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Friday, February 26, 2016

Socialism versus Capitalism in Ancient Rome: finding an old Allende and Pinochet

Some days ago I watched the news
about the Chilean government demanding a monetary restitution from the widow of
the deceased dictator Augusto Pinochet. In 1973 Chile was divided in a brutal
conflict between a popular left party seeking wealth redistribution and an
elitist conservative group that made a coup and gained power. The left wing leader
Salvador Allende had actually been responsible for a big career boost of Augusto
Pinochet, the right wing general who led the coup, since Allende had no idea of
the true political views of his appointed general. The picture on the right shows
Allende and Pinochet together in the presidential palace in Chile. Now and in
old times no friendship survives a political conflict. Historian Plutarch and the novels of Aussie writer Colleen
McCullough portray a real historical conflict that mirrors the class
struggles in the 20th century and how old friendships are
broken for the sake of power.

Santayana said those who forget
history are doomed to repeat it. In my view there are at least two aspect in
which the Chilean 70’s conflict parallels the Roman Republic of 100 BC. One,
ancient Rome had a sharp conflict between the Optimates (the party of those who
defended the old traditions and privileges of the rich) and the Populares
(those who defended the redistribution of agrarian lands and the extension of
political votes to the masses). There were several strands in each group, with moderate
Populares and also more radical branches that defended a real dictatorship
based on popular acclaim. The political rivalry between Optimates (right wing)
and Populares (left wing) explains much of roman history between 133 BC and 44
BC, when Julius Caesar, a general who capitalized the anger of the Populares to
gain absolute military and political power, was assassinated by members of the
Optimates.

Two, just like in Chile where President Allende believed – until it was too late – that general Pinochet would be a possible ally, the Roman left wing between 110 BC and 88 BC had a charismatic leader, Gaius Marius (left pic above), who unwittingly promoted the career of his friend, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (right pic above), who would become the Optimates leader and his most fierce enemy! These two former allies fired up all the class struggles in Rome and neither gave up until the former friend and all of his supporters were brutally killed.

Gaius Marius was a Roman general
and politician who won two wars between 108 and 101 BC. The first war was in
North Africa around 108 BC in the area of modern Argelia. The second war
between 103 and 101 BC was against teutonic peoples who migrated from Germany
to invade north Italy. This Teutonic invasion was one of the worst crisis in
Roman history and there was a generalized fear in the Italian population that
their civilization would be beaten and destroyed. To win this war Marius decided
to recruit poo men for the Roman army, something unthinkable until then! This
decision broke the political power that the wealthy had over the army and in
the future decades armies were more loyal to their generals than to the
political institutions. Over the short term the decision saved Rome. Over the
long term this measure created endless revolutions in which generals used their
armies to become new dictators!

Marius also introduces many
innovations in terms of the organization and equipment of the legions and turns
the legionnaire into professionally trained soldiers. The classic image of a
professional and extremely organized Roman army that we see in Hollywood movies
was only made real by Gaius Marius! Above I show a painting of Marius leading
his newly trained armies to fight a much larger Teutonic army in the forests of
northern Italy.

Marius became the most powerful
politician of his time and certainly one the most relevant in the entire
history of Rome. The most important political office of the Republic was consul
and Marius was elected consul seven times, while before him none had been
consul more than three times.

Sulla was
possibly an in-law of Marius and started his career as Marius' trusted second in
command. However, during
a brief mission in Asia, Sulla consulted a fortune seer who foretold his death
would come at the peak of his fame and glory. Sulla returns to Rome and becomes
one of the generals fighting the Social War, a large conflict in which Rome
fought rebellions in many Italian regions. In this war Sulla won the Grass
Crown, the most important prize of valor given in Ancient Rome. In all of Roman
history only eight men won the grass crown, since this trophy was only given to
a man that by his courage had saved an entire army!

Sulla was then elected consul and nominated general for the war against Mithridates of Pontus, a western nation
in northern Turkey which was threatening the roman territories of Greece and west
Asia. Sulla's success triggered a conflict with his former
friend Gaius Marius. Marius, then an old man, remained popular
with the crowds and dreamed of being the commander in the new war. Marius used his prestige and wealth to finance popular mutinies and
rebellions against his former friend. Sulla is persecuted by fanatics through
the streets of Rome and saves his life by seeking refuge in Marius’ home. Marius
agrees to save Sulla’s life from the raging crowd, but only if he promises to
support Marius’ party and his nomination for the war. Sulla pretends to agree,
escapes from Rome and then returns with his loyal army. Sulla does the
unthinkable by marching upon Rome, something that was forbidden by the sacred
laws of Rome. In Rome’s previous six centuries of history no one had broken
this rule. Sulla enters Rome and his army kills several of the Populares and
Marius’ supporters. Afterwards, he leaves for Asia and wins surprising battles
against the greek-asian enemies of Rome. Sulla becomes famous among his
followers as a mad genius, one who makes elaborate plans that always work. Sulla
destroys the forests around Athens to build catapults and siege engines to
destroy the city. Then he wins two battles against much bigger armies. In the first battle he orders the building of trenches and palisades which rumble his enemy's organization. In the second battle, Sulla orders the building of water dams and then floods the plain
in front of the opposing army. His opponents are stranded with horses and men
in the mud and unable to move are slaughtered. Sulla gains a reputation of invincibility
against all odds and becomes one of the most famous generals in world history.

While Sulla stayed in Asia, Marius returned to Rome and then orders the murder of many of Sulla’s
supporters. The Populares take control of Rome and send several
armies against Sulla. But all of the armies sent by the Populares are useless,
because Sulla had gained the fame of an invincible commander. No army wants to
fight Sulla and his adversaries end up surrendering and joining him. Marius dies
sick in Rome just 17 days after he became consul for a 7th and last time.
Plutarch relates that Marius was by then a deluded old man, bragging to people
about his accomplishments and then behaving crazy as if he was in charge of
battles in Asia.

Sulla returns to Rome in 83 BC
and publishes a long list of his enemies, whom he convicts to death without a
trial. Sulla promises to pardon the
people who cooperate with his executions. Some men are executed by their own
wives and children who are then allowed to keep the family
estate. Sulla rewards his friends and punishes his enemies. The
young Julius Caesar is included in the death lists of Sulla, since Caesar was
related by marriage to Marius. Sulla lets the young Caesar live, but warns that
he sees in the young man “the ambition of many Marius”.

Sulla was Dictator (then a real office which gave its holder the power to decree martial law and act as he pleased for a limited period) of Rome for two
years of political terror. At the end of his dictatorship, Sulla leaves Rome for his countryside
villa to write his memoirs. Sulla lives a dissipated life with a young
wife and a male actor called Metrobius who had become his lover a long time
ago. He still intervenes with politics, but remains
open to discuss his policies with any man who approaches him. Sulla dies of old
age, a mysterious man for all who knew him. It was said
he could drink and party with the poorest and simplest persons, celebrating
with great joy, but then would change to be a tyrant ordering deaths
with no cause at all. It is estimated that around 1000 persons died from Sulla’s
political persecutions. I wonder what the ancient Romans would have thought of the 20th
century dictators who murdered far more people.