Transcription

1 Power to the People The built heritage of Scotland s hydroelectric power HISTORIC SCOTLAND

2 Power to the People

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4 Power to the People: the built heritage of Scotland s hydroelectric power Written by David Fleetwood Edited by Dawn McDowell HISTORIC SCOTLAND

5 iv POWER TO THE PEOPLE Acknowledgments The text for this book was prepared by David Fleetwood and edited by Dawn McDowell, with further contributions by Malcolm Cooper, Deborah Mays and Dawn McDowell, and Alexander Hayward and Rowan Brown (National Museums Scotland). Original photography was taken by David Henrie, David Fleetwood, and (on behalf of The House) Sam Sills. Copy and style editing was by Abigail Grater. Book design was by George Bowie of The House. We gratefully acknowledge the advice and help received in the production of this book from Scottish Power, Scottish and Southern Energy (with particular thanks to Bob Olivant), Rio Tinto Alcan and Mott MacDonald Ltd. Illustrations Illustrations unless otherwise stated are supplied by Historic Scotland (www.historicscotlandimages.gov.uk) and are covered by Crown Copyright. Glossary A glossary of building and architectural terms is included in Scotland s Listed Buildings: What Listing Means to Owners and Occupiers (2009). A glossary of hydroelectric power terms are included at the end of this publication.

8 Foreword Power to the People celebrates the massive achievements made by Scots to generate electricity from a renewable source. The result was conceived and built before the idea of global warming had gained recognition. The utility is now at the forefront of national and international government initiatives for green energy and makes a key contribution to sustainable growth in Scotland. The sector combines a number of Scotland s strengths. It not only shows considerable technological and architectural innovation, but also an appreciation of its unique landscape. The many power stations and dams were carefully designed to make a positive contribution to the rural scenery. The provision of HEP showed a far-sighted political vision optimising technology to make Scotland a better, more competitive, wealthier and environmentally attractive place. We can now appreciate the significance of these endeavours. Hydro is a key contributor to our status as a net exporter of energy and allows Scotland to play a key role in developing projects such as a North Sea Supergrid. The great achievement of the sector is enhanced by the drama and beauty of the landscape given a helping hand by our famous weather. HEP in Scotland demonstrates excellence in architecture, engineering, technology and a responsible vision. It is a truly Scottish success story which is celebrated not only in this publication but each and every time you switch on a light. Fiona Hyslop MSP Minister for Culture and External Affairs

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10 Introduction The significant and early development of hydroelectric power in Scotland results not least from its combination of topography and weather. But this potential would not have been realised without the pioneering vision of a handful of architects, engineers and politicians whose personal energy and skills meant that Scotland has led the world in the development of this green energy source at various times in its history. The vision and skill of these architects and engineers was backed up by a productive and resilient workforce capable of achieving world records during the frenzied construction of schemes across Highland Scotland. This massive potential began to be realised over 100 years ago. Initially in private developments and later under state control, Scotland had developed an internationally significant hydroelectric power sector by the late 1960s. The legacy of this pioneering development is a vibrant hydro sector which contributes to Scotland s status as a net exporter of power to the rest of the UK. Scottish hydroelectric schemes are of national significance to the UK energy sector, generating around 12% of the gross power consumed in the UK in This is a spectacular Scottish success story. The hydroelectric power movement has led to the creation of many internationally important buildings and structures, demonstrating architectural as well as engineering achievement. This book traces the development of the industry through some of these key figures, from its roots in the aluminium industry through to hollow mountains with the capability to provide emergency power for whole of the UK. In addition to the numerous pioneering technical achievements realised by Scottish engineers the contribution of a number of distinguished pre- and post-war architects are discussed. The gazetteer section explores the vision outlined in the book s earlier chapters, giving a comprehensive overview of the existing infrastructure in Scotland. It underlines the contribution made by this most intriguing cast of characters and provides a clear view of the schemes which are so crucial in providing power to homes and business across Britain. Malcolm Cooper Chief Inspector Historic Scotland s Inspectorate OPPOSITE: Laggan Dam, 1934, Lochaber smelter and hydroelectric power scheme.

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12 The Pioneers Suddenly Kinlochleven was transformed, from a remote crofting settlement, to a centre of industry with people from all walks of life and many nationalities in the village, explains Avril Watt, a local historian in Kinlochleven, with a passion for its people and landscape. The powerful transformative force was the development of the pioneering Kinlochleven hydroelectric power system and aluminium smelter, completed in 1909 by the British Aluminium Company and at the time one of the largest and most sophisticated smelters in the world. What people don t appreciate, continues Avril, is that although the scheme was technically pioneering it was built by hand hard, dangerous work in which a number of men died and are buried in a graveyard overlooking the dam. A whole community of people sprang up at the dam, some living in bunk houses and others in small huts they constructed for themselves, cooking on an open fire sometimes over the back of a shovel. There were many types of men up there, not just travelling labourers, but lawyers and doctors who had fallen on hard times, and a surprising number of women acting as matrons, cooks and cleaners to some of the huts where men would pay pennies for washing and a meal in the evening. The extensive hydro scheme is still in operation by Rio Tinto Alcan, although part of the site has diversified as the community has matured, with mixed-use development and an iceclimbing centre in the former carbon silos. The legacy of the smelter remains at the heart of this remote Highland community.

13 2 POWER TO THE PEOPLE Chapter 1 The Pioneers Two pioneers, with a large cast of supporting characters, revolutionised hydropower in Scotland from the eccentric folly of a retired colonel to a dynamic modern industry with the potential to power the country sustainably and regenerate the Highlands. The success, or otherwise, of such a commanding utopian vision would rest on the shoulders of others engineers, architects, politicians and landowners. It all began, though, with ambitious developments in industrial generation for aluminium smelting, which through the work of William Murray Morrison ( ) and later Sir John Snell ( ) opened up the possibility of using hydropower for mass electrical consumption. PREVIOUS PAGE Avril Watt at Blackwater dam, , Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric scheme. Kinlochleven power house, interior and exterior, , Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric scheme. Hydroelectric power is now a large worldwide industry: it already supplies around 19% 1 of world power, and is set to expand as the need to develop renewable energy sources in response to climate change grows ever more pressing. The roots of the industry lie remarkably close to home, with Scotland a pioneering force in the development of the technology and of hydropower resources for public supply. In an international context, one of the earliest uses for hydroelectric power generation was in 1882 when, at the electrical technology exhibition in Munich, an experiment on the transmission of power along high-voltage cables used energy generated from an experimental hydroelectric station. The pattern of development in the Alpine and Nordic nations was continued as they exploited the steep topography as a source of power in the absence of the rich coal reserves found in Britain. Hydropower first came to Britain soon after the Munich exhibition with the development of a scheme to power the Northumberland home of Sir William Armstrong ( ) at Cragside. Armstrong, who was a friend of the

14 THE PIONEERS 3 inventor of the light bulb, Joseph Swan, showcased his technical achievement in his house, which in contrast to the ubiquitous smoky paraffin lamps was lit by bright, clean hydroelectric-powered light bulbs. [1.1] The earliest developments in hydropower in Scotland were small scale and privately funded, mirroring Armstrong s work at Cragside and providing power to a small local community or even a single building. An early triumph by Colonel Blunt, the husband of the Countess of Cromarty, near Dingwall in 1903 was used to light the front of the Raven s Rock Hotel in Strathpeffer, much to the amazement of visiting tourists to the small spa town. In nearby Fort Augustus the monks of the abbey developed a small 18-kilowatt scheme in 1891 to power their electric organ and the local village, legend suggesting poetically that when the monks played the organ the lights in the village went dim. Whilst these developments and others like them proved that the technology worked, they were restricted by the fact that power could not be transmitted to a sufficiently wide area. Added to this, the market for power was so small that the available returns limited the scale of future development. For example, Colonel Blunt s development at Raven s Rock was to be dogged by financial difficulties, and even went bankrupt, before eventually being incorporated into a larger scheme in the 1920s. [1.2] For hydropower to be economically viable and developed on a nationally significant scale, sufficient demand was required to allow the financing of a 1.1 Cragside House, 1863 (hydroelectric power scheme in operation from 1878). NTPL/Simon Fraser

15 4 POWER TO THE PEOPLE 1.2 Fort Augustus Monastery, St Andrews University Library. Licensor large scheme along with the essential development of civil and technical engineering. Without a national grid and a large energy market, this was unlikely to come from domestic or small-scale commercial supply in the late 19th century. The breakthrough came with the development of the Hall-Heroult smelting process for aluminium. [1.3] Using an electrical furnace, the process lowered the cost of production of the metal by some 75%. However, the lower production costs relied heavily on the provision of cheap electricity combined with easy access for the transport of bulk products, such as aluminium oxide, to supply the plant. Hydroelectric power was the obvious source for generating the required DC current at the lowest possible cost, and aluminium smelting quickly emerged as the economic spark necessary for the largescale development of hydroelectric power. The British and Colonial rights to the smelting process were purchased

16 THE PIONEERS 5 by a newly formed company in The British Aluminium Company (BAC) considered a number of locations across Britain for sites to establish production facilities, but they finally settled on the Highlands of Scotland because of the great potential for the production of cheap electricity from abundant water power, which was so crucial to the success of the infant technology. Having recognised the potential of the Highlands, BAC went about pioneering the development of largescale hydroelectric power generation in Scotland with the construction of three large industrial generating schemes at Falls of Foyers, Kinlochleven and Lochaber over the course of the next 40 years. In the development of the first scheme at Foyers, BAC purchased the complete water catchment required, obviating the requirement for a parliamentary bill and allowing the rapid development of the scheme. Just a year after the company was founded it was joined by a newly qualified engineer, William Murray Morrison ( ), who had taken his degree at the University of Edinburgh and then subsequently trained under Lord Kelvin at the Royal 1.3 Aluminium smelting using the Hall-Heroult process, Lochaber smelter and hydroelectric scheme, c Glasgow University Archives Technical College in Glasgow. [1.4] Morrison, who later went on to become BAC vice-chairman, was present at the birth of the hydropower industry in Scotland with designs for the first plant at Foyers underway when he joined the company. It had acquired Foyers estate and water rights over a large area of land on the south-east shores of Loch Ness, with the ideal topography for hydropower and access for bulk transport from the Caledonian Canal. Morrison was reunited with his former tutor, Lord Kelvin, for the design of the scheme, which was amongst the earliest in Europe to combine hydropower and aluminium production. Similar ventures in Norway, although on a very large scale, were not developed until the beginning of the 20th century, in particular with the Rjukan waterfall scheme from 1902 onwards.

17 6 POWER TO THE PEOPLE 1.4 Sir William Murray Morrison ( ). Glasgow University Archives The development at Foyers set the precedent for later schemes by attracting opposition from those who believed it would have a detrimental effect on what was considered Scotland s premier waterfall and a regular stop-off during the MacBrayne s steamboat excursions on Loch Ness. 2 [1.5] The company responded by outlining the employment which the development would bring to the area. An article in the Northern Chronicle of 1895 suggested that the founding in the Highlands of manufacturing or other industries calculated to develop local resources and to provide employment and increase a resident population is deserving of warmest encouragement and support. 3 Although effusive in its praise, the report was justified as the development at Foyers grew from merely a factory into a settlement with a church and school, and as the number of employees expanded from 70 to 250. The Foyers scheme was undoubtedly pioneering and innovative, the first industrial-scale use of the Hall-Heroult process and the first use of hydroelectric power on this scale in the UK. It was also highly influential, as the five Girard turbines and Oerlikon generators proved the viability of producing electricity from waterpowered turbines, something which had consequences well beyond industrial generation for the aluminium industry. They also showed that hydro power could be successfully applied to industrial processes. By 1900 the scheme was producing over 5% of the worldwide production of aluminium. The proven success of the technology, together with an aggressively expanding market with a range of domestic and industrial

18 THE PIONEERS 7 products utilising the new lightweight metal, provided the impetus for further development. A bill for the development of the Loch Leven catchment was presented to Parliament and approved in 1904, paving the way for an engineering achievement of international significance in what had previously been a rural backwater in Argyll. Whilst the Foyers scheme was pioneering but understandably cautious in scale, the BAC development at Kinlochleven was a step into the unknown. The increased confidence was mirrored by the growing skill and leadership of William Morrison, and such was his influence over the design and engineering of the scheme that he was promoted to general manager in 1908, just a year before it was completed. The damming of the river Blackwater created a 13-kilometre-long reservoir with a catchment area of some 150 square kilometres. The project was a large undertaking, and took four years to complete. The Blackwater dam for the Kinlochleven scheme was a gravity dam, 1.5 The Falls of Foyers Waterfall (oil on canvas) by Alfred de Breanski ( ). The Drambuie Collection, Edinburgh, Scotland / The Bridgeman Art Library

19 8 POWER TO THE PEOPLE 1.6 Blackwater dam, Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric scheme. Luftwaffe vertical air photograph of reservoir and dam with sketch section drawing of dam, The smelter was a key military asset with World War 2 significantly increasing demand for aluminium. Crown Copyright: RCAHMS. Licensor 26 metres high and over 800 metres in length with a breadth of 19 metres at the base, and the largest in Scotland in terms of cubic metres of concrete until [1.6] Water was conveyed from the outlet over five and a half kilometres in a sealed reinforced concrete aqueduct, before entering six parallel steel pipes (which were imported from Germany) dropping 285 metres to the six Pelton turbines and three auxiliary sets in the powerhouse. Initially the production capacity at Kinlochleven outweighed demand for the product, nearly causing the collapse of BAC. However, the First World War hugely increased demand for aluminium, which was found to be perfectly adapted to a range of military requirements. Initially extensions were made at Kinlochleven with an aqueduct bringing in additional water from Loch Eilde Mor, and plans (eventually abandoned) were considered for a second powerhouse. The abortive scheme for a second powerhouse would have used water from Lochs Laggan and Treig, and this idea provided the basis for BAC s most audacious undertaking in developing a third smelter at Lochaber in Fort William. The Kinlochleven scheme was a significant advance in scale over the first development at Foyers and represented a highly important civil engineering achievement, recognised internationally, on its completion in The smelter was one of the largest in the world at this time, and its capacity, combined with Foyers, meant that the west Highlands produced nearly one third of the

20 THE PIONEERS 9 worldwide total for aluminium. 4 [1.7] Having been witness to the successful early development of the technology for hydropower at Foyers and an integral part of the expansion of the technology for the development at Kinlochleven, Morrison, in his role as general manager for BAC, went on to put his knowledge and skill as a pioneer of the industry into the most audacious and large-scale developments to date by BAC those at Lochaber, begun in The development utilised a massive catchment, including three major reservoirs, with run off including parts of Ben Nevis. Lochs Laggan and Treig were joined by a three-and-a-half-kilometre tunnel. Water from these two lochs was later supplemented by the damming of the River Spey and its diversion into Loch Laggan to satisfy increased demand during the Second World War. Perhaps the most significant part of the scheme, however, was the 24-kilometre pressure tunnel bored through solid rock under Ben Nevis to connect Treig Dam with a steel pipeline dropping 180 metres to the powerhouse just outside Fort William. [1.8] By the completion of the expanded stage of the Lochaber scheme in 1943, BAC s Highland aluminium smelters were a significant component of worldwide production of aluminium. The long-term investment and innovation of the company had transformed the use of hydroelectric power in Scotland, from small-scale local operations into a sector capable of generating power on an industrial scale. The investment in design experimentation for civil and mechanical components of the scheme, such as the pioneering use of rockfill technology in Treig Dam, was only possible because of the profits available from the association of power generation with aluminium production and the constant emphasis on larger and more efficient schemes. The development of the technology to such a degree had an important impact on the design of schemes for public supply, which began to develop on a large scale from 1928 onwards with the Grampian hydropower scheme. The environmental benefits of generating energy through hydropower, which are a key concern of the modern-day industry, were perhaps perceived at this time but were not central to the development of the industry during this period. The development of schemes for public supply was dogged throughout

21 10 POWER TO THE PEOPLE 1.7 Kinlochleven power house and penstocks, , Kinlochleven smelter and hydroelectric power scheme.

22 THE PIONEERS 11 by difficulties in funding and by local opposition in ways which had not affected the BAC schemes. One of the largest problems was raising capital to finance the massive civil engineering elements. This was one of the primary reasons why the public supply developments were reliant upon importing the technology pioneered by BAC schemes with their reliable returns. Local and national power transmission systems were still in their infancy, and most early schemes for public supply also faced problems in reconciling the fact that the power was produced in large sparsely populated areas, whilst demand was located far away in the densely populated central belt. Despite the gap between the areas most suited to production and the most viable markets and concerns over scenic amenity (the visual impact of the schemes on the landscape), another pioneer with similar vision to Morrison was convinced of the viability of hydropower for public supply as early as In 1918 the Board of Trade established a committee to investigate Britain s water power resources, no doubt partially in response to the success of the two existing BAC schemes. The committee was chaired by Sir John Snell, a civil engineer by training who also had experience of government service. He saw in hydropower an opportunity to begin to shape a modern and forward-looking power sector which would revolutionise the way people lived in Britain. Snell s report was suitably expansive on the potential for hydropower to make a significant contribution to UK resources. The perceived acknowledgement by the government of the value of hydropower began to make the sector more appealing to financiers and opened up revenue streams for the funding of new schemes. Snell was not only convinced of the general potential of hydropower, but laid out a far-reaching and highly influential personal vision of how the sector should be developed something which went on to have a significant impact not only on the schemes developed immediately afterwards, but also on nationalised developments by the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB) from 1943 onwards. Snell s vision was for the development of individual catchments with dams and power stations rather than the mass movement of water

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24 THE PIONEERS Treig dam, Crown Copyright: RCAHMS between catchments to single large power stations. This proved very influential, with the vast majority of schemes in Scotland consisting of a number of smaller stations using water resources from their own catchment and grouped together into a wider scheme. This also had a practical impact, providing flexibility in the generation pattern which could be achieved by putting individual stations in or out of production and thus regulating capacity more effectively. Snell also had a social vision for the use of hydropower which chimed with that of the early rhetoric surrounding the BAC development at Foyers. He saw the additional opportunity for the development of Scottish hydroelectric resources to regenerate the Highlands, as long as they were accompanied by the stipulation that developments should benefit the catchment in which they were located. Consequently later schemes developed at the Falls of Clyde, Tummel and in Galloway all paid particular attention to the scenic amenity of the areas in which they were located, in addition to providing power to local communities. Although this thinking would have had a considerable impact over the schemes which followed the report, it was in the post-1943 NoSHEB schemes that this almost socialist vision was perhaps most evident. In a period characterised by an increasing focus on policy-led social agendas and coinciding with the advent of mass social housing, a commitment to social welfare was an ongoing theme throughout the development of hydropower. In general, a vision for a better life resulted in strategic planning amongst policy makers, architects and engineers, with a number of large projects throughout Scotland. The two pioneers, Morrison and Snell, perhaps both had a vision for the development of a vibrant and modern industry on an unprecedented scale. Despite being a pioneer of the technology behind hydropower, it was the common good that Morrison was most proud of, noting sentimentally in a letter, to Dr Lachlan Grant on 1 January 1935: It is a most pleasing recollection in my career that I have been able to do some practical and lasting good to my beloved Highlands. 5

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26 The Engineers I ll always remember looking around me [when working on a project in Lesotho] and seeing all the different nationalities, and knowing that we were developing a scheme to provide power where it had not been available before. This reflects the great satisfaction James Arthur found in his international career as a civil engineer and former partner with James Williamson & Partners (latterly global multidisciplinary consultancy Mott MacDonald), who were responsible for some of the defining engineering for hydro schemes in Scotland and worldwide. James recalls that when he joined the practice in 1974 the original vision of its founder, James Williamson (who died in 1953), remained a central philosophy of the company. Hydro schemes were not just pieces of engineering, but were part of the social fabric of a place. Interpreting the landscape and requirements of a local community was the only way to produce the highest-quality designs for hydro schemes in a diverse range of locations. James not only developed his civil engineering skills working at Williamsons ; he also embraced the social conscience which he could see demonstrated in so many of the projects across Scotland. This philosophy has been espoused by him and a small group of his colleagues and disseminated across the world in their later work, helping to develop successful projects in countries as far-flung as Iceland and Pakistan. James reflects that although Scotland does not necessarily have the largest hydro sector in the world, the role of engineers bred in Scotland, who learnt from Williamsons much more than just how to engineer a hydro scheme, has been very significant indeed.

27 16 POWER TO THE PEOPLE Chapter 2 The Engineers In responding to the challenge laid down by Sir John Snell for further development during the course of a number of interwar projects at Tummel, Clyde and in Galloway, a breed of specialist engineers emerged whose work not only overcame the technical problems associated with using hydropower for public supply, but went on to shape the post-war development of hydro under the North of Scotland Hydro Electric Board (NoSHEB). PREVIOUS PAGE James Arthur at Ben Lawers dam, Killin, Breadalbane hydroelectric scheme. Ben Lawers dam and penstock, Killin, , Breadalbane hydroelectric scheme. Snell s pioneering vision instigated the development of hydroelectric power schemes for public supply. The perception amongst financiers and other officials that the development of such schemes had government and public approval opened access to credit and allowed this area of the hydro sector to begin to catch up with the great strides made by the British Aluminium Company (BAC) in the provision of hydropower for their Highland aluminium smelters. Although developments by BAC had proved that the technology could work on a very large scale, the technical challenges associated with public supply were different and demanded equally innovative solutions. Foremost amongst the engineers involved in shaping the industry in this way were Edward (later Sir) MacColl ( ) [2.1] and James T Williamson ( ). [2.2] Both had completed apprenticeships before the First World War and cut their teeth on projects ranging from explosives and munitions to tramways. MacColl was appointed Chief Technical Engineer for the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Company, following his work on the electrification of the Glasgow tram network. The Clyde Valley company

28 THE ENGINEERS Sir Edward MacColl ( ) pictured centre. Am Baile. Courtesy of the Ramsay Collection, Skye and Lochalsh Archive. 2.2 James T Williamson ( ). Reproduced courtesy of Mott MacDonald Ltd. was the largest supplier of electricity in Scotland at the time MacColl was appointed. Having abandoned plans in 1909 to develop the Falls of Clyde for hydropower, the company had gone on to construct a number of thermal stations. Their attention returned to the potential of the Falls of Clyde following MacColl s appointment and the financial backing of the Power and Traction Finance Company. [2.3] The capacity of the Falls of Clyde to provide water power on an unprecedented scale in Scotland had of course been recognised by David Dale in the late 18th century in the development at New Lanark, of pioneering of water powered mills and an associated village. The location of the proposed scheme was therefore not only at one of central Scotland s most renowned sites for water power, but also at one of the region s most recognised beauty spots, and vociferous opposition was expected in advance of the proposal being put forward for parliamentary assent. The critics of the scheme were appeased more through technical and architectural achievement than through public relations. Thus the far-sighted drive to ensure that developments made a positive impact on their environment by contributing to their setting, and by good design and engineering, was a theme MacColl had picked up from Snell s report and that would prove influential over all of his future work and latterly that of NoSHEB. One of the key factors in the design at the Falls of Clyde was accordingly to preserve the falls

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