Life[edit]
PyrrhoPyrrho of
ElisElis is estimated to have lived from around 365-360 BC until
275-270 BC.[2]
PyrrhoPyrrho was from Elis, on the Ionian Sea. Diogenes
Laërtius, quoting from Apollodorus of Athens, says that
PyrrhoPyrrho was at
first a painter, and that pictures by him were exhibited in the
gymnasium at Elis. Later he was diverted to philosophy by the works of
Democritus, and according to
DiogenesDiogenes Laertius became acquainted with
the Megarian dialectic through Bryson, pupil of Stilpo.[3]
While little is known for certain about Pyrrho’s philosophy and
life, his primary influencers were most likely early philosophers
whose work focused on the indeterminacy of the world, such as Plato
and the Eleatics.[2] It is thought that he was taught by
Anaxarchus of
Abdera, and was also influenced by
Eastern philosophyEastern philosophy he encountered
on a trip to
IndiaIndia with Alexander the Great.[4]
DiogenesDiogenes reports that Pyrrho, along with Anaxarchus, travelled with
Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great on his exploration of the East, 'so that he even
went as far as the
GymnosophistsGymnosophists in
IndiaIndia and the Magi' in Persia.
This exposure to
Eastern philosophyEastern philosophy seems to have inspired him to
adopt a life of solitude; returning to Elis, he lived in poor
circumstances, but was highly honored by the Elians and also by the
Athenians, who conferred upon him the rights of citizenship.[3]
PyrrhoPyrrho wrote nothing. His doctrines were recorded in the writings of
his pupil Timon of Phlius. Unfortunately these works are mostly lost.
Today Pyrrho's ideas are known mainly through the book Outlines of
Pyrrhonism written by Sextus Empiricus.[3]
Sources on Pyrrho[edit]
PyrrhoPyrrho did not produce any written work detailing his philosophical
principles.[4] Most of the information on Pyrrho’s principles comes
from his most notable follower, Timon of Phlius, whose summary of
Pyrrho's teachings are preserved in the Aristocles passage.[4]
However, there are conflicting interpretations of the ideas presented
in this passage, each of which leads to a different conclusion as to
what
PyrrhoPyrrho meant.[4]
Most biographical information on Pyrrho, as well as some information
concerning his demeanor and behavior, come from the works of mid-third
century BC biographer Antigonus of Carystus.[4] Biographical anecdotes
from
DiogenesDiogenes Laertius are also frequently cited; his work on Pyrrho's
life drew primarily from Antigonus' accounts.[4]
Philosophy[edit]
As
PyrrhoPyrrho left no written teachings, the exact details of his
philosophy are uncertain. Most sources agree that the primary goal of
Pyrrho’s philosophy was the achievement of a state of ataraxia,[4]
or freedom from worry,[2] and that he observed that ataraxia could be
brought about by eschewing beliefs about thoughts and perceptions.
However, Pyrrho’s own philosophy may have differed significantly
from the later Pyrrhonists.[2] Most interpretations of the information
on Pyrrho’s philosophy suggest that he claimed that reality is
inherently indeterminate, which, in the view of
Pyrrhonism described
by Sextus Empiricus, would be considered a negative dogmatic
belief.[2]
A summary of Pyrrho's philosophy was preserved by Eusebius, quoting
Aristocles, quoting Timon, in what is known as the "Aristocles
passage."

"Whoever wants to live well (eudaimonia) must consider these three
questions: First, how are pragmata (ethical matters, affairs, topics)
by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them?
Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?"
Pyrrho's answer is that "As for pragmata they are all adiaphora
(undifferentiated by a logical differentia), astathmēta (unstable,
unbalanced, not measurable), and anepikrita (unjudged, unfixed,
undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our doxai
(views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly
should not rely on them. Rather, we should be adoxastous (without
views), aklineis (uninclined toward this side or that), and
akradantous (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every
single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not
or it neither is nor is not.[5]

The main principle of Pyrrho's thought is expressed by the word
acatalepsia, which connotes the ability to withhold assent from
doctrines regarding the truth of things in their own nature; against
every statement its contradiction may be advanced with equal
justification.[3]
Pyrrhonism[edit]
It is uncertain whether
Pyrrhonism was a small but continuous movement
in antiquity, or whether it died out and was revived. Regardless,
several centuries after
PyrrhoPyrrho lived,
Aenesidemus lead a revival of
the philosophy.
Pyrrhonism was one of the two major schools of
skeptical thought that emerged during the Hellenistic period, the
other being Academic skepticism.[6]
Aenesidemus developed ten arguments to be used as justification for
suspending all judgement on the true nature of things.[7] A further
set of five arguments was developed by Agrippa the Skeptic.[7] These
arguments, as well as several other sets of tropes used as
justification for suspending judgement, are presented in the texts of
Sextus Empiricus, whose works contain the most detailed surviving
account of Pyrrhonist practice.[6]
Pyrrhonists view their philosophy as a way of life, and view
PyrrhoPyrrho as
a model for this way of life. Their main goal is to cure suffering and
unhappiness through achieving suspension of judgment.[7] One method
Pyrrhonists use to suspend judgment is to gather arguments on both
sides of the disputed issue, continuing to gather arguments such that
the arguments have the property of isostheneia (equal strength). This
leads the Pyrrhonist to the conclusion that there is an unresolvable
disagreement on the topic, and so the appropriate reaction is to
suspend judgement on the topic. The Pyrrhonist develops suspension of
judgment as a habitual response to all matters of dispute, achieving a
state of “epoche” – a general suspension of judgement about the
real nature of things. Reaching epoche results in ataraxia, or freedom
of worry, which relieves the practitioner of the causes of
unhappiness.[2]
Pyrrhonism flourished among members of the
Empiric school of medicine,
where it was seen as the philosophic foundation to their approach to
medicine, which was opposed to the approach of the
Dogmatic schoolDogmatic school of
medicine.
Pyrrhonism fell into obscurity in the post-Hellenic
period.[6]
Pyrrhonism has three styles of practice, or types of practitioners.
These are the ephectic (a "suspension of judgment"), zetetic ("engaged
in seeking"), and aporetic ("engaged in refutation").[8]
Indian influences on Pyrrho[edit]
DiogenesDiogenes Laertius' biography of Pyrrho[9] reports that
PyrrhoPyrrho traveled
with Alexander the Great's army to
IndiaIndia and based his philosophy on
what he learned there:

...he even went as far as the Gymnosophists, in India, and the Magi.
Owing to which circumstance, he seems to have taken a noble line in
philosophy, introducing the doctrine of incomprehensibility, and of
the necessity of suspending one's judgment....

The sources and the extent of the Indian influences on Pyrrho's
philosophy, however, are disputed. Elements of scepticism were already
present in Greek philosophy, particularly in the Democritean tradition
in which
PyrrhoPyrrho had studied prior to visiting India.
Pyrrhonism was a
logical extension of these, requiring no exogenous influences. Richard
Bett heavily discounts any substantive Indian influences on Pyrrho,
arguing that on the basis of testimony of
OnesicritusOnesicritus regarding how
difficult it was to converse with the gymnosophists, as it required
three translators, none of whom understood any philosophy, that it is
highly improbable that
PyrrhoPyrrho could have been substantively influenced
by any of the Indian philosophers.[10]
According to Christopher I. Beckwith's analysis of the Aristocles
Passage, adiaphora, astathmēta, and anepikrita are strikingly similar
to the Buddhist Three marks of existence,[11] indicating that Pyrrho's
teaching is based on Buddhism. Beckwith disputes Bett's argument about
the translators, as the other reports of using translators in India,
involving
Alexander the GreatAlexander the Great and Nearchus, say they needed only one
interpreter, and
OnesicritusOnesicritus was criticized by other writers in
antiquity for exaggerating. Besides,
PyrrhoPyrrho spent about 18 months in
India, which is long enough to learn a foreign language.[12]
It has been hypothesized that the gymnosophists were Jains, or
Ajnanins ,[13][14][15] and that these are likely influences on
Pyrrho.[13]
Influence[edit]
Pyrrhonism regained prominence in the late fifteenth century.[6] The
publication of the works of
Sextus EmpiricusSextus Empiricus played a major role in
Renaissance and Reformation thought. Philosophers of the time used his
works to source their arguments on how to deal with the religious
issues of their day.
Girolamo SavonarolaGirolamo Savonarola was one of the first thinkers
to apply Pyrrhonist reasoning to the defense of true religion. Major
philosophers such as Michel de Montaigne, Marin Mersenne, and Pierre
Gassendi later drew on the model of
Pyrrhonism outlined in Sextus
Empiricus’ works for their own arguments. This resurgence of
Pyrrhonism has been called the beginning of modern philosophy.[6]
Pyrrhonism also affected the development of historiography. Historical
Pyrrhonism emerged during the early modern peiord and played a
significant role in shaping modern historiography. Historical
Pyrrhonism questioned the possibility of any absolute knowledge from
the past and transformed later historian's selection of and standard
for reliable sources.[16]
See also[edit]