“You never change things by fighting
the existing reality. To change something, build a new model that makes the
existing model obsolete.” Buckminster Fuller

theme:Major
theories are models or 'paradigms'... A paradigm is a worldview which is based
on a belief, theory or model. A
paradigm is like a mapwhich provides a general outline and direction for
scientific activity.

"There is a new 'paradigm' - a change in consciousness from
seeing the world in a mechanical way (Newtonian paradigm of regularity, order,
precision, and predicatability). There is a new dialectic between 'phenomenon and
perception' which puts more emphasis on human response and subjectivity. In this
new paradigm, our understanding of the world or 'reality' is mediated by
language, beliefs, values, and ways of being.Our perception and images of
the world affect our experience of the world." (David Purpel,
1989. The Moral and Spiritual Crisis in Education: A Curriculum for Justice
and Compassion in Education. Masschusetts, Bergin and Garvey Publishers,
Inc. 133)

The human
species is an exploratory species and 'science' is
an exploratory activity ofnatural common sense inquiry
to discover the true knowledge of reality or 'truth'.
Pursuit of truth or curiosity' is rooted in the human
instinct for self-preservation.The
truth-finding activity brings to awareness aspects of reality which were unknown but which were there
all the time before they were discovered... a function of the ability to
conceptualise. The human organism is the only animal able to formulate concepts
and conceptual frameworks which colour its
perceptions of the environment.The conceptual thinking process is influenced by conditioningexperiences of upbringing, education, social and cultural history which all help to create the conceptual framework, worldview or 'paradigm'. The paradigm is based on assumptions which are taken for granted and function as the guidepostsin life and help in the interpretation of events and circumstances in
the environment. Everything is compared to how we think the world should
be and we react accordingly. Science is a holistic process
involving
emotion and cognition operating
synergistically
in the observation of the material world...
involves objective
experimental or 'scientific' data (physics) and also awareness or 'consciousness'
as the
understanding of the observer...
perceptions (metaphysics) or 'knowledge'.Knowledge
is a function of facts and perceptions. This
relationship is examined

carefully in the conceptual... theoretical... framework or 'paradigm'
of the
science of 'connectedness' or 'wholeness' i.e. ‘holistic science'.Holistic
science
involves knowledge as understanding
of
content in context... knowledge
of the observer's consciousness, subjective knowlege or 'self-knowledge' as
well as knowledge as objective
observation and experience.

What is a paradigm?
Is the drawing of a duck or a rabbit? How do you perceive the image?
Perceptions are based on the understanding of reality in terms of a particular way of looking at the world
as if through coloured spectacles. Change
the colour of the spectacles that is change the paradigm
and you change the perception.
A paradigm is a shared perspective of reality,
a theoretical structure or framework, working model,
theory,
map or worldview. Paradigms determine perceptions and possibilities for discovery depend on the prevailing paradigm
which provides the a general outline and direction for scientific activity...
provides the contextwithin whichthe
scientist designs
experiments,
analyses and
evaluates
observations and experimental data
leading to the formulation
of a theory.The paradigm
determines the
underlying
assumptions upon which theoriesor 'hypotheses'
are formulated and then tested with the possibility of giving rise to
new paradigms..

Some examples of
scientific paradigms
in the history of scientific thoughtare the worldviews
which are based on scientific theories:
the mind-body dualism (Descartes), planetary model of the atom
Bohr,
elementary particle nature of matter(Newton),the flowing current model of electricity, the double helix model of DNA (Watson and
Crick), the theory of relativity (Einstein),
discontinuous structure of nature
(quantum
mechanics), classical science and 'reductionism', the
theory of evolution (Darwin).

The word 'paradigm' was coined
and popularized by the American physicist turned historian Thomas Kuhn(1922-1995).Kuhn
conceived of his book entitled The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
(published in l962) while he was a graduate student in theoretical physics
at Harvard University. Kuhn's theory...argument... of the
structure of
scientific revolutions was
a landmark in the intellectual history of the twentieth century.Before the
book was
published the prevailing view
of the progress of
science
was
based on
the
philosophical
notion that change in the history of science is due to a strictly
rational or ‘objective’ processinvolving the rational
accumulation of knowledge. Kuhn argued
that science is human scientific
activity and so not only an objective process but
is progressive
in the sense that definite intellectual periods are separated
by
intellectual revolutions
or‘scientific
revolutions'
(history
of science).
Kuhn explored the periods of 'paradigm crises' when new theories arise to explain
observations
which cannot be explained by the
prevailing
theory and argued that scientific revolutionscan be explained in terms of
paradigm debates andparadigm shifts leading to the replacement of one paradigm by another more appropriate one...
hence 'progressive science'.Kuhn presented
his theory of scientific progress in terms of science as scientific activity
and aprocess of discovery.He made a historical analysis of
working scientists
and as a scientist hiomself he focused on the question 'what
is science’
asking "what do scientists do?"
instead of "what 'should' scientists do?"
which might be the question of the philosopher. He showed that
in fact scientists
design experiments,
make observations and formulate theories
within the
context of
the inherentassumptions
of
a given theoretical or conceptual framework, major theory,
working model or 'paradigm'. The paradigmdetermines the scientist's perceptions of reality...
their worldview
and their
beliefs.

Data which cannot be explained by the
theoreticalframework... structure... or
paradigm within which the
experiment has been designeddo not fit the
the theoryparadigm are considered to be 'anomalous'.
As an example, the dual nature of light -
behaviour of photons as particles and waves –
could not be explained by the theory of classical Newtonian mechanics. Anomalous data engender a ‘paradigm crisis’
which leads to controversy or 'paradigm
debate'. In the course of a paradigm
debate, scientists
working
within the
framework of
different paradigms are unable to communicate
clearly and
they talk 'through each other'. Some
will attempt to fit the anomalous data into the prevailing paradigm. Others
will propose new theories to explain the anomalous data. If a new theory is able to explain
the anomalous data thenhypotheses are formulated
and tested with experiments designedwithin the
theoretical framework of the new
paradigm and the new point of view...
to substantiate the prevailing paradigm or else
give rise to a new one.
The data are interpreted in terms of its support for or detraction from the
new theory and the outcome leads either to the continued validity of the
prevailing paradigm or to the substantiated validity of the new one.
If the new
theory can
explain the anomalous data then the
prevailing paradigm is replaced by a new one and there is a 'paradigm shift'. A paradigm shift involves a change in the perception of

realityas
if through different coloured spectacles.The 'spectacles' of the new paradigm
replace those of the old paradigm. The process
continues and in this way science progresses, thus 'progressive science'.
Progressive science is based on the recognition of the role of the scientist as
an important factor in the modification of a prevailing paradigm.Each new generation of
working scientists accepts the structural framework of the prevailing paradigm
as the
correct understanding of the nature of existence.

Kuhn's analysis of scientific paradigms explains the nature of science in
terms of progressive scientific activity as a holistic process which involves not only
objective experimental data...
the
observation of the material world
... collection of facts or 'scientific data'
and experimental data... but also
the mental function of awareness or consciousness of subjective perceptions of the experimenter which are based on the individual’s understanding of
reality or 'knowledge'.True knowledge of reality or
'truth'
a function of both physics and metaphysics.
Physics deals with facts
ofthe physicalmaterial
world and metaphysics deals with
ideas or 'concepts'. The connections
and relationships between physics and metaphysics... perception of the whole
or
'holistic perception'is
the basis for
the science of interconnectedness or 'wholeness'...
'holistic
science'. Holistic science
involves
scientific analysis which depends
on the scientist's ability to perceive connections between the wholes and the
parts which make them up...The thought process of
the
working scientist
is analysed
in terms of their perceptions
of reality,
determined by the state of awareness or 'consciousness' as knowledge
of one’s own
consciousness or 'self-knowledge' (intimate knowledge') as well as knowledge
of objective experience and observation ('symbolic knowledge').

Progressive
science is based on the recognition of the role of the scientist as an
important factor in the modification of a prevailing paradigm.

In the traditional paradigmof education, school education is conceived as an
effective way for adapting children to the
rise of industrialism and to teach them the knowledge and the discipline which
they would need to adapt to the demands of an industrial society. Traditional education emphasizes the mechanics of learning factual knowledge
and focuses on the methods of teaching. Traditional methods of teaching
were justified by the behavioural sciences and based on the premise that
learning involves the conscious part of the brain only.
The
traditional paradigm
of education is based on the theory of learning as
conditioning... learning
process is a matter of conditioning and is therefore passive... learner motivation for external rewardsextrinsic motivation, and the role of
the teacher is to decide what and how the students should learn...
teacher as instructor. to define the outcomes of learning. In the context of learning outcomes and lesson
plans, the evaluation of learningis in
terms of conditioned responses. Knowledge and
understanding are assessed and measured in numerical terms... success is met
with the rewards of recognitionand
high grades; failure is met with lack of recognition and the
punishment of low and failing grades. In the context of this standardized
grading system, children learn to depend for their motivation on factors which
are extrinsic to themselves... they become extrinsically motivated.

The person with complete inner freedom is able to make interpretations of the environment which are not coloured by preconceived concepts and assumptions and this
makes the process of adaptation much less problematical.

"Kuhn
uses the term 'paradigm' in one sense to denote 'the entire constellation,
values, techniques and so on shared by the members of a given community.' In
this sense - as a set of shared constructs - a paradigm in science is on the
same order as other community-shared world views e.g. Buddhism.("We are what we think. All that we are arises with
our thoughts.") The means by which paradigms are perpetuated and
transmitted are akin to the process of socialization into any other
group-specific reality. Professional training is a secondary specialization whereby
the fledgling scientist acquires a role-specific paradigm."
(Roger Walsh, M.D. PhD Frances Vaughan Ph.D. Beyond Ego: Transpersonal
Dimensions of Psychology Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, Inc. 1980. p.30)

"Kuhn teaches us that science is a looking glass activity in a looking-glass
universe. The new scientific theorists, called looking-glass scientists of
looking-glass science, tell us that the universe is a mirror or
'looking-glass' ...a reflection of the observer's consciousness... of a
'paradigm'." (J.P Briggs and D.Peat. Looking
Glass Universe: The Emerging Science of Wholeness)

" There is a new paradigm or worldview that reflects a more integrative
point of view... the collective, cooperative, and organizational aspects of
nature..." (Paul Davies. The Cosmic Blueprint: New Discoveries in Nature's
Creative Ability to Order the Universe" New York: Simon & Schuster 1988)

"Examining the record of past research from the vantage of contemporary
historiography, the historian of science may be tempted to exclaim that when
paradigms change, the world itself changes with them. Led by a new paradigm,
scientists adopt new instruments and look in new places. Even more important,
during revolutions scientists see new and different things when looking with
familiar instruments in places they have looked before. It is rather as if the
professional community has been suddenly transported to another planet where
familiar objects are seen in a different light and are joined by unfamiliar
ones as well. Of course, nothing of quite that sort does occur: there is no
geographical transplantation; outside the laboratory everyday affairs usually
continue as before. Nevertheless, paradigm changes do cause scientists to see
the world of their research engagement differently. In so far as their only
recourse to that world is through what they see and do, we may want to say
that after a revolution scientists are responding to a different world."
(Thomas Kuhn. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: Chicago
University Press.)

"New perspectives are emerging from scientific philosophy which
suggest the new worldview required for a new way of thinking... for half a
century we have been in the midst of a conceptual revolution that is once again
changing the scientist's conception of space, matter, force, and the structure
of the universe." (Kuhn T. The Copernican Revolution
Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press 1957)

" There is a new paradigm or worldview that reflects a more
integrative point of view... the collective, cooperative, and organizational
aspects of nature..." (Paul Davies. The CosmicBlueprint: New Discoveries in Nature's Creative Ability to Order the UniverseNew York: Simon & Schuster 1988)

Notes:

The map is not the territory. ...A person or society may think that what they
are aware of (actually what their culturally acquired schemata allows them to be
aware of ) is an accurate representation of the world, and the culturally
derived schemata of understanding may distort fundamental relationships - like
the belief that humans can survive and progress through even greater reliance on
technological solutions.

'paradigm' ...'the entire constellation , values, techniques, and so on
shared by the members of a given community.' In this sense - as a set of shared
constructs - a paradigm in science is on the same order as other
community-shared worldviews - e.g. Buddhism. The means by which paradigms are
perpetuated and transmitted are akin to the process of socialization into any
other group-specific reality. Professional training is a secondary socialisation
whereby the fledgling scientist acquires a role-specific paradigm." (Kuhn p 30)

The individuals of a community share a given set of constructs, values, and
techniques which together are referred to as a 'paradigm' (Kuhn The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions, Univ of Chicago Press, l970)

Education as quest for truth

The goals of education are being shaped by the new wholistic science which forms
the basis for a wholistic education. The new methodology of wholistic science
acknowledges the participation ...subjective experiences of the observer in the
process of observation... experimental situations... by the same token, the new
educational methodology recognizes and validates the participation of the
learner in the learning process ...

The organic learning theories are in agreement with recent brain research and an
organic worldview which perceives the world as an interconnected developing
organism. The empowered learner is perceived as an active participant in
self-directed learning, organizing experiences and creating new patterns and
meanings according to psychological processes which relate to the individual's
motivation, needs and personal meaning.

In
the event of errrors
and an unknown complexity of intervening factors in an experimental situation,
strict adherence to falsification testing (promoted
by philosopherKarl Popper
author of The Logic of Scientific Discovery 1934)
is not enough to accommodate or account for the necessary modification and
adjustments to prevailing theories and assumptions.
It becomes nnecessary to include the role of the scientist.