History of Folkestone

The history of Folkestone stretches back to prehistoric times, with evidence of human habitation dating to the Mesolithic and Paleolithic ages over 12,000 years ago.[1] Its close proximity to the Continent means that it has often been a point of transit for migrating people groups. The area has alternatively been occupied by groups of Britons, Romans and Saxons.[2] During the Iron Age, a large oppidum and quern-stone workshop[3] were situated on the eastern headlands of the bay. By the Roman era, it had been transformed into a large Roman Villa overlooking the sea.

During the Anglo-Saxon period, Folkestone was part of the Kingdom of Kent. After the Norman Invasion, A Norman knight held the Barony of Folkestone, by which time the settlement had become a fishing village. In the 13th century, it became part of the Cinque Ports, and with it the privileges of a wealthy trading port. At the start of the Tudor period it had become a town in its own right. Wars with France meant that defenses had to be built here; and plans for Folkestone Harbour were made. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the harbour finally became a reality, and Folkestone, like most settlements on the south coast, became involved in smuggling. However, it was the coming of the railways in mid-19th century that proved to be the town’s future: with it came the tourist trade, and the two industries, port and seaside resort, were the making of its prosperity until changes in tourist opportunities in the mid twentieth century brought about its present somewhat depleted fortunes.

Folkestone's history has been shaped by its location within the natural landscape. It sits near the North DownsTrackway, which provided a natural track from the narrowest point across the English Channel to the important religious complexes at Avebury and Stonehenge in Wiltshire, where it is known as the Harroway.[4] The entire area around Folkestone sits on a thick band of gault clay overlying the Lower Greensand which forms the underlying structure of southeast Britain.[3] The greensand was laid down during the Lower Cretaceous period, and is rich in ichnofauna.[5] The exposed greensand at Folkestone is a unique feature of the area, and is referred to as the Folkestone Formation or the Folkestone Beds. Unfortunately for historians and archeologists alike, the greensand stone is loose unconsolidated sandstone, and the gault clay is nearly liquid at the point where it meets the greenstone, meaning that significant erosion and possible loss of prehistoric sites may have occurred over the years. It is estimated that the cliffs at Folkestone have eroded around 400 – 500 meters since Roman times, and that cliffs are crumbling at a rate of 6 inches per year.[6]

While the nature of the cliffs in Folkestone means that much archaeological evidence has been lost to the sea, evidence has been found that points to settlement in the area as far back as 8,000 BC during the Mesolithic era. During excavations at the Folkestone Roman Villa site in 2010, archeologists discovered worked flints dating to the period, establishing proof of human presence in Folkestone at that time.[1][7] Tools dating to the Paleolithic have also been discovered at the Bayle in Folkestone, and there is evidence of a paleolithic settlement at nearby castle hill (also known as Caesar's encampment, though there is no evidence of Roman activity at this site).[1]

On the outskirts of Folkestone, an important Bronze Age site was found at Holywell Coombe between 1987 and 1988, in advance of the building of the Channel Tunnel.[8] Findings included "round houses," fields, trackways, and pottery fragments.

During the Iron Age, an extensive pre-Roman native settlement existed on the eastern headland of the bay, at what has come to be known as the East Wear Bay Site, or the Roman Villa Site. Beneath the remains of the Roman era villa lie the remains of a much older Iron Age oppidum that also served as a quern-stone production center. Quern-stones, or stones used to grind cereals into flour, were produced here on almost an industrial scale, using the local greensand stone from the Folkestone formation.[3] Over 200 querns have been recovered from the site, and most of them appear to have been discarded at some point during the process of production. Many have partially worked surfaces, or appear to have cracked during the hole boring stage.[9] In addition to the numerous broken or unfinished querns, a layer of the excavation strata at the Villa/opidum site is entirely composed of greensand dust, which is almost certainly stone-working debris, suggesting that this was the location of the Iron Age era quern workshop.[3]

Folkestone querns have been found in numerous other archaeological excavations throughout the greater Kent area and beyond, suggesting that the Iron Age residents had widespread trading connections. Querns have been found in local Kentish sites such as Wingham, and Dosset Court in Upper Deal, as well as more distant locations such as Husnbury Nortants, London, Essex, and possibly France.[10] Archeological evidence suggests that in return for the querns, the inhabitants received fine pottery from Gaul and wine from Italy.[11]

Evidence of trade between Roman Gaul and the wealthy community at Folkestone suggests that they were on good terms with the Romans in the years before the Roman occupation.[12] However, the town is not mentioned in any documents of the period, probably since a Roman road did not end here.[2] A 1st century cemetery was discovered in 1948 at Cheriton on the outskirts of modern Folkestone, and contained both British and Roman Remains.[2] Tiles stamped "Classis Britannica" have also been found at the Roman villa site, suggesting that the villa may have had some sort of connection to Roman navy in Britain.[10]

After the Romans conquered Britain, a large Roman villa was built over the older Iron Age oppidum. The first version of the Folkestone Roman Villa was built c. 75 AD, and consisted of one block built of tufa stone, with slate and ironstone foundations.[13] Archeological evidence suggests that the villa may have been damaged by fire, but it was rebuilt in the second century on a more luxurious scale, this time using quarried and dressed greensand stone.[13] It was built to roughly the same plan, but was enlarged with more rooms and corridors, an expanded Roman Bath suite, and more luxurious finishing such as hypocausts, mosaic floors, and painted walls. The main entertaining room of the villa, no. 40, would have had a magnificent view overlooking the courtyard and the over the cliffs to the sea. A second block was also built at this time, and also contained a bathing suite, kitchens, and a very large hypocaust.[13] It was abandoned for unknown reasons in the 3rd or 4th century.

As ‘Folcanstan’ the town first appears in the 7th century, possibly named for its use as the meeting place ('–stone') of someone called Folca.[14] Its recorded history may be viewed as beginning in this period due to the founding, in 630CE, of Folkestone Priory on the West Cliff at Folkestone by King Eadbald of Kent for his daughter Eanswythe (later canonised as St. Eanswythe) and her nuns. This is believed to have been the first Christian community for women in England. Her name lends itself to the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswythe where her mortal remains are believed to be interred. At the same time the King caused a fort to be built alongside. All evidence of both structures have since been destroyed either by sea or attack.[2][15] As a result, fishermen and farmers began to settle in the valley, although there was still little more than a tiny hamlet on the banks of the river and on the seashore. The town seal shows the saint with two fishes to record this.[2]

By 1066 the manor of Folkestone was in the ownership of the church at Canterbury. In 1052 Earl Godwin of Wessex had attacked all the coastal towns, and the area was thought important enough for a Norman to own it.[16] After William I became king he took the barony and made a gift of it to his half-brother Bishop Odo. By 1086, the year of Domesday the barony was held by William D'Arcy. It was given a value of £100 and consisted of about 6,240 acres (25.3 km2), 5 churches, about 600 people of whom 209 were villains and 83 bondsmen.[17]

In 1095 the lord of the manor was Nigel de Muneville: he built a new church in the town to replace that which was destroyed by Earl Godwin and established Folkestone Priory for Benedictine Monks close to the nunnery site. In 1138 a new church and priory were again built, this time by William D'Averanches and dedicated to St. Mary and St. Eanswythe.

The French took an opportunity to attack Folkestone in 1216 and laid waste to much of the settlement which, although still a village in size, was significant enough to have a Mayor and a Corporation. In 1313 Folkestone received a charter as a Corporate Limb of the Cinque port of Dover,[18] and was thus obliged to supply seven boats. Trade began through the port, especially of wool, but also of luxury goods such as wines and cloth.

The Tudor period again saw fears of French invasion, and coastal defences were strengthened. Gun sites were prepared on the Bayle headland. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I Folkestone contained about 120 houses. Folkestone Manor was one of the most prosperous in Kent. In 1545 the Town Council was again enlarged; and harbour plans, to replace the ancient Stade where boats had been landing, were drawn up in 1629, although they came to nothing.[2]

At this time, too, the Free School, for poor boys, was established in 1684, by William Harvey's legacy; it was later to become Harvey Grammar School. A Guildhall was also built. By 1700 the town was expanding away from the beach area, up on to the hills on either side of the stream valley, although there were still pastures and orchards in the valley.[2]

In 1794 the War Office purchased over 229 acres (930,000 m²) of open land at Shorncliffe, to the west of Folkestone. Here the Shorncliffe Redoubt was built; in 1796 the Garrison was further extended with the provision of barracks for housing troops, originally being sent off to the Peninsula Wars, were stationed there. In 1804 the original wooden barracks were replaced with buildings of stone construction and were used to house cavalry and artillery brigades. Subsequent wars have seen many thousands of troops here: the present Sir John Moore Barracks is the home of Gurkha Regiment in Britain.

The beginning of this period coincided with smuggling which was rife throughout the South Coast of England. Local people were generally favourably inclined towards them,[19] and Folkestone dwellers were no exception. The main storage area for smuggled goods was The Warren, to the east of the town.

The 19th century saw Folkestone Harbour become a reality; and the coming of the railways heralded the start of a new industry to the town: that of tourism, although this was to be relatively much later than its neighbours of Margate, Ramsgate and Broadstairs. Most of the facilities expected of a seaside resort - a pleasure pier, a bathing establishment, theatres - only appeared after the 1880s.[2]

In the First World War the town became host to some 65,000 Belgian refugees fleeing the conflict. Shorncliffe Camp served as a training camp for thousands of recruits in training, and the port was the main embarkation point for soldiers leaving to fight in the trenches of France and Belgium. Whole blocks of houses, hotels and other buildings were commandeered for the hundreds of thousands of soldiers, including many Canadian troops. They marched through the town to the harbour along the route now called the "Road of Remembrance".

In general, little serious damage was done to Folkestone during World War I, although on 25 May 1917 low cloud over London caused a 21 strong wave of Gothabombers to abort a raid on the capital. The Luftstreitkräfte aircraft turned for home and detached their bombs mainly in the Folkestone district, killing 71 people and injuring 94 more.[2]

After the war a good deal of refurbishment was required: requisitioned buildings had to be made ready for holidaymakers. New buildings to attract them were built: the Marina and new pleasure gardens were established, and the Marine Pavilion built. But this was not to last for long, for much worse befell the town in World War II.

At the very beginning of that war thousands of school children were evacuated to the town, but were soon sent elsewhere in 1940. Within a few weeks Folkestone became a prohibited area and 35,000 residents left. Defences around the town were set up: tank traps, barbed wire surrounded it, and gun batteries set upon the heights. In this war the town was under constant attack: bombs and shelling (from across the Channel) and later flying bombs caused immense damage, and Folkestone was to be changed forever.[2] Casualties were high: 123 people were killed, and 778 injured. 550 houses had been destroyed, 14,441 properties damaged.[20] It took almost twenty years before Folkestone was again to become a holiday resort.

In July 1967 an attempt was made to retrieve the cargo of the Kielce, a Polish munitions ship that had sunk in 1946 off Folkestone. During preliminary work, the ordnance in the vessel’s hold exploded with force equivalent to an earthquake measuring 4.5 on the Richter scale, digging a six-metre deep crater in the seabed and causing panic in Folkestone, although no-one was injured.

1.
Folkestone
–
Folkestone /ˈfoʊkstən/ is a port town on the English Channel, in Kent, south-east England. The town lies on the edge of the North Downs at a valley between two cliffs. It was an important harbour and shipping port for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, there has been a settlement in this location since the Mesolithic era. A nunnery was founded by Eanswith, daughter of Æthelberht of Kent in the 7th century, the harbours use has diminished since the opening of the nearby Channel Tunnel and stopping of local ferry services, but still remains in active use. The area of Folkestone has been occupied since at least the Mesolithic era, in 2010, worked flints were discovered below the remains of the Folkestone Roman Villa. The East Cliff area was excavated in 1924 and most recently from 2010 -2011, on the East Cliff, an extensive Iron Age oppidum existed, which produced quern-stones on an almost industrial scale. These querns, or stones used for grinding cereals into flour, were traded for continental exports such as pottery, a modest Roman style villa was constructed over the Iron Age settlement sometime during the first century AD, followed by a more luxurious one in about 200 AD. The villa was abandoned sometime during the third or fourth century for unknown reasons, in 597 AD, monks led by St Augustine arrived at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet, on a mission from Pope Gregory to re-Christianise Britain. He was greeted by the Anglo Saxon pagan King of Kent, Ethelbert and his Christian Queen, Augustine was granted land in Canterbury where he built his church and outside the walls founded the monastery of St Peter & St Paul - now known as St Augustines. Ethelbert was succeeded as Anglo-Saxon king of Kent by his son Eadbald, in 630 AD, Eanswythe founded a nunnery on the site of her fathers castle near Folkestone by the present parish Church of St Mary & St Eanswythe. Eanswythe died c 640 AD and was made a saint. Her remains were moved into the chancel of the current church in the 12th century and they became the focus of prayer and pilgrimage such that Eanswythe was quickly adopted as the towns patron. The community grew and developed into a monastery until it was dissolved by Henry VIII and they were rediscovered in June 1885 when workmen, carrying out alterations to the high altar, found a battered lead casket immured in a niche in the north wall of the chancel. Examination by archaeologists at the time and again in 1981 confirmed that the casket was of Anglo-Saxon origin and these relics are still housed in the church close to where they were discovered in the north wall of the chancel flanked by a pair of small brass candlesticks. St Eanswythe is celebrated on 12 September each year - the date on which her relics were moved to the present chancel and she also appears on the towns seal with William Harvey, the Folkestone-born, 17th-century physician who discovered the circulation of the blood. A Norman knight held a Barony of Folkestone, which led to its entry as a part of the Cinque Ports in the thirteenth century, at the start of the Tudor period it had become a town in its own right. Wars with France meant that defences had to be built here, at the beginning of the 1800s a harbour was developed, but it was the coming of the railways in 1843 that would have the bigger impact. Until the 19th century Folkestone remained a fishing community with a seafront that was continually battered by storms

2.
Mesolithic
–
In archaeology, the Mesolithic is the culture between Paleolithic and Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used for areas outside northern Europe, Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It was originally post-Pleistocene, pre-agricultural material in northwest Europe about 10,000 to 5000 BC, in the archaeology of Northern Europe, for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia, the term Mesolithic is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term Epipaleolithic may be preferred by most authors, in the New World, neither term is used. Other authors use the term Mesolithic for a variety of Late Paleolithic cultures subsequent to the end of the last glacial period whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not, conversely, those that are in course of transition toward artificial food production are assigned to the Mesolithic. Therefore, care must be taken in translating Mesolithic as Middle Stone Age, subdivisions of earlier and later were added to the Stone Age by Thomsen and especially his junior colleague and employee Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. John Lubbock kept these divisions in his work Pre-historic Times in 1865 and he saw no need for an intermediate category. When Hodder Westropp introduced the Mesolithic in 1866, as an intermediate between Paleolithic and Neolithic, a storm of controversy immediately arose around it. A British school led by John Evans denied any need for an intermediate, the ages blended together like the colors of a rainbow, he said. A European school led by Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet asserted that there was a gap between the earlier and later, edouard Piette claimed to have filled the gap with his discovery of the Azilian Culture. Knut Stjerna offered an alternative in the Epipaleolithic, a continuation of the use of Paleolithic technology, the start and end dates of the Mesolithic vary by geographical region. Childes view prevails that the term covers the period between the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the Neolithic. If the Mesolithic is more similar to the Paleolithic it is called the Epipaleolithic, the Paleolithic was an age of purely hunting and gathering while in the Neolithic domestication of plants and animals had occurred. Some Mesolithic peoples continued with intensive hunting, others were practising the initial stages of domestication. The type of remains the diagnostic factor, The Mesolithic featured composite devices manufactured with Mode V chipped stone tools. The Paleolithic had utilized Modes I–IV and the Neolithic mainly abandoned the chipped microliths in favor of polished, not chipped, the first period, known as Mesolithic 1, followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic periods throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries, small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts

3.
Paleolithic
–
The Paleolithic is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools and covers roughly 95% of human technological prehistory. It extends from the earliest known use of tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date of the Paleolithic–Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years. During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, the Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers, however, due to their nature, surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths. About 50,000 years ago, there was a increase in the diversity of artifacts. For the first time in Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record, the first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. Humankind gradually evolved from members of the genus Homo—such as Homo habilis. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures, by c. 50,000 – c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61°N latitude in Europe, by c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia, the term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek, παλαιός, palaios, old, and λίθος, lithos, stone, human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of anatomically modern humans as a distinct species. The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time and this epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africas collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean, climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic

4.
Boulogne
–
Boulogne-sur-Mer, often called Boulogne, is a city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais, Boulogne lies on the Côte dOpale, a tourist coast on the English Channel, and is the most-visited location in its region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its departments second-largest city after Calais, and the 60th largest in France and it is also the countrys largest fishing port, specialising in herring. Boulogne was the major Roman port for trade and communication with Britain, the citys 12th-century belfry is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, while another popular attraction is the marine conservation centre Nausicaa. The French name Boulogne derives from the Latin Bononia, which was also the Roman name for Bologna in Italy, both places—and Vindobona —are thought to have derived from native Celtic placenames, with bona possibly meaning foundation, citadel, or granary. The French epithet sur-Mer distinguishes the city from Boulogne-Billancourt on the edge of Paris, in turn, the Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt originates from a church there dedicated to Notre-Dame de Boulogne, Our Lady of Boulogne. Boulogne-sur-Mer is in Northern France, at the edge of the Channel, Boulogne is a relatively important city of the North, exercising an influence on the Boulonnais territory. The coast consists of important tourist natural sites, like the capes Gris Nez and Blanc Nez, the hinterland is mainly rural and agricultural. Boulogne is close to the A16 motorway, metropolitan bus services are operated by Marinéo. The company Flixbus propose a bus line connecting Paris to Boulogne, there are coach services to Calais and Dunkerque. The city has railway stations, which the most important is Boulogne-Ville station, boulogne-Tintelleries station is used for regional transit. It is located near the university and the city centre, the former Boulogne-Maritime and Boulogne-Aéroglisseurs stations served as a boat connection for the railway. Boulogne currently has no cross channel ferry services since the closure of the route to Dover by LD Lines in 2010. The city is divided into parts, City centre, groups historic and administrative buildings. Fortified town, old-town where are a lot of monuments and also the city hall. It is surrounded by 13th-century ramparts very appreciated today by walkers, gambetta-Sainte-Beuve, tourist area situated in the northwest of the city, on the edge of the beach and the recreational harbour. Capécure, economic and industrial area, situated in the west of the city, saint-Pierre, former neighborhood of the fishermen, destroyed during the World War II and reconstructed after. Chemin Vert, zone borned in the 1950s, knowing today poverty and it is the neighborhood of Franck Ribéry

5.
Britons (historical)
–
They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor to the modern Brittonic languages. The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age, after the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, a Romano-British culture emerged, and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic. During and after the Roman era, the Britons lived throughout Britain south of the Firth of Forth, with the beginning of Anglo-Saxon settlement in the 5th century, the culture and language of the Britons fragmented and much of their territory was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons. The extent to which cultural and linguistic change was accompanied by wholesale changes in the population is still a matter of discussion. During this period some Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant settlements in Brittany as well as Britonia in modern Galicia, Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages, Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish and Breton. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them, the group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne inhabited by the race of Hiberni, and Britain as insula Albionum, island of the Albions. The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. The first inhabitants were the Britons, who came from Armenia, the Latin name in the early Roman Empire period was Britanni or Brittanni, following the Roman conquest in AD43. Brittonic languages is a recent coinage intended to refer to the ancient Britons specifically. In English, the term Briton originally denoted the ancient Britons and their descendants, most particularly the Welsh, who were seen as heirs to the ancient British people. After the Acts of Union 1707, the terms British and Briton came to be applied not just to the remaining Brittonic peoples themselves, the Britons spoke an Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic. Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain, as well as islands such as the Isle of Man, Scilly Isles, Orkneys, Hebrides. Thus the area today is called Brittany, Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the Proto-Celtic language that developed in the British Isles after arriving from the continent in the 7th century BC. The language eventually began to diverge, some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as Western and Southwestern Brittonic languages, Pictish is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic, rather than being a separate Celtic language. Welsh and Breton survive today, Cumbric became extinct in the 12th century, Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of language revitalization since the 20th century. Ideas about the development of British Iron Age culture changed greatly in the 20th century, by this time Celtic styles seem to have been in decline in continental Europe, even before Roman invasions. Throughout their existence, the inhabited by the Britons was composed of numerous ever-changing areas controlled by Brittonic tribes. Part of the Pictish territory was absorbed into the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata and Alba

6.
Roman Britain
–
Roman Britain was the area of the island of Great Britain that was governed by the Roman Empire, from AD43 to 410. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by other Celtic tribes during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesars enemies. He received tribute, installed a king over the Trinovantes. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34,27, in AD40, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel, only to have them gather seashells. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain, the Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the Province of Britain. By the year 47, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way, control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudicas uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward. Around 197, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces, Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior, during the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century, for much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410, the kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that. Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, after the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor, over the centuries Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire, such as Italy, Spain, Syria and Algeria. Britain was known to the Classical world, the Greeks, Phoenicians and Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC, the Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or tin islands, and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC, however, it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed at all. The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The second invasion involved a larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul. Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind but he established clients, Augustus planned invasions in 34,27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustuss reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in annual revenue than any conquest could

7.
Saxons
–
The Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes first mentioned as living near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany, in the late Roman empire. They were soon mentioned as raiding and settling in many North Sea areas, as well as pushing south inland towards the Franks. Significant numbers settled in parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages. Many Saxons however remained in Germania, where they resisted the expanding Frankish Empire through the leadership of the semi-legendary Saxon hero, the Saxons earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein. This general area also included the probable homeland of the Angles, Saxons, along with the Angles and other continental Germanic tribes, participated in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. The British-Celtic inhabitants of the isles tended to refer to all of these collectively as Saxons. It is unknown how many Saxons migrated from the Continent to Britain, the Saxons may have derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known. The seax has a symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon. The Elizabethan era play Edmund Ironside suggests the Saxon name derives from the Latin saxa, Their names discover what their natures are, More hard than stones, in the Celtic languages, the words designating English nationality derive from the Latin word Saxones. The most prominent example, a loanword in English, is the Scottish Gaelic Sassenach and it derives from the Scottish Gaelic Sasunnach meaning, originally, Saxon, from the Latin Saxones. Scots- or Scottish English-speakers in the 21st century usually use it as a term for an English person. The Oxford English Dictionary gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English. Sasanach, the Irish word for an Englishman, has the same derivation, as do the words used in Welsh to describe the English people, Cornish terms the English Sawsnek, from the same derivation. In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase Meea navidna cowza sawzneck to feign ignorance of the English language, England in Scottish Gaelic is Sasainn. Other examples include the Welsh Saesneg, Irish Sasana, Breton saoz, and Cornish Sowson, Sowsnek, the label Saxons was also applied to German settlers who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern Transylvania. From Transylvania, some Saxons migrated to neighbouring Moldavia, as the name of the town, Sas-cut, sascut is located in the part of Moldavia that is today part of Romania. The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the term Saxony over the centuries to denote now the country of Germany

8.
British Iron Age
–
The parallel phase of Irish archaeology is termed the Irish Iron Age. The Iron Age is not a horizon of common artefacts. The British Iron Age lasted in theory from the first significant use of iron for tools, the Romanised culture is termed Roman Britain and is considered to supplant the British Iron Age. The Irish Iron Age was ended by the rise of Christianity, at a minimum, Celtic is a linguistic term without an implication of a lasting cultural unity connecting Gaul with the British Isles throughout the Iron Age. However it cannot be assumed that particular cultural features found in one Celtic-speaking culture can be extrapolated to the others. At present over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites have taken place, dating from the 8th century BC to the 1st century AD, hundreds of radiocarbon dates have been acquired and have been calibrated on four different curves, the most precise being based on tree ring sequences. In parts of Britain that were not Romanised, such as Scotland, the geographer closest to AD100 is perhaps Ptolemy. Pliny and Strabo are a bit older, but Ptolemy gives the most detail, during the later Bronze Age there are indications of new ideas influencing land use and settlement. Extensive field systems, now called Celtic fields, were being set out and settlements were becoming more permanent, long ditches, some many miles in length, were dug with enclosures placed at their ends. These are thought to indicate territorial borders and a desire to control over wide areas. By the 8th century BC, there is increasing evidence of Great Britain becoming closely tied to continental Europe, especially in Britains South and East. New weapon types appeared with clear parallels to those on the continent such as the Carps tongue sword, phoenician traders probably began visiting Great Britain in search of minerals around this time, bringing with them goods from the Mediterranean. At the same time, Northern European artefact types reached Eastern Great Britain in large quantities from across the North Sea, defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the brochs of Northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the rest of the islands. Some of the most well-known hill forts include Maiden Castle, Dorset, Cadbury Castle, Somerset and Danebury, hill forts first appeared in Wessex in the Late Bronze Age, but only become common in the period between 550 and 400 BC. The earliest were of a simple form, and often connected with earlier enclosures attached to the long ditch systems. Few hill forts have been excavated in the modern era, Danebury being a notable exception. However, it appears that forts were also used for domestic purposes, with examples of food storage, industry. Many hill forts are not in fact forts at all, the development of hill forts may have occurred due to greater tensions that arose between the better structured and more populous social groups

9.
Oppidum
–
An oppidum is a large fortified Iron Age settlement. They continued in use until the Romans began conquering Europe, north of the River Danube, where the population remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD. Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, enclosed space, possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age settlements he encountered in Gaul during the Gallic Wars in 58 to 52 BC as oppida. Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an oppidum and they were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the Roman legions could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities taking decisions that affected large numbers of people, Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, Geneva, for example, was referred to as an oppidum, Caesar also refers to 20 oppida of the Bituriges and 12 of the Helvetii, twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as oppida, a similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian Livy, who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements. In his work Geographia, Ptolemy listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements, however, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the oppidum of Brenodurum at Bern, in particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria, Size, The settlement has to have a minimum size, defined by Dehn as 30 hectares. Topography, Most oppida are situated on heights, but some are located on areas of land. Fortification, The settlement is surrounded by a wall, usually consisting of three elements, a facade of stone, a construction and an earthen rampart at the back. Chronology, The settlement dates from the late Iron Age, the last two centuries BC and they could be referred to as the first cities north of the Alps. The period of 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the known as La Tène. A notional minimum size of 15 to 25 hectares has often been suggested, however, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or circular rampart dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many oppida were built, in European archaeology, the term oppida is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at Glauberg have been called oppida, the Spanish word castro, also used in English, means a walled settlement or hill fort, and this word is often used interchangeably with oppidum by archaeologists. According to prehistorian John Collis oppida extend as far east as the Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over, central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently

10.
Quern-stone
–
Quern-stones are stone tools for hand-grinding a wide variety of materials. The lower, stationary, stone is called a quern, while the upper stone is called a handstone. They were first used in the Neolithic to grind cereals into flour, quern-stones have been used throughout the world to grind materials, the most important of which was usually grain to make flour for bread-making. They were generally replaced by millstones once mechanised forms of milling appeared, particularly the water mill, however, in many non-Westernised, non-mechanised cultures they are still manufactured and used regularly and have only been replaced in many parts of the world in the last century or so. The authors concluded that this was due to the use of these querns in the preparation of medicines, cosmetics. Querns were widely used in grinding metals ores after mining extraction, the aim was to liberate fine ore particles which could then be separated by washing for example, prior to smelting. They were thus used in gold mining in antiquity. In the Shetlands tobacco was not smoked when first introduced, but instead was ground up into snuff, snuff-querns consisted of an upper and lower stone, fixed together by a central iron pivot. The quern was held on the lap, the eye of the quern was filled with dried tobacco leaves. The friction caused by the ground the leaves into a fine powder that built up around the edge of the lower-stone. Many snuff-querns had a hole or cut made near the edge of the upper-stone, into which a pointed end of a lambs horn was placed in order to turn the stone. There are, however, more surprising recorded uses of quern-stones, for example, DeBoer, in his review of the traditional gambling games of North American tribes, reports that one of the games involved bouncing a group of split canes off a quern. Violence is recorded in the book of Judges, “But a certain woman threw an upper-millstone on Abimelech’s head and these have naturally rough surfaces, but grains do not detach easily, so the material being ground does not become gritty. However, such rocks are not always available, meaning that quern-stones have been manufactured from a variety of rocks, including sandstone, quartzite. Quernmore Crag near Lancaster in England is named after the quarrying of millstone grit used to make quern stones in these parts, rutter was able to show, for the southern Levant, that basalt quern-stones were preferred to those manufactured from other rock types. Basalt quern-stones were therefore transported over long-distances, leading him to argue that, despite their every-day, utilitarian function, the earliest forms of quern were the saddle and trough querns. The earliest quern so far discovered dates to c.9,000 BCE and was found at Abu Hureyra, a later development was the rotary quern, which takes several forms. The saddle quern is produced by rocking or rolling the handstone using parallel motions and these are the most ancient and widely used type of quern-stone

11.
Folkstone Roman Villa
–
The villa is situated on a cliff top overlooking the English Channel, with views of the French coast at Boulogne on a clear day. The villa was built around A. D.75, and was almost certainly built within the confines of a preexisting Iron Age settlement. The villa was rebuilt and expanded in probably the second century A. D. this time as a substantial structure with mosaics, a bath-house. The villa was abandoned sometime in the century, though archeological evidence suggests that it was briefly reoccupied in the fourth century. The Roman villa and earlier Iron Age workshop are located on the head of a low, slumped cliff, the cliff here is composed of a band of gault clay that is nearly 100 feet thick, which overlies the Lower Greensand stone formation. The greensand is not actually sand, it is a loose, the exposed greensand at Folkestone, referred to as the Folkestone Formation or the Folkestone Beds, is a unique geological feature of the area, and is rich with fossils and ichnofauna. The formation extends about 5 miles to the northwest of Folkestone to town of Stanford, at the junction where the gault meets the greensand, the gault is nearly liquid, resulting is major erosion and landslides over the years. This erosion has threatened to destroy the site, which was another 400 –500 meters from the sea during Roman times. The site is crumbling into the sea at about a rate of 6 inches per year, numerous rescue excavations have been undertaken over the years, as archeologists race to rescue the site from slow destruction. Scattered evidence of human habitation near the Villa site has been uncovered during archeological digs, in 2010, excavators uncovered Mesolithic worked flints below the Roman villa site. Although these flints probably originated from a location and were washed into the villa site. Tools dating to the Neolithic period have been discovered at the Bayle in Folkestone, findings included round houses, fields, trackways, and pottery fragments. During the Iron Age, an extensive, pre-Roman native settlement occupied the headland of the bay, on what has come to be known as the East Bay Site. Beneath the remains of the Romano-British villa was probably an Iron Age oppidum, remains beneath the Roman villa suggest that querns, or stones used to grind cereal crops into flour, were produced here during the Iron Age on an almost industrial scale. Over 60 quern-stones have been recovered from the site of the villa, the querns are made of the local greensand stone, most likely collected or cut from nearby Copt Point and taken to the headland to be worked. The majority of the found querns are unfinished, with partially worked surfaces, or incomplete hoppers, in many cases, the querns appear to have been damages and discarded, many seeming to have fractured during the hole boring stage. Archeological evidence suggests that in return for the querns, fine pottery from Gaul, by c.75 AD, the Iron Age settlement had been replaced with a Roman villa. The first version of the villa to be built consisted only of block A, main rooms had opus signinum flooring, and were possibly painted with frescoes

12.
Kingdom of Kent
–
The kingdom of the Kentish, today referred to as the Kingdom of Kent, was an early medieval kingdom in what is now South East England. Establishing itself in either the fifth or sixth centuries CE, it continued to exist until being absorbed into the Kingdom of England in the tenth century. Following the end of Roman administration in 410, further linguistically Germanic tribal groups moved into the area and it has been argued that an East Saxon community initially settled West Kent, before being conquered by the expanding East Kentish in the sixth century. The earliest recorded king of Kent was Æthelberht, who as bretwalda wielded significant influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the sixth century. The Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons began in Kent under Æthelberht’s reign with the arrival of the monk Augustine of Canterbury and it was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon heptarchy, but it lost its independence in the 8th century when it became a sub-kingdom of Mercia. In the 9th century, it became a sub-kingdom of Wessex and its name has been carried forward ever since as the county of Kent. In the Romano-British period, the area of modern Kent that lay east of the River Medway was a known as Cantiaca. Its name had taken from an older Common Brittonic place-name, Cantium used in the preceding pre-Roman Iron Age. During the late third and fourth centuries, Roman Britain had been raided repeatedly by Franks, Saxons, Picts and these foederati would have assimilated into Romano-British culture, making it difficult to distinguish them archaeologically. In 407, the Roman legions left Britain in order to deal with incursions into the Empires continental heartlands and this may represent a memory of a genuine exodus of the Roman aristocracy. According to archaeologist Martin Welch, the century witnessed a radical transformation of what became Kent, politically, socially. Both literary and archaeological records show the migration of linguistically Germanic peoples from northern Europe into Britain during this century, the fate of the Romano-British is also debated, many may have fled to Western Britain or Brittany. In Kent, it is likely that some the Romano-British population remained, as the Roman name for the area, Cantiaca, influenced the name of the new Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Cantware. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a king of the Britons known as Vortigern invited two Germanic leaders, Hengist and Horsa, to Britain to help defend against Pictish raiders. After arriving at Ebbas Creek in Kent in 449, Hengist and Horsa led the defeat of the Picts before turning on the British and inviting more Germanic tribes to colonise Briton. Among these were the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes, the latter settled in Kent, according to the Chronicle, in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought Vortigern at Ægelesthrep, in which battle Horsa was killed. Hengist succeeded him as king, followed in turn by his son Æsc, in 456 Hengest and Æsc battled the Britons at Crecganford. The Britons then fled Kent for their London stronghold, the accuracy of these accounts is questioned, S. E. Kelly states that the legendary details are easy to dismiss

13.
Norman Invasion
–
Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne

14.
Cinque Ports
–
The Confederation of Cinque Ports is a historic series of coastal towns in Kent and Sussex. It was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial and it lies at the eastern end of the English Channel, where the crossing to the continent is narrowest. The name is Norman French, meaning five ports and they were, Hastings New Romney Hythe Dover Sandwich However, Rye, originally a subsidiary of New Romney, changed to become one of the Cinque Ports once New Romney was damaged by storms and silted up. Other towns also contribute to the confederation, including two Antient Towns, and seven Limbs, the five ports are supported by the two so-called Antient Towns of Rye and Winchelsea, whose councils traditionally maintained defence contingents for the realm of England. Apart from the five ports and the two Antient Towns, there are eight members of the Confederation, which are considered to be Limbs of the other towns. The coastal confederation during its mediaeval period consisted of a confederation of 42 towns and villages in all. Johns, St. Peters, Ringwould, Woodchurch and Kingsdown Limbs of Hythe – West Hythe Walmer, Ramsgate A Royal Charter of 1155 established the ports to maintain ships ready for the Crown in case of need. The chief obligation laid upon the ports, as a duty, was to provide 57 ships for 15 days service to the king annually. The leeway given to the Cinque Ports, and the turning of an eye to misbehaviour, led to smuggling. A significant factor in the need to maintain the authority of the Cinque Ports by the King was the development of the Royal Navy, the associated ports, known as limbs, were given the same privileges. The five head ports and two antient towns were entitled to send two Members to Parliament, the town of Hastings was the head port of the Cinque Ports in mediaeval times. The towns also had their own system of courts, all Freemen of the ports, termed portsmen, were deemed in the age of Feudalism to be barons, and thus members of the baronage entitled to attend the kings parliament. Termed Barons of the Cinque Ports, they reflected an early concept that military service at sea constituted land tenure per baroniam making them quasi feudal barons, writs of summons to parliament were sent to the warden following which representative barons of the Cinque Ports were selected to attend parliament. Thus the wardens duty in this respect was similar to that of the sheriff who received the writs for distribution to the barons in the shires and this no doubt related to their privileges as monopolies. The warden and barons often experienced clashes of jurisdiction, as time went by and some ports declined or silted up, others were added. Rye and Winchelsea were attached to Hastings as Antient Towns in the 12th century, the following corporate limbs were added in the 15th century, Lydd, Faversham, Folkestone, Deal, Tenterden, Margate and Ramsgate. At one time there were 23 limbs, although by the 14th century the confederation faced wider challenges from a greater consolidation of national identity in the monarchy and Parliament, the legacy of the Saxon authority remained. Even after the 15th century, the antient towns continued to serve with the supply of transport ships and it was here that from 1433 the White and Black Books of the Cinque Port Courts were kept

15.
Tudor period
–
The Tudor period is the period between 1485 and 1603 in England and Wales and includes the Elizabethan period which ends with the completion of the reign of Elizabeth I in 1603. The Tudor period coincides with the rule of the Tudor dynasty in England whose first monarch was Henry VII. In terms of the century, Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. Following the Black Death and the depression of the late 15th century. The export of woollen products resulted in an upturn with products exported to mainland Europe. Henry VII negotiated the favourable Intercursus Magnus treaty in 1496, the high wages and abundance of available land seen in the late 15th century and early 16th century were replaced with low wages and a land shortage. Various inflationary pressures, perhaps due to an influx of New World gold and this was a period of significant change for the majority of the rural population, with manorial lords beginning the process of enclosure. Historian Geoffrey Elton revolutionized the study of Tudor government with his 1953 book The Tudor Revolution in Government and he argued that Thomas Cromwell, who was Henry VIIIs chief minister from 1532 to 1540, was the author of modern, bureaucratic government, which replaced medieval, government-as-household-management. Cromwell introduced reforms into the administration that delineated the Kings household from the state and he injected Tudor power into the darker corners of the realm and radically altered the role of Parliament. This transition happened in the 1530s, Elton argued, and must be regarded as part of a planned revolution, by masterminding these reforms, wrote Elton, Cromwell laid the foundations of Englands future stability and success. However, Eltons thesis has been challenged by recent historians. The Tudor Government raised an amount of revenue from the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The clerical income from First Fruits and Tenths, which went to the Pope. The Tudor Government gained further revenue from the lands by receiving rents from confiscated lands. Altogether, between 1536 and Henrys death, the Government collected £1.3 million, this influx of money caused Cromwell to change the Crowns financial system to manage the money. He created a new department of state and a new official to collect the proceeds of the dissolution, the Court of Augmentations and number of departments meant a growing number of officials, which made the management of revenue troublesome and expensive. Partly because of the new revenue raised from the dissolution of monasteries and these were the six courts or departments of state, each fully organised with its own specialised officials, equipped with seals and habitat, and responsible for a particular kind of revenue. The growing number of departments meant that the number of officials involved increased, there were further financial and administrative difficulties in 1540–58, aggravated by war, debasement, corruption and inefficiency, which were mainly caused by Somerset

16.
Folkestone Harbour
–
Folkestone Harbour is the main harbour of the town of Folkestone in Kent, England. In 1541, King Henry was about to wage a war against the French, a plan was made to use Folkestone as a port of embarkation to supplies and troops. He sent a Master Tuk and Master Captain of Sandgate to look for a site for the new harbour, plans were made but never implemented. On 2 May 1542, the King came to Folkestone but then headed to Dover on 6 May, the Folkestone Harbour plan was abandoned. In 1703, a bad storm swept away one of the boats on the shingle beach. Also several houses had their foundations undermined as the beach was carried away, an engineer from Romney Marsh advised the local fisherman that the construction of 3 timber/stone jetties would protect the cliff. The work cost the fishermen £600, but in a storm in 1724, the three jetties were demolished and damage costing up to £1,100 was done. In 1790, Edward Hasted noted, 8-10 luggerboats, plus 30 smaller fishing boats employed up to 200-300 men and this fish was then taken up to the London markets. It remained a fishing community with a seafront that was continually battered by storms. And the loss of life, boats and damage to housing was a constant threat. In 1804, Earl of Radnor had petitioned Parliament for the construction of a stone harbour, in 1807, an Act of Parliament was passed to build a pier and harbour, which was built by Thomas Telford in 1809. In 1810, the new harbour of local stone was complete. By 1820, an area of 14 acres had been enclosed. Folkestones trade and population grew slightly but development was hampered by sand. The Folkestone Harbour Company invested heavily in removing the silt but with little success, in 1842, the company became bankrupt and the Government put the derelict harbour up for sale. It was bought by the South Eastern Railway Company, which was building the London to Dover railway line. George Turnbull was responsible in 1844 for building the Horn pier, dredging the harbour, and the construction of a rail route down to it, began almost immediately, and the town soon became the SER’s principal packet station for the Continental traffic to Boulogne. In 1849, the harbour was used by up to 49,000 passengers, the harbour is served by the Folkestone Harbour railway station, opened since 1849 although it is under consultation to be closed down

17.
Smuggling
–
There are various motivations to smuggle. Examples of non-financial motivations include bringing banned items past a security checkpoint or the removal of classified documents from a government or corporate office, Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizets opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books Diamonds are Forever and Goldfinger. The verb smuggle, from Low German schmuggeln or Dutch smokkelen, apparently a frequentative formation of a meaning to sneak. Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, in England smuggling first became a recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national customs collection system by Edward I in 1275. Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of highly taxed export goods — notably wool, merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, according to Dr Evan Jones, the trouble with these is that they only detail the activities of those dumb enough to get caught. This has led him and others, such as Prof Huw Bowen to use records to reconstruct smuggling businesses. Grain smuggling by members of the elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century. In England wool was smuggled to the continent in the 17th century, the principal reason for the high duty was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely expensive wars with France and the United States. The thievery was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed a kind of heroism and it did not have any taint of criminality and the whole of the south coast had pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers were the darkest or most daring. The Smugglers Inn was one of the commonest names for a bar on the coast, in Henley Road, smuggling in colonial times was a reaction to the heavy taxes and regulations imposed by mercantilist trade policies. After American independence in 1783, smuggling developed at the edges of the United States at places like Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Marys in Georgia, Lake Champlain, and Louisiana. During Thomas Jeffersons embargo of 1807-1809, these places became the primary places where goods were smuggled out of the nation in defiance of the law. Like Britain, a gradual liberalization of laws as part of the free trade movement meant less smuggling. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt tried to cut down on smuggling by establishing the Roosevelt Reservation along the United States-Mexico Border, Smuggling revived in the 1920s during Prohibition, and drug smuggling became a major problem after 1970. In the 1990s, when sanctions were imposed on Serbia. The state unofficially allowed this to continue or otherwise the entire economy would have collapsed, much smuggling occurs when enterprising merchants attempt to supply demand for a good or service that is illegal or heavily taxed. As a result, illegal trafficking, and the smuggling of weapons, as well as the historical staples of smuggling, alcohol

18.
North Downs
–
The North Downs are a ridge of chalk hills in south east England that stretch from Farnham in Surrey to the White Cliffs of Dover in Kent. Westerham Heights, at the edge of the North Downs, near Bromley. The North Downs lie within two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the Surrey Hills and the Kent Downs, the North Downs Way National Trail runs along the North Downs from Farnham to Dover. Downs is from Old English dun meaning, amongst other things, the word acquired the sense of elevated rolling grassland around the fourteenth century. These hills are prefixed north to distinguish them from the morphologically similar range of hills - the South Downs - which run parallel to them. The narrow spine of the Hogs Back between Farnham and Guildford forms the western extremity of the North Downs, whilst the cliffs between Folkestone and Deal terminate the ridge in the east, there are two distinct aspects, the steep south-facing escarpment and the gentle north-facing dip slope. The southern boundary is defined by the foot of the escarpment which gives way to the flat, the northern boundary is less apparent but occurs where the chalk submerges below the more recent Paleocene deposits. The Downs are highest near the Kent-Surrey border, often reaching heights in excess of 200 m above sea level at the crest of the escarpment, the highest point is Botley Hill in Surrey at 269 metres. The County top of Kent at Betsoms Hill, with a height of 251 metres is located nearby, east of the Medway Valley the Downs become broader and flatter, extending as far as the Isle of Thanet. The ridge is intersected by the valleys of a series of rivers and these drain much of the Weald to the south, the western ones are tributaries of the Thames, they carve steep valleys through the chalk and provide natural corridor routes. Except for the valleys and wind gaps, the crest of the escarpment is almost continuous along its length. The dip slope is dissected by small dry valleys, and in the broad eastern part in Kent. Leith Hill is sometimes referred to as part of the North Downs but is located on the parallel Greensand Ridge. The Chalk Group, composed almost entirely of chalk, a kind of soft fine-grained limestone. It is formed of three parts, the Upper Chalk, which has many flints, the Middle Chalk, with flints. The chalk is most commonly exposed on slopes or as cliffs, the buried upper surface of the chalk beneath the acidic strata is often eroded into pipes, gulleys and pinnacles, sometimes visible in road cuttings and quarries. The Upper Greensand Formation, a whitish, limy sandstone, often used for building, the Upper Greensand of the North Downs is a thin bed of one or two metres thickness, and it is rarely visible at the surface. The Upper Greensand marks the edge of the Downs, being underlain by

19.
Pilgrims' Way
–
The Pilgrims Way is the historical route supposed to have been taken by pilgrims from Winchester in Hampshire, England, to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury in Kent. This name, of recent coinage, is applied to a pre-existing ancient trackway dated by archaeological finds to 500–450 BC. The prehistoric route followed the natural causeway east to west on the slopes of the North Downs. The course was dictated by the geography, it took advantage of the contours, avoided the sticky clay of the land below but also the thinner. In places a coexisting ridgeway and terrace way can be identified, the route followed would have varied with the season, the route was still followed as an artery for through traffic in Roman times, a period of continuous use of more than 3000 years. Winchester, apart from being a centre in its own right, was an important regional focus. Indeed, this was the route taken by Henry II on his pilgrimage of atonement for the death of Bishop Thomas from France To Canterbury in July 1174. A separate route to Canterbury from London was by way of Watling Street, here he asserted that the route was little studied and that very many persons in the neighbourhood had not been aware of it. His insertion of the name on the Ordnance map gave an official sanction to his conjecture. In fact, the route as shown on maps is not only unsuitable for the mass movement of travellers but has also left few traces of their activity. The official history of the Ordnance Survey acknowledges the enduring archaeological blunder, blaming the enthusiasm for history of the then Director, together, romantically inclined authors have succeeded in creating a fable of. modern origin to explain the existence of the Way. However, F. C. Elliston-Erwood, A Kentish historian, notes that tithe records dating from before 1815 use the established name Pilgrims Way to reference. Earlier still, surviving thirteenth century show a Pilgrim Road by the walls of Thornham Castle, Kent. The Pilgrims Way is at the centre of the Powell and Pressburger film A Canterbury Tale, anyone walking the Pilgrims Way from Winchester would have started along the Roman road east following the route through New Alresford, Alton and Bentley to Farnham. This roughly follows the modern A31, South of Rochester, the Pilgrims Way travels through the villages of Burham, Boxley, Detling and continuing in a south-east direction to the north of the villages of Harrietsham and Lenham. The route continues south-east along the top of the Downs past Charing, to Wye and then north to follow the valley of the Great Stour through Chilham. At Reigate the thirteenth-century chapel of St Thomas and a hospice were built for the pilgrims use, Boxley Abbey, with its revered Rood of Grace, was another recognised detour. The North Downs Way National Trail parallels the old Pilgrims Way between Farnham and Canterbury, the route also links with the South Downs Way at Winchester

20.
Avebury
–
Avebury is a Neolithic henge monument containing three stone circles, around the village of Avebury in Wiltshire, in southwest England. One of the best known sites in Britain, it contains the largest stone circle in Europe. It is both a tourist attraction and a place of importance to contemporary pagans. Its original purpose is unknown, although archaeologists believe that it was most likely used for some form of ritual or ceremony, the Avebury monument is a part of a larger prehistoric landscape containing several older monuments nearby, including West Kennet Long Barrow and Silbury Hill. By the Iron Age, the site had effectively abandoned. During the Early Middle Ages, a village first began to be built around the monument, in the Late Medieval and Early Modern periods, local people destroyed many of the standing stones around the henge, both for religious and practical reasons. The antiquarians John Aubrey and William Stukeley, however, took an interest in Avebury during the 17th century, archaeological investigation followed in the 20th century, led primarily by Alexander Keiller, who oversaw a project which reconstructed much of the monument. Avebury is owned and managed by the National Trust, at grid reference SU10266996, Avebury is respectively about 6 and 7 miles from the modern towns of Marlborough and Calne. Avebury lies in an area of chalkland in the Upper Kennet Valley which forms the catchment for the River Kennet and supports local springs and seasonal watercourses. The monument stands slightly above the landscape, sitting on a low chalk ridge 160 m above sea level, to the east are the Marlborough Downs. It is now listed as part of the Stonehenge, Avebury, the monuments are preserved as part of a Neolithic and Bronze Age landscape for the information they provide regarding prehistoric peoples relationship with the landscape. Radiocarbon dating and analysis of pollen in buried soils have shown that the environment of lowland Britain changed around 4250–4000 BCE. The change to an environment from damp, heavy soils and expanses of dense forest was mostly brought about by farmers, probably through the use of slash. Environmental factors may also have made a contribution, different species of snail live in specific habitats, so the presence of a certain species indicates what the area was like at a particular point in time. The history of the site before the construction of the henge is uncertain, evidence of activity in the region before the 4th millennium BCE is limited, suggesting that there was little human occupation. During this era, those living in Britain were hunter-gatherers, often moving around the landscape in small familial or tribal groups in search of food. The archaeologists Mark Gillings and Joshua Pollard suggested the possibility that Avebury first gained some sort of significance during the Late Mesolithic period. As evidence, they highlighted the existence of a posthole near to the southern entrance that would have once supported a large wooden post

21.
Stonehenge
–
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England,2 miles west of Amesbury and 8 miles north of Salisbury. Stonehenges ring of standing stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. Radiocarbon dating suggests that the first bluestones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC, although they may have been at the site as early as 3000 BC, one of the most famous landmarks in the UK, Stonehenge is regarded as a British cultural icon. It has been a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument since 1882 when legislation to protect historic monuments was first successfully introduced in Britain, the site and its surroundings were added to UNESCOs list of World Heritage Sites in 1986. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage, Stonehenge could have been a burial ground from its earliest beginnings. Deposits containing human bone date from as early as 3000 BC, when the ditch and bank were first dug, William Stukeley in 1740 notes, Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire. I doubt not, Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones. Like Stonehenges trilithons, medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today, the henge portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges. Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from antiquarian use, Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years. There is evidence of construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscapes time frame to 6500 years. The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below, features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right. Archaeologists have found four, or possibly five, large Mesolithic postholes and these held pine posts around 0.75 metres in diameter, which were erected and eventually rotted in situ. Three of the posts were in an east-west alignment which may have had significance, no parallels are known from Britain at the time. A settlement that may have been contemporaneous with the posts has been found at Blick Mead, a reliable year round spring 1 mile from Stonehenge. Salisbury Plain was then still wooded but 4,000 years later, during the earlier Neolithic, people built an enclosure at Robin Hoods Ball. In approximately 3500 BC, a Stonehenge Cursus was built 700 metres north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees, a number of other adjacent stone and wooden structures and burial mounds, previously overlooked, may date as far back as 4000 BC. Charcoal from the ‘Blick Mead’ camp 2.4 kilometres from Stonehenge has been dated to 4000 BC and it stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping spot

22.
Wiltshire
–
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, the county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the new county town of Trowbridge. Wiltshire is characterised by its high downland and wide valleys, Salisbury Plain is noted for being the location of the Stonehenge and Avebury stone circles and other ancient landmarks, and as a training area for the British Army. The city of Salisbury is notable for its mediaeval cathedral, important country houses open to the public include Longleat, near Warminster, and the National Trusts Stourhead, near Mere. The county, in the 9th century written as Wiltunscir, later Wiltonshire, is named after the county town of Wilton. Wiltshire is notable for its pre-Roman archaeology, the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age people that occupied southern Britain built settlements on the hills and downland that cover Wiltshire. Stonehenge and Avebury are perhaps the most famous Neolithic sites in the UK, in the 6th and 7th centuries Wiltshire was at the western edge of Saxon Britain, as Cranborne Chase and the Somerset Levels prevented the advance to the west. The Battle of Bedwyn was fought in 675 between Escuin, a West Saxon nobleman who had seized the throne of Queen Saxburga, in 878 the Danes invaded the county. Following the Norman Conquest, large areas of the country came into the possession of the crown, at the time of the Domesday Survey the industry of Wiltshire was largely agricultural,390 mills are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock. In the 17th century English Civil War Wiltshire was largely Parliamentarian, the Battle of Roundway Down, a Royalist victory, was fought near Devizes. The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry currently lives on as Y Squadron, based in Swindon, around 1800 the Kennet and Avon Canal was built through Wiltshire, providing a route for transporting cargoes from Bristol to London until the development of the Great Western Railway. Information on the 261 civil parishes of Wiltshire is available on the Wiltshire Community History website, run by the Libraries and this site includes maps, demographic data, historic and modern pictures and short histories. The local nickname for Wiltshire natives is moonrakers and this originated from a story of smugglers who managed to foil the local Excise men by hiding their alcohol, possibly French brandy in barrels or kegs, in a village pond. The officials took them for simple yokels or mad and left them alone, many villages claim the tale for their own village pond, but the story is most commonly linked with The Crammer in Devizes. Two-thirds of Wiltshire, a rural county, lies on chalk. This chalk is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group, the largest area of chalk in Wiltshire is Salisbury Plain, which is used mainly for arable agriculture and by the British Army as training ranges. The highest point in the county is the Tan Hill–Milk Hill ridge in the Pewsey Vale, just to the north of Salisbury Plain, the chalk uplands run northeast into West Berkshire in the Marlborough Downs ridge, and southwest into Dorset as Cranborne Chase. Cranborne Chase, which straddles the border, has, like Salisbury Plain, yielded much Stone Age, the Marlborough Downs are part of the North Wessex Downs AONB, a 1,730 km2 conservation area

23.
Harrow Way
–
The Harrow Way forms the western part of the Old Way, an ancient trackway in the south of England, dating from the Neolithic period, which is split into a western and eastern part. With its natural season-round well-drained soil, slightly more humus-rich than the crest itself, the Pilgrims Way continues from Farnham more south-west than west to Winchester. This route was used in some pilgrimages and helped the growth of Winchester. Winchester, apart from being a centre in its own right, was an important regional focus. The Diocese of Winchester was founded in 660 CE, the name may derive from herewag, a military road, har, ancient way or heargway, the road to the shrine. It is sometimes described as the oldest road in Britain and is associated with ancient tin trading. The eastern end of the Harrow Way, where it becomes the Pilgrims Way, is at Farnham, the Harrow Way then continues to the crest of the Hogs Back where the ancient trackway is known to have run. There are several barrows along the Hogs Back, in Dorset, the Harrow Way can be traced through the villages of Halstock and Corscombe, where it is known as Common Lane. At the Halstock end, a length was realigned to form the access for a Roman villa

24.
Gault
–
Gault is a rock formation of stiff blue clay deposited in a calm, fairly deep-water marine environment during the Lower Cretaceous Period. It is also to be found beneath the scarp of the Berkshire Downs, in the Vale of White Horse, in Oxfordshire, England, the clay has been used in several locations for making bricks, notably near Dunton Green and Wye in Kent. Gault often contains numerous phosphatic nodules, some thought to be coprolites, crystals of the mineral selenite are fairly common in places, as are nodules of pyrite. Gault yields abundant marine fossils, including ammonites, belemnites, bivalves, gastropods, solitary corals, fish remains, scattered crinoid remains, occasional fragments of fossil wood may also be found. The Gault Formation consists of gault and underlies the Upper Greensand Formation, the Gault Formation represents a marine transgression following erosion of the Lower Greensand. It is subdivided into two sections, the Upper Gault and the Lower Gault, the Upper Gault onlaps onto the Lower Gault. The Gault Formation thins across the London Platform and then terminates against the Red Chalk just to the south of The Wash, Gault exposure at Copt Point, which is the type locality for the formation, is 40 m in thickness. Fossils of the Gault Clay Folkestone fossils and geology by Discovering Fossils

25.
Greensand (geology)
–
Greensand or Green sand is either a sand or sandstone, which has a greenish color. This term is applied to shallow marine sediment, that contains noticeable quantities of rounded greenish grains. These grains are called glauconies and consist of a mixture of clay minerals. Greensand is also applied to any glauconitic sediment. Greensand forms in anoxic marine environments that are rich in organic detritus, having accumulated in marine environments, greensands can be fossil-rich, such as in the late-Cretaceous deposits of New Jersey, USA. Important exposures are known from northern and western Europe, North America, and north Africa. Well known and important greensands are the Upper and Lower Greensands of England and occur within Eocene and Cretaceous sedimentary strata underlying the coastal plains of New Jersey, in Great Britain, greensand usually refers to specific rock strata of Early Cretaceous age. A distinction is made between the Upper Greensand and Lower Greensand, the soil of the greensand is quite varied, ranging from fertile to fairly sterile. On the fertile soils chestnut and stands of hazel and oak are common, while Scots Pine and these Greensand Ridges are popular long distance walking routes, for instance the Greensand Way in Kent. The Lower Greensand is of Aptian age, the Upper Greensand is of Albian age. It represents a sandy lithofacies deposited in areas of stronger currents than the Gault Clay, outcrops of the Upper Greensand occur in the south-west of England including the Blackdown Hills and East Devon Plateau and the Haldon Hills, remnants of a once much wider extent. It is an ingredient as a source of potassium in organic gardening and farming fertilisers. Greensand glauconite is used as a softener for its chemical-exchange properties. It is also used as a type of rock for stone walls in areas where greensand is common, in Roman times in Britain, coarse grits derived from the lower greensand were used to line the inner surface of mortaria produced in the Oxfordshire pottery kilns

26.
Bronze Age Britain
–
Bronze Age Britain is an era of British history that spanned from c.2500 until c.800 BC. Lasting for approximately 1,700 years, it was preceded by the era of Neolithic Britain and was in turn followed by the period of Iron Age Britain. Being categorised as the Bronze Age, it was marked by the use of copper and then bronze by the prehistoric Britons, Great Britain in the Bronze Age also saw the widespread adoption of agriculture. This has been described as a time when elaborate ceremonial practices emerged among some communities of subsistence agriculturalists of western Europe, there is no clear consensus on the date for the beginning of the Bronze Age in Great Britain and Ireland. Some sources give a date as late as 2000 BC, while others set 2200 BC as the demarcation between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The period from 2500 BC to 2000 BC has been called the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age, 2500–2000 BC, Mount Pleasant Phase, Early Beaker culture, Britain, copper+tin. 2100–1900 BC, Late Beaker, knives, tanged spearheads, 1500–1300 BC, Acton Park Phase, palstaves, socketed spearheads, copper+tin, also lead. 1300–1200 BC, Knighton Heath Period, rapiers, 1200–1000 BC, Early Urnfield, Wilburton-Wallington Phase. 1000–900 BC, Late Urnfield, socketed axes, palstaves, 800–700 BC, Ewart Park Phase, Llyn Fawr Phase, leaf-shaped swords. In Ireland the final Dowris phase of the Late Bronze Age appears to decline in about 600 BC, in around 2700 BC, a new pottery style arrived in Great Britain, the Beaker culture. Beaker pottery appears in the Mount Pleasant Phase, along with flat axes, people of this period were also largely responsible for building many famous prehistoric sites, such as the later phases of Stonehenge along with Seahenge. Movement of Europeans brought new people to the islands from the continent, recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early Bronze Age graves around Stonehenge indicates that at least some of the new arrivals came from the area of modern Switzerland. The Beaker culture displayed different behaviours from the earlier Neolithic people, integration is thought to have been peaceful, as many of the early henge sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. Also, the burial of dead became more individual, for example, in the Neolithic era, a large chambered cairn or long barrow was used to house the dead. The Early Bronze Age saw people buried in barrows, or sometimes in cists covered with cairns. They were often buried with a beaker alongside the body, modern thinking tends towards the latter view. Alternatively, a Beaker elite may have made the migration and come to influence the population at some level. Believed to be of Iberian origin, part of the Beaker culture brought to Great Britain the skill of refining metal, at first they made items from copper, but from around 2150 BC smiths had discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper with a small amount of tin

27.
Wingham, Kent
–
Wingham /ˈwɪŋəm/ is a civil parish and English Kent village situated along the ancient coastal road, now the A257, from Richborough to London and close to Canterbury. It has existed since the Stone Age but only established as a village in Roman times. The Domesday book tells us that during Saxon times Wingham manor was in possession by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Wingham was the administrative center of the hundred of Wingham which included Fleet. In 1286, Archbishop Peckham founded a college in Wingham, many buildings in Wingham date back to this time, including the Grade II listed The Dog Inn. St Mary the Virgin, the present Grade I listed church of Wingham, the East Kent Light Railway was built between 1911 and 1917 to serve the new coal mines which were being opened up in the area. The site of the former Wingham Colliery station forming what is now the Grain Harvesters site, three stations were opened, Wingham Colliery, Wingham Town and Wingham Canterbury Road. Wingham Colliery never opened into production and the failed and completely closed to passengers in 1948 with the section north of Eythorne closed to freight in 1951. Plans and some advanced earthworks had been commenced in the 1920s to extend the line from Wingham Canterbury Road Station to Canterbury via Stodmarsh, the village is also on the Miners Way Trail. The trail links up the coalfield parishes of East Kent, today Wingham is an attractive village serving some light industry but mostly a dormitory town for Sandwich and Canterbury. There are a range of shops and pubs & restaurants serving both traditional British pub food and also other cuisines such as Indian, served at the Salma Restaurant, frequent bus services run between these two towns and a less frequent service to Plucks Gutter and Broadstairs. The nearest National Rail Station is Adisham or Aylesham, taxis can be obtained locally or from Canterbury, Sandwich or Aylesham. The village has a functional fire station which serves the village. The station itself was located in the High Street next to the Red Lion but has since moved to Staple Road. The station is maintained by Kent Fire and Rescue Service and comprises a fire crew. The current fire appliance at the station is a Volvo Fl6 inter-cooler water tender, which is sometimes taken away for maintenance and replaced by a newer Volvo relief appliance

28.
Deal, Kent
–
Deal is a town in Kent, England which lies on the English Channel, eight miles north-east of Dover and eight miles south of Ramsgate. It is a fishing, mining and garrison town. Close to Deal is Walmer, a location for Julius Caesars first arrival in Britain. In 1968, Middle Street was the first Conservation Area in Kent, the coast of France is approximately twenty-five miles from the town and is visible on clear days. The Tudor Deal Castle, commissioned by King Henry VIII, has a floor plan. Deal is first mentioned as a village in the Domesday Book of 1086 and it is referred to as Dela in 1158, and Dale in 1275. The name is the Old English dael meaning valley, cognate with the modern English dale, Deal developed into a port by the end of the 13th century. Sandown, Deal and Walmer castles were constructed around the town by Henry VIII to protect against foreign naval attack, in 1861 a Royal Marines Depot was established in the town. The proximity of Deals shoreline to the notorious Goodwin Sands has made its coastal waters a source of shelter and danger through the history of sea travel in British waters. The Downs, the water between the town and the sands, provides a sheltered anchorage. This meant that, despite the absence of a harbour, the became a significant port with transit of goods. Deal was, for example, visited by Nelson and was the first English soil on which James Cook set foot in 1771 on returning from his first voyage to Australia. The anchorage is used today by international and regional shipping. In 1672, a small Naval Yard was established at Deal, providing stores, the Deal Maritime and Local History Museum is housed in an historic complex of light-industrial buildings in St Georges Road, dating from 1803. It contains a series of displays and artefacts, narrating the towns maritime, industrial, domestic and leisure history. Pitt had awaited an opportunity that January, when the boats were all hoved up on the beach on account of bad weather, to send a regiment of soldiers to smash, a naval cutter was positioned offshore to prevent any of the boatmen escaping. These men continued to risk their lives and their boats, in saving the lives of shipwreck victims, the irrepressible spirit of the Deal boatmen remained undaunted by these events throughout the Napoleonic Wars, and they continued to assert their hard-earned right to trade. From these activities news of the events unfolding in France would reach England quickly and regularly, the war only made the boatmen’s efforts more profitable, so that afterwards the Government immediately turned a part of its naval blockade into a coastal blockade, which lasted from 1818 to 1831

29.
West Hunsbury
–
West Hunsbury Parish is a large housing estate in the south of the town of Northampton,2 miles from the town centre,0 miles from the M1 motorway, junction 15A and 2 miles from junction 15. The motorway can be seen and heard as most of the area is elevated and it is part of the Hunsbury residential area, which also constitutes East Hunsbury east of Towcester Road. Shelfleys is the name for the area and still appears on signs. The area is part of the Borough of Northampton, the area was developed in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s as part of the expansion of Northampton. The 2001 census shows a population of 7,468 of which 3,727 were male and 3,741 female, in 3,005 households. There is a church, St Benedicts, Church of England. A pub, The Ironstone, in Hunsbury Hill Road closed in 2012, the same site also has a health centre. In the car park of Hunsbury Hill Country Park there is now a small café called The Drovers Return named after the ancient Drovers Pathway which leads through the park, there is also the Danes Camp Leisure centre and swimming pool. Collingtree Park Golf Course is in Windingbrooke Lane and accessible from Rowtree Road in East Hunsbury, the Hunsbury Hill Centre is a collection of old farm buildings built about 1770 overlooking the River Nene valley to the north. The main farmhouse is a grade II listed building, the centre is for community use and has three separate function rooms surrounding an octagonal courtyard which can host a variety of events. The main hall seats up to 120 and there is free parking in the pleasant. The centre is owned by Northamptonshire ACRE, Action with Communities in Rural England an independent charitable organisation, income generated from the centre goes to support the charitys running costs. The site of an Iron Age hill fort, dating from ca, 400BC, the area is now part of Hunsbury Hill Country Park. Another park at the bottom of the hill near the motorway separates the development from The Counties Crematorium. There is a school in the area, Hunsbury Park Primary School. The area is in the catchment of Abbeyfield School located on the side of Mere Way dual carriageway which is also a business. The school was previously Mereway Upper School and, prior to 2008, several village schools south of the town are popular including the primary schools at Milton Malsor, Gayton, Rothersthorpe, Blisworth and Collingtree. Many children of secondary age use Campion School in Bugbrooke and Caroline Chisholm School in nearby Wootton, after a Community Governance Review in 2012 a new civil parish council was formed on 1 April 2013 with the first elections to the new council on 2 May 2013

30.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area

31.
Essex
–
Essex /ˈɛsᵻks/ is a county in England immediately north-east of London. It borders the counties of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent across the estuary of the River Thames to the south, the county town is Chelmsford, which is the only city in the county. Essex occupies the part of the old Kingdom of Essex, before this. As well as areas, the county also includes London Stansted Airport, the new towns of Basildon and Harlow, Lakeside Shopping Centre, the port of Tilbury. Originally recorded in AD527, Essex occupied territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating all of what later became Middlesex and its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lea. In changes before the Norman conquest the East Saxons were subsumed into the Kingdom of England and, following the Norman conquest, Essex became a county. During the medieval period, much of the area was designated a Royal forest, including the county in a period to 1204. Gradually, the subject to forest law diminished, but at various times included the forests of Becontree, Chelmsford, Epping, Hatfield, Ongar. County-wide administration Essex County Council was formed in 1889, however County Boroughs of West Ham, Southend-on-Sea and East Ham formed part of the county but were unitary authorities. 12 boroughs and districts provide more localised services such as rubbish and recycling collections, leisure and planning, parish-level administration – changes A few Essex parishes have been transferred to other counties. Before 1889, small areas were transferred to Hertfordshire near Bishops Stortford, Essex became part of the East of England Government Office Region in 1994 and was statistically counted as part of that region from 1999, having previously been part of the South East England region. Two unitary authorities In 1998 the boroughs of Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock were granted autonomy from the county of Essex after successful requests to become unitary authorities. Essex Police covers the county and the two unitary authorities. The county council chamber and main headquarters is at the County Hall in Chelmsford, before 1938 the council regularly met in London near Moorgate, which with significant parts closer to that point and the dominance of railways had been more convenient than any place in the county. It currently has 75 elected councillors, before 1965, the number of councillors reached over 100. The highest point of the county of Essex is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley, close to the Hertfordshire border, the pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. Epping Forest also acts as a barrier to the further spread of London. Part of the southeast of the county, already containing the population centres of Basildon, Southend and Thurrock, is within the Thames Gateway

32.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

33.
Cheriton, Kent
–
Cheriton is a northern suburb of Folkestone in Kent that is the location of the English terminal of the Channel Tunnel and of the major army barracks of Shorncliffe Camp. The coastal plain where the North Downs meet the Strait of Dover has been of importance since ancient times. Portus Lemanis was a major Roman harbour, overlooked by a fort near where Lympne Castle now stands, the Normans built Folkestone Castle on a spur of Cheriton Hill. The church of St Martin dates back to Saxon times and the name Cheriton means Church Farm, the British government purchased a large piece of land at Shorncliffe in 1794 and fortified it in preparation for the expected French invasion. Shorncliffe Redoubt is significant as the birthplace of modern infantry tactics, a Royal Commission was set up in 1859 during another invasion panic, which led to the construction of the Palmerston Forts and Shorncliffe Army Camp. The Army presence led to a growth of Cheriton in the second half of the 19th century. This led to the distinction being lost between Cheriton and Folkestone, whose expansion was funnelled westward by the escarpment of the Downs, construction of the Channel Tunnel began in 1988 and it opened in 1994. The passenger terminal is wedged between the Downs and the M20 motorway just west of Castle Hill, and freight trains are marshalled at Dollands Moor Freight Yard further west. Cheriton was a parish in its own right, and part of Elham Rural District from 1894 to 1898. This was abolished in 1934 under a County Review Order, Cheriton sits on a level shelf halfway up the escarpment of Folkestone Downs, between Cheriton Hill on the landward side and Sandgate Hill going down to the sea. The Folkestone Downs are the end of the North Downs. The Seabrook Stream flows through the west of the district, cutting a valley between Dibgate Camp and St Martins Plain. The population in 1851 was 1,658, which by 1861 had grown to 7,434 – of whom 4,204 were military in Shorncliffe Camp, as of 2011 the Royal Gurkha Rifles occupy Shorncliffe Camp so Nepali people make up a large part of the population. The local economy is dominated by the barracks and Channel Tunnel terminal, the Folkestone & Hythe Operatic & Dramatic Society bought the garrison church in 2001 and converted it into the Tower Theatre. There is a library in the High Street. The Folkestone White Horse overlooks Cheriton from the Downs north of the Channel Tunnel terminal, the earthworks of Folkestone Castle are just to the east. Cheriton Halt railway station on the South Eastern Main Line served the village between 1908 and 1947 and it was just east of the bridge on Risborough Lane. The Elham Valley Way is a path that runs between Cheriton and Sandgate on its way up to Canterbury

34.
Classis Britannica
–
The Classis Britannica was a provincial naval fleet of the navy of ancient Rome. Its purpose was to control the English Channel and the waters around the Roman province of Britannia, unlike modern fighting navies, its job was largely the logistical movement of personnel and support, and keeping open communication routes across the Channel. A fleet was raised for the invasion of Britain under Claudius, with the task of bringing an invasion force of 40,000 men from the Roman army, plus supplies. It continued after the invasion to provide support for the army. This fleet played a role in the subsequent conquest of Britannia. However, Tacitus states that strangely, about twenty years after the invasion, it was not present at Suetonius Paulinuss crossing of the Menai Strait to Anglesey before the Boudican Rebellion. This suggests the force was occupied in the Channel area, unsuitable to the long voyage up to north Wales. In the Flavian period what had been raised initially as an invasion fleet was formalised as the Classis Britannica. Also in the Flavian period, under the governor Agricola, it circumnavigated Caledonia, one year later the fleet is recorded as having reached the Orkney Islands. In the Weald of south-east England stamped tiles of the Classis Britannica have been found at sites associated with the production of iron. The largest of these is at Beauport Park, near Battle, East Sussex, other iron production sites where tiles have been found are at Bardown, near Wadhurst, Sussex, and Little Farningham Farm, near Cranbrook, Kent. The implication is that the Classis Britannica not only transported iron but was involved in its production as well, the fleet disappears from the archaeological record towards the middle of the 3rd century but is known from contemporary sources to have continued in existence after this date. In late 286 or early 287 he learned of this sentence and responded by usurping power and declaring himself emperor of Britannia and northern Gaul. When the British fleet was attacked by a Rhine fleet representing the Roman Empire, the would-be invaders, however, blamed poor weather for their defeat. By 300, however, Britannia was once again a part of the larger Roman Empire, the fleet probably had some role in the operation of the Saxon Shore Forts. It may even have been its base, though one of the other surviving fleet forts, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, is far larger. Portus Adurni at the north of Portsmouth harbour is another contender, cleere, Henry, The Classis Britannica, in D E Johnston, The Saxon shore,1977

35.
Folkestone Roman Villa
–
The villa is situated on a cliff top overlooking the English Channel, with views of the French coast at Boulogne on a clear day. The villa was built around A. D.75, and was almost certainly built within the confines of a preexisting Iron Age settlement. The villa was rebuilt and expanded in probably the second century A. D. this time as a substantial structure with mosaics, a bath-house. The villa was abandoned sometime in the century, though archeological evidence suggests that it was briefly reoccupied in the fourth century. The Roman villa and earlier Iron Age workshop are located on the head of a low, slumped cliff, the cliff here is composed of a band of gault clay that is nearly 100 feet thick, which overlies the Lower Greensand stone formation. The greensand is not actually sand, it is a loose, the exposed greensand at Folkestone, referred to as the Folkestone Formation or the Folkestone Beds, is a unique geological feature of the area, and is rich with fossils and ichnofauna. The formation extends about 5 miles to the northwest of Folkestone to town of Stanford, at the junction where the gault meets the greensand, the gault is nearly liquid, resulting is major erosion and landslides over the years. This erosion has threatened to destroy the site, which was another 400 –500 meters from the sea during Roman times. The site is crumbling into the sea at about a rate of 6 inches per year, numerous rescue excavations have been undertaken over the years, as archeologists race to rescue the site from slow destruction. Scattered evidence of human habitation near the Villa site has been uncovered during archeological digs, in 2010, excavators uncovered Mesolithic worked flints below the Roman villa site. Although these flints probably originated from a location and were washed into the villa site. Tools dating to the Neolithic period have been discovered at the Bayle in Folkestone, findings included round houses, fields, trackways, and pottery fragments. During the Iron Age, an extensive, pre-Roman native settlement occupied the headland of the bay, on what has come to be known as the East Bay Site. Beneath the remains of the Romano-British villa was probably an Iron Age oppidum, remains beneath the Roman villa suggest that querns, or stones used to grind cereal crops into flour, were produced here during the Iron Age on an almost industrial scale. Over 60 quern-stones have been recovered from the site of the villa, the querns are made of the local greensand stone, most likely collected or cut from nearby Copt Point and taken to the headland to be worked. The majority of the found querns are unfinished, with partially worked surfaces, or incomplete hoppers, in many cases, the querns appear to have been damages and discarded, many seeming to have fractured during the hole boring stage. Archeological evidence suggests that in return for the querns, fine pottery from Gaul, by c.75 AD, the Iron Age settlement had been replaced with a Roman villa. The first version of the villa to be built consisted only of block A, main rooms had opus signinum flooring, and were possibly painted with frescoes

36.
Tufa
–
Tufa is a variety of limestone formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient temperature water. Geothermally heated hot springs sometimes produce similar carbonate deposits known as travertine, Tufa is sometimes referred to as travertine. It should not be confused with hot spring travertine, however, Mono Lakes tufa is thermogene, according to Pentecost. Tufa, which is calcareous, should not be confused with tuff, modern and fossil tufa deposits abound with wetland plants, as such many tufa deposits are characterised by their large macrobiological component and are highly porous. Tufa forms either in fluvial channels or in lacustrine settings, ford and Pedley provide a review of tufa systems worldwide. Deposits can be classified by their depositional environment, Pedley provides an extensive classification system, which includes the following classes of fluvial tufa, Spring – Deposits form on emergence from a spring/seep. Barrages often contain a significant detrital component, composed of organic material, lacustrine tufas are generally formed at the periphery of lakes and build up phytoherms and stromatolites. Oncoids are also common in these environments, while fluvial and lacustrine systems make up the bulk of tufa systems worldwide, there are several other important tufa environments. Although sometimes regarded as a distinct carbonate deposit, calcareous sinter formed from ambient temperature water can be considered a sub-type of tufa, calcareous speleothems may be regarded as a form of calcareous sinter. They lack any significant macrophyte component due to the absence of light, Tufa columns are an unusual form of tufa typically associated with saline lakes. They are distinct from most tufa deposits in that lack any significant macrophyte component. Some tufa columns may form from hot-springs and therefore actually be a form of travertine. It is generally thought that such features form from CaCO3 precipitated when carbonate rich source waters emerge into alkaline soda lakes and they have also been found in marine settings. Tufa deposits form an important habitat for a diverse flora, bryophytes and diatoms are well represented. The porosity of the deposits creates a wet habitat ideal for these plants, modern tufa is formed from alkaline waters, supersaturated with calcite. On emergence, waters degas CO2 due to the lower atmospheric pCO2, since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH, precipitation is induced. Supersaturation may be enhanced by leading to a reduction in pCO2, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important. Recently it has demonstrated that microbially induced precipitation may be more important than physico-chemical precipitation

37.
Hypocaust
–
The word derives from the Ancient Greek hypo meaning under and caust-, meaning burnt. The earliest reference to such a system suggests that the temple of Ephesus in 350 BCE was heated in this manner and its invention improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating. Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths and other buildings in ancient Rome. The ruins of Roman hypocausts have been found throughout Europe and in Africa as well. The ceiling of the hypocaust was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, supporting a layer of tiles, followed by a layer of concrete, then the floor tiles of the rooms above. Rooms intended to be the warmest were located nearest to the furnace below and he also describes a device for adjusting the heat by a bronze ventilator in the domed ceiling. Remains of many Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, excavations at Mohenjo-daro in what is now Pakistan have unearthed what is believed to be a hypocaust lined with bitumen-coated bricks. If it fulfilled a role, the structure would pre-date the earliest Roman hypocaust by as much as 2000 years. In 1984–1985, in the Republic of Georgia, excavations in the ancient settlement of Dzalisi uncovered a large castle complex, featuring a well-preserved hypocaust built between 200–400 BCE. Dating back to 1000 BCE, Korean houses have traditionally used ondol to provide floor heating on similar principles as the hypocaust, on a smaller scale, in Northern China the Kang bed-stove has a long history. With the decline of the Roman Empire, the hypocaust fell into disuse, in Britain, from c.400 until c.1900, central heating did not exist, and hot baths were rare. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Roman system was adopted for the heating of Hispano-Islamic baths, a derivation of hypocaust, the gloria, was in use in Castile until the arrival of modern heating. After the fuel was reduced to ashes, the air intake was closed to keep hot air inside, de Architectura Roman engineering Roman technology Ondol Gloria Masonry heater. Kang bed-stove Vitruvius Underfloor heating About Roman baths, by William Smith, disputing the priority of Sergius Orata Garrett G. Fagans paper Sergius Orata, Inventor of the Hypocaust. Published in Phoenix, Vol.50, No

38.
Folkestone Priory
–
Folkestone Priory was a pre-Reformation Benedictine monastery at Folkestone in the English county of Kent. The priory church survives as the present parish church and it was the successor to Folkestone Abbey, an Anglo-Saxon nunnery on a different site. The abbey was dedicated to Saint Peter, like many other similar foundations, it was destroyed by the Danes and the ruins subsequently fell into the sea. In 1095, another monastery for Benedictine monks was erected on a different site by Nigel de Mundeville, Lord of Folkestone. This was a priory, a cell belong to the Abbey of Lonley or Lolley in Normandy, dedicated to St Mary and St Eanswith. The conventual buildings were erected between the church and the sea coast and it continued to the time of the dissolution and was surrendered to the king on 15 November 1535. The names of twelve priors are known, the last being Thomas Barrett or Bassett, the net income at the dissolution was about £50. It was bestowed by Henry VIII on Edmund, Lord Clinton and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. article name needed

39.
Eadbald of Kent
–
Eadbald was King of Kent from 616 until his death in 640. He was the son of King Æthelberht and his wife Bertha, Æthelberht made Kent the dominant force in England during his reign and became the first Anglo-Saxon king to convert to Christianity from Anglo-Saxon paganism. He was ultimately converted by either Laurentius or Justus, and separated from his first wife, Eadbalds second wife was Emma, who may have been a Frankish princess. She bore him two sons, Eormenred and Eorcenberht, and a daughter, Eanswith, Eadbalds influence was less than his fathers, but Kent was powerful enough to be omitted from the list of kingdoms dominated by Edwin of Northumbria. Edwins marriage to Eadbalds sister, Æthelburg, established a relationship between Kent and Northumbria which appears to have continued into Oswalds reign. When Æthelburg fled to Kent on Edwins death in about 633, she sent her children to Francia for safety, fearing the intrigues of both Eadbald and Oswald. Eadbald died in 640 and was buried in the Church of St Mary, at that time, his relics were translated for reburial in the south transept ca. Eormenred may have been his oldest son, but if he reigned at all it was only as a junior king, settlement of Kent by continental peoples, primarily Jutes, was complete by the end of the sixth century. Eadbalds father, Æthelberht, probably came to the throne in about 589 or 590, Æthelberht was recorded by the early chronicler Bede as having overlordship, or imperium, over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. This dominance led to wealth in the form of tribute, and Kent was a kingdom at the time of Æthelberhts death in 616. Roman Britain had become fully Christianized, but the Anglo-Saxons retained their native faith, in 597 Augustine was sent by Pope Gregory I to England to convert them to Christianity. Augustine landed in eastern Kent, and soon managed to convert Æthelberht, two other rulers, Sæberht, king of Essex, and Rædwald, king of East Anglia, were converted through Æthelberhts influence. An important source for this period in Kentish history is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written in 731 by Bede, Bede was primarily interested in the Christianization of England, but he also provides substantial information about secular history, including the reigns of Æthelberht and Eadbald. One of Bedes correspondents was Albinus, abbot of the monastery of St. Peter, a series of related texts known as the Legend of St Mildrith provides additional information about events in the lives of Eadbalds children and throws some light on Eadbald himself. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a collection of annals assembled in about 890 in the kingdom of Wessex, other sources include papal letters, regnal lists of the kings of Kent, and early charters. Charters were documents drawn up to record grants of land by kings to their followers or to the church, none survive in original form from Eadbalds reign, but some later copies exist. The ancestry of Æthelberht, Eadbalds father, is given by Bede, however, historians believe that Hengist and his brother Horsa were probably mythical figures. It is known that Æthelberht married twice as Eadbald married his step-mother after his fathers death, Eadbald had a sister, Æthelburg, who was probably also the child of Bertha

40.
Canterbury
–
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a local government district of Kent, England. It lies on the River Stour, a journey of pilgrims to Beckets shrine served as the frame for Geoffrey Chaucers 14th century classic The Canterbury Tales. Canterbury is a popular tourist destination, consistently one of the cities in the United Kingdom. The city has been occupied since Paleolithic times and served as the capital of the Celtic Cantiaci, modern additions include the Marlowe Theatre and the St Lawrence Ground, home of the Kent County Cricket Club. Canterbury remains, however, a city in terms of geographical size and population. In Sub-Roman Britain, it was known in Old Welsh as Cair Ceint, occupied by the Jutes, it became known in Old English as Cantwareburh, which developed into its present name. The Canterbury area has been inhabited since prehistoric times, lower Paleolithic axes, and Neolithic and Bronze Age pots have been found in the area. Canterbury was first recorded as the settlement of the Celtic tribe of the Cantiaci. In the 1st century AD, the Romans captured the settlement, the Romans rebuilt the city, with new streets in a grid pattern, a theatre, a temple, a forum, and public baths. In the late 3rd century, to defend against attack from barbarians, the Romans built an earth bank around the city and a wall with seven gates, which enclosed an area of 130 acres. Over the next 100 years, an Anglo-Saxon community formed within the city walls, as Jutish refugees arrived, in 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent Augustine to convert its King Æthelberht to Christianity. After the conversion, Canterbury, being a Roman town, was chosen by Augustine as the centre for his see in Kent. Augustine thus became the first Archbishop of Canterbury, the towns new importance led to its revival, and trades developed in pottery, textiles, and leather. By 630, gold coins were being struck at the Canterbury mint, in 672, the Synod of Hertford gave the see of Canterbury authority over the entire English Church. In 842 and 851, Canterbury suffered great loss of life during Danish raids, in 978, Archbishop Dunstan refounded the abbey built by Augustine, and named it St Augustines Abbey. A second wave of Danish attacks began in 991, and in 1011 the cathedral was burnt, remembering the destruction caused by the Danes, the inhabitants of Canterbury did not resist William the Conquerors invasion in 1066. William immediately ordered a wooden motte-and-bailey castle to be built by the Roman city wall, in the early 12th century, the castle was rebuilt with stone. After the murder of Archbishop Thomas Becket at the cathedral in 1170, Canterbury became one of the most notable towns in Europe and this pilgrimage provided the framework for Geoffrey Chaucers 14th-century collection of stories, The Canterbury Tales

41.
William I of England
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Roberts mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, during his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy and his marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and his consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine. In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 and he made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 Williams hold on England was mostly secure, Williams final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and his reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, Williams lands were divided after his death, Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and his second surviving son, William Rufus, received England. Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century, permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the duchy of Normandy. Normandy may have used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002

42.
Odo of Bayeux
–
Odo of Bayeux, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux, was the half-brother of William the Conqueror, and was, for a time, second in power after the King of England. Odo was the son of William the Conquerors mother Herleva and Herluin de Conteville, Count Robert of Mortain was his younger brother. There is uncertainty about his birth date, some historians have suggested he was born around 1035. Duke William made him bishop of Bayeux in 1049 and it has been suggested that his birth was as early as 1030, making him about nineteen rather than fourteen at the time. Although Odo was an ordained Christian cleric, he is best known as a warrior and statesman, participating in the Council of Lillebonne. He found ships for the Norman invasion of England and is one of the few proven companions of William the Conqueror. The Latin annotation embroidered onto the Tapestry above his image reads, Hic Odo Eps Baculu Tenens Confortat Pueros, Odo was accompanied by William the carrier of his crozier and a retinue of servants and members of his household. In 1067, Odo became Earl of Kent, and for years he was a trusted royal minister. On some occasions when William was absent, he served as de facto regent of England, and at times he led the forces against rebellions. There are also occasions when he accompanied William back to Normandy. During this time Odo acquired vast estates in England, larger in extent than anyone except the king, he had land in counties, primarily in the south east. At the conclusion of the trial he was forced to return a number of properties, in 1082, Odo was suddenly disgraced and imprisoned for having planned a military expedition to Italy. Whatever the reason, Odo spent the five years in prison. Odo was not deposed as Bishop of Bayeux, on his deathbed in 1087, King William I was reluctantly persuaded by his half-brother, Robert, Count of Mortain, to release Odo. After the kings death, Odo returned to England, williams eldest son, Robert Curthose had been made duke of Normandy, while Roberts brother William had received the throne of England. The bishop supported Robert Curthoses claim to England, the Rebellion of 1088 failed and William Rufus permitted Odo to leave the kingdom. Afterwards, Odo remained in the service of Robert in Normandy, Odo joined the First Crusade, and started in the dukes company for Palestine, but died on the way at Palermo in January or February 1097. Little good is recorded of Odo, and it was recorded that his vast wealth was gained by extortion and his ambitions were boundless and his morals lax

43.
Domesday
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth

44.
Cinque ports
–
The Confederation of Cinque Ports is a historic series of coastal towns in Kent and Sussex. It was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial and it lies at the eastern end of the English Channel, where the crossing to the continent is narrowest. The name is Norman French, meaning five ports and they were, Hastings New Romney Hythe Dover Sandwich However, Rye, originally a subsidiary of New Romney, changed to become one of the Cinque Ports once New Romney was damaged by storms and silted up. Other towns also contribute to the confederation, including two Antient Towns, and seven Limbs, the five ports are supported by the two so-called Antient Towns of Rye and Winchelsea, whose councils traditionally maintained defence contingents for the realm of England. Apart from the five ports and the two Antient Towns, there are eight members of the Confederation, which are considered to be Limbs of the other towns. The coastal confederation during its mediaeval period consisted of a confederation of 42 towns and villages in all. Johns, St. Peters, Ringwould, Woodchurch and Kingsdown Limbs of Hythe – West Hythe Walmer, Ramsgate A Royal Charter of 1155 established the ports to maintain ships ready for the Crown in case of need. The chief obligation laid upon the ports, as a duty, was to provide 57 ships for 15 days service to the king annually. The leeway given to the Cinque Ports, and the turning of an eye to misbehaviour, led to smuggling. A significant factor in the need to maintain the authority of the Cinque Ports by the King was the development of the Royal Navy, the associated ports, known as limbs, were given the same privileges. The five head ports and two antient towns were entitled to send two Members to Parliament, the town of Hastings was the head port of the Cinque Ports in mediaeval times. The towns also had their own system of courts, all Freemen of the ports, termed portsmen, were deemed in the age of Feudalism to be barons, and thus members of the baronage entitled to attend the kings parliament. Termed Barons of the Cinque Ports, they reflected an early concept that military service at sea constituted land tenure per baroniam making them quasi feudal barons, writs of summons to parliament were sent to the warden following which representative barons of the Cinque Ports were selected to attend parliament. Thus the wardens duty in this respect was similar to that of the sheriff who received the writs for distribution to the barons in the shires and this no doubt related to their privileges as monopolies. The warden and barons often experienced clashes of jurisdiction, as time went by and some ports declined or silted up, others were added. Rye and Winchelsea were attached to Hastings as Antient Towns in the 12th century, the following corporate limbs were added in the 15th century, Lydd, Faversham, Folkestone, Deal, Tenterden, Margate and Ramsgate. At one time there were 23 limbs, although by the 14th century the confederation faced wider challenges from a greater consolidation of national identity in the monarchy and Parliament, the legacy of the Saxon authority remained. Even after the 15th century, the antient towns continued to serve with the supply of transport ships and it was here that from 1433 the White and Black Books of the Cinque Port Courts were kept

45.
Dover
–
Dover is a town and major ferry port in the home county of Kent, in South East England. The town is the centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs are known as the White Cliffs of Dover and its strategic position has been evident throughout its history, archaeological finds have revealed that the area has always been a focus for peoples entering and leaving Britain. The name of the town derives from the name of the river flows through it. There was a barracks in Dover, which was closed in 2007. Although many of the ferry services have declined, services related to the Port of Dover provide a great deal of the town’s employment. Local residents had clubbed together to propose buying it for the community, first recorded in its Latinised form of Portus Dubris, the name derives from the Brythonic word for waters. The same element is present in the towns French and Modern Welsh forms, subsequent name forms included Doverre, The current name was in use at least by the time of Shakespeares King Lear, in which the town and its cliffs play a prominent role. The sight of the cliffs when approaching Dover may have given the island of Britain its ancient name of Albion. Dover’s history, because of its proximity to France, has always been of strategic importance to Britain. Archaeological finds have shown there were Stone Age people in the area. Some Iron Age finds exist also, but the coming of the Romans made Dover part of their communications network, like Lemanis and Rutupiae Dover was connected by road to Canterbury and Watling Street, and it became Portus Dubris, a fortified port. Forts were built above the port, lighthouses were constructed to guide passing ships, Dover figured largely in the Domesday Book as an important borough. It also served as a bastion against various attackers, notably the French during the Napoleonic Wars and it was one of the Cinque Ports during medieval times. Dover is near the extreme south-east corner of Britain between Deal and Folkestone and this led to the silting up of the river mouth by the action of longshore drift, the town was then forced into making artificial breakwaters to keep the port in being. These breakwaters have been extended and adapted so that the port lies almost entirely on reclaimed land. The higher land on either side of the valley – the Western Heights, the town has gradually extended up the river valley, encompassing several villages in doing so. Little growth is possible along the coast, since the cliffs are on the sea’s edge, the railway, being tunnelled and embanked, skirts the foot of the cliffs

Folkestone
–
Folkestone /ˈfoʊkstən/ is a port town on the English Channel, in Kent, south-east England. The town lies on the edge of the North Downs at a valley between two cliffs. It was an important harbour and shipping port for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, there has been a settlement in this location since the Mesolithic era. A nunnery was founded by

1.
Folkestone Harbour viewed from the Golf Course

2.
The Church of St Mary and St Eanswythe, in the town centre, contains the remains of St Eanswythe, daughter of Ethelbert of Kent.

3.
Folkestone-with the now closed down Rotunda amusement park on beach

4.
Bandstand near the Leas Cliff Lift

Mesolithic
–
In archaeology, the Mesolithic is the culture between Paleolithic and Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used for areas outside northern Europe, Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It was originally post-Pleistocene, pre-agricultural material in northwest Europe about 10,000 to 5000 BC, in the archaeology of

1.
Mesolithic microliths

2.
Two skeletons of women aged between 25 and 35 years, dated between 6740 and 5680 BP, both of whom died a violent death. Found at Téviec, France in 1938.

Paleolithic
–
The Paleolithic is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools and covers roughly 95% of human technological prehistory. It extends from the earliest known use of tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date o

1.
This cranium, of Homo heidelbergensis, a Lower Paleolithic predecessor to Homo neanderthalensis and possibly Homo sapiens, dates to sometime between 500,000 and 400,000 BP.

2.
The Paleolithic climate consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods.

3.
Many great mammals such as woolly mammoths, woolly rhinoceros, and cave lions inhabited places like Siberia during the Pleistocene.

4.
Paleoindians hunting a glyptodon. Glyptodons were hunted to extinction within two millennia after humans' arrival to South America.

Boulogne
–
Boulogne-sur-Mer, often called Boulogne, is a city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais, Boulogne lies on the Côte dOpale, a tourist coast on the English Channel, and is the most-visited location in its region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its departments second-largest city after Calais, and the

1.
A general view from the Brecquerecque Quarter: The lighthouse, the bell tower and the English Channel

2.
The Column of the Grande Armée commemorates Napoleon's gathering of 200,000 soldiers near Boulogne for a proposed invasion of England

3.
A " special pass " issued for travel within Boulogne by the British Red Cross in May 1917, during World War I

4.
The Belfry is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Britons (historical)
–
They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor to the modern Brittonic languages. The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age, after the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, a Romano-British culture emerged, and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic. During

1.
Gritstone bas-relief of Romano-British woman

2.
Mainly Brittonic areas

3.
The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan

4.
A flying rowan tree, considered magical by the ancient Britons

Roman Britain
–
Roman Britain was the area of the island of Great Britain that was governed by the Roman Empire, from AD43 to 410. Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by other Celtic tribes during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesars enemies. He received tribut

1.
England & Wales within the Roman Empire.

2.
Landing of the Romans on the Coast of Kent (Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists).

3.
Conquests under Aulus Plautius, focused on the commercially valuable southeast of Britain.

Saxons
–
The Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes first mentioned as living near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany, in the late Roman empire. They were soon mentioned as raiding and settling in many North Sea areas, as well as pushing south inland towards the Franks. Significant numbers settled in parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages.

1.
Europe in the late 5th century. Most names shown are the Latin names of 5th century peoples, with the exceptions of Syagrius (king of a Gallo-Roman rump state), Odoacer (Germanic king of Italy), and (Julius) Nepos (nominally last Western Roman emperor, de facto ruler of Dalmatia).

2.
The Saxon Steed on the first known Saxons flag (700-785)

3.
Alfred the Great.

4.
1868 illustration of Augustine addressing the Saxons

British Iron Age
–
The parallel phase of Irish archaeology is termed the Irish Iron Age. The Iron Age is not a horizon of common artefacts. The British Iron Age lasted in theory from the first significant use of iron for tools, the Romanised culture is termed Roman Britain and is considered to supplant the British Iron Age. The Irish Iron Age was ended by the rise of

1.
Maiden Castle, Dorset is one of the largest hill forts in Europe. Photograph taken in 1935 by Major George Allen (1891–1940).

Oppidum
–
An oppidum is a large fortified Iron Age settlement. They continued in use until the Romans began conquering Europe, north of the River Danube, where the population remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD. Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word

1.
Celtic Oppidum, Central Europe 1st century BC

2.
Bibracte France, seen from above, 1st century BC

3.
A museum model of a typical Zangentor at the Oppidum of Manching in Germany

4.
The reconstructed walls of Bibracte, France

Quern-stone
–
Quern-stones are stone tools for hand-grinding a wide variety of materials. The lower, stationary, stone is called a quern, while the upper stone is called a handstone. They were first used in the Neolithic to grind cereals into flour, quern-stones have been used throughout the world to grind materials, the most important of which was usually grain

1.
The upper stone of a Scottish hand quern from Dalgarven Mill, North Ayrshire

3.
A stack of quern-stones for sale in a market in Haikou, Hainan, China. These quern-stones are only about 30 cm wide.

4.
Querns from the Whithorn Museum.

Folkstone Roman Villa
–
The villa is situated on a cliff top overlooking the English Channel, with views of the French coast at Boulogne on a clear day. The villa was built around A. D.75, and was almost certainly built within the confines of a preexisting Iron Age settlement. The villa was rebuilt and expanded in probably the second century A. D. this time as a substanti

1.
Shingle Beach at Folkestone, located at the foot of the cliffs below the Roman Villa site

2.
Copt Point, the likely source for greensand boulders utilized in quern production

3.
Scottish quern-stones, similar to the querns found at Folkestone

Kingdom of Kent
–
The kingdom of the Kentish, today referred to as the Kingdom of Kent, was an early medieval kingdom in what is now South East England. Establishing itself in either the fifth or sixth centuries CE, it continued to exist until being absorbed into the Kingdom of England in the tenth century. Following the end of Roman administration in 410, further l

1.
Roman fort wall at Regulbium

2.
The Kingdom of Kent.

3.
Hengest and Horsa, from A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)

4.
A putative early illustration of Augustine

Norman Invasion
–
Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to co

1.
13th-century depiction of Rollo and his descendants William I of Normandy and Richard I of Normandy

2.
Location of major events during the Norman conquest of England in 1066

3.
Landing in England scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, depicting ships coming in and horses landing

4.
Depiction of Harold's death from the Bayeux Tapestry

Cinque Ports
–
The Confederation of Cinque Ports is a historic series of coastal towns in Kent and Sussex. It was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial and it lies at the eastern end of the English Channel, where the crossing to the continent is narrowest. The name is Norman French, meaning five ports and they were, Has

1.
SIGILLUM COMMUNE BARONUM DE HETHE, common seal of the barons of Hythe

2.
Location of the Cinque Ports and their limbs.

3.
SIGILLUM COMMUNE BARONUM DE HASTINGUIS, common seal of the barons of Hastings. 2 standards can be seen flying from the ship: one showing the Plantagenet arms of 3 lions, the other seemingly showing 3 ships, which arms are combined by dimidiation in the arms of the Cinque Ports

Tudor period
–
The Tudor period is the period between 1485 and 1603 in England and Wales and includes the Elizabethan period which ends with the completion of the reign of Elizabeth I in 1603. The Tudor period coincides with the rule of the Tudor dynasty in England whose first monarch was Henry VII. In terms of the century, Guy argues that England was economicall

1.
Periods in English history

2.
A woodcut from circa 1536 depicting a vagrant being punished in the streets in Tudor England.

Folkestone Harbour
–
Folkestone Harbour is the main harbour of the town of Folkestone in Kent, England. In 1541, King Henry was about to wage a war against the French, a plan was made to use Folkestone as a port of embarkation to supplies and troops. He sent a Master Tuk and Master Captain of Sandgate to look for a site for the new harbour, plans were made but never im

1.
Folkestone, Harbour

3.
Folkestone Harbour Entrance

4.
SR BoB Class 4-6-2 no 34067 Tangmere heading from Taunton to Canterbury via Folkestone Harbour. Possibly the last Steam Train on this line before it is removed.

Smuggling
–
There are various motivations to smuggle. Examples of non-financial motivations include bringing banned items past a security checkpoint or the removal of classified documents from a government or corporate office, Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizets opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books Diamonds are Forever and Goldfinger. Th

1.
A skirmish with smugglers from Finland at the Russian border, 1853. A painting by Vasily Hudiakov.

2.
The International Anti-Opium Association, Peking "The War Against Opium

3.
A poster warning the German women and girls about the danger of human traffic in the USA (ca 1900)

North Downs
–
The North Downs are a ridge of chalk hills in south east England that stretch from Farnham in Surrey to the White Cliffs of Dover in Kent. Westerham Heights, at the edge of the North Downs, near Bromley. The North Downs lie within two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the Surrey Hills and the Kent Downs, the North Downs Way National Trail runs a

1.
The North Downs near Folkestone

2.
Geology of the South East, Chalk is light green (6)

3.
View from North downs towards Reigate

4.
Lady orchids growing in calcaerous woodland and scrub, Denge Wood.

Pilgrims' Way
–
The Pilgrims Way is the historical route supposed to have been taken by pilgrims from Winchester in Hampshire, England, to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury in Kent. This name, of recent coinage, is applied to a pre-existing ancient trackway dated by archaeological finds to 500–450 BC. The prehistoric route followed the natural causeway eas

1.
Pilgrims' Way near Westwell, Kent

2.
Map of Pilgrims Way near Titsey, Surrey. The upper route, on the brow of the North Downs, is the ancient trackway (note the archaeological finds at the top left); the lower, almost in the valley, is the route surmised by the Ordnance Survey in the 19th century

3.
In the Middle Ages the pilgrims' route left the ancient trackway to climb St Martha's Hill

4.
On the Pilgrims' Way near Trottiscliffe, Kent

Avebury
–
Avebury is a Neolithic henge monument containing three stone circles, around the village of Avebury in Wiltshire, in southwest England. One of the best known sites in Britain, it contains the largest stone circle in Europe. It is both a tourist attraction and a place of importance to contemporary pagans. Its original purpose is unknown, although ar

1.
UNESCO World Heritage Site

3.
Avebury Henge and village

Stonehenge
–
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England,2 miles west of Amesbury and 8 miles north of Salisbury. Stonehenges ring of standing stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding

1.
Stonehenge in August 2014

2.
Plan of Stonehenge in 2004. After Cleal et al. and Pitts. Italicised numbers in the text refer to the labels on this plan. Trilithon lintels omitted for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles. Stones visible today are shown coloured

3.
Stonehenge 1. After Cleal et al.

Wiltshire
–
Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, the county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the new county town of Trowbridge. Wiltshire is characterised by its high downland and wide valleys, Salis

2.
Wiltshire shown within England

3.
Stonehenge

4.
Cherhill White Horse, east of Calne

Harrow Way
–
The Harrow Way forms the western part of the Old Way, an ancient trackway in the south of England, dating from the Neolithic period, which is split into a western and eastern part. With its natural season-round well-drained soil, slightly more humus-rich than the crest itself, the Pilgrims Way continues from Farnham more south-west than west to Win

1.
Looking up to woodland on the Harrow Way near Overton, Hampshire

2.
The Old Way marked in red with the Pilgrims Way marked in orange, key locations in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are labelled black

3.
The Harrow Way - overlying road in Basingstoke

4.
The Harrow Way - surviving present track north east of Overton, Hampshire

Gault
–
Gault is a rock formation of stiff blue clay deposited in a calm, fairly deep-water marine environment during the Lower Cretaceous Period. It is also to be found beneath the scarp of the Berkshire Downs, in the Vale of White Horse, in Oxfordshire, England, the clay has been used in several locations for making bricks, notably near Dunton Green and

1.
An exposed surface of Gault clay on the foreshore near Beachy Head, East Sussex

Greensand (geology)
–
Greensand or Green sand is either a sand or sandstone, which has a greenish color. This term is applied to shallow marine sediment, that contains noticeable quantities of rounded greenish grains. These grains are called glauconies and consist of a mixture of clay minerals. Greensand is also applied to any glauconitic sediment. Greensand forms in an

1.
A roadcut within the Llano Uplift on Texas Highway 1431 about 18 km northwest Marble Falls, Texas that exposes greensand of the Lion Mountain Sandstone (Cambrian) in the lower unit. Notice the normal fault cutting through the formation.

2.
A sample of Cretaceous greensand from near Swanage, Dorset.

Bronze Age Britain
–
Bronze Age Britain is an era of British history that spanned from c.2500 until c.800 BC. Lasting for approximately 1,700 years, it was preceded by the era of Neolithic Britain and was in turn followed by the period of Iron Age Britain. Being categorised as the Bronze Age, it was marked by the use of copper and then bronze by the prehistoric Britons

1.
Bronze shield, 1200-700 BC

2.
Socketed axes from a hoard

3.
Swords found in Scotland

4.
The Mold Cape is unique among survivals

Wingham, Kent
–
Wingham /ˈwɪŋəm/ is a civil parish and English Kent village situated along the ancient coastal road, now the A257, from Richborough to London and close to Canterbury. It has existed since the Stone Age but only established as a village in Roman times. The Domesday book tells us that during Saxon times Wingham manor was in possession by the Archbish

1.
St Mary's church, Wingham

2.
The Old Watchmaker's Cottage complete with scarecrows

3.
Oast house

Deal, Kent
–
Deal is a town in Kent, England which lies on the English Channel, eight miles north-east of Dover and eight miles south of Ramsgate. It is a fishing, mining and garrison town. Close to Deal is Walmer, a location for Julius Caesars first arrival in Britain. In 1968, Middle Street was the first Conservation Area in Kent, the coast of France is appro

1.
Deal

2.
Admiralty Mews (formerly East Barracks).

3.
The 1957 Deal Pier

West Hunsbury
–
West Hunsbury Parish is a large housing estate in the south of the town of Northampton,2 miles from the town centre,0 miles from the M1 motorway, junction 15A and 2 miles from junction 15. The motorway can be seen and heard as most of the area is elevated and it is part of the Hunsbury residential area, which also constitutes East Hunsbury east of

1.
Part of the preserved ironstone railway near Danes Camp

2.
Earthworks at Danes Camp Iron Age hill fort

London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city

1.
Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace and Central London skyline

4.
The name London may derive from the River Thames

Essex
–
Essex /ˈɛsᵻks/ is a county in England immediately north-east of London. It borders the counties of Suffolk and Cambridgeshire to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent across the estuary of the River Thames to the south, the county town is Chelmsford, which is the only city in the county. Essex occupies the part of the old Kingdom of Essex, bef

1.
The village of Finchingfield in north Essex

3.
Skyline of Southend-on-Sea

4.
London Stansted Airport, in the north west of the county

France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territ

1.
One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC

2.
Flag

3.
The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.

4.
With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.

Cheriton, Kent
–
Cheriton is a northern suburb of Folkestone in Kent that is the location of the English terminal of the Channel Tunnel and of the major army barracks of Shorncliffe Camp. The coastal plain where the North Downs meet the Strait of Dover has been of importance since ancient times. Portus Lemanis was a major Roman harbour, overlooked by a fort near wh

1.
St Martin's church

Classis Britannica
–
The Classis Britannica was a provincial naval fleet of the navy of ancient Rome. Its purpose was to control the English Channel and the waters around the Roman province of Britannia, unlike modern fighting navies, its job was largely the logistical movement of personnel and support, and keeping open communication routes across the Channel. A fleet

Folkestone Roman Villa
–
The villa is situated on a cliff top overlooking the English Channel, with views of the French coast at Boulogne on a clear day. The villa was built around A. D.75, and was almost certainly built within the confines of a preexisting Iron Age settlement. The villa was rebuilt and expanded in probably the second century A. D. this time as a substanti

1.
Shingle Beach at Folkestone, located at the foot of the cliffs below the Roman Villa site

2.
Copt Point, the likely source for greensand boulders utilized in quern production

3.
Scottish quern-stones, similar to the querns found at Folkestone

Tufa
–
Tufa is a variety of limestone formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient temperature water. Geothermally heated hot springs sometimes produce similar carbonate deposits known as travertine, Tufa is sometimes referred to as travertine. It should not be confused with hot spring travertine, however, Mono Lakes tufa is thermogene, accor

1.
Mono Lake's "South Tufa" area

2.
Barrage Tufa at Cwm Nash, South Wales

3.
Tufa columns at Mono Lake

4.
Tufa at Trona Pinnacles, California

Hypocaust
–
The word derives from the Ancient Greek hypo meaning under and caust-, meaning burnt. The earliest reference to such a system suggests that the temple of Ephesus in 350 BCE was heated in this manner and its invention improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern central heating. Hypocausts were used for heat

1.
Hypocaust under the floor in a Roman villa in Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France

2.
Ruins of the hypocaust under the floor of a Roman villa at La Olmeda, Province of Palencia (Castile and León, Spain).

3.
Caldarium from the Roman Baths at Bath, in Britain. The floor has been removed to reveal the empty spaces through which the hot air would flow.

4.
Wall flues for hot air circulation.

Folkestone Priory
–
Folkestone Priory was a pre-Reformation Benedictine monastery at Folkestone in the English county of Kent. The priory church survives as the present parish church and it was the successor to Folkestone Abbey, an Anglo-Saxon nunnery on a different site. The abbey was dedicated to Saint Peter, like many other similar foundations, it was destroyed by

1.
Independent houses

Eadbald of Kent
–
Eadbald was King of Kent from 616 until his death in 640. He was the son of King Æthelberht and his wife Bertha, Æthelberht made Kent the dominant force in England during his reign and became the first Anglo-Saxon king to convert to Christianity from Anglo-Saxon paganism. He was ultimately converted by either Laurentius or Justus, and separated fro

1.
Coin of Eadbald of Kent

Canterbury
–
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a local government district of Kent, England. It lies on the River Stour, a journey of pilgrims to Beckets shrine served as the frame for Geoffrey Chaucers 14th century classic The Canterbury Tales. Canterbury is a popu

1.
Canterbury lies on the Great Stour river

2.
Canterbury Cathedral

3.
St. Augustine's Abbey, which forms part of the city's UNESCO World Heritage Site, was where Christianity was brought to England.

4.
St. Augustine's Abbey gateway

William I of England
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conq

1.
William as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry during the Battle of Hastings, lifting his helm to show that he is still alive

2.
Château de Falaise in Falaise, Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.

3.
Column at the site of the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes

4.
Image from the Bayeux Tapestry showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.

Odo of Bayeux
–
Odo of Bayeux, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux, was the half-brother of William the Conqueror, and was, for a time, second in power after the King of England. Odo was the son of William the Conquerors mother Herleva and Herluin de Conteville, Count Robert of Mortain was his younger brother. There is uncertainty about his birth date, some historia

1.
Odo, detail from Bayeux Tapestry

2.
Odo, club in hand, rallies Duke William's troops during the Battle of Hastings in 1066, as shown on the Bayeux Tapestry. Latin Tituli above: HIC ODO EP[ISCOPU]S BACULU[M] TENENS CONFORTAT PUEROS ("Here Bishop Odo, holding a club, gives strength to the boys"). Duke William is also shown wielding a club during the battle in another scene

Domesday
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about thi

1.
Domesday Book: an engraving published in 1900. Great Domesday (the larger volume) and Little Domesday (the smaller volume), in their 1869 bindings, lying on their older " Tudor " bindings.

2.
Great Domesday in its " Tudor " binding: a wood-engraving of the 1860s

3.
Domesday chest, the German-style iron-bound chest of c.1500 in which Domesday Book was kept in the 17th and 18th centuries

4.
Entries for Croydon and Cheam, Surrey, in the 1783 edition of Domesday Book

Cinque ports
–
The Confederation of Cinque Ports is a historic series of coastal towns in Kent and Sussex. It was originally formed for military and trade purposes, but is now entirely ceremonial and it lies at the eastern end of the English Channel, where the crossing to the continent is narrowest. The name is Norman French, meaning five ports and they were, Has

1.
SIGILLUM COMMUNE BARONUM DE HETHE, common seal of the barons of Hythe

2.
Location of the Cinque Ports and their limbs.

3.
SIGILLUM COMMUNE BARONUM DE HASTINGUIS, common seal of the barons of Hastings. 2 standards can be seen flying from the ship: one showing the Plantagenet arms of 3 lions, the other seemingly showing 3 ships, which arms are combined by dimidiation in the arms of the Cinque Ports

Dover
–
Dover is a town and major ferry port in the home county of Kent, in South East England. The town is the centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs are known as the White Cliffs of Dover and its strategic position has been evident throughout its history, archaeological find

3.
The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a translation from the French, by Elizabeth, presented to Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherine Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth.

1.
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the Battle of the Somme, Mark V tanks cross the Hindenburg Line, HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, a British Vickers machine gun crew wears gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, Albatros D.III fighters of Jagdstaffel 11

2.
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908.

3.
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.

1.
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad

2.
The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930

3.
Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930

4.
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War