Inside the actual neuron, the voltage is shifting from negative to positive. This is done by the inflow of sodium into the axon. Outside of the axon, the charge shifts from positive to negative. Note which way “the wave” moves.

Repolarization

Once the action potential reaches it’s peak, then the charge needs to shift from positive to negative. Now, potassium moves out of the cell, shifting the voltage back to negative.

Recovery Period

Now the cell become too negative and so some fine tuning is needed via active transport, to move some sodium in and at the same time move potassium out.

• They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot springs, acidic soils etc.

• They are unicellular organisms.

• Membrane bound nucleus is absent.

• DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the cytoplasm of the organism,referred as nucleoid.

• A rigid cell wall is present.

• Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are absent.

• Habitat – Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice, in deep ocean floor, in deserts and on or inside the body of plants and animals.

• Nutrition – autotrophs – can prepare their own food, heterotrophs – depend on others for food, saprophytes – feed on dead and decaying matter, parasitic – live on other host cells for survival and cause, symbiotic – in mutual relation with other organisms, commensalism – it is where one organism is benefited and the other is not affected, mutualism – where both the organisms are benefited.

• Respiration – respiration in these organisms vary, they may be obligate aerobes – the organisms must have organisms for survival; obligate anaerobes – the organisms cannot survive in the presence of oxygen; facultative anaerobes – these organisms can survive with or without oxygen.

• Circulation – is through diffusion.

• Movement – is with the help of flagella.

Reproduction is mostly asexual, sexual reproduction is also seen. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission, sexual reproduction is by conjugation, transformation and transduction.

· If you change the reason why you study, then you will also change what you do.

· If you start study sessions with an objective to learn and take a quiz to discover what you do not know, then after a study session you can note how much you have processed by retaking the same evalutation.

· Text books already have questions within each chapter to focus your attention on the specific information that could answer the questions within the text.

· Information can be ranked from finding a simple fact by asking “what”.

· As you change the question from what to how or why, you need find more evidence to answer the question.

· Making to notes to memorize limits the depth of information you can discover.

· Linking facts together fact with facts can be used explain both how and why,

· The objective of each study session should be to evolve from simple whats to hows and whys.

· Remember..the mind is like a parachute, it only works if it is open.

______________ = jelly-like layer in between the ______________ and the ______________ (not a cell layer)

Four types of specialized cells

Epidermal cells (______________) = Ectoderm

Collar Cells (______________) = Endoderm

Pore Cells (______________) = Line the Pores (Ostia)

Amoeba Cells (______________) = Roam through the ______________

Skeleton

Skeletons of some sponges are made of ______________ which are produced and secreted by the ______________

______________ come in many shapes and sizes

Some ______________ are made out of ______________ (chalk) while others are made out of ______________ (glass)

Spicules can be woven together by protein fibres called ______________

Most sponges have both ______________ and ______________

III. Feeding:

Sponges are filter feeders: – eat primarily ______________

______________ cells (______________) have ______________ which create a steady current of water through the pores (______________) and into the central cavity (______________)

As water enters the sponge through the pores (ostia) it passes the ______________ cells (Choanocytes)

Particles of food in the water are trapped by ______________ on the ______________ cells (Choanocytes)

______________ cells (Choanocytes) engulf food and digest it

Undigested food passes to the ______________ in the ______________

The ______________ roam from ______________ cell to ______________ cell collecting nutrients and distributing it to other cells

Water exits through a the large hole at the top of the sponge (_________)

DID YOU KNOW!!!: A four inch tall sponge that is half an inch in diameter can filter up to 30 gallons of water a day

Respiration:

The water current flowing through the sponge delivers oxygen to the sponge cells.

The cells take up the oxygen and release carbon dioxide through simple ______________

Excretion:

The water current which flows through the sponge carries waste out of the top of the sponge (______________).

Response:

Many sponges protect themselves by producing toxins

That make them unpalatable or poisonous to potential predators

VII. Reproduction:

Asexual:

______________ – new sponge grows on parent then falls off to create a new animal

Sponges can ______________ after being pulled apart

Sexual

Eggs and sperm (______________) are released into the water

Most species are ______________– one individual possesses both eggs and sperm

Eggs and sperm are released at different times to assure ______________

DID YOU KNOW!!!: Sponges are the only animals that if broken down to the level of their cells, can miraculously reassemble and resurrect themselves

VIII. Movement:

Sponges are ______________ and do not move.

However, during sexual reproduction the fertilized egg develops into a free-swimming ______________ larva. The larva attach to the bottom of the ocean and undergo ______________ to form the adult sponges