Recently, BAD Crypto Podcast hosts Joel Comm and Travis Wright were foolish enough to have me on their show, talking about Crowdfunding and Crypto and ICOs and blockchain and French cooking (or was that another podcast?). Click here to listen.

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When I was a kid, back in the 1840s, we referred to people who live outside the United States as “foreigners.” Using the more globalist and clinical term “non-U.S. persons,” I’m going to summarize how people and companies outside the U.S. fit into the U.S. Crowdfunding and Fintech picture.

Can Non-U.S. Investors Participate in U.S. Crowdfunding Offerings?

Yes. No matter where he or she lives, anyone can invest in a U.S. Crowdfunding offering, whether under Title II, Title III, or Title IV.

To invest in an offering under Title II (SEC Rule 506(c)), a non-U.S. investor must be “accredited.”

If a non-U.S. investor invests in an offering under Title III (aka “Regulation CF”), he or she is subject to the same investment limitations as U.S. investors.

If a non-U.S. investor who is also non-accredited invests in an offering under Tier 2 of Title IV (aka “Regulation A”), he or she is subject to the same limitations as non-accredited U.S. investors, e., 10% of the greater of income or net worth.

What About Regulation S?

SEC Regulation S provides that an offering limited to non-U.S. investors is exempt from U.S. securities laws. Mysterious on its face, the law makes perfect sense from a national, jurisdictional point of view. The idea is that the U.S. government cares about protecting U.S. citizens, but nobody else.

EXAMPLE: If a U.S. citizen is abducted in France, the U.S. military sends Delta Force. If a German citizen is abducted in France, Delta Force gets the day off to play volleyball.

Regulation S is relevant to U.S. Crowdfunding because a company raising money using Title II, Title III, or Title may simultaneously raise money from non-U.S. investors using Regulation S. Why would a company do that, given that non-U.S. investors may participate in Title II, Title III, or Title IV? To avoid the limits of U.S. law. Thus:

A company raising money using Title II can raise money from non-accredited investors outside the United States using Regulation S.

A company raising money using Title III can raise money from investors outside the United States without regard to income levels.

A company raising money using Tier 2 of Title IV can raise money from non-accredited investors outside the United States without regard to income or net worth.

Thus, a company raising money in the U.S. using the U.S. Crowdfunding laws can either (1) raise money from non-U.S. investors applying the same rules to everybody, or (2) place non-U.S. investors in a simultaneous offering under Regulation S.

What’s the Catch?

The catch is that the U.S. is not the only country with securities laws. If a company in the U.S. is soliciting investors from Canada, it can satisfy U.S. law by either (1) treating the Canadian investors the same way it treats U.S. investors (for example, accepting investments only from accredited Canadian investors in a Rule 506(c) offering), or (2) bringing in the Canadian investors under Regulation S. But to solicit Canadian investors, the company must comply with Canadian securities laws, too.

Raising Money for Non-U.S. Companies

Whether a non-U.S. company is allowed to raise money using U.S. Crowdfunding laws depends on the kind of Crowdfunding.

Title II Crowdfunding

A non-U.S. company is allowed to raise money using Title II (Rule 506(c)).

Title III Crowdfunding

Only a U.S. entity is allowed to raise money using Title III (aka “Regulation CF”). An entity organized under the laws of Germany may not use Title III.

But that’s not necessarily the end of the story. If a German company wants to raise money in the U.S. using Title III, it has a couple choices:

It can create a U.S. subsidiary to raise money using Title III. The key is that the U.S. subsidiary can’t be a shell, raising the money and then passing it up to the parent, because nobody wants to invest in a company with no assets. The U.S. subsidiary should be operating a real business. For example, a German automobile manufacturer might conduct its U.S. operations through a U.S. subsidiary.

The stockholders of the German company could transfer their stock to a U.S. entity, making the German company a wholly-owned subsidiary of the U.S. entity. The U.S. entity could then use Title III.

Title IV Crowdfunding

Title IV (aka “Regulation A”) may be used only by U.S. or Canadian entities with a “principal place of business” in the U.S. or Canada.

(I have never understood why Canada is included, but whatever.)

If we cut through the legalese, whether a company has its “principal place of business” in the U.S. depends on what the people who run the company see when they wake up in the morning and look out the window. If see the U.S., then the company has it’s “principal place of business” in the U.S. If they see a different country, it doesn’t. (Which country they see when they turn on Skype doesn’t matter.)

Offshore Offerings

Regulation S allows U.S. companies to raise money from non-U.S. investors without worrying about U.S. securities laws. But once those non-U.S. investors own the securities of the U.S. company, they have to think about U.S. tax laws. Often non-U.S. investors, especially wealthy non-U.S. investors, are unenthusiastic about registering with the Internal Revenue Service.

The alternative, especially for larger deals, is for the U.S. entity to form a “feeder” vehicle offshore, typically in the Cayman Islands because of its favorable business and tax climate. Non-U.S. investors invest in the Cayman entity, and the Cayman entity in turn invests in the U.S. entity.

These days, it has become a little fashionable for U.S. token issuers to incorporate in the Cayman Islands and raise money only from non-U.S. investors, to avoid U.S. securities laws. Because the U.S. capital markets are so deep and the cost of complying with U.S. securities laws is so low, this strikes me as foolish. Or viewed from a different angle, if a company turns its back on trillions of dollars of capital to avoid U.S. law, I’d wonder what they’re hiding.

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The Internal Revenue Service just issued regulations about qualified opportunity zone funds, answering many of the questions raised by the legislation itself. And for the most part, the answers are positive for investors and developers.

Can I Use An LLC?

Yes. Although the legislation provides that a QOZF must be a “corporation or a partnership,” the regulations confirm that a limited liability company treated as a partnership for tax purposes (or any other entity treated as a partnership for tax purposes) qualifies.

How Do I Calculate Rehabilitation Costs?

To qualify as “qualified opportunity zone business property,” either the original use of the property must begin with the QOZF or the QOZF must “substantially improve” the property. The statute says that to “substantially improve” the property, the QOZF must invest as much in improving the property as it paid for the property in the first place.

The regulations carve out an important exception: in calculating how much the QOZF paid for the property, the QOZF may exclude the cost of the land. Thus, a QOZF that buys an apartment building for $2,000,000, of which $1,500,000 was attributable to the cost of the land, is required to spend only $500,000 on renovations, not $2,000,000.

What Kind of Interest Must an Investor Own?

To obtain the tax deferral, an investor must own an equity interest in the QOZF, not a debt instrument. Preferred stock is usually treated as an equity interest.

Are Short-Term Capital Gains Covered?

Yes, all capital gains are covered. Ordinary income — for example, from depreciation recapture — is not.

Do All The Assets of the Business Have to be in the Qualified Opportunity Zone?

A business can qualify as a “qualified opportunity zone business” only if “substantially all” of its tangible assets are located in the qualified opportunity zone. The regulations provide that “substantially all” means at least 70%. That means that 30% of the assets of the qualified opportunity zone business can be outside the qualified opportunity zone.

NOTE: Don’t get confused. To qualify as a QOZF, the fund itself must have invested 90% of its assets in “qualified opportunity zone property.” One kind of of “qualified opportunity zone property” is a “qualified opportunity zone business.” The 70/30 test applies in determining whether a business is a “qualified opportunity fund business.” So if a QOZF owns assets directly, 90% of those assets must be in the qualified opportunity zone. But if the QOZF invests in a business, then only 70% of the assets of the business must be in the qualified opportunity zone.

NOTE: Many QOZFs will own property through single-member limited liability companies. When applying the 70% test and the 90% test, bear in mind that a single-member limited liability company is generally not treated as a “partnership” for tax purposes, but rather as a “disregarded entity.” For tax purposes, assets owned by the single-member limited liability company will be treated as owned directly by the QOZF.

What Happens in 2028, When the Program Ends?

The qualified opportunity zone program ends in 2028. Nevertheless, the regulations allow investors to continue to claim tax benefits from the program until 2048.

How Long can the QOZF Wait to Invest?

Suppose a QOZF raises $5M today. When does the money have to be invested?

The regulations provide that under some circumstances, you can wait up to 31 months to invest. But this is one area where more guidance is needed.

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My work in the Crowdfunding space has been the most interesting and challenging of my career. Now I’m looking to add to our Crowdfunding team here at Flaster/Greenberg, and I hope you can help find the right person.

The right person would have these qualifications:

An attorney with 2-4 years of experience in corporate and securities offerings

Crowdfunding-specific experience appreciated but not required

A good, fast learner, unafraid to ask questions

Someone who pays attention to detail, and takes pride in great legal work

A good writer and communicator

Good technology skills

Lives in the Philadelphia area or is able to work effectively remotely

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Marc R. Garber, an employee benefits lawyer, was a partner with my firm for almost 20 years. He died last week of cancer at age 62.

Marc loved practicing law. He loved the very arcane qualities of employee benefits law that make most of us shy away. He knew the 1953 case and the 1972 IRS ruling and the 2017 statute and everything in between. He reveled in the intellectual detail, and he was always right. I wish more lawyers shared Marc’s attention to detail. If he had chosen Crowdfunding rather than employee benefits, you wouldn’t know me.

Life dealt Marc some harsh blows, including a traffic accident that shattered his health. He was, in spite of everything, one of the most positive, optimistic human beings I’ve ever met. When I saw Marc’s unrelenting optimism in the face of adversity, and compared that to my own circumstances, I could feel almost ashamed. Marc’s joy for life was both a lesson and an inspiration.

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We know an “investment company,” as defined in the Investment Company Act of 1940, can’t use Title III Crowdfunding. For that matter, an issuer can’t use Title III even if it’s not an investment company, if the reason it’s not an investment company is one of the exemptions under section 3(b) or section 3(c) of the 1940 Act. By way of example, suppose a a company is engaged in the business of making commercial mortgage loans. Even if the company qualifies for the exemption under section 3(c)(5)(C) of the 1940 Act, it still can’t use Title III.

We also know that, silly as it seems, a company whose only asset is the securities of one company is generally treated as an investment company under the 1940 Act. That’s why we can’t use so-called “special purpose vehicles,” or SPVs, in Title III Crowdfunding, to round up all the investors in one entity and thereby simplify the cap table.

Put those two things together and you might conclude that only an operating company, and not a company that owns stock in the operating company, can use Title III Crowdfunding. But that wouldn’t be quite right.

A company that owns the securities of an operating company – I’ll call that a “parent company” — can’t use Title III if it’s an “investment company” under the 1940 Act. However, while every investment company is a parent company, not every parent company is an investment company. Here’s what I mean.

Section 3(a)(1) of the 1940 Act defines “investment company” as:

A company engaged primarily in the business of investing, reinvesting, or trading in securities; or

A company engaged in the business of investing, reinvesting, owning, holding, or trading in securities, which owns or proposes to acquire investment securities having a value exceeding 40% of the value of its assets.

Suppose Parent, Inc. owns 100% of Operating Company, LLC, and nothing else. If Parent’s interest in Operating Company is treated as a “security,” then Parent will be an investment company under either definition above and can’t use Title III. However, it should be possible to structure the relationship between Parent and Operating Company so that Parent’s interest is not treated as a security, relying on a long line of cases involving general partnership interests.

These cases arise under the Howey test, made famous by the ICO world. Under Howey, an instrument is a security if and only if:

It involves an investment of money or other property in a common enterprise;

There is an expectation of profits; and

The expectation of profits is based on the efforts of someone else.

Focusing on the third element of the Howey test, courts have held that a general partner’s interest in a limited partnership generally is not a security because (1) by law, the general partner controls the partnership, and (2) the general partner is therefore relying on its own efforts to realize a profit, not the efforts of someone else.

If Operating Company were a partnership and Parent were its general partner, then the arrangement would fall squarely within this line of cases and Parent wouldn’t be treated as an investment company. As a general partner, however, Parent would be fully liable for the liabilities of Operating Company, defeating the main purpose of the parent/subsidiary relationship, i.e., letting the tail wag the dog.

Fortunately, Parent should be able to achieve the same result even though Operating Company is a limited liability company. The key is that Operating Company should be managed by its members, not by a manager. That should place Parent in exactly the same position as the typical general partner: relying on its own efforts, rather than the efforts of someone else, to realize a profit from the enterprise.

If Parent’s interest in Operating Company isn’t a “security,” then Parent isn’t an “investment company,” and can raise money using Title III.

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Everywhere you look, there’s another opportunity zone fund. What are these things and why are they suddenly so popular?

The Tax Savings

It’s all about taxes, specifically capital gain taxes. Added to the Internal Revenue Code by the 2017 tax act, new section 1400Z-2 allows investors to reduce their capital gain taxes in four increasingly-generous levels:

Level One Savings: If you sell property (including property sold through a partnership or limited liability company) and recognize a capital gain, then you don’t have to pay tax right away on the gain to the extent you invest in a “qualified opportunity zone fund,” or QOZF, within 180 days. Instead, the gain is deferred until the earlier of (i) the date you sell your interest in the QOZF, or (ii) December 31, 2026.

EXAMPLE: You bought stock two years ago for $1,000, and sell it during 2018 for $1,100, recognizing a $100 capital gain. If you invest $75 in a QOZF within 180 days, you pay tax in 2018 only on $25 of the gain. You pay tax on the $75 on the earlier of the date you sell your interest in the QOZF or 12/31/2026.

It gets better.

Level Two Savings: If you hold your investment in the QOZF for at least five years, you get to increase your tax basis in the QOZF by 10% of the gain you deferred, further reducing your tax bill.

EXAMPLE: In the example above, if you hold your investment in the QOZF for at least five years, you get to increase your tax basis by 10% of $75, or $7.50.

And better.

Level Three Savings: If you hold your investment in the QOZF for at least seven years, you get to increase your tax basis in the QOZF by another 5% of the gain you deferred.

And better.

Level Four Savings: If you hold your investment in the QOZF for 10 years, you pay no capital gain tax on the appreciation in the QOZF.

EXAMPLE: If, in the original example, you invested $75 in the QOZF and sold it after 10 years for $195 (10% appreciation per year, compounded), you would pay no tax on the $120 of appreciation.

What if the Value of the QOZF Goes Down?

If you lose money on the QOZF, then your tax on the original capital gain also goes down.

EXAMPLE: You sell appreciated stock for a $100 profit, and invest $75 in a QOZF. Three years later, you sell your interest in the QOZF for $50 (I’m assuming your tax basis in the QOZF hasn’t changed). You pay tax on only $50 of capital gain, not the whole $75.

Thus, it’s heads-you-win, tails-the-government-loses.

What’s A Qualified Opportunity Zone Fund?

A qualified opportunity zone fund means a corporation or partnership that holds 90% of its assets in any mix of the following assets:

Stock of a corporation that is a “qualified opportunity zone business.”

An interest in a partnership that is a “qualified opportunity zone business.”

“Qualified opportunity zone property.”

A “qualified opportunity zone business” is a business substantially all of the assets of which are qualified opportunity zone property.”

”Qualified opportunity zone property” means property that is:

Located in a “qualified opportunity zone”;

Used by the QOZF in a trade or business; and

Either:

The property is brand new (g., ground-up construction); or

Within 30 months, the QOZF or the qualified opportunity zone business spends at least as much to renovated the property as it paid to buy it.

Boiled down version: A qualified opportunity zone fund means a fund that, directly or indirectly, owns new or substantially renovated business assets in a qualified opportunity zone.

Only New Businesses or Assets Count

In figuring out whether a fund is a qualified opportunity zone fund, you take into account only property acquired after 12/31/2017.

Does it Matter Where the Capital Gain Came From?

No. The capital gain you’re deferring could come from the sale of appreciated stock, the sale of real estate, the sale of artwork, or anywhere else.

An Alternative to A Like-Kind Exchange

Under section 1031 of the Internal Revenue Code, the owner of appreciated real estate (only real estate) can defer paying tax on sale by exchanging the real estate for different real estate. In fact, a whole industry has grown up around these so-called “like-kind exchanges.”

For as long as it lasts, the QOZF provides a simpler and possibly better alternative.

What is a Qualified Opportunity Zone?

A “qualified opportunity zone” means a low-income area that has been nominated as such by the Governor of a state and approved by the U.S. Treasury. A list is of current qualified opportunity zones is available here.

No Massage Parlors

In a crippling blow to my own business plans, a “qualified opportunity zone business” does not include massage parlors or hot tub facilities. Nor does it include golf courses, country clubs, suntan facilities, racetracks or other facilities used for gambling, or liquor stores.

The term “partnership” includes a syndicate, group, pool, joint venture, or other unincorporated organization, through or by means of which any business, financial operation, or venture is carried on, and which is not, within the meaning of this title, a trust or estate or a corporation; and the term “partner” includes a member in such a syndicate, group, pool, joint venture, or organization.

Based on that definition, a limited liability company should work.

What if I Invest More in a QOZF?

Suppose you sell appreciated stock for a $100 capital gain, and within six months invested $150 in a QOZF. The favorable tax rules apply only to two-thirds of your investment. The other one-third is just a regular investment.

Who Can Form a Qualified Opportunity Zone Fund?

Anyone, literally. If you sell appreciated stock and want to defer or avoid tax on all or part of the gain, you can form your own QOZF.

Conversely, large companies, including large investment managers and large real estate developers, have already formed QOZFs, taking advantage of the tax benefits and the media buzz to raise capital.

Investment Company Act Limits

When Congress enacted the tax benefits for qualified opportunity zone funds, it could have created an exception to the investment company rules at the same time, making the funds even more appealing and effective. But it didn’t.

Consequently, and perhaps paradoxically, larger QOZFs — those with more than 100 investors — will have to own property directly, or take controlling interests in other businesses, to avoid being treated as investment companies. They will not be allowed to hold minority, non-controlling interests in businesses owned by others, such as, say, the residents of the qualified opportunity zone.

How Can I Raise Capital for My QOZF?

You can raise capital using any method you like, including Title II Crowdfunding (Rule 506(c)), Title III Crowdfunding (Regulation CF), Title IV Crowdfunding (Regulation A), or Rule 506(b).

Qualified opportunity zone funds are about saving taxes, specifically capital gain taxes. They make less sense for non-accredited investors who, by definition, earn less money and pay tax at lower rates. Consequently, we will probably see fewer QOZFs using Title III or Regulation A to raise capital, and many using Rule 506(b).

More Rules to Come

The Internal Revenue Service hasn’t yet issued guidance on the details of this complicated legislation. Expect complicated regulations and at least a few surprises.

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NewCo, LLC is conducting an offering under Rule 506(c) and receives a subscription from the Smith Family Trust. The Trust could be an accredited investor under any of four rules.

Rules for All Trusts

Rule #1: The Trust is an accredited investor if the trustee or co-trustee is a bank, insurance company, registered investment company, business development company, or small business investment company.

Rule #2: Alternatively, the Trust is an accredited investor if:

It has more than $5,000,000 in assets;

It was not formed for the purpose of investing in NewCo; and

Its trustee has such knowledge and experience in financial and business matters that he or she is capable of evaluating the merits and risks of a prospective investment.

Rule for Revocable Trusts

Rule #3: If the Trust is a revocable trust, it is an accredited investor if:

Mary Smith, the grantor, is herself an accredited investor;

The Trust may be amended or revoked at any time by Ms. Smith; and

The tax benefits of investments made by the trust pass through to Ms. Smith.

Rule for Irrevocable Trusts

Rule #4: If the Trust is an irrevocable trust, it is an accredited investor if:

Mary Smith, the grantor, is herself an accredited investor;

The trust is a grantor trust for Federal income tax purposes and Ms. Smith is the sole funding source;

Ms. Smith would be taxed on all income of the trust and would be taxed on the sale of trust assets;

Ms. Smith is the trustee with sole investment discretion;

The entire amount of Ms. Smith’s contribution plus a rate of return would be paid to the grantor prior to any other payments;

The Trust was established by Ms. Smith for estate planning purposes; and

Creditors of Ms. Smith would be able to reach her interest in the Trust.

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Among the tricks of Wall Street bad guys is the fake financial analysis, prepared (and paid for) to promote a particular stock but presented as an objective review. Section 17(b) of the Securities Act of 1933 was written to stop that:

It shall be unlawful for any person. . . . to publish, give publicity to, or circulate any notice, circular, advertisement, newspaper, article, letter, investment service, or communication which, though not purporting to offer a security for sale, describes such security for a consideration received or to be received, directly or indirectly, from an issuer, underwriter, or dealer, without fully disclosing the receipt, whether past or prospective, of such consideration and the amount thereof [italics added].

It’s no joke. For example, in April 2017 the SEC brought an enforcement action charging 28 businesses and individuals for participating in a scheme to generate bullish articles on investment websites like SeekingAlpha.com, Benzinga.com, and SmallCapNetwork.com while concealing the compensation. See Press Release, SEC: Payments for Bullish Articles on Stocks Must Be Disclosed to Investors, Rel. No. 2017-79 (Apr. 10, 2017).

Hypothetical examples in the Crowdfunding and token world:

NewCo pays an industry periodical to publish an article written by NewCo that purports to objectively rate the “Top 10 ICOs of 2018” and happens to list NewCo’s ICO as #1. Section 17(b) doesn’t make the article illegal, it just says the periodical has to disclose both the fact that it’s being paid and the amount of the payment.

If NewCo paid me to highlight its ICO on this blog, I’d have to report the compensation.

A real estate Crowdfunding platform sends an email promoting an offering, or a group of offerings, on its platform. That email is not covered by section 17(b) because of the italicized language above, i.e., it’s clear that the email is an offer of securities (which raises its own issues, separate from section 17(b)).

An investor relations firm places favorable articles about NewCo in trade publications while NewCo’s ICO is live. Those articles are covered by section 17(b).

A live event called “ICO Summit World” purports to highlight “The Most Promising ICOs of 2018,” but presents only companies that pay to play. Definitely covered by section 17(b).

My sense is that in the Crowdfunding world, and especially in the token world, there’s a lot of paid promotional activity going on without the disclosure required by section 17(b). The securities laws don’t apply to tokens, right?