Orissastate of India. Located in the northeastern part of the country, it is bounded by the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal to the north and northeast, by the Bay of Bengal to the east, and by the states of Andhra Pradesh to the south and Chhattisgarh to the west. Before India became independent in 1947, Orissa’s capital was at Cuttack. The present capital was subsequently built at Bhubaneshwar, in the vicinity of its historic temples in the east-central coastal plains. Area 60,119 square miles (155,707 square km). Pop. (2008 est.) 3839,899,000.

Land

Relief, soils, and drainage

Orissa’s geologic formations vary considerably in both age and character. In the interior regions, extending across the stable landmass of the Indian subcontinent (a fragment of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana), are found some of the oldest rocks of the Earth’s crust, while along the seaboard are deltaic alluvial deposits and ridges of windblown sand.

The state can be divided broadly into four natural divisions: the northern plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the central tract, and the coastal plains. The northern plateau (in the northern part of the state) is an extension of the forest-covered and mineral-rich Chota Nagpur plateau centred in Jharkhand. The Eastern Ghats, extending roughly parallel to the coast and rising to an elevation of about 3,600 feet (1,100 metres), are remnants of a very ancient line of hills in eastern peninsular India. The central tract comprises a series of plateaus and basins occupying the inland area to the west and north of the Eastern Ghats; the plateau areas provide scant resources, but several of the basins—notably the Kalahandi, Balangir, Hirakud, and Jharsuguda—have the soil and the irrigation facilities to support local agriculture. The coastal plains are formed of alluvial soils deposited by the many rivers flowing to the Bay of Bengal; locally the area is known as the Balasore (Baleshwar) coastal plain to the northeast, the Mahanadi River delta in the centre, and the Chilika plain to the southwest.

Orissa is located in a climatic region known as tropical wet-dry (or tropical savanna). In January, the coldest month, high temperatures in Cuttack typically rise into the mid-80s F (about 30 °C) from a low in the mid-50s F (low 10s C). In May, the warmest month, temperatures usually reach the mid-90s F (mid-30s C) from a low in the low 70s F (low 20s C). The higher elevations of the hills provide some relief from the summer heat, which becomes particularly oppressive in the basins of the central tract. Average annual rainfall in the state is about 60 inches (1,500 mm), with most occurring during the months of the southwest monsoon (June through September). The Eastern Ghats receive heavier precipitation, while the coastal area south of Chilika Lake, which is the driest region in the state, may receive less than 50 inches (1,300 mm) annually.

Plant and animal life

Orissa’s forests cover nearly one-third of the state. They are commonly classified into two categories: tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry deciduous. The first type occupies the hills, plateaus, and more isolated areas within the northeastern part of the state, while the second is found in the southwest. Moving from northeast to southwest, the density of forest cover generally decreases. Bamboo grows in both forest types, as do tropical hardwoods, such as teak, rosewood, and padauk.

Orissa’s woodlands are inhabited by an array of wildlife, much of which is protected in parks and sanctuaries established by the state and national governments. Notable mammals include elephants, gaurs (wild cattle), blackbucks, four-horned antelope, several types of tigers, and various species of monkeys. Peacocks are among the characteristic birds of Orissa’s forests. In the east-central coastal region, Chilika Lake is a breeding ground for many fish and water fowl.

People

Population composition

Scheduled Tribes (a term generally applied to indigenous peoples who fall outside the predominant Indian social hierarchy) and Scheduled Castes (formerly called “untouchables”; groups that officially occupy a low position within the caste system) constitute almost two-fifths of the population of Orissa. The tribal peoples are divided into three linguistic groups: the speakers of Munda languages of the Austroasiatic language family, the speakers of various languages of the Dravidian family, and the speakers of Oriya, which is an Indo-Aryan language. Historically, the Santhal, Savara, and Juang peoples have been among the most prominent of the Munda speakers, while the Khond, Gond, and Oraon (Kurukh) have been the principal speakers of Dravidian languages. The Bhuiyan speak Oriya. By the early 21st century, many of the tribal peoples had adopted Oriya as their primary language. Oriya is the official language of Orissa and is spoken by most of Orissa’s nontribal population, except in some parts of the northeast, where Bengali is widely spoken.

Hindus make up the overwhelming majority of the population of Orissa. Muslims are the largest religious minority in all areas of the state except in certain administrative localities, including Sundargarh, Ganjam, Koraput, and Phulabani, where there are greater numbers of Christians. In none of the state’s districts, however, does a single minority religion claim more than a tiny fraction of the population.

The caste structure in Orissa is similar to that in other states of eastern India. Just below the highest-level Brahmans are the Karanas (the writer class), who claim Kshatriya (military) status, with the pen as their weapon rather than the sword. The Khandayats (literally, “Swordsmen”) are mostly cultivators but call themselves “Khandayat-Kshatriyas.” The tribal peoples for a long time have been undergoing the process of Hinduization, and many tribal chieftains also have claimed Kshatriya status. All castes look to Jagannatha (one of the incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu) as the centre of their religious faith. For centuries the town of Puri, known as the abode of Jagannatha, has been the only place in India where all castes eat together.

Settlement patterns

Orissa has a predominantly rural population. The irrigated rice-farming region of the coastal plains is heavily populated. Although some tribal peoples have settled in the plains, most live in the hill areas. The major cities are Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack, Brahmapur, Raurkela Sambalpur, and Puri. All are in the coastal region except Raurkela and Sambalpur, which are in northwestern Orissa.

Economy

Agriculture

Although much of the land is either unproductive or unsuitable for more than a single annual crop, about two-thirds of the working population is engaged in agriculture, and the sector accounts for roughly one-fourth of the state’s gross product. Cultivated lands occupy about one-third of the total area of the state; about half of these lands are sown with rice. Other important crops include pulses (legumes), oilseeds, vegetables, cereals (such as wheat, corn [maize], sorghum, and pearl millet), jute, sugarcane, coconuts, and spices. Low sunlight availability, modest soil quality, limited use of fertilizer, and variable volume and timing of the monsoon rains combine to give Orissan farmers generally low yields. Agricultural families sometimes supplement their income through nonagricultural pursuits, as farming does not typically provide year-round employment.

Resources and power

The mineral resources of Orissa are considerable. Orissa is a national leader in the production of chromite, manganese ore, graphite, and nickel ore. It is also one of the top producers of high-quality iron ore. Coal from the Talcher field near the east-central city of Dhenkanal provides the energy base for a number of the state’s large-scale industries.

Aside from its “captive power plants” (power plants that are dedicated to specific industries), the bulk of Orissa’s energy comes from hydroelectric stations. Indeed, the great Mahanadi River system has been harnessed by one of the most ambitious multiple-purpose projects on the subcontinent; the Hirakud Dam and the Machkund hydroelectric project, together with several smaller units, provide flood control, irrigation, and power to the entire lower basin. Thermal plants are a significant secondary source of power.

Manufacturing

Most of the state’s manufacturing activities are tied to its natural resources. Large-scale mineral-based industries include steel, ferromanganese, cement, aluminum, and fertilizer production as well as nonferrous smelting. Other major industries include the manufacture of chemicals, ceramic products, and aeronautics equipment. In general, heavy and large-scale industry are concentrated in the interior regions of the state. By contrast, most of the foundries (especially for aluminum and brass), glass works, and paper mills are located in the coastal plains, as are small-scale industries, including sericulture (silk production), cotton textile mills, sugar mills, and rice mills.

Transportation

Communication facilities were undeveloped before 1947, but the merger of a number of feudatory states with Orissa and the discovery of mineral resources required the construction of a network of good roads. Beginning in the mid-20th century, bold construction programs—such as the building of bridges over most of the principal rivers—were undertaken by the government of Orissa, and by the early 21st century, national highways and major roads covered most regions of the state.

Orissa also is served by a number of railways. Major train stations are located in Bhubaneshwar, Puri, Balasore, Cuttack, Khurda Road (just southwest of Bhubaneshwar), and Brahmapur—all in the coastal plains. There is an all-weather, sheltered, deep-draft port at Paradip, at the mouth of Mahanadi River. This port has become an important departure point for the state’s exports, especially coal. An airport in Bubhaneshwar offers domestic service.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The government of Orissa, like that of most other states and territories in India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, appointed by the president of India. The actual administration, however, is conducted by the Council of Ministers, which is headed by a chief minister and responsible to the unicameral Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), whose members are elected at intervals of not more than five years through universal adult suffrage. There is a high court in Cuttack; its chief justice is appointed by the president of India. Below the high court are district and sessions courts, magistrates’ courts, and various courts that handle particular types of cases.

Orissa is divided into more than a dozen districts, grouped into several revenue divisions, each under a divisional commissioner. A board of revenue is in charge of revenue administration. The district administration is conducted by a deputy commissioner, who is also the district magistrate. The districts are divided into tahsils, each having a tahsildar as its revenue officer. Tahsils comprise groups of villages, administered by panchayats (village councils), to which villagers elect their representatives. A sarpanc (elected president) heads each pancayat. The towns are administered by municipalities.

Health and welfare

At one time there was a high rate of malaria along the coastal belt, and the whole state was subject to epidemics of cholera and smallpox. The incidence of filariasis (a disease caused by the presence of filarial worms in the blood and glands), leprosy, and tuberculosis was also high. Since the mid-20th century, much attention has been paid to health services, and great progress in reducing the incidence of these diseases has been achieved through various programs. Nevertheless, with the exception of cholera and smallpox, which have been brought under control, these diseases as well as sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) and measles have remained a concern and a focus of state health initiatives. Allopathic (Western), Ayurvedic (ancient Indian), and homeopathic medical treatment is available throughout the state.

The state conducts various programs to improve and broaden educational, cultural, economic, and social opportunities for tribal peoples and other disadvantaged groups. A research and training institute in Bhubaneshwar is charged with collecting information to assist the state government in formulating plans and policies regarding tribal welfare. Other schemes, such as public education initiatives and the expansion of urban immunization and health services, aim to better the welfare of women and children.

Education

Although the number of educational institutions in Orissa has increased considerably since the mid-20th century, the state’s literacy rate has remained below the national average, and only a small fraction of Orissa’s population is university-educated. Higher education is available, however, at several local universities (and numerous associated colleges). Of the universities, Utkal University (1943) and Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology (1962), both in Bhubaneshwar, are the largest and best known. Training in allopathic, Ayurvedic, and homeopathic medicine is offered at more than a dozen government and private colleges. Orissa also has numerous pharmacy colleges and nursing schools.

Cultural life

The arts

Orissa has a rich artistic heritage and has produced some of the finest examples of Indian art and architecture. Among the most notable traditions in the visual arts are mural painting, stone carving, wood carving, icon painting (known as patta), and painting on palm leaves. The state also is widely recognized for its exquisite silver filigree ornamentation, pottery, and decorative work.

In tribal areas, Orissa has a wide variety of dances. Music of the madal (a type of local drum) and flute is characteristic of the countryside. The classical dance of Orissa, known as orissi, has survived for more than 700 years. Originally it was a temple dance performed for the gods. The movements, gestures, and poses of the dance are depicted in relief on the walls of the great temples. Chhau, a type of masked dance associated with the Mayurbhanj district and adjacent areas in the north, is emblematic of Oriya culture. For the promotion of dancing and music, the Kala Vikash Kendra centre was founded at Cuttack in 1952, and it has continued to be a prominent arts performance and training venue in Orissa.

Festivals

Orissa is the site of many traditional festivals. One that is unique to the state is the ceremony of Boita-Bandana (worshipping of boats) in October or November (the date is set to the Hindu calendar). For five consecutive days before the full moon, people gather near riverbanks or the seashore and float miniature boats in remembrance of their ancestors who once sailed to faraway lands (such as Malaysia and Indonesia).

The town of Puri is the site of the Jagannatha temple, perhaps the most famous Hindu shrine in India, and of the temple’s annual Chariot Festival, which attracts hundreds of thousands of people; the English word juggernaut, derived from the temple’s name, was inspired by the massive, nearly unstoppable wagons used in the festival. A few miles away, in Konarak (Konark), is a 13th-century temple that reinforces the significance of the chariot in the region; it is constructed in the form of the chariot of the Hindu sun god, Surya.