The relationships between the three common temperature scales is shown in
[link] .

Temperature ranges in the universe

[link] shows the wide range of temperatures found in the universe. Human beings have been known to survive with body temperatures within a small range, from
24ºCsize 12{"24"°C} {} to
44ºCsize 12{"44"°C} {}(75ºFsize 12{ \( "75"°F} {} to
111ºFsize 12{"111"°F} {} ). The average normal body temperature is usually given as
37.0ºCsize 12{"37" "." 0°C} {} (
98.6ºFsize 12{"98" "." 6°F} {} ), and variations in this temperature can indicate a medical condition: a fever, an infection, a tumor, or circulatory problems (see
[link] ).

This image of radiation from a person’s body (an infrared thermograph) shows the location of temperature abnormalities in the upper body. Dark blue corresponds to cold areas and red to white corresponds to hot areas. An elevated temperature might be an indication of malignant tissue (a cancerous tumor in the breast, for example), while a depressed temperature might be due to a decline in blood flow from a clot. In this case, the abnormalities are caused by a condition called hyperhidrosis. (credit: Porcelina81, Wikimedia Commons)

The lowest temperatures ever recorded have been measured during laboratory experiments:
4.5×10–10Ksize 12{4 "." 5 times "10" rSup { size 8{–"10"} } " K"} {} at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA), and
1.0×10–10Ksize 12{1 "." 0 times "10" rSup { size 8{–"10"} } " K"} {} at Helsinki University of Technology (Finland). In comparison, the coldest recorded place on Earth’s surface is Vostok, Antarctica at 183 K
(–89ºC)size 12{ \( –"89"°C \) } {} , and the coldest place (outside the lab) known in the universe is the Boomerang Nebula, with a temperature of 1 K.

Each increment on this logarithmic scale indicates an increase by a factor of ten, and thus illustrates the tremendous range of temperatures in nature. Note that zero on a logarithmic scale would occur off the bottom of the page at infinity.

Making connections: absolute zero

What is absolute zero? Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion has ceased. The concept of absolute zero arises from the behavior of gases.
[link] shows how the pressure of gases at a constant volume decreases as temperature decreases. Various scientists have noted that the pressures of gases extrapolate to zero at the same temperature,
–273.15ºCsize 12{–"273" "." "15"°C} {} . This extrapolation implies that there is a lowest temperature. This temperature is called
absolute zero . Today we know that most gases first liquefy and then freeze, and it is not actually possible to reach absolute zero. The numerical value of absolute zero temperature is
–273.15ºCsize 12{–"273" "." "15"°C} {} or 0 K.

Graph of pressure versus temperature for various gases kept at a constant volume. Note that all of the graphs extrapolate to zero pressure at the same temperature.

Thermal equilibrium and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

Thermometers actually take their
own temperature, not the temperature of the object they are measuring. This raises the question of how we can be certain that a thermometer measures the temperature of the object with which it is in contact. It is based on the fact that any two systems placed in
thermal contact (meaning heat transfer can occur between them) will reach the same temperature. That is, heat will flow from the hotter object to the cooler one until they have exactly the same temperature. The objects are then in
thermal equilibrium , and no further changes will occur. The systems interact and change because their temperatures differ, and the changes stop once their temperatures are the same. Thus, if enough time is allowed for this transfer of heat to run its course, the temperature a thermometer registers
does represent the system with which it is in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is established when two bodies are in contact with each other and can freely exchange energy.

Questions & Answers

anyone know any internet site where one can find nanotechnology papers?

fullerene is a bucky ball aka Carbon 60 molecule. It was name by the architect Fuller. He design the geodesic dome. it resembles a soccer ball.

Tarell

what is the actual application of fullerenes nowadays?

Damian

That is a great question Damian. best way to answer that question is to Google it. there are hundreds of applications for buck minister fullerenes, from medical to aerospace. you can also find plenty of research papers that will give you great detail on the potential applications of fullerenes.

Tarell

Join the discussion...

what is the Synthesis, properties,and applications of carbon nano chemistry

Yeah, it is a pain to say the least. You basically have to heat the substarte up to around 1000 degrees celcius then pass phosphene gas over top of it, which is explosive and toxic by the way, under very low pressure.