Theological belief that obedience to divine will is possible only for those on whom
god has already chosen to bestow grace, leaving no room for the exercise of human
freedom.
This view was originated by Dutch bishop Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638) and defended against Jesuit attacks by members of the
Port-Royal community, including
Arnauld and
Pascal.

Recommended Reading:
Leszek Kolakowski, God Owes Us Nothing: A Brief Remark on Pascal's Religion and on the Spirit of Jansenism (Chicago, 1998);
William Doyle, Jansenism: Catholic Resistance to Authority from the Reformation to the French Revolution (Palgrave, 2000).

German physician, psychiatrist, and philosopher educated at Heidelberg and Göttingen.
In Philosophie (1931),
Von der Wahrheit (On Truth) (1947), and
Einführung in die Philosophie (Way to Wisdom) (1950)
Jaspers developed a version of
existentialism in which the effort to understand our concrete existence leads from careful self-analysis to a personal quest for
authenticity in relation to the transcendent "Encompassing."
Jaspers also wrote on topics in the history of philosophy in
Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte (On the Origin and Goal of History) (1949) and
Die großen Philosophen (The Great Philosophers) (1957).
He also commented on the national emotions associated with the aftermath of World War II in Die Schuldfrage (The Question of German Guilt) (1946).
A basic statement of his philosophical development may be found in
On My Philosophy (1941).

Example: "The seventeen students who attended the review session earned grades of C or better on the final exam, while the eleven students who did not earned grades of D or F. Therefore, attending the review session was an effective way to prepare for the final exam."

Recommended Reading:
John Stuart Mill, System of Logic (Classworks, 1986).

The complex event comprising the occurrence of both of its constituent events.
The probability of a joint occurrence is calculated by the formula:

P(A • B) = P(A) × P(B, if A)

Thus, for example, the chances of getting "heads" both times on two tosses of a coin are equal to the chances of getting "heads" on the first toss (1/2) times the chances of getting "heads" on the second toss (1/2), or 1/4.

Recommended Reading:
Richard Lowry, The Architecture of Chance: An Introduction to the Logic and Arithmetic of Probability (Oxford, 1989);
Ian Hacking, An Introduction to Probability and Inductive Logic (Cambridge, 2001); and
Donald Gillies, Philosophical Theories of Probability (Routledge, 2000).

Swiss psychiatrist.
Jung rejected Freudian accounts of infant sexuality as the source of the libido and emphasized a generalized will to live.
In Wandlungen und Symbolen der Libido (The Psychology of the Unconscious) (1912),
Jung developed a rich account of the unconscious, positing shared primordial "archetypes" as elements established
innately in the collective unconscious of all human beings rather than as features of individual personality in The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious (1926).
Such underlying mental contents, Jung claimed in
The Association Method (1910), can be observed most easily through the free association of words.
A simple statement of his most basic principles may be found in chapter IX of
Modern Man in Search of a Soul (1933).

The attempt to provide acceptable conditions for international conflict.
As developed by Augustine and Aquinas, just war theory typically distinguishes
the conditions under which war may be intitiated (ius ad bellum), including a legitimate authority exercising a right intention in pursuit of a just cause, from
the rules under which war may be conducted (ius in bello), including concern with proportionality of the means and discrimination between combatants and non-combatants.

Recommended Reading:
Just War Theory, ed. by Jean Bethke Elshtain (NYU, 1991);
Richard J. Regan, Just War: Principles and Cases (Catholic U. of A., 1996);
Paul Christopher, The Ethics of War and Peace: An Introduction to Legal and Moral Issues (Prentice Hall, 1998); and
Paul Ramsey, Speak Up for Just War or Pacifism (Penn. State, 1988).

Equitable distribution of goods and evils in a social institution, including the moral sanctions of reward and punishment.
After surveying alternative notions of the virtue of justice {Gk. δικαιωσυνη [dikaiôsunê]},
Plato defined it as the
harmonious function of diverse elements of society or of the
distinct souls within an individual person.
Most social philosophers of the Western tradition, however, have followed
Aristotle's conceptions of
retributive and
distributive justice.
In contemporary philosophy, Rawls employs a notion of "justice as fairness" to argue that social inequalities are justifiable only if the benefit even the least favored members of a society.