of Kish(I Sam. ix. 1); and when Saul died.
his son, Ishbosheth, reigned for two years over
Benjamin and the other tribes, except Judah (II Sam.
ii. 8, 9). In fact, Benjamin considered himself the
N'ounger brother of .loseph long after David had uni-
ted all other tribes with his own of Judah (II Sam.
xix. 21 [20]).
But the tenitoty of Benjamin was so favorably
situated as to give it prominence beyond its numer-
ical proportions. Bordering on Joseiih's to the
nortli and on .Tudah's to the .south, it touched on the
Jordan; and, lying on the line leading from .lericho
to the northern hills of Jerusah'm, it included such
cities as Gibeah, Gibeon, Bethel, and,
The according to rabbinical tradition, a
Territory, part of the Tcmjih^ district (Josh,
xviii. 11-21; .losephus, "Ant." v. 1.
^ 22; .Sifrc, Wezot ha-Berakah, 352). Reference is
made to this excellent locality in the blessing of
Jloses; "The beloved of the Lord shall dwell in
■safety by him; he covereth him all the day long,
and he dwelleth between his shoulders "(Dent, xxxiii.
12). At the secession of the northern tril)es, Benja-
min remained loyal to the house of David (I Kings
xii. 21), and therefore shared the destinies of Judah
at the time of the restoration (Ezra iv. 1, x. 9).
Mordecai, the loyal Jew, was a descendant of Saul
of the tribe of Benjamin (Esth. ii. 5); and Paul,
whose Hebrew name was Saul, also claimed to be a
Benjauiite (Rom. xi. 1 ; Phil. iii. 5). On the other
hand, it is hardly admissible that Jlcnclaus and Ly-
siraachus should have been allowed to officiate as
high priests if the}' were descendants of the tribe of
Benjamin, as II Mace. iii. 4 (compare iv. 23, 29)
seems to indicate ; it is much more probable that the
name "Benjamin " in this place is due to a copyist's
error, and the passage should read ; " Simon was of
the [priestly] tribe of Miniamin," if "Bilgah " is not
the proper reading. Compare Suk. 56a and art.
Bii.G.vii ; also Herzfeld, "Gesch. des Volkes Jis-
rael," 1863. i, 218.
a. K.
In Rabbinical Literature : The name " Ben-
jamin " is given various meanings by the Rabins.
According to some, ]'D'J3 is equivalent to D'D' p
("son of days"), because Benjamin was born to his
father in his old age (Testament of the Twelve Patri-
archs, Benjamin i. vloc //uepijv; Midrash Lekah-Tob;
and Rashi, ed. Berliner, on Gen. xxxv. 18). Other
rabbis interpret the name Benjamin as " son of the
South," since he was the only son born to Jacob in
Palestine, the others having been born in Mesopo-
tamia, north of Palestine (Rashi ud loc. ; "Sefer ha-
Yashar," Wayishlah, ed. Leghorn, p. 56b). Benja-
min was not granted to his parents until after Rachel
had prayed and fasted for a second son a long time
(Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Lc. ; Num. R.
xiv. 8), and not until Jacob was one hundred years
old (Testament of the Twelve Patriarch.s, /*. ; "Sefer
ha-Y'ashar," Wayishlah, ib.; compare IIeili>rin,
"Seder ha-Dorot," i. 52, ed. Warsaw).
Benjamin, Joseph's brother, took no part in the
selling of Joseph (Sifre, Deut. 352); and in order to
comfort Benjamin concerning his brother's fate, God
showed him, while awake, Joseph's form and count-
enance (Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Ben-
jamin X. ; compare Tan., ed. Buber, Wayesheb, 8).
Benjanuu
Benjamin II.
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
24
When Benjamin was detained as the alleged thief
of the cup, Joseiih pretended tliat Benjamin bad
been instigated by his brothers. But Benjamin
swore: "As truly as my brother Joseph is separated
from me. as truly as he has been made a slave. I liave
not touched the cup. and my brothers did not want
to make me steal." When asked for a proof that his
brother's memory was so sjicrcd that Joseph must
believe this oath. Benjamin told Joseph how he had
given his ten sous (Gen. .\lvi. 21) names which re-
ferred to the loss of his brother. The first was called
Belah (yi)D). because Joseph had disappeared (j;f)3.
"swallow "): the second, Becher (n33), because Jo-
seph was his mother's lirst-born (1133); the third.
Ashbel (^3B'N). because Joseph was made a captive
(riSK'. '"tapturc"): the fourth. Gera (N13). because
he lived in a foreign {"M) land: the fifth, Xaaman
(pyj). ou account of Joseph's graceful speech (DyiJ.
"grace"); the si.\th. Ehi (TIN. "my only full broth-
er"); the seventh, Ko.sh (E'Nl. "the older"); the
eighth. Muppim (D'SD). liicause Joseph taught
Benjamin the tliiutrs he himself had learned from
his father (D'SID" double mouth "); the ninth. Hup-
pim, " whose wedding (nSJin) I have not seen " : and
the tenth, Ard, because Joseph was like a rose (T51).
Benjamin's oath touched Joseph so deeply that
he could no longer preten<l to be a stranger, and so
revealed himself to his brother (Tan., cd. Buber.
Wayiggash. 7 ; the meaniugs of the names are also
given in Sotah 3()b: Gen. R. xciv. 8). According to
another Haggadah (known to so early a work as the
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs. Benjamin ii.).
Joseph makes himself known to Benjamin before
his reconciliation with the other brothers. The
".Seferha-Yashar" (Mikkez 89) narrates that Jo.seph
caused a kind of astrolabe to be brought, and asked
Benjamin whether he could not discover by means
of the instrument the whereabouts of his lost brother.
To Joseph's astonishment Benjamin declared that
the man on the throne was bis brother, and Joseph
revealed himself to Benjamin, telling him what he
meant to do with the brothers. Ilis intention was
to try them and thus to learn whether thej' would
act in a brotherly manner toward Benjamin if he
were in danger of losing his liberty.
The Kabbis lay stress on the name, " beloved of the
Lord," by which Benjamin is distinguished (Deut.
xxxiii. 12 ; Sifre, I.e. ). He is counted among the four
men who died by the poison of the serpent in Para-
dise; i.e., without sin of his own, the other three
being Amram, the father of Moses; Jesse, the father
of David ; and Kileab, the son of David (Shab. 55b).
His comparison to the ravening wolf (Cant. R. to
viii. 1), " who devours his enemy " (Gen. xlix. 27) is
referred to the men of Shiloh who stole their wives
(Judges xxi.) or to Ehud or to Saul. By others it
is referred to ilordecai and Esther (Gen. R. xcix.
and Tan., Wayehi. 14; so also in the original text of
the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs [Benjamin
ii] ; whereas a Christian interpolation refers it to
Paul).
One interpretation refers the bles.sing to the early
ripening of the fruits in the territory of Benjamin,
and the great fertility of the region of Jericho and
Beth-el, and another refers the expression "wolf"
to the altar of the Temple, which devoured the sac-
rifices in the morning and in the evening (Gen. R.
I.e. ; Targ. O. and Yer. ).
G.
The erection of the Temple on Beujamitic ground
is explained in several ways. It is related that Ben-
jamin (Sifre, Deut. 352, ed. Friedmann,
The Tribe 146a) was privileged to have the She-
of Kix.vu dwell in his territory l>ecause
Benjamiii. all the other tribes (that is. fathers of
the tribes) had tsiken part in the selling
of Joseph. For God said: "If they — the Israelites
— build me a Temple in some otlier place and seek my
mercy. I can show them as little mercy as they
showed their brother Joseph." Origen ClnGene-
sim." slii. 6), gives another reason, probably based
on Jewish tradition (compare Esther R. on iii. 4),
viz. : Because Benjamin did not bow down before
Esau as did his brothers and his father (Gen. xxxiii.
;3-7), nor before Joseph (ih. xlii. 6). his territory
was reserved for the worship of God.
The descendants of Benjamin, it is true, did not
always show themselves worthy of their ancestor,
especially in connection with the inciiient at Gibeah
(Judges xix.). In spite of their wrong-doing the
Benjamites were at first victorious (Judges xx. 21-
2o); but this was due to God's anger against all
Israel because they had attacked all Benjamin on
accoimt of the crime of an individual, and at the
same time quietly tolerated the idolatry which Micah
(Judges xvii.) was .spreading among them (Pirke R.
El. XXX viii.). At first the intention of the other
tribes was to efface Beujuniin completely, since the
number of twelve tribes could be preserved through
Ephraimaml Manasseh; but the}' remembered God's
promise to Jacob shortly before Benjamin's birth
(Gen. XXXV. 11), that "a nation and a company of
nations shall be of him " ; and they decided that the
existence of the tribe of Benjamin was necessary
(Yer. Ta'anit iv. 69c; Lam. R.. Introduction, 33).
The day ou which the reconciliation took place be-
tween the tribes is said to have been the fifteenth of
Ab, and for this reason il was matle a festive day
{ib. ; compare An, Fifteenth D.\y ok). On an-
other occasion, however, the Benjamites showed
themselves worthy of their pious ancestor. When,
at the Red Sea, all the other tribes stood in despera-
tion only the tribe of Benjamin trusted in God and
leaped into the sea (Jlekilta, Beshallah. Wayiljira 5 ;
Sotah 36b).
.J. SK. L. G.— K.
In Stohainiiiedan Literature : In the Koran.
Benjamin is not mentioned by name. The story of
Joseph is told in sura xii. , and reference is made
repeatedly to a particular brother of Joseph. Thus.
e.g., in v. 8. the other brothers say, "Verily, Joseph
and his brother are dearer to our father than we." .
Baidawi explains that Benjamin is so specified
because he was brother to Joseph on both sides.
Again, in v. 69, "And when they entered to Joseph,
he took his brother to him." Baidawi explains this
that he made him sit at meat with him or live with
him in his dwelling. He adds, as a tradition, that
Joseph made his brothers sit two by two : so Benja-
min remained alone and wept and said, " If my
brother Joseph had been alive he would have sat
with me." "Then Joseph made him sit at his table.
25
THE JEWIJJII ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benjamin
Benjamin II.
Thereafter he assigned houses to his brothers, two
by two, but took Benjaniiu to liis own house. And
he said to Benjamin, " Would you like if I were
your brother in the stead of the brother who is lost?''
And Benjamin re|ilied. " Who ran find a l>rother like
to you? l)ut .Jaeob did not beget you, nor Raehel
bear you."
o. D. B. M.
Critical View : The story of Benjamin in (ieii-
esis is drawn from tlirce different sourees: The Elo-
hist, who wrote the story of Benjamin's birth (Gen.
XXXV. ]6-3'2), makes Keul)en vouch for Benjamin
(Gen. xlii. 37); whereas the Jahvist assigns this act
to Judah (xliii.-xliv.), Tlie latter makes Joseph
give vent to his brotherly feeling at the first sight
of his younger brother Benjamin, and give him
five times as many presents, without, liowever,
betraying himself (.\liii. 30-84), and afterward, at
the ref^ognition scene, sliow ids affection for him
without reserve (xlv. 14): while the Elohi.st merely
rt^lates at the end that Benjamin was distinguished
by receiving five times as many presents as the
others (xlv. 23). The genealogical chapter which
represenis Benjamin as the father of a large family
(xlvi. 21) is of a far later date than the rest. (In
the older sources he apjiears to be a young child
[xlii. 4, IT); xliv. 20].) The blessing of Jaeob, in
which Benjamin — who, after Joseph, was the last of
the .sons — is described as being warlike, as was the
tribe in the time of Deborah (.lodges v. 14), yet with-
out any allu.sion to Satd's kingdom, is best ascribed
to the time of the Judges (Dillman, C'onunentary).
The story of the war at Gibeah (Judges xi.\.-xxi.),
which bears evidences of very lute composition and
has many legendary features, such as exaggeration
of nunibeis and modes of warfare, has been rather
too rashly declared to be a late invention inserted
with the intention of covering up atrocities jierpe-
trated by llie tribe of Judah under King David
against the kinsmen of Saul (Glidemann, " Monats-
sehnft," 1W69, p. 357: Geiger, "Jiid. Zeit." 1SU9, p.
284; (Jratz, "Gesch. der Juden," i. 3,51 et mq. ; Well-
hausen, " Kompositiou des Hexateuchs," p. 237;
Kuenen, " Hi.storisch Kritische Untersuchung liber
dieEntstehung und Samndungder Bilchcrdcs Alteu
TestanK^ids," ii. 103). Hecent critics think it far
more ijrobable that it rests on a historical fact
(Moore, (Jonunentar}- on Judges, pp. 400-408 ; Ilogg,
in Cheyne and Black, " Encyc. Bibl."; Nijldeke,
(juoted 1)V the latter on p. .'536. note 3). This indeed
seems to account for the sudden change in the char-
acter of the tribe (see (JiMi;.\li).
In the lime of David the tribe of Benjamin fol-
lowed the leadership of Joseph or Ephraini, consid-
ering itself closel_v related to the latter, and there-
fore jealous of Judah's rising power (II Sam. xix.
21 [20]). The blessing of Moses (Dent, xxxiii. 12),
which represenis Benjamin as per-
Koses' fectly identified with Judah's interests.
Blessing, is probably the product of the time of
Jeroboam II. (Driver, Commentary,
pp. 387 et acq.). Stade (" Gesch. des Volkes Israel,"
i. 161; idem. "Zeitsehrift," i. 114) and Hogg
("Encyc. Bibl." a.v. "Benjamin") explain the name
"Benjamin " as a derivative of " Yemini " (compare
I Sam. ix. 1, "Ish Yemini," and I Sam. ix. 4, "Erez
Y'emini "), denoting the people living to the soutli
or right of the Ephraimite highland ; the story of
Benjamin's birth in Canaan being taken as reflecting
in mythical form the fact of its having branched off
from the tribe of Joseph after the other tribes had
settled in their various territories (.Judges i. 22, 23,
35). The house of Joseph, according to Moore, in-
cludes Benjamin. Stade (" Gesch. des Volkes Israel,"
i. 138) thinks tliat the account of Benjamin was lost.
The report that the large number of 280,000 archers,
said to be the tribe of B<'njamin, belonged to King
Asa (II C'hron. xiv. 7; compare xvii. 17) is re-
garded as unhistorical. Regarding the listofBen-
jamite towns in Josh, xviii. 21-28, belonging to the
late priestly writer (P) and the one in Neh. xi. 31-35,
which lielongsto ihe lat<' chronicler, see Palestine.
BiBi.io(iRAi'nv: Hastings, Diet. Bilite; Cheyne and Black.
Emui-. BihL; Winer, B. U.: Hamhurger, H. B. T. s.v. Ben-
jnmin: (ieiger, JUit. Zeit. 18119, pp. 2«4-2a2; Stade, Gcvch.
den Toifccs Israel, 1. KiO-lfiS.
G. K.
BENJAMIN II., J. J. (real name, Joseph
Israel): Bumunian traveler; born at Foltieheni.
.Moldavia, in 1818; died at London May 3, 1864.
Married young, he engaged in the lumber business,
but losing his modest fortune, he gave up com-
merce. Being of an adventurous disposition, he
adopted the name of Benjamin of Tudela, the fa-
mous Jewish traveler of the twelfth century, and
toward the end of 1844 set out to search for Ihe Lost
Ten Tribes. He first
went to Vienna, and in
January, 1845, started
for Constantinoi)le, vis-
iting several cities on
the Mediterranean. He
landed at Alexandria
June, 1847, and pro:
cecded via C!airo to
Palestine. He then
traveled througli Syria,
Babylonia, Kurdistan,
Persia, the Indies,
Kabul, and Afghanis-
tan, returning June,
1851,toC'onslantino|)le,
and thence to Vienna. After a short stay in the last-
named city, he went to It<ily, embarking there for
Algeria and Morocco. On arriving in France, after
having traveled for eight years, he [irepared in He-
tirew Ills impressions of travel, and had the book
translated into French. After sulVering many trib-
ulations in obtaining subscriptions for his book, he
issued it in 1856, under the title "Cinq Annecs en
Orient" (1846-51). The same work, revised and
enlarged, was subsequently pul)lished in German
under the title " Acht Jahre in Asien und Afrika''
(Hanover, 18.58), with a ]ireface by Kayserling. An
Englisli version has also been published. As the
veracity of his accounts and thi^ genuiueni'ss of
his travels were attacked by some critics, he amply
defend(;d himself by producing letters and other
tokens proving his journey to the various Oriental
countries named. Benjamin relates only what he
has seen; and. although some of his remarks show
insufficient scholarship and lack of scientific method,
iii-ujauiiu II.
BenjEunin, R.
Benjamin b. Ihi
IIIE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
26
liis truthful ami simple imiTiitivc iraimd the ap-
pDval of eminent scholare like lluniboUlt, Peter-
mann. ami Hiehter.
In lt*")a Benjamin undertook another joumej-,
this time to Ameriea. where he stayed three years.
The result of liisohservations there he published on
his return, under the title "Drei Jahrc in Amerika"
(Hanover, lH(i3). The kings of Sweden and of
Hauover now conferred distinctions upon him. En-
couraged by the .sympathy of sevend .scientists, who
drew up a plan and a series of suirjrestions for his
guidance, he determined to go again to Asia and
Africa, and went to London in order to raise funds
for tin's journey — a journey which was not to be
imdertaken. AVoni out by fatigues and privations,
which had c!iu.sed him to grow old before his time
and gave him the ap|)earance of age. he died poor
in London ; and his friends and admirers had to ar-
range a public subscription iu order to save his wife
and daughter from misery.
In addition to the works mentioned above, Benja-
nun published "Jawan Me/.ula, Schilderung des
Polnisch-Kosakischen Krieges und der Leiden der
Judcn in Poland Wiilirend der .lahre i648-.53, Bc-
richt eines Zeitgenossen nach einer von L. Lelewel
Durchgeschenen Fnin/.osischen I'ebersetzimg. Iler-
ausgcgeben von .1. .1. Benjamin II.," Hanover, lti63,
a German edition of Kabbi Xathan Xata Hanover's
work on the insurrection of the Cos.sucks in the sev-
enteenth century, willi a preface by Kayserling.
BiBLiOGR-VPHv: Jr)ri.ili Chrnnicli; Mav i:i. ISW.
s- E. Sd.
BENJAMIN, B.: A tanna of the second centurv.
conlemporary of H. Klca/.ar ben Shanimu'a, with
whom he carried on some halakic controversy (Ket.
84a). He is also mentione<l in connection with Svm-
machus (Xiddah 211)); and elsewhere (Sem. ix.) lie
reports a Hahikah iu the name of H. Akiba. In one
halakic controversy, the participants in which leave
no doubt as to his identity, his name appears as
"Minyamin" (Yer. Sotah i. 16c), "Polimo'' (Pahe
mon. Sotah 4a; Tan., Xaso, 7). and "Peuimon"
(Xum. H. i.v. 10). The last-mentioned form is also
found in Yer. Ter. iii. 42b as "Abba Peuimon."
where the context i)ermits of the assumption that
it is meant for " H. Benjamin." (For the identity
of Benjamin and Minyamin. see Ann.v is.vu Bkn-
.[.\Mix: •'Pelimo" and " Penimon " appear to be Ilel-
lenizationsof "Benjamin.") R. B<'njamiii may like-
wise be identified with Abba Benjannn. who. in a
group of homilies (Ber. 'th ,t Kcf/.). remarks. "Were
thehumaueye permitted to perceive them no human
being would be able to live because of the evil spirits
which fill the imiverse." He also teaches that no
prayer is acceptable e.xcept that otfered in the public
house of worship. This he bases on I Kings viii. 28
"... to hearken unto the song and unto the
prayer": where the song is heard there prayer will
be heard (compare Tos. on 'Ab. Zanih 4b, s.'e. n<3)
J- f'" S. M.
BENJAMIN BEN AAKON : Hasidic writer;
lived tiiwanl tin- i iid of tin- eighteenth century.
He was a pupil of Israel Ba'al Shem-Tob, and
of Baer of Mcseritz. Later, in 1T90, he was a
preacher at Zlazitz. He was the author of the fol-
lowing works: (1) "T"rf Zahab" (Golden Neck-
laces), Mohilev, 1816, homilies on the Pentateuch,
Lamentations, and Esther: (2) "Aliawat Dodiin "
(The Love of Friends). Lemberg, 1795, homilies on
the Song of Songs: (3l " Amtahat Binyamin" (Ben-
jamin's Sack), Minkowicz, 1769, on Ecclesiastes ;
(4) "Helljat Binyamin" (Benjainin's Patrimony),
Lemberg. 1793. a conuueutary on the Passover Hag-
gadot.
BiiiLloGRAPiiy: Ouir ha-Sefarim, pp. 18, 44, 198,675; Wal-
den. Shun ha-CiihiUin hc-tlailash. s.v.
I., i;. 1 Bkr.
BENJAMIN AARON B. ABRAHAM. See
Soi.xiK, Ben.i.\.mi.n A-vitoN 1'.. ABi{.\n.\.M.
BENJAMIN B. ABRAHAM ANAV. See
AxAw. Ben.i.\mix li. Ar.i!AiiA>t.
BENJAMIN ALESSANDRO KOHEN VI-
TAL. Sic Vital. BEX.JAMtN Alessaxdiui Kohen.
BENJAMIN B. 'ASHTOB: A Palestinian
halakist of tlie third amoraic generation, contem-
l^orary of R. Hiyya b. Abba and senior to R. Heze-
kiah (Y'er. Bik. i 64a). He is also cited as simply
Bar 'Ashtor. withotit his pra'nomen, ('/'.
.1. SK. S. M.
BENJAMIN (or MINYOMI) ASYA ("Phy
sician "): A Babylonian rabbinic .scholar of the third
and fourth amoraic generations (fourth century),
contemporary of Rab Joseph and Raba. and founder
of a school named after him, Debe Miuyomi Asya.
It is reported that the disciples of his school spoke
disrespectf ullj' of the Rabbis, saying, " Of what ben-
efit are the rabbis to us'? They have never proved
it to be lawful for us to eat the raven, or to be un-
lawful to eat the pigeon!" (meaning to sa}- that,
in spite of their disputations and hair-splitting aigu-
ments, the Rabbis have no authority to alter or
abrogate a Biblical precept [Sanh. Qdhetseg.] ). Raba
obtained from Benjamin some medical informa-
tion; and when on one occasion he publiclj- lectured
on the subject before the people of Mal.uiza. Benja-
nun's sons or disciples, who seem to have formed a
medical gild, resented this publication of their pro-
fessional secrets (Shab. 133b ; ' Ab. Zarah 28b). Ben-
jamin Asya is probably identical with Jlinyomi b.
Xihumi, the contemporary of Amemar I. (Ket. 69a),
to whom Abaye appealed from a decision of Rab
J().seph (ill. 81b). Brull identifies Benjamin Asya
with Bar Xathan Asya, who once manifested his
disregard for rabbinic enactments by traveling on
the second day of the Feast of Weeks from Beram
(sorne read "Be Rab " = school) to Pumbedita. on
which account Rab Joseph excommunicated him
(Pes. 52a; see Dikduke Soferim. ad loc.). Brull dis-
covers in thisschool the origin of KaraismC'Jahri) "
i. 225).
'• ^" S. M.
BENJAMIN, SIR BENJAMIN: .Mavor of
Melbourne: born at London in 1836. At the'age of
nme he accompanied his parents to Victoria. Asso-
ciating himself at first with the firm of Benjamin &
Co., merchants, he subsequentlv entered into part-
nership with the late Hon. Edward Cohen. In 1870
I'LT'f ^ '■"'■'■''■'^ member of the Citv Council : and in
1881 became an alderman of the ward he had hitherto
represented. Notwithstanding heavy municipal
labors. Sir Benjamin always took a livelv interest
27
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benjamin, R.
Benjaniin b. Ihl
in communal affairs. l\v identified liimsell largely
with the growth of the iMelbourue Hebrew Congre-
gation and its various edueational and charitable in-
stitutions, on the boards of wliich lie was a most
active worker. He is a trustee of the Jewish Phil-
anthropic Society and the Ladies' Hebrew Benevo-
lent Society ; a representative of the Melbourne
Province in the Legislative Council: and a ju.stice
of the peace, both for Victoria and New South
Wales. He was elecle<l mayor of JMelbourue iu
October, 1887; and so admirably did he perforin the
duties of his otiice that he was uuanimously re-
elected. In May, 1889, the honor of knighthood was
conferred on him in recognition of his distinguished
municipal services.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jiirixli Clir<iiiiili\ May :!l, ISK9: Peiiple iif
the Period. 1K97.
G. L
BENJAMIN OF CANTERBURY or CAM-
BRIDGE : English lablii : disciple of Rabbi Tiiiii :
died at the beginning of the tliirteeutli century.
He is mentioned in the list of medieval rabbis drawn
upby Solomon Luria(seeGr!Uz, "Gesch. der Juden,"
vi. 36.5). Onlj' one halakic decision of his is known :
it forbids the purchase of milk from a Gentile unless
a Jew be preseut when it is drawn (Mordecai, 'Abo-
dah Zarah, ii. 826). But a certain number of notes
liy a Rabbi Benjamin on Joseph Kiinhi's "Sefer
ha-Galuy " have been attributed liy Matthews,
the editor of Kimhi's book, to Benjaniin of Canter-
bury ("Jewish Quarterly' Review, "ii. 327). Benjamin
seems to have been a member of the English school
of Masorites and grammarians, including Moses ben
Isaac, Moses ben Yoin-Tob, Bereeliiah ha-Nakdan,
and Samuel ha-Nakdan, the last of whom he quotes.
It is possible that he came from C'ambridge rather
than from Canterbury, the transliteration of the
former {X''3"l30p) being sufliciently near to that of
the latter (XnUDJp). For while there is no Benja-
min mentioned as living at Canterbury in the twelfth
century, there is a rather distinguished "Magister
Benjamin " of Cainltridge mentioned in the Pipe
Roll's of the fifth year of John (1304). Berechiah
ha-Nakdan, in his commentary on .lob, refers to
"my Uncle Benjamin," who was probably the same
individual.
Bini.ioORAPHY : Jarohs, Jt'ivn of Aniirriii Ki\Qla)if1, pp. 54,
281, 2H2; Eppeiisteiii, in Monatsschrlft, xl. 17S, xli. 232.
J.
BENJAMIN, DAVID: Communal worker;
burn in London iu 181.<; died there June 2.5, 189.3.
In 183.5 he emigrated to Australia; and, while in
Tasmania, assisted iu founding a synagogue. Soon
afterward he settled in Melbourne, joining his
brother Solomon, who is justly regarded as the
founder of the Melbourne Jewish community. The
firm of Benjamin Bros, was among the early pio-
neers of the British settlement in the colony of Vic-
toria. The firm prospered greatly. Inlying crude gold
direct from the aborigines, and making large pur-
chases on which the banks were reluctant to venture.
Benjamin had also a large interest in the Bank of
New South Wales. He endeavored to maintain the
Jewish spirit of ob.servance in the colony, and per,son-
ally attended the Jewish sick in Melboiirne. In 1854
he returned to England, where he devoted him-
self entirely to the community, becoming connected
with the Jewish Board of Guardians, the Bayswater
Synagogue, and the Jews' Hospital and Orphan
Asylum. Benjamin was treasurer of the Bayswater
Synagogue from 1865 to 1871, and warden from
1871 to 1875. He was a life memlier of the council
of the United Synagogue from its foundation, and
was one of the seven elders of the United Syna-
gogue. He was a prominent worker on behalf of
the Jewish Board of Guardians. labored untiringly
in its cause, and was very munificent in his dona-
tions to charity.
lliBi.UMiRAPiiY: Jeicinh Chrnnirh- ami JricMi IVorlit, June
:j(i, iKiKi.
•I G. L.
BENJAMIN B. DAVID CASES. See Cases,
Bi;.N.i A.MIN i;. Davu)
BENJAMIN B. ELIJAH BEER. See Bker,
Bk.n.ia.min is. Ei.i.iaii.
BENJAMIN B. GIDDEL, (or GIDDUL), R.:
A Palestinian amora of the fourth generation (fourth
century), conteraiiorary of R. Aha III. (Yer. Ma'as.
Sh. V. .56b; Yer. Yeb. i. 2b). His name is but rarely
met with in the Talmud, and then only in the Hala-
kah (Yer. Ma'as. i. 49a; Hul. 12.5a). It is probable
that he was the son of Giddel b. Benjamin (Min-
yomi) and therefore of Babylonian descent.
•I. sii. ■ S. M.
BENJAMIN GINZAKAYAH (of Giiizak =
(Jazaka in Media Atropateue); A Babylonian scholar
of the third century, coutemporary of Mar Sam-
uel. All that is known of him is that death
overtook him when he was on the point of de-
ciding a ritual question in accordance with the views
of Rab, as opposed to those of Samuel. Hearing of
this circumstance, Samuel thanked God, who had
prevented the promulgation of an erroneous deci-
siim; and to the prime mover thereof, his friend
Rab, he applied the Scriptural saying (Prov. xii.
21), "Ther<> shall no mischief happen to the just"
(Yer. Ber. ii. ob). In Babli (Niddali 6.5a) the name
appears as " Min3'amin Sakasnaah " (of Sacassana. a
province of Armenia).
■I. sit. S. M.
BENJAMIN, HILLEL: Polish architect of
the second half of the eighteenth century ; born at
Lasko. He was the builder of the synagogue at
Liitomierz, which was constructed during the reign
of the last kiug of Poland, Stanislaus August I. Ben-
jamin seems to have studied in Germany. He en-
joyed in his fatherland a certain reputation; for in
the documents he is always callcil " architect. " After
finishing the synagogue at liUtomierz, he was com-
missioned to construct one at Zloczow, which, how-
ever, he did not fini.sh. In examining the roof he
fell to the ground and died. He is buried in the
cemetery of Zloczow.
BiDLiOfiRAPiiY: Mathias Bersohn, A'iUiiT .sV.iic, |inrt ii., p. 31;
<M u»(l IVext, tail. No. 4, p. 2S(;.
S.
BENJAMIN (or MINYAMIN) B. IHI : A
Babylonian scholar of the second and tliird ainoraic
generations (third century); brother of Abbahu b.
Ihi, the disciple of Samuel. Both brothers, while
intensely exclusive and diffident, so that they would
have no dealings with Gentiles (Meg. 28a), were
Benjamin b. Isaac
Benjamin, Judah
THK JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
28
very coiisiik-iato toward tlieir scrviiiits. Udi- of the
bri)tlRTs aiiaiigtd tlml they should iccuive one dish
from their nmsler's tal)lc: tin- oilier would have
them partake of every dish. I,egeiid states tliat the
latter brother was therefore deemi'd worthy of re-
ccivinjr visits from the jiropliet Klijah (Ket. Ola).
.T. .<!!. ' S M.
BENJAMIN B. ISAAC OF CARCAS-
SONNE : This scholar is kiiou ii only b}' liis trans-
lation from l.alin iiilo llelinw. tiuder the title of
"E/.er Eloah " (Divine Help), of the work of Jean
de Boiirsiogne. of the province of Liefje, ou tin- cor
ruption of the air by the plague. This work, which
contiiins in the appendix many empiric remedies
against divers ills, is preserved in manuscript iu the
Bibliotheque Nationalc of J>aris (No. 1191, fol. 141b
194a); only one other nianuseripl copy being known
to exist, and that is in the library of Baron D. de
GUnzburg. Of the original, which was jxTliaps
written in French, hanlly any tifues are left; that
is, of the treatise described as "On the Kpidemic, in
Prose," Xo. 853 of the Library of the Louvre, or the
private library of Charles V., king of France. This
is undoubtedly the lillle book, says Leopold De-
lisle (MSS. de la Hibliollivnue Nationale, 1S91, iii.
153, note 1), of which there is a copy at the end of
MS. Fraii(;ais 12,;«:i. under the title, "The Treatise
Which the Masters of Medicine and the Astron-
omers of Pan's Wrote of the Plague Which Physics
Calls the Epidemic, in the Year of Our Lord, N. S.
MCCC^XLVHL" or perhaps the little book wiitten
in 13()5 by Master Jean de Bourgogne, surnamed
"With the Beard," professor of medicine, and citizen
of Liege (Delisle, "(Observations sur Plusieurs MS8.
de la Collection Barrois," p. 55).
The date of the Hebrew work may therefore be
fixed, at least approxiinat<dy. The second book of
Jean was written in 1305, and was translated by
Benjamin a few years later. al)out 1370. Now, the
author had said in the [ireface, asfar asonecan.iudge
from the Hebrew version, that alreaciy in the "year
22," when the plague broke out for the first time.
he had written a similar treali.se beginning with the
words »^X '7S (" ^ly Cod, my God ") (Steinschneider.
"Hebr. rebels." p. 804). With what does the num-
ber 22 correspond? Steinschneider acutely remarks
("Hebr. Uebers." I.e.): "The date 22 |p>li)J could
only mean 122 [=1302]"; but that does not tally
with the lirst outbreak of the IJlack Death, in 134s.
Doubth'ss a Jewish era was substituted in the trans
lation, probably through a copyist's mistake. Could
Jean have meant that he wrote this book twentv
two years before? Then this treatise was written
in 1370, as staled by Amplon ("Autre Fonds de la
Bibliothi^que Bodlciemie," No. 192^). This tallies
with the note cited by j\I. Delisle. The doubt as to
the date dctra<-ts in no wise from the interest of this
medical treatise, which was .saved fiom oblivion by
the version of Benjamin of Carcassonne.
liiDLiofiiiAPnv: Slclnselineli'.er, In Z. D. M. O. xxix. ItU;
idem. In MdiKizin.xH. Wi; Idem, llchr. [Icbers. p. S0( ;
Ecrinnii.1 Juifs, xxvll., ItW, T.j:;, iiiiil x.xxl. 723; Gross, Unl-
lia Jmlaica, p. 617.
o. M. S.
BENJABnN B. JAPHET : A Palestinian
scholar of the third amoraic generation (third cen-
tury), disciple of R. Johanau and senior to R Zel'ra
I. (Ber. 33a, 38b; Kot. 77a). He cultivated both the
Halakah and the Hagga<lah ; in his halakic deliver-
ances, however, he was not considered very reliable.
Thus wlien, ou one occasion, Hiyya b. Abba and he
differed ou a traditional decision by their master, R.
ZeYra remarked. "What does \i. Benjamin b. Japhet
amount to compared with R. Hiyya b. Abba? "(Ber.
38b; Yer. Ber. vi. 10a; Y<r. Pes. ii. 29c). Never-
theless, this same R. ZeYra had occasion to thank
Benjamin for communicaliug to him a Halakah in
the name of R. Johanau (Shah. 53al In the Hagga-
dah. Benjamiu wasa follower of R. Eleazar b. Pedat,
whose expositionsand s;iyiiigs he frequently reports
(Meg. 10b; Sanh. 7a; compare Ex. R. xli. ; Lev. R.
X.). — [Yer. Ber. iii. Od ; Yoma29a; Y'er. Sanh. i. 18a;
Shebu. 18b; Hul. 52b (correctly quoted iu MS. M);
Pesik. vii. 03b, viii. 08b; Pesik.R. xvii. ; Midr. Teh.
xxii. ; Gen. R. xliii. ; Tan., ed. Btiber, Ixik Leka,
11.1
BiBLiO(iRAPHv: Kranki'l, Mtlm. p. lilla; Heilprin, Seder ha-
Jhiritt^ ed. Wilna, ii. S.T ; Luncz, Jerusalem, i. KU, in which
Benjaiiitn's jcrave is said to be at Safed.
.1. su. S. M.
BENJAMIN B. JEHIEL HA-LEVI : Polish
TalmudisI ; lived at the l)cgiuniug of the seventeenth
century. He was the author of "Gib'at Benjamin "
(Benjamin's Height). Lublin. 1017, an alphabetical
index to Jacob b. Asher's four Turiin. The book is
\-ery rare, never having becfii reijrinted. although it
is an excellent index to the Turini.
Hini.ionKAPiiv: .Aziilai. Shcm ha-0(diiliiu, ni. Wilna, ii. 33;
Michael, Or ha-Hatfj/im, Xo. 591.
L. G
BENJAMIN BEN JOAB (called also De Syn-
agoga, accoidiiig to Zunz): Payyetan; lived at
Monlalcino in the fourteenth century. His printed
poems arc: (1) A metrical introduction to the"Nish-
mat " for Passover. Every strophe of this poem has
ten lines of seven syllables. (2) A selihah of Ave
stiophes, with a refrain ending with the words
a: nn'?Sn C'Oh, give us prosperity ").
liim.io(;RAPHY: Zunz, Literalurtii-M'h. p. :ia5; Landshuth,
Ammiult lia-'AlMdah,p. 17.
1 <'■ L Bk.
BENJAMIN B. JUDAH LOEB COHEN.
Sec BlCN'ASl II, HkN.I AMIN.
BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP: Ameiican
stalcsmau and lawyer, liorn at Si. Croix, West In-
dies, in 181 1 ; died in Paris, May 6, 1884. His parents
were Knglisli. Jews who. some years befoie his birth,
had removed from London to St. Croix, then a
British island, in the hope of improving their fortune
in the New World. A few years after his birth, his
family removed from St. Croix to reside in Wilming-
ton, N. C, and young Benjamin soon afterwani
was sent to school at Fayetlevillc. Subsequently
he spent three years at 'Yale College. His parents
sevend times changed their residence, until they
finally settled in New ( )rleatis. La. There Benjamin
served as a notary's clerk for some time, taught
school, studied law, and on Dec. 10, 1832, was ad-
mitted to the Louisiana bar.
Louisiana had been acquired by the United States
from France but a short time previously, and its
language and legal system were still largely those
29
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
BeAJainin b. Isaac
Benjamin, Judah
<if France. Tlie broadening intluences of tlie
necessary niasLery of different sj-stcms of law and
literature left their mark upon Benja-
Practises inin. and can be traced in the breadth
Law of gras]i. |ildloso|iliical reasoning, and
in New wide readinjr to which lie subsequent-
Orleans, ly attained. Nor should uotice bo
omitted of certain other formative in-
tluences. which the London "Times" (Atay 9, 1884)
commented upon in a sympatbclically worded obit-
uary; his inheritance of "' that elastic resistance to
<;vil fortune which preserved Jlr. IJeujaniin's ances
tors through a succession of exiles and phuiderings.
and reappeared in the Minister of the Confederate
cause, together with the same refined apprehension
of logical problems which inl'orMiedtbc subtleties of
the Talmud."
Benjamin's smei'ss at tbe l,niiisi;iiia liar was re
markably rapi<l. At first he had found time to pre
pare, for his own u.se, a "Digest of the Heported
Decisionsof the Supreme Court of the Lale Territory
of Orleans and of the Supreme ('ourt of Louisiana,"
which was the earliest digest of Louisiana law.
Tog(!ther with liis friend Thomas Slidell, he edite<l
and prejiared this for publication in 1H34. Hoon,
however, liis law practise liecanie more engrossing:
and. asoneof the recognized leadersof the Louisiana
bar, lie rapidly ac(|iiircd a comiietence which en
abled him to withdraw from tlu! legal arena, pur-
chase a sugar-plantation near IS'ew Orleans, and
devote himself to sugar-planting and seii'ntiticexpo
sitions of the hest methods of eNtracting saccharine
matter from the cane.
Politics also actively interested lieujainiii, and
troiii liiiK' to time he was elected to various local
ollices. Thus, he was one of tiie most
Sugar- active and influential members of the
Planter and fjouisiana Constitutional (Convention
Politician, of 1S44-4.'), and of that of lK,-)3. In
1H49 he was a successful presidential
elector at large for the state of Louisiana, and as
such cast his l)allot for General Taylor as presid<'nt
of the United States. Originally a Whig, Benjamin
became, during the clijuigc of parly tii-s. a distin-
guished Democratic leader. Meanwhile, however,
tlie destruction of his properly by inundations had
driven him back to the active practise of law, where
success onc(! mon: awaited him.
That the iiumberof Benjamin's famous legal cases
was very large is evidenced by an examination of
the law reports of the period. Particularly notable
was his conduct of the cases which grew out of the
attempt to recover insurance for a cargo of slaves
lost by reason of an insurrection on board the "Cre-
ole," and his connection with enormously valuable
California lanil-title cases, in one of which his fe(^ is
said to have been !?'i">,(l()(l, a very larg(^ sum for thai
day. During the October ( 1S48) term of the Su-
preme Court of the I'liited States he was admiltcd
to practise before that body, and soon became om
of the leaders of the federal bar. Benjamin's legal
talents were so generally recognized thai Presideiil
Pierce tendered him the jjosifion of associate justice
of the United Stales Supreme Court; but he pre-
ferrcii his activitiesat thebar and in iiolilios. I're-
viously, when President Taylor's cabinet was being
formed, Benjamin's name had been under considera-
tion for a cjibinet portfolio. In 18r)2 he was elected
to the United States Senate from Louisiana, and was
reele<'tcd at the expiration of his term, six years later.
In l.S.iti Benjamin was one of a small
United group of senators that succeeded in
States securing the nomination of Buchanan
Senator. for president, as against Douglas, and
he enjoyed great iiitiuence with the
liuchaiian administration until inimediately before
the outbreak of the Civil war.
In t he Senate he was soon recognized as one of tl^'
alilest debaters; and Charles Sumner con.siderid liim
7.^
'fe'
(l^j> Q^'
the most brilliant orator in the United States, His
readiness in debate was remarkable; and he gener-
ally spoke on the sjiur of the moment without
preparation. An examination of the "Congres-
sional (Jlobe" of the time shows that almost invari-
ably friends and foes alike were so much impressed
by his orat<ir_y as to feel obliged t<i pay tribute to him
on the spot. Of his farewell address, upon leaving
tli(' Senate when his state, Louisiana, seceded from
the Um'on, Sir George Cornewall Lewis said to Lord
ShiMbidokc: "Have you read Benjamin's si)eech?
It is better than our Benjamin | meaning Disraeli]
could have done."
Benjamin was fre(iiiently called upon to <leliver
addresses and orations on national liolidays and
other non political occasions; and comp(!tent judges
declare that he was even happier at these times than
in his political addresses and argunients. His right
to b(,' regarded as one of the greatest of th(! world's
orators is no longer open to dispute It was recentlj'
forcibly evidenced by his inclusion, w ilh appropriate
examples of his style and comment, in the com-
prehensive and judiciously edited series of "The
World's Best Orators" {x 117-1 10) as well as in "The
Worhl's Best Orations " (i. 398), the former edited by
Prof. Guy Catleton Lee. and the latter by Justice
David J. Brewer. Henry [,. Dawes, surely no in-
Benjamin, Judah
Benjamin. Michael
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
30
different judge, 1ms well cliissed Beujamiu with
Sumner and Bceeher, Wendell Phillips, Yaneey, and
Breekinridjre, asliavinir "stirred multitudes, aroiised
jjassions. and tired the puhlie heart in terms not less
eloquent than the loftiest jiroduetionsof Foxor Pitt,
of Patriek Henry or .lohn Adams."
In the Senate IJenjamin's constitutional and legal
arguments ever attracted iiartieular attention, and
made him the leader //(/;• fjvcWfVirc in the defensi- of
slavery and, later on. of seees.sion. He never ac-
tively identified himsilf with .lewish eonununal af-
fairs; but his views and actions led to much unjus-
tified identification of American .Tews generally witli
the pro-slavery cause (see Anti-Si. .vvkuv JIovk-
MENT IX America). Thus, one of his most iiower-
fvil pro-slavery outbursts provoked
Pro- Senator Wade's sjitirical reference in
Slavery the Senate to " Israelites with Egyp-
Advocate. tian prinei]iles'": and even more pro-
nounced attacks in the Senate and in
the Northern press generally, on the Jews as favoring
slavery, followed, when Benjamin became so promi-
nently identified witli llie cause of the Confederacy.
The late Isjiac M. Wise, in his "Reminiscences."
gives an account of an interesting discussion between
Benjamin. Daniel Webster. Jlaiiry tlie scientist, and
himself, relative to tlieir religious faiths, in the course
of which Benjamin declined to pernut his Jewish
religious views to be desciibed as Unitarian. a.s
Webster had claimed the faiths of all four were in
their essence. In 1S.')4 he presented to the Senate, on
behalf of iVmericau Jewish citizens, a petition calling
for governmental action against Swiss anti-Semitic
discriminations recognized in a treaty with our gov-
ernment ; thus acting as spoke, iian for the American
Jews.
Upon the organization of the Confedeiate govern-
ment, r^csideut Jefferson Davis immediately called
Benjannn into his cabinet as attor-
Jefferson ney-.gencral (Feb. 2."i. l.'SGl), to which
Davis' position was ad<led that of acting sec-
Kight- retary of war (.Sept. IT. 1861). On
Hand Man. Nov. 21, 18(51, he bi-came secretary of
war, resigning the portfolio of the De-
partment of Justice: and Uv retained this position
till Jlarch 17, 18()'2, when he becjime secretary of
state, which office he retained till the collapse of the
Confederacy in 18()5,
Throughout, Benjamin was Jetlcrson Davis' most
intimate ami most iiitluential adviser, and was gen-
erally described as the "brains of the ('onfedeiaey."
James Schouler, in his "History I'f the United
States" (vi, WM, remarks:
" ContemiKiraries liail sniil at tlii" outset that T(Kinibs wius the
brain of tlie ConfederHcy : but tlial title, as events developed, be-
longred rathf^r to Attoriiey-(.ieneral Iteujaiuih, the ablest, most
versatile, and most constant of all Uavis' civil counselors, who
acted as serreiary of war after Walker's ivtin'inem in S4'|iteiii-
ber, and was then by the followitu; Manh installed secretar)- of
stale, to roniain premier I'.ntil the bitter end, siui^iine and
serene in bearing, through all nuilations of fortune and niis-
foitune."
During much of this time, particularly (luting his
incumbency of the secretaryship of war. Benjamin
was extremely unpopular: but President Davis never
for a moment lost confidence in him. He resigned tin-
war port folio on aicount of the Confederate reverses
in connection with the Roanoke Island campaign in
18(j2, for which he was commonly held in a largo
degree responsible; but, in spite of censure from the
Confederate Congress, President Davis promoted
him to the secretaryship of state.
This circumstance has recently been cleared up.
through evidence that Benjamin was in noway to
blame for these mishaps, but patriotically sacrificed
himself, with President Davis' knowledge, by inten-
tionally withhokliiig his justification from tht- Con-
gressional committee. Disclosure of the true facts
would have involved an exposure of Confederate
dearth of aiiuiumitiidi, which might, through gen-
eral publication, have seriously jeopardized the
Confederate cause at the time.
Benjamin's most important labors were, however,
rendered in connection with the diplomatic activities
of the Confederacy. Unfortunately, a thorough
study of the diplomacy of the Confederacy has not
yet been published, nor any adeciuate biography of
Beujamiu, of which that would be the principal
chapter. But by such a publication it would be
shown how near the Confederacy came to securing
European intervention — particularly through the
aid of Napoleon III. — by the tempting and states-
maidike efforts of the Confederate state department
under Benjamin's direction, and to the probable
transformation of an insurrection into a successful
revolution in consequence. Even published data,
however, not to mention oral reminiscences, justify
the conclusion of the late I. M. Wise, who in an edi-
torial in the " American Israelite," May l(j, 1884, said
that "he was undoubtedly the most distinguished
statesman of the Jewish family in this (19th) century
and country."
At the close of the Civil war Benjamin fled to the
West Indies and then to England, losing his Ameri-
can property by confiscation. Here, at the age of
fifty-flvt, he had to commence bread-winning anew.
Early in 1866 as a British subject he entered as a
law .student at Lincoln's Inn, and in
Begins Life June of that year was called to the
Anew in English bar. the usual term being cur-
England, tiiiled by reason of his jiast eminence
and acumen, through the influence of
distinguished English judges. In is(it( his work on
"The Law of Sale of Personal Projierly " sippeared,
and immediately had a marked success on both sides
of the Atlantic. It has gone through edition after
edition, and may well be descrilied as the most suc-
cessful and classical legal text-bookof the latter half
of the nineteenth century. His success at the Eng-
lish bar, after a brief interval during which he had
been comi>elled to take up editoiial work on the
London "Daily Telegraph,'' was remarkable, partic-
ularly in ciiuuectidii with colonial appeals. His in-
come for a nutidjcr of years juior to his retirement
fnmi the bar (December, 1882) is said to have Ixxni
upward of .$200,000 jier annum. In 18T2 he attained
the rank of Queen's Counsel.
.V farewell dinner was given in Benjamin's honor
by the bench and bar of England in the hall of the
Inner Temple, London, on June 30, 1883, under
the presidency of the attorney general. Sir Henry
James. His standing as the unqiiesticmed leader of
the British liar had been generallv recognized for
31
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benjamin, Judah
Benjamin, Michael
some years prior to his retirement. He died at Paris
May 6, 1884, his wife and a daughter — Xinctte. wife
of ("apt. Heuri de Ikmsignac of tlie
Is Leader 117tli regiment of the French line —
of British surviving liim. IJenjamiu married in
Bar. New Orleans, at a time when tliei'e
was no organized Jewish congregati(m
tliere. a Catholic lady of the name of Natalie St.
Martin. Investigation has failed to confirm the
rumor that lie abandoned the Jewish I'iiilli on his
d(;ath-bed.
BiHi-iOGKAPHV: H. ('. Tompkins, Juildli P. ISriijiuiiiii iAIa-
haiiia State Bar Asuii. lirport^ IHiHi, pp. <-.\x.-exxxvn.); .1.
A. Hamilton, in Diil. of Natiitnal Biniiiaiiliii,iv. liSi; Sriitt.
I>MitiOUis}nil Aiiirriraii Lainicrs, pp. 4:j-.'j0; Thr (rvcfa
Ban, '. *W, »»■■ ; 'I'lif Laip Tilitis. Ixxv. IRs, Ixxvli. 47 (iiliitu-
ary from tlK^ Lotiiion 'jlinc^): Fi'am-is Lawicv, in The Attie-
mnuii. May l.'^, ls>«. i. VM; I. M. Wisi', cHilnrial in Aiiinieaii
iKrailih, Mav 111, ls.s): idem, Itriiii iiisr, ii,',.<. I'.KII ; i;ini-lMW,
J'V.l;;r'.' mill tin I'miU'lfnitr Siirii: ISullock, Srelit Si I rice
of the CiiiileiUvtieit ; Baron Pollncl^, /;* iiiiiiisriiin^ in Fnrt-
nUllillll 111 I'i' "', lxix.:i'i4; Sabin's Diitimiin-ii ut ;!i«.;,.v i,V-
laliiiij t" ^iKii iiid, vol. ii., 64: Ham-rofl's Litr uf Williatii
U. Si-iraril ; B. H. Wise. Life of IIi iiiii .1. H'isi . since the
foregoinjj \v:i.s written. .1. M. Callahan's \alualile stndy. The
IHploniiitir Histoni of the Southern Coiifeileroeji (Balti-
more, llifll]. ha.s been pulilished, thiovviiij,' mucli light on
certain phases of Benjamin's career.
A. M. J. K.
BENJAMIN B. JUDAH OF KOME. S( ,■
BoZECCI.
BENJAMIN B. LEVI, R.: A Palestinian
amora of the fourth century (third or fourtli geneni-
tion), junior contemporary of R. Ainmi and R. Isaac
(Yer. Peah i. 1.5a), and senior to Abin II. (Yer. Pes.
vii. 34c; Yer. Hor. i. 46a). His name is connected
with several Halakot (Yer. Tcr. i. 40b; Yer. Pes. ii,
28d; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah ii. 43a, where his patronymic
reads " Leva! "), but more frequently with liomiletic
remarks. On God's message by Jeremiah (x.xiii. 24),
"Can one hide himself in secret places that I shall
not see him [" er'ennu "] ? " he observes, " When one
sittcth in a corner and oecupicth himself with the
study of the Law, I show him [" ar'ennu "] to the pub-
lic, or when he hides himself for sinful purposes of
apostasy, I expose him to public gaze" (Ex. R. viii, ;
Tan., Wa'era, 9; comimre Num. R. ix. 9). Accord-
ing to him, when the time for Israel's restoration shall
come, there will be a change in the order of nature;
at present when the north wind blows no south
wind prevails, and when the south wind prevails
tliere is no north wind; but when God .slnill restore
the exiled. He shall produce an "argestes" (see Jas
trow, "Diet." p. ll.")b), when both winds shall do
service, as it is written (Isa. xliii, (i), "I will say to
the north. Give up, and to the south. Keep not back ,
bring my sous from far," etc, (Esther R, to i. 8;
Cant. R. to iv. 16; Lev. R. ix. ; Num. R. xiil.).—
[Gen. R. Ixxxvii. ; MIdr. Teh. Ixxxvii. 3; Peslk.
xiii. 113a, xviii. 137a; Peslk. R. .xviil. ;Lev. R.
xxviii.; compare Eccl. U. to i. 3.]
Bibliography : Franliel, Melm, e9b ; Baeher, Ay. Vol. Amor.
iii. 6«l et scry.
.T. SR. S. M.
BENJAMIN B. MATTITHIAH : Author r,r
a large colli'<tl(iii of resiionsa; tiourislied in Turkey
in the first half of the sixteenth century. His oc-
cupation was that of a merchant (" Benjamin Ze'cb,"
p. 14b), but lie also served as a member of the rab
binical college of Arta (vilayet Yanina). In rabbin-
ical literature he is known chiefiy through his
disputes with many of his contem])oraries, which
were caused by the great Independence he very often
dls])laycd in his decisions on legal questlon.s. an
iiiileiiendence that greatly oflfendcd the rabbinical
autliorlties.
His collection of responsa, "Benjamin Ze'cli "
(Venice, 1539), which he published partly in self-
justification, was not at all well received by the
Italian and Polish rabbis of the time (compare Solo-
mon I). Jehiel Luiia, In "Yam Shel Shelomoh," 3b on
B. K. viii.. No. 73). The work, containing 4.50 re-
sjionsa on the mo.st diverse subjects, throws an in-
teresting light on the Intellectual as well as the
social status of the Jews of that time in European
Turkey and in Asia Minor. For instance. Benja-
min's ordinance against men and women dancing
together met with great resistance, many j'oung
people refusing to obey this puritanical precept
("Benjamin Ze'eb." pp. 338b <■/ «y/.). It should be
noted that " Benjamin Ze'eb " is the title of the book,
and not the appellation of the iiuflior, wliose only
name was Benjamin.
Bibliography: Aznlai, Slirin hn-iieiloliin. \. :K; t'onlorte,
Kore ha^Dorot. ed. Ca.ssel. pp. ;Hh. 4iia ; Michael, Or lia-
jliiiniiiii. No. mn -. Briill. in his Jiihrhlleln r. i. S!).
L. G.
BENJAMIN BEN MEIR : Polish Talmudist
and preacher; lued at Biddy, Galicia. in the first
half of Ijie nineteenlh cent my. He wrote " Imre
Binyainin " (The Words of Benjamin), a homiletic
commentary upon the first three books of the Penta-
teuch (Tarnopol, 1814).
BiBLiOGRAPnv: Benlarab, ()zar ha-Sefariin, ji. 43; Zedner.
Cat. Heln: Boolm Brit. Muk p, Wi.
I., o. I. Beu.
BENJAMIN B. MEIR HA-LEVI OF NU-
REMBERG : Kiilibl at Saloulcaat the heglniilng of
the sixteenth century. Although German by birth,
beluga descendant of .lacoli Moi.ix. he was greatly
esteemed by the Spanish Portuguese Jews of Salo-
nica, and was sent by the cut Ire Jewish po]nilallon of
that city on a diplomatic mission to Constantinople.
The coutein]iorary responsa col lections contain some
of Benjamin's decisions. lie also wrote lexical ex-
planations on the Alahzor of the German rite, which
were printed in the Salonica editions of 1:536 and
15.5.5-56. The last-named edition also contains some
of Benjamin's elegies, among them one upon the
occiislon of the great fire at Salonica in 1.553.
BliiLionRAPHY: S. I). Lnzzatto. in fi. I. Polak's-Dutoh transla-
li<m of the Mahziir, ISIjll, p. 4; Miehael. Or hn-Hiv/i/im, No.
tm ; Steinschneider, Cat. BoiJl. cols. 370, 7(11.
L. G.
BENJAMIN, MICHAEL HENRY: South
African jinlltleiaii ; linni in Lmnjou In 1^33; died
June 11, 1879.
Early In life Benjamin went to Cape Colony (;djout
the yetir 1H49), and for ten years resided at Graalf-
Keiiiet, where he was the promoter of several useful
iiislltutlons. Thence he removed to Port Klizabeth,
which town he represented in the (lape Legislative
Assembly from the year 1864 ; and he was also a jus-
tice of the peace for the colony. He worked hard to
secure the passing of the Eastern District Courts'
Bill, and hisexteusiveacquainlance wllh commercial
Benjamin, Moses
Benjamin b. Samuel
THE JKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
32
raattere made his opinions curry coiisitierabk- iiutlior-
ity in the House. Benjamin successfully introduced
t lie Stamp Act into the Lejiisliilive Assemlily, and was
one of the founders of the Standard Bank of British
South Africa. Hilurnin;; to Kngland about 18(i!l, he
actively inleresltd hini.self in a number of communal
iBstilutious. becoming a member of the committee
of tlie Tnilcd SynaKoiiue. the Anglo-.Iewish Associ-
ation, and the IJoard of Deputies: and sittingon the
committeesof various London synagogues and pub-
lic si'liools.
BiBUOGRAPHY : Ciipf -1 >m(K. June, iS19: Jew. Chrn/i. .Iiine
13 : Aiii?. 15, 1H79; Jcir. World, June 13, 1879.
.1. C. L.
BENJAMIN, MOSES : Hini Israel ndlitary
ollicir; born in ls:j(l: dicil at Bombay in December,
1807. The son of a subedar (captain), he joined the
Twelfth Bombay Native Infantry as a private.
While a non-conunissioned oflicer he was eutrusled
with the responsible duty of watching over the
wives and chihlren of European ollicers of the regi-
ment left at Dee.sa during the Mutiny of lS~u. He
was present at the siege and capluro of Kotjih, the
actiou of Burnass. and the batth' of IMeanee (1843).
Rising by dint of industry, he was gazetted as a
comnnssioned ollicir (jemidar) in 18G1. In 1805 he
was made a subedar. in which capacity he superin-
tended the work of the regimental lines, then in
course of erection at Dharwar. In February, 1878,
he was promoted subedar major ; in Novend)er, 1878.
he became bahadur. He was a very intelligent
oflicer, remarkably versed in ndlitary ndnuti.e. As
a reward for his services the governor of India
appointed him sirdar-bahadur (,Iune. 1881). and in-
vested him with the Order of British India of the
first class. After having served for over thirty-two
years, be retired on a pension, and went to Bombay:
and the Benilsniel Old Synagogue Congregation in
that city, in ap|>reciation of his capacities, appointed
him their chief warden and treasurer. In February.
1892, the governor of Bond)ay appointed him a jus-
tice of the iieace.
BiBLiOGRAPnv : JiWirih ('Inniiiili, liw. 10, imrr.
.1. G. L.
BENJAMIN BEN MOSES: Italian scholar:
lived at Koiiie at the li(i;iriiiing of the tifleentll cen-
tury. He took an active part in the adnunistration
of the Jewish community of Kome, and was one
of the delegates to the as.sembly of the Italian .Jew-
ish communities held at Forli in lA'X. Beiijanun is
the author of a polemical work entitled " Teshuhot
ha-Nozrim Jlikol ha Mikra inne He'iyyot liaDa'at"
(Refutations of Christianity on Biblical and J^ogical
Grounds). The work is still extant in manuscript
(Neubauer, "Cat. Bodl. llebr. .MSS." No. 2,408, 3:
Code.x Halberstamm. ;S2).
Bibliography: Neulmiier. a.s above: Viiirelsicin and Kieper,
(ifsvh. tier Jmlin in l{nm, i. 4^>2.
c. I. Bis.
BENJAMIN BEN MOSES NAHAWENDI :
Karaite scholiir and pliilox.phei . Ilourislied al Nalia-
wend, Persia, at the end of the eighth century ami
the beginning of the ninth. .Vceording to the Ka-
raite historian Solomon ben .Jeidhain — the contempo-
niry of Saadia Gaon — Karaisni began properly with
Benjamin, who surpassed even Anan in learning
(Solomon ben Jeroham's commentary on Psalm \\i.
1). But this assi'ition can not be ventied. Benja-
mins work is, for the most part, known only in
,|Uotations made by subsequent Karaite writers.
But his personality imist have been very important,
since he was considered by all the Karaites to be
as great an authority as the founder of Karaism,
Anan himself.
As stated by .laphct l)en Ali in the introduction
to his commentary on the nnnor prophets. Benjamin
wrote the following works, mostly in
His Arabic: (t) a conuneutary on the Pen-
Works, tateucli. in which he frequently refers
to Oriental customs; (2) a commentary
on Isidali ; (3) a commentary on Daniel, in which the
word •'yannin" (days)— in t he verse " Blessed is he
that waiteth. and cometh to the thousand three hun-
dred and five and thirty days " (.\ii. 12)— is explained
by "years," pointing thus to the year 1010 as the
epoch of the arrival of the Jlessiah; (4) a commen-
tiiry on Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, or, as Piii-
sker thinks, on all the Five Rolls; (-5) "Sefer Miz-
wot" (Book of Precepts); ((i) "Sefer Dinim," or
" Miis'at Binyamin " (Book of Laws, or Gift of Ben-
jamin), written in Hebrew, and published at Kos-
lov(Eupatoria)in 1834 — contjiiiiing civil and crimi-
nal laws according to Holy Writ.
In the last-named work Benjanun approached in
many points the R:ibbiuites. He adopted many
rabbinical ordinances, which, how-
Adopts ever, he left to the free choice of the
Rabbinical Karaites to reject or adopt. In order
Or- to enforce obedience to the laws. Ben-
dinances. jamin introduced a special form of in-
ti'i'dict. differing but slightly from
the excoinmuuicution of the Raljbiuitcs. When an
accused person refused to obey the summons served
tin him he was to be cursed on each of seven suc-
cessive days, after which excommunication was to
be pronounced on him. The interdict consisted
ill the prohibition of intercourse with all the rnem-
liers of the community, who were also forbidden to
greet him. or to accept anything from him ("Mas'at
Binyamin." 2a).
Benjamin at times appriKuhed the Rabbinites in
Biblical exegesis also, and combated Anan's inter-
pretalions. Thus he maintained with
His the Rabbinites. against Anan. that the
Biblical obligatiim to marry the widow of a
Exegesis, childless brother extended only to the
brother of th<' deceased and not to his
further relations. He adojited the Talmudical in-
lerpretation of the Biblical words concerning the
Sablialh — "Abide ye every man in his place" (Ex.
xvi. 29) — maintaining that the iirohibition herein
expressed has reference, not t(> the residence, but to
a distance beyond 2,000 yards of the town (compare
Elijah Bashyazi, ".^ddeiet," ]). 63).
However, in spite of many concessions to Riib-
binism. Benjamin adhered tirinly to the principle,
expressed by Anan, of penetmting
Freedom in research of the Scripture. In Benja-
Thought. mill's opinion one ought not to tie
oneself down to the authorities, but
to follow one's own convictions: the son may differ
from the father, the disciple from the master, pro-
33
THE JEWISH EKCYCLOPEDIA
Benjamin, Moses
Benjamin b. Samuel
vided they have reasons for their different views.
Inquiry is a duty, and errors occasioned by inquiry-
do not constitnte a sin (compare Japliet's commen-
tary, cited in Dukes's "Beitriige." ii. 26).
Benjamin seems to have written a work in whieli
he expounded the pliilosopliical ideas contained in
the Bible. Jud.siug from the quotations made by
later Karaite writers, such as Jacob al-Kirkisani,
Japliet ben Ali, and Hadassi, Benjamin betrayed the
influence of Philonic ideas, while he adopted the
Motazilite theories on the divine attributes, free-will,
and other questions of a like character
Philosophy expounded before by Anan. God,
of the he holds, is too sublime to mingle with
Bible. the material world ; and the idea that
matter proceeded directly from God is
inadmissible. God created first the Glory (" Kabod"),
then the Throne ("Kisse"), and afterward an Angel.
This Angel created the world, in which he is the rep-
resentative of God. God Him.self never came in
contact with men, nor did He speak to Israel on
Mt. Sinai. The Law and the commuuications to the
Prophets proceeded from the Angel, to whom are
referable all the anthropological expressions con-
cerning God found in the Bible (Hadassi, "Eshkol,"
25b). The soul forms a part of the bod}', and is
therefore perisliable. The Biblical references to re-
ward and punishment can be applied only to the
body (Saadia, "Eraunot we ha-Dc'ot," vi. 4).
This theory of an intermediary power, and the
syistera of allegorizing all the Biblical passages con-
cerning God, upon which Benjamin insists again
and again in his commentaries on the Bible, were
borrowed from the writings of the sect Magari-
yah (Men of the Caves). This sect, the establish-
ment of which, in consequence of a contusion in the
text of Shahrastani, has been wrongfully attributed
to Benjamin, is identified with the Essenes by Har
kav}-, who shows that they were called "The
Men of the Caves," because they lived in the de-sert
("Le-Korat ha-Kittot," in the Hebrew translation
of Gratz, iii. 497). Benjamin wrote his halakic
works in Hebrew, his commentaries probably in
Arabic.
BinLiOGRAPny: Furst, Gcsch. rtc.t Karfierlliumf, i. 71-70;
Piusker, Likkute lyadmintiiit^ pp. 44, 73. 199; Jost, Gesch.
{Its Jwlrnt}tum!i tnul Srhirr Srkteit. ii. 344: Gratz, Gcvch.
dir JjHirn, V. 191-irrj; NHuinuier, Au,-^ der PeUrshurutt'
liiltli(ithil,\ pp. ii, 107 ; Frankl. in Ersch and Grnber's kn-
Ciifdiiin'iilit, wxiu, 14. 1.5; Steinsclineider, Pojrmisehe intd
Apiil'Hi^tisrlh L(U:ratur, p.'.Wtx Shahrastani, Geniian trans-
lation, i. ^■>7 ; Imlif.s and Ewald. Beitriige, il. 3ti ; Mnnli. in
Jost's Aiiiudcn, 1841, p. 7B.
K. I. Br.
BENJAMIN NABON, JERUSALEM. 8ee
Naijon, Ben.i.vmin.
BENJAMIN 'OZER B. MEIR : Polish Tal-
mudist; died at Zolkiev May 25, is 10. He was
rabbi in Clementow, and afterward head of the
yeshibah at Zolkiev. He wrote "Eben Ozer"
(Stone of Salvation), published b}' his grandson,
Aaron b. Loeb of Pintschew (Zolkiev, 1792). It con-
tains novelUe to a large portion of the Talmud and of
Alfasi, as also to Maimonidcs' " Yad " and A,sher b.
Jehiel'scommentai'v. He also wrote novella' on the
Sliullian 'Aruk, Orahllayyim, wliicli, under the title
of "Eben Ozer," are appended to the Amster-
dam edition of the Shulhan 'Aruk. The later Russian
III.— 3
editions (Dubnow, 1820; Wilna, 1884, and others)
also give these novelise.
Bibliography : Buber, in Ha-Eshhol, Ii. 178.
L. G.
BENJAMIN SALONICA. See Soi.sik. Bex-
JAMI.N n. AaKOX .VllUAIIAM.
BENJAMIN, SAlSnJEL: French soldier in the
Carlist expedition against Madrid in 1837 ; distin-
guished for bravery and remarkable devotion to
Boulan de Brie, a lieutenant in the regiment in
which he served. When De Brie was mortally
wounded Benjamin carried him first from the field
of battle, and afterward from the hospital where he
had been left at the mere}' of the enemy after the
C'arlists' hurried departviie from Huesea. De Brie
died in Benjamin's arms; and the faithful servant,
gratefully remembering the kindness with which he
had been treated by the lieutenant's wealthy mother,
was disconsolate, and exposed himself recklessly
in the most dangerous engagements, performing
remarkable acts of valor. Benjamin was a scrupu-
lously religious Jew, and observed all the laws
of his religion as far as was possible under the
circumstances of the campaign.
Bibliography: Stilamith, vol. 11., No. 3. quoted from Col. L.'s
article in Die Eieuatite Welt on the CarUsts' expedition
against Madrid in 1837.
s. P. Wi.
BENJAMIN B. SAMTJEL OF COU-
TANCES : Talmudist and French liturgical poet
of the first half of the eleventh century. The name
of the place of his residence, Coutances (department
of the Manehe, Nonnand}), was formerly Cou-
stances, in Hebrew 'jtoDIp; and Griitz ("Ge.sch. der
Juden," 3d ed., vi. 53) incorrectly transfers thisBen-
jamin to Constance on the Lake of Constance. Tlie
old .scholars conferred on Benjamin the honoraljle
title " payyetan " ; for he was one of the most prolific
and most gifted of the payyetanim. In the various
ritual collections thirty-one of his liturgical pieces
are preserved.
The fact that most of his poems occur in the
French ritual, while the old German and Polish
rituals contain each but one of his poems, suffices
to show that Gratz's conjecture is wrong. Benja-
min wrote in the main for the three festivals and
New-Year's Day, and some few poems for the Day
of Atonement. It is doubtful whether certain lit-
urgies containing "Benjamin" in acrostic are to be
attributed to him or to his younger contemporary,
Benjamin b. Zerah.
Benjamin was considered, also, a great Talraudic
authority; and one of his decisions, cited by Isaac
ha-Levi, Rashi's teacher, is of some importance. In
this he shows the connection between Midrash and
piyyut, explaining that both originated in public
readings, and drawing the conclusion that the op-
position to the insertion of piyy utim in the prayers is
unfounded. Benjiunin's preference for Akiba's
"Alphabet," which he uses in his liturgical poems,
reveals a certain inclination toward mysticism.
BiBLiOfiRAPHY : Fuenn. Keiiesel Yisrarl, p. 174 ; (iros-s, (iallia
Jtitkiica. p. .5.53; Kolin, Mniilrnii h. Hillrl, pp. 10:!, 1.53,
Breslaii, 1878; Landshuth, 'Ainiiiwie lia-'Ahadtilt, p. .5.1;
Michael, Or /i(«-^a;/!(im. p. HK); Kapoport. in Ilililsiirc ha-
'Utim, X. 131 ; Zunz, Literatmvesch. pp. 11.5-1-V, 340.
L. G.
Benjamin the Shepherd
Benjamin Wolf
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
34
BENJAMIN THE SHEPHERD : A shepherd
who lived in HabyUinia at llie liei;iniiingof the third
century. The Tahiiud has transmitted the formula
of a blessing of which he was the author. Benja
miu, who possessed no knt>w ledge of Hebrew, and
was therefore unable to recite the prescribed grace
after meals ("blrkat hamazou"). substituted the
following brief ejaculation in Aramaic ; " Blessed be
the All-Merciful, the owner of this bread" (Ber.
40b). This prayer is still taught little children who
are unable to recite the "birkat ha-mazon." Com-
pare "Ba'er Heteb" to Sluilhau Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 187, 1 ; Bacher. in Brody s " Zeit. fiir Hebr.
Bibl." V. 154. In Yer. Ber. vi. lOb, bottom, the same
story is related of "some Persian"; in both places
Rab is cited as approving the plain man's prayer.
.1 M! 1^ G-
BENJAMIN, SIMEON (also known as Benja-
min, Levi) : English Hebrew grammarian, who
published in 1773 at London " Da'at Kedoshim "
(Knowledge of the Holy), a short Hebrew grammar.
It deserves attention as one of the earliest works
composed by an Ashkena/.i in England.
BiBLiocR.vPHv: Zedner. Catal'niuc, p. 87: Jacobs and Wolf,
Bihli'ithrin. No. -JIlTS.
BENJAMIN OF TIBERIAS : A rich Jew
who, when the emperor Heraclius in 628 went to
Jerusalem during the Persian war, was accused of
hostility toward the Christians. This accusation
probably implied that he sided with the Persians.
Kotw'thstanding this charge, however, the emperor
became the guest of Benjamin, who provided both
for him and for his army. Reproached by Hera-
clius for his hostility toward the Christians, Benja-
min frankly declared: "The Christians, also, are
enemies of my religion." When the emperor pun-
ished the Jews after his victory, he spared Benjamin
on condition that the latter would consent to bap
tism. and perhaps with the further understanding
that he Wduld emigrate to Egypt.
BiBLiOGR.^PHY ; Theophanes. Chrouitfiraphia, ed. Bonn. i.
504: Jost. Go«/i. licr Israelite n,\-. aO: iiriv/.. Gescli. der
JuiUii. 3d ed., v. 'S. A pas-^jre from Elia Rablm iS19) has
been reopntlv referred to our Benjamin; see Friedmann,
"Elia Riibba," p. 101, Vienna, \W2.
G. S. Kr.
BENJAMIN OF TtTDELA : A celebrated trav-
eler of the twill'tli century. Beyond his journey,
no facts of his life are known. In the preface to his
itinerary, entitled " Massa'ot shel Rabbi Binyamin "
(Travels of Rabbi Benjamin), the information is fur-
nished that he came from Tiulela in Navarre, and
Uiat his father's name was Jonah. This descriptive
work, written in an easy, fluent Hebrew, is compiled,
as the preface states, from notes made by the trav-
eler on the spot and brought back by him in 1173 to
Castile. The unknown author of the preface prob-
ably compiled the account for Benjamin from these
notes, retaining the traveler's own words in the first
person, but omitting much. Benjamin, for instance,
claims to have noted down everything that he saw
and all that lie heard from the mouths of men of
established reputation in Spain. His notes, there-
fore, may have contained at the sjtme time the
names of his informants; but in the book as pub-
lished only Abraham the Pious is mentioned by name
as having given information in Jerusalem.
Benjamin, who probably traveled as a merchant,
evinced keen interest in all things, and possessed
a clear insight into the conditions and history of the
countries he traversed. His journey occupied thir-
teen years: setting out from Saragossa
Travels in 1100. he was back again in Spain in
Occupy 1173. He made long stays every-
Thirteen where, taking plenty of time to collect
Years. his information and to verify or dis-
prove accounts given him. Being an
intelligent Spanish Jew, he tookan appreciative inter-
est not only in Jewish affairs in the lands he visited,
but also in the general conditions prevailing and in
the various historical and educational facts related
to him. His account contains numerous valuable
details of the political history and internal develop-
ment of countries and nations; and the history of
commerce must always coimt Benjamin's itinerary
as one of its earliest and most valued sources. The
commercial importance of Barcelona and !Mont-
pellier, of Constantinople and Alexandria, as centers
of international trade is vividly depicted. The sit-
uation of soiue cities — as, for instance, Amalfi — is
described in terse but graphic words. He gives a
clear picture of the peculiarities of the republics of
Genoa and Pisa, in which every house was a fortress.
His characterization of the Greeks is accurate: wa-
ging war by means of mercenaries, he says, they liad
come to have no warlike spirit themselves and had
become women. He is struck by the significance of
the victorious progress in Europe of
His the Seljuks, whom he calls Turks.
Accuracy He treats of the Assassins and Druses
and w ith great shrewdness, as well as of
Shrewd- the Wallachians, who were invading
ness. Greece by way of the Balkan passes.
He made the intimate acquaintance
of the most important functionaries of the Byzan-
tine empire, and has much to s:xy likewise about the
calif in Bagdaii. whom he compares to the Christian
pope. Many more of these little details of infor-
mation could be adduced to show Benjamin's acute-
ness of observation and critical understanding of
affairs, both Jewish and non-Jewish.
But Benjamin's chief interest undoubtedly cen-
tered in the conditions of the Jewish congregations
of the countries he visited, and about which he
has registered so many and such important and reli-
able accounts that his " Travels " are considered a
source of the first importance for the history of the
Jews in the twelfth century. With the sole excep-
tion of the "Sefer ha-Kabbalah." written about the
same time by Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo, there
is no work which compares with Benjamin's in
value. His accounts, moreover, cover the majority
of the countries then inhabited by Jews. In a spe-
cies of panoramic view, he gives full descriptions of
the Jews living in all those lands, with accurate
data about them, their civil standing, their occupa-
tions, their schools, and their leading men.
Benjamin's route to the East took him through
Catalonia, southern Prance, Italy, Greece, the islands
of the Levant. Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia, to
Bagdad. Arrived at that city, which was then
again the residence of a Jewish exilarch, he gath-
ered information concerning countries which lay
35
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beigamin the Shepherd
Benjamin Wolf
Still farther east and north, and concerning the large
Jewish congregations of Persia and of the countries
beyond the Oxus. His homeward journey lay
through Khuzistan, the Indian ocean, and Yemen, to
Egypt, where he stayed a long time; thence by way
of Sicily back to Spain. Some remarkable notes are
given at the end of the book concerning the Jews of
Germany, as also those of the Slavonic lands east of
Prague. Likewise northern France, with its incom-
parable scholars, hospitality, and fraternal feeling,
is not forgotten. Benjamin did not himself visit
these latter countries, and so was not personally ac-
quainted with any of their leading men. In other
places Benjamin — probably not a scholar himself,
but possessing a profound respect for scholarship —
always enumerates the principal men and the heads
of the Jewish communities. His book thus contains
the names of no less than 248 of those he knew,
among them many well known to history.
Of especial importance are his statistical data;
and it is from his accounts that the tirst accurate
representation of the density of the Jewish popula-
tion in certain districts and cities is obtained. He
furnishes also important and reliable accounts of the
civil occupations of the Jews. From
His him it is learned, for instance, that the
Statistical Jews of Palestine and of some other
Data. countries extensively practised the art
of dyeing; that the large Jewish con-
gregation of Thebes, in Greece, was employed in the
manufacture of silk and purple; that there were
Jewish gla.ss-makers in Antioch and Tyre; that in
the last-named town there were also Jewish ship-
owners; that among the Druses of Lebanon, Jewish
workmen were domiciled; and that in Crissa, at the
foot of Parnassus, a large colony of Jewish peasants
existed.
Benjamin also gives valuable particulars concern-
ing Jewish sects. He tells of the Karaites in Con-
stantinople, Ashkelon, and Damascus ; of a peculiar
sect upon the island of Cyprus which fixed the begin-
ning of the Sabbath not oa Friday evening, but on
Saturday morning ; of the Samaritans in Ca'sarea, Se-
baste, Ashkelon, Damascus, and cspe
Jewish cially in Nablus (Sheehem). He calls
Sects. the Samaritans " Samaritan Jews," and
describes peculiarities of their worship
and language. His accounts of the Jews in Bagdad
and other cities of the East are very full; and most
interesting is his description of the grave of Ezekiel
the prophet, and the solemn ceremonies there. His
account of the pseudo-Messiah, David Alroy, who
appeared shortly before Benjamin's journey, is the
chief source of information cimcerning that remark-
able episode of Jewish history.
The details mentioned above will suflice to give
an idea bf the rich contents of Benjamin's book of
travels, which, though perhaps not altogether free
from fiction, is preponderatingly marked by sobriety
and clearness of narrative and a concise style, avoid-
ing mere verbiage.
Benjamin's itinerary, jmblished in Constantinople
in 1543, has been reprinted as follows: Ferrara, 1556;
Freiburg in Breisgau, 158.3; Leyden, 1633 (with
Latin translation); Amsterdam, 1697; Altdorf, 1763;
Sulzbach, 1783; Zolkiev, 1805; Lemberg, 1859; War-
saw, 1884. The work was published in Latin by
Arias Montanus (Antwerp, 1.57.5), and by C. I'Em-
pereur (Leyden, 1633); in German, by Mordecai
ben Moses Drucker (Amsterdam, 1691 ; Frankfort-
on-the-Main, 1711, perhaps following the Latin of
L'Empereur) ; in French by Bergeron ("Recueil des
Voyages," The Hague, 173.5, following the trans-
lation of Arias Montanus; also Paris, 1830), and by
J. Ph. Baratier (Amsterdam, 1734) ; in English in
1635 (London, from the Latin of Arias Montanus),
1744 (S. Harris, "Collection of Voyages," vol. i.),
1784 (ed. R. Gerrons), 1808 (Pinckerton, "General
Collection," vol. vii.); by A. Asher, London, 1840;
and in part by M. N. Adler ("Pal. E.xplor. Fund
Quarterly Statement," October, 1894, pp. 388 et xcq.,
from a manu.script in the British Museum); and in
Dutch by Jan Bara (Amsterdam, 1666). A new
edition has been prepared (1903) by Grilnhut in
Jerusalem.
Bibi.io(;raphy : E. t'iirmoly ami L. Lelewel. \iilki- Hi«tiiri(iue
srtr Benjamin tlr TuthHc, Brussels, 18.52 (alsn putjlished an
part of vol. iv. uf Leiewel's 'V<'o(yr((;y/(ic dit Miiyrn-Au'-V. R.
Lurla, SnW Itincrariii tli Benuuiiinit da Tuilttii, iu l'f.s.-,(7/o
hnielitieti^ -xxxvi. .5tl ; Zunz, fJtsnnuitiUr Stltriitrny 1. H);i;
Stelnschneider. I'at, B<"U. N'n. 4-'>7i': (,rutz, Gijith. iltrjtnlnt,
vi. note 1(K
G. AV. B.
BENJAMIN, WILLIAM (commonly called
" Bill Bainge ") : English pugilist ; boruat North-
leach, Gloucestershire, England, in 1836. Benja-
min's first match was with Tom Sa3'ers, the cham-
pion of England from 1857 to 1860, for £300 a side,
the battle taking phwe on the Isle of Grain, in Kent,
Jan. 5, 18.58. Sayers disposed of his opjionent in
three rounds. A .second match, for the Siune stakes,
was arianged, and took place at Ashfonl, April 5,
1858. On this occasion Benjamin made a strong
defense, but was counted out in the eleventh round,
despite his protest at being forced from the ring.
This encounter somewhat retrieved Benjamin 's repu-
tation, which had been lowered b}' his poor show-
ing in the tirst battle. That he ultimately became
a capable boxer is shown by the fact that on July
39, 1861. at Home Circuit, he fought Dick James of
Aberdare, against whom he hail been matched for
£100 a side, and beat him in two rounds.
Bibliography: American Jrvn' Annual for 5647(1886-87),
pp. 112-113.
.1. F. H. V.
BENJAMIN WOLF B. AAKON. See Spiko.
BENJAMIN, WOLF B. DANIEL : Rabbi in
Chomsk, government of Grodno. Russia. He pub-
lished " Nahlat Binyamin " (Benjamin's Iliheritance),
festival sermons and a homiletic commentary on
the Passover Haggadah (Cracow, 1643).
BiBi.iOfiRAPHT: St#insphneider, Cat. Bodl. p. 789; Michael,
Or ha-Hainiim, No. 277.
I,. (;. I. Ber.
BENJAMIN WOLF ELEAZAR. See LoEW,
BKN.I-\.MIN WciI.F.
BENJAMIN WOLF BEN ISAAC LEVI:
Cabalist; lived at Leitmeritz, Bohentia, in the mid-
dle of the seventeenth century. He is the author of
a work, " Ainarot Tehorot " (Pure Words), explain-
ing the difficult words of the Zohar, published by his
son Saul, Lublin, 1745. Another work of Ben-
jamin, entitled " Torat Mosheh " (The Teaching of
Benjamin Wolf Rapoport
Benoliel, Don Judah
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
36
Moses), is still extant in nuinuscript (Oxford, >o.
1171) It contains explanations of the thnteen art.-
cles of belief aceording to tl.e Midrasl.in. .ml Hagg=v
dot- theologieal and nietapliysical articles extraete.l
frL the tvorks of Spanish, Freneh. and German
scholars, with additions of his o«u ; and histoneal
skelehes.
K. • • 1
BENJAMIN WOLF BAPOPOKT. See R.u-
r»T»iiit'r Kh N.T \MIN ^\ ' •' ^
BENJAMIN WOLF BEN ?EBI HIKSCH:
Ju.hv,.-Gernmn writer; liv.d in the vighfenlh een-
turv in Gernianv. He was the author of "Seier
ha-ileshek" (Book of Desire), a .TvKheo-Gernian col-
lection of medieal prescriptions (Hanau, 172b). Com-
pare Naphtali ha-Kouen; Joei, Heilprin.
BIBLIOGKAPUY : WoU, Bill. Hehr. iv. 797. ^^ ^
BENJAMIN YEBUSHALMI: Exile from
Jerusalem who lived al Bordeaux ; said to have been
one of the authors of WEiir Kahim, recited in the
morning prayers on Mondays and Thursdays.
BiBiiiKiLpnY": Zunz, Lilcratumych. I>. 17: Gross, GaKin
JiuUliiiU p. 7-') , gjj
K.
■ BENJAMIN HA-ZADDIK ("the pious"): A
philanthnipist of the tauiiaitie period. According
to a Baraita, he was manager of certain charitable
funds. Once there appeared before him a woman
ben .rini' alms, but Benjamin protested that the treas-
urrwa's exhausted. The poor, despairing woman
thereupon exclaimed, "Rabbi, if thou wilt not aid
me, a woman and her seven children will perish of
starvation!" Benjamin then undertook to support
the family out of his own means. After the lapse
of some "time Benjamin became sick unto death.
Then, legend savs, the ministering angels addressed
the Lord, saying, "Master of the universe. Thou hast
said. Whosoever preserves a single being in Israel
is in Thy sight as if he had preserved the whole
world : shall Benjamin, who has preserved a mother
and her seven children, die at an early age?"
Thereupon the decree of death was annulled, and
two-andtwenty years were added to Benjamin's
allotted period of life (B. B. 11a).
.1. SK. S. M.
BENJAMIN ZE'EB B. SAMUEL BOMA-
NEB. Sic UoMANEU. Ben.iamin Zeebb. Samvel.
BENJAMIN ZE'EB C/F SLONIM : Russian
Talniudist; lived al the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury; reputed pupil of Elijah b. Solomon of Wilna,
and of the hitter's pupil, Hayyim 1). Isaac of Yolo-
zhin. He wrote a number of letters, published under
the title "Mazref ha'Abodah " (Purifier of the
Ritual; Konigsberg. 18.1S; Munkatsch. 1S9()). con-
taining an alleged eorrespondenee between Benjamin
and tlu' friend of his youth. Joseph of Nemerow. on
the subject of Hasidism. In the first letter Benja-
min asks his friend for information concerning the
movement, his investigations not having enabled
him to understand how Hasidism conld presume to
change the old laws, and to eonlorm them to the
rules of the Cabalists, partiiularly of Isaac Luria.
The friend-s "answer" follows with a detailed ac-
^ unt of the relation of the Cabala to the Talmud,
nnd sotes how far the former may claim to be au-
thor tUveven when in conflict with the Talnuul
Su.i"' "«t letter, a ntost interesting piece o
wo gives in the form of a dialogue ("wikkuah
etw;en himself and a Ilasid, the arguments for and
a'ainst Hasidism. showing his thorough knowledge
of t le l.rincit.les which distinguish the Hasidim and
tl e opplments. Therein the opponent of Hasidism
raises nineteen objec-tions, which his anonymous
Hasid me<'ts, in almost every case satisfactonly. His
friend Josi-pl' of Nemerow then succeeds in couvin-
cin<^ Benjamin completely of the truth of Hasidism. |
A vervsli"ht examination of the letters is sufli- -
cient to" show their fictitious character and to de-
monstrate that they are written for the purpose of
illustrating the truths of Hasidism by an imaginary
conversion of a pupil of Elijah of Wilna; an im-
pression that is confirmed when, although alk-ged
to have been written in 178T, they speak of Elijah
as deceased (13b, etc.), whereas he died a decajle
later Furthermore, a work of Elijah is cited (1 .a)
which was not published until 1819. Whether the
name " Benjamin of Slonim" is also fief itious can not
be ascertained, nor is there any clue that might give
information concerning the author of this clever
apologetic for Hasidism.
BiBLiOGRAPnv : Deinhi.nl, ^I'fl^O"*''':-}'!-!:"^' xtZ^ 'A
Zimir' irizim. Introduetion. p. 1), eonsiders Juaan rsac i-
Sehto he Ihe autliorcf the Maznf hn-'Al^^dah. but with-
out sufflelent evideuie. , .-,
BENJAMIN ZE'EB WOLF BEN SHAB-
BETHAI: Dayyan at Pinczow in the latter half
of the seventeenth and at the beginning of the eight-
eenthcentury. HeeditedtheShull.iau 'Aruk.Hosheu
Mishpat, with notes that are a digest of the works
of the rabbinical authorities of the seventeenth cen-
tury, to which he occasionally adds his own views
or those of his contemporaries. The book was pub-
lished in Beriiu in 1712 under the title "Jlisgeret
ha-Sliulhan " - "Border of the Table " (see Ex. xxv.
2.5). with a preface by his son Shabbethai. who lived
in IIall)erstadt in the house of Judah Loeb, the son-
in-law of the local rabbi, Abraham bex Judah
Berlin, a patron of rabbinical studies, who seems
to have defrayed the expenses of the printing of
this work. B"enjamin's father, Shabbethai, was a
brother of Samuel Romaner, and Benjamin was
therefore a cousin of Benjamin, the rabbi of Dessau
and author of "Ir Biiiyamin." In an appendix to
the work are printed "Tekanot ha-Borehim." the
laws on bankrupts passed by the Coukcil of the
Four Lands.
BiBLKic.RAPiiv: Michael. Or lii:i-Jfnmii>». V- 27S, and the liibll-
ouraphieal works, s.r.
1.. o. D.
BENJAMIN BEN ZEBA?; : Payyetan ; lived
in southeastern Europe in the middle of the eleventh
century. He is called by the later payyetanim
" the Great." and also " Ba'al Shem " (Master of the
Name), on account of the numerous names of God
and angels used by him in his piyyutim. He wrote
1.5 poems (" yozerot ") for the Sabbaths preceding the
feasts, and 40 selihot. published in the Mahzor of
the Cterman rile.
37
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benjamin Wolf Kapoport
Benoliel, Don Judah
His piyyiitim have an easy, elegant style. Paral-
lels with Kalir are frequent. .Tudging from his
selihali, 7Xn n XJK (" I beseech thee, Lord God")—
in wliieh lie plays ou tlie name.of God— consisting of
22 letters, and his "Ofan," in which he gives the
names of angels, Benjamin was inclined to mys-
ticism.
BiELiOfiRArMY: Zunz. Lilcraluriirsdih-litc, pp. 120, 1 nil- 14.3;
idPin. Z.<i. p. :iTtJ; Landsliuth. 'AnunlKle lin-'Aliiiil<(h. p.
.52; Michael, Or ;m-Ha;/(/im, p. 278 ; Fuvun, Kciicsii Yisratl,
p. 167.
L. (i.
I. 15r.
BENLOEW, LOUIS: French philologist ; born
at Erfurt Nov. 1."), I.^IS; died at Dijon February,
1900. He studied at the universities of Berlin, Leip-
sie, and Gottingen. and went to France in 1841,
where he taught modern languages at Nantes and
Bourges successively. He became librarian at
the Sorlionne; received the degree of " Docteur es
Lettres" in 1847: was appointed professor of ancient
literature at the University of Dijon in 1H49; be-
came dean of the faculty of that institution; and
was pensioned in 1882. He was a knight of the
Legion of Honor. Besides his gradual ion theses on
the style of Sophocles compared with that of ^Es-
chylus and Euripides ("De Sophocle.'c Dictionis
Proprietate cum .Eschyli Euripidisque Dicendi
Genere C'omparata") and the accentuation of the
Indo-European languages (" De I'Accentuation des
Langues Indo-Europeennes "), Bcnloew was the au-
thor of the following works; " AperQU General de la
Science Comparative des Langues," 18.58; "Precis
d'une Theorie des Rythmes," 1862; •'Recherches
sur I'Origine des Noms de Nombres .Japhetiques et
Scmitiques," 1862; " Les Semites a Ilion, ou la
Verite sur la Guerre de Troie," 1863; "Essai sur
I'Esprit des Litteratures." 1870; " Un Dernier Mot
sur les Prosatem-s," 1871; "La Gr^ce Avant les
Grecs," 1877; "Analyse de la Langue Albanaise."
1879; " Les Lois de THistoire," 1881. He al.so pub-
lished an edition of Sophocles, and. in collaboration
with H. Weil, " Theorie Generale de rAccentuation
Latine," 1885.
s. .T. W.
BENMOHEL, NATHAN LAZARUS : The
fii'st conforming .lew olitaining a degree in a British
university; born at Hamburg about 1800; died in
1869. He .settled in Dubliu in 1829 as teacher of
languages; entered the university after a course of
]>rivate studv in 1832; olitaineil his degree of B.A.
in 1830, and'of M.A. in 1846. He held the ixwition
of deputy professor of German and French at the
Dublin University from 183!) till 1842.
Benmohel comjiosed. Tint never publishe(l, the
following works; (1) "Orthograpliia ITebr;eo-An-
glicana," 1830 — a new system of writing English in
Hebrew current handwriting, after the usage pre-
vailing in Germany; (2) "An Essay in Verse, To-
ward a Comparison Between the History of the Chil-
dren of Israel During their .Jovimeys from Egypt to
the Promised Land, and That of the Reformation";
(3) "Primitive Ethnology, Tending to Be a Guide.
Basis, and Tributeto ' Sammlung Altdeutseher ICigen
namen ' " (incomplete). He died in Dublin.
BiBLioiiRAPMV: Aiwlo-Jcwifli Exhihition Caiahtmic, 1SS7,
pp. 22, «. 02.
J. G. L.
BENNETT, HENRY : Sergeant in the British
army; born in England 1863; killed inaction during
the war with the Afridis, Novemljer. 1897. He was
a grandson of Solomon Bennett, the engraver, w'ho
translated the Hebrew Bible into Englisli in 1841.
Bennett was at first articled to a firm of solicitors;
but in 1882 he enlisted in the Briti.sh army — joining
the first battalion of the Dorsetshire regiment — and
went to Egypt, where he saw active service during
the events occurring in connection with Arabi Pasha.
He assisted in drilling some of the black troojis up
the country, and his knowledge of Arabic was con-
sidered by the authorities to be of great value. He
returned with his regiment to England, and when
subsequently it was ordered to India he went out
with it. After participating in the engagements at
the front, he was killed on the retreat from Warren.
BiBLiooRAPHY: Jcicidi Chrimicle, Nov. 2ti, 1S97.
.1. G. L.
BENNETT, SOLOMON: English theologian
and engraver; born in Russia before 1780; died after
1841. He wrote a considerable number of works
ou Biblical topics, among them " The Consistency
of Israel," 1812; "Discourses on Sacrifice," 181.5;
"The Temple of Ezekiel," 1824; "Critical Remarks
on the Authorized Version," 1834.
Bennett began to publish a complete revised trans-
lation of the English Bible in 1841 ; but only two
numbers, containing Gen. i.-.xli., appeared, and the
project was abandoned. His "Temple of Ezekiel "
contains as a frontispiece a portrait of himself en-
graved by Bennett after an original painting by Fra-
zer. Bennett was in Berlin 1790-99, but spent the
latter part of his life at Bristol.
BiBLioiiRAPHV : .lueotif; and Wolf, rtihliathccaAnglo-Jutlaica,
Nos. WIS, WMi. lSii7, I'Mi, lilU, 192:i; Den Chaimtm. iv. 1861.
No. 1 : Nairler, KUihithr-Lexihtm, s.v. Bcnnrtt. Salomn ; A.
Wolf, in Kdiifmann Ucdcitkbuch, 1901, p. 629.
J.
BENOLIEL, JOSEPH: Portuguese translator;
lived at Lisbon. He wi-ote the small l)Ook, "Porat
Yosef " (Joseph's Fruitful Bough ; see Gen. xli.x. 22),
containing Spanish translations of the sayings of
the Fathers, the Pesah-Haggadah, the Song of Sol-
omon, the Books of Ruth and of Esther, Lamenta-
tions, and of some Ilaftarot (Lisbon, 1887).
BiBLKXiRAPHY: Kayserlinp, Bihh Ei'p.-Port.-JwL, pp. 27 et
I,, v.. M. K.
BENOLIEL, DON JUDAH: Jloroccan and
Austrian consul at Gibraltar; president of the Jew-
ish conmiunity thei'c. and of the chamber of com-
merce; died in 1S39. When Sardinia sent a fleet
agaiijst Morocco. Benoliel was enabled, in his consu-
lar capacity, to settle the differences amicably. He
earned special ci-edit by his services to the Jewish
community of Tangier. On accoiuit of a quarrel
that had taken place between two .lews in a syna-
gogue of that city, the governor, with the sultan's
con.sent, had all tlie synagogues of the city demol-
ished. When the sultan Muley Abd al-Rahman vis-
ited Tangier two years later, Benoliel, who was
much respected by him, declining all lionorsfor him-
self, secured permission for the reerection of the
synagogvu's. In memory of this n()ble .self-denial, a
special memorial jirayer is offered on every Day of
Benschen
Benveniste
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
38
Atonement in the synagogues of Tangier. Jiidah
Benoliel also possessed the full eontidenee of Cardi-
nal Mastui-Kerretti. afterward Pope Pius IX. When
the latter returned to Italy from Chile he entrusted
Benoliel with large sums of money.
Repiirt of till- Ani/ht-Jcichh Associatinti,
Biblio(;rapiiy:
l!C7-TS. p. IIH.
M. K.
BENSCHEN: A Judieo-Germaii word meaning
either to siiy a l)lessiug or to bless a person. It is
derived from the Latin "lienedicere"; German
" benedeien " : old Spanish " beueicer " : Portuguese
"benzer"; Provencal " bene.sir. " "beneir": French
" benir." Benschen is used specifically for the sjiying
of grace after a meal. " Gomel Benschen '" means to
recite the benediction of thanksgiving after having
escaped a great dangi>r either in illness or in im-
prisonment, or after some perilous trip by sea or
through the desert, the benediclioii containing the
word "ha-g<miel "; "BlcS-Sed be thou. O Lord, who
bestowcst (ha-gomel) mercy upon the undeserving"
(Ber. 5-lb). See Bexedictiox.
■' Benschen " is used for the blessing of God — " Der
Bore [Creator] wirddich benschen." See"Ka\>-ha-
Yashar, " in Grlinhaum 's ■' .ludisch-Deutschc Chresto-
mathie," liS82, p. SSS. for the blessing of the children
on Saljbath. festival days, and other solenm occa-
sions. Benschen is also resorted to in cases of great
sickness when there is little hope of recovery; the
rabbi or saint is then requested to offer a prayer,
often with a change of the name of the sufferer so
as to avert his apparently impending fate. See
X-\.MK, Cn.\XGE OF; and Superstitious Customs.
"Benschen" is used also euphemistically for "slap-
ping."
BiBLioGRAPHT: Tendlaii. Sprio/iirrtrtor unti Ralrnsarten
l>eut!.eh-Jil(lmhir Vnrziil, imi. pp. 4.S5, mi. T4;3. .Sfe. lOl'.t-
Grunbaum. JUdisch-Dfiitfche Chres-iumtillik. ISSS, p. iV>
K.
BENSHEIM, SIMON : Member of the grand-
ducal Obeirat (Upper House) of Baden; born at
Mannheim Oct. 14. 1823; died there Oct. 26, 1,S98.
E.xtremely active in congregational and philan-
thropic matters, he was aimually elected by unan-
imous vote a member of the synagogal council,
and tiually its president. The grand duke recognized
his worth as a communal leader and as a public-
spirited citizen by conferring upon him the Ziih-
ringer LOwen-Order of the second class. As a mem-
ber of the gmnd ducal Obirrat he won for himself
the respect and esteem of all classes of people.
BiBLiooR.vpiiv: nrr Gemeimlihnle. p. 2, ia Allgemeine Zei-
tlltiu il'K Jiiiknthuins. 1S9S, .No. 49.
M. Co.
BENTWICH, HERBERT: English lawyerand
coniniun;il woikir. hnin ii, l.ondiin 18.5fi; educated
at University College and the University of London
(LL.B.). One of the founders of the Hampstead
Synagogue, he is also nne of the chief pro-
moters of the Chovevei Zinn Association in Eng-
land, and assisted in allilialing it with the Zionist
movement unrler Dr. Herzl. In that capacity he
attended the Basel Congres.s of 1.><!(S. in which he
was a member of the presidential council.
Later, when the simiewhat diverse aims of the
two associations became apparent. Bent wich severed
hisconnection with the English Zionist Federation.
He organized the Jlaecabean Pilgrimage to Pales-
tine. 1897. Bentwich is an authority on copyright.
BiBLIOGR.\pnv : Hurris, Jewish Year Bm*. 1901. p. 2»t>.
J.
BENVENISTE (Hebrew. nC*ja33, in Catalan,
Benvenist : The name of an old, rich, and schol-
arly lamily of ^Sarbonne. the numerous branches
of which were found all over Spain and the Pro-
vence, as well as at various places in the Orient. It
is still borne by certain families in Bulgaria. Servia.
and Vienna. It was also used as a piwnomeu (see
Steinschneider. "Cat. Bodl." So. 7348: Loeb. in
"Hev. des Etudes .Juives." xxi. 1.53).
1. Abraham Benveniste: Statesman and chief
rabbi (or ■court rabbi ") of Castile during the reign
of .luan II.. 1406—54. He was entrusted with the
public finances, and. as he himself has stated, he
controlled, in conjunction with the constable Al-
varo de Luna, the entire administration of Castile.
He was rich and learned and an influential represent-
ative of the Jews at court, being called thither by
various events, of which the most important was
the following: On the occasion of a malicious charge
of ritual murder ]ireferred against the Jews inacitv
near Ecija, Abraham Benveniste, together with Jo-
seph ha-Xasi, the chief farmer of the ta.xes, and Abra-
ham ibn Shushan, repaired to the palace in order to
expose the falsity of the accusation and to prevent
further danger to the Jews. In compliance with
tlie desire of the Jewish scholars, and the petitions of
all the Jewish connnunities of Ca.stile. the king. or.
more strictly speaking. Alvaro de Luna, appointed
Benveni.ste in 1432 chief judge of the Jews and
court rabbi (Rab de la Corte).
In order to con.sider the laws is.sued against the
Jews, to further the neglected study of the Talmud,
and to put a check upon the prevalent immorality and
the practise of informing. Benveniste, immediately
after his appointment, called a synod at Valladoliii.
It was composed of rabbis, scholars, and other iirom-
inent men, and met, not as Graetz has it, in the
royal ])alace, but in the chief synagogue, situated
in the Jews' quarter. Under the presidency of Ben-
veniste the synod drew up a statute called the "Te-
kanah," which was to serve as a basis for the admin-
istration of the communities. It dealt with the di vine
service, with the glorification of the study of the
Law, with state taxation, and with the welfare
and progress of the communities. It is divided into
five s<-ctions ; namely : (1) concerning the study of the
Liw: (2) the choice of judges and, other function-
aries; (3) the practise of informing: (4) taxes and
duties: and (3) apparel. The statute was to remain
in force ten yeai's.
In lS(i9 yi. Kayseriing translated this statute into
Girman from a manuscript in the national librar\-
in Paris: under the title "Das Castilianische 0."-
nieinde Stilt ut " it appeared in the ".lahrbucli fiir
die Gesch. der Jud. und des Judeutlnims." iv. 262-
334. The Spanish edition by Francisco Fernandez
y Gonsjiles is entitled. •■Ordenamiento Formailo por
los Procunidores de las Al jamas Ilebreas ... en la
A.scmblea Celebrada en Valladoiid en el Afic 1432 "
Madrid. 1886 (see "Revue Etudes Juives," xiii. 187
it feq).
39
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benschen
Benveniste
Abraham is renownerl for having reinstated the
study of the Law and for liaviug, by his liberality,
kept many Jews from conversion.
Bibliography: Shihet YehmJah. ed. Wiener, pp. 2.i, Ilii
pt sell.; Abrabam Zacuto, Yiihimi>, ed. Filipowski, p. 2"-'t;;
Kavserling, I.e. pp. 283 et serj.; Gratz, Gcsch. der Jwlcit.'M
ed., viii. 141 ft .st'y., 417 ft sfij.
2. Abraham Benveniste : A scholar known
also as "Abraham Benveniste the Elder," to
distinguish him from hisgiaudsou of the same name.
He was born in 1433, in Soria. iirovince of Caceres,
Spain, and at his circumcision Joseph Albo made a
•swech. Together with his elder brother Vidal, he
furtnered the study of the Law and encouraged Jew-
ish scholars bj' his support.
Bibliography : .\braham Zaouto, I'HJia.sin, ed. Filipowski, p.
ZXi, ed. Cracow, p. l.'Jla; Griltz, Oesch. (ler Juden, 3d ed.,
vlU. 417 et scq.
3. David Benveniste : Rabbi of Salonica in
lo~)lt; menlioned as a rulibiuieal scholar by his con-
temporarirs (Conforte. "Kcnc ha-Donit." |). 38a).
4. Hayyim ben Israel Benveniste: Habbin
ical authority; born 1603 at Constantinople; died
Elnl 17, 5433 (Sept., 1673), He was a pupil of J.
Saineiro, but more particularly of Jo.seph Trani.
who was much attached to him, and who eventual-
ly brought about his marriage to the daughter
of a wealthy man. Hayyim became rabbi at Con-
stantinoide, and later at Smyrna (16.'5.5), where he
took a prominent part in the Shabbethai Zebi move-
ment. Although his attitude toward the new Mes-
sianic pretensions was at tirst somewhat skeptical,
he soon became an adherent of Shabbethai Zelii — a
step which later he deeph' regretted and sought to
efface from his memory by penance. It is uncertain
to what extent he was concerned in the dismis-
sal from office of his rabbinical colleague Aaron de
la Papa, and whether he hindered the reinstatement
of the latter. On his deatli, the funeral sermon was
preached by Daniel Gerasi (see his "Odeh Adonai."
No. 2, Venice, 1682). His hitherto unknown epitaph
reads:
^p'lVT nL":a33 Q"n -n no nhi^j l'"-i ■^^^^n -ind
Benveniste was a man of astonishing learning.
At the age of twenty-one he had already begun his
commentary to the "Semag" O'Scferha-Mizwot") of
Moses di^ Coucy. This was followed by the notable
work " Keneset ha-Gedolah,"a cominentaiy in eight
parts on the four codes of the Law, of which the
following were published during the lifetime of the
aiitlior: "Oial.i Hayyim" (Leghorn, 1657) and "She-
yare " ( = Addenda), ih. 1671 ; 2d ed., Constantinoiile,
172!): botli included in 2d ed., Leghorn, 1791-92;
"Iloslieii jMlsliiiat," Smyrna, 1660; 2d ed. in two
parts, ill. 1734). The remaining ])ortions of tlie work
were publislicd. 1711, 1716, 1717. 1731, in Constanti-
nople, wliere the " Dine de-Hayye " (Laws of the
Living), or commentary on the work of Jloses dc
Coucy, al.so aiipeared in two parts, 1742. The re-
sponsa of Benveniste were published at Constantino-
ple in 1743, anil another collection of them, dealing
with the " Yoreh De'ah " and the " Eben lia-'Ezer,"
appeared in four parts under the title "Ba'e Hayj'e "
{Necessaries of the Living) at Salonica, 1788-91. In
Gruher, EnrnlilirpiMie, 3d section,
1 JtiiVf^^ xiii. 272; Steinscbneider,
addition to these there exist " Pesah Meubbin," pray-
ers and rites for the first two evenings of Passover;
an extract from the "Keneset ha-Gedolah." Venice,
1692; and " Hamra we Hayye " (Wine and Life), on
the Babjionian treatise Sanhedrin, Leghorn, 1802.
Bibliography: Conforte, ^me )ia-Dnrnt, p. .51a: Azulal,
Sliem ha-Gfitolim^ i. .54b : Ztir Gfsch. Shabhethai ZfhVs,
in KoJifZ \il I'flj, Sammelnchrifi des Vfreiyt^ Mr^Kize
Xirdiimi'ni, Berlin, 1899, pp. 4 ft .scr/.; Gratz, Geifch. dir
Judfii. M ed.. X. M2; Michael. Or hn-Hnuj/im. No. m2.
5. Immanuel Benveniste: Noted printer and
publisher in Amsterdam from 1640 to 1660. He
published several rituals and larger works, among
which ma)' be mentioned " 'Aruk," "Shulhan 'Aruk,"
"Sh'ne Liihot ha-Berit," and a valuable complete
and still popular edition of the Talmud. The last
named, owing to a lack of inirchasers, was otfen-d
for sale, soon after publication, at si.x imperials or
less. From his workshop issued several well-known
printers, notably the firm of Judah Giimpel and
Samuel Levi, as well as L'li Phudiiis Levi. In a
measure the fame of Amsterdam Ilelirew priming
can be traced back to Benveniste's influence. Sev-
eral works issued by him are known by tlie borders
of liis title-Images forming a doorway, or by his de-
vice of star, lion, and castle.
Bibliography : Ersch and
x.xviil. !}."> : Rfvitf Etudea
Cat. Biidl. .No. 789.3.
6. Isaac Benveniste: Nephew of A.MtON and
of Pijim:ii.\s v.. JosiiPii iia-Lkvi of Montpellier.
Ho was perhaps the author of a ritual work entitled
"Likkute ha-Dinim " (Collection of Laws), contain-
ing 118 short decisions. It is still extant in manu-
script.
Bibliography : Zunz, Z. G. p. 474: Neubauer, (\it. Bndl.
Hrlir. MSS. p. l.W, No. 7.S6.
7. Isaac Benveniste (Zag) : Son of Joseph,
(11); fatherofSheshet Benveniste (No. 19). He was
phj'sician in ordinary to the king of Aiagon in tlie
earl)' part of the thirteenth century, and lived at
Barcelona; such was the esteem in which he was
held tliathe was distinguished by the title of "Nasi"
(prince). In 1215 he summoned a meeting of dele-
gates from all the Jewish communities of southern
France, from Xarbonue to Marseilles, to convene at
St.-Gille.s. The convention, of which the influential
Levi b. Moses of Narbonne was chairman, met for
the purpose of electing delegates to Home in order
to frustrate the plans of Pope Innocent III., and to
hinder any measures that the Laterau Council might
devise against the Jews. The efforts. of the dejiu-
ties, however, were fruitless; for the Laleran Coun-
cil decided that the Jews were to wear a special
badge. It is due in large measure to the efforts of
Benveniste that the provisions of this law were not
strictly enforced in Aragon. On the recommenda-
tion of Jaime I. and with the consent of the bishops
of the land. Pope Honorius sent a diploma to Ben-
veniste, exempting him, in recognition of his serv-
ices, his abstention from usury, and his title of
"catholicorum studiosus," from every indignity.
It was further stipulated that the Jews of Aragon
were not to be forced lo wear badges.
Bibliography: Ibn Verpa. fihflift Yehudah. ed. Wiener;
p. 114; Griitz, Gc.f(7i. 'fir J»</i)i,'vi. 403; vii.21,ai: lievue
Etudes Jitivfs, xvii. 92, xxxix. thi.
Benveniste
Benveniste b. ^iyv^''
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
40
8. Israel ben Eliezer Benveniste : Ktlativo
of IIayvim ^No. 4) and ci| Jdsih a hkn Iskaki. Bkx-
VEXISTE (Xo. 13): aresitii'iitof C'oiisUvntinople; died
1677. He wrote "Bet Yisrael " (House of Israel), a
eollertionof sermousand funeral orations, published
by liis son(Coustantino|il('. 1678: Azulai, "Sliemha-
Gedolini." ii. 4lii,
9. Joseph Benveniste : Son of the court rabbi
Abraham Benveniste (Xo. 1 ) ; lived in Castile in 1450 :
and is sjiid to have been wealthy, philanthropic, and
a patron of Jewish science (Zacuto, " Yuhasin," p.
226).
10. Joseph Benveniste: Of Segovia; lived in
Smyrna toward the end of the sixteenth century;
son of Moses Benveniste. and disciple of Elias Galigo
and of Samuel Useda. Of his writings nothing re-
mains but a fragment on the Talmudie treatise Git-
tin, published by his grandson Solomon Algazi in
the work entitled " Dobeb Sifte Yeshenim " (causing
the lips of those that are asleep to speak, Cant. vii.
10), Smyrna, 1671.
BiBLiofiRAPIlT : .^zulai, Shcm hn-Gfdoh'm. i. 77, ii. 2!>; Steln-
solineidiT, ('<i(. Bmll. Nos. .5;*<8, 6437; Benjafoli, (jiar liii-
Se/arim. p. lOS, No. llifl.
11. Joseph ben Benveniste : Grandson of Zera-
hiah Geruiidi, and grandfather of Aaron ben .loseph
ha-Lcvi: lived about llilO at Jlontpellier (Gross,
"Gallia Judaiea." pp. S'iO et stq.).
G. M. K.
12. Joseph ben Ephraim ha-Levi Benve-
niste: C'astilian minister of liuance, and councilor
of Alfonso XI. : born at Ecijaat the end of the thir-
teenth century : died at Toledo in 1337. The Infante
Don Philip being captivated by Bcnveniste's great
abilities, pleasing manners, and talent for music,
recommended him to his nephew Alfonso XI. The
latter, not less charmed than his uncle, appointed
Benveniste not only minister of finance (tilmoj-arif),
but also contidenlial councilor {privado). Bcn-
veniste's position was a very influential one. He
rode out in a stjite carriage, knights escorted him on
his journeys, and giandees dined at his table. This
greatness coidd not fail to e.xcite envy; and Ben-
veniste had to struggle against the plots of his ene-
mies, under whose attacks he finally fell.
As a token of his contidence. Alfonso sent him to
Valladolid to bring his sister, Doiia Leonora, to
Toledo (13'.?8). When the Infante was about to set
out, a mob, instigated by Bcnveniste's enemies, at-
tempted to kill him and his attendants. His life
was saved by the princess. She asked the leaders
to let him accompany her to the Alcazar of the city,
where she promised to give him up. But, when
there, she ordered the gates to beshutand refused to
deliver him to the rioters. Alfonso on learning what
had happened marched against Valladolid, besieged
it. burned many houses, and would have destroyed it
entirely, had not more moderate persons dissuaded
liim.
The plot having failed. Bcnveniste's enemies had
recourse to slander. Many complaints against his
administration were made to the Cortes of Valladolid ;
and the king, fatigued at last by these constant com-
plaints, dismissed Benveniste from the council and
the position of almoxarif.
Bcnveniste's downfall was. to some extent, due
to himself. Samuel ibn AVakar, Alfonso's physi-
cian, stood high in the royal favor. Alfonso en-
trusted him wiUi the farming of the revenues derived
from the importation of goods from the kingdom
of Granada. Benveniste, jealous of his coreligion-
ist's influence, offered a higher sum for the right
of farming the import taxes. Samuel, in order to
avenge himself, privately persuaded the king to stop
the c.xportations by the JIoois. regardless of exist-
ing treaties. This was followed by a war with the
floors. Alfonso's treasury being exhausted, Gon-
zalo Martinez, who had served under Benveniste
and had become influential through his recommenda-
tion, proposed to buy from the king ten of the prin-
cipal Jews, for whom he would pay 800 lb. of silver.
The king, compelled by his need of money, con-
sented: and Martinez hastened to seize his former
benefactor and to throw him into prison, where he
died.
Bibliography: Ibn Verga. Shchvl Ychudah, ed. Wiener,
pp. 30-33 : Clironica dc Alfonso XT. 1. 83 et uq.; Lindo, His-
tiiriiiif the Jcuv of Spain and PorlugaU pp. 133 et seq.;
Gratz, Gcsch. der Juden, 3d ed., vii. 266 el seq.
o. I. Br.
13. Joshua ben Israel Benveniste : Rabbi in
Constantinople toward the end of the seventeenth
century; brother of Hayyim Benveniste (Xo. 4). and,
like the latter, a disciple of Joseph Trani. He was
a physician and rabbi at Constantinople in 1660. and
was the author of the following works: "Ozne Ye-
hoshua' " (The Ears of Joshua), sermons for the Sab-
bath and special occasions (Constantinople, 1677);
" Sedeh Yehoshua'" (FieUl of .loshua), a commen-
tary on several tracts of the Talmud Y'erushalmi(('J.
1662. 1749); " 'Abodah Tamniah " (Perfect Service),
a commentary on the ' Abodah for the Day of Atone-
ment (('6. 1719-20); "Seder ha-Gct," on the formula
for divorce, written at Bru'fei and published at Con-
stantinople, 1719. Bcnveniste's collection of re-
sponsa,"Sha'ar Yehoshua'" (Gate of Joshua), was
destroyed by tire; but several of his responsa are
included in the collections of Moses Benveniste and
Joseph Trani.
Benveniste prepared (1) " Mishmeret ha-Mizwot "
(Observance of the Commandments), a metrical ver-
sion of the Azharot, with commentary: and (2) "I^e-
bush Malkut " (Royal Garment), a hymn in the style
of Gabirol's "Royal Crown." of which medical sci-
ence constitutes the foundation. Azulai claims to
have seen both of these writings in manuscript at
the house of a rabbi in Constantinople.
Bini.ioGRAPiiv: Conforle, Knre ha-Dnrnt,5la; Azulai, Shcrn
hil-lliiliilini. i. 711.
14. Judah Benveniste : Son of Abraham Ben-
veniste (Xo. 2), iiiid grandson of the court ral)bi of
the siime name (Xo. 1). He immigrated to Salonica
with Samuel Franco and the other Spanish exiles,
ami with them founded the Sephardic community in
that city. He succeeded in preserving a share of his
gix'at patrimony sufticient for the purchase of a large
collection of books. Several experienced scribes
were always employed in copying the Mishnah. the
Talmud, and other works at his home, which was
the center of the scholarly Spanish exiles. Bcn-
veniste's library was always at the disposal of
41
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benveniste
Benveuiste b. Hiyyah
scholars; antl many, among them Jacob ibn Habib,
made good use of it.
Bibliography : Jacot) ibn Habib, Intrnduoilon to 'En Ya'aknh ;
C'oronel. Quinquc Dccittuiitcs^ p. vii.; Micljael, Or ha-Hay-
llini. No. it72.
15. Judah Benveniste: Di.sciplc of Asher lia-
Kohen ben Ardot and contemporary of David
Conforte ; lived at Salonica, wliere he occupied the
position of rabbi.
BiBLiOGR.iPHT; Michael, Or hn-Hniniim, p. 448, No. 973;
Conforte, IZore ha-Dornt, pp. in<i, .50/*.
16. Meir ben Samuel Benveniste: Lived at
Salonica, where in November, 1.5.59, he completed
his work," 'OtEmet" (The Letter of Truth), contain-
ing correctionsof thete.xtof theSifra, Sifre, Jlekilta,
Midrash Kabbah, Yalkut, etc., as well as of the Se-
phardic prayer-book (Salonica, 1.'564; Prague, 1624).
In these books Benveuiste modestly styles himself
" corrector. "
Bibliography: Steinsohneider, Cat. Bo(U. No. 6394 ; TViei t,
Bihiiothcca FrUiJlamiinna, p. 69, No. .>*b.
17. Moses ben Nissim Benveniste : Grandson
of Abraham b. Hauaiiiah, rabbi at Constantinople;
was living in 1671, He corresponded with his rela-
tives, Hayyim (No, 4) and Joshua Benveniste (No.
13), and with others of his contemporaries. He pub-
lished "Pene Mosheh" (Face of Moses), a tripartite
collection of responsa on the ritualistic codes (Con-
stantinople, 1671; 3d part, ib. 1719). His work
*' Rab Leshonot " (Many Languages) has been lost.
Bibliography: Azulai, Shcm ha-GedoUm, i. 132; Steinschnei-
di-r. Cat. DiM. No. 114:!^.
18. Samuel Benveniste : Dwelt in Tarragona
in 1333, and was living iu 13.56, contemporaneously
with Maestro Leon Jledico, ^lacstro Mose Medicci,
and Maestro Yu(;ef Avendagot (the last mentioned
being Identical with Joseph ha-Rofe ibn Abu-Ay-
yub), Benveniste resided at the court of King Pedro
of Aragon, as physician in ordinary to Don Manuel,
the king's brother. Huttingerand Benjaeob say that
he translated into Hebrew B<iethius' " De Consolatione
Philosophiie," a work much read by the Christian
scholars of the Middle Ages, but nothing is known
about the manuscript. He also rendered into He-
brew from Latin the work on asthma by Maimonides.
Bibliography: Hehr. Bilil. viii. 8.5. 12.=;; i.\. 91 ; x. K4: .stein-
schneider, Hchr. Uchtrs. pp. 4ti(i, 767 ; erroneously in Landau,
Oesch. (Icr JUd. Acrzic, p, 39, who follows Carmoly, Mi'de-
ciiisjuifs, p. 101.
19. Sheshet ben Isaac ben Joseph Ben-
veniste: Physieian and writer; lived in tin- latter
half of the twelfth century. Like Isaac (Zag) Ben-
veniste (No. 7), who is supposed to have been his
father, he was styled " Nasi " (prince). He received
his education at Narbonne, his probable birthplace;
afterward he lived at Bai'celona, and later at Sara-
gossa, in wliich city he died about 1309. It is said
that he owed his high position to his knowledge of
Arabic. He practised medicine, and was the author
of a medical work, manuscript copies of wliicli are
still extant at Oxford and ^lunich. Such was his
reputation as a physician that patients came long
distances to consult hiin, and some are said to have
journeyed even from Mayence {c.f/., Solomon ben
Ilanauel). Benveniste, whose generosity is praised
by Al-Harizi, was poetically gifted and composed
several liturgical songs. Even in his old age lie
remained a friend of free investigation, as the fol-
lowing epigram on Me'ir Abulafia shows:
" You ask why 'lustrous' he is named,
Though he the light so cheaply rat«d;
Because the dusk we ' twilight ' name :
By language-contrasts thoughts are mated."
Benveniste directed a letter to the congregation of
Lunel, in answer to the epistle of Abulafia to that
congregation, in which he freely expres.ses himself
upon the value of Maimonides' " Yad ha-Hazakah,"
because it enabled the laity to control the judgments
rendered by the Rabbis. He carried on a lively cor-
respondence with Nasi Kalonymus b. Todros and
with Levi li. Moses of Narbonne, where his brother
.loseph also resided. He lost his three sons in their
]irime.
Bibliography: Steinsohneider, Hehr. Bibl. xiii. lOti et srq.;
liriitz, Gesch. der Jiuhn. vi. 1, note 1; vii. 41 ; idem, Scliiclict
BcnveniMc iibcr MaimunVs ^Virhsamkeity in ^^lontits-
adirift, XXT. -509 f( scQ. (the letter is reprinted in (iratz,
Hchr. tr. V. Appendix, p. 11); Revue Etudes Juives, xxxix.
62 ci sc^., 217 ct »eq.
20. Solomon Benveniste (called the Elder) :
A prominent scholar and contemporary of MiiifK ben
Joseph; lived at Narbonne about the middle of the
twelfth century (Zacuto, " Yuhasin," 85a).
21. 'Vidal Benveniste: Lived at Saragossa,
Spain, in the fifteenth century. He was elected by
the notables of the communities of Aragon chief
speaker at the disputation of Tortosa (1414), because
of his knowledge of Latin and his reputed wisdom,
Benveniste wrote a refutation of the seeming evi-
dences of Jesus as the Messiah, called "Kodesh ha-
Kodashim. " which is still extant in manuscript. He
is not identical with Don Ferrer of Gerona or with
Vidal b. Labi de la Caballeria, as claimed bj' some.
liiBLiOGRAPHV: Ihn Verga, Shrhet IV/nir/n/i, ed, Wiener, pp.
tiSft scq.: (iriitz, OcxiU. der Juileti, 3d ed., viii, 414 et xeq.;
Michael, Or liii-Hiimiim. No. sot.
22. 'Vidal Benveniste : Possibly a brother of
the court rabbi Abraham Benveniste (No. 1); lived
in Aragon at the beginning of the fifteenth century.
He was the autlior of the poem, " Melizat 'Efer we-
Dinah,"an allegory on pleasure (published, together
with a number of Midrashim, at Constantinople,
l.")16, and at Rimini, 152.5) composed as a diversion
for the Puriin festival (Steiuschneider, "Cat, Bodl,"
col. 2706).
23. 'Vidal Benveniste: Elder son of Joseph
Benveniste (No. 9) and grandson of the court rabbi
Abraham Benveniste (No. 1). Like the latter, Vidal
^vas a promoter of Jewish science (Zacuto, " Yuha-
sin," p. 336).
"• M. K.
BENVENISTE BEN :^IYYAH BEN AL-
DAYYAN (caUed also Al-Yasis [the El(l( r| or
Ibn al-Yasis) : Physician and religious poet of
the tliirtcentli century. Zunz mentions three met-
rical "bakkashahs" (supplications) written by him.
At Bi'iiveniste's request. Jacob ben Eleazar under-
took the translation of "Kalilah we-Dimnah " from
the Arabic into Hebrew. To the preface of this
translation Jacob prefixed a few verses laudatory of
Benveniste.
BiiiLioGRAPiiv : Steinschneider, Citt. Biidl. col. 27IC1: Idem,
Helir. I'lliern. p. S79: Zunz, Lilereitiiriiexeh. p. 'M; I.ands-
hulh. 'AmmtKte hit-Wnxiah. p. .il ; J. Derenbourg. Deux
Vertiitinx Hthralquei^ du Livrc de KiiUhVi et Dimndh, p.
.3i:j, Paris, 1S81.
G. M. K.
Benveniste b. Jacob
Bequest
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
42
BENVENISTE BEN JACOB: Oucof tlieoffi-
eiTs..f tiKsocictv Uikkur l.lnliniof the Spanish syn-
agogue in Veniee Knvaril the end of the seventeenth
centtirv. He was of Spanisli liescent. and is men-
tioned together with Raphael ben Solomon Silvaand
Isjiae hen Banuh Carvalho in the ^L" HpHpT nSC
EfSJ (•• PiiUherrima In<iuisitio Anim;e"), prayers for
the sick and dying used by the members of the
above-mentioned society (Venice, Bnigadin. 1685).
Furst wrongly attributes the partial authorship of
these prayers to Benveniste ('-Bibl. Judaica," i. 106:
Bi'njacob, "Ozar ha Sefarini." p. 608, No. 1199):
but see Steinschneidcr. "Cat. Bodl." No. 3333.
L. G. ^
BENVENISTE B. LABI (S'^!^: also known
as De la Caballeria) : A ,kwish Maccnas: son of
" Prince " Solomon ibn Labi de la Caballeria : lived
at Sanigossa. later at Alcaniz. where he died Nov. 30.
1411. He was wealthy, learned, and greatly re-
spected, and often took "the part of !iiscoreli.gionists.
He corresponded with the most eminent men of his
time: among others with Meir Alguadez, who. at
Bcnveniste'srciiuest, translated Aristotle's "Ethics"
into Hebrew: with Hasdai Crescas: with Isitac b.
Sheshet: with Joseph Orabuena. cliief rabbi of Na-
varre; and with the physician Astruch Remoch
Dios, or, as he called himself when he became a
Christian, F^ncisco Dios Carne.
Benveniste was a patron of science and of schol-
ars. For him Zerahyali ha-Levi (Don Ferrer Sala-
din) translated Gazzali"s "Tahafat al-Filasafah"
into Hebrew : and at his reiniest Joshua b. Joseph
ibn Vi^as Lorki wrote the work (probably now
lost) on the virtues and function of foodstuffs, which
was afterward translated into Hebrew by his sou
Joseph Lorki. Benveniste died at Alcaniz and was
buried with great honors. In memoriam services
were held at Saragossa. Calatayud, Daroca. Soria,
and other places.
BiBLiOGRAPHT: JoTJiioiiii. e<i. Kobak, ix. Set feq.: see Stein-
sohnelder. Hehr. Vehcrx. pp. 211, 3T8. 762; Gratz. Gc^^eh.(kr
Jiuleii. 3d eti. vlii, 410 e( xctj.
G. M. K.
BENVENISTE DE PORTA or DE LA
PORTA : Bailie ("bayle ") of Barcelona, Spahi. and
brother of Nahnianides (whose secular name was
Bon Astruc de Porto; see Gratz, "Gesch. der
Juden." vii. 38; "Jewish Quarterly Review," viii.
492, 710). Benveniste was an important capitalist
of Barcelona and advanced money to King Jaime
I. of Aragon, mainly on the security of the
municipal dues owed to the king. Thus on Dec.
IT. Vio'. he advanced :^,863 sueldos on the dues of
his bailiwick (Jacobs. " Sources," No.l34) : and on the
1.5th of the following month he received the right
to sell the dues of Barcelona and Gerona for two years
(ih. No. 142). The total indebtedness of the king
was no less than 1!)9,48:5 sueldos (ili. No. 144).
which Benveniste was allowed to recover by taking
the dues of Leri<la and other places of his bailiwick
{ih. 162). Part of the |iayineut was made by the
Jews of Barcelona themselves, who were ordered to
hand over 12,000 sueldos to Benveniste (i'j. No. 16Ra).
Jleanwhile the king continued his applications to
Benveniste for funds, drawing a check on him for
5.000 sueldos June 12. 1200 {ib. No. 170a); while
two vears later the king acknowledged Ins indebted
ness"to Benveniste of 15.221 sueldos for payment
made on accoimt of the Infanta Donna Juana. May
21 1262. In return for the advance, the dues of
Villafranca (i«. No. 205). as well as 20 squares of
laud there (il>. No. 232), and the dues of the Balearic
islands {if>. No. 257) and of Perpignan {ib. No. 239).
were granted to Benveniste. The latter continued to
act as' banker for the king, since a record is found
of acknowledgment of a debt of 15,000 sueldos. paid
by Benveniste" to the bishop of Barcelona when pro-
ceedin'T on an embassv to France Jan. 1. 12.54 {ib.
No. 355): and as late as Feb. 1. 1268, the dues of
the Jews of Gerona were assigned to Benveniste {ib.
No. 681).
Altogether Benveniste stood high in favor with
King Jaime— no doubt for value received— and
when on Mav 29. 1364. his brother Nahnianides was
pardoned, two-thirds of the fine he had incurred for
the allescd crime of vituperating Jesus in the cele-
brated controversy of 1263 was remitted, the king
expresslv stating that the pardon was given "amore
Benveniste de Porta, fratris tui " ("Sources," Ap-
pendi.x, No. 4. p. 130).
BiBLioi;aAPHT : Jacobs. Inquini into the Sourctsof Spaiiish-
Jiwish Hisf"!)/. as above.
<;. J-
BENZION, BENEDIX: Russian physician and
missionary to the Jews; born in a small town in the
government of Kiev. Russia, in 1839. He spent sev-
eral years in Rumania, and was baptized in Berlin
in 1863. Benzion studied medicine and was gradu-
ated by the Tniversity of Wurzburg in 1867. He
went to England, and having entered the service of
the British Society for the Conversion of the Jews,
was sent out to Rumania in 1874 as a medical mis-
sionary to the Jews. Transferred to Odessa, Russia,
in 1876, he remained there for ten years, acquiring a
considerable reputation as a medical practitioner and
as a missionary. He left Odessa for Constantinople
in 1886, but was not known as a missionary after
1888. He now lives in the United States.
Benzion is the author of "Oiah Zedakah," a col-
lection of proverbs and parables in the style of Ec-
desiasticus (Odessa. 1876) : " Kol Kore el Bet Israel "
(translated from the English by Dr. Benzion, Lon-
don, 1868); a translation into JudieoGerman of Jos.
H. Ingraliam's "Prince of the House of David."
under the title "Tiferet Yisra'cl" (Odessa, 1883-86);
and a translation into Judieo-German of Silvio Pel-
lieo's drama, "Ester d'Engedi," tinder the title
"Der Falsche Kohengodel." which has been played
at the Jewish theaters of New York.
HiBi.iOGR.vpnv: J. F. A, (leLeRni, rtcichiehte (J.r Eranofli-
s(lu)t JuilenmissUm. ii, 27l>-272. 2S1. Leipsic. 1S99: ZeitUn,
Bilil. Hthraica, p. 27; Van Straalen, Cat. Uchr. Bnoka
Brit. Mux. s.v.
n. K.
P. Wi
BENZION. BENJAMIN ZE'EBWOLF BEN
JACOB HA-LEVI: Talmudist ; lived probably
in Galicia in the middle of the eighteenth century.
He was the author of "Et Razon " (Time of Grace),
containing essays on morals, intended for the first
part of the ilinhah prayer of Sabbath (Zolkiev,
1777). lu the introduction to this work. Benzion
mentions two other works written by him ; but these
have not been published.
43
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benveniste b. Jacob
Bequest
Bibliography; Benjacob. Ozar ha-St:fnrinu pp. 4o;j. 454 ;
Furst, mhliiithccn Judaica.'i. 109.
L. (i. I. Br.
BENZION, SAMUEL. See Endler, Samuel.
BEOBACHTER, DEB. See Periodicals.
BEOB, : 1. Father of Bcla. king of Edon (Geu.
x.\.\vi. •d-.i; I Chron. i. 43). 2. Father of Balaam
{Num. x,\ii. 5; x.\iv. 3, 15; x.vxi. 8; Deut. xxiii.
4; Josh. xiii. 22; Micah vi. 5). II Peter ii. 15 gives
tlio name as "Bosor. "
o. G. B. L.
BEftTJEST : A gift of personal jiroperty in a last
will and testament. Modern English law and
American law distinguish between a beiinest and a
devise; tlie former being a testameutaiy gift of
personal property, and the latter one of real estate.
This distinction, however, is based upon the feu-
dal law, and does not exist in Jewish law. Real estate
and personal estate ma\be the subjects of a bequest
in Jewish huv ; and although there is .some distiuc-
tion recognized between these two classes of prop-
erty b)' reason of the fact that one
Definition, is movable and the other immovable,
both of them may be bequeathed in
the same manner. Subject to certain well-detincd
exceptions, modern law requires the be(iuest to be
in writing. Jewish law jias no such requirement :
and an oral bequest may be entirely valid.
The ma.\im of the law is, "The words of a sick
man arc like those written and delivered " (Git. 13a;
B. B. 151a); that is to say, the oral bequest of a sick
man is in effect equivalent to a gift of immovable
property by a deed in writing, or of movable prop-
erty by delivery of the object. The alisence of the
usual formalities required in tlie transferor real and
personal property does not invalidate a bequest.
The Jewish law calls a bequest "the gift of one
lying on a sick-bed" ("mattanat shekib mera' "'),
and distinguishes it in several points from the gift
of a person in good health (B. B. 153a; IMainionidcs,
" Yad." Zi'kiyahu-JIattanab.viii. 2; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, 2.50, 5, 8).
Inasmuch as the validity of a bequest may depend
upon the condition of the testator's health at the
time when he made it, the law attempts to define
the degreesof sickness. A blind, lame, or mutilated
person, or one who is suffering pain in the head,
eyes, hands, or feet, is for testamentary imrpo.scs the
same as a person iji good health ; but if his entire
body is weakened through sickness so that he can
no longer walk about, and is obliged to take to his
bed, he is technically a "sick man" (Maiiiinnides,
th. viii. 1, 2).
The law considers a further distinction ; namelv,
between oiu^ on his siek-ljcd and one on his death-
bed; and this distinction also has certain important
legal consequences. >Some authorities are of the
opinion that a pers(m on his sicklied isa "sick man"
during the Hist three days of his illness; and that if
the illness lie prolonged beyond that pericid. or if he
be suddenly stricken with a dangerous illness, he is
to be considered as a man on his death-bed, and his
bequest under such circumstances will be suIijimM
to certain special regulations (Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, 2.50, 5). The law of bequests is in
fact a subdivision of the law of gifts, a bequest
being to all intents and purposes a gift, distin-
guished, however, from an ordinary gift in that the
strictness of the procedure is relaxed in favor of
carrying out the intention of the testator.
A distinction must be noted bitween a testament
wherein the property is bequeathed by wa}- of in-
heritance and one wherein the prop-
Bequest erty is bequeathed by wa}' of gift.
by Way of By the former, (mly those persons may
Gift, etc. be made legatees who would naturally
take the pifiperty as heirs of the de-
ceased; under the latter, however, any person may
be made a legatee.
The law of testamentary succession, as laid down
in the Bible (Num. xxvii. 8-11 ; see A(;x.\tes). is un-
alteralde; and any attempt made liy the owner of
property to bequeath it as an inheritance to those
who would not naturally inherit it is null and void.
No one can be maile an heir cxeeiit such pensons as
are mentioned in this Biblical law; nor can the prop-
erty be lawfully diverted from the heirs by the sub-
stitution, either orall)' or in writing, of some other
jierson asheir (Jlishnah B. B. viii. 5); but the owner
of property has such control over it that he may dis-
pose of it by sale or gift to any person, to the exclu-
sion of his heirs. This important distinction, there-
fore, nnist be noted, that a bequest by way of
inheritance to persons other than the legal heirs is
null and void, whereas a be(|uest by way of gift is
valid.
Although the testator can not make a stranger his
iK'ir, he may divide the inheritance among the heirs
in shares different from those prescribed by the law.
This right is dedticed by inference from the text,
"And on the day when he shall cause his sons to
inherit " (Deut. xxi. Ifi), imiilyiug the right on his
part to divide the estate among them as he pleases.
The heirs may not be excludeil by the use of nega-
tive jihrases; for instance, if the testator says. "My
first -born .son shall not have a double share of my
estate." or "My son shall not inherit with his
brothers." such expression is null and void; but
if lie says, "My son A shall have half of mj' prop-
erty and my other sons the other half," this is valid
(B.B. VMkit't mj. ; Hoshen Jlishpat. 281. 1, 2).
This rule aiiplies only to bequests liy way of in-
heritance. A person in a state of health can not af-
fect the succession unless he does so by a gift with
all proper formalities (Hoshen Mishpat, l.r. 5, 7).
If one bequeaths his property to a stranger under
the belief that his .son is dead, the bequest is invalid
if the son afterward returns, because it is presumed
that the bequest would not have been made to a
stranger if the father had known that his son was
living; but if the bequest is only of a portion of
the jiroperty, it is valid, upon the presumption that
it was intended to be a gift (B. B. 14(iti; Hoshen
Mishpat, 240, 1). '"
If a ))erson bequeaths his entire iirojierty to one
of his children, such one takes it as trustee for the
benefit of all. and is entitled merely to an e(|ual
share with them; but if the father has beciueathed
to him a portion only of the property, or if the in-
strument on its face shows that it was intended to
be an absolute gift, he holds it free from all trust,
Bequests
Berab, Jacob
THE JEWISH ENt'YfLOPEDIA
44
as liis sole nu<l cxclusivo iiroporty (B. B. 131b,
150b; "Yad." Zckiyah u Maltanali. vi. 2; IJoshen
Mishpat. 24G, 4).
The subject of be<nicsts by way of inheritaiiee
is treated more fully under Ixukhitance and Wii.i.s.
The present artiele iseoneerned more especially with
bequests by way of gift.
As above slated, by a bequest in the form of a
gift the testator may practically disinherit his lawful
heirs; hence, if a sick man in making a disposition
of his property says distinctly, "I give this not as an
inheritance, b\it as a gift." it is a valid bequest, even
though it excludes the lawful heirs (Hoshcn Jlish-
pat. 248, 2).
Although the right of the owner of property to
bequeath it totheexclusion of his heirs is recognized
by the law, it is contrary to its spirit
Dis- and is deemed a moral wrong. The
inheriting Mishnali (B. B. viii. 5)S!iys: "If one
the Heir, deeds his goods to strangers and ex-
cludes his sons, his act is lawful, but
the spirit of the sages takes no dcliglil in him." R.
Simon ben Gamaliel said: "If. however, his sons
were unworthy, his act is praiseworthy. ' Mar Sam-
uel went so far as to say that the father can not'dis-
inherit a wicked son in favor of a good one (B. B.
133b). This, however, isnot the law. The Shulhan
'Aruk, after citing the general opinion of the Jlisli-
nah, says (ih. 282, 1): "It is the practise of the very
pious not to witness a will by which the inheritance
is taken from the heirs, even though it is taken from
an unworthy son an<l given to another son who is a
learned and upright man"; and H. Moses Isserles
{ib. gloss) adds: "If one leaves general directions
tliat his executors shall dispose of his property ac-
cording to the best that can be done with it, they
ought to give it to his heirs; for there is nothing
better than this."
A bequest becomes valid only upon the death
of the testator (B. B. 187a: "Yad," Zckiyah u-
Mattanah, viii. 8; Hoshen Mishpat, 2.52, 1): hence, if
the bequest is coupled with conditions which are
inipo.ssible of fulfilment after the death of the testa-
tor, it is invalid. Thus, if the testtitor's bequest is
in writing, and the instrument contains the usual
formula that symbolic seizure ("Ijinyan") has lu'cn
made, but in fact this formality has not been com-
plied with, such beiiucst is invalid; because it is im-
possible that the legatee should perform the cere-
mony of symbolic seizure with the testator after the
latter's death (B. B. 152a; Hoshen Mishpat. 2.50. 17).
A distinction, alluded to almve. in cases of be-
quests requires further amplitication. The be<|Uest
may be either on<' in which the testator makes no
mention of his death, or one in which he does ex-
pressly mention hisd<:ith (B. B. lolb; " Y.id." Zcki-
yah u-Mattanah, viii. 17-23; Hoshen .Mishpat. ?.<•. 7).
In the latter case, the Ix'iiuest. whether made orally
or in writing, requires none of the formalities of a
gift among living persons; all that
Death-Bed is neccs,sary is the simple declaration
Bequests, of the dying man, which is carried
into elTect through the maxim. "The
words of a sick man are like those written and
delivered" (B. B. 147b; Iloshen Mishpat, I.e. 1;
"Yad," i.e.).
Where the testator makes no mention of his death,
a further distinction is to be noted : namely, whether
he has bequeathed his entire property or only a por-
tion of it. If he has bequeathed his entire property
without retaining anything for himself, the pre-
sumption arises that he has given it on account of
his anticipated death, and therefore it is a death-
bed bequest: otherwise, it is presumed that the tes-
tator would not have given away his entire prop-
erty. If, on the other hand, he has not bequeathed
allof his property, but has retained a portion of it.
a contrary presumption arises; namely, that he does
not expect to die of this sickness. Such a bequest,
therefore, is treated like a gift among living persons,
and requires symbolic seizure in order to give it
validity (B. B. i.">lb; "Y'ad," Zckiyah u-Mattanah,
XV. lO"; Hoshen Mishpat, 250, 4-7).
If a sick man uses such expressions as "A shall
have the whole of my property," or " a part thereof,"
or "shall acquire it." or "shall enjoy it," or "shall
take possession of it," each of these expressions in-
dicates a bequest by way of gift. If, in making
the bequest to an heir, he says, " A shall be inscribed
in my genealogical register," or "shall inherit from
me according to law," it is valid as a bequest by
way of inheritance according to the conditions
above stated; but if he says, "Let A enjoy my prop-
erty " or " Let him stand in it " or " rest in it," A ac-
ipn'res no property rights in it. If he says, "I leave
my property to A." this is a gift: if he says, " Jly
)'ro|)erty shall fall to A." this is an inheritance (B.
B. 148bi7 .ie(/. : "Y'ad." Zekiyalui-Mattanah, ix. 3, 4;
Hoshen Mishpat, 2.53, 2).
A bequest of " my movable property " includes
everything with the exception of wheat, barley, and
other grain. A bcqtiest of "all my movable prop-
erty " includes all things except those which are
fastened to the ground and not intended to be
moved, such as the lower millstone. Technically
these are fixtures, and go with the real estate. A
bequest of "all my property that may lie moved"
is held to include even sucli fixtures (B. B. 1.50a;
"Yad," Zckiyah u-.Mattanah, xi. 12-14: Hoshen
Jlishpat. 248. 10). A bequest of "my goods" in-
cludes all decedent's movable and immovable goods
("Yad," I.e. xi. 15; Hoshen Mishpat, ^48, 11). A
bequest of "a piece of groimd, and as incidental
thereto, all my movable jiropcrty, gold, silver, ves-
sels, clothing" — in .short, everything tliat may be de-
nominated either money or goods — does not carry
with it any other real estate, or slaves, or scrolls of
the Law, Ijccause these are not acquired as an inci-
dent to other things. The use of the phrase "inci-
dental to"("aggab") is extremely technical. All
sorts of ]iersonal jiroperty may be acquired withimt
any special ceremony of symbolic seizure as inciden-
tal to land; but lanil can not be acquired as inciden-
tal to perscmal property (Iloshen Mishpat, 248, 12;
see Ai.ie>atio.n1.
Where a bequest is made to A for life, and after
his ilcath to B, the latter is entitled to take only
what is in existence at the time of A's death (B. B.
137a): but if A is a lawfiil heir of the testator, B
receives nothing, because! a gift made to an heir is
inesumed to be given as an inheritance, and an in-
heritance can not be diverted from the lawful heir
45
THE JEWISH E^'CYCLOPEDIA
Bequest •
Berab, Jacob
ami his descendants (B. B. 129b: Hoslien Misli-
pat, 248, 1). If the bequest is to A, and after him
t(j B, and after B to C, the}" succeed
Bequest for one another; but if B dies during tlie
Life, and lifetime of A, the heirs of A inherit.
"on If B, however, is living at the time of
Condition." the death of A, he takes the property
because A is entitled to its use for life
only. If A has sold the property, he is guilty of a
moral, but not of a legal, wrong; because, although
he is only entitled to its use for life, B's riglit in tlie
remainder is not a vested right, but is contingent
upon the exislencc of the property at the time of
A"s death (Iloshen Mislipat, 24IS, 3). If, however,
the gift is specitically to A for a definite period,
and after that to B, a purchaser from A takes no title
to it, and at tlie e.xjiiration of the fixed period, B may
recover the property from such purchaser (/i. gloss).
If a bequest is made "on condition," the condition
must be fulfilled before the legatee is entitled to the
bequest. If the testator says, "A shall marry my
daughter, and he sliall be given two hundred dol-
lars," the condition is a coudition precedent, and A
can not receive the two himdred dollars before he
marries the daugliter (Hosheu Mishpat, 2.53, 12).
A specific bequest may be given to an heir in ad-
dition to that which he would otherwise inherit; if
the sick man says, "Giveniyscm A two hundred
dollars that belongs to him," heisentitled to thissum
as a specific bequest in addition to any other rights
he may have in his father's estate (" Yad, " Zekiyah u-
Mattanah, xi. 10; Hosben Mislipat, 253, S). and he
may reclaim it if it lias lieeu disposed of by the heirs
(Hosheu jMishpat, 252, 2, gloss); but if
Specific the legacy was not specific and the
and lieirs were merely charged with a
Demonstra- moral obligation to carry out the will
tive of tlie testator, their disposilion of the
Bequests, property is valid {ih.). If the testator
hasgiventhree legacies, and the estate
is not sutlicieut to pay them all, tliev abate j>ro rata
(B. B. 138a; "Yad,"" Zekiyah u-5Iattanah. x. 13),
unless he has indicated tlie order in which they
shall abate (Hoshen Mislipat, 253, 9).
If one bequeaths a siieciflc sum of mouey, to be
]>aid to the legatee out of a certain claim which is to
be collected from a debtor to the estate, the bequest
need not be paid until the debt is collected; this is a
demonstrative legacy jiayalile out of a certain fund
{ih. 11). A specific becjuest of two hundred dollars to
the poor, or a .scroll of the Law to the synagogue, is
presumed to be intended for the poor of the com-
munity to which the testator belonged or for the syna-
goguewbich he was in the lialiitof attending (ih. 23).
A specific beipiest of a "share" of the testator's
goods is generally taken to mean one-sixteenth, or,
according to .some authorities, one-fourth (ih. 24).
If one during his sickness has bequeathed his en-
tire property to sacred or charitable uses, or has
abandoned it all {see HtKKEiO and retained nothing
for himself, and he afterward recovers, his acts are
all voidable; but if he has retained anything for
himself, his bequest is equivalent to, and subject to
the laws of, an ordinary gift an<l can not be revoked
("Yad," Zekiyah uMattauah, ix. 19; Iloshen Mish-
uat, 250. 3, 4).
A bequest of a claim against ;inother person, or of
an instrument of indebtedness held against another
person, is valid even though none of the formali-
ties required in cases of assignment of claims has
been performed; provided, however, that the be-
quest was made in contemplation of death, or the
testator parted with all his estate (B. B. 147b;
"Yad," Zekiyah u-Mattanah, x. 2; Hoshen Mishiiat,
253, 20; see Assign.ment).
A bequest is revocable either b_y express words or
by implication. Where the testator, after having
bequeathed certain property to A, bequeaths the
same property to B, the former bequest to A is ini-
jiliedly revoked. If, however, the article bequeathed
has been delivered, or symbolic seizure has been
taken by the legatee, the bequest is irrevocable (B.
B. 151a; Hoshen Mishpat, 2.50, 13).
A bequest made by a testator under the belief
that he was about to die is revocable, no matter how
formally made (Hoshen Jlishpat, 250, 14; "Yad,"
Z(^kiyah u ]Mattanah, viii. 23). But in
Rev- some cases it has legal effect even
ocation. though it is revocable: thus, if the tes-
tator bequeathed his entire property
to his slave, he may, upon recovery, revoke the
bequest; but the slave remains a free man, because
through the gift he has become free, and freedom once
acquired can not be lost (Git. 9a; "Yad," Zekiyah
u-Mattanah, viii. 22; Hoshen Jlish pat, 250, 15; see
commentary, "Beer ha-Golah." ad hr.). In case,
however, the slave takes the beijuest under the fol-
lowing form, "I bequeath my property to you from
this day, in case I die," and tlie testator afterward
recovers, the slave has not aciiuired his freedom;
because the beiinest was made specifically on con-
dition of death, and, the condition not having been
fulfilled, no property rights pass to the slave (" Beer
ha-Golah." I.e.).
If a man is about to go on a sea voyage, or into
the desert with a caravan, or is being led to a place
of execution, or is suddenly stricken with a sickness
that steadily grows worse, his bequests ma<le under
such circumstances are subject to the rules of death-
bed be([uests. If he dies, his bequest is valid ; but
if his life is lu'cserved, it is revocable by him even
though there has been "kinyan,"and even though
he has not parted with all of his jiroperty ("Yad,"
Zekij-ah u-Mattanah, viii. 24).
Bmi.iooR.vPHv: SIiiiUkiii 'Anih. 7f.w)i< ii ^^i.■>ll|ul^. 88 a'iO-2,'ki,
281 t:t fieii. : Vad ha-lltizttkiiJi.yAkimiJi n-Mtittfiiitili, vi.-xli.;
ib. i\'(()l(r('if, vl.; Sii;ilsi-lijit'z, /)ir.< Sliisnixili, Hiilil. pft. XHti-
S39. Berlin, lK."):i; Ulocb, Das MiimL^ili-Tiilniuili.ii-hi Kih-
rccht, pp. 49-TII, Budapest, tSflO; .MiiviT, Die Hir)iif tier
iKi-aclUni, Atliiiicr viid ROmer, ii. 47s , ( .viy.; I.eipsic, ISHti;
Moses Mi'nilels,sohn, l{itualiie.iel2e dtr Judiii. Hi., Berlin,
1778; lioilenlu'imer, iMw Te.itamfnt. frefeld, 1847.
.1. si{ D. W. A.
BBRA : Kiii.g of Sodom; one of the five kings
constituting the confederacy under Amraphel
(Gen. xiv. 3). Ber. Babbah" 42 playfully inter-
prets the name as though contracted from "ben ra' "
(evil son).
r, G. B. L.
BERAB, JACOB [B. MOSES ?] : Talmudist
and ralibi; liorn at Mo(|ueda near Tnledo. Siiain, in
1474; died at Sated April 3, 1540. He was a pupil
of Isaac Aboab. When he fled from Spain to Tlem-
Berab
Berakot
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
46
9en, then the chief town of the Barbary states, the
Jewish commiiiiity there, consistiug of 5,000 fami-
lies, chose him for their rabbi, thoudi
Chosen he was but a youth of eighteen {Levi
Rabbi at ibn I.Iabib. ••Hesponsii." p. 298b). Evi-
Eighteen. deme of the great respect tliere paid
him is affordeii by the following lines
of Abraham Gavison (" " Omer lia Shikhah "):
" Say not that the lamp of the Law no lonser in Israel bumetb !
Jacob Berab hath come back— once more amon? us he sojoum-
elh!"
It is not liuown how long Berab remained in Al-
geria : but before 15'22 he was in Jerusjilem. There,
however, the social conditions were so oppressive
that he did not stay long, bat went with his pupils
to Egypt (Palestiiie letter, dated 1.522. in Luncz,
"• Jeriisalem. '' iii. 98). Some years later (1527) Berab.
now fairly well-to-do, resided in Damascus (Levi ibn
Habib, "Responsa." p. llTa); in 1.533 he became
rabbi at Cairo ((V<. 33a); and seversjl years after he
seems to have linally settled in Safed. which then
contained the largest Jewish commimity in Pales-
tine. It was there that Berab conceived the bold
idea which made him famous, that of establishing a
central spiritual Jewish power.
Berab's undertaking, to be judged correctly, must
be considered in connection with the whole current
of tliought of the j'ounger generation
Flan for of Spanish exiles. The overwhelm-
Ordination. ing catastrophe of 1492. which, in view
of the wretched condition of the Jews
in Germany and Italy, had threatened the very ex-
tinction of Judaism, produced phenomena which,
while apparently opposite in character, were but
natural consequences. Imaginative and sentimental
persons thought that the promised Jlessianic time
was approaching; they regarded their great suf-
ferings as the process of purgation, as the 'pan
n't."D. the eschatologic "birth-throes," of the Mes-
sianic era. The main representative of this mystical
tendencv was Solomon Molcho, whose tragic fate
by no means extinguished these fond hopes and the
desire for martyrdom. But the delusion had (juite
a different effect upon more practical natures. Ac-
cording to yet another view, the chief advocate of
which was ^Maimonides, the Jlessiah would not ap-
pear suddenly: the Jews would have to prepare for
him ; and the chief pre|)aratory step needed was the
establishment of a universally recognized Jewish
tribunal as their spiritual center.
Although the hopis of a ilessiah, cherished espe-
cially in Palestine, were fundamentally wild and ex-
travagant, they afforded the right person an excel-
lent opportunity to create for the Jews a recognized
central authority, spiritual — and perhaps, in time,
political — in character. There is no doubt that the
man for the purpose was Berab; he was the most
important and honored Talmudist in the Orient, and
was endowed w ith jierseverance amounting to ob-
stinacy. His plan was the reintroduction of the
old "Semikah" (ordination); and Safed he held
to be the best field for his activity. The lack of
unity in deciding and interpreting the Law must
cease. IS'o longer should each rabbi or each student
of the Law be allowed to decide upon the gravest
matters of religion according to his own judgment.
There should be only one court of appeal, to form
the highest authority on subjects relating to the
eompri^hension and interpretation of the Torah.
Thouirh this idea seemed new, it was not without
precedent. The Sanhedrin in tannaitic times was,
in a certain sense. Berab's model. But the Sanhe-
drin consisted of such men as could trace their ordi-
nation back to Moses; yet for a thousand years no
such men had existed. Berab, however, was equal
to the diflicuUy. ^Maimonidcs. he was aware, had
taught that if the S!\ges in Palestine would agree to
ordain one of themselves, they could do so, and that
the man of their choice could then ordain others.
Although Maimonidcs' opinion had been strongly
opposed by Xahmanidesand others, and JIaimonides
himself hiul not been quite positive in the matter,
Berab had so much self-reliance that he was not to
l>e deterred from his great undertaking by petty
eonsiderations. Jloreover. the scholars at Safed had
contidence in him. and had no doubt that, frotn a
rabbinical standpoint, no objection to his plan coidd
be raised. Thus in 1338 twenty-five rabbis met in
assembly at Safed and ordained Berab, giving him
the riirht to ordain any number of others, who would
then fcirm a Sanhedrin. In a discourse in the syna-
gogue at Safed. Berab defeniled the legality of his
ordination from a Talmudic standpoint, and showed
the nature of the rights conferred upon him. On
hearing of this event most of the other Palestinian
scholars expressed their agreement, and the few who
discountenanced the innovation had not the courage
to oppose Berab and his following.
To obtain the good-will of the Jews of the Holy
City, the first use that Berab made of his new dig-
nity was to ordain the chief rabbi at Jerusalem, Levi
b. Jacob ibn Habib. Since the latter
Dispute had for many years been a personal
with Ibn opponent of Berab, and the two had
Habib. had many disputes in regard to rab-
binical (iecisions and approbations,
Berab's ordination of Ibn Habib shows that he
placed general above personal interests. Moreover,
the terms in which Berab officially announced Ibn
Habib's ordination were kindly ones. Berab, there-
fore, expected no opposition from that quarter; but
he was mistaken. Ibn Habib's personal animus was
not appeased, but rather stimulated, by his ordina-
tion. He considered it an insult to his dignity and
to the dignity of Jerusjilem that so important a
change should be effected without consultation of
the Jerusalem scholars. He did not content him-
self with an oral protest, but sent a commimicatiim
to the scholars of Safed, in which he set forth the
illegality of their proceeding and declared that the
innovation involved a risk to rabbinical Judaism,
since the Sanhedrin might use its sovereign author-
ity to tamper with the calendar.
Although Ibn Habib's tone was moderate, every
one could read between the lines that he opposed the
man Berab as well as his work. An illustration of
this is alTorded by the remarks made by Ibn Habib
when he maintained at length that the scholars of
Safed were not qualified to ordain, since they were
not unprejudiced in the matter, and when he hinted
that Berab was not worthy to transmit ordination.
Berab was surprised by the peril in which his
47
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berab
Berakot
undertaking was now placed ; and, embittered by Ibn
Habib's personal attacks, he could not adhere to a
merel}' objective refutation, but indulged in person-
alities. In answer to Ibn Habib's observation, that
a sacred ordination must not proceed from learning
alone, but from holiness also, Berab replied: "I
never changed my name: in the midst of want and
despair I went in God's way" (Ibn Habib, "Re-
sponsa," p. 2!i8b) ; thereby alluding to the fact that,
when a youth, Ilin Habib had lived for a year in
Portugal as a Christian under an assumed name.
The strife between Berab and Ibn Habib now
became wholly personal, and this had a bad effect on
the plan; for Berab had many admirers but few
friends. Moreover, Berab's life was endangered.
The ordination had been represented to the Turkish
authorities as the first step towaril the restoration of
the Jewish state, and, since Berab was rich, the
Turkish officials would have ,showed him scant
mercy in order to lay hands on his wealth. Berab
was forced to go to Egypt for a while, but though
each moment's delay might have cost him his life,
he tarrieil hmg enough to ordain four rabbis, so that
during his absence they might continue to exercise
the function of ordination. In the mean time Ibn
Habib's following increased; and when Berab re-
turned, he found his plan to be hopeless. His death
some years later put an end to the dispute which
had gradually arraj'ed most of the Palestinian schol-
ars in hostile lines on the question of ordination.
It is known positively that Joseph b. Ephruim
Caro and Jloses of Traui were two of the four men
ordained by Berab. If the other two were Abraham
Shalom and Israel de Curial, then Caro was the only
one who used his privilege to ordain another, Moses
Alsheik, who, in turn, ordained Hayyim Vital Cala-
brese. Thus ordination might be traced for four
generations.
With the exception of some short contributions to
the works of others, the only one of Berab's numer-
ous works ever published was his " SheOlot u-Teshu-
bot" (Questiousand Answers), responsa, Venice, 1663;
but the Amsterdam edition of the rabbinical Bible
(1724-28) contains notes by Berab on Isaiah and
Jeremiah.
BiBLiOKRAPnT : Azulai, *;)ic?ii ha-Gedolim, ed. Wilna, i. 815;
Confurte. Kore ha-Ditrot^ see Index in ed. Cassel : Frumkin,
Eben Yerushakiim. pp. 'M-W. Wilna, 1874 ; Fiienn, in Hii-
Karmrl. il. 4SU-404, r>7i;-oS(); idi-iii, K' msii Yisnul, pp. 539,
.54(); (iriitz, Gcsi-h. tier JiiiIdi. M i-d., 1.\. lu', •.",l((-398; Jo.st,
Gc^ch. de!* Jiuliutinons utnl Sciiifr Sr],liu, iii. 1:.*8, 129;
Michael, Or iM-lhniuiin. j). KKii); Stwnschni-idHr, ('<i(. ItiM.
col. 1194; Zedncr, Cut. II, Ur. iJ.wA.s llrit. Mus. p.iitiT; Zunz.
Z. O. pp. 2riii, ~hil. Tlif must important source of iiiforniHtinn
fur tilt' disinite about ordination is Levi b. Jacob ibn Habib,
Rfsi)niis,i. pp. 277a, 32.8a, Venice, 156.5; S. P. Rabbinowitz,
Muzai^i Golulu see Index.
L. G.
BEBACHAH ("blessing"; A. V., Beracali) :
1. A Benjamite who came to David and joined his
forces at Ziklag (I Clii-on. xii. 3). 2. A valley
where Jehoshaphat and his men assembled after hav-
ing despoiled the Ammonites and Moabites (II Chron.
XX. 26). It is identical with the modern Berekut,
west of Tekoa (Buhl, " Geographic des Alten Palil-
stina," p, 97),
G. G. B. L.
BERACHAH, "THE HERO": A Polish
Jewish soldier who was killed in the battle near
Moscow, in the Polish war against Russia in 1610.
He was the son of Aaron ha-Kadosh (" The Martyr ")
of Tishovitz (probably Tyshovtzy, government of
Lublin), and served in the cavaliy, "on three horses."
In the responsa of Rabbi Meirof Lul)lin, and of .Joel
Silrkes (n 3). detailsare given concerning his bi'averv
and daring, which gained for him the admiration of
the Cos.sacks, who suruamed him "The Hero." A
reckless rider, he made manj- attempts to break the
enemy's line, but was struck and killed by a bullet.
The Cossacks much lamented his death, afteiward
burning his body; when on the following day the
Poles, aidetl by the Cossacks, won the battle against
the Mu.scovites, they recaptured his horse and helmet
and quarreled among themselves for the possession
of his effects.
These facts came to light through the testimony
of Moses ben Joseph, who, in the name of eleven
Jews who accompanied the army (probably as sut-
lers), testified in the case of Berachah's widow
(" 'agunah ") before the rabbis.
BIBLIOORAPHV: Meir of Lublin, licn/Mnsa, No. 137; Joel
Siirkes (n-3), Responsa No. .57.
H. R.
BERAH DODI (nn ma): Three piyyutim
forming the Gkul.\h in the morning service of the
first two days of Passover, and of Saturday between
the first and the last days of this feast (^iin riDt,"
lyion). Each of these piyyutim begins with the in-
itial phrase of Cant. viii. 14, having regard to the
association of the Song of Solomon with the Festi-
val (see Megillot). Poems in this form were writ-
ten in various epochs by Benjamin ben Samuel of
Coutance, Prance, eleventh century ; Shalibethai ben
Moses of Rome, 10.50; Moses ha-Sofer ben Benjamin
of Rome, thirteenth century; Menahem ben Abi;i-
hani of Imola, fourteenth century; and Joab ben
Nathan ben Daniel of Rome, fourteenth century.
The melody to which the verses are recited in
some German congregations is that of "'Al ha-Ri-
shonim " ; but in the more extended " Poli.sh " use, the
melody sung is one of the most effective of all the
rhapsoilies emanating from the wandering precen-
tors of two centuries past. Although clearly of
such comparatively late origin and undoubteilly
coming from a Jew of northern Europe, it pre-
sents that combination of the European minor mode
with the second Byzantine ecclesiastical mode (often
called the "Oriental chromatic") frequently to be
noticed in the finer folk-songs of the Levant, parlic-
\ilarly in those which bear the impress of an artistic
influence (see Boui'gault-Ducomlray, "Trente Melo-
dies Populaires de Grece et d'Orieut,"- ji. 84, note).
The figuration, too, is the same as that in many
Levantine, and also Arabic and Persian, songs (see
music on p. 48).
BiBLKKiRAPiiv: Baer, Ba'al TeftUah, No. 788; iKracI, Iv. 44.
F. L. C.
BERAKAH. See Benedictions; Synagogue
MrsK.
BERAKOT ("blessings"): The name of the first
treatise of Seder Zeraim, the first Order of the Tal-
mud. By the term "Berakot" a special form of
prayer is understood, that begins with the words
" Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the
Universe." The treatise consists of Mishnah and
Berakot
niE JKWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
48
Gemara; tlic latter in two forms, the Babylonina
(Habli) and the Palestinian or Wcslciu (DiBcue Ma-
'aniba), lirtlcr known by tlu' name " Ycruslialnii."
Tlir !Mislinali. without any intiixliiitorv ivmarks,
without any ]>ievious statrmcnt that the Law de-
mands the reading of the Shenia' in tlie evening, be-
((•) blessings (ni313t- Of the nine chapters of the
treatise the first three are devoted to the Shema', the
next two to jirayer, and the last four to blessings, as
follows:
Chapter i. : Detemilnps the time and the manner of tlie rejul-
iug of Shema' i"Keriat Shema"") in the evening and in the
BERAH DODl
Andante assai modercdo.
Be ■ rah
Be - lov
ores.
do - di! 'at! shet-teh-poz
ed!... haste; Do thou come hack
a. - ha - bat k'lu - le
un - • to... Thine own;.
nu;
Mal-
These
$
^ h f*
3E
:^
^^^
=t:
> *
3S:
3J=
Ta - wau ha - re - sha - 'ah sho - be - nu to - la - le - nu: ha -
of pow - er, with • out heart, how e - vil they en - treat us : des ■
I
ke
men
mf
r-=t«^=cc
221
3^=^
TOS.
troy.
we - ka - 'a - ke
and root them up.
0^f
a' biz - za
from . .
tarn.
off..
mit - til -
our. . . .
in«:
->— V-
IS ^
S__!,
r*— *— ^
=g^
le - nu: ha - kem tu
sa - cred site: raise up Thy strong
mnentoso. ~.
re-ka nag - gen she-ti - le - nu, .
hold, that we once more may sing.
gins with the question," From what time is it allowed
to read the evening Shema'?" By adopting this
method the author or compiler of the
The Mishnah, Judah haXasi, clearly re-
Mishnah. fleets the general opinion of the Tal-
mudic teachers that the Torahwith its
traditional interpretation is the undisputed ba.sis of
the oral law. Another imjiortant principle is im-
plied in this question ; namely, that the religious
day is reckoned by the Law fr(uu evening to eve-
ning, and that the reading of the Shema' of the eve-
ning is therefore the tirst religious duty of the day.
The !Mishnah Berakot treats of the three eleiuentsof
the ritual: ((0 Shema' (yoL"). (*) prayer (nSsri'. and
mornin?. and the number of blessings which precede and follow
the readlnir.
Chapter ii.: On "kawwanah" (intention and attention i; in-
tention to fullll a divine command 1" mizwab "), and altentit)n
to the words read.
Chapter iii. : On verses of total or partial e.xemption fmm this
duty.
Chapter iv. : On the prayer ( " TeflUah," " 'Aiiiidah," or " Shf-
inoneh "Esreh") of the daily and the additional serrtci-s
("musaf ").
Chapter v. : On the necessity of prepnilnp for prayer and
guarding against error, especially with regard to additions to or
deviations from the ordinarj- form of the prayer.
Chapter vi. : Blessings before and after partaking of any kind
of food.
Chapter vli. : Form of grace for a company consisting of three
members or more.
49
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berakot
Chapter vili. : On various differences between the schools of
Shammai and Hlllel with regard to certain reg-ulations at meals.
Chapter ix. : Blessings relating to events which cause awe,
joy, or grief.
In a few places, such as tb. ii. 6, 7, and ix. !>, tlieso
subject.'! have been interrupted by appaientl_v for-
eigu matter. In reality, however, there is alway.s a
certain relation between these interpolations and the
principal theme of the chapter. The interpolations
are oiiginal, like the rest of the Mish-
Interpola- uah, and do not nccessarilj' belong to
tions Are a later- period. Z. Frankel, however.
Original, is of the opinion that ii. .5-8 was added
by later authorities; but his argument
is not conclusive (see preface to Talmud Yerushalnii,
ed. Z. Frankel, Vienna, 1874, aud his "Darke ha-
Mishuah," p. 364). The treatise fitly concludes with
the following two regulations: (1) the name of God
to be employed iu ordinaiy greetings, in order to
emphasize the belief in the existence of God, the
Creatorand Ruler of the universe; (2) in the responses
the phrase " from world to world " to be substituted
for the phrase " from [the beginning] of the world,"
in order to emphasize the belief in the existence of
another world or life beyond the present one. The
present division of the treatises into chapters and the
order of the chaiJters seem to be the same as fixed
by Judah ha-Nasi, since with few exceptions the
Palestinian and the Bab3ionian recensions of the
Talmud have the same division and order. Hence
the rule, " there is a fixed order of the Jlishuah "
(njE'D^ IID K"), is a principle adopted in the Tal-
mud. As regards the treatise Berakol, Raslii seems
to have had in his copy of the Talmud the order of
ch. iii. and iv. inverted (see Tos. to Bab. Talm. 17b,
beginning iriDL" 'O). The subdivision of the chaj)-
ters into paragraphs or Mishnahs does not seem t(j
have ever been fixed (Z. Frankel, "Darke ha-Mish-
nah," p. 265).
The Mishnah contains biit a few semi-haggadic
elements (i. 5, ii. 2, v. 5, and ix. 5); and noteworthy
are the midrashic remarks on Deut. vi. 5; Ps. cxix.
136; and Prov. xxiii. 22.
Tlie Tosefta Berakot has tlie same order as the
Mishnah. Following the division of chapters in the
edition of Zuckermandel, ch. i. corresponds to ch. i.
of theMislinah; ch. ii. toch.ii.-iii. ; ch. iii. to ch. iv,-
V. ; ch. iv. to ch. vi.-vii. ; ch. vi. to ch. viii. ; ch. vii.
to ch. ix. There remains only ch. v..
The which does not correspond to any eha|i-
Tosefta. ter in the !Mislinah; it contains regu-
lations with regard to the "kiddush "
(sanctification) on Friday evening, in case the meal
commences in the afteinoon, and rules for the guiil
ance of guests at a banquet. The Tosefta includes
more haggadic elements than the Mishnah (com-
pare end of ch. i. :ch. iv. 14-lG). Tlie Palestinian Ge-
mara seems to expound the Tosel'ta as well as tlie
Mislinah, as is illustrated by the following instance:
"In Jlislmah i. 4. ' in the morning two blessings are
recited before the .Shema', a long one and a short one
..." AVhere they [the sages] ordained a long one,
it must not be shortened; and, vice versa, a short
one must not be rejilaced by a long one. Where a
blessing witli a concluding formula has been or-
dained, that formula must not lie oniilted; and
III.— 4
where it has not been ordained it must not be added."
This Jlishnah is duly expounded in both the Baby-
lonian and the Palestinian Gcmaras. The Tosefta
(i. 5) adds : " Where they ordained to bow down, this
must not be neglected; and the bowing down must
not take place where they have not ordained it."
This paragraph is not noticed in the Babylonian
Gemara. but is fully discussed in the Palestinian
(\er. i. 3c et se(j.). (See Adou.\tion.) Another in-
stance is the jiaragraph on the blessings before the
performance of a divine command (mizwah) in ch.
vii. of the Tosefta and the corresponding section on
the same subject inch. ix. of the Palestinian Gemara
(Yer. ix. 14a).
The Gemara supplements and fully discusses the
laws (Halakot) mentioned in the Jlishnah, and em-
ploys to a much wider extent the method of intro-
ducing extraneous matter whenever
The the subject under discussion gives oc-
Gemara. casion for such interruptions by a text
quoted, a name mentioned, or a lesson
taught. This characteristic of the Gemara is more
apparent in the Babylonian than in the Palestinian
recension.
Of the haggadic topics thus interpolated in the
Babylonian Gemara the following may be mentioned :
(1) On the divine sympathy with Israel (p. Sal.
(2) On sufferings, which are dirided into those sent as pun-
ishment, and undeserved sufferings stent as trials, termed " suf-
ferings of love" ("yesurin shel ahaliah") (3a).
(3) On ini-isible evil agents ("niazzlkin ") (Bal.
(4) On the method of divine retribution (Ta).
(.5) On the relation between God and Israel, based on mutual
love. Israel expresses this feeling by communing with God in
prayer and by wearing the Tefillin containing the declaration
of God's unity and sovereignty. Accordingly the idea of God's
love toward Israel is lltruratively described in the dictum, "(Jod
prays— desires to show iirti-v— and lays teflllin, containing
declarations of Israel's ilistinctiou " (tia, 7a).
(6i On the status of the dead, and their intercourse with the
living (18b).
(7) The temporary deposition of the nasi Riibban Gamaliel In
Jamnia (p. 27).
(8) Midrashic account of the prayer of Hannah, and the inter-
cession of Moses for Israel Cila, b).
(9) King Alexander Janna?us and Simon ben Sheteh (48a).
(10) Midrashic account of Og, king of Ba-shan (o4b).
(11) A legendary illustration of the dictum, " All dreams fol-
low the interpretation given to them " (55a, b).
(12) Death of R. Akiba (Bib).
(13) On hospitality (6.3b).
With regard to the text of the Bible, remarks are
met with on the dots over each letter of the word
K">17, Ps. xxvii. 13 (4a); on tlie absence of a verse
beginning with the letter " nun" in Ps. cxlv. (p. 4b);
on the division of the Psalms (!)b). T(.-.xts wrongly
quoted are: Gen. vii. 23. nona ^\]}^ DTXD. instead
of nona nyo-iNOip- 6ia); anainL"snniSnjpKx-iS.
instead of njlDin njp^N l^'V I 'Sam. ii. 11. Here
probably the words "to Hamah to his
Books liouse " are taken as identical with the
Cited iu jihrase "after his house." Besides the
Bab. Bible, other booksare mentioned in the
Gemara. Babylonian (it iiiara : A Book of Hag-
gadot (NmJST N1DD). 23a; "Hilkot
Derek Erez " (Rules of Good .Manners), 32a, and
"Sefer Refu'ot" (Book of I{cniedie.s). 10b.
The Palestinian Gemara includes a short accotint
of the temporary deposition of the nasi Rabban
Gamaliel (iv. 7c et seq. ; somewhat differently
Berakot
Berdyczewski
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
50
Darrated in Bab. 276): the legend of Mt-uahera ben
Hezekiah (the predestined Messiah) and his mother
(ii. 5a); the meeting of King .Janna?vis and Simon
ben Slietah (vii. lib: paralleled in Bab. 48a), on
■which incident the Palestinian Talmud (vii. lib)
qufites from the Book of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus).
"la'tnn D-T:3 pai ICOnni rri'Di'D C e.xalt her, and
she will raise thee and give thee a place between
princes"), where Bab. (Ber. 48a) quotes from Prov-
erV)s (iv. 8) ; the controversy between
The R. Simlai and the Minim on the use of
Palestinian the plural in the phrase " Let us make "
Gemara. (Gen. i. 26) (Ver. Ber. viii. 12d); and
the death of R. Akiba (ix. 14b et seq.,
pandlel to Bab. 61b).
Both Gemaras include a goodly number of original
pra}"ers, most of which have found a place in the daily
pniyer-book. It is noteworthy that in the Yeru-
shaimi the form for niVOn m313 (blessings prece-
ding the performance of divine precepts, "mizwot ")
is given, Ijul is omitted in the Babylonian Gemara.
The prayers do not diJTer essentially in the two
Gemanis, either in form or in substiince (compare
Wiesner, ■"Gib'at Yerushalayim," pp. 7 et seq.).
Each Gemara closes with the dictum, " Scholars in-
crease peace in the world," etc.
As to the Halakah, the dictates of the Mishnah
seem to ha\e been followed in Palestine more rigidly
than in Babylonia. Thus with regard to the reading
of the evening Shema', which, according to the
Mishnah (i. 1), must not take place before the com-
mencement of actual night, if it have been read before
that time, it must, according to the Yerushalmi, be re-
peated at the proper time (Yer. Ber. i.. beginning);
no indication of this is given in the Babylonian Ge-
mara (see Rashi on Ber., beginning).
There are no signs in the treatises of later inter-
polations. Wiesner, however ("Gibeat Yerusha-
layim," p. 8. Vienna. 1871). suspects Karaite inter-
polations in the Yerushalmi (ii. 5a) for the purpose
of revealing the Rabbiuites in a bad light, as pray-
ing without devotion. If his argument be correct, a
pa.s.S!ige in the Babylonian Gemara (]). 6). in which
certain pious acts seem to be ridiculed as resulting
in no good, may likewise be suspected as of Karaite
origin. See Bexedictios.
Bibliography: Z. Frankel. Dnrkc ha-3Iishnah {Hodogetica
in Migchiiam), Leipsic, 1859 : Mem. ■c'':'ii-n ni3;d {Intro-
tiuctio in Tdlm. Hi€ir>goli/niitaiitim),\>^~0: •':;S2'i"»^ '^icS."',
ed. Z. Frankel. with commeDlary. 1871 : J. E. Wiesner, r^2i
C'^UM-\-, 1S71: Thr Mishnah: Eiiflitctn Treatisfs, trans-
lated liy D. .\. De Sola and M. J. Raphall, London, 1S4.5; Bera-
hnt. With (Jennan translation and commentary l>y E. M. Pinner.
Berlin. 1.S4- '( «'</.: Priisjwi'tuit ami !<jifi-inirn of an Eng-
liV/i Transhitiim iif the Mi:<1tnah. by S. S. K<ibn. Cambridge,
Mass., U-S. .\.; Berakot. translated into (lennan by I.J.
Rat)e, Halle, l.i"; .-i:-»3 rrD'2 <Tituhi.< TalnuutiirU!-: i'n ywo
Agitur Oe Bene)iictianihn.t. ((<•., Atijccta Ver^itmc Latina.
Oxford. Vmi; I. H. Weiss. ri:-<D 'D- rvy.:':. Vienna, ISttt;
LihlfUte Ma^etJnt. eonlaining Bcraknt. Pcah. and Altot.,
Rejrgio. IsOfl: •rS-.rn* -iic^* riD-'3 . with commentary by
Solomon Sirilio. ed. M. Lehman, Mayence, IST.i; B. Bather.
Ahohal ^iiin ire-1'erufhalaiiim "Berahut," Wilna, 1901.
.1. SH. M. F.
BERCHIN, JONAH BOKISOVICH: Writer
on early Hussian-.Jewish history ; born at Krichev,
government of Mobile V, 1865; died at Moscow Aug.,
1889. Up to the age of fourteen he received a
strictly Orthodox education in the house of his
uncle, where he became familiar with the Hebrew
language and literature. He then entered the Agri-
cultural School at Gorigorgetzk, and after gradua-
tion studied at the High School of Minsk and the
Polytechnicum of Riga. In 1888 he became par-
alytic, and was sent for treatment to Moscow,
where he died.
Berchin's historical researches are valuable con-
tributions to early Jewish-Russian history. Hepuli-
lished : " Istorieheskaya Zamyetka, " dealing with the
sect of Shabbethai Zebiaud with Galiatovski's book.
"Messia Pravedny," in "Voskhod" for May and
June, 1883 ; " Iz Davno Minu vshavo, " in " Voskhod "
for July, Aug., Xov., Dec, 1883; "Yevreiski
Dokument," etc., in " Kievskaya Starina," Det ,
1884: "Sozhzhenie Lyudei v Rossii v XUI.-X^'III.
Stolyetii," in "Russkaya Starina," 1885, p. 45;■'Izv-
yestie o Yevrejakh v Kievye," in Voskhotl " for
July and Aug., 1887; "D'va Vracha Yevrei pri
Moskovskom Dvorve," in "Voskhod" for !March,
1888.
Bibuographt: S. VengeroT, Kritiku-Biiigraficheslii Shn-ar,
ill.. S.V., St. Petersburg, 18SB.
H. R.
BERDYANSK: District town and seaport in
the government of Taurida Ciimea, Russia, on the
northwestern coast of the Sea of Azof, at the Berdy-
ansk estuary, near the mouth of the rivulet Berd\ ■
anka. It was built b^' the efforts of Prince >[. >
Vorontzov in 1827, and soon became a lively litti,
port, the trade to a considerable extent, especially
the export of grain, being in the hands of the .lews.
In 1892 the Jewish population of the town was 1,6.53
and the Karaite population 243, of a general total
of 21.9.59. In the district the Jews numbered 3,416
in the general total of 227,780.
Bibliography: Entziklopedicheski Slovar, St. Petersburg.
n. R.
BERDYCHEV (Polish, BERDYCZEW) : A
city in the government of Kiev, Russia: in histor-
ical and ethnographical relations part of Volhynia.
It has one of the largest .Tewish communities
in Russia, and is often called the "Jerusalem of
Volhynia." It is difficult to determine the time
when Jews tirst settled there. From the sixteenth
century till the end of the eighteenth, Berdychev
was under the dominion of Poland; and the Polish
family of Tishkewitz, the hereditary owners of that
domain, ruled over it as thcj' pleased. In 1593 it is
, stated that the owners of the "new town" of Berdy-
i chev farmed out to a certain Jew the mill- and
i bridge-taxes. In the eighteenth century the Jewish
I population increased considerably, and a Jewish
I " Kahal " (government of the community) was estab-
lished, as in other large cities of Poland. A trade-
] union of Jewish tailors was formed in 1732 with
the permission of the lady of the domain. Tereza
(Theresji) Zawisha, who granted them autonomy and
exemption from the rule of the Kahal. In 1794
Prince Radziwill permitted the Jews to elect their
own civil judges in addition to the ecclesiastical
court.
In 1765 King Stanislaus of Poland decreed that
some great fairs be held during each year at Berdy-
chev ; and from that time the city became a com-
I mercial center, attracting the Jews from all parts of
51
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berakot
Berdyczewski
the country. At tlie government record office of
Kiev some statistical data concerning the Jewish
population of that period are preserved, according
to which the numbers of Jews at Berdychev were:
in 1765, 1,320; in 1784, 1,819; in 1787, 1,.504; in
1789, 1,951. According to their occupations, 246
were liquor-dealers, 452 house-owners, 134 mer-
chants, 188 artisans, and 150 clerks, together with
56 idlers. These figures may be considered too low ;
the taxes of the Polish government being heavy, as
many persons as could possibly do so avoided lieing
placed on the registers.
At the end of the eighteenth century, when the
movement of the Hasidim among the Jews of Poland
was at its height, Berdychev Ijccame the metropolis
of the Hasidim of Volhyuia, owing to the fact that
about 1780 the celebrated "Zaddik," Levi-Isaac, the
author of "Kedushat Levi" {The Holiness of Levi),
of 62,283. There were seven synagogues and sixty-
two houses of prayer.
Bibliography: Rcycftji i A'ndpfei, No. 694, St. Petershiirg.
1899; Balinski i Lipinski. Staroziitna Pnlsha. il. ite la'j ;
Arcldv Yiqid Zaixuliioi linssii, v. 53, UK, 6118, Kiev, 1S)(I;
Bolshaya, Entziklopcilia Pod Redaktziel Yuzhakoca, iii.
74, St. Petersburg, 1901.
H. I!. S. M. D.
BERDYCZEW. See BEnDYcnEV.
BERDYCZEWSKI, MICAH JOSEPH :
Hebieu- aulhcir; born in 1865. He represcnls. lo
some e.\tent, the Nietzsche school of philosophy in
the Hebrew literature of the present day. The .sou
of the rabbi of Bershad, Podolia, Berdyczewski re-
ceived a Talniudical training at home and later at the
jeshibah of VoLOznix, of which institution he
wrote a sliort history ("Ha-Asif," iii. 231-241) and a
somewhat fantastic description ("Ha-Kerem," 1888,
GREAT SYXAGOGtJE AT BERDYCHEV.
(From a photopraph.)
made it his headquarters. He created a great com-
motion by his teachings and by his quarrels with the
"Mitnagdim." It is probable that the above-men-
tioned permission for tlie election of separate judges,
given by Prince Radziwill in 1791, was secured by
the Hasidim, who sought to emancipate themselves
from the jurisdiction of the Kahal and the rabbis of
tlie Jlitnagdim. Great masses of people then flocked
to Berdychev to see Levi-Isaac, who ruled there
until 1810. At this period a printing-establishment
for Hebr<-w books was in existence in the city.
In 1793, at the second division of Poland, Berdy-
cliev, with other cities of Volhynia, came under
Russian domination. During the reign of Emperor
Nicholas I, , Berdychev was tlie largest commercial
center in the Jewish pale. Afterward commerce di-
minished, and the poverty of the Jews there increased
accordingly. Of all cities in the pale, Berdychev
has the largest proportion of Jewish inhabitants. In
1899 there were 50,460 Jews in a total population
pp. 63 1'< «('/.). His acquaintance with modern litera-
ture, which ho formed clandestinely in his younger
days, soon led him to abandon his former conserva-
tism and to become a freethinker. Berdyczewski,
who now resides at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and
is engaged mainly with literary labors.is a prolific
writer, wliose productions, though not always clear,
have exerted a certain influence among the young
Hebrew nationalists. He is incensed against his
former favorites, the Talniudical sages, because
they thought more of the ycsliibah or high school
of Jariinia than of the fortress and citadel of
Jerusalem. He thinks that King Herod was the real
" I'ebermensch," the intellectual giant who could,
by his aggressive and magnificent plans, have regen-
erated Israel if he had not been thwarted by the
dwarfed religious scruples of the rabbis of his time.
Even the last Biblical liberators, Ezra and Nelie-
miah, displease him, because they obtained the de-
liverance of their nation by tears and fasting (see
Berea
Berechiah
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
52
review of Berdyczewski's latest works— which were
published in Warsaw bv a soiiety of Berlin students
—in "Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." Xov. 9. 1900; also
Tn Proph6te Neo-Hebreu," iti '•L'Univers Israe-
lite." V. 5G).
Besides the works above mentioned and articles
scattered throughout the Hebrew periodical litera-
ture for the last twelve or fifteen years. Berdyczew-
ski also wrote two novels. '•Mahanaim," — in which
he seems to have described himself; ami " Mibayit
u-Mil.uiz " ; both published by the Tushia Society
in Warsaw, 1900. He was also for some time editor
of the " Bet Midrash " a supplement to the ~ Bet
Ozar haSifrut." which had several enlightened rab-
bis among its contributors.
Berdyczewski wrote in Gerniiin a philosophical
work. " L'eber den Zusammenhaug Zwischen Ethik
und Aesthctik " (in the series " Berner Studien zur
Philosophic und Ihrer Geschichte." published by
Ludwig Stein, vol. is.), Bern. 1897.
BiBLiOGRAPHT : Scfcr Zikkaioii. p. 8, Warsaw, 1890; Allg.
Zeit. d. Jud. Nov. 9, IStti; L't'uirers Israelite, vol. v-
No. 12.
H. R.
P. Wi.
BEREA : Place where Bacchides encamped (I
Mace. i.\. 4). From the context it would seem to' be
near Jerusalem, though some scholare have identilied
it on unsatisfactory evidence with Beeroth (Josh. ix.
17 : I Esd. V. 19).
J. JR. G. B. L.
BEBEBI (<3l3and '3^3: in Greek, ,3vpf,J'. " Sit-
zungsberichte der Akademie zu Berlin." 1885, p. 681).
Title of learning in the period of the Tannaim, con-
ferred especially" upon scholars who Avere the sons of
scholars, or upon members of the family of the pa-
triarch. The explanation of the word as a com-
pound of »3 (•' house") and '31 ("rabbi"), meaning
" belonging to the school of an eminent teacher "
(see Jastrow, "Diet." «.r.). is not obvious; for one
could not think of the patriarch Rabban Gamaliel
as being addressed by the title "student." which is
■what "Berebi" would thusreally signify (Kid. 32b\
It may be assumed that " Berebi " is a compound of
T3 ("son") in Palestinian Arsimaic, and '3T
("rabbi"), a formation analogous to "ben horin "
(son of a free man) for "a free man," In the same
way "son of a scholar" is here used instead of
"scholar." One must distinguish from this word
"Berelji." as a title, the phrase occasionally used
"Had Berebi " (a student), which actually does mean
"one of the school." It is found only in the time of
the Amoraim; while Berebi as a title is tannaitic.
Among the scholars who bore the title "Berebi,"
Bar Kappara must be specially named. He is given
the designation "Berebi" whenever mentioned by
his first name, Eleazar, in order to distinguish him
from his father, who bore the sjime name (Hul. 2Sb.
56b, 84b, etc.). Yalkut Deut. 923 tjuotes from Hul.
lib and Mak. 5b once "Eleazar ha-Kappar." and
once '313 (so it must be read instead of '3^, or T'3,
as ed. Salonica has it); whereas in the two Talmudic
passages referred to the name of the tainia has
dropped out, and only '313 or '3^3 remains, which
has misled some scholars to assume the existence of
a tanna bv the name of Berel>i.
BIBLI0C.R.4P1IV: Chajes, in Zeilschriftfllr Wi»<emehaftUc)ie
Thoihiiiie. xliii. *«. 281; Heilpriu, Seder lia-D<iivt. eU.
Wilua, U. (*>; Jastrow, Dicd'niui!/. p. IsSI (the Taliuud pas-
sage quoI<Hl here— B. M. )wa— Uties not speak of the bestowal
of the title "Bervbi," but of tlie oomiuon ordination of a
rabbi ; the letter 2 in '3iD is dependent on ttie prvieding
verb ^TtDNi; Kohut, in'Arucli OimiAettim. ii. ISi; Levy,
Xeuhelir. WOrterhuehx idem, ChaldiiixclieK nTtrterhuch,
i. 2<iU: Euting. in Sitzungi-beriehte, I.e., p. BtO; J. Mendels-
sohn, in H.I i.v7i/io(, i. l.^t^lSO.
.1. SK. L. G.
BERECHIAH I., R.: A Palestinian scholar of
the second amoraic generation (third century), al-
wavs cited without the accompaniment of patro-
nvmic or cognomen. Once only (Lev. R. i. 4) is he
iiuoted as Berechiah Saba (the Elder), by R. Abin
III., the coutemponiry of Berechiah II. ; and in tliis
instance tlie designation "Saba" is used to distin-
guish between the namesakes. Nothing is known
of Bereehiah's life, and comparatively little pre-
served of his teachings, though it is quite probable
that some of his sayings are attributed to his later
and more renowned namesiike (compare Frankel,
" Mebo." 69b). A discussion of his with R. Hiyya of
Kefar Tehumin is reported on the merit of the stud}-
of the Torah. One of them teaches that the whole
of this wt)ild does not equal the value of a single
passage of the Law; and the other argues, "Even the
discharge of all the Biblical commandments is not
equal to the merit of mastering a single passage of
the Law " (Yer. Peah i. 15d). Rabbah b. Xahmau. a
contemporary of Rabbah b. Huna. transmits in the
name of Berechiah a homily on the continuance of
the protective influence of patriarchal merit ("zekut
abot"; Yer. Sanh. x. 27d; compare Lev. R. xxxvi,
6. where the names of the rabbis are badly cor-
rupted). R. Tanhiim b. Hanilai, the disciple of R.
Joshua ben Levi (B. K. 5.5a), too, reports Haggadot
in the name of Berechiah (Tan., Tazria', 9; Pesik,
R. xxi. 110a). Bacher denies the existence of this
Berechiah, and to sustain his opinion changes the
chronological order in the passages quoted (" Ag.
Pal. Amor." iii. 351. 354. note 3; 6~28, note 7).
BIBLIOGRAPHT: Frankel, J/fN>, 69b; Weiss, Dor, iii. 91, note
17.
J. sit. S. il.
BERECHIAH II., R.: A Palestinian amora of
the fourth century. In tlie Talmud he is invariably
cited by his pnenomen alone; but in the Midrashiiu
he is frequently cited with the addition of " ha-
Kohen," and sometimes with the further addition of
the title " Berebi " (compare Pesik. ii. tJla. xii. 107b;
Pesik. 3 [ed. Friedmann. p. 8a]; Num. R. xiv. 3;
Pesik. R. 3 [ed. Friedmann, p, 9a]; Xum. R /.<•.:
Tan., Beha'aloteka. 5; Xum. R. xv. 7); and accord-
ing to at least one Midrash (Lev. R, xxx, 1). his
father's name was Hiyya (see also Tan,, ed. Buber.
Hayye Sarah, 6, note 35).
While Palestine may justly claim him as a citizen.
Berechiah is probably a Bal)ylonian by birth, since
he not only cites teacliings of Babylonian scholars
("Rabbanan de-Tamman," Gen. R. hi, 11, xcviii, 3:
Esther R. i. 1; compare Gen. R. xxxvii. 3. where
this expression is converted into "Rabbi Hanin."
and Mid. Teh. cv,, beginning, where "de-Tamman " is
omitted), but also shows himself quite familiar with
the private history of Babylonian families (Yer, Kid,
iii. 64c; Lev. R, xxxii. 7). Judging, however, from
the insignificant number of his savings recorded
53
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berea
Berechiah
in tlie Baliyloniiin Talmud as compared witli his al-
niiist iimumL'rable teachiugs preserved in tlie Pales-
tinian Talmud and the Palestinian ^lidrashim, and
cimsidering also that his acknowledged masters were
Pulesliniaus, it is safe to say that he was in Pales-
tine at an early age. Berechiah's acknowledged
master in the Haggadah was R. Helbo (Yer. Kil. ix.
32t; Lam. R. on iii. 23; Cant. R. on 1. 2); Ijut it
seems that lie personall}' knew R. Helbo's predeces-
sors, Levi and Aliba b. Kahaua, and witnessed a
healed exegetical coutrovei'sy between them (Gen.
R. xlvii. 9). If this be so, Berechiah must have lived
to an advanced age, for he was in a legal contro-
versy with R. Mana (the Younger) (Yer. Kid. iii.
64d)" Rapoport ("Briefe," ed. Grilbcr, p. SO) makes
him a teacher of Jerome.
Berechiah is cited in both the Babylonian Talmud
(Bit. 55a; YomaTla; Ta'anit4a; Sotah 13b) and the
Palestinian, in the field of the Ilalakah (Yer. Ber.
vii. lib; Yer. Peah i. 15a; Yer. Ma'as. v. 52a; Yer.
Suk. ii. 53a; Yer. Sotah vii. 21b; Yer. Kid. iii. 64d;
Yer. Saidi. xi. 30b) and in that of the Haggadah ;
but it is the latter which he cultivated mainly.
Few names appear in tlie Jlidrashic literature as fre-
quently as does Berechiah's. In Pesikta alone he
is cited sixty -eight times, either as originator or as
transmitter; in Pesikta Rabbati sixty-one times (sec
Friedniann, Introduction, p. 18), in Tan. (ed. Buber)
seventy-three times (Buber's Introduction, p. 46), in
Jlid. Teh. eighty-five times(Bubcr's Introduction, p.
2H), and correspondingly numerous are his remarks
preserved in the other Midrashim. Some specimens
of his teachings are here subjoined.
In accordance with the oneirological views of his
days, he asserts that dreams, though realized parti}',
are never realized fully. " Whence do we learn this?
From Jo.scph, who dreamed (Gen. xxxvii. 9), 'Be-
hold, the sun, and the moon, and eleven stars made
oliiisance to me ' ; and at that time his mother, tyjii ■
fied in his vision by the moon {ib. 10), was no more
among the living" (Ber. 5."ia). He thus construes
the Psalmist's saying, "The Lord knoweth the way
of the righteous, but the way of the ungodly perish-
eth"(Ps. i. 6): "When the Holy One— blessed be
He! — came to create man, He foresaw that pious and
impious men would descend from him, and He said,
'If Icreate him, the impious will descend from him;
if I create him not, how will the pious descend from
him'!" Whatdidthe Holy One— blessed belle!— doV
He removed the waysof the impious out of His sight,
and by means of His attribute of mercy ["midilat
ha-Rahanum"! II« created man. This is the mean-
ing of the Sciiptnrc, ' God knoweth ["holdethin
view "] the way of the righteous '" (Mid. Teh. on l.r. ;
Gen. R. viii. 4). In commenting on Ecel. vii. 17, "Be
notovermnch wicked," he says: "The Bibledoesnot
mean to teach that it is permitted to sin a little; but
it means to .say, if thou didst sin a little, say not, ' I
am under the wrath of God onaecoimt of this little.
and can be no worse off for sinning more ' " (Ecel. H.
on I.,:: Mid. Teh. on i. 1; compare Shab. 31b).
With reference to the Scriptural saying (Ps. xxxii.
1). "Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven"
(literally, " who is lifted above transgression "), he
cites R. Simon [Samuel?] b. Ammi as remarking,
" Happy is the man who is master over sin, that sin be
not master over him " (Gen. R. xxii. 0). In the
same strain is Berechiah's remark on Solomon's say-
ing, "There is a time to be born, and a time to die"
(Ecel. iii. 2): "Happy is he whose hour of death is
like his hour of birth; who, as he was pure and
innocent in the hour of his birth, is also innocent at
the hour of hisdeath" (Yer. Ber. ii. 4d; Ecel. R. on
I.e. ; Deut. R.vii. 6).
BiBLiOGRAPIIV: Bacher, Au. Pnl. .Ini. iii. ;JU-396.
•'■ SH. S. M.
BERECHIAH BEBAK B. ELIAKIM
GOETZEL: A grand.son of Brrcchiali b. Isaac;
rabbi and preacher of Klemcntow, Poland, and
Jaworow, Galicia; lived toward the end of the sev-
enteenth century and the begiiunng of the eight-
eenth. He was a very sincere preacher and suffered
nuich for his outspokenness. The government pro-
hibited the publication of his sermons, only those
covering the book of Genesis being ludjlished (Halle,
Saxony, 1714), under the title, "Zera' Bcrak She-
lishi" (third part of "Zera' Bcrak"); and "I.Iiddu-
sliim," novelUe on the first portions of Berakot. deal-
ing esjiecially with the Haggadot. Many contem-
porary rabbis gave their approbation to this work.
Uim.iociRAPnY : Michael, (;;• ha-Hamiim, No. 647.
h. c. • >[. H
BERECHIAH BERAK B. ISAAC EISIK :
Galiciun preacher; died in l(j(U at I'oiistanlniopk'.
He was educated by Nathan Shapira, rabbi of Cra-
cow, and was appointed preacher of that city, where
he spent most of his life. He ultimately ieft for
Jeru.salem, but diedat Constantinople. Ilissermons
on the Pentateuch, the Megillot, and the Passover
Haggadah were collected and ptdilished in two
volumes tuider the title, "Zera' Berak." The first
was iiublished in 1G40 at Cracow. Api)ended to it
was " 'Aterct Zebi," by Zebi llirsch ben Shalom
Mebo, the brother-in-law of Berechiah anil son-in-
law of Lipmann Heller. The second volume was
published, together with a secoml edition of the first
one, in l(i(i2, and itself went into a second edition,
Amsterdam, 1730.
Biiii.iouRAiMiY : Mli-liael, Or lia-Hauiiim, No. li-lij.
I., o. M. B.
BERECHIAH BEN ISAAC GERUNDI
(called also YIZHAKI): Payyetan; lived in liic
twelfth century, pi'obaldy at Lunel. Although he
wrote nothing on the Ilalakah, his brother Zerahiah
Gerundi, in his " Sefer ha-Maor," cites him as an au-
thority on the treatise Gittin (to lob). Berechiah's
lioems, the greater part of which are jirinled in the
Mahzorim of diverse rites, are: (1) "Kerobah," a
form of iiiyyut for the Sabbath following the feast '
of Purim ; (2) Aziiarot, for the feast of Tabernacles,
in which all the ju'ecepts concerning this feast are
enumerated; (3) introduction to Kaddish; (4) poems
for Purim; (5) prayers for Atonement ; ((>) a poem
on the Ilabdalah.
liMU.iiiiiUAiMiY : Zunz, Lilcmturuc'vli, pp. Wt. 49.'> ; I.ands-
\nuh^ "Amnuidr }ui-Aho{hih^ pp. 5*i, 63,117
Juilnica, p. 2.V).
(iross, Hallia
I. Bn.
BERECHIAH BEN NATRONAIKRESPIA
HA-NAKDAN: Fabulist, exegetc, ethical wri-
ter, grammarian, and translator; probably identical
with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew
Berechiah
Berek
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
54
menlioucd as contributing lU Oxford to a doniim
to Hiclmrd I., in 1194. Jliuh discussion 1ms taken
place concerning the date and native country of this
writer. Zun/. ("G. S." iii. 237) jilaeing liiin about
1260 in Provence, with which conclusion Renan-
Xeubauer (" Les Rabbins Fraufais." p. 491) and
Steinschneider (" Hebr. Bibl.'' xiii. S3) agreed.
Joseph Jacobs, during certain investigations on the
medieval history of the fable, arrived at the conclu-
sion that Berechiah shoidd be located in England
toward the end of the twelfth century (Jacobs,
"Failles of jEsop," i. 175), and this was confirmed
by Xeubauer's discovery that, in the preface to
his fables, Berecliiah refers to the " turning of the
wheels of fate to the island of the sea [= England]
for onetodieand the other to live" ("Jewish Quart.
Rev." ii. 522), clearly a reference to the English
massacre of 1190. The earlier view of Bcrechiah's
date was based on a misreading of a colophon of his
son Elijah, which was shown to be date<l Wednes-
day, Oct. 22, 1233 (Jacobs, " Athenanim," April 19,
1890). Steinschneider, however, is still doubtful
as to the identification ("Hebr. Uebers." p. 961).
The point is of some importance on account of Bcre-
chiah's connection with the history of medieval
fable.
Berechiah is known chiefly as the author of a set of
107 (113) fables, called " Mishle !>hu-alim" (Suk. 28a).
probably in imitation of the Talmudic "Jleshalot
Shu'alim." Manuscripts exist at the Bodleian (Neu-
bauer. "Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS." No.
His Fox 1466, 7, originally belonging to Cotton,
Fables. and 1421, 5, with six additional fables)
and Munich (207 written before 1268).
The first edition appeared in Mantua, in 1.557; an-
other with a Latin version by JI. Ilanel, Prague.
1601; other editions at Berlin, 1706; Lemberg, 1809;
Grodno, 1818; Sklov, n. d. ; Warsaw. 1874.
The fables themselves give in rimed prose most of
the Beast Tales passing under the name of ^Esoj)
during the Middle Ages; but in addition to these, the
collection also contains fables conveying the same
plots and morals as those of Marie de Fi'auce, whose
date has been placed only approximately toward the
end of the twelfth century. It has been suggested
that these additional fables were derived by Bere-
chiah from Marie, but this is impossible, as Bcre-
chiah's versions are closer to the original and in at
least one case (No. 28) he did not make a mistake
made by her. The following table exhibits the re-
lationship between Bcrechiah's fables and those of
Marie, as well as their connection with the "Romu-
lus," the Latin prose translations of the medieval
.iEsop. From this it will be seen that Berechiah has
only one-half of the additional fables given by
Marie, and that he has as many (about 30) which
are not fount! in her collection. Some of these are
from Avian, others from Oriental, sources; and it has
been suggested with some reason that both col-
lections are derived from an Arabic series con-
taining 1.54 fables, most of which could be traced
to clas.sical antiqidty, and others from the East.
The question can not be .said to be settled ; but
neither Neubauer nor Steinschneider will admit
that Berechiah knew Arabic ("Jew Quart. Rev."
xii. 607).
CoMPAR.\TIVE T.\BLE OF CoKRESrONDIN'G F.^BLES
IN Bekeciii.vu. JI-\I!ie de Fr.\nce, and "Rom-
rus."
.\BBRKViATio.NS: Ber.=Berecliiali : Marie=Marie de France,
"Fables"; Bora. = " Romulus" (medieval prose *sop, ed.
Oesterley, 18731; App. or A. = Appendix to Rom.; Av. = Avlan,
" Fabulse." ed. Ellis. Missing numbers liave no parallels in
Marie or " Romulus."
Ber.
Marie.
Rom.
Ber.
Marie.
Rom.
1
IS
15
30
74
A. 36
2
3
3
,51
Av. 18
3
2
o
52
ii
4
1
1
54
A. 18
5
.5
5
55
Av. 12
6 [Talmudic Ber. 61b]
56
69
iv. 19
7
4
4
58
. . 1 Av. 2!l
8
7
8
59
(same as 26)
9
8
9
61
34
iii. 14. 15
10
9
12
62
iii. 13
11
10
ii. 8
63
12
12
6
65
67
iv. 10
■ 13
14
14
66
(Mule's Pedigree) Halm
U
16
16
157.
15
17
17
67
1 ..1 Av. 35
16
18
19
68
(Man and Pit) Kalila.
17
19
iv. 19
69
tPartrid.sre, Monke.v, and
18
20
iv. 21
Elepliauti "Iataka,"tr.
19
21
App. 60
b.v Rhvs-Darids, 310.
20
13
13
73
70
iv. 18
21
90
ii. 10
74
32
iii. 7
22
63
ii. U
75
42
iv. 13
23
68
iv. 12
76
6
at
26
iL 1
77
75
A. 37
26
36
A. 31
78
66
iv. 8
27
A. 18
79
36
iii. 17
28
64
A. 61
80
33
ii. 9
29
.58
ii. 16
81
38
A. 22
32 (Chicken and Fox) Gu-
83
72
A. 35
bernatis. '
Zool. Mytli."
84
71
A. 25
ii
.13.
85
59
A. 32
33
..
Av. 11
86
103
A. 71
36
73 (88>
A. 28
88
Av. 27
37
31
iii. 4
91)
A. 13
38
30
Ii. 9
91
39
22
A. 24
92
40
29
ii. 4
93
(Lion's Traces) Halm 157
41
Av. 15
91
1 98 1 A. ai
42
23
iii. 14
95
(Man and Tool) KaUla.
43
28
ii. 2
102
(Foxand Fleas). Aristotle,
44
27
ii. 2
" Rhet." ii, 20,
45
81
A. 27
104
Av. 7
47
Av. 5
107
Av. 23
48
ii. 14
As an example of his fables, the following may be
given as one of those which has a parallel in Marie
de France (No. 73), and is derived from an Oriental
source, probably the " Vaka Jataka " (Folk-lore Jour-
nal, iii. 359):
The Wolf axd the a.vimai.s.
Tbe Wolf, the Lion's prince and peer, as the foe of all Hesh
did appear ; greed.v and sjrinding. he consumed all he was find-
ing. Birds and beasts, wild and tame, l>.v iheir families urged
to the same, brought against him before tlie Lion an accusation,
as a monster worthy of detestation. Said His Majesty, "If he
uses his teeth as you say, and causes scandal in this terrible
way, I'll punish him in such a way as to save his neck, if I may,
and yet prevent you becoming his prey." Said Lion to Wolf,
" .attend me to-morrow, see that you come, or you'll come to
much sorrow." He came, sui-e enough, and the Lion spoke t>
him harsh and rough. "What by doing this do you mean ■
Never more I'aven the living, oi- live by ravening. What You
shall eat shall be only dead meat. The living you shall neither
trap nor hunt. And that you may my words obey, swear me
that yoti'll eat no tle,«h for two years from to-da.v, to atone for
your sins, testified and seen : 'tis my judgment, you had bi'iter
fulfil it, I ween." Thereat the Wolf swore right away no flesh
to eat for two years from that day. OfT went 8ir Wolf on his
way. King Lion stopped at coui-t on his throne so gay. Nothing
that's fleshy for some time did our Wolf eat, for hke a gentle-
man he knew how his won! to keep. Hut then came a day
when he was a hungered and he Imiked hither and thither for
meat, and lo, a fat sheep fair to look on an<l goodly to eat ((ieii.
iii. 6). Then to himself he said, " Who can keep every law ? "
and his thotiglits were bewihlered with what he saw. He said
to himself. "It overcomes me the longing to eat, for two vears
65
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berechiah
Berek
day by day must I fast from meat. This is my oatb to tbe king
that I swore, but I've thought how to fulBl it as never before.
Three sixty-flve are the days in a year. Night is when you close
your eyes : open them, then the day is near." His eyes he
opened and closed straightway. It was evening and it was morn-
ing, one day ((jen. i. ti). Thus he winked until he had num-
bered two yeai-s, and bis greed returned and his sin disappears.
His eyes flx the goat (sic) they had seen and he said, "See be-
forehand I have atoned for my sin." and he seized the neck of
the goat, broke it to pieces, and filled up his throat as he was
wont to do before, and as of yore his hand was stretched out to
the beasts, bis peers, as it had been in former days and years.
This is nearer the original source than tlie version
of Marie, which gives a Cliristian turn to tlie whole
story.
Berechiah was also the author of an ethical trea-
tise entitled "Sefcr Mazref " (MSS. at Munich and
Parma). The treatise is divided into thirteen chap-
ters: i. Introduction, ii. Lust, iii. Affection, iv. Re-
straint of the Will, V. Justice, vi. Misfortune, vii.
Poverty, viii. Honor, ix. Position, x. Rank, .\i. Soul,
xii. Hope, xiii. Immortality. In it he quotes R. Abra-
ham ibn Daud (diedabout 1198) without the formula
for the dead, so that it is quite probable that the
book was composed before 1180. He does not quote
Maimonides' "Moreh," finished in 1191, known in
Provence shortly after that date and in north France
about 1204. Prof. Gollancz has pul)iished an edition
of the "Sefer Mazref" (London, 1903).
In addition to these, Bei'echiah wrote a commen-
tary on Job (MS. in the Cambridge University Li-
brary, S; Schiller-Scziness}', "Catalogue," pp. 40-42,
245). He was acquainted with most
His Other of the grammarians of the eleventh and
Works. twelfth centuries, and his " Uncle Ben-
jamin," whom he quotes, has been
identified with Ben.jamin op Cantebbcry. The
writer of the commentary on Job was also the author
of a commentary (m the whole Bible, pas.sages from
which are quoted in a Lej'den manuscript.
Berechiah was certainly a translator, his version
being extant of Adelard of Bath's " Qu»stiones Nat-
urales" (MSS. at Munich, Leyden, Oxford, and Flor-
ence), as well as of a "Lapidaiy " containing a de-
scription of 63 species of stones (MS. in Bodleian).
Besides these works, Berechiah is also said by Zunz
to have contributed to the Tosafot (Sanh. 20b), and,
as his name implies, was probably an expert in He-
brew grammar, for which reason he is quoted by
Moses ben Isaac of England, in his "Sefer ha-Sho-
ham." As this work was probably written before
121.5, these references confirm the date and place
suggested above.
Bei'echiah was one of the most versatile writers of
the Middle Ages, and if he can be claimed for Eng-
land, it raises the literary position of that country, as
regards Jewish literature, to a considei'able height.
Formerly some confusion existed between Bere-
chiah and another Krespia Nakdan, the coijyist of
certain manuscripts and supposed translator of Saa-
<lia's "Emunot we-Deot" (see Khespia Nakdan).
lirui.ioGRAPHY : Zunz, O. S. iii. 237, SIS, Renan-Neubauer,
LiK liiilihuts Frinn;ais, pp. 490-499 (containing full previous
bililiogniphyi; Stcinschneidcr, Hebr. BihI. xiii. >^l et seg.:
Jac(.hs, Fahhs n( .Eso]), i. lil,H-irs ; idem, .Irim af Angevin
Kiifihiii:!, pp. lii.vlT:i, i;ii-.-li|'.i, 3TS-2SII; NeuliaueranrtJacobs,
JriK. {{unit. Hiv. ii. 32;^:«i, .52()-.")ai (coTiipare i/iiii. vi. 3C4,
37.")) ; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 95S-863 ; Gross, Gallia
Jiidaiea, p. 180,
0. J.
BERECHIAH DE NICOLE (Lincoln; also
known as Magister Benedict fil Mosse de Lon-
dres): English Tosatist; died after 12.56. He was
of the well-known Hagin family, and son of Itabbi
Jloses ben Yom-Tob of London. He was the rab
or chief rabbi of Lincoln (the Norman -French name
of which was "Nicole"), and probably lived in the
house now known as " the Jews' house " in that city ;
for this was in the possession of a certain Belaset of
Wallington in 1287, and there is a deed which speaks
of Belaset, daughter of the rab Berechiah (Davis,
•■Shetaroth," No. 156, p. 398). It has been conjec-
tured that it was to attend the marriage of this Be-
laset and to do Berechiali honor that tlie Jews of
England assembled at Lincoln toward the end of
August, 12.55, when the body of Little Huon of
Lincoln was discovered, and all the Lincoln Jews
were sent up to London for complicity in a so-called
ritual murder. Berechiah was released earlier than
the rest of the Jews, on Jan. 7, 1256 (Rymer, " Foe-
dera," ed. 1816, i. 346).
His subsequent fate is unknown; but there are a
number of decisions of his in the ritual literature of
the time, which sliow that lie was considered an au-
thority in ritual matters. Thus, in Mordecai, Ber.
iv. 90, he decided that tlie evening prayer might be
said an hour and a quarter before the legal time of
night. On another occasion he declared that nuts
prepared by Gentiles might not be eaten by J<'ws
("Shilte ha-Gibborim " on Mordecai, 'Ab. Zarah ii.
831). There is likewise an exegetic remark made
by him in "Miuhat Yehudah," 89b.
Bibliography : Zunz, Z. G. p. 97 ; Renan-Neubauer, LesRah-
bins Francais, p. 441 ; Jacobs, in Trans. Jew. Hi«(. .S'oc.
England, 1. 103-111.
G. J.
BEBED: 1. Asonof Ephraim (I Chion. vii. 20).
In the genealogy of Num. xxvi. 35 his place is taken
Ijy Becher. It may be that Bered and Becher are
the same. See Becher.
2. A place given in the story of Hagar (Gen. xvi.
14). Beer Lahai Roi is there located between Ka-
desh and Bered. Targumim Onkelos and Yeru-
shalmi regard Bered as Sliur; Onkelos rendering it
"Hagra," which is his usual equivalent for "Shur"
(Gen. xvi. 7), while the Jerusalem Targum renders
it "Hahiza," which is also " Shur" (Ex. xv. 22).
The site has not been identified.
,j. .iH. G. B. L.
BEKEK, JOSELOVICH (called also Berko) :
Polish colonel under Kosciusko and Napoleon I. ;
born at Kretingen, government of Kovno, Ru.ssia,
in the second half of the eighteenth century; killed
in the battle near Kotzk, government of Syedletz,
Russian Poland, 1809. He was an agent of Prince
Ma.ssalsky, the owner of Kretingen and bishop of
Wilna, who often sent him withcommi.ssions abroad,
where he learned the French language. In 1794 he
was commissioned by Kosciusko to form a light -
horse regiment from among the Jews of Warsaw.
Berek revived the courage of his coreligionists in the
struggle for the fatherland, and fought bravely with
his 500 men, especiallj- in the defense of Warsaw.
In the siege of Praga (a suburb of Warsaw) by
Suvarov he lost almost all his soldiers. He then
served under Napoleon, in the Polish Legion
Berendson
Berenstein
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
56
commanded by Geni'nil Dombiowski, and was killed
in an encounter with Austrian hussars near Kotzk,
as before stated. There tlie people raised a mound to
his memory ; and until 18;il his widow and son re-
ceived a pension.
Berek was a knight of the Polish Gold Cross
and Die Virtuti Militari.
BiblI(h;r.\piiy: VfisUhnd, (k-t. IM);. p. 87; .S)/H lierha Jnsk-
loriid. Suiiplement to Swial. Cracow, 1889: Eiilziklopcdi-
chtuhi Shn-'ir. iil.. St. rettrsburp. ISitt. s.f.; S. orgelbrand,
EncuklouKlia Pnwszcchna, ii.. Warsaw, 1898, s.r.
H. 1?.
BERENDSON, MARTIN : German publisher ;
born at IL.iiiburg in 1S-J4; died June 24, 1899. He
was the head of the well knowu bookselling and
publishing firm of liis native city, "Gebri'ider Be-
rendson." Berendson devoted mucli of his leisure to
Jewish communal affairs and filled several honorable
offices in the Hamburg Reform congregation. He
was ahso a prominent Freemason and held high posi-
tion in the councils of that fraternity.
Bibliogr.vphy: The Jewish r/ir'iiiMc June 30. 1809.
8. P. Wt.
BERENDT, GOTTLIEB MICHAEL: Ger-
man geologist : born in Berlin Jan. 4, 1836. He
studied the science of mining; and in his work, "Die
Diluvialablagerungen der Mark Brandenburg, lusBe-
sondere der Umgebung von Potsdam," Berlin, 1863,
gave the first geological map of this province. He
also prepared and issued maps of a part of the Harz
mountain range and of eastern and western Prussia.
Having settled in KiJnigsberg, he was, in 1872, made
there e.xtraortlinary professor: subsequently be-
coming district geologist and chief of the depart-
ment for the Lowland in the Prussian Geological
Institute at Berlin. Being made professor at
the Berlin University in 1875, Berendt distinguished
himself by work on the geology of the North German
Lowland; and was among the first to recognize the
glacial theory in geology. He further issued a
geological map of the vicinity of Berlin, and a
geological plan of the city of Berlin. His work,
"Die Theorie Darwins und die Geologic," GUters-
loh, 1870, contains a repudiation of Darwinism.
Among his other productions on geology, the more
important are: " Geognostische Blicke in Alt-Preus-
sens L'rzeit," Berlin, 1872 ; " Die Umgegend Berlins,"
Berlin, 1877; "Spuren einer Vergletscherung des
Riesengebirges," Berlin, 1892; "Der Tiefere Unter-
grund Berlins," Berlin, 1899. He contributed a
large number of essays on the same subject to
the following periodical publications: "Zeitschrift
der Deutschcn Geologischen Gesellschaft." Berlin;
"Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologic, und
Palaontologie," Stuttgart; " Schriften der Physisch-
OekonomischeGesellschaft,"Konigsberg, and others.
BiBLiOfiR.vPHV: J. C. PoggendortT's Bingraphisch-Litera-
risches Haiitlwrirlerhneh ziir Gfsr/i. ttrr Exacten VTissen-
achaftcn. ill., Leipsic, 1898 ; yieyeT.Kunversations-LeTikrui.
B. B. B.
BERENGER OF NARBONNE : Viscount of
Narbonue in the eleventh century. In the midst
of the important wars of that century waged for the
assertion of their temporal power, the popes still
found time to protect the Jews. Alexander II. was
their enlightened and zealous protector against any
21«.
injustice. Animated by such sentiments, he praised
the viscount Berenger of Narbonne for having ener-
getically interfered in their favor at a time when
their persecution was threatened. At the same time
Alexander wrote a letter to the bishop Wifred of
Narbonne (1063), asking him to protect the Jews no
less actively in future than had Berenger, if similar
circumstances should arise.
Bibliography : Vogelsteln and Rieger, Die Jitden in Rom. i.
M. S.
BERENICE (formerly Hesperides) : City of
the Cyrenaic Pentapolis, at the eastern extremity of
the great Syrtis, near the river Lathon. The settle-
ment of the Jews in Berenice, as in the other towns
of the Greek colony "Cyrenaica," dates from Ptol-
emy I. Although enjoying the rights of citizen-
ship, the)' formed an independent municipal com-
munity. But instead of having an ethuarch at their
head, as in other places, the Jews in Berenice formed
a separate " politeuma," and were governed by their
own archons. A Greek inscription found in Berenice,
dating from the year 13 B.C., according to Bockh's
calculation, gives the names of the nine Jewish
arclions. These are; Cleanthropos, Stratouieos, Eu-
phani<les, Aristonos. Sozigenos, Sosippus, Androma.
chus, Marcus, and Lailaos.
Bibliography: Josephus, Ant. xiv. 7, §2; C. I. G. ed. Aug.
Bockh, No. 5361, p. 557 ; Schurer, Gesch. iil. 35, 42, 43.
G. I. Bu.
BERENICE: Daughter of Costobar and Salome.
sister of Herod I. Her marriage with her cousin
Aristobulus was unhappy. The husband, being
proud of his JIaccabean descent by his mother, Mari-
amne. taunted his wife with her low birth. Berenice
thereupon complained to her mother, and this fact
intensified their mutual bitterness. When, shortly
after the marriage (6 B.C.), Aristobulus was assjis-
sinated, Berenice was believed to have had a share
in his death.
Being now free, Berenice married Theudion, the
maternal uncle of Antipater, son of Herod I. Her
second husband was put to death for participation
in a plot against the life of Herod ; and Berenice
then married Archelaus. With him she went to
Rome to solicit of Augustus the carrying out of her
father's testament, and remained there until her
death. During her sojourn at Rome she gained
the favor of Augustus and the friendship of Antonia,
wife of Drusus, who later paid the debtsof Agrippa
I., the son of Berenice, owed by him to the treasury
of the emperor Tiberius.
Bibliography : ScliQrer, Gcsch. des JUdischcn Vnlhefi. 1. 4.56,
li. 151. 153; Brann, Aorippa II., in Moitatsschrift, 1870, pp.
333-444, 530-5*8, and 1871, pp. 13-28; Gratz, Gesch. der
Judcn, 3d ed., iii. 332.
G. I. Bu.
BERENICE: Daughter of Herod Agrippa I.
and of Cypros, the daughter of Phasael; born in 28.
She was first married to Marcus, son of the alabarch
Alexander of Alexandria. Her husband dying within
a short time, her father married her to his brother
Herod of Chalcis (Josephus, "Ant." six. 5, § 1).
Berenicianus and Hyrcanus were the children of
this union ("Ant." xx. 5, § 2: "B. J." ii. 11, § 6).
Again a widow in the year 48, Berenice went to her
57
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berendson
Berenstein
brother Agrippa II., with whom it was whispered
she lived in incestuous relations ("Ant." xx. 7, § 3;
Juvenal, " Satires." 6). These rumors may not have
been unfounded, since Agrippa tried
Her to stop them by betrothing Berenice
Marriages, to Polemo, king of Cilieia. The lat-
ter, won by her wealth as much as by
her beauty, embraced the Jewish faith and was
circumcised.
Berenice, Iiowever, soon left her third husband to
return to her brother, resuming apparently their old
relations. In 60 she went to Citsarea with Agrippa
II. to welcome the new governor, Festus, and took
part in the proceedings against Paul (Acts xxv. 13
el seq., xxvi,). When, in C6, the governor Florus
had l)y his measures provoked a riot in Jerusalem,
Berenice, who was then in the city to fulfil a Naza-
rite vow, implored him on her knees to stoj) the blood-
shed and to spare the town. But Florus was deaf
to her prayers, and, being in danger of maltreat-
ment, she liad to .seek refuge in her palace ("B.
J." ii. 14, §§ 6-9; 1.5, S§ 1, 3). Ber-
Pleads for enice appeared with Agrippa before
Jerusalem, the proconsul Cestius Gallus to com-
plain of Florus. Later, when Agrippa
in a speech tried to dissuade the people from going
to war with the Romans, Berenice stood near him to
protect him by lier popularity (" B. J. " I.e. ). Agrip-
pa's attempts to maintain jieace were unsuccessful.
In the ensuing conflict at Jerusalem between the war
party and that advocating peace the latter suc-
cumbed; and the palaces of Agrippa and Berenice
were demolished by the infuriated populace("B. J."
ii. 17, ^ 6).
Berenice and Agrippa now opeidy went over to
the Romans. After Vespasian had been made em-
jieror by the Egyptian and Syrian legions, Bere-
nice, who was a strong supporter of the Flavian
party, sununoncd her brother Agrippa to Palestine to
take the oath of allegiance (Tacitus, "Historian,"
ii. 81). Vespasian seems to have held her in high
esteem; for only her intercession saved Justus of
Tiberias from being beheaded.
About this time Berenice entered into relations
with Titus that lasted for many years, although she
was much older than lie — according to
Beloved Wilcken, no less than thirteen years.
by Her beauty, however, was still irresist-
Titus. ible, and, perhaps in the eyes of Titus,
her vast wealth was even more attract-
ive (compare Tacitus, "Ilistorifc," ii. 3). These
relations continued at Rome, whither Berenice had
gone with Agrippa in 75. Titus and Berenice lived
on the Palatine Hill ; and it was generally supposed
that he would soon marry her (Suetonius, "Titus,"
vii.). So jealous of her was Titus that he caused
the Roman general Ciecina, .whom he suspected of a
secret intrigue with Berenice, to be assassinated
(Aurelius Victor, "Epitome," x. 7). Fully expect-
ing Titus to marry her, Berenice tried to hasten the
event (Dio Cassius, Ixvi. IT), §4); but when she pub-
licly appeared as the wife of Titus he was com-
pelled, much against his will, to separate from her,
the liatred of the Jews by the Romans being too
intense to tolerate such a union (Suetonius, I.e. ;
Dio Cassius, I.e.). Still Berenice did not give up
the hope of sharing with Titus the throne of the
Roman empire. At the news of Vespasian's death
(June 33, 79) she hastened to Rome; but Titus sent
her back (Dio Cassius, Ixvi. 18).
Nothing is known of the later life of Berenice.
It may be remarked that Berenice on her journeys
between Palestine and Rome seems to have formed
connections at Athens, as may be gathered from the
inscription published in "C. I. A." iii. 1, No. r>T>f>.
BiBUOCRAPiiv: Wilcken, in Pauly-Wissowa, Rfal-KiicukJn-
pitdie (Irr CItiK.'imiicii AUcrtlmmswii<.ieii!<chaft, ill. ceil. 2H7 ;
(iriUz, Gcsfli. ilcr Judcn, iii. passim ; Scbiirer, Gaicli. 1. 470,
49:1, .503, tHKi.
G- H. Bl.
BERENSON, BERNHAKD : Art critic and
historian ; born at Wiliia. Russia, Jime 26, 186.5. He
was educated in America, and in 1887 was graduated
at Harvard. Foi' some time Berenson has been in
Italy investigating Italian art, and heisregaiiled as
one of the leading authorities on its technic, follow-
ing the methods of Morelli in testing the reinited
authorship of early paintings. Berniiard Berenson
is a contributor to the New York " Nation " and
to various French and German reviews of art and
archeology. Among his publications in bocjk form
are: "Lorenzo Lotto," an essay in constructive art
criticism, 1895; "Central Italian Painters of the
Renaissance," 1897; and "The Study and Criticism
of Italian Art," 1901.
Bibliography : Wlur.t TDio in Aiinrirn. 1!KH.
■^- M. W. L.
BERENSTEIN, ISSACHARBAERB. SAM-
UEL : Dutcii rabbi; Ijoru in Leeiiwardeii, Ibillaiul,
1808; died in The Hague Dec. 13, 1893. He was
the son of Ralibi Samuel b. Berish BEnENSTEiN,
chief rabbi of Amsterdam, and was a dayyan of
that town at the time of his father's death in 18:38,
continuing in that position for the following ten
years. In 1.S48 he became chief rabbi of The Hague,
succeeding R. Joseph Asher Lehmaiis, who had died
six years before. He held the latter position for
forty-five years, during which time he ccmtribvited
much to the building up of communal institutions,
such as an orphan a.sylum and a Jewish hospital;
he was also the organizer of a Jewish historical and
literary society. Berenstein's services were recog-
nized by the government, and he was decorated with
the insignia of the Order of the Golden Lion. He
died at the ripe old age of eighty-five years, highly
honored and respected, and was mourned by the
entire itoinilalion of the Dutch capital, irrespective
of race or religion.
BlBLiOfiRAPiiv: /.snicd'tof Mn)/cncc,1803,No.I0:i; IDN'nN niV
iAIiimiaf (\iti-mlun tor the year 563.5 (1894-95), p. 459.
s. ' p. ^vt.
BERENSTEIN, SAMUEL BEN
BERISH: Dutch rabbi; born in Hanover aliout
17(57; died in Amsterdam Dec. 21, 1838. He was
the descendant of a long line of distinguished rabbis,
his father and his grandfather, R, Aryeh Loeb— who
was the son of Rabbi Jacob Joshua of Cracow,
Lemberg, and Frankfort (author of the "Pene Ye-
hoshua ") — having been rabbis of Hanover, liabbi
Samuel Berenstein was educated as a rabbi, and for
many years held that office at Groningen, Holland.
He was probably the first rabbi of Holland to preach
Berenstein
Bererah
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
58
in the Dutch language, ami a speech which he
delivered in 1805 to aiousi' sympathy for those
who were ruined by the great tire that almost des-
troyed the city of Leyile" iu that year is preserved
in a Hebrew "trausUitiou (" IlaMeassef," 180!). pp.
291, 343; 1810. pp. 40 et seq.). Later he became
rabbi of Lceuwardeu. Friesland. and remained
there till 181.->, when he was elected chief rabbi
of the Ashkeua/.ic community of Amsterdam, to
succeed his fathcr-iu-law. Jacob Moses Liiwenstamm.
who had held tlial position since 1T90. There isatra-
dition that K. Samiiel was a trifle too liberal to
suit the taste ot his zealous father-in-law. and that
there were many differences of opinion between them
during the time of liberal innovation early in the
nineteenth century. A letter addressed by Samuel
Berenstein to Israel Jacobsohn, whom he calls
"friend of my youth," against the introduction of
German prayers iu the synagogue (B. H. Auerbach,
"Geschichte der Isiaelilischen Gemeinde Halber-
stadt," pp. 323-225), is couched in remarkably
courteous and liberal terms. Still, neitlier his or-
thodoxy nor his skill as a Talmudist is open to
the slightest suspicion, as can be seen from a re-
sponsum dated 1819, addressed to him by R.
Moses Sofer of Presburg. Tliat uncompromising
O|)pouent of progress in any form calls R. Samuel
"Geon Yisrael," "Ner Yisrael," "'Ammud Im-
Yemoui," "Patish ha-Hazak," "Kebod Kadosh
Shemo Tifarto " (see " Hatam Sofer " ; " Eben ha-
Ezer," part ii., responsum 139): the last being an
appellation which is used only in the case of the
greatest and most pious rabbis.
Berenstein is not known to have contributed any-
thing to ralibinical literature; besides a few sermons
in the Dutch language (" Leerreden," mentioned by
Kayserling, in "Jlid. Literatur, " p. 103. where it is
wrongl}' stated that he died in 1808) — one of which,
delivered in Amsterdam. 1832, is preserved in the
British Jluseuni — and a Hebrew prayer against the
cholera (Roesl's "Catalogue of the Rosenthal Li-
brary "), he left nothing for ]iosterity . He will always
be remembered in Holland as one of the fii-st rabbis to
favor the spread of a knowledge of the Dutch lan-
guage among the Jews of that country. In this re-
gard he was a true followerof his great-grandfather,
who also advised the Jews of his time to study the
languages of tlie countries in which they live (see
S. Bloch's preface to his translation of Menasseh b.
Israel's "Teshu'at Yisrael," Vienna, 1813). After
the death of R. San\uel, his son R. Issachar Baer.
who was a dayyan in Amsterdam, failed in the ef-
fort to succeed him, and the office of chief rabbi re-
mained vacant for a quarter of a century, until the
election of tlie present incumbent, Dr. Diiuner.
BlBL10GR.\PIIV: L. Lanrishuth. Tidnhtt Anf:hr hn-filiem. p. iii.,
Berlin, ll«4 : G. Falk. in Hn-K(iriiiil. N... 4ii; JI. L. Malbim,
Aratt lia-Haiiuim, Brt'slau. ISiT lapiiroliatimii.
s. P. Wl.
BERERAH.— In Talmudic Law: The con
cept "Bererah." known to the later Babylonian
Amoraim, is a development of the law of joint prop-
erty, and, just as in Roman law, this branch of the
law presents very great difficidties. Girtauner. iu
" Jahrbiicher fiir Dogmatik," iii. 239 ( edit <■(! liyGerben
and Ihering), .says, "Ihering calls it the filigree of
jurisprudence. " In his " Die Rechtstellung der Sache
und der Eigenthumsbegritl." etc., p. 242. Girtauner
further says: "Joint property contains a contradic-
tion to the concept of property. There is no object
to which the right of property of the joint proprie-
tor attaches, but it must be assumed as existing, al-
though it is not actually existent." A. Rumelin
("Die Theilung der Rechte," p. 100) says: "The
several dicta of the Roman law con-
Its cerning joint property can not be
Concept, brought together imder a uniform
principle, and they seem to exist inde-
pendent of one another." It is not, tlierefore, sur-
prising that the Talmudists formed no clear idea of
Bererah. by which they attempted to explain the
texts of the Mishnah and Tosefta concerning joint
property; more espeeiall_ybecau.se they did not limit
this idea to joint property, but extended it so as to
include other matters. Contradictions arose because
the Tannaimand the Palestinian halakistsiu general
knew nothing of the concept of Bererah. which was
a later development of the Babylonian Halakah and
modilied the stricter ideas of the Palestinian.
In eases of joint proi^erty the ijuestion arises. Is
the proprietor that is u.siug the joint property to be
considered for the time being as sole proprietor or
merely as owner of part, and as exercising the right
of use of the part owned by the other? Further-
more, in cases of division of the joint property, do
the joint proprietors receive their original property,
or do they receive new propert)- through exchange ?
The various answers to these questions result in
important ditfereuces both from the religious and
from the juridical point of view. For instance:
One vows not to enjoy the property of his partner.
If he, as joint jiroprietor using joint projierty, is
looked upon as sole pro]irietor, this vow has no effect,
because he is simply using his own propertj', and not
that of his partner; but if he is considered, as to a
part of it, simply as exercising the right of use of
property belonging to the other, the joint proprie-
torship must be dissolved, or he nuist assign his
right to another i)erson. In Nsd. v. 1, a controversy
ot the Tannaim is reported: If two joint proprietors
vow not to enjoy the property of each other, accord-
ing to the general view, neither of them may enter
upon the estate which they own in common, whereas
one of the Tannaim, R. Eliezer ben Jacob, main-
tains that each of them may say, " I am entering
ui>on my part." Accordingly, therefore, the Baby-
lonian Gemara (B. K, 51b), assuming that the joint
property is indivisible, concludes that this contro-
versy of the Tannaim can be explained only througli
the legal principles Yesh Bererah and En Bere-
rah. The Gemara assumes that R. Eliezer applied
the iMinciple Yesh Bererah ; namely, that each of
the joint pi'opriefors may choose to consider the joint
property as his sole property during the time tliat
he is using it. It is an implied legal condition {m/i-
dilio juris) that "during the time in which I use the
joint property, it is my property; during the time
that you use it. it is your property." or, as it might
al.so be translated. "That which formerly was unde-
termined is now — by the partner's act — looked upon
as determined " (R. Nissim on Nedarim. I.e.). The
Gemara furthermore assumes that the opponents
59
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berenstein
Bererah
of R. Ellezer applied the principle En Bererah;
namely, that the exercise of such choice is not to be
presumed; or (according to Nissim)
Yesh that whicli was undetermined before-
Bererah. hand is not considered as determined.
and En What is said here concerning the use
Bererah. of an indivisible estate is also ap-
plicable to the use of any fruit-bearing
projiertv. Each takes of it what is then considered
as having belonged to him according to the principle
of Bererah, and therefore the Gemara applies to the
use of a common well the arguments in the above-
mentioned controversy (B. K. I.e. ; Bezah 39b ; against
R. Nissim comijare R. Solomon Luria, in " Yam Shel
Shelomoh"). Another example may be taken from
the case of fruits. In Syria the fruits of the fields
belonging to Jews were subject to tithes and heave-
offerings, but fruits of a Gentile bought by a Jew
were not. Now, in case a Jew and a Gentile are
joint owners of a field in Syria, if each of them is
considered the sole projirietor, then, upon division,
each receives his original property, and the fruits of
the Jew, therefore, are liable for tithe and heave, and
those of the heathen are not; but if the division is
considered as an exchange, then in the share of both
the fruits of the Jew and of the Gentile are mixed.
Concerning this case, there is a controvers}' be-
tween Rabbi and R. Simon ben Gamaliel (Bab. Git.
47a and b; Hul. ]35b). R. Simon ben Gamaliel per-
mitted the division so that each received his sole
property ; Rabbi was of the opinion that each re-
ceived mixed projierty; and from these opinions it
is presumed that R. Simon ben Gamaliel maintained
file principle Yesh Bererah, and Rabbi that of En
Bererah. lu this manner, the Babylonian Talmud
('Er. 30b et seq.) explains the Jlishnah Dcmai vii. 4.
In the case of uutithed fruit, a part of which is in-
tended for tithes and heave-offerings, thei-e is a min-
gling of sacred portions and profane (" hullin ") ; the
profane portions may be taken away and used, and
the balance remains as tithes and lieave-offerings.
The aforesaid Mislinah as well as Mishnah Demai
vii. 1 reflect the principle Yesh Bererah. According
to the principle of En Bererah, both Jlishnahs would
be different, and would forbid the use of the fruit
until after the titlie and heave had been removed.
In the Babj'lonian Talmiui, Raba, who favored
the concept " Bererah " (see Tem. 30b), if indeed he
was not its author, takes pains to prove that not
only R. Me'ir, but also R. Jose, R. Simon, and R.
Judah accepted the principle Yesh
Extension. Bererah (in 'Er. 3f)b "Ritba" reads
"Raba," and not "Rab"; so also the
Munich manuscript; see Rabbiuowicz, " Dikduke
Soferim," ad Inc., and compare Rail's opinion in
Yer. 'Er. iii. 21b) who does not accept the concept
of "Bererah." In the Babylonian Talmud itself
Samuel ignores Bererah, B. K. 9a; while R.
Nahman, the teacher of Raba, accepted En
Bererah (Git. 48a; see R. Nissim to Ned. 45b).
Raba explains the case in Mishnah 'Er. iii.
.5 by means of Bererah. One may say, " If the
instructor [hakam] comes to this side, my 'erub
[removal of residence on Sabbath for 2,000 ells]
shall be on this side; but if he goes to the other, the
'erub shall be on the other side; if one comes to this
side and the other goes to the other side, tlien that
'erub shall be valid which I shall determine upon to-
morrow." From this passage Raba seeks to deduce
the principle Yesh Bererah, because the localit}' of
the residence ('erub) was uncertain at the time when
the condition according to which it was to be de-
termined was made. If the decision is made on the
Sabbath, it is retroactive to the period of the com-
mencement of the Sabbath; just as in the case of
the division of joint projicrty where the presump-
tion is that an actual division liad already been made
(lb initio; hence this is a ease of Yesh Bererah.
Most of the commentators take this view (treated
later in this article), but there is a distinction be-
tween these two cases. In 'Erubin, there is an ex-
press condition after the fulfilment of which the
matter is absolutely decided; whereas in the case
of the division there is no express condition made
beforehand, and it is not absolutely determined even
afterward, which part, from the beginning be-
longed to the one joint owner, and which part to
the other.
This led the Tosafists to distinguish between dif
ferent kinds of Bererah. Some accepted Bererah
where an express condition had been
Kinds made, others where a doubt is resolved
of Bererah. afterward (Tos. to Git. 48a); on the
other hand, in the case of the division
they adopted the principle En Bererah. Raba did
not recognize these distinctions; he considered tlie
division conditioned even if the condition was not
expres.sed (coniUtio juris); see Schl'irl ("Theilbarkeit
als Eigenschaft von Rechten," p. 30), who also calls
it conditioned. Abbayi, opposing Raba, calls atten-
tion to another distinction. He says the condition
" if it shall be mj' will " can be referred back to
Bererali, but not the condition "if this will hajipen."
or "if it shall be tlie will of another" (nvia n^in
D'inx nvi3 n^ini iDVj;."iii'i'''"''put "f hisown win "
and " depeuden t on the will of others" ; Git . S.'ia et seq.).
In the latter case the retroactive effect of the con-
dition is generally accepted ; the former cases are
such instance of Bererah, concerning which there is a
controversy. According to Windsclieid, i. t$ 93. the
condition, "if it shall be m}' will, "hasno retroactive
effect. Raba, however, takes i)ains to prove that
the Tannaim who accept Beierah in the one case
also maintain it in the other cases, and vice versa.
He does not recognize any distinctions, therefore, in
the concept Bererah. The commentators ask. " What
difference is there according to Raba between the
concept Bererah and the retroactive force of a condi-
tion'? " Such a difference must exist because the re-
troactive force of the condition is generally accepted
on the ground that lie who sjiys"on condition " is
like him whos;i\-s "fromnowon." Hashi((»it. 2.")b),
who raises this question, is of the opinion that only
conditions within man's power to fulfil or not to ful-
fil have retroactive effect according to
Ketroactive general opinion, but not such condi-
Force of tionsasare in the power of him who is
Conditions, master over life and death, as. for ex-
ample, "if Idle from this disease." In
these cases retroaction can only be adopted on the
principle Yesh Bererah. But in this case Bererah
contains the idea of predestination; that which has
Bererah
THE .JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
60
attually occurred has already been pretieteiiiiined by
Providence. But it is clear that such a view must
be kept out of the field of law. Xahmanides sets up
the following distinction between Berenih and the
retroactive force of a condition : Simple conditions
ha\c retroactive force even according to the princi-
ple En Bererah. whereas a doul)le condil ion works
retroactively only according to the iirinciple of Yesh
Bererah. The ilistinction is clear. If one makes a
simple condition, his will is directed toward some-
thing defiuite which merely requires the fultilment
of the condition; but if one makes a double condi-
tion, he wants eitlier one thing or another, he vacil-
lales, and tlienfore the idea of Bererah must be
brought intorcMiuisition in order to cause retroactive
effect This view of Xahnianides, however, is not
satisfactory, and therefore his distinction between
"Bererah" and the "retroactive force of the condi-
tion" is rejected (see Luria. I.e.); but the idea of
Tsahraanides is correct and merely requires amend-
ment : it is the only correct one, following the
view of Raba. If one Sitys to a woman, "I marry
you on condition that your father cou.sents." the act
is an alternative juridical act. If the condition is
fultilled. the marriage is valid ; if the condition is
not fultilled, the union is unlawful: but it has cer,-
taiu legal consequences, for .Jewish law does not
recognize the maxim " Pater est quern
Bererah nuplitu demonstraut." In this case,
and therefore, there is a double condition,
Coudition. and, nevertheless, after being fultilled.
it has retroactive force e.\actly as in
the case in ilishnah Deniai vii. 4. where one may
eat only on condition that that which was last taken
out is )i resumed to have been " terumah " from the be-
ginning. The opponents of this view who maintain
that the marriage is valid in any event, even if the
lather does not give his consent, must assume the
principle En Bererah, because it is possible to con-
sent only to something detinite. In a like manner,
there is a double coudition in tlie case, " Here is your
bill of divorce, to take effect if I die from this dis-
ease," if the view is accepted that the wife remains
a lawful wife up to a moment before the death of
the husband. The conditions are first, " Y'ou shall
remain my wife up to a moment before my death,"
and second, "The bill of divorce shall be effective a
moment before my death." His will, therefore, is
divided, and nevertheless there is a retroactive effect;
hence, the principle Y'esh Bererah is in action. If
his will were only directed toward the divorce, the
effect would be that the marriagi; would be in stis-
peimo; and since that is not the ease, it follows that
the principle Yesh Bererah is invoked. In this man-
ner, it seems, Haba has distinguished " Bererah " from
"the retroactive force of a condition," and only in
this manner can the etymology and translation of
the word be li.xed.
Since the commentators joined in the views of
Bashi concerning the discrimination between the
]iersonal and the elementary nature of the conditions,
they necessarily must find nothing else in the word
" Bererah" than " retroactive force of condition." Be-
rerah is, according to this view, a special form of the
retroactive force of conditions which is accepted by
some and rejected by others. The word, therefore,
must be e.xplained through the assistance of other
words: J,nS?2^ '\2'\r\ "nain. "the matter has been
made clear with regard to the past " ; and the trans-
lation of the word would imply its sec-
Etymology ondary meaning, because tna means,
and in the first place, "to choose," "to
Transla- select": as for instance, ^31« Till
tion. n^lDSnimtD. "toselecttheedible from
till' iii(ilil)le." luitsderived meaningit
also means "clear." "clean." "positive." Bererah
might be translated " certainty " ; i.e., that which was
formerly doubtful is now certain; but this idea is
also contained in the notion of the retroactive foi'ce of
condition, and the word " Bererah " would not cover
that special meaning which it was intended to ex-
press. In the Jerusalem Talmud, there is a phrase
which covers " retroactive force of condition " (Deniai
vi. 0.-id. and elsewhere), nyCO 1^ V'W^ Ip^n nr
HjICNI. "this, his share, was his from the first mo-
ment." According to Rashi, the word "Bererah"
ought to be trauslatetl as predestination ; but this
idea is not in the word. But. in fact, " Bererah, " de-
rived from 1-13, "to choose," "to select," means
"choice." "Y'esh Bererah" means "he has the
choice " : that is to say, one can make a double con-
dition and afterward choose one or the other; or
through the fultilment of the condition, whichever
it niaj' be, one thing or the other is determined.
" En Bererah " means that one can not make a double
condition, so that afterward one of the two may be
determined. This was the view of the Babylonian
Talmud as shown in Y'oma (oob). Avhere it is argued,
"let him ciioose four zuzim," etc. Likewise in an-
other place (Tern. 8(1a : Bek. 57a), "let him take one
out, and the others will be permitted." It is true
that Levy and, following him, Kohut explain the
word to mean "choice," but this translation of the
word will not be of help in the Gemara, unless the
above-explained view of Xahmanides is borne in
mind. Jastrow, therefore, gives a twofold transla-
tion, "choosing or a subsequent selection"; "retro-
spective designation." According to the above-
mentioned explanation, the word "choice" is suffi-
cient. The fact that a condition is retroactive is
assumed, and is not expressed in the word; since
this is characteristic of all conditions.
Undoubtedly, in practise, Raba has applied the
concept of Bererah without distinction. Riibbi
Isaac, the Tosafist. maintains that in
Ap- every case a decision can be rendered
plication in according to Raba ; namely, on tlie
Practise, jirinciple Y'esh Bererah. R. Tam at
first also decided in this manner, but
later he departed from it (see Tosafot to Tem. 30a,
and parallels in marginal notes). In the Gemara
(BezahS'ihct sefj.). MarZutra isof the opinion that in-
asmuch as there is a difference of tiiiinion concerning
Bererah, the rule of decision should be " In Biblical
commands. En Bererah ; in rabbinical commands,
Y'esh Bererah " ; and in this manner ]\[aimonides also
decided ('Er. viii. 7). although many contradictions
appear in his work that can not all be reconciled by
his interpreters (see Luria, ib. .36b: and "Sha'agat
Aryeh," Xo. 89). Rabbi Joseph Caro (Shulhan 'Aruk,
I.e.) also notes this division ; namely. "In rabbinical
commands, Y'esh Bererah, and in Biblical commands,
61
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bererah
Eq BtRTiib. " One rather illogical exception is made
ill the case of a Biblical command ; namel_y , in the case
mentioned in Ned. (I.e.). because it is said to differ
from other casesof Bererah (see R. Solomcm LriiiA).
The Palestinian Ilalakah is closer to Roman legal
concepts than is the Babylonian, and in spite of all
separation from that which was for-
Unknown eign, Roman legal concepts current
in among the people unconsciously forced
Palestinian their way into the Palestinian Hala-
Halakah. kah, althougli the rules of law of the
two s.vstems differed.
In Roman law, the difference lietween movaljle
and immovable propertj- shows itself in the concejit
of divisibility of propert^y. Immovable property
can be divided, and movable property can not ( piii:9
pro iHcini). pni:i pro indin'so). In the case of immov-
able property an actual division is possible; in the
case of movable property only a theoretical or ideal
division can be made. Actual division of quantities
jmd genus is likewise pos.sible {iii/meiv ft cfirhin).
because the value of equal parts remains the same ;
(see Waechter, " Archiv fiir die Civilistische Pra.xis,''
XXV. 1.5.5 et ser/.); but this rule applies only to obli-
gations and not to joint property. The division of
joint property, is looked upon as an exchange (per-
iiiiitiitio). In place of the formerlj- undetermined
jiroperty, each of the joint proprietors receives from
tlie other, by exchange, certain determined i)roperty
<see Savigny, "Obligationenrecht," i. § 30. and
likewise other well-known jurists quoted in " Monats-
schrift," 1900, l.r.).
The Palestinian Ilalakah likewise distinguishes
between joint property in divisible and in indivisi-
ble things. This distinction is fo\md in the above-
mentioned controversy, in the case of a vow of ab-
stinence by the joint proprietors from any enjoyment
of each other's property; and in the other contro-
versy, concerning tithes and heave-offerings in the
case of joint property of Jew and Gentile in Syria.
The Babylonian Talmud uses these as its principal
supports for tlie controversy concerning Yesh Bere-
rali and En Bererah. In Yer. Demai vi, 2.5d the
latter controversy is discussed, and the Halakah is as
follows; In case of a division of heajis of sheaves or
even the threshed grain, it is undisputed that in each
stalk or each grain there is common property, but in
the case of a division of growing grain, there is a
controversy between Rabbi and R. Simon ben Gama-
liel. The former maintains that in this case also
the conununity of property exists in every single
stalk, and the latter maintains that each joint pro-
' prietor obtains his separate property.
H. Simon ben Gamaliel's principle is the follow-
ing; The field being divisible (purs pri> diriso; (see
Joint Owners), there is an implied condition (condi-
tio jiirix) among the joint proprietors that whichever
of the two halves falls to the share of either one
shall be presumed to have been his from the begin-
ning. This is an alternative condition with retro
active force. This is the meaning of the maxim;
"This, his share, was his from the first moment."
The Palestinian Ilalakah has not distinguished the
condition " if it slmll be my will '' from other condi-
tions. Koppen (" Jahrbuch fiir Dogmatik," xi. 280)
maintains that acecmling to Roman law such a con-
dition has retroactive force; so also Derenbourg
("Pandekten." p. 3.58, g 108, Berlin, 189(i). Thus
(Yer. 'Er. iii. 21b) the condition. "I may go whitlier-
soever I may desire," is considered a condition with
retroactive force. In Yer, Git. iii. 44il, the case
cited in the Mishnah — a bill of divorce written for
one of two wives of the same name to be determined
at the will of the husliand — is considered invalid,
becau.se a bill of divorce may, tinder no circum-
stances, be written conditionally, otherwise the
maxim of the law wouhl apply, " tliat it was written
for her from the first moment"; to wit, the condi-
tion has retroactive force. In the case of the divi-
sion of a field, R. Simon ben Gamaliel held such
condition to be necessarily implied. Rablii does not
consider such condition valid even if it is actually
expressed, because, according to him, the joint prop-
erty exists not only in that part which is divisible,
but in each separate stalk, whereby division becomes
impossible. R. Simon ben Gamaliel
Case of therefore had to admit that in case
Joint a division of a heap of grain is at-
Property. tempted, the joint property continues
in every stalk or in every grain,
whereby actual division becomes impossible.
In Roman law. ttie rule is, If the grain of two proprietors Is
mixed with their ooDsent. '* coniuiuiiio " exists, and it cainiot
be divided. "Quod si frumentuiu 'ritii fruniento tuo iiii.\tum
fuerit, si quidem e.\ v(.)luntatevestra coiiiniune est, quia sin!,'Mla
corpora, id est singula grana, quie eu.lusi4Ue propria fuerunt ex
consensu vestro communicata sunt"; § 3S J. de reruiu divlsluue,
2,1.
The same controversy would exist even if there
was joint propert}' in two separate etiual heaps of
grain, or two equal pieces of the same kind of prop-
erty, because, in this case, we have piiiii:'i pro dirim ;
each part being a body for itself. R. Johanan and
R. Eleazar dispute couceruing this case (Yer. Kid-
dushin i. 60d; compare Demai, I.e.). II. Johanau
decided, like Rabbi, that, even in the case of divisible
things, community remains in every single jiiece or
heap. R. Eleazar decides like R. Simon ben Gama-
liel, "This, his share, was originally his." But it is
undisinited that if there is joint property in a single
heap of grain, it is indivisible, because the joint
property exists in every grain (compare Yer. Demai
vi. 2.5d). The same relation exists in the case of a
courtyard held in common. Here, also, a distinction
is made whether it is divisible or indivisible. Ac-
cording to Yer. Ned. v. 39a, it is undisputed that if
the courtyard is indivisible, the joint propiietors
that have through vows mutually resolved to ab-
stain from enjoyment of one another's property may
not step into the courtyard (Mishnali Ned. v. 1).
The conflict between the general opinion and the
view of R. Elie/.er ben Jacob exists only if the luop-
erty is divisible. According to the former view,
every siiiiare inch of the courtyard is joint property,
and therefore may not be di vided. In order that I hey
may step into this courtyard, joint iiroprietors must
transfer their right to a thii'd person. R. Elie/.er
ben Jacob is of the opinion that each joint proprie-
t(U- has an undetermineil half-interest in the entire
property, and, through conditio jurix. each joint pro-
prietor obtains, after the division, his original prop-
erty. This controversy is exactly like that bi'tween
Ral)bi and R. Siinou beu Ganiali<'I.
Bereiah
Bereshit
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
63
I
Mishnah Demai vii. 2 is explained in Ter. 26b
without controversy on the principle that the condi-
tion liMS retroactive force (nnL"SL"3? laao)-
The Habylonian Ualakah. by sctlinjr up the con-
cept Berenih, went far beyond the Palestinian and
read this concept into the controversy of the Tan-
naini. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, the di-
vision of indivisible things in the case of joint prop-
erty is not permitted; according to the Babylonian.
it is jiermilted in the case of rabbinical prohibitions
(see an example in " Sha'agat Aryeh," I.e.). Accord-
ing to the Jerusidem Talmud, such a distinction can
not be dniwn because, following it. the division of
indivisible things contains a contradiction, which
makes its application equally impossible for rabbin-
ical and Biblical law. Moreover, the controversy
between Babbi and B. Simon ben Gamaliel actually
refers to a rabbinical prohibition.
But although the IJabylonian Talnuul's interpre-
tation of the contioversy of the Tannaim must yield
to that of the; Jerusalem Talmud, the concept Bere-
rah, as such, is nevertheless juridically and logically
justitiable. Bomau law is not abstraelly logical.
The Roman law, it is true, establislies the proposi-
tion " Dominium plurium in soli<lum esse non potest, "
and most of the jurists, starting out with this propo-
sition, take the stand that according to Roman law.
in the case of joint property, the right is divided
and the division is looked upon as emptio. Goppert
explains this \iew clearly and con-
Boman and vinciugly ("Beitriige zur Lehre vom
Modern Miteigenthum." Halle. 18IU). Other
Law. doctors of the law. such as Steinlceh-
ner. Wiudschcid. and Eisele, explain
joint property as separate property even according
to Roman law. AVithout venturing to express an
opinion on Roman law, theslatemenlof Uuger seems
convincing that there was an evolution in the law.
He writes (" Jahrbuch fi'ir Dogmatik." xxii. 289):
" A twofold point of view is possible : either tlieoretieally
divided pmperty and divided security, or joint property and
joint security. In tlie tli-st case, it is assumed that there are
sevenil joint pn»prietoi-s pro iiirfirfVo; in the latter ca,se, that
all together as one {xmiiis }cico) have property in the thing.
The first point of view was that of the older Roman law, the
latter is that of the later Roman law and of modern law, so far
as it recognizes suretyship in cases of joint property,"
A similar evolution took place in Talinudic law.
The Palestinian Halakah takes the point of view
that the joint proprietor, particularly of indivisible
things, has a theoretical share in the article. It con-
siders division as a purchase or an exchange. In
the later Babylonian Halakah (through Raba) the
joint iiroprictor is looked upon as sole jiroprietor
who after the division receives his original property.
It did not assume in joint property, consisting of
many similar units, that each unit was joint prop-
erty and had to be divided — division of the prop-
erty and division of right are the sjune — but consid-
ered that the one-half of the bulk belonged to the
one. and the other half to the other, and each one
while using the joint property was presumed to l)e
using his own property, and on division received
what was always his property (Tos. Git. 48a).
The dilTerence between the views of the deciders
of the responsa and the oliler authorities is particu-
larly noticeable because the former say that in the
case of indivisible joint estiite. the vow of the joint
proprietor has no force because they have assumed
the obligation that one may use the share of the
other; but. according to the older conception, the
partnership relation contains no such idea of obliga-
tion and can be ended at smy moment. This is the
idea of the Jerusalem Talmud.
The concept Bererah is known in French law.
Goppert (ih. pp. 64. 63) states: "In French law. the
essence of the division of joint property did not con
sist in a mutual changeable contiact, but rather in
an iicte detenu i mil if, by which it was established
what portion of the joint property the joint heir
really inherited, from which arose the legal presump-
tion that the property which fell to his share at the
division was deemed to have been his from the be-
ginning. A remarkable coincidence! There being
no inherent contradiction in the concept Bererah,
the Babylonian Halakah, modifying the older view,
established the compromise that in Biblical com-
mands the principle En Bererah is followed, and
in rabbinical commands Yesh Bererah. But the in-
terpretation of the Babylonian Talmud of the dicta
of the Tannaim contains innumerable contradictions,
and is a shoreless ocean in which the commentator is
lost. By distinguishing between the Palestinian
Halakah and the Babylonian, it is believed that the
matter has been made clear,
mBi.ioGR.»PHV : R, Nissiui to iVoi. 4.51) : Solomon Luria. in his
work l"(i»i Slid SheUinuih to B, Is. 31, pp. 34-411. Sdilk..«.
I.s;i6. At the end he enumerates thirty cases i>*fcrrinL^ \"
Uererah and ai'ransres them in fi>urcla.sses. R. Judah Uen.j;i-
min Rapiiport, in liis work SimUil llmjaiiun. pp. :;i--'7.
Dyhenifurlh, 17.50, criticizes 1, aria's dist|uisition. R. Isaac Laiii-
pronti, in his work, Fitluid Yizlntfi. Venice, ITttt, .sm\. enumi-t -
ales uuist of the passages of tlie liiiliylonian Tahund, and al- •
retei-stothe literature of the responsa. R. Banich Bcnedii i
Coitein, in Kefcf XihUar, l.emliei^, l.sijT, classilies anil rh^-
cusses most of the passages together with the codes of Mai-
monides and Shulhait 'Artili, and he finally distinguishes
three classes of Bererah. R. .\braliam Tiktin wrote a com-
prehensive article ()nthis subject in liis ho.ik l\f'ih fni-Iimiit,
pp. li>t)-™a, Dyherufurth, s:iO: he goes iiit^i detailed disrn>>i<in
and attempts "to solve nnmemus contnidictions by ptlpulistic
methods of argument. R. Jacob Zebi Joliesch, in his book
Mthi lH!-R'i'iin, Warsiiw, issn, has* gathered ail the material
and has mentioned the various rabbis that adopted the princi-
ple Vesh Bererah and those that adopteil the principle
En Bererah. Aryeh I-ow. the author of Sha\mat Arihh,
Briinn, 1797, treats of Bererah in numbers 89 to 93, pp. (»7-7it ;
finallv R. Elijah Wilna, on Omh Ifiiiinim. 413, 1, has an ex-
cellent summary of the various' views concerning Berenih.
He is the only one of all the alnive-named connneiuators and
authors of resiionsa who snguests the differeuet> in the con-
ception of Bererah between the .lernsalem and the Babvlonian
Talmud {Yurch D('n/i,331, 27); Jfoii(i(,«c(in/(, Isil'.i, pp.:!i'.:i-
37"; .\uerbach, Diw JUiIi.<vht' OltUtiationetiri'vht, Berlin,
1H7(I, pp. 529 ft scq., lytXl, p, 5(1, note 1 (note 2, ih., must be
corrected according to the above views). The lexicons of
the Talmud ts.r.) of Levy, Kohut. and Jastrow.
.1. SR. M, S. Z.
BERESHIT. See Genesis.
BERESHIT RABBAH (called also by the an-
cients Bereshit derabbi Osha'yah [Hosha'yah],
Bereshit rabbah derabbi Oshaya [Hoshayiah] ,
Bereshit derabbi Hosha'yah rabba, Baraita
derabbi Osha'ya) : Expository ilidrash to the tirst
book of the Pentateuch, assigned by traditirni to the
amora Iloshaiah. commonly Osha'yah, who nourished
in the third century in Palestine. The Miditish
forms a haggadie commentary on the whole of Gen-
esis, in keeping with the character of the Midrasliic
exegesis demanded by that age. In a continuous
sequence, broken only toward the end. the Biblical
text is expounded verse for verse, often wind for
63
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bererah
Bereshit
word; onlj- gencalogic passages, and such as fur-
Dish no material for exposition (as the reiterated ac-
count of Abraham's servant in Gen. xxiv. 35-48),
are omitted.
The Bereshit Kabbah contains many simple ex-
planations of words and sentences, often in the Ara-
maic language, suitable for the instruction of youth ;
and also the most varied haggadic expositions popu-
lar in the public lectures of the syna-
Its gogues and schools. According tr)
Simplicity the material or the sources at the dis-
and posal of the editor of the >Iidrash, he
Sublimity, has strung together various longer or
shorter explanations and haggadic in-
terpretations of the successive passages, sometimes
anonymously, sometimes citing the author. Again,
he adds to the running commentary longer haggadic
disiiuisitions or narratives, connected iu some way
with the verse in question, or with one of the ex-
planations of It — a method not unusual in the Tal-
mud and iu other Midrashira. The lirst chapters of
Genesis, on the creation of the world and of man,
naturally furnished especially rich material for this
mode of exegesis. Whole sections are devoted to
conmients upon one or two verses of tlie text. Slany
references to contemporary philosophical thought
are made with the purpose of refuting the opinions
of the heretics. References to contemporaneous con-
ditions and historical events also occur; indeed, it is
characteristic of the Midrash to view the personages
and conditions of the Bible b}^ the light of con-
temporary history. Though the stories embraced
in Genesis furnished little occasion for comments on
legal topics, Bereshit Rabbah contains a few short
halakic sentences and quotations taken from the
Mishnah and other sources. This Midrash is emi-
nently rich in sublime thoughts and tinely worded
sentences, iu all kinds of parables, in foreign words,
especially Greek, used freely and intentionally for
the sake of elegance of diction. Some Greek words,
to be found nowhere else in Jewish literature, have
been preserved in the Bereshit Rabbah (e.;j., TvHJlp.
(C(Sv(JfXof, section i. in 'Arukand MSS. ; cSlSlinvSN.
'EX£i'fl(:«o77oA(f, section xli. (xlii.)in 'Aruk, corrupted
in editions).
This extensive and important Jlidrash, which
forms a complete commentary on Genesis, and ex-
emplities all points of Midrashic exegesis, is divided
into parashiyot (sections, chapters);
Form. and derives its pecidiar character from
the proems which head these sections;
it is by these means distinguished from the tannaitic
Midrashim to the other books of the Pentateuch, such
as MckiU.a, Sifra, and Sifre. Every chapter of the
Bereshit Rabbah is headed by the first verse of the
passage to be explained, and is introduced, with few
exceptions, by one or more prefatory remarks starting
from a verse taken from another Biblical passage as
text — generally from the Hagiographa. B\' various
explanations of these texts a transition is effected to
the exposition of the particular verse of Genesis
heading the parasliah. There are in the Bereshit
Rabbah (i.-xcvi.) about two hundred and thirty of
these passages. A part of them — about seventy —
are cited witli the name of the haggadists with whom
they originated or whose explanation of the verse in
question was used as an introduction to the para-
shah of the Bereshit Rabbah ; as in section i. the six
prefatory passages of R. Osha'yah, R. Huna in the
name of Bar Kappara, R. Judah b. Simon, R. Isaac,
R. Joshua of Siknin, iu the name of R. Levi, and
K. Tanhuma.
The greater number of these passages are anony-
mous and may perhaps be ascribed in part to the
author of the Bereshit Rabbah; they
In- begin with the verse of the text, which
troductory very often stands at the head of the
Passages, proem without any fornmla of intro-
duction — more frequently so in the
best manuscripts than in the editions. The struc-
ture of the prefator)' passages is as various as their
execution and their extent. In some only tlie intro-
ductory text is given, its application to the verse of
Genesis to be expounded being self-evident or being
Ic-ft to a later working out. The single prefaces, of
which there is a large number, contain explanations
of their text which refer entirely or in its last part
to the verse or passage of Genesis to be expounded
in that parasliah. The composite introductions con-
sist of different expositions of the same Biblical
verse, bj' different haggadists, stnmg together in
various ways, but always arranged so that the hist
exposition — the last link of the introduction — leads
to the exposition of the passage of Genesi-s, with the
lirst verse of which the introductions often close.
For these introductions, which are often quite
lengthy, the material for the several expo.silions was
ready at hand. The original work on tlic^se passages
consisted principally in the eombiniugand grouping
of the several sentences and expositions into a coor-
dinate whole, always so arranged that the last mem-
ber forms the actual iutroductiou to the exposition
of the parashah. Definitely characterized as they
are iu their beginning by these introductions, the
parashiyot of the Bereshit Rabbah have no formal
ending, although several show a transition to the
Biblical passage that is expounded in the following
parashah.
In the manuscripts, as well as in the editions, the pa-
rashiyot are consecutivel.y ninubered ; in very many
quotations iu the 'Aruk tlu- passage of
The the Bereshit Rabbah is mentioned by
Principle the number of the parashah. The
of Division, total number of the parasliiyot, both in
the manuscripts and in tlu'cdilions, va-
ries from 97 to 101. Nearly all the manuscripts, how-
ever, as well as the editions, agree in counting 96 chap-
ters, up to the exposition on Gen. xlvii. 38 ct «y/.
inclusive (beginning of the pericope Wayehi) ; and to
this point the best manuscripts, as well as the "Aruk
and Yalkut, differ only in a few parashiyot from the
division of the chapters iu the editions. Hence the
counting by chapters or sections is to be considered
UHich older than has been assumed. The principle
of division followed in the parashiyot of the Bereshit
Rabbah was evidently that of the Biblical text itself
as fixed at the time of the compilation of this Mid-
rash, in accordance with the "open " (nimns> and
■• closed " (niDinO) liaragraphs of Genesis. There are
separate parashiyot in the >Iidrash to almost all
these sections as they are still found in Genesis, with
the exception of tlie genealogical passages. But
Bereshit
Ber^
THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA
64
tbere are iiarashiyot that bear evidences of relation
to the pericopes (" sedarim ") of Iho Palestinian trien-
nial cycle, and a careful investigation of these may
lead to tlie discover)- of an arrangement of sedarim
different from that heretofore known from old regis-
ters. However, there are jiarashiyot. as mentioned
above, especially in the begiuuiug of the Jlidrash,
in which only one or a few verses at a time are ex-
pounded. The sedarim of the customary one-year
cycle are not regarded at all in the divisions of the
Bereshit Kabbah, neitherare they marked in the best
manuscripts or in the editio princcpn of the Midrash;
the parashiyot. therefore, can not be regarded as mere
subdivisions of the sedarim. as which they appear
in later editions of this Midrash.
Far more difficult than any question concerning
the outwai'd form of the Bereshit Kabbah is that of
deciding how much of its present con-
Haterial. tents is original material included in it,
and how much of later addition. The
parashiyot formed the framework that was to con-
tain the exposition of a number of Biblical verses in
continuous succession.
But with the notoriouslyloo.se construction of the
haggadic exegesis it became easy to string together,
on every verse or part of a verse, a number of ram-
bling comments : or to add longer or shorter hag-
gadic passages, stories, etc., connected in some way
with the exi)osition of the text. This process of
accretion took place quite spontaneousl)' in the
Bereshit Kabbah, as in the other works of the Tal-
mudic and Midrashic literature ; between the begin-
ning and the completion of these works — if ever they
were completed — a long period elapsed dui'ing which
there was much addition and collection.
The tradiliim that K. Hosha'yah is the author of
the Bereshit Kabbah may be taken to mean that he
began the work, in the form of the running com-
mentary customary in tannaitic times, arranging the
exposition on Genesis according to the sequence of
the verses, and furnishing the necessary complement
to the tannaitic Midrashim on the other books of the
Pentateuch. The ascription of the Mekilta to R.
Ishmael and of the Jerusalem Talmud to K. Johanan
rests on a similar procetlure. Perhaps the conunents
on Genesis were originally divided into parashiyot
that corresponded with the above-mentioned sections
of the text, and that contained the beginnings of the
simplest introductions, as indeed the first traces of
such introductions are found also in the tannaitic
Midrash. But the embellishment of the parashiyot
with numerous artistic introductions — which points
to a combination of the form of the nmniug commen-
tary with the form of the linished homilies follow-
ing the type of the Pesiktaaml Tanhnma :Midrashim
— was certainly the result of the editing of the
Bereshit Kabbah that is now extant, when the ma-
terial found in collectiosn and traditions of the hagga-
dic exegesis of the period of the Amoraim was taken
up in the Midrash, and (he Bereshit Kabbah was
given its present form, if not its iire.sent bulk. Per-
haps the editor made n.se also of different collections
on the several parts of Genesis. The present Ber-
eshit Kabbah shows a singular disjiroportion between
the lengtli of the first sidra and that of the eleven
others. The sidra Bereshit alone comprises twentv-
nine parashiyot, being more than one-fourth of the
whole work. Is there not a po.ssibility that the pres-
ent Bereshit Kabbah is a combination of two Mid-
rashim of unequal proportions; and that the twenty-
nine parashiyot of the first sidra — several of which
expound only one or a few verses — constitute tin
extant or incomplete material of a Bereshit Kabbah
that was laid out on a much larger and more compre-
hensive scale than the Jlidrash to the other sidroty
The worlv may have received its name. " Bereshit
Kabbah." from that larger Jlidrash at the beginning
of Genesis, unless that designation was
Origin of originally used to distinguish this Mid-
Name, rash from the shorter and older one,
which was ascribed to K. Hosliayah.
The opinion that the name of the Midrash finds its
explanation in the first words, "R. Hosha'yah rab-
bah began," etc., as if the word "rabbah " belonged
originallj- to the name of the amora. and that the
name of the work, "Bereshit Rabbah," is an abbrevi-
ation of '■ Bereshit derabbi Hoshayah rabbah," is un-
tenable for the reason that in the best manuscripts —
and in a very old quotation — the name "R. Hosha-
yah" stands without the addition "rabbah" in the
first preface at the beginning of the Midrash. It
would be singular if the authorial designation had
been lost and yet the attribute had remained in the
title of the Midrash.
It is difficult to ascertain the exact date of the
actual editing of the Bereshit Rabbah; it was prob-
ably undertaken not much later than
Date. that of the Jerusalem Talmud. But
even then the text was probably not
finally closed, for longer or shorter passages could
always be added, the number of prefatory passages
to a parashah be increased, and those existing be
enlarged by accretion. Thus, beginning with the
sidra Wayishlah, extensive passages are found that
bear the marks of the later Haggadah, and have
points of connection with the Tanhuma homilies.
The passages were probably added at an early date,
since they are not entirely missing in the older man-
uscripts, which are free from many other additions
and glosses that are found in the present editions.
In the concluding chapters the Bereshit Rabbah
seems to have remained defective. In the jiarashiyot
of the sidra Wayiggash the comment is no longer
carried out verse by ver.se; the last parashah of this
]>ericope, as well as the first of the sidra Wayehi.
is probably drawn from Tanhuma homilies; the
comment to the whole 48th chapter of Genesis is
missing in all the manuscripts (with one exception),
and to verses 1-14 in the editions; the remaining por-
tion of this sidra, the comment on Jacob's blessing
(Gen. xlix.), is found in all the manuscripts — with the
above-mentioned exeeption.s — in a revision .showing
later additions, a revision that was also used bv tlw
compiler of the Tanhuma ^Midrash edited by Buber,
The best mannscrijit of the Bereshit Rabbah i^
fouud in the Codex Add. 2T,lti9 of the Britisli Mu-
seum, London; it was used for the critical edition
issued by J. Theodor.
On this and other manuscripts compare: J. Tlieo-
dor. "Der Midrash Bereshit Rabbah," in "Mouats-
schrift," xxxvii. 1G9 it mj.. ih. 211 et seq.. 4-V3 it »f/. ;
xxxviii. 9<'/,«<Ty, : xxxix. \OGetseq.: variants of the
66
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bereahit
Ber^
Beivshit Rabbah in ' Aruk, Yalkut, and MSS. ; on the
division into chapters, ib. xxxix. 481.
Oldest editions: Constantinople, 1513 (Midr. R. on
Pentateuch) (Ber. Rabbah), Venice, 1567; collective
editions on Pent, and Meg., Venice, 1545; Cracow,
1587; Salouica (1544?). 1594.
Oldest commentaries: Commentary ascribed to
Bashi (appeared first in the Venice ed., 1567; com-
pare Epstein, in "Magazin fi'ir die Wissenschaft des
Judontliums," 1887, pp. 1 etseq.); commentary by
R. Naphtali Herz b. R. Menahem, Cracow, 1569 ; com-
mentary by Ashkeuazi Baerman b. Naphtali ha-
Kohen (appeared first in the Cracow ed., 1587); com-
mentary " Yefeh To'ar." by Samuel Yafe Ashkenazi,
Venice, 1597 ; Prague, 1689 ; Fiirth. 1692 ; more recent
valuable commentaries bj' Wolf Eiuhorn, David
Luria, Sam. Straschun, and others in the Wilna ed. of
the Midrash. Compare further, for editions and com-
mentaries, Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." No. 3753 f^
«y. ; Jelliuek, "Kuntres ha-Maggid," 1878, pp.7
it seq., W et seq. ; " Kuntres Taryag," 1878, pp. 47 ei
»eq.; "Kuntres ha-Rambam," 1878, pp. 33 et seq.;
Benjacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim, " 1880, pp. 301 et seq.
Translation : German by Aug. Wiinsche, Leipsic,
1881.
Bibliography : Zunz, G. V. 1st ed., 1832, pp. 173 et seq., 354 ct
i<eq.: Rapoport, Erch MiUin, 1H52. pp. 171 et seq.: Frankel,
Mrlio Jiit-Yeriislinjmi. 1.^70, pp. .5Ut tt srq.; Friedmann, in
lutrniliiciii.n to liis ptiiiioii of Ml i.ill'i, ls7n, pp. ixxv. et seq.;
J. Tl 'ior. ZAti ro/iijio.Md")! lire Aiiiulisehi ii HaiiiiUen, in
Moniilssrhyift. 1S71I, pp. 112 et s.y.; M. Joi-1, Bliekc in tlie
Beliiii"ii.-:iiisi liiilile. i. ]sm; Leraer, Anlaiie tnul ejuillni
dc.f Uni.-iliil Uiil'hali.ls.^-^; H. L. Struck, article Miilrash,
in I'nili.'<t(uiti.-<elic li'iil-Eiiciillnii/liIir. 2d ciL. ix. 74t) et
feq.; Weiss. D<ir. ISK;1. iii. 2ri2 <•( ,m <;.; 1SK7, iv. 22. 2(IS et seq.;
J. Tlieiidor, Die jMidrii.<rliiin ziiiii I'ciitdteueli iiiul der
PaUI.''line)tsi.sc}ie Dreijiiliriiir i'l/elits. in Mniial.^.^rfirift,
188.5-S7; Ph. Bind), Stuiiirii ziir ^Ii/i/kJ.i. in .Muiiiilx-
sehrift, 1S.H.5. pp. W> el seiy. Winler and WiiiLschc, iJii JihI.
Litteeiitur srit AlisrhluKs ilrs Kminiis. 1«!)4, i. Wu et seq.,
488 (•( 8(1/.; W. Bacher, Ai.i. I'dl. .iiiinr. 1S99, iii. ,")03 et seq.;
Immauuel Low. in Kraiiss. llrieehi■•^e}lr niid Lateinische
■ Leh>m'6rtei: 1H99, ii. ti2U et sea; a. Mayljaum, Die Aettesteii
Pliaiien in dcr Entwickelnng der Jud. Prcdiqt, Berlin, 1901.
.1. sn. ,J. T.
BEREZA (Cartuskaya Bereza) : Town in the
<iistriet of Pruszhany, guvenimciit of Groduo. Rus-
sia; situated on the river Jazelda, on the road be-
tween Brest-Litovsk and Bobruisk. The Jewish
population in 1890 was 850, out of a total of 2,625.
Jews fli'st settled in Bereza in 1629, as is evident
from a document registered by Sohjmon Michaile-
vieli, superintendent of the Jewish congregation of
Brest-Litovsk, at the city hall of that place, April
18. 1680. In this document Grand Duke Sapieha
(1.557-1633), hetman and chancellor of Lithuania,
declares to his officials of Bereza and to his heirs
that, as he desires that Jews shall .settle in Bereza,
he grants them the privilege of buiUling there a
house f)f prayer where they can hold their divine serv-
ice undisturbed. They shall have the right to
build houses and ornament them according to tlieir
desire, and shall enjoy all the privileges granted to
the Jewish inhabitants on his other estates, as Roz-
liana and Kosov. All these rights are also to be
granted by his heirs. After the signature of Leon
Sapieha on the original document is added a confir-
mation of the contents in the handwriting of his son,
Cazimir Leo Sajiieha (1609-56).
Bmi.iofiRAPnv: Al.lii Wilrnshni AreheridraHeheslioi Kimi-
missii, V. 142; /.■..;.k(i/ i Xihlpisi, No. 78l ; Patniatnaiia
Kiiiiin Uei)iliieiifhiii liuhernii iirt 1890.
H. R.
III.— 5.
BEREZINO : Village of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Minsk, having a population (1898) of 1,900,
almost exclusively Jews (1,824). About 25 per cent
of them are artisans and laborers, chiefly loaders.
Twenty-four Jewish families are en gaged in garden-
ing. The general economic condition is bad. LTpon
the introduction (June 14, 1897) of the government
monopoly in the wine trade, 99 Jewish families were
left without means of subsistence; 1.55 families de-
pended upon cliarity for fuel; 210 applied in 1898
for charity during the Passover of that year; and
the number of such applicants increases annually.
n- «■ S. J.
BERG: An independent duchy until 1815; at
present jiart of the Prussian Rhine i)rovince. Jews
settled here at an early period. In 1298 Count Wil-
helm of Berg protected them against the hordes led
by RiNDFLEisCH. At the time of the Black Death
in 1349 many were killed by the Flagellants. Many
of the Jews driven from Cologne settled in Berg.
The rabbi of Cologne, "Pruno Soeskind." .settled at
Deutz, others went to Siegburg, and still others to
Mulheim-ou-the-Ruhr. A synagogue was at that
time organized at Deutz, the cemetery being outside
of the "Severiuthor" of Cologne until in 1629 the
electoral government presented to the Jews a
burial-place.
Even in early times a community had existed at
Siegburg, wliich paid to the abbot a certjiin sum as
protection money (Geleitrjeld). the Jews being also
required to take part, like other citizens, in guarding
the gates. The chief of the community acted as its
judge, only criminal cases being brought before
the abbot. The Jews of Siegburg were slain in 1287
on the acctisation of having killed a boy, Johan-
uekeu, who was afterward canonized bj'the Church.
Often to their detriment the Jews of Siegburg aided
the archbishop and the city of Cologne with money.
In 1334 Archbishop Walrain killed Meyer of Sieg-
burg and his son Joelmau. and confiscated their
property.
The ghetto anil synagogue at Ml'ilheiin lay in the
lower part of the city, on the Rhine; the Jews bury-
ing their dead at tirst in the cemetery at Cologne, and
afterward at Deutz. Since 1774 they have had a ceme-
tery of their own. The settlement at Kaisers-
wcrth also dates back to an early period. During
the "Soest quarrel " 1,445 horsemen from Cleves in-
vaded Jliilheim and Deutz, plumlering and carrying
off the richest Jews. About 1.400 Jews of Siegburg
barely escaped annihilation, a gipsy woman having
accused them of a murder. In 1588 tlie community
of Deutz sutfered by fire. In 1583 they lied before
the troops of Archbi.sbop Truchsess von Waldenburg
(who tried to regain his diocese, from which he had
been deposed) to Cologne; again, in 1631, before the
Swedes, and were temporarily received back on pay-
ment of large sums of money. In 1665 some stu-
dents plundered the Jewish hiuises in Deutz. In the
seventeenth centurj- the Jews of Siegburg were
forced to entertain troojis contrary to the stipulations
of their charter. A Jew, David, was comi)elled in
1663 to pay the regular taxes, in adilition to the eight
gold guldens, iiroteetion money, he was already pay-
ing. The community of Deutz paid one-seventh of all
Bergamo
Bergson
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
66
the taxes : that of Mlilheim, as much as any one
who owned three "moigen" of land. Lazarus van
Gelderu becain<' court factor at the court of the
priuiipality of Jlilich-Berg in 1737. In 1755 the Jews
suffered by a violent earlliquakc, and in 1784 by the
floods of "the Rhine, duriui; which the synagogue
was destroyed. A new synagogue at Deutz was
consecrated In 17SG, and one at Miilheim two years
later. On the advent of the French anny all the
restrictions placed upon the Jews, such as poll-
ta.x and protection money, were abolished. In 1808
there were 3.905 Jews at Diisseldorf, 1,2G4 at Co-
logne, and 1,5.52 at Cleves.
Rjibbi Stisskind. mentioned above, was succeeded
bj- Vivis, well known from his opposition to the
resolutions of the synod of Bingen, under Seligmann
Bins Oppenheira, at the beginning of the fifteenth
century. Vivis was also physician to the duke of
Berg. The seat of the district rabbinate was trans-
ferred from Deutz to Bonn in thesi.\teeuth century.
At this time there also lived at Deutz the physicians
Sander (who had permission to visit Cologne) and
Solomon ben Isaac Joseph (1.560-1631). Thelatter's
son, also a physician, died in 1657. In the seven-
teenth century the physicians Judab Loeb ben Na-
than (died 1670), Jacob ben David (died 1688), Jere-
miah ben Solomon of Coblenz (died 1688), and a
woman physician named Vi'igele (died 1731) lived at
Deutz, as well as the scholars Kossmann Levi of
Essen, and Moser. The latter w-as the son-in-law
of Rabbi Judah Maehler of Cologne, and author of
several works.
Among the rabbis of Diisseldorf ma.y be mentioned
Samson Levi Frohlich (1706-50), Jlordecai Halber-
stadt (1751-69), Jacob Brandeis (1769-74); and
Judah Loeb Scheuer (1779-1831). Isaac Bonem
Rappoport was district rabbi. Jacob Kopenhagen
wrote a small book on the floods of the Rhine in
1784.
Bibliography; Rrlsch, In IsracUt, 187!), Nos. 4, 6-8 ; Wedell,
Gcteh. OcrJudtn in DUsscklnrf, pp. W-»i.
D. A. F.
BEBGAMO : City in northern Italy. Here, as in
other cities subject to the government of the Vene-
tian republic, the right of residence was granted to
Jews, who were chiefly engaged in money-lending.
Documents relating to the Jews, and dating back
to 1479, are preserved in the City Library and in the
municipal archives. But Jews were certainly in
Bergamo before that time. They are found in the
large neighboring village, JIartincngo, whei-e they
could own land and houses ("Archivio di Stato
Veneto, Senato, Terra," re//. 16, curie 25). In 1.507 a
decree was issued compelling Jews to wear a yellow
girdle or a red hat. Neither in Bergamo, in Marli-
nengo, nor in any other of the surrounding places
are they known to have formed a congregation.
They maj' have had a synagogue and a cemetery,
but no traces of these remain. There are no longer
any Jews at Bergamo.
D. V. C.
BERGEL, JOSEPH : Neo-Hebraic writer of tlie
tirst part of the nineteenth century. He was a pri-
vate teacher at Prossnitz, Moravia. In 1826 and
1827, he published some articles and poems in the
annual "Bikkure ha-'Ittim" (vi. 40, 50; vii. 3, 123,
183, 135). The best of these are the articles, " Hash-
'arat ha-Ncfesh " (The Immortality of the Soul) in
vii. 3-12. and the poem '"Al Keber Abi" (On the
Grave of My Father) in vii. 123. He translated a
few of Confucius' sayings into Hebrew from the
French.
BIBLIOC.RAPHV : Steinschneider, Cat. BniU. nil. 197; Delitzsih,
Zur Gesch iclite der JUdinctien Poesie, p. 1U9.
s. I. Bei{.
BEBGEL, JOSEPH : Juda?o-German writer,
probably of the seventeenth century, He was the
author of "Kin Schon G5ttlich Lied," a religious
poem. It seems to have been printed at Prague in
the seventeenth century as an addition to the poem
"Jiidischer Stamm " by Joseph ben Judah Ileil-
bronn.
BiBLiOGRAPHT: Steinsohneider, Cat. Biidl. ool. 563.
G. I. Ber.
BERGEL (BEBGIi), JOSEPH: Hungarian
physician and author; born Sept. 3, 1803, at Pross-
nitz, died 1885 at Kaposvar. He was well versed in
rabbinical and modern Hebrew literature, and at-
tempted to introduce a new meter into Hebrew
poetry in a work he published under the title "Pirhe
Leshou "Eber" (Hebrew songs). Gross- Kauizsa, 1873.,
In the German language he wrote; "Studien liber
die Naturwissenschaftlichen Kenntuisse der Talmu-
disten,"Leipsic, 1880 ; "Die Eheverhilltnisse der Al-
ten Juden im Vergleich mit den Griechischen und RO-
mischen," i'J. 1881 ; " Deri limmel und Seine Wunder,
cine Archiiologische Studie nacli Alten Jiidischen
Jlythografien," which was also published in Leipsic
in the same year under the title "Jlythologie der
Alten Ilebriier," 1882. His most important work is
"DieMedizin der Talmudisteu " (Leipsic and Berlin,
1885), with an appendi.x on anthropology as it is
found in ancient Hebrew writings. These works
are not very profound, but they bring togetlier a
certain amount of useful information. Bergel also
wrote "Geschichte der Juden in Ungarn," published
in 1879 in Hungarian and German.
BIBLIORRAPIIV: Lippe, BihUngraphischti' Lericrm, v. 1. ;:
Kavseiimg, Jlhli.iclie Litteratur, p. 131 ; Revue Etmha
Juirts, X. 2156, 267; Ha-Zefirah. 1885, No. 13.
s. ■ P. Wi.
BEBGEL, YOM-TOB : Merchant and com-
munal worker of Gibraltar; born in 1813; died at
Gibraltar Oct. 14, 1894. He was one of the wealth-
iest and most respected merchants of the Gibraltar
Jewish community, and for thirty years held the
position of president of the Hebrew community.
He rendered many communal services; reorganized
the Hebrew Poor Fund when it was in a very jire-
carious state; and as one of the trustees of the Jew-
ish estates in Gibraltar acquired, by his efforts, val-
uable possessions for the benefit of the poor among
his coreligionists. Bergel was one of the first mem-
bers of the Board of Sanitary Commission, a mem-
ber of the Exchange Committee, and took an active
part in the management of the Relief Fund at the
time of the cholera epidemic in 1865.
Bibliography: Jctvish Chronicle, Oct. 26, 1894.
J. G. L.
BEBGEB, EMILE DE : Austrian oculist and
medical iiuthor; born at Vienna Aug. 1, 1855. He
received his education at the University of Vienna.
67
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bergamo
liergrson
From 1883 to 1887 he was lecturer at the University
of Gratz, aud from 1890 to 1896 professor of opli-
thahnology at Paris. Bcrger, who, in 1883, was the
inventor of an ophthalmoscope having an automatic
action of two Rekoss disks, won the Prix Montyon
in 1888, and the Prix Remusatiu 1893, for researches
in this line of work. He was also the president of
the ophthalmic congress held in Paris in 1894.
Berger is the author of: " Gehirn und Retina der
Authropciiden," 1878; "Der Hornhautspiegel," 1886;
'■ Krankheiteu der Keilbeinhiihle und des Siebbeiu-
laliyrinthes," 1886; "Beitritge zur Anatomic des
Auges, " 1887; "C'hirurgie des Sinus Sphenoidalis,"
1800; ■■ Les Maladies des Yeux dans Leurs Rapports
iivec la Patliologie Generale," 1893.
BlBi.iiiGR.VPHY: Rcmte BibUn(iraijhi<iitcs des jyatahiliti'is
Fntnmixcs ContemiXjraUtcs, ill.
s. E. Ms.
BERGER, ERNST : Austrian painter ; brother
:if the oculist Baron Emile Berger; born at Vienna
Jan. 3, 18.57 ; educated at the gymnasium, the com-
mercial high school, and in 1874 at the Academy of
.4.rts of his native town. Though intended by his
father for a commercial career, he soon turned to the
itudy of painting. He became the pupil of Pro-
fessor Eisenmenger and the painter Hans Makart.
Under the hitter's direction Berger painted the pic-
tures " Fondaco de' Tiirchi in Venedig," exhibited
It the Vienna Klinstlerhaus in 1883; "Burial of
Sarah in the Cave of Machpelah"; and"Rebckah
Leaving Her Father's House." Since 1883 Berger
lias lived aud worked in Munich. His chief pro-
luctions are "Traum voin Jungbrunnen," 1886,
which obtained the silver medal at the Melbourne
Exhiljition, and " Altvenetianische Brunnenweihe,"
1893.
Berger is also the author of " Beitritge zur Ent-
ivicklungs-Geschichte der Maltechnik," 1893-97;
'Katechismus der Farbenlehre," 1898; and the arti-
cles "Van Eyck's Technik," in "Zeit. fiir Bildende
Kunst." 189.5, and "Pflegeder Bilderin Gemitldegal-
ericu," in "Kunst fiir Alle," x., etc.
Bibliography : AlUlcinciiics Kllnstlcrlcrikon, s.v.
S.
BERGER, OSCAR: German electrotherapist
uid medical author ; born at Miinsterberg, Silesia,
!Jov. 34, 1844; died at Ober-Salzbrunn, Silesia.
Inly 19, 1885. He was educated at the gymnasium
if his native town aud at the universities of Berlin,
^'iemia, and Breslau, receiving his degree as doctor
if medicine in 18G7. In 1869 he engaged in practise
19 a physician in Breslau, making electrotherapy his
specialty. In 1873 he became privat-docent at the
L^niversity of Breslau, being the first at that institu-
;ion to lecture on nervous diseases. Five years later
ic was elected assistant professor. lu 1877 he was
ippointed chief consulting physician and medical
nspector of the Breslau poorhouse.
Berger made a special study of neuralgia of the
oints, of the relation of neuralgia to diabetes and
lephritis, of neuralgia of the face and of the geni-
als, of the relation of syphilis to tabes, and (with
leidenheim) of hypnotism.
A very prolific writer, he contributed many articles
m neurology and electrotherapy to technical jour-
lals, and was one of the editors of the "Neurolo-
gisches Centralblatt." For Eulenburg's "Encyklo-
piidie der Gesammten Heilkunde" he also wrote
many articles, including "Epilepsie," " Besehafti-
gungsneurosen," "Paralysis Agitans," "Tetanic,"
etc. His best-known works are "Die Liihmung
desNervus Thoracicus Longus," Breslau, 1873; and
"Zur Lokalisatiou der Corticalen Sehsphilre beim
Menschen," Breslau, 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirscl], BiiiurnphiKrliis Lvxiknn, s.v., Vienna,
1884; PaRel, Biimraphiiclicx Lexikuii, s.v., Vienna. I'JOl.
>^- F. T. H.
BERGER, PHILIPPE : Christian professor of
Hebrew; member of the Academic des Inscriptions
at Belles-Letties; born at Beaucourt, Haut-Rhin,
September, 1846; brother of Samuel Berger. Grad-
uating at the University of Strasburg, he settled in
Paris, where he became professor of Hebrew in the
Faculte de Theologie Protestante (now a part of the
University of Paris), and sublilirarian of the Insti-
tut de France.
Disciple and intimate friend of Renan, whom he
succeeded in the chair of Hebrew at the College de
France, Berger devoted himself to the study of
Semitic epigraphy, for which his friend and master
had a predilection. He collaborated in tlie redaction
of the "Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum," pub-
lislied by the Academic.
Among Berger's numerous writings two are of
special interest for Jewish scholars: (1) "L'Ecriture
des Inscriptions Semitiques," Paris, 1880; and (3)
"Essai sur la Signification Historiquc des Noms des
Patriarches Hebreux," Paris, 1887.
BiBLiOGRAPilY: La Grande EncychipnUc, vl. 1506.
T. I. Bk.
BERGilR, SAMUEL: French professor of
Protestant theology ; secretary and librarian of the
Faculte de Theologie Protestante, Paris; born at
Beaucourt, Haut-Rhin, May 3, 1843; brother of
Philippe Bergf-r. He attended the lectures on liter-
ature at the Sorbonne, and studied theology at the
University of Strasburg, whence he graduated.
Among Berger's writings the following are interest-
ing for the study of the Bible: (1) "La Bible an
XVI. Sif'cle; Etude sur I'Origiue de la Critique,"
Paris, 1879; (3)"De Glossariis Biblicis Quibusdam
Medii ^Evi," Paris, 1879; (3) "La Bible Fram^aise
au Moyen Age ; Etudes snr les Anciennes Versions de
la Bible Ecrites en Prose de la Langued'Oil," Paris,
1884; (4) "Histoire de la Vulgata," Paris, 1893.
Bibliography: La Grande Enciieh)i)t<Ue, vl. ;Wfi.
T. I. Bu.
BERGSON, MICHAEL: Musician; born in
Warsaw 1818; died at Loudon iMarch 9, 1898. He
was a member of an eminent Jewish family of War-
saw, with which city he always preserved connec-
tion. Early in life he became a pupil of Chopin,
und afterward settled in Geneva, where he became
professor and later on principal of the Conserva-
toire de Musitiue. Professor Bergson resided for
the greater part of his working life in Switzerland,
and in the principal cities of France and Italy ; but the
last twenty-five years of his life he spent in London.
He was, as a pianist, one of the personal inheritors
of the Chopin tradition ; but he also attained to some
distinction as a composer, many of his productions
Berstheil
Berlin
THE JEWISH E>XYCLOPEDIA
68
t'xhiliiting inventive power, taste, and charm. He
■R-rote two operas: "Louisa de Montfort " ami "Sal-
vator Rosa." Among liis many hundreds of songs,
the "Two Hearts." the "Better World." and the
"Serenade Moresque," as well as tlie clever piano-
forte sketch, "A Storm on the Lagoons." were very
widely known and admired. His more technical
productions, too, liave received much commenda-
tion, especially the " Douze Grandes Etudes," op.
63. and the " Ec-ole du Mecanisme." op. 65. Mention
should also be made of his "Flute vSonata," of his
"Concert Symphonique," and his "Polonaise He-
roique." due of his best -known pieces is the " Scena
ed Aria" for clarinet, played by militsfry bands
throughout the world.
Bibliography: Jewish Chrimich and Jtiii.«7i TToi/rf. March
J. G. L.
BEKGTHEIL, JONAS: Pioneer of Natal,
South Africa; born in England about 1815; died
1902 ; emigrated to South Africa about 1844, at a time
when the resources of the country were scarcely
known, and the mode of living extremely primitive.
Settling among the Boers as a farmer, Bergtheil
was treated by them with religious tolerance. He
served in their government as a member of the Leg-
islative Council from 1855 for eleven years, being
four times reelected and resigning office only on his
return to England iii 1866. During a visit to Eng-
land in 1847, he advocated, unsuccessfully, emigra-
tion to the Cape; then, passing to Germany, his
arguments were more successful, and he took with
him forty families, who founded a settlement in
"Xew Germany," which trained some excellent col-
onists. Bergtheil was a large landowner in Cape
Colony, possessing at one time nearly 200.000 acres,
when land was estimated at the rate of threepence
an acre.
Returning to England in 1866, Bergtheil identified
himself with the communal institutions in London,
serving as warden of the Bayswater Synagogue and
as president of the Bayswater Jewish schools, retir-
ing from the latter in 1900.
Bibliography : Jewish Oironicle, Sept. 7, 1900,
.T. G. L.
BERI AH : 1 . A son of Asher, representing,
however, not an individual, but a clan (Gen. xlvi.
17; Xum. xxvi. 44, 46). A member of the clan was
called a Beriite (Xum. xxvi. 44). The name is also
foimd in the genealogical list. I Chron. vii. 30, 31.
2. A clan of Benjamin (I Chron. viii. 13).
3. A clan of Ephraim (I Chron. vii. 21-28). The
chronicler here adds an explanation of the name,
"because it went evil with his [lather's] house."
It has been supposed by some (Bertheau, Commen-
tary, adloc.) that Xos. 2 and 3 are identical, and that
Beriah of Benjamin was associated with Ephraim
because of its services to that tribe.
4. A Levite of the Gershon line (I Chron. xxiii.
10, 11).
o. o. n. L.
BERIAH, i.r 'OLAM HA-BERIAH (the
World of Creation) : Cabalistic expression for the sec-
ond of the four celestial worlds of the Cabala, inter-
mediate between the World of Emanation (Azilut)
and the World of Formation (Yezir.^h), the third
world, that of the angels. It is, accordingly, of the
purest essence and without admixture of matter.
Bibliography: Joel, Di( Beligionsphilosttphie des Sohar.
pp. •Mi. 27!< t ( »<j.
K.
BERIT MILAH. See CiRcrMCisios.
BERKAMANI or BARBLAMANI (•:xnp^3)
IBN ABU AL-HASAN (called Al-Isra'ili al-
Iskandari) : Physician and author ; lived prob-
ably in the tiret half of the thirteenth century, and
wrote for an emir (Mansur?) a treatise on hygiene
iu ten chapters, called in the preface: ni'XpDSs
n'jiaijx nnvi>N can 's rr'jDnokx. There is a copy
of this medical work in manuscript in the Imperial
Library of Berlin, and Steiuschueider has given an
exhaustive description of it in his "Catalogue."
Steinschneider rejects the identification of Berkamani
with one Jefet b. Sa'id of the twelfth century;
though at one time he held him to be the piobable
author of a respousum (naiC'D) in Codex Peters-
burg 625 (compare Xeubauer. " Aus der Petersburger
Bibliothek," 1866, pp. 25, 118, note xxi.). In the
preface to this work it is stated that the treatise was
compiled at the request of an Alexandrian states-
man, whose name is conjectured to be either Al- <
JIuhsin or Al-Mansur, and to whose personality ref- ;
ereuce is made on page 91b of the manuscript. The 1
fact that he mentions no earlier author than Maimon-
ides, whom he calls '3C"ipi'S "Dm (Moses of Cor
dova), makes the tentative date, above given, all the
more probable. It would seem from his familiarity
with medical literature that he was a physician.
Bibliography: Steinschneider, Pulemischc ton? Jjxi!. ,
tifche Littratur. pp. SHI, SI, note 2, c, Leii>sic, 18,, : idem,
Hebr. BihI. xxi. St, 8.5: idem, Hchr. I'llicrs. p. iU2. note
3tH: VcfzeichiUA-f der Hehriiischen HamUchriftcii [<icr
Ki'iniaUeheii Bihliutlich zu Berlin], ii. 103-104, 137: xiil.
No. 230.
G. G. A. K.
BEREO, JOSSELEWICZ. See BEREii. Jo-
SEI.O\ U II.
BERKOVITS, LAJOS: Hungarian violinist;
born at Budapest iu 1874. Here he passed through
the schools and finished his musical education. He
was graduated from the Xational Academy of
Music, where his teachei's were Jeno Hubay and
David Popper. In 1895 he went to Paris, where he
entered the celebrated Lamoureux orchestra as first
violinist, iu which capacity he made a tour through
England. As a soloist his appearances were frequent
and invariably successful. In 1896 he received an
engagement in the royal orchestra of the opera at
Budapest, and he is still a member of that body as
well as of the well-known Grunfeld quartet.
Bibliography : Pallas Lexikon ; PcMcr Lloud, 1896,
s. 5I. W.
BERKOWICZ, JOSEF : Officer iu the Polish
army; sou of Colonel Bkukk (Berko). He took part
in the battle of Kock, in 1809. in which his father
was killed. When he quitted the military service in
1815, he was appointed forester of the government
forests of Troki. and in 1826 chief forester of the
district of Bielsk.
'During the Polish revolution of 1830 Berkowicz
served under General Rozycky as chief of squadron
39
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bere-theil
Berlin
if the Fifth Regiment, and at the end of the war lie
emoved to Besan^'ou, Fi-auce. Soon after lie set-
led perniauently in England, where he wrote his
lovel, "Stanislaus, or the Polish Lancer in the Suite
if Napoleon fiom the Island of Elba," which was
iiiblisiicd in 1840 by his family after his death,
le left two sous. Leon and Josef, and his widow,
irlio retvirned to France, where she died in poverty.
liBi.iiHiR.vPMT : A. Kraushar, Bioiirafja Bcrka i Jcgn Sunn,
in Siriic, 1H89; S. Orgelbrand, Encyclnpccija Pou'szccluia,
Waisiiw, ISHS, 11., s.r.
II. R.
BERKOWITZ, BENZION JTJDAH BEN
SLIAHU: Russian Hebrew scholar; born July 23,
S03; died at Wilua May 11, 1879. He is the author
f the following works devoted to the stud}' of the
"arguni Onkelos: (1) "'OtehOr," Wilna, 1843; (2)
Lehem we-Simlah," 2 vols,, ib. 1850-55; (3) "Hali-
ot Senialot," supplement to vol. ii., ib. 1874; (4)
Abne Ziou," ib. 1877, addenda to Nathan Adler's
omnieutary on Onkelos.
Beikowitz's contributions to the stud}' of the
)nkelos are very valuable, their merit being ac-
iDowledged by such scholars as Berliner and other
pecialists on the Targum. He also contributed to
he Hebrew periodicals "Pirhe Zafon," "Ha-Kar-
lel," "Ozar Hokinah," and "Ha-Maggid."
iinLior.RAPHY: Fuenn, Kcncnet Yisracl, p. 174; Berliner,
Tartiuin Onkclas, p. 197; H. N. Steinsctineider, 'Ir Wilna.
h. <i, H. R.
BERKOWITZ, HENRY : Russian-English
iliuatiir; born at Warsaw in 1816; died in Gravcs-
nd April 5, 1891. He came to London in 1841, and
ttracting the notice of Chief Rabbi Adler, he was
inde a member of the hitter's household. He aftcr-
I'ard opened a school at Gravesend, and by liis cn-
rgy and zeal gradually obtarined for it an established
losition and reputation. Among his scholars were
limbered some of the most prominent men in the
cinunuuity. Berkowitz was held in high esteem in
on-Jewish circles in Gravesend, made friends among
11 classes and creeds, and local honors were be-
towcd on him in abundance, among them that of
ustice of the peace, until, in 1887, he was elected
layer of Gravesend. He was concerned in almost
very philanthropic movement of the town.
llBLIOfiRAPiiY: Jewish Chrouiclc, April, 1891.
.1. G. L.
BERKOWITZ, HENRY: American rabbi;
lorii at Pittsburg, Pa., .March 18, 1857. He was
ducated at the Central High School of his native
ity, at Cornell University, and at the Hebrew Union
.'oUege of Cincinnati, O. Berkowitz has held the
losition of rabbi of the Sha'are Shamayim congrega-
ion in Mobile. Ala., 1883-88; of the B'nai Jehnda
ongregation in Kansas City, Mo.. 1888-92; and of
lieRodeph Shalom congregation, Philadelphia, Pa.,
incc 1892. He is the founder and chancellor of the
Ewisii Cii.vt T.\UQUA Society since 1893, one of
he board of governors of the Hebrew U^nion Col-
?ge, and a member of the publication committee of
he Jewish Publication Society. He is a member of
he first or pioneer class of Jewish ministers that
;raduated from the Hebrew Union College. The
mblished works of Berkowitz are as follows:
"Bible Ethics," 1883; "First Union Hebrew Read-
er" and "Second Union Hebrew Reader," 1883;
"Judaism and the Social Question," 1888; "The
Pulpit Jlessagc." 1892; "The Open Bible." 1896—
a guide to a choice of reading from the Old Testa-
ment, taking account of the critical standpoint;
"Kiddush: Sabbath Sentiment in the Home," illus-
trated, 1898. Berkowitz has contributed many
papers to various Jewish and secular journals.
A. S.
BERLIJN, ANTON (ARON WOLF) : Con-
diutiir and composer; burn at Amsterdam May 21,
1817; died there Jan. 10, 1870. He wrote nine
operas, seven ballets, an oratorio ("Moses auf
Nebo "), a symphony, a cantata, a mass, several
overtures, chamber-music, etc. Of these his sym-
phony, performed by Spohr at Cassel, 1857, is un-
doubtedly his best work. Berlijn was a skilful con-
trapuntist, and his compositions are distinguished
by grace and brilliancy, though their popularity
Wiis contined principally to Holland.
During his long service as conductor at the Royal
Theater at Amsterdam, he was held in high regard
by the king, who in 1800 bestowed upon him the
decoration of the order of merit of the king of Hol-
land. In addition to this he received the gold medal
formeritof the king of the Belgians (1845), and simi-
lar decorations from the kings of Denmark (1845).
Greece (1840), and Sweden (1848), the emperor of
Austria (1848), Prince Frederick of the Netherlands
(18.58), and the grand dukes of Saxe-Coburg (1804)
and Nassau. Berlijn was also a member of the St.
Cecilia Society of Rome, of the Archcological So-
ciety of Athens, etc.
BIBI.IOORAPHT : Balier, Dirt, of Musicians, New York, 1900;
Mendel, MiLiikali-iiliai Konmrsations-Lexikon.
s. J. So.
BERLIN ; Capital of Prussia and of the German
empire. Though mentioned as early as the year
1225. it was an unimiiortant place during the whole
of the Middle Ages. Not much is known of the Jews
there during that period, yet there is enough to
show that they shared the same fate as their core-
ligionists of that time in other cities and countries.
At the beginning of the fourteenth century the
" Reichsgriilin " (countess of the empire) A.gnes
IMCsented the Jews of Berlin to the magistrate.
They were expelled during the Black Death, and
their synagogue was given to a Christian citizen
(1350); but in accordance with the spirit of the Mid-
dle Ages they were allowed to return in 1354. They
were not, however, permitted to have a public syn-
agogue, but had to content themselves fora number
of years with worshiping in private houses. There
is no further mention of the Jews until the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century. In 1509 the Jews of
the neighboring Bernau were accused of desecrating
the host, and thirty-eight of them, alleged to have
committed the crime, were publicly burned by order
of the elector Joachim I. (July 19, 1510). Only two
acceiited baptism, and these were beheaded, the sen-
tence of death at the stake having been commuted
to this as "an act of grace." As the usual eonse-
(im-nceof such occurrences, the Jews generally were
expelled; but they apparently were received again
within a very short time, for in the fourth decade
Berlin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
70
of that century tlie magistrate again complained of
them. Ahoutthe same time, the court Jew Lippold,
favorite of the elector Joachim II.. became especially
Important, he having been entrusted by the latter
•with the superintendence of all Jewish affairs.
"When Joachim died suddenly (1571), his successor,
Johaun Georg, accused Lippold of liaving murdered
the elector. Lippold's admissions on the rack, and
the books on magic found in his possession, furnished
to his enemies sufficient evidence to procure his con-
demnation and execution (Jan. 28, 1573). Again an
expulsion of the Jews followed.
The real history of the Jewish community of Ber-
lin does not begin until the year 1671. When the
Jews were expelled (1670) from Vienna, under Em-
peror Leopold I., the great elector, who previously
had shown his unprejudiced attitude toward the
Jews by admitting two Jewish students to the Uni-
versity of Frankfort -on-the-Oder (See Tobias MosE-
NiDEs), signified
his willingness
to receive a
number of Jew-
ish families into
his dominions,
and ordered his
resident at Vi-
enna, Andreas
Neumann, to
open negotia-
tions with the
Jews of that
city. The edict
of admission
was published
May 21, 1671.
The emigrants
could freely en-
gage in com-
merce; but
usury was for-
bidden. They were exempt from tolls in traveling,
but had to pay a yearly protection tax of eight thalers
per family, and one gold florin for' every mar-
riage. In civil cases they were to be
The Great judged by the mayor, in criminal
Elector, cases by the elector. They were
not permitted to have a public syn-
agogue. These privileges were at first granted for
a period of twenty years. A few months later the
Austrian fugitives arrived at Berlin and went to
their quarters near the city walls. As the court
Jew Israel Aaron was afraid of the competition of
the immigrants, he succeeded in having a decree is-
sued. Sept. 6. 1671, under which no Jews would be
received in Berlin except after a careful investiga-
tion into their financial condition. Instead of the
anticipated number of letters of protection, one com-
mon writ of privileges was issued to the Veil and
Eiess families, in which they were expressly for-
bidden to compete with Aaron. That day (Sept.
10, 1671) is the birthday of the Jewish commu-
nit}- of Berlin. In 1673 a cemetery was bought
for the new comnnmity, and in 1676 a burial
society was founded under the name "Gemiluss
Chassodira."
Exterior of the Oki Synagotrue, Berlin.
(AfWr 3u en^avinp.)
The fear of competition forced the new immigrants
to protect themselves against the influx of other
Jews, whom they attempted to keep away by
threats of excommunication. Though they were
forbidden to put this measure into force, the author-
ities agreed to come to them for information con-
cerning every new Immigrant, the signers to such a
reference being then held responsible for the person
named. This measure did not prevent many " un-
vergleitete Juden " (Jews having no "Geleiisbrief,"
or residence permit) from entering Berlin surrepti-
tiously, thus furnishing cause for endless legislation
in the electorate of Brandenburg; and
Privileges the evil was not wholly remedied even
Granted, liy stringent measures. The great
elector faithfully kept his promise to
protect the Jews. On .Ian. 3, 1676, a decree was
issued iu which occurred the following: "die Juden
in Berlin in ihren Fn-yheilen und Privilegieu nicl'.t zu
turbireu, uuch
zu kriiuken.son-
dern sie vicl-
m e h r d a Ij e y
geblireud zu
schiitzen" mot
to disturb 'r
worry the Ji'.vs
of Berlin iu their
grants and priv-
ileges, but to
protect them
properly). But
when, nine years
later, an accuser,
Bendix Levi,
rose out of the
midst of the
Jew-s them-
selves, making
the most violent
accusations
against them, he gained the ear of the great electMi.
who ordered that every Jew should give bouds t<'
the amount of 1,000 thalers (Sept. 8, 1685).
The great elector died in 168S, and was succeeded
by the elector Frederick III., who became king of
Prussia Jan. 18, 1701. Even in swearing to the
coronation oath the council brought up complaints
against the .lews. As the twenty years f<u' which
the jirivileges of 1671 were granted were di-awing to
a close, Frederick instituted a commission to examine
the letters of protection (May, 1688), before which
every Jew had to appear, and to receive confirma-
tion of his privileges on payment of a certain tax.
Most stringent measures were taken against the
"unvergleitete Juden," but- all to no avail. A spe-
cial commission was instituted to determine the
rights of the Jews (Jan. 24, 1700). The number of
.lewish families for the whole electorate was fixed
at fifty. Instead of the per.'ional protection-tax
(eight thalers). the whole community was taxed in a
yearly sum of 3,000 thalers: and a poll-tax was in-
stituted. Another decree was issued (Dec. 7, 1700),
which revoked the poll-tax, fixed the protection-
money at 1.000 ducats, and placed some restrictions
upon commerce. At the request of the shopkeepers'
71
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin
gild, for Instance, Jews were forbidden to keep pub-
lic shops and stalls. A report on the execution of
this measure, however, says : " 1st leyder nicht eiu
Buchstabe von dieser heylsamen Verordnung in
Acht genommen worden " (Unfortunately not a jot
of this wholesome measure received an}' heed).
Other restrictious followed. Peddling had been for-
bidden (Aug. 17, 1692), and now also living in vil-
lages (Oct. 16, 1706).
Aversion to the Jews began to show itself also in
other matters. Franz Wentzel brought forward the
accusation that
the Jews during
the 'Alenu
prayer jumped up
and spat in deri-
sion of Je.sus. In
consequence a se-
vere edict was is-
sued against the
praj-er in Septem-
ber of the year
1700. An investi-
gation was insti-
tuted, to which
delegates of the
Jews were called,
and as a result
there was issued,
Aug. 28, 1703, the
"Edict wegen des
J u d e n g e b e t h s
'Aleuu, und das
sie einige Worte
auslasseu, nicht
ausspej-en, noch
darbey hinweg-
springen sollen "
(Edict concerning
the Jews' prayer
'Alenu, and that
they shall leave
out some words,
shall not spit nor
jump up during
its recital). This
decree was often
renewed. Accord-
ing to it the
prayer was al-
lowed oulj- to be said in the synagogue and in a
loud voice; and a Christian ofticial was appointed
to see that this injunction was carried out. It was
only after many years that the degree
'Alenu was revoked, at the instance of Closes
Prayer. Mendelssohn. About the same time ap-
peared Johann Andreas Eiscnmenger's
book, "Das Entdeckte Judenthum" (Frankfort -on-
the-Main, 1700). Owing to the efforts of the Jews
the book was forbidden by Emperor Leopold I., and
continued under that ban, in spite of the repeated
objections of the Prussian king Frederick I., who
thereupon had it reprinted at Berlin in 1711.
In 1708 a standing commission (which had charge
of Jewish affairs until 17.50) was instituted, the
Jews themselves taking only a very small part iu
their own government. The " elders " — most of
whom were chosen by the community for a period
of three years, subject to confirmation by the gov-
ernment, though some were nominated for life —
supervised mainly the collection of the ta.xcsand the
carrying out of the regulations pertaining thereto.
Among the elders at the beginning of the eighteenth
century were Jost Liebmaun and Marcus ]\Iaguus.
Personal enmity between these two grew into a
communal quarrel which divided the Jews into two
camps and was attended with dire results. Lieb-
maun, who mar-
ried the widow of
Israel Aaron, suc-
ceeded the latter
in his position at
court also, and ac-
quired a large for-
tune by furnish-
ing diamonds.
After Aaron's
death the ai)])oint-
ment was con-
ferred upon his
widow. She
gained the favor
of the king, who
placed her in a
po.sition entirely
independent of the
Jewish commu-
nity .signifying his
esteem by jiresent-
ing her with a
gold chain. While,
however, the Lieb-
mann family en-
joyed the favor of
the king, Magnus
was the special
favorite of the
crown iirince. The
latent disharmony
between the twf)
families became
a p p a r e n t at a
trifling occurrence
during worship.
Marcus Magnus
insisting tliat Lieb-
maun had offended him. A bitter lawsuit re-
sulted which lasted for two years, and was ended
only by a royal order (May 7, 1710) commanding both
parties, under pain of heavy punishment, to meet
henceforth peacefully and quietly (" bey Vei'meidmig
eruster Bestrafung hiuf uhro f riedtlich und ruhig sich
zu begegneu"). The quarrel. how-
Family ever, soon became a couuuuual matter,
Quarrels, occasion for dispute being found in the
conditions of worship. It has already
been mentioned that the Jews had never been permit-
ted to have a public synagogue, the services being
held in private houses. One of these was iu the house
of Veit and Riess, But Liebmann also insisted on
having a synagogue and a bet hamidrash ; and his
nephew and son-in-law, Aaron Benjamin Wolf, was
Interior of the Old Synagogue, Berlin.
(After an tngraiing.)
Berlin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
72
appointed rabbi. In 1684 Liebmann's synagogue
■was declared to be the onlj' ofticial one. Neverthe-
less, the synagogue of Veit and Ricss continued, and
in 169-1 was even officially recognized. In order to
prevent tlie undesirable consequences of such a split.
and more especially to injure Liebmann's widow,
Marcus Magnus insisted on the necessity of a com-
mon public synagogue. The widow of course ob-
jected; but, in spite of her protests and of all the
quarrels and intrigues of both parties, it was resolved
to build the synagogue ; aud the corner-stone — in a
cavity of which was placed a prayer for the royal
faniify, enclosed in a small copper box— was laid
lyar 3, 5473 (May 9, 1T12). On New- Year's Day,
1714, the synagogue was solemnly dedicated in the
presence of the king and his court ; and for many
years thereafter
it was considered
the most beauti-
ful building of
its kind in Eu-
rope.
Under the new
king, FVederick
'William I., in-
ternal improve-
ment in com-
munal affairs
kept pace with
external better-
ment. On Ma3'
20, 1714, the king
issued a decree,
for which the
Jews paid 8,000
thalers, revoking
that of 1700.
The Jews were
again permitted
to keep public
shops and to ask
a higher rate of
interest ; and it
was made easier
for them to en-
gage in trade.
Each privilege was extended to the first child; for
the second and third a certain svim had to be paid
accoi'ding to the financial ability of the parents. The
merchant gild protested as usual
Under against the amelioration of the con-
Frederick dition of the Jews. A new com-
'William I. mission, which was instituted Nov.
29, 1717, tried to introduce some re-
strictions, among them the prohibition against
keeping ]iublic shops. As the Jews protested, tliese
restrictions were not carried into effect, and the com-
mission was dissolved. Thereupon the merchant
gild of Berlin revenged itself by introducing into its
by-laws of 1716 the following malicious paragraph:
"Alldieweil die Kauffmannsgi'ildeaus ehrliclien und
redlichen Leuten zusammengesetzet, also soil kein
Jude. strhfbarer Todtscliliiger, Gotteslilsterer, Mor-
der. Dieb. Ehebrecher, Meineidiger, oder der sonst
mit ijffentlichen groben Lastern und Siinden be-
flecket und behaftet, in unsererGi'ildenicht gelitten,
Plan of the Interior of the Synagogue in Lindenstrasse, Berlin.
sondern davon ganzlich ausgeschlossen sein und
bleiben" (Since the merchant gild is composed of
honest, upright people, therefore no Jew, punishable
homicide, blasphemer, murderer, thief, adulterer,
perjurer, or any one else who is otherwise spotted
and stained with manifest heinous vices and sins,
shall be suffered in our gild, but shall be and remain
entirely excluded). In 1721 a curious occurrence
roused the especial anger of the king against the
JeW'S. In that year the purveyor for the roj'al mint.
Levin Veit, who had been considered a verj' rich
man, died, leaving not only no property whatever,
but a debt of 100.000 thalers to the royal mint. The
king held the whole Jewish community of Berlin
responsible for the disappearance of the money, and
revenged himself in a very peculiar way. On Aug.
15 all the Jews
of Berlin were
summoned to the
synagogue,
which was sur-
rovmded by sol-
diers, and were
placed under the
ban by the offici-
ating r.ibbi, Mi-
chael Hasid, in
presence of the
court preacher
Jablonsky.
On SlaVch 16,
1722 (and in a
revised form on
Feb.l8.1723).the
new "Aeltesten-
reglenieut" (Con-
stitution of the
Jewish Com-
mimity) was is-
sued, wliich was
intended to do
away with the
evils that had be-
come apparent in
tlie administra-
tion of the com-
munity, and which, in order to bebro\ight home more
thoroughly, was to be read every year in the syna-
gogue. Under this constitution the administration
consisted of two permanent chief elders, five ciders,
four treasurers, and four superintendents of the poor,
and assistants ; new officers were to be elected every
three years by seven men chosen by lot from among
the community. The committee were to meet every
week in the room of the elders, and to keep the min-
utes of their proceedings; resolutions, passed by
them, becoming law by a majority vote. The ex-
clusion of a member of the community from the
Passover was made dependent on the unanimous
vote of the committee ; the ban could be pronounced
only with the consent of the rabbi; aud both of
these measures were to be subject to ratification by
the Jews' commission. The elders were held re-
sponsible with their own money for the proper col-
lection of the taxes, but could proceed against delin-
quent pa3-ers. Every year the entire board had to
73
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin
report to a committee of five chosen by the commu-
nity. The college of rabbis was to consist of a chief
rabbi, with the title pT n'^ 3S. a vice-rabbi (C'Kl
I'T n'3). anil two or three assessors. Other taxes
were soon added to the existing ones ; e.g. , on pawn-
shops, and calendar mone}' for the Royal Society
of Science, and marriage licenses. The income
from the last was paid into the treasury from
which enlisted men received their pay, and its
amount (4,800 thalers a year) soon became a perma-
nent tax upon the whole community. A new decree
was contemplated in 1727, to contain various re-
strictions on trade and commerce: but as the .Jews
protested against it, it was abandoned. After
lengthy discussions with them there appeared, Sept.
29, 1730, the "Generalprivilegium und Reglement.
wie es wegen der Juden in seiner Koniglichcn Maje-
stiltLanden zu halten " (General privilege and regu-
lations to be observed concerning the Jews in his Ma-
jesty's dominions). The number of Jewish families
in Berlin was limited to 120, but
"General- they soon numbered 180. A royal
privi- order that appeared suddenly, April
legium," 26. 17.S7, commanded the families in
1730. excess to depart; the king insisting on
the measure in spite of all the protests
of the imfortunate ones and of some of the authori-
ties. He even declared that he would rather lose
the remaining Jewish families together with their
yearlj' tax of 20.000 thalers than permit the ruinous
oppression of his subjects.
The precarious condition of the Jews appeared
also in other directions. When the soldiers com-
plained of the filthy barracks that had been assigned
to them, the .Jews were forced to give up to them
their own rented houses and to move into the bar-
racks at a rental arbitrarily fixed by the authorities
(Oct., 1737). In the same year the electoral cham-
ber passed new regulations for the Jews of Berlin,
which contained more stringent mea.sures. having
in view the gradual diminution and ultimate extinc-
tion of the community; the death of Frederick Will-
iam I. (May 31, 1740) prevented their being put into
execution.
The condition of the Jews was not improved under
his successor, Frederick the Great (1740-86) ; indeed,
in many respects it grew worse. The " philosopher
on the throne " showed, even then, that a philosoph-
ical and liberal view of the world is not a sufficient
protection against prejudice, when Jews arc in ques-
tion. In 1747 he limited the right of residence to
one child of every familj', and decreed
Frederick that every Jew who became bankrupt
the Great, should lose his right to protection.
An atteni|)t to determine the rights of
the Jews in general was undertaken on the advice
of the fiscal-general Uhden. The Jews were divided
into "ordinary" and "extraordinary" Jews. The
former after death could be succeeded in their rights
and privileges by their first-born child (either son or
daughter); the remaining children, like the extraor-
dinary Jews in general, enjoying the right of pro-
tection for themselves only, and being prohibited
from registering their children. A law was passed
embodying these conditions, but when it was about
to go into efifect (1750), the Jews, dissatisfied with
it, and fearing that the restrictions therein contained
would ruin their credit with other countries, prayed
that it might not be made public ; and in fact it was
not published until six years later.
In order to stimulate manufacturing in his domin-
ions, Frederick the Great tried by various and even
forcible means to press the Jews into the industries.
As he disliked any increase of the Jews, either by
birth or by immigration, he decreed (Oct. 29, 17r)7)
that no Jews should receive new privileges, unless
they promised to start factories. On the same con-
dition tlicy were each permitted to register an addi-
tional child. In general, the king looked upon the
Jews merely as a source of income, and imposed
taxes in various ways. For instance, they had to
furnish silver amounting to 8,100 marks a year;
and the protection-money was increased from l.j,000
to 2.5,000 thalers. More curious still was the so-
called porcelain-tax, which obliged every Jew, when
applying for anj' concession, to buy a certain amount
of porcelain in the royal porcelain-factory, and to
sell it beyond the frontier. As the cost of transpor-
tation was very large compared with the value of
the goods, such transactions involved considerable
loss. The king was especially strict in carrying out
the principle of communal responsibility, holding
the elders pecuniarily liable for any tlu^ft committed
by a member of the community. The first case of
this kind occurred in 1769. when the king decided
that the law must be upheld, in spite of the protests
of the elders and the entreaty of the directory-
general ("Generaldirectoriura "). In 1784 this com-
munal responsibility of the elders was extended to
cases of bankruptcy of members of the community.
Thus the philosophic king endeavored by extreme
measures to turn the Jews of his country into
pariahs.
While these medieval measures still fettered the
Jews externally, a movement was in progress that
in an incredibly short time was to change their
whole life and character and to prove once more that
in the history of the Jews s])iritual infiuences are
more potent than brute force. Their regeneration
came through German literature, which at that time
began to flourish anew. In spite of its seclusion the
Jewish ghetto also felt the breath of the fresh cur-
rents that revivified the intellectual life of Germany.
Even before Mendelssohn. Aaron Sidomon Gum-
pertz appeared, devoting himself to the sciences,
and being one of the first Jews to receive a doctor's
degree. But the real representative of this period
is Moses Mendelssolin (1729-86). Hemodestly sought
admi.ssion at the gates of Berlin as a
Moses ])o(ir "Talmud baliur, " and within a
Mendels- short time counted the whole of the
sohn. cultivated classes of Germany among
his readers. His translation of the
Bible, together with the regenerated Hebrew litera-
tvu-e, was pressed into the service of the new illu-
mination. Actuated by the same spirit, David Fried-
lilnder and Isaac Daniel Itzig founded a frei^ school,
under the name D''">VJ T^n. and, in connection with
it, a Hebrew printing-establishment and book-store.
German Judaism was entirely transformed as if
by magic. Not so long before, a Jew who had dared
to trim his beard had, at the instigation of an
Serlin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
74
eminent member of the community, been commanded
by a direct order of the cabinet to spare Ins locks :
and the progenitor of the Bleichrijder family had
been drivtii from Berlin because a German book had
been found in his jmssession. Now, the Jews were
in the front rank of the promoters of German cul-
ture. Tlie Berlin physician JIarcus Hkrz was an
eager apostle of the philosophy of his teacher Kant,
with whom he stood in close personal relations; and
the lectures on jihysics. which he delivered at liis
house, were attended by the minister Zedlitz, and
even b}' the crown prince. The salon of liis wife.
Henriette Herz, became the center of attraction for
the most brilliant jK-ople of Germany, and for many
of those of other continental countries. With the
increase of enthusiasm for German culture, the indif-
ference to and neglect of the religion of tlie Fathers
increased also. While Jlendelssohu himself and his
circle still clung to their Judaism, even in the midst
of the new movement, the younger
Relaxation generation tried to get riii of it as
of (juickly as possiljle. !More than one-
Discipline, half of the Berlin community is re-
ported to have been baptized within a
short time. The elders strove in vain to stem this
flight from Judaism by a law, which they were'in-
strumental in having passed, to the effect that serv-
ants and children could be baptized only after pro-
ducing the certified permi.s.sion of their masters and
parents respective!}', and that strangers must be
taken to their native places for the ceremony.
In 1793 the Gesellschaft der Freunile, an associa-
tion of "the high-thinking and lil)eral against ortho-
doxy and immorality," was formed. In 1799 ap-
peared the circidar letter addressed to the "Very
Reverend Chief Councilor of the Consistory and Pro-
vost [Probst] Teller at Berlin by some heads of fam-
ilies of the Jewish religion," in which the anon3'mous
author (David Friedlauder) signitied willingness, in
his own name and that of others, to be baptized, if
they would not be obliged thereby to believe in the
specificall}' Christian dogmas. Teller emphatically
refused his recpiest. The new generation was keenly
sensitive to tlie lower civic status of the Jews.
Hence all its efforts were united against the old
general jtrivilege, and in favor of emancipation,
which had seemed to be more nearly within the reach
of the Jews when Frederick William II. came to the
throne (17.S6). The description of these efforts be-
longs to the history of the Prussian Jews. It is suf-
ficient to mention here tliat the Jews of Berlin, with
David Friedliinder at their head, were among tlie
pioneers in that movement; and they found a ready
advocate of their efforts in the prime minister Har-
denberg, who came into ottice June 6, 1810. The
edict of March 11, 1812, conferred citizenship upon
the Jews living in Prussia and eujoy-
Edict ing any concessions, and made them
of March, subject to military service. On March
11, 1812. 18 the Jews sent" to the king a letter
of thanks which was signed by the
elders David Ilirsch, Bendi.x, Friedlauder, and
Gumpertz.
But this by no means ended the struggle ; for even
the rights previously granted were either curtailed
or revoked, and new restrictions were introduced.
In spite of their sacrifices and the patriotism dis-
played by them during the wars of liberation, the
Jews were thwarted in various ways. A strong anti-
Jewish movement ajipeared also in the literature of
the time. In 1.824 the newly instituted provincial
estates convened and took up the (juestion of the
position of the Jews, the estates of Brandenburg and
of some of the other provinces being in favor of
restricting their rights. The memorial which the
elders presented to the Jlinistry of the Interior re
ceived no answer. Thus uU efforts had again to be
united in the struggle to obtain justice. The battle
was waged more or less successfully, and ended
finally in favor of the Jews, when the year 1,848
lirought the proclamation that all Prussians were
equal before the law.
During tnose years of conflict the intellectual life
of the Jews was not neglected. In 1819 the Vercin
f I'lr Kultur und Wissenschaft der Juden was founded
by Gans, Moser, and Zunz, Heine also belonging
to it. The jieriodical of the society appeareil in
1823, edited by Zunz. But the society was dissolved
in the following .year, owing to the indiffei-ence of
the members; and its founder, Gans, together with
many members, soon thereafter renounced Judaism,
The onlyrenmant of this vain attempt
Striving was the "Science of Judaism," which.
After lepresented by Zunz, proniised a rich
Culture. harvest for the future. The educa-
tion of the Jewish youth in accordance
with the new spirit received especial attention.
Aside from the free school, of which Bendavid be-
came tlie director in 1806, a private school, founded
by Bock, was continued by Jost and S. Stern. In
1823 Zunz presented to the directors, in the name of
the Verein fiir Kultur und AVissenschaft der Judeu.
a memorial advocating a reform. A commission,
including Zunz, Moser, and Bendavid, was insti-
tuted for the pur])ose of organizing a communal
school. On Oct. 3, 1825, was laid the corner-stone
of a building which on Jan. 3 following was ojiened
as a public school of four classes, under the direc-
tion of Zunz. In 183,5 a school for girls was organ-
ized upon similar lines. In IS.'JG a religious school
was founded. Training-schools for teachers were
also organized. In 1840 a seminary for teachers was
opened under the direction of Zunz ; but it was
closed nine years later by the elders. In 18.58 a
training-school for teachers was established under
the rectorship of Horwitz.
Philanthropy also received the attention of the
comnumity. In 1804 the Brtiderverein, a society for
the relief of unmarried merchants, was founded.
Several of the older relief societies still existed, as
that for dowries (since 1721 ; the new by-laws being
drafted by Jlendelssohn); for circumcision (171.5);
for sick relief (1703); for burial (1672; see above);
also an asylum for the aged (1828). In 1838 the
community instituted a commission for the purpose
of supervising the relief given to the poor, who had
greatly increased since 1812. In 1833 the Baruch-
Auerbach orphan asylum for bovs was founded ; ten
years later the asylum for girls; in 1836 the institute
for orphans in memory of Closes Mendelssohn ; and
in 18.58 the hospital. For other institutions see list
below.
75
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin
Tlie chii'f place in the inner development of the
community is occupied by the struggle for ritual
reform, in which both parties engaged with great
bitterness. Shortly after the edict of 1812 Fried
liluder issued a pamphlet demanding reforms in the
religious services, and sent it to the liing, who gave
an unfavorable auswer. although the prime minister
Ilaidenberg advocated FriedUindcr's propositions.
The i-eforms were soon caiTied into effect, however;
for the wealthy Jacob Herz Beer (the father of
Meyerbeer) organized private services according to
the new principles, at wliich Zunz also officiated as
preaelier. Israel Jacobsohn, the former president of
the Westphalian consistory, imitating Beer's exam-
Synagogue on Oranienburfrerstrasse, Berlin.
(From a phi itopraph.)
pie. preached himself, and confirmed his son (Pente-
cost. 1815). But in 1817 tliere appeared a royal
order which, falling back on the old " Generalprivi-
legiuni," commanded the closing of pi'ivate syna-
gogues. As the pviblic synagogue
Struggle was iu need of repair, the temple of
for Reform. Beer was designated as a temporary
S3'nagogue. The Orthodo.x members,
headed by their rabbi, Meyer Simon Weyl. protested
against the order, and continued to worship in the
half-completed synagogue. The government now
decreed that the ancient Hebrew service shoidd he
followed by German prayers and a sermon in Ger-
man ; but at tlie instance of the Orthodox members
a new royal order was issued, Dec. 9. 1823. to the
effect " that the religious services of tlie Jews shall
be lield only in the present synagogue, and only ac-
cording to the customary ritual, without the least
innovation in the language or the ceremonial, the
prayers and songs, entirely in accordance with the
ancient custom." This regulation was so strictly
carried out that when Rabbi Oettiuger, at the dedica-
tion of the new cemetery iu 1827, delivered an ad-
dress in German, the police saw therein a forbidden
innovation.
Culture societies were organized in 1841 under the
direction of Siegmund Stehn, whose lectures in 18-45
on the tasks of the Judaism of that time again stirred
up tlie Refoini movement. On March 10, 1843, a
meeting was held under the leailershiji of Stern and
A. Behnstein, which resolved "that rabbinic Ju-
daism is on the whole and in its parts not in har-
mony with our scientific convictions and the de-
mands of tlie present life." The Genossenschaft filr
Reform des Judenthuins, founded in 184(), organized
services under the leadershij) of its rubbi, Samuel
Hoi.DiiEiM. The.se were held on Saturdays and
Sundays (afterward onlj- on Sundays), and their
chief feature was the total exclusion of the Hebrew
language. At present (1902) the chief community
of Berlin supports, besides the above-mentioned
Reform pulpit, live chief synagogues, two of which
observe the old ritual and three a modernized one.
The matter of securing suitable rabl)is was an es-
pecially dithcult one, iu view of the strong dill'er-
enccs of opinion obtaining in the comnuiiiity. This
became apparent .soon after the death of Chief Rabbi
Hirschel Levin in 1800; these iliH'erences then were
so great that no chief rabbi could be agreed upon.
A further attempt was made to fill the office, in
1842, when Zacharias Fr.^nkel was cli<isen. As
he, however, decliued the appointment, notwith-
standing certain a.ssurances from the minister Eich-
Iiorn, the office remained vacant. Hirschel Levin
was succeeded by the assistant rabbi, Jlej-er Simon
Weyl, who was given the title " Vice-Oberlandes-
Rabbiner." After his death (182r>) Jacob Joseph
Oettiuger (until 18fi0) and Ellianan Roseiistein (until
18()<i) were the acting rabbis, Jlichael Sachs being
associated with them as assistant rabbi after Frankel
had refused the chief rabbinate. After Sachs's death
(1864) the controversy again broke out. Finally, in
1866 Joseph Aub was chosen, who in the .same year
consecrated the new synagogue and introduced a
new order of prayers. In 1869 Abraliam Geiger was
chosen, togetlier with Ungerleiiler as assistant rabbi.
For incumbents of the rabbinate in 1901 see below.
It became necessaiy to change the administration
of the community in accordance with tlie altered
conditions. As early as 1793a new constitution had
been instituted, which, for the first time, did not
jiroceed from the government, but was the result of
the deliberations of acommunal committee of fifteen.
When the Jews' taxes were revoked by the edict
of 1812, the duties of the elders were materially
changed. As the government was slow to offer
suggestions, the elders themselves went to work and
drafted a set of rules for choosing the representa-
tives. These were adopted Jlay 20. 1849, by a vote
of the community, and the election iu accordance
with the new statute was held June 24. The gov-
ernment, however, refused to recognize it, and
Berlin
Berlin Congress
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
76
ordered a new election in aecordauee with tlie gen-
eral remilatious of IToU, which was held April 11,
1851. It was not till 1S.j4 that the government rec-
ognized the new rules of 1849. On Feb. 23 of that
year reiireseutatives were elected in accordance with
those rules and were confirmed by the government.
After much deliberation the "'Statut fiir die Jii-
dische Gemeinde in Berlin " was determined upon
(Aug. 31, ISliO), which is still in force (1903). Ac-
cording to this statute the Jewish community of
Berlin consists of all the Jews in that city and the
neighboring places. The community is represented
by a directorate and a college of representatives; the
latter consisting of twenty-one members and fifteen
substitutes, chosen every three years by a ballot of
the whole community. Tlie representatives choose
the directorate, consisting of seven elders and three
substitutes. The resolutions of the representatives
are confirmed by the directorate. DilTereuces are
decided by a committee of the comniunit_v or by the
board of supervisors. Different branches of the ad-
ministration are in the hands of special commissions,
with a member of the directorate in the chair. The
ministers, readers, and all officials who iierform re-
ligious functions are chosen by a two-thirds majority
of the representatives.
Non-Jewish sources mention (1) a certain Cain
(meaning probably "'Hayyim ") as tlie first rabbi of
the mark of Brandenburg, under whom
The the Jews emigrated from Vienna. His
Rabbinate, privilege for the whole electorate was
issued "Feb. 20, 1673, He probably
did not live at Berlin, but at some other town of the
mark, perhaps at Landsbergon-the-Warthe.
(2) Isaac Benjamin Wolf Liebmann succeeded
Hayyim May 11, 1685. He lived at Landsberg-on-
the-Warthe.
(3) Shemaiah, called Simon Berend, appointed
Aug. 23, 1687. He lived at first at Frankfort-on-
the-Oder, then in Berlin; died on the last day of the
Passover, 5469 (April 3, 1709). He was a high
Talmudic authority.
(4) Aaron Benjamin Wolf, son of Isaac Benja-
min Wolf Licbniann, nephew and son-in-law of Jost
Liebmann, 1709-21.
(5) Michael Hasid, appointed May 17, 1714, who
also succeeded to the rabbinate of Frankfort after
Aaron Benjamin Wolf's death. (On the ban which
Michael pronounced against the Jews of Berlin at
the command of Frederick William I., see above.)
His works have only partially been printed. He
was considered a great Talmudist and also occupied
himself with the Cabala, being called by the Jews
the "great Calialist." One of his sons embraced
Catholicism, and lieeame professor of Oriental lan-
guages at Vienna, \mder the name " Aloys AViener
von Sonnenfels." Michael Iliisid died Feb. 21, 1728.
During his rabbinate Marcus Abraham was chosen
(1726) as the first rosh liet-din (director of the school-
house), superintending as such the Talmudic instruc-
tion of the Jewish youths.
(6) Moses Aaron of Lembei'g. formerly rabbi in
Leipnik. He was chosen contrary to tlie wishes of
the community at the command of Fri'derick Will-
iam I., who issued his order in spite of tlie protests
of the elders. In consequence the new rabbi had
violent quarrels with the community. The elders
bought for the sum of 4,500 marks permission to
choose another rabbi (May 37, 1730). :\Ioses Aaron
was forced to accept the rabbinate of Frankfort-on-
the-Otler, with the condition to pay 300 marks a year
to the rabbi of Berlin. From Frankfort he went to
Nikolsburg, where he died, Tebet 17, 5518 (Dec. 38,
17.57).
(7) Jacob Joshua of Cracow (born 1680), chosen in
the fall of 1730; a high Talmudic authority; author
of the celebrated Talmud commentary, " Pene Ye-
hoshua'. " He hail previously been rabbi of Leniberg.
as the successor of Hakam Zebi. Though he gained
the love of the community by his independent and
energetic character, he gave such offense hy deciding
a case against the influential and powerful Veitel
Ephraim that he was forced to leave Berlin, 1735.
He went to Metz, where he wrote his commentary,
and thence to Fraukfort-on-the-Main. He died
8hebat 14, 5516 (Jan. 16, 1756).
After Jacob Joshua's resignation, the office was
filled by the rosh bet-din jMarcus Abraham (mcn-
tionerl under 5), with whom Naphtali Herz was as-
sociated as assistant rabbi. After his death (1743)
the community decided to call a younger man, and
chose
(8) David Friinkcl, who, having been born (1704)
at Berlin and educated there, was especially accept-
able to the community. Previously he had been
chief rabbi at Dessau and at Frankfort-on-the-Oder.
As he had manj' relations in Berlin over whom he
could not, according to the law, exercise his office
as judge, his brother-in-law, Veitel, agreed to pay a
yearly sum for a substitute. Friinkcl achieved fame
by his commentary on Yerushalmi, and was the
teacher of Closes Mendelssohn. He died suddenly
Nisan 12. .5533 (April 5, 1762).
(9) Aaron Hirsch, chosen 1763. Author of the
" Jliuhat Aharon." He went from Berlin to Schwa-
bach in 1772, and died in 1780. Ilis name "Aaron
Mosessolm " was appended to the thanksgiving ser-
mon written by Mendelssohn after the peace of Hu-
bertusburg.
(10) Ilirschel Levin, called also Hirschel LObel;
elected 1773; died Aug. 26, 1800 (see Ilirschel
Levix). By the time of Levin's death the differ-
ences of opinion in the communitj' had grown to be
so great that it became impossible to liave one cen-
tral administration. The changes in the rabbi ques-
tion since then have been mentioned above.
The various activities of the Berlin Jewish com-
munity may best be summarized under the heads
of (I.) worship, (II.) education, (III.) philanthropy,
(IV.) miscellaneous.
(I.) Worship: Berlin possesses the following
synagogues and temples: (1) Alte Synagoge, Hei-
dercutergasse ; (2) Neue Synagoge, Oranienburger-
strasse ; (3) synagogues in the Kaiserstrassc, Linden-
strasse, and Liitzowstrasse; (4) Adas Yisroel,
Gipsstrasse (314 families), rabbi Dr. Esra Munk,
preacher Dr. M. Hildeslieimer; (5) Schiineberger-
Ufer, rabbi Dr. Petuchowski; (6) Aha was Reim,
Prinzenstrasse(100 families), rabbi Dr. I. Bleichrode;
(7) Beth Zion, Brunnenstrasse (150 families), rabbi
L. Hoxter; (8) Ahawas Scholom, Luisenstrasse,
rabVii Dr. Stein; (9) Neweh Scholom, Lothriuger-
77
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin
Berlin Congress
Strasse (180 souls), rabbi H. Gruenfeld; (10) Westeu,
Passauerstrasse (144 members) rabbi Dr. Pli. Knmer ;
(11) Moabit, Lessingstrasse (500 families), rabbi Dr.
Wiukler; (13) Jewish Reform Cougregatiou. Jolian-
nisstrasse (130 families), rabbis Dr. M. Levin, Dr. P.
Klemperer, Dr. I. Oppeuheimer, Dr. JcisUi ; (13)
Oliel Yizl.iak, Oranieuburgerstrasse (150 families).
Dr. Liebermanu; (14) Lippmami-Tausz Syuagoge,
Ciolliiowstrasse (180 families). Dr. I). Lipschiitz; (15)
Wiiltr'selie Ez Hayyim, Laudsbergerst rasse, Dr. S.
Oriiiifeld (80 families); (16) Abawath Torah, Lausit-
y.erplatz(50 families), Dr. Janowitz; (17)Adat Jeschu-
riiii, Alte SchiJHhauserstrasse, rabbi A. EUeubogeu.
Habljis of the Jewish community: Drs. S. May-
bauin, A. Roseuzweig, J. Stier, S. Weisse. Esehel-
baelier, Blumentlial.
There is also a Union of Orthodox ("Traditious-
gesetzestreue ") rabbis.
(II.) Education : Ilochschule, now called Lebr-
anstalt, fi'ir die Wisseuschaft des Judenthums,
founded by Dr. Abraham Geiger: teachers, Dr.
E. Bauet, Dr. Maybaum, Dr. Sehreiuer. Rabbinical
Seminary, founded by Dr. I. Hildesheimer, 1.HT3 ;
rector. Dr. D. Hoffmann; teachers. Prof. J. Bartli,
Dr. A. Berliner, Dr. II. Hildesheimer, Dr. I. Wohl-
gemuth. Veitel-Heiue Ephraim Lehranstalt ; lec-
turers, Prof. M. Steiuschneider, Prof. I. Bartli.
Schools for religious instruction are attached to
all the various congregations, and register from 93
up to 453 pupils of both sexes. The Gemeiude-
Knabenschule lias 603 boys, the Miidchenschule 403
girls. A training-school for teachers has 45 students.
In addition tlie Zunz-Stiftung, founded 1864, is for
Jewish teachers, and there are a " jMadcheiilieim "
(Home for Girls) and a technical .school (domestic
arts), also for girls.
(III.) Philanthropy : Homes for the Aged,
Reieheuheira Orphan Asylum, Baruch Auerbacb
Orphan Asylum, Jloses Mendelssohn Asylum, Pan-
kow Asylum; Deaf -Mute xVsylum, Neu-Weisseusec;
various local relief societies ; and. in addition, numer-
ous societies for aiding the respectable poor, furnisli-
iiig Passover supplies and food to Jewish lU'isouers;
for assisting travelers, furnishing clothing, for aid
at circumcisions, lying-in relief, rent aid, fresh-air
colonies for children, fuel association, marriage
dowry, loan society (founded 1846); free burial so-
ciety. Jewish nurses' association, kosher meat soci-
ety, people's kitchen. Sabbath observance associa-
tion, etc.
(IV.) miscellaneous: Committee for Defen.se
Against Anti-SemiticAttacks (Komitee zur Abwehr
Anti-Semitischer Aiigriffe) ; Central Verein Deutscher
Burger Jiidischen Glaubcns; Zionists' Society; Ezra
(for agricultural aid in Palestine); Palitstina (for aid-
ing Jewish farmers); B'nai B'rith, Grand Lodge of
Germany, oltice WillieUnstrasse 118; lodges, Ver-
eiiiigte Deutsche Reichs-Loge, Leopold Zunz.
Brrthold Auerbach, Montefiore; society for fos-
tering trades and agriculture among Jews of Rus-
sia, founded 1813; society for furthering agri-
culture among .lews of Germany; military society.
Deiitsches Vaterland; several students' societies.
Tinu.ioGKAi'iiv : stem. Quelle iiliuniJe; Oeiger, Gcsch. tier
Jiiiirn ill Berlin, Berlin, 1870; Landsbat, Annhc Shcm,
lierliu, 188i.
D. A. F.
BERLIN CONGRESS : A meeting of the great
European powers at Berlin between June 13 and
July 13, 1878, to settle questions arising out of the
Russo-Turkish war ; by it many of the former prov-
inces of Turkey were enfranchised and made inde-
jiendeut. In several instances the congress made
the grant of full civic and political rights to Jews a
condition for the recognition of independence, and
it has therefore an important bearing upon tlie his-
tory of Jews in the southeast of Europe in recent
times.
Articles of identic form were inserted in the final
treaty, requiring that religious cimviction should
form no cause of exclusion from any civic position
in anj' of tlie countries liberated by tlie Congress of
Berlin — sections v. (Bulgaria), xxvii. (Montenegro),
XXXV. (Servia), xliv. (Rumania).
The question was tirst raisetl at the sitting of June
38, 1878, when Waddington, on behalf of France,
required that religious equality should be made a
condition of the independence of Servia. Gor-
tschakoff, on behalf of Russia, protested against the
question being introduced without previous notice
to the congress, but Waddington was supported by
Bismarck and De Launay (Italy) (Biitisli Blue Book.
p. 138), and section xxxv. was inserted in the draft
treaty.
At the sitting of July 1 Messrs. Bratianu and
Cogalniceanu presented a note claiming indeiiend-
ence for Rumania, without any reference to the
Jewish question ; but Waddington, on belialf of
France, demanded that the same conditions be im-
posed on Rumania as on Servia. He was supjiorted
by Andrass3' (Austria- Hungary), Beaconstield, Do
Launay, and even by Gortschakolf (Russia), notwith-
standing his protest three days before; and the fol-
lowing clause was inserted in tlie final treatv (British
Blue Book, p. 153):
Article 44: In Rumania, diflerence in religious lieliefs and
confessions shall nut be brought against any one as a ground
for e.xcliision or unUtness as regards the enjoyment of civil and
piiliticiil rights, admission to puhlic oltlics. fum-tions. and honors,
or tiM* cxtTrisc of various professions :inil i mi list lies in any place
whatever. Freedom in outward observain-e of all creeds will
be assured to all subjects of the Rumanian sljile, as well as to
strangers, and no obstacle will be raised cither to the ecclesias-
tical organization of different bodies, or to their intercourse
with their spiritual heads.
The citizens of all states, whether merchants or others, shall
he dealt with, in Rumania, without distiuction of religion, on
the basis of perfect equality.
Bulgaria and Servia loyally carried out the coiidi-
tiinis of the treaty, but Rumania evaded it, claim-
ing that a sudden emancipation of the Jews would
be deleterious to the interests of tint country. A
convention was summoned by the Bratianu ministry
to ih.'termiue how far the constitution was to be
revised, and this suggested the following clause
vii. of the Rumanian constitution instead of sec-
tion xliv. of the Berlin Treaty, which Lord Salis-
bury had proposed to be inserted en Mor into the
Rumanian constitution;
Article 7 : Difference in religious beliefs and confessions does
not constitute, in Rumania, an obstacle to the obuiinment of
civil and political rights, nor to the e.\ercise of these rights.
1. A foreigner, without distinction of religion, and whether a
subject or not of a foreign government, can become naturalized
under the following conditions :
(a) He shall address to the government an application for
Berlin Cong-ress
Berlin, Isaiah
TUE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
78
naturalization. In which he shall indicate the capital he pos-
sesses, the profession or craft which he follows, and his abode m
Uuiiiaula. . .. „
ib) He shall reside, after this application, ten years in the
country, and prove. h\ action. liiat he is of service to it.
2. The foUowiiiir may be exempted from the mtermediary
*'*lnrThose who have brought into the country industries, use-
ful Inventions, or talent, or who have founded large establish-
ments of coinuieive or industry.
I),i Th.Kc who, lioru and bred in Rumania, of parents estab-
lished in the c.uinrv. have never been subjected, either them-
selves or tlieir parents, to any protection by a foreign jxiwer.
Ici Those who have served under the colore during the war
of independence: these may be Qaluralized collectively by
government decree, by a single resolution, and without any
further formality.
:i. .Naiuralization can not be given except by law. and indi-
vidually. , • , ,
4. A special law shall determine the manner in winch for-
eigners may eslabllsli tlieir home on Rumanian territory.
.3. Only Rumanians, and those who have been naturalized
Rumanians, can buy runil estates in Rumania.
Rights already acquired shall remain In force.
International agreements at present existing shall remain in
force in all the clauses and terms therein contained.
In tlie summer of 1879 Borcsfu was sent on a dip-
lomatic mission to the cotirts of western Europe to
iuiluee tliem to accept tlie new clause vii. of the
constitution instead of the Berlin Treaty. Austria
had no objection, since her own Jewish subjects
were protected by a special treaty ; Russia could
scarcely object to restrictions, having iu view her
own attitude toward the Jews; and Turkey was not
in a position to make any protest. Italy deiuanded
full liberty of conscience for the Jews, but Wad-
dius^tou. on behalf of France, gave way on the
assumption that gradual emancipation would be
granted, and on Feb. 20, 1880. an identic note of
Germany. France, iind Great Britain agreed to the
independence of Rumania on condition that clause
vii. be made part of the constitution. For the
manner in which Rumania has utilized the restric-
tions of clause vii. to disfranchise the Jews of
nearly all the rights of human beings, see Rumaxi.v.
BiBi.ioiiRAPHV : ?.. Sincerus. Lo' Jiiifx dc RoKmniiir, London.
IMl: .4. d'.wril. yiyticuniuii.'i Urlatires an Tniitr ile Bfi-
liii, Paris, 18Si; Frcneh Ydhiw Bunk. Paris. ISTSI Liffaircs
Etraiiiicres, DtiftmienU Diiihnnntitiws. (JiitntiiDis dc la
Reeoituaixttanve dc la RoumanU) ; EimJit^h Blue Botik
iPnrliaiiu)itani Papers. 1S7S; Trentu nf Berliii): .\non.,
Aus dem Tdijehiich KarU I. run HoiimiiiiiiH, vol. iii.
D. O. S. S.
BERLIN, ABRAHAM. See Abraham ben
JiDAi! Berlin.
BERLIN (sometimes called also Berliner),
ARYEH LOB BEN ABRAHAM MEIR (in
(icrmaii, Low Mayer) : German rabbi ; burn 1738
at Fiirth. Bavaria; died at Cassel !May 21. 1814.
When ((uite young Berlin was dayyan in his
native city, and at the same time rabbi of Baiers-
dorf. Bavaria. In 1789 he was appointed cliief
rabbi of Bamberg, where he remained until 1794.
During the time he remained in Bamberg. Berlin
was involved in a lawsuit which threatened to ruin
his reputation. In his capacity of civil judge of the
Jews, he was entrusted with the division of an es-
tate valued at ItlO.OOO fl. (841.000). and was accused
by one of the heirs of having utilized his judicial
power for his personal interest. This was the more
painful because the judicial procedure and practises
of the rabbis had never before been assailed in the
courts of Bamberg. The specific charges against
the rabbi were that he accepted illegal fees and failed
to account for certain small sums. In the mean time
Berlin was elected to the chief rabbinate of Ilesse-
Cassel ; and ditlieulties were placed by his opponents
in the. way of his leaving for the new post. How-
ever, he was never put under arrest, and subse-
quently was acquitted of all the charges of dishon-
esty and was sentenced only to pay a certain sum as
a tine, in settlement of an account which seems to
have been more entangled than dishonest. The docu-
ments relating to the trial are now publishctl by
Eckstein, showing that the charges against Berlm
were groundless and that only personal hatred sup-
plied "the motives. In the summer of 179.") he left
Bamberg for Cassel toeuterupon his new functions.
When the kingdom of Westphalia was founded,
with Cassel as its capital, Berlin gave proof of his
loyalty to the new regime b^' a sermon which he
delivered in Hebrew in the Great Synagogue of
Cassel. welcoming the new king. Jerome Bonaparte;
and by composing a Hebrew song for the same oc-
casion'. Both were published, with a German trans-
lation, under the title "Dabar be-'Itto Mali Tob"
("RedeamFreudeufcste." . . . Cassel. 1807). This
work is errouc(Uisly ascribed by Benjacob, in his
■• Czar ha-Sefarim." to Judah Lob Karlberg. When
the Jewish consistory of AVestphalia was organized
on the model of the French consistory (October,
1808). Berlin was made chief rabbi, and in 1809 was
elevated to the dignity of " Consistorialrath." As a
director of the consistory he was in accord with its
president. Israel Jacobson. and assented to the dec-
laration that it is permissible to use pulse, tea, and
sugar on Passover, against which view the conserv-
ative rabbis of the time vigorously protested (see
Stern, "Gesch. des Judenthunis," pp. 107, 1G8).
Berlin wrote annotations to the Talmud which
appeared iu the edition of Furtli, 1829-32, of which
only the first three volumes were published. The
Talmud, ed. AVilna, 1895, contains his marginal notes
lo the tractate Shebu'ot, those to the si.xteeuth vol-
ume of Rabbinowicz's "Dikduke Soferim." and to
the treatise Hullin. Some of his novelhe appeared
as an appendi.x to the work '"Aze Almuggim"
(Sulzbach. 1779). by his brother, R. Noah Hayyim
Zebi Berlin. The latter died when his work, " Jla'-
yau ha-Hokmah" (Riidelheim. 1804), was in the
"hands of the printer ; and Berlin superintended the
publication of his brother's work.
UiBLiOGRAPiiv ; Eckstein, Gefscli. der Jtideii in . . . Bnm-
hriii. ISiiS. pp. lT6-lT(t; Idem. Xnelitrihie. lt*!l!l. pp. 3-14;
SiiUiniitli. iv. i»\: (iriitz. Gesch. der Jiideii. M ed.. pp. 2S1.
374: Eliezer Kohu. Kinat Soferim, pp. 179, KSO. Lemberg,
P. ATI.
BERLIN, DAVID B. (JUDAH) LOEB:
Rabbi of the three united congregations, Altoua,
Hamburg, and Wandsbeck; born probably at Eiscn-
stadt, Hungary, in the second half of the seventeenth
century; died at Altona March .5, 1771. Very little
is known of his life, although he doubtless was a
great Talmudic authority, for otherwise he could
not have been rabbi of these three congregations.
His brother. Isaiah Berlin, and his brother-in-law,
Joseph b. Menahcm Stciuhart. praise him particu-
larly, and his epitaph also— communicated by Witt-
kower, " Aggudat Perahim," p. 288 — mentions his
1892.
I.. <••
79
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin Congress
Berlin, Isaiah
scholarship and his great piety. The responsa col-
lection, " Zikron Yosef, " by J. Steinhart, contains two
of Berlin's responsa (pp. 74d, 82a), and the Bodleian
Library contains some of his homilies au<l novelhc on
the Talmud. Berlin was at first rabbi in Dessau,
and from 1768 to his death rabbi of the three congre-
gations mentioned above.
Bibliography: Berliner, lesnja Berlin, 187^ p. 8; Fuenn,
Kciieict ilsmcl. pp. 337. 33B; Neubauer, Cat. Boill. Hclir.
MSS. No. 536.
L. G.
BERLIN, FANNY. See Berlin. Moses.
BERLIN, ISAIAH B. (JUDAH) LOEB
(called also Isaiah Pick, after his falher-iu-lawi :
The most eminent critic among the German Tal-
mudists of the eighteenth century ; born in Eisen-
stadt, Hungary, about October, 172.5; died, while
rabbi of Breslau, May 13, 1799.
Berlin was the scion of a famous family of schol-
ars which counted among its members Y'oni-Tob
Lipman Heller and Jleir b. Jacob Schiff. The
father of Berlin also was a high Talmudic author-
ity, and by him the sou was initiated into rabliinieal
studies, which he later continued in Halberstadt
with R. Hirsch Bialeli (also called Hirsch Harif),
whoe.xercised considerable influence on Berlin'slaler
methods of teachiug.
In 17o0 Berlin occupied an honorable position in
the commvmity of Breslau ; and it may therefore be
assumed that he had settled there some time previ-
ously. About five years later he married Fromet
(born 1730; died June 13, 1802), daughter of the rich
and respected merchant. Wolf Loebel Pick. Until
1787 Berlin lived a comparatively private life, en-
gaged in business with a Christian furrier ; but in
that year he became a member of the rabbinate, and
on Kov. 17. 1793, was elected rabbi of Breslau, re-
ceiving eighteen votes out of a total of twenty -one.
His election was preceded by a bitter cor.test be-
tween the few bvit rich liberals and the majority of
the community. The former (as recorded in an offi-
cial document) woidd have preferred to see Berlin
appointed as a "msh bcsen" ("rosh bet din," or
head of the court), so that he would be unable to act
so strictly as a rabbi in regard to ceremonials, and
would have a smaller stipend from the Breslau com-
munity, while exercising less influence on the rural
communities.
Berlin, in his humility and unpretentiousness,
looked upon the titles and rights withheld from him
as of no account, though his salary
His was smaller than that of his predeces-
Character, sor, from the fact that he had to divide
the income from city and countrj' with
the assistant ral)bi and the rabbi of Sulz. Wolf
Ginsberg, his pupil during many j'cars, relates, as
evidence of Berlin's ascetic mode of life, that the
latter rested only during the nights of the Sabbath
and on festivals, devoting all his other days and
nights to study. His lilierality is revealed in the
fact that he wrote and printed one of his works,
"She'elat Shalom" (Peaceful Greeting), for the sole
purpose of offering help to the publisher, an indigent
Talmudic scholar.
Berlin was greatly admired, even by persons who
differed with him in religious views. Joel Brill. Aaron
Wolfsohn, Judah Bensew, and many oilier Mas-
kilim of Breslau often visited him to seek advice
on scientific questions. As the Maskilim always
carefully avoided wounding Berlin's religious feel-
ings, he on his part met them half-way in many
things. On the occasion of the Peace of Basel, for
instance (May 17, 1795), he lield a solenm service in
the synagogue and exceptionally permitted the use
of instrumental music, he himself delivering a
discourse which was highly praised by the press
("Schlesisehe Zeitung." 1795, No. 59). Thus Ber-
lin, by his learning an<l his character, conciliate<l the
hostile elements of his congregation, and liis death
w-as mourned equally by all.
In order fully to appreciate Berlin's literary activ-
ity it must be mentioned that he had the habit of
annotating almost every book he read ; mentioning
the sources, or noting parallel passages and variant
readings. Such glosses by Berlin have been pub-
lished on the following books: the Bible (Penta-
teuch, Dyhernfurth, 1775; the other books, ib.,
1807); the prayer-book, ed. Tikkim
His Shelomoh (ih.. 1806); Maimonides'
Literary Yad ha-Hazakah (ih., 1809); Alfasi
Activity. (Presburg, 1836); the "Hinuuk." by
Aaron ha-Levi of Barcelona (Vienna,
1837); Malachi b. .Jacob's melhodology, "Yad Mala-
chi" (Berlin, 1825); Elijah b. Jlo.ses de Vidas' book
of morals, " Reshit Hokmah " (Dyhernfurth, 1811).
Although the terse yet clear notes contained in these
volumes reveal the immense learning and critical
insight of their author, yet Berlin's lasting place of
honor among the pioneers of Talmudic criticism
rests on the following works which treat principally
of the Talmud: (1) " 'Omcr ha-Shikhah " (Forgotten
Sheaf), Konigsberg, 1860, containing a large num-
ber of Ilalakot on the Talmuil not noted by the
codifiers; (2) " Ozar Balum " (Full Treasure), in the
edition of Jacob ibn Habib's"'En Ya'akob." pub-
lished at Wilna in 1899, tracing all the Talmudic
passages quoted without sources in the difTeriTit
commentaries on the haggatlic elements of the Tal-
mud; (3)"Haggahot ha-Shas " (Notes to the Tal-
m\id). textual corrections and notes on the origin of
parallel passages (Dyhernfurth. 1800, and in nearly
all the editions of the Talmud); (4) "Ilatla'ah She-
l)a-'Arakin" (Detached Orders) (part i.. Breslau, 1830;
])art ii., Vienna, 1859), containing, as the title indi-
cates, explanations and glosses on the 'Aruk; (5)
•• Hiddushe ha-Shas," novelliB on the Talmud (Ko-
nigsberg, 18(50, and in several editions of tlie Tal-
mud); (6) "Mint Targuma" (Dessert Dishes), I?res-
lau, 1831, remarks on the Targum Onkelos (the word
"Targuma" signifying botli "Targum " and "des-
sert," eiiuivaleut to the Greek 7p(i;;///n) aiul on the
Palestinian Targum; (7) " Kashiyot Meyushab "
(Dilliculties Answered), Konigsberg, I860, treating
of the Talmudic passages which end witli K'l"P. and
written by Berlin in fourteen days; (8) " Rishon le-
Zion" (The First for Zion ; Dyhernfurth, 1793;
Vienna, 1793, and several times reprinted, the title
being a play on p'V. " Zion, " and pi'V. " index"), a collec-
tion of indexes and parallel jiassages in the j\Iidrash;
(9) "She'elat Shalom" (Greeting of Peace), Dyliern-
furth, 1786, a commentary on Aha of Shubha's
"She'iltot." Berlin's responsa collection and hia
Berlin, Jacob
Berlin, Naphtali
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
80
commentary on the Tosefta deserve especial mention,
tliougli nothing is known of their late.
The tirst iilace among these worl« must be ac-
corded to the remarks and explanations on the Tal-
mud. Although they can not compare in acute-
uess and power of combination with
Character- the similar work of Elijah of Wilua,
istics yet these two books of Berlin laid
of Berlin's the foundation for a critical study of
Works. the text of the Talmud, in view both of
tlie numerous textual corrections con-
cerning the minutest details, and of the many paral-
lel passages adduced either directly from the Talmud
or from the old authors, in support of new readings.
Berlin, furtliermore, was the tirst— at least among
the Germans — who showed an interest in the history
of post Talnuidic literature; and it was he. also,
who opened tlie Kalir questiou (compare his letter
to his brother-in-law, Josepli b. Menahem f>teiuhart,
in the hitter's "Zikron Yosef," No. 15). Although
Berlin's historical remarks have been superseded
bj' modern criticism, the immense material which he
accumulated in all his works will always remain of
inestimable service to the student.
Bibliographt: Auerbaoh, Gi'sch. rier I^r. Grmeiiide Hal-
heiftaM. 1H86, p. 71; A. Berliner. h:t(ij(i Biiliii. Berlin.
1879; reprint from Berliner's .ViTyaziii. vi.; Brann, in Ji(l)f!-
fclirift zum 70sten GchurtMmie i'"» GriUz, pp. 262-2ta;
BruU's Jahrh. v. iiSi, 229; C'armoly, Rev. Oriciitak, iii. 31(1;
Neubauer, Vat. Bwll. Hehr. ilSS. lOlB.
L. G.
BERLIN, JACOB (called Yokob) : German
Talmudist; Imru ITOT. probably at Berlin; died 1749
at Fiirth. Bavaria. He was a pupil of Jacob ha-
Kohen, author of "Sheb Yaakob." and later (not
after 1734) settled at Fiirth, where he lived as a well-
to-do private citizen. Of his seven works the fol-
lowing were published posthumously: "Bc'er Ya'a-
kob " (Well of Jacob), a selection of respousa. with
an appendix, on the terminology of the Talmud,
published by his brother Isaac ami his son Abndiam,
and edited by Isaac b. Me'ir of Pfalzburgand Fiirth.
1707; and "Zikron Ya'akob" (Memory of Jacob), a
homiletie commentary on the Pentateuch iib. 1769).
Berlin is not related to the well-known Berlin
family of Fiirth.
Bibliographt: Frankpl, Litcrnturhlatt ilcs Orients, viii.
4211-422; Steinschneiaer, Cat. BmlX. p. 1195; Isaac b. Meir's
Introduction to Berlin's Be'er Ya'akitb.
L. G. I. BeR.
BERLIN, LEO: Russian lawyer; son of Moses
Berlin; Imrn at Vitebsk Xov. 2'2. 1854; received his
education (1863-7'2) at a private school in St.
Petersburg. He studied law at tlie Uuiversity of
Bern, Switzerland, whence he was graduated in
1878. In 1881 Berlin received tlie degree of doctor of
criminal law from the University of Moscow. Soon
afterward he became engaged to Amalie Hering,
M.D., daughter of the physiologist Ewald Hering,
who, on account of her (Koman Catholic) relig-
ion, was refused a license by the Russian govern-
ment to marry a Jew. She accordingly joined
the Protestant Church; but even then it required
the intervention of the poet Turgeuef to secure the
requisite permission. Berlin is (1902) the head of
the law firm of Berlin Brothers in St. Petersburg, but
resides in Brussels. He has published many trea-
tises on criminal law in the "Zhurnal Grazhdans-
kavo i Ugolovnavo Prava " and other periodicals.
A rare Torah scroll, which has been in the Berlin
family for centuries, is now in his possession.
Bibliographt: Private sources.
BERLIN, MOSES (MOISEI JOSIFO-
■yiCH) : Scholar, communal worker, and govern-
ment iirticial; born at Shklov, Russia, 18'21; died in
St. Petersburg March 2."), 1888. He received a good
home education ami then was sent abroad, where he
studied philosophy and philology at the universities
of Konig.sberg and Bonn. In 1845, while at KiJnigs
'oerg, he published ''Metab Iliggayon." a philosoph-
ical treatise in Hebrew with the Latin title "Ars
Logica," with an introduction in Latin bj' Professor
Freistadt.
Returning to Russia in 1849, he received a position
as teacher in the government Jewish school of Mohi-
lev, and in 18.53 was appointed by the minister of
the interior as adviser
on Jewish affairs to
the governor-general
of White Russia.
Berlin was trans-
ferred to St. Peters-
burg in 1856 and
attached to the de-
partment of public
worship as adviser on
foreign creeds, with
the title " Uchony
Yevrei " (A Learned
Jew). In this posi-
tion Berlin was fre-
quently called upon
to participate in the
framing of laws con-
cerning the Jews.
At the same time he
assisted to a consider-
able extent Count M. A. Korff in organizing and
arranging the Imperial Public Library of St. Peters-
burg.
In 1859 Berlin publislied "Byedstviya Vremion. "
a Russian translation of D'nj?n pIV. the work «f
Jeshua ben David of Samosc. This translation a]i
peared in vol. i. of the " Transactions'' of the
Moscow Society for the Study of the History and
Antiquities of Russia ("Trudy Moskovskavo Ob-
shchestva Istorii i Drevnostei Rossii"!, and also in
book form. In recognition of this work Berlin was
elected corresponding member of the society. He
published in 1861 " Ocherk Etnografii Yevreiskavo
Xaseleniya v Rossii." This work on the ethnog-
raphy of the Russian Jews was composed at the
instance of the Imperial Russian Geographical So-
ciety, which elected him an active member. In
1862, in reply to Aleksandr Aksakov's attacks on
the Talmud in the journal "Den," Berlin published
"Bugulminski Talmudist" and other articles on the
Jewi.sh question.
Berlin was very active in the Jewish community
of St. Petersburg, and was a member of the two
Jewish delegations to Alexander II. in 1868 and to
Alexander III. in 1881 respectively.
Mijscs Etrliu.
81
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin, Jacob
Berlin, Naphtall
His son Leo Berlin is a distinguished lawyer.
His daughter Fanny Berlin Kaufmann (born at
Vitebsk Nov. 8. 1850; died at St. Petersburg 1896)
graduated from the women's g3-mnasium of St.
Petersburg, studied law at the University of Bern,
and was graduated thence as doctor of lav,' sn/iniia
cum Idtide. She married Prof. Hilarion Kaufmann.
and became prominent in the higher society of St.
Petersburg. Her bust by Professor Zalello is exhib-
ited in tlie Imperial Academy of Fine Arts at St.
Petersburg.
Bibliography: L. Gordon, in Vengerov's Kritiko-Biografi-
cheskl Slavar, iii. s.u.; Khronika VoMioda, 1888, No. 12.
H. K.
BERLIN, NAHMAN BEN SIMHAH: A
polemical writer against reform; lived at Lissa,
Germany, at the end of the eighteenth and the l)e-
ginning of the nineteenth century. His literary
activity was wholly devoted to the cause of ortho-
do.xy, opposing steadfastly and systematically all
the attempts at the reform of Judaism, which were
so marked a characteristic of his time. To tliis pur-
pose he wrote the fallowing polemical works; " 'En
Mislipat" (The Critical Eye of Judgment), directed
against the editors of the Hebrew periodical "Ha-
lieassef," and especially against Aaron Wolfssolm
(Berlin, 1796); "Keter Torah" (The Crown of the
Law), an introduction to the"Hawwot Da'at " of
Jacob b. Moses of Lissa (Dyhernfurth, 1810); "Ju-
dali," against the innovators (Berlin, 1818); "Kad-
dur Katan " (The Small Globe), against several
■works by different reform writers (Berlin, 1819) ;
"'Et le-Dabber" (Time to Speak Out), on the tradi-
tions of oral law, as well as on the necessity of hav-
ing the prayers in Hebrew (Berlin, 1819); "Simhah"
(Joy), a call to unity in religious affairs (Berlin,
1819).
Bibliography : Fiirst, Vihliothcca Jmlaicn, 1. 110.
L. G. M. B.
BERLIN, NAPHTALI ZEBI JUDAH
(known also as N. Z. J. B.): Head of the yeshi-
bah of Volozhin, Hu.ssia; born at Mir, in the gov-
ernment of Minsk, in 1817; died at Warsaw Aug. 10,
1893. In 1831 Berlin, who was a descendant of a
scholarly family, married the daughter of Isaac b.
Hayyim, the head of the Volozhin yeshibah. After
the death of Isaac in 18.51 his elder son-in-law, Eliezer
Isaac, became principal, and on the death of the lat-
ter in 1854, Berlin succeeded him. He followed the
path of learning laid out by Hayyim, the founder of
the yeshibah, according to the plans of Elijah of
Wilna ; viz., plain logical reasoning, instead of em-
ploying the PiLPUL.
A minority of the yeshibah students who culti-
vated a taste for pilpul seceded and elected as their
principal Joseph Baer Soloweitchik, well known as
an acute pilpulist and a grandson of Rabbi Isaac.
This division created discord between the students
of the two factions; and the Russian rabbis sent a
delegation to Volozhin to investigate the matter.
They quelled the disturbance and established a
union headed by Berlin, who was installed as the
one head of the yeshibah.
Berlin's whole life was devoted to the welfare
of the yeshibah, and all his energy was directed
HI —6
toward increasing the number of the students, and
caring for their support and comfort. He ap-
pointed and sent authorized agents (" meshuUahim ")
to different parts of the world for voluntary con-
tributions to assist in maintaining the yeshibah.
A large share of the income came from America.
Under his guidance the number of the students in-
creased from 100 to over 400; and he also erected a
three-story brick building with rooms for study and
a library.
However, the "Maskilim," who then advocated
the Semi-Reform movement in Russia, opposed the
3'eshibah on general principles, and
His demanded the introduction of secular
Opposition science and modern im-thod of teach-
to Secular ing. In answer to their demand Ber-
Sciences. lin wrote an open letter to the editor
of "Ha-Meliz" (No. ix., 1885). ex-
plaining his standpoint. He called attention to
the failure of the rabbinical seminaries in Germain',
and even those of Russia, to produce a single
Talmudic rablii in the full sense of the term: while
such rabbis from the Vohizhin graduates were nu-
merous. This reply did not satisfy the Maskilim,
who advocated the abolition of the yeshil)ah as a
dangerous institution and as being an obstacle in the
waj' of general education to the rising generation.
Many derogatory articles in the Hebrew and Rus-
sian-Jewish press attracted the attention of the gov-
ernment, which in 1879 decreed to close up the ye-
shibah. In 1881. however, through diligent and
extraordinary efforts. Berlin succeeded in obtaining
the government's permit to reopen the yeshibah,
which he conducted with renewed energies till 1891,
when its doors were again closed by the government
as a result of the false acctisation that the students
were connected with the Nihilistic movement.
Berlin never ceased his endeavors by every means
— even visiting Warsaw to obtain the necessary in-
fluence — to induce the government to revoke the
edict; but they were without avail, and his failure
hastened his death.
His contributions to rabbinical literature are of
great value, particularly his commentary " Ha'amek
She'alah" (Deep Research) on the
His "Sheiltot" of Aha ok Sii.\I5H.\. It
Literary was left for Berlin to tlirow light on
Activity, the complicated and obscure jtassages
of this most importjiMt halakic work
of the gaonic period, which was little known among
the Talinudists. His commentary shows not only
his phenomenal knowledge of the Talmiidim and
old rabbinic literature, but also a tine critical mind.
Berlin didnot occupy himself with the later rabliinic
literature, but spent all his life in the study of the
old authorities, devoting himself especially to the
Verushalmi and the halakic ;Midrashim. It is Siiid
that at the a,ge of twenty-three he compiled a com-
mentary on the Jerusalem Talmud.
Berlin's unselfishness is shown by the notice in
his introduction (S 5, part ii.): "Whoever desires to
reprint this book, either in this or in another coun-
try, has my permission to do so without any money
consideration, and is entirely welcome, as it is my
wish to disseminate the teachings of our master
(Aha of Shabha) of blessed memory. All I request
Berlin, Noah
Berlin, Saul
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
82
of the publisluT. if he does so during the lifetime of
myself, or my son Hayyim Berliu. is that he will
notify either of us. in order tliat I or my son may
add, amend, or correct the style or rearrange the
matter."'
Berlin's commentary on the Pentateuch. "Biur
ha-Amel>"' (Deep Interpretation), was published
with the text (Wilna, 187y-bO). His commentary
on the Song of Songs, " Metib ha-Shir Bekizzur "
(The Essence of the Poem), with an extract from the
same appeared at Warsaw ISSS. His opinion on
Ecclesiastcs is tliat it summarizes the arguments of
the naturalists and scientists of that age, and that
onlv the conclusions were inspired (by the Holy
Spirit), whereas the Song of Songs and the Proverbs
were all inspired (preface to "Sheiltot," parti.. ^ 2).
His e.xegetical works are of little value, although
they claim to be Peshat.
The responsa of Berlin were numerous. Slost of
his letters end with mny3 DIOJ? 'JJH ("I am
burdened with work "), as if in haste to finish.
Of his respousa. "Meshib Dabar" (Word of Re-
sponse), (Warsaw, 1894), si.x are addressed to Amer-
ican rabbis of New York, Baltimore, Cincinnati, and
Charleston, on various religious questions (see pp.
13. 15. 19. 93, 117, 136).
Bibliogr.\phy: Katesct Ti-^rad. il. 136-142, Warsaw, 18»>,
biography and portrait: Ahiasaf (Calendar* for 5655, pp.
450, 4.il : Ihr Ixntetit. p. U15, Mavence. 1893 : X. Sokolow,
Ha-AMf. 1S8T, pp. 231-242: M. Reines, .4/.v«aiiii/o( S/ifl Ti'rah.
U Cracow, im).
-L. G. .J. I). E.
BERLIN, NOAH HAYYIM ZEBI
HIRSCH B. ABRAHAM MEIR : Germiin Tal
miuiist and rabbi; born at Fiirth 1T37; died at
Altona March 5, 1802. He was the son of a well-tn-
do and learned merchant at Fiirth. who died Jan. 7.
1780, and whom Jacob Berliu regarded as a Talinud-
ist of some merit. The boy, together with his
brother Loeb Berlin, received his education from
his father, and became dayyan in Fiirth in 176.5.
He also was appointed rabbi of Marktbreit. Bavaria,
and the surrounding villages; and in 1780 became
rabbi at Mayence. When Raphael ha-Kolieu, rabbi
of the three communities of Altona, Hamburg, and
Wandsbeck, resigned his position, Berlin received a
call to be his successor (1799). Affairs in these com-
munities were very unsettled at that time, and it
required much skill and tact to reconcile the various
elements struggling for leadership. Berlin sjitisfac-
torily solved the problem; and being far removed
from the fanaticism of his predecessor, he even suc-
cessfully avoided wounding the susceptibilities of
the latter, who continued to reside privately in
Altona (compare Berlin's letter to Ha.vyim of "\'olo-
zhin in the responsa collection " Hut ha-Meshullash."
Wilna. 1880).
Berlin was the author of the following works: (1)
" Aze Arazim " (Cedar-Trees). Fiirth, 1790, an e.\
haustive commentary on Joseph Caro's Shulhan
'Aruk. Eben ha-'Ezer, which, however, covers only
one-third of the work; (2) "Aze Almuggim" (aI-
mug-Trees), Sulzbach, 1779, a commentary on
those precepts treated in the Shulhan 'Aruk which
are not of Biblical origin; namely, on the washing
of the hands ("netilat yadayim"). Sabbath-limits
{""erubin"), and the marriages forbidden by the
Soferim C'sheniyot la-'arayot ''); (3) "^layan ha-
Hokmah " (Source of Wisdom) (RodeUieim, 1804, and
reedited several times), the six hundred and thirteen
injunctions and prohibitions in metric form, and ex-
haustive casuistic explanations on the individual
precepts; (4) "Tiferet Zebi " (Glory of Zebi), the
first part published at Warsaw, 1807, the second at
Warsaw, 1818, the third at Josephov, 1867; (5) mar-
ginal glosses on the Talmud treatises Berakot.
Shabbat (Fiirth, 1829-32), and Shebuot (Wilna,
189.5).
The chief characteristic of Berlin's work is that
he pays more regard than any other German Tal-
mudist to Yeruslialmi; and he gives many happy
explanations of it. Moreover, he possessed numer-
ous works by Sephardic scholars which were un-
known to the German and Polish Talmudists: and
his teachings were strongly influenced by the Seph-
ardim. Although Berlin, in accordance with the
spirit of the times, was a great master of "pilpul,"
and could represent the pilpulistic method skilfully
and intelligibly, he had clear reasoning powers-
In his respousa, especially, he separated sophistry
from true logic.
It is of interest to note that Berlin not only knew
Azariah del Rossi's works (he cites them imfavora-
bly in "Aze Almuggim." 193b), but had also read
the Xew Testament, which was a very remarkable
thing in the circles to which Berlin belonged. In a
passage of " 'Aze Almuggim " (191a) he speaks of
Paul as " hakam chad mehakmehem " (one of their
[non-Jewish] sages), and he displays ingenuity in
trying toidentify him with a certain "Min," a neigh-
bor of Gamaliel, spoken of by the Mishnah (Er. vi. 1).
Many of Berlin's explanations of the piyyutimare
foiind in Wolf Heidcnheim's commentary on the
Mahzor.
Bibliography: Filrst, BiM. Jiulaica, p. 397: Xepi-Ghinm.i:
T'dcihit Gahih- Yifnicl. pp. KB, U«: Fuenn, A"t)i. -
Yi^raeU p. 'Mti; Et-kstein, yachtriige znr Gfschichti:
Juden ill Btiiiilicrg. 1^■!I9, p. 5: Arba' Ko^ot, a funeiul
sermon on Berlin, delivered by Abraham Isaac b. Joseph,
Altona. ISiK. Berlin's epitaph is to be found in Wittkower,
Agmlat Perahim. p. 293, Allona, 18.'*0: Zunz {Mnnatstage,
p. 121 should be corrected according to this.
L. G.
BERLIN, RUDOLF: German ophthalmolo-
gist; born May 2. 1833. at Friedland, Jlecklenburg-
Strelitz ; died at Rostock Sept. 12, 1897. He re-
ceived his education at the gymnasium of his native
town and at the universities of Gottingen, Wiirz-
burg. Berlin, and Erlangen, and was graduated from
the last-mentioned as doctor of medicine in 18.58.
For the following three years he was assistant to
Pagenstecher at Wiesbaden, and in 1861 established
himself as a specialist In ophthalmology in Stutt-
gart, opening a private hospital there.
In 1870 he became privat-docent in physiological
optics at the technical high school at Stuttgart, and
in 1875 was appointed professor of comparative
ophthalmology at the veterinary college in that city.
In 1889 he became professor of ophthalmology at the
university at Rostock, assuccessor to Von Zehender;
and under his supervision the new ophthalmological
hospital was built and opened in 1897.
Berlin was the first to treat ophthalmology sys-
tematically in a comparative way. Among his nu-
merous works may be mentioned ; " Ueber den Gang
83
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin, Noah
Berlin, Saul
(k'l- in don GlaskiJrpcrraum Eingodrungenen Fremd-
korpiT," in " Archiv fiirOphthalmologie," vol. xiii. ;
"Ufber SehnervL'ndurchschufidung, " iu "Mittlioi-
lungsblatt ftir Augenlicilkunde," vol. ix. ; "Krauk-
hoiteu dcr Orbita," in Graefe-Samiscli, "Handl)ucli
dcr Augculu'ilkunde" (1880): and jointly with Roni-
bold. " Untersuchungen iibcr den Eintluss des Schrci-
biMis auf Auge und KOrperhaltung der Schulkinder,"
Stnttgart, 1883.
In 1882. together with Eversbusch, ho founded the
"Zeitschrift fi'ir Vcrgleichendc Augenhcilkuude," in
winch he publi.shed many interesting articles; e.^r.,
on the eye of the horse, about glaucoma, etc.
Bnii.ifxiRAPHV: Piipcl, Biograpliifelies Lcxikon, s. v., Vienna,
liKil; Meyer, Kiinrersati<ins-Lexikon, s.v.; Brorkhiuis,
KiiHiriMtidm-Lcxikon. s.v.
s. F. T. H.
BERLIN, SAMUEL: German jurist; born at
Bambei-g Oct. 11, 1807; died at Fiirth Dec. 31, 18915.
He was a son of Loeb Berlin, of Bamberg, and
afterward " Landcsrabbincr " at Cassel, whose otiier
sonjla.v was also a jurist, and became "Oberlandes-
geriehtsrath " at Nuremberg, being the first Jew to
fill a judicial position in Bavaria. Samuel was the
first Je\\ ish lawyer in that kingdom. He com-
menced practising law in Gerolzhofen, where he
became the intimate friend of another young at-
torney, who afterward was "Kultusminister " and
"Ministerpnlsident," Dr. Freiherr von Lutz. Dr.
Berlin himself became "Hofratb," and was at one
tune iu the " Vorstaud " of the "Gemeindecolle-
gium " in Ansbach.
Bliii.ioi;RArEiv: KdIuU, BciUIimtt: Isr. Mi'hnicr. .tvi. 293.
8. M. Co.
BERLIN, SAUL (or HIRSCHEL, SAUL,
after his father, Zebi Hihsch [Hikschei,] Levin):
German Talmudist, and one of the most learned
Jews of the Jlendelssohnian period ; born (at Glo-
gau?) 1740; tiled in London Nov. 16, 1794. He
received his general educatiim princijiallj' from
his father, who was chief rabbi of Berlin, and one
of the few rabbis of the time who combined Tal-
Duidic learning with secular culture. He conse-
quently educated his gifted eldest son along the
same lines. In Berlin and Breslau (whither the
young man frequently went to visit his father-
in-law, R. Joseph Jonas Friinkel) he came into
personal contact with the representatives of the
movement for progress in Judaism, and became one
of its most enthusiastic adherents. His antecedents,
education, and calling, as rabbi in Frankfort-on-the-
Oder, made it almost impossible for him openly' to
renounce the old rabbinism; and he consequently
endeavored to advance his ideals anonymously or
under a pseudonym.
Berlin began his literary career with an anony-
mous circiUar letter, " Ketab Yoshcr " (An Ejiistle
of Justice) (printed in Berlin, 1794, after the death
of the author), which Hartwig Wessely warmly de-
fended in his own contention with the rabbis while
pleading for German education among the Jews.
With delightful humor, and in a florid though racy
style, Berlin describes the absurd methods of the
Jewish schools, and points out how the rabbinic
casuistry — which then constituted the greater part
of the curriculum — injures the sound common sense
of the pupils and deadens their noblest aspirations.
In this work Berlin already betrays a morbid tend-
ency to vilify those whom he dislikes for general
or personal reasons, thereby injuring the cause which
he desires to further.
This tendency is still more evident in his pseu-
donymous work, "Mizpeh Yoktel " (The Watch-
Tower of Yoktel) (published by David Friedlander
and his brother-in-law Itzig, Berlin, 1789), a polemic
against the "Torat Yekutiel " of H.\pii.\el ha-
KoiiEN. The latter, one of the most zealous advo-
cates of rabbinic piety, was a rival candidate with
Levin for the Berlin rabbinate, a circumstance which
induced Levin's son to represent ha-Kohen as a for-
bidding example of rabbinism. Under the name
"01)adiah b. Baruch of Poland," Berlin attempted
iu this work to ridicule Talmudic science, and to
stigmatize one of its foremost e.vponeuts not only
as ignorant, but also as dishonest. The publishers de-
clared in the jirefaee that they had re-
Ridicules ceived the work from a traveling Po-
Talmudic lish Talmudist, and had considered it
Science. their duty to print it and submit it to
the judgment of specialists. In order
to secure the anonymity more thoroughly, Berlin
and his father were named among those who were
to pass upon it.
Had Berlin been content to illustrate from Ra-
phael's work the senseless methods then current in
Talmudic studies, he would have performed a meri-
torious task, and one for which he was especially
fitted by his very great Talmudic learning and
his lucid style of exposition. But the entirely un-
founded attack upon the honor and honesty of his
opponent, whose incorruptibility and firnmess of
character were admired even b_v his enemies, onl}- in-
jureil Berlin and bis cause. As .soon as it reached
Altona and Hamburg, where Rjiphael was chief
rabbi, the work as well as its author was placed
under the ban. The dispute that thereupon arose
concerning the validity of the ban turned entirely
U|)on the (juestion whether a perscmal element, like
the attack upon the rabbi of Altona, justified such
a |iuinshment.
Witli the exception of Ezekicl Landau, chief rabbi
of Prague and a near relation of Berlin, only a few
Polish rabbis declared the ban to be invalid ; and
even they censured the action of Berlin, who had
been forced to acknowledge the authorship.
Before the excitement over this atTair had sub-
.sided, Berlin created a new sensation by another
work. In 1798 he published at Berlin, undi'r the
title "Besamim Rosh " (Incense of Spices), 392 re-
sponsa purporting to be by AsnEii n, Jeiitei,, with
many glosses and conuncuts which he called " Kassa
de-liarsna " (Fish Fare). A few examjjles will illus-
trate the true character of these responsa. Berlin
says, for instance, that (No. 257) an insight into the
principles of the Torah and its commands can not
be gained directly from it or from tradition, but
(Uily by means of the philosophico-logical training
<lcrivcd from non-Jewish sources. This opinion is
coolly ascribed to Asher b. JehicI, who condenuied
the study of philosophy and even of the natural
sciences as being un-Jewish and pernicious (com-
pare No. 58 of Asher's genuine responsji). The
Berlin, Saul
Bermann, Issacbar
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
84
following edifying opiiiious are ascribed to the uco-
Talimidists of the thirteenth century; "Articles of
faith [creed] must be adapted to the times; and at
present the most essential article is that we all are
utterly worthless and depraved, and that our only
duty consists in loving truth and peace and learning
to know God and His works" (I.e.). R. Asher is
also alleged to be the author of the two responsa
concerning the moditication of the ceremonial laws,
especially of such as were burdensome to the Berlin
j-outh. Thus, for instance, it should be permitted
to shave (Xo. 18). to drink non-kosher Aviue. "ya-
yin nesek " (No. 36), and to ride on Sabbath. Ber-
lin aroused a storm of indignation by thus fraudu-
lently using the name of one of the most famous
rabliis of the Middle Ages to combat rabbiuism.
Mordeeai Benet first attempted to prevent the
printing of the book in Austria, and then mercilessly
scourged the deception in a circular letter addressed
to Berlin's father, by critically analyzing the re-
sponsa and proving them to be spurious. Levin
tried in vaiu to defend his son. Berlin resigned his
rabbinate, and. in order to end the dispute which he
had aroused, betook himself to London, where he
died a few months after his arrival. In a letter
fo\md in his pocket he warned everybody against
looking into his papers, requesting that they be sent
to his father. He expressed the curious wish to be
buried not in a cemeterj-, but in some lonely spot,
and in the same garments In which he should hap-
pen to die.
In order to do justice to this unique personality,
it must be borne in mind, as a miidern historian re-
marks, that in Berlin were united as in a focus the
rays of a sinking and of a rising period in Jewish his-
tory. Being a really great Talmudist. he knew- better
than any other person the weaknesses
Berlin's of rabbinism. and was filled with a
Character, burning desire to lead his people to-
ward intellectual freedom. Meudels-
sohn"sand Wessely's timid attempts to inaugurate
a new era did not appeal to him. With his youth-
ful ardor he could not imderstand that the develop-
ment of the popidar consciousness is a slow process.
An open championship of his ideas, however, would
have meant a breach with father, wife, and children —
in short, with all his associates; it being after all
doubtful whether his sjicrifices W(Hild have helped
his cause. His anonymous and pseudonymous au-
thorship was a measure of policy and not of cow-
ardice. He coidd not. however, escape the conse-
qtiences of such a mode of warfare. It is debasing
and embittering to attack secretly those whom one
is forced to praise in jniblic: hence Berlin became
personal in his polemics, and nervous and dissatis-
fied with himself and the world, because he knew
himself to be niisimderstood through his own fault.
Besides the works mentioned aliove. Berlin is said
to have written a large mnnbei- of rabbinic works,
including notes to the whole Talmud.
BIB1.I0GRAPHT: Aziilai. flhem hit-n,t1nlim. eil. Wilna li
'M. 21 : Benet, In Litrrntiirhhitt d..-- iiri, ntf. v. .>i_^i, uih
141 (fniiunuent of his alHive-mfiitinneil lettenoLevinj; Brami
iu the (jrillz Julul.-ii-hrii't. IK'il. pp. 2.i.V3.i7: I'amicilv Hii-
■llnhim ti-Bim Yi,nnli. iip.;5iMl: Chafes. .Vi»/i,i( Kcnwit.
pp. 14.21: Gratz, (iifih. tier Juihit. .\i.89, l.M-l.W; Hurwitz
In Kilmd ha-Liliiiiwii. x.. part 4. pp. 3-9; Jost. (it.^i/i. des
Judcnthums uiid Seiner SeMen, iti. 396-l(Xi (curiously
enough a defense of theauthenticit.v of the responsa collection
Besamim Bit^)t)i Landshut. T"hi1ot Analtf }ta-S}tim, pp.
84-106, 109; M. Straschun, in Fuean, Kiniah yccmaimU,
pp. 295-398; Zunz, Hitus. pp. 336-338. vrho thinks that Isiiac
Satanow bad a part in the fabrication of the responsa.
L. G.
BERLINER, ABRAHAM (ADOLF): Ger-
man tUcDlogian; historian; born iu Obersitzko. prov-
ince of Posen. Prussia. Jlay 2. 1833; received his
first education under his father, who was teacher in
Obersit zko. He continued his education under vari-
ous rabbis, preparing himself at the Siime time for
the University of Leipsic. where he received the
degree of doctor of philosophy.
After serving for some time as preacher and
teacher in Arnswalde, Berliner was called (186.5) to
Berlin as superintendent of the religious school
maintained by the society fer Talmudic studies
(Hebrat Shas); and in 1873, when Israel Hildes-
heimer opened the rab-
binical seiuinaiy in
Berlin, Berliner was
elected professor of
Jewish history and lit-
erature. In this posi-
tion, as well as in that
of author, he has dis-
played an untiring ac-
tivity. His edition of
Rashi's commentary to
the Pentateuch (18661
first made him known
as a scholar; and he
added to his reputation
by various historical
works, the result of his
studies in the archives
and libraries of Italy, which country he frequently
visited, subventioued by the German government.
Berliner edited for two years (1874-75) the scien-
tific periodical "Jlagazin fiir Judische Gesehichte
und Literatur." which from 1876 to 1893 he, to-
gether with his colleague. David Hoft'mann, con-
tinued under the title " Magaziu fiir die Wisseuschaft
des Judeuthums." It was due to his zeal that the
society Jlekize Nirdamim, for the publication of
works of the older Jewish literature, which had been
discontinued for several years, was revived in 1885;
and since then Berliner has acted as its director He
further acted as the apologist of Judaism in a pam-
phlet against Lagarde (" Prof. Paul de Lagarde. nach
Seiner Natur Gezeichuet." 1887). who denounced all
Jewish scholars as dilettanti; and when the blood
accusiUion was revived, he republished (1888) the
opinion of Cardinal Ganganelli — afterward Pope
Cleiueut XIV. — to prove the falsity of this charge.
AVhile orthodox in his religious views. Berliner
was never a fanatic. He not only a.ssociated in his
scientific work with the liberals, but also paid a
high tribute to the merits of M. Steinschneider on
the occasion of the hitter's seventieth birthday
(1886). by compiling a bibliography of that eminent
scholar's works.
The following is a list of Berliner's works; (1)
"Raschi. Commentar zum Pentateuch." 1866; ("2)
" Aus dem Inueren Leben der Deutschen Juden ini
Mittelalter,"1871; 2d ed., 1900; (3) "Pletat Soferim:
Abraham Berliner.
85
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berlin, Saul
Berznann, Issachar
Beitiilge zur Jiidisdien Scnriftauslegung im Mittel-
alter," 1873; (4) " Ycsod 'Olani, das Aelteste Be-
kanute Dramatische Geilidit in Hcbr. Sprache, vou
Mdsc Sacut, " 1874; (5) " DieMassorah zum Targum
OnUelos," 187r., 1877; (6j"Migdal Hananel, Uebcr
Leben uud Schrilteu R. Chananel's in Kairuau,"
1876 : (7) "Eiu Gang Durch die Bibliothekeu Italiens,"
1877; (8) "Rabbi Jcsaja Berlin; Eine Biographisclie
Skizze," 1879; (9) " Beitiilge zur Hebraisclien Gram-
matik im Talmud iind Jlidrasch," 1879; (10) "He-
brilischc Grabschriften in Italieu," 1881; (11) " Per-
sonlitlie BezielnnigenZwischcn Juden und Christen
im Mittulalter," 1883; (13) "Beitrilge zur Geographic
uiid Ellinographie Babyloniens im Talmud und Mid-
rasch," 1884; (13)Targum Onkelos (now the standard
edition), 1884; (14) "Aus den Letzten Tagen des
Riimischen Ghetto, "1886; (15) " Censurund Confisca-
tion HebriUseher Bilcher im Kirchenstaate," 1891;
(Ki) '■ Geschiclite der Juden in Rom, von der Aeltcsten
Zeit bis zur Gegenwart (30.50 Jahre)." 3 vols., 1893;
(17) "Ueber den Einfluss des Erstcn Hebritiseheu
Buehdrucks auf den Cultus und die Cidtur der
Juden," 1896; (18) "Aus Meiner Bibliothek,
Ein Beitrag zur Bibliographie und Typographie,"
1898.
Bibliography: Sokolow. Scfer Zikkaron, p. 13; Warsaw
18»i); Relnes, Dnr u'c-Hakamail'.
s. D.
BEBLIXEB, EMIL: American inventor; born
in Hanover, Germany May 30, 1851. He was edu-
cated at the jiublic schools of his native place and
at the Samson Schule, Wolfcnbuttel, whence he was
graduated in 1865. In 1870 he emigrated to Amer-
ica, settling in Washington, D. C, where he has
lived since 1883. He invented the loose-contact tel-
ephone transmitter, or microphone, known as "The
Berliner," and now universally employed in the tel-
ephone and of the utmost importance in its practi-
cal use. He is also the inventor of the gramophone
and other valuable devices. Berliner is a member
of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
and since 1879 has been a frequent contributor to
scientific publications in the United States an<l Ger-
many. He is, besides, the author of "Conclu.sions."
Philadelphia, 1899. In 1881 he married Cora Adler
of Washington, D. C.
BiBi.iOfiRAPHY: Willi's Whij in America, 1899-1900, and
private sdurces.
A.
BERMAN, JEKUTHIEI, : Russian-Hebrew
novelist; born in lS3,j; died in Moscow about 1889.
He held for over thirty years a responsible position
in the emjiloy of the Jewish railroad magnate Samuel
PoHakov, and devoted part of his leisure to literary
conii)ositiou. Between 1870 and 1880 he lived in
Tver and later in JIoscow. A stroke of paralysis in
1887 rendered him incapable of continuing either
Ills vocation or his favorite literary labors.
The first novel by Berman, " Shenot Rainu Ra'ali"
(The Years Wherein We Have Seen Evil), which de-
scribes the life and sufferings of the Cantonists or
[•hild-recruitsin the time of Emperor Nicholas I., ap-
peared in the first volume of "Ha-Meliz " (1860).
Another novel, "Pescl Jlikah " (The Graven Image
of Micah), appeared in vol. x.x., Nos. 19-43 of the
same periodical (1884). "Hashodedim be-Zahara-
yim " (The Noonday Robbers) was first published in
vol. viii. of "Ha-Shahar" (1877) and afterward
appeared in book form. The fate of his fourth
novel, "Ha-Yetomim" (The Orphans), is somewhat
singular. The first instalment appeared in Zeder-
baum's monthly, "Ha-Mizral.i," of which only four
numbers were published in St, Petersburg in" 1886.
Ten years later another part ajipcared in "Ner
ha-Ma'arabi," a Hebrew monthly pul)lislied in New
York, which was also soon discontinued.
Berman is one of the purists in modern Hebrew,
who insist that no strange words or foreign idioms
shall be used by the writers of what is supijosed to
be the language of the Bible. An eloquent letter
from his pen on this subject, and a clever reply by
R. A. Braudes of Wilna (now of Lemberg) favoring
expansion and modification of the language, are
imblishcd in Meisach's "Gan Perahim " (Wilna,
1881), pp. 9-31.
BiBi.ioc.RAPHT: ZeitUn, BiM. Hehraica: Llppe's BihUuum-
ltliinr)iry Lr.rihnn. I. ; Hn-Shahar, vl. 313.
II. H. P. Wl.
HERMANN, ADOLF (pen-name, Kobor
Tamds) : Hungarian writer: born at Presburg in
1.867. After completing the study of law he became
an employee of the Hungarian Credit I5ank. Under
the influence of his brother-in-law, Jo.sejih Kiss, the
well-known writer of ballads, he early began to
develop his talent for belles-lettres, and to-day en-
joys a wide celebrity in Hungarian literature. His
novels and romances — all satires upon present social
conditions — are extensively read.
s. L. V.
HERMANN, FRANCO. See Fr.\nco Ber-
man n.
HERMANN, ISSACHAR HA-LEVI : Phi-
lanthriipist ; lioiu at Ihilberstadt Nisaii 34. 1()61 ; died
there Tammuz 34, 1730; son of Judah Lelimann. At
an early age he displayed great comiiu'rcial enter-
prise. He afterward went to Hanover, and there
became a.ssociated with the chief court agent Liep-
mann, who, appreciating Bermann's abilities and
integrity, gave him liis confidence. In this way
Bermann had access to many jirinces, and several of
them, such as those of Dessau, of Brunswick, and of
Saxonj% soon addi'essed themselves directly to him
in their financial transactions. Bermann was in es-
pecial favor with Friedrich Augustus II., elector of
Saxony and, later, king of Poland, to whom he ren-
dered many services in the capacity of banker and
as diplomatic agent in Poland. For these .services
he was rewarded with the title of " Resident " of
Poland and Saxony, by which title he is mentioned
in the Polisli chronicles.
Bermann u.sed his prestige for the good of his
coreligionists; and his intervention with the Polish
lords saved many Jewish lives. The special protec-
tion that Halberstadt enjoyed during the reigns of
Freidiich I. and Friedrich Wilhelm I. was due to
Bermann's active infiuence. Generous by nature,
his delight was to protect Jewish learning ; an<l to
effect this he built a synagogue at Halberstadt,
where many Jewish scholars found sujiport, and
tlicir works were printed at his expense.
In 1696 Bermann obtained the permission of Fried-
rich Wilhelm to edit the Babylonian Talmud, copies
Bermann, Uoriz
Bernal, Isaac
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
86
of wbicli hail become very scarce. The expense of
this eilitiou (Frankfort-on-the-Ocler), amounting to
§50.000, was defrayed entirely by Bermann; and
most of the 5,000 copies printed were presented to
scholars.
BinLiiir.RAPHY : Auerbach, Gesch. der JMischcn Gemeinde
Halliastadt.pp.Uct seq.; Ha-Maggid. ii. To; Faena. Kcne-
«(■( nsrael. p. ISt. . _
G. I- ^f-
BERMANN. MORIZ (pseudonyms, Berthold
Mormanu, Moritz B. Zimmermann, Louis
MUhlfeld, and Julius Marlott) : Aiustriau au-
thor: l>oru at Vienna March 10. ISiS: died there
June 12. 1895, Bermann, who came of a family
of publishers, was educated for a musical career;
but after the death of his father he devoted himself
for a time to collecting autographs. He soon be-
came known as the owner of one of the finest bio-
eraphical libraries in Europe. Shortly after the
Hungarian Revolution he began (1851) what was
intended to be a twenty-volume work, "Oesterrei-
chisches Biographisches Le.xikon," etc.; but, owing
to the condition of unrest in Austria, it proceeded
no farther than the letter A,
On .Jan. 1, 1856, Bermann became editor of the
" Wiener Courier " and developed into a remarliably
prolific writer of sketches, historical novels, plays,
and even dance-music; writing under the pseudo-
nvms mentioned above. Among his works are:
"bunkle Geschichten," 1868; '-Maria Theresa und
der Schwarze Papst," 1870; "Das Schwarze Kabi-
net " ; " Schone Simderin '' ; " Die Kaisertochter als
Br.tute," 1890; and the historical comedies "Ein
Stundcheu auf der Karlsschule " and " Die Eutfiih-
rung aus dem Auge Gottes."
Bibliogr.xpht: Das GeiMige Wien. pp. .32,33: Wurzbacl),
Biogr. Lexikon dcg Kaiscrthums Ocsterriich, i, 3i!-:333,
S. E, Ms.
BERN : Capital of the Swiss Confederation.
Jews resided within its territory as early as the sixth
century, but the first documentary evidence of Jew-
ish iuhabitautsin Bern is for the year 1 ■259, Though
luider the protection of the city, with the emperor
as their real liege lord, they were usually in an un-
protected state. In the separate Jews' street in
which they lived, near the present Casino, was also
their cemetery, which, after their expulsion iu 1394,
became private property ; and in the " luselgasse " —
as the Jews' street was called after the convent built
by the "Inselsch western" — there was found iu 1888,
wlien the " luselspital " was torn down, the tomb-
stone of a .Jew, dated 1293 (Studer, iu " Archiv des
Historischen Vereins des Ivautons Bern," iv. 1, 38:
iv. 2, 15; viii. 56, 212),
The Jews of Bern devoted themselves exclusively
to banking and pawnbroking. As in Basel and
Zuiich, the rate of interest fixed by the goverumeut
was 43j, two pennies per week in the
.Tews pound; later it was reduced to 30'?.
Bankers All classes — the clergy and the nobles,
and Pawn- the burghers and the peasants, as
brokers. well as the convents and the towns —
regarded the .Tews as their brokers;
and iu order to protect the Christians, the city coun-
cil decreed, at Easter in 12SB, that the term set for
repayment should be limited to one year. Through
their money transitetious the Jews earned the hatred
of the populace, and as the citizens of Bern were
deeply iu debt to the Jews and, through various cir-
cumstances, were reduced to financial straits, they
cast about, shortly after the death of Emperor Ru-
dolf, for means of acquittal.
A pretext for action against the Jews was soon
found. In 1294 they were accused of having kid-
najjed and killed a boy named Rudolf (Ruff). This
accusation, which was also made at about the same
time against the Jews of Colniar and >[ayence, suf-
ficed to start a persecution. The Jew Joel (FiJli),
who was regarded as the real offender.
The Jews and all other Jews of Bern, women as
Tortured well as men, were seized and mal-
or treated, and either tortured or driven
Expelled, from the town. This event has been
wrongly assigned to the year 1287,
diuing the reign of Emperor Rudolf (Stettler,
"Schweizer Chrouik," i. 20; Justinger, "Berner
Chronik," pp. 38 et seq.; Ulrich, "Schweizer Ge-
schichten," pp, 144 et seq. ; '" 'Emek ha-Baka," p. 56;
Zunz, "S. P." p. 33, etc.; compare "Annalcs Col-
niariens." 28, for the year 1294: "Judan Bernenses
Puerum nt Dixeruut Occidenmt " ; Tillier, " Gesch.
des Freistaates Bern," i. 72; on the murder of the
Ijoy Rudolf, see Stammler, in " Katholische Schweiz-
erblatter," 1888).
King Adolf, perhaps appealed to by the Jews
themselves, appointed a commission to iuvestiL:
the matter, cotuposed of the liishop Peter of Ba-
the knight Gottfried von Merenberi:.
Their governor of the realm in Burgundy ,
Claims Cuno von Berglieim, and Hart maun
Forfeited, von Ratzenhausen. This commissiou
decided. June 30. 1294, that the Je« -,
male and female, should f<irfeit all their claims
against the mayor, the council, the community, ami
every one living iu Bern up to the time of the de-
cree; that they should give up all their securi;
and pledges; and that, iu addition, they should p _
to the couuuunity one thousand marks in silver, and
to the mayor of Bern live hundred marks iu silver
— according to the standard of weight in Bern. King
Adolf confirmed this enactment Aug. 1, 1294, in
Frankfort-ou-the-Main. The Jews assigned to the
mayor iu payment of his share their claims against
the Knights of St, John, the monastery of luterlaken,
Ulrich von Thor, and others, A characteristic ex-
pression is found in the receipt of the mayor, Jak' 'li
von Kienl>erg: "Pro occasione pueri, videlicet b.
Rudolfi quem dicti Judei, ut dicitur, occiserunt "
The .same cautious pliraseology, "ut dicitur, " was
employed by King Albrecht six years later, when In
confirmed the decree. April 29. 1800 ("Solothunii i
Wocheublatt," 1828, pp. 192 et seq.). The Bern. -
immediately attached the property of the Jews. A
woman, Berchta von Hiibstetten, was forced to give
up a chest filled with gold, silver, ornaments, veils,
etc., that had been confided to her by the Jew Vivi
iin and his partner (document of Aug, 14, 1294,
•'Monatsschrift," xiii. 49 it scq. ; Stohlie. "Die Judeu
in Deutschland," p. 283, which reads "1494" instead
of "1294," and "Bertha" instead of "Berchta").
E.xpelled from Bern, the Jews returned befor.'
the middle of the fourteenth century ; and wlieu tli.-
87
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berznann, Moriz
Bernal, Isaac
Black Death swept the country iu 1349, the people
of Bern aud of Zotingen gained the questionable
reputation of fanning everywhere the
Persecu- hatred against the Jews, burning or
tion banishing them and destroying evi-
Benewed. dences of indebtedness to them, as at
the former persecution.
Twenty -five years later there were again Jews at
Bern. In 1379 Master Isaac von Tanne, who lived
thei-e, loaned to the city of Freiburg 1,470 gold
gulden. This "modest man," probably from Thann
iu Alsace, was, like Master Mathys Eberlin and his
wife, Esther Merliuou, a money-lender.
At the end of the fourteenth century the Bernese
showed a positively friendly feeling for the Jews,
not only permitting them, for linaucial reasons, to
settle in Bern, but naturalizing them for periods of
si.x years, iu consideration of a J'carly tax of si.xty
schiltfrankeu iu gold. The}- were not
Natural- restricted in their worship; on their
ized and festival days the}- were not to be called
Patronized, into court ; matters of dispute among
themselves could either be decided
according to Jewish law or be brought before tlie
Bernese courts; butchers were enjoined to sell the
meat killed according to Jewish ordinance, at the
same jirice as other meat. About this time Chris-
tians also engaged in the money-lending business
iu rivalry with the Jew-s.
As soon as the Bernese were easier financialh', the
old hatred against the Jews revived, stimulated
by Justiuger, author of a Bernese chronicle, who
was also a notary public, and as such carried on
money transactions. His proposition to exjiel the
Jews found no lack of supjiort, for
Banished. " the Council and the Two Hundred of
tlie City " decided unanimously. Jlay
10. 1427, to drive the Jews forever from thecitj- and
the couutr}'. This decision was carried into effect,
aud matters continued thus for several hundred j-ears.
Not until about 1820 did Jew-s again settle at
Bern, and coming, as they did, main!}- from Al.sace
as French citizens, they were given
Beadmis- alisolute religious freedom. In 1S6.5
sion and Bern had twenty-seven Jewish fami-
Freedom. lies, which, having had a synagogue
since 185.5, formed themselves into an
association for worship ("Cultusverein"). In 1875
the community numbered 286 persons; in 1897. 348.
It had a religious teacher, a burial society (hebrah
Ijaddishah), and a fund for sick women. The canton
of Bern had iu 1874 1,000 Jews; in 1897, 1.195. The
University of Bern was the first to appoint Jews as
pi'otessors. The well-known physiologist, G. Val-
entin, who was the first Jew to be naturalized, oli-
tained a position there as early as 1835. Later on
the university numbered among its professors Laza-
riLs, Munk, the two Schiffs, Ludwig Stein, aud
others. In the federal offices J, Dreifus of En-
diugen occupied, in 1901, a most respected position.
BlB1.10GR,\PIIY: Kopp. Gexrli. ihr Kiilrifnnssixi-lini Iiili}'h\
ill. 1, IW; Tolilcr. /.ur lirxih. ilerJuih ii iiii All in Ihrii. in
Arelih' dtx llialiirisrlirii Vcri'inx, xll. S3ii cl mi;.; KaysiT-
line. Die Juilen in Bern, in Monatfschrift, .xiii. 4ti f( .so/.;
Sliitulin (Irs (^nllusvereins clcr IsracUteti in dcr StcuU
Jiiin, Bern, 18tj5.
G. M. K.
BERN.MAXIMILIAN: German author :
born at Kherson, South Russia, Nov. 18, 1849, where
his father practised medicine. On the hitter's death
Bern and liis mother went to Vienna that he might
complete liis education. The loss of liis fortune
forced him to abandon his studies at the university,
and in 1873 he became private tutor to the appren-
tices at an equestrian school.
Bern soon tired of this occupation aud turned to
literatui'e for a livelihood. His fir.st novel, "Auf
Schwankem Gruude, " met with considerable suc-
cess, though in this, as in fact in most of his wri-
tings, Bei'u is inclined to the gloomy desi)air of the
majority of Slavonic w-riters. The success of liis
first novel enabled him to visit Berlin, Hamburg,
Leipsic, Dresden, Fi-ankfort, and Jlunich. at all of
which places he studied assiduously. In 1886 ho
went to Paris, and a year later married a young
Austrian acti-ess, Olga Wohlbriick. In 1888 he
settled in Berlin. Bern is the author of : "Gestriipp,"
1876; "Deutsche Lyrik seit Giithe's Tode." 1877;
"Meine Geschiedene Frau," 1878; "Sich Selbst im
Wege." a sketch of stage-life, 1877; "Eiu Stummer
^Musikant," 1879; "Liliput." 1879; "Anthologie fiir
die KinderstuVie," 1879 ; " Illustrirter Hausschatz fUr
die Jugend," 1880; "Aus der Gesellschaft," an al-
manac," 1881-82; "Am Eigeneu Hei-d." 1886; "De-
klamatorium." anthology, 1887; " LustigeSlimdeu,"
1887; "Himmelaul" 1889; "Christlieiies Gedeuk-
buch," 1893; " Evangelisches Deklamatorium." 1895.
Bibliography: Das Gcistigc Berlin, pp. 21,22; Kiii'schner,
Deutscher Literatur-Kaleuder, p. 89.
s. E. Ms.
BEBN, OLGA i/n'r Wohlbriick): Austrian
author; wife of Maximiliau Bern; born at Vienna
July 5, 1865. She went on the stage under her own
name, Wohlbriick, and while at the Odeon, Paris,
in 1887, married the German auth(5r Bern. She
abandoned the stage for literature iu 1888. She is the
author of "Aus Drei Liimlern." 1890, short stories;
"ruausloschlich und Andere Novellen." 1S92; "Car-
rifere." 1892; "Gliick," short stories, 1893; "Das
Kecht auf Gliick, " a drama, 1893 ; aud " Vater Chaim
und Pater Benediktus," a novel.
Bibliography : Das Geistiye neilin. pp. 22,2:i.
s. E. Ms.
BEBIiAL, ABRAHAM NUNEZ: Siianish
martyr; burned at the stake by the Imiuisiiion of
Cordova May 3. 1655. His martyrdom is ci'lcbrated
in a work published by Jacob Beriial (Amsterdam,
16.55). entitled "Elogios que Zelozos Dedicaron a la
Felice Menioria de Abraham Nunez Bernal que fue
Quemado Vivo, Santifieando el Nombre de su Cria-
dor," etc., and dedicated to Senor Elian Nunez Ber-
nal. The work contains, among other items, a ser-
mon in Beriial's honor iireached liy Isaac Aboab. and
poems bv Daniel a Ribera. Eliakim Castriel, Joseph
Frances "of Hamburg, .Tonali Abravanel. Samuel de
Castro, and Jacob de Pina.
Biblioc;raphy: Zunz, .s. P. p. ati: KayserlinB. .<!(•))'""•<*"'>.
|)p. am. 354: idem, Bihlinteca E^pan.-Puil.-Judaiea. pp.
G.
BERNAL, ISAAC (MARCUS) DE AL-
MEYDA: Spaiiislj martyr ; lioru iu Moutilla 1633;
burned at the stake in St. lago de Compostclla
Bernal, Uaestro
Bernardiuus of Feltre
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
88
(Galicia. Spain), in the month of March. 1655. at the
age of twenty-two. He was a nephew of Abraham
Nunez Berxal. AVhen only seventeen (1650) he
had been thrown into the prison of the Inquisition
at Vallatiolid. Daniel Levi de Barrios mentions
Bernal in his "Goviemo Popular Judayco" as a rela-
tive. In the volume entitled "Elogios" (see Abra-
ham Nunez Bernal) there is a " Kelacion del felice
martirio del invicto Ishack de Almeida Bernal que
murio vivo en fuego siiutificando el nombre del
Senor . . . " : as well as poems in honor of Bernal
by Daniel a Ribera, Jonah Abravauel. Jacob de
Pina. Samuel de Castro, Abraham Castanho, Isaac
Israel. Daniel Arango, and a sermon by Jacob
Abendana.
D. G.
BEKNAL, MAESTRO : A :Marano. ship-phy-
sician on the tirst voyage of Columbus to America.
He had lived in Tortosa and had undergone public
penance in October, 1490. as an adherent of Juda-
ism. Columbus, by his arrogant conduct, aroused
the enmity of the physician, who instigated a con-
spiracy against the admiral in Jamaica which seri-
ously affected his destiny.
Bibliography: M. KayserlinE, Chrlstnphcr Culumbm, pji. 90,
133, New York, 18W; see also AMERICA, The Discovert bF.
G. A.
BERNAL, RALPH: Politician and art-col-
lector; died iu 1S54. His ancestors were of Spanish-
Jewish origin. His father was Jacob Israel Ber-
nal, a West-Indian merchant, who in 17-14 refused
the office of giibny (treasurer) of the Portuguese con-
gregation because he decided to marry Josebeth
Baruh. a "Tudesca" or German Jewess, which he
was only allowed to do under humiliating conditions
(Picciotto. "Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History," p.
167). Ralph was entered at Christ's College. Cam-
bridge, where he took his degrees of B.A. and M.A.
in 1806 and 1809 respectively." In 1810 he was called
to the bar as a member of Lincoln's Inn, but inherit-
ing extensive property in the West Indies, he pre-
ferred a iiarliaincutaiy to a legal life. For thirty-
four years (1818-52) he had a seat in the House of
Commons, where he represented the city of London
from 1818 to 18':20. and Rochester from i8'30 to 1841.
During that period he spent £66.000 in election con-
tests. In the latter year he contested the constitu-
ency of Weymouth, and was seated on petition.
After representing that borough from 1&41 till 1847,
he returned to Rochester, continuing to sit for it
until his retirement from political life in 18.52. Ilis
parliamentary career was uneventful, although
throughout he was prominent in the rjtnks of the
Whigs, and from 1830 till 1850 acted as chairman
of committees. Though brought up as a Christian,
he recognized the claims of his Jewish ancestrj- by
supporting the bills for the removal of Jewish dis-
abilities, introduced while he was in the House. He
was known in his day chiefly as an art -collector in
antique china and plate; and at his death an at-
tempt was made to secure his collection for the na-
tion, but it was imsuccessful. and the collection was
sold in 1855. Two catalogues of his works of art
were issued. He was twice married, and had issue by
both wives.
Bibliography: Diet. yat. DifO-: Sir H. Cole, Biographu;
Picciotto, Sketches uf Auglij-JewMi Histoni, PP. 2S!>-291:
Gentleman's ilagazine, ISSJ and 1854.
J. G. L.
BERNARD, ABRAHAM: Russian physician ;
born in 1702. He studied at London in 1789;
practised medicine in Hasenpoth, Courland. Russia;
became district physician in Shawli, government
of Wilna ; was subsequently appointed inspector of
various military hospitals in Lithuania ; and in 1809
was made chief surgeon of the hospital of Slonim.
He also received the title of court councilor; prac-
tised at Jlitau in 1810-11; and then settled in Mos-
cow. He has published : " Griinde f lir die Inokula-
tion; dem Lithauischen Landvolke Gewidmet,"
Mitau. 1799; " Observations sur I'Enterrement Pre-
mature des Juifs," Mitau. 1799; and a German trans-
lation of this last, under the title "Bemerkungen
iiber das Friihe Beerdigen der Jlidischen Leichen,"
Mitau, 1802: " Medicinisch-Chirurgische Beobacht-
ungeu in den Kriegshospitalern zu Kobrin und
Slonim Gesanimelt." n. d. ; and " Behandlung eines
Epidemischen Wurmlicbers, das im Jahr 1796 in
Kurland Herrschtc," in Hufeland's "Journal fttr
Praktische Arzneikunde," 1797, iv. 4, Ko. 5.
Bibliography : Eecke and NapiersH, AVgcmeinrs Sehrift-
steller uud Gelehrtcn-Lcxihun tier Pnivimeti Liev-, Esth-
und Kurland, vol. i., s.c, Mitau, 1827 ; R. Wimderbar, Gesch.
der Jtiden in den Provimen Liv- und Kurland. pp. 66-
67 ; ib. 18.53, where " Bernard " is (tiven as " Bemliard."
H. R.
BERNARD OF CLAIRVATTX (generally
known as St. Bernard) : Church father; born 1091,
near Dijon. France; died at Clairvaux Aug. 20,
1153. He was originally a monk of the Cistercian
order at Citeaux ; but, on being appointed abbot
of Clairvaux, he founded a branch order known by
his name, 160 monasteries of which came into exist-
ence during his life. He vigorously opposed Abe-
lard in 1140, as well as the introduction of the dogma
of the immaculate conception.
St. Bernard is distinguished for his activity in
forming the second crusade in 1145-46, during which
he traveled through France and Germany, preach-
ing the crusade. One of the consequences of this
was a succession of massacres of the Jews through-
out the Rhine valley. This called forth an energetic
protest by St. Bernard, which was sent to England,
eastern France, and Germany (Bouquet, "Recueil,"
XV. 606). In this letter he laid down the general
lines of policy with regard to the Jews by which
the Roman Catholic Church has since been guided;
and his arguments are those generally given, though
without his name, in more recent pronouncement^
According to St. Bernard. Jews are not to be dis-
turbed or destroyed, because they are living symbols
of the Passion ; for which they are to be punished
mainly by dispersion, so that they shall be witnesses.
But they will ultimately be converted. How can
this be if they are ground down? At the same time
St. Bernard approves of the papal policy which de-
clares that all usury on debts due by Crusader-
shall lapse during their absence in the Holy Land.
Bibliography : Neander. Der Hei'liyc Bernhard und Sein
Zeitaller, Berlin, 1813; Cotter Morrison, Life and Timfs of
St. Bcrna rd. London, 18»>3 : literature cited in Herzog-
Hauei's Rcal-Encu. u. 623; Gratz, Geschichte, vi. 148, 151,
G. J.
89
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernal, Maestro
Bernardinus of Feltre
BEBXABD (also Domeier), ESTHER (nee
Gad) : German poetess ami authoress; born at Bres-
lau, Silesia, about 1T70; died about 1814, On her
mother's side Bernard was a granddaughter of Jona-
than EybeschtUz, the famous rabbi of Prague and
Hamburg.
At the age of about twenty she was married to
a certain Bernard, with whom she removed to Berlin.
She preferred the latter plaee to Breslau for the
reason she herself gave in a letter to Jean Paul Rich-
ter in the following words: "Dortwird man iiber
den Menschen nie den Juden vergessen ; und besttsse
ich die grijssteu Verdienste, so wurde ich doch in
Eure bessereu Zirkel nicht aufgenommen werden "
(There [in Breslau] the Jew is never forgotten in the
man, and were I to possess the highest merit, I
should never be admitted to j'our higher circles). Her
marriage with Bernard must have been unhappy, for
after a few years she obtained a divorce and married
Dr. Domeier of London, with whom she went to live
in Malta.
Even in lier girlhood Esther Bernard showed great
talent for poetry and literature. Before her mar-
riage to Bernard she contributed many poems to
"Plumken's JIagazin" and Rausch's "Unterhalt-
ungen." To the latter she contributed also a short
story in English, "Marcus and Monima," 179.5.
While the wife of Bernard she wrote "Beschreil)ung
einer Wasserreise von Aussig Nach Dresden " (in
"Deut,sche Monatsschrift ") ; "Eine Nachricht iiber
das Drcsdener Museum " (in " Archi v der Zeit, " Nov. ,
1799, p. 445). Shewasalsoacontril)utorto"DerCos-
mopolit" (June, 1795, pp. 577-599), and "Backer's
Erzithlungen " (1798, iv. 372) for which she wrote
some poems. "Backer's Almanach " for 1800 con-
tains two poems by Bernard, one of which has been
set to music by Ncuman, "Ueber Schiller's Picco-
lomiui," in "Merkwurdigkeiten der Mark Branden-
burg," March, 1800, p. 383.
In Berlin, Bernard made the acquaintance of Com-
te.sse de Genlis, the authoress of " Les Meres Ri vales, "
whicli she translated into German under the title
"Die Beiden Mutter," 2 vols., 1800.
After her marriage to Dr. Domeier she wrote
"GesammelteBliltter,"Leipsic, 1805; "BriefeWiih-
rend Meines Aufenthaltes in England und Portu-
gal," 2 vols., Hamburg, 1803; "Kritische Ausein-
andersetzungen Mehrerer Stellen in dem Buclie
der Frau von StaSl iiber Deutschland," Hanover,
1814.
At the erection of the AVilhelmsschuIe in Breslau, in
1791, for the instruction of Hebrew children, Esther
Bernard celebrated the event in a poem in which she
hailed the dawning of an era of freedom and equal-
ity for the Jews of Silesia.
Bibliography: Sulamilh. v. 2.i2-2.W, 2.S.5 ; Sehummel's Brr.'i-
louer Almanach, 1., 18U1; Kayser's BUcher Lcxiknn, i. l^.'j,
li.B4.
s. S. R.
BERNARD OF GORDON : Christian physi-
ciiin ; born probably at Gordon in Guienne, depart-
ment of Lot, France; professor of medicine at Jlont-
pellier about the year 1300. His " Lilium Medicina- "
was much read by Jews, and several Hebrew trans-
lations of it are extant ; e.g., that by Jekuthiel b.
Solomon (Maestro Bonsenior) of Narbonne in 1387
(nXlDin It'lB'); and another by Moses ben Samuel
of Koquemaure (Gard), 1360 (riNIDin mS).
BiELiOciEAPiiy : Slfinschnelder, Hchr. Ucben. p. 785; Renan-
Neubauer, EcrieahisJuifs, p. 386.
G- M. S.
BERNARD, HERMANN : Teacher of Hebrew
in the University of Cambridge, England; born of
Austrian parents at Uman, or Human, a small town
in southern Russia (at that time Poland), in the year
1785. His father being a converted Jew, he was
brought up as a Christian. He went to England in
1835; settled in C'ambridge as a private teacher in
1830 ; and was appointed " Praiceptor Lingua Sacra; "
in the university on Oct. 18, 1837, succeeding Josc-
phus Crool. He died at Cambridge, aged seventj'-
two, on Nov. 15, 1857, after teaching there with
marked success for twenty-seven years.
Bernard published the following works: "The
Creed and Ethics of the Jews E.xhibited in Selec-
tions from the Yad ha-Hazakah of Maimonides"'
(1833); and "Ha-Menahel" (The Guide of tlie He-
brew Student), 1839. During Bernard's blindness
in 1853 appeared "Me Meuuhot" (Still Waters), an
easy, practical Hebrew grammar, in two volumes,
by the Rev. P. H. Mason (afterward fellow and pres-
ident of St. John's College) and Hermann Ber-
nard. Bernard's lectures on the Book of Job, edited
by his former pupil, Frank Chance (afterward a
member of the Old Testament Revision Committee),
appeared in one volume in 18(>4, but the editor's
promised appendix was never published.
J. C. T.
BERNARDINTJS OF FELTRE: Franciscan
friar; bnru at Feltre, Italy, in 14:i9; died Sept. 28,
1494. He was one of the bitterest enemies the .Tews
ever had, and openly advocated their utter exter-
mination. He traveled throughout Italy preaching
a crusade against them, the burden of his sermons
being: "Let Christian parents keep a watchful eye
on their children, lest the Jews steal, ill-treat, or
crucify them." As a worthy disciple of Capistrano,
whom he held up as the type and moilel of a true
Christian, he knew that his eloquence
His woulil be of no avail among the aris-
Preaching. tocracy, the members of which, guided
by their interests, iirotected the Jews.
He therefore endeavored to inllame the lower classes
and to arouse the ill-will of the populace against the
Jews.
Because certain Jewish capitjilists had been suc-
cessful, he depicted all Jews as vampires and extor-
tioners. In his sermons he was wont to say: "I,
who live on alms and eat the liread of the poor, shall
I be a dumb dog and not howl when I see the Jews
wringing their wealth from Christian poverty'? Yea!
shall I not cry aloud for Christ's sake'? "
These sermons bore fruit. At Ravenna Bernardi-
nus incited the populace to such a degree that he
was enabled to ex]iel the Jews with violence and to
send deputies to Venice to solicit a legal sanction for
the expulsion. The authorities of Florence were
constrained to order Bernardinus to quit the coun-
try, so that a rising which was imminent might be
prevented (1487). At Campo San Pietro Bernardi-
nus expelled a Jewish pawnbroker and established
a gratuitous pawnbroking institution.
Bernardinus of Feltre
Bernays, Jacob
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
90
All Jewish occupations and enterprises were
equally tlie obiects of Bernanlinus' reprobation. The
inhabitants of Sienna engaged a Jewish physician.
Beruardiiuis delivered a series of sermons in which
he reiirochiced all the idle tales spread among the
people respecting the hatred that the Jews nourished
toward Christians. He related that a Jewish pliysi-
cian of Avignon on his death-bed recalled with
delight the fact of having killed thousands of Chris-
tians through his drugs. The consequence of these
sermons was that the lower classes and tlie women
abstained from liaving recourse to the Jewish physi-
cian.
These partial successes notwithstanding, the ef-
forts of Bernardinus mostly failed of effect. The
Italian pi'ople were actuated by good common sense,
and the authorities sorel}' hindered Bernardinus in
his Jew-baiting. It was in the Tyrol that he suc-
ceeded in bringing about a bloody persecution.
^\'hile Bernardinus preached in the city of Trent,
some Christians called him to accoimt for his hatred
of Jews, remarking that the Jews of Trent were
worthy jieople. "Ye know not." replied the monk,
"what niisfortime these folks will bring upon you.
Before Easter Sunday is past they will give you a
proof of their extraordinary goodness." Chance
favored him with a good opportunity.
During Holy Week of the year 147.5 a Christian
child named Simon, who was three years old, was
drowned in the Adige, and his body
Simon was caught in a grating near the house
of Trent, of a Jew. The Jew gave notice of
this occurrence to Bishop Hinderbach.
The body was removed to the church and exhiljited,
and Bernardinus and other hostile jiriests raised an
ontcry against the Jews, .saying that they had put
the child to torture and then slain him and thing
him into the water. The bishop ordered the impris-
onment of all the Jews, who, with one exception,
when subjected to torture confessed. Thereupon
all the Jews of Trent were burned, and it was deter-
mined that thereafter no Jew should settle in the
city (see Simon of Tkent).
Bernardinus endeavored to make use of tins occur-
rence to bring about the ruin of the Jews. At his
instigation the corpse was embalmed, andcommendid
to the people as a sacred relic. Pilgrimages to the
remains were made by thousands of ])ersons, and be-
fore many days several of them claimed they had
seen a halo about the body. This new miracle was
announced from every chancel, and fomented the
excitement of the rabble against the Jews to such a
degree that even in Italy they dared not go outside
the towns, in spite of all that the doge and the
Senate of Venice as well as Pope Sixtus did to stem
the tide of hatred. Gregory XIII. canonized both
— Bei'nardinus as a prophet, and Simon as a martyr.
nini.ioRRAPHY: Adn Sianctnrum. vll. 28 Sept.; Berne Ori-
entate, ii. 40, 41 ; Criitz, (lescli. (ter Juilen, viii, 2.'» et »eq.
o. I. Bit.
BERNAYS, ISAAC (known as Hakam Ber-
nays) : Chief rabbi in Hamburg: born 17t»2 at Ma-
yenee; died Mux 1, 184!), in llambuig. Aflerhaving
finished his studies at the University of Wi'irzburg,
in which city he had been also a disciple of the well-
known Taliuudist R. Abraham Bino, he went tn
Munich as private tutor in the house of Herr von
Ilirseh, and afterward lived at Mayence as a private
scholar. In 1821 he was elected chief rabbi of the
German-Jewish community in Hamburg, to till a
position where a man of strictly Orthodox views but
of modern education was wanted as head of the con-
gregation. After personal negotiations with Lazarus
Rie.sser (father of Gabriel Riesskis), who went to see
him in Mayence, Beruays accepted the office on
characteristic tenus; naniel.v, that all the religious
and educational institutions of the community were
to be placed imder his personal direction ; he wanted
to be responsible to the government oulj-. Besides
this he required a fixed salaty, inde|iendent of inci-
dental revenues, and wished to be called "clerical
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Isaac Bemays.
functionary "or "hakam," as the usual titles, "moreh |
zedek" or "rabbi "did not seem to him highly es-
teemed at that time.
In 11-122 he began the reform of the Talmud Torah
school, where the poorer children of the communiiy
had till then been taught Ilelirew and arithmetic.
He added lessons in German, natural science, geog-
raphy, and history as iiuportant parts of the curric-
ulum, and by l.S2~ what had formerly been merely
a religious class had been changed toagood elemen-
tary public school, which could well prepare il-
jnipils for life. In spite of this great progress the
council of the community wanted to take a greater
]iart in the supervision of the ccnu'.se of instruction,
and in consequence of differences with the hakam
resulting from tlie.se claims, they withdrew the sub-
vention of the school in 1830; but through the inter-
vention of the senate of Hamburg this was again
granted in 1833, though Bernays was denied the
presidential seat he had till then (iccujued in the
council of the school and was made instead "epho-
rus" of the school. In 1849 he died suddenly of
apoplexy, and was buried in the Grindol cemetery.
91
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernardinus of Feltre
Bernays, Jacob
Bernays possessed wide philosophical views, a
rare knowledge of the Bible, Midrash. and Talmud,
and an admirable flow of language: he was indeed a
boin orator. He was the first Orthodo.x German
rabbi who introduced the German sermon into the
ser\ice. and wlio tried to interpret the old Jewish
feeling in modern form and to preserve the ancestral
creed even in cultured circles. His antagonists were
tlierefore to be found in the ranks of the ascetic
fanatics of the "klaus" as well as among the adher-
ents of the "Temple," a reform synagogue founded
in 1819, against whose prayer-book Bernays had
pronounced an anathema. B}' lectures on the
Psalms, on Judah ha Levi's "Cuzari." etc., he tried
to strengthen and to deepen the religious life of the
community, the institutions of which he supervised
very carefully. His influence is still felt in the
Hamburg community, where Jewish traditions and
the study of Jewish literature are often found united
with modern education.
Bernays left no literary works. A small anony-
mous essay, "Der Bibelscbe Orient" — of great lin-
guistic learning and original and wide historical
views on Judaism — was supposed to have been
wiitten b_v him in earlj- j'ears: l)ut he denied the
authorshi)). and never in later life showed any con-
formity with the views of the little book. Of his
sous the ci'lebrated philologist Jacob Bernays, pro-
fessor and chief librarian at the University of Bonn,
kept faithful to the religious views of liis fatlier.
while the well-known literary historian Michael
Bernays. who was only fourteen years old on his
father's death, was converted to Christianitv- Ber-
nays' best pupil was Samson Raphael Hiitscii, the
well-known leader of modern Orthodoxy.
Bnu.ro(;H.vpnv : Hiiarbleicher. Zirt'i Kpnchrn aus der Ge~
scJiklilr lUr Lhutsvli-l!<ritditisclien Gemeiude zu Hamlntrg.
Hanihurc, 18U7: T. Uoldselimidt, The Talmud Torah School
I'lidei- the Chacham Bernaus (inedlted).
I). A. Fe.
BERNAYS, JACOB : German philologist ; born
at Hamliuig Sept. 18, 1824; died at Bonn May 26,
1881. He was the eldest son of the hakam Isaac
Bernays, who carefully guided his elementary edu-
cation until he was sent, in 1844, to Bonn to attend
the university. There he studi<'d philology under
G. 'Welcker and F. Ritschl, becoming particularly
attached to the latter. His philosophical studies he
pursued under Brandis. It was during his four
years' career at the universitj' that in competition
foragold prize he stibmitted a treatise on Lucretius,
which won for him not only the juize. but also the
ailiniration of Ritschl, who strongly advised him to
devote him.self to a professional career. The work
was afterward published under the title " Die Aus-
gabedes Lucretius" (Leipsic, 18.')2). Bernays grad-
uated in 1848, and in the same year issued his " Her-
aclitea" (Bonn, 1848). In the following year he
lieearuc privat-docent at his alma mater, and in the
same year published at Bonn his "Florilegium
Renaseentes Latinitatis." He was also engaged
in editorial work on the " Rheinische Museum."
fotmded by Niebuhr, and conducted by Welcker
and Ritschl.
The serious work of organizing the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary at Breslau, the funds for the
establishment of which had been provided by Jonas
Friinkel, was actively begun in 1853, and the work
was practically of a pioneer nature. Bernays was
among the first to be called upon to
Organizes be associated with Zacharias Frankel.
Jewish Graetz. and Jofl in this task of out-
Theo- lining the plan and method of study
log'ical to be pursued in the new seat of learn-
Semiuary. ing, where rabbis were to be trained
in accordance with the scientific edu-
cational ideas of the time, instead of with the anti-
quated methods of they eshibah. Bernays was indeed
peculiarly fitted to cooperate in such an un<lertaUing ;
for, besides his profound classical learning and his
university experience, he was a thorough Hebrew
•scholar and, moreover, was intensely Jewish in
thought, feeling, and mode of life.
When the seminary was opened (Aug. 10, 18.')4)
Bernays began his actual teaching; his subjects
including not only regular cour.ses in Greek and
Latin, but sjiecial cour.ses as well in the history of
German literature, history of Hebrew poetry, the phi-
losophy of religion, ilbistrated by the "Cuzari" and
" Moreli Nebukim." In addition he condncted ex-
ercises in German style. The annual rejiorts of the
seminar}- were enriched each year with some treatise
prepared by one or another of those connected with
the institution. Bernaj's contributed three of these
during the twelve years of his association with the
faculty: "Uelier das Phokylidische GedichI " (Ber-
lin, 18.")6): "Die Chronik des Sulpicius Severus "
(Berlin, 1801); and "Theophrastos' Schrift Uber
Friinunigkeit" (Berlin, 1866). These were after-
ward published separately.
Bernays' activity during his sojourn at Breslau
was not. however, confined to his work at the semi-
nary, as he had at once connected himself with the
University of Breslau as privat-docent with re-
markable success. As a consequence his genenil
literary productiveness was considerable and note-
worthy. In 1855 there appeared in Berlin " Die
Lebensbeschreibung des Joscjih J. Scali.irer. " Two
j'cars later was produced the work tipon which,
jirobably more than on any other one
His I if his writings, his claim upon the
Activity at notice of scholarly posterity will have
Breslau. to rest, "Grundzi'ige der Yerlorenen
Abhaudlung des Aristoteles i'lber die
Wirkung der Tragodie " (Breslau. 1857). As late as
1882. in his report on the Aristotelian literature in
the" Jahresberiditf i'lr die Alt ert hums- Wisscnschaft."
Dr. Su.s<'milil of Greifswald speaks of the deluge of
writings called forth by tlu' "GrundzUge" as not
having even then s\ibsided. Another contribution
to Aristotelian literature by Bernays during this
period is "Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im Verlulltuiss
zu Seinen Uebrigen Werkeu " (Berlin. 186:)).
From his alma mater there came at last the recog-
nitiiin that was his due. Ritschl left his iinsition at
Bonn University in 1866; ami the call
Called to was sent to Bernays to fill the place
Bonn of assistant profes.sor an<l chief libra-
University, rian. With the greater responsibilities
now thrust upon him, however, he
still fotmd time for the iiroductiou of some of
the best and most scholarly of his writings. "Die
Ileraklitischen Briefe " was published at Berlin in
Bernays, Michael
Bernhardt, Martin
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
92
1869. In 18T2 appeared his " Uebersetzung der Drei
Ersten BiUher von Aristoteles' ' Politik." " "Ucber
die unter Philo's AVerken Stehende Scliiift: ' Uebcr
die Unzerstorbarkeit des Weltalls ' " was issued in
1876, and "Liiciau iiud die Cyuiker" in 1879. In
1880 there appeared "Zwei Abhaiullungeu liber die
Aristoteliseho Theorie des Dramas," whicli is a
republication of the "Grundziige" of 1857 and tlie
"Ergiiiizinitren zu Aristoteles' Poetik." His last
work was " Phokiou und Seine Neuern Beurteiler"
(Berlin. 1.S><1).
Suddenly, amid this congenial activity, Bernays
was stricken with sickness, which very soon and
unexpectedly en<led fatally. He was but liftysevcn
years of age: and the grief felt at bis early demise
was profound and wide-spread, alike among profes-
sors and students and his coreligionists. Though
fifteen years away from the Jewish Seminary at
Breslau. he still remained devoted to it. and be-
queathed to it his Hebrew library.
Bernays' collected writings, edited by Usener,
were published in two volumes, Berlin, 1885.
Bibliography: Brockliaiis, ConvcrfatUnis-Lcxikoju s.v.
s. M. Co.
BERNAYS. MICHAEL : German historian' of
literature; born at Hamburg Xov. 27. 1834; died at
Carlsruhe Feb. 25. 1897; sou of Hakam and brother
of Jacob Bernays. He attended the Johanneum in
his native city, where, principally under tlie guid-
ance of Adolph Kraft, he devoted himself to the
study of the classics. In a performance of "Antigo-
ne." arranged at the gymnasium by Topfer. Ber-
nays apjieaied as Kreoi). and is said already at this
time to have excited admiration by the originality
of conception revealed in his rendering of the lines.
A few months later he entered the University of
Bonn, where at first he devoted himself to the study
of law. but soon abandoned it for that of classical
philology, which, notwithstanding many unfavora-
ble external circumstances, he thenceforth prose-
cuted with unflagging perseverance. After com-
pleting bis course at Bonn he went to Heidelberg,
where he became a pupil of Gervinus and Holtz-
mann. Shortly after his arrival there Bernays,
although then scarcely twenty-one years of age, lec-
tured ou Shakespeare before a literary student soci-
ety which ho had founded, and whose members had
bestowed upou him the title of " master." In 1855
he received his doctorate and prepared to qualify
himself for a professorship, while at the same time
prosecuting his manifold literary labors.
In 1859 Bernays published a festival ]ilay for the
one hundredth anniversary of Schiller's birthday.
and in 1864 he composed verses on the
Literary tricentennial celebration of the birth
Labors. of Shakespeare. Shortly afterward
he wrote an explanatory text to Bee-
thoven's music to "Egmont," which was not only
frequently spoken, but produced so lasting an im-
pression that, thirty years later, the directors of the
Carlsruhe Theater ordered from Bernays a similar
prologue for Mozart's " I{e(|uiem." Despite these
occasional literary productions, however, Bernays
steadily pursued his studies; and he even refused
an offer from Treitschke to participate in the editor-
ship of the •• Preussische Jahrbucher." fearing that
the duties of such a position might divert him from
his main purpose. In the same year. 1866. he pub-
lished his first celebrated work. "Zur Kritik und B
Geschichte des Goetheschen-Textcs," in which he i'
once for all established the necessity of applying the
methods of classical philology in the criticism of the
modern masters.
Shortly after the Franco-Prussian war. which so
powerfully stimulated the general interest in the
national poetry. Bernays received a call to the Uni-
versity of Leipsic, and such was his popularity as
a lecturer there that within a very short time after
his arrival the largest hall of the university was in-
adequate to accommodate the audience. It was the
enthusiasm thus aroused that now induced the art-
loving king of Bavaria, Ludwig II., to found a spe-
cial chair of German literature — the first to be estab-
lished — at Munich, and to summon Bernays thither
as extraordinary professor, who thus, at the age of
thirty-nine, ahead)- beheld the fulfilment of his
dearest wishes. After an activity of eighteen
months Bernays received a regular professorship,
and this position he held until his resignation in
1889, when he removed to Carlsruhe.
In striking contrast with many university pro-
fessors. Bernays rarely confined himself to the writ-
ten copy before him ; for he was gifted, above all,
with a marvelous memory. It is sjtid
Professor that he could recite lengthy poems
of German and dramas, such as " Hermann und
Literature. Dorothea " and " Tasso, " from begin-
ning to end without faltering or be-
traying any evidence of fatigue. With this faculty,
which he had cultivated from early youth. Bernays
united an unusually extensive yet accurate knowl-
edge of the literature of ancient and of modern times.
Thus he constantly enriched his discourse with copi-
ous and pertinent citations refiectiug the inmost
nature of the author under discussion. When to
these qualifications are added a voice of exceptional
flexiliility and power, and a carefully studied elo-
quence of gesture, the great popularity of the lec-
turer can be readily understood.
In his published works Bernays aimed to transfer
the methods of classical philology to the domain of
modern literary history and criticism.
As Author, and endeavored to elevate these studies
to an equality with the other academic
sciences. Among his most popiular writings, besides
those mentioned, are; "Briefo Goethe's an F. A.
AVolf." Beriin. 1868; "Zur Entstehungsgeschichte
des Schlegelschcn Shakespeare." Leipsic, 1872: "Der
Junge Goethe " — a collection of the poems and let-
ters of Goethe during the years 1764-76 — 3 vols.,
Leipsic. 1875; "Goethe und Gottsched " — two biog-
raphies — Leipsic. 1880; an introduction to a revised
edition of Schlegel and Tieck's translation of Shake-
speare. Berlin, 1871-72; an introduction to a cen-
tenarv edition of Voss's translation of Homer, Stutt-
gart, "l881.
Apart from his literary activity. Bernays was fre-
quently called upon to officiate on public occasions;
as. for examiile, in 1883. when he was requested by
the city of Munich to preside at the public dinner
given in celebration of the emperor's birthday; and
93
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernays, Michael
Bernhardt, Uartia
in 1893 at Carlsrulie, whon lie delivered the dedica-
tory address at the unveiling (if the Scheffe! monu-
ment {see Bettelheim, "Biogruphisehe Blatter," 1895).
In contradistinction to his brother Jacob, who strict 1}'
observed the ordinances of Judaism, Michael Ber-
nays early embraced Christianity.
Bibliography: Bettelheim, Biniiraphi.icheK Jnlnhnch wid
DeutKCher Nekrahiu, 1S97; Mllncheuer AlMieineint Zei-
tuna, Feb. 28, 1897; Brockhaus, ConverxatUins-Lexikiin, s.v.
s. J. So.
BERNBURG. See Anhai.t.
BERND, JTJLITJS D.: American merchant and
pliilanthroiiist ; l)(>in in 1830: died at Pittsburg, Pa.,
Kov. 30, 1893. Bernd was a successful business
man and highly esteemed by his mercantile associ-
ates in Pittsburg. He was a member of the cham-
ber of commerce. Being actively interested in phil-
anthropic work, he was a directin' of the Gusky
Orphanage and Home of Western Pennsylvania, an
earnest worker for the Humane Sociely, and a mem-
ber of the Kodef Sholer.i congregation. By his will
he left a large amount to various charities, particu-
larly to the Union of American Hebrew Congrega-
tions, the Hebrew Union College, and the Gusky
Orphanage. After giving to everj' charitable insti-
tution in tlie county of Allegheny, without regard
to creed or color, he bequeathed the residue of his
estate, sliare and sliare alike, to the Hebrew Union
College of Cincinnati, O., an<l to the city of Pitts-
burg, Pa., the bequest to the city being conditioned
on its creating a ilepartment or alcove in the Car-
negie Library of Pittsburg, to be known as the " J. I).
Bernd Alcove," which was accordingl)' instituted.
\. J. Co.
BERNFELD, SIMON : German publicist and
rabbi; born in Stanislau, Galicia, Jan. (>, 18G0. His
father, who was a good rabbinical scholar and also
well versed in secular knowledge, was his first ui-
strnctor. He took to writing Hebrew very early ;
and at the age of thirteen he translated a German
novel into that tongue. His first article, "About
the Expulsion of the Jews from Nuremberg," was
publislied in " Ha-Maggid " of 1879 (No. 23), as were
various other contributions from his jieu.
In 1879 Bernfeld went to Kiinigsljerg, where he
hehl for sfnne time an editorial ])osition on JI. L.
Rodkinson's Hebrew weekly, "Ha-Kol." In the
fall of 1880 he left Konigsberg for Breslau, where he
spent several months in great distress. Early in 1881
he went to Lyck, Prussia, to become the assistant of
David Gordon, editor of " Ha-Ma,ggid." He re-
mained there for nearh' a year, and conliiuied tocou-
trilnite articles and editorials for that iieiiodieal for
several years after Iciiving Lyck. He returned to
Konigsberg late in 1881, and after a year's prejiara-
tion entered the university of that city, where he re
maiiieii until the summer of 1888.
A brigliter period in Bernfeld's life began with
his arrival in Berlin in the summer of 1883. He en
tered the university of thi' German e:ipital, and at the
same time attended the Ilochschule fur die Wissen-
sehaft des Judenthums. In 188.") lie became a regu-
lar contributor to " Ha-Meliz " (St. Petersburg), and
in the same year obtained his doctor's degree. In
March, 18,S6, he was elected chief rabbi of the Span-
ish and Portuguese community of Belgrade, the caji-
ital of Servia, and director of the Jewish school in
that city. This position be held for about seven
years.
Bernfeld now resides at Berlin, and occupies him-
self mainly with writing in Hebrew and German.
He is a German writer of varied and considerable at-
tainments. His "Juden uud Judeiithum iin Neun-
zehntcn Jahrhundert" (Berlin. 1898), which forms
vol. iii. of the series "Am Ende des Jahrhunderts,"
edited liy Dr. Paul Bornstein, is a work of merit,
and the same can be .said of his essay, " Der Talmud.
Sein Wesen, Seine Bedeutung, und Seine Geschichte"
(ISerlin, 1900). His new translation of tlie Bible,
now in course of publication, has also been highly
praised (.see " Allg. Zeit. des Judenthums," 1901. Xo.
13). His chief signiticance. however, lies in thetield
of Neo Hebraic literature. He belongs to the younger
class of clear and forceful writers who have brought
new life into modern Hebrew literature and have
lifted the journalistic part of it to an eminence which
it hiid not before attained. A clever journalist,
Bernfeld writes on various subjects. In addition to
innumerable articles in various periodicals, he has
comiiiled pojuilar works on history, philo.sophy, and
kindred subjects; while in the held of the history
of the Jews, of which he made a sjiecial study, he
has done valuable original work.
The most important of his works arc: "Da'at
Elohim " (Knowledge of God), a history of the relig-
ious philosophy of the Jews from rudimentary phil-
osophical s.ystcmsof the Bible down to that of Asher
Ginzbcrg, the thinker of modern national Judaism
(Warsaw, 1897); "Dor Tahapukot," a monograph
on the Mendelssohuian period (ib. 189(5-98); and
biographies of S. L. Kapojiort (1899), of Michael
Sachs (Berlin, 1900), and of Gabriel Kiesser (War-
saw, 1901).
Bibliography : SifirZikhdrfiii, pp. i;!l-I3;! (autoliloKrapliloal
slieti'li); I.ipiH", IlLliUiiiir.Lcxiliun,il.,Ui:ii.v.; Zeitlin, Bi'Wi-
otheca HiUraica, s.v.
8. P. Wl.
BERNHARDT, MARTIN : German neurojiath
and medical author; boruat PotsdamApril 10, 18-14.
He was educated at the gymnasium of his native
place and at the University of Berlin, where he .stud-
ied under Virchow and Traulie. After graduating
as 51. D. in 1867, he was aiipointed assistant to Ley-
den at the Universitiits-Klinik at Kiinigslierg; and
two years later, phj'sician at the Charite (free dis-
liensary and hospital) at Berlin under Westphal.
The Franco-German war interru|ited his clinical
work, for he went to the front with the Landwehr.
receiving a medal for bravery uiuler tire. On his
return in 1873, he was appointed privat-docent of
medicine and as specialist for neuropathy at the
University of Berlin, and, ten years later, assistant
professor.
Bernhardt, in addition to contributing numerous
articles to medical publications, has been the editor-
in-chief since 1885 of the "Centralblatt filr die 5Iedi-
zinischen Wissenschaften," and Ihecorrespomleut of
neuro|iathy and electrotherapy for Virchow-IIiisch's
"Jahresbeiichte." He is also one of the collabora-
tors of Eulenburg's " Realencyklopildie der Mc-
dizin." His principal works are: "Die Sensibili-
tiitsverhaltnisse der Haut," 1873; "Beitrage zur
Bernhardt, Sarah
Bernheim, Ernst
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
94
Symptomatologk' und Diagnostik der Hirngc
schwulste." 1881; "Elcctrieitalslehre flir Medizin."
1884. in collal)oration with Professor Rosentbat:
"Erkrankungon der PeripUeriscben Nerven," 1895-
1897.
BIBLIOGRAPHT : Hirech, Biog. Lex., SSi, i. 421: Pagel, Biog.
1901, p. 151.
g h. .^l^.
BERNHARDT, SARAH (ROSINE BER-
NARD): Frendi actress: born :it Paris (let. 32,
1844. of Dutcb Jewish parentage. She was received
into the Roman Catholic Church at the request of her
father. Her early years were spent at the Convent
Grand-Champs. Versailles, where she remained until
fourteen years old. when she was received into the
Conservatoire, where she studied dramatic art under
Prevost and Sanson. Though, like Rachel, natu-
rally inclined to comedy. Bernhardt won a prize for
her work in tragedy. On Aug. 11. 1862— four years
after beginning her dramatic studies — she made her
debut at the Comedie Fran^aise in " Iphigenie. " Her
success was but partial: and the e-\periment — for
such it really was — resulted in further study and a
short trip to Spain. On her return to Paris the
young actress went to the Theatre du Gymnase. the
Porte- Saint-Martin, and the Odeon (1864). and. a
year later, back again to the Porte-Saint-Martin.
Tliere she appeared as Armnnde in "Les Femmes
Savantes," as Cordelia in " King Lear." and in her
first male role, Zanetto, in Francois Coppee's "Le
Passant" (1869).
The outbreak of the Franco-German war inter-
rupted her career for a time, the interval being
spent in study and nursing the wounded. Her ne.\t
appearance was on Nov. 6. 1872. when she played
Mile, de Beth-Me at the Comedie Frangaise. For
the next seven j'ears Bernhardt remained a member
of this famous institution, of which she became a
"societaire " in 187,5. Her greatest artistic triumphs
were achieved there in " Phedre " ; " Andromaque " ;
"Zaire"; "Alcm^ne": "'Ruy Bias" {Marie de Seu-
bourg); "La Fille de Roland" (Btrthe); "Rome
Vaincue" {Posl/itimia, the blind woman); "Le
Sphinx " ; " LEtrangere " ; and in the classic plays
of Racine and Corneille.
In 1879 Bernhardt s eccentric behavior and temper
led to a severance of her associations with the Comedie
Fran^aise : and on a civil suit the actress was ordered
to pay damages amounting to 100.000 francs. After a
tour to London, Copenhagen, and America (1880-81)
with a company of her own. Bernhardt returned to
Paris, where she assumed the direction of the Theatre
Ambigu (1882). The same year she was married to
the actor Jacques Damala (died 1889). and played
Pierrot at the Trocadero in a pantomime written by
Richepin. She afterward leased the Theiitrc Vaude-
ville, which she opened Dec. 11, 1882. with "Fe-
dora," playing the title-role herself. Soon after, she
returned to the Porte-Saint -Martin, which she opened
Sept. 17, 1883. with "Frou-Frou." This was fol-
lowed by "La Dame aux Camelias." "Nana Sahib."
and "Theodora." During the season of 1886-87 she
toured the United States, and on her return to the
Porte-Saint-Martin appeared in "La Tosca." She
revisited America in 1888-89. and on her return
played at the Porte-Saint-Martin in "Jeanne d'Arc"
and" "Cleopatre" (1890).
Then followed an interval during which the ac-
tress toured Europe. Returning to Paris, she en-
gaged in 1893 the Theatre de la Renaissance, pro-
ducing "La Femme de Claude." Lemaitre's "Les
Rois,''^Barde's "Medee." "Magda," Rostand's "La
Samaritaine" and his "La Princesse Lointaine"
(189,1), and T:eil in D'Annunzio's "La Ville Morte"
(1898). While leasing this house. Bernhardt gave the
use of it to Duse, who played the French actress's
role in "La Dame aux Camelias," while Bernhardt
played the title-riile in "Magda."
Her latest and most successful lease of a theater
was when she took the Theatre de I'Opera Comique,
formerly known as the Theatre Municipal des Na-
tions, and converted it at considerable cost into the
Theatre de Sarah Bernhardt (Jan. 18. 1899). Here
she first essaj'ed Hamlet and latei' the Due de Reieh-
stadt in Rostand's " L'Aiglon." In 1900-01 sheagain
toured the L'nited States, with Coquelin.
In addition to being an actress. Bernhardt is a
dilettante sculptor and author. Her bust of Sardou
attracted attention. Her writings consist of a book,
"Dans les Nuages" (1878). and "L'Aveu.".a play
produced at the Odeon in 1888. She has also written
a rather frank autobiography, evoked by Marie
Colombier's attack on Bernhardt in her notorious
pamphlet "Sarah Baruum."
As an actress. Sarah Bernhardt is the embodiment
of the theatrical; every pose, every movement,
every intonation of her voice being the result of
careful, patient study. She belongs to the intellec-
tual school of actors, splendidly intelligent, but
rarely touching the heart, Bernhardt is always ad-
mirable, l)ut neveraught save Bernhardt. Her voice
is remarkable for its flexibility and timbre, and her
grace of movement is one of her chief attractions.
Whether she pla3'S the blind Posthumia. or Frou-
Frou. or HainUt, or the Due de Reichit^dt . her per-
sonality is always preponderant and she ever remains
the French actress, Sarah Bernhardt.
Bibliocrapht: Trc«(?)iiii.s(f)- Bcvieie. Ix. 301 ct sen.; La
Grantle EnciidiniMie. s.v. ; The Critic, xxxv. 8.38-640;
FnrtnightUi Review (new series), xlvi. 113-123; Harijer^s
Magazine, lii. 63-68; youreau Larnusse lllustrc, u. 15.
s. E. Ms.
BERNHARDT, GOTTFRIED: German phi-
lologist and historian of literature; born at Lands-
berg in the Neumark, province of Brandenburg,
March 20. 1800; died at Halle May 14. 1875. His
father was a merchant who had been successful and
prosperous, but who in Gottfried's childhood had a
series of business reverses that left him in a position
where he had to struggle for the bare necessities of
life and with but little prospect for providing the
boy with a libera! education. At this juncture when
the lad was about nine years old, two well-to-do
brothers of his father, living in St. Petersburg, ar-
ranged to provide the means for his schooling, and
he was entered at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium,
Berlin, where he remained six vears. being admitted
to the Berlin University in 1817. Here in the pur-
suit of his philological studies, to which he now es-
pecially applied himself, he had the good fortune
to study under F. A. Wolf — though the latter was
95
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernhardt, Sarah
Bernheim, £rnst
already in the declining years of his life — as well as
under B5ckh and Buttmann. He received his desree
as doctor of philosophy on Oct. 30, 1823, and in the
same year published his first work, "Eratosthenica,"
a collection of the widely scattered fragments of the
early Alexandrian astronomer.
In 1823 he became privat-docent in philology at
his alma mater, and two years later was appointed
associate professor. He received a call from Halle
in 1829 to assume the position of full professorship
in tlie university there, and that of director of the
philological seminary. This call he accepted, and
Halle was the sphere of his activity for the rest of
his life. During the two years from 1841 to 1843 he
oOiciated as prorector of the university, and in 1844
he was appointed chief librariiin, the duties of which
position he fulfilled in additiim to his work of in-
struction — not in any perfunctory fashion, but by
reorganizing the library of the university in a com-
plete and systematic manner.
From the very beginning of Bernhard3-'s profes-
sorial career he prosecuted his literary labors as
well. During the lirst year of his advent to Halle,
there appeared his " Wissensehaftliche Syntax der
Griechischen Sprache. " In 1830 the tirst edition of
his " Grundriss der Romischen Litteratur " was pub-
Hshed. Of this successive revisions were issued in
the years 1850, 1857, 1865, and 1872. The "Grund-
liiiicn zur Encyklopadie der Philologie " was issued
iu 1832. In the following year, work was begun on
his version of Suidas, but the apjiearance of Gats-
ford's great edition at O.xford necessitated a change
of plan, and the work was not completed until 1851.
Upon its pulilicatiou the king of Prussia conferred
an order upon Bernhardy. The first jiart of the
"Grundriss" — comprising the prose literature — was
published iu 1886, subsequent editions being issued
in 1861 and 1867-73. The poetical portion, consti-
tuting the second part, was published in 1845. This
went into a second edition in 1856. and was again
republished in 1859 and 1867-72. Bernhardy began
the editing of the " Bibliotheca Scriptorum Latino-
rum " in 1838; but the work was not continued be-
yond the first volume, as his contributors resented
his extraordinary methods of revision by voluminous
additions and amendments. His last literary work
was the collecting and editing of the minor writings,
both Latin and German, of F. A. Wolf, which were
issued in two volumes in 1869.
Bernhardy had always manifested a deep interest
in all the local educational work at Halle, and had
frecjuently been active in supervising the examina-
tions. In 1867 the city of Halle honored him by ap-
pointing him a memljer of the Curatorium of the
newly erected gymnasium. Five years before he
liad been appointed privy councilor (.Geheimer Re-
■/ienntf/K-Hfith). The fiftieth anniversary of his doc-
torate was enthusiastically celebrated in Oct., 1872
—professors, students, and civil authorities joining
in making the event notable and worthy. His
former students, in honor of the occasion, collected
1 fund of one thousand thalers to establish a Bern-
liardy fund to aid students of philology.
He was married in 1829 to Henrietta Jleyer of
Berlin (died 1853). It is .said by Le Roi— who, how-
;ver, gives no data as to time or place — that Bern-
hardy lived during the later period of his life as a
Christian, and suggests that he was possibly con-
verted during his student life. He attained the age
of seventy -five years, dying in honor amid the scenes
of his great activity. Professor Beyschlag delivered
the funeral oration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: EQ^stem.inAUgcmeine Deutsche Diographie,
s- M. Co.
BERNHEIM, ABRAM C: American lawyer;
born at Xew York city Feb. 1, 1866; died there
July 34, 1895. Bernheim was educated in pub-
lic schools of his native city and later in the Colum-
bia College, subsequently taking a course of in-
struction at the University of Berlin. During his
attendance at Columbia College he was twice selected
prize lecturer on the political history of the state of
New York, and in 1894 was made permanent lec-
turer in this branch.
Bernheim contributed money and books to his
alma mater, and took deep interest in free art exhib-
its on the east side of New York and in the Univer-
sity Settlement Society, of which latter he was one
of the founders and the treasurer. He was also sec-
retary of the Tenement House Building Company
for the improvement of the dwellings of the poor.
He was a member of the Stock Exchange and of
the Chamber of Commerce.
In addition to his philanthropic work, Bernheim
wrote a number of articles on sociological and polit-
ical subjects, among them being: "The Relations
of the City and the State of New York," in the
" Political Science Quarterly, " Sept. , 1894 ; " A Chap-
ter on Municipal Folly," in the " Century Magazine,"
May, 1895 ; " Results of Picture Exhibitions iu Lower
New York," in the "Forum," July, 1895.
p. 75; Jewish
BIBLI0GR.4PHT : The Critic, Aug. 3,
Chrtmicle. Aug. 16, l,si).5, p. 6.
A.
A. Sz.
BERNHEIM, ERNST: German historian;
born at Hamburg Feb. 19, 1850. On completing his
elementary and preparatorv studies, he attended the
universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, Strasburg, and
Qottingeu. It was from Strasburg that he received
his degree as doctor of philosophy, having offered
as his thesis a study on "Lothar III. und das
Wormser Konkordat." This was published in that
cit.y in 1874, and though the production of a youth
of but twenty-four years, which frankly stated the
occasion of its preparation, it was at once received
as something more important than an ordinary
doctorate dissertation. It was in fact a scholarly
pursuit along the line of research undertaken by
Friedberg, whose demonstration of the historical
errors based on the "Narratio dc Electione Lo-
tharii " Bernheim confirms by a mass of newly
discovered evidence. He shows, too, that Lothar's
election was mainly the work of Archbishop Adelbert
of Mayence.
In the year after the appearance of "Lothar III."
he was appointed privat-docent at the University of
GiHtingen (187.5). Here he produced " Zur Gesehichte
des Wormser Konkordats"(Gottingen,187S), in which
he pieces together from original sources a picture of
the party struggles of 1123, the extremist tendencies
of the papal and imperial factions, and the devel-
Bernbeim, Hippolyte
Bernstein, Aaron
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
96
opment of a compromise which was ultimately
embodied in the Concordat. He shows, too. how
Henry V. strove to free himself from the limitations
of the Concordat. This production firmly fixed his
place among the historical scholars of Germany.
Two years later appeared his " Ge.schiclitsforschung
und Geschichtsphilosophie," Gottingen, 1880. lu
1882, wliile still at Gottingen, he joined Weizsiicker
and Quidde in the task of editing the "Deutsche
Reichstagsacten unter Kupreeht." which was pub-
lished under the supervision of the Historische Kom-
niission in Munich, and the third volume of which
was published at Gotha in 1888. The work is in-
deed monumental, covering as it does only the first
decade of the fifteenth century. Fully three-fourths
of the material had never before been published.
In the mean time. Bernheim had received a call to
the University of Greifswald as assistant professor
of history (1883). Upon his marriage (1885) he em-
braced Christianity. Here, besides his work in the lec-
ture-room, he eoutiiuied his labor on the " Reichstags-
acten," and wrote his"Lehrbuch der Historisclien
Methode," Leipsic, 1889. lu the same year he was
promoted to be professor ortliiiary of history. Two
years later, in conjunction with AVilhelm Altmann,
he completed "AusgewiihlteUrkunden zur Erliiute-
rung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlauds im
Mittelalter," Berlin, 1891, Considerable stir was oc-
casioned in university and general pedagogic circles
by the appearance of his eighty-page pamphlet,
" Der Universitiits-Unterricht und die Erfordernisse
der Gegenwart," Berlin, 1898. In this treatise he
attacks the German system of university instruction,
and insists that the lecture method should be modi-
fled by providing some efficient S3'stem of exercises
in connection with the lectures.
In 1899 Bernheim was elected rector of the Uni-
versity of Greifswald, and in the following year the
Order of the Red Eagle was conferred upon him,
BIBIIOGRAPHT: Meyer, Kunvcrsatinns-Leziknn^lSS!.
6, M. Co.
BERNHEIM, HIPPOLYTE: French physi-
cian and neurologist; born at Mulhausen. Alsace.
He received his education in his native town and at
the University of Strasburg, whence he was gradu-
ated as doctor of medicine in 1867. The same year
he became a lecturer at tlie university and established
himself as physician in the city. AVheu, in 1871,
after the Franco-Prussian war, Strasburg passed to
Germany, Bernlieim removed to Nancy, in the uni-
versity of which town he became clinical professor.
When the medical faculty took up hypnotism, about
1880. Bernlieim was very enthusiastic, and soon be-
came one of tlie leaders of tlie investigation. He is
a well-known authority in this new field of medicine.
Bernheim has written many works, of which the
following may be mentioned here: " DesFievresTy-
phiques en General." Strasburg, 1868; "Le^on de
Clinique Medicale, " Paris, 1877; " De la Suggestion
dans rfetat Hypnotique et dans I'fitat de Veille,"
Paris, 1884; "De la Suggestion et de son Applica-
tion a la Therapeutique," Paris, 1887,
Bibliography : Papel. Biiniraiihincfun Lcrihoii. Vienna,
1901, S.V.; La Gianilc EiiciicliipnUe,s.\\
S. F. T. H.
BERNICH, SOIiOHON (called also Berenicus
and Berenicus) : Scholar, poet, and adventurer of
doubtful origin, who appeared in Holland about
1670 and attracted much attention. He spoke Greek.
Latin, Italian, French, and Dutch with equal facil-
ity, and was able to recite by heart whole classical
works and to put into verse on the spot anything
that was told to him in prose. He was thought by
many to be an escajied monk from France, but
Yung (■■ Alphabetische Liste Aller Gelehrten Judeii
. . . ," Leipsic, 1817) states that he was a Jew,
a native of Eger, in Bohemia, who was educated in
Vienna and in Italy, Bernich, or Berenicus, desjiiscd
conventional scholarship and all the restraints nf
cultured life, and chose to associate with the lower
classes ; working sometimes as a chimney-sweep, am 1
sometimes as a grinder of knives and scissors, l\v
was found dead in a swamp, in the outskirts of Rut-
terdam, into which he had probably fallen while in
a state of intoxication. Two works from his pen —
one a collection of Latin poetry with a Dutch trans
lation (Amsterdam, 1692; 2d ed., ib. 1716), and tlie
other called "'Georgarchontmachia," with a biog-
raphy of the author by B. Borremansius — are in tlic
British Museum general catalogue under the name
'■ Beronicus. Petius Joannes. "
BiBLiOGRAPHT: Larousse, Dictinnnaire Vttircr^cl. s.v. lii-
reiiictis; G. D. J. Sohotel. Biographiscli Woordenbuck der
Xcdcrlandcn, pp. 136, 137.
s p. Wi.
BERNOT, JULIE. See Judith, ]Mme.
BERNSTAMM, LEOPOLD BERNARD :
Russian sculptor ; born at Riga April 2(.i. 18.59. At
the age of thirteen he entered the studio of Prof.
D. Jensen at Riga, and at fourteen the Imperial
Academy of Fine Arts of St. Petersburg, where he
was awarded the highest prizes. In 1883 he made a
number of busts of celebrated Russians, among them
being those of Dostoyevski, Rubinstein, Fonvisin,
and Iv. Brandt. This established his reputation as
a portrait-sculptor, and within the next two years
he made about thirty busts of various representa-
tives of Russian art, science, and literature.
After a sojourn in Rome (in 1884), where he sup-
ported himself by making portraits from photo-
graphs, Bernstamm went to Florence, and there
continued his studies under Professor Rivalti, At
this time he exhibited in Rome his "Neapolitan
Fisherman," "David," and "Head of a Monk," all
of which received high commendation. In 188.5 he
settled in Paris, where he won the friendship of Dr.
Labadie-Lagrave, He soon became famous by his
sculpture-portraits of eminent Frenchmen, such as
Renan. Sardou, Flaubert, Halevy, Coppee, Derou-
lede. Zola, and many others. In 1890 Bernstamm
exhibitid his works at the galleries of George Petit.
The exhibition attracted considerable notice, and was
visited by President Carnot. It consisted of a col-
lection of charming statuettes, reproducing in an as-
tonishing variety of costumes all foreignere that had
come to Paris during the Exposition of 1889.
Since 1887 Bernstamm has exhibited every year at
the salon of the Champs-Elysees, at which he has
manifested his talent on a larger scale in such works
as " Au Pilori." "The First Arrow," and "The Ex-
ecutioner of John the Baptist." In 1889 he was
97
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernheim, Hippolyte
Bernstein, Aaron
/ awarded, by the jury of the Exposition, a silver
medal for various groups and busts. He also pro-
duced "Floquel." a plaster cast ; "La JloiUstic," a
marble bust bought by Count Torclli. chamberlain
of the king of Italy in 1S91 ; " Christ and tlie Woman
Taken in Adultery" (1894): and "Jules Cheret."
bronze bust (1895). In 1896 he was called to Tzars-
koe-Selo to make busts from life of the emperor
Nicholas II. and the emjiress of Russia. For the
Exposition of 1900 he tiuished a group intended for
the czar: "Peter the Great Embracing Louis XV."
lu 1901 he produced the statue of Rubinstein ordered
by the St. Petersburg Conservator}'. Some of liis
works were bought by Czar Alexander III. and
some by the Italian government. Bernstamm was
made chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1891.
Bibliography: Dictionnaire Biofjraphiqnr,; Bulgakov,
yaslii Khudozhnilsi, vol. i., St. Petersburg, 1890; private
sources.
H. R. J. G. L.
BERNSTEIN, AARON (DAVID) (pseudo-
nym, A. Rebenstein) : German publicist, scientist,
an<l reformer: born April 0,1813, in Danzig: died Feb.
12, 1884, in Berlin. His was one of the most versa-
tile and productive Jewish minds of the nineteenth
century. Intended by his parents for a rablii, he
received a thorough Talmudical education, wliich
made him a formidalde adversary in the controver-
sies on religious reform in whicli he later partici-
pated (Holdheim. "Gesch. der Entstehung . . . der
Jlidischen Refornigemeinde in Berlin," p. 54, Berlin.
1857). At an advanced age, when he was recognized
as one of the great political leaders of Germany, he
could still write in the style and the s]iiritof an old-
time Polish rabbi (" Ha-Zefirah," 1875, ii.. No. 2).
He went to Berlin at the age of twenty, and by
his own efforts, without the help of school or uni-
versity, familiarized himself with the German lan-
guage and literature. He soon began to write on
many and diverse subjects, and attracted attention
bj' his graceful and lucid style as well
Early as by his force and originality. For
Debut as a some years he w-as an antiquarian book-
Writer, seller in Berlin; but his literary labors
absorbed most of his attention ; and
finally he took up writing as a profession.
His earliest works, luost of which appeared under
his pseudonyiTi, are : A translation of the Song of
Songs, with critical notes and a bibliographical pref-
ace by Zunz (Berlin, 1834): "Plan zu einer Neuen
Grundlage flir die Philosophic der Geschichte " (ih.
1838); "Novellen und Lebensbilder " (ib. 1840):
"Eine Abhandlung iiber die Rotation der Planeten "
(ih. 1843). In the same year appeared his anony
mous pamphlet. "Zahlen Frappieren," a defense of
the Prussian Ministry of Finance against the attack
of Blilow-Cummerow. It created a senssilion in
political circles, and was thought by many to have
been written by the luinister of finance himself.
His scientific and political studies did not prevent
Bernstein from taking an interest in Jewish affairs;
and he became the principal coutrib\itor to ^^"ilheIm
Freund's monthly magazine, "Zur Judenfrage,"
which appeared in Berlin from July, 1843, to June,
1844. Bernstein was one of the leading spirits in
the inception of the movement for religious reform
III.— 7
Aaron Bernstein.
in those days, and his great rabbinical knowledge
and his conciliatory spirit made even the opposition
respect him. One of the most acute and objective
writers against the Reform moveiucnt .said that of
Rebenstein 's attacks on Judaism it might be said
" Faithful are the woiuids of a friend " ;
Active while the remainder of the verse (Prov.
in Jewish xxvii. 6), "but the kisses of an eneiuy
Affairs. are profuse," was appropriate to the
defense of it advanced by some of his
contemporaries (see Phineas JI. Heilprin, " Teshubot
be-Anshe A wen," Frankfort-on-the-JIain, 184.5, let-
ter I).
Bernstein was one of the committee appointed
j\Iarch 10, 1845, to work out a plan for a line of prog-
ress in .Jewish religious affairs, A fragment of a
remarkable speech which he delivered at the meeting
which chose that com-
mittee is preserved in
Holdheim's above-
mentioned work,
where, by the way,
Bernstein is considered
to have been the onlj'
" theologian " present.
He agreed with Dr.
Stern in recognizing
the iiuportauce of the
Talmud and in deplor-
ing the arrest of its
development along the
lines of the exigencies
of practical life. Bern-
.stein was chosen to edit and amend the "Entwurf " of
the commit tee ; and he is one of the principal authors
of the famous " Aufruf " for the organization of a re-
ligious Reform movement among the Jews in Ger-
man}', which appeared in the Berlin newspapers early
in April, 1845. He and Dr. Stern were the authors
of the prayer-book for the newly organized Reform
congregation of Berlin; and while Bernstein refused
to become its rabbi, it seems that he often officiated
in that capacity before a regular rabbi was engaged.
He was also the editor of the monthly "Reform-
Zeitimg: Organ fiirden Fortscl;ritt im Judenthum,"
which appeared in Berlin in 1847.
In 1849 Bernstein founded the " Urwahlerzeitung,"
a political monthly which advocated the principles
of political reform in the same conciliatory but de-
termined spirit that had characterized his advocacy
of religious Reform in Judaism. It soon gained a
large circulation and brought the editor much fame ;
but it also brought him into inevitable conflict with
the authorities, which resulted in a sensational trial
under the press law, with a sentence
Imprisoned of four months' imprisonment for the
Under editor. In the same year when the
Press Law. "Urwahlerzeitung" was suppressed
(1853), Bernstein "founded the Berlin
dailj' "Volkszeitung," which soon attained a large
circulation, and of which he remained the chief edi-
torial writer for more than a cimirter of a century.
In that paper first appeared Bernstein's valuable
popular scientific essays, which later were published
in book form as "Naturwisseuschaftliche Volks-
biicher" (4th ed., Berlin, 1880, 21 vols.), and were
Bernstein, Aaron
Bernstein, Hugo
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
98
translated into the principal European languages.
A Hebrew translation, entitled "Yedi'ot ha-Teba' "
(Knowledge of Nature), appeared in Warsaw, 1881-
91. It was prepared iiaitly by P. Rudermann (see S.
Bemfeld's autobiographical sketch in " Sefcr Zik-
karon" (Book of Remembrance), but mostly by D.
Frischmann.
Bernstein also wrote two novels of Jewish life,
" Vogele der Maggid " and "Mendel Gibbor," which
tirst appeared in Josef Wertheinier's " Jahrbuch fiir
Israeliten " and then in book form (Berlin, 1860; Tth
edition, ib. 1892). They were translated into many
languages, even into Russian (St. Petersburg. 1876),
and place their author among the most important
ghetto novelists, second only to Kompert (Kayser-
ling, "Jiidische Litteratur," p. 171, Treves, 1896).
These novels were, imlike the ghetto stories of to-
day, written for Jews only, and therefore employ
the German-Jewish idiom to an extent that almost
brings them into the class of dialect stories. Bern-
stein's "Ursprungder Sagen von Abraham, Isaak,
und Jakob " (Berlin, 1871) is a valuable contribution
to Biblical criticism, although Wellliausen ("Prole-
gomena zur Geschichte Israels," i. 31) objects to its
political tendencies The most important of Bern-
stein's political essays and articles appeared in book
form under the title "Revolutions- und Reaktions-
geschichte Preussens und Deutschlands, von den
Marztagen bis zur Neuesten Zeit" (Berlin, 1883-84,
3 vols.). He also wrote numerous other less impor-
tant works on a great \'ariety of subjects.
The achievements of Bernstein as a practical scien-
tist are also worthy of notice. As early as 1856 he
patented an invention by which two
A Practical distinct telegraph messages could lie
Scientist, sent over the same wire at the same
time. He was one of the first to ad-
vocate the laying of telegraph wires underground,
and was also the inventor of an automatically closing
gate for railroad crossings. He was, besides, an ex-
pert photographer ; and he taught photograpliy free
of charge to many striving young men. thus ena-
bling them to earn tlieir livelihood.
Bernstein enjoyed great popularity in his later
years, and when lie died was mourned as one of the
great popular teachers of the German nation. The
degree of doctor of philosojihy was conferred on
him by the University of Tiibingen in 1876. Julius
Bernstein, now professor at Halle, is his eldest sou.
Bibliography: Meyer, Kimi-crsatinnf-Lexikn)): Brockhaus,
Kiiiivenations-Lexihtin. 13th edition; Stem, Gf»c/i. iles
Jttdenthinns, xvi.; Fuenn. K^iusrt Yif>racl^ pp. 7.5-76; (ieiger.
JIUliwhc Zritmhrift, 1S«9, vii. 2Si-*it); lUtistrirte Ziituny.
March 1, IS.*! iwith pnrtraiti.
s. p. Wi.
BERNSTEIN, B^LA: Hungarian rabbi and
author; liorn in \'arpalota, Hungary, 1868; was
graduated as Ph.D. at Leipsic, 1890, and as rabbi
at the Budapest Seminary in 1893 ; since 1894 has offi-
ciated as mbbi at Szombathely (Steiu-am- Anger). He
published "Die Schriftcrkliirung des Bachja ben
Ascher," Berlin, 1891, and collaborated in a Hun-
garian translation of tlie Pentateuch, publislied by
the Jewish Hungarian Literary Soeietv, 1898. A
monograph upon the Hungarian Revolution and the
Jews was also published in Hungarian by the same
association in 1898; "Die Toleranztaxe der Juden in
Ungarn," Breslau, 1901,
s. L. V.
BERNSTEIN, BERNARD: Actor; born at
Warsaw in 1861. He sang in the chorus of the Po-
lish opera of that city, and appeared there as a come-
dian (1882) in the role of Griind)i(other J(ichi>e m K.
Goldfaden's comedy, " Die Zauberin." He playetl in
.several Jewish theaters in Russia, and when the
Jewish theater was forbidden in that country (Sept.
14, 1883), he went to Galicia, in Austria, and tlien
to Rumania, where he played in various roles, usu-
ally comic. In 1892 he was engaged by Podls
Theater of New York, wliere he appeared first as
Ziiigitiing in Goldfaden's "Shulamitli," and later in
many other plays. He was especially successful in
the roleof Slminai in "The Jewish King Lear," by J.
Gordin. Bernstein now (1902) resides in New York.
H. u. M. Sk.
BERNSTEIN, EDUARD : Socialist leader.
editor, and author ; Ixirn in Berlin 1850. Begin-
ning life as a clerk in a bank, Bernstein's mind
became early imbued with socialistic ideas. In
1872 he joined the Social-Democratic party, and
in 1878 gave up business to assist in editing, in
Switzerland, the part_v organ. " Die Zukunft." which
became afterwaril " Das Jahrbuch der Sozialen Wis-
.senschaft." When the anti-Socialist law of Bis-
marck endangered the party's existence, and it be-
came necessary to establish abroad a socialist organ
to sustain and direct the young movement, Bern-
stein was entrusted with the editorship of the new
organ. "Der Sozialdemokrat," published at that time
in Zurich. When he was expelled from Switzerland
and removed to London, the publication of " Der
Sozialdemokrat" was also transferred thither (1888),
and continued till it became unnecessary, after the
downfall of Bismarck and the revocation of the anti-
Socialist law in 1890. Since then he has acted as
London correspondent of the Berlin "Vorwiirts,"
and has written for the " Xeue Zeit," " Sozialistische
^lonatshefte," and other periodical publications. In
England he contribtited a number of es.says to the
" Progressive Review " and " The Xew Age." Bern-
stein's sketch of Lassiille — contributed to an edition
of his speeches and writings — has been translated
into English and edited by him (3 vols., Berlin, 1893)
under the title, "Ferdinand Lassalle as a Social Re-
former." London. 1893. Bernsteinis the author also
of " Communistische und Demokratisch-Sozialistische
StrOmungen Wiihrend der Englischen Revolution
des 17. Jahrhunderts," published in a collection of
essays on the history of Socialism, entitled "Vor-
liiufer des Xeueren Sozialismus," Stuttgart, 1895.
The latest of Bernstein's productions, " Die Yor-
aussetzuDgen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der
Sozialdcmokratie," Stuttgart, 1899, has roused gen-
eral controversy throughout Europe. Professor
Diehl. though not himself a Socialist, characterizes
Bernstein as "one of the most talented, most learned,
and clearest adherents of scientific Socialism," which
opinion is sliared by even the extreme Socialistic
opponents of Bernstein— Kautsky and Mehring.
Bourdeau regards this book as the most important
that has appeared on Socialism since !Marx's "Das
Kapital." In this book. Bernstein, after having
99
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernstein, Aaron
Bernstein, Hugo
been for more than twenty years a champion of so-
called " orthodox " Marxism, comes to the conclusion
that many of Marx's views no longer corrcsiioud to
the facts of modern social phenomena, and must be
replaced by others more in consonance with modern
society. Of the views peculiar to Marx, he does not
place so much value upon the piu-ely economic con-
ception of histor}' ; he minimizes the importance of
the theory of value, and repudiates the Hegelian
dialectic method, though at the same time he claims
that he still adheres to tlie spirit and evolutionary
principles of Marx. Bern.stein further emphasizes
tlie great importance of cooperative associations,
and urges the Socialist parly to free itself from revo-
lutionary phraseology and illusory hopes of the im-
mediate downfall of bourgeois societ}', and to Wfirk
hand in hand with all the democratic elements that
tight for social reforms. Bernstein even concedes
that the Social Democracy is jiractically acting on
tlie proposed lines; but he wants a more consistent
policy, as it seems to him that the remains of former
conceptions still prevail in the party and hamper the
progress of Socialism and the gradual realization of
its ideals. In 1901 Bernsteiu was allowed to return to
Germany, and in March, 1902, he was elected to the
Reichstag on the Socialist ticket from Breslau, to
succeed Dr. SchOnlank, deceased.
HrHi,ioiiii,\p[iY: K. Kautskv, Brnmtiiii iiml ihin !\iizinlilemri-
linitisilir frogramm, Stiiti(.':irt, ln'M: I'lntuhnll niur die
VirhtiiiiUuttfjcn iU^ Partritdiic.'; ih r SnzuthU iiuihnili-^clteu
I'nrtfi Drut^cJtlawi'^. Ahfit lii'tUm Z}i }Iiuun>rf r rmn '.>. hin
lU. OcIiiIki; Iw/7. Bt-rlin, ls«l, pp. l)I-^'44; F. Mclirini.'. Ge-
xchichle (/()■ Di<ils<)u n Siiziiihlciiinkntl i>\ Stultpirt, imiS, ii.
;ii.i el aeq.; The Lahnr AdidkiI, Lcmilnii, 1<«](I, p. 1.50; J.
Bourdeau, La Crjwe du SaeiaU.^nu, in lii rue dcs Deux
-ViDKte, civ. 341-264; G. Sorel, iix I'liliiiiiiiiieK snrVInter-
pn'tftlinu du Marxi!^uie, in lii rue Juterunliomde de ^eici-
iilnifie. I'aris, liKKi. viii. ;;il-' :;m. ;t4s {iti'.i; A. l.iibriolii, Bern-
sleiu it (( Siieiiilixme, in La Herue Sneiidislr, l':iris, 1H99,
x.\i.\. (iii:Hi;'.l; R. Dlelil, m./iilirhUelier fllr Ntil inuiilfik<ino-
inie uiid sl.diKtili. Jena, IM'.W, l.x.xiii. !IK-Iir, ; (i. Maier,
Kdiiiiril I{erU!<teitt und die NfUesle Itewegunu lliuerfialh
der S(izi(ddeuviliiatie, in Die (rexelhchnft, Leipslc, 1899, ii.
333-3«l ; Jew. Clirun., Nov. 24, 1899, p. 21.
s. B. B.
BERNSTEIN, ELSA (pseudonym, Ernst
Rosmer) : German dramatist; daughter of Heinrich
I'orges, the friend of Richard Wagner; liorn at
Vienna; educated at Munich; and, for a short time,
on tlie .stage. An attliction of the ej'es forcing her
lo retire, she thenceforth devoted herself to dramatic
literatui-e. Shortly after her marriage in 1892 to
-Max Bernstein, she wrote, her tirst play, " Wir Drei,"
which created considerable discussion. It was really
a dramatized version of the matrimonial and sexual
views of Taineand Zohx. Her iie.xt plays fell rather
flat; "Diimmerung," 1893; "Die Mutter ]Maria,"
1894; "Tedeum,"i896; "Tliemistokles," 1897; and
"Daguy Peters." But unbounded admiration was
elicited by "Die Kiinigskinder," 189.5 — a dramatic
fairy-tale. Though its plot was simple, the beauty
of the theme and its poetry were such as to class it
with Pulda's "Der Talisman."
Bibliography: Das JUngstc Dcutschland, pp. 317-320;
Kurschuer, Deutscher LUteratur-Kalendcr, 19(11, p. 91 ;
Lexikon Deutscher Frauen der Feeler, i. 61 ; ih. il. 203.
s. E. Ms.
BERNSTEIN, HERMANN: Russian-Ameri-
can writer; born Sept. 20, 1876, at Shirwindt, Russia.
When he was seven 3'ears of age his parents moved
to Mohilev on the Dnieper, and Hermann was edu-
cated at the Jewish free school of that city. In 1893
the family emigrated to America and .settled in
Chicago. At first Bernsteinstruggled hard to make
a living. In 1897 he engaged in literary work in
New York, and was soon successful. He has made
translations from the Russian, among them "Foma
Gordeyev," by Gorki, New York, 1901; and has
written "The Flight of Time, and Other Poems,"
1899. A series of ghetto stories by Bernstein ap-
peared in the New York "Evening Post." in "Ains-
lee's Magazine," and in "The Scroll," and these
were reprinted in book form under the title " In
the Gates of Israel," New York, 1902.
II. u F. T. H.
BERNSTEIN, HIRSCH : Russian-American
editor and publisher; born in Vladislavov (Neu-
stadt-Schirvint), government of Suvalki, near the
Prussian frontier, March 2o, 1846. He received the
usual Jewish education and learned to write Hebrew
fluently. He emigrated to the United States in 1870,
settling in New York, where he still (1902) resides.
While following from the first commercial pursuits,
he has continued his Hebrew studies in his leisure
hours. In 1870 he started "The Post," the fir.st
Juda'o-German or Yiddi.sh periodical in America;
but, like many subsequent publications of that
nature, it had but a short existence. In the same
year he founded the " Ila Zofeh be' Erez ha-Hadas-
hah," the first publication in the NeoHebraic lan-
guage in America. It appeared weekly for live
years and contained many interesting contributions,
which throw light on local and contemporary Jew-
ish history. Bernstein was at one time a constant
contributor to "Ha-Maggid," "Ha-Lebanon." and
"Ha-Karmel," and, after Ch. G. Vid.wkh, was
probably the first regular American correspondent
to European Hebrew periodicals.
11. n. P. \Vi.
BERNSTEIN, HUGO KARL (pseudonym,
Karl Hugo): Hungarian dramatist ; born in Buda-
pest 1808; died at Jlilan 1877. He began the study
of medicine, but lacking means sufiicient to con-
tinue it, he entered the army, where within twenty
months he succeeded in la.ving by a sum that en-
abled him to (lualify himself for medical examina-
tion. In 1830 he served during the Polish insur-
rection as army surgeon at Warsaw, whence he
proceeded lo Budapest, where he ])ractised as homeo-
path. In 1839 he went to Paris, whither he had
been called by Hahnemann. This was a turning-
point in his career. The cosmopolitan French capi-
tal with its numerous theaters reawakened hisyoulh-
ful inclination for the stage and for poetry. He
proceeded to Hamburg, where, in 1840. he pulilisbed
"Die Sehnsuchts-Klange eines Hagcslolzeii." It
was here, also, that he wrote the plays " Brutus and
Lucretia," "Das Schauspiel der Welt," and "Der
Stein derWeisen." In 1844 he returned to Buda-
pest, wliere he resumed the study of the Hungarian
language, which by this time he had almost forgot-
ten. Here be published his " Psalmeu eines Armen
Poeten," "Egy Magyar Kiraly," and the well-
known " Bankier und Baron." He also wrote two
French dramas, "La Comedie Infernale " and
"L'lliade Fluie." In Berlin he was arrested for
Bernstein, lenacy
Bernstein, max
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
100
U\se niajestf . because of a book published by him
under the title " Huso Amber Bernstein, oder Das
Verkannte Genie"; he was. however, released upon
the plea of insanitv. Though a genius, he was pos-
sessed l)y the idea that he alone had been appomted
to revoliitionize art. science, and religion— ui short.
the entire iiitellcetual life of man.
s. ^- *•
BERNSTEIN, IGNACY : Polish bibliophile
and writer on proverbs; born at Viunit/.a. govern-
ment of Poilolia, Jan. 30, 1S36. where his father
Samson had an important banking business. He
was educated by the learned .Moses Landau, son of
Habbi Samuel and grandson of U. Ezekiel Landau
of Prague. In Iboti he married i:iiza. the daughter
of Mefr Edler von >Iises of Lemberg; and in 18.58
he i-emoved with his parents to Warsaw, where he
still resides, ranking among the prominent members
of the Jewish community. In 1881. at his instance,
a library of Jewish books was founded in connection
with tlie Grciit Synagogue of Warsaw. Bernstein
from the beginning took an active part in the man-
agement of the library and is now its chairman.
He did much usef\il work in collecting proverbs of
all nations. In 1888-89 his " J iidische Spridi worter "
—a collecticm of Juda?o-German proverbs— we're
published in the '-Hausfreund." Warsaw; and iu
UKH) he p\d)lished a remarkable illustrated catalogue
of his library of about 4,800 works on proverbs,
folk lore, ethnography, etc., accompanying the list
with valuable explanatory notes. This catalogue
is unique in its way, being also a typographical art
book. Many titles and ornaments of the more an-
cient works are reproduced from the originals. The
full title of the catalogue is " Katalog Dziel Tresci
Przyslowiowcj Skladajacych Biblioteke Ignacego
Beriisteina," 3 vols.. AVarsaw. He is now (1902)
preparing a new and enlarged edition of his Jiuheo-
Gennan proverbs.
BIBLIOGUAPHV : S. orpelliraml. Kiiruldiipedja Pi)U'szei')nia,
ii.. Warsaw. 1S9S; and private sciuri-es.
BERNSTEIN, IGNATI ABRAMOVICH:
Russian railroad engineer: born in Kremenetz. gov-
ernment of Volhynia. 1846; killed July 5. 1900. on
the steamship "Otlessa," between Harhin and Cha-
barovsk. He was educated at the high school of his
native town, and at the St. Petersburg Institute for
Engineers, from which he graduated.
In the eighties, while yet a student, he was re-
ceived by the czar as a delegate from many Jewish
families "who petitioned for a restoration of their right
of settlement outside the pale, of which they had
been unlawfully deprived. Bernstein pleaded their
cause so earnestly that the czar granted their request.
After serving as assistant district engineer on
various railroads, Bernstein was in 1896 appointed
first engineer at Vladivostok, and in the following
year was sent to Tzitzikar. where ho was given the
direction of the fifth district of the Eastern Chinese
Railway. On July 2 he sailed for Chabarovsk.
When the vessel was three days out it was attacked
by Chinese Bo.xers, who killed thirteen of the pas-
sengers, Bernstein being one of the victims. A
memorial service was held Aug. 19 iu the Great
Synagogue at St. Petersburg.
Bibliography : Ftwfchort, Nov. 5, 1900, No. 82, p. 13 ; private
sources. „ „
BERNSTEIN, ISRAEL : Russian Hebrew
publicist; born about the middle of the nineteentli
century at Vclizh, government of Vitebsk; studied
pharmacy at ^Moscow, and worked as a druggist in
the colony Shchedrin. near Bobruisk. Bernstein's
•'Ha'Atudim ha-t)lim 'al ha-Zon " (The Gouts
Which I-eaped upon the Flock), in " Ha-Shahar " (vi.
366-;!82, 401-4ir)). is a severe and vindictive attack ou
the misdeeds of the " Melammedim." the rabbis and
the leaders of the Jewish communities (kahal), es-
pecially in tlie smaller towns. Ills " Binyan Zeke-
niin u-Setirat Yeladim " (How the Old Build and the
Young Destroy), which occupies over forty pages of
vol. v\i. iu the above periodical, is written in the
same spirit as the first ; but here the author tries
more to glorify the •' Ilaskalah." or pi'Ogress. and to
point out the probability that the vivacious and
active Hasidism of southern Russia will regenerate
itself sooner than the dry scholarship and pedantry
of the north or Lithuania.
In his third important article. " Le-maher Ge'ulah "
(To Bring About Speedy Redemption), in "Ha-
Shahar." X. 230-241, 288-^97, Bernstein tries to prove
that the great necessity of the times is that the rabbis
and the I'ich Jews shall cease to use unlawful and
revolting means to save their sons from being drafted
into military service. This last article was written
late in 1880i shortly before the great changes which
took place after the assassination of Emperor Ai.EX-
ANUKK II. in the following year.
Like all progressists who did not join the new
nationalistic movements, Bernstein remained silent
for a long time, and in a "letter to the editor"
(■• Kencset Yisrael." i. 7, Warsaw, 1886), Bernstein ad-
mits that the persecutions of the last five years have
shattered all his former optimistic views and the
hopes that the Jews of Russia by imiu-oving their
conduct will obtain equal rights and be recognized
as men and brethren. He admits his mistakes, and
is overwhelmed by the despair which has seized
most of the advocates of progress and assimilation
in these trying chauvinistic times.
i mniiiHimriiY: Eisenstadt. Rahlianc Jlitisk. p. HI. WUna,
'•"*'*• P Wl
11. u ^- "'•
BERNSTEIN, JOSEPH (" JOE") : American
ilist ; born in November, 1877. in New York city.
He'^first aiipeared iu the ring in 1894, during which
vear he gained no less than five victoiies. In 189.5
iie won four fights and drew two. thus establishing
himself as a featherweight of acknowledged prow-
ess. In succeeding years he added greatly to his
reputation.
Probablv no other adept in boxing of his age has
appeared "in the ring so often as Bernstein, who has
f(night nearly 80 battles in seven years. Of these
he has won 44. drawn 26. and lost 7. and in one ease
there was no decision. He ilefeated Jack Connors.
J'lmcsLarkins. William O'Donnell. and Solly Smith.
F. H. V.
pug
BERNSTEIN, JOSEPH: Polish physician;
born at Warsaw in 1797; died there in 1853. After
graduating from the AVarsaw Lyceum in 1815. he
101
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernstein, lunacy
Bernstein, Max
studied medicine at the Berlin Universitj-, from
which be was graduated in 1822. Aflerliisreturn to
Poland he was for a year assistant physician at the
university clinic of Warsaw ; in 182!) he was ap-
pointed house-physician of theAVarsaw Jewish Hos-
pital; and in 1834, chief physician. He is the au-
thorof "De Phthisi Pulnionum," published in 1818.
BiBLiOfiRAPnv: S. Orfrelbrand, EncilMoiieilja Powszechna,
U., Warsaw, 1898.
H. R.
BERNSTEIN, JULIUS : German physiologist
and medical writer; born at Berlin Dec. 8, 1839; son
of Aaron Bernstein (1822-84). He studied at the
University of Berlin, whence he was graduated as
doctor of medicine in 1862. In 186.1 he was admitted
as privat-docent to the medical faculty of Heidel-
berg, and became in 1869 assistant profcs.sor of phys-
iology. Two years later he obtained the ajjpoint-
ment of professor of physiology at the University
of Halle, a position he still (1902) occupies. In
1898 he received the title of "Geheimer Medizinal-
rath."
Bernstein is one of the leading physiologists of
the day. Besides contributing numerous articles
regularly, since 1865, to technical journals (" Archiv
fiirdic Gesammte Phy.siologie des Menschen und der
Thiere"; " Archiv fiir Physiologic " ; "Archiv fiir
Anatomic und Physiologic " ; " Archiv fiir Patholo-
gischc Anatomie und Physiologic und fiir Klinische
Medizin," etc.), he, since 1888, has edited the "Un-
tcrsuchungcn aus dem Physiologischen lustitut in
Halle." He has written; "Untcrsucliuugen liber
den Erregungsvorgang im Ncrvcn- und Jfuskel-
System," Heidelberg, 1871; "Die Fiuif Sinne des
Menschen," Leipsic, 187.5 and 1900; "Lehrbuch der
Phy.siologie," Stuttgart, 1894 and 1900.
Bibliography : Poggendnrf, Bii>(j.-Lit. Hanilwiirlerhnch.
1898, fii. 114: Pagel, BiViy. Li.r, Vienna, 1901, s.r.; Meyer,
Knnvei-!tatiini.-<-Lcj'iko}i, s.v.; privatf^ sources.
s. F. T. H.
BERNSTEIN, KARL ILYICH : Russian
jurist, professor of Roman law ; born at Odessa .Jan.
13, 1842; died at Berlin in 1894. He belongs, on the
maternal side, to a Jewish family that has produced
several noted scholars. He graduated fi-om the
Odessa Gymnasium in 1857, and after studying the
ancient languages in Dresden, he attended succes-
sively the universities of Halle, Heidelberg, and
Berlin, under Professors Vengerov and Gneist, who
exercised great influence over him. In 1.S64 he ob-
tained the degree of doctor of law from the Univer-
sity of Berlin, being the tirst Jew to receive it from
that institution.
For two years Bernstein attended the sessions of
t)ic Halle circuit court, in order to familiarize him-
self with the luactise of law. Toward the end of
1865 he returned to Rus.sia with the intention of lec-
turing on Roman law, but found that he was de-
barred b}' his religion from holding a professorship
in Russia. He thereupon applied him.self to the
study of Russian law, and subsequently practised
it at Odessa and St. Petersburg successively. Bern-
stein continued his theoretical studies, and in 1871
presented at the University of St. Petersburg a thesis
on Russian civil law, obtaining the degree of master
of law.
In 1873 Bernstein married Felice Leonovna, a
daughter of the Russian banker Leon Rosenthal,
and after a prolonged tour through Europe perma-
nently settled in Berlin. For eight years (1878-86)
he lectured on Roman law at the University of
Berlin as a privat-docent; in 1886 he was appoint(<l
associate professor; and in 1887 professor. In the
latter year lie renounced his allegiance to Russia and
became a German subject. About this time there
was establislied in connection with the tuiiversity
an institute for the instruction in Roman law of
Russian students sent abroad by their government
to jireparc them.selvcs for profcssorshijis, and Bern
stein was appointed one of its directors.
Bernstein always took great interest in .lewish
affairs. Wlien the exodus of Russian Jews to the
United States began, in 1881, he was an active mem
ber of the Berlin colonization committee, and tor-
many years corresponded with ^Michael Heilprin
on colonization mattens.
Most of Bernstein's writings were published in
various law periodicals; but some were issued in
book form. His tirst published work was " De Dele-
gationis Natuiw," Berlin, 1864. A Russian transla-
tion, under the title "O Suslichestvye Delegatzi po
Rimskomu Pravu," was published in St. Peterslnirg
in 1871. In this di.ssertation the author's views re
fating to delegation and novation anticijiated tlmse
expressed in the famous treatise of Salpius. Bern-
stein's "Ucheniye o Razdyelitelnykh Obyazatelst-
vakh po Rimskomu Pravu i Noveisliim Zakoiiam,"
St. Petersburg, 1871, was the first attempt ever made
to apply the principles of Roman and common law
to Russian legislation. Its leading idea was further
developed in "Zur Lehre von dem Alternativeii
Willen und den Alternativen Rechtsgescliiiften.
Abtheilung I. : der Alternative Willed und die Alter
native Obligation." Bernstein was also the autlior
of the following works: "Zur Lehre vom Legatuni
Optiouis," in"Zeit. derSavigny-Stiftung," 1880, pp.
151 et sctj. ; " Ueber die Subjectiven Alternativen
Recht.sgesch;ifte von Todeswegen," ih. 1883, iv. ;
" Die Alternative Obligatio im Riimischcn und im
Modernen Rechte," in "Zeit. fi'U' V'crglcichendc^
Rechtswissenschaft," ii. ; an analysis of Pescatore's
"Die Sogenannte Alternative Obligatio," in"Zeil.
fiir Haiidelsrecht," xxix. ; "Zur Lehre von den Datis
Dictis," in "Pestgabe fiir Beseler," Berlin, 1884.
BiBLiOGRAPnY: Vengerov, Kritikn-BUmraMie»ki Slmar,
iii., .St. Petersburp. 1892: KiilziklniieilU-hrKhi Slovar, lit.,
St. Peter.sbur(r, 1892; and private sources.
II R
BERNSTEIN, MAX (iiseudonym, Silas Mar-
ner) : German author; born May 13, 1854, at Fiirtli,
Bavaria; now (1902) practising law at Munich. His
literary activity is directed mainly to the sta.ge. The
most noteworthy of Bernstein's comedies ar<':
"Ca-ur-Dame," "Mein Neuer Hut," "Ritter Blau
hart," "Unbefangen," "Alles in Ordnung," "Kin
Guter Mcnsch," and "Ein Dunkler Piiiikt." Of his
dramas may he mentioned: "Dagmar," "Ruth," and
"Gold." He also wrote a collection of short stories:
"Kleine Geschichten," "Die Plaudeiei," and "Ein
Kuss," as well as numerous miscellanies that have
appeared either in newspapers or in book form.
'While Bernstein's works are very po|iular among
Bernstein, Naphtali
Berr, Michel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
102
the general reading public, they are little noticed by
the critics and tlie litenwy historians. His wife is
the autlior Elsa Bernstein.
BiBLiOGRiPHY: KOncbueT. Deut^her Littcratur-Kalender,
*;^- I. Ber.
BERNSTEIN, NAPHTALI HERZ : Au
thor; lived in Russia about tlielirst half of the nine-
teenth century. Being engaged in business, he de-
voted his leisure houre to study : applying himself
especially to Biblical subjects, and writing much
thereon, "without, however, publishing any of his
work His defense of the Talmud, under the title
" Eder Hakamim " (Mantle of the Wise), Odessa, 1S68.
was published after his death by his son, and edited
by S. I. Abramowitsch. Bernstein wrote this little
work in London (where he resided for several years),
as a reply to MeCauls attack on the Talmud and
ralibinical Judaism, and dedicated it to Solomon
Herschel, the chief rabbi of England. In his de-
fense he deals chiefly with the general principles
underlying the Talmud, without touching upon the
several points of McCaul's work, a fact which
greatly lessens the value of his apology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Introduction to Eaer ffahamim.
L. Or.
BERNSTEIN, NATHAN OSIPOVICH : Rus-
sian physiologist; born at Biody, Galicia, in 1836;
died in Odessa Feb. 9, 1891. He received his
first education from his grandfather, the eminent
Solomon Eser, chief rabbi of the province of Posen ;
and, on the'removal of his parents to Odesiwi in 1849,
entered the gymnasium of that place, from which he
graduated in" 18.53. He studied medicine at the Uni
versity of Moscow in lS.53-58. where he was awarded
a trold medal in 18.57 for his treatise. "Auatomia i
Fiziologia Legochno-Zheludoch-navo Nervu." In
1861 he became consulting physician of the city
hospital of Odessa, and associate editor of the Rus-
sian-Jewish periodical "Sion." until its suppression
by the government in April. 1862. In 1865 he was
appointed instructor of anatomy and physiology
at the newly established Xew-Russia University at
Odessa; and from 1871 lectured there on anatomy
as assistant professor, but was not confirmed
in this position by the government. He devoted
much of his time to the Society of Physicians of
Odessa, having been secretary of it for two years.
vice-presidentJor eight years, and president for four-
teen years. He was analderman of the Odessa city
council, director of the Talmud Torah, director of
the city hospital, and honorary justice of the peace.
His works appeared in the following publications:
the •' Moskovskaya Meditzinskaya Gazeta," 1858;
""MoskovskoeObozryenie," 18.59; "Biblioteka Medit-
zinskikh Xauk," 1859; -'Sion," 1861-62; '"Medit-
zinskiYiestnik," 1864; "Sovremennaya ileditzina,"
1863; "Arkhiv Sudebnoi Meditziny," 1864; "Ga-
zette Medicale de Paris." 1865; and many other
medical periodicals. Of his manual on physiology,
entitled •' Rukovodstvo Chastnoi Fiziologii." two
parts were published at Odessji in 1868,
BIBLIOGRAPHY : yengerov. Krilihii-Biograficheiki Stnvar.
vol. iil.. 1892 ; roskdod. No. o. 1891.
H. K.
BERNSTEIN-SIN AIEFF, LEOPOLD (usu
ally called Sinaieff ) : Russo-French sculptor ; bom
at "Wilua Nov. 22, 1868. He studied drawing in his
native town, and at the age of fourteen settled in
Paris. As a student under Dalou. his first exhibited
work was a bust at the salon of the Champs Elysees
in 1890. Since then he has produced busts in bronze
and marble of many distinguished persons, anion.'
whom were Count Waldeck. Raiiibaud. Nicholas (ii
Giers, the Russian ambassador, and Leon Reynier,
the violinist. One of his masterpieces is "Ezra
:Mournin2." This statue, in plaster, became the
property^of the state in 1892. and was given to the
museum at Sens; in 1897 it was reproduced in
marble. At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 this
and other statues, portraits, groups, and mortuary
monuments were exhibited; and they received a
medal. Among other distinctions conferred upon
him. Sinaieff was created a chevalier of the Legion
of Honor in 1901. He is at present (1902) engaged
upon a bust of Tolstoi.
H. K. "^
BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GiJNTHER,
COUNT OF: Danish ami Prussian statesman: bom
April 3. 1769. in Copenhagen; died March 28. 1835.
As early as 1787 he entered the diplomatic service
throusrh the influence of his father. Count Andreas
Berustorff. From 1789 to 1794 he served in Berlin,
first as secretary of legation, then as ambassador,
and was finally sent to Stockliolm in the same capac-
ity. On the death of his father, in 1797. he was ap-
pointed secretary of state, and in 1800 prime minis-
ter, which positii.n he held till 1810. He represented
Denmark at the court of Austria from 1811 to 1815.
and participated in the Congress of Yienna (Sept.,
1814, to June, 181.5), where, in behalf of his govern-
ment, he advocated the emancipation of the Jews of
H.>lstciu. From 1817 to 1818 he represented Den-
mark at the court of Beriiu. When, in Sept.. 1818.
Lewis Way presented his memorial in behalf of the
Jews to Alexander of Russia, then at Aix, Bernstorff
declared himself ready to give any information with
regard to the question of the emancipation of the
Jews.
In 1818 Frederick William HI. of Prussia ap-
pointed Bernstorff Prussian minister of foreign af-
fairs, in which capacity he served till his retirement
in 1832.
bibliography: AUgemeiiie Deutsche Biyraphie-.BToe^-
hau* Kimvermtinnf-Lerikon : Graetz. Histnni of the Jeios,
^^''■'^- A. R.
BERODACH BALADAN. See Merodach
B.\LAI)AN.
BERCEA : Identified with the modern Haleb or
Ai.EiM-o, the scene of the death of Menelaus, wh^
was killed by being smothered in ashes in one of it-
towers said" to be" 55 cubits in height (II >Iacc.
J. JR. G. B, L.
BEROTBLAH (BEROTHAI) : A city of Had;i
dezer. from which David oVnained much brass sub-
sequently used by Solomon in making the brazen
sea, pillars, and vessels of brass (II Sam. viii. 8). In
the' paiBllel account of I Chron. xviii. 8 it is called
103
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernstein, Naphtali
Berr, Michel
Chun. In Ezekiel's ideal Israel (xlvii. 16) it was
located on the northern border.
.1. .11!. G. B. L.
BERR, CERF JULIA. See Epstein, Julia
BeF.I!.
BEBR, EMILE : French journalist; born at
Luneville, France, June 6, 1855. Having finished
his classical studies at the Lyceum of Vanves and
afterward at the Louis-le-Grand Lyceum in Paris,
he engaged in a commercial career from 1875 to 1880
and attended to exchange transactions from 1880 to
1886. During the latter period he made his debut
in journalisiu. writing for "La France du Nord,"
and contributing essays on economic questions to the
"Xouvelle Revue," which was tlien just founded.
In 1886 he gave up his business career altogether,
and thenceforth devoted himself to journalism,
working first on the "Petite Republique Frau^aisc,"
then on the "Petit Parisien" — on which latter he
applied himself especially to economic questions —
and in July, 1888, on the "Figaro," with which he
has since been identified. He has contributed also
to the following: "Figaro Illustre," "Illustration,"
"XlXme Sificle," "Liberie," "Revue Bleue," "Vie
Parisiennc." In the last-mentioned weekly he pub-
lished between the years 1893 and 1894 some notes of
travel under the pseudonym "Guy," and in 1898 a
series of comments on topics of the day under the
title "Confidential Letters," which latter attracted
niMch attention. He also published in this journal
his notes on Norway, which appeared in book form
under the title "Au Pays des Nuits Blanches,"
Paris, 1900.
Berr has done much work as foreign correspondent
for his paper, interviewing personages of high polit-
ici'l and social standing ; and for this purpose imder-
took several trips to England, Switzerland, Belgium,
Tunis, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Russia, and Alsace-Lor-
raine. He represented the " Figaro " in Asia Minor at
the opening of the railway from Moudania to Broussa .
and then, in 1891, he had an interview with Stam-
buloff at Sofia, which was commented on by the
European press. In 1894 he was appointed chief of
the auxiliary service of the "Figaro," and in this ca-
pacity edited its literary supplement. In 1896, when
the "Figaro" was enlarged to six pages, Berr re
sumed his place in its editorial office, where (1903) he
writes sometimes under his own signature and some
times under the pseudonym "Fabien." Since 1885
B<MT has been a member of the Societe d'Economie
Pnliticiue. and also of the Societe des Journalistes
Parisiens. In 1900 he received the cross of the Le-
gion of Honor.
s. L B.
BERR, GEORGE : French actor and dramatist ;
born at Paris July 31, 1867; brother of Emile Berr.
He was educated at the lycemns of Vanves and
Charlemagne, but, yielding to an irresistible love for
the stage, he, at the age of sixteen, left his classical
studies for the Conservatoire, and became the pupil
of Got. In 1886 he won the first jirize for comedy
in a scene from "Les Plaideurs," and joined the
Comedie Fran^aise. In 1892 he was nominated a
member (societaire), and since then has acted the
comic parts in the classical and modern repertoires.
Berr is equally excellent in purely lyrical works.
He interprets the " Romanesques " of Edmond Ros-
tand with the same superiority as the "Gringoire"
of Theodore de Banville, in which he is considered
to equal Coquelin. the creator of the role, who
has never been replaced since lie left the Theatre
Fran(,-ais. It is in this wide range of characters
that the originality of Berr's talent manifests itself.
In 1901 he succeeded M. Worms in the Conservatoire
as professor of declamation.
As a dramatist Berr is known by the pseudonym
" Colias," which is an anagram of his mother's name,
"Ascoli." It is therefore probable that the Berrs
are connected with the family of Chief Rabbi Ascoli,
and M. Ascoli, who took part in the centennial com-
memoration of the Institut de France.
Berr has published two volumes of comedies:
" Pour Quand on est Deux " and " Pour Quand on
est Trois." In 1899 he, together with JIaurice
Froyez, staged in the Theatre Cluny a farce-comedy,
" Plaisir d'Amour," which was a great success. He
is the author of a great number of unpublished liu-
moristic songs, which were circulated in manuscript
among Ids colleagues.
s. I. B.
BERR ISAAC BERR OF TTJRiaUE:
French manufacturer; born at Nancy in 1744; died
at Turique, near Nancy, Nov. 5, 1828. He came of
a rich and estimable family ; received an excellent
education, especially in Hebrew and rabbinical lit-
erature— in the latterfrom Jacob Perle, chief rabbi of
Nancy. Inheriting the title of syndic of the Jewish
comnumity of Nancy, bestowed upon his father in
1753 by King Stanislaus, he took an active part in
the direction of the affairs of the conununity.
In 1789 he was elected bj- the Jews of Alsace dep
uty to the States-General, where he was admitted to
plead for Jewish emancipation before the Assembly.
At about that time he published a pamphlet in
which he refuted theanti .lewish discourse delivered
by De la Farre, bishop of Nanc}'. Berr was ap-
pointed successively member of the Assembly of
Notables and member of the Sanhedrin ; and he co-
o]KTated effectively in the organization of Jewish
worship in France and in Ital.y. In his old age he
retired, [lensioued b)- the king, to one of his estates
called "Turifjue" — the name of which he added
to his own with the royal permission.
Berr was the author of the following works: (1)
"Discours des Deputes des Juifs des Provinces des
Eveches d'Alsace et de Lorraine, Prononces a la
Barre de I'A.ssemblee Nationale," Paris, 1789; (3)
" Lettre du Sieur Berr Isaac Berr a Monseigneur
l'Eve(HU! de Nancy." Paris. 1790; (-3) "Lettre d'un
Citoyen." Nancj', 1791; (4) "Reflexions sur la Re-
generation Complete des Jinfs en France," Paris,
1806; (5) "Lettre du Sieur Berr Isaac Berr a Gre-
goire, Senateur." Nancj', 1806; (6) "Discours du
Sieur Isaac Berr," Paris, 1806.
Bibliography: Reime Orientale. 11.62-^: Gratz, GiKch.iler
Juiirn, xi. 184 et scq.: Kahn, Les Juifs de Parin Pen(la)U
}a Rfmlution, p. 2" ; Tama. Recuetl de Proces-Vcrhaur. pp.
19 et sen.
s. I. Bk.
BEBR, MICHEL : The first Jew to practise in
France as a barrister; born at Nancy 1780; died
Berr, Michel
Bersbadsky
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
104
there July 4, 1843. His father, Isaac Berr de
TtJRiQUE, who made himsilf known bj- his great
ability as a writer and us ;i rhampion of Jewish
emancipation, intended his son to continue his work.
With this end in view, he had liim carefully educated
by the most eminent masters. The poet Wesscly
recommended to liim as a teacher a learned young
man of Breslau, Benjamin Wolf, who in France
assumed the name of " Louis. " Under the direction
of this Louis, Jlichel made rapid progress in the
study of the Hebrew and German languages and
literature. With no less success he attended the lec-
tures of the central school of Nancy. At Strasburg.
where he studied law, being at tlie time scarcely
twenty years old, he began his career
An Author as an author with a pamphlet entitled
at Twenty. " Appel a la Justice des Nations et des
Rois." or" Adressed'un Citoyen Fran-
<;ais au Cougres de Luneville, au Nom de Tons les
Habitants de I'Europe qui Professent la Religion
Juive." This was an eloquent protest against the
oppressive anti-Jewish laws tlien existing in the
greater part of Europe.
On graduating from the university Berr returned
to Nancy, where he pleaded brilliantly in several
celebrated cases. At the same period he addressed
to the minister of public worship observations on the
speeches delivered by the latter on the law of Ger-
minal 18, tenth year: he protested eliieflv against
the omission of any mention of Jewish worship in
the Concordat.
About 1803 Berr accompanied his father-in-law,
Berr-Bing, to Paris, where he soon made himself
known by several literary articles in the " Decade
Philosophique." Three years later he was elected
deputy to the Assembly of Jewish Notables, and in
the following year was appointed secretary of the
Grand Sanhedrin. Through this hou-
Secretary orable title and the French transhi-
of tion he made of the Hebrew poems
Sanhedrin. of Kargan, Cologna, and Jleyer in
honor of the emperor, he gained the
favor of the government and was called to the post
of chief of division in the ^linistrv of tlie Interior in
the new realm cif Westphalia. There he made the
acquaintance of the Swiss historian Johannes Miiller.
who, in his letters to his brother, speaks of Berr in
most eulogistic terms.
On his return home, in 1809, Berr was appointed
head of the office at the prefecture of Meurthe. At
this period he published his " Essai sur la Vie et les
Ouvrages de Bitaube, " and many pajjers on various
subjects mentioned in the memoirs of the Academy
of Nancy. In 1813 he returned to Paris, and. giving
up his practise at the bar, devoted himself to litera-
ture. For three years he collaborated
Leaves with the "Mcrcure de France," "Mer-
Law for cure Etranger," and "Magasin Ency-
Literature. clopedique." In 1816 he lectured on
German literature at the Athenee
Royal of Paris, and translated into French the trag-
edy "Luther" by Werner, accompanied by notes.
His competence as a translator was much appreci-
ated ; and in 1817 he was appointed translator of the
German papers at the Foreign Office, a post which
he occupied until it was abolished in 1823.
The great reputation that Berr enjoyed excited
the hostility of the envious; and attacks in the
press made by his adversaries affected him deeply.
He was jiartieularly disheartened by his unsuccess-
ful candidature for membership of the Central Con-
sistory, this position being one that he greatly
coveted. In 1836 he went to Brussels, and devoted
himself to polities. On his return he wrote on the
works of Salvador, and contributed to the "Gazette
des Cultes." In 1837 he left Paris and settled at
Nancy, where he quietly worked until liis death.
Besides the above-mentioned works, Berr contrib-
uted numerous articles to scientific journals. The
most important for Judaism were: (1) "Notice Lit-
teraire et Historique siu' le Livre de Job" (Paris,
1807): (2) "Notice sur JIaimonides" (Paris, 1H16);
(3) "Du Rabbinisme et des Traditions Juives"
(Paris, 1822); (4) "De la Litterature Hebraique et
de la Religion Juive " (Paris, 1829): (5) "De I'lm-
mortalite de I'Ame chez les Juifs Anciens et Mo-
dernes " (Paris, 1822) ; (6) " De la Fete du Nou vel An
et du Jefine des E.xpiations. ou Grand Pardon chez
les Juifs" (Paris, 1829); (7) "Nouveau Precis Ele-
mentaire d Instruction Religieuse et Morale, a
rUsage de la Jeunesse'Franeaise Israelite" (Nancy,
1839); (8) "Riteet Regleiuent pour le Culte Israelite
de Metz" (Nancy, 1842).
BiBi.iOGR.\PHY : Revile Oricntah. iiu 62 ct scq. ; Gratz, Gc.si/i.
iler Jiulen. xi. 320. 352, 278, 280, 323.
s. L Bu.
BEBRXJYER, JOSEPH ISAAC: French Jes-
uit ; born at Rouen Nov. 7. 1681 ; died at Paris Feb.
17.j8. He was tlie author of a work entitled "His-
toire du Peuple de Dieu," Paris, 1728, a history of
the Jews from the earliest times to tlie birth of
Jesus, according to the Bible, and a critical study
of the Gospels and the Epistles. This work, writ-
ten in a non-religious spirit, and interspersed with
hazardous observations, provoked the indignation
of tlie Church leaders. The discussions it called
foith made it popular, and numerous editions and
translations of it appeared.
Bnii.iOGRAPHT: Ltx Granilc Enciiclopedie, s.v.
T. I. Bu.
BERSHAD : Town in the district of Olgopol,
ju-ovince of Podolia, Russia, on the road between
Olgopol and Balta. at the rivers Dakhna and Ber-
shadka. In 1900 the Jewish population was 4,500,
out of a total population of 7,000. The Jewish arti-
sans numbered about 500. The community pos-
sessed one synagogue and six houses of juayer. In
June, 1648, during tlie uprising of the Cossacks
under Climielnicky. the most bloodthirsty of his
leaders — Maksim Krivonos — conquered Bershad and
slew all the Jews and Catholics. S. A. Bershadski,
the celebrated historian of the Russian Jews, de-
scended from a Cossiiek family at Bershad, where
his great-grandfather ofiieiated as a Greek Orthodox
Ijriest.
Bershad was famous in the middle of the nine-
teenth century for its Jewish weavers of the " tallit '"
(scarfs used by the .lews during praj-er in the day-
time). But at the end of the century the demand
decreased, and the industry declined, leading many
of the weavers to emigrate to America.
105
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berr, Kichel
Bershadsky
BiBLior.RAPHY : Eyitziklopedicheslii Slavar, vol. Hi., «.«., pub-
lished Ijy Broekhaus and Efron, St. Petersburg, 1893; N.
Kostomarov, Btiadau Chmielnicliy, i. 335: and private
sources.
rl. K.
BEBSHADSKI, SERGEI ALEKSANDRO-
VICH : Russian historian and jui'ist; bnin at Ber-
dyanslv Mai'ch 30, 1850; died iu St. Petersbui-g 1896.
He graduated from the Gymnasium of Kerch in
1868, and from tlie University of Odessa iu 1872; lec-
tured at the University of St. Petersburg on tlie his-
tory of tlie philosopliy of jurisprudence, from 1878
to 1883; and was appointed in 1885 assistant pro-
fessor. At the Lyceum lie delivered lectures also on
the history of Russian jurisprudence; and at the
Military Law School of St. Petersburg, on general
jurisprudence. His famous work on the Lithuanian
Jews, "Litovskic Yevrei." published in 1883, is the
first attempt in this field of historical investigation.
Bershadski's father was a Greek Orthodo.x priest,
while his great-grandfather on his mother's side,
Kovalevski, was a hetiiuin of the Cossacks. The
Cossack traditions of his family found expression in
his violent prejudice against the Jews. He states,
in his autobiographical notes, how in his childhood
he learned of the horrors of the times of C'iimiei,-
NICKY in connection with the "homicidal Jews."
From the old blind bandore-player (bandurist) at
tlie fairs, from the reaper in the field, and from the
peasant girls at the spinning-wheel on long winter
evenings, he had heard the same tale of the Jew as
"the defiler of the sanctuary." This incited him to
make a study of the Jewish question. "I started,"
he declares, "as a confirmed .Icw-hatcr. " His Jew-
ish colleagiies at the universit}' remember how he
used to threaten them, saying, " Wait, some day I
will expose you!" He went to the Archives and
there began to search for material for his threatened
exposures. The re.sult was his work, "Opyt Novoi
Postanovki Nyekotoiykh Voprosov po Istorii Yev-
reistva v Polshye i Litvye," an attempt to put into
a new light .some questions concerning the history
of the Jews in Poland and Lithuania. To the sur-
prise of some of liis friends this appeared in the
" Yevreiskaya Bibliotcka. " And their surjirise grew
when they read its important and on the whole
favorable statements. The result of • further re-
searches appeai'ed soon after in the " Voskhod," and
in the " Russki Yevrei," both of them Jewish pub-
lications, and the name of Bershadski became so
closely connected with Jewish topics, that most of
the readers of these periodicals were firmly con-
vince<l that this so-called "Jew-hater" was a Jew
himself. Soon afterward appeared his principal
work, "Dokumenty 1 Regesty," etc., containing
about 700 original documents and records from the
early period of Jewish settlement in Lithuania, 1388-
1569. Russian historiography shows no other in-
stance of an equal collection devoted to one special
subject. About the same time he published his
"Historj' of the Lithuanian Jews." Though this
work covers a period of only two liundred years, it
endeavors to depict the entire course of Lithuanian-
Jewish histoi-y.
Bei'shadski's chief characteristics as a writer are a
keen historical eye and truthfulness. He has the
merit of having been the first impartial historiog-
rapher of the Jews in Lithuania. His published
woi-ks are: (1) "Litovskie Yevrei, Istoriya ikh
Yuridichcskavo i Obshchestvennavo Polozheniya v
Litvye," St. Petersburg, 1883, being a history of
the legal and social conditions of the Jews at Lith-
uania in 1388-1569; (2) "Dokumenty i Regesty k
Istorii J,itovskikh Yevreyev," St. Petersburg, 1882,
bearing upon thi^ history of the Jews in Lithuania;
(3) "A. E. Rebiichkovich, Podskarbi Vclikavo Knya-
zhestva Litovskavo," Kiev, 1888; (4) "Yevrei Korol
Polski," St. Petersburg, 1890, concerning a Jew
king of Poland. Many articles on Jewish-Polish
and Jewish-Lithuanian history in the periodicals
were contributed by him in "Yevreiskaya Biblio-
tcka," "Voskhod," "Russki Yevrei," and other peri-
odicals.
Bibliooraphy: Vengerov, Kritiho-Bingrafichfshi Slovnr,
vol. lii., .s.t'., St. Petersburg, ISSB; A. B., tiirshMlski Kak
Monk Riis^kikh Ycvrfyei\ in VoshluK}^ 189ti, iv. 1(11-131,
xi.-xii. 99-110; M. Vinnaver, in Viixkhud, 1897, v. 49 et wq.
H. R.
BERSHADSKY, ISAIAH (pseuilonym for
DOMOSHEVITZKY) : Russian novelist;' born in
Saiuiosclia, near Slonini, government of Grodno,
1874 ; now a teacher in Yekaterinoslav. Bershadsky
is one of the youngest Neo-Hebraic writers of fiction
in Russia, and one of whom much inaj' be cxjiccted.
His "Zikronot Tugah " (Sad .Memoiies), in"Ha-Slii
loah." vi. 405-416, is the story of a Talmudist who
went into business, imitated the vices and exiiava
ganccsof the rich, and, after lieing ruined by living
above his means (a fault conuuon to old-style Russian
merchants), is a mental and physical wreck at fifty-
five, with adevotcd wife whodid not share his plcas-
ui'es but comforts him in his despair. The author
shows power and keen insight into human nature,
and has Ihe sympathy for his erring characters which
denotes the tiue artist. In his silhouettes, "Ma'asim
be-Kol Yom" (Every Day Occurrences), which ap-
peared in the " Ahiasiif " calendar for 1901, he
places before the reader with a few masterly strokes
types and incidents which are not easily forgotten.
The best of them is pi-obably "HaShemu'ah " (The
Report). This describes the agony of a liberal Jew
when he learns from his sons, whom he has estab-
lished iu business in a great city, that the)' are com-
pelled to embrace Christianity iu order not to be
ruined by expulsion. The anomalies of religious life
are presented in their most cruel phases; for the au-
thor states that the old man was liberal and c-areil
little about the religious conduct of his sons, some-
times even encouraging transgression in small things,
but that he is crushed by their conversion, which is
to some extent the outcome of their training under
his supervision.
In his novel, "Be'en Mattarah " (Without Ainu.
Bershadsky ably describes the life of progressive
Hebrew teachers in Russia, and the supeiiority of a
Zionist idealist over a bi-illiant cyuic, Adamnrich.
who is the hero of the novel, and who has no aim in
life. These novels as well as two others, " Dcfusim
u-Zelalim" (Types and Shades) and " Neged ha-
Zerem" (Against the Current), were published in the
last two years by the "Tuschia" of Warsaw. Ber-
shadsky also contributed several short sketches to
"Ha-Dor."
H. R. P. Wi.
Bersohn
Bertbold
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
106
BEBSOHN, MATHIAS : Polish bibliographer.
archeoloicist, aiui writer ou fine arts; born at War-
saw 1820. He is the owner of a choice library
■which contains a valuable collection of rare books
and manuscripts. Among other works he wrote:
(1) " W. Stosie," 1870; oT-'Tobias Kohn." Cracow,
1873, the biography of a Jewish physician of the
seventeenth century, the author of "Maase To-
bia" ; a supjilemcnt, taken from a work entitled
"Metryka Koronna." giving important documents
on the history of the Jews of Poland, is added to
'■Tobias Kohn": (3) "Marcin Teotil Polak." 1889;
(4) " Studcncy Polacy na Universytecie Colonskim
xvi i xvii, w " — a pamphlet on old South-Russian
synagogues; and many articles in the Polish period-
icals ■' Tygodnik Illustrowany " and " Biblioteka
Warszawska."
Bibliography: S. Orgelbrand, Encyklopedja Powszechnn,
ii., .-■.!'.. Warsaw. 1898.
H. R.
BEE.TENSOHN, BERNARD: Russian
teacher and translator ; born at Odessa at the end of
the eighteenth century; died there 1859. He re-
ceived a careful education iu the school of Basilius
Stern, and for nianj' years was a teacher of lan-
guages in Odessa. Berteusohn contributed to- the
"Odesski Vyestnik" and otlier periodicals, and in
1841 tran.slated into Russian L. Philippson's novel,
"Die JIaiannen."
Bibliography: Voskhml. 1884, iv. 146.
H. u. V. R.
BERTENSOHN, JOSEPH VASILIEVICH :
Russian courl-physiciau; born at Nikolaiev, govern-
ment of Kherson, in 1835. He received Ids early edu-
cation at tlie g.vmnasium of Odessa, whence he was
graduated in 1849; studied at the Richelieu Lyceum
in Odessa, at the University of Kharkov, and then
at the University of Dorpat, from the latter of which
he graduated in 1857 with the degree of doctor of
medicine. In 1859 he was appointed plij'sician of
the city liospital at Vitelisk. He went abroad iu
1861 and attended the lectures of Virchow, Traube,
Skoda, and Helmholtz. In 1863 he became attached
to the medical department of the Ministry of the In-
terior, and soon after was appointed a member of the
St. Petersburg board of health. He assumed the
editorship of the "Arkhiv Sudebnoi Meditzinj-
Obshchestvennoi lligieny " in 1865. The municipal
government of St. Petersburg entrusted him, in the
following year, with tlie management of the Cholera
Asylum, which in 1867 was transformed into the
First City Hospital. To his efforts were due the
establishment of a field-hospital and a training-.school
for medical assistants. Bertensohn is still director
of these institutions, the first of their kind in Russia.
In 1875 lie established a free dispensary, which was
named iu honor of Grand Duchess Maria Alexan-
drovna. During the Franco-Prussian war he accom-
panied the celebrated surgeon Pirogov to the battle-
field. From there he sent a series of valuable articles
on military hygiene. He is a privy-councilor, an
honorary physician to the Russian court, a member
of many learned societies, and an honorary member
of the medical associations of Vitebsk, Kiev, and St.
Petersburg. His works on various questions of
public hygiene and sanitary reform have been of
great practical importance. Berteusohn was one of
the most ardent propagators of Pirogov 's advanced
ideas and has done a great deal toward their reali-
zation. Besides numerous articles contributed to
medical periodicals, be has published the following
works: (1) "O Gliermafroditismye. etc., v Sudebno-
Meditzinskom Otnoshenii"; (2) "Barachuj'e Laza-
retz V Voyenuoe i Miiube Vremya," St. Petersburg,
1871; (3) "Baraki St. Peterburgskavo Damskavo
Lazaretnavo Komiteta," St. Petersburg, 1872; (4)
" L'Hopital Baraque Etabli parle Comite des Dames
de St. Petersbourg, d'Ordrcde S. M. I'lmperatrice."
St. Petersburg, 1874.
Bibliography : Vengerov, Khtikn-Biofirafichcshi Slnvar,
lii., St. Petersburg, 1892 ; EMziklnpetUchaski Slovar, ixi.,
St. Petersburg, 1892.
H. R,
BERTENSOHN, LEV BERNARDOVICH :
Russian physician ; Ijorn at Odes.sa Aug. 10, 18.50;
son of Bernard and nephew of Joseph Bertensohn.
He graduateil in 1867 from the Larin Gymnasium,
St. Petersburg, and in 1873 from the St. Petersburg
Jledical Academy. He was assigned to duty in the
clinical military hospital, under Eck and Eichwald.
From 1876 to 1887 Bertensohn lectured at the Rozh-
denstvenskaya Hospital on the diagnosis and treat-
ment of diseases. In 1887 he was appointed, by the
minister of crown domains, president of the com-
mission for the improvement of the mineral springs
system of the Caucasus. Bertensohn published his
chief work on balneology in 1873. under the title
" Jlineralnye Vody, Gryazy, i Morskiya Kupanya v
Rossii i Zagranitzei," being assisted therein by Dr.
Voronikhim. Among his other works may be men-
tioned "Pseudoleukemia Prinyalaya za Tif," 1879
(reprinted in German in " St. Petersburg Medicinische
Wochenschrift," 1879, No. 12). Berteusohn also
published in the "Meditziiiski Vyestnik," in 1883,
an article on Turgenef, who, in his closing years,
was treated by Bertensohn. With Ivauov Berten-
sohn translated Kiintz's "Lehrbuchder Praktischen
Medicin." and with Dr. Popov he issued a work on
the Caucasian mineral waters. " K Voprosu ob Us-
troistvye Kavkazskikh Mineralnikh Vod," 1887.
Bibliography : Veogerov, Kritikn-Biiigranchcuki Slovar, ill.
126, St. Petersburg, 1892; Bokhaya Eutziklnpediya, ill., ib.
1901.
n. E. V. R.
BERTENSOHN, VASILI ALEKSEYE-
VICH : Ru.ssian agriculturist ; born in Odessa Sept.
12, 1860. He belongs to the hereditary nobility, his
father, Dr. Aleksei Vasilievich Bertensohn, having
been a state councilor and knight of the Order of St.
Vladimir. Vasili graduated from the technical high
school of Odessa in 1879, studied for a year at the
Imperial New-Russian University at Odessa, and then
at the Petrovsko-Razumovskoye Agricultural Acad-
emy in Moscow, whence he graduated in 1884.
From 1885 to 1894 Bertensohn was attached to the
Department of State Domains, and was stationed at
Odessa as adviser to the superintendent of the govern-
ments of Kherson and Bessarabia. He was at the
same time secretary to the Odessa committees on
phylloxera and sericulture, and undertook several
agricultural commissions for the department.
In 1889 Bertensohn was commissioned to western
Europe for the purpose of studying the conditions
107
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bersohn
Berthold
of sericulture and viticulture. In 1893 he was ap-
pointed agricultural expert to the soutliern govern-
nieuts, and commissioned to investigate the needs of
sericulture und other agricultural problems in those
districts. The following jear, Berteusolm was made
an extra official in the Department of Agriculture and
State Domains, in addition to his other appointments.
In 1900 he liecame chief expert on agriculture to the
governments of Podolia and Volhynia, and chief
expert on sericulture in South Russia. He is the
representative of the Department of Agriculture and
State Domains in connection with the various agri-
cultural institutions of Odessa; and was commis-
sioned by his ilepartment to inspect the agricultural
section of the Paris Exposition of 1900.
Bertensolm is an aulic councilor and knight of
the orders of St. Stanislav and St. Anne. He was
also decorated by Emperor Alexander III. with liis
"commemoration" medal; and Bertensohu's depart-
ment has awarded him a special medal for his serv-
ices to agriculture. In connection with Jewish
cliaritable institutions Berten.solm has been very
active. Tlie farm of the Odessa Hebrew Orphan
Asylum was organized on lines proposed by him.
and he superintended it for a considerable time. In
1898. at the invitation of Baron de Hirsch, he vi.sited
Paris and London for the purpose of joining in the
delibei-ations on the proposal to establish Jewish
colonies in the Argentine Republic. He was offered
the position of superintendent of the agricultural
sections of these colonies, but did not accept it.
Berten.sohn has been a prolitic contributor to the
agricultural journals " Zemledyelcheskaya Gaz-
eta," "Zemledyelie," and the " Odesski Vyestnik,"as
Well as to several periodicals. On agricultural edu-
cation, in connection with the Jewish question, he
has published essays in the "Voskhod " and "Odes-
ski Vyestnik." Many of these have been issued in
pamphlet form; among them " Vinogradarstvo na
Peshchanuoi Pochvye," "Shelkovodstvo v Kherson-
skoi, Bessarabskoi i Tavricheskoi Guberniakh," and
" Polskaya Pshenitza. "
Bibliography: Vengerov, Kritikri-Bi'itirafichcshi Sliwar,
ill., St. Petersburg, 1892; and private sources.
H. R.
BERTHEATT, ERNEST: Biblical and Oriental
scholar; born Nov. 23, 1812, in Hamburg; died Ma.y
17. 1888, in Gottingen. In 1843 he was appointed
ordinary professor in the University of GOttingen,
where he lectured on Oriental languages, Biblical
exegesis, Hebrew archeology and history. Ber-
theau was the author of the following works: (1)
"Die Sieben Gruppen Mosaischer Gesetze," Got-
tingen, 1840; "ZurGesch. derlsraeliten," Gottingen,
1842 ; and (in the " Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Hand-
buch zum Alten Testament") commentaries on
Judges and Ruth, Leipsic, 184.'i; Proverbs, Leipsic,
1862; Chronicles, Leipsic, 1854; Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Esther, Leipsic, 1862. Noteworthy also is his
edition of the smaller Syriac grammar of Bar-
Hebraetis, Gdttingen. 1848.
BiBLKKiRAPHV : Brockhaus, Konversations - Lexiknn ; La
(rninilr Encyclopedic.
T. B. B.
BERTHOLD OF REGENSBURG : Monk
and itinerant preacher; born about 1220; died in
Regensburg (Ratisbon) Dec. 14, 1272. This most
celebrated popular preacher of the Middle Ages,
known to the people as "Rusticanus." traveled
through Bavaria, the Rhine Provinces, Alsatia, Aus-
tria, Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, and Bohemia, and
exercised an enormous influence upon the populace
by his fiery speech and his lofty moral ideals. The
last part of his life-work was spent in the interest of
the Crusades.
It is supposed that in his many journeys he came
in contact with the Jews, though there are no direct
data on this point. In his numerous .sermons, how-
ever, occasional references to the Jews show that he
belonged to those ecclesiastics who, though good
churchmen and brought up in the traditions of their
church respecting the Jews, were lilii'ral-iiiinded
enough to treat them as human beings to wliom the
state owed a certain amount of protection. Some
qualities, which Berthold must have observed
among the Jews who came under his notice, ap-
pealed strongly to him; and on one occasion he
warned his hearers to be constant in their morning
and evening prayers, adding, "In this the Jews put
you to shame." On another occasion he used the
same expression in regard to the holiness of family
life. It is more surprising, however, to see how
forcibly he speaks against what in his time was be-
coming the fashion of the day — the altemiit to com-
pel the Jews to become Christians. He declares it
to be foolish to forcibly push the Jews into the
water. He is also very decided in his distaste for
another method then growing common ; namel}',
that of forcing the Jews to see the error of their
ways. The many disputations, which from that
time on were held, were regarded by Berthold as
quite useless; for he says: "You all desire to have
a dispute with the Jews. You are ignorant; they
are learned in Holy Writ. Tliey know well how to
out-talk you; and because of this you always
emerge the weaker." In regard to the position of
the Jews before the law he has this to say: "Kings
ought to guard the Jews as the)- guard the Chris-
tians in respect of their persons and their chattels, if
taken in during time of peace; and he who kills a
Jew must stand for it as must a Christian, when the
emperor has received them in time of peace." He
then quotes tli(" usual reasons given by the Church
for permitting Jews to live among Christians:
"First, because they are witnesses that our Lord
was by them crucified . . . ; secondly, because
those of them who shall be living at the time of Anti-
christ will all have become Christians before the last
day."
There are, however, many indications that, despite
these liberal expressions, Berthold was still the child
of his day, and his ecclesiastical dislike of the Jews
was increased liy the great horror which he had of
usury in any form; but it must be remembered that,
like Bcrnhard of Clairvaux (1146) and the minne-
singer Rumelant (thirteenth century), he is as vigor-
ous against Christian usury as against Jewish. This
popular prejudice is seen in his speaking of "des
stinkenden Juden falschen Geschwiltz," and men-
tioning them in connection with thieves, robbers,
heathens, heretics, and perjurers. On one occasion
lie did not scruple to say : " Mr. Jew, the devil had
Bertinoro
Beruriab
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
108
long ago broken thy neck, had it not been for the
angel tliat watches over thee."
Bertholil is also of interest iu the history of mys-
ticism; for in him is seen the close connection be-
tween Christian and Jewish mysticism of the thir-
teenth century. He believed in a most elaborate
angelology ; and even the mystic value of the letters
of the alphabet was not unknown to him.
BiBLior.R.vPHY : The passages dealinjr with the .lews are Quoted
in GiUlHinaun's '.;'.<i7nV;i/( Jc.s Erzkhuiiii.-<ni-<i:iis uiiil ihr
Cidtuv iltr Jutliii in Fraithrrich iiixi />« »f.v(/Wfi/M/. Inde.\.
s.v. BerthiiUh Vienna, ISSI. The literature uu Beithold will
be found in Ilaui-k"s licalenaihlnpiidic fUr Prntc.itantisvlie
Theiih'iiii tiiKl Kirchr, ii. (Hi), Leipsii", lf97.
G.
BEKTINORO, OBADIAH (YAREH) B.
ABRAHAM tcalled also Bartinoro): CeUbiated
rabbi ami inmmeutator on tlie Mishiiah; lived in the
second half uf the fifteenth century in Italy ; died in
Jerusjilem about 1.500. lie was a piiijil of Joseph b.
Solomon Colon (sec the latter's Responsa, Xo. 70. ed.
Venice. G'h\). and became ralibi in Bertinoro, a town
in the province of Flori, whence he derived his by-
name, and iu Castello. The desire to visit tlie Holy
Land led liim to Jerusalem; and he arrived there
March 2.5. 1488, having conimenced his journey Oct.
29, 1486. His advent in Palestine marked a ilew
epoch for the Jewish community there and indeed
for the whole coimtry. The administration of Jew-
ish communal affairs in Jerusalem had fallen into
the handsof iniquitous officials who tyrannized over
great and small. The poor were pitilessly ta.\ed for
the Jlohammedan government; tlie rich were simi-
larly treated and driven from the city by exorbitant
demands upon tliem, so that the Jewish community
was on the brink of ruin (see Jervs.\i.em).
Bertinoro's strong personality, his eloquence, and
great rejiutation as a scholar led to his being ac-
cepted its the spiritual head of the community im-
mediately upon his aiTival. His first care was to
raise the intellectual plane of the community, and
for this imrpose he interested the younger genera-
tion in the study of the Talmud and rabbinical lore.
and he delivered sermons every other Sabbath in
Hebrew, although the vernacular language was
Arabic, one which Bertinoro never
Influence acquired. His connections in Italy
in supplied him with money for the sup-
Palestine, port of the jioor, which also added not a
little to his iutluence. He succeeded in
securing the abolition of the annual ta.\ of 400 ducats,
which had sifforded such opportunity for oppression
and injustice; iu lieu a simple poll-tax payable di-
rect to the government was instituted. When, on
the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, many
of the exiles settled in Jerusjilem. Bertinoro became
their intellectual leader. These Spanish Jews, far
superior in intelligence, culture, and learning to the
Arabian Jews of Palestine, presented Bertin(ii'o witli
a site for a yeshibah in Jerusijlem, which he fotmded.
more than a thousiind years after the extinction of
the last academy in Palestine (see Ac.\demies in
P.\lestine). Considerable support for the main-
tenance of the yeshibah was given by the Jews of
Egypt and Turkey at Bertinoro's written solicita-
tion. Isaac b. Mathan ibn Shulal, naggid or prince of
Egypt, was especially helpful.
In tlie decade during which Bertinoro thus con-
trolled the best interests of the Jewish community
at Jerusalem, a radical change for the better de\el-
oped. Shortly after his arrival lie had actually
been compelled upon one occasion to dig a graM-
l"'cause the commuuitv had jirovided no one to pc i
form that labor; a few years later there had coiif
into existence such benevolent institutions as lios|ij.
tals. charitable relief societies, and similar assoeiu
tions. all under excellent management. His faii^
and reputation spread to all parts of the Orient
and he came to be looked upon as a rabbinical :iu-
thority of highest eminence; even the Moliammiihin
population frequently called upon him to decide
judicial cases. His scrupulous conscientiousness
and moral earnestness were especially reeognizi il.
For instance, he harshlj^ reproved the rabbis fur ex-
acting fees for services at weddings and divorces, a
custom then general in Germany, and did not liisi-
tate to style them robbers (commentarj- on Bekorot,
iv. 6). He believed it their duty to perform relig-
ious ceremonies without monetjiry remuneration.
Bertinoro is usually known as the best commenta-
tor of the Mishnah; the importance of his commen-
tary is illustrated by the fact that since its appear-
ance (Venice. 1.549) hardly an edition of the Mishnah
has been printed without it ; even Surenhuis in his
Latin translation and commenlavy upon the IMisli.
nah (Amsterdam. 1098-1703) translated Bertinoro.
Its excellence lies iu the fact that he
Literary selected the best afforded by Rsislii
Activity, and Maimonidesand gave this in clear
and easily comprehensible fashion : iu
the matter of originality, however. Bertinoro does not
approach his distinguished predecessors, nor even
his successor in this department, Yom-Tob Lipmanu
Heller.
Bertinoro is also the author of a snpercommentary
upon Rashi's Pentateuch commentary (publislieil
under the title " 'Amar Xaki " [Pure Wool], Pis;i.
1810; reprinted in the collective work "Rabbotenu
Ba'ale ha-Tosafot." Warsaw. 1889). His commen-
tary upon Abot is, as Jellinek showed, only an ex-
tract from Simon Durau's work upon that book
("Monatsschrift." iv. 119, and an appendix added
to a few copies of Jellinek's edition of Duran's
Abot-commentary, Leipsic, 1855). Some liturgical
productions 1)V Bertinoro exist in manuscript in the
Bodleiau Library. Oxford (Nos. 1061; 2266, 6; in
the first the name of his father is menfione<l). He
also wrote descrijitions of his travels; and his letters
to his relations in Italy, althougli intended only
as private communications, are of great historical
value. Most interesting iu these letters (first pub-
lished by S. Sachs in the " Jahibuch f iir Gesch. der
Juden." 1863. iii. 19.5-224) is the fund of informa-
tion concerning the social and intellectual conditions
of the Jews in Greece. Egypt, and Palestine. He
shows himself therein not only a close observer, but
a conscientious and unjirejudiced chronicler. For
example, he studied attentively the conditions of
the Karaites in Alexandria, and did not hesitate to
praise them for the possession of the very virtues
which the Rabbinites denied to them, such as gen-
erosity and liberality (I.e. p. 208; the text is to be
emended according to the manuscript mentioned in
109
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bertinoro
Beruriah
Steinschneider, "Hebr. Bibl." vi. 131). His descrip
tion of tlu' SiUiiaritaus in Egypt (I.e. pp. 200-208) is
oiu; of the most valuable and reliable of medieval
times.
His letters liave been trauslated into German by
Ncubauer. " Jahrbucii, " I.e. pp. 225-270, and sep-
arately, Leipsic, 1863: into French by M. Schwalj.
"Lettres d'Obadiah." Paris, 1«66; into English
ill the "Miscellany of Hebrew Literature,"!., 1ST2,
No. 7. All these translations. how-
Letters, ever, are baseil upon a very imperfect
manuscript (see Steinschneider, I.e. vi.
131. xiii. 124, who gives many emendations from
another manuscript). The Hebrew edition, pub-
lished by M. T. Schwerdscharf, Kolomea, 1S86. is
simply a reprint of the same text. Collated pas
sages from another manuscript, as well as a short
letter by Bertinoro, were published by Steinschnei-
der in " Yehudah we-Yeruslialayim," ii. 1878. The
Almanzi lihrary coutaineil Bertinoro's novelUv upon
Moses of Coucy's work, "Sefer ;\Iizw(>t ha-Gadol "
C'Semag") — see Luzzatto, in "Hebr. Bibl." v. 14.):
the work is now very probably in the British Mu-
seum.
BiBi.iocRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Geiloliiii, i. l.il-l.")3, ed. Ben-
Jnrob; tVjnforte, Kiire ha-Di>rnt, Wa, 24a, 38b, 30b. ert.
Cassipl: Liini'Z. Jerusalem. 1. 113; Ii. 2.s-;i3; ili. 2, 3; Stelii-
si-hnelder, Citl. Bii(». 21)72-2073; Zunz, (,'. .S. i. 177.
L. G
BERTOLIO, ABB^: French cleric: member of
the Commune of Paris in 1790. The National Assem-
bly conferred citizenship upon the Jews of Bordeaux,
Bayonne, and Avignon Jan. 28, 1790; but deferred
granting it to those of Alsace and Lorraine. Hence,
when the Jews of France petitioned the Assem-
bly, Dec. 24, 1789, delegates from Paris appeared
before the General Assembly of the Commune
with the request that it pledge itself to support
the petition of the Jews. On Jan. 30, 1790,
tlie latter Assembly listened to the report of Abbe
Bertolio, who, whilefavoring the Jews' retjuest, pro-
]iosed that the Assembly should take no steps in
their belialf before consulting the districts and hav-
ing obtained their approbation of the pleilge re-
quested. His proposition was adopted, anil on Feb.
28 a deputation from the Conuiume, with the Abbe
Mulot as spokesman and Bertolio as a member, ap-
peared before the National Assembly, requesting it
to extend to the Jews of Paris the decree giving
citizenship to those Jews known as Portuguese,
Spanish, and Avignonese. As is well known, this
intervention of the Commune was not immediately
effective.
s. I. L.
BERTRAM, CORNEILLE BONAVEN-
TURE: Protestant clergyman and Ileliraist ; Ixini
at Thouars. France, in 1531 ; died at Lau.sanne.
Switzerland, 1594. He studied at Poitiers. Paris.
Toulouse, and Cahors. Learning, in the last -men-
tioned citj', that the authorities had received an
order to massacre all the Protestants, he lied to
Geneva, where, in 1567, he became jirofessor of Ori-
ental languages in the university. Among many
valuable works he wrote the following on Hebrew
matters: (1) "Gal 'Ed" (Heapof Testimony). "Com-
paratio Grammatics? Hebraica; Aramaicie." Geneva,
1574; (2) "De Politia Judaica tarn Civili quam Ec-
desiastica," Geneva. 1580. a work on Hebrew insti-
tutionsand history, which enjoyed great iiopularity,
and passed through many editions; (3) "Gratnma-
tica Hebraica et Arabiea," Geneva, n. d. ; (4) "Lucu-
brationes Frankentallenses, sen Specimen Exposi-
tionum in Dilliciliora Utriusque Testamenti Loca,"
Frankenthal, 158G. Bertram also published a trans-
lation of the Bible very much appreciated at that
time, Geneva, 1588. In this translation he followed
Sebastian Munster and Tremclius; and very often
he made use of rabbinic commentaries.
BiBLiofiRAPHY : Haajf,' La France Protegtante. Ii. 229-Sl ;
Dreux du Radler, Nntive de C. B. Bertram, in Bibllothecnie
HiKtnrii/ue et Critique de Poitou. iil. 1 et seq. ; Steinscbnei-
diT, BiMioi/raptmclies Uatidhucli. p. 22.
r I. Br.
BERURIAH ( = probably Valeria) : Daughterof
the maityr K. Hananiah ben Teradion, and wife of K.
Mei'r; l)orn in the tirst quarter of the second cen-
tury, she lived at Tiberias after the Iladrianic per-
•secutions. Ilertraitsof character, gleaned from Tal-
mudic passages, show Iier to have been a helpmate
worthy of her great husband, and to have possessed
a personality corresponding to the emergencies of
the troublous times following upon the failure of
Bar Kokba's insurrection. They betray intellectual
qualities and attainments as well as womanly ten-
derness and stanch virtues. It is said that she
studied three hundred Talmudic subjects daily (Pes.
62b), and K. .fudah endorsed a decision of hers, on a
question about clean and unclean, in which she
went count<'r to the view of " the wise " (" hakamim ")
(Tosef., Kelim, B. M. i. 6).
Her womanly tenderness is shown by a Biblical
interpretation (Ber. 10a): Her husband, grievously
vexed by wicked ncigliliors. pra3'ed for their exter-
mination. Beruriah exclaimed: "What! do you
dare pray thus because the Psalmist says: 'Let
l.iataVm be consumed out of the earth"!* (Ps. civ. 35)
Observe that he does not say hote'i'm ["sinners"],
but hataim ["sins"]. And th<'n look to the end of
the ver.se: 'And the wicked will be no more.' Once
sins are rooted out, there will be no more evil-doers."
Of her readj' wit the following is a specimen (ib.):
In a dispute between Beruriah and a sectary, the
latter quoted Isa. liv. 1: "Sing, O barren, thou that
(liilst not bear," and mockingly asked whether bar-
renness is cause for singing. Beruriah directed him
to look to the end of the verse: " Jlore are the chil-
dren of the desolate than the children of the married
wife." The princi|)le upon which both interpreta-
tions rest. "Look to the end of the verse" (p'BB'
NIpT iTa'Di)). became an exegetical rule current
among the later Talnuidical sages.
In 'Er. 53b ct seq. there are other examples of
her knowledge of Jewish Scriptures and her al-
most coquettish playfulness, coexist-
Her 'Wide ing in her with a capacity for right-
Knowledge eous indignation, displayed when it
of v,as ]Udposed, for her father's sake,
Scriptures, to pay funeral honors to her scape-
grace brother. Father, mother, and
.sister alike denounced his conduct, the last applying
to him Prov. xx. 17 (R. V.). "Bread of falsehood is
sweet to a man ; but afterward his mouth sliall be
tilled with gravel" (Sem. xii. ; "^.am. H. iii. 16).
Beruriah
Bessarabia
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
HO
Beruriali's life fell in calamitous times. Not ouly
did sbe lose lier father through the Hadrianic perse-
cutions, but her mother at the same time suffered a
violent death, and her sister was carried off to Rome,
or perhaps Antiocli, to lead a life of shame under
coercion. At Beruriah's instance, R. Meir set out
to save her sister's honor, and succeeded (' Ab. Zarah
18a; Sifre, Dent. 307; Ecd. R. vii. 11). In conse-
quence he had to flee to Babylonia, and Beruriah
accompanied him.
Beruriali is best known in connection with the
touching story of the sudden death of her two sons
on the Sabbath, while their fatlier was at the liouse
of study. On his return, at the conclusion of the
Sabbath, he at once asked for them. Their mother
replied tliat they had gone to the house of study,
and. feigning to disregard her husband's rejoinder,
that he had looked for them tliere in vain, she lianded
liim the cup of wine for the Habdalah service. His
second inquiry for them was evaded by a similar
subterfuge. After R. Me'ir had eaten liis evening
meal. Beruriah asked formally for permission to put
a question to him. "Rabbi," she then said, "some
time ago a deposit was left with me for safekeep-
ing, and now the owner has come to claim it. Must
I return it '? " " Can there be any question about the
return of property to its owner?" sjiid R. Me'i'r, half
astonished and half indignant that his wife should
entertain a doubt. " I did not care to
Sudden let it go out of my possession wifliout
Death of your knowledge," replied Beruriah,
Her Two seetningly in excuse, and. taking him
Sons. by the hand, led hira into the room in
which the bodies of their two sons
were lying on the bed. When slie withdrew the
cover, R. Mei'r broke out in tears and plaints.
Gently Beruriah reminded liim of his answer to her
question about the return of a treasure entrusted to
one for safe-keeping, adding the verse from Job (i.
21): "'The Lord gave, and the Lord hatli taken
away; blessed be the name of tlie Lord." This
story, which has found a liome in all modern litera-
tures, can be traced to no earlier source than the
Talkut (Prov. 964, ijuotation from a Midrash).
AVith Beruriah's deatli is connected a legend men-
tioned by Rashi CAb. Zarah 18b). To explain R.
Meir's flight to Babylonia, the commentator relates
the following:
" Once Beruriah scoffed at ihe rabbinical saving, ' Women are
Upht-mlnded " (Kid. Wbi, and her husband warned her that her
own end migrht yet testify to tlie truth cif Ihe words. To put
her virtue to the test, he charged one of his disciples to endeavor
to seduce her. .\fter repeated efforts she yielded, and then
shame drove her to commit suicide. R. Meir, tortured by re-
morse, fled from his home."
The historical kernel of this story can not be dis-
engaged. As told, the narrative is wholly at vari-
ance with what is known of Beruriah's character and
that of R. Me'i'r. Beruriah probably died at an early
age.
BlBLioGR.vrnT : Adolf Blumenthal, Rabhi Me'ir. pp. 108-lU ;
M. KavserUnp, Di*' JiUUsihcu Fruueti iu ihr Gc.<chichtc,
Literntur mid Kun«t. pp. 13r>-124 : Henry Zlrudorf, Soiiif
Jewish JT'onifH, pp. 162-17:5; Bacher, An. tail. i. 4(10, ii. 5.
J. SK. H. S.
BER'CrSH. See Baer of Meseuitz.
BERYL (!;"L'nn) : A stone, ranging in color from
blue to pale yellow and found all over the world;
three kinds are to be distinguished — beryl, aqua-
marine, and emerald. According to Ex. xxviii, 20
and xxxix. 13. the beryl was the first on the fourth
row of the breastplate of the high priest . It is also
mentioned frequently in the apocalyptic literature;
e.g., Ezek. i. 16. x. 9. xxviii. 13; Dan. x. 6). ,
J. JR. G. B. L. «
BERYTXJS. See Beirvt.
BESALTT (Latin. Bisuldum) : City in Catalonia,
Spain. Its small Jewish community had the same
privileges as that of the neighboring Gerona. and
was taxed together with it. A number of docu-
ments dealing with taxes of the Jews of this place
are preserved in the archives of Aragon at Barce-
lona. Besalu is the birthplace of the family Caslar
(called in Jewish documents Descaslars, "INijcpcn).
of Abraham b. David Caslar, Joseph ibn Zabara, and
others.
BiBLiofiRAPHY: Jacobs, Sources of the History of the Jews
ill Siniin. p. 246.
G. M. K.
BESANQON : City and county of France, in the
ilepartmeut of Doubs. Although no mention is
made of this city in Jewish sources, it is known that
it had a prominent part in the history of the Jews
and was also of some importance even from a liter-
al}- point of view. By his marriage witli Jeanne of
Burgundy, Philip the Tall, king of France, became
ruler of this province in 1316. In a letter of Dec.
14, 1021, he gave to the queen the spoils from the
Jews, who he had driven from his territory. Some
years afterward they were recalled, but when in
1348 the Black Plague broke out, the inhabitants ac-
cused the Jews of being the cause, persecuted them,
and had many of them executed, and finally (1360)
the wretched survivors who had escaped the massji-
cres were exiled from the province by a decree of
Princess ilarguerite.
There is no mention of Jews in the city of Besan-
^on (which is the capital of the county) before 1320,
when, in the depth of winter, they were driven from
the environs, and knocked at the gates of this free
city, which was tmder the patronage of the emperor
of Germany. Five of them, on account of previous
commercial relations, having succeeded in entering
the city, asked permission to remain at least until the
end of the winter. The leading men of the city,
in order to please the barons D'Arlay, who were
favorably inclined toward the Jews, gave their con-
sent that the fugitives should reside among them.
The new inhabitants of Besanc<m. however, paid
for their light to remain by many and burdensome
obligations. They were required to pay a heavy
poll-tax every mouth to the city treasury, were for-
bidden to appear in the city without a white and red
cloth attached to the breast, and were ordered to
dwell in a specified street, the gates of which were
closed every evening. The street which they inhab-
ited is now called "Rue Richebourg"; and it is
said the Jews' sojourn there gave rise to this name.
A piece of land, chosen by the leading men of the
city, was assigned to them as a burial-place. The
Jews acquired free access from the city and prov-
ince only after the French Revolution.
As a matter of interest to the student of Jewish
Ill
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beruriah
Bessarabia
history, it may be mentioned that tlie library of tlie
city contains a manuscript copy of tlie Hebrew Bible
(3 vols, folio) with curious illuminations, showing
that the manuscript, which is not ilated, and is writ-
ten in square characters, emanates from the four-
teenth centur}'. Jloreover, it appears from a Judteo-
Arabic inscription on the initial page that the
manuscript was sold in Yemen in lyyar, 5253 (Jlay,
1492). After various transfers it came during the
Revolution from the Benedictine abbey into the city
library of Besan^'on.
As regards administration, the Jewish community
of BeSfinQon belonged formerly to the jurisdiction
of the eonsistorial district of Nancy, having as its
spiritual head Solomon Wertheimer. Since 1858 it
has been reattached to the jurisdiction of the district
of Lyons which in that year was made a eonsistorial
department. Since the death of Wertheimer, in
1865, J. Ausclier has served as pastor, first with the
title of rabbi, and later as eonsistorial chief rabbi ; for,
in 1872, after tie emigration of the Jews from Alsace
and the redistribution of the districts following the
Franco-German war, the community of Besan^on
became the seat of a consistory. It now (1002) in
eludes the following Jewish communities: Dole,
Baume - les - Dames, L'lle sur Doubs, and Mont-
bC-liard
BIBLIOGRAPHT : Alfred L^w, Lcs Isr. de la Frmiche-Cnmte
au XlVe Siede, in Arch. Isr. xxx. 182 et sfq., 214, 345; J.
Auscher, Les Isr. tl€ Besani;on^ et de la Comte, ih. xxsA.
440,472,592; Catal. General ties MSS. (les DeparteiiienU,
xxxil. 1 ; Rev. El. JtUves, xlii. 111-118.
D. M. S.
BESANT, SIB WALTER: English writer;
novelist; born at Portsmouth Aug. 14, 1836; edu-
cated at King's College, Loudon, and at Christ's Col-
lege, Cambridge; died in London June 11, 1901. Be-
sant was among those persons who helped the Russian
and Polish Jews who flocked to the East End of Lon-
don. He lived to see at least one of his many novel
views on social subjects and aspirations realized-
the Palace of Delight, which figured in his "All
Sorts and Conditions of Men" (1882), having given
rise to the People's Palace in the East of London.
While this was not meant exclusively, or even par-
tially, to benefit Jews, yet it did so, owing to its sit-
uation, which was in the center of a large Jewish
population.
From 1868 to 1885 Besant acted as secretary of the
Palestine Exploration Fund. During this period he
wrote in collaboration with E. H. Palmer, the Orien-
talist, a " History of Jerusalem " (1871), and acted as
editor of "The Survey of Palestine." In 1893 he
published his novel, "The Rebel Queen," in which
the heroine and many of the minor characters were
Jewish.
1895, p. 72;
E. Ms.
BESCHAU. See ilAitniAC.E Customs.
BESCHREIEN (compare English "bcslirew"):
A JuiUeo-German word for lauding a person or
thing to such an extent as to cau.se him or it to be
harmed by malevolent spirits. This superstitious
belief is of old German or Teutonic origin. Grimm
("Deutsche Mythologie," ii. 864) enumerates various
terms, such as "berufen," "beschwatzeu," "be-
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Men and Women of the Time.
n'/io's Who, 1901, p. 156.
.1.
schworen," besides beschreien, comparing them
with "incantare" (whence "enchanter"), "carmi-
nare " (whence the English " charm "), all of which
denote the exertion of evil power by means of cer-
tain words. Wuttke (" Der Deutsche Volksglaube,"
p. 155) casts more light on the subject ; stating that
what the evil eye is for the beautiful object exposed,
evil speech is to persons or things lauded for some
good quality. The svperslition, he says, is rooted
in the universal pagan fear of a deity begrudging
man's perfect happiness, rather than in that feeling
of humbleness which restrains man from boasting
of his health, wealth, or the like. Little children
especially are exposed to the evil influence of loud
praise; wherefore it is customary, when children are
lauded for their beauty, strength, or intelligence, to
add the word " unbeschrieen " or " unberufen" —
which means, " Let that not cause them to be be-
witched." There are special formulas in use against
such beschreien (see Wuttke, I.e. pp. 163, 264).
Some use as a prophylactic measure the formula:
"God protect him!" "Behiit's Gott!" The Jews
adopted both the expression and the superstition from
the Germans in the Middle Ages (see Giidemann,
"Gesch. d. Erziehungswesens imd der Cultur der
Juden in Deutschland," p. 205). It has been claimed,
however, that the ancient Hebrew greeting, "The
Lord bless thee!" offered by the passer-by to the
laborers in the cornfield at harvest time (Ps. cxxix. 8;
Ruth ii. 4 ; Judges vi. 12) originated in a similar view,
the blessing being intended to avert the evil in-
fluence of a begrudging glance or speech.
A. K.
BESHT, ISRAEL OF MIEDZYBOZ (or
MEDZHIBOZH). See Baal Shem-Tok, Is^kael.
BESOB : A wadi or river-bed where two hun-
dred of the followers of David stopped while the
rest of the force pursued the Amalekites (I Sam.
xxx. 9, 10, 21). Guerin (" Judee," ii. 213). identifies
Besor with the modern Wadi el-Gliazza. which has
an outlet into the Mediterranean sea, southwest of
Gaza.
.1. .in. G. B. L.
BESSARABIA : Government in southwest Rus-
sia; separateil by the Pruth and Danube from Ru-
mania on the west, by the Dniester from Podoliaand
Kherson on the north and east, and bordering on the
Black Sea from the Sulina mouth of the Danube to
the estuary of Ovidiopnl. The population in 1889
was 1,628^876, the Jews numbering 180,918. In
1897 the population was 1,936,392, of "whom 225,637,
or 11.65 per cent, were Jews. According to statis-
tics of the Jewish Colonization Association, the
.Jewish population in the cities in 1898 was 173, (i41.
Official documents show that Jews first emigrated to
Bessarabia from Poland and Germany in the six-
teenth century. They settled there in great niun-
bers, not being permitted to live in the neighboring
principality of Moldavia. At the present time a
considerable part of Bessarabia is forbidden ground
for the Jews, the May Laws of 1882 being adminis-
tered in a hostile spirit by the local authorities, who
have officially declared their towns to be " villages"
in which no Jews may reside. Moreover, many
places in Bessarabia are situated within a distance
Bessarabia
Bet
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
112
of fifty versts (33 English miles) from the frontier:
and here only such Jews are permitted to live as were
registered there before the issue of the edict of 1858.
Bessarabia excels among the Russian governments
in the culture of the vine; and in this, as in the cul-
tivation of tobacco, large numbers of Jews are em-
ployed. The chief articles of e.\port are grain,
fruit, and wine.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century most
of the local commerce was in the hands of the
Jews. JIany Jews also were engaged in agriculture
on leased lauds, while many were innkeepers and
farmers of post -stations. The May Laws and the
introduction of the liquor monopoly by the govern-
ment reduced many Jewish families to a deplorable
condition. Zashchuk, who endeavors to foster the
view that Jewish commercial activity is harmful to
the general population, admits that, owing to the
indolence and incapacity of the Bessarabians. the
Jews are indispensable to the development of all
branches of trade. From statistics gathered by the
Jewish Colonization Association, the artisiin class in
1898 comprised 20,976 persons; viz., 8,580 masters,
7.075 iourneymen, and 5,321 apprentices. A small
number of the Bessarabian Jews live as agriculturists
iu colonies founded between 1836 and 1854. '(See
AGmcrLTrR.\L Colonies ix Russi.\.) The Bessara-
bian colonies are established on parcels of land leased
from private proprietors. There are six colonies in
the distiicts of Soroki and Beltzy: Dombroveny,
Bricheva, Valya-Lui-Vlad. Vertinzhany, liUbliu,
and Markuleshty. Their present condition is as
follows:
Landln
Deciatines.
Number
of Farms.
Number
ol Colonists.
1,179
139
62
47
82
83
123
1.132
411
Lublin
234
390
346
289
Valya-Lul-Vlad
Bricheva
716
82t>
Markuleshty
5W
820
Total
2,W2
536
4,296
The following table shows the number of Jews in
the district and the percentage of the total popula-
tion :
Government of Bessak.vbi.^ (Census,
Jewish Popri-vTiON.
1897),
Districts.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Per Cent
of the To-
tal Popu-
latl(m.
Kishinev
25.4.50
6.01B
8,214
13,493
5,766
13.004
15.233
23,397
27,793
6.266
8.261
13.768
5.851
13.284
15,749
24.092
53.243
12.282
16.475
27.261
11.617
26.288
30,9S2
47.489
19.01
4.64
8.44
12.89
4.75
12.20
14.19
15.45
Bendery
Izmael
Orgverev
Soroki
Khotln
Total for Govt...
110,.573
115.064
235,637
11.65
Bibliography : Statisties collected bv the St. Petersbure branch
of the Jewish Colonization Association; S. J. Zashchuk.
Bcs.'^arahxhiujd ohIaM dc SI. Piterslmnj. 1862; Russian
Census. 1897 (by courtesy of Baron David GUnzburg).
H. R. S. J.
In the 3-ear 1840 David Zelensky of Krementchug,
Joseph RabiuDvitch of Pavlograd, and Jacob Gold-
enweiser of Umau presented a petition to Count
M. S. Vorontzov asking for his cooperation in the
realization of their plan for the founding and organ-
ization of a Jewish agricultural ct)lony in Bessarabia.
The unsatisfactory condition of Jewish agricultural
colonies established before that time was due. they
said, to the social and religious conditions of the
Jews, to the habits forced upon them by many cen-
turies of artificial life, and to the deep-rooted preju-
dices against them. The petitioners did not ask for
material aid, but for the moral support of the gov-
ernment, and for the privilege of buying from the
government 5,000 deciatines of laud iu Bessarabia
suitable for the founding of a model Jewish agricul-
tural colony, purposing "to awaken among other
Jews the incliuation to agricultural occupations; to
pay due attention to the industries relating to agri-
culture, such as cattle-breeding, gar-
Proposed deniug, and truck-farming, as well as
Colony of sheep-raising, bee-keeping, the breed-
1840. ing of horses, the development of tlie
silkworm industry, and of wine-ma
king." The number of the first settlers was to lie
limited to 50 families; each family was to possess at
least 4.50 rubles lor traveling expenses and estab-
lishment, and was to promise to pay off in twenty
years the price of the land assigned. Vorontzov
enthusiastically seconded the efforts of the organi-
zers, and called for expression on the subject from
the military governor of Bessarabia. Lieutenant-
General Feodorov. who was at that time acting in
this capacity, replied that there was no single piece
of unoccupied territory of 5.000 deciatines available
for the purpose. Vorontzov, therefore, was obliged
to inform. the petitioners of his unsuccessful efforts,
and the proposed phm was never realized.
The more liberal spirit of the reign of Alexander
II. brought with it the extension of the rights of his
Jewish subjects, and the privilege of
Jewish purchasing lan<led property within the
Agricul- pale of settlement. Seventeen Jewish
tiirists. colonies, which had been founded be-
tween the years 1836 and 1854, covered
an area of 9.305 deciatines. These colonies (Dom-
broveny, Markuleshty, Vertinzhany-Rogojeni, Mere-
shevka-Lankantzi, Bricheva, Nemew vka-Lublin. Ka-
preshti, Xovie Tcleneshti, ZgiiritSii. Aleksandreni,
Valya Lui-Vlad. Lomitchanets, Koustantinovka,
Jchenkar, Ivanos-Nikolaevka, Shibko, and Roma-
nooka) were, under Alexander II. , in a comparatively
prosperous condition. Moreover, Bessarabia was at
that lime the only region complying with the re-
quirements of the law prohibiting the Jews from
acquiring other than unoccupied land, and many
Jews were accordingly attracted to the Bessarabian
lands.
The first Jewish landowner in Bessarabia was
'• Ilonoi-aiy Citizen" Joseph [Jevzel] Giinzburg, the
progenitor of the present Baron Giinzburg. He pur-
chased in the districts of Jassy. Soroki, Akerman,
and Bendery 14.004 deciatines and 76,000 falechs
of land for a sum of 287,209 rubles. This led to the
presentation of two different and opposing petitions
to the government within the same year. On the
113
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bessarabia
Bet
out haud. a group of Jewish capitalists in St. Peters-
burg petitioned for permission to purchase land oc-
cujiied by freednieu, and fiu- all the privileges con-
ferred upou non-Jews through the territory w itliiu
the pale of settlement, with the provision that neither
the Jewish owners nor any of their coreligionists
should sell spirituous liquors. On the other hand,
the nobles of Bessarabia petitioned the government
to enforce the old laws prohil)iting Jews from pur-
chasing or owning an}' land in Bessarabia. A. G.
Stroganov at tirst decided the case against the Jew-
ish petitioners, and the military governor. General
Ilyin.sUi, also reported unfavorably. Kotwithstaud-
iug this, liowever, the czar (March, 1859) decided in
favor of the Jews, who showed that the land had in-
crea.sed in value.
The timber trade, which, at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, was not an unimportant factor
in the life of New Russia, owed its
Foreign growth and prosperity to foreign
Jews. Jews. Notwithstanding the decision
of the government (1824) forbidding
the settlement of foreign Jews in Russia and even
ordering the expulsion of those that had already be-
come Russian subjects, the government gave un-
stinted support to the pioneers in this new branch
of commerce, in the hope that the example of the
foreign Jews would inspire their Russian coreligion-
ists to give up their petty commercial transactions
fur those of a Ijroader character and greater useful-
ness to the community.
At the beginning of 1840 the petition of eight
Austrian Jews, for the privilege of retail trade in
timber along the entire course of the Dniester river,
was transmitted to the minister of tinances, who
called for a report on the matter by the governor-
general of New Russia. M. S. Vorontzov. Voront-
zov answered that "since there was great need for
timber all along the lower Dniester, and the supply
from Aiistria insullicieut. he thdught it advisable to
iwrmit the petitioners, as well as all foreign dealers
in timljer floating their merchandise from Austria
down the Dniester, to sell it unhindered all along
the course of the river." This expression led to
the decision of the committee of ministers, indorsed
by the emperor, to grant for three years (1840-43) the
privileges solicited. Tlie favorable result of tliis
petition encouraged another group of Austrian Jews
to ask for similar privileges along the river Pruth.
These were granted as an ex|ieriment for two jears,
and iu 1842 were extended for an additional four
years. When the additional four years had come to
an end (1847), the merchants petitioned for at least
one year for the li(iuidation of their business. The
matter was referred to Feodorov, governor-general
of New Russia, and received his favorable comment;
whereupon the government gi-anted the petition of
the Austrian Jews, and was so favorably impressed
with the results of their enterjirise that six years
were granted them instead of the one year re-
■quested.
I". H. J. G. L.
BESSELS, EMIL: German-American Arctic
explorer and naturalist; born at Heidelberg June 2,
1847; died at Stuttgart March 30, 1888. At the
imiversity of his native place he studied medicine
III.— 8
and znology. In 1809, under the encouragement of
Petermannof Gotha, he made his first j<niruey to the
Arctic ocean, during which he traced the intluence
of the Gulf Stream to the east of Spitzbergen.
In 1870 he joined the German army as a military
surgeon, and received public commendation from
the grand duke of Baden for his services. A year later
he voluutewed to go as a surgeon and naturalist
with the Hall expedition, which sailed on the
"Polaris" from the Brooklyn (N, Y.) navy -yard.
Nothing of moment took place until the ship reached
82' 9' north latitude, when Captain Hall, who had
been on a short hunting expedition, relurned to the
ship, i)artook of a cup of coffee, and shortly after
became violently ill (Oct. 24, 1871). Bessels treated
him; but the patient several times disregarded the
physician's advice. About Nov. 2 Hall .showed
signs of insanity, refusing to partake of food, and
having the idea that he was being poisoiu'd. He
died Nov. 8, 1871.
Upon the return of the members of Iheexpcdilion
iu 1873, after numerous mishaps and disasters, Mor-
ton, second mate of the "Polaris," brought a charge
of murder against Bessels, alleging that the latter
had administered morphine instead of quinine to Cap-
tain Hall. The secretary of the navy directed an
in(juiry, which was conducted by Surgeon-Gen-
eral of tlie Army J. K. Barnes and Surgeon-General
of the Navy J. Beale, who reported "that Captain
Hall died from natural causes — viz., apoplexy — and
that the treatuu-nt of the case l)y Dr. Bessels was
the best practicable \mder the circumstances."
Bessels, after this, spent some years at the Smith-
sonian Institution. Washington, in preparing for
publication the seientilic results of the voyage, the
most striking of which was the proof of the insular-
ity of Greenland deduced from tidal observations.
His most important work was " Seientilic Results of
the United States Exploring Expedition Steamer
' Polaris,' " Washington, 1870. He published numer-
ous papers on general natural-history subjects (see
"Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers." vii.
104;"ix. 229, 230). Later Bessels joined an ethno-
logical voyage on the U. S. S. "Saranac'- to the
northwest coast of America; but the vessel was
wrecked in Seymour Narrows, B. C.
BiBLIOCRAPHT: Rpar-Ailmiral C. H. Davis, U, S. X., .VioTn-
tivciiflhe Xiirth Pnlur E.r]n:Ulinti. r. s. Sliiii /'.i/dnX
Ctipt. t'haiii!^ Fr(t)iris HaU CunnnniHUtui, WashiU'.'tcn,
187H: W. H. Dall, In Bi(»cf/(i "f the I'hihisiipliical SuLictu
tif Wnshiiitjtim, xl. 4f« ft seij.: Xnv Yurh TillH».^>ct. 18,
isra. p. 1, col. :t: Afic YiTh Hcrnlil. UH. 1, p. 6, ools. 1-5;
ih. Oct. a, p. 5, cols. 1-4; Brockbaus, Konvcrfatwns-Lexi-
liiin, s.v.
A. E. Ms.
BET : The second letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
Its numerical value is two. wherefore the bet in the
word pnV'3 (Gen. xxi. 12) is interpreted as an iUlu-
sion to tlie two worlds Isaac is destined to inherit —
this world and the world to come (Yer. Ned. iii.
38a), or iu the existence of which Isaac and his de-
scendants believe (Gen. R. liii.). According to Bar
Kajjpara, the Torah begins with the letter bet iu
allusion to the present and the future worlds (Gen.
R. i. 14); according to R. Levi, in order to suggest
by its shape (3) that men should not pry into the
secrets of what is above or beneath or behind, but
simjily inquire into the work of creation that lies
Bet Beltin
Bet HiUel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
114
open before them (ib. i. 13). See also Akiba bex
Joseph, Alphabet of.
BlBLiOGR.\PHT : Biixtorf, Titieriaf. xiT., xvlU. On the aricin
of tie letter, see 1. Tavlor. The Alpluibct. 18*3: A. J. Evans.
Primitive Piclngraphs. lS9t; Crftan Piotoyj-ajjds. l)Sti5:
Further Difenveries. etc., l«tT. lt*9S ; anil the works named
in Xos. 1 anil 2 in the bibliography of ALPUABET.
T. K.
BET BELTIN (JTlija n'3) Ccalled also Bati
Baltan, Biltin, ami iu the Talmud Beram) : A
steep hill above tlie Euiihrates. on which is built
the raotleru town of Bir; lat. 37^ 3 X., long. 3S" E.
Travelers and caravans from Aleppo to Diarbekir,
Bagdad, and Portia cross the Euphrates at this
point. According to the Mishnah (R. H. ii. 4), Bet
Beltin was the extreme point of Palestine to which
messengers came from Jerusalem to announce the
new moon. This they did by kindling fires on the
summit of the hill.
Bibliography: Sohwarz. Das HciJiflc Land. p. 55: Ritter,
Erdkumle. x. 935 ; Neubauer, G. T. pp. 342, 3.54.
J. su. I. Br.
BET DIN (p n'3; pi. batte din) : Rabbinical
term fur court-house or court. In view of the
theocratic conception of the law, which pervades
Biblical legislation and is stiictly carried out bj-
rabbinical Judaism, including both civil and relig-
ious law, the bet din is not only a civil, but also a
religious authoritj-.
The "Bet Din ha-Gadol." or Great Sauhedriu at
Jerusjilein existing during the time of the Temple,
was called also " Sanhedrin Gedolah " or. briefly,
"Sanhedrin" (Sotah i. 4, ix. 11; Sanh. i. 6; Shebu.
ii. 2.) According to the Talmud, this bet din rep-
resented the supreme court of the country men-
tioned in Scripture (Deut. xvii. 8-13), and acted
chiefly as court of last instance in legal or ritual dis-
putes, in which case its decisions had to be obeyed
on pain of death (compare rebellious Eldeu). It
also had a certain voice in the affairs of the state —
no war of offense (nit,""in n?2n7D) could be under-
taken without its permission — and it was in charge
of civil affairs to the extent of appointing the judges
of the country. The principal passages regarding
this bet din are; Sifre, Deut. 15'3-1.5.5; Sanh. i. 5, 6;
Hor. i. 1-5. The president, who bore the title
"Nasi," was in a way the supervisor, but not a
member of the court, which consisted of seventy
members, corresponding to the seventy "elders"
appointed by Moses (Num. xi. 25). The most
learned and important of these seventy members was
called " Ab Bet Din," a title similar to that of vice-
president (see ZrooT). It is highh- improbable that
there was a bet din of this class in Jerusalem before
the destruction of the Temple (compare Sanhe-
drin). The detailed description of
The Great such an authority found in the Tal-
Bet Din. mudic works is probably theoretical
even in its chief points, and may have
had its origin in the fact that the bet din instituted
after TO was considered the ideal by the Rabbis, and
that they were reluctant to omit it from the earlier
periods of Jewish communal life. Hence the Tal-
mudic sources speak very freely of a bet din that
existed from the time of ^Moses to that of the Rabbis
(R. H. ii. 9), mentioning even the bet din of Gideon,
Jephthah, Samuel (Tosef., R. H. ii. [i.] 3), or those
of Shem, of Samuel, and of Solomon (Mak. 23b),
which they imagined similar to a later rabbinical
court. And, furthermore, since the conditions in
heaven were supposed to be analogous to those on
earth, they likewise spoke of the heavenly bet din
(n^VO hi:' n n'3) iMak. i.e.). calling it the "Great
Bet Din" (nai NJ'T '31 (Sotah 22b).
The bet din as the highest religiousas well as civil
authority of the Jews can only be proved to have ex-
isted for the jieriod between 70 and the end of the
third century. It was R;ibbaii Johanan b. Zakkai
who made his bet din the intellectual center of the
Jews when the destruction of Jerusiilem deprived
them of their bond of unity. He could not, of
course, give his bet din the political importance of
the old Sanhedrin; but, considering the new condi-
tions under which the Jews were living, he suc-
ceeded in investing it with greater powers than any
authority liad before possessed. It had entire charge
of the calendar system, and hence became the relig-
ious and national center not only of Palestine, but
also of the Diaspora. Its power and influence in-
creased under Rabban Johanan's successor. Rabban
Gamaliel II., culminating under Judah
Bet Din ha-Nasi I., whose grandson, Judah
at Jabneh. Nesia. may be regarded as the last
person under whom the bet din was
the real center of the Jews. Hence the Talmudic
sources speak of Rabban Gamaliel and his bet din
(Tosef., Ber. ii. 6), and of R. Judah ha-Nasi and his
bet din ('Ab. Zarah ii. 6), meaning thereby the cen-
tral body representing the highest civil as well as
religious authority of the Jews.
On the death of Judah ha-Nasi the bet din of the
Nasi lost its importance in consequence of the rise
of Jewish scholarship iu Babylonia toward the mid-
dle of the third century, as well as the increasing
oppression of the Palestinian Jews under the Roman
rule. Although the dignity and, also, to some ex-
tent, the power of the Nasi continued until the end
of the fifth century (compare Origen. "Epist. ad
Africanuin," xiv.), the bet din was no longer an in-
tellectual center. According to Talmudic somces,
decrees (T.vkkanot) binding for all Judaism were
issued by the patriarchs before and during the time
of Judah Nesia; but his successors had not such au-
thoritj-. In Babylonia no bet din was ever consid-
ered a central authority, even for Babylonia alone,
although, of course, the higher the reputation of
a scholar, the greater was the authority of the bet
din under him. Similar conditions obtained there
even in the time of the Geonim, for no central bet
din could exist on account of the rivalry of the two
academics. From about 500 there was not even
any formal and authoritative ordination, and mem-
bers of an actual bet din must be ordained at least.
Alfasi made an attempt to reestablish the former
central bet din, considering his bet din the highest
ecclesiastical authority, and claiming for it preroga-
tives which belonged to the Bet Din ha-Gadol (R.
H. iii., beginning; compare Nahmanides, "Milhe-
met," on the passjxge). If Jacob Berab had suc-
ceeded in reintroducing ordination, his bet din would
have achieved the position of that of Rabban Jo-
hanan ben Zakkai; but he encountered too much
opposition.
115
THE JEWISH EN'CYCLOPEDIA
Bet Beltin
Bet Hillel
Aside from the Bet Din ha-Gadol and the simi-
lar bet din of the Nasi, the term was applied to every
court, consisting either of 23 mem-
Other bers. who sat only in capital cases —
Classes of mC*2J 'J'T, or of three (according to
Batte Din. some, five), who decided in monetary
aSairs— nuioa 'JH (Sauh. i. 1-1:
Tosef., ib. i. 1). Yet even in Talmudic times it was
usual to have at least 11 scholars present at court
(Sanh. 7b). a custom observed in later times also,
at least in difficult cases. A scholar of standing
(nnOID) required no assistant for holding court
(Sanh. 5a), so that, during the Middle Ages as well
as in modern times, the local rabbi aloue frequently
represented the bet din. In larger communities,
however, there is a bet din consisting of at least
three members, which sits daily except on Sabbath
and holidays, and decides ritual as well as legal
questions. The local rabbi generally presides, but
in large communities the direction of the bet din is
an office in itself, the incumbent of which bears the
title "rosh bet din." Tlie associate rabbi of a place
has the same title, while among the Ashkenazim,
and especially among the Polish-Russian Jews, the
rabbi proper is designated as "* ab bet din " and
"resh mata." Compare Avthoritt, Courts of
Justice, Judges, K.\n.\L, Nasi.
J. SR. L. G.
BET HHiLEL AND BET SHAMMAI : The
"School (literall}-, "buuse") of Hillel" and the
"School of Shammai " are names by which are desig-
nated the most famous antagonistic schools that
flourished in Palestine during the first century (first
tannaitic generation), and which more than others
contributed to the development of the oral law.
Down to the advent of Hillel and Shammai, who
were the founders of the great schools bearing their
names, there were but few casuistic differences
among the schools. Between Hillel and Shammai
themselves three (or, according to some authorities,
five) disputes are mentioned in the Talmud (Shab.
15a; Hag. ii. 2; 'Eduy. i. 2, 3: Xiddah i. 1); but
with the increa.se of their disciples disputations in-
creased to such an e.vtent as to give rise to the say-
ing, •' The one Law has become two laws " (Tosef. ,
Hag. ii. 9; Sanh. 88b: Sotah 47b).
The prevailing characteristics of the disputes are
the restrictive tendency of the Shammaites and the
moderation of the Hillelites. Three hundred and
sixteen controversies between these two schools are
preserved in the pages of the Talmud, affecting 221
Halakot, 29 halakic interpretations,
Dis- and 66 guard-laws ("'gezerot "); and
cussions out of the whole number only 55 (or
Between about one-sixth) present the Sham-
the maites on the side of lenienc}'. 3Iore
Schools, over, even where the characteristic
tendencies appear to have changed
masters, the practical result remains the same : being
the logical and consistent resultants of some opinions
expressed elsewhere, and in line with the natural
tendencies of the respective schools: and some of
their restrictive views the Hillelites subsequently
rejected, adopting what were exceptionally the more
moderate views of the Shammaites ('Eduy. i. 12 et
«e?. ; compare Weiss, "Dor," i. 179 et seq.). That
the latter, as a school, ever receded from their stand-
point to join the ranks of their more moderate an-
tagonists is nowhere indicated : though individuals
of that school, like Baba ben Buta, sometimes ac-
knowledged the unreasonableness of their party by
deserting its standard for that of Bet Hillel (Bezah
20a; Yer. Hag. ii. 7Sa). Hence it is that the Mish-
nah introduces some of their controversies with the
remark, "These are of the lenient views of Bet
Shammai and the restrictive views of Bet Hillel "
(Eduy. iv. 1; Tosef., 'Eduy. ii. 2).
The reason assigned for their respective tenden-
cies is a psychological one. The Hillelites were, like
the founder of their school (Ber. 60a; Shab. 31a;
Ab. i. 12 tt seq.), quiet, peace-loving men, accom-
modating themselves to circumstances and times,
and being determined only upon fostering the Liiw
and bringing man nearer to his God and to his
neighbor. The Shammaites, on the other hand,
stern and unbending like the originator of their
school, emulated and even exceeded his severity.
To them it seemed impossible to be sufficiently
stringent in religious prohibitions. The discipks of
Hillel, " the pious and gentle follower of Ezra "
(Sanh. 11a). evinced in all their public dealings
the peacefulness, gentleness, and conciliatory spirit
which had distiugui.shed their great master; and by
the same characteristic qualities they were guided
during the political storms which convulsed their
country. The Shammaites, on the contrary, were
intensely patriotic, and would not bow to foreign
rule. They advocated the interdiction of any and
all intercourse with those who either
Character- were Romans or in any way contrib-
istics. uted toward the furtherance of Roman
power or influences. Dispositions so
heterogeneous and antagonistic can not usually en-
dure side by side without provoking serious mis-
understandings and feuds; and it was owing solely
to the Hillelites' forbearance that the parties did not
come to l)lows, and that even friendly relations
continued between them (Tosef., Yeb. i. 10; Yeb.
14b ; Yer. Yeb. i. 3b), for a time at least. But the
vicissitudes of the period exerted a baneful influence
also in that direction.
When, after the banishment of Archelaus (6 C.E.),
the Roman procurator Coponius attempted to tax
the .Jews, and ordered a strict census to be taken
for that purpose, both schools protested, and the new
measure was stigmatized as so outrageous as to
justify all schemes by which it might be evaded.
The general abhorrence for the system of Roman
taxation manifested itself in looking with distrust
upon every Jew who was olBcially concerned in
carrying it out, whether as tax-collector ("gabbai ")
or as customs-collector ("mokes"); these were
shunned by the higher ranks of the community, and
their testimony before Jewish courts had no weight
(B. K. X. 1; ii. 113a; Sanh. iii. 3; ib. 25b). About
this time the malcontents held the ascendency.
Under the guidance of Judas the Gaulonitc (or Gali-
lean) and of Zadok. a Shammaite (Tosef., 'Eduy. ii.
2; Yeb. 15b), a political league was called into ex-
istence, whose object was to oppose by all means the
practise of the Roman laws. Adopting as their
organic principle the exhortation of the father of the
Bet Hillel
Bet ha-Midrash
THE JEWISH E>'CYCLOPEDIA
116
S the Zealots, found -PP>^ -^^ XtvS "^e
r, . fa -U c ka "ue, an<l" as the Hillelites became
tt, l."t *vs of Jermalm's si™l!S'« ttey broke oul
""i*,U°U.'=°™.>o». .™»<i J.»l» -* ™"~
t,ou between _^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ .^^^ ^^_^^. ^,.„,i, ^f food
Relation ov drink from ^^'^^^^^-'^^^f^^^
tn TTfternal The Hillelites, still modeiate m tliui
* WcxTd religious and politieal views^ .^•.«dd
^ not asree to sueh sharply dehned ex-
rhisiveness- but when the Sauhedrin was called to-
Sb^:S"r,i3of is: ;=
the dav Eleazar ben Ananias invited the 'l'-"pk
o lot schools to meet at his house. Armed men
t Itioned at the door, and i-tructedto p^m
pverv one to enter, but no one to leave. Duimg the
dscussk.n that were carried on under these circum-
S:^ r, anv Hillelites are said to have been Med;
and there and then the remainder adopted tlie le- ^
strk-tivc propositions of the Shamma.tes. known in
? TMnmd as "The Eighteen Articles." On ac-
00 inT til violence which attended those en-
.c ens. an.l because of the radicalisin of the
:, tments themselves, the day o^. -^"'^^^J^,
Shammaites thus triumphed over t Je H Ue tes
^•as thereafter re.srarded as a day "^ ™:'^' "'';''
(Tosef.. Shab. 1. 16 et seq.; Shab. 13a, l.a, \er.
^'Bet Shammai and Bet HiUel continued their dis-
^ fter he destruction of the Temple, or until after
ti;' or 'anization of the Sauhedrin under the presi-
den-v of Gamaliel II. (80 C.E.). By that tune all
p "it cal schemes and plans for the recovery of e
^ .t libertv had become altogether foreign to the
IS of he spiritual leaders; and thecharacterist.es
o hcHillelites once more gained the ascendencj^
All disputed points were brought up for re ie«
fs" S;Lt..) ; 'and in nearly every case the opinion
of the Hillelites prevailed (Tosef.. ^f->- l^ \l',
t^. 3b ; Gratz, " Gesch. der Juden ' 2d ed iv^ ^ ^
note 4) Thenceforth it was Siiid; A\ heic Bet
Shamiiai is opposed to Bet HiUel. the opinion of
S S Cmai "considered as if not incorr.>ni^ in
theMishnah" ("Bet Shammai bimekom Bet Hilkl
enah Mishnah --Ber. 36b; Bezah lib, Yeb. 9a);
^'oV:he";mole7otthese schools tUereisnovecor^^
^.::Ls. 1^" Talmud (Sul.^ carnal
gives the number of HiUel s aiscipies
,, eighty, while the Palestinian Talmud (Yer^>, eel
V. 39b) makes of them as many P""-^;,fh source
mention two of them by name, Jonathan ben L zm
Zd Johanan ben Zakkai;and it is added tha
Jonathan was the greatest and ^^^^'^
amou-the whole number. Iso such traditions are
r "orded of the Shammaites. Of their schoo thiee
:^:"^^i.^edbyname; viz.. BababeuButa (Be,ah
30a , Dositai of Kefar Yetma COriah u. o). an^ Zad J.
rTosef 'Eduy. ii. 2) ; but they are mentioned simplj
Scans; though Shammaites. they sometimes up-
S th; views of the Hillelites. See Hillei. and
Sh.\mmai
^H.\MMA1. ... ^. ^,
B,Btioc.R..PUT: Gratz Gc.W,. *^ JMfS.=^el^j,;;;;.r,«„7m,i
tnKlSn»ci;*rt(Ui.i.*l _ u. trau ^ irr-lsT; idem,
pp. ioSi: ■SVeiss, Dot Djn 'i;-^^^''-^^'",, ,,a.iiisUmih. pp.
J, trod, to -Vf"-/--/'*^?;; T« ;<«(-. i. 14-2.5: Sol.warz.
tfdX^'r^"'^^!^'^^^^^''"^'' micUU'U cans-
rulie, 1S»3. g M.
^ET HA-MIDKASH: High school; literally,
iji^i ^ ., ,.,^.,,,vhere the students of tlu-
S :« h^S-listen \o the Mib.ash the diseours.
or expos ion of the Law. It is used in contrad,.-
rincrion to the Bet ha-Sefer, tl-' P-""'->- ^^ -■ .
Xh children under tWrteen attend.^ o^ka.n^
^criiitures Thus it is said m Gen. K. Km. 10 t>. u
and']acobwent together to the bet ba-sefer un
nun- had finished their thirteenth year, when the>
par ed the former entering the houses of idols, and
fhelanerthe batte ha-midrashot." Elsewhere t^^
stated '-There were 480 synagogues (bat e ken.
n 'n T . • salem each containing a bet ha-sebr
Si-v h'Srt^llscripturesVandabetTalnu..
(«m asbet ha-midrash), for ^Lf study of the L
D the tradition; and Vespasian destroy tnl th m
aU" Yer. Meg. iii. 73d; Lam. R., Introduction 1
ii o.^Pesik. fiv. 121b; Yer. Ket. xim 3oc. ^^ 1.
•' 460" is a clerical error). The same u . -
Meaning, dition is given somewhat differently m
meaning ^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ ^^^^.^^ hun.lred and
nine.v-four courts of justice were ^^^.rns^^^^;^
ns inanv synagogues, "batte ha-midrashot (hig i
ho"^ :nd -MWte soferim; (Prinuiry schools
According to Yer. Ta'anit iv. 7. p. 69a ; Lam. H^ n.
o ^i%l there were 500 primary schools in Betar, i
^.'smuS;"f which had no less tlian 300 pupjs
compare Sotah 49b, Git. 58a. which speak of 400
schools each with 400 pupils). Tl.e number o
schoos'(480) in Jerusalem besides the one in tl^
Temple is derived by gematria from the word-nS^ ^
^The Ka^nl^ash in the Temple hall_(Luke il '
46 Kx l.xxi. 37; Matt. xxi. 23. xxvi.oo; Join
t^iU 20 is called the "bet ha-imdrash h.-^dol
^he .-reat high school (Tanna debe Eliyahu U. ix^ [v].
xi i" and elsewhere). It formed the center of learn
117
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bet Hillel
Bet ha-Midrash
ing, ami was, of course, the oldest one, standing in
close relation to the "Bet Din ha-Gadol," the high
court of justice in the Temple. Its history can not
well be traced. A "bet wa'ad," meeting-place of
scholars, existed as early as the days of Jose ben
Joezer of Zereda. the martyr of tlie Maccabean time,
who teaches: "Let thy house be a bet wa'ad for
the wise " (Ab. i. 4). The name " bet wa'ad " is met
with also in Sotah i.x. 15; Yer. Ber. iv. 7c; Yer.
Ta'anitiv. 67d, and elsewhere. The hearers or dis-
ciples were seated on the ground at tlie feet of their
teachers (Ab. I.e.; Lulvc x. 39; Acts
Its x.xii. 3). In the first century, schools
History, existed everywhere at the side of tlie
synagogues (Acts. xix. 9, "the school
of one Tyranuus "). The primary school, bet ha-
sefer, was, however, instituted at a later time, first
by Simeon ben Shetah, abo\it 100 b.c. at Jerusalem
(Yer. Ket. viii. 32c), and later introduced generally,
for thebenelit of all children, by Joshua b. Gamlain
the first century (B. B. 21a; see Educ.vtion). Tlie
Haggadah reflects a later mode of life wlien speali-
ing of a bet ha-midrasli of Shem and Eber wliicli was
attended by Isaac, occasionally also b_y Rebekah,
and regularly by Jacob (Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxii. 19,
xxiv. G3, XXV. 22 ; Gen. U. Ixiii. ; Tauna debe Eliyaliu
R. v.); of that of Jacob at Suliliot, whieli Joseph
frequented (Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxiii. 17, xxxvii.
2; Num. xxiv. 5); of that which Judah was sent to
build for Jacob in Egypt (Gen. R. xcv. ; Tan.,
Wayiggush, xi.); or of that of JIo.ses, where Moses
and Aaron and his sons taught the Law (Targ. Yer.
to Ex. xx.vix. 33; compare Num. R. xxi. : "Jo.shua
arranged tliecluiirs for the scholars attending tlie bet
wa'ad of Closes "). Similarly tlie propliet Samuel had
his " liet ulphana" (Aramaic for " bet ha-midrash") in
Uaniali (Targ. to I Sam. xix. 19). Solomon built
synagogues and sclioolhouses (Eccl. R. ii. 4). King
Hezeliiah furnished the oil for lamps to burn in tlie
synagogues and schools, and threateneil to have
killed by the sword any one wli(5 would not study
the Law; so tliat s<ion there was no 'A.Mir.v-AnEZ to
be found in tlie land, nor a child or woman unfamiliar
witii all the precepts on Levitical purity (Sanli. 94b).
Especially tliose of the tribe of Issacliar devoted
tlieir time to tlie study of the Law in the bet ha-
midrash, Zebulun tlie merchant furnishing them tlie
means of supjiort (I Chron. xii. 33; Deut. xxxiii.
18; Gen. R. Hi., xcix. ; Targ. Yer. I.e.).
Jetliro was promised that his descendants would
never see the sclioolhouses (batte ha-midrasliot) dis-
appear from among them (Tanna debe Eliyahu R. v. ;
compare Mek., Yitro, 'Amalek, 2).
In Jlisliiiaic times (Sliab. xvi. 1) it appears that
pulilic discourses were lielil in the bet ha-midiasli;
but Targ. Yer. on Judges v. 9 indicates that it was
used later for the study of the Law, and the popular
discourses were delivered at the synagogue.
The first liet ha-midrash of which tliere is authen-
tic record is the one in whicli Shemaiah (Samcas) and
Abtaliou (Pollion) taught, and which
Earliest Hillel. when a youth, could attend only
Forms, after having paid admission-fee to the
janitor (Yoma Zhh). Whether or not
this charge of a fee, so contradictory to the maxim of
the men of the Great Synagogue (Abot i. 1), "Raise
many disciples, " was a political measure of the time,
it seemingly stands in connection with a principle
pronounced by the Shammaites (Ab. R. N.. .1. iii. ;
B. iv., ed. Schechter, p. 14), that "only those who
are wise, liumble, and of goodly, well-to-do parent-
age should be taught the Law." On the otlier
hand, the Hillelites insisted that "all, without ex-
ception, should partake of tlie privilege, inasmuch
as many transgressors in Israel, when brought nigh
to the Law, brought forth rigliteous, pious, and
perfect men." Against the Hillelite principle, R.
Gamaliel wanted to exclude all those who liud not
stood tlie test of inner fitness. He was outvoted,
with tlie result that 400 (or, according to some au-
thorities, 700) cliairs were necessarily added in order
to .seat the newcomers (Ber. 28a). The custcjiiiary
seating of the pupils on chairs marivs an improve-
ment, and this new feature gave to the schoollinuse
tlie name " veshibah " (Abot ii. 7) or "metibta" (B.
M., 8.5a, b). "
The bet ha-midrash of .labneh was catleil "vine-
yard," either because it stood in a vineyard (Selii'irer,
"Gesch." 3d ed., ii. 32o, note 49) or, as rabbinical
tradition asserts, because it was built in semicircular
shape, thus resembling a vineyard (Ket. iv. 6;
'Eduy. ii. 4; Yer. Ber. iv. 7d). At all events the
name "vineyard" became the usual appellation for
the bet ha-midrash; hence Song of Songs vii. 13 (A.
V. 12), "Let us get up early to tlic vineyards," was
aiiplied to tlie bet lia-midrusli ('Er. 211j).
It is frequently reccmimended as highly meritori-
ous to be one of the first to come to the bet ha-
midrash and the last to leave (Shab. 127a; Git. 7a;
Jleg. 15b; Suk. 28a; Sanh. 3b).
It was believed to bring misfortune to sit at
meals during the time that tlie discourse was being
liekl in the bet ha-midrash (Git. 38b). It was for-
bidden to sleep in the bet ha-midrash
Rules of (Tanna debe Eliyahu R. xiii., xiv.).
the Bet ha- In Babylonia, where scholars spent
Midrash. their whole time in the school, ex-
ception was made to this rule (Ber.
25a; Jleg. 28a). Jlothers won special merit by
training their children to go to the bet ha-.sefer. and
wives by waiting for the return of their husbands
from tlie bet ha-midrash (Ber. 17a). Every session
at the bet ha-niidrash was expected to offer some
new idea to the student; hence the frequent ques-
tion: "What new thing was offered at tlie bet ha-
midrash to-day'?" (Tosef., Sotah, vii. 9; Hag. 3a;
Yer. Git. v. 47d; and elsewlierc). The bet ha-
midrash ranks higher than the syna-
Im- gogue; consequently a synagogue
portance of may be transformed into a bet ba-
the Bet ha- midrash; but the latter can not be
midrash. changed into a house of worsliip (Meg.
26b, 27a). "He who goeth from the
synagogue to the bet ha-midrash — that is, from the
divine service to the stud)' of the Law — will be
privileged to greet the majesty of God ; for so says
Ps. Ix.xxiv. 8 [.V. V. 7]. 'They go from strength
to strength, everyone of themappeareth before God
in Zion ^" (Ber."64a>. To the bet ha-keueset (syna-
gogue) and the bet ha-midrash in Babylonia are re-
ferred the words of Ezek. xi. 16, Hebr. : " I will be to
them as a little sanctuary in the countries wliere they
Bet ha-Midrasb
Beth-el
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
118
shall COUR-" (Meg. 29a). The Haggatlah tiuds allusions
to the bet ha-niidrash in Ps. xc. 1 : " Thou hast been
our dwclliug-iilace in all generations"; and Ps.
Ixxxii. 1. Hebr. : "God standeth in the midst of the
congregation of [those -nho seek] God" (ib.: Gen.
R. xlviii.); and also in Balaam's words (Num. xxiv.
5): "How lovely are thy tents, O Jacob, thy taber-
nacles, O Israel" (Targ. Yer. to Num. I.e. ; Sanh.
10,M)); likewise in Cant. viii. 10: "I am a wall and
my breasts like towers " (Pes. 87a), and Cant. ii. 8.
9, refer to the synagogue and the schoolhouse:
"The voice of my beloved! behold he cometh leap-
ing . . . : my beloved is like a roe," meaning that
God proceeds from one synagogue to the other, and
from one bet ha-midrash to the other, to bless Israel
(Pesik. V. 48b).
God also has His bet ha-niidrash in heaven, and
teaches the Law to the righteous (Tanua debe Eli-
yahu 1{. i.. iii., iv., v., viii., ix.); it is called the "up-
per yeshibah " or " mctibta " (B. M. 86a ; Ber. 18b ;
Ta'anit 21b). "He who accustoms
The himself to go to the bet ha-keneset
Heavenly and bet ha-midrash in this world shall
Bet ha- also be admitted into the bet lia-keue-
Midrash. set and bet ha-midrash of the world
to come " (Joshua b. Levi, in Deut. R.
vii. ; Midr. Teh. to Ps. Ixxxiv. 5 [A. V. 4]).
The name " bet ha-midmsh " recurs in the Arabic
"madrasah," for school; and Jews under the influ-
ence of Arabic life called the bet ha-midrash also
midrash (Gi'ulemann, "Gesch. des Erziehuugsweseus
und der Kultur der Judeu in Frankreich und
Deutschland," i. 92 <;**<■}., 265; "Quellenschriften
zur Gesch. des Unterrichts," p. 99). A system-
atic plan of education of the thirteenth century,
published and translated by Giidemauu, I.e., pro-
poses to impose on each member of a congrega-
tion in the whole country or district the old half-
shekel tax for the maintenance of the great bet
ha-midrash or high school to be built in the capital
near the synagogue, and for primary schools to be
in each town, where the disciples, together with the
teachers, should live during the week, separated
from their parents and removed from all contact
with the outside world. During the Middle Ages
the bet ha-midrash was open day and night for both
public discourees and private studies. It contained
usually a large library for the use of the students,
and became an attractive center and meeting-place
also for scholars of other cities. Inevitably this
privilege was freciuently abused, and the bet ha-
midrash often became the resort of idlers and poor
homeless strangers who spent their time in gossip
rather than in study. The official name given by
non-Jews to the bet ha-midrash in Nuremberg (1406)
is "Judenschule" (see Gudcmann, "Gesch. d^Erzie-
hungswesens und der Kultur d. Abendljind. Juden,"
p. 67. note 10). Whether the same name, "Juden-
schule," for the synagogue, given to it by the Chris-
tian population (GVulemann, I.e. p. 94, note 2), oriiri-
nated from the use of the bet ha-midrash also as a
place of worship by the students, customarv as early
as Talmudical times (Ber. 8a). or from other causes,
the proverbial " noise of the Judenschule " seems to
refer to the lively discussions which took place in
the bet ha-midrash (though at times the synagogue
was used also for learned disputations), and not
to any disorder in connection with the divine
service.
The number of hearers or disciples at the bet ha-
midrash was not limited as was the case in the
Heder, or primary school (Abrahams, " Jewish Life
in the Middle Ages," p. 349). The rabbis or or-
dained teachers, as a rule engaged by the community
to take charge of the studies in the bet ha-midrash,
often dwelt in the same house; thus in Germany
where the bet ha-midrash received the Latin name
Clausa (Claus = cloister), also called " Claus Rab-
bis" or "Clausner." The synagogue and bet ha-
midrash were often in the same bvulding or adjoin-
ing each other. For the course of studies and other
regulations concerning the bet ha-midrash, see the
articles Education and Teacher ; also Academies.
Bahur, Heder, and Yeshibah.
BiBLioGR.\PHY : Giidemann, JlhUftches VnterrichtitH'esfn
^yiihrcm1 ihr Spanii^fh-Arahij^t'ht'n Periode, 1873, p. 7i*l ;
idem, Ge.tclu dt.-* ErzUhuiigt^ieesens und der Kultur dt:r
AbindUiiid. Juden. I. KvSi.i, III. 1888 (see Inilexl: idem.
Quelienftchrtften zur Ge.-^eli. dei^ Vnterriehts und di:r
Erziehung hei den Deut.^ehen Juden, 1891 (see ludexi;
Abrahams, Jetri.'ih Life in the Middle Age^, IS96, pp. 34, 1349
et .vry. ; Hamhurper, H. B. T. ii., s.v. Lehrhaii.^^ ; Weber.
Smtem der Altfti/nagogalen Thcnlngie, 1880, pp. 34,127-
'M); schQrer, he.; Jacobs, Jcu'$ of Angevin England, pp.
343-351, 343-344.
,1. SR. K.
BET-TALBTCTD : Hebrew monthly review, de-
voted to Talmudical and rabbinical studies and liter-
ature; founded in 1881 by Isjxac Hirsch Weiss and
Meir Friedmaun, at Vienna, and published bj- the
former imtil its discontinuance in 1886.
Besides the editors, among the contributors to this
monthly were such scholars as Buber, Brllll, A. Ep-
stein, Giidemann, Reifmann, Schechter, and many
others prominent in the domain of Jewish learning.
Some of the articles published in "Bet-Talmud"
were also printed separately.
L. G. I. Br.
BETERA, BENE. See Bathtra.
BETH-ANATH : A Canaanite city in the terri-
tory of Naphtali, the name of which contains, as one
of its elements, the name of a god, Anath. Though
the Israelites did not succeed in conquering this
city, the Canaanitish inhabitants became tributary
to them (Josh. xix. 38; Judges i. 33). The city is
mentioned several times in Egyptian inscriptions ( W.
Max Mliller, " Asien und Europa," pp. 19.5, 220). The
exact location can not be definitely ascertained. It
is generally supposed to be on the site of the pres-
ent village 'Ainitha. in a fertile valley southeast of i
Tibniu in Galilee; but it is doubtful whether an im- [
pregnable fortress could have stood there. Since j
Rameses II. speaks of a mountain Beth-anath, W.
Max Milller holds that the city itself lay in the valley.
J. JR. F. Br.
BETH-ANOTH: City in the hills of Judah
(Josh. XV. ,59). It has been identified by both Con-
der and Buhl ("Geographic," p. 158) with the mod-
ein Beth Ainvin.
•I. .iR G. B. L.
BETH-ARABAH ("house of Arabah"): A
town situated, according to Josh. xv. 61, in the wil-
derness of Judah. It was a border-town between
Judah and Benjamin, and hence is credited to the
former (Josh, ib.): while in Josh, xviii. 22 it is enu-
119
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bet ha-Midrasb
Beth.el
merated among the towns of Benjamin. Lying to
the south of Beth-hoglah in the Jericho plain, indi-
cations point to its identification with the modern
'Ain al-Feshkha, as proposed by the late Robertson
Smith. In Josh, xviii. 18 the name is given as
" Arabah."
.7. jr.. G. B. L.
BETH-ABAM (Josh. siii. 27) or BETH-
HAKAN (Xum. xxsii. 36): A city east of tlie Jor-
dan. The Talmud speaks of it as " Bethramta ''
(nnO"in''a) ; Eusebius as " Bethramphta '' ; and Jose-
phus as "Betharamatha." Herod the Great built a
palace there which was destroyed after his death.
The city was rebuilt bj- Herod Antipater and called
" Julias. " in honor of the wife of Augustus. As the
original name of the empress was Livia. Eusebius
and others called the town "Livias." The site is
indicated by the ruins on the hill Teller-Rameh, in
a fertile part of the Jordan.
J. JR. F. Br.
BETH- ARBEL : Mentioned only once (Hosea x.
14) as a city destroyed by Sbalman. Opinions varj-
both as to the location of the place and as to the
identitication of Shalman. The most probable loca-
tion is that of the modem Irbid on the east side of
the Jordan (G. A. Smith, '"Historical Geography of
the Hilly Land "). As for Shalman, Schrader (" K.
A. T.." ii. 440-4-12) says he is a Moabite king, Shala-
manu. Conder favors Shalmaneser III. : Wellhausen
(■• Kleine Propheten '") and Xowack (Commentary)
Shalmaneser IV. A solution may be found in the
Septuagint reading, " Beth-Jeroboam " fc^r " Beth-
arbel" and "Shallum" for "Shahnau." The pas-
sage would then refer to the destruction of the house
of Jeroboam by Shallum (II Kings sv. 10).
J. JR. G. B. L.
BETH-AVEN : A city on the border of Benja-
min in the wilderness (Josh, xviii. 12), east of Bethel
(Josh. vii. 2) and west of Michmash (I Sam. xiii. 5).
It was the scene of a battle between Saul and the
Philistines, in which the latter were defeated (I Sam.
siv. 2.S).
In Hosea iv. 1.5. v. 8, x. .5, Beth-aven is probably a
disguise for Beth-el, particularly in x. 5, where calves
of Beth-aven as objects of idolatry are mentioned.
J. JR. G. B. L.
BETH-AZMAVETH. See Azma\-eth.
BETH-DAGON : The name of several places
apparently in ancient Palestine. The second ele-
ment is the name of the Philistine god Dagon. In
the Old Testament mention is made of a city called
"Beth-dagon," allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh.
XV. 41: compare Tosef., Oh. iii. 9): and within the
territory of the tribe of Asher there was also a Beth-
dagon (Josh. xix. 27; compare Tosef., Sheb. vii.
13). Sennacherib also mentions a Bit-daganna on
his inscriptions (see Schrader, "K. B." ii. 92; De-
litzsch. "Wo Lag das Paradies?'' p. 2S9) which
appears to be a third distinct locality. Beth-dagon
occurs at the present day as the name of various
places in Palestine; but it is doubtful whether
any ancient cities can be associated with them.
The Beth-dagon southeast of Jaffa is probably too
far north for the Judean citv mentioned in Josh.
XV. 41; the Beth-dagon in the district of Acre,
mentioned by Scholz, answers the required con-
ditions.
J. JK. F. Br.
BETH-DIBLATHAIM : City of Moab (Jer.
xlviii. 22) identical with Almok diblataim.
J. JR. G. B. L.
BETH-EXi : A city famous for its shrine, on the
boundary between Ephraim and Judea — the site of
the present little village of Beitin, on the southern
slope of the Ephraimitic mountains. (See illustra-
tion on page 120.) Originally the town was called
Luz (Gen. xxviii. 19); but this name was displaced
by that of the shrine, Beth-el ("house of God").
According to Gen. xii. 8, Abram erected an altar
east of Beth-el ; but the erection of the shrine — that
is, of the holy stone — is ascribed to Jacob (Gen.
xxviii. 18; compare Gen. xxxv. 6, 14). Since in
these narratives (Gen. xxviii. 19, xxxv. 7) Beth-el,
"the holy place," is distinguished from the city Luz,
the shrine must have been outside the city. A suit-
able place would be the hill to the east of Beitin,
where now are the ruins of a small fort. But
Schlatter ("ZurTopographie Paliistinas," pp. 286 et
scq.), who thinks that the name Beth-aven in the Old
Testament (Hosea iv. 1.5 et nq.) is merely a sarcastic
disguise of " Beth-el " (so also the Talmud ; Xeubauer,
"G. T." p. 15.5), concludes from Josh. vii. 2 (com-
pare Gen. xii. 8) that the shrine must be sought
somewhat more to the east at Deir Diwan. The
statement in the text of Josh. vii. 2, and Josh. xvi.
8, also, which places Beth-el, together with Luz, on
the boundary -line of Ephraim, can not, for textual
reasons (compare the Septuagint reading), be taken
as a conclusive proof that the shrine was at a great
distance from the city. According to Judges xx.
18, 26 et seg., the shrine was of great importance in
the days of the Judges; still more so after the divi-
sion of the kingdoms, when Jeroboam made it the
chief Ephraimitic shrine (I Kings xii. 'i9etse'j. : com-
pare II Kings X. 29), "the king's chapel." as it is
called in Amos vii. 13. At the time of Elisha there
was a communitj- of prophets at Beth-el (II Kings
ii. 3). The oldest prophets name Beth-el as one of
the centers of degenerate Israelite cult (Amos iii.
14, iv. 4, V. 5; compare Hosea iv. 15, v. 8, x. 5).
Amos came into the city at a great feast, and raised
a storm of indignation among the priesthood and
the people by his merciless condemnation of Israel
(Amos vii. 10 et seg.).
Even after the conquest of Ephraim the shrine of
Beth-el retained its importance (II Kings xvii. 28).
When Josiah took possession of this old part of the
Ephraimitic dominions he uprooted the illegitimate
cult (II Kings xxiii. 15). After the Exile, Beth-el
belonged to Judea (Ezra ii. 28). At the time of the
JIaccabees it is sometimes named as the seat of
Syrian ganisons (I Mace. ix. .50). Otherwise, the
place is only mentioned by the first Christian topog-
rapher, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux, and by Eusebius,
as a small country town. In Lam. R. ii. 3 it is
stated that Hadrian placed a guard at Beth-el to
capture Jewish fugitives.
Bibliography : F. Buhl, Ga^graphic dt' Alten PalSstina,
Index. s,v. Beth-cl : G. A. Smith. HiMnrical Geography of
the Holu Land. etc.. pp. 250 et seq., 290 et seq.: A. von aall.
Beth-emek
Beth-rebob
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
120
Altifiachthclu Cult^tattin : Benzinger. Arch. pp. 3i3-391 ;
commentaries >■( Dllluiann. LieUizscli, StracR, Holzinger. and
Gunkel on l.en. x.wiii. and xxxv.
.1. .IK. F. Be.
BETH-EMEK : A towu on the border between
Aslier auil Zihuluu. belongiug to the latter (Josh.
xi.\. -il). It lay to the east of Acco; but its exact
location has not been determined.
J. JK. G- B. L.
BETH GX7BBIN : Xarae of a city mentioned in
the Talmud aiul in the Midrash (Xeubauer, " G. T."
pp. Hi itseq.). called " Betogaboa " by Ptolemy and
others. It does not occur in the Old Testament;
but Reland shows that it was one of the Idumean
forts captured by Vespasian (Josephus. "B. J." iv.
8, g 1). It was also called "Eleutlieropolis," under
coincides with the so-called "Mount of the Franks"
(Jebel Furedis). a high peak south of Jerusjilem.
But since it was on this hill that Herod tlie Great
built a fort called "Herodion," it could hardly have
become a mere village in the days of Jerome. It the
statement of Jerome be true (and there is no suffi-
cient reason to doubt it), Beth-haccerem can not be
the 'X\u Karim. west of Jerusiilem. as Cheyne
("Encyc. Bibl." i. 556) has it. This latter is rather
to be identilied with the " Kereni "" mentioned in the
Septuagiut to Josh. xv. 59. However, the village
Beth-Kerem. which, according to the Mishuah (Xid-
dab ii. 7), had a reddish color, may be identical with
the Biblical Beth-haccerem.
J. JR. F. Br.
View of Beth-el.
which name it is often mentioned by Eusebiiis.
In his time it was tlie capital of the province within
wliich it lay. The site of the ancient city is deter-
mined by the present village Bet Gibrun in south-
western Judea, that contains some ruins. In the
vicinity are many natural caves, artificially en-
larged ; hence it is thought that the name " Eleu-
theropolis," that is, "free city," arose through a
confusion between "hor" (cave) and "hor" (free).
The original name, which was not supplanted by
the Greek form, is found in even the oldest Moham-
medan writers.
■'■ JR. F. Bv.
BETH-HACCEREM : According to Xeh. iii. 14,
a Judeau city ; described in Jer. vi. 1 as a high place
visible at a great distance. Jerome (on the passage)
speaks of Beth-haccerem as a village still existing
on the road between Jerusalem and Tekoa. This
BETH-HILLEL, DAVID DE : Beni-Israel;
author of a book of "Travels." Madras, 1833, the
lirst work by a Jew published in India. He de-
scribes his travels through India, but is otherwise
of little importance.
Bibliogsaphy: Catalogue nf Anglo-Jewish Exhibition, }io.
J.
BETH-HORON : Name of two villages at the
western end of the Ephraimite mountains, called re-
spectively "upper Beth-horou" (Josh. xvi. 5) and
"nether Beth-horon" (Josh xvi. 3. xviii. 13; I Kings
ix. 17). They are nowadays spoken of as the two
villages "Bet 'iir et-Tahta" (the lower) and "'Bet
'ur elFoka" (the upper). They were situated on
an old road leading from Gideon to the plain on the
coast; this is mentioned in the Old Testament as
a difficult and steep road between the villages of
121
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beth-emek
Beth-rehob
Betli-horon (Josli. x. 10; t} avdSasic Baiffo/pui', I. Mace,
iii 16), or Morad Bt-thboron (Josh. x. 11 : ti; rij nnra-
paijti 'Baiflupuv. I. JIac(\ iii. '^4). In aueieut times
the road was the principal highway between the
mountains and the plain. Here the Canaanites fled
from Joshua (Josh. x. Kictseq.); and by this road
the Egyptian king Shisbali probably invaded the
country, since Beth-horon is mentioned in the
inscription relating his victory (W. Max Milller,
"Asieniiud Europa,'' p. 166). It was for strategic
reasons that Solomon fortified the lower Betli-horon.
In Grecian times the Syrian general Seron attempted
to force an entrance by Beth-horon into the country,
but was repulsed by Judas Maccabeus (I Mace. iii.
\^ et Kq.). Kicanor afterward met with the same
fate (I Mace. vii. 39 ct scq. ). When Bacchides be-
came master of the Jewisii country he strongly for-
tified this important point. It is again mentioned
wlien the Romans under Cassius sustained heavy
losses there (Josephus, "B. J." ii. 19. s- 8). It may
also be gathered from the Old Testament that these
two villages were binlt by the daughter of Ephraim
' r Chron. vii. 24), and tliat Sanballat, the adversary
"f Xeliemiah. came from tliere (Xeh. ii. 10, 19; xiii.
•J'<). For the form " Horoni " compare 'Qpuviv; i.e.,
■ Iloronaim " in Septuagiut of Josh. ix. 10 and 11;
■^iim. xiii. 24. Several of the Talmudic scholars
■ iiiue from Beth-horon (Xeubauer, "G. T. " p. 1.54).
.1. .II!. F. Bu.
BETH-JAAZEK: According to the Jlishnah
(R. H. ii. 4|, a large court in whicli the Sanhedrin
awaited tlie announcement of the new moon. The
Palestiuiau Talmud ascribes its name to the fact that
the calculation of tlie calendar was settled (ptj?) there.
•r. .JR. F. Bu.
BETH- JESHIBIOTH : Town in the district east
^'f the .Jordan, allotted to the tribe of Reuben ac-
cording to Xum. xxxiii. 49 and Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20;
but in Ezck. xxv. 9 it is mentioned as a Moabitish
city. Josephus calls the city "Besimoth " ("B. J.''
iv. 7, § 6). Eusebius speaks of it as " Bethsiniuth."
and states that it was situated on the Dead Sea, 10
Rinnan miles southeast of Jericho. Its exact site is
said to liave been on a sandy hill southwest of
Beth-haran. From this it appears that the Tal-
mudic assertion that Beth-jeshimoth is 13 miles
distant from Abel-shittim is not correct (Neubaiier.
"0. T."p. 2.-51).
.1. .II!. F. Bu.
BETH HA-KENESETH. See Synagogue.
BETH-LEHEM-JUDAH (I Sam. xvii. 12;
Judges xvii. 7, xix. 1): The modern Bait Lal.im, sit-
uated about .5 miles south of Jerusalem, some 1.5
minutes' walk east of tlie road to Hebron, on a range
of hills surrounded by fertile and beautiful valleys.
The city was also called "Ephratah" (Josh. xv. 60,
LXX. ; Micah v. 1 [A. V. 2]; Ruth i. 2, iv. 11; but
hanlly Gen. xxxv. 16, 19: xlviii. 7). In I Chron. ii. .50
et seq. , i V. 4, Ephratidi is the wife of Caleb from whom
Betli-lehem descended. Beth-lehem is mentioned
among the cities of Judah in Josh. xv. 60, in a pas-
.sage which is missing in the Hebrew text, but which
has been preserved in the Septuagiut.
In the epic stories of the Book of Judges neither
Beth-lehem nor any other city of Judah is mentioned.
In the additions to this book it is named as the home
of the Levite who migrated to Ephraim (Judges
xvii. 7). Beth-lehem is also the scene of the idyl of
Ruth. It was through David, whose family lived
at Beth-lehem, that the little country town achieved
an unexijccted fame. The characteristic story told
in II Sam. xxiii. 13 (t scq. shows how much David
was attached to his native city. But lie did not re-
main there. He chose a larger ca|)ital. and tlius
Beth-lehem could continue undisturbed in its quiet
ways. According to II Chron. xi. 6, the town was
fortified by Rehoboam. Micah (v. 1) predicted tliat
Beth-lehem, Epliratah or (omitting "lehem ") Beth
Epliratah would be the birthplace of a new Mes-
sianic David.
Xothing furtlier is found in the Old Testament
concerning this country town, that was probably
nothing more than an insignificant village, except
that a number of its citizens returned to Judah after
the Exile (Ezra ii. 21). It is not mentioned in the
Book of ^Maccabees, nor in post-Biblical times by
Josephus. But it became of world-historic impor-
tance as the traditional birthplace of Jesus, and as
sucli is still the goal of pious pilgrimages. Hadrian
built here a shrine to Adonis, in order to irritate the
Christians; this shows how imporUint the town liad
become to the Christian world. As early as the
second century a stable in one of the grottos close by
the town was pointed out as the birfhjdace of .Jesus
(Justin Martyr, "Dial, cum Trypli." pp. 70, 78).
Constantine built a splendid basilica in Beth-lehem,
substantially the same church whicli is still admired
by modern travelers. Below the church is the
grotto regarded as the birthplace of Jesus. Jerome
occupied a grotto near by when translating the
Bible. During the Crusades Betli-lehem suffered
greatly from Jlobammedan violence. To-day it is
a flourishing town, inhabited only by Cliristians.
BiBLIOfiRAPHV: J. .\. Smith. HM. Gcngritjihii iif Pnhstine,
pp. 318 (7 .sv;«/.; liutil, ijC'njraphie (h-a AJti'n I'<ih'lstinti, ]ip.
lit, 15.5-15(5; Tobler, Bctlilchcm; Palmer, Uds Jcfzr'yi' Beth-
lehem, In Zeits. lies Dcutsch. Palilet. Vcreins, xvii. S9 et seq.
J. JR. F. Be.
BETH-PEOR : A place in the valley of the
.Jordan which, in Josh. xiii. 20, is apportioned to the
Reubeuites. In Deuteronomy (iii. 39, iv. 46, xxxiv.
6) it is stated that the people were in tlie valley of
the Jordan, opposite Beth-peor, when the Deutero-
nomic law was ]3romulgated. Ho.sea (ix. 10) proliably
means the same place when he speaks of Baal-peor.
According to Eusebius ("Onomastica," ed. Lagarde,
ccxxxiii. 78; ccc. 2), the city was situated 6 Roman
miles from Livias (or Beth-haran) near Mount Peor
(compare Num. xxiii. 28). According to another
statement of Eusebius ("Onomastica," ccxiii. 47),
this mountain lay on the road from Livias to Hesh-
bon; and according to Jerome (if>. ex v. 1), it was 7
miles distant from the latter. But no place corre-
sponding to these descriptions has as yet been found.
The references to Beth-peor in the Talmud, collected
by Xeubauer, "G. T." pp. 253, 2.53, prove that the
place survived the destruction of the Second Temple.
.1. .in. F. Bu.
BETH-KEHOB . i REHOB : An Aramaic city
which sent reenforcements to the Ammonites during
the war with David (II Sam. x. C, 8; compare
Beth-Shan
Bethar
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
122
I Sam 14. 47. LXX.>. According to Judges xviu. .8.
he c tv of Dan was built in the plain otBetli-relmb
The laher is also mentioned as the northern front^
place of Palestine (Num. xiii. 21)^ Robmson tned
io identify I?eth-rehob with the f,.rt Hunen along
the westeni border of the upper Jordan ^^lley ; but
iudging from the statements in the Old Testament,
it must be a place east of the Jordan. It is possible
that Beth-rehob is the ancient name of Banias, assu-
ming that this place is not to be identified with Hasar
Enan (compare Baal-o.\^d).
t . ijt .
J. JR.
BETH-SHAN. See BETn-SnEAN.
BETH-SHEAN or BETH-SHAN : Fortified
town of Canaian. The Baisau of to-day. in the lower
part of the Jalud chasm. 120 meters below the level
of the sea The Israelites did not succeed in cnn-
ouering this citv. which was strongly fortified by
nature (Josh. .xvii. 16; Judges i. 27). Whether it
Tvas conquered by the Philistines or whether the
Canaanites opened their city to them is not clear
from the stories of I Sam. xxxi. 10 and II Sam. xxi.
1" But like all the other cities that had not been
vanquished, Beth-shean had fallen into the hands
of the Israelites liy the time of Solomon (I Kings
jv 12) In Greek times it was Helleuized and named
Skypthopolis (Judges i. 37. LXX.; II :Macc. xii. 29;
Judith iii. 10; Josephus, and elsewhere). But the
Hebrew name is used not only in I Mace. v. 53, xii.
40 et seg. . but also in the Talmud (sec Neubauer, •• G.
T." pp. 174 it feq.). and has entirely supplanted the
Greek name. At the time of Hyrcauus the city
again fell into the hands of the Jews, but became
free under Pompey and belonged to the league
Dekapolis. During the war for independence Beth-
shean was taken by the Jews, but it was soon recap-
tured by the pagans, who took bloody vengeance on
the Jew's. Interesting ruins of temples, bridges, a
theater, etc., bear witWss to the flourishing condi-
tion of the city in Gra>co-Roman times. The Tal-
mud speaks of'the fertile surroundings of this town,
and of the strictness with which the Jews living
there fulfilled the Law (Neubauer, " G, T. " ih.). The
forms Beth-shean and Beth-shan rest upon slightly
variant spellings of the Hebrew form, "shan"
TCDresenting a natural contraction of "sliean."
J. .,R. ■ F. Br.
BETH-SHE'ARIM: According to rabbinic ac-
counts, the Sanhedriu was destined to pass through
ten exiles during the period 30-170, and to be com-
pelled to wander from place to place. One of its
stations was to be the city of Beth-she'arim. in which
P. Judah I. resided for a long time (R. H. 31b;
Sanh. 32b; Kct. 103b). Asthenext placeof sojourn
was Sepphoris, Betb-she'arim is identified with El-
.Shajerah (Al-Shajarah), south of Sepphoris (Neu-
bauer, "G. T." p. 200). From the etymology of tlie
name. nyt;'=K1J'n. Schwarz ("Das Heilige Land,"
p. 138) identifies it with the modern village Turan at
the Jebel Turan northeast of Sepphoris (Fischer and
Guthe's Map of Palestine, c. 3).
According to Tosef., Ter, vii. 14, Johanan b. Nun
also dwelt in Beth-she'arim ; and, as the same place
is called "nc TCI iu Yer. Ter. viii. 4Ga. the two names
must be identical. The latter name of the place is
used also in Yer. Kil. ix. 32b and Yer. Ket. xii. 35a:
thither was conveyed the coffin of R. Judah I., who
died in Sepphoris" "nt" TVI is also mentioned as a
place of burial in Yer. M. K. iii. 82c. Certain texts
of the latter, however, substitute Bet-bin m the
neighborhood of Ca;sarea.
mnTiO(iRAPHV : Kohut. Arwh Cimpletum, 11. S7: Hildes-
beimer a'Trf/ac zur Ge.mmiMc P«I{_te(i»a\-, p. 39; Buhl.
Gaiyraplile ilcf AUcn PaKMina. p. il.. ^ ^^
BETH-SHEMESH (IB-SHEMESH in Josh.
xix. 41).— Biblical Data: A city of the hill-country
i)i-tween Judea and the coast on the .southern side
of Wadi Sarar, called to-day 'Ain Shems. Ac-
cording to Josh. xix. 41, it was one of the cities
of Dan, and according to Josh. xv. 10. it was
on the boundarv-line of Judea. In Josh. xxi.
Ifi it is named as a Lcvitic city. The Ark of the
Covenant of Ynwn remained here for a time after it
had been released by the Philistines (I Sam. vi. 9 et
geq.). At the time of Solomon, Beth-shcniesh was
the seat of one of the royal oflicers (I Kings iv. 9).
Later on Amaziah, king of Judea, incurred a serious
defeat there. Under Ahaz, Beth-shemesh was con-
quered by the Philistines (II Chron. xxviii. 18).
Nothing further is heard of the town, although it
still existed at the time of Eusebius. Another Beth-
shemesh was situated in the territory of the children
of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38; Judges i. 33). There
seems t<i have been still another Beth-shemesh, men-
tioned in Josh. xix. 22. Neither of these latter two
has been identified. The Beth-shemesh of Jer. xhii.
is generalhrsnpposed to be the Egyptian Heliopolis,
which is called On in the Old Testament. On ac-
count of this discrepancy Winckler (" Alttest. Un-
tersuchungen," p. 180) would strike out Beth, and
translate shemesh "pillars of the sun."
J. .JR. F. Be.
In Rabbinical Literature : Various explana-
tions are otlered for the di-saster which, according to
the Masoretic text, befell fifty thousand people in
the very moment of their rejoicing over the return
of the iloly Ark (I Sam. vi. 19). Josephus explain'^
("Ant." vi". 1, § 4) that they sinned in presumin:;
not being priests, to lay their hands upon the Ark of
the Law. The Talmud affirms that the inhabitant-
of Beth-shemesh were irreverent, greeting the ap-
pearance of the Ark with the cry, "Who angend
thee that thou wert wroth, and who then hath a)'-
peased thee that thou art kindly dispo.sed tow;inl
us? " Another account is that these people perished
because they were so sordid as not to pause in their
work in the fields at the appearance of the Ark.
The somewhat curious wording of the passage (I
Sam. l.r.). "He smote of the people seventy men,
fifty thousand men " (" and " does not appear in the
Hebrew text), is explained by rabbinical authorities
as indicating that this enumeration refers to two
classes of people : the learned, whose number sev-
enty represents the Sanhedrin, and the ordinary
people, represented by the larger number. Other
expounders, no doubt referring to the Septuagint
reading which mentions only the seventy men, inter-
pret this as meaning that only the members of the
Sanhedrin perished, but that on account of their
123
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beth-Shan
Bethar
prominence their loss was equal to the loss of fift_v
tliousand of the plain people (Sotah 35a, b: Yer.
Sanh. ii. 20b; compare also the Targum and pseudo-
Jerome. "Quiestiones," upon I Sam- vi. 19).
L. G.
BETH-SHITTAH (" place of acacia-trees ") : A
place near Abel-meholah. To it the Midianites fled
wlien jiursued by Gideon (Judges vii. 23). The name
occurs only here ; the place has not been identified.
J. JR. G. B. L.
BETH-ZTTB : A city in southern Judea (Josh.
sv. r>ii; I Chron. ii. 45; Neh. iii. 16) which was for-
tified by Rehoboam (II Chron. xi. 7). It was a
strongly walled place, situated on the eastern liound-
ary-line of Judea. The town was repeatedly be-
sieged during the time of the JIaccahees (I Jlacc. iv.
2S(t.'<eq., vi. 50, ix. 52, x. 14, xi. 65). Its situa-
tion is indicated bj' the ruins near a hill of Bet-sur,
or Burj-sur.
.T. JR. F. Be.
BETH ABABA: An unidentified place men-
tioned in John i. 28. According to Origen's reading,
the name is brouglit into connection with the He-
brew " 'abarali " (crossing), and is supposed to refer
to one of the many fords of the Jordan. Another
reading is "Bethany" (Beitiavia), but no place of this
name east of the Jordan is known. Grove, Wilson.
and Cheyne combine both readings into 'Briffavalipa—
that is. "Beth-nimra " in the Jordan valley, northeast
of the Dead Sea.
J. JR. F. Bu.
BETHANY (Bifiavia): A place referred to in the
Gospels, and proliabl)- also in the Talmud, under
the forms 'J'-TTa, 'JIX n''3. 'J'S IT'a, and i^n n'3, but
not mentioned in tlie Olil Testament (Pes. .")3a ; Tosef . ,
Shebi'it, ed. Zuckerraandel, 30, 71). According to
John (.\i. 18), it was " nigh unto Jerusalem, about fif-
teen furlongs off " ; according to Jerome (" Onomas-
ticon." ccviii.), "in secundo ab ^Elia milliario '' (at the
second mile-post from Jerusalem). This is the site of
the village El-Azariych on tlie southeastern slopes of
the Mount of Olives. The identification is estab-
lished by the name "El-Azariyah," which is the
Arabic form for " Lazarium," as Bethany was some-
times called by the Christians. The village, with its
olive-, fig-, almond-, and carob-trees, is a little oasis
in that barren region. The figs (Hebr., "te'enah"),
whicli arc also mentioned in the Talmud, probably
gave the place its name.
J- JR. F. Bn.
BETHAR : City in Palestine, scene of the war
of Bur Kokba (132-135), and mentioned as sucli in
Jlishnah Ta'auit iv. 6; Yer. Ta'anit 69a; Babli
Ta'auit 26b, 29a; Lam. R. to chaps, ii. 3 and iv. S;
Yer. Ber. 3d; Tosef., Yeb. xiv. 8; Bab. Yeb. 122a;
Sanh. 171); R. H. ISI), as well as in many other pas-
sages in Talmud and Midrash. The name is written
in various ways: usually -in'!, but in tlie Cam-
bridge and Hamburg MSS. (Ta'anit iv. 6), -inn'3;
so also in "Halakot Gedolot," ed. Hildeslieimer.
p. 189, and Sherira's" Letter," ed. Neuba\ier ("Medi-
eval Jewish Chronicles," i. 4, MSS.); but ih. ii. 109,
in n'3. the reading in Kohut, "Light of Sliade," p.
41 ; "in TT'a. in Cant. R. to chap. ii. 17, but im D'a.
Neubauer, ib. i. 171. These sources indicate that
Bethar was a town of importance as early as the time
of the destruction of Jerusalem, and was, moreover,
the seat of a Sanhedrin; its inhabitants, who fre-
quently suffered at the hands of the Jerusalem pil-
grims, are said to have rejoiced exceedingly over
the fall of tliat city. Bar Kokba made Bethar the
chief base of the uprising against the Romans: and
upon its suppression. Bethar— witliiu the walls of
whicli large mas.ses of Jews had souglit refuge — was
closely surrounded by the Romans under Julius
Severus, and was besieged for two and a half years
(132-135) ; see concluding jiart of Seder '01am R.
compared witli Yer. Ta'auit 69a, and Lam. R. ii. 2,
according to which this period of time does not refer
to the duration of the war, but to that of the siege
of Bethar; tlie war itself, according to Jerome (on
Dan. i. 9, end), lasting three years and six months.
During the war Bethar afforded slielter to an enor-
mous popvilation, which fact gave rise to exagger-
ated labltinical accounts that Bethar had several
luindred schools for children, and that the school
youth boastingh- declared that thej- could overtlirow
the enemj' with their pen-reeds. When the stream,
Yoredet ha-Zalman, ran drj' in summer, the city
began to suffer from want of water. The Samaritan
Book of Joshua (ed. Juynhnll, xlvii.) relates that the
provisions, which were secretly ccmveyed to the
town, suddenly, as if by miracle, ceased to be sup-
plied. It is said that there were two subterranean
passages leading from the city to Jeridio and Lydda ;
that the Jews made use of them for the transporta-
tion of provisions: and that the Samaritans betrayed
this secret to the Romans and thus brought about
the fall of Bethar. Rabbinic sources (Yer. Ta'anit
68d; Lam. R. to chap. ii. 2) also speak of a
Samaritan's treachery that, furthermore, caused
the death of the pious R. Eleazar of Modin.
Hence it may be concluded that Bethar was situated
close to the Samaritan territory, and that the story
of the underground passages to Jericho and Lydda
can not be credited, for they are plainly features of
the siege of Jerusalem, transferred to Bethar. Neu-
bauer is therefore incorrect in locating Betliar in the
vicinity of Beth-sheraesh, basing his opinion on the
BniSap of tlie Septuagint on II Sam. xv. 24; for this
place is not found in the Masoretic text, and thus
no light is conveyed from that source as to its local-
itj'. Eusebius ("Hist. Eccl." iv. 6) calls the city
BW8)/pa (variant BfrtW/)o, Br/Hr/p) — which agrees with
the above-cited spelling, "inn'3 ; and he states that
Bethar lay in the vicinit}- of Jerusalem. On this
account Schi'irer and others (Ritter, Tobler, Deren-
bourg, Reuan) identifj- Bethar with the modern Bit-
tir, which is situated at a distance of three hours
southwest from Jerusalem and contains the remains
of an old fortification on a steep neck of land. The
B'l-rdpic of Josephus ("B. J." iv. 8, § 1) is said to be
different from this Bittir. If, however, Bethar had
Ijeen situated near .lerusalem, it is inconceivable
that Jeru.salem should have taken no part in the
war. Griitz ("Gesch. der Juden,"3d ed., iv. 144), on
the otlier hand, declares the statement of Eusebius
to be erroneous and locates Bethar north of Antipa-
tris, four Roman miles south of Cn'sarea. This
would put Bethar in the neighborhood of Samaria.
Bethel
Betrothal
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEPIA
124
Lebrwht (iu " Magaziii ftir ilie 'NVisseusch. ilfs Judeu-
thums," iii. 1876) also places Betliar in this region—
tliat is to say. at a great ilistanoe uorthwani from
Jenisjilem — and endeavors to prove that Bethar is
identical with the Roman Castra Vetera of Seppho-
ris: in'3 "">« sjiid to he the equivalent of '•Vetera"
(compare HotTniann. " Magazin,'' 1878, p. 188). Tliis
view is followed by Kohut. Flirst. and Krauss in
their Talnuidic dictionaries. Nevertheless, the site
of Bethar must still he considered doubtful. From
the Talmud it can be determined only that tlie town
was situated near the sea (Git. 57a: compare Yer.
Ta'anit G9a), for the blood of those killed is sjiid to
have llowed into the sea. Bethar was destroyed on
the same day as .lerusjtlem. on the Ninth of Ab
(Ta'anit iv. (i: compare Jerome on Zech. viii., where
instead of " Bethel" read "Bethar"): the killed
("in'3 'jnn^ were left to decay in the open lield : and
only after the hatred of war had abated was it made
possible to give them burial.
BiBLiocR.iPHV: Herzfeld, in JJnuatf^'hiift. ISoii, p. Ifti; l.v-
\>rv(.lxt. Vie Sloill Bellicr. tin l''-liiimhrtj<llniii(!f Miivvd-
sfiViKdii.*.-, in Motiaziii, iii. iT if .-f;. iiilso iis a si™rate pam-
fihlet, Berlin. I.s77i : Xeubauer. Gii'i/nip/iiV cdi Tnlmiiil. pp.
IS!-1H : Schiirer. Gesch.. 3A e<l.. i. i>!« i ( ftq.-. tiratz. Gi.-c/i.
<iir Juitciu iv,. 3d ed., p. 144; Biideker, PMMiiiti uiiil gii-
rieii. 3tli ed., p. 16.
G. S. Kr.
[In favor of the identitication with Bittif. how-
ever, it might be mentioned that in 1874 C'leriiiout-
Ganneau discovered there a Latin inscription men-
tioning detachments of the tifth iMacedonica) and
the tenth (Claudia) legions, tlie very ones which had
been called from the Danube to put down the revolt
of Bar Kokba. A Roman garrison was left at Bit-
tir just because of its stmtcgic importance. See
Clermont-Ganneau. iu "Academic des Inscriptions.
Comptes Rendus." 1894. pp. 149 it xnj. : Ilanauer, in
"Pal. E.xplor. Fund, Quart, Statements," 1894, p,
149; Buhl. "Geogr, des Alten Paliistiua," p, 1()3;
Cheyne. in "Encyc, Bibl," i. oo.").— «.]
BETHEL, cr DE SYNAGOGA (i?xn*2 ;0. "of
the hn\iM- ol G"d"i: An Italian -Jewish family,
several members of which are known as liturgical
poets and copyists. According to a family tra-
dition, it was one of the four piomincnt Jewish
families deported by Titus to Rome after tlie de-
struction of the Temple. The name "Bethel," how-
ever, seems to be derived from Casiidio (= house of
God. "beth-el"!, probably their place of origin.
Traces of this family are found as early as the
twelfth century. By the middle of the lifteenth
century the name had almost disappeared, and
the family had assiimed the name of An.\w. of
which family the Betlielides had ahvays been a
bntnch.
The following membei'S arc best known to fame:
Ismael ben Moses Bethel: Physician; lived
in the niiildle of the sixlientli century.
Jehiel ben Mattithiah Bethel : Physician :
liveil at I'isii in the ImuUciuh century (.compare
"He-Haluz," i\., part 2, p, .jO).
Jekuthiel Bethel : Sou of the preceding: copy-
ist : lived at Rome at the beginning of the lifteenth
century. The library of Parma possesses a "Mal.i-
zor" written by him for Xethaneel ben Abraham
(see Steiuschneider. " Hebr. Bil)l." vii, 115),
Joab b. Benjamin Bethel: Liturgical poet;
lived at Rome at the end of the fourteenth century
and the beginning of the lifteenth. He was the au-
thor of a " Kaddish " iu 8 strophes (.compare Znnz,
"Literaturgeschichte," p, 490; Liindshut, "'Am-
mude ha-'Abodah," p. 80). lie is mentioned by
Rieti in his " Paniiliso." p. IDo.
Joab ben Nadan ben Daniel Bethel : Litur-
gical poet : lived at Rome in tlie fourteent century.
He was the author of a " Reshut " on " Xishmat "
for the Feast of Pentecost (compare Luzzatto,
"Mebo." p. 23).
BiBUoCRAPHV : Zuuz. G(«-inimtltc iiclirifttn. iii. Hi7 itsci;, ;
-Monani, Iiiilicc Alfalxticn, p, S; Vogelstein and Kieger,
licfdi. ilcrJinkii in n»m. i. m. 307, 332.
G. I. Bn.
BETHESDA : A pool iu Jerusalem. According
ti> John V. ■,; — tlic only passirge wherein it is men-
tioned — it was "by the sheep market," hence on the
north of the Temple-hill. Its e.\act location can not
be definitely fixed. The Pilgrim of Bordeaux
(about 33o) and also Eusebius ("Onomaslicou,"
cdx., cd. Lagarde) describe it as a double pond
with reddish water, surrouniled by five C(>lonnades.
Hence it might be identilied with the two ponds be-
low the convent of the Sisters of Zion. During the
Jliddle Ages. Bethesila was supposed to be the pond
on the western side of the French church of St.
Anne (compare "Palestine E.\ploKition Fiiud." 1888,
pp. 115 (7 .v<'7.). There is a later tradition, entirely
without foundation, that identities Bethesda willi the
Biiket Israel, a large basin at the northeastern corner
of the TempIe-hillT
J. JK. F, Bu,
BETHPHAGE : Town mentioned iu several pas-
Siiges of the New Testament (Matt, x.\i. 1; Mark
xi. 1 ; Luke xix, 29), in all of wliich it is brought
into connection with Bethany, or the Mount of
Olives. It was. therefore, on tlie road to Jericho,
near Jerusalem, and outside of the wall. Tins is
known also from Talmudic;il references, where it is
given as the Sabbath distance limit (Xeubauer. ~G.
T." p. 147). According to some passjiges of tlie
Talmud, also, it would appear that Bethpliage (Tos,
Pes, viii. ) was near, yet outside, Jerusalem "JS ri'3,
Sotah 4.5a), Yet it is referred to as surrounded by
a wall (Pes. H3b, 9Ia: Men. 78b). which description
does not exactly correspond to any known locality
in the immediate neighborhood of Jerus;ileni. The
exact location, however, has not been determiniil
(see Buhl, "Geographic des Alten Pahlstiua," p.
1.551.
,T. ,11!. G. B. L.
BETHSAIDA: A town in northern Palestine
not mentioned in the Old Testament, but referred to
in the Gospels, and by Josephus. Pliny, and others.
According to Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 2. § 1 ; 5. § 6;
" B. J. " ii.9. s 1 : iii. 9. § 7). Pliiliji transformed the vil-
lage Bethsiiida — situated on the Jordan where it dis-
charges into the Sea of Galilei — into a large, flour-
ishing city. Avhicli he called Julias. The Gospels
mention the village Bethsaida; Jesus sometimes
stayed there; and Philip. Andrew, and Peter came
from there (Matt. xi. 21; Mark vi. 45: viii. 22. 2();
Luke ix. 10: John i. -W, xii. 21). It has been falsely
125
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bethel
Betrothal
assumed from some of these passages that there was
a Bothsakla west of the Jordan. The statement of
John (xii. 21) that Bethsaida hiy iu Galilee is not
couviuciug. as Josephus aud otliers sometimes con-
sider jiortious of the eastern coast of tlie lake as be-
longiug to Galilee (compare Buhl, "Geographie des
Alten Palilstiua." p. 242). But one must probably
make a distinction between Buthsaida-Julias and the
fishing village Bethsaida mentioned iu the Gospels.
The latter was probably close by the lake, while the
city of Philip lay higher up, near the little plain of
Batiha.
J. .m. F. Bu.
BETHUEL.— Biblical Data : 1. According to
Gen. xxii. 22. a descendant of Arjihaxad (compare
Gen. xi. 13-22). He was the son of Xahor and
Milcah, and father of Laban and Rebekali. Since
in Gen. xxv. 20 and xxviii. 2, 5, Bethuel is
called "the Syrian [Aramean] of Padan-aram,"
he must have been, according to this source, a
descendant of Aram, the brother of Arjihaxad
(Gen. X. 22; compare Budde, " Urgesehichte," pp.
421-420). In the story of Rebekah's marriage (Gen.
xxiv.) he is only mentioned once, as taking au active
part in events (verse 50, "then Lal)an and Bethuel
answered "). Some critics omit his name here, aud
assume thai Bethuel was already dead at that time
<Ball, "S. B. O. T." lid he; Holzinger, Commen-
tary to Gen, p, 170). Other critics (c.f/., Dillmanu. /((
locii) supp<ise that throughout Gen. xxiv. tlie name
"Bethuel "is a later addition. Guukel (Commen-
tary to Gen. i)p. 226, 229) finds here two traditions,
jind supposes the Bethuel of verse 50 to be a younger
brother of Laban, Some critics think that Bethuel
may have been the name of an Aramean tribe in
Mesopotamia,
2. Xante of a town in the tribe of Simeon (Josh,
xix. 4; I Chron, iv, 30), the site of which has not
yet been identified.
J. .JR. B. E.
In Rabbinical Literature : Bethuel, being
king of Ilarau, exercised the./".« prima; iioetis in his
dominions. The people consented, only on condi-
tion that he should u.se this privilege also toward the
members of his own family. God. therefore, let him
die suddenly when Eliezer wooed Hebekah for Isaac,
in order to spai'c her the dreadful ordeal. This
explains why. in the Biblical account of Eliezer's
wooing (Gen. xxiv. 50), Belhuel is at first mentioned,
but afterward only Rebekah's motlier and brother
are referred to, Bethuel having died during tlie night
(Yaik, i, 109, probably from the lost Midrash
Abkir), Another legend states that Betliuel intended
to kill Eliezer when he saw the treasures which the
latter brought with him, and, not being able to
carry out his purpose, ou account of Eliezer's great
strength (see Eliezer, in R-vbisinical Litera-
ture), he mixed poison with his food. The angel
who accompanied Eliezer changed the plates,
however, so that Bethuel ate the poisoned portion
which he had intended for Eliezer, and died tliere-
from (Yalk. J.c, Midrash Aggadah. ed. Buber,
Vienna, 1894, i. 58, .59). Acconling to the old Slid-
rashim, Bethuel refused to give his daughter in
marriage, aud for that reason God caused Iiiiu to die
suddenly, while Eliezer was staving in his house
(Gen, R. Ix. 12),
L, G.
BETHULIA (BaiTov/.ota, SairovAia, Bfn/oi/a,
Bn/n/oii;; Vulgate, Bethulia) : Name of the city
which, according to the Book of Judith, was besieged
liy Holoferucs; the home of Judith. In the shorter
version of the legend published by Gaster ("Pro-
ceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology,"
1894, xvi. 156 et sef/.), Jerusalem is the besieged
city. The name "Bethulia" may, therefore, be
assumed to be an allegorical one, meaning per-
haps "Bethel " (house of God), or it may lie a word
compounded of "betulah" and "Jah" ("Yiiwii's
virgin"). In the better-known longer version,
however, the whole context points to the situation
of the city as having been on tlie mountains to
the south of the large plain of Jezreel. Bethulia is,
moreover, spoken of iu a way to distinguish it de-
cidedly from Jerusalem. It may therefore be ac-
cepted that iu the longer version the story has been
connected with a definite tradition current in that
looality. The original allegorical name, however,
may have been applied to a place in that region;
liut it has not yet been possible to find traces of the
name in the region to the south of the large jdaiu.
The name "Mataliye." a place on a hill south of the
small fertile plain Merj-el-Gharak, conies nearest to
if ; but this point is too far soutli to correspond to the
details given in the Book of Judith. Thisobjectifm
applies even more strongly to the fort Sanfir, ^vllich is
still farther south, and to which, among others,
Guerin refers it, Marta (" Intorno al Vero Sito de
Betulia," 1887) has tried to identify the city with
El-Bared, west of .Jennina, a location that, topo-
graiiliically considered, is quite possible. According
to Willrich ("Judaica," 1900), "Bethulia" is a cor-
ruption of "Bethalagan."
,T. su. F. Bu,
BETROTHAL (pOITX in Talnmdic Hebrew):
Tlie term " betrntlial " iu Jewish law must not be
understood in its modern sense; that is, tlie agree-
ment of a man and a woman to marry, by which the
parties are not, however, definitely bound, but which
ma_y be broken or dissolved without formal divorce.
Betrothal or engagement such as this is not known
either to the Bible or to the Talmud, and only crept
in among the medieval and modern Jews tlirough the
influence of the example of the Occidental nations
among whom they dwelt, without sectu'ing a definite
status in raliliiiiical law.
Several Biblical passages refer to the negotiations
requisite for the arranging of a marriage (Gen. xxiv. ;
Songof Songs viii. 8; Judges xiv. 2-7),
In which were coiulucted liy members
the Bible, of the two families involved, or their
deputies, and rec|uired usually the con-
sent of the prospective bride (if of age) ; but when
the agreement had been entered into, it was definite
and binding upon both groom and bride, who were
considered as man aud wife in all legal and religious
aspects, except that of actual cohabitation.
The root L""lX ("to betroth"), from wiiieh the
Talmudic abstract ['DIIX ("betrothal") is derived,
niust be taken iu this sense; i.e., to contract an ac-
ttial though incomplete marriage. In two of (he
Betrothal
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
126
p.issjiscs in which it occurs the betrothed woman isili-
rtcilv'^desi snared as " wife" (II Sam. iii. 14. " my wife
whom I have betrothed" ("erasti"). and Deut. x.xii.
24, where tlie betrothed is designated as "the wife
of his neishbor"). In strict accordance with tliis
was allowed to pass before the marriage was com-
pleted by the formal home-taking ("nissu'in," "lik-
kuhin '■). In case the bride was a widow or the
groom a widower, this interval was reduced to thirty
ilavs (Ket. v. 2; Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 56).
SCENE AT A Betrothal of German- Jews, Eighteenth Centcbt.
vFroai B^xienKhau. " Kirchliche Verfassung.*'}
sense the rabbinical law declares that the betrothal
is equivalent to an actual marriage and only to be
liissolved by a formal divorce.
After the betrothal a period of twelve months
After the disperssil of the Jews had brought them
into contact with the 'Western peoples, this arrange-
ment was felt to be inconvenient and out of harmony
with the prevailing views. It therefore became
127
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Betrothal
customarj' to perform the entire marriage ceremony,
betrothal and home-taking (" erusin" and " nissu'in"),
at one time; and an affiancing or
Betrothal engagement similar to that prevail-
andHome- ing among non-Jews was introduced.
Taking. Tliis was not an entire innovation, as
its roots already existed in the cus-
tom of "shiddukin " or consent to marry, which ex-
isted in the days of the Talmud and probably also
in the Biblical age. It was considered indispensable
bv the rabbis that a man should gain the good-will
and consent of his prospective bride before entering
upon a contract of marriage. Rah, tlie Babylonian
There is now no legal duration of time between
betrothal and marriage, the length of the engage-
ment being left entirely to the option of the parties
concerned, except that the marriage may not take
place in less than seven days after the agreement
to marry has been reached (Nld. 66a ; Shulhan ' Aruk,
Yoreh Deah. 193).
In Talmudic days, as in modern times, gifts
formed an important feature of betrothal and mar-
riage customs. These were of several kinds. The
gifts which the groom sent to his bride were called
"siblonot" or "sablonot," a term which Benja-
min Musatia and Kohut explain as derived from
Betrothal Scene at Nuremberg.
(From Kirchner, " Judisfbes Certmnniell, " 1726.)
amora, was accustomed to punish severely any one
who married without lirst having persuaded and
gained the consent of his wife (Kid. 13a ; Yeb. 52a
et al.).
What was in the Talmudic age a mere personal
matter became in later times a formal custom, which
wascelebrated with much pomp. At these occasions
it was customary to make out a formal contract to
marry and to stipulate that a penalty should be im-
posed upon either party who should fail to fultil
his or her part of it. Such agreements were known
as ■' shiddukin " (consent to marry), and also as " te-
naim " (conditions), or among German-speaking Jews
"kenas-mahl " (penalty-feast), because of these stip-
ulations and penalties. They are still customary in
many countries in modified form.
the Greek <76/i/3o;^ov (" a gift or payment made as a
sign or a mark by which to infer something; a
token ") (" 'Aruk ha-Shalem," vol. vi.,
Gifts. s.i\ niJl5'3D). This derivation is cor-
roborated by the fact that the Talmud
(Kid. 50b) debates the question whether the sending
of siblonot can be consideied a proof of marriage
or not. Jastrow, liowever ("Diet." s.c. jl^aD). de-
rives the term from ^30 ("to carry"), corresponding
to the Biblical "massa" and "masset." It was also
customary for the male friends of the groom to send
gifts, which sometimes took the form of money
donations and were useful in assisting the groom to
defray the expenses of the wedding. These presents
were termed "shoshbinut" (friendship-gifts), from
the Aramaic "shosbbina" (friend or neighbor).
Betrothal
Bettelbeim
THE JEWISH EXCYCLOPEDIA
128
supposed by Musafia and Kohut to be derived from
the Greek aiamrvof ("cue living in cue's tent: mess-
mate; but see PayueSmith,
"Thesaurus,"*, r.). Sacbs
(••Boitriige zur Spracb- und
AltertUuuis -Forschung,''
18oi. pp. 82 ct f^i.) derives
the wc.rd from K3L"nt,", the
mvrile - hearing comi)anions
of the bridegroom.
JmI' v^HR Betrothal in its legal sense
■9/ "'^^B C'erusin") is performed in
jBB wK ] the following manner: After
^^ mmj the ordinary benediction over
^^^^^^^ wine, the person performing
,•'' ' the ceremony continues as
follows: ''Blessed art Tliou.
O Lord, our God. King of
6ilver-GmB.>rr.MiKURin!r, the universe, who hast sane-
Bearing Letter : for titled US with Thy command-
"Mazal T"'i." ments and triven us com-
(From thi- Victoria and All^crt ^ • c
Mtis^uiu, lobjol.) mandmeuts coucernmg tor-
bidden connections, and bast forbidden unto us
those who are merely betrothed, and permitted
seven wedding benedictions forms the completion
of the wedding ceremony. See Wedding.
Bibliography: Per-
les. Vie Jihli^che
Hmhzeit ill 2\nch-
hihU.tclur Zcit. in
Frankel's J/oii<its-
gehrift, ix. Leipsic,
181)13: the same in
English : Jc ivish
3/nri*i((i/t' in Pi*st-
Bihliail Tiincf. in
Ht))r(ir rUnrac-
ti'riiitii's^ New York.
lST.i: Mielzlner. The
Je i( i."/! Lit w o/
Marriaije ami Di-
niree, Cincinnati,
18SJ ; C(iTi>el, Le
J u i1 a i .->' Ml »■ . Mul-
bouse. 1.ST6 : Du-
seliak. Da.t Mnsa-
igeh-T<ilnni<li!<chc
Ehencht. Vienna,
l!MH: Israel Abra-
bams. Jewish Life
ill the MiiliUc -lyts,
London. 1S96.
J. SR. B. T>.
Betrothal Rinpwith Box Containing
Perfumes and Opening with a Key.
(From the British Museum.)
BETTELHEIM : Xame of a Hungarian fam-
V. The tirst bearer of it is said to have lived
COSmiES OF BKIIIE and GKOOM .iMiiNU Tilt liERMAN JEWS, ElOUIEE.NIH CE.NIVRT.
(After K&but. '• Geschichte der DeulSL-hru Jujcn.")
unto us those lawfully married to us through
'canopy' ["huppah'] and 'betrothal' ["kid-
dushiu"]. Blessed are Thou, O Lord.
The Legal who sanctiliest Thy peojde Israel
Ceremony, through huppah and kiddushin. "
after which the groom hands to the
bride a ring or some object of value (not less than
a perutah, the smallest current coin), saying. "Be
thou betrothed luito uie with this ring [or object] in
accordance with the laws of !Moses and Israel "
( " kedat Mosheh Ave-Yisrael ").
As stated above, this act of betrothal is at present
combined with the rite of home-taking; and after the
placing of the ring upon tlie finger of the bride,
the marriage contract (Ketcbah) is read, to form
an interval between the two acts. The recitation of
another benediction over wjue and of the customary
toward the second half of the eighteenth century,
in Piesburg. To account for its origin the follow-
ing episode is related in the family records:
There was a Jewish merchant in Presliurg. whose modest de-
meanor gained for him the esteem of his fellow-tmvnsmen. Ht-
was poptUarly called " Ein ehrlich Jud " (honest Jew i . His wift
was a woman t>f surpassing beauty, and many magnates of iht-
(Country, bearing of her charms, traveled to Presbui"g to see her.
C'cpunt Bethleu was particularly pereisteut, and. failing to
attract her attention, be decided to abduct her. Mounteti on his
charger, he appeared i^'Ue day in the oi>en market, where the
vinuous Jewess was making purchases, and. in the sight of hun-
dreds of spectators. Ufted her on bis horse, ami, heedless of her
cries of entreaty, was about to gallop off with her. when her
husliand appeared on the scene and. after a fierce personal com-
bat, succeeded in rescuing her.
That a Jew should engage in a h.ind-to-hand en-
counter with a nobleman of the rank of Count Beth-
len %vas so unprecedented, and the deed itself was
^'9^
^
r^vf>
-v
:\b
^-n^
'^
^^
i'**;-
-*HS^-^'
mN3 'DtiSiuDi-ip inj hy Kjnn k/io vjn na ym VK\r yjah oSijrn nNnaV lyani
, — i'-\3r -iH'ds oanon mjon p 3io Sro omax -(nbs -(pTM ^KJ^n^ -nnan sa
•' — 7 'innj 'D^p ip'y K" -nnb^ sSsran ain Snjoi nyo Sn jn -"Non na/iao
D2^r>2 'JVT npaHiDjisNi [ttki TpiKi rhsK ^^a n jni Sk-iu^'i rvK'o ma uunS
y< ja'n'i Nur pa pn'c'J ;t pnaai j'DJiflai pjTi fnpioi ^^rhsi |"»<nir\' f nan
O'mV Sym 'a'piflp>'a'rtiD3i 'a*jwai 'a'V irm pxa 'nr e^pa •a'Snra in» 'a'*?
M;jnj N-nirtJK'^n'S mm nop ni Kn'5ir)3n'7'L3J'jrnDnK'axiKj7->N'?3 n-»»o
ii' am bra omaKinba 'avi qny cjwSr j-nu'S fnu;}; niaK 'aan''? J^Syjm
KT KT^aina map syoj c^ny cjoaSiy f 'lU'S f n;yy n'jiaoa rh c)'D5hi fji pn
-lar^-iambiTm pnTp«aoiac)nyqpa'?tt'fnu;S pyaiKHJianir^i n^jnjpa
KV)-ij NT Nriaipo "luf ^aim nmnN pn fnn w • aiu bra Dn">3x inaa n jb
j-U'jpi ppaj J^N njii' Saa Ny-li)n^^'? 'N?jia 'Kr>T Sj?i 'Vy n'S'ap Npspmi
pjitinrnnNpnbrt'NTfroj'JpaSNJNTriyii'Njp-in'ai^SamnJi'bn'Ki
-id;:/ f injD y-isab pNp'msxi pxaiy i pK-in« pn' jinSian rimpN jirt'?;)''?!
s'51'ja'hNniaai "na 'NsraSyiNa'bj p ib'SNiNnspim s'jnjKT N/jama
-ino3 r4j Sap Knspir»i s*jnj nt xjiama "»t3t/ laim pmnw obybi f jt
r^'Smaa 'J'n jn maira '■^uv Sa naini nmnNa f jt pn ly* aiu bra omaN
>;S-iiNr)D»PK3 xS-i Vr'n 'jipnSaa p'lf ynrintyomj^iyijyn Sn-)v:/'
an->3K -inoD td KnnS 'O'nn-i nnp px NJVpi '-»u;i'T 'Dfliiaa
r~-~>i3TS p-n j-r>n nriSr nVjKtjJifl n— ^st -inba p w' aiu Sro
Ml NnSiP3nJ'Oipirvytt"->">n''DaranS'UJ'jn-»0 irho n-naan
O'pi i-Tv:; Sam n'a K"jpob ■>\:'aT NjDab'yS t/TflOU'riaT 'Na Sa Sy roa
Ik
't
na
■rr>pf^\
ITALIAN KETUBAH, oiBETROTHAJ. DEED, dniod ,1555 A.M.
/FROM THE Nei/V YoRK PuBLIC LIBRARYJ
129
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Betrothal
Bettelheim
so daring in view of tlie social status of the Jews of
those times (wliicli remained unclianged until the
liberal laws of Emperor Joseph II. were promul-
gated), that the populace thenceforth styled'the hero
of the storj- "Bethlen-Jude." This name clung to
bim until the royal edict, l)iddiiig Jews to assume
family names, went into force, and then the name was
clianged to "Bettelheim." Among the family relics
preserved by a scion of the house in Freystadtel, on
the Waga, isan oil-painting which dejiicts the daring
rescue of the Jewess from the hands of her abductor.
Of the descendants hearing the name of Bettel-
heim the following are the most |)rominent:
1. Albert (Aaron) Sieg-fried Bettelheim:
Rabbi and Hebraist ; liorn in Hungary April 4. 1830;
died at sea Aug. 21, 1890. At the age of eleven he
of London journals, and acted as private tutor
('• Ilofmeister ") to Count Forgacs, then governor of
Bohemia, and afterward Hungai ian court-chancellor.
In the early lif ties Bettelheim removed to Temesvar,
Hungary, where he was director of the Jewish
schools and editor of a political weekly called
"Elore" (Forward). In 1856 he became the "offi-
cial translator of Oriental languages and cen.sor of
Hebrew books "at Czernowitz. where,
Becomes in 1858, he married Henrietta Wein-
Censor of traub, the first female Jewish public-
Hebrew school teaclier in Himgary. In 1860
Books. he became rabbi at Komorn, Hungary,
where he was appointed superintend-
ent of all the schools— the first Jew to gain such a
distinction. Thence he went to Kaschau, where he
Processio.ns of Briderroo.m Axn or BRmn, Circa ITiiu.
(From Kinhner, " Judischea Cereinontt-11," 1-26.)
entered the yeshibah of Presburg, and afterward
studied in the Talmudical schools at Leipnik, jNIora-
via. and Prague; enjoying the tutelage of S. L.
Hapoport, from whom, at the age of eighteen, he
obtained his rabbinical diploma. Bettelheim offici-
ated for a short time as rabl)i and religious teacher
at Miinchengratz, and then returned to Prague to
enter the university, whence he graduated with the
degree of Ph.D.
In 1850, and for .several years thereafter, Bettel-
heim was the Austrian correspondent of a number
III.— 9
oflieiateil as rabbi until 18G2. While at Kaschau he
edited a Jewish weekly, "Der Jude " (jargon), to
combat the views of the Jewish Congress, then
holding animated conventions at Budapest. There,
too, he edited a political weekly, whose progressive
ideas were discountenanced by his congregation and
held to be prejudicial to Judaism. The fanaticism
of his people became so pronounced that, being
threatened with excommunication l)y one of the col-
leagues of his former domicile in Komorn, he decided
to emigrate to America with Ids family.
Bettelheim
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
130
In 1867 Bettelheim was elected nibbi of the Crown
street congregation (now Beth Israel) of Philadel-
phia, and became a professor at the Maimonides
College. In 1869 he became rabbi of congre-
gation Beth Aliabah, of Richmond, Va., where
he established and edited a German weekly, "Der
Patriot" (afterward diangcd into a
Emigrates daily, with the title "The State Ga-
te zette "). AVhile in Richmond he en-
America, tend the Medical College, and was
graduated witli the degree of 31.D.
He intended to write a work ou Jewisli medicine, and
has left behind a number of nifmographs and other
documentary material not yet published.
Though assured of a remunerative practise as a
physician, Bettelheim. at the solicitation of his con-
gregation and of clergymen of other denominations,
whose lumorcd associate he was, did not forsake
the pulpit. In 1S75 he was elected rabbi of the
Ohabai Shalom congregation of San Francisco,
Cal. . where he became chairman of the Societ_v for
the Study of Hebrew, composed entirely of Chris-
tian clergymen, and director of the Societj- for the
Suppression of Vice. He held other p-iblic offices,
and delivered the baccalaureate sermon at various
high schools and colleges. He occupied the pidpits
of the Unitarian and Baptist churches in San Fran-
cisco, and afterward in Baltimore, where, in 1887, he
became rabbi of the First Baltimore Hebrew Con-
gregation, an office he held till his death. In Bal-
timore he became identified with a number of public
institutions and charitable organizations, and in-
structed some uon-.Jews in the elements of the He-
brew language.
While on the homeward voyage from a visit to
Europe, he died on lioard ship, and was buried Aug.
21, 1900. Two Catholic priest.s, whose acquaint-
ance Bettelheim had made on the voyage, read the
Jewish buiial service and recited the " Kaddish " as
the body was lowered into the sea.
Bettelheim's literary activity was of the most
varied kind. Besides the items enumerated above,
it may be noted that he was the art critic of a prom-
inent San Francisco journal: coeditor of the "Jew-
ish Times " (now the "Jewish Times and Observer ")
of San Francisco, from 1880 to 18S6: a regular con-
tributor to the "'Argonaut " of that city ; a frequent
contributor to the ".Jewish Exponent" of Philadel-
phia, and the "Menorah Monthly" in
His New York. He was the author of some
Literary charming ghetto tales and stoiies of
Activity. Jewish life, two of which — " Yentil the
Milk-Carrier" and "The Baal-Milha-
mah-Rabbi " — were translated into German, Hun-
garian, and Hebrew. He was at work for over
twenty years on a Revised English Bible, about
three-fourths of which he had completed in manu-
script at the time of his death. JIany of his
suggestions and scholarly notes are incorporated
in the last two volumes of Kohut's "AruchCom-
pletum. "
BiBLiOGR.iPHV: Baltimore American and Baltiimire Sun ol
Aug. and Sept., ISW; George Alexander Kohut, Rer. Dr.
Aaniji Siegfricil BetteVuini : a Bimiraphieal Sketch, in
Jewixh EriiiDiiiit. Philadelpliia. 1880; idem, in Jeteish
rummciit. Baltimore, Aug. 17, 1900.
s. G. A. K.
2. Anton Bettelheim : Austrian critic and jour-
nalist: born at Vienna Nov. 18, 1851. He studied
law, and for some time was engaged in active pr.ic-
tise, but abandoned the profession for a literary
career. Although he had received his degree of
"doctor of law." he attended the lectures of
Giesebrecht and M. Bernays at Munich ou literal y
subjects. Fired by the eloquence and enthusiasm
of the latter, he undertook the study of Beau-
niarchais' life and writings, and. to this end, resolved
to make original investigations in the libraries ot
London, Paris, The Hague, Carlsruhe, and Spain.
.\fter an extended tour through Germany, Franc e,
England, and Spain, Bettelheim became, in 1S.'<0,
the feuilleton editor of the Vienna "Presse." He
retained this position until 1884, when he became
editor of the "Deutsche Wochenschrift." In is.^6
he joined the editorial staff of the " Deutsche Zei-
tung," which position he resigned shortly after to
ptiblish the "Biographischen Blatter." subsequently
issued as " Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher
Xekrolog."
Bettelheim's works are: " Beaumarchais, " a biog-
raphy, 1886; a translation of Little's " Wie Ich ^lein
Worterbuch der Franzosischen Sprache zu Staude
Gebracht Habe," 1887: " Volkstheater und Lokal-
blihue 1887," 1887; "Ludwig Auzengruber, der
Mann: Sein Werk. Seine Weltanschauung." 1891;
"Die Zukunft Unseres Volkstheaters," 1892; "Deut-
sche und Franzosen," 189.5; "Acta Diurna, Gesain-
melte Aufsittze," 1899; and "Fuhrende Geister."
1890-97.
Bettelheim is also one of the editors of Anzen-
gruber's complete works, published by Cotta, 1890.
Bibliography: Kursohner, Deutscher Literatur-Kalcnder,
1S«1. pp. 98, 99; Da« Gciftige Wieii. 1893. p. 3t.
s. E. Ms.
3. Caroline von Bettelheim-Gomperz (also
called Tellheim) : Court singer and member of
the royal opera. Vienna; born June 1. 1845. at
Pesth. She studied piano with Karl Goldmark. and
singing with Laufer. At the age of fourteen she
made her debut as a pianist, and two years later ap-
peared for the first time in opera at Vienna. She
eventually obtained a permanent engagement at the
Royal Opera in that city. She has occasionally
starred in her favorite roles in other cities of Ger-
many as well as in London. She is the wife of
Julius Ritter v<m Gomperz, president of the Aus-
trian chamber of commerce and member of the
Upper House.
s. J. So.
4. Felix Albert Bettelheim : Physician and
surgeon of Panama: liorii in Fri-ystadtel, on the
Waag. Hungary, Sept. 2, 1861; died in Baltimore,
Md., April 4, 1890. He was the son of the rabbi
Aaron Siegfried BETTELnEiM, and emigrated to the
L^nited States in the sixties. In his seventeenth year
he was graduated from the L"uiversity of California
with high honors, and three years later from the
iledical College in San Francisco. From 1880 to
1881 he was resident i)hysician of the San Quentin
state prison: from 1881 to 188.3, ship's surgeon of
the Pacific >Iail steamship " Colima " ; 1883-89. sur-
geon-general of the Panama Railroad and Canal
131
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bettelhelm
Company. Through his efforts the first hospital in
Panama was built ; and he became one of its stalf of
physicians. He held several high offices and re-
ceived a number of medals and testimonials from
the government in recognition of his services.
Bettelheim was the discoverer of a new germ
peculiar to tropical countries, an account of which
is given in medical records. In 1889 he studied
clinical metliods in the great Eui-opean cities. On
his return to America he died from a tropical liver
complaint which was held by American autlioritics
to be unique and was described by Professor Osier,
of Johns Hopkins University, in a London medical
journal. He was a frecjuent contributor to the
"Lancet "and other periodicals, and left a posthu-
mous work, "Outhe Contagious Disea.ses of Trop-
ical Countries, " still unpublished. A te.\t-book by
Dr. Thorington of Philadelphia, on tlie diseases of
the eye, is dedicated to Bettelheim's memory.
BIBMOCRAPIIY : The periodical .Jewish press of April and May,
189(1; Baltimiire Amerkau. ApriI5aud7, ISiW; Sim Fran-
cisco Kvamiiicry April 8, 189U.
A. G. A. K.
5. Jacob Bettelheim (pseudonym, Karl Tell-
heim): German dramatist; born at Vienna I let. 2(1,
1841. He attained considerable prominence bv his
first attempt in the field of literature, "Elena Tace-
ano,"a romance. This he followed with "Iiitime
Geschichten " (novelettes) and a drama, "Nero,"
written in collaboration with Von Schonthanin 1889,
the year in which he married Fraulein Brentano.
A farce, "Die Praktische Frau," was his next pro-
duction, after which came in quick succession " Gift-
mischer" and "Vater Moriu," two plays; two
dramas, "Ehellige" and "Sein Bester Preund " ;
"Madame Kukuk,"a farce; "Syrenen," a drama;
"Seine Gewesene," farce; "Aus der Elite," farce,
1894; "Der Millionenbauer," drama, in collabora-
tion with M. Kretzer; " Verkliirung," drama, 1897;
"Verklilnmg," farce, 1898; " Der Retter," comedy,
1898; "Onkel .Jonas," a popular drama, in collabo-
ration with O. Klein, 1898; " Victorinen's Hochzeit"
(translated from George Sand's ])lay), 1879; "Mar-
guerite" (from Sardou), 1886; " Der Erbe " (from
De Maupassant), 1894; and "Im Verdacht " (from
Labiche).
niBLTOGRAPHY: KUrschner, Dcutscher Literal ur-Kaktul,r,
19()1, p. 98.
s. E. Ms.
6. Karl Bettelheim: Austrian physician; born
at Pre.sburg, Hungary, Sept. 28, 1840; died July 27,
189.5. He received his medical education at tlie
University of Vienna, where he studied \uuler Hyrtl,
Bri'icke, Rokitansky, and Skoda. In 1868. two years
after obtaining his doctorate, he was appointed as-
sistant t(5 Op]i()lzer, and served in that capacity
until 1870. Thiee years later he became docent of
medicine (Iniiere Medizin) at the University of
Vienna. From 1870 to 1878 he was editor of the
"Medicinisch-Chirurgi.sclie Rundschau," and for sev-
eral years was chief of the department of in-
ternal diseases at the Polyclinic, and physician-in-
chief of the Rudolfinerhaus at Unterdobling, near
Vienna.
The scientific investigations of Bettelheim arc
chiefly on the pathology of the heart and blood-
vessels. His experimental researches on mitral insuf-
ficiency and on the mechanics of the heart following
compression of the coronary arteries are considered
of great value.
Bettelheim's writings comprise a number of
papers on diseases of the blood and circulatory
organs, on certain affections of tlie alimentary canal,
and reports of interesting clinical cases, which he
published in the leading medical journals. His
most imiiortant contributions are; " Ueber Bewe;:-
liche Korperchen im Blute," and " Ueber einen Fall
von Phosphorvergiftung," in the " Wiener Medici-
nische Presse," 1868; "Ein Fall von Echinocoecus
Cerebri," "Stenose eines Astes der Pulmonalar-
terie," and " Bemerkungen zur Diagnose des Masen-
carcinoms," in " Vierteljahrschiift fiir Psychiatiie ";
"Die Sichtbare Pulsation der Arteria Brachialis, ein
BeitragziirSymptomatologicEinigerErkrankiiiigeii
der C'irculatioiisorgaue," iu the " Deutsches Arcliiv
fur Klinische Medicin," 1878; "Die BandwUriner
beimMensclien," in the "Sammlung Klinischer Vor-
tritge," 1879. He translated from the French R.
Lepin's "Pneumonia Lobviii." Vienna, 1883; and
"Diseases of the Spinal Cord," by the English neu-
rologist Gowers. Bettelheim also described the
origin of the second sound in the carotid artery
("Entstehung des Zweiten Times in der Carotis." in
"Zeitschrift fiir Klinische Medicin," 188.3).
Bibliography : L. Eisenhersr, DanGcintine Wieii, ii.2tl; Hirscli,
Biiiaraiiliixclux LcxikDii, i. 440; Pagel, lliinirapliistlieii
Lcxikiin, p. liil.
s. W. S.
7. Leopold (Meyer Leb) Bettelheim: Hun-
garian physician; born iu the second half of th((
eighteenth century. He was not only eminent in
his profession, but was considered a Hebraist of
some im]i(irtaiice. He lived in Freystadtel, on the
Waag, and there held the responsible oHice of pliy.si-
cian-in-ordiiiaiy to Count Joseph ErdiMly, the iiillu-
ential court chaucellor of Huiigaiy, in whose
private residence are still prest'rved the surgical
instruments used by Bettelheim in saving the lives
of the count and his family, together with docu-
ments recording some remarkable cures elTecti'd by
him.
In 1830 Bettelheim was the reciiiient of a gold
medal of honor from the emperor Franz I. for distin-
guished services to the roj'al family and to the
nobility.
8. Samuel (Shemuel Zebi) Bettelheim: Son
of Leopold (No. 7); pliysieiaii, mnrhanl, anil iiolit-
ical agitator during the troublous years iireceding
the Revolution of 1848; afterward served in the
army. His wife, Eva, was a woman of unusual
scholarly attainments, and an earnest student of the
Bible and its cnmmentaries. She was an excellent
Talmudist and wrote a number of disi|uisitioiis on
learned rabbinical i|Uestions. The faiiKuis reformer
Hodza, an evangelical pastor and organizer of a vio-
lent Slavonic movement in northern Hungary in
1848, was her instructor iu classical and modern
literature.
Bibliography ; (Iriil ErdOdu Jfyisei Krimikaja (printed for
private oirciilaticm "iilyl, pp. 84-86; Pnzfinnii Kuzlunti, IStSi,
p. 6; a tninscnpi from old family records supplied for this
biography by Iir. Joseph Bettelheiin in Budapest.
8. G. A. K.
Betting
Bevis S
larks
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
132
BETTING : The mutual agreement of two par-
ties as to gain and loss upon a certain contingency.
It seems to have been unknown iu Biblical times.
There is no mention of it iu the Scriptures, unless an
allusion to this kinil of easy gain is iuteuded iu such
proverbs as the following:
• He that tillelli liis land shall have plenty of bread, but he
tbat folluwfth after vain thinps [A. V. "vain persons"] is void
of understanding" (Prov. xli. 11). "Wealth
Possibly gotten by vanity shall be diminished, but he
Alluded to that gathcreth by labor shall have increase "
in Provei'bs. (ib. xiii. 11, .\. v.). " He that maketh haste to
be rich shall not beunpunisheil" ti/j. .\xviii.20,
A. V.)- "He that hasteth after riches hath an evil eye, and
knoweth not that want [or disgrace] shall overcome him" Ub.
xxvili. 22, Hebr.).
An interesting case of bettiug is related iu Ab. R.
N. XV. and Shab. 30d el scg. : "Two men (A and B)
bet whether it was possible to provoke Ilillel to
anger. One of them (A) said, ' I can do it. ' The}'
agreed that, if he did provoke Ilillel to anger he
shmdd receive from the other (B) 400 zuz [the alter-
native of the bet. that iu case of failure he was to
(lay to B the same amount, is not mentioned]. He
tried his best, but failed. Then he exclaimed: 'If
thou art Ilillel, the prince of Isrsiel, I hope that there
are not many iu Israel like thee; for through th'ee I
lose 40U zuz.' Ilillel replied: " Learn to control thy-
self ; the lesson learnt by Hillel's patience is worth
even twice the stake.' "
If two jiarties have bound themselves by a bet,
however blamable the act of bettiug may be, they
have to act in accordance with the moral precept,
"That which is gone out of thy lips thou shall ob-
serve and do " (Deut. xxiii. 24 [K. V. 23]). They
are at least morally bound: but it is not certain
whether the lo.ser is also foi'Ced by la.w to abide by
the agreement. In the Mishuah (R. II. i. 8; Sauh.
iii. 3) betting seems to be among the vices that dis-
qualify those addicted to them from givingevidence.
The passage runs thus: "The following are distjual-
ified from givingevidence: He who plays at dice
[■'mezahek be-kubia "] or lends on interest, or bets
on pigeons." The original for the last expression is
"mafrihe yoiiim" (literally, "causing pigeons to
tly ") and is thus explained in the Gemara (Sanli. 25a) :
" If thy pigeon comes before the other " [supply]
"then I pay thee so and so much." Another cx-
]ilaiiation is olVered by Hama, who can not adopt
the first definition of "mafrihe yonim," because the
principle of betting is already mentioned in the
phrase " playing at dice."
Two reasons are given why a betting mtiu can not
be heard as witness: (1) Rami b. Hamasaj's: "The
winner has no right to take the money
Bettors of the loser ; and if he taki^s it, he is
Dis- guilty of robbery." (2) Ra.b Shesliet
qualified as says: "A person addicted to betting
'Witnesses, wastes his time in idleness, and does
not fulfil his duty as a human being
of contributing by his work his share to the welfare
of mankind" ["eno 'osek beyishsbuboshel 'olatn"].
Both agree that betting disqualifies a person from
giving evidence, but with this diiference: Rami b.
Hama declares a betting man guilty of robbery,
and therefore dis(|ualified even if he bets only oc-
casionallv : while Rab Sheshet would not declare
him disqualified, unless betting is his sole occupa-
tion (Sanh. 24b).
"Whether a betting man is guilty of robbery or
not depends on the legal value of the betting trans-
action. Two parties frequently agree to certain
conditions, because either party hopes to gain by
them, and thinks only of the one eventuality that is
favoralile to him. The reverse seems to him to 1m
out of question; and neither party is actually pn-
pared for the loss. Such a transaction is calletl
"asmakta" (see Asmakta). Rab Sheshet denies that
the rule of asmakta apiilies to the ca.se of mezahek
be-kubia, or playing at dice. The Tosafot. iu dis-
cussing this subject, come to the conclusion that
when a certain sum of money is laid on the table
with the understanding that the wiimer shall take
it, the transaction is legally valid: but that games
which aie played on credit are asmakta, and the
stake is not recoverable by law.
IVIaimonides, in his commentary on the Mishnah,
speaks of the immoralit}' of the above-named games
as follows: "He who indulges in this
Mai- game spends his time iu things which
monides' do not contribute to the well-being of
'Views. his fellow-man; and it is one of the
principles of our rcligiim that mtin
ought to occupy himself iu this world either with
the study of the Torah, iu order to perfect his soul
in the wisdom of the Torah, or iu some useftil work
or handicraft or trade; but so that he finds sonic
time for the study of the La w. " In the same sense In-
speaks, in his Yad ha-Hazakah, Gezelah wc-Abed;ili.
vi. 11: "Oin- sages declare many things as forbidden
because they involve robbery; viz., playing at dice,
and the like, and even where the term ' robbery '
does not ap])ly, it is forbidden as a useless occujia-
tion " (" 'osek bi-debarim beteliin "). There are some
authorities who consider a game at dice less serious,
and allow it as harmless (compare Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hosheu Mishpat, 207, 13, note).
Bibliography: Besides the authorities quoted in the article,
Maiaumides, Yad litt-Hazakiih^ 'K(/i/t. xi. 4 ; SlntUuin ^Anik,
Hotihen Mifthual^ ;34, iti; PhJuul i'izhali, s.v. N."^icON.
j. SR. ■ " ' M. F.
BETURIA, PAULINA: Roman proselyte to
.Tudaism (about the year 50), known under the uann
"Sarah," who, according to her Latin epitaph, w:i-
cighty-six years and six months old at the time ot
her death. For sixteen years she was a Jewess, a
mother of the synagogues ("mater synagogarum ")
of the Campesian anil Volunmian communities in
Rome. A jirosclyte variously mentioned in Talnuidic
sources as Beluryah, Berurvah, Beliirit. and Beruzia,
who was learned in the Jewish law, and who in-
duced her slaves to become proselytes (Mek., Bo. 15:
R. H, 1Tb; Yeb. 46a; Geriin ii. 4). is perhaps iden-
tical with Beturia.
Bibliography: Gratz, Oescli. ilrr Jinten, 'M ed., iv. 102; Vo-
gelstein and Rieger, Gcsch. derjmien iu /^>»^, i. 74,
G. S. Kr.
BEUGNOT, AUGXJSTE ARTHTTR, COUNT :
French statesman and si-liohir; born at Bar-siir-
Aube :March, 1797; died at Paris March 15, 1865
Originally he adopted the profession of advocate,
but soon abandoned it in order to devote himself en
tirely to the study of history, and especially the his
tory of the Crusades. He was scarcely thirty-five
183
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Betting
Bevis Marks
years old when he was elected member of tlie Aca-
demie des Inscriptions et Bclles-Lt'ttres.
Among many vahiable works he wrote, "Les
Juifs d'Oceident, ou Rechcrciies sur I'fitat Civil, le
Commerce, et la Litterature des Juifs en France, en
Espagne, et en Italie Pendant la Duree du Moyen-
Age," Paris, 1824. This essaj' is not free from errors
such as are common to those that obtain their infor-
mation from secondary sources. In the preface,
in which he passes in review the period of the strug-
gles of the Jews with the Romans, and the state of
the Jews exiled unc er the Roman emperors, Beu-
gnot betrays .scant knowledge of ancient Jewish his-
tory. Thus he asserts, contrary to the most au-
thentic documents, that Julian the Apostate never
granted to the Jews permission for the rebuilding of
the Temple. Nevertheless, the work contains much
information on the history of the Jews of France,
Spain, and Ital}', which has proved valuable to later
histoi-ians. The author, who was a Catholic, does
not attemj)! to extenuate the horrors of the persecu-
tion of the Jews in the Middle Ages.
BIBI.IOORAPHY: H. Wallon, Ehigex Aidih'iiiiqucs, Paris, 1882,
i. 1-58; Darn, Lc Onntf Bf'uiimit, in the Correvpiindant,
April, 1.S0.5 ; La Grande Enctji'liipalii, s.v.
s. I. Br.
BEUTHEN : City of Prussian Silesia. No pre-
cise information is forthcoming as to when Jews
first settled in
the city. The
mention of
Beuthen in the
MainzerMemor-
buch (year 1331)
is uncertain ;
but it is known
that Jews lived
tliFie as early as
1421. The first
documentary
evidence rela-
ting to the Jews
ofBeuthendates
from the year
1613. In 1617
there was one
Jew there,
Mauth Areuda-
tor by name ;
and in 1639 two
more Jews were
admitted to
residence. In 1640 a Jew named Kretscham re-
eeivcil from Count Gabriel Hentzel the privilege of
estahlisliing an inn, and in 1653 another received the
right to sell li(juor. In 1656 a court Jew resided
here; anil in the following year an investigation as
to the nmnber of Jews was made for the purjio.se of
increasing the taxes. The rcspon.sa of Mcnahem
Krochmai in 1657 mention the rabbinate of Beuthen.
The Jews were often ill-treated aud sought protec-
tion from the count, who, in 1688, wrote in their
behalf to the city authorities.
In 1715 there were only four families in Beuthen;
in 1733 the Jews received a plot for a cemetery, the
oldest tombstiine still in existence dating from the
year 1743. The number of families had in 1782
increased to twenty-three; and in the same year the
tirst prayer-meetings were held in the house of the
Boehm family. These were followed by the first
synagogue in 1809; the second being inaugurated
in 1869, when also the first reader and shohet were
appointed.
In 1808 a Jew had been elected member of the
conunon council. The community, which in 1811
consisted of 255 persons, had increased in 1855
to 1,110, in 1885 to 3,390, and in 1901 to 3,036
persons.
The first rabbi, Moses Israel Freund, omciated
from 1790 to 1813; the second, Mendel Cohen, until
1829; the third, Israel Deutsch, author of several
writings, until 1853; the fourth, Jacob Ezekiel
Levy, until 1864; while the fifth, Ferdinand Ro.sen-
thal, served from 1867 to 1887, being succeeded in
1889 by M. Kopfstein.
BIBLIOORAPHV : Kopfstein, Gesch. cler Swmgngen-Qemeimle
in Baillien, Beutlieu, 1891; Salfeld. MarUirologium iks
NUrnhei!iirMiinorbuehei<,p.ilW; Brann, Gescli.dtrjjidcn
in Sclilrsini. i. 37.
« A. F.
See Peuiodic-
BEVIS MARKS GAZETTE.
Interior of the Bevis Marks Synagogue, London.
(After a plioti'grajih,)
BEVIS MARKS SYNAGOGUE (known ofii-
cially as the Synagogue Saar ha-Samayim) :
The oldest Jew-
ish house of
worshi]) in Lou-
don ; estalilished
by the Sephar
die Jews in 1698,
when Rabbi Da-
vid Nieto took
spiritual chargi'
of the congrega-
tion. At that
time the wor-
shipers met in a
small s y n a ■
gogue in Cree
Church lane;
but the consid-
erable influx of
Jews made it
necessary to ob
tain other and
com mod ions
quarters. A<'-
c o r d i n g 1 y a
committee was appointed, consisting of Antonio
Gomes Serra, Menasseh Mendes, Alfonso Hodrigues,
Manuel Nunez Miranda, Andrea Lojiez, and Ponta-
leao Rodriguez, It investigated matters for nearly
a year, and on Feb. 12, 1699, signed a contract with
Joseph Avis, a Quaker, for the construction of a
building to cost £2,750 (•?13,335). On June 34 of
the same year, the committee leased from Lady Ann
Pointz (alias Littleton) and Sir Thomas Pointz (alias
Littleton) a tract of land at Plough Yard, in Bevis
Marks, for sixtj'-one years, with the oj)tion of re-
newal for another thirty-eight years, at £120 a year.
Avis begau building at once, incorporating in the
roof a beam from a royal ship presented by Queen
Be^h
Bezalel
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
134
Anne herself. The structure was completed and
dedicated in 1702, and, with the exception of the
roof, which was destroyed by fire in 1738, and re-
paired in 1749, is today as it was 200 years ago. In
the interior decorations and arrangement the influ-
ence of the great Amsterdam synagogue of 1677
is apparent. In 1747 Benjamin Mendes da Costa
bousht the lease of the ground on which the build-
ing "stood, and preseuteil it to the congregation,
vesting the deeds in the names of a committee con-
sisting of Gabriel Lopez de Britto, David Aboab
Ozorio, Moses Gomes Sena. David Franco, Joseph
Jessuruu Rodriguez, and Moses Mendes da Costa.
The Bevis Marks Synagogue was for more than a
century the religious center of the Anglo-Jewish
world, and served as a clearing-house for congrega-
tional and individual tmuldes all the world over;
e.g.. theajipeal of the Jamaican Jews for a reduction
in ta.xatiou (1736); the internecine quarrel among
the Barbados Jews (1753); and the aiding of seven
year-old IMoses de Paz, who escaped from Gibraltar
in 1777 to avoid an enforced conversion.
The synagogue formed the center of the Sephardic
community of London till the foundation of the
Bryanstone Street Synagogue, in 1866. after which
the attendance at the functions declined so much
that in 1886 the "yehidim " contemplated selling the
ground and the building ; but a Bevis Marks Anti-
Demolition League was founded, under the aus-
pices of H. Guedallaand A. H. Newman, and the pro
jjosed demolition was given u|i. The synagogue held
its bicentenary celebration with great pomj) in 1901.
BiBLiocEAPHT : Picciotto. SJictchcsnf Aiwhi-Jewish Hixtnrir.
A. H. Xtwraan. A Cliiiiitfr of Anqhi-JcicixJi Hi.i(i>rM. 18^;
Jacobs and Wolf, BiliUatlicm Amihi-Judaica, No. 780. p.
lit) : No. 1:j32, p. 155: Jew. Chran. May 31 and June 7, 1901 :
Gaster, Hi^storu itf the Anvietit Synag'Hjnc of the Spanish
aud Pordmue.se Jcir.s, 1901.
J. E. Ms.— J.
BEZAH ("Egg "): Name of a Talmudic treatise
of Seder Mo"ed, the second of the six " sedarim " or
oi'ders of the Talmud. Its place in the Seder is not
fixed. In the Babylonian Talmud it occupies the
fourth place and follows immediately after Pesa-
him. This arrangement coincides with that of the
Pentateuch, where the law concerning the hol3-daj'S
is directly connected with the descrijjtion of Pass-
over (Ex. xii. 16).
In the Jlishnali and Talmud Yerushalmi another
method is followed, and the treatise occupies the
seventh and the eighth place respectively. The
name " Bezah " has its origin in the fact that the
treatise begins with this word; a solitary instance
among the treatises of the Talmud, it has a parallel
in the name " Eykah " for Lamentations, in the He-
brew names of the five books of the Pentateuch,
and in the names of the chapters of each treatise of
the Talmud. Instead of " Bezah " the treatise is fre-
quently called "Yom-Tob" (Holy Day), in accord-
ance with its contents. Tlie general
Frequently rule laid down in the Bible in the
Called words ■' No servile work shall be done
"Tom- in them, save that which every man
Tob." must eat, that alone may be done of
you" (Ex. I.e.), is assumed as clear
and known ; and this rule was held to constitute the
difference between "all servile work" (naxiiO ^2
rni3y'. prohibited on holy days, and "all manner of
work" inDxi'D^ai. prohibited on the Sabbath. But
certain problems resulting from these principles had
to be solved: and these are discussed in the five
chapters of this treatise.
Chapter i. : The main theme of this chapter is the
law of "mukzeh," "a thing laid aside" so as not l'^
be used for the present. The opposite of mukzeh i-
"mukan," "a thing kept ready " for use. This dis-
tinction is based on the divine command (Ex. xvi.
5), "And they shall keep ready [U'^Hl] what they
bring in " — in reference to the manna, which had to
be kept ready for the Sabbath from the sixth day.
Traditional interpretation generalized the idea ex-
pressed in this commandment as follows: A thing
which before the commencement of the Sabbath or
holy day was not intended for use on these days is
mukzeh, and must not be used or handled on these
days. There are various degrees of mukzeh; e.g.,
"mukzeh mehamat issur" — mukzeh on account of
some forbidden act which its use would necessitate;
"nolad" (born), that which has not existed on the
eve of the Sabbath or ha\y day, and is therefore
mukzeh. There is a difference of opinion between
the schools of Shammai and Hillel as to the force of
the above law of mukzeh. The preparation of food
liermitled on holy days sometimes necessitates the
carrying of things out of the house, or fetching of
things from outside into the house — an act forbidden
on the Sabbath, under the title of "hozaah" (taking
out) (Mishnah Sliab. vii. 2), as "taking out," one of
the thirty-nine kinds of work included in the precept
"Thou slialt do no manner of work." The applica-
tion of this prohibition to holy days forms a point of
difference between the aforenamed schools.
Chapter ii. : The permission to prepare food on
holy days is restricted to food required for those
da_vs ; but if a holj- day is closely followed by the
Sabbath, the food for the Sabbath may be prepared
on that holy day, provided such preparation lias
commenced on the eve of the festival. This first in-
stalment of the preparation for the Sabbath on the
eve of a holy day is called "'erub ta1)shilin," "the
link that unites the cooking " for the Sabbath on the
eve of the holy da)- with that done on the holy day,
and causes the latter to be permitted. The ne.\t
point discussed in the chapter is the question
whether things other than the preparing of food, if
required for the celebration of the festival, or for the
well-being of man — such as slaying certain sacrificial
animals, or warming water for a foot-bath — may be
done on a holy day.
Chapters iii.. iv. : The permission to prepare on a
holy day the food wanted for the da.y does not in-
clude hunting, fishing, or the purchase or fitting of
implements required for the preparation of food {e.g. ,
whetting the slaughtering-knife, burning charcoal,
etc.).
Chapter v. : On certain acts which are prohibited,
not as "servile work," but as a preventive ("geze
rah") against breaking any of the divine laws cou-
{■eruing the holy day. Such ijrohibitions are termed
" shebut " (abstention from doing), commanded by
the Talmudic sages.
The Tosefta calls the treatise "Yom-Tob," and
has four chapters, contracting chapters ii. and iii.
135
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Be^h
Bezalel
into one. The treatise occupies the place between
Sukkah and Rosh ha-Shanah, as in tlie Mislinah. The
Gemai'a, both Palestinian and Babylonian, discusses
the laws contained in the Mishnah with but a few
short digressions, such as those in Bab. 4b; remarks
on Yom-Tob Shcni, or the second da3-s of festivals;
(t'A. lob) Rabbi Eliezer's censure on those who left
before his lecture was concluded ; (16a) how Sliam
niai and Hillel, each in his own way, showed their
gratitude to God for the enjoyment of good food ;
(dob) on good manners in taking food ; and otiiers.
Of special commentaries on the treatise of Bezah
the following two are noteworthy: "Shittah Me-
kvibbezet," by Rabbi Bezalel A.shkenazi, and the
commentary of Rablji Menahem Mei'ri.
Bibliography : Z. Frankel, Hmhifietica in Mishnam. Leipsic,
IStiT ; Wallerstein, Lrtter nf Hnlilnnw Sherira, Krotoschin,
18H1 ; Hiililiixlie lin-Hnli llll-^[,i)■i on Bezah, Berlin, IH.W ;
AshkfiKizi, Sliittiih Mihiilihizi i,s]ifcm\ ed'. on iitjii/i, lluda-
pest, is;;il: Malii'ioniiles, ^ri.■<iln^ll Torah, iii.; iiriiiiiiiiin,
Hilknt l'<jm-Tiih; Slndhan 'Aruk. Omh Hayjiim, Wo-.WT.
J. SI!, ■ M. p.
BEZAI : A family, 324 of whose members re-
turned witli Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 17, and the par-
allel account, Neh. vii. 23). The name also occurs
in the list of those who signed the covenant with
Nehemiah, and may tliere be identilied with the
leader of the clan (Neh. x, 19); who in I Esd.
V. 16 is called Bassai. It is interesting to note that
the name "Be.sai" occurs on a clay tablet found at
Nippur (Ililprecht, "Pal. E.xplor. Fund, Quarterly
Statement," Jan., 1898, p. 55).
.1. .TK. G. B. L.
BEZALEL (A. V., Bezaleel).— Biblical Data:
In E.\. .\.\xi. 1-6, the chief architect of the Taber-
nacle. ELsewliere in the Bible the name occurs
only in the .genealogical lists of the Book of Chron-
icles, but according to cuneiform inscriptions a vari-
aut form of the same, "Zil-Bel," was borne by a
king of Gaza who was a contemporary of Heze-
kiah and Manasseh. Apparently it means "in the
shallow [protection] of El." Bezalel is described
in the genealogical lists as the son of Uri, the son of
Htu-, of the tribe of Judah (I Chron. ii. 18, 19, 20,
50). He was said to be highly gifted as a work-
man, showing great skill and originality in engra-
ving precious metals and stones and in wood -carving.
He was also a master-workman, having many ap-
prentices under him whom he instructed in the arts
(Ex. XXXV. 30-35). According to the narrative in
Exodus, he was definitely called and endoweil to di-
rect the construction of the tent of meeting and its sa-
cred furniture, and also to pi-epare the priests' gar-
ments and the oil and incense required for the service.
J. -in. C. F. K.
In Kabbinical Literature : The rabbinical
tradition lelates that when God determined to ap-
point Bezalel arcliitect of the desert Tabernacle,
He asked Moses whether the choice were agreeable
to him, and received the reply : " Lord, if he is ac-
ceptable to Thee, surely he must be so to me! " At
God's command, however, the choice was referred
to the peoijle for approval and was indorsed by
them. Moses thereupon commanded Bezalel to set
about making the Tabernacle, the holy Ark, and
the sacred utensils. It is to be noted, however, that
Moses mentioned these in somewhat inverted order,
putting the Tabernacle last (compare Ex. xxv. 10,
xxvi. 1 et seq., with Ex. xxxi. 1-10). Bezalel sagely
suggested to him that men usually build the house
first and afterward provide the furnishings; but
that, inasmuch as Moses had ordered the Tabernacle
to be built last, there was probably some mistake and
God's command must liave run differently. Moses
was so pleased with this acuteness that he com-
plimented Bezalel by saying that, true to his name,
he must have dwelt "in the very shadow of God "
(Hebr., "bezel El"). Compare also Philo, " Leg.
Alleg." iii. 31.
Bezalel possessed such great wisdom that he could
combine those letters of the alphabet with which
heaven and earth were created ; this being the mean-
ing of the .statement (Ex. xxxi. 3): "1 have filled
him . . . with wisdom and knowledge," which were
the implements by means of which God created the
world, as stated in Prov. iii. 19, 20 (Ber. .":.■:.;). By
virtue of his profound ^^ isdom, Bezalel succeeded
in erecting a sanctuary which seemed :v fit abiding-
place for God, who is .so e\idted in time and space
(Ex. R. xxxiv. 1; Num. P. xii. 3; Jlidr. Teh. xci.).
The candlestick of the san-tuary was of so compli-
cated a nature that Mo.ses c^iuld not comiireheud it,
although God twice showel him a heavenly model;
but when he described it to Bezalel. the latter un-
derstood immediately, and made it at once; where-
upon Moses expressed his Mlniiration for the innck
wisdom of Bezalel, saying :;gain that he must have
been "in the shadow of God" (llebr., "bezel El")
when the heavenly models were shown him (Num. R.
XV. 10 ; compare Ex. R. 1. 2 ; Ber. I.e.). Bezalel is said
to have been only thirteen years of age when he
accomplished his great work (Sanh. 69b); he owed
his wisdom to the merits of pious parents ; his grand-
father being Hur and his grandmother Miriam, he
was thus a grand-nephew of Moses (Ex. R. xlviii. 3,
4). Compare Ark in Rabbinical Literature.
L. G.
BEZALEL : Palestinian amora of the fourth cen-
tury, who is known in Jlidrashic literature only as the
author of haggadistic sentences. Two of these have
been handed down by Berechiah, the well-known
haggadist and transmitter of haggadistic traditions.
In Pesik. xxi. 145b (where the name is corrupted,
but easily recognizable) Bezalel interprets the pecul-
iar form " kehahallonot " (nUl^nna) (Ezek. xl. 25) by
saying, " The windows of the Temple were ' kehot '
[dull] (nins) ; they were opaque, narrow within, and
widening toward the exterior, in order to send light
forth to the world." The second saying reported
by Berechiah in the name of Bezalel is a simile re-
ferring to Ex. XXV. 40 (Cant. R. iii. 11; in Pesik. i.
4b, and in other parallel passages the name is mis-
written or has dropped out). A third sentence con-
tains anallegoricexplanation of Ilosea ii. 7 [A. V. 5).
"Her ' mother ' is theTorah, which, like a harlot, be-
comes an object of contempt among the ignorant,
when those who are engaged in its stiuiy make the
Law contemptible by their conduct." Bezalel .gave
this explanation in answer to a question which the
above-mentioned Berechiah asked him (Ruth R. i. 1
[parashah 1], where the name of Berechiah has been
omitted by mistake).
BIBLIOGKAPUV: Bacher, A{l.Pal. Amur. iii. Wa.
J. SR.
yv. B.
Bezalel
Bhorupkar
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
136
BEZALEL B. JOSEPH (YOSEL) : Russian
Talmuilist ami ralibi al C)ili>, govirument of Grodno,
at tlif begimiiiig of tiie nini'teculh ceuturj-. He is
the author of ac-olKctioiiof responsa, which be pub-
lislied iu 1807 at Byclostok.
BiBLiOGRAPiiT: Bfiijaciili. nziir ha-Scfarim, p. 555; Zedner.
Ciil. Hihr. D"i'l,f lliili-'li .i/ii.Miim, p. 95.
I,, u. I. Bki!.
BEZALEL B. JTJDAH HA-LEVI OF ZOL-
KIEV : Polish Talmuilist of the secoud half of the
eighteeuth ceutuiy. He wrote a commentary to the
sayings of the fathers (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1781),
entitled "Bezalel."'
Bibliography: Zedner. Cat. Hcbr. Books British Museum,
p. 95; Benjacob. f^znr /tn-.NV/arini, p. t>8.
I.. <; I. Beh.
BEZALEL B. MOSES HA-KOHEN : Tal
mudist; born at Wilna. Russia, .Jan. 14, 18'^0, where
he died April 13. 1878. He was a competent Tal-
inudist at the age of eighteen, and felt himself qual-
ified to criticize the "^lishkenot Ya'akob" of Jacob
b. Aaron of Karlin, one of the chief Talmudisls of
the time, in a letter addressed to him. In 1840
Bezalel became ecclesiastical assistant in Wilna.
and held the position until his death. Although the
title was a subordinate one. Bezalel was in reality-^
at least from 1860 to 1878 — the sjiiritual head of the
large comuuinity at Wilna. Jloreover, he not only
cared for this community, but answered religious
questions directed to him fnmi far and near. Con-
sequently many of BezaUl's answers to the ques-
tions, which were theoretical as well as jiructical in
their bearing, are to be found in the responsa litera-
ture of the time. Eipially numerous were Bezalel's
contributi(nis to the works of others, especially those
printed iu Wilna. His independent work, longer
than the others, is " Reshit Bikkurim " (Firstlings),
Wilna, 1869, respon.sji and treatises on Talmudic
topics. The Ronim edition of the Talmud contains
marginal glo.sses on many of Bezalel's treatises.
Bezalel dilTered from his more narrow-minded col-
leagues in showing an inclination for secular sciences.
He had. also, a tine historical and critical feeling for
rabbinical literature, and s.>me of liis historical and
critical notes possess considerable value. His wide
reading in modern Talmudic literature is remarkable,
even if conditions in Russia be taken into account,
religious study there being limited almost entirely
to the Talmud. Bezalel's extraordinary modesty
and active goodness are still freiiucutly praised.
Bjbi.iosraphv: Kuenn. Knicxil Yisnul. p. 10(1.
L. G
BEZALEL BEN SOLOMON OF KOBKIN :
Preacher at Slutzk, government of Minsk. Russia:
later at Boskowiiz. Moravia: died before 1659. He
was the author of the following works: (1) " 'Amu-
deah Shib'ah " (Her Columns Are Seven), containing
homilies on the Bible: divided into seven part.s, each
of which bears the title of a Bil)lical e.\pies.siou con-
nected with the name of Abraham, Lsaac. Jacob,
Moses, Aaron, David, or Solomon (Lublin, 1666).
This work was iMiblished by the order of the
Council of the Four Lands and of the Lithuanian
Rabbinical Assembly, held at Lublin in 1666. (2)
"Korban Shabbat " (Sacrifice of Sabbath), on some
ritual laws and religious customs concerning Sab-
bath ; divided into thirty-nine chapters (Dyhernfurth,
1691). (3) •• Pelah ha Rimmon " (The Piece of the
Pomegranate), containing twenty explanations of
the forty -nine which bad been wiitten by Bezalel on
a difficult ilidrashic passage (Amsterdam, 1659). (4)
"Habazelet ha-Sharon " (Ro.se of Sharon), com-
mentary on Psjilm cxix., mentioned in the introduc-
tion to the preceding work. ('>) "Zayit Ra'anau "
(Green Olive-Tree), homilies on the Pentateuch. (6)
■■ Einek ha Baka " (Vale of Tears), commeiitory on
Lamentations. The last two works are still extant
iu manuscript.
Bibliography : Azulai, Slum ha-GeiinUiiu i. 19, il. lis ; Fuenn.
K"fHf.sc? l'i.s/'0(:^ p. 191: Micbael, Or ha-Hauffini, No. iii;t;
Steinsehneider, Cat. Botll. col. 799; Zed'ner, Cat. H*ln'.
B(ii>hs Brit. Muf. p. 95; S. Dubnov, in To.vA(e«/, lt<96, vji. i.
H. R. 1. Bll.
BEZEE: 1. The scene of battle between the
tribes of Judali and Simeon, and the Canaanites and
Perizzites (Judges i. 4-6). 2. Place where Saul col-
lected his forces for the fight against the Ammonites
(I Sam. .\i. 8). Identified with the modern KhirlKt
Ibzig, 14 miles southwest of Beisan (Moore, com-
mentary to Judges i. 5).
•T. jr! " G. B. L.
BEZER: A city of refuge in the territory of
Reuben (Deut. iv. 43: Josh. xx. 8). It was also
one of the cities allotted the Levites by the tribe of
Reuben (Josh. xxi. 36, Septuagint; I Cbion. vi. 63
[A. Y. 78]). In theilesha inscription it is a Moabite
city, probably the same as the Bozrabof Moab men-
tioned in Jer. xlviii. 24. Bezer has not yet been
identified with any of the cities whose ruins are
found in the plateau of Moab. It must be distin-
guished from Boson or BosoR.\.
.T. ,11!. F. Br.
BEZETHA : According to Josepbus. the name
of a hill north of the Temple-mound, and separated
from the latter by a valley. After the erection of
the third wall it became part of tbe city of Jerusa-
lem. Josephus ("B. J." ii. 15, § 5; ii. 19, § 4; v. 4,
§ 3; V. 5, § 8) gives the meaning of the name
as "New City," according to which "Bezetba" is a
strange transcription of Nmn n'3- A more correct
rendering is "house of olives" (Nn'T D'Q) It is not
certain whether this place is identical with "Bezetli"
in I Mace. vii. 19, where Baccbides pitched bis tents
after leaving Jerusiilem. In " Ant." xii. 10, § 2 it is
called Mr/nZr/Hu (variant reading, i7jti^i/6u), and is re-
ferred to as a village.
J. JU. F. Br.
BEZIEBS (tomieriy Bediers, Beders, Besers,
ami Bezares ; Hcbr.. L"l~n3. L'""n2. ^'ina. Cm"!.
L""L"a. L""l:"3. L'-'NTa, w"iai. fna. t;nn3): Town of
France iu the department of Herault. The date of
the settlement of the Jews in Beziers is lost in antiq-
uity. Two letters of Sidonius Apolonarius and the
canons of tbe council held at Agde in .506 establish
the existence at that time of numerous and prosper-
ous Jewish communities in the province of Langue-
doc (Yaissete. i. 243; Sidonius Apolo-
Earliest narius. iii.. epistle4:iv., epistle5). The
Mention. Jews of Beziers did not escape the fate
of the other .Jewish communities in
this province, which had to endure the most violent
persecutions during tbe reign of the Visigoths. After
137
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bezalel
Bhorupkar
the defeat of the Saracens bj' Charles Martel in 732,
the condition of tlie Jews of Beziers, as that of those
of otlier towns, became more favoi-aljle; and this
state lasted during the reign of the Carlovingians.
In the eleventh century the Jews of Beziers were
affected by the persecutions that broke out in west-
ern France,
But the Jews of Beziers were fortunate in com-
parison with those of other towns. The viscounts
cherished the must kindly feelings for them, and the
greater part of the Christian inhabitants, being Albi-
genses, lived on friendly terms witli
Albigenses. their Jewish fellow-citizens. Even the
restrictions gradually disappeared and
were transformed into ta.\es imposed for the bene-
fit of the princes or of the bishops, which they
had to pay in addition to the poll-tax common to all
the inhabitants. Thus, through the intervention of
the viscount Raymond Trencaval, the bishop Guil-
launie abolished, in 1160, the custom of throwing
stones at the Jews during Holy Week, and substi-
tuted a yearly payment of two hundred melgoriau
sousancl a yearly tax of four livres of the same coin-
age. The good-will of the viscounts of Beziers dis-
played itself far beyond mere toleration; they even
entrusted the Jews with important public offices.
The Jews, on their side, were attached by bonds of
gratitude to the viscounts and did not participate in
the plot whicli, in 1167, brought about the assas-
sination of Raymond Trencaval. They were there-
fore excluded fi-om the massacre of the inhabit-
ants that Roger II., with the help of his Aragoniau
allies, perpetrated in order to avenge this crime.
Roger II. gave the Jews numerous tokens of
his confidence and favor. He took the notables
among them under his personal protection. Thus in
1172 lie interceded in behalf id' the Talmudist Abra-
ham ben David (RABaD), and, having taken him
from the prison into which the lord of Posquieres
had thrown him, granted him shelter in Carcas-
sonne. The functions of bailiff, under his govern-
ment, were often entrusted to Jews. A Jew called
Nathan figures with the title of bailiff as a witness
to a deed of Roger II. Raymond Roger, the suc-
cessor of Roger II., followed the example given by
his father and assigned for his Jewish bailiffs a dis-
tinguished rank among the barons of his court. A
Jew of Beziers, called Samuel, figures, together with
th(' barons, on a deed by which Raymond Roger
granted the bishop many rights.
The prospects of the Jews of Beziers darkened in
the thirteenth century. In the bloody crusade that
the pope undertook against the Albi-
In the genses, the Jews had their shai-e of
Thirteenth suffering. The ambitious Count Simon
Century, de ilontfort marched against Ray-
mond Roger, wlio was doubly hated
by the pope for his secret friendship with the Albi-
genses and his protection of the Jews, On July 22,
1209, Beziers was stormed and the inliabitants mas-
SJtcrcd. Two liundred Jews lost tlieir lives in this
ma.s.sacre, and a large number were driven into cap-
tivity. In eonse(juence of the victory over Ray-
mond Roger, the Church acquired a supremacy which
it often used to molest the Jews. The council of
Avignon (1209) and the Lateran council (1215) liad
prescribed various restrictions upon the Jews; and
the council held at Beziers in 1246 prohibited tliem
from practising medicine. But these restrictive meas
ures were not always carried out, and the Jews of
Beziers could evade them more easily than those of
other towns, since the Christian inhabitants of Beziers
were more accustomed to tolerance; l)ut as that eva-
sion recpiired heavj- pecuniary sacrifices, this for-
merly flourishing coinnumity became gradually im-
poverished, and Philip le Bel in banishing them,
Sept., 1366, in order to get hold of their properly,
must have been disappointed.
Beziers was a focus of Jewish learning. Abra-
ham ibu Ezra visited it, and about 115.) wrote there
his work, "Sefer lia-Shem " (Book of
Jewish the Name), in which he mentions the
Scholars, names of the scholars Abraham ben
Hay^'im and Isaac ben Judah. to the
latter of whom he gives the title "Prince." Ben-
jamin of Tudela, who visited Beziers in 1 165, praises
the scholars Solomon Halafta and .loseph Nathan.
The Talmudist MeshuUam t)en Mo.ses, the author of
"Sefer iia-IIashlauiah" (Book of Completeness), lived
in Beziers in the first half of the thirteenth century.
In a responsum drawn up at Beziers, Solomon ben
Asher and Joseph ben Gerton are mentioned as col-
leagues of Meshullam. Solonum ben Joseph ilm
Ayub settled at Beziers at the request of several
notables of the town, and translated from Arabic
into Hebrew many philosophical works. The caba-
list Jacob Cohen of Segovia stayed at Beziers at tlie
end of the thirteenth century. Poetry was re])rc-
sented therein the persons of Abraham ben Bkdeksi,
who derived his name from the t<iwn, his son Jedaiah,
D(m Astruc Eleazar Azobi, an<l Meshullam Azobi.
Bibliocraphy: Vaisst'te, Hint. <!en. ilc Lnnguedni-, i. 274,
3M. 3B(i, r>ii ; li. ].".), 418 ; iii. 119, Paris, ir;*l-174.i ; Salge, Leu
Juifs (Jii Laiiiluediic, pp. T7 t'( w;. ; Gralz, (Jcuvli. <kr
J«<(6H, vl. 17.1, an, vli. 9, 37,48: Ilm Verjra. SItelief I'f/iii-
ilah, ed. Hauuvsr. p. 112; Gross, GuUia Jmliiiva. pp. 96-1115,
G, I, Br,
BHORUPKAR, SAMTJEL BAPXTJI : Beni-
Israel soldier; born near Bombay, India, about 1790.
He entered the Fourth Bombay Kegimeut on Fel>.
2, 1811. In 1813 he served with the Poona Brigade
under Colonel Cooke, and in 1814 was engaged in
Katyawar and on the banks of the Ruim against the
Waghurs; in 1815 in Guzerat. at Bhuj, in Katyawar
and Ookamundul; was present at the ca|iture of the
forts of Anjor, Kunkote, Dhingkee, and Joonkee; in
1816 was at Janmuggur and Dwarka, and at the
taking of Deesa. Palampur. Veenmipur. and Kur-
runjah; in 1817-18 ,served in the whole of the cam-
paign in Malwain pursuit of Holkar. and in 1819 was
at the ca))ture of the forts of Newtee and Raree in
the southern Konkan. %rom 1821 to 1827 he was
employed on various field services in Guzenit, at the
taking of the fort Limbuj, and at Dongerpur, and
subsequently in the southern Konkan on several
occasions.
Bhorupkar was promoted to the rank of a jemi-
dar Jan. 9, 1828, and to that of subedar on Dec. 2«.
1833; was appointed subedar-major on Jan, 1, 1839;
was admitted to the S<'Cond Class Order of British
India, with the title of bahadur, on March 24, 1841 ;
and retired from service Feb, 3, 1847.
J. J Hv.
Biach
Bibel'sche
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
138
BIACH, ALOIS : Austrian pbysiciau ami med-
ical writor; Iidiii iu Lettowitz, Moravia, Austria, May
1, 1849. Ill- was cducatt'd at tlio gymnasium at
Briinn and at tln' University of Vienna. After grad-
uating as il.D. in 1873, be estal)lislied himself iu
Vienna, where lie was a|ipointed a member of the
board of health. Iu 1883 he became privat-doceut
of medicine (Iiinere Mediein) at the university in
that city. Biach has occupied the position of secre-
tary to the .society of physicians of Lower Austria.
Iu addition to his work on "Die Neuereu Autipy-
retica." Vienna, 1889, he is the author of many es-
says, of which the following may be mentioned:
" Leber Aucurysmen an den Herzklappen," iu
'• Jahrbiicher der Gesellscbaft der Aerztc in "Wieu,"
1878; "L'eber Jaboraudi und Seine Alkaloide," in
'■Jlittheilungen des Vereins der Aerzte in Nieder-
Osterreicli." 1879; "Versuche fiber die Pliysiolo-
gisclie Wirkung des Cliiuolins," iu Vircbow's " Ar-
cbiv flir Patbologische Auatomie und Physiologic
und fiir KlinisclieMediziu," 1881 ; " Cirrhosis Hepatis
mit Wandstilndiger Thrombose der Vena Portrc uud
Vena Me.seraica Sujierior." iu " Mittheiluugen des
Vereins der Aerzte iu Jsiederosterreich,'' 1884; "Eut-
wicklung vou Krebs des Mageus auf der Basis eines
Ruudeu Jlagengescbwiirs," in " Wiener Medizinis'che
Presse," 1890.
s. F. T. H.
BIAL, KTTDOLF: Violinist, conductor, com-
poser, and manager; born at Habelschwerdt, Silesia,
Aug. 26, 1834; died at New York Nov. 13, 1881.
He began his career as a violinist iu an orchestra at
Breslau, and then made a tour of Australia and
Africa with his brother Karl, a piauistof distinction.
On his return to German}-, Bial settled iu Berlin,
where he successive!}' became orchestral director at
Kroll's Theater; the Wallner Theater (1864), where
many of his operettas, etc., were given; of KroU's
Opera House, where, for several years, the most
distinguished artists of Europe sang under his man-
agement. Later, Bial was a concert agent iu New
York.
Bial was a prolific composer of operettas, farces,
orchestral pieces, and dances; and several of his
compositions enjoyed considerable popularity.
Bibliography: Baker. Biographical Diet, nf Musicians,
S.V.: Adolph Kobut, BerUhmte Isi-aelitische Miinner mid
Fraucii, 1. 76.
S. J. So.
BIALA. See Russr.\.
BIALEH, ZEBI HIRSCH BEN NAPH-
TALI HERZ '(called Harif, "the keen"): Rabbi
and Talmudist ; born about 1670 at Lemberg, Gali-
cia; died Sept. 25, 1748, at Halberstadt, Prussia.
He conducted a Talmudic high school in his uati\'e
city until 1718. when he received a call as chief rabbi
to the rich conimunity at Halberstadt. His human-
ity, gentleness, and unselfishness won him the love
and admiration of the people as well as of his col-
leagues ; and he became known as a Talmudic au-
thority throughout Germany. Bialeh was particu-
larly fond of teaching, and when he left Lemberg
to go to Halberstadt eighteen of his pupils went
with him. His attitude toward them was that of a
brother; and he possessed a certain tolerance for
the secular sciences, the study of which was then
beginning to make headway among the young Jew8
of Germany. Among his numerous pupils were
Elhanau Ashkeuazi, Isaiah Berlin, and Meir Barbi.
Bialeh was restrained by modesty from publishing
any works; but he left several manuscripts, which
are iu the possession of some private persons in
Halberstadt ; and some of his approbations appeared
in the works of his pujiils and colleagues. Both in
his wiitings and oralh' he denounced the prevalent
exaggeration of the pilpulistic method; as, for in -
stance, iuhisapjirobationto Jehiel Michael's "Nezer
ha-Kodesh." Iu general he seems to have followed
the logical method, and to have preferred the simple
interpretation of tiie Talmud (see his responsum iu
Samuel ben Elkauah's "Mekom Shemuel," No. 5).
His sous were: Solomon Dob Berush, rabbi at
Glogau; Naphtali Herz, ralibi at Dubuo; Abra-
ham, rabbi at Rawitscli; Samuel, assistant rabbi
at Halberstadt; and Simhah, rabbi at Dessau.
Bibliography: Auerbaoh, Gcsr/i. der Jlidischcn Gemciudc
Halberstadt. pp. m-76, Halberstiidt, 1866; Walden, She in
ha-Gedolim hc-Hadash, p. 37; Eleazar ba-KoheQ, ^inat
Soferim, fol. 73, Lemberg, 1893.
I.. G. I. BeR.
BIALLOBLOTZKY, CHRISTIAN HER-
MANN FRIEDRICH : Jewish convert to Chris-
tianity ; born April 9. 1799, at Pattensen, near Han-
over;" died March 28, 1868. at ^Uilden-on the-AUer.
Bialloblotzky studied Christian theology and philos-
ophy, and received the degree of D.D. at the L^ni-
versity of Gottiugen in 1824, the subject of his
thesis being " De Legis Mosaicfe Abrogatioue. " He
wrote several works on Christian theology, and pub-
lished the following on Jewish subjects: (1) "The
Chronicles of R. Joseph beu Joshua Mei'r, the Seph-
ardi," a translation of Joseph ha-Kohen's " Dibre
Hayamim." published by the Oriental Translation
Fund, iu two volumes, London, 1834-36; (2) "Ozar
ha-Shorashim, Le.xicon Radicum Hebraicarum," in
Hebrew and Latin, Loudon, 1843; (3) "Sefer ha-
Shorashim," a lexicon of the Hebrew roots, in He-
brew and Euglish, ib.
Bibliography: Winer, Handlmch der Thenloiiischcn Lt-
teratur, i. 499; McCllntock and Strong, Citcl<wa:dia, XI. Suj>-
plement, p. 484; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Boofr.s Brit. AfM.**. p.
9.5; idem, Auswahl Hi.^toj-ischer StUclic aus HebrUiscJien
Schrift.'itellcni, p. 55, note ; Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. i. 11.5.
J. I. Br.
BIALYSTOK, LITHUANIA. See Byelos
TDK.
BIBAGO, ABRAHAM BEN SHEM-TOB
(Bibaz and Bibas-Vivas are corruptions of th?
name): Spanish religious philosopher and preacher;
born at Saragossa ; resided in 1446 at Huesca, and
was still living in 1489. At the court of John II. of
Aragon, he was, as he himself relates, engaged in
controversy when only a young man with "a re-
nowned Christian sage " on the dogma of the Trin-
ity. Like Joseph beu Sliem-Tob, his older country-
man, he was familiar not merely with the euti:e
Arabo-Judean philosophj'. but also with Christi:'-u
theology as presented in Latin. He studied tlie
latter so as to be able to defend the Jewish faith
in a scholarly manner. Bibago was not "a mere
preacher who wrote philosophical homilies," as
Griitz saysC'Gesch. der Juden," viii. 227), nor "an
opponent of philosophy," as Renan represents him
139
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biach
Bibel'sche
to be in his " AverroSs et rAverroVsme" (3ded., p.
19S), but a rational believer censuring in unsparing
language those zealots that "cling only to the shell
but reject the kernel, and pose as pious while vilify-
ing a thinker such as JIaimonides. "
The writings of Bibago include: (1) "Derek Emu-
nah" (The Path of Faith), his chief work, written
toward the close of his life, and printed in 1521 at
Constantinople. Like all his writings, it has, ac-
cording to Steinschneider, not received the full rec-
ognition it deserves. It is, as the title suggests, a
presentation and, at the same time, a
His defense of the Jewish religion as lead-
Defense of ing man to the highest knowledge of
Judaism. God and to eternal happiness. It is
divided into three treatises, which are
sulidivided into divisions or parts (called "gates")
and chapters. The first treatise deals with : (gate
1) the doings of God; (gate 3) His knowledge; and
(gate 3) His providence The second treatise deals
with: (gate 1) the intellect; (gate 2) its nature
and object; (gate 3) man's highest object ; (gate 4)
tlie blending of faith and knowledge — which to])ic
is but slightly touched; (gate 5) the problem of
matter and sin ; (gate 6) the question whether Moses
sinned; and (gate 7) the true faith. The third trea-
tise deals with: (gate 1) the fundamentals of faith;
(gale 2) miracles; (gate 3) creation of the world;
(gate 4) ethics; and (gate 5) the special articles of
faith. In the fifth part he warmly defends tlie creed
of Maimouidcs against his antagonists; andhisargu-
nients -w-ero subsequently literally reprodnced by
Aliravanel in his " Rosh Amanah." In this work, in
which many Bil)lical and rabbinical passages are ex-
plained, he takes cognizance of Christian and Mo-
hammedan theology. He quotes Greek philosophers
like Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras; also Euclid
and Ptolemeus, Galen and Themistius, as well as
Arabic thiidiers like Averroes, Avicenna, Alfarabi,
and Gazzali, and even the fable-book "Kalila we-
Dinma. " Of Christian writers he quotes Eusebius;
and of Jewish writers often not only Maimonides,
Nahmanides, and other philosophers, but also cab-
alistic works like the "Bahir," the "Zohar," "Sefer
Yezirah,"and the "Hekalot." He indorses a saying
of a sage that "Reason and Religion are the world's
two luminaries" ; and he strouglj' opposes prayers
"addressed to angels or to the departed, a practise
customarj' among the Christians."
Isaac Arama, Bibago's contemporary, used the
book freely. Joseph Solomon del Medigo, the well-
known physician and writer, speaks with warm
praise of the work, though he comjilains that the
Cabala had crept into it. But the fact must be taken
into consideration that, as Steinschneider saj'S, " the
cabalists at the close of the thirteenth century had
made philosophy the handmaid of the Cabala, and
this catised the philosophers on their part to take
into consideration the writings and the ideas of the
Cabala that ha<l grown into prominence." It is true
that Jacob ibn Habib. in his " 'En Ya'akob " at
the close of Berakot, censures Biliago for putting
constructions upon the Biblical te.xts that they
could not bear; nevertheless he praises "the beauty
of these interpretations, which insinuate themselves
into our hearts. "
(3) "Ez Hayyim" (Tree of Life) deals with crea-
tion, and has for its object the refutation of the
arguments advanced by Aristotle, Averroes, and
others in favor of the eternity of the world. The
author quotes this treatise three times
Other in the "Derek Enmnah"and gives a
Works. fair insight into it. (3) A homily on
Gen. v. 29, "Zeh Yenahamenu," pub-
lished at Salonica in 1522, treats also of creation and
the Sabbath; but is not, as is stated by Michael
(" Or ha-Hayyim "), part of " Ez Hayyim " (see Stein-
schneider, "Monatsschrift," 1883, p." 9,5). (4) From
quotations in the "Derek Emunah " it appears that
Bibago wrote a work under the title of " iMahazeh
Shaddai," treating of the belief in resurrection.
(5) A work on sacrifice as means of communion
with God. (6) A refutation of the objections raised
liy Nahmanides against Maimonides. (7) "Ma'amar
'al Ribbui ha-Zurot, " a treatise on "The Plurality of
Forms, Particularly in Man" — Paris manuscript
1004, though without his name. (8) Two philo-
sophical letters to Moses Arondi. (9) A compen-
dium of tlierapeutics after Galen; besides a number
of philosophical works in the form of commentaries
to Averroes. (10) A commentary on Averroes' work
on logic, "Demonstration" (nsiD), written at Iluesca
in 144(), exists in manuscript, Vatican and Paris.
In this work Bibago defends Averroes against Levi
ben Genson. (11) A commentary on Averroes'
"Physics," referred to in (12) a commentary on
Averroes' "Metaphysics" — still extant in manu-
script at Munich. In the introduction he deplores
the lack of philosophical research among his core-
ligionists, who are imable to defend their faith
against Christian scholars that study philosophy and
science in their schools; and in view of this defi-
ciency he undertook the explanation of Aristotelian
metaphysics, however inucli opposed
En- it was to the pure and sacred ancestral
courages faith. This work shows familiarity
Philo- not onlj' with all Arabic philosophers,
sopliical but also with Boethius, with the works
Study. of Duns Scotus and Occam, known to
him probably through the translation
of Elijah Habillo, and with Nicholas Bonettus. a
Spanish monk who lived in 1486. Without origi-
nality of thought, Bibago nevertheless represents,
says Steinschneider, " that class of learned and pro-
ductive writers which Spanish Judaism produced at
the close of a brilliant epoch. "
Bibliography : SteinsrhneirtiT, In Mnnatssclirift, ISSi, pp.
7fl-'.«), 125-H4; Idem, Hi hi: Ci /it'rs. 1893, pp. 89 i( «•((., ItiS
f( .vri;.; Micliael, dr ha-Hiniuim, No. a'» ; Munk, Pdiliwo-
lihif utid PhiliiMiphische Si-hriftMeller derJwleii (German
tran.sl. by Beer), 1853, pp. 36, 83, 117; Grtttz, Oench. der
Jiuleu, viii. 319-337.
K. S. B.-K.
BIBEL'SCHE ORIENT, DEK: A magazine
of which only two numbers appear«d (Munich.
1821), these being supposed to be edited by Isaac
Bernays. Its object, as stated in the first announce-
ment, April 24 (the second bears date of Aug. 12,
1812 [1821]), was " to exhibit the spirit of the sacred
books in all their purity and clearness, but without
any learned verbosity, and to determine the rank
of these fiery utterances from olden times as well-
defined expressions of the human soul, aside from
Bibikov
Bible Canon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
140
their stiimgly marked jxculiarities aud their value
as important historieal doiuments. "
"Der Uibel'sche Orient. " wliose style is dark,
mystical, ami confused to a degree, carries mythol-
ogy into the Scriptures: it betrays the influence of
Sciielling's ([Uaint philosophy. While regarding the
BibU' and the development of the Jews from a
world-liistorieal i^oiut of view, its editor comes to
the conclusion that all religions can manifest them-
selves only by e.xerting reformatory influences.
Though looking with coutemiit upon Jlendels-
sohn and his disciples, tlie author was even more
in favor of the Keform movement than were the
latter.
"Der Bibel'sche Orient" attracted considerable
attention upon its first appearance, but was soon
forgotten.
BiBi.iocR.vniv: Zunz. Zcil^chrift fllr die Wisxciiscliaft rifx
juiUidhiiiits. pp. ITT-llKi; Griilz. Gtscli. der Juiicii. il. 43>i.
«. M. K.
BIBIKOV, DMITRI GAVRILOVICH:
Russian soldier, administrator, and statesman; born
1T92; died 1870. In 1^37 Bibikov was appointed
military governor of Kiev, and governor-general of
Volhynia and Podolia. During the fifteen years of
his administration of the southwestern provinces,
he more than ouce resorted to harsh nieasures with
regard to the Jcavs who were directly or indirectly
involved in the Polish agitation, for the sup)iression
of whicli he was responsible. Hence his marked
animosity, especially toward the Jews of Berdy-
ehev. which city was at that time one of the centers
of Polish revolutionary intrigues, aud iu which a
secret branch of the Polish national bank was es-
tablished. While attacking abu.ses, Bibikov nev-
ertheless manifested on many occasions a spirit of
consideration for the ediu'ated Jews. It was due
to his remoust rations with the government of Nich-
olas I. that several sevei'C restrictive laws were re-
laxeti iu behalf of the Jews. Such were the meas-
ures allowing Jewish residents of the government of
Kiev to visit that city for business purposes; that
annulling the order of the Jitomir authorities whicli
prohibited the Jewish blacksmiths in Jitomir from
following their Irade; tliat permitting the Jews of
Starokonstantiuov. Zaslav. Ostrog. and Kovno to
obtain iiassports and gild certificates from the
local district treasuries instead of procuring them
from Novogradvolyusk; that granting to Jewish
merchants of the first gild the right to farm inns
in crown dominions of the western provinces; aud
that pernntting the Jews to elect from their own
number city brokers and notaries public iu places
wliere the population cousisted of both Jews aud
Christians.
Iu 185-> Bibikov was made minister of the interior,
which post he filled until 1855. It seems that iu
this capacity he became more than ever imbued with
the prevailing anti-Jewish spirit of Nicholas' regime.
In one case, at least, his name is mentioned in con-
nection with a measiu'e prohibiting the Jews from
living in certain parts of Jitomir, the restriction
being promulgated in compliance with Bibikov's
proposition. His brother. Ilia Gavrilovich Bibikov.
governor-general of Wilna, was favorably disposed
toward the Jews, and was interested particularly in
their educational affairs. The Hebrew poet Abra-
ham Baer Lehensohn compo.sed a poem, "kol
Ne'urim." commemorating his visit to the Wilna
Talmud Torah. which was published in his "Shire
Sefat Kodesh," ii. 85, Wilna, 1809.
BuiLioGR.vrnv: Oimplfte Rii.tfiViii Oidf, 2d ed., xviii.. No.
17.:«.">. x.xi. No. ai.iei. xxiv. No. 23,411(1, xxv. No. 34,677, xxvi.
No. 2."i..vV.i. .\xix. No. isiiTSI; V, O. Levauda, I'uhiy KhnmiiUi-
ijhicltishi Shnniil, ZiiliOttov i Pit1tiz}teui KH6iliniiihc}i ikhstia
Ytenini'. Nos. 4,si. .>tO. tiltB. im, H-'tli. 71.i. St. Petei-slmrK,
1874; i. «. lirslianski. Rufxkne Zahoii'uhitelMo' o IVri-f-
!/(i/i)i, p. 193. SI. Petei-slnirg, 1877 : RtisKktnid Stariiui, Aiiril,
19(11, pp. 119-121; V. Kashpirev, Pamtiidnilii Auciii li'ii.'wfcoi
Ixtiirii. i. lia-123, St. Petersburg, 1871.
IT. R. B. B.
BIBLE CANON: §1. The Greek word naruv.
meaning primarily a straight rod. and derivatively
a norm or law. was first ap]ilied by the church
fathers (not earlier than 360) to the collection of
Holy Scriptures, and primarily to those of the so-
called Old Testament (Credner, "Zur Gesch. des
Canons," pp. 58-68). But although the older Jew-
ish literature has no such designation for the Bib-
lical books, aud it is doubtful whelher the word was
ever included in the rabbinical vocab-
Meaning' ulary, it is (luite certain that the idea
and Scope, expressed by the designation "cauon-
ical writings" (j/Dnoni Kavm'iKai). both
as inchnling and as excluding certain books, is of
Jewish origin. The designation "Apocrypha " af-
fords a i>arallel instance; the word is Greek; the
conception is Jewish (compare the words "Genii-
zim. " "Geuizah ").
The idea of canonicity can only have been sug-
gested at a period when the national literature had
progressed far enough to possess a
Origin of large number of works from which a
Idea. selection might be made. And the
need for sudi selection was all the
more urgent, since the Jewish mind occupied itself
in producing exclusively writings of religious im-
port, in which category, however, were also in-
cluded various historical and didactic works. Which
writings were included in the recognized collection,
and in what manner such collection was made, are
questions belonging to the Iiistory of the canon, and
are discussed in this article ; the origin and com-
position of the separate books come under tiie his-
tory of Biblical literature.
§ 2. The oldest and most frequent designation tor
the whole collection of Biblical writings is D'lSD-
"Books." This word, which in Dan.
Des- ix. 3 means all the Siicred writings,
ignations. occurs frequently in the Mishnah. as
well as in traditional literature, with-
out closer definition. The expression CHpn '"1£3D
(" Holy Books ") belongs to later authors, ll is em-
ployed first by the medieval exegetes; for instance.
Ibn Ezra, introduction to "Yesod Month" and
" M'ozne Lashon ha-Kodesh"; see also Neubauer,
"Book of Tobh," 43b, Oxford, 18T8; Gratz, "Gesch.
der Juden," 3d ed., vii. 384; JIargoliouth, "Cat.
Hebr. and Samaritan MS8. Brit Mus.." Nos. 181.
193: and elsewhere infrequently, but never in Tal-
mud or Midrash. This fact goes to show that the
ancients regarded the whole mass of the national
religious writings as equally holy. The Greek
translation of the term is -a jiiffMa, which (as may
141
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibikov
Bible Canon
be seen from the expressions ml -a 7,onTa tuv (iifSXiuv
ami Ka) TUV MXuv Tvarpluv i^ij3'/.lcjv) is used by the
grandson of Siracli in tlie introduction to Ecclesfas-
ticus (Siraeli) to designate the whole of the Scrip-
tures.
The Ciiniinical books, therefore, needed no S|>eeial
designation, since originally all were holj-. A new
term had to be coined for the new idea of non-holy
liooUs. The latter were accordingly called D'nao
D'JIVn ("outside" or "extraneous books"); tliat is,
Ijooks not included in the established collection
(Mishnali Sanh. x. 1) — a distinction analogous to
that aftcrwai'd made, with I'eference to the oral law
it.self, between " Jlisluiah" and "Out-
" Outside" side-Mishuah"(njt'aan(l njiv'n mCD.
Books. or its Aramaic equivalent xn""l3.
"Baraita"). Possilily this designation
was due to the fact that the Aiiocryplia, which in
popular estimation ranked nevertheless with relig-
ious works, were not included in the libraries of the
Temple and sj-nagogues (for illustration of this see
Hooks, and Blau, "Zur Einleitung in die Ih-ilige
Schrift," i. et seq.). Another designation. NTpD
("that which is read"), applied to the whole of
Scripture, is founded upon the custom of reading
the Holy Scriptures to the people on Sabbaths and
l]oli*lays; it is a term frecpieully opposed In njCD
and L'mD, which designate oral teaching (Xed. iv.
:i; Kid. i., end; Abot v., end). A third designalion
i-^ L'npn "'ana ("Iloly Scriptures," Sbab. xvi. 1; B.
B. i., end, and elsewhere), the Greek equivalents of
which are }ija<pnl h,iai (Kom. i. 2) and iepa -ypd/j/mra
{II Tim. iii. 1.5). This term indicates, not the wri-
tings belonging to the .sanctuary, nor of Israel
(Cieiger, " Nachgelassene Schriften," iv. 13), but
iioly writings in contrudistinctiou to profane works
(L'npn 'nns and tomn '3n3, To.sef., Yom-Tob, iv. ;
ed. Zuckennandel, p. 207, 13), perhaps works in-
si)ired by the Holy Spirit. This interpretation is also
favored bj' the expression 7ra(T« yp'Kpr/ deoizvtvaTn^ (II
Tim. iii. 16; compare Eusebius, ''Ecloga' Propheti-
ca?," ed. Gaisford, p. 106).
A fourth designation for the entire Bible is min
("Law") (Jlek., Beshallah. 9; ed. Priedmann, pp.
341>, 40b; Pesik. R., ed. Friedmanu. 9a, and else-
wliere), also found in the New Testament under the
form vu/iih: (.John x. 34; II Esdras xix.
"Torah." 31). This designation owes its origin
to the opinion that the entire Holy
Writ is the Word of God, and that the Prophets and
the Hagiograjilia are included in the Torah {.see be-
low). It is also possible that, since "Torah" was
the title of the first and principal part of the Bib-
lical writings, it was transferred to the entire col-
lection.
The fifth designation, 3103 (literally, "it is writ-
ten "), trc(|Uently found personified (as, for instance,
"lOiS 3in3n, etc.) ("the ' Katub ' saith"; compare
Barlicr." AeltcsteTerminologie der.Iiidischen Schrift
auslegung," p. 90), is, strictly speaking, an abbrevi-
ation, and should be supplemented with the name
of the book in which "it is written." The Greek
equivalent is )i>n<f>ii; Tzana yoa<fifi (II Tim. iii. 16), a
translation of ainan ^3. which, strange to say, is
found in the works of Profiat Duran. though cer-
tainly it isveiyold. The sixth designation is i''nW;}/(;/ ;
("covenant"), from which the term -a/.wa SiaftiiKri
( Vettis Tegtamenttim = Old Testament) in the Chris-
tian Church has been derived. Even
Testament, in Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiv. 33 the Pen-
tateuch is called ,3';J/')r 6(af)i/Kr/r, and
the term nnan -130 ("Book of the Covenant,"
Ex. xxiv. 7; II Kings xxiii. 2. 31) is similarly trans-
lated in the Septuagint, Though "diatheke," like
"Torah," came to be applied to Holy Writ (first by
Paul, II Cor. iii. 14; compare Matt. xxvi. 38). tlie
expres.sion nnan IDD ("Book of the Covenant") is
never found with this significance in Jewish tradi-
tion, excejit in an ajjparently polemic utterance of
Simon ben Yohai (about 1,50), where a reference to
the name "diatheke" for the Torah occtu-s (Yer.
Sanh. 30c; Lev. R. xix.). In all iirobability this
designation, which, like the term "Old Testament."
involves a Christian point of view, was used very
rarely. In post-Talmudic times other designations
were employed; <■.,'/., DnSD nyaiNI Dnt'J? ("The
Twenty-four Books") (see G. .Margolionth. "Cat.
Hebr. and Samaritan 3ISS. Brit. JIus." i. 33b, 35a.
27a, 35a); inno ("the cycle," in the Masorah ; in a
codex of the year 1309; and in Ginsburg, "Introduc-
tion," p. ,564); K'cnpo n'::npD (Glnslturg, l.r. p.
748). Medieval authors called the Holy Writ also
pIDS. which originally meant "verse"
Other Ex- (Bacher, "Rev. Etudes Juives." xvi.
pressions. 378). Another very common designa-
tion is 1'j'n. the initials of D'X'33 min
D'airiD ("Law, Prophets, and Holy Writings"), an
expression frequently occurring in Talmud and Mid-
rash. A similar acrostic name is "] 3 X, an abbrevia-
tion of the words 'ri3 D'X^aj ND^IIN. In the Middle
Ages these mnemonic terms were conveniently re-
garded as real words, and received translations;
namely, "ear-tips" and "plumb-line " respectively.
In the Mishnah (compare Yad. iii. 5) the canonic-
itj- of the Hoi}' Books is expressed indirectly by the
doctrine that those writings which are canonical
"render the hands unclean." The term connoting
this (piality. DTH flK fSDCD. thus comes very
near to the technical equivalent for the word "canon-
ical." The nature of the underlying conceit is not
altogether clear. It is most likely that it was meant
to insure greater caution against the i)rofanation of
holy scrolls by careless handling or irreverent u.ses
(Yiid. iv. 6; Zab. v. 13; Shab. 13a. 14a). It is an open
question whether this capacity to render "the hands
unclean " inhered in the scroll kept in the Temple.
It appears that originally the scroll in the Temple
rendered food unclean; while only outside the Tem-
ple were hands made unclean (Kelim xv. 6; H.
Al.dba, Pes. 19a). At all events, the term DN NDDD
DTn was extended to all the writings included in
the canon, and designated ultimately their canonical
character or its effects as distinguished from non-
canonical books (Yad. iii. 2-51 ;iv. 5, 6; Tosef., Yad.
ii. 19; Blau.^.e. pp. 21, 69 <<»('?.; Friedmann, "Ha
Goren," ii. 168, but incorrect).
§ 3. The Jewish canou comprises twenty-four
books, the five of the Pentateuch, eight booksof the
Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings. I.saiah,
Jeremiah. Ezekiel, the Minor Prophets), and eleven
Hagiographa (Psiilms, Proverbs. Job. Song of Solo-
mon, Hulh, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther,
Bible Canon
THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
142
Daniel, Ezra, and Chronicles). Samuel and Kings
form but a single book each, as is seen in Aquila's
Greek translation. The "twelve"
Contents prophets were known to Ecclus. (Si-
and raeh) as one book (.\lis. 10), and the
Divisions, separation of Ezra from Xehemiah is
not indicated in either the Talmud or
the Ma.sorah. A Bible codex written in Spain in
1448 divides Samuel, Kings, and Ezra into two
books each (Giusburg. I.e. p. 586). These books are
classified and arranged into three subdivisions,
"Toi-ah," "Prophets," and " Hagiographa '" ; Greek,
louof Kai npoofjrat ko'i a/./.a ,h3'"a (Ecclus. [Sirach]).
In Yalk. ii. 702 they are styled as alistracts. " Law,
Prophecy, and Wisdom," nD3n nSU3 min: com-
pare Yer, Mak. 31d. below, and Blau, I.e. p. 21. note.
The division of the Prophets into D":iL"X"i D'X'aj
("Earlier Prophets") and D'jnnX D"N'3J ("Later
Prophets) was introduced by the 3Iasorah. By the
former expression the Talmud under-
Earlier stands the older Prophets, such as
and Later Isaiah, as distinguished from the later
Prophets. Prophets, Haggai, Zeehariah, and ^Mal-
achi (see Sifre, Deut. ii. 27, 357 ; Yer.
Ber. 8d, 23, etc.). In contradistinction to the last
three, Samuel, David, and Solomon are sometimes
called the old Prophets (Sotah 48b, top). The en-
tire Holy Writ is also designated by the term "Torah
and Prophets" (R. H. iv, (5; compare Meg. iv. 5;
Tosef., B. B. viii. 14: Sifre, Deut. ii. 218), and the
same usage is found in the Xew Testament (5Iatt.
V. 17. vii. 12. xxii. 40: Luke xvi. 16, 29, 31). The
abstract terras "Law and Prophecy " are found once
in Pesik., ed. Buber, Ilia.
Another division is that into " Torah and Kabba-
lah '" found in Ta'an. ii. 1; Tosef., Niddah, iv. 10:
Sifre, Xum. i. 112, 139; "Kabbalah" signifying tradi-
tion, which is regarded as having been carried on by
the Prophets. The Aramaic equivalent for ni?3p
is XnOPt'N. the Masoretic name for the Prophetical
Books, and Heliraized into DI^Jj;' by Ben Asher
("Dikduke ha-Te'amim," p. 2).
Still another division is "Torah" and "Jlikra."
In Sifre, Deut. ii. 317 "Mikra" is used as a general
term for the Prophets and the Hagiographa — a
usage which may also underlie Gen. R. xvi. (ed.
Wilna, 75b) and Cant. R. xvi. 6. below (see. how-
ever, Bacher, "Aelteste Terminologie, " cxviii. 7).
The 3Iidrash on "plena et defectiva" opposes
"Torah" to "Jlikra" (Berliner, "Peletat Soferim,"
p. 36), as does also Ben Asher (Blau, "Masor. L^nter-
suchungen," p. 50). The Masorah and Spanish au-
thors use the word in the same sense (Bacher, I.e. pp.
W^etseq. ; also in "Hukkeha-Torah." in Giidemann,
"Gesch. der Cultur der .luden in Deutschland," p.
268), and it probably came to have this meaning
because it is abbreviated from the expression "IKC
NIpD. " the remaining >Iikra. "
The third division, "the Holy Writings," may
have received its name in a similar way. Originally,
the whole Bible was called "Holy
The Hagi- Writings." but subsequently men per-
ographa. haps spoke of the " Law and the Proph-
ets," and the "other holy writings,"
and finally briefly of the "Holy Writings." Simi-
larly, the current name " Ketubim " (Writings) is
probablj' also an abbreviation of the fuller expres-
sion, "the other writings." or the "Holy Writings."
This etymology is supported by the usage of
Sirach's grandson, who calls the Hagiographa rd
hii-a Tuv fiiJ'/.iuv, and of Ben Asher a thousand years
later, Avho speaks of "the Law, the Prophets, and
the other books " (I.e. 44 : emended text in Blau, " Zur
Einleitung," xxix. 3). This is not the only instance
of Asher's fidelity to older traditions. Characteris-
tic evidence of the threefold division may be noted
in the following citations:
"In the New-Tear's prayers, ten passages of tbe Bible (from
the Torab, Propbets. and Hairiographa) must be iutrodueeii at
least three times" (Tosef.. R. H. iv. 6). "Ben Azzai connei-ted
the wortis of the Torab wiib those of the l*rv>phets, and ibe
latter with those of the Hagiographa" (her. R. xvi. 3). "This
is the progressive method of studying : flrsl, a primer (passages
of the Peutateurhi is read: then the Book (isD, Torabi. then
the Prophets, and anally the Hagiographa. After completing
the study of the entire Bible, one took up the Talmud. Hala-
kah. and Haggadah" (Deut. R. viii. 3). "To l»e considervd con-
versant with the Bible one had to be able to read accurately the
Torah, PiMphets. and Hagiographa" CKid. 49a). "Just as the
Torah is threefold, so Israel is threefold, consisting of priests.
Levites. and Israelites" (Pesik., ed. Bul*er, lU5a>. "Blessed be
God, who gave tbe threefold teachings to the threefold nation,
by three persons on the third day of the third month" iShab.
S$<i). In answer to the question of the Sadducee. concerning the
Biblical basis for the belief that God causes the dead to rise.
tbe patriarch Gamaliel sought prtK>f " in Torah, Prophets, and
Holy Writings" (Sauh. 90b). This doctrine is written in the
Torah. repeated in the Prophets, and a third time in the Ha-
giographa (Meg. 31a : compare Mak. Idb. 1.5 1. Hanina set up the
rule that " kesef " (silver) means simply a "selah " in the T^rah.
a "litra" in the Prophets, and a "talent" in the Holy Writings
(Bek. .jOa : Yer. Kid. 59d ; see also M. K. 21a : Ta'an. 30a ; Sanh.
una).
For passages of similar import from the Jerusalem
Talmud and from the Midrash, see Blau, ''Zur Ein-
leitung," xxii. 5, xxiii. 1.
§ 4. Tannaite literature makes no mention any-
where of the number of the Biblical books, and it
does not seem to have been usual to
Number pay attention to their number. This
of Books, was felt to be of importance only
when the Holy Writings were to be
distinguished from others, or when their entire range
was to be explained to non-.Jews. The earliest two
estimates (about 100 c.e.) diflfer. II Esdras xiv.
44-46 gives the number as 24; all variant readings
of the passage (94, 204, 84, 974 books) agree in the
unit figure. 4.
Epiphauius' division of the number 94 into 72 +
22 (" De Pondeiibus et ^Mensuris Liber." in Liigarde.
"Symmicta." ii. 163) is artificial. Josephus ex-
pressly puts the number at 22. as does Origeu
(Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl." ii. 25h while Jerome (Prcf
ace to Samuel and Kings) mentions 22. but never-
theless counts 24. Since both of these church
fathers studied under Jewish teachers, it is probalile
that some authorities within the synagogue favored
counting 22 books: and the hesitation between 22
and 24 can be explained by a Bitraita (B. B. lob),
according to which each book of the latter two divi-
sions (Prophets and Hagiographa) had to be written
separately as oif roll. Since Ruth with Judges or
with Psalms (Jerome, and Baraita B. B. 14b) might
form one roll, and Lamentations with Jeremiah an-
other, the rolls would be counted as 22, while the
books were actually 24, That there were 24 books
will be apparent from the classical Baraita on the
143
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Canon
question (see § 5 of this article). But in more
than ten passages of the Midrasli 24 boolis are ex-
pressly mentioned; and the authorities adduced are
exclusively araoraim. Simeon ben Lakisli (abt>ut
250) compares the boolvs with the 24 oriiameuts of a
bride (Is!i. iii. 18-24): saying that just as the bride
must be decorated with 24 ornaments, so the scholar
must be adorned with the knowledge of all the 24
books (Ex. R. xli. 5; Tan., Ki Tissa, xi., ed. Buber,
p. Ill; Cant. R. iv. 11). R. Berechiah compares
them with the 24 divisionsof the priestsaud Levites
and with the 24 nails driven into sandals (Xum. R.
.\iv. 4, XV. 22; Eccl. R. xii. 11; Pesik. R. ix. a, ed.
Friedmaun); while, according to Phineas ben Jair
(beginning of third century), the 24 books (Num.
R. xiv. 18) correspond to the 24 sacriticial animals
(Xum. vii.). 'J"he fact tliat the24 books of the writ-
ten Law and the 80 of the oral tradition make up 104
(Xum. R. xiii. 16) recalls the number of the books
mentioned in II Esdras. Counting the Minor Proph-
ets as 12, the number 35 is obtained (23-|-12),
as in Xum. R, xviii. 21 and Tan., Korah, ed.
Stettin, 5.52.
For the understanding of the cfiiice|)t of a canon,
the following passages, literally rendered, are espe-
cially important:
Et'cl. :\n. 12 teaches : " And further, my son. )te admonished hy
tlje.>iH [underetood as reading "against more than these, my son,
be cautioned against confusion"; the Hebrew "mehemah"
(more than these) being read "mehumah" (confusion)] that
he who brings more than twenty-four Itoolis into his liouse
brings confusion. Thus, the books of Ben .Sira or Ben Tigia
may be read, ttut not to the degi'ee of ' weariness of the flesh ' "
(Eccl. R. on the passage).
"And further, by these, my son, be admonished," saitb God ;
'Twenty-four books have I written for you; take heed to add
none tliereto.' Wherefore ? Because of making many books there
is no end. He who reads one verse not written in the twenty-four
books is as though lie had read in the 'outside books'; he will
Ondnosalvation there. Behold herein the punishment assigned
to him who adds one book to the twenty-four. How do we know
that he who reads them wearies himself in vain? Because it
says, "much study is a weariness of the flesh' (Eccl. xii. 12),
fnjm which follows, that tlie body of such a one shall not
arise from the dust, as is said in the Mishnah (Sanh. x. 1),
' They who read in the outside books have no share in the future
life'" (Num. R. xiv. 4; ed. Wilna, p. 117a; compare also Pesik.
U. ix. a and Yer. Sanh. xxviii. a).
The chief difference between these two passages is
tliat in the first oulj' the "weariness of the flesh,"
that is, the deep study (but not the reading) of other
than the Holy Writings, which were learned by
heart, is forbidden ; while in the second jiassage the
mere reading is also forbidden. The r>ldcr point of
view is undoubtedly the milder, as the history of
the book of Ecclus. (Siracli) teaches. The Babylo-
nian teachers represented the more liberal view (com-
pare Sanh. 100a and Yer. Sanh. xxviii. a, 18).
There is probablj' an allusion to twenty-four
books in Yer. Sanh. xx. d, 4 and Gen. R. Ixxx., be-
ginning. The Babylonian Talmud (Ta'an. 8a) men-
tions '24; Targ. to the Song of Solomon v. 10 does
the same. Dosa ben Eliezer, in a
The very old IMasoretic note; Ben Asher
" Tiveuty- (" Dikduke," pp. 5 [line 12], 56); Nissim
four" of Kairwan (Steinschneider "Fest-
Books. schrift." Hebrew section, p. 20, be-
low); and many medieval writers and
codices count twenty-four books. The number 24
was also known in ancient times in non-Jewish
circles (Strack, in Herzog, " Real-Encyc. f iir Protes-
tantische Theologie uud Kirche," ix.= 757).
§ 5. The classical passiige for the sequence of the
books is the Baraita in B. B. 14b. With
Sequence, the exclusion of interjected remarks
chronicled there, it runs as follows:
"The sequence of the Prophets is Joshua. Judges. Sauniel,
Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, the 12 [minor] prophets: lliat
of the Hagiographa is Ruth, Psalms, Jotj. Proyert»s. Ecclesiastes,
Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezni. Chron-
icles. Who wrote the hooks y Moses wrote his book, tlie
.section of Balaam and Job; Joshua wrote his l)ook. and the last
eight verses of the Torah : Samuel wnite his liook. Judges, and
Ruth ; David wrote the Psalms, by the hand of ihe ten .Anilenis;
namely, through .Idam ( Psalm cxxxix. Ki. perhaps also xcil.),
through Melchizedek, Ps. ex.: through Abraham. Ps. Ixxxix.
('miti.n jr-N explained to = Abraham); thi-ough Moses, Ps. xc-
c; through Heman. Ps. Ixxxviii.; through Jeduthun. Ps. Ixii.:
perhaps Ixxvii.; through Asaph. Ps. 1., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.; and
through the three sons of Korah, Ps. xlii. xlix.. Ixxviii.. Ixxxiv.,
Ixxxv., Ixxxviii. [The question whether Solomon should l)e
included among the Psalmlst.s is discus.sed in Tosafot l.ia.]
Jeremiah wrote his book, the Book of Kings, and Lamentali.ms;
King Hezekiah, and his council that survived him. wrote
Isaiah, Proverlis, Song of .Solomon, and Ecclesiastes; the men
of the Great .synagogues wrote Ezekiel, the Twelve I'ropheis,
Daniel, and Esther Ezra wrote his book and the genealogy of
Chronicles down to himself."
From the fact that in this account of the autlmrs
Moses is mentioned as the author of the Torah.
it may be inferred that in the collection frmn
which the Baraita is cited the sequence also
of the five books of the Torah was probably
given. But it is also possible that the Pentateuch,
from its liturgical use in the synagogue, was so
familiar as to be regarded almost as a single book,
of the separate parts of which no enumeration was
necessary.
The most striking sequence in this passage is
that of the Prophets, given as Jci-emiah, Ezekiel,
and Isaiah, a sequence commented on
Prophets, in the Talmud. There it is explained
tli;it this is because the Book of Kings
ends with destruction, Jeremiah begins and closes
with destruction, Ezekiel begins with destruction
and ends with consolation, while all of Isaiah con-
sists of consolation. Thus, destruction apiudpri-
at ely follows upon destruction, and consolation upon
consolation. The artificiality of this interpretation
needs no explanation ; but it must be remarked that
such sequence is not chronological. The clearest
explanation is that of Strack. who claims that the
Baraita evidently arianged the prophetical books
according to their size, a principle apparently fol-
lowed also in the arrangement of the Mishnah trea-
tises. According to their length, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Isaiah, and the twelve Prophets stand to one another
in the ratio of 41, 36, 32, and 30. The same princi-
ple is apparent in the sequence of the older Hagiog-
rapha, whci'e the insertion of Job between theP.salms
and Proverbs (the works of father, David, and son,
Solomon) is particularly noticeable. Since the Baraita
regarded Closes as the author of Job, this book might
quite appropriately have been placed at the head
of the Hagiographa, as was indeed recommended by
the Talmud. Now, according to their lengths, the
Psalms (with Ruth), Job, and Proverbs stand to
one another in the ratio of 39, 15, and 13 ; and Job.
therefore, follows Psjilms. The sequence of the
three Solomonic books, wherein the ])laciug of
I
Bible Canon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
144
Ecclfsiastes before the Song of Solomon is especiallj-
remarkable, illustrates the same principle of arrange-
ment, the largest being placed tirst.
The author of Ecclesiasticus(Sirach) has the chron-
ological order of the modern Bible: Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Ezekiel, and the twelve (Minor) Prophets (see
miah, and Ezekiel; three manuscripts agree with
the Talmud, while two have the following pecul-
iar order, Jeremiah. Isaiah, and Ezekiel (Ginsburg.
I.e. p. 6).
Ginsburg (I.e. p. 7) has collected, iu the following
table, eight varying sequences of the Hagiographa:
Varyikg Sequexces of the H.\giographa.
..
11.
HI.
IT.
v.
VI.
TII.
Tin.
Talmud and
si.x MSS.
Two MSS.
Paris
and London
Add. 15352
'Adat
Debariin and
three MSS.
Ar. Or. 16
Or. 21526-28.
Or. 2301
Five early
editions.
1
Ruth
Ruth
Ruth
Chronicles
Chronicles
Chronicles
Psalms
Psalms
2
Psalms
Psalms
Psalms
Psalms
Ruth
Psalms
Job
Proverbs
3
Job
Job
Job
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Proverbs
Job
4
Proverbs
Proverbs
Proverbs
Proverbs
Job
Job
Ruth
Song of Sol.
5
Etcleslasles
Song of Sol.
Song or Sol.
Ruth
Proverlis
Daniel
Song of Sol.
Ruth
6 Sone of Sol.
Ecflesiastes
Ecdesiastes
Song of Sol.
Song of Sol.
Ruth
Ecdesiastes
Lamentations
7
Lamentations
Lamentations
Lamentations
Ecdesiastes
Ecclcsiastes
Song of Sol.
Lamentations
Ecdesiastes
8
Daniel
Esther
Daniel
Lamentations
Lamentations
Lamentations
Esther
Esther
9
Esther
Daniel
Esther
Esther ■
Esther
Ecdesiastes
Daniel
Daniel
10
Ezra-Neh.
Ezi-a-Xeb.
Ezra-Neh.
Daniel
Daniel
Esther
Ezra-Neh.
Ezra-Neh.
11
ChroDuies
Chronicles
Chronicles
Ezra-Xeh.
Ezra-.Neh.
Ezra-.Neh.
Chronicles
Chrnnides
Eccliis. [Sirach] xlviii. 22; xlix. 6, 8). Since the
Baraita does not enumerate the books according to
the .succes-sion of their origin and their age (even
within the divisions of Prophets and Hagiographa).
it must have considered only the order of Biblical
writings so far as they belonged to the same section
and were therefore to be written in one roll. Since
(as is apparent from B. B. 13) the question which
books weic permitted to be included in one roll, or
whether each book had to be written separately in
one roll, was much discussed iu the second century,
the above-mentioned Baraita, which was also cur-
rent iu Palestine (see Yer. Talmud. Sotah v., end),
may well be assigned to the second century : and
there is no justitieation for considering it of older
date. But this much is surely ascertainable from
this Bitraita. that the first half of the prophetical
canon (Joshua-Kiugs) had a fi.xed sequence dating
from piecediug times, and concerning which there
was no doubt. That is »o say, these four books
follow one another and, continuing the
The story of the Pentateuch, form a con-
Earlier secutive narrative of .lewish history.
Prophets. This is seen fiom II Mace. ii. 13,
where, in mentioning the books "con-
cerning the Kings and Piophets," the prophetical
canon is divided into two parts. In post-Talmudic
times, also, there is no variation iu relation to the
sequence of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings:
while the order of the Greater Prophets is ii'rcgtilar,
the only uniformity preserved being in placing the
Minor Prophets invariably at the end. 3Iost of the
manuscripts (including the St. Petersburg codices,
which, dating from the years 910 and 1009, are the
oldest known), and the oldest five editions, have the
generally adopted chronological order, Isaiah, Jere-
A closer examination of the table reveals that actu-
ally three arrangements only are given: for Nos. i.,
ii. . iii. . and vii. differ only in regard to the position as-
signed to the Five Rolls, and represent the Talmudic
arrangement : the five early editions also follow this
sequence, but have the Five Rolls in
Hag'iog- the order followed in the liturgy, and
rapha. put the Psalms, instead of Job. after
Pi-overbs: Xos. iv. and v. vary only
in regard to Ruth. No. vi.. however, is entirely
unique, ajiparently arranging the books accortliug
to their size, if Ezra and Nehemiah be considered
as two books.
The Five Rolls, however, form a class by them-
selves, and follow the order, in which they are em-
ployed on successive festivals, in the liturgy. Leav-
ing out of account this last-mentioned sequence,
two types remain: the Talmudic and the ^Masoretic.
The most striking point of diffeience is the position
assigned to the books of Chronicles, which are placed
in the Talmud at the eud, but in the Masorctic te.xt
at the beginning. The Talmudic sequence is chron-
ological ; the Masoretic consideis the size of the
books. In regard to the Five Rolls
The (nit'JD con; of which Ginsburg [l.r.
Five Rolls, p. 4] gives a taVile showing five lists
of varying order), it should be noted
that, in reality, they show only two sequences: one
following the chronology of the authors; the other,
the liturgical custom of the synagogue ("'Jew.
Quart. Rev." xii. 223). These variations in the order
of the last Prophets and of the Hagiographa — par-
ticularly the latter — are significant for the history of
the canon: for they show that these writings ac-
quired canonical importance at a later period than
the first Prophets and the Law. Owing to the
145
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Canon
earlier canonization of these latter, their sequence
was so firmly established as never to give rise to
question.
§ 6. The most radical criticism agrees that the
Toi-ali is the lirst and oldest part of the canon. The
narrative of Neh. viii.-x., which describes an actual
canonization, is of prime importance for the history
of the collection of the Holy Writings.
Collection. It is thus generally agreed that ia the
middle of the fifth century B.C. the
tirst part of the canon was e.xtant. There is no
foundation for the belief that, according to Neh.
viii.--\., the Pentateuch was not fullj- completed
until that date. The opinions of the synagogue will
be discussed later; here only e.xternal testimony
concerning the canonization will be considered.
Perhaps the last three verses of the Book of Malachi,
tlu' last prophet, are to be considered as a kind of
canonization. The warning concerning the teach-
ings of Moses, and the unusually solemn w-ords of
comfort, make it seem probable that herein is in-
tended a peroration not only to the sj.ieeches of tlie
last prophets, but also to the whole twofold canon,
the Law and the Prophets. These verses could not
have come from ilalaclii ; but they may very prob-
ably have been added by another anonj'mous
prophet, or by some appropriate authority, in order
to let the words of the Holy Scriptures conclude
with a Divine reminder of the Torah, and with a
piomise of great comfort. Another example of
what may be called "canonical ending " for the en-
tire Holy Writ niay be seen (N. Krochmal, " Moreh
Nebuke ha-Zeman," viii.. No. 11) in the last three
verses of the Book of Ecclesiastes. This declama-
tion against the makers of books sounds like a canon-
ical closing ; and it was really considered such by
the oldest Jewish exegetes (see above, § 4). The
admonition to keep the Commandments, and the
threat of divine punishment, may be compared to
the reminder of the Torah and the idea of punish-
ment in Malachi.
While there are no other evidences in Holy Writ
itself of a collection of the Holy Writings, there are
some outside of it. which, in part, may
Evidences now be mentioned in chronological
of order. The author of the apocryphal
the Canon, book Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) was a con-
temporary of the high priest Simon
— either the first or the second of that name — who
Hved at the beginning oratthe end of the third cen-
tury B.C. He knew the Law and Prophets in their
present form and sequence; for he glorifies (ch.
xliv.-xlix.) the great men of antiquity in the order
in which they successively follow in Holy AVrit.
He not only knew the name D'N'3Jn "IfJ? D'JC
("The Twelve Prophets"), but cites Malachi iii. 23.
and is acquainted with by far the greatest part of
the Hagiographa, as is certain from the Hebrew
original of his writings recently dis-
Evidences covered. He knew the Psalms, which
of Sirach.. he ascribes to David (Ecclus. [Sirach]
xlvii. 8, 9). and the Proverbs : " There
were those who found out mtisical harmonies, and
set forth proverbs [A. V., "poetical compositions"]
in writing" (xliv. 5). An allusion to Proverbs and
probably to the Song of Solomon is contained in his
III.-IO
words on King Solomon: "The countries marveled
at thee for thy songs, and proverbs, and parables
[or "dark sayings"], and interpretations" (xlvii. 17);
the last tliiee words being taken from Prov. i. 6,
while the Song of Solomon is alluded to in "songs."
He would have had no authority to speak of " songs "
at all from I Kings v. 12; he mu.st have known
them. While he had no knowledge of Ecclesiastes,
his didactic style ju-oves that he used Job. as is also
indicated by the words DmSD2 Tt;' 'D3n (xliv. 4.
and afterward, D'^C'IDD- Ecclesiastes, Esther, and
Daniel are not included in his canon (see Halevj-.
"Elude sur la Partie du Texte Hebreux de I'Eccli-
siastique," pp. 67 et serj.. Paris, 1897) ; he considers
Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah as Holy Scripture
(xlix. 12 = Ezra iii. 2; xlix. 13 = Neh. iii. and vi. ;
compare Neh. vi. 12); he mentions distinctly "the
laws and prophets" (xxxix. 1); in the following
sentences there are allusions to other writings; and
verse 6 of the same chapter leads to the sujiposition
that in his time only wisdom-writings and prayers
were being written.
The grandson of Sirach (132 B.C.), who translated
his ancestor's wisdom from Hebrew into Greek, tells
in his preface no more about the canon than is ap-
parent from the book itself; but he tells it more
clearly. He mentions three times the Torah, Proph-
ets, and "other writings;" he knew no "terminus
techuicus" for the canon's third i>art, as one was not
coined until two hundred years later. In the origi-
nal these passages are respectiveh' as follows: iia
Tov vdfiov Ktit Tuv Tvpiitpijiuv Ka'i Tciv a?JMV Tuv Kaf avToi'^
r/K0?iOvfif/K6Tui' (Sf()oHPi'(jv . . . eif re ryv tov v6fiov Kai
Tuv :Tf}otf)//Tuv Kal T(jif a'AXuv irarpiuv lit^}.'iuv ... 6 vdfxo^
Kac (If- Trpn(!)r/ut. Kal ra Tioiira ruv (itfi'^iLiv,
Intlie Second Book of Maccabees (12^13.0. ; Niese,
" Kritik der Beiden Makkabiierliucher "), written only
a few years later than the Greek Sirach, the follow-
ing is stated: "The same things also were reported
in the records, namely, the memoirs of Necmias; and
how he, founding a library, gathered
II Mac- together the books concerning the
cabees. kings, and the projihets, and those of
David, and the epistles of the kings
concerning holy gifts. And in like manner also
Judas gathered together all those books that had
been scattered by reason of the war we had, and
they are with us. If now possibly ye have need
thereof, send such as will bring them unto you " (II
Mace. ii. 13-15). The Torah is not mentioned; its
general circulation rendered its "collection" unnec-
essary. The second part of the canon is unmista-
kably intended by " books concerning the kings "
(Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Iviugs) and by
"prophets" (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the
Minor Prophets). Since the Hagiographa had not
yet received a definite name, they are mentioned as
" those of David " (the Psalms), as the first and most
important book — a custom followed in the New
Testament even at a time when there was no doubt
concerning the existence of collected Hagiographa.
The expression, "the books of the kings concerning
holy gifts," seems to refer to the royal letters men-
tioned in Ezra and Nehemiah, and if this be so,
then the Hagiographa do find mention; viz.. Psalms
and Chronicles, their first and last books.
Bible Canon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
146
It should also be noted that Nehemiah and not
Ezra is named : a circumstance which indicates the
age of these statements: since the son of Sirach like-
wise gloritied Nehemiali and made no mention of
Ezra, whereas even the oldest rabbinical authorities
consider Ezra as a writer far superior to Nehemiah,
the aristocrat.
Philo, in his extant works, makes no mention of
Ezckiel, Daniel, or the Five Rolls. Since, however,
even Sirach mentions Ezckiel, Philo's
Philo. silence about him is undoubtedlj' ac-
cidental ; consequently, his failure to
name the other books can not be taken as a proof
that they were not in his cauon. Moreover, the
Laws, Prophets, Psalms, and other books are re-
ferred to by title in his "De Vita Contemplativa,"
§ 3. It is true, Lucius ("Die Therapeuten," Stras-
burg, 1880) doubts the genuineness of this work ; but
Leopold Cohn, an authority on Philo ("Einleitung
uud Chronologic dcr Schriftcn Philo's," p. oT, Leip-
sic. 1899; "Philologus," vii., supjil. volume, p. 421),
maintains that there is no reason to do so. Conse-
quent!}', Siegfried's opinion ("Philo," p. 61, Jena.
1875) that Pliilo's cauon was essentially the same
as that of to-day, is probably coi-rect (H. E. Ryle,
"Philo and Holy Scripture," London, 1895).
The New Testament shows that its canon was
none other than that which exists to-day. None of
the Apocrypha or Pscudepigrapha is
New ever quoted by name, while Daniel is
Testament, expressly cited in Matt. xxiv. 15.
Matt. xiii. 35 (= Luke xi. 51) proves
that Chronicles was the last canonical book. The
statement, "That upon you may come all the riglit-
eous blood shed upon the earth, from the blood of
righteous Abel unto the blood of Zacliarias," con-
tains a reference to II Chron. xxiv. 20. The three
chief divisions are enumerated in Luke xxiv. 44 —
"Law," "Prophets," and "Psalms" — as they are in
Philo. Usually, however, only the Law and the
Prophets are mentioned (Matt. v. 17; Luke xvi. 16);
but by them the three divisions are intended just
as the Talmudic teachers include the Hagiographa
under Prophets (see g 3). This usage is to be at-
tributed, on the one hand, to the lack of a current
technical term for the Hagiographa, and on the
other to the opinion that the collected books of the
Holy Writings were written by the Prophets. In
view of these facts, the silence of the writers of the
New Testament concerning Canticles, Ecclesiastes,
Esther, and Ezra has no bearing on the question
whether these writings were or were not included
in the canon (see Strack, I.e. p. 750).
Josephus (c. 38-95) enumerates 23 books, which
he divides as follows: 5 books of Moses; 13 his-
tories, containing the history of Israel from Moses'
death down to Artaxerxes I., written by the Proph-
ets; and 4 remaining books consisting of hymns
and admonitions. "It is true our history hath been
written since Artaxerxes very particularly, but hath
not been esteemed of the like authority with the
former by our forefathers, because there hath not
been an exact succession of prophets since that time :
and how firmly we have given credit to these books
of our own nation is evident bv what we do; for
during so many ages as have already passed, no one
hath been so bold as either to add anything to them,
to take anything from them, or to make any change
in them" ("Contra Ap." i. 8). It is evident that
Josephus, instead of counting Ruth and Lament ;i-
tions as separate books, combined them with Judges
and .leremiah, respectively. As historical books he
considered all that narrated anything historical, and
thus included Job. He considered Psalms, Prov-
erbs, Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes non-histor-
ical. No other arrangement would have been pos-
sible for Josephus; for it is known from Talmuilic
and Midrashic literature that in his time, when the
Taunaitcs flourished most, all the now familiar bonks
were considered canonical. For various interpnta-
tious of Josephus' narrative, sec Strack, I.e. p. 7o'>'.
The evidence of the church fathers, such as
Melito of Sardis (about 170; in Eusebius, "Hist.
Eccl." iv. 26) and Origen(died 253: in
Church Eusebius, I.e. vi. 25), both of whom
Fathers, count 22 books, but mention 24, is un-
important; since they invoke the au-
thority of their Jewish teachers, whose canon is
known from the tannaite literature. Of still less
weight is the evidence of Jerome (died 4'20), wlm
also had Jewi,sh instruction, andsimply repeats what
was current opinion among the Anioraim ("Prologus
Galeatus " and preface to Daniel).
§ 7. In addition to the written evidence mentioneil
above, the circumstance that the Samaritans (who
considered themselves Jews) accepts 1
The Pro- only the Pentateuch and part of
phetical Joshua is of great importance in de-
Canon, termining the historical develojiment
of the canon. It brings out the mo-
mentous fact that a recognized canon of the Proplicts
did not exist in the middle of the fifth century n.t . ;
while, on the other hand, it is certain from Sirach
(see ^ 6 of this article) that the prophetical canon
was completed by 200 b.c. at the veiy latest. Since
Sirach considered prophecy as long since sileuceil.
and had no recollection of any authoritative close of
this canon, the view that the list of the Prophets
was completed at least one hundred years before his
time is very plausible. Consequently, the prophet-
ical canon must have been closed, at the very latest,
at the beginning of the era of the Scleucids (312i
Zunz ("G. V." ed. i., p. 14) says with reason: "The
holj- books, containing the Law and the Prophets,
must have been collected a few generations after
Nehemiah. Theirageextends back far be3-ond that
epoch. The decided predilectiou shown toward this
part of the Biblical books, .still visible in later times
and in all religious instituti(nis, must be explaiued
by the fact that it had long been honored as the only
surviving monument of the Jewish state at a time
when the latter no longer existed, and other national
writings, whether of earlier or later time, were at-
tracting attention" (compare also ib. p. 33). Ryle
("Canon of the Old Testament," p. 123) assuiiies
that the prophetical canon was completed during
the high priesthood of Simon II. (219-199 B.C.). He
adduces in proof the prophetical books themselves,
which, according to him, contain many additions of
a late date, showing that previous to this period they
had not been canonized; K. JIarti (commentary on
Isaiah, in " Kurzgefasstes Handbuch ") even argues
147
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Canon
that in Hillel's time the canon was not yet closed.
However, the fact that Daniel is not included in the
Prophets is of importance, and demonstrates that
the prophetical canon must have been closed before
165 B.C. ; for the best of criticism is agreed that
Daniel belongs to the Maccabean era ; it would have
been included in the Prophets had at that time the
canon still been open.
§ 8. While Sirach (see § 6) knew and made use of
most of the books of the Hagiographa, his chapters
contain no allusion whatever to Ecclesiastes, Esther,
or Daniel. It does not follow from this that he did
not know these books, but that he
Determina- simply did not consider them Holy
tion of Writings; moreover, it is certain that
theHagiog-in 200 B.C. the canon of the Hagiog-
rapha. raplia did not e.xist in its present
form. A second f(mndation for this
theory would be the date of the Book of Daniel,
which in its present form, and with its allusion to
Antiochus Epiphanes, was not known before 165.
A third argument is deduced fiom the fact that
while the translator of Sirach in 133 knew no tech-
nical name for the Hagiographa. he nevertheless
speaks plainly of a third part of Holy Writ. Ac-
cordingly, there is no sound reason to doubt the
statement in II Mace. ii. 14 (see t5 6 of this article)
that Judas Maccabee collected the books scattered
during the wars.
No doubt, the Syrians iu their persecutions had
diligently searched for scrolls of the Torah, and
(since they knew no difference between the various
Hebrew writings) for other Biblical books (I Mace. iii.
48). Under the circumstances, it is quite compre-
hensible that the warlike Maccabean and his pious
followers took special care to collect the Holj'
Books. On the other hand, under the rule of
the princes wlio followed Simon, most of whom
sided with the Sadducees, circumstances were un-
favorable for determining a canon for the third por-
tion of Scripture by agreement as to which books
should be included and which excluded. It was im-
possible to determine the canon in the post-Macca-
bean period, because then the various schools of
tradition began to tloiu'ish. So important a matter
as the canon would not have been easil}' settled, as
the controversies of 65 and 90 c. E. show (sect? H), and
indeed there are no traces of a discussion of the sub-
ject. In view of all these circumstances, one is
warranted iu assuming as most probable that not
long after the Maccabean wars of freedom the Jew-
ish community had reached an agreement as to the
books of the third canon.
Everything points to the con'ectness of the opin-
ion of Zunz {I.e. p. 34) "that long before the de-
struction of the Temple, and not long after Sirach
was translated, the Holy Writings comprised the
present cycle." Ryle {I.e. pp. 184 et ser/.). also, be-
lieves that the Hagiographa were completed before
the death of John Hyrcanus (106 B.C.). To l)e sure,
he distinguishes two periods: that from 160-105 u.c.
for the admission, and that from 90-110 c.E. for the
final ratification of the complete canon. But this
distinction makes no difference as to the principal
matter in is.sue.
§ 9. Jewish tradition adopts the view that every
word of Holy Writ was inspired by the Divine
Spirit. This Spirit is believed, in every case, to
liave rested upon a prophet ; and, consequently,
every Biblical book was said to have been written
by a prophet. The chronicler attributes the author-
ship of the Book of Samuel, which he
Principle designates as "the acts of David" (I
of Canoni- Chron. .\xix. 29) to Samuel, Nathan,
zation. and Gad. The oldest Baraita (see
above, § 3 : B. B. 14b), dealing with
the sequence and authors of the Biblical writings,
assumes the author of every book to have been a
prophet, and finds him cither in the titles or the
sequence of the books themselves. Moses, Joshua.
Samuel, Ezra, and the Prophets wrote their own
books ; Moses wrote Job, the hero of which was his
contemporary; Joshua wrote the last eight verses of
the Pentateuch (" so Moses, the servant of the Lord,
died," etc.); Samuel wrote Judges and Ruth; Jere-
miah the Books of Kings, which preceded his own
book, and Ezra the Chronicles (see Blau, I.e. p. 33).
There is thus an unbroken chain of prophets from
Moses to Malaciii; the chain of tradition in Abot i.
1 mentions prophets but no priests: " Forty eight
prophets and seven prophetesses propliesied for
Israel. None of them took from or added anything
to the Law, except the reading of the roll of Esther "
(Baraita Meg. 14a; compare "Seder '01am," xx.,
xxi.).
Not only the Patriarchs, but David and Solomon
also were considered prophets. Thus the Psalms,
written by David- Proverbs, Canticles, and Ecclesi-
astes, written by Solomon ("Seder 'Olam," xv. ;
compare Cant. R. i. 35 ; Lam. R. xi. 1 ; and B. B. I'm) ;
Ruth, by Samuel; Lamentations, by Jeremiah; Dan-
iel, by Daniel ; and Chnmicles and Ezia-Nehemiah,
by Ezra (who is identified with Malachi, Meg. 1.5a),
are all of prophetic origin. Estheralone apparently
is without a proplietic author. For this reason. " Se-
der Olam " (end of ch. xx.) considers tliat Mordecai
was a prophet who, contemporary with Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi, prophesied at the time of
Darius; while Daniel (who in Esther R. iv. 5 is
identified with Hatach), according to his own book,
lived as earl)' as the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
.losephus — -who believes that prophecy ceased in the
time of Artaxerxes I. — considers as divine only the
books written by prophets (see the passage, "Contra
Ap."i. 8, quoted above; compare Griltz. "Monats-
sclirift," XXXV. 281 et serj.). Thus only works re-
garded as having been inspired by the Hcjly Spirit
were included iu the canon. Neither the Talmud
nor Midrash knew the difference between i)rophccy
and the Holy Spirit, as drawn in the Middle Ages.
Take the following examples;
Estlier was a prnji^iffcs." ; for It Is said (Esther ix. 29):
"Esther wrote " ("Seder 'Olam," i.e.). Cliajes ("Torat Nebiim.''
last page, Zolkiev. 18:!fi) bas rightly inferreil fnira this passage
that, according to tradition, every written word was of prophetic
origin. Rabbi Levi says: "Formerly, if man did anything of
importance, a prophet ratiie and wrote it down : but now ..."
(Lev. n. .t-txiv. »). David prays in I'salm xix. l.'> (A. V. Hi: "Let
the words of my mouth he acceiilable " : that is, " may they be
transcribed for later generations, ami may the latter not read
them as Homer is read, but let them nieditate upon them and he
rewarded for doing so. as they are for studying Nega'ini ami
Ohalot (Midrash Shohar Tob. i. S. ed. Buber. p. Sal. Of Ps. xlll.
!j it is said ( Lam. K. In'troduclii in, p. 34) : " There were tiCKJ.lXKI or
even L2lltl,U00 prophets. Every prophecy which was of iiuiwr-
Bible Canon
THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
148
tance for Its own time or later generations was published ; but.
on the other hand, those prophecies havln? sifxniBcance for their
own, liut not for future times, were not published " (Cant. R. vi.
11 ) . " God said to Moses, • copy the Torah, Prophets, and Hagiog-
rapha, that .vou may have them in writing ' ; Halakot, Midrash,
Hagpadot, and Talmud, however, are to lie preserved only ver-
l)ally " lE.x. R. xlvii. l,>lal. R. Isaac considered that "all that
the prophets foretell in every generation, they learned on Mt.
Sinai ■' ( ill. .\xvlii. llKIa i. " The entire Holy Writ is really the
word of (iod, so that the authors are to be considered merely as
media." " When Haggai. Zachariah, and Malaolii died, the Holy
Spirit left Israel " (Tosef ., Sotah, xiii. 2 ; Yer. Sotah, end ; Sanh.
11a).
Therefore, whatever is iu the Holy Writ must
Imve been written, at the very latest, duriug the
time of these last three prophets, frecpieutly men-
tioueii in Talmiul and ^Jliiirash. The Great Syna-
gogue hail many prophets among its members, and
therefore had the right to have the Esther seroU
written down (Shab. 104a; Meg. 3a; Yoma 80a;
Tern. 15b).
§ 10. It was due to the piinciple referred to in
the ]irceeding seetion that the Wisdom of Sirach
(Eeclesiastietis), which was used as a
Ben Sira sehool-book many centuries after the
and Other completion of the canon (hence called
Apoc- nn(i!(i;u;.<'if. whence the .Jewish "Al-
rypha. pliabets" of Ben Sira). either found no
place in the canon, or was excluded
from it. Since, in his work, the author names him-
self and the high priest Simon, the post-prophetic
origin of the work was evident:
In IheTosefta it is stated (Yad. ii. 13, ed. Zuckermandel, p
tiJvJl : " Neither the books of Ben Sira nor any of the books
written thereafter [that is, in post-prophetic times] render the
hands uniMean, ' [that is, are canonical]. The Mishnah (Sanh.
X. i) adduces this dictinu in the name of R. Akiba : " He who
ivadsthe outside books lE^Jiii^n D^"tDa) shall have no share
in the life to come." To this the Palestinian Talmud adds : " for
example, the books of Ben Sii'a and Ben La'ana." But the
reading of Homer and all other books written thereafter shall
be accouiUed as the reading of a letter. On what ground?
Thev may be read, but not to weariness" (Sanh. 3!*a). This
piissage is usually considered incomprehensible. In the first
place, its severity against Ben Sira is not intelligible : secondly,
it is not clear why the books of Homer should be preferred to
Eccleslasticus ISirach); thirdly, in one of the Baraitot (Sanh.
Itliai it is said that the books of heretics are meant (S^J^C ^"iDC),
aud only Joseph, a Babylonian amora of the beginning of the
fourth century, states : "The hook of Ben Sii'a also is not to be
read." This prohibition is indeed contradicted by historical facts ;
for since Sirach's wisdom is frequently cited by the Talmudists
( compare the latest compilation of citations in Cowley and Neu-
bauer, " The Original Hebrew of a Portion of Eccleslasticus,"
Oxford, 1S97). the reading of his work can not have been forbid-
den. Moreover, as the context clearly shows, pa.ssages of Ben
Sira are twice cited as though they were part of the Hagiographa
CEr. Boa, by Rab from Sirach vit, 10, and B. K. !*Jb by Rabba bar
Mari ; see also "Jew. Quart. Rev." x.241)- Even if it be supposed
thai these two cases arose from a confusion due to lack of mem-
ory, the two Taluuidic teachers thinking the verses quoted by
them to be from a Biblical book, withal it clearly follows that
Sirach kyis read, and so high an authority as Akiba conld not pos-
sibly have declared that whoever read in Ben Sira would destroy
his future salvatiim. As a result of these difflculties it has been
decided to amend the passages of the Jerusalem Talmud in
question (Joel. "Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte," i. "1 ft
se(;.: Gratz, "Monat.sschrift," xxxv. 287). It would seem that
all these difficulties niight be obviated by keeping clearly in mind
the fact that the Taluuidic teachers distinguished two kinds of
reading : (1) reading in public and aloud, or zealous study, and
(2l private reading. The Midrash on Eccl. xil. 12 (see above. § 4)
forbids adding another book such as that of Ben Sira or Ben
Tigla to the twenty-four books; but says they may be read,
expressing this opinion in the same way as does the Talmudic
passage under discussiim. The whole pa.ssage therefore bears out
the following construction : Akiba maintains that not only he
who denies the divine origin of the Torah forfeits his share In
the future life, but also he who reads the outside books as
though they were Holy Writings: that is. who treats them as
such either liy reading them aloud or by Interpreting them
before the community. This or a similar penalty is not threat-
ened in the case of apocryphal works in general, but only In
connection with a well-known and highly prized book : conse-
quently Akiba's statement must have been directed exclusively
against Ben Sira's collection of proverbs. Concerning this book,
Epiphanius also states (I.e. in Lagarde. "Symmicta," II. 157)
that It does not belong to the Holy Writings, and adds : " but the
Dn*cn ^"iDD and other works written in post-prophetic times may
be read [that Is. read privately]; for, accorcilng t*> Ecdesiaste?
xll. 2, they may be read, but not to the extent and in the man-
ner of wearying the tlesh."
From these passages it Is evident that no attempt was made
to stamp out the Apocrypha ; on the contrary, an influence
was certainly exerted which was not altogether unfavorable to
them (see above, § 4). In conclusion, be it remarked that
Maimonides ("Hilkot ' Ab. Zarah," ii. 2) holds .\kiba's expres-
sion, "outside books," to refer to idolatrous, non-Jewish, extr;i-
canonical writings, and that in the fourth century, in thr
passage in Sanh. l(X)a, a reason was sought for forbidding tli,-
reading of Sirach. Accordingly, the prohibition against read-
ing non^anonical works generally can not have been old.
§ 11. There were controversies concerning the
admission into the canon of the Book of Ezekiel,
Solomon's three books (Proverbs, Ecclesiastcs, Song
of Solomon), and Esther. But no con-
Con- troversy arose concerning the Apocry-
troversies pha; all were agreed that they wen
About non-canonical. The opposition t^
Separate Ezekiel was only tem|iorary ; owini;
Books, to its contradictions of the Penta
tench, many wished to hide it awa_\-
(tliat is, to prevent its use); but"Hananiah ben
Hezekiah ben Garon spent tliree hundred jars of oil
to release it." Others wished to prohibit its use
because a child in school, having read the first chaji-
ter, made a picture of the" hashnial " (A. V., "color
of amber ") which then emitted flames; nevertheless.
Hananiah championed it (Hag. 13a; Shab. 13b;
Jlen. 4oa). The opposition to Proverbs, because
they contained contradictions, was very sliglit.
For the same reason, it was contended that Ecck-
siastes ought not to be read (Shab. 30b). Appar-
ently the opponents belonged to the strict school of
the Shammaites (Bacher, "--Vg. Tan.'M. 21). Others
wished to prohibit the reading of Ecclesiastcs on
the ground that it exjiressed heretical ideas (Lev. K.
xxviii., beginning, and elsewhere).
A longer struggle raged around the cjuestioii
whether Ecclesiastcs "rendered the hands unclean "
that touched it, necessitating their washing. The
passages bearing on these controversies (see also
above under g 2) read as follows:
" .\ll books, except that of th