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Jews, Christians and Muslims: The Way of Dialogue (Appendix 6 of the Lambeth Conference
1988)

Whilst dialogue with all faiths is highly desirable, we recognise a special
relationship between Christianity, Judaism and Islam. All three of
these religions see themselves in a common relationship to Abraham,
the father of the faithful, the friend of God. Moreover these faiths, which
at times have been fiercely antagonistic to one another, have a particular
responsibility for bringing about a fresh, constructive relationship which
can contribute to the well-being of the human family, and the peace of
the world, particularly in the Middle East. Dialogue is the work of patient
love and an expression of the ministry of reconciliation. It involves understanding,
affirmation and sharing.

The Way of Understanding

The essential condition of any true dialogue is a willingness to listen
to the partner; to try to see with their eyes and feel with their
heart. For understanding is more than intellectual apprehension. It involves
the imagination and results in a sensitivity to the fears and hopes of
the other. Understanding others means allowing them to define themselves
in their terms rather than ours, and certainly not in terms of our inherited
stereotypes. This means that in dialogue we may have to face some very
different understandings of religion.

In relation to Judaism this means, first of all, recognising
that Judaism is still a living religion, to be respected in its own
right. The Judaism of today is not that of any one of the sects of first-century
Palestine, and certainly not that of the plain text of the Hebrew Scriptures.
Its definitive works, such as the Mishnah and the Talmud, as well as its
current liturgy, were produced by the post-Pharisee rabbis in the same
period, the first to fifth centuries, within which the Fathers of the Church
were defining the meaning of Christianity. Great care should be taken
not to misrepresent Judaism by imputing to it, e.g., the literal implementation
of ‘an eye for an eye’, which was repudiated by the rabbis,
or the denial of life after death. This is also true of the long-standing
stereotype of Judaism as a religion of works, completely ignoring
the deep Jewish sense of the grace of God. Judaism is a living and still
developing religion, which has shown spiritual and intellectual vitality
throughout the medieval and modern periods despite its history of being
maligned and persecuted. The Middle Ages saw great Jewish philosophers
such as Maimonides, Bible commentators such as Rashi, and poets and mystics,
such as Moses Ibn Ezra, as well as scientists and interpreters of the Law.
Our modern world is inconceivable without the contribution of Jewish thinkers
from Spinoza to Buber, scientists such as Freud and Einstein, as well as
musicians; artists and others who have helped shape our cultural life;
we are, to our loss, less knowledgeable of the creative vitality of such
Jewish spiritual movements of recent times as Hasidism and Musar.

Secondly, Judaism is not only a religion, as many
Christians understand the word, but a people and a civilisation. Jews know
and define themselves as Jews even when they do not fully share the religious
beliefs of Judaism and though there is ethnic diversity among them. It
is against this background, at once secular and religious, that the
importance of the land of Israel to the majority of Jews throughout the
world needs to be understood.

Thirdly, it is necessary for Christians, as well as Jews, to understand
the profound changes and potential for good in modern scholarly understanding
of the Bible. Modern biblical scholarship is increasingly becoming a joint
enterprise between Jews and Christians. Recent Jewish research has shed
much light on the complex and varied religious and social situation
in Palestine during the first century of the Common Era (i.e. the era common
to Jews and Christians). Some Jews have become very aware of Jesus as part
of their own history, and their writings have brought home to Christians
his Jewishness. Renewed study of Jewish sources by Christian scholars has
led them to see first-century Judaism in a new and more positive
light, and to recognise that the predominantly negative assessment
of Judaism in the early Church is far from being the whole story. There
were many different groups within Judaism at the time of Jesus, and ‘the
scribes and Pharisees’ reported in the New Testament should be seen
as part of a wider discussion within Judaism. The New Testament picture
of Judaism needs to be supplemented by expressions of faith by Jews of
the time if first-century Judaism is to be properly understood.

We now have a far better appreciation than ever before of first-century Judaism, and
not least of political factors which led events to take the course they
did. The trial and execution of Jesus are now recognised by many scholars
to have been brought about to serve the political interests of the Roman
occupation forces and those Jews who collaborated with them. It was Rome,
too, by its destruction of Jerusalem at the end of the Jewish War in 70
CE which forced a reconstruction of Judaism along much narrower and more
rigorous lines than had prevailed earlier.

This new understanding of events is leading both Jews and Christians
also to look at the way in which Judaism and Christianity came
to part company and go their separate ways. Since many of the factors
in this split were contingent on specific historical developments,
and events need not necessarily have turned out the way they did, there
would seem to be no reason why a new understanding should not develop,
based on a reconsideration of what originally drove Christianity and Judaism
apart.

Islam, like Christianity, is a living world religion. Dialogue
with Muslims needs to take into account the fact that it has taken root
in and shaped a wide range of countries and cultures. Contrary to
popular opinion, for example, the largest Muslim country in the world is
not in the Middle East. It is Indonesia in South-East Asia. Over the last
fourteen centuries, often with vigorous Christian and Jewish participation
, Muslims have developed a rich and varied mosaic of cultural patterns,
theological schools, mystics and philosophers. While Muslim civilisation
developed at first under the influence of the older Christian and Jewish
civilisations of the Middle East, its impact, in turn, on the development
of both Jewish and Christian thought and civilisation has been profound.
Medieval Jewish thinkers like Maimonides and Saadia wrote many of their
most influential works in Arabic. The philosophy of Aristotle and
the Neo-Platonists came to western Europe largely in translations from
Arabic, the translators being in many cases Christians living in the Muslim
world. If geometry is a Greek word, algebra, alchemy and chemistry are
Arabic. We call our number system Arabic because the Arabs brought it from
India and popularised it throughout the world. The astrolabe and the architectural arch both came
from scientists working in the Muslim world. We are sadly unaware
of much of Islamic history and thought. So rich and varied is it,
that many Muslims are not familiar themselves with some of the thinkers
and movements which are historically, geographically or theologically
remote from their own experience just as many Western Christians are
unaware of Byzantine Orthodox thought or of the life of the Oriental Churches,
and vice versa. One of the values of an informed dialogue is that it can
help both partners become more aware of some of the riches of their own
respective traditions.

In understanding Islam it is necessary for Christians to grasp
the central place of Islamic law in Muslim life. Islamic Law, Shan’a, is
based on the belief that God has, as a gracious act of mercy, revealed
to humanity basic guidelines to live both individually and in society.
Whereas Christians today tend to think of Christian faith as a personal
commitment which can be expressed quite happily in a secular society, seeking
to influence society but not seeking to impose a ‘Christian’ system
on it, many Muslims believe that God has revealed his will on how the whole
of society is to be ordered, from details of banking to matters of public
health. Although based on the Qur’an, the sources of Islamic law
are much wider. The picture becomes even more complex if one attempts to
include the Shi’ites who are the majority in Iran and form significant
minorities in many parts of the Muslim world. A long development independent
from the majority Muslim community (Sunni) has resulted in a very
different ethos and theology, making blanket statements about Islam
almost impossible when Iranian and other Shi’ite thinkers are taken
into account. Some non-Muslim communities living under Islamic rule experience
the application of Sharia law as oppressive and inhumane. Another
aspect of Sharia law which causes some distress is the treatment
of women. We note that in some respects Islamic law has pioneered the rights
of women in certain parts of the world. For example, under Islamic law,
married women had the right to own property and conduct business in their
own names thirteen centuries before these rights were granted in many Western
countries. It is hoped that Christians and Muslims may search together
for ways in which the position of women may continue to be improved for
the benefit of society as a whole. We also need to remember that classical
Islamic law provides safeguards for the rights of religious minorities
which are not actually being enforced today. Further, in judging, we must
always be careful to compare like with like. We must compare the highest
and most humane ideals of Islam with the highest and most humane ideals
of Christianity and the misuse of power at the hands of Muslims with the
misuse of power at the hands of those who call themselves Christians. It
is also worth noting that there is a long and distinguished tradition within
Islam which seeks to interpret the Shari’a in the light
of contemporary conditions. There are many able exponents of this tradition
today, and Christians need to affirm their work, particularly in view
of the religious fundamentalism ascendent in so many parts of the world.

Islam, no less than Judaism, has suffered from Christian
stereotyping. This is especially true of the notion that Islam is a religion
committed to spreading its faith by the sword. History shows a much more
complex pattern. It is true that the communities of the Middle East,
North Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe and the northern half of the
Indian subcontinent were originally brought under Islamic rule by military
expansion. On the other hand, much of the part of the world which is now
predominantly Muslim did not receive its Islam through military conquest.
In fact, the majority of the territory won by Islam in its early advance
was taken from it by the Mongols, who already numbered Christians among
them and other non-Muslims. Yet Islam converted its Mongol conquerors
and much of central Asia remains Islamic to this day.

In fact, jihad, usually mistranslated ‘holy war’,
is a complex notion that needs to be seriously explored by Christians in
dialogue with Muslims. The word actually means struggle and encompasses
everything from spiritual struggle to armed struggle as sanctioned by Islamic
law. Although Muslims have, in the course of history, sanctioned aggressive
wars in this way, it is important to realise that there are many Muslim
views as to what kind of warfare is legal under Islamic law. The existence
of such divergent views might be a constructive point of dialogue.

The Way of Affirmation

If Christians wish their own faith to be affirmed by others, they themselves
must be open to the full force of the attraction of the partner in the
dialogue and be willing to affirm all they can affirm, especially when
it resonates with the Gospel.

For Christians, Judaism can never be one religion among others.
It has a special bond and affinity with Christianity. Jesus, our Lord and
the Christ, was a Jew, and the Scriptures which informed and guided his
life were the books of the Hebrew Bible. These still form part of the Christian
Scriptures. The God in whom Jesus believed, to whom he totally gave himself,
and in whom we believe is ‘the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob’.
A right understanding of the relationship with Judaism is, therefore, fundamental
to Christianity’s own self-understanding.

Christians and Jews share one hope, which is for the realisation
of God’s Kingdom on earth. Together they wait for it, pray for
it and prepare for it. This Kingdom is nothing less than human life and
society transformed, transfigured and transparent to the glory of God.
Christians believe that this glory has already shone in the face of Jesus
Christ. In his life, death and resurrection the Kingdom of God, God’s
just rule, has already broken into the affairs of this world. Judaism is
not able to accept this. However, Christian belief in Jesus is related
to a frame of reference which Christians and Jews share. For it is
as a result of incorporation into Jesus Christ that Christians came
to share in the Jewish hope for the coming of God’s Kingdom.

Christian faith focuses quite naturally on Jesus the Christ and his
Church. However, both these realities can and should be seen along
with the hope for, and the horizon of, the Kingdom of God. The presence
and the hope for the Kingdom of God were central to the preaching and mission
of Jesus. Moreover, Christians continue to pray daily ‘Your Kingdom
come’. Christians and Jews share a common hope for the consummation
of God’s Kingdom which, for Christians, was inaugurated in the life,
death and resurrection of Jesus the Christ. Thus, it is through incorporation
into Christ, through membership of the Christian Church, that Christians
come to share in the hope for the Kingdom. We believe that if this hope
for God’s Kingdom was given its central place by both Jews and
Christians this would transform their relationship with one another.

Christians and Jews share a passionate belief in a God of loving kindness
who has called us into relationship with himself. God is faithful and he
does not abandon those he calls. We firmly reject any view of Judaism which
sees it as a living fossil, simply superseded by Christianity. When Paul reflects on the mystery of
the continued existence of the Jewish people (Rom. 9-11) a full half
of his message is the unequivocal proclamation of God’s abiding love
for those whom he first called. Thus he wrote:
God’s choice stands and they are his friends for the sake of the
patriarchs. For the gracious gifts of God and his calling are irrevocable.
(Rom. 11.28-29, NEB)
God continues to fulfil his purposes among the Jewish people.

However, with some honourable exceptions their relationship has too
often been marked by antagonism. Discrimination and persecution of the Jews led
to the teaching of contempt; the systematic dissemination of anti-Jewish
propaganda by Church leaders, teachers and preachers. Through catechism,
teaching of school children, and Christian preaching, the Jewish people
have been misrepresented and caricatured. Even the Gospels have, at times,
been used to malign and denigrate the Jewish people.

Anti-Jewish prejudice promulgated by leaders of both Church and State has
led to persecution, pogrom, and, finally, provided the soil in which the
evil weed of Nazism was able to take root and spread its poison. The Nazis
were driven by a pagan philosophy, which had as its ultimate aim the destruction
of Christianity itself. But how did it take hold? The systematic extermination
of six million Jews and the wiping out of a whole culture must bring about
in Christianity a profound and painful re-examination of its relationship
with Judaism. In order to combat centuries of anti-Jewish teaching and
practice, Christians must develop programmes of teaching, preaching, and
common social action which eradicate prejudice and promote dialogue.

Many Christians would also affirm Islamic monotheism and speak
approvingly of Islamic devotion to Jesus and to Mary, his virgin mother.
Islam stands in a particular relationship to Christianity because
of its acceptance of Jesus as the promised Messiah of the Hebrew Scripture.
At the same time, however, we note that Muslims do not understand this
affirmation to imply a doctrine of the person and work of Jesus as the
Messiah which would be acceptable to most Christians. Nonetheless this
affirmation of Jesus as the fulfilment of the Messianic promise is unique
to Christians and Muslims. The same is true of the Islamic affirmation
of Jesus as the ‘Word of God’, although Islamic Christology
does not accept this as implying the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation.
Many Muslims, though not all, would confine its signifi­cance to the
miraculous events surrounding Jesus’ conception and birth. At the
same time, Islam affirms the Hebrew Scriptures and the special relationship
which God had established with the Jewish people ‘to whom he had
shown his special favour’. While it is currently the majority view
among Muslims that the whole Bible has been textually corrupted and is
therefore no longer valid, this is not the only view found in either classical
or contemporary Islamic thought. Some of Islam’s greatest scholars
have argued that the ‘corruption’ of Jewish and Christian scriptures
referred to in the Qur’an is a corruption, not of text, but of interpretation
only. Christians in dialogue ought to know the classical Islamic sources
which have argued strongly for this view of the Bible.

On the other hand, it has been the almost unanimous Islamic tradition
to reject the crucifixion of Jesus as either historical fact or as theologically
significant. The Quoranic material relating to the crucifixion is highly ambiguous
and there is the possibility of theological dialogue with Muslims
on the interpretation and significance of the Qur’anic material on
Jesus. We need not, however, totally reject the Islamic affirmation of
Jesus, even as we challenge it in its rejection of his atoning work upon
the cross. It is important to note that the Islamic rejection of the crucifixion
is not ultimately based on a rejection of the concept of the suffering
of God’s righteous prophets. God’s power is not perceived in
Islam as a magic charm against unjust suffering and persecution. The
Qur’an often refers, as does the New Testament, to prophets of God
who have been killed at various times in history. It accepts not only the
possibility but the fact of their death at the hands of the wicked. Nor
can we say that Islam automatically rejects the positive value of suffering
for others or in the cause of God. This it affirms strongly and in the
Shi’ite tradition the concept of vicarious suffering is of fundamental
importance.

Many Christians can also affirm the Islamic struggle to be faithful
to the example of Abraham. Islamic tradition traces the descent of the
Arabs, and so of Muhammad, to Abraham through Ishmael. Many Christians,
among them John of Damascus, and the Arab apologist Is/iaq ‘Abd al-Masi/j
al-Kindi, accept this genealogy. This is important for Muslims in their
understanding of the prophetic mission of Muhammad and of their relationship
with Judaism and Christianity as religions which also have a special connection
with the faith of Abraham. Even though most Muslims today are not Arabs,
they feel, like Christians, that they are Children of Abraham by faith
because of the message of Muhammad, descendant of Ishmael, son of Abraham.

Although Luther had already spoken positively about the faith of Ishmael,
few Christians have given much thought to this child of Abraham, about
whom the Bible says ‘God was with the lad and he grew up’ (Gen.
21.20). Although rejected from the line of the covenant which God had made
with the descendants of Abraham through Isaac, there is no biblical evidence
that this child, miraculously saved by God in the wilderness, ever abandoned
his faith in the God of his father Abraham. The figure of Ishmael is theologically
challenging for, although rejected from the particular covenant made with
Abraham, he and his mother were the object of particular and miraculous
attention on the part of God. Perhaps we need to challenge the negative
assumptions that surround our reaction to this biblical character>

Many Christians also often feel challenged to affirm the religious devotion
which Muslims display in their prayers. This is clear not only
in their ritual prayers but in their own personal prayers, such as have
been gathered together with Christian prayers by Kenneth Cragg, former
Anglican Bishop in Egypt, in his book Alive to God.

Christians may also affirm the sense of fellowship which Muslims often
show to each other, regardless of language, race or national origin. They
can also affirm early Islamic ideals of religious tolerance. At the same
time they would want to challenge Muslims to develop those aspects of their
tradition which imply a broader understanding of the unity of all
people.

Christians would also want to affirm the deep Islamic reliance on the
grace and mercy of God. Although often misunderstood and misrepresented
by Christian theologians as teaching salvation by works, all schools of
Islamic thought are marked by a deep sense of the gratuitous mercy of God.
This mercy cannot be earned by anyone because, in Islamic thought,
no one can have any claims against God. All that God gives, he gives not
because we deserve it but gratuitously. This emphasis on the gratuitousness
of God’s gift has led Islamic theology to abandon the doctrine of
the atonement as understood in Christianity, although both the word (kaffarah) and
the concept are known and used in more restricted senses. Islamic theology
argues that God needs no sacrifice or atonement in order freely to forgive
human sin and alienation. This he may do simply because he is God
Almighty. And yet, Islamic thought does not reject the importance of human
co-operation with God in working his revealed will here on earth. In this
respect the Qur’an speaks of humanity as God’s vicegerent (khalifah) on
earth, and this line of thought is developed by many Islamic thinkers.
Although some forms of popular Islam may seem to have degenerated into
legalism and fatalism, the normative Islamic emphasis on grace and human
co-operation should always be borne in mind.

The Way of Sharing

Dialogue does not require people to relinquish or alter their beliefs
before entering into it; on the contrary, genuine dialogue demands that
each partner brings to it the fullness of themselves and the tradition
in which they stand. As they grow in mutual understanding they will be
able to share more and more of what they bring with the other. Inevitably,
both partners to the dialogue will be affected and changed by this process,
for it is a mutual sharing.

Within this sharing there are a variety of attitudes towards Judaism within
Christianity today. At one pole, there are those Christians whose
prayer is that Jews, without giving up their Jewishness, will find
their fulfilment in Jesus the Messiah. Indeed some regard it as their particular
vocation and responsibility to share their faith with Jews, whilst at the
same time urging them to discover the spiritual riches which God has given
them through the Jewish faith. Other Christians, however, believe that
in fulfilling the Law and the prophets, Jesus validated the Jewish relationship
with God, while opening this way up for Gentiles through his own person.
For others again, the holocaust has changed their perception, so that until
Christian lives bear a truer witness, they feel a divine obligation
to affirm the Jews in their worship and sense of God who is, for Christians,
the Father of Jesus. In all these approaches, Christians bear witness to
God as revealed in Jesus and are being called into a fresh, more fruitful
relationship with Judaism. We urge that further thought and prayer, in
the light of Scripture and the facts of history, be given to the nature
of this relationship.

All these approaches, however, share a common concern to be sensitive
to Judaism, to reject all proselytising, that is, aggressive and
manipulative attempts to convert, and, of course, any hint of antisemitism.
Further, Jews, Muslims and Chris­tians have a common mission. They
share a mission to the world that God’s name may be honoured: ‘Hallowed
be your name’. They share a common obligation to love God with their
whole being and their neighbours as themselves. ‘Your Kingdom come
on earth as it is in heaven’. And in the dialogue there will be mutual
witness. Through learning from one another they will enter more deeply
into their own inheritance. Each will recall the other to God, to
trust him more fully and obey him more profoundly. This will be mutual
witness between equal partners.

Many Muslims feel that Islam has superseded Christianity the
way many Christians have traditionally felt that Christianity superseded
Judaism (a view which the same Muslims would share). Just as Christian
polemicists have often seized upon the writings of Jewish scholars to try
to undermine the faith of the Jewish community, some Muslim intellectuals
and propagandists rejoice when they feel able to use some pronouncement
of a Western theologian to undermine Christianity and underscore the truth
of Islam. Such pronouncements, designed to witness to and explain the Christian
faith in liberal societies, are pounced upon and used to damage pressurised
Christian Churches in Islamic societies.

One pressing concern that Christians will want to share with Muslims is
the need for clear, strong safeguards for adherents of minority religions
in Muslim societies. Any interpretation of Islamic law that seems to deny
basic human rights, including the right of people to practise and teach
their own faith, must be challenged. We recognise that here there
is positive ground for dialogue because some Muslim thinkers of the Middle
Ages and later periods were among the first actually to incorporate ideas
of tolerance and safeguards for minorities within their legal systems;
sometimes centuries before such ideas were advocated by the European Enlightenment.
However limited these ideas may have been in the past, Muslim thinkers
of today must be challenged to develop them into even more positive understandings
of the role of minorities in Islamic society. In particular, the law of
apostasy is undergoing considerable discussion today by Muslim thinkers
and jurists and is an area where Christians versed in Islamic law
must enter into dialogue with Muslims. In matters such as this the sometimes
tiny, struggling Churches set in Islamic societies need the support of
the wider church.

It is quite clear that there can be no genuine understanding, affirmation
or sharing with Islam without quite detailed study by at
least some experts. In this respect Jewish-Christian dialogue is better
served. Most of the important works of traditional and contemporary
Jewish thought are available in English, French, Spanish or German translations
(if indeed these are not the language of the original). Most of the basic
works of traditional Islamic thought have not been translated into these
languages and are accessible only to those with a knowledge of Arabic.
Even today, although more Muslims are writing in these languages, most
of the contemporary intellectual activity within the world of Islam is
being conducted in Arabic, Urdu, Persian and Bahasa (Malaysia/Indonesia).
Valuable work is being done by Christian institutions, in which Anglicans
play a part, such as the Centre for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim
Relations at the Selly Oak Colleges (Birmingham, UK); the Henry Martyn
Institute (Hyderabad, India); the Duncan Black MacDonald Center (Hartford,
USA) and the Christian-Muslim Study Centre (Rawalpindi, Pakistan). There
is also the new study centre recently established in the Gulf by the Bishop
of Cyprus. Such work needs to be extended and supported by the Churches
of the Ang­lican Communion.

Resolution that the Anglican Communion:
Commends the document Jews, Christians and Muslims: The Way of Dialogue for
study and encourages the Churches of the Anglican Communion to engage in
dialogue with Jews and Muslims on the basis of understanding, affirmation
and shar­ing illustrated in it.
Recommends that the Anglican Consultative Council gives consideration to
the set­ting up of an Inter-Faith Committee, which Committee, in the
interest of cost and in practical pursuance of our commitment to ecumenism,
would work in close co-operation with the Inter-Faith Dialogue Committee
of the WCC; and that this Committee, amongst its other work, establishes
a common approach to people of other faiths on a Communion-wide basis and
appoints working parties to draw up more detailed guidelines for relationships
with Judaism and Islam and other faiths as appropriate. Recommends that
Provinces initiate talks wherever possible on a tripartite basis, with
both Jews and Muslims.
Urges Provinces to support those institutions which are helping Christians
towards a more informed understanding of Judaism and Islam.