Chinese Cultural Studies:Marco
Polo [1254-1324]: Travels in China

Marco Polo [1254-1324], the most famous of medieval European
travelers. returned to Venice, his hometown, in 1295 after an absence of twenty-five years
in the East. He claimed to have spent seventeen years in the service of Kublai Khan, ruler
of the Mongols and of the largest empire in the world. He had many stories to tell. These
stories were eventually written down by Rustichiello of Pisa, who heard them while sharing
a Genoese prison with Polo, sometimes after 1298.

His account of China inspired other Europeans, including Columbus, to both interest and
greed The is some dispute as to the reliability of the Travels of Marco Polo. Several
authorities, including Frances Wood of the British Museum, point out that Polo uses
Persian words to describe Chinese sights, omits descriptions of phenomena which would have
been hard to miss [for instance footbinding or even the Great Wall], and gives an account
of his own career under Kublai Khan which go beyond belief. Wood suggests that many of the
stories may have been picked up from Persian merchants in caravan stops.

This does not mean that all the information is useless, but much
could be replicated from Chinese sources - with China we are dealing with a country whose
rulers almost obsessively recorded everything and where the unbroken historiographical
tradition is the longest on record. The real importance of the text is what it says about
Europe. Here we see the beginnings of an effort to collect information on other parts of
the world - however inaccurate to begin with - and a clear interest in the wealth that
might be found and made there. This tradition of collecting information was to continue.
When European society began to overtake other world cultures in technological, industrial
and military strength, it was also equipped with a much greater amount of knowledge about
the world. Imperialism and orientalism may have been born together.

Serious questions have always been raised about the authenticity of the text. Most
recently Frances Wood, head of Chinese language materials at the British Library, has
pointed out that much of Polo's vocabulary is Persian rather than Chinese, and suggested
that he got only as far as Persia. Others have noted that he omits descriptions of certain
aspects of Chinese life which would seem unmissable - the Great Wall for instance, or the
custom of foot-binding [which was well established by the 13th century].

Here are excerpts: His account of the Tartar people (i.e. the Mongols) and his the
account in the book of Hangchow, called "Kinsay". Although Kublai Khan's capital
was in the north, at the city later called Beijing, Hanchow had served as the capital of
the Southern Song dynasty until 1279 and was a major cultural and political center.

The Tartars

Chapter 44

Of the origin of the kingdom of the Tartars--of the quarter from whence they
came--and of their former subjection to Un-khan, a prince of the north, called also
Prester John.

The circumstances under which these Tartars first began to exercise dominion shall now
be related. They dwelt in the northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, but without fixed
habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where there were extensive
plains, good pasture, large rivers, and plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their
own, and were tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed) was named in
their language, Un-khan, by some thought to have the same signification as Prester John in
ours. To him these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of the increase of their cattle. In
time the tribe multiplied so exceedingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester John,
becoming apprehensive of their strength, conceived the plan of separating them into
different bodies, who should take up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With this
view also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a rebellion in any of the
provinces subject to him, he drafted three or four hundred of these people, to be employed
on the service of quelling it, and thus their power was gradually diminished. He likewise
despatched them on other expeditions, and sent among them some of his principal officers
to see that his intentions were carried into effect. At length the Tartars, becoming
sensible of the slavery to which he tried to reduce them, resolved to maintain a strict
union amongst themselves, and seeing that he planned nothing short of their final ruin,
they adopted the measure of leavingthe places they then inhabited, and proceeded north
across a wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded them security,
when they refused any longer to pay to Un-khan the accustomed tribute.

Chapter 45

Concerning Chingis-khan, first emperor of the Tartars, and his warfare with Un-khan,
whom he overthrew, and of whose kingdom he possessed himself.

Some time after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and about the year of our
Lord 1162, they proceeded to elect for their king a man named Chingis-khan, one of
approved integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his valor. He
began his reign with so much justice and moderation, that he was beloved and revered as
their deity rather than their sovereign; and as the fame of his great and good qualities
spread over that part of the world, all the Tartars, however dispersed, placed themselves
under his command. Finding himself thus at the head of so many brave men, he became
ambitious of emerging from the deserts and wildernesses by which he was surrounded, and
gave them orders to equip themselves with bows, and other weapons they were expert at
using from the habits of their pastoral life. He then made himself master of cities and
provinces, and such was the effect produced by his character for justice and other
virtues, that wherever he went, he found the people disposed to submit to him, and to
esteem themselves happy when admitted to his protection and favor. In this manner he
acquired the possession of about nine provinces. Nor is his success surprising, when we
consider that at this period each town and district was either governed by the people
themselves or had its petty king or lord; and as there was no general confederacy, it was
impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a power. Upon the subjugation of
these places, he appointed governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct that
the inhabitants did not suffer either in their persons or their properties. He likewise
adopted the policy of taking along with him, into other provinces, the principal people,
on whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. Seeing how prosperously his enterprises
succeeded, he resolved on attempting still greater things. With this view he sent
ambassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message, which he knew at the same
time would not be listened to by that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. Upon
receiving the application, the monarch indignantly exclaimed: "Whence arises this
presumption in Chingis-khan, who, knowing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the
hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, "and let him know from me, that
upon the repetition of such a demand, I shall put him to an ignominious death."
Enraged at this reply, Chingis-khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he
entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a great plain called Tenduk, sent
a message desiring him to defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with a
vast army, and took his position at the distance of about ten miles from the other. In
this conjuncture Chingis-khan commanded his astrologers and magicians to declare to him
which of the two armies in the approaching conflict should obtain the victory. Upon this
they took a green reed, and dividing it lengthways into two parts, they wrote upon one the
name of their master, and upon the other the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the
ground, at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the king that during the time
of their pronouncing their incantations, the two pieces of reed, through the power of
their idols, would advance towards each other, and that the victory would fall to the lot
of that monarch whose piece should be seen to mount upon the other. The whole army was
assembled to be spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were employed in
reading their books of necromancy, they perceived the two pieces begin to move and to
approach, and after a short time, the one inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan placed
itself on top of its adversary. Upon witnessing this, the king and his band of Tartars
marched with exultation to the attack of the army of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and
entirely routed it. Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror, and
Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After this battle he continued during six years to
render himself master of additional kingdoms and cities; until at length, in the siege of
a castle named Thaigin, he was struck by an arrow in the knee, died of the wound, and was
buried in the mountain of Altai.

Chapter 46

Of six successive emperors of the Tartars, and of the ceremonies that take place
when they are carried for interment to the mountain of Altai.

To Chingis-khan succeeded Cyhn-khan; the third was Bathyn-khan, the fourth Esu-khan,
the fifth Mongu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan, who became greater and more powerful than all
the others, inasmuch as he inherited what his predecessors possessed, and afterwards,
during a reign of nearly sixty years, acquired, it may be said, the remainder of the
world. The title of khan, or kaan, is equivalent to emperor in our language. It has been
an invariable custom that all the grand khans and chiefs of the race of Chingis-khan
should be carried for interment to a certain lofty mountain named Altai, and in whatever
place they may happen to die, even if it should be at the distance of a hundred days'
journey, they are nevertheless conveyed there. It is likewise the custom, during the
progress of removing the bodies of these princes, for those who form the escort to
sacrifice such persons as they chance to meet on the road, saying to them, "Depart
for the next world, and there attend upon your deceased master," believing that all
they kill do actually become his servants in the next life. They do the same also with
respect to horses, killing the best of the stud, in order that he may have the use of
them. When the corpse of Mongu was transported to this mountain, the horsemen who
accompanied it, having this blind and horrible persuasion, slew upwards of twenty thousand
persons who fell in their way.

Chapter 47

Of the wandering life of the Tartars--of their domestic manners, their food, and the
virtue and useful qualities of their women.

Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell you more about them. The
Tartars never remain fixed, but as the winter approaches remove to the plains of a warmer
region, to find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and in summer they frequent cold
areas in the mountains, where there is water and verdure, and their cattle are free from
the annoyance of horse- flies and other biting insects. During two or three months they go
progressively higher and seek fresh pasture, the grass not being adequate in any one place
to feed the multitudes of which their herds and flocks consist. Their huts or tents are
formed of rods covered with felt, exactly round, and nicely put together, so they can
gather them into one bundle, and make them up as packages, which they carry along with
them in their migrations upon a sort of car with four wheels. When they have occasion to
set them up again, they always make the entrance front to the south. Besides these cars
they have a superior kind of vehicle upon two wheels, also covered with black felt so well
that they protect those within it from wet during a whole day of rain. These are drawn by
oxen and camels, and convey their wives and children, their utensils, and whatever
provisions they require. The women attend to their trading concerns, buy and sell, and
provide everything necessary for their husbands and their families; the time of the men is
devoted entirely to hunting, hawking, and matters that relate to the military life. They
have the best falcons in the world, and also the best dogs. They live entirely upon flesh
and milk, eating the produce of their sport, and a certain small animal, not unlike a
rabbit, called by our people Pharaoh's mice, which during the summer season are found in
great abundance in the plains. They eat flesh of every description, horses, camels, and
even dogs, provided they are fat. They drink mares' milk, which they prepare in such a
manner that it has the qualities and flavor of white wine. They term it in their language
kemurs. Their women are not excelled in the world for chastity and decency. Of conduct,
nor for love and duty to their husbands. Infidelity to the marriage bed is regarded by
them as a vice not merely dishonorable, but of the most infamous nature; while on the
other hand it is admirable to observe the loyalty of the husbands towards their wives,
amongst whom, although there are perhaps ten or twenty, there prevails a highly laudable
degree of quiet and union. No offensive language is ever heard, their attention being
fully occupied with their traffic (as already mentioned) and their several domestic
employments, such as the provision of necessary food for the family, the management of the
servants, and the care of the children, a common concern. And the virtues of modesty and
chastity in the wives are more praiseworthy because the men are allowed the indulgence of
taking as many as they choose. Their expense to the husband is not great, and on the other
hand the benefit he derives from their trading, and from the occupations in which they are
constantly engaged, is considerable; on which account when he receives a young woman in
marriage, he pays a dower to her parent. The wife who is the first espoused has the
privilege of superior attention, and is held to be the most legitimate, which extends also
to the children borne by her. In consequence of this unlimited number of wives, the
offspring is more numerous than amongst any other people. Upon the death of the father,
the son may take to himself the wives he leaves behind, with the exception of his own
mother. They cannot take their sisters to wife, but upon the death of their brothers they
can marry their sisters-in-law. Every marriage is solemnized with great ceremony.

Description of Kinsay

Description of the Great City of Kinsay, which is the Capital of the Whole Country of
Manzi

[Notes: 1. Kinsay is the modern Hangchow 2. Manzi
comprised the greater part of China, being all the territory south of the Hwang-Ho (the
Yellow River} in the East and the province of Shensi in the West.]

When you have left the city of Changan and have travelled for three days
through a splendid country, passing a number of towns and villages, you arrive at the most
noble city of Kinsay, a name which is as much as to say in our tongue "The City of
Heaven," as I told you before.

And since we have got thither I will enter into particulars about its magnificence; and
these are well worth the telling, for the city is beyond dispute the finest and the
noblest in the world. In this we shall speak according to the written statement which the
Queen of this Realm sent to Bayan the conqueror of the country for transmission to the
Great Kaan, in order that he might be aware of the surpassing grandeur of the city and
might be moved to save it from destruction or injury. I will tell you all the truth as it
was set down in that document. For truth it was, as the said Messer Marco Polo at a later
date was able to witness with his own eyes. And now we shall rehearse those particulars.

First and foremost, then, the document stated the city of Kinsay to be so great that it
hath an hundred miles of compass. [note: probably a hundred Chinese li, about
4/10ths of a mile] And there are in it twelve thousand bridges of stone, for the most
part so lofty that a great fleet could pass beneath them. And let no man marvel that there
are so many bridges, for you see the whole city stands as it were in the water and
surrounded by water, so that a great many bridges are required to give free passage about
it. And though the bridges be so high the approaches are so well contrived that carts and
horses do cross them.

The document aforesaid also went on to state that there were in this city twelve guilds
of the different crafts, and that each guild had 12,000 houses in the occupation of its
workmen. Each of these houses contains at least 12 men, whilst some contain 20 and some
40, - not that these are all masters, but inclusive of the journeymen who work under the
masters. And yet all these craftsmen had full occupation, for many other cities of the
kingdom are supplied from this city with what they require.

The document aforesaid also stated that the number and wealth of the merchants, and the
amount of goods that passed through their hands, were so enormous that no man could form a
just estimate thereof. And I should have told you with regard to those masters of the
different crafts who are at the head of such houses as I have mentioned, that neither they
nor their wives ever touch a piece of work with their own hands, but live as nicely and
delicately as if they were kings and queens. The wives indeed are most dainty and
angelical creatures! Moreover it was an ordinance laid down by the King that every man
should follow his fatber's business and no other, no matter if he possessed 100,000
bezants [note: a Byzantine coin, often used as a standard coinage].

Inside the city there is a Lake which has a compass of some 30 miles [note: probably
30 li] and all round it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and
most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There
are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the Idolaters. In the middle of the
Lake are two Islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful and spacious edifice,
furnished in such style as to seem fit for the palace of an Emperor. And when any one of
the citizens desired to hold a marriage feast, or to give any other entertainment, it used
to be done at one of these palaces. And everything would be found there ready to order,
such as silver plate, trenchers, and dishes, napkins and table-cloths, and whatever else
was needful. The King made this provision for the gratification of his people, and the
place was open to every one who desired to give an entertainment. Sometimes there would be
at these palaces an hundred different parties; some holding a banquet, others celebrating
a wedding; and yet all would find good accommodation in the different apartments and
pavilions, and that in so well ordered a manner that one party was never in the way of
another.

The houses of the city are provided with lofty towers of stone in which articles of
value are stored for fear of fire; for most of the houses themselves are of timber, and
fires are very frequent in the city.

The people are Idolaters; and since they were conquered by the Great Kaan they use
paper-money. Both men and women are fair and comely, and for the most part clothe
themselves in silk, so vast is the supply of that material, both from the whole district
of Kinsay, and from the imports by traders from other provinces. And you must know they
eat every kind of flesh, even that of dogs and other unclean beasts, which nothing would
induce a Christian to eat.

Since the Great Kaan occupied the city he has ordained that each of the 12,000 bridges
should be provided with a guard of ten men, in case of any disturbance, or of any being so
rash as to plot treason or insurrection against him. Each guard is provided with a hollow
instrument of wood and with a metal basin, and with a time-keeper to enable them to know
the hour of the day or night. And so when one hour of the night is past the sentry strikes
one on the wooden instrument and on the basin, so that the whole quarter of the city is
made aware that one hour of the night is gone. At the second hour he gives two strokes,
and so on, keeping always wide awake and on the look out. In the morning again, from the
sunrise, they begin to count anew, and strike one hour as they did in the night, and so on
hour after hour.

Part of the watch patrols the quarter, to see if any light or fire is burning after the
lawful hours; if they find any they mark the door, and in the morning the owner is
summoned before the magistrates, and unless he can plead a good excuse he is punished.
Also if they find any one going about the streets at unlawful hours they arrest him, and
in the morning they bring him before the magistrates. Likewise if in the daytime they find
any poor cripple unable to work for his livelihood, they take him to one of the hospitals,
of which there are many, founded by the ancient kings, and endowed with great revenues. Or
if he be capable of work they oblige him to take up some trade. If they see that any house
has caught fire they immediately beat upon that wooden instrument to give the alarm, and
this brings together the watchmen from the other bridges to help to extinguish it, and to
save the goods of the merchants or others, either by removing them to the towers above
mentioned, or by putting them in boats and transporting them to the islands in the lake.
For no citizen dares leave his house at night, or to come near the fire; only those who
own the property, and those watchmen who flock to help, of whom there shall come one or
two thousand at the least.

Moreover, within the city there is an eminence on which stands a Tower, and at the top
of the tower is hung a slab of wood. Whenever fire or any other alarm breaks out in the
city a man who stands there with a mallet in his hand beats upon the slab, making a noise
that is heard to a great distance. So when the blows upon this slab are heard, everybody
is aware that fire has broken out, or that there is some other cause of alarm.

The Kaan watches this city with especial diligence because it forms the head of all
Manzi-, and because he has an immense revenue from the duties levied on the transactions
of trade therein, the amount of which is such that no one would credit it on mere hearsay.

All the streets of the city are paved with stone or brick, as indeed are all the
highways throughout Manzi, so that you ride and travel in every direction without
inconvenience. Were it not for this pavement you could not do so, for the country is very
low and flat, and after rain 'tis deep in mire and water. But as the Great Kaan's couriers
could not gallop their horses over the pavement, the side of the road is left unpaved for
their convenience. The pavement of the main street of the city also is laid out in two
parallel ways of ten paces in width on either side, leaving a space in the middle laid
with fine gravel, under which are vaulted drains which convey the rain water into the
canals; and thus the road is kept ever dry.

You must know also that the city of Kinsay has some 3000 baths, the water of which is
supplied by springs. They are hot baths, and the people take great delight in them,
frequenting them several times a month, for they are very cleanly in their persons. They
are the finest and largest baths in the world; large enough for ioo persons to bathe
together.

And the Ocean Sea comes within 25 miles of the city at a place called Ganfu, where
there is a town [note: since covered by the sea, which is much closer] and an
excellent haven, with a vast amount of shipping which is engaged in the traffic to and
from India and other foreign parts, exporting and importing many kinds of wares, by which
the city benefits. And a great river [the Ts'ien T'ang] flows from the city of
Kinsay to that sea-haven, by which vessels can come up to the city itself. I This river
extends also to other places further inland.

Know also that the Great Kaan hath distributed the territory of Manzi into nine parts,
which he hath constituted into nine kingdoms. To each of these kingdoms a king is
appointed who is subordinate to the Great Kaan, and every year renders the accounts of his
kingdom to the fiscal office at the capital. This city of Kinsay is the seat of one of
these kings, who rules over 140 great and wealthy cities. For in the whole of this vast
country of Manzi there are more than 1200 great and wealthy cities, without counting the
towns and villages, which are in great numbers. And you may receive it for certain that in
each of those 1200 cities the Great Kaan has a garrison, and that the smallest of such
garrisons musters 1000 men; whilst there are some of 10,000, 20,000, and 30,000; so that
the total number of troops is something scarcely calculable. The troops forming these
garrisons are not all Tartars. Many are from the province of Cathay, [note: Cathay
means China north of the Hwang-ho] and good soldiers too. But you must not suppose
they are by any means all of them cavalry; a very large proportion of them are
foot-soldiers, according to the special requirements of each city. And all of them belong
to the army of the Great Kaan.

I repeat that everything appertaining to this city is on so vast a scale, and the Great
Kaan's yearly revenues therefrom are so immense, that it is not easy even to put it in
writing, and it seems past belief to one who merely hears it told. But I will write it
down for you.

First, however, I must mention another thing. The people of this country have a custom,
that as soon as a child is born they write down the day and hour and the planet and sign
under which its birth has taken place; so that every one among them knows the day of his
birth. And when any one intends a journey he goes to the astrologers, and gives the
particulars of his nativity in order to learn whether he shall have good luck or no.
Sometimes they will say no, and in that case the journev is put off till such day as the
astrologer may recommend. These astrologers are very skillful at their business, and
of-ten their words come to pass, so the people have great faith in them.

They burn the bodies of the dead. And when any one dies the friends and relations make
a great mourning for the deceased, and clothe themselves in hempen garments, and follow
the corpse playing on a variety of instruments and singing hymns to their idols. And when
they come to the burning place, they take representations of things cut out of parchment,
such as caparisoned horses, male and female slaves, camels, armour, suits of cloth of gold
(an money), in great quantities, and these things they put on the fire along with the
corpse, so that they are all burnt with it. And they tell you that the dead man shall have
all these slaves and animals of which the effigies are burnt, alive in flesh and blood,
and the money in gold, at his disposal in the next world; and that the instruments which
they have caused to be played at his funeral, and the idol hvmns that have been chaunted,
shall also be produced again to welcome him in the next world; and that the idols
themselves will come to do him honour.

Furthermore there exists in this city the palace of the king who fled, him who was
Emperor of Manzi [the Emperor Tu-Tsong], and that is the greatest palace in the
world, as I shall tell you more particularly. For you must know its demesne hath a compass
of ten miles, all enclosed with lofty battlemented walls; and inside the walls are the
finest and most delectable gardens upon earth, and filled too with the finest fruits.
There are numerous fountains in it also, and lakes full of fish. In the middle is the
palace itself, a great and splendid building. It contains 20 great and handsome halls, one
of which is more spacious than the rest, and affords room for a vast multitude to dine. It
is all painted in gold, with many histories and representations of beasts and birds, of
knights and dames, and many marvellous things. It forms a really magnificent spectacle,
for over all the walls and all the ceiling you see nothing but paintings in gold. And
besides these halls the palace contains 1000 large and handsome chambers, all painted in
gold and divers colours.

Moreover, I must tell you that in this citv there are 160 tomans of fires, or in
other words 160 tomans of houses. Now I should tell you that the toman is
10,000, so that you can reckon the total as altogether 1,600,000 houses, among which are a
great number of rich palaces. There is one church only, belonging to the Nestorian
Christians.

There is another thing I must tell you. It is the custom for every burgess of this
city, and in fact for every description of person in it, to write over his door his own
name, the name of his wife, and those of his children, his slaves, and all the inmates of
his house, and also the number of animals that he keeps. And if any one dies in the house
then the name of that person is erased, and if any child is born its name is added. So in
this way the sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the city. And this is the
practice also throughout all Manzi and Cathay.

And I must tell vou that every hosteler who keeps an hostel for travellers is bound to
register their names and surnames, as well as the day and month of their arrival and
departure. And thus the sovereign hath the means of knowing, whenever it pleases him, who
come and go throughout his dominions. And certes this is a wise order and a provident.

Further Particulars Concerning the Great City of Kinsay

The position of the city is such that it has on one side a lake of fresh and
exquisitely clear water (already spoken of), and on the other a very large river. The
waters of the latter fill a number of canals of all sizes which run through the different
quarters of the city, carry away all impurities, and then enter the Lake; whence they
issue again and flow to the Ocean, thus producing a most excellent atmosphere. By means of
these channels, as well as by the streets, you can go all about the city. Both streets and
canals are so wide and spacious that carts on the one and boats on the other can readilv
pass to and fro, conveying necessary supplies to the inhabitants.

At the opposite side the city is shut in by a channel, perhaps 40 miles in length, very
wide, and full of water derived from the river aforesaid, which was made by the ancient
kings of the country in order to relieve the river when flooding its banks. This serves
also as a defence to the city, and the earth dug from it has been thrown inwards, forming
a kind of mound enclosing the city.

In this part are the ten principal markets, though besides these there are a vast
number of others in the different parts of the town. The former are all squares of half a
mile to the side, and along their front passes the main street, which is 40 paces in
width, and runs straight from end to end of the city, crossing many bridges of easy and
commodious approach. At every four miles of its length comes one of those great squares of
2 Miles (as we have mentioned) in compass. So also parallel to this great street, but at
the back of the market places, there runs a very large canal, on the bank of which towards
the squares are built great houses of stone, in which the merchants from India and other
foreign parts store their wares, to be handy for the markets. In each of the squares is
held a market three days in the week, frequented by 40,000 or 50,000 persons, who bring
thither for sale every possible necessary of life, so that there is always an ample supply
of every kind of meat and game, as of roebuck, red-deer, fallow-deer, hares, rabbits,
partridges, pheasants, francolins, quails, fowls, capons, and of duck and geese an
infinite quantity; for so many are bred on the Lake that for a Venice groat of silver you
can have a couple of geese and two couple of ducks. Then there are the shambles where the
larger animals are slaughtered, such as calves, beeves, kids, and lambs, the flesh of
which is eaten bv the rich and the great dignitaries.

Those markets make a daily display of every kind of vegetables and fruits; and among
the latter there are in particular certain pears of enormous size, weighing as much as ten
pounds apiece, and the pulp of which is white and fragrant like a confection; besides
peaches in their season both yellow and white, of every delicate Ravour.

Neither grapes nor wine are produced there, but very good raisins are brought from
abroad, and wine likewise. The natives, however, do not much care about wine, being used
to that kind of their own made from rice and spices. From the Ocean Sea also come daily
supplies of fish in great quantity, brought 25 miles up the river, and there is also great
store of fish from the lake, which is the constant resort of fishermen, who have no other
business. Their fish is of sundry kinds, changing with the season; and, owing to the
impurities of the city which pass into the lake, it is remarkably fat and savoury. Any one
who' should see the supply of fish in the market would suppose it impossible that such a
quantity could ever be sold; and yet in a few hours the whole shall be cleared away'; so
great is the number of inhabitants who are accustomed to delicate living. Indeed they cat
fish and flesh at the same meal.

All the ten market places are encompassed by lofty houses, and below these are shops
where all sorts of crafts are carried on, and all sorts of wares are on sale, including
spices and jewels and pearls. Some of these shops are entirely devoted to the sale of wine
made from rice and spices, which is constantly made fresh, and is sold very cheap.

Certain of the streets are occupied by the women of the town, who are in such a number
that I dare not say what it is. They are found not only in the vicinity of the market
places, where usually a quarter is assigned to them, but all over the city. They exhibit
themselves splendidly attired and abundantly perfumed, in finely garnished houses, with
trains of waiting-women. These women are extremely accomplished in all the arts of
allurement, and readily adapt their conversation to all sorts of persons, insomuch that
strangers who have once tasted their attractions seem to get bewitched, and are so taken
with their blandishments and their fascinating ways that they never can get these out of
their heads. Hence it comes to pass that when they return home they say they have been to
Kinsay or the City of Heaven, and their only desire is to get back thither as soon as
possible.

Other streets are occupied by the Physicians, and by the Astrologers, who are also
teachers of reading and writing; and an infinity of other professions have their places
round about those squares. In each of the squares there are two great palaces facing one
another, in which are established the officers appointed by the King to decide differences
arising between merchants, or other inhabitants of the quarter. It is the daily duty of
these officers to see that the guards are at their posts on the neighbouring bridges, and
to punish them at their discretion if they are absent.

All along the main street that we have spoken of, as running from end to end of the
city, both sides are lined with houses and great palaces and the gardens pertaining to
them, whilst in the intervals are the houses of tradesmen engaged in their different
crafts. The crowd of people that you meet here at all hours, passing this way and that on
their different errands, is so vast that no one would believe it possible that victuals
enough could be provided for their consumption, unless they should see how, on every
market-day, all those squares are thronged and crammed with purchasers, and with the
traders who have brought in stores of provisions by land or water; and everything they
bring in is disposed of.

To give you an example of the vast consumption in this city let us take the article of pepper;
and that will enable you in some measure to estimate what must be the quantity of
victual, such as meat, wine, groceries, which have to be provided for the general
consumption. Now Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of
customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of
Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 2-23 lbs.

The houses of the citizens are well built and elaborately finished; and the delight
they take in decoration, in painting and in architecture, leads them to spend in this way
sums of money that would astonish you.

The natives of the city are men of peaceful character, both from education and from the
example of their kings, whose disposition was the same. They know nothing of handling
arms, and keep none in their houses. You hear of no feuds or noisy quarrels or dissensions
of any kind among them. Both in their commercial dealings and in their manufactures they
are thoroughly honest and truthful, and there is such a degree of good will and
neighbourly attachment among both men and women that you would take the people who live in
the same street to be all one family.

And this familiar intimacy is free from all jealousy or suspicion of the conduct of
their women. These they treat with the greatest respect, and a man who should presume to
make loose proposals to a married woman would be regarded as an infamous rascal. They also
treat the foreigners who visit them for the sake of trade with great cordiality, and
entertain them in the most winning manner, affording them every help and advice on their
business. But on the other hand they bate to see soldiers, and not least those of the
Great Kaan's garrisons, regarding them as the cause of their having lost their native
kings and lords.

On the Lake of which we have spoken there are numbers of boats and barges of all sizes
for parties of pleasure. These will hold 10, 15, 20, or more persons, and are from 15 to
20 paces in length, with flat bottoms and ample breadth of beam, so that they always keep
their trim. Any one who desires to go a-pleasuring with the women, or with a party of his
own sex, hires one of these barges, which are always to be found completely furnished with
tables and chairs and all the other apparatus for a feast. The roof forms a level deck, on
which the crew stand, and pole the boat along whithersoever may he desired, for the Lake
is not more than 2 paces in depth. The inside of this roof and the rest of the interior is
covered with ornamental painting in gay colours, with windows all round that can be shut
or opened, so that the party at table can enjoy all the beauty and variety of the
prospects on both sides as they pass along. And truly a trip on this Lake is a much more
charming recreation than can be enjoyed on land. For on the one side lies the city in its
entire length, so that the spectators in the barges, from the distance at which they
stand, take in the whole prospect in its full beauty and grandeur, with its numberless
palaces, temples, monasteries, and gardens, full of lofty trees, sloping to the shore. And
the Lake is never without a number of other such boats, laden with pleasure parties; for
it is the great delight of the citizens here, after they have disposed of the day's
business, to pass the afternoon in enjoyment with the ladies of their families, or perhaps
with others less reputable, either in these barges or in driving about the city in
carriages.

Treating of the Great Yearly Revenue That the Great Kaan Hath from Kinsay

Now I will tell you about the great revenue which the Great Kaan draweth every year
from the said city of Kinsav and its territory, forming a ninth part of the whole country
of Manzi.

First there is the salt, which brings in a great revenue. For it produces every year,
in round numbers, fourscore tomans of gold; and the toman is worth 70,000 saggi
[A Venetian saggi was 1/6th of an ounce] of gold, so that the total value of
the fourscore tomans will be five millions and six hundred thousand saggi of
gold, each saggio being worth more than a gold florin or ducat; in sooth, a vast
sum of money! [This province, you see, adjoins the ocean, on the shores of which are many
lagoons or salt marshes, in which the sea-water dries up during the summer time; and
thence they extract such a quantity of salt as suffices for the supply of five of the
kingdoms of Manzi besides this one.]

Having told you of the revenue from salt, I will now tell you of that which accrues to
the Great Kaan from the duties on merchandize and other matters.

You must know that in this city and its dependencies they make great quantities of
sugar, as indeed they do in the other eight divisions of this country; so that I believe
the whole of the rest of the world together does not produce such a quantity, at least, if
that be true which many people have told me; and the sugar alone again produces an
enormous revenue.-However, I will not repeat the duties on every article separately, but
tell you how they go in the lump. Well, all spicery pays three and a third per cent on the
value; and all merchandize likewise pays three and a third per cent. But sea-borne goods
from India and other distant countries pay ten per cent. The rice-wine also makes a great
return, and coals, of which there is a great quantity; and so do .the twelve guilds of
craftsmen that I told you of, with their 12,000 stations apiece, for every article they
make pays duty. And the silk which is produced in such abundance makes an immense return.
But why should I make a long story of it? The silk, you must know, pays ten per cent, and
many other articles also pay ten per cent.

And you must know that Messer Marco Polo, who relates all this, was several times sent
by the Great Kaan to inspect the amount of his customs and revenue from this ninth part of
Manzi, and he found it to be, exclusive of the salt revenue which we have mentioned
already, 210 tomans of gold, equivalent to 14,700,000 saggi of gold; one of
the most enormous revenues that ever was heard of. And if the sovereign has such a revenue
from one ninth part of the country, you may judge what he must have from the whole of it!
However, to speak the truth, this part is the greatest and most productive; and because of
the great revenue that the Great Kaan derives from it, it is his favourite province, and
he takes all the more care to watch it well, and to keep the people contented.