Presented to the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY
by the
ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE
LIBRARY
1980
I. D. 1207 »k.<i.
g
A HANDBOOK OF**'
57182
SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA
Volume I
GENERAL
57182
Compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence
Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty
LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.
To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from
H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses :
Imperial House, Kingswav, London, W.C. 2, and
28 Abingdon Street, London, S. W. 1 ;
37 Peter Street, Manchester ;
1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff ;
23 Forth Street, Edinburgh ;
or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin.
Price 7s. 6d. net
Printed under the authority of
His Majesty's Stationery Office
By Frederick Hall at the University Press, Oxford.
NOTE
The region covered in this Handbook includes besides Liberia
proper, that part of European Russia, excluding Finland,
which drains to the Arctic Ocean, and the northern part of
the Central Asian steppes. The administrative boundaries of
Siberia against European Russia and the Steppe provinces
have been ignored, except in certain statistical matter, because
they follow arbitrary lines through some of the most densely
populated parts of Asiatic Russia.
The present volume deals with general matters. The two
succeeding volumes deal in detail respectively with western
Siberia, including Arctic Russia, and eastern Siberia.
Recent information about Siberia, even before the outbreak
of war, was difficult to obtain. Of the remoter parts little is
known. The volumes are as complete as possible up to 1914
and a few changes since that date have been noted. No
attempt, however, has been made to give any account of the
social, and political and economic conditions which are the
outcome of the Russian revolution of 1917.
Russian statistics have never been very trustworthy. As
regards Siberia, when given separately from Russia and Central
Asia, they are seldom of recent date. Such statistics as are
obtainable are given in the chapters to which they refer. All
figures relating to population must be accepted with caution.
The Admiralty will be glad to receive corrections and
additions.
CONTENTS
IAP. PAGE
Transliteration of Russian Characters ... 10
Maps of Siberia and Arctic Russia . . . .13
I. General Geographical Features .... 15
Position, boundaries and extent — West and East Siberia
— Main geographical divisions — Rivers — Lakes — Coasts.
II. Climate 28
General characteristics — Temperature — Pressure and
Winds— Precipitation — Climate and Agriculture — Climatic
Regions — Freezing and thawing of the Rivers of Siberia.
III. Vegetation 44
The Tundra — Coniferous Forests — The Amur Forests—
The Pacific Forests— Alpine Vegetation — Wooded Steppes
— Kirghiz Steppes — Transbaikal Steppes.
IV. Animal Life, Fisheries and Hunting . . . .51
Animal Life — Fisheries : A, Arctic Russian ; 13, Western
Siberian ; C, Eastern Siberian — Products of Wild Animals.
V. Native Tribes of Siberia and Arctic Russia . . 93
Classification: I. Palaeo-Siberian Tribes; II. Neo-
Siberian Tribes : (i) Finno-Ugrian, (ii) Samoyedic,
(hi) Turkic, (iv) Mongolic, (v) Tungusic.
VI. Colonization of Siberia 187
Elements of Immigrant Population — Distribution and
Number of Colonists — The present System of Colonization
— The Exile System — Colonization of the various Pro-
vinces — Distribution of Russian Population — The Yellow
Question and Colonization — Encouragement of Coloniza-
tion in Arctic Russia.
VII. Religion in Siberia 210
Russian Religion : History — The Clergy — Church
Government — The Orthodox Religion — Raskolniki — Sha-
manism.
VIII. Hygiene 228
Climatic complaints — Zymotic diseases — Nervous
diseases — Want of Sanitation.
IX. Agriculture . 232
Western Siberia — Eastern Siberia.
8
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
X. Live-Stock 248
Domestic animals — Apiculture — Dairy Industry.
XI. Timbeb Industry . . . . . . .201
Timber and Timber-trade — Sawmills — Wood Industries
XII. Mineral Resources 271
Iron — Copper — Gold — Silver — Zinc and Lead — Platinum
— Asbestos — Graphite — Mica — Petroleum — Other
Metallic Ores — Coal — Salt — Precious Stones and Building
Materials.
XIII. Manufacturing Industries 297
Kustarni Industries — Factories — Chinese Industries in
the Far East.
XIV. Natural Resources and Trade of Arctic Russia . 305
Timber — Agriculture and Stock Breeding — Mineral
Wealth— Fur and Eider-down — Industry and Trade.
XV. Divisions, Administration axd Towns . . . 309
Siberian Boundaries — Governments and Territories
— Administrative System — Administrative Districts —
Siberian Towns — Local Government.
XVI. Roads and Telegraphs 319
Roads and Travelling — Sledging — Telegraphs and Cables
— Wireless Telegraphy.
XVII. Railways 334
General Considerations — The Siberian Railway — The
Amur Railway — The Ussuri Railway — The Altai Rail-
way—Other Siberian Railways — The Murman Railway —
The Arkhangel-Vologda Railway — New and Projected
Railways.
XVIII. Historical Notes 356
Prehistoric Races — Early Relations with Russia — The
Early Conquerors — Attempts to conquer tho Amur Region
—The Treaty of Aigun — The Peking Convention — Russia
and Japan — Russian Advance in Mongolia.
Appendix. Weights and Measures — Money — Time — Calendar . 360
Glossary 370
INDEX 374
MAP
General Orogbaphical Map /» pocket
10 TRANSLITERATION OF RUSSIAN CHARACTERS
A a a a
B T 55 e 6 b
Be v
r o/ 8 g A in foreign works
E e e Ve when initial
M M ?/ i
I J i i
Kk &
Mm ^f m
H U 21? n
o
n n ^ ;>
C c s
im t M 7ft m z t
y v u
TRANSLITERATION OF
RUSSIAN CHARACTERS 11
**&$3?
/
X x X
kh
U n U
ts
Hn Y
ch
in id Qj Y//
sh
IU m W f
shch
r bi^
mute
bi bi M
i
bb/
mute
b -b lb /Z
yc
9 9
e
K) 10 K)
yu
H H
ya
e
th
vv2;
i
14 H 2/
i
The combinations bill and IM are transliterated i
NOTE
In the above table the principal forms of the letters of the
Russian alphabet, printed and cursive, which occur in official
Russian maps are given. In actual practice little or no
distinction is made between printed and cursive forms, and
consequently they have not been separated in this table.
In the case of each letter only the commonest form of the
small type is given, but in nearly all cases any form of the
capital type, reduced in size, may be used.
This system is the same as that used by the Admiralty
except as regards u;, which the Admiralty transliterate tz
instead of ts. The War Office system differs from the one
adopted in this book by transliterating jk by j instead of zh.
The sound of this letter is represented by the French j, which
is the equivalent of zh in English. The Royal Geographical
Society's system is the same as that of the Admiralty.
All proper names have been transliterated from official
Russian maps. In the frequent cases of disagreement between
different maps the 40-verst, or failing that the 100-verst map,
has been preferred. Only words indicating geographical
features as bay, lake, &c, have been translated. Russian
words capable of translation which form the Avhole or part
of a proper name have not been translated, but transcribed
into Roman characters, e. g. Byeli, Mzhne. The only excep-
tions to these rules are in the case of names in common English
usage such as White Sea, New Siberia Islands, &c. ; and
names that were originally English or French or of other
foreign languages and have been adopted by the Russians,
as de Castries Bay, Nordenskjold Archipelago, Jeannette
Islands, Valentine Bay, &c.
In order to simplify reference to Russian maps the adjectival
endings showing gender of all Russian names have been
retained. The result of this is a difference in the versions
of the same name applied respectively to a bay (feminine in
Russian), a village (masculine), or a church village (neuter).
NOTE
MAPS OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA
The only official map of Siberia which covers the whole
country is the Map of the Oceans, Seas, Rivers and Lakes of
Asiatic Russia and Adjoining Lands, scale 100 versts to an
inch (1 : 4,200,000), published by the Ministry of Ways and
Communications, 1905. This map is in four sheets. It is
coloured to show the drainage areas of the chief rivers. No
attempt is made to show relief. There is much detail in
relation to rivers, towns, villages, and tracks, but the map is
untrustworthy in many parts. Moreover it is badly printed
from worn type and somewhat illegible.
The topographical section of the Russian General Staff
publishes a Map of the Frontier Regions of Asiatic Russia, scale
10 versts to an inch (1 : 420,000). There are twenty sheets in
all of various dates from 1886 to 1911. The county covered
is from about lat. 58° N. to northern Mongolia, but in western
Siberia the sheets go north almost to the Ob delta. All
Russian Central Asia is covered. The map shows relief by
hill shading, but a great deal of it appears to be imaginary.
Beyond the better known districts along the chief rivers and
the railways this map cannot be relied upon. Roads and tracks
are shown and a great many names are marked. Rivers
are clearly indicated in blue. The map is generally legible.
Little reliance can be placed on the altitudes, given in feet.
The Ministry of Ways and Communications also published
in 1911 a Map of Communications of Asiatic Russia, scale
100 versts to an inch (1 : 4,200,000) in three sheets. The map
shows roads, railways and navigable rivers, as well as tele-
graph lines. There are rough indications of topographical
relief. The map is clear and legible if somewhat diagrammatic,
14 MAPS OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA
but like other maps of Siberia is far from accurate in many
parts.
The Ministry of Ways and Communications also publishes
a Map of Communications of Asiatic Russia in one sheet on
a scale of 300 versts to an inch (1 : 12,600,000). The last
edition revised to date was published in 1916 (Series No. 269).
The map is clearly printed and gives much accurate informa-
tion. It covers also European Russia. This map is a great
improvement on the larger scale map of communications.
The best small-scale map of Siberia is in two sheets in the
Atlas Marksa, Petrograd, 1910. It shows Siberia on a scale
of 1 : 10,000,000.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Emigration Department,
published in 1914 a large Atlas of Asiatic Russia, with three
volumes of text. It contains a number of economic maps
but no new topographical work and no maps on a scale as large
as 40 versts to an inch.
Special maps of parts of Siberia are noticed under the
chapters to which they refer.
Of European Russia there are maps on a scale of 10 versts
to an inch (1 : 420,000), of which a new edition, but with few
corrections, was issued in 1914.
The Ministry of Ways and Communications publishes a Map
of the Railways, Roads, and Waterways of European Russia on
a scale of 40 versts to an inch. The last edition is dated 1913,
and there are nine sheets, of which Nos. 2 and 3 cover most of
Arctic Russia. This map is much better executed than the
smaller-scale one of Asiatic Russia.
All the maps referred to above are in Russian. The only
good map of Siberia in Roman characters is a small scale one
(1 : 7,500,000) in Stieler's Hand Atlas (1916). It should be
noted that the transliteration of Russian characters by the
German system is liable to disguise many of the names.
Maps of the Amur River and Lake Baikal on a scale of
I : 1,750,000 are included in Volume III,
CHAPTER I
GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
Position, boundaries, and extent — West and East Siberia — Main geographical
divisions — Rivers — Lakes — Coasts.
Position, Boundaries, and Extent
Siberia is bounded by the Ural Mountains on the west, by
the Arctic and Pacific Oceans on the north and east. In the
south-west the generally accepted frontier runs from the
sources of the River Ural in the west across the Central Asian
steppe lands to the Tarbagatai Mountains, and thence by
a devious course that does not coincide with the watershed
eastward to the River Argun and along the Argun and the
Amur to the Pacific. The western part of this boundary,
against Russian Central Asia, is an arbitrary one with no
counterpart in geographical features. Siberia in fact is often
taken to include the two eastern steppe provinces of Akmo-
linsk and Semipalatinsk. The northern but not the south-
ern parts of these are certainly Siberian in character,
while the same applies to the western steppe province of
Turgai, which, however, is always excluded from Siberia.
For the purpose of this book the steppes in general are included
without adherence to administrative boundaries. The eastern
part of the southern boundary is against Chinese Mongolia
and Manchuria and near the Pacific for a few miles against
Korea. In its western part the Uryankhai region south of
the frontier is nominally Mongolian but actually in Russian
occupation. The total land frontier is about 10,000 miles
long and the sea frontier twice that length.
Siberia, excluding the steppe regions, has an area of about
4,800,000 square miles, which is If times the area of Europe,
2J times the area of European Russia, and 40 times the size
16 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
of the British Isles. Its latitudinal limits are 40° N. to 77 c
42' N., and it stretches from long. 59° E. to 174° 24' E. The
Steppe regions included with Siberia in this book add about
450,000 square miles.
The name Siberia is supposed to be derived from the Russian
word ChShp'B, which in the sixteenth century indicated the
chief Tartar settlement on the Irtish, and was afterwards
extended to include all Russian possessions in Asia. Later it
was restricted to its present application.
West and East Siberia
Siberia may be conveniently divided into two unequal parts,
western and eastern, of which western Siberia is the basin of
the Ob, and though the more important of the two divisions,
is only one-third of the area of eastern Siberia. The con-
trast between the south of Siberia with its great fertility,
and the north with its barrenness almost as extreme, is easily
recognized, but it is a contrast that holds chiefly in the west.
The contrast between western and eastern Siberia is not so
strongly marked and is often overlooked. The conception of
Siberia as a vast plain rising with the gentlest gradient from
the sea is true only for the west, or more strictly speaking for
the Ob basin, and, in Arctic Russia, for the Pechora basin.
East of the Yenisei these conditions do not hold. The
elevations become considerable, and east of the Lena the sur-
face is too irregular to be described as a plain. Low shores
comparable with those in the west only occur about the mouths
of the great rivers. In the extreme east the interior highlands
reach the sea and leave only small and disconnected areas
of plain along the coast.
Western Siberia extends through a great range of latitude
and merges into the steppes of Central Asia and the plains of
European Russia. Eastern Siberia is much narrower from
north to south, and narrows progressively towards the east.
Mountains cut it off from Central Asia and restrict its inter-
course with the west. In the Amur basin it opens naturally
to Manchuria.
WEST AND EAST SIBERIA 17
Western Siberia has thus a large area in temperate latitudes
not far removed from Europe, and fit for agriculture, while
eastern Siberia lies mainly in more northern latitudes far
removed from Europe, and its wide expanses of forests leave
little scope for agricultural development. The physical link
between western and eastern Siberia is Lake Baikal and the
land route that with difficulty rounds its southern end.
Main Geographical Divisions
The main features of the relief of Siberia are comparatively
simple, and consist of certain well-defined regions. Two high
plateaux occupy the heart of Asia, and extending from extreme
west to extreme east cover nearly two-fifths of the area of the
continent. The western plateau, including Anatolia, Armenia,
and Iran, is outside the region under consideration, but much
of the eastern plateau, extending from the Pamirs and the
Himalayas north-eastward towards the Bering Strait, lies
within Siberia. This plateau includes Tibet, Chinese Turkes-
tan, the Gobi desert, Mongolia, and much of Manchuria. A
great part of it is desert and little of it is suitable for agri-
culture and human settlement. It forms a buffer land
between that Asia which turns towards the Pacific and the
Indian Oceans, tropical and sub-tropical in the main, and that
which faces the Arctic Ocean and has its principal relations
with Europe. The plateau lands have always formed an
obstacle to the intermingling of the peoples on the two sides
and have discouraged the meeting of east and west.
North of these plateaux and their high bordering ranges lies
a broad alpine zone of rugged mountains and deep valleys.
This zone averages about 150 miles in width, and its peaks
rise to 5,000 or 6,000 ft. It includes the Altai Mountains and
the Barguzinsk and other mountains around Lake Baikal.
North-west of the alpine zone comes the belt of high plains
at an elevation of 1,500-2,000 ft. and with an average width of
200 miles, and beyond them, farther to the north-west, lie
the low plains, not over 500 ft., which slope down gently to
the Arctic Ocean.
18 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
Similar general physical features are repeated on a smaller
scale to the south-east of the high plateaux.
Volcanic activity has played little part in Siberia. On the
north-west border range of the high plateaux a few volcanic
formations occur, but there are neither active volcanoes nor
is there any historic record of one. In Kamchatka, however,
the Pacific ring of volcanoes touches Siberia, and several active
volcanoes occur, including Klyuchevskaya (16,130 ft.), said to
be the loftiest volcano in Asia.
To these distinctive orographical features of Siberia may
be added certain details.
The High Plateaux
The eastern plateau of Asia, the only one of the two which
concerns Siberia, covers over one-fifth of the continent and
extends 5,000 miles from south-west to north-east. It is
widest in the west and middle, narrows towards the north-east,
and is bordered by lofty ranges on all sides. Though called
a plateau it is by no means of a uniform altitude, but is cut
into terraces sharply defined from one another by escarpments
which form ranges rising 500 to 1,000 ft. above the general
level. The highest of these terraces is in the south and in-
cludes Tibet. It averages 12,000 to 13,000 ft. in height.
Next in height is the terrace that lies on the north of the
plateau, stretching from about long. 87° E. to long. 127° E.,
and includes north-west Mongolia and much of the Transbaikal
region of Siberia with the Selenga, Vitim, and Aldan plateaux.
This terrace has an average height of 3,000 to 5,000 ft. In
addition to the escarpments which fringe the terraces there are
a number of disjointed ranges, many of which run north-west
and south-east, and others more or less parallel to the greater
ranges. These still further diversify the surface of the plateau
and give it the appearance of a region of great structural com-
plexity. The plateau forms the water-parting between the
Arctic and Pacific drainage. No stream crosses it from one
side to the other. But on its surface there are few well-defined
watersheds between the rivers except the escarpments which
MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 19
fringe the terraces. In many cases adjacent rivers are
separated from one another only by marshes. In the east and
north-east the high plateau is forested, but in the centre and
the west it is a desert, and it is little more productive in the
south.
The high plateaux of Siberia are built of gneisses, schists,
clay-slates, and old limestones, all of Archaean and Palaeozoic
age. On these old rocks occur in places Jurassic and Tertiary
beds which are due to fresh -water lakes in those periods, at a
time when the lowlands to the north were submerged and the
proximity of the sea caused greater precipitation on the
plateaux than is now the case. -
The Great Border Ranges
Along the north-western and the south-eastern sides of the
great plateau are continuous lofty border ranges. The north-
western range is the most continuous in Siberia and in it occur
the greatest heights. The continuity of this range is badly
shown on most maps of Siberia, and its nomenclature is some-
what confused. The Tienshan, the Sayansk, the Ulan-Burgasi,
the South Muya, and the Aldan Mountains are all parts of the
Uorth-western border range. It is 17-25 miles wide and 6,000
to 8,000 ft. high in the west, decreasing in the north-east to
4,000 and 3,000 ft. The south-east border range of the great
plateau is known as the Great Khingan Range from China to the
Amur River and thence to the north-east as the Stanovoi
Mountains, including the Dzhugdzhur, Kolimsk, 1 and Anadir
Mountains. There is still some doubt about the exact course
of the northern end of the Great Khingan and its junction
with the Stanovoi Range. In most maps of Siberia it is repre-
sented as crossing the Amur at the confluence of the Shilka and
there terminating, while the Yablonoi Mountains are repre-
sented as running eastward from the head streams of the
Olekma, forming the northern boundary of the Amur basin
1 This is the original use of the name Kolimsk Mountains, which is more
generally hut erroneously applied to the range east of the Kolima River.
B 2
20 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
and joining the Stanovoi Mountains which continue to the
north-east. There seems to be no information to support this
suggestion, which originated arbitrarily in the days when
little was known of the Amur basin. The supposed continuity
of the Stanovoi and Yablonoi Mountains has no existence, and
the Stanovoi Mountains in reality are of the same structure
and origin as the Great Khingan Range, which crosses the
Amur in the vicinity of the River Kumara, about 600 miles
east of the confluence of the Shilka. More light, however, is
needed on the junction of these ranges.
The Great Khingan Range is about 1,000 to 2,500 ft. above
the level of the plains to the east, but it rises little above the
general level of the plateau, so that, viewed from the west
from the surface of the plateau, it has hardly the appearance
of a mountain -range. Its crest is 3,000 to 4,500 ft. The
Stanovoi Mountains are little known, and their north-eastern
termination is uncertain. They seem to maintain the general
features of the Great Khingan Range.
The continuity of the north-western range is broken in
places by great trenches or gently graded slopes which give
access from the plateau to the plains beyond. These trenches
are the most important orographical features in Central Asia,
for they link the lowlands of Siberia and the Transcaspian
steppes with the high plateau and China. The most striking
is the so-called Dzungarian trench, down which runs the head-
stream of the Irtish from its source on the plateau to Lake
Zaisan. As it descends the Irtish receives many tributaries
from the Mongolian Altai, which stand above the northern side
of the trench. The Dzungarian trench presents an easy route,
and was one of the ways by which the Mongols spread west-
wards to nearer Asia and Europe. Farther east the Selenga
River descends to Lake Baikal in another trench and affords
a much-used route via Kyakhta between Siberia and China.
By the lower part of this trench the Siberian Railway climbs
to the plateau and by an eastern branch of this trench, down
which flows the Uda, the Siberian road ascends to Chita on its
way to the east.
MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 21
The Vitim, Olekma and Konam trenches are others along
the range, named from the streams which flow down them.
The Alpine Zone
The broad zone of alpine highlands lying north-west of the
)lateau is a complex mass of ranges and spurs separated by
Leep valleys which are often swampy and strewn with boulders.
Le Altai, Baikal and Barguzinsk Mountains are part of this
3gion. It has an average width of about 150 miles and a
length of about 2,000 miles. The summits range from 5,000 to
>,000 ft. Towards the north-east it becomes lower and less
rugged as it meets the Arctic Ocean. The so-called Kolimsk
Mountains (see above) are the most striking features of the
alpine foreland in the north-east. A longitudinal valley
10 to 25 miles wide is often noticeable between the border
range and the alpine foreland. Most parts of this valley are
occupied by secondary tributaries of the main rivers. The
valley floor has an elevation of 1,000 to 2,000 ft. The alpine
foreland is built of granites, syenites and crystalline slates. In
it occurs the deep depression in which lies Lake Baikal. The
greater part of the alpine foreland is densely forested, except
where the peaks rise above the limit of the tree growth, and
little of it is accurately known. The wild inhospitable nature
of the region and the virgin forests offer few inducements to its
penetration by man except where rich gold deposits occur, as
in the Altai Mountains and the Yeniseisk district. In places,
however, the fertility of the mountain valleys is attracting
Russian colonists. Routes through the region are difficult.
Much skill was required to carry the Siberian Railway round
the south of Lake Baikal.
The alpine foreland occurs also to the south-east of the
Great Khingan Range. It is 70 to 150 miles wide in China,
but disappears towards the north-east and is lost below the
waters of the Sea of Okhotsk.
The High Plains
Beyond the alpine foreland lies a broad zone, about 200 miles
wide, of hi^h plains at an elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 ft. They
22 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
have few mountains, the only important ones being the
Yeniseisk and Verkhoyansk Mountains, but the deep-cut
gorges of the rivers draining from the plateau and the alpine
zone give a hilly appearance to the plains. The plains are
composed of more or less horizontal strata of Upper Devonian,
Secondary and Tertiary ages in which the rivers have easily
cut valleys 400 to 800 ft. deep. The high plains are forested
in the wetter north-east but are steppe lands in the drier
south-west.
On the south-eastern side of the plateau there is a belt of
high plains about 100 miles wide. A range of granitic and
schistose mountains called indifferently the Little Khingan, the
Bureya and the Dousse Aliii, runs along these plains parallel
to the Great Khingan Mountains. Beyond these mountains,
still farther east are the Sikhota Alin Range of the Maritime
Province and the ranges crossing Sakhalin and Kamchatka.
The Low Plains
That part of Siberia which has most economic importance
excluding only the Amur valley, and including practically the
whole of western Siberia, comprises the Ioav plains. They
are seldom over 500 ft. in elevation, except where a few
mountain ranges occur, and the}' slope gradually down to the
Arctic Ocean. In some places an escarpment separates the
high from the low plains : in other places the transition is
gradual. The gradient of the plains is very gentle, being less
than a foot per mile in the west. This gentle gradient is
continued beneath the sea and gives shoal water far to the
north of Siberia in the Arctic Ocean. Between the Urals and
the Yenisei there are no hills of any importance. East of
the Yenisei are the Pitski Range and the Tunguska Mountains
on the borders of the high plains, the Syeverma Mountains
(3,000 ft.) north of the Lower Tunguska, the Birranga Moun-
tains in the Taimir Peninsula, the Vilyuisk Mountains west of
the Lena, and the Verkhoyansk and Orulgan Mountains
(4,000 ft.) east of the Lena. The highest peak in the Verk-
hoyansk Mountains is said to be 7,900 ft. Farther to the
MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 23
east the plains arc more diversified and much narrower. They
scarcely merit the name of plains as they merge into the
plateau region of the north-east.
The low plains of Siberia are of Palaeozoic rocks deeply
overlaid with post-glacial deposits showing that their emer-
gence from the waters of the Arctic Ocean is recent from
a geological standpoint. Many gigantic boulders scattered
I over their surface were no doubt dropped from floating icebergs.
The south-western part of the plains is semi-barren steppe-
land beyond the confines of Siberia, but farther north these
give place to rich meadow lands where the rainfall and black
earth afford the best possible conditions for corn-growing and
cattle-raising. Farther north the grass lands give way to
forests, which in their turn thin out and disappear in the
treeless swampy tundra which fringes the Arctic Ocean from
Scandinavia to the Bering Strait. The tundra is useless for
cultivation and settlement.
Across the western plains there are no obstacles to communi-
cation in any direction except the swamps of the tundra,
which are impassable in summer, and the dense forests.
The Plains of Arctic Russia
The characteristic features of the low plains of Siberia
occur farther west in Arctic Russia, but their continuity is
interrupted by the low folds of the Ural Mountains which
extend from about lat. 50° N to the Arctic Ocean. Their
summits vary from 2,600 to 5,000 ft., and the greatest height
is Telposiz (5,530 ft.) in about lat. 64° N. The Urals are low
and wide, and consist of three discontinuous ranges in the
south, between which there are many routes. North of lat. 60°
N. they are more compact and continuous. The range becomes
lower as it approaches Baidaratskaya Bay, and reappears
in the low hills of the Yamal Peninsula. Two branches run
from the Urals towards the north : west. The first is the Timan
Range, which crosses the plains from about lat. 60° to 62° N.
to the Kanin Peninsula. Its greatest height is about 750 ft.,
and its average height considerably less. The second range is
24 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
the Pai-Khoi, which runs from about lat. 67° to 68° N. to
Yaigach and Novaya Zemlya.
For the rest Arctic Russia east of the White Sea is low and
swampy like north-western Siberia, and covered with forest
and tundra.
The Kola Peninsula
West of the White Sea the country differs. The Kola
Peninsula is geographically an extension of the mountainous
region of Scandinavia. The interior is elevated and the north
coast high and steep. Tundra in the north and meagre
orests in the south cover the peninsula. South of the Kola
Peninsula is the low-lying lake-studded region on the west of
the White Sea, in reality an eastern extension of the Finnish
lake plateau.
Rivers
Across the plains of Arctic Russia and Siberia many great
rivers drain from the highland regions in the south to the
Arctic Ocean. The uniformity in the direction of flow and
the other characteristics of these rivers find their explanation
in the relief of the land. The largest rivers are the Ob,
Yenisei, and Lena with their many tributaries. They all rise
in the central high plateau and drain through the alpine fore-
land to the plains across which they flow with sluggish, winding
courses whose length is dependent on the breadth of the plains.
Further east, where the highland region trends northward
towards the coast, the rivers are necessarily shorter, swifter,
and more direct ; but the Yana, Indigirka, Kolima, and
Omolon show on a smaller scale most of the characteristics
of the livers of the west. The narrowness of north-eastern
Siberia and the proximity of the highlands to the sea cause
the eastward drainage to flow in short rapid streams. The
only exception is the Amur, which is comparable to the
northern rivers. Like them it drains from the high plateau,
across the alpine foreland and the plains. The chief respect
in which it differs from the other great Siberian rivers, in
addition to its Pacific outlet, is that a great part of the courses
RIVERS 25
of the main river and the tributaries are on the high plains and
the plateau.
The rivers of Arctic Russia, rising in the Urals, are neces-
sarily shorter than those of western Siberia, but in other
respects the Northern Dvina and the Pechora are similar to
»the Ob.
Importance of the Rivers
Their long courses over gently sloping plains give the
Siberian rivers certain characteristics which have had a great
influence on the history and development of Siberia. In the
first place, the absence of a very decided slope means that the
rivers wind a great deal, and have ill-defined watersheds
which are easily crossed. In the second place, the gentle
gradient of the plains makes the rivers slow and navigable
almost to their sources. Lastly, the northward course of
most of the rivers results in their waters swinging to the
east, owing to the rotation of the earth, and as the rivers
erode easily in the soft plain, their right or eastern banks are
generally high and suitable for settlements, while their left
or western banks are low, ill-defined, and liable to inundation.
In their plain courses the rivers are sometimes several miles
wide, shallow, and studded with sandbanks and islands,
which are often completely inundated in times of flood.
Their channels change from year to year, and their depth
varies with the season. Yet despite all drawbacks the rivers
form the chief highways of Siberia, and their value is enhanced
by the vastness of the plains, the dense forests, and the
swampy tundra, all of Avhich make land travelling difficult
if not impossible. There are no towns of any importance in
Arctic Russia and Siberia which are not on navigable water-
ways. Of all the physical features of Siberia, it is the
rivers that have had the most progressive influence on the
country, the Ob, the Irtish, and the Yenisei most, and the
Lena least of all the great rivers ; but as population spreads
eastward even the Lena will take its share. Railways will
never replace waterways : they will make east and west
20 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
routes, but will feed and be fed by the waterways. Railways
link Siberia to the outer world, and in a measure advertise, it,
but the rivers do the work of real progress and settlement.
The chief disadvantage of the Siberian rivers is that most of
them flow north, and so give access only to the Arctic Ocean,
and all of them are closed to navigation by ice for more than
half the year. The northern exits of the Ob, Yenisei, and
other rivers have so far made them of use principally for
internal commerce, and militated against their value as gate-
ways of external trade. But there are signs that this will not
always remain the case to the same extent (see Vol. II,
Chapter IV).
In the southern part of the plains, the region of most value
for human settlement, the tributaries of the different systems
closely approach one another, and the basins are so dove-
tailed that by short and easy portages there is water com-
munication from one end of Siberia to the other. This facili-
tated the penetration of Siberia by the Cossacks. Passing
from the Ob to the Yenisei and Lena they reached the Sea of
Okhotsk. And it was probably due to their missing the Amur
and being led further north by the waterways to uninviting
shores that Russia's entry into the Amur basin was so long
delayed. Her claims on the Ussuri and the Yellow 7 Sea coast
came too late to be firmly established before Japan had begun
to look westward.
The extent of the Siberian plains is so vast that many parts
are at a considerable distance from a navigable waterway.
In the north, where the rivers are fewer, and many run direct
to the sea, this isolation of certain areas is most marked.
Some of the northern regions away from rivers or drained
by small independent streams are almost unknown except to
wandering tribes.
Lakes
Siberia has many lakes, particularly in the west. The
largest lie in the alpine foreland in the south. Lake Baikal
rovers an area of nearly 13,200 square miles, and is 400 miles
:
LAKES 27
long and 18 to 66 miles broad. Lake Zaisan, which lies outside
Siberia proper, on the course of the Irtish, is 707 square miles
in area. The Kirghiz and Baraba steppes are dotted with
small lakes, many with ill-defined margins. On the Selenga
and Vitim plateaux there are also many small lakes. In the
ower part of the Amur basin are several larger lakes, including
Lake Kada and Kizi near the mouth of the Amur, Lake
Odzhal further up, and Lake Khanka (1,700 square miles) in
the Ussuri valley, partly within Chinese Manchuria.
Coasts
The coast-line of Siberia has a great length, but little of it
is important, as traffic to and from Siberia is principally
overland via European Russia. The northern coast-line is
still imperfectly charted except in the extreme west. It is
blocked with ice for the greater part of the year, and in no
month is navigation free from difficulties on account of ice.
The coast of Russia west of the White Sea is the only part of
the Russian Arctic coast which is approachable all the year
round.
The Pacific coast of Siberia is less inhospitable, is faced
with deeper water, and has several good harbours, but it
opens to an unproductive hinterland, and is blocked with ice
for much of the year. These drawbacks decrease progressively
towards the south. Consequently the most important seaport,
Vladivostok, lies at the extreme . south of Russian Pacific
territorjr.
The coasts of Siberia and the off -lying islands are described
in detail in subsequent chapters in Volumes II and III.
CHAPTER II
CLIMATE
General characteristics — Temperature — Pressure and winds — Precipita-
tion — Climate and Agriculture— Climatic Regions — Freezing and thawing
of rivers of Siberia.
General Characteristics
The climate of Siberia is typically continental, and is
characterized by a great range of temperature between winter
and summer ; a reversal of pressure conditions, and conse-
quently of winds, between winter and summer ; and a small
amount of annual precipitation. In a general way it is com-
parable with the climate of European Russia, but is more
extreme in all respects. The winter is long and very cold,
but generally calm and dry with little cloud to interfere with
the bright sunshine. The chief populated parts of Siberia lie
between lat. 50° N. and lat. 60° N., and so receive, roughly
speaking, as much insolation as the British Isles, but the ex-
treme north has a certain period of darkness in midwinter.
January is the coldest month. Snowfall is seldom deep.
The months of vegetative growth are May to October, with
a mean temperature of about 56° F. in western Siberia, and
about 53° to 60° F. in eastern Siberia, but only the three
months of June, July, and August can really be regarded as
summer. Most of the precipitation occurs in that period.
In September the temperatures begin to fall rapidly. Spring
and autumn are short seasons and are scarcely noticeable
except in the south.
The causes of these characteristics are to be found in the
physical circumstances of the country. It is a compact land
mass open to the north by gently sloping plains, but closed
to the south by mountains which serve to a great degree as
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 29
climatic barriers. The moderating influence of the ocean can
be felt only in the extreme east, where the Dzhugdzhur and
Stanovoi Mountains lie near the coast, and prevent the oceanic
influences penetrating far inland. The only ocean to which
the plains of Siberia lie open is the cold Arctic Ocean, which
is so encumbered by ice for a great part of the year, that it
has little beneficial influence on the climate. Lastly, the
I country rises towards the south, except in the extreme west,
and so the temperatures are lower than they would otherwise
be, despite the comparatively low latitudes of that part of
Siberia.
Temperature
The mean annual temperature of practically the whole of
Siberia is below 36° F., and of all, except the extreme south,
below 32° F., but these figures convey little because of the
great seasonal range of temperature. The winter temperatures
are much lower, an4 the summer temperatures slightly higher
than the latitudes suggest. The greatest extremes occur
in the north-east between the Aldan and the Arctic Ocean,
where Verkhoyansk, in lat. 67° N., has a January mean of
— 60-7° F. and a July mean of 59-7° F., or a range of over
120° F., probably greater than occurs elsewhere on the face
of the globe. Other places in eastern Siberia much farther
south experience very low winter temperatures, such as
Yakutsk in lat. 62° l'N., which has a January mean of
— 46-0° F. From this pole of cold in the Yana and Lena
region winter temperatures increase in all directions. Even
to the north along the shores of the Arctic Ocean the mid-
winter temperatures are not so low as at Verkhoyansk. At
Sagastir in the Lena delta, in lat. 73° 23' N., the mean of
February, the coldest month, in two years' observations, was
— 364° F., and the Fram, in her drift across the Arctic Ocean,
had a January mean no lower than —31-9° F. In the east
the waters of the Pacific in winter carry comparatively high
coastal temperatures north as far as the Chukchee Peninsula,
but the fall westward to the low temperatures of the interior
30 CLIMATE
is rapid. Thus the January mean of Vladivostok is 4-8° F.,
of Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka 13-8° F., but of Nikolaevsk
— 10-1° F. To the west and particularly the south-west of the
pole of cold the increase in winter temperatures is more
gradual. Yeniseisk has a January mean of — 10-1° F., Tomsk
of 3-3° F., and Tobolsk of -2-2° F. Even in the Steppe
provinces the January mean ranges from —4° P. in the north
to 17-5° F. at Lake Balkhash in about lat. 45° N. A January
mean above freezing point does not occur north of Tashkent
and Bokhara near the southern frontier of Asiatic Russia.
In north-west Siberia the Atlantic influences make themselves
felt to a small extent ; thus Berezov on the Ob in about lat.
63° 40' N. has a January mean of —10-6° F., and Arkhangel
in 64° 32' N. has a January mean of 7-5° F. This influence
is considered further on p. 34. The freezing of Siberian
rivers is considered at the end of this chapter, and ice in the
polar seas in Vol. II, Chapters I and IV, and Vol. Ill,
Chapter II.
In summer the highest temperatures occur in the south and
south-west, and there is a decrease towards the north and
east coasts, but the distribution of temperature conforms to
latitude much more than in winter. The shores of the Arctic
Ocean have a July and August mean generally well above
freezing point, thus Sagastir in the Lena delta has a July
mean of 40-3° F., and the Frarn, in the Arctic Ocean, had
a July mean no lower than 32° F. As far south as the Arctic
Circle the increase of temperature is comparatively rapid, but
south of the Arctic Circle it becomes more gradual. In the
east temperatures as a rule are slightly higher than in cor-
responding latitudes in the west, but this small difference
disappears in the south. The extreme south of Siberia has
a July mean of over 71° F., and in the Steppe provinces the
July mean goes as high as 80° F. On the east coasts the Pacific
makes itself felt as a cooling influence, and the July isotherms,
like the January ones, run roughly parallel with the coast from
Sakhalin to the mouth of the Anadir. Thus Okhotsk in lat.
59° 21' N. has a July mean of only 55-2° F., or about 11° F
TEMPERATURE 31
lower than Olekminsk, in the interior in much the same lati-
tude, and Petropavlovsk in lat. 52° 53' N. has an August mean
of 58*3° compared with 66*9° F. at Yeniseisk on about the same
parallel. Despite the low summer pressure over Siberia these
maritime influences do not penetrate far inland. Lake Baikal
exercises locally the functions of a sea in reducing summer
temperatures in its vicinity.
Pressure and Winds
The low winter temperatures of Siberia result in an ex-
tensive high-pressure system developing over the country at
that season. The frozen ocean to the north aids in its de-
velopment. In January the highest pressure lies SW. of Lake
Baikal, and extends thence to the NE. and SW. The pressure
decreases towards the NW. of European Russia, where a
comparatively low pressure area extends from the Atlantic
over the Barents Sea, and towards the east, where a wide low
pressure system lies over the North Pacific. Lake Baikal
causes a local weakening of pressure in the heart of Siberia.
As a result of these pressure conditions over Siberia the winter
winds as a rule are light, generally from the SW. in the north,
and from the E. and SE. in the south. But calms are charac-
teristic of a Siberian winter, and consequently the intense cold
is tolerable, and has comparatively little ill effect on vegeta-
tion and human activities. In March the centre of high pres-
sure moves northwards to the Arctic Ocean, and by April the
pressure over Siberia and the Pacific is almost equalized, while
in May the rapidly rising temperature results in the formation
of an extensive low pressure sj^stem over the country, which
reaches its greatest development in July. The reversal in
pressure conditions results in inflowing currents of air through-
out Siberia. In western Siberia westerly and northerly winds
prevail, in the Taimir region cool northerly winds, and in the
north-east easterly winds. On the Ussuri and Maritime
regions there is a more marked monsoon effect owing to the
elose proximity of the cool ocean to the comparatively warm
32 CLIMATE
land. Vladivostok has a prevalence of warm south-easterly
winds during summer.
As a result of the low pressure the summer winds of Siberia
are often strong, and gales occur at that season. The moun-
tains of the south form a fairly effective barrier against
southerly air currents, but fohn winds, warmed by their
descent from high altitudes, not infrequently blow in the
northern valleys of the Altai and Sayansk Mountains.
Precipitation
Precipitation throughout the whole of Siberia is slight and
occurs chiefly in summer. It is least in the far north, where
it is less than 8 ins. in the year, and it increases towards the
south, reaching its maxima of 18 ins. or over in the south-west
and the Altai region, and 20 ins. or more in the Amur region.
In Kamchatka, where the monsoon is well marked, the total
annual fall is 40 ins. or more. In the Steppe provinces in the
far south-west the annual precipitation again decreases towards
the Sea of Aral, where it is under 4 ins. In the Tienshan
Mountains, however, between the steppes and Chinese territory,
the annual amount rises to three or four times that figure.
As regards seasonal distribution, summer, as already stated,
is the time of most precipitation. On an average 50-55 per
cent, of the annual amount falls during June, July, and August.
The daily fall is generally slight. The southern part of the
Steppe provinces are again an exception, for they receive most
of their scanty rainfall in winter. The only parts of Siberia
proper that receive an appreciable amount of winter precipi-
tation are the Vasuigan swamps and the Ishim steppes in the
west, and Sakhalin and Kamchatka in the east. The Arctic
coast, the Transbaikal, and the upper Amur regions are par-
ticularly dry in winter.
Cloudiness is a general accompaniment of the rainy season.
Drought is characteristic of many parts of Siberia, although
the country is well supplied with great rivers. It must be
remembered, however, that these rivers have their sources in
PBECTPITATION 33
the mountains of the southern frontier lands, where rainfall is
more abundant than on the plains ; and furthermore, that
their stoppage by frost for more than half the year, and the
slight loss they suffer from evaporation, except for a few weeks,
are factors which combine to conserve their water-supply.
Lastly, the frozen subsoil of the greater part of Siberia and the
gentle gradients of the plains, especially in the west, make
drainage slow, and give the country a wet appearance despite
the small amount of precipitation that falls.
Climate and Agriculture
The influence exercised by the climate on most aspects of
human activity in Siberia is noticed more particularly in
the chapters on agriculture and communications, but attention
may be drawn here to a few more general relations between
climate and agriculture.
The high summer temperatures, if they were unaccompanied
by cloudiness and rainfall, would be disastrous to agriculture.
As it is the clouds temper the heat, and the rainfall is so evenly
distributed throughout the summer months that agriculture
receives the maximum benefit from it. However, a small
diminution in the annual rainfall is most serious, as there is
no margin to spare. In the Steppe provinces, where the summer
rainfall is slight, and the summer temperatures very high,
agriculture can be practised only along the rivers of the far
south where irrigation is possible. In the Amur region the
abundant summer rains favour agriculture while the monsoon
region, including Kamchatka, has too much rain, in relation
to its low summer temperatures, for agriculture to flourish.
The scarcity of snow in winter, throughout most parts of
Siberia, allows the ground to freeze to great depths even in
the south of the country. A permanently frozen subsoil
extends north and east of a line drawn from the Kanin Penin-
sula, on the White Sea, east by Be.rezov on the Ob to Turuk-
hansk on the Yenisei, thence south-east to Ilimsk and round
the north and east of Lake Baikal, and west to the Uryankhai
region : the lower Amur, Ussuri, and Maritime regions are
SIBERIA q
34 CLIMATE
excluded from this area. In summer the surface soil, in the
area so denned, thaws to certain depths. Tree growth is not
prevented, as the roots spread out laterally when they reach
the frozen soil. In fact, some of the finest forests of Siberia
are in this region. Provided a district has a sufficiently long
and warm summer, the frozen soil actually assists cereal
cultivation. The short roots of cereals do not reach the frozen
subsoil, which on the other hand ensures a supply of water in
the upper layers, and so saves the crops from disaster in case
of drought. Of course, over the greater part of northern
Siberia cereal cultivation is impracticable on account of the
shortness of the summer and the waterlogged soil.
In western Siberia, with its greater winter snowfall and its
higher winter temperatures, the soil does not remain per-
manently frozen. In other respects, however, the lower winter
temperatures of eastern Siberia are not more unfavourable to
agriculture than the higher temperatures of western Siberia,
for both are too low to allow work on the land in winter.
Frosts which occur as late as early summer and as early as
August or September are most injurious to agriculture. In
some agricultural regions July is the only month in which
frost never occurs.
Climatic Regions
While practically the whole of Siberia experiences the
same type of climate, the country can be divided into certain
climatic regions. These regions have no clearly denned
boundaries, and they merge imperceptibly into one another.
The differences between their climates is in degree rather
than in kind. The regions are as follows :
1. The Arctic region stretching from Lapland through
Arctic Russia and Siberia to Bering Strait and extending
southward to about lat. 64° N. in the west, and about lat.
67° N. in the east. Summer is very short and the temperature
does not rise above 60° F. Winter is long and cold with
a January mean of — 10° F. to — 40° F. except in the west.
Spring and autumn scarcely occur. Rainfall in summer and
CLIMATIC REGIONS 35
snowfall in winter are both slight. This region has neither
I) severe a winter climate, nor so warm a summer climate as
ist-central Siberia (Region 3).
The climate of the Kola Peninsula and the White Sea
strict forms a sub-region characterized chiefly by a milder
inter than the rest of the region. This is due to the warm
Atlantic drift, the influence of which is felt chiefly on the
Murman coast but to a lesser extent in the White Sea and
Kanin region, and rapidly disappears on the mainland farther
east. The winter climate of Novaya Zemlya, particularly on
the west side, feels its influence in comparatively high tempera-
tures and in amount of precipitation, and Franz Josef Land
may do so in exceptional years. The summer climate of this
sub-region differs little from that of Arctic Siberia.
Temperature and
Precipitation in
Arctic Siberia
Precipitat
ion (inches)
Jan. mean
July mean Range June- Aug.
Annual total
°F.
°F. ° F.
Franz Josef Land —11-5
36-1 47-6
9
?
Obdorsk —16-4
56-5 72-9
4*7
11-1
Tolsti Nos -28-8
51-8 80-6
20
12-0
Turukhansk — 18-7
59-5 78-2
7-5
140
Sagastir : Lena delta -36-4 (Feb.) 40-3 76-7
j
?
Fram 1 -31-9
32-0 63-9
?
?
Temperature and
Precipitation in Arctic Russia
Precipitation (inches)
Jan. mean
July mean Range June- Aug.
Annual total
°F.
° F. ° F.
Kola 11-8
54-8 43-0
40
8-0
Arkhangel 7-5
60-4 (Aug.) 52-9
6-0
15-5
Kem 12-4
58-3 45-9
1
15-0
Troitsko -Pechorskoe — 1 • 1
60-2 61-3
?
?
Karmakul: Novaya 2-3 (Feb.) 43-2 40-9
1-7
12-5
Zemlya
2. West-central Siberia is the chief populated region of
Siberia and includes the south part of the Tobolsk Province,
1 The mean of the temperatures taken in the Fram from October 1893 to
July 1896 during her drift in the ice from between lat. 77° 30' N. and
lat. 85° 55' N.
C 2
36 CLIMATE
most of the Tomsk Province, the south of the Yeniseisk and
Irkutsk Provinces, and the northern parts of the Steppe
provinces. Both winter and summer are warmer than in the
Arctic region. The January temperature varies from 0° P.
to -10° F., and the July temperature from 64° F. to 70° F.
Early morning frosts may occur as late as June or as early as
September. The mean annual rainfall is about 16 to 20 ins.,
of which more than half falls in the three summer months.
On account of the high temperatures summer, like winter,
is a period of clear weather despite the rainfall.
Temperature and Precipitation in West-Central Siberia
Precipitation {inches)
Jan. mean
July mean
Range
June- Aug. Annual total
°F.
o p
°F.
Bogoslovski
— 2-2
62-6
64-8
8-0
16-5
Tobolsk
-2-2
66-4
68-6
9-5
18-0
Ishim
-3-8
66-0
69-8
9-0
17-5
Narim
-7-4
67-4
, 74-8
j
1
Tomsk
-3-3
65-6
68-9
10-0
200
Kurgan
-1-5
68-7
70-2
J
?
Yeniseisk
-10-1
66-9
77-0
6-5
170
Krasnoyarsk
-3-6
66-7
70-3
?
?
Barnaul
-2-2
67-1
69-3
5-0
120
Irkutsk
-7-4
65-1
72-5
8-5
16-0
3. East-central Siberia is the largest region and includes most
of the Yakutsk Province except the extreme north, the north
of the Irkutsk Province, and the Transbaikal Province. The
climate is the most extreme in the whole of Siberia, and is
characterized by the great severity of the winter rather than
by exceptional warmth in summer. In January the mean
temperature ranges from —60° F. in the north to —4° F. in
the south, but some parts of the south on account of their
considerable elevations have a Januarj^ mean much lower
than —4° F. The absolute minimum recorded is —90° F. at
Verkhoyansk. Several months may occur during which the
temperature remains below — 20° F., but on the other hand
great ranges may occur in any month except July. July
has a mean temperature ranging from 60° F. to ^70° F
CLIMATIC REGIONS 37
Precipitation varies from an annual total of 5 or 6 ins. to
17 or 18 ins. Snowfall is nowhere heavy and the Transbaikal
Province is almost snowless.
Temperature and Precipitation in East-Central Siberia
Precipitation {inches
Jan. mean
July mean
Range
June- Aug. Annualtotal
°F.
°F.
°F.
Kyakhta
-18-4
67-1
85-5
7-5
10-0
Olekminsk
-33-3
66-0
99-3
7-5
11-0
Yakutsk
-46-0
66-2
112-2
6-5
12-0
Verkhoyansk
-60-7
59-7
120-4
j
5-0
Novi-Selenginsk
-15-7
70-5
86-2
y
y
Verkhne-Udinsk
-17-3
66-2
83-5
4-5
8-0
4. Amur and South-east region. — This has a somewhat
anomalous climate, for not only is much of the region farther
south than any other part of Siberia proper, but it is the only
region that is influenced hj the ocean to any great extent.
The Amur valley shows climatic features intermediate between
those of the Transbaikal and the south-east coast region, which
has January means above zero and in which thaws may occur
in any month. A few miles inland the continental low
temperatures occur. Strong winds on the coast may make
the winter, despite its higher temperatures, much more
unpleasant than in the colder but calmer interior. Winter
minima as low as —27° F. have been recorded at Vladivostok.
July means are about 65° F. to 70° F., decreasing towards
the north, but summer may be chilly on account of strong
wet winds. Monsoon influences cause heavy summer rainfall,
decreasing from the coast inland. As a rule more than half
the total annual precipitation falls in summer. Dense fogs
are common on the coast in summer.
Sakhalin and Kamchatka are extreme examples of this
type of climate, but their sea-girt position redeems them frorc
the severity of the continental winter and mitigates the
summer heat. Rainfall is heavy all the year round. Ayan,
on the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, with a total annual
fall of 44 J ins. gets the same heavy rainfall, but the northern
coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk get comparatively little.
38 CLIMATE
Temperature and Precipitation in the Amur Region and on
South-east Coast
Precipitation {inches)
Jan. mean
July mean
Range
June- Aug.
Annual total
°F.
o ji
°F.
Nerchinsk
-21-3
65-3
86-6
11-5
16-0
Blagovyeshchensk
-13-7
70-3
84-0
11-5
20-0
Khabarovsk
-13-2
69-4
82-6
12-5
22-0
Sofiisk
-30-8
59-5
90-3
?
V
Nikolaevsk
-10-1
62-2
72-3
6-5
17*5
Vladivostok
4-8
69-4
04-6
0-0
15-0
Olgi Bay
8-9
68-0
59-1
9-0
20-5
Alexandrovsk
(Sakhalin)
- Of)
62-0 (Aug.) 62 -6
7-5
22-5
Okhotsk
-15-9
55-2 (Aug.) 71-1
3-5
8-0
Petropavlovsk
(Kamchatka)
13-8 (Feb.) 58-3 (Au<
I.) 72-1
6-5
48-0
5. The Steppe region of the south-west has extreme con-
tinental conditions of climate but with great summer heat
more marked than severe winter cold. The January means
range from about zero to 10° F. and the July means from
70° F. to 80° F. Rainfall is slight at all seasons and much
of the region is practically a desert. However, the best agri-
cultural region in Siberia lies where the steppe merges into
West-central Siberia (Region 2). Strong winds sometimes
occur in winter with drifting snow and in summer with
driven sand. Only the northern part of the Steppe region
is considered in this book.
Temperature and Precipitation in the Steppe region
Precipitation {inches)
Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total
° F. ° F. ° F.
Semipalatinsk 0-5 72-6 71-5 2-5 7-5
Freezing and Thawing of the Rivers of Siberia
The rivers are frozen over in 5-20 days of frost, the length
of time varying with the severity of the frost. It is noteworthy
that the smaller polar rivers, especially those lying between
the Ob and the Yenisei and the Yenisei and the Lena, freeze
far more rapidly than these great rivers with their enormous
FREEZING AND THAWING OF RIVERS
39
h
r;
basins and warmer waters coming from the south. Rivers
like the Taz or the Khatanga are unable to attain a high
temperature during the short summer. The early freezing
of the rivers between Lake Baikal and the Pacific is probably
the result of the mountainous character of these regions, where
cold is felt earlier than in the neighbouring districts. Several
mall rivers and streams flowing into the Verkhne-Vitim in the
marshy Bargunsk forest, some of them running through deep
ravines, remain covered with ice throughout the year.
The tables here given for the opening and closing of the rivers
do not correspond with the opening and closing of navigation.
The rivers are not navigable for at least a week after the
breaking up of the ice, and often for a fortnight or more before
the river is actually frozen over.
The dates given are the average for a varying number of
years. An estimated date is given in brackets where actual
figures were unobtainable. The dates according to the Russian
calendar would be 13 days earlier than those given here.
Western Siberia
Average
Average date
date of
of breaking
freezing
River. up of ice.
over.
Atbasar at Atbasar .... May 7
Ayaguz at Sergiopol
April 5
Nov. 27
Biya at Biisk .
May 5
Oct. 23
Charish at Byeloglazovo .
» 4
„ 21
Chulim at Ust-Chulimskaya
„ 8
„ 23
„ „ Nazarovskoe .
„ 12
„ 18
„ ,, Bogotolskoe
„ 9
., 19
„ „ Achinsk
„ 8
„ 23
„ „ Tutalskoe
,. 18
„ 14
„ „ Ziryanovskoe .
„ 12
„ 19
Irbit at Irbit .
„ 5
N 11
Irtish at Lake Zaisan
April 30
» 21
„ „ Krasnoyarsk
„ 25
Dec. 6
„ „ Ust-Kamenogorsk
„ 30
H 2
„ „ Semipalatinsk .
„ 30
Nov. 26
„ ,, Yamishevskaya .
May 2
„ 24
„ „ Pavlodar .
„ 6
» 22
„ „ Omsk
„ 14
n 18
„ „ Tara
„ 15
„ 18
„ „ Tobolsk .
„ 14
„ 20
„ „ Samarovskoe
» 28
„ 19
40
River,
Iset at Yekaterinburg
Ishira at Akmolinsk
„ „ Petropavlovsk
„ „ l8him
Kartisak at Kartisak
Kiya at Mariinsk .
Ob at Barnaul
„ KoHvan
„ Kolpasbevo .
„ Narim .
„ Timskoe
,, Aleksandrovskoe
„ Surgut .
„ Pesk fishing station
,, Kondinskoe .
,, Obdorsk
Om at Kainsk
„ Omsk
Pishma at Tahtsa .
Polui at Obdorsk .
Pyazina at Vedenskoe
„ „ Zaostrovskoe
„ „ mouth .
Sosva at Berezov .
Tavda at Nikolsk factory
Taz
Tobol at Svyerinogolovskays
,, „ Kurgan
,, ,, Yalutorovsk
„ „ Blinnikova
„ „ Tobolsk .
Tom at Kuznetsk .
,, ,, Polomoshnaya
„ „ Tomsk
Tura at Verkhoture
,, „ Turinsk
,, ,, Tyumen
Ui at Troitsk .
Uvelka at Troitsk .
Abakan at Ust-Abakanskoe
Aldan at Ust-Maiskaya .
Amga at Sulgachinskskaya
„ ,, Amginskaya
Amur at Pokrovskaya
,, „ Albazin
„ ., Chernyaeva
CLIMATE
Average
Average date
date of
of breaking
freezing
up of ice.
over.
May 11
Nov. 12
„ 5
„ 17
» 11
, 13
„ 13
, 14
„ 3
, 9
„ 12
, 13
M 8
„ 23
., 14
„ 21
„ 15
(Nov. 21)
„ 22
Nov. 18
„ 20
(Nov. 18)
„ 26
Nov. 10
m 30
., 15
„ 24
„ 16
„ 28
„ 16
.June 16
., 9
May 17
Nov. 14
», 14
., 13
„ 4
„ 17
June 1 1
Oct. 27
Nov. 1
July 9 (one year)
Oct. 14
. Aug.4 (one year)
„ 7
June 3
Nov. 12
May 15
„ 17
June 10
, 4
May 6
, 21
„ 8
. 16
7
, 20
•
„ 20
„ 10
M 9
„ 13
„ 13
H 7
» 8
April 27
„ 14
, 17
, 29
, 25
, 17
, 11
., 17
, 12
, 20
May 1
, 17
Faster:
«■ Siberia
April 30
Nov. 30
May 31
Oct. 30
June 2
(Nov. 30)
May 29
Dec. 4
„ 13
Nov. 19
„ 16
„ 18
„ 16
, 26
EASTERN SIBERIA
41
i.
A
Average date
date of
River.
of breaking
freezing
up of ice.
over.
Amur at Blagovyeshchensk
May 12
Nov. 25
„ ., Raddevka
„ 12
(Nov. 25)
„ „ Yekaterino-Nikolskaya
» io
Nov. 28
„ „ Mikhailo-Semenovskaya
„ 2
(Dec. 2)
„ ,, Khabarovsk
„ 6
Dec. 7
„ „ Mariinsk ....
„ 23
Nov. 24
„ „ Nikolaevsk
June 1
„ 25
Anadir at Markovo
„ 19
Oct. 27
Anabar at mouth of River Krilya-Kan
—
„ 20
Angara (Upper Tunguska).
„ at Irkutsk ....
April 22
May 11
Jan. 25
,. ,, Usolskoe
» 8
„ „ Olonskoe
„ 11
» 3
„ „ Verkhne-Ostrovskaya
„ 10
„ 5
„ Balagansk
„ 20
Dec. 20
„ ., Malishevka
» 19
„ 21
„ ,, Shiveri ....
., 23
,, 17
., „ Ust-Udinskoc
(May 24)
., 15
„ ,, Podvoloshnaya -
May 27
„ 13
„ ,, Bratski-Ostrog
„ 24
M 7
„ ,, Pyani Poroga
(May 27)
„ 6
,, ,, Padunskoe
June 1
„ 8
,, ., Shmanek
May 26
„ 9
„ ,, Voroveva
(May 26)
„ 5
,, ,, Karapchanskoe
May 26
Nov. 29
„ „ Kezhemskoe .
„ 28
., 15
., ,, Boguchanskoe
„ 26
„ 18
,, Pinchuga
„ 26
„ 22
„ ., Ribinskoe
„ 29
(Nov. 30)
Argun at Olochinskoe
April 26 (1875)
Nov. 19
., „ Argunskaya .
May 16
„ 21
„ „ Urovskoe
„ 17
„ 20
,, „ Pokrovskaya
„ 17
„ 16
Balei at Gorokovskoe . . . .
April 29
„ 12
Barguzin at Barguzin
May 10
„ 12
Biliktui at Biliktuiskoe (mouth)
„ 9
„ 29
Biryusa at Biryusa .
„ 15
„ 21
„ ,, Kontorskoe .
„ 13
., 27
Byelaya at Maltinskoe .
„ 11
„ 20
Chikoi at Baikhor . . . . .
„ 15
,, 21
„ „ Kudarinskaya .
„ 8
„ 23
Chima at Cheremkhovskoe
„ 16
„ 16
Gizhiga at Gizhiga . .
June 7
„ 2
Ilga at Znamenskoe .
—
„ 14
Ilim at Nizhne-Ilimsk .
May 18
» 9
Indigirka at Russkoe Usto
June 29
Oct. 16
Ingoda at Titovo .
May 13
Nov. 15
„ „ Chita .
n 10
„ 17
,, ,, Kaidalovo .
» 14
(Nov. 19)
42
CLIMATE
Average
Average date
date of
River. of breaking
freezing
itp of ice.
over.
Ingoda at Knyaze-Beregovaya . . . May 16
(Nov. 19)
„ „ Raz-Makhnina
„
Nov. 20
Irkut at Shchinkovskoe .
, 2
„ 18
„ „ Tunkinskoe
, 11
, 18
„ „ Smolenskoe
, 14
, 19
,, „ Irkutsk
, 14
, 5
Iya at Tulunovskoe
, 15
, 23
Kan at Kansk
, 11
i
, 25
„ ,, Antsiferskoe
, 12
, 18
Khara-Ulakh at mouth
June 23 (one year)
—
Khatanga, near mouth
June 28 (one year)
Oct. 12
,, at Khatangskoe
July 7
„ 19
Khilok at Petrovski Zavod
May 23
Nov. 17
Khor
April 30
Dec. 13
Kirenga at Kirensk
May 21
Nov. 22
Kolima at Urocheva
June 6
Oct. 25
„ ,, Sredne-Kolimsk
„ 11
„ 24
„ „ Nizhne-Kolimsk
„ 18
., 17
Kukhtui at Okhotsk
„ 2
Nov. 29
Kuta at Ust-Kutskoe
May 20
—
Lena at Kachugskoe
„ 17
Nov. 17
„ „ Verkholensk
n 1»
,. 17
., ,, Ust-Ilginskaya .
„ 20
, 13
,, „ Ust-Orlinskaya .
„ 18
, 9
,, „ Omoloevskaya .
„ 18
, 14
„ ,, Kirensk
.. 24
, 4
,, ,, Vitimsk
„ 25
, 21
,, „ Nyuiskaya
June 3
, 19
„ „ Olekminsk.
» 1
, 19
,, „ Yakutsk .
„ 10
, 12
„ „ Markha
,, 6
, 10
„ „ Bulun
„ 16
, 2
„ „ (mouth)
July 8
Oct. 15
Lower Tunguska, see Angara.
Maya at Ust-Maiskaya .
May 29
Nov. 10
Nercha at Nerchinsk
» 14
„ 9
Oka at Ziminskoe .
„ 15
„ 23
„ ,, Bratski-Ostrog (mouth)
„ 23
„ 19
Olekma at Troitskoe
„ 30
„ 16
Olenek at mouth
July 16 (one year)
Oct. 13
Onon at Aksha
May 5
Nov. 25
,. ,, Ust-Uya .
n 12
„ 20
Oya at Yermakovskoe
„ 24
Penzhina at Penzhina , .
June 12 (one year)
Oct. 23
Pyasina at Vedenskoe
—
Nov. 1
„ „ Zaostrovskoe .
July 9 (one year)
Oct. 14
„ „ mouth
Aug. 4 (one year)
„ 7
Selenga at Novi-Selenginsk
May 8
Dec. 1
„ ,, Verkhne-Udins
k .
,
, 9
No
v.22
EASTERN SIBERIA
43
Average
Average date
date of
River.
of breaking
freezing
up of ice.
over.
Shilka at Mitrofanova
May 10
Nov. 23
„ „ Monastirskoe
„ 17
„ 17
„ „ Stryetensk
„ 11
„ 21
„ „ Pokro^skaya
„ 18
„ ir,
Suifun at Razdolnoe .
April 18
Dec. 11
Suputinka at Nikolsk-Ussuriski
„ 16
„ 4
Taimir at mouth ....
July 23 (one year)
Sept. 29
Tuba at Kuraginskoe
May 7
Dec. G
(Lower) Tunguska at Preobrazhenskoe
„ 21
Nov. 1
„ .. „ „ Monastirskoe (mouth)
June 10
Oct. 31
Turukhan at Yanov .
„ 11
„ 13
„ „ River Bayukta mouth .
„ 11
„ 21
„ „ Turukhansk
„ 6
Nov. 3
Uchur at Yarmank
May 24
—
Uda at Udski-Ostrog
„ 7
Nov. 25
Uda at Nizhne-Udinsk .
,, 14
,. 17
„ „ Verkhne-Udinsk .
„ 13
,. 25
Upper Tunguska, see Angara.
Ussuri at Kozlovskaya .
April 30
„ 28
„ „ Khabarovsk
May G
Dec. 8
Vilyui at Nyurba ....
June 1
Oct. 29
„ „ Vilyuisk ....
„ 5
Nov. 2
Yana at Verkhoyansk
„ 11
Oct. 23
„ „ Kazache ....
„ 17
„ 9
Yenisei at Minusinsk
May 11
Nov. 29
., ,, Abakanskoe .
„ 11
Dec. 4
„ „ Krasnoyarsk .
„ 12
„ 5
,, „ Kazachinskoe
„ 15
Nov. 26
,. „ Yeniseisk
„ 19
Dec. 2
„ ,, Nazimovo
„ 18
Nov. 28
,. „ Verkhne-Imbatskoe
„ 29
., 21
„ ,, Turukhansk
June 8
„ 11
„ ,, Potapovskoe .
„ 20
(Nov. 14)
,, ,, Luzino ....
n 19
Nov. 4
,, „ Selyakino
., 19
(Nov. 14)
„ Tolsti Nos .
„ 25
Nov. 3
,. „ Golchikha
July 2
» 5
,, „ (mouth) ....
June 23
Oct. 30
Zalara at Zalarinskoe
May 4
Nov. 15
Zavitaya at Mikhail ovskaya
April 25
n 21
Zeya at Blagovyeshchensk
May 11
„ 26
#"SS
CHAPTER III
VEGETATION
The Tundra — Coniferous Forests — The Amur Forests — The Pacific
Forests — Alpine Vegetation — Wooded Steppes — Kirghiz Steppes — Trans-
baikal Steppes. #
The vegetation of Siberia remains in its original state, and
man has effected few changes. Broadly speaking, there are
three great types of vegetation, very unequal in the areas
they cover. In the north along the Arctic Ocean is the
tundra, while an immense forest covers the rest of Siberia,
with the exception of the steppe-lands in the south-west. The
first two of these divisions extend into Arctic Russia.
The Tundra
The tundra stretches in a band 20 to 200 miles wide from
west to east of the Russian Empire along the Arctic shores.
The southern limit averages about lat. 68° N., but in the
Pechora and Ob basins the boundary recedes south to about
the Arctic Circle, in the Khatanga basin it advances to about
lat. 72° N., and in the far east it trends south to the northern
end of Kamchatka. All the far north-east from about long.
160° E. to Bering Strait is covered with tundra. Tundra in an
impoverished form occurs on the Arctic islands north of
Russia and Siberia.
While the term tundra is often used to convey the sense of
a treeless Arctic plain, it really has reference only to the special
type of vegetation which is generally found associated with
Arctic plains. Tundra frequently occurs also on considerable
elevations, as in the Taimir region, the Chukchee Peninsula,
or the far east generally.
The vegetation of the tundra is chiefly grasses, sedges, and
pli
THE TUNDRA 45
herbaceous plants, among which arc many bulbous species.
Cold waterlogged soil and want of humus militate against
plant life. The only trees are dwarf birches (Betula nana) and
illows not exceeding a few inches in height and generally
eeping on the ground. Low bushes of heath, azalea, and
arbutus also occur, but only in sheltered nooks do the trees
or bushes grow to any height. Mosses and lichens, including
the reindeer ' moss ' are numerous, and in the east are the
principal plants. In general character the tundra is uniform
from Russia to Bering Strait, and for that matter all round
the Arctic Ocean, even if the species of plants differ. In level
places it is more swampy than in the hilly parts, and peat
forms extensively. It is frozen and snow-covered for 8 or
9 months in the year. In the summer the surface thaws, but
the subsoil remains frozen : the tundra for a few weeks is
bright with flowers and alive with insect life, including mos-
quitoes, but at that season it is almost impassable to man.
It is quite useless for agriculture, and has no economic value
except for reindeer breeding.
Coniferous Forests
The coniferous forests or taiga begin gradually where the
tundra ends. The polar limit of trees is largely determined
by dry cold winds in winter which are hostile to all tree
growth. The forests never reach the north coast, but in some
sheltered river valleys such as those of the Ob, Yenisei, and
Lena, a few badly developed trees reach the delta, and, gener-
ally speaking, the rivers seem to carry the forests northward
into the tundra region. The taiga in one form or another
extends from the Pacific through Asia, Russia, Finland, and
Scandinavia, to the Atlantic. Southward it extends to the
confines of Siberia, where it gives way to the steppes of Mon-
golia and Russian Central Asia. The forests vary a good deal
in appearance and species, but are everywhere with a few
small exceptions either solely or principally coniferous.
In Arctic Russia the chief species are the Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris), the Norway spruce {Abies excelsa), and the silver
46 VEGETATION
fir (A.pectinata) ; in the Urals the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica),
and the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica). The deciduous trees
which occur are oak, elm, ash, maple, and apple.
In the drier parts of the taiga of western Siberia the
commonest species are the Siberian fir, the so-called Siberian
'cedar ', or stone pine (Pinus cembra), the spruce (Picea obovata),
the silver fir, and the Siberian larch. These are the prevailing
trees in the Yenisei basin, the basin of the upper Ob, and the
Altai region. Deciduous trees are rare. In the wetter region
of the basins of the middle and lower Ob and the lower Irtish
the taiga is marshy and has thick, impenetrable undergrowth.
Larch is rare, and the Siberian fir predominates, but there is
also an admixture of deciduous trees such as birch and aspen.
Thickets of poplar, alder, and willow fringe the streams, and
there are some birches.
Berry bushes are frequent except in the swampy parts, and
include the wortleberry, bilberry, Arctic bramble, raspberry,
and red and black currants.
The Altai Mountains have the same coniferous forests as
western Siberia, but they are more open and the trees grow
tall. In places there is undergrowth, but as a general rule it
is absent. The forests extend to an altitude of about 5,000 ft.
on the southern and 6,000 ft. on the northern side. On the
south the flora is richest, and rhododendrons and azaleas
appear.
The southern part of the marshy taiga of the Ob basin is
known as the Vasuigan swamps. They are most fully deve-
loped in the northern part of the region between the Ob and
the Irtish, but also stretch north of the Ob, and consist of
swamps covered with dense thickets of birch, alder, aspen,
Siberian cedar, pines, and a few larches. The Russian name
is unman. They are practically impassable except in winter.
In time of spring floods these urmans are so much inundated
that they are termed the Vasuigan Sea.
The forests of eastern Siberia are very uniform from the
Yenisei basin eastward to the Amur region and the Stanovoi
Mountains. In the north they merge gradually through
CONIFEROUS FORESTS 47
a region of gnarled and stunted trees into the tundra. The
Siberian fir and the eastern larch (Larix daurica) are the
prevailing species, but the Siberian ' cedar ' (Pinus cembra)
and the Scots pine also occur. The spruce (Picea obovata)
and the Norway spruce go as far east as the Lena. On the
whole, however, the forest of east differs from that of west
Siberia mainly in less luxuriant growth. Undergrowth is
not so frequent, and the hilly nature of the country gives
fewer areas of marshy taiga. Furthermore, the poor rainfall
and the cold dry winds during the long severe winter do not
favour tree growth. The forests on the whole are open and
low. Along the river banks, however, and in more sheltered
places the trees grow taller and thicker. In the upper Lena
basin the forests are more of the western type, and the Scots
pine and the Siberian larch grow to a large size.
The Amur Forests
East of Lake Baikal and in the Amur region the vegetation
changes. The Transbaikal is a transition region between the
eastern and western floras, but among forest trees all the
widespread species of the northern taiga are found. In the
eastern part foliage trees make their appearance. These are
of species different from, though allied to, those which occur
in the northern forests of Russia, the oak, the elm, and charac-
teristic species of the hazel and wild apple. Bushes that are
typical of Mongolia also make their appearance.
In the Amur region the divergence of the vegetation from
that of eastern Siberia in general is more pronounced. The
flora is characterized by a great variety of forms and by the
luxuriance of some species. Plants which are typical of China
and Japan occur, and even representatives of the North
American flora. In the northern part of the basin the forests
are like those of eastern Siberia in general, but different
species appear, until nearer the Amur the forests have an
entirely different appearance, owing largely to the presence
of many deciduous trees. The eastern larch, the Siberian fir,
the Siberian spruce, the Scots pine, and the yew occur as well
48 VEGETATION
as another species of spruce, the ayan pitch pine (Picea
ayanensis), and the white cedar or Manchu pine (Pinus mand-
shurica), which replaces the Pinus cembra of the north and
west. Among deciduous trees are the oak, elm, lime, maple,
walnut, ash, aspen, willow, hornbeam, and apple, all of distinct
eastern species, and the cork tree (Phellodendron amurense).
In the upper and middle Amur regions deciduous woods are
commoner than coniferous woods along the river, and wide
meadows of natural grass land often occur, but in the lower
Amur region coniferous forests again prevail.
The Sikhota Alin Range and the Maritime Province generally
are also forested. In the north the forests are mainly of larch,
Siberian fir, and white cedar, but in the south deciduous
trees are more common, and the oak as well as the Siberian
cedar are the characteristic species. These forests are typical
of the Ussuri region.
The Pacific Forests
The northern taiga continues to the shores of the Okhotsk
Sea, and occurs in Kamchatka and Sakhalin. The eastern
larch (Larix daurica) is the prevailing species, but the Siberian
fir and Siberian cedar are common, mingled with a few birch,
alders, and shrubs, including the clematis, wild rose, and
honeysuckle. The herbaceous vegetation is more prominent
than farther west, and the forests undergo a change in appear-
ance. The upper limit is at a low altitude, and the trees are
dwarfed on account of the strong winds.
In the forests of Kamchatka the trees are more widely
spaced, and the Siberian fir and the cedar are the commonest
species, mixed with which are a f^ew deciduous species in-
cluding the birch, alder, and poplar. Some natural meadows
occur.
Sakhalin, in the south, has forests like Kamchatka : in the
north the forests rather resemble those of Okhotsk, the eastern
larch being the chief species.
ALPINE VEGETATION 49
Alpine Vegetation
Alpine vegetation occurs at varying altitudes on the highest
mountains in eastern Siberia. In the Altai it begins at about
6,500 ft. ; in the Sayansk Mountains at about the same
altitude, but in the Dzhugdzhur and Stanovoi Mountains
and in the Verkhoyansk Mountains at gradually decreasing
altitudes towards the north until it merges into the Arctic
tundra. The general aspect of the alpine vegetation is much
like that of the tundra except in the absence of swamps.
Between the alpine vegetation and the forests lies a belt of
rich mountain pasture, comparable with the high pastures of
the European Alps and containing many of the same species.
Wooded Steppes
Steppe land is rare in Siberia proper, and occurs in large
areas only in the west, where it is found to the south of the
taiga. The Ural forests and the Vasuigan swamps give way
to the Ishim and Baraba steppes, which extend in a strip
about 100 to 200 miles wide from the Ural slopes to the Altai
region. These are intermediate between the forests to the
north and the true steppe lands to the south. Firs gradually
disappear and are replaced by birches, aspens, and willows,
which occur in clumps and along river banks, in a general
expanse of rolling grass lands. In the northern part of the
Ishim and Baraba steppes trees are frequent and swamps and
urmans occur. Southward the swamps are replaced by
numerous small lakes, many of which are saline, and trees
become less frequent until in about lat. 55° N. true steppe
lands begin. The Siberian Railway runs across the Baraba
steppes. In the upper Ob basin these steppe lands are wider
than to the west, and extend from the railway south to
Semipalatinsk and east to Biisk and Kuznetsk.
The Ishim and Baraba steppes have a fertile soil consisting
largely of black earth (chernozem), a kind of loess, rich in
humus, and are the most valuable agricultural region in Siberia.
A detached area of wooded steppes lies farther east between
Achinsk and Minusinsk.
50 VEGETATION
Kirghiz Steppes
True steppe lands begin south of the wooded steppe and lie
outside Siberia proper. They cover the region known generally
as the Kirghiz steppes. To the north, bordering the Baraba
steppes, are the feather-grass steppes stretching from the
Caspian steppe lands of Russia to the Yenisei basin, with
a breadth of 200 to 270 miles. Trees are rare, and are repre-
sented only by a few birches, aspens, willows, alders, ashes, and
poplars in the wetter places. Dwarf bushes, many of them
thorny, are characteristic, including broom, hawthorn, and
tamarisk. The herbaceous flora is rich and embraces many
flowering plants. Feather grass (Stipa) is characteristic. To
the south the climatic conditions peculiar to this region become
intensified. Rainfall decreases and summer temperatures
increase. The change is reflected in the vegetation, which
assumes a semi-desert appearance as the steppes become more
arid.
The steppe lands of western Siberia are chiefly of value for
horse and cattle breeding. On account of the want of rainfall
there is little scope for agriculture.
Transbaikal Steppes
In eastern Siberia natural steppe land is rare, for climatic
conditions are more favourable to the development of forest,
but in the Transbaikal region between the south of Lake
Baikal and the River Argun there are considerable areas of
steppe lands, in general appearance not unlike the mountain
pastures of the Altai Mountains. This is best developed in
the valleys. The higher ground of the Yablonoi and other
ranges is covered with forests. These Transbaikal meadow
lands are excellent for agriculture. In the south towards the
frontier of Siberia they pass into the dry steppe lands of
Mongolia.
CHAPTER IV
ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
Animal Life — Fisheries : A. Arctic Russian ; B. Western Siberian ;
C. Eastern Siberian — Products of Wild Animals
Animal Life
The land may be divided into four zones with special
geographical characteristics, which are differentiated to some
extent by their fauna. In the north (1) the Arctic or tundra
zone, with ice or reindeer-moss, has its special group of animals ;
westward is (2) the taiga belt of coniferous trees, where in the
depths of the forest there are not many wild animals ; it is
rather the skirts of the forest and the clearings made by the
axe or fire to which animals resort, and in such clearings and
at river fords the trapper finds them ; (3) farther south the
open steppe has fresh denizens, and finally (4) the high
mountains of the Altai and Sayansk Ranges introduce a new
element. No hard and fast line, however, can be drawn
between these belts, and there is considerable overlapping.
Special Characteristics of Siberian Fauna
Among the characteristics of Siberian fauna are to be
noted : (1) The animals as a rule are of greater size ; some
varieties are twice as large as the corresponding breeds in
Europe. (2) White predominates, even among domestic
animals : many animals, like the ermine, Arctic fox, and
hare, are white during the winter months. (3) In excep-
tional circumstances there are huge migrations. Most famous
are those of the lemmings, which move in vast armies regard-
less of natural obstacles, swimming estuaries, where they
become the prey of killer whales or seals, and often plunging
into the sea.
d 2
52 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
Land Mammals
There are found in the south the tiger, panther, snow-
leopard (Felis irbis), lynx, and two varieties of wild cat. The
tiger and snow-leopard do not reside north of Lake Balkhash,
or the River Amur, but occasionally stray beyond. The tiger
is not infrequently found near Chita and within 120 miles of
Nikolaevsk, and is often met with in the jungles of Primorsk,
in which 120 to 150 are shot or poisoned every year. Tigers
gave great trouble during the construction of the Ussuri Rail-
way. The natives view the tiger with superstition. The tiger
is originally a Siberian and Mongolian animal, which has only
reached India in comparatively recent times ; the Indian
tiger has much shorter hair than the northern variety. The
lynx is comparatively common in all mountainous parts of
Siberia ; its fur is regarded as very valuable. The panther
is found in the Primorsk forests. The steppe-cat is found in
the Kirghiz steppes, and there are two varieties of wild cat
in the Altai. It may be observed that the domestic Siberian
cat is very fine, rivalling the Persian, but the European climate
does not agree with it. In Tura black cats are specially bred
for their fur.
The wolf is found all over Siberia ; in the tundra it hunts
the reindeer, and on the steppes the roe. The wolf is driven
from the reindeer by shouting at it. Often a wooden clapper
is hung round the neck of the leading reindeer : it makes
a noise as though of a man chopping wood, and keeps the
wolves at a distance till they have become habituated to the
sound. Wolves, when hunting in small packs, are not danger-
ous to human beings. The solitary wolf is a retiring creature
and anxious to avoid observation. In the north it is hunted
not merely to protect the reindeer, but because the fur is
valuable for caps, mittens, &c. The Alpine wolf is found
in the Altai.
The fox is found in many species over the whole country.
North of lat. 60° is the Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), distin-
guished by its short, blunt ears, long, bushy tail, and very long
hair in winter. In the summer its upper parts are of a
ANIMAL LIFE 53
brownish colour ; in the winter its whole coat turns white.
It is found on the continent and on the islands of the Arctic
Ocean, but is less common in eastern than in ( westernjSiberia.
It is diminishing in numbers, owing to the reckless way in
which it is trapped. The cubs are trapped in the burrow.
All trapping of the fox-cub and sale of the cub-skins should
be prohibited, nor should it be permitted to catch it when
young, for its summer coat is of little value. The winter coat
is exceptionally valuable for its downy fur and its colour.
One variety of it is the blue fox, so called from its slaty colour,
which is found chiefly in Arctic Russia and Kamchatka ; it is
valuable and scarce ; its colour remains the same throughout
the year, but its hair is longer in winter. The red fox of
Siberia has a deeper, richer red than our variety, and a much
more bushy tail. Its skin is esteemed, but not so much as
that of the blue fox. Another very valuable species is the
black or silver fox ( V. argentatus) which has black hair with
silver tips. The bulk of the skins exported by the Koryaks
are fox skins. In the steppes, ranging from European Russia
to the Amur, is the steppe-fox or corsac, a sort of repre-
sentative of the Indian species. Foxes are usually killed
with clubs or trapped, so as not to spoil the skin : they are
also poisoned with strychnine.
The raccoon dog, a native of China and Japan, is found in
the Amur basin : it is highly valued by the Manchu for its
winter skin : in summer it is eaten.
Wild dogs are found in the south up to the snow-line.
Bears are found throughout Siberia. In the north is found
the Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) wherever there are seals,
which it hunts either along the beach or on the sea-ice. It
arrives on floating ice, and lands on the coast, but does not
penetrate far inland, and though known to have gone up
the Gulf of Yenisei as far as Tolsti Nos, it generally does
not leave the vicinity of sea-ice, for it is really a sea-mammal.
Its fur is used for floor-rugs and is very durable. The brown
or Kamchatkan bear (Ursus beringianus) is found across the
centre of Siberia, wherever there are forests. It is hunted for
54 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
fur and food. In the southern mountain ranges that adjoin
the steppe district and by the Amur is found a black bear,
(Ursus tibetanus) and several other species occur in the south.
The bear is sometimes snared, sometimes hunted. Where
fish abound, the huntsman waits for him by the rivers. The
bear cage is a standing feature of the villages of many tribes,
especially of the Goldi and the Gilyaks. The bear takes part
in many religious ceremonies (see Chapter V).
The group of Mustelidae is of great economic value because
of the trade in their furs. Most important of all is the sable
(Mustela zibellina), a variety of marten. Its furs were the
great lure into Siberia of the Russian trader in the sixteenth
century, and for many years were the form in which yassak
(tribute) was paid. It dislikes the proximity of human
habitations and retires more and more to uninhabited parts,
and has been seriously diminished in numbers. There are,
however, many in Kamchatka. An order was made by the
Russian Government that from February 1, 1913, to Octoberl5,
1916, no sables should be killed nor sable fur sold throughout
Siberia. It is a difficult animal to hunt. It possesses a down
which is entirely dark and of bluish tinge, and long, soft,
glossy, black hair : the finest sable fur is tipped with silver.
The farther north the sable is found the better is its fur, and
it varies somewhat in tint in different parts of Siberia. It is
found up to lat. 68° N. The best sables are found in the
Vitimskand Olekma regions, and in the neighbourhood of Ner-
chinsk and the headwaters of the Amgun and Zeya. The
Sakhalin sables are of little value. White sable found in the
Barguzin region is very rare and valuable. It is hunted in
the beginning of winter. The kolonok {Mustela sibirica) is
used as a substitute for the sable, especially to provide artists'
' sable ' brushes. At Irbit fair 50,000 skins are sold annually.
Other animals of the same type are the marten, of which there
are three varieties in the Altai and upper Yenisei, and the
cognate, but smaller weasel and polecat. The ermine is
valuable, and is becoming correspondingly rare in some
districts : the best ermines come from Ishim and the Baraba
ANIMAL LIFE 55
steppe : the skins are rarely over a foot in length, and they
are sold in lots of 40 together, known as 'timbers'. The
ermine is usually trapped. The glutton (or wolverine) is
a much larger member of the same sub-family. It has
■powerful teeth, is almost entirely nocturnal in its habits, and
Is usually active through the winter : it swims streams and
ascends rough-barked trees in search of food. It inhabits
i belt across the middle of Siberia excluding the extreme north.
lb is also found in the north of Sakhalin. The glutton is no
onger common. The skunk is taken for his fur in large
numbers in the south of the Tomsk Government and in the
Amur region.
The badger is found right across Siberia as far north as
lat. 53° N.
The otter is found throughout Siberia up to the Arctic
Circle and on Sakhalin, but is becoming rare. It is most
hunted on the Amur for trade with the Manchu and Chinese,
who value its fur highly.
The reindeer is most widely spread, being found not only
in the northern tundras, but among the Soyots in the Sayansk
Mountains, where there is plenty of lichen. The domesticated
reindeer has been described elsewhere (see chap. V, p. 103).
The wild reindeer is hunted for food in winter ; it is also used
for interbreeding with the domesticated animal.
In the north is also found the elk, the largest member of
the family : the flesh is edible, the taste resembling some-
thing between venison and mutton. Its skin is also valuable ;
in many years there are 10,000 elk skins in the market of
Yeniseisk. Its importance along the Amur is shown by its
name bayu, a Tungus word meaning ' the animal '.
There are several varieties of the American wapiti (Cervus
canadensis) in the south of the country. The number of
wapiti has been greatly diminished by the sale of their horns
to the Chinese, and the Russian Government have issued
a prohibition which forbids their being shot on the Russian
side of the frontier. The wapiti is distinguished by the great
size of the fourth tine of the antlers.
56 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
Closely akin to the wapiti is the maral deer, which is
domesticated in the Kirghiz country, the Altai, the middle
Amur, and the Ussuri region : it is bred for the sake of its
horns, which are sawn off when in the velvet, to produce from
them a powder called panty, in high request among the Chinese
for medicinal purposes. Western physicians believe that it
has no medicinal value, but merely quickens the heart's
action. It is sold for 30s. a lb. Another member of the family
that produces an article of value is the musk-deer {Moschus
moschiferus), which is hunted in the Altai, Sayansk, and Amur
regions, and in Sakhalin, for the sake of the musk obtained
from it. It is caught in winter, when the more vigorous
climate makes it migrate from its ordinary home to something
more accessible to hunters. Its flesh is eaten, its skin used for
clothing, and its thin leg bones made into arrow-heads.
The roebuck is represented by two species, Capreoluspygargus
in the upper Yenisei and Altai region, and C. manchuricus,
which migrates from Manchuria into the Amur region in spring.
It supplies abundant food. The skin and horns are sold to the
Chinese.
Other members of the family found in Siberia are the
common stag, rock-deer, spotted deer, and siku. The last
named is found in the island of Askold near Vladivostock.
There are several kinds of big-horn, but the Ovis poll of the
Pamirs, which is sometimes said to be found in the Tienshan,
is never really found so far north. The real 0. ammon, or
argali, is found in the Altai ; its wrinkled horns curl so
much that they often make more than a complete circle. It
lives amid the forest on mountains between 3,000 and 4,000 ft.
high, and is difficult to secure. Its chief enemy, the wolf,
hunts it to the neighbourhood of its lair, so that the young
may have a share. Travellers who refer to argali among the
lower heights of the Kirghiz region probably mean O. sairensis
or some closely allied species. Between the Lena and Indigirka
0. borealis occurs, and in Kamchatka 0. nivicola. The saiga
antelope (Saiga tatarica) extends as far east as long. 92° E.,
and another species is found in the Primorsk region. A gazelle
1
ANIMAL LIFE 57
(Gazella gutturosa) is found in the steppes near Kosh-Agach:
is usually in colour of a light fawn, with white limbs,
eeks, underparts, sides, and rump ; its tail is short, with
brown tip, and it has no dark face-markings, like most
gazelles. Among the Altai there are a large but rapidly
diminishing number of ibex (Capra sibirica), gradually being
driven into the more remote valleys. It has very long horns,
which are sold to the Chinese for the same purpose as those
of the maral. The Kalmuks are very wasteful in hunting, and
unless checked will exterminate the game of their region
There are wild oxen and wild goats among the Sayansk
Mountains.
The musk ox (Ovibos moscatus) is rare, if not extinct, in
Siberia. It has been reported from Sakhalin.
The prickly hog is found in the southern portion of the
steppe region and the steppe lands of the east. The wild
boar occurs in the east mostly in Transbaikal and the Amur
region.
The wild ass (kulan) is found upon the Kirghiz steppe :
farther south, but outside the limits of this book, is found the
famous Prezhevalski horse.
There are numerous species of rodents. Most important
from the commercial point of view are the squirrels, the sale
of whose skins is enormous : only the skins of Russian and
Siberian squirrels are marketable. They are used for a great
variety of articles, such as gloves, hoods, and carriage-aprons.
The squirrels are of various colours, of which the black are
most esteemed. Black squirrels eat mushrooms, brown
squirrels cedar-cones, red squirrels hazel-nuts. Squirrels are
found throughout south Siberia, especially in the forests, but
there are none in Kamchatka. Besides the common squirrel
there are to be found striped squirrels and flying squirrels.
In the centre of Siberia the squirrel is much hunted. In
the Transbaikal Province three million are killed annually.
Squirrels are usually shot with guns having a small bore,
and with bullets the size of a pea, so as to injure the skin as
little as possible. The marmot found in the south, though
58 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
much more frequently beyond the frontier, is of commercial
value, because of the export of its skin to Europe, where it
is sold as imitation sable. A variety of the marmot is the
tarabagan, which is common in Transbaikal. Related to
the marmot is the bobac (Arctomys bobac) which lives in the
plains and stony hill lands, and the suslik, alike the friend
and enemy of man, the former by reason of its flesh, which is
esteemed a delicacy by the dwellers in the steppes, and the
latter because its energetic burrowings make it a pest to
agriculturists. It has been found specially injurious along
the Lena. It is sometimes called the pouched marmot, because
of its big cheek-pouches. Both it and the lemming (Lemmus
obensis) store their food in winter. The lemming is said to
protect its food against the depredations of other animals by
covering it with poisonous plants. In eastern Siberia the
Kamchadals remove the creature's store of grain and roots,
but replace it with caviar or remains of fish, so that a regular
trade is instituted between man and beast. The migrations
of the lemming have been already noted (p. 51). The beaver
is only found west of the River Yenisei, in the streams of
north and mid-Siberia ; but it has grown very rare, and at
the present time has almost disappeared. It has a commercial
value not only for its skin, but for the castoreum (beaver's
cod) obtained from it. The ush-kan, or Siberian hare, is
spread over the country : it is grey in the summer and white
during the winter, and has very long hair. About 1,000,000
or 1,200,000 skins are sold a year, half of them at Irbit. The
Siberian peasants neglect it as a means of food, and only
unwillingly eat its flesh. The polar pika hare comes as far
south as lat. 47° N. Other rodents are the vole, hamster
(west of the Ob), jerboa (south of the Steppes), and hairy-
nosed porcupine (at greater altitudes). The rat is a great pest,
but its activities are somewhat restricted by building store-
houses on poles.
Sea-mammals
The sea-mammals of Arctic Russia and western Siberia
are not nearly so important as in eastern Siberia. The seals
ANIMAL LIFE 59
found are the true seals (Phocidae), in both west and east, but
the sea-bears or fur-seals (Otaridae) only occur in the east . True
seals have a great commercial value by reason of their hides,
their blubber, and the oil produced from their fat. But they
are extremely destructive of the fish : in many places where the
seal appears, the fisherman abandons his occupation, knowing
that his task is useless on the arrival of the kozhya (' leather :)
as he calls him. In places like the Kola Peninsula they ought
to be kept down much more energetically, for the protection
of the fishing industry. At Ponoi the seal-hunting in March
and April is very profitable. In the Kara Sea there are no
seals ; so that region is without attraction for polar bears.
Seals ascend the Amur as far as Eri in about lat. 51° N. In
Lake Baikal and up the Selenga is found a distinct species,
P. baicalensis, which is hunted for its skin.
The fur seal (Otaria ursiria) occurs in great numbers in parts
of the northern Pacific, including the Commander Islands,
Robben Island, and the Pribilov Islands ; there at the end of
May or early in June the males arrive : then about the middle
of June arrive the females, and give birth to their young. The
pups are black when born, but in August have a fresh coat
of grey fur. The promiscuous killing of fur seals when in
calf out at sea led to the protracted disputes in connexion
with the Bering Sea arbitration. The sea lion (0. Stelleri)
visits the Pacific coasts in autumn. No fur seals occur in the
Arctic Ocean.
The walrus is found in the islands of the Arctic Ocean,
and at various points west of the Lena (between which and
the Bering Strait it is never found), e. g. Ponoi and the
Kara Sea. It no longer occurs in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is
differentiated from fur-seals by the absence of external ears,
by the structure of the teeth, including the presence of tusks,
and by its more substantial build. It is hunted for the sake
of its blubber, its hide, from which are manufactured harness
and sole leather, and its tusks, the ivory of which, however,
is far less valuable than elephant ivory. Its breeding season
is from April to June.
60 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
The chase of the bowhead or right whale has decayed in
the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea.
The finner whale (Balaepoptera) is found along the coasts
of Arctic Russia and eastern Siberia. The whale ' fisheries '
of Finmark are active, but those of the Kola Peninsula are
feeble. There were two for a time at Port Vladimir and Ara
Bay, but they closed for lack of capital. During their short
period of activity they killed 300 whales. A well-developed
whale fishery might do great business, but it might have to
face the antipathy of fishermen in other parts of the coast on
the same grounds as those on which the Norwegian fishermen
attacked the whalers. These reasons were, first, the whales
were thought to drive away the Greenland seal which preys on
fish, and secondly because whales feed on capelan, a kind of
salmon which pursues the cod inshore, so that the destruction
of whales reduces the number of cod. The beluga or white
whale (Delphinapterus leucas) is found in these waters. Its
skin is cut into broad strips and sold to the Samoyedes and
Yuraks for reindeer harness.
Birds
There are said to be 285 species of birds in the whole of
Siberia, few of which are unknown in Europe. The chief
line of demarcation of species is thought to be the watershed
between the Yenisei and Lena, but so much of the country
east of that boundary is unexplored that it is difficult to bo
very precise on the subject. Seebohm, in his book The Birds
of Siberia, has given a great deal of information about the
birds of Arctic Russia and the valley of the Yenisei.
The Arctic zone has few permanent residents : only the
ptarmigan, snow-bunting, raven, snow-owl, and Icelandic
falcon are found there always, but with the return of summer
the tundra becomes full of bird-life, and it is the breeding-
place of a vast variety of birds from the beginning of May.
They are bountifully provided by nature with berries that
have been frozen throughout the winter, and with swarms
of mosquitoes. The commonest of these summer visitants
ANIMAL LIFE 61
seemed to Seebohm to be the Asiatic golden plover. But few
birds stay longer than the beginning of winter, when they
migrate to the belt of coniferous taiga further south.
Edible birds. — It is difficult to say what a native of Siberia
will or will not eat, and it is probable that his taste in the
flesh of birds is as catholic as in other forms of food. It is
enough, therefore, to mention the most important of the birds
that can be eaten. Duck of various kinds, including a
long-tailed species, are common over all Siberia, especially
in the lake district north of the Kirghiz and Baraba
steppes ; around Narim they assemble at different lakes :
they are frightened from one to another, their way being
netted in advance. They are thus caught and then killed
by having their necks bitten through. They are found in
great numbers along the lower course of all the Siberian
rivers. Geese are found in multitudes as far north as the
mouth of the Yenisei. The goose falls an easy prey in the
moulting season, when it cannot fly. Among other edible
birds are ptarmigan, willow-grouse or kuropatka, swans,
hazelgrouse, pronounced as especially delicate eating, caper-
cailzie, blackcock, partridge, and heathcock. In the neigh-
bourhood of Biisk and Novo-Nikolaevsk, woodcock, hazelhen
(or ryabchik), and quails are common from May to the end
of August, and during the threshing season 5,000 birds,
mostly quails, are netted. In hunting the capercailzie a
barking dog is used, which has an irritating effect on the
bird ; the hunter then gets in a shot, while its attention is
distracted. The same practice is adopted in hunting the elk.
Birds valuable for plumage. — Most valuable of all is the
eider duck, found along the shores of Arctic Russia, by
reason of the down that is obtained from it. But the dwellers
along the Pomorski coast are killing off these ducks for the sake
of their flesh and pillaging their nests for eggs. Grebes are of
economic value : crested grebes used to be shot in great
numbers in the Tyukalinsk district in order to make muffs.
Magpies, which are particularly frequent in the steppe district
west of the Ural, are of value for the feathers, which are
62 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
exported. A thousand are taken annually in the Biisk
district.
The pigeon for religious reasons is never molested among
the Russians. The seagull enjoys a like immunity for the
same reason among the Samoyedes.
FISHERIES
A. Aectic Russian Fisheries
Speaking generally, there are three main kinds of fishing
on the north coast of Arctic Russia : (1) In the open sea there
is fishing for cod, haddock, flatfish, and wolf-fish. (2) Along
the coast there is fishing for herring and navaga. (3) Up the
rivers there is fishing for salmon and certain freshwater fish,
including also salmon-fishing along the coast. There is some
hunting of sea-mammals also along this coast.
Murman Coast
Cod. — The main fishing here is for cod (Gadus morrhua),
the yearly average catch being 10,000,000. The fishing-season
is from the end of March till the end of August. As the cod
comes from Norway, the fishing begins on the west coast
first and works eastward. It employs the local inhabitants,
and about 3,000 men from the districts of Kem and Onega.
The cod-fishing is done in small sailing boats (shnyaks), which
are worked by four men and a boy, who has to roll up and
dry the nets : this crew is called an artel, the name applied
to what corresponds to a trade union in Russia. The men
who come from the White Sea are exploited by procruters or
factorists, who supply them with their vessel, their tackle and
supplies for themselves and their families, in return for which
they are entitled to one-third of the catch, but the value of
the goods supplied is deducted when accounts are squared,
and as the valuer both of these goods and of the fish caught
is the procruter himself, the fisherman finds himself more and
more in his power.
The course of the warm Atlantic waters varies, so that the
ARCTIC RUSSIAN FISHERIES 63
voyages are regulated by the existing currents. Usually
the fish are at something between seven and twenty miles
from the shore and at a depth of from 120 to 150 fathoms. One
I way of fishing is with lines, 180 fathoms long, but this needs
a great deal of muscular exertion, and is not adopted except
by poor fishermen. The other and more effective method is
to use ' gartlins ' or great lines (yarns), which are sometimes
five miles long, made of rope of the thickness of the little finger
with finer ropes of from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 8 in. in length
attached to it at intervals of about 2 ft. 4 in. About 5,000
hooks are attached to a yarns, and these are baited with
capelan (a small oily fish like a smelt), or sand-eels, sand worms,
or the inside of crabs. The yarns is lowered to the bottom of the
sea and taken up again after six hours. Over 1,200,000 hooks
are used each year on the Murman coast.
Other fish caught on this coast are turbot (Rhombus maximus) ,
haddock (Gadus aeglefinus), coal-fish or saith (Gadus virens),
wolf -fish (Anarrhichas lupus), flat-fish (Pleuronectidae) , comber
or sea-perch (Serranus cabrilla), eelpout (Lota vulgaris).
The herring-fishing on this coast is practically disregarded,
though herrings are numerous. The Greenland shark is the
inveterate foe of the whale, and whales have been captured
which show traces of combat with this relentless enemy.
Sharks come in pursuit of cod, and can be caught with a line
on the Murman coast, but despite the value of shark-liver and
the oil extracted to adulterate cod-liver oil, the fishing is only
casual, and not properly developed. From those sharks
whose skin is not too rough is made shagreen for smoothing
or polishing wood. The shark is never eaten, on the ground
that it is a great eater of human flesh itself ; and it is an
enemy to the fisherman, because it despoils his yarns. At
certain places on the west coast of the Murman are fat -melting
works for the fat of sharks and stock-fish.
Prices of fish. — The price per pud of fish on the Murman
in the last decade of the nineteenth century was as follows :
cod lOd. to 2s. Id., haddock 2\d. to 10d., wolf-fish 3fd. to 8fd.,
coal-fish 2\d. to l\d. y turbot 2s. 3d. to 2s. §d. The prices for
64 ANIMAL LIFE. FISHERIES AND HUNTING
fish products were cod-liver Is. 3d. to 2s. Qd., shark-liver,
haddock-liver, and coal-fish-liver 10c?. to Is. 5|cZ. Another
fish product is the fish-guano made of the discarded portions
of fish, especially torn and dried fish-heads. The total value
of the Murman fishery in 1897 was £48,158.
Winter employment of fishermen. — An auxiliary trade for the
fisherman to carry on during winter is carpentering, e. g. they
manufacture the wooden packing-cases in which the fish are
exported, and find it very remunerative.
There are government salt depots along this coast.
White Sea
The main fishing is for salmon, herring, and navaga, which
is done in home waters, and is more especially the work of
the old men, women, and children, while the more enterprising
and active men do deep-sea fishing for cod or go seal-hunting,
starting out for these employments early in the spring.
Salmon. — The salmon-fishing lasts from the middle of May
till the beginning of November, but the best salmon are
caught in August and September when the salmon come up
the rivers to spawn. The fishing is done at the estuaries of
the bigger rivers by means of dragnets, trammel-nets, &c.
Higher up the rivers it is done by zahots or weir traps : close
to Kem is a zabor (a sort of fence trap) made of logs embedded
in the bottom, in which a large net (morda) is inserted. Salmon
of large size (about 22 lb.) are thus caught. The spring-catch
is for local consumption, the fish caught early in the year
having less taste than the others ; the autumn catch is sold
to dealers.
Herring are caught along the Pomorski coast mostly from
the end of June till October, but the fishing continues in
winter. To the north-west of Kem the best fisheries are Kan-
dalaksha, Keret, Kovda, and Knyaz Bay, from which about
25,000,000 fish are obtained in the year. The fish are salted
and shipped to Arkhangel in barrels of 27 lbs., but these are
so badly put together that the fish deteriorates and only
realizes a low price. To the south-east of Kem the principal
ARCTIC RUSSIAN FISHERIES 05
fisheries are Soroka, Shizhnaya (from each of which the annual
catch is about 5,000,000), Sukhona volok (with an annual catch
of 2,000,000), Virma with an annual catch of 1,500,000), and
Sumski (with an annual catch of 1,000,000). The herring is
caught with poke-nets, sweep or drag-nets, &c. The whole
catch is sold on the spot to dealers, the fish being either frozen
or smoked. The usual price is Is. to 3s. per 1,000. A fish
loses its value if it is frozen and then salted ; so the winter-
catch is eaten fresh. In the neighbourhood of Sumski there
are several smoke-drying sheds, in which 5,000,000 herrings
are annually smoked.
Navaga. — The navaga (Gadus navaga) is a fish allied to the
cod. The season for fishing is from November to January,
and it is done through holes in the ice. It is so easy that it
is an occupation usually left to the children. The navaga is
caught chiefly by the inhabitants of Kolezhma, Sumski, Shuya,
and Nyukhcha. Those caught at the first two are about twice
the size of those caught at Shuya, and average about 1 lb.
14 oz. A load of good navaga, consisting of about 4,000, costs
from 16s. to £2. In February the navaga, having spawned,
becomes lank and tasteless : in March it migrates.
Other White Sea fish are cod, flat-fish, wolf-fish, gwyniad
(Coregonus lavaretus), but these are not an object of export-
trade, but are only for local consumption. There are two fish
also, the lumpsucker (Gyclopterus lumpus) and father lasher
(Cottus scorpius), which are not eaten by the inhabitants,
but dried and given as food to the cattle.
The Karelians, especially at Pongamskaya and Keret, hunt
marine animals.
Gulf of Mezen to Kara Sea
The fishing along this coast is of much less importance.
The industry is almost entirely in the hands of the Samoyedes.
Owing to the absence of markets they deliver their catch to
monopolists. The Russian dealers supply tackle, &c. to the
natives, whom they organize in small groups on a system that
closely resembles that of the procruters with the Pomors.
66 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
Marine animals are hunted, when they are brought down on
floating ice by the northerly winds : among these are the
walrus, Greenland seal, sea-hare (Phoca leporina), and white
whale (Delphinapterus leucas). The seal blubber is sent to
Arkhangel, thence to Russian and foreign markets. Along the
Gulf of Mezen during August and September there is fishing
for salmon and nyelma, and in November and December for
navaga. The waters round Kanin Peninsula and Kolguev
Island were for a long time untouched, despite their vast
supply of cod and flat-fish, but lately very large plaice have
been caught by British trawlers and other foreign boats.
About a hundred steam trawlers in these waters make an
aggregate haul of 40,000 tons, chiefly plaice.
Lake and River Fish
In 1897 there were caught 1,192 tons of lake and river
fish, valued at £13,112. The chief districts in which they
were caught were Pechora, Kem, and Kola, the best salmon
being found in the Northern Dvina, Onega, Mezen, Pechora,
and Varzuga. In Lake Imandra in the Kola Peninsula
Engelhard caught salmon, grayling (Coregonus thymallus),
gwyniad, trout, and salmon-trout. The nyelma (Coregonus
leucichthys), a salmon with white flesh, is found in these lakes
and rivers.
In the Pechora are found the peliad (Coregonus peled),
the omul (C. omul), a salmon with white flesh, of primary
importance farther east, and the chir (C. nasutus). The
Coregonus is the characteristic salmon of the Arctic Ocean,
as the Oncorhynchus is of the Pacific. In the Dvina is the
sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus), a smaller member of the sturgeon
tribe and the one which penetrates highest up the rivers.
B. Western Siberian Fisheries
The Ob Basin
The basin of the Ob constitutes the whole of western
Siberia, and all the fishing centres are either along its waters
lak
42
WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 07
or along those of its confluents or the lakes from which its
waters are fed. The chief are on the lower waters of the Ob
and Irtish, on Lake Zaisan and the upper Irtish, and on Lake
Chani near Kainsk, the fishery of which is stimulated by the
immediate contiguity of the Siberian Railway. There are other
places where there is fishing, as in Lake Marka-Kul and the
akes of the Kirghiz steppes, but in these it is a secondary
d subordinate occupation of the inhabitants. In the Ob
2 species of fish are known, the most abundant families being
the Cyprinidae with 15 species, and the Salmonidae with 12 ;
among others are three species of sturgeon (the sterlet, the
sturio, and the ossetr), two of perch, two of cod, and pike is
extraordinarily abundant. There are but slight differences
between the fish of the Ob and the Irtish.
Regions of the Ob basin. — Varpakhov divides the Ob basin
into three regions — lower, middle, and upper — differentiated
to some extent by their species of fish.
The first region includes the Ob estuary and extends as far
as Berezov. The characteristic conditions of the region are
masses of water with a very slow current or stationary, and
abundance of ' sands ', i. e. stretches of clear water with sandy
or rocky bottoms. The chief fish of this part are chub, navaga,
seld {C. merki), a member of the salmon tribe with white flesh,
salmon, pidchian (or sig), chir, muksun, a broad fish with large
bright scales and small head, sturgeon, pike, roach, gremille,
peliad, and eelpout, some of these being common to the whole
river.
The second region extends from Berezov to about lat. 54° N.,
up both the Ob and the Irtish and their tributaries, coinciding
approximately with the wooded territory. The type of fish
found especially in this region demonstrates the abundance
of lake and marsh, e.g. crucian carp, tench, sterlet, and other
fish. Salmon and muksun are found in great numbers here
as well.
In the third or upper region which extends from lat. 54° N. to
the sources of the Ob and its confluents the characteristic fish
include trout, grayling, seld, Gobio fluviatilis . and taimen(Salmo
E 2
68 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
fluviatilis) which gives its name to many villages. The nyelma,
a very popular fish in Siberia, is the commonest in the
whole river. Of course there are no very marked boundaries
between these three zones : sometimes, for instance, sterlet,
which is characteristic of the central region, descends to the
Ob estuary, or grayling, a typical fish of the mountain streams,
is found in the tributaries of the lower Ob. Some fish may
be regarded as local, which always inhabit the river, while
others, which are migrants, visit it from the Gulf of Ob or cross
from one locality to another.
Migration of fish. — The movement of great masses of fish
takes place everywhere after the ice breaks, especially about
the middle of May. These movements do not take place
simultaneously with the various kinds of fish. The first
arrival is the peliad, followed in order by the muksun, the
nyelma, the pidchian, the chir, the sturgeon, the eelpout, and
last of all the seld. They ascend slowly, making about 40 miles
a day. Many of them (the muksun, nyelma, and peliad)
make for the sori (shallow backwaters which dry up in hot
weather), and then when in early autumn there is later abun-
dance of water they move up the river and spawn in its
higher waters and in those of its upper tributaries. Others,
such as the pidchian and chir, spawn in the lower Ob, and
the seld only comes into the lower Ob and its tributaries.
The sterlet spawns in flooded meadows. The sturgeon goes
up to the upper Ob and spawns on the way : in the autumn
some sturgeons remain in the river, but more go down to the
sea where they are caught in great numbers by the natives
in the Gulf of Taz. Sometimes the grampus or killer- whale
arrives in the lower Ob : its appearance is the signal for the
fish to leave the river and go up the backwaters, where an
occasional grampus will follow them.
The Zamor. — There is one special phenomenon of the
Ob that deserves attention, as it has a great influence upon
the fishing. It is called the dur or zamor, or ' the dying of the
water ' . In December and January the accumulation of
protoxide of iron brought down by the tributaries of the lower
WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 69
Ob that flow through tundra and marsh, coming over the lower
surface of the ice, proves fatal to the existence of all living
things. It gives the water an unpleasant taste and smell.
The process goes on unequally, first in the shallow parts, and
reaches from the middle of the stream to the shores. In
rapid and deep places the zamor does not exist, and the fish
do not die. The instinct of the fish makes them escape before
the zamor can destroy them. Pike, roach, and nalim go into
tributaries where the waters are not so corrupted, sturgeon
and sterlet to the mouth of the Ob, and some of the sterlet
up the Irtish. The zamor gradually extends up and down the
river, and by the end of the winter the central and lower
regions of the Ob are lifeless. On the Irtish this phenomenon
is found up to the village of Semeika. The effect upon the
fishing is obvious ; the great mass-movements of the fish
towards the sea are obstructed by fish-dams. Instinct forbids
retreat up stream, and multitudes of fish are accordingly
caught.
Methods of capture. — The favourite instrument of capture
is called gimga. It is like the morda of European Russia, but
larger. It is made of long thin twigs, on a substructure,
which costs at least £100 to erect, so that it is a method
only within the reach of those who are possessed of capital.
The fish trying to escape the massive obstructions come to
the gaps where the gimga is set, and fall ready victims. The
gimga is so close-woven that even quite small fish are caught
by it. The number of gimgas at various points of the river
differs in accordance with the breadth from 40 to 100. The
part where the majority of them is set is between Berezov
and Obdorsk ; 500,000 fish are sometimes caught in one day.
In the lower course of the Irtish and in the Ob near its estuary
instead of gimgas, there are set with the obstructions cherdaks :
these are four-cornered sacks made of netting, attached to
long poles by means of which they are lowered and raised.
These methods are employed in the summer fishing as well as
in winter, and on a smaller scale by local fishermen when the fish
are leaving the sori. A good deal of fishing is done with nets :
70 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
big nets 4,200 ft. long and 70 ft. high, or half -nets more simply
constructed and of smaller dimensions. These are employed
generally on the ' sands \ In the neighbourhood of Tobolsk
there are 120 of these ' sands '. The big traders employ the
first kind, the half -nets being used by those of humbler means.
A large amount of ice-fishing is done especially in the reaches of
the Irtish between Tobolsk and Semeika (where the zamor
stops). The ice is divided into sections, and snares armed
with hooks are let into the water through the holes that are
made in it. In some places 800,000 hooks are let down, but
the catch is not great, varying from ten to four hundred puds.
The fishing industry.— About 10,000 men take part in the
fishing industry of the Ob. The poorest are the impoverished
Samoyedes and Ostyaks, men who have lost their reindeer
and taken to fishing : an epidemic among the reindeer always
adds to the number of fishermen. But, with the exception
of the Reindeer Samoyedes and a few fur-hunting Ostyaks.
all the inhabitants of the uncultivated north along the Ob are
engaged in fishing. The great centre of the industry is Tobolsk
on the Irtish, which is the head-quarters of the six big fishing
firms that erect the largest dams. Every spring, as soon as
the ice clears, the summer expedition proceeds down the river
from Tobolsk. They give pay on an average of about 30 roubles
a month and provide certain supplies : at the beginning of
October they return to Tobolsk. About 1,000,000 puds
(15,000 tons) are taken annually, of the value of between
£300,000 and £400,000. 50,000 puds are taken annually to
Irbit fair in February from the middle Ob. Farther north
the winter catch is kept till the summer and sold to the summer-
fishing expeditions. Fish are transported by sledge, a weight
of about 20 puds to each sledge, the transport industry necessi-
tating the existence of a race of winter-dwellers along the Ob.
Sterlets are caught in winter near Tobolsk, fetching 5-8
roubles the pud in that city. Good sturgeon are caught on
the river, weighing 8 puds and containing half a pud of caviar.
The sturgeons of the Ob are much bigger than those of the
Irtish. Pike are sometimes so numerous on the Ob that they
WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 71
are sold for only 12 kopeks, but this is not surprising as a
company of 50 or 60 can take in one season up to 7,000 puds.
1350,000 puds of fish are carried annually on the Siberian Rail-
way, 200,000 on the Perm-Tyumen Railway.
Centres of fishing industry. — Besides on the Irtish below
Tobolsk, and the Ob below the mouth of the Tom, fishing is
one of the chief occupations of the population along the Rivers
Om, Tom, and Chulim, and higher up it is of importance to
a. large number of inhabitants of the Altai district, not only
on the Ob between Barnaul and Biisk, but on tributaries like
the Kondom in the Kuznetsk district. No statistics are
furnished, but there is a generally prevalent local belief that
the fish are on the decrease. On the Ob itself it has been
calculated that the fish exported from the different regions
are as follows : Obdorsk 300,000 puds, Berezov 150,000,
Samarovskoe 75,000, Surgut 90,000, Narim 90,000.
Fish products. — Several canning factories have been
erected. Caviar is obtained from the roe, and isinglass from
the bladder of the sturgeon. Besides these two important
products, the sturgeon is of importance for its fat, dried
sturgeon being fatter than smoked salmon, and for its spinal
cord, which is eaten raw or else dried and cut into small
pieces and used for baked fishcakes with fish inside and dough
outside, while it furnishes a constituent in selanka, a soup
which is the Russian national dish. Poziom is prepared from
sterlet, sirok, and muksun: the fish is split open, freed from
bones, salted, dried in the air and slightly smoked. In summer
the fish taken from the Ob are dried and salted, in winter
they are frozen.
Lake fisheries in Western Siberia
Lake Zaisan is the centre of a considerable fishing industry,
partly in the hands of Cossacks, partly in the hands of Kirghiz.
Carp, trout, nyelma, and sterlet are found, but roach and
perch are more numerous. The fishing begins at the end of
April and continues till the end of August. The height of the
fishing season is June, after which the fish begin to go down
72 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
the Irtish. Pavlodar on the Irtish is in a district where fishing
is very important.
Lake Chani. — This lake has the great advantage of being
served by the Siberian Railway. About 100,000 puds arc
exported annually. The principal fish are pike and crucian.
The River Ural is practically outside the sphere of this
book, but is important for its protected fishery, especially
for the sturgeon.
C. Eastern Siberian Fisheries
The principal fisheries in eastern Siberia are the lower
Yenisei ; Lake Baikal and the rivers that flow into it ; the
Lena and other rivers of the Yakutsk Government ; the
Okhotsk and Kamchatka fisheries of the Pacific ; the Amur
and its estuary ; and the coast of the Ussuri Province (south-
west fishery).
The Yenisei Basin
As an important industry the fishing of the Yenisei is
practically concentrated in its lower waters. The fish most
sought in these waters are the sturgeon, the sterlet, the
nyelma, the omul, the muksun, the seld, the gwyniad, the
chir, and the sig. Most of these make long migrations up and
down the river to spawn ; many sturgeons stay in the deep
pools of the river, at any rate during the winter ; they begin
to go up the Yenisei when the ice melts, at the end of May
or the beginning of June. A good many fish stay in the estuary
throughout the winter ; some fish, like the sterlet and chir,
keep to the river all the year, and are never found at its
mouth. Altogether, about fifteen varieties are caught for
the purposes of trade, including the sturgeon, sterlet, muksun,
nyelma, and omul. So that the caviar may retain its quality,
the sturgeon is often kept alive in floating fish-tanks ; it is
said that the omul which migrate are fatter than those
which stay in the estuary all the year.
The fishing is done partly by Yenisei-Samoyedes, Yuraks,
and some Dolgans, Tungus, and Ostyaks, partly by non-
resident Russians. The work of the natives is exploited by
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 73
Russian buyers, who, as a rule, do not give money, but goods
on credit, a system which leads the fisherman into perpetual
debt. The Russians who live along the river fall victims to it
as well as the natives. The natives, who own fishing-places,
usually let them cheap and act as fishermen. Primitive
methods are employed in preparing the fish, with little regard
for cleanliness, so that a rotten smell is a constant accompani-
ment of fish from the Turukhansk district ; the preparation of
caviar is equally primitive.
Every year, at the beginning of June, boats containing the
necessities for the season are rowed or towed down the
river, reaching Dudinka in about three or four weeks,
dropping fishermen and supplies at the river-stations as
they go. The traders buy some of the natives' winter catch,
and reach Yeniseisk again at the beginning of August. After
ten days they start on their second voyage, and about the
beginning of October the expedition is back again at Yeniseisk
with the men and the summer catch. The first voyage only
brings back strongly salted fish, the second brings back what
is less strongly salted ; some of it is dried. What they cannot
carry is often brought by sledge to Krasnoyarsk during the
winter. For salting, as on the Ob, steppe salt is used ; the
proportion is usually about 180 lb. of salt to 700 lb. of fish.
In the rest of the Yeniseisk Government the fish trade
only amounts to about £5,000 a year. About 3,000 puds
reach Minusinsk from the upper Yenisei. Lake Bozhe, in
the Achinsk region, also produces a certain amount of fish.
But most of the fishing is only for local consumption.
The fishing in the Yenisei is done principally by seines,
with, as a rule, five men to a net. The big employers of
labour usually make combinations of two or three, and have
a tug ; they completely control the smaller workers. The
rich men have nets of nearly 20,000 ft. in length, but the
natives have to be content with much smaller nets. Besides
nets, there are also dams of interlaced branches stretched
across the river. In the winter some fish, especially sturgeon,
omul, and mukswi, are caught under the ice. Hunger and
74 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
curiosity make them fall at this period ready victims to
any bait.
Absence of good communications has greatly restricted the
fish-industry of the Yenisei. There is no canning, and the
attempt to send frozen fish by rail to Russia has been a failure,
despite the demand for such supplies. The present amount
exported south annually is about 175,000 puds, including
about 155,000 puds of summer-salted fish and 20,000 puds
of winter-salted fish, but the market is almost entirely confined
to the Yeniseisk Government, with Yeniseisk and, to a lesser
extent, Krasnoyarsk as centres of the trade, though a few of
the fish from this region go as far as Tomsk and Irkutsk. The
best fish are found a long way north, and it is only possible
to make one voyage within the year for the summer catch.
About 175,000 puds are caught in the Yenisei and the
shallow tundra lakes by the local population and used for the
needs of themselves and their dogs. The annual value of
the Yenisei fisheries, including export fish, is about £80,000.
Lake Baikal
The Baikal fishing-region includes Lake Baikal itself, the
lower reaches of the rivers that feed it, especially the Barguzin,
the Selenga, and the Upper Angara, and the lagoon-like
lakes along the shores of Lake Baikal, termed sori. The
principal fish of these waters are the sturgeon (which is found
in the Lower Angara and Lake Baikal, and fished for in the
latter during the winter through the ice), the omul, the chir,
the gwiniad, the grayling, the roach, the crucian, and the
burbot. There is also a mysterious fish, the golomyanka
{Comephorus baicalensis), which lives only in the profoundest
depths of this lake, and is about 10£ ins. long. In Lake
Baikal there is further a species of seal (Phoca baicalensis). In
other parts of the Transbaikal Government are found, besides
most of the fish of Lake Baikal, pike, carp, tench, and silurus.
In Lake Frolikha, near the north extremity of Lake Baikal
and communicating with it by a river of the same name, is
a special kind of trout, not known elsewhere (Salmo erythrcas).
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 75
The main fishing in the Baikal fisheries is for the omul,
of which 500,000 are taken yearly of the value of about
£20,000. During the winter the omul keeps in the deepest
waters of the lake ; in the spring it begins to approach the
shores and enter the small inlets along them; towards
September it moves in masses to the estuaries, up which it
goes to spawn ; it ascends the Upper Angara for more than
60 miles : at this period the ' running-catch ' is made. Later,
when it has spawned, it goes back to the lake, and the
' swimming-catch ' takes place. When the lake is frozen,
it is caught under the ice by nets let down to a depth of 100
to 150 fathoms. The winter catch is put on the market
frozen, the summer and autumn catch salted.
The implements for taking fish in Lake Baikal greatly
vary, nets and ' bagnets ' being used where the fishing is on
a large scale. Bagnetting is carried out by small companies ;
there are also net associations, where each member supplies
a settled number of fishing-nets and ropes.
Lena, and Kolima
The Lena and Kolima region is of very little industrial
importance owing to the absence of means of communication,
but none the less a great deal of fishing goes on to satisfy the
needs of the inhabitants. For most of them fish is the staple
food, and has the same importance that grain has for the
inhabitants of agricultural districts. The natives eat chiefly
small fish. Thus 94 per cent, of the inhabitants of the
Yakutsk district are engaged in fishing, and it is the occupa-
tion of 92 per cent, in the Kolima district, and 87 per cent, in
the Verkhoyansk district, and of 68 per cent, in the Olekminsk
district. It is possible that the Kolima fishers will find an
outside market for their fish, as since 1911 there has been
regular steamer communication with Vladivostok. The
amount of the catch of the district, including the adjoin-
ing lakes, is estimated at from 4,000 to 5,600 puds. At
present the only market for the Lena fishery is the mining
district.
76 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
The chief fish are sturgeon, sterlet, mukswi, nydma,
gwyniad, chir, bass, common gremille, dace, pike, and burbot.
A great number of herrings are found in the estuaries of both
the Lena and the Kolima. Crucian carp is specially common.
Fishing is most vigorous on the lower reaches of both rivers.
About 25,000 puds are exported annually by steamer from
Bulun up the Lena to Yakutsk. The Aldan, with its tributary,
the Maya, is also prolific in fish. The fishing on the Kolima is
vigorous, so far as the conditions allow, but the river is
frozen for 268 days in the year. The fishing on that river
is mostly done by companies, but, even though clubbing to-
gether, they have very insufficient implements. At ninety-nine
fishing-stations along its lower waters there were only fifteen
entire nets in all, the remaining fishermen contenting them-
selves with broken parts. The methods of preparation are
as inadequate as the fishing-tackle ; caviar is hardly prepared,
and is often thrown away, as the natives do not eat it.
Frozen fish is frequently eaten like cheese, cut into thin slices
and called stroganin. The sturgeons are very large, often
weighing as much as 200 lb. The coast dwellers hunt for
seals, especially in March and April.
Okhotsk- Kamclbatka
This district in the Pacific extends from Udskaya Bay,
where the River Uda flows into the sea (in lat. 55° N.) to the
mouth of the River Anadir (in lat. 65° N.), taking in the coasts
of the peninsula of Kamchatka and of the Commander Islands.
It is divided into a western and an eastern section by Cape
Lopatka, the southern point of Kamchatka.
In the Pacific the conditions of the industry and the species
of fish are entirely changed. Instead of a Russian monopoly
there is keen competition with Japan. In fact the Japanese
had got the fishing trade almost entirely into their hands,
before the Fishing Convention was made in 1907, which gave
them free rights of fishing, except in certain specified bays and
river mouths. Even now a great deal of fishing is under
Japanese control, and the market for the fish is largely
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 77
Japanese. In the western section only one bay (Penzhina
Bay) is excluded from the convention ; in the 1,850 miles of
coast in the eastern section sixteen bays and gulfs are excluded,
but yet in only one of these (Avacha Bay) is the industry
carried on by Russian enterprise. Several areas have been
closed to all fishing since 1913 in order to conserve the fisheries.
These include the mouths of the Ulya, Urak, Okhota, Kukhtui,
Kola, Tau, Yana, Arman, Ola, Yama, Takhyama, Nayakhan,
Gizhiga, Tigil, Bolshaya, Osernaya, Kamchatka and other
rivers.
The fish of the Pacific differ largely from those of the
Arctic Ocean and of the rivers that flow into it. The charac-
teristic Salmonidae are not Coregoni, but Oncorhynchi. The
principal salmons of the Pacific that ascend the rivers that
flow into it are six in number. (1) The chavucha (S. orientalis),
confined to Kamchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk, the largest of the
tribe, but a fish that has not yet established itself in European
markets ; it is a fine fish with good flavour, averages 15 to 20
lb., and is often six feet long. It supplies the best caviar,
experiments showing that the best comes from fish over
four years old. (2) The goltsi (8. collaris), a kind of sea trout,
ascends the rivers to the head waters, and returns in the
following spring. (3) The keta (Oncorhynchus lagocephalus) or
dog-salmon, is the commonest of all in these waters, except in
south Kamchatka (where the chavucha is most prevalent) ;
it weighs nine or more pounds ; a man can catch 1,000 in a day.
It is of inestimable importance to the natives ; its skin pro-
vides them with sails, dress, and boots ; it is preserved in
various manners, and forms the chief food of the inhabitants
of Primorsk ; its caviar, which is of a pale red colour, is
now regarded as of value, though previously it was thrown
away. The keta is a very timorous fish and avoids clear water :
it comes in great shoals. (4) The gorbusha (O. proteus), the
humpbacked or Alaskan pink salmon, is less choice : it weighs
from four to eight pounds, or occasionally even ten. It is
found in all the rivers. (5) The krasnaya (O. lycoodon) or red
salmon is smaller than the chavucha and appears a fortnight
\\ $ V\ U , \ \
s
V
fcbfl |0W to Vbvt:\,Ns:^k .;r.a svv.v :,> lY:r\w*d direct Rw
K\ I II' ICI.T! \ . II IIM'II. 70
tupply, feed them elv< the earliest arrivali being plaice,
haddock, and bad and hat kan
i .iii- nori b ooa it oi 01 ad (2) the
lummer fishing, which In >ply the vrintei need i oi then
• I',;/;'. ;ui'l ' h ' • ; r j < -i v « - 1 Mil in mid .Jurm 1/1 I
ch,'i,l,k;i.
Gommercial fl thin a Japan* For fche
wii'.i' put up i" auction
i at Vladivo itok \>y i he l>< pai i merit <>i l><''
Hie total amount realized in 1013 w$m £31,419 , the amount
three jrear bet (X) The number oi Ku
i bat bake "|> the fishing in 1010 only
.) per cent, irere taken by them, In 1012 22 per ooni in
1013 there irere 141
only 'i d u In I ii- ea tern Kamchal ka 1 1
mo i. oi which ! '■ 30 R
tal Ion "' Kamchal ka. 'i hen tendency
tnohatka to look for better on tomi i than the Japi
who beat down pricei Bnt fche coat oi freight mal
almo • Impo Ible for the fish oi on to compet*
oi the Amur. Again all labour and iupplii
\» brought from Vladivostok Not only li fche distance from
Japan considerably mi, Mm workmen .u<- paid u-hh,
their food oo I le and I hi , ha i &ppty oi schooneri
and iteamei for handling the fish, The only oommun i
uninhabifc d d
i during a i hoi I lailin by ( he limited
iteam oi the Volunteer i''i« »■< and all net* and material
to I"- brought a loi Hw Japan* «• fl ihei mi n
ecure abundant lupplfr from n
Canning bai been itarted In Kamchatka iritb iom<
the work li mostly done by Japanese firms. The chief
oanni d tin Ossi tu pa, Bol ihfl 'alana,
and Kolpokara riven Cn 1013 the total output oi tinned
salmon In Kamohatl fourdozen lib. fcins.
Tim .:•.(« hi of Mm :.;i.Iimoii li ..In / y in Okhof.k ;uid K:un
< hal l..i. < :.n b< realized from the numbers oi fl li taken In 1013,
80 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
which were : Okhotsk, 500,000 ; western Kamchatka,
33,500,000 ; eastern Kamchatka, 11,800,000. The herring
catch in these districts totalled about 188,000.
Besides this salmon in 1913 there were prepared in Okhotsk
213 tons of caviar, in western Kamchatka 1,134 tons, in
eastern Kamchatka 1,034 tons.
There are various ways of preparing fish : one, called
yukola, of a crude nature, is only applied to fish intended
for the consumption of natives or dogs ; the form of fish-
preserve which is most exported is called balylc. It is
exported from Okhotsk to Vladivostok and Yakutsk, and
from Petropavlovsk and Ust-Kamchatsk to San Francisco
and Vladivostok.
Seal Fisheries of Commander Islands
One special marine industry is the hunting of the sea bear
or fur seal, which supplies ' sealskin \ The centre of this, as
of the cod industry, is the Commander Islands, where the
creatures congregate in the summer. In the course of the
last twenty-five years they have greatly diminished owing
to immoderate fishing in the open sea. In 1890 no less than
55,435 reached the market, but in 1911 only 200. In 1912
a prohibition against killing them for the next five years
came into force. During this period there is every reason to
hope that the breed will have been regenerated and restored,
especially as hunting these animals in the open sea has been
prohibited by the Washington International Commission for
fifteen years. With the renascence of the sea bear it is hoped
that the Commander Islands will recover in prosperity and
population.
Amur
Fishing districts. — There are three fishing districts in this
region : (1) Nikolaevsk, the most important, comprises the
lower Amur for 200 miles above its mouth, the Amgun, the
Amur estuary, about 130 miles of the coast of Sakhalin, and
about 860 miles of the coast of the Okhotsk Sea from Udskaya
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 81
Bay to the Amur estuary. (2) Mariinsk, from Troitskoe
to Sofiisk, a reach of about 263 miles. (3) Khabarovsk,
above the last district as far as Khabarovsk, a reach of about
107 miles.
In the Nikolaevsk district there are three kinds of fishing
villages : fish-catching stations, salting stations which buy
but do not catch fish, and villages which do some fishing
incidentally. Leaving out of account the many villages in
the last category, in 1913 there were 111 fishing stations leased
from the Government at a total annual rental of £32,000 and
28 fishing stations leased from the municipality of Nikolaevsk at
a total annual rental of £17,000. In the Mariinsk district there
were 27 and in the Khabarovsk district 3 commercial fishing
stations. In the two latter districts all the stations were
Russian. Other stations were given free of charge to certain
villages in order to ensure their food supply. The fisheries of
the River Ussuri are entirely in the hands of Cossacks or
natives who fish for their own needs with primitive methods.
Pronge, lying south of the Amur mouth, used to have an im-
portant fish trade with Germany. The Volga caviar merchants
have a station in this region which was reported to be very
successful.
Japanese fishing. — Up to 1899 the Japanese invasion so
completely monopolized the fishing industry that hardly any-
thing remained over for the Russian population or Empire ; in
that year foreigners were prohibited from fishing in the Amur
and its estuary, and Russians were forbidden to use foreign
labour. Under these conditions development of the fishing
industry became possible, and it has been especially stimulated
since the Russo-Japanese War. In 1907 a convention was con-
cluded with Japan by which the Japanese were admitted to
the same fishing rights as the Russians. From this conven-
tion all rivers and thirty-four bays in the Far East fisheries
were exempted, and it is practically in these alone that Russian
fishing prospers. In the Amur estuary foreigners are allowed
to prepare but not to catch the fish. The chief buyers
in the Amur fishery were originally the Japanese, but they
82 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
have lost their market by trying to force down prices. The
catch in 1910 was so good that it enabled the trade to send
great quantities to Europe, and the business thus inaugurated
has continued. In 1912 the fish trade with Japan from the
Maritime Province was practically extinct.
Amur fishery. — The conditions of the fishing industry on
the Amur have greatly improved. The fact that better
prices now obtain ought to stop the excessive fishing that
formerly prevailed, but probably stringent regulations will
have to be introduced. In the remoter districts the rule that
fish may not be caught within two versts of a river mouth
is constantly disregarded. A fish hatchery is to be established
at Nikolaevsk by the Government, which is alive to the danger
of the rapid exhaustion of the fisheries under the present
method. With a view to encouraging local consumption the
experiment is to be made of giving fish a prominent place in
the rations of the troops. The Amur stations are being
equipped according to the latest plans with refrigerators,
electric -light installation, and all processes that make for
cleanliness.
Salmon. — The most important fishery is for salmon, and
then for sturgeon. Besides the fish specially named there
are about fifty varieties of less commercial value. The salmon
of the Amur are the keta, which enters the river from the
end of June, and the gorbusha, which ascends the river at
intervals from the middle of August to the middle of September,
often going up-stream 1,200 miles. On the lower Amur the
average weight of the spring keta is 4 lb., of the autumn
keta 9 lb., and of the gorbusJia 2£ lb. In 1913 the catch on
the lower Amur, exclusive of the Nikolaevsk district, was
about 1,340,000 keta.. In the Nikolaevsk district the catch
was about 18,260,000 keta, and 7,500,000 gortmslm.
In 1913 there were sent 46,031 tons of fish and fish products
by rail via Khabarovsk. The trade has become so much
stimulated that special storage-houses are to be built at
Moscow and Vladivostok. The fish for the Russian market is
either frozen or salted, and sent in 25-pnd barrels ; for Japan
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 83
it is dry-salted in the Japanese way, without barrels. There
is a rapidly growing trade in salmon-caviar, especially the roe
of the keta, which used formerly to be thrown to the dogs, but
3,652 tons of it were in 1912 carried by railway in refrigerators.
There is some trade also in train-oil made of fishes' livers,
about 10,000 gallons being secured in a month and a half.
There is only one canning factory in this region : in 1913 it
turned out about 100,000 tins of salmon, each of 1 lb.
Scientific investigation has revealed a good many facts
about the Amur salmon. It is a migratory fish, that lives
in the sea and ascends the river only at spawning-time. The
young fish make their way down to the sea and live there
for three or four years, after which thej T assemble in large
shoals, and ascend the river against the current for more
than 1,200 miles. In their life as river fish their colour and
appearance change. After spawning they become weakened
and are swept down by the current, while so many die of
exhaustion that there is a general belief that all fish that enter
the river succumb.
Sturgeon. — Sturgeon-fishing on the Amur is mainly a winter
industry, but there is serious danger of the fish being exter-
minated. The Government have had little success in attempt-
ing to limit the season from June 15 to the melting of the
ice and to prevent the use of drag-nets. Fishing goes on all
through the year, even during the spawning season. Large
specimens are already scarce, the average being from 30 to
40 lb. In winter they are caught by hooks through holes in
the ice in large pools, which the natives know them to frequent.
The consumption is almost entirely local. In 1913 the total
catch was 147 tons. The Government imposes a tax of ftf.
per lb. The better kind is caught in the neighbourhood of
Khabarovsk, though the sturgeon is much more plentiful near
Nikolaevsk. A certain amount of caviar is shipped to
Vladivostok. One special form of sturgeon on the Amur is
the halug, or white sturgeon.
F 2
84 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
Sakhalin
The fishing in Sakhalin is losing importance. Here besides
the keta and gorbusha, which swarm in August, herring is
a common fish ; it is used almost entirely as fish-manure,
which is exported to Japan. In 1913, a bad year for herring,
the total catch in the fourteen stations in Russian Sakhalin
was about 200,000 salmon and 4| million herring. About
274 tons of herring manure and an equal amount of salted
salmon were exported to Japan. Smaller quantities of fish
and caviar went to Russia. The Gilyaks engage in herring-
fishing, when the keta season is over. To the Gilyak fish is the
principal form of food. His supply for winter is almost
exhausted by December, though there is fishing for dorse in
Baikal Bay during the winter. Then comes a time of great
hardship. In April the seals appear, but before their arrival
comes the haddock, which is hooked through holes in the ice.
Then come herring and halibut (Pleuronectes hippoglossus),
which sometimes weigh more than 100 lb. Trout (Salmo
fario) appears in the rivers, but the next great catch is the ide
(Idus melanotus), which is caught by baskets in the rivers.
The smelts (Osmerus eperlanus) are so numerous that they are
often ladled out of the water. An ally to the Gilyak fisherman
is the grampus or killer-whale, a voracious animal which drives
fishes and seals before it up the rivers or on to the coast ; in
return for these services the natives give it a friendly reception
if they meet it alive, and inter its body with due rites if it is
washed ashore.
The Gilyak have a special type of weir or dam for catching
fish ; this, as well as a Japanese weir, is constantly used
also on the mainland.
The South-west
The sea-coast of the Ussuri district of Primorsk is known
as the south-west region. It extends from the boundary of
Korea to Cape Lazarev at the south of the Amur estuary.
In this region seven bays, including Peter the Great and
Imperatorskaya Bays, are excluded from the convention.
EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 85
North of Peter the Great Bay the industry is principally in
Japanese hands. The reservation of the fishing-rights in this
bay for Russians has put an end to Chinese and Korean
trade, and the proximity of a good market in Vladivostok
has greatly helped Russian industry. Steam-trawling is
beginning in this bay, the first trawler being British-built.
Fish caught in this way are salted.
The chief fish caught in these waters is herring ; it
approaches the shores and enters Peter the Great Bay about
the middle of November, comes again through the end of
December, January, and the beginning of February, and pays
a final visit in April. The principal herring fisheries, however,
are north of Imperatorskaya Bay. Besides the herring, the
keta and gorbusha are also obtained. Other fish, like the
smelt, flounder, mackerel, and dorse, are of much less economic
importance. Counting the three most important fish, the
catch in 1913 was about 41,000,000 herring, 658,000 gorbusha,
and 138,000 keta.
An important fishery is that for trepang (Holothuria edulis),
the Chinese name for the Golden Horn of Vladivostok, applied
to the beche-de-mer or sea-slug. It is found on rocky bottoms
along the whole coast of thePrimorsk, but is especially common
in the neighbourhood of Peter the Great Bay. The Chinese
spear or net it. There are two seasons, from the end of March
to June and from mid-September to October. The average
catch for a fisherman is 120 a day. They weigh about six
pounds when dried. In 1913 about 9 tons were exported
from Vladivostok.
In 1913 about 125 tons of dried crabs went to China and
Korea. There is a considerable market for shrimps.
Products of Wild Animals
Fur
Fur is the oldest established trade of Siberia. Originally
the lure of the invaders, it was for many years the form in
which the subject tribes paid their tribute. Siberia is extremely
86 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
rich in fur-bearing animals, but with the growth of civiliza-
tion and the destruction of the forests, they are being driven
further and further north, the number of many breeds is
being seriously diminished, and rigid restrictions on their
capture have to be introduced, if they are to survive. As
a rule, the colder the climate, the better is the quality and
colour of the coat. The lower the latitude, the less silky is
the fur, and the hair is apt to be ' harsh ' in the tropics,
lacking in softness and depth.
In western Siberia the most important parts for fur-bearing
animals are the Berezov, Surgut, Turinsk andObdorsk districts
in Tobolsk, and the Narim district of Tomsk. In certain
parts of Tobolsk Government hunting is the chief occupation
of a large section of the population, providing them with the
means of existence, e. g. along the Rivers Vakh and Yugan ;
for the inhabitants of the valleys of the Rivers Agan and
Torum-Yugan it is as important as fishing, and for those
of the lower Ob it often supplements fishing and reindeer-
breeding. In the Narim district of Tomsk it is one of the
main industries, as much as fishing, for the Ostyaks, and is
an addition to the industries carried on by Russian settlers.
In the Kirghiz steppes there is hunting, but it is principally
for sport ; it is only the poor who trade with the proceeds
of the chase, though they do secure a certain number of
wolves, foxes, and ermines.
The chief fur animals found in western Siberia are, in the
Tobolsk Government, the squirrel, fox, ermine, and hare,
and in the Berezov tundra the Arctic fox; less common are
the kolonok, sable (diminishing greatly in the Turinsk
district), brown bear, wolf, and, beyond Obdorsk, the polar
bear, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean; in Tomsk, of most
importance are the squirrel, kolonok, sable (greatly decreasing),
fox, ermine, bear, hare, and skunk.
In Yeniseisk hunting is the chief occupation in the north,
and also in the Turukhansk and Angara districts. Elsewhere
it is only supplementary. The deer, the Arctic fox, the hare
and the squirrel arc the chief animals. The others are rare
PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 87
and small. In the Irkutsk Province the natives are nearly
all trappers. The Kirensk and Verkholensk districts were
once well stocked with animals, but they are rapidly declin-
ing. Nearly all the fur animals are found here, the squirrel
being the commonest. In Yakutsk hunting is still the principal
occupation of nearly all the inhabitants, but the decrease
in the game is rapidly making it secondary to fishing. How-
ever, fur is still the basis of barter with the natives. In the
Amur and Maritime Provinces hunting is the chief means
of livelihood for the natives, but in the Amur Province not
for the Cossacks. In the Amur the natives are chiefly occupied
with hunting the sable for its fur, while the Russians mainly
hunt the roebuck for its leather. A number of valuable
animals are found in the Maritime Province. (For a detailed
description of the fur animals, see pp. 52-59.)
The great centre of the trade in Siberia is the Irbit fair,
though the December fair at Ishim also has importance,
especially for the sale of squirrels' fur. But besides these
big centres there are many smaller fairs arranged at the
close of the hunting season, which is usually the early winter.
The hunting is often done by co-operative groups, who share
profits. The fur trader often deals with these people, directly
trafficking in things like tea, sugar, tobacco, gunpowder, and
manufactured goods,which are indispensable to the inhabitants,
for the furs which they have come to buy. The smaller fairs
are losing their importance. But the fur trader is often the
agent of a bigger man, and the fur passes from hand to hand
till it reaches one of the great fairs. The agents of the larger
firms, principally German and English, push farther and
farther inland.
It is difficult to give accurate figures of the number of
animals killed, and the amount of fur secured ; we do not
know how much is used in local consumption, in manufactur-
ing clothes for the inhabitants, but the figures of Irbit fair
are accurately known, and furnish the best evidence of the
present state of the trade. Irbit fair takes place from
February 8 to March 10. It is supposed that two-tliirds of
88 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
what is for sale there comes from the country west of Lake
Baikal. What is not sold at Irbit usually goes on to Nizhne-
Novgorod. A great deal of sable is not sent to Irbit, but
direct to Moscow. Now, owing to the restriction on killing
sable (mentioned on p. 54), which may be continued, sable
appears to a much smaller extent among the sales at Irbit.
The most important centre and distributing point of the
fur trade is London, the next most important is Leipzig,
near which place, at Weissenfels, there is a gigantic industry
in dressing the skins of Russian grey squirrels and making
them into linings. Irbit used to be eighty miles from the
railway : the opening of the branch that goes through Irbit
and Turinsk from the Perm-Tyumen Railway to the Tavda
may do a great deal to recreate the greatness of the Irbit
fair by making it more accessible ; but it looks as though
the importance of fairs would be lessened, as the traders are
more and more making their purchases at the place of
production and dealing with the trappers on the spot.
In 1910 the total sales at Irbit amounted to £729,000 ; in
1912 prices had risen from 15 to 20 per cent., and the total
amounted to £833,000 ; in 1917 with a great increase in prices
the sales totalled £724,160. The sales in 1912 included
4,535,000 squirrel-skins, 1,500,000 rabbits, 12,250 sables,
200,000 ermines, 1,500 brown bear, 180,000 kolonok, 16,500
grey wolf, 14,000 to 15,000 fox. Very fine sable sold for
£42 each ; black fox skins were scarce, and fetched anything
from £21 to £105 ; grey wolf skins were sold from £1 5s. to
£3 lis. In 1914 the total value of squirrel-skins alone was
£228,000, but in 1915 there was a great drop in the sale of these
to £90,000. In 1916 business was rather slack. The chief
fur-sales were as follows : about 3,500 badgers ; 1,500 bears,
the price being about £3 4s. 5\d. per skin ; 60,000 black cats
fetching up to Is. 5\d. per skin ; 10,000 Orenburg marmots ;
1,000 pine martens from £1 12s. 2hd. to £1 18s. lid. each ;
500 stone martens, £1 7s. lid. ; 6,000 mink; large quantities of
red fox ; small quantities of Yeniseisk white fox at £3 4s. id. ;
7,000 Obdorsk white fox, ranging from £2 5s. to £3 per skin;
PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 89
some Pechora white fox at £2 13s. Sd. ; about 100 silver fox,
ranging from £16 2s. to as much as £107 each ; about 4,000
reindeer fawns sold up to 7s. Qd., the same number of summer
reindeer skins sold from 10s. 9d. to 15s. Q\d. ; only some
3,000 sable, the lowest price being £2 15s. 10c?., the highest
£8 lis. 2d. ; squirrels were very numerous, and fetched high
prices, the best with full tails (3,000,000), realizing from
8s. Id. to 9s. The Chinese bought up most of the dark ones
on the spot, and only about 500,000 of them were offered for
sale, less valuable type# fetching lOeZ. or Is. ; 1,000,000 white
hares sold up to Is. \\d. for the best ; about 250,000 white
pole-cats from 3s. 5d. to 3s. 9d. ; wolves were much in demand,
about 2,000 were sold, fetching £1 18s. Id. The best from
Turukhansk sold from £3 0s. Id. to £3 15s. Id.
Fur-fairs are held at the confluences of the chief tributaries
of the Amur, at Albazin, for instance, and Blagovyeshchensk.
In the Uda district, where the sable is especially good, the
fairs are at Kulcha on Lake Orel, Burukanskaya on the Tugur,
and at the mouth of the Uda. There is an important fur-fair,
on a much larger scale than these, at Nikolaevsk. As the
natives of this region remove the heads and claws of the
bears from religious motives, the bear-skins here are not of
much value.
In the far North-East the Anyui fair, once of the first
importance, has declined considerably, since the Chukchee
prefer to barter most of their furs with the Americans on
Bering Strait. Only the most valuable furs are sent to the
Anyui, as for these Russians give better prices. A number
of furs, walrus, and mammoth-tusks now reach Vladivostok
by sea from Gizhiga. The Russian traders at the Anyui fair
all come from Yakutsk.
At one time the Kyakhta fair, where Chinese merchants
bought the peltries, was of great importance, but this is now
no longer the case.
There are many small fairs throughout the north and east.
The fur sold at those in the south goes to Yeniseisk and
Irkutsk. But the great fur-market of the north is the Yakutsk
90 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
fair, which is held in July. The following table shows the
number of skins sold :
Price.
1902.
1905.
1913.
£ s. d.
Sable .
2,640
3,000
—
White fox
8,400
14,000
20,000
(in 1911-12) up to
2 14
Fox
844 .
5,000
Red fox
1,000
Grey fox
100
2 12 1
Kolonok
220
1,000
Ermine .
900
12,000
10,000
5 9
Squirrel
. 73,500
300,000
70,000
1 2
Black bear
100
In the average of the total amount of skins of fur-bearing
animals in the international markets, the share of Russia
and Siberia is as follows :
Squirrels
Hares .
Ermines
Kolonok
Skunk .
Brown bear
Sable .
All Russia.
Siberia.
15,500,000
15,000,000
5,250,000
5,000,000
1,100,000
700,000
200,000
150,000
300,000
150,000
8,000
(3,000
215,000
70,000
A word or two may be added about the last-named animal.
Its numbers had fallen so alarmingly that a law has been
passed forbidding its slaughter from February 1, 1913, to
October 15, 1916, with a permanent close time from February
to October in each year. The Moscow Fur Association has
pressed for a renewal of this law for another three years.
In Kamchatka the danger of the sable becoming extinct was
recognized some years ago, and reserves were marked out
within which the hunting of sable was prohibited. A recent
expedition has staked out two large sable-reserves in the
Sayansk district. Sable skins range from 15 to 20 in. in
length, and from 5 to 8 in. in breadth. In genuine sable
the outer covering of hair is especially delicate in quality
and beautiful in colour, having a rich blue tint, and varying
from 11 to 2 J in. in length, while the pelt is very soft, but
PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 91
durable. In Kamchatka, Sakhalin, the Maritime Province,
and the Barguzin district of the Transbaikal the sable holds
the first place. It is, indeed, the most valuable of the fur
animals. The best black sables come from the Yakutsk
Province, notably the Lena district, the lightest and least
valuable from the Ob and the Yenisei. The Kamchatka sable
is browner than the others. The fur of the kolonok (' Tartar
sable '), which is really yellow, can be dyed so as to resemble
sable with such success, that expert judges often cannot tell
the difference.
Another animal for which protection is necessary is the
white fox. Though it is found throughout northern Siberia,
it is in great demand for imitating the rarer black and silver
fox furs, and is ruthlessly hunted in consequence.
The Indigirka is now the centre of the white fox hunting,
the skins being bought up by the agents of the Ust-Yansk
and Yakutsk merchants. In 1911 good skins fetched from
15s. to 30s. there.
The squirrel appears in the largest numbers in the fur-
markets. The farther north and east the animal is found,
the darker, thicker, and more valuable is its fur. Next to the
squirrel comes the hare. The best squirrels come from the
Lena, but the ermines from that region are the least valuable.
Tiger-hunting is a regular occupation in winter on the
lower Amur. In 1912 fifteen were killed and twelve caught
alive. Of these ten were sent to Hamburg for sale. In some
years 120 or more are killed. The bile, heart, and claws are
sold to the Chinese, who make from them a powder, which is
supposed to produce courage.
Game
The export of game is small. In 1909 it was about 1,200
tons, worth £53,000 ; in 1910 about 1,800, worth £73,600.
But Siberia abounds in edible birds of many kinds — duck,
geese, hazel-hens, ptarmigan, &c. — and the export might be
much increased if the business were better organized, and
92 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING
more ice-wagons were supplied on the railways. The principal
place for the export of wildfowl in western Siberia is Barnaul.
Fossil Ivory
The collecting of fossil ivory is a regular industry among
the natives of the far north. The mammoth tusks are
found principally along the Arctic Ocean. Those near the
shore are usually smaller than those inland. The New Siberia
Islands are a favourite hunting-ground, the waves washing
the tusks out of the sand-dunes in stormy weather. On the
mainland these are most commonly found embedded in the
earth banks of the smaller streams, the spring floods exposing
them to view. The natives make their way to the Arctic
Ocean or the adjacent islands with their dog -sledges in April,
returning in November, when the ice is firm again. The
Yakutsk fair is the chief market for fossil ivory, which is
little inferior to ordinary ivory. Nearly twenty tons were
taken in 1913, the price at Yakutsk being about £5 105. for
36 lb. A certain amount is brought to the fairs in the
Tobolsk Government. The Chukchee possess beautiful breast-
ornaments made of fossil ivory. The flesh of the mammoth
is eaten by the natives, apparently without harm to them-
selves, but Europeans will be loth to follow their example.
I CHAPTER V
ATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA
1
lassification : I. Palaeo-Siberian Tribes. II. Neo-Siberian Tribes: (i) Finno-
Ugrian, (ii) Samoyedic, (iii) Turkic, (iv) Mongolie, (v) Tnngusic
Classification
The inhabitants of Siberia may be considered in three
oups, corresponding to the different periods at which the
country was settled. (1) The first group are the descendants
of the pre-historic inhabitants, who have always existed in
the country, or else entered it at an early period of which
for Siberia there is practically no knowledge. Such are the
Chukchee, the Koryak, the Gilyak, and these are the aboriginal
inhabitants. (2) Secondly there are races who settled in
Siberia during the great movements of population which took
place in Asia from the third to the thirteenth century. Such
are the Finno-Ugrian tribes — for instance, the Vogul, and
perhaps the Samoyedes — who came from the south of the
Altai Mountains in the third century ; such the Turkic tribes,
Yakuts and Tartars, who came from the regions of the Oxus,
perhaps in the eleventh century or earlier ; such the Mongols,
a people akin to the Turks, coming from the regions of the
Himalayas into Siberia in the time of the famous Jenghiz
Khan, early in the thirteenth century ; such are the Buryats.
(3) Thirdly there are the Russian colonists, who have come
more or less continuously into Siberia ever since the notable
expedition of the Cossack Yermak, in 1580.
The tendency to expand eastward is very distinct in
Russian history. With regard to Siberia, Russian historians
are fond of comparing the stream of immigrants to a military
column, which has thrust itself along a broad belt of territory
stretching east and west, from the south of the Ural Moun-
94 NATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA
tains to the valley of the River Amur. The territorial belt
thus settled, more densely than any other part of the country,
begins on the west, between Verkhoture to the north and
Troitsk to the south, and stretches eastwards between Tobolsk
and Petropavlovsk ; between the Tara and the Om the belt
narrows, broadens a little between Tomsk and the Biya,
and, as a compact mass, ends about Nizhne-Udinsk, with the
rivers which flow into the Yenisei. In its eastward march
from the Urals the column of immigration has thrown off
outposts, as it were, which form settlements along the Ob,
Yenisei, and Lena ; and gradually the Amur valley is being
penetrated. By this more or less thickly settled belt of
colonization, the native races have been divided into a
northern and southern portion ; but far the greater number of
them lie to the north, along the valleys of the great rivers
that flow into the Arctic Ocean.
A few native stocks are said to have disappeared altogether,
or to have been absorbed ; some, like the Gilyaks and Chuk-
chee, in the far corners of the land, are practically intact ;
some, like the Irtish-Ostyaks, have preserved their nationality
even amidst Russians ; some by intermarriage have exercised
a greater influence upon the Russians than the Russians have
upon them ; this is especially true of the numerous tribes
of the Yakuts, whose customs, dress, and even language, have
to a great extent been adopted by the immigrants. This
mixing of Russians with native stocks is commonest on the
outskirts of the belt of settlement, along the Yenisei and
Lena. It is the converse of what happened, in the Middle
Ages, in Russia itself, when native stocks from central Asia
invaded the country, and intermarried with and were absorbed
by its inhabitants. Only where the immigrants are com-
paratively thick in Siberia, do the natives become Russianized.
In this way new types have arisen in Siberia ; in addition
to pure native stocks, there are native stocks infused with
Russian elements, stocks whose dominant element is Russian,
but who have been distinctly affected by native elements ;
and finally there are the pure Russians, who, from living in
CLASSIFICATION 96
the novel conditions of life, social and geographical, of Siberia,
have themselves become a new type, different from the
western Russian.
It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of the
tribes of Siberia. The name, Palaeasiasts or, better, Palaeo-
Siberians, has been applied to those indigenous stocks, which
bear no clear relation to the other races that inhabit the world,
but their own mutual relations are very indeterminate. To
the rest, sometimes called loosely the Ural-Altaic stock, is
given the name of Neo-Siberians. The word Mongolian is
used too loosely for the purposes of scientific classification,
sometimes so as to cover all the yellow races, including the
Palaeo-Siberian tribes ; at other times for the Ural-Altaic
stock, so as to include together Finns, Tartars and Turks ;
again at other times, and more accurately, it is applied to
one branch of this stock, i.e. that of which the Kalmuks
and Buryats are members.
Palaeo-Siberians. — To the Palaeo-Siberians can be assigned
without further definition of their relations to one another the
following not very numerous tribes : Chukchee, Koryak, Kam-
chadal, Gilyak, Yukaghir with their branch the Chuvanzi,
Ostyak of Yenisei ; outside Siberia are the Ainu, Aleut, of
whom some live in the Commander Islands, and Eskimo, of
whom a small number have returned to Asia.
Neo-Siberians. — The Neo-Siberians can be divided into five
fairly clear branches : (1) the Finno-Ugrian, which is practi-
cally confined to western Siberia and Europe ; (2) the Samo-
yedic, which extends along the north coast beyond the Yenisei,
and has one branch, the Soyots, among the Saj^ansk Moun-
tains ; (3) the Turkic ; (4) the Mongolic, whose great repre-
sentative is the Buryat; and (5) the Tungusic, which includes
the Manchu and many of the tribes of northern Manchuria.
Altogether the number of these natives in Siberia is roughly
a million. Many of the tribes are dying out; few only, like
the Yakuts and Buryats, are increasing in numbers and have
set their impress upon the Russians who have settled among
them,
96 NATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA
In the more barren parts for instance among the marshes
of the Irtish, or in the regions towards the Arctic Ocean, where
there is little or no scope for agriculture, and where hunting
and fishing are almost the only occupations, the number of
natives is not increasing. But in the more fertile parts of the
country, in the best parts of the river- valleys, in the middle
and south, the native stocks do tend to increase. It is in
these parts also that the process of Russification is most
clearly taking place. Generally speaking, it may be said
that the annual number of births among the natives is satis-
factory; diminution m their numbers comes from a dispro-
portionately high death-rate, particularly among infants.
Nominally most of the natives are Christian, and belong to
the Orthodox Greek Church. But the old superstitions and
the old gods to a great extent prevail among them, while the
more outlying tribes have hardly been touched by Christianity
at all. They still have their images, magic, and medicine-
men, their sacrifices, and their taboos ; polygamy and loose
morality are not uncommon ; in places, even slavery exists ;
the blood-feud is handed on from generation to generation.
Amid cold and dirt, they live lives which to the western mind
appear to be of unrelieved discomfort, bringing with it
painful diseases, unrelieved by any medical help, and only
aggravated by the brandy for which they greedily offer their
wares.
I. The Palaeo-S iberian Tribes
Chukchee
Territory. — The Chukchee territory proper lies east of
Chaun Bay and north of the Anadir. But now, owing to
their growing herds, the Chukchee have spread even as far
as the Indigirka in the west, over the Anyui to the Omolon, and
to the River Opuka and the Polpol Mountains on the Pacific.
The few who reached Kamchatka have been largely assimilated
by the Koryaks (see p. 106). Their territory consists chiefly
of tundra with a fringe of forest, the camps lying mostly along
the rivers, which are separated by bare watersheds. In
OHUKCHEE 97
autumn they seek the edge of the forest for shelter, in summer
the hills near a small glacier, or preferably the open tundra.
A camp wanders about 100-150 miles, following the same track
each year. If the ground proves unsatisfactory, another may
be chosen, so long as it is not already occupied. It is worth
noting that by entering the Anyui and Omolon territory the
Chukchee have put an end to the migrations of the wild
reindeer between the Omolon and Chaun Bay. Hence the
Yukaghir (see p. 113), who live almost entirely upon them,
are rapidly dying out.
The villages of the Maritime Chukchee stretch from Cape
Erri to Anadir Bay, except for a few Eskimo settlements.
Name. — The word ' Chukchee ' is generally derived from
cau'eu (rich in reindeer). It is the name by which the Reindeer
Chukchee distinguish themselves from the Reindeer Koryak
or the Maritime Chukchee. But both Reindeer and Maritime
Chukchee call themselves li'i-yi-lulit (those of genuine
language) as distinct from other tribes.
Language. — The Chukchee language is very similar to
that of the Koryak. Though rich in words and pliant, it is
less vital than Koryak and it has virtually no dialects. The
similarity of the Chukchee language, as of their stature
and features, to those of the Indians on the other side of
Bering Strait is said to be noteworthy.
The dominant position of the Chukchee is shown by the
way in which they force other tribes and even the Russians
to speak their language. Even on the Kolima and the Anadir
they speak very little Russian.
Numbers. — The Chukchee probably number about 12,000.
The greater part are reindeer-breeders, who inhabit some
650 camps. Thanks to their success with their herds
they are increasing steadily and are the most powerful tribe
in the east of Siberia.
Relations with the Russians. — Since the failure of their
attempts to subdue the Chukchee in the eighteenth century,
the Russians have left them virtually independent and the
relations between them have been, on the whole, excellent.
98 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Many parts of the peninsula have never been visited by
a Russian.
The power of the Chukchee chief whom the Russians recog-
nize is barely nominal. Since 1889 a tribute of 247 roubles is
paid by the Chukchee at the Anyui fair, but most of it comes
from wealthy reindeer- breeders, and apparently the Russians
are again obliged to give very substantial presents to secure
it, now that the fair is so rapidly declining.
Tribal divisions.— There are two great divisions of the
tribe, Reindeer Chukchee and Maritime Chukchee. There
is considerable evidence, apart from tradition, to show that
the Chukchee were at one time entirely a maritime people
which only turned its attention to reindeer-breeding by degrees.
Their folk-tales are generally of the sea and the dog figures
more largely in their religious life than the reindeer, though it
has long ceased to be used by the Reindeer Chukchee for
driving and is kept chiefly for religious reasons. Some of
their stories point to their having migrated from the south,
as do their names of the months. The process of transforma-
tion is still going on. Many of the Maritime Chukchee have
a few deer in the herds of friends and thus gradually acquire
the means of starting as breeders. Even the Eskimo are
following their example, for the depredations of American
whalers are rendering the livelihood of the Arctic people who
live on sea-mammals more and more precarious. Not that
reindeer -breeding is without its risks. In a bad winter many
owners may lose half their stock. But it is more profitable
and more stable, on the whole, and many coast villages have
already ceased to exist.
Social organization. — The family is the permanent Chukchee
unit, but the camp is the economic unit. It generally consists
of a few families, perhaps of ten to fifteen persons in all.
Rich people generally divide their herds, forming new camps.
Permission to join a camp must be granted by its members.
Each camp has its master, who is also called ' the strongest
man ' , and lives in the : front tent ' . The maritime villages only
occasionally have such a master. The commoner unit with
CHUKCHEE 99
them is the ' boatful ' of eight rowers and a helmsman who
commands, and whose nearest relatives form the crew. The
catch is divided among them on a regular system. The
' strong man ' has more influence in the village than in
the scattered camp. Murder within the family group is dealt
with by the family alone and dangerous or disagreeable
members are sometimes done away with. Murder outside the
family entails a blood-feud ; for revenge is a duty. A group
of kindred families is called varat (i. e. ' collection of those who
are joined together '). But this bond of union is nowadays
very loose.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — In appearance the
Chukchee are well-built and healthy though heavy, and the
well-fed reindeer-breeders are wonderfully strong. The nose
is large and well-formed, but the lower part of the face is dis-
proportionately heavy. Except on the Pacific coast, the hair
is black. That on the face is scanty, but a moustache is the
sign of manhood. The skin of the Maritime Chukchee is
darker than that of the Reindeer. Women are more often of
the Mongolian type, but many are as fair and shapely as
the average of the white race. On the whole the stock is pure.
Marriages with Russianized Creoles are perhaps increasing,
owing to the prosperity of the Chukchee, but they are generally
childless. There is a marked decrease of syphilis in the present
generation owing, perhaps, to the precautionary measures
taken in the last. But the country is liable to be swept by
epidemics of measles and other diseases. The Chukchee
are easily angered, but quarrels are usually settled by fights
or wrestling-matches. Murders are still fairly numerous,
however. The language is notably poor in terms of abuse. The
kindness of the Chukchee towards suffering, even in animals,
is most noticeable, as is their gentleness with children. They
are also wonderfully generous towards other tribes. In time
of famine a rich breeder near the Kolima will kill hundreds
of animals for hardly any return. Some of the Lamuts (see
p. 103) on the Chaun tundra get half their food from the
Chukchee. Though there is now no ill-feeling towards
G 2
100 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
foreigners, the Maritime Chukchee are more hospitable than
the others and less given to stealing. The Reindeer Chukchee
are continually robbing each others' herds, the theft being
punished by a fine or a thrashing, where the victim is strong
enough to enforce his rights. The Chukchee are slow-witted
and easily cheated in business. Their quinary- vigesimal
system of counting is clumsy in the extreme and they can only
keep track of the more notable animals in their herds. Thej^
have no remedies against disease except magic. Their
endurance of cold is astonishing. Women will sew in the
open snow half naked, because the exertion makes them so
hot. They are not clean. They even call themselves the
* non- washing people '.
Fishing. — Seal-hunting is the chief occupation of the
Maritime Chukchee. They use light harpoons for stabbing
the seals through their blow-holes in winter, when they do not
net them. For stalking them in the open they use heavier
ones, but these are being rapidly superseded by guns. Wal-
ruses are much less common, though since the Americans no
longer hunt them they are a little more numerous. On the
Pacific coast they are most easily killed during their migrations
between Kresta Bay and Cape Dezhneva. Walrus and white
whale are the favourite food. The Chukchee skin-boats are
made out of one or at most two walrus-hides. They are light
and can carry more than a whale-boat, but they are easily
holed. Whale-boats are being more and more used, but owing
to the scarcity of wood they are difficult to make.
Hunting. — The Reindeer Chukchee, in addition to breeding
reindeer, also hunt the wild reindeer when they cross the
Anadir between the mouth of the Main and Chikayeva. They
leave the Polpol Mountains in March and continue crossing
in June, beginning to return in July. Some twenty Chukchee
families on the middle Anadir live on nothing else and each
gets 100-200 deer in a year. Non-migratory deer are also
shot and mountain sheep are highly prized. Wolves, bears,
and white or red foxes are trapped, while birds are snared.
North of the Anadir there is comparatively little fishing.
CHUKCHEE 101
Bows and spears are still used in quarrels and every Chukchee
wears a knife on his hip. The Chukchee make themselves
snow-goggles out of leather or wood, with narrow slits for the
eyes. The armour of walrus-ivory, seal-hide, or iron is now
kept only as a curiosity. The Chukchee dogs are poor,
though the Maritime Chukchee eat them in time of famine. The
excellent Anadir dogs fetch high prices among the Chukchee.
Dwellings. — The Chukchee tent is large and round with
an oblong inner room which is the chief habitation. The
three central poles have a sacred character. The tent is
always set to the same points of the compass and the left side
belongs by custom to the master. The inner tent is lit by
a single lamp and the main evening meal is eaten there.
Guests strip to the waist, while the family is naked except
for a belt, as the heat rapidly becomes stifling. The stench
is intolerable. Older and thinner skins are kept for the
summer tent.
Clothing. — The chief garment of a Chukchee is a heavy double
loose-fitting reindeer-fur shirt, the collar of which can be
tightened with a string. His boots and trousers are also
double and of the same material. In these and his cap he
can sleep in the open in winter. The Maritime Chukchee
buy the cast-off clothes of their Reindeer brethren, who never
wear them two winters running. In very bad weather they
also wear a cape or a long great-coat. The women wear long
boots and clumsy combinations, the sleeves of which so
interfere with their work that they frequently keep one arm
and breast bare. The Chukchee woman tattoos very little.
Food. — The Maritime Chukchee live largely on sea-
mammals, the Reindeer Chukchee on meat, but each at
times craves for the other's diet. The Reindeer Chukchee
are not squeamish. They will eat meat or entrails in any
state of decomposition. They drink large quantities of tea
and all the alcohol they can get and are inveterate smokers.
Like the Koryak, they make an intoxicant from a mushroom.
Birth and marriage. — The Chukchee are prolific, many
families ha vine from 5 to 9 children.
102 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Marriage is not permanent. A man may change his wife.
As a rule, however, the marriage is broken by her relatives
reclaiming the bride. There are also ' group-marriages ' of
10 couples, in which the husbands have a right to each other's
wives. But this tie is never made between people in the
same camp. On the death of a husband his brother succeeds
him, keeping the dead man's reindeer herd for his children.
Polygamy is rare among the Maritime Chukchee, as they
cannot afford to support two wives, but not uncommon
among the Reindeer breeders.
Death. — Chukchee funeral rites are largely a protection
against the evil influence of the dead. The body is drawn
up through a hole in the roof or the back of the tent and all
traces are removed to prevent the dead man's return. It is
taken to the burial-place on a sledge. Here it is opened, the
organs examined, and the cause of death proclaimed. The
throat is then cut. The corpse is either exposed or burned.
It is afterwards visited, to see whether it has been carried off
by beasts — the best sign. On the fifth day the tent is moved
to another place, but sacrifices are afterwards made at the
grave. The usual abode of the dead is thought to be under-
ground. Those who die sudden or violent deaths dwell in the
Aurora Borealis.
Religion.— V r air -git among the Chukchee are the benevolent
beings to whom sacrifices are made, and they live in the
22 directions of the Chukchee compass. The chief one lives in
the zenith ; and Midday, the Sun, and the Pole -Star are very
important. Others live in the reindeer and the walrus and
in the winds. There are three classes of kelet or evil spirits,
(a) invisible spirits, bringing disease and death ; (b) blood-
thirsty spirits, the enemies of warriors ; (c) spirits which
assist the shaman. The kelet is fond of the liver. Hence the
opening of a corpse to discover what kelet has attacked its
liver. According to the Chukchee there are from five to
nine worlds one above the other, connected by a passage
under the pole-star. Other parts of the sky are also inhabited.
The object of Chukchee ceremonial is- to maintain the
CHUKCHEE 103
welfare of the community, and incantations are the leading
feature. The chief festivals are the autumn and winter
slaughterings, the ceremonial of antlers and the sacrifices
to the New Moon, the Fire, and for Luck in Hunting. More-
over, each family must perform a thanksgiving ceremony
twee a year.
Sport. — The Chukchee are fond of sport. They will travel
enormous distances to race their reindeer in the spring.
There are also foot races and wrestling matches.
Reindeer-breeding. — The Chukchee reindeer herds, which
are probably the most numerous in the world, are the most
important economic feature in far north-eastern Siberia.
It is therefore convenient to include in this section a general
account of reindeer-breeding in eastern Siberia with more
particular reference to the Chukchee.
The Chukchee laid the foundations of their present pros-
perity in their raids on the Koryak herds during the eighteenth
century, but the principal increase has been during the last
fifty years. The son of a chief who used to be looked on as
very wealthy because he owned two herds, possesses five
to-day, while his brother-in-law and his cousin each own
three.
The Chukchee deer are imperfectly tamed and readily run
wild again. Milking is out of the question and they are
difficult to manage in harness. The breed is undersized
with short head and legs, heavy body, and thick antlers, and
is dark in colour when compared with the Lamut. It is
good for food, fattening quickly and keeping its condition.
But it cannot be ridden and is much weaker than the Lamut,
which is of twice its value. A Lamut fawn is exchanged for
a full-grown Chukchee deer. Hence the Chukchee use
Lamut deer in harness and sell their own to the Lamut for
food. Crossing between wild and tame animals is common,
the wild deer visiting the Chukchee camps in the rutting
season. The fawns are much valued for racing, as they are
swifter and have more mettle than the others. Their pedigree
is preserved for three or four generations. A cross between
104 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
a wild doe and a tame buck is especially prized. In colour
the deer vary from dark grey to hazel, the fawns being darker
than the full-grown animal. The}- live from twelve to
fifteen years. They begin to shed their coats in spring
and finish by midsummer. The hair thickens rapidly. By
September it is suitable for winter clothes, for which fawn-
skins are used. The skins of full-grown animals make tent-
covers or rugs.
In winter the herd lives almost entirely on reindeer moss,
in summer chiefly on reed-grass and willow-shoots. In late
summer and early autumn both moss and grass are necessary
to fatten the herd. This is most important, because if a herd
does not fatten then it will never fatten and there is a risk
of losing the fawns in spring. In the autumn the deer will
eat mushrooms, bird-dung round the moulting-places, and
even young mice or birds. They are very fond of human
urine and are so excited by the smell that they will charge
a man who is making water near them. The natives in the
camps are very careful in consequence. They use urine to
attract the deer when troublesome and it is the most effective
means of reviving an exhausted deer on a long journey.
If snow falls late, it is bad for the deer as they cannot walk
on ice. The herd must not remain too long in one place
because their constant scraping hardens the snow so that
they cannot reach the moss. Large herds move every few
hours and are therefore leaner than small ones. Hence
sufficient space is essential. But summer pastures will stand
much more wear and tear than the winter ones. The deep
snow of the forests makes it almost impossible for the deer
to find food there. Trespassing is a serious offence, as once
two herds get entangled it is very difficult to separate them.
Calving goes on from mid-March to the end of May in the
herds, three weeks earlier than in the wild state, with the
result that many fawns die. During summer the bucks are
kept away from the fawns and does. Does often rut in their
first year. Hence the rapid increase of a herd. The Chuk-
chee are careful in selecting animals for breeding. Gelded
CHUKCHEE 105
deer or barren does alone are driven. In an average herd
the percentage is 12 breeding bucks, 10-15 sledge-deer, and
60 or 70 half -grown fawns. In a large herd there will be
30 bucks to 1.000 does. Wolves are the chief enemies. Hoof-
swelling, caused by walking on dry ground, is the principal
malady. The first frost cures it, but it often causes a number
of deaths. Ticks are troublesome. Far more serious is the
scabies that carries off whole herds when it pays its periodical
visits.
The herds require careful attention during the breeding-
season and still more in summer when they are troubled by
insects. Even the women then help to watch them, as the
least thing causes a stampede. The herdsmen are often bound
to stay two or three nights without sleep. In summer they
have to carry everything themselves, including the skins of
slaughtered animals, and the weight the less active will
carry so as to leave the others free is astounding. But in
winter a couple of boys can watch a herd for weeks. Deer
are caught with the lasso, and a good lasso is worth a fat buck.
The Yukaghir on the Omolon. who only use their animals
for riding, keep them in sheds during winter, allowing them
two small graylings a day for food. Poor men anxious to
own a herd take service with a big breeder. They must work
hard, but with luck may own 100 deer after five years.
The least timid animals are chosen for driving and broken
in during the first year. With the Lamut deer this is easy,
but often very difficult with the Chukchee. One animal is
used for a pack-sledge, two for driving. One woman will
lead 10 or 15 sledges fastened one behind the other, but
a wealthy family may travel with 40-60 in several lines.
With good going well-fed deer will do 200 miles in two days,
but they need instant rest if tired, and spare animals are
therefore usually taken. Dogs have far more endurance.
Thanks to their herds, the Chukchee are much better off
than the fish-eating tribes and they are always called in to
stave off famine, as well as to supply food in ordinary times—
at the Anyui fair, for instance. But the highest famine price
106 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
for a deer is 1 65. Sd. and their ordinary value is only a cake
of brick-tea and a packet of tobacco in fair time. On the
Anadir, with its salmon and its wild deer, a shilling is the
usual price.
Eskimo
The Eskimo are not a Siberian tribe, but a number of them
have crossed over from America and have settled along the
west coast of Bering Strait from Cape Dezhneva to Cape
Bering, either in villages of their own or in common with the
Maritime Chukchee, with whom they are identical in material
civilization. They are most numerous near Cape Dezhneva
and between Capes Chaplin and Ulyakhpen. They number
about 1,600, including those on St. Lawrence Island and the
Diomede Islands. Their language is said to be closely con-
nected with that of the Aleuts. Most of those round Cape
Chaplin speak a little English. They smoke as much tobacco
and drink as much spirits as they can obtain. When their
customs and beliefs differ from those of the Maritime Chuk-
chee, they are of American origin. A dying Eskimo is placed
in a specially built snow hut or tent, according to the time
of year. He is carried in by a back entrance, all signs of
which are then removed. He is visited occasionally by
relatives, but at the approach of death he is left altogether
alone. The Eskimo are a maritime people and hold that
their dead live under the sea. The road thither is very
difficult and a soul may die again on the way, but once there
a man has all he can desire.
Koryaks
Territory. — The Kor}-ak tribe extends from the Stanovoi
Mountains to the sea and on the west side of Kamchatka as
far south as lat. 55° N. The north-west boundary of their
habitat is now the River Varkhalan ; they used to extend
along the west shore of the Sea of Okhotsk.
Name of tribe. — The name ' Koryak ' is not used by them-
selves, but probably derived from neighbouring tribes. Its
derivation is quite uncertain.
KORYAKS 107
Racial affinities and language. — They seem to be closely
related by race and language with the Chukchee, but their
language is not reduced to writing. There are four main
dialects of it spoken by (1) the Koryaks of north Kamchatka,
(2) the Reindeer Koryaks of Kamenskoe, &c, (3) the
Alutor Koryaks, (4) the Kereks in the NE. The main division
of the Koryaks is into Reindeer and Maritime Koryaks ; the
manner of life of these two branches of the race has made
them develop on wholly different lines ; there is little
intermarriage between them because of the difference of their
mode of housekeeping ; the Reindeer Koryaks intermarry
with the Chukchee, the Maritime Koryaks with the Kam-
chadals. The Reindeer Koryaks have advanced less far in
civilization, but they are generally given a better character.
The Reindeer Koryaks are mainly in Gizhiga and Petropav-
lovsk ; there are few in Anadir, none in Okhotsk.
Numbers. — In the census of 1897 the population was
distributed as follows :
Gizhiga . . 4,434 (2,389 Reindeer : 2,045 Maritime)
Petropavlovsk 2,675 (1,284 Reindeer : 1,391 Maritime)
Okhotsk . . 244 ( Reindeer : 244 Maritime)
Anadir . . 177 ( 75 Reindeer : 102 Maritime)
Total . . 7,530
The population increases in the intervals between epidemics
and famines, but the Koryaks have suffered from many
scourges : syphilis (called the Yukaghir or Chuvanzi disease,
because of the route by which it came to them from Russia),
two forms of arctic hysteria, small-pox, and measles, the
spread of which was attributed by them to their shortage of
professional shamans.
Relations with Russians. — The Russians first came into
contact with them about 1640. Until 1712 the Koryak
refused to recognize Russian sovereignty, but not until 1764
did their opposition cease. From 1649, when the fortress of
Anadirsk was built, the Cossacks tried to exact tribute from
108 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
them. But wars have now ended for them, even with the
Chukchee, their secular foe. The relations between the
Russians and Koryaks are not altogether happy ; the Koryaks
resent the Cossacks' demand for transport free of cost, and
see in every traveller an official, and so an object of suspicion.
They like better the Americans, who practise ' contraband '
hunting of sea-animals ; from them they suffer no harsh
exactions, and receive supplies much more cheaply than
from the Russians. They also appreciate their alcoholic
liquors. Few Maritime Koryaks and no Reindeer Koryaks
have learnt Russian.
Social institutions. — The Russian Government have divided
them into clans, but these were territorial designations and
have become misleading owing to migrations. Their own
social unit is the family, though families related by marriage
have a tendency to draw together ; there are even cases of
fraternizing with unrelated families ; members of such
alliances were formerly bound to help one another in war,
but the absence of war has abolished this aspect of the
alliance.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Koryaks arc
described by Jochelson as below average height. They arc
well developed, have broad shoulders and good muscles.
Their hair is usually black (78 per cent, of the men, and
53 per cent, of the women have black hair), bald heads are
rare among them. Their eyes are narrow, but not peculiarly
Mongolian ; their nose is of moderate width ; they have
little hair on the face ; their skin is bronze coloured. Their
speech is slow, and they talk in a lazy manner unless they
are excited. Travellers give very diverse accounts of their
character, but their marked characteristics seem to be
obstinacy, austerity, and dauntlessness. They are said to be
hard to deal with, unless their customs are understood ;
if displeased, they are churlish, rude, and quarrelsome ; if in
good humour, they are friendly and jocose. They are truthful
and straightforward and do not flatter. They are hospitable
and treat their families and animals with kindness.
KORYAKS 109
Art. — They have highly-developed artistic skill, and make
carvings in wood, ivo^, whalebone, and horn. Among their
arts are basketwork decoration and rugs made of reindeer-
skin, with ornamental patterns of the black and white fur of
the young reindeer.
Occupations. — Their main occupations are fishing, hunting,
and reindeer-breeding. Fishing takes place only during the
summer months. The fishing implements are of a primitive
kind, little affected by the Russians. They are as yet un-
familiar with seine-nets. They use nettle-fibre, which they
spin in a primitive and imperfect manner. They use skin-
boats constructed like those of the Eskimo ; a large boat is
nearly 30 ft. long with a maximum width of about 8 ft.
between the gunwales. It is covered usually with skins of
the thong-seal, the use of which is spreading to other parts
where the walrus is disappearing. The Koryaks steer with
an oar ; they are not really good seamen, though better than
the Kamchadals. They also use kayaks (boats for one man)
and, in northern Kamchatka, dug-outs. Hunting for sea-
mammals is of great importance ; they hunt for ground-seal
and ringed-seal throughout the year, except in the winter
months ; the principal period for thong-seal is September and
October. Their chief weapon is the harpoon, but they also use
the mallet for stunning those creatures that have fallen asleep
on shore. During the fishing season the Koryaks are too
busy to trouble about the seals. The whale industry is long
dead : the Koryaks do not go far enough out to sea, but
American whalers occasionally bring them dead whales, from
which the skin, blubber, and whalebone have been removed
The only animals killed by the Koryaks on land for the sake
of food are wild reindeer and big-horns. There are but few
of the former ; the latter are hunted principally in autumn.
They hunt animals chiefly for their fur ; the bear (which also
furnishes food) is hunted four times in the year, (1) in summer,
when it goes fishing ; (2) in autumn, when it hunts berries ;
(3) in winter in its lair ; and (4) in spring in self-defence.
Hunters among the Maritime Koryaks train dogs, which do
110 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
not drag sledges, to attack bears. Foxes, especially red foxes,
are clubbed, trapped, shot, and poisoned. There are some
grey wolves in the tundra. The sable is now rare ; so are
the ermine, otter, and glutton.
Reindeer- breeding is still in a primitive stage (see pp. 103-106) .
It may not be more than a thousand years old. Left to
themselves, the reindeer readily return to the wild state.
However, the Koryaks will domesticate wild reindeer. Rein-
deer-breeding necessitates a wandering life, as the herds in
search of their food paw up all the snow. The use of dogs
for driving is probably very old. Dog-breeding necessitates
settled habits, as it requires large stocks of animal food for
the winter. The main food of the Siberian dogs consists
of fish. The Maritime Koryaks (as also the Yukaghir) build
roomy sheds at the side of their houses for their dogs. When
spring comes and the sledge is no longer employed, the dogs
are given no food, but have to hunt for it. They are very
fierce while driven. Should a team of dogs meet harnessed
reindeer they will, unless prevented, inevitably tear them in
pieces, and a meeting of two dog-teams will lead to a serious
encounter, if not forcibly prevented. The average number
of dogs possessed in one household among Maritime Koryaks
is ten.
Dwellings and furniture. — The habitation of the Reindeer
Koryaks is an outer tent with an inner tent for sleeping ;
the Koryak tent usually has three or four inner sleeping-
tents (polags) of small dimensions (6 ft. square and 4 or 5 ft.
high) partitioned off with light poles and skin curtains.
A camp seldom contains more than three tents. They have
four main removals in the year : (1) in October they put up
their tents in the river valleys under the protection of high
banks among poplar and aspen groves ; (2) in spring, at the
end of March, before the fawning period begins, they descend
to the open tundras on the lower courses of rivers ; (3) in July
they ascend the mountains to be near the river sources ;
(4) in autumn, at the time of the fawn-festival, they return
from the ridges to the tundras and river- valleys. The
KORYAKS 111
Maritime Koryaks have their dwellings underground, or half
underground : one type is described as like an hour-glass in
shape ; these are permanent buildings of wood, varying in
size ; they used to be more spacious than now. Among the
Kereks as many as twenty-five persons often live in one
house. During the winter the lower entrance is closed, and
the house is approached by a ladder, or rather a log of wood
with holes for the feet, inconveniently small for Europeans.
The descent into the interior is disagreeable when there is
a smoky fire. In the summer-time the ladder is removed.
They import metal kettles, prizing especially copper ; for
water they use skin or wooden buckets. The atmosphere
inside the huts is such that the Koryaks usually sleep naked ;
sometimes their clothes are put outside for the parasites to
freeze off them. The fire-drill is only used ceremonially.
Clothing, food. — They dress in deer-skin, their costume con-
sisting of a kotlanka (or frock), trousers, boots, and leggings.
In summer their clothes are of dressed skins, in winter of skins
with the hair remaining. They are passionately fond of
tobacco, which they chew, but rarely smoke. A favourite
intoxicant is made of fly-agaric, a kind of fungus, but women
never take it ; it is a poison, which if taken in very great
quantities will kill ; it is used by shamans to produce an
ecstatic state. Brandy, though forbidden, finds its way
among them : it is popular, especially with older people.
The ordinary food is fish, reindeer meat, dried salmon, and
seal's blubber with rancid oil.
Birth, marriage, and death. — The mortality of infants up to
one year is enormous, and the number is increased by putting
to death any child whose mother dies during or soon after
confinement, as artificial feeding is impossible.
The penalties for unchastity are very severe, and illegitimacy
is almost unknown. Polygamy is rare ; the ' elder ' in the
settlement is often polygamous, but most cases of polygamy
are due to the observance of the levirate law, by which a man
has to marry his deceased brother's wife or owing to the
barrenness of his first wife. The future bridegroom has to
112 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
serve for his bride ; the period of service may be anything
from six months to three years. If a man does not please
his future father-in-law he can be sent away after many
years of service without any reward. Money cannot be
substituted for service. The preliminaries of marriage are
arranged by the ' matchmaker ' (asking one). The actual
ceremony is by seizure.
When a Reindeer Koryak dies his body is dissected to find
the probable cause of death, and the Maritime Koryaks stab
the dead man in order that the child in whom his body is
reincarnated may not die of the same illness. The dead are
burnt, except by the Kereks, who let down their dead in
funeral attire into the sea. Parenticide is now abandoned ;
even the tradition has disappeared in some places ; but it
seems to have been a general practice, in order to spare the
sick and aged unnecessary suffering. Now relatives take
good care of a dying man.
Other customs. — Only clothing and ornaments are personal
property among the Koryaks. The wooden ' guardians ? ,
household appurtenances, house, nets, and skin- boats are
family property. The reindeer are the property of all the
members of the family, but the movements of the herd are
directed by the father. The Koryak can count better than
the Chukchee. He has two bases of computation, 5 and 20.
and in counting uses both hands and feet.
Religion. — The Maritime Koryaks have adopted Chris-
tianity and renounced many of their superstitions ; the
Reindeer Koryaks retain much of their primitive religion,
as do also the Maritime Koryaks of Penzhina Bay and north
of Alutorski Cape. However, the combined influence of traders
and Cossacks has made them abandon a good deal of their
religion.
It was among the Koryaks that the shamans were first
affected by Christianity. In the Koryak houses are wooden
images of ' guardians ' ; they receive homage as containing
a vital principle in them and having had incantations pro-
nounced over them.
KORYAKS 113
The chief religious festivals among the Koryaks are :
(1) Among the Maritime Koryaks :
(a) Whale festival.
(b) Putting away the whale-boat for winter.
(c) Launching the skin-boat.
(d) Wearing of masks.
(2) Among the Reindeer Koryaks :
(a) Ceremony on the return of the herd from summer
pastures.
(b) Fawn festival.
(c) Reindeer races.
(3) Ceremonies common to both ;
(a) Bear festival.
(6) Wolf festival.
(c) Ceremonies in connexion with fox-hunting.
The reindeer races are religious, in honour of the One on
High, while dog-races and foot-races are secular. Every
owner of a large reindeer herd arranges races once a year,
usually about the close of winter. Sometimes the host sacri-
fices the reindeer that he has been racing,
Yukaghir
Territory. — The Yukaghir originally extended from the
Lena to the Anadir and from the Verkhoyansk Range to the
Arctic Ocean ; now they are principally to be found above
Verkhne-Kolimsk, along the valleys of the Yasachnaya and
Korkodon, and in the region of Alaseiskoe. They are a very
ancient tribe, who have been gradually pushed northwards.
They were once very numerous, for tradition says that the
northern lights were the reflection of their innumerable
camp-fires.
Name of tribe. — The word Yukaghir is not used by them-
selves : it seems to be a Tungus word, judging by its termina-
tion, and probably means the ' distant ones '. Sauer says
that they call themselves Andon Domni, which is probably
an incorrect rendering of Odud omni the ' people '.
Racial affinities and language. — It is difficult to trace
SIBERIA I jj
114 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
strong racial affinities for them ; most of them now speak
the Tungus language, but there are survivals of their own
tongue, which seems to have been highly inflected, and very
rich in suffixes and case-endings : it has two dialects, one
spoken by Yukaghir and Lamuts who live with them on the
Rivers Korkodon and Yasachnaya, the other spoken by the
Yukaghir and Yukaghirized Tungus on the tundra between
the Rivers Kolima and Indigirka.
Numbers. — The Yukaghir are dying out : their marriages
are mostly sterile, and they are a sickly breed. The latest
figures of their numbers give them only 754, of whom 388 are
males. With them must be included the Chuvanzi, a branch
of the Yukaghir who live round Markovo, and who number
453 (236 males), but they have either become Russianized
or have fallen much under the influence of Chukchee or
Koryaks.
Divisions. — The Anaul formed a division of the Yukaghir
living on the Anadir ; they were fishermen and had no
reindeer ; they have partly died out and partly become
Russianized. The tribal name Odul has been adopted by the
Yukaghirized Tungus of the tundra ; the Tungusized Yukaghir
call themselves Dutki. There has been much intermarriage
with Tungus and Lamut, so that the regular type of Yukaghir
has largely disappeared. Like the Chukchee and Koryaks
they can be divided into Reindeer and Maritime tribes ; they
have also been classified from the names of the rivers along
which they lived (viz. Alaseya, Omolon, Kolima, Kongina,
Korkodon).
Relations with Russians. Social institutions. — At the time
of the Russian conquest they had a well-organized clan system,
but it is now much in decay. The only tribal unity that they
seem to recognize is that they do not make war among them-
selves ; no traditions survive among them of a common tribal
ancestor. Such clan system as they had was disregarded by the
Russians, T ,vho have composed clans, which are little more than
associations for paying tribute. The Russian law allows the
natives to settle their own affairs (with the exception of capital
YUKAGHIR 115
offences, such as murder and mutilation) according to the
customs of the people concerned. The elder, who under the
Russian system replaces the ' old man ', is authorized to punish
ihe clansmen with imprisonment and even physical chastise-
tent. Severity, however, is not often required among the
iw-abiding and timid Yukaghir. Under the native system
:he prominent personages in the clan life were the ; old man ' ,
ie shaman, the ' strong man ', and the first hunter : the
ist two offices may be combined in the same personage, and
Dhe last is the only one whose duties have not fallen at all
into desuetude. There used to be a class of captive slaves
called po (hired labourers were called nicil) ; among these
women had a better position than men.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Yukaghir are
of short stature ; on the average they are the shortest people
in north-east Siberia ; the men's waists are small, and they
have slender and supple figures, moving and dancing grace-
fully. The women have stout waists, and as a rule short
clumsy figures ; but there are no really stout figures among
either sex. Their children look very weak and sickly, and
their young men effeminate. The hair of the Yukaghir is
usually dark brown ; the hair on his face is scanty ; the eyes
are dark-brown and more widely open than those of Mongol
peoples ; the complexion is either brown as the Chukchee's
and Koryak's, or it is yellow as the Tungus'. They are the
most timid tribe in Siberia, and will submit to any treatment
te avoid an oath or curse. They are hospitable to a fault,
a fact which is known by their neighbours the Yakuts, who
make protracted stays among them and eat up their fish.
Though mild and kindly, they do not readily forgive an offence,
but their fear of Russian administration is such that they do
not often commit murder ; for the same reason they are accus-
tomed to render services to the Russians without any remunera-
tion. A desire to imitate the Russians has led them to wash,
and soap is popular among them ; at the same time they
regard lice on the person as a sign of good health. They are
extraordinarily honest and truthful, and will spare no effort
116 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
to pay off the debts incurred by themselves or inherited.
Despite irregularities in their lives, they are bashful and
modest in speech.
Occupations. — Their chief occupations are hunting and fish-
ing. They hunt the squirrel, glutton, and fox, in order to
obtain in their place, tea, sugar, and other requirements. The
rifle has taken the place of the bow. They capture reindeer
while swimming, having discovered the place where they will
come down the river when driven by mosquitoes. The hunters
kill reindeer for the entire group that accompanies them
during the period of the chase ; for fear of the evil eye they
give a portion of their booty to strangers. Their only domestic
animals are dogs and reindeer ; they do not breed horses or
cattle, but the Yasachnaya Yukaghir hire horses of the Yakuts
for the squirrel-hunting season. They use hemp for fishing-
nets, and horsehair has replaced the flexible willow-branches
that they previously used. They have such wide-meshed
nets that, as they say themselves, ' a bear could get through.'
But they have other means of catching fish. A bad fishing
season and a bad reindeer year lead them almost to starvation.
They say when the fishing is bad : ' there is an old man in
Verkhne-Kolimsk, whose heart is harder than Russian iron,
and he won't let the salmon out of his cave.'
Dwellings and food. — They live during summer in conical
tents (urus) made of thin poles, and during winter in small
houses made of hewn logs. They are more particular than
the Koryaks or Yakuts about their food, and will not 'eat
rancid meat. They are great smokers. Such funds as are
over from the purchase of tobacco are used for buying brandy,
but they will not drink alone. They share their pleasure with
the whole family, including infants in arms.
Birth, marriage, and death. — New-born children used to be
killed if the mother died in childbirth. Sterility was regarded
as a punishment sent by dead relations, and the shaman
would be resorted to in order that such resentment might be
modified,
Before marriage, chastity is not expected of girls, but
YUKAGHIR 117
indiscriminate bestowal of their favours is disapproved.
Marriage is endogamic, but there are strict laws prohibiting
marriage between near relatives. A man serves three years
for a bride, and if he is then rejected has no compensation.
Polygamy is practised : a man will sometimes spend part of
the year in the house of one father-in-law, and the rest in that
of another. The Tungus and Yukaghir have to some extent
borrowed one another's marriage customs.
The dead used formerly to be placed on platforms which
were raised on poles. In the Kolima district it was a custom
to distribute the flesh and bones among the relatives of the
deceased : these were dried and put in leather bags and then
worn as amulets, called ' grandfathers '.
Religion. — A nominal Christianity has not affected the
Yukaghir much. Shamanism has a much greater hold upon
him. Even the Christian Yukaghir has no Church ceremony
till a year or more after his marriage.
Kamchadals
Territory. — The name may be applied either strictly to the
principal tribe who inhabit the peninsula of Kamchatka,
or more vaguely to some wandering tribes north of the penin-
sula. There are some tribes, too, like the Palanzi, who live in
the ostrog north of Tigilski, and the Olyutorski, who live along
the Pacific behind the cape which bears their name, who
have close racial affinities with them and the Ukinzi between
Cape Ozerni and the River Timlata.
Name. — The name Kamchadal is given them by the Russians :
they call themselves Itelmen, and are called Konchalo by
the Koryaks.
Racial affinities and language. — The race is mainly a half-
breed between the aborigines and Siberian emigrants or
escaped convicts : the pure Kamchadals are very rare. They
have many attributes, especially in costume and customs, in
common with the Mongols, but share more with the dwellers
in north-east Siberia and north-west America. They are
found in the Kuril Islands, especially in Shumshu, the
118 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
northernmost of the group. The language cannot be assigned
to any known group : it is very guttural, and has many in-
flexions and prefixes. The vocabulary is very poor, there
being only one word for the sun and moon. It is most spoken
in the south and in the north about Penzhinskoe, where it is
purest ; but it is disappearing, and most of the tribe speak
Russian.
Divisions. — There are three divisions of the Kamchadals :
one group occupies the valley of the River Kamchatka,
the second the west coast from Bolsheryetsk to Oblukovina,
the third the Kurils, where they are found together with the
Ainus.
Numbers. — Drink and illnesses have reduced the population.
The last figures give 2,805, of whom 1,415 are males, but it
is not known precisely which tribes were included in this
numeration, and the real Kamchadals are possibly onl}-
half that number. They are not a very prolific people :
women usually have only four or five children.
Relations with Russians. — Since the suppression of the revolt
in 1731 the Kamchadals have been quiet, and they are now
largely Europeanized : European have taken the place of
native dances ; the native costume is discarded for something
like that of a Russian peasant ; they have also largely given
up their extreme fondness for dirt.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The true Kani-
chadal in general is below the common height ; his figure
is round and squat, his eyes small and sunken, his cheek-
bones prominent, his nose fiat, his hair black, his beard scanty,
his complexion brown or yellow. He is mild-tempered and
honest, an easy prey to traders who deceive him, apt to get
drunk, lazy, and apathetic, with no thought for the future,
but careless and indifferent. They used to be a warlike and
revengeful people, but they are now more remarkable for their
readiness to oblige and then hospitality. Lansdell attributes
to them a custom of tactfully relieving themselves of a guest
whose protracted stay threatens to exhaust their stock by
serving him a dish called tolkootha — the dish is found among
KAMCHADALS • 119
Tungus tribes also — which consists of a mixture of meat,
fish, and vegetables. The guest takes the hint and departs
the next day.
Occupations. — Their chief occupations are fishing, especially
for salmon, and hunting. The efforts of the Government to
introduce cattle-breeding have failed ; agriculture does not
flourish, as corn will not ripen (except round Klyuchevskoe) ;
gardening prospers better, as roots will grow. Their method
for catching salmon, as described by Demidoff , is to fix rows
of inclined birch-stakes across a river from one bank to the
other with only a narrow aperture on one side for canoes.
Attached to these poles a little below the surface of the water
and a few yards apart, are set two or three long wicker baskets
according to the width of the river. The fish, which come up,
are unable to proceed on account of the stakes : they then
make their way through the gaps leading into these baskets,
out of which inward- turned spikes prevent them from escaping.
When the natives go to collect their catch, they lift part of
the basket out of the water and secure the fish with iron-
edged gaffs through a small door at the top. In this way
they manage to take 2,000 fish in a day. They seldom use
seines, but almost always common nets, made of packthread
purchased from the Russians, or of nettle-fibre : they also
use harpoons. They hunt reindeer, big-horns, foxes, otters,
beavers, hares, and sables : special methods have been
adopted to protect the last, which would otherwise become
extinct. They trap bears, and show great patience when they
lie in ambush for them. Their chase is attended with certain
superstitions : they abstain from washing themselves, they
are careful not to pronounce the name of an animal that they
hunt for fear of ill-luck, and not to make the sign of the cross.
The}' invoke their god Kutkhu and sacrifice in his honour
the first animal that they catch. They are indefatigable
walkers, but are also experts in driving sledges and training
sledge-dogs. When in a team, the most intelligent dog is
selected as leader ; the others are harnessed two and two
behind. A cry of tag-tag makes them turn to the right, a cry
120 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
of kougha sends them to the left. The harness is of leather :
it is passed over the dog's breast and is joined to the sledge by
a strap 3 ft. long in the manner of a trace. If the driver
strikes the ice with his stick (oshtol) they go to the left ; if
he strikes the side of the sledge they go to the right ; if he
places the stick in front of the sledge, they stop. The dog-
sledge is practically their only means of communication
and horses are very rare.
Dwellings. — Like many other Siberian tribes they live in
different kinds of huts during summer and winter. The
former (balagans) are erected on posts about 12 or 14 ft. high ;
their conical roof is covered with a kind of thatch made of
bark ; the cooking is performed in the middle of the room
where they all eat and sleep together ; there are no windows
and the doors are so low that they scarcely admit the light.
The staircase is merely a beam jagged in an irregular manner ;
if it is turned with the steps, or notches, inward, it is a sign
that the residents are not at home. One advantage of the
height of the house is that they can dry their fish out of the
reach of the dogs. Their winter houses (izbas) are of wood :
they are made of trees placed horizontally with the interstices
filled Math clay ; the interior usually has two rooms, which can
be warmed, as in Russian inns and small houses, by a stove
set between them. The hmdes are tidy and often decorated.
Windows are made of skins of salmon or bladders of various
animals.
Clothing, food. — Lesseps in 1790 describes their costume
as an outer garment (parka) made of skins of deer or other
animals, tanned on one side, and long breeches of similar
leather ; next the skin is worn a very short and tight shirt of
nankin or cotton, the woman's being of silk. They wore fur
caps. A recent traveller, Demidofr, says that now their
costume resembles that of a Russian peasant — a blue cotton
shirt under an old brown jacket, broad trousers tucked into
topboots, and a military cap. Their boots are made of rein-
deer hide, the soles being stitched on to seals' throat-skins
round the calves. In summer they wear boots of goats' or
KAMCHADALS 121
dogs' skins tanned. Their principal food is dried fish ; some
fish they allow to become putrid in a hole and then eat them.
Birth, marriage, and death. — Births take place in public, with
relatives and neighbours gathered round. Infanticide is prac-
tised, women giving their undesired offspring alive to the
dogs ; if twins are born, one of the pair must be killed ;
so must a child born during a storm unless incantation can
remove the evil that would ensue.
A man's bride is usually selected from the next village,
not from his own ; he serves for her, but is given compensa-
tion if he fails in his suit. He has to capture his bride as
among the Koryaks, but the ceremony is more of a reality.
Marriage is only forbidden between parents and children.
Virginity is not required in a bride. Divorce is easy.
The dead are eaten by dogs ; children are buried in hollow
tree -trunks.
Religion and superstition. — Their chief god is Kutkhu, the
supreme being ; his wife with them is called Kakee, his son
Trel-Kutan, his daughter Shi-Shakels. Their mythology is
crude and obscene. Volcanoes and hot springs are the
abode of evil spirits (Kamuli). Sacrifices are not made to
the gods, but to the many spirits good and bad with which
they people heaven and earth, the greatest of whom is
Pikhlyash. There is little professional Shamanism among
them ; every old woman and woman in man's clothes is
counted as a witch. There was a class among them called
Koekchuk, who were treated as women ; it is possible that
they were captive slaves who were purposely rendered
effeminate to make them less dangerous, and who therefore
were made to share the woman's life. Certain trades were
regarded as unmanly ; if a man became a tailor or shoemaker,
he was regarded as a koekchuk.
GlLYAKS
Territory. — The Gilyaks extend along the coast of the
mainland on either side of the mouth of the Amur, from
122 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Tug ur ski Bay on the north-west to the Mamia Rinzo Strait on
the south-east, and they also occupy the northern part of
Sakhalin down to lat. 50° 10'' N. on the west shore and to about
lat. 51° N. on the east shore, the southernmost settlements
being respectively Porokolan and Chamr-vo.
Name. — The name by which they know themselves is
Nibch ( = the men), but the Russians have called them
Gilyaks, a modification probably of the Chinese designation
for the Kilor or Kiler.
Racial affinities and language. — They present one of the
greatest ethnological problems in all Asia. They have been
variously claimed as a branch of the Ainu (the race that
inhabits south Sakhalin and Yezo), of the Tungus, and of the
Tartars — an error which is repeated in the name ; Gulf of
Tartary ' applied to the sea between Sakhalin and the con-
tinent. Some of their characteristics have been regarded
as Caucasian, and it has been supposed that there was a large
infusion of the blood of Russian adventurers from the seven-
teenth century. Were it not for their language they might
be regarded, so far as their physiognomy and bone structure
goes, as a branch of the Tungus ; in many of their customs
they approximate to their neighbours, such as the Olcha and
Goldi, but their speech is quite distinct and cannot be classified.
It is an isolated tongue like that of the Koryaks and Yukaghir,
and even one unacquainted with the language can on the
most casual training distinguish it from any Tungus speech.
It is harsh and full of consonants ; sibilant, nasal, and guttural
sounds prevail. It has many words borrowed from other
languages, but apart from its vocabulary it bears no close
resemblance to any Mongol language. As far as language
goes therefore, the Gilyaks must be classed among the Palaeo-
Siberians, but it is possible that they are a people, like the
Normans and Bulgarians, who have learnt the language of
the conquered, and that a great infusion of Mongol blood
in the past has profoundly modified the real type.
Divisions. — There are, however, three types of Gilyak
physiognomy, one of which approximates to the Ainu,
GILYAKS 123
another to the Mongol or Tungus, while the third is typically
Gilyak. There is also a geographical distinction between those
of the mainland and the two tribes which live on Sakhalin,
Smerenkur on the west, and Tro on the east.
Numbers. — Their numbers are now 4,649, of whom 2,556
are males. They are dying out. Their women have few
children. Six is considered a large family. Because the
population is dwindling, clans have had sometimes to adopt
individuals or whole groups.
Relations with Russians. — The Gilyaks have been less spoilt
by civilization than many tribes. They have been known
to the Russians since the seventeenth century. For years
they succeeded in keeping the Chinese traders out of their
land, and they have not become demoralized by intercourse
with Chinese and Japanese. But the acquisition of Gilyak
land by Russian settlers has not had a good effect on them
Social institutions. — They have a highly developed clan
organization, with its common fire, common enemies, common
obligations of revenge, and common thusind. The last is the
name for the compensation exacted in place of blood -revenge
and in recompense for certain crimes.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The typical Gilyak
is below medium height, of stronger build than his Ainu or
Tungus neighbours ; he has a well-developed chest, moder-
ately broad shoulders, short neck and fairly big head, but
small hands and feet. There is no superfluity of fat. The
complexion is brown, the hair is less abundant than that of the
Ainu, but grows longer on the head and more freely on the
face than among the Mongols and Tungus. The eyes are
small and sparkle with a dull light, the lips have been called
\ voluptuous ', the nose is rather flat, the cheek-bones pro-
minent, and the eyebrows are bushy. They do not shave
the head, but wear the hair' tied up in a thick tail or in tresses.
They are an energetic people and temperate in the use of
spirits. They prize their tribal and individual liberty.
Their principal faults seem to be avarice and covetousness,
and the islanders have had a reputation for theft. Their
124 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
aloofness from civilization has made them less ready than
other tribes to adopt habits of cleanliness.
Occupations. — The men's occupations are mainly hunting,
fishing (for sturgeon, salmon, &c), and trading. They are
adventurous in hunting the bear, but their courage is not
equal to entering the water, and, though fishermen, the
Gilyaks cannot as a rule swim. They are expert in the use
of bow and arrows, and are good mountaineers. In rowing
the Gilyaks scull, but pull the oars alternately. In fishing
they use in some parts gill- nets and seines, and in others
scoop-nets ; for their nets they use the stalks of the nettle in
place of flax.
The man's work takes him much from home ; a great deal
of work at home is done by women, who occupy a low menial
position. Slaves are bought from the Ainus and Goldi.
They do not, however, hold or sell their own people as slaves.
There are not many slaves, as a female slave costs more than
a wife. The slaves have no rights at all ; they have to perform
the heaviest housework, hewing wood and drawing water.
Dwellings. — Their yurta is a wooden house, of which the
interior is often divided into an ante-room and an inner
room which is inhabited. In the centre of the room burns
the fire with a hole in the roof above it for the smoke to escape.
The windows are of fish-skin. The walls and the floors are
made of trunks of trees, the interstices being filled up with
birch bark or leaves, and the roof being covered with birch
bark. They used to domesticate ermine to kill the rats and
mice, and the Manchus supplied them with cats at a high
price, but always castrated so as to keep the monopoly in
their hands. Their winter dwellings are in small groups of
from two or three to a dozen. In 39 villages Collins counted
140 houses.
Clothing, food. — In winter they dress in dog-skins or the
skins of the fox or wolf. In summer they wear fish-skin,
which has given them the name of Ywpitatse (' fish-skin
people ') among the Chinese. They often wear blouses of
Chinese pattern. Their boots are of seal-skin or sometimes
GILYAKS 125
cotton. Men and women dress much alike, but the woman's
garb is distinguished by metal disks round the bottom of
their blouses. The skins of salmon are stripped off very
dexterously ; they are then beaten with a mallet, so as to
remove the scales and render them supple. This gives them
waterproof clothing. They live almost entirely on fish.
But occasionally they eat animals killed in the chase and
even dogs, as do the Ainu and American Indians. The fish
is prepared with herbs, roots, and train oil ; sometimes they
procure a little millet or rice from the Manchu and Japanese
in exchange for furs. They do not cultivate the ground
themselves. The use of bread, tea, salt, and sugar they have
learnt from the Russians. Bread is regarded as a very great
delicacy.
Marriage and death. — Chastity is not demanded in a bride.
Marriage is exogamic. There seems to be no settled form of
marriage, and there is a certain amount of polygamy. The
price of a bride is the chief bar to polygamy, but it is on the
other hand a great incentive to industry.
Death is supposed to result from the action of evil spirits.
Burial rites are of an imposing character. The body is first
burnt on a funeral pyre, and a small wooden house is erected
over the ashes after they have been carefully collected.
The deceased's favourite dog, which has been previously
fattened, is killed over the grave.
Other customs : the tiger and the bear. — If a man has been
killed by a tiger, superstition forbids any ceremonies at the
burial of his body. The tiger is much feared, and his appear-
ance is supposed to portend evil. Their most characteristic
ceremonies are connected with the bear, who is called Mqfa
(Chief Elder). There is a bear cage near every village, and
in January of each year there is a solemn bear-sacrifice, and
at other times a procession in which the bear takes a less
exacting part. A bear must not be killed bjr surprise, for
they fear his posthumous anger ; they always catch or kill
him in fair fight. It is regarded as a happy death to be
killed by a bear.
126 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Religion and superstition. — The highest benevolent god of
the Gilyaks is Ytsigy according to Schrenk, but according to
Sternberg they call him Kurn, by which name also they call the
Universe. The ' owner ' of the mountain is called Pal
the ' owner ' of the sea is Tol. Every natural object has
a life of its own and an ' owner '. In their belief also Sak-
halin conceals an immense deity. There are besides a great;
number of spirits, good and bad. Such is their belief in the]
gods' ordering of the world that they will not save a man
from drowning for fear of thwarting the will of a heavenly
power. Ancestor-worship permeates their religion, and
supports their clan-system. They have many taboos, and
among the most rigid of their restrictions is the custom by
which no one but a clansman may remove fire from a yurta.
This is so strict that a stranger must always be careful to
finish a pipe before he leaves a house. The Gilyak seem to
have been indebted to the Goldi for much in their ritual,
customs, ideas, and art.
Among the Gilyaks of Sakhalin are a number of isolated
settlements of Oroke (aTungus tribe). The southern half of
the island is inhabited by the Ainus (a Palaeo-Siberian tribe),
but their habitat is entirely included in the part that belongs
to Japan.
Ostyaks or Yenisei
Territory. — This tribe lives along the course of the middle
Yenisei and its tributaries between Miroyedikha, near the
mouth of the Lower Tunguska, and Yeniseisk. They are
most numerous about Sumarokovo. They were probably
once more widely extended.
Name of the tribe. — Though called Ostyak, they have
nothing to do ethnologically with the Ostyaks of the Ob
basin. They do not even, it appears, belong to the Ural-
Altaic stock. They call themselves Tindigyet, Kanacket and
Din (people).
Racial affinities and language. — Their origin presents a
difficult problem, which seems to defy solution. They are
OSTYAKS OF YENISEI 127
thought to be a remnant of the primitive people who were
the original inhabitants of Siberia, the centre of whose
civilization was further south. Then language is unlike any
other known tongue. Most of the river-names in the neigh-
bourhood of the River Tom belong to it.
Numbers. — They are now not as many as 1,000 in number,
and they are diminishing. Their principal foes have been
syphilis and alcohol, both of which have had deplorable
effects in reducing their numbers.
Relations with Russians. — They have become deeply in
debt to Russian traders, sometimes owing as much as 500
roubles. They do not intermarry or have sexual intercourse
with Russians.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — Their faces are of
two types : one is short and broad with heavy cheek-bones,
typically brachycephalic, the other approximates more to the
Aryan type, and is longer. Their hair, though dark, is finer
and lighter than that of any other inhabitants of the Yenisei
valley. They have not the chief Mongolian characteristics :
e.g. their eyes are not oblique.
Occupations. — Their principal occupations are hunting,
fishing, and reindeer-breeding, but they have only taken to
the last in recent times. They hunt elk and squirrels. For
fishing they use canoes, not made of birch bark, but hollowed
out of the trunks of trees. A bad season in fishing or squirrel-
hunting impoverishes them badly, and epidemics of anthrax
among their herds have brought about the decay of the tribe.
But despite their poverty they seem a contented people.
During the fishing season they live in birch-bark tents along
the river banks.
Costume. — The special feature to notice is the men's habit
of wearing a handkerchief round the head, as is so often done
by women in other lands.
Religion. — Nominally members of the Russian Orthodox
Church, they have remained comparativeh r faithful to their
old traditions.
L28 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Aleuts
The Aleuts are found in the Aleutian Islands, which now
belong to America, but a few of them are found in the Com-
mander Islands, off the coast of Kamchatka. They are of low
stature, but well shaped ; they have dark faces, black eyes,
long black hair and short necks. They are nominally Chris-
tians, but seem to have assimilated more of the bad habits
of professing Christians, than of their doctrines.
11. The Neo-Siberian Tribes
(i) Finno-Ugrian Tribes
Lapps
Territory. — The Lapps in Russia occupy the whole of the
interior of the Kola Peninsula, and some live on the coast
in the Ponoi district. They extend west into Norway, Fin-
land, and Sweden.
Name. — Their own name for themselves is Same, and for
their country Sameland.
Racial affinities and language. — The Lapps are a branch of
the Finno-Ugrian tribe. Their language in some respects
resembles the Mordvinian speech, but the general system of
conjugation and declension is like Finnish, from which tongue,
however, it differs phonetically bj^ its great number of diph-
thongs and consonants.
Numbers. — In 1897 there were 2,040 Lapps in Russia, of
whom 1,590 were in the Kola Lapp district and 450 in the
Ponoi district.
Divisions. — Among the divisions in which the Lapps are
grouped are the Lyavozersk Lapps and Ponoi Lapps. The
former, numbering 349, are in four villages, and have been
little influenced by Russian manners ; the latter, numbering
450, are in six villages, and have been much influenced by
Russian customs. The two groups speak a different dialect
from one another and are mutually very suspicious. They
are not divided, as in Finland, into Fisher and Reindeer
LAPPS 129
Lapps, but each family as a rule practises both occupations,
tending reindeer in winter and fishing in summer.
Relations with Russians. — Different parts of the country
have been differently affected ; the most Russified have been
the dwellers in the Ponoi district, and along the coast generally
there has been much interbreeding with Russians and Nor-
wegians. The race is losing its national characteristics and
is degenerating. In 1897 the population of the whole of Kola
Peninsula included 6,020 Russians, 850 Finns, 230 Norwegians,
as opposed to 2,040 Lapps.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Lapps are
the shortest and most brachycephalic race in Europe. They
are a dwarfish and thick-set people. In complexion they are
generally fair, with long shaggy hair, which is usually dark-
brown, with a good deal of yellowish hair on the face, the
beard being often cut to a point. The eyes are narrow, but
set horizontally, the nose is broad, the mouth big, the chin
pointed, the cheek-bones high and prominent, but not so
prominent as those of the Samoyedes, who altogether have
a more Mongolian look. They are cleaner and have more
pleasant manners than the Samoyedes ; they are not intel-
lectual, and, unlike the Finnish Lapps, from whom they also
differ in dialect and creed, they are unable to read and write.
Occupations. — In spring and summer the Lapp families
engage in fishing, especially for salmon, in regions which the
custom of each village defines fairly closely. The summer
villages are found from 10 miles north of Voroninsk eastward
to Paitspahk and the sources of the River Ponoi, and south
to the Umpjavr Lake. Many of them migrate to the sea-
coast with their reindeer. Lake Imandra, on the old post-
road from Kola to Kandalaksha, both in summer and winter,
has Lapp villages around it. Reindeer-breeding is their great
occupation, but they are very unscientific and unbusinesslike
in their attention to it. In summer, when they do not want
the deer for travelling purposes, they let them roam in
freedom, on the bare heights of the interior, when they become
half -wild, breed at will, and sometimes stray away altogether.
130 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
In winter they are left near the winter village, feeding on
the reindeer ' moss ' which they reach through the snow
by pawing with their hoofs. There they stay till some time
in May, when the new-born calves can be marked. The
consumption of the lichen necessitates the removal of the
Lapps' villages every 15 or 20 years, but a minor migration
takes place each year in April or May, when they pack up the
windows and more valuable things, abandon the villages,
and go off to their summer quarters. Each family generally
possesses from fifty to two hundred reindeer, but real inde-
pendence is only attained by those who have as many as three
hundred. Really rich men have a thousand or more, but
such wealth does not make them change their simple life.
The boat-sledge in which the reindeer is driven is called
kereoshka ; the Lapps drive without the harray or long pole
which is customary among other reindeer peoples. Generally
speaking their sledges and methods of driving are inferior to
those of the Samoyedes. In winter the Lapps do some
business in the transport of goods. They trade with Russians
and Zirians, who exchange knives, powder, and other objects
of barter for their reindeer- skins. They leave all enterprise
on the sea itself to the Russians and Karelians.
Dwellings. — The settlements of the Lapps are called
pagosts. They have summer and winter villages, the former
near the sea-coasts and lakes, the latter near the forests,
where they herd their deer. The summer -dwelling, called
a viezha, resembles a Samoyede chum, but is not covered with
skins, but with branches, tree-bark, and turf. The winter-
dwelling, called a twpa, is a small, smoky, sod-covered timber
hut, some 150 to 200 square ft. in area. These huts are
always in groups or villages. A good example of a Lapp
settlement is the village of Lyavozerski, on the west of the
Lujavr lake and on the south bank of the Varmyok stream.
In 1887 it contained 61 males and 63 females, in 19 woode
huts and 7 turf huts. The church was nearly two miles
the west, where the village had originally been, until want
wood and lichen caused its transference.
h<
I
at
A.
LAPPS 131
Clothing and food. — In summer the Lapps dress like Russian
peasants, common features being a grey cloth jacket and high
woollen cap with a tassel at the top. There is nothing
distinctive about the women's dress, which is usually a calico
sarafan. The Lapp has no strong prejudices in favour of
a national costume, and is ready to wear whatever he can get
hold of. In winter they wear garments of reindeer skin.
he pesk is a fur garment with the hair outside, somewhat
ike the Samoyede suvik, but without the mittens being
ttached to the garment. Instead of a hood they have
detachable caps. They wear short fur boots, known as
hadzhi, and also longer boots made of reindeer-skin, called
yerra, with the hair removed above the knee.
Throughout the winter they have for food reindeer-flesh
and dried and salted fish. At various times they get snow-
chickens, water-fowl and their eggs, and berries.
Religion. — They have assimilated Russian religion, just
as they have assimilated Russian customs, but it may be
questioned whether the adoption is not even more external.
They have a name for being very superstitious, and an
association of wizardry and vaticination goes with the name
of the Lapp.
Karelians
Territory. — The bulk of the people of this name live in the
Governments of Olonets and Arkhangel, and there are con-
siderable numbers at Tver and Novgorod. The country which
bears their name is part of the district of Kem in the Govern-
ment of Arkhangel, lying to the north of Pomorland or
Pomoria.
Racial affinities and language. — They are closely allied to
the Finns, but are a distinct tribe, and show certain differences
as the result of having come much more under Russian than
Swedish influence. They are first mentioned in the ninth
century. The tribe to which they belong overran most of
the south-west coast of the White Sea till the fourteenth
century, when they spread eastward and occupied the banks
i 2
132 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
of the Dvina. They speak a tongue like, but distinct from, the
Finnish of Finland : the spoken tongue is corrupt and has
become mixed with a number of Russian words, but among
the Karelians farther to the south-west was collected the
Kalevala, the great Finnish epic.
Relations with Russians. — They have come much under
Russian influence, and, unlike the Finns, have never been sub-
ject to any other European nation. But owing to their
remoteness they have preserved their customs more than their
western neighbours. Those of them who live near Russian
settlements can usually speak Russian, though they speak
their own language among themselves.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Karelians
resemble Russians : their eyes are usually blue, their hair
is brown or ruddy ; their forehead is low with hair clipped
down over it, level with their eyebrows and hanging down
evenly behind. They are slighter in build and better pro-
portioned than the Finns. They show themselves more
enterprising, vivacious, and sociable, but they exhibit less
perseverance.
Occupations. — Their occupations are very various. Agri-
culture means a great struggle against the forces of nature.
The best and most lucrative employment is the felling, trans-
port and floating of timbers for the saw-mills. River- and
lake-fishing provide only a small income, and have nothing
but local importance ; but they also do sea-fishing in the Gulf
of Kandalaksha for salmon, herring, and marine animals.
Hunting of game in the forests was profitable, but it has died
out since the law in 1892 against trapping. The people require
good guns to secure success again. The carrying trade with
Finland was more prosperous before the Finns opened a shop
in almost every village, a step which greatly reduced their
trade with the Karelians.
Houses and furniture. — The Karelian houses are built on
a sort of permanent scaffolding : they are reached by ladders.
The door is generally on the left, and a corridor divides the
rest of the habitation from the store -shed. On the ground
KARELIANS 133
are sheep-pens and cattle-sheds. The kitchen utensils are
poor, consisting as a rule of nothing but a kettle, a water-tub
and a few spoons. Only those who are well-to-do have any-
thing like a samovar, but earthenware is imported from
Arkhangel.
Clothing and food. — The men wear an outer dress of grey
cloth, somewhat like the smock frock of the Little Russians,
underclothing of coarse linen, and boots of yellowish leather
with leggings attached. Their head-dress is anything that
they can find in the way of hats or caps. The women's smock-
frock is much like that of the men, and they wear a sarafan
of striped or printed calico. For footgear they have shoes
and for headgear kerchiefs or headbands. In winter long
sheep-skin coats are worn. Those who traffic across the border
of their district are apt to imitate town fashions.
Their principal food is ukha or tchi (a soup of fish and
vegetables). Most mix their flour with bark and straw. On
holidays they eat fish-cakes (ribniki) : on fast-days their fare
is salted mushrooms and edible fungi stewed with turnips and
potatoes. When the harvest is good, they brew a sort of
country beer, called braga, but vodka is not drunk among
them. Tea is a luxury of the rich, but is much appreciated
when obtained.
Religion. — They belong to the Orthodox Church.
Zirians
Territory. — This important tribe is found in the Governments
of Perm, Vologda, and Arkhangel : it inhabits part of the
Pechora district of the Arkhangel province, and the whole of
the Ust-Sisolsk district and two-thirds of the Yarensk district
of the province of Vologda. Its centre is Ust-Izhma. Formerly
the Zirians extended further west.
Name. — There are many forms in which their name is spelt :
they are known variously as Syryenians, Zyrenians, Sirianians,
Zirianians, Zyrians and Zirians. Their own name for them-
selves, however, is Kami.
Racial affinities and language. — Like the Permyaks and
134 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Votyaks, they are part of the Permian' branch of the Finns.
Their language was early reduced to writing, but they have
no literature nor written memorials. It is sufficiently like the
language of the Permyaks for the two peoples to be mutually
intelligible. It is freely supplemented by Russian words and
has a Samoyedic element in the vocabulary associated with
reindeer, for they have derived from the Samoyedes the art
of breeding and herding deer. A grammar of their tongue
has been published by the celebrated Finn, Castren.
Numbers. — It is estimated that there are 85,000 altogether
in European Russia, and another 1,000 in Asia along the
lower Ob. In 1899 they formed 60 per cent, of the population
of the Pechora district, distributed as follows : 1,780 in Ust-
Kozhvinskoe, 1,730 in Kevda, 5,590 in Krasnoborsk and 12,000
in Mokhcha, the total number being 21,120.
Relations with Russians. — In the ninth century the Finns
and Russians were living in amity together in north Russia,
the Finns paying tribute. The Zirians have been in constant-
relations with the Russians, have learnt much from them,
and are likely to be absorbed by them. It seems probable
that they will lose their language : they sing Russian songs
without any idea of their meaning, and have adopted much
that is Russian in customs and costume. The most important
change is that they are ceasing to be nomadic. They have
assimilated the village institutions of the Russians.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Zirians arc
a people of medium stature and robust frames : they are
blond and grey eyed : they do not differ greatly in appearance
from an ordinary peasant of Arkhangel. The best Zirians
are those that dwell about Ust-Izhma, and those who live at
Mokhcha. These are vigorous and vivacious, and devote
themselves with success to commerce. The other Zirians are
apt to be inert and unenterprising. Outwardly the Zirians
are very devout, and most of their villages have a well-built
church. They are noted for their hospitality even when
they are very poor. Their morals are inclined to be easy.
Occupations. — Their chief source of prosperity is reindeer-
ZIRIANS 135
breeding, an occupation in which they have been engaged
for a very long time. The prosperity of the Mokhcha and
Izhma Zirians can be seen from the numbers of reindeer which
they possess. In the Pechora district in 1896 there were
276,315 head of reindeer. Of these the Samoyedes owned
49,950, the Mokhcha Zirians 194,520, the Russians and other
Zirians 35,245. A herd of 500 reindeer is calculated to bring
in £50 per annum clear profit, and single Zirians possess as
many as 4,000 reindeer each. They employ Samoyedes on
wages as labourers and herdsmen. They seldom know them-
selves how many deer they possess. They slaughter about
one-fifth of their stock annually. The Zirians are also engaged
in agriculture, hunting, and trade. The cross-Ural trade in
the wares of the Samoyedes is very largely in their hands.
Dwellings. — The Zirians live in log-houses (kerkas), of much
the same style as those of Russian peasants. The house has
two rooms, one a rather untidy living-room, with a Russian
stove (i. e. a brick stove built into the wall) in it ; the second,
a reception-room, only used on particular occasions, with
a Dutch stove in it. Between the two rooms is an entrance-
hall, which opens into a poviet or general store-shed. This
store-shed is entered by a sloping incline of logs. Often a
steam bath-house is found near by, beside a river. The Zirians
use the bath-house several times in the week, and in summer
plunge straight from the bath-house into the river. Their
villages are often of substantial wooden houses. In places like
Ust-Izhma and Mokhcha, where there are well-to-do Zirians,
there are houses of two stories. In their case the lower floor is
like an ordinary Jcerka, as above described, but the upper
floor has a sort of drawing-room, with stuccoed ceiling and
painted floor covered with reindeer skins.
Clothing and food. — The ordinary winter costume is a
malitsa made of reindeer skin : this is a huge fur overcoat, in
form like a sack, worn with the fur inside, having a high
collar and mittens attached to the sleeves. The suvik is a
larger malitsa worn with the fur outside and having a hood
sewn to the collar. The Zirians wear high boots (pimi) with
136 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
the fur outside ; in summer they wear no cap, but only
a sort of hood.
Their principal articles of diet are meat, fish, and milk :
bread and vegetables have only a secondary place. They are
slovenly in dressing their meals, never washing meat or fish ;
the latter they find it difficult to keep, owing to scarcity of
salt. They are fond of vodka, with deplorable results ; they
also brew from barley -malt a sort of Icvas and beer. They
appreciate tea, but they mix it with pepper, onions, and
aniseed.
Religion. — They were converted to Christianity in the
fourteenth century by St. Stephen, who translated the gospels
into the Zirian tongue. They are members of the Orthodox
Church.
Voguls
Territory. — The Voguls (also known as the Maniza) are found
on both sides of the Ural Mountains, but the bulk of them
live between the mountains and the Irtish and Ob, extending
as far north as the River Sosva : they are most numerous
about the River Konda. The European Voguls are found in
the Government of Perm, between the headwaters of the
Pechora and the Urals. Formerly they extended further
south and west.
Racial affinities and language. — They are a branch of the
Ugrians, and so a Finnic people : their language is akin to
the Hungarian and to the Ostyak speech.
Numbers. — Their numbers were estimated in 1912 as being
7,476, of whom 3,720 were males. Of this total about 2,000
live in Europe and the rest in Siberia. They appear to be
decreasing in numbers.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — They are not
unlike the Ostyaks, having round broad faces, broad noses,
prominent cheek-bones, and black hair, and are small in
stature. They are said to be the least sociable of the Siberian
aborigines.
Occupations. — Like the Ostyaks, they are mostly hunters
and fishers : they have little pasturage, and practically no
VOGULS 137
agriculture. There are certain rules for the preservation of
game that they scrupulously observe : they remain only a
certain time in one encampment, and no encampment may
have more than five yurts in it, and they must be at least
ten miles from any other encampment, because the smoke
from their dwellings drives away game. Consequently they
live in isolated groups, a practice which would either encourage
(heir lack of sociability or account for their reputation as
msociable. They rear reindeer, but have few horses. They
rade with Samoyedes, Ostyaks, or Russians, principally in
urs, going as far north as Obdorsk for commercial purposes.
Clothing and food. — They usually wear Russian dress.
They either make or used to make summer clothing of nettles
gathered in September, and woven into garments. Their
food is principally fish or reindeer meat. A somewhat liberal
interpretation of what was fit for food has become more
restricted with the growth of civilization.
Marriage and death. — A hunter may have more than one
wife, according to his means, but the union is easily dissolved
and the husband often lives alone. When a Vogul dies the body
is taken out not through the door, but by a window or specially
made hole. The graveyard is usually in a forest, the body
being brought there by reindeer, which have to be slaughtered
in a particular manner. The body is laid in a boat or in a coffin
shaped like a boat. After the funeral there follows a feast.
Religion. — They are nominally Christians, but a good deal
of Shamanism survives among them.
Other Finnic Tribes
The other Finnic tribes fall outside the scope of this book.
The Permyaks are scarcely to be distinguished from the
Zirians, whose language they can understand. They are
found in the Government of Perm, and particularly on the
River Kama. The Votyaks are a numerous race, about
250,000, found in the south-eastern part of the Government
of Vyatka ; they are physically weak, and have no striking
mental qualities. The Volga Finns, the Mordvinians, number
138 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
about 1,860,000, and live on the middle Volga about Kazan,
Kostroma, and Vyatka, and also in Ufa and Orenburg.
Ugrian Ostyaks
Territory. — The Ostyaks live in the region of the lower
Irtish and the lower Ob from its junction with the Irtish to
lat. 67° N. Eastward they extend as far as the Tomsk district
and the Yenisei. At the time of the Russian Conquest their
abodes extended much further than now. Remains of their
fortified places, destroyed by the Cossacks in the sixteenth
century, are to be seen in several parts of the country, many of
them being found in the neighbourhood of Obdorsk.
Name. — They call themselves As Chui or As Yakh (i. e.
people of the Ob), and of this the name Ostyak by which
they are called is a corruption, unless it is a corruption of the
Tartar name for them Uemtak ( = barbarians). The northern
Ostyaks call themselves Handocko (= the men).
Racial affinities and language. — They belong to the Finno-
Ugrian tribe, and are members of that Ugrian branch of which
the Vogul and Magyar are also members. They are closely
related to the Vogul, but that did not prevent them from being
constantly engaged in warfare with them till both were
conquered by the Russians. They all speak one language,
but there are three or four leading dialects. The speech of
the Ostyaks round Berezov is like Vogul and so different from
the language of the Ostyaks round Obdorsk that the dwellers
in the two districts cannot understand one another. The
Ugrian languages seem to have become separated from the
other Finnish tongues before the development of the system
of conjugations and declensions. The Hungarian tongue has
come much under European influence and is much more
highly developed than either Ostyak or Vogul, but it presents
certain close affinities. The Ostyak has a difficulty in pro-
nouncing the letter /. The purest dialect is said to be at
Surgut.
Numbers. — The numbers estimated in 1912 were 17,221,
of whom 9,012 were males. The numbers seem to be de-
UGRIAN OSTYAKS 139
creasing ; infant mortality is very high, and they are much
afflicted by famine.
Divisions. — The Ostyaks are ordinarily divided into Ob
Ostyaks and Irtish Ostyaks. The difference is not merely
■geographical, for the Irtish Ostyaks are superior in develop-
ment to the rest of their race ; they lead a more settled life
than the Ob Ostyaks who are mostly nomadic. The ' Ostyaks '
of the Yenisei are a wholly different race.
Relations with Russians. — In the fifteenth century the
Irtish Ostyaks were much influenced by Syrgan settlers from
East Russia, and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
they were much influenced by the Tartars. In 1897 certain
southern Ostyak villages still spoke Tartar, and Mohammedan
influence appears in certain popular customs, for instance,
in the avoidance of eating pork, and in the custom of women
covering their faces before strangers. Russian civilization
has for years now been making great advances, chiefly through
the marriage of Ostyak men with Russian women, rather
than vice versa. Thus many Ostyak villages in the Irtish
region speak only Russian, and although old men may speak
Ostyak, the young men are not learning the tongue of their
fathers. The trade between the Ostyak fishers and the
Russian merchants from whom they purchase corn for bread,
the use of which has become greatly extended, has helped
the Russification of the Ob Ostyaks ; and another aid to this
result is the adherence of the Ostyaks, at any rate nominally,
to the Orthodox Church. They pay yassak, but are free from
military service.
Social institutions. — A tribal system has never taken root
among the Ostyaks. They are divided into clans each of which
is really a large family. Groups of the same are ruled by a
knyaz (prince) an hereditary office. The clans are artificially
divided by the Russians into radi with territorial names.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Ostyaks as
a whole are a people of only moderate stature, generally about
5 ft. 3 ins., to 5 ft. 4 ins. In type they are dolichocephalic,
long-headed, as distinct from the Samoyedes who are
140 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
br achy cephalic, their heads being almost as wide as they
are long. As the region of the Ostyaks approaches the
Samoyede country, the brachycephalic type appears among
them too.
The more northerly Ostyaks are not quite so well developed
as those of the south. These latter are well built and have
a distinctly thick-set appearance. All, however, look much
the same ; they have round, flat faces, broad and rather flat
noses, projecting cheek-bones, dark, narrow eyes, and yellow
or yellow-grey complexions. Their hair is long, smooth, and
black, or chestnut coloured. There is very little hair on the
face ; in the northern regions the Ostyaks appear to pluck
it out. The Mongolian type is more noticeable among the
women than the men. The purest type is found among the
fishers of the Ob, for the reindeer -keepers are largely inter-
mingled with the Samoyedes.
In temperament they are kind, gentle, and friendly ; they
are very honest except in the neighbourhood of Russian
settlements, where the contact of civilization has made them
adopt ' business methods '.
Knowledge and art. — In general the Ostyaks cannot read
or write. In the Little Konda volost, some villages have
been taught to read and write by discharged soldiers, and
in the Atlimskoe villages on the Ob they are completely
Russified. But the ordinary Ostyaks have now given up
even sign- writing. They understand counting by tens, but
have no knowledge of figures. They are skilled in handicraft,
carving in wood and bone, and making beautiful decorations
by scratching on bark, to ornament their vessels and baskets.
The women make fine embroidery on linen woven by them-
selves from nettle, hemp, or flax. Hemp or flax is obtained
from merchants ; the nettle is gathered locally, dried, broken,
and the fluff separated from the cover. Beautiful ornaments
are also made with beads. The Irtish Ostyaks have a fairly
good colour sense, through contact with Russians, but those
of the north and east have little capacity for distinguishing
between different shades. They reckon distances by the
UGRIAN OSTYAKS 141
Hip, or Ostyak verst, which is five times longer than a
Russian verst. For smaller measures, they have the fathom,
which is the distance between the extremities of two out-
stretched arms, from finger-tip to finger-tip, or from the
ground to the finger-tips of the upraised hand of a man of
middling stature. They measure also by a span, the distance
between the points of thumb and forefinger, and by the
breadth of the middle of the hand, from forefinger to little
finger. One hundred paces is sometimes expressed as ' as
far as a marksman can shoot ' (with an arrow). The smallest
measure of time for the Ostyaks used to be the time required
for a kettle to boil — something under one hour (see p. 165).
Sunday is the only day of the week which has a proper name.
The rest are numbered, 1st, 2nd, 3rd from Monday onwards.
The Ostyak' s folk lore is tinged with sadness. They have
an original music and poetry, improvised ballads accompanied
with pantomimic action, and they also indulge in dancing.
Their musical instruments are the dombra, which is a long
instrument of pine-wood, shaped like a boat, with five strings
of reindeer-sinews, and the ' swan ', an instrument in the form
of a bird with eight or ten strings of brass wire. Their idea of
medicine is to bleed patients with an instrument consisting
of a pike's jawbone fixed on a wooden shaft. They encourage
even children to smoke tobacco, as a means of preventing
throat and lung trouble.
Occupations. — In point of development, they stand between
the nomadic and the settled stage of existence. They are
not pure nomads, for most of them have fixed dwellings,
which they inhabit in winter. On the other hand, they have
practically no agriculture ; only in the south in the volosts
of the Narim and upper Demyanka do they till the soil.
The rest of the Ostyaks maintain themselves chiefly by
fishing and hunting, living in wooden or earth huts in winter,
and leading a nomadic life in tents during the summer.
A small proportion, in company with the Samoyedes, own
reindeer -herds in the neighbourhood of Berezov and Surgut.
The farther north they dwell, the more nomadic and less
142 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
developed are the Ostyaks. They use tents in summer rather
than huts and depend mainly on the reindeer for providing
them with food, clothing, and the means of transport.
Although the lower Irtish lands are suitable for agriculture,
the Ostyaks there, as elsewhere, devote themselves to fishing,
hunting, and the collecting of berries and nuts. Such
agriculture as there is, is done by Russian inhabitants. The
harvest and fishing seasons synchronize ; Russian peasant
families engage in both occupations, by dividing the work
among the various members of their family. But the Ostyaks
are said to have too small families to do this.
Fishing, although very good on the Irtish and Ob, is not
very highly developed among the Ostyaks. They use chiefly
Russian fishing tackle, and as this is expensive, the villages
or families to whom the best water or sandbanks belong,
lease out these to Russians, for rents varying from 20 to
300 roubles (£2 2s. U. to £31 Is. 6d.) for a good fishing station ;
as much as 1,270 roubles (£135) has been paid for a sandbank
in the Ob, with a neighbouring by-stream. Those who do
not possess suitable sandbanks fish for themselves and gain
100 to 140 roubles per man. They catch sturgeon through
the ice in winter by ingenious methods.
Hunting of the elk and reindeer goes on in the regions of
the Irtish and Ob, chiefly in winter. The Ostyaks hunt on
snow-shoes, with dogs, and use muskets of an antique pattern,
often flint-locks, produced near Tobolsk at a price of from
2£ to 4 J roubles (5s. 4d. to 9s. Id.). In remoter districts,
even in the Irtish river system, bows and arrows were used
at any rate in recent years, chiefly for shooting squirrels and
ducks. Hunting brings in from 40 to 80 roubles per man.
Forest-fires have greatly decreased its value. The skin of
an elk brings in 5 to 6 roubles (10s. Qd. to 12s. 9d.) locally,
that of a reindeer 1 to 1-50 roubles (2s. Id. to 3s. 3d.).
The gathering of cranberries and cedar-nuts affords con-
siderable employment to the Ostyaks, and it requires little
or no capital. The woods are leased out by the village
communities which own them, as are the fishing-stations.
UGRIAN OSTYAKS 143
The cranberry hedges are burnt out about every ten years,
to get rid of old growths. The cedar-nut woods have suffered
not merely from forest-fires, but from cutting for building-
purposes. The best cranberry hedges are in the Konda
district, where one man can gather 36 to 48 lb. a day, and
one family during the season can collect 13 cwt. to 2\ tons.
In the eastern districts where the cedar-woods have suffered
from fire and cutting, the economic condition of the Ostyaks
has deteriorated. Formerly a family made £10 to £20 from
collecting cedar-nuts ; now in a good year, which means
about one in four, they make £4 to £7. The average price is
2 J roubles (5s. M.) per pud (36 lb.). The woods belong to
the village communities ; any one can procure the right to
gather nuts in a wood during the season for 1 to 1| roubles
(2s. Id. to 35. 3d.).
Horses and horned cattle are kept only for household
purposes. Milk is used in the family ; in the Irtish district
a little is made into butter and sold.
Most of the good agricultural land in the Irtish district
has passed into the hands of Russian peasants. The rest of
the land is held by the village communities, which lease it out,
but cannot legally alienate it, as it is Crown land and pays
tribute. But as Ostyaks die out, the Russian Government
acquiesces in their land passing to energetic Russian peasants.
Economic conditions. — There is a remarkable system of
credit among the Ostyaks. Fish, meat, and berries do not
supply all they require ; they need in addition bread ; tobacco,
tea, and brandy are also in common use. A male Ostyak
has also to pay something over six roubles (12s. 9d.) in direct
taxes. To obtain ready money for all this, they could sell
their wares in town, but the time and expense involved in
transporting goods over a distance of, say, 60 to 200 miles is
prohibitive. To meet this difficulty there are Russian traders
who supply the Ostyaks with flour, tobacco, &c, also with
money to pay taxes, sufficient for the year's needs. In return
they receive the raw products of the Ostyak. At the end of
the year, the value of these is reckoned against the value
144 THE NEO-S I B E R I AN TRTBES
of the goods advanced by the trader. If there is a balance
in favour of the Ostyak, it is given to him in goods ; if there
is an adverse balance, it is carried over against him to the
next year as a debt in the trader's books. The cheapest
wares, such as fish, are only taken by the trader for sale on
commission, in the town. The sum received is handed over
to the Ostyak, minus the commission, and minus the cost of
transportation, which is 10 to 15 kopeks for 100 versts, about
2\d. to 4d. for 66 miles. The Ostyaks cannot read or write,
and therefore have to trust to the trader to keep his books
properly. Among the northern Ostyaks, where the same
credit system prevails, a notched stick is used for registering
values ; the stick is split, and one half is kept by the creditor,
the other half by the debtor. The Russian trader makes
considerable gains, with a capital varying from 20 to 100,000
roubles (£2 to £10,500). But he may also suffer considerable
losses if an Ostyak on his books dies in debt.
Ostyaks appear to be seldom free from debt. They quickly
spend the money which they obtain for leases of river-stations,
and then often become mere labourers at the rate of about
3 roubles (6s. 5d.) per month to those to whom they have
granted leases.
Dwellings. — An Ostyak village numbers from four to twenty
houses, arranged without any order. Besides such winter
villages, there are summer villages, consisting of huts of
beams roughly put together, used only during the fishing
season. But the southern Ostyaks have given up the use
of these, and make a living by residing continuously in their
winter villages. Fishers who go off on fishing expeditions
together, erect a temporary hut and live in it as if one family
The fixed dwellings of the Ostyaks are of two kinds. To the
north and east they are made of earth, but about Tobolsk and
Berezov of timber. These last are of one, very occasionally
of two stories, like those of the neighbouring Russian peasants.
The windows are generally of glass , but sometimes only
of skin. The houses have one, two, or three rooms, but in
winter the whole family lives in one room, on account of the
UGRIAN OSTYAKS 145
cold. Round this room are benches fixed to the wall ;
there are holy pictures, an enormous table, a great wooden
bedstead, and a stove built of clay. The earth-huts of the
other Ostyaks are of the same pattern, but on a much smaller
Icale. Near the winter dwellings of the Ostyaks are sheds
or stores. The horses are kept away from the house, generally
11 the open, sometimes in a wooden shelter ; horned cattle
,re provided with a shelter.
Clothing and food. — The Irtish Ostyaks are in the habit of
rearing Russian apparel, except that in winter some of them
tdopt the Samoyede costume, as indeed Russians do too.
This consists of an outer garment and an inner garment
malitsa) both made of dog-skin or reindeer-skin, and a fur
cap. The rest of the Ostyaks wear much the same dress as
this in winter. In summer they wear only one skin-garment
with another of red cloth above it. Leathern trousers, leathern
stockings, a belt with requisites hanging from it, and shoes
of reindeer-skin complete their costume. The women wear
stockings made of fish-skin : otherwise their dress does not
differ from that of men, except that they have a piece of
drapery with which to cover their faces.
For food they eat mainly reindeer-flesh and fish, preferring
to eat them raw. They regard the former as a great preventive
of scurvy. Poziom (dried fish) and varka (the stomach and
entrails of fish soaked in oil) are much eaten by them. From
Russian merchants they have learnt the use of bread, and it
is spreading among them. They make what is called burduk
of meal boiled with water and fish-bones.
Marriage and death. — Marriage is exogamous, though the
clans are not composed of blood-relations. A price is paid
for the bride.
The Ostyaks are buried in forests. No grave is dug, but
the body is laid on the ground and covered with inverted
skins. In the north they still bury the dead in canoes.
Religion. — For about a century the Ostyaks have been
baptized, and Christianity has made some progress among
them. On the Irtish and Ob the old customs are largely
140 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
forgotten, but in the north the nomadic reindeer-breeding
Ostyaks are still pagan. They recognize good and bad gods,
and pay homage to the god of the thunder and the spirit of
the River Ob.
A special sanctity attaches to the bear. They swear their
most solemn oaths over its pate, and when they have killed
and eaten one they are careful to collect and bury its bones.
The loss of one will entail some mischance at the next bear
hunt. They apologize to the bear for killing him, saying that
the real responsibility rests not with them, but with the Russian
who supplied the gun and gunpowder.
(ii) Samoyedic Tribes
Samoyedes
Territory. — This important tribe extends along the north
coast of European and Asiatic Russia from the shores of
the White Sea to the banks of the River Khatanga. They are
most numerous in the province of Arkhangel. In old accounts
of voyages Samoedia was always the country between the
Pechora and the Ob, but they really extend almost to the
Lena. They have come northwards from the Altai, driven
out by the Turco-Tartars in the fifth century a. d., and they
may be the people traces of whose primitive civilization are
found in the valley of the upper Yenisei. Their present mode
of life recalls the ' reindeer-civilization ' of primaeval times in
middle Europe.
Name. — There are various spellings of the name : the form
adopted in this book is that most frequent in literature, but
the pronunciation seems to be more like Sam-yad. The word
has been supposed to mean ' self -eaters ', or has been other-
wise explained as 'raw-eaters'. Probably, however, it has no
such barbarous connotation, but is to be associated with
Suomi, the name by which the inhabitants of Finland call
their country. The Lapps and Karelians also have similar
names for themselves. The Samoyedes call themselves
Hazovo (i. e. the men), and Nyanyaz ; the Ostyaks call them
SAMOYEDES 147
Orghoy and Vorkho, names which recall the word Ugrians,
by which name the inhabitants on both sides of the Ural are
called. The name Samoyede occurs in a chronicle of 1096.
Racial affinities and language. — They are usually distin-
guished from the Finno-Ugrian tribes, but are closely allied
(to them. The language resembles Finnish, but has more
suffixes : it is agglutinative and polysyllabic, and is sonorous
and pleasant to hear. There are three dialects and twelve
sub -dialects.
X umbers. — It is difficult to be at all sure of the numbers,
as the methods and dates of computation in Europe and
Asia differ. A rough estimate of the numbers is about 20,000.
In Arkhangel province in 1897 there were computed to be
6,748, and in Asia in 1912 they were estimated at 12,502.
In Novaya Zemlya there are about 100 Samoyede settlers.
Another reason for caution in dealing with the question of
Samoyede numbers is the uncertainty whether they include
the southern tribes closely allied to the Samoyedes. There has
been a slight increase at any rate in Europe since the middle
of last century, and probably the gloomy prognostications
that the race will die out are unwarranted, as they are better
adapted to the land in which they live than any one else.
But their marriages are not very fertile, one mother seldom
having more than two or three children, and they have to
face four deadly foes, syphilis, scurvy, small-pox, and spirits.
Divisions. — Of the Samoyedes proper there are four main
divisions :
(1) The Yuraks, who extend from the White Sea to the
Yenisei, a vigorous, brave people, who are mostly reindeer-
nomads, but who also do some hunting and fishing and show
great daring in their expeditions. Their chief centres are
in the neighbourhood of Obdorsk, where there are about
6,000 of them, and near the Gulf of Mezen, where there are
about 5,000. There are five sub-dialects of their speech.
(2) The Tavgi live in the Taimir Peninsula from the
Yenisei to Khatanga Bay. There are about 1,000, most of
whom are reindeer-nomads.
k 2
148 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
(3) The Ostyak-Samoyedes, whose number is uncertain, but
who are estimated at about 3,000, live in the zone between
the tundra and the taiga. They are almost entirely hunters,
there being merely a few reindeer-nomads in the northern
part of the district, and they own but few reindeer.
(4) The Y enisei- Samoyedes live along the Yenisei : they
live mostly by fishing, do some hunting and only to a slight
extent are reindeer-nomads. There are only about 350 of
them.
There is further subdivision into tribes : for instance in
the Yamal Peninsula there are ten different tribes, each with
its fixed boundaries for reindeer -pasture.
Relations with Russians. — Their connexion with the Russians,
at any rate in Europe, is of long standing : in the eleventh
century we hear of them paying tribute to the Novgorodians.
Their present relations with their Russian masters are believed
to be good, but a readiness to do work without pay suggests,
apart from their natural willingness to oblige, traditions of
forced labour. They have been protected in their occupation
of the tundras by law since the sixteenth century, and they
resist and resent encroachments on the part of the Russians
and Zirians, but, being bad men of business, they easily fall
into a position of dependence upon them. They have been
impoverished in the south by the loss of their hunting-grounds,
as Russian civilization has spread northward. On the Yenisei
the fisher-folk are less independent than the other Samoyedes,
and the Russian traders are apt to be despotic with them.
But there is certainly no general desire to grind them down or
treat their rights disrespectfully : the adult Yurak pays an
annual tax of about £1, which is not a very heavy impost.
Social institutions. — In 1835 the Samoyedes were given
considerable powers of self-government. In their own affairs
they are governed by starshinas (elders or mayors) — the name
has generally replaced the earlier one of knyaz (prince) — one
of whom is elected for each tundra. He is the intermediary
between the Samoyedes and the Russian administration :
he is the ruler and judge of his little community, collects the
SAMOYEDES 149
yassak (tribute) and pays it in to the Russian Government.
All offences except the most serious are settled according to
leir own customs. A further law of 1892 recognized and
motioned native councils ; the munyah meets annually,
Leir meetings being held in winter; there must be a repre-
mtative of each clan present ; women are excluded from
ie meetings. The starshina is elected for three years. Russian
luence has greatly strengthened his hands, and his power
probably greater than when he had the more exalted title.
Physical abearance and characteristics. — Accounts of the
miperament and stature of the Samoyedes differ as much as
lo those of their numbers. It is probably difficult to generalize
about a people so widely extended and so markedly divided.
In height there is a general agreement that they are short :
a man 5 ft. 6 ins. would be accounted a giant, and the men
are about 4 inches taller than the women. In appearance
they resemble the Ostyaks, but they are brachycephalic,
or rather, mesocephalic. They have straight, glossy, black
hair, which is usually bound with thongs in two bunches ;
their skin is sallow ; their eyes narrow, oblique, and far apart ;
their faces broad, flat, and round ; the nose flat and open ;
the cheekbones prominent ; the lips thick. They are mostly
beardless. They are often of good appearance despite their
short stature, are stoutly built and very muscular.
There is some admixture of Russian blood, and the race is
found to be less pure in the west than in the east. On the
west side of the Pechora a Slavonic and Teutonic strain shows
itself in the breed : so there are some Samoyedes in these
parts with light hair, fair skins, and eyes ' of Gothic type '.
Travellers differ as to their honesty, but the general verdict
is in their favour : at any rate they are known to adhere
strictly to their word when given. They have energy and
natural intelligence, but are thriftless. They are sociable,
and extremely hospitable, both to strangers and their fellow
tribesmen : they are constantly smiling and laughing, and
delight in gossip ; they are very fond of children, who treat
their elders with confidence and without fear. They are
150 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
more independent than the Ostyaks, and the Yuraks especially
are brave and daring. They are a dirty people, and never
wash ; nor do they change their clothes, until they are worn
out. But their teeth are white, partly because they arc
accustomed to chew pine-resin. They are fond of music,
though their music is much less developed than that of the
Ostyaks, being rudimentary and monotonous. But the Samo-
yede likes to possess himself of the dumbra of the Ostyak.
Occupations. — The chief occupations are reindeer-breeding,
hunting, and fishing ; before their northward migration they
practised agriculture, but very few practise it now. The
Yuraks and Tavgi are mainly reindeer-breeders, and, as such,
nomadic ; but the Samoyedes are capable of settling down.
At Kozhva, in the Arkhangel province, where there is some
stationary population (in 1892 there were 38 huts) the people
are engaged partly in growing barley, partly in rearing cattle,
partly in fishing. But the Samoyedes who have k settled down '
often live in Russian and Zirian villages without a regular
occupation. The nomadic Samoyede is on the march with
his tent for four months every year ; he migrates south in
winter and north in summer. A rich Samoyede — the richest
are in the Yamal Peninsula — may have as many as 5,000
reindeer, and the further north one goes into the tundra,
the richer are the Samoyedes found to be. They seem to
have no affection for their deer, but regard them merely from
the pecuniary point of view. Some of them, especially the
Ostyak Samoyedes, are more engaged in hunting, and to
some extent in fishing. Communal hunting of the wild
reindeer still survives among the Samoyede. White and blue
foxes are trapped and snared, and geese and other birds arc
caught during the moulting season. In hunting they used to
employ a bow and arrows, but in their place they now use
clumsy and primitive flint-lock muskets, and employ a gun-
rest in shooting. So a native industry in bows and arrows
has died out without any counterbalancing addition to their
resources. The fisherman is looked down upon by the reindeer
owner. There is a weak industry on the sea coast in hunting
SAMOYEDES 151
marine animals ; but the incapacity and lack of enterprise
of the Samoyedes put them at the mercy of monopolists :
they do not even carry their goods to market, but have them
transported by the Russians, who use the Samoyedes' own
reindeer for the purpose. Most of the Samoyedes' implements
are of bone and stone. But with three metal tools, his axe, his
borer, and his knife, he is very dexterous. The Samoyede
Iyomen are expert in sewing : they use reindeer-sinews for
hread, preparing them first by chewing.
The Samoyedes trade in much the same way as the Ostyaks
p. 143) : they bring their peltries to Berezov, Obdorsk, and
ither markets ; but the Zirians, whom the Russians call the
ews of the tundra, have got most of the Samoyede trade into
heir hands. East of the Urals money is little used, but in
oartering with the Samoyedes only articles of practical use
are serviceable : to think of them as savages and bring them
glass beads is the worst of mistakes.
Dwellings. — The migratory Samoyede lives in a chum.
Three or four families usually travel together. A chum is
made of about twenty fir-poles, sharpened at each end, driven
into the ground and with their tops lashed together. Over
these are tied large pieces of birch-bark, reaching from the
top of the poles to the ground and secured in their place by
stones or lumps of earth. The chimney is an orifice of two feet
or so between the tops of the poles and the edge of the birch-
bark. In winter the chum is covered with reindeer-skins,
well caulked with moss. In the centre of this tent is a large
flat stone on which the fire is made. The fire serves for
illuminant as well as heat, for they do not use lamps. The
part of the chum that faces the entrance is holy, and must not
be contaminated by the presence of women, as they are unclean.
Clothing and food. — The common dress of both sexes is
a red cotton shirt and thin cloth trousers, with skin stockings
(hiipti) and long deer-skin boots fyimi) which are almost alike
in the costume of men and women. In snow seal-skin boots
are worn instead as being more waterproof. Over the shirt
is worn the malitsa, a smock-like garment made of reindeer-
152 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
skin, with the hair worn inside ; it has a hole for the head to
be thrust through, and at the neck there is attached a close-
fitting hood, while mittens (rukavitsa) are attached to the
sleeves. It is tightly girded round the waist, so as to make
a sort of bag. Over this is worn a white deer-skin (suvik),
cut in the same pattern, but without the rukavitsa ; instead
of these it has bands of red flannel about the wrists : in this
garment the hair is worn outside. Women do not wear the
suvik but ' a long, loose, buttonless skin-coat, reaching to
the calf of the leg, folded over the breast and secured round
the waist by a belt. At regular intervals there are eight or
nine strips of reindeer skin with intervening pipings of red and
green flannel '. The woman wears a cap detached from the
robe with hair outside and elaborately adorned. The only
ornament in male attire, as a rule, is a belt of thongs with
metal buttons : both sexes wear charms, especially the tooth
of a bear.
Their principal food is reindeer meat, which they like to
eat raw or half -putrid. They care more for quantity than
quality. One favourite delicacy Avith them is the gullet of
the reindeer. The young reindeer is good to eat, but the old
reindeer, if not hung, is very tough. They are fond of vodka,
and are ready to sell a reindeer for three litres of it. They
chew tobacco, but do not smoke it, but they make snuff by
grinding down tobacco. In some parts a certain amount of
rye-bread is made, where the flour is mixed with water and
fermented.
Marriage and death. — Monogamy is general, but there is
no objection to polygamy. Few Samoyedes, however, have
more than two wives, though some rich men have as many as
four in separate chums. The father only keeps part of the
kalym paid by the bridegroom, which may amount to as
much as thirty fox-skins and three hundred reindeer (an
actual case) ; the rest is given to his relations. He gives
a dowry a chum, some reindeer, sledges, harness, meat, ai
clothes, amounting in value to the kalym paid, which
returned in case of divorce. A Samoyede wall sometimes sc
SAMOYEDES 153
his wife for some teams of reindeer or exchange her for the
wife of another man.
Interment of the dead has been the custom with the
Samoyedes since their conversion to Christianity. Graves are
viewed with superstition, and the head is averted in passing
le grave of any one who is not a relative. The graves are
terely rude wooden boxes, often rifled by wolves and foxes.
?yond the mouth of the Ob below the earth lies the world
the future life, where the shadow will live as long as it
bs lived on earth while the soul is reincarnated.
Religion. — A 'conversion' to Christianity, which had been
receded by a considerable assimilation of Christian ideas and
ithics, has not prevented the retention of a good deal of the
primitive religion of the Samoyedes. They have a feeling that
the God of the Christians cannot be supposed to know much
about reindeer ; so in that part of their life which is related
to their herds, they make their appeals to their native divinities.
At the head of these is Num, the giver of life, a highly exalted
being who will not even deign to glance at the earth, as being
unclean. Of him there are images made called chaddi, which
are carefully kept out of sight. Besides Num, they believe
in Aa, a devil, tadebtsi, spirits, and hegi, household gods.
These last can be approached directly without a mediator,
but for the tadebtsi the intervention of the tadebeys (Shamans)
is necessary ; they are the embodiment of the divine spirit
on earth. There is no particular temple for their rites, but
they resort to certain places on hills. The island of Vaigach is
accounted especially holy, and there above all places the devout
Samoyede would wish to be buried.
Tribes akin to the Samoyedes
Besides the Samoyedes, properly so-called, there are tribes
further south, closely akin to them. Of these may be named
the Beltirs, Kaibals, Kamassins, Karagasses, Motors, and
Soyots. Some of these are largely mixed with a Tartar
strain. The Beltirs live by agriculture and cattle-breeding
on the Abakansk steppe ; they profess Christianity ; their
154 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
language is like that of the Sagai Tartars. The Kaibals are
on the upper Yenisei ; they are hardly to be distinguished
from the Tartars of the Minusinsk district ; they support
themselves by rearing cattle. The Kamassins, who also have
a large Tartar admixture in their language, live in the Kansk
district of Yeniseisk. They are herdsmen or agriculturists.
The Karagasses, north of the Sayansk Mountains, are losing
their distinctive features. They number to-day 345, including
83 ' warriors '. Of the Motors one section entered China and
was exterminated ; the other section has been merged among
the Tuba and Soyots.
Soyots
The Soyots are probably a division of the Samoyedes, who
live in the extreme south of Siberia near the Kitoisk Moun-
tains. They are a small and rapidly disappearing tribe,
isolated from the rest of the world among their cold and bare
mountains. Their settlements are at Lake Ulchir, Kitoi,
Tsagan-Khar, Oplik-Gol, Samart, Dzhatkhak, and Khonshon.
They live entirely by hunting for sable, squirrel, and bear, and
procure their own requirements (such as powder, lead, tea,
flour, and salt) by the sale of their fur. They make use of
horses, but more often of reindeer, for driving and hunting.
They live in wooden yurtas in different places in accordance
with the season of the year, the winter ones being built on the
edge of the taiga so that they can procure firewood. The
position of the others is dictated by the necessity of procuring
food for their horses and reindeer, which have to graze all the
year round, as they have no means of making hay near their
yurtas. These huts are four-cornered erections of wood, with
an opening in the roof for the smoke from the tire which is
always burning. They live amid incredible dirt and never
wash, their only method of cleaning being by licking. Their
religion is sometimes Lamaism, sometimes Shamanism. They
speak the Buryat language. A few years ago there was one
old man who could speak the Soyot language. Some few of
them speak Russian. Their one food is zamvran : i. c. green
!
SOYOTS 155
brick tea, boiled with milk, flour, reindeer-fat, and salt ; they
never eat bread and only rarely reindeer meat. Their imple-
ments for eating are a small wooden cup of Mongol workman-
ship, which the owner always carries about with him, and a
knife, without a sheath, hanging from the belt. They suffer
Iiuch from various diseases — colds, complaints of the
tomach, and syphilis,
(iii) Turkic Tribes
The Turkic tribes have often been classed with the Mon-
olian, but it is now more usual to separate them. The differ -
nces are more marked in language and religion than in physiog-
nomy and other racial characteristics. There is a considerable
blending with Finnic and Samoyedic stocks, and in some cases
it is difficult to say to which of these branches of the Ural-
Altaic group a particular tribe like the Karagasses should be
attributed. In western Siberia the great group of Turkic
peoples is the Tartars, while in eastern Siberia their chief
representative is the Yakut. The Turkic people have pene-
trated Siberia from northern Mongolia, preceding in their
movement the great Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century.
It was these invasions which caused the Yakuts to move from
the region in which they had settled round Lake Baikal to
the basin of the Lena. The Tartars spread farther west,
and there are well over a million of them in European Russia
alone.
Siberian Tartars
Territory. — In Siberia the Tartars are found Avest of the
Yenisei. They are cut into two distinct portions ; a northern
group, consisting of the Baraba and Chulim Tartars, occupies
the Baraba steppe and the Chulim basin to the east of it,
and a southern group, separated from them by the Siberian
Railway and the stream of Russian immigration, occupies the
Altai and the Abakansk steppe in the basin of the Yenisei.
Name. — There are various names for the different groups
of inhabitants, but they are collectively called Tartars, or,
with more correct spoiling, Tatars.
156 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Racial affinities and language. — As stated above, they are
distinct from the Mongolians, though sometimes classified
with them, and many of the tribes have become much inter-
mixed either with Finnic or Samoyedic peoples or with other
peoples of Turkic stock. In some cases too they have grown
to have a strong resemblance to the Caucasian peoples, with
whom they have intermingled.
In language those of them who have kept their own speech
resemble the Ottoman Turks, but some tribes, like the Chulim
Tartars, have lost their own tongue, and others like the
' Kalmuks ' of the Altai have a large number of Mongol
words in their vocabulary.
Numbers. — The number of Tartars in Siberia is reckoned
(1912) at 176,124. They constitute nearly a third of the
Turkic stock in Siberia.
Divisions. — North of the Siberian Railway, in the district
between Tobolsk and Tomsk, are two Tartar peoples : (1)
The Baraba Tartars, of whom there are about 55,000, live in
the Baraba steppe between the Irtish and the Ob. They
are an agricultural people, who have given way before Russian
encroachment, and live now in villages among the marshes
and woods. (2) The Chulim Tartars are very few. They live
on the River Chulim, a tributary of the Ob : they have almost
entirely given up the use of their native speech, and live for
the most part like Russian peasants.
South of the Siberian Railway there are two main groups :
(1) The Altaians, of whom there are various subdivisions :
the Tartar Kalmuks (about 12,000), who are not really Kal-
muks at all, as the real Kalmuks are Mongolian, which this
Altaian people are not despite a Mongoloid appearance ; the
Teleuts or Telengites (about 5,800) in the Kuznetsk district ;
the Chern or Black Forest Tartars, farther north on the River
Biya; the Shors, about 11,000, on the Rivers Tom
and Mras-su ; and the Lebed Tartars, along the Rive
Lebed.
(2) The Abakansk Tartars, on the Abakansk steppe in th
valley of the upper Yenisei, in the neighbourhood of Minusinsk
:
SIBERIAN TARTARS 157
have become much Russianized and lost many of their national
characteristics.
Relations with Russians. — Many of the tribes are adopting
Russian costume and habits, and some like the Chulim
Tartars are losing their native speech. On the whole relations
between the Russians and Kalmuks are friendly, though
extensions of the activities of Russian tax-gatherers are
sometimes actively resented. The Kalmuks, probably as
so closely resembling the Mongols in appearance, are not —
or at any rate were not lately — allowed to perform military
service for the Russians, though it is likely that they would
make good soldiers.
Social institutions. — The Altaians are divided into clans,
but the separation is not very marked, and people of various
clans live together in the same village. In this they differ
very much from their western neighbours, the Kirghiz. The
clans are known as seoks (generations), of which there are
supposed to be twenty-four, but it is doubtful whether the
number has more than a mystical significance. People of
the same seok regard themselves as related to one another.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Altaians, if
they may be taken as representative, have flat, broad
faces, small foreheads sloping backwards, little eyes turning
upwards at the corners, small eyebrows, prominent cheek-
bones, snub-noses too small for the face, large mouths with
thick lips, which display two rows of strong white teeth.
The chin is pointed, and they have little or no beard. Their
complexion is dark, their hair and eyebrows deep black, the
hair being stiff and bristly. As a rule the men shave off
a good part of it, leaving only a patch on the crown of the
head, which they plait into a queue. They tend to be short
and broad-shouldered, but do not look very strong, probably
because of the poor nourishment of a large number of the
people. Their legs are bowed — at any rate this is the case with
the Kalmuks — because they have lived in the saddle from their
earliest years. The women are smaller than the men, but
look stronger : it is they who do a great deal of the hardest
158 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
work. They have a general reputation for being honest and
industrious. They are also an imaginative people, and the
Kalmuks have a considerable store of legends ; they are
exceedingly fond of their own regions, as their songs show.
Their chief vices are dirtiness and drink.
Occupations. — They are mostly nomadic, and pursue a
pastoral life, but the Baraba Tartars engage in agriculture.
The Kalmuks are great equestrians, and are brought up to
the art of riding from their earliest years. They carry most
of their possessions about in sacks on their horses' backs.
There is a peculiar breed of horses in the Altai, but it is seldom
found pure now, being much mixed with Russian, Kirghiz,
and Mongolian stocks. The Altaian horse has a beautiful,
erect, ' dry ' head, large eyes, a deep curb-dimple, a broad
throat and finely set nervous ears. The neck is dry, sinewy,
and short in proportion to the length of the animal ; the
chest is broad. The withers are not particularly high, and
die away with the back. The shoulders are slanting, the upper
part of the thigh strong and sinewy, the knee broad, the pastern
steep and short : the hoof is steep and small, very firm, and
except for a large frog, has a normal form. Most have a bright
colour. The height is 4 ft. 2| ins., the length 4 ft. 9 ins.
Besides its beautiful bodily form, the Altaian horse is dis-
tinguished for speed and cleverness.
They also have a special race of horned cattle : the cows
give plentiful good milk. The Altai Mountains are a paradise
for cattle-breeding, the numerous streams and short grass
offering good nourishment for horses and. horned cattle ;
there is also good pasture for sheep and goats. There are no
harmful insects, and the pastures are free from snow in winter,
so that the animals can get their own food.
Dwellings. — The Tartars live in yurts, which are like those
of the Kirghiz, but their villages are less exclusive than the
mils of the Kirghiz, more families dwelling together.
Clothing and food. — They wear a sort of shirt with a cape ;
the sleeves of the shirt are long, reaching half-way down the
hand ; the shirt is held together by a girdle, and is made of
S I BERIAN TARTARS 1 59
some blue Russian cloth, or blue or brown Chinese material.
They wear trousers of the same material, wide and reaching
just below the knee. Sometimes the trousers are made of
roe-leather. The shirt hangs free over the trousers, just
below the waist. The footwear consists of shoes without
heels, reaching to the knee, made in summer of dressed sheep-
skin, and in winter of undressed skin with the hair outside.
They wear felt stockings projecting about two inches above the
stock of the shoe, and between the stocking and stock of the
right leg they put their tobacco-pouch and pipe with the
stem projecting. Over their shirt they wear a cloth jacket,
with sleeves reaching to the elbows, and with long pockets
hanging down. Above this they may wear a leather coat in
summer or a skin coat in winter, with a belt holding a pouch,
knife, &c. On their heads the Altaian Tartars wear a three-
cornered hat, the point being behind, with erect rims. It is
made of lamb-skin, and is covered with some yellow material,
with a red oval flap sewn on the top. From the corner behind
hang two red ribbons, one and a half feet long. They eat
mutton, whether the meat of the domestic sheep, or of the
big-horn that frequents the Altai ; they are also fond of the
flesh of horses. Though they own large herds of cattle, they
do not eat them.
Religion. — The Baraba Tartars are Mohammedans. The
Southern Tartars are either Christian or heathen. One of
the outward and visible signs of Christianity is the absence of
a queue on the top of the head ; another is monogamy. They
have many superstitions, and Shamanism is prevalent among
them. Polytheism is common.
Other Tartar Branches
In the above description the Altaians and more especially
their western branch, the Kalmuks, have been dealt with.
A few words will suffice about the other branches. The Teleuts
in the eastern Altai have much the same appearance as the
Kalmuks, but they are more settled, and engage in agriculture.
Their language and poetry is of much the same character.
160 THE NEC-SIBERIAN TRIBES
The Shors live mostly by fishing, and are very poor. In lan-
guage, religion, and costume they have become much assimi-
lated to the Russians. Closely resembling them are the
Lebed Tartars. The Chern Tartars live by hunting, trade, and
cattle-breeding. One profitable product of their land is wild
honey. They also sow barley and wheat. They are extremely
poor.
Kirghiz
In addition to these tribes of the Altai and its northern
foreland, there is the important Turkic stem of the Kirghiz,
with its two great branches, the Kara-Kirghiz and the Kazak.
Kara-Kirghiz
The first-named, whose appellation means ' black ', are
really outside the area described in this book. They are
found in great numbers in the government of Semiryechensk,
especially in the neighbourhood of Lake Issuk-Kul and in
the steppes south of Lake Balkhash. They number in all
about 800,000, of whom 700,000 are in this government.
They are governed by tribal rulers, elected by themselves,
who enjoy unlimited authority and with whom the Russian
administration interferes but little. They carry on a vigorous
trade in live-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs and camels.
Kazak-Kirghiz
Territory. — This great people are found from Lake Balkhash
to the Aral and Caspian Seas and to the lower Volga, and also
in the regions of the upper Irtish and Ob.
Name. — The name by which they are always known among
themselves is Kazak, which means ' rider ' and is the same
word that we know in the form Cossack. But the Russians,
since the word Cossack has come to mean something very
different, call them loosely, but conveniently, Kirghiz.
Racial affinities and language. — They should be carefully
differentiated from the Kara-Kirghiz, though they share so
KIRGHIZ 161
many of their customs and ways of life, for they differ in
physiognomy and language. The Kara-Kirghiz seem to have
come from the Altai, the Kazak-Kirghiz from Asia Minor.
leir language is Turkic in structure, but contains a large
Lber of Mongolian, Arabic, and Persian words.
r umbers. — They are said to number between two and three
ions, and increase steadily as one goes further south.
Hvisions. — They are divided into three Hordes, which are
>divided into races and tribes. The Great Horde lives in
region south-east of Lake Balkhash from Semipalatinsk
;he Ala-tau Range, the Middle Horde occupies the watershed
between the Aralo-Caspian basin and the River Ob, the Little
Horde is mainly between the Aral and Caspian Sea. A fourth
Horde, called the Inner Horde, has been settled since 1801
in the Orenburg district. The higher orders of the Kirghiz
are divided into White Bones (Ak-sijuk) and Black Bones
(Kara-sijuk), according as they are descended from khans
and ' saints ' or other ancestors.
Social institutions. — They choose their own khans, who have
authority in their respective tribes, but little beyond them.
These appointments are confirmed by the Russian Govern-
ment. The real rulers are the elders, who are appointed by
public election. Rigorous punishment is dealt out to the
brigandage and raids which arise from inter-tribal feuds.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — They are allied
ethnically to the Mongolians, and preserve strongly marked
Mongolian features though with admixture of Finnish and
Iranian blood. They are middle-sized, square-built, and
inclined to be stout. They are brachycephalous with small
slanting eyes, which are usually black, high cheekbones
broad, flat nose, small mouth, long black hair, and very little
beard on the face, which is usually of a yellowish-brown hue,
but occasionally fair. Their hands and feet are small. They
are an honest and trustworthy people, but have a sullen and
unfriendly manner, and more so, the nearer that they dwell to
civilization. They are more warlike than the Kara-Kirghiz.
They are a hardy, long-lived people, but suffer from dirt,
162 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
small-pox, ophthalmia and syphilis. They are very fond of
recitation, but have no dances. Their musical instruments
are the kobys, a string instrument, and suvusya (a kind of
shawms).
Occupations. — The Kazaks have vast flocks and herds,
which constitute their main wealth, and they are admirable
horsemen. They are employed in the mines and in fishing.
Dwellings. — They are nomadic and have no settled homes,
though apt to fix their summer tents year after year at the
same spot, when they are driven by drought and insects to
the upper mountain pastures. They live in yurts, which are
circular tents of light wooden framework with coverings of
red cloth or felt, and a hole at the top for light and ventilation.
The whole can be set up or pulled to pieces in a few minutes :
its weight is about 10-12 puds (360-430 pounds), and it makes
a load for two camels. The height is from 8 to 15 ft., the
diameter from 10 to 30 ft. The winter yurts (zimovkas) have
coverings of felt two or three times as great. An invariable
feature of the yurt is the kazan or large iron pot in the centre.
Clothing and food. — The ordinary dress is a chapan, a
flowing robe ; the number worn is determined by the season
of the year and the material by the wealth of the wearer.
This is fastened by a girdle of silk or leather, which contains
his knife, tobacco-pouch, and other inseparable accessories.
Broad silk pantaloons are worn, and black or red leather boots.
There is little difference in the costumes of the two sexes.
A malachai envelopes head and neck and most of the face.
Sometimes three pairs of shoes are worn : first a loose pair of
thin embroidered leather boots (with moccasin soles), then
felt boots (pimi) of solid wool about one inch thick, and then
stout leather boots, all coming well above the knee. Sometimes
there is also worn a stout overcoat reaching to the knee, lined
with curly- wool sheep-skin.
For food they devour horseflesh and vast quantities of
boiled mutton. Instead of bread they eat balamyk, a mass of
flour fried in dripping and diluted in water. . They drink
kumls (fermented mare's milk) in large quantities.
KIRGHIZ 103
Marriage and position of women. — The women are restricted
less than is usual among Mohammedans. It is customary for
a Kirghiz boy first to marry a woman older than himself,
to guide his footsteps in married life ; some ten years later he
reds a younger wife, and his earlier spouse is relegated to the
>osition of dowager.
Religion. — Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazak-Kirghiz are
Sunnite Mohammedans, but their belief is of a lax kind and
largely tinged by Shamanism. They have few mullahs, and
make few pilgrimages to Mecca, though they revere the tombs
of their local ' saints ', which are a prominent feature in the
steppe landscape. They have a month of fasting called
Urazah. The chief prescription of the Koran for which they
show respect is polygamy, but that is restricted by their
limited means.
Yakuts
Territory. — The Yakuts occupy the valley of the Lena for
almost its entire length : in the north they extend from the
Khatanga to the Kolima, in the south from the sources of
the Vilyui to the Sea of Okhotsk.
Name of tribe. — They call themselves Sokha or Sakhor :
there is still in the neighbourhood of Minusinsk a Tartar
tribe called Sekho, who may have retained the name from
a time anterior to the northward migration of the Yakuts.
They owe their name Yakut to their Tungus neighbours who
call them Yako or Yakot. One branch is found between the
Yenisei and Khatanga Rivers in the Government of Yeniseisk,
who are known as Dolgans or Tolgans : they are a fishing,
nomadic folk.
Racial affinities and language. — The Yakuts belong to the
Turkic branch of the Ural-Altaic stock, and their language
presents close resemblances to that of the Turks. There is a
Yakut grammar by Boethlingk (published in 1851).
Numbers. — Including the Dolgans, they are computed at
226,739, of whom 113,330 are males. Their marriages are
fertile, with an average of about ten to a family, but less
L 2
164 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
productive as one goes north. They are increasing in numbers
and absorb a large number of Russian settlers, who learn
their language and adopt their customs.
History and relations with Russians. — They were expelled
from the Baikal region about the thirteenth century by the
Mongol Buryats, and driven northwards. They had to go
far north to escape the depredations of their Tungus neigh-
bours, but they have now proved themselves considerably
their superiors, and their settlements are extending south
again, while the Tungus are giving way before their superior
civilization. The Cossacks found them in 1620, at a time when
they were the prey of internal dissensions.
Social institutions— They are divided into uluses, naslegs,
and aga-usa (clans). Over the ulus, the biggest division,
presides the golovd with an uprava, a kind of police-court ;
several naslegs go to make up the ulus : they are administered
by a district council under a district elder called kujas. The
nasleg consists of from one to thirty clans, the clan sometimes
being composed of a few individuals, sometimes of several
hundreds. The council of elders of the clan, which used to
decide all legal and economic questions, was called ogonyor.
The Russians used to tax the Yakuts in furs ; now they tax
them in coin. A poll-tax of 4 roubles is or was levied on
them, the richer among them paying income tax as well.
The clans were originally very large, when the Yakuts owned
great herds of horses ; now that cattle-rearing predominates,
the herds and the clans have become smaller. A clan by its
own laws is responsible for the crimes committed by its
members ; sometimes one clan makes an alliance with another,
celebrated by joint sacrifice and festival (ysyakh). Marriage-
gifts are also a symbol of reconciliation between clans, and
compensation for damage done in their feuds.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Yakuts differ
from one another in physique more than any other Turkic
or Mongol people. Those that are well-off and can get enough
to eat are from 5 ft. 10 ins. to 6 ft. tall : they are well-pro-
portioned with good chest-measurement, and are robust
YAKUTS 165
and active ; but in the north, owing to severity of climate and
badness of food, we find a very different type : they are below
medium height, with a sickly complexion, and, unlike most
Yakuts, are indolent. Ordinarily they are thick-set, robust,
and muscular. They have black wiry hair, which the men
cut close to the head, except the Shamans who grow it long
and tie it up behind, dark and elongated eyes, broad flat
noses, narrow foreheads, small round heads (the men's faces
are long, the women's oval), little beard. The women are
somewhat ungainly, and do not add to their attractions by
the paint and excessive ornament that they affect, and the
adoption of European costume still further diminishes their
charms. The mode of speech of the Yakuts is slow, discon-
nected and abrupt. They are described as good-tempered,
orderly and hospitable, with more energy than their counten-
ances suggest. They are capable of enduring a long strain,
and are patient under privation ; but they lack independence,
and need stimulus : it is said of them : ' the more you beat
them, the better they work.' They are apt to fall into debt,
mostly to their own fellow-countrymen, for the more enter-
prising among them have earned the reputation of being the
Jews of Siberia. They are fond of noise, song and dance ;
their improvised songs have deadly monotony as they consist
of eternal repetitions of one phrase.
They measure distance in terms of time ; for instance
a kess is the distance done in the time it takes a kettle to boil,
a sufficiently elastic term (see p. 141).
They are passionately fond of cards ; when giving their
horses rest on their journeys, they instantly produce their
cards, and are ready to stake anything. They are great
eaters and drinkers, great smokers of tobacco, and extra-
ordinarily fond of sleep. They are probably the most intelli-
gent of the Siberian native tribes, though the Buryats are
better educated. They carve figures of human beings which
they fashion out of mammoth -tusks : but these are rigid and
lifeless, with only an outward resemblance to what they repre-
sent, and much inferior to those of the Koryaks. Even these
166 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
specimens of their plastic art are rare and merely made for
commercial purposes, to sell to the Russians. They take no
pleasure in them themselves.
Occupations. — Their principal occupations are looking after
horses and cattle : the former has been their industry for
a very long time, the latter has been more recently adopted.
They also hunt and fish, and search for fossil-ivory. Cereals
have been introduced into their country and are becoming
acclimatized. They smelted the iron-ore of the Vilyui valley
long before the Russians came, and they manufacture their own
tools. Yakut steel is very flexible, but very good. They have
only lately begun to breed dogs. They regard the dog as an
unclean animal, and as having no hut (soul) ; they are harsh
to their dogs ; it is a gross offence against good manners to
introduce a dog into a Yakut's house ' because of the evil
spirits that sit on its tail'. Their habit of horse-breeding
led to them setting the yurtas at a considerable distance
from one another, because it was necessary to have plenty
of pasturage for their big herds ; if they had exhausted the
pasturage near home, it would have been necessary to send
the horses a long way, which would have meant risk from
the negligence or dishonesty of the keepers.
Dwellings and furniture. — Their winter-dwellings are yurtas
made of logs : the doors are made of raw hides, the walls
of logs or wicker, caulked with cow-dung and flanked with
banks of earth to the height of the windows. In place of glass
they have in the windows either skins or sheets of ice which
are kept in place by slanting poles, and frozen afresh into
their positions at intervals by pouring water round the edges.
The roofs are flat and covered with earth. The door faces east,
and is protected by projecting boards. Inside the yurta is
divided into two ' apartments ' : one is for the cattle, the
other divided into sections for the family. In the middle is
a round chimney made of wood, but guarded against risk of
fire by a thick covering of clay. In this chimney are placed
cross-beams, from which they hang their kettles and pots.
Their chief cooking utensil is a large iron pot ; this was so
YAKUTS 167
valuable when the Russians invaded their territory that the
price demanded for it was as many sable-skins as would fill
it. In the summer they live in conical tents of birch-bark ;
the poles of which these are made are about 20 ft. long, united
at the top ; these are covered with pieces of flexible birch-
bark, ' handsomely worked along the edge with horsehair
thread.'
Clothing and food. — The Yakuts are capable of standing
extreme cold, and are found going about in very light attire in
winter, while their children sport naked in the snow. Their
costume differs less in the various seasons than that of other
Siberian peoples. Those who live in the Okhotsk region have
partly adopted Russian costume, and partly retained the
native dress — the kukhlyanlca and tarbass. They also wear the
sarafan (a long overcoat without sleeves), but not the orna-
mented cloak (made of fur of special cut) and the beaver cape,
of which their compatriots in the Yakutsk region are so proud.
Their breeches come only down the thigh, and they have long
boots (farri) which come above the knee. Their summer-
dress is the robashka (overshirt) and balachon (blouse) ;
in winter they wear costumes of skins. The women are
adept in making up fur-garments. Their dress only differs
from that of the men by its greater length and ornamentation.
The principal food of the Okhotsk Yakuts is dried fish ; the
inland tribes eat horseflesh with avidity : they prefer it to
beef, and rarely kill oxen for food. One special dish of theirs
is called tar : it is a mixture of meat, fish, various roots,
grass and the under-bark of spruce, fir, or larch, pounded in
a mortar ; this is put into skimmed-milk mixed with water
to which is added a little flour (when available), and the whole
is boiled into a kind of porridge. They gather their bark
harvest in spring, when the sap is rising. Their special intoxi-
cant is kumis (fermented mare's milk) ; they also drink large
bowls of melted butter. Another of their delicacies is jelly
extracted from reindeer-horns and flavoured with pine-bark.
They collect huge quantities of berries and cedar-cones for
food. They are also great consumers of tea.
168 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Marriage and death. — The clans consist of blood relations.
Their marriages are exogamous, but the influence of their
neighbours, the Yukaghir, has led the Arctic Yakuts to
introduce endogamous marriage, and the frequent sexual
relations that take place before marriage are always endo-
gamous. The marriage ceremony contains an exchange of
gifts, the bridegroom brings kalym, the bride anna (dowry).
When the Cossacks came, they found polygamy general,
owing no doubt to the nomadic character of the people, the
Yakut having a wife in every pasture ; but this is not much
practised now, partly because the high price of the kalym is
a deterrent, partly because girls die more frequently than
boys in infancy, as they are not so carefully tended. When
an important man is buried his best horse is killed and eaten,
and the head and hide in one piece are set up as a memorial.
In the case of a woman a cow takes the place of a horse.
Religion and superstition. — The Yakuts have been nominally
Christian since the beginning of the eighteenth century,
when the Tsar declared that they had merited this privilege,
of which many of them remained absolutely unconscious.
They go to church, but have a very hazy idea of their nominal
religion. Their native chief god is Tangra. They have also
many malevolent spirits, who are distinguished by the names
of colours ; cattle and horses are sacred to the spirit whose
colour they bear.
They have many customs and superstitions. No woman
other than the hostess may give anything to eat or drink to
a male stranger before the fire-place, but must walk round
the chimney to present it. It is wrong to wash plates ; such
waste will produce scarcity ; earthern vessels are cleaned by
being burnt ; it is not felt then that anything is wasted
because the food thus consumed is an offering to the fire,
which also receives a small spoonful as an offering of thanks.
Every Yakut has two names, by one of which he is n
called.
BURYATS 169
(iv) Mongolic Tribes
Buryats
Territory. — The Buryats live about the shores of Lake
Baikal in the Provinces of Irkutsk and Transbaikal. The} 7
extend from the frontier to the Lena valley and the north-east
end of Lake Baikal, and from the River Ingoda to the River
Oka. There are 11 tribes of them, 4 west of Baikal, 7 east.
Racial affinities and language. — They are the principal
Mongol tribe in Siberia, and speak a Mongol dialect, distinct
alike from the literary Mongolian language and from the
speech of the Kalmuks, who are closest to them in racial
affinity. This tongue they have preserved in comparative
purity, as knowledge of reading and writing is common
among them, and they have books of their own for which
they employ the Manchu alphabet. There are three distinct
dialects of it.
Divisions. — The north-west group of Buryats are known as
Bargu-Buryats, the south-west group as Mongol-Buryats, and
the eastern group as Aga-Buryats. The first two groups claim
their descent from two different ancestors, Bukha Noyna
and Bargubata. The Buryats round Novi-Selenginsk claim
as their ancestor Jenghiz Khan. He it was who forced this
people northwards in the thirteenth century, when they
arrived on the upper Amur.
Numbers. — The population of the Buryats is increasing.
The most recent estimate is 288,599, of whom 175,717 are
males. About three-fifths of these live in Transbaikal and
two-fifths in Irkutsk.
Relations with Russians. — The Russians conquered them
in the seventeenth century after a vigorous resistance, but
since then they have been among the most peaceful and trust-
worthy of the inhabitants of Siberia. They join the Cossack
regiments of the Transbaikal, and even in 1761 there was
a regiment of Selenginsk Buryats. They do not chafe at
having to perform military service, which probably is not
an unwelcome interlude in the life of the yurta.
170 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Social institutions. — The Russians have developed their
native clan-system, grouping several of their yagans (clans)
into administrative clans. The head of the clan is called
shelenga (elder). The group of clans is called vyedomstva and
is presided over by a taisha. One feature of the collective
life of the clan is the co-operative hunt, which sometimes
lasts for months. Over it presides the tubuchi, whose office
is often hereditary. Another collective act of a clan is its
tailgan, a public sacrifice offered on behalf of the clan.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Buryats are
broad-shouldered, inclined to be stout. They have big heads,
square faces, small slanting eyes, high cheekbones far apart,
broad and flat noses, low foreheads, thick lips, swarthy and
yellowish complexion, jet-black hair and scanty beards. The
hair is cropped very close except on the crown of the head
where it is made to grow in a long queue that hangs down
at the back. In temperament the Buryats are phlegmatic
and patient ; they lack enterprise, but have a certain amount
of energy as shown in their hard work as agriculturists : it
seems scarcely fair to say of them that they are only made
to work by the stimulus of hunger. They are fond of drink
and tobacco, and even small children smoke. They are an
intellectual people, and under the influence of Lamaism have
books of their own.
Occupations. — Their principal occupations are rearing cattle
and horses, and they show great attachment towards their
horses. They also hunt and fish, and under Russian influence
cultivate to some extent rye and wheat. When they have
taken to agriculture, they have proved better farmers than
the Russians, being indefatigable in manuring and irrigation.
They are specially adept at silversmith work, which is known
throughout Siberia as bratski work, bratski ( = brothers)
being a name of the Russians for the Buryats. They are
also successful as leather workers and in the manufacture of
textile fabrics.
Dwellings. — Their yurtas are not in rows, but scattered ,
and they are surrounded by large enclosures ; at a distance
BURYATS 171
from the groups of their dwellings are the large enclosures
(ugugi) where the cattle graze during winter and where huge
crops of hay are obtained during the summer. They are so
much attached to the life of the yurta that when they live in
Souses they make a hole in the roof and have a fire in the
itre of the floor.
Clothing, food. — In summer they dress in silk and cotton,
t in winter in fur and sheepskins. A wealthy bride's
dowry will sometimes consist of as many as 40 cases of the
richest furs. Their staple food is boiled mutton. They
drink a great deal of brick-tea and blend with it rye-meal,
mutton-fat, and salt. In the north they use wood as fuel, in
the south camel's dung (' argols ').
Marriage and death. — Marriages are arranged . among the
Buryats by two families exchanging daughters ; if there are
only sons a kalym has to be paid, which consists of so many
cattle. The bride receives a dowry, which counterbalances
the kalym.
They used to burn their dead, but the practice is now
forbidden by the Russian Government. The bodies of
shamans are still sometimes burnt before being placed in the
trunks of trees ; if not, they are exposed on an aranga (plat-
form). At the burial of a Buryat a horse (kholgo) is sacrificed.
In former times the old people were got rid of by compelling
them to swallow strips of fat.
Religion. — The nominal religion of the western Buryats is
Christianity ; of the eastern Buryats Lamaism, the northern
form of the Buddhist religion. The Lamas (who constitute
a large part of the population towards the Chinese border)
are greatly reverenced ; they lead ascetic lives, are forbidden
the use of spirits and tobacco, do not take animal-life, and
are celibates ; they engage in industry "outside their religious
avocations. The chief of their religious houses is the datsan
by Lake Gusinoe, where the Chambo Lama presides. A well-
known feature of their religious system is the prayer wheel.
The native religion is polytheistic ; each class of gods seems
to have a departmental head, but there is no Supreme Being.
172 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Buryats who have married Russian wives often adopt Chris-
tianity. But Shamanism will die hard ; if it has annexed the
symbol of the Cross for its rites, it shows scanty signs of
falling otherwise under its influence.
(v) Tungusic Tribes
Tungus
Territory and racial affinity. — The name of Tungus is applied
not to one tribe, but to a whole group of tribes that extend
from the Yenisei valley to the Pacific Ocean, broken up into
widely-scattered groups, and, by intermarriage with their
neighbours in different parts, developing very different
characteristics. It is extraordinarily difficult to ascertain
whether the account given by travellers refers to one particular
tribe or to some widespread characteristic of the group.
Thus one traveller, finding Tungus to the north and east of
Yakutsk, describes them as ' perhaps the wildest, as they are
the filthiest, of any Siberian tribe. They are comparatively
few (at most some 4,000) and are yearly diminishing in number.
They profess no religion, are nomads, and gain a living by
fishing and selling furs to Russian traders, who by the aid of
vodka and debauchery are slowly but surely decimating
them '. He does not add a word to give any indication that
there are other Tungus tribes to whom this account would be
utterly inapplicable, as, for instance, the Goldi with their
elaborate art. It is necessary, therefore, to be very cautious
in accepting statements about the Tungus as a whole.
The Tungus are a branch of the Ural-Altaic group, and
include some tribes like the Manchu and the Solons who
hardly come into Russian dominions at all. They stretch
from the Taimir Peninsula along the Yenisei valley, across
the Vitim plateau tb the sea-coast almost from Korea to
Kamchatka. The Amur and Ussuri are Tungus streams.
Along the Arctic Ocean not only are they found in the Nisovaya
tundra, but also between the Yana and Kolima Rivers, and
certain Tungus tribes, the Lamuts and Olennye, continue
along the Anyuisk and Stanovoi Mountains into the Chukchee
TUNGUS 173
Peninsula. The Tungus proper are chiefly in the neighbour-
hood of the Tunguska rivers, and between the Lower and
Middle Tunguska is found one special branch of them,
the Chapogir. Some of the tribes along the Amur are hybrid
tribes, which are only half -Tungus, but have retained a form
of Tungus speech ; others have had their characteristics
profoundly modified by neighbourhood and intermarriage
| with southern peoples.
Name of tribe. — Their diffusion over north-east Russia is
probably responsible for the similarity of so many implements
and customs, as they have been adopted by their neighbours.
Nansen attributes to the influence of the Tungus the practical
identity of type of certain things (e. g. dog-sledges) in various
parts of this vast region. Their name seems to be Chinese :
Tunghu = the people. The Samoyedes call them Aias ( =
younger brothers), which implies a late immigration.
History. — Their oldest home was Manchuria. Political
upheavals in China and the conquering hordes of Jenghiz
Khan drove them northwards, where earlier branches of their
people (the Sucheni of history) had already gone. The Russians
found them on the Yenisei at the beginning of the seventeenth
century — the first mention of their name is in 1612 — and in
the following century they had severe struggles with their
strong neighbours the Yakuts.
Divisions. — The eighteenth-century explorers divided them
into Horse-Tungus, Reindeer-Tungus, Dog-Tungus — to which
some have added the names of Cattle-Tungus, Taiga-Tungus,
and Steppe-Tungus, the last being another name for Horse-
Tungus. For purposes of Russian administration the Tungus
proper have been divided into Sedentary, Nomadic, and
Wandering Tungus. The former are only 1 per cent, of the
whole number ; they are found chiefly in Transbaikal, have
intermarried with Russian settlers, and have forgotten their
language. The Nomadic Tungus are cattle-breeders,who change
their abode according to the season of the year, each clan having
its own special region reserved for it. These constitute about
50 per cent, of the Tungus population and are found in the
174 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Transbaikal and Yakutsk Provinces. The Wandering Tungus
frequent the rivers, except in Transbaikal, and wander at
large without a special region being assigned them . They pay
little in taxation ; they have preserved their nationality
and language best. These are about 45 per cent, of the
Tungus. Besides these three divisions there are about 4 per
cent, who, like the Buryats, have joined the Cossack regi-
ments. These are entirely exempt from taxation. The 3rd
regiment of Transbaikal Cossacks is entirely composed of
Siberian natives.
There are two great divisions of the Tungus breed. The first
is the North or Siberian : to this may be assigned the Tungus
proper and the Chapogir, Lamuts, and Olennye of northern
Siberia, and further south two groups divided on a linguistic
basis, to one of which belong the Orochon, Manegir, Birar,
Kile, to the other the Olcha, Oroke, Negda, Samagir. The
second is the South or Manchurian : to this are assigned two
groups, on a linguistic basis, the first, with strong Mongolian
influence, the Daurians and Solons, the second the Oroche,
Manchu and Goldi. The physical and linguistic differences
do not exactly correspond : thus the Olcha are scarcely
distinguishable from the Gilyaks, who speak a totally different
kind of language, while the Samagir, who belong to the same
linguistic group, closely resemble the Goldi. Again, in another
linguistic group we find that the Manegir and Birar resemble
physically the Manchu, the Orochon the northern Tungus.
Numbers. — The population of the Tungus is, altogether,
76,507 ; of the Tungus proper, 62,068, of whom 31,375 are
males. The numbers are diminishing, owing to epidemics
and famines.
Physical appearance and characteristics. — Broadly speaking,
there are two types of Tungus, which can be called North
and South. The North Tungus are differentiated by their
extremely short stature ; they are said not to average more
than 5 ft. 4 ins. They have moderately big heads with longish
faces, broad at the cheeks, but narrowing to the forehead;
the nose is flat and broad ; the hands and feet are small. The
TUNGUS 175
South Tungus are taller ; the hands and feet are distinguished
by their comparative size from those of their neighbours,
though a European would not like to try wearing their boots.
Their heads are moderately small, with a broad square brow
and an almost straight and not particularly thick nose ; the
Iheek-bones are more prominent than those of the North
?ungus and the cheeks are hollow ; a certain amount of red
hows through their olive complexion. Both breeds have
•lack hair ; the beard is thin and short : the eyes are dark-
>rown and sunk. The mouth is wide, the lips thin. The
Tungus have no tendency to obesity, but their figures are
usually slim, wiry, and well-proportioned. The Tungus are
a frank, good-natured, and hospitable people : they have been
called by Castren the ' nobility of Siberia ' . They are said
to be very honest, and fall an easy prey to the Yakut, who
trade with them. A Tungus will not receive a present unless
he can give one in return, often of greater value. Keane
describes them as ' cheerful under the most depressing cir-
cumstances, persevering, open-hearted, trustworthy, modest
yet self-reliant, a fearless race of hunters, born amidst the
gloom of their dense pine-forests, exposed from their cradle
to every danger from wild beasts, cold, and hunger. Want
and hardships of every kind they endure with surprising
fortitude.' Despite the fact that some of them enter military
service, they do not amalgamate with the Russians, who
have not become assimilated to them, as they have to some
extent to the Yakuts and Buryats.
Social institutions. — The organization of their family and
clan system is fairly strong : it has been retained most among
the nomadic tribes ; but Christianity and western civilization
have had a disintegrating effect. The individual has little
existence apart from his family : it is as families that they go
in quest of new hunting-grounds, whereas an individual never
leaves his family. A group consisting of less than 100 is called
a clan (tagaun) ; above that number it is an orda. The
members of a clan may not marry each other. The clan used
to be governed by a daruga whose office was hereditary ; but
176 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
in the eighteenth century the Russians appointed native
administrators, whose office was mainly to collect taxes. The
clan-names are usually those of ancestors, but are sometimes
derived from geographical features ; the Russians also give
names to groups formed by themselves arbitrarily out of
disintegrated clans.
Occupations. — They are not given to agriculture, but most
of them are reindeer people, and the names of some of the
tribes like Oroche (Oron = reindeer) suggests that others once
were. They hunt fur-bearing animals, the most valuable
of which are the black fox, which is rare (his skin is valued up
to £100), and the sable — a good sable -skin fetches from
50s. to £10. One method of securing the sable, if he takes
refuge in a hole, is to cut off his retreat with fine threads
covered with bells, so that if he makes a dash out by night
his movements may become known. The Tungus use the
reindeer not only for drawing sledges but for riding ; they
use a bridle twisted round the horns, and support themselves
by staffs. When they are reduced to poverty by the loss
of their reindeer they live on fish. In summer the nomadic
Tungus come to the coast to fish. In March, or at some
appointed time, the Tungus assemble in their nomad camps
to pay the yassak. Yurta and herd alike are left in the charge
of the wife during the hunting season. The woman has to do all
the work of the house : she has to prepare the skin for the boots,
sew the clothes, skin the reindeer, and make the meals ready.
Dwellings.— They have no towns, villages, or houses as a
rule, but only tents, of which there are seldom more than
2 or 3 together. In summer the yurta is made of birch-bark,
in winter of skins or, more rarely, logs. It is constructed with
perpendicular sides, and a conical roof with a vent-hole for
the smoke. It is divided into sections, the best of which is
taken by the owner of the tent ; the others are for the grown-
up children, and sometimes the labourers ; but these usually
have separate tents. One yurta will contain six or eight of
these divisions. The quite poor construct their yurtas of
fish-skin and not reindeer-skins.
TUNGUS 177
Clothing, food. — Of so widely scattered a people, who dwell
some of them near the Pole and others on the Chinese borders,
it is impossible to describe the costume in general terms.
One common costume described consists of a parka (blouse),
dacha (sleeveless cloak), pantaloons worn by men and women,
and cap and boots of reindeer skin. Their main food is the
meat and milk of reindeer, dried fish, and a sort of cheese.
They do not care for a vegetarian diet. Krahmer attributes
to them the dish tolfcusha, which has been described among
the Kamchadals.
Marriage and death. — The son grows up in his father's
house ; he has no property of his own ; the father takes
even the furs that his son's skill in hunting has secured. When
he is married he has his own section of the tent. The Tungus
girl is free in her choice of a husband, and gets her own share
of the inheritance, though less than that of her brother.
Marriage is exogamous, but in the north, as with the Yakuts,
we find tribes that are endogamous ; so, too, there is polygamy
in Yeniseisk, but few Tungus are rich enough to afford the
kalym for more than one wife. The Tungus never burn their
dead. The corpse is usually sewn up in reindeer-skin, and
then sometimes put in a wooden coffin set on high posts.
Among the pastoral people round Lake Baikal it is interred
in the ground. On returning from the funeral these latter
try to obliterate their tracks, or cut down trees to bar the way,
in order that the spirit of the dead man may not pursue them.
Other customs. — The Tungus dance is peculiar ; they stamp
on the ground while they repeat again and again one particular
word. They have few musical instruments. The influence
of China on the southern Tungus has led to the development
of beautiful forms of art.
Religion. — In the south a good number of the Tungus are
Buddhists, but in the north Shamanism prevails. The
acceptance of Christianity has led rather to a disintegration
of clan customs than an improvement of faith and morals.
The Tungus is generally credited with being very superstitious.
M
178 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
A. — Chapogir, Olennye, Lamut
Of Tungus tribes there are found in the north, the Chapogir
between the Lower and Middle Tunguska, who may be a clan
rather than a tribe, the Olennye between the Chaun and
the Anadir, to the north of the Stanovoi Mountains, and
the Lamuts who dwell in the Verkhoyansk and Kolima
districts of Yakutsk, along the north shore of the Sea of
Okhotsk and along the west coast of Kamchatka. They are
about 2,000 in number, but are dying out. They are small
and wizened, a nomadic people, who ride reindeer and drive
them in sledges. They are excellent shots, and some few of
them are given to fishing. They live in big conical tents,
covered in winter with undressed reindeer-skin, in summer
with tanned sheep-skin; these tents are easily struck, and
they move rapidly. They retain their primitive simplicity
and are very religious. Their Christianity, however, is tinged
with Shamanism. Few among them can speak the Russian
language.
B. — Orochon
In the Amur basin are a large number of tribes, who are
wholly or partially Tungus. The most widely spread of these
is the westernmost of them, the Orochon (or Oronchon or
Orocheni). Their name implies that they are a reindeer
people : we may compare Oroke, Oroche, and probably
Olcha, with I substituted for r, though of these three only the
Oroke still have reindeer. They dwell in the district north
and east of Baikal as far as the Shilka, and along the Shilka
and Amur to the confluence with the Oldoi, and northwards
along the Olekma valley almost to Olekminsk. They resided
originally in Yakutsk and emigrated to the Amur in 1825,
occupying part of the territory of the Manegir. Those that
live to the north of the Amur are called Ninagui, those that
live to the south are called Sholgon. Ravenstein describes
them thus : They are small and spare, with thin limbs.
They have flat faces, very small and sleepy-looking eyes, of
black or brown colour, noses often large and pointed, large
OROCHON 179
mouths with thin lips, broad cheeks. Their hair is black
and smooth ; their eyebrows are thin, and their beard is
short. The Chinese tax-collectors, to whom their women
were freely offered, have left their stamp on the physiognomy
of many of the inhabitants. Their ordinary costume is a fur
or leather frock (gulama) with short and wide leather drawers
girt round the waist, and a belt, attached to which are a great
number of things in daily use. The dress of the women is
much the same, only longer. Unmarried girls can be recog-
nized by their headbands embroidered with beads and adorned
with buttons, copper coins, and small pieces of tin.
They are a nomadic tribe. Their tents are conical, easily
built and removed. They have some twenty poles stuck in
the ground to form a circle of from 10-14 ft. in diameter,
tied together about 10 ft. above the centre. The frame is
covered with birch-bark, and that again with skins of the
reindeer and elk. In front there is an opening to serve as
a door, and above a hole for a chimney. When they remove
temporarily they leave the frame and merely remove the
bark and skins. The seat of honour opposite the entrance
is never occupied by women. In front are scaffoldings for
drying fish and meat, and storehouses for keeping what they
do not carry away on their excursions ; these are never
locked, but no one thinks of robbing them.
In catching fish they use harpoons for large fish and a snare
(samolov) for small fish.
The Orochon are nominally Christian, but keep up a good
deal of the old Shamanism. They wear teeth and claws of
animals as amulets, and erect idols made of wood and fur in
their yurtas.
C. — Manegir
What is said of the Orochon is mostly applicable to their
eastern neighbours, the Manegir (Manyargs, Manegr), who
live along both banks of the Amur from the mouth of the
Oldoi to the mouth of the Zeya, and up that river and its
tributaries to about lat. 54° N. Their languages are closely
akin, both accenting on the last syllable, while their more
M 2
180 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
northerly Tungus neighbours accent on the penultimate, but
in their physical characteristics the Manchu type is more
discernible, while the Orochon more resemble the northern
Tungus. The great difference between them is that, whereas
both tribes are nomadic, the Orochon employ reindeer, the
Manegir horses. In religion they are definitely Shamanist.
They dwell on the river-banks in summer and frequent the
taiga in winter. They have large herds of horses. They are
said to keep their horses in condition by not feeding them
for a day before a long journey, and for five or six days after
returning.
D. — Birar
Further down the Amur, after, a short interval, where
a corner on the left bank is occupied by the Daurians, come
the tribe of the Birar (called by Middendorff Bural or Byral
Tungus). These dwell in the valley of the Bureya and its
confluents as far as the prairie extends, i. e. up to about
lat. 53° N. Down the Amur they are found to the mouth
of the River Dichun. They are closely akin to the Manegir,
whom they resemble in physiognomy and language, both
borrowing words from the Chinese, Manchu, and Daurians.
Like the Manegir, they are Horse-Tungus.
E.— Kile
East of these again, on the valleys of the Urmi and Kur,
but not reaching to the Amur, are the Kile. Information
about them is extremely scanty, but they seem to have been
formerly a tribe of reindeer-nomads, who have settled on
the River Kur and taken to fishing and hunting. Possibly
the tribesman whom Middendorff calls Guragr was one of
these, i.e. Kur-dweller.
F. — Negda, Sanagir, Olcha, Oroke
These tribes form a second group of Amur-Tungus, con-
nected together by their language. The Negda (Nigidals or
Neidalz (Russ.)) follow the course of the Amgun to its con-
NEGDA, SANAGIR, OLCHA, OROKE 181
fluence with the Amur. They only occupy a few points
beyond the Amgun. They seem to be a blend of Tungus and
Gilyaks.
The Sanagir (Shanogir) are mostly along the upper and
middle course of the River Gorin, but the mouth, like that of
the Kur, is occupied by the Goldi, whom physically they
closely resemble. They have not always been distinguished
from the Negda.
The Olcha (Manguns) occupy the lower waters of the Amur
from the mouth of the Gorin to Bogorodskoe and to the sea
at de Castries Bay. Physically they present a Tungus type,
but with great modifications ; they are said by Schrenk to
be a cross between the Tungus and the Gilyak, and Gilyak
influence is discernible in their language ; others have held
them to be more definitely of Mongol origin. They are less
energetic than the Gilyak, and have not to the same extent
kept out the Russian traders, who have had a demoralizing
influence upon them. They keep dogs in large numbers, and
have a special table in their houses reserved for feeding them,
The Oroke are the last tribe in this group. They occupy
settlements along the east coast and in the interior of Sakhalin.
They number 749, of whom 395 are males. As early as 1709
there are allusions to reindeer-holding inhabitants of Sakhalin.
Mamia Rinzo calls them Orotskoe. Klaproth thinks that the
Manchus gave the name of Oron to all the Tungus people.
Their character is said to be rough and unbridled. They
have no permanent habitation, but dwell in yurtas easily
removed. They own reindeer, as their name implies ; a man
is supposed to be well off who owns twelve. They do not
shave their heads, but allow the hair to fall over the shoulders,
or tie it up in a pigtail which hangs down behind. The clothes
are made of fish-skin, seal-skin, and deer-skin, the latter being
specially used for the trousers. The women's gowns are
ornamented with brass decorations, and they have linen
aprons, the material being procured by trading journeys to the
Amur. For hunting they use bows and arrows and spears.
Their food consists of fish, meat, roots, and herbs.
182 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
G. — Daurians
Of the south or Manchurian group the Daurians come up
to the Amur below Blagovyeshchensk and occupy the right
bank from that town down to Kadagan. Physically they
are hard to distinguish from the Manchu ; they have oval
and intellectual faces ; their cheeks are less broad than those
of their other Tungus neighbours ; the nose is rather pro-
minent, the eyebrows are straight, the skin tawny-coloured,
and the hair brown. There is a theory that they are the
remains of a Chinese -Mongol military colony; but although
their language contains many Chinese words, it is notable
that among the names of animals those that are Chinese arc
the names of marketable animals, the others being Tungus.
They are a tall, strong people. They have assimilated
Chinese customs to a great extent. The upper classes shave
their heads in front and grow pigtails behind ; the lower
classes do not shave their heads, and twist their pigtails
round their hair. The men wear long blue coats of cotton,
loose linen trousers fastened at the knee or made into leggings,
Chinese shoes or boots made of skin. They have a kaftan
of fish-skin or other skin, and a belt to which is attached
a case that contains their most requisite accessories (knife,
chopsticks, tinder, small copper pipe, and tobacco). The
women dress in blue cotton gowns with short loose sleeves,
above which they wear a cape or mantle of silk reaching
to the waist ; they carry their youngest children on their
backs. They are primarily a people of huntsmen, but fish
also : during the winter they secure fish on the Amur by
' malleting ' : the fish are visible through the ice and are
stunned by a blow at the top ; a hole is then made in the ice
and they are secured. Their houses are set in square yards
with a fence of stakes or wicker-work about them ; they have
a framework of wood covered with mud, the roof is covered
with sedge or grass. Usually the interior is not divided ;
when it is, the entrance-room, where the children and domestic
animals are congregated, is used as the kitchen. During the
summer they have windows made of paper soaked in oil,
DAURIANS 183
during the winter they cover their windows with matting.
Outside many of the houses are shrines containing idols with
basins of incense set before them ; another religious decora-
tion is the long pole with votive skulls adorning it.
H. — Solons
The Solons (shooters) are a tribe which are important in
north Manchuria, but a mere handful of them live across
the Amur. They are nomadic, and even their women hunt
on horseback ; they have horses, dogs (used for hunting),
sheep, oxen, and camels. Both they and the Daurians have
large Mongol and even Chinese admixture.
I. — Manchu
The Manchu are the aristocracy of these tribes ; they have
a proud history and have given a dynasty to China. Their
real home is up the valley of the Kirin, a tributary of the
Sungari. They have more marked features than any of
their neighbours, thicker, more arched noses, less thin lips,
bigger mouths, taller stature. They are found in the neigh-
bourhood of Blagovyeshchensk, but there are very few
beyond the Amur (the number of the whole tribe is 3,340).
They are fishermen, and have boats either made of the trunk
of a hollowed tree, or flat-bottomed made of planks.
J. — Oroche
The Oroche live along the coast of the Ussuri region from
de Castries Bay to about lat. 44° N. Their speech resembles
that of the Goldi, but we have little information about it ;
the resemblances are more in vocabulary than in pronuncia-
tion. They have had their physical type modified by inter-
course with the Gilyaks in the north and with the Chinese
in the south : the latter have had a demoralizing effect upon
them ; they have settled among them, sometimes for agricul-
ture on a small scale, sometimes for fishing, gold- washing,
and so on. The South Oroche (Tazi) have been especially
184 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
affected by this intercourse. The Oroche are said to have
a repulsive physiognomy. They are very short ; their heads
are proportionately big, their extremities small ; their
complexion is less dark than that of the Ainu and the hair
less thick, the beard being almost nil. Their hair is black
or brown, their eyebrows are strongly marked ; their faces
are flat and almost square ; the forehead is low, round and
somewhat receding, the cheekbones prominent, the eyes small
and slanting, the nose small and snub, the mouth big, the
lips thin. The population is 2,407, of whom 1,329 are males.
Despite their name signifying ' reindeer-keepers ' they are
now a fisher-folk.
K. — Goldi
Territory, divisions. — The Goldi live along the Amur and
its tributaries the Ussuri and the Sungari. There are three
divisions of them, differentiated more by the dialect that
they use than by any other peculiarity: (1) from the mouth
of the Gorin where they are conterminous with the Olcha to
the Gion Mountain, (2) from the Gion Mountain to the mouth
of the Ussuri and up that river ; (3) from the mouth of the
Ussuri up the Amur and Sungari. This last group is called
Kilens : the name Khodz is given to those Goldi who live
below Khabarovsk.
Intercourse with Chinese. Physical appearance. — The Goldi
have acted as transmitters of culture : they have absorbed
much that China had to teach them and have in turn greatly
affected the tribes beyond them, especially the Gilyak, who
owe to them many features in their art, customs, and ideas.
Their physical type has been modified by this intercourse
also, and some of them present certain differences in appear-
ance from the northern Tungus. The face is round or oval
with the well-known ' Mongol ' characteristics : broad cheek-
bones, oblique small eyes, broad, thin, low nose. But the
other type is found not less frequently : there is a certain
breadth in the cheeks, the eyes are less oblique, the nose is
higher and more arched, the lips are thicker. Both types
have black hair and eyes (occasionally grey), and have bony
GOLDI 185
and muscular frames. Their beard and moustache are poor.
They have one form of tattoo which is used by both sexes,
viz. four spots on the forehead arranged as a cross. In
character they have been described as timid, good-natured,
and honest.
Numbers. — They number 5,016, of whom 2,640 are males.
Occupations, dwellings, clothing. — It is difficult to describe
with great accuracy their ideas and way of life, because the
travellers to whom most of our detailed information is due
have not been careful to distinguish them from their neigh-
bours. Their chief employment is fishing, for which purpose
they use small birch-bark canoes for one man, and also
larger boats of three principal planks, mostly of cedar-wood,
fastened by wooden pegs and caulked with willow-bark,
of about the length of 15 ft., adapted for crossing shallows
and capable of carrying sails. They are expert oarsmen and
are serviceable to the Russians in that capacity. They
employ dogs to tow their boats upstream. They have an
ingenious method of recovering the harpoon after they have
thrown it ; there is a fish -bladder attached by a line 35 ft.
long and that, as it floats, indicates where it is. One method
of securing fish when they descend the Amur is to fix firmly
to the bed of the stream a row of tressels connected by cross-
beams, and the interstices filled by wickerwork of willows :
in a gap in the latter the Goldi put their fishing-nets and
secure large catches. When they have dried their fish they
sometimes protect them against the assault of birds by
chaining an eagle in the vicinity. They do a certain amount
of hunting, but have settled habitations, and are not nomads,
though they may be absent from home for a long period.
They are also good smiths and make beautiful ornamental
spear-heads. Agriculture is confined to the cultivation of
small plots of land in which they grow vegetables and tobacco
surrounding their dwellings. These latter are on the lines
of Chinese houses ; they are built of poles with beaten clay
between, or a mixture of clay and straw. The floor is covered
with clay, and has a hole with charcoal in it, kept burning
186 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES
Rummer and winter, for the purpose of lighting pipes. These
houses are about 30 or 40 ft. square, and will accommodate
sometimes 30 or 40 people. Their costume varies, and they
are most receptive of alien fashions. The same man will
wear at different times a Russian overcoat, a Chinese dress
or a fish-skin suit. The women are highly skilful in needle-
work and embroidery, and tastefully adorn their skirts and
bodices.
Customs. — In a population where men are in a majority
there is naturally no polygamy. They are Shamanists in
religion, and bury their shamans and other great ones in huts ;
the bodies of the poor are bestowed in coffins placed in trees
out of the reach of wild beasts. Their favourite amusement
is wrestling, and the singing of improvised songs.
CHAPTER VI
COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
Elements of Immigrant Population — Distribution and Number of Colonists
— The Present System of Colonization — The Exile System — Colonization of
the various Provinces — Distribution of Russian Population — The Yellow
Question and Colonization — Encouragement of Colonization in Arctic
Russia.
Elements of Immigrant Population
Early Colonization : Cossacks
The colonization of Siberia has been a long process, at
first gradual, and recently very rapid, that has extended over
more than three hundred years. The conquests of Yermak
in the reign of Ivan the Terrible were soon followed by the
arrival of the first colonists. It was in 1593 that the first
settlers arrived : they came from the town of Uglich, and
had been too zealous in making known the plot against the
Tsarevich Dmitri. But the earliest settlers were not as a rule
exiles, but either traders attracted by the fur trade, or
Cossacks whose settlements were extended across the continent
to protect the new settlers. In 1637, Yakutsk was founded,
and about the middle of the century Khabarov occupied the
banks of the Amur (see Chap. XVIII). In the eighteenth
centurj^ when the borders of Asiatic Russia had become res-
tricted, Transbaikal was largely occupied by Cossacks from the
Don, and their descendants have constituted a hereditary
military caste and have formed the nucleus of future military
colonies in the Far East. The Cossacks have had special
privileges as settlers : in central Siberia they are granted
60 acres of land per man. But it is difficult for them to combine
their functions of settlers and soldiers, and the individual
Cossack is usually so much a worse colonist as he has discharged
188 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
his military duties effectively. (For the origin of the Cossacks
see p. 357.)
In the eighteenth century a line of forts was constructed
along the River Irtish, from Omsk in a south-easterly direction
as a protection against the wild tribes of the Kirghiz steppes :
the military occupation of this district preceded the advent of
civilian settlers, which was not really developed till near the
end of the nineteenth century.
Exiles
But another and very different source of immigrants soon
began to be drawn upon. The first recorded mention of
exile to Siberia in any Russian legislation is in a law of the
Tsar Alexis Mikhailovich in 1648. Exile was largely used
at first as a means of getting rid of disabled criminals, men on
whom some savage sentence of mutilation had been carried
out, and, as was natural to expect, such men were useless as
colonists. Then at the close of the seventeenth century it
was regarded as desirable to send exiles to populate new terri-
tory : an extensive criminal code supplied large contingents
when exile was the recognized penalty for such different
offences as fortune-telling, snuff-taking, driving with rein?
and setting fire to property accidentally. The discovery of
mineral wealth added a fresh incentive : rich mines were
found at Yekaterinburg, and this together with the establish-
ment of manufactories in Irkutsk led to a large demand
for labour, which was met by extensions of the punishment
of exile to fresh crimes. In the year 1753 capital punishment
was abolished in Russia, and its place was taken by perpetual
banishment to Siberia with hard labour.
The exiles dispatched to Siberia fell under three designa-
tions : they were either criminal, political, or religious. In
1900 exile to Siberia was abolished, though in 1904 it was
restored for political offences and the number of political exiles
was greatly swelled by the revolutionary outbreaks of the
period of ' Vladimir's day '. In 1906 45,000 political exiles
entered Siberia. For a long time the exiles (kolodniks) were
ELEMENTS OF IMMIGRANT POPULATION 189
driven in herds from one village to another without any proper
arrangements being made for them, and they were often starved
on the way. At the beginning of the nineteenth century
more satisfactory arrangements were made : in 1811 a suitable
force of regular guards was organized to convoy parties of
exiles, and all exiles were furnished with identifying documents
(stateini spiski) to show who they were and whither they
(were bound. In 1817 etapes (ostrogs) were established along
the main roads ; they stand now easily identified in the villages
in western Siberia, often, it is said, the most cheerful -looking
building in the community. In eastern Siberia they are
usually outside. In 1823 a bureau of exile-administration
was established in Tobolsk, which has since been removed
to Tyumen, and through that has passed the endless procession
of exiles, political and criminal. No record of them was kept
until 1823 : since that date to 1898 there have passed by
700,000 exiles ; and with them 216,000 voluntary followers
(dobrovolni) . The criminal prisoners fall under two heads :
(1) Jcatorgeni rabotniki (criminal convicts), who are sentenced
to hard labour ; (2) poselentsi, who are condemned to shorter
periods of imprisonment. During this same period 187,000
criminal exiles with 107,000 companions have entered Siberia.
Since 1870 the government has done its best to keep apart
the criminal from the peaceful colonists. From that date the
convicts were confined more and more to the Lena territory
and parts of the Far East, while until recently the northern
part of the island of Sakhalin retained by Russia has been
almost exclusively a penal colony. The political exiles have
been mainly in west and central Siberia. A great terror to
life has been added by the escaped convicts (brodyagi) in
various parts of Siberia. Escape is easy; one writer in
1902 says that one-third of the transported escape all control
and wander, rob, and terrorize. On the other hand the political
exile who settles in the country often adds the most enlightened
element of the populace to the community : such men settle
in the towns ; they open shops and enter into the social life,
being readily trusted and hospitably treated by. the inhabi-
190 COLONIZATION OF .SIBERIA
tants, and they found a progressive public opinion. They
have been among the best sections of the community, and have
added much to the development of the country : some of them
have been among the most enterprising of its explorers : e. g.
Bogoras, whose work on the inhabitants of the Chukchee
Peninsula is the most important contribution to our knowledge
of that district. Some political exiles have become the trusted
agents of the government in the districts to which they have
been sent.
The exiles who were sent for religious reasons need a special
word. The great occasion for their banishment arose from the
opposition to the reforms of Nikon in ecclesiastical matters,
and afterwards to those of Peter the Great in social and
political affairs. Nikon in the middle of the seventeenth
century had tried to make the ritual of the Russian Church
conform more exactly in certain small matters with that of
other branches of the Eastern Church, removing certain
errors from the liturgical books. To a conservative opposition
this was apostasy, and when Peter came, Nikon was Antichrist.
So there arose great numbers of dissenters {raskolniki) :
their first great division was into Popovists or supporters of
the priesthood, and Bezpopovists who felt that the priesthood
was hopelessly vicious, as the Church had become apostate.
Both parties believed in Apostolic Succession, and the Popo-
vists had carried with them in their secession a bishop through
whom the succession from the apostles might be transmitted ;
but he died before he could consecrate a successor. There
was even some talk of cutting off his hands that their ' laying
on ' might convey the gifts of the Spirit, but, as the words
of consecration could not be said, the idea was abandoned.
They had therefore to depend upon runaway priests. The
Bezpopovists resorted to other and more direct methods
of a continuance of spiritual grace : e. g. they would stand
looking upwards with their mouths wide open, that spiritual
blessings might reach them from heaven by that means.
These raskolniki are ascetic, industrious, and abstemious,
abstaining entirely from alcohol and tobacco. They are the
ELEMENTS OF IMMIGRANT POPULATION 191
predominant element among the settlers of Transbaikal, at
any rate among those who have been settled for any appreci-
able period upon the land : the Don Cossacks are nearly all
raskolniki. They are not a learned folk, but at the same
time they encourage elementary education sufficient for
reading the Bible.
There are other sects, some of which indulge in extrava-
gances that contravene all morality. Among the more
peculiar sects are the Skoptsi, found chiefly in settlements
round Yakutsk.
In dealing with religious dissent periods of persecution and
toleration have alternated, but the raskolniki now constitute
as much as 10 per cent, of the population of the whole Russian
Empire.
Enforced Settlement on lines of Communication
Besides the actual exiles another class of settlers should be
mentioned, viz. those peasants who have been bound to settle
at appointed places in order to maintain communications
along the roads, and the yamshchiks who drive travellers
. along the various sections of the post-roads.
Free settlers
The last element in the immigrant population of Siberia
and much the most important is that of the free settlers,
whether helped by the government or not. Voluntary immi-
grants (samovolni) settled of their own accord in the remotest
parts of Siberia, and founded communal colonies as in Euro-
pean Russia. Being quite cut off from their kindred by
reason of the immense distance, they intermarried with the
Cossacks or with the natives. Where the Russian element has
not been very strong they have even adopted the language
of the natives among whom they dwell. Thus the Russians
who live among the Buryats and Yakuts have often adopted
their language. The descendants of these settlers are the
Siberiaks who have lost their national sentiment while retaining
many of the habits and customs of Russians. This resulting
/
192 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
race is shorter and of darker complexion, of lower morals
but stronger independence. During the eighteenth century
and for a considerable portion of the nineteenth the Russian
government did what it could to discourage the samovolni.
But of recent years the warmest encouragement has been
given to free settlers in Siberia by the Russian government.
This was made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861 ;
riot till then could the Russian peasant leave his native soil.
For the first 300 years of Russian occupation something like
3,000,000 persons immigrated from European to Asiatic
Russia. But there was a marked increase in the number of
immigrants in 1896, and since the Russo-Japanese War more
have arrived than the numbers during the three previous
centuries. In 1914 the sum of £3,000,000 a year was voted for
the development of colonization in Siberia, whereas previous
to 1896 only £100,000 had been voted and in 1906 £500,000.
Between 1909 and 1913 the area of new land' surveyed and
parcelled out for colonization was 18,000,000 desyatins (i. e.
75,850 square miles), and 350,000 families were settled. To
this have to be added 6,000,000 desyatins (25,000 square miles)
of land belonging to old mirs (village communities) brought
under cultivation during those same years.
Distribution and Number of Colonists
Colonization has been mainly directed to the black earth
zone, through which run the Trans-Siberian Railway and the
great Siberian road. It extends from about lat. 58° 30' N. to
55° N., though in the Altai district the region of colonization
comes as far south as lat. 51° N., where there has been a great
inrush of colonists since the ' Cabinet ' estates of about
200,000 square miles were thrown open for general colonization
in 1906; between 1896 and 1909 one-third of the 3,000,000
immigrants to Asiatic Russia went to the Altai district. In
the same period about 900,000 went to the Steppe region,
about 258,000 to the Tobolsk region, and about 300,000 to the
east of Lake Baikal. The Tomsk Government (outside the
DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBER OF COLONISTS 193
Altai) attracted nearly 500,000 and the Yeniseisk Government
nearly 400,000. Only 18,000 went to Turkestan.
The growth of colonization can be shown by the following
figures. From 1870 to 1890, 500,000 settlers entered Siberia ;
from 1896 to 1905, 1,078,000. The years that followed the
Russo-Japanese War have shown even greater numbers of
colonists, as the following table shows : —
^Year. Settlers entering Asiatic Russia
1907
427,339
1908
664,777
1909
619,320
1910
316,163
1911
189,791
1912
201,027
1913
234,877
During the five years between 1909 and 1913, 75,850 square
miles were parcelled out for colonization and settled by a new
population of about 1,500,000. During this period also about
6,300 miles of road were constructed. The decrease in the
number of emigrants in 1910 was attributed to the first of
a succession of good harvests in southern Russia.
There is a marked decline in the number of emigrants who
return each year to Russia. Excluding khodoki (see below)
and migratory labourers, the percentage of returning colonists
has fallen to about 4 per cent, a year. This applies to all
the districts except the provinces of Yeniseisk and Irkutsk,
and in those two colonies special climatic conditions had
reduced many colonists to destitution.
The Present System of Colonization
Selection and tenure of land
The colonization of Asiatic lands is directed by the
Ministry of Agriculture. Every effort is made to secure
that immigration shall be popular, and to encourage the
development of the remoter parts. By now the more attrac-
194 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
tive parts for settlement are practically all occupied, including
the districts through which the railway runs and the imperial
lands in the Altai district, but settlers can obtain loans from
the State if their land is in the taiga where much clearing
has to be done, or in the steppes where deep wells have to be
dug, or in the far east on account of its great distance. The
loan for difficult regions or lands in the far east may be 400
roubles, and in Transbaikal 250-400 roubles. These loans
are on easy terms : nothing at all is paid for the first three
years, and after that the debt is paid off in instalments for
the next 10 years. Sometimes the second half of the loan
is remitted altogether. One condition, however, is always
enforced, and that is that a khodok goes out in advance to view
the land. A khodok is a man who is sent out to see whether
the land is suitable for colonization. One khodok may re-
present several families, but not more than five. He usually
goes a year before the intending settler, and after selecting
the land returns to Russia. He must travel with a certificate,
which is given gratuitously. From April to June is the best
season for judging the land, but the settlers themselves go
out before the winter is over for fear of losing their chance of
securing the land that they wish : sometimes they commence
their occupation before the snow is gone, which precipitancy
may lead to very disappointing results for them. Khodoki
are not included in the table given above.
Privileges of emigrants
Other privileges are conferred on settlers. For the first
five years they are exempted from taxation, and for the next
five years they only pay a half. Settlers above the age of
eighteen have their military service postponed for three years.
In the eastern parts of the Amur General Government and
in Turkestan settlers over fifteen have six years' postponement
of service. Such Russian colonists as inhabit the lower valleys
of the Lena and Yenisei are altogether exempted from military
service as an inducement to continue their struggle against the
forces of nature, Should the elder son die while the younger
th<
PRESENT SYSTEM OF COLONIZATION 195
is in the ranks, the latter is immediately given his discharge
and goes back to the farm. Further, the government has
started depots for agricultural machinery of modern type. In
1909 there were 64 of these depots, in 1913 there were 300.
In 1898 the value of the agricultural machinery imported into
Siberia was 211,900 roubles ; in 1913 it was 8,400,000.
Again, in his first year the new colonist is supplied by the
vernment with enough seed-corn to enable him to sow three
syatins of land. Along the routes there are hospitals for
e immigrants, who travel in fourth-class carriages (those
carriages marked as accommodating 40 men or 8 horses)
at a cost of 3 roubles for 1,000 versts, which means less than
Is. for 100 miles. Children under 10 are carried free. Baggage,
horses and cattle are taken at very low rates. There are
thirty stations arranged for the distribution of land, the largest
of which is at Chelyabinsk.
At Chelyabinsk, Kansk, and Stryetensk a large number of
houses have been erected for the temporary accommodation
of the immigrants. Along the lines are stations where free
medical aid is given. Hot food is served out free of charge
to children under 10 and sick people. Those who fall victims
to infectious diseases are given free treatment in government
hospitals.
Ninety-six per cent, of the land in Siberia belongs to the
State : only in the Amur territory is it ever purchased. The
usual amount allotted is now from 8 to 15 desyatins to each
male member of a family. The Cossacks have had land
allotted to them on a more liberal scale, each male having been
given in central Siberia 60 acres, in the Amur General Govern-
ment 100. New land for ' freehold ' farms is allotted in
parcels of 25-50 desyatins of arable land to each family
irrespective of the number of males. An immigrant from
Russia gets on an average a farm nine times as large as that
which he had in Europe. The land is conveyed to the settlers
by letters of allotment : it continues to be state-property,
but for the perpetual benefit of the settler, who has no right
to sell or mortgage it.
196 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
All the land set aj)art for communes of immigrants is now
carefully surveyed, parcelled out and assessed for loans and
taxation.
Conditions of colonization and sources of emigration
The great incentive to colonization from Russia is that
the peasants in Europe occupy plots which only require work
for from 60 to 75 days in the year, and cannot find work in the
neighbourhood. In Asia they are assigned allotments large
enough to give them work for the whole year. They come
mainly from the northern part of the black earth zone in
middle Russia, and to a less extent from Lithuania and the
Governments of Perm and Vyatka. They are apt to retain
the local characteristics of their old home ; thus the settlers
from the Government of Poltava tend to dislike innovations,
and those from the Government of Mogilev do not generally
bear a good name as efficient colonists. Every year the
Russian government points out what tracts of country are
open to colonization, where villages may be built, what
improvements have been made in irrigation. The colonial
villages are definitely planned and scheduled before they
contain a single inhabitant.
The sites of villages are often determined by strategical
considerations, the military authorities requiring a certain
number along the line of this or that hill or valley. The class
of Russians who are allowed to settle in Asia is determined
by the government. Thus in 1914 the government declared
that the following might settle beyond the Ural : ' all peasants
and those engaged exclusively in agriculture, and also artisans,
workmen, factory-hands, merchants and shopkeepers. People
of other classes must, before emigrating, apply to the governor
of the province in which they live.' It further publishes
a summary of information showing intending colonists exactly
what their status and privileges will be. Those who belong
to forms of religion that discountenance military service are
not allowed to settle in certain provinces (e. g. Semiryechensk).
THE EXILE SYSTEM 197
The Exile System
Improvement in Condition of Exiles
To the outer world Siberia has been more associated with
the exile system than with any other fact, and novelists,
journalists, and travellers have made its features familiar ;
but the long march of many months along the roads has given
place to the more rapid transit by the arestantski wagons on
the railway, and the abolition of exile for ordinary criminals
has completely transformed its associations. For some years
there have been no processions of convicts, the katorgeni
shaved on the right side of their head, the poselentsi shaved
on the left, nor daily tramps of 20 miles from etape to etape,
with military guards relieving each other at the intermediate
stages (poletape).
Relations of Exile with Colonization
The effect of the exile system on colonization has been bad.
For a long time the exiles were not sent to unoccupied land,
when their period of detention was over, but were attached
to existing settlements, though not exceeding a proportion of
one-fifth of the older inhabitants. After that an effort was
made to detach the actual convicts : they were sent farther
away, while the political exile, who had usually not been
banished to so remote a region, took part in the urban life.
The political exiles are of two kinds, those who have been
sentenced after a legal trial, and those who have been banished
by the more arbitrary system of administrative order from
the Minister of the Interior. These two classes of prisoners
are divided into those with rights and those without. The
former can occupy land and earn wages ; the latter are re-
stricted to a certain number of small trades and their annual
turnover is limited. They are employed generally on wharfs,
railways, &c, and in remote districts on post-roads at the
current rate of wages. A certain amount of convict-labour
was also employed on railways, with some success in
central Siberia, but without success on the Ussuri Railway.
198 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
Eight months of work on the railway were allowed to count
as a year of imprisonment. Gangs of escaped convicts
{brodyagi) have always been a terror to remote regions.
These brodyagi find it easy to get away, and the inhabitants
leave out food for them, not so much from charity as from
policy, that they may be discouraged from taking it forcibly.
If any of the brodyagi are found dead with wounds in front
no particular questions are likely to be asked about their
death, as it will be assumed that they have been killed by
somebody in self-defence. It is only when they are found
dead with their wounds behind that investigation is made.
The scattering of the prisoners through Siberia was less
a wrong to them than to the country. Their actual treatment
seems to have compared favourably with the treatment of
criminals in most countries ; but the permanent element that
survived in the country, apart from the political prisoners,
did not make for its welfare . For every fifty-seven inhabitants
Siberia has received one criminal or jjolitical prisonei, and in
1898 (two years before the abolition of the penalty of exile) the
number of transported persons was 298,574. It must be
remembered also that a large proportion of the exiles (from
1867 to 1876, more than 50 per cent.) had been banished
because they had been found refractory or otherwise undesir-
able by their mirs at home, so that the land was being filled by
drafts of those who would presumably make the worst settlers.
Transportation again does not contribute to colonization
owing to the large proportion of unmarried persons. But,
worst of all, the country had a bad name, and the development
of its great resources was thwarted by its penal associations
which acted as a deterrent to those who would have made its
best colonists.
Colonization of the various Provinces
Tobolsk. — This was the province in which colonization was
first encouraged, when colonists were settled along the banks
of the Rivers Tura, Tavda, Tobol, and Ob. It is the province,
too, in which are the largest number of political exiles. In
int
ha
tlO
COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 199
1910 a writer speaks of them as numbering 40,000. Among
these are a very large contingent of Poles, many of them the
descendants of former exiles : there were many Poles banished
in 1758, 1831, and 1863. For a long time Tyumen was the
great centre of organization of settlers on the land. Now
these functions are mainly performed at Chelyabinsk ; there
the settlers are arranged into parties and sent under super-
tendence to the district which they are to colonize. They
ve to wait for formal permission to settle, but this precau-
ion is merely taken in order to prevent debtors from abscond-
ing. In May 1896, when the great rush of immigrants to
Siberia began, there would be as many colonists on a par-
ticular day passing through Chelyabinsk as the whole popula-
tion of the town (viz. 17,000) . Since the opening of the steppes
the rush for Tobolsk has considerably diminished, but the
population is still decidedly increasing. In 1858 it was
1,021,266 ; in 1897 it was 1,438,484 ; in 1911 it was estimated
at about 1,975,239. Ninety-three per cent, of the population
is Russian : the rest of the population includes about 40,000
Tartars, Bokharians, and Kirghiz, 20,000 Ostyaks, and 15,000
Samoyedes and Voguls. The bulk of the population is in the
south of the province. Seventy per cent, live in the steppe
districts of Kurgan, Ishim, Tyukalinsk, and Yalutorovsk. In
the Tyukalinsk district there have been since 1802 colonies of
Finns, descendants of prisoners taken by the Russians in the
war against Charles XII of Sweden.
Tomsk has seen a more rapid increase of its population than
any other province, the extension of colonization being espe-
cially due to the opening of the Cabinet estates in the Altai
to general colonization. The northern part of the province
is Crown land under the Ministry of Agriculture, but the
southern districts (Barnaul, Biisk, and Zmyeinogorsk), which
are Imperial lands, are the most thickly populated. Since
1865 there has been a constant increase of immigration into
these regions ; in the last decade of last century, 300,000
settlers arrived, and so attractive are the prospects that this
rich mining district presents that no facilities are now given
200 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
to new arrivals by the government. The Altai district has
been kept clear of exiles. By 1900 practically all the available
land for colonization along the Siberian Railway had been
taken up. But land has also been allotted in the taigas of
Tomsk, Chulim, and Mariinsk, and the black earth of the
taiga is extremely good, when the ground is cleared. The
increase of population has been phenomenal : in 1858 it was
694,651 ; in 1897 it was 1,929,092 ; it was estimated in 1911
at 3,673,746. Of this population 93^ per cent, is Russian ;
one city, Kainsk, is predominantly Jewish. Other elements
in the population are Ostyaks in the north, Samoyedes (about
6,500), Tartars and Bokharians (' Kalmuks '), and Teleuts
or Telengites in the Altai.
Steppe General Government. — The Russians first arrived in
these parts in the sixteenth century. The type has become
much transformed by cross-breeding, and has grown to approxi-
mate to that of the Siberian steppe-dweller. Military occu-
pation long preceded the coming of peaceful colonists. Their
settlements along the River Irtish and along the Biisk line
in the Tomsk Government guarded the country against Tartar
invasion : as many as 5,174,949 desyatins were occupied by
troops ; but it was felt towards the end of last century that
the Cossacks did little for the civilization of the wild nomadic
tribes. In 1868 there was not yet a single peasant settlement.
In 1875 a cry was raised for peasant immigrants, when the
Governor-General of the Steppes stated that the civilizing
effects of the Cossack settlements were very indifferent, and
accordingly a survey of the Akmolinsk steppe was ordered.
The Russification of the Kirghiz on the steppes has been due
much more to methods of peaceful penetration by traders and
settlers than to the military occupation of the country, though
in Akmolinsk the proportion of Cossacks to the whole popula-
tion was 109 to the thousand, and in Semipalatinsk 42 to the
thousand. In introducing the peasant settlers every effort
was made that they should encroach as little as possible on
the rights of the native tribes. As in all provinces where there
are many Cossacks, raskolniki abound, and in some parts
COLONIZATION OE THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 201
(e. g. round Kokchetav and Petropavlovsk) a certain number
of Cossacks, estimated at 1,700, are Mohammedans. The
greatest element in the steppe population is now the peasants :
in Akmolinsk they are 54-2 per cent., though in Uralsk they
are only 16-5 per cent. The Cossacks are most in Uralsk,
where they are 75 per cent., while the artisans, gentry, and
official class are most in Turgai (48 per cent.) and Semipala-
tinsk (41-6 per cent.). The Kirghiz are still considerably the
largest section of the population. The population has grown
enormously in Akmolinsk, less in Semipalatinsk, the figures
being in Akmolinsk in 1858, 277,451, in 1897, 678,957, and
in 1911 (estimated), 1,443,721 ; in Semipalatinsk in 1858,
217,451, in 1897, 685,197, and in 1911 (estimated), 873,760.
Yeniseisk. — The bulk of the land in this province lying to
the north is stony and swampy and unfit for cultivation. The
district of Turukhansk, which comprises more than two-
thirds of the territory, only contains a small proportion of the
population. Fully 80 per cent, of the inhabitants live in the
district of the railway. The most favoured part of all is
Minusinsk, where, attracted by the best climate in Siberia,
a large number of settlers have planted themselves at their
own risk. In 1907 the Government Survey Staff surveyed
and prepared for incoming colonists unoccupied territory
to the extent of 102,600 desyatins. When the Russians
settled in this district they drove the native inhabitants either
north to the tundras or south to the Minusinsk steppes. The
native inhabitants include in the north, Ostyaks, Samoyedes,
Tungus, Yuraks, and Yakuts ; in the south,' ' Kalmuks', Teleut
Tartars, Chern Tartars, Sagais and Abakansk Tartars. In
the Achinsk and Minusinsk districts the native population
was growing in 1900. The Russians, however, are about 90 per
cent, of the population. Yeniseisk had 303,256 inhabitants
in 1858, 559,902 in 1897, and in 1911 they were estimated at
966,409.
Irkutsk. — The conditions in this province have been much
the same as in Yeniseisk. In both, the bulk of the population
is settled along the railway. But more than in Yeniseisk
202 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
the district was used as a dumping-ground for convicts. Before
1900, convicts to the number of 950 to 1,000 were forwarded
annually. Until the Siberian Railway was opened there was
very little immigration into this region, but it is now rapidly
developing. In 1896 grants of 15 desyatins per man were
made. Native populations, which a few years ago were
reckoned at 21 per cent, of the whole, include Buryats,
Tungus, Tartars, Ostyaks, and Soyots. In 1858 the popula-
tion was 222,533, in 1897 it was 506,517, and in 1911 it was
estimated at 750,000.
Yakutsk. — There is little that can be called colonization in
this vast territory. Russian population is only found where
there are mines : even the posthouses along the Lena post-
road are largely kept by Yakuts, and where the Russian
population is sparse it has adopted the Yakut language. In
1897 the population was 261,731 ; in 1911 it was estimated
at 277,187.
Transbaikal. — The conditions of this territory are some-
what special. Peasant colonies are rare ; most of the settlers
pass through it and fix their habitations in the Amur district.
In 1900 it was estimated that only 12 per cent, of the settled
land was occupied by peasants, while 45 per cent, belonged
to the natives and 35 per cent, was in the hands of the Cossacks.
But only 27 per cent, of the total area of the Transbaikal is
cultivated at all, 40,000,000 desyatins lying waste. There are
a great number of exile -settlers in this district, the abode of
many who have become vagrants not being known. The
most famous exiles of this district were the Dekabrists, as
those who took part in the plot of December 14, 1825, are
styled. These were made to construct their own prison in
Chita, and by their improvements in draining and levelling
transformed the place from a village into a prosperous settle-
ment, now the capital of the province. The Cossack occupa-
tion of the province dates from the middle of the seventeenth
century ; in the eighteenth century it was more fully enlarged
and organized. When in the fifties of last century the Amur
region was absorbed by Russia, Transbaikal Cossacks were
COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 203
transferred there. The land assigned to the Cossacks amounts
to 3,000,000 desyatins : it is under the management of the
community represented by the stanitsa or village and the;
sotnya or group of a hundred soldiers. A great number of
rasholniki live in this territory. It was the scene of exile
of the famous dissenter Avakum. The Russian element in
the population in 1900 was estimated at 64 per cent. The
peasants are settled principally in the Selenginsk, Verkhne-
Udinsk and Chita districts ; the Cossacks occupy the land near
the frontier and the villages of the Rivers Dzhida, the lower
Chikoi, the Onon, the Ingoda, the Shilka, and all the eastern
portion of the territory. Sometimes their settlements alter-
nate with peasant villages. The native tribes are the Tungus
and the Buryats : the former are chiefly in the districts of
Chita, Selenginsk, and Barguzin ; the latter mostly in the
same districts and Verkhne-Udinsk. The growth of popula-
tion has been steady : in 1858 it was 352,534 ; in 1897 it was
664,071 ; in 1911 it was estimated at 868,790.
Amur. — The beginning of Russia's colonization of the Amur
territory was in the spring of 1857. A regiment of three sotnyas
of Transbaikal Cossacks was ordered to settle with their wives
and children along the Amur. They came down the river on
rafts and were settled in stanitsas along the river at distances
varying from 12 to 18 miles, the distance being determined
rather from the desire of keeping up communications than the
suitability of the places for agriculture. Their task was to
defend the frontier towards China and to provide postal com-
munication between the Amur district and Transbaikal. The
original settlers suffered terribly from the natural difficulties
with which they had to contend, so that, although it was
a peaceful occupation, the casualties were equivalent to those
of a campaign ; later, in 1877, an inundation spoilt most of
the land assigned to the Amur Cossacks. In four years from
their first arrival they had established throughout the Amur
basin 60 villages with a population of 11,850. The land had
been previously uninhabited with the exception of the con-
fluence of the Zeya and Amur, where Chinese Manchus lived.
204 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
In 1869 peasant colonization began, the first settlers being
religious sectaries from the Tauric and Samara Governments.
There are a large number of rasholniki in the territory, esti-
mated at 10 per cent, of the population, the most prominent
being the Bezpopovists and Molokani (milk-drinkers). Immi-
gration is now on a large scale, even where no government
assistance is given, and despite the journey of a month or
six weeks required to reach this region. Whole families are
added to communes which still have free land at their disposal.
Colonists, where there are fifteen or more families from the
same place, form a commune together, which receives its name
according to the desire of the settlers. Nansen gives the
figures of the total population in 1911 as 286,263, of whom
43,959 were non-Russians : that is to say, mostly yellow men.
At Blagoslovennoe, at the junction of the Samara and Amur,
there is a settlement of about 1,000 Koreans. Manchu-Chinese
are found mainly along the river for 44 miles below Blago-
slovennoe and for 14 miles inland. In 1897 the population
of the territory was 118,570. In 1911 it was estimated at
286,263.
Maritime Province (Primorsk). — Following on the occupa-
tion of the Amur territory came the occupation of the Ussuri
district. Battalions of Cossacks from the Transbaikal had
orders to settle along the Ussuri : the colonization of the
district began in 1859, but progressed slowly. As in the Amur
territory, the original settlers suffered terribly, and were
assigned land without proper care being taken to see whether
it was suitable for colonization. The actual journey to their
new settlements took a year and a half. A big inundation
of the Ussuri added to their troubles, and their morale was
not improved when they were joined by an army which had
been sent there for a punishment. They had difficulty in
resisting a Chinese revolt in 1868, and many of them became
dependent on the Manses (Manzi) for money help and found
them rigorous and exacting masters. In 1882 an experiment
was made ; a three years' trial was to be given to 250 families
brought annually from Odessa at the cost of the Government,
COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 205
315,000 roubles per annum being assigned for the purpose.
Altogether to the Ussuri district there have migrated between
1859 and 1913 about 250,000 Russian peasants, exclusive of
the Cossack population : some of the new settlers came from
Siberia, some from European Russia. The Cossacks were
posted along the Ussuri valley, but further investigation was
made to see how much room there was for more settlers, and
in 1911 the colonists were granted Cossack land to a reasonable
extent ; the Cossacks, who had the pick of the land, not being
as a rule very good settlers. In another part of the xorovince,
sailors stationed at the mouth of the Amur have been allowed
to retire after 15 years' service, have received a plot of land,
and have been permitted to send for their wives and children
at the expense of the Government. The Russian population
is settled mainly in the valleys of the Rivers Suifun, Lefu, and
Suchan, about Lake Khanka, along the right bank of the
Sungacha and Ussuri, and in the district about Olgi Bay. The
great increase of immigration after the Russo-Japanese war
found the local authorities unprepared, and the defective
arrangements had a prejudicial effect in later years. Nansen
gives the figures of the total population in 1911 as 523,840,
of whom 360,437 were Russians ; but these figures do not
include the Chinese and Koreans, who work during the summer
and then return to their homes. The number of settlers from
1900 to 1909 was 142,674, and in the year 1913, 13,011.
Kamchatka is the name for the territory detached from the
Maritime Province, including all that is north of lat. 56° N.
It is not at all adapted for colonization. The attempts made
in past years have been practically abandoned. Only a few
Russians are found at isolated points, and the entire popula-
tion in 1911 was only estimated at 36,012. Investigations
into the possibility of colonizing Kamchatka are proceeding.
Sakhalin. — By the Convention of March 18, 1867, Russia
and Japan secured the common right to occupy unappro-
priated places all over the island. This caused a keen com-
petition between them, but Japan had the advantage of being
a close neighbour, and the Russians were forced either to
206 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
draw settlers from Europe by the inducement of great privi-
leges, or to found settlements of unmarried soldiers, a system
which was valueless for the purpose of peopling the country.
The Russians had not enough men to occupy the desirable
places in the island ; so they erected posts which bore inscrip-
tions to show that occupation had taken place. This method
was promptly copied by the Japanese. In 1869 a party of
800 convicts was sent to Sakhalin, and when it became
a penal colony all women sentenced to hard labour were for-
warded to this island from European Russia ' with a view to
secure the family principle '. All exile settlers receive grants
of land and a loan from the Government for the organization
of the household ; on obtaining a good character they are
allowed to settle in the Amur and Maritime territories. On
April 25, 1875, the Japanese share in Sakhalin was exchanged
for the Kuril Islands, but by the treaty of Portsmouth (1905)
Russia lost all the island south of lat. 50° N. In 1897, while
the island was entirely in Russian hands, the population was
estimated as follows :
Official class (military and civil) 2,500
Peasants 8,000
Exile settlers 7,500
Exile convicts 7,000
The population of what remains to Russia was estimated in
1911 as 8,849.
The colonization of the Far East has been a matter of the
first political importance for the protection of the Russian
interests, but a great deal has to be done to make it a success
in view of the special difficulties. The loans, usually of 150
to 200 roubles, are too small ; there is a great dearth of roads
and no sufficient organization of development in road-making ;
there are no possibilities of a large sale of the produce of the
farms in the neighbourhood ; greater efforts should be made
to secure that the new conditions shall be approximated as
much as possible to the old conditions of the settlers.
DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN POPULATION 207
DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN POPULATION IN SIBERIA
The growth of population in Siberia, mainly due to immigra-
tion, has been very remarkable. A population which at the
end of the eighteenth century was about 1,500,000 is now
estimated at more than 12,000,000, including districts of
Central Asia. Even in the forty years between 1858 and 1897,
before the great wave of immigration, it had doubled itself.
The same rapid growth may be seen in particular towns ; as
one illustration Novo-Nikolaevsk may be mentioned. It was
founded in 1896, and in 1913 it had a population of 70,600
inhabitants.
The areas inhabited by Russians are the following :
In the north along the great rivers we find Russians in
isolated districts along the Ob : e. g. Narim, the confluence
with the Irtish, Berezov, &c. The Yenisei valley and the
Lena valley down to Yakutsk are settled by Russians and
so are lateral strips of land between, along the river Vilyui and
to the Lower Tunguska ; further east there are isolated points,
such as Verkhoyansk and Nizhne-Kolimsk.
The black earth belt is the chief zone of Russian occupation :
the northern boundary of settlement runs by Verkhoture,
Turinsk, Tobolsk, Tara, Kainsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk, thence
along the line of the Upper Tunguska to the upper Lena ;
the southern boundary runs south of the great Siberian road
and Siberian railway from Verkhne-Uralsk to Omsk ; thence
along the River Irtish till it nears the Mongolian frontier.
The boundary line of the Russian district then runs north
almost to Mariinsk ; then with a detour to include the district
round Minusinsk, the line runs south of the great Siberian road
to the south-west corner of Lake Baikal and along the eastern
shore of the lake.
There are ' islands ' of Russian occupation about the Kirghiz
steppes, e. g. Kokchetav, Atbasar and Karkaralinsk.
Other districts in Eastern Siberia occupied by Russians are :
(1) The Selenga valley to Kyakhta.
(2) The region from Chita to the confluence of the Rivers
208 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
Shilka and Argun, including all the district between the rivers
from a line drawn SW. from Chita to the Mongolian frontier.
(3) The left bank of the Amur to Khabarovsk.
(4) Both banks of the Amur from Khabarovsk toNikolaevsk.
(5) The Ussuri valley and the district between Vladivostok
and Olgi Bay.
(6) Okhotsk.
(7) Certain districts in Kamchatka.
The Yellow Question and Colonization
Advantages and disadvantages of Chinese labour
A Russian in the eastern provinces would find it difficult
to say whether it was hardest to get on with or without the
labour of the yellow races. On the one hand the presence of
workers who are frugal and content with low wages, of great
skill and application, is likely to be a formidable menace to
the position of the Russian immigrants, and the immigration
of a yellow population, all of them able-bodied, so that soon
there will be one oriental labourer to every able-bodied
Russian, seems likely to justify the warning of Li Hung Chang
that Russian interference with China would turn Siberia into
a Chinese province. On the other hand there is no doubt that
the resources of the land have been enormously developed by
Chinese labour ; we have only to compare the appearance of
Vladivostok, where Chinese labour has been largely employed,
with that of some purely Siberian town to realize how depen-
dent these eastern provinces are for their prosperity on the
yellow man. In Vladivostok, Russian paving had to be taken
up almost as soon as laid and replaced with the work of Chinese
labourers ; a quay erected by Chinamen soon replaced one
clumsily erected by Russians. Russia has to face the problem
whether her eastern provinces shall be developed efficiently
by the labour of aliens who will surpass her own population
in numbers and resources, or whether the yellow races shall
be excluded and the provinces be less completely developed.
Already, in 1904, of 487 industrial undertakings 192 belonged
YELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 209
to Orientals and employed no Russians, while 295 belonged
to Russians but employed yellow labour. In the villages
the Chinese secure a monopoly of trade among the local
population, supplying them with all necessaries. At present
the policy is directed towards exclusion, and it is only surrepti-
tiously that Chinese labour can be employed in the Amur
and Ussuri valleys ; at least that was so just before the
present war broke out, but with the able-bodied men called up
for military service it is likely that the rigour of the policy
initiated by the Governor-General of the Priamur will have
to be considerably modified.
Strength and distribution of Chinese
In the Ussuri district the original masters of the land were
the Chinese tribes of Manses (Manzi), and they have to a con-
siderable extent reinstated themselves in their old position,
by the money help that they have given (at usurious interest)
to the Cossack and peasant settlers and by their bullying
methods of trading with the native inhabitants. They are
in a very strong position, as under the terms of the Treaty of
Peking (1860) Chinese offenders on Russian soil have to be tried
by Chinese magistrates even for minor offences. In the
interior of this same region the Chinese have villages of their
own which are governed by their own headmen. The ruthless
treatment of the Chinese at Blagovyeshchensk in 1900, when
numbers of them were driven into the river and drowned
there, checked for a time Chinese settlement along the Amur,
but the shortage of agricultural labour during the Russo-
Japanese War gave an opportunity to the Chinese that they
did not neglect, and the immigration of the yellow labourers
received a great impetus despite the fact that Russian prestige
demanded a reduction in their numbers and importance.
It was always easy to cross the frontier unperceived, and the
Russian bank of the Amur and Ussuri was more popular than
the opposite bank in their own territory. In 1904 the propor-
tion of Chinese to the Russian population in the Amur and
Ussuri districts was 16 per cent. In 1908 it was 24 per cent.
SIBERIA I Q
210 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
Unlike the Koreans they do not attempt to settle permanently
on the land. In Transbaikal the spread of Chinese immigration
was even more decided, especially in 1909. The Chinese
merchant is found as far west as Irkutsk, and in the country
east of Baikal the Chinese small trader reigns supreme. Every-
where much labour is wanted and the Chinese are indispensable.
Nor will they be less indispensable because the Government
orders that they shall be dispensed with. A passage from a
Russian author will illustrate the way in which Russian
needs are met by labour and commodities from over the
Chinese frontier : ' A man in Khabarovsk, for instance, lives
in a house built by Chinese labour of Manchurian timber :
the stove is made of Chinese bricks. In the morning the
Manchu vanyka brings water from the well. In the kitchen
the Chinese boy gets the Tula samovar ready. The master
of the house drinks his Chinese tea, with bread made of
Manchurian flour from a Chinese bakery. The Chinese and
Koreans come and offer their produce, eggs, vegetables,
fruit from Shanghai and so on. The boy runs to the bazaar
to fetch Mongolian meat and cooks the dinner. The mistress
of the house wears a dress made by a Chinese tailor, and the
master gets into his chetchuncha when the warm weather
begins. In the yard a Korean is at work chopping wood.'
Koreans
The Koreans are an important element among the immi-
grants. They began to cross the border in 1860. Bad years
of harvest and the extortions of the official class had driven
them from their country. In 1869 there was wholesale immi-
gration from Korea to the Ussuri district, and after that
there has been a steadily increasing influx. In this country
there is a great deal of undeveloped land, mostly prairie with
scattered trees. This land is in the hands of Cossacks who
live in the villages and spend their time in the taverns while
the Koreans to whom the land is leased actively develop it.
They are more efficient farmers than the Russians and
their results are correspondingly better. They do not blend
BELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 211
at all with the Russian inhabitants, for instead of living in
villages they dwell in tents in the middle of their fields.
Though pre-eminently agriculturists, some of them settle in
the towns near the scattered gold-mines.
In 1882 there was an edict that none but Russian subjects
should acquire land in Siberia : only in exceptional circum-
stances could the Governor-General give leave to foreigners.
An agreement was made with the Korean Government that
Koreans who had immigrated before 1884 could be admitted
to Russian citizenship, and later arrivals could remain in the
country for a short time, but must then sell their immovable
property and return to Korea. This was not put in force
till 1891, when many Korean settlers were given land by the
Chinese in Manchuria. Besides the temporary occupation of
land for short periods, there is an annual migration of Koreans
who work in these provinces from the spring to the autumn,
but return home for the winter.
Japanese
The immigration of the Japanese has been mainly after the
Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese artisan is to be found
throughout eastern Siberia ; in crafts he is superior to the
average Siberian, and immeasurably so in diligence, sobriety,
and general trustworthiness.
The Hunghuses
There is a further danger which menaces alike the Russian
settlers and the orderly yellow inhabitants. This comes from
the Hunghuses, bands of robbers, whose origin is uncertain.
It seems probable that they have been mainly recruited from
criminals escaping from j ustice and other dregs of the Chinese
population, who were attracted to northern Manchuria by its
remoteness, and, when there, took to gold-mining, a capital
offence when unauthorized. At first a disorderly rabble,
they are now armed with Mauser rifles of German military
pattern. They have long been a terror to the peaceable
Chinese occupants of the district between the Ussuri and the
O 2
212 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
Amur. They have penetrated into the Russian territory of
the Maritime Province, drawn thither by the attraction of
the poppy-beds, and the desolate character of the interior
of the province has given them many opportunities of working
mischief, though they stand in much more awe of Russian
authority than of Chinese. However, with the withdrawal
of the bulk of the male population, owing to the European War,
and the weakening of the village fortifications, the Hunghuses
were greatly strengthened. There have been sporadic raids
on Russian settlements, culminating in a serious attack on
the port at Olgi Bay, to repel which a Russian armed force
had to be landed.
Russian Views on Yellow Labour
Russian writers show great alarm at the growth of yellow
labour and its competition with that of the white man, who
has to be fetched from a greater distance and whose standard
of comfort and proportionate demand for wages is higher. It
has been pointed out that Russian labour can be brought
into competition with Chinese by the introduction of labourers
from the west, who have no intention of settling. Some
hundreds are brought by the special emigrant tariff ; they
arrive in the spring and leave in the autumn, and earn several
hundreds of roubles more than the cost of their journey. For
public works it is no good making a demand of labour from the
colonists : they are far too busy during the first years in meeting
their own requirements, and cannot spare time and labour
even under the inducement of good pay. The Koreans are
regarded as more dangerous than the Chinese, because of
their desire of settling permanently on the land. The alarm
takes the form of a demand for a huge staff of supervisors
and inspectors, and a strict registration of the number of yellow
immigrants. A partial attempt in 1906-7, in part of the
Primorsk Province, showed that there were in one region only
of the Ussuri district 14,000 Korean Russian subjects and
26,000 Korean foreigners, and these numbers should probably
be increased by 10,000, as the enumeration only took place
in the most populated southern portion of the district. Other
YELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 213
demands have been that those suffering from contagious
diseases shall be prohibited from entrance, that the frontier
shall only be crossed at certain points and then with the
sanction of the Russian consul, that annual permits shall be
held and paid for and a fine exacted if they are not renewed.
But the most insistent demand is that in all Government
enterprises Russian labour shall be made to replace the labour
of the yellow man, even though it cost more. The question
of their settling on Crown lands is also urgent : many Chinese
and Koreans are said to be settled owing to some illegality,
and Russians do not view with equanimity the occupation
of a large amount of agricultural land by yellow men.
Encouragement op Colonization in Arctic Russia
Since 1876 the Russian government has been encouraging
the colonization of the Murman coast and has offered many
inducements to settlers, whether Russian born or naturalized
foreigners. Among other privileges these settlers were exemp-
ted from actual military service and passed into the naval
reserve. They were excused the payment of state taxes and
were allowed to receive, without duty, foreign goods imported
in Russian or foreign ships direct to the coast. But this regula-
tion had to be modified, for it led to the wholesale importation
of intoxicating liquors and general drunkenness. In conse-
quence the importation of foreign spirituous liquors was
prohibited. Other privileges granted to Murman settlers
were : state loans of from £5 to £15 granted at the discretion
of the government and repayable in six years ; free timber
for building or a subsidy of £10 to £20 for the purchase of
timber ; and the right to hunt fur -bearing animals and to
fish without licences. These conditions applied also to any
nomadic Lapps who wished to settle definitely on the Murman
coast. Finns and Norwegians were the earliest settlers to
be attracted, and later came Russians. The establishment
of a regular line of steamers between Vardo and Arkhangel,
under government subsidy, helped the movement. The Finns
and Norwegians kept to the west and the Russians farther
214 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA
east. There are Finn villages on Bolshaya-Volokovaya Bay
on the west of Ribachi Peninsula. Many of the settlers are
in villages on Pechenga Gulf, where the Pechenga Monastery
is situated. Teriberskaya Bay and Gavrilova Bay are well
peopled. Kola Inlet is another centre of villages, and here
are the most important settlements on the coast, Kola,
Murmansk, and Alexandrovsk.
Preponderating Advantages]
A writer in the Journal of the Arkhangel Society (Mr. O. M.
Latkin), in 1912, strongly advocates the colonization of the
extreme north of European Russia. Against the rigorous
climate and the absence of means of communication he sets
the great natural wealth of the region : its mines, meadows,
forests, and its rich supply of animals, birds, and fish.
Conditions of colonizing Crown Lands
In order to attract educated brains for the development
of these resources he feels it essential to allow a free choice
of land from the Crown provinces on the following conditions :
(a) Crown land should be valued proportionately from 10-20
roubles (£1 Is. 4d. to £2 2s. Sd.) a desyatin (i. e. the value
of the rent for 100 years — at present the Crown receives 10
or 20 kopeks (2|cZ. to 5d.) a desyatin for the northern forests) ;
(6) unreserved rights of working the forests or mines should
be granted, with the proviso that for forest material a tax
should be levied according to the already existing tax, of which
30 per cent, should be paid by the owner to the Crown in part
payment till the whole is paid ; the remaining 70 per cent,
should be applied for the benefit of the owner to develop such
industries as tar-boiling, pitch-distilling, cattle-breeding, or
agriculture.
The right of owning large tracts should be distributed
among all classes ; large tracts should be allotted at distances
of not less than 40 or 50 versts (26 to 34 miles) from one
another, so that new settlers or the aborigines in the districts
between should have good models of reformed methods of
agriculture to copy.
( '( CONIZATION IN ARCTIC RUSSIA 2 1 5
Roads are the first essential condition.
There is likely to be obstruction to the colonization of the
Kanin and Timan tundras from the Samoyedes on the strength
of an edict of Ivan Vasilovich (April 15, 1545), but there should
i not be a pedantic insistence on the terms of an obsolete edict
in view of the good which will be done to the Samoyedes
themselves, who, having lost nearly all their reindeer and
being reduced to abject poverty, could learn something of
rural economy from their new neighbours, and would fare as
prosperously as the Samoyede village of Kolvinsk on the
> River Usa in the Pechora district.
The writer referred to sees no insurmountable obstacle to
the colonizing of the whole of the north, from the coast of
Norway to the mouth of the Yenisei, and suggests the employ-
ment of convict labour to effect his object.
Various proposals have been made for the construction of
railways in north-eastern Russia, with a view to linking the
Ob navigation with ports on the Barents Sea and facilitating
Siberian trade. Though these railways would be mainly
concerned with through traffic they would help to open up
the country and overcome some of its greatest disadvantages
to colonists.
CHAPTER VII
RELIGION IN SIBERIA
Russian Religion: History — The Clergy — Church Government — The
Orthodox Religion — Raskolniki — Shamanism .
Russian Religion
History
The Russian Orthodox Church is a branch of the Eastern
Church. In 988 Vladimir was converted and had his subjects
baptized in platoons in the Dnieper. For a long time the
Russian Church was in close dependence on Byzantium, but
with the fall of the Eastern Empire Russia, who had gradually
asserted her independence, took her place as defender of the
faith : in the sixteenth century the patriarchate of Moscow
(transferred from Vladimir and before that from Kiev) was
recognized by the patriarch of Constantinople. Nikon,
patriarch of Moscow, in the middle of the seventeenth century,
carried out a series of reforms consisting largely of the correc-
tion of errors which had crept into the rites and liturgical
books ; but, although he insisted that he was only reverting
to the practice of the primitive Church, his reforms were
met with much vehement opposition led by the Tsarina. The
Starovyeri (Old Believers) would not consent to such changes
as the use of Alleluia three times (in honour of the Trinity)
instead of twice (in recognition of the human and divine
nature of Jesus Christ), nor for the same reasons to the use
of three instead of two ringers in giving the blessing. Ana-
themas were as ineffective as appeals to reason, and the
fact that they were anathematized in the year 1666 made the
Schismatics think of the number of the Beast in the Book of
Revelation and anticipate the reign of Antichrist. From this
RUSSIAN RELIGION 217
time dates the great schism, which led to exile and the forma-
tion of many dissenting bodies. Peter the Great asserted
his authority by keeping the patriarchate vacant for twenty
years, and then, in 1721, establishing in its place the Holy
Synod, consisting of ecclesiastics nominated by himself, with
the Procurator-General, a layman, as Imperial Representative.
The Holy Synod now contains the metropolitans of Moscow,
Petrograd, and Kiev, the Archbishop of Georgia, and other
bishops sitting in rotation.
The Clergy
The clergy are divided into Black (regular or monastic)
and White (secular), whose brown habit belies their name.
The former must be celibate, and all bishops and high digni-
taries of the Church are drawn from among them. Their
ranks are archierei (metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops),
archimandrit (abbots), and igumen (priors) : below these
are the monks. The white clergy are divided into protopopes
or protierei (parish priests of the largest churches, or of churhes
with others under them), popes or priests, and deacons,
lectors, &c, the minor rank being recruited largely from
intending students who could not pass their examination.
The priests must be married ; if a priest loses his wife he is
not permitted to marry again. The parish priests are poorly
paid and their lives are a constant struggle against poverty ;
but they have ample spare time, as they have practically no
duties beyond the holding of services, and visiting their flock
is entirely at their own discretion : so they can devote them-
selves to agriculture. In the remoter parts of the north-east
the priests are known to act as commercial agents, and are
sometimes at once the purveyors and the victims of drink.
The village priest lives in a house built for him by the peasants
and draws his scanty income from diocesan funds : there
are no tithes, and the bulk of Church property was absorbed
by Catherine the Great, though Nicholas I restored to the
Church what had remained in the hands of the Crown.
218 RELIGION IN SIBERIA
Church Government
There are 66 dioceses (yeparchia) in Russia. The following
are wholly in Asia : Tobolsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk,
Irkutsk, Chita, Yakutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, Vladivostok, and I
Turkestan (of which the see is Vyerni) ; the following are I
partially so : Yekaterinburg and Orenburg. They correspond I
as a rule with the divisions into governments. They are 1
divided into rural deaneries, which consist each of from 10 to 1
30 parishes, many of which, especially in Siberia, are very!
extensive and have scattered populations of several thousands.
The parish church is usually under a prikhod (corporation)
consisting of priest, deacon, two diechoks (bell-ringer and 1
reader), and a widow who prepares the sacramental bread.
A parochial council determines the sum due from each house-
holder for the upkeep of the Church. The number of parishes
in Siberia is being increased ; arrangements were made for
101 new parishes to be supplied with priests in 1911.
Distinguishing Features of the Orthodox Religion
A few distinguishing points in the orthodox church may
be noted. The Council of Nicaea in 787 is the last ecumenical
council that they recognize ; they do not admit the papal
supremacy; they have the Scriptures in the vernacular,
though it is not modern Russian, but old Slavonic, that is the
language of religion and religious services, apart from the
sermons, which are in Russian (the Slavonic language is
taught in schools) ; they do not believe in the procession of
the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as the Father, and omit
the filioque clause from the Nicene Creed.
Most Russian churches are rectangular buildings with five
domes, the largest being in the middle. The principal
entrance is at the west, where there is usually a detached
campanile. The church is divided by an ambo (or ikonostas)
into nave and sanctuary. In the former stand the worshippers,
there being no seats or benches. On the ikonostas are sacred
pictures or ikons, in front of which lamps are burning. Pictures
RUSSIAN RELIGION 219
are allowed, and even bas-relief, but statues are forbidden.
Opposite the central door through the ikonostas, which can
be used by the priest alone, is the altar (prestol), on which is
laid a New Testament and the host. It is forbidden to pass
in front of the altar. During the services no instrumental
music is allowed, but the beautiful hymns of the Eastern
Church are usually sung in three parts by men and boys.
The congregation constantly join in the appeal Gospodi
Pomilui (Lord have mercy upon us). The communion is
administered in both kinds to the laity, but the bread and
wine are mixed together in a spoon. Children are given water
and wine alone till they are seven and can go to confession.
Mass is only celebrated once a day. Attendance at least once
a year is enforced by law. Baptism is by immersion and
anointing with chrism immediately after takes the place of
confirmation. There are many fasts besides the regular fasts
of Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year. The chief
ones are (1) Lent, (2) St. Peter's fast, from Whit-Monday to
June 29, (3) the fast of the Virgin Mary, from August 1 to
August 15, (4) St. Philip's fast, from November 15 to December
26. Besides this the monastic clergy always fast from meat.
Festivals have a demoralizing effect ; much of the vodka-
drinking is especially connected with them ; till 1907 it was
a crime punishable by law to work on a holiday.
Raskolniki (Dissenters)
The differences between Popovists and Bezpopovists. have
been described under the account of colonization (see p. 190).
The former made advances towards reconciliation in 1862,
on the basis of accepting orthodox priests, but retaining the
unre vised books. This led to further division. There were
now (1) those who recognized the metropolitan and this com-
promise, (2) those who recognized the first but not the second,
(3) those who recognized neither. There are some offshoots
of the Bezpopovists : (1) the Philippovsti, followers of one
Philip who burnt himself in 1743 : these exalt self-immolation
into a principle ; (2) the Stranniki (pilgrims) ; (3) the Byeguni
220 RELIGION IN SIBERIA
(runners) : both these reject legal marriage ; (4) the Nyetovsti
(deniers) deny the necessity for common worship ; (5) the
Molchalyniki (mutes) will not utter a syllable under torture.
Besides these there are (1) the Khlusti (flagellants), who subdue
the flesh, but indulge in ecstatic forms of worship : they are'
a secret society and are nominally members of the Orthodox
Church. They were founded in 1645. (2) The Doukhobors,
* spiritual fighters,' who hold conscientious objections against
military service, and were therefore made to live in Trans-
Caucasia. When service became compulsory there they wvnt
to a home found for them by the Society of Friends in Canada,
where they have lived honest and industrious lives. (3) The
Molokani (milk-drinkers), founded in 1765. The name is
given them because they drink milk during fasts, but their
tenets resemble those of the Quakers. (4) The Skoptsi
(eunuchs), who advocate castration for the ' kingdom of
Heaven's sake '. The more moderate of them allow absolute
chastity to take the place of self -mutilation. These last two
sects are the most prominent in Siberia, the former being
found along the Amur, the latter in the Yakutsk Province.
Other forms of belief
Of other creeds there are in all Russia about 12,000,000
Roman Catholics and 7,000,000 Protestants (including
Finland), 5,000,000 Jews, 14,000,000 Mohammedans, and
500,000 Buddhists. There are Lutheran and Roman Catholic
churches in Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Irkutsk. Jews
are found in great numbers at Kainsk, Buddhists among the
Buryats in Transbaikal, and Mohammedans not only among
the Tartar tribes, but also to a considerable extent among the
Cossacks in the neighbourhood of Petropavlovsk.
Shamanism
From end to end of Siberia, despite the ban of the Russian
authorities, the primitive religion of northern Asia survives
and exercises the strongest influence upon the inhabitants.
Converts to Christianity and Buddhism still resort to it, and
SHAMANISM 221
It even affects Russian officials and peasants who come to
the country, and has among its adherents many of the half-
breeds who have grown up in the land. It has the character
of a primitive religion, and is probably much older than
Buddhism. It may have been the earlier religion of the
Mongolian people, south of Siberia. It has more magic than
theology about it, and its doctrinal core is not very great ;
it is in its forms and outward manifestations that it is really
important. It is always difficult to acquire exact information
from the Shamans themselves, who are in fear of the Russian
authorities ; and the ritual of Shamanism attaches itself
readily to the different racial religions and mythologies.
Religious doctrines of Shamanism. — It is therefore extremely
hazardous to venture on a general description of the religious
beliefs that underlie Shamanistic forms, but perhaps it may
|i be summarized as follows. The universe consists of a number
of layers or strata, separated by a kind of intermediate space
or matter ; there are seven upper layers, which constitute
the kingdom of light, while below the earth are seven or more
nether layers, which form the kingdom of darkness. Between
these lies the earth, subject to influences from above and
below : above are the good spirits {aiy), below are the evil
spirits (abassy). In the seventh layer above, in high heaven,
reigns Ai Toion, perfect and good ; in the fifth (or the ninth)
below is Erlik Khan, the Ahriman of this dualistic system.
Shamans alone possess power over this spiritual world, and
this power is exercised more over the bad than the good, not
necessarily for evil ends, but because the good spirits need less
propitiation and are naturally inclined not to do mischief.
In accordance with the nature of the spirits over whom
they exercise influence Shamans are known respectively as
white and black. In fact the whole faith has been known as
' black faith ' in opposition to ' yellow faith', i.e. Buddhism.
These spirits are largely the spirits of ancestors, and so
Shamanism is closely associated with what constitutes so
large a proportion of primitive cults, viz., ancestor-worship.
Shamans among the Yakuts (the tribe among whom this cult
222 RELIGION IX SIBERIA
is most fully developed) have three spirits, amcigyat, which is
indispensable (the same name is applied to the iron breast-
circle of the Shaman, which he wears as a symbol of his office),
yekyua, which is hidden away but incarnates itself at times
in animals, and kaliany, impish and mischievous, a sort of
secondary personality.
Derivation of name. — The word shaman is uncertain in
derivation. There is a Sanskrit word iramana ( = religious
mendicant), the Pali form of which, sramana, has the same
meaning. On the other hand there is a Manchu word
saman which means ' one who is excited ' and this word is
found among the Tungus.
Differences between Palaeo- Siberian and Neo- Siberian
Shamanism. — There is a considerable difference between
Shamanism as practised among the Palaeo-Siberian tribes
(Chukchee, Koryaks, &c.) and among the Neo-Siberians
(Yakuts, Tungus, &c), though the influence of the Tungus,
widely spread among other tribes, has greatly modified the
Shamanism of north-eastern Siberia. With the Palaeo-
Siberians ' family ' shamanism is more frequent than ' pro-
fessional'. The head of the house will shamanize, and in the
absence of the father (e. g. among the Chukchee) the mother
will take his place as family shaman. There is also found
a kind of communal shamanism. Among them also women
are more important than men as shamans ; women being of
a more nervous and excitable temperament are more natural
recipients of the shamanistic gifts ; it may be noted that
women are the most frequent victims of Arctic hysteria
(menerik). On the other hand the Yakuts assign an inferior
position to women, and will only resort to them as shamans
in the absence of men. Further, among certain Palaeo-
Siberians (Koryak, Kamchadal, Chukchee, and Asiatic
Eskimo) appears that extraordinary phenomenon, the sup-
posed change of sex, by which men come to behave as wo:
and women as men. The change goes through various stag
the person who undergoes the transformation will first ma:
fest the change by arranging his hair as a female ; then he
ani-
SHAMANISM . 223
will adopt woman's dress ; then he will change his voice
and his general habits, performing the occupations of a woman
in the house ; finally he will seek a ' husband ' and live with
him in homo -sexual relations, while at the same time often
having a female concubine and begetting children. Public
opinion disapproves of this homo -sexuality, but is discreet
in its utterances on the subject, as such transformed shamans
are held to be particularly dangerous. The ' soft-man ' has
his kele (spirit) husband, who will protect him : in fact even
without sex -transformation a shaman often has a kele wife,
as well as his own. The ' husband ' chosen by the shaman
is usually selected from among his near relations. Women
are transformed to men in the same way, with the correspond-
ing change of dress, voice, and occupation, and the adoption
of a ' wife '. The Koekchuks of the Kamchadals have been
especially described in their place. Another distinction
between the Palaeo- and the Neo-Siberians is that among the
latter the dualism of good and evil spirits with their attendant
black and white shamans is much more emphasized. The
' white ' shamans take part in spring festivals, marriage
ceremonies, fertilization rites, and the curing of diseases
among the Yakuts : the ' black ' shamans deal with evil spirits,
but are not necessarily malefic : they shamanize to assert
their prestige ; they foretell the future ; they call up spirits
and wander into spirit-land. The Buryats speak of great
' contests ' between black and white shamans, who ' hurl axes
at one another at a distance of hundreds of miles ' . The black
shaman is not a popular person, and is sometimes killed by
the inhabitants. The grave of a black shaman among them
is guarded by an aspen, and the body is fastened to the earth
by a stake taken from this tree. Among the Samoyedes
there is no distinction between black and white shamans.
It will be seen later that there are marked differences in the
actual performances of the Palaeo- and Neo-Siberians.
The 'call'. — Shamanism is sometimes hereditary. This is
what would be expected both from the recurrence of medium -
istic gifts in families and from the greater ease of keeping
224 RELIGION IN SIBERIA
secrets known to members of the family alone. A shaman
is often subject to hysteria, but can control himself between
the fits. Before entering on his vocation a shaman has often
had severe nervous affections. The ' call ' comes in various
ways. We hear of a Gilyak boy of twelve, who had his call
during a deep sleep, and when awakened threw himself about
and spoke with different intonations. To the Tungus a former
shaman appears in a dream. An Ostyak will sell to another
the spiritual gifts that have come to him. Among tribes in
the Altai the call is involuntary. Among the Chukchee there
is great fear of the ' call ' : the Chukchee youth is afraid
that it will come to him ; when it has come, he segregates
himself and is abstracted in manner, he sleeps much, and is
carefully guarded lest he should freeze to death during sleep.
The Buryat child is supposed to be called at a very tender
age : its soul then, it is imagined, goes away to be trained
among the ' West Tengeris ' if he is to be a white shaman,
among the ' East Tengeris ' if he is to be a black shaman.
When he reaches adolescence, certain symptoms begin to be
revealed. Among the Samoyedes the novice, at about the
age of 15, is entrusted to an old shaman.
Novitiate and training. — A ' call ' to a shaman means that
he has come under the protection of one or more spirits :
his eyes have a distinctive appearance : the expression is
said to be a combination of shyness and cunning, and it is
alleged that the shaman can often be picked out from other
men because he has this look. Long periods of preparation
follow ; the training includes lessons in singing, dancing,
drum-beating, ventriloquism, and other tricks, and the power
of concealing fatigue ; and stages of consecration, which
differ among the various tribes. The novice is conscious
of the solemnity of his profession, and usually has a strong
feeling that he has to consecrate his gifts for the good of his
fellow men : he is told not to demand high prices from either
rich or poor, and, if he is asked to attend to a rich and a poor
man, to attend to the latter first. Considerable danger is
felt to be attached to the profession, as ' the spirits will kill
SHAMANISM 225
a shaman who in any way disobeys them ' ; but there are
compensations, for he is usually safer than anybody else from
the anger of his fellow men, on account of the sacrosanct
character of his calling. But no persecution will make him
give up his shamanism : a shaman, whom Stadling met, who
a Christian nominally, used to confess once a year to the
3st (and present him with a blue fox skin). It is worthy of
tote that the tribe which has probably developed shamanism
more than any other is the Yakuts, who have been nominalty
Christians for upwards of 200 years.
Classes of Shaman. — Shamans are of various kinds. Among
the Chukchee there are three kinds of professional shamans :
the first practise ecstatic ravings, the second foretell the
future as prophets, the third utter incantations ; these last
again are subdivided into good and bad, and are distinguished
by their red and black coats respectively. With the Yakuts
they are divided into Great, Middle and Little Shamans in
accordance with the degree of their powers ; the first has his
dmdgyat from Ai Toion himself ; the second has dmdgyat,
but it is not of so powerful a kind ; the third has nothing
that deserves the name of dmdgyat, but is only an abnormal
neurotic person, ' who can cure trifling illnesses, interpret
dreams, or frighten small devils away '. Originally among the
Yakuts there was more of woman-shamanism, as among the
Palaeo-Siberian tribes. The Altaians, besides the shaman
(kam), have other personages of a similar kind. These are
(1) rynchi, who foretell the future during attacks of pain ;
(2) telegochi (guessers) ; (3) yarinchi, who divine by the use of
a bladebone ; (4) kollkarechi, palmists, who divine from the
hand, (5) yadachi who control the weather by means of a stone
(yadatash) found in a defile, where winds blow continually :
to obtain this stone they must swear away all that they have .
Professional dress and equipment. — The shaman has a pro-
fessional dress when engaged on his occupation. Among the
Neo-Siberians the four most general features are the coat,
the mask, the cap, and the iron plate about the breast. The
costume is less complicated among the Palaeo -Siberians,
226 RELIGION IN SIBERIA
The Chukchee for instance have no special dress : they
merely desire originality, and will wear any coat that they
think will impress. Sometimes the Chukchee have adopted
Tungus designs on the coat without knowing their meaning.
The coat is most elaborate among the Neo-Siberians. Attached
to it are pieces of metal each with a name and meaning of its
own. Among the Altaians not all shamans are entitled to
wear the coat and the cap. The mask is of skin, wood, and
metal, painted and ornamented with a great beard. The iron
plate {amagyat) is handed down from shaman to shaman.
The pieces of metal are supposed to have a soul and to be
capable of resisting rust. Among the Yakuts there are here-
ditary blacksmiths who are associated with the shamans, and
manufacture their properties. The most characteristic em-
blem of shamanism is the drum. A special meaning is attached
to it by the Yukaghir : they call it yalkil (gulf), as the gulf
into which the shaman dives to reach the spirits. So too the
Eskimo think that the souls of the shamans descend into the
lower world of the goddess Sedna. Some of the north-eastern
tribes (e.g. Koryaks) strike the drum from below. The word
for ' drum ' is everywhere the same (tungur), whereas the
coat has various names, which suggests that it is later. The
drum is rare among the Buryats, who have one special
accessory, viz., the horse -staves : of these two are of wood,
two of iron, but the latter are only bestowed on a shaman
after his fifth consecration. The wooden ones are cut for
the novice. These horse-staves represent the horses on
which the shaman takes his flight to the upper and lower
worlds. There is also a shire, a box which contains the
sacred emblems (horse -staves, &c), which the shaman ac-
quires the right of holding after his fifth consecration. Th<
sun, moon, and secondary deities are represented on i
The Buryats also have a musical instrument used only b
shamans, a sort of Jew's harp called homus.
Shamanistic rites. — The nature of the shamanistic per
formances can be best realized by describing two : the first
is as it would be 'given among the Chukchee, the second as
SHAMANISM 227
among the Yakuts. The first is given when it is almost
dark : the shaman begins to beat the drum softly and to sing
plaintively : the song imitates the cries of animals, which
seem to proceed from various corners of the house. Then
suddenly the song ceases : when it is over, the shaman is
Iound lying exhausted. Sometimes the shaman uses a
ueratic language, a mixture of Yakut, Yukaghir, and Koryak
yords : shamans cannot remember what they recite in their
emi-hypnotic state, and genuinely do not understand the
language they use. A variety of conjuring tricks are per-
formed.
Among the Yakuts the performance appeals to rather
higher emotions. The shaman kneels on a white mare's skin,
bows to the four corners of the earth, and sprinkles the ground
with water from his mouth. After other rites, the shaman
begins to play his drum, and utters wild cries imitating
animals. Then he chants an incantation, the spirits come,
the shaman falls, leaps, and dances ; members of his ' con-
gregation ' hold him by leather thongs, lest the spirits should
make away with him. In the south Yakut district he is un-
fettered. After these movements he approaches his patient,
drives away the cause of the illness, and prescribes what
sacrifices must be made to the powerful spirits whose servant
he has banished. His prophetic gifts do not leave him at
once, but he foretells future events. He goes a mystic and
symbolic journey through the strata of the universe announcing
the various points in his travel that he has reached.
Despite the trickery there is evidence of considerable
mediumistic powers ; there is use of auto-suggestion in the
trances and probably a skilful handling of hypnosis.
One of the earliest accounts of shamanism was published
in China in 1747, written in the Manchu language. For the
subject generally, see M. A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia, from
which the above examples are taken.
P 2
CHAPTER VIII
HYGIENE
Climatic complaints — Zymotic diseases — Nervous diseases — Want
of sanitation
Climatic Complaints
There is no reason for regarding the climate of Siberia,
despite its rigours, as unhealthy, unless the nervous com-
plaints mentioned later have any connexion with the winter
darkness and cold. Settlers in Siberia, including exiles, suffer
no ill effects from the climate, whether in the far north or in
the agricultural regions of the south. The great cold of winter,
it is true, is liable to cause frost-bite, but with adequate shelter
and sufficient nourishment, the risk of this proving serious is
small since strong winds are rare in winter, and in their absence
great cold is quite endurable with safety. Snow-blindness is
not uncommon in spring and autumn, but the lack of winter
snow in many parts, the darkness of the northern winter, and
the general prevalence of green trees to relieve the eyes
minimize the occurrence of this trouble.
Zymotic Diseases
Apart from climatic influences, however, there is much
disease among most native tribes in Siberia. Measles is
common, especially among the Koryaks and Yukaghir, and
has devastated whole villages. Smallpox is endemic in many
parts : it is said to have caused a steady reduction in the
numbers of the Yukaghir and Tungus. Tuberculous disease
is prevalent, though seldom diagnosed on account of the
absence of medical officers in most parts : it was very probably
introduced by Russians. Siberian boil plague, a form of
anthrax which also attacks cattle, is found from the Urals to
ZYMOTIC DISEASES 229
the Chinese frontier, especially in summer. It occurs in both
external and internal forms. The latter is generally fatal hi
one to four days. Goitre is reported principally from the
Lena valley, where it is most prevalent among women, and
from the Amur region. Syphilis is rampant throughout
Siberia. Ophthalmia and other diseases of the eye are very
common : some are due to snow-blindness, as noted above,
others to venereal disease, and others to the smoky nature of
the interior of all native huts. Leprosy occurs in the Lena,
Kolima, and Amur regions, Sakhalin, and elsewhere. It is
generally associated by the Gilyaks with eating fish, especially
one species of salmon. Cholera is never absent from the Amur
and Maritime Provinces, and every few years assumes the
proportions of an epidemic. In 1910 a violent epidemic of
cholera raged in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Blagovyesch-
chensk, and Nikolaevsk : most of the victims were Chinese
and Koreans. In the same year an epidemic of plague intro-
duced from Manchuria into the Amur region was successfully
fought by the use of injections. The last epidemic of typhoid
in the same region was in 1908. Thus the Amur and Maritime
Provinces seem to be the least healthy parts of Siberia owing
to their proximity to any diseases rampant in China, Korea,
and Japan.
Nervous Diseases
Certain peculiar forms of nervous affection are common
among the natives of Siberia, and are known collectively under
the name of Arctic hysteria, because, as far as Siberia is con-
cerned, they are confined to the polar and subpolar regions.
They are, however, closely akin to nervous affections of the
natives of Java, Abyssinia, South Africa, Madagascar, Brazil,
Peru, and elsewhere, and particularly the Malays, and so,
properly speaking, are not peculiar to Arctic lands, although
they are probably accentuated by the darkness, and are
certainly most prevalent during winter. Hardships increase
the occurrence of hysteria : in times of famine whole villages
may suffer from it, It is noticeable also that sedentary people
230 HYGIENE
suffer far more than nomadic people, who are better inured to
hardships.
Arctic hysteria is most prevalent among Neo-Siberians,"but
is found also in certain forms among Palaeo-Siberians. Euro-
pean exiles from Russia to Arctic Siberia seldom suffer from it.
Many forms of nervous disease are included under this
head, quite apart from the hysterical manifestations of the
shamans, which are looked upon by the natives as an in-
spiration, but are not impossibly connected in origin with
Arctic hysteria (see Chapter VII). A common form is ex-
pressed in timidity and fright, with an inclination to repeat all
visual and auditory impressions. Another type is brought on
by sudden shock or pain, but it is sometimes periodic and
recurs without apparent direct cause. The patient is afflicted
with spasms or falls into a trance, howls or dances, and the fits
are often followed by extreme exhaustion or prolonged sleep for
several days. In some symptoms this form closely resembles
epilepsy. It is sometimes accompanied by manifestations
of erotic mania, and by Yakuts, Yukaghir, and others is
ascribed to the influence of evil spirits, but looked upon as
a disease. All these forms seem to be commonest among
people who have recently moved into Arctic regions. Melan-
cholia and so-called voluntary death are other forms of
hysteria. Melancholia occurs chiefly among people domiciled
in Arctic Siberia, and is not uncommon among the inhabitants
of other far northern lands. Voluntary death is also common
among the tribes of northern Siberia. Old or infirm people
request their relatives to put them to death : this, however,
may be the outcome of a desire to escape suffering, and it is
doubtful if it can be looked on as a form of hysteria.
Want of Sanitation
The difficulties of combating disease throughout Siberia are
very great. Most of the natives are dirty and devoid of the
most primitive ideas on sanitation. Owing to the vastness of
the land over which they roam, no adequate medical super-
vision is possible. At the same time it must be remembered
WANT OF SANITATION 231
that the state of health of the majority of the tribes in Siberia
has little influence on the Russian settlers who, by the nature
of the land, are more or less confined to certain regions, where
measures of preventive medicine, even if difficult, are not
impossible. The state of the Siberian towns (see p. 313) leaves
much room for improvement in matters of sanitation and
health.
CHAPTER IX
AGRICULTURE
Western Siberia — Eastern Siberia
Western Siberia
The peasant population of western Siberia constitutes about
ninety per cent, of the whole, and it is nearly all engaged,
directly or indirectly, in agriculture. The agricultural dis-
tricts of western Siberia are the Government of Tobolsk,
excluding the districts of Berezov and Surgut, and the
Government of Tomsk, excluding the district of Narim, but in
the steppes agriculture is only practised successfully in parts
of the districts of Kokchetav, Atbasar, and Petropavlovsk in
the Akmolinsk territory, and in the Semipalatinsk, Pavlodar
and Zaisan districts of the Semipalatinsk territory. In 1911
over 10,800,000 acres were sown in Tobolsk and Tomsk,
i. e. 36 per cent, of the whole sown area of Asiatic Russia.
In the steppes over 5,400,000 acres were sown.
Cereals, root crops, and fodder
Three zones of agricultural land. — (1) North of lat. 58° N.
there is a region in which agriculture is only sporadic. It
consists largely of urmans (swamps), which are quite un-
suited to tillage ; the arable lands are either the more elevated
parts of the river valleys, which are not submerged, the uvals
(inclined banks), or level ground surrounded by yars (abrupt
precipices). North of lat. 60° N. hardly any cereals are
grown ; corn is planted as far north as Berezov (about lat.
64° N.), but is of no economic importance in those parts.
(2) Between lat. 56° N. and lat. 58° N. the region is an
almost perfectly flat plain, with deciduous trees predominating
WESTERN SIBERIA 233
over conifers. Swamps, though extensive, occupy less of the
total area : there are plateaux as well as river valleys used
for agriculture. Lands suitable for cereals are often spread
over great tracts. The river valleys are hardly ploughed at
all (except for the uvals), as being too liable to inun-
dation.
(3) South of lat. 56° N. the region is variegated with many
small lakes divided by ridges with sloping sides. There are
islands of fertility with flat spaces between that are entirely
barren. The wild cherry, growing on unploughed soil is a sign
of its fertility. It grows on the west Ishim steppe, but not
on the east Ishim and Baraba steppes. Much of this region
is particularly adapted for wheat. The west Ishim steppe is
the most fertile region ; the Baraba and east Ishim steppes
closely resemble one another. The Baraba steppe has great
variations in itself ; it is least fertile in *he north, where it
becomes swamp, most fertile in the south, where it reaches to
the foothills of the Altai. In the Kirghiz steppes few cereals
are grown, as the Kirghiz eat little bread of any sort, but
a great deal of meat.
Soils. — In the river valleys there prevail very sticky clayey
soils, partly grey, slightly tinged with humus, partly black.
There are two kinds of black soil : (1) argillaceous chernozem
or black soil, on the raised ground, the most fertile of all the
soils, (2) a black earth which is poor and barren and of
a peaty character, only adapted for oats. In the middle
region especially there are what is called byeliks, where a very
thin layer of turf (2 or 3 inches thick) lies over a stratum of
almost unproductive light-grey clayey soil (9 or 10 inches
thick), superimposed on a reddish-yellow clay. These are
only of use with manure, and have to lie fallow for twenty-five
years after three or four crops, as only the top layer nourishes
cereals. In the south region the predominating soil is a dark
brown, friable, clayey soil, with a large admixture of white
sand upon a reddish clay subsoil. In the Baraba steppe
upon the broad sloping ridges black soil is everywhere, and
on the narrow and more abrupt ridges a clayey soil. The soil
234 AGRICULTURE
along the railway has a loamy substratum with a surface of
black earth (14 to 24 ins.) which is entirely stoneless.
Crops vary in accordance with varieties of soil. Wheat
grows best in south-west Tobolsk, the Kainsk and Mariinsk
districts of Tomsk, the Altai and parts of Akmolinsk territory
where there is a sandy black soil ; in all these parts it is
more than half the grain sown ; barley and spring rye are
adapted to the brownish soils of the central part of Tomsk,
where the soil is infertile ; east from Tomsk grows winter
rye, and oats are commonest along the great Siberian road.
In the northern districts winter corn occupies the chief place.
In all Asiatic Russia spring corn considerably predominates
over winter corn.
Methods of cultivation. — In the agricultural parts of Siberia
it is usual to sow the land for two or three years, and then
for a year to leave it fallow ; after this to sow it again for
one or two years, and to repeat the process till it shows that
it needs a rest. Then, when certain signs known to the
peasants present themselves, it is reploughed. During the
early part of the period the more exhausting grains are sown,
such as wheat and rye ; towards the end of the period, barley
and oats. In the region of Lake Zaisan there is intensive
culture by irrigation There are irrigating canals (arylcs) from
which little runlets are taken all over the fields. The water
is let on first before ploughing, and then, according to the
weather, from two to four times more, while the plant is
growing. After eight crops the field requires either three
years' rest or manuring. It is always the same crop, because
during the harvesting the old seed would drop into the soil
and spoil next year's crop.
Agricultural improvements. — Many improvements have been
made in the system of agriculture in western Siberia. Ferti-
lizers are employed to a greater extent, and there are many
mechanical appliances introduced. A large amount of agri-
cultural machinery is imported to meet a growing demand.
Large wholesale purchases are made, especially of reapers,
mowers, and rakes. The United States, with a widespread
WESTERN SIBERIA 235
organization in the villages, have an almost complete mono-
poly, except for ploughs, which have hitherto been usually of
German make. Chelyabinsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, and Omsk are
the chief centres of distribution, and there are others at
Kurgan, Petropavlovsk, Pavlodar, Semipalatinsk, Tatarskaya,
Karachi, Kamen, Barnaul, and Biisk. At a station on the
River Irtish, near Omsk and also at Novo-Nikolaevsk, ex-
perimental work is being carried on ; arrangements are made
under the Colonization Department for testing kinds of ma-
chinery and implements introduced into Siberia. Specimens
of suitable machines are on view for farmers who visit the
place. The value of sales was in 1910 £497,000 ; in 1911
£680,000 ; in 1912 £840,000 ; in 1913 £730,000. The pur-
chaser usually makes the first half of his payment during the
first year and the rest in instalments. Bad debts are rare.
There are many agricultural depots scattered through the
country, organized by the Government ; but the private store
has some advantages in the peasant's eyes over the Govern-
ment depot ; he has it more at his mercy, for it gives him long
credit, and he can keep it waiting for his money, whereas he
is at the mercy of the Government depot himself. All agri-
cultural implements enter the country free of tax.
Grain elevators are being erected at the cost of the Treasury,
but in order to secure them more speedily the Siberian co-
operative societies are undertaking the construction of ele-
vators at their own expense. At Aleksyeevsk in Omsk district
an elevator of 1,600 tons capacity has been completed ; it is
provided with all the necessary grain-drying and cleaning
appliances. This is the case, too, with the station at Mishkina.
Eight credit societies are erecting an elevator of 6,025 tons
capacity at the station of Kochenevo. At Omsk and at Kula-
chinskoe in the Omsk district grain stores are to be built. A large
elevator of 16,070 tons capacity is projected for Novo-Niko-
laevsk.
Agriculture has been stimulated along the line of the great
Siberian road owing to the fact that this was formerly the
one artery of commerce, and a large population was wanted
236 AGRICULTURE
for the work of transport and innkeeping. But the road
has formidable competitors in the steamers upon the rivers
and in the Siberian Railway ; its monopoly has gone, and
a large proportion of the population has taken to agriculture.
Milling. — Most of the cereal products are exported from;
Russia in the form of grain, and so milling has suffered. But 1
the Tomsk Government contains a fair proportion of mills,
among which wheat mills predominate with a return of
£600,000. Flour mills are found principally in the districts
of Tomsk, Biisk, and Barnaul, and in the neighbourhood of
Novo-Nikolaevsk. The mills are well set up.
Export of cereals. — Siberia supplies the deficiencies of
European Russia in bad seasons, so as to enable the Russians
to export the reserves which would otherwise be retained for
home consumption. Much goes to the non-agricultural parts
of Siberia, especially the mines. Some was formerly used for
vodka and other spirits. But the export of Siberian cereals
is not great in proportion to the output of the country, and in
comparison with that of European Russia it seems negligible.
The cost of transport is very heavy. A German authority
states that the cost of transport of a ton of wheat from Chelya-
binsk to the mouth of the Rhine amounts to £2 16s., while the
carriage of the same quantity from India costs only 12s.
There is still a large amount of land of great agricultural
value unsown, and there are considerable openings for trade,
especially if a serious effort is made to replace the German
trade in ploughs.
Hay. — In 1914 in western Siberia 12,892,918 acres were
under hay, with an output of 7,358,100 tons ; in the steppes
there were 9,271,773 acres, with an output of 3,546,500 tons.
Hay-cutting is done near the big towns and along the post
roads.
Potatoes. — Potatoes are grown further north than the limit
within which cereals are profitable, e. g. at Samarovskoe,
at the confluence of the Ob and Irtish. Other crops grown
in the same region are rape and cucumber.
Fruit is of little importance. Some cherries are grown at
WESTERN SIBERIA 237
Kurgan ; in Tyumen there are a few small fruit gardens, and
apples are grown at Tomsk, under the care of the University.
Melons and water-melons are grown by the peasants for their
own consumption.
Blax and hemp. — Flax is grown almost universally ; hemp
cially in the black earth districts. These are grown mainly
for the seed, whence comes an edible oil, which is of great
importance for Russians as a substitute for butter on fast
days. The fibres serve especially local needs for ropes and
linen. The flax is good, but weak : the peasants cannot
handle it properly, and it has but small international value.
In the Barnaul district the hemp is of low quality and badly
worked up. It is estimated that this district might produce
4,800 to 8,000 tons of hempseed and the same amount of
Unseed. At Omsk there is a steam oil-seed and colour mill,
which manufactures various oils from linseed, hemp, and
sunflower seeds, to the extent (in 1901) of 645 tons, and colours
to the extent of 81 tons.
Sunflower. — From the seeds an oil is extracted and used
for the same purposes as those from hempseed and linseed.
It is grown especially in the Altai and at places along the Irtish.
Tobacco. — Altogether in Siberia in 1914 there were 18,198
plantations of tobacco, with an area of 1,984 acres. They
yielded 4 tons of Turkish tobacco and 1,570 tons of lower
quality. The chief tobacco-growing districts of Siberia are
along the Irtish, south of Omsk, in the Cossack settlements,
where about 160 tons are produced a year. The plantations
are all small, and most of the work is done by women. About
30 per cent, is consumed locally ; the rest goes to the neigh-
bouring fairs and to Omsk, where there is a tobacco factory,
doing very good business, chiefly in cigarettes (£40,000 in
1903). The common Russian tobacco is mahorka, which
is grown in Omsk and Petropavlovsk districts, and is chiefly
used in the manufacture of cheap cigars. The peasant is
showing a tendency to abandon mahorka in favour of cheap
cigarettes. The import of tobacco goods by rail is increasing.
238 AGRICULTURE
Woodland produce
Cedar cones. — The Finns cembra produces a cone which is
much esteemed for the oil extracted from its seeds. It is
found especially in the Narim district, the northern parts of
Tomsk and Mariinsk districts, and the mountainous parts of
Biisk and Kuznetsk districts. The chief market is Tomsk.
In a good year, which is once in four or five, 4,800 to 6,400
tons are gathered, the season being from the middle of August
to the middle of September. The price is from 35. to 5s. per
pud ; the average turnover of a labourer is from about 12s.
to £1 18s. In order to obtain the cone the trees are cut down
if they are difficult to climb.
Wild fruit. — Great masses of bilberries and cranberries are
exported from Turinsk, Tar a, and Tobolsk districts. Rock-
cherry, obtained in Tomsk district, is dried and ground to
flour, and on fast days is boiled with honey and water and
eaten as a kind of jam. The nut trade is especially developed
in the Surgut, Tara, and Tobolsk districts of Tobolsk and the
Narim and Mariinsk districts of Tomsk. In the Kuznetsk and
Biisk districts the nomads do the nutting.
Mushrooms are put on the market, dried and salted.
Easteen Siberia
Cereals, root crops, and fodder
In spite of the climate agriculture is making rapid progress
in eastern Siberia, especially since the Government began to
encourage the transfer of the land from the community to
the peasants. The settlers generally seem to make a decent
living and to improve in appearance. When the first difficulties
have been overcome, they are better off than they were in
Russia. The land which is most accessible and most favourably
situated for agriculture has already been occupied. New
immigrants can no longer hope for natural grass-land, but
once the taiga has been cleared, the soil is generally good.
Manure is only beginning to be used in some parts of
EASTERN SIBERIA 239
Transbaikal. The ramparts of it that often stand round
Siberian towns and villages are left undisturbed. When the
old land is exhausted, the peasant ploughs up a new plot. But
now that he usually owns his land, he may be willing to make
improvements, and adopt a less wasteful system of agriculture.
A system of rotation of crops is generally followed ; it varies
in different districts.
Eastern Siberia is by no means self-supporting in agri-
cultural produce. Some 200,000 tons of wheat enter the
Transbaikal, Amur, and Primorsk Provinces annually from
Manchuria alone, while Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, and Yakutsk re-
ceive large supplies from western Siberia.
The chief peculiarity of agriculture in these provinces is
the great preponderance of spring over winter grain. Even
in the Transbaikal, Amur, and Maritime Provinces spring
grain is less than 1 per cent, of the total. The long winter
and slight snowfall make it almost impossible for winter grain
to ripen.
Yeniseisk and Irkutsk. — Though cattle -raising is the chief
occupation, agriculture is steadily extending. Spring crops
predominate, but winter corn is sown on 28 per cent, of the
cultivated land. In Irkutsk especially rye is the chief crop,
then oats and wheat. Buckwheat, millet, potatoes, lentils,
flax, and hemp are grown. In Achinsk rye and winter wheat
do well because of the early winter and deep snow. In the
Minusinsk district there is an area of dry steppe, surrounded
by rich black earth, where a considerable agricultural popu-
lation prospers. The warm dry summer enables spring wheat
to ripen here before the autumn frosts. Beetroots and water-
melons do well near Minusinsk. Hay is good and plentiful
throughout these provinces.
The Minusinsk region alone has a trade in flour with
Krasnoyarsk and the lower Yenisei. Some 4,000 tons are
produced by about six steam or water mills, none of which
has a capacity of more than 1,600 tons. There is a small
steam-mill at Krasnoyarsk, one of 1,600 tons capacity at
Cheremkhovskoe, and a couple of good-sized mills in Irkutsk
240 AGRICULTURE
and the neighbourhood. There are also some 20 water-mi
for local use along the Yenisei.
The soil round Minusinsk is particularly favourable to beets,
and a beet-sugar manufactory has been established there.
The Provinces east of Lake Baikal. — The territory east of
Lake Baikal still needs large quantities of imported corn.
Some 200,000 tons of wheat enter the Maritime, Amur, an(
Transbaikal Provinces every year from Manchuria for the use
of the people and the troops. The Government is always the
largest buyer. It is estimated that the Priamur alone could
produce at least 600,000 tons more grain than it does at
present. The Government proposes to put a duty on Man-
churian corn, in order to encourage local agriculture, and
lower the freights on grain and flour from western Siberia
But it is held in Blagovyeshchensk, which is the agriculture
capital of the Priamur, and the third in importance of the
flour-milling towns of the Russian Empire, that, so far from
excluding Manchurian wheat, this will only enable it to be
sold at a higher price across the river. Indeed, the Russian
mill-owners in Kharbin, who produce most of this imported
flour, are in no way perturbed by the proposal. The campaign
against Chinese labour has seriously raised the price of living,
and the suggested duty will raise it still further.
The Colonization Department also intends to build grain-
elevators along the Amur railway. The Government has been
advised to build elevators of a capacity of 9,000 tons and
a flour-mill of 18 tons capacity per diem at Aleksyeevsk.
Smaller elevators are to be established at Bochkarevo, Bureya,
Malinovka, Tigda, Yekaterinoslavka, and Gondatti. The ex-
tension of credit among the peasants is also to be encouraged.
In spite of these suggestions and the advantages offered by
the opening of the railway and other improvements in the
means of communication, there is little prospect of these pro-
vinces being able to produce their own food for a long time.
Moreover, there is always the danger of over-production,
with a consequent sharp fall in prices. Russia is one of the
world's granaries, and it might not be easy to find a profitable
EASTERN SIBERIA 241
market for surplus Siberian grain, owing to the inaccessibility
of the country. Hence many authorities are of opinion that
the future of the east Siberian peasant lies in stock-raising
id daky -farming rather than in corn-growing.
►ut the Governor-General of the Priamur hoped that the
lilding of a good harbour at Nikolaevsk would ensure to the
imers the prosperity which is threatened by the opening
bhe Amur Railway, and also establish a large bean and grain
lustry on the Sungari and the Amur between Blagovyesh-
msk, Nikolaevsk, and Kharbin.
\ansbaikal. — The Transbaikal is sparsely populated.
Cattle-farming is much more developed than agriculture. But
the quality of the land is excellent. Spring corn is the chief
cereal, forming 50 per cent, of the total crop. Then come
wheat (16 per cent.) and oats (15 per cent.). Barley, buck-
wheat, and in places millet, flax, and hemp are also sown.
But harvests are uncertain, and there are frequent local
failures. Artificial irrigation is necessary in the principal
agricultural districts, such as the Nerchinsk and Aksha, the
natives using ditches for the purpose, but the irrigation
should be systematized. In the Selenginsk district the sowing
takes place early in May and the harvest in August, before the
autumn frosts begin.
Potatoes are grown everywhere for local use, but other
vegetables only on a small scale. Considering the high prices
realized, it is surprising that they are not more cultivated.
Amur and Maritime Provinces. — Agriculture is at present
the chief occupation in the Amur Province, but in the Maritime
Province, in spite of the richness of the soil, the climate is not
favourable to its development. There is little snow in winter.
Hence the land freezes so deep that the subsoil remains frozen
throughout the year. In summer the rainfall is heavy.
Damp is the chief enemy. Clover and fodder-grass do not
flourish, and there is much rot. Of some 567,000,000 acres
only about 850,000 were sown in 1906. But the area under
crops is steadily increasing, especially in the Ussuri region and
on the Zeya-Bureya plain.
SIBERIA I n
242
AGRICULTURE
Amur Province. — At the time of the first Russian invasion,
the Daurians on the Amur were great agriculturists. The
soil along the railway, which freezes to a depth of 200 or
300 ft., consists of a sticky clay that only thaws for 3 ft. This
is covered with coarse grass or scrubby vegetation. But the
Zeya-Bureya plain is very fertile, and is now largely settled.
Fields of corn extend as far as the eye can reach. Between
1907-10 an average of 220,892 tons of cereals was produced,
and the output should increase rapidly.
The following are the statistics of the 1911 harvest :
Tom
Tons
Oats
. 118,000
Beans
56
Wheat .
. 110,200
Millet .
1,200
Rye
2,500
Corn
19
Barley .
980
Hemp and flax
140
Buckwheat .
600
Potatoes
21,900
Potatoes do well, averaging 12 cwt. to the acre.
The Amur Province is the best market for agricultural
machinery in eastern Siberia.
In 1910 there were 43 steam mills, 111 water-mills, and
60 windmills in the Amur Province. Blagovyeshchensk
possessed 9 steam-mills. There were also 38 rice and groats
mills in the Amur and Maritime Provinces.
The following table shows the flour produced in 1911 by
the Blagovyeshchensk mills. Of the 100,806 tons of grain
used, 37,250 came from the Amur Province, and 63,556 from
Manchuria. The 1,310 tons of rye were all grown in the
province.
Flour produced for :
Wheat.
Bye.
Tons.
Tons.
Blagovyeshchensk .
28,200
400
Mining districts
8,560
84
Zeya-Pristan
. 6,250
56
Commissary Department
Other markets
6,500
620
19,900
140
Total
69,410
1,300
In the same year Blagovyeshchensk imported from Man-
Ma
EASTERN SIBERIA 243
churia 2,347 tons of wheat flour, and from Odessa and other
places 305 tons.
In the short summer, carrots, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages,
even water-melons, and of course beets, do well almost every-
where on the newly-cleared land by the Amur Railway. The
Chinese and Koreans grow most of the vegetables. Blago-
vyeshchensk is entirely supplied by the Chinese across the
er, with whom the Russians cannot compete.
Maritime Province. — The mountainous character of the
aritime Province as a whole is not favourable to agriculture.
The fertile territory lies to the south, round Nikolsk-Ussuriski
and Lake Khanka, and in the Ussuri valley. The winter is
long, with little snow, while an annual precipitation of
22 inches of rain falls between May and September. Fogs
are common in the south, and many parts of the province
suffer from floods. These are especially frequent on the Iman,
while east of Lake Khanka in the Prikhankoisk region
500,000 acres of arable land are made useless by inunda-
tions in summer. It has been proposed that the district
should be reclaimed by improving the outflow through the
Sungacha. In 1910, 80,192 acres were damaged by frost,
floods, insects, and other causes. The Russians had to learn
from the Koreans how to protect their fields from floods and
fogs. The Cossacks, who own large tracts of land, preferred
to let it to these skilled farmers, whom the Government policy
of Russifying the region is steadily driving out. It is impos-
sible for a Russian peasant to compete with a Korean,
not merely on account of the extraordinary skill of his
intensive farming, but on account of his low standard of
living.
The average size of a holding in the Maritime Province is
about 15 acres. Means of communication are very defective,
but the Government is building new roads. Farmers are also
encouraged to sow soya beans, flax, hemp, and beets, for which
the country is better suited than for grains. Indeed, the
beets are so good that there is talk of starting a beet-sugar
factory in Vladivostok. An agricultural school, the first in
Q2
244 AGRICULTURE
the Far East, was to be established at Nikolsk-Ussuriski, the
centre of the flourishing farming district in the south.
The yield of the various crops in 1911 was as follows :
Bushels.
Tons.
Wheat
Rye .
Barley
Oats .
. 2,197,249
231,317
197,837
. 3,836,784
Buckwheat
Millet
Soya beans
Flax and hemp .
15,274
6,049
3,309
2,944
There are 115 steam-mills, 220 water-mills, and 139 wind-
mills in the Maritime Province.
Until some attempt at drainage is made, and the old coarse
grass is removed, the hay in the Ussuri district will always be
rank. It often smells so disagreeable that cattle refuse to
eat it.
Potatoes are a very important crop. Vegetables do well and
sell well, but the Chinese and Koreans reap most of the profits.
Considerable success has been obtained in fruit-growing, and
attempts are being made to establish it on a business basis.
At Barabash an apple is said to have been produced not
inferior to the Calif ornian varieties. It is hoped that in time
the large imports of fruit, especially from Japan, will become
unnecessary. Grapes of a poor quality grow wild in the
southern Ussuri district. The inhabitants make wine from
them for local use.
Sakhalin. Wheat, barley, oats, spring corn, and even winter
rye are sown, mostly in small patches by ex-convicts. Three-
to four-fold is a good harvest. Vegetables, notably potatoes
and cabbages, do pretty well. The soil is good in places.
Yakutsk and the North-east. — A recent commission has
decided that agriculture could be advantageously carried on
in the Yakutsk Province. Hitherto it has proved most suc-
cessful in the Lena valley and on the Olekma and Aldan.
The flourishing Skoptsi colonies near Olekminsk and Yakutsk
grow wheat, summer rye, barley, and oats. These Skoptsi
import modern agricultural machinery, and own two or
three steam flour-mills. Most of the Yakuts grow wheat. In
fact, grain already ripens at about lat. 64° N. Barley ripens in
EASTERN SIBERIA 245
71 days, spring corn in 92, oats in 82, and wheat in 76 days.
But the harvest is very moderate.
Vegetable-growing in a small way is carried on as far north
as the Kolima and the Verkhoyansk regions. Barley some-
times ripens near Verkhoyansk. The Skoptsi of Markha, near
Itkutsk, are remarkably successful with vegetables, especially
tatoes and cabbages. But the natives of the tundra are
d busy fishing in summer to waste their energies on occu-
tions so unremunerative as agriculture and vegetable-
growing. The bleak shores of the Sea of Okhotsk are very
unfavourable to agriculture. Even potatoes will not ripen
near the mouth of the Uda, though barley and excellent vege-
tables are grown inland round Udski-Ostrog. Yet cabbages
and even cauliflowers do well in the more sheltered region
of Yamsk. In Kamchatka the rich black earth and com-
parative dryness of the soil between Verkhne-Kamchatsk and
Klyuchevskaya make agriculture possible in the valley of the
Kamchatka, and barley and vegetables ripen round Petro-
pavlovsk. Indeed, vegetables such as potatoes, beets, carrots,
radishes, and cabbages are grown in most of the villages of
the peninsula. In the Petropavlovsk district over 100 acres
are sown with vegetables. Potatoes and turnips have ripened
at Siktyakh, on the Lena, and there are several small kitchen
gardens at Markovo on the Anadir. The example of Alaska
shows that there is no reason why the growing of vegetables
should not be widely extended in these regions.
Opium and Tobacco
The Ussuri region is very favourable to the poppy, and
it used to send a quantity of opium to China. Russians are
not addicted to the drug, but the Cossacks, who are not good
agriculturists, readily let their land to the Chinese grower
for £10 an acre. They are thus enabled to live in idleness, and
they rapidly become demoralized. Not only does the poppy
exhaust the ground, but it diminishes the output of beehives
in the neighbourhood by 75 per cent. Moreover, it attracts
Chinese of a very undesirable type. In 1911 some 10,000 acres
246
AGRICULTURE
were under poppy, and much more is probably grown illicitly
in the remoter districts. Its sale, except as a drug, is illegal
in Russia, but there is a large contraband Chinese traffic.
Indeed, so alarmingly has the trade increased, that the growing
of the poppy is to be prohibited by law. In 1913 the crops
were destroyed by order of the Government.
Some tobacco is grown in the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk Pro-
vinces. About 600 acres were under tobacco in the Maritime
Province in 1911.
Cedar-nuts
Cedar-nuts, which give good oil, are gathered for eating in
the Amur Province, and in much larger quantities on the
upper Yenisei and the upper courses of the tributaries of the
Angara. In the Sayansk taiga, especially, the industry is
organized on a commercial basis. September and October are
the months for collecting. Wooden mortars are used for
husking the cones. The forests lie in the heart of the Sayansk
taiga. In a good season, which occurs every 4-5 years,
800 tons are sent to Krasnoyarsk from the Yenisei.
Crops of Siberia and Stfppes
Mean crop
1913.
(1908-12).
Tons.
Tons.
Wheat .
. 3,215,920
2,069,250
Barley .
254,460
158,110
Oats
1,899,310
1,239,240
Rye
888,020
739,090
Hay
. 11,549,860
1914.
Buckwheat
58,840
Millet .
202,500
Maize
5,870
Leguminous croj
>s . 31,930
Potatoes
. 1,637,500
EASTERN SIBERIA
247
Area under Crops in
1911
Potatoes
Province.
Total Culti-
vated Area.
Cereals.
6c Legu-
minous
Crops.
Flax.
Acres.
Hemp.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Tobolsk
3,821,500
3,679,060
64,416
51,529
26,495
Tomsk
7,183,380
6,822,341
174,250
91,950
94,840
Akmolinsk .
1,801,730
1,687,035
40,073
69,473
5,146
Semipalatinsk
628,200
617,190
7,680
2,400
930
Irkutsk
993,300
960,600
23,500
1,300
7,900
Yeniseisk
1,223,000
1,159,100
34,840
9,280
19,780
Transbaikal
929,700
907,400
20,700
1,600
Yakutsk
33,800
32,600
1,200
Amur
698,500
683,940
13,200
400
960
Primorsk
656,200
604,700
40,500
8,130
2,870
Sakhalin
5,700
4,560
1,140
Total .
17,975,010
17,158,526
421,499
234,462
160,521
CHAPTER X
LIVE-STOCK
Domestic animals — Apiculture — Dairy industry
Domestic Animals
In western Siberia the raising of live-stock is a great occu-
pation of the inhabitants, though more to meet their own
needs than for the purposes of trade with other nations. In
eastern Siberia, especially with regard to horses and cattle,
it is better developed than agriculture, but is still far from
sufficing for the needs of the country. The figures for the
principal .live-stock in 1911 were as follows :
Province.
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep
{coarse wool)
Tobolsk ... 749,672
900,201
624,215
Tomsk
2,173,733
2,469,049
2,403,724
Akmolinsk
1,064,229
1,289,061
2,064,462
Semipalatinsk
957,926
856,830
2,792,699
Yeniseisk
494,157
500,139
724,004
Yakutsk .
88,138
241,674
135
Irkutsk .
287,518
354,622
203,518
Amur
101,206
75,231
11,836
Transbaikal
591,588
1,003,145
1,021,967
Primorsk
109,516
171,618
4,640
Sakhalin .
1,797
4,315
7,865,885
6,619,480
9,851,200
Province. Sheep
Goats.
Pigs.
{fine fleece)
Tobolsk .... 3,251
20,713
154,786
Tomsk .
23,118
64,168
508,253
Akmolinsk
27,125
133,185
45,359
Semipalatinsk
13,251
8,063
Yeniseisk
4,775
7,472
1:23,307
Yakutsk .
217
Irkutsk .
29,468
79,452
Amur
83
48,200
Transbaikal
103,082
119,366
Primorsk .
200
91,187
Sakhalin .
74
1,400
71,520 358,445 1,179,590
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 249
Horses predominate among the Kirghiz, who breed them
for transport, meat, and kumis, which is manufactured from
their milk : the Kirghiz ride wherever they go, however short
the distance. When they change from a nomadic to a settled
life, the number of their horses decreases and that of their
cattle increases. The tribes of the Altai largely breed horses ;
from their mares' milk a spirit called terasum is prepared. In
le rest of Siberia the horses are bred mainly for farm-work or
act as post-horses.
The chief breeds in Siberia are the Kuznetsk and Kirghiz.
In the south of Tobolsk the native horse is interbred with
the Kirghiz variety. This cross-breed is of extraordinary
speed and staying power. The horses in Tomsk are bigger ;
they are not so swift, but can carry great weights. The
Siberian horse is usually small, easily satisfied as to food and
water, and can endure heat and cold. It is fast, but not
extremely strong : its normal load does not exceed from
720 to 900 lb. Only the superior sort of dray-horses draw
1,000 to 1,080 lb. (or, for a short distance, 1,260). There is
but little breeding with English and American horses, except
for the carriage-horses of very rich men. But high-stepping
horses thus bred can be seen at certain places, e. g. Tyumen
and Tomsk.
There are certain breeding-places, especially in the Tomsk
Government, where stallions are kept ; their number was
much increased in 1912. Besides these there are stud farms
in the Tomsk, Tobolsk, and Semipalatinsk Provinces. Horse-
shows have been introduced in the towns of Tomsk and
Barnaul and the village of Bryukhanovo, in the Tomsk Govern-
ment.
In eastern Siberia horse-breeding is an important industry.
The Transbaikal horse is the best known and most popular
in the southern districts. The Cossacks of the Amur prefer
it to any other, and it is the only breed used in Sakhalin.
It is small, thin, hardy, and well suited to endure a rough life.
It is 12 or 13 hands high, can draw a load of 1,000 lbs., and
cover any distance at 40 miles a day in a troika. So light is
250 LIVE-STOCK
the snowfall in the Transbaikal and Amur Provinces that it
can graze all the year round in the open. The vostretz grass
(meadow-grass) of the Transbaikal, which affords almost better
food in winter than in summer, keeps the horses in condition
there. In the Amur Province, where there is no such grass,
they get thin in winter, though they quickly fatten again in
spring. But the breed degenerates rapidly there. The
Government has recently started stud farms with good
stallions in the Transbaikal and Yakutsk Provinces in order
to improve the breed. In the Transbaikal the average price
of a horse is about 5 guineas, at Blagovyeshchensk from
10 to 20 guineas.
In the Yakutsk Province the ugly little Yakut horse, with
its shaggy coat, displays astonishing endurance. It often lives
out of doors in winter, and is even used within the Arctic circle.
Cattle, — The Siberiaks are much more careless about their
cattle than the emigrants, for they allow them to remain out
in the winter without any shelter except such as is given
them by their coats, which are as a rule very thick. Cattle-
raising is especially developed in the Tyukalinsk district of
Tobolsk and in the Kainsk steppe and about the Chulim in
Tomsk. Cattle have increased in value ; formerly they were
worth about £1 each ; latterly they could command from £2 to
£4. The local prices for meat range low ; so it is more profitable,
when possible, to use them for dairy purposes. Consequently
there has been a decline in the hide and meat trades. The
export of cattle themselves is inconsiderable — in 1911,
65,000 head (£250,000). The great commercial centres of the
cattle trade are Petropavlovsk and Omsk (where the railway
crosses the Ishim and the Irtish). From the former meat is
exported to European Russia at the rate of 30,000,000 tons
a year. Further west there is not enough cold storage for
trade, but some firms are establishing cold storage plants along
the railway. In the steppes cattle are bred for meat, as well
as for dairy purposes, but the meat is mostly for local con-
sumption, and of little economic value, though a certain
amount is exported frozen in winter to Petrograd, Moscow,
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 251
and the far east from the region between Petropavlovsk and
Novo-Nikolaevsk ; there is no export in the summer. Some
time ago a German company was said to be organizing the
export of Siberian meat, especially veal, to Berlin.
Both the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk Provinces are poorly off for
cattle. But stock-raising is the chief occupation of the nomads
of Minusinsk, Achinsk, and Turukhansk, and of the natives
of the Balagansk and Verkholensk regions. The Minusinsk
district alone has enough for its own needs. In southern
Yeniseisk each peasant possesses, on an average, 2 horses,
5 cattle, and 10 sheep. All the oats and hay are kept for food
for the stock in the winter. Large herds of the fine, fleshy
Soyot cattle enter the Irkutsk Province every year through
the Sayansk Range for the supply of meat to Siberia. As
many as 30,000 cattle are said to reach Irkutsk by a single
track. The animals are kept in quarantine for a fortnight and
are medically examined before crossing the frontier.
In Transbaikal cattle-raising is very successful, especially
among the nomad tribes. Thanks to the vostretz grass, it
should be capable of considerable development. There is even
a co-operative society, with its centre at Chita, which engages
in purchasing cattle for the army. As many as 150,000 hides
are annually exported from this province. They are used to
cover tea-chests. Owing to the rough life the effects of
attempts to improve the breed have only become visible in the
last few generations. The average price of a cow is £3 15s. ;
of a pair of bullocks, £10 15s.
In the Amur and Maritime Provinces the cattle are Man-
churian or Korean. As they are never milked at home, they
only give milk while the calf is with them. In Blagovyesh-
chensk cows of local breed cost from £8 5s. to £12 10s ; bulls
from £8 6s. 8d. to £12 10s. Some authorities believe that the
future of the Amur Province lies in cattle-breeding rather than
in agriculture, and vigorous efforts are to be made to en-
courage it. At present the greater part of the meat supply
comes from Manchuria. In 1907, 5,000 head of Manchurian
cattle and sheep were imported. The chief fairs are at
252 LIVE-STOCK
Blagovyeshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolsk-Ussuriski, and Vladi-
vostok. Australian meat has been imported into Vladivostok
in small quantities.
The cattle are of small breed ; the average live weight of
cows is 510 to 650 lb., of bulls 800 to 930 lb. ; the Altai
breed is bigger. On account of the rigorous climate of Siberia
it is little use to import foreign breeds. A small number of
Simmenthal and Allhausen cattle have been purchased at
Moscow and introduced into Siberia, but only by the well-to-
do. Cattle as a rule are free from tuberculosis, but suffer from
Siberian plague and from foot and mouth disease (yashchur).
Quarantine regulations have practically extinguished rinder-
pest, which in certain years, such as 1884, wrought great
disaster. Despite the primitive nature of their keep, the
Siberian cattle stand the climate well.
Sheep. — The ordinary Siberian sheep is of a poor breed ;
it yields little meat, very little tallow, and inferior wool.
The Kirghiz sheep vary in colour ; they are grey, white,
black, and sometimes red ; the Kirghiz prefer the grey and
white, as their wool fetches a better price in the markets.
They are shorn twice a year, yielding from four to six pounds of
unwashed wool, which is largely used for felt, both for local
needs and in the factories of western Siberia. The Kirghiz
sheep in winter cannot get at their food through the snow ;
so they follow in the wake of the horses and cattle, and eat
what pasture is left for them. One type of Kirghiz sheep
has a thick pad of fat on its rump, which affords much tallow.
Tallow factories are common in the western Siberian towns,
but there is not enough to meet the local needs, and tallow is
imported.
Since 1900 a breed of fine-fleece merino sheep has been
introduced ; it is of Spanish origin and was reared in the
Crimea ; it prospers in the Semipalatinsk and Akmolinsk
Governments, and in the Altai in the Zmyeinogorsk district.
The average yield of unwashed wool is 13 lb. to 15 lb., the
best rams yielding up to 36 lb., the best ewes up to 22£ lb.
The wool sells at Kharkov from 16s. to £1 4s. the pud. The
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 253
sheep are brought by considerably reduced tariffs to the
steppe and Altai regions. The wool exported to European
Russia in 1911 was worth £400,000. A considerable quantity
of the wool goes to Irbit and thence to Nizhne-Novgorod and
the interior of European Russia by rail and water, or else
by the Irtish to the Perm Railway, and so by the Kama
and Volga to the centre of Russia. In old days the sheep
that found no place in the fresh-meat market were sent to
the salgani and salted for the winter, and sold for as little as
Id. or \d. the lb. ; now only a smaJl amount of meat goes
to the salgani.
Sheep-breeding seems likely to become an important in-
dustry in the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk Provinces, now that the
merino sheep has been acclimatized in central Siberia. The
plains of the Yenisei have been found to be suitable for sheep-
farming on a large scale, and it is probable that the numbers
are already far greater than in 1911. The soil yields excellent
forage and in a good season sufficient hay can be obtained for
several years. The cost- of transferring flocks from Russia
is heavy, but the Government is providing subsidies for this
purpose and for the development of new sheep-farms. The
sheep are killed for their wool and their tallow. There is as
yet no regular demand for mutton. Indeed an elaborate
system of refrigerators would have to be organized before it
would be possible to find and supply a regular market with
meat.
In Transbaikal the sheep are large, with an average height
of over 2 ft. The wool is coarse, thick, and of medium length.
The average price is £1 12s. 2d. In the Amur Province the
absence of dry pasturage is unfavourable to sheep. The few
that are bred are Mongolian.
Goats are bred by the Kirghiz, Cossacks, and Russian
peasants. The industry of preparing goat's hair coverings
is developing among the emigrants in Turgai. Large numbers
of goats are kept by the natives of Transbaikal. In 1914
there were 114,105 there.
Pigs. — The Russian pig is a strong animal, and stands the
254 LIVE-STOCK
discomforts of temperature and crowding well. It is only
the Russian population who keep pigs east of the Ural ;
the Kirghiz, being Mohammedans, are not allowed to eat or
keep them. Development of the bacon industry promises
well, because the growth of dairy-farming has meant abundant
supplies of butter-milk for pig food. The amount of bacon
exported went up from 700 tons in 1908 to 4,800 tons in
1911. There is a proposal for a British company to acquire
the waste lands along the banks of the Ob, and to place
them under grass-cultivation for breeding bacon-pigs, so
that there should be ultimately an enormous bacon-export
by the Kara Sea. Kurgan contains a sausage factory, and
there are at least two bacon factories in Siberia.
In Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, and Transbaikal pig-breeding is
carried on extensively. In Transbaikal the animals are Man-
churian and of poor quality. They are small and lean, but
they increase rapidly. The breed is being improved by
imported swine. The average price is £1 12s. 2d. Pigs are
not numerous in the Amur Province, but in the Primorsk the
pig-industry is considerably developed, especially on the Ussuri.
Greater care might make it more successful than it has proved
hitherto. Here also the breed is Manchurian.
Camels are bred by the Kirghiz, and in a few cases by
Russian emigrants : those with single humps are larger,
and supposed to be stronger than those with two. The camels
are better cared for by their masters than the cattle are ;
they are very sensitive to cold, and so winter forage is stored
for them. They are used for transport purposes and also
for their milk and hair, which is obtained once a year in the
spring, giving an average of 12 lb. per camel.
The camels in the Transbaikal, of which there were 10,992
in 1911, are strong and of great endurance. A pair of them
can carry 20-25 cwt. The average price is about £10 155.
Reindeer are found in great numbers in the north of
Tobolsk Government and to some extent in the Narim district
of Tomsk. It is very difficult to obtain any idea of their
numbers, but they have been estimated at 515,000 in Tobolsk,
DOMESTIC ANIMALS 255
and 2,000 in Tomsk. To the Ostyak and Samoyede who
possess them, the reindeer means everything — milk, meat,
clothing, travelling, and traction.
There are small herds of reindeer in the Amur and Irkutsk
Provinces. In 1906 there were said to be 515,000 reindeer
in the Yeniseisk Province, principally in the Turukhansk region,
)5,360 reindeer in the Yakutsk Province, 80 per cent, of
;hem being in the Verkhoyansk and Kolima districts. In
the Kamchatka Province, including the Chukchee Peninsula,
there were 287,000 reindeer. These numbers can only be
ipproximate. The Chukchee have the largest herds of
reindeer in the world.
In the north reindeer and sledge dogs are the only domestic
animals.
Maral deer are kept in the Altai, along the upper Irtish,
and in the southern regions of the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk
Provinces. They are a kind of wapiti, which are kept in
special farms (maralniki). Their horns, cut off in the velvet,
are sold to the Chinese, who extract from it a drug (panty),
much esteemed by them, but of very doubtful efficacy. The
price of horns fluctuates very much, depending on the state
of the markets : it commonly varies from 14s. to £1 per lb.
But those horns which are sold with the frontal bone are
considerably dearer — £10 or even occasionally £20 per lb. —
as it is then necessary to kill the animal. As the horns attain
a weight of 101b. and the average weight is 5 or 6 lb., and
the keep costs practically nothing, it can be seen that this
form of deer-breeding is very profitable. In Transbaikal the
izyubr or wapiti (Gervus canadensis), which closely resembles
the maral, is bred instead, while in the Primorsk,in addition to
the izyubr, the aksis, the most valuable of all these deer, is
found. The horns of the aksis fetch from £3 to £3 10s. per
lb. Of the 10,000 deer of this type in maralniki in Asiatic
Russia in 1911, 3,125 were in the Maritime Province, especially
near Olgi Bay and the Suchan River. The industry is likely
to develop still further. The kabargi or musk-deer (Moschus
moschiferus) is also being bred commercially ; it is highly
256 LIVE-STOCK
valued by the Chinese for the medicinal properties of its musk
and its horns.
Poultry, <fbc. — There is a certain export of eggs from Kurgan.
Owing to the presence of many lakes and ponds, duck- and
goose-breeding might have considerable development, but it
takes a long time to start. Siberian geese are comparatively
small.
Apicultube
This is a very old industry in Russia, recorded as long ago
as the eleventh century ; the Russian princes used to levy
tribute of wax and honey on their conquered subjects. The
bee has had almost a sacred character because of the wax
candles used in religious worship. The decay of the industry
is said to be due to the drying up of the steppes, and in some
parts to the destruction of the forests ; but there are parts
of western Siberia in which it is very active, expecially the
districts of Kuznetsk, Biisk, Zmyeinogorsk, and Ust-Kameno-
gorsk ; there is also some beekeeping as far north as the
district of Tomsk, and among the Urals, where there are
artels for beekeeping, e. g. at Verkhne-Tagilski. In the
Achinsk and Minusinsk districts, in the south of Yeniseisk,
there are over 45,000 hives. The Little Russians have here
introduced the latest methods. Apiculture in the Amur
Province is on a small scale, but growing rapidly in import-
ance. It is concentrated along the Ityela, the Khara, and the
Zavitaya, where 92 villages carry it on on commercial lines
with 2,757 hives. In 1911 44,345 lb. of honey and 4,434 lb.
of wax were sold. The climate and vegetation of the Amur
Province are very favourable to apiculture. Its slow growth
is due to the fact that the peasants find other work more
profitable. Bee-keeping is also very successfully carried on
in the Maritime Province, notably round Nikolsk-Ussuriski.
Besides artels in certain places other help is given to bee-
keepers : a considerable number of expert instructors is
available, and local government bodies sell bee-culture
equipments at reduced rates, where desirable. It is estimated
APICULTURE 257
I that the collective output of Siberia is about one-fifth of the
output of the whole Russian Empire. The most recent figures
available are those for (a) private owners in 1910, and (b)
peasants in 1908.
Number
Honey.
Average price
Wax.
Average price
of hives.
per pud.
per pud.
(tons).
£ s. d.
(tons).
£ s. d.
Siberia
682,878
1,765
16 6
197
2 8
Steppes .
75,296
154
17 2
20£
2 1 9
Siberia .
640,892
1,657
12 1
183"
1 3
Central
71,686 313£ 10 3 31 2 2
Dairy Industry
The dairy industry has developed with more astonishing
rapidity than any other undertaking in Siberia. Before 1893
only toplennoe (boiled or melted butter) was manufactured
in Siberia ; it sold at an average of 12s. per pud, and required
32 puds of milk to produce one pud, the average price of
milk being <±%d. or 4fd. per pud. It is still made by the
Russian peasants but not exported. In 1893 the first dairy
farm was begun near Tyumen by the English wife of a Russian.
The new article sold at from £1 to £1 4s. the pud, and required
20 or 22 puds of milk for one pud. In the course of ten
years the amount developed, under government patronage,
to 32,000 tons, worth about £2,500,000. The growth of the
industry was so astonishing that between 1900 and 1902 the
number of dairies had increased by 91 per cent. Government
encouraged it by granting loans, for which the live-stock
of the peasants was sufficient security, and subsidies to
village communities for establishing dairies. In 1903 an
additional £200,000 was granted for starting dairies on the
artel system, by which several peasants distributed the pro-
ceeds in proportion to the amount of milk provided ; it
becomes a general or public dairy when the group is extended
so as to include the whole village community. Further, the
Government established technical dairy schools at Kurgan,
Omsk, Kainsk, Barnaul, and Zmyeinogorsk, a central labora-
SIBEBIA I R
258 LIVE-STOCK
tory at Tomsk, and local laboratories in five other centres,
and refrigerating stores began to be erected along the railway.
Butter is small in bulk and can be profitably exported.
The export trade, which began in 1897, is mainly in the hands
of firms in Moscow, hitherto largely managed by Germans and
Danes. Lately more interest has been taken by British com-
merce in this industry, but only one or two British firms have
established offices in Siberia, and only one British house has
regular offices in its own name at the principal centres of
export. Siberian cheese also finds a ready market at home,
but the better grades are also sold throughout Europe.
Siberian milk contains an exceptionally high proportion
of fat. The pasture is rich, and the cattle eat much and
drink little. Owing to its richness the average yield is 1 lb.
of butter to 20-05 lb. of milk, whereas in Denmark it is to
28 lb. The Siberian cow is long lived ; its meat is inferior,
so that most are kept for dairy purposes ; fodder cannot be
exported at a profit, and will therefore continue to be cheap
in the country. Cattle are now fed scientifically on preserved
fodder. A cow brings in from 14s. to £1 Is. a month in accor-
dance with the season.
The Government aim at having an artel dairy in each
village ; any one of average industry and intelligence after
three months' training at a dairy school is competent to be
engaged by an artel to direct their labour. There are instruc-
tors with about ten dairies under them, who have usually!
been Germans or Danes. Most of the dairies work with hand-
or horse-power, steam being less applicable in out-of-the-way
places. Pasteurization of milk is being introduced, and cemenl
floors in dairies are to be obligatory. The dairies purchase
milk from neighbouring farmers and cream from those more
distant. Many farmers churn their own butter and sell i 1
to the dairies to be rewashed, tested, classified, packed anc
sent off to the market-centres. The cost of milk at the dairie
is 4:d. a gallon ; the price obtained for butter varies fron
9|d to 8%d. a pound. In 1910 15 butter factories producec
up to 7,500 lb. ; 30 between 7,500 and 12,500 lb. ; 15 up t<
DAIRY INDUSTRY 259
18,000 lb. ; 11 up to 25,000 lb. ; 8 up to 40,000 lb. In 1912
there were 1,060 dairies in Tobolsk, and 2,042 in Tomsk.
Of this total of 3,102, there were 1,784 in private hands, and
1,318 managed by artels (42-5 per cent, of the whole).
Everything is done to help the export trade, which is
irected to the Baltic ports by butter trains, which take
:ecedence of all other goods traffic. They start from Novo-
fikolaevsk during the summer (especially in June and July)
m to fourteen times a week. The ice-trucks have a carrying
ipacity of from 7J tons to 22| tons. The train is made up
it the various butter-transit centres with ready -loaded trucks
far as Chelyabinsk, and reaches the number of twenty-five
nicks. Among the chief centres of the trade are Omsk,
rhich is a sort of clearing-house for exportation of butter,
md Kurgan, which is the main distributing-point for home
and foreign markets, and where all butter exported is subject
to a preliminary investigation by state officials, members
of the Agronomical Organization. On arrival at the ports,
especially Riga (and Windau before the war), it is loaded on
special refrigerators, and so on to the steamers which convey
it to London, Hamburg, Hull, and Copenhagen, of which the
last named does a considerable amount of re-exportation.
The sea-freight to British ports costs about 5d. per pud.
There are extensive refrigerators at the chief loading stations.
This is the main route of the butter trade, but the Kurgan
Farmers' Association has been pressing the importance of
pushing the trade in south European Russia, and there is
a great opening for it in the Far East, which depends on
tinned Canadian milk and tinned Australian butter. It is
said that Siberian butter actually improves by being kept
in cold storage, even up to six months.
A few figures will show the rapid development of the industry
and its present proportions. Starting from nothing in 1893,
the export of butter in 1903 was 35,225 tons, the principal
centres being Kurgan, which exported 8,227 tons, and Novo-
Nikolaevsk, through which came the Altai butter, which
exported 8,066| tons. In 1912 there was a great development ;
R2
: •
the transport by the Siberian lanway
cent, between April and October en the
same period the Tear before. To
were eiported as eomwured with
A larger proportion of what was sent
interior markets o*i Rwfinaw Ihe annorti
-".-. -.<: ' •.-:-.-.:• ..;\ . 7-.:\-.v..
exported from Siberia, ehieny from Tehekk and
in 1 ^ worth £2L$36J00:
in 1911 is. wort
In 1913 the amoont exported
and for none consumption 71.300 tc
of The war caused a peat decrease o wine to
abnormal conditions and the dosmg of the Bailie ported bail
even in 1914 there went from Barnaul £1,130 tons, and from
Dairy-farming *> ^ mnch lees importance m eastern
Siberia, Yeniseisk only supplies 1-2 per cent, of the Siberian
prodace on the market. In Transradial the cat tie are
small and yield little milk : this is especially trae of t he
Buryat cattle. Mongolian in orkin.
Dairy-farming is sJowiy incf ea si n g m Ine Maritime Ro vm t e.
In 1911 this province only contained fire co-operative dairies,]
but in 1913 there were eighteen. In 1911 local butte
from l* 11a*. to 3s. *(. a lb., bat in 1913 it was only 1*. A*.
Nearly all the dairy produce is the work of the four summer
months. The local dealers often have contracts with wees
an nrms. Hence the butter fails to become known
locally. Proposals hare been made for haiHmg coMkstoiagt
and ^ msat. and even further north, but caule-raisins
oan never be profitable in these regions.
CHAPTER XI
TIMBER IS
Itanm a^v roan tk*M
vitk tfce Y*st *rvt* «€ Si S?ri* oc vwd by
iwhBsrry b iKaHilmkk TW ikwt
:- :a.- : ; - - ..a ;: :>.; : --".v-
puts, lite deetrat**)* «f tke fmstes in tins*
like tfce fctdks «ld»C% art bttdk vfceaee i* is ws&
e*>dhr trMssrors^i. tite bulk of tw»Wf. w«i Uttufcue tie
fc& v* scvvfcx-ea sack * disttepaarr bet wvea Ike pitt dhKt irjfcT
Jjftaf jf F^y«^- I? k estiMAted iktt sfeen* we * fr ogf O * c
nt.a » • ♦ • s - - As r. » : ---'\..'\- v;
part ts i wx jq p to redL wfeile * HM fe* d te i » Me £vr* ioa Kwwds tke
■wU cvcsc*:* of rah&el - State » t»e o wnwa i of
<fcd OiXXaW a<re^ of «&&?* 39* per cea* , t$ efessiMl *> rick
j -1 ^ n.' ' - - >■"-*: yrvyoc: - *- S \v- .•/-- - -
t&Ksifedi in Kurvxvtui Rwsj: - Ate :&e
praaeipal owt*?r itt
jfchkwsj > e^tate^s <tf toe Ah*i l Tke State fcves-
-_ •'.•>; -..- •:.•—-- .i> . s - . ; . - > .;'?-iv.-.'.irV. T.tv
i_ . ' : ■ - s
Of tfeese >"3A3s* tv-r^:> <*f A>s*,sc Rasa* «|> re* JFttwary 1,
miv«l> M^«eret«$»afl^aadca^tts*:
*on& we mT*$tt$at«dL rix^se t *v> >ni% *o nraftaiag
fib* 15 per tea*, of tfce vtafe 1ft IMt «** 1*15 tMte
■tat*
262 TIMBER INDUSTRY
44,075,900 acres were organized and investigated, and it
was hoped that by the beginning of 1915 nearly a quarter of
the whole area of State forests would have been thus dealt
with. The average Siberian forestry district exceeds the
wooded area of all Great Britain (3,037,500 acres). The
average allotment is 311,850 acres, but this computation
includes a great part of the northern district, which is prac-
tically valueless. No wood of economic value is obtained
north of lat. 60° N., though larches grow to lat. 68° N. on
the east side of the Urals. The height and diameter of the
northerly trees are small ; they grow very slowly, and their
wood is weak and poor. Taller and better trunks are only
to be found at some isolated, dry places, but, unless trees
grow conveniently close to one another, they are not of much
commercial value.
Trade. — The Siberian timber trade, as a whole, is disappoint-
ing. In 1911 in the whole of Asiatic Russia 1,800,750,000
cubic feet of timber were assigned for sale, but only 10 per
cent, was sold. From the State forests of Asiatic Russia in
1910 were realized £423,400; in 1911, £407,900; in 1912,
£425,900. The value of each desyatin (2-7 acres) was roughly
Is. 10^d. in Akmolinsk ; \\d. in Tobolsk ; \\d. or lfcZ. in
Tomsk. As regards the State forests of Siberia only, in 1911
there were 558,002,916 acres, of which 211,087,351 were
worked directly by the Government . The birch-bark, bast, &c . ,
produced were about 1,260 tons. The total amount of pro-
duced material was 126,662,011 cubic feet. The gross receipts
were £273,293, and the net profit £60,994.
Administration. — Paid forest guards are appointed to look
after the forests of western Siberia, and the peasants are
supposed to see to the forests put at their disposal. The
administration only allows that part of the forest to be cut
each year which is specially assigned, and control is exer-
cised over the raftage and steamer- wharves. The Forestry
Administration is undermanned. A law was passed in 1889
that those engaged in the timber trade should, under pay-
ment of a deposit, replant the forest land laid bare. But
TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 263
this is seldom done, most deposits are forfeited, and only
14 per cent, is replanted. Forest fires are a frequent calamity ;
hey are caused mainly by the burning of the grass in spring
d by sparks from engines. The latter cause, coupled with
e hewing of wood to meet the needs of the railway, means
t there is never much forest in the neighbourhood of the
ines. Severe storms also do much damage where the wood
is thin.
The Western Provinces. — The most recent figures for the
State forests in the western provinces are as follows :
Forest
Districts.
Allot-
ments.
Area : acres.
Suitable Forest
Soil : acres.
Tobolsk
Tomsk .
Semipalatinsk
Akmolinsk
33
27
11
15
497
190
190
302
170,828,817
91,837,876
9,299,254
6,130,293
45,563,156
22,047.425
5,818,675
1,119,344
In the Tobolsk Government the best timber is thought to
be in the valleys of the Tavda, Tura, and Pelim ; estimates
differ considerably, but the more sanguine assign to these
valleys about 27,000,000 acres^of good timber. In Tomsk
the forest belt is in the north part ; the south part is half
forestless, but the Kuznetsk and Mariinsk districts and the
Altai mountain region are forested, though in many parts
the forest is not at all dense. In the mountainous parts it is
very difficult to cut the timber because of the precipitous
places in which it grows. When felled, it is apt to fall into
ravines below, not only being lost itself, but smashing other
trees in its fall. There is no possibility of raftage on the
rivers there because of their swiftness. Some timber is
transported by camels across the Kirghiz steppe. But on
the steppes and in considerable parts of the Governments
of Tomsk and Tobolsk, the amount of forest is not enough
for local needs.
Timber trees in Western Siberia. — The principal woods of
Western Siberia are white cedar or cembra pine, pine, spruce,
fir, larch, oak, ash, and birch (see Chapter III). Of these
white cedar and larch are most valued for building, larch
264 TIMBER INDUSTRY
being especially used for boat-building, also for beams am
telegraph poles. Birch is used for fuel and building, and th(
birch spinneys in the neighbourhood of towns rapidly
disappear. The roofs of the houses of peasant and native
are made of birch bark. Siberian cedar is of value because
of its softness ; it can be used for certain kinds of furniture
and pattern work, and it is worth exporting despite the cost.
Timber Trade in the West. — The most important place for
the timber export trade in western Siberia is Tyumen ; an
enterprising sawmill proprietor from Arkhangel used to send,
timber to Kotlas by rail; thence it went to Arkhangel by
steamer and so to London. The wood suffers from ' bluej
mould ' on the voyage, and so does not fetch as high a price in •
England as would be anticipated, and the transport is very
dear. It is difficult during the short summer to bring pine-
trunks to the saw so dry that they avoid turning blue. Only
first-class timber can be exported because of the cost of trans-
port to Arkhangel and Petrograd by rail, and the export by sea
by the Kara Sea route is negligible.
Eastern Provinces. — The forest areas of eastern Siberia have
been very imperfectly surveyed. Little reliance can be placed
upon official estimates, for there is a general tendency to
exaggerate the wood resources of the country. Thus in 1908
a commission gave the wooded area of the Yakutsk Province
as 540,000,000 acres. Such an estimate must include very
large treeless spaces. In Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, Transbaikal, and
Yakutsk the absence of suitable waterways makes the develop-
ment of a lumbering industry out of the question, unless the
northern sea-route from the mouth of the Yenisei can be opened
to regular navigation. There is, however, considerable local
consumption. The supplies of fire-wood in the immediate
neighbourhood of the large towns and the principal mining-
centres are, to a great extent, exhausted. Wood has to be
rafted down the rivers, notably the Yenisei and the Angara.
The building of the railway has greatly increased consumption,
and the price of firewood has doubled in many places. Larch
is the tree most used. Very fine woods of it are still found on
TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 265
the Yenisei, especially on its middle reaches. The Sayansk
region, where trees grow at an altitude of 3,700 feet, has
particularly fine forests, the taiga being almost impenetrable
in many places.
The wood in the north and north-east is, as a rule, of poor
quality. There is good timber, mainly larch, fir, spruce, and
birch, in Sakhalin, but there is no suitable harbour for export-
ing it. Nor would it be possible to find a profitable market
for the timber in the valley of the River Kamchatka, the
only place in the Kamchatka Peninsula where it does well.
A certain quantity of timber and firewood is annually rafted
down the Lena, and a little also down the Kolima and Yana.
In spite of the wide extent of the forests, the price is high
owing to the scarcity of labour and the exorbitant rate of
wages.
Lumber Industry in the East. — The Siberian lumber industry
is at present confined to the Amur and Maritime Provinces.
It is still in its infancy. The extent of the area under timber
is uncertain, and it is impossible to give exact figures, as
much of it is unsurveyed. A report for 1913 gives the total
area of forest land in the far east as 110,052,000 acres, of
which 30,840,000 are in the Amur Province and 71,463,000
in the Primorsk. In the Amur Province five-sixths of this
area is Government property, and most of the rest belongs
to the Cossacks ; in the Maritime ten-elevenths of the area
belongs to the Government. The forests cannot compare with
those of North America in density. They generally lie along
the sea-coast or in the river -valleys. The best timber districts
in the Maritime Province are Nikolaevsk, with 33,000,000
acres, Khabarovsk with 14,245,000 acres, and the lower Amur
with 12,150,000 acres.
Concessions. — The government forests are under the Depart-
ment of Domains, with head-quarters at Khabarovsk. Areas
that are for sale are knocked down to the highest bidder,
who is obliged to deposit the royalty on the number of trees
to be felled for one year. Felling tickets to cut small
quantities of timber may be obtained from local authorities.
266 TIMBER INDUSTRY
Hitherto forest grants have been limited to four years, but
the term will almost certainly be extended to twelve, as
a concession of four years was found too short for profitable
working.
Royalties. — A royalty is levied on all timber. It is calcu-
lated on the cubic measurement of the logs sold, and varies
according to the size and kind of timber. Formerly con-
cessions lying more than from 6| to 10 miles from a railway,
a navigable river, or a bay, paid at a lower rate. Now, however,
the tax is uniform y and it is hoped that this change will help
to extend the range of forest-work and thus increase the
revenue, which fell considerably short of the expenditure.
But the absence of roads makes it unprofitable to fell timber
at any distance from the rivers. Owing to the high railway
rates only 10 or 12 per cent, of this can be profitably exported.
The Rivers and the Timber Trade. — The Amur and its tribu-
taries provide an ideal artery for timber -rafts during the
summer months, and when the suggested harbour improve-
ments are carried out at Nikolaevsk, it should afford a good
outlet for the trade in spite of the shortness of the open season.
Export on a large scale is at present hampered by the poor
harbours and the length of time during which the rivers are
frozen, as well as by the difficulty of procuring labour.
Present State of the Trade. — So unfavourable were the economic
and labour conditions in 1912 that only 12 out of 106 con-
cessions were taken up, and only 17 firms instead of the
usual 20 or 30 were engaged in the trade. A recent forest-
congress made the following suggestions :
1. The prohibition of the import of Manchurian wood for
the railways.
2. A duty on all Manchurian wood.
3. A minimum tariff for the export of wood by the Ussuri
Railway.
4. Better naming and classification of timber.
5. Free choice of labour. This means in practice the right
to employ Chinese. *
The enforcement of the first recommendation would do
TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 267
little good because the railways use mainly hard wood — oak,
larch, and birch — whereas the Priamur produces chiefly soft
(wood, such as pine, fir, lime.
Classification of timber. — The kedr or white cedar is the only
tree at present in such demand that it is cut in large quantities.
The best forests in the Maritime Province are found near the
sources of the Iman and Khor. The grain is much finer than
in Manchuria. The average of square logs is 19 inches, the
maximum 28 inches. In Vladivostok it fetches from l\d. to
8d. per cubic foot, but from 60 to 70 per cent, of this represents
railway freight. In the harbours of the Maritime Province
the cost is from 5§d to 6^. alongside vessel. Most of the
best goes to Great Britain.
Larch suitable for use under water or for telegraph-posts
is to be had throughout the northern regions of the Priamur.
It costs about 5d. to 5\d. alongside vessel. Larch, fir and
spruce, with some birch and aspen, make up the northern
forests. The price may be given as 4^. to 4fd. on board.
Oak and ash of moderate quality are found in many places,
but are used only for firewood. The oak is said to be rich in
tannin. The oak in the interior of the Maritime Province is
of better quality.
The pitch pine (Picea ayanensis) is fairly close-grained, white,
| and very light, and is exported in large quantities to Australia.
Excellent yellow pine is found in the very large forest between
i Blagovyeshchensk and Chita, and also along the Zeya and the
Bureya. It is at present quite untouched, but the cost of
i cutting and rafting makes it doubtful whether it could be
delivered at Nikolaevsk for 5\d. per cubic foot, as suggested.
In any case only the higher grades of wood, from 18 to 20
per cent, of the total output, are suitable for export to Europe.
The Government takes most of the remainder.
Home Consumption. — The local needs are considerable.
The railway and the steamers take more and more every
year. A large quantity of timber is annually floated down
the Zeya and the Bureya, especially to Zeya-Pristan, Blago-
vyeshchensk, and other stations, for use in the mining camps
268 TIMBER INDUSTRY
or on the railway. Moreover, the capture of the Amur fishing
industry by the Russians from the Japanese has greatly
increased the demand for wood for packing purposes, and
a certain amount is needed for match-making. There is no :
attempt at reafforestation.
Exports. — The export trade is growing steadily and the tar
industry developing. The total amount of timber exported!
from the Priamur in 1910 was 1,617,650 cubic feet, in 1912,
2,272,570 cubic feet. Vladivostok is still the chief timber?
port, though the fact that the timber must be brought there
by rail is against it. In 1912 more than half the timber was
exported from Vladivostok, 687,548 cubic feet being sent to
Great Britain, 316,624 cubic feet to Japan, 37,070 cubic feet
to China, 51,997 cubic feet to Korea, and only 1,545 cubic feet
to Russia. By far the greater part of the wood exported was
kedr, except to Japan, which took 307,204 cubic feet of aspen
for matches. Vladivostok is also the natural outlet for the
excellent Manchurian timber, and a considerable portion of
the exports come from over the border. The cost of sending
the timber by rail and the absence of adequate docks are
serious drawbacks to Vladivostok. But preparations are
being made for building a new timber-port, where four
vessels can load at once.
Imperatorskaya Bay, whence the Oriental Timber Company
sends over a million cubic feet of timber (25 per cent, larch,
75 per cent, fir) annually to Australia, is the only other timber-
port of note. Exports to Australia are likely to increase
steadily, for Australia is looking to Siberia to supply her with
the soft woods which her own forests do not produce in suffi-
cient quantities. This company also sends planks and furni-
ture wood to the British Isles, ash to Japan, and logs and
boards to Denmark. In 1911, however, 110,000 cubic feet of
white pine were exported from Ternei Bay to Australia, a
374,000 cubic feet of pit props were dispatched from Olgi B
In the same year timber was exported from Posiet Bay for t
first time, to the amount of about 100,000 cubic feet. Tyutik
Bay also plays a small part in the timber-trade.
; of
tiia
TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 269
The Governor-General Gondatti was fully alive to the im-
portance of the industry, and on the completion of the Amur
[Railway he proposed to agitate for a branch line from the
[Jssuri Railway to Imperatorskaya Bay and Olgi Bay.
Aspen, which is found everywhere, is sent to Japan for
match-making, but there is no reason why the industry
should not be established in Siberia. The oak of good quality,
but small dimensions, which grows in some parts of the
interior of the Maritime Province in small quantities, is
beginning to be exported.
With better management the Priamur forests should be able
to supply China with much of the timber she now imports
from Japan and the United States.
Sawmills
The annual turnover of the sawmills in Siberia is about
£300,000. The principal ones in western Siberia are at Tobolsk
Tyumen, Omsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, and Tomsk, with others
serving a smaller radius at Barnaul and Biisk. The great saw-
mills at Novo-Nikolaevsk deal principally with wood from the
neighbourhood of the Ob, between Barnaul and the railway.
The wood is cut into logs of 21 feet. The best wood has
a diameter of from 12 to 16 in. ; trunks are found with
a diameter of 35 in., but in that case the heart is no longer
good. In big sawmills that work day and night as many
as 20,000 trunks are sawn through in the year at each frame.
The railway greatly stimulated the amount of sawmill work,
for much of the wood was used on it, and it provided means
of transport. Sawmills are usually lit with electric light.
In the town of Irkutsk the sawmill industry is consider-
ably developed. The wood comes from Lake Baikal and the
valleys of the Angara and Irkut. Logs are sent even to
Transbaikal.
Blagovyeshchensk, where there is a prosperous sawmill
industry, is the centre of the timber trade on the Amur.
The Government has already established three mills of Swedish
type on the north bank of the Amur, and has taken over
270 TIMBER INDUSTRY
another at Sviyagino on the Ussuri Railway. It also proposes*'
to build a large mill of the latest American pattern, but it
has not yet selected the site. At Alexandrovsk in Sakhalin
there is a government sawmill supplying local demands/*
In 1912 the sawmills in the Amur and Maritime Provinces]
and Sakhalin numbered 62, with an annual output of
2,050,000 logs.
Wood Industries
The manufacture of veneer and three-ply in the neighbour-
hood of Vladivostok is steadily increasing. Several factories,
for the making of barrels for the Amur fishing industry have 1
been established in and round Vladivostok.
At Spasskaya (Yevgenevka), on the Ussuri Railway, a
factory exists for the chemical treatment of wood and the
production of turpentine, tar, wood alcohol, vinegar, resin, and
potash.
CHAPTER XII
MINERAL RESOURCES
Iron — Copper — Gold — Silver — Zinc and Lead — Platinum — Asbestos —
Graphite — Mica — Petroleum — Other Metallic Ores — Coal — Salt — Precious
Stones and Building Materials.
The mineral resources of Siberia, especially of the east,
are very little known. The merest beginning has been made
with their development. But they will undoubtedly take the
first place in attracting much-needed capital to the country
in the near future, especially to the remoter regions.
Iron
The iron deposits in the Urals are second only to those of
south Russia in the part they play in the iron industry of the
empire. The output of pig-iron from the Urals in 1913 was
896,817 tons. There were 75 iron works, including 13 belong-
ing to the Government, at that time active in the province.
The output has fallen off somewhat during the war.
In western Siberia the railway has proved fatal to such
attempts as have been made to establish an iron industry.
The demand is not sufficient to support a large foundry.
The old mines away from the railway cannot now compete
with the Ural foundries. The Bogoslovski works, for
instance, can send their goods into the heart of the Ob basin
on their own steamers by the Tavda and the Irtish. The
Tomsk region perhaps offers the best prospects for the estab-
lishment of a successful iron industry now that the Altai
Railway is open. On the Telbes, a tributary of the Kondoma,
near Kuznetsk, are rich deposits of magnetic ore within
272 MINERAL RESOURCES
20 miles of beds of good coking coal. The deposits at Gurevskoe,
some 150 miles to the north of these, only contain inferior ore
and do not promise a prosperous future to the small foundry
that works them. All the Altai beds are Crown property.
There is also a small factory at Abakanskoe in the Minusinsk
region, where there are plentiful deposits of ore, but its
output is diminishing. Some twenty iron beds have been
located in the Kirghiz steppes, more especially near Karkara-
linsk. They have not yet been "properly examined and are
too remote for profitable working, but in some of them the
percentage of ore is high and there is coal near. Iron deposits
also exist near Tyumen, from which the owner annually
extracts his statutary 170 tons by the most primitive methods
in order not to forfeit his concession.
In eastern Siberia even the Nikolaevsk foundry, at one time
the largest in the country, situated on the River Oka, 30
miles from Bratski-Ostrog, in the neighbourhood of excellent
ore, has been obliged to close down. Iron is found in several
parts of the valleys of the Yenisei and its tributaries, such as
the Abakan and the Angara ; in the valleys of the upper Lena
and the Kirenga ; near Misovsk on Lake Baikal ; and on the
Tsagan-Khuntei Range, west of the Khilok valley, near where
the range is crossed by the post-road. In the Nerchinsk
district several deposits are known, but they have been little
investigated. It is so plentiful in the southern regions, which
are the centres of the gold and silver mining, that the whole
range there has been called iron. The Baleginsk deposit
of magnetic ore supplies the Petrovsk iron works which are
on the railway. They were built to supply the needs of the
Nerchinsk Crown lands and have never been very productive.
The machinery is quite obsolete. Hitherto only red oxides
have been treated. The deposits are extensive and there are
said to be large supplies of magnetic ore quite untouched in
the neighbourhood.
Iron is plentiful round Yakutsk. It also exists in the
valley of the Amgun, near the mouth of the Amur, where it
should be capable of profitable working, round Olgi and
IRON 273
Vladimir Bays, as well as in the peninsula of Kamchatka and
I near Due in Sakhalin. A rich deposit has recently been
discovered near the junction of the Samara and the Amur.
The irregularities of the compass between Plastun Bay and
Cape Povorotni point to the existence of extensive iron-beds
•the Maritime Province.
The deposits near Vladimir and Olgi Bays are commercially
i most promising, though the nearest fuel, the timber on
the Sikhota-Alin, is 13 miles away and Olgi Bay is not too
good a harbour. Hitherto they have been almost unex-
ploited, but now that the export of ore is no longer prohibited,
a profitable market lies ready to hand in Japan. A blast
furnace is to be built at Mramorni Point, near Olgi Bay.
Eastern Siberia has till now been largely supplied with
pig-iron from Germany.
Copper
Copper has been worked in Siberia from time immemorial.
Prehistoric or Child excavations, as they are called, are
frequently found in the west. They often gave the first
indication of the presence of the metal to the early prospectors.
The output of copper in the Russian Empire rose from
under 10,000 tons in 1906 to 34,300 in 1913 and there is no
reason why the country should not supply its own needs
at an early date. The industry is protected by a duty on
imported copper and the price of copper in Russia is high in
consequence. The rapid growth of the output dates from
1907, when the Myed (copper) Syndicate, which combined the
companies and regulates the trade, came into existence.
The Urals hold the first place ; then come the Kirghiz
steppe and the Caucasus. These three regions produce over
90 per cent, of Russian copper. In 1913 the Urals produced
some 16,000 tons, the Caucasus 9,900, and Siberia 5,600.
British capital has played an important part in the develop-
ment of copper-mining. The Kishtim Corporation, a British
concern, produces nearly half the copper in the Urals and
274 MTNERAL RESOURCES
more than one-fifth of the total Russian output. It is the
only company in Russia which smelts its own ore and refines
it at its own works. Next to the Kishtim rank the Bogoslovski
works, which are the oldest in the Urals, having been founded
by Demidov in the eighteenth century. There are other
works in the Tagilski, Iset, and Sisertsk districts. Verkhoture
is a considerable smelting centre.
In the last few years diamond drilling, carried on by British
firms, has revealed large bodies of copper-bearing pyrites.
The Russians are adopting this method. Experiments are
being carried out at one of the Ural works for saving the
sulphuric gases given off during smelting.
In the Kirghiz steppe at least 200 outcrops of copper have
been located, mostly in the Karkaralinsk district. The
deposits are rich and coal is abundant. The absence of
railways makes it impossible to work anything but rich
seams at a profit. The Spassky Company, which is now in
British hands, and has recently acquired control of the
Atbasar works, is by far the largest and most successful
in this region, in spite of the difficulties of the conditions of
working. In 1914 the output was 4,683 tons ; in 1915, 3,450
tons. The construction of the Southern Siberian Railway
should bring about a great improvement. There are also
copper deposits in the Semipalatinsk region.
In eastern Siberia copper has been found in the Minusinsk
region, near Verkhne-Udinsk, and in the Argun and Onon
basins, where, however, the veins are poor. In the Maritime
Province there are deposits near Vladivostok which produced
13 cwt. in 1911, as well as near Konstantinovskaya on the
Suifun, and round Dzhigit Bay, where they contain as much
as 80 per cent, of ore. Copper-ore has also been discovered
near the mouth of the Kolima, at the confluence of the Big
and the Lena, in the peninsula of Kamchatka, and elsewhere.
GOLD 275
Gold
Gold-mining is steadily declining in importance in western
Sria, but in the east it is the one productive industry,
as done more to open up remote districts than all the
jration agencies. Nothing but a gold-rush could bring
about the sudden rise of towns like Bodaibo or Zeya-Pristan.
Extent of deposits. — The extent of the gold deposits in
Siberia, but especially in eastern Siberia, is very imperfectly
known. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits of many of the
rivers, but only occasionally in sufficient quantities to repay
working by old-fashioned methods. Areas suitable for dredg-
ing extend for thousands of miles in the eastern provinces ;
and if modern dredgers were employed, the results would be
surprising. At present the chief centres of the industry are
the Urals, the lands which belonged to the Imperial Cabinet in
the Barguzin and Nerchinsk districts, the Zeya and Bureya
basins and their neighbourhood, the Amgun system and the
mines near Lake Chlya, and lastly the Olekminsk and Vitim
goldfields on the Lena. Of these the Vitim mines are by far
the most important, producing a quarter of the total gold
output of the Russian Empire. The Lena drainage area is
said to contain the richest alluvial gold district in the world.
The principal areas of gold-bearing rocks in Siberia have been
estimated as*follows : —
sq. miles.
Urals ......
60,000
Yenisei and Altai ....
280,000
Transbaikal .....
20,000
Lena, Vitim, Vilyui ....
160,000
Amur and Okhotsk ....
360,000
880,000
This may be compared with the total area of gold-bearing
rocks in the United States, including Alaska, of 265,000 square
miles.
Output. — Between 1908-13 the average annual output of
gold in Siberia was one and a half million ounces troy, with
a marked tendency to decline, especially in western Siberia.
The official estimates are not to be trusted. The amounts
S 2
276 MINERAL RESOURCES
received at the Government laboratories where the gold m
smelted, especially in the east, are often double those recorded
and a good deal of the metal never reaches the laboratories
at all. The official estimates are as follows :
1910.
1911.
lb. troy.
lb. troy.
Blagovyeshchensk
21,548-7
19,012-5
Bodaibo
39,153-6
36,251-1
Nikolaevsk
4,140-9
5,098-5
Zeya-Pristan
—
2,615-4
Krasnoyarsk
2,889-0
1,525-4
Private laboratories
23,070-6
14,502-6
figures for the Yek*
tterinburg, Tomsk, and
Irkutsk
laboratories for these years are not to hand.
In 1913 the eight Government laboratories of Siberia
smelted 106,901 lb. troy of gold ore compared with 104,155 lb.
in 1912. The increase was due entirely to the settling of
the Lena strike. Bodaibo produced 7,200 lb. more than in
the previous year (1912), when the output was 24,704 lb.
troy.
Conditions of working. — With the exception of Alaska,
Siberia is the least favourably situated of the world's gold
centres. Owing to its climate, work is only possible in summer.
Most of the gold is found in places where the ground never
really thaws. If the summer is dry, there is not enough water
for washing ; if it is cold and wet, the ground does not
thaw and floods are troublesome. Population is everywhere
scant}^ and roads almost non-existent. The cost of bringing
machinery, especially in summer, from the railway to the
diggings is almost prohibitive, while the prices of the most
ordinary necessities of life are doubled and trebled.
Concessions. — No foreigner may possess freehold property
in Siberia, and a special tax of 8 per cent, is levied on land
or mining claims leased to foreigners, who may not prospect
for gold within 100 versts (66 miles) of the sea-coast of the
Primorsk Province or of the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk,
upon Sakhalin or the adjacent islands, or within certain
districts of the Yeniseisk Province bordering on the Chinese
GOLD 277
frontier. In this region foreigners have considerably less
freedom than Russians, as well as in the Cabinet lands in the
Altai and Nerchinsk districts. But even here a foreigner
may receive special permits for prospecting. A prospector
may stake out as many claims as he likes. One man has been
known to possess over 750. But he must take measures for
working them within a certain time.
There is a large traffic in worthless claims. The local
officials, to whom commissions must be paid, are often
untrustworthy. Much foreign capital has already been lost
in Siberian gold-mines and investors are chary of risking
more.
The principal British gold mining companies in Siberia are
the Lena Goldfields, the Orsk Goldfields, and the Siberian Pro-
prietary Mines. The Lena Goldfields held until 1915 over
50 per cent, of the shares of the Lenskoie Gold Mining
Company of Russia. They have now sold the greater part of
their holdings.
State of the Industry.— Except in the Urals and to some
extent in the west, the gold worked in Siberia is still almost
entirely alluvial. Though rich quartz deposits are known
to exist, quartz mining could only be profitably carried on
at a few places in the west. But when the country is better
developed there will be a great future for such mining.
As the more accessible placers become exhausted, the
general tendency is for large concerns to supersede small ones.
More scientific methods are now essential to success. Dredgers
alone can work profitably and they are not easy to procure.
The Russians have little practical knowledge of mining and
can only make the richest claims pay. The incapacity of the
Russian engineers and workmen, many of whom have never
seen a dredger, accounts for the frequent breakdowns and
poor results. When dredging is regularty established and
thoroughly understood, many of the abandoned dumps will
be profitably worked. The latest methods of working-
hydraulic sluices are unknown in Siberia, where the climate
militates against their introduction.
278 MINERAL RESOURCES
At present the Siberian gold industry is going through an
unsatisfactory period of transition. The old methods are no]
longer adequate and the new are only beginning to be intro-
duced. In 1912, 57 mines out of a total of 129, belonging
to 48 different companies, were working in the Amur district..!
A committee of investigation was appointed and various
suggestions were made such as the regulation of the labour-
supply, the diminution of taxation and greater facilities for
credit, as well as the throwing open of the 100 verst reserve
along the coast. Owing to its accessibility, this region would
rapidly attract prospectors. Between 1889 and 1909 mining
machinery was imported duty free and the abolition of this
privilege was undoubtedly a blow to the gold industry. In
recent years the Government proposed to assist it by voting
large sums for prospecting and for building a number of
dredgers.
But the success of companies with large capital and good
machinery, such as the Lenskoie and the Orsk, shows the lines
along which the gold industry will ultimately develop. It is
noteworthy that American engineers are more successful than
British, who have gained their experience in South Africa and
know nothing of the conditions of Russian mining. British
companies are now employing them.
Labour. — The labour-supply lies at the root of the diffi-
culties. Railway building attracted a number of miners and
the Government is doing its best to exclude the Chinese
wherever possible. A man who could prove that he had
worked on the gold-fields was exempted from military service
in the present war. The life of the miner is hard in the
extreme. He is as often as not obliged to work in water.
Except in a few of the largest concerns, the workpeople are not
well treated. They are provided with firing and lodging, but
their quarters are often badly overcrowded and invariably
filthy. The managers are tyrannical. The men are com-
pelled to buy at the company's stores. If they complain or
threaten to go elsewhere, they are liable to be dismissed.
It is true that a law of 1902 declares that the labourer is to
GOLD 279
have suitable quarters and to be supplied with food and
clothing at special rates, which vary in different districts.
But the scandals revealed by the Lenskoie strike show how
easily these regulations can be evaded in the remoter districts.
The mine stores are often more profitable to the owners than
the mines themselves. When the lot of the Siberian miner
is contrasted with that of the well-paid, well-fed miners of
• Alaska gold-fields, it is not surprising that the work does
attract the most desirable elements. The miners are
tinually running away. The building of the Amur Railway
has greatly thinned their numbers. The sale of alcohol is
absolutely prohibited, though a small quantity is distributed
free to the men. But there is a large illicit traffic in liquor,
which the mining police are unable to check.
All gold visible to the naked eye is the property of the
workman who discovers it and he receives 75 per cent, of its
value. This unprofitable arrangement has been adopted to
discourage theft. In their spare time the men may wash
for themselves, on condition that they sell their gold to the
companies at a fixed price. Indeed, many companies
habitually leave all but the richest ground to be worked by
private individuals, generally Chinese or Koreans in the
eastern provinces, who pay a rent of gold to the owners and
sell them whatever additional gold they may procure at fixed
rates. This arrangement is very profitable to the companies.
But there is, of course, a large ilLcit gold trade for which the
sellers of contraband plcohol are largely responsible. It is
smuggled over the border by Chinese, who also smuggle in
Chinese spirits. At a recent mining congress it was said that
in the Transbaikal, where most of the gold-mining is in the
hands of Chinese and Koreans, they carry away seven times
as much as they declare. This may well be an exaggeration,
but it throws much light on the prevailing state of affairs.
Urals and Western Siberia. — Gold-mining is on the decline
in these districts. As everywhere else in Siberia, dredgers
are becoming more and more necessary for successful placer-
mining, but the Ural fields are held to be of low grade. In the
280 MINERAL RESOURCES
more accessible districts quartz -mining is steadily superseding
alluvial mining. In the Urals gold procured by quartz-
crushing and saved by chemical processes already exceeds the,'
gold obtained by washing. In 1913 the Urals produced
110,000 oz. troy of gold, worth £399,208. The Orenburg and^
Yekaterinburg districts are the richest. The mines in the
Miyas district still hold the first place in the Urals. The SissertS
Company and the Kishtim Corporation both obtain gold as]
a by-product in their copper-mines.
In the Semipalatinsk Government there is considerable
activity in gold-mining, but here too placer-mining is giving
way to quartz -mining. The quartz veins are especially rich
in the neighbourhood of Ust-Kamenogorsk, less so round
Lake Zaisan. Near Ust-Kamenogorsk the quartz yields
nearly 5 to 15 dwt. to the ton, but the gravel produces barely
5 grains to the ton. Hence, in spite of the cheapness of
labour, placer-mining can hardly pay. The richest mines lie
40-46 miles south-west of Ust-Kamenogorsk. As this district
is within the zone closed to foreigners, they can only prospect
there by special permission and the native owners are fully
aware of the value of their holdings. There is a good steppe
road from the mines to Ust-Kamenogorsk.
The gold-industry in the Tomsk district is in full decline.
Even the introduction of hydraulic machinery has failed to
revive placer-mining in the Altai. A British company is
experimenting in mining for gold in the old cabinet silver-
mines in the neighbourhood of Zmyeinogorsk in the same
region, and if it succeeds it will certainly extend its operations.
The only prosperous gold-mining region is that of the Mariinsk
taiga. The first dredger in western Siberia was established
here. The output of placer-mining is falling off, but rich veins
have been discovered in the quartz of the Berekul mine.
These are being worked, and, according to official returns,
they yielded in 1904 about 1 oz. troy to the ton. The veins
had not then been thoroughly examined. The mines are
well situated, being 45 miles from the railway and 65 from
Mariinsk.
GOLD 281
Yeniseisk Province. — In the south-west corner, near the
I River Abakan, are several mines. Of these the Bogom-
I Darovanni, fitted with thoroughly modern machinery, is very
rich. It is one of the few profitable reef gold mines in Siberia
and it produces some 17,100 oz. troy of gold annually, a
quarter of the amount being obtained by the cyanide
process.
The introduction of dredgers has revived the gold-industry
in the Yenisei basin, which was the oldest in Siberia. The
southern portion of the district lies between the Pit and the
Angara Rivers ; the northern is to the east of the Yenisei, in
the upper basins of the Teya and the Kalami, tributaries of the
Stony Tunguska. The pay-streak is from 2 ft. 4 in. to 8 ft.,
I the overburden from 2 ft. 4 in. to 24 ft. The district is
remote, but the mine owners refuse to combine to build a road
| through the taiga, though the cost of transport is at present
very heavy. Many of the mines in the south are connected by
telephone.
Irkutsk Province. — There are no mines of importance south
of the railway. The Olekma-Vitim system embraces all but
a negligible quantity of the mining.
The Bodaibo district is the most important gold-mining
centre in the Russian empire. The powerful Lenskoie Com-
pany, formerly controlled by British interests, has a virtual
monopoly. It produces some 13 tons of gold a year, which
is a quarter the annual output of the whole empire. The gold
is alluvial. The pay-gravel lies from 50 to 150 ft. under the
surface and the streaks are from 4 ft. 8 in. to 9 ft. 4 in. thick.
The over-burden is peat. The placers can only be worked
with considerable capital. Wood is scarce in the neighbour-
hood and the subsoil water requires careful regulation. The
yield of gold is from 82 to 205 grains to the ton of gravel.
About 4,000 men are employed here and up-to-date machinery
is used. The transport difficulty adds greatly to the working
expenses, but there is now a light railway 15 miles long from
Bodaibo to the Vitim. It costs Is. to bring 12 lb. of goods
from Irkutsk to Bodaibo alone. Hence the mining companies
282 MINERAL RESOURCES
are among the chief advocates of the building of a railway to J
the Lena.
Most of the tributaries of the Vitim are thought to contain
gold, but they have been very imperfectly explored.
The Olekminsk mines were formerly the richest in Siberia,*
but since the best placers have become exhausted they have'
been thrown into the shade by the mines on the Vitim. The
River Bo^hoi-Patom, one of the richest centres on the Lena,
is said to have yielded 14,000 oz. troy of gold in 1911 and the
whole of its banks have been staked out in claims. The :
building of the Lena Railway would undoubtedly initiate a
new period of prosperity for this region.
Gold has been found on the upper reaches of the Vilyui
and its tributaries. The gold-yield at Chodinski, some 80 or
90 miles above Krestyatskaya, is said to be large. Gold also
exists on the upper reaches of the Nai, a tributary of the
Aldan.
The government assaying and gold-smelting laboratory is
at Bodaibo.
Transbaikal. — There are two important centres, Barguzin
and Nerchinsk. The Barguzin goldfields lie in the Barguzin
valley and near the sources of the Vitim, but of recent years
the output shows a considerable falling off. Though the gold-
yield is sometimes 41 to 82 grains to the ton, the veins are
very small and there is a quantity of silver mixed with the
gold. Belgian engineers are trying the experiment of thawing
the ground here by a process of steam heating.
Gold is found almost everywhere in the crown lands in the
Nerchinsk district, except in the south-east and north-east.
The mines possess the same characteristics as those round
Barguzin. British companies have been experimenting lateh
with a view to leasing. Attempts to introduce the mos
modern machinery have not been very successful owing
climatic difficulties. The output of the Transbaikal was aboi
171,000 oz. troy in 1909.
Amur Province. — For mining purposes the Amur Provin<
is divided into two districts, the Bureya and the Amur. At
GOLD 283
present the former is the more important. In 1911 these
districts produced £443,830 of gold, of which five-ninths came
from the Bureya. The Amur goldfields are of far greater
extent than those of the Lena. Alluvial gold has been found
throughout the basins of the Zeya and its tributaries, and in
the Bureya basin, especially upon its tributary the Niman.
New deposits were discovered during the building of the
western section of the Amur Railway.
Most of the Amur gold is so fine, yielding from 0-04867 to
0-13114 oz. troy to the ton of gravel, that only the best
machinery could make mining profitable. A quarter of the
diggings worked yield over 40 grains of gold to the ton, but
the pay-gravel is often less than 2 ft. 4 in. deep, sometimes
even less than 7 inches. When the yield is less than 40 grains
to the ton, and the pay-strata are less than 2 ft. 4 in. thick,
profit is very doubtful. These strata often lie under an over-
burden of 9 ft. or more, and in some places, notably on the
Niman, the mining is underground.
Holdings are often very large in the Amur Province. The
Upper Amur Company owns goldfields in the Rivers Zeya,
Zhalinda, Gilui, and Aldan. At least a third of those worked
are sub-leased. Little machinery is used. The Orsk Company
has claims on the lower Amur.
Zeya-Pristan, with a government gold laboratory, is the
flourishing capital of the Zeya gold industry. Blagovyesh-
chensk, at the mouth of the Zeya, also possesses a laboratory.
The opening of the Amur Railway should greatly benefit
gold-mining in this region.
Maritime Province and Kamchatka. — The Primorsk region
is the wealthiest. In the Amgun basin, near Kerbinski, the
mining is all surface mining. The pay -gravel is from 4 ft. 8 in.
to 7 ft. thick, the over-burden 3 ft. 6 in. to 14 ft. Owing to
the nearness of the coast and the scarcity of labour machinery
is much more used. But difficulties of communication and
the dearness of food make a high yield of gold necessary for
success. The Amgun mines were long worked at a loss. The
Orsk mines, owned by a British company, situated on Lake
284 MINERAL RESOURCES
Ohlya, near Nikolaevsk, are now the most successful in the|
neighbourhood. Two powerful electric bucket -dredgers are
working, and the profits, even during the war, have steadily J
increased. In 1912, 21 placers were being worked here, and
the mines were responsible for a quarter of the £216,604 of
gold produced by the province.
The Ussuri district comprises the southern part of thel
province, and here Chinese and Koreans have long ago
exhausted the more accessible deposits. In 1911, £6,818 of \
gold was produced, in 1912 only £1,916. Recently, however, \
placers have been discovered on the Iman, which are estimated
to yield £1 per ton of gravel. A small quartz vein on Askold
Island near Vladivostok was profitably worked for some years.
The official gold-smelting laboratory for the Maritime
Province is at Nikolaevsk.
Gold is known to exist at many places on the Sea of Okhotsk,
and is said to exist in the centre of Sakhalin. A gold-bearing
belt is believed to extend for some 120 miles along the Okhotsk
coast between the Uda and Ayan. Rich deposits are reported in
the Anadir region, in the Chukchee Peninsula near Cape Dezh-
neva, and on the River Volshaya in the Anadir region. The
Volshaya mines have remained idle since 1907, but the deposits
are said to contain about 240 grains of ore to the ton of gravel,
and might therefore be profitably worked, in spite of the
remoteness of the region and the absence of wood. A large
expedition was sent out in 1914 with a view to reopening them.
Silver
The output of silver in Russia reached its zenith in 1887,
with 33,800 lb. troy. In 1910 the output was 19,476 lb. :
Urals, 13,356 lb. ; Caucasus, 5,508 ; Altai, 612. The fall in
the value of silver, the discovery of rich goldfields, and the
labour difficulties, account for the diminution. In the Urals
silver is produced chiefly as a by-product, notably in the
Kishtim, Blagodat, and Verkhne-Iset mines. There are many
other deposits. Over 3,000 deposits are known to exist in the
Altai, of which only some 30 have been worked. The Zirya-
GOLD 285
novskoe mines are the richest, but even they are almost shut
down. There are others in the neighbourhood of Zmyeino-
gorsk. The silver-works in the Kirghiz steppes are very
primitive. In the south-eastern portion of the Nerchinsk
Crown lands 500 deposits of silver-lead ore are known to exist.
The richest are the Kadainskoe, on a tributary of the upper
Argun. Silver is also found in the zinc mines of Tyutikha Bay
(see below).
Zinc and Lead
The zinc and silver-lead mines near Tyutikha Bay in the
Priamur have been most successfully worked. In 1911 the
output was 24,030 tons of zinc, 4,451 tons of silver-lead, and
72 tons of copper ore. In 1912, 25,000 tons of zinc were sent
to Europe, mostly to Antwerp, to be smelted. But the late
Governor-General, Gondatti, insisted that henceforth the
smelting should be done on the spot, and a smelting furnace
was consequently built. The Tyutikha mines lie 24 J miles
from Tyutikha Bay, with which they are connected by a
railway of 60 centimetres gauge. The ore contains nearly
50 per cent, zinc, little silver, and about 5 per cent, copper.
Other claims are being taken up in the neighbourhood. The
Tyutikha company has just located new deposits near Im-
peratorskaya Bay.
Zinc and lead ores are being mined in the Altai by the Irtish
Corporation. From Riderski mine the ore is taken by a 3-ft.
railway, 70 miles long, to Ust-Kamenogorsk, whence it is
shipped by the Irtish to the smelting works at the Ekibas-tuse
coalfield near Pavlodar.
Zinc is also said to exist in the Yakutsk Province. Lead-ore
has been found at Ust-Orlinskaya on the Lena, where the
content is said to be 81-75 per cent, of pure lead. Silver-
bearing lead also exists in the Altai and in the Nerchinsk
district, but with the present means of communication it is
not likely to be exploited.
In 1915 eastern Siberia produced about 48,300 tons of lead,
as compared with 30,000 tons in 1913.
286 MINERAL RESOURCES
Platinum
Ninety per cent, of the world's platinum comes from the
Urals. But in spite of the high price the output has fallen
from 99,820 oz. troy in 1912 to 79,000 in 1916. The richest
placers are rapidly becoming exhausted, and the others can only
be worked at a profit with dredgers. More than half the output
comes from the Verkhoture region, notably from Tara River
on the Tagilski estate. Platinum is found in some quantities
on the Sosva and Lozva and other rivers. Traces of it occur
in the Tomsk and Mariinsk districts, notably in the gold mines
of the Chumish basin, in the Yeniseisk goldfields round the
Pitski Mountains, near the Vitim goldfields, and on the Uni
Bolski in the Amur Province. The natives in the Aldan
valley are said to use it for bullets. Hitherto platinum has
been sent abroad to be refined, but in 1915 an export tax
of 15 per cent, ad valorem was placed upon unrefined platinum
with a view to encouraging the erection of refineries at home.
Asbestos
Asbestos is mined almost exclusively near Yekaterinburg,
and before the war was virtually all exported to Germany and
the United Kingdom via Riga. The output in 1913 was
16,661 tons. In the Irkutsk Province asbestos is only worked
in the Angara district. The quality is good. On the Mongol-
Dabanski gold-placers, which belong to the Crown, but are
now worked out, there are very rich asbestos and mica mines.
They are on a tributary of the Didi, which is a tributary of
the Oka, and are 75 miles from Ziminskoe. In Yeniseisk there
are asbestos mines on the left of the River Kamishta, a trim
tary of the Abakan. The asbestos lies in dolomite veins up
4 \ ft. in thickness, but only one-seventh is of commercial value
It is found also on the River Karagan in the same government
in the Altai ; 150 miles south of Biisk, on the Katun ; ii
Transbaikal near Shilkinski ; and in the neighbourhood of the
Nerchinsk tin-mines.
GRAPHITE 287
Graphite
Hard and clean graphite has been found in considerable
quantity near Turukhansk on the Yenisei, and 130 miles west
of Irkutsk, on the Mongolian border, as well as in the Kirghiz
steppe. Graphite of excellent quality comes from the neigh-
bourhood of Cape Dezhneva. It also exists on the Lower
Tunguska, near the River Bukhalova and near Souznaya on
the Amur. But nowhere is it exploited to any extent.
Mica
Mica is found in the Krasnoyarsk region, but has not been
systematically worked, at Kandakova on the River Tasyeeva,
a tributary of the Angara, as well as on the River Kan near the
mouth of the River Varga. It is also reported in the Nizhne-
Udinsk district, and on the Mama, a tributary of the Vitim.
On the southern shore of Lake Baikal the quality of the
mica found is good and the pieces usually large.
Petroleum
A belt of large petroleum-bearing rocks about two-thirds of
a mile wide stretches along the shores of Lake Baikal as far
north as Barguzinski Bay. In Sakhalin naphtha springs exist
near Niski and Nabilski Bay, close to harbours accessible to
sea-going vessels. There are lakes of petroleum near the
Nutovo River, and petroleum which flows of itself has been
discovered at a depth of 1,000 ft. A larger oil-sand should be
reached at 2,000 ft. The oil is said to be without benzine, and
it can therefore be used for fuel immediately. Expert opinion
compares it favourably with that of Baku.
Other Metallic Ores
Tin of good quality has been found near Nizhne-Sharonai,
Olovyannaya, and elsewhere between the Onon and the Ingoda,
but it is little worked. There is every sign that this region is
a genuine tin district. The Government recently was said to
be installing here the first tin-smelting works in Siberia.
288 MINERAL RESOURCES
Antimony. — The important antimony deposits at the Ak-
hatolskaya mines in the Urals are being carefully investigated. '
Antimony also exists in the Urals near the Verkhne-Neivinsk
works and in the silver mines 10 miles north of Blagodat. It
is found in several mines in the Yeniseisk Government, and in
more than one river in the Minusinsk district; In the Trans-
baikal a spring near the Kadainskoe silver mines is known as'
the antimony spring. Antimony deposits stretch along the
mountain top 7 miles from Zabilovo in the Amur Province.
The vein reaches a thickness of 3| ft.
Mercury. — Quicksilver has been discovered in the Verkhne-
Iset district in the Urals ; the veins seem numerous and rich,
but have not been fully investigated. Deposits of cinnabar
are said to exist near Lake Ayamskoe. Cinnabar also
occurs in the Bogoslovski district ; at Ildekanski, in the valley
of the Urov, a tributary of the Argun, where the vein is rarely
more than 2 inches thick ; in the Amga basin and in Kam-
chatka. But it has not been worked in these regions.
Radium has been found on the Ayakhta, a tributary of the
Pit, which flows into the Yenisei. The Kamchatka province
is believed to have deposits of iridium, palladium, and osmium.
Thorianite has been discovered in the black slimes of the
placers on the River Boshagoch in the Nerchinsk region. Rich
deposits of wolfram exist in the Urals and near Klyuchevskaya
on the Ingoda, and near the Onon in the Transbaikal.
Manganese is found at Nizhne-Tagilski and elsewhere in the
Urals, and is said to exist in the valley of the Angara. Molyb-
denum is found in the Kirghiz steppe and Transbaikal.
Osmiridium occurs in the Kishtim mines in the Urals, in
the Nizhne-Udinsk district, in the Dzhila river system in
the Transbaikal, and in the gold-placers of the Troitskosavsk
district. It is nowhere regularly worked.
Coal
There are large deposits of coal in Siberia, but most of it
is only of small importance. Many of the deposits, however,
COAL 289
are not yet worked, and it is probable that some of the coal
in eastern Siberia will prove to be of good quality. In many
coalfields the want of a local market prevents extensive
exploitation. While the population is scattered, as it is in
most parts of Siberia, and while timber is abundant, coal
cannot be produced cheaply enough to be used as fuel except
in the immediate neighbourhood of the beds. The railways
are the great consumers, and are steadily increasing their
demands. Manufacturing industry is still too little developed
in Siberia to require great quantities of coal, and export is
economically practical be only from the coalbeds of the far east.
Urals. — Coal occurs on both flanks of the Urals. All these
deposits are properly speaking in European Russia. The
beds on the western side have been worked for many years, but
those on the eastern side are only beginning to be developed.
The wholesale destruction of forests, and consequent increased
demand for, and enhanced price of coal makes it probable that
these deposits will play an important part in the industrial
activities of the Ural region. Unfortunately, however, this
coal will not coke, and is therefore useless for metallurgical
works. Hence coal is imported from the Donetz region of
southern Russia. In 1914 the production of coal in the Urals
was 1,170,412 tons, and was increasing annually. On the
other hand, in some factories peat is being used as fuel, and
machinery for compressing peat has already been installed in
places.
On the lower Ob in the neighbourhood of Berezov is an
extensive coalfield, but up to the present this has not been
worked.
Kirghiz Steppe. — East and west of the Pavlodar-Karkara-
linsk road are a number of coal outcrops which point to the
existence of large deposits apparently scattered in isolated
basins of small size. Only the Karagandinsk mine, 134 miles
north-west of Karkaralinsk, which supplies the Spasski copper
works, at present possesses commercial importance. The coal
has moderate coking qualities, but gives nearly 40 per cent,
ash. The seams are from 3 to 20 ft. thick. The Ekibas-tuse
290 MINERAL RESOURCES
mine is being worked on a large scale, and a railway has been
built to the Irtish, by which zinc and lead ores are brought for
smelting from Riderski in the Altai. The coal is coking coal, 4
and there are two seams of variable thickness which have been
traced for over 4 miles at a depth of about 400 ft. The lower
seam has little ash. The output in 1917 was 80,000 tons.
The completion of the Southern Siberian Railway will give
increased importance to these mines. They are owned by
a British company, the Irtish Corporation.
Kuznetsk. — The Kuznetsk beds, in the Altai region, extend
from Sudzhenka on the railway to 40 miles south of Kuznetsk.
On the west they reach the Ob in places, on the east the slopes
of the Ala-tau Range. The total area is estimated at about
5,000 sq. miles. The quality varies considerably in different
parts of the beds. Floods and the irregularity of the seams
cause trouble at the State mine at Anzherski. The seams, ten
in number, are from 3 to 45 ft. thick. The Sudzhenka coal,
which is coking or semi-anthracite, is taken almost entirely
by the railway. Small quantities only are sent down the Tom
for local use in Tomsk from the Kolchugino mine, which sup-
plies the inconsiderable needs of the ironworks in the neigh-
bourhood. The shaft here is 25 ft. deep. A French company
working this coalfield failed, and there is now no mining. The
Yurga -Kolchugino Railway, now extended to Kuznetsk (see
Chapter XVII), should at last make it possible to exploit these
valuable coal beds.
Cheremkhovskoe. — Important beds of coal lie round Cherem-
khovskoe, 70 miles west of Irkutsk. They produce nearly
5,000,000 tons annually. The coal is mainly lignite, and
much inferior to that of Kuznetsk. The beds cover about
90 sq. miles, and lie at a depth of more than 98 ft. The seams
are horizontal with an average thickness of 9 ft. The railway
is the chief consumer. Coal is used in the electric works in
the town of Irkutsk, but not for heating purposes in private
houses.
Yenisei and Lena Basins. — There are also considerable
deposits in the Yenisei valley near Dudinka and in the Minu-
COAL 291
sinsk region. There are said to be deposits in the Lower
I Tunguska and Chulim valleys. In the Lena valley coal has been
located at a number of places, throughout its middle course
and as far north as Bulun. On the west side of the Lena the
deposits extend beyond the mouth of the Markha, a tributary
of the Vilyui ; on the east side along the Aldan, beyond the
mouth of the Maya. The coal, which is of recent origin, is not
worked.
Transbaikal. — In the Transbaikal a number of coal deposits,
mainly lignite, have been located ; along the shores of Baikal
with outcrops near the lake, and in the valleys of the streams
round, including the Uda and the Chikoi ; at seven points
in the valley of the Khilok and at two near Lake Gusinoe.
A seam near Pereemnaya, on the south-eastern shore of
Baikal, is worked for the lake steamers, but the output is
small. Large lignite beds exist in the valley of the Ingoda.
one being at Novaya-Kuka, only 4 miles from the railway.
Goal also occurs at several points in the valleys of the Shilka,
Onon, and Argun. The deposits on the Argun have not been
explored, but as the region where they occur is treeless, they
may be of importance. About 1,500,000 tons are produced
annually from these deposits along the Transbaikal Railway,
but the quality is inferior, giving only half the heat of the
Cheremkhovskoe coal.
Amur Province. — Coking coal of fair quality has been found
about 30 miles from the mouth of the Dep, a tributary of the
Zeya, on its right bank, but the amount seems to be small.
In the Bureya valley several deposits of better quality have
been found.
Extensive deposits of brown coal have also been located at
several places along the Amur and the Amur Railway, notably
near Khabarovsk.
Maritime Province and Sakhalin. — There is much coal,
mostly of a poor quality, in the Maritime Province. Of
27 deposits 10 are being worked. The principal sources
are a large lignite mine near Vladivostok, yielding upwards
of 200,000 tons annually for the railway, a couple of small
T 2
292 MINERAL RESOURCES
mines on Amur Bay, the Government mines at Suchan,
60 miles from America Bay, and the Due, Alexandrovsk,
and other mines in Sakhalin.
The Suchan mine, which supplies the Government require-
ments, is run at great expense and on non-economical lines.
It is connected with the Ussuri Railway by a branch 93 miles
long, but this can handle only 133,000 tons at most in a year.]
The output rose from 105,496 tons in 1908 to 206,783 in 1912.
The quality of the coal for steam-raising has been much
criticized and its calorific value is comparatively low. The
coal is of three sorts, bituminous, anthracite, and coking, the
percentage of volatile matter being respectively 27 to 30,
6 to 8, and 22 per cent. It was expected that the briquette
works on Golden Horn Bay would turn out 3,200,000 bri-
quettes in 1914. There are said to be indications of both
brown and anthracite coal along the coast of the Maritime
Province as far north as de Castries Bay.
A Government engineer, who has recently visited the
Mongugai coal-field, which lies some 12 miles inland from the
western shore of Amur Bay on the Mongugai River and is
only 24 miles by land and water from Vladivostok, estimates
that it contains some 5,000,000 tons of good anthracite coal,
very similar to Welsh coal. The field is much cut up by
eruptive rocks and heavily faulted. If a small harbour, with
a narrow-gauge line, were built, 150,000 to 200,000 tons could
be delivered annually at Vladivostok at a cost of about 10s. a
ton, instead of the 18s. or more charged for Japanese coal, of
which some 12,000 tons are imported into Vladivostok every
year.
Mines near Alexandrovsk in Sakhalin are connected to the
sea by a railway 1\ miles long.
The absence of a harbour has prevented the excellent Due
coal from being worked on a large scale. In 1912, 24,322 tons
were produced from five pits. The Government is putting the
mines up for auction for 36 years on condition that the lessee
shall build a harbour for general use. The mines could
certainly produce large quantities of coal at a moderate
COAL 293
price if properly worked, as the seams are thick and lie hori-
zontally, while timber is abundant. In quality it is said to be
equal to Welsh coal. Excellent bituminous coal has also
been discovered at the mouth of the Pilevo near the Japanese
frontier.
Kamchatka. — There is a large deposit of brown lignite at
Baron Korfa Gulf, north of Kamchatka. Similar coal occurs
*the shores of Gizhiga and Penzhina Bays, as well as at
^ral places on the west coast of Kamchatka and elsewhere
he Kamchatka province.
Salt
The Urals produce about 20 per cent, of Russia's salt, in
spite of the fact that the industry there is not developing
rapidly. The Orenburg deposits are among the richest in
Russia, which contains some of the largest salt-beds in the
world.
Salt is an important, but little developed, Siberian mineral.
In the west it is chiefly found in a number of lakes in the
Semipalatinsk territory, on both banks of the Irtish, in the
Akmolinsk region and in the Government of Tomsk. The out-
put varies considerably, as the deposits in the lakes depend
on the weather. In 1911 the output of salt in western Siberia
was 129,000 tons, one-sixth of the total output of the Russian
Empire ; in eastern Siberia about 10,600 tons.
In the Kirghiz steppe seven lakes are controlled by the
Government and leased for working. All the other lakes of
the region, many hundreds in number, are left for the use of the
Kirghiz, but the salt they yield is less pure in quality. Most of
them could only produce pure salt by the artificial basin system.
Chief among the reserved lakes are the five west of Pavlodar,
of which by far the most important is Lake Koryakov, 12
miles from the town. Its salt is considered the best in Siberia.
In 1905 it produced over 32,000 tons. The method of procuring
the salt is quite primitive, no machinery being used. Lake
Karabas is another important salt lake, w T est of Semipalatinsk ;
294 MINERAL RESOURCES
it supplies the needs of that town, as well as of Biisk, Zmyeino- '
gorsk and Zaisan. This lake also belongs to the State. The
salt is collected in the most primitive way and loaded on to
camels.
In the Tomsk Government, in the Baraba steppes, are a I
number of salt lakes, of which Lake Burlinskoe, some 70 miles
to the north-east of Pavlodar, is the most important. It
produces by far the greater part of the output in this region.
The salt is comparatively pure : it is used by the peasantry
and in the fishing. industry on the Ob.
Eastern Siberia abounds in salt, but the richest deposits
of rock-salt and the best salt springs lie in districts too remote
for profitable working. Most of the salt is obtained by
evaporation from salt lakes, as, for instance, near Abakanskoe
in the Yeniseisk Province. In this province evaporation
produces 7,500 tons a year, about the same quantity as in the
Irkutsk Province. The industry flourishes in Transbaikal,
especially round Novi-Selenginsk, Ust-Kiranskaya, and Troit-
skosavsk. There are a number of brackish lakes, of which
Baruntorei is the largest, in the southern part of the district.
Lake Borzinsk near the Chinese frontier is the only salt lake in
the Nerchinsk district, and the salt does not settle there every
year. The most important saltworks in Siberia are at Ussolye
near Irkutsk on the Lower Angara. They produced 10,000
tons in 1907. Work is only carried on in summer, owing to
the cost of fuel. If the price of salt fell below about Id. per lb.,
it could not be produced at a profit.
The Ust-Kutskoe works on the upper Lena have an output
of some 1,600 tons annually for local use,but they areunfavour-
ably situated. The salt is plentiful. Very large deposits
of rock salt exist on the Vilyui and its right tributaries near
Suntarskaya. The salt is contained in red clay and is every-
where accompanied by gypsum. On the right bank of the
Kyundyaya, a right-hand tributary of the Vilyui, salt forms
two masses in a mountain of red clay and gypsum. During the
spring floods some of its tributaries, notably the Kampents-
zyaika, become quite brackish. At present there is no market
SALT 295
for thin excellent salt owing to the absence of means of com
munication.
As many districts are totally devoid of salt, the Government
keeps salt-depots for supplying local needs in the remoter
regions of Siberia.
Glauber's Salt. — In the northern portion of the salt lake
system of western Siberia, i.e. on the Baraba steppe, the
lakes always contain a considerable amount of salts other than
common salt, principally sulphate of sodium (Glauber's salt).
In eastern Siberia Glauber's salt is produced from Lake
Doroninsk in the Barguzin district, and also from the exten-
sive deposits in the Minusinsk region, close to the left bank
of the Yenisei. Lake Doroninsk likewise contains vast
deposits of sulphate of soda, which is also produced from a
couple of small lakes in the south of the Achinsk-Minusinsk
region, the Kiransk Lake in the Transbaikal, and in the
neighbourhood of Verkholensk on the upper Lena.
In the Tomsk Government hot mineral springs occur only
in the mountainous districts. The Rakhmanovski and Byelo-
kurikha springs, both in the Biisk region, near the Mongolian
border, are the best known. The Transbaikal is rich in mineral
springs, most of them cold. Very few of them have been
exploited or even explored. They are especially numerous
near the Shilka and in the Chita region. In Kamchatka
mineral springs are likewise, common, their healing qualities
being often appreciated by the natives. There are sulphur
springs on the middle Lena.
Precious Stones and Building Materials
Marble and lapis lazuli are common in the Irkutsk and
Transbaikal regions. Very fine lapis lazuli has been produced
in the valley of the Malaya-Bistraya, a tributary of the Irkut.
Marbles, garnet, asphalt, &c, are found along the Talaya
and Slyudyanka, which flow into Lake Baikal.
Ashirite, a rare kind of emerald, is found to the NW. of
Karkaralinsk in the Kirghiz steppe and alabaster in the
immediate neighbourhood of Semipalatinsk.
296 MINERAL RESOURCES
The Transbaikal is the richest district for precious stones.
On the ' granite mountain ' Adun-Chelonsk, near the conflu-
ence of the Onon and the Borzya, topaz, beryl, aquamarine,
tourmaline, crystals, and other stones have been found. Very
fine topazes come from the Nerchinsk Range, between the
Unda, a tributary of the Skilka, and the Urulyungui, a tribu-
tary of the Argun. Neither of these districts is at present
regularly exploited. Garnets in small crystals are also found
on the Onon, 56 miles from Nerchinsk. On the eastern shores
of Baikal, near Barguzin, there are fine rubies and almondines.
The basins of the Byelaya, a tributary of the Lower Angara,
and its tributaries, the Iret and the Onon, contain nephrite,
which is highly prized by the Chinese. Some of the blocks
weigh 9 or 10 cwt. There is nephrite near Cheremkhovskoe.
Jasper exists near Zhigansk on the Lena. The jasper and
porphyry of various colours from the Altai are celebrated.
They come especially from the valleys of the Alei and Charish
and are polished at the Kolivan works. From the eight
quarries working in the Altai come porphyry, blue and green
jasper, malachite, granite, marbles, breccia, smoky topaz,
coloured quartz, agate, and chalcedony.
Near Olgi Bay is a mountain said to consist entirely of
marble, to which a railway has been projected. Marble is
also found on the upper Yenisei, on the southern and eastern
slopes of Baikal, and in the basins of the Onon and the Argun.
Lime, building-stone, and common clays are found almost
everywhere. Eire-clay and fire -resisting sandstone are worked
near the mines in the Kirghiz steppe and the Irkutsk Govern-
ment.
Kaolin and white clay for porcelain are worked in several
places in the Irkutsk Government. Felspar and quartz for
glass factories are obtained from deposits in the Baikal
Mountains.
I
CHAPTER XIII
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Kustarni Industries — Factories — Chinese Industries in the Far East
Kustarni Industries
The characteristic industrial feature of western Siberia, as
of European Russia, is the Kustarni (peasant or cottage)
industry, performed in the houses of the cottagers, some-
times as the winter or nocturnal occupation of an agricultural
folk during the hours of their unemployment, sometimes as
the main occupation of the inhabitants. Several of the old
settlers have given up agriculture for peasant industries, but
many of these industries are decaying, and the railway by its
distribution of the commodities accelerates their fall. Some
patterns remain traditional in one family for generations,
and the older these traditions, the better and finer is the work
produced. Those who are responsible for developing these
industries, try as far as possible to revive the finer and more
artistic work which has had a tendency to give way before
cheaper and newer products. In eastern Siberia these
Kustarni industries are less developed, and the more easterly
the province the less is the degree of development. In the
Kirghiz steppes, where there is a considerable amount of
peasant weaving, the Kustarni trades flourish more among
the Kirghiz than among the Russian inhabitants. The only
exception is a kind of tanning industry established by recent
immigrants.
In western Siberia it was estimated about ten years ago
that there were altogether 13,000 factories, employing 33,000
workpeople and producing about £4,000,000 worth of manu-
factures. As these numbers include the bigger factories in
298 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
some of the towns it shows that only about two people in
one house are employed on the same thing. Usually all the
inhabitants of one village are employed in the same industry,
and even all the villages on one road will have one or two
staple occupations. So on the road from Kurgan to Yaluto-
rovsk all the many villages that the traveller passes manu-
facture wool or leather. Some examples of Kustarni industries
in western Siberia may be given. About Tyumen, a great
centre of industry, the Kustarni manufactures are cooper-
work, sieves, turned utensils, carts, furniture of a rough kind,
sledges, pitch, the wooden parts of horses' collars, Russian
ploughs, and in the Kamen volost of the same district carpet
making, with bright flowers and animal patterns. The wool,
colours, and designs are bought from traders — formerly
vegetable colours were got from the Samoyedes, now aniline
dyes are used : the Russians love bright colours. Round
Turinsk and Tobolsk much carpentering work is done, but
in Tobolsk fishing nets and carvings from mammoth ivory
are also made, and in Turinsk anchors because of the fishing.
Throughout south Tobolsk wool and skin products are manu-
factured. At Kurgan and Turinsk they make plough-shares,
at Ishim ropes and rough agricultural machinery, at Sama-
rovskoe leads for the fishing-nets. Throughout the Tobolsk
Government they make plaited bast- work, harness, skin
boots, wool products, axles, distaffs, and troughs. In the
Tomsk Government at Kuznetsk and Tomsk there are smiths
and joiners, at Barnaul they make metal pots for milk and the
special skin coats known as ' barnaulkas ', and at Biisk cedar-
nut oil.
The Ministry of Agriculture has tried to improve the
technical knowledge of the peasant-workers by establishing
educational workshops, of which there are now seven in the
Tomsk Government, giving instruction in such things as
weaving, furniture-making, carpentering, the manufacture of
agricultural machines, cart-building, pottery, and tanning.
In eastern Siberia labour is scarcer and dearer, and the
standard of workmanship is much lower. In Irkutsk and
KUSTARNI INDUSTRIES 299
Yeniseisk woodwork of various kinds comes first in importance,
especially in the neighbourhood of the big towns ; second
comes the dressing of sheepskins and wool products ; then
weaving and metalwork, which are much less advanced
About Yeniseisk there is pottery, and near Irkutsk boot-
making. In Transbaikal coopers' work alone is of importance.
In Yakutsk one special form of Kustarni industry should be
mentioned, the fine work done in mammoth ivory by the
Yakuts. In the Amur and Primorsk Provinces cottage in-
dustries hardly exist at all, but the government is doing its
best to organize them, as offering excellent employment,
especially in the remoter districts, during the winter. In-
structors are brought from Russia, schools are opened, and
assistance is given in procuring raw material and organizing
sales. It is thought that wooden articles for local use, such
as furniture, sledge runners, &c, could be made at home.
Charcoal burning, the dry distillery of wood products and
the making of rough tools and pottery might be taken up, as
well as weaving, coopering, tanning, and shoemaking. In the
Primorsk seven workshops and schools have been or shortly
will be established. In Amur and Primorsk £23,000 was to
be spent in 1914 to promote these industries.
Factories
In the towns bigger factories have grown up, some of which
have been established for 70 or 80 years, as, for instance, the
celebrated glass factory 28 miles west of Krasnoyarsk, estab-
lished about 1840 and employing normally 400 and at special
seasons 800 workmen. It is difficult to define very clearly
the distinction between the Kustarni and bigger factories ;
very often the same industry is carried on in both, or a factory
may be merely an aggregation of Kustarni workers. The
chief occupations of Siberian towns are distilling, brewing,
tanning, soap and tallow factories, flour-milling, saw-milling,
weaving, oil-milling, rope-making, glass-making, brick-making,
pottery. In the Russian Far East the managers of factories
are usually foreigners, especially Japanese, until the Russo-
300 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Japanese war. Skilled labour was supplied by the Chinese,
unskilled by Koreans. The retail trade was chiefly in the
hands of the Chinese.
Distilling and Brewing
The distillation of spirits, especially vodka, is the oldest
and most firmly established industry in Siberia. Vodka dis-
tilleries supply only the state, which has its own retail shops,
and export a limited amount to other countries. There are
about 60 distilleries in Siberia, of which the most important
is at Semipalatinsk, in which in 1906-7 6,000,000 litres were
produced.
Other important distilleries are in Kurgan, Tomsk, and the
neighbourhood of Omsk. Spirits are distilled from rye,
wheat, and potatoes. Before the prohibition of vodka Siberia
could not satisfy its own needs under this head, but imported
from Russia. There is a Kustarni industry in the distilling
of samosidka (a kind of vodka) from corn, but this is only for
local consumption.
Breweries before the war were usually in the hands of
Germans and Austrians. The chief kind of beer manufac-
tured was a light lager beer of German type. Nearly all the
towns of any importance have their breweries, producing
between 600,000 and 1,200,000 litres per annum. The work
is usually done in winter. The beer produced is of fair quality,
like the ordinary Russian beers, but with a somewhat higher
proportion of alcohol. Besides beer, mead and kvas are
brewed. There are yeast factories at Omsk and Irkutsk.
Animal Products
Tanneries work both for local use and export. The largest,
which are at Tyumen, work some 60,000 cattle hides and
10,000 horse hides per annum. The next largest are at Biisk.
The chief supply of raw hides for western Siberia comes from
Kurgan, Semipalatinsk, Barnaul, and the great market for
these commodities at Petropavlovsk. There are no tanneries
FACTORIES 301
in Mongolia ; so a considerable amount of finished products
go into that country, some of which had previously been sent
out of it as untanned hides. This constitutes much of the
trade which passes from Biisk along the Chuya track. A
resident at Kyakhta has bought a Tyumen tannery in order
to facilitate the trade through Kyakhta. Other places where
tanning is important are Petropavlovsk, Tomsk, Novo-
Nikolaevsk, Barnaul, Zaisan, Omsk, Semipalatinsk, Zmyei-
nogorsk, and Irkutsk. The Lena goldfield is largely supplied
by leather from Ussolye near Irkutsk. Tanning is a fre-
quent Kustarni industry as well.
Tallow, soap and candles are a common industry, especially
in Tobolsk and northern Akmolinsk. Export is made by
rail to Russia, especially to Moscow, Petrograd, Kazan, and
Urakovo. Ninety- three per cent, is exported in winter, for
the packing expenses are less heavy then, as the use of casks
is not obligatory. Petropavlovsk and Kurgan are the chief
places of export.
The Kirghiz cattle supply the material. The soap and
candle factories supply the commonest sorts for local needs.
For superior wax candles the church has a monopoly with
factories in Tobolsk and Krasnoyarsk. The principal soap
works are in Petropavlovsk, Omsk, Tomsk, and Blagovyesh-
chensk.
Other industries connected with animal products are wool-
dressing, especially at Tyumen and Irkutsk, and weaving.
The carpets of Tyumen have been already mentioned.
Timber Products
The saw-mills of Siberia (a very important industry) are
described in Chapter XI. The carpentering and coopering
are mainly Kustarni work. A paper factory in a village near
Tyumen employs about 300 workpeople and has an output of
about £30,000 worth. There is boat-building on the Tavda, at
Tyumen and at Minusinsk. Carriage -building is an industry
at Tomsk, and to some extent at Omsk and Irkutsk. There
302 MANtJFACTURING INDUSTRIES
is an establishment for the preparation of railway sleepers net
the railway station of Omsk.
There are several match factories at Tobolsk, Tomsl
Tyumen, and in the Biisk district. The Tomsk establishmenl
is the best ; there 300 hands produced daily 350 chests 01
32,000 boxes (1903). The other places employ about l(Kj
hands. The phosphorus (where used) is obtained from works
in Perm, the other materials being of local manufacture. I
Siberia provides for itself in the match industry, successfully
competing with Japan in the far eastern regions.
Metal Foundries and Engineering Works
Along the railway line are engineering works and works
for repairing the railway. Next to the railway works the
best equipped workshops are those attached to the technical
high school in Tomsk and some industrial schools in Omsk
and Irkutsk. River steamers and engines are built at Tyumen
and Blagovyeshchensk. There is a bell-foundry at Tyumen,
a brass-foundry at Barnaul, a nail factory at Irkutsk, and
a factory of agricultural machinery (the superior kinds are
imported) at Omsk. In eastern Siberia there are two iron
and five copper foundries at Blagovyeshchensk, besides
mechanical factories at Khabarovsk and Nikolsk-Ussuriski.
Glass and China
Bottle-glass, window-glass, and rough table-ware are the
only glass manufactured in Siberia, the superior kinds being
imported. The chief glass factory is the one mentioned above
west of Krasnoyarsk, the workmen of which are Europeans,
not Siberians. There are others near Kurgan, Biisk, Tomsk,
Minusinsk, and Irkutsk. Some of these employ about 100
workpeople. In the east there are two glass factories, one
in the Amur Province and one in Nikolsk-Ussuriski.
There is one large china and porcelain factory in Siberia,
at Khaita, on the Byelaya, about 90 miles from Irkutsk. It
produces some 483 tons of less fine ware for Siberian use only.
A Moscow firm supplies most of Siberia.
FACTORIES 303
Brick, Pottery, and Cement
Brickworks are very general near the Siberian towns.
The brick factories are often worked by steam. Although
the Siberian houses are built principally of wood, the founda-
tions are generally of brick, and so there is a larger demand
for bricks than might be expected. Prices range high : often
about £1 for 100. In 1907 the principal steam brick -works
were two in Tomsk, which produced three million bricks
a year each, two at Krasnoyarsk, working much below their
capacity, two at Irkutsk, which produced one to two million
bricks, but of which one had suspended work. Other im-
portant brick -works were in Omsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, Cherem-
khovskoe, and Aleksandrovskoe ; at these bricks were made
by hand.
Pottery is little developed. The peasants replace it with
numerous substitutes of wood and bark, while blue and white
enamel ware (Austrian and Polish) has considerable vogue.
There are, however, potteries near Tyumen. The most im-
portant pottery is at Polovinnaya on the Byelaya, 64 miles
west of Irkutsk, where boats can reach the factory. The clay
here is good. Cement works are found in Nizhne-Udinsk,
where one produces about 50 tons annually. Two others in
Transbaikal manufacture for local needs, and another was
established in 1907 near the Ussuri Railway at the cost of
£100,000.
Oil
Another large industry is the manufacture of vegetable oil,
the milling of which goes frequently with that of grain. The
oil is mainly from flax and hemp. Among the principal oil
mills are one at Ust-Kamenogorsk for sunflower seeds, and
one at Petropavlovsk, for linseed (500 tons per annum).
Mills abound all over western Siberia ; from the Urals to the
Ob they are mostly windmills, east of the Ob they are mostly
watermills. In 1910 there were 1,041 oil-mills in the Tomsk
Government.
304 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Miscellaneous
A few important factories not otherwise classified may be
mentioned. In Irkutsk and Khabarovsk are cigarette-case
factories ; Irkutsk contains ten printing works (there are
others at Omsk and Tomsk), two steam sausage manufactories,
and a pearl-barley factory. Barnaul has a soda factory and
a considerable rope factory with an output worth £2,500 a
year, and there is another at Minusinsk. Usually rope-
walks are a Kustarni industry. At Kolivan there are stone-
polishing works which belonged to the Cabinet of the Tsar.
Vases are fashioned of marble, jasper, and breccia, but the
conditions of the industry are said to have remained primitive.
Near Posiet Bay, Olgi Bay, and other bays in the Maritime
Province seaweed is the basis of a valuable iodine industry.
An iodine factory has just been built at Nakhodka Bay near
Vladivostok, and in 1916 it was expected that 8,000 tons of
the weed would be dealt with. It is now to be cut with
hooks and not torn up by the roots.
Chinese Industries in the Far East
An edible seaweed, variously named, sometimes called
' sea colewort ', is collected in the south of Primorsk, whence
some 1,600 tons are annually sent to Japan and China, and in
Sakhalin, whence some 2,700-3,200 tons are annually ex-
ported. The quality depends on the drying, but as this must
be done on stony ground, and as three days of sun without
moisture are essential, the process is not easy. There are
three qualities : the best from the Maritime Province goes to
Shanghai, the rest to Chefoo. Mention has been made of the
panty made from deer horns (see p. 56). To this should be
added the gentian root which is found in the depths of the
virgin forests along the tributaries of the Ussuri, and which is
supposed by the Chinese to possess marvellous properties as
a medicine. It sells according to its age, the older the more
valuable, at £5 to £23 a pound. The Chinese have attempted
to grow it in Russian territory, but the cultivated root sells
for only 25s. a pound. America meantime exports £160,000
worth of the root to China annually >,
CHAPTER XIV
NATURAL RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC
RUSSIA
Timber — Agriculture and Stock-breeding — Mineral Wealth — Fur and
Eider-down — Industry and Trade
Timber
The most valuable asset of northern Russia in Europe is
its forests. In the Government of Arkhangel, in 1897, it was
estimated that out of 211,356,000 acres 81,000,000 were
forest — the waste land amounted to 129,000,000 acres, while
only 756,000 acres were available for agriculture. Along the
Murman Railway there are great timber areas, mostly spruce
and pine. As there is a good supply of water-power and
•* white ' coal in the neighbourhood, these could be profitably
exploited. Sawmills are the principal industry of this govern-
ment, but their number might be indefinitely increased, and
the material sawn up might be exported in its manufactured
form : at present it is mostly logs and sawn wood that are
exported. The carpentering that is done in the country
only meets the needs of the local population (see p. 132).
Sawmills have been erected at Keret and at other settlements
along the White Sea coast, and also on Kola Inlet. Large
timber concessions on the Pechora River were made in 1916.
A cognate industry is the manufacture of pitch and tar,
the most important occupation in parts of the Shenkursk
district and in other parts of this government. This might
be usefully developed. At present local conditions differ
considerably ; the rate of taxation on the possessor of the
woods varies, but is usually too high, especially in the extreme
north, where the period of production is shortest. In the
state lands of Arkhangel the peasants have certain privileges,
306 RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC RUSSIA
e. g. free use of wood for heating the ' kettles ' ; in some:
parts the by-products are taxed. When the country is
deforested by the tar industry, care should be taken that;
the cleared land is used for agriculture, and not allowed
to decline into marsh-land. At present a large part of the;
population are employed on this industry, but it needs
fostering by supplying means of transport, lowering the
taxes, arranging for a system of credit, introducing technical
improvements and experimental stations, and securing that
the wood left over is utilized in the sawmills of the north
coast region. There are extensive works in the district of
Velsk between Arkhangel and Vologda, where special atten-
tion is paid to the production of tar. Pitch is exported
principally to the United Kingdom from Arkhangel.
Agriculture and Stock-breeding
Agriculture is only remunerative in the Shenkursk district
near the Vaga, in the southern portions of Kholmogor, Onega,
and Pinega, and on the ' summer ' shore of the south coast
of the White Sea. The principal crop is barley, to which
a large proportion of the farm lands is devoted, and which
is probably three times as extensive as rye, the next largest
crop, which grows, however, up to Askino in the estuary of
the Pechora. Oats and buckwheat are grown less extensively.
The local harvests, however, only meet the needs of one-
third of the population. Other crops of this region are
potatoes, peas, beans, cabbage, turnips, carrots, spinach,
sunflower, hemp (both mezenskaya and a larger kind), and
flax. The Juravski expedition of 1909 reported most favour-
ably on the prospects and present condition of agriculture
in the northern Pechora district, adding that bad harvest
there had never been remembered by the peasants. There
a floating grain-elevator at Arkhangel, the only one in norther
Russia.
Cattle-breeding could be made very successful. Tl
Kholmogor breed, established by Peter the Great, by int(
breeding the local cattle with others introduced from Hollanc
AGRICULTURE AND STOCK-BREEDING 307
is famous for .its size, beauty, and milk-producing powers.
The alluvial meadowland along the Northern Dvina, Mezen,
and Pechora is good for cattle, and at small expense the
swamps of the Arkhangel Government could be turned into
land covered with rich grass. Of the 756,000 acres available
for agriculture 540,000 were pasture land in 1897. There
were at that date in the Government of Arkhangel 114,962
cattle, 145,590 sheep, 52,109 horses. It is estimated that the
as of this region feed nearly 300,000 reindeer.
Mineral Wealth
The mineral resources of the country are little developed.
As long ago as the chronicles of 1558 gold was recorded in
bhe sand of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma. There are traces
Df silver, lead, and zinc everywhere on the Murman coast,
and iron and copper are present elsewhere in the Kola
Peninsula. Copper used to be worked centuries ago on the
Tsilma, a tributary of the Pechora. Ores with 80 per cent, of
lead have been found on the River Varsina. Coal is found
near Onega ; naphtha in the Pechora district, and the Utkinski
oilfields in the Cherdin district of Arkhangel are said to
resemble those of Pennsylvania ; a railway projected from
Bogoslovski to the White Sea will open them up. On the
j summer ' coast of the White Sea there is found a rich clay
for porcelain of a bluish-white colour.
Fur and Eider-down
The fur trade has decreased considerably, and in 1902
serious measures had to be taken in order to preserve what
was left of certain valuable animals, e. g. the ermine and the
Arctic fox. In 1897 there were killed in the Arkhangel
Government 386,771 wild animals, and 242,666 brace of
birds, with a total value of £12,388. Much the largest number
of animals were squirrels, viz. 384,189. In comparison the
rest were negligible. Second in order came foxes, of which
only 1,092 were killed.
u 2
308 RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC RUSSIA
Eider-down is obtained from Ainov Island, where the
nesting-places of the ducks are protected.
Industry and Trade
Most of the industrial occupations of the inhabitants have
been already recorded. Besides these should be mentioned
the tallow industry which is strongest in the Kola district,
and the chamois leather industry, which is strongest in the
Pechora district. In 1897 the manufactures of the Arkhangel
Government were worth £773,160. Among the industries
were shipbuilding, leather, canvas, cordage (though most of
the hemp is exported for the fleets of other countries), nets,
and potash.
CHAPTER XV
DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
Siberian Boundaries — Governments and Territories — Administrative
System — Administrative Districts — Siberian Towns — Local Government
Siberian Boundaries : Political and Geographical
The governments into which the Russian Empire is divided
disregard the geographical boundaries of Siberia. The
governments of Perm and Orenburg, which are European,
cross the Ural Mountains and include about 150,000 square
miles of Asiatic Russia, and the south-west portion of Siberia
is included in the general government of the Steppes (govern-
ments of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk), which is administered
from Omsk, and the northern portion of Turgai, which belongs
to Central Asia politically, would geographically be assigned
to Siberia.
Governments and Territories
The grouping of the administrative districts has constantly
changed and further changes are imminent. The old division
into Western and Eastern Siberia is given up ; Western Siberia
used to consist of the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk,
while the other administrative divisions constituted Eastern
Siberia. Now in all Siberia there are four governments
(Gubemiya), Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk ; eight
territories or provinces (Oblast), Yakutsk, Transbaikal, Amur,
Maritime (Primorsk), Kamchatka, Turgai, Akmolinsk,
Semipalatinsk (of which the last three belong to Central Asia
and the Steppes), and one division, Sakhalin. Some of these
are included under general governments : the general govern-
ment of Irkutsk includes Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Transbaikal, and
Yakutsk ; the general government of the Amur (Priamur)
310 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
includes Amur, Kamchatka, Maritime, and Sakhalin, and the
general government of the Steppes includes Akmolinsk and
Semipalatinsk.
The old Maritime Province is now divided at about 56° N.,
the northern part stretching thence to the Bering Strait being
called Kamchatka ; it has also been decided to transfer the
residence of the governor of Sakhalin (i. e. that part of the
island north of lat. 50° N. which Russia has retained since the
Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905), to Nikolaevsk, and to form a new
district to be known as the Nevelski district, including together
with northern Sakhalin the central part of the Udsk district
in which Nikolaevsk lies. Also the boundaries of the Amur
province are to be enlarged by the addition of the south-east
portion of Transbaikal, and two new districts (Selemdzha
and Zeya) are to be formed.
Administrative System 1
Tobolsk and Tomsk are administered on the same system
as the Governments of European Russia, and the Eastern
provinces will be administered similarly, with civil governors
taking the place of military governors except in Kamchatka.
Where the European system prevails there is a general adminis-
trative council, presided over by the deputy-governor,
directly under the authority of the Minister of the Interior.
Over it presides a civil governor representing him, who is
assisted by councillors nominated locally and approved in
Petrograd. Usually the business is deputed to committees
as below :
(1) Under the Minister of the Interior — Department for
{a) Urban Affairs, (b) Peasant Affairs, (c) Justice ; Prison
Committee, Education Board, Land Valuation Staff, Public
Health Department.
(2) Under the Imperial Finance Minister — A local branch
of the Imperial Treasury for assessing local and imperial taxes.
(3) Under the Minister of Agriculture — Agricultural Organ-
1 At the time of the Russian revolution in 1917.
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM 311
ization Committee, Local Immigration Committee, Land
Survey Staff.
(4) Under their respective central bureaus — Ministry of
Trade and Commerce, Local Department of Justice, Local
Military Authority.
There are eight members elected to the Imperial Duma from
Siberia by indirect vote.
Each province is divided into uyezds (districts), each uyezd
into volosts ; each volost into villages, those with a church
being styled selo, those without a church being styled derevnya.
Over the uyezd presides a uyesdi nachalnik, over the volost
a zasidatil, over the village a starosta.
Administrative Districts
Tobolsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 2,005,000. Area, 539,659
square miles. Capital, Tobolsk. Districts : Tobolsk
Tyumen, Kurgan, Tara, Ishim, Tyukalinsk, Berezov, Surgut,
Turinsk, Yalutorovsk. Police divisions, 30; volosts, &c, 270,
rural communities, 2,609 ; other settlements, 4,760.
Tomsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 3,919,000. Area, 331,159
square miles. Capital, Tomsk. Districts : Tomsk, Barnaul,
Biisk, Kainsk, Kuznetsk, Mariinsk, Zmyeinogorsk. Police
divisions, 31 ; volosts, &c, 294 ; rural communities, 3,194 :
other settlements, 3,350.
Barnaul is the head-quarters of the Altai Administration and
the centre of the ' Cabinet ' estates (i. e. belonging to the Tsar).
Irkutsk. General Government. Capital, Irkutsk.
Irkutsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 733,000. Area, 287,061
square miles. Capital, Irkutsk. Districts: Irkutsk, Balagansk,
Kirensk, Nizhne-Udinsk, Verkholensk, Vitimsk. Police divi-
sions, 25 ; volosts, &c, 116 ; rural communities, 579 : other
settlements, 2,336.
Yeniseisk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 982,000. Area, 987,186
square miles. Capital, Krasnoyarsk. Districts : Krasnoyarsk,
Achinsk, Kansk, Minusinsk, Yeniseisk, Turukhansk, Usinsk.
Police divisions, 21 ; volosts, &c, 103 ; rural communities,
1,639; other settlements, 1,464.
312 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
Yakutsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 328,000. Area, 1,533,397
square miles. Capital, Yakutsk. Districts : Yakutsk, Olek-
minsk, Sredne-Kolimsk, Verkhoyansk, Vilyuisk. Police divi-
sions, 15 ; volosts, &c, 47 ; rural communities, 383 ; other
settlements, 337.
Transbaikal. Pop. (estimated 1913), 920,000. Area,
236,868 square miles. Capital, Chita. Districts : Chita,
Barguzin, Aksha, Nerchinsk, Nerchinski Zavod, Selenginsk,
Troitskosavsk, Verkhne-Udinsk. Police divisions, 25 ;
volosts, &c, 141 ; rural communities, 951 ; other settle-
ments, 791.
Amur (Priamur). General Government. Capital, Kha-
barovsk.
Amur. Pop. (estimated 1913), 241,000. Area, 172,848
square miles. Capital, Blagovyeshchensk. The government
is military and divided into Cossack regiments and battalions.
Police divisions, 7; volosts, &c, 23 ; rural communities, 325 ;
other settlements, 259.
Maritime Province (Primorsk). Pop. (estimated 1913),
604,000. Area, 295,664 square miles. Capital, Vladivostok.
Districts : Khabarovsk, Udsk, Ussuri Cossack, South Ussuri
(Nikolsk-Ussuriski), Iman, Olgi. Police divisions, 19 ; volosts,
&c, 47 ; rural committees, 941 ; other settlements
1,031.
Kamchatka. Pop. (estimated 1913), 39,000. Area, 503,777
square miles. Capital, Petropavlovsk. Districts : Petropav-
lovsk, Okhotsk, Gizhiga, Commander Is.,Chukotsk(Chukchee),
and Anadir. Police divisions, 4 ; settlements, 254.
Sakhalin. Pop. (estimated 1913), 14,000. Area, 15,334
square miles. Capital, Alexandrovsk. The province is
divided into two districts, Alexandrovski and Timovsk.
Police divisions, 4 ; rural communities, 35 ; other settle-
ments, 35.
Steppe. General Government. Capital, Omsk.
Akmolinsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 1,492,000. Area,
229,609 square miles. Capital, Omsk. Districts: Akmolinsk,
Atbasar, Kokchetav, Omsk, Petropavlovsk. Police divisions,
ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS 313
26 ; volosts, &c, 223 ; rural communities, 1,182 ; other
settlements, 579.
Semipalatinsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 862,000. Area,
184,631 square miles. Capital, Semipalatinsk. Districts :
Semipalatinsk, Karkaralinsk, Pavlodar, Ust-Kamenogorsk,
Zaisan. Police divisions, 20 ; volosts, 163 ; rural communi-
ties, 1,094 ; other settlements, 608.
Of the other provinces of the Steppe General Government,
Uralsk does not concern Siberia, and Turgai does only in its
north-east portion.
The district of Uryankhai; round the upper waters of the
Yenisei, is nominally part of Mongolia, but is 'under the
Russian sphere of influence '.
Siberian Towns
Origin. — The old towns in Siberia are either, like Yaluto-
rovsk, built on the site of some Tartar city, or, like Irkutsk and
many others, they were originally stockaded forts erected to
keep the natives quiet and to form the centre to which they
brought their ' yassak '. Other towns have owed their origin
to special conditions : so Yekaterinburg grew up in the
eighteenth century as the centre of the Ural mining district,
and more recently Bodaibo as a mining centre in the Lena
country and Novo-Nikolaevsk as the place where the Siberian
railway crosses the Ob.
Appearance. — Siberian towns are seldom of an impressive
appearance. Most of the private houses are of one story and
of wood, though a disastrous lire in Irkutsk in 1879 led to an
order that all further buildings in that city should be of stone,
so that it has a more distinctive appearance. The public
buildings and churches are usually of stone, and are often well
built, and some fine cathedrals have recently been built.
A common feature in Siberian towns is the triumphal arch,
usually erected to commemorate the visit of some Tsar or
Tsarevich. The bigger towns possess a number of schools,
and there are several good libraries and museums. The
bigger towns all possess theatres, and Krasnoyarsk has a very
314 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
fine park. There are often good private residences of brick or
stone. The shops, even when well stocked, make a poor
display, as it is not customary to show the goods in the window.
With but few exceptions the hotels are poor, except for the
cuisine, and travellers have to bring their own bedding.
In the older towns the centre often has irregular and winding
streets, but the rest of the town is laid out with extreme
regularity in parallelograms. The streets are broad : paving,
where it exists, is of wood, and the sea of mud in the middle
of the street engulfs (as at Khabarovsk) the cement with
which it is attempted to give it a surface. The station is
often at some distance from the town, and in its vicinity
a considerable settlement usually springs up.
Industry and Commerce. — Siberia is not a manufacturing
country ; many of the factories, even in the towns, employ
merely three or four hands ; but factories on a bigger scale are
developing in some of the western towns. The commonest
industries are tanning, soap-boiling, brick-making, milling,
brewing, and the distilling of brandy or vodka. Near the
mining districts there are also smelting works and laboratories
for the assay of precious metals. Some towns owe their im-
portance to the exchange of goods, and there are places
especially where Europe and Asia exchange their goods as in
Kyakhta, where the teas and furs of China are brought to the
great exchange courtyard, and Petropavlovsk, where the
materials and Asiatic goods of the Kirghiz steppe are brought
to the historic Barter Court. The more southerly towns have
weekly bazaars, and others have annual, or, more frequently,
biennial fairs of great importance.
All important towns are described in the chapters on the
various rivers in Volumes II and III.
Local Government
There have been since 1894 municipal Dumas in certain
the towns. In these the citizens elect a town council (gore
dkaya duma) whose term of office is four years ; and this
turn appoints a board of aldermen (gorodskaya tiprava). Tl
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 315
former is deliberative and legislative in its functions, the latter
deliberative. Both boards are under the presidency of the
mayor (gorodskoe golova). The electors are all who pay the
apartment-tax (kvartemi nalog).
The Mir. — The institution of Zemstvos, or provincial
assemblies, has never been extended beyond European Russia,
except in the Asiatic part of Perm. The great difficulty has
been that Siberia is almost exclusively a country of peasants,
and contains no educated or landowning class. The propor-
tion of inhabitants who cannot read is very large, and to such a
community an institution like the Zemstvo has been regarded
as inapplicable. But since the emancipation of the serfs, in
1861, the Mir (=' world'), or folk-moot of the village com-
munity (a very ancient institution), has been organized, and
has had self-government. It is the assembly of the peasants,
and no one except a peasant can have a vote in it. With this
body rests the allocation of village lands. It assigns to each
family a hut and yard and a suitable amount of land, taking
care that there is a proper proportion of arable, pasture, and
forest -land. The average amount for each family is about
40 acres, but an additional amount is assigned to each male
member. A new division is made every fifteen years, and
a majority of two-thirds can re-allot land. Since 1906 a peasant
can hold his land in perpetuity. A certain amount is always
set aside for common pasturage. The chairman (selsJci
starosta) is elected annually — in some places triennially — by
the male inhabitants, the widows, and the wives of absent male
residents . The decisions of the Mir are allowed to be unanimous,
a defeated minority withdrawing its opposition. The Mir
has also judicial rights in petty cases.
Powers of the Mir over individuals. — It is not usually an
enlightened body, and it is apt to be a check on progress. Its
traditional wisdom is likely to set itself against unfamiliar
experiments in farming, and it puts obstacles in the way of
free movement about the country, for it is afraid of losing
the proportion of the taxes paid by the individual who wishes
to migrate. It used even to send for members of the com-
316 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
munity who had thriven in the towns and compel them to 1
return under an armed escort to their native villages. Those
who do migrate do not cease to be members of their Mir,
and frequently one who has prospered in town life contmues %
his membership of the village community and the payment |
of his quota of the taxes. Taxes are low ; the total of the .■
direct peasant-taxes paid in the whole of the Yeniseisk 1
Government amounts to £90,000, which works out atfl
three shillings per head per annum. Custom allows the Mir I
to prevent any one it chooses from sharing in its debates, and J
the law permits this, provided such ostracism is not enforced |
for more than three years. But there is a more extended }
power that it exercises, for it can banish any undesirable |
person from the community, which usually means in European
Russia that such a one is sent to Siberia. In many years
half the prisoners sent to Siberia have been so banished.
Volost courts. — The Mirs are combined into volosts (cantonal
assemblies) which elect an elder (starishna) and small tribunals j
(volostnye sud) for settling certain civil and criminal cases, j
The starishna (like the starosta in the Mir) is assisted in his
decisions by a pizar (secretary), who often becomes the leading
authority in the village, as the one person in an unlettered
community who has any education at all. The pizar is usually
out of touch with the peasant class by birth, habits, and educa-
tion ; he is indifferent to their welfare, and, being ill-paid,
is constantly on the look-out for means of improving his
position. While the muzhiks (peasants) wear the national
dress, the pizar emphasizes his importance by wearing ' Ger-
man ' dress. In 1911 an attempt was made to get rid of these
volost courts ; they were eventually retained, but put under
the supervision of local boards of magistrates, who constitute
in this instance courts of appeal. In the volost the vote is
not necessarily unanimous, but there may be a majority.
What is dispensed in these courts is patriarchal justice based
on customary law. Civil cases involving less than the value
of 100 roubles come within their competence, as also do more
important cases, provided that both parties to the suit agree
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 317
to such an arrangement. They can exact fines up to 3 roubles
or inflict seven days' arrest. They are also charged with
maintenance of order in the Mir and in the family. There is
no appeal (other than in cases of banishment) against the
volost-court, unless it has acted ultra vires. Such appeals
are lodged before the assembly of rural surveyors.
Other forms of lower courts. — Besides the volost-courts,
which apply mainly to the normal Russian settler, there are
other varieties of lower courts. In the military lands of the
Cossacks there are stanichni courts, which deal not only with
the affairs of the Cossacks, but with those of the tribes under
their jurisdiction. The courts operate under the jurisdiction
of the atamans of their districts. Appeals are lodged before
the Cossack ' Provincial Economic Administration of the
Cossack Armies '. The judges are elected by the Cossack
assembly. In the Steppes the narodni court proceeds according
to customary right (adat) or the written Musulman law
(shariat). For the latter there exist special Musulman lawyers
(mufti). These courts exercise extensive jurisdiction in civil
and criminal affairs : e. g. they can punish theft with imprison-
ment for a year and a half. The narodni judges (kazi-bii)
are chosen at the three -yearly sessions of the volost delegates.
They must be thirty -five years of age and must have certain
educational qualifications. In the Buryat districts of the
Transbaikal Province there are special tribal courts, which
settle the affairs of the Buryats on the basis of existing Buryat
customs, which are founded on the ground of old Mongol
steppe laws. They have jurisdiction in certain kinds of civil
cases, where there is no limit to the amount of claim ; in
others the limit is assigned at £200 : in criminal cases they
can inflict fines of £30 or imprisonment of six months
for a first offence. There is an appeal against their decisions
to the rural surveyors. They were established in their
rights by a law of 1901. Among the more vagabond nomad
tribes there are so-called verbal courts (slovesnaya raprava),
in which the procedure is by word of mouth. Another system,
called the Turkoman system, is employed in central Asia.
318 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS
Bureaucratic control of local government. — These democratic
elements are counterbalanced by restrictions from a central
and bureaucratic authority. There is a power of general
supervision lodged in the ' district committee for the affair
of peasants '. From 1899-1912 there were rural supervisors
(zemski nachalniki), but their place has now been taken
by the reformed cantonal courts, indirectly elected by the
Mir s, whose jurisdiction is confined to peasant cases. The
zemski nachalnik among other functions used to administer
the zemski smet, i.e. that proportion of the imperial taxes
which is allotted by the Imperial Treasury for such purposes
as roads, bridges, &c. In those towns which have municipal
institutions this is administered by the town council.
Principal officials. — The governor of the province appoints
over each district (uchastok) an official (ispravnik or uyesdi
nachalnik) who acts as his representative and is the local
commissioner of police. He in turn appoints his commissaries
(stanovoi pristav), who are a sort of subordinate police-
officials, acting as an alternative to the volost-courts for those
who care to bring their cases before them ; but this often
involves travelling some distance, and, even when they are
accessible, they are usually ignorant and illiterate men,
without any knowledge of the law. He also appoints the
krestyanski nachalnik, who collects the taxes, and the mirabui
sud or justice of the peace. There are appeal courts consti-
tuted of these latter, together with two representatives of the
volost-court. There is a justice of the peace for every three or
four volosts.
Information about the government of the various native
tribes will be found in the chapter that deals with them,
under the headings of the separate tribes.
s
s
Road
CHAPTER XVI
ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
ads and Travelling — Sledging — Telegraphs and Cables — Wireless
Telegraphy.
Roads and Travelling
The Trakt and other main roads. — The great military road
of Siberia, called the Trakt, was definitely constructed early
in the eighteenth century, though there are references to such
a road as early as the sixteenth century. Four main roads
converge on Omsk, passing through the Urals by way of the
towns of Verkhoture, Yekaterinburg, Zlatoust, and Verkh-
ne-Uralsk : from Omsk the great road passes by way of Tomsk
and Krasnoyarsk to Irkutsk, Chita, and Stryetensk. The old
important route of the tea trade goes south into China from
Verkhne-Udinsk, while beyond Chita an inferior read continues
to Blagovyeshchensk after which a better road goes to
Khabarovsk. Only very bad roads go on to Nikolaevsk and
Vladivostok. Other important roads branch off to the north
from Tulunovskoe and Irkutsk to Yakutsk and beyond, to the
south from Omsk to Semipalatinsk and the Chinese frontier
via Kosh-Agach, from Gryaznukha to Barnaul, and from
Achinsk to Minusinsk. Along the lines of the Rivers Lena
and Amur the roads are a less popular method of communica-
tion than the rivers, which are navigated in summer by
steamers and used by sledges as frozen roads in winter, the
posthouses being often along the banks of the rivers and away
from the roads.
Seasons for travelling. — The worst seasons for travelling in
Siberia are the autumn, when the frosts are beginning, and
the spring when they break up. These two seasons are called
in Russian rasputitsa. In summer travellers in the steppe
320 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
districts suffer much from the dust, which often rises above
the axle-trees, and is ready to be converted into a sea of mud
by the rain ; in winter the travelling is mainly by sledge, and
the frozen rivers add available roads. The Lena and the
Amur are staked with double rows of pine branches to indicate
the tracks.
Posting. — Along all the main roads are posting-houses at
irregular intervals, usually about 12 to 20 miles apart. There
has long been an efficient posting system in Russian Asia ; in
fact an effective organization of the posts was made in Siberia j
earlier than in Europe. The Government appoints the post-
masters, and they are allowed to make such terms as they
choose, but the ordinary tariff is 1J kopeks the verst for each
horse in western Siberia, and 3 kopeks in eastern Siberia and
the north generally ; in addition there is a Government tax
(pogron) of 10 kopeks per horse on each stage. Among the
nomad tribes the traveller has to use tents (yurtas) instead of
posthouses, and the route will change according to the season
of the year. There is no fixed rate of payment, but the charges
depend upon the local Russian official. The posthouse is
usually the nucleus of a small population, the position of which
it has determined. Those who breed and provide posthorses
are exempt from the imperial poll-tax (17 roubles). At each
posting station 15 to 30 horses are kept, and about one-third
of that number of tarantasses, provoloki (two-wheeled cars),
sledges and drivers in attendance. It is customary for
travellers to purchase their own vehicles for the journey :
sometimes if they are fortunate they can sell them advan-
tageously at the end of their route. Thus in places beyond
Lake Baikal, like Stryetensk, where iron axles are not manu-
factured, it is easy to sell at a profit a tarantass which
possesses these advantages. But a traveller from the east to
the west is not likely to make a good bargain, when he sells his
carriage at the end of his journey. Those who do not travel
with their own vehicle, must travel na perekladnikh, changing
their tarantass at every stage, and adding considerably to the
delays which are already vexatious enough. It is also possible
ROADS AND TRAVELLING 321
at times to travel in a carriage that the owner wants returned
to his residence.
Travellers are served with horses in the order of their
arrival, but methods are adopted to discourage racing on the
road, so as to pass other travellers who are farther ahead on
the same stage. The mail service, which carries no passengers,
takes priority of private travellers, and it is not uncommon for
a traveller who has seen his fresh horses harnessed to his
tarantass to have them removed and transferred to the
imperial mail which has arrived. A further necessary delay
occurs at intervals when the wheels are taken off to be greased.
The horses and drivers do not go beyond their next posting
stage, though sometimes by arrangement a returning team
and driver will exchange places with those who meet them. It
is difficult to arrange to stop between the posting-stages.
The Podorozhna. — Formerly it was necessary to have a
podorozhna, or Government permit to travel, in order to avail
oneself of the advantages of the posting system, but this re-
quirement is now obsolete, though the podorozhna still confers
advantages. It is especially important in districts Avhere
there are many political exiles and where the restrictions on
travelling are numerous, and even elsewhere a driver may
refuse to supply the horses, dogs, or reindeer required.
Travellers who refer to the needlessness of it are thinking of
the better known parts, where its claims to give priority of
treatment are somewhat in dispute.
Posthouses. — Posthouses are all on the same model. Like
the other houses of the villages they are of logs. The only
distinguishing mark is two wooden pillars painted black
and white, surmounted by the imperial arms in front of the
entrance. They differ in cleanliness and comfort, but not in
architectural plan. In all there are at least two rooms, one
for the postmaster and his family, the other for the travellers.
In a few there may be a cot or two, but ordinarily there is
merely space to lie on the floor, the traveller bringing with
him such bedding or rugs as he chooses. The rooms are about
20 ft. by 18 ft., and are heated by a huge brick stove in the
322 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
party-wall. The floor has no carpet* and the onl} r furniture
as a rule is a small table and two hard wooden chairs, with
sometimes a wooden sofa or bench along the walls. Those
near the towns are the dirtiest, and travellers will find them-1
selves almost everywhere much troubled by insects and some- 1
times rats. The best are on some of the side routes ; thus on]
the Kupetski track, which leads south of Lake Baikal tol
Kyakhta, the posthouses are much better than on the Great!
Post Road. On the walls is a regulation price list of food andl
drink, but in most cases this document merely deals with the I
hypothesis of what would be charged if the food were there. ]
Normally all that can be obtained is hot water, salted fish, and I
black bread, though in western Siberia milk and eggs are
fairly plentiful. Meat is rare, and seldom good. Travellers
should bring their own food, as well as their bedding and a
supply of rope and a hatchet for repairs on the road. Each
posting-station is provided with a black book for complaints.
A record is also kept of the time of arrival and departure of
each visitor, if there is a clock on the spot. Even in hotels
in the towns the washing accommodation is of the inostj
limited and primitive sort.
Yamshchiks. — The yamshchik is changed at every stage with
the horses. He exj)ects a gratuity (called na chai, ' for tea '),]
which is sometimes 10 kopeks, but more usually 15 from
prudent travellers, for, although there is supposed to be a,
regulation speed of 12 versts an hour, the pace to some extent
depends on the generosity of the driver's employer. An
ordinary stage of about 16 miles will be done in a little over
two hours, and for a journey day and- night 200 versts is
considered good. Three hundred versts can be secured by
a special effort, but is regarded as cruel to the horses. The
driver is provided with a whip, and a curry-comb of a primitn
kind attached to the handle of his whip for removing ice fr<
the horses' coats. Care should be taken that the yamsht
conveys the traveller for the whole distance that he has c(
cnanted, and docs not deposit him at an intermediate stage
Ilorxes. — A team of horses is called a troika, being norm*
ROADS AND TRAVELLING 323
three ; but often a larger number are employed, sometimes as
many as seven. The middle horse goes under the big wooden
bow (duga), which is often elaborately carved, and to it are
[attached bells, which are only allowed to be rung on the high
iroad, and removed on entering a town. The middle horse
trots in the shafts, while the others gallop with their heads
turned far out. Sometimes where the roads are bad, the
horses are harnessed tandem. The horses are poor in appear-
ance, but splendid for going : they are usually 14 to 16
hands. Every horse is given six hours' rest at the end of
a stage.
Vehicles. — The ordinary conveyance is a tarantass, a rude,
strong carriage of four wheels without springs, suited to its
purpose of transit over these rough and jolting roads. The
body of the carriage is borne on two long, elastic poles, which
rest on the axles of the front and back wheels. In front is
a box for the driver. In the carriage is no seat, but passengers,
of whom there is room for two, lie on the floor, which is covered
with straw, which travellers will supplement with pillows and
mattresses for night travelling. Behind is a sort of hood,
and the whole back part of the carriage can be cut off entirely
by stretching a tarpaulin to the coach box when it is wet. The
luggage can be strapped behind. The shafts are made fast/
to the duga to keep them clear of the horses' sides. Two-
wheeled cars are called provoloki, and are especially used in the
taiga. A more primitive and rougher kind of conveyance is
the telega, which is often used as a cart to carry luggage, and
as such often accompanies the convoys of prisoners who march
to their distant settlements in Siberia. In towns there are
other kinds of vehicles : e. g. in Tomsk the droshki is a low
jaunting-car, in which two travellers sit back to back on
a plank about 18 inches wide ; in Irkutsk the droshki has
been compared to a sort of hoodless bath-chair.
Condition of Roads. — The regulation breadth of the main
roads in the western parts is 21 ft., and of the smaller roads
14 ft. : the great breadth of the road is due to the cheapness
of the land. At the side arc broad stretches of grass for riding
X 2
324 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
and walking, and even for driving, when that becomes im-
possible on the road. Also the telegraph line has a broad
space where all trees and bushes are removed, and there also
it is possible to ride and drive, when necessary. Even bigger
departures from the road arc not unusual. One traveller
mentions that east of Tomsk there is practically no road, but
the yamshchiks take their own route. Another traveller 1
records that it is not uncommon in the part west of Irkutsk
to leave the road, and take a short cut through the taiga by 1
a track. The methods of road-making are primitive. Ap-
parently the best surfaces are in the Government of Yeniseisk.
In the Governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk the roads are very
muddy ; east of Irkutsk they deteriorate, and beyond Lake
Baikal they are the worst of all. The centre of the road is
often cut to pieces by the big caravans that pass over it,
especially in early autumn, to such an extent that traffic is
almost impossible. The best part of the Trakt is between
Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk ; near Kansk it has been declared
excellent, with a hard even surface. Verdicts pronounced
on special parts of the road differ exceedingly ; near Abatskoe,
where the roads from Tyumen and Tobolsk meet, a motor-
driver has pronounced it a sea of mud, stretching wide on
both sides of the road, and only passable by the indication of
the telegraph posts, and between that point and Omsk the
ruts were said to be sometimes 20 inches deep. The ruts are
so marked in many roads that yantshchiks will sometimes
refuse to accept vehicles of greater width. In the vicinity of
many towns the roads are bad ; specially unfavourable com-
ments have been made on them at Tomsk, near Bogotolskoe
(at the boundary of western and eastern Siberia), Achinsk,
west of Krasnoyarsk, and west of Chita, where a somewhat
sandy track is described as winding capriciously through the
depths of a thick forest. The road from Irkutsk to
Baikal at Listvenichnoe is described as good, and the road
the south-east side of the lake as difficult but good. A p*
ticular portion of the road will change its character vei
rapidly, and different accounts of its surface arc given
ROADS AND TRAVELLING 325
different travellers who have passed over it at comparatively
short intervals of time.
Streets in Towns. — In the towns conditions are at their
worst : there is no regular paving. Nansen describes the
streets of Yeniseisk as ' muddy and full of deep ruts '. Along
the sides of the streets are wooden planks to serve as footways :
usually these are fringed with a line of posts to mark them off
from vehicular traffic, when roadway and footpath alike are
under snow.
Theft. — Thieves, who are often escaped convicts {brodyagi),
are alleged to frequent certain parts of the roads ; parts that
have been specially indicated are between the Lena and
Irkutsk (1904), and the parts of the Trakt between Nizhne-
Udinsk and Kutulikskoe (1889). The brodyagi were often in
alliance with the yamschihs ; they were usually armed with
bludgeons, but did not carry firearms.
Verst-posts, telegraphs, &c. — Along the sides of some of the
roads are verst-posts with square tops cut in such a way that
the traveller can easily see the distance that he has traversed
from the last posting-station and the distance that he has to
pass before reaching the next. At the posting-stations are
boards affixed which show the distances to Petrograd and
other important towns. There are telegraph stations along
the important roads, the lines of telegraph being usually in
broad lanes at the side of the road. It has been recorded by
one writer that in some places over the steppes the telegraph
wires are laid along the ground for 20 cr 30 versts in order to
avoid the violent storms that sweep over those localities. This
is said to be especially true of the neighbourhood of Mariinsk
and Krasnoyarsk. At the entrance to villages are gates,
guarded by a watchman : these are kept closed during the
summer, to prevent animals straying into the village, but are
open during the winter.
Bridges and ferries. — Bridges are flimsy and short-lived
wooden structures, with low hand-rails. For all the wider
rivers there are ferries. On the Yenisei near Krasnoyarsk
the river is crossed where two islands lie in mid-stream. The
320 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
islands are reached from the banks by ferries, and are united
by a short bridge. Among other places on the great post road
there are ferries at Omsk, Dubrovinskoe, Tomsk, Mariinsk,
Achinsk, Bolshe-Kemchug, Kansk, Nizhne-Udinsk, and Zimin-
skoe. There are four kinds of ferries — (1) one kind is pro-
pelled by horses, who work it by being driven round in circles
— there is an example of this found at Tomsk ; (2) a second
jkind is propelled by oars ; (3) a third kind is a pendulum-
boat, which takes advantage of the current of the stream —
there is an example on the Yenisei near Krasnoyarsk ; (4) and j
a fourth is a cable-boat worked by a wheel.
Sledging
The normal method of travelling throughout Siberia during
the winter and in northern Siberia during the whole year is
by sledging. The sledges are drawn by horses, reindeer, or
dogs in the various districts, horses being employed in the
south, and reindeer and dogs in the north, the latter exclusively
by certain tribes such as the Kamchadal.
Nature of ordinary sledge. — The ordinary sledge is called
a narta : it is a narrow vehicle from 9 to 14 ft. long by 30 ins.
broad, fitted with a movable hood (koshma), which can be
drawn completely over during storms or severe cold : the
traveller must beware of letting it rest on his face during
sleep, for it may cause frost-bite. The narta is a very light
vehicle, and pitches heavily when it is traversing rough
ground . The traveller can lie at full length. The runners are
usually made of birch poles, and the fabric is kept together with
cords, as nails would be jerked out almost at once. A Samo-
yede sledge has two large thick runners curved up at the end
in front to a height of two feet. On each side are four up-
rights, placed rather close together towards the rear. These
slope upwards and inwards until at 2 ft. they are united
together by stout bars, which act as cross-overs and make the
floor of the sledge : the long pieces are called bereznyas ; on
this floor is put the luggage, and the driver sits on it or just
in front. In some parts of Siberia the driver sits beside
SLEDGING 327
a perpendicular ' bow ' of stout wood which rises some 4| ft.
from the ground, about one-third of the distance from the
front to the back of the sledge. He avoids obstacles by
pulling this way or that by means of the ' bow '. The harray
is a stout steel-shod stick 15 ft. in length with a cord attached
to the end ; it can be used as a brake by putting it between
the runners, or the sledge can be anchored to it. The point
can be used for testing the ice when crossing a river.
Other hinds of sledges. — There are also the balog, a sort of
family sledge or gipsy-car on runners, covered with tarpaulin
and skins, which can even contain a cooking-stove ; the vashok,
which is entirely enclosed ' like a huge brougham on runners ' ;
the kackovka, a great open sledge, roughly made of wood and
matting, and with no covering save a piece of matting or felt
to spread over the recumbent travellers ; the pavoska, which
is described as a large, deep, roughly-built sledge, open in
front, but covered in at the back with a canvas hood lined
with thick felt : the driver's seat consists of a flat board, from
which slope outwards and downwards a pair of stout poles
to save the vehicle in case of collision.
Reindeer liarnessed to sledges. — Between two and five rein-
deer are normally used for the sledge, though as many as
eight were seen by Nansen drawing a balog. The Lapps,
who have bigger reindeer, only use one at a time. A rein-
deer will draw a load of 400 lb. over snow, and to a sledge
which had a load of 800 lb. of blubber only two were
harnessed. The Samoyede harnesses his reindeer by an
ingenious system (described at length in Jackson, Great Frozen
Land, p. 115), which compels each deer to do his share of the
work, by a couple of chulki (' tackle-blocks ') made of wood or
walrus ivory, through which the trace runs from the near to
the offside reindeer. The same writer drove three reindeer for
120 versts (1 Samoyede or Reindeer verst = 4 Russian versts)
within 12 hours without feeding them, and they went the
last 10 versts as well as the first, and were quite fresh after
two days' rest. The reindeer is independent of roads ; he
will find his food under the snow, which he scrapes away with
328 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
his hoofs for a depth of 2 ft. or more, but ice may cut him off
from his moss, and then he will soon be in poor condition
All that he requires is protection from wild beasts, among his |
special enemies being the wolverine, black bear, and polar ■
wolf. If unharnessed at any time he must be hobbled, or he I
will return even 40 or 50 miles to rejoin the herd. His mostB
frequent complaint is hoof -swelling. (For the breeding anda
habits of the reindeer see Chapter V.)
Reindeer riding. — The reindeer is sometimes ridden, but not J
on the back, which would cripple it. The saddle is on the 1
shoulders, and the rider gains his seat by means of a pole I
in his right hand, not touching the saddle with his hands. 1
To keep his seat he practises a swinging movement, balancing I
himself with his pole, but it is unwise to put it to the ground 1
to steady himself, for he will probably be dismounted. Again,
if he grips with his knees so that the cushion slips back, the
reindeer, feeling the weight, will bend under his haunches and
deposit the rider on the ground. The Soyots use reindeer
for riding among the Sayansk Mountains, as their food is
more easily available than that of horses. They ride with
two reindeer, one serving as pack-animal and relief. A Soyot,
whose average weight is 4 puds in his furs, can ride a reindeer,
while a Russian cannot.
Dogs harnessed to sledges. — The dogs employed by the
Samoyedes are like Eskimo dogs, but somewhat smaller ;
those used by the Kamchadals are said to resemble wolves.
Usually there are 6 or 8 dogs in a team. Most tribes are kind
to their dogs, and in some places (as along the Yenisei) they
are even given the warmest place over the brick-oven to sleeji
on when they come in tired, and whoever may be there has
to vacate it for them. They can go 60 miles at a stretch
without being fed. In the Yenisei district a good sledge dog
is worth 160 roubles, but such are not easily obtained, for
a dog is of very little use for draught purposes unless he has
been reared by his owner. A young puppy can be bought
for a rouble. Older dogs are seldom bought except for breed-
ing purposes. When running in the sledge dogs, w ho ha
SLEDGING 320
known one another since they were puppies must be paired :
it is the only way of securing peace ; but dog teams will fight
one another when they get the opportunity. Ordinarily a dog
country is apart from a reindeer country ; but if the dogs
get scent of a deer, they will become unmanageable. When
dogs begin to paw the snow it is said to be a sign of
a coming storm. The team dogs of eastern Siberia serve till
they are 10 or 12 years old, but begin to deteriorate after 6 or
7 years. They suffer frequently from rabies in the spring,
but sometimes continue to be harnessed, though muzzled,
when rabid. They also suffer from palsy and cramp : their
feet are apt to become sore and are often made to bleed.
Sometimes then they are put into shoes, but they greatly
resent this treatment. They can draw considerable weights.
Haviland describes a pack in which each sledge with eight
dogs could draw 1,440 lb. of goods and two men, and the
i leader by himself could draw 180 lb. on the sledge. On a good
surface they could travel as much as 66 miles in 3 hours.
The Russian, Koryak, and Kamchadal dogs feed exclusively
on fish, the Chukchee dogs on intestines of seal and the
blubber of seals, whales, and walrus.
Telegraphs and Cables
Siberia
The telegraph system has been extended in Siberia in recent
years, but there is still no close network of wires. Away from
the railways and the chief rivers few places are on the
system, and the north is almost devoid of telegraphic facilities.
The trunk system consists of a line more or less following
the railway between west and east and linking the telegraphic
system of European Russia with Vladivostok, and via the
Chinese Eastern Railway with Kharbin (Harbin), Mukden and
the Chinese telegraphs. Most telegrams between Europe and
Siberia pass either by Yekaterinburg or by Chelyabinsk, but
the South Siberian Railway, when built, will afford a route
via Orenburg. Russian Central Asia has its own lines of
telegraphic connexion with Europe,
330 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
From this trunk line, which traverses the most populated
regions of Siberia, several branches run to north and south,
but except in western Siberia there are no alternative routes
to the main line, within Russian territory. The Amur
telegraph lines through the Amur and Ussuri districts form
an all-Russian route alternative to the more direct route
through Manchuria along the Chinese Eastern Railway.
The four chief lines to the north more or less follow the
four great rivers. From Omsk a line runs north along the
Irtish to Tara, across country to Tobolsk to avoid the swamps
of the lower Irtish and thence down the Ob to Kondinskoe
and Berezov. From Tobolsk a branch leaves this Irtish-Ob
line and goes south-west to Tyumen where it joins the trunk
line along the Siberian Railway. From Krasnoyarsk a line
runs north to Kozachinskoe and follows the Yenisei to
Yeniseisk and Turukhansk. On both this and the Ob line
telegraph stations are widely separated in the north. From
Irkutsk a line runs north-east to the Lena at Manzurskaya
and then follows the Lena to Yakutsk with branches to
Bodaibo and to Vilyuisk. From Yakutsk a line goes across
country, following the rough track to Okhotsk. This is the
most northerly line in Siberia.
In Kamchatka there is a line between Tigilski and Petro-
pavlovsk, but it is said not to be in working order. Lastly cat
Chita the Amur line branches from the old trunk line which
runs through Manchuria to Vladivostok along the railway.
The Amur line leaves the railway at Stryetensk and keeps
near the Shilka and the Amur to Khabarovsk where it turns
south up the Ussuri to Vladivostok. A branch line from
Khabarovsk follows the Amur to Nikolaevsk, sending branches
across the northern end of the Sikhota Alin Range to de
Castries Bay and to Cape Lazarev, whence cables cross to
Sakhalin. On Sakhalin there is a line from Cape Pogobi
Alexandrovsk and Due. The Amur line continues eastwai
from Nikolaevsk to Chnuirrakh Point at the Amur mouth.
The southern branches from the west and east triu
telegraph line are more numerous. Most westerly in Sibei
TELEGRAPHS AND CABLES 331
lis a branch from Petropavlovsk to Atbasar and Akmolinsk
!in the steppes. From Omsk a very important line runs more
or less along the Irtish to Semipalatinsk, whence it continues
southward to Sergiopol, Kopal, Vyerni, and Tashkent in
Russian Central Asia, connecting with the lines to Krasnovodsk
on the Caspian Sea and to Orenburg in European Russia.
This southern line sends several branches towards Mongolia,
to Zaisan, Chuguchak, Kuldzha and elsewhere. At Chuguchak
(Tahcheng or Tarbagatai) and Kuldzha there is connexion
with the Chinese telegraph system.
Another branch leaves the trunk line at Novo-Nikolaev.sk
and goes by Barnaul and Biisk to Kosh-Agach on the Mon-
| golian frontier. From there to Kobdo, where the Mongolian
telegraph system begins, telegrams are carried by Cossack
post. In 1913 Russia was granted a concession by Mongolia
to extend the telegraph line to Kobdo. A fourth important
branch leaves the trunk line at Achinsk and goes to Minusinsk
and Grigorevski on the frontier. In the Baikal and Trans -
baikal regions there are several short lines southward to places
on the frontier, including those from Kultuk to Tunkinsk,
Verkhnc-L T dinsk to Troitskosavsk (meeting the Chinese tele-
graphs at Kyakhta), and Chita to Mangut. Finally there are
(a) the coast line northward from Vladivostok to Tyutikha
Bay, which is being continued northward in order eventually
to meet the Amur telegraph line ; and (b) the line southward
from Vladivostok to Novo-Kievskoe near the frontier of Korea.
Considerable difficulty is experienced in erecting telegraph
wires in many parts of Siberia on account of the thick forests,
swamps and other obstacles, but the difficulty of upkeep is
still greater. Trees fall and interrupt communication, and
natives are continually stealing the wire. Siberian telegraphs
seldom work satisfactorily, and there is generally delay, not
always unavoidable, in the transmission of messages.
The only submarine cables touching Siberia are in the far
east. Two cables, belonging to the Great Northern Cable
Company of Copenhagen, connect Vladivostok with Nagasaki
in Japan ; and there are Russian cables from Lazarev and
332 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS
de Castries Bay across the Straits of Tartary to Cape Pogobi
and to Alexandrovsk, respectively, in Sakhalin. A Japanese
cable also runs between Alexandrovsk, Todo Shima, a Japanese
island off southern Sakhalin, and Hokushu.
There are no cables to Kamchatka or across Bering Strait
to America.
Arctic Russia
In Arctic Russia, except around the White Sea and on the
Murman coast, the system of telegraph lines is little better
developed than in Arctic Siberia
Murmansk and other ports on the Murman coast are linked
with the Russian telegraph system both along the route of the
Murman Railway and round the coast of the Kola Peninsula.
All White Sea ports and most places on the Northern Dvina
also have telegraphic connexion, but in the Pechora region
Ust-Tsilma is the only place with a telegraph line with the
exception of a few stations in the extreme upper reaches.
There is no telegraph line to Siberia north of the railway.
There is no permanent through telegraph line to Finland
north of Lake Ladoga, but a Russian military line runs
from Rovaniemi to Pechenga. The Russian and Norwegian
systems meet on the Voriema River, but are not connected.
There are submarine cables from Alexandrovsk to Peter-
head, Scotland, and from Alexandrovsk to Arkhangel.
Wireless Telegraphy
In recent years several wireless stations have been built
in the far north and in the north-east, and others are projected.
On the Murman coast there are stations on the Ribaehi
Peninsula, at Alexandrovsk, Murmansk, Teriberski, and
Svyatoi Nos ; on the White Sea at Kandalakska, Kem, Solo-
vet ski, Arkhangel, Sosnovets Island, Cape Voronov and Kanii
Nos. The nearest Norwegian stations are at Ingo, near the
North Cape, and one at Green Harbour, Spitsbergen, eacl
with a normal range of 480 miles. To facilitate the navig*
tion of the Kara Sea three stations have been erected, 01
Yugor Strait, on Vaigach, and at Capo Mare-Sale on Yama
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 333
respectively, each with a normal range of 150 nautical miles.
Others in Novaya Zemlya and elsewhere are projected (see
Vol. II, Chap. V). A station at Obdorsk on the Ob delta is
contemplated, and one at Dickson Island at the mouth of the
Yenisei (range 1,700 miles) has been in operation for several
years.
In the far east there is a station at Okhotsk (range 130
miles) which communicates with one at Nayakhanskoe on
Gizhiga Bay (range 130 miles), one at Novo-Mariinsk at
the mouth of the Anadir (range 130 miles), and another at
Markovo farther up the Anadir. Stations are reported to be
under construction at Yamsk on the Sea of Okhotsk, and at
Sredne-Kolimsk on the Kolima.
On the Amur there are wireless stations at Khabarovsk
(military), at Nizhne-Tambovskoe (military) and at Niko-
laevsk at the mouth (range 240 miles). The Nikolaevsk station
communicates with one at Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka
(range 240 miles). A second station is contemplated in
Kamchatka at Tigilski on the west coast. Stations are pro-
posed on Bering Island and on one of the Commander Islands.
The station at Nikolaevsk also communicates with one at
Kerbinski on the Amgun (range 170 miles). On the Ussuri
there is a military wireless station at Iman.
At Vladivostok there are three wireless stations, one
belonging to the army and two to the navy. Japan has
several stations within range of Vladivostok. A number of
the Russian vessels which ply in far eastern waters as well as
the Russian ice-breakers are fitted with wireless installations.
There are no Russian wireless stations on Bering Strait, but
stations are proposed at Providence Bay and Cape Dezhneva.
The nearest United States stations of long range are those
at Fort St. Michael and at Nome on Norton Sound in Alaska,
both controlled by the United States Army, and those at
Unalaska in the Aleutian Islands and at St. Paul in the
Pribilov Islands, both operated by the United States Navy.
The station at Nome communicates with the one at Novo-
Mariinsk.
CHAPTER XVII
RAILWAYS
General Considerations — The Siberian Railway — The Amur Railway —
The Ussuri Railway — The Altai Railway — Other Siberian Railways — The
Murman Railway — The Arkhangel-Vologda Railway — New and Projected
Railways.
General Considerations
Progress in Construction
The total mileage of Russian railways open to traffic
(47,480 miles in 1914) is large in comparison with that of
other countries, but small in proportion to the area of the
Empire. Of this total about 8,000 miles are in Siberia.
Railway construction in the Russian Empire was proceeding,
before the war, according to a definite plan. For the years
1914-19, a programme was drawn up for constructing about
2,330 miles of line each year, but the Commission under
General Petrov had been of opinion that something more like
4,000 miles each year were necessary for the needs of the
Empire.
The Russians build railways very quickly, so that they
have been able after the outbreak of a war to make radical
and timely improvements in their .system of communica-
tions. In the course of the war with Japan they were able
to finish the Circumbaikal section of the Siberian Railway
in January 1905, a work of immense difficulty, as the section
contains 40 tunnels. Meanwhile a line had been laid across
the ice on Lake Baikal, from Baikal to Tankhoi, a distance
of 25 miles. The work was accomplished between February 9
and March 1, 1904, at a laying rate of about 1| mile a
day. From the outbreak of war in 1914 to the spring of
191(3 a thousand miles of the Murman Railway were built, and
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 335
large sections necessary to complete the Amur Railway were
constructed.
Military Importance
In the Russian Empire railways are particularly important
| from a military point of view, owing to the vast distances
between place and place, and owing to the state of the roads.
Considerable advance in road-making took place in the first
thirty years of the nineteenth century, but with the advent
of railways, less attention has been paid to roads. There are
very few roads in the Russian Empire which can support
artillery, or which could allow a railway-line to be laid along
their surface. The rivers, though suitable for transport,
suffer from many disadvantages ; the Volga, for instance,
runs into the Caspian, which is a closed sea ; the great
Siberian rivers are all frozen in winter. Nevertheless, the
rivers and canals of Russia have great possibilities in the
development of military transport.
Characteristics
The prominent characteristics of Russian railways are,
first, that they are cheap to build, costing about £10,500 per
mile in Europe, a little over £5,000 per mile in Asia. This
cheapness is partly due to the general flatness of the country,
and the straightness with which the line is traced. A second
characteristic is that tunnels are few ; they are avoided,
for instance through most of the course of the hilly Amur
Railway, by steep gradients and sharp curves. A third
characteristic has been already mentioned, the straight
tracing of the line, so that towns are left on either side.
The straightness of the track makes the measurement of
distances off a map more approximately accurate than might
otherwise be expected. Fourthly, most of the lines are single,
but with embankment or bed provided for a double track.
Gauge
The standard Russian gauge is 1*524 metre (5 feet) ; there
is a large number of small branch and feeding lines (in
330 RAILWAYS
European Russia) which have a narrow gauge, varying from !
1-006 metre to 0-75 metre (3 ft. 3i in. to 2 ft. 5J in.). The wide
gauge admits of heavy loading of trucks, but this advantage
cannot be much used as the rails are not sufficiently heavy,
lior the road-bed good enough, to take very heavy trains.
But great improvements have been effected in recent years,
especially on the Siberian Railway.
The lessons of the Franco-Prussian War gave a great
impetus to strategical railway building in Russia. The
broad gauge was adopted, it is said on the advice of an
American engineer, Major Whistler, to prevent the German
and Austrian rolling-stock in time of war being put on to the
Russian lines. The German and Austrian gauge is 4 ft. 8| in.
The Japanese gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., but 4 ft. 8| in. was adopted
as the standard in 1916. In the Russo-Japanese war, after
the battle of Mukden, the Japanese narrowed the gauge on
the Southern Manchurian Railway, but it took them 39 days
to do it for 34 miles. It has since been widened, sec p. 342.
The Germans, however, claim to have means for dealing
rapidly with the task of converting the Russian gauge. Owing
to the width of the embankment it is obviously easier to con-
vert a broad gauge to a narrow one, than vice versa.
Permanent Way
In Russia in Europe, the sleepers are said to be sunk in the
permanent way, so that the track can be used for marching.
The surface of the bridges, which is open, would have to be
covered, if the tracks were to be utilized for this purpose.
This practice of sinking the sleepers seems to have been fol-
lowed in a large number, if not in all the sections of the
Siberian Railway. The railway tracks in Russia are often the
only unflooded roads to be found in a large district.
Rolling-Stock
The amount of rolling-stock is not so great as in Germany
or Austria, and owing to the great distances it is difficult to
collect much together for a particular purpose at any one
GENERAL ( IOHSIDERATIONS 337
(place. In 1911 there were 21,121 locomotives, burning
either coal, oil, or wood ; 24,487 passenger coaches ; 469,063
goods wagons. But all these were said to be rather old.
It is difficult to add new rolling-stock rapidly from Russian
work-shops ; construction is retarded by the necessity of
building different types of engines, some to use coal, others
wood, others oil. In 1910 the Russian locomotives were
stated to be 30 per cent, less powerful than those of Germany.
The average speed is 13 miles per hour, on fast trains, 33 miles.
The want of sufficient rolling-stock was still noticeable in
1916. But locomotives and cars were imported in parts from
the United States to Vladivostok, and were erected in shops
f created during the war at Pervaya-Ryeka, on the main line
five miles outside the city. In spite of the marshy, low-lying
nature of the country, which necessitated much filling-in,
a large system of sidings and workshops was completed by
the beginning of 1916. At first only 5 or 6 cars were erected
each day, but the output was expected within a short time
to reach 100 to 150 a day.
Loading Capacity
The broad gauge admits wagons with a large carrying
capacity. Ordinarily a wagon can take 32 to 40 men, or
6 to 8 "horses. Most cars for carrying men are heated with
a stove. A military train has from 30 to 50 wagons, 35 to 40
being the commonest number. In its composition, a field-
kitchen is also frequently included. The American cars
purchased in 1915-16 were of the bogie type, 42 ft. long,
and could carry 2,400 poods, i. e. nearly 39 tons. 14,000 of
these cars were under order from America at the beginning
of 1916, along with 450 American locomotives. As well as
the newly constructed shops at Pervaya Ryeka, the machine-
shops of the Chinese Eastern Railway at Kharbin were much
used, being able to erect 4 or 5 locomotives per diem.
Stations
Most of the Russian stations are some distance, varying
from I mile to 10 miles, from the town or village after which
338 RAILWAYS
they are named. On the Chinese Eastern Railway the
distances are sometimes even greater. The stations are
divided into classes from I to V. Class I is designed for
changing locomotives and personnel of passenger trains ;
Class II for dealing in a similar way with goods trains.
Class III is designed for maintaining locomotives and personnel
for local work. Class IV is designed for occupation by
traffic staff only. Class V exists for the same objects as
Class IV, but on a smaller scale. On the Siberian line at any
rate the objects of the classes have been to a certain extent
confused ; thus Classes I— III have all engine depots, and
have been classified only according to size. All Classes IV
and V have arrangements for watering locomotives, as well
as living accommodation for traffic staff. A ' crossing ' is
a point on the line, with (on the Siberian line) two loops in
addition to the through track, and with sidings. There is
a pointsman and accommodation for him at each crossing.
When a line is doubled, the crossings may be eliminated.
The stations of Russian railways generally have low broad
platforms, in addition, being generally some way distant
from their town or village, many stations have wide open
spaces near by, very suitable for parading troops prior to
entraining or on detrainment. On the Siberian Railway,
the stations of Kharbin, Irkutsk, and Baikal have not these
open spaces. For off-loading trains, ramps have to be used.
Lifting appliances, cranes, &c., are not commonly used or
provided. Most of the larger stations, even down to Class IV,
have good buildings, many* of stone, which are constructed
on a generous scale.
Military Personnel and Control
The military personnel dealing with railways consists of
17 battalions, comprising 77 companies. There is a field-
railway park with 100 kilometres (62 miles) of line, and then
are field-railway depots. The lines are divided into districts,
allotted to the transport line-commandants and station-
commandants. In war, all the lines, at least in the theatre
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 339
of operations, go under military control. A railway-battalion
consists of two companies of constructors, two of ' exploita-
tion ' employes, and two companies of reserve. There are
three railway-battalions in the engineers of the reserve.
Government and Private Enterprise
About 69 per cent, of Russian railways are State-owned.
All the Siberian Railway to the station of Manchuria, was
built and is worked by the Government ; this is true also
of the Amur Railway, which runs entirely through Russian
territory. Several new branch lines, the Slavgorod Railway,
the Altai Railway, and the Minusinsk Railway are built and
worked by private enterprise. The Chinese Eastern Railway
is under a private company, rather closely related to the
Government. The private lines are said to be better con-
structed than the lines built by the State.
Civil Control
Three official bodies deal with the railways : (1) the Ministry
of Ways and Communications, which deals with the technical
and administrative mechanism of the railways, including
construction ; (2) the Ministry of Finance, which deals with
the raising of capital, with tariffs, and kindred matters ;
(3) the Control of the Empire, which inspects receipts and
expenses, and makes up the complicated accounts between
them. These bodies regulate private as well as State lines.
Defects in Management
Circumstances have prejudiced the successful working of
the Siberian Railway system. The line is made up of separate
railroads, each having its own independent administration
and its head-quarters in Petrograd. The control over these
railroads has not been properly co-ordinated ; overlapping is
constantly occurring ; the different managements have never
tried to work with one another for the improvement of the
whole system, but have merely looked after their own sections.
The initiative of local officials has been hampered by circular
Y 2
340 RAILWAYS
instructions sent out by the Ministry of Ways and Communica-
tions. The system for watering engines is cumbrous and
involves long delays.
The Siberian Railway
History
The idea of the great Siberian Railway is said to have been
originated by Count Muraviev-Amurski, who became Governor
of Eastern Siberia in 1848. He founded Nikolaevsk at the
mouth of the Amur in 1850. His idea was to connect the
Maritime Province with Russia ; when the construction of
the Siberian Railway was actually taken hi hand in 1891,
it was intended to carry out Muraviev's idea by building the
line all the way through Russian territory, avoiding Manchuria.
The earliest definite proposal was that of an English engineer
called Dall, who put forward a plan for a horse-railway,
to be laid from Nizhne -Novgorod by way of Kazan and Perm,
to a Siberian port on the Pacific. After 1870 the railways of
Russia took a steadity eastward trend. In 1877 the line to
Orenburg was opened, and in 1878 the Ural Railway, ending
at Tyumen. By the year 1890, there were three lines which
had claims to be used for the great extension on to Vladi-
vostok : one was the Ural Railway, a very important one on
account of the mines and iron-works adjacent to it. The
second was the Samara-Zlatoust Railway ending at Miyas.
The third was the Samara-Orenburg line. The Samara-
Zlatoust line was chosen as it offered the shortest route
through Nizhne-Udinsk, and as it ran through the fertile
black-earth region of western Siberia. The building of the
line was begun in 1891, in different sections, and completed
during the Russo-Japanese War, in 1905. Only Russian
labour and Russian material were used, except perhaps on
the Circumbaikal section which was finished in a hurry
during the Russo-Japanese War. At various points along
the route, steamer-wharves were made on the rivers, saw-
mills and foundries were opened, and these still exist and
offer means for railway-construction.
THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY M I
Chinese Eastern Railway
The original intention was that the Siberian Railway should
run from Samara to Vladivostok by way of Stryetensk and
Khabarovsk. But as the route from Stryetensk to Kha-
barovsk (now called the Amur Railway) offered technical
difficulties, an alternative route was adopted, through Man-
churia, which was Chinese territory. In 1896 an agreement
was signed between the Chinese Government and the Russo-
Chinese Bank, for the formation of the Company of the
Chinese Eastern Railway. This railway was to be built to
connect the Transbaikal Railway with the South Ussuri
Railway. The Company was given the power to work coal
pits and to engage in other industries ' in China '. The share-
holders can only be Russian or Chinese subjects. The
Russian Government undertook certain financial guarantees
with regard to the ' obligations ' of the Chinese Eastern
Railway, but not with regard to its share-capital. The
Company was to be under a Directorate, which was to sit in
Peking and Petrograd. There were to be a chairman and
nine directors, the chairman being named by the Chinese
Government, the directors to be chosen by the shareholders.
The line is to be leased to the Chinese Eastern Railway
Company for 80 years, and at the end of this period is to
pass, without any payment, into the possession of the Chinese
Government. The luggage of passengers, and all goods, in
passage from one Russian station to another over the Chinese
Eastern Railway, are free from Chinese customs. In the
tracing of the line, villages, towns, and cemeteries were to be
left aside. The gauge of the Chinese Eastern Railway was
to be the same as the Russian (5 ft.). After the Russian
Government obtained a lease of the Laio-tung Peninsula in
1898, the Chinese Eastern Railway was extended from
Kharbin to Dairen and Port Arthur (614 miles). By the
Treaty of Portsmouth, August 1905, Japan took over the
southern section of this line, from Port Arthur to Kuan-
cheng-tsu (467 miles). From Kharbin to Kuan-cheng-tsu
it remains under the Chinese Eastern Railway Company. The
342 RAILWAYS
line from Kuan-cheng-tsu to Port Arthur is now called the
South Manchurian Railway, and since it was taken over by
the Japanese has been converted from a 3 ft. 6 in. to a 4 ft. 8| in.
gauge. In practice the goods are transferred at Changchun,
1 mile south of Kuan-cheng-tsu. The Chinese Eastern
Railway is really under the Russian Ministry of Finance,
which controls it through the Russo-Chinese Bank.
Amur Railway
The disadvantage of the Manchurian route, from the
Transbaikal Railway to Vladivostok, is that as far as Pogran-
ichnaya, 144 miles from Vladivostok, it does not run through
Russian territory. It is for this reason that the Amur
Railway, connecting the Transbaikal line with Khabarovsk,
and so by the existing north Ussuri Railway, with Vladivostok,
is so important. It runs all the way through Russian territory,
has embankment for a double track, and will probably in time
become the main artery of communication with the old
Siberian Railway. It runs some way north of the river
Amur, instead of along its valley, so as not to be too near
the frontier in case of war (see p. 347).
Capacity
The Siberian Railway was rather hurriedly and cheaply
built. The ballast was thin, and the rails were only 54 lb.
to the yard. They were afterwards replaced by 72 lb. rails.
A report of October 1915 states that the line has been relaid
with a still heavier rail, apparently 80 lb. per yard. The
wooden bridges are also said to have been replaced by bridges
of steel and masonry. While the Siberian and Transbaikal
Railways were only single-track, the number of trains that
could pass each way in a day was 10£ (21 in all on the line) on
the Siberian Railway, 7 J on the Transbaikal. During the
Russo-Japanese War the Transbaikal Railway is said to have
been worked to take 12 trains a day each way,
THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 343
Effect of Double-tracking
The doubling of the track between Omsk and Karimskaya
(with the exception of the part round Lake Baikal) and the
strengthening of the line in the mountain sections permit
34 trains now to proceed in either direction. The through
lines at the stations can take 60 trucks. The bridges were
built for a single line, and many of them have yet to be
adapted for a double line, even in the part where the line is
already doubled.
General Description
The name Siberian was originally applied to the railway
from Samara to Irkutsk. From Irkutsk to Manchuria was
known as the Transbaikal Railway, in the days when Lake
Baikal formed a huge gap in the line, traversed by a train-
ferry from Baikal Station to Misovaya. To this was added
the Circumbaikal Railway, completed during the Russo-
Japanese War in 1005. On the Siberian Railway the old line
from Yekaterinburg joins the Moscow-Samara line.
Chelyabinsk to Ob. — From Chelyabinsk to the River Ob, the
line passes through a fertile, black-earth country, very good for
agriculture, especially in the Ishim and the Baraba steppes.
The only difficulties are the Rivers Tobol, Ishim, Irtish, and
Ob. The country is studded with clumps of dwarf elms and
willows, which are only good for firewood. The population
is agricultural and pastoral. As far as Chulim (802 miles from
Chelyabinsk) the greatest grade is 1 in 165, the curves 1,750 ft. ;
from Chulim to Ob the grade is 1 in 135, the curves 1,750 ft.
Ob to Irkutsk. — From the Ob to Irkutsk, the line goes
through hilly country, with some large rivers, the Tom, Yaya,
Riya, Chulim, Yenisei. There are a number of smaller rivers
to be crossed, and, as the valleys are fairly close together, the
maximum grade is frequently reached. The country is thickly
wooded, and there are very few clearings. After Achinsk the
country becomes mountainous. At the higher elevations the
forests consist of giant conifers. Forests are traversed for
200 miles in long stretches of 25 to 45 miles without a break,
344 RAILWAYS
The population consists mainly of settlers along the postal
road from Tomsk to Irkutsk. A great deal of earthwork
had to be used in the construction of this part of the railway,
and in many places the embankment reaches 19 or 20 ft. in
height. From Ob to Achinsk the grades are 1 in 111 and 1 in
125, the minimum curve 1,750 ft. From Achinsk to Kansk,
the grade is 1 in 66-6, minimum curve 1,050 ft. ; from Kansk
to Nizhne-Udinsk, 1 in 57, and 1,050 ft. ; from Nizhne-Udinsk
to Zima, 1 in 91, and 1,050 ft. ; from Zima to Polovinnaya,
1 in 57, and 1,050 ft. ; from Polovinnaya to Irkutsk, 1 in 111,
and 1,050 ft. Since these figures were obtained in 1908, the
track has been doubled from Omsk to Karimskaya, and oppor-
tunity was probably taken to ease the grades and to widen the
curves in many places. Indeed, the Transbaikal sections,
which in 1907 were stated to be the weakest links of the rail-
way, are now, since the doubling of most of the track, spoken
of as the best portion of the whole line. From Mariinsk to
Irkutsk, the railway follows the Great Siberian Post Road
more or less closely. Only between Krasnoj^arsk and Kansk
is it distant between 18 and 19 miles, owing to topographical
difficulties.
Transbaikal. — The Transbaikal Railway presented great
difficulties in construction. After leaving Irkutsk the line
follows the left bank of the Angara to the shore of Lake
Baikal. In this section retaining walls were necessary to
protect the toe of the embankments from the action of the
river, which has a speed of 7 ft. per second. The Circumbaikal
section starts from Baikal station, and for 52| miles, to
Kultuk, follows the sinuous and rocky southern shore of the
lake. The banks of the lake are 900 to 1,300 ft. above the
water-level. It is in this section that tunnels are first found
on the Siberian Railway. Between Baikal and Kultuk there
are 40 tunnels, with a total length of nearly 4| miles. Between
Kultuk and Misovaya the line has to take the slopes of the
Shamanski Spur (at 96| miles from Irkutsk), the slopes of the
Khamar-Dabansk (at 100^ miles) ; at 101 f miles it penetrates
the spur of the Kerkidal. From 115 miles to 125J the line
THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 345
eaves the lake. From 173 miles it follows a plain until
ape Malinovskaya is reached at 176 \ miles. The country is
ilmost uninhabited, and the soil nearly always frozen.
Besides the tunnels, there are many cuttings in the hard rock ;
the deepest cutting is said to be 74 ft. On the Circum-
baikal portion of the line the grade is 1 in 125, with minimum
curve of 1,050 ft.
After Misovaya the line loses its mountainous character,
till it ascends the Tsagan-Da Range at 372 miles from Irkutsk.
The valley of the River Khilok is well cultivated. At 609
miles the line takes the summit of the Yablonoi Range,
at about 3,137 ft. above sea-level. In descending the line
falls 1 in 57, with curves of 1,050 ft., for a distance of 8 miles.
The valley of the Ingoda presented great difficulties, as it is
winding and the mountains are steep and come so close as to
leave only a small strip free, which is often overflowed.
The line follows the left bank of the Ingoda, and it is only
in a few places that the embankment can be said to have
sufficient room. The upper Shilka valley is just as bad,
with rocky slopes to be crossed, some as much as 6 miles
broad.
Along the Transbaikal line there is plenty of stone and
timber (Siberian larches, pine, fir). The grades and curves
are as follows : from Irkutsk to Baikal, 1 in 1,075 on curves
of 1,260 ft., and 1 in 143 on curves of 1,050 ft. ; from Misovaya
to Karimskaya, 1 in 107-5 on straights, 1 in 143 on curves of
1,050 ft., with the following exceptions : at about 372 miles
from Irkutsk, and again at about 609 miles, the grade is 1 in 57
on straights, and 1 in 66 on 1,050 ft. curves ; at Karimskaj^a
for 13^ miles the grades are 1 in 66. From Karimskaya to
Manchuria the grade is 1 in 106 on straights, 1 in 143 on
minimum curves of 1,050 ft., except that for 19| miles near
Buryatskaya (743 miles from Irkutsk) and 6} miles near
Borzya (at 864^ miles) there are grades of 1 in 57 on straights
and 1 in 66 on minimum curves of 840 ft.
The watering of trains is difficult on the Transbaikal Rail-
way. The ground is permanently frozen ; even in summer.
346 RAILWAYS
although the soil is thawed for 3 to 10 ft., the ground beneath
remains frozen to a depth of 120 ft. Water-pipes therefore!
cannot be buried below frost-level, in order to prevent them
from freezing. On the Transbaikal Railway the suction and
delivery pipes were placed in galleries, warmed by steam or
hot water or hot air. Steam is only used for warming short
lengths of suction-pipe. The delivery pipes, for distances
up to 800 ft., are warmed by warm water in circulating pipes ;
for lengths of more than 800 ft., air calorifers are used, about
800 ft. apart, with ventilating pipes specially heated, to cause
the air to circulate. These galleries are usually built below
the ground level, or if built "above the ground, are banked in.
In winter, the rivers are frozen solid, except the Selenga,
Uda, Chita, Argun, and Onon. Across the River Khilok, at
484 miles from Irkutsk, a dam has been built ; the sluices are
closed at the commencement of the frost, and thus a large
pond of solid ice is formed. The ice is then cut away in blocks,
and thawed by steam in a tank. Water is obtained in this
\\ T ay from December to the middle of March.
Manchurian Sections. — After crossing the Manchurian border
near Manchuria station, the line runs through a flat steppe
district, as far as the Great Khingan Mountains, the slopes of
which it takes near Myandukhe at 1,1 33 J miles from Irkutsk
(189 miles from Manchuria). The slopes of the Great Khingan
are richly wooded. The summit of the pass is penetrated by
a tunnel at 1,176 miles, at a height of 3,355 ft. above sea-level.
The tunnel, which is 3,383 J yds. long, is cut through sandstone;
not bricked, and is very wet. There is an old deviation, used
when the tunnel was being built, 12£ miles long, with steep
gradients. After Barim, at 1,229 miles from Irkutsk, the
steppe country begins again and is more fertile than the
country to the west of the mountains. From Tsitsihar to
Kharbin, the line passes over a plateau without trees and
almost without inhabitants. After Kharbin, which is in a
marshy district, the line goes through mountainous country
all the way to Vladivostok. There are three tunnels about
1,761 miles from Irkutsk. At Pogranichnaya is the terminus
THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY :*47
of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Between this station and
Grodekovo on the Ussuri Railway there are six tunnels.
Before reaching Vladivostok there is a deep cutting. Be-
tween the stations of Kiparisov, 36 miles from Vladivostok,
and Nadezhdinskaya, 28 miles, the permanent way is to be
changed and a tunnel 2,450 ft. cut. From Nikolsk-Ussuriski
to Vladivostok the line is double. The grades on the Chinese
Eastern Railway are in the hill sections 1 in 57 on straights
and 1 in 66 on curves. The curves are 1,400 ft., with a few of
840. On the plain, the maximum grade is 1 in 125, compen-
sated to 1 in 165 on curves 2,100 ft. By the treaty of Ports-
mouth (1905) this line may not be used for military purposes.
In 1939 China has the right of buying it.
It was reported in 1901 that Russians had begun the
construction of a secret standard gauge railway from the
Chinese Eastern Railway, about 70 miles west of Khailar,
southward through Manchuria. The railway was said to have
been built for about 300 miles by 1902. This statement was
proved to be untrue. The report possibly originated in a line
to some quarry laid during the construction of the Chinese
Eastern Railway.
The Amur Railway
The Amur Railway consists of a portion of the old Karim-
skaya-Stryetensk line, as far as Kuenga, to which point it
follows, first the Ingoda valley, and then the Shilka, which
is formed by the confluence of the rivers Ingoda and Onon,
near the station of Onon. The Shilka, like the Ingoda,
is winding, with steep banks. The line follows its left bank
along a ledge hewn out of the rock. At Kuenga the line
branches north up the right bank of the River Kuenga (which
it crosses near Ukurei), and then north-east. It goes through
a hilly and wooded country, little peopled, more or less parallel
to the Shilka valley at distances from it varying from 16 to 80
miles as the crow flies and out of artillery range from the
Chinese side of the Amur. There is a bad road along the
north bank of the Shilka, and a road is being made along the
M8 RAILWAYS
railway. The embankments and bridge supports are built for
two tracks although the present line is single. It is said to be!
capable of taking nine trains a day each way with ease, to have
few tunnels, and that normally the maximum grade provided'
for is 1 in 100 with minimum curves of 1,050 ft. On the spurs
of the Great Khingan and Lagar-Aul the grade is 1 in 71 with
curves of 820 ft. The head-quarters of the Amur Railway
are at Aleksyeevsk on the River Zeya. All the artificial work
in connexion with the line is to be of a permanent nature ;
the weight of the rails is 22 lb. per running foot. The perma-
nent way is badly laid, and floods have done the line great
damage, so that by the middle of 1917 it was being used
comparatively little.
The Amur Railway is a reversion to the original course
projected for the railway to the Pacific, and it has been
necessary to return to the adoption of this course now that the
Manchurian Railway is no longer under Russian control since
the war with Japan. The construction of the first section
(Kuenga to Uryum, 122 miles) was begun in 1908, and con-
tinued through the next two years, traffic being partially
started in the winter of 1910. In 1912 two passenger trains
ran in this section every 24 hours. The next section from
Uryum to Kerak (398 miles) was commenced in 1910, the
third section from Kerak to the River Diya near the Bureya
(435 miles) in the spring of 1911, the last section to Kha-
barovsk (302 miles) in the spring of 1912. The central portion
was completed in 1914, and the whole, including the great
bridge over the Amur, the longest in Russia, in 1916. The
work was to be done exclusively by white labour with no help
from the yellow races. The workmen were to be mainly
reservists who it was hoped would, on the completion of the
line, form military colonies in the Amur and Primorsk terri-
tories. The difficulties in construction were greater than
in any portion of the Siberian Railway. The line ran through
an almost uninhabited district, to which roads had to be
made, and the difficulties of water supply were enormous,
because the rivers froze in winter, and such supply as there
THE AMUR RAILWAY 349
was could only be procured by excavating to Bources
below the river-bed which did not freeze. The marshiness
of the ground in the central section added to the difficulty.
Many parts of the route were only to be traversed on horseback
or on foot, and during the thaw and in the rainy season from
June to August were entirely inaccessible. The country
opened up by this railway is being rapidly populated : big
villages are growing up where the line crosses the Zeya and
the Bureya, the village of Surazhevka having been made
already into the town of Aleksycevsk. The Avestern part of
the line abounds in gold and there are coal deposits on the
lower reaches of the Bureya. It is ascertained that 300,000
colonists can be suitably settled in the district east of the
Zeya ; twenty industrial settlements are growing up along
the line, and a successful future for the timber industry is
anticipated.
The Ussuri Railway
At Khabarovsk the Amur Railway joins the Ussuri Railway.
The line follows the right bank of the Ussuri River, crossing
frequent tributaries and high watersheds formed by the out-
spurs of the Sikhota Alin Range. Beyond Kruglikov the
country becomes flat and marshy again, and then the line
passes through virgin forest of gigantic cedar and larch,
intertwined with wild vines and creepers. At Gedik the
highest point on the line is reached, 445 ft. above sea-level.
To Muravievo-Amurskaya the line continues to follow the
right bank of the Ussuri, of which the left bank belongs to
Manchuria. The country is hilly and wooded. The line is
from 2 to 26| miles from the river. After crossing the Ussuri,
the line enters the swampy Prikhankoisk basin along Lake
Khanka, after which it crosses the watershed between the
Lefu and Suifun Rivers. At Nikolsk-Ussuriski the line joins
the main railroad to Vladivostok. The double track between
these two places is now completed. The grades are as follows :
for the first 228 miles from Khabarovsk (i. e. to 2 miles before
Ussuri), 1 in 100 in eurves up to 3,500 ft., and 1 in 125 in
350 RAILWAYS
curves of 2,100 ft. ; from there to Nikolsk-Ussuriski the grade
is 1 in 125 in 2,100 ft. curves.
The Altai Railway
The railway from Novo-Nikolaevsk to Barnaul and Semi-I
palatinsk was opened in November 1915. It opens up
an important mining district, and the advisability of con-|
btructing such a line was demonstrated by the fact that
from its opening the number of passengers was much larger
than the builders anticipated. The line could not carry all
the passengers, and many were compelled to wait several
days. Daily trains with cars of 3 classes were running regu-
larly, the cars being new and comfortable. When the line
was first used the station-buildings were unfinished, and a
dining-room only was opened in Barnaul. A branch line runs
from Altaiskaya to Biisk.
Other Siberian Railways
Three other important branches from the main line of the
Siberian Railway have recently been opened.
From Tatarskaya, 105 miles east of Omsk, a line goes south-
east into the Kulundinsk steppes to Slavgorod. It was built
by private enterprise. The whole region it traverses was
practically uninhabited in 1907 but by 1912 was being rapidly
settled by emigrants. It is proposed to extend this line to
Semipalatinsk, and to link Slavgorod to Pavlodar on the River
Irtish, and to Barnaul on the River Ob and the Altai Railway.
From Yurga, 385 miles west of Krasnoyarsk, there is a short
line, via Kolchugino, built by private enterprise to tap the
coal-fields lying north of Kuznetsk, which town is the
terminus of the railway.
The Minusinsk line leaves the Siberian Railway at Achinsk
and extends through hilly country to Minusinsk on the River
Yenisei. It passes through a fertile region with considerable
coal and iron resources.
Three short railways built for mining purposes are not con-
nected with the main Siberian Railway. One is between the
OT HE R S I B E R 1 A X RAILWA YS 35 1
coal mines of Ekibas-tuse and the River Irtish, it is 70 miles
Long and is of standard gauge. A second is from the zinc
mines of Riderski to Ust-Kamenogorsk. It is 70 miles long
and has a 3 ft. gauge. The last runs from Bodaibo to the
Vitim, a distance of 15 miles. It is narrow gauge.
The Murman Railway
The total cost of construction is estimated at £2,200,000.
From Zvanka, 70 miles from Petrograd, a line has been
constructed by the Olonets Railway for 176$ miles to Petro-
zavodsk. This has been built with French capital but taken
over by the Russian Government. From Petrozavodsk to
Murmansk the line is divided into 3 sections : (1) from Petro-
zavodsk to Soroka where the line reaches the White Sea,
opened in 1915, (2) from Soroka to Kandalaksha, opened in
1917, (3) from Kandalaksha to Murmansk, opened in 1916.
The last section was constructed by British engineers. Traffic
had started on the third section before the middle section was
completed, but, while it was being made, traffic was taken
from Kandalaksha to Kem or Soroka by sea. The whole
railway is of Russian standard gauge and is the property of
the Russian Government. The line is single and there are
passing sidings every 10-12 miles. The line will afford oppor-
tunities for exploiting timber and wood-pulp. At present its
chief importance is strategic.
Between Petrozavodsk and Kem the line traverses wild and
almost uninhabited country, full of forests and lakes. From
Kem to Kandalaksha it passes through a succession of small
lakes, swamps, and virgin forests. The third section goes
across the Kola Peninsula, which is uninhabited but for the
coastal strip. This part of the line, however, was of com-
paratively easy construction, and the material for it was
shipped direct to Kola.
The section between Murmansk and Kem becomes almost
unworkable in summer owing to the swampy nature of the
country. No great speed can be obtained. The rest of the
line is firmer.
352 RAILWAYS
Probably six trains a day could pass each way in case of
necessity. There are two patterns of trucks, the Russian and
the American. Large numbers of the latter are being used.
The closed trucks have the following dimensions :
./hiss ian . . 1 merican .
Length 21ft. 13 ft.
Breadth 9 ft. 8 ft. 9 in.
Height 7 ft. 3 in. 7 ft. 9 in.
Carrying eapacity . . .20 tons 39 tons
Arkhangel-Vologda Railway
This line was narrow gauge at the outbreak of the war.
To cope with the increased traffic via Arkhangel, a third raij
for standard-gauge rolling-stock was laid from Arkhangel
to Nyandoma (214 miles). Thence to Vologda (180 miles)
a standard-gauge line was laid beside the narrow-gauge line.
Later the narrow-gauge line between Nyandoma and Vologda
was converted to broad gauge, thus giving a double track on
this part of the railway. It was then proposed to double the
line from Arkhangel to Nyandoma.
In 1916 the maximum number of trucks that could be dealt
with in a day from Arkhangel Mas 475.
New and Projected Railways
The most important schemes of railway-construction are :
(1) The Southern Siberian Railway, which is under construc-
tion, will link up the Altai Railway from its present terminus
at Semipalatinsk to Orsk, passing by Akmolinsk and Atbasar.
From Orsk it is to be prolonged to unite with the Tashkent
line at Martuk Station. It is anticipated this line will greatly
stimulate emigration from the less productive provinces
European Russia into lands where there are millions of suital
acres waiting for development, but at present too far from ai
railway for colonization to be possible.
(2) The railway already constructed from Poletaevo
Troitsk will be continued to Fedorova and Kustanai in tl
northern part of the Turgai Province.
NEW AND PROJECTED RAILWAYS 353
(3) A line from Petropavlovsk to Kokchetav in the north
of the Kirghiz steppe has been mooted. It will be about 100
miles long and will serve the country between the I shim and
the Irtish.
(4) A line was opened on January 11, 1917, from Yekaterin-
burg by way of Irbit and Turinsk to Saitkovo on the Tavda ;
it is proposed to continue it to Tobolsk.
(5) A very important line has been projected from Soroka
on the Pomorski coast to the River Ob, a distance of about
1,000 miles. It was originally intended to have the terminus
at Arkhangel, but this idea seems to have been given up in
favour of a terminus at Soroka, where a harbour for vessels
i of larger draught can be constructed. Such a railway is of
immense importance in order to bring about the commercial
success of the Murman Railway. The route presents no
great difficulties of construction, and would not entail the
climatic difficulties that attended the construction of the
j Murman Railway. In 1916 both routes (to Arkhangel and to
Soroka) were being surveyed. The line, as originally proposed,
was to run from Arkhangel to Pinega and then through the
Ukhta district, and over the Pechora River at Troitsko-
Pechorskoe to a landing-stage on the River Ob near Chema-
shevskoe (63° N. lat.). There is to be a branch on the east side
of the Urals to the Nadezhdinski works on the Bogoslovski
Railway linking up with Yekaterinburg. It is anticipated
that the cost will be £10,032,000 ; it is estimated that the
annual goods traffic over the line will be from 30 to 45
million cwt. The objects of the line are to develop the forest
regions of northern Russia, to stimulate the mining of the
northern Urals, and to provide Siberia with an important
outlet for its trade. The length of the line will be about 1,000
miles. Another proposal, which has more to recommend it,
is to extend the Vyatka-Kotlas line north-west to meet the
Murman Railway at Soroka on the White Sea.
(6) Closely related to these schemes is the project for the
so-called Arctic Railway from Obdorsk, or some place on the
River Ob near by, across the Ural Mountains to a port in the
SIBERIA I 2
354 RAILWAYS
eastern Barents Sea. This would obviate the difficult passage
of the Kara Sea and make a good outlet for the trade of
Siberia. The Urals afford fairly easy passes for such a railway. I
The former proposal for a port on the Gulf of Baidaratskaya I
has been abandoned in favour of a port near the mouth of I
the River Pechora, possibly near the entrance to Khaipudir- -t
skaya Bay. The length of the line will be about 300 miles. 1
Narrow gauge is proposed. The cost, exclusive of harbour
works, is estimated at about £2,250,000.
(7) Other proposals are a line from Achinsk to Yeniseisk,
a trunk line from Tyumen to Tomsk, crossing the River Irtish
at Tara, and a line north to Tara from the existing railway
lines. Early in 1917 it was decided to accelerate the construc-
tion of a line from Yaroslav in European Russia by way of
Kostroma, Krasnoufimsk, Ufalei, and Ishim to Tomsk.
(8) It is proposed to connect the gold-mining district of
the Lena with the Siberian Railway by a line from Tulun
which will reach the Lena valley at Ust-Kutskoe (94 miles).
The inhabitants of Irkutsk are anxious that the line should
go from Irkutsk via Zhigalovskaya and for this reason are
agitating to improve the river-bed between Ust-Kutskoe and
Zhigalovskaya. It is further proposed to carry the line on
to Bodaibo on the Vitim via Kunerma, the distance being
1,000 miles from Tulun.
(9) There is talk of a railway either from Misovaya or from
Verkhne-Udinsk to Kyakhta in order to bring the Mongolian
markets into connexion with the main Siberian line. This
railway is to be constructed at government expense, and had
been approved by the Council of Ministers in 1913. It is
understood that it was arranged in 1915 to extend this line
to Urga, because the fall of Tsingtau and the expulsion o:
German trade from nearly all the far east has given Russi
great opportunities of acquiring fresh markets in China.
(10) An agreement was signed on March 27, 1916 for a ne
railway to be constructed connecting the Chinese Easte
Railway at Tsitsihar with Aigun on the Amur, and continuin
a few miles along that river so as to be opposite Blagovyes
NEW AND PROJECTED RAILWAYS 355
chensk. A branch line will run from Mergen about halfway
along this route to Kharbin, which will increase the agricul-
tural importance of this district ;' farther north timber and
mining are more important industries. The length of these
lines will be about 650 miles in all.
(11) A short line is projected from de Castries Bay to
Sofiisk on the lower Amur.
(12) A line was strongly advocated by the late Governor-
General of the Priamur to link the Ussuri Railway with Olgi
Bay and Imperatorskaya Harbour, which would be of great
service for the export of timber.
(14) According to the Russian press the committee under
the chairmanship of the Assistant Minister of Ways and Com-
munications included in the estimates of 1917 the execution
of an economical and technical survey of the railroad from
Aleksyeevsk to Nikolaevsk on the Amur.
22
CHAPTER XVIII
HISTORICAL NOTES i
Prehistoric Races — Early Relations with Russia — The Early Conquerors —
Attempts to conquer the Amur Region — The Treaty of Aigun — The Peking
Convention — Russia and Japan — Russian Advance in Mongolia.
In prehistoric times Siberia, especially in the south-west,
was far more densely populated than it is at present. Neo-
lithic remains are numerous. Many peoples have doubtless
been driven into the inhospitable north before successive
waves of emigration.
Prehistoric Races
In the Yenisei valley and throughout the south-west of
Siberia there are found a number of tumuli containing the
remains of a highly-developed branze civilization, when gold
and silver were also largely worked. These are generally
thought to belong to a primitive Yeniseian race. In the
third century the Uigurs, a Turkic steck, are said to have
overrun the country during the time of the wanderings of
the Huns, and the resulting people are generally known as
Ugro-Samoyedes. They built tumuli over their dead, which
they adorned with monoliths. These were sometimes simple
pillars, but were more often carved into human likenesses,
many of them with astonishingly realistic features. These
monoliths occur throughout south-western Siberia, but ai
most common in the Minusinsk district, where they invariably
face north and south. Iron and bronze implements are founc
in large numbers in the tombs, but gold and silver are rai
The Ugro-Samoyedes were great agriculturists, irrigati]
1 These notes are not carried beyond 1916 and so do not include
Russian Revolution of 1917.
I
PREHISTORIC RACES 357
wide tracts of land. Modern settlers not infrequently open
up and use their canals to-day. Eight centuries later these
Ugro-Samoyedes were subdued by another Turkic stock,
also highly civilized, which maintained its power till the
Mongols under Jenghiz Khan swept over the land and utterly
destroyed its civilization.
Early Relations with Russia
By the end of the eleventh century the energetic merchants
of Novgorod had penetrated into Siberia, or Ugra, as it was
then called, as far as the present government of Tobolsk.
In the fourteenth century they even established settlements
on the Taz. These nourished until the Russian Government
closed the Kara Sea. Not only Russian, but Dutch and Eng-
lish merchants, and even Russian emigrants, used the Kara
Sea route at this time until embargoes were placed upon it.
But in 1662 the Ostyaks destroyed the rapidly-decaying
settlements on the Taz.
These men of Novgorod were mere fur- traders, with no
idea of conquest. But meanwhile the people of Moscow
were systematically advancing towards the Urals, and during
the sixteenth century began to enter into close relations with
the tribes on the other side. Tartar hordes had recently
brought them into some kind of subjection. In 1555 Ediger
Khan, who had united the small Tartar principalities into
a kingdom, consented to pay a tribute of 1,000 sables to
Moscow in return for a protection which the Tsar was in-
capable of affording, though he welcomed the tribute.
The Cossacks
The conquest of Siberia was the work of the Cossacks.
These are not, as is generally supposed, a body of irregular
horse, but a section of the Russian people with special duties
and special privileges. Thus in 1851 Count Muraviev con-
verted the Nerchinsk peasants into Cossacks. The Cossack
unit is the stanitsa or village. They hold their land in common
and have the right to let it. They are liable to military
358 HISTORICAL NOTES
service between the ages of 18 and 48. They receive a money-
allowance from the Government, which also supplies them
with arms, but they must provide their own equipment and
their own horses, if mounted. Large stretches of land are
reserved for them, usually on the frontiers. They are divided
into sotnyas, each of which mannages its own affairs.
The Early Conquerors
Yermak, the first conqueror of Siberia, was a tracker on
the Volga, then a pirate on that river among the Don Cossacks,
till his success attracted the dangerous attention of the
authorities. He fled to the Stroganovs, the great merchant
family of Perm. They had long coveted the rich furs of
Ugra and were only too glad to make use of Yermak to
satisfy their ambitions. They provided him and his 800 men
with everything they required for their expedition, including
three priests and a runaway monk. In 1580 Yermak reached
the Tura, wintering where Tyumen now stands, and in the
following year he took the famous fort of Isker, or Sibir, near
Tobolsk, from which the name of Siberia is sometimes derived.
Ivan the Terrible rewarded him with a free pardon for his
early misdeeds. By 1584, when he was drowned in the
Irtish, Yermak r s conquests extended from the confluence of
the Ob and the Irtish to the Tagil and the Tura, and he had
secured them by forts at Tyumen and Tobolsk.
The romantic story of the conquest of Siberia recalls that
of Mexico or Peru. It was made possible only by the help-
lessness of the natives in the face of firearms. Yermak's
success shook the cohesion of the Tartar power, and his
conquests therefore survived his death. A stockaded ostrog,
garrisoned by a few Cossacks with a gun or two, could hold
down an enormous expanse of country in the wild northern
regions. But the Cossacks were as yet unable to overthrow
the stronger barbarian organizations of the south. Hence
they followed the line of least resistance towards the east
and the north. Thus Berezov was founded in 1593, 11 years
/\ before Tomsk. Furs were to the Cossacks what gold was to
A
THE EARLY CONQUERORS 359
the Spaniards, and these were still to be found in plenty in
the sparsejy inhabited districts into which they penetrated.
Moreover, the Cossacks were born sailors. We find Yermak
for instance, damming a stream with sails in order to secure
sufficient water for his boats. Their natural method of
progress was to sail down one river, haul their boats over
the portage, and then sail down another. And none of the
principal rivers of Siberia runs south. Yeniseisk was founded
in 1618, and 12 years later the Lena was reached. The
Yakutsk ostrog dates from 1637. Ostrogs were also estab-
lished at Tomsk, Turukhansk, Olekminsk, Irkutsk, and other
places. The conquerors met with little effective resistance
from the scanty population, though the Tungus were only
subdued, after a desperate struggle about 1623.
Access to the Pacific Ocean
As there are no tributaries connecting the Lena with other
great eastern rivers by easy portages, the Cossack Buse, who
Mas sent to collect tribute from the northern tribes, sailed
down the Lena in 1638 and out at its western arm to the
Olenek and the Yana. In 1639 he discovered the Indigirka.
The hardships endured by the Cossacks on these expeditions
in the unknown Arctic Ocean were often terrible, and, unlike
Yermak, they soon began to treat the natives with the
utmost cruelty. In 1644 Nizhne-Kolimsk was founded on
the Kolima. Four years later the Cossack Dezhnev, after
whom the Russians have justly re-named East Cape Cape
Dezhneva, made his wonderful voyage round the coast to
the Anadir, sailing through the Bering Straits 80 years
before Bering rc-discovercd them. On the Anadir he was
joined b}' other Cossacks, who had come from the Kolima
by land along the Anyui and over the watershed. The
Okhotsk ostrog was built in 1647, in spite of the fierce resist-
ance of the Buryats. By 1697 Kamchatka was explored to
Cape Lopatka and an ostrog built at Verkhne-Kamchatsk.
But there were serious mutinies and quarrels among the
300 HISTORICAL NOTES
Cossacks and their leaders in this remote district, which was
highly prized on account of its wealth in furs.
Attempts to Conquer the Amur Region
In 1643 Poyarkov started up the Aldan and then sailed
down the Zeya and the Amur to its mouth, returning by the
Sea of Okhotsk to the mouth of the Ulya, then back to
Yakutsk by the Maya. His name is commemorated in
• Poyarkova on the Amur. This remarkable voyage lasted
three years.
We now meet with the second great name among the
j Siberian conquerors, Khabarov, the merchant of Olekminsk,
, who occupied a position on the Lena not unlike that of the
Stroganovs at Perm. In 1649-50 he fitted out an expedition
to the Amur, taking the much shorter route along the Olekma.
He seized Albazin, then sailed down the Amur and wintered
at the place which now bears his name, Khabarovsk, where
he successfully resisted the attacks of large Chinese forces.
\ Compelled to retreat, he established a post at the mouth
of the Zeya. The fact that he instinctively selected Albazin,
Blagovyeshchcnsk, or Ust-Zeya as it was then called, and
Khabarovsk for his posts — all places which have since proved
to be of primary importance in the history of the river — is
a striking proof of his foresight. He also insisted from the
first that at least 6,000 men were necessary for the conquest
of the Amur, and he would probably have succeeded in the
enterprise, had they been forthcoming. But such an army
could not have been raised or even supported in Siberia at
this time.
X Meanwhile the Russians were advancing in the Transbaikal,
the natural base for an attack on the Amur. In 1649 Verkhne-
Udinsk was founded, and by 1654 Nerchinsk, on the other
side of the watershed. Then Beketov, after whom Beketova
on the Amur is named, pushed along the Ingoda and the
Shilka till he reached the Amur proper, thus discovering the
quickest way to the river. The Cossacks still maintained
their hold, but the Chinese, exasperated by their raids along
ATTEMPTS TO CONQUER THE AMUR REGION 361
the Ussuri into the heart of Manchuria, were determined to
drive them out, at all costs.
In 1655 they failed' to take Kumarskaya with an enormous
army, and for a time Russian prospects looked brighter.
But even Tolbuzin's heroic defence of Albazin in 1684 and
1685 was unavailing. His name is preserved in Tolbuzina,
close to Albazin, on the Amur. The numbers of the Cossacks
were inadequate for their task, and Russia, weakened by
internal troubles, ended by ceding the Amur to China by the /
Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689).
The eighteenth century was marked by the beginning of
the scientific exploration and organized settlement of Siberia.
Numerous expeditions were sent to subdue the tribes of the
north-east, notably the Chukchee, but they were never more
than partially successful.
Muraviev and the Amur
As time went on Russia felt more and more the disadvantage
under which she laboured in not having a suitable outlet on
the Pacific. Her occupation of the Amur was due almost
entirely to the energy of Count Muraviev-Amurski, the third
great name in the history of Siberia. In 1849 he sent Nevei-
ski, who has given an alternative name to the Gulf of Tartarv.
to explore the mouth of the river. He thus learnt that
Sakhalin was an island and that the river-mouth was access-
ible to sea-going ships. In 1850 Nevelski established a port
at Nikolaevsk in defiance of all rights. Two years later
de Castries Bay and Mariinsk were occupied, while posts
were established on Sakhalin. Buse and Korsakov, after
whom settlements on the Amur have been named, also played
an active part in these proceedings.
But Russia owes her hold on the Amur to the Crimean War,
in the course of which a strong force of French and British
seamen was defeated by a handful of Cossacks in an attempt
to take Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka. Not till 1854 did the
Tsar consent to an expedition down the Amur under Muraviev.
In the following year a large flotilla was sent, bringing
362 HISTORICAL NOTES
much-needed assistance to the Russian Pacific squadron.
The settlement of peasants along the left bank was begun
in 1856 with colonies at the mouths of the Kumara, the Zeya
and the Sungari and at the entrance to the Little Khingan
gorge ; and the process was steadily continued.
The Treaty of Aigun
China, which had never attempted to occupy the left bank
of the Amur, accepted the inevitable, and by the Treaty of
Aigun, in 1858, ceded to Russia all territory on the left bank
of the Amur from the Argun to the sea. The territory on the
right bank of the Amur from the Argun to the Ussuri went to
China. The territory between the Ussuri and the sea was to
remain neutral ground between the two empires, pending
a delimitation of the frontiers. The Amur, Sungari and Ussuri
were to be open to the navigation of Russian and Chinese
vessels, but closed to the vessels of other countries.
The Peking Convention
The Peking Convention of 1860 defined the boundary be-
tween Russia and Manchuria as following the Argun, Amur,
and Ussuri, and Sungacha, to Lake Khanka. From the
source of the Sungacha the boundary crosses Lake Khanka
to the mouth of the Pai-ling and thence follows a line des-
cribed in the Convention (Chinese text) as follows : ' From the
mouth of the Pai-ling River along a mountain range to the
mouth of the Hu-pu-tu River, and from the mouth of the Hu-
pu-tu River down the Hunchun River and along the range of
mountains between that river and the sea to the mouth of the
Tumen River.' ' The frontier meets the Tumen River at about
20 li (6 miles) from its mouth.'
(On all Russian maps the frontier follows tho Hu-pu-ti
River (Khubtu) throughout its course, and goes along tin
mountain range between the Hun-chun River and the sea unti
it meets the River Tumen.)
Russian Ports on the Pacific
Before the days of Muraviev Okhotsk had been the Russiai
military and naval port on the Pacific, but in 1850, deceive*
THE PEKING CONVENTION 363
by the beauties of Avacha Bay in Kamchatka in summer, the
Governor General had made it the head-quarters of the
Pacific squadron. Ten years later the squadron was trans-
ferred to Nikolaevsk. Russia was now in possession of
Vladivostok, but she did not make it her naval base till
1872, since when its growth has been very rapid.
The Fifty-Verst Zone
The Convention of Peking stipulated that there should
be free trade between the two empires along the new frontiers.
An agreement extending over a period of 30 years, which was
confirmed in Petrograd in 1881, established a 50-verst zone
along the entire frontier within which no customs dues were
to be collected. In practice this meant that Chinese goods
were admitted duty-free into Siberia along the Amur, though
Russian merchants also did a considerable trade with China
further west. Russia denounced the agreement on its
expiration on January 1, 1912.
Russia and Japan
Manchuria and the Russo-Japanese War
Russia began her Manchurian adventure with the agree-
ment between the Chinese Government and the Russo-
Chinese Bank in 1896. This brought into being the Chinese
Eastern Railway Company, which was to link the Trans-
baikal Railway with the Ussuri Railway at Vladivostok.
Shares could only be held by Russians and Chinese. Russia
thus definitely abandoned the longer and more difficult route
along the Amur through her own territory in favour of the
shorter route through Manchuria. The railway company
had the right to a strip of territory on each side of the line
within Avhich it exercised absolute control, while Kharbin
in the Kirin Province was established as the head-quarters
of the line. It has now become one of the most important
Russian towns in the Far East.
Two years later, in 1898, Russia obtained the lease of
Port Arthur and Talienwan (Dairen or Dalny) on the Liao-
364 HISTORICAL NOTES
tung Peninsula. After the Boxer rising in 1900, when the
Chinese were driven into the Amur at Blagovyeshchensk andj
Aigun was destroyed, the Russians occupied large areas inj
Manchuria which they declined to surrender. They rapidly]
extended their influence both in Manchuria and Korea.
Then came the Russo-Japanese War, followed by the!
Treaty of Portsmouth of 1905. Russia recognized Japan's!
paramount influence in Korea, ceded to her all her rights in!
Port Arthur and Talienwan (Dairen) and the railway between'
Port Arthur and Changchun and handed over to her the
occupied districts in Manchuria, which were restored to China.
Japan was also entitled to fishing-rights in the Japan and
Bering Seas and the Sea of Okhotsk. Japan had acquired the
Kuril Islands in exchange for the southern portion of Sakhalin
by a treaty with Russia in 1875. But the Treaty of Ports-
mouth again divided the island between the two powers at
the line of 50° N. lat. Russia thus abandoned her attempts
to become the dominant power in Manchuria, where her
authority has rapidly declined, and the Chinese themselves
are now steadily settling the province. The construction of
the Amur Railway thus became a strategic necessity for
Russia. The building of a line from Aigun southward to
Tsitsihar, linking the Chinese Eastern and Amur Railways,
could only be a question of time, and in 1916 an agreement
was concluded between Russia and China by which Russia is
to raise a 5 per cent, loan of £5,000,000 after the war for the
building of this line. It is to be controlled by Russians
nominated by the Russo-Chinese Bank.
Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1916
The growing cordiality of the relations between Russia ai
Japan, which resulted in the alliance of 1916, is furthc
exemplified by Russia's agreement to sell Japan the southei
half of the Kharbin -Changchun Railway, comprising a sectic
of about 60 miles and including the line from Changchun
the left bank of the Sungari.
Japan has never accepted Russia's claim to exclude
RUSSIA AND JAPAN 365
3ther foreigners from the navigation of the Sungari in accord-
ance with the Treaty of Aigun, and Russia now recognizes
the right of Japanese shipping to navigate the Sungari
between Kirin and Pet una.
I Russian Advance in Mongolia
The establishment of the 50-verst zone in 1881 gave a great
stimulus to Russian peaceful penetration into Chinese territory
south of the Yeniseisk Government. Several Russian towns,
of which Turanski is the chief, have sprung up over the border
and Russian settlers are increasing. The natives prefer to
resort to the Russian schools and courts, where they are
better treated. Similarly the Russian merchants are said not
to exploit them to nearly the same extent as the Chinese,
who profit by their vices. But the success of the process
depends on the tact of the officials. Since the war they are
said to have become more autocratic. Hence the natives are
growing discontented and retiring further south.
Meanwhile the Chinese are steadily colonizing Mongolia.
This movement, like their immigration into Siberia, is pro-
bably economic in origin, whatever results it may ultimately
bring about. It has, however, caused great dissatisfaction
among the nomad Mongols who have also suffered from the
Chinese methods of trading. On the overthrow of the Manchu
dynasty in 1912 the Mongol chiefs claimed their independence,
holding that they owed no allegiance to its successors.
A Russo-Mongolian agreement was signed on Oct. 21, 1912,
recognizing the autonomy of Mongolia, but it was challenged
by China, who insisted on her sovereign rights over Mongolia.
In 1913 Russia admitted China's claim to suzerainty in Mon-
golia on condition that Mongolian autonomy was recognized.
By this agreement Russia secured for herself substantial
privileges in that country. The agreement does not appear to
have been received with much favour by the Mongols.
APPENDIX
Weights and Measures
Russian.
1 dolya
1 zolotnik (96 dol.)
1 lot (3 zol.)
1 flint (96 zol.)
1 pud (40 fimts)
Measures of weight
English.
0-68 grains
0-15 oz. av.
0-45 oz. av.
0-902 lb.
0-32 cwt.
(36-11 lb. av.)
1 berkovets (10 puds) 3-22 cwt.
Metric.
4-44 centigrams
4-26 grams
12-79 grams
0-409 kilograms
16-38 kilograms
163-804 kilograms
1 dyuim
lfut
1 vershok
1 arshin (16 v.)
1 sazhen (3 ar.)
Measures of length
lin.
lfoot
1-75 in.
2 ft. 4 in.
7 ft. (in liquid depth
1 fathom)
25-4 millimetres
304-8 millimetres
4-44 centimetres
0*71 metres
2-13 metres
1 verst (500 sazh.) 3,500 ft., or 0-6628 mile 1-06 kilometres
Measures of area
1 sq. arshin 5-44 sq. ft.
1 sq. sazhen 5-44 sq. yd. (49
sq. ft.)
1 desyatin (2,400 sq. 2-7 acres
sazhens)
1 sq. verst (250,000 281-221 acres
sq. sazh.)
4-54 sq. metres
1-09 hectares
113-80 hectares
APPENDIX
Measures of volume
1 cubic vershok
5-35 c. in.
87-81 c.c.
1 cubic arshin
0-47 c. yd.
0-35 c. metre
1 cubic sazhen
12-70 c. yd.
Liquid measures
9-71 c. metres
1 charka
0-21 pints
0-12 litres
1 bottle (5 ch.)
1-08 pints
0-61 litres
1 shtof (10 ch.)
1-08 quarts
1-22 litres
1 vedro (100 ch.)
2-706 gallons
12-29 litres
1 bochka (40 ved.)
108-27 gallons
Dry measures
4-91 hectolitres
1 garnets
2-88 gallons
3-27 litres
1 chetverik (8g.)
0-72 bush.
26-23 litres
1 diet vert (8 chk.)
5-77 bush.
II
Measures of weight.
2-09 hectolitres
English.
Russian.
1 oz.
6-64 zolotniks
lib.
1-107 funt
1 cwt.
3-104 puds
1 ton
62-02 puds
Measures of length
1 in.
0-57 vershok
1yd.
0-42 sazh. or 1-28 arsh.
1 mile
' 1-508 versts or 754-28 sazh.
Measures of area
1 sq. yd.
0-18 sq. sazh.
1 acre
888-97 sq. sazh. or
0-37 desyatin
1 sq. mile
2-27 sq. versts or
237-06 desyatins
367
I cubic yd,
Measures of volume
0-078 cubic sazh,
368
APPENDIX
1 pint
1 quart
1 gallon
Liquid measures
4-61 charka
9-23 charka
0-36 vedro
Dry measures
1 gallon
1 bushel
1 quarter
1 chaldron
0-34 garnets
1-38 chetverik
11-08 chetverik
6-23 chetvert
It is reported that the Russian Government has decided to
introduce the metric system in August 1921 and to prohibit
the use of the old system of weights and measures from
January 1, 1925.
Money
The legal unit is the silver rouble of 100 kopeks. It is
treated usually as the equivalent of 2s. Id. in our currency,
but the exchange is very variable. In this book for all
large sums and round numbers 2s. has been taken as the
equivalent ; in official calculations 9-46 roubles are taken as
equal to the pound sterling. Gold coins are the imperial and
half imperial of 15 and 7J roubles. New gold coins are
issued bearing the inscription of 10 roubles and 5 roubles.
Besides the silver rouble, credit notes (500, 100, 50, 25, 10,
5, 3, and 1 rouble) are legal tender. Paper money of all
denominations down to one kopek has been in use since the
outbreak of the war.
Time
Local mean times are used throughout Siberia. Irkutsk
time is 6 hrs. 57 min. 15 sec. fast, and Vladivostok time
8 hrs. 47 min. 34-5 sec. fast on Greenwich mean time. Russia
in Europe uses Petrograd time, which is that of Pulkova
Observatory, 2 hrs. 1 min. 18-7 sec. fast on Greenwich mean
time.
APPENDIX 369
Calendar
The Julian calendar is still in use in Russian lands. It is
13 days behind the Gregorian calendar used in other countries,
Throughout this book, unless old style (O.S.) has been stated,
all dates are given in the Gregorian calendar.
It was reported in 1918 that the Gregorian calendar was to
be adopted throughout Russian lands.
a a
GLOSSARY
This glossary contains Russian and other words frequently
used in the text, including words, with their usual abbrevia-
tions, which occur on Russian maps. In the case of adjectives
the masculine termination (-») is given. The neuter termina-
tion is generally -oe, and the feminine -aya.
Aba, tomb of local hero (Kirghiz).
Artel, group of workers ; trade union.
Aul, encampment.
Balagan, hut of wood and thatch.
Balog, family sledge.
Boloto, marsh.
Bolshoi, Bol., great.
Bor, hill, sometimes pine forest.
Brat, brother.
Brodyagi, escaped convicts.
Byeli, white.
Cherni, black.
Chernozem, black earth.
Chud, primitive inhabitants of Siberia.
Chum, Samoyede or Ostyak tent.
Dekabrists, those who took part in the plot of Dec. 14, 1825.
Derevnya, village without church.
Dobrovolni, voluntary followers of exiles.
Doroga, road.
Drozhki, cab.
Dukhobors, sect, ' spiritual fighters.'
Duma, council or council chamber.
Dur, dying of the water on the Ob, &c, see Vol. II. Chap. V.
Fabrika, factory.
Forpost, F„ military outpost.
Gora, G., mountain.
Gorbusha, kind of salmon.
Gorod, town.
Guba, bay.
GLOSSARY 371
Gubemiya, government.
Ispravnik, official in charge of district ; police commissioner.
Izba, winter hut.
Kamen, rock ; stone, or cliff.
Karaul, Kar., picket-station ; guard-house.
Kayak, skin boat for one man.
Kedr, white cedar or cembra pine.
Kereoshka, boat-sledge drawn by reindeer.
Kerka, log-house of Zirians.
Keta, kind of salmon.
Khodok, advance agent of emigrants.
Khiebet, mountain range.
Kolodnik, convict.
Kozha, leather ; a Lapp name for seals.
Krasni, red.
Kul, lake.
Kumis, fermented mare's milk.
Kurgan, tumulus ; burial mound.
Kuropatka, willow-grouse.
Kvas, intoxicant made from barley.
Lyeto, summer.
Mali, Mai., small.
Maralnik, farm where maral deer are kept.
Mir, village assembly.
Mis, cape ; headland.
Mogila, Mog„ tomb.
More, sea.
Navaga, kind of cod.
Nizhni, lower.
Nos, headland.
Novi, new.
Nyelma, kind of salmon.
Oblast, territory.
Ostrog, block-house ; stockade.
Ostrova, island.
Otrassl, Otr., mining settlement in Urals
Ozero, lake.
Aa2
■
372 GLOSSARY
Pagost, Lapp settlement.
Pereket, Per., sand-bank or bar.
Pereval, Per., pass.
Perevoz, ferry.
Piket, Pik., P., picket station.
Pless, straight reaches of a winding river.
Pochtovaya kontora, post-office.
Poch. stanitsa, posting station.
Pogost, church without village.
Pogron, government tax.
Polustantsia, intermediate station or stage.
Porog, rapid on a river.
Posad, Pos., suburb.
Povarnya, Povarni, post-station on i emote road.
Poviet, storeshed.
Pristan, Pr., landing-place.
Proliv, strait.
Raskolnik, dissenter.
Rasputitsa, season impossible for travel.
Razdvoenie, railway junction or crossing.
Razyezdni puti, railway siding.
Ryeka, river.
Samovolni, voluntary emigrants.
Sast, town dweller of Turkish origin.
Selo, village with church.
Shar, strait.
Sklad, Ski., warehouse or depot.
Skoptsi, eunuchs, a fanatical sect.
Sori, shallow backwater.
Sredni, middle.
Stanitsa, Stan., station ; Cossack post.
Stari, old.
Starovyeri, old believers.
Svyatoi, holy.
Syeverni, north.
Taiga, coniferous forest.
Tarantass, four-wheeled carriage.
GLOSSARY 373
Tarine, freezing to the bottom of certain rivers.
Telega, cart.
Tolsti, thick.
Trakt, great Siberian road.
Treska, cod.
Troika, team of horses.
Tundra, swampy, treeless Arctic plains.
Tup a, winter dwelling of Lapps.
Uba, tomb of local hero (Kirghiz).
Urman, swampy thickets.
Urus, Yukaghir tent.
Uste, Ust-, river mouth.
Uyezd, district.
Verkhni, upper.
Viezha, summer dwelling of Lapps.
Viski, channel between lakes.
Volok, isthmus ; portage.
Volost, canton or cantonal assembly.
Vostok, east.
Yamshchik, posting driver.
Yar, cliff; bluff.
Yarus, great lines used in fishing.
Yassak, tribute.
Yug, south.
Yurta, Yurt, tent.
Zaimishche, Zaim., low ground between river and hills.
Zaimka, Z., settlement of one or a few houses.
Zaliv, strait.
Zamor, the dying of the waters, see dur.
Zapad, west.
Zavod, factory.
Zemlya, land.
Zemstvo, provincial assembly.
Zhelyeznaya doroga, Zhel., railway.
Zhelyezoplavilni zavod, Zhel., iron foundry.
Zherlo, mouth.
Zimia, winter.
Zimove, winter dwelling.
INDEX
Abakan R., 40, 272
Abakanskoe, 272
Achinsk, 331, 344, 350,
354
Achinsk district, 239,
251, 250, 311
Administration, 310-
313
Adun-Chclonsk Mt., 290
Agan R., 80
Agriculture, 33, 193-
190, 232-247, 300
Aigun, 354, 304
Aigun, Treaty of, 302
Ainov I., 308
Akhatolskaya mines,
288
Akmolinsk, 331, 352
Akmolinsk district, 301
Akmolinsk Province :
administration,
309, 310, 312
agriculture, 234,
247, 203
manufactures, 312
population, 200, 201
stock-raising, 248,
252
Aksha district, 241, 312
Albazin, 89, 300
Aldan Mts., 19
Aldan R., 40, 70, 244,
283, 291
Alei R., 290
Aleks- : see also Alex-
Aleksandrovskoe, 303
Aleksyeevsk, 235, 240,
348, 349, 355
Aleuts, 128
Alexandrovsk (Kola),
214, 330, 332
Alexandrovsk (Sakha-
lin):
administration, 312
climate, 38
industry, 270
minerals, 292
population, 214
telegraphs, 330
Alexis Mikhailovieh,
Tsar, 188
I Altai Mts. :
agriculture, 234,
237
climate, 32
fauna, 52, 54, 50,
57, 252
minerals, 275, 284,
285, 290
vegetation, 40, 49,
203
Altai Railway, 350, 352
Altaians, 150-159
Altaiskaya, 350
Amga R., 40, 288
Amgun R, 54, 272, 275,
283
Amur Bay, 292
Amur Bridge, 348
Amur estuary, 81
Amur goldfields, 282,
283
Amur Govt., 312
Am m- Province :
administration.
309, 310
agriculture, 239-
242, 240, 247
colonization, 203
industry, 205, 270,
299
minerals, 282, 288,
291
stock-raising, 248,
251, 253, 255, 250
Amur Railway, 335,
342, 347-349, 304
Amur region :
climate, 32, 33, 37 I
fauna, 53, 55, 50,
57, 87, 91
history, 300-302
industries, 205, 266,
269
minerals, 272
vegetation, 47
Amur R., 24
colonization, 20,
208
communications,
330, 333
fisheries, 80-83
freezing, 40, 41
Anabar R., 41
Anadir Bay, 78
Anadir district, 284, 312
Anadir R., 41
Anaul, 114
Angara district, 80, 280
Angara R., 41, 209, 272,
288
Angara R., Upper, 74,
75
Antimony, 288
Anyui fair, 89
Anzherski mine, 290
Apiculture, 250, 257
Ara Bay, 00
Aral Sea, 32
Arctic Railway, 353
Arctic Russia, 53, 01,
213-215,305-308,332
Argun R., 41, 274, 290
Arkhangel, 30, 35, 332,
353
Arkhangel Govt.. 305,
307, 308
Arkhangel Railway, 352
Asbestos, 280
Askold I., 50, 284
Atbasar, 207, 274, 331,
352
Atbasar dist., 232, 312
Atbasar R., 39
Atmospheric pressure,
31
Australia :
trade, 267, 268
Avacha Bay, 77
Avakum, 203
Ayaguz R., 39
Ayakhta R., 288
Ayamskoe L., 288
Ayan, 37
Baid
B
lidaratskaya Gulf, 354
Baikal, 344, 345
Baikal L., 26, 269
climate, 31, 33
communications,
344
fauna, 59
fisheries, 74
minerals, 287, 291,
296
Baikal Mts., 296
Balagansk dist., 251,
311
Baleginsk, 272
Balei R., 41
Balkhash L., 30
Baraba steppe, 27
agriculture, 233
fauna, 54
minerals, 294, 295
vegetation, 49
Barabash, 244
Barents Sea, 354
Barguzin district, 54,
203, 275, 312
Barguzin goldfields, 282
Barguzin R., 41, 74
Barim, 346
Barnaul :
administration, 311
agriculture, 235-
237
climate, 36
communications,
331, 350
industry, 257, 298,
300-302, 304
trade, 92, 260
Barnaul district, 236,
237, 311
INDEX
Baron Korfa Gulf, 293 j
Baruntorei L., 294
Beketov, 360
Beltirs, 153
Berekul mine, 280
Berezov, 30, 330, 358
Berezov district :
administration, 311 .
agriculture, 232
fauna, 86
fisheries, 71
minerals, 289
population, 207
Bering I., 333
Bezpopovists, 190, 204 !
| Big R„ 274
jBiisk, 331
i Biisk district :
administration, 311
agriculture, 235,
236, 238
apiculture, 256
fauna, 61
industries, 298, 302
Biliktui R., 41
Birar, 180
Birds, 60-62
Biryusa R., 41
Biya R., 39
Blagodat, 284
Blagoslovennoe, 204
Blagovyeshchensk :
administration, 312
agriculture, 240-
243
climate, 38
communications, !
319
history, 360, 364
industry, 267, 269,
301
minerals, 276, 2*3
stock-raising, 251, .
252
trade, 89
Bochkarevo, 240
Bodaibo, 276, 281, 282,
330, 351, 354
Bogom-Darovanni mine,
281
Bogoras, Dr., 190
Bogoslovski, 36, 271,
274, 288
375
Bogoslovski Railway,
353
Bolshaya Volokovaya
Bay, 214
Bolshoi-Patom, 282
Borzinsk L., 294
Borzya, 345
Boshagoch R,, 288
Boundaries, 15, 309,
362
Bozhe L., 73
Bratski-Ostrog, 272
British interests in Si-
beria, 258, 273, 274,
277, 280, 290
Buddhists, 220
Building stone, 295
Bureya, 240
Bureya goldfields, 282,
283
Bureva valley, 267, 275,
291, 349
Burlinskoe L., 294
Burukanskaya, 89
Buryats, 169-172, 226,
317
Buryatskava, 345
Buse, 359/361
Byeguni, 219
Byela valley, 256
ByelayaR.,41, 296
Byelokurikha springs,
295
C
Cables, 331, 332
Calendar, 369
Camels, 254
Cattle, 250-252
Caucasus Mts., 273, 284
Changchun, 342
Chani L., 67, 72
Chapogir, 178
Charish R., 39, 296
Chelyabinsk, 195, 199,
235, 329, 343
Chemashevskoe, 353
Cheremkhovskoc, 239,
290, 303
Chernozem, 49
Chikoi R,, 41, 291
Chima R., 41
376
INDEX
China :
trade, 208,209,304,
354
Chinese, 208-210, 245,
300, 360-305
Chinese Eastern Rail-
way, 328, 341, 342,
347, 354, 303
Chinese industries. 304
Chita, 52, 251, 267. 312,
330, 331
Chita district, 203, 295,
312
Chlya L., 275, 284
Chnuirrakh Point, 330
Chodinski, 282
Chuguchak, 331
Chukchee, 96-106, 224,
226
Chukchee Peninsula,
255, 284
Chukotsk district, 312
Chulim, 343
Chulim R., 39, 71, 250,
291, 343
Chuinish R., 286
Chuvanzi, 114
Circumbaikal Railway,
343, 344
Clergy, 217
Climate, 28-43
Climatic regions, 34-38
Coal, 288-293, 307
Coasts, 27
Commander Is., 59, 78,
80, 312, 333
Copper, 273, 274, 307
Cossacks, 187, 200-203,
205, 317, 357-361
Crimean War, 361
Currency, 368
D
Daircn, 341, 363, 364
Dairy industry, 257-260
Daurians, 182
de Castries Bay, 330,
332, 355, 361
Dekabrists, 202
Denmark :
trade, 259, 260, 268
Dep R., 291
Dczhnev, 359
Dezhneva Cape, 287, 333
I Dickson I., 333
I Diseases, 228-230
I Dissenters, 219
Distilling and brewing,
300
Diya R., 348
Dogs, 328, 329
Dolgans, 163
Doroninsk L., 295
Doukhobors, 220
Dudinka, 290
Due, 273, 292, 330
Dvina R., Northern, 25,
66, 307
Dzhigit Bay, 274
Dzhila R., 288
Dzhugdzhur Mts., 49
Dzungarian trench, 20
E
Early conquerors, 358
Ediger Khan, 357
Ekibas-tusc mines, 289,
351
Eri, 59
Eskimo, 100
Exile system, 188, 197
Factories, 299-304
Fauna, 51-92
Fedorova, 352
Ferries, 325, 32(i
Finns :
in Arctic Russia, 213
in Siberia, 199
Finns, Volga, 137
Fisheries, 62-85
Flora : see Vegetation
Fort St. Michael (Alas-
ka), 333
Fram, 29, 30, 35
Franz Josef Land, 35
Freezing of rivers, 38-43
Frolikha L., 74
Fur, 85-41, 307
G
Game, 91
Gavrilova Bav, 214
Gedik, 349
Germany :
trade, 200, 273. 286
Gilui R„ 283
Gilyaks, 84, 121-126
Gizhiga Bay, 78, 293
Gizhiga district, 312
Gizhiga R., 41
Glass and china, 302
Goats, 253
Gold, 275-284
Goldi, 184-186
Gondatti, 240
Gondatti, Gov. -Gen.,
269
Graphite, 287
Great Britain :
trade, 260, 204,
267, 268, 286
Great Khingan Range,
19, 20, 346, 348
Green Harbour (Spits-
bergen), 332
Grigorevski, 331
Grodekovo, 347
Gurevskoe, 272
Gusinoe L., 291
H
Harbin : see Kharbin
Hokushu, 332
Horses, 249, 250, 322
Hunghuses, 211
Ildekanski, 288
Ilga R., 41
Him R., 41
Iman, 333
Iman district, 3 1 2
Imandra L., 66
Immigration, 191-196
Imperatorskaya Bay,
85, 268, 355
Indigirka R., 24, 41, 50,
91, 359
Industry, 256, 270, 297-
304, 314
Ingd (Norway), 332
Ingoda R., 41, 42, 288,
291, 345, 347
Irbit, 87, 88, 253, 353
Irbit fair, 87-89
Irbit R,, 39
Iret R., 290
IrkutR.,42,269
Irkutsk :
t administration, 311
agriculture, 239
climate, 30
communications,
330, 344, 345, 354
industry, 209, 298-
304
trade, 89
Irkutsk Province :
administration,
309, 311
agriculture, 240,
247
colonization, 201
fauna, 87
industry, 204
minerals, 281, 295,
290
stock-raising, 248,
251, 253-255
Iron, 271-273, 307
Irrigation, 234, 241
Irtish R., 20, 25
agriculture, 237
communications,
330, 331, 343,
351, 354
fisheries, 07, 09
freezing, 39
minerals, 293
vegetation, 40
Iset R., 40, 274
Ishim :
administration, 311
climate, 30
communications,
354
industry, 98
trade, 87
Ishim R., 40, 343
Ishim steppe, 32, 49, 54,
233
Ivan the Terrible, 358
Ivory, fossil, 92
Iya R., 42
Japan :
interests in Siberia,
79, 304, 305
INDEX
i trade. 78, 84, 208,
269, 304
Japanese, 211, 299
Jews, 220
K
Kada L., 27
Kadainski silver-works,
285, 288
Kaibals, 154
Kainsk, 200, 257
Kainsk district, 234,
250, 311
Kalami R., 281
Kalmuks, 150
Kamassins, 154
Kamchadals, 117-121
Kamchatka :
administration,
310, 312
climate, 32, 33, 37
colonization, 205
communications,
330, 333
fauna, 53, 54, 50,
255
fisheries, 70-80
history, 359
minerals, 273, 274,
283, 288, 293,
295
population, 208
vegetation, 48
volcanoes, 18
Kamchatka valley, 245,
205
Kamen, 235
Kamishta R., 280
Kampentszyaika R., 294
Kan R., 42, 287
Kandakova, 287
Kandalaksha, 04, 332,
351
Kanin Nos, 332
Kanin Peninsula, 33, 06
Kansk, 195,311,344
Kara Sea, 59, 65
Karabas L., 293
Karachi, 235
Karagan R., 286
Karagandinsk mine, 289
Karagassis, 154
Karclians, 131-133
377
Karimskaya, 344, 345
Karkaralinsk, 207, 272
Karkaralinsk district,
274, 313
Karmakul, 35
Kartisak R., 40
Katun R., 280
Kern, 35, 04, 00, 332,
351
Kerak, 348
Kerbinski, 333
Keret, 64, 305
Kerkidal spur, 344
Khabarov, 187, 300
Khabarovsk :
administration, 312
climate, 38
communications,
330, 333, 348, 349
fisheries, 81-83
forestry, 312
history, 360
industry, 302, 303
trade, 252
Khaipudirskaya Bay,
354
Khaita, 302
Khamar-Dabansk
Range, 344
KhankaL.,27,205,243,
349
Khara-Ulakh R., 42
Khara valley, 250
Kharbin, 240, 241, 329,
340, 355, 363
Kharbin-Changchun
Railway, 364
Kharkov, 252
Khatanga R., 42
Khilok R., 42, 291, 345,
34(5
Khlusti, 220
Kholmogor, 300
Khor R, 42
Kile, 180
Kiparisov, 347
Kiransk L., 295
Kirenga R., 42, 272
Kirensk district, 87, 31 1
Kirghiz, 100-103
Kirghiz steppes, 27
agriculture, 233
fauna, 52, 57
378
INDEX
fisheries, 67
industry, 86, 297
minerals, 272-274,
287-289,293,295,
296
vegetation, 50
Kishtim mines, 284, 288
Kiya R., 40, 343
Kizi L., 27
Klyuchevskaya Mt., 18
Knyaz Bay, 64
Kobdo, 331
Kochenevo, 235
Kokchetav, 207, 232,
312, 353
Kola, 35, 214
Kola Inlet, 214, 305
Kola Peninsula, 24
climate, 35
communications,
332, 351
fauna, 66
minerals, 307, 308
Kolehugino, 290, 350
Kolezhma, 65
Kolguev L, 66
Kolima R., 24
agriculture, 245
fisheries, 75
freezing, 42
industry, 265
minerals, 274
Kolimsk Mts., 21
Kolivan, 304
Kondinskoe, 330
Kondom R., 71
Konstantinovskaya, 274
Kopal, 331
Korea, 268
Koreans, 204, 210, 212,
300
Korsakov, 361
Koryakov L., 293
Koryaks, 96, 106-113
Kosh-Agach, 331
Kostroma, 354
Kovda, 64
Kozachinskoe, 330
Krasnoufimsk, 354
Krasnovodsk, 331
Krasnoyarsk :
administration, 311
climate, 36
com munications,
330
industry, 299, 301,
302
minerals, 276, 287
trade, 74, 239
Kruglikov, 349
Kuan-cheng-tsu, 341,
342
i Kuenga, 347
Kuenga R., 347
Kukhtui R.. 42
Kulachinskoe, 235
Kulcha, 89
Kuldzha, 331
Kultuk, 331, 344
Kulundinsk steppes, 350
Kumarskaya, 361
Kunerma, 354
Kurgan :
administration, 311
agriculture, 235,
237
climate, 36
industry, 257, 259,
298, 300, 301
Kuril Is., 364
Kustanai, 352
Kustarni industries,
297-299
Kuta R., 42
| Kuznetsk, 298, 350
Kuznetsk district :
administration, 311
agriculture, 238
fisheries, 71
industry, 256
minerals, 290
timber, 263
| Kyakhta :
climate, 37
communications,
20, 354
trade, 89, 301, 314
Kyundyaya R., 294
Lagar-Aul Mts., 348
Lakes, 26
Lamut, 178
Land tenure, 193-196,
214
Lapps, 128-131,213
Lazarev Cape, 330, 331
Lead, 285
Lefu valley, 205
Lena R., 24, 25, 265
agriculture, 244
communications,
330, 354
fauna, 56, 58
fisheries, 75
freezing, 42
history, 359
minerals, 272, 274,
275, 290, 291,
295, 354
population, 207
vegetation, 47
Local Government, 3 11-
318
Lower Tunguska R. :
see Angara R.
Lozva R., 286
Lyavozcrski, 130
M
Malaya -Bistray a valley,
295
Malinovka, 240
Malinovskaya Cape, 345
Mama R., 287
Mammals, 52-60
Manchu, 183, 204
Manchuria, 345-348, 364
Manegir, 179
Manganese, 288
Mangut, 331
Maniza : see Voguls
Manses, 204, 209
Manzi : see Manses
Manzurskava, 330
Maps, 13-14
Maral deer, 255
Mare-Sale Cape, 332
Mariinsk, 344, 361
Mariinsk district :
administration, 311
agriculture, 234,
238
fisheries, 81
minerals, 280, 286
vegetation, 263
Maritime Province :
administration,
310, 312
agriculture, 239,
240,241,243,246
colonization, 204
fauna, 87
industry, 256, 260,
270, 304
minerals, 273, 274,
283, 291, 292
stock-raising, 251,
255
vegetation, 265,
267, 269
Marka-Kul L., 67
Markovo, 78, 245, 333
Martuk Station, 352
Maya R., 42, 76
Mercury, 288
Mergen, 355
Mczen, Gulf of, 65
Mezen R., 66, 307
Mica, 287
Minusinsk, 301, 304,
331, 350
Minusinsk district :
administration, 311
agriculture, 239,
240
colonization, 201
minerals, 274, 288,
291, 295
stock-raising, 251,
256
Mir, 315-317
Mishkina, 235
Misovaya, 344, 354
Misovsk, 272
Miyas district, 280
Mohammedans, 220
Molchalyniki, 220
Molokani, 204, 220
Mongol-Dabanski mines,
286
Mongolia, 365
Mongolian frontier, 287
Mongugai coal-field, 292
Mordvinians, 137
Moscow :
trade 82, 88, 250
Motors, 153
Mramorni Point, 273
Mukden, 329
Muravie v- Amurski ,
Count, 340, 357. 36 1
INDEX
Muravievo-Amurskaya,
349
Murman coast, 62-64,
213, 307, 332
Murman Railway, 334,
351, 352, 353
Murmansk, 214, 332,
351
Myandukhe, 346
N
Nadezhdinskaya, 347
Nadezhdinski works,353
Nagasaki, 331
Nai R., 282
Nakhodka Bay, 304
Narim, 36
Narim district :
colonization, 207
fauna, 61, 254
fisheries, 71
industry, 86
vegetation, 238
Nayakhanskoe, 333
Negda, 180
Neo-Siberians, 95, 222,
225
Nercha R., 42
Nerchinsk :
climate, 38
fauna, 54
history, 360
minerals, 286
Nerchinsk district, 241,
272,275,282,285,312
Nerchinsk Range, 296
Nerchinsk, Treaty of,
361
Nerchinski Zavod, 312
Nevelski, 361
Nevelski district, 310
New Siberia Is., 92
Nicaea, Council of, 218
Nikon, 190, 216
Nikolaevsk :
administration, 310
agriculture, 241
climate, 30, 38
communications,
330, 333, 355
fauna, 52
fisheries, 82, 83
379
history, 340, 361,
363
minerals, 276
trade, 89, 266
Nikolaevsk district, 80,
81, 265
Nikolsk-Ussuriski :
agriculture, 243,244
communications,
347, 349, 350
industry, 25<>, 302
trade, 252
Niman R., 283
Nizhne-Kolimsk, 207,
359
Nizhne -Novgorod, 88,
253
Nizhne-Sharonai, 287
Nizhne-Tagilski, 288
Nizhne-Tambovskoe,
333
Nizhne-Udinsk, 344
Nizhne-Udinsk district,
287,288,303,311
Nome (Alaska), 333
Norwegians, 213
Novaya-Kuka, 291
Novaya Zemlya, 35
Novi-Selenginsk, 37, 294
Novo-Kievskoe, 331
Novo-Mariinsk, 333
Novo-Nikolaevsk :
colonization, 207
communications,
331, 350
fauna, 61
industry, 235, 236,
269, 301, 303
trade, 251, 259
Nyandoma, 352
Nyetovsti, 220
Nyukhcha, 65
O
Ob, 344
Ob basin, 46, 66-71
Ob R., 24-26
communications,
330, 343, 353
fisheries, 66-71
freezing, 40
minerals, 289
vegetation, 46
380
INDEX
Obdorsk, 35, 71, 80, 333,
353
Odzhal, L., 27
Oil, 303 : sec also Petro-
leum
Oka R., 42, 272
Okhotsk :
administration, 312
climate, 30, 38
colonization, 208
communications,
330, 333
fisheries, 76-80
history, 359, 362
Okhotsk, Sea of, 245,
284
Olcha, 181
Olekma R., 42, 54, 244
Olekminsk, 31, 37, 244,
312
Olekminsk goldfields,
275, 282
Olcnek R., 42
Olennyc, 178
Olgi Bay :
climate, 38
colonization, 205
communications,
355
industry, 255, 304
minerals, 272, 273,
296
Olgi district, 312
Olovyannaya, 287
OmR.,40, 71
Omolon R., 24
Omsk :
administration, 309,
312
communications ,
319, 326, 330,
331, 34+
industry, 237, 257,
269, 300-304
trade, 250, 259, 260
Omsk district, 237, 312
Onega, 66, 306, 307
Onon R., 42, 274, 296
Orenburg, 293, 331
Orenburg Govt,, 309
Oroche, 183
Orochon, 178
Orokc, 181
Orsk, 283, 352
Osmiridium, 288
Ostyak-Samoyedes, 148
Ostyaks, Ugrian, 138-
146
Ostyaks of Yenisei, 126-
127
OyaR.,42
P
Pai-Khoi Range, 24
Palaeo-Sibcrians, 95,
222, 223, 225
Pavlodar, 72, 235, 350
Pavlodar district, 232,
313
Pechenga, 332
Pcchenga Gulf, 214
Pechora R., 25
agriculture, 306
communications,
353, 354
fisheries, 66
industry, 305, 308
stock-raising, 307
Peking Convention, 362,
363
Pelim valley, 263
Penzhina Bay, 77, 78,
293
Penzhina R., 42
Pereemnaya, 291
Perm, 302
Perm Govt., 309
Pcrmyaks, 137
Pervaya Ryeka, 337
Peter the Great, 217
Peter the Great Bay, 85
Peterhead (Scotland),
332
Pctrograd :
trade, 78, 250
Petroleum, 287
Pctropavlovsk :
administration, 312
agriculture, 245
climate, 30, 31,38
communications,
330,331,333,353
industry, 235, 301,
303
trade, 250, 251, 300,
314
Pctropavlovsk district
232, 237, 245, 312
Petrozavodsk, 351
Philippovsti, 219
Pigs, 253
Pi'levo R., 293
Pinega, 306, 353
Pishma R., 40
Pitski Mts., 286
Platinum, 286
Podorozhna, 321
Pogobi Cape, 330. 332
Pogranichnaya, 346
Poles, 199
Poletaevo, 352
Polovinnaya, 303, 344
Polui R., 40
Pomorski coast, 64
Ponoi, 59
Popovists, 190
Port Arthur, 341, 363,
364
Portsmouth, Treaty of,
341,347,364
Port Vladimir, 00
Posiet Bay, 268, 304
Posting system, 320-
323
Pottery, 303
Poyarkov, 360
Precipitation, 32, 35-38
Prehistoric Races, 356
Priamur, 240, 267, 269,
312
Pribilov Is., 59
Prikhankoisk basin, 349
Primorsk :
administration, 312
agriculture, 239,
247
colonization, 204
fauna, 52, 56, 255
lisbcrics, 84
industry, 299, 301
minerals, 283
stock-raising, 248
254
vegetation, 265
Pronge, 81
Protestants, 220
Providence Bay, 32
Pyasina R., 42
Pyazina R., 40
R
Radium, 288
Railways, 334-340 : see
also Siberian, Amur,
&c.
Rakhmanovski spring,
295
Reindeer, 103-106, 110,
254, 327, 328
Ribachi Peninsula, 332
Riderski mines, 285, 351
Rivers, 24-26, 32, 33,
38-43
Roads, 319-326
Robben I., 59
Roman Catholics, 220
Rovaniemi, 332
Russian Orthodox
Church, 216
Russo-Japanese Agree-
ment (1916), 364
Russo-Japanese War,
364
S
Sable, 90
Sagastir, 29, 30, 35
St. Paul, 333
Saitkovo, 353
Sakhalin :
ad ministration ,309,
310, 312
agriculture, 244,
247
climate, 32, 37
colonization, 189,
205
communications,
330, 332
fauna, 55-57
fisheries, 84
history, 361, 364
industry, 270
minerals, 284, 287,
291, 292
stock-raising, 248
trade, 304
vegetation, 48, 265.
Salt, 293-295
Samara-Zlatoust Rail-
way, 340
Samoyedes, 146-153,
215
INDEX
Sanagir, 181
Sanitation, 230, 231
Sawmills, 269
Sayansk Mts., 19, 49,
55-57, 246, 265
Seal fisheries, 58, 80
Selemdzha district, 310
Selenga plateau, 27
Selenga R., 20
colonization, 207
fauna, 59
fisheries, 74
freezing, 42, 43
Selenginsk district, 203,
241
Semeika, 69, 70, 312
Semipalatinsk :
administration, 313
agriculture, 235
climate, 38
communications,
331, 350, 352
industry, 300, 301
Semipalatinsk district,
313
Semipalatinsk Territory :
administration,
309, 310, 313
agriculture, 232,
247
minerals, 274, 280,
293, 295
population, 200, 201
stock-raising, 248,
249, 252
vegetation, 263
Sergiopol, 331
Shamanism, 220-227
Shamanski spur, 344
Shanogir : see Sanogir
Sheep, 252, 253
Shenkursk district, 305,
306
Shilka R., 43, 291, 295,
330, 345, 347
Shilkinski, 286
Shizhnaya, 65
Shors, 160
Shuya, 65
Siberian Railway, 330,
334, 338-347
Sikhota Alin Range, 48.
330, 349
381
Siktyakh, 245
Silver, 284, 285
Sisertsk district, 274
Skoptsi, 191, 220, 244
Slavgorod, 350
Sledging, 326-329
Slyudyanka R., 295
Sofiisk, 38, 355
Solons, 183
Solovetski, 332
Soroka, 65, 351, 353
Sosnovets I., 332
Sosva R., 40, 286
South Manchurian Rail-
way, 342
South Muya Range, 19
South Siberian Railway,
352
South Ussuri district,
312
Soyots, 154
Spasskaya, 270
Sredne-Kolimsk, 260,
333
Sredne-Kolimsk dis-
trict, 312
Stanovoi Mts., 19, 20, 49
Steppe Govt., 38, 200,
309, 310, 312
Stock-breeding, 306, 307
Stranniki, 219
Stryetensk, 195, 330
Suchan mines, 292
Suchan valley, 205,
255
Sudzhenka, 290
Suifun R., 43, 205
Sukhona volok, 65
Sumski, 65
Sungacha valley, 205
Sungari R., 241, 365
Suputinka R., 43
Surazhevka, 349
Surgut district, 71, 86,
311
Sviyagino, 270
Svyatoi Nos, 332
T
Tagilski district, 274
Tahcheng : see Chugu-
chak
Taiga, 45-48
382
INDEX
Taimir R., 43
Talaya R., 295
Talienwan : see Dairen
Tanneries, 300
Tara, 330, 354
Tara district, 238, 311
Tara R., 280
Tarbagatai : see Chugu-
chak
Tartars, 155-160
Tartary, Straits of, 332
Tashkent, 331
Tatarskaya, 235, 350
Tavda R., 40, 263, 301
Tavgi, 147
Taz, Gulf of, US
Taz R., 40, 357
Telbes R., 271
Telegraphs, 826, 329-
332
Teleuts, 159
Telposiz Mt., 23
Temperature, 29-31, 35-
38
Teriberskaya Bay, 214
Teriberski, 332
Ternei Bay, 268
Territories, 309
Teya R., 281
Tienshan Mts., 19, 32
Tigda, 240
Tigilski, 330, 333
Timan Range, 23
Timber, 261-270, 301,
305, 306
Time, 368
Timovsk district, 312
Tin, 287
Tobol R., 40, 343
Tobolsk :
administration, 311
climate, 30, 36
communications,
330, 353
fisheries, 70
history, 358
industry, 269, 298,
301, 302
Tobolsk district, 238,
311
Tobolsk Govt. :
administration ,
309-311
agriculture, 232.
238, 247
colonization, 198,
199
fauna, 254
industry, 298
stock-raising, 248,
249
vegetation, 263
Todo Shima, 332
Tolbuzin, 361
Tolsti Nos., 35
Tom R., 40, 71, 343
Tomsk :
administration, 31 1
agriculture, 237, 238
climate, 30, 36
communications,
354
industry, 2(59, 298,
300-304
stock-raising, 249,
258
Tomsk district :
agriculture, 230, 238
industry, 256
minerals, 280, 286
Tomsk Govt. :
administration,
309-311
agriculture, 234.
236, 246
colonization, 199,
200
fauna, 55
industry, 303
minerals, 271, 293-
295
stock-raising, 248,
255
vegetation, 203
Towns, 313
Trade, 236, 314
Trakt, 319
Transbaikal Province :
administration,
309, 310, 312
agriculture, 239-
"241, 247
climate, 32
colonization, 202,
203, 210
fauna, 57
industry, 264, 299
minerals, 282, 288,
291, 294, 295
steppes, 50
stock-raising, 248-
251, 253-355
vegetation, 47
Transbaikal Railway,
342, 344-346
Troitsk, 352
Troitsko-Pechorskoc,
35, 353
Troitskosavsk, 331
Troitskosavsk district,
288, 294, 312
Tsagan-Da Range, 345
Tsagan-Khuntei Range,
272
Tsitsihar, 340, 354
Tuba R,, 43
Tuloma R., 307
Tulun, 354
Tumen R., 302
Tundra, 44, 4.1
Tungus, 172-177
Tunguska R., Lower.
43, 207, 287, 291
Tunkinsk, 331
Tura, 52
TuraR.,40,263
Turanski, 365
Turgai Province, 20 1 ,
253, 309, 313
Turinsk, 298, 353
Turinsk district, 80, 238,
311
Turkic tribes, 155
Turukhan R,, 43
Turukhansk, 33, 35. 330
Turukhansk district :
administration, 311
industry, 80
population, 201
stock-raising, 251,
255
Tyukalinsk district. 01,
250, 311
Tyumen :
agriculture, 237
colonization, 199
communications,
330, 354
history, 358
INDEX
383
industries, 257, 209,
298, 300-303
stock-raising, 249
Tyumen district, 311
Tyutikha Bay, 208, 285,
331
U
Uchur R., 43
Uda R., 20, 43, 245, 291
Udsk district, 310, 312
Udski-Ostrog, 245
Ufalei, 354
TJgra, 357
Ugro-Samoyedes, 356,
357
Ui R., 40
Uigurs, 350
Ukhta, 353
Ukurei, 347
Ulan-Burgasi Range, 19
Unalaska, 333
Uni Bolski R., 286
United States :
trade, 234, 209, 337
Upper Tunguska R. :
see Angara R.
Ural Mts., 23, 271, 273,
275, 280, 284, 280,
288, 289, 293, 353,
354
Ural Railway, 340
Ural R., 72
Uralsk, 201
Urga, 354
Uryankhai district, 33,
313
Uryum, 348
Usinsk district, 311
Ussolye, 294, 301
Ussuri Cossack district,
312
Ussuri Railway. 347,
349, 355
Ussuri R. :
agriculture, 241,
243, 245
colonization, 205,
208
communications,
330, 349
fauna, 50
fisheries, 81
freezing, 43
history, 362
Ust-Kamenogorsk, 280,
303, 351
Ust-Kamenogorsk dis-
trict, 250, 313
Ust-Kiranskaya, 294
Ust-Kutskoe, 294, 354
Ust-Orlinskaya, 285
Ust-Zeya : see Blagov-
yeshchensk : history
Utkinski oilfields, 307'
UvelkaR.,40
V
Vaigaeh, 332
Vakh R., 8G
Varsina R., 307
Varzuga R.. 66
Vasuigan swamps, .'52,
40
Vegetation, 44-50
Vehicles, 323
Velsk district, 300
Verkhne-Iset mines,
284, 288
Verkhne-Kanichatsk,
359
Verkhne-Neivinsk
works, 288
Verkhne-Tagilski, 2 50
Vcrkhnc-Udinsk :
climate, 37
communications,
319, 331, 354
history, 300
minerals, 274
population, 203
Verkhne-Udinsk dis-
trict, 203, 312
Verkholensk district :
administration, 311
fauna, 87
minerals, 295
stock-raising, 251
Verkhoture, 319
Verkhoyansk, 29, 37,
207, 200
Verkhoyansk district,
245, 255, 312
Verkhoyansk Mts., 22, 49
Vilyui R„ 43, 207, 275,
282. 294
Vilyuisk, 330
Vilyuisk district, 312
Virma, 05
Vitim goldfields, 275,
282, 280
Vitim plateau, 27
Vitim R., 351
Vitimsk district, 54, 311
Vladimir, 210
Vladimir Bay, 273
Vladivostok, 27, 312
climate, 30, 32, 37,
38
communications,
319, 329-331.
333, 340, 347
history, 303
industry, 79, 83,
243, 270
minerals, 274, 291
trade, 82, 252, 208,
270
Voguls, 130, 137
Volcanoes, 18
Vologda, 352
Volosts, 310
Volshaya R., 284
Voriema R., 332
Voronov, 332
Votyaks, 137
Vyatka-Kotlas Rail-
way, 353
Vyerni, 331
W
Weights and measures,
300-308
Whales, 60
White Sea, 35, 04, 305-
307, 332
Winds, 31
Wireless telegraphs, 332-
333
Y
Yablonoi Mts., 19, 345
Yakuts, 115, 163-108,
225
Yakutsk :
administration, 312
agriculture, 244
climate, 29, 37
communications.
3.-{< >
384
INDEX
history, 187, 359
industry, 299
minerals, 272
Yakutsk Province :
administration, 312
agriculture, 244,
247
colonization, 202
industry, 87
minerals, 285
stock-raising, 248,
250, 255
Yalutorovsk district, 31 1
Yamsk, 333
Yana R., 24, 43, 265
Yaroslav, 354
Yaya R., 343
Yekaterinburg, 188,
280,286,319,329,353
Yekaterinoslavka, 240
Yenisei R, 24, 25, 26
agriculture, 239,
246
colonization, 207
communications,
325, 326, 330,
343
fauna, 54, 61
fishories, 72-74
freezing, 43
history, 356
industry, 240
minerals, 272. 281,
287, 290, 291,
296
vegetation, 46, 265
Yenisei-Samoyedes, 148
Yeniseisk :
climate, 30, 31, 36
communications,
330, 354
history, 359
industry, 299
trade, 74, 89
Yeniseisk goldfields, 286
Yeniseisk Province :
administration,
309-311
agriculture, 246,
' 247
colonization, 201
industry, 86, 260,
264
minerals, 281, 288
stock-raising, 248,
25 1 , 253-255
Yermak, 187, 358, 359
Yevgenevka : see
Spasskaya
Yugan R., 86
Yugor Strait, 332
Yukaghir, 97, 113-117
Yuraks, 147
Yurga, 350
Z '
Zaisan, 301,331
Zaisan district, 232, 313
Zaisan L., 27, 67, 71,
234, 280
Zalara R., 43
Zavitaya R., 43, 256
Zeya district, 310
Zeya R. :
climate, 43
fauna, 54
freezing, 43
minerals, 275, 283
vegetation, 267
Zcya-Bureya plain, 241 .
242
Zeya-Pristan, 242, 267,
276, 283
Zhalinda R., 283
Zhigalovskaya, 354
Zhigansk, 296
Zima, 344
Zinc, 285
Zirians, 133-136
Ziryanovskoe silver-
mines, 285
Zmyeinogorsk, 257, 280,
285, 301
Zmyeinogorsk district,
252, 256, 311
Zvanka, 351
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