lead-glazed English earthenware of the 16th century. Fragments of dark-red, hard earthenware with a black or iron-brown metallic-appearing glaze were designated Cistercian because they were excavated at Yorkshire Cistercian abbeys; the pottery predates the dissolution of the monasteries (1540), but a dated example of 1599 indicates continued production. The pottery forms generally consist of drin...

member of a Roman Catholic monastic order that was founded in 1098 and named after the original establishment at Cîteaux (Latin: Cistercium), a locality in Burgundy, near Dijon. The order’s founding fathers, led by St. Robert of Molesme, were a group of Benedictine monks from the abbey of Molesme who were dissatisfied with the relaxed observance of their abbey and ...

member of a Roman Catholic monastic order that was founded in 1098 and named after the original establishment at Cîteaux (Latin: Cistercium), a locality in Burgundy, near Dijon. The order’s founding fathers, led by St. Robert of Molesme, were a group of Benedictine monks from the abbey of Molesme who were dissatisfied with the relaxed observance of their abbey and ...

village, site of a famous abbey in Côte-d’Or département, Burgundy région, France, south of Dijon. Founded in 1098 by St. Robert, abbot of Molesme, the abbey, largely through the activities of the 12th-century churchman and mystic St. Bernard of Clairvaux, became the headquarters of the Cistercian order, with abbeys scattered all over Eu...

...at Berzé-la-Ville, where the various compositions are filled with energy and colour, and a tumult of fine sweeping folds and flickering highlights plays over the surface of the drapery. At Cîteaux the early manuscripts show evidence of strong Norman and English influence in their decoration and a satirical delight in observation (as in Gregory the Great’s Moralia in Job, 11...

...so well conceived that they served to protect the city against every assault until the Turks, supported by cannon, attacked with vastly superior odds in 1453. Also distinctive were the underground cisterns, of which more than 30 are known in Constantinople today. They all took on the same character, with strong outer walls and roofs of small domes supported on tall columns. Some are of great......

...some comparatively small. In some, like the great cistern near Hagia Sophia called by the Turks the Yerebatan (Underground) Palace, old material was reused; in others, like the even more impressive Binbirdirek (Thousand and One Columns) cistern, new columns of unusually tall and slender proportions and new capitals of cubic form were designed specially. These cisterns assured an adequate supply...

membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the cell......

...and a membrane containing a cellular layer called the choroid plexus, located in the fourth ventricle. Cerebrospinal fluid entering the fourth ventricle from the cerebral aqueduct passes into the cisterna magna, a subarachnoid space surrounding the medulla and the cerebellum, via openings in the lateral recesses in the midline of the ventricle....

membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the cell......

...the next; budding vesicles can also be used to transport molecules back to the endoplasmic reticulum. A vital element of this model is that the cisternae themselves are stationary. In contrast, the cisternal maturation model depicts the Golgi apparatus as a far more dynamic organelle than does the vesicular transport model. The cisternal maturation model indicates that cis cisternae move......

As early as the mid-18th century, Charles François de Cisternay Du Fay, a French chemist, noted that electricity may be conducted in the gaseous matter—that is to say, plasma—adjacent to a red-hot body. In 1853 the French physicist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel reported that only a few volts were required to drive electric current through the air between high-temperature......

...the zitting cisticola, or common fantail warbler (C. juncidis), a reddish brown, streaky bird, 11 cm (4.5 inches) long, found from Europe and Africa to Japan and Australia. Like most cisticolas it makes a domed nest. The most common species from India to the Philippines and Australia is C. exilis, often called tailorbird, because it sews green leaves into its nest....

The most widespread example is the zitting cisticola, or common fantail warbler (C. juncidis), a reddish brown, streaky bird, 11 cm (4.5 inches) long, found from Europe and Africa to Japan and Australia. Like most cisticolas it makes a domed nest. The most common species from India to the Philippines and Australia is C. exilis, often called tailorbird, because it sews green......

city and administrative centre, Chistopol rayon (sector), Tatarstan, west-central Russia. Formed in 1781 when the village of Chistoye Pole became the town of Chistopol, it is today a port along a large reservoir on the Kama River, just above its confluence with the Volga. The city’s main industries are ship r...

American molecular biologist who developed (1955) a method for determining the detailed structure of viral genes and coined the term cistron to denote functional subunits of genes. He also did much to elucidate the nature of genetic anomalies, called nonsense mutations, in terms of the nucleotide sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the “gene substance,” and......

(Cistus), any of a genus of 18 species of low to medium-sized shrubs, in the rock rose family (Cistaceae), native to the Mediterranean region and long known to horticulture. There are a number of garden hybrids useful in warm areas (mostly including C. ladanifer as one of the parents), where they are often grown in rock gardens. The large flowers are single and roselike, in white, pi...

(Cistus), any of a genus of 18 species of low to medium-sized shrubs, in the rock rose family (Cistaceae), native to the Mediterranean region and long known to horticulture. There are a number of garden hybrids useful in warm areas (mostly including C. ladanifer as one of the parents), where they are often grown in rock gardens. The large flowers are single and roselike, in white, pi...

...shrubs, in the rock rose family (Cistaceae), native to the Mediterranean region and long known to horticulture. There are a number of garden hybrids useful in warm areas (mostly including C. ladanifer as one of the parents), where they are often grown in rock gardens. The large flowers are single and roselike, in white, pink, or rosy-purple, often with a yellowish or dark blotch......

city and administrative centre of the former Chita oblast (region), far eastern Russia. In 2008 Chita region merged with Agin-Buryat autonomous okrug (district) to form Zabaykalsky kray (territory)....

...(2009), examined sexual longing. The drama focused on a married woman who tests her husband’s faithfulness by hiring a prostitute to tempt him. Egoyan also directed the documentary Citadel (2006), which follows his wife, actress Arsinée Khanjian, as she returns to her homeland of Lebanon for the first time in 28 years....

...in the more prosperous, more heavily populated, and more highly urbanized state of Chorasmia (later Khwārezm). Chorasmia’s defensive architecture was particularly notable. Its great citadels and palaces were enclosed by two lines of walls strengthened by massive towers that were fitted with lookout posts and firing slits and topped by archers’ galleries. Chorasmian entrance...

Along the southern part of the avenue lies the Ciudadela (“Citadel”), a large square courtyard covering 38 acres (15 hectares). Within the Citadel stands the Temple of Quetzalcóatl (the Feathered Serpent) in the form of a truncated pyramid; projecting from its ornately decorated walls are numerous stone heads of the deity. The temple walls were once painted in hematite red.......

...south of Castle Hill rises the higher Gellért Hill (771 feet), a steep limestone escarpment overlooking the Danube, which provides a panoramic view of the whole city. At the top stands the Citadel (Citadella)—built by the Austrian army in the mid-19th century in order to keep watch over the town—which serves today as a hotel and restaurant and doubles on St. Stephen’...

public military college located in Charleston, South Carolina, U.S. All undergraduate daytime students, known as cadets, are required to participate in one of the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps programs. The college offers bachelor’s degree programs in business, education, engineering, arts, and sciences. Master’s degree programs are off...

The Citadel (with David’s Tower) beside the Jaffa Gate, which acquired its present form in the 16th century, was created over ruins from the Hasmonean and Herodian periods, integrating large parts of Crusader structures and some Mamlūk additions. The large number of churches mainly represent two great periods of Christian architecture, the Byzantine and Crusader eras. The former is.....

public military college located in Charleston, South Carolina, U.S. All undergraduate daytime students, known as cadets, are required to participate in one of the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps programs. The college offers bachelor’s degree programs in business, education, engineering, arts, and sciences. Master’s degree programs are off...

...south of Castle Hill rises the higher Gellért Hill (771 feet), a steep limestone escarpment overlooking the Danube, which provides a panoramic view of the whole city. At the top stands the Citadel (Citadella)—built by the Austrian army in the mid-19th century in order to keep watch over the town—which serves today as a hotel and restaurant and doubles on St. Stephen’...

The growing sadness and pessimism in Saint-Exupéry’s view of man appears in Citadelle (1948; The Wisdom of the Sands), a posthumous volume of reflections that show Saint-Exupéry’s persistent belief that man’s only lasting reason for living is as repository of the values of civilization....

...traveling time between Port-au-Prince and Cap-Haïtien from 11 to 3 hours and effectively opened the area to tourism. Attractions include the nearby palace of Sans-Souci and the fortress of La Citadelle Laferrière, both built by Henry Christophe and now in the National History Park; they were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1982. The citadel, often called the Eighth......

...notably the 140, 170, and 180 lines. In 1954 it began production of the T-37, the first primary and intermediate jet trainer for the U.S. Air Force. In 1972 the company delivered its first Citation business jet. Following the decline in sales of piston-engine private aircraft beginning in the late 1970s because of U.S. liability laws, Cessna discontinued this previously profitable line......

(foaled 1945), American racehorse (Thoroughbred) who in 1948 became the eighth winner of the American Triple Crown—the Kentucky Derby, the Preakness Stakes, and the Belmont Stakes—and was also the first horse to win $1 million. In four seasons (1947–48, 1950–51) he won 32 of 4...

in law, document issued by a court ordering a specific person to appear at a specific time for some specific purpose. It is issued either directly to the person or to a law officer who must carry out the instructions. Often the purpose of a citation or summons is to require a person to answer charges or a complaint filed against him. It may also be used simply to notify a person that he has an int...

...Languedoc-Roussillon region, southwestern France, southeast of Toulouse, near the eastward bend of the Aude River, which divides the city into two towns, the Ville Basse and the Cité. The Cité has the finest remains of medieval fortifications in Europe....

...at either end of Brussels Park, in an area that has become a symbol for the national government. North of the Palace of the Nation, and dominating the northeastern end of the historic city, is the Cité Administrative, built between the late 1950s and early ’80s and originally intended for national government functions. The complex’s austere international style drew much cri...

Apart from La Cité antique (1864; “The Ancient City”), a study of the part played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece and Rome, most of Fustel’s work was related to the study of the political institutions of Roman Gaul and the Germanic invasions of the Roman empire....

Situated in the Seine in the centre of Paris, the ship-shaped Île de la Cité is the historical heart of the city. It is about 10 streets long and 5 wide. Eight bridges link it to the riverbanks, and a ninth leads to the Île Saint-Louis, the smaller island that lies to the southeast. The westernmost bridge is the Pont Neuf (New Bridge), which was built from 1578 to 1604.......

urban plan designed by Tony Garnier and published in 1917 under the title of Une Cité Industrielle. It represents the culmination of several philosophies of urbanism that were the outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution in 19th-century Europe....

urban plan designed by Tony Garnier and published in 1917 under the title of Une Cité Industrielle. It represents the culmination of several philosophies of urbanism that were the outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution in 19th-century Europe....

village, site of a famous abbey in Côte-d’Or département, Burgundy région, France, south of Dijon. Founded in 1098 by St. Robert, abbot of Molesme, the abbey, largely through the activities of the 12th-century churchman and mystic St. Bernard of Clairvaux, became the headquarters of the Cistercian order, with abbeys scattered all over Eu...

...at Berzé-la-Ville, where the various compositions are filled with energy and colour, and a tumult of fine sweeping folds and flickering highlights plays over the surface of the drapery. At Cîteaux the early manuscripts show evidence of strong Norman and English influence in their decoration and a satirical delight in observation (as in Gregory the Great’s Moralia in Job, 11...

...by the lack of a lipid envelope and the presence of two protein coats. D. andersoni requires a vertebrate host for a part of its life cycle. The main mammalian reservoir of the virus is the golden-mantled ground squirrel, Citellus lateralis. The carrier tick is found chiefly in the western parts of the United States, notably in Colorado, and is most active in the late spring and.....

international agreement adopted in March 1973 to regulate worldwide commercial trade in wild animal and plant species. The goal of CITES is to ensure that international trade does not threaten the survival of any species. Since 1973 the number of state parties to the convention has grown to more than 170....

To help replenish its oil and natural gas reserves, Occidental expanded into the North Sea, where it made a major oil discovery in 1973; acquired Cities Service Company in 1982 (though it sold off all of that company’s refining and marketing operations the next year); and acquired in 1986 the Midcon Corporation, which had one of the largest natural gas pipelines in the United States. In 198...

mountain range in Greece, separating Boeotia from Megaris and Attica (Modern Greek: Attikí). Its western end reaches the Gulf of Corinth (Korinthiakós). The range has a maximum elevation of 4,623 feet (1,409 m). In ancient times, the road from Athens to Thebes crossed the range via the pass of Dryoscephalae (modern Dhríos Kefáli). On the north slope of Mount Cithaeron i...

stringed musical instrument, one of the two principal types of ancient Greek lyres. It had a wooden soundboard and a box-shaped body, or resonator, from which extended two hollow arms connected by a crossbar. Three, originally, but later as many as 12 strings ran from the crossbar to the lower end of the instrument, passing over a bridge on the soundboard. The strings were usually played with a pl...

any of certain edible, American Pacific flatfishes of the genus Citharichthys (family Paralichthyidae). As in other flatfishes, sanddabs have both eyes on the same side of the head; as in other paralichthyids, the eyes are usually on the left side. The most common species of sanddab is the Pacific sanddab (C. sordidus), a brownish fish mottled, in the male, with dull orange. It grows...

...As in other flatfishes, sanddabs have both eyes on the same side of the head; as in other paralichthyids, the eyes are usually on the left side. The most common species of sanddab is the Pacific sanddab (C. sordidus), a brownish fish mottled, in the male, with dull orange. It grows to about 40 cm (16 inches) and 1 kg (2 pounds)....

stringed musical instrument, one of the two principal types of ancient Greek lyres. It had a wooden soundboard and a box-shaped body, or resonator, from which extended two hollow arms connected by a crossbar. Three, originally, but later as many as 12 strings ran from the crossbar to the lower end of the instrument, passing over a bridge on the soundboard. The strings were usually played with a pl...

Chinese businessman and politician. He was the founder (in 1979) and president of China International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC), China’s largest investment company at the time, and later (1993–98) was vice president of China....

...of the fuel crises, in 1973–74, rekindled interest in electric vehicles in America. Numerous experimenters and entrepreneurs began work on battery electric cars, the most successful being the CitiCar built by a Florida company, Sebring Vanguard, Inc. The CitiCar had a plastic, wedge-shaped, two-seater body over a welded aluminum chassis. Lead-acid batteries supplied power to a......

...Office towers, such as those of the World Trade Center (1972) in New York City and the Sears Tower (1973; now called Willis Tower) in Chicago, continued to be built, but most of them, such as the Citicorp Center (1978) in New York City, featured lively and innovative space for shopping and entertainment at street level....

relatively permanent and highly organized centre of population, of greater size or importance than a town or village. The name city is given to certain urban communities by virtue of some legal or conventional distinction that can vary between regions or nations. In most cases, however, the concept of city refers to a particular type of community, the urban communit...

...in 2000 and the Pritzker Prize in 2007. In 1995 he became the first architect to deliver the annual BBC Reith Lectures, a series of radio talks; these were later published as Cities for a Small Planet (1997). Rogers was knighted in 1991 and was made a life peer in 1996....

Beginning in 1950, Blish wrote the short stories that became the first published novel of the Cities in Flight series, Earthman, Come Home (1955), set in the 4th millennium ce, which established the future world that would be the setting of the four-part series. Explicitly based on the historical theories of German philosopher Oswald Spengler about the life cycle of a cu...

...networks may not disappear in the city; they became wider and stronger among Mexican shantytown inhabitants, for example. New sectarian identities can play an equivalent role: Bryan Roberts in Cities of Peasants (1978) shows that the growth of Pentecostal and other Protestant sects in Guatemala fulfills needs for mutual support networks in poor neighbourhoods and for those without kin......

...Not until 1966, with the appearance of the first volume of her diaries, did she win recognition as a writer of significance. The success of the diary provoked interest in her earlier work Cities of the Interior (1959), a five-volume roman-fleuve, or continuous novel, which consists of Ladders to Fire (1946), Children of......

...the picaresque adventures of brothers Billy and Boyd Parham and centres around three round-trip passages that Billy makes between southwestern New Mexico and Mexico. The trilogy concludes with Cities of the Plain (1998), which interweaves the lives of John Grady Cole and Billy Parham through their employment on a ranch in New Mexico....

To help replenish its oil and natural gas reserves, Occidental expanded into the North Sea, where it made a major oil discovery in 1973; acquired Cities Service Company in 1982 (though it sold off all of that company’s refining and marketing operations the next year); and acquired in 1986 the Midcon Corporation, which had one of the largest natural gas pipelines in the United States. In 198...

principal Phoenician city in Cyprus, situated on the southeast coast near modern Larnaca. The earliest remains at Citium are those of an Aegean colony of the Mycenaean Age (c. 1400–1100 bc). The biblical name Kittim, representing Citium, was also used for Cyprus as a whole. A Phoenician dedication to the god “Baal of Lebanon,” found at C...

...filming documentaries. He joined the BBC a few years later, rising to the head of their documentary division by 1962. He had great critical success with his series of documentaries Citizen 63, which describe what the British citizen in 1963 was really like, rather than how he described himself. In 1964 Boorman directed The Newcomers, a popular.....

the last king of France (1774–92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789. The monarchy was abolished on Sept. 21, 1792; later Louis and his queen consort, Marie-Antoinette, were guillotined on charges of counterrevolution....

a form of drama produced in the early 17th century in England. Such comedies were set in London and portrayed the everyday life of the middle classes. Examples include Ben Jonson’s Bartholomew Fair (1614) and Thomas Middleton’s A Chaste Mayd in Cheape-side (1630). ...

(1793), incident precipitated by the military adventurism of Citizen Edmond-Charles Genêt, a minister to the United States dispatched by the revolutionary Girondist regime of the new French Republic, which at the time was at war with Great Britain and Spain. His activities violated an American proclamation of neutrality in the European conflict and greatly embarrassed Fra...

journalism that is conducted by people who are not professional journalists but who disseminate information using Web sites, blogs, and social media. Citizen journalism has expanded its worldwide influence despite continuing concerns over whether citizen journalists are as reliable as trained professionals. Citizens in disaster zones have pr...

American film drama, released in 1941, that was directed, produced, and cowritten by Orson Welles, who also starred in the lead role. Citizen Kane is acclaimed by many critics as the greatest movie ever made. As a landmark work in the history of cinema, it ranks among the few films ever produced for which a remake, in the opinion of most critics, is all but unthinka...

...Bee and other periodicals, and above all in his Chinese Letters. These essays were first published in the journal The Public Ledger and were collected as The Citizen of the World in 1762. The same year brought his Life of Richard Nash, of Bath, Esq. Already Goldsmith was acquiring those distinguished and often helpful friends whom he......

...borrowed cultural features from the Plains Indians, notably communal bison hunts. In the late 1860s many of the Kansas band moved to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), where they were known as the Citizen Potawatomi....

In February 2007 Yunus entered the Bangladeshi political arena by forming a political party, Nagorik Shakti (Citizen Power), and announcing his intention to contest the upcoming election. His announcement came during a state of emergency and severe conflict between the country’s two major parties, the Awami League and the Bangladesh National Party. Yunus promised his movement would seek to....

amendment (1868) to the Constitution of the United States that granted citizenship and equal civil and legal rights to African Americans and slaves who had been emancipated after the American Civil War, including them under the umbrella phrase “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.” In all, th...

For his first feature film, Citizen Ruth (1996), Payne wrote the screenplay with a friend, Jim Taylor. A broad skewering of the pervasive abortion debate in American public life, the film starred Laura Dern as a pregnant drug-addicted wastrel who becomes a pawn of both pro-choice and pro-life activists. With its largely unsympathetic protagonist and its gleefully......

...the resulting film, Angels Hard as They Come (1971). Demme was then given a chance to write and direct Caged Heat (1974), and he made two more films for Corman before directing Handle with Care (1977; originally titled Citizens Band), a raucous ensemble comedy centred on the citizens band (CB) radio fad that swept the United States in the 1970s. Although the film......

short-range radio voice communications system used chiefly by private individuals in motor vehicles, homes, offices, and other locations where wireless telephone service is unavailable. A typical CB radio consists of a combined transmitter-receiver (a transceiver) and an antenna. In the United States 40 channels, at frequencies from 26.965 to 27.225 megahertz or in the UHF range...

The election to choose 42 members of the Majlis (parliament), originally scheduled for the end of 2004, was held on January 22. In late January Gayoom announced a 31-point proposal for a constitutional amendment to establish a multiparty democracy with more fundamental rights, a separation of powers, and a criminal justice system. Registration of political parties began after the Majlis passed......

...several of which they created or controlled. These organizations—notably including the Cato Institute (the country’s first libertarian think tank, cofounded by Charles Koch in 1977) and the Americans for Prosperity Foundation (originally Citizens for a Sound Economy, cofounded by David Koch in 1984)—generally favoured laissez-faire economic policies, significantly lower tax...

Parliamentary elections held on May 12 were characterized by low voter turnout and allegations of vote rigging. The result was a hung parliament. Borisov’s centre-right Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria (GERB) won 30.5% of the vote but not enough to form a government. The Bulgarian Socialist Party, which tallied 26.6%, and the third-place Turkish minority Movement ...

...Internal Security Agency (ABW). Normal civilian police services are under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Under the communist government, police services were undertaken by the Citizens’ Militia—of which the Motorized Detachments of the Citizens’ Militia (ZOMO) acted as a mobile paramilitary riot squad—and the Security Service (SB), a secret politi...

...law, long called for by activists, that would establish a national citizen’s ombudsman to investigate corruption. Hazare and his associates, however, believed that the legislation, called the Jan Lokpal Bill (or Citizen’s Ombudsman Bill), did not give the ombudsman enough powers to make it effective. Activists wanted the ombudsman to be able to investigate corruption at all levels...

...founders were dissident members of the Christian Social Union who had protested that party’s role in arranging credit for communist East Germany. They were soon joined by members of the former Citizens’ Party outside Bavaria. The Republicans’ chairman from 1985 to 1994 was Franz Schönhuber, a former volunteer in the Nazi Waffen SS. The party called for lower business...

CB radio originated in the United States during the 1940s, when the Federal Communications Commission created the Citizens Radio Service for regulating remote-control units and mobile radiotelephones. The commission made CB radio a special class of the service in 1958 and permitted its use as a hobby in 1975. Several other nations, including Canada, Jamaica, and Germany, also allow CB......

In 1995 a new constitution, which created a strong president, was enacted, and in November Shevardnadze was elected to that office with 75 percent of the vote, and his party, the Citizens’ Union of Georgia (CUG), won 107 of the parliament’s 231 seats. In legislative elections four years later, the CUG won an absolute majority, and in 2000 Shevardnadze was reelected president with nea...

case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on January 21, 2010, ruled (5–4) that laws preventing corporations and unions from using general treasury funds for independent electioneering communications violate the First Amendment’s guarantee of freedom of speech. In so doing the court invalidated Section 203 of the federal Bi...

relationship between an individual and a state in which an individual owes allegiance to that state and in turn is entitled to its protection. Citizenship implies the status of freedom with accompanying responsibilities. Citizens have certain rights, duties, and responsibilities that are denied or only partially extended to aliens and other noncitizens residing in a country. In general, full polit...

volcano on the border of Veracruz and Puebla states, south-central Mexico. Its name comes from the Nahuatl for “Star Mountain.” It rises on the southern edge of the Mexican Plateau, 60 miles (100 km) east of the city of Puebla. At 18,406 feet (5,610 metres) above sea level, the Pico de Orizaba’s symmetrical, snowcapped c...

city of central Greece in the Sperkhiós River valley at the foot of the Óthrys Mountains, near the Gulf of Euboea (Modern Greek: Évvoia). It is the capital of the Fthiótis nomós (department) and the seat of a bishop of the Greek Orthodox church. Lamía commands the strategic Foúrka Pass leading northwestward into Thessaly (M...

...stringed musical instrument that was popular in the 16th–18th century. It had a shallow, pear-shaped body with an asymmetrical neck that was thicker under the treble strings. Derived from the citole, a similar 14th- and 15th-century instrument with gut strings, the cittern had four unison courses of wire strings. Diapasons, additional courses to reinforce the basses of chords, were also....