THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TREATMENT FOR DRUG ABUSE

Transcription

1 Chapter 4 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TREATMENT FOR DRUG ABUSE INTRODUCTION This chapter examines the effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse and dependence as a first step in examining its role in preventing the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (see ch. 1). This chapter begins with an overview of the natural history of drug abuse, particularly with respect to heroin abusers. Next a discussion of the major methodological problems in examining the effectiveness of drug abuse treatment is presented. The core of the chapter describes the results from major studies and addresses other issues related to treatment for drug abuse. NATURAL HISTORY OF DRUG ABUSE Overview of Drug Abuse Careers Drug abuse is a complex, multidimensional, chronic condition. Several theoretical models have been proposed to explain the causes of drug abuse (13,169,367). They range from theories of genetic predisposition and metabolic deficiencies to theories based on psychoanalytic principles and social learning. The lack of agreement on a single cause of drug abuse has been likened to Voltaire s saying that, A long dispute means that both parties are wrong. It might be more appropriate, however, to conclude that both parties are right. The empirical evidence does not exclusively support one model over the others, but rather suggests that elements from all the models play a role in the initiation and maintenance of abusive behavior. The enormity of the problem lies, in part, in the fact that drug abuse is a condition that has a long course, in most cases lasting a decade or more. A simple framework highlights the necessary ingredients in the making of a drug abuser, namely a susceptible person, an abusable drug, and some mechanism to bring the two together (169). These three factors interact during the whole course of drug abuse. Multiple paths lead in and out of this career, which is characterized by four stages: initiation, maintenance, cessation, and relapse (65,158,267,268). Findings of a landmark study on drug abuse showed that the average length of time from first use to last daily opiate use was almost 10 years, and that over the course of a 12-year followup, over two-thirds of clients had relapsed one or more times to daily opiate use (157,267,268). Individual susceptibility to relapsing into drug use is at the core of this cycle and can be explained by a variety of factors that may interact or operate independently (169). These factors may stem from biological, psychological, or socioeconomic conditions, and their roles may vary during the different stages of the abuse career. Not everyone who experiments with drugs will become a casual user, and not all casual users will escalate into full-fledged abuse or dependence (addiction) (13,104). Abuse refers to a pattern of use that results in harm to the user; the user continues use despite adverse consequences. Dependence, on the other hand, is characterized by compulsive behavior and the active pursuit of a lifestyle that centers around searching for, obtaining, and using the drug. Dependence refers to the most severe state in the drug-use spectrum; the patterns of use of psychoactive substances range from experimental, occasional, and recreational use to abuse and to compulsive use, which characterizes dependence. Although treatment is intended for those dependent on drugs, the term drug abuse as used in this report encompasses both abuse and dependence. Not all substances have the same potential for dependence, and individual biological differences may affect whether particular individuals become dependent on a drug. There is inadequate research to determine precisely the likelihood that a casual user will become addicted to various substances. Some experts hypothesize that upper estimates may be 1 out of 10 persons for alcohol or marijuana, about 3 to 5 out of 10 persons for intranasal use of cocaine and about 8 to 9 out of 10 for those who smoke or inject heroin or cocaine or smoke crack (169). -59-

2 60- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for ControllingAIDS/HIV Infection The emerging consensus with respect to cessation of daily opiate use is that it is not simply a direct result of growing older or maturing out of abuse (267,268). Detailed and long-term followup studies with regard to cocaine are not available. Overall, however, it appears that the process of phasing out drugs is a function of a wide range of factors that also play a role in an abuser s decision to seek treatment. A threshold point usually arrives when the negative consequences of drug abuse outweigh the rewards derived from drug use (169,267). Previous treatment episodes, criminal justice involvement, life events, and other social conditions may converge towards slowing, or completely discontinuing drug use (11). Natural history studies are extremely helpful in gaining insight and understanding the course of drug abuse. Clearly there is a need for more such studies, especially with regard to cocaine abuse and its routes of administration. In general, according to the Office of the National Drug Control Strategy, not everyone who has a serious drug problem, defined as using drugs at least 200 times in the preceding 12 months, will require formal treatment to overcome the problem (104). Some (perhaps one out of four such users) may be able to overcome their drug problems with their own psychological resources and the help of friends, clergy, and other support groups (104). Drug treatment is intended mainly for people who are drug dependent (238). Because of the chronic relapsing nature of drug abuse, however, a single treatment episode will usually be insufficient; an individual may require multiple courses of treatment to move towards recovery (149,201). Several studies have examined the course of drug abuse careers. Most of them, however, are over 20 years old and may not reflect current patterns. The majority studied samples of predominantly heroin abusers who received treatment for drug problems that in most of the cases started before 1%0 (268). Similar studies are not available for those who abuse cocaine. Some of the reported studies on heroin use suffer from a variety of methodological problems, including presenting the findings in general descriptive form and rarely employing sophisticated quantitative analyses, such as multivariate analysis (268). Heroin Abuse Overall, these long-term followup studies have showed a trend towards reduced narcotic use and increased abstinence with the passage of time (197,268). Vaillant summarized the results from several American and European studies of heroin abusers who were hospitalized to be treated for their heroin abuse. He concluded that following initial hospital treatment, 10 percent of the narcotic abusers would never relapse, another 15 percent would be abstinent by the fifth year after treatment, and an additional 15 percent would be abstinent by the tenth year (352). Vaillant also claimed that almost 50 percent of narcotic abusers who achieve abstinence for one year would eventually relapse. Based on an 18-year follow-up of treated heroin abusers, Vaillant estimated that the annual recovery rate is 2 percent (352). Thus, the 10-year recovery rate ranged from 22 to 40 percent, depending on which study was used to derive the estimate. One should keep in mind, however, that these studies are over 20 years old and may not reflect current characteristics of drug users and patterns of drug use (e.g., use of multiple drugs) (203). In contrast to the above studies, which examined the course of treated abusers, Waldorf and Biernacki studied the natural recovery from opiate abuse. They analyzed data from a non-random sample of 142 former heroin abusers (355,356). Half had been treated before, and half had never received formal treatment. The two samples were matched by age, sex, and race. There were no major differences found between the two samples with respect to background variables that reflected the extent of drug abuse, work experience, and education. Although there were no differences in the variables that measured motivation, more heroin abusers in the treated sample than the untreated sample established new relationships (71 percent v percent, respectively) and used social services, which may reflect referrals from the treatment centers. In-depth interviews revealed three distinct lifestyles of opiate abusers: the street abuser, the middle-class abuser, and the situational abuser. In contrast to the other two types, the situational abuser uses drugs in certain occasions depending on availability and has not developed the stereotype lifestyle or philosophy associated with drug use. Overall, six different patterns

3 Chapter 4--The Effectiveness of Treatment for Drug Abuse -61 of recovery were identified in their sample: 1) developmental change, which is basically maturation; 2) conversion to a spiritual, religious, or ideological group; 3) behavioral change as a result of environmental changes; 4) maintenance of the lifestyle, but cessation of drug use; 5) occurrence of alcoholism or mental illness; and 6) drifting into the mainstream of society. Cocaine Abuse Cocaine use is characterized by a binge pattern (241). Cocaine may be used continuously until either physiological exhaustion occurs or the drug or money is depleted. Following a binge, users go through several well-defined stages; relapse may occur at any time. Initial depression and high cocaine craving followed by a clinical syndrome resembling a retarded depression characterize the post-cocaine crash, which lasts up to 4 days. Next comes a withdrawal phase, lasting up to 10 weeks, which is characterized by initial euphoria and a false sense of control followed by increased cocaine craving and an associated syndrome characterized by anhedonia and dysphoria. 1 During the third stage of abstinence, the subject returns to normal mood; however, occasional craving for cocaine may be triggered by myriad conditional cues reflecting the extremely reinforcing nature of cocaine. A potential for relapse continues as long as conditioned cues exist to produce craving (114,116). The natural history of cocaine abuse has not been extensively studied. Thus, knowledge about how the course of cocaine abuse may differ between treated and untreated individuals and according to the route of the drug s administration is limited. A recent study shed some light on cocaine abusers who enter treatment. The study examined the pre-treatment natural history of cocaine abuse in 285 male veterans who were admitted during 1988 and 1989 to the Veterans Administration (VA) Medical Center in Los Angeles (165). The investigators examined the 1 Anhedonia is the absence of feelings of pleasure in acts that normally give pleasure, Dysthymia is an emotional state with depression of less intense degree than seen in manic-depressive disorders. period between first cocaine use and entry into treatment. The majority of the study subjects (95 percent) were entering treatment for the first time. The mean age of first cocaine use for this group was 24, and the average total time from first cocaine use to treatment entry was 11.5 years (165). Intranasal cocaine and crack were the most prevalent forms of cocaine use (74 and 72 percent, respectively), with subjects reporting more than one route of administration. It was observed, however, that from first use to treatment entry and as subjects approached treatment, crack use increased and shifted from intranasal use and other routes of administration to crack smoking. Four patterns of progression in cocaine use were identified: mild-moderate-severe, mild-severe, moderate-severe, and instantly severe (165). Fortyfour percent of the sample reported that they started cocaine use at a mild level and subsequently engaged in severe use. An additional 30 percent started instantly with severe use; 17 percent was classified into the mild-moderate-severe group; and the remaining 10 percent started with moderate use that was followed by severe use. The results indicated that although the majority of cocaine abusers were able to maintain mild use for a considerable length of time, once they engaged in a level of moderate use, they escalated fairly rapidly to severe use. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN THE EVALUATION OF TREATMENT EFFECTIVENESS Evaluation research involving human behavior poses great difficulties. The core of the problem lies in the difficulty of establishing a causal relationship between the intervention (e.g., treatment for drug abuse) and the observed outcome (e.g., reduction in drug use or criminal activity). Ideally, in an experimental setting the scientist can control relevant conditions that may affect the outcome, thus making the link between cause and effect easier to establish. This is not always the ease with human subjects; the investigator may be either unaware of or unable to control all extraneous factors that relate to the intervention and the outcome. Such factors may distort the observed findings and make the connection between treatment and observed outcome less clear.

4 62- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for Controlling AIDS/HIV Infection The main objective of evaluation research is to analyze whether there is a causal link between an intervention and an observed outcome. First and foremost, causal interpretation relies on the premise that in the absence of the intervention (treatment), the treated would have had the same outcomes as the untreated. Second, in the event of an observed treatment effect, the aim is to identify the factors that may have caused this effect. In study design, the primary concern is to ensure the internal and external validity of a particular study. Internal validity has been described as the sine qua non of causal inference (63). It refers to the likelihood that an observed outcome can be attributed to the specific intervention and not to some extraneous factor. External validity, on the other hand, refers to the generalizeability of the observed results to different settings and populations. It is concerned with the issue of whether the inference drawn from the actual subjects of the study may also be applied to people outside the study population. Biases in the design and implementation stages of a study may seriously threaten internal validity. These biases, which have particular relevance to the evaluation of treatment for drug abuse, fall into three main categories: selection bias, information bias, and confounding factors (249). Selection bias refers to any recognized or unrecognized, measured or unmeasured correlates of the study subjects that influence the probability of their being part of the study or choosing a specific treatment intervention and that may also influence the treatment outcome. Strong personal motivation to enter treatment combined with self-selection into a particular modality or facility is a predominant example. Special elements in this category with direct relevance to the treatment of drug abuse are factors relating to the history (specific events occurring during the course of drug abuse) and maturation (possible biological and psychological processes and changes within subjects during the course of drug abuse) of subjects. These factors affect the natural history of the condition. In addition, they may either directly or indirectly influence both the decision to seek treatment and the outcome of treatment. Information bias refers to any distortion in the process of getting the necessary information to evaluate the effect of the intervention. For example, researchers may perform a more aggressive and probing interview for only some of the subjects or may extract outcome information from available records that are incomplete or unavailable for all the subjects. Lastly, confounding refers to the distortion of the findings by any extraneous factor other than selfselection that is related to the treatment and is also predictive of the outcome. An example is a low, ineffective dose of methadone. Reduction of opiate use is related to adequate methadone dose, usually higher than 60 mg per day (257). On the other hand, in many methadone clinics the mean average dose is well below 60 mg (see section on methadone maintenance below) (299). Thus, results from evaluation studies that do not control for daily methadone dose may inaccurately suggest that methadone is ineffective. Problems relating to the feasibility of various study designs and the assessment and measurement of treatment and its outcomes are additional hurdles in evaluating the effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse. Treatment outcomes may also be influenced by a variety of intrapersonal, social, and environmental factors. Study Design The ideal experimental study of the effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse would use a random sample of all drug abusers randomly assigned to the various treatment modalities. Random assignment would improve internal validity by equally distributing or at least having minimum variation in, those extraneous factors that may affect the validity of the comparisons among different groups. Random sampling would improve external validity by generating a representative sample of all abusers. The nature of drug abuse often makes such a study difficult. Drug use is an illicit behavior, and drug abusers are a heterogeneous group with multiple personal and social problems. Identifying all

5 Chapter 4--The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -63 drug abusers to draw a representative sample, gaining their cooperation, and sustaining their commitment to treatment may not be realistic goals. Whether a sample of drug abusers is representative, however, bears on the generalizability of the results, not on the internal validity of the study and not on the immediate question of treatment effectiveness. On the other hand, even if a non-representative group is willing to enter treatment, the ability to assess a treatment s effectiveness is compromised if drug abusers refuse to enter the treatment modalities assigned. When an experimental design is not a feasible option, the best alternative is the quasi-experimental design, which is based on epidemiologic principles and observational research. It should be stressed, however, that the further removed the design is from the sound principles of experimental research, the harder it is to establish a causal link between treatment and outcome. Epidemiologic studies try to simulate as much as possible the setting of an experimental design. Although the investigator does not have control over all of the relevant variables and circumstances, partial control can be accomplished through careful identification, documentation, and measurement of the known relevant factors that may influence the outcome. The essence of the situation, however, is that when non-equivalent groups are studied, biases are more likely to occur. It thus becomes harder to separate the effect of treatment from the effect of those factors that are associated with the initial non-comparability of the study groups. Prospective studies usually offer a more complete picture of treatment effectiveness than retrospective studies. Although a prospective design has the potential to eliminate some major sources of bias, it is not trouble-free. For example, adherence to the study protocol is essential to ensure that it was the intended treatment that produced the observed findings. Another problem that can seriously hamper interpretation is the attrition of patients during treatment and followup. If, for example, the patients who drop out of treatment early or who are harder to locate afterwards are those who were resistant to treatment and poorly motivated, then the results would tend to overestimate the impact of treatment. Another critical issue is whether direct comparisons may be made among the different modalities with regard to their effectiveness. There is considerable evidence that the various modalities attract different client groups (128,149). This heterogeneity in the baseline population can compromise the comparative interpretation of any differences, since they may involve non-comparable groups. The majority of treatment effectiveness studies use a quasi-experimental research design. Randomization among drug abuse treatment modalities has been employed in two studies. One randomized patients to methadone maintenance or residential treatment, yet produced results that were hard to interpret because of poor adherence to the study design (19). The other, a randomized blinded study of methadone v. placebo, produced meaningful results (227). Randomized studies are more common in the evaluation of specific treatment components (59,140,202,375). Although earlier studies suffered from an abundance of methodological problems, considerable progress has occurred with advances in the measurement of variables, study design, and statistical analysis of the results. Definition of Treatment and Outcome The actual definition, measurement, and assessment of both treatments and outcomes pose additional challenges. Treatment for drug abuse is a process that occurs over a period of time. Multiple treatment episodes may be needed for improvement or abstinence from drug use. Defining the treatment period and deciding when to measure the results of treatment may greatly influence the results. For example, for methadone maintenance (whose goal is to reduce or eliminate heroin use while the patient is receiving methadone, measurement of outcomes has occurred during ongoing treatment; however, for therapeutic communities (whose goal is a drug-free lifestyle after treatment completion), outcome measurement has begun after the client has left or completed the program. Choice of followup time after treatment is also a challenge. Outcome estimation after l-year followup may more accurately

6 64- The Effectiveness of DrugAbuse Treatment: Implications for ControllingAIDS/HIV Infection reflect a treatment s impact than outcomes at longer followups, which may reflect a combination of the treatment s impact and other influences on the drug abuser s life (271). A critical issue is the use of subjective or objective measures in measuring the outcome of interest. Ideally, an experimental study would include objective measures of outcome that can be easily reproduced. Although someone would expect that self-reports of illegal behaviors, such as drug use or criminality, could severely compromise scientific studies by underreporting, at least for opiates, measurement research indicates strong agreement between addicts self reports and other sources of information on their opiate use, employment, and crime (202). Another expert review on measurement in drug abuse surveys concluded that an investigator through careful, thoughtful planning and use of creative procedures, should be able to collect acceptably reliable and valid data on the drug-using behavior of respondents in most populations (161). Caution, however, is warranted, and corroboration of self-reports with objective measures is always a desirable ingredient in drug abuse studies. The challenge of treatment effectiveness research is not only to establish whether any observed changes are attributed to the intervention but also to identify the most effective and most ineffective elements of treatment. Treatment consists of several components, such as drug education and counseling; urine testing; psychotherapy; medications; and educational, vocational, and other social support (13). Modalities also vary in the goals of treatment (most notably drug-free v. maintenance). Moreover, even within the same modality, there is variation in the provision and quality of services and the settings in which they are offered. Drug abuse is a disorder that affects many aspects of abusers lives and the society within which they function. This reality has certain implications for the objectives of drug abuse treatment. The first and foremost goal of drug treatment is cessation of illicit drug use. Also important are other outcomes, including a decrease in criminal activity, increase in social productivity, and improvements in mental and physical health (13). Defining and measuring these outcome categories further complicate the task of treatment evaluation. An additional factor in reviewing evidence of treatment effectiveness is the possibility of publication bias. To the extent that publications reject studies that report negative findings (no treatment effect), the published literature will overestimate treatment effectiveness. Summary In summary, the evaluation of drug abuse treatment poses significant challenges. Controlled experiments, although difficult to design and conduct, are increasingly becoming more common. A wide array of factors complicate the assessment of treatment effectiveness. The chronic relapsing pattern of drug abuse, the heterogeneous composition of the drug-abusing population, and the problems created by patient self-selection of treatment modalities are some of the problems researchers face. In addition, the difficulty of specifying often intangible treatment components, such as the overall profile of the program with the complex interactions of patient expectations and staffs abilities and attitudes, may further exacerbate the evaluators task (13). Improvements in study design and analysis are expected to strengthen the validity of research results. In the meantime, evaluations of adequately designed and implemented studies that provide consistent evidence may provide useful information for social policy. When one analyzes existing scientific knowledge on the effectiveness of treatment of drug abuse and its policy implications, it is useful to recall the words of Bradford Hill, one of the pioneers in establishing standard criteria for causal inference: All scientific work is incomplete-whether it be observational or experimental. All scientific work is liable to be upset or modified by advancing knowledge. That does not confer upon us a freedom to ignore the knowledge we already have, or to postpone the action that it appears to demand at a given time (142).

7 Chapter 4-The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -65 DARP AND TOPS: A DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO NATIONAL MULTIMODALITY STUDIES Much of the collective knowledge of treatment effectiveness, such as general characteristics of clients in the various modalities, the natural history of abuse, and factors related to treatment effectiveness, stems from two large federally-funded studies. The Drug Abuse Reporting Program (DARP) begun in 1%9 and the Treatment Outcome Prospective Study (TOPS) begun in 1979 examined different treatment modalities throughout the United States. Because of their significant contribution to the field of drug abuse research, these two studies are described in detail below. Drug Abuse Reporting Program (DARP) DARP, the first comprehensive large-scale evaluation project, was initiated in 1%9 as a national data collection system to evaluate community-based treatment centers (268). The need for such action arose after the treatment expansion that took place during the late 1960s. Funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and conducted by the Institute for Behavioral Research of the Texas Christian University, DARP provided valuable information on a substantial segment of the clients in publicly funded drug abuse treatment centers. DARP also documented changes over time in treatment clientele and drugs used. Between 1969 and 1974, approximately 44,000 clients in 52 treatment centers around the country were described and assessed (268). Standardized data collection instruments were used at client admission and bimonthly while clients were in treatment. These instruments measured client characteristics, type of drug used, alcohol consumption, productive activity (employment), and criminality. These initial data served as a baseline for a series of followup studies on three admission cohorts clients entering treatment during 1%9-71, , and (269,270,271). Followup studies initiated in 1974 examined outcomes associated with the various treatment modalities. Followup assessment included a complete history of the type and duration of drug abuse treatment and gathered additional information on illegal drug use, criminality, and employment. Outcomes were reported only for people who, during the year of followup, had been out of treatment or out of jail for at least 3 months. A total of 6,402 clients from 34 treatment centers participated. This randomly drawn sample included both males and females and was stratified for age, race-ethnicity, treatment type, length of time spent in treatment, and geographic location of the program. Overall, 83 percent (5,340 of those selected) were located, and 73 percent were interviewed face-toface. All the major modalities were represented. Subsequently, there was also a 12-year followup study on a targeted sample of 697 black and white daily opiate users. Of this sample, 70 percent were interviewed; the remaining either refused (2 percent), were not located (20 percent), or were deceased (8 percent) (261,270,271). Although outcome measurement relied on self-reports, the investigators state that comparisons of a sample of self-reported data with urine testing results and criminal justice records provided evidence for the accuracy of self-reported data (267). As the first large-scale, field-based evaluation of drug abuse treatment, DARP contributed substantially to the field of drug abuse research by addressing major methodological problems. For example, it established criteria for the definition and measurement of treatment, its characteristics, and associated outcomes. It should be noted that the DARP findings presented in this report pertain mainly to users of opiates and only to white and black males, since these subgroups were consistently represented in all treatment groups in the followup samples. Treatment Outcome Prospective Study (TOPS) Conducted from 1979 to 1981, TOPS was the second large-scale, comprehensive, longitudinal evaluation study. This study built on the experience of the DARP study. Funded by NIDA and conducted by the Research Triangle Institute, TOPS provided more extensive information than DARP about the natural history of drug abusers (details

8 66- The Effectiveness of DrugAbuse Treatment: Implicationsfor ControllingAIDS/HIV Infection about drug abusers lives before, during, and after treatment) and drug abuse treatment. The study population included 11,750 clients from 41 programs across the country. Although these programs were purposely selected and did not represent a random sample of all publicly funded programs, the authors stated that they accurately reflected the types of clients and the range of treatment services available between 1979 and 1981 (147,149). The investigators arrived at this conclusion by comparing TOPS programs and clients with available national data on treatment programs and client characteristics. Three admission cohorts were formed based on whether the clients entered treatment in 1979, 1980, or Clients in the three admission cohorts were interviewed at initial contact, 1 month into treatment, and at 3-month intervals while in treatment. Information was gathered on the types of drugs used, alcohol consumption, mental health, criminal behavior, and economic productivity. Those clients who entered the TOPS programs and completed the initial interview made up the population from which the followup samples were drawn. A total of 4,270 people formed the three stratified samples. Followup occurred at 3 months, 1 year, 2 years, and 3 to 5 years after leaving treatment. Response rates varied by modality and length of time since leaving treatment, with somewhat lower rates for methadone clients than those in therapeutic communities and outpatient drug-free programs (see ch. 3 for descriptions of the major treatment modalities). Of the initial sample, response rates ranged from 70 to 80 percent in each followup period up to 2 years and were about 65 percent for the 3- to 5-year followup. The investigators compared characteristics of respondents and non-respondents and concluded that the resulting bias from the non-respondents would not distort the study s conclusions. The results from the TOPS study reported later in the chapter were based on approximately 10,000 clients in 37 programs representing all the major modalities and refer to those patients who spent at least 3 months in treatment. Three outcome measures, including drug use, criminal activity, and productivity, were used. Reductions in drug use were documented separately for heroin and cocaine. Criminal activity was measured as the self-reported involvement in predatory crimes (such as robbery, burglary, larceny), thus excluding crimes related directly to drug use, such as drug dealing. Productivity was measured by weeks of full-time employment. With respect to the reliability and validity of the self-reported data, the investigators stated that, varied analyses demonstrate that the TOPS data are on the whole reliable and valid (149). In addition to reporting the prevalence of the above outcome measures, the investigators calculated l-year abstinence and improvement rates. The abstinence rate for a specific drug is the proportion of people who were regular users in the year before treatment and who did not use the drug at all in the year after treatment. The improvement rate, a less strict criterion, is the proportion of regular users in the year prior to treatment who either ceased use completely or decreased the frequency the year following treatment. In contrast with the prevalence rates, which provide a robust picture of drug use, the latter measures provide information on changes among individuals who engaged in this behavior prior to treatment. It should be kept in mind that the abstinence and improvement rates reported in the following sections pertain to treatment clients who spent at least 3 months in treatment. The exact proportion of clients who remained in treatment for at least 3 months at each modality is reported separately in the respective sections. TREATMENT EFFECTIVENESS This section describes the results from the major studies on the effectiveness of drug abuse treatment. In evaluating treatment effectiveness, one should keep in mind that treatment goals differ among modalities. Treatment duration and graduation are basic concepts of therapeutic communities and outpatient drug free programs; the ultimate goal is drugfree status after treatment completion. For methadone maintenance, however, the goal is reduction or elimination of opiate use during treatment. In addition, drug-free status is a goal for some methadone maintenance programs.

9 Chapter 4-The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -67 Since most of the studies on treatment effectiveness are modality-specific, each of the major modalities will be addressed separately: methadone maintenance; other pharmacological agents including Levo-Alpha-Acetyl-Methadol (LAAM), naltrexone, and pharmacotherapies for cocaine abuse; therapeutic communities, and outpatient drug-free programs. A review of research on specific modalities is followed by a review of studies that relate to more than one modality. Next, results of the most recent cost-benefit analyses related to drug abuse treatment are presented. Finally, other contemporary issues related to treatment are addressed, including treatment of special populations, dual morbidity (the coexistence of both substance abuse and a psychiatric disorder), polydrug use (the concurrent use of more than one drug), relapse prevention, and aftercare services. Methadone Maintenance This treatment modality is directly related to prevention of HIV infection. Methadone maintenance is intended to curtail heroin use. Since most heroin abusers administer the drug intravenously, methadone maintenance by reducing heroin use, has the potential to interrupt a major route of HIV transmission. Since 1964, when the first studies by Dole and Nyswanter were reported, hundreds of thousands of heroin abusers have been managed by methadone maintenance, and numerous articles have been written about this treatment modality. A literature search revealed approximately 13,000 articles on substance abuse in general, 4,000 of which referred to methadone maintenance (246). Methadone maintenance, has been evaluated as much as any human service modality in history (262). These evaluations have been either part of large multiprogram national studies or individual studies of specific programs. Many thorough reviews have examined the collective evidence for methadone maintenance effectiveness (13,39,66,68,262). This section will analyze findings from some of the major studies along with results reported by the review articles. Randomized Experiments Methadone Maintenance and Placebo--The first randomized, double-blind study of methadone maintenance effectiveness was conducted in Hong Kong between 1972 and 1975 among 100 heroin addicts who volunteered to participate (227). After all were stabilized on a daily dose of 60 mg of methadone, they were randomly assigned to two groups. The first group received methadone with an average dose of 97 mg per day. The second group, the control group, had their methadone gradually reduced by 1 mg per day to no methadone and thereafter were maintained on placebo. Both groups had access to a wide range of ancillary services and were followed for 3 years. At the 8-month followup, there was a marked difference in the proportion of patients continuing treatment between the two groups (10 percent and 76 percent for the placebo and methadone maintenance groups, respectively) (227). After 3 years, 56 percent of the methadone group was still in treatment, in contrast to 2 percent of the control group (1 out of 50 placebo clients was still in treatment). With respect to illicit narcotic use, the investigators noted that evidence for persistent use of heroin (measured by urine testing) accounted for 31 of the 49 discharges (dropouts) of the control group. Among the treatment group, the proportion of patients with one or more urine samples positive for heroin rose initially to almost 60 percent but declined sharply and stabilized around 35 percent after the fourth month. Criminal activity, measured by the rate of convictions per man-month of enrollment, for the placebo group was more than double that for the treatment group (3.17 v. 1.41). Methadone Maintenance and Therapeutic Communities--In 1980, Bale and his colleagues attempted to overcome the major methodological obstacles and perform a systematic comparison of methadone maintenance and therapeutic communities (19). They designed a prospective study, employing random assignment to the two modalities, and a followup of all patients regardless of retention in treatment. The study population comprised 585

10 68- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for Controlling AIDS/HIV Infection male veterans who used heroin. These individuals were randomly assigned either to methadone maintenance or to one of three therapeutic communities participating in the study. Data were collected on drug use, criminal behavior, and work and school attendance. Patients were followed up to 1 year. Only 108 patients entered the treatment modality to which they were initially assigned; another 103 waited a required period of 30 days and then they exercised their options to enter a different program (19). The methadone program retained 31 percent of those originally assigned, while 21 percent switched to residential treatment. With regard to those assigned to residential programs, 39 percent remained in the residential programs, and 9 percent entered methadone treatment. Forty-two percent of the sample spent no time in any treatment, except a detoxification program. Among those in treatment, retention problems occurred. Although 74.5 percent of the total methadone maintenance clients remained in treatment for the first year, only 20 percent were still in therapeutic communities TC programs after the first 6 months. The l-year outcomes (drug use, criminal activity, and work or school attendance) for all subjects in therapeutic communities and methadone maintenance showed no statistically significant differences. Overall, the study was severely compromised, especially because of veterans refusal to enter the assigned treatment, high dropout rates, and the option to switch modalities. Because of these methodological problems, the results with respect to treatment effectiveness were rendered almost uninterpretable (13,128). Multi-Program Nonrandomized Study Ball and colleagues assessed the effectiveness of methadone maintenance in a cross-sectional study of six methadone maintenance programs in the Northeast (20). The study sample of 617 heroin abusers consisted of a stratified sample of new admissions and longer-term clients already in treatment for at least 6 months. The sample was further classified with respect to time in treatment with 126 new admissions, 342 moderate-stay clients (those with an average stay of 0.5 to 4.5 years), and 149 long-term clients (those with an average stay over 4.5 years). The l-year retention rate was 63.4 percent for the moderate stay clients and 86.3 percent for the long-term group. The mean number of years of heroin use was 11.1 for. the whole sample. Of those newly admitted, 66.7 percent said they had used heroin in the past 30 days, and 14.5 percent reported using other opiates. The prevalence of opiate use in the past 30 days was less than 100 percent because this sample included drug users who were in a transition period from jail, other incarceration, or detoxification to methadone maintenance. In addition to heroin use, 58 percent of those newly admitted reported using cocaine, and 38.7 percent reported using alcohol to intoxication. Table 4-1 presents the findings of the study according Table 4-l-Percent Self-Reported Heroin Use and Crime by Males by Time in Methadone Maintenance Treatment, 1985 a Last addiction New admission In treatment In treatment period sample 05 to 4.5 years 4.5 years Status in past 30 days (N=617) (N=126) (N=342) (N=149) No heroin use or crime NA Only heroin use Only crime NA Both heroin use and crime Total ABBREVIATION: NA = not available from the reference. a The Chi square value for this table is 303.8, which is significant at the.01 level. b The authors described this group as having been in transition during the previous 30 days. SOURCE: Ball, Corty, Meyers, et al. (20).

11 Chapter 4--The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -69 to length of stay in methadone maintenance. There were four outcome measures: heroin use; criminal activity; both heroin use and criminal activity, and success, defined as no heroin use or criminal activity during the past 30 days. Of those with moderate stays ( years), 15.8 percent reported using heroin in the past 30 days and an additional 7.6 percent were involved with both heroin and crime (20). Overall, 65.5 percent of the moderate-stay sample were defined as successes, with no heroin use or criminal activity in the past 30 days. Even larger improvements were reported among those who remained in treatment for more than 4.5 years. Overall, 83.2 percent of these longterm clients were classified as successes. Heroin use was reported by only 3.4 percent of long-term clients, while an additional 4 percent were involved in both heroin and crime. The investigators also reported similar patterns of smaller rates of cocaine use and to a lesser degree alcohol use. Substantial differences in both heroin use and criminal activity were observed, especially for long-term methadone maintenance clients. National Studies DARP Study--The reported findings of the firstand third-year followups pertain to only white and black males who were admitted to treatment, regardless of the time they spent in treatment. Interviews were conducted with 73 percent of the sample targeted for followup (a random sample of all those who originally entered treatment) (see table 4-2) (272). Daily opiate use declined from 100 percent 2 months before treatment to 36 percent and 24 percent at the first and third years of followup, respectively. Criminal activity was measured as the percentage of clients undergoing any arrest or incarceration during the year of followup. Of those entering methadone maintenance, a substantial majority (88 percent) had reported at least one arrest in their lifetimes (272). This proportion reporting any arrest was 27 and 20 percent, respectively, during the first and third years of followup. Similarly, any incarceration declined from 50 percent prior to treatment to 28 and 30 percent at 1- and 3-year followups. At baseline (previous 12 months), 33 percent were employed half-time or more (272). During the third year after treatment, the proportion rose to 58 percent. TOPS Study--The impact of methadone maintenance on heroin and cocaine drug use, criminal activity, and economic productivity are presented in table 4-3 (149). These findings pertain to Table 4-2-Percent Self-Reported Opiate Use, Criminal Activity, and Employment by Males a in Methadone Maintenance Treatment, DARP Pre-treatment During 1 year During 3 yearn Category period b after treatment after treatment Daily opiate use Arrest Incarceration Employment half-time or more a Statistics refer only to white and black males. b The pre-treatment periods varied: 2 months for opiate use, lifetime for arrest and incarceration, and previous 12 months for employment. c Average followup rates were 79 percent for cohorts admitted to treatment from 1%9 to 1971 and from 1971 to 1972 and 64 percent for the cohort admitted in 1973 to SOURCE: Simpson and Sells (272).

12 70- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for Controlling AIDS/ HIV Infection Table 4-3--Percent Self-Reported Drug Use, Criminal Activity, and Employment by Methadone Maintenance Clients Treated at Least 3 Months, TOPS a Year before 3 months in 3-months l-year 2-year 3-5 year Category treatment treatment followup followup followup followup Regular heroin use Regular cocaine use b Serious predatory crimes Full-time employment ABBREVIATION: NA = not available. a No statistics on followup rates for clients treated at least 3 months were presented. For all those on methadone maintenance regardless of the duration of treatment, followup rates ranged from 75 percent for 3 months followup to 65 percent for 3-5 year followup. Weekly or more frequent use. SOURCE: Hubbard, Marsden, Rachal, et al. (149). methadone maintenance clients who had remained in treatment for at least 3 months; these clients represent nearly 69 percent of the sample targeted for followup (a stratified sample of those who completed intake procedures). The median time spent in treatment was approximately 7 months (147,149,150). The followup sample, however, includes those who were in long-term maintenance (approximately 25 percent of the sample). During the year before admission to methadone maintenance, 63.5 percent of clients used heroin regularly. At 3 months after entry, only 5.9 percent were regular users (weekly or more frequent use) (149). This proportion increased gradually after treatment and stabilized at 17.5 percent (a threefold decrease from the pre-treatment level) at the 3- to 5-year followup (measured from date of admission). Improvement was also reflected in two other outcome measures, the abstinence and improvement rates. Of regular heroin users during the year before treatment, more than half had ceased heroin use altogether the year after treatment (abstinence rate). Similarly, 70 percent had either stopped or decreased their use in the year subsequent to treatment. The original proportion of regular cocaine users during the year prior to treatment was 26.4 percent (149). This rate dropped to 9.4 percent after 3 months in treatment and increased gradually to 16.6 percent at the 3- to 5-year followup. The l-year abstinence and improvement rates were 40 and 70 percent, respectively. This pattern of cocaine increase may reflect the resurgence and higher initiation rate of the drug in the early 1980s (149). Criminal activity (measured as involvement in serious predatory illegal acts) showed similar decreasing patterns. During the year prior to treatment, 31.8 percent engaged in such activity (149). After being in treatment 3 months, the proportion dropped to 9.8 percent. Thereafter, the rate increased and stabilized at 16.2 percent at the 3- to 5- year followup (half of the rate during the year before treatment). Similarly, the investigators noted that two out of three clients reporting illegal acts prior to admission had ceased their involvement the year after treatment. There was no major difference in the percentage of fully employed clients l-year before admission and at the 3- to 5-year followup. In fact, a decrease was observed (24.2 declining to 17.7) (149). The improvement rate indicated that 18 percent of the clients had more weeks of full-time employment in the year after treatment. The strict outcome criterion (full-time employment) together with the lack of an adequate control group and the multitude of factors that influence employment may help explain the contrasting outcomes between the significant improvements in drug use and criminality, on one hand, and the overall unchanged level of economic productivity on the other. Additional Studies on Crime Reduction Anglin cites several additional studies from a variety of geographic locations across the country that demonstrate the effectiveness of methadone maintenance in reducing crime (13). In a study in San Antonio, Maddux and Desmond found that

13 Chapter 4-The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -71 methadone maintenance treatment rates were inversely related to community crime rates (198). Moreover, when funding reductions forced premature discharge of clients in the community, crime rates increased. Another study by Hunt and colleagues compared methadone maintenance clients with narcotic users not in treatment (151). Methadone maintenance clients were involved in less criminal activity, especially for serious crimes, such as robbery, burglary, and drug dealing. Finally, in summarizing the overall effects of methadone maintenance on crime, Ball and colleagues, in the study described earlier, found a consistent and uniform decrease in the 14 types of crime that they examined (20). Prior to treatment, people in the sample were involved in mean crime days per year. For those in treatment for at least 6 months and less than 4.5 years, the reported mean crime days plummeted to 24 per year. A further reduction to 18 days was reported for those in treatment for more than 4.5 years. Natural Experiments The shortcoming of not having randomly assigned groups or an adequate control group is uncertainty in the interpretation of positive findings. In order to be able to conclude that treatment was the contributing factor, other plausible explanations should be excluded. Studies that take advantage of a policy or program change (natural experiment) and examine subsequent outcomes may provide less equivocal results (13,17,149). In his most recent review of the effectiveness literature, Anglin describes such studies. One study by McGlothlin and his colleagues examined the consequences of the involuntary termination of a methadone maintenance clinic in California (207). The 94 clients who were forcibly discharged were compared with a matched sample of 83 clients from another operating clinic. The 2-year followup showed that 54 percent of those forcefully discharged had reverted to heroin abuse. Those discharged were almost two times more likely to be arrested or incarcerated than the comparison group. Similar findings were reported from another study in San Diego, where some of the clients of a closed clinic transferred to private methadone maintenance programs, while others were unable or unwilling to do so (14). Higher rates of illicit drug use, crime, and drug dealing, and more contact with the criminal justice system were reported for those who did not transfer. Maximum Achievable Effectiveness of Methadone Maintenance For a recent presentation at a NIDA conference on treatment improvement, Kreek compiled the best reported outcome levels that properly run methadone maintenance programs can be expected to achieve (187). A distinction between primary and secondary treatment goals was made. The primary goals were reduction in heroin use and voluntary retention for more than 2 years. The best observed outcome with respect to the proportion of methadone maintenance clients abstaining from heroin was 85 to 98 percent (299). Overall, 2-year retention rates exceeded 65 percent. Secondary goals and the achieved levels were 1) reduction in cocaine use (30- to 40-percent decline) and alcohol abuse (20- to 30-percent decline); 2) reduction in criminality and antisocial behavior (more than a 70- percent decline in criminal acts and arrests reported in some programs); and 3) improvement in socialization and productivity including employment, resumption of education, and homemaking (60- percent improvement observed in some programs). Factors Related to Treatment Effectiveness of Methadone Maintenance Methadone maintenance clinics provide a wide spectrum of ancillary services to their clients, though they vary in the type, intensity, and quality of services offered. The core of these programs is the daily administration of methadone as a pharmacologic means of blocking the effects of opiates while simultaneously avoiding withdrawal, thus reducing their USC. Variables related to the provision of both methadone and ancillary services have been identified as influencing treatment outcome to one degree or another. This section will focus on the methadone-related parameters. Other factors that relate to treatment effectiveness and cut across modalities will be reviewed at the end of the treatment effectiveness section (see section on Parameters Related to Treatment Outcome). Methadone Dosage--There is great variability in the way individuals metabolize drugs, and this is certainly true for methadone. Beyond individual differences, some of the factors that have been found to influence the clearance of methadone from the body include other concurrent conditions, such as chronic diseases, the intake of other pharmacologic agents,

14 72- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for Controlling AIDS/HIV Infection and pregnancy. Due to individual differences in the rate of methadone removal, what constitutes a dosage of methadone adequate to exert its pharmacologic action may differ from person to person. If the dose is inadequate, the methadone concentration in the blood may fall below a critical level before the administration of the next day s dosage, and the patient may experience symptoms of abstinence, which can lead to heroin use to relieve them (97,98,262). This pharmacologic reality supports the notion that methadone maintenance should be viewed as a procedure similar to providing pharmacotherapy to stabilize and maintain any other chronic condition, such as diabetes. This view, which has a profound impact on how to determine an appropriate dose, is not shared by everyone. There have been two main arguments posed by methadone opponents: 1) that methadone is bad because it simply substitutes one opiate for another (which technically speaking is true) and 2) that providing methadone, and especially higher doses, will lead to increased illegal diversion of methadone (18). The interplay of scientific, moral, and political arguments in the evolution of methadone policies has been examined and analyzed by Attewell and Gerstein (18). With respect to dosage policies, they note that the mean dosage levels of programs became strategic symbols of their toughness and desire to wean abusers from methadone (18). The authors argue that methadone dosage became a pawn in an organizational struggle that resulted in a steady decline in the average dose over the years. A low dose of methadone has traditionally been one that is less than 40 mg a day, while a high dose has been defined as a dose over 60 mg a day (170). 2 The role of methadone dosage has been thoroughly examined in a critical review by Hargreaves, which was part of NIDA s landmark conference Research on the Treatment of Narcotic Addiction: State of the 2 The distinction between low and high dose used in the literature should not be confused with the distinction between effective and ineffective dose Ievels, as studies have indicated that 60 mg of methadone per day may be the lowest effective dose (2S7). Art (130). With the research question What evidence do we have that various methadone dose practices are more effective than others," a careful and analytic review of 22 studies covering 11 years of research was conducted. All 22 studies were evaluated for their quality and strength of evidence. The conclusion was that there is a dosage effect, especially early in treatment. The participating researchers further agreed that a daily dosage in the range of 50 to 100 mg with a mean around 80 mg would be sufficient for the majority of the patients. Evidence suggested, however, that for a substantial minority (10 to 30 percent) of patients, doses as high as 100 mg per day were superior to 50 mg, especially for the first 5 to 10 months of treatment. Furthermore, the researchers also agreed that higher dosages enhance retention in treatment, especially in the early phase, and lower rates of illicit drug use. The final conclusion stated that, no single methadone dose is best for all patients (69). Researchers suggested that dosages be individualized for each patient. Although a daily dose of 100 mg or less is thought to be sufficient in most cases, some circumstances might require higher doses. On the other hand, methadone doses below 50 or 30 mg per day, are considered to be inappropriate (69). The study of six methadone maintenance clinics in the Northeast by Ball and colleagues also examined the effect of dosage on opiate use (98). The data on dosage were pooled over all the programs, which had different policies and support services. Although these were cross-sectional data, there was a striking inverse relationship between daily methadone dose and the frequency of heroin use. At a daily dose of 35 mg or less, a little over one-third of the clients used heroin regularly. By contrast, at 80 mg per day, there was practically no opiate use. With respect to dosage changes, a recent review of methadone maintenance treatment by Kreek further recommends that dose changes should not be used as a reward or punishment, but rather that dosage should be determined after a careful and scientific evaluation (186). The scientific reasoning for such a policy is that stable doses play a crucial role in normalizing the heroin-induced changes of

15 Chapter 4-The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -73 many physiological functions. Thus, an abrupt disruption of stable plasma levels could lead to relapse by initiating drug hunger and drug-seeking behavior. Retention In Treatment--The study of the association of remaining in treatment with the degree of treatment effectiveness is a good example of the inherent limitations of drug abuse research. Many factors that may play a role in retaining clients in treatment (e.g., patients characteristics, program variables, dosage, and other policies) may also have an impact on the outcomes and thus confound the real association between treatment retention and positive outcomes. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that a wide variety of studies with different designs and data analysis sophistication have consistently found duration of treatment associated with outcome improvements. Retention rates in methadone maintenance, although higher than the other modalities, vary among different programs. Overall, the reported range for a 2-year period is from 55 to 85 percent (258). Retention is influenced by both client and treatment characteristics (68). Client factors associated with retention and better adjustment to methadone maintenance were older age, low criminal background, better employment history, and lack of psychopathology. It should be noted that methodological problems impede generalizations and predictions. The most appropriate design, a randomized clinical trial, may be difficult to achieve. Even in observational or epidemiologically designed prospective studies, from which most of these results come, the existence of an unmeasured metabolic deficiency or biochemical difference could seriously confound and invalidate any prognostic ability of other factors. With respect to program characteristics, programs with more flexible strategies, including dosage policies, are reported to have superior retention records (13). A study comparing three programs found that flexible policy programs retained clients, on the average, 9 months longer than other programs (13). A multivariate analysis of the non-compliant clients in the study by Ball, et al., found that those patients on lower doses (less than 30 mg per day) had the higher risk of noncompliance, while program affiliation was not a significant factor. By contrast, however, noncompliance in the mid- and high-dose programs, was program related. The authors suggest that program policy, treatment procedures, and staffing patterns seemed to influence compliance rates (294). At the NIDA State of the Art conference, there was also agreement that research findings indicate that patient performance (measured by drug use, employment, and criminality) is a good predictor of retention while the patient is still in treatment (69). The majority of researchers at the conference also agreed that the longer the duration of treatment, the more likely it was that a positive outcome would be sustained following treatment (66,72). The findings from the more recent TOPS study support these conclusions (149). Multivariate regression analysis of the TOPS data, which controlled for several factors, demonstrated that time in treatment was the strongest predictor of favorable outcomes (table 4-4). Significant results were demonstrated for those who Table 4-4-Odds Ratios for Post-Treatment Outcomes in the First Year after Methadone Maintenance Treatment, by Treatment Duration, TOPS Outcome Time in treatment Comparison group >52 weeks Long-term < 1 week 1-13 weeks weeks and discharged maintenance n=86 n = 161 n = 268 n = 137 n = 183 Regular heroin use b c 0.23 d Regular cocaine Use Predatory crimes O.36 d Full-time employment a self reports from 835 of the 1,539 clients who were sampled for followup. b Weekly or more frequent use. c <.05 p c.001 SOURCE: Hubbard, Marsden, Rachal, et al. (149).

16 74- The Electiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for ControllingAIDS/HIV Infection had been in treatment continuously for 2 to 3 years, as is shown in table 4-4. Indeed, those in long-term maintenance were four times more likely to have decreased their regular heroin use (odds ratio =O.23) than those with less than 1 week in treatment (the comparison group). Similarly, those with more than 52 weeks in methadone maintenance were two times less likely to be engaged in regular heroin use (odds ratio =O.47) than the comparison group. Moreover, these long-term maintenance clients were three times less likely to engage in predatory illegal activity (odds ratio= O.36). With respect to client characteristics, it was found that females, Hispanics, users of heroin only, those with three or more previous drug abuse treatments, and those who were not heavy alcohol users were more likely to remain longer in treatment (149). All the above conclusions were the product of a multivariate analysis of a carefully designed prospective study, which further strengthened the existing evidence. Other Treatment Correlates--Methadone maintenance programs differ substantially in their general program policies regarding dosage, admission, discharge, readmission, detoxification, urine testing, take-home privileges, and the provision of other positive or negative incentives to their clients. With the exception of dosage, none of these components have been extensively studied. Overall, though, it appears the answer is a qualified yes that the above elements do, indeed, affect treatment outcome (72). With respect to the provision of incentives, the evidence is neither consistent nor clear-cut. Stitzer and Kirby in a recent review reported that both positive incentives (such as takehome privileges) and negative incentives (threat of treatment termination) have been shown to promote abstinence among some proportion of treatment patients (285). Since the positive findings are not valid for all clients, however, the challenge is to identify and characterize those clients who can benefit the most from such measures. Similarly, more research is needed to establish whether and for whom the various policy components influence treatment outcomes. Methadone maintenance programs also differ in various program characteristics that are part of the overall treatment environment (e.g., the type, range, and quality of services provided; the patient-to-staff ratio; and the staff background, expertise, and attitudes). The dynamic interplay of these factors constitutes what Anglin calls program personality. Although these elements are not easily measurable or quantifiable, they have been found to influence treatment outcome (13,68). The extent to which these variables render their influence directly or indirectly by increasing retention and the duration of treatment is less clear. Ball s study of the six methadone maintenance programs described earlier provides evidence about the influence of program characteristics on treatment outcome (21). This study, despite its cross-sectional nature, suggests the extent to which differences among treatment programs may result in differences in effectiveness. Regardless of the initial selection of well-established methadone maintenance programs with above average patient-to-staff ratios, there was a wide disparity in each clinic s ability to decrease drug use. The proportion of current users while in treatment varied among the programs from 9.8 to 57.1 percent. Although it was hypothesized that the most powerful predictor of success would be patient characteristics, subsequent analysis suggested that certain program variables were more closely related to program success rates. The identified variables were dosage, retention rates, staff turnover rates, and the closeness of the relationship between staff and patients. According to the investigator, the study highlighted the importance of staff characteristics in influencing treatment outcomes. Anecdotal evidence from confidential interviews with program personnel also revealed a relationship between program morale and treatment effectiveness (21,241a). Achieving a Drug-Free State--Researchers differ on what the ultimate goal of methadone treatment should be. Studies indicate that a drug-free state may not be a totally realistic goal, at least not for the majority of the patients, because of relapse (130). The overwhelming evidence is that the beneficial effects of methadone are mainly confined to the time when the client is still in treatment. In a review primarily of studies of methadone maintenance programs in New York City, which examined the fate of methadone maintenance clients who had left treatment or been discharged, the author states that a consistent finding is that in NYC it is really hard to

17 Chapter 4-The Effectiveness of Treatment for Drug Abuse -75 achieve abstinence even for those clients who complete methadone maintenance and detoxify voluntarily (130). Even those who have been favorably discharged face a less than 50 percent chance of maintaining abstinence for 3 years. Between 70 and 80 percent of discharged patients return to illicit opiate use within 1 to 2 years after leaving methadone maintenance (187,309). A study by Dole and Joseph, which examined the pattern of heroin use among patients with at least 3 interrupted cycles of treatment, found decreases in opiate use while in treatment, with subsequent increases in usage after leaving treatment (99). Stimmel and his colleagues studied 335 former methadone maintenance clients to determine their ability to remain abstinent from narcotic use (283). The subjects were classified according to the reason that they were detoxified from methadone and left treatment: 17 percent were considered to have completed treatment, 30 percent were voluntarily discharged, another 30 percent violated the rules, and 24 percent were arrested. The followup rate was 80 percent with approximately 26 months followup time. At the end of the study period, 35 percent of the followup sample were narcotic-free, 58 percent had relapsed to narcotics, 4 percent were incarcerated, and another 4 percent had died. It should be noted that the mean duration of followup for those who remained narcotic-free was shorter than for those who relapsed. Thirty-five percent of relapses occurred among the group with 3 or more years of followup. Discriminant analysis was performed to identify factors associated with drug-free status. The dominant variable was reason for detoxification, followed by duration of methadone maintenance, and length of followup. Indeed, of those methadone maintenance clients that the program staff considered as having realized the full benefit from methadone maintenance, 83 percent were able to maintain abstinence, in contrast to 14 to 21 percent of those detoxified for other reasons. As to what types of clients are more likely to achieve the goal of abstinence, researchers have found the most encouraging results with clients who are older, who have been stabilized in methadone maintenance for at least 2 to 3 years, who have psychological support, and who have demonstrated less criminality and better social functioning (13,187,262). Medical Maintenance An alternative experimental approach to the traditional daily dispensing of methadone at clinics is based on the concept of medical maintenance. This. approach calls for stable, non-drug using, socially rehabilitated patients to take home as much as a 28- day supply of methadone from a physician at a primary care setting. Methadone is dispensed in tablet form and can be taken on a daily basis by the patient. The first published evaluation study examined 40 former heroin abusers who entered the program after they had met several well-defined criteria (230). The followup time ranged from 12 to 55 months. These preliminary results showed an annual retention rate of 94 percent. Overall, 8 of 40 patients (20 percent) relapsed into illicit drug use. This estimate includes five patients who returned to traditional methadone maintenance because of cocaine use. The authors argue that this approach has benefits for the clients (decreased frequency of visits and increased self-esteem), as well as for society (reduced cost and increased availability of methadone maintenance slots). There are, however, certain limitations of medical maintenance, probably the most important of which is the likelihood of illegal diversion of the large doses of methadone, whose street value can reach $2,400 for a 28-day supply (366)? The medical maintenance concept has the potential for being a beneficial treatment approach for some clients. However, there is clearly a need to replicate the above findings, to address the various methodological concerns, and, most importantly, to identify those patients for whom it would be most helpful. 3 The distribution of methadone, a synthetic opiate, is tightly controlled by Federal regulations. Methadone may be diverted into illegal channels because of demand created by people who seek to control withdrawal symptoms, to detoxify themselves, or to obtain the pleasant altered state of consciousness that methadone produces (68a).

18 76- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for Controlling AIDS/HIV Infection Summary of Methadone Maintenance Effectiveness Methadone maintenance has been used to treat hundreds of thousands of heroin abusers over the past 25 years in a wide variety of social, economic, and geographical settings. Its safety and effectiveness have been established in numerous studies (13,66,68,69,72,170,262). For a substantial majority of opiate abusers, who enter methadone maintenance, drug use and criminality decrease and health status improves. On average, three-fourths of the clients on long-term maintenance cease illicit opiate use (258). The consistency of the scientific literature regarding the safety, efficacy and effectiveness of methadone is overwhelming, yet some still consider methadone a controversial treatment modality (299). Methadone has been criticized for simply substituting one abuse with another, for not being as beneficial for cocaine and other drug abuse as it is for opiate abuse, for not producing a robust improvement in all the maladaptive behaviors associated with substance abuse, and for not achieving high enough outcomes even with regard to opiate use. As stated in NIDA s landmark review, although some criticism of methadone maintenance is warranted, much of it is not supported by the scientific data (66,72,167). With the connection between intravenous (IV) drug use and AIDS, the importance of resolving the issues of what can and cannot be accomplished with methadone treatment and how methadone maintenance s fullest potential can be achieved is becoming more prominent. Two basic distinctions about methadone maintenance are important for evaluating this modality. The first distinction concerns the premise that methadone is a cure or a magic bullet for the drug epidemic as opposed to a pharmacologic substance to counterattack illicit opiate dependence. The second distinction concerns methadone s efficacy as opposed to its effectiveness. Methadone, a synthetic opiate, can prevent both drug hunger and opiate withdrawal symptoms for 24 to 36 hours. When administered to tolerant patients, it causes no euphoria or sedation and in adequate doses can block the effects of heroin (187). This property makes methadone a drug-replacement therapy that allows an illicit short-acting opiate administered with needles to be replaced with a legal long-acting safe, and orally administered substance (379). Consequently, methadone frees the abuser from the vicious cycle of always chasing a fix and from vacillating between being sick and being high (167). Both the individual and society can benefit substantially from this substitution, with benefits continuing to occur as long as the patient is in treatment. Because of drug abuse s chronic relapsing nature, methadone is frequently compared to insulin therapy for diabetes and to anti-hypertensive treatments (224,238,258). This analogy is relevant because it not only increases understanding of methadone s role, but also helps to clarify the way that methadone should be evaluated. Both hypertension and insulindependent diabetes can be controlled by appropriate medication. Although some patients may be able to discontinue insulin or anti-hypertensive treatment at some point, others, probably the majority, will continue indefinitely on adequate doses of medication to control their disorders. Accordingly, the effectiveness of their prescribed medications is assessed while the patient is still in treatment, by measuring blood sugar or blood pressure. Even with these treatments, however, not all patients show the same response to treatment, which can be more or less successful for certain patients. The second distinction, between methadone s efficacy and effectiveness, also entails important policy implications. The concepts of efficacy and effectiveness stem from randomized clinical trial research. 4 The efficacy of treatment refers to the observed results of experimental research done under ideal conditions and circumstances. When an efficacious treatment is implemented in the real world, the magnitude of the effect may differ due to 4 Efficacy is the probability of benefit to individuals in a defined population from an intervention applied for a given problem under ideal conditions of use. Effectiveness, on the other hand, is the probability of benefit to individuals in a defined population from an intervention applied for a given problem under average or actual conditions of use.

19 Chapter 4--The Effectiveness of Treatment for DrugAbuse -77 contamination from other real life parameters and inappropriate implementation. This is especially true for methadone maintenance, whose effectiveness has been said to vary from 40 to 98 percent (21,299). It is conceivable that this variability may partially be attributed to different population characteristics. The evidence, however, points to non-client related variables. Ball s study found that differential effectiveness was related both to length of a patient s stay and the quality of provided treatment. Even an ideal methadone maintenance program has two distinct yet interrelated components. One is the administration of the pharmacologic substance, and the other is the variety of ancillary services that are offered. Methadone is a synthetic opiate with a very clear pharmacologic role: to bind to the opiate receptors, reduce drug craving, and inhibit the occurrence of the painful opiate withdrawal syndrome. On the other hand, biological and psychosocial vulnerabilities make drug abuse a multi-dimensional disorder. Drug abuse occurs in people who enter treatment with a variety of other problems (e.g., existing psychiatric and non-psychiatric illnesses and family, financial, employment, and legal difficulties). Ancillary services are intended to address these problems. The goals of methadone maintenance treatment vary from decreasing illicit opiate use (as a direct effect of methadone s action) and related criminal activity to increasing employment, social integration, and the quality of life. The extent of a program s success depends also on other program and staff-related variables, patient-related variables, and societally influenced factors beyond methadone s influence. Ample evidence testifies to the high success rates of the whole package of methadone maintenance treatment. With regard to specific treatment components, evidence about the importance of adequate dosage is particularly strong. Experimental studies are needed, however, to examine the interaction of methadone dose with other non-pharmacological treatment elements, such as take-home policies; frequency of urine testing;, the availability, type, and intensity of support services, and human factors, from program management to staff s attitudes and qualifications. Random assignment of drug abusers to different treatment plans within the same modality seems to be more practical than random assignment to different modalities (59). The great variation in success rates suggests that somewhere in the implementation process, effectiveness may have been compromised. More than 700 methadone maintenance programs operate in the United States, with great variability in their policies (13,21,187,299). Foe example, a 1989 survey by the U.S. General Accounting Office of 24 methadone maintenance programs revealed that daily average dosage levels ranged between 21 to 67 mg (299). At 21 of the 24, the average dose was below 60 mg per day, which according to C. Schuster, the NIDA Director, more studies have found to be the lowest effective dose (257). Counselor-to-patient ratios ranged from 1:15 to l:96. Less than one third of the programs surveyed provided on-site educational and vocational services (6 and 4, respectively), and only one program had separate aftercare services. At the same time, continued heroin use by the patients ranged from 2 to 47 percent. These results suggest that in many programs methadone maintenance does not reach its potential. This finding also begs the question of whether scientific evidence guides the operation of these programs. Research findings have produced strong evidence of the importance of adequate methadone dosage in reducing opiate use. Although increasing treatment slots and improving the quality of the existing services are important steps in the battle against opiate abuse, flexible dosage policies have the potential to rapidly improve the effectiveness of methadone maintenance. Administering a sufficiently high dose for methadone to achieve effectiveness assumes particular importance in light of the HIV epidemic. Other Pharmacological Agents Medications can have a substantial effect on the treatment of drug abuse. Medications can be administered easily and can complement other medications, behavior modification, or psychotherapy. Moreover, they may provide opportunities to intervene in various stages of the recovery process in order to prevent relapse.

20 78- The Effectiveness of Drug Abuse Treatment: Implications for ControllingAIDS/HIV Infection Naltrexone Naltrexone blocks the effects of heroin by binding to the narcotic receptors, but does not produce euphoric effects and is not addictive (see ch. 3). Naltrexone can be used as a short-term blockade agent during the transition from drug use to abstinence, as an occasional blockade agent for highrisk relapse situations, or as a long-term maintenance agent to protect against relapse. In contrast to its efficacy, its effectiveness maybe more limited. Although naltrexone is an efficacious pharmacological agent and has been observed to decrease opiate use and reduce drug craving, it has not been well accepted by heroin abusers (123,168). In practice, high dropout rates occur, especially during the induction period; 40 percent of patients often discontinue treatment by the end of the first month (168). This phenomenon may result partly from naltrexone s producing opiate withdrawal if the client has used heroin within the last 3 to 7 days (35). Depending on the type of patient and the level of support, average retention rates range from 1 to 6 months or longer (168). Higher retention rates have been found for health professionals and business executives, for whom success rates as high as 75 percent have been reported (168). The common denominator of success appears to be a highly motivated patient with family support. Strategies to improve compliance with naltrexone, such as individual and group counseling, family therapy, and contingency contracting are discussed in more detail in a review by Kosten and Kleber (180). To realize naltrexone s potential, further efforts are needed to demonstrate the range of patients for which the drug is best suited, and the setting and supportive approaches that should be administered (168). Another promising option for enhancing naltrexone s effectiveness is the current development of its administration in a depot form (i.e., skin implants that gradually release the drug into the bloodstream) (238). Such an approach might extend the drug s action and require less frequent administration. Levo-Alpha-Acetyl-Methadol (W) Like methadone, LAAM is a narcotic agonist intended to occupy the narcotic receptors, prevent withdrawal symptoms, and block heroin effects. The main difference between the two drugs is that LAAM is longer acting and can be administered just 3 times a week instead of daily, thus reducing the need for take-home methadone and the likelihood of diversion (121). NIDA has recently awarded a contract to Biometrics Research Institute to sponsor LAAM to the Food and Drug Administration for marketing approval (see ch.3) (35). Patient acceptance of programs administering LAAM and retention rates (varying from 17 to 77 percent), however, are a problem. Abuse patterns, possible metabolic differences, and patient lifestyles and treatment expectations (e.g., some clients may need daily contact with the clinic, while others may find it annoying and disruptive) may play a role in overall effectiveness (121,164,290). Thus, methadone and LAAM may not be equivalent interventions for all heroin abusers. This reality underscores the importance of further research to identify those patients for whom each agent is more appropriate and to match them accordingly. Pharmacotherapies for Cocaine Abuse Several medications under development or in the early stages of testing may assist the treatment of cocaine abuse. In fact, the latter category includes certain drugs already used to treat other disorders, especially depression. The potentially useful drugs for cocaine abuse are employed to ameliorate cocaine-associated anhedonia, depression, or craving. Some clinical studies have found that certain currently used antidepressants decrease cocaine craving and depression, thus facilitating the abstinence process. The most promising drugs so far are the tricyclic antidepressants desipramine and imipramine (114,115,117). Another drug that may reduce withdrawal distress and craving is bromocryptine, a drug used to treat Parkinson s disease (106). Bromocriptine works faster than desipramine, but wears off more quickly. This pattern suggests that bromocryptine may be more effective in the early phases of withdrawal, while desipramine may be more helpful in the later stages of cocaine abstinence (106). Although initial results are promising, thorough scientific evaluations, with randomized placebocontrolled double blind studies and longer followup

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