Instruction was defined previously as "the
purposeful direction of the learning process" and is one of the major teacher
class activities (along with planning and management). Professional educators have developed a
variety of models of instruction, each designed to produce classroom learning. Joyce,
Weil, and Calhoun (2003) describe four categories of models of
teaching/instruction (behavioral systems, information processing, personal
development, and social interaction) that summarize the vast majority of instructional
methods. Each model differs in the specific type or measure of learning that is targeted.
Therefore, as we make decisions about "best educational practices" we must be
certain that we connect recommended practices with specific desired outcomes. This point
is often omitted; discussion of best practices then becomes a debate about desired
outcomes rather than a discussion of how to achieve them.

Another important point is that the different models and
methods of instruction have been developed based on specific interpretations
of concepts and principles of teaching and learning. While it is important to
learn and practice the approaches developed by others, it is even more
important to understand the concepts and principles upon which they are based.

If you learn only methods, you'll be tied to your
methods, but if you learn principles you can devise your own methods.
-- Ralph Waldo Emerson

As you review each of the models or methods of
instruction, ask yourself "Why is this being done?" and "Why is this being
done now?" See if you can determine the underlying principles that are being
advocated. You will then be in a better position to make modifications as your
competency as a teacher grows.

As stated in other sections of these materials, the most often used measures of student
achievement in the U.S. are scores on standardized
tests of basic skills. Using this criteria as the desired student outcome, one set of
models, labeled direct or explicit instruction (Rosenshine, 1995), has developed
overwhelming research support in the past 25 years. Several principles
of direct instruction, such as more teacher direction and student-teacher interaction,
provide the foundation for this approach. The following chart (adapted from Slavin, 1994,
p. 287) provides a comparison of instructional events from several well-known direct
instruction models that incorporate these principles.

Notice that Slavin's model, which provides a reasonable
summary of the approach of the other models, is focused on the activities of the teacher.
This is in line with his QAIT model of effective
classrooms in which he proposes that the classroom teacher is responsible for classroom
learning. Huitt (1996) provides a model of direct instruction from
a transactional perspective. From this viewpoint, both the teacher and student are
active participants in the learning process, each with their respective responsibilities.
At each event of instruction, Huitt provides both a recommended teacher activity and a set
of alternative student activities. The most important deviation from the other models is
that Huitt emphasizes teacher/student interaction at every event in the lesson.

Although the research shows that, in general, direct instruction is the preferred model
of instruction when the measure of learning is scores on a standardized test of basic
skills, teachers must also decide how to deal with individual
differences. In general there are three different approaches. The first is to develop
a set of instructional events that directly address different student learning styles.
This is the approach adopted by Bernice McCarthy in her 4MAT System.
A second approach is to use a method of grouping. Research has shown that cooperative learning, an in-class, hetergenous grouping
alternative, is an effective alternative that both impacts student achievement as well as
social skills. A third approach is to alter the schooling system within which instruction
is provided. This is the approach used by Bloom (1976; see Davis & Sorrell, 1995) in
his mastery learning strategy. Although many teachers have
attempted to implement a mastery learning strategy in their individual classrooms, the
approach seems to work best when implemented on a school- or district-wide basis.

Summary

In summary, instruction (the purposeful guidance of the learning process) is complex
and can take many forms. It is a vitally important classroom activity, but must be
considered in the context of such factors as measures of desired student learning
(including overlapping objectives taught to objectives tested), controlling student
behavior (classroom management activities), individual differences among students, and
school processes and characteristics. Under the best conditions it takes many years of
experience for most teachers to meet the ideals of instructional practice that they set
for themselves as preservice undergraduate students.

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