An Investigation of a Group of Mid-19th Century
French Carpet Designs

Sarah Dove
Paper Conservator, 45 Pequot Avenue, New London. CT 06320

I. Introduction

This paper describes the investigation of, and the proposed
conservation treatment for, a group of mid-19th century French
carpet designs from the collection of the Cooper-Hewitt Museum
(accession numbers 1954.23.1-40). They are catalogued as cartoons
for woven carpets from Paris, France, and are dated to the middle of
the 19th century. They were given to the Museum by John Judkyn in
1954. The majority of the designs are attached to secondary
supports. Although it was not readily apparent, the secondary
supports suggested the designs were once assembled in an album. The
following examination, stylistic evaluation, and analysis of
internal evidence lead to this conclusion. The evidence presented
also helped to determine the designs were part of a single album
rather than a compilation of designs taken from various albums.r

Description: Of the 42 separate designs, 14 are
single-sided with one design to an album page and 28 are
double-sided with a design attached to each side of an album
page. All but four of the designs are adhered to medium weight,
blue, antique laid paper. Remnants of a blue paper attached at
various points to the backs of three of the others suggest that they
too were attached to album pages. The fourth and smallest design has
no attachment remnants and is loose. Most of the designs are larger
than the album page and were folded to fit the album when originally
mounted. Thus, approximately one-half to two-thirds of a design is
attached to the album page and the other portion is folded inward,
onto itself, to conform to the size of the page. Five of the smaller
designs have not been folded and are mounted centrally on album
pages. To complicate matters, the orientation of the double-sided
designs is sometimes different on each side, some being mounted
vertically and others horizontally. Of the 28 double-sided
mountings, 22 are unrelated designs on either side of the page, and
the other 6 are related.

All the designs are hand-painted with matte, opaque paint (some
have underdrawing in either graphite or chalk) on machine-made white
wove paper. Eight of the designs comprise several sheets of paper
joined together by a small overlap. Several of the designs are
backed with an intermediate sheet attached to the secondary support.
There are numbers written in ink on the pages; others are written on
the back of the folded designs. The numbers are random and reach
1395, so it was concluded that the designs are selected from a much
larger set of samples.

Various other inscriptions in French are found on the folded
backs of the designs. Three mention a manufacturers' name: Messrs.
Réquillard, Roussel, and Choqueil. Two of the inscriptions
note that these specific designs were sold or given in property to
the named manufacturers, and one indicates the manufacturers'
address. Four of the designs are signed by the artists
Protán, Virolet, and Zipélius. The dates 1847 and 1848
are inscribed on two designs1.

Condition: Both the single-sided and double-sided designs
are unevenly attached to their mounts. They have large creases and
cockling from mounting, and are unnecessarily rigid as a result of
too much adhesive. The double-sided objects have, of course, twice
the adhesive and therefore increased rigidity. Adhesives have also
been overused to mend tears. The sections that fold out have
suffered from handling and use. In most cases there are large tears,
the fold lines are weak or split, and there is ingrained surface
dirt. There are also large creases on these sections possibly from
being held incorrectly in the album. The folded out portion is the
only area where the previous repairs can be seen on the back. In
addition, the majority of the album pages have folded edges and
losses. All of the supports have much surface dirt and the white and
blue supports have discolored over time.

Generally, the paint is loosely bound to the support. Over time
pigment has offset onto designs which were in contact with each
other. The folding of the support has also caused cracking and
flaking. In the areas of thick impasto there is substantial paint
loss. Only two of the objects exhibit severe flaking in large areas
of the design; the majority of the designs have flaking around the
area of loss, occurring mainly at the outer edges of the support, at
the peaks of folds and creases and in the areas of impasto. The
remaining designs have sustained some small, partial losses, but are
otherwise stable.

Storage and Handling: The designs were stored folded in
colander boxes as they were received. As noted earlier, most of the
objects are double-sided. They are difficult to handle because the
folded portions unfold and flap open, so that when the object is
turned over to view the design on the verve, damage is caused. Any
handling of the designs causes the paint to lift from the surface.
During the survey, the designs were unfolded and placed in map
folders between sheets of glassine. Color and black and white
photographs were taken of each design and used to determine the
correct orientation (vertical or horizontal). By placing and
repositioning the photographs, it was determined whether the designs
had counterparts or repeat patterns2.
After examining the designs, it was determined that removal of the
secondary supports from the designs would be necessary in order to
reduce distortion. Also, separation would make it possible to view
related designs together, and thus exhibit each design as a whole. A
means to carry out treatment had to be established.

II. Mid-19th Century French Carpet Design

During the mid-19th century, France produced both its traditional
handwoven carpets, the Aubusson and Savonnerie, and cheaper
mechanically-woven copies of them. The traditional carpets,
originally named after their place of origin, differed primarily in
their weave. Aubusson is a flat woven, tapestry carpet, and
Savonnerie a thick-pile carpet. Eventually, the carpet names came to
describe the weaves rather than their place of manufacture3. The coarser, mechanically loomed carpets
were woven in narrow strips ranging from 18 to 36 inches; the
repeating patterns were then matched and the strips sewn together.
Often the joined strips were framed by a border4.

Moquettes are another type of carpeting woven in long narrow
strips. Sometimes called "French carpet by the yard", moquettes were
also produced by hand or on mechanical looms in the mid-19th
century. Though moquettes were made of the same materials as
carpets, they were more finely woven. Later in the century the term
moquette came to describe a type of very fine machine woven cut-pile
carpet5. Moquettes were very
fashionable in the 1850s in France, and found many uses: "These
moquettes may be applied to a hundred different purposes. For
wallhangings, chairbacks, sofas, and other pieces of furniture,
perhaps no material is so gracefully appropriate, as being soft and
pleasing to the touch, and eminently durable"6. Produced on a large scale in France from
the 17th century onwards, they originally imitated Oriental carpets
and, in the 18th century, changed to the naturalistic patterns
characteristic of European design7.

The Carpet Patterns: To arrive at the functioning design
for the loom, the artist first made a drawing or painted
pattern8. The scale of the pattern and
the width of the repeat was determined by the loom employed to
produce the carpets9. When ready for
production, the pattern was rendered onto square ruled paper and was
called a mise-en-carte10. The
term, mise-en-carte refers both to the pattern and to the
paper itself, called point paper in English11. Point-paper is divided into a series of
squares, with every eighth, tenth, or twelfth line, both vertically
and horizontally, showing more prominently than the others. Every
square of the ruled paper contains vertical lines corresponding to
the warp threads and horizontal lines corresponding to the weft
threads. Once the pattern was transferred to the point-paper the
weaver could set up the loom with the correct proportions.

All but one of the designs under discussion appear to be
full-sized painted patterns, or cartoons, that precede the
mise-en-carte. The variety of sizes among the designs in the
group suggests they may have been intended for different sized
products: from large carpets to smaller moquettes. Some of the
designs have been squared off with graphite or chalk lines on top of
the original, evidence of transferring or tracing onto a point-paper
in preparation for weaving12.

Examination revealed that three of the torn designs had been
previously mended on the verve with point-paper. The point-paper is
printed with an engraved plate divided into ten squares in each
direction and in one instance includes the inscription "10 en 10
pour Tapis". This provides further evidence that the designs
were for carpets and were intended to be woven on the Jacquard loom
since point-paper was always used in this type of weaving. The
majority of the designs have recognizable repeating patterns and, in
one case, directions are given for the correct placement of the
pattern to allow the repeat to function.

The majority of the designs fall into the period of rococo and
Gothic revival styles. Revived during the 1830s, these styles were
used for everything from carpets and wallpaper to furnishings and
ornamental decorations13.
Stylistically, the designs can be grouped into four broad
categories. The largest category consists of designs marked by
cartouches, lattice, and scroll-work embellished with naturalistic
flower and plant motifs. These are most reminiscent of Savonnerie
carpets which are decorated with naturalistic ornaments that appear
to protrude from the flat surface. The second category is similar
except the design elements are more delineated and stylized and,
overall, more associated with the Gothic Revival. The third category
depicts naturalistic floral motifs, such as roses and daisies with
exaggerated use of strong "S" and "C" shaped curves and wide arches
popular in the rococo revival style. The fourth category consists of
non-naturalistic flower and leaf forms which were also commonly used
in the rococo revival style. While the sinuous curves and sweeping
arches of the style are similarly employed, these designs stand out
because of the fantastic plant forms. The differences in styles
represented could indicate that these patterns, besides being the
artists' original designs, were used as samples to be shown to
customers. Considering that France was the leading country in
decoration, and its designs were exported to many other countries,
it may be assumed that the styles paralleled the international
demand.

Three factors suggested the designs in the collection of the
Cooper-Hewitt Museum were, at one point, assembled together in the
same album or sample book. First, similarities were found in the
color and manufacture of the album pages; for example, two of the
album pages reveal a watermark belonging to a Parisian firm, D.
& C. Blauw, listed as papermakers in the early-19th
century14. Secondly, a fiber analysis
of the album pages revealed great similarities, and, finally, an
analysis of the adhesive used to assemble the album showed
likenesses as well15.

Although there was no proof the firm of Mssrs. Réquillard,
Roussel, and Choqueil (noted in the inscriptions) was responsible
for having the sample book made, it does seem quite likely. When the
42 separate designs were grouped by their repeating patterns 27
designs were formed. Three of the 27 patterns were inscribed with
the Réquillard name, and two note that these specific designs
were sold or given in property to the named manufacturers. Also,
examples of work they produced is contained in an Art
Journal article from 1850 that includes several engraved
illustrations very similar to a number of designs in the subject
group.

III. Analysis of Paper Fibers, Pigments and Binders

Given the complete lack of conservation literature on the topic
of carpet designs, a scientific analysis of the materials proved to
be the only way to provide an objective description of their
content. Identification of the material components of the designs
and comparison of data on treatments affecting these materials would
enable the conservator to establish certain safe parameters for
treatment.

Accordingly, an analysis of fiber content, pigments and binders
was performed, both to provide an objective description of the
supports, palette, and binding media used by the designers, and to
indicate a rough developmental sequence of the designs. A
representative group of six designs was selected on the basis of
stylistic continuity and color of the paint used. One of the six was
dated 1847, providing a point of reference as a basis of comparison
of similarities and differences among the designs.

Stylistically, two methods of establishing the object-ground
relationship within the design could be observed. One relies on the
off-white color of the paper to act as a value base, the other uses
a background color painted under or around the design elements to
create the negative space around each element. In most cases the
paint is applied in layered, overlapping coats, especially on the
flowers and leaves which are rendered more realistically by the
addition of shadows and highlights. This is very similar to the
method used for wallpaper production; one type of paper had a
colored ground laid on it, and the other was not prepared16. A number of the designs have a glossier
white paint that has been used exclusively to correct apparent
mistakes and to put the white highlights on some of the flowers.

Analysis of the binding media using the Fourier-transform
infrared spectrometer showed that the paint was distemper, and the
paint used for corrections was probably casein17. Distemper, a water-based paint with glue,
size, or starch as a binder, was traditionally used to paint or
print wallpaper by hand, and its use was continued with the advent
of mechanization18. Casein was used
to edit mistakes because it provides good opaque coverage.

Further analysis of the pigments unfortunately provided no
additional guidance in dating the designs, since all of the pigments
were in common use well before our 1847 reference date19. On the other hand, the supports did give
some information concerning the age of the designs.

The carpet designs are all painted on paper characteristic of the
machine-made paper most in use in the mid-19th century. The paper is
thin and bears the distinctive pattern of the woven wire cloth on
which it was made. The album pages are all hand-made antique laid
blue paper. Several of the designs are backed with a secondary
support also made of hand-made paper. Interestingly, the mixed use
of hand-made and machine-made paper was common in the wallpaper
industry20. This collection suggests
the use of both types of paper by textile designers as well.

Paper-making in the 19th century was affected by several issues.
The main one was the need to find a substitute for the raw material,
rag, which was quite costly. The eventual solution involved the
addition of wood pulp to the raw product. This solution led to a
dramatic reduction on the cost of wallpaper, thereby increasing
affordability21. A list of the
components used in wallpaper production near mid-century included
straw, straw and wool, manila hemp, cotton and linen rag22. After 1850, ground wood and chemical wood
were used in increasing proportions23.

A fiber analysis carried out on each of the selected designs, as
well as on the designs to which they were attached back to back,
showed that all of the primary supports contained a high percentage
of the best fibers flax, hemp or ramie. Chemical wood and ground
wood fibers were also found in very small percentages in several of
the primary supports analyzed. The design dated 1847, however,
contains only rag fibers, which helped to confirm the date since no
wood fibers are present. The designs that contain ground wood were
assigned a date after 1851. Finally, only one set of back-to-back
designs showed a meaningful difference in fiber content. One design
consisted of all rag fibers, and the other contained ground wood.
This might indicate these designs were placed into the album at
different dates. Analysis of the album pages revealed a great
similarity in fiber content, another indication that they are part
of one album.

The consistency of the data drawn from the analysis of the fiber
content, pigments and binders, along with the historical information
presented, points to an acceptable date of the midl9th century.
There is, however, insufficient data to provide a developmental
sequence for the designs. Scientific analysis of the various
components of the designs revealed that the materials used were
similar if not identical to those used in the production of
wallpaper during that period. Indeed, even the adhesives used to
assemble the album were found to be very similar to adhesive samples
taken from a similarly dated wallpaper attached to linen24.

IV. Conservation

When considering conservation of the carpet designs, three
characteristic problems emerged: 1) flaking paint; 2) the fact that
they are mounted centrally on album pages, or back to back on album
pages; 3) creases and cockling caused by the mounting. Each was
addressed by testing four designs representative of the above
problems. The aim here was that treatments found to be effective on
these designs could then be applied to the entire group. The tests
enabled selection of the most suitable materials for carrying out
the conservation treatments and of the most suitable techniques in
applying them. The tests also established the treatment limitations.
The main limitation was imposed by the unfortunate combination of a
weak primary support, a superior strength adhesive, and the water
sensitive media used on all of the designs.

Examination also revealed several less significant problems which
were resolved in a variety of ways. For removing surface dirt and
unwanted transferred pigment from the painted surface, a variety of
erasers and techniques were tested. A light rolling with a kneaded
eraser over the paint surface proved most successful. On the verve,
vinyl erasers could be safely used.

Several methods were employed for removing mold. In one, a
scalpel was used to extirpate or dislodge the mold. In the second, a
kneaded eraser was used in a lifting motion. The combined use of
these two procedures was most successful.

Parchment size (The Bookbinder's Warehouse, Inc.),
[H2O, Acetic Acid, Ethanol 1:33:33:33], and 1.5% Ethulose
400 (Conservation Materials), [H2O, Ethanol 50:50] were
most effective in resolving the more significant problem of flaking
paint. Both stabilized existing paint flakes while maintaining the
paint's original appearance. During testing it was determined that
the Ethulose 400 would be more effective on the areas with large
paint flakes. In contrast, parchment size was used in areas that
showed smaller sized flakes. These consolidants were applied by
methods most adaptable to the problem: larger paint flakes afforded
enough area for brush application, while a spray method was employed
on the smaller flakes to avoid damage from manipulation.

Large creases on the folded portion of the designs were
accessible so moisture was applied, and the areas were flattened
between blotters and weight to remove them. The problem of creases
and cockling could not, however, be addressed until the album pages
were removed from the designs.

Removal of an album page from a single-sided design was
undertaken as a preliminary step prior to the more complex problem
of the separation of a double-sided design. Three methods were
carried out and evaluated. Each involved the application of moisture
to the adhesive layer followed by mechanical manipulation with a
microspatula. Moisture was applied by brush, by ultra-sonic
humidifier, and by hand-held steamer. The last method was the most
effective, albeit very slow, in removing the backing. This procedure
was done systematically by peeling the backing paper at an acute
angle beginning in the lower right corner and progressing upward and
left. Having verified the effectiveness of the steam method on the
single-sided designs, a similar procedure was employed on the
double-sided designs with the exception they were suspended when the
steam was applied.

To avoid potential transfer of the paint, a double-sided design
was attached to a Dutch strainer25. A
paper extension or collar was attached to the outside edges of the
design. Since the paint was applied out to the edges of the paper an
adhesive had to be chosen that would not affect the paint layer when
attaching the collar. A water based adhesive could not be
considered, since steam was to be applied in this procedure. An
acrylic-based adhesive reversible in ethanol, proved the best
choice, since all the colors were known to be stable in this
solvent.

After verifying that it could be removed with ethanol with little
pigment particle offset, acrylic heat set tissue (BookMakers) was
chosen as the best method for mounting the design on the Dutch
strainer. In order to reinforce the thin heat set tissue strip,
Japanese paper (Okawara machine made) several times wider was
attached along its length, with the tacking iron, leaving a 1/4"
width exposed for adhesion along the edge of the design. The heat
set tissue and Japanese paper strips were then fitted around the
perimeter on the front of the design and on as much of the back of
the design as possible and attached with the tacking iron. Blotters
and weight were applied to the strips for a period of about 12 hours
to ensure contact between the design and the attached strips.

A wooden strainer was assembled to fit the dimensions of the
designs with the attached strips. The Japanese paper strips were
attached to the strainer with masking tape. The use of masking tape
made it possible to manipulate the paper strips so they could be
tightened if necessary in the subsequent treatment. The strainer
with the object intact was then lifted and the rigid support and
weights removed. Finally, the strainer was placed into a wooden
frame that was made to hold the strainer upright. The object had to
be in this position before the steam was applied so the effect of
the steam could be carefully monitored on both sides of the object.

The album page together with one design was lifted at the lower
left corner, and the steam was applied as described above for
removing the backing from the single-sided design. The results
however were not as satisfactory when applied to the double-sided
design. The process of swelling the adhesive with the steam was
extremely slow, and the accumulation of moisture affected the paint
layer.

Further tests carried out to determine if the tenacious adhesive
was solvent sensitive failed to produce a solvent capable of
swelling the adhesive.

To summarize, treatments were established for removing surface
dirt, unwanted transferred pigment and mold; and for consolidating
flaking paint, removing creases, and removing adhesive from the
paint surface. It was also established through testing that the
secondary supports could be released from the single-sided designs
with a steam application, although this process was extremely slow.
Another method that could be considered is the mechanical removal of
the secondary support with a scalpel, followed by adhesive removal.
Although it was established that enzymes could not be used to
release the adhesive it is possible that a poultice could be used to
swell the adhesive. Experimentation with poultices, including the
use of a heated poultice, might lead to a successful method of
adhesive removal.

Subsequent treatments such as humidifying and flattening the
designs to reduce distortions, and overall lining of the thin
primary supports, would be contingent upon the success achieved in
removing the adhesive layer from the backs of the designs.

Given the quality of the supports and their large size, and the
fragile condition of the paint and its inability to withstand
excessive moisture, it is recommended that the double-sided designs
be left intact.

The tears and weakened areas and the losses along the edges of
the support could be treated in the conventional manner: the tears
mended with Japanese paper and wheat starch paste, and the losses
filled with a comparable paper. The paper inserts and the paint
losses along the creases could be inpainted.

Once those treatments which are possible are carried out, a
significant improvement of the designs will be readily apparent.
This together with placing the designs into better housing would
fulfill the treatment objectives of promoting a stable physical
condition and improving the appearance of the designs.

As noted earlier, viewing the designs required removal from the
cases and unfolding. Simply providing colander boxes large enough to
accommodate the unfolded designs stopped the continuous damage from
folding. Glassine was placed on the painted surfaces to prevent
pigment from offsetting and surface abrasion. Map folders slightly
smaller than the inside dimension of the colander box were also
utilized to further separate each object; this ensured minimal
movement in the box, and provided a support for safer handling.

V. Conclusions

These designs for carpets and moquettes are significant in that
they are the original artists' designs and cartoons for the final
woven products. They also provide a record of the processes involved
in transferring a design to a usable pattern for the weaver.

Historical research provided insight into the manner in which the
carpets and moquettes were produced and therefore a better
understanding of how the designs were used in the production
process.

In compiling information on the historical use of artists'
materials for comparison during the scientific analysis of the
carpet designs, it was found that the methods used were scarcely
documented. The examination revealed however, that the supports and
paints were similar to those used at the same time in the production
of wallpaper; the latter provided better documentation, which was
used in the comparison.

Uniformity was found to exist in the design materials and their
application in the entire group. The various conservation problems
presented by the designs were addressed by testing four designs
representative of each problem, with the aim that treatments
effective on these designs could be applied to the entire group. The
tests enabled selection of the most suitable materials for carrying
out the conservation treatments and of the most suitable techniques
in applying them.

The fact that the double-sided designs could not, at this stage,
be safely separated means they will continue to show evidence of
once being part of a sample book. Although much of the historic
significance was lost when the book was disassembled, there is the
possibility that this group of designs are part of a larger set. The
specific materials used in the mounting, album pages, and adhesive
may provide evidence to link these designs with those of other
collections.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Konstanze Bachmann, of the Cooper-Hewitt
Museum, who initiated this project and served as the project
supervisor, for her generous advice and guidance. Special thanks are
also due to Milton Sonday, the curator of textiles for very helpful
suggestions.

To the staff at the Conservation Analytical Laboratory, I would
like to extend my appreciation, especially to the following: Dr.
Mary Baker, Dr. Charles Tumosa, and Melanie Feather for their
assistance and advice and for kindly providing the SEM and FTIR
analysis.

Lastly, I gratefully acknowledge financial support for the
postgraduate internship awarded by the Conservation Analytical
Laboratory through the Office of Fellowships and Grants of the
Smithsonian Institution.

10. See H.A. Elsberg, "The
Textiles of Lyons, Their Designs and Designers," Bulletin of
the Museum of Fine Arts, (1932), p.30. See also Wunder,
loc.cit., pp. 253-255; and "Vocabulary of Technical Terms: Fabrics."
(Lyons: Centre International D'Etude des Textiles Anciens (CETA),
1964), where mise-en-carte is defined as "a pattern on square
ruled paper which serves as a guide for setting up the loom. This
term is generally applied only to patterns for a draw loom or a
Jacquard loom."

15. Fiber analysis was carried
out using a polarizing light microscope. The iodine based "C" stain
was used for the microchemical tests. See B.L. Browning,
Analysis of Paper, (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
1969), p. 46. For information regarding the adhesive analysis see
endnote 25.

17. Mary Baker, Dianne van der
Reyden, and Nancie Ravenel, "FTIR Analysis of Coated Papers",
The Book and Paper Group Annual, vol. 8, (American
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works,1989), pp.
1-12. Dr. Mary Baker, Research Chemist, CAL/MSC Smithsonian
Institution conducted this analysis. The methods she used are
outlined in the above article.

18. Max Doerner, The
Materials of the Artist: and their Use in Painting with Notes on the
Techniques of the Old Masters, (San Diego: New York, London:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1934), pp.222-223. See also Phyllis
Ackermann, Wallpaper: Its History, Design and Use, (New
York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1923), p. 104.

19. Analysis was done with the
polarizing light microscope and microchemical tests. Following this,
12 samples were randomly chosen from the total number of samples
(80) for analysis with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with an
energy dispersive x-ray analyzer attachment (EDXA). A summary of the
microscopically identified pigments follows: Lead white, Raw sienna,
Bone black, Lamp black, Organic red, Blue verditer, Green verditer,
Ultramarine (synthetic), Chrome green, and Chrome yellow. The SEM
analysis showed inert white pigments or extenders comprising part of
each sample.

20. Lynn, op.cit, p.300.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. William J. Barrow,
PermanencelDurability of the Book-V: Strength and Other
Characteristics of Book Papers 1800-1899, (Richmond, Va: W.
J. Barrow Research Laboratory,1967) p.l4.

24. Letter from Mary Baker to
Sarah Dove, Sept.1,1990. This information relates to unpublished
research done by CAL staff members Mary Baker and Dianne van der
Reyden. The samples were analyzed with the Fourier-transform
infrared spectrometer (FTIR), and found to be a clear mixture of a
protein and a polysaccharide. In the analysis the polysaccharide was
further characterized as starch by a companson with reference
spectra and the adhesive was identified as "pasta paste". To fully
identify the components of the "pasta paste" further analysis using
gas chromatography and amino acid analysis would need to be carried
out. See Dr. Umberto Baldini and Sergio Taiti, "Italian Lining
Techniques: Lining with Pasta Adhesive (and Other Methods), at the
Fortezza da Basso, Florence," trans. Italian Cultural Institute, in
Conference on Comparative Lining Techniques: Proceedings of
the Symposium in Essex, England, April, 1974, by the National
Maritime Museum (England: National Maritime Museum, 1974), p.67, p.8
1-82. The recipe for the paste is included; the ingredients are
glue, water, several varieties of flours, turpentine, ox gall, alum,
and molasses or honey.

Publication History

Received: Fall 1991

Paper delivered at the Book and Paper specialty group session, AIC
19th Annual Meeting, June 3-8, 1991, Albuquerque, New
Mexico.

Papers for the specialty group session are selected by committee,
based on abstracts and there has been no further peer review. Papers
are received by the compiler in the Fall following the meeting and
the author is welcome to make revisions, minor or major.