PART ONE • UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

SERVICES IN THE MODERN ECONOMY
As consumers, we use services every day. Turning on a light, watching TV, talking on the telephone, riding a bus, visiting the dentist, mailing a letter, getting a haircut, refueling a car, writing a check, or sending clothes to the cleaners are all examples of service consumption at the individual level. T h e institution at which you are studying is itself a c o m p l e x service organization. In addition to educational services, today's college facilities usually include libraries and cafeterias, counseling, a bookstore, placement offices, copy services, telecommunications, and even a bank. If you are enrolled at a residential university, campus services are also likely to include dormitories, health care, indoor and o u t d o o r athletic facilities, a theater, and perhaps a post office. Customers are not always happy with the quality and value of the services they receive. People complain a b o u t late deliveries, r u d e or i n c o m p e t e n t personnel, i n c o n v e n i e n t service h o u r s , p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e , and needlessly complicated p r o cedures. T h e y grumble about the difficulty of finding sales clerks to help t h e m in retail stores, express frustration about mistakes on their credit card bills or bank statements, shake their heads over the complexity of new self-service equipment, m u t ter about p o o r value, and sigh as they are forced to wait in line almost everywhere they go. Suppliers of services often seem to have a very different set of concerns than the consumer. Many suppliers complain about h o w difficult it is to make a profit, how hard it is to find skilled and motivated employees, or h o w difficult it has b e c o m e to please customers. Some firms seem to believe that the surest route to financial success lies in cutting costs and eliminating "unnecessary" frills. A few even give the impression that they could run a m u c h m o r e efficient operation if it weren't for all the stupid customers w h o keep m a k i n g unreasonable d e m a n d s and messing things up! Fortunately, in almost every industry there are service suppliers w h o know how to please their customers while also running a productive, profitable operation staffed by pleasant and competent employees. By studying organizations such as Charles Schwab, Intrawest, Aggreko, Southwest Airlines, eBay, and the many others featured in this book, we can draw important insights about the most effective ways to manage the different types of services found in today's economy.

What Is a Service?
Because of their diversity, services have traditionally been difficult to define. T h e way in which services are created and delivered to customers is often hard to grasp since many inputs and outputs are intangible. Most people have little difficulty defining manufacturing or agriculture, but defining service can elude them. Here are two approaches that capture the essence of the word. *- A service is an act or performance offered by one party to another. Although the process may be tied to a physical product, the performance is essentially intangible and does not normally result in ownership of any of the factors of production. >- Services are economic activities that create value and provide benefits for customers at specific times and places, as a result of bringing about a desired change in—or on behalf of-—the recipient of the service. More humorously, service has also been described as "something that may be bought and sold, but which cannot be dropped on your foot."

service: an act or performance that creates benefits for customers by bringing about a desired change in—or on behalf of—the recipient. benefit: an advantage or gain that customers obtain from performance of a service or use of a physical good.

CHAPTER ONE • WHY STUDY SERVICES;

Understanding the Service Sector
Services make up the bulk of today's economy, not only in the U n i t e d States and Canada where they account for 73 percent and 67 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), respectively, but also in other developed industrial nations throughout the world. 1 Figure 1.1 shows h o w service industries contribute to the economy of the United States relative to manufacturing, government (itself mostly services), agriculture, mining, and construction. The service sector accounts for most of the new j o b growth in developed countries. In fact, unless you are already predestined for a career in a family manufacturing or agricultural business, the probability is high that you will spend your working life in companies (or public agencies and nonprofit organizations) that create and deliver services. As a nation's economy develops, the share of employment between agriculture, industry (including manufacturing and mining), and services changes dramatically. Figure 1.2 shows how the evolution to a service-dominated employment base is likely to take place over time as per capita income rises. Service jobs now account for 76 percent of private sector payrolls in the United States, with wages growing at a faster pace than in manufacturing jobs. 2 In most countries, the service sector of the economy is very diverse and includes a wide array of different industries, ranging in size from huge enterprises that operate on a global basis to small entrepreneurial firms that serve a single town. It comes as a surprise to most people to learn that the dominance of the service sector is not limited to highly developed nations. For instance, World Bank statistics show that in many Latin American and Caribbean nations the service sector accounts

service sector: the portion of a nations economy represented by services of all kinds, including those offered by public and non-profit organizations.

FIGURE 1.1
Services in the U.S. Economy: Share of GDP by Industry, 1999

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PART ONE •

UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

internal services: service elements within any type of business that facilitate creation of, or add value to, its final output.

for more than half the gross national product (GNP) and employs more than half the labor force. 3 These countries often have a large " u n d e r g r o u n d e c o n o m y " that is not captured in official statistics. In Mexico, for instance, it has b e e n estimated that as much as 40 percent of trade and commerce is "informal." 4 Significant service output is created by u n d o c u m e n t e d w o r k in domestic j o b s (e.g., cook, housekeeper, gardener) or in small, cash-based enterprises such as restaurants, laundries, r o o m i n g houses, and taxis. Service organizations range in size from huge international corporations like airlines, banking, insurance, telecommunications, hotel chains, and freight transportation to a vast array of locally owned and operated small businesses, including restaurants, laundries, taxis, optometrists, and numerous business-to-business ("B2B") services. Franchised service outlets—in fields ranging from fast foods to bookkeeping—combine the marketing characteristics of a large chain that offers a standardized product with local ownership and operation of a specific facility. Some firms that create a time-sensitive physical product, such as printing or photographic processing, are n o w describing t h e m selves as service businesses because speed, customization, and convenient locations create much of the value added. There's a h i d d e n service sector, too, w i t h i n many large corporations that are classified by government statisticians as being in manufacturing, agricultural, or natural resources industries. So-called internal s e r v i c e s cover a w i d e array of activities including recruitment, publications, legal and accounting services, payroll administration, office cleaning, landscape maintenance, freight transport, and many other tasks. To a growing extent, organizations are choosing to outsource those internal services that can be performed m o r e efficiently by a specialist subcontractor. As these tasks are outsourced, they b e c o m e part of the competitive marketplace and are therefore categorized as c o n t r i b u t i n g to the service c o m p o n e n t of the economy. Even w h e n such services are not outsourced, managers of the departments that supply t h e m would do well to think in terms of providing good service to their internal customers. Governments and nonprofit organizations are also in the business of providing services, although the extent of such involvement may vary widely from one country to another, reflecting both tradition and political values. In many countries, colleges, hospitals, and museums are publicly owned or operate on a not-for-profit basis, but forprofit versions of each type of institution also exist.

CHAPTER ONE . WHY STUDY SERVICES?

MARKETING SERVICES VERSUS PHYSICAL GOODS
The dynamic environment of services today places a premium on effective marketing. Although it's still very important to run an efficient operation, it no longer guarantees success.The service product must be tailored to customer needs, priced realistically, distributed through convenient channels, and actively promoted to customers. N e w market entrants are positioning their services to appeal to specific market segments through their pricing, communication efforts, and service delivery, rather than trying to be all things to all people. But are the marketing skills that have been developed in manufacturing companies directly transferable to service organizations? T h e answer is often no, because marketing management tasks in the service sector tend to differ from those in the manufacturing sector in several important respects.

Basic Differences Between Goods and Services
Every product—a term used in this book to describe the core output of any type of industry—delivers benefits to the customers w h o purchase and use them. G o o d s can be described as physical objects or devices and services are actions or performances. 6 Early research into services sought to differentiate t h e m from goods, focusing particularly on four generic differences, referred to as intangibility, heterogeneity (or variability), perishability of output, and simultaneity of production and consumption. 7 Although these characteristics are still cited, they have been criticized for over-simplifying the realworld environment. More practical insights are provided in Figure 1.3, which lists nine basic differences that can help us to distinguish the tasks associated with service marketing and management from those involved with physical goods. It's important to note that in identifying these differences we're still dealing with generalizations that do not apply equally to all services. In Chapter 2, we classify services into distinct categories, each of which presents somewhat different challenges for marketers and other managers. We also need to draw a distinction between marketing of services and marketing goods through service. In the former, it's the service itself that is being sold and in the latter, service is added—usually free of charge—to enhance the appeal of a manufactured product. Now, let's examine each of the nine differences in more detail. Customers D o N o t O b t a i n O w n e r s h i p Perhaps the key distinction between goods and services lies in the fact that customers usually derive value from services without obtaining permanent ownership of any substantial tangible elements. In many instances, service marketers offer customers the opportunity to rent the use of a physical object like a car or hotel room, or to hire the labor and skills of people whose expertise ranges from brain surgery to k n o w i n g h o w to check customers into a hotel. As a product: the core output (either a service or a manufactured good) produced by a firm. goods: physical objects or devices that provide benefits for customers through ownership or use.

customers do not obtain ownership of services service products are intangible performances there is greater involvement of customers in the production process other people may form part of the product there is greater variability in operational inputs and outputs many services are difficult for customers to evaluate there is typically an absence of inventories the time factor is relatively more important delivery systems may involve both electronic and physical channels

FIGURE

1.3

Basic Differences Between Goods and Services

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PART O N E • U N D E R S T A N D I N G S E R V I C E S

Checking in: People are part of the product in hotel services, so customer satisfaction depends on both employee performance and the behavior of the other customers.

purchaser of services yourself, you know that "while your main interest is in the final output, the way in which you are treated during service delivery can also have an important impact on your satisfaction. intangible: something that is experienced and cannot be touched or preserved. Service Products as Intangible P e r f o r m a n c e s Although services often include tangible elements—such as sitting in an airline seat, eating a meal, or getting damaged equipment repaired—the service performance itself is basically an intangible. T h e benefits of o w n i n g and using a manufactured product c o m e from its physical characteristics (although brand image may convey benefits, too). In services, the benefits come from the nature of the performance. T h e notion of service as a performance that cannot be wrapped up and taken away leads to the use of a theatrical metaphor for service management, visualizing service delivery as similar to the staging of a play with service personnel as the actors and customers as the audience. Some services, such as rentals, include a physical object like a car or a power tool. But marketing a car rental performance is very different from attempting to market the physical object alone. For instance, in car rentals, customers usually reserve a particular category of vehicle, rather than a specific brand and model. Instead of worrying about styling, colors, and upholstery, customers focus on price, location and appearance of pickup and delivery facilities, extent of insurance coverage, cleanliness and maintenance of vehicles, provision of free shuttle buses at airports, availability of 24-hour reservations service, hours when rental locations are staffed, and quality of service provided by customer-contact personnel. By contrast, the core benefit derived from owning a physical good normally comes specifically from its tangible elements, even though it may provide intangible benefits, too. An interesting way to distinguish between goods and services is to place them on a scale from tangible dominant to intangible dominant (illustrated in Figure 1.4). C u s t o m e r I n v o l v e m e n t in the P r o d u c t i o n Process Performing a service involves assembling and delivering the output of a combination of physical facilities and mental or physical labor. Often, customers are actively involved in helping create

the service product, either by serving themselves (as in using a laundromat or ATM) or by cooperating w i t h service personnel in settings such as hair salons, hotels, colleges, or hospitals. As we "will see in C h a p t e r 2, services can be categorized according to the extent of contact that the customer has w i t h the service organization. People as Part of the P r o d u c t In high-contact services, customers not only come into contact w i t h service personnel, but they may also rub shoulders w i t h other customers (literally so, if they ride a bus or subway during the rush hour).The difference between service businesses often lies in the quality of employees serving the customers. Similarly, the type of customers w h o patronize a particular service business helps to define the nature of the service experience. As such, people become part of the product in many services. Managing these service encounters—especially those between customers and service employees—is a challenging task. Greater Variability in O p e r a t i o n a l I n p u t s a n d O u t p u t s T h e presence of personnel and other customers in the operational system makes it difficult to standardize and control variability in both service inputs and outputs. Manufactured goods can be produced u n d e r controlled conditions, designed to optimize b o t h productivity and quality, and then checked for conformance with quality standards long before they reach the customer. (Of course, their subsequent use by customers will vary widely, reflecting customer needs and skills, as well as the nature of the usage occasion.) However, when services are consumed as they are produced, final "assembly" must take place under real-time conditions, which may vary from customer to customer and even from one time of the day to another. As a result, mistakes and shortcomings are both more likely and harder to conceal. These factors make it difficult for service organizations to improve productivity, control quality, and offer a consistent product. As

variability: a lack of consistency in inputs and outputs during the service production process.

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UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

a former packaged goods marketer observed some years ago after moving to a new position at Holiday Inn: We can't control the quality of our product as well as a Procter and Gamble control engineer on a production line can. . . . Wlien you buy a box of Tide, you can reasonably be 99 and 44/100ths percent sure that this stuff will work to get your clothes clean. When you buy a Holiday Inn room, you're sure at some lesser percentage that it will work to give you a good night's sleep without any hassle, or people banging on the walls and all the bad things that can happen in a hotel.9 N o t all variations in service delivery are necessarily negative. M o d e r n service businesses are recognizing the value of customizing at least some aspects of the service offering to the needs and expectations of individual customers. In some fields, like health care, customization is essential. 10 Harder for C u s t o m e r s to Evaluate Most physical goods tend to be relatively high in "search attributes ."These are characteristics that a customer can determine prior to purchasing a product, such as color, style, shape, price, fit, feel, and smell. Other goods and some services, by contrast, may emphasize "experience attributes" that can only be discerned after purchase or during consumption (e.g., taste, wearability, ease of handling, quietness, and personal treatment). Finally, there are "credence attributes"—characteristics that customers find hard to evaluate even after consumption. Examples include surgery and auto repairs, where the results of the service delivery may not be readily visible. 11 No Inventories for Services Because a service is a deed or performance, rather than a tangible item that the customer keeps, it is "perishable" and cannot be inventoried. Of course, the necessary facilities, equipment, and labor can be held in readiness to create the service, but these simply represent productive capacity, not the product itself. Having unused capacity in a service business is rather like running water into a sink w i t h o u t a stopper. T h e flow is wasted unless customers (or possessions requiring service) are present to receive it. W h e n demand exceeds capacity, customers may be sent away disappointed, since no inventory is available for backup. An important task for service marketers, therefore, is to find ways of smoothing demand levels to match capacity. I m p o r t a n c e of the T i m e Factor Many services are delivered in real time. Customers have to be physically present to receive service from organizations such as airlines, hospitals, haircutters, and restaurants. There are limits as to how long customers are willing to be kept waiting and service must be delivered fast e n o u g h so that customers do not waste time receiving service. Even w h e n service takes place in the back office, customers have expectations about how long a particular task should take to complete—whether it is repairing a machine, completing a research report, cleaning a suit, or preparing a legal document.Today's customers are increasingly time sensitive and speed is often a key element in good service. Different Distribution Channels Unlike manufacturers that require physical distribution channels to move goods from factory to customers, many service businesses either use electronic channels (as in broadcasting or electronic funds transfer) or combine the service factory, retail outlet, and point of consumption at a single location. In the latter instance, service firms are responsible for managing customer-contact personnel. T h e y may also have to manage the behavior of customers in the service factory to ensure smoothly running operations and to avoid situations in which one person's behavior irritates other customers w h o are present at the same time.

CHAPTER ONE • WHY STUDY SERVICES;

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AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SERVICE MANAGEMENT
This book is not just about service marketing. Throughout the chapters, you'll find continuing reference to two other important functions: service operations and h u m a n resource management. Imagine yourself as the manager of a repair garage. Or think big, if you like, as the C E O of a major airline. In either instance, you need to be (1) concerned on a day-to-day basis that your customers are satisfied, (2) your operational systems are running smoothly and efficiently, and (3) your employees are not only working productively but are also doing a good j o b either of serving customers directly or of helping other employees to deliver good service. Even if you see yourself as a middle manager with specific responsibilities in marketing, operations, or h u m a n resources, your success in your j o b will often involve the understanding of these other functions and periodic meetings with colleagues working in these areas. In short, integration of activities between functions is the name of the game. Problems in any one of these three areas may signal financial difficulties ahead.

The Eight Components of Integrated Service Management
When discussing strategies to market manufactured goods, marketers usually address four basic strategic elements: product, price, place (or distribution), and promotion (or communication). Collectively, these four categories are often referred to as the "4Ps" of the marketing mix. 1 2 However, the distinctive nature of service performances, especially such aspects as customer involvement in production and the importance of the time factor, requires that other strategic elements be included. To capture the nature of this challenge, we will be using the " 8 P s " of i n t e g r a t e d service m a n a g e m e n t , which describe eight decision variables facing managers of service organizations. Our visual metaphor for the 8Ps is the racing "eight," a lightweight boat or shell powered by eight rowers, made famous by the Oxford and Cambridge boat race that has taken place annually on the River Thames near London for almost 150 years. Today, similar races involving many different teams are a staple of rowing competitions around the world, as well as a featured sport in the Summer Olympics. Speed comes not only from the rowers' physical strength, but also from their harmony and cohesion as part of a team. To achieve optimal effectiveness, each of the eight rowers must pull on his or her oar in unison with the others, following the direction of the coxswain, w h o is seated in the stern. A similar synergy and integration between each of the 8Ps is required for success in any competitive service business (Figure 1.5).The c o x — w h o steers the boat, sets

integrated service management: the coordinated planning and execution of those marketing, operations, and human resources activities that are essential to a service firm's success.

FIGURE

1.5

The Eight Components of Integrated Service Management

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PART ONE • UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

the pace, motivates the crew, and keeps a close eye on competing boats in the race—is a metaphor for management. product elements: all components of the service performance that create value for customers. place, cyberspace, and time: management decisions about when, where, and how to deliver services to customers. P r o d u c t E l e m e n t s Managers must select the features of both the core product and the bundle of supplementary service elements surrounding it, with reference to the benefits desired by customers and h o w well competing products perform. Place, Cyberspace, and T i m e Delivering product elements to customers involves decisions on both the place and time of delivery and may involve physical or electronic distribution channels (or both), depending on the nature of the service being provided. Messaging services and the Internet allow information-based services to be delivered in cyberspace for retrieval by telephone or computer wherever and whenever it suits the customer. Firms may deliver service directly to their customers or through intermediary organizations like retail outlets o w n e d by other companies, w h i c h receive a fee or percentage of the selling price to perform certain tasks associated with sales, service, and customer-contact. C u s t o m e r expectations of speed and convenience are b e c o m i n g important determinants in service delivery strategy. Process Creating and delivering product elements to customers requires the design and implementation of effective processes. A process describes the method and sequence in which service operating systems work. Badly designed processes are likely to annoy customers because of slow, bureaucratic, and ineffective service delivery. Similarly, poor processes make it difficult for front-line staff to do their jobs well, result in low productivity, and increase the likelihood of service failures. Productivity and Quality These elements, often treated separately, should be seen as two sides of the same coin. No service firm can afford to address either element in isolation. Improved productivity is essential to keep costs under control but managers must beware of making inappropriate cuts in service levels that are resented by customers (and perhaps by employees, too). Service quality, as defined by customers, is essential for product differentiation and for building customer loyalty. However, investing in quality improvement w i t h o u t understanding the trade-off b e t w e e n incremental costs and incremental revenues may place the profitability of the firm at risk. P e o p l e Many services depend on direct, personal interaction between customers and a firm's employees (like getting a haircut or eating at a restaurant). T h e nature of these interactions strongly influences the customer's perceptions of service quality. 14 Customers often judge the quality of the service they receive largely on their assessment of the people providing the service. Successful service firms devote significant effort to recruiting, training, and motivating their personnel, especially—but not exclusively— those w h o are in direct contact with customers. P r o m o t i o n and Education N o marketing program can succeed w i t h o u t a n effective communication program. This c o m p o n e n t plays three vital roles: providing needed information and advice, persuading target customers of the merits of a specific product, and encouraging them to take action at specific times. In service marketing, m u c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n is educational in nature, especially for n e w customers. Companies may need to teach these customers about the benefits of the service, where and w h e n to obtain it, and h o w to participate effectively in service processes. Communications can be delivered by individuals, such as salespeople and trainers, or through such media as TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, brochures, and Web sites.

process: a particular method of operations or series of actions, typically involving steps that need to occur in a defined sequence.

productivity: how efficiently service inputs are transformed into outputs that add value for customers. quality: the degree to which a service satisfies customers by meeting their needs, wants, and expectations. people: customers and employees who are involved in service production.

promotion and education: all communication activities and incentives designed to build customer preference for a specific service or service provider.

CHAPTER

ONE •

WHY STUDY SERVICES?

15

Physical E v i d e n c e T h e appearance of buildings, landscaping, vehicles, interior furnishing, equipment, staff members, signs, printed materials, and other visible cues all provide tangible evidence of a firm's service style and quality. Service firms need to manage physical evidence carefully because it can have a profound impact on customers' impressions. In services with few tangible elements, such as insurance, advertising is often employed to create meaningful symbols. For instance, an umbrella may symbolize protection, and a fortress, security. Price and Other U s e r Outlays This c o m p o n e n t addresses management of the outlays incurred by customers in obtaining benefits from the service product. Responsibilities are not limited to the traditional pricing tasks of establishing the selling price to customers, which typically include setting trade margins and establishing credit terms. Service managers also recognize and, where practical, seek to minimize other costs and burdens that customers may bear in purchasing and using a service, including additional financial expenditures, time, mental and physical effort, and negative sensory experiences.

physical evidence: visual or other tangible clues that provide evidence of service quality,

price and other user outlays: expenditures of money, time, and effort that customers incur in purchasing and consuming services.

Unking Service Marketing, Operations, and Human Resources
As shown by the c o m p o n e n t elements of the 8Ps model, marketing cannot operate in isolation from o t h e r functional areas in a successful service organization. Operations specialists, w h o usually have responsibility for productivity improvements and quality control, manage the processes required to create and deliver the service product. Similarly, employees are recruited and trained by h u m a n resource managers. Even those w h o have customer-contact responsibilities often report to operations managers. In future chapters, we will be raising the question of how marketers should relate to and involve their colleagues from other functional areas—especially operations and human resources—in planning and implementing marketing strategies. Firms whose managers succeed in developing integrated strategies will have a better chance of surviving and prospering. Those that fail to grasp these implications, by contrast, are likely to be outmaneuvered by competitors that are more adept at responding to the dramatic changes affecting the service economy. You can expect to see the 8Ps framework used throughout this book. Although any given chapter is likely to emphasize just one (or a few) of the eight components, you should always keep in m i n d the i m p o r t a n c e of integrating the component(s) under discussion with each of the others w h e n formulating an overall strategy. For a quick clue about the principal focus of each chapter, find the boat diagram on the opening page of the chapter. You'll see that each oar represents one of the 8Ps. N o t e which of the eight oars are highlighted for the chapter you are studying. Oars highlighted in dark blue indicate those components that will be covered extensively in a particular chapter, while a m e d i u m blue highlight identifies one that receives relatively brief coverage. If an oar remains white, it signals that this c o m p o n e n t is not featured in the chapter.

THE EVOLVING ENVIRONMENT OF SERVICES
We've already noted that the service sector is in an almost constant state of change. What are the forces that drive its growth, shape its composition, and determine the basis for competition? As shown in Figure 1.6, numerous factors are at work. They can be divided into five broad groups: government policies, social changes, business trends, advances in information technology, and internationalization and globalization.

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PART ONE • UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

FIGURE

1.6

Factors Stimulating the Transformation of the Service Economy

Government Policies
Actions by governmental agencies at regional, national, and international levels continue to shape the structure of the service economy and the terms under which c o m petition takes place. Traditionally, many service industries were highly regulated. Government agencies mandated price levels, placed geographic constraints on distribution strategies, and, in some instances, even defined the product attributes. Since the late 1970s, there has been a trend in the United States and Europe toward complete or partial deregulation in several major service industries. In Latin America, democratization and new political initiatives are creating economies that are much less regulated than in the past. R e d u c e d government regulation has already eliminated or minimized many constraints on competitive activity in such industries as airfreight, airlines, railroads, trucking, banking, securities, insurance, and telecommunications. Barriers that had pre-

CHAPTER ONE • WHY STUDY SERVICES;

17

vented new firms from entering the industry have been dropped in many instances: Geographic restrictions on service delivery have been reduced, there is more freedom to compete on price, and existing firms have been able to expand into new markets or new lines of business. However, reduced regulation is a mixed blessing. Fears have been expressed that if successful firms become too large, through a combination of internal growth and acquisitions, there may eventually be a decline in the level of competition. Conversely, lifting restrictions on pricing benefits customers in the short run as competition lowers prices but leaves insufficient profits for needed future investments. For instance, fierce price competition among American domestic airlines led to huge financial losses within the industry during the early 1990s, bankrupting several airlines. This made it difficult for unprofitable carriers to invest in new aircraft and raised troublesome questions about service quality and safety. 15 Profitable foreign airlines, such as British Airways and Singapore Airlines, gained market share by offering better service on international routes instead of engaging in damaging price wars. Another important action taken by many national governments has been privatization of what were once g o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d services. T h e t e r m "privatization," first widely used in the United Kingdom, describes the policy of transforming government organizations into investor-owned companies. Privatization has been moving ahead rapidly in many European countries, as well as in Canada, Australia, N e w Zealand, and more recently in some Asian and Latin American nations. T h e transformation of operations like national airlines, telecommunication services, and utilities into private enterprise services has led to restructuring, cost cutting, and a more market-focused posture. When privatization is combined with a relaxing of regulatory barriers to allow entry of new competitors, the marketing implications can be dramatic, with foreign competitors moving into markets that were previously closed to outside investment. Thus, French companies specializing in water treatment have purchased and m o d e r n ized many of the privatized water utilities in Britain, while American companies have invested in a n u m b e r of British regional electrical utilities. In t u r n , British Telecommunications has responded vigorously to new competition at h o m e and made numerous investments around the world, including a strategic alliance with A T & T for delivery of global services to international companies. Privatization can also apply to regional or local government departments. At the local level, for instance, services such as trash removal and recycling have been shifted from the public sector to private firms. N o t everyone is convinced that such changes are beneficial to all segments of the population. W h e n services are provided by public agencies, there are often cross subsidies, designed to achieve broader social goals. W i t h privatization, there are fears that the search for efficiency and profits will lead to cuts in service and price increases. T h e result may be to deny less affluent segments the services they need at prices they can afford. Such fears fuel the arguments for continued regulation of prices and terms of service in key industries such as health care, telecommunications, water, electricity, and passenger rail transportation. Not all regulatory changes represent a relaxation of government rules. In many countries, steps continue to be taken to strengthen consumer protection laws, safeguard employees, improve health and safety, and protect the environment. These new rules often require service firms to change their marketing strategies, their operational procedures, and their human resource policies. Finally, national governments control trade in b o t h goods and services. Negotiations at the World Trade Organization have led to a loosening of restrictions on trade in some services, but not all. Some countries are choosing to enter into free-trade agreements with their neighbors. Examples include the N o r t h American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) concluded between Canada, Mexico, and the U n i t e d States;

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Mercosur and Pacto Andino in South America; and, of course, the European U n i o n , whose membership may soon be expanded beyond the current 15 countries.

Social Changes
T h e demand for consumer services—and the ways in which people use them—have been strongly influenced by a host of social changes. More people are living alone than before and there are more households containing two w o r k i n g adults (including telecommuters w h o work from in-home offices); as a result, more people find t h e m selves short on time. They may be obliged to hire firms or individuals to perform tasks like childcare, housecleaning, laundry, and food preparation that were traditionally performed by a household member. Per capita income has risen significantly in real terms for many segments of the population (although not all have benefited from this trend). Increasing affluence gives people more disposable i n c o m e and there has been an observed trend from purchasing new physical possessions to buying services and experiences. In fact, some pundits have begun speaking of the "experience economy." 1 6 A combination of changing lifestyles, higher incomes, and declining prices for many high-technology products has meant that more and more people are buying c o m puters, thus enabling them to use the Internet to send and receive e-mail and access Web sites from around the world. In the meantime, the rapid growth in the use of mobile phones and other wireless equipment means that customers are more " c o n nected" than ever before and no longer out of touch once they leave their homes or offices. Another important social trend has been increased immigration into countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia. These countries are becoming m u c h more multicultural, posing opportunities—and even requirements—for service features designed to meet the needs of non-traditional segments now living within the domestic market. For instance, many immigrants, even if they have learned to speak the language of their new country, prefer to do business in their native tongues and appreciate those service organizations that accommodate this preference by offering communications in multiple languages.

Business Trends
Over the past 25 years, significant changes have taken place in h o w business firms operate. For instance, service profit centers within manufacturing firms are transforming many well-known companies in fields such as computers, motor vehicles, and electrical and mechanical equipment. Supplementary services once designed to help sell equipment—including consultation, credit, transportation and delivery, installation, training, and maintenance—are n o w offered as profit-seeking services in their own right, even to customers w h o have chosen to purchase competing equipment. Several large manufacturers (including General Electric, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler) have become important players in the global financial services industry as a result of developing credit financing and leasing divisions. Similarly, many manufacturers now base much of their competitive appeal on the capabilities of their worldwide consultation, maintenance, repair, and problem-solving services. In fact, service profit centers contribute a substantial proportion of the revenues earned by such well-known "manufacturers" as IBM, HewlettPackard, and Xerox. T h e financial pressures confronting public and nonprofit organizations have forced them to develop more efficient operations and to pay more attention to customer needs and competitive activities. In their search for new sources of income, many "non-business" organizations are developing a stronger marketing orientation that often involves rethinking their product lines; adding profit-seeking services such as shops, retail cata-

CHAPTER ONE • WHY STUDY SERVICES?

19

logs, restaurants, and consultancy; becoming more selective about the market segments they target; and adopting more realistic pricing policies. 17 Government or legal pressures have forced many professional associations to remove or relax long-standing bans on advertising and promotional activities. A m o n g the types of professionals affected by such rulings are accountants, architects, doctors, lawyers, and optometrists, whose practices now engage in much more vigorous c o m petitive activity. T h e freedom to engage in advertising, promotion, and overt selling activities is essential in bringing innovative services, price cuts, and new delivery systems to the attention of prospective customers. However, some critics worry that advertising by lawyers, especially in the United States, simply encourages people to file more and more lawsuits, many of them frivolous. With increasing competition, often price-based, has come greater pressure for firms to improve productivity. Demands by investors for better returns on their investments have also fueled the search for new ways to increase profits by reducing the costs of service delivery. Historically, the service sector has lagged behind the manufacturing sector in productivity improvement, but there are encouraging signs that some services are beginning to catch up. Using technology to replace labor (or to permit customer selfservice) is one cost-cutting route that has been followed in many service industries. Reengineering of processes often results in speeding up operations by cutting out unnecessary steps. However, managers need to be aware that cost-cutting measures, driven by finance and operations personnel without regard for customer needs, may lead to a perceived deterioration in quality and convenience. Recognizing that improving quality was good for business and necessary for effective competition has led to a radical change in thinking. Traditional definitions of quality (based on conformance to standards defined by operations managers) were replaced by the new imperative of letting quality be customer driven. This had enormous implications for the importance of service marketing and the role of customer research in both the service and manufacturing sectors. 18 Numerous firms have invested in research to determine what their customers want in every dimension of service, in quality improvement programs designed to deliver what customers want, and in ongoing measurement of how satisfied their customers are with the quality of service received. However, maintaining quality levels over time is difficult and customer dissatisfaction has risen in recent years. Franchising has become widespread in many service industries, not only for consumer services but also for business-to-business services. It involves the licensing of independent entrepreneurs to produce and sell a branded service according to tightly specified procedures. Because these entrepreneurs must invest their own capital, franchising has become a popular way to finance the expansion of multi-site service chains that deliver a consistent service concept. Large franchise chains are replacing (or absorbing) a wide array of small, independent service businesses in fields as diverse as b o o k keeping, car hire, dry-cleaning, haircutting, photocopying, plumbing, quick service restaurants, and real estate brokerage services. A m o n g the requirements for success are creation of mass media advertising campaigns to promote brand names nationwide (and even worldwide), standardization of service operations, formalized training programs, an ongoing search for new products, continued emphasis on improving efficiency, and dual marketing programs directed at both customers and franchisees. Finally, changes have occurred in service firms' hiring practices. Traditionally, many service industries were very inbred. Managers tended to spend their entire careers working within a single industry, even within a single organization. Each industry was seen as unique and outsiders were suspect. Relatively few managers possessed graduate degrees in business although they might have held an industry-specific diploma in a field such as hotel management or health care administration. In recent years, however,

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PART ONE • UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

competition and enlightened self-interest have led companies to recruit more highly educated managers w h o are willing to question traditional ways of doing business and able to bring new ideas from previous work experience in another industry. Some of the best service companies are k n o w n for being very selective in hiring employees, seeking individuals w h o will share the firm's strong service quality culture and be able to relate to customers well. W i t h i n many firms, intensive-training programs are n o w exposing employees, at all levels, to new tools and concepts.

Advances in Information Technology
N e w and improved technologies are radically altering the ways in w h i c h many service organizations do business with their customers, as well as altering what goes on behind the scenes. Many types of technology have important implications for service, including biotechnology, power and energy technology, methods technology (how people work and h o w processes are organized), materials technology, physical design technology, and information technology. In some cases, technology enables service firms to substitute automation for service personnel. But in other instances, as suggested in recent advertising for Singapore Airlines (Figure 1.7), traditional personal service and new technology may go hand in hand to create an enhanced experience for customers. Perhaps the most powerful force for change in service businesses comes from information technology, reflecting the integration of computers and telecommunications. Digitization allows text, graphics, video, and audio to be manipulated, stored, and transmitted in the digital language of computers. Faster and more powerful software enables firms to create relational databases that combine information about customers with details of all their transactions and then to " m i n e " these databases for insights into new trends, new approaches to segmentation, and n e w marketing opportunities. Greater bandwidth, made possible by innovations such as fiber-optic cables, allows fast transmission of vast amounts of information so that customer-contact personnel can interact almost instantly with a central database, no matter where they are located. T h e creation of wireless networks and the miniaturization of electronic e q u i p m e n t — f r o m cell

FIGURE 1.7
Singapore Airlines Promotes Both Its People and Its HighTech Entertainment Technology

CHAPTER ONE . WHY STUDY SERVICES'

21

phones to laptops and scanners—allow sales and customer service personnel to keep in touch while on the move. Companies operating information-based services, such as financial service firms, have seen the nature and scope of their businesses totally transformed by the advent of global electronic delivery systems. In recent years, the development of the Internet and its best-known component, the World Wide Web, have provided not only an important new medium of c o m m u n i cation between service organizations and their customers, but also the potential for creating radically new business models for delivery of services. Properly designed and configured, such Internet-based services offer unprecedented speed and reach. For instance, by taking advantage of the Internet, Amazon.com became a global operation in just a few short years, marketing its huge array of books, music, and other items through its Web site and using modern business logistics to ship purchases quickly to customers all over the world. However, for many " d o t . c o m " companies, including Amazon, profitability has proved elusive and numerous start-up firms have failed. In some cases, the problem lies 1 1 development of inappropriate e-commerce business models that failed to generate 1 sufficient revenues to cover expenses. 20 Greater competition than anticipated, failure to understand customer needs and expectations, poor execution, technology failures, insufficient working capital, and higher operating costs than predicted have all contributed to such failures. Underlying such failures is often a lack of understanding of some of the key principles of service marketing and management. Technological change affects many other types of services, too, from airfreight to hotels to retail stores. Express package firms such as T N T , D H L , FedEx, and U P S recognize that the ability to provide real-time information about customers' packages has become as important to success as the physical m o v e m e n t of those packages. Technology does more than enable creation of new or improved services. It may also facilitate reengineering of such activities as delivery of information, order-taking and payment; enhance a firm's ability to maintain more consistent service standards; permit creation of centralized customer service departments; allow replacement of personnel by machines for repetitive tasks; and lead to greater involvement of customers in operations through self-service technology. All in all, technology is an important theme r u n ning through this book. It's covered in detail in Chapter 16.

Internationalization and Globalization
The internationalization of service companies is readily apparent to any tourist or business executive traveling abroad. M o r e and m o r e services are b e i n g delivered through national or global chains. Brand names such as Air Canada, Burger King, Body Shop, Hertz, Kinko's, and Mandarin Hotels have spread far from their original national roots. In some instances, such chains are entirely company owned. In other instances, the creator of the original concept has entered into partnership with o u t side investors. Airlines and airfreight companies that were formerly just domestic in scope n o w have extensive foreign route networks. N u m e r o u s financial service firms, advertising agencies, hotel chains, fast-food restaurants, car rental agencies, and accounting firms n o w operate on several continents. Some of this growth has been internally generated, but m u c h has also c o m e about through acquisitions of other companies. A strategy of international expansion may be driven by a search for new markets or by the need to respond to existing customers w h o are traveling abroad in increasing numbers. A similar situation prevails in business-to-business services. W h e n companies set up operations in other countries, they often prefer to deal with a few international suppliers rather than numerous local firms.

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T h e net effect of such developments is to increase competition and to encourage the transfer of innovation in both products and processes from country to country. Developing a strategy for competing effectively across different countries is becoming a major marketing priority for many service firms. Franchising offers a way to enable a service concept developed in one nation to be delivered around the world through distribution systems o w n e d by local investors. For example, FedEx and U P S have expanded into numerous countries by purchasing local courier firms. Many w e l l - k n o w n service companies around the world are A m e r i c a n - o w n e d ; examples include Citicorp, McDonald's, and Accenture (Andersen Consulting). T h e upscale Four Seasons hotel chain is Canadian. N o r t h Americans are often surprised to learn that D u n k i n ' Donuts and Holiday Inn are both owned by British companies, while France's Groupe Accor owns Motel 6 and R e d R o o f Inns and the Hoyts chain of movie theaters is Australian o w n e d . An alternative to mergers and takeovers is strategic alliances, where several firms working in the same or complementary industries in different countries join forces to expand their geographic reach and product scope. T h e airline and telecommunication industries are good examples.

Managing in a Continually Changing Environment
It has been said that the only person in the world w h o really appreciates a change is a wet baby. However, the willingness and ability of managers in service firms to respond to the dramatic changes affecting the service economy will determine whether their own organizations survive and prosper or are defeated by more agile and adaptive c o m petitors. On the positive side, these changes are likely to increase the demand for many services, and the opening of the service economy means that there will be greater c o m petition for that demand. In turn, more competition will stimulate innovation, notably through the application of new and improved technologies. Both singly and in combination, these developments will require managers of service organizations to focus more sharply on marketing strategy.

A STRUCTURE FOR MAKING SERVICE MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
As mentioned previously, this text has a strategic focus. T h e 8Ps of integrated service strategy are tools that service managers can use to develop effective strategies for marketing and managing many different types of services. T h e service decision framework reproduced in Figure 1.8 (and described in more depth in the introduction to Part I) outlines some of the key questions managers need to ask. Figure 1.8 also indicates which of the 8Ps are particularly relevant in each instance. Your challenge is to learn to ask the right questions and to learn to use the resulting answers to develop a viable strategy, employing different elements of the 8Ps as appropriate. T h e framework begins with a question that lies at the heart of marketing and business strategy in general: What business are we in? Determining the nature of the business goes beyond just specifying the industry with which a specific service is usually associated. Astute managers recognize that competition may come from outside that industry as well as within it. Hence they ask: With what other goods and services do we compete?"The answers may show that there are several different ways for customers to satisfy their needs.The need for forward thinking in decision making requires that m a n agers also ask themselves, " W h a t forces for change do we face?" But perhaps the most valuable insights come from determining what solutions a service offers to customers. Only w h e n service marketers understand what problems customers are trying to solve through use of their products can we truly say that they know what business they are in.

CHAPTER ONE • WHV STUDY SERVICES;

23

FIGURE 1.8
Relating the 8Ps to the Service Management Decision Framework

The question, Who are our customers and how should we relate to them? is also central to the study and practice of marketing. Recognizing that most readers of this book already have some familiarity with marketing, we try to build on this prior understanding rather than repeating the basics of introductory marketing theory and practice. Hence we leave detailed discussion of customers to Part II of the book and focus there on what is distinctive about service consumption. O n e of the keys to strategy formulation in services, not normally addressed in goods marketing, is the question: What service processes can be used in our operation? As we show in this text, the importance of this question goes beyond operational issues. Marketers must understand how the processes used to create and deliver service affect their customers,

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influence the nature of the service product, and shape the options for delivering this service. Human resource managers must understand how the choice of processes influences skill requirements and j o b descriptions for employees, including the nature of their interactions with customers. We examine the issue of service processes in depth in Chapter 2.

Conclusion
W h y study services? M o d e r n economies are driven by service businesses, both large and small. Services are responsible for the creation of a substantial majority of new jobs, both skilled and unskilled, around the world. T h e service sector includes a tremendous variety of different industries, including many activities provided by public and nonprofit organizations. It accounts for over half the economy in most developing countries and for over 70 percent in many highly developed economies. As we've shown in this chapter, services differ from manufacturing organizations in many important respects and require a distinctive approach to marketing and other management functions. As a result, managers w h o want their enterprises to succeed cannot continue to rely solely on tools and concepts developed in the manufacturing sector. In the remainder of this book, we'll discuss in more detail the unique challenges and opportunities faced by service businesses. It's our hope that you'll use the material from this text to enhance your future experiences not only as a service employee or manager, but also as a customer of many different types of service businesses!

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Business schools have traditionally placed more emphasis on manufacturing industries than on service industries in their courses. W h y do you think this is so? Does it matter? 2. W h y is time so important in services? 3. W h a t are the implications of increased competition in service industries that have been deregulated? 4. Give examples of h o w computer and telecommunications technologies have changed services that you use in your professional or personal life. 5. Choose a service company you are familiar with and show how each of the eight elements (8Ps) of integrated service management applies to the company. 6. Is the risk of unethical business practices greater or lesser in service businesses than in manufacturing firms? Explain your answer. 7. W h y do marketing, operations, and human resources have to be more closely linked in services than in manufacturing? Give examples. 8. Answer the four questions associated with " W h a t business are we in?" from Figure 1.8 for Southwest Airlines, Charles Schwab, Aggreko, Intrawest, and eBay.

Endnotes
1. The gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP) are both widely used measures of a nation's economic activity. They differ in their treatment of international transactions. For the United States, there is little difference between the two measures, since only a tiny percentage of Americans work abroad and the foreign earnings

Understanding Service Processes
Susan Munro, Service Consumer
Susan Munro, a final-year business student, had breakfast and then clicked onto the Internet to check the local weather forecast. It predicted rain, so she grabbed an umbrella before leaving the apartment and walking to the bus stop for her daily ride to the university. On the way, she dropped a letter in a mailbox. The bus arrived on schedule. It was the usual driver, who recognized her and gave a cheerful greeting as she showed her commuter pass. The bus was quite full, carrying a mix of students and office workers, so she had to stand. Arriving at her destination, Susan left the bus and walked to the College of Business. Joining a throng of other students, she took a seat in the large classroom where her finance class was held. The professor lectured in a near monotone for 75 minutes, occasionally projecting charts on a large screen to illustrate certain calculations. Susan reflected that it would be just as effective—and far more convenient— if the course were transmitted over the Web or recorded on videotapes that students could watch at their leisure. She much preferred the marketing course that followed because this professor was a very dynamic individual who believed in having an active dialog with the students. Susan made several contributions to the discussion and felt that she learned a lot from listening to others' analyses and opinions. She and three friends ate lunch at the recently modernized Student Union. The old cafeteria, a gloomy place that served boring food at high prices, had been replaced by a well-lit and colorfully decorated new food court, featuring a variety of small kiosks. These included both local suppliers and brand-name fast-food chains, which offered choices of sandwiches, as well as health foods and a variety of desserts. Although she had wanted a sandwich, the line of waiting customers at the sandwich shop was rather long, so Susan joined her friends at Burger King and then splurged on a caffe latte from the adjacent Hav-a-Java coffee stand. The food court was unusually crowded today, perhaps because of the rain now pouring down outside. When they finally found a table, they had to clear off the dirty trays. "Lazy slobs!" commented her friend Mark, referring to the previous customers. After lunch, Susan stopped at the cash machine, inserted her bank card, and withdrew some money. Remembering that she had a job interview at the end of the week, she telephoned her hairdresser and counted herself lucky to be able to make an appointment for later in the day because of a cancellation by another client. Leaving the Student Union, she ran across the rain-soaked plaza to the Language Department. In preparation for her next class, Business Spanish, she spent an hour in the language lab, watching an engaging videotape of customers making purchases at different types of stores, then repeating key phrases and listening to her own recorded voice. "My accent's definitely getting better!" she said to herself. With Spanish phrases filling her head, Susan headed off to visit the hairdresser. She liked the store, which had a bright, trendy decor and well-groomed, friendly staff. Unfortunately, the cutter was running late and Susan had to wait 20 minutes, which she used to review a chapter for tomorrow's human resources course. Some of the other waiting customers were reading magazines provided by the store. Eventually, it was time for a shampoo, after which the cutter proposed a slightly different cut. Susan agreed, although she drew the line at the

suggestion to lighten her hair color. She sat very still, watching the process in the mirror and turning her head when requested. She was pleased with the result and complimented the cutter on her work. Including the shampoo, the process had lasted about 40 minutes. She tipped the cutter and paid at the reception desk. The rain had stopped and the sun was shining as Susan left the store, so she walked home, stopping on the way to pick up clothes from the cleaners. This store was rather gloomy, smelled of cleaning solvents, and badly needed repainting. She was annoyed to find that although her silk blouse was ready as promised, the suit she would need for her interview was not. The assistant, who had dirty fingernails, mumbled an apology in an insincere tone without making eye contact. Although the store was convenient and the quality of work quite good, Susan considered the employees unfriendly and not very helpful. Back at her apartment building, she opened the mailbox in the lobby. Her mail included a bill from her insurance company, which required no action since payment was deducted automatically from her bank account. There was also a postcard from her optometrist, reminding her to schedule a new eye exam. Susan made a mental note to call for an appointment, anticipating that she might need a revised prescription for her contact lenses. She was about to discard the junk mail when she noticed a flyer promoting a new dry-cleaning store and including a coupon for a discount. She decided to try the new firm and pocketed the coupon. Since it was her turn to cook dinner, she looked in the kitchen to see what food was available. Susan sighed—there wasn't much. Maybe she would make a salad and call for delivery of a large pizza.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to appreciate the value of classification in services marketing understand useful ways of classifying differences between various types of services define a service process describe four different types of service processes and their strategic implications recognize that the nature of a customers contact with a service varies according to the underlying process

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HOW DO SERVICES DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER?
T h e service sector is amazingly varied, and the variety of transactions made by Susan M u n r o represents only a small sample of all the services directed at individual consumers. As a review of the listings in the Yellow Pages will show, there are also many business services directed at corporate purchasers. It's surprising h o w many managers in service businesses consider their industries to be unique—or at least distinctively different. Certainly, there are distinctions to be drawn, but it would be a mistake to assume that any one service used by Susan has nothing in c o m m o n with any of the others she might use. In Chapter 1, we looked at some of the ways in which services might differ from goods. In this chapter, our focus is on developing useful ways of grouping services into categories that share managerially relevant characteristics, especially as they relate to marketing strategy. In particular, we examine the nature of the processes—a key element among the 8Ps—by which services are created and delivered. We find that important insights can be gained by looking for similarities between "different" service industries. T h e more service managers can identify meaningful parallels to their own firms' situations, the better their chances of beating the competition by borrowing good ideas from other businesses. O n e hallmark of innovative service firms is that their managers have been willing to look outside their own industries for useful ideas that they can try in their own organizations. We start our search for useful categorization schemes by examining how goods have traditionally been classified.

The Value of Classification Schemes
Classification schemes are the primary means used by researchers to organize items into different classes or groups for the purpose of systematic investigation and theory development. They are as useful in management research as in pure science. Marketing practitioners have long recognized the value of developing distinctive strategies for different types of goods. O n e of the most famous classification schemes divides goods into convenience, shopping, and specialty categories, according to h o w frequently consumers buy them and h o w much effort they are prepared to put into comparing alternatives and locating the right product to match their needs. 2 This scheme helps managers obtain a better understanding of consumer expectations and behavior and provides insights into the management of retail distribution systems. This same classification can also be applied to retail service institutions, from financial service providers to hair salons. Another major classification is between durable and nondurable goods. Durability is closely associated with purchase frequency, which has important implications for the development of both distribution and communications strategies. Although service performances are intangible, the durability of benefits is relevant to repurchase frequency. For example, you probably purchase a haircut less often than you buy a caffe latte (at least if you are a typical student or a coffee connoisseur). Yet another classification is consumer goods (those purchased for personal or household use) versus industrial goods (those purchased by companies and other organizations). This classification relates not only to the types of goods purchased—although there is some overlap—but also to methods for evaluating competing alternatives, purchasing procedures, size of purchase orders, and actual usage. O n c e again, this classification is transferable to services. For example, you may be the only one involved in a decision about whether to purchase America Online (AOL) or another Internet provider for your own computer, but a corporate decision about what online services to select

CHAPTER TWO • UNDERSTANDING SERVICE PROCESSES

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for employees may involve managers and technical specialists from several departments. Business-to-business services, as the name suggests, include a large group of services targeted at corporate customers and may range from executive recruiting to security and from payroll management to sandblasting. Although these goods-based classification schemes are helpful, they don't go far enough in highlighting the key strategic issues. We need to classify services into marketing-relevant groups, looking for points of similarity among different service industries. We can use the insights from these classifications to focus on marketing strategies that are relevant to specific service situations.

Core Products versus Supplementary Services
Many service products consist of a "bundle" that includes a variety of service elements and even some physical goods. It's important to distinguish between the core product that the customer buys and the set of supplementary services that often accompany that product. For instance, the core product of the lodging industry is a bed for the night, whether that bed is located in a youth hostel d o r m or in a luxury room at a five-star hotel. Youth hostels don't offer many additional services beyond reservations, basic meals, and simple washing facilities. By contrast, as shown in Figure 2.1, a luxury hotel will offer many additional services to enhance its guests' visits. Some of these services will be offered free and others will carry a charge, but they are all secondary to the core service of overnight sleeping accommodation that defines the lodging industry. When we speak of services in this chapter, we are referring to the core service that the customer is buying—such as taking an airline flight, attending a concert, hiring an accounting firm to prepare an audit of a company's accounts, or purchasing a h o m e owner's insurance policy. A cluster of supplementary services that are intended to add value to the core also accompanies most services. Examples include meals and baggage

FIGURE 2.1
Core Product and Supplementary Services for a Luxury Hotel

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service on an airline flight, refreshments at a concert, professional advice from an experienced auditor, or a helpful booklet from an insurance company with suggestions on h o w to protect your home.

How Might Services Be Classified?
T h e traditional way of grouping services is by industry. Service managers may say, "We're in the transportation business" (or hospitality, banking, telecommunications, or repair and maintenance).These groupings help us define the core products offered by the firm and understand both customer needs and competition. However, they may not capture the true nature of each business because service delivery can differ widely even within a single category (i.e., food can be provided to customers in settings that range from airport Taco Bells to four-star restaurants). Various proposals have been made for classifying services. 3 A m o n g the meaningful ways in which services can be grouped or classified are those listed in Table 2 . 1 . D e g r e e of Tangibility or Intangibility of Service Processes Does the service do something physical and t a n g i b l e (like food services or dry cleaning), or do its processes involve a greater amount of intangibility (like teaching or telephoning)? Different levels of intangibility in service processes shape the nature of the service delivery system and also affect the role of employees and the experience of customers. Susan's burger was a very tangible outcome of Burger King's service process. But the effects of Susan's experiences in her finance and marketing classes are highly intangible and thus much more difficult to evaluate. Direct R e c i p i e n t of the Service Process Some services, like haircutting or public transportation, are directed at customers themselves. Customers also seek services (like dry cleaning) to restore or improve objects that belong to t h e m , but they remain uninvolved in the process of service delivery and do not consume the benefits until later. T h e nature of the service encounter between service suppliers and their customers varies widely according to the extent to which customers themselves are integrally involved in the service process. Contrast Susan's extended interactions with the haircutter and her brief encounter with the mailbox on her way to school. Place and T i m e of Service D e l i v e r y W h e n designing delivery systems, service marketers must ask themselves whether customers need to visit the service organization at its own sites (as Susan did with the university, the hair salon, and the cleaners) or whether service should come to the customer (like the Internet weather information service and the pizza delivery to her apartment). Or perhaps the interaction can occur through physical channels like mail (as with her insurance) or electronic channels (as with her A T M banking transaction).These managerial decisions involve consideration of the nature of the service itself, w h e r e customers are located (both h o m e and workplace may be relevant), their preferences relating to time of purchase and use, the relative costs of different alternatives, and—in some instances—seasonal factors.

tangible: capable of being touched, held, or preserved in physical form over time. intangibility: a distinctive characteristic of services that makes it impossible to touch or hold on to them in the same manner as physical goods.

TABLE 2.1
Selected Ways of Classifying Services

degree of tangibility or intangibility of service processes direct recipient of the service process place and time of service delivery customization versus standardization nature of the relationship with customers extent to which demand and supply are in balance extent to which facilities, equipment, and people are part of the service experience

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Customization versus Standardization Services can be classified according to the degree of c u s t o m i z a t i o n or s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n involved in service delivery. An important marketing decision is whether all customers should receive the same service or whether service features (and the underlying processes) should be adapted to meet individual requirements. Susan's insurance policy is probably one of several standard options.The bus service is standardized, with a fixed route and schedule (unlike a taxi), but passengers can choose w h e n to ride and where to get on and off. By encouraging student discussion and debate, Susan's marketing professor is offering a more customized course than her finance professor. H e r haircut is customized (although other women may wear the same style), and although her future eye exam will follow standardized procedures, the optometrist's analysis of the results will result in a customized prescription for new contact lenses to correct her vision. Nature of the R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h C u s t o m e r s Some services involve a formal relationship, in which each customer is k n o w n to the organization and all transactions are individually recorded and attributed (like Susan's bank or optometrist). But in other services, unidentified customers u n d e r t a k e fleeting transactions and then disappear from the organization's sight (for instance, the phone company has no record of her call from the pay p h o n e ) . Some services lend themselves naturally to a "membership" relationship, in which customers must apply to join the "club" and their subsequent performance is m o n i t o r e d over time (as in insurance or college enrollment). Other services, like buses, hair salons, dry cleaners, and restaurants, need to undertake proactive efforts to create an o n g o i n g relationship. A l t h o u g h the bus company does not record Susan's rides, it could keep records of all m o n t h l y pass holders so that it can mail out passes every month, plus a newsletter describing service improvements or route and schedule changes. Sometimes companies create special club memberships or frequent user programs to reward loyal customers. For instance, both the hair salon and the dry cleaner could record customers' names and addresses and periodically make t h e m special offers. Similarly, Internet sites can be designed to record visits from a specific user address.

customization: tailoring service characteristics to meet each customer's specific needs and preferences. standardization: reducing variation in service operations and delivery.

To enjoy the services of a Whitewater rafting company, you have to go to a suitable river at the right time of the year.

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E x t e n t to w h i c h D e m a n d and Supply Are in B a l a n c e Some service industries face steady d e m a n d for their services, whereas others e n c o u n t e r significant fluctuations. W h e n the demand for service fluctuates widely over time, capacity must be adjusted to a c c o m m o d a t e the level of d e m a n d or marketing strategies must be i m p l e m e n t e d to predict, manage, and s m o o t h d e m a n d levels to b r i n g t h e m into balance with capacity. Some demand fluctuations are tied to events that marketers can't control. For example, m o r e students eat lunch in the Student U n i o n at Susan's university on a rainy day, resulting in a long line at the sandwich shop and a shortage of empty tables. E x t e n t t o w h i c h Facilities, E q u i p m e n t , and P e o p l e Are Part o f the S e r v i c e Experience Customers' service experiences are shaped, in part, by the extent to which they are exposed to tangible elements in the service delivery system. T h e bus that Susan rides is very tangible; so are her classrooms, the table and chairs in the food court, and the V C R in the language lab. In contrast, the physical evidence of her insurance company may be limited to occasional letters, and she may see little more of her bank than monthly statements and the A T M that she uses at the Student Union. T h e cheerful bus driver humanizes Susan's bus ride. She appears to think better of her dynamic marketing professor than of her dull finance professor. She likes her trendy hair salon and the friendly cutter but not the smelly dry-cleaning store and its unfriendly employees, even though the quality of cleaning is good. W h e n the cleaner fails to deliver her suit on time and, coincidentally, she receives a discount coupon in the mail from a competitor, she's ready to switch. T h e service classification strategies we've just discussed can help managers address the following questions: W h a t does our service operation actually do? W h a t sorts of processes are involved in creating the core product that we offer to customers? And speaking of customers, where do they fit into our operation? T h e answers will differ, depending on the nature of the underlying service process required to create and deliver a particular service. So n o w we turn to the most fundamental of the 8Ps of integrated service management—the processes by 'which service products are created and delivered.

SERVICE AS A PROCESS
Marketers don't usually need to know the specifics of how physical goods are manufactured—that responsibility belongs to the people w h o run the factory. However, the situation is different in services. Because their customers are often involved in service production and may have preferences for certain methods of service delivery, marketers do need to understand the nature of the processes through which services are created and delivered. Furthermore, they should be involved in any decisions to change the nature of a given process if that change will affect customers. A process is a particular method of operation or a series of actions, typically involving multiple steps that often need to take place in a defined sequence. Think about the steps that Susan went through at the hair salon: phoning in advance to make an appointment, arriving at the store, waiting, having a shampoo, discussing options with the cutter, having her hair cut and styled, tipping, paying, and finally leaving the store. Service processes range from relatively simple procedures involving only a few steps—such as filling a car's tank with fuel—to highly complex activities like transporting passengers on an international flight. T h e characteristics of the processes that might be used in a particular service operation necessarily reflect the nature of the business. Within certain constraints, the choice

CHAPTER TWO • UNDERSTANDING SERVICE PROCESSES

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FIGURE 2.2
Service Decision Framework as It Relates to Processes

of processes may also be shaped by customer expectations and preferences. Looking at the processes currently used is only part of the story, since alternative processes may be available for exploration. As indicated by our service decision framework (Figure 2.2), it's important for marketers to understand: (1) whether the service is directed at customers themselves or at their possessions, (2) whether service entails delivery of tangible or intangible actions, (3) the sequence in which different elements of service delivery need to be organized, and (4) the role played by information. T h e answers to be gained from such analysis can help managers to identify the service benefits offered by the service product, consider options for improving productivity and quality, clarify how customer involvement relates to design of service facilities, evaluate alternative channels for service delivery, and determine if there will be problems in balancing demand for the service against our organization's productive capacity. Finally, understanding these service processes helps managers to evaluate the strategic roles that might be played by people and technology.

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Categorizing Service Processes
A process involves transforming input into output. But what is each service organization actually processing and how does it perform this task? Two broad categories are processed in services: people and objects. In many cases, ranging from passenger transportation to education, customers themselves are the principal input to the service process. In other instances, the key input is an object like a malfunctioning computer or a piece of financial data. In some services, as in all manufacturing, the process is physical and something tangible takes place. But in information-based services, the process can be almost entirely intangible. By looking at services from a purely operational perspective, we see that they can be categorized into four broad groups.Table 2.2 shows a four-way classification scheme based on tangible actions either to people's bodies or to customers' physical possessions and intangible actions to people's minds or to their intangible assets. 4 Each of these four categories involves fundamentally different forms of processes, with vital implications for marketing, operations, and h u m a n resource managers. We refer to the categories as people processing, possession processing, mental stimulus processing, and information processing. Although the industries within each category may appear at first sight to be very different, analysis will show that they do, in fact, share important process-related characteristics. As a result, managers in one industry may be able to obtain useful insights by studying another one and then creating valuable i n n o vations for their o w n organization. people processing: services that involve tangible actions to people's bodies. 1. P e o p l e p r o c e s s i n g involves tangible actions to people's bodies. Examples of people-processing services include passenger transportation, haircutting, and dental work. Customers need to be physically present throughout service delivery to receive its desired benefits.

TABLE 2.2
Understanding the Nature of the Service Act
What Is the Nature of the Service Act? Tangible Actions

2. Possession processing includes tangible actions to goods and other physical possessions belonging to the customer. Examples of possession processing include airfreight, lawn mowing, and cleaning services. In these instances, the object requiring processing must be present, but the customer need not be. 3. Mental stimulus processing refers to intangible actions directed at people's minds. Services in this category include entertainment, spectator sports, theater performances, and education. In such instances, customers must be present m e n tally but can be located either in a specific service facility or in a remote location connected by broadcast signals or telecommunication linkages. 4. I n f o r m a t i o n processing describes intangible actions directed at a customer's assets. Examples of information-processing services include insurance, banking, and consulting. In this category, little direct involvement with the customer may be needed once the request for service has been initiated. Let's examine why these four different types of processes often have distinctive implications for marketing, operations, and human resource strategies.

People Processing
From ancient times, people have sought out services directed at themselves (e.g., being transported, fed, lodged, restored to health, or made more beautiful). To receive these types of services, customers must physically enter the service system. Because they are an integral part of the process, they cannot obtain the benefits they desire by dealing at arm's length with service suppliers. They must enter the service factory, which is a physical location where people or machines (or both) create and deliver service benefits to customers. Sometimes, of course, service providers are willing to come to customers, bringing the necessary tools of their trade to create the desired benefits in the customers' choice of locations. If customers want the benefits that a people-processing service has to offer, they must be prepared to cooperate actively with the service operation. For example, Susan cooperates with her hair stylist by sitting still and turning her head as requested. She will also have to be part of the process w h e n she visits the optometrist for her next eye exam. The level of involvement required of customers may entail anything from boarding a city bus for a five-minute ride to undergoing a lengthy course of unpleasant treatments at a hospital. In between these extremes are such activities as ordering and eating a meal; having one's hair washed, cut, and styled; and spending some nights in a hotel room. The output from these services (after a period of time that can vary from minutes to months) is a customer w h o has reached her destination or satisfied his hunger or is now sporting clean and stylishly cut hair or has had a good night's sleep away from home or is now in physically better health. It's important for managers to think about process and output in terms of what happens to the customer (or the physical object being processed) because it helps them to identify what benefits are being created. Reflecting on the service process itself helps to identify some of the nonfinancial costs—such as time, mental and physical effort, and even fear and pain—that customers incur in obtaining these benefits.

service factory: the physical site where service operations take place.

Possession Processing
Often, customers ask a service organization to provide treatment for some physical possession—which could be anything from a house to a hedge, a car to a computer, or a dress to a dog. Many such activities are quasi-manufacturing operations and do not always involve simultaneous production and consumption. Examples include cleaning, maintaining, storing, improving, or repairing physical objects—both live and inanimate—that belong to the

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customer in order to extend their usefulness. Additional possession-processing services include transport and storage of goods; wholesale and retail distribution; and installation, removal, and disposal of equipment—in short, the entire value-adding chain of activities that may take place during the lifetime of the object in question. Customers are less physically involved with this type of service than with peopleprocessing services. Consider the difference between passenger and parcel transportation. In the former you have to go along for the ride to obtain the benefit of getting from one location to another. But with package service, you drop the package off at a mailbox or post office counter (or request a courier to collect it from your h o m e or office) and wait for it to be delivered to the recipient. In most possession-processing services, the customer's involvement is usually limited to dropping off the item that needs treatment, requesting the service, explaining the problem, and later returning to pick up the item and pay the bill (like Susan's visit to the cleaners to pick up her blouse and suit). If the object to be processed is something that is difficult or impossible to move, like landscaping, installed software, heavy equipment, or part of a building, the service factory must c o m e to the customer, with service personnel bringing the tools and materials necessary to complete the j o b on-site. T h e service process could involve applying insecticide in a house to get rid of ants, trimming a hedge at an office park, repairing a car, installing software in a computer, cleaning a jacket, or giving an injection to the family dog. T h e output in each instance should be a satisfactory solution to the customer's problem or some tangible enhancement of the item in question. In Susan's case, the cleaners disappointed her because her suit wasn't ready when promised.

Mental Stimulus Processing
Services that interact with people's minds include education, news and information, professional advice, psychotherapy, entertainment, and certain religious activities. Anything t o u c h i n g people's minds has the power to shape attitudes and influence behavior. So, w h e n customers are in a position of dependency or there is potential for manipulation, strong ethical standards and careful oversight are required. Receiving these services requires an investment of time on the customer's part. However, recipients don't necessarily have to be physically present in a service factory— just mentally in communication with the information being presented.There's an interesting contrast here with people-processing services. Passengers can sleep through a flight and still arrive at their desired destination. But if Susan falls asleep in class or during an educational TV broadcast, she will not be any wiser at the end than at the beginning! Services like entertainment and education are often created in one place and transmitted by television, radio, or the Internet to individual customers in distant locations. However, they can also be delivered to groups of customers at the originating location in a facility such as a theater or lecture hall. We need to recognize that watching a live concert on television in one's h o m e is not the same experience as watching it in a concert hall in the company of hundreds or even thousands of other people. Managers of concert halls face many of the same challenges as their colleagues in people-processing services. Similarly, the experience of participating in a discussion-based class through interactive cable television lacks the intimacy of people debating one another in the same room. Because the core content of all services in this category is information based (whether music, voice, or visual images), it can easily be converted to digital bits or analog signals; recorded for posterity; and transformed into a manufactured product, such as a compact disc, videotape, or audiocassette, which may then be packaged and marketed

CHAPTER TWO • UNDERSTANDING SERVICE PROCESSES

37

much like any other physical good. These services can thus be "inventoried" because they can be consumed at a later date than w h e n they were produced. For instance, Susans Spanish videotape can be used over and over again by students visiting the language lab.

Information Processing
Information processing, one of the buzzwords of our age, has been revolutionized by computers. But not all information is processed by machines. Professionals in a wide variety of fields also use their brains to perform information processing and packaging. Information is the most intangible form of service output, but it may be transformed into more enduring, tangible forms as letters, reports, books, tapes, or CDs. A m o n g the services that are highly dependent on the effective collection and processing of information are financial services and professional services like accounting, law, marketing research, management consulting, and medical diagnosis. The extent of customer involvement in both information and mental stimulus processing is often determined more by tradition and a personal desire to meet the supplier face to face than by the needs of the operational process. Strictly speaking, personal contact is quite unnecessary in industries like banking or insurance. Why subject your firm to all the complexities of managing a people-processing service when you could deliver the same core product at arm's length? As a customer, why go to the service factory when there's no compelling need to do so? Susan appears comfortable dealing at arm's length with both her bank and her insurance company, using a self-service A T M for her banking transactions and receiving mail communications from her insurance company. Habit and tradition often lie at the root of existing service delivery systems and service usage patterns. Professionals and their clients may say they prefer to meet face to face because they feel that in this way they learn more about each other's needs, capabilities, and personalities. However, experience shows that successful personal relationships, built on trust, can be created and maintained purely through telephone or e-mail contact.

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DIFFERENT PROCESSES POSE DISTINCTIVE MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES
T h e challenges and tasks facing managers w h o work in each of the four different service categories just described are likely to vary to some extent. T h e classification of processes displayed earlier is central in understanding these differences and developing effective service strategies. N o t only does it offer insights into the nature of service benefits in each instance, but it also provides an understanding of the behavior that is required of customers. As suggested in Figure 2.2, there are also implications for designing the service delivery system, balancing demand and capacity, applying technology to service processes, and managing people as part of the service product.

Balancing Productivity and Quality Concerns
Managers need to recognize that operational processes, however important, are basically just a means to an end. T h e key is to understand the specific benefits that a service provides for its users. Many firms bundle together lots of different activities as part of their effort to provide good service. But innovation in service delivery requires constant attention to the processes underlying delivery of the core product—a bed for the night in the lodging industry, fast transportation of people in the airline industry, or cleaning and pressing clothes in the laundry industry. N e w processes may allow service organizations to deliver the same (or improved) benefits to customers through distinctly different approaches. But firms need to be clear about their objectives and the implications for customers. Sometimes, adopting a new process improves productivity by cutting costs at the expense of service quality. In other instances, customers are delighted to encounter faster, simpler, and more convenient procedures. So, operations managers need to beware of imposing new processes, in the name of efficiency, on customers w h o prefer the existing approach (particularly w h e n the new approach replaces personal service by employees with automated procedures that require customers to do much of the work themselves). By collaborating with marketing personnel, operations specialists will improve their chances of designing new processes that deliver the benefits desired by customers in user-friendly ways. A m o n g other things, customers may need to be educated about the benefits of new procedures and how to use them.

How Customer Involvement Affects Design of the Service Factory
Every service has customers (or hopes to find some), but not every service interacts w i t h t h e m in the same way. C u s t o m e r involvement in the core activity may vary sharply for each of the four categories of service process. N o t h i n g can alter the fact that people-processing services require the customer to be physically present in the service factory. If you're currently in N e w York and want to be in London tomorrow, you simply can't avoid boarding an international flight and spending time in a jet high above the Atlantic. If you want your hair cut, you can't delegate this activity to somebody else's head—you have to sit in the haircutter's chair yourself. If you have the misfortune to break your leg, you will personally have to submit to the unpleasantness of having the bone X-rayed, reset by an orthopedic surgeon, and then encased in a p r o tective cast for several weeks. W h e n customers visit a service factory, their satisfaction will be influenced by such factors as: >- encounters with service personnel, *- appearance and features of service facilities—both exterior and interior,

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>• interactions with self-service equipment, and >• characteristics and behavior of other customers. If customers are required to be physically present throughout service delivery, the process must be designed around them from the m o m e n t they arrive at what we call the "service factory." T h e longer they remain at that site, the more likely they are to need other services, including hospitality basics like food, beverages, and toilets. Service delivery sites that customers visit must be located and designed with their convenience in mind. Furthermore, the nature of the facilities offers important physical evidence of the service itself. If the service factory is ugly, noisy, smelly, confusingly laid out, and in an inconvenient location, customers are likely to have negative impressions. Marketing managers need to work closely with their counterparts in operations to design facilities that are both pleasing to customers and efficient to operate. At Susan's college, the redesigned food court at the Student U n i o n replaced a cafeteria that provided a less attractive experience (as well as worse food). T h e exterior of a building creates important first impressions, whereas the interior can be thought of as the "stage" on which the service performance is delivered. T h e interior of Susan's hair salon appeals to her but that of the dry cleaner does not. Marketers need to work with human resource managers, too. Here the task is to ensure that those employees w h o are in contact with customers present an acceptable appearance and have both the personal and technical skills needed to perform well.The workers at the dry-cleaning store Susan uses appear to lack such skills. If service delivery requires customers to interact with employees, both parties may need some basic training or guidance on how to work together cooperatively to achieve the best results. If customers are expected to do some of the work themselves—as in self-service—facilities and equipment must be user-friendly.

Evaluating Alternative Channels for Service Delivery
Unlike the situation in people-processing services, managers responsible for possession processing, mental stimulus processing, and information processing need not oblige their customers to visit a service factory. Instead, they may be able to offer a choice of several alternative delivery channels: (1) letting customers come to a user-friendly factory, (2) limiting contact to a small retail office that is separate from the factory, (3) c o m ing to the customer's h o m e or office, and (4) conducting business at arm's length. Let's consider the cleaning and pressing of clothes—a possession-processing service—as an example. O n e approach is to do your laundry at home. If you lack the necessary machines, you can pay to use a laundromat, which is essentially a self-service cleaning factory. If you prefer to leave the task of laundry and dry cleaning to professionals, as Susan chose to do with her best clothes, you can go to a retail store that serves as a drop-off location for dirty clothes and a pickup point for newly cleaned items. Sometimes, cleaning is conducted in a space behind the store; at other times, the clothing is transported to an industrial operation some distance away. H o m e pickup and delivery is available in some cities, but this service tends to be expensive because of the extra costs involved. Innovation in service delivery sometimes takes the form of changing the delivery location to offer customers greater convenience (see the box, "Entrepreneur Sells Mobile Oil Changes"). Both physical and electronic channels allow customers and suppliers to conduct service transactions at arm's length. For instance, instead of shopping at the mall, you can study a printed catalog and order by telephone for mail delivery; or you can shop on the Internet, entering your orders electronically after reviewing your choices at a Web site. Information-based items, like software, research reports, or real estate listings can be downloaded immediately to your own computer.

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Entrepreneur Sells Mobile Oil Changes
His market is busy delivery fleets and people on the go
By MIKE KARATH

Staff Writer
HYANNIS—Andrew Todoroff discovered oil on Cape Cod. For people who don't have time to take their car in for an oil change, Todoroff brings the auto shop to them. About two years ago he opened Lube On Location, which services commercial fleets and personal autos across the Cape. It provides oil changes for $26.95; tire rotation for $21.15; wiper blades starting at $15 and air filter changes starting at $12, tax included. In the next several months he will add a vacuum system to his van and offer complete interior cleanings for about $30. Todoroff popped up from beneath a red Mazda recently after finishing an oil change in the parking lot of a Main Street Hyannis business. A drop of motor oil ran down his face as he wiped his hands. "The woman who owns the car, her husband called and said she wasn't really taking care of it," Todoroff said. "I had been doing work on his truck, so he asked if I could do his wife's car while she was at work." He added, "People at the bank saw me doing her car, and I got more business from it." Lube On Location specializes in fleets like courier companies. Todoroff services them early in the morning while the trucks are being loaded and in the late afternoon while they are being unloaded. "He saves me a ton of money," said Edward Matz, fleet manager of Cape Allied Transit in West Yarmouth, a courier service. "Just in manpower alone he saves me a lot because I don't have to pay a guy to take the truck to a station, sit and wait for an oil change." Matz said Todoroff is so "efficient and clean" with the company's 70 trucks that he hired him for the company's New Hampshire and Rhode Island terminals as well. Todoroff is registered with the state Environmental Protection Agency to carry waste oil, which is burned at a Hyannis car dealership's waste oil furnace. He also has a general insurance policy that covers accidents or spills. Todoroff, 27, a Poughkeepsie, N.Y., native is married and is the father of a one-year-old son and another on the way. In 1989 he moved to the Cape to be near his brother.
Source: Reprinted with permission from the Cape Cod Times, 28 March 1998, C-9.

He had been working as a cook and a carpet cleaner when a friend suggested he start an auto maintenance business. "I've always worked on my own cars," Todoroff said. "He got me thinking about it, and soon after that, I read about a guy in Entrepreneur magazine who manufactures equipment to do oil changes on location." Todoroff sold his car to buy used equipment he saw in a trade magazine classified ad. The business has about 600 clients, Todoroff said, but he would not disclose his yearly sales. He plans to hire his first employee in May as sales continue to climb. Despite Todoroff's success, skeptics like John Paul, a spokesman for the American Automobile Association in Rockland, don't see on-location businesses as a hot new trend. "I don't know if you're going to see it take off," Paul said. "The idea never really caught on in this part of the country because it is contingent on good weather. I'd also say that if it wasn't for places like Jiffy Lube, it would be a service whose time had come." But Todoroff may have the edge over those businesses. Jiffy Lube in Hyannis charges $28 including tax for an individual oil change. That is $1.39 more than what Lube On Location charges. "My target customer during the day is someone who doesn't want to waste a Saturday to get an oil change done," Todoroff said. "They have such busy work weeks that when the weekend comes, they'd rather go for a ride or spend their time doing something fun or interesting."

Today's managers need to be creative, because information technology and modern package transportation services offer many opportunities to rethink the place and time of service delivery. Some manufacturers of small pieces of equipment allow customers to bypass retail dealers when a product needs repair. Instead, a courier will pick up the defective item, ship it to a repair site, and return it a few days later w h e n it has been fixed. Electronic distribution channels offer even more convenience because transportation time can be eliminated. For instance, using telecommunication links, engineers in a central facility (which could even be on the other side of the world) may be able to diagnose problems in defective computers and software at distant customer locations and send signals to correct the defects. As we noted in Chapter 1, advances in telecommunications and in the design of user-friendly terminals have played an important role in creating new services and new delivery channels for existing services. Rethinking service delivery procedures for all but people processing may allow a firm to get customers out of the factory and transform a high-contact service into a low-contact one. W h e n the nature of the process makes it possible to deliver service at arm's length, the design and location of the factory can focus on purely operational priorities. For example, some industry observers predict that the traditional bank branch will eventually cease to exist and we will conduct most of our banking and credit union transactions through ATMs, telephones, or personal computers (PCs) and modems.The chances of success in such an endeavor will be enhanced when the new procedures are user-friendly and offer customers greater convenience.

Balancing Demand and Capacity
In general, services that process people and physical objects are more likely to face capacity limitations than those that are information based. Radio and television transmissions, for instance, can reach any number of homes within their receiving area or cable distribution network. In recent years, capacity in such industries has been vastly increased by greater computer power, digital switching, and the replacement of coaxial cables with broadband fiber-optic ones. Yet technology has not found similar ways to increase the capacity of those service operations that process people and their physical possessions without big jumps in cost. As a result, managing demand effectively is essential to improve productivity in services that involve tangible actions. Either customers must be given incentives to use the service outside peak periods or capacity must be allocated in advance through reservations. For example, a golf course may employ both of these strategies by discounting greens fees during off-peak hours and requiring reservations for the busier tee times. Sharp fluctuations in demand pose a problem for many organizations, although manufacturing firms can inventory supplies of their product as a hedge against fluctuations in demand. This strategy enables manufacturers to enjoy the economies derived from operating factories at steady production levels. Few service businesses can easily do the same. For example, the potential income from an empty seat on an airliner is lost forever once that flight takes off. Hotel rooms are equally perishable, and the productive capacity of an auto repair shop is "wasted if no cars come in for servicing on a day w h e n the shop is open. Conversely, when demand for service exceeds supply, the excess business may be lost. If someone cannot get a seat on one flight, another carrier gets the business or the trip is canceled. In other situations, customers may be forced to wait in line until sufficient productive capacity is available to serve them. Unfortunately, in people-processing services there are limits to h o w long customers will wait in line. They have other things to do and become bored, resentful, tired, and hungry. Susan was not willing to wait for a sandwich at the food court, so she chose a burger instead. O n e strategy for reducing or eliminating the need for waiting is to insti-

NG SERVICES

tute a reservations system, but the times offered should be realistic. (Note that Susan's hair salon offered appointments but was not running on schedule the day that she visited it.) In contrast, physical possessions rarely suffer if they have to wait (unless they are highly perishable). In this case, customers are most concerned with the cost and inconvenience associated with delays. For example, Susan worries about what she'll do if her only suit is not returned from the dry cleaner in time for her j o b interview!

Applying Technology to Service Processes
In Chapter 1, we mentioned six types of technologies that have important implications for services: biotechnology, power and energy technology, methods technology (how people work and how processes are organized), materials technology, physical design technology, and information technology. T h e extent to which any of these technologies can be applied to the core product of a specific service business depends on the process underlying the creation and delivery of that product. P e o p l e - P r o c e s s i n g Services Because customers interact directly with the physical organization, this category of service is particularly concerned with the physical design of front-stage facilities and supporting equipment, as well as w i t h the materials employed to construct t h e m and the power sources used to drive them. Customer satisfaction with these facilities may be as important as internal operational concerns. For instance, the new food court at Susan's university, featuring a variety of different food vendors, represents innovation in physical design and in food preparation and delivery methods for institutional food services. It not only looks more appealing but also offers more choice. As such, the food court probably attracts more customers than the old cafeteria. But improved physical features alone may not suffice for an organization to achieve its productivity and quality goals. T h e right choice of methods technologies plays a key role in determining how employees, customers, and physical elements interact on-site to create the desired service. Many technologies have been refined to serve the needs of specific industries. All transportation industries are shaped by new developments in power technologies, since these affect speed, fuel consumption, and both noise and air pollution. Hospitals are the beneficiaries of advances in the physical design of new equipment needed to diagnose and treat patients, as well as biotechnology. Methods of treatment in health care are constantly evolving, too, requiring both human and technical skills that are often practiced in a team setting. Restaurants have improved their productivity by investing in new food-related technologies (such as preprocessed meals and improved strains of vegetables derived from biotechnology research) as well as in devices to simplify food preparation and cooking. Possession-Processing Services These services also emphasize power, design, materials, and methods technologies, since the core products tend to involve physical activities ranging from transport to storage, from installation to cleaning, and from fueling to repair. But there's a key difference between people and "things." Unlike human beings, whose size and shape are more or less a given, physical possessions can be redesigned to make t h e m easier to service. In fact, the first and best service that manufacturers and architects can give their customers is to design serviceability into physical goods and facilities. Unfortunately, this goal is often ignored. There are many examples of equipment that is difficult to package and transport; machines that have to be totally disassembled by an expert to replace a simple part; electronic controls that only an 11-year-old video-game specialist understands h o w to operate; and buildings that are hard to clean and maintain.

CHAPTER TWO

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U N D E R S T A N D I N G SERVICE PROCESSES

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Mental Stimulus-Processing Services Strategic developments in this category are driven primarily by information technology (IT). Advances in telecommunications, from cellular phones to satellite links and addressable cable TV, have opened up significant new possibilities for the information, news, entertainment, and education industries. However, making the most of advances in IT often requires development of innovative equipment that is, in turn, dependent on advances in physical design and materials technologies. For instance, miniaturization of power sources (such as tiny batteries) facilitates creation of smaller and lighter devices like flat screens, lightweight modems, portable faxes, cellular telephones, and pocket-size hard disks. C o m b i n i n g portability with wireless networks frees users from the constraints of fixed-site installations and dramatically extends the usefulness of the Internet and World Wide Web. In turn, making use of new applications requires changes in methods technology for both employees and customers. I n f o r m a t i o n - P r o c e s s i n g S e r v i c e s As w i t h services in the previous category, advances in information-processing services depend heavily on IT. For instance, ITbased telemedicine allows health care providers to transmit real-time patient information—including scans, X rays, and data from m o n i t o r i n g e q u i p m e n t — t o a distant expert w h o can provide immediate consultation and advise local providers on what treatments to offer. O n c e again, these IT advances are closely allied to physical design, materials, and methods technologies. Making the M o s t of I n f o r m a t i o n T e c h n o l o g y It's clear that i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e d services (a t e r m that covers b o t h mental stimulus processing and information processing) have the most to gain from advances in information technology, because they allow the operation to be physically separate from customers. M o d e r n telecommunications and computer technologies enable customers to connect through a computer (or other input-output devices, such as an ATM) with the service provider's system in another location. For example, customers of a brokerage firm, such as Charles Schwab or E-trade, can connect to the company through the Internet and then manage their own portfolios, keying in orders for buying and selling stocks on their own computers. The Internet offers new ways to deliver service for a broad array of industries. Many Web sites, however, offer an example of marketing goods through service rather than marketing a core service product. Consider Figure 2.3. In the case ofFlooz.com, the core product—financial services—can be delivered directly via e-mail. In the case of Lands' End, by contrast, the site offers only supplementary services, including information about the goods sold by the company and the opportunity to order and pay for them online. Actual delivery of the clothing sold by Lands' End requires the use of physical channels. Several of the services used by Susan M u n r o employ IT applications designed not only to link customers in one location with providers in another, but also to enable customers to perform self-service. For instance, she accessed an Internet site to get a weather forecast, and w i t h d r e w m o n e y from an A T M . In the case of her Business Spanish course, technology allowed Susan to learn from viewing videotapes that were probably recorded elsewhere several years earlier. T h e ability to offer customers selfservice through automated e q u i p m e n t (such as ATMs), intelligent telephones, and the Internet is of growing importance for service marketing strategy. 7 Radio and television provide many examples of how technology has transformed the nature of the core product and its delivery system. From studio symphony performances to electronic churches and call-in gardening advice programs, broadcasting— and now interactive cable—has created new ways to bring advice, entertainment, culinformation-based services; all services in which the principal value comes from the transmission of data to customers (includes both mental stimulus processing and information processing).

ture, and spiritual enlightenment to widely scattered audiences. In many countries, education is offered through electronic channels as an alternative to the traditional mode of face-to-face presentations in a physical classroom. Entire virtual universities are springing up, such as the University of Phoenix in the U n i t e d States. O n e of the oldest and most extensive efforts of this nature is the O p e n University ( O U ) in Great Britain. T h e OU has been offering degree programs to students nationwide through the electronic campus of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) for over 30 years. Anyone can watch or hear the broadcast p r o grams, of course, b u t students also receive p r i n t e d course material and videotapes through the mail and communicate with tutors by mail, e-mail, or telephone. In a number of courses, real-time class discussions between instructors and students take place by telephone and a few even use videoconferencing. Yet these techniques still cannot provide all the features and benefits of education on a physical campus, where m u c h of the learning takes place outside the classroom. So, to provide some of the advantages of traditional education, the OU encourages advanced students to participate in short residential programs, often held on a real college campus during vacation periods. Thanks to advances in technology, distance education has b e c o m e international in scope. It offers particular potential in Africa, where only 3 percent of 18 to 25 year olds enroll in college and few have any business experience. In 1997, the World Bank launched the African Virtual University, w h i c h enables students in 16 African c o u n tries to take courses and seminars taught by professors from universities around the world. Instructors deliver lectures in front of cameras in their own classrooms and the video is r o u t e d via fiber optics, I S D N lines, or satellite to an u p l i n k in Washington, D.C. F r o m there it is transmitted by satellite to various locations in Africa, where a student in Ghana can talk with the instructor in real time via standard telephone lines while students in Kenya, Tanzania, and Z i m b a b w e listen to the dialog.

Managing People as Part of the Service Product
The more involved customers become in the service delivery process, the more visible service personnel and other customers become (this is the people element of the 8Ps). In many people-processing services, customers meet lots of employees and often interact with them for extended periods of time. They are also more likely to run into other customers. After all, many service facilities achieve their operating economies by serving large numbers of customers simultaneously. W h e n other people become a part of the service experience, they can enhance it or detract from it. Direct involvement in service production means that customers evaluate the quality of employees' appearance and social skills, as well as their technical skills—concerns that are important for human resource managers and front-line supervisors. And because people also make judgments about their fellow customers, managers find themselves trying to shape customer behavior, too. Service businesses of this type tend to be harder to manage because of the human element. Susan enjoyed the comments made by other students in her marketing class. But at the food court, lazy customers had failed to clear their table. Even though they had already left, their behavior still detracted in a small way from the experience of Susan and her friends. T h e poor attitude and appearance of the employee at the dry cleaner compounded the problem of delays in cleaning Susan's suit and may lead to the loss of her business in the future. As a manager, how would you get customers to clear their tables after eating at the food court? H o w would you make the staff at the dry cleaner more friendly?

Conclusion
We've seen in this chapter that although not all services are the same, many do have important characteristics in c o m m o n . R a t h e r than focusing on broad distinctions between goods and services, it's more useful to identify different categories of services and to study the marketing, operations, and human resource challenges that they raise.

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UNDERSTANDING SERVICES

T h e four-way classification scheme in this chapter focuses on different types of service processes. Some services require direct physical contact with customers (haircutting and passenger transport); others center on contact with people's minds (education and entertainment). Some involve processing of physical objects (cleaning and freight transport); others process information (accounting and insurance). As you can n o w appreciate, the processes that underlie the creation and delivery of any service have a major impact on marketing and h u m a n resources. Process design (or redesign) is not just a task for the operations department. Both managers and employees must understand underlying processes (particularly those in w h i c h customers are actively involved) in order to run a service business that is both efficient and user-friendly. In a growing number of situations, those processes are being reshaped by advances in information technology.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Identify each of the services used by Susan Munro. a. W h a t needs is she attempting to satisfy in each instance? b. W h a t alternative product or self-service could solve her need in each instance? c. W h a t similarities and differences are there between the dry-cleaning store and the hair salon? W h a t could each learn from the other? 2. Review Susan's day and identify which of the 8Ps are evident in her dealings with different services. 3. Make a list of all the services that you have used during the past week and categorize t h e m by type of process. 4. List the different types of service factories that you visit in the course of a typical m o n t h and how many times you visit each one. 5. R e v i e w each of the different ways in which services can be classified. H o w would you explain the usefulness of these systems to the manager of a health and fitness center? 6. Identify the strategies used by your long-distance phone company or favorite restaurant to manage demand. 7. W h a t do you see as the major ethical issues for those responsible for creating and delivering mental-stimulus-processing services? 8. H o w have other customers affected your service experiences either positively or negatively?

Hans Kasper,Wouter DeVries, and PietVan Helsdingen, Services Marketing Management:An International Perspective (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), chap. 2,43-70. These classifications are derived from Lovelock (1983) and represent an extension and adaptation of a framework inT.R Hill, "On Goods and Services," Review of Income and Wealth 23 (December 1977), 315-338. For more detailed illustrations of the impact of information technology on services, see Frances Cairncross, The Death of Distance (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1997); and Philip Evans and Thomas S.Wurster, Blown to Bits (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000). Leyland Pitt, Pierre Berthoin, and Jean-Paul Berthon, "Changing Channels:The Impact of the Internet on Distribution Strategy," Business Horizons (March-April 1999): 19—28. Pratibha A. Dabholkar, "Technology in Service Delivery: Implications for Self-Service and Service Support," in T. A. Schwartz and D. Iacobuci, Handbook of Services Marketing and Management (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000), 103-110. David A. Light, "Pioneering Distance Education in Africa," Harvard Business Review (September-October 1999), 26.

The Service Customer

All successful service firms are customer oriented. To the greatest possible extent, these companies try to build their operations around the customer rather than forcing customers to conform to a predefined operating model. They also recognize that not all customers have similar needs, that their firm's services will appeal more to certain types of customers than others, and that customers differ in terms of their potential value to the firm. The four chapters in Part II are built around increasing your understanding of the service customer. Figure 11.1 emphasizes those elements of the service management decision framework that relate to the question: Who are our customers and how should we relate to them? Understanding the nature of the processes used to create and deliver services is the key to designing service encounters and creating appealing experiences for customers. Marketers need to work with their colleagues in operations to answer the question: Where should customers fit in our service operation? In people-processing services, customers themselves are an integral part of the process and must physically remain in the company's facilities (e.g., a hotel, an airliner, or a hospital) for the duration of service delivery. Other types of services may have the opportunity to select processes that will substantially reduce contact with customers. Before a firm chooses a particular process, marketers should address the question: Do customers and prospects prefer high or low levels of contact with service personnel and facilities? The answer to this question may help guide decisions on

whether to offer self-service options. We discuss these issues in Chapter 3. Many marketing decisions—including those involving product elements, pricing, promotion and education, and service delivery— are related to the question: How do customers evaluate, purchase, and use our services? And how satisfied are they? We need to learn what alternatives customers consider, how they evaluate services, what criteria they use in making their decisions, where and when they make purchases, whether there are differences among customers in how they use a specific service, and what factors lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The purchase decision process for services is one of the key topics addressed in Chapter 4, which also addresses how customer expectations are formed and introduces the technique of mapping the service experience from the customer's perspective. Managers must understand their customers' behavior in order to design services that best fulfill identified needs. But they should also realize that not all customers are equally desirable to a firm. Some current customers are likely to offer greater value than others. And not all prospects are attractive either. Thus marketers should ask: What are the key characteristics of the market segments that we target? The more a firm knows about its existing customers, the better it will be able to answer the question: Which customer relationships are worth developing and preserving? Chapter 5 reviews the concept of market segmentation, introduces

FIGURE II.1 Service Management Decisions Involving Customers

the concept of relationship marketing, and covers strategies for building customer loyalty. Finally, managers need to recognize that service delivery does not always go perfectly from the customer's perspective. To

develop an effective service recovery strategy—the topic of Chapter 6—they should be able to respond with specifics to the question: What should we do when customers' expectations are not met?

49

Managing Service Encounters
Banking Moves from High Touch to High Tech
Developments in technology often offer radically new ways for a business to create and deliver its services, particularly those core and supplementary services that are information-based.1 But it's not always easy to insert a new, technology-based model of service delivery into a traditional operation with an established culture and customers who are used to doing things in a certain way. Sometimes it may be easier to create an entirely new operation that is largely independent of the parent company. In an effort to attract new business and take advantage of cost-saving advances in Internet technology, First USA Bank created a separate Internet subsidiary with an unusual sounding name. WingspanBank.com was launched in mid-1999 with the slogan "If your bank could start over, this is what it would be." A similar strategy was used ten years earlier by Britain's Midland Bank (now HSBC Bank) when it launched First Direct, the world's first all-telephone bank. First Direct attracted worldwide attention within the financial service industry as the first bank to operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.2 Customers who undertake home banking by computer or by phone have a different type of relationship with their bank than those who continue to visit a traditional retail bank branch. The former benefit from place and time convenience, dealing with bank personnel at arm's length, using a computer or telephone (supplied by the customers or their employers), rather than entering a service factory. The only physical banking encounters these customers experience are with ATMs (automated teller machines), which can be found in numerous convenient locations and do not necessarily belong to the bank with which the user has an account. If there is a problem, a customer's first option is to send an e-mail or to telephone a 24-hour customer service center. Customers' impressions of First Direct, therefore, reflect how fast the phone is answered (standards require 75 percent of all calls to be answered in 20 seconds or less), the courtesy and professionalism of the employee's voice, and the speed with which desired transactions can be completed. By contrast, customers' impressions of Wingspan are likely to be determined by the appearance and ease of use of the bank's Web site. To obtain assistance, Wingspan customers can send e-mails, use 24/7 free telephone service to reach Customer Care Advisors, or send a letter by regular mail. Industry experts have given Wingspan high marks. The company's site received a "Best of the Web" ranking from Forbes and a "Five-Star Rating for the Best Financial Supermarket" from Kiplinger's Personal Finance. And according to Money magazine, "WingspanBank.com is the best banking embodiment yet of the 'clicks and mortar' strategy."3 G6mez.com, an Internet quality measurement firm that evaluates a wide array of online services against a variety of criteria, gave WingspanBank.com high ratings among virtual banks.4

explain the different levels of customer contact and their impact on service design and delivery discuss critical incidents and their implications for customer satisfaction understand the elements of the total service system describe why service delivery can be viewed as a form of theater recognize the potential role of customers as coproducers of services appreciate how new technologies may offer alternative ways of creating and delivering services

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51

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WHERE DOES THE CUSTOMER FIT IN THE SERVICE OPERATION?
As we described in the o p e n i n g vignette, different forms of b a n k i n g operations involve customers in different ways. C o m p a r e d to W e b - or telephone-based service delivery, visiting a branch requires more personal and more t i m e - c o n s u m i n g c o n tacts. Customers can only visit a branch during certain hours and may have to travel some distance to get there. T h e y are exposed to the exterior and interior of the building, may spend time waiting in a line with other customers, and deal face-toface with an employee (who, in many banks, will be b e h i n d a security grill or glass screen). Many people enjoy the social interaction of visiting a bank branch, especially if they don't trust machines and know the staff members w h o serve them. According to the U.S. banking industry, a third of all banking customers use only "high-contact" banking in a staffed branch, a third combine branch banking with remote banking by telephone and computer, and a third use predominantly the "low-contact" remote banking options. 5 T h e proportion of customers w h o prefer to bank electronically can be expected to grow as younger, more technology-oriented customers enter the market and at least some of the technophobes evolve, with education and experience, toward greater acceptance of new banking channels.

Contact with the Service Organization
An important theme in this chapter is that "high-contact" encounters between customers and service organizations differ sharply from " l o w - c o n t a c t " ones. T h e four process-based service categories described in Chapter 2 prescribe the minimum level of customer contact needed to obtain service in each instance. However, many service organizations may provide far higher levels of contact than is necessary to deliver the service in question. Sometimes these high-contact levels reflect customer preferences for person-to-person service with c u s t o m e r - c o n t a c t personnel. In many instances, though, they result from a management decision to continue relying on traditional approaches, instead of reengineering existing service processes to create innovative, lower-contact approaches. Variability is a fact of life in situations where customers differ widely and service personnel interact w i t h those customers on a o n e - o n - o n e basis. 6 T h e longer and m o r e actively that customers are involved in the process of service delivery, the greater the likelihood that each customer's experience will be somewhat different from that of other customers (and from previous experiences by the same customer). N o t all variations are bad; in fact, many customers seek a tailored approach that recognizes them as individuals with distinctive needs. T h e challenge is for employees to be flexible, treating each person as an individual rather than as a clone. 7 Many service problems revolve around unsatisfactory incidents between customers and service personnel. In an effort to simplify service delivery, improve productivity, and reduce some of the threats to service quality, a number of firms are using technology to minimize or even eliminate contact between customers and employees. Thus, face-toface encounters are giving way to telephone and e-mail encounters. Meantime, personal service is being replaced by self-service, often through computers, kiosks, or easy-to-use machines. 8 Web sites are beginning to replace voice telephone contacts for some types of service transactions. 9 This chapter builds on our earlier discussion of processes in Chapter 2 and introduces the concept of a spectrum of customer contact with the service organization that ranges from high to low. We'll show how the extent of customer contact affects the nature of the

customer-contact personnel: those service employees who interact directly with individual customers either in person or through mail and telecommunications.

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service encounter as well as strategies for achieving productivity and quality improvements. As you review the contents of the chapter, including its examples, you should ask yourself how a strategy of reducing (or increasing) the level of customer contact might impact decisions relating to product elements, place, cyberspace, and time, promotion and education, people, and physical evidence. You should also recognize how the material in this chapter relates to the service decision framework (see Figure II.1 on page 49). By gaining a better understanding of where customers fit in different types of service operation and their preferences for high or low levels of contact with personnel and facilities, you'll begin to answer the broader question: Who are our customers and how should we relate to them?

Service Encounters: Differing Levels of Customer Contact
A service encounter is a period of time during which customers interact directly with a service. 10 In some instances, the entire service experience can be reduced to a single encounter, involving ordering, payment, and execution of service delivery on the spot. In other cases, the customer's experience includes a sequence of encounters. This can mean an extended process that may be spread out over a period of time, involve a variety of employees, and even take place in different locations (think about flying on a passenger airline). Although some researchers use the term "encounter" simply to describe personal interactions between customers and employees, realistically we also need to think about encounters involving interactions between customers and self-service equipment. As the level of customer contact with the service operation increases, there are likely to be more and longer service encounters. So in Figure 3.1, we've grouped services into three levels of customer contact, representing the extent of interaction with service personservice encounters a period of time during which customers interact directly with a service.

levels of customer contact: the extent to which customers interact directly with elements of the service organization.

FIGURE 3.1
Levels of Customer Contact with Service Organizations

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high-contact services: services that involve significant interaction among customers, service personnel, and equipment and facilities.

nel, physical service elements, or both. You'll notice that traditional retail banking, telephone banking, and home banking by Web site are all in different locations on the chart. H i g h - c o n t a c t services tend to be those in which customers visit the service facility in person. Customers are actively involved with the service organization and its personnel throughout service delivery (e.g., hairdressing or medical services). All peopleprocessing services (other than those delivered at home) are high contact. Services from the other three process-based categories may also involve high levels of customer contact when, for reasons of tradition, preference, or lack of other alternatives, customers go to the service site and remain there until service delivery is completed. Examples of services that have traditionally been high contact but can be low contact today because of technology include retail banking, purchase of retail goods, and higher education. M e d i u m - c o n t a c t services entail less interaction with service providers. They involve situations in which customers visit the service provider's facilities (or are visited at home or at a third-party location by the firm's employees) but either do not remain throughout service delivery or else have only modest contact with service personnel.The purpose of such contacts is often limited to: (1) establishing a relationship and defining a service need (e.g., management consulting, insurance, or personal financial advising, where clients make an initial visit to the firm's office but then have relatively limited interactions with the provider during service production), (2) dropping off and picking up a physical possession that is being serviced, or (3) trying to resolve a problem. L o w - c o n t a c t services involve very little, if any, physical contact between customers and service providers. Instead, contact takes place at arm's length through the medium of electronic or physical distribution channels—a fast-growing trend in today's convenience-oriented society. Both mental stimulus-processing (e.g., radio, television) and information-processing services (e.g., insurance) fall naturally into this category. Also included are possession-processing services in which the item requiring service can

medium-contact services: services that involve only a limited amount of contact between customers and elements of the service organization.

low-contact services: services that require minimal or no direct contact between customers and the service organization.

FIGURE 3.2
Unconventional Advertising for an Unconventional Bank

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be shipped to the service site or subjected to "remote fixes" delivered electronically to the customers' premises from a distant location (increasingly c o m m o n for resolving software problems). Finally, many high-contact and m e d i u m - c o n t a c t services are being transformed into low-contact services as customers engage in h o m e shopping, conduct their insurance and banking transactions by telephone, or research and purchase products through the World Wide Web. 1 3 Advertising for low-contact, Web-based services often promotes speed and convenience. For instance, WingspanBank.com contrasts the old and new approaches: "In the 60 seconds it takes to find a parking spot at your old bank, you can get an answer on your loan application. . . . leave your car in the garage.Your new bank's in the den" (see Figure 3.2).

MANAGING SERVICE ENCOUNTERS
Many services (especially those classified as high contact) involve numerous encounters between customers and service employees, either in person or remotely by phone or e-mail. Service encounters may also take place between customers and physical facilities or equipment. In low-contact services, customers are having more and more encounters with automated machines that are designed to replace human personnel. To highlight the risks and opportunities associated with service encounters, Richard N o r m a n n , a Paris-based Swedish consultant, borrowed the m e t a p h o r "moment of truth" from bullfighting. N o r m a n n writes: \W\e could say that the perceived quality is realized at the moment of truth, when the service provider and the service customer confront one another in the arena. At that moment they are very much on their own. . . . It is the skill, the motivation, and the tools employed by the firm's representative and the expectations and behavior of the client which together will create the service delivery process. In bullfighting, what is at stake is the life of either the bull or the matador (or possibly both). T h e m o m e n t of truth is the instant at which the matador deftly slays the bull with his sword—hardly a very comfortable analogy for a service organization s intent on building long-term relationships with its customers! Normann's point, of course, is that it's the life of the relationship that is at stake. Contrary to bullfighting, the goal of relationship marketing—which we will explore in Chapter 5—is to prevent one unfortunate (mis)encounter from destroying what is already, or has the potential to become, a mutually valued, long-term relationship. Jan Carlzon, the former chief executive of Scandinavian Airlines System, used the "moment-of-truth" metaphor as a reference point for transforming SAS from an operations-driven business into a customer-driven airline. Carlzon made the following c o m ments about his airline: Last year, each of our 10 million customers came into contact with approximately five SAS employees, and this contact lasted an average of 15 seconds each time.Thus, SAS is "created" 50 million times a year, 15 seconds at a time. These 50 million "moments of truth" are the moments that ultimately determine whether SAS will succeed or fail as a company. They are the moments when we must prove to our customers that SAS is their best alternative. critical incident: a specific encounter between customer and service provider in which the outcome has proved especially satisfying or dissatisfying for one or both parties. critical incident technique (CIT): a methodology for collecting, categorizing, and analyzing critical incidents that have occurred between customers and service providers.

moment of truth: a point in service delivery where customers interact with service employees or selfservice equipment and the outcome may affect perceptions of service quality.

Critical Incidents in Service Encounters
Critical incidents are specific encounters between customers and service businesses that are especially satisfying or dissatisfying for one or both parties.The critical incident technique (CIT) is a methodology for collecting and categorizing such incidents in service encounters. Conducting such an analysis offers an opportunity to determine what incidents during service delivery are likely to be particularly significant in determining whether or not customers are satisfied. T h e types of encounters classified as critical incidents differ depending on whether the service is high or low contact in nature.

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Critical Incidents in High-Contact Services
In a study of critical incidents in the airline, hotel, and restaurant businesses, customers were instructed to think of a time when they had a particularly satisfying (dissatisfying) interaction with a service employee. They then answered the following questions: > When did the incident happen? >• What specific circumstances led up to this situation? 5* Exactly what did the employee say or do? >• What resulted that made you feel the interaction was satisfying (dissatisfyingp A total of 699 incidents was recorded, split roughly equally between satisfying and unsatisfying incidents. They were then categorized into three groups: (1) employee response to service failures, (2) employee responses to requests for customized service, and (3) unprompted and unsolicited employee actions. When employees responded to critical incidents involving a service failure, analysis showed that the outcomes were twice as likely to be dissatisfactory for customers as satisfactory. The reverse was true when customers asked employees to adapt the service in some way to meet a special need or request. In the third grouping, relating to unexpected events and employee behavior, satisfactory and unsatisfactory outcomes were equally matched. Figure 3.4 displays reports on specific incidents, as described in the customers' own words.

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PART TWO • THE SERVICE CUSTOMER

CIT in H i g h - C o n t a c t Environments Most C I T research has focused on interpersonal interactions between customers and employees in high-contact service environments. In these situations, critical incidents tend to center around customer perceptions of employee attitudes and actions. For example, a lengthy wait for dinner in a restaurant would be classified as a critical incident because it represents a service delivery failure. But if an employee attempts to improve the situation by providing information about the cause of the wait and offering free drinks as compensation, customers may feel that the outcome was satisfactory even though the service delivery was problematic. T h e findings reported in the boxed example come from a study of critical incidents described by customers w h o had particularly satisfying or dissatisfying experiences w h e n using high-contact airline, hotel, or restaurant services. N o t e the 12 different

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types of incidents and examples of the language used by customers to describe both positive and negative interactions with service employees. W h i l e customers' reactions are important, managers must also understand the employee's view of the situation. Thoughtless or poorly behaved customers can often cause needless problems for service personnel w h o are trying hard to serve them well. Dissatisfaction with a succession of negative incidents can even drive good employees to quit their jobs. A C I T study that examined hundreds of critical incidents from an employee perspective 1 6 showed that more than 20 percent of all incidents that employees found unsatisfactory could be attributed to problem customers, whose bad behavior included drunkenness, verbal and physical abuse, breaking laws or company policies, and failing to cooperate with service personnel. As you know if you've ever been

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service operations system: that part of the total service system where inputs are processed and the elements of the service product are created. service delivery system: that part of the total service system where final"assembly" of the elements takes place and the product is delivered to the customer; it includes the visible elements of the service operation. service marketing system: that part of the total service system where the firm has any form of contact with its customers, from advertising to billing; it includes contacts made at the point of delivery. front stage: those aspects of service operations and delivery that are visible or otherwise apparent to customers. backstage (or technical core): those aspects of service operations that are hidden from customers.

a front-line employee in a service business, it's simply not true that "the customer is always right." CIT in L o w - C o n t a c t E n v i r o n m e n t s I n l o w - c o n t a c t services, encounters b e t w e e n customers and service businesses may n o t directly involve employees. Technology has provided new opportunities for self-service, where delivery takes place electronically through interactions with equipment rather than people. Examples of these self-service technologies (SSTs) include bank A T M s , automated package tracking, p a y - a t - t h e - p u m p terminals at gas stations, a u t o m a t e d kiosks for airline tickets, and Internet investment transactions. In these types of encounters, employees are not present to compensate for problems or customize the service experience. A study of critical incidents in low-contact service environments highlights the necessity of educating customers about effective use of SSTs and training them to "self-recover" w h e n a service failure has occurred. T h e boxed example on pages 58—59 describes service encounters that were identified as especially satisfying/dissatisfying incidents in low-contact, self-service environments.

SERVICE AS A SYSTEM
T h e types of relationships a service business has with its customers (and the kinds of misbehaviors that will be encountered during service delivery) depend to a great extent on the level of contact customers have w i t h the firm. W h e t h e r a service is high, medium, or low contact becomes a major factor in defining the total service system, which includes the service operations s y s t e m (where inputs are processed and the elements of the service product are created), the service delivery system (where final "assembly" of these elements takes place and the product is delivered to the customer), and the service m a r k e t i n g s y s t e m (which embraces all points of contact with customers, including advertising, billing, and market research) (see Figure 3.5). Parts of this system are visible (or otherwise apparent) to customers; other parts are hidden in what is sometimes referred to as the technical core, and the customer may not even know of their existence. 1 8 Some writers use the terms "front office" and "back office" in referring to the visible and invisible parts of the operation. Others talk about "front stage" and "backstage," using the analogy of theater to dramatize the notion that service is a performance. 1 9 We like this analogy—sometimes referred to as "dra-

FIGURE 3.5
The Service Business as a System

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Service Process Category People processing Level of Contact High contact Drama Implications Because the actors and audience are in close contact, the setting and front stage performances affect customers' perceptions of service quality. Important theater aspects include design and ambience of the setting, appearance and behavior of the actors, props, costumes, and scripts. Other audience members (customers) can influence one another's service experience and the perceived quality of the service performance. If actors and audience are in close physical proximity, then many of the drama implications for people-processing services may apply. If the performance is conducted at arm's length, audience members do not typically interact with each other. The physical appearances of the actors and setting are less important. Scripts may still be useful in ensuring that actors and audience members play their parts correctly. The performance can either take place at the service firm or at the audience members' home or business. Contact between actors and audience may be limited to the start and end of the service. (At these contact points, the drama elements described for peopleprocessing services do apply but on a less substantial level.) In some circumstances—for instance, lawn mowing and office janitorial services—the service performance may occur without the audience present. The outcomes of such services are usually tangible and may be used as a proxy for judging the quality of the service performance. There is minimal contact between actors and audience members. Both the act and the recipient (intangible assets) are intangible, and the performance usually occurs in the absence of the customer. Because of these factors, only the outcomes can be assessed, not the process; however, even the outcome may be difficult for customers to evaluate.

maturgy"—and will be using it throughout the book. T h e extent to which theatrical elements exist depends largely on the nature of the service process. Table 3.1 summarizes the drama implications for the four categories of service processes identified in Chapter 2.

Service Operations System
Like a play in a theater, the visible components of service operations can be divided into those relating to the actors (or service personnel) and those relating to the stage set (or physical facilities, equipment, and other tangibles). What goes on backstage is of little interest to customers. Like any audience, they evaluate the production on those elements they actually experience during service delivery and on the perceived service o u t c o m e . Naturally, if the backstage personnel and systems (e.g., billing, ordering, account keeping) fail to perform their support tasks properly in ways that affect the quality of front stage activities, customers will notice. For instance, restaurant patrons will be disappointed if they order fish from the menu but are told it is unavailable or find that their food is overcooked. Other examples of backstage failures include receiving an incorrect hotel bill due to a keying error, not receiving course grades because of a computer failure in the college registrar's office, or being delayed on a flight because the aircraft has been taken out of service for engine repairs.

USTOMER

T h e proportion of the overall service operation that is visible to customers varies according to the level of c u s t o m e r contact. Since h i g h - c o n t a c t services directly involve the physical person of the customer, customers must enter the service "fact o r y " (although there may still be many backstage activities that they don't see) or service workers and their tools must leave the backstage and come to the customers' chosen location. Examples include roadside car repair by automobile clubs and physical fitness trainers w h o work with clients at their homes or offices. Medium-contact services, by contrast, require customers to be less substantially involved in service delivery. Consequently, the visible c o m p o n e n t of the service operations system is smaller. Low-contact services usually strive to minimize customer contact with the service provider, so most of the service operations system is confined to a remotely located backstage (sometimes referred to as a technical core); front stage elements are normally limited to mail and telecommunications contacts. Think for a m o m e n t about the telephone company that you use. Do you have any idea where its exchange is located? If you have a credit card, it's likely that your transactions are processed far from where you live.

Service Delivery System
Service delivery is concerned with where, "when, and h o w the service product is d e livered to the customer. As shown earlier in Figure 3.5, this subsystem embraces not only the visible elements of the service operating system—buildings, equipment, and personnel—but may also involve exposure to other customers. Service providers traditionally had direct interactions with their customers. But to achieve goals ranging from cost reduction and productivity improvement to greater customer convenience, many services that don't need the customers to be physically present in the factory now seek to reduce direct contact. Midland Bank's creation of First Direct is a prime example of this trend. As a result, the visible component of the service operations system is shrinking in many industries as electronic technology or redesigned physical flows are used to drive service delivery from higher to lower levels of contact. Self-service delivery often offers customers greater convenience than face-to-face contact. Machines such as automated petrol pumps, ATMs, or coin-operated food and drink dispensers can be installed in numerous locations and made accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Electronic food retailing sites like wine.com and tabasco.com provide extensive product information and a greater selection of specialty items than most bricks and mortar outlets can offer. 20 Cafeteria service allows customers to see menu items before making their selection. Self-guided museum tours allow visitors to enjoy an exhibition at their o w n pace. Online college courses allow students to complete work at their own pace in an off-campus location. But there are potential disadvantages to self-service delivery, too. T h e shift from personal service (sometimes referred to as "high touch") to self-service ("high tech") sometimes disturbs customers. So a strategy of replacing employees by machines or other self-service procedures may require an information campaign to educate customers and promote the benefits of the new approach. It also helps to design userfriendly equipment, including free telephone or e-mail access to an employee w h o can answer questions and solve problems. Of course, not all self-service is installed in remote locations. Cafeterias and self-guided museum tours are examples of customers taking on tasks that would otherwise have to be assigned to service personnel. Later in this chapter, we'll discuss the role of the customer as a coproducer of service in collaboration with the service provider.

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Using the theatrical analogy, the distinction between high-contact and low-contact services can be likened to the differences between live theater on a stage and a drama created for television. That's because customers of low-contact services normally never see the "factory" where the work is performed; at most, they will talk with a service provider (or problem solver) by telephone. W i t h o u t buildings and furnishings or even the appearance of employees to provide tangible clues, customers must make judgments about service quality based on ease of telephone access, followed by the voice and responsiveness of a telephone-based customer service representative. W h e n service is delivered through impersonal electronic channels, such as selfservice machines, automated telephone calls to a central computer, or via the customer's o w n computer, there is very little traditional "theater" left to the performance. Some firms compensate for this by giving their machines names, playing recorded music, or installing moving color graphics on video screens, adding sounds, and creating computer-based interactive capabilities to give the experience a m o r e h u m a n feeling. Another option is to design a retail Web site to resemble a display in a store window. Some virtual companies now offer real-time, interactive e-mail communications b e t w e e n shoppers and customer service p e r s o n n e l . C o n s i d e r F l o o z . c o m , a provider of electronic gift certificates that can be spent online at more than 60 stores (see page 44). If a customer logs onto the Flooz.com site and accesses the "Live H e l p " link at the top of the h o m e page, there is an immediate response similar to the one quoted below: A Flooz.com Customer Care Representative will be with you momentarily! Please feel free to continue browsing below. JasonMa has arrived to help you! JasonMa says, "Thank you for accessing Live Chat. My name isfason. May I please have your e-mail address so I can better assist you?" Responsibility for designing and managing service delivery systems has traditionally fallen to operations managers. But marketing needs to be involved, too, because

What Options Do You Use for Delivery of Bank Services?
Not everyone is comfortable with the trend toward low-contact services, which is why some firms give their customers a choice. For instance, many retail banks now offer an array of service delivery options. Consider this spectrum of alternatives. Which options do you currently use at your bank? Which would you like to use in the future? And which are currently available? 1. Visit the bank in person and conduct transactions with a bank clerk. 2. Use postal service to send deposits or request new checkbooks. 3. Use an ATM. 4. Conduct transactions by telephone with a customer service representative. 5. Use the keys on a telephone to interact with the bank in response to voice commands (or a telephone screen display). 6. Conduct home banking through your own computer, using a modem and special software. 7. Conduct transactions by computer through the World Wide Web. 8. Complete banking transactions by mobile phone or PDA (personal digital assistant). In each instance, what factors explain your preference? Do they relate to the type of transactions you need to conduct or a situational element like the weather or time of day? Are you influenced by your feelings of liking (or disliking) human contact in a banking context? Or is there some other explanation? What advice would you give to your bank for how to serve you better?

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understanding customer needs and concerns is important to ensure that the delivery system works well.

The Dramaturgy of Service Delivery
As we've pointed out earlier, the theater is a good metaphor for services because service delivery consists of a series of events that customers experience as a performance.22 It's a particularly useful approach for high-contact service providers (e.g., physicians, educators, restaurants, and hotels) and for businesses that serve many people simultaneously rather than providing individualized service (e.g., professional sports, hospitals, and entertainment). Figure 3.6 shows the relative importance of theatrical dimensions for different types of service businesses. As you can see, watch repair services have very few front stage theatrical components compared to services like airlines and spectator sports. Service facilities contain the stage on which the drama unfolds. Sometimes the setting changes from one act to another (e.g., w h e n airline passengers move from the entrance to the terminal to the check-in stations and then on to the boarding lounge and finally step inside the aircraft). T h e stage may have minimal "props," as in a typical post office, or elaborate scenery, as in some modern resort hotels. Many service dramas are tightly scripted (as in the way that service is delivered in a formal restaurant setting), while others are improvisational in nature (like teaching a university class). Some services are more ritualized than others. In highly structured environments like dental services, "blocking" may define how the actors (in this case, receptionists, dental hygienists, technicians, and dentists) should move relative to the stage (the dentist's office), items of scenery (furniture and equipment), and other actors. N o t all service providers require customers to attend performances at the c o m pany's "theater." In many instances, the customer's own facilities provide the stage where the service employees perform with their props. For example, outside accountants are often hired to provide specialized services at a client's site. (While this may be convenient for customers, it isn't always very appealing for the "visiting accountants," w h o

sometimes find themselves housed in rat-infested basements or inventorying frozen food for hours in a cold storage locker! 23 ) Telecommunication linkages offer an alternative performance environment, allowing customers to be involved in the drama from a remote location—a delivery option long awaited by those traveling accountants, w h o would probably much prefer to work for their clients from the comfort of their own offices via modems and computers. Front stage personnel are members of a cast, playing roles as actors in a drama, and supported by a backstage production team. In some instances, they are expected to wear special costumes when on stage (like the protective clothing—traditionally white—worn by dental professionals, the fanciful uniforms often worn by hotel doormen, or the more basic brown ones worn by UPS drivers) .When service employees wear distinctive apparel, they stand out from personnel at other firms. In this respect, uniform designs can be seen as a form of packaging that provides physical evidence of brand identity. In many service companies, the choice of uniform design and colors is carefully integrated with other corporate design elements. Many front stage employees must conform to both a dress code and grooming standards (e.g., Disney's rule that employees can't wear beards). Depending on the nature of their work, employees may be required to learn and repeat specific lines ranging from announcements in several languages to a singsong sales spiel (just think of the last telemarketer w h o called you!) to a parting salutation of "Have a nice day!"Just like the theater, companies often use scripting to define actors' behavior as well as their lines. Eye contact, smiles, and handshakes may be required in addition to a spoken greeting. McDonald's has an extensive handbook that prescribes employee behavior worldwide—even down to the width of the smile, according to some who've worked in the shadow of the golden arches. O t h e r rules of conduct may include bans on smoking, eating and drinking, or gum chewing while on duty.

Role and Script Theories
Role and script theories offer some interesting insights for service providers. If we view service delivery as a theatrical experience, then both employees and customers act out their parts in the performance according to predetermined roles. Roles Grove and Fisk define a role as "a set of behavior patterns learned through experience and communication, to be performed by an individual in a certain social interaction in order to attain maximum effectiveness in goal accomplishment." 25 Roles have also been defined as combinations of social cues, or expectations of society, that guide behavior in a specific setting or context. 2 6 In service encounters, employees and customers each have roles to play. T h e satisfaction of both parties depends on role c o n g r u e n c e , or the extent to which each person acts out his or her prescribed role during a service encounter. Employees must perform their roles to customer expectations or risk dissatisfying or losing customers all together. And customers, too, must "play by the rules," or they risk causing problems for the firm, its employees, and even other customers. Scripts are sequences of behavior that both employees and customers are expected to learn and follow during service delivery. Scripts are learned through experience, education, and communication with others. 2 7 M u c h like a movie script, a service script provides detailed actions that customers and employees are expected to perform. The more experience a customer has with a service company, the more familiar the script becomes. Any deviations from this known script may frustrate both customers and employees and can lead to high levels of dissatisfaction. If a company decides to change a service script (e.g., by using technology to turn a high-contact service into a low-contact one), service personnel and customers should be educated about the new script and the benefits it provides. Some scripts are highly structured and allow service employees to move through their duties quickly and efficiently (e.g., flight attendants' scripts for economy class).This role: a combination of social cues that guides behavior in a specific setting or context.

role congruence: the extent to which both customers and employees act out their prescribed roles during a service encounter. scripts: learned sequences of behaviors obtained through personal experience or communications with others.

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FIGURE 3.7
Script for Teeth Cleaning and Simple Dental Exam

approach helps to overcome two of the inherent challenges facing service firms—how to reduce variability and ensure uniform quality. T h e risk is that frequent repetition may lead to mindless service delivery that ignores customers' needs. N o t all services involve tightly scripted performances. For providers of highly customized services—like doctors, educators, hair stylists, or consultants—the service script is flexible and may vary by situation and by customer. W h e n customers are new to a service, they may not k n o w what to expect and may be fearful of behaving incorrectly. Organizations should be ready to educate new customers about their roles in service delivery, since inappropriate behaviors can disrupt service delivery and make customers feel embarrassed and uncomfortable. A well-planned script should provide a full description of the service encounter and can help identify potential or existing problems in a specific service process. Figure

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3.7 shows a script for teeth cleaning and a simple dental examination, involving three players—the patient, the receptionist, and the dental hygienist. Each has a specific role to play. In this instance, the script is driven primarily by the need to execute a technical task both proficiently and safely (note the mask and gloves). T h e core service of examining and cleaning teeth can only be accomplished satisfactorily if the patient cooperates in an experience that is at best neutral and at worst uncomfortable or even painful. Several script elements refer to information flows. Confirming appointments avoids delays for customers and ensures effective use of dental professionals' time. Obtaining patient histories and documenting analysis and treatment are vital for maintaining c o m plete dental records and also for accurate billing. Payment on receipt of treatment improves cash flow and avoids the problem of bad debts. Adding greetings, statements of thanks, and good-byes displays friendly good manners and helps to humanize what most people see as a slightly unpleasant experience. By examining existing scripts, service managers may discover ways to modify the nature of customer and employee roles to improve service delivery, increase productivity, and enhance the nature of the customer's experience. As service delivery procedures evolve in response to new technology or other factors, revised scripts may need to be developed.

Service Marketing System
In addition to the service delivery system described above, other elements also contribute to the customer's overall view of a service business.These include communication efforts by the advertising and sales departments, telephone calls and letters from service personnel, billings from the accounting department, random exposures to service personnel and facilities, news stories and editorials in the mass media, word-of-mouth comments from current or former customers, and even participation in market research studies. Collectively, the components just cited—plus those in the service delivery system—add up to what we call the service marketing system. This represents all the different ways the customer may encounter or learn about the organization in question. Because services are experiential, each of these elements offers clues about the nature and quality of the service product. Inconsistency b e t w e e n different elements may weaken the organization's credibility in the customers' eyes. Figure 3.8 depicts the

F I G U R E 3.8
The Service Marketing System for a High-Contact Service

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FIGURE

3.9

T h e Service Marketing System for a Low-Contact Service

service marketing system for a high-contact service like a hotel, dental office, or fullservice restaurant. As you k n o w from your o w n experience, the scope and structure of the service m a r k e t i n g system often vary sharply from o n e type of organization to a n o t h e r . Figure 3.9 shows h o w things change w h e n we are dealing with a low-contact service, such as a credit card account. T h e significance of this approach to conceptualizing service creation and delivery is that it represents the customer's view, looking at the service business from the outside, as opposed to an internally focused operations perspective.

Physical Evidence
Many service performances are hard to evaluate. As a result, customers often look for tangible clues about the nature of the service. For instance, what impression is created in your mind if you see a damaged vehicle belonging to an express delivery service broken down by the side of the road? Or observe a poorly g r o o m e d flight attendant traveling to (or from) the airport wearing a frayed and dirty uniform? Or visit a friend in a hospital where the grounds and buildings are beautifully maintained, the interior decor cheerful rather than institutional, and the friendly staff wearing smart, spotlessly clean uniforms? Physical evidence provides clues about service quality, and in some cases it will strongly influence h o w customers (especially inexperienced ones) evaluate the service.Thus managers need to think carefully about the nature of the physical evidence provided to customers by the service marketing system. We'll be addressing this elem e n t of the 8Ps in more depth in Chapters 8 and 10, but Table 3.2 provides an initial checklist of the main tangible and c o m m u n i c a t i o n elements to w h i c h customers might be exposed. Of course, the n u m b e r of elements that are visible will vary depending on w h e t h e r service delivery involves high or low customer contact. In low-contact services, additional physical evidence may be c o m m u n i c a t e d through advertising, using video footage on TV or printed illustrations in newspapers, magazines, or brochures.

TABLE 3.2
Tangible Elements and Communication Components in the Service Marketing System

THE CUSTOMER AS COPRODUCER
In some service environments, customers play a relatively passive role, waiting to be served. So long as they can state their needs clearly and pay promptly when billed, they play a minimal role in the process of service delivery (think about leaving clothes at a laundry). But sometimes customers are expected to actively participate in the production process—one of the distinctive features of service management that we noted in Chapter 1. Customer participation refers to the actions and resources supplied by customers during service production a n d / o r delivery; it includes customers' mental, physical, and emotional inputs. 2 8 Table 3.3 illustrates the differing levels of participation required of customers across an array of service businesses.

Service Firms as Teachers
Although service providers attempt to design the ideal level of customer participation into the service delivery system, in reality it is customers' actions that determine the actual amount of participation. Underparticipation causes customers to experience a decrease in service benefits (a student learning less or a dieter losing less weight). If customers overparticipate, they may cause the firm to spend more resources customizing a service than was originally intended (a request for customization of a hamburger at a fast-food restaurant). Service businesses must teach their customers what roles to play to optimize participation levels during service production and consumption. The more work that customers are expected to do, the greater their need for information about how to perform for best results. T h e necessary education can be provided in many different ways. Brochures and posted instructions are two widely used approaches. Automated machines often contain detailed operating instructions and diagrams (unfortunately, these are sometimes only intelligible to the engineers w h o wrote them).Thoughtful banks place a telephone beside their ATMs so that customers can call a real person for help and advice at any time if they are confused about the on-screen instructions. Advertising for new services often contains significant educational content.

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TABLE 3.3
Levels of Customer Participation Across Different Services

Low (Customer Presence Required During Service Delivery) Products are standardized Service is provided regardless of any individual purchase Payment may be the only required customer input

Moderate (Customer Inputs Required for Service Creation) Client inputs customize a standard service Provision of service requires customer purchase Customer inputs (information, materials) are necessary for an adequate outcome, but the service firm provides the service

High (Customer Coproduces the Service Product) Active client participation guides the customized service Service cannot be created apart from the customer's purchase and active participation Customer inputs are mandatory and coproduce the outcome

service preview: a demonstration of how a service works to educate customers about the roles they are expected to perform in service delivery.

In many businesses, customers look to employees for advice and assistance and are frustrated if they can't obtain it. Service providers, ranging from sales assistants and customer service representatives to flight attendants and nurses, must be trained to help them improve their teaching skills. As a last resort, people may turn to other customers for help. Schneider and Bowen suggest giving customers a realistic service preview in advance of service delivery to provide them with a clear picture of the role they will play in service coproduction. For example, a company might show a video presentation to help customers understand their role in the service encounter.This technique is used by some dentists to help patients understand the surgical processes they are about to experience and indicate how they should cooperate to help make things go as smoothly as possible.

Customers as Partial Employees
Some researchers argue that firms should view customers as "partial employees," w h o can influence the productivity and quality of service processes and outputs. 3 0 This perspective requires a change in management mindset, as Schneider and Bowen make clear: If you think of customers as partial employees, you begin to think very differently about what you hope customers will bring to the service encounter. Now they must bring not only expectations and needs but also relevant service production competencies that will enable them to fill the role of partial employees. The service management challenge deepens accordingly. Schneider and B o w e n suggest that customers w h o are offered an opportunity to participate at an active level are more likely to be satisfied—regardless of whether or not they actually choose the more active role—because they like to be offered a choice. Managing customers as partial employees requires using the same human resource strategy as managing a firm's paid employees and should follow these four steps: 1. Conduct a "job analysis" of customers' present roles in the business and compare it against the roles that the firm would like them to play. 2. Determine if customers are aware of h o w they are expected to perform and have the skills needed to perform as required.

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3. Motivate customers by ensuring that they will be rewarded for performing well (e.g., satisfaction from better quality and more customized output, enjoyment of participating in the actual process, a belief that their own productivity speeds the process and keeps costs down). 4. Regularly appraise customers' performance. If it is unsatisfactory, seek to change their roles and the procedures in which they are involved. Alternatively, consider "terminating" these customers (nicely, of course!) and look for new ones. Effective human resource management starts with recruitment and selection. T h e same approach should hold true for "partial employees." So if coproduction requires specific skills, firms should target their marketing efforts to recruit new customers w h o have the competency to perform the necessary tasks. 32 After all, many colleges do just this in their student selection process!

Conclusion
Service encounters cover a spectrum from high contact to low contact. Their position on this spectrum is often determined by the nature of the operational processes used in service creation and delivery. W i t h the growing trend to deliver information-based services through electronic channels, many service encounters are shifting to a lowercontact mode, with important implications for the nature of the customer experience. In all types of services, understanding and managing service encounters between customers and service personnel are central to creating satisfied customers w h o are willing to enter into long-term relationships with the service provider. Critical incidents occur when some aspect of the service encounter is particularly satisfactory or unsatisfactory. Service businesses can be divided into three overlapping systems. T h e operations system consists of the personnel, facilities, and equipment required to run the service operation and create the service product. Only part of this system, called "front stage," is visible to the customer.The delivery system incorporates the visible operations elements and the customers, w h o sometimes take an active role in helping to create the service product as opposed to being passively waited on. T h e higher the level of contact, the more we can apply theatrical analogies to the process of "staging" service delivery in which employees and customers play roles, often following well-defined scripts. In high-contact services, customers are exposed to many more tangible clues and experiences than they are in medium-contact and low-contact situations. Finally, the marketing system includes not only the delivery system, which is essentially composed of the product and distribution elements of the traditional marketing mix, but also additional components such as billing and payment systems, exposure to advertising and sales p e o ple, and word-of-mouth comments from other people. In some instances, customers act as service coproducers, or "partial employees," whose performance will affect the productivity and quality of output. U n d e r these circumstances, service managers must be sure to educate and train customers so that they have the skills needed to perform well during all types of service encounters.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. What actions could a senior bank executive take to encourage more customers to bank by phone, mail, Internet, or through ATMs rather than visiting a branch? 2. What are the backstage elements of (a) an insurance company, (b) a car repair facility, (c) a hotel, (d) an airline, (e) a university, (f) a funeral home, (g) a consulting firm, (h) a television station? Under what circumstances would it be appropriate to allow customers to see some of these backstage elements and how would you do it?

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3. W h a t roles are played by front stage service personnel in low-contact organizations? Are these roles more or less important to customer satisfaction than in high-contact services? 4. Use Figures 3.8 and 3.9, plus Table 3.2, to develop a profile of the service marketing system for a variety of services—hospital, airline, consulting engineer or legal service, college, hotel, dry cleaner, credit union, automobile service center, or post office. (You can base your profiles on your own experience or interview other customers.) 5. W h a t is the difference between a m o m e n t of truth, a service encounter, and a critical incident? 6. Describe a critical incident that you have experienced with a self-service technology during service delivery. If your incident was dissatisfying, what could the service provider have done to improve the situation? 7. R e v i e w Figure 3.3. As a manager, how would you try to prevent future recurrence of the 12 unsatisfactory incidents? (Hint: Consider the underlying cause of the problem for each incident and possible reasons for the inappropriate response that upset the customer.) 8. Develop two different customer scripts, one for a standardized service and one for a customized service. W h a t are the key differences between the two? 9. Define the term "partial employee" and describe three recent situations in which you were engaged in such a role.

Customer Behavior in Service Environments
Understanding Technology Users— From Mouse Potatoes to Media Junkies
Delivering services through the Internet is an appealing strategy for many firms. However, not every prospective customer is enthusiastic about this concept.1 As the consumer market for technology grows, companies selling products from cellular phones to Internet services are struggling to understand who their customers are and what motivates them to buy. The failure of some highly publicized high-tech goods and services, such as Kodak's PhotoCD and Web TV, has convinced many marketers that new approaches are needed to help us understand what makes technology users tick (or not tick, as the case may be). For instance, traditional consumer research may identify who bought a computer, but it won't specify which of four different household members use it and for what purposes. Delivery of many information-based services depends not only upon customers having access to relevant equipment—such as computers, cell phones, and PDAs—but also on customers being willing and able to use it to access the services in question. Consequently, market researchers have been working to determine whether the purchase process is different for such goods and services and to examine how people actually use information technology in their home and work environments. Forrester Research Inc., a technology consulting firm based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has created a subscription research service called Technographics that processes continuous survey data from more than 375,000 online and off-line households in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Forrester asks consumers about their motivations, buying habits, and financial ability to buy technologyrelated goods and services. Many big-name service providers, like Sprint, Visa, and Bank of America, are willing to pay handsomely to receive the results of these surveys. "Technology is not just changing the way consumers spend time," says Technographics client Gil Fuchsberg. "It's also changing the way nearly every company is making, selling, and delivering products." To help companies identify the right target customers, Forrester has defined 10 "technographical" categories ranging from the techcrazy "Fast Forwards" to the disinterested "Sidelined Citizens." To get an idea of how this segmentation scheme works, consider the Williams family. Cindy, age 46, is an administrative secretary in Tulsa, Oklahoma. She and her husband Gary, 44, have one computer they bought three years ago. They don't use this computer much themselves and are not connected to the Internet (which makes them unable to access online services). Their sons, ages 11 and 12, would like an upgraded PC that is better for the computer-based games they love, but their parents have no plans to get one. Because of the Williams' status and income—two traditional segmentation variables—many researchers might identify them as promising technology buyers. But Forrester maintains such a conclusion would be misleading because it fails to take into account the family's priorities as revealed through their behavior. The firm believes that any high-tech firm attempting to market sophisticated products to a family such as the Williams would be wasting its money. Technographics classifies the Williams as "Traditionalists"—family-oriented buyers who could afford

new technology-based products but are not convinced that they're worth buying. Why would the Williams be Traditionalists? The age of their computer (three years old is ancient by tech standards) and the lack of an Internet connection are two big clues. On the basis of this information, marketers of high-tech goods and services might decide to bypass the Williams in spite of their promising demographic profile.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to ==£> recall the principles of segmentation, particularly as they relate to customer behavior =£> describe the three different types of attributes that consumers use to evaluate products and how they relate to service offerings discuss why service characteristics like intangibility and quality control problems affect consumer evaluation processes describe the relationship between customer expectations and customer satisfaction explain the purchase process for services construct a simple flowchart showing a service process from the customers perspective

=^>

^>

=£> =£>

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market segmentation: the process of dividing a market into different groups within which all customers share relevant characteristics that distinguish them from customers in other segments. segment: a group of current or prospective customers who share common characteristics, needs, purchasing behavior, or consumption patterns.

FOCUSING ON THE RIGHT CUSTOMERS
In this chapter, we continue to address the question, Who are our customers and how should we relate to them? We start by building on our opening vignette with a further discussion of m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n (see Figure 4.1 for a depiction of Forrester Research's Technographics approach) and then look at h o w people evaluate, purchase, and use services. More and more, firms are trying to decide which types of customers they can serve well and make loyal, rather than trying to be all things to all people. However, relatively few service businesses can survive by serving just a single s e g m e n t , especially if, like hotels, airlines, and restaurants, they have a lot of capacity to fill, hour after hour and day after day during different seasons of the year. Managers facing this problem need to be creative and try to attract new segments that will fit well with the firm's capabilities.

FIGURE 4.1
Segmenting Customers Relative to Technology Use

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We hear the t e r m "mass marketing" less and less these days. Instead the talk is of "focus" or " t a r g e t i n g " or " m a s s c u s t o m i z a t i o n . " U n d e r l y i n g such terms is the notion of market segmentation, which calls for dividing any given market into distinctive groups or segments. Segmentation is a key concept in marketing, so if you have not previously taken a marketing course, please review the key aspects of segmentation in the box on pages 78—79. As service providers explore innovative alternatives to creating and delivering services, especially those relating to the Internet and automated machines, they are discov-

mass customization: offering a service with some individualized product elements to a large number of customers at a relatively low price.

Attracting Older Passengers at Southwest Airlines
Like most airlines, Southwest Airlines can divide its passengers into two broad groups: business travelers and leisure travelers. Although business travelers fly far more frequently than most leisure travelers, the latter help fill the aircraft outside commuting hours and enable Southwest to offer more frequent service at lower prices. A significant target segment within the broad leisure group is older customers, who are growing in numbers as the population ages and has the time and inclination to travel—and can afford to do so at Southwest's very low fares. However, many senior citizens are not experienced flyers. In fact, some have never flown before in their lives. To encourage these people to fly, Southwest has created a brochure titled "Travel Tips for Seniors" (see the reproduced cover), which is educational in nature rather than promotional. It begins by pointing out that the airline offers special fares to people aged 65 and older, then continues with bullet-pointed tips on Packing and Travel, Making Reservations, Checking In, and Travel Talk Language. The brochure concludes with a map of the United States, showing the cities that Southwest serves, plus the head office address, the airline's toll-free phone number, and its Web site address. Through such efforts, the airline seeks to demystify air travel; help older people prepare for a journey by air; and explain each step in what is, for an inexperienced traveler, a relatively complex process. The brochure also explains the terms commonly used in airline travel, many of which (such as preboardor gate agent) are not often heard outside an airport. In this way, older travelers will know what to expect and—equally important—what is expected of them. Knowledge reduces anxiety, thus eliminating one of the barriers to trying something new. To the extent that readers of the brochure appreciate the advice, try a flight on Southwest, and enjoy it, the airline can expect to create loyal customers and stimulate positive word of mouth.

SOUTHWEST AIRLINES
TRAVEL TIPS FOR SENIORS

Dreaming of jetting away to explore the history and fun of these United States? Southwest Airlines would like to make getting away as easy and fun as possible for those age 65 or over by offering some travel tips to Seniors who are keen on life and life's adventures!

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ering that not all customers are equally receptive to new technologies.This situation has led to development of segmentation schemes based on how willing and able customers are to use the latest technologies, as illustrated by our discussion of the Technographics framework developed by Forrester Research. An individual's behavior often reflects personal attitudes and beliefs. Recent research by Parasuraman shows that certain personal characteristics are associated with customer readiness to accept new technologies. These attributes include innovativeness, a positive view of technology, and a belief that technology offers increased control, flexibility, and efficiency in people's lives. Factors that are negatively associated with the adoption of technology include distrust, a perceived lack of control, feelings of being overwhelmed by technology, and skepticism about whether the technology will perform satisfactorily. Service providers must consider these factors before implementing new technologies that may negatively affect customers' evaluations of the service experience.

UNDERSTANDING CUSTOMER NEEDS AND EXPECTATIONS
needs: subconscious, deeply felt desires that often concern long-term existence and identity issues. Customers buy goods and services to meet specific needs, and they evaluate the outcomes of their purchases based on what they expect to receive. Needs, which may represent a useful basis for segmentation, are often deeply rooted in people's unconscious minds and may concern long-term existence and identity issues. When people feel a need, they are motivated to take action to fulfill it. In many instances, purchase of a good or service may be seen as offering the best solution to meeting a particular need. Subsequently, consumers may compare what they received against what they expected, especially if it cost them money, time, or effort that could have been devoted to obtaining an alternative solution.

Review of Principles of Market Segmentation
~~
Market segmentation is central to almost any professionally planned and executed marketing'program. The concept of segmentation recognizes that customers and prospects within a market vary across a variety of dimensions and that not every segment constitutes a desirable target for the firm's marketing efforts. Market segments. A segment is composed of a group of current and potential customers who share common characteristics, needs, purchasing behavior, or consumption patterns. Effective segmentation should group buyers into segments in ways that result in as much similarity as possible on the relevant characteristics within each segment but dissimilarity on those same characteristics between each segment. Two broad categories of variables are useful in describing the differences between segments. The first deals with user characteristics, the second with usage behavior. User characteristics may vary from one person to another, reflecting demographic characteristics (e.g., age, income, and education), geographic location, and psychographics (the attitudes, values, lifestyles, and opinions of decision makers and users). Another important variable is the specific benefits that individuals and corporate purchasers seek from consuming a particular good or service. Usage behavior relates to how a product is purchased and used. Among such variables are when and where purchase and consumption take place, the quantities consumed ("heavy users" are always of particular interest to marketers), frequency and purpose of use, the occasions under which consumption takes place (sometimes referred to as "occasion segmentation"), and sensitivity to such marketing variables as advertising, pricing, speed and other service features, and availability of alternative delivery systems. Target segment. After evaluating different segments in the market, a firm should focus its marketing efforts by targeting one

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Types of Needs
Abraham Maslow identified five categories of human needs—physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization—and proposed that basic needs like food and shelter must be met before others can be fulfilled.3 Although poverty, malnutrition, and lack of housing remain pressing issues around the world, including N o r t h America, physiological needs have long ceased to be the sole issue for most residents of advanced industrialized countries like the United States and Canada. Greater prosperity means that increasing numbers of individuals are seeking to satisfy social and self-actualization needs. These needs create demand for more sophisticated goods and services. For instance, travel and leisure services have been a major beneficiary of increased disposable income, leading many firms to develop a variety of enticing vacation packages. However, as customer needs and preferences continue to evolve, the leisure industry needs to adapt its offerings accordingly. In N o r t h America, as in other highly developed regions of the world, there is evidence that many consumers are reaching the point where they have most of the physical goods they want and are n o w turning to services to fill new or still unmet needs. Increased spending on m o r e elaborate vacations, sports, e n t e r t a i n m e n t , restaurant meals, and other service experiences is assuming greater priority, even at the expense of spending slightly less on physical goods. According to Daniel Bethamy of American Express, consumers want "memorable experiences, not gadgets." 4 This shift in c o n sumer behavior and attitudes provides opportunities for those service companies that understand and meet changing needs, continuing to adapt their offerings over time as needs evolve. For example, some astute service providers have capitalized on the increased interest in extreme sports by offering services like guided mountain climbs, paragliding, white water rafting trips, and mountain biking adventures. And new financial services (like online investment brokers) have been introduced to cash in on consumers' willingness to risk their financial futures by trading in the stock market. 5 T h e notion of service experiences also extends to business and industrial situations; con-

or more segments that fit well with the firm's capabilities and goals. Target segments are often defined on the basis of several variables. For instance, a hotel in a particular city might target prospective guests who shared such user characteristics as (1) traveling on business (demographic segmentation), (2) visiting clients within a defined area around the hotel (geographic segmentation), and (3) willing to pay a certain daily room rate (user response). Issues for research. When studying the marketplace, service marketers should be looking for answers to such questions as: >• In what useful ways can the market for our firm's service be segmented? >• What are the needs of the specific segments that we have identified? >- Which of these segments best fits both our institutional mission and our current operational capabilities?

>- What do customers in each segment see as our firm's competitive advantages and disadvantages? Are the latter correctable? >- In light of this analysis, which specific segment(s) should we target? >• How should we differentiate our marketing efforts from those of the competition to attract and retain the types of customers that we want? *- What is the long-term financial value to us of a loyal customer in each of the segments that we currently serve (and those that we would like to serve)? >• How should our firm build long-term relationships with customers from the target segments? And what strategies are needed to create long-term loyalty?

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sider the example of m o d e r n trade shows where exhibitors, including manufacturers, set out to engage the customer's interest through interactive presentations and even entertainment. 6

Expectations and How They Are Formed
expectations: internal standards that customers use to judge the quality of a service experience. Customers' expectations about what constitutes good service vary from one business to another. For example, although accounting and veterinary surgery are both professional services, the experience of meeting an accountant to talk about your tax returns tends to be very different from visiting a vet to get treatment for your sick pet. Expectations are also likely to vary in relation to differently positioned service providers in the same industry. While travelers expect no-frills service for a short domestic flight

Club Med Responds to Changing Customer Needs
When Gilbert Trigano launched "Club Med" in the 1950s, the concept of holiday villages, offering limitless food and innumerable sporting activities in splendid natural surroundings at a single price, was unique. It also reflected a significant change in social behavior. Trigano recognized the emergence of a new, younger segment among French and other European consumers, who were influenced by growing affluence and American values rather than traditional formality. The Club Med concept provided an attractive form of escapism with its informality and friendly customer service from an enthusiastic staff. The atmosphere attracted a crowd that was primarily young, affluent, educated, and single. These people enjoyed sports, travel, and exotic locations. It was a burgeoning market. By the late 1960s, Club Med, with its communal lifestyle— which included shared huts, group activities, and large dining tables designed to break down social barriers between guests— had captured the spirit of the times. In the 1970s and 1980s, as standards of living and status-seeking behavior continued to grow, leisure became a much more important part of people's lives. Club Med opened villages around the world and epitomized the ultimate leisure experience: a relatively expensive holiday, either at the beach or at winter ski villages in the mountains. Yet 10 years later, problems began to emerge. The group's financial situation weakened and there was widespread criticism that the "Club concept" had become outdated. Critics claimed that younger people were now more individualistic and no longer valued the kinds of group activities for which Club Med was renowned. Finding new young customers was becoming harder and harder. Meantime, the Club's most loyal customers had grown older and had different interests and needs. Rather than seeking ways to have fun as "swinging singles," these guests were concerned about what to do with their children on vacation. They were also interested in achieving a healthy lifestyle, including nutritious food, low-impact exercises, and other ways to restore physical and emotional well-being. By 1990, the conspicuous consumption of the 1980s was also giving way to more emphasis on value for money. The emergence of low-price, all-inclusive holiday package tours was eroding Club Med's traditional customer base, yet the Club had not lowered its own prices in response. After huge losses in 1996, the Trigano family was ousted from the daily running of the company, and Philippe Bourguignon—who had turned Disneyland Paris around—was brought in to revive the Club. In his words, "Club Med has tried to be everything for everyone. But you have to make choices " His plan was to enhance value for money, attract a younger clientele, and extend the vacation season by providing services such as entertainment, sports, and cafes throughout the year rather than simply during an annual holiday. His approach was aimed at meeting the needs of two very different kinds of segments—the younger, value-conscious market that Club Med had not yet succeeded in winning over and the mature group of customers who had been the backbone of Club Med's past success but whose loyalty was now at risk. To meet the needs of younger consumers, Bourguignon immediately closed several unprofitable villages and converted a number of others into lower-priced camps branded as "Club Aquarius."The traditional Club Med concept has been redesigned in order to be more responsive to the "creature comfort" requirements of older, existing customers. Many Club Med resorts now cater to families and have special activities to keep children occupied while parents enjoy a much-needed jog on the beach or a massage in the spa.

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on a discount carrier, they would undoubtedly be very dissatisfied with that same level of service on a full-service airline flying from Los Angeles to Sydney, or from Toronto to Paris, even in economy class. Consequently, it's very important for marketers to understand customer expectations of their own firm's service offerings—especially as they relate to specific product elements. W h e n individual customers or corporate purchasing department employees evaluate the quality of a service, they may be judging it against some internal standard that existed prior to the service experience. 7 Perceived service quality results from customers c o m p a r i n g the service they perceive they have received against what they expected to receive. People's expectations about services tend to be strongly influenced by their own prior experience as customers—with a particular service provider, with competing services in the same industry, or with related services in different industries. If they have no relevant prior experience, customers may base their prepurchase expectations on factors like word-of-mouth comments, news stories, or the firm's marketing efforts. O v e r time, certain n o r m s develop for w h a t to expect from service providers within a given industry. As we discussed in Chapter 3, roles and scripts help reinforce these expectations for both customers and service employees. N o r m s are also affected by customer experiences and supplier-controlled factors like advertising, pricing, and the physical appearance of the service facility and its employees. For example, Americans don't expect to be greeted by a doorman and a valet at a Motel 6, but they certainly do at a R i t z - C a r l t o n hotel, w h e r e service levels are k n o w n to be m u c h higher. C u s t o m e r expectations may also vary from one industry to another, reflecting industry reputations and past experience. In many countries, people have lower expectations of government service providers than they do of private companies. Expectations may even vary within different demographic groups (e.g., between men and women, older and younger consumers, or blue- versus white-collar workers).To make things more complicated, expectations also differ from country to country. For instance, while it may be acceptable and unsurprising for a train to arrive several hours late in some countries, rail schedules are so precise in Switzerland that the margin for error is measured in seconds.

The Components of Customer Expectations
Customer expectations embrace several different elements, including desired service, adequate service, predicted service, and a zone of tolerance that falls between the desired and adequate service levels. 8 T h e model shown in Figure 4.2 shows how expectations for desired service and adequate service are formed. Desired and A d e q u a t e S e r v i c e Levels T h e type of service customers hope to receive is termed desired service. It is a "wished for" level—a combination of what customers believe can and should be delivered in the context of their personal needs. However, most customers are realistic and understand that companies can't always deliver the level of service they would prefer; hence, they also have a threshold level of expectations, t e r m e d a d e q u a t e service, w h i c h is defined as the m i n i m u m level of service customers will accept without being dissatisfied. A m o n g the factors that set this expectation are situational factors affecting service performance and the level of service that might be anticipated from alternative suppliers. T h e levels of b o t h desired and adequate service expectations may reflect explicit and implicit promises by the provider, w o r d - o f - m o u t h c o m m e n t s , and the customer's past experience (if any) w i t h this organization. 9

desired service: the "wished for" level of service quality that a customer believes can and should be delivered. adequate service: the minimum level of service that a customer will accept without being dissatisfied.

predicted service: the level of service quality a customer believes a firm will actually deliver.

P r e d i c t e d S e r v i c e Level T h e level of service that customers actually anticipate receiving is k n o w n as p r e d i c t e d s e r v i c e , which directly affects h o w they define "adequate service" on that occasion. If good service is predicted, the adequate level will be higher than if poorer service is predicted. Customer predictions of service may be situation specific. For example, from past experience, customers visiting a museum on a summer day may expect to see larger crowds if the weather is poor than if the sun is shining. So a 10-minute "wait to buy tickets on a cool, rainy day in summer might not fall below their adequate service level. Z o n e of T o l e r a n c e T h e inherent nature of services makes consistent service delivery difficult across employees in the same company and even by the same service employee from one day to another. T h e extent to which customers are willing to accept this variation is called the z o n e of tolerance (shown in Figure 4.2). A performance that falls below the adequate service level will cause frustration and dissatisfaction, whereas o n e that exceeds the desired service level will b o t h please and surprise customers, creating the "customer delight" that we discussed earlier in this chapter. Another way of looking at the zone of tolerance is to think of it as the range of service within which customers don't pay explicit attention to service performance. When service falls outside this range, customers will react either positively or negatively. T h e zone of tolerance can increase or decrease for individual customers depending on factors like competition, price, or importance of specific service attributes. These factors most often affect adequate service levels (which may move up or d o w n in response to situational factors), while desired service levels tend to move up very slowly in response to accumulated customer experiences. Consider a small-business owner w h o needs some advice from her accountant. H e r ideal level of professional service may be a thoughtful response by the next business day. But if she makes the request at the time of year w h e n all accountants are busy preparing corporate and individual tax returns, she will probably k n o w from experience not to expect a fast response. Although her ideal service level probably won't change, her zone of tolerance for response time may be much broader because she has a lower adequate service threshold.

zone of tolerance: the range within which customers are willing to accept variations in service delivery.

HOW CUSTOMERS EVALUATE SERVICE PERFORMANCES
Service performances—especially those that contain few tangible clues—can be difficult for consumers to evaluate. As a result, there is a greater risk of making a purchase that proves to be disappointing. If a customer buys a physical good that proves unsatisfactory, the product can usually be returned or replaced—although this action may require extra effort on the customer's part. These options are not as readily available with services, although some services can be repeated. Consider the four process-based categories of service introduced in Chapter 2. In the case of possession-processing services, repeating the performance may be an acceptable option. For example, a cleaning service can reclean an office if a customer complains about the quality of the job. By contrast, people-processing services that are performed on people's bodies may be hard to reverse. A bad haircut must be grown out, and the consequences of a faulty surgical operation or a poorly done tattoo may last a lifetime. Mental stimulus-processing services like education, live entertainment, or sporting events can also be difficult to "replace" if quality does not meet customers' expectations. Theatergoers cannot realistically ask for their money back if actors perform their roles poorly or the script is bad. Sports fans can't expect refunds if their favorite team plays badly. (But they do find ways of letting the players know of their dissatisfaction! O n e university recently prohibited people from booing in the football stadium w h e n the home team was playing poorly.) Similarly, universities don't usually compensate students for poor quality classroom experiences. Even if a college let dissatisfied students repeat classes free of charge with a different instructor, those students would still incur significant extra time and psychological costs. Finally, information-based services present risks for customers w h e n service quality is unsatisfactory. Banking or accounting errors may not be noticed until later, by which time damage may have been d o n e to a customer's reputation (e.g., a check was returned rather than paid, or a faulty tax return was filed). Customers w h o receive a questionable consulting r e c o m m e n d a t i o n or medical o p i n i o n have the o p t i o n of seeking a second opinion, but that will involve extra money, time, and even psychological costs.

A Continuum of Product Attributes
As we've pointed out, one of the basic differences between goods and services is that services are harder for customers to evaluate. We also briefly mentioned that product attributes could be divided into search, experience, and credence properties. 1 1 We'll expand on the concept of these three categories here, since they provide a useful framework for understanding how consumers evaluate different types of market offerings. All products can be placed on a continuum ranging from "easy to evaluate" to "difficult to evaluate" depending on whether they are high in search attributes, experience attributes, or credence attributes. As shown in Figure 4.3, most physical goods are located toward the left of the spectrum, with services to the middle or right. Search A t t r i b u t e s Physical goods tend to emphasize those attributes that allow customers to evaluate a product before purchasing it. Features like style, color, texture, taste, and sound allow prospective consumers to try out, taste test, or "test drive" the product prior to purchase. These tangible attributes help customers understand and evaluate what they will get in exchange for their m o n e y and reduce the sense of uncertainty or risk associated with the purchase occasion. Goods such as clothing, furniture, cars, electronic equipment, and foods are high in search attributes. product attributes: all features (both tangible and intangible) of a good or service that can be evaluated by customers.

experience attributes: product performance features that customers can only evaluate during service delivery.

E x p e r i e n c e Attributes W h e n attributes can't be evaluated prior to purchase, customers must "experience" the service to know what they are getting. Holidays, live entertainment performances, sporting events, and restaurants fall into the e x p e r i e n c e attributes category. Although people can examine brochures, scroll through Web sites describing the holiday destination, view travel films, or read reviews by travel experts, they can't really evaluate or feel the dramatic beauty associated with hiking in the Canadian Rockies or the magic of scuba diving in the Caribbean until they actually experience these activities. N o r can customers always rely on information from friends, family, or other personal sources when evaluating these and similar services, because different people may interpret or respond to the same stimuli in different ways. Think about your own experiences in following up on recommendations from friends to see a particular film. Although you probably walked into the theater with high expectations, you may have felt disappointed after viewing the film if you didn't like it as much as your friends did. Credence Attributes Product characteristics that customers find impossible to evaluate confidently even after purchase and consumption are k n o w n as c r e d e n c e attributes, because the customer is forced to trust that certain benefits have been delivered, even though it may be hard to document them. For example, relatively few people possess e n o u g h knowledge about financial markets to assess w h e t h e r their stockbroker got the best possible returns on their invested funds. Patients can't usually evaluate how well their dentists have performed complex dental procedures. And most college students must simply have faith that their professors are providing them with a worthwhile educational experience!

credence attributes: product characteristics that customers may not be able to evaluate even after purchase and consumption.

Strategic Responses to Difficulties in Evaluating Services
Most goods fall to the left of the continuum in Figure 4.3, since they are high in search properties. Most services, however, tend to be located from the center to the right of the continuum. T h e reason for this relates to two of the basic differences between goods and services that we discussed in Chapter 1: intangibility of service performances and vari-

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ability of inputs and outputs (which often leads to quality control problems). These characteristics present special challenges for service marketers, requiring them to find ways to reassure customers and reduce the perceived risks associated with buying and using services whose performance and value can't easily be predicted. Intangibility of S e r v i c e P e r f o r m a n c e s Marketers whose products are high in experience characteristics often try to provide m o r e search attributes for their customers. O n e approach is to offer a free trial. Some providers of online computer services have adopted this strategy. For example, A O L offers potential users a free software diskette and the chance to try its services without charge for a certain number of hours. This reduces customers' concerns about entering into a paid contract without first being able to test the service. A O L hopes that consumers will be "hooked" on its Web services by the end of the free trial period. Advertising is another way to help customers visualize service benefits. For instance, the only tangible thing credit card customers get directly from the company is a small plastic card, followed at monthly intervals by an account statement. But that's hardly the essence of the benefits provided by this low-contact service. Think about the credit card advertisements you've seen recently. Did they promote the card itself or did they feature exciting products you could purchase and exotic places to which you could travel by using your card? Such advertisements stimulate consumer interest by showing physical evidence of the benefits of credit card use. Providers of services that are high in credence characteristics have an even greater challenge. Their benefits may be so intangible that customers can't evaluate the quality of what they've received even after the service has been purchased and consumed. In this case, marketers often try to provide tangible cues to customers about their services. Professionals like doctors, architects, and lawyers often display their degrees and other certifications for the same reason—they want customers to "see" the credentials that qualify them to provide expert service. Many professional firms have developed Web sites to inform prospective clients about their services, highlight their expertise, and even showpiece successful past engagements. Variability and Quality Control P r o b l e m s T h e continuum of product attributes in Figure 4.3 also has implications for another distinguishing service characteristic—the degree of customer involvement in the production process. Products that are highest in search attributes are most often physical goods that are manufactured in a factory with no customer involvement, then purchased and consumed. Quality is much easier to control in this situation since the elements of production can be more closely monitored and failures spotted before the product reaches the customer. In fact, some manufacturers like Motorola claim to be able to guarantee product quality at the so-called six-sigma level— that is 99.999 percent! However, quality control for services that fall in the experience and credence ranges is complicated by customer involvement in production. Evaluations of such services may be affected by customers' interactions with the physical setting of the business, employees, and even other customers. For example, your experience of a haircut may c o m b i n e your impression of the hair salon, h o w well you can describe what you want to the stylist, the stylist's ability to understand and do what you've requested, and the appearance of the other customers and employees in the salon. Stylists note that it's difficult for them to do a good j o b if customers are uncooperative. Many credence services have few tangible characteristics and rely on the expertise of a professional service provider to provide a quality offering. In this case, providers must be able to interact with customers effectively to produce a satisfactory product. Problems can occur w h e n this interaction doesn't produce an outcome that meets customers' expectations, even though the service provider may not be at fault.

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Service providers must also work hard to maintain consistent levels of quality. This is more difficult w h e n production involves direct interaction with service employees, whose performances are likely to vary from one day to another. But customers don't want variations in quality, as Michael Flatley, the Irish founder, director, and lead dancer of Lord of the Dance knows. As he said once in a television interview, " T h e p e o ple w h o drive hundreds of miles to see this show . . . they don't want to k n o w I'm almost 39 . . . they don't want to k n o w my legs are sore . . . they don't want to k n o w I go h o m e and put my feet in ice.They just want to know that what they're seeing is the best show ever—tonight, not tomorrow night!" 1 2 Flatley's insistence on providing the best performance possible every time has produced results—his company achieves sold-out performances around the world, and audiences often show their appreciation by giving the dancers a standing ovation. He has recently moved from dancing to producing the shows, counting on the younger dancers to provide consistently thrilling performances.

Progressive Insurance Delights Its Customers
Progressive Insurance Corporation is one of the largest writers of private passenger auto insurance in the United States. The firm prides itself on providing extraordinary customer service—and its accomplishments in this area are impressive. Its industry-leading innovations have included Immediate Response, the first 24/7 claims service in the industry, and claims representatives traveling in Immediate Response Vehicles (introduced in 1994) that can come straight to the scene of an accident. Consider the following scenario. > The crash site in Tampa, Florida, was chaotic and tense. Two cars were damaged and although the passengers weren't bleeding, they were shaken up and scared. Lance Edgy, a senior claim representative for Progressive, arrived on the scene just minutes after the collision, bearing a clipboard, a camera, and a cassette recorder. He calmed the victims and advised them on medical care, repair shops, police reports, and legal procedures. Edgy then invited William McAllister, Progressive's policyholder, into an air-conditioned van equipped with comfortable chairs, a desk, and two cellular phones. Even before the tow trucks cleared away the wreckage, Edgy had offered his client a settlement for the market value of his totaled 1988 Mercury Topaz. McAllister, who did not appear to have been at fault in this accident, stated in amazement: "This is great—someone coming right out here and taking charge. I didn't expect it at all." Progressive Insurance continues to find new ways to delight its customers. Its Web site, progressive.com, recently won top honors for the second year in a row from G6mez.com (an Internet quality measurement firm). Progressive was cited for pleasantly surprising its customers with consumer-friendly innovations and extraordinary customer service. William McAllister, the unfortunate auto accident victim in the scenario described above, experienced something unusual. He was actually delighted at the service provided by his insurance company! But what is delight? Is it more than just a very high level of satisfaction? One view is that achieving delight requires focusing on what is currently unknown or unexpected by the customer. In short, it's more than just avoiding problems—the "zero defects" strategy. Managers of companies like Progressive that are known for their commitment to quality believe that satisfaction is not enough, making comments such as "we must take quality beyond customer satisfaction to customer delight" and "sheer survival means companies have to deliver more than customer satisfaction." The results of a research project done by Oliver, Rust, and Varki13 suggest that delight is a function of three components: (1) unexpectedly high levels of performance, (2) arousal (e.g., surprise, excitement), and (3) positive affect (e.g., pleasure, joy, or happiness). Satisfaction is a function of positively disconfirmed expectations (better than expected) and positive affect. These researchers ask "If delight is a function of surprisingly unexpected pleasure, is it possible for delight to be manifest in truly mundane services and products, such as newspaper delivery or trash collecting?"

How Perceived Quality Relates to Satisfaction
The terms "quality" and "satisfaction" are sometimes used interchangeably. But some researchers believe that perceived service quality is just one component of c u s t o m e r satisfaction, which also reflects price/quality trade-offs, and personal and situational factors. 14 Satisfaction can be defined as an attitude-like j u d g m e n t following a purchase act or a series of consumer product i n t e r a c t i o n s . 5 Most studies are based on the theory that the confirmation/disconfirmation of preconsumption product standards is the essential determinant of satisfaction. 16 This means that customers have certain service standards in mind prior to c o n s u m p t i o n (their expectations), observe service performance and compare it to their standards, and then form satisfaction judgments based upon this comparison. T h e resulting j u d g m e n t is labeled negative disconftrmation if the service is worse than expected, positive disconftrmation if better than expected, and simple confirmation if as expected. W h e n there is substantial positive disconfirmation, plus pleasure and an element of surprise, then customers are likely to be delighted. Having read the vignette about Progressive Insurance (see box), think about your own insurance provider—if you have o n e — a n d the kind of service you receive. Are you delighted with the service—or even satisfied? However, once customers have been delighted, their expectations are raised. T h e y will be dissatisfied if service levels return to previous levels, and it will take more effort to "delight" t h e m in the future. W h y is satisfaction important to service managers? There's evidence of strategic links between the level of customer satisfaction and a firm's overall performance. Researchers from the University of Michigan found that on average, every 1 percent increase in customer satisfaction is associated with a 2.37 percent increase in a firm's Return on Investment (ROI). 1 9 Fournier and Mick state: Customer satisfaction is central to the marketing concept. . . . [I]t is now common to find mission statements designed around the satisfaction notion, marketing plans and incentive programs that target satisfaction as a goal, and consumer communications that trumpet awards for satisfaction achievements in the marketplace. Some marketers claim that the phrase "your satisfaction is guaranteed or your money back" has become a standard promise for many businesses. However, customer satisfaction is not an end in itself. Instead, it's the means to achieving key business goals. First, satisfaction is inextricably linked to customer loyalty and relationship commitment. Second, highly satisfied (delighted) customers spread positive word-ofm o u t h . T h e y b e c o m e walking, talking advertisements for an organization w h o s e service has pleased them, thus lowering the cost of attracting new customers. First Direct, the all-telephone bank described in the o p e n i n g story for C h a p t e r 3, has gained h u g e n u m b e r s of n e w customers from r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s by its existing account holders. R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are particularly important for providers of services that are high in credence attributes, such as professional service firms.The quality of legal, accounting, consulting, and engineering services, for example, is hard to evaluate in advance of purchase, so positive comments by a satisfied client reduce the risk for a new purchaser. Third, highly satisfied customers may be m o r e forgiving. S o m e o n e w h o has enjoyed good service delivery many times in the past is more likely to believe that a service failure is a deviation from the norm. It may take more than one unsatisfactory incident for strongly loyal customers to change their perceptions and consider switching to an alternative supplier. In this respect, high levels of customer satisfaction act like an insurance policy against the impact of a single failure. Finally, delighted customers are less susceptible to competitive offerings than customers w h o are simply satisfied or are unhappy with their current service provider. service quality: customers' long-term, cognitive evaluations of a firm's service delivery. customer satisfaction: a short-term emotional reaction to a specific service performance.

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THE PURCHASE PROCESS FOR SERVICES
purchase process: the stages a customer goes through in choosing, consuming, and evaluating a service. prepurchase stage: the first stage in the service purchase process, where customers identify alternatives, weigh benefits and risks, and make a purchase decision. W h e n customers decide to buy a service to meet an unfilled need, they go through what is often a complex purchase process. This process has three separate stages: the prepurchase stage, the service encounter stage, and the postpurchase stage, each containing two or more steps (see Figure 4.4).

Prepurchase Stage
T h e decision to buy and use a service is made in the prepurchase stage. Individual needs and expectations are very important here because they influence what alternatives customers will consider. If the purchase is routine and relatively low risk, customers may move quickly to selecting and using a specific service provider. But w h e n more is at stake or a service is about to be used for the first time, they may conduct an

FIGURE 4.4
The Purchase Process: Customer Activities in Selecting, Using, and Evaluating Service

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intensive information search (contrast how you approached the process of applying to college versus buying a pizza or a hamburger!). T h e next step is to identify potential suppliers and then weigh the benefits and risks of each option before making a final decision. This element of perceived risk is especially relevant for services that are high in experience or credence attributes and thus difficult to evaluate prior to purchase and consumption. First-time users are especially likely to face greater uncertainty. Risk perceptions reflect customers' judgments of the probability of a negative outcome. T h e worse the possible outcome and the more likely it is to occur, the higher the perception of risk. Different types of perceived risks are outlined in Table 4.1. W h e n customers feel uncomfortable with risks, they can use a variety of methods to reduce them during the prepurchase stage. In fact, you've probably tried some of the following risk-reduction strategies yourself before deciding to purchase a service: >- Seeking information from respected personal sources (family, friends, peers) >- Relying on a firm with a good reputation >» Looking for guarantees and warranties >- Visiting service facilities or trying aspects of the service before purchasing »- Asking knowledgeable employees about competing services >- Examining tangible cues or other physical evidence >• Using the Web to compare service offerings

Type of Risk Functional risk (unsatisfactory performance outcomes)

Examples of Customer Concerns • Will this training course give me the skill 1 need to get a better job? • Will this credit card be accepted wherever and whenever 1 want to make a purchase? • Will the dry cleaner be able to remove the stains from this jacket? • Will 1 lose money if 1 make the investment recommended by my stockbroker? • Will 1 incur lots of unanticipated expenses if 1 go on this vacation? • Will repairing my car cost more than the original estimate? • Will 1 have to wait in line before entering the exhibition? • Will service at this restaurant be so slow that 1 will be late for my afternoon meeting? • Will the renovations to our bathroom be completed before our friends come to stay with us? • Will 1 get hurt if 1 go skiing at this resort? • Will the contents of this package get damaged in the mail? • Will 1 fall sick if 1 travel abroad on vacation? • How can 1 be sure this aircraft won't crash? • Will the consultant make me feel stupid? • Will the doctor's diagnosis upset me? • What will my friends think of me if they learn 1 stayed at this cheap motel? • Will my relatives approve of the restaurant 1 have chosen for the family reunion dinner? • Will my business colleagues disapprove of my selection of an unknown law firm? • • • • • Will 1 get a view of the parking lot from my room, rather than the beach? Will the bed be uncomfortable? Will 1 be kept awake by noise from the guests in the room next door? Will my room smell of stale cigarette smoke? Will the coffee at breakfast taste disgusting?

O n e strategy to help reduce the risk perceived by customers is to educate them about the features of the service, describe the types of users w h o can most benefit from it, and offer advice on how to obtain the best results.

Service Encounter Stage
service encounter stage: the second stage in the service purchase process where the service delivery takes place through interactions between customers and the service provider. After deciding to purchase a specific service, customers experience one or more contacts with their chosen service provider. T h e service e n c o u n t e r stage often begins with submitting an application, requesting a reservation, or placing an order. As we saw in Chapter 3, contacts may take the form of personal exchanges between customers and service employees, or impersonal interactions with machines or computers. In highcontact services, such as restaurants, health care, hotels, and public transportation, customers may become actively involved in one or more service processes. Often, they experience a variety of elements during service delivery, each of which may provide clues to service quality. Service e n v i r o n m e n t s include all of the tangible characteristics to which customers are exposed. T h e appearance of building exteriors and interiors; the nature of furnishings and equipment; the presence or absence of dirt, odor, or noise; and the appearance and behavior of other customers can all serve to shape expectations and perceptions of service quality. Service p e r s o n n e l are the most important factor in most high-contact service encounters, where they have direct, face-to-face interactions with customers. But they can also affect service delivery in low-contact situations like telephone-based service delivery. Knowledgeable customers often expect employees to follow specific scripts during the service encounter; excessive deviations from these scripts can lead to dissatisfaction. Handling service encounters effectively on the part of the employee usually combines learned skills with the right type of personality. S u p p o r t s e r v i c e s are made up of the materials and e q u i p m e n t plus all of the backstage processes that allow front stage employees to do their work properly. This element is critical, because many customer-contact employees can't perform their jobs well without receiving internal services from support personnel. As an old service-firm axiom goes: "If you aren't servicing the customer, you are servicing someone w h o is."" 1 Other Customers W h e n customers use people-processing or mental stimulusprocessing services, they often find themselves in close proximity to other customers. Waiting rooms at a medical clinic may be filled with other patients; trains, buses, or aircraft are usually carrying many passengers at once, requiring travelers to sit next to strangers. Similarly, restaurants serve many patrons simultaneously, and a successful play or film will attract a large audience (in fact, the absence of an audience is a bad sign!). Unfortunately, some of these other customers occasionally behave badly, thus detracting from the service experience. Managers need to anticipate such incidents and have contingency plans in place for h o w to deal with the different types of problems that might occur.

postpurchase stage: the final stage in the service purchase process where customers evaluate service quality and their satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the service outcome.

Postpurchase Stage
During the postpurchase stage, customers continue a process they began in the service encounter stage—evaluating service quality and their satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the service experience. T h e outcome of this process will affect their future intentions, such as whether or not to remain loyal to the provider that delivered service and whether to pass on positive or negative recommendations to family members and other associates.

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Customers evaluate service quality by comparing what they expected with what they perceive they received. If their expectations are met or exceeded, they believe they have received high-quality service. If the price/quality relationship is acceptable and other situational and personal factors are positive, then these customers are likely to be satisfied. As a result, they are more likely to make repeat purchases and become loyal customers. However, if the service experience does not meet customers' expectations, they may complain about poor service quality, suffer in silence, or switch providers in the future. 22

MAPPING THE CUSTOMER'S SERVICE EXPERIENCE
In order to design a service that meets or exceeds the expectations of its customers, service providers not only need to know what customers want but also to understand the nature of their actual experiences, especially during the service encounter stage. In the high-contact service environments c o m m o n to most people-processing services, customers usually arrive at a service site with certain expectations.Their subsequent behavior, however, may be shaped by the nature of the physical environment, the employees they encounter, the sequence in which different activities take place, and by the roles that they are expected to play. R e c e n t research suggests that consumers' expectations are continuously updated during the course of a service encounter, with final evaluations of service quality reflecting these updated expectations, rather than the expectations held before the encounter began. 2 3 Managers and service employees are often unaware of the full extent of customers' service experiences. An effective way to gain insights into customer behavior during service delivery is to create a description, in sequence, of the steps that b o t h customers and employees go through in a given service environment. These steps can be shown visually using a tool called a flowchart. By identifying each c o n t a c t flowchart: a visual between customers and a service provider, flowcharts can highlight problems and representation of the steps opportunities in the service delivery process as they affect customers during front involved in delivering service t0 stage activities. T h e y may also suggest a n e e d to e x a m i n e backstage s u p p o r t i n g customers, processes.

Developing a Flowchart
Flowcharting can be usefully applied to any type of service and the technique is relevant to both high-contact and low-contact service environments. T h e objectives of the exercise are threefold: 1. Understand each step in the process that constitutes the customer's overall experience with the service; 2. Identify what encounters customers have with different service personnel, specific physical facilities, and equipment; and 3. Relate the customers' behavior and experience at each step to the backstage activities needed to create quality service in timely fashion front stage. 24 Developing a flowchart begins by identifying each interaction that a particular type of customer has when using a specific service. Managers need to distinguish between the core product and the supplementary service elements we discussed in Chapter 2; in fact, flowcharting is a very useful way of figuring out what these supplementary elements actually are. Interactions should be depicted in the sequence in which they normally occur. Service delivery is like a river flowing through time: Some activities take place

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"upstream," others "downstream." At each step, management needs to ask: What do customers really want (perhaps they would like to speed up this step or even avoid it altogether)? What are their expectations? And where is the potential for failure at this step? Let's illustrate flowcharting with a simplified model of a service to which most readers can relate fairly easily: a stay at a hotel (Figure 4.5). As with many services, the customer's first encounter 'with a hotel involves a supplementary service rather than the core product (which is basically rental of a bedroom for a night's sleep). T h e initial step, for most business travelers, is to make a reservation.This action may be taken some time before the visit actually takes place, typically by telephone or through the Internet. On arrival, guests traveling by car will need to park the vehicle (perhaps a valet will do it for them).The next step is to check in at reception, after which an employee may offer to carry the bags and escort guests to their rooms. Hence, four service encounters occur before guests even reach their rooms! Before retiring for the night, a guest may choose to use several more services, such as dinner at one of the hotel restaurants or watching a pay-TV movie. After rising, guests may request that room service deliver breakfast. T h e n guests may make p h o n e calls before checking out and asking a valet to retrieve their cars from the parking garage. In this flowchart, the customer's experience is depicted, in simplified form, as a series of boxes in linear sequence. N o t e that the core product—a bed for the night—is surrounded by a variety of supplementary services. Some hotel guests might use more supplementary services than those shown in the flowchart, others fewer. A variety of activities is taking place backstage, too, behind the scenes, but these activities are not shown here. In fact, each step front stage is supported by a series of backstage activities, including assignment of staff, maintenance of facilities and equipment, and capture, storage, and transfer of information. As you review this flowchart, ask yourself: At what points might the p o o r performance by staff members or misbehavior by other customers spoil a guest's experience? And as the hotel manager, what strategy would you plan for anticipating and handling such problems?

The Value of Flowcharting
Marketers find flowcharting particularly useful for defining the point(s) in the process at which the customer uses the core service and identifying the different supplementary services that make up the overall service package. Although some service encounters are very brief and consist of just a few discrete delivery steps—such as a taxi ride or a simple haircut—others may extend over a longer time frame and involve multiple steps. A leisurely restaurant meal might stretch over a couple of hours or more, while a visit to a theme park might last all day. From arrival to departure, the one-night hotel visit described above probably lasts at least 12 to 14 hours; and the first step, the reservation, may take place days or even weeks prior to arrival.

F I G U R E 4.5
Flowcharting a Customer's Visit to a Hotel

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As customers interact with representatives of the service firm, impersonal delivery systems such as Web sites, the physical environment of the service encounter, and—in high-contact environments—other customers—they are exposed to information that can influence both their expectations and their evaluations of the service. In Chapter 3, we used the term "moments of truth" to highlight the importance of the impressions created by airline passengers' contacts with staff before, during, and after a flight. A key question for managers is whether customers' expectations change during the course of service delivery in light of the perceived quality of sequential steps in the process. (You might want to reflect on whether your own impressions and expectations change during the course of an extended service performance.) Ideally, service firms should try to provide consistently high performance at each step in service delivery. But in reality, many service performances are inconsistent. It's difficult to improve service quality and productivity unless you fully understand the customer's involvement in a given service environment. Speeding up processes and weeding out unnecessary steps to avoid wasted time and effort are often important ways to improve the perceived value of a service. W h e n we come to discuss design of new services in Chapter 8, we introduce a more structured version of the flowchart known as a service blueprint that includes what takes place backstage, out of the customer's sight.

Conclusion
Successful service firms are well informed about their customers and are selective about the prospects that they target. Underlying this focus is the concept of market segmentation, which groups both individual consumers and corporate buyers according to their expressed or implied needs, their observed or reported behavior, readiness to use technology, or other marketing-relevant variables. Gaining a better understanding of how customers evaluate, select, use, and occasionally abuse services should lie at the heart of strategies for designing and delivering the service product. It also has implications for choice of service processes, presentation of physical evidence, and use of marketing communications—not least for educational purposes. Several of the distinctive characteristics of services (especially intangibility and quality control problems) result in customer evaluation procedures that differ from those involved in evaluating physical goods. Because the consumer evaluation and purchase processes for many services are complex, service managers need to understand h o w customers view the service offering and to explore the factors that determine customer expectations and satisfaction. To understand service usage, it's helpful to employ flowcharting, which provides a visual picture of the service delivery process from the customer's perspective.

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Study Questions and Exercises
1. R e v i e w Figure 4 . 1 . Which technographical category are you in? What factors have influenced your consumption of high-tech goods and services? 2. Is it ethical for companies to target specific customer groups (like the elderly and children)? Explain your response. 3. Describe search, experience, and credence attributes and give examples of each. 4. Explain why services are harder than goods for customers to evaluate. 5. H o w are customers' expectations formed? Explain the difference between desired service and adequate service with reference to a service experience you've had recently. 6. W h a t role do needs play in consumer purchase behavior? 7. Define the three stages in the purchase process for services. 8. Choose a service that you are familiar with and create a simple flowchart for it. Define the "front stage" and "backstage" activities.

Relationship Marketing and Customer Loyalty
Creating a Formula for Success in Ski Resorts
Located high in the Coast Mountain range of British Columbia, Whistler and Blackholm ski resorts receive an average of some 30 feet (9 meters) of snow each year and claim to offer the longest ski season and largest skiable terrain in North America. Vancouver-based Intrawest Corporation, whose other ski properties include Mammoth in California, Copper Mountain in Colorado, Stratton in Vermont, and Mont Tremblant in Quebec, owns the two resorts.1 Whistler and Blackholm, located 75 miles (120 km) northeast of Vancouver, offer the greatest vertical drop of any ski mountains in North America—one vertical mile (1600 m)! Day skiers from Vancouver and its suburbs were originally Whistler and Blackholm's only source of business—and the resort still courts their loyalty with big savings on season passes. But by creating a major destination resort, Intrawest has been able to appeal to vacationers from across the continent and even overseas. Whistler's appeal is evident from the fact that it has been named the number one ski resort on the North American continent by three different ski magazines. This recognition has boosted the ski resort's success, since skiers' vacation destination preferences tend to be shaped by the best facilities they have experienced, heard about from their friends, seen on TV, or read about in magazines. Intrawest's management believes that it has created a formula for success. The strategy begins with enhancing the skiing experience on each mountain. The skiers' experiences on the slopes must be good if they are to remain loyal customers. This means that Intrawest must provide well-maintained trails that will satisfy skiers from beginners to experts, plus sufficient lift capacity to avoid lengthy delays. Recent investments to improve facilities at Whistler and Blackholm have included replacing old chairlifts with new express "quads" to improve reliability, increase lift capacity, and reduce waiting times. Recognizing the growing popularity of snowboarding, the company also purchased a new Pipe Dragon, a unique machine used to shape and groom snowboard half-pipes. Meantime, a wide range of new trails was opened at Blackholm. New snow cats were purchased for trail grooming, and upgrades were made to snowmaking equipment to ensure good skiing conditions, even on days when Mother Nature is not cooperative. To appeal to summer visitors, Intrawest expanded the trail system for the Whistler Mountain Bike Park. New construction at the base includes improved guest services and a children's facility with one-stop check-in, a learning center, and a special kids' shuttle train to the gondola. In addition to enhancing the ski facilities, Intrawest also wanted to provide an attractive and lively resort community so that people would choose to stay longer. After all, apres-ski activities are part of the appeal of a ski vacation for many people! Satisfied skiers have started coming back more often and spending more money. They have also told their friends about their positive experiences. This has created a larger customer base of new and returning customers, who

have helped finance the construction of more lodging and additional attractions. Intrawest is now drawing even more people to the resort by increasing its year-round activities to maximize the use of shops, hotels, convention facilities, and restaurants. The resort's goal is to expand its target market (and profitability) by including non-skiers in its customer base. Intrawest is also encouraging customers to purchase condominiums or chalets, since property owners tend to come back more often throughout the year. After all, the mountains are lovely in summer and fall as well as in winter and early spring when there is still snow on the upper slopes for skiing. And the resort operators can also manage properties on behalf of their owners, who can receive income by renting to other visitors.

set priorities for targeting specific customer segments understand that not all customers are equally attractive to a firm recognize the role of customer loyalty in determining financial success calculate the value of a customer who remains loyal to a firm provide examples of customer loyalty programs identify different types of customer misbehaviors and strategies for handling them

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TARGETING THE RIGHT CUSTOMERS
Intrawest targets customers w h o will enjoy the skiing experience that it offers, can afford this relatively expensive sport, and are also likely to purchase additional services at the resort. It also appeals to non-skiers looking for a mountain vacation. This company is not alone in recognizing the need for ongoing investments to keep current customers loyal and to appeal to prospective customers. Managers in innovative service firms constantly debate what new services or improvements in product elements they need to offer to attract and retain customers in attractive target s e g m e n t s . Whistler would not have grown to its present size if it had continued to rely on skiers from nearby Vancouver, which is close enough to allow residents to make an easy day trip to the slopes. Its carefully planned growth is designed to attract vacationers w h o will spend a week or more at the resort. In this chapter, we continue to examine the question, Wltat customers should we serve and how should we relate to them? (see the service decision framework in Figure II.1, page 49). In particular, we emphasize the importance of asking: Wltich customer relationships are worth developing and preserving? A service business must take a focused approach to its markets, targeting prospects in the desired segments, while seeking to avoid those it cannot hope to serve profitably. In the case of nonprofit organizations, where financial profits are not the goal (except in fundraising), the objective should be to focus on attracting and serving those customers w h o are central to the organization's mission. Acquiring the right customers is only the beginning. T h e real challenge lies in building a relationship with them, growing the volume of business they transact, and maintaining their loyalty over a long period of time. Even w h e n customers fit the desired profile, a few may prove through undesirable behavior to be candidates for prompt termination rather than retention. Although some believe the saying "the customer is always right," that's not true in every instance. We address this issue in more depth later in the chapter w h e n we discuss the different ways in which customers may misbehave.

target segments: segments selected because their needs and other characteristics fit well with a specific firm's goals and capabilities.

Airborne skier at Whistler.

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FROM TRANSACTIONS TO RELATIONSHIPS
Too many service firms still focus on the number of customers they serve without giving sufficient attention to the value of each customer. As David Maister emphasizes, marketing is about getting better business, not just more business. 2 Volume alone is not a good measure of excellence, sustainability, or profitability. Generally speaking, customers w h o buy more frequently and in larger volumes are more profitable than occasional users. Consider your own behavior. Do you have a favorite restaurant where you often eat with friends or family? Is there a movie theater that you patronize regularly? Are you a frequent customer at your local laundromat? If you answered yes to any of these questions, then you are probably a lot more valuable to the management of these different organizations than a one-time visitor w h o is just passing through town. T h e revenue stream from your purchases may amount to a considerable sum over the course of the year. (You would probably be quite surprised if you calculated the amount!) Sometimes your value as a frequent user is openly recognized and appreciated. In these situations, you feel that the business is tailoring its service features, including schedules and prices, to foster a relationship with you and encourage your long-term loyalty. But at other times, you may feel that nobody in the organization knows or cares who you are.You may be a valuable customer, but you certainly don't feel valued. Thus you are not likely to remain loyal if an opportunity arises to switch to another service provider. Well-managed organizations work hard to develop relationships with desirable customers and to grow the volume of business that they conduct. That strategy is usually a wise use of marketing resources, since it may cost a firm five to six times as much to attract a new customer as it does to retain an existing one. 3 Building relationships with desirable customers can be very profitable. But what constitutes a relationship? O n e transaction—or even a series of transactions—does not necessarily represent a relationship. Mutual recognition and knowledge between the parties is required for a relationship to exist.When each transaction between a customer and a service provider is essentially separate and anonymous, with no long-term record of a customer's purchasing history and little or no mutual recognition between the customer and the firm's employees, then no meaningful marketing relationship can be said to exist. A word of caution is in order at this point. N o t all customers want to have in-depth relationships with the firms whose services they buy. Some people prefer to patronize several suppliers, either because they enjoy variety or because they like to search for the best terms on any given purchase. Some dislike constant contact from a firm—by mail, telephone, or e-mail—informing them about new developments and selling them new services. Others are worried about privacy. They don't like the idea of a firm gathering detailed information about their background and product usage behavior, because they worry that this information might be sold or otherwise made available to other organizations without their permission.The advent of the Internet as an interactive marketing channel has increased these concerns. 4 transaction: an event during which an exchange of value takes place between two parties.

The Nature of Service Relationships
Although some services involve discrete transactions, in other instances purchasers receive service on a continuing basis. But even w h e n transactions are separate and independent, there may still be opportunities to create an ongoing relationship. T h e different nature of these situations offers an opportunity for categorizing services. First, we can ask: Does the supplier enter into a formal m e m b e r s h i p relationship with customers, as with telephone subscriptions, banking, and the family doctor? Or is there no defined relationship? And second: Is the service delivered on a continuous basis, as in insurance. membership relationship: a formalized relationship between the firm and a specified customer that may offer special benefits to both parties.

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T A B L E 5.1
Relationships with Customers

broadcasting, and police protection? Or is each transaction recorded and charged separately? Table 5.1 shows the resulting matrix, with examples in each category. A membership relationship is a formalized relationship between the firm and an identifiable customer, w h o signs up in advance for service. Firms in the top left quadrant of Table 5.1 are natural "membership" organizations; customers must apply in advance before they can receive service. Such relationships have the potential to offer special benefits to both parties, because the potential exists for both sides to get to know each other better. T h e advantage to the service organization of having membership relationships is that it knows w h o its current customers are, what they spend, and (usually) w h e n , where, and how often they use the services offered. This information can be valuable for segmentation purposes if good records are kept and the data are readily accessible in a format that lends itself to computerized analysis. Knowing the identities and addresses of current customers enables the organization to make effective use of direct mail (including e-mail), telemarketing, and personal sales calls—all highly targeted methods of marketing communication. In turn, members can be given access to special numbers or even designated account managers to facilitate their communications with the firm. Discrete transactions—when each usage involves a payment to the service supplier by an essentially " a n o n y m o u s " consumer—are typical of services like transportation, restaurants, cinemas, and shoe repair shops. T h e problem for marketers of such services is that they are usually less informed about w h o their customers are and what use each customer makes of the service than their counterparts in membership-type organizations. But firms that sell their services on a transactional basis to anonymous customers can create relationships with frequent users by selling the service in bulk (for instance, a theater series subscription or a commuter ticket on public transport) and recording the customers name and address. Another approach is to offer extra benefits to customers w h o agree to register with the firm so that their usage can be tracked (for example, loyalty programs for hotels, airlines, and car rental firms). In this way, an organization can shift at least part of its customer base from the b o t t o m right quadrant of the matrix shown in Table 5.1 to the b o t t o m left one. In small businesses such as hair salons, frequent customers are (or should be) welcomed as "regulars" whose needs and preferences are remembered. Keeping formal records of customers' needs, preferences, and purchasing behavior is useful even in small firms. Accurate records eliminate the need for employees to ask repetitive questions during every service encounter. Customer data can also be used to personalize the service

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given to each customer. In large companies with substantial customer bases, transactions can be transformed into relationships by opening accounts, maintaining computerized customer records, and instituting account m a n a g e m e n t programs that provide customers with a telephone number to call for assistance or a designated account representative. Long-term contracts between suppliers and their business customers take the nature of relationships to a higher level, transforming them into partnerships and strategic alliances. The different types of service relationships shown in Table 5.1 have important implications for pricing.Whenever service is offered on an ongoing basis, there can be a single periodic charge covering all contracted services. Most insurance policies fall in this category, as do tuition and board fees at a residential college. T h e big advantage of this package approach is its simplicity. In other instances, the price paid by "members" is tied to the number and type of specific transactions and may also include a base subscription fee.While more complex to administer, such an approach recognizes variations in usage patterns and may discourage wasteful use of the service. In these cases, " m e m bers" may be offered advantages over casual users—for instance, discount rates (telephone subscribers pay less for long-distance calls made from their own phones than do pay phone users) or advance notification and priority reservations (such as theater subscriptions). Some services require no fee and are available to all. T h e final category in Table 5.1 represents continuously delivered services like broadcasting, police protection, lighthouse services, and public roads that are typically funded by advertising, donations, or tax revenues.

Micro-Segmentation at the Royal Bank of Canada
At least once a month, Toronto-based analysts at the Royal Bank of Canada (the country's largest bank) use data modeling to segment its base of 10 million customers. The segmentation variables include credit risk, current and projected profitability, life stage, likelihood of leaving the bank, channel preference (whether customers like to use a branch, the call center, or the Internet), product activation (how quickly customers actually use a product they have bought), and propensity to purchase another product. Says a senior vice president, "Gone are the days when we had mass buckets of customers that would receive the same treatment or same offer on a monthly basis. Our marketing strategy is [now] much more personalized. Of course, it's the technology that allows us to do that." The main source of data is the marketing information file, which records what products customers hold with the bank, the channels they use, their responses to past campaigns, transactional data, and details of any restrictions on soliciting customers. Another source is the enterprise data warehouse, which stores billing records and information from every document that a new or existing customer fills out.
Source: Meredith Levinson, "Slices of Lives," CIO Magazine, 15 August 2000.

Royal Bank analysts run models based on complex algorithms that can slice the bank's massive customer database into tightly profiled micro-segments that are based on simultaneous use of several variables, including the probability that target customers will respond positively to a particular offer. Customized marketing programs can then be developed for each of these micro-segments, giving the appearance of a highly personalized offer. The data can also be used to improve the bank's performance on unprofitable accounts by identifying these customers and offering them incentives to use lower-cost channels. An important goal of Royal Bank's segmentation analysis is to maintain and enhance profitable relationships. The bank has found that customers who hold packages of several services are more profitable than those who don't. These customers also stay with the bank an average of three years longer. As a result of the sophisticated segmentation practices at Royal Bank, the response rates to its direct marketing programs have jumped from an industry average of only 3 percent to as high as 30 percent.

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Relationship Marketing
There's a fundamental distinction in marketing between strategies intended to bring about a single transaction and those designed to create extended relationships with customers. R e l a t i o n s h i p m a r k e t i n g involves activities aimed at developing long-term, cost-effective links between an organization and its customers for their mutual benefit. A m o n g the approaches used by service firms to maintain and enhance relationships are such basics as treating customers fairly, offering service augmentations, and treating each customer as though he or she were a segment of one—the essence of mass customization. Service "extras" often play a key role in building and sustaining relationships between vendors and purchasers of industrial goods. Research by Coviello, Brodie, and M u n r o suggests that there are three distinct categories of relationship marketing: database marketing, interaction marketing, and network marketing. 6 D a t a b a s e M a r k e t i n g In this type of marketing, the focus is on the market transaction but includes information exchange. Marketers rely on information technology—in the form of a database or the Internet—to form a relationship with targeted customers and retain their patronage over time. However, the nature of these relationships is often not a close one, with communication being driven and managed by the seller. Technology is used to (1) identify and build a database of current and potential customers, (2) deliver differentiated messages based on consumers' characteristics and preferences, and (3) track each relationship to monitor the cost of acquiring the consumer and the lifetime value of the resulting purchases. 7 Although technology can be used to personalize the relationship (as in word-processed letters that insert the customer's name), relations remain somewhat distant, as illustrated by utility services such as electricity, gas, and cable TV. Interaction Marketing A closer relationship exists in situations where there is direct interaction between customers and company representatives (in person or by telephone and e-mail). Although the service itself remains important, people and social processes also add value through interactions that may include negotiations and mutual sharing of information. This type of relationship has long existed in many local environments where buyer and seller know and trust each other, ranging from community banks to dentistry. It is also commonly found in many business-to-business services. Both the firm and the customer are prepared to invest resources to develop a mutually beneficial relationship. This investment may include time spent sharing and recording information. As service companies grow, they face the challenge of maintaining satisfying relationships with customers as new technologies encourage a shift from highto low-contact service. N e t w o r k Marketing We often say that someone is a "good networker" because he or she is able to put individuals in touch with others w h o have a mutual interest. This type of marketing occurs primarily in a business-to-business context, where firms commit resources to develop positions in a network of relationships with customers, distributors, suppliers, the media, consultants, trade associations, government agencies, competitors, and even the customers of their customers. Often a team of individuals within a supplier's firm must collaborate to provide effective service to a parallel team within the customer organization. However, the concept of networking is also relevant in consumer marketing environments where customers are encouraged to refer friends and acquaintances to the service provider.

relationship marketing: activities aimed at developing long-term, cost-effective links between an organization and its customers for the mutual benefit of both parties.

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CREATING AND MAINTAINING VALUED RELATIONSHIPS
For the service provider, a valued relationship is one that is financially profitable in the long run. In addition, the benefits of serving a customer may extend beyond revenues to include such intangibles as the knowledge and pleasure obtained from working with that customer over time. In a healthy and mutually profitable relationship, both parties have an incentive to ensure that it extends for many years. T h e seller, in particular, recognizes that it pays to take an investment perspective. T h e initial costs of acquiring new customers and learning about their needs—which may even make the account unprofitable in the short run—are justified by the expectation of future profits. How do customers define a valued relationship? It's one in which the benefits received from service delivery significantly exceed the associated costs of obtaining them. Research suggests that relational benefits for individual consumers include greater confidence, social benefits, and special treatment (see the boxed discussion on " H o w Customers See Relational Benefits").Valued relationships in business-to-business services are largely dependent on the quality of the interactions between individuals at each of the partnering firms. "As relationships strengthen over a period of time," Piyush Kumar observes, "the service provider's personnel often assume the role of outsourced departments and make critical decisions on behalf of their clients."

How Customers See Relational Benefits
What benefits do customers gain from an extended relationship with a service firm? In personal interviews, respondents were asked to identify service providers that they used on an ongoing basis and discuss any benefits they received as a result of being a regular customer. Their comments included the following: >• "I like him [hair stylist] He's really funny and always has lots of good jokes. He's kind of like a friend now." >• "I know what I'm getting—I know that if I go to a restaurant that I regularly go to, rather than taking a chance on all of the new restaurants, the food will be good." >• "I often get price breaks. The little bakery that I go to in the morning, every once in a while, they'll give me a free muffin and say, 'You're a good customer, it's on us today.'" *- "You can get better service than drop-in customers . . . . We continue to go to the same automobile repair shop because we have gotten to know the owner on a kind of personal basis, and h e . . . can always work us in." >• "Once people feel comfortable, they don't want to switch to another dentist. They don't want to train or break a new dentist in." After evaluating and categorizing such comments, the researchers designed a second study. Subjects were told to select a specific service provider with which they had a strong, established relationship. They were then asked to indicate what benefits they received from this relationship and how important these benefits were to them. Analysis of the results showed that most of the benefits could be grouped into three clusters. Confidence benefits—the most important group—included feelings by customers that in an established relationship there was less risk of something going wrong, more confidence in correct performance, greater ability to trust the provider, lowered anxiety when purchasing, better knowledge of what to expect, and an expectation of receiving the firm's highest level of service. Social benefits involved mutual recognition between customers and employees, being known by name, friendship with the service provider, and enjoyment of certain social aspects of the relationship. Special treatment benefits included better prices, discounts or special deals that were unavailable to most customers, extra services, higher priority when there was a wait, and faster service than most customers.

The Loyalty Effect
loyalty: a customer's voluntary decision to continue patronizing a specific firm over an extended period of time. Loyalty is an old-fashioned word, traditionally used to describe fidelity and enthusiastic devotion to a country, cause, or individual. M o r e recently, in a business context, it has been used to describe a customer's willingness to continue patronizing a firm over the long term, purchasing and using its goods and services on a repeated and preferably exclusive basis, and voluntarily r e c o m m e n d i n g it to friends and associates. "Few companies think of customers as annuities," says Frederick R e i c h h e l d , author of The Loyalty Effect, and a major researcher in this field. 9 A n d yet that is precisely what a loyal customer can mean to a firm: a consistent source of revenues over a period of many years. However, this loyalty cannot be taken for granted. It will only continue as long as the customer feels that he or she is receiving better value (including superior quality relative to price) than could be obtained by switching to another supplier. T h e r e are many possible ways to disappoint customers through service quality failures. A major source of disappointment, especially in high-contact situations, is p o o r performance by service employees. Researchers believe that there is an explicit link between customers' satisfaction w i t h service and employees' satisfaction with their jobs (Figure 5.1). To the extent that service workers are capable, enjoy their jobs, and perceive themselves as well treated by their employer, they will be m o t i vated to remain loyal to that firm for an extended period of time rather than c o n -

stantly switching j o b s . C o m p e t e n t and loyal workers tend to be m o r e productive than new hires, to k n o w their customers well, and to be better able to deliver highquality service. In short, employee loyalty can c o n t r i b u t e to c u s t o m e r loyalty through a series of links referred to as the "service profit chain." "Defector" was a nasty word during the Cold War in the mid-1900s. It described disloyal people w h o sold out their own side and went over to the enemy. Even when they defected to " o u r " side, rather than away from it, they were still suspect. Today, the term d e f e c t i o n is being applied to customers w h o transfer their brand loyalty to another supplier. Reichheld and Sasser popularized the term "zero defections," which they describe as keeping every customer the company can profitably serve. (As we've already said, there are always some customers a firm is not sorry to lose.) N o t only does a rising defection rate indicate that something is w r o n g with quality—or that competitors offer better value—it may also signal the risk of a future decrease in revenues. Profitable customers don't necessarily disappear overnight; they may signal their mounting disaffection by steadily reducing their purchases. Observant firms record customer purchase trends carefully and are quick to respond with recovery strategies in the event of decreased purchases, customer complaints, or other indications of service failure.

defection: a customers decision to transfer brand loyalty from a current service provider to a competitor.

Realizing the Full Profit Potential of a Customer Relationship
How much is a loyal customer worth in terms of profits? In a classic study, Reichheld and Sasser analyzed the profit per customer in many different industries, categorized by the number of years that a customer had been with the firm. 1 2 They found that the longer customers remained with a firm in each of these industries, the more profitable they became to the company. Annual profits per customer, which have been indexed over a five-year period for easier comparison, are summarized for four different service industries in Figure 5.2.

According to Reichheld and Sasser, four factors work to the supplier's advantage in creating incremental profits over an extended period of time. In order of magnitude at the end of a seven-year period, these factors are: 1. Profit derived from increased purchases (or higher account balances in credit card or banking environments). Over time, business customers often grow larger and need to purchase in greater quantities. Individuals may purchase more as their families grow or as they become more affluent. Both types of customers may decide to consolidate their purchases with a single supplier w h o provides highquality service. 2. Profit from reduced operating costs. As customers become more experienced, they make fewer demands on the supplier (for instance, less need for information and assistance). They may also make fewer mistakes w h e n involved in operational processes, thus contributing to greater productivity. 3. Profit from referrals to other customers. Positive word-of-mouth recommendations are like free sales and advertising, saving the firm from having to invest as much money in these activities. 4. Profit from price premium. N e w customers often benefit from introductory promotional discounts whereas long-term customers are more likely to pay regular prices. Moreover, w h e n customers trust a supplier they may be more willing to pay higher prices at peak periods or for express work. R e i c h h e l d argues that the e c o n o m i c benefits of customer loyalty noted above often explain w h y o n e firm is m o r e profitable than a c o m p e t i t o r . F u r t h e r , the upfront costs of attracting these buyers can be a m o r t i z e d over m a n y years. For insights on h o w to calculate customer value in any given business, see the worksheet in Table 5.2. It's important to note that not all loyal customers are necessarily profitable. Banks and telephone companies, for instance, have many small accounts whose revenues do not cover the costs of servicing them. Reinarz and Kumar suggest that the loyalty model works best in situations where customers enter into a formal membership relationship with the supplier. 13 W h e n such a relationship is absent, then customers are free to shop around each time they need to make a transaction.

For profit-seeking firms, the potential value of a customer should be a key driver in marketing strategy. Grant and Schlesinger state: Achieving the full profit potential of each customer relationship should be the fundamental goal of every business. . . . Even using conservative estimates, the gap between most companies' current and full potential performance is enormous}4 They suggest analysis of three gaps between actual and potential performance: >• What percentage of its target customers does a firm currently have, and what percentage could it potentially obtain? (If there is a large gap between a firm's current share and its potential, then it may make sense to develop strategies to attract new customers.) >• What is the current purchasing behavior of customers in each target segment? What would the impact be on sales and profits if they exhibited the ideal behavior profile of (1) buying all services offered by the firm, (2) never purchasing from competitors, and (3) paying full price? (To get customers to buy more, firms should examine opportunities to cross-sell new services to existing customers. Frequent user programs that reward loyalty can help to strengthen relationships. But getting customers to pay higher prices than they are used to may be difficult unless competitors are also trying to reduce the availability of discount promotions.) »- H o w long, on average, do customers remain with the firm? What impact would it have if they remained customers for life? (As we showed earlier, the profitability of a customer often increases over time. If valued customers are defecting, it is important to identify the reasons why customers defect and then take corrective action.) Many elements are involved in gaining market share, cross-selling other products and services to existing customers, and creating long-term loyalty. T h e process starts, as we suggested earlier, by identifying and targeting the right customers, then learning everything possible about their needs, including their preferences for different forms of service delivery. However, there's a dark side to the emphasis on identifying and catering to an organization's most profitable customers. Some companies are making very little effort to serve those customers w h o offer little or no financial value to the firm. According to a recent Business Week article, The result could be a whole new stratification of consumer society. The top tier may enjoy an unprecedented level of personal attention, but customers who fall below a certain level of profitability for too long may find themselves bounced from the customer rolls altogether or facing fees that all but usher them out the door. . . . [MJarketers . . . are doing everything possible to push their customers—especially low-margin ones—toward selfservice. ' 5 Such strategies take segmentation analysis and database marketing to a new extreme in identifying which customers will be most profitable to a firm in the long run and actively courting them at the expense of less-profitable segments.

Loyalty Reward Programs
The big challenge for service marketers lies not only in giving prospective customers a reason to do business with their firms, but also in offering existing customers incentives to remain loyal and perhaps even increase their purchases. A m o n g the b e s t - k n o w n strategies for rewarding frequent users are the "frequent flyer" programs offered by passenger airlines (see box).

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American Airlines was probably the first service firm to realize the value of its customer database for learning more about the travel behavior of its best customers. T h e company uses this data to create direct mail lists targeted at specific customers (such as travelers w h o fly regularly between a certain pair of cities). T h e airline was also quick to examine bookings for individual flights to see h o w many seats were filled by frequent flyers, most of w h o m were probably traveling on business and therefore less price sensitive than vacationers and pleasure travelers. This information helped American to counter competition from low-cost discount airlines, whose p r i mary target segment was price-conscious pleasure travelers. R a t h e r than reducing all fares on all flights between a pair of cities, American realized that it only needed to offer a limited n u m b e r of discount fares. T h e s e fares were available primarily on those flights k n o w n to be carrying significant numbers of nonbusiness passengers. Even on such flights, the airline w o u l d limit availability of discount fares by such

Reinforcing Loyalty by Rewarding Frequent Flyers
American Airlines established the original "frequent flyer" program in 1983. Targeted at business travelers (the individuals who fly the most), this promotion enabled passengers to claim travel awards based on the accumulated distance they had traveled on the airline. "Miles" flown became the scoring system that entitled customers to claim from a menu of free tickets in different classes of service. American was taken by surprise at the enormous popularity of this program. Other major airlines soon felt obliged to follow and implemented similar schemes of their own. Each airline hoped that its own frequent flyer program, branded with a distinctive name such as "AAdvantage" (American) or "Mileage Plus" (United), would induce a traveler to remain brand loyal, even to the extent of some inconvenience in scheduling. However, many business travelers enrolled in several programs, thereby limiting the effectiveness of these promotions for individual carriers. To make their programs more appealing, the airlines signed agreements with regional and international carriers, "partner" hotels, and rental car firms, allowing customers to be credited with mileage accrued through a variety of travel-related activities. What had begun as a one-year promotion by American Airlines was soon transformed into a permanent—and quite expensive—part of the industry's marketing structure. In due course, many international airlines felt obliged to introduce their own frequent flyer programs, offering miles (or kilometers) to compete with American carriers and with each other. As time passed, airlines in the United States started to use double and triple mileage bonus awards as a tool for demand management, seeking to encourage travel on less-popular routes. A common strategy was to award bonus miles for flying during the low season when many empty seats were available or for changing flights at an intermediate hub rather than taking a nonstop flight. To avoid giving away too many free seats at peak time, some airlines offered more generous redemption terms during off-peak times. A few even created "blackout periods" during key vacation times like Christmas and New Year, in order to avoid cannibalizing seat sales to paying customers. Competitive strategies often involved bonus miles, too, with "bonus wars" breaking out on certain routes. At the height of its mid-1980s battle with New York Air on the lucrative 230-mile (370 km) New York-Boston shuttle service, the PanAm Shuttle offered passengers 2,000 miles for a one-way trip and 5,000 miles for a round trip completed within a single day. Bonus miles were also awarded for travel in first or business class. And bonuses might also be used to encourage passengers to sample new services or to complete market research surveys. To record the mileage of passengers enrolled in their frequent flyer programs, the airlines have had to install elaborate tracking systems that capture details of each flight. They have also created systems for recording and maintaining each member's current account status. United uses its extensive customer database to reward loyalty in a unique way. If a flight is canceled, passengers are placed on a waiting list for the next available flight according to how many miles they have accumulated. Thus more loyal customers are given preferential treatment in terms of service and convenience.

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means as requiring an advance purchase or an extended stay in the destination city, making it difficult for business travelers to trade down from full fare to a discount ticket. O n e problem with frequent flyer programs is that customers w h o travel extensively tend to belong to several different programs.To encourage loyalty to a single carrier, some airlines have added a points system, based upon the value of the customer's business in a given year, not just the mileage. For instance, at British Airways Executive Club, travel in business class and first class qualifies, respectively, for double and triple the number of points awarded in economy class, but discounted economy fares do not qualify for points at all. Longer flights, being more expensive, yield more points. O n c e club members have amassed a certain number of points, they receive silver or gold tier status, valid for 12 months. This points-based reward system offers a number of privileges, including automatic doubling of air miles for gold tier members and a 25 percent bonus for silver tier members. A number of other airlines now use similar approaches, but the tier system gives travelers an incentive to consolidate their flights with a single airline. Service businesses in other industries have sought to copy the airlines with frequent user programs of their o w n . Hotels, car rental firms, telephone companies, retailers, and even credit card issuers have been among those that seek to identify and reward their best customers. For instance, the Safeway supermarket chain offers a Club Card that provides savings on its own merchandise and discounts on purchases of services from partner companies. Similarly, car rental firms offer vehicle upgrades and hotels offer free rooms in vacation resorts. N o t all companies offer their o w n products as rewards; instead, many firms offer miles credited to an airline's frequent flyer program since air miles have b e c o m e a valuable promotional currency in their own right. Perhaps the most creative awards are those that even wealthy customers might find difficult to obtain on their own. For example, Merrill Lynch recently offered its premium clients an opportunity to use Visa card points to "purchase" top seats at an award-

By specializing in cutting children's hair and providing an appealing environment for them, this salon hopes to build a relationship with both the kids and their parents.

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winning Broadway musical or a VIP package to attend the 2001 All-Star Hockey Game in Denver, including a champagne reception at which the legendary player, Gordie Howe, was scheduled to speak. Despite the popularity of customer loyalty programs, researchers claim that these programs have proved "surprisingly ineffective" for many firms.To succeed in competitive markets, they suggest that loyalty programs must enhance the overall value of product or service and motivate loyal buyers to make their next purchase. 1 6 In some instances, like the airline s frequent flyer miles, the benefits are popular with customers and virtually all players in the industry have felt obliged to offer a loyalty program. Additional valued benefits for loyal airline customers often include priority reservation and check-in services, use of airport lounges, and upgrades. In other industries, h o w ever, the benefits are not perceived as valuable enough to encourage loyalty or justify a higher price than competitors. This may have been one reason why AT&T, facing fierce price competition in the telecommunications industry, ended its "True Rewards" loyalty program in 1998. T h e bottom line is that rewards alone will not enable a firm to retain its most desirable customers. If these customers are not delighted with the quality of service they receive, or believe that they can obtain better value from a less-expensive service, they may quickly become disloyal. No service business can afford to lose sight of the broader goals of providing quality service and good value relative to the price and other costs of service that customers incur.

Ending Unprofitable Relationships
Although our focus so far has been on increasing customer loyalty, not all of a firm's existing customers may be worth keeping. Some customers no longer fit the firm's strategy, either because that strategy has changed or because the customer's behavior and needs have changed. Many relationships are no longer profitable for the firm, since they cost more to maintain than the revenues they generate. Just as investors need to dispose of poor investments and banks may have to write off bad loans, each service firm needs to regularly evaluate its customer portfolio and consider terminating unsuccessful relationships. (Legal and ethical considerations, of course, will help determine whether it is possible or proper to take such actions.) Occasionally customers have to be terminated directly (although c o n c e r n for due process is still important). Bank customers w h o b o u n c e too many checks, students w h o are caught cheating on exams, or country club members w h o consistently abuse the facilities (or staff and other members) may be asked to leave or face expulsion. In other situations, termination may be less confrontational. Banks have been k n o w n to sell accounts that no longer fit with corporate priorities to other financial institutions; the "traded" customers typically receive a letter in the mail or a p h o n e call from the n e w supplier informing t h e m of the change. Professionals such as d o c tors or lawyers may suggest to difficult or dissatisfied clients that they should c o n sider switching to another provider whose expertise or style is more suited to their needs and expectations.

THE PROBLEM OF CUSTOMER MISBEHAVIOR
Customers w h o act in uncooperative or abusive ways are a problem for any organization. But they have m o r e potential for mischief in service businesses, particularly those in which the customer comes to the service factory. As you know from your o w n experience, the behavior of other customers can affect your enjoyment of a ser-

vice. If you like classical music and attend symphony concerts, you expect audience members to keep quiet during the performance, rather than spoiling the music by talking or coughing loudly. By contrast, a silent audience would be deadly during a rock concert or team sports event, where active audience participation adds to the excitement. There is a fine line, however, between spectator enthusiasm and abusive behavior by supporters of rival sports teams. Firms that fail to deal effectively with customer misbehaviors risk damaging their relationships with all the other customers they would like to keep.

Addressing the Challenge of Jaycustomers
Visitors to N o r t h America from other English-speaking countries are often puzzled by the term "jaywalker," that distinctively American word used to describe people w h o cross streets at unauthorized places or in a dangerous manner. T h e prefix "jay" comes from a nineteenth-century slang term for a stupid person. We can create a whole vocabulary of derogatory terms by adding the prefix "jay" to existing nouns and verbs. H o w about "jaycustomer" for example, to denote someone w h o "jayuses" a service or "jayconsumes" a physical product (and then "jaydisposes" of it afterwards)? We define a j a y c u s tomer as one w h o acts in a thoughtless or abusive way, causing problems for the firm, its employees, and other customers. 1 7 Every service has its share of jaycustomers. But opinions on this topic seem to polarize around two opposing views of the situation. O n e is denial: " T h e customer is king and can do no wrong."The other view sees the marketplace of customers as positively overpopulated with nasty people w h o cannot be trusted to behave in ways that self-respecting service providers should expect and require. T h e first viewpoint has received wide publicity in gung-ho management books and in motivational presentations to captive groups of employees. But the second view often appears to be dominant among cynical managers and employees w h o have been burned at some point by customer misbehaviors. As with so many opposing viewpoints in life, there are important grains of truth in both perspectives. W h a t is clear, however, is that no self-respecting firm would want to have an ongoing relationship with an abusive customer.

jaycustomer: a customer who acts in a thoughtless or abusive way, causing problems for the firm, its employees, and other customers.

Six Types of Jaycustomers
Jaycustomers are undesirable. At worst, a firm needs to control or prevent their abusive behavior. At best, it would like to avoid attracting them in the first place. Since defining the problem is the first step in resolving it, let's start by considering the different segments of jaycustomers w h o prey upon providers of both goods and services. We've identified six broad categories and given them generic names, but many customercontact personnel have come up with their own special terms. As you reflect on these categories, you may be tempted to add a few more of your own. The T h i e f This jaycustomer has no intention of paying and sets out to steal goods and services (or to pay less than full price by switching price tickets or contesting bills on baseless grounds). Shoplifting is a major p r o b l e m in retail stores. W h a t retailers euphemistically call " s h r i n k a g e " is estimated to cost t h e m h u g e sums of money in annual revenues. M a n y services lend themselves to clever schemes for avoiding payment. For those with technical skills, it's sometimes possible to bypass electricity meters, access telephone lines free of charge, or circumvent normal cable TV feeds. R i d i n g free on public transportation, sneaking into movie theaters, or not paying for restaurant meals are also popular. A n d we mustn't forget the use of fraudulent forms of payment such as stolen credit cards or checks drawn on accounts without any funds. F i n d i n g o u t h o w p e o p l e steal a service is the first step in

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preventing theft or catching thieves and, where appropriate, prosecuting them. But managers should try not to alienate honest customers by degrading their service experiences. And provision must be made for honest but absent-minded customers w h o forget to pay. T h e R u l e b r e a k e r Just as highways need safety regulations (including " D o n ' t Jaywalk"), many service businesses need to establish rules of behavior for employees and customers to guide t h e m safely through the various steps of the service encounter. Some of these rules are imposed by government agencies for health and safety reasons. T h e sign found in many restaurants that states " N o shirt, no shoes—no service" demonstrates a health-related regulation. A n d air travel provides one of the best of examples of rules designed to ensure safety—there are few other environments outside prison where healthy, mentally competent, adult customers are quite so constrained (albeit with good reason). In addition to enforcing government regulations, suppliers often impose their own rules to facilitate smooth operations, avoid unreasonable demands on employees, prevent misuse of products and facilities, protect themselves legally, and discourage individual customers from misbehaving. Ski resorts, for instance, are getting tough on careless skiers w h o pose risks to b o t h themselves and others. 1 8 Collisions can cause serious injury and even death. So ski patrol members must be safety oriented and sometimes take on a policing role. Just as dangerous drivers can lose their licenses, so dangerous skiers can lose their lift tickets. At Vail and Beaver Creek in Colorado, ski patrollers once revoked nearly 400 lift tickets in just a single weekend. At Winter Park near Denver, skiers w h o lose their passes for dangerous behavior may have to attend a 45-minute safety class before they can get their passes back. Ski patrollers at Vermont's O k e m o Mountain may issue warnings to reckless skiers by attaching a bright orange sticker to their lift tickets. If pulled over again for inappropriate behavior, such skiers may be escorted off the mountain and banned for a day or more. "We're not trying to be Gestapos on the slopes," says the resort's marketing director, "just trying to educate people." H o w should a firm deal with rulebreakers? M u c h depends on which rules have been broken. In the case of legally enforceable ones—theft, bad debts, trying to take guns on aircraft—the courses of action need to be laid d o w n explicitly to protect employees and to punish or discourage wrongdoing by customers. Company rules are a little more ambiguous. Are they really necessary in the first place? If not, the firm should get rid of them. Do they deal with health and safety? If so, educating customers about the rules should reduce the need for taking corrective action. T h e same is true for rules designed to protect the comfort and enjoyment of all customers. There are also unwritten social norms such as " t h o u shalt not j u m p the q u e u e " (although this is a m u c h stronger cultural expectation in the United States or Canada than in many countries, as any visitor to Paris Disneyland can attest!). O t h e r customers can often be relied upon to help service personnel enforce rules that affect everybody else; they may even take the initiative in doing so. There are risks attached to making lots of rules. They can make an organization appear bureaucratic and overbearing. And they can transform employees, whose orientation should be service to customers, into police officers w h o see (or are told to see) their most important task as enforcing all the rules. T h e fewer the rules, the more explicit the important ones can be. T h e Belligerent You've probably seen him (or her) in a store, at the airport, in a hotel or restaurant—red in the face and shouting angrily, or perhaps icily calm and mouthing off insults, threats, and obscenities. 19 Things don't always work as they should:

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Machines break down, service is clumsy, customers are ignored, a flight is delayed, an order is delivered incorrectly, staff are unhelpful, a promise is broken. Or perhaps the customer in question is expressing resentment at being told to abide by the rules. Service personnel are often abused, even w h e n they are not to blame. If an employee lacks authority to resolve the problem, the belligerent may become madder still, even to the point of physical attack. Drunkenness and drug abuse add extra layers of complication (see the box "Air Rage"). Organizations that care about their employees go to great efforts to develop skills in dealing with these difficult situations. Training

Air Rage: Unruly Passengers a Growing Problem
Joining the term "road rage"—coined in 1988 to describe angry, door of an airliner 20 minutes before it was scheduled to land in gait Lake City aggressive drivers who threaten other road users—is the newer term, !n testimony before the U.S. Congress, an airline captain "air rage." Perpetrators of air rage are violent, unruly passengers who speaking for the Air Line Pilots Association declared, "Passenger endanger flight attendants, pilots, and other passengers. Incidents of interference is the most pervasive security problem facing airair rage are perpetrated by only a tiny fraction of all airline passen| i n e s » A g r o w i n g n u r n b e r of c a r r i e r s a r e t a k j n g a i r r a g e p e r p etragers—reportedly about 5,000 times a year—but each incident in the t o r s t0 c o u r t Northwest Airlines permanently blacklisted three vioair may affect the comfort and safety of hundreds of other people. | e n t travelers from flying on its aircraft. British Airways gives out Acts of violence may be committed against employees or the "warning cards" to any passenger getting dangerously out of conaircraft itself. On a flight from Orlando (Florida) to London, a t rol. Some airlines carry physical restraints to subdue out-of-condrunken passenger smashed a video screen and began ramming a t r o t pasS engers until they can be handed over to airport authorities, window, telling fellow passengers they were about to "get sucked tn A p r l | 2 ooo, the U.S. Congress increased the civil penalty for air out and die." The crew strapped him down and the aircraft made r a g e f r a m $-, 1 0 0 to $25,000 in an attempt to discourage passenan unscheduled landing in Bangor (Maine), where U.S. marshals g e r s f r o m misbehaving. Criminal penalties—a $10,000 fine and up arrested him. Another unscheduled stop in Bangor involved a drug to 20 years in jail—can also be imposed for the most serious incismuggler flying from Jamaica to the Netherlands. When a balloon d e n t s However, airlines have been reluctant to publicize this inforfilled with cocaine ruptured in his stomach, he went berserk, m a t i 0 n f o r f e a r 0 f appearing confrontational or intimidating, pounding a bathroom door to pieces and grabbing a female pasW hat causes air rage? Researchers suggest that air travel has senger by the throat. become increasingly stressful as a result of crowding and longer On a flight from London to Spain, a passenger who was f | ightS ; the airlines themselves may have contributed to the probalready drunk at the time of boarding became angry when a flight | e m by squeezing rows of seats more tightly together and failing to attendant told him not to smoke in the lavatory and refused to e x p | a i n d e | a y s Findings suggest that risk factors for air travel serve him another drink. Later, he smashed her over the head with s t r e s s inc|UC|e a n x i e t y a n ( j an anger-prone personality; they also a duty-free vodka bottle before being restrained by other passens h o w that traveling on unfamiliar routes is more stressful than on a gers (she required 18 stitches to close the wound). Other danger- f a m i | i a r o r i e A n o t h e r f a c t o r m a y be restrictions on smoking, ous incidents have included throwing hot coffee at flight attenA i n i n e s a r e t r a i n j n g their employees to handle violent individdants, head butting a copilot, invading the cockpit and disengaging ua | S a n d t0 s p o t p r 0 D | e m passengers before they start causing serithe autopilot, throwing a flight attendant across three rows of 0 us problems. Some carriers offer travelers specific suggestions on seats, and attempting to open an emergency door in flight. In h o w t0 relax during long flights. And a few European airlines are August 2000, a violent passenger was restrained and ultimately considering offering nicotine patches to passengers who are dessuffocated by other passengers after he kicked through the cockpit p e r a t e f o r a Smoke but are no longer allowed to light up.
Source: Daniel Eisenberg, "Acting Up in the Air," Time, 21 December 1998; Carol Smith, "Air Travel Stress Can Make Life Miserable," Seattle Post Intelligencer, syndicated article, August 1999; "Air Rage Capital: Bangor Becomes Nation's Flight Problem Drop Point," The Baltimore Sun, syndicated article, September, 1999; "Airlines Strangely Mum About New Fine," The Omaha World-Herald, syndicated article, 25 September 2000; and Metanie Trottman and Chip Cummins, "Passenger's Death Prompts Calls for Improved 'Air Rage' Procedures," The Wall Street Journal, 26 September 2000.

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exercises that involve role-playing help employees develop the self-confidence and assertiveness that they need to deal with upset, belligerent customers (sometimes referred to as "irates"). Employees also need to learn how to defuse anger, calm anxiety, and comfort distress (particularly w h e n there is good reason for the customer to be upset with the organization's performance). W h a t should an employee do w h e n an aggressive customer brushes off attempts to defuse the situation? In a public environment, one priority should be to move the person away from other customers. Sometimes supervisors may have to arbitrate disputes b e t w e e n customers and staff m e m b e r s ; at o t h e r times, they n e e d to stand b e h i n d the employee's actions. If a customer has physically assaulted an employee, then it may be necessary to s u m m o n security officers or the police. Some firms try to conceal such events, fearing bad publicity. But others feel obliged to make a p u b lic stand on behalf of their employees, like the Body Shop manager w h o ordered an ill-tempered customer out of the store, telling her: "I won't stand for your rudeness to my staff." Telephone rudeness poses a different challenge. Service personnel have been known to hang up on angry customers, but that action doesn't resolve the problem. Bank customers, for instance, tend to get upset when learning that checks have been returned because they are overdrawn (which means they've broken the rules) or that a request for a loan has been denied. O n e approach for handling customers w h o continue to berate a telephone-based employee is for the latter to say firmly: "This conversation isn't getting us anywhere.Why don't I call you back in a few minutes when you've had time to digest the information?" In many cases, a break for reflection is exactly what's needed. The Family Feuders People w h o get into arguments (or worse) with other customers—often members of their own family—make up a subcategory of belligerents we call family feuders. Employee intervention may calm the situation or actually make it worse. Some situations require detailed analysis and a carefully measured response. Others, like customers starting a food fight in a nice restaurant (yes, such things do happen!), require almost instantaneous response. Service managers in these situations need to be prepared to think on their feet and act fast. T h e Vandal T h e level of physical abuse to which service facilities and equipment can be subjected is truly astonishing. Soft drinks are poured into bank cash machines; graffiti are scrawled on both interior and exterior surfaces; b u r n holes from cigarettes scar carpets, tablecloths, and bedcovers; bus seats are slashed and hotel furniture broken; telephone handsets are torn off; customers' cars are vandalized; glass is smashed and fabrics are torn. T h e list is endless. Customers don't cause all of the damage, of course. Bored or d r u n k y o u n g people are the source of m u c h exterior vandalism. And disgruntled employees have been known to commit sabotage. But much of the problem does originate with paying customers w h o choose to misbehave. Alcohol and drugs are sometimes the cause, psychological problems may contribute, and carelessness can play a role. T h e r e are also occasions w h e n unhappy customers, feeling mistreated by the service provider, try to take revenge in some way. T h e best cure for vandalism is prevention. Improved security discourages some vandals. G o o d lighting helps, as does open design of public areas. Companies can choose pleasing yet vandal-resistant surfaces, protective coverings for equipment, and rugged furnishings. Educating customers on h o w to use equipment properly (rather than fighting with it) and providing warnings about fragile objects can reduce the likelihood of abuse or careless handling. And there are economic sanctions: security deposits or signed agreements in which customers agree to pay for any damage that they cause.

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What should managers do if prevention fails and damage is done? If the perpetrator is caught, they should first clarify w h e t h e r there are any extenuating circumstances (because accidents do happen). Sanctions for deliberate damage can range from a warning to prosecution. As far as the physical damage itself is concerned, it's best to fix it fast (within any constraints imposed by legal or insurance considerations).The general manager of a bus company had the right idea w h e n he said: "If one of our buses is vandalized, whether it's a broken window, a slashed seat, or graffiti on the ceiling, we take it out of service immediately, so nobody sees it. Otherwise you just give the same idea to five other characters w h o were too d u m b to think of it in the first place!" The D e a d b e a t Leaving aside those individuals w h o never intended to pay in the first place (our term for them is "the thief"), there are many reasons why customers fail to pay for services they have received. O n c e again, preventive action is better than a cure. A growing number of firms insist on prepayment. Any form of ticket sale is a good example of this. Direct marketing organizations ask for your credit card number as they take your order, as do most hotels w h e n you make a reservation. T h e next best thing is to present the customer with a bill immediately on completion of service. If the bill is to be sent by mail, the firm should send it fast, while the service is still fresh in the customers mind. N o t every apparent delinquent is a hopeless deadbeat. Perhaps there's good reason for the delay and acceptable payment arrangements can be worked out. A key question is whether such a personalized approach can be cost-justified, relative to the results obtained by purchasing the services of a collection agency. There may be other considerations, too. If the client's problems are only temporary ones, what is the long-term value of maintaining the relationship? Will it create positive goodwill and word-ofmouth to help the customer work things out? These decisions are judgment calls, but if creating and maintaining long-term relationships is the firm's ultimate goal, they bear exploration.

Conclusion
All marketers need to be concerned about w h o their customers are, because some are more profitable (or more central to the organization's mission) than others. This concern takes on added dimensions for certain types of services. W h e n customers have a high level of contact with the service organization and with one another, the customer mix helps to define the character of the organization, because customers themselves become a part of the product. So marketers must be selective in targeting the desired customer segments. Too diverse a portfolio of customers may result in an ill-defined image, especially if different customer segments are present at the same time. Avoiding inappropriate behavior is a related issue. Abusive customers—what we call "jaycustomers"—are a particular concern since they may spoil the experience for others and hurt profitability in other ways, too. Marketers need to pay special attention to those customers w h o offer the firm the greatest value. Programs to reward frequent users—of which the most highly developed are the frequent flyer clubs created by the airlines—help identify and provide rewards for high-value customers and track their behavior in terms of where and when they use the service, what service classes or types of product they buy, and how much they spend. The most successful organizations give their best customers incentives to remain loyal, creating valued relationships that are nurtured over time.

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Study Questions and Exercises
1. W h a t criteria should a marketing manager use to decide which customer segments should be targeted by the firm? 2. Make a case both for and against the statement that " T h e customer is always right." 3. Identify some of the measures that can be used to encourage long-term relationships with customers. 4. W h y should companies spend money to keep existing customers loyal? 5. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of frequent user programs in different types of service industries. 6. Select a people-processing service business.Then pick two types of jaycustomers and develop strategies designed (a) to discourage these customers from using your service, (b) to prevent them from causing distress to other customers a n d / o r to employees, and (c) to minimize financial loss to your organization.

Complaint Handling and Service Recovery
Why Did the Hotel Guests Pass Up a Free Breakfast?
An alert hostess at a Hampton Inn in California noticed that two guests from an Australian tour group were passing up her hotel's complimentary breakfast.1 On the second morning, she asked if anything was wrong. "To be honest, the food is just not what we're used to at home," they replied, describing a typical Australian breakfast. When they came down the next morning, the hostess greeted them cheerfully. "I think we might be able to give you some breakfast this morning," she smiled, laying out items they had mentioned the previous day. She had made a quick trip to a nearby supermarket and added some items from her own kitchen at home. The guests were thrilled. "So this is what 100 percent satisfaction means?" they asked." We get to define satisfaction?" They were so impressed that they arranged to have the other members of their tour group, who were staying at another hotel, move to the Hampton Inn. The two weeks of unexpected tour revenue from the group resulted in a more than adequate return on the extra time and money. The 1,000-plus Hampton Inns offer their guests a valued promise: an unconditional guarantee of satisfaction. Guests define satisfaction on their own terms, and the hotel guarantees the customer-defined satisfaction—without negotiation. These two elements make the guarantee extraordinary and give Hampton Inn a competitive advantage in its lodging segment. Since its introduction, only a few competitors have imitated Hampton Inn's "100% Satisfaction Guarantee." More important, mere imitation has not produced the same results, because the imitators lack the supporting infrastructure, culture, and above all the necessary attitude to make the guarantee more than a slogan. Initially, the guarantee was viewed as a proactive approach to what Ray Schultz, later chairman of Hampton Inn's parent company, referred to as "the heartbreak of franchising," the all-toofamiliar deterioration of a lodging chain that traditionally plagues the lodging industry. He recognized how easily quality and service standards could slip as properties aged. Investments in properties—either hard dollars for capital improvements or soft dollars for employee training, for example, were often compromised to support short-term earnings. Furthermore, Schultz recognized the inherent difficulty of maintaining quality standards across a large and diverse multi-site franchise system, in which properties are owned by outside investors. He knew that the challenge would only intensify given the company's aggressive growth strategy. "We cannot compromise the quality of Hampton Inns as we grow, because ultimately that would constrain our growth," he asserted. "Deteriorating quality inevitably will result in declining guest satisfaction, lower guest loyalty, and negative word-ofmouth. That's a recipe for further deterioration in revenue and operating cash flow. It is easy to lower service standards, but once lowered, it is very difficult to raise them."

discuss the nature and extent of consumer complaints outline the courses of action available to a dissatisfied consumer explain the factors that influence consumer complaining behavior identify the principles of an effective service recovery system demonstrate the value of an effective service guarantee

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CONSUMER COMPLAINING BEHAVIOR
" T h a n k Heavens for Complainers" was the provocative title of an article about customer complaining behavior. " T h e ones I worry about," declared one successful m a n ager, "are the ones I never hear from." 2 Customers w h o do complain give a firm the chance to correct problems (including some the firm may not even know it has), restore relationships with the complainer, and improve future satisfaction for all. Although the first law of service productivity and quality might be " D o it right the first time," we can't ignore the fact that failures continue to occur, sometimes for reasons outside the organization's control.You've probably noticed from your own experience that the various "moments of truth" in service encounters are especially vulnerable to breakdowns. Such distinctive service characteristics as real-time performance, customer involvement, people as part of the product, and difficulty of evaluation greatly increase the chance of perceived service failures. This chapter addresses the question: What should we do when customers' expectations are not met? H o w well a firm handles complaints and resolves problems may determine whether it builds customer loyalty or watches former customers take their business elsewhere. T h e chances are that you're not entirely satisfied with the quality of at least some of the services that you use. Specific complaints can be related to any of the 8Ps. A c o m m o n source of frustration results from inappropriate trade-offs between productivity and quality, when a firm tries to boost productivity without thinking about its impact on customers. Perhaps some of the product elements are poorly executed. Or maybe the service processes in which you are involved are badly organized. Shortcomings in delivery— place, cyberspace, and time—are common. For example, a service may be unavailable where and when you want it; or a Web site may not be functioning satisfactorily. Failings in physical evidence include ugly or poorly maintained facilities and dirty or poorly fitting staff uniforms. Price and other user outlays are a major source of complaints. You can probably recall occasions when you felt you were overcharged, were kept waiting too long, or endured unnecessary hassles.Your disappointment with a service may also have resulted from promotion and education strategies that promised too much (thus raising your expectations too high), or failed to instruct you properly in how to use the service. And perhaps you were inconvenienced or annoyed at some point by the behavior of the people in a service environment—either customer-contact personnel or other customers. H o w do you respond when you have been disappointed? Do you complain informally to an employee, ask to speak to the manager, file a c o m p l a i n t with the head office of the firm that let you down, write to some regulatory authority, or telephone a consumer advocacy group? Or do you just grumble to your friends and family, mutter darkly to y 0 u r s e lf, and take your business elsewhere next time you need that type of service? If you don't normally tell a company (or outside agency) of your displeasure with unsatisfactory service or faulty goods, then you're not alone. Research around the world has exposed the sad fact that most people do not complain, especially if they don't think it will do any good. And even w h e n they do communicate their dissatisfaction, m a n agers may not hear about complaints made to customer-contact personnel. 3

complaint: a formal expression of dissatisfaction with any aspect of a service experience.

Customer Response to Service Failures
service failure: a perception by customers that one or more specific aspects of service delivery have not met their expectations. What options are open to customers when they experience a s e r v i c e failure? Figure 6.1 depicts the courses of action available. This model suggests at least four major courses of action: >- Do nothing »- Complain to the service firm

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»- Take action through a third party (consumer advocacy group, consumer affairs or regulatory agencies, civil or criminal courts) >- Switch suppliers and discourage other people from using the original service firm (through negative word-of-mouth) It's possible to imagine a variety of outcomes to the actions listed in Figure 6.1 that might cause customers to feel a range of emotions from fury to delight. T h e risk of defection is high if customers are dissatisfied, especially w h e n there is a variety of c o m peting alternatives available. O n e study of customer switching behavior in service industries found that close to 60 percent of all respondents w h o reported changing suppliers did so because of a perceived failure: 25 percent cited failures in the core service, 19 percent reported an unsatisfactory encounter with an employee, 10 percent reported an unsatisfactory response to a prior service failure, and 4 percent described unethical behavior on the part of the provider. 4 Managers need to be aware that the impact of a defection can go far beyond the loss of that customer's future business. Angry customers often tell many other people about their problems. T h e Web has made life more difficult for companies that provide poor service, because unhappy customers can n o w reach thousands of people by posting complaints on bulletin boards or setting up Web sites to publicize their bad experiences with specific organizations. 5 There are even Internet-based services like Ellen's Poison Pen (www.ellenspoisonpen.com) that, for a fee, will deluge C E O s of offending companies with letters, e-mails, and faxes until the disgruntled customer is compensated—or at least acknowledged. Companies w h o have been on the receiving end of correspondence from these n e w online consumer complaint services have charged that cyberspace is fast becoming " W h i n e Country." 6

FIGURE 6.1
Courses of Action Open to a Dissatisfied Customer

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The TARP Study of Consumer Complaint Handling
TARP, a leading customer satisfaction and loyalty measurement firm (now known as eSatisfy), has studied consumer complaint handling in many countries. It published a landmark research study based on its own research and a detailed review of other studies from around the world. 7 The findings, which were widely publicized, prompted many managers to consider the impact of dissatisfied customers—especially those w h o never complained but simply defected to a competitor. Let's take a closer look at some specific findings, recognizing that some of the percentages reported may change for better or worse over time. W h a t P e r c e n t a g e of P r o b l e m s Are R e p o r t e d ? From its o w n research and detailed literature studies,TARP found that when U.S. customers experienced problems concerning manufactured consumer products, only 25 percent to 30 percent of them actually complained. For grocery products or their packaging, the market research firm of A.C. Nielsen found a complaint rate of 30 percent. Even for problems with largeticket durables,TARP determined that the complaint rate among dissatisfied customers was only 40 percent. Similar findings come from other countries. A Norwegian study found that the percentage of dissatisfied consumers w h o complained ranged from 9 percent for coffee to 68 percent for cars. A German study showed that only a small fraction of customers expressed dissatisfaction, but among this group the complaint rates ranged from 29 percent to 81 percent. And finally, a Japanese study found complaint rates of 17 percent among those experiencing a problem with services and 36 percent for those experiencing a problem with goods. W h e r e Do P e o p l e C o m p l a i n ? Studies show that the majority of complaints are made at the place where the product was bought or the service received. Very few dissatisfied consumers complain directly to the manufacturers or to the head office. In fact, industry-specific studies conducted by T A R P suggest that fewer than 5 percent of complaints about large-ticket durable goods or services ever reach corporate headquarters, presumably because retail intermediaries fail to pass them on. W h o Is M o s t Likely to C o m p l a i n ? In general, research findings suggest that consumers from high-income households are more likely to complain than those from lower income ones, and younger people are more likely to complain than older ones. People w h o complain also tend to be m o r e knowledgeable about the products in question and the procedures for complaining. Other factors that increase the likelihood of a complaint include problem severity, importance of the product to the customer, and whether financial loss is involved. Customers are also more likely to complain if the problem involves a technology failure during a self-service interaction instead of an encounter with a service employee. 8 W h y D o n ' t U n h a p p y C u s t o m e r s Complain? T A R P found three primary reasons why dissatisfied customers don't complain. In order of frequency, customers stated that: >- they didn't think it was worth the time or effort, >- they decided no one would be concerned about their problem or resolving it, and >• they did not know where to go or what to do. Unfortunately, this pessimism seems justified since a large percentage of people (40 percent to 60 percent in two studies) reported dissatisfaction with the outcome of their complaints. Another reason why people don't complain reflects culture or context. A study in Japan found that 21 percent of dissatisfied customers felt awkward or embarrassed about complaining. In some European countries, there is a strong guest-host rela-

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tionship between service providers and customers (especially in the restaurant industry) and it's considered bad manners to tell customer-contact personnel that you are dissatisfied in any way with the service or the meal. Think about an occasion when you were dissatisfied but did not complain. W h a t were the reasons? Impact on R e p u r c h a s e Intentions W h e n complaints are satisfactorily resolved, there's a much better chance that the customers involved will remain brand loyal and continue to repurchase the items in question.TARP found that intentions to repurchase different types of products ranged from 69 percent to 80 percent a m o n g those complainers w h o were completely satisfied with the outcome of the complaint. This figure dropped to 17 percent to 32 percent (depending on the type of product) for complainers w h o felt that their complaint had not been settled to their satisfaction.

Variations in Dissatisfaction by Industry
Although significant improvements in complaint handling practices occurred during the 1980s and early 1990s in some industries, many customers remain dissatisfied with the way in which their problems are resolved. There are discouraging signs that the situation is deteriorating again. Data from Better Business Bureaus showed that consumer complaints more than doubled between 1995 and 1999. O n e reason may be that customer expectations are rising at the same time that companies are focusing their attention on their most loyal and profitable customers and paying less attention to the rest. 9 Firms have also been trying to save money by automating their complaint handling procedures, making it increasingly difficult for customers to speak with a real person. A valuable measure of h o w well different industries in the United States are performing relative to the needs and expectations of the marketplace is provided by the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), which measures customers' evaluations of the total purchase and consumption experience, both actual and anticipated, on an annual basis. 10 ACSI results show that most manufactured products score higher than most services. Figure 6.2 shows the trend in annual satisfaction scores for several major service industries between 1995 and 2000. Most show a decline, with the airline indus-

FIGURE 6.2
Source: American Customer Service Index, University of Michigan Business School.

Declining Satisfaction Hits Major Service Industries in the USA, 1995-2000

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try showing the sharpest deterioration in customer satisfaction. As these data suggest, many service industries are still a long way from meeting their customers' expectations on service. But some companies do better than others. Within each industry, there are often considerable variations in performance between different firms. Findings from a large-scale study of consumer complaining behavior in Australia showed that, among the industries studied, a majority of customers w h o had a serious problem did make the effort to complain.' ^ The results showed considerable disparity from one service industry to another in both the incidence of unsatisfactory service as well as in customers' likeliness to complain. For instance, more Australians were willing to complain about telephone service and other utilities than about restaurants and health services. Other key findings from this study were the following: >- 57 percent of respondents had experienced at least one problem with products or services within the past 12 months. >- On average, 73 percent of those respondents w h o had a serious problem took some action to have it corrected. >> Only 34 percent w h o took action were satisfied with the way the problem was resolved. >» A m o n g those w h o were not happy with their complaint outcome, 89 percent reported they would not deal with the same firm again. >» Complaining households made an average of 3.4 contacts each in an effort to have their most serious problems resolved. >- T h e further up the management hierarchy customers had to go to get the p r o b lem resolved, the more their satisfaction declined. >- On average, a dissatisfied customer told nine other people while a satisfied customer told only half as many. What do people actually complain about? Inevitably, there are variations from one industry to another when it comes to problems with the core product, but certain aspects of customer service are c o m m o n to numerous service industries. Figure 6.3 highlights the extent of different types of complaints about telephone service in the United States, as reported to the Federal Communications Commission. It's striking to note that 41 percent of all complaints concern inaccurate information. A substantial proportion of the

FIGURE 6.3
How U.S. Complaints About Phone Service Break Down
Data: Federal Communications Commission.

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remaining complaints revolve around failings on the part of service personnel, including unresponsiveness, rudeness, poor training, and a bias against minorities.

Factors Influencing Complaining Behavior
When consumers have an unsatisfactory service encounter, their initial (often u n c o n scious) reaction is to assess what is at stake. In general, studies of consumer complaining behavior have identified two main purposes for complaining. First, consumers will complain to recover some economic loss, seeking either to get a refund or to have the service performed again (e.g., car repairs, dry-cleaning services). They may take legal action if the problem remains unresolved. A second reason for complaining is to rebuild self-esteem. W h e n service employees are rude, aggressive, deliberately intimidating, or apparently uncaring (such as when a sales assistant is discussing his weekend social activities with colleagues and pointedly ignores waiting customers), the customers' selfesteem, self-worth, or sense of fairness may be negatively affected. They may feel that they should be treated with more respect and become angry or emotional. There are costs associated with complaining. These may include the monetary cost of a stamp or phone call, time and effort in writing a detailed letter or making a verbal complaint, and the psychological burden of risking an unpleasant personal confrontation with a service provider—especially if this involves someone w h o m the customer knows and may have to deal with again). Such costs may well deter a dissatisfied customer from complaining. Often, it is simply less stressful to defect to a different service supplier—especially w h e n the switching costs are low or nonexistent. If you are unhappy with the service you receive from your travel agent, for example, you may easily switch to a different agent next time. However, if you decide to switch doctors or dentists, you may have to ask to have all of your medical records transferred. This requires more effort and might make you feel uncomfortable. Complaining represents a form of social interaction and therefore is likely to be influenced by role perceptions and social norms. O n e study found that for services where customers have "low power" (defined as the perceived ability to influence or control the transaction), they are less likely to voice complaints. Professional service providers such as doctors, dentists, lawyers, professors, and architects are a good example. Social norms tend to discourage criticism by clients of such individuals, w h o are seen as "experts" about the service being offered. A clear implication is that professionals need to develop comfortable ways for their clients to express legitimate complaints. What do customers expect after investing time and effort in making a complaint? In a very real sense, they are looking for justice and fairness. Based on a study of consumers' experiences with complaint resolution, Tax and Brown identified three types of fairness. 13 T h e first, outcome fairness, relates to customer expectations of outcomes or compensation that matches the level of dissatisfaction. Second, customers expect procedural fairness, in terms of clear, timely, and hassle-free procedures for handling complaints and resolving problems. Third, customers look for interaction fairness, which involves being treated politely, with care and honesty.

Complaints as Market Research Data
Responsive service organizations look at complaints as a stream of information that can be used to help m o n i t o r productivity and quality and highlight changes needed to improve service design and execution. Complaints about slow service or bureaucratic procedures, for instance, may provide useful documentation of inefficient and u n p r o ductive processes. Personal or telephone interviews offer much better opportunities than mail or in-store surveys to dig deeper and probe for what lies behind certain responses. A skilled interviewer can solicit valuable information by asking customers questions such as: " C a n you tell me why you feel this way? W h o (or what) caused this

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complaint log: a detailed record of all customer complaints received by a service provider.

situation? H o w did customer-contact employees respond? W h a t action would you like to see the firm take to prevent a recurrence of such a situation?" For complaints to be useful as research input, they should be funneled into a central collection point, recorded, categorized, and analyzed. Compiling this documentation requires a system for capturing complaints wherever they are made—without hindering timely resolution of each specific problem—and transmitting them to a central location where they can be recorded in a company-wide c o m p l a i n t l o g . T h e most useful roles for centralized complaint logs are: (1) to provide a basis for following up on and tracking all complaints to see that they have in fact been resolved; (2) to serve as an early warning indicator of perceived deterioration in one or more aspects of service; and (3) to indicate topics and issues that may require more detailed research. However, creating and maintaining a company-wide log is not a simple matter because there are many different entry points for complaints, including the following: >- the firm's own employees at the front line, w h o may be in contact with customers face-to-face or by telecommunications; ^ i n t e r m e d i a r y organizations acting on behalf of the original supplier; >- managers w h o normally work backstage but w h o are contacted by a customer seeking higher authority; »- suggestion or complaint cards mailed or placed in a special box; and >• complaints to third parties—consumer advocate groups, legislative agencies, trade organizations, and other customers.

Making It Easier for Customers to Complain
H o w can managers make it easier for unhappy customers to complain about service failures? Many companies have improved their complaint collection procedures by adding special toll-free phone lines, prominently displayed customer comment cards, Web sites and e-mail addresses, and video or computer terminals for recording c o m plaints. Some go even further, encouraging their staff to ask customers if everything is satisfactory and to intervene if a customer is obviously unhappy. 1 4 T h e hostess at H a m p t o n Inn was clearly very observant. She noticed that the two Australian guests

When unhappy customers complain, it makes life stressful for service personnel like this pharmacist—especially if it's not the latter's fault.

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passed up the opportunity for breakfast two mornings in a row and sensed—or perhaps overheard them express—their disappointment. Of course, just collecting complaints doesn't necessarily help to resolve them. In fact, accepting complaints and then ignoring them may make matters worse! Although friendly sympathy from an employee is much better than an irritable shrug, companies need to have a well-designed service recovery strategy that empowers employees to resolve problems quickly and satisfactorily. For example, the Hampton Inn hostess asked the two guests what they would normally eat for breakfast at home and then took the initiative during her free time to obtain the preferred items and bring them to the hotel. Ritz-Carlton employees are empowered to spend up to $2,000 to find a solution for a customer complaint. They also have permission to break from their routine jobs for as long as necessary to make a guest happy.15

IMPACT OF SERVICE RECOVERY EFFORTS ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY
Complaint handling should be seen as a profit center, not a cost center. TARP has even created a formula to help companies relate the value of retaining a profitable customer to the overall costs of running an effective complaint handling unit. Plugging industry data into this formula yielded some impressive returns on investment: from 50 percent to 170 percent for banking, 20 percent to 150 percent for gas utilities, over 100 percent for automotive service, and from 35 percent to an astonishing 400 percent for retailing.16 Underlying these statistics is a simple fact. When a dissatisfied customer defects, the firm loses more than just the value of the next transaction. It may also lose a long-term stream of profits from that customer and from anyone else who switches suppliers because of negative comments from an unhappy friend. So it pays to invest in service recovery efforts designed to protect those long-term profits. Efforts to design service recovery procedures must take into account a firm's specific environment and the types of problems that customers are likely to encounter. Figure 6.4 displays the components of an effective service recovery system.

service recovery: systematic efforts by a firm after a service failure to correct a problem and retain a customer s goodwill.

Service Recovery Following Customer Complaints
Service recovery plays a crucial role in restoring customer satisfaction following a service failure and retaining a customer's goodwill. T h e true test of a firm's commitment to satisfaction and service quality isn't in the advertising promises or the decor and ambience of its offices, but in the way it responds w h e n things go wrong for the customer. R e c e n t research suggests that customers' satisfaction with the way in which complaints are handled has a direct impact on the trust they place in that supplier and on their future commitment to the firm. 17 Unfortunately, firms don't always react in ways that match their advertised promises. Effective service recovery requires thoughtful procedures for resolving problems and handling disgruntled customers, because even a single service problem can destroy a customer's confidence in a firm if the following conditions exist: 18 *> The failure is totally outrageous (e.g., blatant dishonesty on the part of the supplier). »- T h e problem fits a pattern of failure rather than being an isolated incident. *- T h e recovery efforts are weak, serving to compound the original problem rather than correct it.

Principles of Effective Problem Resolution
Recovering from service failures takes more than just pious expressions of determination to resolve any problems that may occur. It requires commitment, planning, and clear guidelines. Both managers and front-line employees must be prepared to deal with angry customers w h o are confrontational and sometimes behave in insulting ways toward service personnel w h o aren't at fault in any way. Service recovery efforts should be flexible, with employees being trained to handle complaints and empowered to develop solutions that will satisfy complaining customers. 1 9

Guidelines for Effective Problem Resolution
1. Act fast. If the complaint is made during service delivery, then time is of the essence to achieve a full recovery. When complaints are made after the fact, many companies have established policies of responding within 24 hours, or sooner. Even when full resolution is likely to take longer, fast acknowledgment remains very important. 2. Admit mistakes but don't be defensive. Acting defensively may suggest that the organization has something to hide or is reluctant to fully explore the situation. 3. Show that you understand the problem from each customer's point of view. Seeing situations through the customers' eyes is the only way to understand what they think has gone wrong and why they are upset. Service personnel should avoid jumping to conclusions with their own interpretations. 4. Don't argue with customers. The goal should be to gather facts to reach a mutually acceptable solution, not to win a debate or prove that the customer is an idiot. Arguing gets in the way of listening and seldom diffuses anger. 5. Acknowledge the customer's feelings, either tacitly or explicitly (e.g., "I can understand why you're upset"). This action helps to build rapport, the first step in rebuilding a bruised relationship. 6. Give customers the benefit of the doubt. Not all customers are truthful and not all complaints justified. But customers should be treated as though they have a valid complaint until clear evidence to the contrary emerges. If a lot of money is at stake (as in insurance claims or potential lawsuits), careful investigation is warranted; if the amount involved is small, it may not be worth haggling over a

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The material in the box on guidelines for effective problem resolution is based on discussions with executives in many different industries. Well-managed companies seek to act quickly and perform well on each of the 10 guidelines. Research suggests that the slower the resolution of a service problem, the greater the compensation (or "atonement") needed to make customers satisfied with the outcome of the service recovery process.20 Treating complaints with suspicion is likely to alienate customers. T h e president o f T A R P (the company that u n d e r t o o k the studies of complaining behavior described earlier) notes: Our research has found premeditated rip-offs represent 1 to 2 percent oj the customer base in most organizations. However, most organizations defend themselves against unscrupulous customers by . . . treating the 98 percent of honest customers like crooks to catch the 2 percent who are crooks. Taking care of customers requires that the firm also take care of its employees. Managers need to recognize that handling complaints about service failures and attempting service recovery can be stressful for employees, especially w h e n they are treated abusively for problems over which they have no control. C o m p o u n d i n g the stress are policies that impose inflexible, bureaucratic procedures rather than empowering customer-contact personnel to handle recovery situations as they see fit. Bowen and Johnston argue that service firms need to develop "internal service recovery strategies" designed to help employees recover from the negative feelings that they may incur from being the target of customer anger and dissatisfaction. 22 Similarly, management must ensure that the firm employs a sufficient number of well-trained and motivated employees to be able to provide good service in the first place. Downsizing (a deliberate policy of reducing the number of employees to reduce costs) often involves a calculated gamble that replacing people by automated phone messages and Web sites will enable the firm to continue to respond satisfactorily to customers' problems. T h e telecommunications industry provides a cautionary tale of the risks of cutting back people-based service in favor of automated solutions, especially

refund or other compensation. But it's still a good idea to check records to see if there is a past history of dubious complaints by the same customer. 7. Clarify the steps needed to solve the problem. When instant solutions aren't possible, telling customers how the organization plans to proceed shows that corrective action is being taken. It also sets expectations about the time involved (so firms should be careful not to overpromise!). 8. Keep customers informed of progress. Nobody likes being left in the dark. Uncertainty breeds anxiety and stress. People tend to be more accepting of disruptions if they know what is going on and receive periodic progress reports. 9. Consider compensation. When customers don't receive the service outcomes promised or suffer serious inconve-

nience and/or loss of time and money because of service failures, either a monetary payment or an offer of equivalent service in kind is appropriate. This type of recovery strategy may also reduce the risk of legal action by an angry customer. Service guarantees often lay out in advance what such compensation will be, and the firm should ensure that all guarantees are met. 10. Persevering to regain customer goodwill. When customers have been disappointed, one of the biggest challenges is to restore their confidence and preserve the relationship for the future. Perseverance may be required to defuse customers' anger and to convince them that actions are being taken to avoid a recurrence of the problem. Truly exceptional recovery efforts can be extremely effective in building loyalty and referrals.

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service guarantee: a promise that if service delivery fails to meet predefined standards, the customer is entitled to one or more forms of compensation.

during a period of continuing mergers, acquisitions, and divestitures. Corporate customers, ranging from international airlines to the Chicago Board of Trade, are among those whose telephone or Internet operations have been paralyzed by service failures; these situations worsened dissatisfaction when customers "were unable to find anyone w h o could promptly resolve their problems.

SERVICE GUARANTEES
A small but growing number of companies offer customers an unconditional guarantee of satisfaction. These guarantees promise that if service delivery fails to meet predefined standards, the customer is entitled to one or more forms of compensation—such as an easy-to-claim replacement, refund, or credit. Christopher Hart argues that service guarantee is a powerful tool for promoting and achieving service quality, citing the following reasons: 1. Guarantees force firms to focus on what their customers want and expect in each element of the service. 2. Guarantees set clear standards, telling customers and employees alike what the company stands for. Compensating customers for poor service causes managers

Four Service Guarantees
1. Excerpt from the "Quality Standard Guarantees" of an office services company
We guarantee six-hour turnaround on documents of two pages or less . . . (does not include client subsequent changes or equipment failures). We guarantee that there will be a receptionist to greet you and your visitors during normal business hours . . . (short breaks of less than five minutes are not subject to this guarantee). You will not be obligated to pay rent for any day on which there is not a manager onsite to assist you (lunch and reasonable breaks are expected and not subject to this guarantee).
Source: Reproduced in Eileen C. Shapiro, Fad Surfing in the Boardroom (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesiey, 1995), 180.

the guaranteed time and the mailer makes a claim for a refund, the USPS will refund the postage unless: (1) delivery was attempted but could not be made, (2) this shipment was delayed by strike or work stoppage, or (3) detention was made for a law enforcement purpose.
Source: Printed on back of Express Mail receipt

3. L.L. Bean's Guarantee
Our products are guaranteed to give 100 percent satisfaction in every way. Return anything purchased from us at any time if it proves otherwise. We will replace it, refund your purchase price, or credit your credit card. We do not want you to have anything from L.L. Bean that is not completely satisfactory.
Source: Printed in all L.L, Bean catalogs and on the company's Web site, www.llbean.com/customerservice/, January 2000.

2. U.S. Postal Service Express Mail Guarantee
Excludes all international shipments. Military shipments delayed due to Customs' inspections are also excluded. If this shipment is mailed at a designated USPS Express Mail facility on or before the specified time for overnight delivery to the addressee, it will be delivered to the addressee or agent before the guaranteed time the next delivery day. Signature of the addressee, addressee's agent, or delivery employee is required upon delivery. If it is not delivered by

4. Blockbuster Video's Guarantee
Get a Movie Rental FREE if you don't love Keeping the Faith. FREE movie rental given only on visit with return of paid rental of Keeping the Faith. Recipient responsible for applicable taxes and extended viewing fees. If recipient rents more than one movie, credit will be applied to lowest rental price. Offer valid at participating stores. Limit one (1) satisfaction guarantee coupon per featured title.
Source: Blockbuster Video monthly mailing to Rewards program members, October 2000.

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to take guarantees seriously, because they highlight the financial costs of quality failures. 3. Guarantees require the development of systems for generating meaningful customer feedback and acting on it. 4. Guarantees force service organizations to understand why they fail and encourage them to identify and overcome potential fail points. 5. Guarantees build "marketing muscle" by reducing the risk of the purchase decision and building long-term loyalty. Many firms have enthusiastically leapt on the service guarantees bandwagon without carefully thinking through what is implied in making and keeping the promises of an unconditional service guarantee. Compare the four examples of service guarantees in the box on page 130 and ask yourself h o w m u c h is covered by each guarantee, how much each contributes to reducing risk for the customer, and how much pressure each puts on its respective organization to maintain service standards.

Building Strategy Around a Hotel Service Guarantee
Hampton Inn's 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee (see Figure 6.5) has proved to be a very successful business-building program. T h e strategy of offering to refund the cost of the room for the day on which a guest expresses dissatisfaction has attracted new customers and also served as a powerful guest-retention device. People choose to stay at a Hampton Inn because they are confident they will be satisfied. At least as important, the guarantee has become a vital tool to help managers to identify new opportunities for quality i m p r o v e m e n t and to make those improvements happen. In this regard, the 100% Satisfaction Guarantee "turned up the pressure in the hose," as one manager put it, showing where "leaks" existed, and providing the incentive to plug

FIGURE 6.5
The Hampton Inn 100% Satisfaction Guarantee

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them. As a result, the guarantee has had an important impact on product consistency and service delivery across the H a m p t o n Inn chain, dramatically improving on financial performance. However, fully i m p l e m e n t i n g a 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee is no easy task, as some competitors w h o have tried to imitate it can attest. Successful implementation of a 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee requires that its underlying philosophy of guest satisfaction be embraced by every employee, from senior management to hourly workers. This has proved challenging even for H a m p t o n Inn, where the guarantee has faced b o t h resistance and skepticism from hotel managers in spite of its proven benefits. T h e box " H o w U n c o n d i t i o n a l Is Your Guarantee?" illustrates just h o w challenging it is for other hotels to imitate the concept of a truly unconditional guarantee. D e s i g n i n g the Guarantee T h e first step in designing the guarantee at H a m p t o n Inn was to answer a key question: " W h a t would guests want in a guarantee?" Research revealed that they were most interested in the quality and cleanliness of their accommodations, friendly and efficient service, and a moderate price.They also wanted

How Unconditional Is Your Guarantee?'
Christopher Hart tells this story of an incident at a hotel in a wellknown chain. He and his two cousins, Jeff and Roxy Hart, were nearing the end of an extended holiday weekend and needed to find an inexpensive place to stay. It was late in the day and their flight left early the following morning. Jeff called Hampton Inn and found nothing available in the area. So he called (name deleted) Inn, which had rooms available and booked one for $62. We found the hotel [said Chris], noticing a huge banner draped from the bottom of the sign, advertising, "Rooms for $55.95, including breakfast." We went inside. After giving the frontdesk clerk the basic information, Jeff was told that his room would be $69. "But the reservation agent I just booked the room with quoted me $62. What's the story? And, by the way, what about the $55.95 price advertised on your sign? Can I get a room for that price?" "Oh," replied the front-desk clerk. "That was a special promotion for the spring. It's over now." (It was late June.) Jeff replied, "But you're still advertising the price. It's illegal to advertise one price and charge another one." "Let me get my manager," came the nervous response. Out came the manager. In the middle of the conversation, in which Jeff was arguing the same points that he made with the front-desk clerk, Chris interjected, "By the way, I understand you offer a satisfaction guarantee. Right?" "Not on the $55.95 rooms," came the reply from the manager. "Well, what rooms is it on?" "Only the good rooms." "You mean you have bad rooms?" "Well, we have some rooms that have not been renovated. Those are the ones we sell for $55.95. But we're sold out of them tonight." Chris said, "Well, Jeff, you'd better get one of the more expensive rooms, because I'm not sure how satisfied you're going to be tomorrow." The manager quickly added, "Did I mention that the guarantee doesn't apply on weekends?" "No," barked Jeff, who had worked for 15 years conducting cost-benefit and compliance studies for the U.S. government, "and that's illegal too!" "Wait just a minute," said the manager, getting a puzzled look as though something had just popped into his head. "Let me see something." He then buried his head into the computer, clicking away madly at the keyboard, creating the impression that he was working on our behalf. After an appropriate time, up popped his head, now with a big smile. "One of the guests who originally reserved a $55.95 room, called and upgraded—but the upgrade wasn't recorded in the computer. I could let you have that room—but I can't guarantee your satisfaction." "We'll take it," said an exhausted Roxy.

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a guarantee that was simple and easy to invoke if necessary. In-depth guest interviews yielded 53 "moments of truth" critical to guests' satisfaction with their H a m p t o n Inn stays. These m o m e n t s of truth translated into concrete and controllable aspects of Hampton Inn's product and service delivery. Throughout the guarantee design process, an important new mindset was reinforced: Listen to the guests, w h o knew best what satisfied them. According to the vice president of marketing for H a m p t o n Inn, "Designing the guarantee made us understand what made guests satisfied, rather than what we thought made them satisfied." It became imperative that everyone, from front-line employees to general managers and personnel at corporate headquarters, should listen carefully to guests, anticipate their needs to the greatest extent possible, and remedy problems quickly so that guests were satisfied with the solution.Viewing a hotel's function in this customer-centric way had a profound impact on the way the parent company conducted business. Even among those w h o fully supported the guarantee concept in principle, pressing concerns remained: »- "Will guests try to cheat and rip us off?" >• "Will our employees give the store away?" >- "What will be the return on our efforts to increase customer satisfaction?"

The P i l o t Test To prepare for the launch of the guarantee, a pilot test was conducted in 30 hotels that already had high customer satisfaction. Training was seen as critical. First, general managers were trained in the fundamentals of the guarantee—what it was and h o w it worked. T h e n the general managers trained their employees. Managers were taught to take a leadership role by actively demonstrating their support for the guarantee and helping their employees gain the confidence to handle guest c o n c e r n s and problems. Finally, t h e guarantee was explained and promoted to guests. After learning basic guarantee concepts and reviewing the H a m p t o n Inn 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee, general managers were asked to form groups of 10 to 12. Their charge was to list the positive and negative aspects of the guarantee on a flipchart. Few groups could come up with more than one or two pages of positives, but they had little difficulty creating lists of negatives; one such list was 26 pages long! Senior c o r p o rate managers went through each negative issue, addressing managers' concerns one by one. The concerns remained relatively consistent and centered on management control. There were also worries about guests abusing the guarantee and cheating (those nasty "jaycustomers" that were described in Chapter 5). For a discussion of how the company identifies such guests, see the box "Tracking D o w n Guests W h o Cheat." The pilot test produced some interesting results. Even at hotels that already had a high-satisfaction culture, corporate m a n a g e m e n t found that front-line employees weren't always fully empowered to do whatever was needed to make a guest 100 percent satisfied. Further, employees did not always feel they had explicit responsibility for guest satisfaction. So they had to be taught that their j o b responsibilities n o w extended beyond the functional roles for which they were initially hired (i.e., property maintenance, breakfast staff, front desk). Managers and employees discovered that the guarantee was not about giving money away—it was about making guests satisfied. They learned that satisfying guests by correcting problems had to be a priority. Employees were encouraged to creatively fix problems "on the spot," and rely on the guarantee as a "safety net" to catch guests w h o were still dissatisfied.

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Ongoing Experience N o w that the 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee has become standard practice at H a m p t o n Inn, the company provides reports every quarter that show the top five reasons for guarantee payouts. Managers are encouraged to develop clear action plans for eliminating the sources of guarantee payouts at their hotels. O n c e the sources of problems are systematically eliminated, payouts b e c o m e less frequent. Guest satisfaction has increased substantially at those hotels where the guarantee has been most strongly embraced. H a m p t o n Inn has also implemented an employee-awards program for employees w h o have undertaken exceptional acts of customer service. W h e n this "cycle of success" occurs at a specific hotel, its employees become "guarantee advocates" w h o spread word of their success throughout the chain. Over time, hotel managers have recognized two things. First, the number of people invoking the guarantee represents only a small percentage of all guests. Second, the percentage of cheaters in this group amounts to a ridiculously small number. As one m a n ager admitted, "It occurred to me that I was managing my entire operation to accommodate the half of one percent of guests w h o actually invoke the guarantee. And out of that number, maybe only 5 percent were cheating. Viewed this way, I was focused on managing my business to only 0.025 percent of total revenues." Experience has shown that guests are not typically looking for a refund—they just want to be satisfied with what they pay for. And because the 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee promises just that, it's a powerful vehicle for attracting and retaining guests. T h e guarantee was subsequently extended to several of H a m p t o n Inn's sister brands, H a m p t o n Inn and Suites, Embassy Suites, and H o m e w o o d Suites. A subsequent survey found that: >- Fifty-four percent of guests interviewed said they were more likely to consider H a m p t o n Inn (or one of its sister brand hotels) because of the guarantee. >- Seventy-seven percent of guests interviewed said they would stay again at the same hotel. »- Ninety-three percent of guests interviewed said they would stay at another hotel in the same chain. >- Fifty-nine percent of guests interviewed have already returned.

Tracking Down Guests Who Cheat
As part of its guarantee tracking system, Hampton Inn has developed ways to identify guests who appeared to be cheating—using aliases or different satisfaction problems to invoke the guarantee repeatedly in order to get the cost of their room refunded. Guests who request frequent compensation receive personalized attention and follow-up from the company's Guest Assistance Team. Wherever possible, senior managers will telephone these guests to ask them about their recent stays. The conversation might go as follows: "Hello, Mr. Jones. I'm the director of guest assistance and I see that you've had some difficulty with the last four Hampton Inn properties you've visited. Since we take our guarantee very seriously, I thought I'd give you a call and find out what the problems were." The typical response is dead silence! Sometimes the silence is followed with questions of how headquarters could possibly know about their problems. These calls have their humorous moments as well. One individual, who had invoked the guarantee 17 times in what appeared to be a trip that took him across the United States and back, was asked, innocuously, "Where do you like to stay when you travel?" "Hampton Inn," came the enthusiastic response. "But," said the executive making the call, "our records show that the last 17 times you have stayed at a Hampton Inn, you have invoked the 100 percent Satisfaction Guarantee." "That's why I like them!" proclaimed the guest (who turned out to be a longdistance truck driver).

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Among the reasons for the success of the H a m p t o n Inn service guarantee are careful planning, listening to employee and manager concerns, an emphasis on training, and a willingness to delegate m o r e authority to employees. T h e company has evaluated the possibility that customers would abuse its service guarantee—namely, making fraudulent claims to obtain a free night in a hotel—and has determined that the incidence of such fraud is confined to a tiny fraction of its customers. So customers are trusted w h e n they register a complaint and a refund is cheerfully given on the spot. However, the firm's management is not naive: There is careful tracking after the fact of all claims against the guarantee and any suspicious-looking p a t t e r n of repeated claims is followed up.

Developing Viable Guarantees
Guarantees need to be clear, so that customers and employees can understand them easily. Sometimes, this means relating the terms of the guarantee to satisfaction with a specific activity rather than overall performance. For instance, the Irish Electricity Supply Board (ESB) offers 12 clearly stated service guarantees in its "Customer Charter," relating to such elements as network repair, the main fuse, meter connection and accuracy, and scheduled appointments (when an employee visits the customer's premises). In each instance, the ESB has established a service standard, such as a promised speed of response, stating the payment that will be made to the customer if the company fails to meet the promised standard. T h e charter is written in simple language and tells customers what to do if they encounter a problem with any of the problems covered by the 12 guarantees. Compensation payments range from IR£20—100 ($23—115) depending on the nature of the problem and whether the customer is a household or a business. Is it always a good idea for a service firm to offer a guarantee? T h e answer, according to Ostrom and Hart, is that managers should first think carefully about their firms' strengths and weaknesses in the context of the markets in w h i c h they c o m p e t e . 2 6 Companies that already have a strong reputation for high-quality service may not need a guarantee; in fact, it might even be incongruent with their image to offer one. Firms whose service is currently poor must first work to improve quality to a level above that at which the guarantee might be invoked on a regular basis by most of their customers! Service organizations that suffer from high turnover, p o o r employee attitudes, and inability to recruit strong managers are also in no position to start offering guarantees. Similarly, firms whose service quality is truly uncontrollable (due to outside forces) would be foolish to consider guaranteeing any aspect of their service that was not amenable to improvement through internal strategies. Service managers should ask themselves: Do the benefits outweigh the costs? Potential costs include compensating customers for failures covered by the guarantee and the cost of investments to improve operational effectiveness and staff performance. In evaluating benefits, managers need to look at the value of the extra business gained, the long-term potential for greater operational productivity, increased staff pride and motivation, and the firm's ability to recruit and retain the best employees. In a market where customers see little financial, personal, or psychological risk associated with purchasing and using the service, it's questionable w h e t h e r m u c h value would be added by instituting a guarantee. However, where perceived risks do exist but there is little identifiable difference in service quality among competing offerings, the first company to institute a guarantee may be able to obtain a first-mover advantage and differentiate its services. But what should managers do if one or m o r e competitors already have a guarantee in place? Doing nothing is a risk in that it may be seen as a de facto admission of inconsistent quality. There is also the possibility that the availability of a guarantee may eventually become a requirement in customers' purchase decision cri-

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teria. So the best response may be to attract customers' attention by launching a highly distinctive guarantee like H a m p t o n Inn's that goes beyond what the competition offers and will also be difficult for them to match or exceed in the short run.

Conclusion
Collecting customer feedback via complaints, suggestions, and compliments provides a means of increasing customer satisfaction. It's a terrific opportunity to get into the hearts and minds of customers. In all but the worst instances, complaining customers are indicating that they want to continue their relationship with the service firm. But they are also signaling that all is not well, and that they expect the company to make things right. Service firms need to develop effective strategies for recovering from service failures so that they can maintain customer goodwill.This is vital for the long-term success of the company. However, service personnel must also learn from their mistakes and try to ensure that problems are eliminated. After all, even the best recovery strategy isn't as good in the customer's eyes as being treated right the first time. Well-designed unconditional service guarantees have proved to be a powerful vehicle for identifying and justifying needed improvements, as well for creating a culture in which staff members take proactive steps to ensure that guests will be satisfied.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Explain the courses of action available to a dissatisfied consumer. 2. Describe the factors that may prevent a dissatisfied consumer from complaining. H o w can service providers encourage dissatisfied customers to complain? 3. W h e n was the last time you were truly satisfied with an organization's response to your complaint? Describe in detail what happened and what made you satisfied. 4. Think about the last time you experienced a less than satisfactory service experience. Did you complain? Why? If you did not complain, explain why not. 5. Apply the service recovery concepts presented in this chapter to a service organization with which you are familiar. Describe how this organization follows/does not follow these guidelines. What impact do you think this has on the firm's customers in terms of loyalty? 6. Evaluate the 100 percent Service Guarantee introduced by H a m p t o n Inn. What are its main advantages and disadvantages?

In Part III of the book, we focus on some key marketing components of the 8Ps—product elements, price and other user outlays, and promotion and education. Figure 1 11 shows how these 1. three elements relate to the service management decision framework. We've already addressed service product issues in several previous chapters, where we (1) defined service as an act or performance that provides benefits for customers, (2) showed how the core product is surrounded by a group of supplementary service elements, and (3) specified how the nature of the underlying service process shapes the performance and thus the customer's experience. Chapter 7 raises the question: What should be the core and supplementary elements of our service product? Developing service product strategy requires managers to identify the characteristics of the core product, consider how it should be augmented and enhanced by supplementary services, and determine how best to design the overall service experience. These decisions are shaped by the nature of the market for the service, requiring consideration of what product benefits will create the most value for target customers.

nation of several different pricing elements like a fixed monthly rate, a usage charge that offers volume discounts, and various supplementary charges. Service managers need to recognize that price is not the only cost incurred by customers. There may be outof-pocket expenditures associated with purchasing and using the service. Customers may also incur significant nonfinancial outlays and burdens ranging from time costs to physical and mental effort. Designing a good product and pricing it appropriately will not ensure its success if people are unaware of it. So service firms must address the question: How should we communicate what our service has to offer? Credibility is an important issue in marketing communication and may depend, in part, on the reputation of the organization, its capabilities, and its brand names. Managers must ask themselves what customers need to know about the service and its benefits. Communication must go beyond mere promotion. Many customers, especially new ones, will need to be educated about the service. Service businesses have to determine what communication methods and media will be most effective in reaching their target audiences. They also need to examine the role that physical evidence can play in creThe question What price should we charge for our service? ating desired impressions. These issues are discussed in Chapter 9. is addressed in Chapter 8. Identifying the costs to be recovered tends to be a more challenging task for services than for manufacFinally, service managers must decide how to differentiate tured goods. Service prices may vary by time of day, day of week, or their firm's offerings from those of the competition—which is season. And the price actually paid by customers may be a combithe essence of positioning strategy. Chapter 10 examines issues

FIGURE I I I . l Product, Pricing, and Communication Decisions related to linking product, pricing, and communication in a strategic context. This chapter also emphasizes the need to (1) integrate different elements of the 8Ps so that they are mutually reinforcing, (2) ensure that key product attributes relate to the

needs of specific target segments, and (3) create a service package that is differentiated from competitors' offerings in meaningful ways.

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The Service Product
The Moose Ts Loose at Germany's Most Popular Radio Station
SWF3 is Germany's most popular radio station, reaching more than two million listeners in southwestern Germany every day. Some say that it's more than radio—it's a lifestyle.1 Perhaps SWF3's most noteworthy feature is the never-ending production of its comic radio skits. For over 20 years the station has created characters and slogans that have become part of everyday conversation in Germany. These skits, plus investigative journalism and trend-setting music, reflect the station's philosophy and are essential keys to its success. SWF3's trademark, the moose, was chosen because the station is headquartered in Baden-Baden in the famous Black Forest. The animal has become a part of the station's lifestyle, to the extent that quality is referred to as "moose-proof." Following deregulation of the German radio broadcasting market, hundreds of new local and national radio stations swamped the market. To compete more effectively and to build greater loyalty among its listeners, SWF3 established a club, now some 100,000 strong, that offers members a variety of financial and nonfinancial benefits with a high emotional and economic value. Holders of the SWF3 Club's gold Wildcard (which costs the equivalent of about $15) can obtain savings on a variety of purchases. The Club's popular quarterly publication, ON, offers a mix of journalism, music, and humor written by the station's staff, including DJs, editors, and anchors. The members' newsletter, published every six weeks and called ONFO, contains details of Club events throughout the year, news from the station, and current ticket and merchandise offers. The Club is also featured on SWF3's Web site, www.swf3.de. Of course, anyone can access the Web site, and fans living far outside SWF3's broadcast reception area—even on another continent—can still listen to the station live on Web radio. The user-friendly site features information on the station, its staff, and programming, as well as offering services ranging from weather forecasts to Kinodatenbank (a useful database of movie reviews). There is also a chat room and a library of pictures of real moose, cartoon moose, and stuffed toy moose in many amusing situations. To serve listeners who want information about the station, club services, and related activities, the station has instituted the SWF3 Service Center (even using the English-language term as its name), which also handles ticket sales and merchandise orders. The SWF3 Club produces and coproduces about 120 events each year. Large open-air concerts and festivals can draw over 100,000 visitors, whereas the numerous smaller shows with newcomer bands attract just a few hundred. At all major events, a Club Lounge—open to members and event guests only—provides special catering. After the show, rock and pop stars show up for scheduled "unplugged" sessions and interviews. Club members can save up to $6 off the ticket prices to all major pop and rock concerts in Germany, including concerts of major artists such as the Rolling Stones, Simple Minds, R.E.M., and U2. In addition to tickets for the Club's own productions, members also get offers for preferential tickets to hundreds of events each year.

SWF3 believes that its club program and event sponsorship have helped the station to build high awareness, develop a strong relationship with its listeners, and increase its ratings. In short, the Club has proven to be absolutely "moose-proof."

discuss several frameworks for describing the augmented service product define the eight petals of the Flower of Service distinguish between facilitating and enhancing supplementary services complete a service blueprint for different kinds of services describe the types of information that service blueprints can provide

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THE SERVICE OFFERING
In this chapter, we address the question, What should be the core and supplementary elements of our service product? T h e core addresses the customer's need for a basic benefit—such as transportation to a desired location, resolution of a specific health problem, or repair of malfunctioning equipment. Supplementary services facilitate and enhance use of the core service; they range from information, advice, and documentation to problem solving and acts of hospitality. As an industry matures and competition increases, there's a risk that prospective customers may view competing core products as commodities that are indistinguishable from each other. For instance, many airlines fly the same types of aircraft, all credit cards perform the same basic function, and it's hard to distinguish one hotel bed from another within a given class of service. In these cases, the customer's natural tendency is to choose the option with the cheapest price. Hence, the search for competitive advantage in a mature industry often focuses on differentiating the product through better supplementary services. SWF3, the German radio station in the opening story, uses a mix of financial and nonfinancial benefits to offer a value-oriented package that attracts listeners in the highly competitive radio broadcasting market and keeps them loyal.

augmented product: the core product (a good or a service) plus all supplementary elements that add value for customers. molecular model: a framework that uses a chemical analogy to describe the structure of service offerings.

The Augmented Product
Marketers use the term a u g m e n t e d product to describe the combination of a core product with a bundle of value-adding supplementary elements. Theorists have developed several frameworks to describe augmented products. Lynn Shostack created a m o l e c u l a r m o d e l (Figure 7.1) that can be applied to either goods or services. The

model uses a chemical analogy to help marketers visualize and manage what she termed a "total market entity." At the center is the core benefit that addresses the basic customer need, with links to a series of other service characteristics. Surrounding the molecules is a series of bands representing price, distribution, and market positioning (communication messages). As in chemical formulations, a change in one element may completely alter the nature of the entity. The molecular m o d e l helps identify the tangible and intangible elements involved in service delivery. By highlighting tangible elements, marketers can determine whether their services are tangible-dominant or intangible-dominant. In an airline, for example, the intangible elements include transportation itself, service frequency, and pre-flight, in-flight, and post-flight service. But the aircraft itself and the food and drinks that are served to passengers are all tangible.The more intangible elements exist, the more necessary it is to provide tangible clues about the features and quality of the service. Eiglier and Langeard developed a different model to describe the augmented product. In their model, the core service is surrounded by a circle containing a series of supplementary services that are specific to that particular product. 3 Their approach, like Shostack's, emphasizes the interdependence of the various components. They distinguish between those elements needed to facilitate use of the core service (such as the reception desk at a hotel) and those that enhance the appeal of the core service (such as a fitness center and business services at a hotel). Eiglier and Langeard focus on two issues: (1) whether supplementary services are needed to facilitate use of the core service or simply to add extra appeal; and (2) whether customers should be charged separately for each service element or whether all elements should be bundled under a single price tag.

IDENTIFYING AND CLASSIFYING SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES
The more we examine different types of core services, the more we find that most of them have many supplementary services in c o m m o n . Although core products may differ widely, certain supplementary elements—like information, billing, and reservations or order taking—keep recurring. 4 There are dozens of different supplementary services,

Directions to service site Schedules/service hours Prices Instructions on using core product/supplementary services Reminders Warnings Conditions of sale/service Notification of changes Documentation Confirmation of reservations Summaries of account activity Receipts and tickets

facilitating supplementary services: supplementary services that aid in the use of the core product or are required for service delivery. enhancing supplementary services: supplementary services that may add extra value for customers. Flower of Service: a visual framework for understanding the supplementary service elements that surround and add value to the product core.

but almost all of them can be classified into one of the following eight clusters. We have listed them as either facilitating s u p p l e m e n t a r y services, which aid in the use of the core product or are required for service delivery, or e n h a n c i n g s u p p l e m e n t a r y serv i c e s , which add extra value for customers.

In Figure 7.2, these eight clusters are displayed as petals surrounding the center of a flower—which we call the Flower of Service. We've shown them clockwise in the sequence in which they are often likely to be encountered by customers (although this sequence may vary—for instance, payment may have to be made before service is delivered rather than afterwards). In a well-run service organization, the petals and core are fresh and attractive. But a badly designed or poorly executed service is like a flower with missing, wilted, or discolored petals. Even if the core is perfect, the overall flower is unattractive. Think about your own experiences as a customer. W h e n you were dissatisfied with a particular purchase, was it the core that was at fault or was there a problem with one or more of the supplementary service petals? N o t every core product is surrounded by supplementary elements from all eight clusters. As we'll see, the nature of the product helps to determine w h i c h supplementary services must be offered and which might be added to enhance the value of the core service.

Information
To obtain full value from any service experience, customers need relevant information (Table 7.1). N e w customers and prospects are especially information hungry. Customer needs may include directions to the physical location where the product is sold (or details of how to order it by telephone or Web site), service hours, prices, and usage instructions. Further information, sometimes required by law, could include conditions of sale and use, warnings, reminders, and notification of changes. Finally, customers may want documentation of what has already taken place, such as confirmation of reservations, receipts and tickets, and monthly summaries of account activity. Companies should make sure the information they provide is b o t h timely and accurate; if it's not, customers may be annoyed or inconvenienced. Traditional ways of providing information to customers include using front-line employees (who are not always as well informed as customers might like), printed notices, brochures, and

instruction books. Other media include videotapes or software-driven tutorials, touchscreen video displays, and menu-driven recorded telephone messages.The most significant recent innovation has been corporate use of Web sites. Companies use the Internet for a wide range of useful applications including the provision of information about train and airline schedules, hotel availability and reservations, the location of specific retail outlets such as restaurants and stores, and service descriptions and prices. Many business logistics companies offer shippers the opportunity to track the movements of their packages—each of which has been assigned a unique identification number.

Order Taking
Once customers are ready to buy, companies must have effective supplementary service processes in place to handle applications, orders, and reservations (Table 7.2). T h e process of order taking should be polite, fast, and accurate so that customers do not waste time and endure unnecessary mental or physical effort. Banks, insurance companies, and utilities require prospective customers to go through an application process designed to gather relevant information and to screen out those w h o do not meet basic enrollment criteria (like a bad credit record or serious health problems). Universities also require prospective students to apply for admission. Reservations (including appointments and check-in) represent a special type of order taking that entitles customers to a defined unit of service at a specific time and location—for example, an airline seat, a restaurant table, a hotel room, time with a qualified professional, or admission to a facility such as a theater or sports arena. Ticketless systems, based upon telephone or online reservations, provide enormous cost savings for airlines. There is no travel agent commission since customers b o o k directly, and the administrative effort is drastically reduced. A paper ticket at an airline may be handled 15 times while an electronic ticket requires just one step. But some customers are not comfortable with the paperless process.

Billing
Billing is common to almost all services (unless the service is provided free of charge). Inaccurate, illegible, or incomplete bills risk disappointing customers w h o may, up to that point, have been quite satisfied with their experience. Such failures add insult to injury if the customer is already dissatisfied. Billing procedures range from verbal statements to a machine-displayed price, and from handwritten invoices to elaborate monthly statements of account activity and fees (Table 7.3). D u e to recent technological advances, many

forms of billing are computerized to capitalize on the potential for productivity improvements. But computerized billing can sometimes cause service failures, as when an innocent customer tries futilely to contest an inaccurate bill and is met by an escalating sequence of ever-larger bills (compounded interest and penalty charges) accompanied by increasingly threatening, computer-generated letters. Customers usually expect bills to be clear and informative, and itemized in ways that make it clear how the total was computed. Unexplained or confusing charges do not create a favorable impression of the supplier. N o r does fuzzy printing or illegible handwriting. Laser printers, with their ability to switch fonts and typefaces, to box and to highlight, can produce statements that are not only more legible but also organize information in more useful ways. Marketing research can help companies design user-friendly bills by identifying what information customers want and h o w they would like it to be organized. Sometimes billing information can even be used to provide extra value to customers. For example, American Express built its Corporate Card business by offering companies detailed documentation of the spending patterns of individual employees and departments on travel and entertainment. Its Corporate Purchasing Card is particularly useful

FIGURE 7.3
American Express Promotes the Benefits of Its Corporate Purchasing Card

CHAPTER SEVEN • THE SERVICE PRODUCT

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for firms making purchases through the Internet, allowing senior management to establish spending limits, designate preferred vendors, and track expenses (Figure 7.3). Intelligent thinking about customer needs led A m E x to realize that well-organized billing information and control of spending were valuable to its business customers, beyond just the basic requirement of knowing h o w much to pay. Busy customers hate to be kept waiting for a bill. Some service providers offer express checkout options, taking customers' credit card details in advance and documenting charges later by mail. Many hotels push bills under guests' doors on the m o r n ing of departure showing charges to date; others offer customers the option of previewing their bills before checkout on the TV monitors in their rooms. Some car rental companies use an alternative express checkout procedure. An agent meets customers as they return their cars, checks the odometer and fuel gauge readings, and then prints a bill on the spot using a portable wireless terminal. Accuracy is essential with all of these billing methods. Since customers use the express checkouts to save time, they certainly don't want to waste time later seeking corrections and refunds.

Payment
In most cases, a bill requires the customer to take action on payment. Bank statements are an exception, since they detail charges that have already been deducted from the customer's account. Increasingly, customers expect ease and convenience of payment, including credit, wherever they make their purchases. A variety of options exists to facilitate customer bill paying (Table 7.4). Self-service payment systems, for instance, require customers to insert coins, banknotes, tokens, or cards in machines. But equipment breakdowns destroy the whole purpose of such a system, so good maintenance and speedy trouble-shooting are essential. M u c h payment still takes place through hand-to-hand transfers of cash and checks, but credit and debit cards are growing in importance as more and more establishments accept them. Other alternatives include tokens, vouchers, coupons, or prepaid tickets. Firms benefit from prompt payment, since it reduces the amount of accounts receivable. To ensure that people actually pay what they owe, some services employ control systems, such as ticket collection before entering a movie theater or boarding a train. However, inspectors and security officers must be trained to combine politeness with firmness in performing their jobs, so that honest customers do not feel harassed.
T A B L E 7 4

Consultation
Consultation is an enhancing supplementary service that involves a dialog to identify customer requirements and develop a personalized solution. Table 7.5 provides examples of several supplementary services in the consultation category. At its simplest, consultation consists of immediate advice from a knowledgeable service person in response to the request: " W h a t do you suggest?" (For example, you might ask the person who cuts your hair for advice on different hairstyles and products.) Effective consultation requires an understanding of each customer's current situation before suggesting a suitable course of action. Good customer records can be a great help in this respect, particularly if relevant data can be retrieved easily from a remote terminal. Counseling represents a more subtle approach to consultation. It involves helping customers better understand their situations so that they can come up with their " o w n " solutions and action programs. This approach can be a particularly valuable supplement to services such as health treatment. Part of the challenge in this situation is to get customers to take a long-term view of their personal situation and to adopt more healthful behaviors, which often involve some initial sacrifice. Diet centers like Weight Watchers use counseling to help customers change their behaviors so that weight loss can be sustained after the initial diet is completed. Finally, there are more formalized efforts to provide management and technical consulting for corporate customers, such as the "solution selling" associated with marketing expensive industrial equipment and services. T h e sales engineer researches the business customer's situation and then offers objective advice about what particular package of equipment and systems will yield the best results. Some consulting services are offered free of charge in the hope of making a sale. In other instances the service is "unbundled" and customers are expected to pay for it.

Hospitality
Hospitality-related services should ideally reflect pleasure at meeting new customers and greeting old ones when they return. Companies like Wal-Mart take this concept quite literally, designating a specific employee in each store to welcome customers as they enter. Well-managed businesses try to ensure that their employees treat customers as guests. Courtesy and consideration for customers' needs apply to both face-to-face encounters and telephone interactions (Table 7.6). Hospitality finds its full expression in face-to-face encounters. In some cases, it starts with an offer of transport to and from

the service site, as with courtesy shuttle buses. If customers must wait outdoors before the service can be delivered, then a thoughtful service provider will offer weather protection. If the wait occurs indoors, then guests should have access to a waiting area with seating and entertainment (TV, newspapers, or magazines) to pass the time. Recruiting employees w h o are naturally warm, welcoming, and considerate for customer-contact jobs also helps to create a hospitable atmosphere. The quality of a firm's hospitality services can increase or decrease satisfaction with the core product.This is especially true for people-processing services where customers cannot easily leave the service facility. Private hospitals often seek to enhance their hospitality by providing the level of r o o m service—including meals—that might be expected in a good hotel. Some air transportation companies (like Singapore Airlines) differentiate themselves from their competitors with better meals and more attentive cabin crew.While in-flight hospitality is important, an airline journey also includes passengers' pre- and post-flight experiences. Air travelers have come to expect departure lounges, but British Airways (BA) came up with the novel idea of an arrivals lounge for its terminals at London's Heathrow and Gatwick airports to serve passengers arriving early in the m o r n i n g after a long, overnight flight from the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Australia. T h e airline allows holders of first- and business-class tickets or a BA Executive Club gold card (awarded to the airline's most frequent flyers) to use a special lounge where they can take a shower, change, have breakfast, and make phone calls or send faxes before continuing to their final destination. T h e arrivals lounge provided such a significant competitive advantage for British Airways that other airlines felt obliged to copy it.

Safekeeping
While visiting a service site, customers often want assistance with their personal possessions. In fact, unless certain safekeeping services are provided (like safe and convenient parking for their cars), some customers may not come at all.The list of potential on-site safekeeping services is long. It includes: provision of coatrooms; luggage transport, handling, and storage; safekeeping of valuables; and even child and pet care (Table 7.7).

Additional safekeeping services are directed at physical products that customers buy or rent. They include packaging, pick-up and delivery, assembly, installation, cleaning, and inspection. Sometimes there's a charge for these services.

Exceptions
Exceptions involve supplementary services that fall outside the routine of normal service delivery (Table 7.8). Astute businesses anticipate exceptions and develop contingency plans and guidelines in advance. That way, employees will not appear helpless and surprised w h e n customers ask for special assistance. Well-defined procedures make it easier for employees to respond promptly and effectively. There are several different types of exceptions: 1. Special requests. There are many circumstances when a customer may request service that requires a departure from normal operating procedures. Advance requests often relate to personal needs, including childcare, dietary requirements, medical needs, religious observances, and personal disabilities. Such special requests are c o m m o n in the travel and hospitality industries. 3. Problem solving. Situations arise w h e n normal service delivery (or product performance) fails to run smoothly as a result of accidents, delays, equipment failures, or customers experiencing difficulty in using the product. 3. Handling of complaints /suggestions /compliments. This activity requires well-defined procedures. It should be easy for customers to express dissatisfaction, offer suggestions for improvement, or pass on compliments, and service providers should be able to make an appropriate response quickly. 4. Restitution. Many customers expect to be compensated for serious performance failures. Compensation may take the form of repairs under warranty, legal settlements, refunds, an offer of free service, or other forms of payment-in-kind. A flexible approach to exceptions is generally a g o o d idea because it reflects responsiveness to customer needs. On the other hand, too many exceptions may

compromise safety, negatively impact other customers, and overburden employees. Managers need to keep an eye on the level of exception requests. Large numbers of exceptions may indicate a need to reexamine standard service procedures. For instance, if a restaurant constantly receives requests for special vegetarian meals w h e n there are none on the menu, then it may be time to revise the m e n u to include at least one meatless dish.

Managerial Implications of the Flower of Service
The eight categories of supplementary services that form the Flower of Service provide many options for enhancing the core service product. Most supplementary services do (or should) represent responses to customer needs. As noted earlier, some are facilitating services—like information and reservations—that enable customers to use the core product more effectively. Others are "extras" that enhance the core or even reduce its nonfinancial costs (for example, meals, magazines, and entertainment are hospitality elements that help pass the time). Some elements—notably billing and payment—are imposed by the service provider. But even if not actively desired by the customer, they still form part of the overall service experience. Any badly handled element may negatively affect customers' perceptions of service quality. T h e "information" and "consultation" petals emphasize the need for education as well as promotion in communicating with service customers. A key insight from the Flower of Service concept is that different types of core products often share use of similar supplementary elements. As a result, customers may make comparisons across unrelated industries. For instance, "If my stockbroker can give me clear documentation of my account activity, why can't the department store where I shop?" Or "If my favorite airline can take reservations accurately, why can't the French restaurant up the street?" Questions like these suggest that managers should be studying businesses outside their own industries in a search for "best-in-class" performers on specific supplementary services. N o t every core product will be surrounded by a large n u m b e r of supplementary services from all eight petals. People-processing services t e n d to be the most demanding in terms of supplementary elements like hospitality, since they involve close (and often extended) interactions with c u s t o m e r s . W h e n customers do not visit the service factory, the need for hospitality may be limited to simple courtesies in letters and t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . Possession-processing services sometimes place heavy demands on safekeeping elements, but there may be no need for this particular petal in information-processing services w h e r e customers and suppliers deal entirely at arm's length. However, financial services that are provided electronically are an exception to this. C o m p a n i e s must ensure that their customers' intangible financial assets are carefully safeguarded in transactions that occur via p h o n e or the Web. Companies in the business-to-business sector face many decisions concerning what types of supplementary services to offer. A study of Japanese, American, and European firms found that most simply added layer upon layer of services to their core offerings without knowing what customers really valued. 5 Managers surveyed in the study indicated that they did not understand which services should be offered to customers as a standard package accompanying the core, and which should be offered as options for an extra charge. There are no simple rules governing decisions about core products and supplementary services. But managers should continually review their firms' product offerings to make sure they are in line with both market practice and customer needs. A study of plastic surgeons' offices and procedures suggests that poor performance on

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SERVICE MARKETING STRATEGY

supplementary services—notably, u n w a n t e d information and inhospitable waiting areas—creates unfavorable initial impressions that may lead patients to cancel surgery or even change doctors (see the box titled "Cosmetic Surgeons' Offices Disappoint Patients"). Customer needs and expectations often vary by segment. Consider the example of Asea Brown Boveri (ABB), a supplier of power plant equipment and maintenance services to utilities companies. ABB's Power Transformers business realized that not all customers needed or wanted the same levels of maintenance service; some utilities prefer to handle maintenance in-house, using their o w n employees and equipment. Instead of simply supplying a comprehensive maintenance service to all of its customers, ABB n o w offers different levels of service and prices as part of a negotiated service agreement. It no longer requires customers to have ABB service all aspects of their transformers. Instead, they can choose the combination of supplementary services that they prefer. 6 Tables 7.1 t h r o u g h 7.8 can be used to identify value-added ways to augment existing core products and design n e w offerings. T h e lists provided in these eight tables do not claim to be all encompassing, since some products may require specialized supplementary elements. A company's marketing strategy helps to determine which supplementary services should be included. A strategy of adding benefits to increase customers'perceptions of quality will probably require more supplementary services (and also a higher level of performance on all such elements) than a strategy of competing on low prices. In general, a firm that competes on a low-cost, no-frills basis will require fewer s u p p l e m e n t a r y elements than o n e that is m a r k e t i n g an expensive, high-value-added product. And firms that offer different grades of service—like first class, business class, and economy class in an airline context—often

Cosmetic Surgeons' Offices Disappoint Patients
It appears that plastic surgeons could use some service marketing training along with their other courses in medical school. That's the diagnosis of two experts, Kate Altork and Douglas Dedo, who did a study of patients' reactions to doctors' offices. They found that many patients will cancel a surgery, change doctors, or refuse to consider future elective surgery if they feel uneasy in the doctor's office. The study results suggested that patients won't usually "doctor-jump" because they don't like the doctor; they defect because they don't like the context of the service experience. The list of common patient dislikes includes: graphic posters of moles and skin cancers decorating office walls; uncomfortable plastic identification bracelets for patients; claustrophobic examining rooms with no windows or current reading material; bathrooms that aren't clearly marked; and not enough wastebaskets and water coolers in the waiting room. What do patients want? Most requests are surprisingly simple and involve creature comforts like tissues, water coolers, telephones, plants, and bowls of candy in the waiting room and live flower arrangements in the lobby. Patients also want windows in the examining rooms and gowns that wrap around the entire body. They would like to sit on a real chair when they talk to a doctor instead of perching on a stool or examining table. Finally, preoperative patients prefer to be separated from postoperative patients, since they are disturbed by sitting next to someone in the waiting room whose head is enclosed in bandages. These study results suggest that cosmetic surgery patients would rather visit an office that looks more like a health spa than a hospital ward. By thinking like service marketers, savvy surgeons could look outside their own industries to find ways of creating patient-friendly environments that will complement rather than counteract their technical expertise.

differentiate t h e m by adding extra supplementary services to a c o m m o n core for each upgrade in service. Regardless of which supplementary services a firm decides to offer, the elements in each petal should receive the care and attention needed to consistently meet defined service standards. That way the resulting Flower of Service will always have a fresh and appealing appearance rather than looking wilted or disfigured by neglect.

SERVICE DESIGN
Service design is a complex task that requires an understanding of how the core and supplementary services are combined to create a product offering that meets the needs of target customers. For physical objects like new buildings or ships, the design is usually captured on architectural drawings called blueprints (because reproductions have traditionally been printed on special paper where all the drawings and annotations appear in blue).These blueprints show what the product should look like and detail the specifications to which it should conform. In contrast to the physical architecture of a building, ship, or piece of equipment, services have a largely intangible structure that makes t h e m all the more difficult to plan and execute. However, it is possible to m a p service processes by defining the steps required to provide the core and supplementary product elements. To do this, we b o r r o w p r o c e s s - m a p p i n g t e c h n i q u e s from logistics, industrial e n g i n e e r i n g , decision theory, and c o m p u t e r systems analysis, each of which uses blueprint-like techniques to describe processes involving flows, sequences, relationships, and dependencies. 7 Blueprinting can be used to document an existing service or design a n e w service concept. We introduced a simpler version of blueprinting k n o w n as flowcharting in Chapter 4. But in that case our focus was limited to front-stage service delivery from the customer's perspective. As you'll see, blueprinting provides more extensive documentation of the activities involved in producing a service. To develop a blueprint, you need to be able to identify all of the key activities involved in service delivery and production, clarify the sequence, and to specify the linkages b e t w e e n these activities. 8 S e r v i c e b l u e p r i n t s clarify the interactions between customers and employees and h o w these are supported by additional activities and systems backstage. As a result, they can facilitate the integration of marketing, operations, and h u m a n resource management within a firm. This can be beneficial, since operationally oriented businesses are sometimes so focused on managing backstage activities that they neglect to consider the customer's view of front-stage activities. Accounting firms, for instance, often have elaborately d o c u m e n t e d procedures and standards for h o w to conduct an audit properly, but may lack clear standards for w h e n and h o w to host a client meeting or h o w to answer the telephone when clients call. By analyzing blueprints, managers are often able to identify potential fail points in the service delivery process where there's a significant risk of problems that can hurt service quality. Knowledge of these fail points enables managers to design procedures to avoid their occurrence or implement effective recovery strategies if necessary. Blueprints can also pinpoint parts of the process where customers commonly have to wait. Standards can then be developed for these activities that include times for completion of a task, maximum wait times in between tasks, and scripts to guide interactions between staff members and customers. Blueprints of existing services can suggest ideas for p r o d u c t i m p r o v e m e n t s . Managers may spot opportunities to reconfigure delivery systems (perhaps through

service blueprint: a visual map of the sequence of activities required for service delivery that specifies frontstage and backstage elements and the linkages between them.

fail point: a point in a process where there is a significant risk of problems that can damage service quality.

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use of n e w technologies), add or delete specific elements, or reposition the service to appeal to o t h e r segments. For example, Canadian Pacific Hotels (which operates hotels u n d e r Fairmont and Delta brand names) decided to redesign its hotel services. It had already b e e n successful w i t h conventions, meetings, and g r o u p travel but w a n t e d to build greater b r a n d loyalty a m o n g business travelers. T h e c o m p a n y blueprinted the entire "guest e x p e r i e n c e " from pulling up at the hotel to getting the car keys from the valet. For each encounter, Canadian Pacific defined an expected service level based on customer feedback and created systems to m o n i t o r service performance. It also redesigned some aspects of its service processes to provide business guests w i t h m o r e personalized service. T h e payoff for C a n a d i a n Pacific's redesign efforts was a 16-percent increase in its share of business travelers in a single year. There's no single "best" way to prepare a service blueprint, but it's helpful to adopt a consistent approach within a single organization. In this chapter, we adapt and simplify an approach proposed by Jane Kingman-Brundage. 9 If desired, any aspect of a blueprint can subsequently be examined in greater detail.

Developing a Service Blueprint
To illustrate blueprinting, let's examine the process of dining at Chez Jean, an upscale restaurant that enhances its core food service with a variety of supplementary services. A typical rule of thumb in full-service restaurants is that the cost of purchasing the food ingredients represents about 20 to 30 percent of the price of the meal. T h e balance can be seen as the "fees" that the customer is willing to pay for supplementary benefits like renting a table and chairs in a pleasant setting, hiring the services of food preparation experts and their kitchen equipment, and having staff to wait on them both inside and outside the dining room. Figure 7.4 (shown on pages 156—159) contains a blueprint of the Chez Jean restaurant experience. T h e key components of the blueprint (reading from top to bottom) are: 1. Definition of standards for each front-stage activity (only a few examples are actually specified here) 2. Physical and other evidence for front-stage activities (specified for all steps) 3. Principal customer actions (illustrated by pictures) 4. Line of interaction 5. Front-stage actions by customer-contact personnel 6. Line of visibility 7. Backstage actions by customer-contact personnel 8. Support processes involving other service personnel 9. Support processes involving information technology Reading from left to right, the blueprint prescribes the sequence of actions over time. To emphasize the involvement of human actors in the service delivery process, our blueprint uses pictures to illustrate each of the 14 principal steps in which our two customers are involved. T h e process begins with making a reservation and concludes with departure from the restaurant after the meal. Like many high-contact services involving discrete transactions, the restaurant experience can be divided into three "acts," representing activities that take place before the core product is encountered, delivery of the core product (in this case, the meal), and subsequent activities while still involved with the service provider.

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Act I: Starting the Service Experience
Act I begins with the customer making a reservation—an interaction conducted by telephone with an unseen employee. In theatrical terms, the telephone conversation might be likened to a radio drama, with impressions being created by the speed of response, tone of the respondent's voice, and style of the conversation. O n c e the customers arrive at the restaurant, the "stage" or servicescape includes both the exterior and interior of the restaurant. From this point on, front-stage actions take place in a very visual environment. Restaurants are often quite theatrical in their use of physical evidence like furnishings, decor, uniforms, lighting, and table settings; they may also employ background music to help create an environment that matches their market positioning. By the time our customers reach their table in the dining room, they have been exposed to several supplementary services, including reservations, valet parking, coatroom, cocktails, and seating. They have also seen a sizeable cast of characters, including five or more contact personnel and many other customers. Standards that are based on a good understanding of guest expectations should be set for each of these service activities. Below the line of visibility, the blueprint identifies key actions that should take place to ensure that each front-stage step is performed in a m a n n e r that meets or exceeds customer expectations. These actions include recording reservations, handling customers' coats, delivery and preparation of food, maintenance of facilities and equipment, training and assignment of staff for each task, and use of information technology to access, input, store, and transfer relevant data.

Identifying the Fail Points R u n n i n g a good restaurant is a complex business and much can go wrong. T h e most serious fail points, marked by Q. are those that will result in failure to access or enjoy the core product.They involve the reservation (Could the customer get through by phone? Was a table available at the desired time and date? Was the reservation recorded accurately?) and seating (Was a table available w h e n promised?). Since service delivery takes place over time, there is also the possibility of delays between specific actions that will cause customers to wait. Points at which there is a risk of such a wait are identified by a y(^\ Excessive waits at critical steps in delivery can be classified as fail points, because they will annoy customers and negatively impact perceived service quality. Every step in the process has some potential for failures and delays. David Maister coined the term O T S U ("opportunity to screw up") to highlight the importance of thinking about all the things that might go wrong in delivering a particular type of service. 10 O T S U s can be very humorous if you're not personally involved. J o h n Cleese made millions laugh with his portrayal of an inept hotel manager in the television series Fmt'lty Towers. Chevy Chase and Steve Martin have entertained movie audiences for years by playing customers tortured by inept, rude, or downright cruel service employees. However, customers don't always see the funny side w h e n the joke is on them. That's why it is important for service managers to identify all the possible O T S U s associated with a particular task so they can put together a delivery system that is explicitly designed to avoid these problems.

Setting S e r v i c e S t a n d a r d s T h r o u g h b o t h formal research and o n - t h e - j o b experience, service managers can learn the nature of customer expectations at each step in the process. As discussed in other chapters, customers' expectations range across a spectrum—referred to as the zone of tolerance—from desired service (an ideal) to a threshold level of merely adequate service. Service providers should design

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FIGURE 7.4
Blueprinting a Full-Service Restaurant Experience

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FIGURE 7.4
(continued)

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standards for each step that are sufficiently high to satisfy and even delight customers. These standards may include time parameters for specific activities, the script for a technically correct performance, and prescriptions for appropriate employee style and demeanor. T h e initial steps of service delivery are particularly important, since customers' first impressions can affect their evaluations of quality during later stages of service delivery. Perceptions of their service experiences tend to be cumulative. 1 1 If things go badly at the outset, customers may simply walk out. Even if they stay, they may be looking for other things that aren't quite right. On the other hand, if the first steps go well, their zones of tolerance may increase so that they are more willing to overlook minor mistakes later in the service performance. Research by Marriott Hotels has found that four of the five top factors contributing to customer loyalty come into play during the first 10 minutes of service delivery. 12 While initial impressions are critical, performance standards should not be allowed to fall off toward the end of service delivery. O t h e r research findings point to the importance of a strong finish. They suggest that a service encounter that starts poorly but then increases in quality will be better rated than one that starts well but declines to a poor conclusion.

Act II: Delivery of the Core Product
In Act II, our customers are finally about to experience the core service they came for. We've condensed the meal into just four scenes for simplicity's sake. But reviewing the m e n u and placing the order are actually two separate activities and meal service typically proceeds on a course-by-course basis. Assuming all goes well, the two guests will have an excellent meal, nicely served in a pleasant atmosphere, and perhaps a fine wine to enhance it. But there is always the possibility that the restaurant won't satisfy customer expectations during Act II. T h e answers to the following questions can help managers identify potential fail points: Is the m e n u information complete? Is it intelligible? Is everything that's listed on the m e n u available this evening? Will employees provide explanations and advice in a friendly and noncondescending manner for guests w h o have questions about specific m e n u items or are unsure about which wine to order? After o u r customers decide on their meals, they place their order w i t h the server, w h o must t h e n pass on the details to p e r s o n n e l in the k i t c h e n , bar, and billing desk. Mistakes in transmitting information are a frequent cause of quality failures in many organizations. Bad handwriting or unclear verbal requests can lead to delivery of the w r o n g items a l t o g e t h e r — o r of the right items incorrectly prepared. As Act II continues, our customers evaluate not only the quality of food and drink—the most important dimension of all—but also how promptly it is served and the style of service. A disinterested, ingratiating, or overly casual server can still spoil a technically correct performance.

Act III: Concluding the Service Performance
T h e meal may be over, b u t m u c h activity is still taking place b o t h front stage and backstage as the service process moves to its close. T h e core service has n o w been delivered, and we'll assume that our customers are happily digesting it. Act III should be short. T h e action in each of t h e r e m a i n i n g scenes should move smoothly, quickly, and pleasantly, with no shocking surprises at the end. In a N o r t h

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American environment, most customers' expectations would probably include the following: >- An accurate, intelligible bill is presented promptly as soon as customers request it. >- Payment is handled politely and expeditiously (with all major credit cards accepted). >• Guests are thanked for their patronage and invited to come again. >- Customers visiting the restrooms find them clean and properly supplied. »- T h e right coats are promptly retrieved from the coat room. >- T h e customers' car is brought promptly to the door in the same condition as when it was left. >- T h e parking lot attendant thanks them again and bids them a good evening. But how often do failures at the end of a service intervene to ruin the customers' experience and spoil their good humor? Can you remember situations in which the experience of a nice meal was completely spoiled by one or more failures in concluding the service delivery? Informal research among participants in dozens of executive programs has found that the most commonly cited source of dissatisfaction with restaurants is an inability to get the bill quickly w h e n customers are ready to leave! This seemingly minor O T S U can sour the overall dining experience even if everything else has gone well. (For some suggestions on reducing customer waits, see the box, "In and O u t Food Service.") We chose a restaurant example to illustrate b l u e p r i n t i n g because it is a high-contact, people-processing service that is familiar to most readers. However, many possession-processing services (like repair or maintenance) and informationprocessing services (like insurance or accounting) involve far less contact w i t h customers since m u c h of the action takes place backstage. In these situations, a

In and Out Food Service
When customers are on a tight time budget, making them wait unnecessarily at any point in the process is akin to stealing their time. Restaurant Hospitality, a trade magazine for the restaurant industry, offers the following 10 suggestions for serving customers quickly without making them feel like they've been pushed out of the door. As you'll see, some of these tactics involve front-stage processes while others take place backstage—but it is the interaction between front stage and backstage that creates the desired service delivery. 1. Distinguish between patrons who are in a hurry, and those who are not. 2. Design specials that are quick. 3. Guide hurried customers to those specials. 4. Place the quickest, highest-margin menu items either first or last on the menu. 5. Offer dishes that can be prepared ahead of time. 6. Warn customers when they order menu items that will take a lot of time to prepare. 7. Consider short-line buffets, roving carts, and more sandwiches. 8. Offer "wrap"-style sandwiches, which are a quickly prepared, filling meal. 9. Use equipment built for speed, like combination ovens. 10. Eliminate preparation steps that require cooks to stop cooking.

REENGINEERING SERVICE PROCESSES
Blueprinting can provide valuable insights by suggesting opportunities to reengineer business processes, improve capacity planning, and better define employee roles. T h e design of business processes has important implications for the nature and quality of the customer's experience as well as the cost, speed, and productivity w i t h which the desired outcome is achieved. Improving productivity in services often requires speeding up the overall process, since the cost of creating a service is usually related to h o w long it takes to deliver each step in the process (plus any dead time between each step). W h e n they are relaxing or being entertained, customers don't mind spending time. But w h e n they are busy, they hate wasting time and often view time expenditures as something to be minimized. Even w h e n customers aren't directly involved in the process, the elapsed time between ordering and receiving a service may be seen as burdensome (for example, waiting for repair of a broken machine, installation of a new computer system, receipt of legal advice, or delivery of a consulting report). R e e n g i n e e r i n g involves analyzing and redesigning business processes to achieve faster and better performance. To reduce the overall time for a process, analysts must identify each step, measure h o w long it takes, look for opportunities to speed it up (or even eliminate it altogether), and cut out dead time. R u n n i n g tasks in parallel rather than in sequence is a well-established approach to speed up processes (a simple household example would be to cook the vegetables for a meal while the main dish was in the oven, rather than waiting to cook t h e m until after the main dish was removed). Examination of business processes sometimes leads to creation of alternative delivery forms that are so radically different as to constitute entirely new service concepts. Options may include eliminating certain supplementary services, adding new ones, transforming personal service into self-service, or rethinking the location where service delivery takes place. Figure 7.5 illustrates this principle with simple flowcharts of four alternative ways to deliver meal service. Take a m o m e n t to compare and contrast what happens front stage at a fast-food restaurant, a drive-in restaurant, h o m e delivery, and h o m e catering. And now, for each alternative, think about the implications for backstage activities.

reengineering: the analysis and redesign of business processes to create dramatic performance improvements in such areas as cost, quality, speed, and customers' service experiences.

Understanding Employee Roles
M a n y of the benefits of b l u e p r i n t i n g c o m e from the actual nature of the w o r k required to create the charts—especially if employees themselves are directly involved in the task. Participation in mapping specific processes gives employees a clearer picture of their roles and responsibilities and makes t h e m feel like part of a team that is responsible for implementing a shared service vision. Blueprints can also help managers and employees understand the service delivery process as customers experience it. Blueprinting can also be used to show backstage personnel how their work relates to that of their front-stage colleagues. Backstage personnel provide a series of internal services (represented by each of the vertically stacked boxes in Figure 7.4) that support

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FIGURE 7.5
front-stage activities. If they do their jobs poorly, the employees working backstage may create problems for their coworkers with customer-contact responsibilities. It's not always possible to give either external or internal customers exactly the service that they would like, but blueprinting can be a valuable tool for facilitating discussion about how to improve service processes. Flowcharts for Meal Delivery Scenarios

Conclusion
In mature industries, the core service can become a commodity. T h e search for competitive advantage often centers on improvements to the supplementary services that surround this core. In this chapter, we grouped supplementary services into eight categories, circling the core like the petals of a flower. T h e y are categorized as either facilitating or enhancing supplementary services. Facilitating supplementary services aid in the use of the core product or are required for service delivery, while enhancing supplementary services add extra value for customers. Designing the overall service experience is a complex task that requires an understanding of h o w the core and supplementary services should be c o m b i n e d and sequenced to create a product offering that meets the needs of target customers. Blueprinting is a structured procedure for analyzing existing services and planning new ones. In particular, it enables us to define the different components of the augmented service, to examine the sequence in which they are delivered, and to identify potential fail points. We also gain insights into what is happening to the customer at each stage. Supporting each front-stage action are backstage activities involving people, supporting equipment and facilities, and information (often stored in a databank). As we discussed, a poorly organized backstage can lead to failures that are experienced by the customer.

SERVICE MARKETING STRATEGY

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Define what is meant by the core product and supplementary services. Can they be applied to goods as well as services? Explain your answer. 2. W h a t service failures have you encountered recently? D i d they involve the core product or supplementary service elements? Identify possible causes and suggest how such failures might be prevented in the future. 3. Explain the distinction between enhancing and facilitating supplementary services. Give several examples of each for services that you have used recently. 4. R e v i e w the blueprint of the restaurant experience in this chapter (Figure 7.4). Identify and categorize each of the supplementary services described in the figure. 5. Prepare detailed blueprints for the following services: a. Repair of a damaged bicycle b. Applying to college or graduate school c. R e n t i n g a car 6. Describe the different types of information that service blueprints can provide.

10. David Maister, now president of Maister Associates, coined the term OTSU while teaching at Harvard Business School in the 1980s. 11. See for example, Eric J. Arnould and Linda L. Price, "River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter," Journal of Consumer Research 20 (June 1993): 24-25; Nick Johns and Phil Tyas, "Customer Perceptions of Service Operations: Gestalt, Incident or Mythology?" The Service Industries Journal 17 (July 1997): 474-488. 12. "How Marriott Makes a Great First Impression," The Service Edge 6 (May 1993): 5. 13. David E. Hansen and Peter J. Danaher, "Inconsistent Performance during the Service Encounter: What's a Good Start Worth!" Journal of Service Research 1 (February 1999): 227-235.

Pricing Strategies for Services
"Name Your O w n Price" w i t h Priceline.com
Priceline.com was launched in 1998 to give customers some leverage in purchasing a variety of services.1 Using the slogan, "Name Your Own Price," the Internet-based company invited price-conscious consumers to make offers for services such as airline tickets, hotel rooms, rental cars, long-distance phone service, and mortgages. In addition to helping customers save money, Priceline offered sellers an opportunity to generate incremental revenue without disrupting their existing distribution channels or retail pricing structures. Priceline termed its approach a demand collection system. Through its Web site, the firm collected consumer demand (in the form of individual bids guaranteed by a credit card) for a particular service at prices set by those customers. It then communicated that demand directly to participating sellers or to their private databases. Customers agreed to hold their offers open for a specified period of time, during which Priceline sought to fulfill their offers from inventory provided by participating sellers. Users of the service had to be flexible with regard to brands, sellers, and/or product features. Once fulfilled, purchases normally couldn't be canceled. The concept of giving customers the freedom to set their own prices initially attracted a lot of attention and enthusiasm. The firm's market value rose to $20 billion within a month after it went public in 1999. Founder (and then-CEO) Jay Walker expanded Priceline's offerings to include hotel rooms, rental cars, home mortgages, long-distance telephone services, and cars. He also added services like WebHouse Club that allowed customers to bid on groceries and gasoline. Promoted heavily through television advertising featuring actor William Shatner (best known for his role of Captain Kirk in Star Trek), Priceline soon became one of the most widely recognized brand names in e-commerce. But in spite of Priceline's promising start, things began to go wrong in 2000. Instead of taking a markup on the inventory that it held and resold, Priceline sometimes found itself selling rooms, tickets, and even gasoline at prices below its own cost. There was a growing number of complaints, ranging from hidden airline charges to shabby hotel facilities; consumer dissatisfaction was compounded by poor customer service, eventually leading to an investigation by the attorney general in the company's home state of Connecticut and expulsion from the local Better Business Bureau. The company's business model had worked best in the air travel market, where Priceline accounted for about 4 percent of all ticket sales in the United States. However, new competition emerged in October 2000 when a number of airlines got together to create their own Internet service to dispose of unsold tickets at discounts of up to 40 percent. Named Hotwire, this service differed from Priceline in that users specified their travel needs (but no price) and received an almost immediate fare offer; however, as with Priceline, customers didn't learn the carrier name or precise schedule until after they had purchased the ticket. WebHouse Club service had to be discontinued in late 2000 when it became clear that suppliers weren't eager to provide groceries or gasoline at cut-rate prices in response to consumer bids. And consumers themselves got frustrated at the conditions that sellers often

attached to sales, such as a requirement to sign up for trial magazine subscriptions. In response to investigations into consumer complaints, the firm added more customer service reps, improved its training procedures, and instituted more consistent guidelines on problem resolution. Misleading procedures on the Web site were corrected. In particular, the full amount that customers would have to pay for an airline ticket, including all taxes and fuel charges, was disclosed on a single page; previously, the extras were noted on separate screens. Finally, an important phrasing change, from "Submitting my offer now" to "Buy my ticket now" clarified that customers were committing themselves to a purchase if their offer was accepted. Seeking to sharpen its focus, Priceline announced that it was restructuring its operations, cutting staff, and canceling plans to add cell phone services and insurance. But Hotwire disclosed that it was expanding service to include hotel rooms and international air travel. Further bad news for Priceline came from the departure of key executives and a plummeting stock price. All in all, the future looked very uncertain for Priceline as it entered 2001, with promises of profits still unfulfilled and news that the company's market valuation on Wall Street had sunk to an alltime low of only $200 million—down more than 99 percent from its peak.

PAYING FOR SERVICE: THE CUSTOMER'S PERSPECTIVE
Have you ever noticed what a wide variety of terms service organizations use to describe the prices they set? Universities talk about tuition, professional firms collect fees, and banks charge interest on loans or add service charges. Some bridges and highways impose tolls, transport operators collect fares, clubs charge subscriptions, utilities set tariffs, insurance companies establish premiums, and hotels establish room rates.These diverse terms are a signal that service industries have historically taken a different approach to pricing than manufacturers. Answering the question, What price should we charge for our service? is a task that can't be left solely to financial managers. T h e challenges of service pricing require active participation from marketers w h o understand customer needs and behavior and from operations managers w h o recognize the importance of matching demand to available capacity. T h e discussion that follows in this chapter assumes a basic understanding of the economic costs—fixed, semivariable, and variable—incurred by companies, as well as the concepts of contribution and break-even analysis. If you haven't previously been exposed to this material or feel you could benefit from a refresher, you may want to review the information in the box titled "Understanding Costs, C o n t r i b u t i o n , and Break-Even Analysis" on page 169.

What Makes Service Pricing Different?
Let's consider h o w some of the differences between goods and services marketing that we discussed in Chapter 1 may affect pricing strategy. No O w n e r s h i p of S e r v i c e s It's usually harder for managers to calculate the financial costs involved in creating an intangible performance for a customer than it is to identify the labor, materials, machine time, storage, and shipping costs associated with producing a physical good. Yet w i t h o u t a good understanding of costs, h o w can managers hope to price at levels sufficient to achieve a desired profit margin? H i g h e r R a t i o of F i x e d C o s t s to Variable C o s t s Because of the labor and infrastructure needed to create performances, many service organizations have a much higher ratio of fixed costs to variable costs than is found in manufacturing firms. 2 Service businesses with high fixed costs include those with an expensive physical facility (e.g., a hotel, a hospital, a university, or a theater), or a fleet of vehicles (e.g., an airline, a bus company, or a trucking company), or a network dependent on company-owned infrastructure (e.g., a telecommunications company, an Internet provider, a railroad, or a gas pipeline).While the fixed costs may be high for such businesses, the variable costs for serving one extra customer may be minimal. Variability of B o t h Inputs and O u t p u t s . It's not always easy to define a unit of service, raising questions as to what should be the basis for service pricing. And seemingly similar units of service may not cost the same to produce, nor may they be of equal value to all customers. T h e potential for variability in service performances (especially those that involve interactions with employees and other customers) means that customers may pay the same price for a service but receive different levels of quality and value. Alternatively, they may be charged radically different prices for the same service offering, as often happens in the hotel industry. Advertising byTravelscape.com, the do-it-yourself travel site, emphasizes its ability to help customers quickly find the cheapest price for a hotel room (see Figure 8.1).

Many Services Are Hard to Evaluate T h e intangibility of service performances and the invisibility of the backstage facilities and labor make it harder for customers to know what they are getting for their money than w h e n they purchase a physical good. Consider the homeowners w h o call an electrical firm, seeking repairs to a defective circuit.A few days later (if they are lucky) an electrician arrives with a small bag of tools. Within 20 minutes, the problem is located and a new circuit breaker installed. Presto, everything works! Subsequently, the owners are horrified to receive a bill for $65, most of it for labor charges. But they're overlooking all the fixed costs that the firm needs to recover, such as the office, telephone, vehicles, tools, fuel, and support staff. T h e variable costs of the visit are also higher than they appear. Fifteen minutes of driving back and forth plus 5 minutes to unload (and later reload) needed tools and supplies from the van on arrival at the house must be added to the 20 minutes spent at the customers' house. These activities effectively double the labor time devoted to this call. Finally, the firm

Understanding Costs, Contribution, and Break-Even Analysis
Fixed costs—sometimes referred to as overheads—are those economic costs that a supplier would continue to incur (at least in the short run) even if no services were sold. These costs may include rent, depreciation, utilities, taxes, insurance, salaries and wages for managers and long-term employees, security, and interest payments. Variable costs refer to the economic costs associated with serving an additional customer, such as making another bank transaction, selling an additional seat in a train or theater, serving an extra hotel guest for the night in a hotel, or completing one more repair job. For many services, such costs are very low. There is, for instance, very little labor or fuel cost involved in transporting an extra bus passenger. Selling a hotel room for the night has slightly higher variable costs, since the room will need to be cleaned and the linens sent to the laundry after a guest leaves. More significant variable costs are associated with activities like serving food and beverages or installing a new part when making repairs, since they include the provision of costly physical products in addition to labor. Just because a firm has sold a service at a price that exceeds its variable costs does not mean that the firm is now profitable. There are still fixed and semivariable costs to be covered. Semivariable costs fall in between fixed and variable costs. They represent expenses that rise or fall in stepwise fashion as the volume of business increases/decreases. Examples include adding an extra flight to meet increased demand on a specific air route, or hiring a part-time employee to work in a restaurant on busy weekends. Contribution is the difference between the variable cost of selling an extra unit of service and the money received for that service. It goes to cover fixed and semivariable costs before creating profits. Determining and allocating economic costs can be a challenging task in some service operations. For example, it's difficult to decide how to assign fixed costs in a multi-service facility like a hospital. There are certain fixed costs associated with running the emergency unit. Beyond that there are fixed costs for running the entire hospital. How much of the hospital's fixed costs should be allocated to the emergency unit? A hospital manager might use one of several approaches to calculate the unit's share of overheads. These could include (1) the percentage of total floor space that it occupies, (2) the percentage of employee hours or payroll that it accounts for, or (3) the percentage of total patient contact hours involved. Each method is likely to yield a totally different fixed-cost allocation. One method might indicate that the emergency unit is very profitable, another might make it seem like a break-even operation, and a third might suggest that the unit is losing money. Break-even analysis. Managers need to know at what sales volume a service will become profitable. This is called the breakeven point. The necessary analysis involves dividing the total fixed and semivariable costs by the contribution obtained on each unit of service. For instance, if a 100-room hotel needs to cover fixed and semivariable costs of $2 million a year and the average contribution per room-night is $100, then the hotel will need to sell 20,000 room-nights per year out of a total annual capacity of 36,500. If prices are cut by an average of $20 per room night (or variable costs rise by $20), then the contribution will drop to $80 and the hotel's break-even volume will rise to 25,000 room nights.

has to add a margin to the bill in order to make a profit for the owner. However, these intrinsic costs are not readily visible to the customers, w h o are making their comparisons of price versus value based solely on visible service attributes. I m p o r t a n c e of t h e T i m e Factor T i m e often drives value. In many instances, customers are willing to pay more for a service delivered at a preferred time than for a service ofiered at a less convenient time. They may also choose to pay more for faster delivery of some services—compare the cost of express mail against that of regular mail. Sometimes greater speed increases operating costs for the service provider, reflecting the need to pay overtime wages or use m o r e expensive equipment. In o t h e r instances, achieving faster turnaround is simply a matter of giving priority to one customer over another. For instance, clothes requiring express dry-cleaning take the same amount of time to clean.The firm saves time for these customers by moving their jobs to the head of the line. Availability of B o t h Electronic and Physical Distribution Channels T h e use of different channels to deliver the same service can affect costs and perceived value. Electronic banking transactions are m u c h cheaper for a bank than face-to-face contact in a branch. W h i l e some people like the convenience of impersonal b u t efficient electronic transactions, others prefer to deal with a real bank teller. T h u s , a service delivered t h r o u g h a particular channel may have value for one person b u t n o t for another. Companies must balance customer needs and preferences against the desire to reduce production costs, because in some cases customers may be willing to accept a price increase in order to have access to a physical distribution channel.

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Ethical Concerns
Services often invite performance and pricing abuses. T h e problem is especially acute for services that are high in credence attributes, whose quality and benefits are hard to evaluate even after delivery. 3 Exploiting C u s t o m e r I g n o r a n c e W h e n customers don't k n o w what they are getting from a service supplier, are not present w h e n the work is being performed, and lack the technical skills to know if a good j o b has been done, they are vulnerable to paying for work that wasn't done, wasn't necessary, or was poorly executed. Although price can serve as a surrogate for quality, it's sometimes hard to be sure if the extra value is really there. This is an important issue, since customers may rely more heavily on price cues as an indication of service value w h e n perceived risks (e.g., functional, financial, psychological, or social) are high. Web sites sometimes take advantage of customer ignorance, particularly where airline tickets are concerned. Although there are many Internet travel sites, finding the cheapest fare isn't easy. Priceline initially confused customers by not clarifying that airport taxes and fuel surcharges had to be added to ticket prices. Complexity and Unfairness Pricing schedules for services are often quite complex. Changing circumstances sometimes result in complicated pricing schedules that are difficult for consumers to interpret. C o n s i d e r the credit card industry. Traditionally, the banks that issue these cards received revenues from two sources: a small percentage of the value of each transaction (paid by the merchant), and high interest charges on credit balances. As credit cards became more popular, costs started to rise for the banks on two fronts. First, more customers defaulted on their balances, leading to a big increase in bad debts. Second, as competition increased between banks, marketing expenses rose and gold and platinum cards started offering more affluent customers features like free travel insurance, emergency card replacement, and points redeemable for air miles. But as marketing expenses were rising, m o r e customers started to pay off their monthly balances in full and competition led to lower interest rates, resulting in lower revenues. So the banks increased other charges and imposed new fees that were often confusing to customers. Details of charges by one major bank for its platinum card are shown in the box entitled "Charges, Fees, and Terms for a Platinum Visa Card." Another industry that has gained notoriety for its complex and sometimes misleading pricing schedules is cellular telephone service. Consumer Reports has warned its readers about such practices as rounding up calling time to the nearest minute, misrepresentation of "free" service elements that turn out not to be so, and huge cancellation fees ($150 to $200) for terminating a one-year contract before it expires. 5 Complexity makes it easier—and perhaps more tempting—for firms to engage in unethical behavior. T h e car rental industry has attracted some notoriety for advertising bargain rental prices and then telling customers on arrival that other fees like collision insurance and personal insurance are compulsory. A n d employees sometimes fail to clarify certain "small print" contract terms such as a high per mile charge that is added once the car exceeds a very low threshold of free miles. T h e "hidden extras" p h e n o m enon for car rentals in some Florida resort towns got so bad at one point that people were joking: "the car is free, the keys are extra! "A not u n c o m m o n practice is to charge fees for refueling a partially empty tank that far exceed what the driver would pay at the pump. When customers know that they are vulnerable to potential abuse, they become [ suspicious of both the firm and its employees. Assuming that a firm has honest manage-

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ment, the best approach is a proactive one, spelling out all fees and expenses clearly in advance so that there are no surprises. A related approach is to develop a simple fee structure so that customers can easily understand the financial implications of a specific usage situation.

Identifying User Outlays
From a customer's standpoint, the monetary price charged by a supplier is not the only cost or outlay associated with purchase and delivery of a service. Let's take a look at what's involved (see Figure 8.2). As we do so, please consider your own experiences in different service contexts. P r i c e and Other Financial E x p e n s e s Customers often spend additional amounts over and above the purchase price. Necessary incidental expenses may include travel to the service site, parking, and purchase of other facilitating goods or services ranging from meals to babysitting. We call the total of all these expenses (including the price of the service itself) the financial outlays associated with purchasing and consuming a service.

financial outlays: all monetary expenditures incurred by customers in purchasing and consuming a service.

Charges, Fees, and Terms for a Platinum Visa Card
Annual fee Finance charges on unpaid balances Purchases Cash advances After failure to make two monthly payments within 6 months (applies to all balances) Transaction charges for purchase of money order, wire transfer, or use of "convenience checks" Cash advance (use card to obtain money from an ATM or bank) Other charges Late fee Returned check fee (payment) Overlimit fee Payment terms $29 $29 $29 Due by 10 A.M. on payment due date specified on monthly statement. Failure to enclose coupon, pay by check or money order, or use envelope provided may result in up to a 5-day delay in posting. 9.99% (min. charge $0.50)* 19.99% (min. charge $0.50) 22.99% First year free; thereafter $65

"Includes all five cost categories nonfinancial outlays: the time expenditures, physical and mental effort, and unwanted sensory experiences associated with searching for, buying, and using a service. time expenditures: time spent by customers during all aspects of the service delivery process. physical effort: undesired consequences to a customers body that occur during the service delivery process. psychological burdens: undesired mental or emotional states experienced by customers as a result of the service delivery process. sensory burdens: negative sensations experienced through a customer's five senses during the service delivery process.

Nonfinancial Outlays Customers may incur a variety of nonfinancial outlays, representing the time, effort, and discomfort associated with searching for, purchasing, and using a service. We can group nonfinancial outlays into four distinct categories. >• T i m e expenditures are inherent in the service delivery process.Time may also be wasted simply waiting for service. There's an o p p o r t u n i t y cost involved because customers could spend that time in other ways. >• Physical effort (including fatigue, discomfort, and occasionally even injury) may be incurred during visits to the service factory or while using a company's self-service equipment. >- P s y c h o l o g i c a l burdens like mental effort, feelings of inadequacy, or fear may accompany the tasks of evaluating service alternatives, making a selection, and then using the chosen service. Services that are high in experience and credence attributes may create psychological burdens like anxiety since service outcomes are more difficult to evaluate. >- Sensory burdens relate to unpleasant sensations affecting any of the five senses. They may include putting up with noise, unpleasant smells, drafts, excessive heat or cold, uncomfortable seating or lighting, visually unappealing environments, and even unpleasant tastes. The total costs of purchasing and using a service also include those associated with search activities. W h e n you were looking at colleges, h o w much money, time, and effort did you spend before deciding where to apply? And h o w much effort would you put into comparing alternative haircutters if your existing one was no longer available? There may even be further outlays after service delivery is completed. A doctor may

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FIGURE 8.3
Net Value = Benefits — Outlays

diagnose a medical problem for a patient and then prescribe a course of physical therapy and drugs to be continued over several months. Obtaining refunds after service failures may force customers to waste time, money, and effort in trying to resolve the problem.

Understanding Net Value
W h e n customers evaluate a service, they consider the benefits it offers relative to the financial and nonfinancial outlays they will incur in purchasing and using it. Although there are several ways to describe value, we have chosen to define value as "what I get for what I give." 6 N e t value is defined as the sum of all the perceived benefits (gross value) minus the sum of all the perceived outlays for the customer. T h e greater the positive difference between the two, the greater the net value. If the perceived costs and other outlays are greater than the perceived benefits, then the service in question will possess negative net value. Perceptions of net value may vary widely between customers, and even for the same customer depending on the situation. H o w customers feel about the net value of a service may be sharply different post-use and pre-use, reflecting the experiential qualities of many services. W h e n customers use a service and find that it has cost more and delivered fewer benefits than expected, they are unlikely to repurchase it and may c o m plain about "poor value." You can think of the value calculations that customers make in their minds as being similar to weighing materials on an old-fashioned pair of scales, with product benefits in one tray and the outlays associated with obtaining those benefits in the other (see Figure 8.3).When customers evaluate competing services, they are basically comparing the relative net values.

net value: the sum of all perceived benefits (gross value) minus the sum of all perceived outlays.

Increasing Net Value by Reducing Nonfinancial Outlays
Although our focus in this chapter is mainly on the monetary aspects of pricing, you've probably noticed that people often pay a premium to save time, minimize unwanted effort, and obtain greater comfort. In other words, they are willing to pay higher prices to reduce

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their nonfinancial outlays. Marketers can increase the net value of a service by adding benefits to the core product, enhancing supplementary services, or reducing the financial costs and other outlays associated with purchase and use of the product. People w h o fly first class versus coach class are paying for more spacious seating, better food, and more personalized attention from flight attendants in return for a more expensive fare. Other types of service companies have also recognized the different trade-offs that customers are willing to make and have created multiple levels of service. For example, Capital O n e Financial provides thousands of credit card options with varying benefits and interest rates. The company uses its sophisticated database technology to segment the market based on spending patterns and other consumer characteristics. It is then able to offer personally customized bundles of benefits that add value for customers while reducing risk for Capital O n e . 7 In many cases, service firms can improve value by minimizing unwanted nonfinancial outlays for customers. R e d u c i n g such outlays may even cause firms to increase the monetary price for their services while still offering what customers perceive as "good value." Strategies for reducing nonfinancial outlays include: >• Reducing the time involved in service purchase, delivery, and consumption— especially time wasted in waiting for service delivery >- Minimizing unwanted psychological burdens during all stages of service consumption >• Eliminating unwanted physical effort, especially during the search and delivery processes >- Decreasing unpleasant sensory burdens by creating more attractive visual environments, reducing noise, installing more comfortable furniture and equipment, curtailing offensive smells, and ensuring that foods, drinks, or medicines taste appealing

FOUNDATIONS OF PRICING STRATEGY
The foundations underlying pricing strategy can be described as a tripod, with costs to the provider, competition, and value to the customer as the three legs (see Figure 8.4). The costs that a firm needs to recover usually impose a m i n i m u m or floor price for a specific service offering. T h e perceived value of the offering to customers sets a maximum, or ceiling. T h e price charged by competitors for similar services typically deter-

FIGURE 8.4
T h e Pricing Tripod

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mines where, within the floor-to-ceiling range, the price should actually be set. Let's look at each leg of the pricing tripod in more detail.

Cost-Based Pricing
cost-based pricing: the practice of relating the price to be charged to the costs associated with producing, delivering, and marketing a product. C o s t - b a s e d p r i c i n g involves setting prices relative to financial costs. Companies seeking to make a profit must set a price sufficient to recover the full costs—variable, semivariable, and fixed—of producing and marketing a service. A sufficient margin must also be added to provide the desired level of profit at the predicted sales volume. W h e n fixed costs are high and the variable costs of serving an additional customer are very low, managers may feel that they have tremendous pricing flexibility and be tempted to price low in order to make an extra sale. However, there can be no profit at the end of the year unless all relevant costs have been recovered. Firms that compete on the basis of low prices need to analyze their cost structure and identify the sales volume needed to break even at particular prices. R e g u l a t o r y Pressures N o t all service firms are free to charge whatever price they choose. Most local utilities—like telephone, water, cable TV, electricity, and gas—have been regulated historically by government agencies that control all changes in prices and terms of service. Industry regulators or politicians, responding to complaints about excessively high prices, sometimes put pressure on these types of businesses to clarify and account for service costs. Sometimes companies lack the necessary information to calculate the costs associated with serving different types of users. In this case, managers may simply determine the total costs incurred during a certain period, divide them by actual unit sales, calculate an average cost per unit of service (e.g., kilowatt-hours or monthly p h o n e line rental fees), and add a certain percentage for profit. However, more sophisticated costing analysis in the telecommunications industry has shown that this is not always the most effective pricing strategy. T h e results of this analysis indicated that business users had been subsidizing household subscribers w h o were, in fact, much more expensive to serve. T h e net result was a shift in regulatory policy to allow relatively larger price increases for households than for business users. A c t i v i t y - B a s e d C o s t i n g It's a mistake to look at costs from just an accounting perspective. Progressive managers view t h e m as an integral part of their company's efforts to create value for customers. 8 Unfortunately for the accountants, costs have nothing to do with value, which is market driven. Customers aren't interested in what it costs the firm to produce a service; instead, they focus on the relationship between price and value. Activity-based c o s t i n g (ABC) provides a structured way of thinking about activities and the resources that they consume. Many firms have developed A B C systems that link resource expenses to the variety and complexity of products produced, not just to physical volume. Instead of focusing on expense categories, such as labor or fuel, A B C analysis zeroes in on the activities that are performed and then determines the cost of each activity as it relates to each expense category. As activities are segregated, a cost hierarchy emerges, reflecting the level at which the cost is incurred. For instance, unit-level activities need to be performed for each unit of service (such as rotating the tires on a customer's car at a service garage), whereas batch-level activities relate to each batch or set-up of work performed (for instance, periodically maintaining the tire rotation equipment). Cooper and Kaplan note "ABC analysis enables managers to slice into the business in many different ways—by product or group of similar products, by individual customer or client group, or by distribution channel." 10 Thus ABC analysis can pinpoint differences in the costs of serving individual customers, while traditional cost analysis tends to result in loading the same overhead costs on all customers. This can lead to the assumption that

activity-based costing: an approach to costing based on identifying the activities being performed and then determining the resources that each consumes.

large customers are more profitable. But a large customer w h o makes extensive demands on a supplier may, in fact, be less profitable than a small and undemanding customer. Controlling costs by cutting back certain activities often leads to reduced value for customers because a curtailed activity may be crucial to providing a certain level and quality of service. Many telecommunications firms created marketing problems for themselves w h e n they dismissed customer service staff to save money. This strategy resulted in a sharp decline in service responsiveness that led discontented customers to take their business elsewhere.

Competition-Based Pricing
If customers see little or no difference between the services offered in the marketplace, they may just choose the cheapest alternative. U n d e r conditions of c o m p e t i t i o n based pricing, the firm with the lowest cost per unit of service enjoys an enviable marketing advantage. It has the option of either c o m p e t i n g on price at levels that higher-cost competitors cannot afford to match, or charging the going market rate and earning larger profits than competing firms. Price Leadership In some industries, one firm may act as the price leader, with others taking their cue from this company. You can see this p h e n o m e n o n at the local level when several gas stations compete within a short distance of one another, or on opposite corners of a crossroads. As soon as one station raises or lowers its prices, each of the others will follow promptly. D u r i n g b o o m times in competitive industries such as airlines, hotels, and rental cars, firms are often willing to go along with the leader since prices tend to be set at a level that allows good profits. However, during an economic downturn, these industries quickly find themselves with surplus productive capacity. To attract more customers, one firm (often not the original leader) may cut prices. Since pricing is the easiest and fastest marketing variable to change, a price war may result overnight as competitors rush to match the competition's bargain prices. Price B i d s a n d N e g o t i a t i o n s Industrial buyers sometimes request bids from competing service suppliers. C o m p a n i e s w h o outsource contracts to provide food service or facilities maintenance often use this approach to pricing. U n d e r these conditions, each bidder needs to review costs and think about what the buyer might be willing to pay in addition to estimating the level of bid that competitors are likely to submit. T h e more tightly specified the buyer's requirements, the less opportunity there is to differentiate one bidder's offer from another. T h e terms of the bid will specify whether the bids are to be sealed or not, and whether the buyer is obligated to take the lowest bid. If the buyer feels that the bids are too high, it may change the specifications and invite a new round of bidding. An alternative to bidding is negotiation. T h e firm may request proposals from several suppliers and then negotiate with a short list of those firms that seem the most qualified and have offered the most relevant or innovative approaches. Large consulting projects, accounting audits, and engineering studies are often initiated through requests for proposals. In this type of situation, the buyer may conduct several rounds of negotiations, giving participating suppliers at least some information about competing offers as an incentive to lower their prices, conduct the work faster, or offer more features. competition-based pricing: the practice of setting prices relative to those charged by competitors. price leader: a firm that takes the initiative on price changes in its market area and is copied by others.

Value-Based Pricing
Service pricing strategies are often unsuccessful because they lack any clear association between price and value. 11 In discussing value-based pricing, Berry and Yadav propose three strategies for capturing and communicating the value of a service: uncertainty reduction, relationship enhancement, and cost leadership.

value-based pricing: the practice of setting prices with reference to what customers are willing to pay for the value they believe they will receive.

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benefit-driven pricing: the strategy of relating the price to that aspect of the service that directly creates benefits for customers. flat-rate pricing: the strategy of quoting a fixed price for a service in advance of delivery.

P r i c i n g Strategies to R e d u c e U n c e r t a i n t y If customers are unsure about how much value they will receive from a particular service, they may remain with a known supplier or not purchase at all. Benefit-driven p r i c i n g helps reduce uncertainty by focusing on that aspect of the service that directly benefits customers (requiring marketers to research what aspects of the service the customers do and do not value). This strategy requires firms to communicate service benefits clearly so that customers can see the relationship between value and costs. Flat-rate p r i c i n g involves quoting a fixed price in advance of service delivery so that there are no surprises. This approach transfers the risk from the customer to the supplier in the event that service production costs more than anticipated. Flat-rate pricing can be an effective differentiation tool in industries where service prices are unpredictable and suppliers are poor at controlling their costs. Relationship E n h a n c e m e n t In general, discounting to win new business is not the best way to attract customers w h o will remain loyal over time, since those w h o are attracted by cut-rate pricing are easily enticed away by competing offers. However, offering discounts w h e n customers purchase two or more services together may be a viable relationship-building strategy. T h e greater the n u m b e r of different services a customer purchases from a single supplier, the closer the relationship is likely to be. Both parties get to know each other better, and it's more inconvenient for such customers to take their business elsewhere. Cost Leadership This strategy is based on achieving the lowest costs in an industry. Low-priced services have particular appeal to customers w h o are on a tight financial budget. They may also lead purchasers to buy in larger volumes. O n e challenge when pricing low is to convince customers that they shouldn't equate price with quality—they

Southwest Airlines: Low-Price Leader with a Low-Cost Culture
The most consistently profitable airline in North America is Southwest Airlines, which emphasizes relatively short-haul, point-to-point routes within the United States and has no international service.13 Southwest's strategy is to price low enough to compete with surface travel by car, bus, or train, rather than pricing to compete against other airlines. Whenever it enters a new market, demand increases substantially as people shift from other modes of transportation, start to travel more frequently, or make trips they would not previously have made before. Supporting Southwest's low-price marketing efforts is a lowcost operational strategy and a culture among the airline's dedicated employees of doing everything possible to keep costs low, including working very productively. "Thanks to the Culture at Southwest Airlines," observed a recent annual report, "we do not have to motivate our Employees with programs to reduce costs; rather it is their goal each and every day."
Source: Southwest Airlines Annual Reports (Dallas, 1996-1999).

By minimizing the amount of time aircraft spend at the gate, Southwest keeps them in the air more hours per day. Using only one aircraft type, the Boeing 737, in its fleet of some 350 aircraft simplifies the airline's operation and saves further costs. Southwest offers a very basic core service (transportation), with few of the supplementary elements found in full-service carriers. But it manages customer expectations so that travelers are not surprised to find no reserved seats, no meals, and no baggage transfer to other airlines. The absence of these supplementary services contributes to Southwest's record as having the lowest costs per seat-mile of any major American carrier. Southwest creates value by saving its customers time and money and by doing a superb job of delivering basic air transportation safely, reliably, and consistently, with friendly employees providing a human touch.

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must feel they are also getting good value. A second challenge is to ensure that economic costs are kept low enough to enable the firm to make a profit. Some service businesses have built their entire strategy around being the cost leader, which enables them to remain profitable despite rock bottom prices. Southwest Airlines provides a classic case of a focused low-cost pricing strategy that continues to be highly successful. T h e airline's approach is based on a low-cost culture that competitors find difficult to imitate (see the boxed story "Southwest Airlines: Low-Price Leader with a Low-Cost Culture").

cost leader; a firm that bases its pricing strategy on achieving the lowest costs in its industry.

PRICING AND DEMAND
In most services, there's an inverse relationship between price levels and demand levels. Demand tends to fall as price rises. This p h e n o m e n o n has implications for revenue planning and also for filling capacity in businesses that experience wide swings in demand over time.

Price Elasticity
The concept of elasticity describes h o w sensitive demand is to changes in price. W h e n price elasticity is at "unity," sales of a service rise (or fall) by the same percentage that prices fall (or rise). W h e n a small price change has a big impact on sales, demand for that product is said to be price elastic. But when a change in price has little effect, demand is described as price inelastic. O n e advantage of Internet-based marketing is that it gives firms the opportunity to test prices continuously to determine customers' responses to price variations. 14 Demand can often be segmented according to customers' sensitivity to price or service features. For example, few theaters, concert halls, and stadiums have a single, fixed admission price for performances. Instead, prices vary according to (1) seat locations, (2) performance times, (3) projected staging costs, and (4) the anticipated appeal of the performance. In establishing prices for different blocks of seats and deciding h o w many seats to offer within each price block (known as scaling the house), theater managers need to estimate the demand within each price category. A poor pricing decision may result in many empty seats in some price categories and immediate sell-outs (and disappointed customers) in other categories. Management also needs to know theatergoers'preferences for scheduling of performances, such as matinees versus evenings, weekends versus weekdays, and even seasonal variations. In each instance, the goal is to manage demand over time to maximize attendance, revenues, or a combination of the two (e.g., maximizing revenues, subject to a minimum attendance goal of 70 percent of all seats sold at each performance). A good reason for seeking to achieve sell-outs is that they encourage people to book and pay in advance (thus committing themselves) instead of waiting until the last minute w h e n they might change their minds. What if the mission statement includes the goal of attracting less-affluent segments, such as students and senior citizens? In such cases, management may wish to set aside some seats at a discount for people in those target segments. In a theater context, this social goal is sometimes addressed by offering unsold tickets at deeply discounted prices on the day of the performance. price elasticity: the extent to which a change in price leads to a corresponding change in demand in the opposite direction. (Demand is described as "price inelastic" when changes in price have little or no impact on demand.)

Yield Management
Service organizations often use the percentage of capacity sold as a measure of operational efficiency. By themselves, however, these percentage figures tell us little about the relative profitability of the customer base. High utilization rates may be obtained at the expense of heavy discounting, or even outright give-aways.

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yield managements a pricing strategy based on charging different prices to different users in order to maximize the revenue yield that can be derived from a firm's available capacity at any specific point in time.

price bucket: an allocation of service capacity (for instance, seats) for sale at a particular price.

Yield m a n a g e m e n t pricing strategies are based on maximizing the revenue yield that can be derived from available capacity at any given time. Effective yield management models can significantly improve a company's profitability. Airlines, hotels, and car rental firms, in particular, have become adept at varying their prices in response to the price sensitivity of different market segments at different times of the day, week, or season. T h e challenge is to capture sufficient customers to fill the organization's perishable capacity without selling at lower prices to those customers w h o would have been willing to pay more. H o w does a firm know what level of demand to expect at different prices in a market environment where the factors influencing demand are constantly changing? Many markets are very dynamic. For instance, the demand for both business and pleasure travel changes in response to competition and economic conditions. Although business travelers may be less sensitive to price changes, tourists and other pleasure travelers may be so price sensitive that special promotions involving discounted airfares and hotel room rates can encourage them to undertake trips that they wouldn't otherwise have made. Advances in software and computing power have made it possible for managers to use sophisticated mathematical models to address complicated yield management issues. In the case of an airline, for example, these models integrate massive historical databases on past passenger travel with real-time information on current bookings. T h e output helps analysts predict how many passengers would want to travel between two cities at a particular fare on a flight leaving at a specified time and date. Airlines use yield management analysis to allocate seats at different fares (known as price buckets) for a specific flight with the objective of improving its yield. T h e use of price buckets illustrates the concept of price customization—that is, charging different customers different prices for what is, in effect, the same product. The basic idea is simple: have people pay prices based on the value they put on the product. As Simon and Dolan point out, "Obviously you can't just hang out a sign saying 'Pay me what it's worth to you' or'It's $80 if you value it that much but only $40 if you don't.' You have to find a way to segment customers by their valuations. In a sense, you have to 'build a fence' between high-value customers and low-value customers so the 'high' buyers can't take advantage of the low price." 1 5 Successful yield management strategies require an understanding of the shape of the demand curve and an ability to relate the size and price levels of the different "buckets" to different value segments (see Figure 8.5). Fencing Mechanisms Firms need to be able to separate or "fence off" different value segments so that customers for w h o m the service offers high value are unable to purchase it cheaply. R a t e f e n c e s can be either physical or nonphysical and involve setting qualifications that must be met in order to receive a certain level of discount from the full price. 1 6 Physical fences include observable characteristics of the customer (like child versus adult) and service characteristics such as class of travel, type of hotel room, or inclusion of certain amenities with a higher price (free breakfast at a hotel, free golf cart at a golf course). Nonphysical fences include penalties for canceling or changing an inexpensive reservation, requirements for advance purchase, group membership or affiliation, and time of use (e.g., happy hours in bars before 8:00 P.M., travelers must stay over a Saturday night to obtain a cheap airline booking).

rate fences: techniques for separating customers so that segments for whom the service offers high value are unable to take advantage of lower-priced offers.

auction: a selling procedure managed by a specialist intermediary in which the price is set by allowing prospective purchasers to bid against each other for a product offered by a seller.

Customer-Led Pricing: Auctions and Bids
O n e m e t h o d of pricing that has attracted a lot of attention with the advent of the Internet is inviting customers to bid the price that they are prepared to pay. T h e Internet provides a good medium for auctions because of its ability to aggregate buyers from all around the world. DoveBid, a long-established auctioneer of capital assets, now

conducts Webcast business auctions worldwide (Figure 8.6). DoveBid's Webcast auctions are open-outcry auctions broadcast live via the Internet, allowing remote buyers around the globe to bid real-time against bidders w h o are on-location at plant auctions. This type of auction increases the number of auction bidders as well as creating price premiums. Auctions employing the speed and reach of the Internet are particularly useful for corporate purchasers seeking to identify sellers of such time-sensitive service products as energy, telecommunications capacity, and advertising space, and then bid competitively for the amount and type that they need. 1 7 The Web also offers many opportunities for consumers to bid on prices for goods and services. eBay.com (which describes itself as "the world's online marketplace")

dominates the U.S. market and has plans to expand worldwide. Its unique approach to helping individual customers sell to each other is reflected in the following statement from its home page: Welcome! eBay is the world's first, biggest and best person-to-person online trading community. It's your place to find the stuff you want, to sell the stuff you have and to make a few friends while you're at it.I8 Some financial services are sold through auctions. Rather than approaching individual financial institutions for a mortgage or other loan, borrowers can enter their requirements and personal situations at a Web site that solicits bids for the required loans. And online market makers let buyers decide how much they are willing to offer for many other types of services. uBid.com recently held an auction for an eight-day Hawaiian vacation on its site. T h e highest accepted bid was $519, but most successful bidders ended up paying only $99! 1 9

PUTTING PRICING STRATEGIES INTO PRACTICE
Although the main decision in pricing is usually seen as h o w much to charge, there are other important decisions to be made. Table 8.1 summarizes the questions that service marketers need to ask themselves as they design and implement a pricing strategy.

How Much to Charge?
Realistic decisions on pricing are critical for financial solvency. T h e pricing tripod model (Figure 8.4) provides a useful departure point.The task begins with determining the relevant financial costs, which set the relevant "floor" price. T h e second step is to

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establish a "ceiling" price for specific market segments. This involves assessing market sensitivity to different prices, which reflects both the overall value of the service to prospective customers and their ability to pay. Competitive prices provide a third input. The greater the number of similar alternatives, the greater the pressure to keep prices at or below those of the competition. T h e situation is particularly challenging w h e n some competitors choose to compete on the basis of low price and couple this with an operating strategy designed to achieve low costs, as does Southwest Airlines. The wider the gap between the floor and ceiling prices, the more room there is for maneuvering. If a ceiling price is below the floor price, the manager has several choices. One alternative is to recognize that the service is noncompetitive, in which case it should be discontinued. The other is to modify it in ways that differentiate it from the competition and add value for prospective customers. This makes it competitive at a higher price. 2 0 Finally, a specific figure must be set for the price that customers will be asked to pay. Should the firm price in round numbers or try to create the impression that prices are

1. How much should be charged for this service? a. What costs is the organization attempting to recover? Is the organization trying to achieve a specific profit margin or return on investment by selling this service? b. How sensitive are customers to different prices? c. What prices are charged by competitors? d. What discount(s) should be offered from basic prices? e. Are psychological pricing points (e.g., $4.95 versus $5.00) customarily used? 2. What should be the basis of pricing? a. Execution of a specific task b. Admission to a service facility c. Units of time (hour, week, month, year) d. Percentage commission on the value of the transaction e. Physical resources consumed f. Geographic distance covered g. Weight or size of object serviced h. Should each service element be billed independently? i. Should a single price be charged for a bundled package? 3. Who should collect payment? a. The organization that provides the service b. A specialist intermediary (travel or ticket agent, bank, retailer, etc.) c. How should the intermediary be compensated for this work—flat fee or percentage commission? 4. Where should payment be made? a. The location at which the service is delivered b. A convenient retail outlet or financial intermediary (e.g., bank) c. The purchaser's home (by mail or phone) 5. When should payment be made? a. Before or after delivery of the service b. At which times of day c. On which days of the week 6. How should payment be made? a. Cash (exact change or not?) b. Token (where can these be purchased?) c. Stored value card d. Check (how to verify?) e. Electronic funds transfer f. Charge card (credit or debit) g. Credit account with service provider h. Vouchers i. Third-party payment (e.g., insurance company or government agency)? 7. How should prices be communicated to the target market? a. Through what communication medium? (advertising, signage, electronic display, sales people, customer service personnel) b. What message content (how much emphasis should be placed on price?)

TABLE 8.1
Some Pricing Issues

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slightly lower than they really are? If competitors set prices like $4.95 or $19.95, then charging $5.00 or $20.00 may make the firm appear uncompetitive. However, most services (aside from car rental firms and hotels) tend to avoid odd pricing—perhaps because this pricing strategy is often associated with a discount or low-quality image. 2 1 An ethical issue concerns the practice of promoting a price that excludes tax, service charges, and other extras. This approach is misleading if customers expect the quoted price to be inclusive. Managers also need to recognize that changes in pricing policy sometimes result in consumer opposition. For instance, n e w A T M surcharges have generated numerous complaints about "price gouging" (see box titled "Consumers Protest A T M Surcharges").

What Should Be the Basis for Pricing?
To set a price, managers must define the unit of service consumption. Should it be based on completing a specific service task, such as repairing a piece of equipment, cleaning a jacket, or cutting a customer's hair? Should it be based on admission to a service performance, such as an educational program, film, concert, or sports event? Should it be time based, as in using an hour of a lawyer's time, occupying a hotel room for a night, or renting a car for a week? Should it be tied to value, as w h e n an insurance company scales its premiums to reflect the amount of coverage provided or a realtor takes a percentage commission on the selling price of a house? Some service prices are tied to consumption of physical resources like food, water, or natural gas. Rather than charging customers an hourly rate for occupying a table and

Consumers Protest ATM Surcharges
Most banks charge their customers an extra fee when they use a "foreign" ATM (that is, one belonging to another bank). This surcharge is on top of any service charges for account activity, which might be as much as $1.25 per transaction if the balance falls below a certain level. The surcharge, initially $1.00, was first implemented in 1996 after heavy lobbying by banks to convince the two largest ATM networks—Visa's "Plus" and MasterCard's "Cirrus"— to withdraw their ban on additional surcharges. The banks argued successfully that permitting surcharges would encourage placement of ATMs in useful, but out-of-the-way places where volume would be lower. By 1999,90 percent of all banks were surcharging at an average rate of $1.35; in addition, all independently owned ATMs imposed charges, averaging $1.59 per transaction. The result was accusations by consumer groups of price gouging, leading to growing political pressure in the United States to limit or even ban surcharges. Banks responded with claims that making ATMs available to noncustomers was a service that offered value and that people were clearly prepared to pay for this convenience. However, data showed ATM usage peaking in late 1999 as more people used their debit cards to obtain cash when making purchases at grocery stores, which don't typically charge fees. The big winners from surcharges appear to be several dozen small companies that install inexpensive ATMs and connect them to a national network. These nonbank ATMs impose a double surcharge: first the $1 + fee for use of a "foreign" ATM plus an additional charge that may be as high as $3 for a simple cash withdrawal. To make matters worse, nonbank ATMs often fail to disclose the extra surcharge. The first that users know about it is when they find it billed to their bank accounts. Despite these drawbacks, many small business owners approve of the nonbanks' approach to doing business. When the owner of a minimart was unable to persuade a bank to put an ATM in his store, he leased a machine from a company for about $300 a month. Users pay an extra $1.50 surcharge for each transaction, of which $0.80 goes to the minimart owner. He claims that, thanks to the machine, his store attracts more customers and sells more merchandise, netting him a profit of up to $50 a month after paying the leasing fee.

chairs, restaurants put a sizeable mark-up on the food and drink items consumed. Longdistance p h o n e call pricing reflects a c o m b i n a t i o n of distance and time rates. Transportation firms have traditionally charged by distance, with freight companies using a combination of weight or cubic volume and distance to set their rates. Another straightforward pricing strategy involves charging a flat rate, like postal charges for domestic letters below a certain weight or a zone rate for packages that groups geographic distances into broad clusters. These policies have the virtue of consistency, but they ignore relative market strength on different routes. Price B u n d l i n g Many services unite a core product with various supplementary services, such as a cruise ship where the tariff includes meals and bar service. Should such service packages be priced as a whole (referred to as a "bundle"), or should each element be priced separately? If people prefer to avoid making many small payments, p r i c e b u n d l i n g may be preferable—and it's certainly simpler to administer. However, if customers dislike being charged for product elements they don't use, itemized pricing may be better. Bundled prices offer a guaranteed revenue from each customer, while giving users a clear idea in advance of how much the bill will be. By contrast, unbundled pricing provides customers with flexibility. Some firms offer an array of choices. Mobile phone subscribers, for instance, can select from a m o n g several service options. O n e choice involves paying a small monthly fee for a basic service and then extra for each call. Another alternative is to pay a higher flat rate in return for several hundred minutes of calling time. At the top of the pricing scale is the option that provides business users with unlimited access to long-distance calls over a prescribed area. D i s c o u n t i n g To attract the attention of prospective buyers or to boost sales during a period of low demand, firms may discount their prices, often publicizing this price cut with coupons or an advertising campaign. Marketers of subscription services, such as cable television, Internet service, cellular telephone service, or credit cards, often employ a strategy of offering the service at a discount—or even free of charge—for an introductory period. T h e r e are risks to a d i s c o u n t i n g strategy. It dilutes the contribution from each sale, may attract customers whose only loyalty is to the firm that can offer the lowest price on the next transaction, and may give a bargain to customers who would have been willing to pay more. Nevertheless, selective price discounting targeted at specific market segments can help to fill capacity that would otherwise go unused. Volume discounts are sometimes used to cement the loyalty of large corporate customers, w h o might be inclined to spread their purchases among several different suppliers. Rewarding smaller customers by occasionally offering them a discount off their next purchase may also build loyalty.

price bundling: the practice of charging a base price for a core service plus additional fees for optional supplementary elements.

discounting! a strategy of reducing the price of an item below the normal level.

Who Should Collect Payment?
Sometimes firms choose to delegate provision of supplementary services like billing to an intermediary. Although the original supplier pays a commission, using a third party may still be cheaper and more efficient than performing those tasks itself. C o m m o n l y used intermediaries include travel agents w h o make hotel and transportation bookings; ticket agents w h o sell seats for theaters, concert halls, and sports stadiums; and retailers who sell services ranging from prepaid phone cards to home and equipment repair.

Where Should Payment Be Made?
Payment for many services is collected at the service facility just before or immediately following service delivery. W h e n consumers purchase a service well in advance of using it, there are obvious benefits to using intermediaries that are more conveniently located, or allowing payment by mail. (Airports, theaters, and stadiums, for instance, are often situated

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some distance from where potential customers live or work.) A growing number of service providers now accept credit cards for telephone bookings and sales over the Internet. T h e simplicity and speed with which payment is made may influence the customer's perceptions of overall service quality. Thus service firms should pay special attention to providing payment collection procedures that are both efficient and effective from both the customers' and the companies' perspectives. Poorly designed payment methods may encourage "jaycustomer" behaviors like delayed payments—or worse yet—no payment at all. For example, one driver told a journalist that he refuses to pay tolls at N e w Jersey's automated tollbooths " o n principle, because the toll plazas are badly designed and irritating—the state set up a system so bad, you have to abuse it.

When Should Payment Be Made?
Two basic options are to ask customers to pay in advance (e.g., an admission charge, airline ticket, or postage stamps), or to bill them on completion of service delivery (e.g., restaurant bills and repair charges). Occasionally a service provider may ask for an initial payment in advance of service delivery, with the balance being due later (e.g., management consulting).This approach is also quite c o m m o n with expensive repair and maintenance jobs, especially w h e n the firm—often a small business with limited working capital—must buy materials up front. Asking customers to pay in advance means that the buyer is paying before the benefits are received. But prepayments may be advantageous to the customer as well as to the provider. Advance payment saves time and effort, especially with frequently purchased services.

How Should Payment Be Made?
Service businesses must decide on the types of payments they will accept. Although cash is a simple payment method, it raises security problems and is not always convenient for customers (especially for large purchases). Checks are convenient for customers, but sellers need to develop controls to discourage invalid payment. A $15 to $20 charge for returned checks is not u n c o m m o n at retail stores. Credit cards are convenient and have the advantage of being accepted worldwide, regardless of currency. Businesses that refuse to accept such cards increasingly find themselves at a competitive disadvantage. Prepayment cards simplify the process of paying for services like road and bridge tolls or telephone calls. Internet service provider World Online has introduced a new type of prepayment card in the United Kingdom that operates on the prepaid model popular in the mobile phone industry. British consumers buy the cards from local retailers and then use a P I N number located on a scratch-off panel on the back of the card to open an account with World Online. These cards are mainly aimed at teenagers, but they are also marketed to the 50 percent of British adults w h o don't have credit cards. World Online plans to roll out the service across the rest of Europe. 2 3 Smart cards store value in a microchip embedded within the card. To accept payment in this form, however, service firms must first install card readers.This sophisticated payment option requires partnerships between banks, retailers, and telephone companies. Working together, these partners can provide a smart card that serves as an "electronic wallet," enabling customers to download digital money to their cards from their bank accounts from an A T M or by telephone, using a special card reader. T h e latest innovation is card readers that can be attached to an account holder's computer. As a student, you may have personal experience with this form of payment, since many universities provide students with personalized smart cards that can be used to buy drinks from vending machines, make photocopies, pay fines for late return of library books, and many other purposes. Other payment procedures include directing the bill to a third party for payment and using vouchers as supplements to (or instead of) cash. Insurance companies often designate approved garages to inspect and repair customers' vehicles w h e n they are

involved in accidents. To make life easier for the customer, the garage bills the insurance company directly for the work performed. This saves the customer the effort of paying personally, filing a claim, and waiting for reimbursement. Vouchers are sometimes provided by social service agencies to elderly or low-income people. Such a policy achieves the same benefits as discounting but avoids the need to publicize different prices or require cashiers to check eligibility. In the business-to-business environment, most suppliers offer credit accounts, payable monthly, which generate membership relationships with customers. Online payments are often made through third-party firms like Clareon that specialize in managing electronic transactions between customers and vendors (Figure 8.7).

Communicating Prices to the Target Markets
The final task is to decide h o w the organization's pricing policies can best be c o m m u nicated to its target markets. People need to know the price for some product offerings well in advance of purchase. They may also need to know how, where, and when that price is payable. This information must be presented in ways that are intelligible and unambiguous, so that customers will not feel misled. Managers must decide whether or not to include information on pricing in advertisements for the service or on the c o m pany's Web site. Advertising sometimes relates the price to those of competing products or to alternative ways of spending one's money. Customers expect salespeople and service representatives to be able to give prompt, accurate responses to queries about pricing, payment, and credit. Good signage at retail points of sale saves staff members from having to answer basic questions on prices. Finally, w h e n the price is presented in the form of an itemized bill, marketers should ensure that it is both accurate and intelligible. Hospital bills, which may run to several pages and contain dozens of items, have been much criticized for inaccuracy. 24 Telephone bills, too, used to be confusing. They were often printed on small sheets of

"Suveny, if I'm going to take irvditfiir tins fxtyment jxiiwtigm shift, lint hud dii/rtti well better teH me what it all means!"

paper, crammed with technical jargon and it was hard to d e t e r m i n e h o w the total charge due was computed. But many firms have worked to develop n e w and clearer formats that are easier for consumers to interpret.

Conclusion
Customers pay more to use a service than just the purchase price specified by the supplier. Additional outlays may include related financial costs (such as travel to the service site), time expenditures, psychological and sensory burdens, and physical effort. Customers are often willing to pay a higher price w h e n the nonfinancial outlays are minimized, since the value of a service reflects the benefits that it delivers to the customer minus all the associated costs. Pricing strategy must address the central issue of what price to charge for a given unit of service at a particular point in time, no matter h o w that unit may be defined. It's essential that the m o n e t a r y price charged should reflect knowledge of the service provider's fixed and variable costs, competitor's pricing policies, and the value of the service to the customer.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Is pricing strategy more difficult to implement in some service industries than in others? If so, why? Be specific and give examples. 2. Of the various nonfinancial outlays incurred by customers, which are likely to be the most significant in situations involving: (a) traditional retail banking; (b) h o m e banking; (c) going to the movies; (d) taking a taxi in an unfamiliar city; (e) surgery? 3. W h y is cost-based pricing (as it relates to financial costs) particularly problematic in service industries? 4. In what ways does competition-based pricing work in favor of many service providers? In what circumstances does it not? 5. Explain the concept of yield management in a service setting. H o w might it be applied to (a) a professional firm (e.g., consulting); (b) a restaurant; (c) a golf course? 6. Identify three aspects of pricing strategy that might raise ethical considerations. In each instance, h o w should such abuses be prevented? 7. From a customer perspective, what defines value in the following services: (a) a nightclub; (b) a hairdressing salon; (c) a legal firm specializing in business and tax law? 8. Choose a service organization and investigate its pricing policies and methods. In what respects are they similar to, or different from, what has been discussed in this chapter? 9. R e v i e w recent bills that you have received from service businesses. Evaluate each one against the following criteria: (a) general appearance and clarity of presentation; (b) easily understood terms of payment; (c) avoidance of confusing terms and definitions; (d) appropriate level of detail; (e) unanticipated ("hidden") charges; (f) accuracy; (g) ease of access to customer service in case of problems or disputes.

Promotion and Education
Enterprise Rent-a-Car Courts Insurance Companies as Well as Consumers
Although most people probably think of vacation travel when Enterprise Rent-a-Car comes to mind, the company's roots are in the business-to-business arena.1 Founder Jack Taylor started Enterprise as an auto-leasing service in 1957 out of the Cadillac shop where he worked. But business didn't really take off until the early 1980s when he switched his primary focus from the highly competitive consumer market into the less-crowded replacement rental market, taking advantage of new legislation requiring insurance companies to provide their customers with rental cars while their own vehicles were being repaired or replaced following accidents or theft. With this focus, Enterprise grew quickly and the company now holds a majority share of the U.S. replacement market. But it also targets customers in the business and leisure travel markets and is expanding abroad. Ninety percent of its 4,400 offices and its fleet of half a million cars are based in the United States, with the balance in Canada, Britain, Ireland, and Germany. Enterprise is now one of the world's largest car rental companies. In addition to exploiting the replacement niche, what else makes Enterprise so successful? One reason is the company's location strategy, which emphasizes convenient access from people's homes and workplaces, placing 90 percent of the American population within 15 minutes of an Enterprise office. Its largest offices are limited to a maximum of 300 vehicles—in sharp contrast to some of its competitors, which may locate several thousand cars at a major airport. Enterprise enjoys many advantages not found in the traditional model of car rental firms. They include avoiding the heavy expenses associated with airport space rental, not replacing its fleet as often, renting cars for longer periods of time, and experiencing more stability in demand (in contrast to fluctuations in business and pleasure travel, car accidents and breakdowns happen more consistently). And, as Jon LeSage, editor of Auto Rental News, observed, "repairs always take longer than they are supposed to." The company is devoted to effective salesmanship and good customer service. In particular, it employs direct-marketing strategies to court the insurance companies that provide their policyholders with replacement vehicles when their own are stolen, under repair, or damaged beyond repair. Professionally trained telemarketers contact insurance agents to persuade them to set up accounts with Enterprise. They offer discounted rates and a direct billing option so that the insurance companies' customers will never have to pay personally for their Enterprise car rentals. The direct billing option makes it easier for the companies to handle financial transactions. Thanks to these attractive benefits and the skills of the highly trained telemarketers, Enterprise continues to capture a large percentage of the replacement market. Once an account is established, the company maintains the relationship by sending employees to make weekly sales calls and deliver gifts like food and plants to help foster goodwill and ensure that the insurance provider remains a loyal Enterprise customer. The company also reaches out directly to individual customers who need to rent a car for business or pleasure. Its mass media advertising in 2000 was designed to draw attention to a distinctive aspect of

its service—picking people up at their homes or place of employment. The ads featured a car wrapped like a package speeding along the road with the name Enterprise emblazoned on the side (an advertising icon for almost a decade) and promoted the slogan: "Pick Enterprise. We'll Pick You Up." Complementing other marketing communications is the company's Web site, www.enterprise.com, which provides additional information about Enterprise (including job opportunities), and enables customers to search online for the nearest location, check prices, and then make a booking.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to explain what is distinctive about marketing communications strategy for services understand how the level of customer contact affects communication strategy list common educational and promotional objectives for services describe the marketing communications mix for services

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THE ROLE OF MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Marketing c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , in one form or another, are essential to a company's success. Enterprise R e n t - a - C a r could not have built its business w i t h o u t personal selling and advertising. W i t h o u t effective communications, few prospects would ever have learned of Enterprise's existence, what it had to offer them, and h o w to use its services. In the absence of follow-up sales calls, a user-friendly Web site, and good signage, customers might be more easily lured away by competitors and competitive offerings, and there would be no proactive m a n a g e m e n t and control of the firm's identity. So managers need to debate the question: How should we communicate what our service has to offer? M u c h confusion s u r r o u n d s the scope of m a r k e t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Some people still define it narrowly as the use of paid media advertising, public relations, and professional salespeople. But this view doesn't recognize the many other ways that a firm can communicate with its customers. T h e location and atmosphere of a service delivery facility, corporate design features like the consistent use of colors and graphic elements, the appearance and behavior of employees, Web site design—all of these factors contribute to an impression in the customer's mind.

Communicating with Customers
Communication efforts serve not only to attract new users but also to maintain contact with an organization's existing customers and build relationships with them. As we emphasized in Chapter 5, reinforcing loyalty and securing repeat sales are usually central to a firm's long-term profitability. N u r t u r i n g customer relationships depends on a c o m prehensive and up-to-date customer database, and the ability to make use of this in a personalized way. Techniques for keeping in touch with customers and building their loyalty include direct mail and contacts by telephone or other forms of telecommunication, including

"...YOU ARE NOW FREE TO HAVE A FANTASTIC DAY!"

From everyone at Southwest Airlines.

FIGURE 9.1
A Birthday Card from Southwest Airlines

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faxes, e-mail, and Web sites. Doctors, dentists, and household maintenance services often post annual checkup reminders to their customers. Some businesses even send birthday and anniversary cards to valued customers (Figure 9.1). Banks and utility companies often include a brief newsletter with their account statements or print customized information on each statement in an effort to cross-sell additional services.

Internal Communications
Marketing communications can be used to communicate with service employees as well as with external customers. Internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s from senior managers to their employees play a vital role in maintaining and n u r t u r i n g a corporate culture founded on specific service values. Well-planned internal marketing efforts are especially necessary in large service businesses that operate in widely dispersed sites, sometimes around the world. Even w h e n employees are working far from the head office in the h o m e country, they still need to be kept informed of n e w policies, changes in service features, and n e w quality initiatives. C o m m u n i c a t i o n s may also be needed to nurture team spirit and support c o m m o n corporate goals. Consider the challenge of maintaining a unified sense of purpose at the overseas offices of c o m p a nies such as Citibank, Air Canada, Marriott, or McDonalds, where people from different cultures w h o speak different languages must work together to create consistent levels of service. Effective internal communications can help ensure efficient and satisfactory service delivery, achieve productive and harmonious working relationships, and build employee trust, respect, and loyalty. C o m m o n l y used media include internal newsletters and magazines, videotapes, private corporate television networks like those owned by FedEx and Merrill Lynch, Intranets (private networks ofWeb sites and e-mail that are inaccessible to the general public), face-to-face briefings, and promotional campaigns using displays, prizes, and recognition programs. internal communications: all forms of communication from management to employees in a service organization.

COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES FOR SERVICES
Several of the differences distinguishing services from goods have important marketing communications implications.Thus communication strategies need to reflect the special characteristics of services. 2

Intangible Nature of Service Performances
Since services are performances rather than objects, their benefits can be difficult to communicate to customers. Service providers should use tangible cues whenever possible in their advertising campaigns, especially for low-contact services that involve few tangible elements. 3 It is also helpful to include "vivid information" that will p r o duce a strong, clear impression on the senses, especially for services that are complex and highly intangible. 4 For example, an ad by a large law firm showed a picture of empty jurors' chairs to draw attention to its trial lawyers' skills in presenting complex cases to juries, which must then withdraw from the courtroom to deliberate on the verdict (Figure 9.2). Similarly, MasterCard television and print advertisements emphasize the tangible things that can be purchased with its credit card—complete with a listing of the price of each item. In each ad, all of the items purchased with the card lead to a priceless experience (a clever and memorable reference to the concept of intangibility). At a very basic level, some companies have succeeded in creating tangible, recognizable symbols to associate with their corporate brand names. Animal motifs are c o m mon physical symbols for services. Examples include the eagle of the U.S. Postal Service

(also used by A e r o M e x i c o and Eagle Star Insurance), the black horse of Norfolk Southern Railroad and Britain's Lloyd's Bank, Merrill Lynch's bull, the lion of Dreyfus Funds and Royal Bank of Canada, and the Chinese dragon of H o n g Kong's Dragonair. Easily recognizable corporate symbols are especially important for international companies w h e n services are offered in markets w h e r e the local language is not written in R o m a n script or where a significant proportion of the population is functionally illiterate. Some companies have created metaphors that are tangible in nature to help communicate the benefits of their service offerings. Insurance companies often use this approach to market their highly intangible products.Thus Allstate advertises that "You're in G o o d Hands," Traveler's umbrella motif suggests protection, and Prudential uses the R o c k of Gibraltar as a symbol of corporate strength. W h e n possible, advertising metaphors should also include some information about how service benefits are actually provided. 5 Consider Trend Micro's problem in advertising its new antivirus m o n i t o r i n g service for corporate Internets. Most advertisements for antivirus protection feature devils or evil-looking insects (remember the Millennium Bug used to highlight t h e Y 2 K problem?).That approach may capture the reader's interest, but it doesn't show h o w virus protection actually works or how devastating its effects might be. In a technical context like this, explaining the problem and its solution in ways that senior management will understand is not always possible. Trend Micro's clever solution was to use the easily grasped metaphor of airport security guarding against terrorism. A picture of an aircraft was captioned "this is your company," a briefcase containing a b o m b was labeled "this is a virus," and two security officers checking that bag on an X-ray machine were captioned, "This is Trend Micro."

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Prudential's marketing communications seek to educate as well as sell; its advertising encourages prospective clients to obtain a free guide to estate planning and to discuss their situations with a Prudential professional.

Customer Involvement in Production
In high-contact services, customers are often concerned about the risks associated with service delivery and consumption. Sometimes these risks are financial or psychological in nature, but there can also be physical risks—as in many outdoor sports and organized adventure activities like rock-climbing, skiing, and white-water rafting. T h e providers of such services have both a legal and a moral responsibility to educate their clients. T h e better informed customers are of potential dangers, and what to do in the event of, say, a raft tipping its occupants into a stretch of foaming rapids, the more likely they are to remain safe and have an enjoyable experience. Basic information on signs and in instructional brochures may need to be reinforced by personal briefings from employees. W h e n customers are actively involved in service production, they need training to help them perform well—-just as employees do. Improving productivity often involves innovations in service delivery. But the desired benefits won't be achieved if customers resist new, technologically based systems or avoid self-service alternatives. So, service marketers need to b e c o m e educators. O n e approach r e c o m m e n d e d by advertising experts is to show service delivery in action. 6 Television is a good medium, because of its ability to engage the viewer as it displays a seamless sequence of events in visual form. Some dentists show their patients videos of surgical procedures before the surgery takes place. This educational technique helps patients prepare mentally for the experience and shows them what role they should play during service delivery. Advertising and publicity can make customers aware of changes in service features and delivery systems. Marketers often use sales promotions to motivate customers, offering them incentives to make the necessary changes in their behavior. Publicizing price discounts is one way to encourage self-service on an ongoing basis. At self-service gas pumps, for instance, the price difference from full-service is often substantial. O t h e r

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incentives to change include promotions that offer a chance to win a reward. And if necessary, well-trained customer-contact personnel can provide one-to-one tutoring to help customers adapt to new procedures.

Evaluating Service Offerings
Even if you understand what a service is supposed to do, you may have difficulty distinguishing one firm from another and knowing what level of performance to expect from a particular supplier. What can a service business do to attract your attention and your patronage? Possible solutions include: providing tangible clues related to service performance; highlighting the quality of equipment and facilities; and emphasizing employee characteristics such as their qualifications, experience, commitment, and professionalism. Some performance attributes lend themselves better to advertising than others. W h e n an airline wants to boast about its punctuality, reporting favorable statistics collected by a government agency offers credible support for this claim. However, airlines don't like to talk overtly about safety, because even the admission that things might go wrong makes many passengers nervous. Instead, they approach this ongoing customer concern indirectly, advertising the expertise of their pilots, the newness of their aircraft, and the skills and training of their mechanics. In low-contact services "where much of the firm's expertise is hidden, firms may need to illustrate equipment, procedures, and employee activities that are taking place backstage. For instance, how do prospective buyers know if they are getting the best value from insurance services? O n e approach is to show how the firm is trying to reduce losses due to accidents or to cut costs. Liberty Mutual has run ads using attention-getting headlines like

"Wake up, you're dead," which shows a grim-looking auto safety expert with a Ph.D. who is researching how to prevent highway accidents caused by driver fatigue.The company's "I love dissecting humans" ad includes an amusing photo of one of the company's field investigators, who describes her work in detecting and preventing insurance fraud (Figure 9.3). The fraud prevention ad shows just how serious the problem of jaycustomers is for the insurance industry, where fraudulent claims amount to an estimated $25 billion a year!

Supply-and-Demand Management
Many live service performances—like a seat at the Metropolitan Opera for Friday evening's performance of Carmen, a room at the Marriott on Monday, or a haircut at Supercuts on Tuesday morning—are time-specific and can't be stored for resale at a later date. Advertising and sales promotions can help to change the timing of customer use and thus help to match demand with the capacity available at a given time. D e m a n d management strategies include reducing usage during peak demand periods and stimulating it during off-peak periods. Low demand outside peak periods poses a serious problem for service industries with high fixed costs, like hotels. O n e strategy is to run promotions that offer extra value—such as a room upgrade and a free breakfast, in an attempt to stimulate demand without decreasing price. W h e n demand increases, the number of promotions can be reduced or eliminated.

Importance of Contact Personnel
In high-contact services, service personnel are central to service delivery.Their presence makes the service more tangible and, in many cases, more personalized. An ad that shows employees at work helps prospective customers understand the nature of the service encounter and implies a promise of the personalized attention that they can expect to receive (Figure 9.4). Advertisers must be realistic, since these messages help set cus-

FIGURE 9.4
A Uniformed Hotel Employee Leads a Guest Through the Checkin Script; Her Warmth Humanizes the Experience for Him

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tomers' expectations. If a firm's brochures and ads show friendly, smiling workers but, in reality, most employees turn out to be glum, frazzled, or rude, customers will most certainly be disappointed. Advertising can also be effective in showing employees what customers are being promised. At a minimum, service personnel should be informed about the content of new advertising campaigns or brochures.

Reduced Role for Intermediaries
Intermediaries like retailers often play a key role in promoting products and teaching customers about their characteristics. Services are less likely than goods to be sold through channel intermediaries. Many service providers (such as universities, lawn care specialists, banks, restaurants, health clubs, and professional firms) sell directly to customers. But some service providers do rely on intermediaries for help in selling their products. Firms in the travel and insurance industries, which make extensive use of independent agents and brokers, must compete with other brands not only for physical display space but also for "top-of-mind" recall if they are to obtain adequate push from intermediaries in the distribution channels. Internal communication, personal selling, motivational promotions, and effective public relations can be critical in maintaining successful working relationships between intermediaries and service firms.

Setting Communication Objectives
W h e n planning a campaign, marketers need to formulate specific communications objectives and select the most appropriate messages and tools to achieve them (see Table 9.1 for a list of common educational and promotional objectives for service businesses). To illustrate this point, let's assume that a rental car agency has defined the need to increase repeat purchase rates among business travelers as one of its key strategic objectives. In pursuit of this objective, the firm decides to implement an automatic upgrade program and an express delivery and drop-off system. For this plan to succeed, customers must be informed about these new features and educated on how to take advantage of them. A specific set of communications objectives might be: (1) to create awareness of the new offering among all existing customers; (2) to attract the attention of prospective customers in the business traveler segment, inform them of the new features, and teach t h e m h o w to use the new procedures effectively; (3) to stimulate inquiries and increase pre-bookings; and (4) to generate an increase in repeat patronage of 20 percent after six months. Planning a marketing communications campaign should reflect a good understanding of the service product and the ability of prospective buyers to evaluate its characteristics in advance of purchase. It's also essential to understand target market segments and their exposure to different media, as well as consumer awareness of the product and attitudes toward it. Decisions include determining the content, structure, and style of the message

TABLE 9.1
Common Educational and Promotional Objectives in Service Settings

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Create memorable images of specific companies and their brands Build awareness of and interest in an unfamiliar service or brand Build preference by communicating the strengths and benefits of a specific brand Compare a service with competitors' offerings and counter competitive claims Reposition a service relative to competing offerings Stimulate demand in low-demand periods and discourage demand during peak periods Encourage trial by offering promotional incentives Reduce uncertainty and perceived risk by providing useful information and advice Provide reassurance (e.g., by promoting service guarantees) Familiarize customers with service processes in advance of use Teach customers how to use a service to their own best advantage Recognize and reward valued customers and employees

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to be communicated, its manner of presentation, and the media most suited to reaching the intended audience. Additional considerations include: the budget available for execution; time frames (as defined by such factors as seasonality, market opportunities, and anticipated competitive activities); and methods of measuring and evaluating performance.

marketing communications mix: the full set of communication tools (both paid and unpaid) available to marketers. retail displays: presentations in store windows and other locations of merchandise, service experiences, and benefits. personal communications: direct communications between marketers and individual customers that involve twoway dialog (including face-toface conversations, phone calls, and e-mail). impersonal communications: one-way communications directed at target audiences who are not in personal contact with the message source (including advertising, promotions, and public relations).

THE MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS MIX
Most service marketers have access to numerous forms of communication, referred to collectively as the marketing c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m i x . Different communication elements have distinctive capabilities relative to the types of messages that they can convey and the market segments most likely to be exposed to them. As shown in Figure 9.5, the mix includes personal contact, advertising, publicity and public relations, sales p r o m o tion, instructional materials, and corporate design. H o w should service marketers approach the task of selecting communication elements to convey the desired messages efficiently and effectively to the target audience? In well-planned campaigns, several different communication elements may be used in ways that mutually reinforce each other. Effective sequencing of communications is important, since one element often paves the way for others. For example, advertising may encourage prospects to visit aWeb site, request further information by mail, or shop in a specific store w h e r e they will be exposed to retail displays and can interact directly with a salesperson. Communication experts draw a broad division between personal c o m m u n i c a tions, involving personalized messages that move in both directions between two parties, and impersonal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , in which messages move in only one direction and are generally targeted at a large group of customers and prospects rather than at a single individual. However, technology has created a gray area between the two. It's now very easy for a firm to combine word-processing technology with information from a database to create an impression of personalization. Think about the direct mail and e-mail messages that you have received, containing a personal salutation and perhaps some reference to your specific situation or past use of a particular product.

FIGURE 9.5
The Marketing Communications Mix for Services

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Personal Communications
As shown in Figure 9.5, personal communications include personal selling, telemarketing, customer training, customer service, and word of mouth. personal selling: two-way communications between service employees and customers designed to directly influence the purchase process. telemarketing: personal selling to prospective customers through the medium of the telephone. P e r s o n a l Selling Interpersonal encounters in w h i c h efforts are made to educate customers and promote preference for a particular brand or product are referred to as personal selling. For infrequently purchased services like property, insurance, and funeral services, the firm's representative may act as a consultant to help buyers make their selections. Because face-to-face selling is usually expensive, it's most often used in business-to-business markets. A lower-cost alternative is telemarketing, involving use of the telephone to reach prospective customers. It's used by about 75 percent of all industrial companies. 7 Relationship marketing strategies are often based on account management programs, where customers are assigned a designated account manager w h o acts as an interface between the customer and the supplier. Account management is most commonly practiced in industrial and professional firms that sell relatively complex services, resulting in an o n g o i n g need for advice, education, and consultation. Examples of account management for individual consumers can be found in insurance, investment management, and medical services. C u s t o m e r Service Employees in customer service positions are often responsible for delivery of a variety of supplementary services, including providing information, taking reservations, receiving payments, and problem solving. N e w customers, in particular, often rely on customer service personnel for assistance in learning how to use a service effectively and h o w to resolve problems. W h e n several different products are available from the same supplier, firms encourage their customer service staff to cross-sell additional services. However, this approach is likely to fail if strategies are not properly planned and executed. 8 In the banking industry, for example, a highly competitive marketplace and n e w technologies have forced banks to add m o r e services in an attempt to increase their profitability. In many banks, tellers w h o traditionally provided customer service are n o w expected to p r o m o t e n e w services to their customers as well. Despite training, many employees feel uncomfortable in this role and don't perform effectively as salespeople. C u s t o m e r Training Some companies, especially those selling complex business-tobusiness services, offer formal training courses to familiarize their customers with the service product and teach them how to use it to their best advantage. Word of M o u t h R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s from other customers can have a powerful influence on people's decisions to use a service, but word of m o u t h is a difficult form of c o m m u n i c a t i o n for firms to control. Some advertisers try to encourage positive comments from customers w h o have already used a service since positive word of m o u t h can act as a powerful and highly credible selling agent. 9 In an effort to extend the reach of word of mouth, advertising and brochures sometimes feature comments from satisfied customers. Research in the U n i t e d States and Sweden shows that the extent and content of word of m o u t h is related to satisfaction levels. Customers holding strong views are likely to tell m o r e people about their experiences than those w i t h milder views. And extremely dissatisfied customers tell more people than those w h o are highly satisfied. 10

customer service: the provision of supplementary service elements by employees who are not specifically engaged in selling activities.

customer training: formal training courses offered by service firms to teach customers about complex service products. word of mouth: positive or negative comments about a service made by one individual (usually a current or former customer) to another.

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Advertising
As the most dominant form of communication in consumer marketing, advertising is often the first point of contact between service marketers and their customers, serving to build awareness, inform, persuade, and remind. It plays a vital role in providing factual information about services and educating customers about product features and capabilities. To demonstrate this point, Grove, Pickett, and Laband carried out a study c o m paring newspaper and television advertising for goods and services 11 . Based on a review of 11,543 television advertisements over a 10-month period and of 30,940 newspaper display advertisements that appeared over a 12-month period, they found that ads for services were significantly more likely than those for goods to contain factual information on price; guarantees/warranties; documentation of performance; and availability (where, when, and how to acquire products). O n e of the challenges fiicing advertisers is h o w to get their messages noticed. Television and radio broadcasts are cluttered with commercials, while newspapers and magazines sometimes seem to contain more ads than news and features. H o w can a firm hope to stand out from the crowd? Longer, louder commercials and bigger format ads are not necessarily the answer. Some advertisers stand out by using a sharply different format. For its ads in Business Week, where most advertising includes color photography and occupies one or two full pages, Williams Communications employs black-andwhite cartoons occupying approximately half a page (Figure 9.6). A broad array of paid advertising media is available, including broadcast (TV and radio), print (magazines and newspapers), movie theaters, and many types of outdoor advertising: any form of nonpersonal communication by a marketer to inform, educate, or persuade members of target audiences.

media (posters, billboards, electronic message boards, and the exteriors of buses or bicycles). Some media are more focused than others, targeting specific geographic areas or audiences with a particular interest. Advertising messages delivered through mass media are often reinforced by direct marketing tools like mailings, telemarketing, faxes, or email. Direct marketing, which offers the potential to send personalized messages to highly targeted micro-segments, is most likely to be successful w h e n marketers possess a detailed database of information about customers and prospects.

Sales Promotion
sales promotion: a shortterm incentive offered to customers and intermediaries to stimulate product purchase. A few years ago, SAS International Hotels devised an interesting sales p r o m o t i o n targeted at older customers. If a hotel had vacant rooms, guests over 65 years of age could get a discount equivalent to their years (e.g., a 75-year-old could save 75 percent of the normal room price). All went well until a Swedish guest checked into one of the SAS chain's hotels in Vienna, announced his age as 102, and asked to be paid 2 percent of the room rate in return for staying the night. This request was granted, whereupon the spry centenarian challenged the general manager to a game of tennis—and got that, too. (The results of the game, however, were not disclosed!) Events like these are the stuff of dreams for PR people. In this case, a clever p r o m o t i o n led to a h u m o r o u s , widely reported story that placed the hotel chain in a favorable light. A useful way of looking at sales promotions is as a communication attached to an incentive. Sales promotions are usually specific to a time period, price, or customer group—sometimes all three, as in the SAS example.Typically, the objective is to accelerate the purchasing decision or motivate customers to use a specific service sooner, in greater volume with each purchase, or more frequently. Sales promotions for service firms may take such forms as samples, coupons and other discounts, gifts, and competitions with prizes. Used in these forms, sales promotions add value, provide a competitive edge, boost sales during periods w h e n demand would otherwise be weak, speed the introduction and acceptance of new services, and generally get customers to act faster than they would in the absence of any promotional incentive. 1 2 T h e Cleanrite coupon

F I G U R E 9.7
Cleanrite Coupon Encourages Repeat Usage

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shown in Figure 9.7 is a simple example of a sales promotion designed to encourage past customers to become repeat customers. Some promotional campaigns are very creative in their appeals to customers. For example, some international airlines provide passengers in first and business classes with free gifts including toiletries, pens, stationery, and playing cards. Gifts are sometimes offered simply to amuse customers and create a friendly environment. T h e Conrad Hotel in H o n g Kong places a small teddy bear on each guest's bed and a yellow rubber duck in the bathroom; it reports that many guests take these items home with them.

Publicity and Public Relations
Public relations (PR) involves efforts to stimulate positive interest in an organization and its products by sending out news releases, holding press conferences, staging special events, and sponsoring newsworthy activities put on by third parties. A basic element in public relations strategy is the preparation and distribution of press releases (including photos a n d / o r videos) that feature stories about the company, its products, and its employees. PR executives also arrange press conferences and distribute press kits w h e n they feel a story is especially newsworthy. A key task performed by corporate PR specialists is to teach senior managers h o w to present themselves well at news conferences or in radio and television interviews. O t h e r widely used PR techniques include recognition and reward programs, obtaining testimonials from public figures, community involvement and support, fundraising, and obtaining favorable publicity for the organization through special events and pro bono work.These tools can help a service organization build its reputation and credibility; form strong relationships with its employees, customers, and the community; and secure an image conducive to business success. Firms can also win wide exposure through sponsorship of sporting events and other high-profile activities where banners, decals, and other visual displays provide continuing repetition of the corporate name and symbol. For example, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) was a major sponsor of the U.S. cycling team in the 2000 Tour de France. This provided many PR and advertising opportunities for the Postal Service including stamps, print articles, television news clips, and photos of the team members with "U.S. Postal Service" prominently displayed on their jerseys. USPS gained worldwide attention when team member Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France after a near-fatal battle with cancer. Unusual activities can present an opportunity to promote a company's expertise. FedEx gained significant favorable publicity in December 2000 when it safely transported two giant pandas from Chengdu, China, to the National Z o o in Washington, D.C. T h e pandas flew in specially designed containers aboard an MD 11 aircraft renamed "FedEx PandaOne." In addition to press releases, the company also featured information about the unusual shipment on a special page in its Web site (Figure 9.8). In the business-to-business marketplace, trade shows are a popular form of publicity.13 They are not usually open to the public, and there is no entry fee. In many industries, trade shows are a great opportunity for business customers to find out about the latest products in their fields. Service vendors provide physical evidence in the form of exhibits, samples and demonstrations, and brochures to educate and impress these potential customers. For example, cosmetic surgeons from around the world attended trade shows to learn about advances in technology and equipment that will allow them to perform highly effective nonsurgical treatments with mysterious names like "botox," "vein sclerotherapy," and "collagen replacement therapy." Trade shows can be very profitable promotional tools. Fifty percent of the sales leads generated at these shows can be closed with just one sales call—a much higher public relations; efForts to stimulate positive interest in a company and its products by sending out news releases, holding press conferences, staging special events, and sponsoring newsworthy activities put on by third parties.

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FIGURE 9.8
"Absolutely, Positively . . . Pandas!" FedEx Promotes Its Role in an Unusual Shipment
(FedEx service marks used by permission.)

I ** .»- Q j) fl~a JS J ^ jj £> -I 3

percentage than for leads generated in any other way. And a sales representative who usually reaches four to five prospective clients per day can average five qualified leads per hour at a show.

Instructional Materials
Promotion and education often go hand in hand. There's little point in promoting a new service (or service feature) if people are unsure of the benefits or don't know how to proceed. Service personnel are often called upon to play teaching roles, but they are not always available to help in the locations where customers need them.To remedy this problem, some firms offer free telephone calls to expert personnel or provide printed materials, video or audio instructions, or informative Web sites. Newspaper advertising by the CVS pharmacy chain encourages customers to use their telephones to access recorded information about prescription medications for a variety of different diseases. Nowadays, many instructional media are technology based. Supermarkets and department stores sometimes feature a touch-screen store directory. Airlines show films to illustrate aircraft safety procedures and make customers aware of government regulations. Some banks install computerized displays that customers can use to learn about new financial products. Through access to Web sites, customers can access needed information from their homes or offices.

Corporate Design and Physical Evidence
corporate design: the consistent application of distinctive colors, symbols, and lettering to give a firm an easily recognizable identity. Many service firms employ a unified and distinctive visual appearance for all tangible elements to facilitate recognition and reinforce a desired image. C o r p o r a t e design strategies are usually created by external consulting firms and include such features as stationery and promotional literature, retail signage, uniforms, and color schemes for painting vehicles, equipment, and building interiors.The objective is to provide a unifying and recognizable theme linking all of the firm's operations in a branded service

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experience through the strategic use of physical evidence. T h e American Automobile Association has made good use of corporate design in solidifying its brand identity. T h e bright red AAA logo is recognized worldwide as a reliable source of travel information and assistance. Corporate design is particularly important for companies operating in competitive markets where it's necessary to stand out from the crowd and to be instantly recognizable in different locations. For example, gasoline retailing provides striking contrasts in corporate designs, from BP's bright green and yellow service stations to Texaco's red, black, and white, and Sunoco's blue, maroon, and yellow. Companies in the highly competitive express delivery industry tend to use their names as a central element in their corporate designs. W h e n Federal Express changed its trading name to the snappier and more multilingual "FedEx," it also changed its logo to feature the new name in a distinctive typeface. Consistent applications of this design were developed for use in settings ranging from business cards to boxes and from employee caps to aircraft exteriors. Some companies use a trademarked symbol, rather than a name, as their primary logo. 14 Shell makes a pun of its English name by displaying a yellow scallop shell on a red background, which has the advantage of making its vehicles and service stations instantly recognizable even in parts of the world that do not use the R o m a n alphabet. McDonald's "Golden Arches" is said to be the most widely recognized corporate symbol in the world. (However, international companies operating in many countries need to select their designs carefully to avoid conveying a culturally inappropriate message through unfortunate choices of names, colors, or images.) Merrill Lynch, the global financial services company, used its famous slogan, "We're Bullish on America" as the basis for its corporate symbol—a bull. A recent advertising campaign by the company developed some intriguing variations of this highly recognizable symbol (an example is shown in Figure 9.9).

FIGURE 9.9
Corporate Advertising by Merrill Lynch

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servicescape; the design of any physical location where customers come to place orders and obtain service delivery.

S e r v i c e s c a p e D i m e n s i o n s T h e t e r m servicescape describes the design of any physical location where customers come to place orders and obtain service delivery.15 It consists of four dimensions: the physical facility; the location; ambient conditions (like temperature or lighting); and personnel. Each of these elements is a critical form of physical evidence, since the appearance of a firm's service facilities and personnel affects customers' perceptions of service quality. Corporate design consukants are sometimes asked to advise on servicescape design, to coordinate the visual elements of both interiors and exteriors— such as signage, decor, carpeting, furnishings, and uniforms—so that they may complement and reinforce the other design elements. We can think of the servicescape concept in terms of the design of the stage on which the service drama is enacted. A good set and costumes can't save a bad play but they can greatly enhance the audience's enjoyment of a good one. Conversely, a bad stage set can create a poor initial impression. Physical evidence and servicescape design are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 11.

Ethical Issues in Communication
Few aspects of marketing lend themselves so easily to misuse (and even abuse) as advertising, selling, and sales promotion.The fact that customers often find it hard to evaluate services makes t h e m more dependent on marketing communication for information and advice. Communication messages often include promises about the benefits that customers will receive and the quality of service delivery. W h e n promises are made and then broken, customers are disappointed because their expectations have not been met. 1 6 Their disappointment and even anger will be even greater if they have wasted money, time, and effort and have no benefits to show in return or have actually suffered a negative impact. Employees, too, may feel disappointed and frustrated as they listen to customers' complaints about unfulfilled expectations. Some unrealistic service promises result from p o o r internal communications between operations and marketing personnel concerning the level of service performance that customers can reasonably expect. In other instances, unethical advertisers and salespeople deliberately make exaggerated promises about the benefits that customers can hope to receive. Finally, there are deceptive promotions that lead people to think that they have a much higher chance of winning prizes or awards than is really the case. Fortunately, there are many consumer watchdogs on the lookout for these deceptive marketing practices. They include consumer protection agencies, trade associations

Can You Recognize a Service Company from These Clues?~
How easy to recognize are the facilities, vehicles, and personnel of your own bank, favorite fast-food restaurant, taxi service, and local public transport system? Try the quiz below to see how many internationally used symbols and design elements you recognize. 1. With which rental car companies are the colors yellow, red, and green associated? 2. Which international airline has a flying kangaroo for its symbol? Which one uses a maple leaf? 3. Which stockbroker displays a ram's head as its corporate symbol? 4. How many companies can you name that use a globelike symbol? 5. Which international financial services company uses a symbol of three crossed keys?

Note: The answers to this quiz can be found at the end of the chapter, before the Endnotes.

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within specific industries, and journalists w h o investigate customer complaints and seek to expose fraud and misrepresentation. A different type of ethical issue concerns unwanted intrusion into people's personal lives—including, perhaps, your own. You can, of course, simply turn the page if you don't want to look at an advertisement in a newspaper or magazine. Perhaps you ignore television advertising by pressing the mute button on your remote and by talking to friends or family members while the commercials are on. However, the increase in telemarketing and direct mail is frustrating for those w h o receive unwanted sales c o m m u nications. H o w do you feel if your evening meal at h o m e is interrupted by a telephone call from a stranger trying to interest you in buying services in which you have no interest? Even if you are interested, you may feel, as many do, that your privacy has been violated and see the call as an u n w a n t e d intrusion. Trade associations like the Direct Marketing Association offer ways for consumers to remove their names from telemarketing and direct-mail lists in an attempt to address the growing hostility toward these types of direct-marketing techniques.

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS AND THE INTERNET
The Internet is playing an increasingly important role in marketing communication. Few companies of any size are now without a Web site and a substantial industry has sprung up to support the design and implementation of Internet-based marketing activities. Perhaps the most remarkable aspect of the Internet is its ubiquity: A Web site hosted in one country can be accessed from almost anywhere in the world, offering the simplest form of international market entry available—in fact, as Christian Gronroos points out, "the firm cannot avoid creating interest in its offerings outside its local or national market." 17 However, creating international access and developing an international strategy are two very different things!

Internet Applications
Marketers use the Internet for a variety of communications tasks. These include promoting consumer awareness and interest, providing information and consultation, facilitating two-way communications with customers through e-mail and chat rooms, stimulating product trial, enabling customers to place orders, and measuring the effectiveness of specific advertising or promotional campaigns. 1 8 Firms can market through their own Web sites and place advertising on other sites. Advertising on the Web allows companies to supplement conventional communications channels at a reasonable cost. But like any of the elements of the marketing communications mix, Internet advertising should be part of an integrated, well-designed communications strategy. Many early Web sites were little more than electronic brochures, featuring attractive graphics that took too long to download. By contrast, interactive Web sites allow customers to engage in dialog with a database and come up with customized information. Transportation firms like airlines and railroads offer interactive sites that allow travelers to evaluate alternative routes and schedules for specific dates, download printed information, and make reservations online. Some sites offer discounts on hotels and airfare if reservations are made over the Internet—a tactic designed to draw customers away from intermediaries like travel agents. T h e interactive nature of the Internet has the potential to increase customer involvement dramatically, since it enables "self-service" marketing in which individual

);

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customers control the nature and extent of their contact with the Web sites they visit. M a n y banks allow customers to pay bills electronically, apply for loans over the Internet, and check their account balances online. Whistler/Blackholm ski resort in British Columbia uses its Web site to promote advance online purchase of lift tickets at a discount. T h e site also offers instructions on h o w the online ticket window works, describes w h e r e to pick up the tickets, and provides responses to frequently asked questions. Enabling marketers to communicate and establish a rapport with individual customers is one of the Web's greatest strengths. These characteristics lend themselves to a new communication strategy called "permission marketing," 1 9 which is based on the idea that traditional advertising doesn't work as well any m o r e because it fights for attention by interrupting people. For example, a 30-second television spot interrupts a viewer's favorite program, a telemarketing call interrupts a meal, and a print ad interrupts the flow of a magazine or newspaper article. In the permission marketing model, the goal is to persuade consumers to volunteer their attention. In essence, customers are encouraged to "raise their hands" and agree to learn more about a company and its products in anticipation of receiving something of value to them. This means that customers self-select into the target segment. Consider the approach used by the Health Communication Research Institute, which issues prepaid phone cards to patients in doctors' offices or hospitals as a way to measure patient satisfaction. To activate the card, the patient uses it to call an automated service that records responses to questions about the individual's recent experience with medical care. As a reward, the caller gets 30 minutes of free long-distance calling. 20 For an illustration of how H & R Block used a promotional contest to get customers to volunteer to learn about a new tax preparation service, see the boxed story "Permission Marketing at H & R Block."

permission marketing: a marketing communication strategy that encourages customers to voluntarily learn more about a company's products because they anticipate receiving information or something else of value in return.

Permission Marketing at H&R Block
When H&R Block wanted to introduce a new service called Premium Tax, aimed at upper-income customers, it hired a firm called Yoyodyne to create a contest. This promotional event was announced using banner ads on selected Web sites that said, "H&R Block: We'll pay your taxes sweepstakes." Through the action of clicking on these banners, more than 50,000 people voluntarily provided their e-mail addresses and said "tell me more about this promotion." In return for the chance to have their taxes paid by somebody else, these people became players in a contest. Every week for 10 weeks, they received three e-mails, inviting them to answer trivia questions about taxes, H&R Block, and other relevant topics. They were given fun facts about the history of taxes or sent to H&R Block's Web site to find answers to questions. Each e-mail also included a promotional message about Premium Tax. Not everyone responded to every message—on average, about 40 percent did so. But over the life of the promotion, 97 percent of those people who entered the game stayed in. At the end of 10 weeks, surveys were conducted of: (1) those who had participated actively in the game; (2) those who had participated, but less actively; and (3) a control group of nonparticipants. Among nonparticipants, knowledge of Premium Tax was essentially nonexistent. Among less-active participants, 34 percent had a good understanding of Premium Tax, and for active participants, the figure was 54 percent. By creatively applying the concept of permission marketing, H&R Block acquired a database of prospects that had already received some information and education about its new service offering.

Web Site Design Considerations
From a communication standpoint, a Web site should contain information that a c o m pany's target customers will find useful and interesting. 21 Internet users expect speedy access, easy navigation, and content that is both relevant and up-to-date. Service firms should set explicit communication goals for their Web sites. Is the site to be a promotional channel; a self-service option that diverts customers away from contact with service personnel; an automated news room that disseminates information about the company and its products, as well as offering an archive of past press releases; or even all of these? Some firms choose to emphasize promotional content, seeking to present the firm and its products in a favorable light and to stimulate purchase; others view their sites as educational and encourage visitors to search for needed information, even providing links to related sites. Innovative companies are continually looking for ways to improve the appeal and usefulness of their sites. T h e appropriate communication content varies widely from one type of service to another. A b2b site may offer visitors access to a library of technical information; by contrast, a resort hotel may include attractive photographs featuring the location, the buildings and the guest rooms, and even short videos depicting recreational options. Meantime, a radio station may display profiles and photos of key staff members, schedules of its broadcasts, background information about its programs, and access to its broadcasts via Web radio. Marketers must also address other attributes, like downloading speed, that affect Web site "stickiness.""" A sticky site is one that encourages repeat visits and purchases by keeping its audience engaged with interactive c o m m u n i c a t i o n presented in an appealing fashion. Online service providers like EasyAsk have exploited a profitable niche in helping other companies design sticky W e b sites that make information searches and site navigation easy for their customers.

stickiness: a Web site's ability to encourage repeat visits and purchases by keeping its audience engaged with interactive communication presented in an appealing fashion.

PSI Net's print advertising reinforces its television campaign, which shows individuals in different global settings knocking on a window to gain the audience's attention.

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A memorable Web address helps to attract visitors to a site. Unlike p h o n e or fax numbers, it's often possible to guess a firm's Web address, especially if it's a simple one that relates to the firm's n a m e or business. However, firms that c o m e late to the Internet often find that their preferred name has already been taken. For instance, m a n y industries i n c l u d e a c o m p a n y called Delta, b u t there can only be one delta.com. This site name belongs to Delta Financial C o r p o r a t i o n (the U.S. airline had to use the longer address, deltaairlines.com). Web addresses must be actively prom o t e d if they are to play an integral role in the firm's overall communication and service delivery strategy. This means displaying the address prominently on business cards, letterhead stationery, catalogs, advertising, p r o m o t i o n a l materials, and even vehicles.

Internet Advertising
T h e Internet has b e c o m e a new advertising m e d i u m . Many firms pay to place advertising banners and buttons on portals like Yahoo or Netscape, as well as on other firms'Web sites. T h e usual goal is to draw online traffic to the advertiser's own site. In many instances, Web sites include advertising messages from other marketers with related but n o n c o m p e t i n g services.Yahoo's stock quotes page, for example, features a sequence of advertisements for various financial service providers. Similarly, many Web pages devoted to a specific topic feature a small message from Amazon.com, inviting the reader to identify books on these same topics by clicking the accompanying hyperlink button to the Internet retailer's b o o k site. In such instances, it's easy for the advertiser to measure h o w many visits to its o w n site are generated by clickthroughs. However, the Internet has not proved to be as effective an advertising medium as many marketers originally anticipated. Experience shows that simply obtaining a large number of exposures ("eyeballs") to a banner ad or button doesn't necessarily lead to increases in awareness, preference, or sales for the advertiser. O n e consequence is that the practice of paying a flat monthly rate for banner advertising is falling out of favor. Even w h e n visitors click through to the advertiser's site, this action doesn't necessarily result in sales. Consequently, there's now more emphasis on advertising contracts that tie fees to marketing-relevant behavior by these visitors, such as providing the advertiser with some information about themselves or making a purchase. Some companies use reciprocal marketing, where an online retailer allows its paying customers to receive promotions for another online retailer and vice-versa, at no upfront cost to either party. 23 For example, RedEnvelope.com customers received an online coupon offer from Starbucks w h e n they logged onto the RedEnvelope site. In exchange, RedEnvelope had a promotional link on Starbucks.com, enabling both companies to capture a percentage of the other site's customer base.

reciprocal marketing: a marketing communication tactic in which an online retailer allows its paying customers to receive promotions for another online retailer and vice-versa, at no upfront cost to either party.

Conclusion
T h e marketing c o m m u n i c a t i o n strategy for services requires a somewhat different emphasis from that used to market goods.The communication tasks facing service marketers include emphasizing tangible clues for services that are difficult to evaluate, clarifying the nature and sequence of the service performance, highlighting the performance of customer-contact personnel, and educating the customer about h o w to effectively participate in service delivery. Many different communication elements are available to help companies create a distinctive position in the market and reach prospective customers. T h e options in the

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marketing communication mix include personal communications like personal selling and customer service, as well as impersonal communications like advertising, sales promotions, public relations, corporate design, and the physical evidence offered by the servicescape of the service delivery site. Instructional materials, from brochures to Web sites, often play an important role in educating customers on h o w to make good choices and obtain the best use from the services they have purchased. Developments in technology, especially the Internet, are changing the face of marketing c o m m u n i cations. We will explore the strategic implications of technology for service marketers in greater detail in Chapter 16.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Describe four c o m m o n educational and promotional objectives in service settings and provide a specific example for each of the objectives you list. 2. Which elements of the marketing communications mix would you use for each of the following scenarios? Explain your answers. • A newly established hair salon in a suburban shopping center • An established restaurant facing declining patronage because of new competitors • A large, single-office accounting firm in a major city that serves primarily business clients

3. What roles do personal selling, advertising, and public relations play in (a) attracting new customers to a service business and (b) retaining existing customers? 4. Describe the role of personal selling in service communications. Give examples of three different situations where you have encountered this approach. 5. Find examples of service promotional efforts in your local area and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses as effective communication tools. 6. Provide several current examples of public relations efforts made by service companies. 7. Discuss the relative effectiveness of brochures and Web sites for promoting (a) a ski resort, (b) a hotel, (c) a fitness center, and (d) a bank.

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8. Explore the Web sites of an airline, a bank, and an Internet retailer. Critique them for ease of navigation, content, and visual design. What, if anything, would you change about each site?

Service Positioning and Design
Desperately Seeking Service Strategies
The basics of a travel agency's business have traditionally been quite straightforward. Customers call for flight, train, hotel, or cruise reservations.1 The agent finds out what's available, maybe provides a bit of advice, books the transaction, and delivers the tickets. For decades, commissions on airline tickets provided about 60 percent of a typical agency's revenues. But that situation changed when Delta Airlines announced that it would no longer pay a 10-percent commission on every ticket sold. Regardless of the purchase price, there would be caps of $25 one-way and $50 round-trip for all domestic tickets. Other major airlines soon followed suit. These commission caps were only the start of trouble for the travel agent industry. Other marketplace changes began to impact the roles that travel agents filled as information brokers and distributors of other companies' services. Travel agents are like stockbrokers, real estate agents, or consultants—their value is in what they know and what they can find out for customers. But access to information is being completely reshaped these days by computers and Web-based technologies. Customers can access travel information directly on the Internet at any time, and can handle their own bookings, too—either through a carrier's own Web site or through such Internet-based services as Travelocity or Priceline. So what's a travel agent to do in this challenging new world? Many have closed, others are trying to survive by cutting costs or seeking to add value by doing the same things better. But a few moved quickly to create totally new service strategies. Here are three service revolutionaries—see what you think of their innovative approaches to establishing a secure competitive position!

THE MERCHANDISER
Company: Travelfest Service Strategy: Revamp the way travel is sold
Gary Hoover likes to call his Austin, Texas-based travel agency the Home Depot of the travel industry. His goal was to "yank travel out of the retail Stone Age" by designing a travel superstore where customers could shop for tickets and travel-related products in an entertaining and educational environment. Fourteen monitors play travel videos simultaneously in Travelfest stores, and backlit walls show slides from around the world. Customers can browse for travel information in the Europe room, the Africa room, the Asia room, and kids have their own special room to explore. Visa and passport applications are available, and customers can check out the Hotel and Travel Index (a resource used by most travel agents but rarely available to their clients). There are also 10,000 travel-related items for sale, including books, videos, maps, luggage and clothing, water purifiers, and language guides. Oh yes—the store is also open from 9 A.M. to 11 P.M. seven days a week, and it accepts mail, Internet, and telephone orders.

THE CONTRACTOR
Company: Capital Prestige Travel
Service Strategy: Change the service-delivery model Derek Messenger, owner of Capital Prestige Travel, spends $1 million a year on statewide travel ads and infomercials about discount cruise sailings. His biggest challenge is having enough trained people to take all those calls his advertising generates. Messenger has solved this problem creatively by using independent contractors who work out of their homes and pay for the privilege of affiliating with a well-known travel agency, which routes calls to them. Each homebased contractor pays $7800 to Capital Prestige. In return, contractors get a computer, software that connects them to Sabre (a national computerized reservations system), a hookup to Capital Prestige phone lines, and eight days of training. They also get paid 35 to 70 percent of the agency's ticket commissions. Capital Prestige takes care of all of the marketing and backup services like handling tickets, collecting money, and providing a help line for home agents who run into problems. With its innovative home-agent system, the company has turned fixed costs into variable costs— which saves enough money to generate more business by doing large-scale promotions and advertising. (continues)

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to describe the four different focus approaches explain the elements of competitive positioning strategy discuss how perceptual maps help identify competitors' positions in a specific market understand how branding relates to individual offerings within a product line define the different types of service innovation

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THE NICHE PLAYER
Company: Aspen Travel Service Strategy: Specialize in one service-intensive market niche
Aspen Travel started out as a traditional travel agency. Its customer base was largely limited to Jackson Hole, Wyoming, whose isolated mountain location seemed an unlikely spot for building a large corporate clientele. Then a film production company from Los Angeles shot a movie in Jackson Hole, and Aspen did such a great job of handling its travel that the company retained Aspen's services for

trips to other locations. Owners Randle Feagin and Andy Spiegel had discovered the perfect niche—and today they do 85 percent of their business with production companies from Los Angeles, New York, and Miami. Word of mouth in the tightly knit film production industry takes care of Aspen's marketing, while faxes, e-mail, and remote ticket printers allow the agency to operate from Jackson Hole. Aspen's specialized knowledge helps it outperform would-be competitors. After all, how many travel agents know how to get an AT&T phone booth to a film site in Belize or transport penguins to the deserts of Moab, Utah, without having them collapse from heatstroke?

THE NEED FOR FOCUS
If you ask a group of managers from different service businesses how they compete, many will simply say, " o n service." Press them a little further, and they may add "value for money," "convenience," or "our people are the key." Some may even respond to the question "What makes your service different?" by saying "Truthfully, nothing. We're all pretty m u c h the same." But no two services are ever exactly alike. It would be impossible for companies to be identical in the design of their servicescapes, the employees they attract, the personalities of their leaders, or the cultures they create. As competition intensifies for many businesses in the service sector, cultivating and communicating meaningful differences is becoming increasingly important for long-term profitability. In this chapter, we show how to find answers to the questions: How can we differentiate our service product from the competition's? and How should we go about designing new services'?

Four Focus Strategies
It's not usually realistic for a firm to try to appeal to all actual or potential buyers in a market, because customers are too numerous, too widely scattered, and too varied in their needs, purchasing behavior, and consumption patterns. Firms themselves vary widely in their abilities to serve different types of customers. So rather than attempting to compete in an entire market, each company needs to focus its efforts on those customers it can serve best. In marketing terms, focus means providing a relatively narrow product mix for a particular market segment—a group of customers w h o share comm o n characteristics, needs, purchasing behavior, or consumption patterns. Successful implementation of this concept requires firms to identify the strategically important elements in their service operations and concentrate their resources on these factors. The extent of a company's focus can be described on two different dimensions—market focus and service focus. Market focus is the extent to which a firm serves few or many markets, while service focus describes the extent to which a firm offers few or many services.These dimensions define the four basic focus strategies shown in Figure 10.1. A fully focused organization provides a very limited range of services (perhaps just a single core product) to a narrow and specific market segment. For example, Aspen Travel serves the specific needs of the film production industry. A market-focused company concentrates on a narrow market segment but has a wide range of services. Each Travelfest store serves a limited geographic market, appealing to families and individuals planning vacation trips rather than to business travelers, but offers a broad array of services. Service-focused firms offer a narrow range of services to a fairly broad market. Thus, Capital Prestige Travel specializes in the narrow field of discount cruise sailings, but reaches customers across a broad geographic market through a telephone-based delivery

focus: the provision of a relatively narrow product mix for a particular market segment. market focus: the extent to which a firm serves few or many markets. service focus: the extent to which a firm offers few or many services.

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FIGURE 10.1
Basic Focus Strategies for Service Organizations

Source: Adapted from Robert Johnston, "Achieving Focus in Service Organizations," The Service Industries Journal 16 (January 1996): 10-20.

system. Finally, many service providers fall into the unfocused category because they try to serve broad markets and provide a wide range of services. As you can see from Figure 10.1, focusing requires a company to identify the market segments that it can serve best with the services it offers. Effective market segmentation should group customers in ways that result in similarity within each segment and dissimilarity between each segment on relevant characteristics.

CREATING A DISTINCTIVE SERVICE STRATEGY
Once a company has decided which market segment(s) to target, the next task is to establish an overall strategic direction—a service strategy—in order to achieve and maintain a distinctive competitive position. Leonard Berry emphasizes the importance of these service strategies: All great service companies have a clear, compelling service strategy. They have a "reason for being" that energizes the organization and defines the word "service. "A service strategy captures what gives the service value to customers. To forge a path to great service, a company's leaders must define correctly that which makes the service compelling. They must set in motion and sustain a vision of service excellence, a set ofguideposts that point to the future and show the way.s A company's service strategy can usually be expressed in a few sentences or words that guide and energize its employees. T h e best service strategies address basic human needs that don't change much over time. For example, Taco Bell's service strategy is to offer the best value fast meal whenever and wherever customers are hungry. While this statement sounds simple enough, it actually symbolizes a major change in the way the company defines itself and its operations. Club Med's basic service concept could be described as "a fully paid vacation package where you make your arrangements and pay the bill in advance in return for a well-managed program in which you don't need to worry much about money, transportation, food, activities or clothes." Dial-a-Mattress appeals to its target market's need for both convenience and risk reduction by selling brand-name bedding like Sealy, Serta, or Simmons over the telephone 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Orders are delivered as soon as the customer wants them, and old mattresses are removed at no extra cost. T h e company's core service strategy makes buying a mattress so simple that new customers are often amazed. Founder

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and C E O Napoleon Barragan explains, "Buying a mattress is not a pleasurable experience; it's a chore. If you can make it easy for the customers, if you give them what they want, the way they want it, and when they want it, you can do business." 7

Creating a Sustainable Competitive Advantage
T h e first step in establishing a service strategy is to focus on customers' needs. Important service needs that are not being met by competitors provide opportunities for a company to move into an "open" position in the marketplace.Two questions should be asked about the needs and expectations of a target market relative to a specific service offering: What attributes are absolutely essential to this group of customers? And what attributes will delight them? T h e service strategy can then be designed to include both the essential attributes and those features that have the potential to exceed customer expectations. T h e best service strategies provide organizations with a sustainable competitive advantage—a way of meeting customer needs in a specific market segment better than other competitors. (By sustainable, we mean a position in the marketplace that can't be taken away or minimized by competitors in the short run.) Obtaining and keeping such an advantage presents a significant challenge, because it's hard for a firm to protect innovations legally and competitors can quickly copy many service attributes. Consider how Amtrak positions its high-speed rail service in the Boston-Washington corridor against competing air service.

sustainable competitive advantage: a position in the marketplace that can't be taken away or minimized by competitors in the short run.

Transporting Business Travelers Into the Twenty-First Century
Amtrak, America's national passenger railroad, illustrates a service strategy based on customers' needs related to travel in the 500 mile (800 km) Northeast Corridor that links Boston, Providence, New York, Newark, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C. Over the years, air shuttles departing at 30-minute intervals on the Boston-New York and New York-Washington routes, as well as commuter flights serving other airports, had severely eroded the railroad's position in the business traveler segment of the market. The problem was particularly challenging between Boston and New York, where rail service was slow and not very reliable. But Amtrak's market research showed that in addition to speed, business travelers wanted both convenience and comfort at levels not currently available on most flights. To address these unmet needs, Amtrak obtained funds to upgrade the track on the Northeast Corridor and electrify the line all the way to Boston. In December 2000, it introduced a new, highspeed rail service, named Acela Express. Acela—a new brand name that suggests both acceleration and excellence—promises fast, comfortable, reliable, and safe transportation. Amtrak's futuristic-looking, Canadian-built electric trains can transport passengers at speeds of up to 150 miles per hour (240 km/h), making travel times between city centers competitive with the airlines, once ground travel from airport to city center is included. While seeking to match the airlines on essential attributes like convenience, reliability, and travel time, Amtrak plans to beat them on such features as customer service, spaciousness, and comfort. The company has extended its definition of the "Amtrak travel experience" beyond the core product of transportation to include elements that have the potential to delight its customers—including the service provided by on-board staff, the reservations and ticketing processes, and the train station environment. While waiting at the station, first-class passengers are entitled to use of a special lounge. The trains' interior decor reflects customer preferences for attractive modern design, appealing colors, and more space than the cramped conditions found on air shuttles. The windows of the cars are large and the seats in first and business class are bigger and more comfortable than those on short-haul aircraft. There's plenty of space for stowing baggage and even the toilets are large and attractively designed. Lighting is bright enough to work by but still soft and unobtrusive. Acela Express also offers passengers the chance to stretch their legs and obtain food and drink in a new, upscale "bistro" car; those traveling in first class can dine at their seats, enjoying meals served on chinaware.

Source: Based on Ian R Murphy, "Amtrak Enlists Customers' Help to Bring Service Up to Speed," Marketing News, 27 October 1997, 14; information from the Amtrak corporate Web site, www.amtrak.com, February 2001, and news reports.

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SERVICE POSITIONING
After a service strategy has been identified, a company must decide how to position its product most effectively. T h e concept of positioning involves establishing a distinctive place in the minds of target customers relative to competing products. In The New Positioning:The Latest on the World's #1 Business Strategy, Jack Trout distills the essence of positioning into the following four principles: 8 1. A company must establish a position in the minds of its targeted customers. 2. T h e position should be singular, providing one simple and consistent message. 3. The position must set a company apart from its competitors. 4. A company cannot be all things to all people—it must focus its efforts. Cirque du Soleil is an example of a company that has taken these four principles to heart. Most Americans can't even pronounce the name (which is French for "circus of the sun"), and fewer than one in five know what Cirque offers. But the goal of the Quebec-based founders is to b e c o m e a worldwide brand—a Circus W i t h o u t Boundaries. Cirque provides a mystical mixture of stunningly choreographed dance, original music, exotic costumes, and amazing acrobatics that is more art than traditional circus entertainment. And the atmosphere is intimate, since the audience for most performances is limited to a few thousand people compared to crowds of ten thousand or more at typical circus events. Cirque's extravagant shows—with ticket prices of $60 to $100 per seat—are produced at multimillion dollar theaters on three different continents. T h e company is extremely profitable, and its long-term strategy is to become a megabrand targeted at the wealthy. Cirque has already cashed in on its brand equity with a licensed wallpaper line (a top seller in the United States), a Cirque du Soleil watch marketed by Swatch, and a $12 million I M A X film about the company that recently debuted in Berlin. positioning: establishing a distinctive place in the minds of customers relative to competing products.

Positioning and Marketing Strategy
Companies use positioning strategies to distinguish their services from competitors and to design communications that convey their desired position to customers and prospects in the chosen market segments. There are a n u m b e r of different dimensions around which positioning strategies can be developed, including: 1. Product attributes—America Online's e-mail service is "so easy to use, no wonder it's # 1 " (see Figure 10.2) 2. Price I'quality relationship—Supercuts sells good haircuts at a "reasonable" price 3. Reference to competitors—"You'd better take your Visa card, because they don't take American Express" 4. Usage occasions—Ski resorts offer downhill and cross-country skiing in the w i n ter; hiking and mountain biking in the summer 5. User characteristics—Cheap Ticket's online ticketing service is for travelers w h o are comfortable with both Internet usage and self-service 6. Product class—Blue Cross provides a variety of different health insurance packages for its corporate customers to choose from in putting together their employee benefit plans Marketers often use a combination of these positioning approaches. Whatever strategy a firm chooses, the primary goal is to differentiate itself from competitors by emphasizing the distinctive advantages of its service offerings. If the core benefits are similar to those of the competition, the company may decide to stress different advan-

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FIGURE 10.2
AOL E-Mail Emphasizes Ease of Use and Its Market Leadership

TABLE 10.1
Principal Uses of Positioning in Marketing Management

Provide a useful diagnostic tool for defining and understanding the relationships between products and markets: a. How does the product compare with competitive offerings on specific attributes? b. How well does product performance meet consumer needs and expectations on specific performance criteria? c. What is the predicted consumption level for a product with a given set of performance characteristics offered at a given price? Identify market opportunities: a. Introduce new products • What segments should be targeted? • What attributes should be offered relative to the competition? b. Redesign (reposition) existing products • Should we appeal to the same segments or to new ones? • What attributes should be added, dropped, or changed? • What attributes should be emphasized in advertising? c. Eliminate products that • Do not satisfy consumer needs • Face excessive competition Make other marketing mix decisions to preempt or respond to competitive moves: a. Distribution strategies • Where should the product be offered (locations and types of outlet)? • When should the product be available? b. Pricing strategies • How much should be charged? • What billing and payment procedures should be used? c. Communication strategies • What target audience(s) are most easily convinced that the product offers a competitive advantage on attributes that are important to them? • What message and attributes should be emphasized and which competitors, if any, should be mentioned as the basis for comparison on those attributes? • Which communication channels should be used, personal selling or different advertising media (selected not only for their ability to convey the chosen message to the target audience but also for their ability to reinforce the desired image of the product)?

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tages in its promotional efforts. For example, at one point Sprint was stressing the price and value of its long-distance services, while A T & T emphasized reliability and expertise.Table 10.1 summarizes how positioning strategies relate to critical marketing issues like service development and delivery, pricing, and communications.

Service Repositioning
Market positions are rarely permanent. Competitive activity, n e w technologies, and internal changes may cause a company to reposition itself and its services. R e p o s i t i o n i n g involves changing the position a firm holds in a consumer's mind relative to competing services.This may be necessary to counter competitive attacks, remain attractive and appealing to current customers, or target new and additional segments. Repositioning can involve adding new services or abandoning certain offerings and withdrawing completely from some markets. In response to major changes in its business environment, Andersen Consulting recently repositioned itself and changed its name to Accenture to reflect its "accent on the future" (see the boxed story "Repositioning a Consulting Firm").

repositioning: changing the position a firm holds in a consumers mind relative to competing services.

PERCEPTUAL MAPS AS POSITIONING TOOLS
Many companies use perceptual mapping to help finalize their positioning strategies. Perceptual maps—also called positioning maps—help managers identify the most critical attributes of their own and competing services, as viewed by customers. These maps provide a visual picture of a service's distinctive characteristics, identify the nature of competitive threats and opportunities, and highlight gaps between customer and management perceptions about competing services (as the Palace Hotel example in the next section illustrates). perceptual map: a visual illustration of how customers perceive competing services.

Repositioning a Consulting Firm
Andersen Consulting, a management consulting firm whose clients include more than 5,000 companies worldwide, recently repositioned itself to reflect a new business strategy with an emphasis on cutting-edge technologies. On January 1, 2001, the company was officially "Renamed. Redefined. Reborn as Accenture." The company's name change reflects the new brand identity and repositioning strategy that it had been working on since early in 2000. According to Dave Seibel, the Canadian Managing Partner for Accenture: We are repositioning our firm in the marketplace to better reflect our new vision and strategy for becoming part of the fabric of the new economy and our strategy for getting there. We are creating new businesses through joint ventures that will help us provide our traditional consulting clients and the market with the latest technological innovations. We are also investing in emerging technology providers with applications that will benefit our clients. We are moving beyond a traditional consulting firm, delivering innovations that improve the way the world lives and works. To create awareness of its new name and its extended capabilities, Accenture implemented an integrated marketing communications program in 48 different countries at an estimated cost of $175 million. The campaign included four 30-second Super Bowl spots in addition to 6,000 other television commercials, print ads in newspapers and business journals, and extensive online advertising.

To create a perceptual map, researchers first identify attributes that are important to customers and then measure h o w the firm and its competitors are performing on each attribute. T h e results can then be plotted on a chart, using the horizontal axis for measures of one attribute and the vertical axis for a second. Since charts are twodimensional, perceptual maps are usually limited to two attributes. Sometimes, three-dimensional models are built so that a third dimension can be included. When marketers need to feature more than three dimensions to describe service positioning, they can create a series of two-dimensional maps or use computerized models to handle numerous attributes simultaneously. Some commonly used attributes include: >• Convenience >- Industry-specific characteristics that offer a unique benefit >- Level of personal service *- Price >• Quality of physical elements >- Reliability >» Speed >- Trustworthiness In most cases, an attribute can be delivered at several different levels. Some of these variations are easy to measure. For instance, travel times can be faster or slower and prices can be higher or lower. Reliability—a key element in service quality—can be measured by h o w often a service fails to perform against predefined standards (for instance, errors in posting banking deposits or late arrival of flights). Evaluation of other attributes may be more subjective. For instance, researchers may ask customers to evaluate the level of convenience, comfort, or quality of personal service they encounter in a specific context. A perceptual map is only as good as the quality of the information used in constructing it. Dynamic markets require that research be repeated periodically and perceptual maps redrawn to reflect significant changes in the competitive environment. New market entrants and repositioning of existing competitors may result in the disappearance of a formerly distinctive positioning advantage. Separate maps will have to be drawn for different market segments if research shows that there are sharp variations between segments. In the case of airlines, for instance, vacationers and business travelers may have different service priorities and vary in their willingness to pay extra for higher classes of service.

Using Perceptual Maps to Evaluate Positioning Strategies
To demonstrate the value of perceptual mapping, let's look at h o w the Palace—a successful four-star hotel in a large city that we'll call Belleville—used perceptual maps to develop a better understanding of potential threats to their established market position. T h e Palace was an elegant old hotel located on the edge of Belleville's booming financial district. Its competitors included 8 four-star establishments and the Grand Hotel, which had a five-star rating. T h e Palace had been very profitable for its owners in recent years and boasted an above-average occupancy rate. It was sold out on weekdays most of the year, reflecting its strong appeal to business travelers (who were very attractive customers because of their willingness to pay higher room rates than vacationers or convention participants). But the general manager and his staff saw problems on the horizon. Permission had recently been granted for four large new hotels in the city, and the Grand Hotel had just started a major renovation and expansion project.

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To better understand these competitive threats, the hotel's m a n a g e m e n t team worked with a consultant to prepare perceptual maps that displayed the Palace's position in the business traveler market both before and after the arrival of new competition. Four attributes were selected: room price; level of physical luxury; level of personal service; and location. Information on competing hotels was not difficult to obtain. T h e locations were known, the physical structures were relatively easy to visit and evaluate, and the sales staff kept informed on competitors' pricing policies and discounts. T h e ratio of rooms per employee was a convenient surrogate measure for service level; this was easily calculated from the published number of rooms and employment data filed with city authorities. Data from travel agents provided additional insights about the quality of personal service at each of the competing hotels. T h e Palace's management team created scales for each attribute. Price was simple, since the average price charged to business travelers for a standard single room at each hotel was already k n o w n . T h e rooms per employee ratio formed the basis for a servicelevel scale, with low ratios indicating high service. This scale was then modified slightly to reflect what was known about the level of service actually delivered by each major competitor. T h e level of physical luxury was more subjective. T h e management team identified the Grand Hotel as the most luxurious hotel and decided that the Airport Plaza was the four-star hotel with the least luxurious physical facilities. T h e other fourstar hotels were then rated relative to these two benchmarks. T h e location scale was based on each hotel's distance from the stock exchange (which was in the heart of the financial district), since past research had shown that a majority of the Palace's business guests were visiting destinations in this vicinity. T h e set of 10 hotels lay within an area that extended from the stock exchange through the city's principal retail area (where the convention center was also located) to the inner suburbs and the nearby metropolitan airport. Two positioning maps were created to portray the existing competitive situation. The first (Figure 10.3) showed the hotels on the dimensions of price and service level; the second (Figure 10.4) displayed them on location and degree of physical luxury. A quick glance at Figure 10.3 shows a clear correlation between price and service. That's no surprise: Hotels offering higher levels of service can command higher prices. The shaded bar running from the upper left to the lower right highlights this relationship, and we would expect it to continue diagonally downward for three-star and lesserrated establishments. Further analysis indicates that there appear to be three clusters of hotels within what is already an upscale market category. At the top end, the four-star Regency is close to the five-star Grand. In the middle, the Palace is clustered with four other hotels. Another set of three hotels is positioned at the lower end. O n e surprising insight from this map is that the Palace appears to be charging significantly more (on a relative basis) than its service level seems to justify. But since its occupancy rate is very high, guests are evidently willing to pay the present rate. What's the secret of its success? In Figure 10.4, we see how the Palace is positioned relative to the competition on location and physical luxury. We would not expect these two variables to be directly related and they don't appear to be so. A key insight here is that the Palace occupies a relatively empty portion of the map. It's the only hotel located in the financial district— a fact that probably explains its ability to charge more than its service level (or degree of physical luxury) would normally command. There are two clusters of hotels in the vicinity of the shopping district and convention center: a relatively luxurious group of three, and a second group of two offering a moderate level of luxury. After mapping the current situation, the Palace's management team turned to the future. Their next task was to predict the positions of the four new hotels being constructed in Belleville, as well as the probable repositioning of the Grand (see Figures 10.5 and 10.6). T h e construction sites were already k n o w n . Two w o u l d be in the

financial district and the other two in the vicinity of the c o n v e n t i o n center. Predicting the positions of the four new hotels was not difficult since preliminary details had already been released. T h e owners of two of the hotels intended to aim for five-star status, although they admitted that this goal m i g h t take a few years to achieve. Three of the newcomers would be affiliated with international chains. Their strategies could be guessed by e x a m i n i n g hotels these same chains had o p e n e d recently in other cities. Press releases distributed by the Grand had already declared

that the " N e w G r a n d " would be larger and even more luxurious, and its management planned to add new service features. Pricing was easy to project because new hotels use a formula for setting posted room prices (the prices typically charged to individuals staying on a weekday in high season).This price is linked to the average construction cost per room at the rate of $1 per night for every $1000 of construction costs. Thus, a 500-room hotel that costs $100 million to build (including land costs) would have an average room cost of $200,000 and would need to set a price of $200 per room night. Using this formula, Palace managers concluded that the four new hotels would have to charge significantly more than the Grand or the Regency. This would have the effect of establishing what marketers call a "price umbrella" above existing price levels and would give other competitors the option of raising their prices. To justify the high prices, the new hotels would have to offer customers very high standards of service and luxury. At the same time, the New Grand would need to increase its prices to recover the costs of renovations, new construction, and enhanced service offerings. Assuming that no changes "were made by either the Palace or the other existing hotels, the impact of the n e w competition clearly posed a significant threat to the Palace. It would lose its unique locational advantage and become one of three hotels in the immediate vicinity of the financial district (see Figure 10.6). T h e sales staff believed that many of the Palace's existing business customers would be attracted to the Continental and the Mandarin and would be willing to pay higher rates in order to obtain superior benefits. T h e other two newcomers were seen as more of a threat to the Shangri-La, Sheraton, and N e w Grand in the shopping district/convention center cluster. T h e N e w Grand and the other entrants would create a high price/high service and luxury cluster at the top end of the market, leaving the Regency in what might prove to be a distinctive—and therefore defensible—space of its own. W h a t action should the Palace take under these circumstances? O n e option would be to do nothing in terms of service enhancements or physical improvements. But the loss of its locational advantage would probably destroy the hotel's ability to charge a price premium, leading to lower prices and profits. Some of the best staff might be enticed away by the new hotels, leading to a decline in service quality. And without renovations, there would be a gradual decline in physical luxury, too. T h e net result over time might be to shift the Palace into a new cluster with the Castle, serving guests who want to visit destinations in the financial district but are unable (or unwilling) to pay the high prices charged at the Mandarin and Continental. As you can see, doing nothing would have significant strategic implications! If other existing hotels decided to upgrade and the Palace did nothing, it would eventually slide even further down the scales on luxury and service, risking reclassification as a three-star hotel. An alternative strategy would be to implement renovations, service improvements, and programs to reinforce the loyalty of current guests before the new hotels are completed. T h e price umbrella these hotels create would allow the Palace to raise its rates to cover the additional costs. T h e hotel might then move to a new position where it is clustered with the Regency on the dimensions of price and service. On the dimensions of luxury and location, it would be clustered with the Mandarin and Continental but with slightly lower prices than either competitor. So what did the Palace actually do? Management selected the second option, concluding that the future profitability of the hotel lay in c o m p e t i n g against the Continental (and to a lesser extent against the Mandarin) for the growing number of business travelers visiting Belleville's financial district.The Palace also tried to retain the loyalty of frequent guests by recording their preferences and special needs on the hotel database so that staff could provide more personalized service. Advertising and selling efforts promoted these improvements, and frequent guests were sent personalized direct

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mailings from the general manager. Despite the entrance of new and formidable c o m petition, the Palace's occupancy levels and profits have held up very well.

CREATING AND PROMOTING COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Creating a competitive advantage presents special challenges for service providers, w h o are often forced to compete with goods and customers' self-service options in addition to other service providers. Since customers seek to satisfy specific needs, they often evaluate reasonable alternatives that offer broadly similar benefits. For example, if your lawn desperately needs mowing, you could buy a lawn mower and do it yourself—or you could hire a lawn maintenance service to take care of the chore for you. Customers may make choices between competing alternatives based on their skill levels or physical capabilities and their time availability, as well as on factors like cost comparisons between purchase and use, storage space for purchased products, and anticipated frequency of need. As you can see, direct competition between goods and services is often inevitable in situations where they can provide the same basic benefits. This concept is illustrated in Figure 10.7, which shows four possible delivery alternatives for both car travel and word processing. These alternatives are based on choices between ownership or rental of physical goods and self-service or hiring other people to perform the tasks. Of course, many businesses rely on a mixture of both goods and services to satisfy customer needs. "Quasi-manufacturing" operations like fast-food restaurants sell goods supplemented by value-added service. At each site, customers can view a m e n u describing the restaurant's products, which are highly tangible and easily distinguishable from those of competitors. T h e service comes from speedy delivery of freshly prepared food items, the ability to order and pick up food from a drive-in location without leaving the car, and the opportunity to sit down and eat a meal at a table in a clean environment. Providers of less tangible services also offer a " m e n u " of products, representing a bundle of carefully selected elements built around a core benefit. For instance, universities provide many types of undergraduate education, ranging from two-year certification programs to the completion of bachelors' degrees, and from full-time residency to evening extension programs. Most also offer graduate studies and nondegree continuing education classes. T h e supplementary service elements include advising, library and computer resources, entertainment opportunities like theater and sports events, food and health care services, and a safe, pleasant campus environment.

FIGURE

10.7

Services as Substitutes for Owning and/or Using Goods

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The Power of Service Brands
Because of the difficult competitive challenges faced by service providers, especially the problem of differentiating an intangible performance, branding plays a special role in defining and positioning a company's service offerings. As Leonard Berry states: Strong brands enable customers to better visualize and understand intangible products. They reduce customers' perceived monetary, social or safety risk in buying services, which are difficult to evaluate prior to purchase. Strong brands are the surrogate when the company offers no fabric to touch, no trousers to try on, no watermelons or apples to scrutinize, no automobile to test-drive.'" While the product is the primary brand for packaged goods, the company itself serves as the brand for services. B u t what is a brand? Harry Beckwith argues in his book Selling the Invisible that for a service, a brand is more than a name or a symbol. It is an implicit promise that a service provider will perform consistently up to customer

brand: a name, phrase, design, symbol, or some combination of these elements that identifies a company's services and differentiates it from competitors.

FIGURE 10.8
AARP Promotes a Fit, Fun Image to Attract New Members in Their Fifties

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expectations over time. Brands are very important to service customers, because few services have warranties—in part because they are typically difficult to guarantee. For example, h o w do you guarantee that a doctor's diagnosis will be accurate? That a p r o fessor's class will be educational? That a tax accountant will find every legal d e d u c tion? Customers can't experience service quality in advance of purchase, so most of the time they have to rely on the service provider's brand image as a promise of future satisfaction. Ritz-Carlton promises a particular type of luxury hotel experience; Motel 6 stands for something simpler and more affordable. Similarly, Southwest Airlines and Singapore Airlines, both respected as leaders in their industry, offer very different air travel experiences. Brands that offer good value on a consistent basis gain the trust and respect of their customers. In fact, w h e n traveling on business or vacation, people w h o value consistency often seek out the same service providers that they patronize at home. Perhaps you're among them. Advertising and other marketing communications play an important role in creating a positive brand image and establishing expectations. Even nonprofit organizations like A A R P have developed brand image campaigns. Figure 10.8 shows an advertisement from a campaign designed, in part, to dispel misperceptions that the A A R P (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) consisted only of inactive, elderly individuals—in fact, membership is open to anyone over the age of 50. And the Chicago Symphony Orchestra experienced a 10-percent increase in donations following a communications program that introduced a modernized logo and sought to create a consistent, upbeat image for the orchestra. To maintain a well-defined brand identity, a firm must reinforce key brand attributes in all of its communications—from service encounters to television advertising. Marketing messages may vary by target audience, but there should be a c o n sistent theme. This includes Web sites, w h i c h can be powerful communication links with customers if managed effectively. Companies like FedEx, U P S , Kinko's, and Sir Speedy use the Internet to provide online information and delivery options for their customers. These value-added services help to e n h a n c e customers' overall brand experiences.

The "Branded Customer Experience"
Customer satisfaction—the deep kind of satisfaction that builds loyalty—doesn't result from any one thing. A customer's decision to stay with a particular supplier or defect to another is often the result of many small encounters. Successful firms recognize this and design distinctive service strategies to ensure that ordinary events will be perceived as extraordinary. T h e Forum Corp., a consulting and training group in Boston, calls this creating a "branded customer experience." 1 2 According to the Forum, the promise of the service brand should be reinforced at every point of contact between a company and its customers. Forum senior vice president Scott Timmins says: " T h e question is, what is our brand of customer delight—what are we known for, what do customers expect us to deliver reliably, where's our wow?" Southwest Airlines has mastered the branded service experience—with a twist. Its brand stands for the opposite of extravagant treatment, but passengers are not expecting that. Instead, the airline delights its customers by making and keeping a promise to provide simple, convenient, inexpensive service, with a little h u m o r on the side. Southwest's positioning strategy is designed to reinforce its image as the " N o Frills" carrier. This t h e m e is emphasized in its clever advertising campaigns, the reusable plastic boarding passes, and the casual appearance and demeanor of its flight attendants.

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Changing Brand Perceptions
halo effect: the tendency for consumer ratings of one prominent product characteristic to influence ratings for many other attributes of that same product. Customers'perceptions about specific brands often reflect the cumulative impact of different service encounters. These experiences can result in a halo effect—either positive or negative—that makes it difficult for customers to assess the specific strengths and weaknesses of competing services. 13 For instance, reported customer dissatisfaction with one attribute of a particular service may be real (and thus need corrective action) or could be the result of a negative halo effect caused by a high dissatisfaction with a second attribute or even by a high overall dissatisfaction with the brand. O n e problem in consumer satisfaction research is that respondents often complete survey questionnaires quickly, w i t h o u t carefully considering each of the different dimensions on which they are rating a service firm's performance. If they are unhappy with a service in general, they may rate all attributes poorly rather than identifying those that are actually dissatisfying. In-depth personal interviews usually offer a more reliable way to probe customers' evaluations and obtain more carefully considered responses. However, this type of research is time consuming and more expensive to administer. Improving negative brand perceptions may require extensive redesign of the core product a n d / o r supplementary services. However, weaknesses are sometimes perceptual rather than real. Ries and Trout describe the case of Long Island Trust, historically the leading bank serving this large suburban area to the east of N e w York City. 14 After laws were passed to permit unrestricted branch banking throughout N e w York State, many of the big banks from neighboring Manhattan began invading Long Island. Research showed that Long Island Trust was rated below banks like Chase Manhattan and Citibank on such key selection criteria as branch availability, full range of services offered, service quality, and capital resources. However, Long Island Trust ranked first on helping Long Island residents and the Long Island economy. T h e bank's advertising agency developed a campaign promoting the "Long Island position," playing to its perceived strengths rather than seeking to improve perceptions on attributes where it was perceived less favorably. T h e tenor of the campaign can be gauged from the following extract from a print ad: Why send your money to the city if you live on the Island? It makes sense to keep your money close to home. Not at a city bank but at Long Island Trust. Where it can work for Long Island. After all, we concentrate on developing Long Island. Not Manhattan Island or some island off Kuwait— O t h e r advertisements in the campaign promoted similar themes, such as, " T h e city is a great place to visit, but would you want to bank there?" W h e n identical research was repeated 15 months later, Long Island Trust's position had improved on every attribute. T h e campaign had succeeded in reframing its brand image by changing its customers' frame of reference from a global to a local perspective. Although the firm had not changed any of its core or supplementary services, the perceived strength of being a Long Island bank for Long Islanders now had a strongly positive halo effect on all other attributes.

NEW SERVICE DEVELOPMENT
Competitive intensity and customer expectations are increasing in nearly all service industries.Thus success lies not only in providing existing services well, but also in creating new approaches to service. Because the outcome and process aspects of a service often combine to create the experience and benefits obtained by customers, both aspects must be addressed in new service development.

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A Hierarchy of Service Innovation
The word " n e w " is popular in marketing because it's a good way to attract people's attention. However, there are different degrees of "newness" in n e w service development. In fact, we can identify seven categories of new services, ranging from major innovations to simple style changes. 1. Major service innovations are n e w core products for markets that have not been previously defined. They usually include both new service characteristics and radical new processes. Examples include FedEx's introduction of overnight, nationwide, express package delivery in 1971, the advent of global news service from C N N , and eBay's launch of online auction services. 2. Major process innovations consist of using new processes to deliver existing core products in new ways with additional benefits. For example, the University of P h o e n i x competes w i t h other universities by delivering undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a nontraditional way. It has no permanent campus; instead its courses are offered online or at night in rented facilities. Its students get most of the core benefits of a college degree in half the time and at a much lower price than other universities. 15 T h e existence of the Internet has led to the creation of many start-up businesses employing n e w retailing models that exclude the use of traditional stores, saving customers time and travel costs. Often, these models add new, information-based benefits such as greater customization, the opportunity to visit chat rooms with fellow customers, and suggestions for additional products that complement what has already been purchased. 3. Product line extensions are additions to current product lines by existing firms.The first company in a market to offer such a product may be seen as an innovator, but the others are merely followers w h o are often acting defensively.These new services may be targeted at existing customers to serve a broader array of needs, designed to attract n e w customers with different needs, or both. Starbucks, k n o w n for its coffee shops, has extended its offerings to include light lunches (Figure 10.9). Major computer manufacturers like Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, and IBM are going beyond their traditional business definitions to offer integrated "e-solutions" based on consulting and customized service. Telephone companies have introduced numerous value-added services such as caller ID, call waiting, and call forwarding. Cable television providers are starting to offer broadband Internet access. Many banks sell insurance products in the h o p e of increasing the n u m b e r of profitable relationships w i t h existing customers. American Express, too, offers a full range of insurance products, including auto, home, and umbrella policies. And at least one insurance company—State Farm Insurance—has gone into the banking business, relying on its well-established brand name to help draw customers. 4. Process line extensions are less innovative than process innovations. But they do often represent distinctive new ways of delivering existing products, either with the intent of offering more convenience and a different experience for existing customers or of attracting n e w customers w h o find the traditional approach unappealing. Most commonly, they involve adding a lower-contact distribution channel to an existing high-contact channel, as w h e n a financial service firm develops telephone-based or Internet-based services or a bricks-and-mortar retailer adds catalog sales or a Web site. For example, Barnes and Noble, the leading bookstore chain in the U n i t e d States, added a n e w Internet subsidiary,

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FIGURE

10.9

Starbucks Promotes Its Expanded Service Offering

BarnesandNoble.com, to help it compete against Amazon.com. Creating selfservice options for customers to complement delivery by service employees is another form of process line extension. 5. Supplementary service innovations involve adding new facilitating or enhancing service elements to an existing core service, or significantly improving an existing supplementary service. Low-tech innovations for an existing service can be as simple as adding parking at a retail site or agreeing to accept credit cards for payment. Multiple improvements may have the effect of creating what customers perceive as an altogether new experience, even though it is built around the same core. T h e m e restaurants like the Rainforest Cafe are examples of enhancing the core with new experiences. T h e cafes are designed to keep customers entertained with aquariums, live parrots, waterfalls, fiberglass monkeys, talking trees that spout environmentally related information, and regularly timed thunderstorms, complete with lightning. 1 7 6. Service improvements are the most c o m m o n type of innovation. T h e y involve modest changes in the performance of current products, including improvements to either the core product or to existing supplementary services. For instance, a movie theater might renovate its interior, adding ergonomically designed seats with built-in cup holders to increase both comfort and convenience for customers during the show or an airline might add power sockets for laptops in its business-class cabins. 7. Style changes represent the simplest type of innovation, typically involving no changes in either processes or performance. However they are often highly visible, create excitement, and may serve to motivate employees. Examples include

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repainting retail branches and vehicles in new color schemes, outfitting service employees in n e w uniforms, introducing a new bank check design, or making minor changes in service scripts for employees. As you can see, service innovation can occur at many different levels. It's important to recognize that not every type of innovation has an impact on the characteristics of the core product or results in a significant change in the customer's experience.

Creating a New Service to Fill an Empty Market Position
As we noted earlier, positioning research sometimes reveals new opportunities in the marketplace. Perceptual maps can highlight positions where there is expressed or latent demand for a certain type of service but none of the existing offerings have attributes that closely meet potential customers' requirements. W h e n a firm uncovers such an opportunity, the only way to take advantage of it is to develop a new service with the desired characteristics. Service design is not typically a simple task. Most n e w services involve c o m p r o mises, because there are usually limits to what most prospective customers are willing to pay. And service providers must be careful not to lose control of their costs in coming up with superior performance levels on the product characteristics that customers desire. So h o w can product planners d e t e r m i n e what features and price will create the best value for target customers? It's hard to k n o w w i t h o u t asking prospective u s e r s — h e n c e the n e e d for research. Let's e x a m i n e h o w the M a r r i o t t Corporation employed market research to help develop a n e w service concept in the lodging industry. Marriott had identified a niche in the business travel market between full-service hotels and inexpensive motels. T h e opportunities were seen as especially attractive in locations where demand was not high e n o u g h to justify a large full-service hotel. Having confirmed the presence of a niche where there was u n m e t market demand, Marriott executives set out to develop a product to fill that gap. As a first step, the c o m pany hired marketing research experts to help establish an optimal design concept. 1 8 Since there are limits to h o w much service and h o w many amenities can be offered at any given price, Marriott needed to know how customers would make trade-offs in order to arrive at the most satisfactory compromise in terms of value for money. T h e intent of the research was to get respondents to trade off different hotel service features to see which ones they valued most. A sample of 601 consumers (who were part of the business travel market) from four metropolitan areas participated in the study. Researchers used a sophisticated technique k n o w n as conjoint analysis that asks survey respondents to make trade-offs between different groupings of attributes. T h e objective is to determine which mix of attributes at specific prices offers the highest degree of utility. T h e 50 attributes in the Marriott study were divided into the following seven factors (or sets of attributes), each containing a variety of different features based on detailed studies of competing offerings: 1. External factors—building shape, landscaping, pool type and location, hotel size 2. Room features—room size and decor, climate control, location and type of bathroom, entertainment systems, other amenities 3. Food-related services—type and location of restaurants, menus, room service, vending machines, guest shop, in-room kitchen 4. Lounge facilities—location, atmosphere, type of guests 5. Services—reservations, registration, check-out, airport limo, bell desk, message center, secretarial services, car rental, laundry, valet

6. Leisure facilities—sauna, whirlpool, exercise room, racquetball and tennis courts, game room, children's playground 7. Security—guards, smoke detectors, 24-hour video camera For each of these seven factors, respondents were presented with a series of stimulus cards displaying different levels of performance for each attribute. For instance, the "Rooms" stimulus card displayed nine attributes, each of which had three to five different levels. Thus, amenities ranged from "small bar of soap" to "large soap, shampoo packet, shoeshine mitt" to "large soap, bath gel, shower cap, sewing kit, shampoo, special soap" and then to the highest level, "large soap, bath gel, shower cap, sewing kit, special soap, toothpaste, etc." In the second phase of the analysis, respondents were shown cards depicting a n u m ber of alternative hotel profiles, each featuring different levels of performance on the various attributes contained in the seven factors.They were asked to indicate on a fivepoint scale how likely they would be to stay at a hotel with these features, given a specific room price per night. Figure 10.10 shows one of the 50 cards that were developed for this research. Each respondent received five cards. The research yielded detailed guidelines for the selection of almost 200 features and service elements, representing those attributes that provided customers in the target segment with the highest utility for the prices they were willing to pay. An important aspect of the study was that it focused not only on what travelers wanted, but also identified what they liked but weren't prepared to pay for. (There's a difference, after all, between wanting something and being willing to pay for it!) Using these inputs, the design team was able to meet the specified price while retaining the features most desired by the study participants, w h o represented the desired business traveler market. Marriott was sufficiently encouraged by the findings to build three prototype hotels that were given the brand name, "Courtyard by Marriott." After testing the concept under real-world conditions and making some refinements, the company developed a large chain whose advertising slogan became " C o u r t y a r d by M a r r i o t t — t h e hotel designed by business travelers." T h e new hotel concept filled a gap in the market with a product that represented the best balance between the price customers were prepared to pay and the physical and service features they most desired. T h e success of this project subsequently led Marriott to develop additional customer-driven products—Fairfield Inn and Marriott Suites—using the same research methodology.

Conclusion
Service companies must find ways to create meaningful competitive advantages for their products by responding to specific customer needs and developing a distinctive service strategy that responds to those needs better than any competing product. Successful positioning strategies are based on relating the opportunities (and threats) uncovered by market and competitive analysis to the firm's own strengths and weaknesses. In this chapter, we introduced perceptual mapping, an important tool that companies can use to help define their competitive positions. Perceptual maps present a visual display of how competing firms perform relative to each other on key service attributes. This technique can be used to analyze opportunities for developing new services or repositioning existing ones so that companies can establish and maintain a sustainable competitive advantage by effectively addressing the needs and expectations of their target markets. Because of the difficult challenge faced by service providers in differentiating intangible performances, branding plays a special role in defining and positioning a c o m -

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pany s service offerings. Creating a distinctive branded service experience for customers requires consistency at all stages of the service delivery process. In designing services, managers should be aware of the importance of selecting the right mix of supplementary service elements—no more and no less than needed—and creating synergy to ensure that they contribute to a consistent, positive brand image.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Give examples of companies in other industries that are facing challenges similar to those of the travel agents in the opening story. Describe what service strategies these companies might use to compete effectively. 2. W h y should service firms focus their efforts? W h a t options do they have for doing so? 3. In a sentence or two, describe Amtrak's service strategy for its new Acela Express service (refer to the boxed example on page 218). 4. Describe what is meant by the term "positioning." Choose an industry you are familiar with (like fast-food restaurants or movie theaters) and create a perceptual map showing the competitive positions of different companies in the industry. 5. Explain why branding is particularly important for services. W h i c h service brands are you familiar with? What do they tell you about the companies they are associated with? 6. Discuss how a company's product attributes (including the core and supplementary services), price, and marketing communications all work together to create a branded customer experience. Provide an example of a service firm that you think has integrated these elements particularly well. 7. Define the seven categories of new services. Provide your own example for each category.

In Part IV, we address the task of how to deliver service products to the customer. As shown in Figure IV. 1, managers face three key questions: What are the options for delivering our service? How can we balance productivity and quality concerns? How should we match demand and productive capacity? Service delivery issues have been dominated traditionally by operations. But progressive service organizations also include their marketing and human resource managers in these types of decisions. Before they can make decisions on service delivery (the topic of Chapter 11), managers need to ask, What physical and electronic channels can we use? Service delivery is closely linked to the choice of service process—whether the service involves the physical person of the customer, a tangible possession, or some form of information. In high-contact services customers encounter employees and physical evidence of facilities. Even when physical channels are necessary to deliver the core service, information-based supplementary services may be delivered electronically. It's possible to deliver some information-based services entirely through automated, low-contact systems. Is it feasible to shift from highcontact to low-contact delivery? If so, Should we offer customers a choice? Abandoning existing high-contact delivery options is not necessarily a viable strategy. Some customers may not like the low-contact delivery alternatives, others may prefer having access to both physical and electronic delivery channels.

Another key service delivery consideration is: When and where should our service be available? Success in services increasingly depends on offering customers convenience. Electronic delivery through the Internet has the advantage of being accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, from a location of the customer's choosing. Finally, managers need to address the issue of What options exist for using third-party intermediaries? Often a case can be made for subcontracting some aspects of service delivery to intermediaries who possess special expertise and may have better access to customers. The challenge of balancing productivity and quality presents an ongoing headache for businesses. It can lead to conflict between marketers—who are advocates of customer satisfaction—and operations managers, who are concerned with efficiency and cost control. As we note in earlier chapters, customers' perceptions of service quality tend to be linked to their expectations of the service, raising the questions: What quality improvements are needed to meet or exceed customer expectations ? How can we reduce operating costs without spoiling the appeal of our service? We address these and other quality and productivity issues in Chapter 12. Making optimal use of available capacity is one way to improve productivity. However, many service businesses face wide swings in demand that result in wasted capacity when demand is low and lost business when it's too high. Chapter 13 addresses the question, What strategies can we employ to match demand and capacity?'To

FIGURE IV. 1 Decisions Involving Service Delivery resolve this challenge, strategists need to understand both the nature of productive capacity and the factors that underlie periodic variations in demand. Both marketing and operational strategies can be employed. Issues relating to waiting lines and reservations are discussed in Chapter 14. Reservations systems provide one way of balancing demand against available capacity, since they allow customers to obtain a commitment for service delivery at a specific time in the future. Another approach is to develop a strategy for managing waiting lines, designing them with reference to the anticipated volume of business and the customer mix.

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Creating Delivery Systems in Place, Cyberspace, and Time
Kinko's: From Local Copyshop to Global Business Service Provider
In 1970, 22-year-old Paul Orfalea, just out of college, borrowed enough money to open a photocopy shop in Isla Vista, near the campus of the University of California at Santa Barbara.1 Covering just 100 square feet (less than 10 square meters), the tiny store contained one copy machine and also sold film processing and felt-tip highlighter pens. Orfalea, the son of Lebanese immigrants, called the store Kinko's after the nickname given to him by his college buddies because of his curly reddish hair. Thirty years later, Kinko's boasted a chain of almost one thousand printing and copying stores, operating 24 hours a day from coast to coast in the United States, plus branches in Canada, Britain, the Netherlands, Australia, United Arab Emirates, and three Asian countries. Kinko's offers ways to change companies' existing working procedures through services that include productivity consultation and outsourcing of document management. It also appeals to business travelers who may need to develop and deliver presentations, reports, and proposals far from their home offices. (A few years ago, Kinko's even ran a national advertising campaign positioning the firm as "Your Branch Office.") Technological innovations in IT and printing have revolutionized Kinko's business model and created new methods of working for both the company and its customers. At its stores, Kinko's customers can print in color in almost any size, bind their documents in many different ways, send faxes, and work on in-house computers. Many locations also offer videoconferencing technology. The company provides an array of other services and products, including rentals of conference rooms, notary public service, and sale of office supplies. Kinko's now describes itself as "the world's leading provider of visual communications services and document copying." The firm has created a global online network, employing broadband technology to link all its locations. Using Kinkonet, the firm's online service, customers can order supplies or submit files for printing. Thanks to digital file transmission, customers can compose reports in, say, Minneapolis and transmit them electronically to, say, Montreal where they can be printed and bound for a meeting. This procedure is an alternative to the traditional approach of first creating documents and graphics, then printing and binding them, and finally, shipping them physically to another location. Through a partnership with FedEx, couriers can deliver reports to local addresses in some 55 markets within only four hours.Recognizing that not all customers are in a position to transfer document files by modem and that printed materials may need to be delivered physically to their final destination, Kinko's has worked with FedEx to install "World Service Centers" at selected branches. These centers offer a full complement of express shipping solutions and provide access to late pickups. In 2000, the firm announced creation of a separate company, Kinkos.com, combining its existing Internet-based activities with newly acquired e-business expertise, online design tools, and proprietary technology. Kinkos.com aimed to become a leading online resource for the small office/home office (SOHO) market, offering

customers 24/7 access to expert advice, powerful online tools, and the worldwide Kinkos' network—all from their own desktops. Kinkos.com has a clicks-and-mortar relationship with the storebased company, using the latter's physical locations for in-store marketing, customer acquisition, and physical distribution.

distinguish between physical and electronic channels of delivery recognize that delivery systems must address issues of where, when, and how service is to be delivered to customers define the three different types of service delivery channels understand the role of physical evidence and servicescapes in service delivery explain the role of technology in enhancing the speed, convenience, and productivity of service delivery systems describe the role of intermediaries in service delivery

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EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE DELIVERY CHANNELS
This is both an exciting and challenging time for managers w h o are responsible for service delivery. Customers are demanding more convenience, and they expect services to be delivered where and w h e n they want them.- As the Kinko's example shows, new technologies allow information-based services (and informational processes related to supplementary services) to be delivered almost anywhere through electronic channels. This chapter explores a key question in service management: What are the options for delivering our service? In many cases, customers are no longer obliged to visit service factories as the concept of going to a physical place for service delivery gives way to delivery in cyberspace for information-based services. In addition to moving from factory- to electronic-based delivery, progressive firms are coming up with different formats for face-to-face delivery in new locations. Such innovations include services like massage clinics on airport concourses and Wells Fargo's tiny bank branches occupying booths at the end of supermarket aisles.

Physical versus Electronic Delivery
As service managers consider the options for delivering their services, two key questions are, What physical and electronic channels can we use? and Is it feasible to switch from high-contact to low-contact delivery? While goods require physical distribution, those services that are information based can be delivered through either electronic or physical channels. Many of the supplementary services surrounding both intangible and tangible core products can now be delivered electronically. Even service businesses that involve physical core products—like retailing and repair—are shifting delivery of many supplementary services to the Web, closing some of their physical branches, and moving to low-contact strategies for interacting with customers. As you can see in Figure 11.1, five of the eight petals of

FIGURE

11.1

Information and Physical Processes Within the Augmented Service Product

the augmented service product are information-based processes that can be delivered either physically or electronically. Consultation, order taking, billing, payment, and information can all be transmitted in the digital code of computers. T h e growth of electronic channels is creating a fundamental change in the nature of marketing. Customers are moving from face-to-face contacts with suppliers in fixed locations that only operate during fixed hours to remote contacts in cyberspace, "anywhere, anytime." More and more services n o w fall into the category of arm's length relationships rather than face-to-face interactions. As Rayport and Sviokla note: Tiie traditional marketplace interaction between physical seller and physical buyer has been eliminated. In fact, everything about this new type of transaction—what we call a marketspace transaction—is different from what happens in the marketplace. The Marketplace Companies doing business in the marketplace need a physical environment in which customers can get together with suppliers to inspect merchandise or conduct service-related business. We can't get rid of the marketplace for people-processing services, because these services require customers to enter the physical environment of a service factory. In some instances, customers don't want to get rid of the marketplace because it is the physical and social environment that attracts them, like in destination resorts. The Marketspace Companies doing business in the marketspace may be able to replace contact with physical objects with information about those objects (as in a paper or electronic catalog). For information-based services the context in which the transaction occurs is also different, with on-screen (or on-telephone) contact replacing physical contact; customers may also have the option to replace service from contact personnel by self-service through intelligent interactive systems. A desire to save time has been one of the driving forces behind these trends, reflecting customer preferences for ever faster and more convenient service. A second factor has been interest on the part of some customers in obtaining easily accessible information about the goods and services that they buy. Ironically, electronic contacts may bring customers "closer" to manufacturers and service suppliers. Managers are beginning to realize that the opportunity to develop increased knowledge of customers may be as important a reason for doing business in the marketspace as seeking cost savings by eliminating physical contact. Conducting dialog with customers about their needs and preferences (information that can be stored in databases for future reference) can lead to delivery of better and more customized service—which may create greater value and therefore command higher prices.

cyberspace: a term used to describe the absence of a definable physical location where electronic transactions or communications occur.

marketplace: a physical location where suppliers and customers meet to do business.

marketspace: a virtual location in cyberspace, made possible by telephone and Internet linkages, where customers and suppliers conduct business electronically.

Designing the Service Delivery Process
The nature of the service both influences and is shaped by distribution strategy. In highcontact services, the design of the physical environment and the way in w h i c h customer-contact personnel perform their tasks help create a distinctive identity for a service firm, shape the nature of customers' experiences, and enhance both productivity and quality. However, low-contact services are often designed specifically with improved productivity in mind. More and more frequently, customers deliver these services themselves through self-service technologies rather than interacting directly with service employees. T h e design of service delivery systems should start with the core product and then be expanded to include the delivery of each of the supplementary services. Managers

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responsible for developing service delivery strategy will need to address the following marketing and operations issues: *- What should be the nature of contact between the service provider and its customers! Should customers come to the provider or the other way around? Or should the two parties deal at arm's length, using mail and telecommunications (ranging from telephone to the Web)? >- What should be the sequencing of the various steps in the service delivery process! Both operational and customer preferences need to be taken into account in making this decision. T h e blueprinting methods we discussed in Chapter 7 can be used in exploring alternative delivery sequences. >- Wliere (location) and when (scheduling) should these steps take place! T h e choice today is not only between different physical locations but also between physical space and cyberspace. >- Wliat should be the nature of customer involvement at each step! If customers are required to be present, should they be served in batches or individually? Alternatively, should they serve themselves? >- Wliat imagery and atmosphere should the service delivery environment (or servicescape) try to create? For a high-contact service, this concerns decisions on: facility design and layout; staff uniforms, appearance, and attitudes; the type of furnishings and equipment installed; and the use of music, lighting, and decor. ^Should a service firm take responsibility for the entire delivery process or delegate some steps to intermediaries? S o m e supplementary services, like information and reservations, can be h a n d l e d very efficiently and cost-effectively by intermediaries. »- What should be the serving protocol? Should the firm operate a reservations system or work on a first-come, first-served basis, using queuing when necessary? Or should a priority system be established for certain types of customers (like many firms do for their larger industrial accounts or airlines do for their gold card frequent flyers)?

OPTIONS FOR SERVICE DELIVERY
D e l i v e r i n g a service to customers involves answering the questions " w h e r e ? " " w h e n ? " and " h o w ? " Service marketing strategy must address place and time, paying at least as m u c h attention to speed, scheduling, and the potential for electronic access in cyberspace issues as to the more traditional notion of physical location. T h e nature of the delivery system has a powerful impact on the customer's experience with the service product. Service delivery strategy is shaped by several factors, including the nature of the business, the service processes employed, the types of customers targeted, and productivity and quality concerns. A key question is whether the nature of the service or the firm's positioning strategy requires customers to be in direct physical contact with its personnel, equipment, and facilities. If so, do customers need to visit the service organization's facilities or should personnel and equipment be sent to the customer's site? Alternatively, can transactions between provider and customer be completed at arm's length through either telecommunications or modern physical channels of distribution? A second issue concerns the firm's strategy in terms of distribution sites. Should it maintain just a single outlet or serve customers through multiple outlets at different locations? T h e possible options, combining both type of contact and number of sites, can be seen in Table 11.1.

Should we offer customers a choice? Just because a service can be delivered through low-contact channels doesn't necessarily mean it should be. Astute marketers recognize that preferences may vary from one customer to another and even from one situation to another for the same customer. Like Kinko's, many companies offer their customers a choice of delivery c h a n n e l s . D e p e n d i n g on the nature of the service, options may include serving a customer at a firm's o w n retail sites, delegating service delivery to an intermediary or franchisee, coming to the customer's house or place of business, and (in certain types of services) serving the customer at a distance through physical or electronic channels.

delivery channels: the means by which a service firm (sometimes assisted by intermediaries) delivers one or more product elements to its customers.

Customers Visit the Service Site
The convenience of service factory locations and operational schedules becomes an important marketing issue w h e n customers are required to be physically present throughout service delivery—or even just to initiate and terminate the transaction. Retail gravity m o d e l s and other elaborate statistical techniques are sometimes used to help decide h o w to locate businesses relative to where prospective customers live or work. Traffic and pedestrian counts are used to establish h o w many prospective customers pass certain locations each day. Construction of a new highway or the introduction of new rail or bus service may have a significant effect on travel patterns and, in turn, determine which sites are now more desirable and which, less so.

Providers Come to the Customer
For some types of services, the supplier visits the customer. This is, of course, essential when the target of the service is some immovable physical object like a building that needs cleaning, a large machine that needs repair, a house that requires pest-control treatment, or a garden that needs landscaping. Since it's more expensive and time consuming for service personnel and their equipment to travel to the customer than vice versa, the trend has been away from this approach where possible (few doctors make house calls nowadays!). There may still be a profitable niche in serving customers w h o are willing to pay a p r e m i u m price for the convenience of receiving personal visits from service providers. O n e young veterinarian has built her business around house calls to sick pets. She found that customers were glad to pay extra for a service that not only saves them time but is also less stressful for the pet than waiting in a crowded veterinary clinic, full of other animals and their worried owners. In remote areas such as Alaska or Canada's Northwest Territory, service providers may have to fly to their customers.

retail gravity model: a mathematical approach to retail site selection that involves calculating the geographic center of gravity for the target population and then locating a facility to optimize customers' ease of access.

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Australia is famous for its Royal Flying D o c t o r Service, in which physicians fly to make house calls at remote farms and stations. O t h e r more recently established services that travel to the customer include mobile car washing and windshield repair, office and i n - h o m e catering, and m a d e - t o - m e a s u r e tailoring services for business people. Some Web-based businesses were developed around the concept of home delivery of retail goods in markets where this type of service delivery had not previously been a viable option. b

Aggreko: A Different Kind of Rental Company
You probably think of electricity as coming from a distant power station and of air conditioning and heating as fixed installations. So how would you deal with the following challenges? Luciano Pavarotti is giving an open-air concert in Miinster, Germany, and the organizers require an uninterruptible source of electrical power for the duration of the concert, independent of the local electricity supply. A tropical cyclone has devastated the small mining town of Pannawonica in Western Australia, destroying everything in its path, including power lines, and it's urgent that electrical power be restored as soon as possible so that the town and its infrastructure can be rebuilt. In Amsterdam, organizers of the World Championship Indoor Windsurfing competition need power for 27 wind turbines to create strong winds across a huge indoor pool. A U.S. Navy submarine needs a shore-based source of power when it spends time in a remote Norwegian port. Sri Lanka faces an acute shortage of electricitygenerating capability when water levels fall dangerously low at the country's major hydroelectric dams due to insufficient monsoon rains two years in a row. A large, power-generating plant in Oklahoma urgently seeks temporary capacity to replace one of its cooling towers, destroyed yesterday in a tornado. And the organizers of the 2002 Winter Olympics outside Salt Lake City need a temporary, portable electricity generating and distribution system with a capacity equivalent to that required to power a city of two million people. These are all challenges faced and met by a company called Aggreko, which describes itself as "The World Leader in Utility Rental Solutions." Aggreko operates from more than 110 depots in 20 countries around the world. It rents a "fleet" of mobile electricity generators, oil-free air compressors, and temperature control devices ranging from water chillers and industrial air conditioners to giant heaters and dehumidifiers. Aggreko's customer base is dominated by large companies and government agencies. Although a lot of its business comes
Source: Aggreko's "International Magazine," 1997, Web site www.aggreko.com, January 2001.

from needs that are foreseen far in advance—such as the Olympics and other major events, backup operations during factory maintenance, or a package of services during the filming of a James Bond movie—the firm is also poised to resolve problems arising unexpectedly from emergencies. Much of the firm's rental equipment is contained in soundproofed, boxlike structures that can be shipped anywhere in the world and coupled together to create the specific type and level of electrical power output or climate-control capability required by the client. Consultation, installation, and ongoing technical support add value to the core service. Says a company brochure "Emphasis is placed on solving customer problems rather than just renting equipment." Some customers have a clear idea in advance of their needs, others require advice on how to develop innovative, cost-effective solutions to what may be unique problems, and still others are desperate to restore power that has been lost due to an emergency. In the last-mentioned instance, speed is of the essence since downtime can be extremely expensive and in some cases lives may depend on the promptness of Aggreko's response. Delivering service requires that Aggreko ship its equipment to the customer's site, so that the needed power or temperature control can be available at the right place and time. Following the Pannawonica cyclone, Aggreko's Western Australia team swung into action, rapidly organizing the dispatch of some 30 generators ranging in size from 60 to 750 kVA, plus cabling, refueling tankers, and other equipment. The generators were transported by means of four "road trains," each comprising a giant tractor unit hauling three 40-foot (13m) trailers. A full infrastructure team of technicians and additional equipment were flown in on two Hercules aircraft. The Aggreko technicians remained on site for six weeks, providing 24-hour service while the town was being rebuilt.

Service providers are more likely to visit corporate customers at their premises than individuals in their homes, reflecting the greater volume of business purchased and the trend toward outsourcing of activities such as cleaning and security. Many organizations need s h o r t - t e r m rentals of equipment and labor for special purposes or to boost productive capacity during busy periods. Aggreko, an international c o m pany that rents generating and cooling equipment, is prepared to go anywhere in the world—and often at very short notice (see the box, "Aggreko: A Different Kind of Rental C o m p a n y " ) .

Arm's Length Transactions
Dealing with a service organization through arm's l e n g t h transactions may mean that a customer never sees the service facilities or meets service personnel. As a result, service encounters tend to be fewer in number and involve telephone, mail, fax, Web sites, or e-mail. 6 T h e outcome of using the service remains very important to the customer, but much of the service delivery process is hidden. Credit cards and insurance are examples of services that can be requested and delivered by mail or telecommunications. Small equipment repair can often be handled by shipping the item to a maintenance facility. Companies like Stamps.com sell software, and Web-based services enable business customers to send first-class, priority, and express mail right from their office computers. Mailing and shipping histories can be tracked online. Any information-based product can be delivered almost instantaneously through telecommunication channels to any point in the globe where a suitable reception terminal exists. As a result, physical logistics services, such as FedEx, UPS, and national postal services, n o w find themselves c o m p e t i n g with telecommunications services. W h e n we were writing this book, for instance, we had a choice of mail or courier services for physical shipments of the chapters in either paper or disk form. We could also fax the materials, feeding in the pages one sheet at a time. But by using e-mail, we were able to transmit chapters electronically from one computer to another, with the option of printing them out at the receiving end. In fact, we used all three methods, depending on the nature of the page (hand-drawn images and ads were faxed or mailed), time pressures, and the need for backup in the form of files saved on disks. arm's length transactions: interactions between customers and service suppliers in which mail or telecommunications minimize the need to meet face-to-face.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AND THE SERVICESCAPE
W h e n customers visit a service facility, they expect it to be user friendly—easy to find, simple to use, and staffed by helpful personnel. Operations specialists tend to focus on the functional aspects of facility design, with an emphasis on productive use of resources and safe, efficient delivery of services. But marketers also care about the impression that service facilities and personnel make on customers and how they contribute to the overall service experience. In many instances, it's the nature of that experience that differentiates one service provider from its competitors. So marketers must address the question: What physical evidence should our facilities present? W h e n you go to a service factory and interact directly with employees, you're exposed to more compelling evidence than when service is delivered at your h o m e (or work locations) or through electronic channels. Physical evidence—one of the 8Ps of integrated service management—refers, first, to the tangible elements encountered by customers in the service delivery environment and, second, to the tangible metaphors used in symbols, slogans, or advertising messages. For example, the clean streets, colorful signage, and costumed employees of theme parks like Disneyland and Legoland contribute to the sense of fun and excitement that visitors encounter on arrival and throughout the service experience. Alternatively, consider the office of a successful professional business—an investment bank or a law

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firm—where wood-paneled walls, leather-bound books, and antique furnishings are used to create an elegant and impressive atmosphere. Marketers use strategically managed physical evidence in three ways: 1. As an attention-creating medium, differentiating their company's services from those of competitors and attracting customers from target segments 2. As a message-creating medium, using symbolic cues to communicate with the intended audience about the distinctive nature and quality of the service experience 3. As an effect-creating medium, employing colors, textures, sounds, scents, and spatial design to create or heighten an appetite for certain goods, services, or experiences

FIGURE 11.2
Distinctive Servicescapes, from Table Settings to Furniture and Room Design, Create Different Customer Expectations of These Two Restaurants

Antique stores provide a nice example of how carefully crafted physical evidence can become an important effect-creating medium. As Philip Kotler noted: Many antique dealers also make use of "organizational chaos" as an atmospheric principle for selling their wares. The buyer enters the store and sees a few nice pieces and a considerable amount of junk. The nice pieces are randomly scattered in different parts of the store. The dealer gives the impression, through his prices and his talk, that he doesn't really know values. The buyer therefore browses quite systematically, hoping to spot an undiscovered Old Master hidden among the dusty canvases of thirdrate artists. He ends up buying something that he regards as value. Little does he know that the whole atmosphere has been arranged to create a sense of hidden treasures.1 Take a look at Figure 11.2, which shows the interiors of two restaurants. Imagine that you have just entered one of these two dining rooms and examine the physical evidence each picture provides. H o w is each establishment positioning itself within the restaurant industry? What sort of meal experience can you expect? W h i c h clues do you use in making your judgments? Resort hotels provide another illustration of h o w physical evidence can be used as both an attention-creating and an effect-creating m e d i u m . C l u b Med's villages, designed to create a totally carefree atmosphere, may have provided the original inspiration for "get-away" holiday environments. T h e new destination resorts are not only far more luxurious than Club M e d but also draw inspiration from theme park approaches to creating fantasy environments both inside and outside. Perhaps the most extreme examples come from Las Vegas. Facing competition from numerous casinos in other locations, Las Vegas has been trying to reposition itself from a purely adult destination, once described in a London newspaper as "the electric Sodom and Gomorrah," to a somewhat more wholesome resort appealing to families and convention organizers as well. The gambling is still there, of course, but many of the recently built (or rebuilt) hotels have been transformed into visually striking entertainment centers that feature such attractions as erupting "volcanoes," m o c k sea battles, and even reproductions of Venice and its canals.

Servicescape Design
The term servicescape describes the style and appearance of the physical surroundings where customers and service providers interact. 8 Since servicescapes can create powerful positive or negative impressions, it is important to manage them effectively (especially in high-contact environments). Consider these examples: >• Airlines employ corporate design consultants to help t h e m differentiate the appearance of their aircraft and employees from those of competitors. Although the flight attendants from many airlines look interchangeable in their black or navy blue outfits, some have distinctive uniforms that identify them as employees of uniquely positioned carriers like Singapore Airlines or Southwest Airlines. And most airlines have specific color combinations and logos that appear consistently in the interior decor of the plane, the napkins, the snack food packaging, etc. >- Restaurants often seem to pay more attention to design than to the food they offer. Furnishings, pictures, real or fake antiques, carpeting, lighting, and choice of live or background music all seek to reinforce a desired look and style that may or may not be related to the cuisine. Some restaurants follow themes in both decor and food service. For example, the menus for the O u t b a c k

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Steakhouse chain list hearty foods and beverages with distinctive names, and the settings are designed to make guests feel like they have just taken a journey "down under" to Australia for a meal. *- Many expensive hotels have b e c o m e architectural statements. Some occupy classic buildings, lovingly restored at huge expense to a far higher level of luxury than ever k n o w n in the past, and using antique furnishings and rugs to reinforce their "old world" style. M o d e r n hotels sometimes feature dramatic atriums in which w a l l - m o u n t e d elevators splash d o w n in fountains. Resort hotels invest e n o r m o u s sums to plant and maintain exotic gardens on their grounds. As in a theater, servicescape elements like scenery, lighting, music and other sounds, special effects, and the appearance of the actors (employees) and audience members (customers) all serve to create an atmosphere in which the service performance takes place. In certain types of businesses, servicescapes are enhanced by judicious use of sounds, smells, and the textures of physical surfaces. W h e r e food and drink are served, of course, taste is also highly relevant. For first-time customers in particular, the servicescape plays an important role in helping frame expectations about both the style and quality of service to be provided. Because it's hard to evaluate many service performances in advance (or even after service delivery), customers seek pre-purchase clues about service quality. Hence, first impressions are important. But as customers move beyond the initial contact point, con-

Let's Go Shopping (Maybe at Your Store)
5 CART [RATING]:
•f Pf Pf Pf •f Personnel Store Services Creativity Selection/Inventory Overall Store Atmosphere shopping experience. The Internet, in-store pharmacy, cleaners, wine store, bank machine, etc. prove to be successful additions to the store's business. Everything is done on a larger scale. This is evident in the large aisles and large signage throughout the store and increased SKUs. To enhance the mood of the environment; music, lighting, and odors circulate to create customer comfort. There were 14 cash registers in front of the store, five of which were open. The registers were completely computerized visual systems with scanning. Cashiers provide a choice between paper and plastic bags for those customers who are concerned with recycling. Shopping carts are clean and accessible at the store front with a dollar deposit. There were sufficient cart locations outside the store to attain/dispose of carts. The pricing on the shelf after a random audit was accurate and highly visible. The overall impression of the shelves was that they were well stocked and faced with a large variety of SKUs. President's Choice, the store's private label products, are aggressively promoted with signage at shelf and throughout the store.

"Let's Go Shopping" is a regular feature filed by "mystery shoppers" who visit grocery stores across the country to report on how stores measure up in terms of personnel, services, merchandise, selection, and overall store atmosphere.

Loblaws, #029 650 Dupont St. & Christie, Toronto
This chain-operated store's entrance was filled with tantalizing aromas from Movenpick: one of the many kiosks lining the store. The store's most unique asset is its one-stop, "under one roof"
Source: Reprinted from Canadian Grocer, November 1997, 38.

tinued exposure and experiences c o m b i n e to create a more detailed impression. Consider the impressions recorded by a mystery shopper appraising a Toronto supermarket for a grocery trade magazine—see the boxed story "Let's Go Shopping (Maybe at Your Store)." Many servicescapes are purely functional. Firms that seek to convey the impression of cut-price service do so by locating in inexpensive neighborhoods, occupying buildings with a simple (even warehouse-like) appearance, minimizing wasteful use of space, and dressing their employees in practical, inexpensive uniforms like the bright red aprons worn at H o m e Depot. However, servicescapes don't always shape customer perceptions and behavior in ways intended by their creators, because customers often make creative use of physical spaces and objects to suit their o w n purposes. 9 For instance, business people (or college students) may appropriate a restaurant table for use as a temporary desk, with papers spread around and even a laptop computer and mobile p h o n e competing for space with food and beverages. Smart designers keep an eye open for such trends, which often underlie creation of a new service concept like the cyber cafe.

PLACE, CYBERSPACE, AND TIME DECISIONS
H o w should service managers make decisions in response to the question: When and where should our service be available? T h e answer is likely to reflect customer needs and expectations, competitive activity, and the nature of the service operation. Some distribution strategies may be more appropriate for supplementary service elements than for the

In-Store Marketing
The promotional weekly flyers, store signs, and in-store features were promoted with large signage throughout the store. There was no loyalty card program or coupon clipping here, but there are store coupons available on the shelf. Similar to most stores they did accept manufacturers coupons. The primary displays included a variety of feature/advertised items, which are promoted on well-stocked displays throughout the store. The incremental displays were attractively done and promoted impulse purchases while the aisles are still clear and shoppable. While taking advantage of some good displays to cross promote, there were some obvious missed opportunities. The store has special racking for promoting some products, especially in the seasonal aisle. Overall the impression of in-store promotion was strong.

uniforms. The knowledge of store staff when asked about an item was good. The shopper was directed to the appropriate location but was not taken directly over. Full of color, the produce section was clean and well maintained. The deli section was also clean and the meat/salads were well stocked. The seafood section filled with the catch of the day looked fresh and inviting. The meat/butcher counter was acceptable. The staff was knowledgeable and helpful in all departments.

General Impressions
The store's biggest strength is its one-stop shopping benefits. For a taste of international flair one must definitely shop the aisles. The one disappointment of the store was the meat department. The labels indicating specific meats were stained and the overall appearance of the department was unclean. This store's overall ranking is outstanding. Shopping should be an excellent experience thus endorsing future loyalty to a store. OVERALL (RATING): S ' l f H ' S f

Staff
Customer service is definitely not a thing of the past in this store. The staff was extremely customer-focused and seemed to enjoy the work environment. They were well groomed with clean/pressed

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core product itself. Perhaps you're willing to go to a particular location at a specific time to attend a sporting or entertainment event. But you probably want greater flexibility and convenience when making an advance reservation. If so, you may expect the reservations service to be open for extended hours, to offer booking and credit card payment by phone, and to deliver tickets by mail, fax, or e-mail.

Locational Issues in Service Delivery
Although customer convenience is important, operational requirements set tight constraints for some services. Airports, for instance, are often inconveniently located relative to travelers' homes, offices, or destinations. Because of noise and environmental factors, finding suitable sites for new airports is a very difficult task. (A governor of Massachusetts was once asked what would be an acceptable location for construction of a second airport to serve Boston. He thought for a m o m e n t and then responded: "Nebraska!") As a result, airport sites are often far from the city centers to which many passengers wish to travel, and the only way to make them less inconvenient is to install high-speed rail links like the rail service to H o n g Kong's new airport. A different type of location constraint is imposed by other geographic factors like terrain and climate. Obviously, ski resorts are limited to mountain environments while ocean beach resorts must be on the coast. T h e need for economies of scale may also restrict choice of locations. Major hospitals consolidate many different health-care services—even a medical school—at a single, very large facility. Customers requiring complex, in-patient treatment must come to this service factory rather than being treated at home—although an ambulance (or even a helicopter) can be sent to pick them up if they are seriously ill or injured. Some multi-site service firms have the option of creating service factories on a very small scale at locations that are close to where prospective customers live or work. For example,Taco Bell has become famous for its innovative K-Minus strategy, which involves creating restaurants without kitchens. All food preparation is done in a central commissary, with prepared meals then being shipped to restaurants and mobile food carts, where they are reheated prior to serving. 1 0 Self-service electronic kiosks can deliver a variety of information-based services from many different locations (see box).The number of Internet kiosks is projected to increase from 151,000 worldwide in 2001 to 446,000 by 2006; over the same period, sales through kiosks are forecast to rise from $200 million to $6.5 billion. 1 1 Another service delivery trend involves locating retail and other services close to gas stations and public transportation stops or in bus, rail, and air terminals. Major oil companies are developing chains of retail stores to complement the fuel pumps at their service stations, thus offering customers the convenience of one-stop shopping for fuel, auto supplies, food, and household products. Truck stops on intercity highways include laundromats, bathrooms, ATMs, fax machines, Internet access, and restaurants in addition to a variety of vehicle maintenance and repair services. In one of the most interesting new retailing developments, airport terminals are being transformed from nondescript ticketing and waiting areas into vibrant shopping malls. Two pioneers of this trend were London's H e a t h r o w and Gatwick airports. Seeking to capitalize on its expertise, the airport operator, a company called BAA (which operates seven British airports), established a U.S. subsidiary and w o n a 15year master-developer contract to design, build, lease, and manage the Pittsburgh Airmail, the nation's first c u s t o m - b u i l t airport retail c o m p l e x . Pittsburgh is U.S. Airways' major h u b and most of its passengers are domestic travelers. Goods and services available at the Airmail range from tasty take-out sandwiches for passengers w h o don't expect a meal on their flight to $15 massages for tired travelers with aching backs. Sales per passenger at Pittsburgh increased from $2.40 in 1992 to $8.10 in

2000; sales per square foot of retailing space are n o w four to five times those of typical U.S. regional shopping centers. 1 2 BAA also has operating contracts at Harrisburg, Indianapolis, Newark, and Boston, as well as at Mauritius, Naples (Italy), and two Australian airports. T h e underlying theme of m o d e r n service delivery is one of offering customers more choices in terms of where service is delivered. Some people want face-to-face contact, others like telephone contact with a human being, and still others prefer the greater anonymity and control offered by more impersonal options like self-service equipment and the Internet. Many customers also want the ability to switch between delivery alternatives depending on the specific situation at hand.

Electronic Kiosks Deliver Both Commercial and Government Services'
The Internet is everywhere when it comes to service delivery. Electronic kiosks are turning up in such locations as amusement parks, campgrounds, bars, car washes, shopping centers, universities, libraries, and health clubs—all offering self-service options to new users and technology-savvy customers alike. Consider the following examples: 1. Simple health checks can be administered through selfservice equipment. In the United States, Web-enabled kiosks that measure blood pressure, heart rate, weight, and body mass have been installed in Kmart stores across the country. They can also provide useful health information. And in Britain, the National Health Service has purchased 153 interactive touchscreen kiosks and monitoring services for installation in pharmacies, supermarkets, post offices, shopping malls, and holiday resorts. 2. Electronic kiosks offering Internet access are becoming common in airports, shopping malls, and other public locations. Some provide a combination of services, including an ATM for banking services, a pre-paid phone card dispenser, and access to the Web. Some communication technology vendors believe that Internet terminals will eventually become as ubiquitous as conventional ATM machines are now. 3. Several countries have installed kiosks as a way to ensure that the Internet is more widely accessible to their citizens. For example, Jamaica has installed Internet kiosks in post offices and other public locations in an attempt to provide affordable access and encourage Web usage in a nation where computer ownership remains far lower than in affluent, industrialized countries. 4. Government agencies see electronic kiosks as a way to cut administrative budgets and provide 24-hour service in convenient locations. From using kiosks to dispense information about public services, tourist attractions, and transit routes and schedules, some public agencies are now moving to automate a variety of transactions that previously required intervention by a public employee. Consumers touch the screen to choose from a menu of services, which can be programmed in multiple languages. They can pay parking tickets, speeding fines, and property taxes, obtain dog licenses and copies of birth certificates, and order license plates for their cars. In Utah, five "Quickcourt" kiosks assist people in filling out paperwork for no-fault divorces—a process that takes about 45 minutes, requires no lawyer, and costs only $10.Quickcourt also computes child support payments. In San Antonio, Texas, kiosks sell permits to hold garage sales and print out information on property taxes and city job openings. Users can also view pictures of animals available for adoption at the city pound. In New York, customers can look up certain kinds of records (like landlords' histories of building code violations) and swipe their credit cards through a slot to pay municipal taxes, license fees, or speeding fines.

Source: "Lifeclinic Announces Rollout of Web-Enabled Blood Pressure Kiosks to Kmart Stores Across the Country," www.spacelabs.com, 13 November 2000; "Action MultiMedia Secures NHS Direct Contract," www.kiosks.org, 1 November 2000; Yukari Iwatani, "From Bars to Car Washes Internet is Everywhere," YahoolNews, 11 September 2000; "Internet Kiosks to be Placed in Post Offices and Other Public Areas Throughout Jamaica," www.atcominfo.com, 17 May 2000; "Kiosks Could Make Public Access Common," www.usatoday.com, 28 February 1999; and Carol Jouzaitis, "Step Right Up and Pay Your Taxes and Tickets," USA Today, 2 October 1997, 4A.

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Delivering Services in Cyberspace
Technological developments during the last 20 years have had a remarkable impact on the methods by which services are produced and delivered. Advances in telecommunications and c o m p u t e r technology in particular c o n t i n u e to result in service delivery innovations. For example, personal computers and the Internet are changing the way people shop for b o t h goods and services. In addition to placing catalog orders by mail or t e l e p h o n e , many p e o p l e n o w also shop in cyberspace. The Internet's 2 4 - h o u r service is particularly appealing to customers whose busy lives leave t h e m short of time. Forrester Research says that customers are attracted to virtual stores by four factors in the following order of importance: convenience, ease of research (obtaining information and searching for desired items or services), better prices, and broad selection. 1 3 Web sites have b e c o m e an i m p o r t a n t competitive tool for service marketers. W h i l e some firms only view t h e m as an alternative to paper brochures, others use t h e m in more creative ways ranging from order-taking channels to electronic delivery systems. Delivery through the Internet is an option for any information-based product. Information-based services n o w delivered t h r o u g h commercial Web sites include software, news, research reports, music, and other forms of entertainment. Firms can also deliver i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e d services to their customers as e-mail attachments or t h r o u g h corporate "extranets"—secure, private networks linking a c o m p a n y to its major suppliers and designated c u s t o m e r s . Charles Schwab, the brokerage firm, offers investors wireless Internet access t h r o u g h its PocketBroker service. Traditional retailers have been forced to respond to stiffer competition from Internet and telephone-based catalog retailing. O n e company, software and computer retailer Egghead Inc., decided to get out of physical retailing altogether. It closed its 80 stores across the United States, laid off 800 of its 1,000 workers, shifted its sales entirely to the Internet, and renamed itselfEgghead.com. O t h e r retailers, like the giant bookstore chain Barnes and Noble, have developed a strong Internet presence to complement their full-service bookstores in an effort to counter competition from "cyberspace retailers" such as Amazon.com (which has no retail outlets). 1 4 Other store-based retailers are responding to this competitive challenge by trying to make the shopping experience more interesting and enjoyable for customers. Malls have become larger, more colorful, and more elaborate. Within the mall, individual stores try to create their own atmosphere, but tenancy agreements often specify certain design criteria to ensure that each store fits comfortably into the overall mall servicescape. The presence of "food courts" and other gathering places encourages social interaction among shoppers. Theatrical touches include live entertainment, special lighting effects, fountains, waterfalls, and eye-catching interior landscaping ranging from banks of flowers to surprisingly large trees. Individual stores try to add value by offering product demonstrations and such services as customized advice, gift-wrapping, free delivery, installation, and warranty services.

Service Schedules
In the past, most retail and professional services in industrialized countries followed a traditional and rather restricted schedule that limited service availability to 40 to 50 hours a week. This routine reflected social norms (and even legal requirements or union agreements) as to what were appropriate hours for people to work and for enterprises to sell things. T h e situation caused a lot of inconvenience for working people w h o either had to shop during their lunch break (if the stores themselves

didn't close for lunch) or on Saturdays (if management chose to remain open a sixth day). T h e idea of d o i n g business on a Sunday was strongly discouraged in most Christian cultures and often prohibited by law, reflecting long-standing traditions based on religious practice. A m o n g c o m m e r c i a l services, only those devoted to entertainment and relaxation, like m o v i e theaters, bars, restaurants, and sporting facilities, geared their schedules toward weekends and evening hours w h e n their customers had leisure time. Even so, they often faced restrictions on hours of operation, especially on Sundays. Today, things are changing fast in terms of business operating hours. For some highly responsive service operations, the standard has b e c o m e 2 4 / 7 s e r v i c e — 2 4 hours a day, 7 days a week, around the world. Some services like telecommunications and international airlines are 2 4 - h o u r operations, every day of the year. O t h e r examples include services that respond to e m e r g e n c i e s , such as fire, police, and ambulance, or repairs to vital e q u i p m e n t . Hospitals and first-class hotels provide 24-hour care or r o o m service. Ships and long-distance trains keep going through the night, too. 2 4 / 7 service: service that is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week,

Factors That Encourage Extended Operating Hours
At least five factors are driving the move toward extended operating hours and sevenday operations. T h e trend has been most noticeable in the United States and Canada, but it's spreading elsewhere. >- Economic pressure from consumers. T h e growing number of two-income families and single wage-earners w h o live alone need time outside normal working hours to shop and use other services, since they have nobody else to do these things for them. O n c e one store or firm in any given area extends its hours to meet the needs of these market segments, competitors often feel obliged to follow. Retail chains have often led the way in this respect. »- Changes in legislation. A second factor has been the decline in support for the traditional religious view that a specific day (typically Sunday in predominantly Christian cultures) should be legislated as a day of rest for everyone, regardless of religious affiliation. In a multicultural society, of course, it's difficult to establish just what day should be designated as special—for observant Jews and Seventh Day Adventists, Saturday is the Sabbath; and for Muslims, Friday is the holy day. There has been a gradual erosion of legislation related to this issue in Western nations in recent years, although it's still firmly in place in some countries and locations. In Switzerland, for example, most retail activities still close down on Sundays—except for bakeries, where people like to buy freshly baked bread on Sunday mornings. >- Economic incentives to improve asset utilization. Even if the number of extra customers served is minimal, there are both operational and marketing advantages to remaining open 24 hours. T h e incremental cost of extending hours is often relatively small (especially when part-timers can be hired without paying them overtime or benefits). If extending hours reduces crowding and increases revenues, then it's economically attractive. There are also costs involved in shutting down and reopening a facility like a supermarket. Climate control and some lighting must be left running all night, and security personnel must be paid to keep an eye on the place. >- Availability of employees to work during "unsocial" hours. Changing lifestyles and a desire for part-time employment have combined to create a growing labor pool

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Modern ATMs not only offer 24-hour banking services but may also dispense tickets, stamps, and abbreviated bank statements.

of people w h o are willing to work evenings and nights. Some of these workers are students looking for part-time work outside their classroom hours or parents juggling child-care responsibilities. Others are "moonlighting," holding a fulltime j o b by day and earning additional income by night. Some people simply prefer to work at night and relax or sleep during the day, while others are glad to obtain any paid employment, regardless of hours. ^Automated self-service facilities. Self-service equipment has b e c o m e increasingly reliable and user friendly. Many machines now accept card-based payments in addition to coins and banknotes. Installing unattended machines may be economically feasible in places that couldn't support a staffed facility. Unless a machine requires frequent servicing or is particularly vulnerable to vandalism, the incremental cost of going from limited hours to 2 4 - h o u r operation is minimal. In fact, it may be m u c h simpler to leave machines r u n n i n g all the time than to turn them on and off, especially if they are placed in widely scattered locations.

Responding to Customers' Need for Convenience
American and Canadian retailers have led the way toward meeting customer needs for greater convenience, but many other countries are now beginning to follow suit. The changes initially began with early-morning to late-evening service in pharmacies and " 7 - 1 1 " convenience stores that were o p e n from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. (In continental Europe, which employs the 24-hour system for keeping time, such stores are sometimes referred to as " 7 - 2 3 " stores—for obvious reasons!) T h e trend has n o w extended to 2 4 - h o u r service in a variety of retail outlets from service stations to restaurants to supermarkets. T h e customer's search for convenience has not been confined to convenient times and places, nor to just the purchase of core products. People want easy access to

supplementary services, too—especially information, reservations, and problem solving. As one credit card executive observed, There are a lot of two-income families. Our customers are busy with their personal lives, and they don't have a lot of time to handle their personal business. They expect us to be available to them when it's convenient for them, not when it's convenient for us, so they expect extended hours. And most of all, they expect one contact to solve their problem. In many service industries, information and problem-solving needs were originally met by telephoning a specific store or facility during its regular operating hours. But led by airlines and hotel chains, separate customer service centers have evolved, reached by calling a single toll-free number. Service providers operate some of these centers t h e m selves, while others, such as hotel chains, often subcontract functions such as reservations to specialist intermediaries. O n c e a firm departs from locally staffed phones and installs a centralized system, it can create more consistent service and offer greater expertise, but risks losing the local touch.

Moving to 24/7 Service
Providing extended-hours customer service is almost mandatory for any organization with a nationwide clientele in countries (or service regions) that cover multiple time zones. Consider a company that serves customers on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of N o r t h America. Between N e w York and Los Angeles, for example, there is a threehour time difference. If the switchboard closes at 5:00 P.M. Eastern Time, then customers on the west coast are denied access to the number after 2:00 P.M. Pacific Time. The situation is even worse for those on Alaska-Hawaii time, where it's only 12 noon. Things are reversed w h e n the supplier is located on the West Coast. Imagine a Canadian firm in Vancouver B.C. whose office opens at 8:30 A.M. Pacific Time. By then it's already 12:30 P.M. Atlantic T i m e in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and 1:00 P.M. in St. John's, Newfoundland (which has its own time zone). W h e n a N o r t h American business redefines its goal as offering continent-wide service on a daily basis—from first thing in the m o r n i n g in Newfoundland to mid-evening in Alaska or Hawaii—managers don't need a fancy calculator to figure out that customer service lines will have to be open at least 18 hours a day. At this point, the firm may want to consider going to 2 4 - h o u r operations. T h e desirability of this move depends on the firm's priorities, the costs involved, and the value that customers place on total accessibility. O n e alternative to operating the service factory around the clock is to use automated call centers or Web sites that can handle many kinds of transactions and queries without human backup.

Servicing Manufactured Products
Most manufactured products create a need for accompanying services, ranging from financing and training to transportation and maintenance. T h e competitiveness of a manufacturer's products in both domestic and global markets is often as much a function of the availability and quality of relevant services as the quality of the core product. Both manufacturing and service companies now rely on computer-based systems to provide many of the supplementary services that customers need and expect. In turn, there is a huge market for servicing these computer systems. Powerful computers and peripherals—and the software to run them—have been sold to users all over the world. Although there are many niche players, large computer systems are supplied by a handful of international firms, dominated by American and Japanese companies. T h e systems that they sell can be found in operation in locations ranging from big city banks to

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chemical plants near rural towns. T h e y are also present in such exotic locations as remote mining sites in Australia, oil rigs above the Arctic Circle, airports on Pacific islands, hydroelectric projects in the Andes, and on ships sailing the seven seas. As powerful as these computers are, they are only of value w h e n up and running. System failures can have disastrous consequences for both their users and the users' own customers.When a firm is dependent on a system 24 hours a day, downtime can be very disruptive: T h e consequences can range from personal inconvenience to the shutdown of a major facility. Some emergencies can be handled by a duty person, reached by a pager or cellular phone, w h o drives to the site of the problem, makes a physical inspection, and undertakes whatever repairs are necessary. Maintaining and repairing computers was historically a task that had to be performed on site. But, engineers at companies like IBM or Hewlett-Packard are now able to monitor customers' installations from a support center in a distant location—even on another continent—then diagnose and fix many hardware and software problems without ever leaving their own offices.

THE ROLE OF INTERMEDIARIES
Cost-conscious operations managers should consider: What options exist for using thirdparty intermediaries? Delegating specialized delivery tasks is often a cost-effective strategy, especially for supplementary service elements. It may also be an effective marketing strategy, enabling a firm to reach more customers—and offer them more supplementary services—than the firm could economically do on its own.

Delegating Specific Service Elements
Travel agents and theater ticket agents handle customer interactions like giving out information, taking reservations, accepting payment, and ticketing. Brokers sell and service insurance policies. Distributors representing manufacturers take responsibility not only for sales but also for such supplementary services as information, advice, order taking, delivery, installation, billing and payment, and some problem solving; in some cases, they may also handle repairs and upgrades. In Figure 11.3 we use the Flower of Service framework to illustrate how the original supplier may work in partnership with one or more intermediaries to deliver a complete service package to customers. In this example, the core product is still delivered by the originating supplier, together with certain supplementary elements in the information, consultation, and exceptions categories. T h e remaining supplementary services have been added by an intermediary to com-

plete the offering as experienced by the customer. In other instances, several specialist outsourcers might be involved as intermediaries for specific elements.The original service provider must act as the guardian of the overall process, ensuring that each element offered by intermediaries fits the overall service concept to create a consistent and seamless branded service experience.

Franchising
Even delivery of the core service product can be outsourced to an intermediary. This is the essence of franchising, a c o m m o n strategy for expanding delivery of a proven service concept to multiple sites, without the level of investment capital required for rapid expansion of company-owned and managed sites. Franchisors recruit entrepreneurs who are willing to invest their own time and equity to manage a business based on a previously developed service concept. In return, the franchisor provides training in operations and marketing, sells necessary supplies, and provides promotional support at a national or regional level to augment local marketing activities (which are paid for by the franchisee but must adhere to copy and media guidelines prescribed by the franchisor). A disadvantage of franchising is that it entails some loss of control over the delivery system and how customers experience the actual service. Franchisors usually attempt to exercise control over all aspects of the service performance through a contract that specifies adherence to tightly defined service standards, procedures, scripts, and physical presentation. There is ongoing monitoring of productivity and quality standards relating not only to output specifications, but also to the appearance of the physical facilities, employee performance, and hours of operation. As franchisees gain experience, they sometimes start to resent the various fees they pay the franchisor and believe that they can operate the business better without the constraints imposed by the agreement. T h e resulting disputes often lead to legal fights between the two parties.

Licensing and Distribution Agreements
An alternative to franchising is licensing another supplier to act on the original supplier's behalf to deliver the core product. Universities sometimes license another educational institution to deliver courses designed by the former. Trucking companies regularly use independent agents instead of locating company-owned branches in each of the different cities they serve. Many choose to contract with independent "owner-operators," who drive their own trucks, rather than buying trucks and employing full-time drivers. Financial services also engage in service distribution agreements. Banks seeking to move into investment services will often act as the distributor for mutual fund products created by an investment firm that lacks extensive distribution channels of its own. Many banks also sell insurance products underwritten by an insurance company. They collect a commission on the sale but are not normally involved in handling claims.

Conclusion
Responses to the questions "Where? When? and H o w ? " provide the foundation of service delivery strategy. T h e customer's overall service experience is a function of both service performance and delivery characteristics. " W h e r e ? " relates, of course, to the places where customers can obtain service delivery. In this chapter, we presented a categorization scheme for thinking about alternative place-related strategies, including remote delivery from virtual locations.

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" W h e n ? " involves dt cisions about the scheduling of service delivery. Customer demands for greater convenience are n o w leading many firms to extend their hours and days of service. " H o w ? " addresses channels and procedures for delivering the core and supplementary service elements to customers. Advances in technology continue to have a major impact on the alternatives available and on the economics of those alternatives.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Review the story about Kinko's at the beginning of this chapter. W h a t do you see as the key changes in (a) product strategy and (b) distribution strategy? 2. W h a t are the key decisions managers must consider in designing a service delivery system? What are some of the trade-offs that must be made? 3. Identify a service whose delivery strategy fits each of the categories in Table 11.1. What are the implications for management in each case? 4. Describe the servicescapes of two different service businesses. To what extent are their roles strategic in design (differentiating one firm from its competitors) versus functional (adding value for customers and employees)? Give specific examples to support your answers. 5. Visit the Amazon.com and BarnesandNoble.com Web sites. Compare their design, structure, and ease of use. As a potential customer, which do you prefer and why? W h a t enhancements would you suggest? 6. Select a service organization with which you are reasonably familiar, and construct a simple flowchart of service delivery. Identify the critical points within the service delivery process that are likely to have a significant bearing on the customer's experience. Clarify why these points in the process are particularly important and how you would manage them. 7. Identify five situations in which you use a self-service delivery option. In each case, explain your motivation for using this approach to delivery rather than having service personnel do it for you. 8. Using the same five situations you chose for Question 7, comment on the userfriendliness of the equipment, the mental and physical effort required, the time involved, and any negative sensory experiences. Are there any perceived risks for customers w h o use these self-service options? W h a t recommendations for improvements would you offer to management? 9. What marketing and management challenges might result from the use of intermediaries in a service setting?

Creating Value Through Productivity and Quality
Cisco Systems Leads the Way in e-Productivity
Cisco Systems is the world's leader in electronic commerce, with over $5 billion in sales coming from its Web site alone in 2000. 1 The company supplies networking solutions that connect people, computing devices, and computer networks, allowing individuals and companies to access and transfer information without regard to differences in time, place, or type of computer system. In 2000, it held close to 80 percent of the market for products that keep the Internet functioning, such as routers, switching devices, relays, and Internet software. Cisco's highly technical products require large amounts of customer support, which is seen as critical to maintaining service quality. But the company soon realized that it wouldn't be able to hire enough engineers to service its rapidly growing customer base. Doug Allred, Cisco's vice president for Consumer Advocacy, decided to implement a call-tracking system so that the company could monitor each technical support call that came in, find an answer to the customer's question in Cisco's own database of known problems and solutions, and track the call to completion. What was unusual about Cisco's approach at the time of implementation was that the system was designed to function as both a telephone-based call center and a virtual call center via the Web. Customers could have their problems posted in a section of the Cisco Web site that was accessible to other customers of the firm. When someone posted problems or questions, Cisco's technical support staff started working on solutions—and much to the company's amazement, so did other customers! Whoever came up with an answer first posted it on the Web site, and there were often other helpful suggestions relating to the problem. As soon as information flowed into the database, the customer who had posed the original question received an e-mail notification. In short, Allred had found a workable solution to the firm's technical support engineer shortage by letting its customers (all of whom had been trained and certified by Cisco) help each other out. The company has also created a knowledge base of frequently asked questions (FAQs) that enables customers to find answers to the most common problems without talking to anyone in the company. Cisco's customers are happy to help themselves and others on the Web site, and the sense of community that is created online enhances the perceived quality of the technical support service. As a result of these productivity initiatives, Cisco found that it didn't need to expand its call center staffing, even though business was growing rapidly. In fact, the company actually documented a 70 percent reduction in calls received, resulting in a savings of $10 million a month (computed at an average of $200 a call). The number of technical support staff assigned to answering calls dropped from 1,000 to 700. Details of each new call and its solution now go to a technical writer to be edited and entered into the Cisco Knowledge Base, thus helping to minimize the number of future calls.

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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to

define what is meant by productivity and quality in a service context understand the relationship between customer expectations, service quality and customer satisfaction explain the gaps model of service quality describe the techniques for identifying the root cause of specific service quality problems identify the components of a service quality information system discuss productivity and quality measurement techniques

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SERVICE

DELIVERY

ISSUES

MINDING THE SERVICE Ps AND Qs
As you may have already noticed, productivity and quality are treated jointly in this book as one of the 8Ps of integrated service management. This reflects our belief—and that of others—that they are often two sides of the same coin. In fact, FedEx has even employed an internal slogan, Q = P.2 If the two issues are totally divorced, companies risk introducing productivity efforts that will annoy customers or embarking on quality initiatives that will result in higher costs without increasing revenues. As you can see from our discussion of Cisco Systems, the strategic integration of both dimensions can provide greater value for customers and service providers. In fact, a focus on productivity and quality as perceived by customers is critical to a firm's long-term financial success. In this chapter, we address a particularly challenging question from our service decision framework, How can we balance productivity and quality'? This leads us to examine such issues as determining h o w to reduce operating costs without spoiling the appeal of a service; identifying what customers expect in return for their money, time, and effort; specifying appropriate measures of service quality and productivity; and clarifying what quality improvements are needed to meet or exceed customer expectations.

Creating Value for Customers
W h a t is the fundamental role of marketing? Many theorists argue that it is to create customer value. 4 T h e search for value often begins with market research, seeking to identify the benefits sought by customers or prospects for a given product category and the costs that they are willing to incur to obtain these benefits. Perceived value is highly personal and may vary widely from one customer to another. 3 In fact, variations in desired benefits often form the basis for segmentation. Productivity and quality were historically seen as issues for operations managers. Thus, companies focused internally on making process "improvements" that were not necessarily linked to customers' service priorities. However, continuing efforts to understand and improve quality led back to the customer—and to the recognition that quality should be customer defined. Quality enhancements that add no value for customers are a poor allocation of corporate resources. A key theme running through this book is that marketing cannot operate in isolation from other functional areas in a service environment. Tasks that might be assigned only to operations in a goods-producing company need to include marketers in a service organization, because of customer exposure to service processes. Making these processes more efficient doesn't necessarily result in a better quality experience or improved benefits for customers. Getting service employees to work faster may sometimes be welcomed by customers, but at other times it may make them feel rushed and unwanted. So marketing, operations, and human resources managers all need to work together on designing front-stage jobs and processes. Similarly, service marketing strategies designed to improve customer satisfaction should be carefully reviewed with operations and h u m a n resources managers to minimize the risk that such strategies will prove costly and internally disruptive.

Marketing and Quality
Marketing's interest in service quality is obvious w h e n you think about it: Poor quality places a firm at a competitive disadvantage. If customers perceive quality as unsatisfactory, they may be quick to take their business elsewhere. From a marketing standpoint, a key issue is whether or not customers notice differences in quality between competing

CHAPTER TWELVE • CREATING VALUE THROUGH PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY

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suppliers. Brad Gale puts it succinctly when he says "value is simply quality, however the customer defines it, offered at the right price." Improving quality from the customer's perspective pays off: Data from the PIMS (Profit Impact of Market Strategy) show that a perceived quality advantage leads to higher corporate profits. 7 Service quality issues are not confined to traditional service industries. It has become increasingly difficult for industrial companies to establish a competitive advantage by offering higher quality products. Many manufacturing firms are working to improve the quality of the supplementary services that support their products—like consultation, financing, shipping and delivery, installation, training of operators, repair and maintenance, trouble-shooting, and billing—in order to keep or gain profitable positions within their industries.

Marketing and Productivity
Why is improving productivity important to marketers? O n e reason is that it helps keep costs down. Lower costs mean either higher profits or the ability to hold down prices. The company with the lowest costs in an industry has the option to position itself as the low-price leader—usually a significant advantage among price-sensitive market segments. Firms with lower costs than their competitors also generate higher margins, giving them the option of spending more on marketing and customer service activities. They may also be able to offer higher margins to attract and reward the best distributors and intermediaries. These companies are also better able to invest in new service technologies. A second reason that productivity improvements are important to marketers is that they are often associated with faster operating procedures.To the extent that speed of service is valued by customers, it becomes a competitive advantage. Efforts to improve productivity often affect customers. It's the marketer's responsibility to ensure that negative impacts are avoided or minimized and that new procedures are carefully presented to customers. W h e n the impact is a positive one, the improvements can be promoted as a new advantage. Finally, as we'll see, there are opportunities for marketers themselves to help improve productivity by involving customers actively in service production and delivery.

UNDERSTANDING SERVICE QUALITY
As described in Chapter 4, after making a purchase, customers compare the service they expected to get with what they actually receive. They decide how satisfied they are with service delivery and outcomes, and they also make judgments about quality. Although service quality and customer satisfaction are related concepts, they are not exactly the same thing. Many researchers believe that customers' perceptions about quality are based on long-term, cognitive evaluations of a firm's service delivery, whereas customer satisfaction is a short-term emotional reaction to a specific service experience. 9 Following a service encounter, customers may evaluate their levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction and may use this information to update their perceptions of service quality. They must, of course, experience a service before they can be satisfied or dissatisfied with the outcome. But beliefs about quality don't necessarily reflect personal experience. People often make quality judgments about services they have never consumed, basing these evaluations on comments by acquaintances or on advertising messages. Figure 12.1 shows the relationship between expectations, customer satisfaction, and service quality. Managing a business to optimize customer satisfaction is a strategic imperative at many firms, since the cost of mediocre service quality may be as high as 40 percent of revenues in some service industries. 10 Most companies realize that by improving per-

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FIGURE

12.1

The Relationship Among Expectations, Customer Satisfaction, and Perceived Service Quality

satisfaction-profit chain: a strategic framework that links performance on service attributes to customer satisfaction, then to customer retention, and finally to profits.

formance on service attributes, customer satisfaction should increase. This should, in turn, lead to greater customer retention and improved profitability. For example, the relative similarity of the products offered by different banks has led to an increased emphasis on service quality in the highly competitive retail banking sector. A large telephone survey of bank customers identified poor customer service quality as the most frequent reason for account closures. Analysis of the study results and bank branch profits indicated that customer service quality was a major determinant of how well individual branches performed. 1 1 T h e relationship between service quality and profitability is typically not easy to track for a variety of reasons. Service quality benefits accumulate over time rather than being experienced in the short term. This makes them difficult to measure using traditional market research techniques. Another complicating factor is that many variables contribute to corporate profits (including pricing, distribution, advertising, and competition); it's hard to isolate the effects these individual factors have on the bottom line. And finally, just spending money on service quality initiatives doesn't necessarily lead to increased profits. Service companies must identify the right quality initiatives and execute them effectively.12 A strategic framework known as the satisfaction-profit chain can help managers identify the links between attribute performance, customer satisfaction, customer retention, and profits. However, the relationships between the different links in the chain are not necessarily linear. Sophisticated analysis may be needed to pinpoint the priorities for improvements; for instance, investments designed to avoid negative outcomes on specific attributes may be as important as actions to increase positive performance on others. 1 3

Dimensions of Service Quality
Research has identified five broad dimensions of service quality: 14 >- Reliability. Is the company dependable in providing service as promised, over time? >- TangiblesiWhat do the service provider's physical facilities,Web site, equipment, personnel, and communication materials look like?

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>- Responsiveness: Are the firm's employees helpful and able to provide prompt service?

(

>• Assurance: Are service employees knowledgeable, polite, competent, and trustworthy? >- Empathy: Does the service firm provide caring, personalized attention? Of these five dimensions, reliability has consistently proven to be the most important factor in customers'judgments of service quality. Reliability improvements lie at the heart of service quality enhancement efforts because unreliable service implies broken promises on the attributes that customers care about. If the core service is not performed reliably, customers may assume that the company is i n c o m petent and may switch to another service provider. For a perspective on the d i m e n sions of service quality in online environments, see the box "Service Quality Goes Online." It isn't easy for many types of service businesses to maintain high levels of reliability day-in and day-out. W h e n customers enter a service factory and are involved in service production, they experience mistakes directly—often before a firm has an opportunity to correct them. In labor-intensive services, employees add a large degree of variability to the service production process. It's difficult for service providers to control such variations, since each employee is somewhat different from the others in personality, skills, and attitudes. Moreover, the same employee can provide radically different service from one customer to the next—or the same customer over time—depending on situational factors like customer behavior, task complexity, and the employee's physical and mental state.

Service Quality Goes Online
Do customers use the same dimensions to evaluate service quality in electronic transactions as they do during more traditional service experiences? A recent study, based on data collected from focus group interviews, explored the criteria customers use to assess electronic service quality (e-SQ). The results indicate that some of the quality dimensions discussed earlier (reliability, responsiveness, and assurance) are important in both online and offline settings. However, some other dimensions are unique to customers' evaluations of e-SQ, including ease of navigation, flexibility, efficiency, site aesthetics, and price knowledge. All of these are technology related except price knowledge, which reflects customers' desire for information about what their total online shopping charges are before they hit the "submit" button to complete their purchases. Why is e-SQ so important? While many marketers believe that price is the biggest concern for Internet customers, survey results indicate that poor service quality is the reason that most people leave Web sites. Specific failings include the lack of an easy-to-use search engine to help with site navigation; memory-intensive graphics that take too long to download; slow and confusing online ordering processes (especially when advertising promises that it will be easy); and hidden charges. A good way to understand user requirements in e-commerce is to establish continuous processes (like Web surveys or chat rooms) to monitor customers' responses to their sites, if research shows that customer preferences vary by target market and the type of products being sold, the supplier may want to offer alternative sites for different segments. But in general, Web pages should be designed to load quickly while still conveying rich information. To close communication gaps, companies must plan realistically for adequate site functionality, promise only what their sites can deliver, and ensure that all aspects of fulfillment meet promised levels of performance.

Although mistakes occur in every organization, many companies strive to minimize errors to provide greater service reliability for their customers. Leonard Berry describes how the Hard R o c k Cafe Orlando addresses service reliability: Performing the service right the first time is a bedrock value at Hard Rock Cafe Orlando, the immensely successful restaurant chain and merchandise retailer. Hard Rock Cafe emphasizes "double checking" to minimize errors. The message of double checking is: Perform the service carefully to avoid mistakes. If a mistake does occur, correct it before it reaches the customer. Hard Rock Cafe implements double checking through two "extra" people in the kitchen. One is stationed inside the kitchen and the other at the kitchen counter. The inside person reviews everything that is going on, looking for signs of undercooked or overcooked meals, wilting lettuce, or any below-standard product or performance. The counter person, or "expediter," checks each prepared plate against the order ticket before the food is delivered to the table .^ Reliability is an o u t c o m e measure because customers j u d g e it after the service experience: Either the service was delivered as promised or it wasn't. T h e other four dimensions of quality—tangibles (physical evidence), responsiveness, assurance, and empathy—are process dimensions because they can be evaluated by customers during service delivery. These dimensions provide companies with the opportunity to delight customers by exceeding their expectations during interactions with employees and the service environment. As shown in Figure 12.1, exceeding customers' desired levels of expectations leads to positive perceptions of service quality.

Quality Gaps
A service performance that surprises and delights customers by falling above their desired service levels will be seen as superior in quality. If service delivery falls within their zone of tolerance, they will feel that it's adequate. But if perceived quality falls below the adequate service level expected by customers, a discrepancy—or quality gap—has occurred between the service provider's performance and customer expectations. Why do quality failures occur? Gaps can occur at seven different points in the design, production, and delivery of services, as shown in Figure 12.2. 18 T h e service gap is the most critical, because it involves the customer's overall assessment of the service, comparing what was expected against perceptions of what was received.The ultimate goal in improving service quality is to narrow this gap as much as possible. To do so, service providers may have to reduce or close the six other gaps.The seven potential gaps in service quality are: 1. T h e k n o w l e d g e gap—the difference between what service providers believe customers expect and customers' actual needs and expectations 2. T h e standards g a p — t h e difference between managements perceptions of customer expectations and the quality standards established for service delivery 3. T h e delivery gap—the difference between specified delivery standards and the service provider's actual performance 4. T h e internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s gap—the difference between what the company's advertising and sales personnel think are the product's features, performance, and service quality level and what the company is actually able to deliver 5. T h e perceptions gap—the difference between what is actually delivered and what customers perceive they have received (because they are unable to accurately evaluate service quality) 6. T h e interpretation g a p — t h e difference between what a service provider's c o m m u n i c a t i o n efforts actually promise and what a customer thinks was promised by these communications 7. T h e service gap—the difference between what customers expect to receive and their perceptions of the service that is actually delivered

T h e presence of any one of these seven quality gaps can lead to a disappointing outcome that damages relationships with customers. Avoiding service gaps in every service encounter will help a firm improve its reputation for quality service. Although careful planning and monitoring will help reduce the likelihood that one of these gaps will occur, w h e n customers indicate that service outcomes are disappointing, it's important to identify and eliminate the gap(s) that lead to this result. A major problem in some firms is that service standards are defined by operations managers w h o have no knowledge of customer needs and expectations. Hence, it's vital that marketers be involved in the task of designing service standards and measuring performance against them.

Learning from Service Failures
Although every firm should have contingency plans for service recovery, there's no substitute for doing it right the first time. Recovery procedures shouldn't be seen as a substitute for improved service reliability.19 W h e n a problem is caused by controllable, internal forces, there's no excuse for allowing it to happen again. Recurring service failures lower service quality and reduce productivity as time and money are wasted on correcting mistakes. With prevention in mind, let's look briefly at some simple but powerful tools for monitoring quality and determining the root causes of service failures. Among the many tools available to quality improvement specialists, the following ones are particularly helpful for managers in identifying service failures and designing effective recovery strategies.

Flowcharts and Service Blueprints Flowcharts (see Chapter 3) and their more formalized derivative, service blueprints (see Chapter 7), are useful tools for thoroughly examining service delivery processes. O n c e managers understand these processes, it's easier for them to identify potential failure points, which are weak links in the chain. K n o w i n g what can go wrong, and where, is an important first step in improving productivity and preventing service quality problems. C o n t r o l Charts It's frequently said that "you cannot manage what you do not measure." Control charts offer a simple method for graphing performance over time against specific quality criteria. Because the charts are visual, trends are easily identified. Figure 12.3 shows an airline's performance on the important criterion of on-time departures. T h e results in this example suggest that management would do well to investigate the situation, because aircraft departure performance is erratic and unsatisfactory. C a u s e - a n d - E f f e c t Charts T h e Japanese/quality expert Kaoru Ishikawa created the f i s h b o n e d i a g r a m for use in m a n u f a c t u r i n g firms. To p r o d u c e a fishbone diagram (also k n o w n as a cause-and-effect chart), groups of managers and employees brainstorm factors that might be creating a specific problem. In a traditional version of this diagram, the resulting factors are then categorized into o n e of five groupings— equipment, people, materials, procedures, and other. It's important to recognize that failures are often sequential, w i t h o n e p r o b l e m leading to a n o t h e r in a different category. Figure 12.4 displays no less than 27 possible reasons for late departures of a passenger aircraft! Notice that the fishbone diagram shown in Figure 12.4 includes eight groupings rather than just the five mentioned above. T h e extra categories are designed to provide additional information for service firms. For example, the People category has been changed to Front-Stage Personnel and Backstage Personnel. This highlights the fact that

control charts: charts that graph quantitative changes in service performance on a specific variable relative to a predefined standard.

fishbone diagram: a chartbased technique that relates specific service problems to different categories of underlying causes (also known as a cause-and-effect chart).

front-stage service problems are often experienced directly by customers, whereas backstage failures tend to show up more indirectly. Information has been split from Procedures because many service problems result from information-related failures. For example, inadequate information about flight departures may lead passengers to arrive late at the gate. T h e expanded fishbone diagram also includes a n e w category—Customers—to acknowledge their increased involvement in service production and delivery, because customers can also be the cause of problems for a service business. As we've discussed before, customers of high-contact services are often heavily involved in front-stage operations. If they don't play their roles correctly, they may reduce service productivity and cause quality problems for themselves and other customers. For instance, an aircraft that seats hundreds of passengers can be delayed if a single traveler tries to board at the last minute with an oversized bag, which then has to be loaded into the cargo hold. Pareto Analysis T h e technique known as Pareto analysis (named after the Italian economist w h o first developed it) is useful in identifying the principal causes of observed outcomes. Application of this technique often highlights a p h e n o m e n o n known as the " 8 0 / 2 0 rule," showing that approximately 80 percent of the value of one variable (in this instance, the number of service failures) is accounted for by only 20 percent of the causal variables (i.e., the number of possible causes). In the airline example above, 88 percent of the company's late-departing flights were caused by only four (15 percent) of all the possible causes—late passengers, late push back tug, late fuel,

Pareto analysis: an analytical procedure to identify what proportion of problem events is caused by each of several different factors.

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and late weight and balance sheet. So, focus on these four factors rather than tackling all potential causes simultaneously—especially w h e n time and other resources are limited.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
Customers experience various levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction after each service experience according to the extent to which their expectations were met or exceeded. Because satisfaction is an emotional state, their postpurchase reactions can involve anger, dissatisfaction, irritation, neutrality, pleasure, or delight.

Satisfaction, Delight, and Loyalty
Obviously, angry or dissatisfied customers are troublesome because they may switch to another company and spread negative word of m o u t h . But is it sufficient just to satisfy a customer? After all, a firm might reason that products and services are rarely perfect and people are hard to please. Companies that take this approach may be asking for trouble because there is a lot of evidence that merely satisfying customers is not enough. 2 0 Marginally satisfied or neutral customers can be lured away by competitors. A delighted customer, however, is more likely to remain loyal in spite of attractive competitive offerings. C u s t o m e r satisfaction plays an especially critical role in highly competitive industries, w h e r e there is a tremendous difference between the loyalty of merely satisfied and completely satisfied—or delighted—customers (see Figure 12.5). For example, a study of retail banking customers showed that completely satisfied customers were nearly 42 percent more likely to be loyal than merely satisfied customers. To improve its customer satisfaction levels, a company must first find out h o w satisfied or dissatisfied its current customers actually are. O n e c o m m o n way of measuring satisfaction is to ask customers first to identify what factors are important in satisfying

them and then to evaluate the performance of a service provider and its competitors on these factors. Many firms use a five-point scale to measure customer satisfaction, with the following format: 1 = very dissatisfied 2 = somewhat dissatisfied 3 = neutral 4 = somewhat satisfied 5 = very satisfied The results of these satisfaction surveys can be used to estimate the number of loyal customers a firm has, as well as how many are at risk of defecting. As shown in Figure 12.6, research indicates that customers with satisfaction ratings of 0 to 3 are very likely to defect, whereas customers w h o rated themselves somewhat satisfied (4) can be lured away by a competing service. Only customers with a satisfaction rating of 5 are absolutely loyal. At the extremes of the scale are two customer groups with particular significance to service providers: "terrorists" and "apostles." Terrorists are every company's nightmare. They don't just defect—they make sure that everyone else shares their anger and frustration, too. Often these customers had a bad experience that was never corrected by the company; as a result, they are dedicated to spreading as much negative word of m o u t h as possible. In contrast, the apostle is the kind of customer of w h o m every service provider dreams; they are so satisfied with their service experiences that they want to share their enthusiasm with others. T h e y are extremely loyal, and their obvious delight helps attract other customers. Creating apostles and eliminating terrorists should be a key goal for every service provider. 21

Using Customer Satisfaction Information
O n c e a company has gathered satisfaction data from its customers, the next step is to decide on the most appropriate strategies for increasing satisfaction levels. If most of the satisfaction ratings fall in the 2—3 range, there is probably a problem with the firm's delivery of the core service—the basic package of benefits that customers expect every business in an industry to be able to provide. We can describe them as the "do-or-die" elements of service. However, they may change as customer expectations increase, competitive offerings improve, or new competitors enter the market. T h e solution for problems here is to make sure that a firm's basic product meets customer-defined industry standards. Neutral or satisfied customers (the 3s and 4s) are probably happy with the core service but would like to have a consistent set of supplementary services that make the basic product more effective or easier to use. Service providers with a high proportion of neutral and satisfied customers need to increase their range of supporting services and provide responsive service recovery processes so that customers don't slide into the dissatisfied category when problems do occur. Formalized service recovery programs can help supplement the bundle of benefits provided by the core product and decrease the liklihood that customers will defect to competitors' services. 22 Completely satisfied customers believe that a company thoroughly understands and addresses their o w n personal preferences, needs, expectations, and problems. Service providers whose customer satisfaction ratings are 5s have obviously listened carefully to their customers and, as a result, have been able to incorporate a significant number of innovative elements into their core offerings. In time, competitors may copy the innovator, so a firm that wishes to remain a leader must continually listen to customers and find new ways to delight them.

Benefits of Customer Satisfaction Management
Although every successful marketer wants to provide a service that satisfies customers, this isn't the only goal. Companies can't lose sight of other basic business goals such as achieving a competitive advantage or making a profit. As Figure 12.7 shows, customer

satisfaction provides many benefits for a firm, and higher levels of customer satisfaction lead to greater customer loyalty. In the long run, it is more profitable to keep good customers than to constantly attract and develop new customers to replace the ones w h o leave. Highly satisfied customers spread positive word of m o u t h and in effect become a walking, talking advertisement for a firm, which lowers the cost of attracting new customers. This is particularly important for professional service providers (like dentists, lawyers, engineers, or accountants), because reputation and word of m o u t h are key information sources for new clients. 23 High levels of customer satisfaction are an insurance policy against something going wrong. L o n g - t e r m customers tend to be more forgiving in these situations, because an occasional bad experience will be offset by previous positive ones, and satisfied customers are less susceptible to competitors' offerings. It's no wonder that many companies place so much emphasis on customer satisfaction, given its positive relationship to customer retention, market share, and profits.

Return on Quality
Many strategies to improve customer satisfaction are costly to design and implement. Thoughtful managers ask: W h i c h quality improvement efforts will provide the greatest financial returns? This investment-oriented approach is called r e t u r n on quality (ROQ). 2 4 A company's research and complaint data may show that some quality defects are much more important to customers than others, and some defects cost more money to fix. Moreover, not all quality improvement efforts will necessarily pay for themselves. An R O Q approach can help a firm set priorities based on investing resources to fix those defects that will subsequently yield the best financial returns.The objective should be to undertake a systematic m e t h o d for rank-ordering quality improvement efforts according to their anticipated financial return.

Building a Quality Information System
Organizations that are k n o w n for providing excellent service quality are good at listening to both their customers and their front-line employees. To do this effectively, companies need to create an ongoing service research process that provides managers with useful, timely data. Information from service quality surveys—including h o w a firm compares with its competitors—can help managers understand the effects of changes in service quality a n d / o r price on the firm's market share. 2 5 As Leonard Berry says in On Great Service, " C o m p a n i e s need to build a service quality i n f o r mation s y s t e m , not just do a study. C o n d u c t i n g a service quality study is analogous to taking a snapshot. Deeper insight and an understanding of the pattern of change come from an ongoing series of snapshots taken of various subject matter from many angles." 26 Berry recommends that ongoing research should be conducted through a portfolio of research techniques that make up a firm's service quality information system. Possible approaches include: »- Post-transaction surveys >- Total market surveys >• Mystery shopping >- New, declining, and former customer surveys >• Focus groups >- Employee field reporting

service quality information system: an ongoing service research process that provides timely, useful data to managers about customer satisfaction, expectations, and perceptions of quality.

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post-transaction surveys: techniques to measure customer satisfaction and perceptions of service quality while a specific service experience is still fresh in the customer s mind.

P o s t - T r a n s a c t i o n Surveys This approach is useful w h e n the goal is to measure customer satisfaction and perceptions about service experiences while they are still fresh in the customer's mind. Post-transaction surveys are conducted right after a service encounter or within a few days. 27 (See the boxed story about Toys R! Us.) Many service businesses, including hotels and restaurants, invite customers to complete questionnaires on site (or to mail t h e m back later). Some companies even offer incentives. For example, the Olive Garden restaurant sometimes gives customers a discount on their next meal if they complete the customer satisfaction survey that is provided with every bill. Data of this nature may also be collected electronically. For instance, customers at Einstein's Bagels can use a touch-activated screen that is located at the entrance to record their impressions of service quality. Total Market Surveys T h e purpose of total m a r k e t surveys is to measure customers' overall evaluations of service quality. Because such evaluations reflect customers' accumulated experience over time (and because this type of data collection is costly), these surveys are administered less frequently than transactional surveys.The information collected should include customers' service expectations and perceptions, the relative importance of different service dimensions, and customers' intentions about repurchasing and making positive recommendations to others. Companies can also use total market surveys to measure competitors' service quality. But they need to sample both customers and noncustomers to get an accurate picture of their competitive position.

total market surveys; periodic measurements of customers' overall evaluations of service quality based on accumulated experience over a period of time.

ToysR Us Finds Out Why Customers Aren't Playing There Anymore
For most of the 1990s, Toys'R'Us was the undisputed leader among retailers of traditional toys. But in 1998, Wal-Mart surpassed Toys R'Us in market share in this competitive market. Worried Toys R'Us executives quickly implemented a new strategy—labeled "C3"—aimed at increasing sales, profits, and "most importantly, winning back mom." C3 (which stands for "customer friendly, cost effective, and concept for a long-term position") is based on ongoing post-transaction surveys that poll customers within 48 hours after they have completed a Toys "R "Us transaction. Using household information compiled from the national daily transaction data stored in its centralized data warehouse, the company identifies approximately 60,000 customers a year who are then contacted by telephone to discuss their shopping experiences at Toys'R' Us. These customers are also asked about any recent service encounters thay have had with competitors like Wal-Mart, K-Mart, and Target. Data are collected in two different formats: numerical ratings in response to specific questions, and quantitative responses that are recorded verbatim. Responses to the initial post-transaction surveys highlighted some of the reasons that customers were defecting to competitors' stores. Many respondents rated their customer satisfaction levels as "poor," stating that Toys'R Us sales clerks were rude and unhelpful. Another complaint was that many popular toys were frequently out-of-stock. The survey data also allowed Toys' R Us to analyze the relationship between customer satisfaction and profitability. Not surprisingly, customers who were delighted with their shopping experiences were significantly more profitable over time than those who were merely satisfied. Armed with these results, Toys RUs has implemented an aggressive campaign to make all of its stores more customerfriendly. The number of out-of-stock incidents has been significantly reduced. Customer satisfaction is measured at each store every month through post-transaction surveys and mystery shopping. Toys RUs stores that rank highly receive incentives, while those that don't get additional customer service training.

Some marketers use a tool called S E R V Q U A L to gather this type of information (see the b o x , " T h e SERVQUAL Scale"). 28 Customers are asked to complete a series of scales that measure their expectations of a particular company on a wide array of specific service characteristics, including aspects of the five quality dimensions. They then record their perceptions of actual service performance on these same characteristics. When perceived performance ratings are lower than expectations, it is a sign of poor quality; the reverse indicates good quality.

SERVQUAL: a standardized scale that measures expectations and perceptions about critical quality dimensions.

The SERVQUAL Scale I
The SERVQUAL scale includes five dimensions: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Within each dimension are several items measured on a seven-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree, for a total of 21 items. RESPONSIVENESS >• Employees of excellent banks will tell customers exactly when service will be performed. >- Employees of excellent banks will give prompt service to customers. >> Employees of excellent banks will always be willing to help customers. >- Employees of excellent banks will never be too busy to respond to customer requests. ASSURANCE >• The behavior of employees of excellent banks will instill confidence in customers. >- Customers of excellent banks will feel safe in their transactions. >- Employees of excellent banks will be consistently courteous with customers. >• Employees of excellent banks will have the knowledge to answer customer questions. EMPATHY >- Excellent banks will give customers individual attention. >• Excellent banks will have operating hours convenient to all their customers. >• Excellent banks will have employees who give customers personal attention. >- The employees of excellent banks will understand the specific needs of their customers.

SERVQUAL Questions
Note: For actual survey respondents, instructions are also included and each statement is accompanied by a seven-point scale ranging from "strongly agree = 7" to "strongly disagree = 1." Only the end points of the scale are labeled—there are no words above the numbers 2 through 6. TANGIBLES >• Excellent banks [refer to cable TV companies, hospitals, or the appropriate service business throughout the questionnaire] will have modern-looking equipment. >- The physical facilities at excellent banks will be visually appealing. >- Employees at excellent banks will be neat in appearance. *- Materials associated with the service (like brochures or statements) will be visually appealing in an excellent bank. RELIABILITY >• When excellent banks promise to do something by a certain time, they will do so. »- When customers have a problem, excellent banks will show a sincere interest in solving it. *- Excellent banks will perform the service right the first time. 5* Excellent banks will provide their services at the time they promise to do so. >• Excellent banks will insist on error-free records.

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mystery shopping: a research technique that employs individuals posing as ordinary customers in order to obtain feedback on the service environment and customer-employee interactions.

Mystery Shopping Companies sometimes hire individuals to pose as ordinary customers and provide feedback about their service experiences. D u r i n g their unannounced visits to service sites, these "mystery shoppers" observe both the physical environment and the interactions between customers and employees. O n e advantage of m y s t e r y s h o p p i n g is that it provides feedback on the performance of individual service employees. This information can be used to reward exceptional performance, as well as to identify employees w h o could benefit from additional training or coaching. Companies like Wells Fargo Bank, Au B o n Pain, and Safeway use mystery shopping regularly to improve their customer service. Service providers should be sensitive to employees' feelings w h e n using this approach, because employees often feel that mystery shoppers are spying on them. Tips for making mystery shopping successful include letting employees know what criteria they are being judged on and evaluating service quality over a series of visits rather than by a single encounter. For example, Au Bon Pain posts its criteria for service quality in each store, along with a list of employees w h o have received outstanding scores from mystery shoppers. N e w , D e c l i n i n g , and F o r m e r C u s t o m e r Surveys N e w customers can provide information about what attracted t h e m to a specific service provider, including the impact of the firm's reputation and its marketing efforts. Surveys that monitor declining patronage can identify the reasons and may predict future customer defections. Asking former customers why they left can provide helpful—if sobering—information about areas where a firm's service quality is deficient. Surveys of new, declining, or former customers are easiest to do in businesses where customers use the service on a fairly regular basis and sales transactions are recorded at the individual customer level. For instance, Safeway supermarkets conduct this type of research by using their Safeway Club "membership" cards to track each customer's purchases electronically over time. Since customer-contact data are collected when customers apply for the card, Safeway can easily contact new, declining, or former customers. T h e company also uses the membership card to reward loyal customers with special discounts and cash rebates. F o c u s G r o u p s This research approach involves interviewing a group of representative customers about a specific topic or issue. T h e discussions, which typically last a couple of hours, are led by trained moderators w h o keep the participants— typically six to ten in n u m b e r — o n task. Convening a focus g r o u p is a useful way to get in-depth information about service problems and identify possible solutions. This procedure can also be used to determine what criteria customers use to evaluate service quality, to obtain feedback on a new service concept or a proposed marketing program, or to find out h o w customers actually use different types of services. However, the resulting information should not be projected onto an entire market segment without additional quantitative research. While most focus group research involves face-to-face conversations with participants, a few companies have gone high-tech. For example, the cable network Nickelodeon conducts online focus groups with 8- to 12-year-old viewers to gather their reactions to its programming and marketing. T h e company says the electronic focus groups provide faster, cheaper data than traditional methods but warns that other market research techniques should also be used. 2 9 E m p l o y e e Field R e p o r t i n g Whereas most service quality data are collected from customers, a firm's employees can also be a valuable source of qualitative information. Employee field reporting is a systematic method for finding out what employees learn from their interactions with customers and their direct observations of customer

focus groups: groups of customers sharing certain common characteristics who are convened by researchers for in-depth, moderator-led discussions on specific topics.

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behavior. Data can be collected from employees through written surveys, telephone interviews, or focus groups. Employees can also record critical incidents that occur during service encounters. For example, employees in a dentist's office can be asked to record patients' reactions to all aspects of the service, including the physical environment, new equipment, or personal interactions.

PRODUCTIVITY ISSUES FOR SERVICE FIRMS
As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, improving service quality for customers in cost-effective ways is a key challenge for any service business. Companies must try to increase productivity in ways that won't have a negative impact on customer satisfaction or perceived quality. But what is productivity? Simply defined, productivity measures how efficiently a company can transform inputs into outputs. Inputs vary according to the nature of the business but may include labor (both physical and intellectual), materials, energy, and capital (land, buildings, equipment, information systems, and financial assets). Service outputs are the final outcomes of the service delivery process as perceived and valued by customers. Improving productivity requires increasing the ratio of outputs to inputs.

inputs; all resources (labor, materials, energy, and capital) required to create service offerings. outputs: the final outcomes of the service delivery process as perceived and valued by customers.

Measuring Service Productivity
The intangible nature of service performances often makes it difficult to measure the productivity of service industries. T h e measurement task is perhaps the most straightforward in possession-processing services because many are quasi-manufacturing organizations, performing routine tasks with easily measurable inputs and outputs that often include physical elements. Examples include quick-service garages, which change a car's oil and rotate its tires, or fast-food restaurants, which offer limited and simple menus. But the task is more complicated when the customer's vehicle has an engine problem, or when the restaurant in question is famous for its varied and exotic cuisine. In a people-processing service like a hospital, we can look at the number of patients treated in the course of a year and at the hospital's census, or average bed occupancy. But how do we account for the different types of procedures performed—removal of cancerous tumors, treatment of diabetes, or setting of broken b o n e s — a n d the almost inevitable variability between one patient and another? And how do we evaluate the difference in service outcomes? Some patients get better, some develop complications, and some never recover. There are relatively few standardized procedures in medicine that offer highly predictable outcomes. Information-based services also pose measurement issues. H o w should we define the output of a bank or a consulting firm? And how does an architect's output compare to a lawyer's? Some lawyers like to boast about their billable hours. But what were they actually doing during those hours, and how do we measure their output as opposed to their fees? It's alleged that some lawyers strive to bill for more than 24 hours of work per day, but is that really an accurate indication of productivity? Finally, measuring productivity is a challenge for mental stimulus services like education. Many universities are under pressure to document outputs, and they have been struggling with how to measure the hours professors spend preparing for class, interacting with students, providing service to the university and the community, and contributing to their professional fields. And h o w do colleges (or their graduates) quantify the value of a college degree? Or the value of a good professor versus a mediocre one? Variability is a major problem in measuring service productivity. Unfortunately, traditional measures of service output tend to ignore variations in the quality of service delivered and its perceived value to customers. In freight transportation, for instance, a

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Insights from Dilbert, by Scott Adams: Overemphasis on speed may result in curt and unfriendly service for customers.

ton-mile of output for freight that is delivered late is treated the same for productivity purposes as a similar shipment delivered on time. 3 0 Another approach, counting the number of customers served per unit of time, suffers from the same shortcoming. What happens when an increase in the speed with which customers are served is achieved at the expense of perceived quality? Suppose a hair stylist serves three customers per hour and finds she can increase her output to four by giving what is technically just as good a haircut but using a faster but noisier hair dryer, eliminating all conversation, and rushing through the process. Even if the haircut is identical in quality, her customers may rate the overall service experience less positively because it did not meet their expectations of an adequate (or desired) level of service on multiple dimensions.

Efficiency and Effectiveness in Service Productivity
Some researchers argue that productivity measures in a service context must incorporate both efficiency and effectiveness. 31 Efficiency describes the degree to which an activity generates a given quantity of outputs with a m i n i m u m consumption of inputs (or the largest possible outputs from a given level of inputs). It relates the output to the resources (input) used and is about doing things the right way. Effectiveness, by contrast, is concerned with a firm's ability to attain a goal or purpose. T h e implication for service managers is that they must measure the characteristics of service output with reference to the goals set by the organization, since effectiveness is about doing the right things. From this perspective, we can say that service productivity measures the ability of a service organization to use its inputs for providing services with quality matching the expectations of customers and can be presented as follows: Service productivity quantity and quality of output quantity and quality of input

Using quantitative measures of the volume of inputs and outputs (e.g., labor hours, number of hours service is available, number of customers or transactions, etc.) is complicated w h e n there is a lot of variability in inputs and outputs. An alternative is to use monetary measures, such as turnover relative to the total monetary value of inputs. In order to link productivity to profitability, the monetary values of both input and output must be determined, thus emphasizing the value added of the service process.

Productivity and Customer Satisfaction
T h e "productive" hair stylist described earlier illustrates an important issue for service providers. A l t h o u g h many companies would like to increase b o t h productivity (defined in volume terms) and quality (defined in satisfaction terms), the two are not always compatible. Managers may have to make trade-offs between quantity and quality, especially when customer satisfaction and willingness to pay depend on customized service provided directly by employees. High levels of productivity and customer satisfaction are most profitable—and most possible—for companies like mail-order firms,

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clothing stores, and fast-food restaurants that provide a mixture of goods and services to customers in a fairly standardized way. For example, the Taco Bell restaurant chain has been very successful in making productivity improvements that both added to customer satisfaction and had an extremely positive impact on profitability. However, for companies whose outputs are more intangible—like airlines, banks, and charter travel agencies—the greatest profits are associated with higher customer satisfaction and a relatively lower volume of output per employee. A study of the hotel industry showed that the value added (output revenues less input costs) rose significantly with an increasing number of employees. It's readily apparent that four-star and fivestar hotels offer a much higher ratio of employees to customers than lower-rated hotels and are able to c o m m a n d m u c h higher prices for their rooms. Thus, for more customized services, the primary focus should be on increasing customer satisfaction. Firms should make efficiency-based productivity improvements only if they are sure that the changes will not negatively affect customers' perceptions of service quality. Many attempts to improve service productivity tend to center on efforts to eliminate waste and reduce labor costs. Cutbacks in front-stage staffing can mean either that the remaining employees have to work harder and faster or that there are insufficient personnel to serve customers promptly at busy times. Although employees may be able to work faster for a brief period of time, few can maintain a rapid pace for extended periods. They become exhausted, make mistakes, and treat customers in a disinterested way.Workers w h o are trying to do two or three things at once (e.g., serving a customer face to face while simultaneously answering the telephone and sorting papers) may do a poor j o b on each task. Excessive pressure to improve productivity breeds discontent and frustration among all employees. But it is especially difficult for customer-contact personnel, w h o are caught between trying to meet customer needs and attempting to achieve management's productivity goals. Even successful firms like United Parcel Service (UPS) have experienced customer service declines because of the implementation of internal productivity improvement strategies that were not directly linked to customer priorities. For example, U P S made an assumption that on-time delivery was the most important service quality feature for its customers.The company did time-and-motion studies to see how delivery processes could be made more efficient and pushed its workers to meet demanding delivery schedules. M u c h to its surprise, U P S discovered from its customer satisfaction surveys that customers actually wanted more interaction time with its drivers. After performing a return-on-quality analysis, the company designed a program to allow drivers to spend more time with customers by relaxing delivery schedules and hiring more drivers. Drivers received a small bonus for any sales leads they generated. Cost estimates for the first year were $4.2 million, which was quickly offset by over $10 million in additional revenues. 3 4 Sometimes companies can use technology to streamline service processes in a way that reduces costs and satisfies customers. For example, cost cutting was a very important issue for Taco Bell because its strategy relied on providing customers with high-quality, low-priced fast food. T h e company's "value m e n u " pricing meant that profit margins were reduced. Cost reductions were mandatory, but what should be cut? Because improved customer service was an important part of the new strategy, Taco Bell could not easily improve productivity by decreasing its labor costs. Instead, it embarked on an approach called "K-minus" (K stands for kitchen). By using technology to reduce the labor intensity of food preparation, outsourcing some of the most time-intensive chores, and turning restaurant kitchens into strictly food assembly areas, Taco Bell was able to shrink the average kitchen size by 40 percent. Its restaurants moved from 70 percent kitchen and 30 percent dining to 70 percent dining and 30 percent kitchen, freeing both space and employees to serve customers. These dramatic changes significantly reduced operating costs, and customer waiting time decreased more than 70 percent.

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Customer-Driven Approaches to Improving Productivity
In situations where customers are deeply involved in the service production process (most typical in people-processing services), operations managers should examine how customers' inputs can be made more productive. Marketing managers should be thinking about what marketing strategies can be employed to influence customers to behave in more productive ways.Two strategies, in particular, may be helpful: changing the timing of customer d e m a n d and involving customers m o r e actively in the production process. C h a n g i n g the T i m i n g o f C u s t o m e r D e m a n d Managing demand i n capacityconstrained service businesses is a recurring t h e m e in this b o o k . Customers often complain about crowding and congestion, reflecting time-of-day, seasonal, or other cyclical peaks in demand. During the off-peak periods in those same cycles, managers often worry that there are too few customers and that their facilities and staff are not fully productive. By shifting demand away from peaks, managers can make better use of their productive assets and provide better service. However, some demand cannot easily be shifted without the cooperation of third parties like employers and schools, w h o control working hours and holiday schedules. To fill idle capacity during off-peak hours, marketers may need to target new market segments with different needs and schedules, rather than focusing exclusively on current segments. If the peaks and valleys of demand can be smoothed, using the tools and strategies we've discussed in earlier chapters, productivity will improve. Involving C u s t o m e r s M o r e in P r o d u c t i o n Customers w h o assume a more active role in service production and delivery can take over some labor tasks from the service organization. Benefits for both parties may result when customers perform self-service. Some technological innovations are designed to enable customers to perform tasks previously undertaken by service employees. For instance, many companies are trying to encourage customers to use a corporate Web site to obtain information and place

orders, rather than telephoning customer service staff directly. For such changes to succeed, Web sites must be made user-friendly and easy to "navigate" and customers must be convinced that it is safe to provide credit card information over the Internet. Some companies have offered promotional incentives (like a credit of air miles to a frequent flyer program or a discount on merchandise) to encourage customers to make an initial reservation or place an order on the Web. Restaurants, which have traditionally had a high labor component and relatively low productivity, represent another service in which customers have been asked to do more of the work. We've b e c o m e accustomed to self-service salad bars and buffets. Despite the reduction in personal service, this innovation has been positioned as a benefit that lets customers select the foods they want, without delay, in the quantities they desire. Quality and productivity improvements often depend on customers' willingness to learn n e w procedures, follow instructions, and interact cooperatively w i t h employees and other people. Customers w h o arrive at the service encounter with a set of preexisting n o r m s , values, and role definitions may resist change. In fact, research results suggest that some customers may be m o r e willing than others to serve themselves. A large-scale study presented respondents with the choice of a do-it-yourself option versus traditional delivery systems at gas stations, banks, restaurants, hotels, airports, and travel services. A particular scenario was outlined for each service, since earlier interviews had determined that decisions to choose self-service options were very situation specific, depending on such factors as time of day, weather conditions, presence or absence of others in the party, and the perceived time and cost involved. The results showed that in each instance a sizable proportion of respondents would select the self-service o p t i o n — e v e n in the absence of time or m o n e t a r y savings. W h e n these i n d u c e m e n t s were added, the p r o p o r t i o n s choosing self-service increased. Further analysis showed an overlap for some respondents in terms of their self-service behaviors across different services. If respondents didn't p u m p their own fuel, for instance, they were less likely to use an A T M and more likely to prefer being served by a bank clerk.

Conclusion
Service providers can't afford to consider productivity separately from quality. If the two issues are totally divorced, operations managers may launch productivity efforts that will degrade the service received by customers, and marketing managers may introduce service quality programs that complicate operations, raise costs, and hurt profits. Successful firms base their efforts to improve quality on an understanding of customers' expectations relative to different quality dimensions and analysis of service quality gaps that can lead to dissatisfaction.When things go wrong, they seek the underlying causes and try to prevent a recurrence. Their efforts to innovate often center on new approaches that will enhance productivity and quality simultaneously. Firms that succeed in providing high-quality service are good at listening to both their customers and their employees, especially those in direct contact with customers. They build information systems that use a variety of research techniques to measure customer satisfaction and the quality of service delivered. However, measuring productivity can be difficult because of the intangible nature of service performances. Unfortunately, many traditional measures of service outputs ignore variations in the quality of service delivered and its perceived value to customers.

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Study Questions and Exercises
1. Define customer expectations and describe where they come from. 2. Discuss the three different levels of expectations. H o w are they related to a customer's zone of tolerance? 3. Explain the difference between service quality and customer satisfaction. 4. Identify the seven gaps that can occur in service quality. W h a t do you think service marketers can do to prevent each of these gaps? 5. W h a t are the five dimensions customers use in evaluating service quality? 6. Explain the elements of a service quality information system and give examples of each element. 7. H o w can firms learn from service failures? 8. Define productivity. W h y is it hard to measure in services? 9. W h y is productivity a more difficult issue for services than for many manufactured goods? Explain the relationship between productivity and quality.

Tourist Destination
Cape Cod is a remarkable peninsula of narrow land, jutting out into the Atlantic off the Massachusetts coast like a long arm, bent at the elbow. Native Americans have lived there for thousands of years. The Pilgrims landed there in 1619 but continued across Cape Cod Bay to found Plymouth. Not long afterwards, more immigrants from England settled on the Cape itself. Fishing, whaling, agriculture, and salt works were among the principal industries in the nineteenth century. By the midtwentieth century, all but fishing had virtually disappeared and tourism was beginning to assume some significance. Events in the early 1960s put the Cape firmly in the public eye. John F. Kennedy became president of the United States and was regularly photographed at his family's vacation home in Hyannisport. While in office he signed legislation that created the Cape Cod National Seashore, preserving large areas of the Outer Cape as a national park. And the song, "Old Cape Cod," commissioned by tourism promoters and sung by popular vocalist, Patti Page, unexpectedly climbed to the top of the charts and was heard around the world. With its beaches and salt marshes, sand dunes and fishing harbors, picturesque towns and lobster dinners, the Cape rapidly became a destination resort, drawing millions of visitors each year from New England, the Mid-Atlantic states, Eastern Canada, and beyond. In season, that i s . . . . In summer, the Cape is a busy place. Colorful umbrellas sprout like giant flowers along the miles of sandy beaches. The parking lots are full. There are lines outside most restaurants and managers complain about the difficulty of hiring and retaining sufficient serving staff. Thousands of students take summer jobs on the Cape (many come from Europe) and some employers recruit seasonal workers from Caribbean countries such as Jamaica. Stores and movie theaters are busy (especially when it rains). The Mid-Cape Highway is clogged. Hotels and motels sport "no vacancy" signs. Fishing trips have to be booked well in advance. Vacation cottages are rented, it's hard to get a car reservation on the ferries to the islands of Nantucket or Martha's Vineyard, and the visitor centers at the National Seashore are crowded with tourists. But return for a weekend in mid-winter, and what do you find? A few walkers brave the chill winds on the otherwise empty beaches. You can park in almost any legal space you wish. Many restaurants have closed (their owners are wintering in Florida) and only the most popular of the remaining establishments even bother to suggest reservations. Student workers have gone back to college and employers have laid off their seasonal workers. It's rare in winter to be unable to see the movie of your choice at your preferred time. The main problem on the Mid-Cape Highway is being stopped for speeding. If a motel displays a "no vacancy" sign, that means it's closed for the season; the open ones typically offer bargain rates. Recreational fishing? You must be crazy—there may even be ice on Cape Cod Bay! Owners of vacation cottages have drained their water systems and boarded up the windows. You can probably drive your vehicle straight onto one of the car ferries to the islands (although the sailing schedules are more limited), and the

rangers at the visitor centers are happy to talk with the few visitors who drop by during the shortened opening hours. Faced with such a sharply peaked season, economic development agencies are working to extend the Cape's tourism season beyond the peak months of July and August, seeking to build demand during the spring and fall months. Among their targets are tourists from Europe, who appreciate the old-world charm of the Cape and tend to spend more money than visitors from Boston or New York.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to describe the forms that productive capacity can take in a service organization

==%> explain how to use capacity management techniques to address variations in demand =£> understand the concept of demand cycles recognize different patterns of demand and their underlying causes formulate demand management strategies appropriate to specific situations

=^>

=^>

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THE UPS AND DOWNS OF DEMAND
Fluctuating demand for service, like that experienced by the retailers, movie theaters, motels, restaurants, ferries, and other establishments on Cape Cod, is not just found in vacation resorts. It's a problem for a huge cross-section of businesses serving both individual and corporate customers. These demand fluctuations—which may be as long as a season of the year or as short as an hourly cycle—play havoc with efficient use of productive assets. Unlike manufacturing, service operations create a perishable inventory that cannot be stockpiled for sale at a later date. That's a problem for any capacity-constrained service that faces wide swings in demand. T h e problem is most c o m m o n l y found among services that process people or physical possessions, like transportation, lodging, food service, repair and maintenance, entertainment, and health care. It also affects labor-intensive information-processing services that face cyclical shifts in demand. University education and accounting and tax preparation are cases in point. This chapter—and the one that follows—address the question, How should we match demand and productive capacity? T h e task starts with defining the nature of the firm's productive capacity, which may vary significantly from one industry to another. Managers also need to document h o w demand levels vary, what factors explain those variations, and under what circumstances demand exceeds available capacity. A r m e d with this understanding, they should then be in a position to develop strategies for matching demand and capacity.

inventory: for manufacturing, physical output stockpiled after production for sale at a later date; for services, future output that has not yet been reserved in advance, such as the number of hotel rooms still available for sale on a given day.

From Excess Demand to Excess Capacity
At any given m o m e n t , a fixed-capacity service may face one of four conditions (see Figure 13.1): excess demand: demand for a service at a given time exceeds the firm's ability to meet customer needs. >- Excess demand—the level of demand exceeds maximum available capacity, with the result that some customers are denied service and business is lost. >- Demand exceeds optimum capacity—no one is actually turned away, but conditions are crowded and all customers are likely to perceive a decline in service quality. >• Demand and supply are well balanced at the level oj optimum capacity—staff and facilities are busy without being overtaxed, and customers receive good service without delays. excess capacity: a firm's capacity to create service output is not fully utilized. maximum capacity: the upper limit to a firm's ability to meet customer demand at a particular time. optimum capacity: the point beyond which a firm's efforts to serve additional customers will lead to a perceived decline in service quality. *- Excess capacity—demand is below optimum capacity and productive resources are underutilized, resulting in low productivity. In some instances, this poses a risk that customers may find the experience disappointing or have doubts about the viability of the service. You'll notice that we've drawn a distinction between m a x i m u m capacity and o p t i m u m capacity. W h e n demand exceeds the m a x i m u m available capacity, some potential customers may be turned away and their business could be lost forever. W h e n the demand level is between optimum and maximum capacity, all customers can be served but there's a risk that they may receive inferior service and thus become dissatisfied. Sometimes optimum and maximum capacities are one and the same. At a live theater or sports performance, a full house is very desirable since it stimulates the players and creates a sense of excitement and audience participation. T h e net result is a more satisfying experience for all. But with most other services, you probably feel that you get better service if the facility is not operating at full capacity. T h e quality of restaurant service, for instance, often deteriorates w h e n every table is occupied. T h e employees are rushed and there's a greater likelihood of errors or delays. And if you're traveling by air you tend to feel more comfortable if the seat next to you is empty.

There are two basic solutions to the problem of fluctuating demand. O n e is to adjust the level of capacity to meet variations in demand. This approach, which involves cooperation between operations and h u m a n resource management, requires an understanding of what constitutes productive capacity and h o w it may be increased or decreased on an incremental basis. T h e second approach is to manage the level of demand, using marketing strategies to smooth out the peaks and fill in the valleys to generate a more consistent flow of requests for service. Astute firms employ a mix of both strategies, which requires close collaboration between operations and marketing.

MEASURING AND MANAGING CAPACITY
Many service organizations are capacity constrained. There's an upper limit to their capacity to serve additional customers at a particular point in time. They may also be constrained in terms of being unable to reduce their productive capacity during periods of low demand. In general, organizations that engage in physical processes like people processing and possession processing are more likely to face capacity constraints than those that engage in information-based processes. A radio station, for instance, may be constrained in its geographic reach by the strength of its signal. But within that radius, any number of listeners can tune in to a broadcast.

Defining Productive Capacity
What do we mean by productive capacity? T h e term refers to the resources or assets that a firm can use to create goods and services. In a service context, productive capacity can take at least five potential forms. 1. Physical facilities designed to contain customers that are used for delivering peopleprocessing or mental stimulus-processing services. Examples include medical clinics, hotels, passenger aircraft, buses, restaurants, swimming pools, movie theaters, concert halls, executive education facilities, and college classrooms. In these situations, the primary capacity constraint is likely to be defined in terms of furnishings like beds, rooms, seats, tables, or desks. In some cases, local regulations may set an upper limit in the interest of health or fire safety. productive capacity: the extent of the facilities, equipment, labor, infrastructure, and other assets available to a firm to create output for its customers.

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2. Physical facilities designed for storing or processing goods that either belong to customers or are being offered to t h e m for sale. Examples include supermarket shelves, pipelines, warehouses, parking lots, freight containers, or railroad freight wagons. 3. Physical equipment used to process people, possessions, or information may embrace a huge range of items and be very situation specific—machinery, telephones, hair dryers, computers, diagnostic equipment, airport security detectors, toll gates, cooking ovens, bank ATMs, repair tools, and cash registers are among the many items whose absence in sufficient numbers for a given level of demand can bring service to a crawl (or a complete stop). 4. Labor is a key element of productive capacity in all high-contact services and many low-contact ones. It may be used for b o t h physical and mental work. Staffing levels for customer-contact personnel, from restaurant servers to nurses to telephone customer service personnel, need to be sufficient to meet anticipated d e m a n d — o t h e r w i s e customers are kept waiting or service is rushed. H u m a n beings tend to be far more variable than equipment in their ability to sustain consistent levels of o u t p u t over time. O n e tired or poorly trained employee staffing a single station in an assembly-line service operation like a cafeteria restaurant or a motor vehicle license bureau can slow the entire service to a crawl. Professional services are especially dependent on highly skilled staff to create high value-added, information-based output. Abraham Lincoln captured it well w h e n he remarked, "A lawyer's time and expertise are his stock in trade." 5. Access to sufficient capacity in the public or private infrastructure is critical in order for many organizations to deliver quality service to their o w n customers. Capacity problems related to infrastructure may include busy telephone circuits, electrical power failures (or "brown outs" caused by reduced voltage), congested airways that lead to air traffic restrictions on flights, and traffic jams on major highways.

Stretching and Shrinking the Level of Capacity
Measures of capacity utilization include the number of hours (or percentage of total available time) that facilities, labor, and equipment are productively employed in revenue operation, and the percentage of available space (e.g., seats, cubic freight capacity, telecommunications bandwidth) that is actually utilized in revenue operations. Some capacity is elastic in its ability to absorb extra demand. A subway car, for instance, may offer 40 seats and allow standing room for another 60 passengers with adequate handrail and floor space for all. Yet at rush hours, w h e n there have been delays on the line, perhaps 200 standees can be accommodated under sardine-like conditions. Service personnel may be able to work at high levels of efficiency during these short periods of time, but they would tire quickly and begin providing inferior service if required to work that fast all day long. Even where capacity appears fixed, as w h e n it's based on the number of seats, there may still be opportunities to accept extra business at busy times. Some airlines, for example, increase the capacity of their aircraft by slightly reducing legroom throughout the cabin and cramming in another couple of rows. A restaurant may add extra tables and chairs. U p p e r limits to such practices are often set by safety standards or by the capacity of supporting services, such as the kitchen. Another strategy for stretching capacity within a given time frame is to utilize the facilities for longer periods. Examples of this include restaurants that are open for early dinners and late meals, universities that offer evening classes and summer semester programs, and airlines that extend their schedules from 14 to 20 hours a day. Alternatively,

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the average amount of time that customers (or their possessions) spend in the process may be reduced. Sometimes this is achieved by minimizing slack time, as w h e n the bill is presented promptly to a group of diners relaxing at the table after a meal. In other instances, it may be achieved by cutting back the level of service—like offering a simpler menu at busy times of day.

Chasing Demand
Another set of options involves tailoring the overall level of capacity to match variations in demand. This strategy is k n o w n as chase d e m a n d . There are several actions that managers can take to adjust capacity as needed: >- Schedule downtime during periods of low demand. To ensure that 100 percent of capacity is available during peak periods, repairs and renovations should be conducted w h e n demand is expected to be low. Employee holidays should also be taken during such periods (e.g., Cape C o d restaurant owners vacation in Florida during the quiet winter months). >• Use part-time employees. Many organizations hire extra workers during their busiest periods. Examples include postal workers and retail store clerks during the pre-Christmas season, extra staff in tax preparation firms at the end of the financial year, and additional hotel employees during holiday periods and major conventions. >~ Rent or share extra facilities and equipment. To limit investment in fixed assets, a service business may be able to rent extra space or machines at peak times. Firms with complementary demand patterns may enter into formal sharing agreements. >• Cross-train employees. Even w h e n the service delivery system appears to be operating at full capacity, certain physical elements—and their attendant employees—may be under-utilized. If employees can be cross-trained to perform a variety of tasks, they can be shifted to bottleneck points as needed to help increase total system capacity. In supermarkets, for instance, the manager may call on stockers to operate cash registers w h e n checkout queues start to get too long. During slow periods, the cashiers may be asked to help stock shelves. chase demand strategy: adjusting the level of capacity to meet the level of demand at any given time.

Creating Flexible Capacity
Sometimes the problem is not in the overall capacity but in the mix that's available to serve the needs of different market segments. For example, on a given flight, an airline may have too few seats in economy even though there are empty places in the businessclass cabin. A hotel may find itself short of suites w h e n there are standard rooms still available. O n e solution to this problem is to design physical facilities to be flexible. Some hotels build rooms with connecting doors. W i t h the door between two rooms locked, the hotel can sell two bedrooms. W i t h the door unlocked and one of the bedrooms converted into a sitting room, the hotel can n o w offer a suite. T h e Boeing Co. received what were described, tongue-in-cheek, as "outrageous demands" from prospective customers in terms of flexible capacity w h e n it was designing its new 777 airliner. T h e airlines wanted an aircraft in which galleys and lavatories could be relocated, plumbing and all, almost anywhere in the cabin within a matter of hours. Boeing gulped but solved this challenging problem (it was facing stiff competition from Airbus Industrie at the time). Airlines can rearrange the passenger cabin of the "Triple Seven" within hours, reconfiguring it with varying numbers of seats allocated among one, two, or three classes.

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Another good example of highly flexible capacity comes from an eco-tourism operator in the South Island of N e w Zealand. D u r i n g the spring, summer, and early autumn months the firm provides guided walks and treks, and during the snow season it offers cross-country skiing lessons and trips. Bookings all year round are processed through a contracted telephone-answering service. Guides and instructors are employed on a part-time basis as required. T h e firm has negotiated agreements to use national parks, huts, and cabins, and it has an exclusive arrangement with a local sports goods store that allows clients to purchase or rent equipment at reduced rates. As needed, the company can arrange charter bus service for groups. T h e firm has the capacity to provide a wide range of services, yet the owners' capital investment in the business is remarkably low. N o t all unsold productive capacity is wasted. Many firms take a strategic approach to disposition of anticipated surplus capacity, allocating it in advance to build relationships with customers, suppliers, employees, and intermediaries. 3 Possible applications include free trials for prospective customers and for intermediaries w h o sell to end users, customer or employee rewards, and bartering with the firm's o w n suppliers. A m o n g the most widely traded services are advertising space or airtime, airline seats, and hotel rooms.

UNDERSTANDING THE PATTERNS AND DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND
N o w that we've covered capacity-related issues, let's look at the other side of the equation. To control variations in demand for a particular service, managers need to determine the answers to a series of important questions about the patterns of demand and their underlying causes. 4 As you think about some of the seemingly " r a n d o m " causes of fluctuations in demand, consider how rain and cold affect the use of indoor and outdoor recreational or entertainment services. T h e n reflect on h o w heart attacks and births affect the demand for hospital services. Imagine what it's like to be a police officer, firefighter, or

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ambulance driver—you never know exactly where your next call will come from or what the nature of the emergency will be. Finally, think about the impact of natural disasters like earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes, not only on emergency services but also for disaster recovery specialists and insurance firms. R a n d o m fluctuations are usually caused by factors beyond management's c o n trol. W h e r e relevant, it's useful to record weather conditions and other special factors (a strike, an accident, a big convention in town, a price change, launch of a c o m p e t ing service, etc.) that might have influenced demand. Detailed market analysis may sometimes reveal that a predictable d e m a n d c y c l e is concealed within a broader, seemingly random pattern. For example, while a convenience store might experience wide swings in daily patronage, research may indicate that a core group of customers visits every weekday to buy staple items such as newspapers, candy, and lottery tickets. A repair and maintenance shop servicing industrial electrical e q u i p m e n t may already k n o w that a certain proportion of its work consists of regularly scheduled contracts to perform preventive m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e balance may c o m e from " w a l k - i n " business and emergency repairs. W h i l e it might seem hard to predict or control the timing and volume of such work, further analysis could show that walk-in business was m o r e prevalent on some days of the w e e k than others and that e m e r g e n c y repairs were frequently requested following damage sustained during thunderstorms (which t e n d to be seasonal in nature and can often be forecast a day or two in advance).

demand cycles a period of time during which the level of demand for a service will increase and decrease in a somewhat predictable way before repeating itself.

Questions About the Patterns of Demand and Their Underlying Causes'
Do demand levels seem to change randomly? 1. Do demand levels follow a predictable cycle? If so, is the duration of the demand cycle: >• one day (varies by hour) s* one week (varies by day) »- one month (varies by day or by week) >• one year (varies by month or by season; or reflects annual public holidays) »- some other period 2. What are the underlying causes of these cyclical variations? >- employment schedules >- billing and tax payment/refund cycles *- wage and salary payment dates >- school hours and vacations >- seasonal changes in climate 5* occurrence of public or religious holidays »- natural cycles, such as coastal tides If so, could the underlying causes be: >- day-to-day changes in the weather >- health events whose occurrence cannot be pinpointed exactly >> accidents, fires, and certain criminal activities >- natural disasters, from earthquakes to storms to mudslides and volcanic eruptions Can demand for a particular service over time be disaggregated by market segment? If so, do demand patterns reflect: >» use patterns by a particular type of customer or for a particular purpose? >- variations in the net profitability of each completed transaction?

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Analyzing Demand by Market Segment
No strategy for smoothing demand is likely to succeed unless it's based on an understanding of why customers from a specific market segment choose to use the service w h e n they do. For example, it's difficult for hotels to convince business travelers to remain on Saturday nights since few executives do business away from h o m e over the weekend. Instead, many hotels promote weekend use of their facilities for conferences or pleasure travel. Attempts to get commuters to shift their travel to off-peak periods will probably fail too, since such travel is determined by people's employment hours. Instead, efforts should be directed at employers to persuade them to adopt flextime or staggered working hours. Resort areas like Cape C o d may have good opportunities to build business during the "shoulder seasons" of spring and fall (which some consider the most attractive times to visit the Cape) by adapting the mix and focus of services to appeal to new target segments. For example, different attractions could be promoted— like hiking, bird watching, visiting museums, and looking for bargains in antique stores.

Discouraging Demand for Nonemergency Calls'
Have you ever wondered what it's like to be a dispatcher for an emergency service such as 911 in the United States or 999 in Britain? Imagine yourself in the huge communications room at police headquarters in New York City. A gray-haired sergeant is talking patiently by phone to a woman who has dialed 911 because her cat has run up a tree and she's afraid it's stuck there. "Ma'am, have you ever seen a cat skeleton in a tree?" the sergeant asks her. "All those cats get down somehow, don't they?" After the woman has hung up, the sergeant turns to a visitor and shrugs. "These kinds of calls keep pouring in," he says. "What can you do?" The trouble is, when people call the emergency number with complaints about noisy parties next door, pleas to rescue cats, or requests to turn off leaking fire hydrants, there may be slower response times to fires, heart attacks, or violent crimes. At one point, the situation in New York City got so bad that officials were forced to develop a marketing campaign to discourage people from making inappropriate requests for emergency assistance through the 911 telephone number. The problem was that what might seem like an emergency to the caller was not a life- (or property-) threatening situation of the type that the city's emergency services were designed to resolve. So a communications campaign, using a variety of media, was developed to urge people not to call 911 unless they were reporting a dangerous emergency. For help in resolving other problems, they were asked to call their local police station or other city agencies. The ad shown here appeared on New York buses and subways.

SAVE 911 for the real thing
CALL YOUR PRECINCT OR CITY AGENCY WHEN IT'S NOT A DANGEROUS EMERGENCY (noisy party, open hydrant, abandoned car, etc.)
NEW YORK CITY'S DANGEROUS EMERGENCY NUMBER

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Keeping good records of customer transactions helps w h e n it comes to analyzing demand patterns by market segment. Computer-based services can track customer consumption patterns by date and time of day automatically and enter them into a c o m pany's database. For example, Harrah's recently installed magnetic card readers at its slot machines and gaming tables to track casino customers' gambling behavior. Customers are issued Total Gold cards that they swipe through the magnetic readers before gambling to earn reward points that are redeemable at any Harrah's location.This allows the company to collect accurate information about w h e n customers visit its casinos and how much they spend by day, by week, and by trip. If each customer transaction is recorded separately and backed up by detailed notes (as in a medical or dental visit, or an accountant's audit), then the task of analyzing demand by market segment is greatly simplified. In subscription and charge account services, when each customer's identity is known and itemized monthly bills are sent, managers can gain immediate insights into usage patterns. Some services, such as telephone and electrical, even have the ability to track subscriber consumption patterns by time of day. Although this data may not always yield specific information on the purpose for which the service is being used, it is often possible to make informed j u d g ments about the volume of sales generated by different user groups. Sometimes it is in a firm's best interest to discourage demand from certain types of customers—or at least to encourage these customers to use the services at nonpeak times. Some requests for service are inappropriate and make it difficult for the organization to respond to the legitimate needs of its target segments. Discouraging undesirable d e m a n d through marketing campaigns or screening procedures may help keep peak demand levels within the service capacity of the organization.

Multiple Influences on Demand
Periodic cycles influencing demand for a particular service can vary in length from one day to one year. In many instances, multiple cycles may operate simultaneously. For example, demand levels for public transportation may differ by time of day (highest during commute hours), day of week (less travel to work on weekends but more leisure travel), and season of year (more travel by tourists in summer). T h e demand for service during the peak period on a Monday in summer may be different from the level during the peak period on a Saturday in winter, reflecting day-of-week and seasonal variations jointly. Figure 13.2 shows h o w the combination of four time-of-day periods (morning peak, midday, afternoon peak, evening/night), two day-of-week periods (weekday, weekend), and three seasonal periods (peak, shoulder, off-peak) can be combined to create 24 different demand periods. In theory, each of these might have its own distinct

undesirable demand: requests for service that conflict with the organization's mission, priorities, or capabilities.

F I G U R E 13.2
Identifying Variations in Demand by Time Period

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demand level (at a given price) and customer profiles (with resulting differences in needs and expectations). But in practice, analysis might show close similarities between many of the periods. This would make it possible to collapse the framework into a total of three to six cells, each requiring a distinct marketing treatment to optimize the use of available capacity and obtain the most desirable customer mix.

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING DEMAND
Many services, such as health care or repair and maintenance, involve multiple actions delivered sequentially. What this means is that a service organization's capacity to satisfy demand is constrained by one or more elements of its productive capacity—its physical facilities, equipment, personnel, or the n u m b e r and sequence of services provided. Consequently, financial success in capacity-constrained businesses is, in large measure, a function of management's ability to use productive capacity as efficiently and as profitably as possible. Services involving tangible actions to customers or their possessions are more likely to be subject to capacity constraints than are information-based services. In the latter instance, however, similar capacity problems may occur when customers are obliged to come to a service site for delivery, as in live entertainment or traditional retail banking. In a well-designed, well-managed service operation, the capacity of the facility, supporting equipment, and service personnel will be in balance. Sequential operations will be designed to minimize the risk of bottlenecks at any point in the process. This ideal, however, may prove difficult to achieve. T h e level of demand may vary, often randomly, and the time and effort required to process each person or thing may vary widely at any point in the process. In general, processing times for people are more variable than for objects or things, reflecting varying levels of customer preparedness ("I've lost my credit card"), argumentative versus cooperative personalities ("If you won't give me a table with a view, I'll have to ask for your supervisor"), and so forth. But informationprocessing and possession-processing service tasks are not necessarily homogeneous either. For both professional services and repair jobs, service delivery times vary according to the nature of the customers' needs.

Managing Demand Under Different Conditions
There are five basic approaches to managing demand. T h e first, which has the virtue of simplicity but little else, involves taking no action and leaving demand to find its own levels. Eventually customers learn from experience or word-of-mouth w h e n they can expect to stand in line to use the service and w h e n it will be available without delay. T h e problem is that they may also learn about a competitor w h o is more responsive. More strategic approaches attempt to influence the level of demand at any given time by taking active steps to reduce demand in peak periods and increase demand when there is excess capacity..Two additional strategies involve inventorying demand until capacity becomes available. A firm can accomplish this either by introducing a reservations system that promises customers access to capacity at specified times, or by creating formalized queuing systems (or by a combination of the two). Table 13.1 links these five approaches to the two problem situations of excess demand and excess capacity and provides a brief strategic commentary on each. Many service businesses face both situations at different points in their demand cycles and should consider using one or more of the strategies described above.

Using Marketing Strategies to Shape Demand Patterns
Four of the 8Ps play a part in stimulating demand during periods of excess capacity and decreasing it during periods of insufficient capacity. Price is often the first variable companies use to bring demand and supply into balance, but changes in product, distribu-

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Capacity Situation Relative to Demand Approach Used to Manage Demand Take no action Insufficient Capacity (Excess Demand) Unorganized queuing results (may irritate customers and discourage future use) Higher prices will increase profits; communication can encourage usage in other time slots (can this effort be focused on less profitable and desirable segments?) Take no action, unless opportunities exist to stimulate (and give priority to) more profitable segments Excess Capacity (Insufficient Demand) Capacity is wasted (customers may have a disappointing experience for services like theater) Take no action (but see above)

Lower prices selectively (try to avoid cannibalizing existing business; ensure all relevant costs are covered); use communications and variation in products and distribution (but recognize extra costs, if any, and make sure appropriate trade-offs are made between profitability and usage levels) Clarify that space is available and that no reservations are needed

Inventory demand by reservation system

Consider priority system for most desirable segments; make other customers shift to outside peak period or to future peak Consider override for most desirable segments; try to keep waiting customers occupied and comfortable; try to predict wait period accurately

Inventory demand by formalized queuing

Not applicable

tion strategy, and communication efforts can also play an important role. Although we discuss each element separately here, effective d e m a n d m a n a g e m e n t efforts often require changes in two or more elements simultaneously. Price and Other U s e r Outlays O n e of the most direct ways of reducing excess demand at peak periods is to charge customers more m o n e y to use the service during those times. Increases in nonfinancial outlays may have a similar effect. For instance, if customers learn that they are likely to spend more time and physical effort during peak periods, this information may lead those w h o dislike waiting in crowded and unpleasant conditions to try later (or to use an arm's length delivery alternative like the Internet or self-service machines). Similarly, the lure of cheaper prices and an expectation of no waiting may encourage at least some people to change the timing of their consumption behavior. For the monetary price of a service to be effective as a demand management tool, managers must have some sense of the shape and slope of a product's demand curve— that is, how the quantity of service demanded responds to increases or decreases in the price per unit at a particular point in time (Figure 13.3 shows a sample demand curve). It's important to determine w h e t h e r the demand curve for a specific service varies sharply from one time period to another. (For example, will the same person be willing

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FIGURE

13.3

Differing Demand Curves for Business Travelers and Tourists in High and Low Seasons (Hypothetical Hotel Example)

to pay more for a weekend stay in a hotel on Cape C o d in summer than in winter? The answer is probably "y es -") If so, significantly different pricing schemes may be needed to fill capacity in each time period. To complicate matters further, there may be separate demand curves for different segments within each time period (for instance, business travelers are typically less price sensitive than vacationers). O n e of the most difficult tasks facing service marketers is to d e t e r m i n e the nature of all these different demand curves. Research, trial and error, and analysis of parallel situations in other locations or in comparable services are all ways of obtaining an understanding of the situation. Many service businesses explicitly recognize the existence of different d e m a n d curves by establishing distinct classes of service, each priced at levels appropriate to the d e m a n d curve of a particular segment. In essence, each segment receives a variation of the basic p r o d u c t , w i t h value being added to the core service through supplementary services to appeal to higher-paying segments. For instance, first-class service on airlines offers travelers larger seats, free drinks, and better food. In c o m p u t e r and printing service firms, product enhancem e n t takes the f o r m of faster t u r n a r o u n d and m o r e specialized services; and in hotels, a distinction is made between rooms of different size and amenities, and different types of views. T h e Outrigger H o t e l on the Big Island of Hawaii charges prem i u m prices for its ocean view suites and rooms. R o o m s overlooking the hotel gardens and golf course are in the middle of the hotel's pricing tier, while parking lot views c o m m a n d the lowest prices. W h e n capacity is constrained, the goal in a profit-seeking business should be to ensure that as much capacity as possible is utilized by the most profitable segments available at any given time. Airlines, for instance, hold a certain number of seats for business passengers paying full fare and place restrictive conditions on excursion fares for tourists (such as requiring advance purchase and a Saturday night stay) in order to prevent business travelers from taking advantage of cheap fares designed to attract tourists w h o can help fill the aircraft.

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Changing P r o d u c t E l e m e n t s Although pricing is often a commonly advocated method of balancing supply and demand, it is not quite as universally feasible for services as for goods. A rather obvious example is provided by the respective demand problems of a ski manufacturer and a ski slope operator.The manufacturer can either produce for inventory or try to sell skis in the spring and summer at a discount. If the skis are sufficiently discounted, some customers will buy early in order to save money. However, in the absence of skiing opportunities, no skiers would buy lift tickets for use on a midsummer day at any price. So, to encourage summer use of the lifts, the operator has to change the service offering. Similar thinking prevails in a variety of other businesses that undergo significant modifications according to the season. For example, tax preparation firms like H & R Block offer bookkeeping and consulting services to small businesses in slack months. Educational institutions offer weekend and summer programs for adults and senior citizens. Small pleasure boats offer cruises in the summer and a dockside venue for private functions in winter months. And resort hotels sharply alter the mix and focus of their peripheral services like dining, entertainment, and sports to reflect customer preferences in different seasons. All of these firms recognize that no amount of price discounting is likely to develop business out of season.

Summer on the Ski Slopes
Ski resorts traditionally shut down once the snow melted and the slopes became unskiable. The chairlifts stopped operating, the restaurants closed, and the lodges were locked and shuttered until winter approached and the snows fell again. However, some ski operators recognized that mountains offer summer pleasures, too, and started keeping lodging and restaurants open for hikers and picnickers. Some even built Alpine Slides—curving tracks in which wheeled toboggans could run from the summit to the base—to create demand for tickets on the ski lifts. With the construction of new condominiums, demand increased for warm-weather activities as the owners flocked to the mountains in summer and early fail. The arrival of the mountain biking craze in the 1980s created opportunities for equipment rentals as well as chairlift rides. Killington Resort in Vermont has long encouraged summer visitors to ride to the summit, see the view, and eat at the mountaintop restaurant. But now it also enjoys a booming business in renting mountain bikes and related equipment (such as helmets). Beside the base lodge, where in winter skiers would find rack after rack of skis for rent, the summer visitor can now choose from rows of mountain bikes. Bikers transport their vehicles up to the summit on specially equipped lift-chairs, and then ride them down designated trails. Serious hikers reverse the process by climbing to the summit via trails that seek to avoid descending bikes. They get refreshments at the restaurant, and then take the chairlift back down to the base. Once in a while, a biker will actually choose to ride up the mountain, but such gluttons for punishment are few and far between. Most large ski resorts look for a variety of additional ways to attract guests to their hotels and rental homes during the summer. While hikers and mountain bikers come to ride the lifts up the mountain at Mont Tremblant, Quebec, others come to enjoy swimming and water sports on the attractive lake beside the resort. Additional attractions include a championship golf course, tennis, roller-blading, and a children's day camp.

Riding the chairlift up Mont Tremblant to hike and bike rather than ski.

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There can be variations in the product offering even during the course of a 24hour period. Some restaurants provide a good example of this, marking the passage of the hours by changing menus and levels of service, variations in lighting and decor, opening and closing the bar, and the presence or absence of entertainment.The intent is to appeal to different needs within the same group of customers, to reach out to different customer segments, or to do both, according to the time of day. Modifying the Place and T i m e of Delivery Some firms attempt to modify demand for a service by changing the time and place of delivery by choosing one of two basic options.The first strategy involves varying the times when the service is available to reflect changes in customer preference by day of week, by season, and so forth. Theaters and cinema complexes often offer matinees on weekends when people have more leisure time. During the summer, cafes and restaurants may stay open later because of daylight savings time and the general inclination of people to enjoy the longer, warmer evenings outdoors. Retail shops may extend their hours in the pre-Christmas season or during school holiday periods. A second strategy involves offering the service to customers at a new location. O n e approach is to operate mobile units that take the service to customers rather than requiring them to visit fixed-site service locations. Examples include traveling libraries, mobile car wash and windshield repair services, in-ofBce tailoring services, home-delivered meals and catering services, and vans equipped with primary care medical facilities. A cleaning and repair firm that wishes to generate business during low-demand periods might offer free pickup and delivery during these times for portable items that need servicing. Alternatively, service firms whose productive assets are mobile may choose to follow the market when that, too, is mobile. For instance, some car rental firms establish seasonal branch offices in resort communities. In these locations, they will tailor the schedule of service hours (as well as certain product features) to meet local needs and preferences. Customers using information-based services can be offered a cyberspace option, in the form of Internet or telephone-based delivery from a remote server or core center. Networked systems allow firms to transfer demand across time zones to locations where capacity is readily available. P r o m o t i o n and Education C o m m u n i c a t i o n efforts alone may be able to help smooth demand even if the other variables of the marketing mix remain unchanged. Signage, advertising, publicity, and sales messages can be used to educate customers about the timing of peak periods and encourage them to use the service at off-peak times when there will be fewer delays. Examples include requests and incentives to "Mail Early for Christmas," public transportation messages urging noncommuters like shoppers or tourists to avoid the overcrowded conditions of the commute hours, and communications from sales reps for industrial maintenance firms advising customers of time periods when preventive maintenance work can be done quickly. Management can ask service personnel (or intermediaries such as travel agents) to encourage customers with discretionary schedules to favor off-peak periods. Short-term promotions, combining both pricing and communication elements as well as other incentives, may also provide customers with attractive incentives to shift the timing of service usage.

Conclusion
Several of the 8Ps of integrated service management underlie the discussion in this chapter. T h e first is productivity. Since many capacity-constrained service organizations have heavy fixed costs, even modest improvements in capacity utilization can have a significant effect on the b o t t o m line. In this chapter we have explored how managers can transform fixed costs into variable costs through such strategies as using rented facilities

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or part-time labor. Creating a more flexible approach to productive capacity allows a firm to adopt a "chase demand" strategy, thereby improving productivity. Decisions about place, cyberspace, and time are closely associated w i t h balancing demand and capacity. D e m a n d is often a function of where the service is located and when it is offered. As we saw with the opening example of Cape Cod, the appeal of many destinations varies seasonally. Marketing strategies involving the use of price and other user outlays, product elements, and promotion and education are often useful in managing the level of demand for a service at a particular place and time.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. Review each of the services described in the opening story about Cape Cod. Are there any that might attract increased business in nonpeak seasons by changing some part of their marketing mix? If so, what strategies would you suggest to increase off-season demand? 2. W h y is capacity management particularly important in a service setting? 3. What does "inventory" mean for service firms and why is it perishable? 4. What is the difference between maximum capacity and optimal capacity? Provide examples of (a) a situation where the two might be the same, and (b) a situation where they might be different. 5. Select a specific service provider and discuss variations in demand that it experiences relative capacity with reference to Figure 13.1. What is the nature of this service organization's approach to capacity and demand management? What changes would you recommend in relation to its management of capacity and demand and why? 6. What does the term "chasing demand" mean? Describe the actions that firms can take in pursuing a chase demand strategy. 7. Choose a service organization and describe its demand cycles based on the questions about the patterns of demand and their underlying causes described in the boxed material on page 293. 8. Provide examples of service providers in your community (or region) that encourage business during what would otherwise be periods of low demand by (a) changing their pricing, (b) changing product elements, (c) modifying the place and time of service delivery, and (d) using promotional and educational tools.

Managing Customer Waiting Lines and Reservations
Cutting the Wait for Customers in Retail Banking
How should a big retail bank respond to increased competition from new financial service providers? A large bank in Chicago decided that enhancing service to its customers would be an important element in its strategy.1 One opportunity for improvement was to reduce the amount of time that customers spent waiting in line for service in the bank's retail branches—a frequent source of complaints. Recognizing that no single action could resolve the problem satisfactorily, the bank adopted a three-pronged approach. First, technological improvements were made to the service operation, starting with introduction of an electronic queuing system that not only routed customers to the next available teller station but also provided supervisors with online information to help match staffing to customer demand. Meantime, computer enhancements provided tellers with more information about their customers, enabling them to handle more requests without leaving their stations. And new cash machines for tellers saved them from selecting bills and counting them twice (yielding a time savings of 30 seconds for each cash withdrawal transaction). Second, changes were made to human resource strategies. The bank adopted a new job description for teller managers that made them responsible for customer queuing times and expediting transactions. It created an officer-of-the-day program, where a designated officer was equipped with a beeper and assigned to help staff with complicated transactions that might otherwise slow them down. A new job category of peak-time teller was introduced, paying premium wages for 12 to 18 hours of work a week. Existing full-time tellers were given cash incentives and recognition to reward improved productivity on predicted high-volume days. Management also reorganized meal arrangements. On busy days, lunch breaks were reduced to half-hour periods and staff received catered meals; in addition, the bank cafeteria was opened earlier to serve peak-time tellers. A third set of changes centered on customer-oriented improvements to the delivery system. Quick-drop desks were established on busy days to handle deposits and simple requests, while newly created express teller stations were reserved for deposits and check cashing. Lobby hours were expanded from 38 to 56 hours a week, including Sundays. A customer brochure, How to Lose Wait, alerted customers to busy periods and suggested ways of avoiding delays. Subsequently, internal measures and customer surveys showed that the improvements had not only reduced customer wait times but also increased customer perceptions that this bank was "the best" bank in the region for minimal waits in teller lines. Studies also showed that extended lobby hours had transferred some of the "noon rush" customers to before-work and after-work time periods.

O
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to

recognize the different queue designs understand the psychology of waiting lines calculate expected waiting times under defined conditions know the basics of designing an effective reservation system discuss the principles of yield management and the use of segmented reservations strategies to improve profitability

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WAITING TO GET PROCESSED
It's estimated that Americans spend 37 billion hours a year (an average of almost 150 hours per person) waiting in lines, "during which time they fret, fidget, and scowl," according to The Washington Post.2 Similar (or worse) situations seem to prevail around the world. Richard Larson suggests that, w h e n everything is added up, the average person may spend as much as half-an-hour per day waiting in line, which would translate to 20 months of waiting in an 80-year lifetime! 3 Nobody likes to be kept waiting. It's boring, wastes time, and is sometimes physically uncomfortable. And yet waiting for a service process is an almost universal phenomenon. Like the bank in our opening vignette, virtually every organization faces the problem of waiting lines somewhere in its operation. People are kept waiting on the phone, they line up with their supermarket carts to check out their grocery purchases, and they wait for their bills after a restaurant meal. They sit in their cars waiting for traffic lights to change, to enter drive-in car washes, and to pay at tollbooths. Physical and inanimate objects wait for processing, too. E-mails pile up in an executive's in-box, equipment sits on racks waiting to be fixed at a repair shop, checks wait to be cleared at a bank, an incoming phone call waits to be switched to a customer service rep. In each case, a customer is waiting for the outcome of that work. As the previous examples suggest, not all queues take the form of a physical waiting line in a single location. Some queues are geographically dispersed. For example, travelers wait at many different locations for the taxis they have ordered by phone to arrive and pick them up. And some queues are virtual rather than physical. W h e n customers deal with a service supplier at arm's length, as in information-processing services, they interact from home, office, or college using telecommunication channels like voice telephone or the Internet. Calls are typically answered in the order received, often requiring customers to wait their turn in a virtual line. T h e advent of sophisticated Web sites has created additional opportunities for virtual waits. Although companies often promote the time savings that can be obtained, accessing the Web can sometimes be slow due to the virtual queuing that occurs when too many customers try to log on to a company's site or use the same server to go online simultaneously. In an ideal world, nobody would ever have to wait to conduct a transaction at a service organization. But since services are performances, they can't typically be stored for later use during periods of excess demand. For example, a bank teller cannot prepackage a checkcashing transaction for the following day—it must be done in real time. This results in delays in service delivery when too many people want the same service at the same time. As we discussed in Chapter 13, there are a number of ways to balance supply and demand. But what should a manager do when the possibilities for shaping demand and adjusting capacity have been exhausted, and supply and demand are still out of balance? Leaving customers to sort things out themselves is no recipe for service quality or customer satisfaction. R a t h e r than allowing matters to degenerate into a random free-forall, customer-oriented firms implement strategies for ensuring order, predictability, and fairness in their service delivery processes. In businesses w h e r e d e m a n d regularly exceeds supply, managers often try to manage demand in one of two ways: (1) by asking customers to wait in line (queuing), usually on a first-come, first-served basis; or (2) by offering them the opportunity to reserve or book space in advance.

queue: a line of people, vehicles, other physical objects, or intangible items waiting their turn to be served or processed.

The Nature of Queues
Waiting lines—known to operations researchers (and also the British) as "queues" 4 — occur whenever the number of arrivals at a facility exceeds the capacity of the system to process them. Q u e u e s are basically a symptom of unresolved capacity management

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1. The customer population—the population from which demands for service originate (sometimes known to operations researchers as the "calling population") 2. The arrival process—the times and volumes of customer requests for service 3. Balking—a decision by an arriving customer not to join a queue 4. Queue configuration—the design of a system in terms of the number, location, and arrangement of waiting lines 5. Reneging—a decision by a customer already in a queue who has not yet been served to leave the line rather than wait any longer 6. Customer selection policies—formal or ad hoc policies about whom to serve next (also known as queue discipline) 7. The service process—the physical design of the service delivery system, the roles assigned to customers and service personnel, and the flexibility to vary system capacity

T A B L E 14.1
Elements of a Queuing System

problems. T h e analysis and modeling of waiting lines is a well-established branch of operations management. Q u e u i n g theory has been traced back to 1917, w h e n a Danish telephone engineer was given the responsibility of determining how large the switching unit in a telephone system had to be to keep the number of busy signals within reason. Queuing systems can be divided into seven elements, as shown in Table 14.1. Let's take a look at each, recognizing that strategies for managing waiting lines can exercise more control over some elements than others. Customer P o p u l a t i o n W h e n planning queuing systems, operations managers need to know w h o their customers are and something about their needs and expectations. There is a big difference between a badly injured patient arriving at a hospital emergency unit and a sports fan arriving at a stadium ticket office—obviously, the hospital needs to be more geared for speed than the stadium. Based upon customer research, the population can often be divided into several distinct market segments, each with differing needs and priorities. Arrival Process T h e rate at which customers arrive over time relative to the capacity of the serving process, and the extent to which they arrive individually or in clusters, will determine whether or not a queue starts to form. We need to draw a distinction between the average arrival rate (e.g., 60 customers per hour = one customer every minute) and the distribution of those arrivals during any given minute of that hour. In some instances, arrival times are largely random (for instance, individuals entering a store in a shopping mall). At other times, some degree of clustering can be predicted, such as arrivals of students in a cafeteria within a few minutes of classes ending. Managers w h o anticipate surges of activity at specific times can plan their staff allocations around such events (for instance, opening an additional checkout line). Balking If you're like most people, you tend to be put off by a long line at a service facility and may decide to come back later (or go somewhere else) rather than waiting. Sometimes "balking"is a mistake, as the line may actually be moving faster than you think. Managers can disguise the length of lines by having them wind around corners, as often happens at theme parks like Disneyland. Alternatively, they may indicate the expected wait time from specific locations in the queuing area by installing information signs. Queue C o n f i g u r a t i o n There are a variety of different types of queues. Here are some c o m m o n q u e u e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s that you may have experienced yourself in people-processing services (see Figure 14.1 for diagrams of each type). »- Single line, single stage. Customers wait to conduct a single service transaction. Waiting for a bus is an example of this type of queuing system. >- Single line, sequential stages. Customers proceed through several serving operations, as in a cafeteria line. In such systems, bottlenecks will occur at any stage

balking: a decision by a customer not to join a queue because the wait appears too

long.

queue configuration: the way in which a waiting line is organized.

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where the process takes longer to execute than at previous stages. Many cafeterias often have lines at the cash register because the cashier takes longer to calculate how much you owe and to make change than the servers take to put food on your plate (or you take to serve yourself). >» Parallel lines to multiple servers (single or sequential stages). This system offers more than one serving station, allowing customers to select one of several lines in which to wait. Fast-food restaurants usually have several serving lines in operation at busy times of day, with each offering the full menu. A parallel system can have either a single stage or multiple stages. T h e disadvantage of this design is that lines may not move at equal speed. H o w many times have you chosen what looked like the shortest line only to watch in frustration as the lines on either side of you move at twice the speed because someone in your line has a complicated transaction?

FIGURE 14.1
Alternative Queuing Configurations

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5* Designated lines. Different lines can be assigned to specific categories of customer. Examples include express lines (six items or less) and regular lines at supermarket checkouts, and different check-in lines for first-class, business-class, and economy-class airline passengers. >- Single line to multiple servers ("snake"). Customers wait in a single line, often winding back and forth between rope barriers (hence the name). As each person reaches the head of the queue, he or she is directed to the next available serving position. This approach is encountered frequently in bank lobbies, post offices, and at airport check-ins. Its big advantages are fairness and reduced anxiety. T h e presence of ropes or other barriers makes it difficult for inconsiderate people to break into line. It may also discourage customers from leaving the line before being served. >- Take a number. In this variation of the single line, arriving customers take a n u m ber and are then called in sequence, thus eliminating the need to stand in a queue. This procedure allows t h e m to sit down and relax (if seating is available) or to guess how long the wait will be and do something else in the meantime— but risk losing their place. Users of this approach include ice cream parlors like Baskin-Robbins, large travel agents, or supermarket departments, such as the butcher or baker. Some restaurants use a high-tech version of this queuing strategy. For example, customers w h o are waiting for tables at the Olive Garden or Outback Steakhouse are given electronic pagers that are numbered by order of arrival. This provides them with more freedom in occupying themselves (e.g., window shopping if the restaurant is located in a mall with other stores) until their pagers vibrate, signaling that their tables are ready. Hybrid approaches to queue configuration also exist. For instance, a cafeteria with a single serving line might offer two cash register stations at the final stage. Similarly, patients at a small medical clinic might visit a single receptionist for registration, proceed sequentially through multiple channels for testing, diagnosis, and treatment, and conclude by returning to a single line for payment at the receptionist's desk. R e n e g i n g You know the situation—perhaps all too well! T h e line is not that long, but it's moving at a snail's pace. T h e person at the front of the queue has been there for at least five minutes and his problem seems nowhere near resolved. There are two other people ahead of you and you have an uneasy feeling that their transactions are not going to be brief either. You look at your watch for the third time and realize that you only have a few minutes left before your next appointment. Frustrated, you leave the line. In the language of queue management, you have reneged. It's i m p o r t a n t for service providers to determine how long a wait has to be before customers are likely to start reneging, because the consequences may include irritated customers w h o return later as well as business that is permanently lost. Customer S e l e c t i o n P o l i c i e s Most waiting lines work on the principle of first come, first served. Customers tend to expect this—it's only fair, after all. In many cultures (but not all), people get very resentful if they see later arrivals being served ahead of them for no obvious reason. But not all queuing systems are organized on a first-come, first-served basis. Market segmentation is sometimes used to design queuing strategies that set different priorities for different types of customers. Allocation to separate queuing areas may be based on the following: >- Urgency of the job—at many hospital emergency units, a triage nurse is assigned to greet incoming patients and decide which ones require priority medical treatment and which can safely be asked to register and then sit down while they

reneging: a decision by a customer to leave a queue before reaching its end because the wait is longer or more burdensome than originally anticipated.

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wait their turn. Airline personnel will allow passengers -whose flights are due to leave soon to check in ahead of passengers taking later flights. >- Duration of service transaction—banks, supermarkets, and other retail services often provide "express lanes" for shorter, less-complicated tasks. >- Payment of a premium price—airlines usually offer separate check-in lines for firstclass and economy-class passengers, with a higher ratio of personnel to passengers in the first-class line (which results in reduced waits for those w h o have paid more for their tickets). >» Importance of the customer—special processes may be reserved for members of frequent user clubs. National Car Rental provides express pickup and drop-off procedures for its Emerald Club members and promises these customers "no waiting, no paperwork, no hassles." 6 Service Process Poorly designed service processes can lead to waits that are l o n g e r and m o r e b u r d e n s o m e than necessary. T h e root cause is s o m e t i m e s one or m o r e backstage delays, resulting in c u s t o m e r - c o n t a c t employees that are kept waiting for a necessary action to occur somewhere else in the system. Flowcharts, employee interviews, and analysis of past service failures can help pinpoint where such problems might occur. T h e physical design of the front-stage service delivery system also plays a key role in effective queue management. Important design issues include: >- H o w customers are served (batch processes serve customers in groups, while flow processes serve them individually). >- W h e t h e r personnel, self-service equipment, or a combination of the two will serve customers. >- H o w fast service transactions can be executed, thus determining capacity. *- W h e t h e r service comes to customers or whether they must come to the service site and move from one step to another. > - T h e quality of the serving and waiting experiences, including personal comfort and design issues such as impression created by the servicescape.

MINIMIZING THE PERCEIVED LENGTH OF THE WAIT
As we've discussed in earlier chapters, customers may view the time and effort spent on consuming services as a burden. People don't like wasting their time on unproductive activities any more than they like -wasting money. They also prefer to avoid unwanted mental or physical effort, including anxiety or discomfort. Research shows that people often think they have waited longer for a service than they actually did. Studies of p u b lic transportation use, for instance, have shown that travelers perceive time spent waiting for a bus or train as passing one and a half to seven times more slowly than the time actually spent traveling in the vehicle.

The Psychology of Waiting Time
T h e noted philosopher William James observed: "Boredom results from being attentive to the passage of time itself." Based on this observation, David Maister formulated eight principles about waiting time. 8 Adding two additional principles gives us a total often, summarized in Table 14.2.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Unoccupied time feels longer than occupied time. Pre-process and post-process waits feel longer than in-process waits. Anxiety makes waits seem longer. Uncertain waits are longer than known, finite waits. Unexplained waits are longer than explained waits. Unfair waits are longer than equitable waits. The more valuable the service, the longer people will wait. Solo waits feel longer than group waits. Physically uncomfortable waits feel longer than comfortable waits.9 Waits seem longer to new or occasional users than to frequent users.'0

TABLE 14.2
Ten Propositions on the Psychology of Waiting Lines

U n o c c u p i e d T i m e Feels L o n g e r T h a n O c c u p i e d T i m e W h e n you're sitting around with nothing to do, time seems to crawl. Thus many service organizations give customers something to do to distract them while waiting. Doctors and dentists stock their waiting rooms with piles of magazines for people to read while waiting. Car repair facilities may have a television for customers to watch. O n e tire dealer goes further, providing customers with free popcorn, soft drinks, coffee, and ice cream while they wait for their cars to be returned. T h e m e parks supply roving bands of entertainers to amuse customers waiting in line for the most popular attractions. Pre- and P o s t - P r o c e s s Waits Feel L o n g e r T h a n I n - P r o c e s s Waits There's a perceived difference between waiting to buy a ticket to enter a theme park and waiting to ride on a roller coaster once you're in the park. There's also a difference between waiting for coffee to arrive near the end of a restaurant meal and waiting for the server to bring you the check once you're ready to leave. Customers are typically more patient during the core service delivery process than before it starts or after it's completed. Anxiety Makes Waits S e e m L o n g e r Can you remember waiting for someone to show up to meet you and w o r r y i n g about w h e t h e r you had the time a n d / o r the location correct? This makes the perceived waiting time longer, because you are worried about whether you (or the person you're meeting) might have made a mistake.

pre-process wait; a wait before service delivery begins. in-process wait: a wait that occurs during service delivery. post-process wait: a wait that occurs after service delivery has been completed.

Customers must wait in line even at fast-food restaurants, but they can pass the time studying the menu.

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While waiting in unfamiliar locations, especially out-of-doors and after dark, people are often anxious about their personal safety. U n c e r t a i n Waits Are L o n g e r T h a n K n o w n , Finite Waits Although any wait may be frustrating, we can usually adjust mentally to a wait of k n o w n length. It's the u n k n o w n that keeps us on edge. Maybe you've had the experience of waiting for a delayed flight w h e n you haven't been told how long the delay is going to be. This is unsettling, because you don't know whether you have time to get up and walk around the terminal or whether to stay at the gate in case the flight is called any minute. Airlines often try to appease their customers by giving them n e w take-off times for delayed flights (which are usually extended several times before the aircraft actually leaves the gate). U n e x p l a i n e d Waits Are L o n g e r T h a n Explained Waits Have you ever been in a subway or an elevator that has stopped for no apparent reason? N o t only is there uncertainty about the length of the wait, there's added worry about what is going to happen. Has there been an accident on the line? Will you have to exit the subway in the tunnel? Is the elevator broken? Will you be stuck for hours in close proximity with strangers? Unfair Waits Are L o n g e r T h a n Equitable Waits Expectations about what is fair or unfair sometimes vary from one culture or country to another. In America, Canada, or Britain, for example, people expect everybody to wait their turn in line and are likely to get irritated if they see others j u m p i n g ahead or being given priority for no apparent good reason. In some other countries, it is acceptable to push or shove to the front of a line to receive faster service. T h e M o r e Valuable the Service, the L o n g e r P e o p l e Will Wait People will queue overnight under uncomfortable conditions to get good seats at a major concert, movie opening, or sports event that is expected to sell out. S o l o Waits Feel L o n g e r T h a n G r o u p Waits It's reassuring to wait with one or more people you know. Conversation with friends can help to pass the time, and some people are comfortable conversing with strangers while they wait in line. Physically U n c o m f o r t a b l e Waits Feel L o n g e r T h a n C o m f o r t a b l e Waits "My feet are killing me!" is one of the most frequently heard comments w h e n people are forced to stand in line for a long time. And whether sitting or standing, a wait seems more burdensome if the temperature is too hot or too cold, if it's drafty or windy, or if there is no protection from rain or snow. Unfamiliar Waits S e e m L o n g e r T h a n Familiar O n e s Frequent users of a service know what to expect and are less likely to worry while waiting. But new or occasional users of a service are often nervous, wondering about the probable length of the wait and what happens next.They may also be more concerned about such issues as personal safety. W h a t are the implications of these propositions about the psychology of waiting? W h e n increasing capacity is not feasible, managers should look for ways to make waiting more palatable for customers. An experiment at a large bank in Boston found that installing an electronic news display in the lobby didn't reduce the perceived time spent waiting for teller service but it did lead to greater customer satisfaction. 11 Some large hotels now provide these digital news displays in their elevators to make rides less bor-

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ing (in addition to the c o m m o n practice of putting mirrors near the elevators on each floor to shorten the perceived pre-process wait). And the doorman at a Marriott Hotel in Boston has taken it upon himself to bring a combination barometer/thermometer to work each day, hanging it on a pillar at the hotel entrance where guests waiting can spend a moment or two examining it while they wait for a taxi or for their car to be delivered from the valet parking. 1 " Heated shelters equipped with seats make it more pleasant to wait for a bus or a train in cold weather. T h e m e park operators cleverly design their waiting areas to make the wait look shorter than it really is, find ways to give customers in line the impression of constant progress, and make time seem to pass more quickly by keeping customers amused or diverted while they wait. Restaurants solve the waiting problem by inviting dinner guests to have a drink in the bar until their table is ready—an approach that makes money for the house as well as keeping customers occupied. In similar fashion, guests waiting in line for a show at a casino may find themselves queuing in a corridor lined with slot machines.

Giving Customers Information on Waits
Does it help to tell people h o w long they are likely to have to wait for service? Common sense would suggest that this is useful information for customers, since it allows them to make decisions about whether they should wait now or come back later. It also enables them to plan the use of their time while waiting. An experimental study in Canada looked at how students responded to waits while conducting transactions by computer—a situation similar to waiting on the telephone in that there are typically no visual clues as to the probable wait time. T h e study examined dissatisfaction with waits of 5, 10, or 15 minutes under three conditions: (1) the student subjects were told nothing, (2) they were told h o w long the wait was likely to be, or (3) they were told what their place in line was. T h e results suggested that for 5-minute waits, it was not necessary to provide information to improve satisfaction. For waits of 10 or 15 minutes, offering information appeared to improve customers' evaluations of service. However, for longer waits, the researchers suggest that it may be more positive to let people know how their place in line is changing than to let t h e m know how much time remains before they will be served. O n e conclusion we might draw is that people prefer to see (or sense) that the line is moving, rather than to watch the clock. Some companies have adopted this approach to manage the waits that customers encounter w h e n dialing customer service numbers. Recorded messages tell the caller h o w many people are ahead in the queue—these messages are updated continuously until a customer service representative becomes available.

CALCULATING WAIT TIMES
Queue management involves extensive data gathering. Questions of interest include the rate at which customers (or objects requiring service) arrive per unit of time and how long it takes to serve each one. A typical operations strategy is to plan on the basis of average throughput in order to optimize use of employees and equipment. So long as customers (or objects) continue to arrive at the average rate, there will be no delays. However, fluctuations in arrivals (sometimes random, sometimes predictable) will lead to delays at times as the line backs up following a " c l u m p " of arrivals. Planners need to k n o w h o w easily customers will just walk away w h e n they spot a lengthy line (balking) and how long customers will wait for service before giving up and leaving (reneging).

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To streamline its check-in service at Boston's Logan International Airport, a major airline turned to M I T Professor Richard Larson, w h o heads a consulting firm called QED. 1 4 Technicians from Q E D installed pressure-sensitive rubber mats on the floor in front of the ticket counters. Pressure from each customer's foot on approaching or leaving the counter recorded the exact time on an electronic device embedded in the mats. From this data, Larson was able to profile the waiting situation at the airline's counters, including average waiting times, how long each transaction took, how many customers waited longer than a given length of time (and at what hours on what days), and even how many bailed out of a long line.This information, which was collected over a long time period, helped the airline plan its staffing levels to more closely match the demand levels projected at different times.

Analyzing Simple Queuing Systems
Complex mathematical models enable planners and consultants to calculate a variety of statistics about queue behavior and thus make informed decisions about changes or improvements to existing queuing systems. For basic queuing situations, the formulas are quite simple and yield interesting insights (see the boxed material on "Using Formulas to Calculate Statistics for Simple Queues"). More complex environments may require powerful simulation models that are beyond the scope of this book. Given certain information about a particular queuing situation, you can use these formulas to calculate such statistics as: (1) average queue length, (2) average wait times for customers, (3) average total time for customers in the service system, (4) the impact of increasing the number of service channels, and (5) the impact of reducing average serving time. T h e math is easy but requires reference to a one-page statistical table, which we have reproduced as an appendix at the end of the chapter.

Using Formulas to Calculate Statistics for Simple Queues
By using the information provided below and the table in the appendix at the end of this chapter, you will be able to make simple calculations about queue waiting times and how many people are likely to be waiting in a given queue under specified conditions. The formulas are very simple—don't be put off by the use of Greek letters for the notation! Lq = expected length of line (number of people or objects waiting) Wq = Lq/\ = expected waiting time before being served You should note that unless the average number of customers served (p) exceeds the average number of arrivals (A), it would never be possible to serve all the customers desiring service.

Terminology
Certain terms and notation are used in queue analysis: M = number of serving channels A (lambda) = average number of customers actually arriving per unit of time (60 minutes) ft (mu) = average number of customers per channel that can be served per unit of time (60 minutes) p (rho) = k/fi = flow intensity through serving channel (% utilization) U = A/Mn = capacity utilization of the overall facility

Example
Let's take a simple example. Consider the case of a theater ticket office that has one agent (M) who, on average, can serve 25 customers per hour (p). This implies an average serving time of 60/25 = 2.4 minutes per customer. Let's assume that customers arrive at an average rate of 20 per hour (A) in the busy period, which means that p = 20/25 = 0.80. We can now use the table in the appendix to calculate: >- expected length of the line (Lq): Looking down the column for one serving line (M) to p = 0.80, we can see that the line length will average 3.2 persons.

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Information Needs
Service managers require the following types of information in order to develop effective demand management strategies: >- Historical data on the level and composition of demand over time, including responses to changes in price or other marketing variables. >- Forecasts of the level of demand for each major segment under specified conditions. >- Segment-by-segment data to help management evaluate the impact of periodic cycles and random demand fluctuations. >- Sound cost data to enable the organization to distinguish between fixed and variable costs and to determine the relative profitability of incremental unit sales to different segments and at different prices. >» Identification of meaningful variations in the levels and composition of demand on a siteby-site basis in multi-site organizations. >- Customer attitudes toward queuing under various conditions. >- Customer opinions about whether service quality varies with different levels of capacity utilization. Where might all this information come from? Although some new studies may be required, much of the needed data are probably already being collected within the organization—although not necessarily by marketers. A stream of information comes into most service businesses from distilling the multitude of individual transactions recorded on sales receipts and other routine business documents. Most companies also collect detailed information for operational and accounting purposes. Unfortunately, the marketing value of this data is often overlooked, and it is not always stored in ways that permit easy retrieval and analysis for marketing purposes. But customer transaction data can

>• expected waiting time (IV): 3.2 x 60/20 = 9.6 minutes >- expected total time in system (IV + 60//A): 9.6 minutes + 2.4 minutes = 12.0 minutes >• average capacity utilization (U): \/Mp, = 20/(1 x 25) = 80% (In other words, 20 percent of the time, the agent will be idle.) Let's suppose that customers are complaining about this wait and management wants to speed up service. The choices are to add a second agent with a separate single line of customers so that M= 2, or to purchase new equipment that halves the time required to issue a ticket and receive payment. Here are the comparative results: (1) Using the table in the appendix, when M = 2 (indicating the addition of a second agent) and p = 0.80: *- the expected line length (/.) will be only 0.15 persons >> the expected wait (Wq) = LqIk = 0.15 x 60/20 = 0.45 minutes, plus 2.40 minutes for service = 2.85 minutes (down from 12.0 minutes)

(2) However, if we halve the service process time from 2.4 to 1.2 minutes by adding new equipment, we can now serve a maximum of 50 customers per hour per channel and the following results occur: »- the expected line length, when M= 1 and p = 20/50 = 0.4 is 0.27 persons »- the expected wait is 0.27 x 60/20 = 0.81 minutes +1.2 = 2.01 minutes total Both approaches cut the time sharply, but halving the service process time yields slightly better time savings than doubling the number of channels. In this instance, the decision on which approach to adopt would probably depend on the relevant costs involved—the capital cost of adding a second channel plus the wages and benefits paid to a second employee, versus the capital costs of investing in new technology and training (assuming no increase in wages).

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often be reformatted to provide marketers with some of the information they require, including how existing segments have responded to past changes in marketing variables.

RESERVATIONS
Ask someone what services come to mind w h e n you talk about reservations and most likely they will list airlines, hotels, restaurants, car rentals, and theater seats. Suggest synonyms like "bookings" or "appointments" and they may add haircuts, visits to professionals like doctors and consultants, vacation rentals, and service calls to fix anything from a broken refrigerator to a neurotic computer. Reservations are intended to guarantee that service will be available when the customer wants it. Systems vary from a simple appointment book using handwritten entries to a central, computerized data bank for a company's worldwide operations. Reservations systems enable demand to be controlled and smoothed out in a more manageable way. They can also help pre-sell services and provide opportunities to inform and educate customers. A well-organized reservations system allows an organization to deflect demand for service from a first-choice time to earlier or later times, from one class of service to another ("upgrades" and "downgrades"), and even from first-choice locations to alternative ones. Reservations systems are necessary for possession-processing businesses in fields like repair and maintenance. By requiring reservations for routine maintenance, management can ensure that some time will be kept free for handling emergency jobs that generate much higher margins because they carry a premium price. Households with only one car, for example, or factories with a vital piece of equipment often cannot afford to be without such items for more than a day or two and are likely to be willing to pay more for faster service. Reservation systems are also used by many people-processing services including restaurants, hotels, airlines, hair salons, doctors, and dentists. Customers w h o hold reservations should be able to count on avoiding a queue, since they have been guaranteed service at a specific time. However, problems arise w h e n customers fail to show or when service firms over-book. Marketing strategies for dealing with these operational problems include requiring a deposit, canceling nonpaid bookings after a certain time, and providing compensation to victims of over-booking. The challenge in designing reservation systems is to make them fast and user-friendly for both staff and customers. Whether customers talk with a reservations agent or make their own bookings through a company's Web site, they want quick answers to queries about service availability at a preferred time. T h e y also appreciate it if the system is designed to provide further information about the type of service they are reserving. For instance, can a hotel's reservation system assign a certain type of room for a specific date? (For example, can it guarantee a nonsmoking room with a queen-sized bed and a view of the lake, rather than one with two twin beds and a view of the nearby power station?)

Using Reservations Systems to Manage Yield
Service organizations often use percentage of capacity sold as a measure of operational efficiency. Transport services talk of the "load factor" achieved, hotels of their "occupancy rate," and hospitals of their "census." Professional firms calculate what proportion of a partner's or an employee's time can be classified as billable hours, and repair shops can look at utilization of both equipment and labor. By themselves, however, these percentage figures tell us little of the relative profitability of the business attracted, since high utilization rates may be obtained at the expense of heavy discounting—or even outright giveaways. Many service firms prefer to rely on measurements of their yield—that is, the average revenue received per unit of capacity. The goal is to maximize yield in order to improve profitability. As we noted in Chapter 8, pricing strategies designed to achieve this goal are

yield: the average revenue received per unit of capacity offered for sale.

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Getting there is half the fun: Passengers wait to check in at the airport.

widely used in capacity-constrained businesses like passenger airlines, hotels, and car rental agencies. Formalized yield management programs based upon mathematical modeling provide the greatest value to service firms that find it expensive to modify their capacity but incur relatively low costs when they sell another unit of available capacity. 15 Other characteristics encouraging use of such programs include fluctuating demand levels, ability to segment markets by extent of price sensitivity, and sale of services well in advance of usage. Yield analysis forces managers to recognize the o p p o r t u n i t y cost of accepting business from one customer or market segment w h e n another might subsequently yield a higher rate. Consider the following problems facing sales managers for different types of capacity-constrained service organizations: >• Should a hotel accept an advance b o o k i n g for 200 r o o m nights from a tour group at $80 each w h e n these same room nights might be sold later at short notice to business travelers at the full posted rate of $140? >- Should a railroad with 30 empty freight cars accept an immediate request for a shipment worth $900 per car or hold the cars idle for a few more days in the hope of getting a priority shipment that would be twice as profitable? >» H o w many seats on a particular flight should an airline sell in advance at special excursion fares or discounted rates? »- Should an industrial repair and maintenance shop reserve a certain proportion of productive capacity each day for emergency repair jobs that offer a high contribution margin and the potential to build long-term customer loyalty? Or should it simply make sure that there are sufficient jobs—involving mostly routine maintenance—to keep its employees fully occupied? >- Should a print shop process all jobs on a first-come, first-served basis, with a guaranteed delivery time for each job? Alternatively, should it charge a premium rate for "rush" work and tell customers with "standard" jobs to expect some variability in completion dates? Managers w h o make these types of decisions on the basis of guesswork and "gut feel" are little better than gamblers w h o bet on rolls of the dice. They need a systematic

opportunity cost: the potential value of the income or other benefits foregone as a result of choosing one course of action instead of other alternatives.

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way to figure out the chances of getting more profitable business if they wait. T h e decision to accept or reject business should be based on a realistic estimate of the probabilities of obtaining more profitable business in the future and the need to maintain established (and desirable) customer relationships.

Segmenting Capacity for Reservations Purposes
There has to be a clear plan, based on analysis of past performance and current market data, that indicates how much capacity should be allocated on particular dates to different types of customers at certain prices. Based on this plan, "selective sell" targets can be assigned to advertising and sales personnel, reflecting allocation of available capacity among different market segments on specific future dates.The last thing a firm wants its sales force to do is to encourage price-sensitive market segments to buy capacity on dates when sales projections predict that there will be strong demand from customers willing to pay full price. Unfortunately, in some industries the least-profitable customers often book the furthest ahead.Tour groups, which pay much lower room rates than individual travelers, frequently ask airlines and hotels to reserve space more than a year in advance. Figure 14.2 illustrates capacity allocation based on systematic yield analysis in a hotel setting, where demand from different types of customers varies not only by day of the week but also by season. These allocation decisions by segment, captured in reservation databases that are accessible worldwide, tell reservations personnel w h e n to stop accepting reservations at certain prices, even t h o u g h many rooms may still remain unbooked. Charts similar to those presented in Figure 14.2 can be constructed for most capacity-constrained businesses. Advances in software and computing power have made it possible for managers to use sophisticated mathematical models to address complicated yield management issues. In the case of an airline, for example, these models can integrate massive historical databases on past passenger travel with real-time information on current bookings. T h e output helps analysts predict how many passengers would want to travel between two cities at a partic-

Pricing Seats on Flight 2015
American Airlines 2015 is a popular flight from Chicago to Phoenix, departing daily from the "windy city" at 5:30 P.M. The 125 seats in coach (economy class) are divided into seven fare categories, referred to by yield management specialists as "buckets," with round-trip ticket prices ranging from $238 for a bargain excursion fare (with various restrictions and a cancellation penalty attached) to an unrestricted fare of $1404. Seats are also available at a higher price in the small first-class section. Scott McCartney tells how ongoing analysis changes the allocation of seats between each of the seven buckets in economy class: In the weeks before each Chicago-Phoenix flight, American's yield management computers constantly adjust the number of seats in each bucket, taking into account tickets sold, historical ridership patterns, and connecting passengers likely to use the route as one leg of a longer trip. If advance bookings are slim, American adds seats to low-fare buckets. If business customers buy unrestricted fares earlier than expected, the yield management computer takes seats out of the discount buckets and preserves them for last-minute bookings that the database predicts will still show up. With 69 of 125 coach seats already sold four weeks before one recent departure of Flight 2015, American's computer began to limit the number of seats in lower-priced buckets. A week later, it totally shut off sales for the bottom three buckets, priced $300 or less. To a Chicago customer looking for a cheap seat, the flight was "sold out." One day before departure, with 130 passengers booked for the 125-seat flight, American still offered five seats at full fare because its computer database indicated 10 passengers were likely not to show up or take other flights. Flight 2015 departed full and no one was bumped.

FIGURE 14.2
ular fare on a flight leaving at a specified time and date. The boxed example describes how American Airlines uses yield management analysis to set fares for a specific flight. There's evidence that yield management programs can improve revenues significantly—many airlines report increases of 5 percent or more after starting such programs. But a word of warning is in order at this point. Yield management shouldn't mean blind pursuit of short-term yield maximization. Over-dependence on the output of computer models can easily lead to pricing strategies that are full of rules and regulations, cancellation penalties, and a cynical strategy of overbooking without thought for disappointed customers w h o believed they had a firm reservation. To maintain goodwill and build relationships, a company should take a long-term perspective. Managers need to build in pricing strategies for retaining valued customer relationships, even to the extent of not charging the maximum feasible amount on a given transaction. After all, customer perceptions of "price gouging" do not build trust. And as we mentioned in an earlier chapter, firms shouldn't make pricing policies too complex. Jokes abound about travel agents having nervous breakdowns because they get a different quote every time they call the airline for a fare, and because there are so many exclusions, conditions, and special offers. Finally, yield management strategies should include thoughtfully planned contingencies for victims of overbooking, with service recovery efforts designed to restore goodwill when customers have been disappointed. Setting Capacity Allocation Sales Targets over Time

Conclusion
The time-bound nature of services is a critical management issue today, especially since customers are becoming more conscious of their personal time constraints and availability. W h e n demand exceeds capacity, not all customers can be served immediately.

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Waiting lines and reservations are ways of inventorying demand until capacity is available. Advance reservations can shape the timing of arrivals, but sometimes queuing is inevitable. People-processing services are particularly likely to impose the burden of unwanted waiting on their customers, since the latter cannot avoid coming to the "factory" for service. Managers w h o can adopt strategies to save customers time (or at least make time in the queue pass more pleasantly) may be able to create a competitive advantage for their organizations. B o t h q u e u i n g and reservations systems can be designed to segment customers into different groups, according to the nature of their transaction or the desirability of their business. Yield management strategies, under which different customers pay different prices for effectively the same service, depend for their effectiveness on allocating units of capacity for reservations purposes to specific segments or price buckets, based on past experience and forecasts of future sales.

Study Questions and Exercises
1. W h y should service marketers be concerned about the amount of time that customers spend in (a) pre-process waits and (b) in-process waits? 2. Based on your own experience, give examples of reservations systems that worked really well or really poorly for customers. 3. H o w might the principles of yield management be applied to rental car companies? 4. R e v i e w the 10 propositions on the psychology of waiting lines. W h i c h are the most relevant in (a) a supermarket, (b) a city bus stop on a cold, dark evening, (c) check-in for a flight at the airport, (d) a doctor's office, (e) a ticket line for a football game that is expected to be a sell-out? 5. What are the seven elements of a queuing system? W h i c h are under the control of the customer and which does the service provider control? 6. For an organization serving a large number of customers, what do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of queues shown in Figure 14.1? 7. Using the formulas on page 312 and the table in the appendix, calculate answers to the following problems: a. At Frank's office cafeteria, customers select their meals from different food stations and then go to the checkout station to pay. He knows that Maureen, the speedy cashier, can check out a customer every 20 seconds on average. With an arrival rate of 90 customers an hour during the 11 A.M. to 2 P.M. lunch period, what is the average length of the line that Frank can expect at the checkout? H o w many minutes will he have to wait? b. Maureen goes on maternity leave and is replaced by Willy, w h o m Frank times at one customer every 36 seconds. On average, h o w m u c h longer will the line n o w be and h o w long will Frank have to wait? c. In response to complaints about delays at the checkout station, management assigns JoAnn to operate a second cash register during Maureen's absence. Like Willy, J o A n n can process the average customer in 36 seconds. H o w long, on average, will each line now be and how many minutes can Frank expect to wait (in either line)? d. Willy is off sick one day, so J o A n n must work alone. B u t she manages to improve her performance and to process one customer every 30 seconds. On average, how long is the line now? And how long is the wait? 8. What segmentation principles and variables are illustrated in the yield management example from American Airlines?

Throughout this book, we have tried to strike a balance between marketing and two other key functions—operations and human resources. Senior managers need to make sure that these three functions are well integrated at all levels in the organization. The chapters in Part V address this issue by exploring the following questions (see Figure V.1): What are appropriate roles for people and technology? And how can our firm achieve service leadership? Chapter 15 examines employee roles in service organizations. People—one of the 8Ps of integrated service management—play a distinctive role in service organizations. As discussed in earlier chapters, front-stage employees in high-contact organizations are responsible for delivering product elements. They also form part of the customer's overall experience. In these settings, employees are important to both marketing and operational strategies. As managers in high-contact services think about human resources strategy, they should be asking themselves: How do employees' attitudes, appearances, and performances affect our success? Understanding the roles that employees play, particularly in their encounters with customers, is a necessary prerequisite to addressing the question, How should we select, train, and motivate customer contact employees? In low-contact services, customers rarely encounter employees unless they have problems to resolve. In such organizations, marketing's interest lies with the small percentage of employees responsible for solving customer problems, whereas the operational focus is on the backstage aspects of service delivery.

Technology issues have been discussed in many previous chapters. Information technology, in particular, is shaping the way people work, leveraging the efforts of employees and managers, and enabling customers to serve themselves in a wide array of settings. In Chapter 16, we explore the role of technology in modern service businesses by raising the question: Is technology a key strategic thrust in our business or just another operations tool? Of particular concern is the impact of new technologies on both productivity and customer perceptions of service quality. Operations managers are often eager to replace personal service by automated alternatives. But before allowing this to happen, service marketers need to find answers to the question, Do customers have the skills and desire to use self-service options? In Chapter 17, we use the theme of service leadership as a way to explore the mutually dependent responsibilities of marketing, operations, and human resources. Numerous firms aspire to be service leaders, but few attain it. Those that do achieve leadership status in their industry must work constantly to retain it. Many once-revered corporate names have declined in popularity or disappeared altogether. The quest for service leadership begins with two questions: Do we have a coherent vision for the future1?'and, if so, Is this vision defined and driven by a strong, effective leader? Progress in achieving leadership can be measured, in part, by superior performance in the competitive marketplace, including perceptions of the

FIGURE V.l Decisions Involving the Integration of Marketing, Operations, and Human Resources value and quality of the firm's services and achievement of profits (or of broader social objectives in the case of nonprofit organizations). Leadership in marketing is often tied to superior operations and innovative use of technology. But the most difficult achievement for competitors to emulate is leadership in human resources management. Possessing a workforce that is loyal, productive, proactive, and customer-oriented can offer tremendous competitive advantages, both in retaining customers and in attracting prospective employees. A firm that has a reputation as an outstanding place to work will find it that much easier to attract and retain the best candidates. As you'll see, firms that successfully integrate marketing, operations, and human resources management are most likely to reach service leadership status. Achieving leadership is difficult, but sustaining it may be just as hard. A key ingredient is being perceived as an ethical organization. 321

Employee Roles in Service Organizations
USAA Treats Its Employees Right
USAA is an insurance and diversified financial services association that serves members of the U.S. military and their families.1 With seven offices in the United States and two in Europe, it also offers access through mail, toll-free telephone numbers, and the Internet. It was founded in 1922 by 25 army officers who couldn't find adequate auto insurance because most insurers of that era considered military personnel to be poor insurance risks. During a meeting in a San Antonio, Texas, hotel room, the officers formed an association (which they called the United States Army Automobile Association) and pledged to share each other's financial risks. At that time, the group had little knowledge about auto insurance, no funding, and no office. Today, USAA is made up of more than 85 subsidiaries and affiliates worldwide and owns more than $60 billion in assets. It ranks 217th among the largest U.S. corporations in terms of revenues, according to the 2000 Fortune 500 list. USAA's aggressive investment in technology, customer feedback systems, employee training, and quality of work life have all contributed to its reputation for outstanding service quality and a customer retention rate of about 97 percent. The association is loyal to its employees, and in return it expects them to be loyal to their customers. Wilson Cooney, deputy CEO for USAA's Property and Casualty Insurance operations, calls this the "loyalty chain." He states, "If you don't take care of the employees, they can't take care of the customers. We give employees all they need to be happy and absolutely enthralled to be here. If they are not happy, we will not have satisfied customers in the long r u n . . . . We must have a passion for customers. If we don't, we are in the wrong business." USAA has invested more in customer-oriented, state-of-the-art information systems than any other insurance company. These support systems are a vital element in enabling service representatives to deliver fast, accurate results to customers. The result is not only some of the highest customer satisfaction and loyalty levels in the industry but also high job satisfaction among employees. USAA has been listed by Fortune as among the 100 best companies to work for in the United States. It attracts, motivates, and retains exceptional employees with an amazing selection of employee services and benefits. In addition to its retirement, investment, and insurance benefits, USAA also provides its workers with on-site laundry, dry-cleaning services, restaurants, and childcare. "Company stores" sell employees first-quality merchandise at discount prices. There are three fully equipped fitness centers complete with weight rooms, aerobics classes, and personal trainers. USAA has more than 100 company-owned vans to help employees get to work without the hassle and expense of commuting. And there are special events (like the employee art show, the spring fiesta and the Christmas party) that are free to employees throughout the year. The association is also noted for its significant investment in jobrelated education. There are 75 classrooms and a curriculum of more than 200 courses at its corporate headquarters in San Antonio. The training for new account representatives lasts 10 weeks. The association also pays for its employees' college education. All full-time employees who

are on the job more than a year are eligible for full funding. USAA pays the tuition bills directly and will cover one undergraduate degree and one graduate degree per employee. Why is USAA willing to spend more than $2.6 million annually educating its employees? Karen Wolfshohl, manager of college studies, explains: "It has always been our culture that employees are our most important resource. They are the decisive factor in our competitiveness as a financial services provider. An educated work force is our only option given the force of change, especially technology change, in our business."

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand why human resources expenditures should be seen as an investment rather than a cost recognize the strategic importance of recruitment, selection, training, motivation, and retention of employees define what is meant by the "control" and "involvement" models of management describe the benefits and implications of employee empowerment discuss how the culture of a company impacts the service that customers receive

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PART FIVE • INTEGRATING MARKETING, OPERATIONS, AND HUMAN RESOURCES

HUMAN RESOURCES: AN ASSET WORTH MANAGING
Many organizations have used the phrase, "People are our most important asset," yet all too few companies act as though top management really believes it. However, in successful service firms like USAA employees are seen as a resource to be nurtured, rather than a cost to be minimized. Hal Rosenbluth, owner of a chain of successful travel agencies, argues in his book, The Customer Comes Second, that a company's first focus should be on its employees: " O n l y w h e n people know what it feels like to be first in someone else's eyes," he writes, "can they sincerely share that feeling with others." 2 This chapter is the first of two addressing the question in our service decision framework, What are appropriate roles for people and technology! (see Figure V. 1 on page 321). It focuses on a vital element of the 8Ps: People. T h e h u m a n factor in services involves two groups of players: employees and customers. Here we emphasize the task of managing employees, since we've already discussed the need to manage customer behavior in previous chapters.The field is potentially a vast one, since h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t ( H R M ) includes recruitment, selection, training, and retention of employees. B o t h marketing and operations managers need to be aware of h o w employee attitudes, appearances, and performance affect the firm's success.

human resource management (HRM): the coordination of tasks related to job design, employee recruitment, selection, training, and motivation; it also includes planning and administering other employee-related activities.

Human Resource Issues in High-Contact Environments
In Chapter 1, we introduced the notion of integrated service management, which suggests that marketing, operations, and h u m a n resource management should be seen as interdependent functions. Interactions between these three areas are most pronounced in the case of high-contact services, thus creating special challenges in j o b design, recruitment, and training. In high-contact services, customers encounter service employees during service delivery. This contact creates a fundamental distinction between the jobs of front-stage service workers and those w h o work in the back offices of service firms or in manufacturing plants. 3 T h e backstage employees in a service organization support the efforts of their front-stage colleagues (called "internal customers"), w h o are serving endcustomers directly. Almost all of us can recount some horror story of a dreadful experience with a service business—and usually, we love to talk about it! If pressed, many of us can also recount a really good service experience. Service personnel usually feature prominently in such dramas—either in roles as uncaring, incompetent villains or as heroes w h o went out of their way to help, anticipating customer needs or resolving problems in a helpful and empathetic manner. Service people can play a vital role in lower-contact jobs where customers interact with the firm by telephone and an agent's voice is the only form of h u m a n contact. In high-contact service encounters, we tend to r e m e m b e r the role played by front-stage personnel better than any other aspect of the operation. In many respects, these employees are the service. C u s t o m e r - c o n t a c t personnel must attend to b o t h operational and marketing goals, since they are a part of both the delivery system and the product. On the one hand, they help "manufacture" the service output. At the same time, they may also be responsible for marketing it ("We've got some nice desserts to follow your main course" or "We could clean your machine at the same time that we repair the m o t o r " or " N o w would be a good time to open a separate account to save for your children's education"). In the eyes of their customers, service personnel may also be seen as an integral part of the service experience. Thus front-stage employees often perform a triple role as

internal customers: employees who receive services from an internal supplier (another employee or department) as a necessary input to performing their own jobs.

Typical Operations Goals Reduce unit cost of production Trade off control against comparative advantage and cost savings

Common Marketing Concerns Strategies may cause decline in service quality "Make" decisions may result in lower quality and lack of market coverage; "buy" decisions may transfer control to unresponsive suppliers and hurt the firm's image Customers may find location unattractive and inaccessible Consumers may seek variety, prefer customization to match segmented needs Customers may be forced to wait, feel "one of a crowd," be turned off by other customers Customers may be confused, shunted around unnecessarily, find facility unattractive and inconvenient Operationally oriented employees with narrow roles may be unresponsive to customer needs Faster service is not necessarily better service; cost saving may not be passed on as lower prices Service may be unavailable when needed; quality may be compromised during highdemand periods Operational definitions of quality may not reflect customer needs, preferences Customers may be bored and frustrated during wait, see firm as unresponsive

T A B L E 15.1
Operations and Marketing Perspectives

Facilities location Standardization

Reduce costs; provide convenient access for suppliers and employees Keep costs low and quality consistent; simplify operations tasks; recruit low-cost employees Seek economies of scale, consistency, efficient use of capacity Control costs; improve efficiency by ensuring proximity of operationally related tasks; enhance safety and security Minimize error, waste, and fraud; make efficient use of technology; simplify tasks for standardization Apply experience to reduce time and costs per unit of output Keep costs down by avoiding wasteful underutilization of resources Ensure that service execution conforms to predefined standards Optimize use of available capacity by planning for average throughput; maintain customer order, discipline

operations specialist, marketer, and part of the service product itself. T h e y occupy boundary spanning positions—operating at the organization's boundary and providing a link between the external environment and internal operations. This multiplicity of roles may be difficult for employees, especially w h e n they feel as physically and psychologically close to customers as they do to managers and other employees. 4 Table 15.1 highlights some of the conflicts between operations and marketing goals that may trap employees in the middle. Because of the unique challenges that b o u n d a r y - s p a n n i n g situations create, employees in high-contact roles should be recruited and trained on the basis of specific characteristics like interpersonal skills, personal appearance and grooming, knowledge of the product and the operation, selling capabilities, and skills in coproduction (working jointly with customers to create the desired service). Additional attributes that are particularly valuable in selling situations include skills in monitoring nonverbal clues

boundary spanning positions: jobs that straddle the boundary between the external environment, where customers are encountered, and the internal operations of the organization.

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(such as the customer's body language), and adjusting one's behavior in the context of social situations. Both technical and interpersonal skills are necessary but neither alone is sufficient for optimal j o b performance. 5

Emotional Labor
Service encounters entail more than just correct technical execution of a task. They also involve such human elements as personal demeanor, courtesy, and empathy. This brings us to the concept of e m o t i o n a l labor (or emotion work), which is the act of expressing socially appropriate (but sometimes false) emotions during service transactions. 6 Some jobs require service workers to act in a friendly fashion toward customers or to appear compassionate, sincere, or even self-effacing. Trying to conform to customer expectations on such dimensions can be a psychological burden for some service workers when they perceive themselves as having to act out emotions they do not feel. Customer-contact employees comply with these "display rules" through both acting and the expression of spontaneous and genuine emotion. 7 Display rules generally reflect the n o r m s imposed b o t h by society—which may vary from o n e culture to a n o t h e r — a n d by specific occupations and organizations. For instance, customers' expectations for nurses are different from those for bill collectors. Expectations may also reflect the nature of a particular encounter (for example, what emotions would you expect a waiter to display if you discovered a fly in your soup?). Acting requires employees to simulate emotions that they do not actually feel, accomplished by careful presentation of verbal and nonverbal cues, such as facial expression, gestures, and voice tone. Some employees are natural actors, and those w h o are not can typically be coached to improve their acting skills. U n d e r certain conditions, service providers may spontaneously experience the expected emotion without any need for acting—as when a firefighter feels sympathy for an injured child taken from a burning building. H u m a n resources ( H R ) managers need to be aware that performing emotional labor, day after day, can be stressful for employees as they strive to display feelings that may be false. From a marketing standpoint, however, failure to display the emotions that customers expect can be damaging and may lead to complaints that "employees don't seem to care." T h e challenge for HR managers is to determine what customers expect, recruit the most suitable employees, and train them well.

JOB DESIGN AND RECRUITMENT
Many of the most demanding jobs in service businesses are boundary-spanning positions where employees are expected to be fast and efficient at executing operational tasks as well as courteous and helpful in dealing "with customers. Service encounters are potentially "a three-cornered fight," with the customer (demanding attention and service quality) and the organization (demanding efficiency and productivity) at the two ends and frontline personnel caught in the middle.This creates tension as employees are torn between satisfying management and customers, and between meeting productivity and quality goals. If jobs are not designed carefully—or the wrong people are picked to fill them—there's a significant risk that employees may become stressed and eventually experience burnout, causing them to be unproductive. 8 T h e nature of work varies enormously in the service sector. It may also differ between one company and another depending on the goals, culture, and values of each organization. Service jobs should be designed with reference to the skills required, the degree of discretion allowed to jobholders, the context within which individuals will be working—alone or with a team, for instance—and the extent of contact w i t h customers. Job requirements often change as a company evolves, n e w technologies are implemented, and different ways of working are introduced.