Chapter 7 Social Process Theories.

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2 Socialization and CrimeSocial process theories suggest criminality is a function of socializationAny person regardless of race, class or gender can become criminalElements of family, peer group, school, and church contribute to socialization processes

3 Socialization and CrimeFamily RelationsFamily plays a critical role in the determinant of behaviorParental efficacy refers to supportive parents who effectively control their childrenLinks between inconsistent discipline and delinquency

5 Socialization and CrimeChild Abuse and CrimeLinkage between child abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and crimeChildren subjected to abuse are more likely to use violence in personal interactionsIn nonviolent societies, parents rarely punish children physically

6 Socialization and CrimeEducational ExperienceChildren who fail in school offend more frequently than those who succeedSchools contribute to delinquency by labeling studentsSchool dropouts have a significant chance of entering a criminal career2003 national survey estimates about 1.5 million violent incidents occur in public schools each year

7 Socialization and CrimePeer RelationsChildren seek out peer groups between the ages of 8 and 14Peer Rejection: Children rejected by peers are more likely to display aggressive behaviorPro-social friends may inhibit criminalityPeers and Criminality: Antisocial peer groups increase the likelihood of delinquencyMark Warr suggests delinquent friends tend to be “sticky” meaning they are not easily lost once they are acquired

8 Socialization and CrimeInstitutional Involvement and BeliefReligion binds people togetherTravis Hirschi and Rodney Stark found the association between religion attendance, belief, and delinquency is insignificantRecent research contends that attending religious services is a significant inhibitor of crime

9 Socialization and CrimeThe Effects of Socialization on CrimeSocial learning theory suggests people learn techniques of crimes from criminal peersSocial control theory contends people are controlled by their bonds to societySocial reaction theory argues that society contributes to criminality through the use of labels

11 Social Learning TheoryCrime is a product of learning norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activityDifferential Association: Edwin H. Sutherland’s view that criminality is a function of the socialization process

12 Social Learning TheoryDifferential Association TheoryDifferential Association: Edwin H. Sutherland’s view that criminality is a function of the socialization processCriminal behavior is learnedLearning is a by-product of interacting with othersLearning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groupsLearning criminal behavior involves assimilating the techniques of committing crime, including motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudesThe specific direction is learned from perceptions of various aspects of the legal code as favorable or unfavorable

13 Social Learning TheoryA person becomes criminal when perceiving the consequences of violating the law as favorableDifferential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensityThe process of learning criminal behavior involves the same mechanisms as any other learning processCriminal behavior and noncriminal behavior express the same needs and values

15 Social Learning TheoryTesting Differential Association TheoryDifficult to conceptualize and test empiricallyResearch does support the core principles such as links to family, and peers with criminality

16 Social Learning TheoryAnalysis of Differential Association TheoryFails to account for the origin of criminal definitionsAssumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and systematicSome suggest the theory is tautological

17 Social Learning TheoryDifferential Reinforcement TheoryRonald Akers suggests “direct conditioning” occurs when behavior is reinforced by rewards or punishmentPeople evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with significant others and groups in their livesOnce people are indoctrinated into crime, their behavior can be reinforced through peers and the lack of negative sanctions

18 Social Learning TheoryTesting Differential ReinforcementStudies have suggested a strong association between drug and alcohol abuse and social learning variablesDeviant behavior is reinforced over time (I.E. smoking)Parents may supply negative reinforcements to children’s deviant behavior

19 Social Learning TheoryNeutralization TheoryDavid Matza and Gresham Sykes view criminality as a process learning neutralizing techniquesSubterranean values are morally tinged influencesDrift occurs from conventional behavior to criminal behavior if one can neutralize their sense of responsibility for antisocial behavior

20 Social Learning TheoryTechniques of NeutralizationDenial of responsibility: unlawful acts are beyond an offenders controlDenial of injury: offender’s perception is changed (i.e. stealing is borrowing)Denial of the victim: the victim had it coming (i.e. vandalism)Condemnation of the condemners: shifting the blame to others (i.e. society)Appeal to higher loyalties: loyalty to a higher cause (i.e. Oliver North and Iran Contra)

22 Social Learning TheoryTesting Neutralization TheoryEmpirical test results are inconclusiveNot all criminal offenders approve of social values such as honesty and fairnessAs Matza predicted, people do seem to drift in and out of antisocial behavior

23 Social Learning TheoryAre Learning Theories Valid?Learning theories fail to explain how the first criminal learned the necessary techniques and definitions of crimeFails to account for spontaneous crime or expressive crimesLearning of some criminality frequently occurs after one has committed the first criminal act

24 Social Control TheoryAll people have potential to violate the lawSelf-control refers to a strong moral sense that renders a person incapable of hurting others or violating social normsWalter Reckless argued a strong self-image insulates a person from the criminogenic influences of the environmentHoward Kaplan suggests youths with poor self-concepts are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior (normative groups)

25 Social Control TheoryHirschi’s Social Bond Theory (social control theory)Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties than bind people to society ( social bonds)Attachment (sensitivity to and interest in others)Commitment (time, energy, and effort into conventional activities)Involvement (insulates people from the lure of crime)Belief (moral respect for law and social values)

27 Social Control TheoryTesting Social Control TheoryEmpirical studies revealed a strong support for Hirschi’s control theoryYouths strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit criminal actsYouths involved in conventional activities were less likely to engage in criminal behaviorYouths involved in unconventional behaviors such as drinking and smoking were more prone to delinquencyYouths who maintained weak relationships with others moved toward delinquencyThose who shunned unconventional acts were attached to peersDelinquents and nondelinquents shar similar beliefs about societyRecent research shows attachments to peers, school and family may be interrelated

28 Social Control TheoryOpposing ViewsFriendship: A criticism of Hirschi’s theory is the notion that delinquents are detached lonersNot all elements of the bond are equal: Some people are very involved and not attachedDeviant peers and parents: Some people are very attached to deviant peersRestricted in scope: May not explain all modes of criminalityChange bonds: Bonds seem to change over timeCrime and social bonds: Direction of association might be miscalculated in the wrong direction

29 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Explains criminal careers in terms of destructive social interactions and stigma-producing encounters (symbolic interaction theory)People are given a variety of symbolic labels that define the whole personNegative labels stigmatize and reduce one’s self-imageSocial groups create definitions of positive and negative labelsLabels may actually maintain and amplify criminal behavior

30 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Crime and Labeling TheoryCrime and deviance are defined by the social audienceHoward Becker described those making the rules as moral entrepreneursSocial groups create deviance by labeling particular people as “outsiders”

32 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Differential EnforcementThose with social power penalize the powerlessContent of law reflects power relationshipsStreet crimes punished more severely than white-collar crimes

33 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Consequences of LabelingLabels produce stigmaCondemnation is carried out in “ceremonies” such as trials and media attention (degradation ceremonies)Differential social control: Self-labeling involves one taking on the attitudes and roles reflected in how a person views the way others see themJoining deviant cliques: Some labeled people may join cliques and other outcast peersRetrospective reading: refers to the reassessment of a person’s past to fit a current generalized label or statusDramatization of evil: Labels become a personal identity

34 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Primary and Secondary DevianceEdwin Lemert defined a norm violation with little or no long-term influence as primary devianceSecondary deviance refers to a norm violation that results in application of a negative label with long-term consequencesThe process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of the mainstream of society is referred to as deviance amplification

36 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Research on Social Reaction TheoryEvidence supports the targets of labeling (poor and powerless) are victimized by the law and justice systemContextual discrimination: refers to judges imposing harsher sentences on minoritiesEmpirical evidence supports that negative labels influence self-imageCumulative disadvantage: Provokes repeat behaviors

37 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Is Labeling Theory Valid?Inability to specify the conditions the must exist before an act or individual is labeledFailure to explain differences in crime ratesIgnores the onset of deviant behaviorCharles Tittle suggests criminal careers occur without labeling

38 Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)Evaluating Social Process TheoriesThe branches of social process theory-social learning-social control and social reaction are compatibleInteractions of social institutions, family, schools, peers, and the justice system are important in creating and inhibiting criminal behaviorSocial process theories are not persuasive in explaining fluctuations in crime patterns

39 Public Policy Implications of Social Process TheoryLearning theories have greatly influenced the way criminal offenders are treatedResidential treatment programs utilize group interaction to promote conventional behaviorHead Start is a well-known program designed to help lower-class youths achieve proper socializationDiversion programs are concerned with avoiding the stigma of a criminal labelRestitution programs permit an offender to repay the victim rather than face the stigma of a formal trial and court-ordered sentence