Textbook-Integrated Guide to Educational Resources

TIGER

A New "Bottom-Up" Framework for Teaching Chemical BondingTami Levy Nahum, Rachel Mamlok-Naaman, Avi Hofstein, and Leeor KronikThis article presents a general framework for bonding that can be presented at different levels of sophistication depending on the student's level and needs. The pedagogical strategy for teaching this model is a "bottom-up" one, starting with basic principles and ending with specific properties.Levy Nahum, Tami; Mamlok-Naaman, Rachel; Hofstein, Avi; Kronik, Leeor. J. Chem. Educ.2008, 85, 1680.

On Capillary Rise and NucleationR. PrasadA comparison of capillary rise and nucleation shows that both phenomena result from a balance between two competing energy factors: a volume energy and a surface energy. This comparison may help to introduce nucleation with capillary rise, a topic familiar to students.Prasad, R. J. Chem. Educ.2008, 85, 1389.

Determination of the Formula of a Hydrate: A Greener AlternativeMarc A. Klingshirn, Allison F. Wyatt, Robert M. Hanson, and Gary O. SpessardThis article describes how the principles of green chemistry were applied to a first-semester, general chemistry courses, specifically in relation to the determination of the formula of a copper hydrate salt that changes color when dehydrated and is easily rehydrated with steam.Klingshirn, Marc A.; Wyatt, Allison F.; Hanson, Robert M.; Spessard, Gary O. J. Chem. Educ.2008, 85, 819.

Gravimetric Analysis |

Green Chemistry |

Solids |

Stoichiometry

Reply to More on CIO and Related RadicalsMark Kobrak and Warren HirschWe thank Prof. Jensen for bringing Dr. Linnetts work on oxygenhalogen diatomics to our attention. We were not aware that quartet theory had been applied in this way.Kobrak, Mark; Hirsch, Warren. J. Chem. Educ.2008, 85, 783.

Ionic Bonding

More on ClO and Related RadicalsWilliam B. JensenThe novel Lewis structure for the ClO radical and other related 13e isoelectronic species presented by Hirsch and Kobrak is identical to that proposed by Linnett over 40 years ago for the same species on the basis of his well-known double-quartet approach to Lewis structures.Jensen, William B. J. Chem. Educ.2008, 85, 783.

Stuffed Derivatives of Close-Packed StructuresBodie E. DouglasExamines a variety of stuffed silica crystal structures in terms of the close-packing of one set of atoms or ions (P sites) with other atoms or ions in tetrahedral (T) or octahedral (O) sites and filled or partially filled layers in the regular pattern, PTOT.Douglas, Bodie E. J. Chem. Educ.2007, 84, 1846.

Known-to-Unknown Approach To Teach about Coulomb's LawP. K. ThamburajAnalogies from life experiences help students understand the relationships between the quantities involved in Coulomb's law, which in turn help them understand the influence of charge and ionic size on lattice energy, melting points, and solubility of ionic solids.Thamburaj, P. K. J. Chem. Educ.2007, 84, 438.

Classifying Matter: A Physical Model Using Paper ClipsBob Blake, Lynn Hogue, and Jerry L. SarquisBy using colored paper clips, students can represent pure substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds and then discuss their similarities and differences. This model is advantageous for the beginning student who would not know enough about the detailed composition of simple materials like milk, brass, sand, and air to classify them properly.Blake, Bob; Hogue, Lynn; Sarquis, Jerry L. J. Chem. Educ.2006, 83, 1317.

Filling in the Hexagonal Close-Packed Unit CellRobert C. Rittenhouse, Linda M. Soper, and Jeffrey L. RittenhouseThe illustrations of the hcp unit cell that are used in textbooks at all levels and also in crystallography and solid-state reference works are incomplete, in that they fail to include fractions of middle layer atomic spheres with centers lying outside of the unit cell.Rittenhouse, Robert C.; Soper, Linda M.; Rittenhouse, Jeffrey L. J. Chem. Educ.2006, 83, 175.

Crystals / Crystallography |

Metals |

Solids

Sedimentation Time Measurements of Soil Particles by Light Scattering and Determination of Chromium, Lead, and Iron in Soil Samples via ICPPatricia Metthe Todebush and Franz M. GeigerIn this two-part general chemistry laboratory activity, students study soil samples from home and from campus. In part one, the samples are placed in water and the suspended colloid fraction is separated using filtration, followed by a determination of colloid sedimentation rates via light scattering. In part two, the solid phase of the soil samples is dissolved in acid and analyzed for chromium, lead, and iron using an inductively coupled plasma spectrometer. The experiment can be expanded to include arsenic. Through these experiments students can draw conclusions about the physical and chemical behavior of solid components in soil, paying particular attention to their propensity for transporting and chemically transforming pollutants in the environment. Todebush, Patricia Metthe; Geiger, Franz M. J. Chem. Educ.2005, 82, 1542.

Colloids |

Geochemistry |

Water / Water Chemistry |

Aqueous Solution Chemistry |

Solids |

Surface Science |

Metals

Making and Using a Sensing Polymeric Material for Cu2+: An Introduction to Polymers and Chemical SensingJean R. Paddock, Anne T. Maghasi, William R. Heineman, and Carl J. SeliskarIn this experiment, students will be introduced to concepts of polymer chemistry, chemical sensors, metal chelates, spectroscopy, and quantitative analytical methods. A polymer network is generated by students and consists of crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) blended with the polyelectrolyte poly(acrylic acid), which is then doped with the spectroscopically-active chelating agent PAN, 1-(2-pyridylazo)-2-napthol. All components of this hydrogel serve as an ion-exchange medium trapping cations that, when exposed to solutions of 2+ metals, can act as a material in a chemical sensor. Paddock, Jean R.; Maghasi, Anne T.; Heineman, William R.; Seliskar, Carl J. J. Chem. Educ.2005, 82, 1370.

Quantitative Analysis |

UV-Vis Spectroscopy |

Polymerization |

Ion Exchange |

Quantitative Analysis

Rotational Mobility in a Crystal Studied by Dielectric Relaxation Spectroscopy. An Experiment for the Physical Chemistry LaboratoryMadalena S. C. Dionísio, Hermínio P. Diogo, J. P. S. Farinha, and Joaquim J. Moura-RamosIn this article we present a laboratory experiment for an undergraduate physical chemistry course. The purpose of this experiment is the study of molecular mobility in a crystal using the technique of dielectric relaxation spectroscopy. The experiment illustrates important physical chemistry concepts. The background of the experimental technique deals with the concepts of orientational and induced polarization and frequency-dependent relative permittivity (or dielectric constant). The kinetic concepts of temperature-dependent relaxation time, activation energy, and activation entropy are involved in the concept of molecular mobility. Dionísio, Madalena S. C.; Diogo, Hermínio P.; Farinha, J. P. S.; Moura-Ramos, Joaquim J. J. Chem. Educ.2005, 82, 1355.

Kinetics |

Phases / Phase Transitions / Diagrams |

Solids |

Crystals / Crystallography

Chemistry of Moth RepellentsGabriel PintoA real-life example consisting of the study of the different substances used as moth repellents is presented to introduce students to miscellaneous topics such as sublimation, intermolecular forces, insecticides, and the effect of moths on clothes. A set of questions about the most common moth repellents, well known to students, is used to motivate them to understand several everday phenomena through chemistry concepts. Pinto, Gabriel. J. Chem. Educ.2005, 82, 1321.

Electronegativity and the Bond TriangleTerry L. Meek and Leah D. GarnerThe dependence of bond type on two parameters, electronegativity difference (??) and average electronegativity (?av), is examined. It is demonstrated that ionic character is governed by the partial charges of the bonded atoms, and metallic character by the HOMOLUMO band gap.Meek, Terry L.; Garner, Leah D. J. Chem. Educ.2005, 82, 325.

Atomic Properties / Structure |

Covalent Bonding |

Metallic Bonding |

Ionic Bonding |

Main-Group Elements

Copper Metal from Malachite circa 4000 B.C.E.Gordon T. Yee, Jeannine E. Eddleton, and Cris E. JohnsonThe experiment starts with a naturally occurring ore, malachite, essentially pure Cu2CO3(OH)2, which is readily available at modest cost in bead form from jewelry stores. Using only a Bunsen burner, a porcelain crucible, and a charcoal briquette, the experiment demonstrates two steps in the ancient processing of copper ore: roasting and reduction. The product is a shiny copper metal bead that can then be hammered, polished, and shown to be electrically conductive. Yee, Gordon T.; Eddleton, Jeannine E.; Johnson, Cris E. J. Chem. Educ.2004, 81, 1777.

Metals |

Oxidation / Reduction |

Solids

Empirical Formulas and the Solid State: A ProposalWilliam B. JensenThis brief article calls attention to the failure of most introductory textbooks to point out explicitly the fact that nonmolecular solids do not have molecular formulas and suggests some practical remedies for improving textbook coverage of this subject. The inadequacies of the terms "empirical formula" and "molecular formula" are also discussed, and the terms "relative compositional formula" and "absolute compositional formula" are proposed as more appropriate alternatives. Jensen, William B. J. Chem. Educ.2004, 81, 1772.

A Chemical-Medical Mystery: Gold Jewelry and Black Marks on SkinBarbara B. KebbekusGold jewelry at times makes a black mark or smudge on skin. This may be caused by abrasive powders on the skin (e.g. zinc oxide) but the phenomenon may also be caused by other skin conditions, possibly the presence of chloride ion, acidity, or sulfur-containing amino acids.Kebbekus, Barbara B. J. Chem. Educ.2000, 77, 1298.

Bioorganic Chemistry |

Geochemistry |

Hormones |

Metals |

Solids |

Applications of Chemistry

Measuring Soil Phosphates Using Ion-Exchange Resins: A Final Project for Freshman ChemistryDonald A. Storer and A. M. SarquisA model final project for freshman chemistry that uses a discovery-based scenario is described. The effect of solubility of compounds in a practical application is illustrated by allowing the student to discover that limestone (calcium carbonate) will react with phosphates in soils to produce insoluble compounds. The phosphate in the soil is isolated by a mixed-bed, anion-cation exchange resin capsule and analyzed spectrophotometrically.Storer, Donald A.; Sarquis, Arlyne M. J. Chem. Educ.2000, 77, 748.

The Softening of Hard Water and Complexometric Titrations: An Undergraduate ExperimentHelena Ceretti, Enrique A. Hughes, and Anita ZaltsAn experiment in which (i) water hardness is explained and demonstrated; (ii) ion-exchange resin properties are visually demonstrated and then used for softening water; (iii) complexometric titrations are used for evaluating water hardness before and after softening; and (iv) acid-base titration can be used to show that the Ca/Mg ions removed by the ion exchanger are replaced by H ions. Ceretti, Helena; Hughes, Enrique A.; Zalts, Anita. J. Chem. Educ.1999, 76, 1420.

Ion Exchange |

Quantitative Analysis |

Titration / Volumetric Analysis |

Water / Water Chemistry |

Acids / Bases

Experiments with Zeolites at the Secondary-School Level: Experience from The NetherlandsEric N. Coker, Pamela J. Davis, Aonne Kerkstra, and Herman van BekkumThis article describes a number of experiments that involve zeolites and are suitable for secondary-school chemistry laboratories. Students test the hardness of tap water before and after treatment with some zeolite and perform tests with a range of commercial laundry detergents containing zeolites.Coker, Eric N.; Davis, Pamela J.; Kerkstra, Aonne; van Bekkum, Herman. J. Chem. Educ.1999, 76, 1417.

The Alginate Demonstration: Polymers, Food Science, and Ion ExchangeAmy Sue Waldman, Linda Schechinger, Geeta Govindarajoo, James S. Nowick, and Louis H. PignoletA polymer demonstration involving the crosslinking and decrosslinking of alginate, a polysaccharide isolated from seaweed. The polymer is composed of D-mannuronic acid and L-guluronic acid subunits and is a component of cell walls. It is commonly used as a thickener in foods such as ice cream and fruit-filled snacks. Waldman, Amy Sue; Schechinger, Linda; Govindarajoo, Geeta; Nowick, James S.; Pignolet, Louis H. J. Chem. Educ.1998, 75, 1430.

Food Science |

Ion Exchange |

Aqueous Solution Chemistry |

Applications of Chemistry

Solid State Resources CD-ROM: Abstract of Special Issue 12, 2nd Edition George C. Lisensky , Joey M. Blackwell, and Arthur B. EllisThe Solid State Resources CD-ROM for Mac OS and Windows compatible computers has been updated with a new HTML interface and video identical to that published in the General Chemistry Collection, 2nd Edition. This includes both new video and improved versions of some of the movies on the original Solid State Resources CD.Lisensky, George C.; Blackwell, Joey M.; Ellis, Arthur B. J. Chem. Educ.1998, 75, 1351.

Materials Science |

Solids

An Alternative Framework for Chemical BondingWilliam R. RobinsonRecent, qualitative research in science education has uncovered many nave or incorrect ideas about aspects of science commonly held by students and others at all levels. This article discusses how misconceptions can cluster and compound. Robinson, William R. J. Chem. Educ.1998, 75, 1074.

Covalent Bonding |

Ionic Bonding

Solid State Structures (Abstract of Volume 5D, Number 2)Ludwig A. MayerSolid State Structures is a collection of image files that allows the user to display, rotate, and examine individually a large collection of 3-D structure models.Mayer, Ludwig A. J. Chem. Educ.1997, 74, 1144.

Teaching Chemistry with Electron Density ModelsGwendolyn P. Shusterman and Alan J. ShustermanThis article describes a powerful new method for teaching students about electronic structure and its relevance to chemical phenomena. This method, developed and used for several years in general chemistry and organic chemistry courses, relies on computer-generated three-dimensional models of electron density distributions.Shusterman, Gwendolyn P.; Shusterman, Alan J. J. Chem. Educ.1997, 74, 771.

Learning Theories |

Computational Chemistry |

Molecular Modeling |

Quantum Chemistry |

Atomic Properties / Structure |

Covalent Bonding |

Ionic Bonding |

Noncovalent Interactions

Easy Filling of Capillaries in an Inert AtmosphereFrancisco J. ArnáizThe procedure described in this article offers a simpler way to charge capillaries or tubes in an inert atmosphere using inexpensive materials. Arnaiz, Francisco J. J. Chem. Educ.1996, 73, A102.

An Empirical Formula from Ion Exchange Chromatography and ColorimetrySteven D. JohnsonExperimental determination of the empirical formula for sodium salicylate, Nax(C7H5O3)y, using colorimetry and cation exchange. The procedure is involved, yet has been conducted by high school chemistry students as a lab final. Johnson, Steven D. J. Chem. Educ.1996, 73, 1179.

Chromatography |

Ion Exchange

Using Physics Principles in the Teaching of ChemistryWarren GuldenChemistry and physics may be separate subjects, but that should not prohibit the use of physics in a chemistry course. When this is done, students can use traditional physics principles or laws for the purpose of understanding chemistry better.Gulden, Warren. J. Chem. Educ.1996, 73, 771.

Ionic Bonding |

Physical Properties |

Electrochemistry |

Hydrogen Bonding

Salts are Mostly Not IonizedStephen J. HawkesThe popular assumption that all salts are totally ionized in aqueous solution is false. Moreover, it is approximated only by alkali metal salts and by salts of alkaline earth metals with high atomic numbers. Hawkes, Stephen J. J. Chem. Educ.1996, 73, 421.

A Window on the Solid-StateRobinson, William R."Part I: Structures of Metals" introduces the four basic structural types found in metals. "Part II: Unit Cells of Metals" discusses how to use a unit cell to describe a two-dimensional structure.Robinson, William R. J. Chem. Educ.1994, 71, 300.

Solid State Chemistry |

Solids |

Metals

Visualization of the Abstract in General ChemistryPaselk, Richard A.A series of software programs for beginning chemistry, including a series of modules addressing the fundamental phenomena associated with bonding, the microscopic phenomena underlying commonly observed systems, and a reference periodic table.Paselk, Richard A. J. Chem. Educ.1994, 71, 225.

The importance of understanding structure Galasso, FrankSolid state chemistry and its link with atomic structure is a topic that is still being neglected in students' education., despite the interesting scientific discoveries and developments that will likely be relevant in students' lives and possible careers.Galasso, Frank J. Chem. Educ.1993, 70, 287.

Magnetic marbles as teaching aidsHill, John W.Magnetic marbles are valuable teaching aids for teachers who have steel chalkboards in their classroom.Hill, John W. J. Chem. Educ.1990, 67, 320.

Atomic Properties / Structure |

Covalent Bonding |

Ion Exchange

The separation of cobalt from nickel by anion exchange chromatography Kauffman, George B.; Adams, Matthew L.The authors have modified other experiments, using "macro" amounts of ions, and have determined the optimum conditions to produce a visually observable demonstration that illustrates several fundamental principles of the general chemistry course.Kauffman, George B.; Adams, Matthew L. J. Chem. Educ.1989, 66, 166.

Chromatography |

Separation Science |

Ion Exchange

Electrolytic migration of ionsLlorens-Molina, Juan A.This demonstration uses a thin layer of gelatin in place of the usual filter paper so that the migration can be viewed using an overhead projector.Llorens-Molina, Juan A. J. Chem. Educ.1988, 65, 1090.

Composition of gas hydrates. New answers to an old problemCady, George H.The author provides a discussion on nonstoichiometric crystalline solids as they deserve attention in elementary chemistry courses because they are interesting and increasingly important. Laboratory activities are included.Cady, George H. J. Chem. Educ.1983, 60, 915.

Stoichiometry |

Solids |

Crystals / Crystallography

Le Châtelier's principle: the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids in liquidsBrice, L. K.The purpose of this article is to provide a rigorous but straightforward thermodynamic treatment of the temperature dependence of solubility of solids in liquids that is suitable for presentation at the undergraduate level. The present discussion may suggest how to approach the qualitative aspects of the subject for freshman.Brice, L. K. J. Chem. Educ.1983, 60, 387.

Thermodynamics |

Liquids |

Solids |

Chemometrics |

Equilibrium

An effective demonstration of some properties of real vaporsMetsger, D. ScottThe apparatus described in this article has been found by the authors to be the most effective in vividly illustrating the behavior of a nearly ideal gas to first year chemistry students.Metsger, D. Scott J. Chem. Educ.1983, 60, 67.

Isolation of dyes for analysisLevinson, Alfred S.The use of ion exchange resin for the isolation of dyes from beverages, gelatin desserts, and other foods.Levinson, Alfred S. J. Chem. Educ.1977, 54, 460.

Semi-micro ion-exchange in the freshman laboratoryOlson, M. V.; Crawford, J. M.An integrated unit of lab work in which students start with qualitative and standard quantitative experiments and then progress to more sophisticated biological and environmental applications, including analyses of sea water and blood plasma.Olson, M. V.; Crawford, J. M. J. Chem. Educ.1975, 52, 546.

Solid state labs: The bubble raftMcCormick, P. D.Method for producing bubble rafts and experiments for using them to demonstrate the properties of crystals.McCormick, P. D. J. Chem. Educ.1975, 52, 521.

Solids |

Solid State Chemistry |

Crystals / Crystallography

Unit cellsOlsen, Robert C.; Tobiason, Fred L.An easy way to construct of have students construct a unit cell in three dimensions.Olsen, Robert C.; Tobiason, Fred L. J. Chem. Educ.1975, 52, 509.

An introduction to principles of the solid state. Extrinsic semiconductorsWeller, Paul F.Includes a previous analogy is extended to cover n- and p-type semiconductors and discussions of the concepts of donors and acceptors, donor and acceptor activation energies and the corresponding charge carrier production at various temperatures, and the effects of the presence of both donors and acceptors.Weller, Paul F. J. Chem. Educ.1971, 48, 831.

Sealed tube experimentsCampbell, J. A.Lists and briefly describes a large set of "sealed tube experiments," each of which requires less than five minutes to set-up and clean-up, requires less than five minutes to run, provides dramatic results observable by a large class, and illustrates important chemical concepts.Campbell, J. A. J. Chem. Educ.1970, 47, 273.

An introduction to chromatographyGaucher, G. M.The object of this presentation is to serve as a preliminary practical introduction and guide to chromatography.Gaucher, G. M. J. Chem. Educ.1969, 46, 729.

Structure units: Aids in the interpretation of chemical reactionsStrong, Laurence E.the proposal to define structure units as generators of the various properties of a substance has a considerable advantage over the usual definition of a structure unit as the endpoint of some prescribed scheme of subdivision.Strong, Laurence E. J. Chem. Educ.1968, 45, 51.

Learning Theories |

Molecular Properties / Structure |

Solids |

Liquids |

Gases

Crystal modelsOlsen, Robert C.This short note illustrates a model designed to demonstrate the number of particles in a crystal that can be assigned to a unit cell.Olsen, Robert C. J. Chem. Educ.1967, 44, 728.

The teaching of crystal geometry in the introductory courseLivingston, R. L.It is the purpose of this paper to outline an approach to the teaching of crystal structure at the elementary level that will prepare the student for more advanced work in this field or that could be used as the beginning in a more advanced course.Livingston, R. L. J. Chem. Educ.1967, 44, 376.

Tangent-sphere models of molecules. III. Chemical implications of inner-shell electronsBent, Henry A.While a study of atomic core sizes might seem to hold little promise of offering interesting insights into the main body of chemical theory, it is demonstrated here that from such a study emerges a picture of chemical bonding that encompasses as particular cases covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds.Bent, Henry A. J. Chem. Educ.1965, 42, 302.

Atomic Properties / Structure |

Molecular Properties / Structure |

Molecular Modeling |

Covalent Bonding |

Ionic Bonding |

Metallic Bonding

Principles of chemical reactionSanderson, R. T.The purpose of this paper is to examine the nature of chemical change in the hope of recognizing and setting forth the basic principles that help us to understand why they occur.Sanderson, R. T. J. Chem. Educ.1964, 41, 13.

Flow of glass under its own weightDingledy, DavidA common misconception of the nature of glass found in general chemistry texts is that ordinary glass will flow under its own weight at room temperatures.Dingledy, David J. Chem. Educ.1962, 39, 84.

The separation of rare earths: A project for high school chemistry studentsPowell, J. E.; Spedding, F. H.; James, D. B.The separation of rare earths on an ion-exchange column is a very interesting and dramatic experiment to perform, since it represents the solution of one of the most formidable chemical separation problems confronting the inorganic chemist.Powell, J. E.; Spedding, F. H.; James, D. B. J. Chem. Educ.1960, 37, 629.

Metals |

Transition Elements |

Separation Science |

Ion Exchange

Kinetic molecular theory from a jukeboxEasley, W. K.; Powers, Glenn F.Uses dancers to various styles of music as an analogy for differences between the atomic and molecular motions in solids, liquids, and gases.Easley, W. K.; Powers, Glenn F. J. Chem. Educ.1960, 37, 302.

Chemical geometryApplication to saltsGibb, Thomas R. P., Jr.; Winnerman, AnneIt is the purpose of this article to illustrate how one may delve rather deeply into some aspects of crystal structure that are of special interest chemically without becoming involved in the symbology and semantic complexities of conventional crystallography.Gibb, Thomas R. P., Jr.; Winnerman, Anne J. Chem. Educ.1958, 35, 578.

Face-centered cube and cubical close-packingBarnett, E. De BarryInstructions for the construction of simple models designed to illustrate the face-centered cube and cubical close-packing.Barnett, E. De Barry J. Chem. Educ.1958, 35, 186.

A new type of crystal modelWestbrook, J. H.; DeVries, R. C.Describes the design and construction of a crystal model in which the positions of atoms are represented by colored lights that can be lit to illustrate various structures.Westbrook, J. H.; DeVries, R. C. J. Chem. Educ.1957, 34, 220.

Crystals / Crystallography |

Solids |

Molecular Modeling

Some simple solid modelsCampbell, J. A.Describes the use of hard spheres to illustrate a variety of concepts with respect solids, including closest packing and the effects of temperature and alloying.Campbell, J. A. J. Chem. Educ.1957, 34, 210.

Textbook errors: X. The classification of crystalsMysels, Karol J.The classification of crystals into several systems (e.g., cubic, tetragonal, orthorombic) is generally based in textbooks on a consideration of crystal axes, particularly their relative lengths and direction; this approach usually gives correct assignments but occasionally leads to an error.Mysels, Karol J. J. Chem. Educ.1957, 34, 40.

Crystals / Crystallography |

Solids

Growing crystals: A survey of laboratory methodsFehlner, Francis P.The purpose of this article is to provide basic information and readily available references for anyone wishing to begin the production of crystals.Fehlner, Francis P. J. Chem. Educ.1956, 33, 449.

Recent history of the notion of a chemical speciesBulloff, Jack J.Quantum and nuclear chemistry have challenged the doctrine that chemical elements are homogeneous entities while studies of the structure and stoichiometry of solids invite a change in our ideas of definite proportions in chemical combinations.Bulloff, Jack J. J. Chem. Educ.1953, 30, 78.

Nuclear / Radiochemistry |

Isotopes |

Stoichiometry |

Solids

The electron as an elementRamsay, W.Reprint of a short article examining the bonding of sodium and chlorine.Ramsay, W. J. Chem. Educ.1953, 30, 2.