6 Others: Forelimbs able to twistClavicle allows wide range of arm movement(re. the above two points: if you have a gentle and patient pet dog, give it a rub on the tummy and then move it’s forelegs, they really only move in one plane)Slower reproduction- long gestation- usually one offspring at a timeLarger skull – relative to body sizeLarge brain – more complex, more foldsBetter visual acuity – more of the photoreceptors have their own sensory neuronsSocial dependency

7 Human hands are adapted for grasping and fine manipulationHuman hands are adapted for grasping and fine manipulation. In contrast gorillas have short fingers for knuckle walking and gibbons have elongated fingers and reduced thumbs for brachiating.

8 D.3.5 Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus including A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.knowledge of approximate dates & distribution of the named species is expected

9 HOMINOIDS Ardipithecus ramidus: about 4.4 m.y.a. ; Eastern AfricaOne of the most primitive hominidsSmall cranial capacity (size = female chimp; 20% of modern human)Facultative biped: walk on ground for short distance but can grasp trees using hallux (“big toe”)Shares some aspects of its teeth with later hominidsReduced caninesHave recovered approximately 45% of skeleton

14 Chimpanzee Australopithecus africanus Homo sapiensHOMINOIDS (cont.)Australopithecus africanus: 3 to 2.4 m.y.a.walked upright (bipedal)humanlike teeth and handsbrain was about 1/3 size of modern humansFossils are sufficiently different than “Lucy” to be a different speciesChimpanzee Australopithecus africanus Homo sapiens

15 hominids walked upright for two million years without a substantial increase in brain sizethis posture may have freed the hands for other things such as gathering food or caring for infantsIn arid environments, bipedal walking requires less energy than walking on all fours

16 Homo habilis: 2.4 to 1.6 m.y.a. Eastern & Southern AfricaEarliest fossil in our own genusenlargement of brain is evident in fossils dating back to about 2.4 m.y.a. (650 cc vs. 500 cc); shorter jawSimple, sharp stone tools found with H. habiliscoexisted with A. africanus for almost 1 million years (E. Africa)(A. africanus was an evolutionary “dead end”)"Handy Man"

18 Homo erectus: 1.8 m.y.a. to 200,000 years agomigrated out of AfricaFound in former Soviet Republic of GeorgiaIncrease in brain sizeDecrease in jaw sizeVertical shortening of the faceReached modern human height

20 *correlation between change in diet & increase in brain sizeH. erectus found on other continentsdiet shifted to include a larger portion of meatintelligence allowed them to survive in colder climates (lived in huts or caves, built fire, wore clothing, designed more refined tools)*correlation between change in diet & increase in brain size

21 lived in Europe, Middle East, & Asia (Homo neanderthalis): 200,000 to 30,000 yrs agolived in Europe, Middle East, & AsiaAppear to have descended from H. heidelbergensis which originated in Africa 600,000 years ago & then spread to Europe & the Near East- large brains, made hunting tools of stone and wood- Did not contribute in a significant way to the gene pool of humans (extinct30,000 years ago)

23 Homo sapiens: 195,000 years ago to present dayOldest known fossils of our own species have been found at two different sites in Ethiopia (195,000 & 160,000 years old)Lacked heavy brow ridges of H. erectus & neantherthalisMore slender than other hominidsEvidence of sophisticated thought: 77,000 year old art; 36,000 year old cave paintingsCoexisted with Neanderthals

30 The jaw has developed from a U into a V shapeThe jaw has developed from a U into a V shape. Teeth have generally reduced in size. (Chimpanzee provided for comparison)

31 Also, there is a hole in the bottom of the skull where the spinal cord exits the brain (foramen magnum).The foramen magnum is further forward in modern humans.This distributes the weight of the head over the spine so that modern humans do not need huge necks muscles.

32 Skeleton, locomotion and posture- look for trends!Human knees aligned under the body’s center of gravity because femurs are angled inwards.Human legs straighten completely when walking.Human spine has additional curves to keep centers of mass of head and trunk aligned for bipedalism.Big toe not opposable in humans, whichallows for an arched foot.Ratio legs:arms greater for humansthan other apesHuman pelvis broader

35 Read the article on Wikipedia about Homo floresiensis TOKRead the article on Wikipedia about Homo floresiensisDiscovered in 2004 on the Indonesian island of Flores, it has stirred up controversy in the palaeoanthropological world. Is it a separate species or is it the remains of diseased Homo sapiens. You be the judge!Short PBS video

36 Decomposition is usually rapid; soft body parts are rarely fossilized. D.3.7 Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties abouthuman evolution.It isn’t easy to create a collection of fossils that clearly show the change of species from one to another. Fossils rarely result when an animal dies for the following reasons:Decomposition is usually rapid; soft body parts are rarely fossilized.Scavengers usually break up skeletons and even chew up bones.The conditions have to be just right for fossilization to occur.Only a tiny, tiny, tiny fraction of all of the fossils in existence have been found.

37 Skulls and teeth are usually the parts of the ancestral hominids that survive to be fossilized and foundTherefore there is a lot of conjecture as to where they all fit in the family tree. Hypotheses are often overturned by new discoveries that rewrite the relationships between the species.

38 The large gaps in the human evolution fossil record are consistent with punctuated equilibriumThe following four slides show how the gaps are filled over time with new discoveries. The graphs plot cranial size against the age of the fossil.

43 fossil for the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees Despite the fossil evidence we have so far, there are still large gaps in our knowledge.We have nofossil for the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzeesIt is believed to have lived 6-8 million years agoFind out how this estimate was determined

44 The benefits of a bigger brain include: More complex tools D.3.8 Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size duringhominid evolution.The benefits of a bigger brain include:More complex toolsMastery of fireCookingWarmthProtectionGreater behavioral flexibility (less reliance on instinct and better able to learn and pass on knowledge necessary to adapt to an environment)

45 The cost of having a big brain: Longer gestation period Years of development before young can look after themselvesMuch more brain development occurs post birth that for any other animalIn summary: Big brains are energetically expensive. The mother must take in lots of energy not only during pregnancy, but for a significant time after due to nursing.Hominids needed to increase their energy uptake.Left: chimpanzee infant head size relative to pelvic opening; Right: human infant head size relative to pelvic opening

47 For some chunks of this:The increase in brain size observed in hominid fossils has been closely correlated with an increased intake of meat.A bigger brain made hunting and killing easier.

48 e.g. the use of fire, agriculture, tools, weapons, religion, beliefsD.3.9 Distinguish between genetic and cultural evolution.Biology H & IB Biology 1 has dealt with genetic evolution. In this context, it refers to the genetic changes that have occurred during the evolution of hominids. e.g. increased brain size, spine shape, position of knee, etc.Cultural evolution is the changing of ideas held and actions carried out by societies and the transmission of these ideas through social learning from one generation to the next.e.g. the use of fire, agriculture, tools, weapons, religion, beliefs

49 What do you think of the arguments for and against this proposition?D.3.10 Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution of humans.TOKRead this article:Are We Still Evolving?What do you think of the arguments for and against this proposition?

50 The cultural evolution has spanned millions of years in three major stages: the nomadic (hunting), agricultural (settled), and industrial ages.However, we have not changed biologically in any significant way. We could take a baby from 80,000 years ago, raise it in a modern environment and it would be indistinguishable from other humans in terms of intelligence and social capabilities.

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