The United States Office of War Information (OWI) was a United Statesgovernment agency created during World War II. OWI operated from June 1942 until September 1945. Through radio broadcasts, newspapers, posters, photographs, films and other forms of media, the OWI was the connection between the battlefront and civilian communities, the office also established several overseas branches, which launched a large-scale information and propaganda campaign abroad.

At the onset of World War II, the American public was in the dark regarding wartime information. One American observer noted: “It all seemed to boil down to three bitter complaints…first, that there was too much information; second, that there wasn’t enough of it; and third, that in any event it was confusing and inconsistent”.[2] Further, the American public confessed a lack of understanding as to why the world was at war, and held great resentment against other Allied Nations.[3] President Roosevelt established the OWI to both meet the demands for news and less confusion, as well as resolve American apathy towards the war.

The OWI’s creation was not without controversy, the American public, and the United States Congress in particular, were wary of propaganda for several reasons. First, the press feared a centralized agency as the sole distributor of wartime information.[4] Second, Congress feared an American propaganda machine that could resemble Joseph Goebbels’ operation in Nazi Germany.[5] Third, previous attempts at propaganda under the Committee on Public Information/Creel Committee during WWI were viewed as a failure.[6] And fourth, America was experiencing endemic isolationism and was hesitant to become involved in a global propaganda campaign and subsequently a global war.

Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. A small boat rescues a seaman from the 31,800 ton USS West Virginia burning in the foreground.

But in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the need for coordinated and properly disseminated wartime information from the military/administration to the public outweighed the fears associated with American propaganda. President Roosevelt entrusted the OWI to beloved journalist and CBS newsman Elmer Davis, with the mission to take “an active part in winning the war and in laying the foundations for a better postwar world”.[7]

Elmer Davis, Director of the Office of War Information, examines Nazi and Japanese propaganda organs.

President Roosevelt ordered Davis to “formulate and carry out, through the use of press, radio, motion picture, and other facilities, information programs designed to facilitate the development of an informed and intelligent understanding, at home and abroad, of the status and progress of the war effort and of the war policies, activities, and aims of the Government”,[8] the OWI’s operations were thus divided between the Domestic and Overseas Branches.

The OWI Domestic Radio Bureau produced series such as This is Our Enemy (spring 1942), which dealt with Germany, Japan, and Italy; Uncle Sam, which dealt with domestic themes; and Hasten the Day (August 1943), which focussed on the Home Front, the NBC Blue Network's Chaplain Jim. The radio producer Norman Corwin produced several series for OWI, including An American in England, An American in Russia, and Passport for Adams, which starred Robert Young, Ray Collins, Paul Stewart and Harry Davenport.[9]

During 1942 and 1943 the OWI boasted two photographic units whose photographers documented the country's mobilization during the early years of the war, concentrating on such topics as aircraft factories and women in the workforce; in addition, the OWI produced a series of 267 newsreels in 16 mm film, The United Newsreel which were shown overseas and to US audiences. These newsreels incorporated U.S. military footage. For examples see this Google list.

The OWI Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with Hollywood to produce films that advanced American war aims. According to Elmer Davis, "The easiest way to inject a propaganda idea into most people’s minds is to let it go through the medium of an entertainment picture when they do not realize that they are being propagandized."[11] Successful films depicted the Allied armed forces as valiant "Freedom fighters", and advocated for civilian participation, such as conserving fuel or donating food to troops.[12]

By July 1942 OWI administrators realized that the best way to reach American audiences was to present war films in conjunction with feature films. OWI's presence in Hollywood deepened throughout World War II, and by 1943 every Hollywood studio (except for Paramount) allowed OWI to examine all movie scripts.[13] OWI evaluated whether each film would promote the honor of the Allies' mission.[14]

The Overseas Branch enjoyed greater success and less controversy than the Domestic Branch.[15] Abroad, the OWI operated a Psychological Warfare Branch (PWB), which used propaganda to terrorize enemy forces in combat zones, in addition to informing civilian populations in Allied camps.[16]Leaflet warfare gained popularity during World War II and was utilized in regions such as Northern Africa, Italy, Germany, the Philippines, and Japan. For example, in Japan, the OWI printed and dropped over 180 million leaflets, with about 98 million being dropped in the summer months of 1945.[17] Leaflets dropped in Tunisia read: “You Are Surrounded” and “Drowning Is a Nasty Death”.[18] Millions of leaflets dropped in Sicily read: “The time has come for you to decide whether Italians shall die for Mussolini and Hitler—or live for Italy and civilization”.[19]

OWI also used newspapers and publicized magazines to further American war aims. Magazines distributed to foreign audiences, such as Victory, intended to convey to foreign Allied civilians that American civilians were contributing to the war.[20]Victory showcased America’s manufacturing power, and sought to foster an appreciation for the American lifestyle.[21]

Aside from the aforementioned publication and production styles of propaganda, the OWI also utilized unconventional propaganda vehicles known as "specialty items." Specific examples of these items include packets of seeds, matchbooks, soap paper, and sewing kits. The packets of seeds had an American flag and a message printed on the outside that identified the donor, each matchbook was inscribed with the “Four Freedoms” on the inside cover. Soap paper was etched with the message: "From your friends the United Nations. Dip in water - use like soap. WASH OFF THE NAZI DIRT." Sewing kit pincushions were shaped like a human rear end. On the reverse side lay a caricatured face of either Adolf Hitler or Japanese General Hideki Tojo.[22]

Death unless you surrender. Here is an OWI leaflet giving Japan's ultimatum to the Filipino people; in reply, the Filipinos threw their entire resources and manpower into the struggle on the side of the United States.

The details of OWI’s involvement can be divided into operations in the European and Pacific Theaters.

One of the most astounding of all OWI operations occurred in Luxembourg. Known as Operation Annie, the United States 12th Army Group ran a secret radio station from 2:00-6:30am every morning from a house in Luxembourg pretending to be loyal Rhinelanders under Nazi occupation, they spoke of Nazi commanders hiding their desperate position from the German public, which caused dissent among Nazi supporters. Further, they led Nazi forces into an Allied trap, and then staged an Allied attack on the Annie Radio office to maintain their cover.[23]

On the Eastern front, the OWI struggled not to offend Polish and Soviet Allies,[24] as the Soviets advanced from the East towards Germany, they swept through Poland without hesitation. However, Poles considered much of the land of the Eastern front as their own, the OWI struggled to present the news (including the pronunciation of town names or and discussion of county or national boundaries) without offending either party. Further, Poles and Soviets criticized the OWI for promoting the idealization of war, when their physical and human losses so heavily outweighed that of America’s.[25]

The OWI was one of the most prolific sources of propaganda in “Free China.” They operated a sophisticated propaganda machine that sought to demoralize the Japanese army and create a portrait of US war aims that would appeal to the Chinese audience. OWI employed many Chinese, second-generation Japanese (Nisei), Japanese POWs, Korean exiles, etc. to help gather and translate information, as well as transmit programs in multiple languages across the Pacific. OWI also created communication channels (logistical support) for intelligence and coded information.[26]

However, the OWI encountered public relations difficulties in China and India; in China, the OWI unsuccessfully attempted to stay removed from the Nationalist versus Communist conflict. However, the Roosevelt administration and OWI officials took issue with many aspects of Chiang Kai-shek’s rule, and conversely, Chiang placed spies in the OWI.[27] Also, the OWI struggled to paint a post-war image of China without offending Nationalist or Communist leaders; in India, the Americans and British agreed to win the war first, then deal with (de)colonization.[28] The OWI feared that broadcasts advocating liberty from oppression would incite India rebellions and jeopardize cooperation with the British, but this approach angered Indians as well as the African-American lobby at home who recognized the hypocrisy in American policy.[28]

The OWI suffered from conflicting aims and poor management, for instance, Elmer Davis, who wanted to “see that the American people are truthfully informed,” clashed with the military that withheld information for “public safety”.[29] Further, OWI employees grew evermore dissatisfied with “what they regarded as a turn away from the fundamental, complex issues of the war in favor of manipulation and stylized exhortation”,[30] on April 14, 1943, several OWI writers resigned from office and released a scathing statement to the press explaining how they no longer felt they could give an objective picture of the war because “high-pressure promoters who prefer slick salesmanship to honest information” dictated OWI decision-making.[31] President Roosevelt’s “wait-and-see” attitude and wavering public support for OWI damaged public opinion of the agency.[32]

Rosie the Riveter: A job which was formerly done by hand (and by men) is done in this large Midwest drill and tool plant by women at machines.

Congressional opposition to the domestic operations of the OWI resulted in increasingly curtailed funds.[33] Congress accused the OWI as President Roosevelt’s campaign agency, and pounced on any miscommunications and scandals as reason for disbandment;[34] in 1943, the OWI's appropriations were cut out of the following year’s budget and only restored with strict restrictions on OWI’s domestic capabilities. Many overseas branch offices were closed, as well as the Motion Picture Bureau. By 1944 the OWI operated mostly in the foreign field, contributing to undermining enemy morale, the agency was abolished in 1945, and many of its foreign functions were transferred to the Department of State.

Some of the writers, producers, and actors of OWI programs admired the Soviet Union and were either loosely affiliated with or were members of the Communist Party USA,[35] the director of Pacific operations for the OWI, Owen Lattimore, who later accompanied U.S. Vice-President Henry Wallace on a mission to China and Mongolia in 1944, was later alleged to be a Soviet agent on the basis of testimony by a defector from the Soviet GRU, General Alexander Barmine.[36][37][38] In his final report, Elmer Davis noted that he had fired 35 employees, because of past Communist associations, though the FBI files showed no formal allegiance to the CPUSA. Flora Wovschin, who worked for the OWI from September 1943 to February 1945, was later revealed in the Venona project intercepts to have been a Soviet spy.[39]

The OWI was terminated, effective September 15, 1945, by Executive Order on August 31, 1945. President Truman cited OWI for “outstanding contribution to victory,” and saw no reason to continue funding the agency post-war,[40] the international offices of the OWI were transferred to the State Department, and the United States Information Service and the Office of Strategic Services/Central Intelligence Agency assumed many of the information gathering, analyzing, and disseminating responsibilities.[41]

Despite its troubled existence, OWI is widely considered to be influential in the Allied victory and mobilizing American support for the war domestically.

^FBI Report, "Owen Lattimore, Internal Security - R, Espionage - R," September 8, 1949 (FBI File: Owen Lattimore, Part 1A), p. 2 (PDF p. 7): Six years prior to the Barmine revelations in his 1948 interview, the FBI had already compiled a thick security dossier on Lattimore at the onset of World War II, recommending that he be put under "Custodial Detention in case of National Emergency."

1.
Rivet
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A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, in other words, pounding creates a new head on the other end by smashing the tail material flatter, resulting in a rivet that is roughly a dumbbell shape. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Because there is effectively a head on each end of a rivet, it can support tension loads, however. Bolts and screws are better suited for tension applications, solid rivets consist simply of a shaft and head that are deformed with a hammer or rivet gun. A rivet compression or crimping tool can also deform this type of rivet and this tool is mainly used on rivets close to the edge of the fastened material, since the tool is limited by the depth of its frame. A rivet compression tool does not require two people, and is generally the most foolproof way to solid rivets. Solid rivets are used in applications where reliability and safety count, a typical application for solid rivets can be found within the structural parts of aircraft. Hundreds of thousands of rivets are used to assemble the frame of a modern aircraft. Such rivets come with rounded or 100° countersunk heads, typical materials for aircraft rivets are aluminium alloys, titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Some aluminum alloy rivets are too hard to buck and must be softened by solution treating prior to being bucked, ice box aluminum alloy rivets harden with age, and must likewise be annealed and then kept at sub-freezing temperatures to slow the age-hardening process. Steel rivets can be found in structures such as bridges, cranes. The setting of these fasteners requires access to both sides of a structure, solid rivets are driven using a hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically driven squeezing tool or even a handheld hammer. Applications where only one side is accessible require blind rivets, high-strength bolts have largely replaced structural steel rivets. Indeed, the latest steel construction specifications published by AISC no longer covers their installation, the reason for the change is primarily due to the expense of skilled workers required to install high strength structural steel rivets. Whereas two relatively unskilled workers can install and tighten high strength bolts, it takes a minimum of four highly skilled riveters to install rivets, at a central location near the areas being riveted, a furnace was set up

2.
Douglas C-47 Skytrain
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The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II, the specialized C-53 Skytrooper troop transport started production in October 1941 at Douglas Aircrafts Santa Monica, California plant. It lacked the cargo door, hoist attachment and reinforced floor of the C-47, only a total of 380 aircraft were produced in all because the C-47 was found to be more versatile. During World War II, the forces of many countries used the C-47 and modified DC-3s for the transport of troops, cargo. The U. S. Naval designation was R4D, more than 10,000 aircraft were produced in Long Beach and Santa Monica, California and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Between March 1943 and August 1945 the Oklahoma City plant produced 5,354 C-47s, additionally, C-47s were used to airlift supplies to the embattled American forces during the Battle of Bastogne. Possibly its most influential role in aviation, however, was flying The Hump from India into China. The expertise gained flying The Hump was later be used in the Berlin Airlift, in which the C-47 played a major role, until the aircraft were replaced by Douglas C-54 Skymasters. A C-47 flown by the China National Airways Corporation pilot Moon Chin, Moon Chin was tasked with flying from Chungking to Myitkyina, a military base in Burma. His aircraft was jumped by Japanese fighters and, after landing at a small airstrip to wait for his pursuers to give up the game. When Chins DC-3 arrived at Myitkyina, he found that the base had, indeed, been severely bombed by the Japanese, eventually, Chin would carry sixty-eight passengers and a crew of four on the final leg to India. After arriving in India, the tattered American approached Captain Chin, believe me, Chin, he began, if I had had any idea that you were going to jam that many people into this old crate I would have gone home the way I came. Chin inquired as to how that might have been and the American replied I flew in, the short, balding, bedraggled American was none other than Lt Col Jimmy Doolittle returning from the historic raid on Tokyo. In Europe, the C-47 and a specialised paratroop variant, the C-53 Skytrooper, were used in vast numbers in the stages of the war, particularly to tow gliders. During the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, C-47s dropped 4,381 Allied paratroops, more than 50,000 paratroops were dropped by C-47s during the first few days of the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944. In the Pacific War, with use of the island landing strips of the Pacific Ocean. About 2,000 C-47s in British and Commonwealth service took the name Dakota, the C-47 also earned the informal nickname gooney bird in the European theatre of operations. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had Skytrains in service from 1946 through 1967, the US Air Forces 6th Special Operations Squadron was flying the C-47 until 2008

3.
North American Aviation
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Through a series of mergers and sales, North American Aviation became part of North American Rockwell, which later became Rockwell International and is now part of Boeing. Clement Melville Keys founded North American on December 6,1928, as a company that bought and sold interests in various airlines. However, the Air Mail Act of 1934 forced the breakup of such holding companies, North American became a manufacturing company, run by James H. Dutch Kindelberger, who had been recruited from Douglas Aircraft Company. NAA did retain ownership of Eastern Air Lines until 1938, General Motors Corporation took a controlling interest in NAA and merged it with its general aviation division in 1933, but retained the name North American Aviation. Its first planes were the GA-15 observation plane and the GA-16 trainer, followed by the O-47 and BT-9, the BC-1 of 1937 was North Americans first combat aircraft, it was based on the GA-16. In 1940, like other manufacturers, North American started gearing up for war, opening factories in Columbus, Ohio, Dallas, Texas, North American ranked eleventh among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. North Americans follow-on to the BT-9 was the T-6 Texan trainer, of which 17,000 were built, the twin-engine B-25 Mitchell bomber achieved fame in the Doolittle Raid and was used in all combat theaters of operation. The P-51 Mustang was initially produced for Britain as an alternative to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, the derivative A-36 Apache was developed as a ground attack aircraft and dive bomber. Post-war, North Americans employment dropped from a high of 91,000 to 5,000 in 1946, on V-J Day, North American had orders from the U. S. government for 8,000 aircraft. A few months later, that had dropped to 24, two years later in 1948, General Motors divested NAA as a public company. The Buckeyes name would be an acknowledgment to the tree of Ohio. The North American F-86 Sabre started out as a redesigned Fury and its successor, the North American F-100 Super Sabre, was also popular. Some 6,656 F-86s were produced in the United States, to accommodate its Sabre production, North American opened facilities in a former Curtiss-Wright plant in Columbus, Ohio. It also moved into a former Consolidated-Vultee Aircraft plant at Downey, California, by the end of 1952, North American sales topped $315 million. Employment at the Columbus plant grew from 1,600 in 1950 to 18,000 in 1952, Atomics International was a division of North American Aviation which began as the Atomic Energy Research Department at the Downey plant in 1948. In 1955, the department was renamed Atomics International and engaged principally in the development of nuclear technology. Atomics International was eventually merged with the Rocketdyne division in 1978, autonetics began in 1945 at North Americans Technical Research Laboratory, a small unit in the Los Angeles Divisions engineering department based in Downey, California. The division was involved in the development of systems for the Minuteman ballistic missile system

4.
Committee on Public Information
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It primarily used propaganda techniques to accomplish these goals. President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information through Executive Order 2594 on April 13,1917, the committee consisted of George Creel and as ex officio members the Secretaries of, State, War, and the Navy. Creel urged Wilson to create a government agency to coordinate not propaganda as the Germans defined it and he was a journalist with years of experience on the Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News before accepting Wilsons appointment to the CPI. He had a relationship with Secretary Lansing. The purpose of the CPI was to influence American public opinion toward supporting U. S. participation in World War I via a prolonged propaganda campaign. The CPI at first used material that was based on fact, the committee used newsprint, posters, radio, telegraph, cable and movies to broadcast its message. They covered the draft, rationing, war bond drives, victory gardens and it was estimated that by the end of the war, they had made m ore than 7.5 million speeches to 314 million people in 5,200 communities. They were advised to keep their message positive, always use their own words, for ten days in May 1917, the Four Minute Men were expected to promote Universal Service by Selective Draft in advance of national draft registration on June 5,1917. The CPI staged events designed for ethnic groups. For instance, Irish-American tenor John McCormack sang at Mount Vernon before an audience representing Irish-American organizations, Every war story had been censored somewhere along the line— at the source, in transit, or in the newspaper offices in accordance with ‘voluntary’ rules established by the CPI. Creel wrote about the Committees rejection of the propaganda, saying, We did not call it propaganda, for that word, in German hands, had come to be associated with deceit. Our effort was educational and informative throughout, for we had such confidence in our case as to feel that no argument was needed than the simple. During its lifetime, the organization had over twenty bureaus and divisions, both a News Division and a Films Division were established to help get out the war message. The CPIs daily newspaper, called the Official Bulletin, began at eight pages and it was distributed to every newspaper, post office, government office, and military base. Stories were designed to report positive news, for example, the CPI promoted an image of well-equipped U. S. troops preparing to face the Germans that were belied by the conditions visiting Congressmen reported. The CPI released three films, Pershings Crusaders, Americas Answer, Under Four Flags. They were unsophisticated attempts to impress the viewer with snippets of footage from the front, to reach those Americans who might not read newspapers, attend meetings or watch movies, Creel created the Division of Pictorial Publicity. The Division produced 1438 designs for posters, cards buttons and cartoons in addition to 20000 lantern pictures to be used with the speeches

5.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States

6.
United States Information Service
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The United States Information Agency, which existed from 1953 to 1999, was a United States agency devoted to public diplomacy. S. The agency was known overseas as the United States Information Service. President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the United States Information Agency in 1953, the United States Information Agency was established to streamline the U. S. governments overseas information programs, and make them more effective. Its stated goals were, To explain and advocate U. S. S. government policy-makers on the ways in which foreign attitudes will have a bearing on the effectiveness of U. S. policies. Propaganda played a role in how the United States was viewed by the world during the Cold War. American propagandists felt as though the Hollywood movie industry was destroying the image of the United States in other countries. In response to the portrayal of America from communist propaganda the USIA exist as much to provide a view of the world to the United States as it to give the world a view of America. The purpose of the USIA within the United States was to assure Americans that, abroad, the USIA aimed to preserve a positive image of America regardless of negative depictions from communist propaganda. One notable example was Project Pedro, a funded project to create newsreels in Mexico during the 1950s that portrayed Communism unfavorably. Journalistic articles reflecting the views promoted by the USIA were frequently published under fictitious bylines, the agency did this through public opinion surveys throughout the world. It then issued a variety of reports to government officials, including a report on foreign media commentary around the world. From the beginning, Dwight Eisenhower said, “audiences would be receptive to the American message if they were kept from identifying it as propaganda. Avowedly propagandistic materials from the United States might convince few, through these different forms, the United States government was able to distribute and disguise the propaganda more easily and engage a greater concentration of people. Four main divisions existed at the beginning of the USIAs propaganda effort, the first division dealt with broadcasting information both in the United States and around the world. One of the most widely used forms of media at the onset of the Cold War was the radio, the Smith-Mundt Act authorized information programs, including Voice of America. Voice of America was intended as an unbiased and balanced Voice from America as originally broadcast during World War II, the VOA was used to tell Americas stories. to information deprived listeners behind the Iron Curtain”. By 1967, the VOA was broadcasting in 38 languages to up to 26 million listeners, in 1976 VOA gained its so-called Charter which required its news to be balanced. The second division of the USIA consisted of libraries and exhibits, the Smith-Mundt Act and the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961 both authorized the international cultural and educational exchanges

7.
Office of Strategic Services
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The Office of Strategic Services was a wartime intelligence agency of the United States during World War II, and a predecessor of the modern Central Intelligence Agency. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces, other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning. It had no direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments, Signal Intelligence Service, the FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies, Colonel Donovan was employed to evaluate the global military position to offer suggestions concerning American intelligence requirements because the U. S. did not have a central intelligence agency. Thereafter the organization was developed with British assistance, Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers, until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, during the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for work in Latin America. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people, OSS officer Archimedes Patti played a central role in OSS operations in French Indochina and met frequently with Ho Chi Minh in 1945. One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives, the OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, the OSS also recruited and ran one of the wars most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe. In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul, turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe as well as Turkeys close proximity to the Balkan states placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering, the goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning Packy Macfarland who maintained the story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz, a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as Dogwood, Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington. While the OSS Dogwood-chain produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence, eventually by May 1944 through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo and Washington the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies, schwartzs Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down

8.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

9.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

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Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

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Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia

14.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president

15.
Executive order (United States)
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Executive orders are orders issued by United States Presidents and directed towards officers and agencies of the Federal government of the United States. Executive orders have the force of law, based on the authority derived from statute or the Constitution itself. The ability to such orders is also based on express or implied Acts of Congress that delegate to the President some degree of discretionary power. The United States Constitution does have a provision that explicitly permits the use of executive orders, the term executive power in Article II, Section 1, Clause 1 of the Constitution is not entirely clear. The term is mentioned as direction to take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed and is part of Article II, Section 3, the consequence of failing to comply possibly being removal from office. The U. S. Specifically, such orders must be rooted in Article II of the US Constitution or enacted by the congress in statutes. Attempts to block such orders have been successful at times when such orders exceeded the authority of the president or could be handled through legislation. Other types of orders issued by the Executive are generally classified simply as administrative rather than executive orders. Initially they took no set form, consequently, such orders varied as to form and substance. The most famous executive order was by President Abraham Lincoln when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, Political scientist Brian R. Dirck states, The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order, itself a rather unusual thing in those days. Executive orders are simply presidential directives issued to agents of the department by its boss. Until the early 1900s, executive orders went mostly unannounced and undocumented and this changed when the Department of State instituted a numbering scheme in 1907, starting retroactively with United States Executive Order 1 issued on October 20,1862, by President Abraham Lincoln. President Trumans Executive Order 10340 in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer,343 US579 placed all steel mills in the country under federal control. This was found invalid because it attempted to make law, rather than clarify or act to further a law put forth by the Congress or the Constitution, Presidents since this decision have generally been careful to cite which specific laws they are acting under when issuing new executive orders. Wars have been fought upon executive order, including the 1999 Kosovo War during Bill Clintons second term in office, however, all such wars have had authorizing resolutions from Congress. President Truman issued 907 executive orders, with 1,081 orders by Theodore Roosevelt,1,203 orders by Calvin Coolidge, Franklin D. Roosevelt has the distinction of making a record 3,522 executive orders. Prior to 1932, uncontested executive orders had determined such issues as national mourning on the death of a president, and the lowering of flags to half-staff. President Franklin Roosevelt issued the first of his 3,522 executive orders on March 6,1933, declaring a bank holiday, Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold coin, bullion and gold certificates

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United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

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Joseph Goebbels
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Paul Joseph Goebbels was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust, Goebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in their northern branch and he was appointed as Gauleiter for Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the media, arts. He was particularly adept at using the new media of radio. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, as the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitlers underground bunker complex, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitlers will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany, the following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Paul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, both of his parents were Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a clerk, his mother Katharina was ethnically Dutch. Goebbels had five siblings, Konrad, Hans, Maria, Elisabeth, and Maria, in 1932, Goebbels published a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumors that his grandmother was of Jewish ancestry. During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot and he underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and he was rejected for military service in World War I due to his deformity. Goebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur in 1917 and he was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honor to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest and he studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church, historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disabilities

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Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943

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Isolationism
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Isolationism is the foreign policy position that a nations interests are best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance. One possible motivation for limiting international involvement is to avoid being drawn into dangerous, there may also be a perceived benefit from avoiding international trade agreements or other mutual assistance pacts. Before 1999, Bhutan had banned television and the Internet in order to preserve its culture, environment, eventually, Jigme Singye Wangchuck lifted the ban on television and the Internet. His son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, was elected as Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan, after Zheng Hes voyages in the 15th century, the foreign policy of the Ming dynasty in China became increasingly isolationist. The Hongwu Emperor was the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1371, the Qing dynasty that came after the Ming dynasty often continued the Ming dynastys isolationist policies. From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy which it called kaikin, the policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. However, the commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed is misleading, in fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands and the Netherlands. The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history. In 1863, King Gojong took the throne of the Joseon Dynasty when he was a child and his father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s he was the proponent of isolationism and the principal instrument of the persecution of both native and foreign Catholics. The Spanish settlers who had arrived just before independence had to intermarry with either the old colonists or with the native Guarani, francia had a particular dislike of foreigners and any who came to Paraguay during his rule were not allowed to leave for the rest of their lives. Switzerland has been neutral in foreign relations since the Battle of Marignano in 1515, switzerland is not a member of the European Union or the European Economic Area and the general public remains opposed to full EU membership. In February 2014, Swiss voters narrowly approved a referendum to restrict immigration, robert Art makes his argument in A Grand Strategy for America. Both sides claim policy prescriptions from George Washingtons Farewell Address as evidence for their argument, a desire for separateness and unilateral freedom of action merged with national pride and a sense of continental safety to foster the policy of isolation. Although the United States maintained diplomatic relations and economic contacts abroad, the Department of State continually rejected proposals for joint cooperation, a policy made explicit in the Monroe Doctrines emphasis on unilateral action. Not until 1863 did an American delegate attend an international conference, a Global Affairs Commentary, The Terms of Power, Foreign Policy in Focus, November 6,2002, University Press. Japan in Print, Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period, ISBN9780520237667, OCLC60697079 Chalberg, John C. ISBN9781565102231, OCLC30078579 Craig, Albert, ISBN9780674128507, OCLC413558 Glahn, Richard Von

20.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law

21.
CBS
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CBS is an American commercial broadcast television network that is a flagship property of CBS Corporation. The company is headquartered at the CBS Building in New York City with major facilities and operations in New York City. CBS is sometimes referred to as the Eye Network, in reference to the iconic logo. It has also called the Tiffany Network, alluding to the perceived high quality of CBS programming during the tenure of William S. Paley. It can also refer to some of CBSs first demonstrations of color television, the network has its origins in United Independent Broadcasters Inc. a collection of 16 radio stations that was purchased by Paley in 1928 and renamed the Columbia Broadcasting System. Under Paleys guidance, CBS would first become one of the largest radio networks in the United States, in 1974, CBS dropped its former full name and became known simply as CBS, Inc. In 2000, CBS came under the control of Viacom, which was formed as a spin-off of CBS in 1971, CBS Corporation is controlled by Sumner Redstone through National Amusements, which also controls the current Viacom. The television network has more than 240 owned-and-operated and affiliated stations throughout the United States. The origins of CBS date back to January 27,1927, Columbia Phonographic went on the air on September 18,1927, with a presentation by the Howard Barlow Orchestra from flagship station WOR in Newark, New Jersey, and fifteen affiliates. Operational costs were steep, particularly the payments to AT&T for use of its land lines, in early 1928 Judson sold the network to brothers Isaac and Leon Levy, owners of the networks Philadelphia affiliate WCAU, and their partner Jerome Louchenheim. With the record out of the picture, Paley quickly streamlined the corporate name to Columbia Broadcasting System. He believed in the power of advertising since his familys La Palina cigars had doubled their sales after young William convinced his elders to advertise on radio. By September 1928, Paley bought out the Louchenheim share of CBS, during Louchenheims brief regime, Columbia paid $410,000 to A. H. Grebes Atlantic Broadcasting Company for a small Brooklyn station, WABC, which would become the networks flagship station. WABC was quickly upgraded, and the relocated to 860 kHz. The physical plant was relocated also – to Steinway Hall on West 57th Street in Manhattan, by the turn of 1929, the network could boast to sponsors of having 47 affiliates. Paley moved right away to put his network on a financial footing. In the fall of 1928, he entered talks with Adolph Zukor of Paramount Pictures. The deal came to fruition in September 1929, Paramount acquired 49% of CBS in return for a block of its stock worth $3.8 million at the time

22.
Elmer Davis
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Elmer Davis was a news reporter, author, the Director of the United States Office of War Information during World War II and a Peabody Award recipient. Davis was born in Aurora, Indiana, the son of a cashier for the First National Bank of Aurora, one of his first professional writing jobs was with the Indianapolis Star, a position he held while attending Franklin College. A brilliant student, Davis received a Rhodes Scholarship to Queens College and his stay in England was cut short when his father fell ill and eventually died. Davis met his wife, Florence, in England, upon his return to America, Davis became an editor for the pulp magazine Adventure, leaving after a year to work as a reporter and editorial writer for The New York Times. For the next decade, Davis reported on stories ranging from pugilist Jack Dempsey to evangelist Billy Sunday and it was his coverage of Billy Sunday that gained him notoriety. Davis later left The New York Times and became a freelance writer, Davis best-known work is his company history History of the New York Times. In 1928 Davis published his one and only novel Giant Killer, a retelling of the Biblical story of David. In August 1939, Paul White, the chief at CBS, asked Davis to fill in as a news analyst for H. V. Kaltenborn. Edward R. Murrow later commented that one reason he believed that Davis was likeable was his Hoosier accent, by 1941, the audience for Davis nightly five-minute newscast and comment was 12.5 million. On June 1,1941, Colgate-Palmolive-Peet began sponsoring seven-days-a-week newscasts by Davis on CBS, the program was carried on 95 stations from 8,55 to 9 p. m. Eastern Time. Davis spent two and a half years reporting the news on radio and gaining the trust of the nation, even though Davis was being paid $53,000 per year from CBS, he left the network to work in government during the crisis of World War II. He argued that Japanese propaganda proclaiming it a war could be combated by deeds that counteracted this. Davis has been termed one of the forefathers of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Davis was also instrumental in loosening censorship rules that forbade the publication of images of dead GIs on the battlefield, the government also restricted what reporters could write, and coverage was generally upbeat and bloodless. Davis believed that the American public had a right to be informed about the war within the dictates of military security. Censorship was loosened, but the media was forbidden from showing the faces of the dead or the insignia of the units they belonged to. Following the war, Davis continued his career in radio, using the platform to criticize Senator Joseph McCarthy for his anti-communist investigations and he was a longstanding member of The Baker Street Irregulars, the literary society dedicated to keeping green the memory of Sherlock Holmes. Davis retired from broadcasting in 1953 after suffering a heart attack and he died in May 1958 of complications from a stroke

23.
NBC
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The National Broadcasting Company is an American commercial broadcast television network that is the flagship property of NBCUniversal, a subsidiary of Comcast. The network is part of the Big Three television networks, founded in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America, NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. Following the acquisition by GE, Bob Wright served as executive officer of NBC, remaining in that position until his retirement in 2007. In 2003, French media company Vivendi merged its entertainment assets with GE, Comcast purchased a controlling interest in the company in 2011, and acquired General Electrics remaining stake in 2013. Following the Comcast merger, Zucker left NBC Universal and was replaced as CEO by Comcast executive Steve Burke, during a period of early broadcast business consolidation, radio manufacturer Radio Corporation of America acquired New York City radio station WEAF from American Telephone & Telegraph. Westinghouse, a shareholder in RCA, had an outlet in Newark, New Jersey pioneer station WJZ. This station was transferred from Westinghouse to RCA in 1923, WEAF acted as a laboratory for AT&Ts manufacturing and supply outlet Western Electric, whose products included transmitters and antennas. The Bell System, AT&Ts telephone utility, was developing technologies to transmit voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, the 1922 creation of WEAF offered a research-and-development center for those activities. WEAF maintained a schedule of radio programs, including some of the first commercially sponsored programs. In an early example of chain or networking broadcasting, the station linked with Outlet Company-owned WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island, AT&T refused outside companies access to its high-quality phone lines. The early effort fared poorly, since the telegraph lines were susceptible to atmospheric. In 1925, AT&T decided that WEAF and its network were incompatible with the companys primary goal of providing a telephone service. AT&T offered to sell the station to RCA in a deal that included the right to lease AT&Ts phone lines for network transmission, the divisions ownership was split among RCA, its founding corporate parent General Electric and Westinghouse. NBC officially started broadcasting on November 15,1926, WEAF and WJZ, the flagships of the two earlier networks, were operated side-by-side for about a year as part of the new NBC. On April 5,1927, NBC expanded to the West Coast with the launch of the NBC Orange Network and this was followed by the debut of the NBC Gold Network, also known as the Pacific Gold Network, on October 18,1931. The Orange Network carried Red Network programming, and the Gold Network carried programming from the Blue Network, initially, the Orange Network recreated Eastern Red Network programming for West Coast stations at KPO in San Francisco. The Orange Network name was removed from use in 1936, at the same time, the Gold Network became part of the Blue Network. In the 1930s, NBC also developed a network for shortwave radio stations, in 1927, NBC moved its operations to 711 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, occupying the upper floors of a building designed by architect Floyd Brown

24.
Norman Corwin
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Norman Lewis Corwin was an American writer, screenwriter, producer, essayist and teacher of journalism and writing. His earliest and biggest successes were in the writing and directing of radio drama during the 1930s and 1940s, Corwin was among the first producers to regularly use entertainment—even light entertainment—to tackle serious social issues. He was the son of Samuel and Rose Corwin and was born in Boston, Corwin was a major figure during the Golden Age of Radio. During the 1930s and 1940s he was a writer and producer of radio programs in many genres, history, biography, fantasy, fiction, poetry. He was the writer and creator of such as The Columbia Workshop,13 By Corwin,26 By Corwin. He was a lecturer at the University of Southern California, Corwin won a One World Award, two Peabody Medals, an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a duPont-Columbia Award, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay for Lust for Life. On May 12,1990, he received an Honorary Doctorate from Lincoln College, in 1996 he received the Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa from California Lutheran University. Corwin was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1993, a documentary film on Corwins life, A Note of Triumph, The Golden Age of Norman Corwin, won an Academy Award for Best Documentary in 2006. Les Guthmans feature documentary on Mr. Corwins career, Corwin aired on PBS in the 1990s and he was inducted into the Pacific Pioneer Broadcasters Diamond Circle in 1994. Norman Lewis Corwin was the third of four children and his parents were Rose, a homemaker, and Sam, a printer. They raised their family in East Boston, MA, before moving to Winthrop, Norman graduated from Winthrop High School, but unlike his brothers, he did not attend college. His earliest goal was to be a writer, because of his interest in writing, he sought a position in journalism, and was ultimately hired by the Greenfield Recorder as a cub reporter when he was only seventeen. In Greenfield, he reported on the courts, and was also a film critic, several years later, Corwin was hired by the Springfield Republican. While living and working in Springfield in the early 1930s, he involved with radio broadcasting. He first worked as the editor of the Springfield Republican. The date of his first broadcast has been reported as early as 1931 by R, as radio editor of the Republican, he became known for his column Radiosyncracies, which he published under the pseudonym Vladimir Shrdlu. He also worked as a commentator over WBZ and WBZA. In June 1935, Corwin accepted a position in Cincinnati at station WLW

25.
Robert Young (actor)
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Born in Chicago, Young was the son of an Irish immigrant father, Thomas E. Young, and an American mother, Margaret Fife. When Young was young, the moved to different locations within the U. S. Seattle, followed by Los Angeles. After graduation, he studied and performed at the Pasadena Playhouse while working at odd jobs, while touring with a stock company producing The Ship, Young was discovered by a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer talent scout with whom he subsequently signed a contract. Young made his film debut for MGM in the 1931 Charlie Chan film. Young appeared in over 100 films between 1931 and 1952, yet, most of his assignments consisted of B movies, also known as programmers, which required two to three weeks of shooting. Actors who were relegated to such a hectic schedule appeared, as Young did, in 1936, MGM summarily loaned Young to Gaumont British for two films, the first was directed by Alfred Hitchcock with the other co-starring Jessie Matthews. While there he surmised that his employers intended to terminate his contract and he unexpectedly received one of his most rewarding roles late in his MGM career, in H. M. Pulham, Esq. featuring one of Hedy Lamarrs most effective performances. He once remarked that he was assigned only those roles which Robert Montgomery, after his contract ended at MGM, Young starred in light comedies as well as in trenchant dramas for studios such as 20th Century Fox, United Artists, and RKO Radio Pictures. From 1943, Young assayed more challenging roles in films like Claudia, The Enchanted Cottage, They Wont Believe Me, The Second Woman and his portrayal of unsympathetic characters in several of these later films—which was seldom the case in his MGM pictures—was applauded by numerous reviewers. Youngs career began an incremental and imperceptible decline, despite a propitious beginning as an actor without the nurturing of a major studio. Today, Young is most remembered as the affable insurance salesman in Father Knows Best, for which he, elinor Donahue, Billy Gray, and Lauren Chapin played the Anderson children in the television version. Young then created, produced, and starred with Ford Rainey and Constance Moore in the nostalgic CBS comedy series Window on Main Street, youngs final television series was Marcus Welby, M. D. co-starring a young James Brolin. This show earned Young an Emmy for best leading actor in a drama series, until the late 1980s, he also made numerous television commercials in which he persuaded edgy people to drink Sanka coffee. Young was married to Betty Henderson from 1933 until her death in 1994 and they had four daughters, Carol Proffitt, Barbara Beebe, Kathy Young, and Betty Lou Gleason. They also had six grandchildren and two great-grandchildren, later, he spoke candidly about his personal problems in an effort to encourage others to seek help. Young died of respiratory failure at his Westlake Village, California home on July 21,1998 and he has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, the stars are in the categories of film, television, and radio. Muscatine, IA, Films of the Golden Age, the Great Movie Stars, The Golden Years. Robert Young at the Internet Movie Database Robert Young at the TCM Movie Database Robert Young at The New York Times Robert Young at Find a Grave Literature on Robert Young

26.
Ray Collins (actor)
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Ray Bidwell Collins was an American character actor in stock and Broadway theatre, radio, films, and television. With 900 stage roles to his credit, he one of the most successful actors in the developing field of radio drama. A friend and associate of Orson Welles for many years, Collins went to Hollywood with the Mercury Theatre company and made his debut in Citizen Kane. Collins appeared in more than 75 films and had one of his roles on television. Ray Bidwell Collins was born December 10,1889, in Sacramento, California, to Lillie Bidwell and his father was a newspaper reporter and dramatic editor on The Sacramento Bee. His mother was the niece of John Bidwell, pioneer, statesman and he began putting on plays with neighborhood children in Sacramento. Collins made his stage debut at age 13, at the Liberty Playhouse in Oakland. In July 1914, he and his first wife and their son moved to Vancouver, British Columbia. In 1922, he was part of a company called Vancouvers Popular Players which enacted plays at the original Orpheum Theatre. He operated his own company for five years at his own theatre. Collins toured in vaudeville and made his way to New York, Collins worked prodigiously in his youth. Between the ages of 17 and 30, he was said to have out of work as an actor for a total of five weeks. In 1924, after he opened in Conscience, he was almost continually featured in Broadway plays, at that point, Collins turned his attention to radio, where he was involved in 18 broadcasts a week, sometimes working as many as 16 hours a day. He also played parts in films starting in 1930, notably in a Vitaphone Varieties series based on Booth Tarkingtons Penrod stories. In 1934, Collins began an association with Orson Welles that led to some of his most memorable roles. They met when Welles joined the repertory cast of The American School of the Air, on radio, Collins was in the distinguished repertory cast of the weekly historical drama Cavalcade of America for six years. Collins and Welles worked together on series and others, including Welless serial adaptation of Les Misérables. Collins became a member of the company of Welless CBS Radio series The Mercury Theatre on the Air and its sponsored continuation

27.
Paul Stewart (actor)
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Paul Stewart was an American character actor, director and producer who worked in theatre, radio, films and television. He frequently portrayed cynical and sinister characters throughout his lengthy career, one of the Mercury Theatre players who made their film debut in Welless landmark film Citizen Kane, Stewart portrayed Kanes butler and valet, Raymond. He appeared in 50 films, and performed in or directed some 5,000 radio, Paul Stewart was born in Manhattan March 13,1908, as Paul Sternberg. His parents were Maurice D. Sternberg, a salesman and credit agent for a textile manufacturer, Sternberg, both were born in Minneapolis. Stewart attended public school and completed two years at Columbia University, studying law and he had received first place in the Belasco Theatre Tournament in 1925 and decided on an acting career. Stewart began his career in New York as teenager. He made his Broadway debut in 1930, in Subway Express and he next appeared in the 1931 play, Two Seconds, adapted as a film the next year. In 1932, after two additional Broadway credits, Stewart moved to Cincinnati and went to work at radio station WLW. It was there in 1928 that radio pioneer Fred Smith had created the program Newscasting, for 13 months Stewart worked in all aspects of radio production at WLW — acting, announcing, directing, producing, writing and creating sound effects. When he returned to New York he was on The March of Time, in 1934 Stewart introduced Orson Welles to director Knowles Entrikin, who gave Welles his first job on radio, on The American School of the Air. Id been turning up for auditions and never landing a job until I met Paul Stewart, hes a lovely man, for years he was one of the main pillars of our Mercury broadcasts. He cant be too much credit. In March 1935 Stewart saw Welless stage performance in Archibald MacLeishs verse play Panic, Welles was auditioned and hired to join the repertory company that presented The March of Time. It was like a company, whose members were the aristocrats of this relatively new profession of radio acting. The March of Time was one of radios most popular shows, Stewart was a founder of the American Federation of Radio Artists in August 1937, and one of its inaugural officers. He carried card number 39 in the union and was a frequent delegate at the national convention and he was also a board member of the Screen Actors Guild, and a member of the Directors Guild of America and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Stewart played various roles throughout Welless memorable tenure as Lamont Cranston in The Shadow, in 1938 Welles expanded the range of the Mercury Theatre from Broadway to network radio with his CBS series, The Mercury Theatre on the Air, and Stewart became his associate producer. Welles later said that Stewart deserved the largest share of the credit for the quality of The War of the Worlds, in 1939 Stewart was married to actress and singer Peg LaCentra, a vocalist with Artie Shaws first orchestra who worked in radio, films and television

28.
Harry Davenport (actor)
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Harold George Bryant Harry Davenport was an American film and stage actor who worked in show business from the age of six until his death. After a long and prolific Broadway career, he came to Hollywood in the 1930s and appeared in films including Gone with the Wind and his specialty was playing grandfathers, judges, doctors, and ministers. Bette Davis called Davenport without a doubt, the greatest character actor of all time, Davenport was born in Canton, Pennsylvania, where his family lived during the holidays. He also grew up in Philadelphia and his sister was actress Fanny Davenport. He made his debut at the age of five in the play Damon. Davenport made his Broadway debut in 1894 and appeared there in numerous plays, Harry Davenport was one of the best-known and busiest old men in Hollywood films during the 1930s and 1940s. He started his career at the age of 48. His film debut came in 1914 with silent film Too Many Husbands, later that same year, he starred in Foggs Millions co-starring Rose Tapley. The film would go on to become the first in a series of silent comedy shorts, in addition, he also directed eleven silent features during the pre-World War I era, including many of the films in the Mr. and Mrs. Jarr series. Meade in Gone with the Wind and he also had supporting roles in Alfred Hitchcocks thriller Foreign Correspondent, William A. Wellmans western The Ox-Bow Incident and in Kings Row with Ronald Reagan. Davenport also played the grandfather of Judy Garland in Vincente Minnellis classic Meet Me in St. Louis and the great-uncle of Myrna Loy and Shirley Temple in The Bachelor and his last film, Frank Capras Riding High, was released after his death. Harry Davenport appeared until his death in over 160 films, asked why he made so many film at his age, he replied, I hate to see men of my age sit down as if their lives were ended and accept a dole. An old man must show that he knows his job and is no loafer, if he can do that, they can take their pension money and buy daisies with it. In 1913, he co-founded, along with actor Eddie Foy, the Actors Equity Association, the original organization, known as the White Rats, was spearheaded by Davenport. The actions of the association caused the closure of all the theatres on Broadway and he married Alice Davenport in 1893. They had one daughter, Dorothy Davenport, who became an actress. After divorcing Alice in 1896, he married actress Phyllis Rankin and they had three biological children, all actors, Ned Davenport, Ann Davenport, and Kate Davenport, and Harry also adopted Phylliss son, Arthur Rankin. The 10 August 1949 Canton Sunday Telegram obituary noted that the couple were together until her death, contrary to reports that he divorced her, through his marriage to Phyllis, he was the brother-in-law of Lionel Barrymore, who was married at the time to Phyllis sister Doris

29.
Voice of America
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Voice of America is a United States government-funded multimedia news source and the official external broadcasting institution of the United States. VOA provides programming for broadcast on radio, television, and the Internet outside of the U. S. in English and some foreign languages. The VOA charter—signed into law in 1976 by President Gerald Ford—requires VOA to serve as a reliable and authoritative source of news and be accurate. The Voice of America headquarters is located at 330 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, the VOA is fully funded by the U. S. government, the Congress appropriates funds for it annually under the same budget for embassies and consulates. In 2016 the network reportedly had an annual budget of $218.5 million,1000 people of personnel. VOA radio and television broadcasts are distributed by satellite, cable and on FM, AM and they are streamed on individual language service websites, social media sites and mobile platforms. VOA has affiliate and contract agreements with radio and television stations, some scholars and commentators consider Voice of America to be a form of propaganda, although this label is disputed by others. The Voice of America website has five English language broadcasts as of 2014, additionally, the VOA website has versions in 42 foreign languages, The number of languages varies according to the priorities of the United States Government and the world situation. Before World War II, all American shortwave stations were in private hands, experimental programming began in the 1930s, but there were then fewer than 12 transmitters in operation. Any program solely intended for, and directed to an audience in the continental United States does not meet the requirements for this service. Washington observers felt this policy was to enforce the State Departments Good Neighbor Policy, in 1940, the Office of the Coordinator of Interamerican Affairs, a semi-independent agency of the U. S. State Department headed by Nelson Rockefeller, began operations. Shortwave signals to Latin America were regarded as vital to counter Nazi propaganda, initially, the Office of Coordination of Information sent releases to each station, but this was seen as an inefficient means of transmitting news. It was introduced by The Battle Hymn of the Republic and included the pledge, Today, the news may be good or bad for us – We will always tell you the truth. It was Sherwood who actually coined the term The Voice of America to describe the network that began its transmissions on February 1. The Office of War Information, when organized in the middle of 1942, the OWI also set up the American Broadcasting Station in Europe. Asian transmissions started with one transmitter in California in 1941, services were expanded by adding transmitters in Hawaii and, after recapture, by the end of the war, VOA had 39 transmitters and provided service in 40 languages. Programming was broadcast from production centers in New York and San Francisco, programming consisted of music, news, commentary, and relays of U. S. domestic programming, in addition to specialized VOA programming. About half of VOAs services, including the Arabic service, were discontinued in 1945, in late 1945, VOA was transferred to the Department of State

30.
American Federation of Labor
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The American Federation of Labor was a national federation of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers International Union was elected president of the Federation at its convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The American Federation of Labor organized as an association of trade unions in 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor. In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners, a strike lasting four weeks ensued. The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, the American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing work and causing incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms. Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates, the actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld. Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various local labor organizations responded to the call. Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a tax of its member organizations. Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year one until his death nearly four decades later. Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies, the group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFLs founding convention declaring higher wages and a shorter workday to be preliminary steps toward great, participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the groups constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates. The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive out of construction, mining, longshore. Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should reward its friends, after 1908, the organizations tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong

31.
Congress of Industrial Organizations
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The Congress of Industrial Organizations, was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. Created by John L. Lewis in 1935, it was called the Committee for Industrial Organization. The CIO supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Coalition, both the CIO and its rival the AFL grew rapidly during the Great Depression. The rivalry for dominance was bitter and sometimes violent, the CIO was founded on November 9,1936, by eight international unions belonging to the American Federation of Labor. In its statement of purpose, the CIO said it had formed to encourage the AFL to organize workers in production industries along industrial union lines. The CIO failed to change AFL policy from within, on September 10,1936, the AFL suspended all 10 CIO unions. In 1938, these formed the Congress of Industrial Organizations as a rival labor federation. The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 required union leaders to swear that they were not Communists, many CIO leaders refused to obey that requirement, later found unconstitutional. In 1955, the CIO rejoined the AFL, forming the new entity known as the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, the CIO was born out of a fundamental dispute within the United States. Labor movement over whether and how to organize industrial workers and those who favored craft unionism believed that the most effective way to represent workers was to defend the advantages they had secured through their skills. They used that power to quash any drive toward industrial organizing and they started to press the AFL to change its policies in this area. The AFL did, in fact, respond, and added more new members than the CIO. The AFL had long permitted the formation of unions, which were affiliated directly with the AFL. The AFL did not, however, promise to allow those unions to maintain a separate identity indefinitely and that meant these unions might be broken up later in order to distribute their members among the craft unions that claimed jurisdiction over their work. The AFL, in fact, dissolved hundreds of federal unions in late 1934, while the bureaucratic leadership of the AFL was unable to win strikes, three victorious strikes suddenly exploded onto the scene in 1934. Victorious industrial unions with militant leaderships were the catalyst that brought about the rise of the CIO, the AFL did authorize organizing drives in the automobile, rubber and steel industries at its convention in 1934, but gave little financial support or effective leadership to those unions. The AFLs timidity only succeeded in making it less credible among the workers it was trying to organize. This was especially significant in those industries, such as auto and rubber, Lewis responded that Hutchesons comment was small potatoes, to which Hutcheson replied I was raised on small potatoes, that is why I am so small

32.
Douglas A-20 Havoc
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The Douglas A-20 Havoc was an American attack, light bomber, and intruder aircraft of World War II. It served with several Allied air forces, principally the United States Army Air Forces, the Soviet Air Forces, Soviet Naval Aviation, Soviet units received more than one in three of the DB-7s ultimately built. It was also used by the air forces of Australia, South Africa, France, and the Netherlands during the war, and by Brazil afterwards. In British Commonwealth air forces, bomber/attack variants of the DB-7 were usually known by the service name Boston, an exception to this was the Royal Australian Air Force, which referred to all variants of the DB-7 by the name Boston. The USAAF referred to night fighter variants as P-70 and it was estimated that it could carry a 1,000 lb bomb load at 250 mph. Reports of aircraft performance from the Spanish Civil War indicated that this design would be seriously underpowered, in the autumn of the same year, the United States Army Air Corps issued its own specification for an attack aircraft. The Douglas team, now headed by Heinemann, took the Model 7A design, upgraded with 1,100 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engines and it faced competition from the North American NA-40, Stearman X-100, and Martin 167F. The Model 7B was maneuverable and fast, but did not attract any US orders, the model did, however, attract the attention of a French Purchasing Commission visiting the United States. The French discreetly participated in the trials, so as not to attract criticism from American isolationists. The secret was revealed when the Model 7B crashed on 23 January while demonstrating single-engine performance, the French were still impressed enough to order 100 production aircraft, with the order increased to 270 when the war began. Sixteen of those had been ordered by Belgium for its Aviation Militaire, in a report to the British Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at RAF Boscombe Down, test pilots summed it up as, has no vices and is very easy to take off and land. The aeroplane represents a definite advantage in the design of flying controls, extremely pleasant to fly and manoeuvre. Ex-pilots often consider it their favorite aircraft of the war due to the ability to toss it around like a fighter, the Douglas bomber/night fighter was extremely adaptable and found a role in every combat theater of the war, and excelled as a true pilots aeroplane. When DB-7 series production ended on 20 September 1944, a total of 7,098 had been built by Douglas. Douglas redesigned its Santa Monica plant to create a production line to produce A-20 Havocs. The assembly line was over a long, but by looping back and forth. Man-hours were reduced by 50% for some operations, the French order called for substantial modifications, resulting in the DB-7 variant. It had a narrower, deeper fuselage,1,000 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC3-G radials, French-built guns, midway through the delivery phase, engines were switched to 1,100 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S3C4-G

33.
War Relocation Authority
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The War Relocation Authority was a United States government agency established to handle the internment, i. e. forced relocation and detention, of Japanese Americans during World War II. It also operated the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York, the WRA was formed on March 18,1942 via Executive Order 9102, with Milton S. Eisenhower as the original director. Eisenhower was a proponent of Roosevelts New Deal and disapproved of the idea of the mass internment. ”Disappointed, Eisenhower was director of the WRA for only ninety days, resigning June 18,1942. Eisenhower was replaced by Dillon S. Myer, who would run the WRA until its dissolution at the end of the war, the WRA considered 300 potential sites before settling on a total of ten camp locations, mostly on tribal lands. Site selection was based upon multiple criteria, including, Ability to provide work in works, agriculture. At Manzanar, for example, internees were recruited to complete construction. Life in a WRA camp was difficult and those fortunate enough to find a job worked long hours, usually in agricultural jobs. Resistance to camp guards and escape attempts were a low priority for most of the Japanese Americans held in the camps, many of those who were employed, particularly those with responsible or absorbing jobs, made these jobs the focus of their lives. Non-skilled labor earned $14/month while doctors and dentists made a paltry $19/month, many found consolation in religion, and both Christian and Buddhist services were held regularly. The young people spent much of their time in recreational pursuits, news of sports, theatrics, families lived in army-style barracks partitioned into apartments with walls that usually didn’t reach the ceiling. These apartments were, at the largest, twenty by twenty-four feet and were expected to house a family of six, in April 1943, the Topaz camp averaged 114 square feet per person. Each inmate ate at one of several mess halls, assigned by block. At the Army-run camps that housed dissidents and other troublemakers, it was estimated that it cost 38.19 cents per day to feed each person. The WRA spent slightly more, capping per-person costs to 50 cents a day, the WRA allowed Japanese Americans to establish a form of self-governance, with elected inmate leaders working under administration supervisors to help run the camps. In February 1943, the WRA established the Community Analysis Section in order to information on the lives of incarcerated Japanese Americans in all ten camps. Morris Opler did, however, provide a prominent exception, writing two legal briefs challenging the exclusion for the Supreme Court cases of Gordon Hirabayashi and Fred Korematsu. Initially, applicants were required to find a sponsor, provide proof of employment or school enrollment. In the new system, inmates had only complete a registration form, at this point, the WRA began to shift its focus from managing the camps to overseeing resettlement

34.
Internment of Japanese Americans
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62 percent of the internees were United States citizens. These actions were ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after Imperial Japans attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U. S. who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150, 000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, the internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with one drop of Japanese blood were placed in internment camps. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U. S. mainland were relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans, the Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsus appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders and he appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate the camps. The Commissions report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors, the legislation admitted that government actions were based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The U. S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs. Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,112,000 resided on the West Coast, about 80,000 were nisei and sansei. The rest were issei immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U. S. citizenship under U. S. law, from 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U. S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast, most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the US to join their husbands, the practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U. S. resulted in a large increase in the number of picture brides. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and they lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century, the Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other undesirable Asian countries

35.
Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States
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Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States has existed since the late 19th century, during the Yellow Peril. Anti-Japanese sentiment peaked during the Second World War and again in the 1970s-1980s with the rise of Japan as an economic power. In the United States, anti-Japanese sentiment had its beginnings well before World War II, a network of anti-Chinese groups worked to pass laws that limited Asian immigrants access to legal and economic equality with whites. Most important of these laws was the exclusion of Asians from citizenship rights. The Naturalization Act of 1870 revised the law, under which only white immigrants could become U. S. citizens. These laws were greatly detrimental to the newly arrived immigrants, since many of them were farmers and had little choice but to become migrant workers. S. However, in the process created an atmosphere of systematic hostility. With its anti-Japanese organizations, state authorities and legislation, California may have been to the Japanese what the South was to blacks. In State of California v. Jukichi Harada, Judge Hugh H. Craig sided with the defendant, in 1943, now Governor Warren signed a bill that expanded the Alien Land Law by denying the Japanese the opportunity to farm as they had before World War II. In 1945, he followed up by signing two bills that facilitated the seizure of land owned by American descendants of the Japanese. In State of California v. Oyama, the Supreme Court ruled that Californias Alien Land Law was anti-Japanese in concept, justices Murphy and Rutledge wrote, This measure, though limited to agricultural lands, represented the first official act of discrimination aimed at the Japanese. The immediate purpose, of course, was to restrict Japanese farm competition, the more basic purpose of the statute was to irritate the Japanese, to make economic life in California as uncomfortable and unprofitable for them as legally possible. Can a state disregard in this manner the historic ideal that those within the borders of this nation are not to be denied rights and it took four years for Californias Supreme Court to concede that the law was unconstitutional, in State of California v. Fujii. Finally, in 1956, California voters repealed the law, anti-Japanese racism and Yellow Peril in California had become increasingly xenophobic after the Japanese victory over the Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese War. On October 11,1906, the San Francisco, California Board of Education had passed a regulation whereby children of Japanese descent would be required to attend racially segregated separate schools. At the time, Japanese immigrants made up approximately 1% of the population of California, the Japanese invasion of China in 1931 and the annexation of Manchuria was roundly criticized in the US. European traders sought access to Chinese markets and resources, the PMEW had thousands of members hopefully preparing for liberation from white supremacy with the arrival of the Japanese Imperial Army. The most profound cause of anti-Japanese sentiment outside of Asia had its beginning in the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attack propelled the United States into World War II

36.
Japanese American service in World War II
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As the war progressed, many of the young Nisei, Japanese immigrants children who were born with American citizenship, volunteered or were drafted to serve in the United States military. Japanese Americans served in all the branches of the United States Armed Forces, the 442nd Infantry Regiment became the most decorated unit in U. S. military history. Other Japanese American units also included the 100th Infantry Battalion, Varsity Victory Volunteers, the majority of Japanese Americans serving in the American Armed Forces during World War II enlisted in the army. The 100th Infantry Battalion was engaged in action during the war taking part in multiple campaigns. The 100th was made up of Nisei who were members of the Hawaii National Guard. Meanwhile, a decision to demote Nisei soldiers to 4-C class was reversed. Most of the recruits came from Hawaii, as those on the mainland were reluctant to volunteer while they. The 2,686 accepted Hawaiians and about 1,000 mainlanders were sent to Camp Shelby, the Battalion shipped out in August 1943, landing in North Africa before fighting in Italy, eventually participating in the liberation of Rome. Their exemplary military record, and the activities of the Varsity Victory Volunteers. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team was an all-Nisei U. S. Army regiment which served in Europe during World War II. Japanese Americans already in training at the start of the war had removed from active duty shortly after Pearl Harbor. However, Japanese American leaders like Mike Masaoka and War Department officials like John J. McCloy soon began to push the Roosevelt administration to allow Nisei to serve in combat. A military board was convened in June 1942 to address the issue, while the first group of volunteers fought in Europe as part of the 100th Infantry Battalion, additional recruits and draftees began combat training at Camp Shelby. S. military history. The 522nd had the distinction of liberating survivors of the Dachau concentration camp system, Nisei scouts west of Munich near the small Bavarian town of Lager Lechfeld encountered some barracks encircled by barbed wire. Technician Fourth Grade Ichiro Imamura described it in his diary, I watched as one of the scouts used his carbine to shoot off the chain that held the gates shut. They weren’t dead, as he had first thought, when the gates swung open, we got our first good look at the prisoners. They were wearing striped prison suits and round caps and it was cold and the snow was two feet deep in some places. The prisoners struggled to their feet and they shuffled weakly out of the compound

37.
Women in the workforce
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Until modern times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted womens entry and participation in the workforce. Womens lack of access to education had effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid. Women were largely limited to low-paid and poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, or earned less pay than men for doing the same work. Women are viewed as the caregiver to children still to this day. The increasing rates of women contributing in the force has led to a more equal disbursement of hours worked across the regions of the world. However, in western European countries the nature of womens employment participation remains markedly different from that of men, for example, few women are in continuous full-time employment after the birth of a first child. Due to the lack of childcare and because women in Britain lose 9% of their wage after their first child and 16% after their second child. In the United States, womens earnings were 83 percent of male full-time workers in 2014. ”With the current norm in place, women are forced to juggle full-time jobs. As the Civil War raged in the U. S, much of her site visits were conducted in Philadelphia, New York and Boston. She distilled her research to list over 500 jobs that were open to women as well as the information about the jobs and she also indicated when employers offered their reasons for wage differentials based on gender. She dedicated her book to worthy and industrious women in the United States, striving to earn a livelihood, and the book garnered much attention by reviewers and scholars across the country. She sold her rights to the book to another publisher who put it out instead as an encyclopedia, The Employments of Women, A Cyclopaedia of Womans Work and it sold better once it was re-titled again in 1870 as How Women Can Make Money, Married or Single. In total, the different versions of the book ended up with 36 editions published between 1862 and 2006, and six editions of the adaptation in German. In the twentieth century, division of labor by gender has been studied most systematically in womens studies, occupational studies, such as the history of medicine or studies of professionalization, also examine questions of gender, and the roles of women in the history of particular fields. Women dominate as accountants, auditors, and psychologists and this body of law is called employment discrimination law, and gender and race discrimination are the largest sub-sections within the area. Laws specifically aimed at preventing discrimination against women have been passed in countries, see. Women still contribute to their communities in many regions mainly through agricultural work, in Southern Asia, Western Asia, and Africa, only 20% of women work at paid non-agricultural jobs. Worldwide, womens rate of employment outside of agriculture grew to 41% by 2008

38.
Hollywood
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Hollywood is an ethnically diverse, densely populated neighborhood in the central region of Los Angeles, California. It is notable as the home of the U. S. film industry, including several of its studios, and its name has come to be a shorthand reference for the industry. Hollywood was a community in 1870 and was incorporated as a municipality in 1903. It was consolidated with the city of Los Angeles in 1910, in 1853, one adobe hut stood in Nopalera, named for the Mexican Nopal cactus indigenous to the area. By 1870, an agricultural community flourished, the area was known as the Cahuenga Valley, after the pass in the Santa Monica Mountains immediately to the north. According to the diary of H. J. Whitley, known as the Father of Hollywood, along came a Chinese man in a wagon carrying wood. The man got out of the wagon and bowed, the Chinese man was asked what he was doing and replied, I holly-wood, meaning hauling wood. H. J. Whitley had an epiphany and decided to name his new town Hollywood, Holly would represent England and wood would represent his Scottish heritage. Whitley had already started over 100 towns across the western United States, Whitley arranged to buy the 500-acre E. C. Hurd ranch and disclosed to him his plans for the land. They agreed on a price and Hurd agreed to sell at a later date, before Whitley got off the ground with Hollywood, plans for the new town had spread to General Harrison Gray Otis, Hurds wife, eastern adjacent ranch co-owner Daeida Wilcox, and others. Daeida Wilcox may have learned of the name Hollywood from Ivar Weid, her neighbor in Holly Canyon and she recommended the same name to her husband, Harvey. In August 1887, Wilcox filed with the Los Angeles County Recorders office a deed and parcel map of property he had sold named Hollywood, Wilcox wanted to be the first to record it on a deed. The early real-estate boom busted that year, yet Hollywood began its slow growth. By 1900, the region had a post office, newspaper, hotel, Los Angeles, with a population of 102,479 lay 10 miles east through the vineyards, barley fields, and citrus groves. A single-track streetcar line ran down the middle of Prospect Avenue from it, but service was infrequent, the old citrus fruit-packing house was converted into a livery stable, improving transportation for the inhabitants of Hollywood. The Hollywood Hotel was opened in 1902 by H. J. Whitley who was a president of the Los Pacific Boulevard, having finally acquired the Hurd ranch and subdivided it, Whitley built the hotel to attract land buyers. Flanking the west side of Highland Avenue, the structure fronted on Prospect Avenue, the hotel was to become internationally known and was the center of the civic and social life and home of the stars for many years. Whitleys company developed and sold one of the residential areas

39.
Paramount Pictures
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Paramount Pictures Corporation is an American film studio based in Hollywood, California, that has been a subsidiary of the American media conglomerate Viacom since 1994. In 1916, film producer Adolph Zukor contracted 22 actors and actresses and these fortunate few would become the first movie stars. Paramount Pictures is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2014, Paramount Pictures became the first major Hollywood studio to distribute all of its films in digital form only. Paramount is the fifth oldest surviving studio in the world after the French studios Gaumont Film Company and Pathé, followed by the Nordisk Film company. It is the last major film studio headquartered in the Hollywood district of Los Angeles. Paramount Pictures dates its existence from the 1912 founding date of the Famous Players Film Company, hungarian-born founder, Adolph Zukor, who had been an early investor in nickelodeons, saw that movies appealed mainly to working-class immigrants. With partners Daniel Frohman and Charles Frohman he planned to offer feature-length films that would appeal to the class by featuring the leading theatrical players of the time. By mid-1913, Famous Players had completed five films, and Zukor was on his way to success and its first film was Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth, which starred Sarah Bernhardt. That same year, another aspiring producer, Jesse L. Lasky, opened his Lasky Feature Play Company with money borrowed from his brother-in-law, Samuel Goldfish, the Lasky company hired as their first employee a stage director with virtually no film experience, Cecil B. DeMille, who would find a site in Hollywood, near Los Angeles, for his first feature film. Hodkinson and actor, director, producer Hobart Bosworth had started production of a series of Jack London movies, Paramount was the first successful nationwide distributor, until this time, films were sold on a statewide or regional basis which had proved costly to film producers. Also, Famous Players and Lasky were privately owned while Paramount was a corporation, in 1916, Zukor maneuvered a three-way merger of his Famous Players, the Lasky Company, and Paramount. Zukor and Lasky bought Hodkinson out of Paramount, and merged the three companies into one, with only the exhibitor-owned First National as a rival, Famous Players-Lasky and its Paramount Pictures soon dominated the business. It was this system that gave Paramount a leading position in the 1920s and 1930s, the driving force behind Paramounts rise was Zukor. In 1926, Zukor hired independent producer B. P. Schulberg and they purchased the Robert Brunton Studios, a 26-acre facility at 5451 Marathon Street for US$1 million. In 1927, Famous Players-Lasky took the name Paramount Famous Lasky Corporation, three years later, because of the importance of the Publix Theatres, it became Paramount Publix Corporation. In 1928, Paramount began releasing Inkwell Imps, animated cartoons produced by Max, the Fleischers, veterans in the animation industry, were among the few animation producers capable of challenging the prominence of Walt Disney. The Paramount newsreel series Paramount News ran from 1927 to 1957, Paramount was also one of the first Hollywood studios to release what were known at that time as talkies, and in 1929, released their first musical, Innocents of Paris

40.
Pamphlet
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A pamphlet is an unbound booklet. The UNESCO definitions are, however, only meant to be used for the purpose of drawing up their book production statistics. Pamphiluss name is derived from the Greek name Πάμφιλος, meaning beloved of all, the poem was popular and widely copied and circulated on its own, forming a slim codex. Its modern connotations of a tract concerning an issue was a product of the heated arguments leading to the English Civil War. In some European languages other than English, this connotation, of a disputatious tract, has come to the fore, compare libelle, from the Latin libellus. Pamphlets can contain anything from information on kitchen appliances to medical information, Pamphlets are very important in marketing because they are cheap to produce and can be distributed easily to customers. Pamphlets have also long been an important tool of political protest, a pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who produces or distributes pamphlets, especially for a political cause. Ephemeral and to wide array of political or religious perspectives given voice by the ease of production. Substantial accumulations have been amassed and transferred to ownership of academic research libraries around the world, the pamphlet has been widely adopted in commerce, particularly as a format for marketing communications. Long-form journalism Flyer Randy Silverman,1987, small, Not Insignificant, a Specification for a Conservation Pamphlet Binding Structure, The Book and Paper Group Annual 6. Historical overview focusing on pamphlet binding, information about a project that digitised 26,000 19th century pamphlets from UK research libraries. Collection of 19th century pamphlets, predominantly of Irish interest and covering a spectrum of subjects. 19th Century Social History Pamphlets Collection, Collection of pamphlets relating to 19th century Irish social history, particularly the themes of education, health, famine, poverty, business and communications

41.
Benito Mussolini
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Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service

42.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl

43.
American way
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The American way of life, or simply the American way, is the unique lifestyle, real or imagined, of the people living in the United States of America. It refers to a nationalist ethos that purports to adhere to principles of life, liberty, at the center of the American way is the American Dream, the idea that upward mobility is achievable by any American through hard work. This concept is intertwined with the concept of American exceptionalism, the belief in the culture of the nation. This way of life, which developed from the 17th century onward, is an example of a behavioral modality, author William Herberg offers the following definition, The American Way of life is individualistic, dynamic, and pragmatic. The American Way of Life is humanitarian, forward-looking, optimistic, Americans are easily the most generous and philanthropic people in the world, in terms of their ready and unstinting response to suffering anywhere on the globe. The American believes in progress, in self-improvement, and quite fanatically in education, but above all, the American is idealistic. And because they are so idealistic, Americans tend to be moralistic, they are inclined to see all issues as plain and simple, black and white, materialism no longer needs to be justified in high-sounding terms. In the National Archives and Records Administrations 1999 Annual Report, National Archivist John W. Herberg, protestant, Catholic, Jew, an Essay in American religious sociology

44.
Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag

45.
Hideki Tojo
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After the end of the war, Tojo was arrested, sentenced to death for Japanese war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and hanged on December 23,1948. Hideki Tojo was born in the Kōjimachi district of Tokyo on December 30,1884, as the 3rd son of Hidenori Tojo, under the bakufu, Japanese society was divided rigidly into four castes, the merchants, peasants, artisans and the samurai. The Tojo family came from the caste, through the Tojos were relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great damiyos that they had served for generations. Tojos father was a samurai turned Army officer and his mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest, making his family very respectable, Tojo had an education typical of a Japanese youth in the Meiji era. Japanese girls who were taught it was the highest honor for a woman to have as many sons as possible who could die for the Emperor in war. Japanese schools in the Meiji era were very competitive, and there was no tradition of sympathy with failures, Tojo was of average intelligence, but he was known to compensate for his limited intelligence with a willingness to work extremely hard. Tojos boyhood hero was the 17th century shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu who issued the injunction, Avoid the things you like, Tojo liked to say, I am just an ordinary man possessing no shining talents. Anything I have achieved I owe to my capacity for hard work, in 1899, Tojo entered the Army Cadet School. When he graduated from the Japanese Military Academy in March 1905 he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the infantry of the IJA. Tojos anger at the Treaty of Portsmouth left him with a dislike of Americans. In 1909, Tojo married Katsuko Ito, with whom he would have three sons and four daughters, in 1918-19, Tojo briefly served in Siberia as part of the Japanese expeditionary force sent to intervene in the Russian Civil War. Tojo served as Japanese military attache to Germany between 1919-1922, a stern, humorless man, Tojo was known for his brusque manner, his obsession with etiquette, and for his coldness. Tojo wrote with bitterness at the time that American whites would never accept Asians as equals, Japan, too, has to be strong to survive in the world. By 1928, he had become the chief of the Japanese Army. He began to take an interest in militarist politics during his command of the 8th Infantry Regiment. Reflecting the hermaphrodite imagery often used in Japan to describe people in power, Tojo often visited the homes of the men under his command, assisted his men with personal problems and made loans to officers short of money. In 1934, Tojo was promoted to general and served as Chief of the Personnel Department within the Army Ministry. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book Hijōji kokumin zenshū, a book published in March 1934 by the Army Ministry calling for Japan to become a national defense state

46.
European theatre of World War II
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The Allied forces fought the Axis powers on two major fronts as well as in the adjoining Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre. Germany was humiliated in front of the world and had to pay very large war reparations, many Germans blamed their countrys post-war economic collapse and hyperinflation on the treatys conditions. After Hitler took Germany out of the League of Nations, Mussolini of Fascist Italy and Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin axis, later, Empire of Japan, under the government of Hideki Tojo, would also join as an Axis power. Japan and Germany had already signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1939, other smaller powers also later joined the Axis throughout the war. On September 17, the Soviet forces joined the invasion of Poland, the Polish government evacuated the country for Romania. Poland fell within five weeks, with its last large operational units surrendering on October 5 after the Battle of Kock, as the Polish September Campaign ended, Hitler offered to Britain and France peace on the basis of recognition of German European continental dominance. On October 12, the United Kingdom formally refused, despite the quick campaign in the east, along the Franco-German frontier the war settled into a quiet period. This relatively non-confrontational and mostly non-fighting period between the major powers lasted until May 10,1940, and was known as the Phoney War, several other countries, however, were drawn into the conflict at this time. By September 28,1939, the three Baltic Republics felt they had no choice but to permit Soviet bases and troops on their territory, the Baltic Republics were occupied by the Soviet army in June 1940, and finally annexed to the Soviet Union in August 1940. The Soviet Union wanted to annex Finland and offered an agreement, but Finland rejected it. In the Moscow Peace Treaty of March 12,1940, Finland ceded 10% of her territory, the Finns were embittered over having lost more land in the peace than on the battlefields, and over the perceived lack of world sympathy. Meanwhile, in western Scandinavia, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, sweden was able to remain neutral. Most Allied forces were in Flanders, anticipating a re-run of the World War I Schlieffen Plan, as a result of this, and also the superior German communications and tactics, the Battle of France was shorter than virtually all pre-war Allied thought could have conceived. It lasted six weeks, including the Luftwaffe bombing of Paris June 3, on June 10 Italy declared war on both France and the United Kingdom, but did not gain any significant success in this campaign. French government fled Paris, and soon, France surrendered on June 22, many French soldiers, as well as those of other occupied countries, escaped to Britain. The General de Gaulle proclaimed himself the leader of Free France. Following the unexpected victory, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony. Later, on April 24,1941, the USSR gave full recognition to the Vichy government situated in the non-occupied zone in France

47.
Asiatic-Pacific Theater
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The Asiatic-Pacific Theater, was the area of operations of U. S. forces during World War II in the Pacific War during 1941-45. From mid-1942 until the end of the war in 1945, there were two U. S. operational commands in the Pacific. The Pacific Ocean Areas, divided into the Central Pacific Area, the North Pacific Area, the South West Pacific Area, including New Guinea, Philippines, Borneo, and the Dutch East Indies, was commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific Area. During 1945, the United States added the U. S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, commanded by General Carl Spaatz. Because of the roles of the United States Army and the United States Navy in conducting war in the Pacific Theater. There was no command, rather, the Asiatic-Pacific Theater was divided into the SWPA, the POA. The Official Chronology of the U. S. Navy in World War II, in the Service of the Emperor, Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. Kafka, Roger, Pepperburg, Roy L. Warships of the World, the Campaigns of the Pacific War. A History of Us, War, Peace and all that Jazz, joint Operational Warfare, Theory and Practice. Newport, Rhode Island, United States Naval War College, the Battle for Leyte,1944, Allied and Japanese Plans, Preparations, and Execution

48.
Nisei
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Nisei is a Japanese-language term used in countries in North America and South America to specify the children born in the new country to Japanese-born immigrants. The Nisei are considered the second generation, and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called Sansei, or third generation. Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan, estimated to more than 1.5 million. The Nisei Japanese Brazilians are an important part of the minority in that South American nation. Some US Nisei were born after the end of World War II during the Baby Boom and it has been argued that some Nisei feel caught in a dilemma between their quiet Nisei parents and their other identity model of verbal Americans. The Nisei of Hawaii had a different experience. Hawaiian-born Daniel Ken Inouye was one of many young Nisei men who volunteered to fight in the military when restrictions against Japanese-American enlistment were removed in 1943. Inouye later went on to become a U. S, senator from Hawaii after it achieved statehood. Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu was one of many Japanese-American citizens living on the West Coast who resisted internment during World War II, in 1944, Korematsu lost a U. S. Supreme Court challenge to the wartime internment of Japanese Americans but gained vindication decades later. The Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States, was awarded to Korematsu in 1998. At the White House award ceremonies, President Bill Clinton explained, In the long history of our countrys constant search for justice, plessy, Brown, Parks. to that distinguished list, today we add the name of Fred Korematsu. The overwhelming majority of Japanese Americans had reacted to the internment by acquiescing to the governments order, to them, Korematsus opposition was treacherous to both his country and his community. Across the span of decades, he was seen as a traitor, a test case, an embarrassment and, finally, within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences. Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the Nisei Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest element, former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori was the Nisei son of Issei emigrants from Kumamoto, Japan. Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America and these are formed by combining one of the Japanese numbers corresponding to the generation with the Japanese word for generation. The fourth generation is called Yonsei and the fifth is called Gosei, the Issei, Nisei and Sansei generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, and religious belief and practice, and other matters. The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes, the term Nikkei was coined by a multinational group of sociologists and encompasses all of the worlds Japanese immigrants across generations. The collective memory of the Issei and older Nisei was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911 and these differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other

The 113 stars on the CIA Memorial Wall in the original CIA headquarters, each representing a CIA officer killed in action

Suspended from the ceiling of the glass enclosed atrium: three models of the U-2, Lockheed A-12, and D-21drone. These models are exact replicas at one-sixth scale of the real planes. All three had photographic capabilities. The U-2 was one of the first espionage planes developed by the CIA. The A-12 set unheralded flight records. The D-21 drone was one of the first unmanned aircraft ever built. Lockheed Martin Corporation donated all three models to the CIA.

Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States has existed since the late 19th century, during the Yellow Peril. …

Young China Club warning to American visitors against buying Japanese goods in San Francisco's Chinatown circa 1940

An American propaganda poster - "Death-trap for the Jap."

An American propaganda poster from World War II produced under the Works Progress Administration urging civilians to collect and recycle scrap metal in order to contribute to the war effort.

A Japanese American unfurled this banner the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. The man was later detained nonetheless. This Dorothea Lange photograph was taken in March 1942, just prior to the Japanese American internment.

During the early years of World War II, Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated from their homes in the Pacific …

Boy Scouts at the Granada War Relocation Center raising flag to half-mast during a Memorial Service for first six Nisei soldiers from this Center who were killed in action in Italy. The service was attended by 1,500 Amache internees. -- August 5, 1944.

U.S. Army Air Force Technical Sargent Ben Kuroki was highly decorated in combat, serving in both European and Pacific theaters of war. His wartime nicknames were "Most Honorable Son" and "Sad Saki."

The SS ''Yongfeng'' (later Zhongshan), where Chiang watched after Sun Yat-sen for two months in 1923 and which was later responsible for the 1926 Canton Coup that propelled Chiang to leadership of the KMT