4.
18th century
–
The 18th century lasted from January 1,1701 to December 31,1800 in the Gregorian calendar. During the 18th century, the Enlightenment culminated in the French, philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers dreamed of a brighter age and this dream turned into a reality with the French Revolution of 1789-, though later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but with the French Revolution they feared losing their power, the Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking part in no European wars from 1740 to 1768. The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state, the once-powerful and vast kingdom, which had once conquered Moscow and defeated great Ottoman armies, collapsed under numerous invasions. European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as the Age of Sail continued. Great Britain became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in North America in the 1760s, however, Britain lost many of its North American colonies after the American Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the newly independent United States of America. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 1770s with the production of the steam engine. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, steam-powered machinery would radically change human society, western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, 1700-1721, Great Northern War between Tsarist Russia and the Swedish Empire. 1701, Kingdom of Prussia declared under King Frederick I,1701, Ashanti Empire is formed under Osei Kofi Tutu I. 1701–1714, The War of the Spanish Succession is fought, involving most of continental Europe, 1701–1702, The Daily Courant and The Norwich Post become the first daily newspapers in England. 1702, Forty-seven Ronin attack Kira Yoshinaka and then commit seppuku in Japan,1703, Saint Petersburg is founded by Peter the Great, it is the Russian capital until 1918. 1703–1711, The Rákóczi Uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy,1704, End of Japans Genroku period. 1704, First Javanese War of Succession,1705, George Frideric Handels first opera, Almira, premieres. 1706, War of the Spanish Succession, French troops defeated at the Battles of Ramilies,1706, The first English-language edition of the Arabian Nights is published. 1707, The Act of Union is passed, merging the Scottish and English Parliaments,1707, After Aurangzebs death, the Mughal Empire enters a long decline and the Maratha Empire slowly replaces it. 1707, Mount Fuji erupts in Japan for the first time since 1700,1707, War of 27 Years between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India

5.
19th century
–
The 19th century was the century marked by the collapse of the Spanish, Napoleonic, Holy Roman and Mughal empires. After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the worlds land, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, europes population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century, London became the worlds largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later, liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world, following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UKs Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, americas 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888. Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia, in the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States of America. The 19th century also saw the creation, development and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain. Also, ladywear was a sensitive topic during this time. 1801, Ranjit Singh crowned as King of Punjab,1801, Napoleon signs the Concordat of 1801 with the Pope. 1801, Cairo falls to the British,1801, Assassination of Tsar Paul I of Russia. 1802, Ludwig van Beethoven performs his Moonlight Sonata for the first time,1803, William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steamboat. 1803, The United States more than doubles in size when it buys out Frances territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase. This begins the U. S. s westward expansion to the Pacific referred to as its Manifest Destiny which involves annexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain,1803, The Wahhabis of the First Saudi State capture Mecca and Medina

6.
20th century
–
The 20th century was a century that began on January 1,1901 and ended on December 31,2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium and it is distinct from the century known as the 1900s, which began on January 1,1900 and ended on December 31,1999. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication, the term short twentieth century was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion, world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927, by late 1999. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception, 40% of pregnancies were unplanned, the century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. The century saw a shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization, terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western societys basic form of transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon, mass media, telecommunications, and information technology made the worlds knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people, rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time, however, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, at the beginning of the period, Britain was the worlds most powerful nation, having acted as the worlds policeman for the past century. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into an advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in an attack on the United States

7.
1865
–
As of the start of 1865, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 4 – The New York Stock Exchange opens its first permanent headquarters at 10-12 Broad near Wall Street in New York City, january 15 – American Civil War, United States forces capture Fort Fisher. January 31 Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution passes narrowly in the House of Representatives, American Civil War, Confederate General Robert E. Lee becomes general-in-chief. February – American Civil War, Columbia, South Carolina burns as Confederate forces flee from advancing Union forces, february 3 – Leaders from Union and Confederacy discuss peace terms at the Hampton Roads Conference. February 21 – John Deere receives a patent for ploughs, february 22 – Tennessee adopts a new constitution that abolishes slavery. March 3 – The U. S. Congress authorizes formation of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, March 4 – Abraham Lincoln is sworn in for a second term as President of the United States. March 4 – Washington College and Jefferson College are merged to form Washington & Jefferson College, March 13 – American Civil War, The Confederate States of America agrees to the use of African American troops. March 18 – American Civil War, The Congress of the Confederate States of America adjourns for the last time. March 19 – American Civil War, The Battle of Bentonville begins, by the end of the battle on March 21 the Confederate forces retreat from Four Oaks, North Carolina. March 25 The Claywater Meteorite explodes just before reaching ground level in Vernon County, Wisconsin, American Civil War, In Virginia, Confederate forces capture Fort Stedman from the Union. Lees army suffers heavy casualties during the battle of Fort Stedman—about 2,900, after the battle, Lees defeat is only a matter of time. April 1 – American Civil War – Battle of Five Forks, In Petersburg, Virginia, april 2 – American Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis and most of his Cabinet flee the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, which is taken by Union troops the next day. April 6 – German chemicals producer Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik is founded in Mannheim, doctors move the unconscious President to a bed in a house across the street. United States Secretary of State William H. Seward and his family are attacked in his home by Lewis Powell, april 15 – President Lincoln dies early this morning from his gunshot wound. Vice President Andrew Johnson becomes President of the United States, upon Lincolns death, Johnson is sworn in later that morning. April 18 – Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his entire cabinet arrive in Charlotte, april 21 – German Chemicals producer BASF moves its headquarters and factories from Mannheim to the Hemshof District of Ludwigshafen. April 26 American Civil War, Confederate States Army General Joseph E. Johnston surrenders to Union Army Major General William Tecumseh Sherman at Durham Station, Union cavalry corner John Wilkes Booth in a Virginia barn, and cavalryman Boston Corbett shoots the assassin dead. April 27 The steamboat Sultana, carrying 2,300 passengers, explodes and sinks in the Mississippi River, killing 1,800, governor of New York Reuben Fenton signs a bill formally creating Cornell University in the United States

8.
1866
–
As of the start of 1866, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 Fisk University, a black university, is established in Nashville. The last issue of the abolitionist magazine The Liberator is published, january 6 – Ottoman troops clash with men of a Maronite leader Youssef Bey Karam at St. Doumit in Lebanon, the Ottomans are defeated. January 12 Royal Aeronautical Society is formed as The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain in London, british auxiliary steamer SS London sinks in a storm in the Bay of Biscay on passage from the Thames to Australia with the loss of 244 people and only 19 survivors. January 18 – Wesley College, Melbourne is established, january 26 – Volcanic eruption in the Santorini caldera begins. February 7 – Battle of Abtao, A Spanish naval squadron fights a combined Peruvian-Chilean fleet, february 13 – The first daylight bank robbery in United States history during peacetime takes place in Liberty, Missouri. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by Jesse James and his gang, february 26 – The Calaveras Skull is discovered in California. Purported to be evidence of humans in North America during the Pliocene epoch, february 28 – The month concludes without having a full moon. April 4 – Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an attempt in the city of St Petersburg. April 8 – The kingdoms of Italy and Prussia form an alliance against the Austrian Empire, april 10 – The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh. May 2 – Battle of Callao, Peruvian defenders fight the Spanish fleet, may 7 – Student Ferdinand Cohen-Blind makes a failed attempt to assassinate Otto von Bismarck in Unter den Linden in Berlin. May 10 – London bank Overend, Gurney and Company collapses, may 16 – The United States Congress approves the minting of a nickel 5-cent coin, eliminating its predecessor, the half dime. May 24 – Battle of Tuyutí,32,000 soldiers of the Triple Alliance defeat 24,000 Paraguayan soldiers few miles north of the Paraná, Argentina in the Paraguayan War, may 26 – First production of the comic opera Cox and Box by F. C. Burnand and Arthur Sullivan at Moray Lodge, Kensington June 2 – Fenian forces skirmish with Canadian militia at the battles of Ridgeway, June 5 – Calculations indicate Pluto reaches its only aphelion between 1618 and August 2113. June 8 – The Canadian Parliament meets for the first time in Ottawa, June 11 – The Agra High Court is established. June 14 – The Austro-Prussian War begins, when the Austrians, June 20 – The Kingdom of Italy declares war on Austria. June 22 – In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates votes to replace itself by an elected 2-chamber Riksdag, June 27–June 29 – Battle of Langensalza, The Prussians defeat the Hanoverian army. July 1 – The first Constitution of Romania is issued, july 5 – Princess Helena, third daughter of Queen Victoria, marries Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein

9.
1867
–
As of the start of 1867, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky in the United States, becoming the longest single-span bridge in the world and it will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, in 1983. January 8 – African-American men are granted the right to vote in the District of Columbia, january 11 – Benito Juárez becomes Mexican president again. January 30 – Emperor Kōmei of Japan dies suddenly, age 36, january 31 – Maronite nationalist leader Youssef Bey Karam leaves Lebanon aboard a French ship for Algeria. February 3 – Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu abdicates, and the late Emperor Kōmeis son, Prince Mutsuhito becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan in a ceremony in Kyoto. February 7 – West Virginia University is established in Morgantown, West Virginia, February 13 – Covering of the Senne in Brussels begins. February 15 – First performance of Johann Strauss IIs waltz The Blue Danube at a concert of the Vienna Mens Choral Association, Strauss adapts it into its popular purely orchestral version for the International Exposition in Paris later this year. February 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal, February 19 – Battle of Inlon River in Hubei, China. February 22 – Indiana Daily Student established February 28 – After almost 20 years, funding resumes along with relations in 1984. March – The University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign is established, March 1 – Nebraska is admitted as the 37th U. S. state. March 5 – Fenian Rising in Ireland, March 16 – An article by Joseph Lister, outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, is first published in The Lancet. March 23 – William III of the Netherlands accepts an offer of 5,000,000 guilders from Napoleon III for the sale of Luxembourg, March 29 – The British North America Act receives royal assent, forming the Dominion of Canada in an event known as the Confederation. This unites the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia on July 1, ottawa becomes the capital, and John A. Macdonald becomes the Dominions first prime minister. March 30 – Alaska is purchased for $7.2 million from Alexander II of Russia, about 2 cent/acre, the news media call this Sewards Folly. April 1 – The Strait Settlement of Singapore, formerly ruled from Calcutta, sorosis, the first womens fraternity founded upon the mens fraternity model, with Pi Beta Phi as its motto, is founded at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois. In 1888, the motto becomes the name of the organization, may 1 – First political May Day march in Chicago May 7 – Alfred Nobel patents dynamite in the United Kingdom. May 11 Treaty of London, the powers of Europe reaffirm the neutrality of Luxembourg. The Duchy of Limburg is formally re-incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, First public performance of Cox and Box by Francis Burnand and Arthur Sullivan, at the Adelphi Theatre, London

10.
1868
–
As of the start of 1868, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 2 – British Expedition to Abyssinia, Robert Napier leads an expedition to free captive British officials, January 5 – Paraguayan War, Brazilian Army commander Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias enters Asunción, Paraguays capital. Some days later he declares the war is over, nevertheless, Francisco Solano López, Paraguays president, prepares guerrillas to fight in the countryside. January 7 – Arkansas constitutional convention meets in Little Rock, January 9 – Penal transportation from Britain to Australia ends with arrival of the convict ship Hougoumont in Western Australia after an 89-day voyage from England. There are 62 Fenians among the transportees, January 10 – Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu declares the emperors declaration illegal and prepares to attack Kyoto. February – Foreign ministers meeting in Hyōgo are persuaded to recognise the restored Emperor Meiji of Japan with promises that harbours will be open in accordance with international treaties, february 13 – The British War Office sanctions the formation of what becomes the Army Post Office Corps. February 16 – In New York City the Jolly Corks organization is renamed the Benevolent, february 19 – in the Passage of Humaitá a Brazilian naval force succeeds in dashing past a Paraguayan fortress on the River Paraguay, considered by some the turning point in the Paraguayan War. February 24 Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, Three days after his action to dismiss United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Johnson is later acquitted by the United States Senate, the first parade to have floats takes place at Mardi Gras in New Orleans. March – French geologist Louis Lartet discovers the first identified skeletons of Cro-Magnon, the first early modern humans, at Abri de Crô-Magnon, a rock shelter at Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France. March 12 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke of Edinburgh, is shot in the back in Sydney, Australia, the prince survives and quickly recovers, OFarrell is executed on April 21 despite attempts by the prince to gain clemency for him. March 23 – The University of California is founded in Oakland, California, march 24 – The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company is formed. March 27 – The Lake Ontario Shore Railroad Company is organized in Oswego, march – The first transnational womens organization, Association internationale des femmes, is founded. April 1 – The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute is established in Hampton, April 7 – The Charter Oath, drawn up by his councilors, is promulgated at the enthronement of the Emperor Meiji of Japan, promising deliberative assemblies and an end to feudalism. April 9 – Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia massacres at least 197 of his own people at Magdala and these are prisoners incarcerated, for the most part, for very trivial offenses, and are killed for requesting bread and water. Tewodros commits suicide and Magdala is captured, ending the British Expedition to Abyssinia, April 11–July – Fall of Edo, the Japanese city is surrendered to the Emperor Meiji. The Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu submits to the Emperor, April 29 – General William Tecumseh Sherman brokers the Treaty of Fort Laramie between the federal government of the United States and the Plains Indians. May 10–14 – Battle of Utsunomiya Castle in Japan, forces of the Emperor Meiji resist the troops of the Tokugawa shogunate. May 16, May 26 – President Andrew Johnson is twice acquitted during his impeachment trial, may 26 – Fenian bomber Michael Barrett becomes the last person publicly hanged in the United Kingdom

11.
1869
–
As of the start of 1869, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 3 – Abdur Rahman Khan is defeated at Tinah Khan, january 5 – Scotlands oldest professional football team, Kilmarnock F. C. is founded. January 20 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton is the first woman to testify before the United States Congress, sisterhood, a philanthropic educational organization for women, is founded at Iowa Wesleyan College in Mount Pleasant, Iowa. January 27 – The Republic of Ezo is proclaimed on the northern Japanese island of Ezo by remaining adherents to the Tokugawa shogunate, february 5 – Prospectors in Moliagul, Victoria, Australia, discover the largest alluvial gold nugget ever found, known as the Welcome Stranger. February 20 – Ranavalona II, the Merina Queen of Madagascar, is baptized, february 26 – The 2½-year-old Mahbub Ali Khan begins a 42-year reign as Nizam of Hyderabad. March 1 – North German Confederation issues 10gr and 30gr value stamps, march 4 – Ulysses S. Grant is sworn in as President of the United States. March 6 – Dmitri Mendeleev makes a presentation of his periodic table to the Russian Chemical Society. March 9 – Southern Illinois University Carbondale is founded, march 24 – Titokowarus War ends with surrender of the last Māori troops at large in the South Taranaki District of New Zealands North Island. April 6 – The American Museum of Natural History is founded in New York, may – In France, the opposition, consisting of republicans, monarchists and liberals, polls almost 45% of the vote in national elections. May 4–10 – Naval Battle of Hakodate, The Imperial Japanese navy defeats adherents of the Tokugawa shogunate, may 6 – Purdue University is founded in West Lafayette, Indiana. May 10 – The First Transcontinental Railroad in North America is completed at Promontory, Utah, may 15 – Womens suffrage, In New York, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton form the National Woman Suffrage Association, may 18 – One day after surrendering at the land Battle of Hakodate, Enomoto Takeaki turns over Goryōkaku to Japanese forces, signaling the collapse of the Republic of Ezo. May 22 – Sainsburys first store, in Drury Lane, London, is opened, may 26 – Boston University is chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. June 1 – The Cincinnati Red Stockings open the season as the first fully professional team. June 2 – Sherwood College is founded in Nainital, India, june 15 – John Wesley Hyatt patents celluloid, in Albany, New York. June 27 – The fortress of Goryōkaku is turned over to Imperial Japanese forces, bringing an end to the Republic of Ezo, the Battle of Hakodate, june 30-July 2 – The first Estonian Song Festival takes place in Tartu. July 10 – The Swedish town Gävle is destroyed in a city fire, August 9 – August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht found the Social Democratic Workers Party of Germany. August 27 – The University of Oxford win the first international race held on the River Thames against Harvard University

12.
1870
–
As of the start of 1870, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 1 The first edition of The Northern Echo newspaper is published in Priestgate, Darlington, plans for the Brooklyn Bridge are completed. January 3 – Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins, january 6 – The Musikverein, Vienna, is inaugurated in Austria-Hungary. January 10 – John D. Rockefeller incorporates Standard Oil, january 15 – A political cartoon for the first time symbolizes the United States Democratic Party with a donkey. January 20 – SS City of Boston vanishes at sea with all 177 aboard, january 23 – U. S soldiers attack a peaceful camp of Piegan Blackfeet Indians led by chief Heavy Runner in the Marias Massacre. January 26 – Reconstruction Era, Virginia rejoins the Union, february – Denis Vrain-Lucas is sentenced to 2 years in prison for multiple forgery in Paris. February 1 – Goodna State School in Goodna, Queensland, Australia is founded, february 2 – It is revealed that the famed Cardiff Giant in the U. S. is just carved gypsum and not the petrified remains of a human. February 3 – The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, february 9 – The U. S. Army Weather Bureau is created. February 10 Anaheim, California is incorporated, the YWCA is founded in New York City. February 12 – Women gain the right to vote in Utah Territory, february 23 – Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union. February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels, a Republican from Mississippi, is sworn into the United States Senate, february 26 – In New York City, the first pneumatic subway is opened, Beach Pneumatic Transit. February 26 – The German Commerzbank is founded in Hamburg, february 27 – The circle of the sun flag of Japan is adopted as the national flag for Japanese merchant ships by proclamation of the Daijō-kan. February 28 – The Bulgarian Exarchate is established by decree of Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire, march – The Mitsubishi company is established in Japan as a shipping firm by Iwasaki Yatarō with Thomas Blake Glover. March 1 – Marshal Francisco Solano Lópezs last troops are cornered by those of the Triple Alliance at the Battle of Cerro Corá in Paraguay, lópez refuses to surrender and is killed, ending the Paraguayan War. March 4 – Thomas Scott is executed by Louis Riels provisional government during the Red River Rebellion in modern-day Manitoba, march 5 – First ever international Association football match, England v Scotland, takes place under the auspices of the Football Association at The Oval, London. March 10 – The Deutsche Bank is founded in Berlin, march 19 – The Ohio Legislature passes the Cannon Act, thereby establishing the Ohio Agriculture and Mechanical College, later Ohio State University. March 24 – Syracuse University is established and officially opens, march 30 The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, giving blacks the right to vote, is ratified. Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction, march 31 – Thomas Mundy Peterson is the first African-American to vote in an election

13.
1871
–
As of the start of 1871, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 18 – The member states of the North German Confederation, the King of Prussia is declared the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. January 21 – Giuseppe Garibaldis group of French and Italian volunteer troops in support of the French Third Republic win a battle against the Prussians in Dijon, february 9 – United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries is founded. March 7 – José Paranhos, Viscount of Rio Branco, becomes Prime Minister of the Empire of Brazil, march 21 – John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne marries Princess Louise. March 21 – Otto von Bismarck becomes first Chancellor of the German Empire, march 22 In North Carolina, William Holden becomes the first governor of a U. S. state to be removed from office by impeachment. The United States Army issues an order for the abandonment of Fort Kearny, march 26 – The Paris Commune is formally established in Paris. March 27 – The first rugby union International results in a 4–1 win by Scotland over England, march 29 First Surgeon General of the United States appointed. The Royal Albert Hall in London is opened by Queen Victoria, april – The Stockholms Handelsbank is founded. April 4 – New Jersey Detective Agency chartered, april 20 – U. S. President Ulysses S. Grant signs the Civil Rights Act. April 24 – Murder of servant girl Jane Clouson in Eltham, may 4 – The first supposedly Major League Baseball game is played. May 8 – The first Major League Baseball home run is hit by Ezra Sutton of the Cleveland Forest Citys, may 10 – Treaty of Frankfurt is signed confirming the frontiers between Germany and France. May 11 – The first trial in the Tichborne case begins in the London Court of Common Pleas, may 21 – Opening of the first rack railway in Europe, the Vitznau–Rigi Railway on Mount Rigi in Switzerland. May 30 – French Third Republic, Government suppression of the Paris Commune rebellion is completed, june 1 – Bombardment of the Selee River Forts, Koreans attack two United States Navy warships. June 10 – United States expedition to Korea, Captain McLane Tilton leads 109 members of the United States Marine Corps in a naval attack on the Han River forts on Ganghwa Island in Korea. June 18 – The University Tests Act removes restrictions limiting access to Oxford, Cambridge, july 20 British Columbia joins the confederation of Canada. C. W. Alcock proposes that a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the Association, july 21 – August 26 – First ever photographs of Yellowstone National Park region taken by the photographer William Henry Jackson during the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. July 22 – The foundation stone of the first Tay Rail Bridge is laid, july 28 – The Annie, the first boat ever launched on Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park region. August 29 – The abolition of the han system is carried out in Japan, August 31 – Adolphe Thiers becomes the President of the French Republic

14.
Beijing babbler
–
The Beijing babbler, also known as the white-browed Chinese warbler, Chinese hill warbler, or Chinese bush-dweller, is a species of bird in the genus Rhopophilus. Its relationships are uncertain and it has placed in the families Cisticolidae, Timaliidae or Sylviidae. It is found in northern China and North Korea, and formerly occurred in South Korea, del Hoyo, J. Elliot, A. & Christie D. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 12, Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees

15.
Saffron-crested tyrant-manakin
–
The saffron-crested tyrant-manakin, or Saffron-crested Neopelma, is a species of bird in the Pipridae family, the manakins. Its a small short-tailed manakin, with a yellowish breast, it has an overall appearance very similar to a flycatcher. It is found in the Guianas, southern Venezuela and the northwestern Amazon Basin and its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical dry shrubland. The range in northern South America is the coastal Guianan region extending into coastal northeastern Brazil, in the Amazon Basin, the North Region, Brazil, the species is in the states of Amapá, Amazonas, and very southern Roraima. Disjunct localized populations are in northern Peru along river headwaters, photo-High Res, Article--Highest Res webserv. nhl. nl–Suriname Birds

16.
Alfred Newton
–
Alfred Newton FRS was an English zoologist and ornithologist. Newton was Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Cambridge University from 1866 to 1907, among his numerous publications were a four-volume Dictionary of Birds, entries on ornithology in the Encyclopaedia Britannica while also an editor of the journal Ibis from 1865 to 1870. In 1900 he was awarded the Royal Medal of the Royal Society, Alfred Newton was the fifth son of William Newton of Elveden Hall in Suffolk, sometime MP for Ipswich and a Justice of the Peace for the County of Norfolk. Alfreds mother Elizabeth was the daughter of Richard Slater Milnes of Fryston, the family wealth was founded on sugar plantations in the Caribbean, where Alfreds grandfather Samuel Newton had a sugarcane plantation in St Kitts, and a property in St Croix. With the abolition of slavery, the days of sugar were over. Elveden was a house and estate built in 1770 by Admiral Augustus Keppel on land where James II had hunted game, in 1828 the Newton family, complete with children and servants, made a lengthy trip to Italy. On the way back Alfred was born on 11 June 1829 at Les Délices, Alfred had a lively childhood, but suffered an accident when about five or six, which left him somewhat lame in one leg. He went to school in 1844 to Mr. Walkers school at Stetchworth near Newmarket, as with Charles Darwin, a youth spent shooting game birds – black or red grouse, common pheasant, partridge – led to a more general interest. Unlike Darwin, however, Newtons interest stayed with birds, some of which were even in those days. They included the great bustard, Montagus harrier, ravens, buzzards, redpolls, wrynecks, the vast warrens of the Breck, the woods and water-meadows of the valley of the Little Ouse, and the neighbouring Fenland made an ideal training-ground for a naturalist. This enthusiasm he shared with his younger brother Edward, the two carried out bird observation when they were together and corresponded whenever they were apart. In 1846 he went to a tutor in Biggleswade for a few months, in Cambridge jargon, this meant a student who paid for both his education and his lodgings. He took a particular interest in zoology and corresponded with many ornithologists of the time, a meeting with John Wolley at Cambridge in 1851 made them lifelong friends. He spent the rest of his life at Magdalene, and never married, a fall later in life, when he was on a trip to Heligoland, further crippled him, and he then walked with the aid of two sticks, instead of one, as formerly. From a three-legged, he has become a four-legged man commented a friend and he died on 7 June 1907 of heart failure at the Old Lodge in Magdalene. He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, in 1853 he was awarded the Drury Travelling Fellowship of Magdalene College but he took it up only in 1855 when the grant became available. Between 1855 and 1864 he visited parts of the world, including Lapland, Iceland, Spitsbergen. In 1858 he made a trip to Iceland with John Wolley with the hope of rediscovering the great auk, in 1866 he became the first Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at Cambridge, a position which he retained until his death

17.
Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869
–
The Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869 was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. It was the first Act to protect birds in that country. In 1868, Professor Alfred Newton addressed the British Association for the Advancement of Science on the On the Zoological Aspect of the Game Laws, in particular, he urged for protection of birds of prey and seabirds during the breeding season. The British Association appointed a committee to propose a close season, the committee consisted of Frank Buckland, Henry Eeles Dresser, William Bernhardt Tegetmeier and Henry Baker Tristram. James Edmund Harting was later co-opted onto the committee, newtons speech cited the destruction of seabirds on the Isle of Wight and Flamborough Head. Wide publicity of his led to public condemnation of the residents of Bridlington. Rev. Henry Frederick Barnes-Lawrence of Bridlington Priory held a meeting of local clergy and naturalists, barnes-Lawrences Association had the support of Francis Orpen Morris, William Thomson, Archbishop of York, and local MP Christopher Sykes. As with many animal welfare laws before 1900, the safety was not the main reason for the act. Seabirds were useful to sailors to warn of land in bad weather, if a boat was in fog and the sailors could hear seabirds nearby then they would know that they were near land. If the population of seabirds declined then they would not have this early warning system, the act was introduced by Christopher Sykes, Mr Clay and Mr Ward Jackson on behalf of the Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds. It was designed to reduce the effects of shooting and egg collecting during the breeding season

18.
Magnus von Wright
–
Magnus von Wright was a Swedish-Finnish painter and ornithologist. In addition to his illustrations, he also did landscapes. His ancestors were Scottish merchants who had settled in Narva during the 17th-Century and his father was a retired Major who owned a large and he was the eldest in a family of nine surviving children. His brothers Wilhelm and Ferdinand also became bird painters and he attended high school in Turku. It was there that he first developed his interest in birds and was able to join the Societas pro Fauna and Flora Fennica of Carl Reinhold Sahlberg, from 1823 to 1825, he attended the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts in Stockholm and studied privately with Carl Johan Fahlcrantz. He was also permitted to study the ornithological collection at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and his first professional work came when he was asked to provide illustrations for Otava, a three-volume compendium of Finnish culture and history, prepared and published by Carl Axel Gottlund. In 1857, he made a trip to Düsseldorf, where he created a series of still-lifes. Two years later, he published his own work on Finnish birds and he also spent many years helping to reconstruct the botanical and zoological collections that had been destroyed in the Great Fire of Turku. His paintings of Helsinki and its environs are considered to be of historical value. Anto Leikola, Juhani Lokki and Torsten Stjernberg, Von Wright -veljesten linnut, ISBN 951-118-037-1 Taiteilijaveljekset von Wright, Suomen kauneimmat lintumaalaukset. ISBN 951-109-231-6 Magnus von Wright, Dagböcker, ed. by Anto Leikola, 1835-1840, ISBN 951-5830-40-0, 1841-1849, ISBN 951-5830-47-8, 1850-1862, ISBN 951-5830-60-5, 1863-1868, ISBN 951-5830-85-0 Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland,1996. More paintings and drawings by Magnus von Wright @ the Kansallis Galleria Cultural Path in the Landscape of the Von Wright Brothers

19.
August von Pelzeln
–
August von Pelzeln was an Austrian ornithologist. He was a grandson to novelist Karoline Pichler and he studied at the University of Vienna, later working as an assistant under helminthologist Karl Moriz Diesing in the Hof-Naturalien-Cabinet. In 1857 he acquired curatorial duties formerly held by Johann Jakob Heckel and he worked on the birds collected by Johann Natterer in Brazil. He was forced to retire from the due to ill health. His name is associated with Pelzelns tody-tyrant, gustav Hartlaub named the Madagascar grebe in his honor, Otto Finsch named the Pohnpei starling after Pelzeln. Bemerkungen gegen Darwins Theorie vom Ursprung der Spezies, Vienna, A. Pichler Witwe & Sohn. Zur Ornithologie Brasiliens, Resultate von Johann Natterers Reisen in den Jahren 1817 bis 1835, Johann Natterer, Wien, BHL Beiträge zur Ornithologie Südafrikas - Contributions to the ornithology of southern Africa. Many papers in Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. zobodat. at, obits include bibliography Google Search

20.
John Gould
–
John Gould FRS was an English ornithologist and bird artist. He has been considered the father of study in Australia. His identification of the birds now nicknamed Darwins finches played a role in the inception of Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection, Goulds work is referenced in Charles Darwins book, On the Origin of Species. Gould was born in Lyme Regis, Dorset, the first son of a gardener and he and the boy probably had a scanty education. Shortly afterwards his father obtained a position on an estate near Guildford, Surrey and he was for some time under the care of J. T. Aiton, of the Royal Gardens of Windsor. The young Gould started training as a gardener, being employed under his father at Windsor from 1818 to 1824 and he became an expert in the art of taxidermy. In 1824 he set himself up in business in London as a taxidermist, Goulds position brought him into contact with the countrys leading naturalists. This meant that he was often the first to see new collections of birds given to the Zoological Society of London, in 1830 a collection of birds arrived from the Himalayas, many not previously described. Gould published these birds in A Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains, the text was by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and the illustrations were lithographed by Goulds wife Elizabeth, daughter of Nicholas Coxen, of Kent. Most of Goulds work were rough sketches on paper from which artists created the lithographic plates. This work was followed by four more in the seven years. It was completed in 1837, Gould wrote the text, and his clerk, Edwin Prince, some of the illustrations were made by Edward Lear as part of his Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae in 1832. Lear, however, was in difficulty, and he sold the entire set of lithographs to Gould. The books were published in a large size, imperial folio. Eventually 41 of these volumes were published, with about 3000 plates and they appeared in parts at £3 3s. A number, subscribed for in advance, and in spite of the expense of preparing the plates, Gould succeeded in making his ventures pay. This was a period for Gould who also published Icones Avium in two parts containing 18 leaves of bird studies on 54 cm plates as a supplement to his previous works. No further monographs were published as in 1838 he and his moved to Australia to work on the Birds of Australia

21.
Ornithology
–
Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. The word ornithology derives from the ancient Greek ὄρνις ornis and λόγος logos, several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of studies undertaken by amateurs working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology, most modern biological theories apply across taxonomic groups and the number of professional scientists who identify themselves as ornithologists has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, the origins of the word ornithology come from the Greek ornithologos and late 17th-century Latin ornithologia meaning bird science. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as a source, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland. Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds, traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic, many still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine, hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of the world, artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their scripts, many of which. Early written records provide information on the past distributions of species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria, other old writings such as the Vedas demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and includes the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel. Like writing, the art of China, Japan, Persia and India also demonstrate knowledge. Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium noted the habit of migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese, around 77 AD, Pliny the Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis. The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II, falconry made its entry to Europe only after AD400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen learned about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he had this work translated into Latin and also conducted experiments on birds in his menagerie