The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide

Triaglycerols

(Triglycerides) Storage form of fatty aids

-Glycerol + fatty acids

organelles

specialized structures in cytoplasm each with specific functions

-part of cell that carries on life processes

Organelles

Membrane enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells.

cytoplasm

anything between the plasma membrane and nucleus

Plasma Membrane

Outer boundary of the cell. Made of a phospholipid bilayer with integral proteins, peripheral proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins, and glycolipids. Acts as permeable barrier.

Plasma membrane

Bounds all cells by its' selective barrier.

Nucleus

houses most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA

surrounded by a double membrane

Nucleus

Surrounded by perforated nuclear envelope. Continues on with endoplasmic reticulum. Functions: houses chromosomes which are made of chromatin (DNA and proteins). Contains nucleoli.

Nuclear envelope

-Two membranes (four layers of phospholipids-Nuclear pores in the envelope control the passage of molecules. Large molecules such as proteins need a signal to pass through-Outer membrane joins with ER membrane

A tiny germ which contains genetic material. It may be either DNA or RNA and is surrounded by a protein coat and, in some viruses, by a membranous envelope. A virus can pass through bacteria-retaining filters. Unable to replicate outside of a living host cell.

Plant organelles that store and manufacture pigments used for photosynthesis( starch and/or lipids)

IKI

Solution used to detect starches

Pepsin

Enzyme found in the stomach. Breaks down proteins to amino acids.

bile

the fluid secreted by the liver that emulsifies fats and aids in their absorption

-Prokaryotic

-15mm thick

-Cell Wall

-No Nucleus

-Chloroplasts

-Eukaryotic

-220-770mm

-No Cell Wall

-Nucleus

-No Chloroplasts

-Eukaryotic

-Cell Wall

-Nucleus

-Chloroplasts

-Eukaryotic

-10-100mm

-Cell Wall

-Nucleus

-Chloroplasts

Parapet

When two solutions meet and react, a parapet between the two solutions will form

Rennin

An enzyme that is found in the stomach lining of calves and newborn babies where it's function is to solidify milk so that it remains in the stomach long enough to be digested by other enzymes. Substrate: Casein(Milk Protein)

Urease

Hydrolyses urea to ammonia. Substrate: Urea

Catalase

Converts hydrogen peroxide into water. Substrate: Hydrogen Peroxide

Chromatography

A technique that separates molecules from each other on the basis of their solubility in a particular solvent

Plant pigments on Chromatography Paper

Carotene-Orange/Yellow

Xanthophyll-Yellow

Chlorophyll a-Light Green

Chlorophyll b- Dark Green

Rf Value

Distance Solute/ Distance Solvent

Spectrophotometer Calibration

Use a "blank" containing acetone. The solution to be measured is placed in a cuvette and inserted into the top of the spectrophotometer

Metabolism

the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.

Catabolic Pathway

Release the energy stored in complex molecules through the breakdown of these molecules into simpler compounds.

Is the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell

Exergonic Reaction

Proceeds with a net release of free energy(spontaneous)

Endergonic Reaction

Absorbs free energy from it's surroundings

Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion, of matter that is moving

Potential Energy

The capacity of matter to cause change as a consequence of it's location or arrangement

Thermodynamics

The study of energy transformations in a collection of matter

First law of Thermodynamics

States that energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

entropy

a measure of disorder;

one form of disorder is heat. which is random molecular motion

Law of Thermodynamics: Second Law

Whenever energy changes forms some is lost to the environment as low-quality energy (lost as heat). Entropy (disorder) tends to increase in all natural systems; always less useful energy available when you finish a process

adenosine triphosphate; adenosine and ribose with 3 phosphate groups; transfers a phosphate group and energy to other molecules

Enzyme

Biological catalysts that speed the rate of a reaction but are unchanged by the reaction

Induced Fit

Enhances the ability of the enzyme to catalyze the chemical reaction

Cofactor

Small molecules that bind either permanently or reversibly with enzymes and are necessary for enzyme function (Inorganic)

Coenzyme

An organic Cofactor

Apoenzyme

a protein that forms an active enzyme system by combination with a coenzyme and determines the specificity of this system for a substrate

Holoenzyme

An active, complex enzyme consisting of an apoenzyme and a coenzyme.

Competitive enzyme inhibitor

Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Bind to a part of the enzyme separate from the active site and impede enzyme action by changing the shape of the enzyme

Allosteric Regulation

Molecules that may inhibit or activate enzyme activity when they bind to a site seperate from the active site

Feedback Inhibition

A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway

Fermentation

Partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation is the metabolic pathway in which the mitochondria in cells use their structure, enzymes, and energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to reform ATP

Substrate-level phosphorylation

a type of metabolic reaction that results in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by the direct transfer and donation of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to adenosine diphosphate(ADP) or guanosine diphosphate (GDP) from a phosphorylated reactive intermediate

Roles of Cell Reproduction

Reproduction, growth, repair

Autosome

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

Centromere

A region containing specific DNA sequences where the chromatid is attached most closely to it's sister chromatid

Diploid

(of a cell or nucleus) containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Haploid

(of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.

homologous chromosomes

members of a chromosome pair that contain the same genes and that pair up during meiosis

Karyotype

the number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species.

Sex chromosome

a chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds.

Sister chromatid

Joined copies of the original chromosome (each containing an identical DNA molecule attached by cohesions)

Mitotic (M) Phase

Includes both mitosis and cytokinesis(usually the shortest part of the cell cycle)

the first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The first prophase of meiosis includes the reduction division.

Anaphase

the stage of meiotic or mitotic cell division in which the chromosomes move away from one another to opposite poles of the spindle.

Telophase

the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.

Cytokinesis

the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.

Mitotic Spindle

Begins to form in the cytoplasm during prophase. This structure consists of fibers made of microtubules and associated proteins

Aster

a radical array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome.

Cytokinesis in plants

plant cells have walls, so cytokinesis cannot proceed with a cleavage furrow. instead, a cell plate forms across the cell in the location of the old metaphase plate

Cytokinesis in Animals

the daughter cells pinch into 2 new cells(creating a furrow that as it narrows spindle fibers are condenced into a stem body and is eventually cut in 2 as the cell membranes fuse together)

G1, G2, M checkpoints

Several key checkpoints where “go ahead” signals must be received in order for the cycle to progress to the next phase

Cyclins

In eukaryotic cells, a class of proteins that are synthesized and degraded in synchrony with the cell cycle and regulate passage through stages of the cycle

Cyclin-dependant kinases

are a family of proteinkinases first discovered for their role in regulating the cell cycle. They are also involved in regulating transcription, mRNA processing, and the differentiation of nerve cells.

M-Phase Factor

abbreviated MPF, also called mitosis-promoting factor or M-Phase-promoting factor) is a heterodimericprotein composed of cyclin B and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK1, also known as Cdc2 or p34 kinase) that stimulates the mitoticand meiotic phases of the cell cycle. MPF promotes the entrance into mitosis (the M phase) from the G2 phase by phosphorylating multiple proteins needed during mitosis. MPF is activated at the end of G2 by a phosphatase, which removes an inhibitory phosphate group added earlier.

Growth Factors

A protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide

Loss of Cell cycle results in?

Cancer cells, Transformation, Tumors

Asexual reproduction

A single individual is the sole parent and passes copies of all its genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes

Sexual Reproduction

Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents

Meiosis occurs in what type of cells?

Reproductive Cells(Gametes)

Crossing Over

A genetic rearrangement between non sister chromatids involving the exchange of corresponding segments of DNA molecules, begins during pairing and synaptonemal complex formation, and is completed while homologs are in synapsis. (Prophase 1)

Consequences of crossing over

Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.

Allele

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.

Carrier

A person who has one recessive allele and one dominant allele for a trait, but doesn't have the trait.

Character

A heritable feature that varies among individuals, such as flower color

Dihybrid Cross

In contrast to a monohybrid cross, a dihybrid cross is a cross between F1 offspring (first-generation offspring) of two individuals that differ in two traits of particular interest.

Genotype

Genetic make-up

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a gene

Homozygous

An organism that has a pair of identical alleles for a character

Locus

n genetics, a locus (plural loci) is the specific location of a gene or DNA sequence or position on a chromosome. Each chromosome carries many genes; humans' estimated 'haploid' protein coding genes are 20,000-25,000, on the 23 different chromosomes. A variant of the similar DNA sequence located at a given locus is called an allele. The ordered list of loci known for a particular genome is called a genetic map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the locus for a particular biological trait.

Monohybrid cross

A monohybrid cross is a mating between individuals who have different alleles at one genetic locus of interest. The character(s) being studied in a monohybrid cross are governed by two alleles for a single locus.

Phenotype

An organism's appearance or observable traits

Trait

A variant for a character(Purple flower, white flower)

True-breeding

True breeding organism. A true breeding organism, sometimes also called a pure-bred, is an organism that always passes down a certain phenotypic trait to its offspring.

Mendel's Law of Segregation

States that genes have alternative forms or alleles. In a diploid organism, the two alleles of a gene segregate during meiosis and gamete formation; each sperm or egg carries only one allele of each pair. This law explains the 3:1 ratio of F2 phenotypes observed when monohybrids self-pollinate. Each organism inherits one allele for each gene from each parent.

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

States that the pair of alleles for a given gene segregates into gametes independently of the pair of alleles for any other gene. In a cross between dihybrids the offspring have four phenotypes in a 9:3:3:1 ratio.

Punnett Square

A diagrammatic device for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup

Pleiotropy

Refers to an allele which has more than one effect on the phenotype (Responsible for certain diseases)

Epistasis

the interaction of genes that are not alleles, in particular the suppression of the effect of one such gene by another.

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along chromosomes and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortmen

a small, densely staining structure in the cell nuclei of female mammals, consisting of a condensed, inactive X chromosome. It is regarded as diagnostic of genetic femaleness.

parental phenotypes

when the offspring of 2 parents look like one of the 2 parents

recombinant phenotype

New combination of traits as a result of a dihybrid cross, often as a result of crossing over

Nondisjunction

the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.

Types of alterations of chromosome structures

Deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations

Human conditions caused by alterations of chromosome structure

Cry of the cat, Chronic myelogenous leukemia, Philadelphia chromosome

Chargaff's Rules

Chargaff's rules state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio (base Pair Rule) of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine is equal tocytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine. This pattern is found in both strands of the DNA.

Difference between DNA and RNA

The main difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar present in the molecules. While the sugar present in an RNA molecule is ribose, the sugar present in a molecule of DNA is deoxyribose. Deoxyribose is the same as ribose, except that the former has one more OH.

DNA binding proteins

are proteins that are composed of DNA-binding domains and thus have a specific or general affinity for either single or double stranded DNA. Sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins generally interact with the major groove of B-DNA, because it exposes more functional groups that identify a base pair.

DNA ligase

Joins the sugar-phosphate backbones of all the okazaki fragments into a continuous DNA strand

DNA polymerase 1

DNA polymerase I synthesizes new DNA by adding nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction of the strand being synthesized and 3->5 of the template strand.

DNA Polymerase 3

Adds DNA nucleotides, detaching when it reaches the fragment 1 primer

Helicases

Enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands

Okazaki Fragments

fragments replicated on the lagging strand; new pieces of DNA

Primase

Synthesizes RNA primers, using the parental DNA as a template

Replication Fork

A y-shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound

RNA polymerase

Catalyze the synthesis of new DNA by adding nucleotides to a preexisting chain

RNA primer

is a strand of nucleic acid that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis

Single-strand binding protein

Bind to the unpaired DNA strands, keeping them from re-pairing

Topoisomerase

Breaks, swivels, and rejoins the parental DNA ahead of the replication fork, relieving the strain caused by unwinding

Has ribosomes on surface, these produce secretory proteins like glycoproteins which have carbs covalently bonded to them

Rough ER

Proteins intended for secretion are made by membrane bound ribosomes. Also manufactures membranes. Enzymes built into membrane assemble phospholipids and membrane proteins formed by bound ribosomes are inserted into the ER membrane.

Specialized peroxisomes found in fat storing tissues of plant seeds to convert fat to sugar for the growing seedling's energy

Flagella and cilia

Help with movement - flagella move like a fish tail -cilia move like oars

Carbohydrates

Include sugars and polymers of sugars, and also polysaccharides (polymers made of many sugars)

Glucose monomers in starch

Joined by 1-4 glycosidic linkages which means the #1 carbon of one glucose links to the #4 of another.

Sucrose

A disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose

Cellulose

A polysaccharide that is a part of cell walled polymer of glucose but linkages are different, form a beta configuration (alternating compared to alpha in starch that has OH only on the bottom) Never branched, Good for digestion in animals as a roughage

Unsaturated fatty acids

One or more double bonds due to not being saturated with hydrogen -from plants

Fats

Constructed from glycerol and fatty acids joined by ester linkage. Triaglycrtol is the resulting fat formed from one glycerol and three fatty acids

Trans fats

Formed by hydrogenation of vegetable oils - are unsaturated fats with double bonds

-glycoproteins are membrane carbs covalently bonded to proteins ON EXTRACELLULAR SIDE

Ex of reflected variation: blood types

Transport proteins

Allow for hydrophilic substances to pass through bilayer. -channel proteins have a hydrophilic channel as a tunnel, controlled by aquaporins that allow entry of water -carrier proteins hold onto their packages and carry then across the membrane

Tonicity (cells without walls)

Possibility for a cell to gain or lose water

Isotonic

No net movement of water across the membrane

Hypertonic solution

Cell shrivels as it loses water to the solution -Ie increases salinity kills animals in a lake

Hypotonic solution

Cell will lyse and burst like an overfilled balloon

Osmoregulation

Control of solute concentrations and water balance

Water Balance of plant cells

-as water enters, it will expand until it exerts a back (turgor) pressure to become turgid -if isotonic, the cells become flaccid -in a hypertonic solution, the cell will shrink as part if plasmolysis

Facilitated diffusion

Polar molecules and ions diffuse passively with the help of transport proteins -passive as it requires no energy. Speeds transport of a solute by providing efficient passage through the membrane

Ion channels

Channel proteins that transport ions -serve as gated channels that respond to stimuli

Photosynthesis

Light energy of the sun converted into chemical energy stored in organic molecules

Is a redox process

Autotrophs

Feed themselves -make their own organic molecules from inorganic raw materials -producers if the biosphere, include plants, algae, some Prokaryotes

Isolated molecules emit photons of light called fluorescence as their electrons return to ground state

Chlorophyll a

Pigment that participates directly in light reactions, absorbs violet blue and red best

Chlorophyll b

Accessory pigment, broaden the spectrum of colors

Photosynthesis reaction

6co2 + 6h2o + light energy -> c6h12o6 + 6o2

Light reactions

Solar energy converted to chemical energy, ATP

Calvin cycle

Co2 is incorporated into existing organic compounds by carbon fixation These compounds are reduced to form carbohydrates Energy for the cycle provided by ATP and NADPH

Visible light spectrum

380-760 nm

Carotenoids

Accessory pigment, function on photo protection by absorbing excessive light energy that could damage chlorophyll or make reactive molecules with oxygen

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