Fluid flow

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major reference

science concerned with the response of fluids to forces exerted upon them. It is a branch of classical physics with applications of great importance in hydraulic and aeronautical engineering, chemical engineering, meteorology, and zoology.

analysis

Evolution in a different direction began when the French mathematicians Alexis Clairaut in 1740 and d’Alembert in 1752 discovered equations for fluid flow. Their equations govern the velocity components u and v at a point (x, y) in a steady two-dimensional flow. Like a vibrating string, the motion of a fluid is rather arbitrary, although not...

classification

...equal to the velocity of the object relative to the fluid divided by the velocity of sound in that fluid. Mach numbers less than one indicate subsonic flow; those greater than one, supersonic flow. Fluid flow, in addition, is classified as compressible or incompressible on the basis of the Mach number. For example, gas flowing with a Mach number of less than three-tenths may be considered...

eddies

fluid current whose flow direction differs from that of the general flow; the motion of the whole fluid is the net result of the movements of the eddies that compose it. Eddies can transfer much more energy and dissolved matter within the fluid than can molecular diffusion in nonturbulent flow because eddies actually mix together large masses of fluid. Flow composed largely of eddies is called...

flow rates of landforms

Congo River

The Congo has a regular flow, which is fed by rains throughout the year. At Kinshasa the flow has for many years remained between the high level of 2,310,000 cubic feet (65,000 cubic metres) per second, recorded during the flood of 1908, and the low level of 756,000 cubic feet (21,000 cubic metres) per second, recorded in 1905. During the unusual flood of 1962, however, by far the highest for a...

ice sheets

Flow rates in the interior of an ice sheet are very low, being measured in centimetres or metres per year, because the surface slope is minuscule and the ice is very cold. As the ice moves outward, the rate of flow increases to a few tens of metres per year, and this rate of flow increases still further, up to one kilometre per year, as the flow is channeled into outlet glaciers or ice streams....

mountain glaciers

...glaciers has been studied extensively. The first measurements date from the mid-18th century, and the first theoretical analyses date from the middle of the 19th century. These glaciers generally flow at rates of 0.1 to 2 metres per day, faster at the surface than at depth, faster in midchannel than along the margins, and usually fastest at or just below the equilibrium line. Cold, polar...

fluid properties

...change in shape when subjected to such a stress. This continuous and irrecoverable change of position of one part of the material relative to another part when under shear stress constitutes flow, a characteristic property of fluids. In contrast, the shearing forces within an elastic solid, held in a twisted or flexed position, are maintained; the solid undergoes no flow and can spring...

oxygen therapy

Oxygen is usually administered in controlled amounts per minute, a measure known as the flow rate. Flow rate is determined based on measurements of a patient’s blood oxygen levels. Two tests that are commonly used to assess the concentration of oxygen in the blood include the arterial blood gas (ABG) test and the pulse oximetry test. In the ABG test, blood is drawn from an artery, and blood...

physical sciences

...that the elements remain in contact, even though their shapes and relative positions may change with the flow. From such considerations are derived the differential equations that describe fluid motion (see fluid mechanics).

...heart of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory and illustrates the power of the mathematical methods characteristic of field theories. Further examples will be found in the mathematical description of fluid motion, in which the local velocity v(r) of fluid particles constitutes a field to which the notions of divergence and curl are naturally applicable.

water supply systems

The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur in the spring, and lower flow rates occur in the winter. When the average discharge of a river is not enough for a dependable supply of water, a conservation reservoir may be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam, allowing an artificial lake to be formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet...

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